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 THE 
 
 IMPEEIAL DICTIO:^AEY 
 
 OP 
 
 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY: 
 
 A SERIES OF 
 
 OEIGINAL MEMOIES OF DISTINGUISHED MEN, 
 
 OF ALL AGES AND ALL NATIONS. 
 
 BY 
 
 WEITEES OF EMINENCE IN THE VAKIOUS BRANCHES OF LITEEATUEE, 
 
 SCIENCE, AND ART. 
 
 CONDUCTED BT 
 
 PROFESSOR JOHN EADIE, D.D., LL.D. 
 JOHN FRANCIS WALLER, LL.D., M.R.I.A. 
 PROFESSOR W. J. M. EANKINE, LL.D. 
 
 JOHN FRANCIS WALLER, LL.D., M.R.I.A., Editor. 
 
 EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S. 
 PROFESSOR FRANCIS BOWEN, M.A., United States, 
 Late Editor of "North American Review." 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AA CZU 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 WILLIAM MACKENZIE, 22 PATERNOSTER ROW; 
 HOWARD STREET, GLASGOW; SOUTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH. 
 
 PtHE PUr.I.I.SHER RESEUVES THE RIGHT OF TRANSLATION.]
 
 ^ntzxth at stationers' lall. 
 
 PEINTKD BT WII,LLAM MACKENZIE, 45 AND 47 HOWARD STREET, GLASGOW.
 
 
 TO THE 
 
 itgljt p0it0«rafik pcnrn ^nroit ^roiijljm anb JP'au^r, 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 My Lord, 
 
 In offering to the public this work commemorating the great minds 
 that in every age and in every coimtry have, each in its own department, aided the progress 
 of humanity, no fitter name can be found to adorn its dedication-page than that of your 
 Lordship. 
 
 Philosopher, statesman, and jurist — author, orator, and scholar — you combine in yourself 
 those elements that, singly, have made so many illustrious. We recognize in you what high 
 genius, assiduous cultivation, indomitable energy, and a life-long industry can achieve in 
 almost every department of intellectual acquirements. Our own age honours you as one of 
 the great diffusers of knowledge — ^one of the truest of social civilizers : posterity wUl place 
 you amongst the intellects, many-sided and capacious, that leave their impress on the age in 
 which they have lived. 
 
 The very favourable judgment which your Lordship has been pleased to pronounce on the 
 work is its highest recommendation to the public, and has been the strongest incentive to 
 myself and my fellow-labourers to make "The Imperial Dictionary of Universal 
 Biography " worthy of your Lordship's patronage. 
 
 My Lord, 
 
 Your Lordship's obedient Servant, 
 
 JOHN FRANCIS WALLER, LL.D., 
 
 editor. 
 
 smn
 
 PEEFACE. 
 
 The Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography is now complete : we would say a few words 
 in presenting it to the Public. 
 
 Next to History, iu its larger sense, Biography is the most valuable and interesting record which 
 Literature can offer to mankind. If the one presents us with the great drama of humanity in its entire 
 action and full development, the other furnishes us with the innumerable and subordinate drgpias of all 
 the prominent actors on the world's stage. It is often only in the lives of individuals that we discover 
 the secret springs and hidden causes of those mighty events which advance or retard the progress of 
 man — which influence his destiny and revolutionize the world ; and thus the rays of light emitted from 
 individual Biography converge upon the page of History, and enable us to read it more clearly. 
 
 We do not deem any apology necessary for the appearance of a new English biographical work at 
 the present moment. The subjects for Biography are ever increasing, but at no period has that increase 
 been more rapid or important than now. Whatever stimulates the energies of an age, makes it fruitful 
 in events and multiplies its actors. Sciences and arts are moving with an accelerated pace, and new 
 discoveries and inventions are daily making their authors notable. Great political influences have, within 
 a recent period, passed over the world, and are still agitating it. The wars in Europe and Asia, especially 
 in the Crimea and India, have produced great men as suddenly as the exigencies that required them, 
 and names unheard of one year were illustrious the next. Our most recent biogTaphical works thus 
 became prematurely deficient : we have stepped in to remove the defect. 
 
 While we have availed ourselves of all accessible sources of information, we have secured the inde- 
 pendent treatment of every memoir. Facts and dates are the common property of all chroniclers, while 
 the mode of dealing with subjects, and the light in which they are presented, wiU ever be affected by 
 the minds of original thinkers. 
 
 The limits of the Work have necessitated the exclusion of names of minor importance. In the 
 delicate and arduous duty of selection, both as regards the dead and the living, the importance of the 
 individual has been our guide; though we have, where the claims were other^dse equal, given the 
 preference to celebrities of our own nation. 
 
 J. F. W.
 
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO VOL. L 
 
 A. A. 
 J. A., L. 
 
 W. A. 
 
 J. A. 
 
 J. A., D. 
 
 T. A. 
 
 G. A. 
 
 E. B. 
 J. B., O. 
 
 T. B. 
 J. H. B. 
 
 T. S. B. 
 
 J. R. B. 
 W. B., L. 
 
 E. B. 
 
 R. B. 
 J. S. B. 
 
 W. B., D. 
 
 B. B. 
 
 F. B. 
 F. A. B. 
 
 W. B. B. 
 
 R. S. B. 
 
 J. B. 
 
 W. B. 
 
 J. B., G. 
 
 G. B. 
 M. S. B. 
 
 B. DE B. 
 W. B. C. 
 
 J. C. 
 C. \V. C. 
 J. F C. 
 J. B. G. 
 G. I,. C. 
 
 C. A. II. 
 L. L. P. 
 
 Rev. W. Lindsay Alexander, D.D., Professor 
 
 of Divinity, Edinburgh. 
 Sir Archibald Alison, Bart. 
 Rev. James Anderson, Edinburgh. 
 William Anderson, Secretarj to the Scottish 
 
 Literary Institute. 
 Rev. Joseph Angus, D.D., President of Stepney 
 
 College, Regent's Park, London. 
 John Anster, LL.D., Regius Professor of Civil 
 
 Law in the University of Dublin. 
 Thomas Arnold, B.A., Professor of English 
 
 Literature, R.C. University, Dublin. 
 Rev. George Aspinall, Ph.D. 
 Edward Baines, M.P., Leeds. 
 Rev. John Baines, M.A., St. John's College, Oxon. 
 Thomas Baines, F.S.A., London. 
 John Hutton Balfour, M.D , F.R.S., Regius 
 
 Professor of Botany, Edinburgh University. 
 T. Spencer Baynes, LL B., Examiner in Logic 
 
 and Intellectual, Jloral, and Political Philo- 
 sophy in the University of London. 
 Rev. J. R. Beard, D.D., Author of the "People's 
 
 Dictionary of the Bible," Manchester. 
 W. Beattie, M.D., London, Author of "Life of 
 
 Thomas Campbell." 
 Edwin Beedell, Author of " Mercantile and 
 
 Maritime Guide," &c. 
 Robert Black, A.M. 
 John Stuart Blackie, Professor of Greek, 
 
 Edinburgh University. 
 Rev. W. Blair. 
 Rev. B. BoucHiER. 
 
 Francis Bo wen, M.A., Harvard College, U.S. 
 Francis Bowen, M.A., Harvard College, U.S. 
 Rev. W. B. Boyce, Wesleyan ilission House, Author 
 
 of the " Kaffir Grammar." 
 Sir David Brewster, K.H., Vice-Chancellor, 
 
 and Principal of Edinburgh University. 
 Rev. R. S. Brookes. 
 Rev. James Brown, Paisley. 
 Rev. William Bruce, Edinburgh. 
 James Bryce, M.A., LL.D., F.G.S., Glasgow. 
 George Buchanan, M.D., Glasgow. 
 M. S. Buchanan, M.D., late Professor of Anatomy, 
 
 Andersonian University, Glasgow. 
 Baroness Blaze de Bury, Paris. 
 W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., University Hall, 
 
 London. 
 J. Coldstream, M.D., Edinburgh. 
 C. W. CoNNON, Upper Canada College, Toronto. 
 J. F. Corkran, Author of " An Hour Ago," &c. 
 J. B. Cowan, M.D., Glasgow. 
 George L. Craik, A.M., Professor of History and 
 
 English Literature, Queen's College, Belfast. 
 Samuel Crompton, M.R.C.S., Manchester. 
 Cornelia A. H. Crosse. 
 Rev. L. P. Crosskey. 
 
 J. p. D. 
 w. s. D. 
 
 S. D. 
 J. F. D. 
 
 J. D. 
 J. W. D. 
 
 P. E. D. 
 
 J. E. 
 
 J. W. E. 
 
 J. ED. 
 
 K. E. 
 
 F. E. 
 
 J. D. E. 
 
 J. F. 
 T. F. 
 W. F. 
 
 E. W. F. 
 S. DE G. 
 S. H. G. 
 
 J. G. 
 W. A. G. 
 
 W. G. 
 W. M. H. 
 
 F. J. H. 
 
 E. A. H. 
 M. H. 
 W. H. 
 
 W. H., L. 
 
 W. I. 
 T. J. 
 
 J. P. Dabney, Author of "Annotations on the 
 
 Gospels," &c., U.S. 
 William S. Dallas, F.L.S., &c., Curator of York 
 
 Museum ; Author of Treatise on Zoology and 
 
 Entomology; One of the Authors of "The 
 
 Museum of Natural History." 
 Rev. Samuel Davidson, D.D., LL.D., Author ot 
 
 " Biblical Criticism," " Sacred Hermeneutics " 
 Rev. Joshua Frederick Denham, M.A., F.R.S., 
 
 Rector of St. Mary-le-Strand, London. 
 James Donaldson, A.M., Classical Master, High 
 
 School, Edinburgh. 
 Rev. J. W. Doran, LL.D., late Rector of Beeston, 
 
 Norwich ; late Association Secretary of the 
 
 Church Missionary Society. 
 P. E. Dove, Author of " The Theory of Human 
 
 Progression," &c. 
 Rev. John Eadie, D.D., LL.D., Professor of 
 
 Biblical Literature, Glasgow. 
 Joseph W. Ebsworth, St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge. 
 Rev. John Edmond, D.D., London. 
 Karl Elze, Ph.D., Hon. M.R.S.L., Dessau. 
 Francis Espinasse, London. 
 J. D. Everett, M.A., Professor of Natural Philo- 
 sophy, Nova Scotia. 
 Rev. Patrick Fairbairn, D.D., Principal and 
 
 Professor of Divinity, Free Church College, 
 
 Glasgow. 
 Rev. J. Fettes, Galashiels. 
 Thomas Fisher, LL.D. 
 Rev. William Fleming, D.D., Professor of 
 
 Moral Philosophy, Glasgow University. 
 Rev. R. W. Eraser, Edinburgh. 
 Stanislas de Gabowskl 
 Samuel H. Gael, Barvister-at-Law, Lincolns' Inn, 
 
 Author of " Law Composition," &c. 
 John Galvan, T.C.D. 
 W. A. Greenhill, M.D., Oxon., Hastings. 
 (Supplied through F. Bowen, U.S.) 
 Rev. William M. Halley, Dumbarton. 
 Felix John Hamel, Solicitor for Her Majesty's 
 
 Customs, London. 
 Rev. James Hamilton, D.D., F.L.S., Author of 
 
 " Life in Earnest," " The Royal Preacher," &c. 
 Emilie a. Hawkes. 
 
 Mary Howitt, Author of "Northern Literature." 
 William Howitt, Author of "History of 
 
 Northern Literature," &c. 
 William Hughes, F.R.G.S., Professor of Geo- 
 graphy in Queen's College, London. 
 William Ihne, Ph.D., Liverpool. 
 Rev. T. Jackson, M.A., Prebendary of St. Paul's, 
 
 and Rector of Stoke Newington, London. 
 Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.L S., Lecturer on the 
 Practice of Jledicine, St. George's School of 
 Medicine, London.
 
 A. I.. 
 
 W. L. 
 
 P. L. 
 
 D. F. jr. 
 
 J. m'c. 
 
 O M. 
 G. A. 51. 
 
 BI. 
 
 J. O. Jl'W 
 
 A. C. M. 
 
 [M.] 
 
 W. M. 
 
 F. 31. 
 
 R. M., A. 
 
 E. jr. 
 s. jr. 
 
 R. JI. 
 •\v. D. JI. 
 
 E. 
 
 JI. 
 
 1 s 
 
 J. 
 
 D. 
 
 JI. 
 
 A. JI. 
 
 T. 
 
 B. 
 
 JI. 
 
 ■\v 
 
 L 
 
 N 
 
 A 
 
 J. 
 
 X. 
 
 J. X. 
 
 Vi'. N. 
 C. G N, 
 
 n. s. o. 
 J. o. 
 
 A. Lf.igiitox, Editor and Contnbutor to Wilson's 
 Tales of the Borders. 
 
 Eev. WiLLiAJi Lindsay', D.D., Professor of Theo- 
 logy, Glasgow. 
 
 Eev, Peter Lorimer, D.D., Professor of Theology 
 and Hebrew, Presbyterian College, London. 
 
 D. F. Macarthy, Translator of Calderon's Dramas, 
 Professor of Poetry, R. C. University, Dublin. 
 
 Eev. Jajies JI'Cosh, LL.D., Professor of Logic 
 
 and Metaphysics, Queen's College, Belfast. 
 Eev. G. Macdonald, F.E.LS., Manchester. 
 
 G, A. Macfarren, Composer of " King Charles 
 the Second," " Mayday," «S;c. 
 
 Eev. W. M'KEL^^E, D.D., Author of " Biography 
 of ^Michael Bnice." 
 
 John ]\L\.ci.ean, F.S.A., Keeper of the Eecords of 
 H.JI. Ordnance in the Tower. 
 
 J. 0. M'WiLLiAji, M.D., F.R.S., late Principal 
 Officer of the Niger Expedition. 
 
 A. C. Mar.vxi, Professor of Italian and Spanish 
 Literature, Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 Signor A. JIario. 
 
 Eev. WiLLiAJi JIarshall. 
 
 Frederic Martin, London. 
 
 Egbert Martin. 
 
 Edward Masson, A.M. 
 
 S. May, U.S., per F. Bowen. 
 
 Raffaelle ]\Ioxti, Sculptor, London. 
 
 Williaji Daniel Moore, A.B., M.B., F.C.D., 
 Honorary Member of the Swedish Society of 
 Physicians, and of the Norwegian Medical 
 Society. 
 
 Eebecca JIoore, Stretford. (Supplied through 
 Professor Nicitol.) 
 
 J. D. MoRELL, A.M., Author of "Histoiy of Mo- 
 dern Philosophy," one of H.M. Inspectors of 
 Schools. 
 
 Alexander Mpir, Translator of Gregorovius' 
 " Wanderings in Corsica." 
 
 Eev. T. B. Murray, M.A., Prebendary of St. Paul's, 
 Eector of St. Dunstan's-in-the-East, London. 
 
 W. L. Newjian, B.A., FeUuw of Balliul College, 
 Oxford. 
 
 A. J. NiCHoi,. 
 
 John Nichol, B.A., Professor of English Litera- 
 ture, Glasgow University. 
 
 John Pringle Nichol, LL.D., late Professor of 
 Astronomy, Glasgow. 
 
 William Nichol, Liverpool. 
 
 Eev. C. G. NicoLAY, F.R.G.S., late Librarian and 
 Lecturer on Geography, King's College, Lon- 
 don, and Professor of Geography, Queen's 
 College, London. 
 
 John O'Dowd, Barrlster-at-law, &c., London, 
 Author of "New Practice of the Court of 
 Chancery." 
 
 Rev. E. S. Oldhaji, A.M., St. Mary's, Glasgow. 
 
 Jajie-s Orton, Dublin, Author of "The Enthu- 
 siast," "The Three Palaces," &c., &c. 
 
 G. 11. P. 
 
 F. P. 
 
 T. S. P. 
 
 A. H. P. 
 
 Y. G. p. 
 
 F. P., L. 
 
 M. Q. 
 
 7. J. M. R 
 
 C. R. 
 J. M. R. 
 W. H. K. 
 
 A. S., O. 
 
 [J. S.] 
 J. S., G. 
 J. W. S. 
 
 A. S. 
 
 J. S. S. 
 
 S. 
 J. H. S. 
 D. P. S. 
 
 J. S. 
 
 V,'. s. 
 
 J. T. 
 
 CII T. 
 
 T. T. 
 
 C. T. 
 
 K. D. T. 
 
 E. W. 
 J. F. W. 
 
 W. W. 
 F. JI. W. 
 J. D. W. 
 R. N. W. 
 
 George H. Paljier, JI.A., London, Professor of 
 History, Cavalry College, Cam ''ridge. 
 
 Frederick Penny, M.D., Professor of Chemistry, 
 Andersonian University, Glasgow, 
 
 TnojiAS S. Polehajipton, M.A., Fellow of Pem- 
 broke College, Oxford. 
 
 A. H. Pritciiard, Bristol. 
 
 (Supplied through F. Bowen, U.S.) 
 Francis Pulzsky, F.H.A. 
 
 M. QuADRIO. 
 
 W.J. Macquorn Eankine, LL.D., F.E.SS.L. & E., 
 Professor of Engineering and Mechanics, Glas- 
 gow University. 
 
 Edward F. Eijibault, LL.D, F.R.S., Member 
 of the Eoyal Academy of Music, Stockholm ; 
 Musical Examiner in the Royal College of 
 Preceptors, London, &c. 
 
 Rev. Cii.iRLEs EoGERS, LL.D., F.S.A., Stirling. 
 
 John M. Eoss, Edinburgh. 
 
 Williaji H. Eussell, LL.D., The "Times" 
 Crimean, Indian, and American Correspondent. 
 
 Count AuRELio Saffi, Professor of Modern Lan- 
 guages, Oxford University. 
 
 John Scouler, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S. 
 
 Eev. John SER^acE, Hamilton. 
 
 J. W. Slater, Author of " Hand-Book of 
 Chemical Analysis." 
 
 Alexander Sjiith, Author of " A Life Drama," 
 &c. 
 
 J. Storer Smith, Author of "Mirabeau: a Life 
 History." 
 
 M. Sjiith, Edinburgh. 
 
 Eev. J. H. Sjiithson, Manchester. 
 
 DiGBY P. Starkey, Barrister-at-law, Author of 
 " Judas," " Anastatia," &c., &c. 
 
 Jajies Sujijiers, late Professor of Chinese, King's 
 College, London. 
 
 Eev. Williaji Syjiington, D.D., Professor of 
 Systematic Theology, Glasgow. 
 
 Eev. James Taylor, D.D., Author of "The 
 Pictorial History of Scotland," &c. 
 
 Charles Terrien, London. 
 
 T. Theodores, Manchester. 
 
 C. Thojison. 
 
 E. D. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chem- 
 istry, St. Thomas Hospital College, London. 
 
 Walter Thornbury', Author of "Art and 
 Nature," " Shakspeare's England," &c. 
 
 Very Rev. John Tulloch, D.D., Principal and 
 Primarius Professor of Divinity, St. Mary's 
 College, St. Andrews. 
 
 E. Walford, M.A., London. 
 
 John Francis Waller, LL.D., M.R.I. A., Hono- 
 rary Secretary to the Royal Dublin Society. 
 
 Rev. W. Webster, M.A., London. 
 
 Frederick M. White, Aylesbury. 
 
 J. Dove Wilson, Advocate, Edinburgh. 
 
 Ralph N. Wornuji, Keeper and Secretary, 
 National Gallery.
 
 •^Ar-AfLLE. MORCH
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 fi SERIES OF ORIGIN/IL MEMOIRS 
 
 OF 
 
 ^ -^ or L' 
 
 MLL AGES a- XL 
 
 BY WRITERS OF EMINENCE IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES 
 OE LITERATURE, SCIENCE &■ ART. 
 
 ^'WILLIAM MACKENZIE. % 
 
 L0|^0]^(, C^LA^qoW, &^ EDI]\fBLfl^H. ^
 
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 M MACK5.NZIE;. CLASCO

 
 ©D(Q)Wz^^^^y Le^'vO;oeA(£(£D 
 
 WILLMM MACKENZIE. GLASGOW. EDIN BU RCH. LQN DOM & NFW-YflRK
 
 E[D)WA[EiS) J]^[KlK][m.KSoS). 
 
 \U. MACKENZIE. GLASGOW. ED I N S URCH . LONDON & NF. W-YORK
 
 LFS^[^SDS- ^[ETr[?dA[I(2 
 
 WILLIAM MACKENZIE. GLASGOW. EDINBURGH. LON DON R N EW-YOR K
 
 KJMrKii.1))
 
 THE 
 
 IMPERIAL DICTIONARY 
 
 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY: 
 
 A SERIES OF ORIGINAL MEMOIRS. 
 
 AA 
 
 AAR 
 
 AA, Christian Charles Henry van der, for fifty-one 
 years pastor of a Lutheran congregation at Haarlem, was born 
 at ZwoU in 1718. He studied theology at Leyden and Jena, 
 and was long secretary to the Haarlem academy of sciences, 
 to the establishment of which he had prominently contributed. 
 A medal was struck to commemorate the celebration of the 
 fiftieth anniversary of his pastorship. Various able disserta- 
 tions of his on physical science were published in a Dutch perio- 
 dical. Died at Haarlem m 1793.— E. M. 
 
 AA, Gerard van der, and his two sons, Adolphus and 
 Philip, three Dutch patriots, who acted a distinguished part in 
 the emancipation of their country from the Spanish yoke in the 
 reign of Philip II. 
 
 AA, Peter van der, an eminent lawyer and wi'iter on juris- 
 prudence, born at Louvain about 1535. After being professor 
 of law in the university of Louvain, he was appointed in 1565 
 assessor of the supreme council of Brabant, and in 1574 president 
 of the high com-t of justice at Luxemburg. Died in 1594. 
 
 AA, Peter van der, a celebrated Dutch publiisher. He 
 commenced business at Leyden about 1682, receiving into part- 
 nership his two brothers, Hildef,rand, an engraver, and Bald- 
 win, a printer. His principal publications were, — "Voyages 
 and Travels relating to the East and West Indies," in 28 vols. 
 12mo ; " Pleasant Galleiy of the Worid, with Maps and 
 Views," in 33 vols, folio; " Icones Arboram ;" "Travels in 
 Tartr.ry, Persia," &c., in 2 vols. 4to: "Vaillant's Botanicon 
 Parisiense;" " Gronovius' Greek Antiquities," in 13 vols, folio; 
 " Graivius' Roman, Italian, and Sicilian Antiquities," in 57 
 vols, folio; and "Erasmus' Works," in 11 vols, folio. Died in 
 1730.— E. M. 
 
 AA, Thierry van, a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 
 1731, was a pupil of Johann Heinrich Heller. Both as a man 
 and as an artist, he was veiy remarkable for liis gi-ace, for his 
 brilliancy of conception, and eradition. His specialty was to 
 paint the panels of carnages, which, according to the then pre- 
 vailing fashion, were most elaborately ornamented with pictures. 
 Thierry excelled in representing Cupids, and other graceful sub- 
 jects. He died, universally esteemed, in 1809. — R. M. 
 
 AACS or ACS, JIichael, a Hungarian philosopher and 
 divine, was born at St. Martin in 1631. After studying in 
 GeiTnany, he successively held a pastoral charge at Hemegyes- 
 Ala, Raab, and Rosenau. In 1G69 he pubhshed at Tubingen a 
 work, entitled " Pontes Calvinismi Obstructi," and a Hungarian 
 work at Strasburg in 1700. Died in 1708. 
 
 AACS or ACS, Michael, a Hungarian divine, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Raab in 1672. After completing his 
 studies at Wittemberg and Tubingen, he was appointed chaplain 
 to a Hungarian regiment. He wrote several theological works 
 in Latin and Hungarian. Died in 1711. 
 
 AAGARD, Christian, bom in 1616 .at Wiborg, was ap- 
 pointed in 1647 professor of poetry in the university of Copen- 
 hagen, where he had studied, and in 1658, principal of the 
 college of Ribe. He lias left some Latin poems remarkable for 
 purity and elegance of diction. Died in l(i64. 
 
 AAGARD, Niels or Nicholas, elder brother of the preced- 
 ing, born at Wiborg in Denmark in 1612. At first pastor at 
 
 A'^OL. I. 
 
 Faxoe, he became in 1647 professor of rhetoric, and librarian at 
 Soroe. Besides several Greek and Latin poems, he pubhshed 
 vaiious critical dissertations, one of which is on the style of the 
 New Testament. Died in 1657. 
 
 AAGESEN, Svexd, the oldest Danish historian, better 
 known by his Latin name of Sueno Aggonis filius. Under 
 the auspices of Absalon, archbishop of Lund, he drew up in 
 barbarous Latin a compendious history of tiie Danish kings 
 from the year 300 to 1187. He also translated into Latin the 
 military code of Canute the Great. Died about the beginning of 
 the thirteenth century. — E. M. 
 
 AALI, a celebrated Turkish -wi-iter, author of a histoiy of the 
 Ottoman empu'e from its foundation to within a few years of liis 
 death, which took place in 1597. 
 
 AALST, the name of several Dutch artists. See jElst. 
 
 AARE, Diederiic or Dirk van der, bishop and prince of 
 Utrecht, famous for his obstinate and sanguinary war with the 
 count of Holland. Died in 1212. 
 
 AARON, a Hebrew of tlie tribe of Levi, the son of Amram, 
 and the brother of Moses, with whom he co-operated in efiect- 
 ing the deliverance of his countiymen from Egypt. He was a 
 man of ready and effective eloquence, and served as a medium of 
 communication between Moses and the people of Israel. After 
 they reached the desert of Arabia, he was invested with the office 
 of high priest, which was made hereditaiy in his famUy. Al- 
 though a more persuasive speaker than Moses, Aaron was not 
 possessed of the same strength of character or depth of religious 
 con\action. WHiile his brother was upon the mount, receiving the 
 law from Jehovah, he yielded to the solicitations of the people, 
 and made for them a golden calf, doubtless an imitation of the 
 Egyptian idol Mnevis. At another period, he manifested some 
 jealousy of the superior position and influence of Closes, for he 
 joined with Jliriam, their sister, in the attempt to raise up oppo- 
 sition to his authority. Aftenvards he was doomed to encounter 
 a shnilar trial himself, for a number of the leading men in the 
 different tribes conspired against him, on the ground that he had 
 no exclusive right to the priesthood. This conspiracy was signally 
 defeated. The rebels were swallowed up by the ya\^^ling earth, 
 and when then- friends munnured at the severity of the stroke, 
 a fieiy pestilence broke out and destroyed great numbers of them. 
 On the occasion of the miraculous supply of water at Zin, Aaron 
 exposed hunself to the divine displeasure, by failing to Iionour 
 God as the source of the blessing, and therefore he was prevented 
 from entering the promised land. When the Israchtcs reached 
 mount Ilor, he was commanded to ascend to its summit, to 
 strip himself of his priestly ganncnts, to transfer them to his 
 son, and then prepare for death. He died in tlie year 1451 B.C., 
 aged 123 years, and the whole congregation mourned for him 
 tiiirty days. The supposed place of his burial is still pointed 
 out.— W. L. 
 
 AiVRON, Anion or Aviov, a celebrated rabbi of Thessa- 
 lonic.a, author of " Notes on Esther," selected from rabb'nical 
 writings. Lived in the sixteenth centurj'. 
 
 AARON, Acharon (or the younger), a le.amcd Karaite Jew 
 of Nicomedia, author of various JIS. works on rabbinical theo- 
 locT. Flourished in the fourteenth centuiy. 
 
 A
 
 AARON OF Alex.\:ndkia, a presbyter, anchvriter on medicme, 
 of the seventh centmy. His work, entitled " Pandects," is a 
 translation into Syriac of extracts from Greek medical authors. 
 It contains the first mention of the small- pox, which, as is 
 supposed, origmated in Egypt, and was diffused bythe Ai-abs 
 with then- conquests. A translation of Aaron's work into Ai-abic 
 in G83, is said to have first led the Arabs to the study of the 
 medical writings of the Greeks. — E. M. 
 
 AARON Al Rasciul). See Hakoux. 
 
 AAKON, Bex-Ashek, a rabbi of the eleventh century, who 
 wrote a treatise on Hebrew accents, and laboured to correct 
 the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, by collecting various 
 readings. While he was collecting AISS. in the West, Ben 
 Naphtali was travelling for the same purpose in the East. 
 These two laborious critics have, by some, been erroneously 
 supposed inventors of the Hebrew vowel-points. — E. M. 
 
 AAKON, Bex Chajui, chief Eabbi of Fez. Died at 
 Venice, about 1609. Author of various works. 
 
 AARON, Bex Joseph Sasox, chief of the synagogue of 
 Thessalonica, known as the author of two works, " Torath 
 Eraeth," or " The Law of Truth," Venice, 1G16 ; and " Sephath 
 Emeth," or " The Lip of Trath," Amsterdam, 1706. The former 
 of these works treats of certain niceties in the Hebrew code. 
 
 AARON, Berachia, a celebrated Italian rabbi, who wrote 
 the book called, "Maavar Jabbok," a treatise on holy living 
 and dying. Printed at Mantua, A.d. 1626. 
 
 AARON, Haiushox, a learned and amiable Karaite Jew, 
 who practised medicine at Constantinople in the thu'teenth cen- 
 tury, author of various theological works, p;urts of which have 
 been published with a Latin translation. 
 
 AARON, Isaac, a Byzantine Jew, interpreter of western 
 languages to Manuel Comnenus. For alleged treachery, Msmuel 
 deprived the wretched man of his eyes, and the Emperor Isaac 
 II. caused his tongue to be cut out. 
 
 AARON .MARGALI'THA, a Polish rabbi, and professor at 
 Slawkow in Bohemia, who aftenvards became a convert to the 
 Christian faith. He was born in 1665. After his conversion, 
 he wrote several tracts and books, in which he employed his 
 rabbinical learning to illustrate various parts of Christian doctrine. 
 It would appear that he first joined the Calvinists ; then, at a 
 later period, became connected with the Lutheran chm-ch ; and 
 it is asserted, that before the close of his life he renounced Chris- 
 tianity altogether, and sought to return to Judaism, pleading, we 
 are told, that the Christians had deserted hun, and left him in 
 destitution. He died about the year 1730 in a dungeon at 
 Copenhagen, into which he had been cast as an apostate. — J. B. 
 
 AARON NASI BABEL, a Je^vish cabbalistical writer, who 
 lived at an early period of the Christian era. His name signi- 
 fies " Aaron, prince of Babylon," which has been explained as 
 " Head of the College." This is the title given him in the 
 Mantuan edition of his works, published in 1562. 
 
 AARON, PiETRO, a musician, and a monk of the order of 
 the Bearers of the Cross of Jerusalem, who was bom of obscure 
 parentage at Florence in 1-480. The schools of music estab- 
 lished in Naples and other parts of Italy, during the latter half 
 of the fifteenth centmy, by the Flemings, who were the first 
 nurses of the infant art, excited the interest of the people, and 
 engaged the care of their rulers ; and when an Italian appeared 
 among his countrymen who was competent to teach on the same 
 subject, the feeling of nationality was added to that of artistic 
 esteem, to give him encom'agement. He was accordingly ap- 
 pointed one of the singers in the pontifical chapel by Leo X. ; 
 and when he opened his own school of music in 15 IG, it was 
 most numerously attended. He published several tracts upon 
 music, treating of its histoiy, of its arithmetical, geometrical, 
 and harmonic proportions, of the principles of conntei-pomt, and 
 of the practice of ecclesiastical singing : they contain little original 
 matter, but consist chiefly of an elucidation of the principles of 
 Guido, and a development of those of Tinclor. They were all 
 written in Italian, but the " Llbri tres de Institutione Hanno- 
 nica" was translated mto Latin by his friend Flaminio, who did 
 him also the good office of reconciling a quarrel between him and 
 the famous Franchiuo Gaffru-io, relative to a passage m one of his 
 books, which the mediator finally proved to be a misprint, and 
 thus prevented the ill consequences the dispute might have 
 drawn upon Aaron. The date of his death is uncertain, but it 
 must have been subsequent to 1545, when his " Lucidario in 
 JIusica" was first pubhshed. He had the individual distinction 
 
 of havmg his portrait placed among those of eminent musicians 
 in the ducal gallery at Florence while he was yet living. He 
 died, holding the office of canon at Rimini. A list of his printed 
 works, interesting because of their early date, is to be found in 
 Schilling's" Lexicon derTonkunet." — G. A. M. 
 
 AARON, St., a monk of the sixth century, who founded the 
 oldest monasteiy in Brittany, near which afterwards rose the 
 town of St. Malo, so called from his fellow-labourer in convert- 
 ing the pagan natives. 
 
 AARON, Zalaha, a Spanish rabbi of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, author of a work on the " Precepts of Moses." 
 
 AARON and JULIUS, two British martyrs, whose original 
 names are unknown. They were put to death with cruel tor- 
 ments under Diocletian in 303. Two chm'ches in which they 
 were biuied were dedicated to their memory at Caerleon, the old 
 metropolis of Wales. 
 
 AARSCHOT, Philip de Choi, Duke of, a native of the 
 Netherlands, representative of Philip II. at the Diet of Frank- 
 fort, convened for the election of an emperor. Disgusted at 
 the intolerance and craelty of the Spanish authorities in bis 
 native country, he retired to Venice, where he died in 1595. 
 
 AARSENS, CoRXELius vax, a Dutch statesman, born in 
 1543. After being forty years pensionary, and registrar to the 
 States -General, he died in lG2-i. 
 
 AARSENS, Francis v^vn, son of the preceding, a Dutch 
 statesman, on whose memoiy the share he took hi the judicial 
 murder of the popular leader Barneveldt has left an indelible 
 stain, was born at the Hague in 1572. Early trained by his 
 father to diplomacy, he proved an able and successful negotiator. 
 He was fifteen years at the French court, first as resident, and 
 afterwards as ambassador from the United Provinces. He was 
 sent to England in 1640, and negotiated the marriage between 
 William, son of the prince of Orange, and the daughter of Charles 
 I. He long exerted great influence at the comi; of Louis XIII. 
 Cardinal Richelieu thought so highly of his capacity, that he used 
 to say he had known only three gi'eat statesmen — Oxenstiem, 
 Viscardi, and Francis van Aarsens. He died m 1641.^ — E. M. 
 
 AARSENS, Francis van, gi-andson of the ambassador; 
 author of a book entitled "Voyage en Espagne," &c., Paris, 
 16 G5. He was drowned in 1659, on the passage between 
 England and Holland. 
 
 AARTGEN van Leyden. See Keaaszoon Artiiurijs. 
 
 AARTSBERGEN, Alex, van der Capellex, a Dutch 
 statesman, adherent of the bouse of Orange, published historical 
 memoirs, comprehending a view of Dutch affairs from 1611 to 
 1632. Enlightened by study, travel, and experience, he was 
 tolerant and conciliatory, and was highly eulogized by Gerard J. 
 Vossius. Died in 1656. 
 
 AARTSEN, Peter. See Aertsex. 
 
 AASCOW, Urban-Bruan, a Danish naval surgeon, who 
 published at Copenhagen, in 1774, an interesting jom-nal of 
 observations on the maladies which raged in the Danish fleet 
 equipped in 1770 for the bombardment of Algiers. 
 
 AASSIM, son of Abderrahman Effendi, and author of a con- 
 tinuation of Kaeffsade's " Tm-kish Anthologj'." Died in 1675. 
 
 AASSIM, IsMAEL Effexdi, a Turkish mufti, author of 
 several historical works, letters, &c., which have been veiy 
 highly praised. His fibrary, at his death, contained more than 
 1000 volumes. Died in 1758. 
 
 ABA, Samuel, king of Hungaiy, brother-in-law of Si. 
 Stephen, the first Christian king of that coimtiy. Elected in 
 1041, he di'ove from Hungaiy his rival Peter, " the Gennan," 
 nephew of St. Stephen, but was afterwards defeated by the Emperor 
 Heniy III., and finally massacred in 1044 by his own subjects. 
 
 ABAD I., appointed grand-cadi of Seville and governor of 
 the produce by the Moorish king of Cordova, took advantage of 
 the defeat and death of that prince to assert his independence, 
 and assume the title of king of Seville. By energy and artifice 
 he triumphed over a confederation formed against him, but in 
 1042 died suddenly when on the point of reducing Cordova, and 
 extending his sway over southern Spain. 
 
 Abad II., his son and successor, was born in 1012, and 
 surpassed his father in power and celebrity. He made himself 
 master of Cordova by treachery and bribery, and conciliated the 
 inhabitants by largesses and public entertainments. He built 
 many splendid palaces, but only one mosque. He had several 
 magnificently ornamented cups, made of the skulls of enemies. 
 AVe read that he died of giief for the loss of a favourite daughter,
 
 ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 and that on bis deathbed be exhorted bis son to aim at the entire 
 conquest of Spain, an enterprise be himself would probably have 
 achieved br.d not luxury diverted bis attention. Died in 10G9. 
 Abad II£., son and successor of the preceding, was less 
 brave and able, and far moi-e humane than his ft;ther. He 
 excelled in poetry, and ardently encouraged science and literatm-e. 
 Alarmed at the progi-ess of Alfonso, king of Castile, he invited 
 into Spain, Yusuf, second king of Morocco, who having dis- 
 comfited Alfonso in a great battle, began to treat Abad and 
 the other Moslem princes as vassals. Abad having ventured 
 to resist, was comjilctcly subdued and sent captive into Africa, 
 where he died in 1095, after fom* years' confinement, during 
 which his daughters supported him by their manual labour. 
 Through all vicissitudes be displayed unvaried equanimity. — E. M. 
 ABAD Y QUEYPEO, JIanuel, a Spanish bishop, born in 
 1775. After taking orders, he went to settle in Mexico, where 
 he held the office of judge. In 1809 he became bishop of 
 Mecboacan ; but when the insuiTcetion in New Spain broke out, 
 he adhered to the royal cause, and was obliged to retire for a 
 time from his diocese. When the course of events permitted his 
 retm'n, he urged on the royalist authorities conciliatory measm-es, 
 and, in consequence, was denounced by them as a traitor. On 
 the restoration of Ferdinand VII., the bishop, who had ventured 
 to express without reserve his opinion of the Inquisition, was 
 recalled from bis see, brought to Spain, and kept in prison till 
 the revolution of 1820 restored him to liberty. He was ap- 
 pointed a member of the provisional Junta, and, subsequently, 
 bishop of Tortosa ; but the Inquisition again aiTcsted him, and 
 condemned him to six years' solitary confinement. lie died in 
 prison, but the date and circumstances of his death have never 
 been precisely ascertained. — E. M. 
 
 ABADIA, Francis Xaviek, a Spanish general, bom at 
 Valencia in 1774. Being first staff-oflicer of the insurgent 
 anny of La Mancha, when Spain was occupied by the French, 
 he retired with what remained of his troops to Cadiz, where, 
 after acting for a few days as minister of war, lie was made 
 a major-general. In 1812 he obtained the command of the 
 army of Galicia, which be had oi-ganized ; and, on the restora- 
 tion of Ferdinand VII., he was made a lieutenant-general, and 
 inspector of the forces assembled at Cadiz for the expecfition to 
 Spanish America. Died in 1830. — E. M. 
 
 ABAFFI or APAFI, Michael, became in 1661 piince of 
 Transylvania. During the truce between Austria and the Porte, 
 Abaffi quietly enjoyed his throne under Ottoman protection, and 
 remained faithfid to the sultan till 1G83. The reverses sus- 
 tained by the Turks induced him to enter into a defensive 
 alliance with the emperor in 1687. Died in 1690. 
 
 ABAFFI, Michael, the son and successor of the preceding, 
 was bom in 1677. Coimt Tekeli, abetted by the Turks, laid 
 claim to the principality, and gained possession of part of it in 
 1690. At the same time the grand vizier, Cuprili, defeated the 
 Imperial army, and retook Belgi-ade and other important places. 
 Tekeli proved ultimately unable to maintain bis gi-ound, and, at 
 the peace of 1698, Transylvania was definitively ceded to Austria. 
 The young prince Michael was obliged to renounce bis rights, 
 and, receiving an Austrian pension, he resided at Vienna till his 
 death m 1713.— E. M. 
 
 ABAGA or ABAKA KHAN, second Mogul emperor of 
 Persia, succeeded his father, Hulaku Kban, in 1265. He 
 restored Bagdad, then in ruins, and extended his sway over a 
 great part of Western Asia. He died at Hamadan in 1282. 
 ABAILARD. See Acelard. 
 
 ABAISI, ToM»L\so, an Italian sculfitor of the fifteenth 
 century, mentioned as having executed in 1451 several wooden 
 statues for the cathedral of Fcrrara. 
 
 ABALLA, a learned lady, born at Salerno about the middle 
 of the 13th centm-y, became celebrated as a physician in the 
 reign of Charles of Anjou. She left a work, " De atra bili." 
 
 ABAMONTI or ABBAMONTE, Joseph, a Neapolitan 
 lawyer and patriot of gi-eat talents, born about the year 1759. 
 In 1798 he was appointed secretary-general to the Cisalpine 
 republic, and member of the Neapolitan executive. On the 
 restoration of the king of Naples in 1799, Abamonti was con- 
 demned to death, but pardoned. He then repaired to Milan, 
 and resumed his functions as secretaiy-general, which he con- 
 tinued to discharge till, in 1805, the Cisalpine republic merged 
 in the kingdom of Italy. He returned to Naples, and spent the 
 remainder of his life in retirement. Died in 1818. — E. M. 
 
 ABANCOURT, Charles X. J. F. d', born in 1758. In 
 June, 1792, he became minister of war under Louis X\^I., but 
 was put to death at Versailles the following August. 
 
 ABANCOURT, F. J. V. d', a French poet and dramatic 
 writer, bora at Paris in 1745. Died in 1803. 
 
 ABANO, PiETRO Di, or PETRUS APONUS, a famous pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Padua, was bom in 1250, and died in 
 1315. His most important work is his "Conciliator diffe- 
 rentiarum Philosophorum et prajcipue Medicorum," printed at 
 Mantua in 1472, folio. 
 
 ABA'NTIDAS, son of Paseas. He murdered Chnias, father 
 of Aratus, 264 B.C., and thus became tyrant of Sicyon, but was 
 himself murdered some years aftenvards. 
 
 ABARBANEL. See Abrabanel. 
 
 ABARCA DE BOLEA Y PORTUGAL, Don Geronimo, a 
 grandee and historian of Aragon, of the sixteenth century. Ho 
 wrote, in Latin, a histoiy of the kingdom of Aragon, still un- 
 published. The historian Zm-ita, who praises it highly, derived 
 from it many important documents. 
 
 ABARCA, Dona Maria d', a Spanish lady, celebrated as 
 an amateur painter of portraits. Her productions were greatly 
 admired, even at a time when painting had attained its highest 
 degree of cultivation in Spain. She was living in 1650. 
 
 ABARCA, Pedro, a Spanish Jesuit, professor of theology at 
 Salamanca, bom in 1619. Besides various theological works, he 
 published "Annals of the Kings of Aj-agon." Died 1693. 
 
 A'BARIS, a Scythian and priest of Hyperboi'ean Apollo, lived, 
 some say, before the Trojan war, and others, in the time of 
 Pythagoras. His history is mostly mythical, as well as self-con- 
 tradictoiy. He was fabled to have traversed the air on an arrow, 
 the gift of Apollo, and to have lived without food. He professed 
 to work miraculous cures. Plato speaks of him as a great en- 
 chanter, and the later Platonists tried to invest with importance 
 bis pretended mkacles. — E. M. 
 
 ABASCAL, Don Jose Fernando, viceroy of Peru, was 
 bom at Ovicdo in 1743, and entered the army in 1762. For 
 distinguished military and civil services in the West Indies and 
 South Ameiica, he was made viceroy of Peru in 1804. Lima 
 gi'eatly flourished under his able and enlightened administration. 
 He zealously promoted public instruction, and effected many 
 important administrative and judicial reforms. By gi'cat pru- 
 dence and energy, he maintained the authority of the mother- 
 country in Peru, after the other Spanish pro\'inces had declared 
 their independence. He even sent extensive military supplies 
 to bis countrymen in Spain, during their war with Napoleon. 
 In 1812 he received high honom's, but in 1816 was abruptly 
 superseded. He died at Madrid, 1821. — E. M. 
 
 ABASSAH, sister of the famous caliph, Haroun al Raschid, 
 given by him in man-iagc to his vizier, JaTar, on condition that 
 sbe should remain a virgin. But the compact was broken, her- 
 self disgraced, and her husband put to death. See Haroun. 
 
 ABATI. See Abbate. 
 
 ABAUDIUS, abbot of St. Peter's at Chartrcs, a contempo- 
 rary of Abelard, and one of liis literaiy opponents in a tract 
 called " De fractione corporis Cbristi." 
 
 ABAUNZA, Pedro d', bom in Seville in 1600. He was 
 an advocate in the courts of bis native town, and left two works 
 on subjects connected with his profession, only one of which 
 was thought worthy of publication. He died in 1649, dm-ing 
 the prevalence of a pestilence in Seville. 
 
 ABAUZIT, FiRMiN, a distinguished scholar and theological 
 writer, born in Langucdoc, 1679. The Huguenots were at 
 that time suffering severe persecution, and Abauzit, in his tenth 
 year, was forcibly taken from his widowed mother, who belonged 
 to the protestant church, and placed in a Roman catholic 
 seminary. His mother soon succeeded in rescuing him, though 
 at the price of her own imprisonment, and sent him fo Geneva, 
 where she ultimately joined him. Here Abauzit proa'cutcd his 
 studies, and made rapid progress in the various arts and sciences. 
 He subsequently visited Holland and England, and was honoured 
 with the friendship of Bayle and of Sir Isaac Newton. William 
 III., who had a high opinion of bis talents and learning, urged 
 him to take up his residence in England ; but in accordance with 
 the entreaty of his mother, he returned to Geneva, and took an 
 active part in the translation of the New Testament, published 
 in 1726. He made many important scientific discoveries, and 
 also found leisure to prepare various theological treatises, dog- 
 matical, exegetical, and apologetical, as well as some controversial
 
 wi-itings against tLe Koman catholic church. His "Essay upon 
 the Apocalypse" excited great attention at the tune, but the 
 opinions advanced in it are by no means satisfactory. An imper- 
 fect edition of Abauzit's works was pubhshcd in London, 1773. 
 lie died at Geneva in 17G7. — J. T. 
 
 ABAZA, Pasha of Bosnia, a general of gi-eat miUtary capa- 
 city, bom in 1G17. He revolted against the sidtan, Mustapha I., 
 on the pretext of wishing to avenge the murder of Sultan Osman. 
 Abaza was aftenvm-ds sent by the Porte, at the head of an 
 army of sixty thousand men, against the Poles ; and subsequently 
 against the Persians, but died soon afterwards. 
 
 ABBA, a Jewish author, who wrote a work, printed in 15-13, 
 explaining the difficult and foreign words in the Talmud. It 
 has been conjectured, and with gi-eat probaJiihty, that Abba is 
 not the full name of the author, but a contraction, composed of 
 the initial letters of some such name as Abraham Ben Asher. 
 
 ABBA ARICA, a learned Jew, better knowii under the title 
 of Pav, the foimder of a celebrated college in the city of Sora, 
 over wliich he presided till his death in a.d. 2-43. He was the 
 author of two works called "Siphra" and " Siphri." 
 
 ABBA THULLE, sovereign of the Pelew islands, who showed 
 remarkable kindness to Captain Wilson and the crew of the 
 Antelope, after their shipwreck in 1783. His son, a youth of 
 great promise, whom he sent to London for his education, died 
 there of the small-pox in December, 178-1. Keate's "Account 
 of the Pelew Islands, from the Journal of Captain Wilson," will 
 be found extremely mteresting. — E. j\l. 
 
 ABBACO, AxToxio, an Italian architect and engraver of the 
 sixteenth centuiy, disciple of San-Gallo. In 1558 he published 
 a work on architecture, vdih eugranngs by himself. He also en- 
 graved the plans of St. Peter's from designs by San-Gallo. 
 
 ABBACO, Paolo del, a Florentine mathematician and poet 
 of the fourteenth centuiy. He left several unpublished works 
 on arithmetic and algebra, and is said to have been author of the 
 first almanac— the first, at least, that appeared in Italy. 
 
 * ABBADIE, Antoixe and Arnold jMichel d', French 
 naturahsts, of Irish extraction, who \-isited Abyssinia in 1835, 
 and, after spending many years in exploring that kingdom and 
 the adjacent regions, conmimiicated to the Geographical Society 
 of Paris, on then: return, the result of their observations. The 
 correctness of their statements relating to the sources of the 
 Nile has been questioned in this country. — E. JI. 
 
 ABBADIE, James, bom 1658, was intended for the ministry 
 among the French protestants, but accepted a proposition from 
 the elector of Brandenburg, to take charge of a French church at 
 Berlm. In 1C88, his patron being dead, he accompanied ]\Iai-shal 
 Schomberg into England and Ireland. He afterwards served the 
 French chiuch in the Savoy, and was eventually, by King William's 
 interest, though he was miacquaintcd with Enghsli, made dean 
 of Killaloe, in possession of which prefennent he died, 1727, aged 
 sixty-nme. His w orks, wliich were numerous and much thought 
 of m their daj-, attract no attention now.— J. B. 0. 
 
 ABBADIE, Petrus, a French preacher of Charenton, about 
 the middle of the seventeenth century, who published some ser- 
 mons of quaintness and power on the baptism of Christ, &c. 
 
 ABBAN, commonly called Saint Aucan, son of one of the 
 kings of Leinster in the sixth century. He is said to have been 
 very successful ui his efforts to convert the heatlien natives. 
 
 'ABBAS IBN 'ABDI-L-MUTALIB, uncle of Mahomet, and 
 ancestor of the dynasty of the Abassidcs. It is usually stated 
 that he was long the determined enemy of his nephew. It has, 
 however, been estabhshed, that even 'when, from necessity or 
 pohcy, he remained in the ranks of his nephew's adversaries, he 
 was secretly his agent and con-espondent, if not yet a behever 
 in his prophetic mission. Captured by his triumphant relative 
 at the battle of Bedr, he obtained his liberty, on paying, for the 
 sake of appcai-ances, a high ransom. Returning to jlecca, he 
 brought about Abou Sofian's submission to Mahomet. He then 
 fomially professed his own conversion to the prophet's creed. 
 At the battle of Honein, when the Mussulman anny began to 
 give way, Abbas, by his v:dord- and conduct, turned the fortune 
 of the day. He survived his nejihew a number of years, and 
 continued to be sincerely esteemed and suii^darly honom-ed by 
 Mahomet's followers. Died in C52. — E. Id.' 
 
 ABBAS, Enu Abbas Abdallaii, son of the preceding, was 
 dnef of the Saliabah, or companions of the propliet, and author 
 of a commentaiT on the Koran. 
 
 ABBAS. Three shahs of Persia bore tliis name :— 
 
 'Abbas I., seventh of the Siifi d}'nasty, a prince of remark- 
 able talents and energy, but perfidious and sanguinaiy, born in 
 1557. At the death of his father he was governor of IChorassan, 
 and, though only eighteen, declared his independence, and soon 
 afterwards became shah. He gi'eatly extended his kingdom on 
 the north and east by conquest; and, on the west, recovered 
 from the Tm-ks a large tenitoi-y that fonnerly belonged to 
 Persia. With the assistance of an English fleet, he took the 
 island of Ommz from the Portuguese in 1622. The vigour 
 and wisdom of his administration, and his efforts to protect the 
 v.eak from the tyranny of subordinate functionaries, endeared 
 him to tlie bulk of his subjects ; and his success in war and 
 his great public works, have rendered his name memorable in 
 Persian histoiy. Like most Eastern despots, he tarnished by 
 capricious ferocity whatever was meritorious in his character. 
 From groundless suspicion, he put to death his eldest son. 
 Convinced soon after of his innocence, he ordered the courtier he 
 had employed as executioner, to bring him the head of his o\\-n 
 son. Suspecting the klians of JIazenderan of disaffection, he 
 invited them to a banquet, and destroyed them all by a poisoned 
 di-aught, gazing with delight on their agonies. Died in 1628. 
 
 'Abbas II., great-grandson of the preceding, born in 1629, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne at the age of thu-teen. He was a patron of 
 the fine arts, excelled in drawing and cahgraphy, but was grossly 
 intemperate, and at times wantonly inhuman. Various instances 
 of his revolting craelty have been recorded. Died in 1666. 
 
 'Abbas IIL, last of the Siifi dynasty, born in 1732, was only 
 eight months old when the usurper Nadir Shah proclaimed him 
 sovereign, and reigned imder his name. He died in 1736, and 
 is supposed to have been cut off by the usurper. — E. 51. 
 
 ABBAS- JIIRZA, celebrated for his efforts to introduce into 
 Persia European civilization, bom in 1785. He was the third 
 and favourite son of Shah Fatah Ali, who declared him pre- 
 smnptive heir to the cro\m, to the exclusion of his eldest son 
 5Iahommed-Ah-Mirza. It was expected that the death of the 
 shah would be immediately followed by a ci^dl war between his 
 two rival sons, and that the clauns of Abbas would be supported 
 by Russia, and those of Mahommed-Ah by Britain. Both 
 princes, however, died before their father ; Mahommed-Ali in 
 1820, and Abbas in 1833. On the death of Abbas, his son, 
 Mahommed-Mirza, was declared cro^vn prince, with the sanction 
 of both Russia and Britain. — E. ]M. 
 
 *ABBAS PASIIA, viceroy of Egj-jjl, and grandson of the cele- 
 brated Jlehemet Ali, was bom at Yedda in Ai-abia in 1813, and 
 educated at Cau-o ; he succeeded his imcle Ibrahim Pasha, who died 
 on the 10th November, 1818. He repaired to Constantinople 
 in January, 1849, where he was solemnly invested by the sultan 
 with the dignity of viceroy of Eg)-pt. He is understood to be a 
 more rigid ilussulman than any other member of the Jlehemet 
 Ali family ; and many persons entertain apprehensions that 
 Abbas Pasha, who does not entirely sympathize with the systenr 
 of reform so cordially pursued by the present sultan, may, on 
 some possible emergency, be urged to put himself at the head of 
 the retrograde and fanatical party, wliicli, though kept down for 
 a time, is stiU powerful throughout the Turkish empire. — E. M. 
 
 ABBATE, Andrea, a Neapolitan artist, who assisted Luca 
 Giordano in the decoration of the Escurial in Spain, by executing 
 flowers, fruits, and other ornaments from still life. Died in 1732. 
 
 ABBATE, BoccA dell', a Florentine of the time of Dante, 
 wlio took part with the Guibelines, and is therefore classed by 
 the great poet amongst the traitors to his country. 
 
 ABBATE, Dcll', or Degi.i Aebati, an Italian family in 
 the IGth century at Jlodena, which brought forth several dis- 
 tinguished artists. They are : — 
 
 Abbate, Giovanni dell', a good painter and an excellent 
 modeler, died in 1557, father of the more famous — 
 
 Abbate, Messer Nicolo dell', who, bora in 1509 or 
 1512, originally studied under his father, and then at Bologna. 
 In this town he executed several good frescos with Pellcgrino 
 di Tibaldi, which helped to enlarge his style. 'UTien Primaticcio 
 was sent to Italy by Francis I. of France, to gather ancient 
 relics and recmit the best artists for the embellishment of his 
 palaces, Messer Nicolo was persuaded to follow him, and pro- 
 ceeded to France, where he executed, at Fontainebleau, a large 
 number of frescos, from Primaticcio's designs, with very great 
 success. These fine works were unfortunately destroyed in 1738, 
 during some alterations of the palace. They were much ad- 
 mired for grace and elevation of style, and by many were con- 
 
 1
 
 ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 sidered as good, if not better, than any by Primaticcio himself. 
 MesserNicolo died at Fontainebleau in 1571. Whilst in France, 
 he had been followed and assisted by his son Gian Camillo, also 
 a distinguished artist. 
 
 Abbate, Pietuo Paoi.o dell', the Elder, another son of 
 Giovanni, continued in the meanwhile to keep his father's school 
 at Modena, where, by his pictures of battle scenes, and especially 
 of horses, he acquired a very great reputation. He died about 
 1580. Amongst bis pupils, there was his nephew — 
 
 Abbate, Ercole dell', son of Gian Camillo, noted both 
 for his gi-eat artistical talents, and for his disordered life. Ercole 
 died in 1G13, leaving his son — 
 
 Abbate, Pietko Paolo dell', the Younger, born in 1592 ; 
 died in 1630 — an artist of less importance. — R. M. 
 
 ABBATUCCI, GiACOMO Pietko, a Corsican general of 
 brigade in the French service, born in 1726. He attempted 
 to defend Corsica against the British in 1793, and retired to 
 France when the island came under British protection in 1794. 
 Though brave and skilful as a guerilla chief, he was found 
 entirely unfit to command regular troops in the French army. 
 In 1799 he returned to Corsica, where he died in 1812, having 
 survived three sons who were killed in the French service. — E. RI. 
 
 ABBEVILLE, Peke Claude d', a Capuchin who wrote the 
 history of a mission to Maragnan, 1614, in which he took part. 
 
 ABBIATI, FiLiPPO, an Itahan painter, bom at Milan in 
 1640. He was a pupil of Carlo Nuvolone, but in his works he 
 preferred following the style of the Pamfilo school. Like his 
 master, he delighted in treating religious subjects. He worked 
 for the Santuario of Saroniio, near Milan. 
 
 ABBIATTI, Giuseppe, another Milanese painter, flourishing 
 about 1700. He is especially noted for some spirited composi- 
 tions of battle scenes, which he afterwards engra\ed. 
 
 ABBO, surnamed Ceiinuus or the Crooked, a monk of 
 Saint-Germain-des-Pres, born about the middle of the ninth 
 century. He wrote an account of tlie siege of Paris by the Nor- 
 mans, at which he had been present. His work, though very 
 indifterent as a poem, is an historical document of great value. 
 Guizot has published a French translation of it in his collection of 
 documents relating to French history. Abbo died in 923 — E. M. 
 
 ABBO, abbot of Fleury, born near Orleans about 945, renowned 
 in his time as a philosopher and divine. Killed in 1004. 
 
 ABONDAXTI, Antonio, called in Latin Abundantius a 
 Imola, an Italian poet and historian. In 1G30 he published a 
 poetical eulogium on Count John de Tilly, one of the most 
 celebrated generals in the Thirty Years' war. He also wrote 
 " Travels to Cologne and to Treves," and an " Historical Out- 
 line of the Wars of the Netherlands, from 1559 to 1609." 
 
 ABBOT, Charles, Baron Colchester, an English statesman, 
 born at Abingdon in 1757, the son of a clergyman, the Rev. Dr. 
 John Abbot. Mrs. Abbot, after her husband's death, married 
 in 1765 Mr. Jeremy Bentham, father, by a previous marriage, 
 of the famous jurist. Distinguishing himself at Westminster 
 school, Mr. Abbot was elected a student of Christchurch, Oxford, 
 in 1775 ; and in 1777 obtained the medal for Latin poetry. In 
 1781 he was sent to Geneva to study foreign jurisprudence. In 
 1783 he took the degree of B.C.L. at Oxford, and was shortly 
 afterwards admitted to the bar. In 1795 he published a work 
 on the Welsh judicature, and eaiTiestly recommended its aboli- 
 tion. About the same time he was appointed clerk of the rules 
 in the court of King's Bench, and, some time afterwards, pub- 
 lished his "Rules and Orders of the King's Bench." In 1795 
 he also became a member of parliament. In Mr. Abbot's pub- 
 lications, as well as his unwearied efforts during his parliamentary 
 career to promote legislative and administrative reforms, may 
 be traced the advantages of his continental residence, and of his 
 intercourse with the greatest of modern legists. The reforms 
 he successively proposed and carried in parliament related to 
 the efficient promulgation of acts of the legislature, the improve- 
 ment of the diction of the statutes in clearness and brevity, the 
 management of the public records, the responsibility of revenue 
 collectors, the adoption of an accurate and periodical census of 
 the population, &c., &c. During Mr. Pitt's administration, he 
 usually spoke on the ministerial side. On Pitt's retirement he 
 became chief- secretary for Ireland, and a privy councillor. On 
 the 10th of February, 1801, he was elected to the office of 
 Speaker, which he held till the 30th of May, 1817, when an 
 attack of erysipelas obliged him to resign. When in April, 1805, 
 the house divided on the motion to impeach Lord ]\Ielville, and 
 
 there happened to be an equality of votes, Abbot gave his cast- 
 ing vote for the impeachment. As Speaker of the House of 
 Commons, he was admired for courteous attention and presence 
 of mind, as well as fairness and accuracy in maintaining the 
 forms of the house. On retiring from the speakersh p, he was 
 raised to the peerage under the title of Baron Colchester. He 
 died in London in 1829. — E. M. 
 
 ABBOT, Charles, a distinguished English judge, born in 
 1762 at Canterbury, where his father exercised the trade of a 
 hairdresser. From King's School at Canterbury he passed in 
 1778 to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he gained the 
 chancellor's medal for Latin verse and English prose, and was 
 elected to a fellowship. In 1788 he entered his name upon the 
 books of the Inner Temple, and shortly afterwards became a 
 pupil of Mr. Wood, a distinguished special pleader at the bar, 
 who subsequently became a baron of the exchequer. In 1795 
 he was called to the bar, and rapidly rose to distinction, being 
 employed frequently as junior counsel to the treasury. The 
 patronage of Sir John Scott, afterwards Lord Eldon, told favour- 
 ably upon the fortunes of Mr. Abbot, who very soon commanded 
 a large practice both on the Oxford circuit and in London. His 
 "Treatise of the Law of Merchant Ships and Seamen" greatly 
 enhanced his reputation. It was published in 1802, and has 
 continued to be the standard work upon maritime law both in 
 England and America. In 1808 Mr. Abbot was oflered a seat 
 in the court of king's bench, which pecuniary considerations 
 induced him to decline. In 1816, however, after eight years 
 more of singularly lucrative practice at the bar, he accepted a 
 seat in the court of common pleas, and innnediately afterwards 
 was transferred to the court of king's bench. In 1818, on the 
 resignation of Lord Ellenborough, he was raised to the dignity 
 of Lord Chief-Justice, and in 1827 was made a peer with the 
 title of Baron Tenderden. He died in 1832. — J. S., G. 
 
 ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was the son of 
 Jlaurice Abbot, a cloth-worker of Guildford in Sun-ey, and Alice, 
 his wife, both warmly attached to the Reformation. He was 
 born October 29, 1562, and entered at Baliol college, Oxford, 
 in 1578. After passing through the intermediate degrees, he 
 became D.D. in 1597, and master of University college. It 
 was whilst serving the office of vice-chancellor that his quarrel 
 with Laud began. Abbot's views accorded with the sentiments 
 of the English reformers, and necessarily exposed him to the 
 enmity of Laud and his adherents. Abbot was made dean of 
 Winchester in 1599, and in 1 604 was intmsted with the trans- 
 lation of the New Testament, except the Epistles. For his 
 services in Scotland in 1608, in disposing the Scotch to a more 
 favourable reception of episcopacy, he was made bishop of Lich- 
 field, bishop of London in 1609, and in 1611 arclibishop of 
 Canterbury. In politics Abbot took the popular side, and more 
 than once had the courage to oppose the king ; as in the case 
 of the earl of Essex's divorce, and the publication of the king's 
 declaration respecting Sunday sports in 1618, which he forbade 
 to be read at Croydon. Finding the infirmities of age increase, 
 and his influence at court declining after the death of the queen, 
 he retired to Guildford, where in 1619 he laid the first stone of 
 his hospital, which he liberally endowed. In 1621 he had the 
 misfortune, while hunting in Lord Zouch's park, to miss the 
 deer and kill the keeper. Laud attempted to set him aside, by 
 insisting that even casual homicide canonically unfits a clergy- 
 man for every clerical function. James, with commendable 
 candour, observed that " an angel might have miscarried in this 
 sort ; " but it was necessary for him to institute a court for for- 
 mal inquiry. The court recommended that his majesty should 
 grant a special pardon, which he accordingly did, and authorized 
 a commission of eight bishops to absolve Abbot from all the 
 censures he might have incurred, and to declare him still invested 
 with all metropolitan rights and authority. After this he 
 returned to court, and was with James at the time of his death 
 in 1625. Abbot did not long remain in favour witli the new 
 monarch ; he was soon ordered by his majesty to retire to liis 
 country house at Ford, and shortly afterwards was suspended 
 from his archicpiscopal functions. This suspension was, how- 
 ever, removed in 1628, on petition of the house of lords, and 
 Abbot continued to exercise the duties of the primacy till his 
 death, August 4, 1633, at Croydon. He gave his firm support 
 to the Petition of Right addressed to his majesty, which, in 1628, 
 was adopted by both houses of parliament. He died unmarried, 
 and was succeeded in the primacy by his old adversary Laud.
 
 Abbot left several writings wliich had been called forth by the 
 controversies of the time; the principal are — "An Exposition 
 of Jonah," 1600; "An Answer to the Citizens of Cheapside 
 respecting the Erection of the Cross," 1600; "Dr. Hill's Reasons 
 Unmasked," 160-1; "Sermon on the Death of the Earl of 
 Dorset," 1608; " Qufestiones Sex," 1G16; "Brief Description 
 of the Whole Worid," 1617 ; "A Treatise on Perpetual Visibility 
 and Succession of the Church," 1C2-1; "Judgment on Bowing 
 at the Name of Jesus," 1632 : "The JIassacre in the Valtaline 
 in Fox's Arts and Jlonuments." — J. B., 0. 
 
 ABBOT, George, an English di\-ine, bom in 1G04, author 
 of a paraphrase of the Book of Job, a " Defence of the Christian 
 Sabbath," and notes on the Psalms. Died in 1648.^ 
 
 * Abbot, Jacob, a pious and accomplished American writer, 
 whose numerous, lucid, and attractive publications for the young 
 have procured him great and merited popularity in this country, 
 as well as in America, was bom in 1803 at Hallowell in Maine. 
 He was educated at Bowdoin, and at the theological seminary 
 of Andover. A complete edition of his works was published in 
 Glasgow in 1851, in one vol. 8vo. — E. M. 
 
 * ABBOT, John S. C, an American Congregational minister, 
 and, like his brother Jacob Abbot, an amiable writer for the rising 
 generation, author of a series of royal biographies, and of a his- 
 tory of Napoleon Bonaparte — a work admired for its easy style 
 and graphic narrations, but censured by many as exhibiting the 
 character and conduct of that extraordinary man under too 
 favourable a point of view. — E. M. 
 
 ABBOT, Lemuel, an English portrait painter of some dis- 
 tinction, bora in 1762 ; died in 1803. 
 
 ABBOT, Sir JIaurice, youngest brother of the archbishop, 
 a London merchant, and able du-ector of the East India Com- 
 pany. He was the first person knighted by Charles I. In 
 1625 he was elected member of pai-liament for the city of Lon- 
 don, and in 1638 became lord mayor. Died in 1640. 
 
 ABBOT, Robert, brother of the aixhbishop, was bom in 1560, 
 and entered BaHol college, Oxford, in 1575, of which college he 
 was elected master in 1609. In 1612 he became regius pro- 
 fessor of divinity, and in 1615 was promoted to the see of Salis- 
 bury. He only held the see two years ; but finding his cathedral 
 in bad repair, he carefully restored it, and left behind him the 
 reputation of a good active bishop, a diligent preacher, and most 
 hospitable man, at whose table the poor were as frequent and 
 as welcome guests as the rich. He died in 1617, and was 
 buried at Salisbury. Though he was as decided a Calvinist as 
 liis brother, he was of a far more genial temper. He was twice 
 married ; once after his elevation to the episcopate, to the great 
 displeasure of his brother the archbishop. His numerous and 
 masterly writings were directed against the church of Rome, and 
 intended to show that the Refomiation was simply a revival of the 
 doctrine and discipline of the ancient catholic church. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ABBOT, Robert, M.A., author of a volume of sermons, was 
 originally of Cambridge, but was admitted at Oxford in 1607. 
 He joined the presbyterian party at the period of the Rebellion, 
 and became ultimately minister of St. Austin's, Watlin-street, 
 London, and published some controversial tracts on church 
 government, as well as a catechism, called " Lac Infantiam." 
 Died in 1653.— J. E. 
 
 ABBT, Thomas, a German author of considerable eminence 
 and great promise, bom at Ulm in 1738. After studying 
 theology at Halle, he devoted himself to philosophy, mathe- 
 matics, and literature. In 1760 he was appointed extraordinary 
 professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in 1761 
 ordinary professor of mathematics at Rinteln. A distaste for 
 his professional career soon turned his attention to the study of 
 law, and in 1765 he was appointed aulic counsellor at Bucken- 
 burg. His numerous writings on literary and moral subjects 
 attained great popularity, and, along with those of Lessing, con- 
 tributed in no small degree to the improvement of the German 
 language and the progress of GeiTnan literature. He died in 
 1766, at the early age of twentv-eight. — E. M. 
 
 ABDALMELEC ' or ABDOilELEC, an astronomer and 
 mathematician under Caliph Almamoun. See Alis-Ibx-Isa. 
 
 ABDAS, Bishop of Susa in the fifth centuiy, who, having in 
 430 destroyed a Magian sanctiiar}-, and refused redress, was 
 condemned to death. His execution gave rise to a persecution 
 of the Persian clmstians, and a war between Persia and the 
 Eastern empire. 
 
 * ABD-EL-KADER, an illustrious Arab emir, who displayed 
 
 consummate genius, intrepidity, and jjerseverance, in resisting 
 for fourteen years the French arms in Africa, was bora in 1807. 
 Algiers was taken by the French in July, 1829. Its capture, and 
 the extinction of the Algerine central authority, threw the popu- 
 lation of the Algerine territory into a state of anarchy, except 
 where the French held actual possession. This territory, extend- 
 ins; along the Mediterranean from Tunis to Jlorocco, is about 250 
 leagues in length, and from 60 to 80 in breadth. The indige- 
 nous inhabitants consisted of four distinct races. Two of these, 
 the Moors and Jews, feeble and pacific, chiefly resided in the 
 towns ; while the Arabs and the Kabyles (the latter of whom 
 are descendants of the ancient Numidians), energetic and war- 
 like, occupied the mountains, valleys, and plains. The military 
 force of the Arabs consisted mainly of cavalry, and that of the 
 Kabyles in infantry. Part of the population requested French 
 protection, but the greater portion stood aloof, unmistakably 
 detesting the invaders, and planning their expulsion. In under- 
 taking the expedition to Algiers, Charles X. had disclaimed all 
 intention of permanent conquest, assuring his allies that his sole 
 object was the suppression of piracy, and that the future con- 
 dition of Algiers and its territory would be left to the decision 
 of a European congress. In fact, his real object was to gi'atify 
 the national vanity and supposed interests of the French, and 
 divert their attention from political agitation. Louis Philippe, 
 on becoming sovereign of the French, at once &nnd the Algerian 
 conquest a source of embarassment, and was forced to tem.porize. 
 To hold it definitively might endanger the peace of Europe; 
 while to relinquish it might peril his own throne, as public 
 opinion in France had declared for retaining and extending the 
 Algerian conquest at all hazards. Hence the passive attitude 
 enjoined for several years on the French commanders in Africa; 
 and hence the subsequent change of measures, and final defini- 
 tive conquest of Algeria. Marshal Clausel, notwithstanding his 
 instructions to remain on the defensive, deemed it imperative to 
 meet the menacing preparations and encroachments of the bey 
 of Tartar}' ; and having defeated and deposed him, took posses- 
 sion of his capital, Medeah. In the meantime, determined 
 hostility to the French was manifesting itself among the native 
 tribes ; an extensive confederation was formed, and a venerable 
 Marabout, doctor of the Moslem law, was invited to put himself 
 at its head. He declined, on account of his advanced age ; but 
 recommended his third son, Abd-el-Kader, as a person in eveiy 
 respect peculiarly fitted to direct the enterprise. Abd-el-Kader 
 was elected emir and commander-in-chief, and soon found him- 
 self at the head of 10,000 cavalry. He had been carefully 
 trained under his father's superintendence, had early distin- 
 guished himself by unrivalled proficiency in every branch of a 
 superior Arab education, and was admired for his accomplish- 
 ments, and revered for his zeal in upholding the tenets of the 
 Moslem faith. The first movement of the confederates was an 
 attack on Oran, in Jlay, 1832, then in possession of the French, 
 as its bey had submitted to them soon after the capture of 
 Algiers. The assault, though renewed with great daring for 
 several successive days, was unsuccessful, but proved of gi-eat 
 advantage to the emir. Abd-el-Cader now proceeded to extend, 
 by policy or force, his power among the tribes ; while General 
 Desmichels satisfied himself with merely occupying two ad- 
 vanced militaiy positions, Arzew and Mostaganem, and shortly 
 after, in conformity with the desire of the French government 
 to appease the natives and prevent hostilities, entered into a 
 treaty with Abd-el-Kader, which gave the emir the virtual 
 sovereignty of Oran, ^-ith an entire monopoly of the trade. 
 This treaty, on the one hand, invested the emir with an im- 
 portant prestige, but awakened the envy of native chieftains. 
 By one of these he was surprise 1 in April, 1834, and, after a 
 most heroic resistance, signally defeated. The news of this 
 disaster extended the insmrection, which the emir, however, 
 abetted by General Desmichels, was soon able to suppress. The 
 proceedings of this general were condemned at Paris, and General 
 Trezel was sent to supersede him. The new French comman- 
 der, professing to regard the emir's operations as a breach of the 
 existing treaty, marched against him, but sustained a serious 
 defeat at Macta, 28th June, 1835. The news of this reverse 
 created an immense sensation at Paris. Pubfic opinion de- 
 nounced the temporizing policy of Louis Philippe, and demanded 
 an immediate and entire change of measures in Africa. 
 
 ^Marshal Clausel was now sent to act against Abd-el-Kader 
 with earnestness and vigour. He marched at once on Mascara,
 
 which he found abandoned and in ruins. Returning to Oran, 
 he proceeded in January, 1836, to Tlemsen, in the vicinity of 
 Morocco, and occupied the town, whicli the emir had just 
 quitted. The marshal traversed a hirge extent of country, but 
 with Httle permanent result; the emir hanging on his rear, and 
 liarassing his troops in theu* march, and, shortly afterwards, 
 inflicting a signal defeat on a large French convoy intended for 
 Tlemsen. The French government now sent out General 
 Bugeaud, with instructions to neutralize by treaty or force the 
 restless activity of the emir. Bugeaud's proffered terms were 
 rejected ; and the emir attempted, by laying waste the country 
 along tlie tract to Tlemsen, to baffle the efforts of the French 
 to provision that place. But Bugeaud, amply provided with 
 loaded camels and mules, continued his march. The emir, 
 having suddenly attacked him in the defile of Sakkak, was 
 repulsed with the loss of 1200 killed and wounded. The terms 
 previously offered by Bugeaud were now accepted. The emu- 
 agreed to pay tribute to France, iind obtained a large accession 
 of ten-itory. Without loss of time, he proceeded strenuously to 
 assert his authority over the provinces ceded to him, and to 
 extend his influence in the interior beyond them. It has been 
 generally stated and believed that Abd-el-Kader had previously, by 
 a breach of his treaty with Desmichels, given occasion to Trezel's 
 renewal of hostilities ; and that now, by the alleged massacre of 
 a tribe, and other proceedings, he had flagrantly violated his 
 treaty with Bugeaud. But a distinguished French officer, 
 i\Iajor Boissonet, lias proved by facts, that these charges are 
 utterly groundless, and that the emir strictly observed on all 
 occasions his stipulations with the French. The alleged 
 massacre was a fiction. On the remonstrances of the governor- 
 general, a new treaty, partly explanatory and partly supple- 
 mentary, was agreed to at Algiers in July, 1838. In the 
 meantime the emir proceeded with vigom' to improve his civil 
 and military administration, and to make every possible pro- 
 ^•ision for the easily foreseen renewal of the war. The emir's 
 growing power alarmed the Fi-ench authorities ; and, to coun- 
 teract his influence, a French army was marched into the 
 interior, and through a celebrated defile called the Iron Gates, 
 which the Turks, at the height of their power, had never 
 \'entiu-ed to pass witliout special leave of the natives. This 
 demonstration produced, as was intended, an immense sensation, 
 and was regarded by the tribes as the preliminary or commence- 
 ment of hostilities. The emir, in the spirit of chivalry, gave 
 due notice by letter to the French governor-general, that, in 
 spite of his remonstrances, a holy war had been proclaimed, and 
 that his countrymen, with himself at their head, were about to 
 appeal to arms. After some unsatisfactoiy operations on the 
 l)art of Marshal Vallee, Bugeaud was sent a second time to 
 Africa. He had now instructions to subdue the emir, and 
 complete the conquest of Algeria. Bugeaud soon captured the 
 new forts which the emir had erected ; and, by carrying oft' the 
 flocks, destroying the crops, and burning the villages of all who 
 refused submission, he caused great numbers of the emir's troops 
 to desert, and, in the next campaign, reduced him to such 
 straits, that Algeria was officially announced at Paris as now an 
 integi-al part of the French dominions. But the spii'it of the 
 bold Arab was not yet crushed. By the amazing rapidity and 
 fearlessness of his movements, he conthmed to inflict on the 
 French no small annoyance and damage. In October, 1843, 
 however, he sustained so thorough a defeat, that he instantly 
 sought refuge m the em])ire of Morocco. The population 
 declared in his favour, and the emperor, but for his fear of the 
 French, would have eagerly espoused his cause. The French 
 declared war against Morocco, and forced the emperor to send 
 an army against the emir. After an unavailing night-attack of 
 amazing boldness on the emperor's camp, Abd-el-Kader gave up 
 all for lost, and proposed to surrender to the French on terms 
 whicli were accorded, both by General Lamoriciere and the Duke 
 d'Aumale, the governor-general. The emir arrived at Toulon 
 on the 29th January, 1848, and in violation of the solemn 
 stipulations that had been made, was imprisoned in the fortress 
 of Lamalgue, whence he was transferred to Pau, and afterwards 
 to Amboise. In October, 1852, he obtained his liberty, on pledg- 
 ing his honour not to return to Algeria, or conspire against France. 
 He reached Brussa in Asia Minor in 1853 — the place, by curious 
 coincidence, where Hannibal expired — and resided there till its 
 almost total destruction by an earthquake in 1855, when he 
 removed to Constantinople, his present residence. In the 
 
 autumn of 1855, he paid a short visit to Paris to see the 
 Exhibition. — E. M. 
 
 ABDIAS. The name assumed by the writer of an apocry- 
 phal history of the labours of the apostles. The book professes 
 to be written by " Abdias, bishop of Babylon, who was ordained 
 by the apostles themselves;" but various arguments make it 
 certain that the work is a forgery of the sixth, or at the earliest, 
 of the end of the fifth century. 
 
 ABDIAS BARTENO'PvA, an Italian rabbi, author of a cele- 
 brated commentary on the Mislma. 
 
 ABDIAS BEN SHALOM, a Jewish rabbi, noted as the first 
 convert from Judaism to the faith of Islam. He went with 
 three Jews to dispute with Mahomet and at the end of the 
 discussion exclaimed — " Enough, most excellent Mahomet, thou 
 hast conquered ; receive me as thy disciple." He was received 
 among the Arabs, and named Abdnllah Ibn Shelcm. The famous 
 disputation is found at the end of the Koran. — J. B. 
 
 ABDI-L-MUTALIB, Mahomet's grandfather and guardian, 
 a rich and beneficent citizen of Mecca, to whom a variety of 
 achievements are attributed in Moslem legends; born A.d. 497, 
 and died at Mecca when upwards of eighty years old. 
 
 ABDOLO'NYMUS, a Sidonian of royal descent, though in 
 very humble circumstances, whom Alexander the Great is said 
 to have made sovereign of Sidon and Tyre. 
 
 ABDON, one of the judges of Israel. He preceded Samson, 
 and governed, according to Hales, from 1160 to 1152 B.C. 
 
 'ABDU'-L-AZIZ, the third Arab governor of Spain, gi-eatly 
 aided his father Miisa, lieutenant of the Caliph Walid I., in the 
 conquest of the peninsula. He was assassinated in a mosque 
 near Seville, by order of the Caliph Soliman, in 716. 
 
 ABDU'-L-'AZIZ, sheikh (or prince) of the Wahabites, mur- 
 dered in 1803 by a Persian fanatic, who, to accomplish his 
 purpose, had professed to be a convert to the Waliabite creed. 
 
 *ABDUL-HAMED-BEG (whose real name wasDu Couret), 
 a French traveller, was born at Huningue in 1812. In 1834 
 he departed for Egypt, where he ascended the Nile as far as 
 Abyssinia, and returned into Egypt along the western coast of 
 the Red Sea. He adopted Islamism, made the pilgiimage to 
 Mecca, which gave him a right to the title of hadji, traversed a 
 great part of Arabia, and at last landed on the Isle de Bourbon, 
 exhausted by fatigue and sickness. From thence he went into 
 Persia, where he was accused of political intrigues, and thrown 
 into prison. Delivered by ransom, he returned to France in 
 1847, but veiy soon again left his native country to penetrate 
 central Africa as far as Timbuctoo. — S. 
 
 'ABDULLAH, fourth and last chief of the Wahabites, a war- 
 like Moslem sect in Arabia. He succeeded his father Sehoud 
 in 1814. Mehemet Ali, instructed by the sultan to exterminate 
 the sect, sent a large force against them, and defeated an army 
 of thirty thousand men, commanded by 'Abdullah's brother. 
 After a feigned .submission, 'Abdullah concentrated the most 
 heroic of his adherents in the town of Dereyeh, his capital, deter- 
 mined to hold out to the last. Ibrahim Pasha, after besieging 
 the place for six months without effect, contrived to decoy 
 'Abdullah to an interview, and took him prisoner by treachery. 
 'Abdullah was sent to Constantinople, where he was pubhcly 
 executed on the 16th December, 1818. — E. M. 
 
 'ABDULLAH, Abu-Mohammed, a Moslem sovereign of tlie 
 thirteenth century, of the dynasty of the Almohades. Though 
 his dominions comprehended part of Africa, as well as Moslem 
 Spain, his presence was permanently required in the latter coun- 
 try, to oppose the growing strength of the christian princes of 
 the peninsula. He rendered himself odious to his own subjects, 
 by whom he was massacred in 1225. — E. M. 
 
 " 'ABDULLAH, Ibn Abdi-L-Mutalib, fiither of ]\Ialiomet, 
 born at Mecca in 545. Two months after the birth of his son 
 in 570, he died at Medina, then called Yathreb, whither he had 
 been sent to procure a supply of dates. 
 
 'ABDULLAH IBN BALKPN, the fourth and last sultan of 
 Granada, of the dynasty of the Zeyrites, succeeded to the throne 
 A.D. 1073. He, with other Bloslem rulers, implored the king 
 of the Almoravides of Africa, to aid them against Alfonso I. of 
 Castile ; but, by the treachery of their ally, Abdullah was taken 
 prisoner, and sent in chains to Africa, where he died. 
 
 'ABDULLAH IBN MOHAMMED, seventh sultan of Cor- 
 dova, of the Ommiade dynasty, distingviished for his wars with 
 the rebel Ibn Hafssiin. He is remembered also as a poet and 
 lover of literature. Died A.D. 912.
 
 'ABDULLAH IBN MOHAMMED IBN YUSUF NASR 
 AL-AZDI, a historian, born at Cordova a.d. 942 ; was killed 
 at the taking of his native city by Snlevman in 1013. 
 
 'ABDULLAH IBN ]\10SLEM IBN KOTEYBAH, a cele- 
 brated historian, horn at Bagdad A.d. 828-9, where he died 
 A.D. 8S'J-90. He held a professorship in one of the colleges of 
 his native citv. 
 
 'ABDULLAH IBN MOSLEMAH IBN AL-AFTTAS AT- 
 TOJIiU', founder of the dynasty of the Beni Al-Afttas. Born 
 in lUOl-5: died in 1()60-G3. 
 
 ABDULLAH IBN SA'D, one of Mahomet's fir.st converts. 
 He was employed by the Prophet in witing down his revelations. 
 At a subsequent period the Khalif 'Othman appointed him 
 governor of Egvpt. 
 
 'ABDULLAH IBNU-L-HI.JA'RI', a celebrated historian, 
 born at Cangera in 1105. He possessed a very large library, 
 collected in his travels tlirough Africa, Egypt, and Syria, which 
 was valued at his death, in 1195, at 30,000 dinars, or about 
 A'15,000. He wrote a valuable history of Spain. 
 
 'ABDULLAH IBN YASIN, founder of the d^masty of the 
 Almoravides, who ruled over the greater part of Africa and 
 Spain for nearly a century. He was sent to Africa as a teacher 
 of religion, but soon adopted the sword as a means to force the 
 faith of Islam on the various tribes. He exercised the functions 
 of royalty, but preferred the title of fakib (or theologian). 
 
 'ABDU'-L-LATTIF, an Arab philosopher and physician, bora 
 at Bagdad in 1162. He studied in his native city, and prac- 
 tised medicine there for some time. He left it in 1185, and 
 resided successively at JIosul, Damascus, and Jerusalem. He 
 obtained the friendship of Bahadin, the vizier and favourite of 
 Sultan Saladin. Through the vizier's influence he was furnished 
 with the means of travelling in Egypt. On his return, he was 
 appcjinted to a professorship at Damascus. After traversing 
 Asia Jlinor, and residing some time at Aleppo, he returned to 
 Bagdad with great renown as a physician, and died there in 
 1231, when on the point of proceeding on a pilgrimage to Mecca. 
 An Arab author mentions the titles of more than a hundred 
 treatises written by 'Abdu'-l-Lattif. The only one of these known 
 ill Europe is an abridgment of a larger work of the author's, on the 
 history, antiquities, and geography of Egypt. This interesting 
 production was brought from tlie East by Pococke, and has been 
 translated into Latin, and also into German and French. — E. JI. 
 
 ABDU'-L-MALEK I., fifth prince of Khorassan of the Sama- 
 nide dynastj-, began to reign in 954. Oriental historians extol 
 his energy and wisdom. 
 
 ABDU'-L-MALEK II., Ibx Nuii, ninth and last prince of 
 Khorassan of the Samanide dynasty, succeeded his brother 
 ]\Iansur II. in 988. He reigned only till 999, having been 
 deposed and imprisoned for life by Eylek Khan, sovereign of 
 Turkistan. 
 
 ABDU'-L-MALIK, sultan of ^lorocco in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He usurped the throne, to the exclusion of his nephew 
 JIaliomet, the lawful heir, who afterwards obtained the aid of 
 Don Sebastian, king of Portugal, to assert his rights. In the 
 famous battle of Alcasar in 1578, Abdu'-l-ilalik, Mahomet, 
 and Don Sebastian were all slain. 
 
 AP.DU'-L-MALEK, Ibx Mkrwax, fifth Ommiade caliph of 
 Damascus surnamed " Sweat of the Stone," from his avarice, 
 succeeded his father, Merwan I., in 685. During a reign of 
 twenty years, he achieved extensive conquests both in Asia and 
 Africa. Died at Damascus in 705. 
 
 ABDU'-L-MALEK, IiiN Omar, called Marsillo in the 
 legends of western chivalry, an able and devoted general of 
 Abdu'-R-Kahman I., and governor of Saragossa and the whole 
 of eastern Spain, at the period of Charlemagne's invasion. 
 
 'ABDU'-L-MUMEN, Ibn 'Ali, siu-named Abu Mohammed, 
 second sultan of Africa of the dynasty of the Almohades, born 
 in Africa in 1101. At the age of eighteen he became the 
 adherent and adviser of Mohammed Ibn Tiuniarta, surnamed 
 Al-Mahdi, a native of Cordova, who had studied at Bagdad, 
 under the famous Arab philosopher, Abu Hamid Al-ghnzzali. 
 Availing themselves of a popular impression that the Mahdi or 
 Forerunner of the expected Moslem Messiah was about to 
 appear, the two associates devised a stupendous scheme of 
 imposture, which, mainly through the genius and intrepidity of 
 'Alidu"-l-^Iumen, was ultimately crowned with success. 'Abdu'- 
 1-Mumen boldly proclaimed his friend the longed-for Mahdi, and 
 was appointed his prime minister. So rapidly did the crowd of 
 
 fen-id followers increase, as soon to constitute a large and 
 formidable ai-my. The new sect, assuming the name of Almo- 
 hades, or Unitarians, commenced a sanguinary war with the 
 Almora\'ide emperor of Africa and Moslem Spain, and continued 
 it with almost iminterrupted success, till they accomplished the 
 extinction of the Almoravide dynasty. Mohammed dying at an 
 early period of the movement, declared 'Abdu'-l-]\Iumen his 
 successor, who, after a brilliant reign of thirty-three years, died 
 in 1163 when on the point of starting at the head of an immense 
 army he had raised in Africa, to achieve in one campaign the 
 entire conquest of the Iberian peninsula. Though unceasingly 
 occupied with warlike enterprises, he devoted a share of his 
 attention to the social improvement of his subjects, by the 
 encouragement of science and literature, and the promotion of 
 public instruction. — E. JI. 
 
 ABDU'-L-WAHAB, founder of the sect of the Wahabees or 
 Wahabites, born about the year 1691 at Al-'aynah, a village in 
 the district of Arabia called Nejd, on the banks of the Euphrates, 
 and died in 1787. Being of poor parentage, he was adopted by 
 Ibrahim, a rich Arab, studied at Ispahan, travelled through 
 Khorassan, and afterwards resided at Bagdad and Bussora. 
 Here he taught religious doctrines resembling those of the cele- 
 bi-ated Abu Hanifah. Several sheiks of the Nejd adopted his 
 creed, and ranged themselves under the banner of the new pro- 
 phet. Discord being thus introduced among the Arab chiefs, 
 recourse vcas had to the sword, and the two parties, accusing 
 each other of heresy, engaged in sanguiuaiy conliicts. The prin- 
 ciples of the new sectaries may be regarded as theistic in a more 
 elementary form than Jloslemism. Wahab denied that the 
 Koran was inspired or written by the angel Gabriel; he rejected 
 the doctrine of saints or holy persons, and taught that prayers 
 ought to be addressed to God alone. His followers also permitted 
 a person attacked to slay the aggi-essor without waiting for the 
 sentence of law, and they regarded as wicked, vows undertaken 
 in time of danger. Niebuhr (Travels in Arabia) has given 
 valuable details respecting Wahab and his sect. — P. E. D. 
 
 'ABDUN or ABDU-L-Mi:jID, IBN 'ABDILLAH IBN 
 'ABDUN, an Arabian poet, lived in Spain about the end of the 
 eleventh century. He was vjzier to the last king of Badajoz, 
 of the dynasty of the Al-Afttas, assassinated in 1094. Besides 
 his commentary upon a poem entitled Ab-besamah, he has left 
 an elegy on the rise and fall of the dvnasty of the Al-Afttas. — S. 
 
 ABDU'-R-RAHMAN. Three potentates of the Ommiade 
 dynasty, in Spain, bore this name : — 
 
 Abdu'-R-Rahman I. (Ibn Mu'awiyah Ibn Hisham), 
 surnamed Abu-i.-Modiiaffer and Abu Sui.eyman, the 
 founder of the Ommiade power in Spain, born near Damascus 
 A.D. 728-9, and died in September, 788. When the Saracen 
 dynasty of Ommia was overthrown in 753, Abdu'-R-Rahman 
 narrowly escaped, and passed into Mauritania, finding shelter 
 with the Zenites, to which tribe his mother belonged. He there, 
 as the last scion of the Ommiades, received the offer of the 
 crown of Spain made to him by a deputation of the Saracen 
 chiefs resident in that country. In 755 he landed at Almune- 
 car, where twenty thousand men awaited him. At Seville he 
 was hailed as the legitimate monarch, and in a short time 
 received the submission of the neighbouring towns and cities. 
 After the battle of Musarah, in which his opponents were 
 defeated, he entered Cordova as a conqueror, and took posses- 
 sion of the Saracen kingdom. Notwithstanding his successes 
 in Sjiain, the loss of Narbonne eft'ectually excluded the hope of 
 retaining the Saracen dominions on the French side of the 
 Pyrenees, and he therefore consolidated the Saracen kingdom of 
 Cordova — a course strenuously opposed for a time by the Sara- 
 cens of Egypt, by whom he was proscribed as a rebel. Various 
 expeditions were undertaken from Africa to destroy his power. 
 Abdu'-R-Rahman having captured the leader of one of these 
 expeditions, cut off his head, and caused it to be fixed to a column 
 at Kairwan with this inscrijrtion — " Thus Abdu'-R-Rahman, 
 successor of the Ommiades, treats the rash and the presump- 
 tuous." When Charlemagne advanced into Spain, it would 
 appear that the kingdom of Cordova was in the enjoyment of 
 tranquillity, and at a later period (a.d. 778) the kingdom of 
 Saragossa was annexed to that of Cordova. The Saracen prince 
 now applied his utmost energies to the inteiTial improvement of 
 the kingdom, building mosques — among others the splendid 
 mosque of Cordova, at which he wrought with his own hands 
 for an hour each day — designing and constructing gardens,
 
 ABD 
 
 ADD 
 
 importing and planting fniit-trees, and exhibiting tlie ^Moorisli 
 power iu its most favourable aspect. He planted the first palm- 
 tree ever grown in Spain ; all the other palm-trees of that coun- 
 try being supposed to descend from this original, which flourished 
 in the magniticent gardens of Cordova. Abdu'-R-Kahman left 
 the reputation of being a gi'eat, good, and wise man, and his 
 youngest son succeeded to his dominions without opposition. 
 
 Abdu'-R-Raiijian II., sui-named Al-1Iutref or Al-Mud- 
 iiAFFER, fourth Ommiade emir of Cordova, son and successor 
 of Alhakem I., bom in 788; died in 852. He ascended the 
 thi-one at the age of thirty-four. Although engaged in almost 
 continual war with the Asturians, with the French under the 
 son of Charlemagne, and with the caliidi of Bagdad, he devoted 
 his attention to the welfare of his people, encoiu-aged industrial 
 pursuits, commerce, the arts, science, and all objects of public 
 utility. He composed iu Arabic the "Annals of Spain," and 
 procured the translation into that language of the works of the 
 Greek philosophers, whose writings he had at great cost pro- 
 cured from the East. His com-t was the most brilliant in 
 Europe, and the residence or resort of the poets and learned 
 men of his time. He was, however, a strict Moslem, and pub- 
 lished an edict authorizing Jloslems to slay on the spot any 
 Christian who should speak ill of JIahomet or the Koran. After 
 a brilliant but disturbed reign of thirty years, he died esteemed 
 and respected ; and was succeeded by his son Mohammed I., on 
 whose education he had expended the greatest care. 
 
 Abdu'-R-Raiiman III., An-Nassir Lidini-llah (Pro- 
 tector of the worship of God), eighth Ommiade king of Cordova, 
 and the first who bore the title of caliph of Spain ; born in 891 ; 
 ched in 901. He succeeded to the throne in 912, and after 
 insuring the tranquillity of Cordova, he advanced with an army 
 of forty thousand men against the rebel Omar Ibn Hafssun, who 
 had usurped the half of the cahphate of Spain, and reigned at 
 Toledo. In 913 a decisive battle was fought, by which he 
 regained the submission of two hundred towns and fortified vil- 
 lages. He next engaged in the construction of a fleet to protect 
 his coasts from the Moorish corsairs who mfested the Slediterra- 
 nean, and who had recently committed atrocities in Sicily and 
 Calabria. Ja'far, the son of Omar, having sought the assistance 
 of the christian princes, the young king of Leon crossed the 
 Douro at the head of an anuy, ravaged the province of Toledo, 
 and took Talavera. This aggression was speedily repelled with 
 great loss to the Christian army. The Zenite sheiks of Africa 
 having applied to Abdu-R-Rahman, he sent an ai-my to Fez to 
 dispute the suzerainty of the founder of the Fatimites; but, 
 though temporarily successful, his forces were eventually com- 
 pelled to abandon the place. Wars with the Christians of Spain, 
 and plots among his own subjects, now engaged his attention. 
 At Zamora, in 939, he fought a great battle with the king of 
 Leon, in which the Moors, after a successful attack upon the 
 town, were defeated with tremendous loss. His own son Abdidlah 
 having originated a plot to supplant him on the throne, he did 
 not hesitate to put the young man to death — a circumstance 
 that embittered the whole of his after life. He lived in splen- 
 dour, and when ambassadors arrived from Constantine, emperor 
 of the East, he dazzled them with the magnificence of his court. 
 His reign is unquestionably the most brilliant period of the 
 Moorish domination in Spain. He encouraged and protected 
 letters, cultivated the arts and sciences, founded a school of 
 medicine — the only one then existing in Europe — and at three 
 leagues fi'om Cordova built a town and gorgeous palace called 
 Azzhara. After a reign of forty-nine years, he exph-ed in the 
 seventy-second year of his age, and was succeeded by his eldest 
 son Al-hakem. After his death, the following record of a 
 monarch's experience was discovered, written by his own hand : 
 — " Fifty years have passed away since first I was caliph. 
 Riches, honours, pleasures — I have enjoyed all, and exhausted all. 
 The kings my rivals esteem me, fear me, and envy me. All 
 that men desire has been showered on me by Heaven. In this 
 long period of seeming happiness I have nmnbered the days on 
 which I have been happy. They amount to fourteen. Know 
 then, mortals, what is the real value of greatness, the world, and 
 human life." — P. E. D. 
 
 ABDU-R-RAHMAN, an African prince, born at Timbuctoo 
 about the middle of the eighteenth centuiy. In an expedition 
 against the Kebohs he was captured, sold as a negro slave, and 
 at Natchez, in the United States, was recognized by Dr. Cox as 
 an African friend who had hospitably entertained him in the 
 
 interior of Africa. Dr. Cox succeeded in procuring his emanci- 
 pation ; but the unfortunate exile died before he could return to 
 his own country, in July, 1829. — P. E. D. 
 
 ABDU-R-RAHMAN, emperor of Morocco, bom in 1778. 
 In 1823 he succeeded his uncle, Muley Solimad, who had occu- 
 pied the throne from 179-1. The first years of his reign were 
 disturbed by revolts of various tribes ; but these he succeeded 
 in quelling. Several of the maritime powers of Europe had 
 formei-ly been m the habit of paying tribute to the emperor of 
 Jlorocco, and to the Barbary states, to secure their vessels from 
 the piracy of the corsairs. In this reign the tribute was dis- 
 contmued, Austria being the first to set the example in 1828, 
 when a Venetian vessel had been captured in the port of Rabat, 
 and the crew reduced to slavery. An Austrian force was 
 despatched to release the ship and crew, and the tribute ceased 
 from that period. The celebrated Abd-el-Kader, in his efforts 
 to repel the French invaders of Algeria, induced the emperor of 
 Morocco to join him in what was termed a holy war ; but the 
 battle of Isly (13th August, 1844) put an end to the coalition, 
 and broke down the Moslem power in northern Africa. — P. E. D. 
 
 'ABDU-R-EAHMAN IBN ABDILLAH ALGHAFEKI, 
 Moslem governor of Spain under the caliphs of Damascus, in the 
 eighth century. With the design of adding France and Italy 
 to the caliph's dominions, he entered Aquitaine in the spring of 
 732, at the head of the most powerful Saracen anny that had 
 ever appeared in the West, took Bordeaux and other towns, 
 defeated the duke of Aquitaine, and traversed the French pro- 
 vinces, plundering as far as Burgundy. At length the famous 
 Charles Martel, with an army raised in Asturias, Burgundy, and 
 Neustria, hastened to stop the progress of the triumphant Arab, 
 when one of the most obstinate and sanguinary, as well as 
 important battles on record, took place on the banks of the 
 Loire, between Tours and Poitiers. The most adventurous 
 Aj-ab chieftains had already penetrated the Christian squadrons, 
 when the diUie of Aquitame was directed to attack the Moslem 
 camp. This movement proved decisive. The eagerness of the 
 Saracens to protect their accumulated booty, threw their whole 
 army into confusion. 'Abdu-R-Rahman, after the most heroic 
 efl:brts to rally his troops, was slain, and his death completed the 
 Christian victory. The remams of the Moslem army returned 
 to Spain. This memorable engagement delivered France, Italy, 
 and Northern Gemiany from future Saracen invasion, and per- 
 haps from permanent Saracen conquest. The number of Sara- 
 cens killed must have been immense, though greatly inferior to 
 the fabulous amount of three hundred thousand, the number 
 stated by some early historians. — E. M. 
 
 ABDU-R-RAHMAN IBN HASSAN, a modern Arab histo- 
 rian, born at Cairo about the middle of last century. He died 
 at Constantinople about 1820. During the French expedition 
 to Egj'pt he enjoyed a high reputation, and in General Kleber's 
 admmistration was a member of the divan of Cairo. His works 
 are — " An Account of the Victory that delivered Egypt," trans- 
 lated mto Turkish, and thence into French by M. Cai'dini ; and 
 a general history of modern Egypt, in 3 vols., 4to, beginning at 
 the year 1C88, and ending in 1806. His father wrote a trea- 
 tise on weights and measures, the Arab manuscript of which is 
 in the Imperial library of Paris. — P. E. D. 
 
 'ABDU-R-RAH.MAN IBN JIOHAiLMED IBN KHALDUN 
 AL-HADHRAJII, a famous African historian, bom at Tunis in 
 1332 ; died at Cairo in 1406. In 1348-49 he was taken into 
 the service of the sultan, in which he appears to have remained 
 for upwards of twenty years. In 1382-83 he left Tunis for the 
 purpose of performing his pilgrimage. His purpose miscarrying, 
 through the unsettled state of Syria, he took up his residence in 
 Cairo, and, becoming known to the Sultan Barkidc, was appointed 
 to a judicial post in the city. Having followed the Egyptian 
 sultan to Syria, he was taken prisoner by Timur. He left a 
 general history, which is highly valued. 
 
 ABDU-R-RAZZAK, founder of the dynasty of the Sarba- 
 darians, born at Bashteyn, a dependency of Sebbuzwar, died 
 about the year 1340. He was at first employed by the sultan 
 Abu Said-Khan, and acquired popularity by delivering Ids 
 native town from a tyrannical governor, after which he defeated 
 the troops of the vizier 'Alau-d-din, who had been sent against 
 hhn. The vizier fell into his hands, and was put to death in 
 the year 737 of the Hcgira (a.d. 1330-7). Abdu-R-Razzak 
 now became master of Sebbuzwar, and proclaimed himself 
 sovereign. On a threat from his brother Mas'ud who succeeded 
 
 B
 
 ABD 
 
 10 
 
 ABD 
 
 liim, he leaped from a window, and died in consequence of the 
 fall.— P. E. D. 
 
 'ABDULLAH IBN ZOBEYR, caliph of Mecca, bom a.d. 
 622. He was the constant enemy of the caliphs of the house of 
 Umey}^ah, and perished after all his soldiers had deserted him, 
 when Mecca was besieged by the caliph 'Abdu-1-lMalck. His 
 history is made interesting by the bravery and devotion of his 
 mother Asma, a woman of 90, who stood by him to the last 
 dui-ing the fatal siege. 
 
 'ABDU-L-MALEK IBN HISHA'JI IBN AYUB AL-HIM- 
 YAIir, an Arabian historian and poet, bom at Cau-o in the 
 latter half of the eighth centurv. 
 
 'ABUU-L-MA'LIK IBN SHOHEYD, poet and historian, 
 bom at Cordova about the middle of the tenth century. 
 
 *ABDU-L-MEDJID, the present Ottoman sultan, the twenty- 
 cighth since the capture of Constantmople, and the final over- 
 throw of the Greek dynasty by Mahomet II., was bom on the 
 23d of April, 1823, and succeeded his father Slahmoud II. on 
 the 1st of July, 1839. It is difficidt to foim a just estimate 
 of his character or his policy, so variously arc they represented, 
 according to the political or religious bias of those who have 
 described them. He began his eventful reign at the early age 
 of sixteen, and at a desperate crisis of the Tm-kish power. The 
 old party in the state, backed by the prejudices of the Mahometan 
 population, and comprehending the mass of them, restrained 
 no longer by Mahmoud's iron mle, were fully determined to 
 restore the order of things which he had begun to supersede. 
 They were secretly assisted by the emissaries of Russia, an 
 empire which had eveiything to gain by the complication of 
 Turkish affairs. Mehemet Ali placed himself at the head of this 
 party, and adopted its fanaticism. They regarded him as the 
 rightful champion of the orthodox Jlussulmans; and only awaited 
 the triumphal march of his representative, Ibrahim Pacha, on 
 Constantinople, to proclaim the pacha of Eg}-])t " Makan of the 
 two seas," and thus to overthrow the Ottoman throne. Just eight 
 days before the sultan's accession, his army had sustained an 
 apparently willing defeat at the battle of Nisib, fought on the 
 21th of June, 1839. Scarcely had the news of that disaster 
 reached the ears of his counsellors, than his admiral carried his 
 fleet to Alexandria, and surrendered it to Mehemet Ali. No 
 time was to be lost. A treaty was signed at London on the 
 loth July, 1839, by all the leading powers of Em'ope, except 
 France, which was deemed by many to liave been paralysed at 
 that juncture by Russian double intrigue. A series of prompt 
 warhke operations, in which England bore a conspicuous part, 
 suppressed the rebellion. The forces of Mehemet Ali were com- 
 pelled to evacuate Syria, and the balance of power in Em-ope was 
 for a season restored. 
 
 The young sultan had now leism-e to apply himself in eamest 
 to pursue the measures of rcfomi which liis father had be- 
 queathed to him. In this task he was assisted by Reschid 
 Pacha, his first minister, an enlightened and patriotic statesman. 
 On the 3rd of November, 1839, was promulgated the Tanzi- 
 mut, or edict of Gulhane, promising improvement in the admi- 
 nLstration of public affairs, and professing to guarantee to all 
 Ottoman subjects an equality of civil rights; but it is to be 
 regi'Ctted that, beyond the precincts of Constantinople, and 
 a few other localities, the Tanzimut remains a dead letter. 
 This decree was followed by another, not less important, dated 
 the 12th of ^lay, 1850, which proclaimed the professors of all 
 creeds equal in the eye of the law. The principles of justice 
 and toleration involved in this document had already received 
 signal illustration, in the frank and generous hospitality given by 
 the sultan and his advisers to the Polish and Hungarian refugees 
 after the disastrous events of 1848. The dignity and fimmess 
 with which he refused their extradition entitle him to the gra- 
 titude of posterity. 
 
 But soon a new difiiculty arose. Russia had long been ad- 
 vancing her frontier, with silent and certain footsteps, in the 
 direction of Constantinople. The JIuscovite czar claimed as of 
 right the protectorate of all the subjects of the Porte who be- 
 longed to the Greek communion, enlisting their religious sympa- 
 thies on his side by costly pi-esents to the Greek churches in 
 Tm-key, and enforcing his claims by all the arts of intrigue. In 
 pursuance of this supposed protectorate, a demand was made 
 that Greek ecclesiastics should obtain the whole custody of what 
 ■ are called the " holy places " at Jcrasalcm. This claim was dis- 
 puted by France, which, now govemed by a Bonaparte, and in- 
 
 clined by traditional policy to mamtain the rights of the Latin 
 church in the East, also demanded a share in the management 
 of those venerable localities. The key, say some, of a chapel in 
 Palestine was given to the wrong ecclesiastic. Jesuit trickeiy, 
 it is affirmed by others, was wielding the power of French diplo- 
 macy to extend over Palestine and Spia the despotism of the 
 popedom. The probability is, that Russia was glad to avail 
 herself of the opportunity afforded her by some over-zealous 
 Latin churchmen, of fastening a quaiTcl on the Porte; and 
 began to develop her long-cherished design of adding the ter- 
 ritories of the sultan to her vast dominions. Turkey, it is inti- 
 mated, was to be divided. England was to receive Egypt, the 
 high road to her Indian and Australian possessions. Austria 
 was to be bribed to acquiesce in the scheme of partition by the 
 westem provinces of the sultan's dominions. The claims of 
 France were to be ignored, as her influence was at that mo- 
 ment weakened by intestine dissensions. But Russia was to 
 take the lion's share. The Black Sea was to become a Russian 
 lake ; Russia was to levy a fiscal tax on every bale of merchan- 
 dise which went up or down the Danube ; and while, in the 
 extreme north, St. Peterburg, Swcaborg, and Cronstadt were 
 the standing memorials of the humiliation of Scandinavia, in 
 the south, Constantinople, converted into the capital of tlic 
 czars, was to demonstrate that the Sclavonic race was every- 
 where on the ascendant, and that the Tiu-coman incm'sion into 
 Europe was at an end. 
 
 Such is said to have been the scheme. It began by negotia- 
 tions between France, Russia, and Turkey; which, of coui-se, 
 never arrived at a satisfactory termination. Meanwhile, Russia, 
 obeying the single will of Nicholas, who felt that he could en- 
 force his protectorate of the Greek Christians, and any other plan 
 for weakening Turkey, with an enormous amiy, and with a fleet 
 ready to sail from Sebastnpol at a few hours' notice, became 
 impatient at this delay. The final refusal of the sultan to con- 
 cede the protectorate was made a pretext for war. Troops, 
 already prepared for the entei-prise, were marched into the Moldo- 
 Wallachian pro\Tnccs. These were to be held by the czar as a 
 material guarantee until Turkey succumbed. This audacious 
 aggression unveiled the ambitious projects of Russia, and alarmed 
 the rest of Europe. However divided public opinion might be 
 in consequence of the craelties exercised by the Tm'kish sub- 
 ordinate governors on the Christian populations under their 
 sway ; however anxiously the protestants of Em-ope regarded 
 any extension of the papal authority, the strong impression in 
 England and France was, that the ftiture peace of Europe was 
 imperilled. Those two gi-eat nations, whose alliance in war had 
 been so rare that at St. Petersburg it was deemed impossible, 
 combined to sustain the sultan and liis comt in their hour of 
 danger, and to resist the encroachments of their grasping neigh- 
 bour. Abdu-1-Medjid saw, from the ten-aces of his palace, the 
 mighty fleets of his Westem alhcs anchored in the Bosphoras, 
 and welcomed their legions at the Golden Gate. After various 
 preliminary operations, the armies — the English and French 
 amiies under the command respectively of Lord Raglan and 
 Blarshal St. Amaud — embarked at Varna for the Crimea, in 
 numbers variously stated, and amounting probably to about 
 45,000 men. The vast armada that bore them, and was des- 
 tined to cover their disembarkation, arrived at the Crimean 
 peninsula on the 14th September, 1854. They landed without 
 encountering any serious opposition, at a favourable spot be- 
 tween tlij town of Eupatoria and the river Alma. Marching 
 thence in the direction of Sebastopol, the great arsenal of Russia 
 in the south of Euippe, they found the Russians awaiting their 
 an-ival on an entrenched plateau in front of the Alma, near its 
 mouth. A sanguinary battle ensued on the 20th of September, 
 and the Russians were routed wdth the loss of nearly 5,000 men. 
 
 The allies reached Sebastopol, and began the siege. It was 
 remarkable for brilliant deeds of daring, among which the charge 
 of the English cavalry at Balaclava will for ever rank among the 
 wonders of bravei-y ; for a gi-eat battle, that of Inkeraiann ; for 
 the sldll of the Russian engineers, especially in their use of earth- 
 works ; for the first application of the modern inventions of civil 
 engineering to the pm-poses of war ; and for the death of the 
 allied commanders by whom it had been begim. At last, the 
 capture by the French of a commandhig point, called the Mala- 
 khoff tower, rendered the defensive works untenable. The 
 Russians evacuated and burnt the city, destroymg their fleet, 
 and retreating across the harbom- to the northern side. It has
 
 ABE 
 
 11 
 
 ABE 
 
 been well remarked, that tLe conflict before Sebastopol assumed 
 such {^gantic proportions, that it became the war itself. The 
 preceding eflbrts of the Turks on the banks of the Danube under 
 Omar Pasha, and the subsequent conquest of the allies at lun- 
 burn and in the sea of Azoff, are all forgotten in the memory of 
 tliis gi-oat siege. The armies of Russia were absorbed in it, and 
 perished in detail; so that when Sebastopol fell (September 8, 
 1855), the IMusco^-ite was glad to relinquish his exorbitant 
 claims, and to accept conditions of peace. 
 
 The throne of the sultan was thus, for the present at least, 
 secured. But though rescued from immediate and imminent 
 dangei-, the task before him is one which will requu-e a cool head 
 and a stout heart. His trcasmy is iU sui)plied with money. 
 The more fanatical of his IMussidman subjects view his measures 
 for adininistrative reform with mistrast and dislilce. The Em'o- 
 pean discipUne adopted in his army is unsuited to Oriental habits 
 and tastes. The land is ill cultivated, and the gi-ass grows to 
 the horse-girths of the traveller within a few miles of his capital. 
 The loyalty of his Christian subjects wants that strongest of 
 bonds, the bond of a common, or, at least, a kindred faith. 
 Meanwliile, it must not be supposed that the prestige of Russia 
 is entu'ely destroyed. The campaign of the English in Persia, 
 in the year 1857, is deemed by many observant and profound 
 thinkers to have been rendered necessary by the secret aiis of 
 jMuscovite diplomacy. Ancient predictions ai-e quoted, to show 
 that the sojourn of the Tmlc in Em-ope draws to its close, that 
 the crescent is waning, and the cross is soon about to reappear 
 on the shrine which Justinian dedicated to the Wisdom of God. 
 The modern Tm-k is veiy far degenerated from his bold and 
 chivah'ous co-religionists who founded the university of Cordova, 
 menaced Paris, and moulded the stucco of the Alhambra. In 
 art, in science, in war, he is, comparatively speaking, effete ; 
 and a listless fotalist, he passively floats down the cm-rent of 
 events. The treaty of peace signed at Paris on the 30th of 
 March, 1856, between Russia, Tm-key, and the Western Powers, 
 including Sardinia, whose troops took an honourable share in 
 tiie contest before Sebastopol, secures to Tm"key the full exercise 
 of her legitimate power, and gives her, for the present, an in- 
 teiTal of secmity to work out plans of internal improvement. 
 It is to be hoped that Abdu-1-Medjid and his counsellors ^vill 
 avail themselves of the great opportmiity. Whether, as some 
 allege, he is indolent and vacillating, or, as others afiiiTn, digni- 
 fied and energetic, it cannot be denied that during Ms reign 
 commerce and art, agricultm-e and mamifactm'es, have made 
 considerable progi-css. Humanly speaking, a long future lies 
 before him. How he wiU employ it, and how long the integrity of 
 his empire will be preserved, it is impossible to predict. — T. J. 
 
 A'BECKET, Gilbert Abbot, an English writer of great 
 talents, and extraordinary wit and humour, born in 1811. He was 
 athnitted to the bar in 1841, but devoted liimself to pohtical and 
 light literature, for which he had more taste than for the practice 
 of the law. He was successively on the stall" of the Times and 
 other leading jom'uals, and long continued to be one of the 
 most copious, as well as one of the most brilliant contributors to 
 Punch. After holding, with nmch credit, the oflice of assistant 
 poor-law commissioner, he was appointed stipendiary magistrate 
 for Southwark ; and by the able and efficient discharge of his 
 functions, showed it was not want of aptitude for business that 
 prevented his success in the legal profession. His literaiy pro- 
 ductions, though replete mtli the boldest di'olleiy, are, happily, 
 free from every trace of indelicacy or malignity. His acknow- 
 ledged works, mostly rcpifljlications of detached effusions, are — 
 " Comic Blackstone ;" " Comic History of England ;" " Comic 
 Ilistoiy of Rome ;" and " Quizziology of the British Drama." 
 He died at Boulogne in August, 1856. — E. M. 
 
 A'BECKET, Thomas. See Becket. 
 
 ABEELE, Petek van, a Dutch medallist of great merit, 
 flourished in the second half of the 17th centvuy. 
 
 * ABEGG, Julius-Fkedekick-Henry, bom at Erliingen in 
 179C, was in 1821 appointed professor of law in the university 
 of Konigsberg, but lelt this chair for one in Breslau in 1826. 
 He is the author of several works on jurispradence. 
 
 ABEILLE, Abbe Gasi'Ard, bom at Riez in Provence in 
 1648 ; died at Paris, 1718, was secretaiy to Marshal de Luxem- 
 bourg, whom he followed through all his campaigns. He wrote 
 numerous odes and several dramas. 
 
 ABEILLE, Louis-Paul, a political economist, was bora at 
 Toulouse, 1719 ; died at Paris, 1807. He was inspector-general 
 
 of manufactures in France, and secretary-general of the Board 
 of Trade. He has left several worlis on political economy, and 
 a preface, with notes, to Malesherbes' Observations sur i'His- 
 toire Naturelle de Buflbn. 
 
 ABEILLE, SciPiON, brother of Gaspard, a surgeon of the 
 department of St. Come, died at Paris, 1697. He was also a 
 poet, and chose, as the themes of his muse, the singular sub- 
 jects of anatomy and surgery. 
 
 ABEL (I'ttKiVy), the secimd son of Adam and Eve, who was 
 murdered by his brother Cain. 
 
 ABEL, king of Denmark, succeeded his brother Erick, whom 
 he had caused to be assassmated in 1250, and died in 1252. 
 In order to obtain the suflVages of the people (who were 
 ignorant of his guilt), he awarded them gi-eater pri^^leges than 
 they had ever enjoyed under any of his predecessors : but insist- 
 mg on the maintenance of an extraordinary tax Instituted by his 
 brother, the Frisians revolted. He marched against them and 
 defeated them ; but the day after the battle, the rebels retm-ned 
 to the charge, attacked and killed the king in his camp, putting 
 his army to flight. He was succeeded by Christopher I. — S. 
 
 ABEL, Carl Friedricii, a player on the viol da gamba, an 
 instrument of a larger size than the yidla now in use, which was 
 originally distinguished from it by the name of \'iol da braccia. He 
 was bom at Kotlaen in 1725 (M. Fetis states in 1719), where liis 
 father was kapellmeister, from whom he received his first instruc- 
 tion on the mstrument for which he became famous, and on the 
 harpsichord. He studied composition under the gi-eat Bach at 
 Leipzig, with success only inferior to that with which he applied 
 himself to his principal instnmient. In 1748 he obtained an ap- 
 pointment in the court of the electoral Idng of Poland, at Dres- 
 den, where Hasse was gaining celebrity by the production of his 
 operas, from hearing which Abel is supposed to have acquired 
 that peculiarly expressive character that especially distinguished 
 his compositions, and stUl more his playmg. Here he remained for 
 ten years, tUl his patron abmptly dismissed him, and he left 
 Dresden vnth but three dollars in his pocket, but with half a 
 dozen compositions in his foUo, wliich he sold to a publisher for 
 as many ducats, directly he anived at Leipzig. Pleased with 
 this good fortune, and with the applause that attended his public 
 peiformances, he proceeded on foot from city to city with his 
 instrument. His wanderings led him the foUowmg year to Lon- 
 don, where he had recommendations to the duke of York, 
 through whose interest he at once was engaged as chamber 
 musician to the queen. He had, in this capacity, to play nightly 
 a solo on his viol da gamba at the palace concerts, by which 
 he gained a rapid distinction, or, in the absence of both J. 
 C. Bach and Schrtiter, to accompany the other performances on 
 the harpsichord. He now obtained a high price for all he WTote, 
 he had as many pupils as he chose to teach, and gave frequent 
 concerts in conjunction -nitli J. C. Bach, by which he always 
 made considerable profit. Here he remained for twenty-three 
 years, and in 1782 he visited Germany, to create anew the 
 same powerful impression by his playing that he had done in 
 the days of his youthful freshness. He next went professionally 
 to Paris, to meet with his universal success, and thence came 
 back to London, where he died on the 20th of June, 1787. 
 His cotemporaries speak of his plaj-ing, especially of adagios, 
 in tenns of miqualified rapture, and say that it had great 
 Influence upon the style of all the string-instrument players 
 of his day. He wrote some songs in "Love in a Village," 
 m " Berenice," and in several ItaHan operas, but never a com- 
 plete dramatic work ; his fame as a composer, however, which 
 in his ovra time was very considerable, rests upon his numerous 
 instramcntal productions, of which the principal are named in 
 M. Fetis' Biographic, and in Dr. Schilling's Lexicon. He was 
 particularly extolled for his improvisations, and his best compo- 
 sition is said to have been a solo he played a few days before 
 he died.— G. A. M. 
 
 ABEL, Dr. Clarke, an English sm-gcon and naturalist, 
 was bom about 1780. He accompanied Lord Amherst on his 
 embassy to China in 1816-17, and on his return to England 
 published " A Narrative of a Journey to the Interior of China," 
 which contains much infomTation interesting to the student of 
 natural history. He was afterwards appointed surgeon-in-chicf 
 to the East India Company, in which capacity he resided for 
 some years at Calcutta, wliere he died, 2Ctli December, 1826. — S. 
 
 ABEL, Frederick-Gottfried, son of Gaspard Abel, was 
 born 8th July, 1714 ; died m November, 1764. He was an en-
 
 lightened physician, and has left a work entitled " Dissertatio de 
 Stimulantinm Mechanica Operandi ratlone." 
 
 ABEL, Gaspard, a German preacher, bom at Hindenhurg, 
 167G ; died at Westdorf, 17G3, was a prolific writer in theology 
 and politics, and translated the " Heroides of Ovid." 
 
 ABEL, James Fredehick, a Gennan philosopher, was bom 
 in Wurteniberg, 1751, died 1829; was professor of philosophy 
 at the uni\-ersity of Tubingen, and archbishop of the protestant 
 church of Wurtcmbm-g. His philosophy is borrowed fi-om the 
 doctrines of Kant. 
 
 ABEL, JoiiANN Joseph, a historical painter, was born at 
 Aschach in Austria, 17G8; died at Vienna, 1818. He was 
 a pupil of Fiiger, of the Academy of Painters at Vienna, and 
 resided for six years at Rome, to perfect himself in his art. On 
 his return to his own countiy, he executed a series of historical 
 pictures whicli form part of the collections of the Lnperial 
 Academy, and Belvedere gallery at Vienna. — S. 
 
 ABEL, Nicholas Henry, a Swedish mathematician, bora in 
 1802, at Findoe, in Norway. At first he manifested little taste 
 for learning, but, at the age of sixteen, he gave himself up with 
 such ardour and success to the pursuit of mathematical science, as 
 soon drew upon him the attention of the government, which pro- 
 vided liim with the means of prosecuting his studies in different 
 universities in Gemiany, France, and Italy. He went first to Ber- 
 lin, where he foraied an intimacy with Crelle, then engaged upon 
 his Journal of Blathematics. From thence he travelled through 
 southern Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, and iinally arrived in 
 Paris, where his works were coldly received liy the French Aca- 
 demy, which, however, afterwards, though too late for their 
 author, did them justice by a higli tribute of admiration. He 
 returned to his own country in 1827, and died of consumption on 
 the Cth of April, 1829. The most celebrated mathematicians 
 agree in considering Abel as one of those men, whose career, had 
 j it been prolonged, would have marked an epoch in the science. 
 I His principal works are — "A general method for finding the 
 function of a variable, when a property of that function is 
 expressed by an equation between two variables," a treatise 
 I published in the Magazine of Natural Sciences of Christiana, in 
 1820 : " A treatise on the impossibility of resolving the equations 
 of degrees above the fourth ;" " An inquiiy as to the elhptic 
 functions ; " and a "Treatise upon some general properties of a 
 certain kind of transccndant functions ;" besides some articles 
 in Crelle's Journal of Mathematics, and Schumacher's As- 
 tronomical News. — S. 
 
 ABEL, Thomas, a dinne of the sixteenth century, who 
 wrote a book against Henry the Eighth's divorce from his queen 
 Catherine, for wiiich, and for his denial of the king's supremacy, 
 he suffered death at Smithfield in 1540. He was associated 
 with Elizabeth Barton, known as the Holy Maid of Kent, in her 
 so-called treason. 
 
 ABELA, Giovanni Francesco, a learned archaeologist, was 
 born at JIalta, 1582 ; died 1655. He was commandant of the 
 knights of JLalta, and author of a curious and now rare work 
 entitled " JIalta Illustrata," a Latin translation of which was 
 inserted in the fifteenth volume of the " Thesauras Antiquita- 
 tum et Historiarum Sicillaj " of Grasvius. 
 
 ABELARD, Peter, an illustrious mediaeval philosopher and 
 divine, the eldest son of a nobleman of Brittany, was born at 
 Palais (or Palct), near Nantes, in 1079, in the reign of Philip I., 
 king of France, and of Hoel IV., duke of Brittany. The name 
 of Abelard is familiar to most readers ; but it is only the romance 
 of his biography that is generally known, and even that has 
 seldom, if ever, been accurately traced, and fairly appreciated in 
 reference to the cu-cumstances of the times. Recently, however, 
 his life and writings have obtained, mainly through the labours 
 of his countiymen. Guizot, Cousin, and Kemusat, the prominent 
 attention they merit, in connection with the history of philosophy 
 and the progress of modem civilization. Even the boyhood of 
 Abelard gave striking indications of future celebrity. His mar- 
 vellous genius, his ardour in the pursuit of knowledge, his ami- 
 able disposition, his handsome person, beautiful features, and 
 melodious voice, made him an object of general interest. His 
 father encouraged his predilection for a literaiy career, and 
 spared no expense to procure him the benefit of the most able 
 instnic^ors. About the age of twenty he repaired to Paris, 
 and studied under William of Champeaux, the most celebrated 
 dialectician of the day, whose lectures were attended by crowds 
 of students, not only from all parts of what is now called France, 
 
 hut from Italy, Germany, and Britain. There was then no uni- 
 versity, properly so called, in France, but conventual and diocesan 
 schools, conducted respectively under the auspices and inspection 
 of the abbot and bishop. William was at the head of the diocesan 
 school, and archdeacon of Paris. Abelard's attainments, capa- 
 city, and eloquence, joined to his polished manners and mterest- 
 ing appearance, soon attracted the esteem and regard of both 
 master and students. His subsequently losing the master's 
 favour, did not, as is usually assmned, arise from mere eirvj on 
 the part of the archdeacon, or arrogance on the part of Abelai-d. 
 In those times, contradiction was the usual mode of eliciting tnith, 
 and the very essence of the scholastic system was controversy, 
 simulated or in earnest. The spirit of knight-errantry reigned 
 in the schools, and challenges to a public combat were every- 
 day occurrences among gowned dialecticians, as among mailed 
 knights. What deeply offended and alaiTned William of Cham- 
 peaux in regard to Abelard was, not that he fomially contested 
 statements delivered from the chair, but that, from unmistakable 
 conviction, he gave utterance to views which the archdeacon, 
 who was an ardent champion of Realism, conscientiously deemed 
 not merely unsound, but heretical. But a few years before, a 
 council of the Galilean church had denounced as a heretic, and 
 driven into exile the famous Roscelinus, for assailing the theory 
 of the Realists, and maintaining the opposite doctrine called 
 Nominalism. Abelard had been, as he himself states, a pupil of 
 Roscelinus, and though he disclaimed that jjhilosopher's extreme 
 \'iews, he cordially agreed with him in rejecting Realists, and in 
 asserting the right and duty of free inquiry. In fact, Abelard, 
 from the earliest age, had manifested that surest token of a philo- 
 sophic mind — the habit of thmldng for one's self, and approving, 
 not what is sanctioned by custom, or believed without examination, 
 but what, after the fullest investigation, is found to be tree. 
 The sentiments Abelard was understood to entertain, and to 
 which his youthful feiTour and frankness occasionally gave ex- 
 pression, naturally awakened alami in the sincere and zealous 
 Realist, in proportion to his estimation of Abelard's powers, 
 whom he always spoke of as possessing " a sublime eloquence and 
 a perfect mastery of logical science." After remaining about two 
 years in Paris, Abelard was encouraged to assume the functions 
 of a public teacher of logic and metaphysics, which he did with 
 great and increasing success, first at ]\Ielun, and afterwards at 
 Corbeil. After some time, his arduous labours having seriously 
 affected his health, he was induced to travel. It is not certain 
 whether it was during this inteiTal, or before his first journey 
 to Paris, that he had an opportunity of hearing Roscelinus. 
 Retuming to Paris, he obtained an opportunity of encoimtering 
 William of Champeaux in a public disputation, in which, by 
 power of argument, he forced from his old master a modification 
 of his theory — a circumstance which, with several subsequent 
 defeats, destroyed the venerable Realist's scholastic prestige, and 
 gave Abelard undivided sway. 
 
 Abelard was a most powerful and instractivc speaker. He 
 could bring the most profound truths within the reach of the 
 most ordinary understanding. His deliveiy was inimitably 
 graceful and impressive ; his voice had remarkable sweetness 
 and compass ; and his discourses were enlivened with pleasing 
 and instractive anecdotes, and beautified with appropriate quota- 
 tions from the Latin poets. Urivalled in philosophy, Abelard 
 now resolved to study theolog}', and repaired to Laon to attend 
 the lectures of the celebrated Anselm, whom he has described as 
 a pious and learned man, and fluent speaker, though to a philo- 
 sophic mind a veiy imsatisfactory instractor, confining himself 
 to a statement of traditional interpretations of the sacred text. 
 Abelai-d soon left him, and, applying himself to a more original 
 and independent study of Scriptiu-e, began to deliver, in his own 
 way, theological lectures, which soon attracted crowds of admiring 
 auditors, though they awakened the indignation of the venerable 
 Anselm, who thought Abelard's teaching heretical innovation. 
 Retuming to Paris, Abelard commenced a com-se of theological 
 lectures, which soon made him as renowned in theology, as he 
 had previously been in philosophy. He now entered on the most 
 brilliant period of his career, and attained the very summit of 
 scholastic gloiy. The students that flocked to his lectures from 
 most parts of Europe amounted to many thousands, and raised 
 him to affluence. Enjoying a popularity amounting almost to 
 adoration, sufficient to turn the head of the most sober-minded 
 mortal ; without a rival m the field, and, therefore, without the 
 stunulant of ambition to sustain the energy which had hitherto
 
 marked his character, and still a stranger to that living piety 
 which he was afterwards enabled in the school of affliction to 
 attain, he soon fell under the influence of those allurements, 
 which, unless restrained and directed by religious principle, lead 
 to folly and guilt. At the mature age of thirty-eight, the re- 
 nowned philosopher and divine fell in love, and the ardour of 
 his passion corresponded to the attractions of the noble crea- 
 ture who was its object — Heloisa, the niece of Fulbert an eccle- 
 siastic, a young lady under twenty, with a combination of 
 beauty, genius, learning, and goodness, that could not but ren- 
 der her irresistibly attractive to such a man as Abelard. It is 
 usually asserted that Abelard perpetrated premeditated seduc- 
 tion, but such assumption is unwarranted by evidence or pro- 
 bability. Hitherto he had lived a life of comparative innocence 
 and puiity, and he evinced the utmost readiness to redress by 
 marriage the wrong he liad done. He was not yet in orders. 
 This point seems clearly established by M. Kemusat, in his 
 learned and accurate work on the life and writings of Abelard. 
 Strange to say, Heloisa, from an unparalleled combination of 
 generosity and pei-verted moral and religious sentiment, objected 
 to matrimony, and after the maiTiage, which was private, denied 
 its existence on oath. It has been justly remarked by Hallam, 
 that Pope, in his beautiful poem, " has done gi-eat injustice to 
 the character of Heloisa, by putting into her mouth the senti- 
 ments of a coarse and abandoned woman." " Her refusal to 
 marry Abelard," he adds, " arose, not from an abstract predi- 
 lection for the name of mistress above that of wife, but from 
 her disinterested affection, which would not deprive him of the 
 prospect of ecclesiastical dignities, to which his genius and re- 
 nown might lead him." Even Hallam's explanation, true as 
 far as it goes, does not fully express the sentiments of Heloisa. 
 Her own singular argumentation on the subject has been pre- 
 seiTcd, and deserves to be studied in connection with the social 
 and ecclesiastical condition of the age. Not long after their 
 marriage, Abelard and Heloisa assumed the monastic habit, he 
 entering the abbey of St. Denis, and she tlie convent of Argen- 
 teuil. This remarkable step should not be attributed, necessarily 
 and solely, to the consequences of the well-kno^vn barbarous 
 outrage perpetrated by Fulbert, which cannot be discussed here. 
 Abelard's own fiither and mother had, but a few years befoi-e, 
 done, by mutual consent, the same thing, bidding adieu to secu- 
 lar life, and spending the remainder of their days in conventual 
 retirement. Such a decision, in fact, for various reasons, was 
 then extremely common. Abelard at different places and periods 
 resumed, with renown, his lectures both philosophical and theo- 
 logical ; and nothing could be more suggestive than the fact, 
 that the virulence of his opponents or enemies never made his 
 illicit intercourse with Heloisa matter of reproach, though his 
 marriage would have been universally deemed a depreciating 
 weakness, as well as a bar to preferment. 
 
 Guizot, speaking of Abelard's labours, says : — " In this 
 celebrated school were trained one pope (Celestine II.), nineteen 
 cardinals, more than fifty bishops and archbishops, French, 
 English, and German ; and a much larger number of those men 
 with whom popes, bishops, and cardinals had often to contend, 
 such as Arnold of Brescia, and many others." Abelard con- 
 sidered himself, and wished to be, orthodox, though his fearless 
 application of philosophy to divinity was not merely fitted to 
 alarm timid and narrow-minded believers, but was such as 
 to lead inevitably to what is called Rationalism, unless kept 
 under the guidance of those restrictive principles wliich the 
 gospel so clearly points out. At St. Denis, and still more at St. 
 Gildas in Brittany, to which he afterwards retired, Abelard was 
 in constant collision with the monks, whose conceited ignorance 
 and gross debauchery he could not help trying to enlighten and 
 reform. About the year 1120 he commenced a course of 
 lectures in a solitary place on the territory, and under the 
 protection, of the count of Champagne. Here he was soon 
 followed by a crowd of devoted auditors, amounting, it is said, 
 to 3000, who continued to reside m tents and temporary huts. 
 His lectures, as brilliant as ever, now exhibited a far higher 
 tone of spirituality than before, indicating the change that had 
 taken place in his own mind. The spirit of his teaching, and 
 the boldness of his statements, soon brought on him ecclesiastical 
 prosecutions. In 1121 he was condemned without a fair trial, 
 by a council held at Soissons, to burn a dissertation he had 
 published, and which, in spite of all his protestations of ortho- 
 doxy, was declared to contain heretical statements in reference 
 
 to the Trinity. He after this found refuge and temporary 
 repose in the priory of St. Ayoul, at Provins, on the territory 
 of his former protector, the count of Champagne. In 1122 he 
 selected for a retreat a locality near Troyes, where he built a 
 humble oratoiy, which he dedicated to the Paraclete, or Com- 
 forter. Here, again, students crowded to his lectures. Ho 
 resided at the Paraclete till 112.5, during which time the original 
 oratory was superseded by a monastic establishment of consider- 
 able size and importance. In 1125, harassed by critics and 
 opponents, and threatened with fresh pi'osecutions, he accepted 
 the position of abbot of St. Gildas, offered him by the duke of 
 Brittany, and retired to his native province. All this time 
 Heloisa had been in the convent of Argenteuil, and had become 
 its prioress. But in 1127 the priory was claimed by the crown, 
 and the inmates were dispossessed. In 1129, Abelard, ascer- 
 taining this catastrophe, hastened from Brittany, and made 
 over to Heloisa the establishment of the Paraclete. Here she 
 spent the rest of her life as abbess. Abelard finally quitted 
 St. Gildas in 1140, reserving the title and rank of abbot. In 
 1136 he was again delivering lectures in Paris, when John of 
 Salisbury was one of his devoted hearers. Twenty years had 
 nearly elapsed since the council of Soissons. Abelard was now 
 again prosecuted for heresy, with far more vigour and bitterness 
 than before, and, mainly through the influence of St. Bernard, 
 condemned, in a council held at Sens in 1140, to perpetual 
 confinement, and inhibited from writing or teaching. He 
 appealed to the pope, and by the kindly interference of Peter, 
 the venerable abbot of Cluni, the matter was ultimately com- 
 promised, and Abelard took up his abode with the abbot, enjoy- 
 ing at Cluni, for two years, more repose and satisfaction of mind 
 than probably he had ever experienced before ; and manifesting 
 a growing sense of the consolations of religion. He died in 
 1142 at St. Marcellus, near Chalons-sm--Saone, whither he had 
 gone for a change of ah-. For an account of Heloisa's life as 
 abbess of the Paraclete, and of the touching epistolary corre- 
 spondence between her and Abelard during that period, see 
 under Heloisa. — E. M. 
 
 ABELE, Matthias, a famous doctor of laws, and a count 
 palatine and occupant of some high offices in the Austrian 
 empire, flourished at Lilianberg, during the latter half of the 
 seventeenth century. His brother Christopher, coimt of 
 Abele, was also a noted jurist ; died at Vienna, 1G85. 
 
 ABELIN, JoHANN Phillip, a German historian, chiefly 
 known as the founder of the "Theatrum Europreum," an 
 immense compilation in 21 vols., comprising all the contemporary 
 history of Europe. His works are stiU valuable as references 
 for the history of the seventeenth centmy. Died 1C46. 
 
 ABELLI, Antoine, a French ecclesiastic, born at Paris in 
 1527, was made abbot of the Augustinian monastei-y of Liviy, 
 near Paris. He is the author of three works, the chief of which 
 is "La maniore de bien prier." Died about IGOO. 
 
 ABELLI, Louis, a French theologian, and author of numer- 
 ous works, born IGOo, died 1G91, was at one time bishop of 
 Rodez, and was a great adversary of the Port Royalists. 
 
 ABP]N-BITAR, Abdullah-Ibn-Ahjied, better known as 
 Ibnu-L-Beyttar, an Arabian physician and botanist, was born 
 about the close of the twelfth century ; died in 1248. He has 
 written in Arabic on vegetable medicines, and coiTects many of 
 the errors of Dioscorides, Galen, and Oribasus. 
 
 ABENDANA, Jacob, a Spanish Jew, wrote a Hebrew com- 
 mentary on some portions of scripture ; died in London, 1685. 
 
 ABENDANA, Isaac, a brother of the preceding, and a 
 rabbi, wrote in English a " Calendarium Judaicuni." 
 
 ABENDROTH, Amedeus-Augustus, in 1810 major of 
 Hamburg, was born 17G7; died 1842. He was the first who 
 instituted establishments of sea-water baths. 
 
 ABEN EZRA, or more fully ABRAHAM BEN MEIR 
 ABEN EZRA, was one of the most able and famous Jewisli 
 gi'ammarians and commentators of the middle ages. He was 
 born in Toledo, probably in 1119, and died either in Rhodes or 
 in Rome, probably in 1194. To extraordinary natural talents he 
 added indefatigable ardour and industry in the pursuit of know- 
 ledge, and he enjoyed besides, in his youth, the advantage of the 
 best teachers; among whom was the Karaite, Japhet Hallevi 
 or Levita, to whom he is believed to have owed his taste for 
 etymological and grammatical investigation, and his preference 
 for the literal to the allegorical and cabbalistical interpretation of 
 scripture. He was afterwards mamed to Levita's daughter.
 
 ABE 
 
 14 
 
 ABE 
 
 He acquired a profound kuowledge of the Hebrew, Clialdee, and 
 Arabic languages, and became not only a master of all rabbinical 
 learning, but also a distiuguislied mathematician, astronomer, 
 and physician, and a respectable poet. He travelled extensively 
 in foreign countries— England, France, Italy, Greece, &c. — in 
 search of knowledge, and to converse with learned men. Many 
 of his works were published in foreign cities, where he was resi- 
 dent at the time. These works were veiy numerous. The 
 latest and fullest catalogue of tbem will be found in " Fiii-st's 
 Bibliotheca Judaica" (Leipzig, 1849). His writings on Hebrew 
 grammar were highly valued by his contemporaries, and con- 
 tinued in the hands of all students of Hebrew philology and 
 literature for several centuries. His astronomical and other 
 philosophical writings added considerably, by tlieu- original con- 
 tributions, to the stock of human knowledge ; but it was as a 
 commentator on the Old Testament that he was most distin- 
 f^uished. His commentary on the Pentateuch is characterized 
 by Fiii-st as " the most scientific produced in the middle ages, 
 embracing a prefiice on the history of Scripture intei-pretation of 
 distinguished excellence." This work was the author's last and 
 greatest ; it was finished in 11G7, the probable year of his death. 
 Maimonides, his great contemporary, esteemed his vn-itings so 
 liighly for learning, judgment, and elegance, that he recommended 
 his son to make them for some time the exclusive subject of his 
 study. By Jewish scholars he is preferred as a commentator 
 even to IJaschi in point of judiciousness and good sense ; and in 
 the judgment of Richard Simon, confimicdby De Rossi, he is the 
 most successful of all the rabbinical commentators m the gram- 
 matical and literal interpretation of the Scriptures. Though 
 occasionally marked by a bold and free spirit, and discarding 
 in gener.il the use of superstitious fables and legends, Aben 
 Ezra was conservative, on the whole, of the traditions of rabbinic 
 orlhodoxy. JIany of his commentaries were translated into Latin 
 for the use of Christian divines, and the Hebrew originals were 
 incorporated into the great Rabbinical Bibles of Bomberg and 
 Buxtorf. They are still frequently reprinted for the use of 
 Jewish readers. — P. L. 
 
 ABEN-GNEFIT, an Arabian physician of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, the author of a now rare treatise entitled " De virtutibus 
 medicinarum ct ciljorum." 
 
 ABEN-HAMYN, a Jloor of Granada, the supposed author of 
 an Ai'abic work, translated into Spanish, upon the civil wars of 
 Spain during the Moorish occupation of that countiy. Perez 
 de Hita, however, appears to be the real author, and not merely 
 the translator of it. It contains numerous Moorish romances. 
 
 ABEN-HUJMEYA, the last king of Granada of Spanish origin, 
 was born about 1520 ; died 1568. The Moors having revolted 
 agamst Philip II., elected Aben-Humeya king of Granada and 
 Cordova, and placed him in a condition seriously to injure Spain 
 and its monarch I'hUip II., whom he bitterly hated. Betrayed 
 by his own people, he was put to death by strangulation, but 
 his decease did not extinguish the insurrection of the Moors. — S. 
 
 ABEN-MELECH, a learned Jewish rabbi of Spain in the 
 ICth century, who wrote a commentary on the whole Hebrew 
 Scriptures, which he proudly called Michlol Jojthi — " perfection 
 of grace," and which was published at Constantinople in 1554. 
 In this book Kimchi's exposition is rather sla\'ishly followed. 
 
 ABEN-KAGEL, an Arabian astrologer, lived towards the 
 close of the eleventh century. He has left two published works 
 on his favourite science, and several JISS. preserved in the 
 library of the Escurial. 
 
 ABEPiCROMBY, Alexandek, a Scottish judge and ele- 
 gant essay winter, brother of Sir Ralph Abercromby, bom 15th 
 October, 1745. He was admitted advocate m 177G, and ap- 
 pointed soon after sheriff-depute of Stirlingsliire. In 1780 he 
 resigned that office to become advocate-depute. He was one 
 of the originators of the Mirror, published in 1779 and 1780, 
 and also a contributor to the Lounger, 1785 and 178G, — two 
 Edinburgh periodicals esteemed among the most classical of 
 British works of this order. Appointed in May, 1792, a judge 
 of the Court of Session, he took his scat as Lord Abercromby, 
 and, the following December, was m.adc a Lord of Justiciary. 
 Died 17th November, 1795. — W. A. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, David, a Scotch physician, who lived 
 about the middle of the seventeenth century. He was the 
 author of four short medical treatises, collected under the title 
 of " Opuscula Mcdica," and of various other works enumerated 
 ui Watts " Bibliotheca Britamiica." 
 
 * ABERCROMBY, James, now Baron Dunfermline, son 
 
 of Sir Ralph, was born 7th November, 177G. He entered par- 
 liament in 1832 as member for Edinburgh, and was speaker of 
 the House of Commons under Lord ^lelbomiie. On resigning 
 that office in 1839, he was raised to the peerage. 
 
 ABERCRO^IBIE, John, an eminent horticultiuist, the son 
 of a respectable gardener near Edinburgh. He studied the art 
 of horticulture under his father, and was sent to London at the 
 age of eighteen. He was employed in the gardens at Hampton 
 Court, St. James', and Kensington, and acquired celebrity as a 
 landscape gardener. He published several valuable works, such 
 as a " Dictionaiy of Gardening and Botany;" "The Gardener's 
 Companion and Calendar ; " " The Hothouse and Forcing Gar- 
 dener," &e. He died in 1806, at the age of eighty. — J. H. B. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, M.D., the most cmment Scotch 
 physician of his time, and author of various religious and philo- 
 sophical works, was the son of a nmiister of the Established 
 Chm-ch of Scotland, at Aberdeen, where he was bom 12th 
 October, 1780. He studied medicine at the university of Edin- 
 burgh, taking his degree of RI.D. in 1803, and soon obtained 
 an extensive and lucrative practice m the Scottish metropohs 
 as a physician. On the death of Dr. Gregoiy in 1821, he was 
 appointed physician to the king for Scotland. He was a fellow 
 of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons, Edinburgh, 
 and a vice-president of the Royal Society of that city. In 
 1834, the university of Oxford conferred on lum the honorary 
 degree of M.D., and the following year he was chosen lord 
 rector of JIarischal college in his native city. In 1837 he 
 was confirmed in the appointment of first physician to the 
 queen in Scotland. On commencing practice, he had made his 
 name widely kno^vn in the profession by his contributions to the 
 "Medical and Surgical Journal," and in 1828 he published 
 " Pathological and Practical Researches on the Diseases of the 
 Brain and Spinal Cord." In the following year he issued a 
 similar treatise on " The Abdomuial Organs." He is, however, 
 better known in England by his productions on the philosophy 
 of human natm'c, in which he shows himself to be a thinker of 
 no mean order. In his " Inquiries concerning the Intellectual 
 Powers and the Investigation of Truth," which appeared in 1830, 
 he supports the general mental theory propounded by Rcid and 
 Stewart. The most interesting portions of the volume are those 
 which bear on his professional pursiuts, such as dreaming, in- 
 sanity, idiocy, spectral Ulusions, and cases of somnambulism. In 
 1833 he published a work of a similar nature, entitled " The 
 Philosophy of the Moral Feelings," which is but limited in its 
 range, being confined to one or two phases of what he terms 
 the " intuitive articles of moral belief." He published also 
 several tracts on rehglous subjects, a treatise on the cholera, 
 and " Observations on the Moral Condition of th Lower Orders 
 in Edinburgh," 1834, 8vo. Dr. Abercrombie was held in great 
 and deseiTcd estimation by his contemporaries, in a measure 
 beyond what might be imagined by readers of his vnitings. 
 His active beneficence, guided by uncommon sagacity, prudence, 
 earnestness, and Christian zeal, although never obtnisive, was 
 recognized as his distinguishing characteristic. He was much 
 beloved, as well as gi-eatly honoured. Dr. Abercrombie died 
 suddenly at Edinburgh, 14tli November, 1844. — J. C. 
 
 ABERCROilBIE, Patrick, physician and historical writer, 
 was bom at Forfar in 1656, and gi'aduated at the university of 
 St. Andrew's in 1685. Having embraced the Roman catholic 
 religion, he was appointed physician to James VII., but lost that 
 office at the Revolution. In 1707 he published a translation of 
 a rare French work, entitled " The Campaigns in Scotland in 
 1548 and 1549," 8vo, reprinted in the original for the Banna- 
 tyno Club in 1829. His best known work is the compilation 
 entitled "The Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation," 1711 
 -1715, 2 vols, folio. He also -wi-ote the "Memous of the 
 Family of Abercrombie." He died in poor cucumstances in 
 171G; some authorities say 172G. — W. A. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph, a distinguished British general, 
 the eldest son of George Abercromby of TulHbody, Clackman- 
 nanshire, was born 7th October, 1734. He entered the amiy 
 in 1756, and gradually rose till he became major-general in 
 September, 1787. He first seri'cd in the Seven Years' war, and 
 in 1792, 1793, and 1794 was employed with the local rank of 
 lieutenant-general in Flanders and Holland, against the revolu- 
 tionary annies of France. He was wounded at Nimeguen, and, 
 throughout that disastrous campaign, his miUtary knowledge,
 
 ABE 
 
 15 
 
 ABI 
 
 ability, and courage were signally shown. Upon him and 
 General Dundas devolved, along with the care of the guards 
 and the sick, the ai-duous duty of conducting the retreat through 
 Holland during a most severe winter. In 1795 he was made a 
 knight of the Bath, and appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 forces in the West Indies. I5esidcs the island of St. Lucia, he 
 obtained in 1796 possession of St. Vincent and Grenada, and 
 of the Dutch settlements of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice. 
 In 1797 he also took the Spanish island of Trinidad, but was 
 unsuccessful in an attempt upon the island of Porto Kico. On 
 his return to England, he was made governor of the Isle of 
 Wight, and raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1798 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland, 
 and subsequently held the same post in Scotland. In the 
 disastrous attempt upon Holland in 1799, Sk Ralph had the 
 chief command on the landing of the troops, and his iirst opera- 
 tions were successful ; and even after the arrival of the duke of 
 York, when Abercromby was reduced to a subordinate position, 
 success uniformly crowned the operations intrusted to his own 
 charge. In 1800 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 expedition sent to Egypt, with the view of expelling the French 
 from that country. He landed at Aboukir, after a severe con- 
 test with the enemy, March 8, 1801, and on the 21st of the 
 same month fought the decisive battle of Alexandria. After a 
 sanguinary straggle, the British were victorious, but their brave 
 commander was mortally wounded. On the retreat of the 
 French, he was conveyed on board the admiral's flag- ship, 
 where he died seven days after. His body was deposited under 
 the castle of St. Elmo at Malta, and a monument to his 
 memory was erected by parliament in St. Paul's cathedral, 
 London. His widow was created Baroness Abercromby, with 
 remainder to his hehs male. The militaiy talents of Sir lialph 
 were of a very high order. His dauntless courage, acti\aty, and 
 promptitude, were guided by the greatest caution and circum- 
 spection, while his integiity, humanity, high sense of honour, 
 and singular sagacity, gained him the confidence and warmest 
 affection both of the king and the nation. — W. A. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sir Robeht, youngest brother of the pre- 
 ceding, a general in the army, died in 1827. He was a knight 
 of the Bath, and at one period governor of Bombay and com- 
 mander-in-chief of the forces in Inilia, and aftei-wai'ds for thu-ty 
 years governor of the castle of Edinbiugh. 
 
 * ABERDEEN, Lord. See Gordon, 
 
 ABERLI, John Louis, a Swiss artist, born at Winterthur 
 in 1723, at first painted portraits at Beni, but afterwards de- 
 voted his talents to landscape paintmg, and is celebrated for his 
 views of Switzerland. Died 1786. 
 
 ABERNETHY, Rev. John, an eminent Irish dissenting 
 minister, bora at Coleraine, on the 19th October, 1680. He 
 ministered in Antrim till the year 1730, when he removed to 
 Dublin. He was engaged in much of the controversial discus- 
 sions of the times, and was the author of numerous publications. 
 The principal of these are " Sermons on Various Subjects," 4 
 vols. 8vo ; and " Discourses concerning the Being and Natm-al 
 Perfections of God," 2 vols. 8vo. This last has been much 
 admired for the clearness of its style, and the acuteness and 
 force of its reasoning. He died ui December, 1740. — (Life by 
 Duchal; Biog. Brit.)— J. F. W. 
 
 ABERNETHY, John, a celebrated surgeon, and distinguished 
 lecturer on anatomy, was bom in the parish of St. Stephen's, 
 Coleman-street, London, on the 3rd April, 1764. Descended 
 from a presbyterian family of Scottish origin, which had long 
 resided in the north of Ireland, his character and disposition 
 exhibited much of the shrewdness of the former nation, with all 
 the wit and comic humour of the latter. After completing his 
 prchminary education at the gTammar school of Wolverhampton, 
 lie was apprenticed, at the age of sixteen, to Sir Charles Blicke, 
 one of the surgeons of St. Bartholomew's hospital, at which 
 period he enjoyed the advantage of attending the prelections of 
 Pott, Hunter, and Blizard, then the most eminent surgeons in 
 the Idngdom, and by tliis means laid the foundation of his future 
 Inilliant career. At the early age of twenty-two years, he was 
 appointed assistant-surgeon to St. Bartholomew's hospital, and 
 soon after was promoted to the lectureship of anatomy, physiology, 
 pathology, and surgery, which at that period were all conjoined. 
 Having been an enthusiastic admirer of John Hunter, and his 
 most diligent pupil in the dissecting-room, he early adopted his 
 physiological views, and contmued during life to advocate his 
 
 opinions with unflinching perseverance. His treatise on the con- 
 stitutional origin and treatment of local diseases, exhibited great 
 originality of mind, and stamped him as a man of superior 
 mental powers. His lectm-es at the Royal College of Surgeons 
 were characterized by that clearness of description, and that 
 vividness of illustration, which marked his future hfe. 
 
 It was not, however, so much to his numerous and able wait- 
 ings on physiology, as to his oral lectiu'cs on surgeiy in the 
 theatre of St. Bartholomew's hospital, that he was indebted for 
 his celebrity. Combining as he did, for upwards of fifty years, 
 the extensive experience obtained in the hospital wai'ds, with 
 a careful observation of nature in the dissecting-room, he was 
 enabled to make both tell admirably on the minds of his 
 numerous pupils. In fiict he must be regarded, in every point 
 of view, as the father of British clinical surgery; illustrating his 
 lectures with a naivete and dramatic power which have never 
 been paralleled. His stature was small, his features rather 
 comical than reflective, his eyes quick and searcHng, one of his 
 hands while lecturing generally thrast into his breeches' pocket, 
 or hanging carelessly by his side. His hah was powdered, 
 elevated in front, and prolonged into a pig-tail queue behind. 
 His character may be thus summed up : benevolence of the 
 most unobtrasive kind ; intense and persevering application to 
 study and his professional duty, both in pubHc and private; 
 genius accompanied with a store of exuberant wit; and a 
 temper and manner, though eccentric and abmpt, still exhibit- 
 ing great kindness and beneficence. He died at his country seat 
 at Enfield, in Apiil, 1831. 
 
 The following are Mr. Abemethy's principal writings: — 
 "Surgical Works," in 2 vols. 8vo; "An Inquiry into the Pro- 
 bability and Rationality of l\Ir. Hunter's Theory of Life;" " Phy- 
 siological Lectures, exhibiting general views of Mr. Hunter's 
 Physiology," &c., 8vo, 1817 ; " The Himterian Oration for 
 1819;" "Reflecrions on Gall and Spurzheim's System of 
 Physiognomy and Plu-enology," 8vo, 1831 — these four works 
 form one volume. "Lectures on the Theory and Practice of 
 Siu-gery," 8vo, 1830, &c.— M. S. B. 
 
 ABESCH, Anna BAunARA, a famous painter on glass, lived 
 about 1750. The celebrated monastery of Mmi in Switzer- 
 land, possesses several specimens of her talents. 
 
 ABGARUS, the name of successive sovereigns of Edessa in 
 Mesopotamia. Abgarus Mannus, by decoying the Roman army 
 under Crassus into an arid desert, caused its destraction by the 
 Parthians. Another Abgams is the alleged wTiter of an apocry- 
 phal letter, addi-essed, as was pretended, to Jesus Christ. 
 
 ABGILLUS, better known as Prester John, was the son 
 of a king of Friesland, and the companion of Charlemagne to 
 the Holy Land. He did not return to Europe with his prince, 
 but continued his travels and conquests till he founded the em- 
 pire of Abyssinia. He wrote two histories, one of Charlemagne's 
 conquests in the East, and the other of his own subsequent expe- 
 ditions. They are said, however, to partake more of the character 
 of romances than real histories. The name, Prester John, was 
 conferred on account of the peculiar austerity of his life. — J. B. 
 
 ABIATHAR, high-priest of the Jews, deprived of his ofllce 
 by Solomon, for attempting to place his brother Adonijah on the 
 throne of David, about the year 1014 B.C. 
 
 ABICHT, JoiiANN Georg, a German orientalist, was bom 
 21st March, 1672, at Kocnigsee, in the principality of Schwarz- 
 burg-Rudolstadt ; died at Wittenberg, 5th June, 1740. He 
 was a professor in the university of Wittenberg, and distin- 
 guished himself in a controversy with J. Franke upon the gram- 
 matical, prosodical, and musical use of the Hebrew points. The 
 gi-eater part of his numerous writings (of which a list has been 
 given by Michael Ranft) have been inserted in the Thesaums 
 Novus, &c., of Ikenius. — S. 
 
 ABICHT, JoHANN Heinrich, professor of iihilosophy at 
 Erlangen ; born at Volkstedt in 1762 ; died at Wilna in 1804. 
 Abicht was at first a Kantist, but he broke from his master, 
 and endeavoured unsuccessfully to find a nev/ system. His 
 works are very numerous, but it is scarcely necessary to enu- 
 merate them. 
 
 ABICOT, a French surgeon, born at Bonny in the Gatinais; 
 died in 1624. He acquired a gi-cat reputation in his profession, 
 and has left a "Treatise on the Plague," and other medical works. 
 
 ABIDENUS or ABYDENUS, a Greek historian, to whom 
 have been attriliuted two works entitled "Assju-iaca" and 
 " Chaldaica." The period at which he lived is uncertvain. He
 
 ABI 
 
 16 
 
 ABO 
 
 must not be confounded with another Abydenus, quoted by 
 Suidas, and who was a disciple and contemporary of Ai-istotle. 
 
 ABIHU, the son of Aaron, higli-priest of the Jews. As a 
 punisliment of his impiety, he was destroyed by fire, along with 
 ins brother Nadab, 1490 B.C. 
 
 ABILDGAARD, Nicholas Abraham, historical painter to 
 the king of Denmarlc, born at Copenhagen in 1744; died in 
 1809. He was a professor in the academy of fine arts at Copen- 
 hagen, and director of that institution ; and is considered the 
 greatest painter Denmark ever produced. He was not less dis- 
 tinguished as an instructor than as an artist, having trained both 
 painters and sculptors who alike do honour to Iheu- master and 
 their native countiy. The gi-catest of his pupils was the cele- 
 brated Thorwaldsen. His admirers have named Abildgaard the 
 " Raphael of the North," on account of the perfection of his 
 colouring. Unfortunately for the interests of art, the finest 
 works of this master were lost in the destruction by fii-e of the 
 palace of Christiansburg in 1794. His writings on the subject 
 of art are much and justly esteemed. — S. 
 
 ABILDGAARD, Petek Christian, a Danish physician and 
 naturalist, born at Copenhagen about 1740 ; died in 1808. He 
 has written several works on medicine, mineralogy, and zoology, 
 and described the famous "Megatherium" simultaneously with 
 Cuvier. He was secretary to the academy of sciences in Copen- 
 hagen, one of the founders of its Society of Natural History, and 
 the first who established a school of veterinary medicine in his 
 native country. — S. 
 
 ABILLON, ANUREASD',grand-vicar of the bishop of Amiens, 
 flourished about the middle of the seventeenth century, and wrote 
 some metaphysical and polemical works, such as a " Nouveau 
 Cours dc Philosophic," iu four vols. 
 
 ABI'ilELECH {Fafher of the Mnff), a name which appears 
 to have been common to all the Philistine kings of Gerar, and 
 indeed to have been in general use amongst the ancient sove- 
 reigns of the East. The first of whom the Bible makes mention, 
 was a contemporaiy of Abraham and Sarah ; the second, of 
 Isaac and Rebekah ; and the third was the son of Gideon, and 
 succeeded him as judge in Israel. — S. 
 
 ABINGER. See Scarlet, James. 
 
 ABINGTON, Frances, the celebrated actress, was born either 
 in 1731 or 1738. Her father, whose name was Barton, is said 
 to have been a common soldier. In very early life she earned a 
 livelihood by ranning on errands. She made her first appearance 
 on the stage in 1775, at the Haymarket, then under the manage- 
 ment of Theophilus Gibber. Next year she acted at Bath and 
 Richmond ; and, after a short engagement at Drury Lane, went 
 to Dublin, where, as "Kitty" in High Life below Stairs, she 
 met with decided success. In 17G5 she returned to England, 
 and was warmly welcomed by Garrick, and no less warmly by 
 the crowded audiences of Drury Lane. She rapidly rose to the 
 first rank as a comic actress. In 1782 she quarrelled with the 
 management of Drury Lane and went over to Covent Garden. 
 She died in 1815. 
 
 ABINGTON or HABINGTON, Thomas, an English anti- 
 quar)', and son of Queen Elizabeth's treasurer, was boi-n at 
 Thorpe, Surrey, in 15(50 ; died in 1G47. Having been accused, 
 with his brother Edward, of aiding Babington in his attempt to 
 restore Mary Queen of Scots to liberty, he was for six years 
 confined in the Tower of London. On recovering his freedom, 
 he retired to Hindlip in Worcestershire, where he gave asylum 
 to the two Jesuits, Garnet and Oldcom, engaged in the famous 
 Gunpowder Plot. He was immediately seized, tried, and con- 
 demned to death ; but through the influence of his brother-in- 
 law. Lord Monteagle, the capital punishment was connnuted to 
 that of exile from London. He had some hand in a history of 
 Edward IV., jjublished by his son after his death, and he trans- 
 lated the works of the historian Gildas. — S. 
 
 ABINGTON or HABINGTON, William, an English poet, 
 eldest son of the preceding, was born at Hindlip in \Vorcester- 
 shire in 1605. He was educated in the .Jesuits' college at St. 
 Onier's, and afterwards at Paris. On his return to England 
 he declined active employment, and devoted his attention to 
 scholarly and poetical pursuits. He married a daughter of the 
 first Lord Powis, a lady to whom, under the name of Castara, 
 the first and happiest ertbrts of his muse were consecrated. A 
 volume of these love effusions was published in 1635, with the 
 title of "Castara;" they exhibit a lively fancy, and are singu- 
 lai-ly free both from the atfectation of the metaphysical, and from 
 
 the grossness of the amatory, poets of his time. Habington is 
 the author of a tragi-comedy called "The Queen of Arragon," 
 printed in 1640. He also wrote " Observations upon History," 
 1641; and a " Histoiy of Edward IV." Wood asserts that 
 this latter work was written and published at the express desire 
 of Charles I. He died in 1G45. 
 
 ABIRAM. See Korah. 
 
 ABISBAL, Enrique O'Donnell, Count of, a Spanish 
 general, bom in Andalusia hi the year 1770. He was descended 
 from the Irish family of O'Donnells, who had settled in Spam 
 after the defeat of the earl of Tyrone, in the reign of Queen 
 EHzabeth. Several members of that family have occupied a 
 conspicuous place in the Instory of Spain. Abisbal is specially 
 known in the annals of the war of resistance to Napoleon's 
 invasion. He held various positions of tnist, but his character 
 seems to have commanded little esteem. He died of a broken 
 heart, after the execution of his son Leopold in 1834. — J. B. 
 
 ABLA'BIUS, a Greek poet, of whose writings a few frag- 
 ments are preserved in the " Anthologia Grseca," floimshed about 
 the end of the fourth century. 
 
 ABLURIIS or ABLUVIIS, Ganfredus d', a French 
 Dominican, who was general-inquisitor at Carcassone about 
 1300, and died about 1319. He was brought into notoriety at 
 the death of Pope Benedict XL 
 
 ABNER, the son of Ner, was the general of Saul, fii-st king 
 of Israel, but forsook his ser\ice for that of his rival, David. 
 He was murdered by Joab, 1068 B.C. 
 
 ABNER, a Jewish rabbi, was bom at Burgos in Spain about 
 1270; died 1346. He practised medicine in his native city; 
 and having been converted to Christianity, ivi-ote a refutation of 
 the work of Quinchi entitled " Milchamoth Hasem." 
 
 ABNEY, Sir Thomas, was the son of James Abney, Esq., 
 of Willersley in Derbyshire, where he was bom in Januaiy, 
 1639. Educated at Loughborough, under the care of his aunt. 
 Lady Bromley, he came, whilst yet a youth, to London, where 
 he entered into business, and ultimately realised a large fortune. 
 Though a dissenter, he was raised to the highest civic honours, 
 having been elected sheriff of London in 1693, alderman ot 
 Vintry ward in 1594, and lord mayor in 1700, some years 
 before his time. He was knighted by William III. in 1694, 
 and, during his mayoralty, he so exerted himself in the cause of 
 that sovereign and the protestant succession, that a person 
 of distinction complimented him by saj-ing, "You have done 
 more service to the king, than if you had raised him a million 
 of money." Sir Thomas was member for the city of London 
 in the parhament which passed the bill securing the throne 
 to the house of Brunswick, and materially contributed to the 
 success of that measure. He was twice married ; first to a 
 daughter of the well-kno-n-n Joseph Caryl, and on her decease, 
 to IMary, daughter of John Gimston, Esq., of Stoke Newington. 
 Dr. Isaac Watts lived in bis family as friend and piivate chap- 
 lain for thu-ty years. Sir Thomas lived to be father of the city 
 of London, and died at the age of eighty-three, on February 6, 
 1722. Part of his property at Stoke Newington has been con- 
 verted into a cemetery, which is called after him. — W. L. A. 
 
 ABOACEN, ALBOACEN, ALBOHAZEN, or ALBUAS- 
 SIN, an Arabian astronomer of distinguished merit and services. 
 WTien King Alphonso of Castile undertook to revive the study 
 of astronomy in the West, he sought the aid of Arabians. His 
 early assistants were Aben Mnsa and Mohammed of Seville; 
 Joseph Aben Ali, and J. Abuena of Cordova ; Aben Ragel and 
 Alcabitius of Toledo. The choice of Alphonso was not a happy 
 one. We know nothing of these persons, except that they were 
 utterly under the bondage of astrologj', and, what was worse, 
 of ridiculous hypotheses concerning the motions of the fixed 
 stars, which quite disfigured the first edition of their tables. 
 Alphonso was rescued from the dominion of these men by the 
 sagacity and vigour of Aboacen, who showed up the absm-dity 
 of theh- fancies in a work expressly on the motions of the fixed 
 stars. The king, convinced by this remarkable treatise (trans- 
 lated into Spanish by Rabbi Juda), caused the tables to be re- 
 cast : so that for those famous Alphonsine tables, the world is 
 in the main indebted to Aboacen. — J. P. N. 
 
 ABONDIO, Alessandro, a histoiical and portrait painter 
 of Florence, was a pupil of Iklichel Angelo. He was also a 
 modeler, and his ]wrtraits in wax were highly valued. He went 
 to Gennany, where he worked until his death, which occuiTcd 
 at Prague during the last years of the 16th centuiy.
 
 ABO 
 
 17 
 
 ABR 
 
 ABOS, Maximilian-Francis and Gabriel, bom in Bearne 
 towards the end of the seventeenth century, two brothers, 
 knights of Malta, and heroic seamen, who with four vessels 
 defeated a Tmkish fleet of fifty galleys at los, one of the Cycla- 
 des. Maximilian died a few days after the action. Gabriel, 
 while returning towards Malta with immense booty, was driven 
 on the Tunisian shore by a stonn, sent to Constantinople by the 
 Tunisians, and, by order of the sultan, there beheaded in 1793. 
 ABOUL ILHASAN ALI EBN O.MAE of Morocco; an 
 astronomer, who wrote about the beginning of the tliii'teenth 
 centiu'y. Modem inqnuy is indebted for the giTat work of tliis 
 observer and unportant writer to the labours of M. Sedillot. 
 A very few notices in Jlontucla — these also given at second-hand 
 — was all we knew of him, until M. Sedillot produced, in French, 
 his invaluable treatise on Philosophical Instruments. This work 
 is one of far more than curiosity, by showing us the exact 
 nature of the instraments with which the Arabians worked. 
 Aboul Ilhasan has supplied an essential element of criticism, 
 — we can now all the better form an opmion as to the value or 
 weight of their results. The work in question is not the work 
 of a mere mechanician, but of a distingiushed astronomer. The 
 author does not stop with description of the external form of 
 instriunents. Deeming that the exactness of observations is the 
 foundation of all progress in astronomy, and knowing how need- 
 ful it is that they who construct instruments should have pre- 
 cise notions as to the end for which they are destined, he dis- 
 cusses and illustrates his subject by aid of all the light derivable 
 from his own experience, and from the best writings of his time. 
 After laying down, as a preliminary, a certam number of theo- 
 retical propositions, regarding cosmography, chronology, and 
 gnomonics (employing therein trigonometrical tangents and 
 secants), he devotes thi'ee books to the description of instruments 
 for measm-ing time, and other four to that of purely astronomical 
 instruments, among which we find several quadrants, a sphere, 
 a planisphere, four mesatirahs, traced upon planes parallel to the 
 horizon or to the meridian ; ten cuts of astrolabes, including 
 those of Ai'zachel ; the sextant, the ring, and other construc- 
 tions, specially destined for the observation of echpses, of new 
 moons, and several other celestial phenomena. The book ter- 
 minates with illustrations of the use of such instruments, and a 
 niunber of problems for exercise. In so far as his geometry, 
 or Ms general management of the subject goes, Aboul Ilhasan is 
 inferior to few WTiters. For the clear insight thus given into 
 the scientific workshops of those early times, too much gi'atitude 
 cannot be felt to M. Sedillot. — J. P. N. 
 
 ABOUL-WEFA AL BUZGIANI, a contemporary of Ibn 
 Jounis; hved at Bagdad about the year 980 A.D. In the first 
 books of his Almagest, Aboul-Wefa goes over prelimmary or 
 elementary considerations ; but the rest of his work is very re- 
 markable. It contains fomiuloa for tangents and secants, and 
 tables of tangents and co-tangents for the entue quarter of the 
 cLrcmnfereiice. Abul-Wefa used them as geometers do now in 
 all trigonometrical calculations : he changed the formute for 
 triangles ; he banished those mconvenient composite expressions 
 which include both sines and co-sines of the unknowTi angle : in 
 fine, he completed that revolution whose origination is uncertain, 
 but which, on no authority, has been attributed to Regiomontanus, 
 who did not loiow so much as either Abul-Wefa or Ibn Jounis. 
 This commodious trigonometry was not employed in Em-ope 
 until six centmies after its invention by the Arabs. Delambre 
 has given a full summary of all we owe to Abul-Wefa. — J. P. N. 
 ABOVILLE, Francois-Marie, Comte d', a French general, 
 bora at Brest in 1730. He entered the military service in 1744, 
 and after acquuing much experience under Marshal Saxe, and in 
 the Seven Years' war in Germany, he greatly distinguished him- 
 self as a colonel of artillery in the French army sent to aid the 
 Americans in the war of Independence. His efficient direction 
 of the French and American artillery is said to have mainly con- 
 tributed to the defeat and surrender of Marquis Cornwallis at 
 York Town. On retmiiing to France he was made a major- 
 general, and in 1791 gave his adherence to the National Assem- 
 bly. In 1792, when General Dumouriez attempted to pervert 
 his troops, Aboville, then lieutenant-general of the army of the 
 north, remained faithful to the convention. He received from 
 Napoleon numerous honours and promotions. In 1814 he 
 adhered to the Bom^bons. In June, 1815, he again sided with 
 Napoleon, and was made a peer. He was ultimately admitted 
 to the Chamber of Peers by Louis XVIII. Died 1819.— E. M. 
 
 V0I-. I. 
 
 ABRABANEL, ABARBANEL, BARBINELLUS, or RA- 
 VANELLA, Rabbi don Isaac, was bom at Lisbon in 1437. 
 His family was of high antiquity, and even boasted of its descent 
 from the royal house of David. In early life, Abrabanel was in- 
 troduced to the com-t of Alphonsus V., and even in that age of 
 intolerance, the young and versatile Jew became one of the chief 
 counscllui's of the Portuguese sovereign. At his death, Abra- 
 banel found no favour in the eyes of John II., his successor ; for 
 falhng under susi)icioH of treason, he fled to Castile, where he 
 was well received by Ferdinand, and in whose financial service he 
 remained from 1484 to 1492. Dmlng this year a decree was 
 issued ordering all Jews to leave Spain, and neither the talent 
 nor the sernces of the Jewish statesman could save him from 
 exile. Accordingly he repaired with his family to Naples, 
 where again he rose into the royal favour of Ferdinand and 
 Alphonsus, and fled with the latter to Jlessina, from the power 
 of Charles VIII. of France. At the demise of Alphonsus he 
 betook himself to Corfu; then in 1496 to Monopoh, a town of 
 Apulia ; and finally he went to Venice, and was instrumental in 
 producing peace between that republic and Portugal. He died 
 at Venice in 1508, in his seventy-first year, and was bmued at 
 Padua with great honour. Some Christian writers have asserted 
 that Abrabanel was not wholly free from blame at the period of 
 his flight from Portugal ; and that, especially at the court of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, his avarice, vanity, and favouritism for 
 his race. Ids financial exactions, his love of such place and honour 
 as would set him on an equality with the old grandees of Spain, 
 and his antipathy to the established faith, contributed to raise, 
 or at least to augment the storm, which scattered his people to 
 the four winds of heaven. 
 
 The industiy and erudition of Abrabanel were alike surprising. 
 One wonders that, amidst incessant toils and flights, he found 
 time to write so much. His ripe scholarship was the result of 
 early acquirement and incessant apphcation. Hours of leisure 
 were hours of labour, and his nation honour him by the name 
 of the Sage, the Piince, and the Politician. His principal 
 works have reference to the Jewish scriptures and the Jewish 
 faith. He was a resolute foe to Christianity, and was well able 
 to maintain his ground. His commentaries on the Old Testa- 
 ment are clear and acute, though certainly tedious and trifling 
 on many occasions. The commentaiy on the Pentateuch, 
 " Perosch al Hattor^h," appeared at Venice in 1579 ; that on 
 the earlier and later prophets, at Pesaro in 1520, and it is dis- 
 figured by some vu'ulent assaults on Christianity, which have 
 been omitted in subsequent editions. What he had suffered 
 from the Inquisition had embittered his spirit, and he almost 
 thirsts for revenge. His discourse on the llessianic prophecies, 
 named " Mushmia Jeshua," or " Preacher of salvation," was 
 published at Amsterdam in 1G44 — an earlier edition bemg 
 printed probably at Salonichi in 1526. In this treatise he 
 freely indulges in violent tu-ades against Christianity. But his 
 itnplacable enmity to Christianity did not so sour him, as to 
 prevent him from equitable and lu'bane intercourse with Chris- 
 tians. His " Rosh Amana," " Sum of Truth," or an exposition 
 and defence of the 311:10165 of the Jewish faith, was published at 
 Constantinople in 1505. Other works belong to him, which 
 need not be characterized. Several of his treatises have been 
 translated into Latin. Of his sons, one was distinguished in 
 medicine and poetry, and another embraced Clnistianity. — 
 (Wolf, Bale, De Rossi, Fiirst's Bibliotheca Judaica.') — .7. E. 
 
 ABRADATES, king of Susiana, who, according to Xeno- 
 plion's Cyropsedia, rendered great service to Cynis the Great 
 in his war with the Assyrians. 
 
 ABRAHAM, the founder of the Hebrew nation, was bora at 
 Ur, a city of Chaldea, A.M. 2008. His father's name was Terah, 
 and he married Sarah, the daughter of his elder brother Ilaran. 
 Abraham abode in Ur during the first sixty years of his life. He 
 left it, in obedience to a divine call, along with his father, and 
 other members of the family, " not knowing whither he went." 
 The place where he first sojourned was Haran, whore he abode 
 fifteen years, and where his father died. After tliat event he 
 left his brotlicr Nahor, and journeyed onwards to Canaan in 
 company with Lot. The habits of the people of Canaan 
 were all of a nomadic character, similar to those which still 
 prevail among the Arabs. This was Aljraham's mode of life. 
 The removals which he made were all towards the south, and 
 it was his practice, wherever he came, to build an altar to 
 the Lord, and to call upon his name. At length a famine m 
 
 G
 
 Palestine obliged him to go down to Egypt, the land of com. 
 Retimiiiig thence with a gi-eat augmentation of wealth, Abra- 
 ham once more pitched his tent ui Canaan. As his nephew had 
 also become a man of extensive possessions, stiife arose between 
 their respective herdsmen about wells and pastures, which sug- 
 gested the propriety of a separation. Lot chose the well-watered 
 plain where Sodom and Gomorrah stood, and Abraham therefore 
 moved towards the plain of JIamre in Hebron. Shortly after 
 his settlement here, intelligence was brought to him of an in- 
 cursion which had been made upon the cities of the plain, by the 
 combined forces of several neighbouring kings, in which his 
 nephew and all his family had been carried away captive. With- 
 out a moment's hesitation, he armed the servants of his family, 
 amounting to 318 ; and, aided by some friendly neighbours, he 
 pursued the enemy, attacked them by night, and defeated them. 
 Lot and his fomily were brought back in safety, and all the 
 captives were restored to liberty. 
 
 While Abraham dwelt in Mamro, the promises already given 
 to him were repeated and confirmed. Yet, amid all references 
 to bis numerous seed, he was still childless, though at the ad- 
 vanced age of seventy-five. This apparent incongniity seems to 
 have suggested to Sarah the idea of giving him as a wife her 
 handmaid Hagar. Accordingly Ishmael was born, and for many 
 years considered as the child of promise. At length, however, 
 when Abraham was in his ninety-ninth year, another most re- 
 markable vision was granted to him. He was assm-ed that he was 
 to be the father of many nations, and it was now the change of 
 his name took place from Abram (Exalted father')^ to Abraham 
 (Father of a multitude}. Circumcision was appointed as a sign 
 of the covenant made with him and his posterity. He was told, 
 too, that Ishmael was not the child m whom the promises were 
 to be fulfilled, but that Sarah herself should bear him a son. 
 
 At length Isaac was born, and Ishmael vnth his. mother Hagar, 
 was, at Sarah's request, cast out from the family circle. As the 
 promise of God regarding the birth of Isaac had furnished an oc- 
 casion for the display of Abraham's faith, so when this child of 
 promise gi-ew up to be a young man, he was made the means of 
 a far severer trial of it. The patriarch was commanded to 
 take his son, and to offer him up as a bumt-offering upon one 
 of the mountains of Moriah. Abraham hesitated not. For 
 three days the father and the son journeyed together to the ap- 
 pointed place. The altar was set up, the wood was cleft and ar- 
 ranged, Isaac was bound, and the knife of sacrifice was already 
 grasped, when a voice from heaven arrested the father's arm. 
 The patriarch's faitli was rewarded viith a renewal, in a more ex- 
 phcit and extended form, of all the promises akeady given to him. 
 
 After Sarah's death, which took place when she was 127 years 
 old, Abraham despatched one of his servants for a wife to Isaac, 
 from among the daughters of his o-svn people. He also himself 
 married again, and had several sons, to whom he gave suitable 
 portions, sending them away from the presence of Isaac. The 
 patriarch at length died in the 175th year of his age, and was 
 buried by Isaac and Ishmael in the same sepulchre wth Sarah. 
 His character is one of the most illustrious described in Scripture. 
 Fei-vent piety, unshaken trust in God, generosity in his dealings 
 vnih others, faithfulness in the instraction of his own household, 
 and polite and courteous manners, are beautifully blended together 
 in the " Father of the faithful."— W. L. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN DIOR, or DAVID the Levite, a Spanish 
 rabbi bom at Toledo in 1166, author of a work entitled "The 
 Book of Tradition," being a chronology and genealogy of the 
 patriarchs, princes, and doctors of the Jews, from the creation to 
 the year 1141. A Latin translation of it was printed at Paris in 
 1572. Died in 1180. Another Spanish rabbi of the same 
 name, distinguished as the Younger, died about 1199. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Usque, a Portuguese Jew of the sixteenth 
 century, who, along with Tobias Athias, translated the Old Tes- 
 tament mto Spanisli. The translation was printed at Ferrara in 
 1553, and dedicated to Rene'e of France, duchess of Ferrara. 
 It is so literal as to be in many passages very obscm-e. Copies 
 of it are now extremely rare. 
 
 ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA, an Augustine friar and cele- 
 brated preacher, born in Suabia in 1642. His great reputation 
 procured him the appointment of chaplain to the imperial com-t 
 of Vienna, where he continued to preach for forty years. He 
 spoke with remarkable fluency, his deliverj- was fervid and ener- 
 getic, and his discourses were full of sound sense, as well as 
 fancy and eccentricity. Died in 1709. — E. i\L 
 
 ABRAjM, NichoIjAS, a learned Jesuit, bom in Lorraine in 
 1589. He was professor of divinity at Port-a-JIcmsson, and 
 published several theological and literary works, but is best 
 known as author of commentaries on the jEneid, and on some of 
 Cicero's orations. Died in 1655. 
 
 ABRANTES, Don Josi, Marquis of, eldest son of Don 
 Pedro, and representative of one of the most illustrious families 
 in Portugal, was born at Abrantes castle in 1784. He entered 
 the guards at an early age, and soon obtained the friendship and 
 confidence of the prince regent. When, on the French invasion 
 in 1807, the court retired from Portugal to Brazil, the old mar- 
 quis of Abrantes was left president of the regency, soon after- 
 wards dissolved by JIarshal Junot, who, on arriving at Lisbon, 
 began, in concert with Napoleon, to cany out his scheme of pro- 
 curing for himself the crown of Portugal. Through Junot's in- 
 fluence, both the old and the young Abrantes were sent to France 
 as members of a deputation from the Portuguese nobUity, and 
 the younger was detained there as a hostage till 1814. Enter- 
 ing zealously into the views of Queen Carlotta and her son Don 
 Miguel, Don Jos^ took an active part in the counter-revolution 
 of 1823, and in 1824 was one of the accomplices in the mur- 
 der of the marquis of Louie by that infamous prince. Banished 
 from the Idngdom, he took up his abode in Italy. When in 
 1826 a general amnesty for political offences was published, on 
 the death of lung John VI., he proceeded to Lisbon ; but being 
 refused permission to land, he retu-ed to London, where he died 
 of apoplexy on the 11th Febraary, 1827.— E. M. 
 
 A'BRESCH, FREDEPacic Louis, an eminent German Hellen- 
 ist, born at Hess-Homberg in 1699. He studied Greek and Latin 
 literatm-e at Utrecht, under Dukcr and Drakenborg. He was 
 principal, first of the college of Middleburg, and afterwards of 
 that of Zwolle, where he died, at a veiy advanced age, in 1782. 
 His critical writings are still highly esteemed. 
 
 ABRESCH, Peter, son of the preceding, and professor of 
 theology at Gottingen. His works are more valuable for the 
 inteqjretation of the New Testament than those of his father, 
 especially his annotations on the fii-st six chapters of the Epistle 
 to the Hebrews. 
 
 ABREU, Alexis, a Portuguese physician of the 17th centmy, 
 wrote on the maladies most incident to people of high rank. 
 
 ABREU, Don Joseph Antonio, a learned Spanish jurist 
 and laborious compiler of diplomatic documents, and translator 
 of several standard works on international law, died in 1775. 
 
 ABREU, Don Felix Joseph, brother of the preceding, a 
 Spanisli diplomatist, author of a work on maritime law, born in 
 1722. He was Spanish envoy in London about 1760. 
 
 ABREU, Jo-Vji Manuel, a Portuguese mathematician, author 
 of various geometrical treatises. Bom 1754; died 1815. 
 
 ABRIAL, Andre-Josepii, Count d', a French lawyer and 
 statesman, born in 1750. At the commencement of the Re- 
 volution — which he favoured — he was at the bar, after having 
 been, as superintendent of a factoiy, at Senegal. Soon after the 
 new judicial organization in 1791, he became state procurator- 
 general in the Court of Cassation, and preserved that oflice 
 through all the storms of the Revolution. In 1799 he was sent 
 to Naples to organize the new govemment, a service he executed 
 with gi-eat judgment. In 1800 he retmTied to Paris and be- 
 came minister of justice, and in 1802 was created a senator. 
 In 1814 he voted for Napoleon's dethi-onement, and, on the 
 restoration of Louis XVIII. , after the battle of Waterloo, was 
 called to the chamber of peers. Died 1828. — E. M. 
 
 ABRIANI, Paul, an Italian professor, preacher, and author, 
 born at Vicenza in 1607, died at Venice in 1699. Besides 
 original productions, he published poetical translations of Lu- 
 can's " Pharsalia," and of a portion of Horace. 
 
 A'BRIL, Peter Sijion, a learned and ingenious Spaniard of 
 the sixteenth centmy, professor of Latin and Greek for twenty- 
 five years, and afterwai'ds professor of rhetoric, author of many 
 valuable philological works. His writings and oral instructions 
 gi-eatly promoted a taste for classical literature in Spain. 
 
 ABSALOiM (Father of peace) son of King David by Maacah, 
 daughter of Talmai, king of Gcshur, was noted for his singular 
 personal beauty. To avenge the wrongs of his sister Tamar he 
 slew Hs elder brother Amnon, for which he was exiled from the 
 court. On the intercession of Joab he was restored to favoui-, 
 but the royal clemency was ill repaid ; for Absalom used every 
 effort to subvert his father's authority, and at last became an 
 open rebel. He was, however, subdued, and, contrarj^ to the
 
 ABS 
 
 19 
 
 ABU 
 
 king's express command, was put to death by JoaL, near Ma- 
 hanaim, about 1036 li.c. — J. B. 
 
 ABSALOjM, the ecclesiastical name of the Danish Axel, arch- 
 bishop of Lund in the twelfth centmy, and chief coimsellor to 
 Waldemar I. Died at Sora in 1201. The famous Saxo Gram- 
 maticus was in the archbishop's sen-ice, and has left many 
 notices of his patron's life and labours. 
 
 ABSALOM, archbishop of Lund and primate of Denmark, 
 one of the most remarkable men of the twelfth century, was 
 bom in Zeland in 1128. On his retm-n from Paris, where he 
 studied, he soon distinguished himself by his energy and talents, 
 not only in the churcli, but in the civU and military administra- 
 tion of Denmark. Died in 1202. 
 
 A'BSCHATZ, Hans-Assman, Baron von, a Gennan states- 
 man and poet, born in 1G46. Many of his hpnns are still sung 
 iu the protestant churches of Germany. Died in 1G99. 
 
 ABSIMA'RUS, Tiberius, a military adventurer, who became 
 emperor of Constantinople in 698. Commanding the fleet, and 
 proving unsuccessful in a naval engagement with the Saracens, 
 he saved himself from the punishment he apprehended from his 
 sovereign, by inducing the forces under his command to raise him 
 to the throne. He confined the Emperor Leontius in a monas- 
 tery, after putting out his eyes and cutting off' Ms nose ; but 
 was himself dethroned and put to death at the restoration of 
 Justinian IL in 705. — E. M. 
 
 ABSTE'MIUS, Laurentius, an Itahan critic, but known 
 chiefly as a fabulist, born near Ancona towards the end of 
 the fifteenth century. His real name was Bevilaqua, " Water- 
 di-inker." He became librarian to the duke of Urbino, whose 
 preceptor he had been. 
 
 ABU BECER or IBN TOFAIL; (Abou Beck Mohammed 
 ben-Abd-al-^Ielic IbnTofail al-Keisi),— one of the great- 
 est philosophers among the Spanish Ai-abs : born about the com- 
 mencement of the twelfth centuiy at a small town in Anda- 
 lusia, now named Guadix. Tofail was a disciple of Ibn Badja, 
 or Avempace, and rendered himself illustrious in many ways. 
 For an account of the deeds and desei-vings of the brilliant An- 
 dalusian period to which Abu-Becer belonged, we refer to article 
 AvERRiiOES ; suffice it to narrate at present something concern- 
 ing his personal merits. One work of this remarkable writer 
 alone remains, out of the many quoted by his successors. It is 
 a philosophical romance, iu which a fictitious personage. Hay, is 
 bom without father or mother, and made to pass through the 
 education presented by the external universe. The idea that 
 profound philosophical truths might be illustrated by such a 
 fiction, is thus both an old and favourite one. Tofail shows, or 
 attempts to show, the scientific developments of the elements of 
 intelligence in the mind of a being thus solitary and forlorn. 
 The knowledge first acqimed by Hay, is limited to that of speci- 
 fic facts and sensible things ; through which he comes to com- 
 prehend somewhat concerning the smTounding world. Traces 
 of order or uniformity next an-est him, and he discovers that, 
 amid an almost bewildering variety, there is yet a link or chain 
 binding everything together. Multiplicity is an accident ; the 
 Unity of things is their essence. Another step, and the Solitaiy 
 inquires wherein reside the accidents, and wherein the essence of 
 thmgs : on which he anives at the famous distinction of flatter 
 or Substance, and Form. But who or what impresses on has im- 
 pressed FORM ? Matter itself is probably eternal ; not so its 
 forms : the existence and variety of these imply an Agent. 
 This agent is not a body, nor any faculty of body, but a distinct 
 Being who is the form of the whole universe. All individual ex- 
 istences are thus the work of this Being or God, towards whom 
 and his goodness and perfection, our human intelligence ascends 
 as we contemplate the beauty of his agency. — Retm'ning from 
 these heights. Hay examines himself — asldng the nature of his 
 intelligence — its destiny, and the path towards supreme happi- 
 ness. The pure intellect is the true substance or personality of 
 Man ; it is not born, and it cannot perish : its happiness con- 
 sists in its identification with God. Tofail's couclusions, in this 
 respect, approach those of a refined pantheism. His work, 
 however, has a second part. He felt it necessary to show that 
 the results to which he conducts his Solitaiy, are in harmony 
 with revealed religion, especially with Moslemism. And with 
 this object he brings Hay — now at the age of fift)' — into contact 
 with Asal, a religious hermit. The conclusions they have reached 
 are the simie, but Hay insists that the way of reason is as good 
 as Asal's. The merits of the dispute are put to a practical test. 
 
 Hay discovers the actual inferiority of his mode of teaching, and 
 in the end the friends return to Asal's island — devoting them- 
 selves henceforward to an austere and contemplative life. 
 Tofail's work contains many acute remarks bearing closely on 
 controversies not thought of in his time : it has been translated 
 into various languages ; two versions exist in English, — one 
 from the Arabic by Ockley, another from Pococke's Latin, by a 
 member of the Society of Friends — George Keith. — J. P. N. 
 
 ABU' BEKR, Mahomet's father-in-law, and first successor 
 or caliph. During his brilliant reign of little m<jre than two 
 years, the new Moslem empire was thoroughly consolidated and 
 greatly extended. He edited in a collective and authentic 
 form the contents of the Koran, which previously existed in 
 detached chapters; and, by the ability and intrepidity of his 
 generals, and the impetuous fanaticism of his armies, suppressed 
 fonnidable insuiTcctions, and subdued Irac and the whole of 
 Syria. He died in 634, at the age of sixty-three, the day on 
 which his lieutenants took Damascus. He was a man of great 
 sagacity and mildness, as well as of great simplicity of manners, 
 disinterestedness, and self-denial. His real name was Abdallah- 
 Atik-ben-Abi-Kohafah. He was called Abii Bekr, or " Father 
 of the Virgin," being the father of Ayesha, distinguished by 
 that appellation from Mahomet's first wife, who, when he 
 manned her, was a widow. — E. M. 
 
 ABU'CARA, TiiEODORUS, a disciple of John Damascenus, 
 and bishop of Haran in the eighth centmy. His numerous dis- 
 sertations in support of the orthodox faith against Jews, Moslems, 
 and heretics, have been published in Greek and Latin. 
 
 ABU' HANI'FAH, a famous ^lussulman doctor, founder of 
 the Hanifites, one of the four great orthodox sects of Islam, 
 and for his mildness and patience, on which the Bloslem writers 
 expatiate, called the "Moslem Socrates;" born at Kufah in 699. 
 He refused to become a judge, 1 hough threatened for his disobedi- 
 ence by the caliph. Having boldly remonstrated with the caliph, 
 who desired to punish the inliabitants of Mossul, he was im- 
 prisoned, and soon afterwards poisoned by his order. — E. M. 
 
 ABU'L-'ALA or OLA, an Arab poet, bom at Maarah in 975 ; 
 remarkable for his learning and knov/ledge of the world, though 
 he lost his sight when three years old. His poetry is mostly 
 satirical and sceptical. Died in 1057. 
 
 ABU'L-CACEM, a Turkish general, who took Nice, and ad- 
 vanced to the shores of the Propontis in the reign of Alexis 
 Comnenus, but was diiven back by the Greek general Taticius. 
 Simultaneously harassed by the Greek emperor and the shah of 
 Persia, he threw himself on the generosity of the latter, by 
 whom he was put to death. 
 
 ABU'L-CACIM, a fictitious name, under which Michael de 
 Luna, Ai-abic interpreter to Pliilip III. of Spain, pubhshed his 
 " History of the Arab Conquest of Spain ; " a work long regarded 
 as gemune, and quoted as a high historical authority. 
 
 ABU'LFARAGE, Gregory, a philosopher, physician, and 
 historian, born in 1226 at Malatia in Armenia, the son of a 
 Jacobite physician of Jewish extraction. He became an ecclesi- 
 astic, and primate of the Jacobites, a well-knovra Christian sect. 
 He Avrote numerous works on various suly'ects, but is principally 
 known as author of a " Universal History from the Creation," 
 down to his own tune. This work is of great value, particu- 
 larly for the history of the Moslems and Tartars. The author 
 is praised for veracity and general accuracy, both by Mahometans 
 and Christians. Died in 1286. — E. M. 
 
 ABU'LFARAJALI, an Arab author, bora at Ispahan in 897, 
 Four manuscript volumes of Ai-abic poems collected by him 
 were brought from Egyj^t by the French in 1801, and are now 
 m the national libraiy of Paris. 
 
 ABU'LFAZI, an able and learned statesman and historian, 
 for thirty-eight years prime minister of the Mogul emperor 
 Akiwr, by whom he was so much esteemed and trusted, as to 
 be exposed to the malice of courtiers. He was murdered in 
 1602, two years before Akbar's death, at the instigation of 
 Selim, the emperor's son and successor. He wrote many valu- 
 able works, but is known among Europeans chiefly as author of 
 an interesting " Statistical and Geographical Description of the 
 Mogul Empire," comprising an account of the religion, science, 
 and literature of the Hindoos. This work, which is held in 
 great estunation among Orientals, was translated into English 
 by Jlr. F. Gladwin, residing at Calcutta, in 1783-86.— E. 'l\r. 
 
 ABU'LFEDA, Isma'il, a Moslem prince of Hamah in Syria, 
 renowned as a warrior and statesman, but still more as ar
 
 author, was bom at Damascus in 1273. He distinguished 
 himself as a leader under Saladin, and in 1311 was, after 
 various vicissitudes in a civU war, firmly established in his 
 hereditary principality of Hamah, which he retained till his 
 death in 1331. Learned and enli,s;htened himself, he was a 
 zealous patron of science and literature. His principal works 
 are a "Universal History" and a " Geogi-aphy," of which con- 
 siderable portions have been translated into Latin and into 
 several modern continental languages, and are frequently quoted 
 with respect by the most distinguished historians of modern times, 
 iu connection with the histoiT of the Saracens. — E. M. 
 
 ABU'L-GHA'ZY-BEHADER, a descendant of Ghcngis Khan, 
 and sovereign of a country in Tartaiy, called Kharasm, born in 
 1606, ascended the throne in 1645, which he spontaneously ab- 
 dicated in favour of his son several years before his death, and 
 devoted himself to the composition of an interesting history of 
 the Tartars, which has been translated into Russian, German, 
 and French. Died in 16G1. 
 
 ABU'L-HASSAN-KHAN, .^Iirza, a Persian traveller and 
 diplomatist, born at Shiraz in 1741. In 1809 he was sent to 
 Constantinople and London as Persian ambassador, and was 
 subsequently intrusted with missions to the courts of Russia and 
 Austria. Returning finally to Persia in 1820, he held the office 
 of minister for foreign aftahs till his death in 1828. 
 
 ABU'L-JIAHA'SSAN, an Ai-ab historian, born at Aleppo 
 about the middle of the 1.5th century, author of a valuable 
 history of Egypt, named " The Brilliant Stars," and of a cirious 
 biographical dictionaiy, left incomplete. 
 
 ABU'-SIANSU'R, an Arab astronomer, superintendent of 
 the obser\'atories of Bagdad and Damascus, born in 885. His 
 "Observations" were an important contribution to astronomical 
 science. He wrote also " Lives of the Arabian Poets." 
 
 ABU'-'OBAID-AL-BEKRI', an Arab geographer and his- 
 torian, prime minister to the king of Almeria, was born at Onoba 
 (now Gibraleon), in the south-west of Spain, in 1040. His prin- 
 cipal work is a geographical description of the world. He wrote, 
 also, a work on the botany of Spain, and a volume of poems. 
 Died in 1004. 
 
 ABU'-'OBAID-AL-CACEM-BEN-SALLAM, a native of 
 Herat, long cadi of Tarsus, and author of numerous works, of 
 which the principal are — 1. " A treatise on Prophetic Traditions," 
 and 2. "A Collection of Arabian Proverbs and Apologues," 
 from which Sealiger took most of his Two Hundred Arab Pro- 
 verbs. Died at ]\Iecca in 838. 
 
 ABU'-'OBEIDAH, a friend and favourite companion of 
 JIahomet, and one of the principal Moslem generals under the 
 early caliphs, remarkable for his pnidence and mildness of dis- 
 position. He saved the inhabitants of Damascus, in spite of 
 the desire of his more sanguinaiy colleague to put all the males 
 to the sword, and sack the city. 
 
 ABU-OSAIBAH, an Arab physician, boi-n towards the end 
 of the twelfth centuiy. His " Ilistoiy of Physicians," of which 
 there is a JIS. copy in the national library of France, contains 
 many interesting particulars relating to the medical practice of 
 the most celebrated Arabs. Died in 1269. 
 
 ABU'-RY'A'N. See Al-Birunius. 
 
 ABU'-SA'I'D-^IIRZA, last sovereign of the empire established 
 by Tamerlane, and great-grandson of that conqueror, was bom 
 in 1427. He added to his dominions Transoxiana, Tm-ldstan, 
 and Khorassan ; but, in attempting to reduce L-ak and Azer- 
 baldjan, he was made prisoner, and put to death in 14G9, after 
 a reign of twenty years. His empire, which was partitioned 
 among his eleven sons, extended from Kashghar to Tauris, and 
 from the Indus to the Caspian. — E. M. 
 
 A B U'-T A'C H E FYK, 1 ast prince of the Zyany dynasty, ascended 
 the throne of Tlemsen, by miu-dering his father, in 1318. On 
 frivolous pretexts he seized on nearly all the teiTitories of the 
 king of Tunis, who applied for assistance to Abul Hassan, sove- 
 reign of Fez. This prince avenged his ally by taking Tlem- 
 sen, and putting Abii-Tachefvn to death. 
 
 ABU'-TA'LEB-AL-HOCE'INY, a native of Khorassan, who, 
 about the end of the sixteenth centuiy, translated from Tartar 
 mto Persian "The Jlemohs of Timur" (Tamerlane), and "Ti- 
 mur's Political Institutes." The latter work has been published 
 in Persian and English. 
 
 ABU'-TA'LEB-KHA'N, JIirza, a learned traveller, born at 
 Lucknow in Hindostan, of Persian extraction, in 1752. After 
 having served for some time in the army of the nabob of Oude, 
 
 he embarked for Europe with his friend Captain Richardson, 
 remained three months at the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived 
 at Cork in December, 1799. After hving in London more than 
 two years, and then visiting Paris, he returned to India by Con- 
 stantinople, Bagdad, and Bassora. His " Travels in Asia, Africa, 
 and Europe," written in Persian, have been translated into Eng- 
 lish and French. He wrote also — 1. A work entitled " Marrow 
 of History," being an abridgment of the geography and history 
 of Europe; 2. A collection of songs; and 3. A poem in 1200 
 lines, being a description of the British empire. — E. M. 
 
 ABU'-TE.MA'N, an Arab poet, usually styled by Arab writers 
 " the prince of poets," bora in Syria in 805. He was brought 
 up in Egypt, where his merits as a poet raised him to celebrity 
 and opulence. Besides his own poems, he left several vohuncs 
 of extracts from the works of the most eminent Arab poets. 
 Died at Mosul in 846. 
 
 ACA'CIUS, bishop of Amida on the Tigris, about the year 
 420. He sold the church plate to ransom and nourish 7000 
 Persian captives, who were dj-ing of hunger, and sent them to 
 the king of Persia. That monarch, struck with such exalted 
 beneficence, desned an interview with the good bishop, which 
 led to a treaty of peace between Persia and the Roman empire. 
 
 ACA'CIUS, sumamed the One-eyed, disciple, and aftei-- 
 wards successor of Euscbius, bishop of Ca?sarea, was a man of 
 great abihtics, but gi-eater ambition. Unsettled in his opinions, 
 he successively professed and renounced every variety of belief 
 relating to the person of Christ. He was founder of the sect 
 called Acacians. Died in 365. 
 
 ACA'CIUS, bishop of Perea in Syria, the intimate friend of 
 Epiphanius and Flavian, but aftei-wards a bitter adversaiy of 
 Chrysostom. He died in 432, at the great age of 110. 
 
 ACA'CIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, whose character has 
 been differently delineated by opposite parties. He aided Zeno 
 in obtaining the throne, induced him to favour the Eutychians, 
 and rescued the Empress Ariadne when Zeno had ordered her to 
 be put to death. Died in 489. 
 
 ACADE'MUS, an Attic hero, fi-om whom, it is said, the 
 grounds on the Cephisus, near Athens, where Plato instructed 
 his disciples, derived the name of Academia. 
 
 ACAMAPIXTLI, first Idng of the Astecks, or ancient 
 Mexicans, memorable for his wise legislation and great public 
 works. He embellished his capital with splendid edifices ; and 
 the remains of the canals, aqueducts, and roads, made during his 
 reign of forty years, still excite the astonishment of travellers. 
 
 ACARQ, D', a French writer on gi-ammar and belles-lettres. 
 His pedantic severity in criticismg the style of the most illus- 
 trious authors gave great offence, but his numerous writings are 
 not without merit. Born in 1720, and died in 1796. 
 
 ACCA, a Benedictine monk, who succeeded his friend Wilfrid 
 as bishop of Hexham in Northumberland in 709. Having tra- 
 velled in Italy and elsewhere, he embellished his cathedral and 
 improved the church music ; and wrote, besides liturgical pieces 
 and miscellaneous letters, a discourse on the sufferings of the 
 saints. Died in 740. 
 
 ACCAMA, Matthias and Bernaktii, his brother, two 
 celebrated Dutch portrait painters of the 18th centuiy. 
 
 ACCARI'SI, Albert, an Itahan gi-ammarian, born near Fcr- 
 rara about the end of the fifteenth centurj% He published an 
 Italian dictionary and grammatical observations to aid in fixing 
 and improving the Italian language. 
 
 ACCARI'SI, Francis, an eminent Italian lawyer, a native 
 of Ancona, was successively professor of jurisprudence at Sienna, 
 Pavia, and Pisa; he died in 1622. 
 
 ACCARI'SI, James, an Italian ecclesiastic, who, after hav- 
 ing been professor of rhetoric at Mantua, became bishop of Vesta. 
 Besides a volume of religious discourses, and a Latin translation 
 of Ventivoglio's " History of the Civil Wars in the Low Coun- 
 tries," he published a dissertation, entitled " Terrae Quies," &c., 
 in which he attempted, in opposition to Gahleo, to disprove the 
 earth's motion. Died in 1654. 
 
 ACCIAJUO'LI, Donato, an Itahan statesman and scholar, 
 remarkable for his great and varied attainments, and his disin- 
 terestedness and integrity in the public service ; bom at Florence 
 in 1428. After having successively held various public offices, 
 and hved with great simplicity, he died poor. The Florentines 
 gave him a splendid funeral at the public expense, portioned his 
 daughters, and appointed a few of the most illustrious citizens, 
 including Lorenzo di Medicis, to act as guardians to his sons.
 
 ACC 
 
 21 
 
 ACE 
 
 He wrote a commentary on the " Ethics and Politics of Aristotle," 
 professedly a compilation from tlio lectures of Argyropulus the 
 Greek, and translated into Latin two of Plutarch's lives, and 
 into Italian a Latin history of Florence. Died 1478. — E. M. 
 
 ACCIAJUO'LI, Nicolas, an Italian statesman, great senes- 
 chal at Naples, hoi-n at Florence in 1310. By his pnidcncc and 
 foresight, he rendered eminent service to Queen Joan I. in her 
 flight to Avignon; and after her marriage with Louis, he greatly 
 contributed to her restoration in 1355. Died in 1366. 
 
 ACCIAJUO'LI, PiENiER, a Florentine, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, became in 1361 lord of Corinth, and afterwards sove- 
 reign of Attica, and part of Boeotia. He reigned at Athens 
 as Duke Renicr I. Dying without legitimate male issue, he 
 bequeathed Athens to the Venetians ; Corinth to his son-in-law, 
 Thomas Pala3ologus; and Boeotia to his natural son Antonio, 
 •who afterwards became duke of Athens, was succeeded by Nerio, 
 and he by Antonio, from whose son and successor. Franco, 
 Athens was taken by Sultan Mahomet II. in 1455. — E. M. 
 
 ACCIAJUO'LI, Zenobio, a learned Dominican, librarian of 
 the Vatican under Leo X., born at Florence in 1451. He 
 translated into Latin three of the minor Greek fathers, and 
 edited the Greek epigi-ams of his friend Politian. He was also 
 a poet of some distinction. Died in 1519. 
 
 ACCIAJUO'LI SALVETTI, JIadai.ena, a celebrated Itahan 
 poetess, born at Florence about the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. She left miscellaneous poetry — "Rime Toscane," 2 vols. 
 4to, and an unfinished poem, entitled " Davide perseguitato 
 owero fuggitivo." Died in IGIO. 
 
 ACCIO" ZUCCO, an Italian poet of the fifteenth century, 
 author of an Italian poetical paraphrase of " iEsop's Fables." 
 
 * ACCIO'LI, J. DE Cerqueira e Sylva, a distinguished 
 Brazilian historian and geographer, born at Brazil about the close 
 of last century. The family Accioli, or Achioli, have long occu- 
 pied a prominent place in the annals of Brazilian literature. M. 
 Accioli is resident member of the Historical Institute of Kio de 
 Janeu'o, and resides chiefly at Bahia de todos Os Santos, and at 
 Para. He has written some valuable works relative to the his- 
 tory and geography of the provinces in which he resides. — J. F. 
 A'CCIUS or A'TTIUS, Lu'cius, was one of the most famous 
 Latin tragic poets. He flourished in the second century before 
 the Christian era. Only fragments of his tragedies have come 
 down to us, preserved principally in the works of Cicero. 
 
 ACCIUS or ATTIUS PRISCUS, a Roman painter, who, 
 with Cornelius Priscus, decorated the temple of Virtue and 
 Honour at Rome, 69 years after Christ. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Benedetto, a distinguished Italian lawyer and 
 historian, professor of law at Florence, and afterwards secretary 
 to the Florentine republic ; well known as author of two Latin 
 works, the one a histoi-y of the Crusades, which Tasso is said to 
 have used as the basis of his " Jerusalem DeUvered ;" and the 
 other, a discourse on the worthies of the age, asserting the 
 eqiuility of the modems to the ancients. Born at Arezzo m 
 1415, and died at Florence in 1466. Another Benedetto 
 AccoLTi, related to the preceding, having engaged in a plot 
 against the life of Pope Pius IV., was, on conviction, publicly 
 executed along wdth his prmcipal accomplices in 1564. — E. M. 
 ACCOLTI, Bernard, son of Benedetto the historian, was a 
 celebrated Italian poet, whose rehearsals of extemporaneous 
 poetry excited amazing enthusiasm, and attracted enonnous 
 crowds. His piinted poems, though, from his habit of extem- 
 poraneous composition, deficient in polish and precision, exhibit 
 the fancy and fire of a true poet. Born in 1465 ; died in 1535. 
 ACCOLTI, Francis, brother of Benedetto the historian, 
 taught law at Sienna and other places, with great and merited 
 reputation, but was noted for peevishness and avarice. Born at 
 Arezzo in 1418, and died at Sienna in 1483. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Peter, son of Benedetto the historian, was 
 apostolical abbreviator under Leo X., and drew up the famous 
 bull against Luther. He was afterwards secretary to Clement 
 VII., by whom he was made a cardinal in 1527, and in 1532 
 was sent as governor of Ancona. Died at Florence 1549. 
 
 ACCORAMBO'NA, Vittoria, an Italian poetess, who, on 
 suspicion of having murdered her husband, was confined several 
 years in the castle of St. Angelo, and, when liberated on estab- 
 lishing her innocence, was married to the duke of Arcenno, by 
 whose relative, L. Orsini, she was murdered in 1585. 
 
 ACCORAMBO'NI, Fabio, son of Geronimo, was professor 
 of law and author of several works on jurispmdence, and, having 
 
 held various offices under the papal government, became dis- 
 tinguished as a negotiator and statesman. Born at Gubio in 
 1502 ; died at Rome in 1559. 
 
 ACCORAMBO'NI, Felix, grandson of Geronimo, distin- 
 guished as a poet, philosopher, and physician, author of a com- 
 mentary on various works of Aristotle, Galen, and Theophrastus, 
 flourished towards the end of the sixteenth centuiy. 
 
 ACCORAMBO'NI, Geronimo, an Italian physician and 
 medical author, successively physician to Leo X., Clement VII., 
 and Pius III., born at Gubio in 1467 ; died at Rome in 1537. 
 
 ACCORSO, Francesco, or ACCURSIUS, a media3val jurist, 
 bom at Florence in 1182. After being for some time professor 
 of law in his native city, he settled at Bologna. By the writers 
 of the 12th and 13th centmies, he was called the "Jurist's 
 Idol." To his Great Gloss, or continuous annotations on the 
 " Corpus Jm-is " of Justinian, lawyers during a gi-eat part of the 
 middle ages referred as an infallible authority. Died at Bologna 
 in 1260. 
 
 ACCORSO, Francesco, or FRANCISCUS ACCURSII, son 
 of the preceding, born at Bologna in 1225. Distmguished, hke 
 his father, for his knowledge of jurisprudence, he was still more 
 remarkable for his practical wisdom and diplomatic ability. In 
 1273 he was induced by Edward I., then returning from the 
 Holy Land, to accompany him to England, where he remained 
 as that monarch's confidential adviser till 1282, when he re- 
 turned to Bologna, and resumed his lectures. Died in 1293. 
 Other two sons and a daughter of the elder Accorso are said to 
 have been not only accomphshed jmists, but public teachers of 
 jmispiaidence. — E- M. 
 
 ACCO'RSO, ^Iaui'angelo, one of the most learned critics 
 and remarkable linguists of the sixteenth century, bom at Aquila, 
 in the kingdom of Naples, about 1490. He was a favourite 
 agent of the Emperor Charles V., who sent him on various mis- 
 sions to Germany, Poland, and other parts of the north. He was 
 author of several literary works, editor of various ancient Latin 
 authors, and enriched the Vatican with valuable manuscripts 
 collected during his travels. — E. M. 
 
 ACCOTTI, Geronimo, an Italian Dominican of Mecca, died 
 m 1560. 
 
 ACCOTTO, Reginald, a Sicihan Dominican, for many years 
 primarius of the college of his order in Naples, was a famous 
 preacher, and author of several works; died in 1590. 
 
 ACCUM, Frederick, a German chemist, bom at Bucke- 
 burg in 1769. He came to London in 1793, and towards the 
 close of his life retired to Berlin, where he died in 1838. He 
 was for a short time an assistant in the laboratoiy of the Royal 
 Institution, London, and settled afterwards in Compton-street, 
 Soho, where he gave lectures on chemistry and pliysics, sold 
 chemical apparatus, and instracted private pupils, amongst 
 whom were the duke of Northumberland, Lord Camelford, and 
 other influential persons. He took an active part in the intro- 
 duction of gas-lighting into London, and several towns in 
 England; and his treatise on that subject, published in 1815, 
 was greatly conducive to a general appreciation of the impor- 
 tance and economy of this mode of illumination. He was 
 the author of several popular treatises on subjects relating to 
 chemistiy, among which may be enumerated — " The Elements 
 of Crystallogi-aphy," 1813; "Art of Brewing;" " Cuhnary 
 Chemistry," 1821; " Chemical Amusements ;" " Chemical Tests 
 and Reagents," 1826 ; " The Physical and Chemical Qualities 
 of Building Materials," 1826.— F. P., G. 
 
 ACCURSIUS. See Accorso, Francesco. 
 ACERBI, Enri'co, an Italian physician and writer, contri- 
 butor to the " Bibliotheca Italiana," and author of several medical 
 works, born near Milan in 1785 ; died in 1827. 
 
 ACERBI, Giuseppe, an Italian traveller, born near Mantua 
 in 1773. Having in 1799 traversed Lapland, reaching North 
 Cape, and afterwards repaired to London, he there in 1802 
 published in English an account of his travels. In 1816 he 
 established the " Bibliotheca Italiana," published at Milan. In 
 1826 he was appointed Austrian consul in Egypt, whence he 
 transmitted to the museums of Italy and Vienna, numerous and 
 valuable Eijyptian antiquities. Died at the place of his birth in 
 1846.— E.'~M. 
 
 ACERNUS, a name Latinized from the Polish Klonowicz 
 (Sebastian Fabian), born at Sulmierzyce, in the palatinate of 
 Kalist, 1551. He was so distinguished for his Latin and Polish 
 poems as to be called the " Sarmatian Ovid." After finishing
 
 his studies at Cracow, lie settled at Lublin, wliere lie was made 
 burgomaster, and also president of the civil tribunal for Jewish 
 affairs. His affairs getting into disorder, he was obliged to seek 
 refuge in the hospital of Lublin, where he died in 1C08. The 
 principal of his numerous poetical and satiilcal works, includ- 
 ing his poem, "Victoria Deonim," which took him ten years to 
 finish, and his satire, " Worek Judaszow," or the "Pm-se of 
 Judas," were destroyed, some by the Polish nobles, and some by 
 the Jesuits, and are now very rare. — J. F. 
 
 ACE'SETJS or A'CESAS, an ancient Greek artist, celebrated 
 for his skill in embroidery. Several exquisite specimens of his 
 workmanship were to be seen in the temple of the Pythian 
 Apollo, but his masteri)iece was the famous mantle of MineiTa 
 Polias in tlie Acropolis of Athens. 
 
 ACE'SIUS, a disciple of Kovatus, and bishop of Constanti- 
 nople in the time of Constantine the Great, who, on hearing 
 him, at the council of Kice, urge the rigid views of the No- 
 vatians, is said to have exclaimed, " Acesius, make a ladder for 
 thyself, and mount alone to heaven ! " 
 
 "ACEVE'DO, Ceistofe, a Spanish painter, pupil of Carducho. 
 He executed several sacred pictures for his native town, Mmxia, 
 which are highly estimated. Died 1592. 
 
 ACEVE'DO, Felix Alvarez, a Spanish patriot, born m the 
 province of Leon. After studying at Salamanca, he was called 
 to the bar, which he soon quitted to enter the arniy. As 
 colonel of a regiment, he gi'catly distinguished himself in the 
 defence of his country against Napoleon. When General Qui- 
 roga and Riego proclaimed the constitution in 1820, he took 
 the command of the Galician insurgents, and, joined by crowds 
 of adherents, many of whom issued from the dungeons of the 
 Inquisition, whose doors were then thrown open, he soon di'ove 
 the royalists from the left bank of the Jliuho, but was shot 
 by a party of militia while he was attempting to gain them over 
 to the constitutional cause. — E. !M. 
 
 ACH^EUS OF Eretria, a tragic poet, 484 B.C. ; another, 
 cousin to Antioclms the Great, and himself a powerful and, for a 
 long time, a successful usurper. 
 
 ACHAINTPiE, KicoLAS-Louis, one of the most famous 
 philologists and scholars of France, was born at Paris, Nov. 19, 
 1771, and died about 1830. Though destined for the chm-cli, 
 he never took orders, but followed the pi-ofession of a school- 
 master. Duruig the revolutionary years of 1793, 1794, and 
 1795, he had to serve in the army, and was at last taken cap- 
 tive and sent to Hungaiy, where he was detained for twenty-one 
 months. On his return to France, he resumed his profession of 
 teacher, and busied lumself with preparing annotated editions of 
 the classics. He was so successful in editing Horace, that the 
 celebrated bookseller, Finiiin Didot, made him coiTcctor in his 
 printing establishment, and Achaintre in this capacity gave to 
 the world new editions of Juvenal and Persius. He edited various 
 other Latin works, and translated several Greek and Latin works 
 into French, among which were some philosophical treatises of 
 Cicero, and " The War of Troy," attributed to Dictys of Crete. 
 His latter days were embittered by wretchedness and want, the 
 result of intemperance. — J. D. 
 
 ACHARD, an ecclesiastic, bom in Normandy, became abbot 
 of St. Victor-lez -Paris in 1155. He was highly respected by 
 Henry IL, king of England, who promoted him to the see of 
 Abranches in 1161. His works — still in manuscript — are, 1. 
 " De tentatione Christi," and 2. " De divisione animae et 
 spiritus." Some writers have confounded him with Achard, a 
 monk of Clain'aux, and friend of St. Bernard. 
 
 ACHARD, Antoixe, a learned divine, pastor of the French 
 protestant church at Werder in Prussia, author of two volumes 
 of sermons, and an essay in refutation of fatalism, inserted in the 
 Transactions of the Berlin Royal Academy of Sciences ; born at 
 Geneva in 1C96. 
 
 ACHARD, Claude Francois, a French physician, author 
 of various interesting works on the language, topography, and 
 history of Provence; bom at Marseilles in 1753 ; died in 1809. 
 
 ACHARD, Franz Kai£L, a German naturalist and chemist, 
 was bom at Berlin, 1753, and died at Kunern, 1821. He was 
 descended from a French protestant family, wlio, after the revo- 
 cation of the edict of Nantes, took refuge in Berlin. He was 
 director of the physical department of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Beriin. He devoted much attention to the manufacture of 
 beet-root sugar, which he carried on at a domain in Silesia, 
 granted to him by the long of Prussia. — J. II. B. 
 
 ACHARDS, Eleazar, a French bishop, titular of Ilalicar- 
 nassus, bom at A^^gnon in 1679, and memorable for the 
 humanity and intrepidity he exhibited when Marseilles and 
 Provence were visited by the plague in 1721. Induced to 
 proceed to China in order to appease dissensions among the 
 Roman Catholic missionaries, he died in Cochin in 1741. 
 
 ACHA'RIUS, Erik, a Swedish botanist and physician, was 
 bom at Gefie, 1757, and died at Wadstena, 1819. After getting 
 the elements of his education at Gefle, he went to the university 
 of Upsal, and studied under Linnaeus, who committed to his care 
 the natural histoiy drawings, illustrating the Transactions of the 
 Stockholm Academy of Sciences. He obtained the degi-ee of 
 doctor of medicine at Lmid in 1782, and in 1796 was admitted 
 a member of the Stockholm Academy. In 1801 he became 
 professor of botany. His death was caused by apoplexy, at the 
 age of sixty-two. He devoted his attention in an especial manner 
 to lichens, and his works on liclienogi-aphy, more particularly his 
 " Lichenogi-apliia Universalis," pubhshed in quarto at Gottingen 
 in 1804, place him among the chief authorities in this depart- 
 ment of botany. Thunberg has named a genus Acharia after 
 liim. Acharius left an herbarium of 11,000 species, the lichens 
 belonging to wliich were purchased by the university of Hel- 
 singfors. — J. H. B. 
 
 ACHARI or ASHARI, a Moslem doctor, and founder of the 
 sect called Asharians, whose distinctive principle is such a view 
 of predestination as virtually amounts to fatalism, was bora in 
 the latter part of the 9th centurj', and died at Bagdad in 936. 
 
 ACHEN, JoHAXN A'AN, a German historical and portrait 
 painter, pupO of Jerrigh, whom he quitted in order to perfect 
 himself in his studies in Italy. When he left Rome, he pro- 
 ceeded to Prague, where he executed several works in the Rliad- 
 schin. Bom at Cologne, 1556; died at Prague 1621. 
 
 ACHEXWELL, Godfrey, an eminent German economist 
 and jurist, many yeai-s professor in the university of Gottuigen, 
 and founder of the science of statistics, was bom at Elbing in 
 Prussia in 1719. His principal works are — 1. "Elements of 
 the Statistics of the principal European States," 1749; 2. "A 
 brief history of the principal existing States of Europe," 1759 ; 
 3. "A sketch of European diplomacy during the 17th and 18th 
 centuries," 1756; and 4. "Principles of Political Economy," 
 1761. Died 1772.— E. M. 
 
 ACHE'RY, LucA d', a Benedictme monk, bom at St. Quen- 
 tin in 1609, who spent the greatest part of his life in the 
 abbey of St. Gemiain-des-pr^s, devoting himself almost exclu- 
 sively to mediaeval researclies. He had a great share in com- 
 piUng the lives of saints of the Benedictine order, published by 
 Mabillon, and edited numerous rare medieval works. His 
 principal publication is in 13 vols. 4to, and entitled " Veteram 
 aliquot Scriptoi-um qui in Galliae Bibliotliecis, maxiine Benedic- 
 torum, Spicilegiuni," &c. The Spicilegiura contains a mass of 
 curious documents, and the preface and notes with wliich Achery 
 has enriched each volume, e\ince an amazing acquaintance with 
 the institutions, history, and literature of the middle ages. 
 Died at Paris in 1685.— E. M. 
 
 ACHILLES, the hero of the Hiad, was the son of Peleus, 
 king of the Jlyrmidons in Thessaly, and of the marine goddess 
 Thetis, the daughter of Nereus. In his youth he was intrusted 
 to the care of Phoenix and the centaur Cheiron. His mother 
 foretold him that he might either have a glorious but short life, or 
 a long and inglorious life. He chose the fonner, and thus 
 became distinguished for his bravery above all the Greeks who 
 fought at Troy. In the first book of the Iliad, Achilles is re- 
 presented as retiring from the Greek army, because Agamemnon 
 deprives him of a beautiful maiden who had fallen to his lot in 
 the division of the spoil. In consequence of his absence the 
 Trojans gain the superiority over the Greeks, and the Trojan 
 hero, Hector, fights uncheclced. At length, however, Achilles 
 yields so far as to give his friend Patroclus his armour, and per- 
 mit liim thus accoutred to enter the lists with the Trojans. 
 Patroclus is killed, and the armour of Achilles is taken. Acliilles 
 now no longer hesitates. He equips himself in new armour sup- 
 plied him by the gods, and, rushing into the battle-field, carries 
 everything before him, until at length he meets and slays Hector. 
 Homer alludes to the death of Achilles, but nowhere describes it. 
 We have gi\-en the Homeric account of Achilles. Later tradi- 
 tions added many stories about his youth, about his being invul- 
 nerable everywhere except in the heel, and about Ms dying by a 
 wound from Apollo or from Paris. — J. D.
 
 ACHILLES TA'TIUS, tlie writer of an interesting Greek 
 romance. It is not certain at what period he lived, but the 
 niost probable conjecture assigns him to the fifth century of the 
 Christian era. His novel is devoted to the love adventures of 
 Leucippe and Cleitophon, and the naiTative is interspersed with 
 elaborate descriptions of places such as Alexandria, and of 
 scenes such as hfe m Egypt presented. His style is stilted 
 and pompous, but his work contains a gi'eat deal of curious and 
 interesting information. — J. D. 
 
 ACHILLrXI, Alexander, a famous mediaeval physician 
 and philosopher, professor of philosophy and anatomy, first at 
 Padua, and afterwards at Bologna; born at Bologna in 1463. 
 He was the first Italian who availed himself of the edict of the 
 Emperor Frederick II. to dissect human subjects. His lectures 
 attracted crowds of students from all parts of Europe. He was 
 an ardent admifer of the Arab philosophers, especially AveiToes, 
 and with Arab philosophy must have imbibed no small tmcture 
 of Oriental superstition, as he left, besides various anatomical 
 and medical works, an elaborate treatise on " Chiromantia, or 
 Palmistry." Died in 1512. — E. M. 
 
 ACHILLINI, Claudio, grand-nephew of the preceding, a 
 person of versatile genius and extensive attainments, distin- 
 guished in his time as a physician, jurist, theologian, and poet ; 
 born at Bologna in 1574, and died in 1640. 
 
 ACHMED-BESMI-EFFENDI, an Ottoman historian and 
 statesman of the eighteenth centuiy, was Tm-kish ambassador 
 at Vienna and BerMn, and signed, as Ottoman plenipotentiary, 
 the treaty of Kainardji. He is the author of a history of the 
 war between the Ottomans and the Russians, from 1768 to 
 1774, and of an account of his two embassies. Both these 
 works have been translated into Gennan. — E. M. 
 
 ACHIIET or AHMET-BEN-SEUEBI, a learned Arab of 
 the ninth century, author of a treatise on the interpretation of 
 di'eams, a Greek translation of which is usually annexed to the 
 work of Artemidorus on the same subject. 
 
 ACHMET-GEDUC or ACOMAT, a celebrated Ottoman 
 general, bom in Albania about the year 1430. He took Otranto 
 and other places in 1480. After the death of Mahomet II. in 
 1482, he raised Bajazet II. to the throne, and compelled Zizino, 
 Bajazet's brother, and the lawful heir, to retire to lihodes. Ba- 
 jazet afterwards caused his benefactor, Achmet, to be murdered, 
 or, according to some historians, miurdered him with his own 
 hand at a banquet. — E. M. 
 
 ACHMET, eldest son of Bajazet II., when on the point of 
 mounting the throne, abdicated by Bajazet in his favour, was 
 defeated and slain, in 1512, by his brother Selim I., who had 
 previously murdered then father. 
 ACHMET. See Ahmed. 
 
 ACIITSCHELLING, Lucas, a Flemish landscape painter of 
 the 17th century, pupil of Louis de Walden, whom he soon sur- 
 passed in his excellent in'.itation of natm'e. 
 
 ACIDALIUS, Valens, a precocious critic and a doctor of 
 medicine, born at Wittstock in Brandenburg, and died in 1595, 
 when he had scarcely completed his 29th year. He was the 
 author of several poems, and of excellent critical remarks on 
 Tacitus, Plautus, &c. 
 
 ACILIUS, Glabkio Marcus, consul at Rome 191 b.c, 
 famous for a victoiy over Antiochus the Great. His son built 
 at Rome the temple of Piety. 
 
 A'CKERMAN, J. C. G., a German physician, professor of 
 medicine at Altdorf in Franconia, author of " Lives of the An- 
 cient Greek Physicians ; " "Institutes of the History of Medicine ;" 
 and " A JIanual of Military Medicine," all works of value. Bom 
 in 1756 at Zeulenrode in Upper Saxony; died in 801. 
 
 A'CKERMAN, Rodolph, was born in 1764, at Schnee- 
 berg in Saxony, where his father followed the trade of a saddler, 
 and died in London, 30th March, 1834. Having served his 
 apprenticeship with his father, he set out on his travels as a 
 journeyman, and coming to London, he there formed an acquain- 
 tance with a countrj'man of his own, named Facius, who at that 
 time conducted the " Journal of Fashions." With this person 
 he formed an engagement as a designer of carnages, &c., in 
 which he was so successful as in a very short time to be able to 
 open that splendid establishment in the Strand, known as the 
 Repository of the Fine Arts, whence he sent forth many elegant 
 works, particularly the series of finely illustrated volumes called 
 " Forget me not." Ackennan was one of the first inventors of 
 watei-proof fabrics for clothing ; he assisted Accum in i'.itroduc- 
 
 ing the lighting of cities with carbonated hydrogen gas, and was 
 the first to introduce lithography into this country. — S. 
 
 A'CKERjMAN, Petek Fourek, D.D., ordinarius professor of 
 the Old Testament and Hebrew at Vienna; born there 17th 
 November, 1771, and died there 9th September, 1831. Works : 
 — " Introductio in libros sacros Vet. Test., usibus academicis ac- 
 commodata," 1825; " Archa^ologia Biblica bre\'iter exposita," 
 1826 ; " Prophetre Minores perpet. annot. illust," 1830. 
 
 ACOLUTH, John, a leamed Lutheran divine, bom in 
 Silesia, 1628, and died 1689. He pubUshed some Latin tracts, 
 such as " Postilla Evangelica," &c. 
 
 ACOLUTHUS, Andreas, professor of theology at Breslau 
 in Silesia, In 1680 he published "Obediah" in Armenian and 
 Latin, the first work printed in Annenian characters in Germany; 
 and in 1701, some chapters of the Koran in Arabic, Persian, 
 Turkish, and Latin. Died in 1704. 
 
 ACONZIO or ACONTIUS, a philosopher, jurist, and divine 
 of the sixteenth century, a native of Trent. Renouncing the 
 church of Rome, he retired to England, where he received a 
 pension from Queen Elizabeth, to whom he dedicated a treatise 
 entitled the " Stratagems of Satan." In an age of persecution 
 he earnestly recommended to all Christian churches mutual for- 
 bearance ; but his proposed basis of religious union comprehended 
 not merely all professing Christians, but Jews, Moslems, and 
 Pagans. His views were vehemently denounced by several 
 divines both in England and on the Continent. He wrote a 
 work on "Method; or the Right Mode of Studying and of 
 Teaching Science ;" and an admirable epistle on " Authorship." 
 He was also a distinguished engineer, and wrote an able work 
 on fortification. Died altout 1565. — E. M. 
 
 ACORIS, Mng of Egypt, 374 B.C. He succeeded Nepherens, 
 and entered into a league with the Arabians, Tyrians, and 
 Evagoras, king of Cypras, to make war against Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon, king of Persia, in which he was unsuccessful. 
 
 ACOSTA, Christoval, a Portuguese natm-ahst and physi- 
 cian, was born at the beginning of the sixteenth century at 
 Mozambique, and died in 1580. He travelled much in tlie 
 piirsuit of science, and visited Asia in search of medicinal plants 
 and cU-ugs. Dm-ing his voyage thither, he was seized by phates, 
 and had to pay a large ransom for his liberation. After spend- 
 uig several years in the East Indies, especially at Goa, a Portu- 
 guese colony, he retumed to Europe and settled at Burgos, 
 where he continued to practise mediciue during the remainder of 
 his life. Acosta wrote a treatise on the " Medicinal Plants and 
 the Drugs of the East Indies." — J. H. B. 
 
 ACOSTA, Gabriel, professor of theology at Coimbra, wrote 
 a commentary on part of the Old Testament. Died 1616. 
 
 * ACOSTA, JoAQUiM, an officer in the Central American ser- 
 vice, well known in the scientific world as a geographer and his- 
 torian, and residing at Santa Fd Since 1834 he has engaged 
 in various scientific and exploring expeditions, and has published 
 several valuable treatises relating to the history, geogi-aphy, and 
 antiquities of South America. In 1848 he published "An 
 Historical Compendium of the Discoveiy and Colonization of 
 New Granada in the Sixteenth Centmy." In 1849 he edited 
 and republished, with valuable additions, the work of the leamed 
 Caldas, so often cited by tlie venerable Humboldt, which presents 
 a view of the sciences, literatm-e, arts, and industry of New 
 Granada. Acosta's works have been pubhshed at Paris. — J. F. 
 ACOSTA, Joseph, a learned Jesuit, born about 1539 at 
 Medina del Campo, of Portuguese extraction. He went to Pera 
 in 1572 as a missionary, and became Pro\-incial of the Jesuits. 
 He retumed to Em-ope in 1588, and dming the last years of his 
 life, was principal of the university of Salamanca. His works 
 of greatest value are — "A Natural and Moral Histoiy of Spanish 
 America;" "A Description of the New World;" and "A Dis- 
 sertation on the Conversion of the Indians." Died in 1600. 
 
 ACOSTA, Uriel, a Portuguese gentleman of Jewish extrac- 
 tion, born at Oporto about the end of the sixteenth century. 
 His parents, though apparently zealous Roman catholics, we)-e, 
 probably, at heart devoted to Judaism. When twenty-two 
 years of age, he left Portugal, in order to make open profession 
 of the Jewish faith, and escaped to Holland, with his mother 
 and two brothers. Having investigated the principles of modern 
 Judaism, he declared himself a Sadducec, and was solemnly cast 
 out of the synagogue. After enduring for fifteen years all the 
 ignominy and hardship of a Jewish excommunication, he signed 
 and read a feigned recantation of his en-ors, but was again
 
 excommunicated for ungunrded indications of his real sentiments, 
 and, after the lapse of other seven years, he submitted to the 
 most outrageous indignities, by way of penance, to be read- 
 mitted into the Jewish communion. The severity with which 
 he was treated completely unhinged his mind and led to suicide, 
 about the vear 1640, or, according to others, 1647. — E. M. 
 
 ACOSTER, sumamed Saccas, a tragic poet of Athens, and 
 a contempoi-aiy of Aiistophanes. Another of the same name, a 
 sculptor of Cnossus, mentioned by Pausanias. 
 
 ACQUAVI'VA, Andrea ]\Iatteo, a Neapolitan nobleman, 
 noted as a patron of men of letters ; born in 14£>6. The only one 
 of his own works ever published was a commentary on the Latin 
 translation of one of Plutarch's moral treatises. Died m 1526. 
 ACQUAVrVA, Belizarius, brother of the preceding, and, 
 like him, on terms of intimate friendship with all the distin- 
 guished authors of his age and country. He was himself author 
 of several works. 
 
 ACQUAVIVA, Claudius and Octavius. See Aquaats^a. 
 ACKAGAS, one of the four best chasers in silver in Greece, 
 mentioned by Pliny. Nothing is Ivnown about his bu-thplace, or 
 the epoch in which he lived ; but the fact of works of his being 
 found nowhere else but at Rhodes, coupled with that of his 
 ha^^ng generally treated bacchantes, hunters, and other similar 
 subjects, induce the belief that he was established in that town, 
 and belonged to the school which the followers of Lysippus had 
 instituted there. — R. M. 
 
 ACREL, Olaus, a Swedish surgeon and physician, born near 
 Stockholm early in the eighteenth centun,'. After studraig at 
 Upsal and Stockholm, he resided in Germany and France, and 
 served for two years in the French army, lie returned to Stock- 
 holm in 1745, and published works named "A Treatise on Re- 
 cent Wounds," " Observations on Surgery," " Reforms Neces- 
 saiy in Surgical Operations," and " On the Cataract of the Eye." 
 Die'd in 18u7. 
 
 ACRON or AGRON, a Greek physician, bora at Agrigentum 
 about 460 e.g., who, by means of fires kindled in public places 
 of its cities, delivered Greece from the plague which devastated 
 it at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 ACRON or ACRO, Hele'nus, a scholiast ; judging by his 
 commentarj' upon the Adelphis of Terence, he lived about the 
 end of the fom-teenth century. His piiiicipal work is a commen- 
 taiy upon Horace. 
 
 ACRON, John, a protestant theologian, was born in a small 
 town in Friesland in the year 1506 ; died in 1655. He has left 
 several theological works. 
 
 ACRO'NIUS or ACRON, John, a Dutch physician, was 
 born 1520, in the village of Acron in Friesland. He taught 
 medicine and mathematics at Basle, where he died in 1562. He 
 has left treatises on the " Motion of the Earth," &C. 
 
 ACROPOLI'TA, CoNSTANTiNE, a Byzantine writer, lived at 
 Constantinople in the end of the thuteenth and beginning of 
 the fourteenth centuries. He has left some discourses against 
 the Latins, some homilies, and eulogies of the saints. 
 
 ACROPOLI'TA, George, a Byzantine chronicler, father of 
 the preceding, was born at Constantinople in the year 1220, died 
 1282. He there held the office of " logotheto," a sort of comptroller- 
 general of the revenue, at the court of ^lichael Paleologus, from 
 whence he took the surname of Logothetes. His pupil, Theo- 
 dore Lascaris, made him governor of the western provinces of 
 the empire, and Jlichael Paleologus sent him as ambassador to 
 Constantine, prince of Bulgaria, and intnisted to him many im- 
 portant negotiations. His Historj', discovered by Douza, begins 
 at the period in which that of Nicetas ends, and extends fi'om the 
 year 1205 to the expulsion of the French emperors in 1261. — S. 
 ACRO'TATUS, eldest son of Cleomenes II., king of Sparta, 
 reigned in the beginning of the fourth centmy B.C. According 
 to Pausanias, he had the command of an aiTiiy, which the 
 Lacedemonians sent against Aristodemus, tyrant of JlegalopolLs ; 
 and perished in a sanguinary encounter, in which the Lacede- 
 monians were defeated. 
 
 ACTISANES, a king of Ethiopia, dethroned Amenophis, Idng 
 of Eg)'fjt, and for a short period vmited both kingdoms under his 
 sceptre He freed his states of robbers whom he sent to a penal 
 colony in the desert between Egv'pt and Arabia. 
 
 ACTOX, in 944, bishop of Verceil. His works, consisting of 
 a capitulary in a hundred articles, a summary of moral philo- 
 sophy, Istters, discourses, commentaries, &c., were collected by 
 Baronzio in 1768. 
 
 ACTON, Joseph, prime minister of Naples duiing Lord 
 Nelson's presence there, the son of a physician, was of Irish 
 descent. Born at Besan^on in France in 1737, he was at first 
 an officer in the French navy, and subsequently in that of Tus- 
 cany. Employed in the Spanish expedition against the Barbary 
 corsairs, he was the means of rescuing four thousand Spaniards 
 from slaveiy. Entering the Neapolitan navy, he soon became 
 known at covirt, and through the jjatronage of Queen Caroline 
 was appointed successively minister of the marine, minister of 
 war, director of the finances, and finally piime muiister. Hatred 
 of the French prompted him to the most extravagant and cruel 
 measures, and his policy was disadvantageous alike to the king 
 and kingdom. He was dismissed from office in 1803, and retu-ed 
 to Sicily, where he died in 1808. — W. A. 
 
 ACTUA'RIUS, John, a Greek physician of the lower em- 
 pire, who lived somewhere between the eleventh and fourteenth 
 centuries. He has left several works on medical subjects, which 
 have all been gathered together in the " Actu;uii Opera," pub- 
 lished in Paris in 1556. 
 
 ACUNA, Don Antonio d', bishop of Zamara, member of an 
 ancient Spanish family, f;mious for the important part he took 
 in the ci\'il war in Spain, in the reign of Charles V. Joining 
 the insurgents, he was received by them with boimdless enthu- 
 siasm, and, becoming one of their leaders, rendered them un- 
 mense service. Though a bishop, he displayed the skill of an 
 experienced general ; and, though sixty years of age, he still 
 retained all the actirity and fire of early manhood. He raised 
 and disciplined a regiment of priests, at the head of whom he 
 always marched to battle, and who, on all occasions, fought with 
 amazing heroism. After the decisive defeat of the insurgents at 
 ^'iIlalar, the wanior prelate attempted to escape to France, but 
 was made prisoner when on the point of enteiing the French 
 tenitoiy, and confined in the castle of Simancus. After remain- 
 ing here for some time, treated with every respect, he killed the 
 governor by a blow on the head with a brick he had concealed 
 for the pui-pose, and had nearly escaped, but was seized, and 
 afterwards, by special pemiission of the pope, tried and con- 
 demned by a secidar tribunal, and executed. — E. M. 
 
 ACUNA, Christopher, a Jesuit missionary', boiTi at Bm-gos 
 in 1597. After labom-ing for some time among the Indians of 
 PeiTi and Chili, he in 1638 accompanied a flotilla despatched 
 to explore the river Amazon, and, on retmniing to Spain, pub- 
 lished, in 1641, an interesting account of his voyage. Acuna 
 returned to Lima, where he died aboutl675. 
 
 ACUNA, Hernando d', a Spanish soldier and poet in the 
 reign of Charles V. He belonged to a noble family, originally 
 Portuguese. As a soldier, Acuna is noted for his services in 
 various military exploits, but he is best known as a translator of 
 the " Chevalier Dclibere " of Oliver de la JIarche. 
 
 ACUNA, Don Pedro Bravo d', a Spaniard, who took a 
 distinguished part in the wars of his country, about the end of 
 the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries. Among 
 other services, he was prominent in the resistance to the attack 
 made on Cadiz by Sir Francis Drake in 1587. He was ap- 
 pomted governor of Carthagena in 1593, and in 1602 was pro- 
 moted to the government of the Phillipines. 'While occupying 
 that position he conquered the Moluccas, which had fallen into 
 the hands of the Dutch.— J. B. 
 
 ACUSILA'US OF Argos, one of the earliest wiiters of Greek 
 prose. Jlost probably he lived during the sixth centmy B.C., 
 and is sometimes said to be one of the seven wise men of 
 Greece. He belongs to a class of authors called logographers, 
 who collected the early Greek legends, generally local, and paved 
 the wav for the more stately historical efforts of Herodotus. The 
 work of Acusilaus was named " Genealogies." Only a few frag- 
 ments of it have come down to us. — J. D. 
 
 ADyEUS or ADD^EUS, a Greek poet, bom in Macedonia, 
 supposed to be the author of five epigrams in the " Greek 
 Anthology," though only one of these is expressly assigned to the 
 Macedonian Addiuus. He lived probably about 320 B.C. 
 
 ADAIR, Jasies, an English merchant and traveller, lived 
 about the middle of the eighteenth centmy. He resided for 
 four years amongst the savage tribes of North America, and 
 published in 1770 an interesting work, entitled " History of 
 the American Indians," in which he sought to prove that the 
 tribes of the north were the descendants of a Jewish colony. 
 
 ADAIR, Jajies Makittrick, a native of Scotland, the date 
 of whose bu-th is unkaiown, practised for several years at Bath,
 
 and subsequently became physician to the commander-in-chief 
 and the colonial troops at Antigua, and one of the judges of that 
 island ; he wrote several works on diet and regimen, the materia 
 niedica, fashionable diseases, &c. ; also a pamphlet of " Unan- 
 swerable arguments against the abolition of the Slave Trade." 
 Died at Ilarrowgate, 24th April, 1802.— W. A. 
 
 ADAIR, John, F.R.S., an eminent Scottish hydrographer, 
 of whose personal history little is knoivn. He lived at the close 
 of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, and 
 Lis name is connected with various coast surveys of Scotland, 
 and maps which have been preserved. 
 
 ADAIR, Robert, of Holybrooke, in the county of Wick- 
 low, was descended from Robert, elder son of Maurice, fourth 
 earl of Kildare, who, in a family feud or (parrel, killed in single 
 combat Gerald, commonly called " The White Knight," second 
 son of Gerald, earl of Desmond, at a place caEed the ford of 
 AtJi-ddre, in the county of Limerick, and made his escape to 
 Scotland in the reign of Robert Brace, taking the name of 
 Ath-dar6 or Adair. The family assumed the title of Lau-ds of 
 Kinhilt in Galloway, and returned to Ireland in 1630. Robert 
 Adair of Holybrooke, from whom Su- George Hodson, Bart., 
 the present proprietor, is lineally descended, is the " Robin" of 
 the song set to the music of the old Irish air " Aileen Aroon." 
 He was remarkable for his convivial habits, as memorials of 
 which, two claret goblets of miglity proportions yet exist at 
 Holybrooke, and the recollection of Ids musical tastes is still 
 preserved in an Irish harp of rude workmanship, but of gi-ace- 
 ful proportion, which bears his name. Died in 1737. — J. F. W. 
 ADALARD. See Adaliiard. 
 
 ADALBERON, archbishop of Rheims, and chancellor of 
 France, was bom about the middle of the tenth century, and 
 died 988. He distinguished himself, both as prelate and min- 
 ister, under Lotharius, Louis V., and Hugh Capet. Some of his 
 letters are to be found amongst those of Gerbert, and two of liis 
 scnnons appear in the Chi-onicle of Jloissac. 
 
 ADALBERON, Ascelin or Azelin, bishop of Laon, born 
 about the middle of the tenth century, died 19th July, 1030. 
 Besides a satirical poem dedicated to King Robert, in which are 
 to be found some curious historical traits, several unpublished 
 •snitings of his still exist. 
 
 ADALBERT, a French bishop, who was accused of heresy 
 by Boniface, archbishop of JIayence, and in 747 convicted by a 
 council held at Soissons. The accounts of Adalbert that have 
 reached us are from his accusers, and cannot be received with 
 implicit faith ; but there seems little doubt that he laid claun to 
 inspiration, and inculcated the worship of angels. 
 
 ADALBERT I. lived in the ninth century, was the son of 
 Boniface, count of Lucca, and assumed the title of JLarquis of 
 Tuscany. He supported the claims of Carloman, son of Louis 
 of Germany, to the throne of Italy, and was in that sti-uggle 
 tlie opponent of Pope John VIII. — Adalbert II., siurnamed 
 "the Rich," his son and successor, is noted for the fickleness of 
 his conduct in the contests for the throne of Italy, which occu- 
 ]>ied the end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth centuries. 
 He even asph-ed to that throne hunself, but was baffled in his 
 attempt. Died in 917.— J. B. 
 
 ADALBERT, Saixt, of Prague, the apostle of Prussia, was 
 bom about tlie middle of the tenth century; died in 997. In 
 983 he was promoted to the see of Prague, of which he was 
 tlie second bishop. His extreme severity repelled the Bohemians, 
 ■whom he vainly strove to wean from their pagan rites ; and, dis- 
 com-aged, he withdrew to Rome, until the Bohemians recalled him 
 in 993. After several years spent in fniitless labour, he was 
 assassinated in 997. 
 
 ADALBERT, archbishop of Bremen, was descended from 
 Otho II., emperor of Gennany, and the Greek princess Theo- 
 phania. His archbishopric was the centre of missionar}' efforts 
 among the Slavonic tribes north and east of the Elbe, and to 
 the discharge of its peculiar duties he applied himself with great 
 fi'iTOur. He sought by eveiy means to aggrandize his church, 
 and was tluis the constant opponent of the secular nobility of 
 Saxony. He died at Goslar in 1072. — J. B. 
 
 ADALBERT, archbishop of Mayence, to which dignity he 
 was raised in 1111 by Hemy V., emperor of Gennany. The 
 history of this churchman is not unlike that of Thomas A'Becket. 
 He had been chancellor to the emperor, and had assisted him in 
 laying claim to the power of installing bisliops. No sooner, 
 however, was he made archbishop, than he became a zealous 
 
 VOL T. 
 
 champion of the rights of the chm-ch, and the enemy of his 
 former patron. He was imprisoned by the emperor, but released 
 in 1115 in consequence of a popular tumult raised in his behalf. 
 He revenged his sufferings by exciting a rebellion among the 
 nobility, and at the death of the emperor he prevented the elec- 
 tion of his nephew, Frederick of Suabia, and secm-ed the elevation 
 of Lothar, duke of Saxony, to the imperial digiiity. — J. B. 
 
 ADALHARD, abbot of Corbie (born about 753, died 826), 
 was one of tlie first who openly preached that obedience to the 
 laws was a duty equally obligatory on the patrician and the 
 plebeian. Charlemagne intrusted him with many important 
 missions, and named him his delegate at the council of Rome 
 in 809 ; but he fell into disgi-ace with Louis le Debonnaire, the 
 nobles ha\nng represented him to that monarch as an ambitious 
 demagogue. — S. 
 
 ADALOALDUS, Idng of the Lombards, bom at Modena 
 about A.D. 602, was the son of Agilulfus, who induced the 
 Lombards to acknowledge him as king when he was only three 
 years of age. In 616, at the death of his father, he entered on 
 the duties of government in conjmiction with his mother. After 
 her death he showed symptoms of insanity, and was guilty of 
 several deeds of cnielty, on account of which he was deposed. 
 
 ADAM, (from a root signifying " to be red," or fi-om " ada- 
 mah," ground), was the name of the first man. 
 
 ADAj\I, a learned monk of London, who hved early in the 
 14th centuiy. His works are — 1st, "The Life of St. Hugh of 
 Lincoln ;" 2d, " Two Treatises on the advantages of Tribulation," 
 London, 1530 ; 3d, " Scala-cEcli;" " De Sumptione Eucharistias;" 
 "Speculum Spiritualium." The last exist in MS. 
 
 ADAM. Tlu-ee brothers of this name, all sculptors, flour- 
 ished about the middle of the eighteenth century. Lambert 
 SiGiSBERT, the eldest, was bom in 1700, died m 1759. Car- 
 dinal de Polignac intrusted to him the reparation of twelve 
 marble statues, found in the palace of Marius at Rome, and 
 known as the family of Lycomcdcs ; a commission which he 
 executed with much skill. His " Neptune stUling the waves " 
 is well kno\vn, and it was he who finished the " Neptune and 
 Amphitrite " which adoms the fountain of Neptune at Versailles. 
 His anatomy is correct, and his cbaperies beautiful, but he 
 prostituted his genius to the bad taste of the period. The 
 "Prometheus devoured by a Vulture," of liis brother, Nicholas- 
 Sebastian, is a fine work, but his chef-d^muvre is the tomb of 
 the queen of Poland, wife of Stanislaus. The tliird brother, 
 Francois Gaspard, has left no work of consequence. — S. 
 
 ADAM, Alex^vnder, LL.D., an eminent scholar and teacher, 
 was born June 24, 1741, at Coates of Burgle hi the parish of 
 Raffbrd, Jlorayshire, where his fither rented a small farm. He 
 was taught the elements of English by a schoolmistress, to whose 
 gentle treatment he was afterwards wont to attribute his love of 
 learning. He was next sent to the parish scliool, where his pro- 
 gi'css was so rapid, that his father resolved to give him a leamed 
 education, and sent him to the university of Edinburgh. During 
 his com'se there he was compelled to support himself by private 
 teaching, and his remuneration was so scanty that he was obliged, 
 as he tells us in his MS. memoranda, to five "at the rate of little 
 more than fourpence a day, including eveiything." In the spring 
 of 1760, when only nineteen years of age, he was elected, after 
 a very strict comparative trial, to the situation of head-master in 
 George Watson's hospital ; and he continued to officiate in this 
 capacity three years and a half, dm-ing which period he entered 
 himself a student of divinity. In November, 1763, that he 
 might have more leisure for prosecuting his studies, he resigned 
 his situation in Watson's hospital, and engaged himself as do- 
 mestic tutor to Mr. Kincaid, who was then his majesty's printer 
 for Scotland, and afterwards Lord Provost of the city. On June 
 8, 1768, he was elected rector of the High School of Edinbm-gh. 
 He now enthusiastically devoted himself to his profession, and 
 employed his leism'e hours in the composition of works, all of 
 them demanding gi'cat labour, for facilitating and promoting a 
 relisli for the study of classic literatm'e. His first ptrfonnance 
 was a Latin and English grammar, which he undertook by the 
 advice of Principal Robertson and Dr. Blaii-. It was published 
 in iMay, 1772. Owing to the opposition of the undennasters of 
 the High School, this excellent work was not allowed to be intro- 
 duced into that institution, but was, notwithstanding, extensively 
 adopted as a text-book, not only in Britain, but also in the 
 United States of America. On August 9, 17^0, Adam received 
 the degi-ee of LL.D. from the university of Edinburgh. His 
 
 b
 
 second and most important work— Lis " Eoman Antiquities," 
 which was published in 1791— at once established his reputation 
 as a scholar. His " Compendious Dictionary of the Latin 
 Tongue," was published in 1805. Dr. Adam may be regarded 
 as the founder of the Burgh and Parochial Schoohnasters' 
 Widows and Orphans' Fund, established by Act of Parliament 
 in the beginning of this ccntuiy. On December 13, 1809, when 
 in his class-room, he was seized with apoplexy, of which, after 
 lingering five days, he died. Becoming delirious before his dis- 
 solution, he imagined that he was still in school, conducting the 
 business of his class. After some expressions of applause or 
 censure, he suddenly stopped short, and said, " But it grows 
 dark, boys, you may go," and instantly expired. Dm-ing the 
 course of his life. Dr. Adam had under his trauiing many pupils 
 who afterwards rose to high distinction, among whom may be 
 particularly named, Dugald Stewart, Francis Horner, Sir Walter 
 Scott, Lord Jeffrey, Lord Cockbimi, and Lord Brougliam. (See 
 I^ckhart's "Life of Scott," vol. i., p. 33.) Besides the works 
 already mentioned. Dr. Adam was tlie author of a " Summaiy of 
 Ancient Geogi-aphy and Histoiy," Edinbm-gh, 1794; and " Clas- 
 sical Biogi-aphy," Edinbm-gh, 1800. His large Latin dictionaiy, 
 which he had been preparing, and the IIS. of which is now in 
 the High School, he had only brought down to the word " Com- 
 bm'o." — J. A. 
 
 ADAM u'AjiBEr.GAu, a printer, horn at Amberg in High 
 Bavaria. He lived in the fifteenth century, and his name is 
 marked on an edition of Cicero's orations, printed at Venice in 
 1472. Editions of Lactantius and Vhgil had appeared in the 
 previous year, bearing the name Adam, but these cannot be with 
 certainty attributed to the subject of our notice. 
 
 ADAM OF Bremen, a chronicler and geographer of the 
 eleventh centmy, was a native of Upper Saxonj'. He went to 
 Bremen in 10G7, and there became canon and director of the 
 pubhc school. From thence he appears to have made many 
 journeys into the northern countries for missionary purposes, 
 and to these are due the interesting details he has fiu-nished 
 respecting the ecclesiastical condition of Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Kussia at that period. His works, however, requhe to be con- 
 sulted with discretion, as there is much fable mixed up vrith the 
 facts contained in them. — S. 
 
 ADAil, Chakles Adolphe, a musician, the son of Jean 
 Louis, was bom at Paris on the 24th of February, 1804. He 
 had the great advantage of his father's instractions on the piano- 
 forte, till he entered the Conservatoire in 1817. In this insti- 
 tution he studied composition, first under Keicha, and subse- 
 quently under Boieldieu. His first complete work was the comic 
 opera, in one act, of " Pierre et Catherine," performed at the 
 Opera Comique in 1829 ; tliis, however, did little but open a 
 course of opportunities for the production of several others, and 
 they little more than gain him a reputation for facility. In 1832 
 he came to London, and wrote the music for a ballet called 
 " Faust," which was brought out at the King's theatre, then under 
 the management of his relation Laporte ; this had very consider- 
 able dramatic character, and was marked by the fhiency of melody 
 and brilliancy of mstrumentation that are his chief distinctions. 
 He introduced much of this music in his ballet of " Giselle," 
 brought out several years later at the Academie Eoyale, which, 
 together with his "Diable a Quatre," written for the same 
 theatre in 1843, entitles him to consideration, not only as being 
 one of the best writers of ballet music, but as giving to this class 
 of composition an artistic character. His fame in the higher 
 department of dramatic music was more decidedly established by 
 his opera of " Le Proscrit," at the Opera Comique in 1833 ; and 
 in 183C, liis "Postilion de Lonjumeau" fixed him as one of the 
 most esteemed writers for that theatre, and immediately spread 
 Lis popularity all over Europe ; this will always be esteemed his 
 best work, but "Le Brassem- de Preston," and still less "Le 
 Chalet" (both one act operas), must not be disregarded, since 
 these are, as their vivacity and piquancy entitle them to be, 
 especial favomutcs of the French lyric stage. In 1847 he wi-ote 
 Ids first mass, and in 1850 .another; but though they have 
 ■ elicited admiration, his talents little fitted him for tliis class of 
 composition. In style he was a follower of Auber, but never 
 wrote with the intensity of expression that elevates some of tlie 
 more earnest works of iiis original, above all imitation. He was 
 . elected a member of the French Institute in 1844, and appointed 
 a professor of composition in the Conserwatoire in 1848. He 
 was mainly concerned m the establishment, and subsequently 
 
 director of the Theatre Lyi-ique, the fom-th theatre for operas in 
 Paris. He died suddenly in 1856. — G. A. M. 
 
 ADAM, Daniel, born at Prague m 1546, was a professor m 
 the university of his native town, and has left several works on 
 Bohemian history, language, and literature. One of those he 
 names " A Jom-nal of all the Memorable Events which have 
 happened at Prague," published in 1577. 
 
 ADA]\I, Georo, a German landscape painter and etcher. 
 He died at Niiremberg in 1823. 
 
 ADAM DE LA HALE. See Hale. 
 
 ADAM, Jacques, a French writer, born at Vendome in 
 1G63. He was recommended by RolUn to the Abbe Flemy, 
 whom he assisted in the preparation of his " Histoire Ecclesi- 
 astique." He had the charge of educating two princes of the 
 house of Bourbon Conti, and wrote several translations. 
 
 ADAM, Jajies, a Gei-man engraver, who lived at Vienna 
 about the close of the last and the beginning of the present cen- 
 tuiy. He is known as the engraver of the plates for the cele- 
 brated " Picture Bible " of Vienna {BUder-Bihel), and also for 
 an engi-aving of the Marriage of Francis, archduke of Austria, 
 with the Princess Elizabeth of Wurtemberg. 
 
 ADAJiI, Jajmes, brother of Piobert Adam the architect, was 
 the designer of Portland Place, London, and for some time archi- 
 tect to the khig. " The works in architectm-e of R. & J. Adam," 
 were published in niunbers in 1773. Died in 1794. 
 
 ADAJI, Jean, a Jesuit, was preacher before the French court 
 in Lent, 1656, and afterwards head of the professed Jesuits' 
 house at Bordeaux. Died in 1684. 
 
 ADAM, Jean Louis, an eminent composer for the piano- 
 forte, bom about 1760 at Mieltersboltz, department of the 
 Lower Rhine, and died at Paris, April 8, 1848. When very 
 young, he gave hhnself passionately to music. After receiving 
 a few lessons from a relative, and from an organist of Strasbm-g, 
 named Hepp, he went to Paris at the age of seventeen to teach 
 music. In Paris he attracted attention by producing at a concert 
 two s^-mphonies arranged for the piano, hai-p, and violin, the first 
 compositions of the kind ever attempted. Gliick, who saw the 
 merits of the young composer, favoui'ed him with his friendship 
 and emjalopnent. In 1797 he was appomted professor to the 
 Conservatory of Music. In 1829 the government aclmowledged 
 the value of his services, by creating him a member of the Legion 
 of Honour. His works, and especially his books of instruction, 
 were highly valued ; and he reared up a class of pupils who in 
 their turn have become famous in the musical world. — J. F. 
 
 ADAM, Melciiiok, or less con-ectly Adajii, deser\'es hon- 
 ourable mention in these pages, as one of the most laborious and 
 useful of biographical writers. Bayle acknowledges his great 
 obligations to him, and would have been glad to express his 
 gratitude in the form of a full account of his hfe, if he could 
 have found the necessaiy materials. But no life of him had then 
 appeared, nor has the deficiency been supplied since. He was 
 bom at Grotkau in Silesia, in the last quarter of tlie sixteenth 
 century, and was educated first in the protestant gymnasium of 
 Brieg, where he was suppoiied by the bounty of a SUesian 
 nobleman, and where he remained for eight years. He afterwards 
 studied in the university of Heidelberg, which he joined in 1598, 
 and where he publicly disputed in theology in 1601, under the 
 presidency of Da\ad Parens. He took the degi-ee of Phil. Mag., 
 and earned the distinction of prize poet. In 1606 he was 
 appointed co-rector of the gymnasium of Heidelberg, which 
 office he continued to hold in 1613. He was afterwards rector 
 of tlie gymnasium, and a professor in the university. According 
 to some accomits, he was parish pastor of Heppenheim in 1622, 
 when he died. 
 
 His gi-eat work was the " Vita? Gennanorum Philosophorum, 
 Theologonim, Jurisconsidtorum, Mediconim," &c. Confining 
 himself to the sixteenth century, and the first decade of the 
 seventeenth, he published in 1615 the first volume of the series, 
 contairung the philosophers, mider which name he included 
 poets, humanists, and historians, as well as philosophers more 
 strictly understood. Three additional voliunes followed — the 
 theologians in 1619, the lawyers and physicians in 1620. In 
 1618 he published a volume of lives of foreign theologians, 
 extending to twenty, including Calvhi, Farel, Beza, Cranmer, 
 Knox, &c. In all, his lives of theologians amount to 156, all 
 protestants. The first editions of these volumes are the most 
 correct and valuable, ha^ng been brought out in Heidelberg, 
 mider the author's own eye. He was the author of various
 
 ADA 
 
 27 
 
 ADA 
 
 other works, also ■wntten in Latin, wliich are, however, less 
 known and less valuable. 
 
 The author bestowed extraordinary pains, and incurred con- 
 siderable expense, in the collection of materials for these numer- 
 ous biogi'aphies. He gathered together from all quarters an 
 immense store, amounting to upwards of sixty large volumes, of 
 fimeral sermons, programmes, cloges, &c., in manuscript and in 
 print. Though of a weak frame and sickly habit, he restricted 
 hunself to five or six hours' sleep, and not unfrequently wrought 
 at his desk all night long. His biogi-aphies are very unequal in 
 length and fullness. Some, as those of Luther, Melancthon, and 
 Calvin are pretty copious, including extracts from their -RTitings, 
 letters, and official documents. Others contain only the barest 
 outlines, and these not always given with the necessaiy accuracy. 
 Still the collection is esteemed, even at the present day, as in 
 the highest degree valuable, especially for the history of the 
 German, French, and English Eeformation. — P. L. 
 
 ADAM OF Ohleton, an English bishop, whose name is 
 associated with the intiigues which distm-bed England during 
 the reign of the feeble Edward IL He is the author of the 
 ambiguous reply given to those who were plamiing the cruel 
 mm-der of the king, " Edwardum regem occidere nolite timere 
 bonum est," which, according to the punctuation adopted, may 
 be construed either into a sanction or a prohibition of the murder. 
 He was bom in 1285, and held successively the bishoprics of his 
 native Hereford, of Worcester, and of Winchester. — J. B. 
 
 ADAM OF Petit Pont, an Englishman belonging to the 
 beginning of the twelfth centm-y. He studied in Paris under 
 !RIatthew of Angers and Peter Lombard, — afterwards opening a 
 school of his own at the Petit Pont. John of Salisbury had a 
 high opinion of him, — celebrating the extent of his knowledge, 
 his sagacity and acuteness, and his attachment to Aiistotle. 
 I\L Cousin has recently called attention to the only work that 
 remains of all Adam's labours, viz., the " Ars disserendi." Its 
 value is purely historical.— J. P. N. 
 
 ADA]\I, Egbert, author of " The Religious World Dis- 
 played," bom at Udney, Scotland, about 1770, was an episcopal 
 clergyman, first at Eilinburgh, afterwards in the Danish island 
 St. Croix, and lastly, at Tobago. Died in 182G. 
 
 ADAM, Robert, an architect, who produced a gi-cat change 
 in the architectm'e of Great Britain, bom at Kirkaldy, Scotland, 
 in 1728; died in 1792. Appointed in 1762 architect to the 
 icing, he resigned that office in 17G8, on being elected to repre- 
 sent Ivuiross-shne in parliament. He published a work entitled 
 " Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Dioelesian at Spalatro in 
 Dahnatia," seventy-one engi-avings, folio, 1704. W^ith his 
 brother James, he furnished numerous designs for noblemen's 
 mansions and public buildings, both in England and Scotland, 
 including the Register House and University, Edinburgh, and 
 the Royal Infimiaiy, Glasgow. The " Adelphi " buildings. 
 Strand, London, designed by them, were so called from the 
 Greek word for brothers. — W. A. 
 
 ADAM, Scotus, a canon regular of the order of Premon- 
 stratenses, and in his latter years a monk of Mekose in Scot- 
 land, wrote the " Life of St. Columbanus," and of some other 
 monks of the sixth century, and also of David I. of Scotland. 
 His works were printed at Antwerp in 1G59. Died about 1195. 
 
 ADAM, Thomas, an eminent minister of the church of 
 England, was bora at Leeds, Febraaiy 25, 1701. He was eduy 
 cated first at Leeds, and then at Wakefield, after which he 
 studied at Christ college, Cambridge whence, he removed to 
 Hart-hall (now Hertford college), Oxford, under the care of Dr. 
 Newton, head of that seminary, and its founder as a college. 
 The only academical degre(! he took was that of bachelor of arts. 
 In 1724 he was presented to the living of Wintringham in 
 Lincolnshire ; and he continued rector of this parish fifty-eight 
 years, steadily refusing, to the close of his life, all additional 
 prefemient. He died March 31, 1784, in the eighty-fourth year 
 of his age. His theological sentiments, fomied chiefly from the 
 study of Luther's works, much resembled those held by such 
 theologians as Hcrvey and Romaine, or the JIarrow-mcn of Scot- 
 land. His works are : — " Practical Lectm-es on the Church 
 Catechism;" "A Paraphrase and Annotations on the first 
 Eleven Chapters of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans;" "Evan- 
 gelical Semions ; " his " Posthumous Works," in 3 vols. 8vo ; 
 and his " Exposition of the Four Gospels." — J. A. 
 
 ADA5I, WiLLiAsr, nephew of the two great architects of the 
 name, and the first lord thief commissioner of the jury court for 
 
 the trial of civU causes in Scotland, born 21st July, 1751, 
 passed advocate at the Scottish bar in 1773, but, in 1782, 
 became a barrister-at-law in England. On the institution in 
 1816 of the jury court for civil causes in Scotland, he was con- 
 stituted its head. Died 17th FebmaiT, 1839. 
 
 ADA'MI, Adam, a German ecclesiastic, known both as a 
 statesman and historian, ])om at Miilheim on the Rhine in 1610. 
 He sat in the congi-ess where the negotiations for peace were 
 made which led to the close of the Thirty Years' war. He died in 
 1663 at Hildesheim, to the bishopric of which he had been raised. 
 
 ADAMI DA BOLSENA, Andrea, a musician, known for 
 liis " Ossei-vazioni per ben regolare U core dei cantori della 
 capella pontificia," published in 1711, which contains, besides 
 the directions for regulating the music in the pontifical chapel, 
 the biographies and portraits of twelve of the most famous 
 members of that college of singers, and a prefatory history of the 
 musical establishment of the pope, from its foundation down to 
 the author's time ; it is a work of great authority, and is cited 
 by most subsequent writei's on musical histoiy. Adami must 
 have been born at Bolsena, as his name implies, in 1664, though 
 M. Fetis states him to have been born in Rome in the October 
 of the preceding year. He received his cliief instruction from 
 liis father, entered the service of Cardinal Ottoboni, and was 
 transferred from this to that of the pope, being appointed 
 maestro di capella by that dignitary, and officiating also as head 
 of a musical academy. He died in 1742. — G. A. M. 
 
 ADA'MI, Leonardo, nephew of Andi'ea, and author of a 
 history of Ar-cadia from the earliest times to the 28th Olym- 
 piad. He died in 1719. 
 
 ADAMI, JIelchior. See Ada jr. 
 
 ADAJINAN (sometimes called ADOMNAN, and in Latin 
 ADAjMNANUS), an ecclesiastic celebrated for his great learn- 
 ing and christian graces, who flemished in the seventh century, 
 was bom in the county of Donegal in Ireland, about the year 
 624. He was the ninth abbot of Hy or lona, in succession after 
 the founder, St. Colmnba; having been elected in 679. In 686 
 he was sent on an embassy to Aldfrid, king of Noi-thumbcrland, 
 where he became a convert to the trae views with regard to the 
 time of celebrating Easter. Arculph, a French bishop, being 
 shipwrecked on the coast of Britain in returning from the Holy 
 Land, came at length to Adamnan, who joyfully entertained liim, 
 and having learned from him the result of his travels, v^Tote a 
 book " De situ Terras Sanctre," or " De locis Sanctis," as it is 
 sometimes entitled, which he presented to King Aldfrid. It is 
 the earliest account of the Holy Land extant, and was published 
 at Ingolstadt, in 1619. He is the author of various other works, 
 amongst them a life of St. Columba, in three books. This last 
 is pronoimced by Pinkerton to be " the most complete piece of 
 such biography that all Europe can boast of, not only at so early 
 a period, but even through the whole middle ages." He died 
 on the 23rd of September, 704. — (^Ware, Colgan, Bede, O^ReiUy, 
 Reeves.-)— J. F. W. 
 
 ADAMS, Abigail, the wife of John Adams, the second 
 president of the United States. She is known as the writer of 
 a collection of letters, which are valuable as giraig a picture of 
 the manners of that eventful age in which she lived. 
 
 * AD AJIS, Charles B., a distinguished American naturalist, 
 bom in 1814 at Dorchester, Massachusetts. He studied at 
 Amherst college, where he took his degi-ees in 1834, and held a 
 tutorship during 1836 and 1837. Ardently devoted from early 
 youth to natural science, he soon attained a high reputation 
 as a naturalist, and in 1839 became professor of geology and 
 natural histoiy in Marion college, Jlobile. In 1845 he was ap- 
 pointed director of the geological smwey of the state of Vermont, 
 and continued to discharge with great efficiency the duties of 
 that service, till, in 1847, he accepted the chair of natural history 
 in Amherst college. He has published, in various scientific 
 joumals, numerous important papers, chiefly on his favomitc 
 subject of conchology : and his observations on Jamaica, where he 
 resided some time, liave made the geology of that island more fully 
 known than that of any other district within the tropics. — E. M. 
 
 * ADAMS, Frank, colonel of the 28th regiment (brother of 
 the gallant officer who died of a wound received at Inkerman), 
 served throughout the Eastern campaign, with a short interval of 
 absence in England, and for a time commanded a brigade of the 
 army. He is a commander of the Bath, and has received a 
 medal and clasps ibr his services in the Crimea. — W. H. R. 
 
 * ADAMS, George, a commissary-general, and senior on the
 
 active list of the department, — commander of tbe Batli, &c., 
 sened under Mr. Commissaiy-General Filder in Balaklava, 
 dm-ing the winter of 185-i-5, and was present dui-Lng the 
 Crimean campaign. He has received the Crimean medal and 
 clasps, and at the close of the war he was for some tune in 
 charge of tlie commissariat of the army. — W. H. E. 
 
 ADAMS, Hannah, an American lady, born at Medfield, 
 near Boston, in 1756. Wlien only ten years old she lost her 
 mother, and, owing to her father's want of snccess in business, 
 she was obliged, at a veiy early age, to support herself by 
 manual labour. Evincing from childhood a thirst for instruc- 
 tion of every kind, she studied with eager attention every book 
 witliin her reach, and with the occasional assistance of students 
 who boarded m lier father's house, she attained an accm-ate 
 and extensive knowledge of Latin and Greek. 'WTiile earn- 
 ing a scanty livelihood by giving instructions in Greek and 
 Latin to a few students in divinity, she wrote her " View of 
 Religious Opinions," published in 1784. The work sold well, 
 but the publisher appropriated nearly all the profits. A second 
 and improved edition appeared in 1791, and, through the 
 judicious arrangements of friends, its success more than relieved 
 her for a time from pecuniary difficulties. Her " History of 
 New England" appeared in 179D. Her last and most oiiginal 
 work was her " History of the Jews." The profits of her vsT-itings, 
 and the considerate efforts of friends, enabled her to spend her 
 declining years in comfort, highly and iiniv'ersally respected. 
 Died at Brooklyn, near Boston, in 1832. — E. M. 
 
 ADAilS, Henky Wii.liaji, a major-general in the army at 
 the time of liis death. This gallant oflicer was colonel of the 
 49th foot at the time of thch departure for the East, and he 
 commanded a brigade of General De Lacy Evans' division at the 
 battle of the Alma. He was promoted as major-general on the 
 12th December, 1854, but ere he was aware of the honom- con- 
 fen-ed upon lum, he received a wound in the foot, m one of the 
 hottest onsets at Inkerman, where he was handling his brigade 
 with his usual gallantry. After many months of suffering, his 
 wound proved tatal, and he died in the month of July, 1855, at 
 Scutari hospital, leaving behind him the reputation of a kind, 
 gallant, and devoted soldier. — W. H. R. 
 
 ADAilS, Rev. John, a clergyman, born at Aberdeen about 
 1750. He established an academy at Putney, and is known as 
 the author of sevend educational works. 
 
 ADAMS, John, the assumed name of Alexander Sjiith, 
 one of the mutineers who in 1789 took possession of H.M.S. 
 Bounty, and sailed to Otaheite, where most of them remained. 
 Adams and eight others proceeded in January, 1790, to Pitcaini's 
 island, taking with them six male and ten female natives of 
 Otaheite. The oppression of these by the wldtes soon produced 
 nuu-derous conflicts, which ended in the extermination of the 
 Otaheitan males. One of the whites having succeeded in distil- 
 ling spirits from an indigenous plant, brought about his own 
 destruction. Another of the three who now alone remained was 
 put to death by the other two for an attempt on then- fives. 
 Adams and Young, the smwivors, now felt the necessity of reli- 
 gion for the welfare or even existence of any community, and 
 began to hold a regi;lar religious service, and to give religious 
 instruction to all the other members of the colony, now consist- 
 mg of the females and eighteen childi-en, all under nine years of 
 age. The result was marvellous. Peace and affection soon 
 reigned in the island. The mothers, as well as the children, 
 speedily adopted the principles and practised the precepts of the 
 gospel, and under the patriarchal rule of Adams the community 
 continued to prosper. The island was visited in 1814 by two 
 British frigates, and in 1825 by the Blossom, commanded by 
 Captain Bcechey, who has published an interesting accomit of the 
 settlement. Adams died in 1829, at the age of sixty-nine. 
 After his death the want of an efficient authority was soon felt. 
 An ill-advised proposal was made and adopted for the removal 
 of the colony to Otaheite, which led to melancholy conse- 
 quences, both moral and physical, but most of its members sub- 
 sequently returned. The Pitcaim colony, consisting of 190 
 persons, were recently settled, at the expense of the British 
 government, in NorfoUc island, from wliieh the convicts were 
 previously removed. The colonists reluctantly qmtted then- 
 natal spot, but the inadequacy of its resources compelled them 
 to emigi-ate. — E. JL 
 
 ADAMS, John, of the Inner Temple, a civil engineer of the 
 seventeenth century, who wrote an interestmg work, which may 
 
 stiU be consulted with advantage, entitled " Index Villaris, or a 
 Geogi-aphical Table of all the Cities, Market-Towns, Paiishcs, 
 Villages, and Private Seats in England and Wales." 
 
 ADAMS, John, one of the gi-eat leaders of the American 
 revolution, and second president of the United States, was born 
 at Braintree, Massachusetts, m 1735. After stud}ing science 
 and fiterature at Harvard college, and subsequently completing 
 the usual course of legal trahiing, he was admitted a member 
 of the Suffolk bar, began to exercise his profession at Quincy, 
 and soon obtained extensive practice. Having also, by the 
 death of his father, succeeded to a small estate, which liad 
 belonged to his ancestor, one of the original settlers, he married, 
 m 17(J4, Abigail Smith, a young lady of great intelligence and 
 moral worth. In 17G5 he removed to Boston, where his accon - 
 plishments, business habits, and pubfic spirit speedily procured 
 him popularity and professional success. At this period (1765) 
 the mistaken poUcy of the British ministiy had produced in the 
 American colonies, and especially in Massachusetts, intense ex- 
 citement, and a firm determination to resist unconstitutional 
 aggression. Adams had maturely studied the questions at issue 
 between the colonies and the mother countiy, and threw lumself 
 at once, with all the ardour of youthful patriotism, into the 
 contest. The conversation and the writings of his friend James 
 Ortis, who so early as 1760 had begun to soimd the trampet of 
 American freedom, claiming for the colonies, with fearless elo- 
 quence, constitutional justice, had produced a deep impression 
 on bis mind ; and he was at this time one of the few Americans 
 who foresaw and desired that the approaching struggle would 
 temiinate in American independence. The gi-eat mass of the 
 colonists continued, even after the commencement of the war, to 
 deprecate a separation from the mother country ; and confined 
 then- claims and aspu-ations to the enjoyment of those rights 
 which the British constitution guarantees to all British subjects. 
 Though Adams deshed, from principle, American independence, 
 his sympathies never ceased to be English. He preferred a re- 
 public in America, as best suited to its social condition, but he 
 was far from wishing, and especialbj on abstract grounds, the 
 overthiow of the British monarchy. In fact, his great wish was 
 to maintam in America English institutions and EngUsli prin- 
 ciples, minus a hereditai-y chief magistrate, a privileged aristo- 
 cracy, and a privileged church. The cause of the first American 
 war was simply the imconstitutional determination of the British 
 ministiy, in spite of the memorable remonstrances of Pitt (Chat- 
 ham), Burke, Barre, &c., in parliament, and of numberless 
 enlightened men throughout the nation, to tax America without 
 her consent. Though the harsh and illegal measures employed in 
 America to enforce commercial restrictions which trae political 
 science has shown to be absurd and inexpedient, had produced 
 great irritation, American grievances would have been amicably 
 arranged, but for the uifatuation of the ministiy in ignoring the 
 inseparable connection between taxation and representation. It 
 is now matter of history that the Americans, in resisting an 
 attempt to suppress constitutional rights, acted in the spirit of our 
 common forefathers, and achieved the trimnph of a fundamental 
 piincipleof the British constitution. In 1765, Adams printed m 
 the "Boston Gazette" the papers afterwards published mider the 
 title of " Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law." The 
 same year he supported, along with his friends Giidley and Ortis, 
 before the governor and council, the petition of the Bostonians 
 for the re-opening of the courts, which had been shut in con- 
 sequence of the general resistance to the Stamp Act. In 1767 
 he declmed the office of advocate-general in the Coiu-t of Ad- 
 miralty, offered to hun by the governor. In April, 1770, at the 
 risk of impairing his popularity, he defended Captain Preston and 
 the sokfiers prosecuted for firing on the citizens of Boston ; yet 
 in Jlay he was elected a memlier of the State Assembly. From 
 this time his energies were almost exclusively devoted to public 
 affairs. In 1774 he defended, m letters to the " Boston v -azette," 
 the proceedings of the colonists ; acted as a member of the 
 Boston committee in preparing resolutions regarding the Boston 
 port bin ; and was one of the five deputies appointed by the 
 assembly of JIassaehusetts to meet deputations from other 
 colonies. These deputations assembled at Philadelphia in Sep- 
 tember, 1774, and formed the first continental congi-ess. So 
 general was still the feeling in favour of British connection, that 
 Adams was, on this occasion, exposed to gi-eat obloquy, from 
 being supposed desii-ous of colonial independence. When con- 
 gress reassembled m 1775, the sentiments of the colonists had
 
 undergone a cbangc, as the position of affairs was materially 
 altered. The colonial forces, tested at Lexington and Con- 
 cord, were besieging the British troops in Boston. Mainly 
 through the influence of Adams, it was resolved to form a conti- 
 nental army, and George Washington was appointed commander- 
 iu-cluef; but even Adams, whose zeal was always combined 
 with prudence and ckcumspection, deemed a declaration of 
 independence premature. When congress met again, 1776, 
 Adams moved that such a government be established as would 
 best conduce to the safety and happiness of America ; and on 
 the 15th of May, after much opposition, the motion was adopted. 
 On the 7th June, Richard Hemy Lee moved that all connection 
 between the colonies and Great Britain be declared to have 
 ceased, and that the colonies are henceforth free and independent 
 states. This gave rise to keen and lengthened discussions ; but 
 on the 2d of July, Lee's motion passed, and on the 4th a formal 
 declaration of independence, drawn up by Jefferson, and after- 
 wards slightly modified, was unanimously adopted. 
 
 After efficiently contributing, by his labours and coxmsels, to 
 the organization of various departments of the public service, 
 Adams was appointed in November, 1777, one of the commis- 
 sioners of congress to the court of France, and left Boston for 
 Eui'ope in Febniary, 17V8. Retm'ning to America in the 
 autiuun, he was again sent to Em'ope as minister plenipotentiary, 
 and anived in Paris m Februaiy, 1780. He thence repaired to 
 Holland in October, 1782, and negotiated a commercial treaty 
 between that country and the United States. On the 30th 
 November, 1783, he signed at Versailles, with Dr. Franldin and 
 others, the preliminaries of the treaty of peace with Great Britain, 
 which was ratified by congress on the 14th January, 1784. In 
 1785, Adams went to London as American minister, and returned 
 to Boston in June, 1788. When in London, lie published his 
 " Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United 
 States." In 1789 he was elected vice-president of the United 
 States, re-elected in 1793, and, on the retirement of Washington 
 in 1797, he was elected president. Through the increasing 
 strength of the democratic party, who regarded Adams' princi- 
 ples as too conservative, he was not re-elected to that office, 
 Jefferson being preferred. The remaining part of Adams' life 
 was devoted chiefly to agriculture and literatiure. From his 
 retreat he vindicated, in a series of letters to the " Boston 
 Gazette," in 1812, those principles of uiternational law, the 
 maintenance of which on the part of the United States led to 
 the second American war, but which are now recognized by all 
 the states in Chiistendom as fundamental maxims of the law of 
 nations. The upright and illustrious career of John Adams was 
 closed on the 4th July, 1826. By a remarkable coincidence, 
 Thomas Jefferson expired on the same day, which was the anni- 
 versary of the declaration of American independence. — E. M. 
 
 * ADAMS, John Couch, an astronomer, and one of the ma- 
 thematical tutors of St. John's college, Cambridge, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself as a student, and became senior \vrangler. 
 While still a boy, he e\inced a special taste and extraordinary 
 aptitude for mathematical studies ; and his name has been ren- 
 dered memorable as an astronomer, in connection with the planet 
 Neptune. Whether he or M. Le Verrier had the priority of dis- 
 covery, was, at the time, keenly contested among men of science. 
 It would now appear that the question may be fairly decided in 
 favour of our countiyman. In October, 1845, Mr. Adams com- 
 municated to the astronomer-royal, Greenwich, the result of Ms 
 investigations, to the effect that the pertm-bations of Uranus 
 indicated the presence of an unknown planet witliin a specified 
 range; and M. Le Verrier's announcement, of essentially the same 
 import, was published in Paiis on the 10th November follow- 
 ing. The council of the Royal Astronomical Society, instead of 
 awarding its gold medal to either of the parties, gave to each a 
 printed testimonial. Mr. Adams possesses that modesty of 
 bearing, and that simplicity of character, which usually accom- 
 pany tiiie genius. — E. M. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quincy, son of John Adams, and sixth 
 president of the United States, was bom at Brauitree, Slassa- 
 chusetts, on the 11th July, 1767. Omngto his father's frequent 
 and lengthened absence in the public service, his early education 
 was conducted mainly under the care of his accomplished, pious, 
 and patriotic mother. In his eleventh year he accompanied 
 his father to Paris, where he attained a thorough command of 
 the French language — an acquisition of immense importance in 
 his subsequent career — and by his capacity and his ardom- in the 
 
 pursuit of knowledge, gave unmistakable mdications of future 
 eminence. He returned to America with his father in 1771', 
 and in 1781 went to Russia as private secretary to Mr. Dan.i, 
 American envoy to the court of St. Petersbm-g. In April, 178o, 
 he joined his fiither at the Hague, and in the following September 
 accompanied him to London. Returning to America in 1785, ho 
 took his degree of A.M. at Han-ard college, qualified himself fur 
 the bar, and began to practise as a barrister and to write for the 
 pi-ess. In 1794 he was sent as minister to the Hague by Washing- 
 ton, who considered him the ablest of American diplomatists. 
 He returned on his father's election to the presidency; was 
 minister in Berlin in 1800-1801; and dming that period pub- 
 lished, in letters to a Philadelphia paper, an interestmg and 
 instractive account of his travels in SUesia. He was recalled 
 when Jefferson became president; was elected in 1801 to the 
 State senate, and in 1803 to the senate of the United States. 
 From 180G till 1809 he was professor of rhetoric in Han-ard 
 college. In 1810 he was ajipointed minister to Russia, and 
 remained at St. Petersburg till 1815, when he was sent in the 
 same capacity to London. In 1817 he was appointed secretary 
 of state, and continued in office eight years. In 1825 he was 
 honoured with the presidency of the United States, but held that 
 dignity only one term of fom" years. From 1829 he continued 
 a member of the house of representatives till his death, tlie 
 eloquent and intrepid leader of the antLslaveiy paiiy. The ch- 
 cumstances of the decease of John Quincy Adams resemble the 
 touching close of Chatham's earthly career. Being m his place 
 in the House on the 21st of February, 1848, when a motion was 
 made to present thanks and gold medals to various ofiicers for 
 sen'ices in the Mexican war, he expressed his dissent by an 
 emphatic "No!" — the last testunony he ever uttered as a mem- 
 ber of the legislatvu-e. He expired shortly afterwards in the 
 speaker's apartment ; his last words being, " This is the end of 
 earth — I am content." — E. M. 
 
 ADAMS, Joseph, an Enghsh physician, bom in 1756. 
 After residing a year in Madeira, he was, from 1805 till his 
 death, principal phyaTeian to the Small-Pox Hospital, London, 
 and wrote " Obsei-vations on Morbid Poisons ; " "A Guide to 
 the Island of Madeu-a ; " and a " Popular View of Vaccination." 
 ADAMS, Joseph, father and son, two London opticians of 
 the eighteenth centuiy, authors of various valuable works on 
 microscopes, mathematical instraments, electricity, geography, 
 and astronomy. The father died in 1786, and the son in 1795. 
 ADAMS, Richard, a non-conforming English Presbyterian 
 di\ine, bora about 1630. He was minister of St. Mildred's 
 chiuxh, Bread-street, London, but was obliged to resign his 
 hving at the restoration of Charles II. He is the author of 
 several theological works. 
 
 ADAMS, Robert, an architect and surveyor of buildings to 
 Queen EHzabeth. Died in 1595. 
 
 * ADA3IS, Robert, inventor and patentee of "Adams's Re- 
 volver," — the revolver-pistol now exclusively employed in the 
 British servdce — is a native of Devonshire, and managing direc- 
 tor of the London Amioury Company. 
 
 AD AIMS, Samuel, one of the leaders in the American revolu- 
 tion, bom at Boston in 1722. He studied at HaiTard college. 
 He held for some time the office of revenue collector, which gave 
 him an opportmiity of becoming accurately acquainted mth the 
 social and political condition of his native provuice. From boy- 
 hood a theoretical and uncompromising democrat, he fearlessly 
 lu-ged 'the colonists to assert tBfeir independence, while ahnost 
 every other champion of colonial rights aimed merely at the 
 redress of grievances. His patriotic exertions proved, on the 
 whole, highly beneficial to his comitiy ; but, under other circum- 
 stances, his temperament and sentiments might, with the best 
 intentions, have done it infinite harai. He was the fii-st, or 
 among the first, to move in organizing political associations 
 throughout the colonies. Though far inferior to his namesakes, 
 John and John Qumcy, in hterary taste and attainments, as 
 well as in comprehensive views of political science, he possessed, 
 in a rare degree, practical good sense, administrative capacity, 
 moral intrepidity, and a clear, forcible, and persuasive style, 
 both in speaking and writhig. In 1766 he became, and con- 
 tinued till 1774, member and clerk of the Jilassachusets house 
 of representatives ; and through his zeal, tact, and indefatigable 
 industrj', exerted veiy gi-eat influence dm-ing that period over its 
 proceedings. He was one of the five deputies sent from Massa- 
 chusetts to Philadelphia in September, 1774, and was elected a
 
 ADA 
 
 30 
 
 ADA 
 
 member of the constitutional congi-ess in 1775. He zealously 
 promoted, and, in 1776, had the honour of signmg the declara- 
 tion of independence. Ilis ultra-democratic convictions led him to 
 oppose the fonnation of a regular army, as well as to desire that 
 the chief conmiand should, in 1788, be transferred from the great 
 and good Washington to General Gates. In 1 789 he was appointed 
 lieutenant-governor, and in 179-1, governor, of his native state. 
 In his later years, political experience is said to have rendered 
 his views and sraipathies more conservative. His statm-e was 
 short and slender, fomiing a contrast to the vigour of his mind ; 
 but his aspect was dignified and engaging. He lived throughout 
 in honoured poverty, revered for his public and private virtues, 
 and died in 1808 at the advanced age of eighty-two.— E. M. _ 
 
 ADAMS, Thomas, a mhiister of tlie Church of England m 
 the seventeenth century, and tlie author of viU'ious works on re- 
 ligious subjects, some of wliich are noted for the quaintness of 
 their titles, and their curious strain of figurative discussion. He 
 was officiating at Willington in Bedfordshire in 1614, and at 
 London in 1618, at wliich tune he was chaplain to Sir Hemy 
 Montagu, Lord Chief Justice of England. An edition of liis 
 whole works was published at London in 1730. — J. A. 
 
 ADAJIS, Sir Thomas, lord mayor of London in 1G45, and 
 renowned for his chivalrous loyalty. He transmitted to Charles 
 II. the sum of £11,000 during his exile, and was made a baronet 
 when sent by the city of London as one of a deputation to con- 
 gratulate that monarch at the Restoration. ' 
 
 ADAMS, Willi AJi, an English navigator, born about 1575, 
 at Gilliugham, Kent. After receiving instructions at Limehouse 
 naval academy, he m June, 1598, embai-ked on board the Dutch 
 squadron, under Admiral De ]\Iahn, bound for the Moluccas. In 
 April, 1600, the shiji in which he sailed was stranded on a small 
 island dependent on Japan. By his skill in vaiious useful arts he 
 obtained the notice and favour of the emperor, and procmed for 
 the Dutch and English important commercial privileges. Two of 
 his letters have been pubhshed, giving an account of his adven- 
 tures, and interesting information regarding Japan. — E. M. 
 
 ADAMS, William, a London surgeon, who, after long and 
 special experience in treating diseases of the kidneys, &c., pub- 
 lished in 1773 a valuable disquisition on the subject. 
 
 ADAMS, William, D.D., master of Pembroke college, Ox- 
 ford, canon of Gloucester, and archdeacon of LlandatF. He is 
 perhaps chiefly known as a friend for many years of Dr. Samuel 
 Johnson. It has been said that he was his tutor at Pembroke 
 college ; but this is not correct, Johnson having left the univer- 
 sity the term before Adams was appointed to that office in 1731. 
 He had, however, considerable influence over him ; for Bishop 
 Percy of Droniore writes : " I have heard Johnson say that the 
 mild but judicious expostulations of this worthy man (then one 
 of the junior fellows), whose vutue awed him, and whose learn- 
 ing he revered, made him really ashamed of himself" Dr. 
 Adams published an answer to " Hume on Mhacles," which Sir 
 James Stcnhouse (himself no mean judge) calls "one of the 
 most excellent pieces of controversy extant, and most satis- 
 fictory." He was bom at Shrewsbury, A.d. 1707 ; elected 
 fellow of Pembroke college, 1723; tutor, 1731; and master, 
 1775. Before his appointment to the mastership he was for 
 some time vicar of St. Chad's, Shrewsbury, where he was much 
 respected for his learning, amiable character, and piety. From 
 177-1: till his death he was rector of Counde in Shropshire. He 
 died January 13, 1789, aged eighty-two, and was buried in 
 Gloucester cathedral, where a monument, with a medallion por- 
 trait, is erected to his memory. — T. S. P. 
 
 ADAMS, Rev. William, M.A., late fellow and tutor of 
 Merton college, and vicar of St. Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford. 
 Ilis life was short and uneventful, but far from useless. He was 
 the second son of the late Mr. Sergeant Adams, assistant-judge 
 at the ^liddlesex sessions. He was educated at Eton and Ox- 
 ford, where he obtained the highest honours, a double-first class 
 in 1836. In the following year he was elected fellow and tutor 
 of Merton college, and was shortly after presented to the vicarage 
 of .St. Peter's-in-the-East, in Oxford, his immediate predecessors 
 having been Dr. Denison the late, and Dr. Hamilton the present, 
 bishop of Salisbury. Here he distinguished himself as an active 
 parish clerg3'man and an earnest preacher, till the year 1842, 
 when, bathing at Eton, after a day of much excitement and 
 mental exertion, he caught a violent cold, the connnencement of 
 an illness which tenninated fatally in the winter of 1847-48. 
 He died and was buiied at Bonchui-ch in the Isle of Wiciht. 
 
 His reputation as an author rests chiefly upon his " Sacred Alle- 
 gories," viz. : — " The Shadow of the Cross ; " " The Distant 
 Hills ; " " The Old Man's Home," and " The King's Mes- 
 sengers." Besides these he published, " The Warnings of the 
 Holy Week," a course of elegant and practical sennons, preached 
 at St. Peter's-in-the-East ; and " The Fall of Croesus, a story 
 from Herodotus ; designed to connect the study of histoiy with 
 the doctrine of a supermtending Pro\idence." — T. S. P. 
 
 ADAM SON, Henry, a Scottish poet of the 17th centuiy, a 
 native of Perth, author of " The ]\Iuses Threnodie." Died 1639. 
 
 ADAIiISON, Patrick, ai-chbishop of St. Andrews during a 
 veiy stormy period of the Reformed Church of Scotland, a man 
 of brilliant talents and attainments, who, through the allm-e- 
 ments of ambition, drew on himself great obloquy and much 
 sufl'ering, was bom at Perth in 1536. In the records of the 
 period "he is frequently named Patrick Constance or Constan- 
 tine. He studied at St. Maiy's college, St. Andrews, and hav- 
 ing embraced the reformed doctrines, he was in 1560 invested 
 with the clerical office, and soon after became minister of Ceres 
 in Fife. As a preacher he was eloquent and impressive, and as 
 a writer of Latin poetry, he was Uttle inferior to Buchanan, 
 Arthur Johnston, or Andrew Melville. About 1565 he quitted 
 his pastoral charge, and, in the capacity of tutor, accompanied 
 James, the eldest son of Sir James Macgill of Rankeilour in Fife, 
 clerk-register, in his travels to France. At the universities of 
 Padua and Bourges he studied civU and canon law; and upon 
 his retm-n to Scotland in 1570, when he married, he vacillated 
 as to the choice of the profession he should follow. Declining 
 the office of prhicipal of St. Leonard's college, St. Andi-ews, 
 which, before his return, Buchanan had resigned in his favour, 
 he commenced practice at the bar ; but, at the urgent request 
 of the General Assembly, he resumed his original profession, and 
 was appointed minister of Paisley. In the contest between the 
 supporters and the opponents of prelacy and royal supremacy in 
 matters ecclesiastical, Adamson professed a concmrence in the 
 views of Melville, whose society he courted. In 1575 he left 
 his charge at Paisley, on being appointed chaplain to the Regent 
 Jlorton ; in 1577 he was appointed archbishop of St. An- 
 di-ews, and primate of all Scotland; and though, before bemg 
 admitted, he declared his adhesion to the principles of ecclesias- 
 tical polity contained in the Book of DiscipUne, few or none of 
 his brethren had any confidence in the sincerity of his professions. 
 Adamson resided some time in England as ambassador from 
 James to Elizabeth, and after his retm-n in 1584, continued to 
 con-espond with Archbishop Whitgift, and Dr., afterwards Arch- 
 bishop, Bancroft. In April, 1586, he was excommunicated 
 by the Synod of Fife for having assmned the office of bishop, 
 and supported the measm-es of the com't for the overtlirow of the 
 Presbyterian polity. In 1588 he was formally accused before 
 the Assembly, and his deposition was the result. The unfor- 
 tunate man, deprived of his emoluments, and neglected even 
 by James, whose policy he had but too zealously promoted, 
 was now left to endure sorrow, privation, and sickness. He 
 even sought and obtained relief for himself and his family 
 from his opponent, Andrew Mehdlle. He was also released 
 by the Synod of Fife from theh- sentence of excommvmica- 
 tion, in compliance with his professedly earnest entreaties, upon 
 his transmitting a subscribed recantation of the views on which 
 he had previously acted. The genuineness of the document 
 is unquestionable, but the sincerity of his submission, and the 
 \ alue to be attached to the recantation, are, from the chcum- 
 stances under which they were made, still matters of ecclesiastical 
 controversy. He died Febraary 19, 1592. It is pleasant to 
 add, that a beautiful little Latin poem, published in his works, 
 and breatliing a spirit of ardent piety, was composed by him a 
 short time before his death. A collected edition of his works, 
 in quarto, was published by his son-m-law, Thomas Wilson, at 
 London, in 1619. — J. A. 
 
 ADA'JNIUS A'NGLICUS, an Enghshman by birth, a doctor 
 of theology and professor at Paris. He must have been a Domini- 
 can in doctrine, as Petrus Vincentinus names him among the 
 impugners of the immaculate conception of the Virgin. 
 
 ADA'MUS CATHANENSIS, a bishop of Caithness in the 
 reign of Alexander II. of Scotland. He was hated by the 
 people of his diocese for liis rigom" in exacting his tithes, and 
 was burned alive in his own house in 1222. The l-ang avenged 
 his death by the destraction of four hundi'ed persons supposed 
 to have been concerned m the mmder.
 
 ADA'JIUS EVESHAJIENSIS or ADAM OF EVESHAM, 
 an ecclesiastic of the twelt'tli ccntun', one of the messengers who 
 bronght the p.ill to Thomas A'Becket in 11G2. He was abbot 
 of the Benedictine monasteiy of Evesham. Died in 1191. 
 
 ADA'MUS GODDAJIUS or GODHAM, probably a native of 
 Ireland, author of a commentary on Peter Lombard, and of 
 several treatises of scholastic theology. He was a Minorite or 
 Franciscan, and an Oxford doctor of divinitv. 
 
 ADA'JIUS MARISCUS or DE MARISCO, lived in the 
 thiileenth centmy, and was a distinguished teacher in the Fran- 
 ciscan monastery at Oxford. He was celebrated for his theo- 
 logical learning, being called by his contemporaries " Doctor 
 lUustratus." Roger Bacon makes honourable mention of " Friar 
 Adam de JIarisco," in his " Opus Majus." 
 
 ADA'MUS MUREMUTHENSIS or ADAM DE MURI- 
 MUTH, an English historian, who wrote a Latin chronicle of 
 the events of his own time, extending from 1303 to 1337. The 
 chronicle has been continued to 1380 ; but it is almost certain 
 that Murimuth's death took place before that year, and that the 
 continuation is the work of some anonymous writer. 
 
 ADANSON, Michel, a French naturalist (but of Scotch 
 extraction), was bom at Aix in Provence on the 7th April, 
 1727. He was educated at Paris, and enjoyed the benefit of 
 studying under Reamur and Bernard de Jussieu. He exhibited 
 a great love for natm'al history. In the year 1748, when only 
 twenty-one years of age, he embarked for Senegal, with the 
 view of examining the productions of that part of Africa. He 
 spent five years in the colony, and made extensive collections of 
 animals and plants. He also devoted attention to the meteoro- 
 logy of the countiy, and to the languages of the natives. He 
 returned to Paris in 1753, and four years afterwards published 
 his " Histone Naturelle du Senegal, avec la relation abregee d'un 
 voyage fait en ce pays, en 1749-1753." This work has been 
 translated into English and German. He devoted much atten- 
 tion to the classification of plants, and he propounded a system 
 which, in many respects, is in accordance with the natural system 
 of the present day. His work entitled " Families des Plantes," 
 containing his views of classification, was published in Paris, in 
 two volumes, in 17G3. In it he displays much knowledge of 
 the philosophy of botany, but he unfortunately adopted a 
 nomenclature which was not received by the botanical world. 
 During the French Revolution, he sufiered gi'cat troul)les and 
 privations, and seems to have been reduced to a state of pemuy. 
 He died on 6th August, 180G, in the eightieth year of his age. 
 He appears to have been a man of liberal and philanthropic 
 sentiments, and to have nobly advocated the liberation of the 
 slave. The name of Adansonia digitata, in honoiu- of him, is 
 given to a famous tree of tropical Africa. The tree is Icnown 
 as the Baobab-trcc, or Ethiopian Som--gom'd, or Monkey-bread, 
 and is remarkable for the size of its trunlc, which attains a 
 diameter of thirty feet. — J. H. B. 
 
 ADASHEV, Alexay Tiieodorovich, minister of the czar 
 Ivan IV., at a remarkable period of Russian liistory. In 1547 
 a tenible conflagi-ation destroyed the gi'eater part of Moscow, 
 along with 1700 of its inhabitants. The population sufiered 
 gi-eat misery, and, exasperated by the neglect of the young 
 czar Ivan IV., rose in revolt. The sovereign, afraid of his rebel 
 subjects, and moved by an appeal made by a priest named 
 Sylvester, was roused to action, and appointed Sylvester, along 
 with his chamberlain Adashev, to manage the affairs of the state. 
 Under them groat rolbrms were wrought, and vast advances 
 made by the country in intelligence and commerce, as well as in 
 military gloiy. Adashev occupied the most prominent position ; 
 but gi-adually he began to decline in favoiu-, and in 1561 died 
 in a prison at Dorpat, into which he had been thrown on an 
 accusation of causing by sorcery the death of the czaritza Ana- 
 stasia. After his death the czar became noted for his cnielty, 
 and gained for himself the title of Ivan the Ten-ible. — J. B. 
 
 ADASHEV, Dauiel Tiieodorovich, son of the preceding, 
 distinguished in vaiious militaiy expeditions during liis father's 
 administration, especially in that against the Crim Tartars. He 
 was put to death by Ivan soon after his father's decease. 
 
 ADDA, II Conte Fuascesco d', distinguished as a poet, 
 painter, and soldier. He executed the picture of John the 
 liaptist, which forms an altar-piece in the chm-ch of Santa Maria 
 delle Gra?ie in Milan. 
 
 ADDINGTON, A>;tiioxy, an English physician of some 
 reputation, author of several medical works, and father of Lord 
 
 Sidmouth, was born about 1718. He was honoiu-ed with the 
 intimate friendship of Lord Chatham, and, when examined be- 
 fore the House of Lords respecting the malady of George III., 
 gave an opinion which was afterwards gratifying to that sove- 
 reign, and, at the time, useful to the ministry of Pitt. Both 
 cu'cumstances had subsequently an inflaence on Lord Sidmouth's 
 success in life. Died in 1790. — E. M. 
 
 ADDINGTON, Henry, Lord Viscount Sidmouth, son of Dr. 
 Anthony Addington, was born in 1755. After qualifying him- 
 self for the medical profession, he soon quitted it to devote 
 himself to a political career, for which he had always cherished 
 a strong predilection. Enteiing parliament in 1782, he showed 
 himself an ardent and valiiable adherent of his early friend Pitt. 
 Wien, in 1792, the motion of Mr. Wilbcrforce on the slave trade 
 came before the house, Pitt and Addington took different sides, 
 the former eloquently pleading for its unmediate, the latter de- 
 .sLring its gradual abolition. Mi\ Addington was raised in 1789 
 to the dignity of speaker of the House of Commons, which he 
 retamed till March, 1801, when he became premier. In this 
 capacity he displayed great power in making diy administi'ative 
 subjects attractive, by a lucid and poUshed eloquence. He 
 zealously promoted the peace of Amiens, but some clauses in the 
 treaty exposed him to the violent attacks of the opposition, now 
 comprehending some of his previous supporters. \\Tien hosti- 
 lities were resumed, he was the foremost in urging the vigorous 
 prosecution of the war. Towards the end of 1803, he called 
 the nation to arms, and put the coasts in a state of defence. 
 But he wanted the requisite energy to command public con- 
 fidence at such a crisis. The nation, therefore, demanded a 
 change of ministry, and Pitt was again invited to take the reins 
 of government. Addington resigned the seals in May, 1804. 
 The king, with whom he was a special favourite, raised him to 
 the peerage, under the title of Viscoimt Sidmouth, and made 
 him a privy councillor. After Pitt's death, Sidmouth, with Fox 
 and Gren\-ille, formed a new ministry in Januaiy, 1806, which 
 was dismissed by the king a few months afterwards on the 
 death of Fox. Wien Lord Liverpool became premier, on the 
 assassination of the unfortunate Pcrclval, Sidmouth again entered 
 the cabinet as home secretary ; but in 1822, on the death of the 
 ]\Iar(iuis of Londondeny (Ca&tlereagh), he retired, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Peel. He died at the age of eighty-nine, on the 15th 
 Febraaiy, 1844. — {.Life of Lord Sidmouth by Dean Pellew, 3 
 vols. 8vo.)— E. JI. 
 
 ADDINGTON, Stephen, D.D., successively minister of the 
 dissenting congregation at Market Harborough, tutor at the 
 theological seminary at ]\Iile-End, London (from 1783 to 1788), 
 and minister of the congregation in Miles' Lane (from 1788 to 
 1796), was bom in 1729, and died in Febraaiy, 1796, in his 
 sixty-seventh year. His works are a " Life of the Apostle 
 Paul," a " Defence of Infiint Baptism," a " Dissertation on the 
 Religious Knowledge of the ancient Jews and Patriarchs," and 
 some minor publications. — W. L. A. 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, poet, statesman, moralist, and a con- 
 summate master of the English language, was the eldest son of 
 Dr. Lancelot Addison, by Jane his wife, and was bora at Jlilston, 
 Wiltshire, May 1, 1672. Like Su- Isaac Newton, and many 
 other illustrious men, he was a weakly child, and baptized on the 
 day of his buih, under the impression that he could not long 
 survive. His fii-st teacher was the Rev. Mr. Naish, at Amesbm^' 
 school. Thence he removed to Sarum school, under the tuition 
 of the Rev. Mr. Taylor. He was prepared for the university at 
 the great school of the Charterhouse in London, where Richard 
 Steele was his companion, and where the foundation of then friend- 
 ship was laid. In 1687 he was entered at Queen's college, Oxford. 
 His classical attainments, refined taste, and gentle character, soon 
 made him favom-ably known in the university. Some of his 
 verses fell into the hands of Dr. Lancaster, then dean of Mag- 
 dalen college. He was consequently chosen a member of that 
 house, where he took the degree of bachelor and master of arts. 
 
 Already esteemed for his skill in Latin versification, at the age 
 of twenty-two he addressed an English poem to Dryden, con- 
 taining some pleasing compliments on that poet's translations 
 from Virgil, Ovid, Juvenal, and Persius ; and he afterwards 
 assisted Diyden in the composition of his works. At this tune 
 he was strongly importuned by his father to enter holy orders, 
 and among his friends we find " j\Ir. Hemy Sacheverell," after- 
 wards so celebrated as a party controversialist. In 1695 he wrote 
 a poem on King William, addressed to Su- Jolm Somcrs, then lord
 
 keeper of tlie great seal. To this flattering production he owed 
 the friendship of that nobleman. A little before, he had dedicated 
 Ills Latm poems to Mr. Jlontague, afterwards Lord Halifax. 
 Halifax and Somers procured him, in 1G99, a pension of £300 
 a year from the cro^vn, that he might add to his stores of infor- 
 mation by foreign travel ; and we find Mm writing a " Letter 
 in 1701, from Italy, to the Right Honourable Lord Halifax," in 
 smooth and graceful English verse. In 1702 he set in order at 
 Vienna the materials which he had collected m Italy for his 
 " Dialogues on Ancient Sledals." In the same year, on making 
 arrangements to retm-n to England, he found liimself chosen as 
 secretary from King 'William III., to attend the army under 
 Piince Eugene, who had just begun the war in Italy. He heard 
 the news "of the king's death while enjojdng the picturesque 
 scenery of Geneva, in which liis pm-e taste must have felt exqui- 
 site delight. The change of ministry at the beginning of the 
 new reign destroyed his hopes of present advancement. He had 
 leisure for a tour in Gennany on his way home, and did not 
 amve in London until nearly the close of 1703. He shortly 
 afterwards published liis " Travels," wliich he appropriately dedi- 
 cated to Lord Somers, then no longer in office. In 1704, re- 
 ([uested by the Lord-Treasm-er Godolphin, on the suggestion of 
 Lord Halifax, to celebrate the recent victoiy of Blenheim, he 
 commenced the beautiful poem of the " Campaign." Lord Go- 
 dolphin saw a specimen of the work before its completion, and 
 ^vas so channed wdth the imagery, that he appointed the author 
 commissioner of appeals, vacant by the removal of the celebrated 
 Jlr. Locke to the council of trade. In 1705 he accompanied 
 Lord HaUfiix to Hanover. In 1706 he was made under-secre- 
 taiy of state. In 1707 he pubhshed, anon}Tiiously, an able 
 pamphlet, entitled " The Present State of the War," &c. 
 
 At this time he resided in a venerable mansion at the east 
 end of Fulham, once the residence of Nell Gwynn. His friends 
 persuaded him to flatter the new taste for operas, by waiting one 
 called Eosamond, which did not succeed on the stage ; but fi'om 
 letters which he dated from Fulham, we find that Addison pre- 
 feiTed the hedgerows to the theatre, the oratorio of birds to the 
 most musicjil opera, and the voice of the nightingale to Jlrs. 
 Tofts, the finest singer of that age. In 1709 he went to Ire- 
 land as secretary to the lord-heutenant, the marquis of Wiarton. 
 The salaiy of the keeper of records in Ireland was increased, and 
 the office was bestowed on Addison as a mark of the queen's 
 favour. At the change of ministry in 1710, he rctm-ned to 
 England, where he remained in pohtical retirement, imtil in 
 1714, on the death of Queen Anne, he was made the secretary to 
 the regency. But though m retirement, he was not unemployed ; 
 for, from his lodging in St. James's Place, with its exquisite 
 literary breakfasts, out-rivalling the feasts of Samuel Piogers in 
 our own day, he sent forth those celebrated papers in the Spec- 
 tator and Guardian, which bear the initials Clio, and which 
 liave not more wonderfully contributed to the improvement of 
 the English morals, than to the purity of the national taste ; 
 while, in 1713, he published the " Tragedy of Cato," alike re- 
 markable for its preservation of the classical unities, and as 
 designed to awaken the nation to a love of ci\'il freedom. About 
 the same time he formed the noble purpose of compiling a new 
 I'lnglish dictionary. 
 
 He was now at the height of popularity, and though " a whig, 
 when whigs were at a discount," he wielded an influence all but uni- 
 versal. Taverns, in those days, like the modem ciubs of Pall Mall 
 and St. James's Street, were the reunions of fashionable society, 
 both literary and political. Sadly illustrative of the UTeligion of 
 the age, one was called the " Devil's Tavern." It was situated 
 between the Temple Gates and Temple Bar, and had been the 
 haunt of wits from the time of Ben Jonson. In 1710 we find 
 the great essayist dming at this well-known house, whOe a 
 general election was filling the land with the riot which Hogarth 
 aftenvards so admii-ably painted. " I dmed to-day," says S\vift 
 in a letter to Stella, " with Dr. Garth and Mr. Addison at the 
 Devil tavern, near Temple Bar ; and it is well I dine eveiy day, 
 else I should be longer in making out my letters ; for we are yet 
 in a veiy dull state, only inquiring every day after new elections, 
 where the tones cany it among the new members six to one. Mr. 
 Addison's election has passed easy and undisputed ; and I believe, 
 if he had a mind to be chosen king, he would hardly be refused." 
 On the an-ival of George I. he was again sent to Ireland, as 
 secretary to the new lord-heutenant. Lord Sunderland. In 1715 
 he became a lord of trade. From September, 1715, to July, 
 
 1716, he rendered important service to the government by pub- 
 lishmg a powerful political paper twice a-week, entitled " The 
 Freeholder." In 17 IG he manied the countess-dowager of 
 Wanvick, an union which does not appear to have added to his 
 domestic happiness. In 1717 he accepted the dignity of secre- 
 taiy of state ; more, it is understood, in compliance with the 
 wishes of his wife, than in accordance with his own judgment. 
 Tills high office he resigned after holding it about a year, in con- 
 sequence of his declining health, retiring with a pension of 
 £1500 a-year. A complicated asthma and dropsy deprived the 
 world of liis eminent services, at Holland House, Kensington, on 
 the 17th of June, 1719. 
 
 There are few illustrious Enghshmen whose characters have 
 been more variously and richly illustrated by contemporaiy and 
 succeeding writers, than that of Addison. There are yet fewer 
 who have contributed so much to that illustration themselves. 
 In a coiTupt age, Addison exhibited a rare and refreshing ex- 
 ample of unswening adherence to the cause of truth, decorum, 
 and piety. His deep respect for rehgion he owed to the instnic- 
 tions of' his fiither's home ; and though, perhaps, his personal 
 earnestness as a Chiistian may have been somewhat abated by 
 his love of convi\-iality in the prime of manhood, in the last years 
 of his life he gave ample proofs of devoutness. He continued 
 his " Evidences of Christiimity." He contemplated a new ver- 
 sion of the Psalms. Some of his hymns are sung to this day in 
 chmxhes, wherever the English language is understood. His 
 last words, which were addi-essed to his stepson, the young earl 
 of Warwick, are well known. Pressing the hand of the profligate 
 youth, he softly said, " I have sent for you, that yon might see 
 with what peace a Cliristian can die," and calmly expired. 
 
 The story that Addison, in the latter years of his life, gave 
 himself up to intemperance, rests on no sohd foundation, and 
 may fairly be pronounced a calumny. An old tradition connects 
 his name with the long gallery, or hbrary, which forms the 
 west wing of Holland house. It is affirmed that he had there 
 a bottle of wine placed at each end, and, when in the feiTour of 
 composition, was in the habit of pacing the nan-ow gallery 
 between glass and glass. Fancy may attribute the bright 
 humour wliich sparkles in so many of his essays to the inspira- 
 tion of wine ; but there is too much sober sense in his lucubra- 
 tions, even when he most indulges in pleasantry, to admit of 
 such an explanation of then- brilliancy. He haunted, it is true, 
 the cofiee-house and the tavern, as did all the other great wits 
 of the day. We have from his own graphic pen a sketch of St. 
 James's coffee-house, St James's Street ; and he was a member 
 of the Kit-cat Club, w-hich met at an obscure inn in Shhe Lane. 
 The old ^^^lite Horse Inn, on the Hammersmith Eoad, now 
 kno-ivn as the Holland Aims, was often his resort on an after- 
 noon, when he wanted to begiule an hour of leLsm-e. But the 
 house which he most frequented was Button's, on the south side 
 of Russell Street, Covent Garden. The landlord, whose name 
 it bore, had been in the seiTice of Lady Warwick. It was opened 
 in 1712, under Addison's express auspices, and when the world 
 had just been startled by the tragedy of " Cato." " A lion's 
 head and paws, sending as the letter-box for hterary communi- 
 cations, was placed in front of the building, and the editor of 
 the Guardian says, 'whatever the lion swallows, I shall digest 
 for the use of the public' ' He is indeed a proper emblem of 
 knowledge and action, being all head and paws.'" "Addison 
 usually studied all the morning, then met his party at Button's, 
 and dined there, staying five or six hours, and sometimes far 
 into the night." These habits doubtless ftivornxd the accumu- 
 lation of the practical wisdom which enriches his essays, but they 
 must have had their peculiar temptations. 
 
 Dispassionate criticism, at the present day, does not place 
 Adilison in the foremost rank of EngUsh poets. His metrical 
 productions do not breathe the fire of high original genius ; they 
 are rather the result of a refined classical taste. Stately, rheto- 
 rical, and hamionious, they still want the rapture and boldness 
 which mark the poet bom. The celebrated tragedy of " Cato " 
 exhibits all the author's beauties and defects. That on its first 
 appearance it was played for thirty-five nights in succession to 
 crowded and enthusiastic audiences, has been attributed, first, to 
 the wann eftbi-ts of friends ; secondly, to the political excitement 
 of the time ; and last, but not least, to the fact that he gave liis 
 sliare of the proceeds for the benefit of the " house." 
 
 It is as a prose author that Addison occupies so distinguished 
 a place among the writers of our country. As such, his merits
 
 are almost universally admitted to be unrivalled. As long as 
 English literature endures, the style of the papers which he con- 
 tributed to the " Tattler," " Spectator," and " Guardian," will 
 be admired and imitated as an all but perfect model of Enghsh 
 prose, simple and perspicuous, and full of unaffected grace. His 
 wit out\'ies that of Horace ; his comic power and humour are 
 only surpassed by those qualities as found in Shakspeare, and 
 j)erhaps Cervantes. His religious and moral sentiments are as 
 far removed from sour asceticism as from coarse infidelity, ex- 
 hibiting the golden mean of rational piety. 
 
 Of Addison's conversational powers, various estimates have 
 been formed, differing with the opportunities and character of 
 the obseiTers. Pope tells us that liis conversation had a chami 
 in it which he had never fovind in any other man ; but before 
 strangers he was stiff and silent. Chesterfield declares that he 
 was the most timorous and awkward man he ever knew. Addi- 
 son used to say of his own mental resources, that although he 
 " could draw bills for a thousand pounds, he had not a guinea in 
 his pocket." The brilliant Mary Montague said, that she had 
 known all the wits, and that Addison was the best company in 
 the world. His parliamentaiy career seems to be almost ignored 
 by his biogi-aphers. He sat in parliament ; he rose to be one of 
 the principal secretaries of state under the Stanhope ministry in 
 the reign of George I. ; yet his name never appears prominent 
 in debate. His pen, so fluent in composition, did not seem made 
 for official documents. Sir Richard Steele tells us, that when 
 xVddisou " had made his plan for what he designed to write, he 
 would walk about a room and dictate it into language with as 
 much freedom and ease as any one could write it down, and attend 
 to the coherence and grammar of what he dictated." It is of 
 course impossible that one who took an active part in the stormy 
 season during which Addison lived, should have escaped misre- 
 ]ircsentation. He has been accused of envy and pei-fidy towards 
 Pope ; but these charges have been minutely investigated and 
 distmctly disproved. Dr. Johnson tells a stoiy, alleging that 
 Addison dealt harshly towards his old friend Steele in a money 
 transaction. It seems, however, that Addison's conduct on the 
 occasion was regarded by Steele himself as considerate. 
 
 It would be a pleasant task to multiply anecdotes illustrative 
 of his opinions, and to recapitulate and analyse his publications. 
 After all, in these are to be found the best illustrations of their 
 author, and an attentive perusal of them will not less contribute 
 to the gratification than to the improvement of the reader. — T. J. 
 
 ADDISON, Laxcelot, a learned English divine, son of an 
 English clergyman, and father of Joseph Addison, was bom at 
 Crosby Ravensworth, Westmoreland. Being a zealous royalist, 
 he obtained no prefei-ment till the Restoration. He was then 
 appointed English chaplam at Dunkirk, and afterwards sent, in 
 the same capacity, to Tangier in Africa. In 1670 he returned 
 to England, and was made king's chaplain, and rector of Mil- 
 ston, Wiltshhe. In 1673 he became dean of Lichfield. He was 
 author of several excellent works, the most original of wliich 
 were the result of his inquiries and studies at Tangier, and 
 relate to the state and usages of the Jews, and the history of 
 Western Barbaiy. Died in 1703. — E. M. 
 
 ADEKIRCHEN, Amb., a German Dominican monk of the 
 17th century, who laboured in and about Cologne. 
 
 ADEL, a king of Sweden, who reigned at Upsal, probably in 
 the sixth century. He is said to have made Denmark tributary 
 to Sweden, and to have been killed by a fall from his horse in a 
 triumphal procession, on his retiu-n from his victories. 
 
 ADELAIDE or ADELHEID, empress of Germany, and 
 daughter of Rodolph II., king of Bm-gundy, was bom in 931, 
 and, at the age of sixteen, was maiTied to Lotharius II., king of 
 Italy. After the death of her husband by poison in 950, 
 Bercnger, count of Ivrea, seized the throne, and confined her in 
 a fortress, from which she at length effected her escape. The 
 Emperor Otho I., whose protection she implored, hastened to 
 her aid, conquered the usurper, and, mariying Adelaide, entered 
 Pavia in triumph. Her beauty and her goodness gave her great 
 power over Otho, during whose reign, and that of theh son, 
 Otho II., as well as during the minority of then- gi-andson, Otho 
 III., she employed her influence in doing good. She was a pat- 
 tern of every virtue, and, though never canonized, is usually 
 called Saint Adelaide. She died at Seltz on the Rhine in the 
 68th year of her age, on her return from Burgundy, where her 
 efforts as peacemaker between her nephew. King Rodolph III., 
 and his subjects, had been cro\\'ned with success. — E. ^I. 
 
 VOL. L 
 
 ADELAIDE, daughter of George, duke of Saxe-Cobourg 
 Meiningen, and queen of Great Britain, was bom in 1792. 
 When eleven years of age she lost her father, and remained 
 under the guardianship of her mother, till in 1818 she was 
 married to William IV., then duke of Clarence. Her amiable 
 disposition and habitual beneficence rendered her a great favourite 
 with the British nation. Died hi December, 1849. — E. M. 
 
 ADELAIDE, Eugene-Louise, of Orleans, sister of Louis 
 Phifippe, was bom at Paris in 1777. She possessed gi-eafc 
 capacity, and was carefully educated under the celebi'ated Jladame 
 de Genhs. She had much influence over her brother, who, after 
 he was placed on the throne, found her on all occasions his 
 safest ad%'iser in public affairs. Her views of political complica- 
 tions usually evinced great penetration and adnihable judgment, 
 and many are of opinion that, had her life been prolonged, her 
 counsels might have averted the catastrophe which occurred but 
 three months after her demise. Died in December, 1847. — E. M. 
 
 ADELAIDE, Madajie, of France, eldest daughter of Louis 
 XV., and aunt of Louis XVI., bom at Versailles in 1732. 
 Though seldom interfering with public affairs, she earnestly 
 opposed the fatal measures of Calonne, of which she but 
 too tndy predicted the consequences. In 1791, foreseeing 
 the impending horrors of the Revolution, she and her sister 
 Victoire withdrew from Versailles, and, after several interrup- 
 tions, reached Rome. In 1796 they removed to Naples, and 
 in 1799, on the approach of the French republican troops, 
 escaped to Corfu, and thence to Trieste, where Victoire died the 
 same year, and Adelaide in 1800. — E. M. 
 
 ADELAIDE, Makciiioness, daughter of Olderic Manfredi, 
 count of Turin and of Susa, styled Marquis of Italy, because he 
 guarded the marches or borders and the passes which led into 
 Italy. She was born eai'ly in the eleventh centuiy, was three 
 times married ; the thh-d tune to Oddo, son of Humbert of " the 
 white hands." This union laid the foundation of the power of 
 the house of Savoy, inasmuch as Oddo inherited from his father 
 the counties of Maurienne and Aosta, and tlu-ough his wife the 
 lordship of Turin and marquisate of Italy. Adelaide died at an 
 advanced age in December, 1091. — J. B. 
 
 ADELAIS OF LouvAiN, daughter of Godfrey, duke of 
 Brabant, the second queen of Henry I. of England. She was 
 distingixished for rare beauty and accomplishments. The trou- 
 badours, whom she constantly patronised, called her " The Fair 
 JIaid of Brabant." Her name is associated with the battle of 
 Duras, or " The Standard," for she was the worker of the beau- 
 tiful standard of silk and gold there taken from her father's 
 amiy, and which lay for centiuries m the cathedi-al of St. Lam- 
 bert at Lifege. After King Henry's death, she was married to 
 WiUiam d'Albini, and died in 1151. — J. B. 
 
 ADELARD II., abbot of St. Trend, a miniature-painter 
 and illuminator of the 11th century. He is also recorded as 
 having been a distinguished sculptor. 
 
 ADELARD of Bath, a learned and ingenious Benedictine 
 monk, who, in pursuit of instruction in science, travelled in 
 Spain, Egypt, and Ai-abia, and about 1130 translated from 
 Arabic into Latin, Euclid's Elements, and a treatise on astro- 
 nomy. He also wrote several original works on physical and 
 medical science, preser\'ed in manuscript at Oxford. 
 
 ADELA'SIA OF Torres, queen of Sardinia in the earlier 
 half of the thirteenth century. She died in prison, mto which 
 she had been thrown by her second husband Enzius, son of the 
 Emperor Frederick II. 
 
 ADELBOLD, a Dutch ecclesiastic, of great learning for the 
 age, was bom in Friesland about 960. He wrote a treatise 
 entitled " De ratione inveniendi crassitudmem sphajra;," which 
 he dedicated to Pope Silvester II., who died in 1003. The 
 Emperor Henry II., whose confidential adviser he had been, 
 appointed him, in 1008, bishop of Utrecht. After asserting his 
 episcopal rights by force of arms against the count of Holland, 
 he applied himself to pm-suits becoming his profession, founded 
 the cathedral of Utrecht, and zealously promoted education. 
 He wrote, besides several ecclesiastical biographies and eulogiums, 
 a life of his benefactor, Henry II. Died in 1028.— E. M. 
 
 ADELBURNER, Michael, a Gei-man mathematician and 
 physician, member of the Berlin academy of sciences, was bom 
 at Nuremberg in 1702. In 1743 he was appomted professor of 
 medicine and also of mathematics at Altdorf, and in 1761, of 
 logic. He published for some tune, and with great success, an 
 astronomical journal in Latin, which, after being interrapted for
 
 ADE 
 
 34 
 
 ADE 
 
 several years, was resumed in German. He wrote also various 
 treatises, both mathematical and meteorological. Died 1779. 
 
 ADELER, CuRTius Siversex, an illustrious naval officer, 
 born in Norway in 1C72. After being trained under Tromp and 
 Kegers, he obtained a command in the Venetian fleet, and during 
 fifteen years rendered Venice immense service, and acquired a 
 gi-eat renown, by a series of the most heroic achievements. In 
 1 6G2 he quitted the Venetian service ; and after spending some 
 time in Amsterdam, where he mamed, returned to Denmark in 
 16G3, was appointed by the king, Christian V., naval comman- 
 der-in-chief, and ennobled. He died at Copenliagen in 1673, 
 when on tlie point of sailing to encounter the Swedish fleet. — E. M. 
 
 ADELGAR or ADELHER, canon of Liege and monk of 
 Cluny ; a scholastic philosopher and theologian of the twelfth 
 century. Adelgar"s gi-eat work, " De libero arbitrio," develops a 
 conception regarding the divine prescience, which goes to the root 
 of the mystery of the co-existence of supreme fore-ordination and 
 a free-will in man. He denies the appropriateness of the term 
 yore-sight, as applied to God. Past and present, he avers, do 
 not exist in reference to the eternal mind, — all is immediate 
 vision. Hence the fallacy of many of our argmuents concerning 
 necessity. Tliis very conception is farther and very finely 
 ■s^Tought out by the late Bishop Coplestone. — J. P. N. 
 
 ADELGISUS or ADELGHIS, only son of Desiderius, king 
 of the Longobards, was defeated with his father by Char- 
 lemagne in the battle of La Chiusa, a.d. 773. He escaped 
 to Constantinople, and in 788 was furnished by the Emperor 
 Constantino with a body of troops, with which he landed in 
 Calabria, expecting to be joined by his nephew Grimwald, prince 
 of Beneventum. But Grimwald, having pre^aously made peace 
 with Charlemagne, united his troops with those of Hildebrand, 
 duke of Spoletum, and defeated Adelgisus. His fate is un- 
 certain. According to Sigonius he was taken and put to a 
 cruel death ; while others say that he escaped to Constantinople, 
 and lived there on a pension from the Byzantine court. — J. B. 
 
 ADELGISUS, a prince of Beneventum, of the Longobanl 
 dvnasty, who succeeded to the government in 854. During his 
 reign the principality of Beneventum was invaded by the 
 Saracens. He called to his aid Louis II., emperor of Italy, and 
 the Saracens were defeated. While the emperor was in Bene- 
 ventum, Adelgisus conspired against him, and made him a 
 prisoner. He was only released on sweaiing a solemn oath 
 never to take any revenge for the outrage, Adelgisus keeping 
 possession of his treasm-es. Adelgisus was murdered by mem- 
 bers of his ovm family, after a reign of thirty-four years.— J. B. 
 
 ADELGREIFF, Joh-Abb, a learned ^asionary, burned for 
 heresy at Konigsberg, 11th Oct., 1636. 
 
 ADELMAN, an ecclesiastic of Liege, who was made bishop of 
 Brescia in 1018. He obtained some celebrity by an epistle he 
 addressed to Berenger, in reply to that writer's treatise against 
 transubstantiation. The work of Berenger had produced a 
 great sensation, and Adelman, who had been his fellow-student 
 under Fulbert, bishop of Chartres, proposed by his epistle, to 
 show his zeal for orthodoxy, to reclaim an old acquaintance from 
 error. He also wrote a Latin poem in celebration of the illustri- 
 ous men of the age. Died in 1061. — E. M. 
 
 ADELUNG, Fred, d', nephew of Joh. Clirist. Adelung, was 
 born at Stettin, 13th Febniary, 1768. He held various high 
 ofhces in the Russian coiu-t, and was a coiincillor of state. 
 Like liis uncle he was fond of comparative philology, and has 
 published several treatises on Sanscrit and its affinities. His 
 " Bibliotheca Sanscrita," a second edition of his previous Essai, 
 was published in 1837. He died January, 1813. — J. E. 
 
 ADELUNG, Jacob, a teacher of languages and music in 
 the gymnasium of Erfurt, near which town he was bom in 
 1699. He was also a maker of hai-psichords, and >vi-ote several 
 good works on the theory of music. Died in 1762. 
 
 ADELUNG, Joh. Christ., the distinguished philologist and 
 lexicographer, was born at Spantekow in Pomerania, on the 
 8th of August, 1743. After receiving elementaiy education at 
 Anclam and Closterbergen, he finished his academic course at 
 Halle. In 1759 he was nominated a professor in the protestant 
 gymnasium of Erfurt, and held the situation about two years, 
 when he resigned in consequence of some misunderstandings with 
 the government, which was catholic. He retued to Leipzig, and 
 commenced those prodigious literary labours which have im- 
 mortalized his name, and were of signal service to the dawning 
 science of comparative philology. In 1787 he became librarian 
 
 to the elector of Saxony at Dresden, and had also the honorary 
 title of Aulic counsellor. This situation he held till his death 
 in 1806. The industry of Adelung was untiring. He plodded 
 and persevered beyond most men even in his own country, pro- 
 verbial for the incessant toils and bulky achievements of its 
 scholars. He had not the cares of a family to distract him, and 
 his robust constitution bore him through years of unremitting 
 labours, at the rate of fourteen hours a-day. His earlier publi- 
 cations treated of political affiiirs, diplomacy, and general history, 
 some of them extending to several quarto volumes. In 1772 he 
 pubhshed an excellent compend of Du Gauge's great dictionary, 
 to which, however, he added many new terms. The publication 
 of his " Versuch eines Grammatisch-kritischen Worterbuch," 
 " Grammatico-critical Dictionary," was begun in 1774, and com- 
 pleted in 1786, in five quarto volumes. The merits of this book 
 have been often and deservedly commended, but it has without 
 good reason been set above the similar achievement of Samuel 
 Johnson, on which it is plainly modelled. The consen'ative 
 nature of Adelung's dictionary has been frequently animadverted 
 on, but -ndthout just gi-ound. Amidst conflicting dialects, pro- 
 duced or pei-petuated by so many rival principalities, where there 
 was no central bar or senate, and no literary metropolis, it was 
 necessary to choose a standard and abide by it. Adelung wisely 
 prefeiTed the dialect of Misnia in Upper Saxony, for it had been 
 early cultivated, and had obtained a wide currency through the 
 writings of Luther and the Reformers. Where all had been so 
 fluctuating both in the coinage and pronunciation of words, 
 these needed a firm decision, though it might sometimes degene- 
 rate into obstinacy. Better keep out some terms whose inherent 
 worth might ultimately gain admission for them, than stamp 
 authority on others of hybrid form or provincial origin and use. 
 Adelung published many other works bearing on the gramm.ar, 
 histoiy, formation, and development of the Teutonic language. 
 He added also four volumes of continuation to Jocher's general 
 biography of learned men. Comparative philology owes not a 
 little to his last work, his " Mithridates oder Allgemeine Sprach- 
 enkunde," " Mithridates, or the general study of languages," a 
 work which contains the Lord's prayer in nigh five hundred 
 dialects. He did not live to finish it, the task devolving on his 
 nephew, along with Professor Vater. Adelung's works amount 
 to forty-three separate publications, many of them comprising 
 several volumes. But though he spent his days in literary seclu- 
 sion, he was a man of cheerful habits, liked good living, and paid 
 special attention to his cellar, which he jocularly called his 
 Bibliotheca Selectissima. He was a man, too, of great amiability 
 and pure morals. — J. E. 
 
 ADELWALT governed for a short time the province or 
 kingdom of Deira, in the Saxon kingdom of Northimibria. At 
 his death his kingdom was again united with Bemicia. 
 
 ADEMAR or AIMAR DE CHABANAIS, an ecclesiastic of 
 St. Cibar in Angouleme, son of Count Raimond, flourished in 
 the eleventh centmy, and was author of a chronicle of Aquitaine 
 down to 1029, a work still consulted with interest by inquii-ers 
 into the early history of France. 
 
 ADENEZ or ADANS, a celebrated French poet of the thir- 
 teenth century, court minstrel to Henry III., duke of Flanders 
 and Brabant, after whose death, in 1260, he was patronised by 
 the duke's daughter j\Iarie, queen of France. He was author of 
 five well-known romances. The most celebrated is the romance 
 of " Cleomad^s," written by desire of Queen JIarie, and with 
 her assistance and that of Blanche of Artois, sister of Robert II. 
 
 ADEODATUS, a pope who sat from 14th March, 672, to 
 18th May, 677, and known for a letter addressed "Ad Univer- 
 ses Episcopos Galliaj." 
 
 ADEODATUS, the well-known son of Augustine, bom before 
 his conversion, and baptized in his loth year along with his 
 father. He died early. 
 
 ADER, Guii.LAUME, a learned physician of Toulouse, author 
 of two interesting medical works, the one on the diseases men- 
 tioned in the New Testament, and the other on the spnptoms, 
 prevention, and cure of the plague. Died about 1630. 
 
 ADET, Pierre Auguste, a French chemist and statesman, 
 born at Paris in 1763. After holding various administrative 
 offices, he was sent to Geneva, and, in 1795, to the United 
 States, as French minister. He was a senator under Napoleon, 
 and, in 1814, a member of the chamber of deputies. Author of 
 " Lessons on Chemistiy," and a contributor to " Annales de 
 Chimie et de Physique." Died in 1832.
 
 ADG 
 
 35 
 
 ADO 
 
 ADGILLUS, made duke of the Fiisians by Clotaire III., king 
 of tlie Franks. He did much to benefit liis subjects, seeking, 
 among other things, to promote the Christian religion. His 
 eftbrts were ultimately unsuccessful, as the Frisians retmnied to 
 paganism under his successor. Adgillus lived toward the end 
 of the seventh and beginning of the eighth century. 
 
 ADHAD-EDDAULAH, an able and powerful, but ambitious 
 and unscrapulous sultan of Persia, renowned for his conquests, 
 his encouragement of science and literature, and his numerous, 
 useful, and splendid public works, was born at Ispahan in 
 93G. He made himself master of Bagdad, and nearly all Irac. 
 His friendship was cultivated by the Greek emperor, and his 
 court was the resort of philosophers and poets, who vied with 
 each other in recording his praises. He died in 983. — E. M. 
 
 ADH-DHAHEBI', a Mohammedan writer, born at Damascus, 
 A.D. 1274-5, and raised to the dignity of mufti of his native 
 city. His best known work is a chronological history of Moham- 
 medanism, comprising the annals of all the ]\Ioslem nations from 
 the creation to his own time. He also wrote biographies of the 
 celebrated theologians of his f;:ith. Died in 13-47-8. 
 
 ADH-DHOBBr, an historian, bom at Cordova, about the 
 beginning of the thirteenth centuiy. His history of the Spanisli 
 Arabs is one of the most valuable sources ibr the history of 
 Mohammedan Spain. 
 
 ADHELM. See Aldhel:\i. 
 
 ADHEMAR, Guillaume, a Provencal poet of the twelfth 
 century, about whom a romantic story is told — that he died of 
 giief at the proposed marriage of the countess of Die ; that the 
 lady visited him before his death, and was so filled with soitow 
 that she abandoned the idea of marriage, and retired to a con- 
 vent, where she, too, soon died of grief. Eighteen of this poet's 
 songs are in the public libraries of Paris. — J. B. 
 
 ADHERBAL, a Carthaginian officer in the first Punic war. 
 He defeated the Roman fleet off tlie coast of Sicily, 250 B.C. 
 
 ADHERBAL, one of the Numidian kings, who shared the 
 government with his brother Hiempsal and his cousin Jugurtha. 
 He ascended the throne 118 B.C. 
 
 ADHNA, chief poet of Ireland, flourished in the early part 
 of the reign of Connor ]\IacNessa, king of Ulster, about 3950 
 A.JI. Some fragments of laws, said to be the joint production 
 of Adhna and others, are still extant in the hbrary of Trmity 
 college, Dublin. — (^O'lieiUy.) 
 
 'A'DIL SHA'H (Yusuf), bom in Asia Minor, of the royal 
 Ottoman family, near the middle of the fifteenth centmy. On 
 the succession of his brotlier Mohammed II. in 1451, Yusuf, 
 then a child, had to be conveyed into Persia for safety from 
 Mohammed, wlio sought his life. He subsequently embarked 
 for India, and in 14G0 arrived in the Deccan. There he rapidly 
 rose to power, and became the founder of the 'A'dil Shahi 
 dynasty of Bijapiir, which lasted till 1689. — J. B. 
 
 ADIMANTQS, a Llanichean, esteemed one of the greatest of 
 the sect, wrote a book against the divine authority of the Old 
 Testament, which was answered by Augustine, about a.d. 394. 
 ADIMARI, Alessandro, an Italian poet of some note in 
 his time, member of an ancient Florentine family, bom in 1579. 
 He translated Pindar into Italian verse. Died in 1649. 
 
 ADLMARI, Ludovico, a professor at Pisa, and a poet of 
 some reputation, bom m 1644. Besides satires, sonnets, and 
 hymns, he wrote an excellent paraphrase of the " Penitential 
 Psalms." Died in 1708. 
 
 ADLER, George Christian, bom at Wohlbacht on the 
 southern frontier of Silesia in 1674, was most distinguished as 
 a teacher, but is known besides as the author of several theolo- 
 gical works. His son bearing the same name was also a theolo- 
 gian, but is best known for his classical attainments, and books 
 connected with philology. 
 
 ADLER, James George Christian, D. D., a learned 
 Lutheran bishop of Denmark, was born at Amis, Schleswig- 
 Holstein, on the 8th of December, 1756. He was appointed 
 professor of theology and court preacher at Copenhagen in 
 1783, and afterwards councillor of the supreme consistory, and 
 general superintendent of Schleswig. He died on a visitation 
 jom'uey at Gilau, on the 22nd of August, 1834. His most 
 important work is an edition of the Syriac version of the New 
 Testament, 4to, 1789. — W. L. A. 
 
 ADLER, Philip, an early Gemian artist, bom at Nuremberg 
 in 1484, celebrated as the gi-eat improver, and all but creator of 
 the art of etching. The piint representing the Virgin, the m- 
 
 fant Jesus, &c., which Strutt in his " Dictionary of Engravers" 
 attributes to Adler, and pi-onounces his masterpiece, is the work 
 of David Hojjfer. — (Bryan's Dictionary of Painters.) 
 
 ADLERBETH, Guumund- George, a learned Swedish 
 statesman and poet, born at Joenkoening in 1751. Having 
 completed his studies for the civil service at the university 
 of Upsal, he held successively various high pul)lic offices. In 
 1809 he was elected a member of a committee for drawing up 
 the new constitution, and took a prominent part in the work. 
 In 1813 he withdrew entirely from public life, and devoted 
 the remainder of his days to Uterature. He published various 
 excellent Swedish translations in verse from Eacine, Virgil, 
 Horace, and Ovid. Died in 1818.— E. M. 
 
 ADLERFELDT, Gustavus, a Swedish gentleman, bom 
 near Stockholm in 1671, who accompanied Charles XII. of 
 Sweden in all his campaigns, and kept an accurate journal, 
 whicli was pubhshed under the title of "A Military History of 
 Charles XII. of Sweden, from 1700 to the battle of Pultowa." 
 As Adlerfeldt was killed at Pultowa, the concluding portion of 
 the history, containing an account of the engagement there, and 
 of Charles's subsequent adventures, was added by a Swedish 
 officer who had been present. Killed in 1709. — E. M. 
 
 ADLERSCREUTZ, Baron, a Swedish general, who headed 
 the revolution which, in 1809, di-ove Gustavus III. from the 
 thi-one of Sweden. 
 
 ADLERSPARRE, George, Coimt, a Swedish general and 
 author, bom in 1760. On the death of Gustavus III., who had 
 sent him on a secret mission to Nonvay, he withdrew from the 
 public service, and devoted himself to literature. From 1797 
 to 1800, he continued to pubhsh a literary and political jom'nal, 
 the hberal tone of wliich gave umbrage to the government. He 
 took part in the revolution which dethroned Gustavus IV., 
 and was the first who advanced on Stockholm with a body ol 
 troops, but, on reaching that capital, he found the revolution 
 nearly completed. About the year 1811, he retired to his estates 
 at Wermland, and there spent the remainder of his life. In 
 1830 he published an interesting collection of documents relat- 
 ing to the history of Sweden, and a sequel to it in 1832. Died 
 in 1837.— E. M. 
 
 ADLZREITER, John, a German statesman, prime minis- 
 ter to Maximilian I., elector of Bavaria, and author of "Annales 
 Boica; Gentis," bom at Rosenheim in Bavaria in 1596. These 
 annals are a history of Bavaria from the earhest times to the 
 date of pubUcation — 1662. According to some, their real author 
 was Father Fervaux, a French Jesuit, Adlzreiter having merely 
 supplied the materials from the secret arcliives of Bavaria, of 
 which he was for some tune keeper. Died in 1662. — E. M. 
 
 AD JURAL, Henri l', a Frenchman, born at Aujolet in 1744, 
 and originally a domestic servant, who formed the resolution of 
 assassinating Robespierre and Collot d'Herbois. On the night of 
 22nd May, 1794, he fired two pistols at the latter, but missed 
 him. Fifty-two persons were guillotined along with L'Admu'al, 
 on the pretext of participation in his design. 
 
 ADMIRAL, Jean i/, a portrait miniature painter, born in 
 Normandy in 1698. He studied under Leblond in London, and 
 ultimately establislied himself at Amsterdam, where he died in 
 1773. He is still better known as an engraver, especially for 
 his illustrations of Van Mander's work on the lives of painters. 
 
 ADJION, one of the most celebrated engravers of gems of 
 Greece. Although no date is known in connection with Admon, 
 the many excellent works of his that are known, point to the 
 best period of art. 
 
 ADO, archbishop of Vienna in Dauphine, a man of con- 
 siderable learning, and extolled for his public and private 
 virtues, born about 800. He was highly esteemed by Charles 
 the Bald and Louis II., and consulted by them on affairs of 
 state. Besides several ecclesiastical biogi-aphies, he wrote a 
 " Universal Chronicle " in Latm, valued for the light it throws 
 on the early history of France. Died about 875. 
 
 ADOLPHI, Christl\n Michael, author of several dis- 
 sertations on medical subjects, born in Silesia in 1676, became 
 professor in the university of Leipsig, where he died in 1753. 
 
 ADOLPHUS I., of the family of the count of Shaumbm-g, 
 raised in 1106 by Lothar, afterwards emperor of Germany, to 
 the government of the countiy of Holstein, at the death of 
 Count Gottfried. His descendants raled over Holstein for 350 
 years. He was succeeded in 1131 by his son Adolpiius II., 
 colonized with German settlers the country of Wagrii, and the
 
 neighbouring coasts of the Baltic. He fell at the siege of Dem- 
 min, a fortress la Pomerania, in 1164. His son Adolphus 
 III. was his successor, who had the misfortime to quarrel with 
 Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and to become involved in the 
 ci\-il wars of Denmark, which ultunately led to his losing the 
 county of Holstein, and retuing to his hereditary coimty of 
 Shaumburg, where he soon died. Holstein was, however, re- 
 covered by his son ADOLnirs IV. fi-om Waldemar the Great, king 
 of Denmark, into whose hands it had fallen. The decisive battle 
 was fouglit at Bornhoved, a -village in the neighbourhood of 
 Eutin. Adolphus IV. rethed in 1238 to a Franciscan monas- 
 terv, and spent the last fourteen years of his hfe as a fi-iar. — J. B. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, the 8th duke of Schleswig, noted for his mode- 
 ration in refusing the crown of Denmark, when it was offered 
 to him in 1-148 at the death of Chiistopher of Bavaria, and 
 for his laboiTrs for the good of his people. Died in 1459. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, count of Cleves and la Jlarck, and afterwards 
 made duke of Cloves by the Emperor Sigismimd in 1417, at the 
 council of Constance, was bom in 1371. With his eldest son, 
 he was one of the parties to the treaty of Arras in 1435. He 
 was much engaged in hostilities, either as principal or ally, and 
 fi'om his almost unvaried success, obtained the name of "the 
 Victoiious." He enlarged his dominions by various acquisitions, 
 provided for their security by the erection of fortresses, and pro- 
 moted theli- internal prosperity by a ivise and firm administration. 
 Died m 1448.— E. M. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, Frederick, of Holstein-Gottorp-Eutin, born in 
 1710, was elected crown prince of Sweden in 1748, and ascended 
 the Swedish throne in 1751. Of an amiable disposition and en- 
 lightened mind, he zealously endeavoured to promote the welfare 
 of his adrpted coimtry, but was thwarted by the grasping nobles, 
 who hardly left him the shadow of power. Disgusted with his 
 position and the party contentions that continued to convulse the 
 kingdom, he detennined in 17G8 to abdicate, but was induced, 
 by promises and some concessions, to relinquish his intention. 
 He died in February, 1771, sincerely regretted by the Swedish 
 nation, and was succeeded by his son, Gusta\T.is III. — E. M. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, dulve of Gueldi-es, bom in 1438. In 1464 he 
 deposed and imprisoned his father Arnold, who was delivered 
 by John, duke of Cleves. Charles, duke of Burgundy, and 
 Adolplius's brother-in-law, endeavoured to reconcile father and 
 son ; but Adolphus would listen to no temis, and was confined in 
 the castle of VUvorden tQl his father's death. After vaiious 
 adventures, the unnatural son lost Ills life in a sldrmish near 
 Doomick, at the age of thirty-eight. — E. ]\I. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, Joiix, duke of Saxony, bom in 1685. After 
 serving several years in the Hessian army, he entered the servdce 
 of Augustus II., king of Poland. He distinguished himself 
 against the Tm-ks, repeatedly defeated the generals of Charles 
 XII., estabUshed tranqmlhty in Lithuania and Poland, took 
 Dantzic in the reign of Augiistus III., and, after a career of 
 unvaried heroism, fell, whUe exhibiting his usual gaUantrj^, at 
 the battle of Wildorf in 1744.— E. M. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, John, an Enghsh banister and author, bom 
 in 1770. His pleadings were distingmshed for logical acumen, 
 clcamcss and fluency of expression, and extent and acciuacy of 
 legal knowledge. He attained a high reputation and very ex- 
 tensive practice in the criminal courts. His defence of the Cato 
 Street conspirators in 1820, added greatly to his legal reputa- 
 tion. His principal works are — " Histoiy of England from the 
 Accession of George III ; " " Biogi-aphical Jlemoirs of the French 
 Revolution;" " Political State of the British Empire ;" and " Me- 
 moirs of John Bannister." Died in 1845. — E. M. 
 
 ADOLPHUS OF Nassau, emperor of Gemiany, was elected in 
 May, 1292, and the following June solemnly cro\\-ned at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. Without hereditary dominions, and without private 
 fortune, Adoljihus owed his election partly to his militarj- repu- 
 tation, to the desire of the electors to place on the imperial 
 throne a prince they hoped to control, to private stipulations in 
 favour of the elector-archbishops of Cologne and Mentz, but 
 mainly to the overbearing character of his competitor, Albert of 
 Austria. Destitute of resources, he had recourse to extortions 
 and ignominious expedients to prociu-e supplies. Promising 
 to invade France with a large army, he obtained from the 
 king of England £100,000. "He excused himself from exe- 
 cuting the compact under pretext of a papal interdict, but kept 
 the money. Disregarding, or unable to perfonn his promises 
 of ceding towns and tenitoi-ies to the archbishops whose influence 
 
 had secm-ed his election, he converted them into implacable 
 enemies. Moreover, by his vices and follies, he gave great ad- 
 vantage to his disappointed competitor, who had been \ngor- 
 ously concerting Adolphus's overthrow and his own appointment 
 to the imperial throne. With part of the English subsidy, 
 Adolphus purchased the landgraviates of Thuringia and Misnia 
 from Albert, surnamed " the Depraved," who, at the instigation 
 of a mistress, had divorced his ^-ife and disinherited his children. 
 Thuringia and Misnia declaring in favour of the disinherited 
 cliildren of the landgrave, Adolphus, to obtain possession, had to 
 undertake a five years' war, dm-ing which his mercenary troops 
 committed appalling atrocities. All these circumstances, added 
 to his arrogance and tyranny, made him generally odious. A 
 confederation was formed against him, a diet was convoked, and 
 by a majority of the electors he was deposed, and Albert of 
 Austria elected in his stead in June, 1298. The illegality of 
 the Diet's proceechngs, and aversion to Albert, produced a re- 
 action in Adolphus's favour. His faults were palliated, his 
 dehnquencies were overlooked, and in a short time he was at 
 the head of a powerful anny to assert his imperial rights. 
 Decoyed, however, into an imfavourable position near Spire, he 
 was defeated and slam on the 22nd July, 1298, after so heroic a 
 defence as made one of his bitterest enemies exclaim over his 
 dead body, "There lies the bravest knight of the age." — E. M. 
 
 ADORNI, Fr.\ncis, a Jesuit of the 16th centuiy, and a con- 
 fessor of Charles Boromseus ; wrote some poems and sennons, 
 and died in 1586. 
 
 ADORNI, Tertics Axselmus Opitius, a historian and 
 good Latin scholar of Flanders. Died at Briigge, 1610. 
 
 ADORNO : the name home by tlu-ee doges of Genoa : — 
 
 Adorno, Antonio, elected in 1384, was an enlightened and 
 public-spirited statesman, favourable to popular rights. He was 
 thrice driven into exile, and as often restored. Unable to main- 
 tain himself in power, owing to the opposition of rivals, he in- 
 duced the citizens, ui 1396, to put their countiy under the sove- 
 reignty of France, and governed till his death in 1397. 
 
 Adorno, Gabriel, a Genoese merchant, appointed doge in 
 1356. A few years afterwards he was supplanted and exiled 
 by Dominico Fregoso, one of his lieutenants. 
 
 Adorno, Prospero, chosen in 1461. The duke of Milan, 
 Galeas Sforza, ha\-ing decoyed Adorno to his court, imprisoned 
 him at Cremona, and made himself master of Genoa. On the 
 assassination of Galeas, Adorno was set at liberty, resumed his 
 ofBce, expelled the popular leaders, and governed imder the aus- 
 pices of the young duke of Milan. Subsequently he put himself 
 under the protection of the king of Naples, but was ultimately 
 di-iven into exile, and died at Naples in 1486. Adomo's career 
 strikingly illustrated the folly of ambition, and the instabihty of 
 political friendship and popular favour. — E. M. 
 
 ADRASTUS, a writer on the works of Aristotle and Plato, 
 and author of a treatise on Harmonics, wliich has been preserved; 
 was bom at Aphrodisias, not later than the beginning of the 
 second centmy. 
 
 ADRETZ, Francois de Beaumont, Baron des, bom at the 
 chateau de la Frette in Dauphine, in 1513. After serHng in 
 the reign of Henry II. with great distinction in the Piedmontese 
 wars, he astonished all parties by putting himself at the head of 
 the Huguenots of Dauphine in 1562. This step, it is usually 
 supposed, he took from resentment to the duke of GuLse for a real 
 or supposed injury ; but some waiters assert, with greater pro- 
 bability, that he acted as the secret agent of Catherine de Medicis, 
 whose policy was to destroy the influence both of the Guise fac- 
 tion and of the Huguenots, by urging both parties to mutual 
 extermination. By his enterprising valour, influence, and mili- 
 tary skill, Adretz rendered great senice to the Huguenot 
 cause, but disgraced it by xmparalleled atrocities. He displayed 
 .singular ingenuity in de\ising new modes of inflicting tortures, 
 and enjoyed the agonies of his victims. He ultimately re- 
 solved to betray the Huguenots, either from resentment on 
 being disappointed of a position he desired, or in pm-suance 
 of secret instructions from Catherine de Jledicis. His eldest 
 son perished in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and his 
 second was killed at the siege of Rochelle. Detected in cor- 
 responding with the enemy, Adretz was arrested by the Hugue- 
 not leaders in 1563, but obtained liis liberty at the peace con- 
 cluded the same year. He now professed himself a Romanist, 
 and spent the remainder of his life despised and abhorred by 
 aU. Died in 1587.— E. M,
 
 ADR 
 
 37 
 
 ADR 
 
 ADRIAENSES, Alexander, a Flemish painter of still 
 life, born at Antwerp in 1625 ; died 1685. He excelled in 
 the imitation of bas-reliefs. Several of his works are to be 
 seen in the galleries of Madi-id and Berlin, and they are par- 
 ticularly noted for beauty of colouring and transparency of Hght 
 and shadow. — R. M, 
 
 ADRIAN or HADRIAN (Publius ^Elius Adkianus or 
 Hadrian us), a Roman emperor, was bom at Rome, or accord- 
 ing to some, at Italica, in a.d. 76, the son of jElius Adrianus 
 Afer and of Domitia Paulina, a native of Cadiz (Gades). One 
 of his paternal ancestors, originally of Adria, in Picenum, settled 
 at Italica, in Spain, in the time of the Scipios. Adrian's fatlier, 
 who was a cousin-gcrman of Trajan's, afterwards emperor, had 
 attained the rank of praetor. At his death he left Adrian, then 
 only ten years old, under the tutelage of Trajan, who had already 
 been prator, and Cajlius Tatian, or, according to Dio Cassius, 
 Attian, a Roman knight. Endowed with a Uvely imagination, 
 singular acuteness and activity of intellect, and a memory truly 
 nuuTellous, Adrian displayed from boyhood an insatiable thirst 
 for knowledge, and, among his companions, soon obtauied, for 
 his extraordinary proficiency in every department of Grecian 
 literature and science, the name of Grajculus. His naturally 
 generous and munificent disposition, led him, during the period 
 of youth, into habits of profusion, which frequently called forth 
 the faithful remonstrances and paternal admonitions of Trajan. 
 He was passionately fond of hunting, which, without withdrawing 
 his active mind from study, invigorated his frame, and prepared 
 him for the toils and dangers of war. At the age of fifteen, he 
 went, or returned, to Spain, where, entering the aimy, he spent 
 several years in the exemplary discharge of his military duties, 
 without foregoing his favourite exercise of hunting, or abating 
 his ardour in the cultivation of literature and science. Trajan, 
 recalling him to Rome, procm-ed his appointment to the office of 
 decemvir-is litihiisjudicandis, a magistracy with which young men 
 of raiilc then usually commenced their political career. Sening 
 as a tribune in the army of lower Moesia, when, towards the end 
 of 98, Trajan was adopted by Nerva, Adrian was deputed by the 
 troops to present their congratulations to his kinsman. Trans- 
 fen-ed, with promotion, to the army of the Rhine, Adiian was 
 the first to announce to Trajan, then at Cologne, the news of 
 Nerva's death, his activity and hardihood sui-mounting the 
 obstacles which the artifices of his sister's husband, Servianus, 
 who also aspired to the highest place in the new emperor's 
 favoiu", created to impede his journey, and reached Cologne 
 before his rival's messenger. The same year, 99, Adrian was 
 mairied to Trajan's gi-and-niece, Julia Sabina. In 101 he was 
 made the emperor's qusestor. At his first appearances in the senate 
 in this capacity, he was laughed at for his provincial accent, 
 rustic pronunciation, and imrefined diction, arising from his early 
 residence in Spain, and his cultivation of Greek to the neglect of 
 Latin. This, however, but roused his energies. Applying himself, 
 mth his characteristic ardour, to the study of Latin eloquence, 
 he soon became one of the most polished Latin orators of the 
 age. He accompanied Trajan in the first Dacian war, 101, and 
 served with distinction. In the second Dacian war, he had the 
 command of the first legion, and, by his admirable conduct and 
 brilliant exploits, so recommended himself, that Trajan presented 
 him with the diamond which he himself, on his adoption, had 
 received from Nerva. This was natiu-ally considered an indica- 
 tion of the emperor's intention to make Adrian his successor. 
 In 105 he was tribune of the people, and, in 107, prajtor. As 
 praetor, he entertained the people with spectacles on a scale of 
 great magnificence. In 108 he commanded the army in lower 
 Pannonia, and, in 109, became consul by subrogation. Wliile in 
 the command of the army of Pannonia, he defeated the Sar- 
 matians, maintained rigid discipline, and yet made himself ex- 
 tremely popular, in his army, and repressed the abuses of the 
 imperial functionaries in his province. When, in 117, Trajan 
 fell ill at Antioch, and took his departure for Rome, he left 
 Adrian at the head of his army in Syria. On Trajan's death, 
 wliich took place soon afterwards at Salentum, in Cilicia, Adrian 
 was proclaimed emperor by the legions under his command, on 
 the 11th August, 117. He immediately informed the senate 
 that the army in Syria had compelled him to assume the imperial 
 authority, and, with the most profound respect, he sohcited fi-om 
 that assembly a confirmation of the army's decision. The senate 
 at once confon-ed on him the usual imperial titles. Whether or 
 not Adrian's fonnal adoption at the close of Trajan's life actually 
 
 took place, is still a disputed point. I)i )n Cassius, who is neither 
 a judicious nor dispassionate authority, asserts that the alleged 
 adoption was an artifice employed by the empress Plotina. 
 Licinius Sura, Trajan's most intimate friend and confidant, as- 
 sured Adiian, after the second Dacian war, that Adrian was the 
 emperor's intended heir and successor; and every subsequent 
 event during Trajan's fife goes to show that such was, and con- 
 tinued to be, his settled dcteiTniuation. In the court of Trajan, 
 Adrian had enemies and rivals, including his own brother-in-law^ 
 and to their disappointed malignity may be fau-ly ascribed 
 numerous traditional aspersions on the character both of Adrian 
 and of his stedfast friend and patroness Plotina, whose memory 
 Adrian continued to honour with heartfelt gratitude. Immedi- 
 ately on his accession, he relinquished the dear-bought conquests 
 of Trajan, the glory of whose many great qualities was impaired 
 by his uncontrolled passion for military renown. Adrian's 
 pacific policy, so accordant with his own enlightened views of 
 national prosperity, as well as with the memorable advice 
 bequeathed by Augustus, has been foolishly attributed to jealousy 
 of his predecessor's fame. Few wi-iters appear to have so fairiy 
 appreciated the merits of Adi-ian's administration, as the author 
 of the following remarks: — "The extraordinary improvements 
 which the Roman emperors might have effected by a judicious 
 employment of the public revenues, may be estimated from the 
 iuimense public works executed by Adrian. He left traces of 
 his love of improvement in every portion of the empire, thi-ough 
 which he kept constantly travelling. To lighten the weight of 
 taxation, he abandoned all arrears of taxes accumulated in pre- 
 ceding reigns. He opened a new line of policy to the sovereigns 
 of Rome ; and avowed the determination of reforming the insti- 
 tutions of the Romans, and adapting his government to the 
 altered state of society in the empire. He perceived that the 
 central government was weakening its power, and diminishing 
 its resources, by acts of injustice, which rendered property every- 
 where insecure. To remedy the evils in the dispensation of the 
 laws, he pul)lished his " Perpetual Edict." It laid the foundation 
 of that regular and systematic administration of justice, which, 
 by_ forming a numerous and well-educated society of lawyers 
 guided hy uniform rules, raised up a barrier against arbitrary 
 power. He was the first who laid aside the prejudices of a 
 Roman, and secured to the provincials that legal rank in the 
 constitution of the emjjire which placed their rights on a level 
 with those of Roman citizens. His general system of admhiis- 
 trative reforms was pursued by the Antonines, and perfected by 
 the edict of Caracalla, which conferred the rank of Roman citizen 
 on all the free inhabitants of the Roman empire." — (Finlav's 
 "Greece under the Romans.") 
 
 ^ As a determined reformer, with enlightened and comprehensive 
 \news, Adrian natm-ally incun-ed hostility in proportion to the 
 magnitude of the evils he purposed to remove. His equal con- 
 sideration for the natives of the provinces and the citizens of 
 Rome, exasperated such as prided themselves on their pure 
 Roman descent and ancestral renown. His pacific policy 
 incensed all whose national vanity or personal interests made 
 them desu-e aggi-essive war. His impartial administration of 
 jastice was grievous to all whose rapacity or malevolence it 
 restrained or exposed. His enactments to mitigate the condition 
 of slaves were unpalatable to Italian land-owners, so dependent 
 on slave-labour. His financial system frustrated the efforts of 
 those who sought to enrich themselves by peculation or extortion. 
 His regulations relatmg to the ser\'ice of the imperial palace, 
 provoked a numerous and restless class, who owed their previous 
 influence at court to flattery and corruption. "In according an 
 equality of civil rights," says a living French wi-iter, "in admit- 
 ting the provinces to the benefits of a imifonn legislation, in 
 levelling the pretensions of the Roman aristocracy by the rule of 
 phOosophy, Adrian drew upon himself that rancoixr which pur- 
 sued him beyond the tomb." Unfortunately, antiquity did not 
 produce a dispassionate and comprehensive work on the life and 
 administration of Adrian from the pen of a philosophic historian 
 having access to authentic sources of information ; and modern 
 authors, in treating of Adrian's reign, have, for the most part, 
 deduced their impressions from the very imsatisfactory state- 
 ments of Spartian and Dion Cassius. Thus the lustre of Adrian's 
 name is still greatly obscured by imputations resting on very 
 doubtful testimony, and incompatible with the general tenor of 
 his conduct. Though uniformly pacific, he carefully provided 
 for the defence of the empire, maintainmg an adequate force,
 
 and the necessary frontier fortresses, in the most effective con- 
 dition. With militaiT men of all ranks he had constant famiUar 
 intercoiu-se, visiting them in their sickness, and manifesting on 
 all occasions a cordial concern for their welfare. In sobriety, 
 simphcity, activity, and hardihood, he was the model of a Roman 
 soldier. He encom-aged militaiy exercises by his presence and 
 even paiticipation, as well as by rewards. Under him, merit 
 alone was the road to promotion. While he caused discipline to 
 be rigidly enforced, he was not only held in profound respect, but 
 sincerely beloved, by the whole army. His bearing towards his 
 subjects in general was easy and com-teous, and, though dignified, 
 entirely free from official stateliness. In his intercourse with his 
 friends, he was familiarand genial. All who enjoyed his acquain- 
 tance, he \nsited whenever they were sick, comforted in their 
 sorrows, and counseled and aided in their difficulties. He highly 
 delighted in the society of persons distinguished for attainments 
 in literature, science, or the fine arts; and was himself an adept 
 in eveiy department of science then cultivated, an elegant author, 
 and an accomplished artist. Numerous instances of his clemency 
 have been recorded, and on the occasion of every public calamity, 
 whether famine, epidemic, or earthquake, his humanity and 
 munificence were conspicuous. 
 
 In 120 he began his travels throughout the em.pire, and for 
 seventeen years continued, with little intentiption, to traverse 
 the provinces, leaving in every one of them, but particularly in 
 Greece, and especially at Athens, enduring monuments of his 
 public spirit. The public work of Adrian, most familiar to 
 British readers, is the line of fortification he caused to be exe- 
 cuted between the T}-ne and the Solway Frith. Adrian is said 
 to have read, with attention, the dissertations presented to him 
 by Quadratus and Aiistides, in defence of the Christian religion ; 
 and to have issued, in consequence, an edict in favoiu" of the 
 Cliristians, then exposed to outbursts of popular fanaticism. 
 The only war of much importance in which the empire Wiis en- 
 gaged dm'ing the reign of Adrian, was the Jewish. The estab- 
 lishment of a Roman colony at Jerasalem, drove the Jews to 
 desperation. They rose in general insuiTection, headed by 
 Barcochebas, a pretended ]\Iessiah. A war of three years, in 
 which neither party gave or expected quarter, terminated in the 
 destruction of a large proportion of the Jews remaining in 
 Palestine. In 135, Adrian declared L. Cciouius Commodus his 
 heir and successor ; and, on the death of Commodus, in 138, 
 adopted Titus Antoninus, and made him adopt I\I. Annius Veras, 
 afterwards Marcus Aurelius. The latter event, which took place 
 in February, 138, was soon followed by the death of the empress 
 Sabina. Adrian himself died at Baias on the 10th July of 
 the same year, after a lingering and painful illness, that had 
 som-ed his temper, and reduced him to a state of mind approach- 
 ing derangement. Antoninus is said to have met with gi-eat 
 difficulty m persuading the senate to grant his deceased adoptive 
 father the honours and titles usually conferred on the emperors 
 after their death. Our remaining space only pennits a glance 
 at tlie principal imputations cast on the niemoiy of Adrian. 
 Writers expatiate on Adrian's confidence in various sorts of 
 divination, as if the wisest of the heathens did not inculcate 
 divination as a religious duty. The natural, not to say scientific, 
 curiosity, arising from Adrian's keen intellect and ardent imagi- 
 nation, has been represented sometimes as a distemper and 
 sometimes as a crime. In reference to one charge, unfit for 
 discussion, all that seems necessary to be said is, that it applies 
 perhaps with equal certainty to all his predecessors, and to many 
 of the most lauded of heathen worthies — an appallint^ fact 
 which strikingly illustrates the vanity of mere heathen refine- 
 ment, and the need of Christianity to purify and exalt human 
 society. In regard to Adrian's adoption of Ceionius Commodus, 
 it ought to be remembered, that, though represented as luxuiious, 
 Commodus possessed a cultivated understanding, was an accom- 
 plished scholar, and an able writer both in prose and verse, and 
 that, during his command in Pannonia, he acquitted himself with 
 credit, displaying both administrative capacity and mUitaiy skill. 
 Even Adrian's settlement of the succession, by selecting Anto- 
 ninus and Marcus Aurelius, though approved by all good patriots 
 was censured by many, and produced, in various quarters, bitter 
 disappointment and treasonable intrigues. Adrian's gi-eat desire 
 was to avoid appointing a successor who would sacrifice the 
 national happiness to a passion for war and conquest, and to 
 find one that would cordially pursue his omi favomite pohcy of 
 peace and refonn. Various other statements of the flippant and 
 
 far from veracious Spartian and Dion Cassius, imputing to Adrian 
 capricious cruelty or heartless ingratitude, might be easily dis- 
 proved by obvious inferences from other statements of the same 
 unsatisfactory historian. That Adrian was a man of vast capa- 
 city, that the empire was never more prosperous than during his 
 reign, and that his life and policy merit a more sifting investigation 
 than they have hitherto obtained, are truths incontestable. — E. M. 
 
 ADRIAN OF Tyre, a professor of eloquence in the second 
 century, pupil and successor of Herodes Atticus. Marcus 
 Aiu-elius, who had studied under him at Athens, induced him to 
 remove to Rome, where he died hi the reign of Commodus, 
 whose secretary he had been. 
 
 ADRIAN, a Greek writer of the 5th century, author of " An 
 Introduction to Sacred Scripture," the text of which was reprinted 
 in London, 1G02, in the 9th volume of the "Critici Sacri." 
 
 ADRIAN, a churchman of the eighth century, bom in 
 Africa, who was abbot of the monastery, near Naples, called 
 Monasterium Nisidanum. He was offered the archbishopric of 
 Canterbury by Pope Vitalian in 6G7, but declined that dignity, 
 to which Theodore of Tarsus was then raised. The pope, how- 
 ever, sent Adrian along with Theodore, that he might be his 
 guide in the journey to England, and also, it has been supposed, 
 that he might watch over the interests of the orthodox faitli, 
 against any encroachments which Theodore, who was of the Greek 
 communion, might seek to make. The travellers left Rome 
 together in May, GG8, and a year later Theodore arrived at his 
 destination. Adiian did not reach England so soon, being 
 detained on the way by Ebrinus, who then ruled over a part of 
 Gaul, on the susj)icion that he had been sent by the Greek 
 emperor to stir up troubles against the kingdom of the Franks. 
 When at last the suspicion was proved to be groundless, and 
 Adiian was permitted to cross to England, he was at once, 
 according to the instructions of the pope, made abbot of the 
 monastery of St. Peter (afterwards called St. Austin's) at 
 Canterbuiy, over which he presided for nearly forty years. Bede, 
 who states these facts, tells us also that Adrian was not only a 
 distinguished theologian, but well versed in all branches of secu- 
 lar leaming, and that he and Theodore instructed great numbers 
 of pupils in science and literature, as well as in sacred truth. 
 The memory of their labours was long preserved in England, 
 and it is supposed that King Alfred refers to the period in which 
 they lived, when, writing in the ninth century, he contrasts the 
 state of learning among his subjects, with the advantages and 
 acquirements of an earlier and a wiser age. — J. B. 
 
 ADRIAN ; the name borne by six popes : — 
 
 Adri.\j{ I., son of Theodore, a Roman citizen of rank, 
 succeeded Stephen III. in 772. Desiderius, king of the Lom- 
 bards, having invaded those provinces which Pepin, king of the 
 Franks, had annexed to the Roman see, Adrian implored the 
 protection of Charlemagne, who forthwith entered Italy at the 
 head of a powerful army, vanquished Desiderius, put an end to 
 the Lombard kingdom, ratified Pepin's donation, and added 
 further gi-ants, retaining, however, the sovereignty, and received 
 from Adrian the highest honours he could bestow. Adrian now 
 turned liis attention to ecclesiastical affairs, and, in particular, 
 to the fierce and sanguinaiy iconoclastic contest that had long 
 been agitating the East. He gave his adhesion to the council, 
 held in 787 at Nice, which condemned the views of the icono- 
 clasts ; and, subsequently, he expressed his approval of the 
 council of Frankfort, convoked in 794 by Charlemagne, to 
 denounce the proceedings of the recent Eastern council. Adrian 
 defended himself against the charge of inconsistency, by alleging 
 that the tenor of the canons lately enacted at Nice, had, through 
 ambiguity of expression and other causes, been misapprehended 
 in the West, and that the supposed discrepancy between the 
 decisions of tlie two councils was only apparent. During an 
 inundation at Rome, Adrian displayed gi-eat energy and mvmifi- 
 cence, in furnishing, at his o^\-n expense, the inhabitants with 
 necessaries, conveyed throughout the city by boats and other 
 means, and in repairing public damage, and even compensating 
 private losses, when the inundation was over. After a long 
 pontificate of nearly 24 years, he died m December, 795. 
 
 Adrian II., a native of Rome, succeeded Nicholas I. in 
 December 867. After twice declining the papal dignity, he 
 accepted it in his 7Gth year, in compliance with a call from the 
 people, nobility, and clergy of Rome, which received the emperor's 
 concurrence. In defiance of the church's charter, the acts of all 
 successive councils, based on primitive trath and order, as well
 
 as of tlie rights of civil rulers, he tried to attain a supremacy 
 over the metropolitans of the West, the churclies of the East, 
 and the secular power everywhere. He claimed Bulgaria, as if 
 dependent on tlie sec of Rome ; and, by arrogating jurisdiction 
 throughout the East, compelled the Eastern churches to assert 
 their independence, and withdraw from intercommunion with 
 the pope. This schism occurred when the celebrated Photius 
 was patriarch of Constantinople. Adrian died in 872. 
 
 Adkian III., a native of Rome, succeeded Marinus in 884. 
 His name was Agapetus, which he clianged into Adrian on 
 assuming the pontilicate ; thus introducing the usage followed 
 by his successors, of changing their names when raised to the 
 papal dignity. He strenuously resisted the claims of the em- 
 perors of Germany to interfere with the elections of the popes ; 
 and permanently confirmed the existing schism, by persisting in 
 the claims of his immediate predecessors to jurisdiction over the 
 churches of the East. He died on his way to a Diet at Worms 
 iu 885, after a pontificate of about 18 months. 
 
 Adrian IV., an Englishman, and the only native of the 
 British isles that ever obtained the Roman tiara, succeeded 
 Anastasius IV. in December, 1154. He raised himself from the 
 humblest origin by his great capacity and force of character. 
 He was born near St. Albans, and his name was Nicholas 
 Breakspeare. Quitting England at an early age, to push his 
 fortune on the contment, he was admitted into the abbey of St. 
 Rufus in Provence, where he gradually rose from the menial 
 position of lay-brother, till, in 1137, he was elected abbot. 
 Having, through the envy of some of the monks, been denounced 
 by the fraternity to Pope Eugenius III., the abbot repaired to 
 Rome to meet the charges. Eugenius, on examining the case, 
 was at once convinced of Breakspeare's innocence ; and, in con- 
 versing with him, was so much struck with his talents and 
 spirit, that he informed the monks he required the abbot's 
 services elsewhere, directed them to appoint another superior, 
 made Breakspeare bishop of Alba and a cardinal, and sent him 
 on a mission to Denmark and Norway, where he made numerous 
 converts from paganism, and established an archiepiscopal see 
 at Upsal. Returning to Rome, he was received with high respect 
 by Pope Anastasius, whose successor he became in 1154, taking 
 the name of Adrian IV. Henry II. of England obtained from 
 Achian permission to undertake the conquest of Ireland, " on 
 condition that one penny should be annually paid to the pope 
 for every house in the island." Adrian was one of the most 
 vigorous and intrepid asserters of the papal claims to universal 
 supremacy. He crushed the efforts of the Roman people to 
 establish a republic ; succeeded, by the terrors of his interdicts, 
 in causing Arnold of Brescia, a disciple of Abelard, to be seized 
 and delivered to the flames ; compelled William, king of Sicily, 
 to acknowledge the pope as feudal superior, and pay an annual 
 tribute ; treated the emperor with boundless arrogance ; extorted 
 fronr him the most humiliating submission ; and finally trans- 
 mitted to his successors an enduring contest between the imperial 
 crown and the Roman tiara. Adrian, in his private capacity, 
 continued to exhibit great simplicity of manners, truthfulness, 
 and justice. In conversing with his countryman, John of 
 Sahsbury, he declared he often looked back with a sigh to the 
 happiness he enjoyed in his original humble position, and almost 
 regi'ctted he had ever left England, as his subsequent advance- 
 ment, and especially his elevation to the papal chair, had afforded 
 him no real satisfaction. He died m September, 1159, and was 
 succeeded by Alexander III. 
 
 Adrian V. succeeded Innocent V. in 1276, but died 38 days 
 after his election. He was a native of Genoa, nephew of Inno- 
 cent VI. His original name was Ottobini. His uncle sent him 
 as legate to England in 1254, to appease the dissensions between 
 Henry III. and his barons; and in 1265 he was again appointed 
 to the same legation by Clement III. 
 
 Adrian VI., Pope, born at Utrecht in 1459, studied there 
 first, and afterwards at Louvain. His general abilities, and his 
 proficiency in philosophy and theology were respectable, but 
 he never evinced much taste for polite literature. He became 
 professor of theology, and vice-chancellor of the university of 
 Louvain ; and was appomted by the Emperor ilaximilian I. 
 preceptor to his gi-andson, afterwards Charles V. Adrian was 
 subsequently sent as ambassador to Spain, where he was raised 
 successively to the highest dignities, both ecclesiastical and civil. 
 In 1517 he was made a cardinal by Leo X., and in 1522 was 
 elected Leo's successor in the papal chair. His election was 
 
 mainly owing to the influence of Charles V., but also, in no small 
 degi'ee, to a difficulty among the cardinals in the choice of any 
 other individual, and their expectation that either Adrian's 
 unambitious disposition would lead him to decline the dignity, or 
 that his age and infirmities would soon cause a new vacancy. 
 On arri\ing at Rome, Adrian soon found his new position was 
 not likely to prove a bed of roses. His indifference to light 
 literature and the fine arts, and his gi'ave manners and pious 
 conversation, awakened the contempt and aversion of the gay 
 assemblage of wits, poets, scholars, and artists, that had found 
 the brilliant but godless court of Leo X. a congenial resort ; and 
 his inexorable determination to discountenance luxury, folly, and 
 vice, and to restore ecclesiastical discipline, soon rendered hiin 
 intensely unpopular among the licentious citizens and libertine 
 clergy of Rome. Alarmed at the spread of the Reformation, he 
 sought to save the Roman catholic church, by a removal of 
 flagrant abuses, and a thorough purification of clerical morality ; 
 but his zeal made him odious to multitudes within the eliureh, 
 while his candour stimulated her external assailants. Ho died 
 in 1523. His epitaph records that he deemed his elevation to 
 the papal dignity the greatest of his misfortunes. — E. M. 
 
 ADRIAN, the first bishop of St. Andrews. He was killed by 
 the Danes a.d. 872. 
 
 ADRIAN, surnamed the Carthusian, resided in the Char- 
 treuse near Gertrudenberg, and in 1410 wrote a dissertation 
 entitled " Liber de Remediis Utriusque Fortuna;, Prospers scili- 
 cet et Adversa;." 
 
 ADRIAN, called also DE CASTELLO, a cardinal of histori- 
 cal celebrity, a man of distinguished learning, and a zealous 
 patron of literature, was born about 1458 at Corneto in Tus- 
 cany. He was papal nuncio in Scotland and in England, and 
 became a special favourite of Henry VII., who appointed him 
 bishop of Hereford, and afterwards of Bath and Wells. He 
 became secretary, confidential minister, and treasurer to Pope 
 Alexander VI., by whom he was raised to the dignity of car- 
 dinal. He narrowly escaped being poisoned by the infamous 
 Ca3sar Borgia, who sought to appropriate the wealth Adrian had 
 acquired. During the pontificate of Julius II., Adrian retired 
 from Rome to avoid, it is said, a prosecution for peculation. He 
 returned on the accession of Leo X.; but being afterwards 
 accused of comphcity in the conspiracy of Cardmal Petrucci, 
 was again obliged to flee. The subsequent events of his life are 
 indistinctly known. It is generally supposed he was murdered 
 by a domestic, whose sole object was to rob him of the money 
 and other precious articles in his treasury. Besides various 
 Latin poems of great purity and elegance of diction, Adrian 
 published " De Vera Philosopbia," and " De Sermone Latino, et 
 de Modis Latm6 Loquendi." — E. M. 
 
 ADRIAN, the last Russian primate who held the patriarchal 
 dignity, the suppression of which, after Adrian's death, was 
 perhaps the most important, and certainly the most legitimate, 
 of all the resolute and salutary measm-es of Peter the Great. 
 
 * ADRIAN, John Valentin, an accomplished German pro- 
 fessor and author, born at Klingeiiberg-on-the-Maine, 1793. 
 After serving as a volunteer in the war against France in 1813 
 and 1814, he completed his academical studies at Wurzburg. 
 He subsequently travelled in Italy, England, and France. In 
 1823 he was appointed professor of modern languages in the 
 university of Giessen. His works are numerous and interesting, 
 among which are " Pictures from England ;" " Sketches from 
 England ;" " A Provenijal Grammar and Chrestomathy ;" " The 
 Grecian Priestesses ;" " Historical and Literary Essays." He 
 published some German unitations of Byron's poetry, and super- 
 intended a translation of that poet's collected works. — E. M. 
 
 ADRIANI : three distinguished Florentines bear this name — ■ 
 a father, son, and grandson. The first, Marcello Virgilio, 
 born in 1464, was a professor of literature in his native city, 
 and was made chancellor of the repubHc m 1498. He is the 
 author of a translation of the Dioscorides, and of several trea- 
 tises and orations. He died in 1521. His son, Giovanni 
 Battista, was born in 1513 ; was a student of classical litera- 
 ture, but was obliged to join the aimy when his country was 
 attacked by diaries V. and the Medici. The last thirty years 
 of his life he spent as professor of eloquence in the university of 
 Florence, where he died in 1579. His best-known work is a 
 histoiy of his own time, which he wrote at the request of the 
 Grand-duke Cosmo. It embraces the period from 1536 to 
 1574, and is much esteemed as an excellent continuation of the
 
 well-known Francesco Guicciardini's history of Florence. This 
 work was puUished by his son, Marceli.o, who was lorn in 
 1533, and succeeded his father in the chair of eloquence. Mar- 
 cello is the author of an Itahan translation of Demetrius Phale- 
 reus on elocution. He translated also Flutarch's "Morals." — J. B. 
 
 ADRIANO, a Spanish painter, born at Cordova about the 
 middle of the 16th centmy, where he died in 1630. He was a 
 lay brother of the Carmelite order. Few of his works have been 
 presen'ed; among those that have, a picture of the Cracifixion 
 is most remarkable. He was in the habit of effacing his pictures 
 as soon as they were finished, and it was only by the earnest 
 solicitations of his friends, in the name of some souls in purga- 
 toiy, to whom the artist was accustomed to pray, that any of 
 his productions were saved from destruction. — J. F. 
 
 ADKIANUS FRAXCISCUS, author of a work published at 
 Ycnke in 1567, entitled " Vesper Psalms for all the Feast Days 
 throughout the year." 
 
 ADBICH0']\1IA CORNE'LIA, a nun of the order of St. 
 Augustin at Beverwyk. She lived in the sixteenth centmy, 
 ^vrote several pieces of sacred poetiy, and translated the Psahns 
 of David into verse. 
 
 ADRICHOMIUS CHPJSTIANUS, a priest, bom at Delft in 
 Holland, 1533. He was director of the nuns of St. Barbara, in 
 his native place, till, by the revolt of the Gueux, he was driven 
 from Holland. After various wanderings, he took refuge finally 
 at Cologne, where he died in 1585. Under the name of Chris- 
 tianus Cracius, which he assumed in allusion to his sufferings, he 
 pubUshed a life of Christ, formed by combining the foiu- gospels; 
 init his fame rests chiefly on his work, " Theatrmn Terrffi 
 Sanctre," a geogi-apliical description of Palestine, with a summaiy 
 of scripture history. — J. B. 
 
 ADROVALD, a Benedictine monk of Fleury, who hved at the 
 end of file ninth centmy, and wrote a history of the translation 
 of St. Benedict, and a book " De Corpore et Sanguine Christi." 
 
 ADRY, Jean-Felicissime, a learned Oratorian priest and 
 librarian, contributor to the " jMagazin Encyclopedique," editor 
 of numerous works, ancient and modern, and author of a "Liter- 
 ary History of Port-Royal," &c. ; born in Burgundy in 1749, 
 and died at P.aris in 1818. 
 
 ADRYAN, Albix, a Pohsh gentleman, who, bom about 
 1490, studied at Cracow, attained a high reputation as a 
 scholar and poet, and died at Cracow about 1540. 
 
 ADSO, sometunes called HORMENIUS, a French abbot of 
 Burgundy, about the middle of the tenth century, wrote several 
 legendary works. Ajiother person of the same name, and em- 
 ployed in similar literaiy work, belonged to Deuvres in Cham- 
 pagne, and died about the year 992. 
 
 ADUARTE, Don Diego d', a learned Spanish Dominican, 
 bishop of New Segovia in the Philippines, published at Manilla, 
 in 1G40, a work on Dominican missions in the East. 
 
 ADVENTIUS, elected bishop of Metz in 855, was member 
 of several councils that deliberated on the question of divorce be- 
 tween King Lothaiius and his queen, and procured by his efforts 
 a decision, accorduig to which the queen was sent to a convent 
 and the king pennitted to remariy. For this, Adventius was 
 deposed by a council held at Metz, but was restored to his see 
 by the mediafon of Charles the Bald. Died 875. — E. M. 
 
 iEACIDES, king of the Molossians 'm Epirus, and father of the 
 famous Pyn-hus, began to reign in 326 B.C., and was killed in 
 an engagement with an army sent against him by Cassander. 
 
 jEANTIDES, a Greek writer who resided at Alexandria under 
 the first Ptolemy, about 300 B.C. : and one of the seven Alex- 
 andiian poets, calkd by ancient gi-ammarians the "Pleiades." 
 Nothing remains of his works. 
 
 iEDESIA, a female philosopher of the Neoplatonic school; 
 famous besides for her vutue and her beauty. 
 
 jEDESIUS of Cappadocia, a Neoplatonic philosopher of the 
 fourth century, among whose pupils were Jamblicus, Slaximus 
 of Ephesus, Eusebius, and the Emperor Julian. 
 
 jEGEATUS, a Nestorian presbyter of the fifth centur}', who 
 vn-ote some sections of chm-ch histoiy, and a tractate against the 
 council of Chalcedon. 
 
 jEGIDIUS of Assise, member of the order of Minor friars, 
 was one of the companions of St. Francis of Assise ; wrote vari- 
 ous works, one of which, entitled " Am-ea Verba," was printed 
 at Antwerp in 1534. Died in 1262. 
 
 j1:G1D1US DE COLUJINA, an Augustine monk of the 
 thirteenth centurj-, author of numerous works, and honoured by 
 
 the schoolmen with the title of "The most profound doctor." 
 He was preceptor to the sons of Philip III. of France, and pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and theology at Paris. Through the favour 
 of Pope Boniface VIII. he was made bishop of Beni, and, by 
 some accounts, a cardinal. — E. M. 
 
 jEGIDIUS, Gilles de Corbeii., canon of Paris, physician 
 to PliHip Augustus, king of France, and author of a medical 
 work, attributed to another jEgidius, a Benedictine of the 8th 
 century, wlio is said to have resided at Athens. 
 
 jEGIDIUS LEODIENSIS, or Giles of Liege, a monk 
 of Vallee d'Or, in the duchy of Luxemburg, lived in the early 
 part of the thirteenth century, wrote a history of the bishops of 
 Liege, which was continued by various monkish wiiters. 
 
 jEGIDIUS, Petkus, of Antwerp, bom in 1490, travelled in 
 Asia and Africa, and published a work entitled " A Description 
 of Thrace and Constantinople." 
 
 jEGIMUS or ^GIMIUS, a physician of Velia, was, according 
 to Galen, anterior to Hippocrates, and is said to have been the 
 fii'st who wrote on the pulse. 
 
 iEGINHARD. See Eginhard or Heiniiard. 
 
 iEGlNITA. See Paul of iEgina. 
 
 jEGINITA, a Greek of Jigina, a maker of vases and images, 
 lived, as appears, about 200 years B.C.; and was, according to 
 Pliny, brother of Pasias, an eminent painter. The island of 
 jEgina is remarkable at the present day for the number of beau- 
 tiful ancient earthen vases obtained by excavation. Of such 
 probably he was, as Pliny calls him a " fictor." — E. M. 
 
 ^GINUS SPOLENTINUS, that Ls of Spoleto, edited at 
 Rome in 1550, from Vatican manuscripts, the "Bibliotheca" of 
 Apollodorus, with a Latin translation and very erudite notes. 
 
 J];LF, Samuel, a Swedish divine of the eighteenth century, 
 archdeacon of Linkoping, professor of belles-lettres at Upsal, 
 and author of vaiious Latin poems. 
 
 iELFRICUS or HELFRICH, sumamed the Grammarian, 
 was bom about the middle of the tenth century. He became 
 successively abbot of Malniesbuiy, bishop of Wilton, and, in 
 995, archbishop of Canterbuiy. He left, 1. A Latin and Anglo- 
 Saxon dictionary and grammar — a highly accurate and methodi- 
 cal work, which was published at Oxford in 1559 ; 2. A Saxon 
 chronicle, published in London in 1G28-1638 ; and 3. A homily 
 on the Eucharist, printed at Cambridge, 1641. 
 
 jELIANUS the Tactician, a Greek writer, author of a work 
 on Greek mihtaiy tactics, quoted with great respect by the em- 
 perors Leon and Constantino Porjihyrogenitus, and first trans- 
 lated into Latin by Theodore Gaza. Flourished in the reign of 
 Adi-ian, to whom this work was dedicated. 
 
 jELIANUS, Claudius, a native of Praneste in Italy, and 
 author of two well-kno\\Ti works, entitled " Sliscellaneous His- 
 toiy," and " On the peculiarities of Animals," flourished about 
 A.D. 225. Though, till considerably advanced in years, he never, 
 it is said, left Italy, he afterwards, as in the latter of these works 
 he himself expressly states, visited Alexandria. His writings 
 prove his extensive erudition and amiable character, but that he 
 was superstitious and credulous in the extreme. The diction, so 
 far as it is his own, displays great affectation and want of classic 
 simplicity. The works entitled " On Providence," and " On 
 Manifestations of the Deity," of which only a few fragments 
 remain, were, in all probability, but different designations of one 
 and the same production. The " Rustic Epistles " often attri- 
 buted to liim, were, in the estimation of the learned Coray, 
 written by a native Grr'ek, and not by Claudius Ji]lianus; but 
 whether by /Elianus the Tactician or some one else, Coray does 
 not venture to determine. — E. M. 
 
 ELIANUS MECCIUS, an ancient physician of the second 
 century, who is mentioned by Galen as the fii'st of his masters 
 who introduced the use of electuaries. 
 
 ^LIUS CESAR. SeeVERUS. 
 
 jELIUS SEXTUS CATUS, a Roman jurisconsult, eidogized 
 by the poet Ennius, was consul and censor, remarkable for his 
 simplicity of manners, and rigorous discouragement of luxury. 
 
 jELNOTH, a monk of Canterbury, who resided for 24 years 
 in Denmark, and wrote in 1155 the life of Canute, imder the 
 title " Historia ortus, vita; et passionis S. Canuti." 
 
 ^LST or AALST, Everard van, a Dutch pamter, remai-k- 
 able for tlie high finish of his productions, peculiarly fehcitous in 
 representing inanimate objects, and, in particular, dead buds and 
 armour, was bom at Delft in 1602, and died in 1658. 
 
 jELST or AALST, Nk^holas van, an engi-aver and print-
 
 seller at Rome. He made several engravings after eminent 
 painters, as Giulio IJomano and Teodoro Ghigi. He was born 
 at Brassels in 1526. 
 
 iELST or AALST, Paul Van, a Flemish painter of the 
 IGth centurj', the son and pupil of Peter Kock. He was parti- 
 cularly skilful in painting still-life and flowers. Fine specimens 
 from his hand ai'e to be seen in the galleries of London and 
 Florence. 
 
 iELST or AALST, William Van, a Dutch pahiter, nephew 
 and pupil of Everard Van, born in 1620, travelled, when 3'oung, in 
 France and Haly, and obtained the friendship of many foreigners 
 of high distinction; returned to Holland loaded with presents, 
 and won high reputation as a painter of fruits and flowers. 
 
 iEMI'LIA, Juliana, a German writer of sacred poetry, born 
 in 1637. She was the daughter of Albert Frederic, count of 
 Barby, and in 1665 married the count of Schwarzburgh- 
 Rudolstadt. Some of her pieces are to be found in the hymn 
 books used in the scn'ice of the protestant churches of Saxony 
 and Thuringia. The countess died in 1706. 
 
 yEMI'LIA, Teutia, third daughter of the elder Paulus 
 ^Eniilius who was Idlled at the battle of CanuM, wife of the 
 first Scipio Africanus, and parent of Cornelia, the mother of the 
 Gracchi, became memorable for her conjugal affection and 
 domestic virtues. After her death, her fortune, which was 
 immense, fell to her adoptive grandson, the younger Scipio 
 Africanus, who made it over to his mother Papiria, after her 
 divorce from his father, the second Paulus yEmilius. — E. JL 
 
 iEMILL'VNUS, Alexander or Alexandkixus, prefect of 
 Egypt in the reigns of Valerianus and Gallienus. He revolted, 
 with his province, from the imperial government, and for some 
 time was successful, but was at last defeated, and by command 
 of Gallienus strangled in a dungeon. 
 
 iE.MlLLVNUS", a Christian of Jloesia, put to death in 362, 
 under Julian, for having set fire to a heathen temple. 
 
 jEJIILLVNUS, a native of Nice in Asia Minor, author of 
 three epigrams in the " Greek Anthology." The precise tune 
 when he flourished is uncertain. 
 
 iEMILIA'NUS, a Roman emperor, bom in Mauritania about 
 206. Ha\dng, while governor of Pannonia and Moesia under 
 Gallus, vanquished the barbarians who had invaded his pro- 
 ^•ince, he distributed the spoils among Ins troops, wlio pro- 
 claimed him emperor. Gallus, marching against the usm-per, 
 was, with his son, massacred at Interamna by his own troops, 
 and ^Emilianus was acknowledged as emperor by the senate. 
 After a reign of two or three months, he died at Spoleto, but 
 whether by a natural or \-iolent death is uncertain. — E. M. 
 
 JEMI'LIUS. See Barbula, — Lepidus, — Mamercus or 
 Mamercinus, — Papus, — Paulus, — Regillus, — Soaurus. 
 
 jEMI'LIUS or jEMILLVNUS, a Christian physician and 
 mart}T, put to death in 484 by Humeric, Idng of the Vandals, 
 with fiightful tortures, which, though he was of great age, he 
 endm-ed triumphantly. 
 
 jEMFLIUS, a Christian martyi-, suffered in Africa under the 
 Emperor Severus in 205. 
 
 jEMFLIUS, Antonius, a distinguished professor of history, 
 a disciple of Vossius and friend of Descartes, and author of 
 various Latin poems and a collection of harangues, was born 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1589. 
 
 jEMI'LIUS, George, a relative of Luther, and author of a 
 paraphrase of the fuur gospels in Latin verse, entitled " Evan- 
 geha Heroico Carmine Reddita;" born at Mansfeld in 1517. 
 
 jEMFLIUS, Julius Cordus, a Roman historian in the 
 reign of ]\Iaximianus (a.p. 287). 
 
 jEMFLIUS, Parthenianus, a Roman histoiian, author of 
 a work, " De iis qui Tyrannidem Affectarant." 
 
 jEJII'LIUS, Sura, a chronologist, who wrote a work "De 
 Annis populi Romani." 
 
 jENjE, Henry, a Dutch technologist, bom at Oldemardum 
 in 1743, died at Amsterdam 1812. He studied at Leyden, and 
 rose to considerable eminence in his profession ; he has left some 
 works on various branches of practical physics. 
 
 ^NEAS, one of the princes who defended Troy. He was 
 the son of Anchises, and married Creusa, the daughter of King 
 Priam. He did many brave deeds during the Trojan war, and 
 on one occasion encountered the great Achilles himself. In the 
 Iliad, hov.ever, he occupies but a subordinate rank among the 
 heroes of whom Homer sings ; and by several writers, Strabo 
 among the number, we find him accused of preseiwuig his life 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 by treachery, and of being associated with Antenor in betraying 
 his country to the Greeks. He is most celebrated for his ex- 
 ploits after he left the burning city, though some writers afiirm 
 that he remained there, rebuilt the ruins, and reigned over the 
 remnant of the Trojans. In Virgil's well-known epic, of which 
 he is the hero, and in the writings of various Latm poets, a dif- 
 ferent destiny is assigned him. They delight to surround his 
 name with every heroic attribute, and to adom his story with 
 romantic incident, for they look upon him as the father of theu: 
 nation, tracing to him the line of La\dnian kings, from whom 
 the builder of Rome is alleged to have sprung. According to 
 them, on the fatal night when Troy was talcen, jEneas escaped 
 with his household gods, bearing the old Anchises on his shoul- 
 ders, and leading his son Ascanius by liis side. After many 
 wanderings by sea and land, to which he was doomed by the 
 cruelty of the revengeful Juno, who hated all the Trojan race ; 
 — after losing both his wife and father, the latter of whom he 
 bm-ied in Sicily, and from whose shade he learned the fates of 
 his posterity, he arrived at the Tiber, under the guidance of his 
 divine mother Venus. There he settled vv-ith his followers, on 
 the dominions of Lavinius. That king received him favovu-ably, 
 and promised to give him his daughter Lavinia in marriage. 
 This excited the jealousy of Tumus, king of the Rutuli, to whom 
 the princess had been before betrothed. The rivals went to war, 
 and, after many battles, jEneas was victorious, killing Turnus 
 in single combat. He then married Lavinia, and built the town 
 of Lavinium, wliich he so named in honom' of his wife. After 
 the death of his father-in-law, he succeeded to the throne, and 
 founded the dynasty of Alba Longan kings. The details of this 
 story vary in different authors. The poem of Virgil closes with 
 the defeat of Turnus, and among other writers the manner of 
 the death of ^neas is variously related. Some affirm that he 
 fell in battle with the Etrurians, while others represent him as 
 being drowned, or, rather, as disappearing in the river Numicus. 
 His subjects awarded him the honours of divinity, and wor- 
 shipped him as Jupiter Indiges. — J. B. 
 
 jENEAS, sumamed " The Tactician," flourished about the 
 104th Olympiad, and, according to Casaubon, is the same with 
 jEneas of Stjonphalus, who reigned in Arcadia about 360 B.C. 
 This is rendered probable by the circumstance tliat, in his work 
 on military tactics, he refers only to those implements of war 
 which were employed in the time of Aristotle, and to none of 
 those subsequently invented. The gi'eater part of his writings 
 have been lost, but the portion of them still extant is highly 
 interesting to archajologlsts. 
 
 iENEAS, Gaz^us, a native of Gaza, who lived in the fifth 
 centuiy. He was originally a zealous Platonist, but became a 
 convert to Christianity. He has given a description of the per- 
 secution of the Christians by Hermerich, king of the Vandals. 
 In addition to his 25 letters, he wrote a small work entitled 
 " Theophrastus," which consists of a dialogue on the immortal- 
 ity of the soul, and the resurrection of the body. — F. 
 
 J:NEAS, Sylvius. See Pius II. 
 
 ^NESIDEMUS, a philosopher of the school of Pyn-ho, born 
 at Gnossus in Crete, about 50 B.C. He taught the Alexandrian 
 philosophy, and composed, according to Diogenes Laartius, eight 
 books on the sceptical systems, of which Photius has preserved 
 some fragments. 
 
 jENtrnUS, Jacob, a Lutheran scholar and preacher of the 
 sixteenth centuiy. Theophilus, his son, born at Meissen in 
 1574, held various offices, and died, 1031, professor at Jena. 
 
 jEPINUS, Francis Ulric Theodore, bom at Rostock, 
 13th December, 1724, died at Dorpat, 1802. He was a physi- 
 cian of considerable reputation, and belonged to a family distin- 
 guished in the history of literature, and especiallj' m that of 
 protestant theology. — (See iEpiNiis, John.) jEpinus devoted 
 himself chiefly to the study of natural philosophy and mathe- 
 matics, and some able treatises which he published procured 
 him the honour of bemg appointed a member of the Berlin 
 Academy of Sciences. In 1757 he became a member of the 
 Imperial Academy of Sciences, and professor of natural philo- 
 sophy at St. Petersburg, where he gained a high rej)utation. 
 He was honoured with the special notice of Catherine II., who 
 appointed him mathematical tutor to her son, Paul Petrovich, 
 and inspector-general of nonnal schools. His works consist of 
 treatises on electricity and magnetism, and on the distribution 
 of heat, and he exhibited mucli ingenuity in the improvement and 
 invention of an apparatus for physical experiments. — F. 
 
 F
 
 jEPINUS, John, a distinguished German reformer of the 
 sixteenth century, and for many years the leading theologian of 
 the Lutheran chuixh in Hamburg and north Germany. He was 
 born in the Mark of Brandenburg in 1499. His family name was 
 Hocb or Hoeck, meaning high, for which he substituted the 
 Greek — ki-ruvos. He studied at Wittemberg under Luther, and 
 returned to his native province full of youthful zeal. But his 
 countrymen were not yet npe to receive his doctrines, and the 
 preacher was thrown into prison. After his release he repaired 
 to Stralsund, where he was for some time at the liead of a private 
 school, but was commissioned by the magistrates, in 1525, to 
 carry through an evangelical reform both of the churches and 
 public schools of the city. In 1529 he removed to Ham- 
 burg, to take the pastoral charge of the church of St. Peter. 
 The Reformation had been established that very year m Ham- 
 burg, under the guidance of John Bugenhagen or Pomeranus, 
 pastor of Wittemberg, who had been permitted by the elector of 
 Saxony to leave his own charge for a time, for the purpose of 
 rendering that important service to the evangelical cause in one 
 of the chief cities of the empire. Ji^pinus was soon found to be 
 the best qualified man to build upon the foundation which had 
 been laid by the reformer of Wittemberg, and for the next 
 quarter of a century he was the most prominent and influential 
 of the theologians of north Germany. In 1532 he was aji- 
 pointed, by Bugenhagen's recommendation, superintendent of 
 the churches of Hamburg, and first reader in theology, in 
 which event the reformation of Hamburg and its adjacent 
 territory may be considered to have been completed. In 1533 
 he was promoted to the degree of doctor in tlieology, along with 
 Cruciger and Bugenhagen, in presence of the young elector, 
 John Frederick, and his court, at Wittemberg. These were the 
 first three evangelical doctors of the protestant church. In 
 1534 he was sent into England, along with other envoys from 
 the protestant princes of Germany to Henry VIIL, who had re- 
 cently opened up negotiations for a closer union with them in 
 the great straggle with the papal power. In 1538, Jipiims 
 signed the articles of Schmalkald, and in 1539 attended the 
 Convents of Frankfort and Naumburg. After the death of 
 Luther, he took a prominent part in opposing the " Interim" which 
 the Emperor Charles V. attempted to force upon the evangelical 
 states. The confession and declaration on the Interim given 
 forth in 1548 by the superintendents, pastors, and preachers of 
 Lubeck, Hamburg, and Luneburg, was drawn up by his pen, 
 and was subscribed by the evangehcal ministers of almost all 
 the cities and towns of Lower Saxony. In the controversies 
 excited immediately after, by what was called the " Leipzig 
 Interim," he took part with Flaccius Illyricus against Jlelancthon 
 and the other divines of Wittemberg, but was favourably distin- 
 guished from Flaccius by the moderation and charity with which he 
 conducted his part in the dispute. It was not his fault that the 
 controversy became so embittered, and so unhappy in its conse- 
 quences to the Lutheran church. In the controversy raised by 
 the friends of Osiander on the subject of justification, jEpinus drew 
 up in 1552, in concert with his colleague Westphal, a theolo- 
 gical judgment, which was signed by twenty-one preachers of 
 Hamburg and twelve of Luneburg, — a document which was equally 
 marked by decision on the side of truth as opposed to the teach- 
 ing of Osiander, and by a tone of moderation and a love of peace. 
 But these qualities did not exempt ^Epinus, even in his own 
 immediate sphere of action, from the troubles of polemical strife. 
 Having published in 1544 a commentary on the IGth Psalm, 
 in which he taught, after Luther and Thomas Aquinas, that the 
 descent of Christ into hell was to be regarded as the lowest step 
 :f his humiliation, and, as such, an indispensable part of the 
 ransom paid for human redemption, this doctrine was pubficly 
 challenged by four of his colleagues in the ministiy of Hamburg, 
 who declaimed against it with such violence from their pulpits, 
 and produced so much excitement in the minds of the community, 
 that the senate were obliged in 1550 to obtain a judgment from 
 the theologians of Wittemberg upon the subject, in order to allay 
 the public uneasiness. Melancthon's judgment, by leaving the 
 question undecided and open, had the effect of at' least acquit- 
 ting jEpinus of the charge of heretical or dangerous teaching ; 
 and when his antagonists, in spite of this, proceeded to renew the 
 pulpit war, three of them were summarilv deposed by the senate 
 and banished the city. The doctrine of yEpinus upon this point, 
 wliich he stated and defended more fully in liis commentary on 
 the 68th Psalm, was aftenvards taken up and pressed veiy 
 
 warmly by Flaccius. Jipinus was much disturbed diu-ing the last 
 years of his life by these unhappy disputes. He died on the 
 13th ^Lay, 1553. Besides the writings already mentioned, he 
 left several other works, including a " Book of Church Order for 
 Hamburg," published in 1551. Several of his descendants rose 
 to eminence in the duchy of Mecklenburg as men of learning : 
 one of these was Francis Albert lEpinus, a distinguished philo- 
 sopher and theologian, who died in 1750 ; another was his son, 
 Francis Ulrich jEpinus, professor at Rostock and Biitzow, a 
 writer on physical science. — P. L. 
 
 jERIUS, a disciple of Arius, who lived in the fourth century, 
 and added to the doctrine of his master, that a bishop was not 
 superior to a priest, and that Easter, festivals, and fasts, were 
 superstitious obsen^ances, savouring of Judaism. He also con- 
 demned prayers for the dead. His disciples were banished from 
 their churches, and were obliged to assemble in woods and caves. 
 He was a contemporary of St. Epiphanius. — F. 
 
 jERTSEN, Peter, smuamed from his stature, " Long 
 Peter," a Dutch painter, was born at Amsterdam in 1519, and 
 died in 1573. When only eighteen, this artist rendered himself 
 remarkable for a certain boldness of style peculiar to himself. 
 He possessed great skill in perspective as well as in the arrange- 
 ment of drapery, and the adjustment of his figures. His earliest 
 works represented interiors which he depicted with singidar 
 truthfulness ; but he was no less successful as an historical 
 painter, and some of the paintings he executed in Amsterdam 
 were of gi-eat value. Unhappily, several of his finest produc- 
 tions were destroyed during the civil wars. — F. 
 
 JiRTSZ, RvivAERT, a Dutch historical painter, called " Ryk 
 met de stelt," or "Dick with the wooden leg," from the circum- 
 stance that, by an accident that he met with when young, he 
 was maimed for life. He was the son of a poor fisherman, and 
 when unable to amuse himself otherwise, he was accustomed to 
 draw with charcoal on the floor, and the taste and ability he dis- 
 played led to his becoming a painter. He went first to Haarlem, 
 where he received instruction and found employment. Subse- 
 quently he removed to Antwerp, where he was chosen a member 
 of the Academy of St. Luke. yErtsz was bom at Wyck in North 
 Holland in 1842, and died at Antwerp at the age of 95. — J. B. 
 
 jESCHINES, the great rival of Demosthenes, was bom in 
 Attica in 389 B.C. It is veij- difficult to ascertain the real 
 facts of his life, as the principal sources are the depreciatory 
 statements of Demosthenes, or his own too laudatoi-y counter- 
 statements. His parents were certainly poor, and his father 
 supported himself and family by teaching a school, in the duties 
 of which jEschines at an early age took a share. When eighteen 
 years old, the Athenian youths became soldiers, and were em- 
 ployed as a kind of patrol in guarding various fortified places on 
 the frontiers of Attica. jEschines informs us he had to submit 
 to this duty. Probably immediately after this, he became scribe 
 to the orator Aristophon, and aftenvards to Eubulus, in whose 
 employment he became thoroughly acquainted with the constitu- 
 tion and laws of Athens. Subsequently he took to the stage, 
 but without any marked success. He then joined the army 
 again, and in several expeditions won distinction, and even a 
 crown, if we are to believe his own story. Before his last mili- 
 tary expedition, he had spoken in the public assembly at Athens, 
 and he soon perceived that this was his proper sphere. It was 
 here that he met Demosthenes. At first, jEschines felt that all 
 his endeavours should be dh-ected to check the influence of Philip 
 — but in the course of time he began to think that the only hope 
 for Greece lay in submission to the JIacedonian king. On this 
 point Demosthenes differed from him, and tried to bring over the 
 Athenians to his side. Hence their quaiTel, which was embittered 
 by several occurrences. In the end, jEschines was defeated by 
 Demosthenes in his celebrated speech " On the Crown," and retired 
 to Asia, where he taught rhetoric. From Asia he went to Rhodes, 
 and established a rhetorical school there. He left Rhodes for 
 Samos, where he died in 314 B.C. jEschines is often accused of 
 having received bribes from Philip, and of having sacrificed his 
 country to his own aggi-andizement. He is not certainly free 
 from blame, but he seems to have en-ed more through mistakes 
 of head than corrapti(}n of heart. He published only thi-ee of 
 his speeches, which are mastei-pieces of eloquence. — J. D. 
 
 jESCHRION, a physician of Pergamus, who lived, it is pro- 
 bable, in the second century of the Christian era. Galen, who 
 ranks him among the empirics, cites from him a remedy for 
 madness, of wliich the principal ingredient consists of pulverized
 
 crabs, taken at certain lunar periods. He is not to be confounded 
 with a writer of the same name mentioned by Pliny in his 
 "Natural History," lib. viii. 
 
 iESCHYLUS, the father of Greek tragedy, and one of the 
 greatest dramatic writers of any age. He was born in the year 
 525 B.C., in the district of Eleusis in Attica, a few miles west 
 from Athens, on the borders of Jlegara. In the neighbourhood 
 of the world-renowned sanctuaiy of Ceres, his youth was spent 
 under the solemn religious influences which gave so decided a 
 tone to his dramatic works. At the age of twenty-five, he ex- 
 hibited his first tragedy ; but did not gain his first dramatic 
 prize till the year 484 b.c, when he was forty-one years of age. 
 Meanwhile the soul of Greek nationality had been roused in all 
 its strength by the invasion of the generals of Darius, ending in 
 their disgraceful defeat at Marathon in 480 B.C. In this battle 
 ..Eschylus fought ; and the ardour of his patriotism was no less 
 prominently manifested by the part which he took in the great 
 naval engagement of Salamis, ten years afterwards. There can 
 be no doubt that the lofty tone of his poetry, and that of his con- 
 temporaiy, Pindar, who was only seven years his junior, is to be 
 attributed in no small degi-ee to the impulse which the whole 
 Greek mind received from the gi-eat political mo\-ement that ter- 
 minated in the complete overthrow of the insolent claims of 
 the Oriental autocrat. But in Jrlschylus there is also distinctly 
 visible a certain soldierly attitude, and a deliglit in the pomp and 
 circumstance of war, that is clearly traceable to the atmosphere 
 of Marathon and Salamis, which the poet liad breathed. The 
 only other external event of any consequence in the life of the 
 father of tragedy, is his sojourn in Sicily, a country which King 
 Hiero had about that time rendered an agreeable place of residence 
 for poets and literary men. That jEschyhis, whose sympathies 
 were aristocratic, was driven to leave Athens by his aversion to 
 the ultra-democratic tendencies of the time, even then ■v'isible 
 to the thoughtful eye, is probable, but not authenticated. Cer- 
 tain it is, however, that he died at Gela in that country, in the 
 sixty-ninth year of his age, 456 B.C., and about twenty years 
 before the outbreak of the calamitous Peloponnesian war. Only 
 two years before his death he had exhihited the famous trilogy 
 of the Orestiad, the only complete specimen of a Greek di-amatic 
 trilogy now existing, and generally allowed to be, as a whole, 
 the masterpiece, not only of its author, but of the whole tragic 
 literature of Greece, so far as its most notable specimens have 
 been transmitted to modem times. As a tragic writer, iEschylus 
 has seldom been so highly estimated as he deserves ; but the 
 large and liberal criticism of modern times has delighted to 
 recognize his peculiar excellences, which had been somewhat 
 obscured by the more popular graces of Sophocles and Euripides. 
 No doubt the diction of the poet is sometimes tm-gid, and now 
 and then obscm-e; but so far as the obscurity arises from the 
 corraption of the text (which is generally the case), the \vriter 
 must remain free from blame ; and a tendency to employ now 
 and then language somewhat inflated, will readily be forgiven 
 where such a fine eye for dramatic effect is constantly found 
 combined with the loltiest moral purpose, and the most sustained 
 elevation of thought. The dramatic power of some of the 
 scenes in the "Agamemnon" and tlie "Eumenides" has never 
 been surpassed, not even by Shakspcare ; the calm statuesque 
 gr.-mdeur of the " Prometheus" has made the name of the stout- 
 hearted Titan as familiar to the readers of English poetry 
 in the nineteenth century, as it was to the auditors of Boeotian 
 Hesiod 800 years before the Christian era. In the " Persians," 
 again, by selecting a historical subject, the battle of Salamis, 
 the daring genius of the great tragedian ventured to open 
 a new field for the Greek dramatist ; destined, however, to be 
 triumphantly taken possession of only by our own Shakspeare, 
 about 2000 years after the hint was given. Besides the pieces 
 just mentioned, Jilschylus composed "The Seven against Thebes," 
 and " The Suppliants" — in all seven pieces ; a small remnant of 
 the ninety dramas which Suidas reports him to have composed. 
 The most famous editions of this writer are those of Stanley, 
 Schutz, Wellauer, Paley, and Hermann ; the English poetical 
 translations are by Potter and Blackie. — J. S. B. 
 
 .^SOPUS most probably flourished in the sixth century 
 before the Christian era. Little is known of his life, and some 
 even have gone so far as to deny that there ever was such a 
 person. There is no good reason, however, for this denial. 
 Indeed, it seems certain that he was bom a slave, and was 
 afterwards freed, and that he composed a great many fables. 
 
 Whether he ever committed these fables to writing, is matter of 
 doubt. In all likelihood he did not. Nevertheless they were 
 handed down by retentive memories to after generations, and in 
 the best days of Greek literature there were collections of 
 jEsopic fables. Very many of them have been preserved to us 
 in Babrius and in the Latin Pha?drus. Plutarch informs us 
 that the Delphians, in consequence of a dispute about money 
 which ^sop had been sent to distribute, threw him down a 
 precipice, and thus he perished. — J. D- 
 
 jETHELNOT. See Agelnoth. 
 
 .(ETHELWOLD, an Englishman, and pupil of St. Dunstan, 
 an abbot at Glasgow, and ultimately bishop of Winchester, 
 died in 984. He published various tracts, and translated the 
 " Regula Benedictl" into Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 ^THERIUS, an architect, who flourished in the beginning 
 of the sixth centuiy, during the reign of Anastasius I. His 
 merit procured him the emperor's favour, and he executed several 
 important works in Constantinople. 
 
 jETION, a Grecian painter, supposed, from some expressions 
 in Cicero and Lucian, to have been a contemporaiy of the 
 celebrated Apelles. One of his pictures, exhibited at the 
 Olympic games, excited such admu'ation, that Proxenides, 
 the judge of the games, gave him his daughter in marriage. 
 
 ^TION, according to Lucian, another Greek painter, flom- 
 isliing at Pome duiing the reign of Hadrian or of Antoninus. 
 His masterpiece represented Alexander and Roxaua, simounded 
 by Cupids, playing with the arms of the hero. This picture had 
 such success, that it was often repeated in after times, both in 
 paintings and on gems. There is, however, great reason to 
 suppose that he is identical with the preceding, and that he 
 lived, instead, at the time of Alexander the Great. — R. ^I. 
 
 iETIUS, a Roman general and patrician, bom in Mysia towards 
 the end of the fourth century, died in 454. Having for several 
 years been detained as a hostage among the Goths and Huns, 
 he exercised considerable influence over those barbarians. He 
 raised a large anny to support the claims of John against those 
 of the descendants of Theodosius, and may be said to have 
 saved Rome from the othenvise inentable destruction with which 
 it was menaced. He gained several brilliant victories over the 
 Franks and Visigoths, and rendered effectual aid to the Gauls 
 in repulsing their invaders. His high reputation, however, 
 exposed him to the jealousy of the emperor, who had previously 
 promised him his daughter in marriage : but on claiming the 
 fulfilment of the promise, Valentinian, forgetful of all that the 
 hero had efiected for his countiy, basely put him to death. 
 
 jETIUS, a Greek physician of Amida in Mesopotamia (Diar- 
 beldr), who lived, it is probable, towards the close of the fifth or 
 beginning of the sixth century. Little is known of his histoiy. 
 He was a Christian ; he studied at the celebrated school of 
 Alexandria, and ultimately established himself in Constantinople, 
 where he became physician to the court. His works exhibit 
 great learning, and are valuable, from the cuxumstance that they 
 contain many fragments from Greek writers whose works have 
 been lost. jEtius composed an able work, in sixteen books, on 
 a variety of topics connected with the theory and practice of 
 medicine. According to Bocrhaave, his works are to the phy- 
 sician what the pandects of Justinian are to the lawyer. — F. 
 
 jETTENKHOVER, Joseph Antoine, a German historian ; 
 died at Munich, 1775. He was keeper of the archives of the 
 elector of Bavaria, and has left a history of the dukes of Bavaria 
 from the time of Otho the Great of Wittelsbach. 
 
 AFER, DoJiiTius, whom Quintilian mentions as the greatest 
 orator he had ever known, was bom at Nemausus (Nismes), 
 26 B.C., and held the office of praetor. He rendered himself ac- 
 ceptable to Tiberius by the accusation he brought against Claudia 
 Pulchra, a relative of Agrippina, and afterwards against her son ; 
 and flattered Caligula by not replying to the discom'se in which 
 the son of Agrippina poured out his wrath against the rhetori- 
 cian. Quintilian quotes some fragments in his writings. — S. 
 
 AFESA, PiETKO, sumamed Della Basilicata, a Nea- 
 politan painter, who lived about the middle of the seventeenth 
 centmy. His chef-d'oeuvi-e is the picture of the Assumption, 
 which decorates the high altar of the church de Frati Conven- 
 tuali di Marisco Nuovo at Naples. 
 
 AFFAITATI, Fortunio, an Italian physician, was born at 
 Cremona about the end of the fifteenth centmy ; died 1550. He 
 was patronised by Pope Paul III., after whose death he retired 
 into England, where he was drowned in the Thames.
 
 AFF 
 
 44 
 
 AGA 
 
 AFFAROSI CAJIILLO, a Benedictine monk, was bom at 
 Eeggio in Lombardy, 1C80 ; died 1763. He has left a history 
 of his native city. 
 
 AFFELEN, Joiianx, a publicist of the end of the sixteenth 
 century. He has left a treatise entitled " Vir Politicus." 
 
 AFFEOIAN, JoiiANX, a theologian, was born at Soest in 
 Westphalia, 1588. For twenty-one years he was professor of 
 theology at Rostock, whore he died in 1G24. 
 
 AFFICHARD, Thomas l', the author of some plays and 
 romances, born at Pont Floli, 1G98 ; died at Paris, 1753. 
 
 AFFLECK, Sir Edmund, a distinguished officer, who served 
 in the British navy during the reigns of the second and third 
 Georges. He gi-adually rose to the rank of admiral, and was 
 made a baronet for the sen'iccs he rendered on board the Bedford, 
 in the celebrated encounters with the Coimt de Grasse in 1782. 
 He died in November, 1787. — J. B. 
 
 AFFLECK, Phillip, a younger brother of Sir Edmund, and 
 distinguished in the same profession. His exploits were not so 
 brilHant, but he was known as an officer of great daring. 
 
 AFFLITTO, C.ESARE d', bom in 1615, was originally in- 
 tended for holy orders, but, at the request of his father, became 
 a lawyer. \i\ 1654, however, he returned to the cloister, and 
 was appointed advocate for the poor. He was raised to the 
 bishopric of Cava in 1670. Died in 1682. 
 
 AFFLITTO, EusTAciiio d', (or Father Eustace d'), a Domi- 
 nican friar, died at Naples in 1790. In 1782 he published the first 
 part of a great work on the literaiy history of Southern Ital}' ; a 
 second part appeared in 1792, but it has never been completed. 
 
 AFFLITTO. Giovanni jM.vria, a Dominican friar, bom about 
 the end of the sixteenth century ; died at Naples, 1673. Having 
 devoted himself to mathematics and the art of fortification, lie 
 was invited into Spain by John, duke of Austria, where he wrote 
 works on fortification, philosoj)hy, and theology. 
 
 AFFLITTO, BIatteo d', an Italian jurist, bom at Naples 
 about 1448, died 1524. He applied himself early to the study 
 of law, and became professor of civil law, and president of the 
 royal ch.amber. He has left many works on jm-isprudence. 
 
 AFFLITTO, Matteo Ignazio v>\ bom in 1710, was vicar- 
 general of the Principato Citra in the kingdom of Naples ; was 
 afterwards doctor of theology, and died insane in 1771. 
 
 AFFLITTO, Tomaso, a Neapolitan jurist, bom 1570, died 
 1645. He taught philosophy at Rome. 
 
 AFFO, Ireneus, an Italian writer, bom at Busetto, 1742; 
 died about 1805. He was professor of philosophy at Guastalla, 
 and afterwards director of tlie libraiy at Parma. 
 
 AFFRE, Denis Auguste, was bom at Saint Rome de Tarn, 
 September, 1793. In 1839 he was appointed archbishop of 
 Paris, and was killed by a chance shot at the barricade in the 
 Faubourg St. Antoine, Paris, in the month of June, 1848, dur- 
 ing the revolution which overthrew the Orleans dynasty. He 
 has left many writings, in particular a small pamphlet respect- 
 ing the insufficiency of Cluimpollion's method of explaining the 
 Egyptian hieroglyphics. — S. 
 
 AFHACKEK, Gilles, a Dutch theologian, was professor of 
 theology at Utrecht, about the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century. He is the author of a curious history of the disputes 
 between the Gomiarists and the Remonstrants in Holland. 
 
 AFRA, St., a Christian convert, bumt at Augsburg in 304, 
 during the Diocletian persecution. Little else is known of her. 
 
 AFRANIO, said by Albonesio to have invented the bassoon, 
 was a native of Pavia, and canon of Ferrara in the middle of 
 the sixteenth centuiy. 
 
 AFRANIUS, L., a Roman comic poet, who flourished about 
 93 B.C., according to some 153 c.c. His comedies were great 
 favourites with the Romans, and were acted even down to the 
 time of Nero. Their subjects were principally scenes of common, 
 especially low life in Rome. He himself confesses that he bor- 
 rowed not only from jMenander, to whom lie has been often com- 
 pared, but from any one who had anything to suit his pm-pose. 
 Only fragments of his plays remain. — J. D. 
 
 AFRANIUS, QuiNTiANUs. See Piso. 
 
 A'FRASIA'B, the ninth king of Persia of the Peshdadian 
 dynasty. The period of his reign is not certainly known, but it 
 is supposed that he was a contemporaiy of King Solomon. He 
 WPS descended from Feridun, a celebrated king of ancient Persia, 
 but through a branch of the family which had been long exiled 
 for rebellion, and had reigned over the Tartars. He defeated 
 Naudar, the prince in the direct line of succession, and ruled 
 
 over Persia for twelve years with the most tyrannical craelty. At 
 last his subjects rose in revolt, .and placed another descendant of 
 Feridun on the throne. Afrasiab made several unsuccessful 
 attempts to regain the sovereignty, and .at last fell into the hands 
 of his enemies at Azerbijan, and was put to death. — J. B. 
 
 AFRICA'NER, Christian, a South African chief, the story 
 of whose life forms one of the most interesting pages in the 
 annals of modem Christian missions. He was the head of a 
 Hottentot family, whose territory had become occupied by the 
 settlers at the Cape of Good Hope, and who were employed as 
 shepherds on the fann of a Dutch boor. The tyranny of their 
 masters exasperated the chieftain and his men, and hints ha\'ing 
 reached them of a plot for their destraction, they broke out in 
 open rebellion, and, having killed the farmer and several mem- 
 bers of his family, they made their escape, under the leadership 
 of the subject of our sketch, then called Jager, to the banks of 
 the Orange river, where they obtained possession of a territory in 
 Great Namaqualand. Africaner became the terror of the whole 
 suiTounding country, making frequent inroads, not only on the 
 colonists, but also on the neighbouring native tribes. He was 
 outlawed by the colonial government, and a large sum was offered 
 for his head. He first came into contact with missions at Warm 
 Bath, a station established within 100 miles of his kraal ; but 
 a quaiTel having arisen, in which the people of Warm Bath took 
 part against Africaner, he blamed the missionaries, and the 
 whole settlement was destroyed by his infuriated followers. 
 Soon after this, the Rev. J. Campbell having occasion to pass 
 through the temtory of the di'eaded chief, sent him a concilia- 
 tory letter, which was well received, and which resulted in Mr. 
 Ebner being sent as missionary to Africaner's own kraal. Under 
 his teaching, and that of Jlr. Jloffat, his successor, the chief 
 embraced Christianity, and became distinguished for his gentle- 
 ness and zeal in behalf of the mission. Mr. Moffat bears testi- 
 mony to the noble qualities for which the brave South African 
 was distinguished, even as an outlawed wanior, and which, after 
 his conversion, made him of the utmost service in the improve- 
 ment of his people. He visited the colony with Mr. Moffat, 
 where the appearance of the m.an at whose name all had once 
 trembled excited the greatest interest. Africaner continued faith- 
 ful to the cause he had espoused, and was often known to be the 
 peacemaker between hostile tribes. He died in 1823. — J. B. 
 
 AFRICA'NUS, Sextus C.ecilius, a Roman jurist, cited by 
 Paulus and Ulpian, the author of nine books of Qusestiones. He 
 was the contemporary, perhaps the pupil, of the jurist Salvius 
 Julianus, and has been thought to be identical with the Sextus 
 Ca?cilius who discussed the subject of the Twelve Tables with 
 the philosopher Favorinus ; but this is doubtful. — J. B. 
 
 AFRICANUS, Sextus .Julius, a Greek Christian historian, 
 was bom at Emmaus in Palestine about the middle of the 
 second centuiy ; died probably about a.d. 232. He was deputed 
 to obtain from Heliogabalus authority to rebuild his native city, 
 which had fallen into decay, and which from that time received 
 tlie name of Nicopolis. He is the author of a chronology which 
 extends from the creation of the world to the third year of the Em- 
 peror Heliogabalus, adopted by almost all the churches of the East, 
 and known as " The Era of the Alexandrian Historians." — S. 
 
 AFZELIUS, Adam, a Swedish naturalist, was bom on 8th 
 October, 1750, at Larf in West Gothland, and died on 26th 
 January, 1837. He studied under Linnseus, and in 1785 was 
 appointed botanical demonstrator in the university of Upsal. 
 He visited the western coast of Africa in 1792, and made large 
 collections of plants in the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone. The 
 greater part of his collections were lost when that colony was 
 taken possession of by the English. Some of his specimens of 
 plants were obtained by Sir Joseph Banks and Sir J. E. Smith. 
 In 1796 he was appointed secretary of the Swedish embassy 
 in London, and in 1812 he was elected professor of materia 
 medica in the university of Upsal. He published the " Autobio- 
 gi-aphy of Linnasus," as well as various botanical papers on 
 the plants of Guinea, on the species of cultivated clover, and on 
 Swedish roses. The genus Afzelia is named after him. His 
 herbarium was given to the university of Upsal. — J. H. B. 
 
 AFZELIUS, a Swedish author, was born 6th May, 1785. 
 In concert with Geiger, he has pubhshed a collection of the 
 popular songs of his country. 
 
 A'GABUS, an early Christian prophet, of whom we read in 
 the " Acts of the Apostles." At Antioch he foretold a coining 
 famine, and induced the Christians there to send aid to their
 
 brethren in Judoa. We find him at a later period at Csesarea, 
 warning St. Paul against his last journey to Jerusalem. 
 
 AGA-MAHJMED, one of the most powerful tyrants of Per- 
 sia during the last ccntur}^, and founder of the present Persian 
 dynasty, bom a.d. 1734; murdered by two slaves, whom he 
 had ordered to be put to death, at Theosha, 14th I\Iay, 1797. 
 His grandfather, governor of the Mazanderan, was put to death 
 by Thanias Kouli-Khan. After the death of his father, who 
 had made himself master of the countries south of the Caspian, 
 and was slain, 1758, his mother married again, and her children 
 became determined foes of their brother. In spite of all his 
 rivals, Aga-Mahmed ultimately became master of Persia, and, 
 notwithstanding the determination, intrigues, and arms of Russia, 
 successfully opposed her progi-ess in the East during his lifetime ; 
 the better to watch and resist her movements. In? established his 
 residence at Teheran, which is now the capital of Persia. Though 
 accustomed to the cruel and sanguinary policy of his times, he 
 appears on the whole to have been the friend of order and of 
 justice; and to have contributed materially to the consolidation, 
 tranquillity, and commercial prosperity of Persia. — J. F. 
 
 AGAME'DES and TROPHO'NIUS, two brothers, the most 
 .ancient Greek architects we read of. They are said to have lived 
 before Homer's time, to have built the fourth temple of Apollo 
 at Delphi, a temple to Neptune in Arcadia, and a treasury for 
 Hyrieus, a king in Boeotia ; but much that is evidently mythical 
 is mingled with their history. — J. B. 
 
 AGAMEJINON, called by Homer " King of Men," was the 
 commander-in-chief of all the Greek forces that went to besiege 
 Troy. He accordingly occupies a, prominent position in the 
 Iliad. He is there said to be the son of Atreus, while other 
 writers represent him as the gi-andson of that hero. At the 
 time of the expedition to Troy, he was king of Mycena;, and 
 his territories were proliably very extensive, as he is called the 
 " wide-ruler," and is .«aid to reign over Argos, which, in Homeric 
 language, means Peloponnesus. Though he was under the 
 special protection of Jove, and though, as being the leader of the 
 Greeks, he boasts his superiority to Achilles, yet Homer assigns 
 him a character very mucli inferior to those of several of the 
 Greek chiefs, and other traditions coincide with the poet's state- 
 ments. When the Greek fleet was about to set sail for Troy, 
 the sea became perfectly calm. The cause of this was found to 
 be the anger of Artemis, which Agamemnon had excited by kill- 
 ing a stag, an animal sacred to the goddess, and by the use of 
 irreverent language. The goddess was appeased, only after Iphi- 
 genia, Agamemnon's daughter, had been wiled into the camp 
 and laid on the altar. When on the very point of being sacri- 
 ficed, however, the goddess carried the maiden off to Tauris. In 
 the Iliad, the wrath of Achilles is the result of the hisolence and 
 stubbornness of Agamemnon, who seized a female slave, Briseis, 
 from Achilles, in lieu of another, Chryseis, whom he had lieen 
 forced to give up. In this transaction, we find Agamemnon 
 guilty of insolence towards a priest of Apollo, ovenveening in his 
 estimate of himself, haughty towards others, and not very solici- 
 tous about his absent wife, for he positively declares that he pre- 
 fers Chryseis to Clytemnestra. Shortly after this Agamemnon 
 is introduced, deliberately telling lies to the people, seemingly for 
 mere fun. Several times he becomes despondent and would fain 
 return to Greece, were not other chiefs strongly set against such 
 a step. At the same time he is declared to be both a good king 
 and a brave soldier; his appearance is described as imposing and 
 king-like, and when he fights in person, he generally slays a num- 
 ber of Trojans. The manner of his death is described in the 
 Odyssey. On his return from Troy he was murdered by jEgis- 
 thus, who had seduced Clytemnestra, and taken possession of the 
 kingdom. Jischylus, and several other writers, as well as some 
 paintings on vases, represent Clytemnestra as throwing a net 
 over her husband, and then murdering him with an axe. — J. D. 
 
 AGANDURU, Roderic Maurice, a Spanish missionaiy to 
 the natives of Loochoo and Japan about the end of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 AGAPETUS, a deacon of Constantinople, lived about A.d. 
 527. He addressed to the Emperor Justinian a work in seventy- 
 two chapters, entitled " Charta Regia," containing counsels on 
 the duties of a Christian prince. In his youth, Louis XIII. of 
 France caused it to be translated into French. — S. 
 
 AGAPETUS, the name bom by two popes : — Agapetus I. 
 was elected 3rd June, 535 ; died 22nd April, 536. He pawned 
 the sacred vessels of St. Peter, in order to travel to Constanti- 
 
 nople for the purpose of endeavouring to divert the emperor 
 from cariying the war into Italy, in which he was unsuccessful. 
 Agapetus 11. was a Roman by birth. He was elected pope in 
 946, and died in 956. He has left a reputation for wonderful 
 sanctity. — S. 
 
 AGAPIUS, variotis persons of this name are known ; one, a 
 physician of Alexandria, who v/rote commentaries on medicine ; 
 another, a ]\Ianichee of the fourth century, spoken of by Photius 
 as composing an account of his sect ; a third, a bishop of Ca?sarea, 
 who wrote a life of Eusebius ; and a fourth, a Greek monk of 
 Mount Athos, who wrote a book called "'A^a^i-wXav oairyi^ia." — 
 "Salvation of Sinners'" — which was printed at Venice, 1641, 
 and aftenvards translated into Arabic. — J. E. 
 
 AGAR. See Maxbouro. 
 
 AGARD, Antoine, a goldsmith and antiquaiT, who lived at 
 Aries, towards the close of the sixteenth or beginning of the 
 seventeenth century. He was a gi-eat collector of medals and 
 other articles of archa3ological research. 
 
 AGARDE, Arthur, a celebrated antiquarian who lived in the 
 reign of Elizabeth, was born at Foston in Derbyshire in 1540. 
 He studied law, and for forty years held the oflice of deputy- 
 chamberlain in the Exchequer, m which capacity he had charge 
 of many of the national records. Of this he took advantage, and 
 formed large collections of facts calculated to throw light on the 
 history of England. He was a distinguished member of the first 
 society of antiquaries, instituted by Archbishop Parker in 1572, 
 and was the friend of Sir Robert Cotton and most of the learned 
 men of his age. He died in 1615. — J. B. 
 
 * AGARDH, Carl Adolpii, professor of botany and rural 
 economy in the university of Lund in Sweden, and protcstant 
 bishop of Carlstadt, was born on 23d Januaiy, 1785, at Bos- 
 tad, a town in Scania, where his father was a merchant. In 
 1799 he entered upon his studies at the university of Lund, and 
 was appointed professor of mathematics in 1807. His favourite 
 pursuit, however, was natural history, which he prosecuted 
 with vigour. He has devoted his attention in a special manner 
 to the department of cryptogamic botany, and has published 
 several valuable works on algre. He has also contributed 
 important papers to the transactions of scientific societies. 
 Among his other works may be mentioned, " A Manual of 
 Botany ; " " Treatises on the Organography and Physiology of 
 Plants;" and "A Life of Linnseus;" besides several papers on 
 mathematical and theological subjects. He has, on several 
 occasions, represented his native district in the Swedish cham- 
 ber of deputies. His son, James George Agardh, has also dis- 
 tinguished hunself as a botanist by his works on algce, fems, 
 &c.— J. H. B. 
 
 AGAS or AGGAS, Radulph, an English land-surveyor and 
 engraver, who lived in the sixteenth century. He published a 
 treatise on surveying, also plans of Oxford and Cambridge; but 
 his chief work was a large view of London, with the Thames and 
 adjacent country, pubhshed by Vertue in 1748. 
 
 AGASIAS, the name of a family of Greek sculptors at Ephesus. 
 They were flourishing between 200 and 100 B.C., and are con- 
 sidered amongst the best artists of the Ephesian school. Three 
 of them are particularly recorded in the history of art. Agasias, 
 father of Heraclidcs ; Agasias, son of Monophilos ; andAcASiAS, 
 son of Doritheos, — this last being the most celebrated. He is 
 the author of the great masterpiece, kno'svn as the " Borghese 
 Gladiator," now in the Lou^tc collection. This statue is one of 
 the best relics of Greek art still in existence. Although not 
 possessing the matchless grandeur and simplicity of the Phidian 
 period, yet the work of Agasias fully deserves the universal ad- 
 miration it has obtained, on account of the liveliness of concep- 
 tion and exquisite carefulness of execution, that render it equal, 
 if not superior, to the best productions of the Lysippian school. 
 The anatomical knowledge displayed in this statue is one of the 
 most perfect of antiquity, and it is owing to its completeness 
 that the extreme instantaneousness of the pose never becomes 
 tiresome or obtrasive. — R. M. 
 
 * AGASSIZ, Louis, an eminent naturalist, son of a protestant 
 pastor, was bora at Orbe in Waatlande in 1807. After distin- 
 guishing himself at the gymnasium of Bid and academy of 
 Lausanne, he studied successively at Zurich, Heidelberg, and 
 Munich, medicine and natural science, for which he had, frrm 
 boyhood, manifested an ardent predilection. While he resided 
 at Heidelberg, his attention was chiefly directed to comparative 
 anatomy. Editing, in 1826, Spix's description of the fishes of
 
 Brazil, he submitted to fhe public that new classification of fishes 
 to which he still adheres. He aftenvards published his " Re- 
 seaiches on FossU Fishes," and his " Description of Echinoder- 
 mes;" and, in 1839, his "Natural Histoiy of the Freshwater 
 Fishes of Europe." The production, however, which first raised 
 him to European celebrity was his " Studies on Glaciers," in 
 which he propounded a new geological theoiy, that has com- 
 manded the attention of all subsequent writers on geology. 
 Some years ago he settled in the United States of America, held 
 for some time a chair in Harvard college, and subsequently was 
 appointed professor of comparative anatomy in the university of 
 Charleston. He has published in America, besides many occa- 
 sional papers of gi-eat value, two interesting and instructive 
 works, " A Tour on Lake Superior," and " Principles of Zoology ;" 
 and continues, with indefatigable application, to cultivate his 
 favourite pursuits. — E. JI. 
 
 AGATHAXGELUS, an Armenian historian of the fourth 
 century, secretary to Tiridates, first Christian king of Amienia. 
 Tliere is a Greek translation of his highly esteemed " History 
 of the Introduction of Christianity into Annenia," and " Life of 
 Tiridates ;" and the original Armeni.m, admired for its purity 
 and elegance, was printed at Constantinople in 1709. Some 
 critics think the Greek the original, but in all probabihty the 
 work was written bv its author in two languages. — E. M. 
 
 AGATHANGELUS, a media;val monk, to whom are attri- 
 buted a gi-eat number of popular prophecies relating to the 
 expected restoration of the Eastern empire, which have long 
 continued to exert an amazing influence on the minds of the 
 Christian and even Ottoman population of Turkey and Greece. 
 Every unlettered member of the Eastern church in those parts, 
 and many of the educated whose faith in Daniel and the Apo- 
 calypse is more than lax, firmly believe in the intalhbility of the 
 prophecies of Agathangelus. — E. M, 
 
 AGATHARCHIDES, a Greek geogi-apher and historian, 
 a native of Cnidos, flourished in the second centmy B.C. Of 
 his voluminous and valuable works only fragments, and brief 
 summaries by Photius, remain. 
 
 AGATHARCUS, a painter of Samos, who flourished about 
 450 B.C., celebrated for his application of perspective to theatri- 
 cal decorations, and a learned treatise on the principles of his 
 art. He resided at Athens, and it is said to have been jEschy- 
 lus who induced him to turn his attention to scenic painting. 
 
 AGATHE, Saint, a Christian young lady of gi-eat beauty 
 and high rank, a native of Palenno, who died in prison in 251, 
 after enduring the most appalling tortures inflicted by command 
 of Quintianus, governor of Sicily, because, on the gi-ound of his 
 being an idolater, she persisted in rejecting his addresses. Her 
 memory is held by the Sicilians in boundless reverence. 
 
 AGATHEMERUS, a Greek geographer, who flourished about 
 the beginning of the third centuiy, author of an " Outline of 
 Geography," in which he mentions the wall erected in Britain m 
 the reign of Septimius Sevenis. 
 
 AGATHL\S, one of the Byzantine historical writers. He 
 ■was a native of MjTina, a town of iEolic Asia. After pursuing 
 his studies in Alexandria, he returned in 554 a.d. to Constan- 
 tinople, where he followed the profession of an advocate, but occu- 
 pied himself mainly in historical investigations. He was boni in 
 537 or 538 a.d. The date of his death is uncertain. Niebuhr 
 conjectiu-es 582 a.d. His principal work is " Five Books of 
 Histories," containing a nanative of the events that happened 
 between the years 553 and 558 a.d. He also tried his hand at 
 verse-making, with considerable success. — J. I). 
 
 AGATHINUS, a Greek physician of the first century, a 
 native of Sparta, and disciple of that Athenxus who founded 
 the sect of Pneumatists. Agathinus was the author of vaiions 
 medical treatises, of which fragments have been presen-ed in the 
 works of later medical writers. 
 
 AGATHIUS, a Keapolitan who taught Hebrew at Rome and 
 at Paris, compiled a Hebrew grammar, and wrote commentaiies 
 on the Song of Solomon, and on some of the Psalms. Died in 
 1542, Another of the same name and countrj% in the seven- 
 teenth centur}', wrote several pieces in ItaUan, and was chaplain 
 to the king of Naples. 
 
 AGATHO, an Athenian dramatic poet, and disciple of Socrates 
 and Prodicus, mentioned by Aristotle as fond of antithesis, and 
 ridiculed by Aiistophanes for his effeminacy. Only a few verses 
 from his works have been preser\ed. 
 
 AGATHO, Pope, a native of Sicily. He gave his whole patii- 
 
 mony, which was large, to the poor ; was ordained a presbyter 
 in 678, elected pope in 079, obtained the condemnation of the 
 Jlonothelites in a council of 190 bishops by him convoked at 
 Rome, encouraged the emperor to convene the sixth general 
 council for the same object, and obtained the abolition of the tax 
 which was paid to the emperors on the elections of the popes. 
 Died in 682.— E. M. 
 
 AGATHOCLJIA, a com-tesan of Alexandria, celebrated for her 
 beauty and accomplishments, her power over Ptolemy Philopator, 
 king of Egypt, and the crimes she occasioned or pei-petrated. 
 She was massacred by the populace of Alexandria in 204 B.C. 
 
 AGATHOCLES of Cyzicus, a Greek historian, whcse " His- 
 tory of Cyzicus," of which only a few fragments remain, is 
 mentioned, with great respect, by Cicero, Pliny, and Athena'us. 
 He flourished probably about 100 B.C. There were three other 
 Greek writers of the same name, the titles of whose works have 
 been preserved. 
 
 AGATHOCLES, tp-ant of Sicily, one of the most extraor- 
 dinary men of antiquity. He was the son of a potter, who was 
 a native of Rhegium, but a citizen of Syracuse, and at an early 
 age he entered the military career. His majestic stature, elegant 
 fonn, and handsome features, together with his activity, coiu-age, 
 and intelligence, soon attracted attention, and procured him the 
 special patronage of Damas the general, who raised him to the 
 command of a battalion. On the death of his patron, he manned 
 his widow, and at once became one of the richest of the citizens, 
 and a popular leader. The ascendancy of Sosistratus forced him 
 to seek shelter, for a time, in southern Italy. Returning to 
 Sicily, he succeeded, after various vicissitudes, in making himself 
 sovereign of Syracuse, by afi'ccting zeal for popular rights, 
 massacring several thousands of the wealthier citizens, banish- 
 ing a still greater number, and giving their property to his 
 adherents. Determined to extend his sway over all Sicily, he 
 attacked the Carthaginians, and gained a succession of victories, 
 but was afterwards signally defeated by Amilcar at Himera. 
 Besieged in SjTacuse by the Carthaginians, he formed the daring 
 but judicious project of passing over into Africa with part of his 
 army, which he executed with skill and success. By repeated 
 victories, and by combining the native princes against Carthage, 
 he reduced her to the greatest straits ; but his treacherous murder 
 of the Grecian prince of Cyrene, and his absence in Sicily, whither 
 various revolts compelled him to repair, ruined his cause in 
 Africa. On returning to that continent, he found his allies 
 alienated, and his troops in a state of mutiny. After vainly 
 attempting to appease his army, he saved his life by immediate 
 flight. The troops put two of his sons to death, and came to 
 tenns with the Carthaginians. To punish the revolted forces, 
 he massacred multitudes of their relatives in Sicily. These 
 atrocities excited against him a formidable insun-ection, which 
 compelled him to conclude a peace with the Carthaginians. He 
 defeated the insurgents in a great battle, suppressed the insur- 
 rection, secured himself firmly in the sovereignty of Syracuse, 
 and, in two or three years, reduced under his dominion the whole 
 of Sicily, with the exception of the towns ceded to the Caitha- 
 ginians. He died in 289 B.C., at the age of 72. — E. JI. 
 
 AGATHOD/EMON, the reputed au*thor of the majis found 
 in the most ancient MSS. of the geography of Claudius Ptolemy; 
 but we know nothing of his hfe. 
 
 AGAY, Francois Marie Bruxo, Compte d', a French 
 lavi-yer, was bom at Besan9on, 1722; died at Paiis, 1805. He 
 has left a treatise upon the utility of the arts and sciences, and 
 another on the advantages of internal navigation. 
 
 AGAZZARI, Agostixo, an Itahan musician, was bom at 
 Sienna about 1578; died 1640. He was the pupil of Viadana 
 of Rome, and has left some admirable chm-ch music. 
 
 AGELADAS or AGELAS of Aegos, a Greek sculptor, 
 flourishing between 510 and 460 B.C. He was one of the first 
 wlio attempted to disengage sculptm'e fi-om the trammels and 
 conventionahties of the hieratic or sacred style, and to bring 
 about, by the study of nature, the more rational forms of populai- 
 or demotic art. Associated with Canachus and Aiistocles, he 
 executed a group of Pluses described by Antipatros ; and, besides 
 this, he produced, unaided, several statues of conquerors in the 
 Olympic games ; one of Jupiter for the j\Iessenians of Neupac- 
 tus, and one of a young Hercules, of which a marble in the 
 Lansdo\^Tie collection is supposed to be a copy. But what has 
 above all immortalized the name of Ageladas, is the fact of his 
 having been the master of the best three sculptors of the follow-
 
 AGE 
 
 47 
 
 AGI 
 
 ing period — Polvclitus, Phidias, and Jlyron. Some suppose that 
 tlierc were two Ageladas, fatlicr and son, and that the first of 
 them was still a strict adherent of the Hieratic school. — R. M. 
 
 AGELET, Joseph Plaute d', a French astronomer, was 
 born at Thone-le-long, 1751. He took part in the expedition 
 of La Perouse, in which he perished. He lias left some ti'eatises 
 on the aphelion of Venus and the length of the year. 
 
 AGELLI or AGELLIUS, appointed bishop of Acerno in 1593, 
 was born at Sorrento, 1532; died, 1608. He superintended the 
 coiTection of the Vulgate and the Latin version of the Septuagint 
 in the printing-offices of the Vatican. 
 
 AGELNOTH, an Anglo-Saxon prelate of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, was in the year 1020 nominated archbishop of Canterbury. 
 He is chiefly remembered for refusing to crown Harold, who, in 
 the absence of Hardicanute, had seized upon the kingly power. 
 
 AGERIUS or AGEK, NiciifH.AS, was born towards the close 
 of the sixteenth century. He was professor of medicine and 
 botany at Strasburg, and by his botanical discoveries has added 
 something to the materia mcdica. 
 
 AGESANDER of Rhodes, a Greek sculptor, flourishing about 
 160 B.C., who, with Athenodorus his son and Polydorus, executed 
 the celebrated group of " Laocoon," now in the Vatican. Cer- 
 tain writers on art assert that this mastei"piece is the produc- 
 tion of sculptors living at Rome during the reign of Vespasian ; 
 but this assumption, based upon a misinterpretation of a passage 
 in Pliny, cannot resist the evidence stamped upon the work 
 itself, which, in every detail, presents all the characteristics of 
 the Rhodian school in its imitation of the great Lysippus. These 
 cliaracteristics are, — the choice of a stiiring subject ; the extreme 
 pathos of expression in treating it ; the elaborate and emphatic 
 style of execution ; the peculiar type of the heads, &c., &c., one 
 and all of which point out this group as being one of the greatest 
 productions of Greek sculpture dm-ing the bloom of its last 
 period. This is also the opinion of Winkelmann, who wrote a 
 most scientific notice on this group ; whilst his rival, Lessing, of 
 the opposite opinion as regards its probable date, has produced 
 the best xsthetic essay that has ever been written upon the 
 masteiiiiece of Agesander and his fellow-labom-ers. — R. M. 
 
 AGESIAS, a Platonist philosopher of Cyrene. Ptolemy 
 ordered his school to be shut, because many of his disciples 
 committed sidcide to satisfy themselves of the truth of the doc- 
 trine of the immortality of the soid. 
 
 AGESILAUS L This monarch w.as the seventh king of 
 Sparta. His reign was not distinguished. 
 
 AGESILAUS IL, king of Sp.arta, horn in 445 B.C., and died 
 in 361 B.C. Almost immediately on his accession to power, he 
 was sent, at the head of an arniy of eight thousand men, into 
 Persia, under pretence of freeing the Grecian cities. He gained 
 a signal victory over Tissaphernes, near the river Pactolus, where 
 he forced the enemy's camp and gained considerable booty. This 
 success induced the Persian monarch to subvert the power of 
 Agesilaus among the Greek states by the influence of bribeiy, 
 rather than openly to meet him in the field. By this means a 
 confederacy of the other Greek states having been organized 
 against Sparta, Agesilaus found himself obliged, in the midst of 
 his success in Persia, to return home to defend his kingdom from 
 the aggressions of his enemies. Passing through Macedonia and 
 Thessaly, he arrived in Boeotia, where, upon the plains of Coro- 
 nea, he obtained a considerable victory over the Athenians and 
 their allies, the Ai-gives, Thebans, Corinthians, and Eubeans. 
 This w.ar was canied on with various success for some time, 
 until the Greek states, finding themselves weakened by their 
 mutual jealousies, and tired of a conflict in which none gained 
 advantage, sued for a peace, which was concluded in the ninety- 
 eighth Olympiad, and which, on account of the many stipu- 
 lations it contained in favour of Persia, Plutarch terms "the 
 reproach and ruin of Greece." Thus freed from the fear of a 
 foreign enemy, the Spartans turned their arms against the lesser 
 states of Greece ; humbling the Jlantineans, by compelling them 
 to throw down their walls ; obliging the Corinthians to with- 
 draw the garrison from Argos ; subduing the Olynthians, and 
 finally interfering in a most insulting manner in a domestic 
 quarrel of the Thebans, by placing a garrison of their own in 
 the citadel of which Phasdibas had taken possession. For four 
 years after this event the Thebans submitted to the Spartan 
 yoke, but then took occasion by a desperate stroke to throw it 
 off. This was accomplished by a conspiracy between the Theban 
 exiles in Athens, and those well-affected to the cause in the city 
 
 of Thebes itself. In concert, by means of stratagem, they seized 
 and put to death the principal Spartans in the place ; Pelopidas 
 appearing, encompassed by priests, in the midst of the people, 
 proclaimed liberty to the Thebans, and exhorted them to fight 
 for their country and their gods. The Spartans having in this 
 manner been driven from Thebes, still resolved to take the lead 
 in the affairs of Greece, and Agesilaus was selected to com- 
 mand tlie army which was to humble its separate states. With 
 vaiying fortune he attacked several of these states in succession, 
 but was not himself present at the battle of Leuctra, at which 
 the Spartans met with the bloodiest defeat their arms had ever 
 sustained. So gi'eat, however, was his influence with the citizens, 
 that they g.ave him power to dispense with, abrogate, or impose 
 such new laws as he might .see necessaiy to save the honour of 
 many citizens, which their cowardice had for ever tarnished. He 
 would neither abolish nor alter the law ; but, by suspending its 
 action for a single day, saved the citizens from infamy. Twice 
 after this was Sparta threatened by the victorious Thebans under 
 Epaminondas ; but this great general having been killed in the 
 hour of victory at the battle of JMantinea, and his countrymen 
 losing by his death all the courage with which his heroic example 
 had inspired them, a peace was concluded, which, with the ex- 
 ception of an expedition under Agesilaus into Egj'pt, whither he 
 went to assist Tachos in his usurpation of that kingdom, pre- 
 served the quiet of Greece for some years. Agesilaus, from 
 avarice and the hope of being prefeiTed to the chief command, 
 had readily complied with the overtures of Tachos ; but on his 
 anival in Egj'pt he met with very different treatment from him 
 to what he had expected, being allowed no command but over 
 the mercenaries. This conduct so disgusted Agesilaus that he 
 immediately joined himself to Nectabanus, the nephew of Tachos, 
 who had commenced hostilities against him, and succeeded in seat- 
 ing him peaceably on the throne. For this service he received two 
 hundred and thirty talents of silver, and the most distinguished 
 marks of gi-atitude arid respect. In returning home during the 
 ensuing winter, he was driven into the haven of Menelaus on the 
 coast of Africa, where he was attacked by an acute disease, which 
 carried him off' in the eighty-fourth year of his age and fortieth 
 of his reign. He was so sensible of the meanness of his appear- 
 ance that he would allow no statues to be raised to him in his 
 lifetime, and implored the Spartans to erect none after his death. 
 In youth he was imjietuous and ambitious, in age perverse and 
 obstinate. He was capable of enduring immense fatigue and 
 pain, and was scrupulously frugal and temperate in his habits. 
 Undue partiality for his friends may be forgiven in consideration 
 of his generous humanity to his enemies. He was a fastidious 
 obser\'er of the laws, and was actually condemned to a fine by 
 the ephori for making himself too much beloved by the people. — S. 
 
 AGESILAUS, an Athenian general, and brother of Themis- 
 tocles, lived about 480 B.C. Having fallen into the hands of 
 the Persians, Xerxes ordered him to be sacrificed on the altar of 
 the sun, when he held his right hand in the flames until it was 
 consumed, without exhibiting the faintest evidence of the tortm-e 
 he suffered. His fortitude so excited the admiration of the Per- 
 sian monarch that he granted him his life. — S. 
 
 AGETA, Cajetan Nicholas, a Neapolitan jurist, lived 
 about the middle of the seventeenth centmy. He has left some 
 works on the feudal laws. 
 
 AGEZIO, Thadeus, who preceded Lavater in the science of 
 physiognomy, lived in the sixteenth centuiy. 
 
 AGGENUS, Urbicus, a writer on the science of agriculture, 
 flourished in the latter half of the second century. 
 
 AGIAS, a poet, often quoted by Greek writers. He wrote a 
 poem in five books, nan-ating the return of the Greeks fi-om the 
 Trojan war, some fragments of which are found in Proclus. 
 
 AGIER, Pierre "'Jean, born at Paris, 1748; died, 1823. 
 He became an advocate in 1789, and in 1802 was made vice- 
 president of the tribunal of appeal. Skilled in the doctrines, 
 and imbued with the spirit of the Port Royalists, he distin- 
 guished himself on the side of religion, liberty, and justice, 
 through all the period of the Revolution, and the changes subse- 
 quent to that event. Besides some legal works, he wrote several 
 works on theology. — J. F. 
 
 AGILA, the thirteenth king of the Visigoths in Spain. He 
 ascended the throne in 549. His short reign of about five 
 years, like that of his predecessor, who was strangled by his 
 nobles, was very unhapp}'. Tyrannical and exacting in his 
 administration, he was put to death in 554.
 
 AGI 
 
 48 
 
 AGX 
 
 AGILES, Raymond d', a canon of Puy, who wrote a history 
 of the crusade of 1095, the materials for which he collected in 
 the East, whither he went as chaplain with the count of Tou- 
 louse ; it is entitled " RaymonJi de Agiles, canonici Podiencis, 
 Historia Franconim qui cepenint Hierusalem." 
 
 AGILULF or AGISUSPHAS, a dulce of Turin and king of 
 Lombardy. On the death of Antharis, king of the Lombards, 
 in 590, his widow, with the consent of her subjects, bestowed 
 both her hand and the kingdom on Agilulf, who was crowned 
 in 591. Influenced by his wife, it is said, he left the Aiian 
 communion and joined the cathoUc. Having suppressed some 
 rebellious dukes, extended his dominions, and established peace, 
 he employed himself in rebuilding and founding monasteries and 
 churches. He died in 616 or 619. The golden crown of Agilulf, 
 which had long been presen-ed in Paiis, was stolen and melted 
 down in 1804. — J. F. 
 
 AGIXCOURT, Jean-Baptiste-Lotiis-George Veroux 
 d', an archKologist and nimiismatist ; born at Beauvais, 5th 
 April, 1730 ; died at Rome, 24th September, 1814. Well-born 
 and highly educated, he travelled in England, Holland, Germany, 
 and Italy, and became famous as an amateur. At Rome he 
 laboured to complete his great work, which, however, was not 
 finished till 18"2o, by M. Gence; it is named " L'histoire de I'art 
 par les monuments, depuis sa decadence au quatrieme siecle 
 jusqu'a son renouvelleinent au seizieme," 6 vols, folio, with 325 
 plates. It has been translated by Owen Jones, and published in 
 London. Besides this there was published at Paris in 1814, 
 bis " Recueil de fragments de sculpture antique, en teiTe cuite," 
 1 vol. 4to, with 37 engravings and portrait. — J. F. 
 
 AGIS. There were fouj Spartan kings of this name. The 
 first belonging to the oldest branch of the Heraclida3, and the 
 others to the second branch, or that of the Proclides. 
 
 Agis I. is said to have lived about 980 B.C. He belongs to 
 the legendary epoch of Spartan historj'. 
 
 Agis II. succeeded his father, Archidamus II., in 427 u.c. 
 He was distinguished for his warlike spirit and achievements. 
 He gained a brilliant victory at JIantinea, and assisted in bring- 
 ing to a close the Peloponnesian war, which had embroiled 
 Greece for twenty-seven years. 
 
 Agis III., a contemporary of Philip and of Alexander the 
 Great, having succeeded his father, Archidamus III., in 338 or 
 346 B.C., he made repeated but unsuccessful attempts to throw 
 off the JIacedonian yoke. He was defeated and slain in the 
 battle of Megalopolis by Antipater. In the conflict 5300 
 Spartans were slain, and Agis, when unable from wounds and 
 fatigue to stand upright, continued to fight on his knees imtil 
 he was killed by being struck through the body with a dart. 
 
 Agis IV. ascended the throne on the death of his father, 
 Eudamidas II., in 242 B.C. He is famous in history and poetry 
 for his personal v-irtues and love to the old Spartan manners 
 and discipline, his attempts to re-establish the laws of Lycurgus, 
 and his early and cruel death. His colleague, Leonidas II., be- 
 ing opposed to liis efforts to reform Spartan manners and renve 
 ancient customs, was deposed, and Cleombi-otus, who supported 
 his views, was associated in the government. Before he could 
 accomphsh his projected reforms and changes, he was obliged to 
 march on an expedition against the Athenians. During his 
 absence a conspiracy was formed ag dnst him, and Leonidas was 
 recalled. On his retuni, Agis and Cleombrotus were obliged to 
 take refuge in the temple of Mmerva; the latter was di'agged 
 forth and banished; and after a time, Agis, betrayed by his 
 friends, was strangled in prison m the twenty-fourth year of his 
 age. He met death with gi-eat fortitude. — J. F. 
 
 A'GIUS DE SOLDA'NIS, an Itahan antiquan,', who died in 
 1760. Among his works are — 1. "Delia hngua punica presen- 
 temente usata da' JLaltesi," 8vo, Roma, 1750; 2. "Discours 
 Apologetique centre la dissertation historique et critique (of the 
 Abbe Ladvocat) sur le naufrage de St. Paul dans la mer Adri- 
 atique," 12mo, Avignon, 1757. 
 
 AGLAOPHON of Thasos, a Greek painter, flourishing about 
 416 B.C., was the father and teacher of the celebrated artists, 
 Aristophon and Polygnotus. One of his works is quoted as his 
 masterpiece, representing Alcibiades and the n}^^^ph Nema;a. 
 
 AGLIOXBY, John, a theologian, bom in Cumberland, 1567, 
 and died at Islip, of which he was rector, in IGIO. He was 
 educated at Oxford; made chaplain to Queen Elizabeth; was 
 chosen principal of Edmund Hall college in ICOl, and took 
 part in the translation of the New Testament. 
 
 AGXEAUX, Robert and Antoln'e, two brothers, natives 
 of Xonnandy, who lived duiing the second half of the sixteenth 
 centmy. They were the first translators into French verse of 
 the works of Virgil and the odes of Horace. The Virgil was 
 dedicated to Henry III., and printed at Paiis in 1582. The 
 Horace appeared in 8vo in 1588. 
 
 AGNE'LLUS, Andrew, an archbishop of Ravenna. His 
 father having conspired against Pope Paul I., was taken to 
 Rome, where he died in prison. The treatment of the father 
 made the son indifferent to the interests of the court of Rome, 
 and his writings are regarded as prejudicial to papal authority. 
 His work is entitled "AgneUi, qui et Andreas, abbatis S. Jlariae 
 ad Blachemas, hber pontiticahs, sive Vita; pontificum Raven- 
 natum." Woreri has confoimded the archbishop with another 
 Agnellus or Agnel, who wrote a letter, " De ratione fidei, ad 
 Armenium," and died in ooG. Vossius, in his " Histoire des 
 ecrivains Latins," has fallen into the same eiTor. — J. F. 
 
 AGNEN, Jerome, a painter of the Dutch school, bom at 
 Bois-le-Duc in 1450 or 1470; died in 1530. He was one of 
 the first to introduce, at the same time as Van Owater, oil- 
 painting in Holland. He affected to treat infernal subjects, and 
 excelled in strong effect. He spent much of his life in Spain, 
 where he executed a large number of works. — R. M. 
 
 AGXES, Saint, a noble Roman virgin, put to death under 
 Diocletian about a.d. 303. The legend tells that she suHered 
 when only thirteen years of age. 
 
 AGXES OF France, daughter of Louis VII. and sister of 
 Philip Augustus. She w-as successively married, first, when 
 nine years old, to Alexius Comnenus, the young emperor of 
 Const;mtinople, A.D. 1180; then to Andronicus Comnenus, 
 who caused Alexius to be killed, and seized the empire ; and, 
 last of all, after Andronicus had been put to death in 1185, to 
 Theodoras Branas, a.d. 1205, to whom she had a daughter, 
 the stepmother of William de Villehardouin. — J. F. 
 
 AGXES, queen of France, daughter of Berthold, duke of 
 Dahnatia ; married to Philip Augustus, A.d. 1196, after he 
 had divorced Ingeburge, sister of Canute VI., king of Den- 
 mark. Philip being obliged by the church to separate from 
 Agnes, she died of a broken heart in the Chateau de Poissy, 
 A.D. 1201. Her children, a son and daughter, were declared 
 legitimate by Pope Innocent III. — J. F. 
 
 AGXES, Sorrel or Soreau, the famous mistress of 
 Charles VII. of France, was the daughter of a gentleman of 
 the house of Ck-rmont ; born at Fromenteau in Toui-aine, 
 A.D., 1409, and died 9th Febraary, 1450. She was celebrated 
 for her beauty, and for the influence she is said to have exercised 
 over the king, and the stirring events of her time. Her three 
 chUdi-en were declared children of France. — J. F. 
 
 AGXE'SI, Maria Gaetana, an Italian lady, celebrated for 
 her extraordinaiy abilities and vast leaming, bom at Milan, a.d. 
 1718, where she also died, in the convent of the rigorous order 
 of Blue nuns to wliich she had retired, 4th August, 1799. 
 When nine years old, she spoke Latin fluently; and became so 
 sldllcd in the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Gemian, Spanish, and 
 French languages, that she was called the " Walking Polyglot." 
 Having made great progi-ess in speculative pliilosophy, she 
 pubhshed, in her twentieth year, under the title of "Proposi- 
 tiones Philosophical," a series of 191 theses, which she had 
 previously defended. In her thirty-second year, her attainments 
 in mathematics were so eminent, that she was appointed to her 
 father's chair at Bologna, when he became unable to discharge 
 his professorial duties. Her famous work, " Analytical Insti- 
 tutes" (" Instituzioni Analitiche"), 1745, was translated into 
 English by Professor Colson of Cambridge. — J. F. 
 
 AGXE'SI, Maria Teresa, sister of the above, born at 
 Slilan, 1750, was eminent as a musician, and the composer of 
 the music of several songs, and of three operas: "Sofonisba," 
 "Ciro in Armenia," and "Xitocri." 
 
 AGXEW, Sir Andrew, Bart., of Lochnaw in Wigtonshire, 
 who is chiefly known from his zealous efforts in promoting the 
 better observance of the Sabbath, was bom at Kinsale, Ireland, 
 March 21, 1793. He was the only child of Lieutenant Andrew 
 Agnew, eldest son of Sir Stair Agnew, the sixth baronet of 
 Lochnaw. Upon the death of Sir Stair in 1809, Andrew, who 
 was then only sixteen years of age, left Ireland for his patri- 
 monial estate. In 1816 he was married to Madehne, daughter 
 of Sir David Carnegie of South Esk, baronet. His estate having 
 been allowed to fall into neglect before it came into his hands,
 
 AGN 
 
 49 
 
 AGO 
 
 he applied himself to its improvement, expending not less than 
 £30,000. From 1830 to 1837 he sat in parliament as repre- 
 sentative of Wigtonsbire, and having been reconmiended by Sir 
 Thomas Fowcl Buxton as a tit leader in the agitation then 
 being made against Sabbath traffic and recreation, he brought a 
 Sabbath bill before four different sessions of the House of Com- 
 mons. His motions for a second reading, however, were uni- 
 formly lost till 1837, when the second reading was earned by 
 110 against G6. But, notwithstanding this triumphant vote, the 
 bill never passed into committee. The death of William IV. 
 having led to a dissolution of parliament. Sir Andrew failed in 
 securing his return, and no other member being equally zealous 
 in the Sabbath question, nothing farther was done with his bOl. 
 In agitating the subject in parhament, he certainiy displayed 
 singular decision of character; and from the urbanity of his 
 manners, and the meekness of his temper, he disarmed personal 
 antipathy, and conciliated favour even where his politics were 
 dislilced. In almost every pMlanthropic and patriotic question of 
 the day, Sir Andrew took a share, and was ever ready to con- 
 tribute his personal advice and pecuniary assistance. As a land- 
 lord, he was highly popular among his tenantry, to whom he 
 was invariably kind and considerate, especially in times of agri- 
 cultural distress. He died April 12, 1849, and was inteiTed in 
 the Grange Cemetery, Edinburgh. — (Dr. M'Crie's Life of Sir 
 Andrew Afftiew.) — J. A. 
 
 A'GNOLO, Baccio d', a Florentine sculptor and architect, 
 bom 1460 ; died 1543. Recommended by Michel Angelo, and 
 employed by Clement VII., he went to Rome in 1530, and 
 restored the statues of Apollo, Laocoon, and Hercules, in the 
 Belvidere Museum. 
 
 A'GNOLO, Gabriel d', a Neapolitan architect, who died in 
 1510. The Gravina palace and the churches of St. ]\Iary of 
 Egj-pt and of St. Joseph at Naples, are amongst the public 
 buildings erected by him. 
 
 AGNO'NIDES, a Greek orator, 300 B.C. He accused Theo- 
 phrastus of impiety, and sought to have him burnt. Having 
 been driven from Athens, he was pci-mitted to return through 
 the fovour of Phocion, whom he ungratefully repaid by accusing 
 him of betraying the Pu-asus to Nicanor. After the death of 
 Phocion, the Athenians remembered his services, raised statues 
 to his memoiy, and put Agnonides to death. — J. F. 
 
 AGNOSCIOLA or ANGUISCIOLA, Sofonisba, a famous 
 female painter, sprang from a noble family at Cremona ; died 
 at Genoa, 1G20, about ninety years of age. She was a disciple 
 of Bernardino, and soon became famous, especially for her por- 
 traits. Philip II. invited her to Spain as com-t painter, where, 
 besides the royal family, she painted Pope Pius IV., and many 
 princes and nobles. Vandyck visited her when she was infirm 
 and blind, and declared that he had learnt more from her than 
 he had from any other painter. Her portraits are highly 
 esteemed in Italy. — J. F. 
 
 AGOBARD, a celebrated archbishop of Lyons, bora a.d. 
 779 ; died 6th June, 840. He assisted Lotharius and Pepin in 
 their rebellion against their father, Louis le Debonnaire, and 
 took an active part in the events of his time. He stood high 
 among the literary men of the period ; wrote against the heresy 
 of Felix, bishop of Urgella, and the practice of duels, and of 
 trial by fire and water, exposed the absurdities of the Jewish 
 opponents of Christianity, and zealously opposed in his famous 
 book — " De Picturis et Imaginibus" — the worship and use of 
 images. The first edition of his works, by Papirius Masson, ap- 
 peared in 1405 ; another was edited by Baluze in 1G66. — J. F. 
 
 AGORACRITES of Paros, a Greek sculptor and brass- 
 caster of the school of Phidias, flourished 450 years B.C. He 
 was one of the best and most favourite pupils of that gi-eat 
 master, who is said to have allowed several of his own works to 
 pass as beuig the productions of Agoracrites. His most cele- 
 brated statue was that of Adrastia or Nemesis, which the Greeks 
 erected at Ramnos in memoiy of the victory of Marathon. This 
 statue was cut out of a block of Parian marble wliich the Persians 
 had brought with them, intending to use it for the consti-uction 
 of a trophy of their expected triumph. Others relate that this 
 statue originally represented Venus Aphrodites, and that Ago- 
 racrites had executed it for the city of Athens in competition 
 with Alcamenes, another pupil of Phidias. The Athenians, 
 however, preferred the work of their fellow-citizen, Alcamenes, 
 and rejected that of Agoracrites, although superior in merit. 
 The discarded artist avenged his slight by altering his Venus 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 into a Nemesis, and placing it at Ramnos. Wliichever Le the 
 con-ect version, all the ancient writers combine in praising this 
 statue as one of the finest existing in Greece. Bronze statues 
 of Jupiter and Mmerva by Agoracrites were also in the temple 
 of Delphi.— R. M. 
 
 AGOP, John, a learned AiTnenian priest, who lived at Rome 
 in the latter half of the seventeenth century. He published an 
 "Armenian Grammar," 1674 ; a "Latin Grammar in Armenian," 
 in 1675 ; and an "Italian Translation of the Correspondence of 
 Constantine the Great and Pope Sylvester with Tiridates, king 
 of Armenia," in 1683, at Venice. 
 
 AGOSTI'NI, Leonardo, an Italian antiquary of the seven- 
 teenth century, a native of Sienna. Pope Alexander VII. 
 appointed him inspector of antiquities for the Roman states. 
 He was the author of two valuable and now rare works. The 
 first is entitled " La Sicilia di Filippo Parata, descritta con me- 
 daglie, con la Giunta di Lionardo Agostini," Rome, 1649. The 
 second, " Le Gemme Antiche figm-ate di Lionardo Agostini, con 
 le annotazioni del Sig. Geo.-Pietro Bellori," Rome, 1636, 1657, 
 1670.— J. F. 
 
 AGOSTITsTI, Miguel, a flimous Spanish agiiculturist, bora 
 about 1560, and died about 1630. Having served for some 
 time, and distinguished himself, with the knights of Malta, he 
 obtained the priory of St. John of Perpignan, and became a 
 carefiU and zealous cultivator of the soil. He published the 
 results of his experiments and obsei-vations in 1626, in a book 
 which has been frequently reprinted, entitled " Libro de los 
 Scgretos de Agricultura, Casa de campo y pastoril :" Perpignan, 
 4to, with plates, 1626. 
 
 AGOSTINO, and his brother ANGIOLO or ANGELO, da 
 Sienna, celebrated Italian sculptors and architects of the four- 
 teenth century. They were pupils of Giovanni Pisano, whom 
 they assisted in the execution of his works for the fa9ade of the 
 cathedral of Orvieto. Then: masterpiece is the monument of 
 Guido Tarlati, bishop of Arezzo, completed in 1330. It is said 
 that Giotto gave tlie design for this work. It comprises a large 
 number of bas-reliefs, illustrating the hfe of the bishop, executed 
 with a peculiar but not unpleasant quaintness. An altar, for- 
 meriy in the church of San Francesco at Bologna, is also attri- 
 buted to them by several writers ; although the character of its 
 details, pointing to a more advanced period of art, may justify 
 the assertion of others, that the altar is the production of the 
 Venetian sciilptors, Jacobello and Pietro Paolo, during the later 
 part of the century. As architects they were employed for their 
 native town, Siena, in erecting two of the city gates, and the 
 chiu-ch and convent of San Francesco. — R. M. 
 
 AGOSTINO DA MiLANO, or AGOSTINO dalle Pro- 
 SPETTIVE, an Italian artist, who died in 1525. He was a 
 pupil of B. Sarti, and excelled in painring architectonic and pro- 
 spective views. He worked chiefly at Bologna, where many of 
 his works are still extant. — R. M. 
 
 AGOSTINO, Paolo, a musician, who was bora at Valerano 
 in 1593. He was a pupil of Bernardino Nanino, whose daugh- 
 ter he married. He was successively organist of the churches 
 of S. Maria Traste Vere and S. Lorenzo in Damaso, and finally 
 he was appointed to succeed his fellow-pupil, Vincenzo Ugolini, 
 in the same office at St. Peter's ; some say because his predeces- 
 sor refused to compete with him in a composition on a given 
 subject, and was consequently displaced in his favour; but 
 others deny the truth of tlie anecdote. He printed psalms, 
 magnificats, and other canticles, and masses for several voices ; 
 but he is most renowned for his compositions for four, six, and 
 eight choirs of fom- voices in each. Pope Urban VIIL, on hear- 
 ing the public perfonnance of one of these dense masses of con- 
 trapuntal elaboration, a piece written m forty- eight real parts, 
 was so impressed with its effect, that he bowed in acknowledg- 
 ment before the author, in the sight of the assembled congrega- 
 tion. Padre Martini prints an " Agnus Dei" for eight voices of 
 his, as a remarkable specimen of fluent melody, pui-e counter- 
 point, and close canonic imitation. Besides his printed works, 
 he left many manuscripts, which are presei-ved in the library ot 
 the Vatican, and in that of the Casa Corsini alia Lungara. He 
 died in 1629, but some writers have en-oneously represented 
 him as living till 1660. He was buried at Rome. — G. A. M. 
 
 AGOUB, Joseph, an Egyptian scholar, born at Cairo, 1795. 
 When about six years old, he was brought to France with the 
 amiy, and in 1820 was made professor of Arabic at Paris. He 
 died at Majseilles in October, 1832, in mdigent circmnst.-vnces. 
 
 G
 
 His historical, critical, and poetical contributions to various 
 journals, were published at Paris in 1835. 
 
 AGOULT, GuiLLAUME d', a knight of Provence, famous as 
 " a good poet and a tender lover." He wrote several songs and 
 poems, and a satire on the decay of virtue, and the vices of the 
 clergy. He died in 1181, and it was said of him — "he was a model 
 of sanctity and virtue, the father and chief of all the troubadours." 
 
 * AGOULT, JIakie de Flavigny, Countess of, bom about 
 1800 at Frankfort, educated in France, married to Count Agoult 
 in 1827, afterwards paid frequent visits to Italy and other pai-ts, 
 and, since 1810, has contributed many clever literary and 
 political productions to Paris newspapers and periodicals. 
 
 AGRATE, Marco Ferrekio d', a Milanese sculptor, flourish- 
 ing about 1500. He was employed in the works at the Certosa 
 of Pavia, and executed several statues for the cathedral of Milan ; 
 amongst others that of St. Bartholomew, displaj-ing a consider- 
 able amount of anatomical knowledge, derived from ha'sing seen 
 the examples of the gieat Leonardo da Vinci. The fame attached 
 to this statue is, however, but little desen-ed, and only to be 
 attributed to the strange impression which an anatomical figure 
 produces upon the ignorant masses. — R. M. 
 
 AGRE'DA, Mary (Coronela) of, abbess of a convent at 
 Agreda in Spain, where she was bom in 1602, and died in 1665. 
 Slie wrote, as a record of pretended \-isions, a "Life of the 
 Holy Virgin," translated into French by fother Crozet, gravely 
 condemned by the doctors of the Sorbonne, and denounced as 
 preposterous and indecent by Bossnet. 
 
 AGRESTI, Livio, an Italian historical painter, bom at Forli 
 in the beginning of the sixteenth century. He studied with 
 great success under Pierin del Vaga, whom he surpassed in imi- 
 tating GiuUo Romano's style. Worked at Rome and in Ger- 
 many. Died about 1580. — R. M. 
 
 AGRICIUS, Cexsorius Atticus, a celebrated professor of 
 eloquence and literatm'e at Bordeaux, in the fourth century, 
 author of a work on Latin synonyms. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, Cn.eus Julius, an able and enlightened Ro- 
 man general and statesman, and one of the most virtuous and 
 amiable characters of heathen antiquity, was bom a.d. 37 at 
 Foram Julii, a Roman colony (now Frejus in Provence) ; and 
 studied hteratiure, philosophy, and jurispradence, in the Gre- 
 cian city of Massilia (Marseilles), long the Athens of the west. 
 His father, Julius Graecinus, a Roman senator and a distinguished 
 orator, was put to death by Caligula, for refusing to conduct a 
 calumnious prosecution against Silanus, the tyrant's father-in- 
 law, but intended \ictim. His mother, Juha Procilla, a matron 
 of great talents and primitive virtues, superintended with care and 
 success the early education of her orphan son. He served his 
 military noviciate in Britain, under Suetonius Paulinus, a com- 
 mander of eminent capacity and great experience. Returning 
 to the capital in 62, he maiTied Domitia Decidiana, a lady be- 
 longing to one of the most illustrious famihes of Rome. In 63 
 he was chosen questor, or treasurer, for what was then called the 
 province of Asia ; and his scrupulous integrity in that capacity 
 formed a striking contrast to the usual rapacity of Roman func- 
 tionaries of that period. Towards the end of Nero's reign, he 
 held successively the nearly nominal offices of tribune of the 
 people and pra;tor. Under Vespasian he was appointed to the 
 command of a legion in Britain. On his return in 73 he was raised 
 to the rank of patrician, and made govemor of Aquitania. He 
 was continued in the administration of that pro\ince nearly tlu-ee 
 years, and by his justice, wisdom, and courtesy endeared himself 
 to the inhabitants. After being honoured with the consulship, 
 he was appointed in 78 govemor of Britain, where he now remained 
 till 85, when Domitian, envious of his renown, recalled him, under 
 pretext of conferring on him another appointment, which, by in- 
 dii-ect hints, that t3'rant prompted Agiicola formally to decline. 
 Agricola's brilliant achievements, while commander-in-chief in 
 Britain ; his conquest of North Wales and Anglesey; his erectuig 
 a line of forts between the Clyde and the Forth ; his circumnavi- 
 gation of Britain ; his defeating, in a great battle at the foot of 
 the Grampians, the Caledonians under Galgacus ; his success in 
 introducing among the subjugated Britons a taste for Roman 
 civilization and the Latin language ; his preparations for the con- 
 quest of Ireland ; — are all well known. After his recall, he spent 
 the remainder of his life in retirement. He died in 93, generally 
 supposed to have been secretly poisoned at the instigation of 
 Domitian. His life, wiitten by his son-in-law, Tacitus the 
 gi-eat historian, is a mastei-piece of biography. — E. M. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, Christophorus Aloysius, a German painter, 
 born at Regensburg in 1667. He executed a large number of 
 landscapes, enlivened with figures. Several of his works are now 
 in the galleries of Vienna, Dresden, and Florence. He travelled 
 a great deal, continually stud}-ing from nature. He died at 
 Vienna in 1719. — R. M. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, Francis, a German ecclesiastic of considerable 
 theological learning, a vehement opponent of the Reformation, 
 and author of numerous Latin dissertations in support of the 
 claims of the church of Rome, was bom at Lunen, near Alden- 
 hoven, and died at Siltard in 1621. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, George, was born at Glaucha in Saxony, or at 
 Chemnitz (it is not certain which), 24th JIarch, 1494. From 
 his connection with Chemnitz, he obtained the name of Kempni- 
 cius. His real name was George Landmajxn, the Latin trans- 
 lation being Agiicola (agriculturist). He studied medicine, and 
 began the practice of his profession at Joachimstadt, to satisfy his 
 friends. But, from the love which he had in his youth acquired 
 for minerals in the mountains of Bohemia, he continued to make 
 these his predominating study ; and, giving up his medical pur- 
 suits, he repaired to Chemnitz, where he became entirely absorbed 
 in the pm'suit of metals and mining. Judging from his work " De 
 re Metallica," he seems to have acquired a large amount of prac- 
 tical knowledge, by \Tsiting the mines, studjing the processes, and 
 making himself completely master of their details. But he was 
 likewise a man of leaming, as he was thoroughly imbued with 
 the knowledge which the ancients — Pliny, Dioscorides, Galen, 
 and Strabo, &c., had left on such subjects. He collected likewise 
 sj)ecimens of different ores, studied their chemical characters, 
 and described them with great accuracy. He was allowed a 
 pension by Maurice, duke of Saxony, at the instance of G. Cam- 
 merstadt, a scientific friend ; but this he spent in the pursuit of 
 metallurgic knowledge, as well as part of his own estate. Latterly, 
 he became in some measm-e involved in theological disputes, in 
 consequence of his views, which were at one time favoxu'able to 
 protestantism, having turned to his original catholic principles. 
 He died at Chemnitz, 15th Nov., 1555 ; and so strong were the 
 theological prejudices of the time, that the Lutherans, annoyed 
 at his opposition to their doctrines, allowed his body to remain 
 five days unburied, so that it was obliged to be canied from 
 Chemnitz to Zeitz, in the principal church of which place it was 
 interred. He enjoyed the fi-iendship of Erasmus, George Fabri- 
 cius, Wolfgang Meurer, Valerius Cordus, John Diyander. The 
 most important work of Agricola is his book " De re ^letallica," 
 first published in 1546. It is dinded into twelve books. In 
 the first of these he discusses the nature of the education of the 
 metallurgist ; in the second, third, fom-th, and fifth books, he 
 treats of the natmre and history of metallic veins, &c. ; in the 
 sixth, of mining machines; in the seventh, of the assay of ores; 
 in the eighth, of the treatment of ores; in the ninth, of the 
 reduction of ores in furnaces ; in the tenth, of the refining of 
 metals, especially gold and silver ; in the eleventh, of the separa- 
 tion of silver from other metals ; in the twelfth, and last book, 
 he relates the method of preparing various salts, as common 
 salt, saltpetre, alum, and sulphate of iron, the mode of prepaiing 
 and purifying sulphur, and of making glass. The work is, upon 
 the whole, a most remarkable one, and exhibits, consideiing the 
 times, much talent and accmacy. Such a work was an admirable 
 starting-point, and no doubt contributed to preserve many sub- 
 sequent inquirers on the right road, instead of wasting their time 
 in the vain speculations so prevalent in that age. His language, 
 too, is more than usually correct, and free from the barbarous 
 terms so much in fashion at the time. His book, " De Animan- 
 tibus Subterraneis (1549)," contains an account of the demons 
 of the mines, as well as of certain animals. In " De Ortu et 
 Causis Subterraneorum (1546)," we find a description of some 
 curious facts connected \^'ith volcanic action. In " De Natura 
 eorum quae Efiluent ex Terra (1558)," is contained an account 
 of sea shells and mineral waters, &c., and of caverns yielding 
 various exhalations. He wrote other three works, entitled " De 
 Natura FossUium;" " De Veteribus et Novis Metallis" (1530); 
 and "Bermannus" (1530), a dialogue with the purity of style 
 of the Colloquies of Erasmus. He wrote also several other works 
 on miscellaneous subjects. — R. D. T. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, George Andrew, a physician and naturalist, 
 was bom at Ratisbon in 1672, and died in 1738. He prose- 
 cuted botanical studies, and devoted himself particularly to the 
 multiplication of plants by cuttings and by grafting.
 
 AGR 
 
 51 
 
 AGR 
 
 AGRI'COLA, JoHANN, a distinguished German reformer, and 
 the first divine of the Lutheran church who promulgated the 
 antinomian theoiy of Grace, was born at Eisleben in Saxony, 
 2Uth April, 1492. Hence he is often called John Eisleben, or 
 Islcbius. His family name was probably Schnitter or Schneider, 
 which, understood in its agricultural sense, he Latinized into 
 Agrlcola. He was sent to study philosophy and theology at 
 Vt'ittemberg, where he became an attached disciple and intimate 
 friend of Luther. In 1519 he assisted at the Leipzig disputa- 
 tion, in the capacity of scribe or secretary. Having been made 
 bachelor of theology along with Welancthon, he taught for some 
 years in Wittemberg, probably as an extraordinarij professor; 
 irom whence, in 1525, he was recommended by Luther to the 
 magistracy of Frankfort-on-the-JIaine, to assist in introduc- 
 ing the Reformation into the churches and schools of that im- 
 j)ortant city. Later in the same year, he was appointed by 
 Graf Albrecht of Mansfeld rector of the newly-erected school of 
 Eisleben, and preacher of the church of St. Nicholas in his 
 native town. Here he acquired such fame as a preacher, that, 
 in the following year, 1526, he was invited to accompany his 
 native princes to the diet of Spires, in the capacity of court 
 chaplain. In 1527 he took exception to some directions given 
 by Melancthon to the pastors of the Saxon churches, to the 
 effect that they should make use of the " law" as well as the 
 '' gospel," to bring men to repentance. Agricola maintained 
 that the preaching of the law for that end was set aside by 
 the gospel, and formed no part of the proper subject-matter 
 uf the evangelical ministiT. Luther and Bugenhagen suc- 
 ceeded to some extent in overcoming his objections to Me- 
 lanctlion's ^dews, which were also their own, but the event 
 showed that he was rather silenced than cominced. In 1530 
 he w^as present at the memorable diet of Augsburg, and was 
 only inferior in importance, among the evangelical divines there 
 assembled, to Melancthon and Jolm Brentz. In 1536 he left 
 Eisleben to resume his academic duties at Wittemberg. In 
 1537 he subscribed the articles of Schmalcald. In the same 
 year he re- opened the antinomian controversy at Wittem- 
 berg, where he was now vigorously confronted by Luther him- 
 self. A rapid series of public disputatious took place between 
 them, in the course of which Agiicola became so heated and 
 embittered against his impregnable adversaiy, that he took the 
 extreme step of attacking his former master and friend, in a 
 letter addi-essed to the elector himself. This was in 1540. 
 The elector immediately appointed commissioners to try the 
 cause, and enjoined Agricola to abide in Wittemberg the result 
 of the process. But before the commissioners could enter upon 
 the business, Agricola had repented of the rashness of his appeal, 
 and, in spite of the elector's injunction, withdrew from the city. 
 He was soon afterwards invited to Berlin by Joachim, elector of 
 Brandenburg, who had just then determined to introduce the 
 Reformation into his dominions. At Berlin he pubUshed in 
 1541 a " Retractation," which he addressed to the elector of 
 Saxony, and to the preachers and council of Eisleben ; but this 
 retractation could only have been meant to extend to his per- 
 sonal charges against Luther, as he continued to hold his anti- 
 nomian opinions to the end of his life. 
 
 The pulpit eloquence of Agricola had obtained for him the 
 appointment of court preacher at Berlin, and, ere long, his 
 eminent business-talents raised him to the honourable position 
 of general superintendent of the evangelical churches of the 
 Mark of Brandenburg. After the death of Luther in 1546, his 
 ill-regulated ambition would seem to have aimed at reaching 
 the summit of ecclesiastical influence in evangelical Germany. 
 And in 1548, when the disastrous war of Schmalcald had 
 laid the Refonnation for a time at the emperor's feet, Agricola 
 accepted from Charles the sinister commission to draw up, along 
 with Julius Pflug and Jlichael Sidonius, what was called the 
 " Augsburg Interim," a compromise with the papal church, 
 in doctrine and worship, which was rejected with mdigna- 
 tion by all honest protestants ; and the violent enforcement of 
 which, m several parts of Germany, was attended with severe 
 loss and suffering to many faithful ministers. By this act of 
 flagrant treachery to the cause of the Refonnation, and of 
 equally flagrant inconsistency with his own previous zeal in 
 behalf of evangelical doctrine — a zeal which he had pushed 
 even to an en-oneous extreme — it is no wonder that Agricola 
 brought himself under the disgi-aceful suspicion of havmg ac- 
 cepted bribes, both from the emperor and his brother, lung 
 
 Ferdinand. He still continued, however, to enjoy the favour of 
 the house of Brandenburg, and, long after the troubles of the 
 Interim had passed away, his doctrinal zeal continued to display 
 itself with as much antinomian one-sidedness as ever. In 1588 
 he thundered from the pulpit at Berlin against the teaching of 
 George l\Iajor of Wittemberg, concerning the necessity of good 
 works, and declared roundly that such teaching was no better 
 than a doctrine of devUs, devised to rob men of Christ and his 
 gospel altogether. He died at Berlin, 22nd September, 1506, 
 m the seventy-fifth year of his age. 
 
 A very unfavourable ^•iew of Agricola's character has been 
 taken by Walch, Planck, Bretschneider, and other writers of the 
 Lutheran chm-ch, who attribute his opposition to the doctrine of 
 Luther and Melancthon in some points, to the most unworthy 
 personal motives, and trace his conduct in the matter of the 
 Augsburg Interim to sources still more dishonourable. But in 
 the more recent judgment of a very competent authority, Pro- 
 fessor Schenkel of Heidelberg, who has made the history of the 
 Reformation-period the subject of long-continued and profound 
 study, Agricola was rather egotistical and self-opinionated than 
 dishonest and comipt, and his doctrinal en-ors were merely the 
 result of a want of clearness of head, and of a narrow way of 
 viewing the Lutheran doctrine of justification by faith. His 
 diligence as an author was not inconsiderable, but few of his 
 writings have come down to our times. His principal work was 
 a collection of 750 German pi'overbs — a selection out of 5,000 
 which he professed to have amassed — a work of national interest 
 and value, which has secured to him an honourable place in the 
 Hterature of Germany. — P. L. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, JoiKVXN Ammonius, a German physician, an 
 ardent admirer of the ancient Greek and Roman medical writers, 
 and author of numerous erudite and able notes and treatises in 
 illustration of their works, was born about the beginning of the 
 sixteenth centuiy, and died at Ingolstadt in 1570. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, JoHANN Fkiedrich, a musician, was bom at 
 Dobitchen in the duchy of Gotha, on the 4th of January, 1720. 
 He studied law in the university of Leipzig, and, at the same 
 time, music mider J. Sebastian Bach. He went to Berlin hi 
 1741, to be considered one of the ablest organists of the day, 
 and to continue his theoretical studies under Quautz. In 1750 
 he wrote his comic opera, " II Filosofo Con\'into," for the Royal 
 theatre at Potsdam, in acknowledgment of the merit of ^yhich 
 Frederick the Great, who was already predisposed in his favour, 
 gave huu an appointment as court composer. The next year he 
 visited Dresden, where he was so impressed by the operas of Hasse, 
 then being perfomied there, that his style was ever after in- 
 fluenced by them. On the death of Graun in 1759, he was made 
 kapellmeister at Berlin. He died in 1774. He wrote many 
 operas, much church music, and several theoretical papers, the 
 principal of which are named in M. Fetis' Biographic. — G. A. M 
 
 AGRI'COLA, Michael, a Swedish missionary, and trans- 
 lator of the New Testament mto the Fmnish language, was a 
 native of Finland, and flourished in the sixteenth century. 
 Having studied under Luther at Wittemberg, he was made bishop 
 of Abo by Gustavus I., and sent as a missionary to the Laplan- 
 ders. Died in 1557. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, Rudolph, one of the most distingiiished 
 revivers of classical learning and taste in the fifteenth centuiy, 
 was bom in 1442, in the village of BafHen, near Groningen, in 
 Friesland. His family name was Husmann. He went to the 
 university of Louvain, but found little pleasure in the exercises 
 of scholastic philosophy, and prefeiTcd the study of Cicero and 
 Quintilian to the rhetoric and dialectics of the schools. After 
 taking his master's degree, he repaired to Paris, and from thence 
 to Italy, with the view of improving his attainments in ancient 
 hterature. He stayed two years hi FeiTara, where Theodore 
 Gaza, one of the learned fugitives from Constantinople, was ex- 
 pounding the Greek originals of Aristotle. Here he studied 
 Greek and taught Latin, and excited the surprise and admiration 
 of the fastidious scholars of Italy by the purity of his Latin style 
 and accent. The conceited Italians, to whom everybody beyond 
 the Alps was a barbarian, were chagi-ined that so accomplished 
 a scholar was not an Italian. Havmg returned to Groningen, he 
 undertook a commission, in behalf of his native city, to the court 
 of the Emperor Maximilian I., which occupied him six months, 
 and which he discharged with success. He was hivited soon 
 after to accept the principality of a college in Antwei-p, which, 
 after much hesitation, he decided to decline, preferring to oc-
 
 AGR 
 
 52 
 
 AGR 
 
 tupy a chair at Heidelberg, nnder the patronage of the elector 
 of the Palalinate and the enli.shtened Von Dalberg, bishop of 
 Wonns. He settled at Heidelberg in 1482, where, by his pre- 
 lections, writings, and conversation, he did much to revive and 
 cultivate a taste for ancient hterature, and to awaken a repug- 
 nance to the long-established scholastic barbarism. He resided 
 much with the bishop at Worms, where he dehvered lectm-es, as 
 well as in Heidelberg. At the request of the elector, he di-ew 
 up for his use an abridgment of ancient history. Atthe age 
 of forty he commenced the study of theology, and with that 
 view put himself under the instruction of a learned Jew, to 
 acquire the Hebrew language, in which he made considerable 
 progi-ess. He deplored, we are told by Jlelancthon, the dark- 
 ness of the church, and objected in particular to the con-up- 
 tions of the mass, the celibacy of the clergy, and the doctrine of 
 the monkish dinnes on the subject of justification. His prin- 
 cipal work was his treatise " De Inventione Dialectica," in three 
 books, which he wrote with gi-eat rapidity in the course of 
 a joiu-ney which he undertook with the bishop of Worms, in 
 1485, to Rome. He died at Heidelberg the same year, soon 
 after his return from Rome. His funeral oration was pro- 
 nounced by Jolm Reuchlin. He was the oracle of German 
 learnmg in his time, not only for his personal erudition, but 
 also on account of his extensive and precious library of ancient 
 literature. His works were collected and published at Cologne 
 in 1539, cura Alardi. Erasmus regarded him with the highest 
 admiration. " There is nothing," he exclauned, " produced by 
 that man which has not something of a divine quality in it." In 
 several places of his writings, he calls Agricola " a divine man." 
 But Erasmus was peculiarly proud of him as his coimtrj-man, and 
 as the master of Alexander Hegius, his o^vn first instmctor. The 
 reader will find a highly interesting account of Agiicola, and of 
 other early promoters of classical cultui-e in Germany during the 
 loth century, in " Meiner's Lebensbescreibungen," vol. ii. — P. L. 
 AGRIPPA, a Roman patrician, renowned for his wisdom, 
 disinterestedness, and valoiu-, w.as consul in 502 B.C., g.ained a 
 signal victory over the Sabines, was the first Roman general that 
 obtained the honour of a solemn triumph, and was mainly instra- 
 mental, by his weight of character and powers of persuasion, in 
 effecting a reconciliation between the patricians and plebeians, 
 when the latter had quitted the city, and repaued to the Sacred 
 Mount ; on which occasion he is said to have rehearsed the apo- 
 logue of the stomach and the revolted limbs. — E. JI. 
 
 AGRIPPA, an ancient astronomer, celebrated for having ob- 
 seiTcd in Bithynia, a.d. 92, as recorded by Ptolemy, that the 
 moon was in conjunction with the Pleiades. 
 
 AGRIPPA, a philosopher of antiquity, meriting honourable 
 mention in the history of Scepticism. We know him only as the 
 author of " Five Reasons for Doubt," a work quite superior to 
 that of Pyrrho, and e%'incing a keen insight into the laws and 
 conditions of the human intelligence. Tbe pi\rely relative value 
 of first principles, — the necessity and, at the same time, the im- 
 possihiUty of any absolute criterion, — the subjective character of 
 all human eddence, — in a word, all that the genius of scepticism 
 has been able to conceive, or to produce in its subtlest and most 
 profound arguments, is summed up by Agi-ippa in a severe, 
 exact, and powerful body of propositions. (See Diogenes 
 Laertius, Sextus Empiricus, and Eusebius.) — J. P. N. 
 
 AGRIPPA, an eminent Itahan architect and engineer, author 
 of several dissertations, now extremely rare, on subjects of me- 
 chanical science, was bom at ^lilan in the sixteenth century. 
 
 AGRIPPA Caius, second son of Agrippa Vipsanius and of 
 Juha, was adopted, together with his elder brotlier Lucius, by 
 Augustus, and died in Lycia at the age of twenty-four, deeply 
 and universally regretted, liis death being the consequence of a 
 poniard wound treacherously inflicted by LuUius, governor of 
 the town of Artogete. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Henry Cornelius, a man of considerable lite- 
 rary and scientific attainments, and, if we believe some authors, 
 a great magician, who flourished during the sixteenth centur}'. 
 He was born at Cologne on the 14th of September, 148G. His 
 family was ancient and noble, and had long been employed by 
 the princes of the house of Austria. He entered, as a private 
 secretary, very young, into the service of the Emperor Maximilian, 
 and fought with distinction in his Italian wars. Not content 
 with havuig been knighted for his valour, he sought imiversity 
 honours, and took the degi-ees of Doctor of Laws and Doctor of 
 Medicine. He visited France in 1507, Spain in 1508, and read 
 
 lectures at Dole in 1509. To please Margaret of Austria, he 
 composed a " Treatise on the Excellence of Women ; " but he did 
 not publish it, for fear of the monks, with whom he had an 
 implacable feud. Shortly afterwards he spent some months in 
 Eno-land, and occupied himself in illustrating the Epistles of St. 
 Paul. On his return to Cologne, he read public lectures on nice 
 questions of di\-inity ; after which he went to Italy to join the 
 army of the Emperor JLiximilian, and taught theology pubUcly 
 at Pa\-ia and Turin. At this time he was married to a lady of 
 noble family and a sweet disposition, to whom he alludes in his 
 letters in the warmest tenns. She died in the year 1521, and 
 was buried at Metz, where he resided a considerable period, and 
 held some of the most honourable oflBces in the corporation. A 
 strange controversy forced him to quit it. He refuted the monkish 
 notion that St. Aime, the mother of the Blessed Virgb, had 
 three husbands ; and he protected from persecution and honible 
 death a poor woman who was acussed of witchcraft. Such an 
 assault on the prejudices of the age excited against him a host of 
 enemies, and he retired, as he tells us, ^^-ithout reluctance from a 
 city which was the cruel stepmother of learning and the sciences. 
 After a short sojourn in his native place, he removed with his 
 family to Geneva. Disappomted in the expectation which he 
 had formed of receiving a pension from the duke of Savoy, he 
 began to practise physic at Fribourg in S%vitzerland, but the 
 year following he went to Lyons, and obtained a pension from 
 Francis I. The queen-mother appointed him her physician, but 
 he never had an opportunity of attending her ; and just when he 
 hoped he had made his fortune, he found that he had lost both 
 his pension and his patroness. It is said that he received orders 
 from his royal mistress to consult the stars about the future 
 afiairs of France, that he freely complained of being employed 
 in such impertinent folhes, and that the queen was extremely 
 piqued. Thus ab,andoned by the court, he munnured and 
 tlireatened ; but at last, after some delay, he proceeded to the 
 Low Countries. On his demanding a passport for that purpose, 
 the duke of Yendome, instead of signing the document, tore it 
 to pieces, and protested that he would never encourage a con- 
 juror. In the year 1529, he became historiographer to the 
 Emperor Charles V., and pubhshed, by way of introduction, the 
 history of that monarch's government. Soon after, he pronoimced 
 the funeral oration over ^largaret of Austria. Meanwhile, his 
 enemies secretly accused liim of blasphemy and in-eligion. Two 
 treatises that he published in 1530, one on the " Vanity of the 
 Sciences," and the other on " Occult Philosophy," furnished the 
 pretext for this imputation. But Cardinal Campeggio, the 
 legate of the pope, and Cardinal de la Jilarck, the bishop of 
 Liege, spoke in his favour. Their kind offices could not prociure 
 him one farthuig of the salary attached to his historical ofiice, 
 nor prevent his being imprisoned at Brussels in the year 1531. 
 Liberated from gaol, he visited the archbishop of Cologne, to 
 whom he dedicated his " Occult Philosophy." His debts drove 
 him from that city, and the inquisitors attacked his book. He 
 stayed at Bonn till 1535. That year he resolved to return to 
 Lyons. He was imprisoned in France for a libel against Francis 
 the First's mother, but having been freed from his confinement, 
 he went to Grenoble, where he died in the same year. He 
 married twice after the death of his first wife. Though a great 
 admu-er of Martin Luther, because he opposed the tjTanny which 
 the mendicant friars exercised over the consciences of mankind, 
 Agrippa lived and died in the Roman catholic communion. There 
 is no proof that he was addicted to magic. His familiar letters 
 breathe the language of Christianity ; and it is strange, -if he 
 were an illustrious magician, that he was so often in want of 
 bread. A story is told, that upon his travels he used to pay 
 money at the inns, which at the tune seemed good, but which 
 turned out in a few days to be mere pieces of horn and shell ; — 
 and that he had a favourite dog which ate at his table and lay 
 at his bed, but which vanished after his death, being a devil in 
 disguise. These calumnies were, in all probability, invented by 
 the Dommicans, whose legends he had vehemently exposed. His 
 theological language savours of the more modern doctiine of the 
 Quietists. His works were published at Lyons in two volmnes 
 8vo, and are, for the most part, so dull, that they are now 
 altogether forgotten. His supposed love of alchemy, astrology, 
 and necromancy, have made his adventures a favourite theme for 
 the novelist ; and strange stories of his wand and his mirror, 
 which brought before the spectator \-isions of the absent and the 
 dead, have often been repeated by the writers of poetical romance.
 
 In this respect lie may be compared to Tavist, the celebrated 
 printer, who was nearly his contemporary. His principal works 
 were the following:^" De Nobilitate et Prrecellentia Foeminei 
 Sexus," \TOttcn in 1509. " De Occulta Philosophia," published 
 in 1533, in three books; a fourth book often appended to these 
 is not genuine. " De Triplicl Ratione Cognoscendi Deum," 
 \rritten at Casale in 1515. " De Incertitudine et Vanitate 
 Scientiarum et Ai'tium, atque Excellentia Verbi Dei Declamatio," 
 written at Lyons in 1526, while he held the thankless office of 
 physician to the queen-mother of France, and first published in 
 Antwerp in 1530— a satire of extreme severity upon the existing 
 state of learning, or rather upon its scholastic professors and 
 dictators. " Apologia pro Defensione Declamationis de Vanitate 
 Scientiarum, contra Theologistes Lovanienses," written in Flan- 
 ders in 1533. His whole works have been several times printed 
 in two volumes. A large and curious analysis of the chief of 
 them will be found in his Life by Morley. — T. J. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Herod, king of Judea, son of Aristobulus and 
 Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great, was bom in the year 
 10 B.C. In early life he resided many years in Rome, but his 
 ])rofuse expenditure reduced him to gi-eat difficulties, and forced 
 liim, in a.d. 23, to repair to Judea. After residing there in 
 extreme pemu-y till a.d. 26, he revisited Rome, and was kindly 
 received by Tiberius. Becoming the associate of Cains, after- 
 wards Cahgula, he was thrown into prison by Tiberius, and kept 
 in chains, for having in conversation expressed a wish that his 
 friend might speedily mount the throne. Caligula, on his ac- 
 cession, set him at liberty ; gave him a gold chain equal in 
 weight to the iron one with which he had been loaded in prison ; 
 and confeiTcd on him, with the title of king, the two vacant 
 tetrarchies, which had belonged respectively to Philip and 
 Lysanias. Agrippa, in his way to Judea, visited Alexandria, 
 and entered that city with such extravagant pomp as to excite 
 the ridicule of the Alexandrians. He was involved in perplexity 
 and peril by Caligula's mad determination to have his image 
 placed in the sanctuary at Jerusalem. Agrippa proceeded to 
 Rome, and adroitly induced Caligula to defer the execution of 
 his orders ; and by the violent death of that emperor, which took 
 place soon after, he was saved from the destruction which the 
 tyrant's obstinacy would have occasioned. Agrippa, being at 
 Rome at the period of Caligula's assassination, and perliaps not 
 a stranger to the plot that led to it, is said to have greatly con- 
 tributed to raise Claudius to the throne. The new emperor 
 confirmed the grants of his predecessor to Agrippa, and, by add- 
 ing Judea and Samaria, made him sovereign of the whole terri- 
 tory that had formed the dominions of Herod the Great. Agrippa 
 c;oveiTied his subjects with moderation and acceptance, though 
 his introduction of Roman customs and manners offended the 
 more strict adherents of the Jewish law. To gain popularity, 
 he commenced a persecution of the Christians, putting James to 
 death, and apprehending Peter with the same intention. The 
 fortifications he commenced at Jerusalem would, in the opinion 
 of Josephus, have rendered that city impregnable, had not their 
 completion been prevented by his death. Neighboming rulers, 
 who found it expedient to cultivate his friendship, secured his 
 favour by gratifying his characteristic vanity with the most ful- 
 some adulation. The cu'cumstances of his decease in the fifty- 
 fourth year of his age, as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, 
 entirely agree with the narrative of Josephus, and derive corro- 
 boration from the luxm-ious and voluptuous habits, and the un- 
 paralleled love of admiration, that had marked the whole of 
 Herod Agrippa's career. — E. M. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Herod, II., son of the precedhig, was bom and 
 educated at Rome. Tlie Emperor Claudius was disposed to 
 appoint him his father's successor, but was dissuaded by his 
 ministers from intrusting to an inexperienced youth — for he was 
 only in his seventeenth year at his father's death — the adminis- 
 tration of an important and disaffected Idngdom. Accordingly, 
 Judea was reduced into the form of a Roman province. Yoimg 
 Agrippa, on the death of his uncle Herod, prince of Chalcis, in 
 A.D. 48, was appointed sovereign of that principality, superin- 
 tendent of the temple and sacred treasury, and elector of the 
 high priest. In 53, Claudius gave him, in exchange for Chalcis, 
 the tetrarchies which had fomierly belonged to Phihp and Ly- 
 sanias, and Nero added a part of Galilee, and a city with a 
 small district in Pera^a. It was before this Agrippa that the 
 apostle Paul delivered his memorable defence. Agrippa's de- 
 votedness to Rome, and partiality to Roman manners, rendered 
 
 him unpopidar among the Jews. He aided Titus with gi-eat 
 zeal and efficiency during the siege of Jerusalem, and, after the 
 destruction of that city, retired to Rome, where he died about 
 A.D. 94. In him the Herodian line became extinct. — E. M. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Posthumus, the posthumous son of 
 Agrippa Vipsanius by Julia, was adopted by Augustus, banished 
 from Rome through the artifices of Li\ia, and murdered by 
 order of her and her son Tiberius after the death of Augustus. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, the early associate and de- 
 voted adlierent, to whose sagacity, valour, and energy Augustus 
 was mainly indebted for the success of his whole career, was 
 born in the year 64 B.C. Both he and Octavianus, afterwards 
 Augustus, were at Apollonia, when the imexpected intelligence 
 of Cfesar's murder anived. Agrippa, with characteristic promp- 
 titude, instantly urged his friend to seize the propitious moment, 
 and, repaiiing at once to Rome, assume the name, and rally round 
 him the adherents, of his uncle and adoptive father. To Octavi- 
 anus and his relatives, this counsel at first seemed too adventiu-ous ; 
 but Agrippa's spirit and decision overcame their timid hesitation. 
 Octavianus started for Rome, accompanied, it would appear, by 
 Agrippa, who, soon afterwards, assisted in the impeachment of 
 the leading conspirators. There is no mention of his having 
 taken part in the civil war that was terminated by the battle of 
 Philippi ; but, in the Persian wai', he rendered Octavianus veiy 
 effective service. After a successful and decisive campaigTi in 
 Gaul, against native insurgents and German invaders, he was 
 appointed by Octa\'ianus to the direction of his naval affaii-s. 
 It was necessaiy to equip a naval force capable of contending 
 with Sextus Pompeius, who, at tills period, had the complete 
 superiority at sea. The measures now devised and executed by 
 the genius and vigour of Agrippa, not merely effected this, 
 but led directly to the succession of naval victories, which soon 
 made Octavianus midisputed sovereign of the Roman world. 
 Agrippa's first step was to create a safe and extensive haven, 
 afterwards called Portus Julius, where, in all weathers, the largest 
 fleet might not only enjoy commodious anchorage, but manojuvre 
 with freedom. There, while the skill and dexteiity of the rowers 
 were improved by incessant exercise, a select body of troops, 
 specially destined for naval service, were trained to combat with 
 the same firmness and energy at sea as on shore. The immense 
 superiority of such troops in the naval warfare of the ancients 
 is at once manifest. The bravest veterans, if unaccustomed to 
 the rolling of a vessel in a rough sea or a swell, might prove 
 utterly inefficient in a naval engagement. To this improvement, 
 accordingly, are mainly to be attributed Agiippa's naval victories. 
 It was in close combat, historians agree, that his forces proved 
 UTesistible. A warlike machine, also devised by himself, he is 
 said to have employed with amazing effect. After the entire 
 defeat of S. Pompeius, Agiippa, in 35 B.C., served in the Illyiian 
 war, as second in command under Octavianus. In 33 B.C. he 
 consented to become sedile, and rendered himself for ever me- 
 morable by the magnificent and useful public works he executed, 
 at his own expense, duiing this period. Some time after the 
 victoiy at Actium, of which Agrippa had all the merit, an 
 estrangement occurred between him and his chief. Finally, 
 Octananus, convinced that Agiippa was too powerful and too 
 necessary to be treated with indifference, resoh'ed to make him 
 his virtual associate and presumptive heir in the empu-e. He 
 gave him his daughter Julia in marriage, and subsequently 
 adopted Caius and Lucius, the male issue of that union. In tlie 
 year 14 B.C. Agrippa visited Syria, was received by He'-od the 
 Great with studied demonstrations of honour, sacrificed a heca- 
 tomb at Jerusalem, feasted the citizens with great magnificence, 
 and afterwards interested himself in confirming the privileges 
 accorded to the Jews settled in the province of Asia. He died 
 in Campania in 12 B.C., on his retiu'u from a winter campaign 
 in Pannonia. Less interested than Maecenas in elegant literature, 
 Agrippa had always devoted special attention to such inquiries 
 and pursuits as are of most practical importance to the general 
 and the statesman, and pubhshed a statistical survey of the em- 
 pire, wliich was aftei^wards promulgated as an official document, 
 by Marcus Aurelius and Alexander Sevenis. — E. M. 
 
 AGRIPPI'NA, the grand-daughter of Pomponius Atticus, and 
 daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, was married to Tiberius, 
 afterwards emperor, who, though much attached to her, divorced 
 her to espouse Jidia, the daughter of Augustus, and widow of 
 Agrippa. She afterwards became the wife of Asinius Gallus, 
 whom Tiberius imprisoned for life.
 
 AGRIPPI'NA, the elder, was the daughter of Marcus Vip- 
 sanius Agrippa, and of Julia, the daughter of Augustus. She 
 became the devoted wife of C. Germanicus, whom she accom- 
 panied in most of his expeditions. By her sagacity and heroism 
 she suppressed, on one occasion, a mutiny in the camp ; and, on 
 another, prevented the destruction of the bridge over the Rhine, 
 and thus saved the remnant of a Roman anny. Wlien her hus- 
 band died at Antioch, of poison, as was suspected, she returned 
 to Rome with his ashes. Tiberius, di-eading her influence over 
 his subjects, by whom she was universally beloved and revered, 
 banished her to the island of Pandataria, where, in 33 A.D., she 
 was put to death by order of the tyrant. She had nine childi-en 
 by Germanicus, one of whom was the Emperor Caligula, and 
 another, the mother of Nero. — E. M. 
 
 AGRIPPFNA, the younger, daughter of the preceding and of 
 Germanicus, and mother of Nero, was a woman of great capa- 
 city, boundless ambition, and matcldess wickedness in every 
 form. Her first husband, and the father of Nero, was Domitius 
 Ahenobarbus. After his death, and that of another whom she 
 is said to have poisoned, she married, in defiance of the laws and 
 moral sentiments of the Romans, her own uncle, the Emperor 
 Claudius, whom she eventually poisoned, to make way for her 
 son Nero, by whose order she was put to death in 59 a.d. — E. M. 
 
 AGRffiCIUS or AGRCETIUS, a Roman gi-ammarian, author 
 of a work still extant, entitled " De Orthographia, et diflerentia 
 Sermonis." He is favourably mentioned by Ausonius, and is 
 supposed to have lived about the middle of the fifth centiuy. 
 
 AGUA'DO, Francis d', a celebrated Spanish Jesuit, who, by 
 his indefatigable labours and voluminous writings, exerted great 
 influence in promoting the views of his order, was born at 
 Torrejon, near Madrid, in 1572. Died in 1654. 
 
 AGUANI, Juvenal d', a Gennan Capuchin of the seven- 
 teenth century, of Tyrolese extraction, and author of various 
 works, who attained gi-eat notoriety in his time by his attain- 
 ments and his intrigues. 
 
 AGUCCHIA, Lactantius, an Itahan mathematician of the 
 seventeenth centmy, author of a curious treatise, now rare, on 
 ready reckoning. 
 
 AGUERO, Benito Manuel, a Spanish painter, born in 
 Madrid in 1626. He was a pupil and a successful imitator of 
 Juan Batista del Mazo, and generally painted battles and land- 
 scapes. The Spanish king, Philip IV., who was very fond of 
 him, used to frequent his studio and keep him company whilst 
 at work. Towards the end of his career he tried, but in vahi, 
 to imitate the style of Titian. Died in 1670. — R. M. 
 
 AGUESSEAU, Henri Fran^jois d', chancellor of France, 
 was born at Limoges in 1G68. Displaying from his earliest 
 years pre-emment capacity and great ai-dour in the pursuit of 
 knowledge, he soon attamed, under the superintendence of his 
 accomplished and amiable father, who was "intendant" of Bor- 
 deaux, remarkable proficiency ui classical and modem languages 
 and Hterature, as well as in mathematics, history, and philoso- 
 phy. While prosecutmg, for a series of years, the study of 
 jurisprudence, both Roman and French, he was most assiduous 
 in the practice of composition, incessantly perusing and eagerly 
 imitating the choicest models of Latin, Greek, and French 
 eloquence. Through the mfluence of his relatives and youthful 
 associates, he was early imbued with that tone of patriotism and 
 piety which pervades the \vritings of Pothier and Domat, and of all 
 the great French legists of the seventeenth centmy. Possessing 
 all the requisites of a true orator — acumen, memory, knowledge, 
 taste, expression — with the love of tnith and righteousness, he 
 became, almost from the very commencement of his pubUc career, 
 the most classic model of French forensic eloquence. After 
 servmg for a few months as king's counsel in an inferior court, 
 he was appointed, at the age of twenty- two, " avocat-general" for 
 the pariiament (supreme judicature) of Paris, and seems to have 
 at once eclipsed his two colleagues; all three being suborcUnate to 
 the "procureur- general," but more frequently requu-ed to exercise 
 their powers of oratorj'. So completely successful, in fact, were 
 his first appearances, that one of the most eloquent veterans of 
 the pariiament declared they resembled, not the attempts of a 
 novice, ^ but the feats of a practised and consummate orator. 
 According to the legal institutions of France, as law oflicer of the 
 crown, he was not expected to be the echo of a ministry, but the 
 mdependent voice of truth and righteousness. The pariiament, also, 
 by exercising their privilege of refusing to register an " ordonnance," 
 or by carrying remonstrances to the throne, were able, even under 
 
 the old Bourbons, to apply a constitutional check to the arbi- 
 trary acts of the sovereign ; and, though their efforts in behalf 
 of freedom might be oven-uled, they exerted a powerful influence 
 on public opinion. According to the fundamental principles 
 of French ecclesiastical law, a papal bull has no legal force in 
 France tiU formally sanctioned by the civil and ecclesiastical 
 power of the realm ; and on no pretext can the church interfere 
 with the free action of the secular authority. These princi- 
 ples constitute what are called the " Galilean liberties" — a plat- 
 form long hercrically upheld by the sovereign, the national chm-ch, 
 and the people of France, in spite of all the efforts of the coiul; 
 of Rome to accomplish its destruction. Louis XIV., after having 
 long asserted the Galilean liberties, became, during the latter part 
 of his reign, a willing vassal of the papacy and a tool of the 
 Jesuits, mainly tlirough the instrumentality of Madame de Jlain- 
 tenon, whose permanent influence over Louis was an achievement 
 of that wily and unscrupulous fraternity. In 1699 the papal 
 censure of the illustrious Fenelon arrived at Paris, and D'Agues- 
 seau was directed to demand its registration by the parliament. 
 This task, so peculiarly diflicult, owing to the parliament's 
 jealousy of papal encroachment, he executed with success. The 
 discourse he delivered on the occasion displays great eloquence 
 and admirable tact. He complimented Fenelon on his meek 
 acquiescence in the papal decision, and urged the registration of 
 the brief on the ground of its having received the approval of the 
 secular power and of all the bisliops in France. Thus the 
 measure was earned, while the Galilean hberties were presened 
 from infringement. 
 
 In 1700 he was promoted to the ofiice of " procureur-general," 
 and entered on a new field of labour, in which his special attain- 
 ments soon became conspicuous. His singular habits of applica- 
 tion, and his minute acquaintance with French history and feudal 
 jurisprudence, enabled him to render immense service to the 
 crown in the recoveiy of fiefs and jurisdictions. The reforms he 
 introduced into the management of chaintable institutions, and 
 the measures he recommended or enforced, to alleviate the suf- 
 fering of the people duinng the famine of 1709, procured him 
 universal esteem. The Jesuits, encouraged by their success in 
 cnishing the Huguenots and humbling the Jansenists, now 
 deteiinined to strike a final blow for extinguishing all resistance 
 to papal supremacy in France, and mider pretext of condemning 
 certain propositions of the Jansenist Quesnel, Clement XL, lu-ged 
 by the king's confessor, Le Tellier, issued the famous bull 
 " Unigenitus" in 1713. The vindictive ferocity of Le Tellier had 
 intimidated numerous individuals ; and a party in the parhament 
 of Paris, to which the attention of the whole nation was now 
 directed, was disposed to sacrifice the independence of the Gal- 
 ilean church and French nation, by the registration of the un- 
 canonical and unconstitutional bull. D'Aguesseau fearlessly 
 opposed the papal aggression, and, as member of a deputation 
 from the parhament to the king, gave expression to the boldest 
 remonstrances. Jesuit influence, however, prevailed, and the 
 bull was registered both by the parliament and the Sorbonne. 
 On the death of Louis XIV. in 1715, the regent Orleans favoured 
 for some time the opponents of the Jesuits, and in 1717 
 D'Aguesseau was made chancellor of France ; but owing to his op- 
 position to the delusive scheme of the famous Law, was dismissed 
 from ofiice, and banished from Paris in 1718, through the in- 
 fluence of Dubois, afterwards made cardinal for his subserviency 
 to the com"t of Rome. In 1720, Dubois, alarmed at the disastrous 
 consequences vrith which the explosion of Law's bubble threatened 
 the nation, afforded D'Aguesseau a signal triumph, by sending 
 Law himself to implore his return to ofiice, to aid in savnng France 
 from impending ruin. D'Aguesseau's again accepting office in 
 connection with Dubois and the regent, has been regretted by 
 his greatest admirers. He acted, no doubt, from the noblest 
 motives, hoping to concihate opponents, and mitigate evils he 
 was imable to prevent. Seven distinguished members of the 
 Sorbonne having solemnly protested against the registration of 
 the bull " Unigenitus," the court and Jesuits deemed it expedient, 
 in order to neutrahse the protestation, to insist on the parlia- 
 ment's registering a royal declaration in favour of the bull, and 
 D'Aguesseau unfortunately urged the registration. His conduct 
 on this occasion raised a general outcry, and seemed, at least, a 
 melancholy inconsistency. He endeavoured to justify himself on 
 the ground that, as the bull had been, in spite of his opposi- 
 tion, previously registered, the refusal to register the declaration, 
 under existmg ch-cumstances, would exasperate opponents and
 
 drive them to still more violent proceedings. The parliament 
 resisted, and by a, coup d'etat was exiled to a distance from Paris. 
 At length the registration was effected, and Dubois was rewarded 
 with the promised promotion to the dignity of cardinal. D'Agues- 
 seau, after sharing in the obloquy justly cast on Dubois, was 
 again dismissed and banished. The five years he now spent in 
 literary retirement and domestic enjoyment, he always called the 
 happiest days of his life. In 1727, on the death of Dubois, he 
 was in\'ited to Paris by Cardinal Fleury, Dubois' successor, and 
 in 1737 again accepted the office of chancellor. Henceforth, 
 withdrawing his mind as much as possible from political and 
 ecclesiastical contentions, he devoted his energies mainly to law 
 reform, introducing important ameliorations, and seriously contem- 
 plating that gigantic enterprise of national codification, to which 
 the writings of Pothier and Domat powerfully contributed, and 
 which was completely accomplished after the Revolution. No 
 country could have required such a measure more than France. 
 It consisted of many provinces, originally distinct states, having 
 each special institutions, and a separate jurisprudence of its 
 o\vn — circumstances inevitably producing interminable conflicts 
 of legal principles and jmisdiction, and all those evils, direct and 
 indirect, which flow from the " glorious uncertainty of the law." 
 Retaining his mental vigour unimpaired, D'Aguesseau finally re- 
 tired from public life in 1750, and spending the remainder of his 
 days chiefly in the devout study of the holy scriptures, died in 
 1751, at the age of eighty-three. His collected works were fii-st 
 pubhshed in 1759, in 13 vols. 4to. — E. M. 
 
 AGUIAR, ToMMASO de, a Spanish miniature painter in oil, 
 of the seventeenth century, a disciple of Velasquez, and cele- 
 brated for his striking felicity in taking likenesses. 
 
 AGUILA, C. F. E. H. d', an engineer officer and traveller, 
 author of various works, the most important of which is a history 
 of the reign of Gustavus III., king of Sweden, of whose assas- 
 sination he was an eye-witness. Died at Paris in 1815. 
 
 AGUILA, Francisco del, a Spanish artist of the six- 
 teenth century, who in 1570 painted the celebrated monument 
 of Alfonso the Wise in the cathedral of Murcia. 
 
 AGUILA, Miguel del, a Spanish painter, whose produc- 
 tions, which are in the style of Murillo, and finely coloured, have 
 been highly admired, died at Seville in 1736. 
 
 AGUILAR, Gkace, an accomphshed Jewess, daughter of 
 Emanuel Aguilar of Hackney, and author of an eloquent book, 
 '' The Women of Israel," London, 1845. Died at Frankfort, 
 1847, at the age of 31. 
 
 AGUILE'RO, Diego de, a Spanish historical painter of some 
 celebrity, a native of Toledo, flourished about the end of the 16th 
 century. Most of his pieces were destroyed by an accidental fire. 
 AGUILLON, Francois d', a Belgian Jesuit, successively 
 professor of philosophy at Douay and of theology at Antwerp, 
 author' of an able treatise on optics, was the first to difiiise 
 among his countrymen a taste for mathematical studies. Born 
 at Brussels in 1567, he died in 1617. 
 
 AGUIRRE, Joseph Saenz d', a Spanish Benedictine, of 
 great talents and considerable learning, successively theological 
 professor at Salamanca, censor and secretary to the Spanish 
 Inquisition, author of numerous ecclesiastical works, was bom 
 at Logrono in 1630. Pope Innocent XL, in 1686, conferred on 
 him the dignity of cardinal, as the reward of his ability and 
 zeal in promoting the interests of the papacy. Died in 1699. 
 
 AHAB succeeded his father Omri on the throne of Israel, 
 about 918 years before Chi-ist, and reigned twenty-two years 
 in Samaria, which had been built by Omri for the royal city. 
 He married Jezebel, the daughter of the Zidonian king, and at 
 her instigation introduced the impure worship of Baal, and be- 
 came noted as one of the most idolatrous and cruel of the kings 
 of Israel. His life is associated with the name of Elijah, who 
 boldly denounced Ms sins, and thus exposed himself to persecu- 
 tion. The character of Ahab is well illustrated by the story of 
 the vineyard in Jezreel, which he coveted, and at last seized; liis 
 wife having secured the death of Naboth, its proprietor, by a 
 false accusation of blasphemy. For this the prophet denounced 
 a fearful curse on his house, the fulfilment of which we read of 
 in the sacred history. Ahab was for several years at war with 
 Syria, and at last, having allied himself with Jehoshaphat of 
 Judah, went against Ramoth Gilead. He entered the battle in 
 disguise, having persuaded Jehoshaphat to occupy the royal 
 chariot, but was wounded by a random arrow, and died before 
 the evening. — J. B. 
 
 AHASUE'RUS or ACHASVE'ROSH, the title of four Me- 
 dian and Persian kings. 
 
 (1.) The father of Darius the Mede, is mentioned in Daniel 
 ix. 1, and is most probably Astyages. 
 
 (2.) The king to whom we are told (Ezra iv. 6) an accusa- 
 tion against the Jews was brought, is probably the tyrant Cam- 
 byses, the immediate successor of Cyrus. 
 
 (3.) The king of whose fickleness and tyranny we read in the 
 book of Esther. In the third year of his reign, he made a great 
 feast for 180 days. During the revelry he sent for Vasliti, to 
 show her beauty to his guests. She refused thus to violate the 
 rules of Eastern decorum. The king was enraged, and divorced 
 her ; and, after a while, the young Esther was chosen her suc- 
 cessor. Haman, a royal favourite, being displeased with Mor- 
 decai the Jew, who had been Esther's guardian, plotted against 
 his nation, and obtained from the king an edict for the destruc- 
 tion of all the Jews on a certain day. Esther having heard 
 of this, used her influence with the tyrant, and though the 
 laws of the Medes and Persians could not be altered, another 
 decree was at once published, empowering the Jews to act on 
 the defensive. In consequence, 800 of the native subjects of 
 Ahasuerus perished in Shushan, and 75,000 in the provinces. 
 Several incidents in the life of Xerxes, the invader of Greece, 
 correspond to what we are told of Ahasuerus, and the arguments 
 in favour of his being the king mentioned in Esther are almost 
 conclusive, fhough some maintain that the character and inci- 
 dents point rather to Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
 
 (4.) The Ahasuerus mentioned in Tobit xiv. 15, in connec- 
 tion with the destruction of Nineveh, must be Cyaxares I. — J. B. 
 
 AHAZ, the eleventh king of Judah, succeeded his father 
 Jotham, about 775 years before Christ, and reigned for sixteen 
 years. During his reign, Judah was invaded by the alhed kings 
 of Israel and Syria, against whom Ahaz sought and obtained 
 assistance from the king of Assyria, who attacked and conquered 
 Damascus. On a visit to that city, Ahaz saw and admired an 
 altar of peculiar construction, and ordered various changes in the 
 temple at Jerusalem, to make it correspond with the Syrian 
 model. He was guilty of great idolatry, the kingdom was in a 
 most unhappy state under his administration, and the accession of 
 his son, the good Hezekiah, was hailed vrith universal joy. — J. B. 
 
 AHAZIAH (1.), the son of Ahab, who succeeded him on the 
 throne of Israel, about 897 B.C., and reigned for two years, 
 following the evil practices of his father, under the direction of 
 Jezebel. During his reign, the Moabites revolted from Israel. 
 He died in consequence of a fall from the roof of his palace. 
 
 AHAZIAH (2.) or JEHOAHAZ, the sixth king of Judah, son 
 of Jehoram, and grandson of Ahab, by his mother AthaUah. 
 He closely resembled that king of Israel, and being allied with 
 his relative Jehoram, in the war against Hazael of Syria, he was 
 with him at his summer palace of Jezreel when Jehu appeared 
 to take vengeance on the house of Ahab. After Jehoram was 
 slain, Ahaziah was pursued, and received a wound, of which he 
 died at Megiddo, having reigned only one year, 885 B.C. — J. B. 
 
 AHIAH, probably the same as Ahimelech (see Ahimelech). 
 This was the name of other two persons mentioned in the Old 
 Testament, in 1 Kings iv. 3, and in 1 Chron. viii. 7. 
 
 AHIMAAZ {Brother ofanger)^ a faithful follower of King 
 Da\dd during the revolt of Absalom, was the son and successor 
 of Zadok the priest. 
 
 AHIMELECH {Brother of the king), the priest at Nob, who 
 snpphed David with bread as he fled from the face of King Saul, 
 for which he and his house were destroyed by the tyrant. 
 
 AHITHOPHEL {Brother of foolishness), a counsellor of King 
 David, who joined Absalom in his revolt. 
 
 AHLE, JoiiANN George, a poet and musician, son of the 
 following, bom at Miihlhausen in 1650, succeeded his father as 
 organist of St. Blaise. He left many works connected with his 
 art, including both songs and sacred pieces, with instmmental 
 accompaniments. 
 
 AHLE, JoHANN RoDOLPH, a noted German musician, bom 
 at Miihlhausen in 1625. He studied at Gottingen and Erfurt, 
 was appointed in 1649 organist of the church of St. Blaise in his 
 native town, and died in 167 3, leaving a great many works, chiefly 
 motets and hymns, with some instramental compositions. 
 
 AHLSTROM, John, a Danish astronomer of the seventeenth 
 century, wrote a book entitled " Disputatio Mathematica de 
 triplici soils facie adulterina, in hoc horizonte ortivo, die 23 
 Octobris, anni 1690."
 
 AHL 
 
 56 
 
 AHM 
 
 AHLWARDT, Christian Wilheim, a noted German lin- 
 gmst, born at Greifswald, 23<1 July, 17G0. He studied in his 
 native town, and became a private teacbcr of languages. He 
 was then appointed successively manager of the public school at 
 Auklam, rector of the gjnnnasiums of Oldenburg and Greifswald, 
 and lastly, was raised to the professorship of ancient literature in 
 the university of that latter to\vn. He translated portions from 
 the writings of the chief classic authors ; but his best kno^^-n 
 work is a translation of Ossian from the original Gaelic. — J. B. 
 
 AHLWARDT, Petp:r, a German professor of logic and meta- 
 physics at Greifswald, his native to^vn. He has left some meta- 
 physical works, and an essay on the phenomena of thvmder and 
 lightning. He was bom in 1710, and died in 1791. 
 
 AHJIED, Abu-Mazak, the author of a work on the inter- 
 pretation of dreams according t« the doctrine of the Indians, 
 Persians, and Eg}-ptians. It is supposed that he was an Arab 
 physician, and hved in the ninth century. 
 
 AIDIED, Al-:Makkari, a celebrated Arab writer, best 
 known from his histoiy of the Arabs in Spain, from the conquest 
 of the country in the year 711-712 to the expulsion of the 
 Moriscos under Phihp III. in 1610. He was bom at Telemsan 
 in 1577, studied at Fez, travelled in EgT|-pt, Ai-abia, Palestine, 
 and Syria, and resided for several years at Damascus and Cairo. 
 He died in 1G32. A translation of portions of his histoiy was 
 published ia London in 1840. — J. B. 
 
 AHMED or ACHMET, the name of three Ottoman emperors. 
 
 Ahmed or Achmet I., bom in 1590, succeeded his father, 
 Mahomet III., in 1603. After unsuccessfully assisting the 
 Hungarians and the prince of Transylvania in a war with the 
 Emperor Rudolph II., he concluded a tnice for twenty years 
 with that monaich at Sitvatorok in 160G. This is said to have 
 been the first occasion on which the Titrks negotiated on the 
 principles of international law. Previously, every peace with a 
 Christian nation was regarded by them as a respite accorded by 
 Islam to infidel dogs on their submission and payment of tribute ; 
 and such is the notion of the ordinaiy orthodox Turk at the 
 present day. The charatch ticket given to a Christian subject 
 of the Porte, still certifies that the bearer has paid for permission 
 to wear his head on his shoulders for another year longer. In 
 1612, Achmet terminated a disastrous war with the Persians, 
 by ceding to them the city of Tauris, arid all the other conquests 
 they had made. In 1616 the war was renewed, and the Turks 
 were defeated by a Persian army far inferior in numbers. Achmet 
 had a taste for the fine arts, but was voluptuous and crael. — E. M. 
 
 Ahmed or Achmet II. was bom in 1643, and ascended the 
 throne in 1691, after living, from his bu-th down to that period, 
 a prisoner in the seraglio. His brief reign was inglorious and 
 disastrous. In 1691 the Turkish army, under the grand vizier 
 Kiuprili, was defeated with great slaughter by the Imperialists 
 at Slankamen in Hungniy. To this calamity were added earth- 
 quakes, the plague, a famine, and the usual token of political 
 discontent — a ten-ific conflagration at Constantinople, that 
 desolated a large portion of the city. These and other disasters 
 entirely cmshed his spirit ; and he died in 1695. — E. M. 
 
 Ahmed or Achjiet III. was bom in 1673, and was raised 
 to the throne in 1703, on the deposition of his brother, Mus- 
 tapha II., by a revolt of the janissaries. He was the first 
 sultan who announced his accession to the sovereigns of Europe. 
 In 1709, Charies XII. of Sweden, after his defeat at Pultowa, 
 took refuge on the Turkish tenitory, and was kindly received, 
 and even furnished with a large smn of ready money, by Achmet. 
 Dui-ing the war between Russia and the Porte in 1711, the Czar 
 Peter the Great was placed in a perilous position near the Pruth, 
 from which he could not have escaped, had not the Turkish 
 commander accepted a bribe, and betrayed his trust, by sparing 
 tlie enemy, and recommending the treaty of Pruth, 22'nd July, 
 1711. In 1715 the Turks took the Morea from the Venetians ; 
 but in 1716, the sultan's army was signally discomfited by 
 Prince Eugene in the memorable battle of Belgrade. From 
 1723 till October, 1727, the sultan was engaged in a war with 
 Persia, whicii, after reverses and advantages on both sides, was 
 terminated by a treaty favourable to the Porte. In 1728 great 
 jireparations were made at Constantinople for renewing the war, 
 but the reigii of Achmet was suddenly brought to an end by a 
 revolt of the anny and people of Constantinople. After vainly 
 attempting to save himself by sacrificing to the insurgents his 
 unpopular ministers, he was dethroned, and succocded by his 
 nej>hcw Mahmoud, in October, 1730. He sm-%-ived this event 
 
 several years, and died of apoplexy in April, 1739. He was a 
 
 man of imposing appearance, and possessed many estimable and 
 amiable qualities. He had a taste for literature and the arts. 
 In his reign, 1727, the first printing-oiBce was established at 
 Constantinople, and under Achmet's auspices, numerous historical 
 works, as well as treatises on other important subjects, were 
 published. He also established five libraries, of which three 
 were for the use of the public. — E. M. 
 
 AHMED-BEN-FARES, sumamed El-Razy, a writer on 
 jurisprudence, and author of an Arab dictionary, named Modj- 
 mil-AUoghat, copies of which are presen-ed in the libraries of 
 Paris and Levden. He died at Hamadan in the year 1000. 
 
 AHMED-BEN-MOHAMMED (Abu Amku), an Arabian 
 poet and historian, bom at Jaen in Spain, about the beginning 
 of the tenth ccntuiy. He lived at Cordova under the patronage 
 of Al-hakem, the sultan. Besides writing original poetry, he 
 made a collection of the best poems written by the Spanish 
 Arabs, which he named " Hadfiyik," or " Enclosed Gardens." 
 He wrote also histories of the sidtans of the Umeyyah dynasty. 
 He died in the year 970. — J. B. 
 
 AHxMED-BEN-THOULON (Abu'-l-'Abba's), the founder 
 of the Egyptian dynasty of the Tuliinites, was bora at Samarra 
 in the year 835. He inherited from his father a position of 
 dignity at the court of the Turkish caliph, and in 873 rose to be 
 governor of Egypt, to which province he had gone in the suite 
 of the govemor Bakbak but a few years before. Suspicions 
 being entertained of his loyalty, an attempt was made to dis- 
 place him. He resisted, and proclaimed himself independent of 
 the caliph. He then proceeded to extend his dominions by 
 conquest, marched into Syria, and took Emessa, Hamah, Aleppo, 
 and Antioch. A rebellion, headed by his son whom he had left 
 to govern in his absence, recalled him to Egypt, and while he 
 was engaged in settling matters there, Lulu, whom he had set 
 over his new territory in Syria, rebelled in turn. He proceeded 
 at once against him, but never succeeded in regaining all his 
 conquests, and he died at Antioch in the year 833. He is 
 represented as a wise and generous prince, who cared for the 
 interests of his subjects, was hospitable at his palace, and gave 
 largely to the poor. The dynasty which he founded lasted till 
 the year 905, and numbered four sultans. — J. B. 
 
 AHMED-IBN-ABDI-R-RABBISHI, an Ai-abian poet and 
 historian ; born at Cordova, a.d. 860 ; died in 940. 
 
 AHMED-IBN-ABABSHAH, Guekasp, an Arabian histo- 
 rian, and the biogi-apher of Timour, or Tamerlane. He died at 
 Damascus, a.d. 1450. 
 
 AHMED-KHAN or NYGOUDAR, a Mongol emperor of 
 Persia, of the family of Jcnghis-Khan, succeeded to the tin-one 
 A.D. 1282, on the death of his brother Abaca-Khan. 
 
 AHMED SHAH, founder of the Durani dynasty in Afghan- 
 istan, was bom at a place situated between Herat and Kandahar 
 in 1723. His father, Zaman-Khan, was chief of the Afghan 
 tribe called the Abdalis. In 1738, after a gallant resistance, the 
 Abdalis submitted to the famous conqueror. Nadir Shah. Fol- 
 lowing that extraordinary man, young Ahmed was soon intinisted 
 with the command of a body of cavalry, and evinced such 
 heroism as to gain Nadu-'s confidence. In 1747 Nadir Shah 
 was murdered in his tent. Ahmed, after attempiting to avenge 
 his chief, effected his retreat to Afghanistan, on finding the 
 assassins were supported by the whole Persian aiTny. He was 
 now proclaimed monarch of Afghanistan, and solemnly crowned 
 at Kandahar in October, 1747, at the early age of twenty-three. 
 He displayed remarkable discretion in respecting the prejudices of 
 his countrymen, and abstaining from interference with the internal 
 arrangements of the tribes. He was, by an unexpected occur- 
 rence, furnished with resources for iindertaking an entei-prise that 
 was to extend his fame and power, as well as enrich his adherents. 
 A convoy with a large amount of treasure on its way to Nadir 
 Shah fell into his power, and he had already come into possession 
 of the famous diamond, of enoiTnous value, called the Koh-i-noor, 
 or "Mountain of light," which ultimately passed into the hands of 
 the British, on the conquest of the Punjab in 1847. A numerous 
 army, fidl of hope and vigour, was soon collected under his banner, 
 with which he at once marched for Hindostan. Before the end 
 of 1752 he had subdued the Punjab, and made himself master 
 of Kashmir. In 1757 he entered Delhi, which, in spite of 
 his efforts to prevent them, his followers recklessly pillaged. 
 Maladies in his armies, and other causes, compelled him to hasten 
 his departure homewards, and his victorious troops returned to
 
 AHR 
 
 57 
 
 AIG 
 
 Afghanistan loaded with spoils. In 1759 Ahmed undertook 
 another expedition to Hindostan, mainly to oppose the growing 
 power of the Mahrattas, already most formidable. He defeated 
 them at Badli, near Delhi, but they soon collected a new and far 
 more powerful army, under the command of the heii-apparent of 
 their country. In 1761, 7th January, the Afghans gained a com- 
 plete victory in the memorable battle of Paniput. Ahmed, instead 
 of aiming at establishing for himself an empire in India, judiciously 
 led back his triumphant army to Kabul. After repeated hostilities 
 with the Sikhs, he allowed them to take permanent possession of 
 the Punjab. He wsely contented himself with maintaining his 
 authority throughout his extensive dommions to the west of the 
 Indus. In the spring of 1773, he was obliged, by the impaired 
 state of his health, to repair to the hills of Toba. He died at 
 Murgha in June, 1773, lea\-ing his dominions to his son, Timur 
 Shah. The empire he founded began to decline under his son, 
 and under his grandsons it disappeared. — E. M. 
 
 AHRENS, Fl., recently professor of philosophy and of the 
 Laws of Nations in the university of Brussels. A clear and most 
 instructive writer, whose merits are very inadequately known in 
 Ihigland. Adopting the metaphysical system of Krause, the 
 principle of which has recently been advocated in England by 
 Mr. Morell, Ahrens exposed it in his valuable " Cours de Phi- 
 losophic ; " but his great and most compact work is a volume, 
 entitled " Cours de Droit Naturel," of which we feel entitled to 
 say, that it takes rank with the best treatises produced in mo- 
 dern times, on the foundations of public and national Morals. 
 Ahrens' style is as clear as his thought is accurate and profound. 
 An interesting commentary on the system adopted by Ahrens and 
 Krause has recently been produced by M. Tiberghein. — J. P. N. 
 AHUITZOL, the eighth Aztec emperor, was elected in 1477, 
 on the death of Anajacath. He extended the boundaries of the 
 Mexican empu-e, adorned the capital, and was a patron of the 
 iiseful arts. This monarch is remembered for his attempts to 
 abolish sacrifices. He was succeeded by Montezuma II., dur- 
 ing whose reign Mexico was conquered by the Spaniards. 
 
 AI'BEK, Azed-Eddyn, the first sultan of Egypt, of the 
 dynasty of Baharite Mamelulces; died April 10, 1257. Having 
 been brought to Egypt in his youth as a slave, his courage soon 
 raised him to a high mihtary rank, under Touran Shah, who 
 reigned during the invasion of the crasaders under St. Louis of 
 France. Aibek took part in the sanguinary conflicts around the 
 walls of Damietta. After Louis had been taken prisoner, a 
 mutiny raised Aibek to the rank of atabek, or commander-in- 
 chief, Touran Shah being succeeded by Chadjr-Eddour. He 
 successfully defended Louis and the other French prisoners from 
 the violence of his followers, and set them at liberty, on payment 
 of 200,000 livres as a ransom. After a variety of intrigues, plots, 
 and revolutions, he became undisputed sovereign of Egypt, a.d. 
 1254, but died shortly after by the hand of an assassin. Aibek 
 was a patron of learning, and founded a magnificent college at 
 Old Cairo, on the banks of the Nile. He was succeeded by his 
 son All, surnamed Mehli-al-Mansour, who, after a short reign, 
 was deposed by the Mamelulce Keouthuz. — J. W. S. 
 
 AICARDO, John, an Italian architect, who constructed 
 various admired pubUc works at Genoa, was born at Cuneo in 
 Piedmont, about the end of the IGth century, and died in 1650. 
 AICHER, P. Otto, a Benedictine of Salzburg, celebrated as 
 an eloquent professor of rhetoric, poetry, and history, and author 
 of various treatises, antiquarian and historical. Died in 1705. 
 
 AIDAN, a king of the Daldriadic Scots, who reigned in the 
 sixth century. Bede tells us that, in 603, he invaded the ter- 
 ritoiy of Edilfrid, king of the Northumbrians, but was defeated. 
 He died two years later, and was buiied at Kilcheran in Kmtyre. 
 AIDAN, St., abbot or bishop of Lindisfame, was originally a 
 monk of lona, where Oswald, king of Northumbria, had been 
 educated. When Oswald came to the throne, finding that his 
 subjects had returned to Paganism, he sent to lona for some one 
 to teach them Christianity. Gorman was sent, an austere, 
 morose man, who had but little success, and soon returned to 
 tell his brothers that the task was hopeless. Aidan chided him 
 for not dealmg kindly enough with the people ; his speech 
 pleased the monks, and they asked him to undertake the mis- 
 sion. He accepted, and soon his gentleness won the rough 
 Northumbrians, and the whole country embraced the faith he 
 taught. He was assisted in his work by Oswald, who acted as 
 his interpreter. He died, according to Bede, August 31, 651. 
 Aidan was the founder of the monastery of Lmdisfiirne, and is 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 reckoned the first in the line of bishops who take their title from 
 Dm'ham. He is also remembered for his adherence to the an- 
 cient usage of the British and Irish churches, in the dispute about 
 the proper season for the observance of Easter. — J. B. 
 
 AIDEN, a king of Ireland, who succeeded Donchad in the 
 year 797. The events of his reign are of serious importance, 
 though little can be recorded of his personal histoiy. Dming 
 his I'eign, numerous aiinies of Danes landed on the coasts of 
 Ireland upon several occasions, and though more than once 
 repulsed, they committed terrible devastations and slaughter. 
 After a troubled reign of twenty-two years, Aiden was slain in 
 the battle of Da Fearta by Muolcanaigh.— ( Wills.')— J. F. W. 
 
 AIGNAN, Etienne, a French vsrriter and academician, author 
 of a poetic version of the Iliad, and of numerous treatises in 
 prose, among which are " A History of Trial by Jury ; " " State 
 of the Protestants in France ; " " Justice and Police," &c., was 
 bom at Beaugency-sur-Loii'e in 1773, and died in 1824. 
 Doomed, during the Reign of Terror, for his humanity, and 
 moderate though republican sentiments, he was saved from the 
 guillotine by the death of Robespierre. — E. M. 
 
 AIGREAUX, Robert, and Antoine Leciievalier, two 
 brothers, joint authors of translations of Vii'gil and Horace, and 
 of various original poems, were born in Noi-mandy about the 
 middle, and died about the end, of the sixteenth century. 
 
 AIGUEBERRE or AIGUERERT, Jean Dumas r>\ a 
 member of the parliament of Toulouse, author of several 
 dramatic pieces, the principal of which is a sort of tripartite 
 opera, consisting of a tragedy, "Polyzena;" a comedy, "The 
 Miser in Love;" and a heroic pastoral, "Pan and Doris;" 
 born in 1692, died 1755. 
 
 AIGUILLON, Armand Vignerot du Plessis Richelieu, 
 Due d', great grand-nephew of Cardinal Richelieu, and foreign 
 minister of France during the last three years of the reign of 
 Louis XV., 1771-4, was bom in 1720. Though polished in 
 his manners, and not deficient in shrewdness and vigom-, he was 
 destitute of all the qualities that constitute the able or the up- 
 right statesman ; and was raised to his high position, and main- 
 tained in power, solely by the combmed court influence of 
 comtesans and Jesuits. The means employed for his elevation, 
 .and the measures of his inglorious ministiy, gi-eatly contri- 
 buted to undermine the throne, and prepare the popular enthu- 
 siasm of 1788, and the hori'ors of 1793. Dm'ing the Seven 
 Years' War, Aiguillon was commander of the forces in Brittany, 
 and, by his tyranny and iniquities, had rendered himself intensely 
 impopular. An illustrious patriot, M. de la Chalotais, procm-eur- 
 general in the parliament (or judicature) of Rennes, inciUTed his 
 implacable resentment by denouncing his delinquencies, and still 
 more by indulging in witty allusions to his alleged cowardice. 
 Aiguillon formally accused him of treason, .and by false testi- 
 mony procured a sentence of death against the innocent man. 
 Chalotais was afterwards liberated through the intrepidity of the 
 parliament of Rennes, who detected and exposed the whole drama 
 of iniquity. Aiguillon was aiTaigned before the parliament of 
 Pai-is ; the proceedings excited a deep interest all over France, 
 and the whole legal profession of the kingdom manifested a 
 detei-mination that justice should be done. The feeble and de- 
 bauched monarch, swayed by the artifices of his mistress in con- 
 cert with priestly influence, saved Aigniillon from merited punish- 
 ment, by destrojung the independence of the judicatm'c, and 
 stripping the parliaments of those time-haUowed privileges which, 
 under the most absolute sovereigns, had served as a constitu- 
 tional check on the royal authority. The last remnant of Hbcrty 
 being thus crashed, Aiguillon was, in defiance of public opinion, 
 appointed minister of foreign affairs. Immediately on the acces- 
 sion of Louis XVI. he was ignominiously dismissed from office, 
 and spent the rest of his fife at a distance from Paris, generally 
 despised and detested. Died in 1780. — E. M. 
 
 AIGUILLON, Armand ue Vignerot du Plessis Riche- 
 lieu, Due d', son of the preceding, was born about 1750. 
 From resentment against Louis XVI. for the dismiss.al of his 
 father, he gave his ardent adherence to the Revolution ; became 
 a member of the constituent assembly, where he frequently spoke 
 with ability, though with violence ; renounced his titles and 
 pri\dlcges of nobility; connected himself with the notorious didvc 
 of Orleans; succeeded Custines in the command of the forces 
 stationed at the passes of Poventruy; escaped to London, on 
 ascertaining that he had been doomed by the dominant party at 
 Paris ; and, on being veiy ill received by the royalist refugees, re- 
 
 H
 
 tired to Hamburg, where he died in 1800, when on the point of 
 accepting an indtation from Bonajiarte to retrnm to France. 
 
 AIKEN, Jajies, son of Henry Aiken, sheriff and commissary 
 of Orkney, was born at Kii-kwall in 1613, studied literature and 
 philosophy at Edinburgh, and dinnity at Oxford, and in 1638 
 became chaplain to the marquis of Hamilton. After enduring, 
 for many years, privations and perils at home and abroad, for 
 his devotedness to the exOcd house of Stuart, he was iu 1677 
 made bishop of Moray, and in 1G80 translated to the see of 
 Galloway. Died at Edinburgh of apoplexy in 1687. — E. M. 
 
 AIKIX, Anna Laetitlv. See Barbauld. 
 
 AIKIN, Edmund, son of Dr. Aikin, was an ingenious and 
 accomplished architect, author of numerous dissertations on archi- 
 tectural subjects. He was bom at Warrington in 1 780 ; died 1820. 
 
 AIKIN, John, JI.D., was bom at Kebworth, Leicestershire, 
 in 1747. He received an excellent classical education in a dis- 
 senting academy at Warrington, of which his father, John Aikin, 
 D.D., was classical tutor. With a view to the medical profession, 
 he was trained, for several yeai'S, under a surgeon-apothecary at 
 Uppingham. Having attended medical classes in Edinburgh for 
 two winters, lie continued from 1766 till 1770, first in Man- 
 chester and aftei-wards in London, to study various departments 
 of medical science, devoting, however, a considerable portion of 
 his time and attention to poetry and polite Uterature. In 1770 
 he established himself as a medical practitioner at Chester, but 
 soon aftenvards settled in the same capacity at Warrington. 
 Among the friends he acquired at Chester and Warrington were 
 Pennant, Priestley, Roscoe, and Howard, the well-known pliilan- 
 thropist. In 1771 he published, besides several professional 
 productions, "Essays on Song-writing;" and, in 1774, a trans- 
 lation of Tacitus' '• Life of Agricola," and of his treatise " On 
 the Manners of the Gennans." In 1775 appeared his essay 
 entitled " A Specimen of the iledical Biography of Great Bri- 
 tain," and a few years afterwards, the first and only volume of 
 a projected work under the title of " Biographical Memoirs of 
 Medicine in Great Britaui, from the Revival of Literature to the 
 time of Harvey." In 1784 he took the degree of M.D. at Ley- 
 den, and the same year removed to Yarmouth. In 1792 he 
 left Yannouth, and settled in London, on finding that his sym- 
 pathy with the earlier phases of the French Eevolution, and" his 
 avowed sentiments regarding the ci%'il rights of dissenters, had 
 induced a large and influential portion of the inhabitants of 
 Yarmouth and its \icmity to withckaw from him theii- counte- 
 nance and professional support. Between 1792 and 1796 
 appeared the well-known and still deservedly popular " Evenings 
 at Home," the joint production of himself and his accomplished 
 and amiable sister, Sirs. Barbauld; and, soon afterwards, his 
 excellent " Letters from a Father to his Son, on Various Topics 
 relative to Literatiu-e and the Conduct of Life." From 1796 to 
 1806 he was editor of the "Monthly Magazine." In 1799 he 
 published the first volume of his " General Biogi-aphy," the 
 tenth and last volmne of which did not appear till 1815. In 
 this work. Dr. Enfield and a few other able ^mters were his 
 coadjutors to the extent of about one-half of the publication. 
 Dr. Aiken was so voluminous a writer, that our space pre- 
 cludes a complete list of his valuable publications. He was long 
 editor of Dodsley's "Annual Register." Besides his "Lives of 
 John S«lden and Archbishop Usher," and his "View of the 
 Character and Public Sen'ices of the late John Howard ;" his 
 "Annals of the Reign of George IIL," and his " Select works of 
 British Poets," are highly valued. Died of apoplexy in 1822. 
 An interesting memoir of Dr. Aikin has been written by his 
 accomplished daughter, Lucy Aikin, 1823, 2 vols. — E. M. 
 
 AIK'SIA^, William, a Scottish portrait painter of consider- 
 able eminence, was bom in Aberdeenshire in 1682. He studied 
 for the bar, but an eariy enthusiasm for the fine arts led hun to 
 renounce his prospects in the legal career, and follow painting 
 as a profession. After cultivating the theoiy and practice of 
 the art under Sir J. Medina, then in Scotland, he disposed of 
 his patrimony in Forfarshire, and went abroad for professional 
 improvement. He spent five years mostly in Italy, visited the 
 Levant and other parts, and, returning to Scotland in 1712, 
 resided there till 1723, when he removed to London. There, 
 through the patronage of the duke of Ai-gyle, he soon attained 
 great success in his profession. When Thomson airived iu Lon- 
 don, friendless and unkno^vn, Aikman, appreciating his merit, 
 had the privilege of opening to him the way to competence and 
 fame. He was a very accomplished and amiable man, and lived 
 
 on tenns of cordial intimacy with many of the most illustrious 
 persons of the age. Died in London in 1731. — E. M. 
 
 AILBE, a bishop of Emly in Ireland, who was bom in 360, 
 is said to have been consecrated at Rome, and returned to 
 Ireland in 412, where he converted and baptized great numbers 
 of the heathen people. There is an old life of this bishop, pre- 
 seiTcd by Colgan, in wliich it ia stated that Ailbe is called a 
 disciple of St. Patrick, and is supposed to have received holy 
 orders at iiis hands. According to Usher, he died in 527. If 
 this be correct, he must have lived to the extreme old age of 
 167 ; but in all probability, either the recorded date of his birth 
 or of his death is inaccurate, — ( Ware.^ — J. F. W. 
 
 AILERAN, sumamed "the Wise," and also designated by the 
 Latin and Irish writers by the names of Aikerax and Erckan, 
 a celebrated Lish wniter of the seventh century, and regent of 
 the great school of Clonard in Jleath. He was a contemporaiy 
 of St. Fechin, whose life he is said to have wiitten, as also those 
 of St. Patrick and St. Brigid. His most celebrated work is " An 
 Allegorical Exposition of the Genealogy of Christ," fii'st pub- 
 hshed in 1667. His death is recorded in the "Annals of Ul- 
 ster," as having occurred in the year 665. — J. F. W. 
 
 AILLAUD, Pierre Toussaint, a French ecclesiastic, pro- 
 fessor and librarian at Montauban, and a poet of some distinction; 
 bom at Montpelier in 1759. His poetic works are voluminous, 
 and mostly epic. Died at Montauban in 1826. 
 
 AILLY, Pierre d', a celebrated French prelate, metaphysi- 
 cian, and di\-ine, author of numerous works, mostly theological, 
 was bora at Campiegne in Picardy, in 1350. An eloquent 
 preacher, an acute and ardent asserter of the philosopliical 
 theory of the Nominalists, and an intrepid champion of the 
 liberties of the Galilean chiirch in opposition to ultramontane 
 views of papal supremacy, D'Ailly was one of the most remark- 
 able men of one of the most interesting periods in mediaeval his- 
 tory. In 1384 he became grandmaitre of the college of Navarre, 
 Palis, where his lectures in philosophy and divinity were attended 
 by crowds of admiiing students, including Clemangis and the 
 still more famous John Gerson. In 1389 he became chancellor 
 of the university of Paris ; in 1398 he was raised to the see of 
 Cambray; and in 1411 he was made a cardinal by Pope John 
 XXIII., and appointed his legate in Gemiany. His indefatigable 
 exertions greatly contributed to put an end to the scandalous 
 schism in the church occasioned by the existence of two rival 
 popes ; and he zealously strove to promote such an ecclesiastical 
 reformation as woidd have consisted in the removal of flagrant 
 abuses, and the restoration of ancient discipline. With all his 
 attainments and admirable qualities, he was not uninfluenced by 
 the lingering darkness of the times. He fully believed in astro- 
 logy, and he considered the capital punishment of what he 
 deemed heresy, a Christian duty. At the council of Constance, 
 where he presided during the thu'd session, he was accessory to 
 the death of John Huss. Agreeably to the medieval usage of 
 conferring on celebrated philosophers and divines a distinctive 
 appellation, he was sumamed the " Hammer of Heretics, and 
 the Eagle of the Doctors of France." Died about 1425. — E. M. 
 
 AILRED, called also ETHALRED or EALRED, abbot of 
 the Cistercian monastery of Rievaulx in Yorkshire, in the twelfth 
 century, and author of numerous works, historical and theologi- 
 cal, was bom about 1109, probably in Scotland. He was at 
 least educated in that country, along with Piince Henry, son of 
 King Darid. The most important of his historical wiitings were 
 printed in 1652. These have been overrated as sources of 
 authentic histoiy. Some of his theological works were printed 
 at Douayin 1631, and afterwards republished in the "Bibliotheca 
 Cisterciensis." — E. M. 
 
 AIMERIC DE PEGUILAIN, a troubadour, author of more 
 than fifty poems still extant, though mostly in MS., was bom at 
 Toulouse about 1175. He travelled over the south of France, 
 Italy, and Spain, and was treated with great distinction at the 
 most brilliant com'ts of the age. 
 
 AIMERICH, Father Mathew, a Spanish Jesuit, author of 
 numerous treatises, partly theological and partly literary, was 
 bom at BordU in 1715, and, on the expulsion of the Jesuits 
 from Spain, fixed his residence at Ferrara, where he died in 1799. 
 
 AIMERY or AMAURY DE LUSIGNAN lived in the twelfth 
 centuiy. In 1194 he obtained the kingdom of Cj^ras on the 
 death of his brother Guy, and, in 1197, that of Jerasalem, 
 through his wife Isabella, daughter of Aimery I. In alliance 
 with the German crusaders, he was distinguished in the war
 
 against the Saracens, who were led by llalek Al-'ddhil, the 
 brother of Saladin. He died at Acre in 1205. — J. B. 
 
 AIMON, a Benedictine monk, pupil of Abbo, and abbot of 
 Fleury-sur-Loire, author of a legendaiy work, which he entitled 
 " Histoiy of France," was boru about the middle of the tenth 
 century, and died 1008. 
 
 AIMON or AIME' DE VARENNE, a French poet, by bhi;h 
 a Greek, author of a poetic romance, entitled " Florimont and 
 Philip of Macedon," MS. copies of which are still extant at 
 Paris, London, and Venice. 
 
 AIMON or AYMON, Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and 
 Roland, said to have been sons of the duke of Dordogne, per- 
 sonages famous in the poetic legends of chivalry, though their 
 historical existence is very doubtful. 
 
 AINGY, SoLiMAN, a native of Bosnia, of Christian parents, 
 became grand vizier to Sultan Mahomet IV., displayed great 
 vigour and capacity, was a strict disciplinarian, obtauied a vic- 
 tory over the Poles, but was completely defeated by the dukes 
 of Bavaria and Loiraine in 168, and finally beheaded, by order 
 of the sultan, to gratify the mutinous Ottoman army. 
 
 AINSLIE, George Robert, a British general, some time 
 governor of Dominica, devoted much of his leism'e to the study 
 of numismatology, made a valuable collection of Anglo-Noraian 
 coins, and published in 1830, in a handsome quarto volume, 
 "Illustrations of the Anglo-French Coinage," &c. Bom in 
 Edinburgh, 1776 ; died in his native city in 1839. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Henry, an eminent biblical scholar and 
 commentator, and one of the founders of the Independent body 
 in England. Of the time and place of his bhth, or tlie events 
 of his early history, no record has been preserved. He is men- 
 tioned for the first time by Bishop Hall, as in close alliance 
 with the chmxh of the exiled Brownists, who had fled from the 
 severity of Queen Elizabeth and her bishops, and were wont to 
 assemble " in a blind lane at Amsterdam." This was in the 
 year 1592-93. We find him still at Amsterdam in 1596, 
 whence he wrote some letters preserved by Limborch in his 
 " Epistola; Viror. Eruditor.," p. 74. He appears to have been 
 at this time in gi-eat poverty, as, in order to obtain the neces- 
 saries of life, he became porter to a bookseller, from whom he 
 received a miserable pittance in return for his services. Wliilst 
 thus employed, he came under the notice of several emment 
 scholars who appreciated his learning, and encouraged him in 
 those literary labours which have established for him a per- 
 manent reputation. Not long after his settlement in Amster- 
 dam, he was chosen as doctor or teacher of the church there, 
 over which Francis Johnson presided as pastor. Finding that 
 their views were in many quarters misrepresented to their injmy, 
 Johnson had drawn up a confession of faith of the Enghsh exiles, 
 which he published in 1596 ; this, after being republished in 
 1598, was issued a thu-d time in an enlarged form, as the con- 
 joint production of Johnson and Ainsworth, by the latter of 
 whom it was translated into Latin, and sent forth in tliis guise 
 in his own name. This document will be found cited in 
 "Hanbury's Memorials relating to Independents," vol. i., p. 91. 
 During his connection with the cluu-ch at Amsterdam, Ainsworth 
 paid a visit to Ireland, where he left some disciples, returning 
 again to Holland. Ainsworth was frequently involved in con- 
 troversy. His concluding years, however, appear to have been 
 spent in comparative peace. He died in 1622 very suddenly, 
 and not without suspicion of violence. Ainsworth's works con- 
 sist of Annotations on the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and Solo- 
 mon's Song, published first separately, between 1612 and 1623, 
 aftenvards collectively, in one vol. folio, in 1627, again in 1639, 
 and recently in 2 vols. 8vo. His minor writings are very 
 numerous. The most valuable are his " Controversial Tracts 
 with Hugh Broughton," on archseological questions; his "Com- 
 munion of Saints;" his Discussion with John Ainsworth on 
 subjects connected with the Popish Controversy ; his " Season- 
 able Discourse," in reply to a work on Predestination, " by the 
 servants of God, grossly called Anabaptists ; " and his posthumous 
 work, entitled " The Orthodox Foundation of Religion." Ains- 
 worth left behind him an extensive reputation as a man of pro- 
 found learning, sound judgment, rare rectitude and candour, and 
 a lovely union of firmness and boldness with " the gentleness of 
 Christ," in the avowal and defence of his opinions. — W. L. A. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Robert, a well-known grammarian and 
 lexicographer, was born at Woodyale in Lancashire in 1660. 
 He received Ins eai-ly education at Bolton, where he aftenvards 
 
 resided some time as a schoolmaster. In 1098 he removed to 
 London, opened a boarding-school in the envu'ons, and, in course 
 of time, acquired a competency which enabled him to retire from 
 scholastic drudgery. In 1736 he published his English and 
 Latin and Latin and English Dictionaiy. Died in 1745. — E. M. 
 
 * AINSWORTH, WiLLi^ui Francis, a distinguished physi- 
 cian, geologist, and traveller, cousin of William Harrison Ains- 
 worth, was born at Exeter in 1807. Having taken his degree 
 of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1828, he visited Auvergne and the 
 Pyrenees for geological purposes. Returning to Edmbm-gh in 
 1828, he became editor of the "Journal of Natm-al and Geo- 
 graphical Science," and a lecturer on Geology. In 1835 he was 
 attached as physician and geologist to Colonel Chesney's expe- 
 dition to the shores of the Euphrates, and in 1837 returned by 
 Kurdistan, Taurus, and Asia Minor. In 1838 he was sent with 
 Rassam and Thomas Russell, by the Geographical Society and 
 the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, to Kurdistan, 
 &c. In 1840 he visited the Nestorians; and in 1841 published 
 " Researclies in Assyria," and " Travels and Researches in Asia 
 Mmor," &c. Besides reports and memoirs, he also published, in 
 1844, "The Claims of the Christian Aborigines in the East," 
 and "Travels in the Track of the 10,000 Greeks."— E. M. 
 
 » AINSWORTH, WiLLiAJi Harrison, a popular Englisli 
 author, bom at Manchester in 1805. He was at first intended 
 for the bar, but his taste led him to a literaiy career. Besides 
 copiously contributing to English periodical literatm-e, he has 
 published the following works : — " Sir John Chiverton ;" "Rook- 
 wood;" "Jack Shepherd;" "Guy Fawkes;" "Crichton;" 
 "James IL;" "The Miser's Daughter;" "Old St. Paul's;" 
 " St. James ; " " The Tower of London ; " " Windsor Castle ; " 
 "The Lancashire Witches;" "The Star Chamber;" "The 
 Flitch of Bacon." He founded "Ainsworth's Magazine" in 
 1842 ; and in 1845 became proprietor of the " New Jlonthly 
 Magazine." — E. M. 
 
 AIRAY, Christopher, an Englishman of Clifton in West- 
 moreland, and rector of iMilford in Hampshu'e. Wrote a book 
 of logical precepts. Died 1670. 
 
 * AIRD, Thomas, whose contributions have long been known to 
 all the readers of " Blackwood's Magazine," was born at Bowden, 
 Roxburghshire, in 1802. He was at first destined for the Scottish 
 church, and studied at Edinburgh, where he won high distinction 
 at college, and soon found employment as a contributor to the 
 periodical literature of the day. After the death of Mr. James 
 Ballantyne, Mr. Aird became editor of the " Edinburgh Weekly 
 Journal ;" thence he passed to Dumfries, where he still ropiains 
 as editor of the " Dumfries Herald," having never chosen to leave 
 his retirement to fill any wider sphere. His publications, both in 
 prose and verse, have at various times appeared to enrich our 
 literature. He has lately collected his poems into one voliune, 
 and his stray tales and sketches have appeared in a sort of med- 
 ley, which he has named " The Old Bachelor in the Scottish 
 Village." He has also written "Rehgious Characteristics" and a 
 memoir of the author prefixed to an edition of the " Poems" of 
 liis friend Dr. Moir (Delta), the publication of which he superin- 
 tended. Among Mr. Aird's poetical works, that on which his 
 fame must rest, and which has already raised him to no mean 
 place among the poets of our country, is the " Devil's Dream," a 
 work combining weud power with exquisite beauty. Of his 
 prose works, the most popular is " Buy a Broom," a pleasing 
 Uttle tale, to be found in " The Old Bachelor."— J. B. 
 
 * AIREY, James Tai.eot, lieutenant-colonel in the army, and 
 captain in the Coldstream Guards, a C.B. and K.L.H., is brother 
 of the quartei-master-general, — an officer who has seen much ser- 
 vice for his years. He served under Su- R. Sale and General El- 
 pliinstone in Cabul and Afghanistan, and was in the hands of 
 the enemy for some time, which aftbrdcd him an opportunity of 
 writing an interesting account of his captivity. He also seiTcd 
 under Su- J. M'Carkill, and was present at the battle of 
 Punniar. On the commencement of the Russian war he went 
 out to the East, and as assistant quartermaster-general to Su- 
 George Brown's division, he was engaged in the hard work ot 
 that great campaign m the Crimea, and was present at Alma 
 and Inkerman. As a reward for his sen-ices, he was appointed to 
 the Guards, and he holds the honours mdicated above. — W. H. R. 
 
 * AIREY, Sir Richard, K.C.B. This officer, who is now 
 quartermaster-general of the British ai-my, went out to Turkey 
 in the year 1854, as colonel commanding a brigade of Sir 
 George Bro'\\'n's division. He had not seen any active sen-ice in
 
 the field, but lie was reputed to be a smart regimental officer, 
 and to possess considerable abilities, wliich indeed he displayed 
 wliilst engaged at the Horse Guards pre-i-ious to the war with 
 Russia. As brigadier, he exliibited acti\-ity and intelligence in 
 Bulgaria ; and just at the moment that the expedition was about 
 to saO to the Crimea, he was appohited to succeed Lord de Eos, 
 in the responsible post of quartermaster-general to the forces. 
 In that capacity he remained with the anny m the East tiU he 
 was called home after the fall of Sebastopol, and soon after his 
 an-ival in England he was nominated to the high military office 
 which he now holds. The conduct of this officer whilst acting as 
 quartermaster-general in the Crimea has been much canvassed, 
 and gi-ave charges have been brought against the department over 
 wliich he presided, by two commissioners sent out by the govern- 
 ment to report on certain matters connected with the commis- 
 sariat of the army. He defended liimself m an elaborate speech 
 before the Chelsea commissioners ; and whatever may be the 
 opinions entertained by the public respectmg the merits of his 
 defence, or the vahdity of the accusations against him, it should 
 be in fairness recollected, that he was appointed to the post of 
 quartermaster-general imder circumstances of gi'eat difficulty, 
 and that the onerous natiire of bis duties was much increased by 
 the death of Major Wellesley, who had conducted much of the 
 details of the department. His health in the T\'inter of 1854 was 
 inditlerent — liis eyesight was imperfect, and he was unable to take 
 that active personal superintendence of the army which an effec- 
 tive quartermaster-general may be expected to exercise ; but he on 
 all occasions displayed great zeal for the sen'ice, and the rewards, 
 promotion, and honours he has received, testify to the sense en- 
 tertained by the authorities of the value of his exertions. — ^^V. H. R. 
 * AIRY, George Biddell, one of the first mathematicians, 
 astronomers, and physicists now living (1857). Having entered 
 Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1819, he gained, in 1823, the 
 honour of senior wi-angler. In 1824 he was elected a fellow of 
 his college, — in 1826, Lncasian professor in the university, — in 
 1828, Plumian professor, and astronomer of the Cambridge 
 observatory. In 1835 he was appointed by the crown to the 
 office of astronomer-royal, which he now holds. Mr. Aiiy is a 
 fellow of the Royal Society, and of various other scientific bodies, 
 vice-president of the Astronomical Society, and a coiTesponding 
 member of the Institute of France. In 1851 he enjoyed the 
 well-deserved honour of holding the office of president of the 
 British Association for the Advancement of Science, which in 
 that year met at Ips^vich. The following are a few amongst 
 the jjiany scientific achievements by which he has been dis- 
 tinguished: — The establishment, first at Cambridge, and after- 
 wards at Greenwich, of an improved system of recording astro- 
 nomical observations; the discovery of the " Long Inequality of 
 Venus and the Earth," for which, in 1833, he received the gold 
 medal of the Astronomical Society ; the discovery of important 
 principles relative to the effect of the magnetism of ships on the 
 compass, and the means of correcting it ; the investigation of the 
 wave-theoiy of the tides ; the determination of the laws of the 
 circular and elliptic polarization of light in doubly-refi-acting 
 crystals ; the investigation of the density of the earth, by com- 
 paring the rates of a pendulum in a deep mine and at the earth's 
 surface, &c., &c. To explain fuUy the nature of ^Ir. Aiiy's long 
 series of scientific labours, and to do justice to then- importance, 
 would require an article far exceeding the limits which can reason- 
 ably be afforded in a biogi-aphical dictionary ; and even were 
 such an article now published, it would require a supplement for 
 each additional year of the life of its subject. The following 
 brief remarks have reference merely to a few points of general 
 interest, in connection -with those of Sir. Airy's researches which 
 have been enumerated above. One of the distinguishing featm-es 
 of the system of recording astronomical observations which he 
 introduced, is the publishing, not only of the reduced observa- 
 tions, coiTccted for refraction, for instnimental and personal 
 errors, and for other sources of inaccuracy, but also of the ori- 
 ginal observations exaclhj as made, together with the various 
 corrections applied to them. This enables every astronomer, by 
 inspection of the published records of an observatory, to judge 
 for himself how far the exactness of the observations, and the 
 soundness of the methods of correcting their results, are worthy 
 of confidence. It has further this advantage : that in the event 
 of any new discovery being made respecting the operation of 
 causes of errors of observation, and the methods of allowing for 
 such errors, the benefit of that discovery can be extended to 
 
 former observations, by reducing them anew. With respect to 
 the wave-theory of the tides, it may be remarked, that New- 
 ton gave the outlines of two theories of the tides, and left it 
 to subsequent inquirers to investigate their details, and to deter- 
 mine wliich was right. By the first theoiy, the ocean was con- 
 sidered as revolving (as it really does) round the axis of the 
 earth once in a sidereal day, and it was proposed to determine, 
 by the principles of dynamics, what would be the distiurbing 
 effect of the sun and moon on that motion. This may be called 
 the dynamical theoiy, and is the sound one. By the second 
 theory, well known as the " equilibrium theory" it was proposed 
 to investigate, what form the ocean would assume by reason of 
 the attraction of the sun or of the moon, supposing it always to 
 present the same face towards the disturbing body. This theory 
 is essentially unsound ; but unfortunately it received the prefer- 
 ence of Newton's immediate successors, and was developed by 
 eminent mathematicians in very voluminous researches ; and al- 
 though its unsoundness has now been known to scientific men 
 for half a century, it still holds its gi-ound in popular manuals. 
 Laplace was the fii-st fully to investigate the dynamical or true 
 theory of the tides. He anived at the complete solution of the 
 problem of the disturbing action of the sun and moon on the 
 ocean, revolving in a day, as it really does ; but his results were 
 in a form too intricate and abstruse for ordinaiy use ; and a 
 theory was still wanting to explain the phenomena of the tides 
 as modified by the interference of the land with the motions of 
 the sea, especially in naiTow seas, estuaries, and channels, where 
 the motion of the waters is rather the effect of impulse trans- 
 mitted from the ocean, than of the direct action of the stm and 
 moon. Mr. Aiiy very much simplified the theoiy of the tides of 
 the ocean, and produced a most satbfactoiy theoiy of the tides 
 in nan-ow and shallow waters, by fii'st investigating the theory 
 of waves in water, and then applying its results to the phe- 
 nomena of the tides, considered as great waves. The wave- 
 theoiy of the tides is not only scientifically mteresting, but of great 
 practical utility, and well worthy of study by those concerned in 
 the designing and execution of harbours and sea-works. Besides 
 the papers relating to his original discoveries, Mr. Aiiy is the 
 author of various treatises for the pui-poses of instruction in 
 physico-niathematical science. One of the most remarkable of 
 these is the article "Gravitation" in the Penny Cyclopaedia, in 
 which the general nature of the theory of astronomy is made 
 clear to persons of limited mathematical knowledge, and which 
 may be of ser%-ice even to expert mathematicians, by leading 
 them to attach clear ideas to the symbols with which they work. 
 
 AIROLA or AIROLI, Francesca, an Italian canoness and 
 distinguished painter, of the 17th centmy, at Genoa. She exe- 
 cuted several historical and sacred pictures for her native town. 
 
 AIROLDI, Paul, a Dominican of Maiyland, who flouiished at 
 the beguining of the 17th century, was a popular teacher and 
 preacher, published lectures on the Lord's Prayer, and on the 
 seven penitential Psalms. 
 
 AISSE', Mademoiselle, a Circassian, carried ofi" in child- 
 hood by Tiu'kish marauders, purchased, when four years of age, 
 in the slave market of Constantinople by the French ambassador, 
 and carefully educated in France, was born in 1G93, and died 
 in P.aris in 1733. The romance of her life, her beauty and 
 mtelligence, her generosity of character, her high position in 
 French society, her misfortunes, together with her letters pub- 
 Mshed with notes by Voltaire, have procm-ed her celebrity. — E. JI. 
 
 AITKEN, JoHx, lectm-er on anatomy, surgerv'', and chemistry 
 in Edinburgh, inventor of various important surgical instruments, 
 and author of numerous medical works, was admitted member of 
 the College of Sm-geons in 1770, and died in 1790. 
 
 AITON, WiLLiAJi, an eminent horticultmist, was bom at a 
 village near Hamilton, Lanarkshire, in 1731. He was educated 
 as a gardener, and in 1754 he went to England, and became 
 assistant to Miller (author of " The Gardener's Dictionary "), at 
 that time superintendent of the Chelsea physic garden. In 
 1759 he was appointed curator of the garden at Kew, and made 
 great improvements in it, both as regards its arrangement and 
 the construction of conservatories. In 1789 he published a 
 work, entitled " Hortiis Kewensis," or a catalogue of the plants 
 cultivated in the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew. In the first 
 edition, fi-om 6000 to 6000 plants were enumerated. They were 
 aiTanged according to the Linnaan system. He secm'ed the 
 friendship of many eminent patrons of science, such as the Earl 
 of Bute, Sir Joseph Banks, and Dr. Solander. He died firom
 
 disease of the liver on the 1st February, 1793, in the sLsty- 
 thii'd year of his age. A genus of plants was called by Thun- 
 berg " Aitonia," in compliment to him. — J. H. B. 
 
 AITON, VViLLiAM TowNSENU, was the eldest son of 
 William Alton, gardener to the Princess Dowager of Wales, and 
 superintendent of the garden at Kew. He was bom on 2nd 
 Febraary, 1766, and after gomg through his school education at 
 Chiswick and Camberwell, was, in 1783, placed vmder his father 
 in the royal gardens. He became eminent as a landscape gar- 
 dener, and on the death of his fatlier in 1793 he was appointed 
 by George IV. superintendent of the royal gardens at Richmond 
 and Kew. During the reign of George IV. he was employed to 
 lay out the gardens of the pavilion at Brighton and of Bucldng- 
 ham palace, and to superintend the plantations at Windsor. In 
 1841, after a semce of fifty years, he resigned his appointment 
 at Kew. In 1810-13, he published a second edition of his 
 father's "Hortus Kewensis," in 5 vols. 8vo., being assisted in 
 the work by Sir Joseph Banks, Mr. Dryander, and Mr. Brown. 
 He calmly breathed his last on the 9tli October, 1819, in the 
 eighty-fom-th year of liis age. — J. H. B. 
 
 AITZEMA, Leon van, a learned historian, and accomplished 
 and upriglit statesman, long Resident at the Hague for the 
 Hanseatic towns, was born at Dockiun in Friesland in 1600, 
 and died at the Hague in 1661. 
 
 AITZEIMA, FovPE van, a Dutch diplomatist and jmist, 
 kno\m as special envoy on several occasions dm-ing the Thirty 
 Years' War, and as author of "Dissertations on the Civil Law," 
 republished in the sixth volume of Meemian's " Thesaurus Novus 
 Jmis Ci\'ilis et Ecclesiastici," died at Vienna about 1640. 
 
 AJAX, son of Oileus, king of the Locrians, was one of the 
 Grecian princes engaged in the siege of Troy ; distinguished him- 
 self on various occasions by his bravery and military sldll ; was 
 shipwrecked tlu-ough the hostility of Minerva, after the sack of 
 Troy; escaped to a rock through the favour of Neptune, but per- 
 ished sliortly after in the sea, having, by setting all the gods at 
 defiance, provoked that deity to dash to pieces with his trident 
 the rock on which Ajax was standing. Later poets have added 
 to the story of Ajas many circumstances not contained in the 
 Homeric poems. — E. M. 
 
 AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, was in stature 
 superior to all the Grecian heroes at the siege of Troy, and in 
 valour and manly beauty, inferior only to Achilles. When, after 
 the decease of Achilles, the armom* of that hero had to be ad- 
 judged to the most valiant of the Greeks, Ajax claimed it as his 
 right. The decision of the chiefs, which awarded it to Ulysses, 
 caused the death of the son of Telamon, though the manner in 
 which he died is not specified by Homer. — E. M. 
 
 AJELLO, Sebastian, a distinguished physician of Najjles, 
 who flourished in the seventeenth centiuy. He published in 
 1675 a narrative of the pestilence M'hich had recently desolated 
 the Neapolitan territoiy, a treatise on catarrhal aifections, and 
 some verses in honour of Albert of Aragon. 
 
 AKAKIA, Martin, or Sans-Malice, a French physician, 
 was bora at Chalons towards the end of the fifteenth centmy, 
 and died in 1551. He wrote several commentaries upon the 
 works of Galen, and a treatise on the diseases of females. 
 
 AKAKIA, Martin, the son of the foregoing, was born at 
 Chalons in 1539, and died in 1588. He was professor of surgeiy 
 at the Royal college of France. 
 
 AKBAR, Jellalladin Mohammed, one of the Mogid 
 emperors, the seventh in descent from Timoin-, and son of Hou- 
 inayoon, was born at Amarcot in the valley of the Indus in 
 1542, and died in 1605. Dnrmg childhood he was exposed to 
 great danger from the treachery of his uncles and the mis- 
 fortunes of his fother, who had been driven into exile, but 
 recovered his kingdom by the victoiy of Sii-hind. Akbar suc- 
 ceeded to the tin-one at the early age of thirteen. His claims 
 were, however, opposed by Shah-Sikander-Soor and Mohammed 
 Adil-Shah (Adili). Himmon or Hemon, the vizier of the latter, 
 after a brilliant career, was defeated and slain by Behram-Khan, 
 the tutor of Akbar, on the plains of Panipat, A.D. 1556. 
 Adili hunself perished shortly afterwards in Bengal. Akbar 
 next tm-ned his arms against Sikander-Shah, who had seized a 
 part of the Punjab, and speedily reduced him to submission. 
 He then employed himself in establishing a regidar admin- 
 istration, and in checking the insubordination of his generals 
 and governors. Being completely successful in these internal 
 reforms, he nest carried his arms into central India, and after 
 
 an obstinate resistance, he effected the subjugation of all the 
 Rajpoot states. In accordance with liis ruling idea of amali-a- 
 mating his Molianmiedan and Hindoo subjects into one compact 
 nation, he married two Rajpoot princesses, and caused his son 
 Jehaughire, to contract simOar alliances. By liis wise toleration 
 he gained the confidence of the Hindoos, who were freely ad- 
 mitted to the highest civil and militaiy employments. Man-Sing, 
 his most sldlfiU general, and Todarmal, his minister of finance, 
 were of this nation. His next enterprise, after the conquest of 
 Gujerat in 1573, was the invasion of Bengal, which was theii 
 in the hands of the Afghans, and which was not completely sub- 
 jugated until 1592. Meantime Akbar quelled two dangerous 
 rebellions raised by his brother, Blirza-Haldn, in Cabul and 
 Cashmere, and conquered the Zoussoufzeis, or Eastern Afghans, 
 after an obstinate struggle. Finally, he turned his arms against 
 the kings of the Deccan, and brouglit them to obedience. Thus 
 the whole of India, from Cashmere to the Nerbudda, and from 
 Assam to the Soleiinaun mountams, obeyed liis sceptre. 
 
 The latter part of his reign was troubled by the misconduct 
 and the dissensions of his sons. He died in the sixty-fourth 
 year of his age, beloved and regretted throughout his vast 
 dominions. His private and his public character were equally 
 worthy of esteem, and he shines at once as a wanior, a legislator, 
 and a patron of arts and learning. His favom-ite capital, Akbar- 
 abad or Agra, is now in decay, but the tomb of Houmayoon at 
 DeUii, the forts of Agra, of Allahabad at the junction of the 
 Ganges and the Jumna, and of Attock on the Indus, still call 
 forth the admiration of the traveller. His wise laws are, how- 
 ever, the noblest monument of his name. One of his most 
 valuable performances was the compilation of the " Ayeen Ak- 
 beriy," a complete statistical account of the empire, its extent, 
 productions, and revenue. In his reign the first Em-opean mis- 
 sion of a religious nature arrived at the Jlogul court. — J. W. S. 
 
 AKEMOFF, a Russian painter of modern times, who studied 
 under Loszinszko, and executed several pictures for the chm-chcs 
 of St. Petersburg with such success, that he was named director 
 of the Imperial Academy of tliat metropolis. Died 1814. 
 
 AKEN, JoHANN VAN, a Flemish painter and engraver of the 
 17th century, celebrated for his landscapes and pictures of horses. 
 
 AKEN, Joseph van, a Flemish painter of figures and orna- 
 ments. He established himself in England, where, besides 
 painting figures in many of the works of the best landscape 
 painters of the time, he executed several exquisite pictm-es on 
 satin or velvet on his own account. — R. M. 
 
 AKENSIDE, Mark, the author of the "Pleasures of Imagi- 
 nation" and other poems, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, on 
 the 9th of November, 1721. His father, who was by trade a 
 butcher, was a dissenter, and Akenside, according to Dr. Johnson, 
 inherited from him, and retained through life, " an unnecessary 
 and outrageous zeal for what he called and thought liberty." He 
 received his education first at Edinburgh, and aftei-wards at 
 Leyden, where he graduated as a doctor of medicine in 1744. 
 He then returned to England, and established himself as a 
 physician in London. The " Pleasm-es of Imagination," the 
 work by which he is chiefly kno^vn, was composed in Holland, 
 and published soon after his return to England. It obtained at 
 the time a large share of popularity, but few persons at the 
 present day would have the patience to read it through. The 
 analysis of the feelings and powei's of the human mind was a 
 favom-ite subject with the philosophers of that age, and Alcenside 
 seems to have composed this poem, not so much under the 
 influence of poetical inspiration, as with a view to illustrate 
 certain philosophical theories. Johnson says that he had adopted 
 " Shaftesbuiy's foolish assertion of the efficacy of ridicule for the 
 discovery of truth ;" and the greater pai-t of the third book of the 
 poem is the expansion of this notion. He does not seem to have 
 met with much success in his profession, but, fortunately for him, 
 he had formed at Leyden a close intimacy, which aftei-wards 
 ripened into an ardent friendship, wth Mr. Dyson, who became 
 a lord of the Treasury, and generously made his friend an allow- 
 ance of £300 a year while he lived. Akenside's character was 
 upright, sincere, and disinterested, though tinged with pedantry. 
 He was a great lover of classical antiquity, and is said to have 
 furnished the prototype of the physician in Smollet's "Peregrine 
 Pickle," who treats his friends to a "symposium after the manner 
 of the ancients." He published a collection of odes in 1745, but 
 they excited little attention. " When," says Dr. Johnson, " he 
 lays his ill-fated hand upon his hai-p, his former powers seem to
 
 AKE 
 
 62 
 
 ALA 
 
 desert him ; he has no longer his hixuiiance of expression nor 
 variety of images. His thoughts are cold, and his words inele- 
 gant." He died in the year 1770, and was buried in St. James's 
 churchyard, Westminster. Tlie professional works of Akenside 
 consist of a " Dissertation on Dysenteiy," 1764, wi-itten in ele- 
 gant Latin, but since translated into English, and two papers 
 which appeared in the " Pliilosophical Transactions" for 17G3. 
 His poetical works are comprised in one small volume. — T. A. 
 
 AKEKBLAD, John David, a Swedish archreologist, bom 
 about 1760, and died in 1819. Whilst attached to a Swedish 
 embassy at Constantinople, he visited Jerusalem, the Troad, and 
 other places of historical interest. He lias left some important 
 essays on the celebrated stone of Rosetta, on Eunic inscriptions, 
 on the Varingians, &c. 
 
 AKERHJELiM, Anna, a remaricable Sweilish lady of the 
 seventeenth centiu-y, who, witli her three younger sisters, clubbed 
 their little all to give their brotlier a nniversity education. He 
 became ultimately chancellor and secretary of state, and forgot 
 not the kindness of his sisters. All of them had a taste for 
 scientific pursuits, but the object of this memou-, for some time 
 a chambcnnaid, mastered various languages, and travelled mto 
 other countries with the Countess Konigsmark, to whom she was 
 companion and maid of honour. She went as far as Greece, and 
 sent home to the university of Upsal a rare Ai-abian MS. Her 
 letters and diary e%'ince gi-eat powers of observation, and are the 
 product of a cultivated mind. Died at Bremen, 1698. — J. E. 
 
 AKERMANN, a Swedish engraver, who flourished at Upsal 
 about tlie middle of the eighteenth century. He was celebrated 
 for his skill in the manufactm-e of celestial and ten-estrial globes. 
 
 AKIBA BEN JOSEPH, a Jewish rabbi, lived in Palestine 
 in the first century of the Christian era. Until his fortieth year 
 he was a shepherd in the employ of a rich citizen of Jerasalem, 
 named Calba Schwa, and first turned his attention to study in 
 order to gain the affections of his master's daughter. He ac- 
 quired such vast knowledge, that his school, near Jaffa, was 
 attended by multitudes. His disciples are said to have amounted 
 to '21,000. He was one of the principal compilers of Jewish 
 traditions, and was held in great reverence by liis countrymen. 
 It is said that he was master of seventy languages. At an ad- 
 vanced age, he adopted tlie cause of the insurgent leader Bara- 
 cotheba, whom he asserted to be the Messiah. When the rebels 
 were routed by the troops of Adi-ian, Akiba was taken prisoner 
 in tlie fort of Either, and condemned to the stake along with his 
 son Pappus. The most celebrated work ascribed to him is named 
 " Jetsirah," or " On the Creation," a Latin version of which was 
 published at Koenigsberg in lGi'2. — J. W. S. 
 
 AKOUI, a Tartar general, and prime minister to the Cliinese 
 emperor Kien-Long, flourished in the latter half of the eighteenth 
 century. He distinguished himself by the subjugation of the 
 Miao-Se, a semi-barbarous tribe, inhabiting the mountams of 
 Setchuen and Kouer-Tcheon, who, for two thousand years, had 
 defied all the power of China. After tliis campaign, Akoui was 
 received by the emperor with extraordinary honours, and entered 
 Pekin in triumph. He was next employed in obviating a terrible 
 inundation of the river Hoangho, which had laid waste a large 
 part of the province of Houan. By a skilfuUy-planned canal, he 
 drew oft" the superfluous waters, and restored the land to culti- 
 vation. Li 1782, a second inundation of the same river gave 
 fresh scope for his engineering skill. He preserved throughout 
 life the favour of his master, and the esteem both of Tartars and 
 Chinese. The exact period of his death is unknown. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALABASTER, William, an Enghsh divine, born at Had- 
 leigh, Suffolk, probably about 1567. Having accompanied 
 Essex on the Cadiz expedition of 1596, he remained in Spain, 
 and joined the Roman catholic church, a member of which he 
 contimicd till 1610, when the hostility of the Jesuits drove him 
 back to his native country and the church of England. He 
 then became a prebendary of St. Paul's, and rector of Tharfield, 
 and died in 1610. He was deeply read in cabalistic divinity, 
 and published in 1610 a work named " Apparatus in Revela- 
 tionem Jcsu Christi ;" but his chief fame rests on a Latin 
 tragedy named " Roxana," acted at Cambridge in 1592, and 
 published in 1632. Of this production Johnson speaks in terms 
 of high praise, but Hallam has discovered that it is gi'onnded on, 
 and, to a gi-eat extent, copied from an Italian tragedy named 
 " La Dalida," written by Luigi Groto. The poetical powers of 
 Alabaster are, however, the theme of praise in the writings of 
 many of his famous contemporaries. — J. B. 
 
 ALA'DIN or ALA'-EDDI'N, sumamed the " Old Man of the 
 Mountains," a prince of the Assassins, lived about the middle of 
 the thirteenth century. He established an independent princi- 
 pality in Syria, and was universally dreaded, owing to the 
 murderous fanaticism of his followers. 
 
 ALA'-ED-DI'N, the son of Osman, founder of the Ottoman "l 
 empire, lived towards the end of the foiu-teenth century. He 
 instituted the corps of janissaries. 
 
 ALA'-ED-DI'N-KEIKOBAD, a pruice of the Seljukian 
 Tm-ks in Asia Minor, died in 1237, after a reign of seventeen 
 years. His capital, Iconium, was the seat of learning and arts. 
 Like our Alfred the Great, he is said to have divided his time 
 into three parts, for business, study, and recreation. 
 
 ALAH]\IAR, Ben Mohammed, the first king of Grenada, 
 built the palace of the Alhambra, and died in 1237. 
 
 ALAIN, ALAN, or ALANUS (called Alain the Elder, as 
 distinguished from the subject of next notice), a French bishop, 
 bom near Lille about the end of the eleventh or beginning of the 
 twelfth century. After bemg a monk under St. Bemard, at 
 Claii-vaus, he became in 1140 abbot of the Cistercian abbey of 
 La Rivour, and in 1152, bishop of Auxerre. From the love of 
 study, he resigned his see, and spent the remainder of his life in 
 monastic seclusion, partly at La liivonr, but latterly at Clair\'aux. 
 He wrote a biogi-aphy of his friend St. Bernard. — E. M. 
 
 ALAIN DE LILLE or ALANUS DE INSULIS, one of the 
 most renowned schoolmen of the twelfth century. For his ex- 
 tensive- attainments, and his great and diversified capacity, he was 
 sm^iamed " the Universal Doctor." The details of his history 
 are uncertain, or unknown. He is often confounded with the 
 preceding, and it is difficult to determine whether certain works 
 attributed to him are really his. Born at Lille in Flanders, he 
 was, in 1128, quite a boy (^puerulus). It is most probable he is 
 the author of the famous commentary on the prophecies of 
 Merlin. His principal works are : 1. " Anti-claudianus, or 
 Encyclopaedia," a moral aUegoiy in Latin hexameters, in nine 
 books ; 2. A collection of proverbs and maxims in Latin elegiac 
 verse ; 3. A treatise against heretics and unbelievers. — E. M. 
 
 ALAIN, a Benedict of Tom-s, who lived about the middle of 
 the fom-teenth centm-y, and wrote a history of tlie eai-ls of Gal- 
 loway, and some other works. 
 
 ALAIN, Robert, was bom at Paiis in 1680. He was the 
 son of a saddler, and was educated for the church, but disliking 
 theology, he determmed to follow his father's occupation. He did 
 not, however, renoimce literature, but wrote in conjunction with 
 Le Grand, a jcomedy called " L'Epreuve Reciproque," which was 
 first represented in 1711. 
 
 AL-AKHAFSH, the surname of three celebrated Arab gi-am- 
 marians of the school of Basrah, rival to that of Kufah. The 
 first was instructor of the famous grammarians, Sibauyah and 
 Abu-Obeydah ; the second died 830 ; and the tliird 927. 
 
 ALALEONA, Giuseppe, an Itahan jm-ist, from 1721 till his 
 death professor of civil law at Padua, author of " Reflections on 
 the Ai't of Thinking," "Miscellaneous Poetry," and a treatise 
 on succession ab intes/ato; born at Macerata 1670, died 1749. 
 
 ALAMAN, SiCARD d', a favourite minister of Raymond VII., 
 count of Toulouse, from whom he received many favom-s. Dm-- 
 ing his frequent absences, Alaman acted as liis lieutenant, and 
 was left executor on his -nill, along with Bernard, count of Com- 
 minges. A lilie confidence was reposed in him by Raymond's 
 daughter and successor, and by her husband, Alphonse of France. 
 He was, however, no favourite with the nobles and people, but 
 was accused of managing the count's affairs for his personal 
 aggrandizement, and was cited to appear and answer this charge, 
 but died (3rd June, 1275) soon after his summons. — J. B. 
 
 ALAMANDE, Philippa, a learned French lady, born in the 
 fifteenth centmy, mother of Jacques de Sasenage, first equery to 
 Louis XL She was famous for the extent of her Ubrai-y. 
 
 ALAMANNI. — See Alemanni. 
 
 ALAMIR, a Moslem emir in the nmth century, who, after 
 ravaging various provinces of the Greek empure, was defeated by 
 a Greek army and slain. 
 
 ALMIOS DE BARRIENTOS, Don Balthasar, a learned 
 Spaniard, bora at Medina del Campo in Old Castile, about 1550. 
 He was a devoted adherent of Antonio Perez, secretary of state 
 to Philip II. of Spain. On the fall of that statesman he was 
 thrown into prison, where he remained twelve years. During 
 that time he produced a Spanish translation of Tacitus, with 
 notes, &c. On recovering his liberty, he received great kindness
 
 ALA 
 
 63 
 
 ALA 
 
 from tlie dulce of Lerma, and ultimately obtained important 
 offices mider the govemment. Died in 1640. — E. M. 
 
 ALAMUNDAR, an Arab pi-ince, who, after invading Palestme 
 in 509, and massacring a great nmnber of Christian anchorites 
 who lived in the desert, is said to hare been converted, and to 
 have become an anchorite himself. 
 
 ALAN, bishop of Caithness, became chancellor of Scotland in 
 1291, and died a few months afterwards. He is the reputed 
 author of two works in Latin, entitled "Super Regalitatem 
 Koberti Brussii," and "Epistolse ad Eobertum Brassimn." 
 
 ALAN OF Lynn, a divine of the fifteenth centmy, was 
 educated at Cambridge, and celebrated as a preacher and ex- 
 pounder of scripture, though too much given to allegorizing. 
 He entered a Caraielite order in his native town, where he died. 
 
 ALAN OF Tewicesbury, author of a treatise on the life and 
 exile of Thomas A'Becket, and of some other works; died 1201. 
 
 ALAN or ALLEN or ALLEYN, William, cardinal of the 
 Ecman catholic chmxh. He was born of a good family in the 
 county of Lancaster, 1532, and educated at Oxford, where, at 
 the age of twenty-foiu-, in 1556, he was made principal of St. 
 Maiy's Hall. In 1558 he received a canonry of York, but his 
 hopes of fiu-ther promotions were destroyed by the accession of 
 Queen Elizabeth. Alan left England in 1500, and retired to 
 Louvain; but in 1565 he returned secretly, and exerted himself 
 in the interests of his church. His zeal rendered him obnoxious, 
 and after many narrow escapes, he anived safely in Flanders in 
 1568. After lectming at IMalines with great success, he went to 
 Douay, where he established a seminary for the English youth 
 of his own religion. He was employed as one of the translators 
 of the New Testament, known as the Eheims translation, pub- 
 lished 1582, and which forms part of the Douay Bible, at which 
 place the Old Testament was published in 1009, after Alan's 
 death. He now entered more heartily than ever into the cause 
 of his church, and allowed all feelings of loyalty and honour to 
 be merged in fanaticism. He wrote in defence of Sir J. Stanley's 
 base surrender of Daveirleux, and having been made cardinal in 
 1578, by the title of S. Martin de Montibus, he, the year after, 
 drew up his famous " Declaration of the Sentence of Sixtus V. 
 against Queen Elizabeth," and his "Admonition to the NobiHty 
 and People of England." The Ai'mada was plentifully supplied 
 with copies of these tracts, but after its failm-e they were 
 bought up and destroyed. In 1588 he was appointed arch- 
 bishop of Malines by the king of Spain, but the pope would not 
 allow him to leave Rome, where he died in 1594. Besides the 
 works mentioned above, he ^Tote a " Defence of the Power of 
 the Priesthood to Remit Sins;" "A Treatise on the Sacraments;" 
 and "A modest Defence of English Catholics." — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALAND. See Sik John Fortescue. 
 
 ALANDUS, principal of the Jesuit college of Nieswicz in 
 Lithuania, and author of several ascetic treatises, and of a bio- 
 graphy of Prince Nicolas Radziwill, founder of his college, was 
 bom at Leopol in 1561, and died at Nieswicz in 1641. 
 
 ALARCO'N, Don Antonio Suarez, a Spanish historian, 
 bom in 1G36, was a son of the marquis of Trocifal, and was 
 thus descended from one of the most illustrious famihes in Spain. 
 After studjing at Salamanca, he joined the army and served for 
 a short time under his father against the Moors at Ceuta in 
 Africa. He then retired from the ser\'ice, and devoted himself 
 to writing a history of his famous ancestors, which embraces the 
 period from 1177 to the seventeenth century. But the book is 
 occupied chiefly with the exploits of Don Fernando de Alarcon. 
 He died as soon as the work was finished, at the age of 27. — J. B. 
 
 ALARCO'N, Don Fernando d'. Marques de Valle Siciliana 
 yde Renda, born in 1466, a distinguished Spanish wan-ior, who 
 was known as "Del Senor Alarcon." He took part in the wars 
 of Grenada and Italy; after the battle of Pavia, was intrasted 
 with the custody of Francis I. of France ; and, on the capture of 
 Rome in 1527, had charge of the person of Pope Clement VII. 
 His life and exploits form the principal part of the chronicle 
 written by his kinsman, Don Antonio Suarez de Alarcon. — J. B. 
 
 ALARCO'N, Ferna'n Marti'nez i>', the founder of the 
 house of Alarcon, so distinguished in arms and letters in the 
 history of Spain. His family name was originally Zevallos; 
 but having, in the reign of Alfonzo VIII. of Castile, taken the 
 fortress of Alarcon, in the province of Cuenca, from the Moors, 
 he was appointed to its command, and assumed its name. He 
 lived in the twelfth century. — J. B. 
 
 ALARCO'N, Hernando d', a Spanish navigator of the six- 
 
 teenth century, who ascertained that California, previously be- 
 lieved to be an island, was a peninsula. Sailing from Acapulco 
 in May, 1540, he proceeded to explore the coasts of California, 
 and, on his return in 1541, presented to the viceroy an interest- 
 mg narrative of his voyage, accompanied with accurate charts 
 and maps. Alarcon was not the first who made this discovery. 
 Another navigator, Hernando d'Ulloa, returning to Acapulco two 
 or three weeks after Alarcon's departure, made the same an- 
 nouncement as the result of his observations. The discovery 
 was ftirther verified by Melchior Diaz, an officer in the land 
 expedition of discovery, despatched simultaneously with Alarcon. 
 Diaz, after surmounting incredible difficulties, reached the shores 
 of the Pacific, and the spot where the two expeditions had been 
 directed to meet. On a solitaiy tree he found a Spanish inscrip- 
 tion, desiring the reader to examine the papers deposited at the 
 foot of the tree. These stated that Alarcon had found that 
 California was a peninsula. As the policy of the Spanish govem- 
 ment was to conceal geogi-aphical discoveries, it appears that so 
 late as 1716, the navigator Wood Rogers was still in doubt 
 whether or not California was connected with the continent. The 
 date and circumstances of Alarcon's death are unknown. — E. M. 
 
 ALARCO'N Y MENDOZA, Don Juan Ruiz d', a celebrated 
 Spanish dramatic poet, who flourished in the reign of Philip IV. 
 He is generally supposed to have been a native of Tacho in 
 Mexico, but of noble Spanish descent. He resided in Spain 
 from an early age, studied jurisprudence, and held an important 
 govemment office in the colonial department. His dramas ex- 
 hibit gi'eat originality, as well as classical purity and elegance 
 of diction. They breathe a tone of generous and dignified senti- 
 ment, and, for the most part, illustrate some important moral 
 traths. During his lifetime, however, he did not attain popu- 
 larity, though his pre-eminent merits were duly appreciated by 
 the discerning and impartial few. Comeille's piece, entitled " Le 
 Menteur," is avowedly a close imitation of one of Alarcon's 
 dramas ; and that illustrious Frenchman often expressed, in the 
 strongest terms, his high admiration of the Spanish original. 
 Alarcon's works are only to be found in collections of Spanish 
 dramas. The precise dates of his birth and of his death are un- 
 certain. — E. M. 
 
 ALARD or ADALARD, viscount of Flanders, lived in the 
 eleventh century, and is commemorated as founder of the Dome- 
 Tne, or hospital of Aubraj, in connection with which mediaival 
 legends detail various pretended muacles. 
 
 ALARD or ADELARD, a Dutch ecclesiastic, bom at Am- 
 sterdam in 1490. He was noted as a Latin and Greek scholar, 
 and has left behind him a great many works on hteratm'c and 
 controversy. He died at Louvain in 1544. 
 
 ALARD, Francis, a theologian, bom at Brussels about the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century. He belonged to a Roman 
 catholic family, and was himself a preacher of that faith, but 
 afterwards became a Lutheran, for which he incun-ed the dis- 
 pleasure of his family, especially of his mother, who denounced 
 him to the Inquisition. His life was attempted, but he succeeded 
 in making his escape to Oldenburg. T-wice after this he returned 
 home, and as often was obliged to flee. He settled at last as 
 pastor of Wilster in Holstein, where he died in 1578. He wrote 
 several works, none of which are of much note. — J. B. 
 
 ALARD, Lambert, son of Wilfiam, bom at Krempen in 
 1602. He studied at Leipzig, and became a pastor at Briins- 
 biittel in Denmark. He wrote several works in prose and verse. 
 
 ALARD, Nicholas, bom at Tcinnigen in 1683, studied at 
 Kiel, and became pastor of various congregations, and finally of 
 the cathedral at Hamburg. He is the author of various works ; 
 that best Icnown being a " Biography of his Ancestors," which 
 treats chiefly of his gi-eat grandfather, the persecuted Francis 
 Alard. He died in 1756. 
 
 ALARD, William, son of Francis, bom in 1572, was, after 
 distinguishing himself at Wittemberg, made in 1595 joint rector 
 of the college of Krempen, and afterwards pastor of the chm'cb 
 there. He wrote several Latin treatises, and died in 1644. 
 
 ALARIC THE Goth, the first captor of the city of Rome, 
 subsequent to the days of its gloiy, was born about the middle 
 of the fourth century, and sprang from the royal Gothic family 
 of the Baltai. The tribe or nation of the Visigoths, to which 
 he belonged, crossed tlie river Danube in his childhood, driven 
 onward by vast hosts of Huns, who pressed fonvard from the 
 wilds of Asia and northern Eiu'ope, and laid waste the ancient 
 tenitory of the Goths. They had at first entered the Roman
 
 empire as fugitives and suppliants, and had humbly sought per- 
 mission to settle in the waste lands lying to the south of the 
 Danube ; but mutual jealousies had subsequently arisen, and in 
 the reign of the emperor Valens, the Goths had risen in arras, 
 and in the year 378, under the command of a cliief named 
 Fritigem, they had defeated and killed the emperor Valens, and 
 60,000 of his best soldiers, in a great battle fought under the 
 walls of Adi-ianople. They had subsequently themselves been 
 defeated by Theodosius in more than one battle ; but in the year 
 382, they had concluded a peace, which left them in possession 
 of MKsia, and other provinces on the banks of the Danube, and 
 in the position of allies rather than subjects of the Greek and 
 Roman emperors. They agreed to fm-nish the emperor Theo- 
 dosius with an army of 40,000 men, mider the command of 
 their ovra officers, and it was in this anny and in the service of 
 the Greek and Roman emperors, that Alaric acquired that know- 
 ledge of the art of war which he afterwards tm-ned with such 
 fatal eftect against the inhal)itants of Greece and Italy. Before 
 these events, the Goths had become converts to Christianity, 
 though with a strong leaning to Arian doctrines ; and it is clear, 
 from a translation of the gospels into the j\I«so-Gotliic language, 
 considerable part of which still exists, that these first conquerors 
 of Rome were of the same Teutonic or Gothic race which at 
 that time or subsequently peopled Germany, Scandinavia, and 
 the British islands. 
 
 On the death of Theodosius, in the year 393, the empu-e 
 devolved on liis two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, both youths 
 of feeble minds. One of the first acts of Ai-cadius was to diive 
 Alaric from his service and to rouse him to revenge, by an 
 insulting refusal of all promotion. The fieiy Goth returned to 
 his own countiymen, who received him with enthusiasm, raised 
 him on a shield (according to their custom), saluted him king, 
 and vehemently urged him to lead them to an attack on the 
 dominions of Aixadius. As soon as the news of the proposed 
 expedition was spread abroad, multitudes of Scythians crossed 
 the Danube to share in the plunder of the empire. 
 
 In the beginning of the year 396, Alaric advanced at the 
 head of an immense army to the walls of Constantinople, the 
 capital of the Eastern empire, lapng waste the whole coimtiy as 
 he advanced. Constantinople being too strong to be taken 
 without a regular siege, the Goths next threw themselves into 
 Greece, plundering all the cities, except Athens, to which Alaric 
 granted a capitulation on papiient of a large ransom, and laj-ing 
 waste the country on every side. Before he had entirely wasted 
 this beautiful region, Stilicho, the commander of the legions of 
 Honorius, arrived from Italy, and by a series of masterly move- 
 ments, placed Alaric and his anny in a position of extreme diffi- 
 culty, from which there seemed to be no escape ; but the 
 treachery and mean jealousy of the ministers of Arcadius saved 
 Alaric and his anny, foi", rather than allow StQicho to acquire 
 the glory of conquering Alaric, they allowed the latter to escape, 
 and concluded a treaty with him, by which Alaiic was again 
 taken into the service of Arcadius, and appointed master-general 
 of the emperor's infantiy in lUyricum. 
 
 By this arrangement Alaric was placed in possession of the 
 four greatest ai-senals of anns in the empu-e, and had the oppor- 
 tunity of thoroughly arming and training his soldiers. After 
 domg so, he crossed the Alps of Frieul into Italy, in the autumn 
 of the year 402, and advanced rapidly on ]Milan, where Honorius 
 then resided. By prodigious efforts, Stilicho brought together 
 an army of 30,000 men from Gaul and Britain. With this 
 army he attacked Alaric at Pollentia, on the 29th March, 403, 
 defeated and drove him back on Verona, where he defeated him 
 a second time, and compelled him to retire from Italy. 
 
 After this second defeat, Alaric remained qmet for some 
 yeai-s, and in this interval, in the year 406, Stilicho, his old 
 rival, had the opportunity of agaui sa\Tng the empu-e, by defeat- 
 ing an immense ai-my of Germans which had advanced into 
 Italy in that year. Radogast, the leader of this army, was 
 taken prisoner, and delivered up to Hononus, who put him to 
 death ; and two years later, Stilicho himself, having become an 
 object _ of envy, jealousy, and hatred to the feeble-minded 
 Honorius and his courtiers, was beheaded at Ravenna, by order 
 of the emperor, on the 23rd August, 408. 
 
 By this act of insane cmelty, Italy was depnved of its last 
 defender; and in the month of October, in the same year, Alaric 
 agmn crossed the Alps, and advanced to Ravenna without any 
 resistance. Ravenna was at that time protected by swamps 
 
 and lagoons, like those which have so long defended Venice. 
 Beliind these the cowardly Honorius and his vOe courtiers re- 
 mained in safety, leaving Italy at the mercy of Alai-ic. 
 
 Eai-ly in the spring of the year 409, Alaiic appeared before 
 Rome, which had never been threatened by a foreign enemy since 
 the time — 619 years before — when it was tlu-eatened, but not 
 taken, by Hannibal the Carthagenian. Rome, though some- 
 what diminished in power by the rivalry of Constantinople, and 
 by the removal of the court to Ravenna, was still the most 
 magnificent city in the world. It was eighteen miles in circum- 
 ference, contained a population of at least a million of inhabi- 
 tants, was adorned with 1780 senatorial palaces, and with 
 innmnerable temples, baths, amphitheatres, and churches, the 
 proudest works of the republic and the empire. Many of the 
 Roman nobility possessed incomes equal to from £100,000 to 
 £160,000 a year of our money, and the wealth of the whole 
 city was probably equal to that of London or Paris in the 
 present age, whilst in the magnificence of its public buildings 
 it greatly sm-passed them both. But the free and warlike spirit 
 of Rome was utterly dead, and tliis vast population, abounding 
 in wealth, saw the approach of the ai-my of Alaric without an 
 effort to an-est its progi-ess. After endm-ing all the hon-ors of 
 famine, they concluded a treaty with Alaric, by which they 
 agreed to pay to hun the sum of five thousand pounds weight 
 of gold, and a gi-eat mass of precious effects, on conilition that 
 he would spare the city. He consented to do so, and withdrew 
 his anny into Tuscany. 
 
 At this time, Alaric was willing to conclude peace on condi- 
 tion of receiving a pro\ince from Honorius, but that wretched 
 puppet was alilce incapable of defending his dominions by war 
 or by policy. Several negotiations were begun and broken off, 
 and at length Alaric advanced again upon Rome, seized the city 
 of Porto, at the mouth of the Tiber, and after reducing the 
 Roman capital to the verge of famine, compelled the Romans to 
 choose another emperor, m the person of Attains, a praetorian 
 prefect, in the place of Honorius. Attalus, however, proved 
 himself as imbecile as Honorius ; before the lapse of a year he 
 was deposed, and for the tliird time the army of the Goths ap- 
 peared before Rome. After a short siege, the Salarian gate was 
 thrown open in the night to the anny of Alaric, and for six days 
 and nights, Rome, the capital of the world, endured the hon-ors 
 which it had itself been the means of inflicting on a thousand 
 cities. 
 
 Although we commonly speak of the Goths as barbarians, yet 
 it is only just to say that they did not inflict on Rome anything 
 like the wholesale desti-uction which the Romans had uiflicted 
 on Carthage, and Numantium, or even on Coiinth. Only a 
 small part of the city was bm-nt, and that by accident ; the 
 chiu-ches, and all who had taken refuge in them, were spared. 
 Alaric took precautions to presei-ve the public buildings, and at 
 the end of the sixth day he withdrew his army from Rome, and 
 marched into Campania. It was on the 24th April, a.d. 410, 
 and in the year 1163 fi-om the founding of the city, that Alaric 
 and the Goths captured the capital of the world. 
 
 Alaric lived only a few months after the capture of Rome. 
 After leaving that city he marched to the south of Italy, intend- 
 ing to conquer Sicily and tlie Roman provinces of Afiica, but at 
 Cozenza he was seized with a fatal disease, which cut liim off in 
 a few days. His body was bmied in the bed of the river Bisen- 
 tiiun, that it might not be torn up and desecrated after Ids anny 
 had left the country ; and that the place of interment might 
 not be discovered, the unfortmiate captives who were employed 
 in bui-ying liis remains were afterwards put to death. — T. B. 
 
 ALARIC II., King of the Spanish Goths, succeeded his father 
 Evaric in the year 484. Clovis, the first of the Merovingian 
 dj-nasty in France, slew him with his own hand in a battle 
 fought near Poitiers in 507. The dominions of Alaric included, 
 besides the peninsula, provinces in Gaul, Languedoc, and Pro- 
 vence, and it is recorded, to his credit, that he administered the 
 affairs of his kingdom in a wise and temperate spuit. He con- 
 tinued the concord that had subsisted between the Goths and 
 the Franks dming his father's reign, and he had for his allies 
 the kings Gondebaud and Theodoric. It was in defence of his 
 provinces in Gaul that he led his forces against Clovis. Like 
 his predecessors, Alaric was a zealous Arian ; but from the foct 
 of a council of bishops having been held with his consent in 
 506, it may be inferred that he exercised a laudable sj)irit of 
 toleration in matters ecclesiastical. The celebrated code of laws
 
 ALA 
 
 65 
 
 ALB 
 
 known by tlie name of " Breviarium Alaricianum," and also of 
 Lex Eomana, and Coiiius Theodosii, dates its origin from the 
 tune of Alaric IL In tlie twentieth year of his reign, he caused 
 a commission of jmists to assemble in Gascony, for the purpose 
 of embodying in a code whatever was best in the Roman statutes 
 and decrees ; and this code, signed by Ananius, who is supposed 
 to have superintended the preparation of it, was distributed by 
 Alaric throughout his dominions. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALARY, Barthelemy, born at Grasse about the middle of 
 the seventeenth century, acquired a largo fortune as a seller of 
 secret remedies. He first practised in his native place, and then 
 removed to Paris, where, having cm-ed various persons at the 
 coui-t of Louis XIV., he obtained the royal patronage. He pub- 
 lished a book on the mode of administering his medicine, and 
 the different effects produced by it. — J. B. 
 
 ALARY, Geokge, a French missionaiy, bom in 1731. He 
 was sent to Siam ; but at the sack of Mergui, after suffering 
 gi'eat privation, he was taken prisoner to Rangoon, in the king- 
 dom of Ava. In 1768, he entered China, where he laboured 
 with much success till he was recalled to Paris in 1772, to 
 become the Director of the Seminary of Foreign Missions. He 
 was intennpted in the discharge of the duties of that office by 
 the Revolution, and obliged to take refuge in England ; but in 
 1802 he returned to France, and re-established the seminary, 
 which he superintended till its dissolution in 1809. — J. B. • 
 
 ALARY, Jean, a French advocate and poet, who lived in the 
 close of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth century. 
 He was born at Toulouse, and practised in the parliament of that 
 city. An intricate lawsuit took him to Paris, where he lived 
 several years, and where he published the most of his works. 
 Among these were several poems ; but the book in connection 
 •w-ith which his name is best known, is entitled "Abrege des 
 longues Etudes, ou pierre philosophique des sciences." — J. B, 
 
 ALARY, Pierre Joseph, prior of Goumay-sur-Marne, and 
 member of the French Academy, was bom at Paris in 1689. He 
 was a favourite pupil of the Abbe de Longuerae, and the corre- 
 spondent of Lord Bolingbroke. Though distinguished for his 
 acqmrements, he was indifferent to literary fame, and has left no 
 completed work. Died in 1770. 
 
 ALASCO or a LASCO, John, one of the reformers of the 
 sixteenth centiuy, born in Poland in 1499, and connected with 
 a family of high rank in that country. After his elementaiy 
 education was finished, he visited the most celebrated European 
 universities. On his return to Poland he was offered two bishop- 
 rics, but he chose rather to seek a sphere of action abroad. After 
 visiting Wittenberg, where he became acquainted with Melancthon, 
 he went to Emden in East Fricsland, where he was appointed 
 preacher, and where he was largely instrumental in completing 
 the Reformation. In 1548, Cranmer, at the request of Edward 
 VI., invited him to England, where he organized a congregation 
 of foreign protestants who had taken refuge in London. On the 
 accession of Maiy these foreigners had to leave their asylum, and 
 Alasco went vrith them to Denmark, but soon left that countiy, 
 because his views on the Lord's Supper were inconsistent with the 
 ritual adopted by the Danish church. At Frankfort he again or- 
 ganized a body of foreign protestants, consisting chiefly of those 
 who had been under his care in London. In 1556 Alasco re- 
 turned to Poland, and became one of the most zealous refonners 
 in his native country. He was one of eighteen divines who 
 undertook to prepare a Polish translation of the Bible ; but he 
 died in 1560, before the completion of the work. He has left 
 various theological and controversial works. — J. B. 
 
 ALAS'HARF, Abu-l-Hasan 'Ah Ibn Isma'i'l, founder of 
 the sect of the Ash'arites, was born at Basrah about 860. 
 
 ALASHKAR or ALISHKAR, Rabbi Moses, an African 
 rabbi, was, according to Rossi, judge or ruler of his people in 
 ]']gypt, and has left various works on the Hebrew scriptures. 
 
 ALATI'NO, Moses, a Jewish physician, bom at Spoleto, in 
 Italy, towards the end of the sixteenth century. He wrote two 
 Latin translations, one of Galen on the treatise of Hippocrates, 
 " De acre, locis, et aquis," the other from the Hebrew of The- 
 mistius on Aristotle's work, " On the Heavens and the World." 
 
 ALATI'NO, Vita'le, a Jewish physician, bom at Spoleto, 
 the author of many medical works. He lived in the early part of 
 the 10th centmy, and was chief physician to Pope Julius III. 
 
 ALATRI'NO, Jochanan-Mordecai, better kno^vn as An- 
 GELO AiyATRiNO, was au Italian rabbi, who lived early in the 
 sixteenth century. He wrote an Italian translation of some 
 
 VOI-. I. 
 
 Hebrew verses by R. Nathan Jedidja ben Elieser. It was named 
 " The Trumpet of the Angel of M. Angelo Alatrino the Jew, 
 with some spiritual sonnets of the same." Venice, 1628. 
 
 A'LAVA, Miguel Ricardo, a Spanish general and states- 
 man, was born at Vittoria in 1771, and died at Bareges in 
 France, in 184.3. During the usurpation of Joseph Bonaparte, 
 he took the side of the French, and became known as a zealous 
 " Afrancesado." About 1811 he returned to his duty, and 
 served with some distinction under Wellington. After the peace, 
 he was elected president of the Cortes, joined the liberal move- 
 ment of 1822, mider Generals Murillo and Ballasteros, and was 
 employed on several diplomatic missions. — J. W. S. 
 
 A'LAVA Y NAVARE'TE, Don Igna'cio Mari'a de, a 
 Spanish sailor, a native of Vittoria, who, in 1779, joined the fleet 
 of Admiral Cordova, engaged in the war with England. After 
 sei-ving for a number of years, he was appointed admiral, and 
 sailed to South America, doubled Cape Horn, crossed the Pacific 
 to the Philippines, touching at the Mariana isles, and rectifying 
 many en-ors in the chai'ts of the South and Asiatic seas. On his 
 return he was made second in command of the fleet imder Admu-al 
 Gravina, and fought at Trafalgar, where he was severely wounded. 
 He was raised, in 1817, to the rank of high admiral and president 
 of the board of admu-alty. He died at Chiclana, near Cadiz, on 
 the 20th May of the same year. — J. B. 
 
 ALAVIN, a chief of the Goths, invaded the Eastern empire, 
 and defeated Valens at Adrianople about 378. 
 
 ALAWY, a Persian physician, was bom at Scliiraz in 1069, 
 and died at Delhi in 1749. He enjoyed the friendship of the 
 Emperor Am-engzebe, and afterwards that of Nadir Shah, whom 
 he cured of the dropsy. His gi'eatest work is the " Djenia Al 
 Djervami," an encyclopedia of medical science. 
 
 ALAYMO, Marco Antonio, an Italian physician, was bom 
 at Regalbuto in 1590, and died in 1662 at Paleimo, where he 
 had rendered great sei-vices during the plague in 1624. 
 
 ALBA, Macrino d', called by some writers Gian Giacomo 
 Fava, an Italian historical painter, bom at Alba in Piedmont 
 in 1460, studied and worked for some time in Rome. Having 
 retumed to his native place, he excited such admiration amongst 
 his fellow-citizens, that they used to call him the "Modern Apel- 
 les." The many authentic pictvu-es by this artist that are to be 
 seen at Alba, Asti, Pa^aa, &c., and the few belonging to galleries, 
 one especially at Frankfort- on-the-Maine, are veiy remarkable 
 for intensity of expression and carefulness of execution, but leave 
 much to desh'e as regards colour, which is still hard and poor. 
 He is supposed to have died in 1520. — R. M. 
 
 ALBAN, Saint, the English protomartyr, was a native of 
 Verulam, one of the most populous cities in Roman Britain, in 
 wliich place he held military rank. When Diocletian's persecu- 
 tion extended to Britain, Alban was yet a heathen ; but having 
 sheltered a Christian priest who was striving to escape his per- 
 secutors, was by liim converted to the Christian faith. The 
 Roman governor, hearing that the priest was concealed in Alban's 
 house, sent soldiers to take him, when Alban, having prc\a- 
 ously secured the priest's retreat, presented himself in the dress 
 of his guest. He was captru'ed, and led before the governor. 
 On confessing himself a Christian, he was scourged and then 
 beheaded, after his samtly demeanour had won another convert 
 to the gospel, in the person of the soldier who was appointed to 
 behead him. The date of his inartyi'dom is variously given ; 
 the most probable is a.d. 303; and after ages have disfigm-ed the 
 simple and affecting nan-ative, by the addition of various legends. 
 The noble chmxh which bears his name was founded at the 
 place where he suffered martyrdom, by OlTa, king of Mercia, a.d. 
 793, in the room of one which had been destroyed by the pagan 
 Saxons. Part of OfFii's work still remains, and there are few 
 spots so interesting to the English Christian as the abbey of St. 
 Alban. The church of Rome celebrates this saint's memory on 
 June 22nd; the chmxh of England, June 17th. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALBAND, Denis and George d', scientific agricultmists, 
 who flourished about the year 1770, and tumed their attention 
 to the improvement of heaths and worn-out meadow lands. 
 
 ALBANI, The, a celebrated Roman family, the founders of 
 which came originally fi'om Albania, having been expelled thence 
 by the Turks. Several of the Albani became cardinals of the 
 church of Rome, and one of them pope, with the title of Clement 
 XL The most famous of the name are the five following : — 
 
 Albani, Giovanni Girolamo, Cardinal, was bom at Ber- 
 gamo on the 3rd January, 1504, and died the 23d April, 1591. 
 
 I
 
 He was raised to the purple by Fius V. in 1570. He is the 
 author of several works on canonical jurisprudence. 
 
 Albani, Alessandro, Cardinal, was born at Urbino on the 
 15th of October, 1692, and died on the 11th December, 1779. 
 Himself thoroughly versed in classical learning, he was a patron 
 of literature and art. Winckelmann has described in his "Histoiy 
 of Ai-t," many of the ancient remains with which he adorned his 
 country house, the Villa Albani, which, however, was despoUed 
 by the French of numbers of its most beautiful antiques. 
 
 Aleani, Anxibale, Cardinal-camerlingo of the church of 
 Rome, born 1682; died 1750. He wrote ''Historical Memoii-s 
 of the City of Urbino," and other works. 
 
 Albani, Giovanni-Francesco, Cardinal, brother of Anni- 
 bale; bom in 1720, died in 1809. AYliile yet a mere youth, he 
 was made bishop of Ostium and Velletri, and was only twenty- 
 seven when he attained the purple. Gifted with a handsome 
 person, he was coiu-ted for his wit and learning, and passed the 
 early part of his life chiefly in pleasm'e. He owed his influence 
 in political and ecclesiastical affairs to the Jesuits, on whom his 
 family had conferred favours. During the wars of the French 
 Eevolution, he was at first a decided opponent of its principles, 
 and a warm partisan of Austria. The French invasion compelled 
 him to flee from Rome, and subsequently from Naples. He then 
 took refuge in Venice, where he aided in procuring the election 
 of Pope Pius VII. Not long after, when the new pope took the 
 side of France, Albani returned to Rome, where he died as pre- 
 sident of the Sacred College. 
 
 Albani, Giuseppe, Cardinal, nephew of the preceding; born 
 nt Rome in 1750 ; died on the 3rd December, 1834. He became 
 a member of the Sacred College in 1801. Like the rest of his 
 family, he attached himself to the Austrian interest, and in 
 1796 was sent to Vienna in behalf of the Papal See. Here the 
 French occupation of Rome forced him to remain for a long time, 
 and meanwhile his property was confiscated. He did not return 
 till 1814. Under Pius VIII., Joseph Albani became secretary 
 of state, and Gregory XVI. made him apostolic commissary for 
 establishing order in the Four Legations. He is accused of 
 violence and cruelty in discharging this ofiSce. He died at 
 Pesaro, at the age of 84. — A. M. 
 
 ALBANI, Francesco, commonly called L'Albano, was 
 bom in 1578 at Bologna, where he died in 1660. He justly 
 deserved to be called the Anacreon of art, and the painter of 
 Graces and Cupids. His skill in treating idylhc subjects, combin- 
 ing figures and landscapes, stands as yet imparalleled. His hav- 
 ing been a pupO of Denis Calvart, the Flemish painter, and then 
 of Annibale Cai-acci, coupled with his long connection with 
 Guido Reni, and Domenichino, and the subsequent rivality with 
 the first of these artists, resulted in giving to his style a pecuhar 
 cast, rich with the individualities of the others, and enhanced by 
 his own geniality, which produced the most charming harmonv. 
 Numerous are the works of this great master that now embellish 
 the galleries of the world, the product of an active and successful 
 life, embittered only by the excessive spirit of emulation which 
 deprived him of many early friends, sun-ounding him with the 
 most stinging troubles dmnng the last years of his life. Many 
 good artists sprang from his school, amongst whom Sacchi and 
 Cignani stand foremost. L'Albano recorded his views upon art 
 in some writings on the principles of painting. — R. M. 
 
 ALBANS, John of Saint, known also as Johannes 
 iEaiDius, an Engfish theologian and physician, flourished in 
 the beginning of the thu-teenth century. He studied at Oxford, 
 became principal physician to Philip II. of France, and taught 
 at the schools of Paris and Montpolier. 
 
 ALBANS, Saint, Duchess of, Harriet Mellon, originally 
 an actress, was married to the wealthy banker, Coutts, and on his 
 death, to William, the ninth duke of St. Albans. Died in 1837. 
 
 ALBA'NUS MO'NACHUS, a Benedictine of Saint Albans 
 monastery, author of a book called " Versus Vaticinalcs," and of 
 a book of " Prophetic." He laid claim to the gift of prophecy. 
 
 ALBANY, Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess of, a cousin 
 of the last reigning prince of Stolberg-Geldem, was born in 1753, 
 .•md died in 1824. She mairied Prince Charies Edward Stuart, 
 from whom she was afterwards separated, and spent the remainder 
 of her life at Florence, in the society of the poet Alfieri. 
 
 ALBARELLI or ALBERELLI, Jacopo, an Italian histori- 
 cal painter and sculptor at the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century. He was of the school of the younger Palma, and has 
 left several good works in Venice, his native city. — R. M. 
 
 ALBATEGNIUS ; AxBATiiNi ; J\Ioham.med ben Gebi.r 
 
 BEN Senan ABU Abdallah al-Batani: probably the greatest 
 of Ai-abian astronomers ; flom-ished about the year 880 of our 
 era. The signal industry of Sedillot has recently obliged us to 
 correct our estimate of the class of observers of whom Alba- 
 tegnius is the ornament. Injustice has been done them mainly 
 because of the difficulty of reaching then- original works; the 
 Arabic MSS. lying untouched in forbidduig masses in chests ir. 
 om- public libraries, and known in Europe only through wretched 
 translations. These remarkable men were not mere commenta- 
 tors or slavish copyists. Taking advantage of the writings of 
 Ptolemy, they yet did so crilicalli/, and were not disposed to be 
 misled by his imperfections and eiTors. Even to professed copyists 
 like Abderrahman-Suphi, we are indebted for the most authentic 
 reproduction of the precious catalogue of Ptolemy. The specific 
 services of Al-Batani, who was the Ai-abian Ptolemy, may be 
 summed up as follows : — First, he approached much nearer than 
 Ptolemy to the detennination of the tiTie precession of the equi- 
 noxes : Secondly, he also ajiproximated more nearly to the eccen- 
 tricity of the solar (the teiTestrial) orbit : Thirdly, he determinea 
 the length of the sohu- year to within two and a half minutes of 
 its real length ; and, as Halley remai'ks, he committed this error 
 through too great reliance on some of the dicta of Ptolemy : 
 Fourthly, he discovered the motions of the smi's apogee, the posi- 
 tion of which was previously considered fixed, — disentangling it 
 from the motion of precession : Fifthly, he established errors or 
 incompetency in the theory of Ptolemy, as applied to the moon 
 and planets ; — these eiTors he could not wholly correct, but he 
 advanced theory a gi-eat step by surmising that these bodies also 
 have a motion in apogee : Sixthly, he constnicted new stellar 
 tal)les, which, because of then- gi'eater accru-acy, supplanted those 
 of Ptolemy, and long continued the standard tables of the East. 
 The labours of this astronomer are exposed in his treatise " De 
 scientia stellanim." The native city of Albategnius was Batan 
 in Mesopotamia, whence his sm-name. He was commandant of 
 the caliphs in Syi-ia : he observed at Antioch, the seat of his 
 government, and at Aracta (Ractia) in Mesopotamia. It is 
 singular that Albategnius was not a Mahommedan, but a Sabean, 
 — a worsliipper of the stars : singular that he enjoyed credit 
 with caliphs, as a Sabean is held in abhon-ence by every true 
 Mussulman. Albategnius died in the year 928. — J. P. N. 
 
 ALBEDYHLL, Gustavus, Baron of, was a Swedish diplo- 
 matist. He has written a " Collection of Memoirs relative to 
 the afi^iirs of Europe, and particularly those of the North, during 
 the latter part of the 18th century." (Stockholm, 1798-1811, 
 2 vols. 8vo.) He died on 11th August, 1819. His -wife wrote 
 a poem called "Gefion," in four cantos (Upsal, 1814), which 
 has enjoyed some reputation. — A. M. 
 
 ALBELADORY, Aboul-Abbas-Aiimed, was an Arabian 
 historian, and Imaum of Bagdad. He was tutor to one of the 
 sons of the Caliph Almotavakkel. He wrote a work on the 
 Mahommedan conquests, in which he gives detailed accounts of 
 the state of the countries wluch come under notice. Rainaud, 
 in the " Fragments Arabes et Persans inedits sur ITnde," trans- 
 lates the chapter of Albeladory on the occupation of the valley 
 of the Indus by the Mussulmans. He died A.d. 895. — A. M. 
 
 ALBELDA, Moses, a Greek rabbi, chief of the synagogue at 
 Saloniki (Thessalonica), in the latter half of the 16th centmy. 
 He wrote " Commentaries on the Pentateuch." 
 
 ALBEMARLE, Diike of. See Monk. 
 
 ALBEMARLE, Eari of. See Keppel. 
 
 ALBENAS, Jean Poldo d', a French antiquary, bom at 
 Nismes in 1512 ; died in 1563. He studied law, and became 
 in 1552 councillor in the presidial court of his native town. He 
 wrote a histoiy of Nismes, and also a work with the title, " Prog- 
 nosticormn, sive de origine mortis humanse, de future sjeculo, 
 et de futuraj vitas contemplatione." 
 
 ALBER, Erasmus, generally known mider the Latinized 
 fomi of his name, Alberus, was bom towards the close of the 
 fifteenth century, and died on the 5th May, 1553. Alber, who was 
 a zealous partisan of the Reformation, and one of the most leamed 
 and genial men of his time, had studied at Wittenberg under 
 Luther, and continued the intimate friend of the great refomier. 
 He preached the doctrines of the Reformation in various pails of 
 Germany, but generally with so much satuical vehemence as to 
 prevent his remaining in a permanent benefice. He was for some 
 time chaplain to Joachim II., elector of Brandenburg, and subse- 
 quently was preacher in Magdebm-g. Alber died at Neubran-
 
 AI.B 
 
 67 
 
 AT.B 
 
 denburg in Mecklenburg, shortly after he had been appomted 
 to the office of superintendent-general, a species of bishopric. 
 His writings, vphich are mostly dkected against the Roman catho- 
 lics, ai'e full of bitter satire, and the coarse humoui- characteris- 
 tic of the period. One of the most remarkable is : — " Der Bar- 
 fiisser Monche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran, mit einer schonen 
 Von-e de JIartini Lutheri." (The Joe Wilier and Alcoran of the 
 Barefooted Monks, with a beautiful preface by Martin Luther.) 
 This is a translation, with a rmining parodied commentary, of a 
 work by Bartholomew Albizza of Pisa, which purports to exhibit 
 the resemblance between St. Francis and Christ. Another is a 
 piece of personal controversy dkected against one George Witzel, 
 a monk who adopted the doctrines of the Refoi-mation, and then 
 apostatized; it is entitled, "Eilend aber doch wohlgetroffener 
 Contrafactur, da Jorg Witzel abgemalet ist, wie er dem Judas 
 Ischariot so gar ahnlich sieht." (A hasty but well-hit por- 
 traiture, being the likeness of George Witzel, showing his ex- 
 ceeding great resemblance to Judas Iscariot.) Alber also wrote 
 a book of forty-nine fables in German verse, and a number of 
 hymns which became popular. — A. M. 
 
 ALBERGA'TI, Fabio, a political writer, died about the year 
 1605. He was a native of Bologna, but passed a great part of 
 his life at the court of Francis Maria della Rovere, duke of Ur- 
 bino. Two of his books are these : — " Del modo di ridure alia 
 pace le inimicizie private " (On the mode of reducing private 
 enmities to peace), Rome, 1583, folio; and "La Republica Regia" 
 (The Royal Republic), Bologna, 1627, folio. 
 
 ALBERGA'TI, Lucio, a learned Itahan, who lived in the 
 latter half of the tenth century. He was a native of Bologna. 
 He wrote, among other works — " De Virginitate Libri IIL ; " 
 "De Angelorum lapsu;" "Super Pentateuchuin Commentaria." 
 
 ALBERGA'TI, Nicholas, Cardinal, was born at Bologna in 
 1375. He commenced hfe as a student of law, but at twenty 
 became a member of the order of Carthusians. In 1417 he be- 
 came bishop of Cologne under Pope Martin V., who subsequently 
 raised him to the cardhialate, and intrusted liim with the dis- 
 charge of several important missions. One of these was to 
 mediate as nuncio between Charles VI. of France, and Henry 
 V. of England. He was appointed to preside at the council of 
 Basle by Pope Eugenius IV., whose prerogatives he strenuously 
 maintained in that assembly. On Iiis retmn from a mission as 
 apostolic nuncio to the congress of Niimberg in 1439, he was 
 made grand penitentiary and treasirrer to the pope, but died in 
 1443, before he had long enjoyed these dignities. He has left a 
 number of works on theolocrical subjects. — A. M. 
 
 ALBERGA'TI CAPACELLI, Francis, Marquis, an Italian 
 dramatic author; bom at Bologna on the 29th of April, 1728, 
 and died on the 16th of March, 1804. In the theatre which he 
 erected at his ^dlla, near Bologna, he acted in his own and other 
 pieces so admirably, as to acquire the appellation of "the Garrick 
 of Italy." His private life was of dubious fame. He divorced 
 his first wife, and was accused of murdering his second, an 
 actress. Of this crime, however, Albergati was judicially ac- 
 quitted. His third wife, \vith whom he lived unhappily, was a 
 dancer of the name of Zampieri. Goldoni vrrote for his theatre, 
 and he corresponded with Voltahe and Alfieri. His own dra- 
 matic works are nineteen in number ; the best is " II prejudizio 
 del falso onore." (The prejudice of false honour.) — A. M. 
 
 ALBERGO'NI, Eleuterio, an eloquent Italian preacher, 
 provincial of Milan, ad\'iser to the Inquisition, bishop of Mon- 
 marani from 1611 till his death, and author of various religious 
 works, and of an explanation of the doctrines of Scotus, was 
 born at Milan m 1500, and died in 1636. 
 
 ALBERGOTTI, Frajsicesco, an Italian jurist of the four- 
 teenth century, of great celebrity and influence in his tune, 
 author of a commentary on the Pandects and on part of the 
 code of Justinian, and sumamed " Doctor solidre vcritatis." 
 
 ALBERIC or ALBERT, an ecclesiastic of Aix in Provence, 
 author of " Chronicon Hierosolymitanum," compiled from the 
 statements of eye-witnesses, and containing a histoiy of the 
 crasaders from 1085 to 1120. 
 
 ALBERIC, a Benedictine monk, bom at Beauvais in 1080. 
 He was made cardinal-bishop of Ostia, and sent as legate to 
 London, where he held a council of the English church in 1138. 
 He convoked at Antioch, in 1140, a council of Latin bishops, 
 which deposed the Latin patriarch Rodolphus. He afterwards 
 proceeded to France, where he co-operated with St. Bernard in 
 the suppression of heresy. Died at Verdun in 1147. 
 
 ALBERI'CO da Barbia'no, a soldier, who acted a promi- 
 nent part in the internal wars of Italy, toward the close of the 
 fomteenth centmy. He took the side of Urban VI. in his 
 quan-el with Clement VII., and aftenvards assisted Charles of 
 Dm-azzo in his conquest of Naples, and was appointed great 
 constable of that kingdom. He died at Trani in Apulia. 
 
 ALBERI'CO d' RoscLiTi, a native of Bergamo, and one of 
 the most eminent jurists of the fourteenth century, author of 
 various treatises on civil and canon law. 
 
 ALBERI'CUS or ALBERI'CO, the elder, count of Tuscu- 
 lum, and duke of Spoletum and Camerinum, married Marozia, 
 a noble lady, through whom he attained to gi-eat influence in 
 Rome. He was alHed with Pope John X. and the prince of 
 Beneventmn in a successful expedition against the Saracens in 
 916. He afterwards quarreled with the pope, was exiled from 
 Rome, and killed at Orta in 925. — Alberi'cus the younger, 
 son of the preceding, and brother of Pope John XL, quarreled 
 with Hugh of Provence, king of Italy, who had man-ied his 
 mother Marozia, headed a successful insurrection against him, 
 and seized on the temporal power at Rome, which he continued 
 to hold tUl his death in 954. Very httle is known of the 
 events of his twenty-three years' reign. He was succeeded by 
 his son Octavian, who, as Pope John XII., once more united 
 the spiritual and temporal power. — J. B. 
 
 A'LBERO or ADELBERO I., a bishop and prince of Liege, 
 who, by numerous important measures, and, in particular, by 
 the suppression of robbeiy, and the abolition of an odious un- 
 post called " The right of dead hand," rendered his administra- 
 tion memorable. Died in 1129. 
 
 A'LBERO IL, bishop and prmce of Liege from 1136 till 
 1145. The condition of the principality, during his administra- 
 tion, formed a strildng contrast to the tranquillity, secmity, and 
 decorum maintained by his namesake Albero I. Summoned to 
 Rome to account for his conduct, he died in Italy in 1145, on 
 his return homewards. — E. M. 
 
 ALBERONI, GiovAK Battista, a distmguished Italian 
 painter and architect, flourishing at Bologna about the middle of 
 the eighteenth century. 
 
 ALBERO'NI, GiULio, Cardinal, a statesman of singular 
 capacity and vigour, prime minister of Spain dm-ing an eventful 
 period, was born of humble parentage in the vicinity of Piacenza 
 in 1664. Having acquu-ed distinguished proficiency in Latin 
 and Itahan hteratiu-e, he visited Rome, where he perfected him- 
 self in various branches of science and hterature. On visiting 
 Piacenza, he was engaged to accompany a deputation from the 
 government of Pamia to the duke of Vendome, commander of 
 the French forces in Italy, who retained bun as secretary and 
 counsellor. Alberoni went to Paris with the duke in 1706, 
 attended him during his campaign in Flanders, and was mainly 
 instnimental in arranging his appointment as commander-in- 
 chief of the armies of Philip V. of Spain, whither he ac- 
 companied him. In 1713 Alberoni was appointed the duke 
 of Parma's agent at the court of Madrid; and in September, 
 1714, through his adi'oitness, the Princess EUzabeth Far- 
 nese of Parma became queen of Spain. In a few months 
 afterwards he was appomted prime minister. He was also 
 made a cardinal, and bishop of Malaga. His great ambition 
 was to restore Spain to her previous power and splendom-, and 
 his efforts would, to a great extent at least, have been crowned 
 with success, had not the impatience of the Spanish court forced 
 him to engage reluctantly iu premature hostilities, and had not 
 reverses, for which he was not to blame, brought his brief ad- 
 ministration to an untimely close. 
 
 So ignomuiious and exorbitant appeared to Philip the conces- 
 sions extorted from Spain by the treaty of Utrecht, that he 
 naturally meditated seizing the first opportmiity to assert his 
 rights, and, in particular, to recover his Italian dominions. 
 There existed a powerful Spanish party in Naples, Sicily, and 
 Sardinia, and it was on the ground of attempting to foment its 
 disaffection to Austria, that the emperor ordered the arrest of 
 the Spanish ambassador in Italy. This at once detcrmmed the 
 Spanish court, in spite of the faithful and judicious counsels of 
 Alberoni, to commence hostilities. In August, 1717, a Spanish 
 fleet with 9000 troops landed in Sardinia, and in two months 
 reduced the whole island. This conquest, and the equipment of 
 a second expedition at Barcelona, led to the quadruple alliance. 
 A British fleet, imder Admiral Byng, was sent to the Mediter- 
 ranean. The Spanish annament had reached Sicily, Palermo
 
 ALB 
 
 68 
 
 ALB 
 
 and Messina were already captured, and the island was on the 
 point of submitting to the Spaniards, when, on the 10th August, 
 1718, B}Tng, at the battle of Passaro, toolc or destroyed tlie 
 whole Spanish fleet. This fearful blow, instead of crushing the 
 spii-it, roused the energies of the intrepid cardinal. To give 
 occupation to the British government at home, he conceived and 
 proceeded to execute a scheme for restoring the exiled house of 
 Stu:u-t, with the aid of Charles XIL of Sweden and Peter the 
 Great. But the death of Charles frustrated the daring enterprise. 
 He also, in concert with a faction in France, formed a plan for 
 seizing the Kegent Orleans, and proclaiming Philip legitimate 
 guardian of the youthful king of France. The plot, however, 
 was tliscovered, and the regent instantly commenced hostilities, 
 sending a fonuidable army into Spain. Undaunted by disap- 
 pointments and difficulties, the cardinal now despatched from 
 Cadiz, imder the duke of Omiond, a fleet of ten ships of war, 
 and numerous transports, having on board 6000 regular troops, 
 with additional arms for 12,000 men. This formidable expedi- 
 tion, bound for Great Britain, would, it was hoped, excite and 
 sustain a new insuiTection. It was, however, dispersed and 
 shattered by a tempest off Cape Finistcrre. Only two frigates 
 reached the British shores, and the few troops tliey landed were 
 soon obliged to smTcnder. Such a succession of disasters over- 
 powered the firmness of the Spanish court, and made Philip 
 accede to the alliance. The cardinal became the victim of in- 
 trigues ; for, as a foreigner, and far more as a fearless and im- 
 partial administrative reformer, he had necessarily incurred the 
 rancour of many, while the enemies of Spain sought the de- 
 struction of a statesman whose talents might still render her 
 formidable to the nations of Europe. Alberoni was the ablest 
 prime minister Spain has ever had since Xim.enes. The abuses 
 he suppressed, and the improvements he introduced in connec- 
 tion with eveiy department of the public service, during his 
 brief administration, were truly wonderful. He is said to have 
 usually devoted to business eighteen hom-s in the twenty-four. 
 Ordered to quit Spain, he encountered disasters and privations 
 in his jouniey, reached Italy with gi-eat difficulty in disguise, 
 and, for several yeai's, was exposed to peril and persecution. 
 At length, on the death of Clement XI. in 1721, he was per- 
 mitted to repair to Rome, and finally was restored by Innocent 
 XIII. to all his rights and privileges as a cardinal. In 1732 he 
 visited his native district, and was kindly received by Don Carlos, 
 who had obtained the duchies of Parma and Piacenza. In 1734 
 he was appointed by Pope Clement XII. legate of Ravenna. 
 After holding this charge for two or three years, continuing to 
 display, notwithstanding his advanced age, his characteristic 
 energy, vivacity, and pulilic spirit, he retired from public fife. 
 He founded, and munificently endowed at Piacenza, an educa- 
 tional institution, which still exists and bears his name. He 
 died in 1752, at the age of eighty-eight. — E. M. 
 
 ALBERS, Heinreich Piiilipp Fkanz, physician to the 
 watering establishment at Rehburg, and author of a dissertation 
 on the Rehburg mineral springs, and of numerous contributions 
 to medical journals, was born at Hemeln 17G8, and died 1830. 
 
 ALBERS, JoHANN Abrahasi, a GeiTnan physician, born at 
 Bremen in 1772; died 1821. He and Jurieu received jointly 
 the prize offered by Napoleon in 1807, for the best essay on 
 the croup. By contributing to periodicals, and by translating 
 valuable treatises from Enghsh and French, he greatly promoted 
 the progress of medicine and siu-gery in Germany. 
 
 ALBERSTEN, Henry Hamilton, a Danish poet, born at 
 Copenhagen in 1592; died in Egypt 1G30. He has left some 
 poems, and a " Disputation concernmg the Causes or Principles 
 of Natural Things," both in Latin. 
 
 ALBERT. The chief princes and churchmen of this name 
 follow in the alphabetical order of their countries : — 
 
 I. ALBERTS OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 ALBERT I., Duke of Austria, and Emperor of Gennany, bom 
 in 1248. Son of Rudolph of Ilapsburg, an ambitious ])rince of 
 the Gei-manic empire, he was put forward by his father as a 
 candidate for the imperial crown; but the family character, 
 which was notoriously avaricious and tyrannical, rendered his 
 pretensions odious, and the electors bestowed then- suffrages on 
 Adolphus of Nassau. At the diet of IMayence, however, in 
 1298, Adolphus was deposed, and Albert elected. The armies 
 of the two princes encountered at Gelheim, a place situated be- 
 tween Woi-ms and Spire, and there Albert, successful in a charge 
 of cavalr)', with his own hand dis2>atched his rival. A war with 
 
 the Holy See threatened to be the first occupation of Albert, 
 king of the Romans, but this was averted by the diplomacy of 
 the emperor, who, to please the pontiff, allowed himself to be 
 confirmed in his dominions by papal courrant. Several years of 
 his reign were fruitlessly spent in an attempt to reclaim Hol- 
 land, Zealand, and Friesland, formerly parts of the empire, and 
 in a war with Wenceslas IV. of Hungary, whose province of 
 Bohemia Albert claimed for his son Rudolph. In the former 
 enterprise he was opposed and defeated by a count of Hainault ; 
 and in the latter, after a short period of success, during which 
 Rudolph, as king of Bohemia, was made the instrument of his 
 father's tyi-anny, he succumbed to the efforts of a people deter- 
 mined to defend their liberties at all hazards. His invasion of 
 Thmingia in 1308 had no better success, and before he could 
 collect an aiTny for another campaign in that province, distur- 
 bances, which he had himself fomented, broke out in Switzerland, 
 whither he hastened with what forces he could muster, deter- 
 mined to unite Helvetia to the empire. This design, the brave 
 compatriots of Tell were spared the toil of frustrating, by a con- 
 spiracy of nobles, headed by Duke John, the emperor's nephew, 
 who fell upon him while separated from his suite, and dispatched 
 him with their daggers. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT II., Duke of Austria, sumamed the Wise, foiuih 
 son of Albert I., succeeded in his minority to the estates of his 
 fiither, his brothers having died mthout issue. He merited his 
 siurname by a course of conduct wliicli presented in almost all 
 respects a contrast to that of his father. He refused to put 
 himself in competition with Charles, son of the king of Bohemia, 
 when that prince claimed to succeed Louis of Bavaria, although 
 m'ged, or rather commanded, by Pope John XXII. to assume 
 the crown of Germany. Paralytic from his thirty-second yeai', 
 he commanded in person the expeditions mto Switzerland, which, 
 like those of liis father, adventured into a land of patriots 
 only to find that neither force nor fraud could impose a 
 foreign yoke, where every village and hamlet sent forth a band 
 of warriors to dispute the first step of an invader. He besieged 
 Zurich vnt}\ an army of 16,000 men; but, baffied in every assault, 
 and in danger of being overwhelmed by the forces of the Hel- 
 vetic Confederation, reorganized for the defence of the place, 
 he had to return to Vienna, leaving the possessions of the House 
 of Hapsburg in the hands of the patriots. Died 1358. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT III., Duke of Austria, son of the preceding, suc- 
 ceeded in his seventeenth year to one-half his paternal estates, 
 the other half being claimed, contrary to the testament of Albert 
 II., by his younger brother Leopold. Albert submitted to this 
 partition with the temper of a man who had other ambitious 
 than that of governing extensive dominions. Addicted to letters 
 and the arts of peace, for which he did much, by founding 
 several chairs at the university of Vienna, even after the death 
 of Leopold had left him in temporaiy possession of the whole of 
 his estates, he engaged in war only when his honour boimd him 
 to arm in behalf of his allies, or to assist those who claimed liis 
 help. He conciliated the people by repressing the insolence and 
 forbidding the exactions of his bai'ons, a rare effort in the cause 
 of justice for the times in which he lived. He attempted un- 
 successfully to rescue the inhabitants of Trieste from the yoke 
 of Venice, and afterwards espoused the cause of some nobles ot 
 Bohemia who had revolted from their king. But while leading 
 an army into that country, he was seized with an illness wliich 
 proved fiital. He died in 1395. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT IV., Duke of Austria, son of the preceding, suc- 
 ceeded his father in 1395. Shortly after his accession to power, 
 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, leaving the government of 
 his dominions in the hands of his cousin William, son of Leopold, 
 an ambitious prince, who, like his father, had wrested from the 
 head of the house a share of the family estates. On his return, 
 he resumed the care of his duchies, but passed much of his time 
 in a monastery, where he practised a rigid asceticism. His de- 
 votion to his duties as a brother of a religious order, procured 
 for him the surname of " the Pious." Not deficient in adminis- 
 trative talent, he earned, by a wise arbitration of their disputes, 
 the gratitude of his uncles Sigismund of Hungaiy and Wenceslas 
 of Bohemia, both of whom named him successor to their Icing- 
 doms. He was engaged in subduing a revolt in tlie dominions 
 of Sigismund, and had laid siege to the fortress of a refractory 
 baron, when his career was tenninated by poison administered 
 by an agent of the besieged, September, 1404. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT v., Duke of Austria and Emperor of Gennany, son
 
 ALB 
 
 G9 
 
 ALB 
 
 of Albert IV., at the death of his father in 1404 had only 
 reached his seventh year. Educated by worthy persons, who 
 were good friends of the yoiuig sovereign at the expense of 
 being bad servants of the regency, he early displayed an amount 
 of talent and decision that formed the only hope of the people 
 dming the years of rapine and murder that constituted the 
 period of liis minority. A rebellion of his subjects closed the 
 administration of his cousin Leopold IIL, who under the name 
 of Regent had plundered his estates, and placed Albert at 
 the head of aflairs. He set himself laboriously to the task of 
 re-estabUshing law and order, and succeeded in a manner that 
 .justified the enthusiasm with which his subjects hailed the 
 commencement of his reign. In 1421 he manied Ehzabeth, 
 daughter of the Emperor Sigismund, the persecutor of the Hus- 
 sites, and, in consequence of this alliance, became involved in 
 the civil wars of Bohemia, and eventually, on the death of his 
 father-in-law, in a contest for the crown of that kingdom with 
 the widow of Sigismund, whose cause the Hussites espoused 
 with great ardour. Successful in several skirmishes, he was 
 crowned at Prague in 1438, and shortly after elevated to the 
 imperial throne amid congratiilations from all parts of the em- 
 pire. His reign was illustrated by reforms m every branch of 
 the puhlic sen'ice, especially by the abolition of secret tribunals, 
 and the institution of courts of justice. He was indefatigable in 
 his labours for the pubhc good, and seemed to have inaugurated 
 a new and better era for Germany ; but his peaceful reforms 
 were cut short by an unexpected invasion of the Tm-ks, under 
 Sultan Mm-ad II., who forced his way into the centre of Hun- 
 gary. Albert with difliculty mustered an army to oppose the 
 march of the invader, and proceeded to the frontiers. But the 
 treachery of his chiefs, and an epidemic which began to prevail 
 in his camp, gradually dispersed his forces ; and, worn out with 
 toil, he died at a village of Hungaiy in 1439. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT I., Archduke of Austria, and governor of the Low 
 Comitries, was at an early age, in accordance vidth his ambition 
 to be a prelate, appointed cardinal-archbishop of Toledo ; but 
 in his twenty-fifth year he resigned his spiritual functions, and 
 became viceroy of Portugal under his uncle Philip II., who gave 
 him his daughter in marriage, and afterwards intrusted hun with 
 the government of the Low Countries, where his administration 
 continued to be popular till his death in 1621. — J. S , G. 
 
 II. ALBERTS OF BRANDENBURG. 
 
 ALBERT I. or ALBRECHT, sm-named the Bear, Margrave 
 of Brandenburg, which possession he received from the Emperor 
 Lotharius for serA'ices rendered in a war with the Bohemians, 
 was a son of Otho the Rich, count of Ballenstadt, and possessed, 
 previous to his accession to the margi-aviate, the counties of 
 Lusatia and Salzwedel. In 1138 he laid claim to the duchy of 
 Saxony, and succeeded after a long straggle ui wi-esting it from 
 the reigning house. He took an active part in the wars of the 
 empire, and endeavoured still fm-ther to extend his dominions. 
 An attempt which he made to subdue Pomerania proved abortive; 
 but he was more successful m a contest wth Henry the Lion 
 for the possession of the counties of Prosecke and Winzenburg, 
 the former of which was awarded to him by the adjudication of 
 the emperor, Frederick I. He took advantage of a year of tran- 
 qtullity in his domuiions, to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 
 and on his return renewed his attack on Pomerania ; this time, 
 however, in the interest of Henry the Lion. No progress had 
 been made in the entei-prise when the princes quan-eled, and were 
 only prevented from waging war to the death by the threats of the 
 emperor. Albert died in 1176, seven years after his resignation 
 in favour of his eldest son, and left behind him a name which 
 confen-ed consequence on a long line of successors. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT II,, Margrave of Brandenbm'g, succeeded his brother 
 Otho II. in 1206. He encouraged Otho IV. to brave the thun- 
 ders of the Holy See, and make war on his own and the em- 
 peror's enemy, the archbishop of Magdebm-g, whose territories he 
 wasted in repeated invasions. In the course of a three years' 
 war, he acquired some temtory in Pomerania, wlaich, after the 
 decline of Otho's administration, was confirmed to him by 
 Frederick II. Died m 1221.— J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT IIL, Margrave of Brandenbrn-g, complimented by 
 historians with the title of the German Achilles and Ulysses, 
 while mai'grave of Bareuth, distinguished himself in the wars of 
 the emperor with Poland, and succeeded his brother Frederick 
 II., enjoying a renown for personal valour which belonged to no 
 other hero of the empire. Victor in seventeen tournays, and 
 
 the teiTor of at least one city, Nuremberg, the inhabitants of 
 which he had eight times defeated, he was not without reason 
 distinguished by the former of his surnames. The latter he 
 earned by his success in negotiating a peace between the emperor 
 and the duke of Burgundy, and perhaps also by his careless 
 abandonment of the government to his son John, while he pur- 
 sued his old habit of fighting for the empire. This wise and 
 valorous prince, after dividing his estates among his three sons, 
 died at Frankfort-on-the-IMaine in 1486. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT, Margi-ave of Brandenbui-g, and first duke of Pras- 
 sia, bom May 17, 1490, was the son of Frederick of Anspach, 
 and Sophia, sister of Sigismund I., king of Poland. At an early 
 period of life he became connected with the order of the Teutonic 
 knights, who, on their retmTi from the Holy Land to Gei-many, 
 had invaded the province of Prassia, the inhabitants of whicli 
 were still pagans, and subdued it about the middle of the IStli 
 century. The kings of Poland, who came to the assistance of the 
 Prussians, compelled the order, in a pacification concluded in 
 1466, to agree that the grand-master slioidd, in all time coming, 
 render homage to the kings of Poland, in acknowledgment that 
 the order held its possessions as a fief of that cro-\vn. In 1511, 
 being then only twenty-one years of age, Albert was chosen 
 grand-master of the order, in the hope that, through the friend- 
 ship of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, his cousin, and 
 especially of Sigismund, king of Poland, his uncle, he might 
 have it in his power to emancipate the order from this degrading 
 vassalage. But as Sigismund refused to surrender his claim, and 
 the knights detcnnined no longer to submit to it, a war was the 
 consequence. In April, 1525, a peace was concluded at Cracow, 
 by which, through Albert's skilful management, the eastern part 
 ol' Prussia was converted into a duchy, and secured to him and 
 his male heirs, but to be held as a fief of the crown of Poland. 
 In this way was the government of the Teutonic knights over- 
 thrown in Prussia. Albert at the same time avowing himself 
 a Lutheran, changed the religion of the duchy from po])ei-y to 
 protestantism, and afterwards manied ; measures which Luther, 
 with whom he had previously had an interview, advised him to 
 take. In 1544 he founded the university of Konigsberg. He 
 died March 20, 1558.— J. A. 
 
 III. ALBERTS OF BRUNSAVICK. 
 
 ALBERT I., Duke of Branswick, surnamed the Great. 
 On the death of his father Otto he retained for himself the states 
 of Wolfenbiittel and Gottingen, and gave to his brother Lmie- 
 burg and Zelle. Albert was famous for personal bravery, a 
 peaceable disposition, and a courteous demeanom-. He assisted 
 Ottocar, king of Bohemia, against Bala IV. of Hungary, and 
 took him prisoner. In 1263 he was himself taken prisoner by 
 Henry, landgi'ave of Thuringia, and had to pay for his ransom a 
 considerable sum of money, besides surrendering several towns 
 and estates. Having assisted to rescue the dowager queen of 
 Denmark, and Eric, the young king, from their detention in Hol- 
 stein, the queen caused him to be made regent of Denmark, and 
 thought to offer him her hand ; the Danes, however, refused to 
 submit to the reforms which he proposed to make, and he was 
 obliged to quit the country. He manied Adelaide, daughter of 
 Bonifrice of Montferrat. Died 15th August, 1278.— J. F. 
 
 ALBERT II., Duke of Bnmswick, son of the preceding. His 
 possessions included the city of Gottingen, the states of Kalen- 
 berg, Nordheim, and Hanover, and the countries on the Leine, 
 to which Branswick and its dependencies were afterwards added. 
 Albert was sagacious and gentle ; he conferred many important 
 rights on the citizens of Brunswick and Gottingen, and laboured 
 to promote the welfare of his people. Died in 1318. — J. F. 
 
 lY. albert of HOLLAND. 
 
 ALBERT, Count of Holland, born 1337, was a weak and 
 indolent prince. He thus di'cw upon hunself the indignation 
 of his people, who, headed by Count Ostrevant, his son, broke 
 out in insurrection. Albert, however, defeated his enemies; and 
 the rebellious prince afterwards conducted himself so loyally 
 as to efface the memory of his revolt. It is under Albert that 
 we first meet with the office of Stadtholder, which has since be- 
 come so important. It was the duty of the person elevated to 
 this dignity, to represent the prince as his Heutenant ; the office 
 seems to have had its origin in the indolence of Albert, and his 
 readiness to delegate to his ministers the authority which he was 
 too weak to exercise in person. Died in 1404. — F. 
 
 V. ALBERTS OF LIEGE AND LIVONIA. 
 
 ALBERT I., son of Godfrey, duke of Brabant, was elected
 
 prince-'bisliop of Liege in 1191. His election was set aside by 
 the emperor, Henry VI., who appointed Lotharius to the vacant 
 see, but was confirmed by Pope Celestin II. In 1192, Albert 
 was, at the instigation of the emperor and Lotharius, craelly 
 murdered by three German assassins at Kheims. 
 
 ALBERT DE CuYCK was elected prince-bishop of Liege in 
 1194, and, by his gentle and beneficent administration, made 
 himself popular, but disgi-aced his clerical character by the most 
 barefaced simony. Died in 1200. 
 
 ALBERT, Bishop of Livonia, but a native of Germany, insti- 
 tuted in 1201, with the authorization of Pope Innocent III., a 
 monaco-militarj' order for the propagation of Christianity, and, 
 what was more in accordance with the undertaking, several 
 missionary colleges. Died at Riga in 1230. — E. M. 
 
 A'l. — ALBERTS OF MAGDEBURG. 
 
 ALBERT I., Archbishop of ISIagdeburg, was ordained a bishop, 
 and sent at the head of a mission to Russia in 961 ; but the 
 perils and hardsliips he encountered soon forced him to return. 
 In December, 9G8, lie was installed first archbishop of IMagde- 
 burg, and continued the conscientious and zealous discharge of 
 liis duties till his death in June, 981. He was a man of re- 
 spectable attainments for the age, an ardent promoter of edu- 
 cation, and indefatigable in missionaiy labours. His efforts to 
 convert the Wends and other pagans to the east of the Elbe, 
 were attended vnih much success. — E. ^I. 
 
 ALBERT, Count of Hallermonde, archbishop of Magdeburg 
 and cardhial, effected a reconciliation between Philip of Suabia 
 and Pope Innocent III., and was made papal legate for Gennany. 
 In 1210 he promulgated, though reluctantly, the pope's sentence 
 of deposal against the Emperor Otho, and took part in the elec- 
 tion of Frederick II. in 1212; he was t^vice taken prisoner by 
 Otho's commanders, but on both occasions speedily rescued 
 through the attachment and valom- of his own troops and allies. 
 Albert enjoyed the confidence of Frederick II., and was appointed 
 his viceroy in Saxony dming his absence in the crusade ; and in 
 capacity, discretion, and enei'gy, was equal to any of the most 
 distinguished statesmen of the age. — E. M. 
 
 ALBERT III., Coimt of Sternberg, archbishop of Magdebm-g, 
 to which see he was appointed through the influence of Charles 
 IV., under whom he had enjoyed the dignity of chancellor, hA'ed 
 in the latter half of the fourteenth centmy. He squandered his 
 revenues so recklessly as to incur the anger of his subjects, 
 from whose muimurs he at length took refuge in an exchange of 
 his archbishopric for the bishopric of Leutennitz.— J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERT IV., Lord of Querfurt, archbishop of JIagdeburg, 
 an oppressive and tm-bulent prelate, who embroiled himself with 
 his subjects on the question of tithes, and had recourse unsuc- 
 cessfully to the terrors of the church. Died in 1-403. 
 
 ALBERT v., Cardinal-archbishop of Magdebiu-g, son of 
 John, elector of Brandenbiu'g, shortly after his election in 1583 
 became also bishop of Halberetadt, and, in the year follo\ving, 
 archbishop of JIayence. The three dignities cost him tliirty 
 thousand ducats, a sum the half of which the pope allowed 
 him to raise by the sale of indulgences. He was a special 
 enemy of Luther and his creed, was one of those most eager to 
 liave the reformer brought before the edict of Wonns, persecuted 
 Lutheranism in liis own dominions, and leagued with the elector 
 of Brandenbm-g and the duke of Brunswick to suppress it 
 elsewhere. To sujiplement his own care of the church, he 
 assumed as his coadjutor one of his cousins, but his efforts 
 against the spread of the new doctrines were unavailing. He 
 was forced to conclude a treaty with the protestant electors at 
 Nuremberg in 1532 ; and although he afterwards exhibited, 
 when he could, that rancoivr against the enemies of the chm-ch 
 for which he was caressed by the pope, and bitterly denounced 
 by Luther, his persecution of the protestants of Halle in 1534, 
 his accession to the catholic league in 1538, and his measures 
 in general, only diffused what they were intended to suppress. 
 Foiur years before liis death in 1545, Halle, Magdeburg, and 
 Halberstadt were protestant cities, or at least had obtained 
 toleration for the protestant faith. — J. S., G. 
 
 VII.— ALI5EKTS OF JIAYENCE. 
 
 ALBERT L or ALBRECHT, Archbishop of Mayence, was the 
 son of Sigebert, count of Saarbruck, and chancellor to the Em- 
 peror Henry V. He owed his elevation to the episcopal dignity 
 to the favour of the emperor, to whom he nevertheless exhibited 
 the utmost ingi-atitude, for when, in 1112, the council of Vienna 
 excommunicated Henrj^, Albert immediately declared against 
 
 him. On the death of Henry V. in 1125, he convoked the diet 
 for the election of a new emperor ; and in the hostilities whicli 
 subsequently took place between Lotharius and Frederick, the 
 rival candidates for the crown, he exhibited great zeal in behalf 
 of the former. Died in 1137.— F. 
 
 ALBERT II., Archbishop of Mayence, succeeded his brothei 
 Albert I. in the archiepiscopal dignity in 1138. In 1141 he 
 joined in the attempt made by the Saxon nobility to annul the 
 election of the Emperor Conrad. He died in the same year. 
 
 ALBERT, Elector of Mentz or Mayence, the yoimgest son of 
 John, surnamed Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was bom June 
 28, 1490. In 1513 he was chosen archbishop of Magdeburg, 
 and in the following month, administrator of the diocese of Hal- 
 berstadt. In 1514 he was elected archbishop and prince-elector 
 of Mayence. Ha\*ing involved himself in debt, he applied to the 
 pope for a commission to sell indulgences within his own diocese. 
 A bull was gi'anted for three years, on the stipulation that the 
 profits should be divided between him and the pope. He em- 
 ployed as his agent the well-kno^vn Tetzel, whose conduct was 
 so scandalous, that Luther wrote a letter of remonstrance, which 
 was, however, entkely disregarded. In 1518 Albert was created 
 a cardinal. From the agitation which these indulgence-sales had 
 created, he had for some time suspended or relaxed the traffic ; 
 but in 1521, when Luther was in Wartbnrg, he commenced it with 
 renewed activity in the churches of Halle, where he was then re- 
 siding with his court. Luther wrote him a second letter, which 
 was expressed in bold and defiant terms. Albert returned a con- 
 ciliatory answer. In 1525 the peasants' war, which especially 
 threatened the ecclesiastical states, caused him great alarm. He 
 was then urged to profess the new opinions, to many, and to 
 secularize his dioceses, as the only means of presen-ing them. 
 He was almost persuaded. Through his privy councillor Riihel, 
 he requested Luther to prepare the people for this bold measure, 
 by setting forth the advantages certain to result from it. This 
 Luther did in a letter addressed to him, and intended to be pub- 
 lished to the world ; but the peasants' war having come to a 
 termination, the cardinal renounced all thoughts of the proposed 
 measure. At the diet at Augsburg in 1530, he made great 
 efforts to restore harmony between the Roman catholics and 
 protestants, and many were led to believe that his convictions 
 iuchned to the Refonnation. But after that he became increas- 
 ingly averse to tolerate the new opinions within his own teni- 
 tory. His own town of Magdebm-g having joined the Schmal- 
 kald league, he pressed the emperor to place it under the ban of 
 the empire, as had been pre\'iously done with his approbation in 
 1527 ; but such was the timidity of his disposition, that, afraid 
 of involving himself in difficulties or dangers, he interposed in 
 both cases to prevent the execution of the sentence. In early 
 life he was the patron of literature, and corresponded with Eras- 
 mus, whose Greek New Testament he highly eulogized, and to 
 whom he sent the present of a silver cup of considerable value. 
 He died September 24, 1545. — (Seckendorfii, Hist. Luth. Jor- 
 tin's Life of Erasmus. D'Aubigne's Ilht. of Ref) — J. A. 
 
 VIII. ALBERTS OF BIECKLENBURG. 
 
 ALBERT I. or ALBRECHT, Duke of Mecklenburg, succeeded 
 liis father, Henry IV., at an early age, and distinguished liim- 
 self by his patriotic efforts to rid his country of the brigands by 
 whom it was infested. Died in 1375. 
 
 ALBERT II., Duke of Mecklenburg, son of the preceding, 
 was, before his father's death, elected king of Sweden (1363), 
 by the states-general, who were dissatisfied with the government 
 of Magnus Eriksen, and his son Hako. The earlier years of his 
 reign were occupied in opposing the attempts of Hako to recover 
 the sovereignty. At a later period Margarctta of Denmark laid 
 clami to the crown, and was supported hy the Swedish nobility. 
 She defeated Albert in 1388. He remahied a prisoner for several 
 years, and was only released on the payment of a heavy ransom. 
 A few years after, heart-broken and wcaiy, he retired into a 
 convent, leaving his rival in undisturbed possession of the 
 throne. He died in 1412.— J. B. 
 
 IX. ALBERTS OF SAXONY. 
 
 ALBERT I. or ALBRECHT, Duke-elector of Saxony, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Duke Bernard, in 1212. Matthew Paris 
 relates that his stature was so gigantic, that, when he \-isited 
 London, he was an object of universal interest and astonishment. 
 He distinguished himself in the war with Waldemar II. of 
 Denmark, and in the crusades, havmg accompanied Frederick 
 IL to the East in 1228. He died m 1260.
 
 ALB 
 
 71 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALUEiiT IL, Duku-clector of Saxony, son of the preceding. 
 He assisted at the election of three emperors, — Rodolphe I., 
 Adolphus, and Albert I., and hence ai-ose the claim of his suc- 
 cessore to the sole right of electing the emperor. He obtained 
 the palatinate of Saxony from Rodolphe L He died, according 
 to some authors, at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1298 ; according to 
 others, between 1302 and 1308. 
 
 ALBERT IIL, Duke-elector of Saxony, the last elector of the 
 Anhalt family, succeeded his brother Rodolphe in 1418. He 
 died in 1422, from the fright occasioned by a conflagi-ation. 
 
 ALBERT or ALBRECHT, Palatine of Saxony, succeeded his 
 father Henry as landgrave of Thuringia in 1288. He was 
 sumamed the Cruel. Died in 1314. — F. 
 
 The following are arranged in the usual alphabetical order: — 
 
 ALBERT, AJntoine, a celebrated la^vyer and physician, born 
 
 at Carcassor."? in 1708. He made some important chemical 
 
 discoveries, and was remarkable at the same time for his defence 
 
 of the civii rights of his native town. He died in 1791. 
 
 ALBERT, sumamed the Blessed, an Italian prelate, bom 
 in 1149, at Castro di' Gualteri, in the duchy of Parma. He was 
 at first prior of Saint Croix de Montara; in 1184 he became 
 bishop of Bobbio; and in 1204 was appointed patiiarch of 
 Jerusalem. He was the author of an account of the Holy Land, 
 and various other works. (See "Acta Sanctorum," and Butler's 
 "Lives of the Saints.") He died by the hands of an assassin at 
 St. Jean d'Aix in 1214. 
 
 ALBERT, Caroline. Sec Boisseau. 
 ALBERT, Charles d'. See Luynes. 
 ALBERT DURER. See Durer. 
 
 ALBERT, Francis, a histoi-ian of the fifteenth century, who 
 occupied a chair of theology at Hamburg. He wrote a history 
 of the Saxons and Vandals, and a chronicle of the time from 
 Charlemagne till 1504. 
 
 ALBERT, Louis Joseph d', a soldier, courtier, and author, 
 
 born in 1672, was the grandson of the high constable of Luynes, 
 
 and was raised by the Emperor Charles VIL to the rank of a 
 
 prince of the holy empire, under the title of prince of Griinbergen. 
 
 ALBERT MARTIN. See Martin. 
 
 ALBERT or ALBERTI, Michael, a German doctor, bom 
 at Nuremberg in 1682. He was first a student of theology at 
 Altdorf, but, having turned to the study of medicine under Stahl, 
 he was received as doctor in 1707 into the college of his native 
 town. He was appointed in 1719 professor at Halle, where he 
 died in 1757. He was also a member of the Royal Academy of 
 Berlin, and physician to the king of Prussia. He has left several 
 valuable works on medicine. — J. B. 
 
 * ALBERT, Prince. Albert Francis Augustus Cliarles 
 Emmanuel, prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort 
 of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, was born on the 26th of 
 August, 1819. His father was Ernest I., and his mother 
 Louisa, princess of Saxe-Gotha. His native country is one of 
 the smallest principalities of Germany, out of the course of the 
 great roads ; but it is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, 
 the unsophisticated manners of the people, and, above all, for 
 the celebrity of the reigning family. They were originally 
 sovereigns of Coburg only, but Prince Albert's father succeeded to 
 the inheritance of the duchy of Saxe-Gotha. His uncle Leopold 
 I. married, first, the Princess Charlotte, heu'ess of the throne 
 of England, and, after her death, a daughter of Louis Philippe, 
 at that time king of the French. After declining the throne of 
 Greece, Leopold was chosen king of Bel_giu.m. One of Prince 
 Albert's aunts was espoused to the Grand Duke Constantine of 
 Russia. Another married the late diUce of Kent, and is mother 
 of Queen Victoria. A younger uncle became the husband of 
 one of the greatest heiresses of the Austrian empne, the 
 daughter of the prince of Kohary. Prince Albert acquired the 
 first rudiments of public education luider the consistorial covm- 
 cillor Florschutz. Under him, he studied at Coburg and Gotha. 
 He was confinned in 1885, and made a tour of the continental 
 courts in that year; in 1836 he visited London and Paris, and 
 studied at Brussels. In 1837 and 1838, he attended the uni- 
 versity of Bonn. Here he was favourably known for his high 
 morality and decorum of character. He not only applied himself 
 to the study of the subjects usually taught in a Gennan univer- 
 sity, but following the prevalent taste of the German people, he 
 became a good musician and a fair painter. While he was on a 
 visit to this countrj'', he and his youthful cousin. Her Majesty 
 Queen Victoria, became attached to each other. The British 
 
 nation were delighted with the example which their sovereign 
 set to the courts of Europe, of marriage founded on affection and 
 mutual esteem. Prince Albert, having been naturalized by act 
 of parliament a few days previously, was married to (Jueen 
 Victoria at the Chapel Royal in St. James's palace, on the 10th 
 of Febraary, 1840. It was deteiTnined by another act, passed 
 during the same year, that he was to be the regent of Great 
 Britain, if the queen should die before her next lineal descendant 
 arrived at the age of eighteen ; and in order that in Germany 
 he may take due precedence among native princes, he was 
 made Prince-Consort in 1857. The prince, on settling in 
 this countiy, immediately applied himself to the studies and 
 occupations which best became one so closely allied to the Eng- 
 lish throne. He investigated tlie rise and progress of the English 
 constitution and law under Mr. Selwyn, one of the most eminent 
 jurists of the age. He has wisely kept aloof from party politics, 
 has never interfered with the ordinary course of the constitutional 
 government of the country, but he has rather prel'eiTed to be 
 prominent as the active promoter of whatever will contribute to 
 the moral and social well-being of the mass of the people, and 
 especially of the poor. To his care and energy we owe not a 
 little of the vast improvement which of late years has charac- 
 terized objects of ordinary manufixcture in point of shape and 
 fonn ; and it may fairly be doubted if the Crystal Palace Exhi- 
 bition of 1851, in Hyde Park, would ever have attained the 
 splendour and usefulness which so wonderfidly distinguished it, 
 had not Prince Albert helped it by a combination of energy, 
 tact, perseverance, and patience, such as are rarely seen in one 
 so highly born. He promoted, and opened in person, the collec- 
 tion of art-treasures in Manchester (1857). He superintends 
 the education of his children with unremitting care ; and has 
 prepared the Prince of Wales to appreciate his high and noble 
 responsibilities, as the direct heir to the English throne, in a 
 manner which can be only imperfectly appreciated by the present 
 generation. The prince is a field-marshal of the amiy, and 
 colonel of the gi-enadier guards. He was elected, in the year 
 1842, chancellor of the university of Cambridge, after a severe 
 contest with the earl of Powis. He is the liberal patron of 
 various benevolent institutions. He enters the lists as a com- 
 petitor with the lowest of the queen's subjects at the Smithfield 
 Club and other agricultiu-al societies. His model fami at Windsor 
 is something more than a royal plaything ; it is rather a valuable 
 and useful institution, in which the speculations of agricultural 
 economists are tested by practice. Of the children of His Royal 
 Highness we shall say more in another place. — T. J. 
 
 ALBERT DE RioMS, Count of, a French naval commander, 
 who served against the English. He emigrated, took part in 
 the campaign of 1792, and returned to France during Napoleon's 
 reign, where he died in obscurity in 1810. 
 
 ALBERT of Saxony, a Dominican monk of considerable 
 learning, who flomished in the first half of the fomleenth centuiy. 
 He studied at Paris. Some of his works have been printed, but 
 several of his MSS. are still unedited, among which is a com- 
 mentaiy on the Physics of Aristotle. 
 
 ALBERT, Sigebergensis, a Benedictine monk of the con- 
 vent of Sigeberg, near Cologne, who lived in the 15th century, 
 and wrote histories of the popes and Roman emperors. 
 
 ALBERT, Stadiensis, a Benedictine monk, was elected 
 abbot of the monastery of St. Mary in Stade in 1232. He was 
 the author of a Latin work, entitled " Chronicon a condito orbe 
 us(pie ad auctoris sptatem," in wdiich is contained an accurate 
 record of the aft'airs of Germany, fi-om the end of the eleventh to 
 the middle of the thirteenth ccntuiy. 
 
 ALBERTANO de Brescia, governor of Gavardo in the 
 thirteenth century, dm'ing the reign of the Emperor Frederick II. 
 He was, during the political troubles which then agitated Italy, 
 cast into prison, where he composed several Latin treatises on 
 moral subjects, which were published at Florence in 1610. 
 
 ALBERTI, Aristotile, a celebrated architect and engineer, 
 born at Bologna in the sixteenth century. He gained great 
 celebrity in Hungary by the erection of a very ingenious bridge, 
 and other remarkable works. He was also employed in the 
 erection of several churches in Russia. 
 
 ALBERTI, Benoit, a leader of the democratic party in 
 Florence towards the end of the fourteenth century. He was 
 exiled in 1387, and died at Rhodes on his return from a pilgrim- 
 age to the Holy Land. 
 
 ALBERTI, George William, a protestant preacher, born
 
 ALB 
 
 72 
 
 ALB 
 
 in Hanover, 1723, -was author of " Thoughts on Hume's Essays 
 on Natural Religion." He wrote also on the state of religion in 
 Great Britain, and on the religion and customs of the Quakers. 
 Died, 1758. 
 
 ALBERTI, Jajies, a lawyer of Bologna, who lived in the 
 first half of the fifteenth century, and wrote a work on the dif- 
 ference between the canon and civil law. 
 
 ALBERTI, JoHAXN Gustavus William, was bom at Ham- 
 burg, in October, 1757. Ha\'ing been educated under the celc- 
 Ijrated Busch, he devoted himself to the improvement of the 
 manufactures in Silesia. In this he was aided by the Prussian 
 government. He exerted himself for a series of years to improve 
 the machinery for spinning hemp and flax, and exhibited con- 
 siderable ingenuity. He died in 1837. 
 
 ALBERTI, Joiix, a Dutch theologian, bom at Assein 1698. 
 He was professor of theology at Leyden, and wrote on the philo- 
 logy of the New Testament, defending the classic purity of the 
 style of the sacred writers by citing parallel passages from Greek 
 authors. He died in 17G2. 
 
 ALBERTI, Joseph Axtoine, an architect and geometrician 
 of Bologna. He died at Perouse in 1768, leaving some works 
 of merit on subjects relating to his profession. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leaxder, a Dominican, who studied theology 
 under Baviatcro, and ultimately became inquisitor-general at 
 Bologna. He died in 1552, leaving numerous works. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leox Babtista, a celebrated man of letters, 
 and arcliitect, bom in 1401 ; some say at Venice ; others at 
 Florence. At the age of twenty, he published a Latin comedy, 
 called " PhUodosias," in which he imitated the ancients most 
 successfully. His best known work is the " De Re ^dificatoria," 
 which has been translated into Italian, French, and EngUsh. 
 But it was as much by his own architectural works as by the 
 principles he promulgated in his book, that he won for himself 
 the titles of the Florentine Vitninus, and the Restorer of the 
 Architecture of Italy. He erected various famous edifices in 
 different parts of Italy, but his greatest work is the church of 
 San Francesco at Rimini. He died in 1481. — J. B. 
 
 ALBERTI, Louis, an ofiicer of Italian origin in the service 
 of Holland, who lived towards the end of the last century. He 
 accompanied the Dutch governor of the Cape of Good Hope to 
 that colony ; and, on returning to Europe, published the result 
 of his obsen-ations and researches under the title of a " Physical 
 and liistorical description of the Caffres on the southem coast of 
 Africa." The work originally appeared in Dutch m 1810, and 
 in the year following was translated into French. — F. 
 
 ALBERTI, Solomon, a Gennan anatomist, professor of 
 medicine in the university of Wittemberg. He was bom at 
 Nuremberg in 1540, was one of the most distinguished wiiters on 
 anatomy in his age, and made several important discoveries in 
 connection \vith that science. He died at Dresden in 1600. 
 
 ALBERTI, The, a family of Italian artists, flourishing in the 
 sixteenth century, amongst whom are particularly noted : — 
 
 Aleerti or Alberto Michele of Florence, a pupil of 
 Daniele di Volterra, and one of the executors of that great artist. 
 He was a clever historical and portrait painter, equally skilful 
 in sculpture, especially in wood. Died about 1565. 
 
 Alberti, Cherubino, sm-named II Borghigiano, from 
 being bom at Borgo San Sepolcro, in 1552. Died 1615. He 
 studied in Rome, where he distinguished himself both as a 
 painter and as an engraver. JIany are the frescos executed by 
 him for the churches of that city, and especially remarkable on 
 account of beautiful groups of Uttle angels which he delighted to 
 introduce in his pictm-es. Yet his celebrity is based more upon 
 liis skill in engra^-ing. He was associated with, and assisted in 
 liis painting by liis brother. 
 
 Alberti, Giovanni, bom in 1561, at Borgo San Sepolcro; 
 died in Rome in 1601. He adhered to the style of his brother, 
 and proved also a distinguished artist. 
 
 Alberti, Durante, equally a native of Borgo San Sepolcro, 
 and believed to be cither a younger brother or a nephew of 
 Michele Alberto. Bom in 1538 ; died in 1613. He was more 
 noted for his perseverance at work than for great talents for 
 painting. Had a son by name Francesco, sometimes called "the 
 lioman," although also a native of the Borgo, who worked at 
 Rome, in the cariy pai-t of the seventeenth century, with con- 
 siderable success. He was secretary to the Academy of Design, 
 es'.ablished by Frederico Zuccheri. 
 
 Alberti, Donato, Girolamo, Cosmo, Alessandro, all 
 
 painters of the same period, and natives of the same Borgo San 
 Sepolcro (therefore believed to belong to the same fiimily), have 
 left works of remarkable merit, but no details are known about 
 them. — R. M. 
 
 ALBERTI DI VILLANOVA, Francesco, bom at Nice m 
 1734 or 1737, was the author of some excellent philological 
 works, and in particular a French-Italian dictionary, published 
 originally at Marseilles, 1775, 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 ALBERTINELLI, Mariotto di Biagio, an Italian histori- 
 cal and portrait painter, bom at Florence about 1467. He 
 studied at first under Cosimo Rosselli, but soon joined his friend 
 and schoolfellow Baccio Delia Porta, better kno\\Ti as Fra Barto- 
 lommeo di S. ^larco, with whom he worked until the latter en- 
 tered the order of Dominican friars. This separation proved 
 fatal to the artistical career of Mariotto. He grew tired of paint- 
 ing, and turned tavem-keeper for a while ; but soon disgusted 
 with such occupation, left it to resume his artistical pm'suits 
 in Rome. After having executed a few pictures of a sacred 
 character, he returned to his native city, where he died of 
 melancholy and exliaustion about 1512. Albertinelfi entirely 
 adopted the style of his friends, and left several excellent works, 
 many of which are now in the galleries of Florence, Paris, SIu- 
 nicli, and Berhn. His masteqiiece, the " Visitation," is in the 
 first of these places. — R. M. 
 
 ALBERTINI, Francis, a learned Florentine, who lived in 
 the beginning of the sixteenth centmy. He devoted himself to 
 the study of antiquities, and produced some able works. 
 
 ALBERTINI or ALBERTI, Annibale, an Italian physician, 
 who produced a work in three books on the diseases of the heart ; 
 Venice, 1618, 4to. 
 
 ALBERTINI, Francesco Ippolito, an Italian physician, 
 born at Crevalcore in 1662. He studied under the celebrated 
 Malpighi, first established himself at Rome, and subsequently 
 became professor of medicine at Bologna. He was the precursor 
 of Morgagni, and his works exhibit great talent. Died 1738. 
 
 ALBERTINI, Giorgio Fr.vncesco, an Itafian theologian, 
 bom at Parenzo in 1732. He studied at Venice, and became a 
 member of the order of St. Dominic, and ultimately professor of 
 theology in the college of the Propaganda at Rome. Died 1810. 
 
 ALBERTINI, Johann Baptista d', a leamed German, was 
 bora on 17th Febraary, 1769, at Neuwied on the Rhine, and 
 died at Berthelsdorf, near Hemihut, on 6th December, 1851. 
 He was one of the Mora\ian brethren, and prosecuted his early 
 studies at their schools. He afterwards had charge of the edu- 
 cation of youths in the Jiloravian establishments. He devoted 
 some attention to botany, and, in conjunction vtdth Schweinitz, 
 he published a conspectus of the fungi found in a district of 
 Lusatia.— J. H. B. 
 
 ALBERTINUS, jEgidius, born 1560, a Gennan poet of 
 considerable satirical power. He was private secretary to the 
 Elector JIaximilian of Bavaria, and produced several works in 
 history and general literature. Died in 1620. 
 
 ALBERTO, Antonio, an Italian painter of the fifteenth 
 centuiy, a native of FeiTara, and pupil of Angelo Gaddi. His 
 pictures at Urbino and Citta, di Castello are remarkable for 
 beauty of colouring and dehcacy of design. Died about 1450. 
 
 ALBERTOLLI, Cavalier Giocondo, an Italian artist of 
 eminent merit and unparalleled virtues. He was the reformer 
 in decoration at the same tune that Canova and Hamilton were 
 regenerating the other branches of art. Bom in 1758 in Can- 
 ton Ticino, he distinguished himself at the MOanese academy, 
 where he ultimately became director of the school of omaments. 
 In this capacity he published a series of omaments of exquisite 
 beaiity, such as had never been witnessed since the best days of 
 the Cinquecento. Many and highly distinguished have been his 
 pupils, amongst whom were Ferdinando AlbertolU his nephew, 
 D. i\Ioglia, and the brothers Bmsa. The Emperor Napoleon, Fran- 
 cis I. of Austria, and Alexander I. of Russia, aU %ied in bestowing 
 marks of their admu-ation upon the venerable artist. Aiiived to 
 an advanced age, he retired from the direction of the school, being 
 succeeded by his nephew and D. Moglia ; but remained attached 
 up to his death, in 1845, to the academical council, in which his 
 sound judgment and vast erachtion proved of immense advan- 
 tage to art in Italy. The great Thor&waldcn used to say that 
 it was worth a journey to Jiilan only to see and hear this great 
 man, most appropriately smTiamed the "Nestor of Modem Art." 
 His death, although a natural event at so advanced an age, was 
 considered by the Italians as a national calamity. — R. M.
 
 ALB 
 
 73 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALBERTOLLI, Ferdinando, a distinguished Italian arclii- 
 tect and decorator of our days, nephew and pupil of Giocondo 
 AlbertoUi, and also a native of Canton Ticino. lie succeedeu 
 his uncle when this latter retired from the professorship at the 
 academy of Milan. Designed and executed some of the finest 
 palaces of this city, in a style full of pru-ity and harmony. Died 
 in 1846.— R. M. 
 
 ALBERTRANDY, John Christian, a PoHsh bishop and 
 historian, of Italian origin, was born at Warsaw in 173 L He 
 entered the Society of Jesuits at sixteen years of age, and from 
 1760 held successively the offices of librarian to the bishop of 
 Zaluski, and preceptor to the nephew of the primate. While 
 employed in this latter capacity, he was taken notice of by Kmg 
 Stanislas Augustus, who commanded him to transcribe into the 
 library of the Vatican whatever was of importance in the public 
 records of the Idngdom, and this trust he executed in 110 
 volumes, written with his o-^vn hand. He was afterwards named 
 royal librarian and bishop of Zenopolis. Besides numerous dis- 
 sertations on the histoiy of his own country, he published two 
 volumes of Roman antiquities. Died in 1808. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS; AlbertusTeutonicus; Frater 
 Albertus de Colonia; Albertus Ratisboniensis; Al- 
 BERTUS Grotus: — -without qvxestion the most distinguished and 
 prolific inquirer of the middle ages : of the family of tlie counts 
 of Ballstadt. The date of his birth is doubtful ; some place it in 
 the year 1193, others in 1205. A student at the school of 
 Padua, he became rapidly ftimous for the extent of his acquire- 
 ments — the consequence of untmng industiy. About 1222 he 
 joined the Dominicans, and was raised by them to the chair of 
 Theology. He taught with prodigious success in many cities, 
 such as Friburg, Ratisbon, Strasburg, Cologne, &c. ; afterwards 
 residing for three years in Paris, accompanied by his great dis- 
 ciple, Thomas Aquinas. In 1260, after having travelled again 
 through Germany, he accepted the bishopric of Ratisbon ; but 
 findmg that the duties of the episcopate interfered too much 
 with his studies, and were therefore unsuitable to his tastes, 
 he resigned the see into the hands of Pope Urban IV., and re- 
 tired to a convent at Cologne. The exigencies of public affiiirs 
 soon drew him from his cherished privacy. We find him in 1270 
 preaching the Crusade m Austria and Bohemia, and, three years 
 later, he proceeded to Paris to defend Aquinas. Albert died in 
 1280. — The labours of this extraordinary person extend over the 
 whole domain of the sciences ; his learning was encyclopasdiacal. 
 No other man represents so fully or so well the state of the 
 physical sciences in the middle ages ; and he ranged, besides, 
 through every department of philosophy and theology. At that 
 time the foundations of Chemistry were being laid, by those re- 
 searches to which the term Alchemy has been applied. Doubtless, 
 such researches were, in the hands of many men, confined to the 
 quest of the philosopher's stone, and made instruments of impos- 
 ture ; but, with inquirers like Albert, the aim was loftier and 
 sounder, being really the search of all tnie chemical science — the 
 search, viz., after the simple elements of whicli bodies are com- 
 posed. Even the greatest of the Alchemists are undoubtedly 
 chargeable with an error common to pioneers in all the sciences 
 — that of generalizing prematurely ; but no impartial historian 
 can withhold the acknowledgment that they manifested quite as 
 much sagacity as could be expected from men of great power ; 
 that they were gi-adually arising to a right idea, or at least to 
 a right practice of the inductive method of research ; and that 
 we farther owe them many important special discoveries. Albert, 
 for instance, had reaUzod the processes of distilling and sub- 
 limating ; he was acquainted vrith some of the modes (jf pm-ifying 
 metals ; and he had become familiar with many substances and 
 products, not often found, by themselves, in nature. But the 
 place occupied by Albertus in history, is mainly due to his ser- 
 vices in another region of thought. The true representative of 
 Peripateticisia, the honour belongs to him of having diffused, far 
 and wide, a knowledge of Aristotle, and asserted and secured 
 his dominion. All the leading monuments of the philosophy of 
 the Lycajum were familiar to him ; and he had carefully studied 
 the commentaries of the Ai-abians, as is proved by the mass of 
 his citations from AN-icenna, Al-Gazali, Alfarabi, Tofail, and 
 Aven-hofes. The conclusions to which his researches led him, bear 
 throughout the impress of Ainstotle, freed from that influence 
 of Platonism which had affected the Stagyrite through means of 
 the later Alexandrian school. Faithful to the church, he stood 
 unwaveringly by the supremacy and the rights of Theology ; but 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 he claimed for Reason, the power to raise men, by itself, to 
 Truth. His analysis of the Reason is elaborate, occupying many 
 treatises. He has discoursed much and acutely on Logic — es- 
 pousing the cause of Realism. In Jletaphysics he occupied hun- 
 self mainly with the idea of absolute substance, or Bemg in 
 itself, — discussing the ideas of matter, form, accident, eternity, 
 dm-ation, and time. His Psychology had one signal merit, he 
 somewhat rescued its researches from the domain of mere dia- 
 lectic, — recalling inquirers to the necessity of studying its facts. 
 As to Theodicy, his aim was simply to determine the bases, the 
 extent, and certainty of our knowledge of God. He excludes all 
 positive dogmas — among others, that of the Trinity ; insisting that 
 the mind cannot know truths of which it has no image within 
 itself: but he considers that the Being of God is demonstrable 
 in many ways. All his \'iews in morals are excellent : opposing 
 Ai-istotle, in this case, he insists powerfully that Conscience is the 
 supreme law, which commands us to do or not to do, and which 
 judges conceniing the right or the wrong in actions. — The stu- 
 dent will gather from these few remarks how extensive the field 
 over which this remarkable person ranged and speculated. If, 
 indeed, his genius had equalled his learning, the histoij of phi- 
 losophy would have contained few names superior to his. But 
 those days were mostly the days of commentaries ; patience and 
 toil, rather than originality, were in request — knowledge rather 
 than invention. One desiderates in the writings of Albert 
 even that \agorous intellect which makes the opinions of 
 others really its own : instead of a vast system with its parts 
 firmly knit, he has left accordingly only a collection of various 
 essays or treatises, in each of whicli something of value may be 
 foimd. His works are enormous in volume, consisting of twenty- 
 one large folios ; six of which are devoted to commentaries on 
 Aristotle ; five on the Scriptures ; two on Dionysius the Areo- 
 pagite ; three contain an explanation of the Book of Sentences 
 of Peter Lombard ; two are occupied with a Summa Theologiaj ; 
 one with the Summa de Creaturis ; one is a treatise on the 
 Virgin ; and the last contains his Opuscula, one of which is on 
 Alchemy.— Fuller information will be found in the great dic- 
 tionaiy of Bayle, in the Ilistoire Literaire de France, and the 
 Dictionuaire de Sciences. Albertus is of course mentioned and 
 estmiated by every historian of Philosophy. — J. P. N. 
 
 ALBERUS. See Alber, Erasmus. 
 
 ALBI, Henry, a learned French Jesuit, successively rector 
 of the colleges of Avignon, Grenoble, Lyons, and Aries, and 
 author of several ecclesiastical works, was bmTi at Bolene in 
 1590; died at Ai'les m 1659. 
 
 ALBICUS, SiGiSMOND, archbishop of Prague, and after- 
 wards of Cesarce in the reign of Wenceslas IV. of Bohemia. 
 He was suspected of a leaning to the doctrines of Huss and 
 Wickliff, and during the persecutions of the Hussites retu-ed to 
 Hungary, where he died in 1427. 
 
 ALBIGNAC, Louis Alexander Baron d', a lieutenant- 
 general in the anny of the French Republic, was born in 1739. 
 He was appointed to command a department, and to suppress 
 some royalist risings. He served under Marshal Richelieu at 
 the taking of Minorca in 1791, and died in 1820. 
 
 ALBIN, an Irishman, who flourished in the eighth century, 
 and was conspicuous for his learning, wisdom, and piety. In 
 company with his friend and countiyman Clement, he repaired 
 to Paris, to the com-t of Charles the Great, who was a zealous 
 promoter of learning, and a patron of learned men Notker 
 Balbulus, a contemporary French -smter, quoted by Ware, men- 
 tions that they arrived in France in the company of some 
 British merchants, and observing the people crowd around the 
 merchants to buy their wares, Albin and Clement cried out, 
 " If anybody wants wisdom, let him come to us and receive it, 
 for we have it to sell." Persisting in this strange conduct, the 
 people tnought they were deranged, and carried an account of 
 their proceedings to the king, who without delay sent for them, 
 and when they were conducted into his presence, they repeated 
 their assertion, demanding for payment only, " ingenuous souls, 
 convenient apartments, with food and raiment." Cliarlcs received 
 them hospitably, and after some time he dismissed Albin to 
 Italy, for the purpose of educating the people, assigning to him 
 the monastery of St. Augustine, near to the city of Ticinum, now 
 Pavia, " that as many as pleased might resort thither to him for 
 instniction." Albin continued there till his death. Some of his 
 epistles are still extant. He is sometimes confounded with an 
 Enghshman of the name of Alcuin. — QVills.) — J. F. W. 
 
 K
 
 ALBIN,.Elkazar, a pninter, who flourished in the middle 
 of the last centuiy at London, and distinguished himself as an 
 able illustrator of works on natural history. 
 
 ALBINA, Giuseppe, surnamed Sozzo, a Sicilian painter, 
 sculptor, and architect, who died at Palermo in 1611. 
 
 ALBINEUS, Nathan, an alchemist of Geneva, who lived in 
 the latter part of the seventeenth century, author of a work en- 
 titled " Bibliotheca Chemica Contracta." 
 
 ALBINI, Alessandro, an Italian historical painter, bom at 
 Bologna in 15G8, died in 1630. He was a pupil of Lodovico 
 Caracci, and worked especially in his native town, where he left 
 many works highly praised both for conception and execution. 
 
 ALBINI, Francis Joseph Baron d', a distinguished 
 German diplomatist, born in 1748. In 1787, while ui the ser- 
 vice of Frederic Charles, elector of Mayence, he attracted the 
 attention of the Emperor Joseph II., and was honom-ed with 
 several missions to the comts of Germany. After the accession 
 of Leopold II. he was appointed chancellor of the com-t of May- 
 ence, and his administration of the affaii-s of the electorate was 
 such as to command at once the confidence of his sovereign and 
 the gratitude of the people. Died at Diesburg in 1816. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBINIUS, Lucius, a Koman citizen of plebeian origin, 
 commended in history for an act of piety to the vestal wgins. 
 In his flight from Rome, 390 B.C., then thi-eatened by the 
 (lauls, he overtook the priestesses of Vesta, and, descending 
 from his carriage with his family, he caused the vestals to mount 
 and proceed out of danger. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBINOVANUS, C. Pedo, an epic poet of considerable 
 fame in his own day, and a friend of the poet Ovid. Three 
 elegies attributed to him find a place in the collections of the 
 " Lesser Latin Poets." 
 
 ALBINUS. See Alcuin. 
 
 ALBINUS, Adrian, a distinguished scholar of the seventeenth 
 centmy, and an intimate friend of Luther and Jlelancthon, born at 
 Lauban in 1513. He betook himself to various studies in that 
 unsettled age, but ultimately was a teacher of law at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder, and held a high legal position under one of the 
 reigning dukes of Brandenbm-g. Died m 1590. 
 
 ALBINUS, Decimus Claudius, a Roman general who 
 served in Britain under the emperors JIarcus Aiu-eUus and Com- 
 modus, and on the assassination of Pertinax became a claimant 
 for the empire. After some time spent in negotiations, he was 
 defeated, and taken prisoner at Lyons by his rival, Septimus 
 Sevcms, and immediately put to death, a.d. 198. 
 
 ALBINUS, JoiiANN, a German poet, was bom at Coburg, 
 became professor of Latin poetry at Leipzig, and died in 1607. 
 
 ALBINUS or WEISS, Johann Georg, born in 1624 at 
 Unter-Neisse, and died at Naumburg m 1679. He was con- 
 nected with one of the fraternities of poets then prevalent in 
 Germany, and has left a variety of compositions. 
 
 ALBINUS or WEISS, Peter, a German poet and historian, 
 professor of poetiy and mathematics at Wittemberg, and after- 
 wards secretary to the elector of Dresden. Died in 1598. 
 
 ALBINUS or WEISS, a family of German physicians. Of 
 these we notice : — 
 
 Albinus, Bern.vrd, a Gennan physician, professor of 
 medicine at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and aftenvards at Leyden, 
 was bom at Dessau in 1653, and died in 1721. He is the 
 author of innnerous dissertations on professional subjects. His 
 lectures were published long after his death under the title of 
 " The Causes and Symptoms of Diseases." 
 
 Albinus, Bernard Sigfried, son of the preceding, an 
 anatomist of great celebrity, professor of anatomy and surgery 
 at the university of Leyden, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
 in 1696. Not satisfied with the instructions he received from 
 his father and other equally distinguished professors of Leyden, 
 he went to reside a year in France, and became the friend of the 
 most celebrated anatomist of that country. His success as a 
 professor rewarded his labours as a student. Died in 1770. 
 His works are numerous and highly esteemed. 
 
 Aluinus, Christian Bernard, a brother of the foregoing, 
 was bom in 1696, and taught anatomy at Utrecht. 
 
 Albinus, Frederick Bernard, another brother, bom at 
 Leyden in 1715, succeeded Bernard Sigfried as professor of 
 medicine and surgery. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBINUS Di viLL.\NOVA, Peter Constant, an astro- 
 loger and alchemist, lived at the beginning of the 17th centurv, 
 and wrote a treatise on his favomite sciences. 
 
 AL-BHIUNIUS ; Abu, Riiian, Mohamjied ; an Arabian 
 astrouDmer and geometrician of the eleventh centuiy. He wrote a 
 nmnber of works, e. g., on spherical superficies ; on the motions 
 of the stars ; on the trisection of the angle and the duplication 
 of the cube ; on the determination of time ; commenting on the 
 Almagest, &c., &c. He was a great traveller, and had pene- 
 trated into the Indies. — J. P. N. 
 
 ALBISSON, Jean, a French jurist, bom at MontpeUier, 
 1732, died 1810, pubhshed several works on jurispradence. 
 
 ALBITTE, Ajntoine Louis, a member of the French con- 
 vention, and one of the most ferocious of the Jacobins. Escap- 
 ing the perils to which, after the fall of Robespierre, his atrocities 
 exposed him, he became an ardent adlierent of Napoleon, and 
 after long service as an administrative functionaiy in the army, 
 perished in 1812, duiing the retreat from Moscow. — E. M. 
 
 ALBIUS, RicARDUS, or Richard White, an English Jesuit 
 of the seventeenth centuiy, remarkable for his mathematical 
 genius, and author of a treatise on geometry. 
 
 ALBIZZI, Bartolosieo, or Bartholomew of Pisa, a 
 Franciscan monk, a very voluminous writer, who attained great- 
 notoriety as author of a work, entitled "Conformities of St. 
 Francis to Jesus Chi-ist." He died at Pisa in 1401. 
 
 ALBIZZI, PiETRO, leader of the Guelphs at Florence, and one 
 of the three directors of the republic from 1372 to 1378. When 
 overpowered by a conspkacy of the Ghibeline — papal and demo- 
 cratic — party in 1379, he magnanimously rcquiied his judges to 
 order the immediate, though imjust, execution of himself and 
 colleagues, to appease the infmiated populace, who declared that 
 unless the Guelph leaders were immediately put to death by the 
 executioner, they would instantly tear them to pieces, and com- 
 mence a massacre of their fi-iends and families. — E. M. 
 
 ALBIZZI, Rinaldo, son of Tommaso, was left under 
 the care of his father's judicious and faithful fiiend, Nicolo 
 d'Uzzano, after whose death in 1433, he was hunied by wilful- 
 ness and incapacity into a series of measures which pro^'ed dis- 
 astrous to the pubfic, and terminated in his being driven into 
 exile in 1434, from which he was never able to return. Died at 
 Ancona in 1452. 
 
 ALBIZZI, Tommaso, or Maso, nephew of Pieteo, and leader 
 of the Florentine republic from 1382 to 1417, was bom in 1347, 
 and died in 1417. He was exiled at the time his uncle was put 
 to death, but was recalled in 1382. His patriotism, talents, 
 and energy rendered his long administration the most glorious 
 period in the annals of Florence. 
 
 ALBO, JosEi'H, a Spanish rabbi, bora towards the end of 
 the fomteenth centmy, author of a famous work, entitled " Ikka- 
 rini," i.e., " Foundations," being a defence of Judaism, and an 
 attack on Christianity. Albo is celebrated also for the part he 
 took in a public discussion before the anti-pope, Benedict XIII. 
 
 ALBOIN, founder of the Lombard kingdom in Italy, suc- 
 ceeded in 561 his father Audoin as king of the Lombards, 
 then in Pannonia ; all but exterminated, in 566, the Gepidre; 
 espoused as his second wife Rosamond, daughter of then king, 
 whom he had slain; crossed the Alps in 568 at the head of an 
 immense army, comprehending auxiliaries from various nations ; 
 took possession of the whole north of Italy, and, by the capture 
 of Pavia after a siege of three years, completed his conquest, 
 making Pavia his capital ; and was mm-dered in 573 at Verona, 
 by his oivn armour-bearer. — E. M. 
 
 ALBON, Claude-Camille-Fran^ois d', an accomplished 
 but rather whimsical Fi'ench landed proprietor and writer, a 
 devoted follower of the great economist Quesnay, and author of 
 several works on economical and historical subjects. 
 
 * ALBONI, Marietta, an ItaUan singer, whose musical 
 powers, natural and acquired, have awakened vast admiration, 
 dm-ing her professional visits to most of the capitals of Europe, 
 was born in 1824 at Ccsena, a small to'mi in Romagna. 
 
 ALBONI, Paolo, a Bolognese landscape painter, boiTi in 
 1677, died in 1734. He left Italy when still young, and pro- 
 ceeded to Gennany, where he adopted a style mixed of the 
 Dutch and Flemish. — R. M. 
 
 ALBORESI, GiAcojio, an Italian painter, whose excellence 
 lay in painting architectural views in firesco, was bom at Bologna 
 in 1022, and died m 1677. 
 
 ALBORNOZ, Diego-Feupe, a learned Spanish ecclesiastic, 
 who flourished in the seventeenth century, author of an excellent 
 work on " Virtues and Vices," in the order of the alphabet ; 
 and translator of Bissachioni's " Civil Wai's of England."
 
 ALB 
 
 75 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALBORNOZ, Gil (or iEciDius) d', a Spanish ecclesiastic, 
 and one of tlie greatest men Spain ever produced, was born 
 at Cuenza. about the beginning of the fourteenth century. 
 Of nolile and even royal extraction, he v\ras raised, while quite 
 a youth, to the archiepiscopal see of Toledo ; and he rendered 
 Alfonso XL great service in his wars with the j\Ioors, pro- 
 curing him subsidies, and by his valour saving his life in battle. 
 Having, by his faithful remonstrances, incmTed the enmity of 
 Pedro the Cruel, he resigned his archbishopric ; and, repairing 
 to Avignon, was made a cardinal by Clement VL, and appointed 
 to recover by arms the states of the chmxh. This he accom- 
 plished by ibrce or polity ; and continued to govern as legate 
 the ecclesiastical territory with singular judgment and success, 
 displaying eminent military talents, political discretion, and ad- 
 ministrative capacity, as well as dignified sentiments and rare 
 disinterestedness. Died at Viterbo in 1367. — E. M. 
 
 ALBOSIUS or AILLEBOUT, Jean, physician to Henij IIL 
 of France, and author of a medical work, entitled " Portentosum 
 Lithopredium," containing the description of a medical pheno- 
 menon which attracted great attention, and led to the discovery 
 of similar petrifactions. 
 
 ALBOUZDJANY, Abul-vefa-I\Ioiiammed, an Arab as- 
 tronomer, a native of Bouzdjan, in Khorassan, who flourished at 
 the com-t of the caliphs of Bagdad in the tenth century, and 
 contributed to the progress of astronomical science. 
 
 ALBRAND, Fortuni5, a French orientalist and traveller, 
 who visited the interior of Madagascar, established a colony 
 tliere, and died in 1827, at the age of 32, while engaged in 
 composing a dictionary of the language of that island. 
 
 ALBKECHT, Bai.tazar Augustix, a Bavarian historical 
 painter, born in 1G87, died in 1765. He studied in Italy, and 
 distinguished liimself especially in sacred subjects. He was 
 deservedly appointed, by the elector, sm'veyor of the ]\Iunich 
 gallery. — R. M. 
 
 ALBRECHT, Christian, a native of Suabia, who in 1805, 
 under the auspices of the London Missionaiy Society, established 
 a mission settlement in Southern Africa at Warm-bath, to the 
 north of the Orange river ; and continued his arduous labours 
 for the conversion of the heathen, first at Warm-bath, and, after 
 its desolation by the famous chief Africaner, at Pella, on the 
 south of the Orange river, where he collected the remnant of his 
 flock, till his deatii in 1815.— E. M. 
 
 * ALBRECHT, FuEDERiCK-RoDOLPn, son of the celebrated 
 Archduke Charles, was born in 1817, became in 1845 general 
 and commander of the forces in Lower Austria, was unjustly 
 represented as having in 1848 ordei-ed the troops to fire on the 
 people at Vienna, as he was then absent and had resigned the 
 command, serv'ed in 1848 under Radetski in Italy, and in 1849 
 was made governor of the federal fortress of Mayence. — E. M. 
 
 ALBRECHT vox Halberstadt, an old German poet, one 
 of the " minnesingers," flourished early in the thirteenth century. 
 His productions consist mainly of imitations and translations. 
 Besides imitations of two French Romans, he wrote a free trans- 
 lation of " Ovid's Metamorphoses." 
 
 ALBRECHT, Johann Frederick Ernest, a German 
 physician, author of numerous but indifferent novels, was born 
 in 1752 at Stade in Hanover, practised medicine at Reval, be- 
 came a bookseller at Prague, then director of a theatre at Altona, 
 and latterly resumed his medical practice. Died in 1816. 
 
 ALBRECHT, Johann Sebastian, a German physician and 
 naturalist, professor of natural history at Coburg, remarkable for 
 his attention to strange and abnoi-mal jjhenomena in the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms, and author of numerous memoirs con- 
 taining the results of his observations, was born in 1695, and 
 died at Coburg. The precise time of his death is uncertain. 
 
 ALBRECHT, Johann Williaji, a German physician, suc- 
 cessively professor at Wittemberg, from 1734, and professor of 
 anatomy, surgery, and botany at Gottingen, author of numerous 
 learned professional works, including an ingenious dissertation 
 on the influence of music on the state of animated bodies, was 
 born at Erfurt in 1703, and died in 1736. 
 
 ALBRECHT, Wilhelm, a celebrated German agriculturist, 
 bom in 1786. After being trained under Thaer, he was for 
 some time teacher of rural economy in ^I. de Fellenberg's estab- 
 lishment at Hofwyl, near Berne. In 1819 he was appointed by 
 the dulvc of Nassau, editor of a weekly journal of agriculture, 
 and in 1820 director of the Nomial Agricultural Institute at 
 Idstein, which was subsequently transferred to Geisberg in the 
 
 vicinity of Nassau, and became a prominent source of agricul- 
 tural impi-ovements for the west of Germany. The object of 
 the establishment was neither to form men of science, nor to 
 train farm servants, but to send forth agricultural instructors 
 and enlightened farmers, acquainted with the theory, and versed 
 in the practice, of agriculture. Dming the summer months, 
 the students were expected to be engaged in agricultural labour 
 and obsei-vation on well-managed faiTns. As secretary to the 
 Nassau Agricultural Society, he continued for fifteen years, 
 from 1819, to publish its transactions annually, in one volume 
 8vo. A short time before his death, which occun-ed in 1848, 
 he resigned the directorship of the institute at Geisberg, and 
 spent the remainder of his days in retirement. — E. M. 
 
 * ALBRECHT, Wii.helm Edward, a Gennan legist, was 
 bom at Elbing in 1800, studied at Gottingen, became in 1829 
 professor of German law in that university, lost his chair in 
 1837, by joining in a protest against the king of Hanover's 
 abolition of the constitution of 1833, and in 1840 was appointed 
 professor of public law in the university of Leipzig. 
 
 ALBRECHTSBERGER, Johann Geobg, a musician, was 
 bom at Klosterneuburg, a small town near Vienna, in 1736. 
 At seven years old he was placed in the choir of the free school, 
 where he immediately attracted attention by his natural talent 
 for music ; his parents, however, were too poor to afford him 
 any instruction, but in this emergency, Leopold Pittner, an 
 organist in the town, undertook the gi'atuitous tuition of the 
 young chorister on the organ and harpsichord, and in harmony. 
 Among other acts of kindness of which Albrechtsberger always 
 spoke with gratitude, his master bad a small organ erected for 
 him to practise upon, that is still kept in one of the neighbouring 
 Danubian villages as a rehc. After a few years, he was 
 appointed a singing boy in the abbey of Mellc ; in this capacity, 
 taking part in the perfoi-mance that was customary dm-ing 
 the carnival, of some little operas, on an occasion when the 
 emperor was passing through the place, and so witnessed the 
 entertainment, the imperial Joseph was so pleased with his 
 bright soprano voice that he personally presented him with 
 a golden ducat. Here he derived great advantages from the 
 lessons of Kimmerling the organist. When his voice broke, 
 he obtained an engagement to play the organ at Raab, for 
 which he was now admirably qualified ; he quitted this for a 
 more lucrative one at Maria Taferl, from whence in 1760 
 he was appointed to the same office at Melk. In 1765, when 
 the Princess Maria Josepha passed through the town on the 
 way to her nuptials with the emperor, an ode in her honour was 
 performed, which Albrechtsberger had composed, and which 
 brought him a second time under the favourable notice of 
 royalty. Some time later, the emperor again passed through 
 Melk, and, attending mass at the abbey, heard him accompany 
 the ser\'ice, and aftenvards extemporise upon the organ, when 
 he again spoke to him personally, and promised him the first 
 appointment in Vienna that should become vacant : accordingly, 
 in 1772 he became organist of the CaiTnelite church, in the 
 Austrian capital. Indefatigable m the study of his art., he took 
 advantage of his new situation to place himself under Mann, 
 the court organist, for his esteemed instruction. Four years 
 prior to tliis he married the daughter of Weiss the sculptor, by 
 whom he had fifteen children. On the death of Hoflinan, the 
 organist of St. Stephen's church in Vienna, Mozart, who had for 
 long desired such an office, was nominated by the emperor to 
 succeed him ; already, however, the hand of death was upon the 
 master, and the fulfilment of his earnest wish came too late for 
 him to enjoy it ; but such was his esteem for Albrechtsberger, that 
 almost his last words were an injunction to conceal his death 
 from evei-y one else, until he should have time to apply for 
 and obtain the appointment. Thus in 1792, he entered upon 
 this engagement, which afforded him still greater scope than his 
 former one had done for the exercise of his talent. He was 
 elected member of the Stockholm academy in 1798. He died 
 on the 7th of March, 1809, and was interred in the same 
 churchyard as Mozart had been nearly eighteen years earlier, 
 and Haydn was a year later. He was the master of many of 
 the most distinguished musicians of the last generation, among 
 whom may be specially noted, Weigl, Seyfried, Hunmiel, Eybler, 
 and Beethoven, which last said of him, " Now Albrechtsberger 
 is dead, there is no one to teach counterpoint." Of his 
 extremely voluminous compositions a veiy small number are 
 printed, and of these his excellent organ fugues are the most
 
 esteemed; the chief of his other works, consisting mostly of 
 sacred music, bnt comprising eveiy class of vocal and instru- 
 mental production, are in the library of Prince Esterhazy 
 Gidata; a list of the whole is to be found in Dr. Schilling's 
 Lexicon. With regard to the gi-eat facility in the contrapmital 
 style that prevails throughout his wTitings, he used to say that he 
 never had an idea which did not present itself to him in the fomi 
 of double counterpoint. His last composition was a " Te Deum," 
 designed for the entry into Vienna of the Emperor Francis; 
 but as he did not live to witness this event, he desired that it 
 might be presented to his patron on the first pubUc occasion, 
 with these words : " In his last moments, a faithful subject 
 offers liis sovereign his homage," which loyal behest was fultilled 
 shortly aftpn\'ards by his daughter, on the occasion of the 
 emperor's marriage. Albrechtsberger is best known in England 
 by his theoretical works, which were collected and published by 
 Seyfried, and of which Messrs. Cocks and Messrs. Novello each 
 print a translation. — G. A. M. 
 
 ALBRET, Charles, Lord of, became constable of France 
 in 1402, commanded the French dimng 1405 and 1406 against 
 the English in Guienne, and fell at the liead of the French army 
 in the memorable battle of Agincourt, 25th Oct., 1415. 
 
 ALBRIC, ALBRICUS, ALBERICUS, or ALFRICUS, an 
 English philosopher and physician, flourished at London about 
 1080, according to some, and about 1220, according to others; 
 author of 1. "De deoram imaginibus ; " 2. "De ratione veneni ; " 
 3. "Virtutes antiquormn;" 4. " Canones specvdativi." The first 
 only has been printed. 
 
 ALBRION, Domingo d', a Spanish sculptor of the sixteenth 
 century, admired for the accuracy of his figures, and the sim- 
 plicity of his drapeiy. Two of his statues are in the cathedral 
 of Tan'agone. 
 
 ALBRIZZI, Jerome, a Venetian publisher of the seventeenth 
 century, author of a concise description of the countries watered 
 by the Danube, with engravings, and a summary of Hungarian 
 and Tm-kish history. He published also " The Gallery of Min- 
 erva, or Emopean Bibliography," 3 vols, folio. 
 
 ALBRIZZI, Isabella Teotoki, Countess of, a learned and 
 accomplished Greek lady, daughter of Count Teotoki, and wife 
 of Joseph Albrizzi, a Venetian nobleman, was bom at Corfu in 
 1770, and died at Venice in 183G. Her house in Venice was 
 long the resort of illustrious men of genius. Byron calls her 
 the Venetian Madame de Stael. She wi-ote — 1. " Portraits of 
 Distinguished Characters ; " 2. "Dissertations on the Works of 
 the Sculptor Canova," 4 vols. 8vo; and 3. "A Life of Vittoria 
 Colonna." — E. M. 
 
 ALBUCASIS, ABULCASIS BUCHASIS or BULCHASIM, 
 a skilful Arab physician, author of a curious work on surgery, 
 was born at Azzahra in Spain, and died at Cordova in 1106-7. 
 Ilis work, " AI-Tassrif," contains, among much other ingenious 
 matter, an interesting discussion of the appliances of practical 
 surgery, as these were apprehended in his time. 
 
 ALBUMAZAR, a famous Arabian astronomer, was bom at 
 Balkh in the Khorassan, a.d. 776-7. His life, by an anonymous 
 writer, and a list of fifty of his works, are preserved in the 
 library of the Escurial. He destined himself for the profession 
 of law, and during his preparatory studies declared himself an 
 enemy of all natm-al science as irreligious. Wlien considerably 
 advanced in years, however, he turned his attention to the study 
 of mathematics, and to the practice of judicial astrology, the 
 results of his labours in both of which he embodied in a curious 
 work still preserved : " The Book of the Introduction to the 
 Science of the Stars." He is also supposed to be the author of 
 an astrological treatise entitled " Olouf " (a thousand years), in 
 •which it is asserted that the world was created when the seven 
 planets were in conjunction in the first degree of Aries, and 
 that it will terminate when they are in conjunction in the first 
 degi-ee of Pisces. Died a.d. 885. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Alfonso d', more properly Affonso 
 d'Alroquerque, sumamed the Great, was second son of 
 Gonzalvo, lord of Villaverde, who was descended from Aftbnso 
 Sanchez, an illegitimate son of Diniz, king of Portugal, and 
 manied Da. Tarija, daughter of Sancho, king of Castile. His 
 son Don Juan first assumed the territorial designation, D'Alliu- 
 querque, from the castle of that name, which he' rebuilt ; and this 
 ■name became aftei-wards familiar in the history of the Peninsula, 
 not only from the actions of his descendants, but from those 
 which occui-red at the place whence their name was derived. 
 
 Alfonso was bom in the year 1452 at Alhandra, near Lisbon, 
 which, though but a small seaport town, could boast a consider- 
 able fishery, and, consequently, a race of bold and enterpris- 
 ing seamen. He was educated at the court of Alfonso V., 
 where both classical and mathematical learnmg were sedulously 
 cultivated, and where the latter received its characteristic applica- 
 tion in what was then temied the science of cosmography. After 
 the death of Alfonso, he went into Africa, and served in the war 
 against the Moors; from whence returning, he became principal 
 equeiTy to John II., under whose influence Albuquerque doubt- 
 less acquired those enlarged views of policy and commerce which 
 influenced his after life. At the death of John, he went again 
 to Africa ; but losing a brother in battle, returned to Portugal, 
 and became principal gentleman of the bedchamber to King 
 Emanuel. Subsequently he was sent with the fleet to Tarento, 
 to assist Ferdinand, king of Naples, against the Turks, and was 
 then placed in command of Fort Gracioza, wliich the Portuguese 
 had built on the coast of Earache in Morocco. 
 
 Thus prepared for more important services, in 1503 Alfonso 
 sailed from Belem as commander of a squadron of three ships, 
 and second in command to his cousin Francisco d' Albuquerque, 
 who sailed from Lisbon with the same number, to build a fort at 
 Cochin, on the coast of Malabar. Having perfoiTned this sendee, 
 he returned to Portugal ; but Francisco, who had parted from him 
 in anger, was lost during the voyage. In 1506 he again left 
 Portugal, never to return. Tristan d'Acunha had been placed in 
 command of a fleet of fourteen vessels, with instmctions to sup- 
 port the native Christians of India against the ^lahometans, and 
 for this purpose to build a fort at Socotra ; with him Alfonso 
 d' Albuquerque was sent ostensibly as second in command, but 
 really to supersede Almeyda, who was then acting as viceroy in 
 India. On reaching Madagascar, Acunha determined to examine 
 the shores of that island, while Albuquerque sailed with six ships 
 to explore the N.E. shores of Africa. Having done this, and re- 
 turned with pilots, the united fleet sailed to Socotra, and built 
 there the fort of Coco, after which Acunha sailed to India, leaving 
 Albuquerque with his squadron to operate against the enemy in 
 the Gulf of Persia and the Red Sea. He shortly found an oppor- 
 tunity to secure the throne of Onnuz, then the commercial em- 
 porium of the Indian seas, for a chief disposed, in consequence, 
 to further the interests of the Portuguese ; but being deserted by 
 Juan de Nova, and some of his captains, he was reluctantly com- 
 pelled, after examining the Persian Gidf, to abandon the scene 
 of his success for a time, and sail for India. He arrived in 1508, 
 but his claim to authority was not acknowledged by Almeyda, 
 who, at the instigation of the disaffected captains, threw him into 
 prison. On the anival, however, the following year, of Fernando 
 Continho, a relative of his own, and high in office in the court 
 of Emanuel, with the authority of captain-general, he was im- 
 mediately released, and Almeyda superseded. Continho being 
 shortly after slain at the taking of Calicut, and Almeyda having 
 quitted India, Albuquerque was left alone to cany out his 
 schemes for the extension of the Portuguese power in the East. 
 His first act was to take possession of the town of Goa, which 
 had been built by the Mahometans for the security of their 
 commerce, the siuTounding country being in the possession of 
 the Hindoos, who were willing to join the Portuguese in expel- 
 ling the Arabs. The town had a large but motley population, 
 and the government was weak and undecided. Albuquerque's 
 first conquest was therefore easy ; but through the disaffection 
 of his officers, he was obliged to abandon it as he had done 
 OiTnuz. His perseverance was, however, rewarded in the 
 autumn of the same year, 1510, and Goa became the metropolis 
 of Portuguese India. 
 
 Diego Lopez Sequiera, who had joined in inciting Almeyda 
 against Albuquerque, sailed shortly after the anival ot Continho 
 to JIalacca. He was one of those brave but miprincipled men, 
 who caused the Portuguese name to be no less hated than feai-ed 
 in the East. Some of his crews ha^^ng been taken by the Moors, 
 Albuquerque sailed at the head of nineteen ships and 1400 men, 
 of whom 800 only were Portuguese, to release them, and capture 
 Malacca. This was one of the most important cities in the East, 
 said to contain not less than 100,000 persons, defended by 
 30,000 soldiers and a numerous artilleiy. Albuquerque, at the 
 head of his Portuguese, and 200 Malabar Indians, stonned the 
 town, and effected its capture after a desperate resistance. 
 He was greatly assisted in this action by a wealthy Javanese, 
 whom he aftenvards employed in an important civil office ; but
 
 ALB 
 
 77 
 
 ALC 
 
 subsequently discovering that he was canying on a traitorous 
 correspondence, he put him to death, with his nearest male rela- 
 tives, altliough his wife offered 2,800 pounds of gold for their 
 redemption. Some writers accuse Albuquerque in this, of 
 treachery and cruelty, asserting that his only reason for the 
 execution was his fear of the man's power, he being the chief of 
 10,000 of his countrymen. Such a motive was clearly foreign 
 to the character of Albuquerque, and his words on the occasion, 
 as recorded by De Barros, should be received as evidence of the 
 real one: "He was," he said, "the minister of justice of his 
 king, who was not accustomed to sell justice for money : " indeed 
 there is eveiy reason to believe that there were conclusive proofs 
 of the man's treacheiy. On his return to Goa, Albuquerque bvdit 
 a church in honour of " Our Lady of the Annunciation," and 
 decorated it with ornaments from the tombs of the kings of 
 Malacca ; from whence also he took four bronze lions to grace 
 his own tomb. These, however, were lost, with much treasm-e, 
 in a storm at sea, during which Albuquerque risked his own life 
 to save that of one of the sailors. From this, as well as from 
 the fact, that througliout his career he was beloved by the men, 
 though disliked by some of the officers ; that at the storming of 
 Calicut, he would have prevented the plundering which led to 
 the defeat of the Portuguese and the death of Continho, and 
 that he died without enriching himself; we may well conclude 
 that Albuquerque was disliked, deserted, and misrepresented by 
 the officers, because he would not let them seek then* private 
 advantage to the detriment of the public service. 
 
 After the conquest of Malacca, Albuquerque sent his nephew, 
 Francisco de Noronha, to whose valour he had already been 
 much indebted, to the conquest of Mozambique ; and to com- 
 plete the reduction of the fortresses by which the Mahometan 
 power was protected in the Indian seas, he himself sailed to 
 Aden. In the attack on this fortress, however, lie was unsuc- 
 cessful. Determined to end his days in India, Albuquerque re- 
 quested the title of Duke of Goa. This gave an opportunity for 
 the malice of his enemies at the court of Portugal, who at last 
 prevailed on the king to supersede him, and L. Soarez and Diego 
 Mendez were appointed respectively to the government of India, 
 and the command of the fortress of Cochin. They did not, 
 however, reach that country until after the completion of his last 
 great act, the capture of Ormuz. This he effected by policy, 
 ejecting the vizier Ras Ahmed, and causing his execution, dis- 
 mantling the batteries, and erecting a fortress which he gar- 
 risoned with Portuguese for the defence of the town. 
 
 His health gave way before the evil news of his being super- 
 seded reached him, but this announcement completed what 
 his labours under a burning sun had begun; and leaving his 
 nephew, Pero d' Albuquerque, in command at Ormuz, he sailed 
 for India, praying only to be permitted to ilie at Goa. He ex- 
 pired as he was about to enter that harbour, on the night of 
 December 13, 1515, and was buried in the church which he had 
 built, the lamentation of the people overpowermg the voices of the 
 officiating priests. Albuquerque was of commanding presence, 
 though not of lofty statm-e, the contour of his features indicating 
 that haughty spirit which, no doubt, hindered some of his noblest 
 projects, by making him personal enemies. His eyes were dark 
 and piercing, and his beard descended below his waist. Ambi- 
 tion was his nxling passion, and he may deserve to be sumajned 
 "the Great," not only on account of his actions, which brought 
 all the coasts of India into subjection to the king of Portugal, but 
 because those actions were not the result of any meaner motive. 
 His letter to the king, written on his deathbed, in which he 
 requests the aggrandizement of his natural son, his only child, 
 shows this plainly; as does his desiring the title of Duke of Goa, 
 when taken in connection with his carelessness of personal en- 
 richment. Not inferior to Cortez himself in the largeness of his 
 views, or his persistency in their pursuit, his chief object in Hfe 
 was to lessen the Mahometan power, and especially that of the 
 caliph of Egypt. With him, war with the Moors was, in India 
 as in Africa or the Peninsula, a crusade, and pm-sued with 
 corresponding devotion. 
 
 The Portuguese were indebted to Albuquerque for theu- first 
 knowledge of the Persian Gulf and the coasts of Arabia. His 
 lieutenants explored the Eastern archipelago. His ambassadors 
 were sent to the courts of the most powerful Asiatic princes, 
 and true to his policy of availing himself of the quarrels of 
 others to forward his own views, we find him sending ordnance 
 to the Persians to assist them against the Turks, and stimu- 
 
 lating the king of Abyssinia to attack Egypt ; and if we now 
 smile at the impossibility of his scheme to make Egypt a desert, 
 by turning the Nile into the Red Sea, we must at least admit 
 the greatness of the idea, and confess that schemes as unpracti- 
 cable have gained the attention even of scientific men in our own 
 day. As strong feelings of religion and loyalty marked the end 
 of Albuquerque, so did a consciousness of having performed the 
 duty which had been intrusted to him: he could say that "the 
 state of India would speak for him." Nothing but the conquest 
 of Aden remained to complete his original purposes; but the glory 
 and power which he had gained for the Portuguese in India soon 
 faded before the selfishness of his successors. He died without 
 the poor satisfaction of knowing that the king, though super- 
 secfinghim in the government of India, had left him in command 
 of his recent conquest, and those regions on the Red Sea and 
 coast of Africa, which he no doubt hoped the valour and policy 
 of Albuquerque were then bringhig mto subjection to the crown 
 of Portugal.— C. G. N. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Alfonso Braz d', was bom in 1500, 
 and died at Lisbon in 1580. A natural son of the conqueror of 
 the Indies, he was at an early age placed in the marine sei-vice, 
 and, as commander of the convoy, accompanied to Savoy the 
 unfortunate Beatrice of Portugal, through whose influence he 
 was afterwards married into a family of distinction, attached to 
 the court. After a time he quitted the profession of his youth, 
 and in the situation of financier, to which he was appointed by 
 Joao III., displayed the same ability, zeal, and disinterestedness 
 that had characterized him as an officer of marines. His exer- 
 tions in 1569, when a plague ravaged the kingdom, to provide 
 accommodation for the sick, are recorded in terms of exaggerated 
 praise by the historians of the time. He prepared for publication 
 a volume of memoirs left by his father. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Coello Antoine, a Portuguese captain, 
 whose voyage from Goa to Madi'as, and from Madras to Macao, 
 at the beginmng of the eighteenth century, has been narrated at 
 length by one of his officers. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Duarte Coelho d', Portuguese gover- 
 nor of San Salvador in 1638, when that city was besieged by 
 the Dutch. Died at Madi-id m 1658. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Matthias d', a Portuguese general, 
 governor of the pronnce of Pemambuco in Brazil, and after 
 his return to Europe in 1635, for services rendered in the war 
 that resulted in the separation of the crowns of Portugal and 
 Spain, elevated by John IV. to the rank of grandee, and named 
 Count of Allegrete. Died at Lisbon in 1646. 
 
 ALBUTIUS, Caius Titus, a celebrated Roman orator, who 
 flom-ished in the reign of Augustus, was bom in Lombardy, and 
 exercised there for some time the function of asdile. Injun- 
 ously treated in a public revolt, he repaked to Rome, where his 
 extraordinary powers of eloquence procured him distinction. In 
 his old age he returned to Lombardy, and having been long 
 afflicted with an abscess in the lungs, he annomiced to his 
 fellow-townsmen of Novan-e his intention of committing suicide, 
 and accomplished his design by starving himself. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALBUTIUS, Titus, an Epicurean philosopher, banished 
 from Rome about the beginning of our era. He had held office 
 under the empire in Sardinia, and was convicted of peculation. 
 
 ALCACOBA or ALCAZOVA, Simon, a Portuguese navi- 
 gator, captain of one of the ships fitted out for the West Indies 
 in 1522 by Charles V., was afterwards appointed by that 
 monarch one of the arbiters to adjust the boundary line between 
 the colonial possessions of Spain and Portugal. In 1534, at 
 his own expense he equipped two ships, and set sail on a voyage 
 of discovery. He reached the coast of Patagonia, but, driven to 
 extremity by bad weather, returned to Port de Lobes, and there 
 disembarked. Advancing into the interior of the countiy, he 
 was seized with sickness, and had to resign the command of 
 his troo])S to liis lieutenant, Rodrigo d'lsla, who led them 
 back to the ships. On board they rose in a mass, and murdered 
 Alca9oba, the pilot, and three others. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALCADINUS, an Italian physician and litterateur, was born 
 at Syracuse about the yeiu* 1170. He celebrated in elegiac 
 verse the triumphs of his patrons, Henry VI. and Frederick IL, 
 and also wrote a treatise on the baths of Pouzzoles. Died 1234. 
 
 ALCyEUS, a Greek comedian, of whose works only a few 
 fragments have reached us; said to have lived about 380 B.C. 
 
 ALCiEUS of Messenia, a Greek poet, flom-ished about 170 
 B.C. His works have been lost, except a few epigi-ams.
 
 ALCJ;US, one of the gi-eatost of the Greek lyiic poets, was 
 a native of Mitylene, and flourished about the end of the seventh 
 centmy B.C. His family seems to have been noble, and he and 
 his brother struggled hard to gain for themselves the supreme 
 power in their native state. They were unsuccessful, and 
 Alcreus never spared abusive language against the successful 
 aspirants, especially Myrsilus, on whose death he wrote a 
 triumphant ode of joy. Poets in these days were men of action, 
 and accordingly AIckus fotight against the Athenians, under 
 Pittacus, but for some reason or other threw his sliield away. 
 There is no cause to suspect his bravery on this account, and 
 indeed he seems to have exaggerated his misdeeds. When 
 Pittacus was appointed govemor-general of the state, in opposi- 
 tion to the efiforts of Akrcus and his brother, the poet withdi-ew 
 from his native place, but hurled back biting and sarcastic 
 verses on the mler. After a time the poet grew weary, re- 
 pented, and was forgiven by Pittacus. And so it is likely that 
 he spent the rest of his days in peace, amidst the scenes of his 
 childhood. The lyric efforts of Alcreus are very various. Now 
 he sings of wine, of which he was peihaps too fond ; now of love, 
 now of war. His most famous were his poems on the civil broils 
 in which he took so prominent a part. We have only fragments 
 of this gi'cat poet's works, but there is enough to show his ex- 
 traordinary gifts. Horace imitated him very frequently. — J. D. 
 
 ALCAFORADA, Francis, a Portuguese traveller, who took 
 part in the expedition under the command of John Gonzalve 
 Zarco, which, sixty years before that of America, made the dis- 
 cover)' of the isle of Madeira. He drew up an interesting 
 history of the voyage, which bears the date of 1420. 
 
 ALCAFORADA, Marianna, a Portuguese lady of noble 
 birth, whose appellation of " une religieuse Portugaise " has ac- 
 quired a remarkable celebrity, lived in the second half of the 
 seventeenth century. Immured in one of the rich convents of 
 Beja, in the ye.ar 1GG2 she had an opportunity of maldng the 
 acquaintance of Count Bouton de Chamilly, for whom she con- 
 ceived a violent passion, which she expressed in a series of 
 letters of remarkable power and pathos. These letters, the 
 vanity of the chevalier led him to deliver to a friend for publica- 
 tion, and in this way the world has become acquainted with the 
 sorrows and the genius of Marianna Alcaforada. Her letters 
 have been frequently reprinted, sometimes with unworthy addi- 
 tions, and are best known in the French translations, published 
 with the title " Lettres Portugaises." — J. S., G. 
 
 ALCALA', Parafan d' Rivera, Duke d', viceroy of Naples 
 under Philip II. king of Spain, was born in 1508. He removed 
 many abuses, and by his extraordinary energy, obviated many 
 calamities that threatened the existence of the Spanish power 
 in Italy. Died in 1571. 
 
 ALCALA', Pedro de, a Spanish missionary, commissioned 
 by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1491 to labour among the Moors 
 of Grenada. He wrote an Ai'abic gi'ammar, now very rare. 
 
 ALCALA' Y HERRERA, a Portuguese poet, born at Lisbon 
 in 1599. He was originally a merchant, and seems to have 
 carried into his worship of the muses some of the crotchets of 
 his trade. He has left songs without an a, and hymns without 
 an e; both without poetry. 
 
 ALCA'MENES, khig of Sparta in 747 B.C., finished the 
 war with Helos, and began that with Messenia, two of the many 
 Spartan quarrels with neighbouring states. 
 
 ALCAMENES of Athens, a sculptor and toreutes, living 
 about 450 B.C. He was the best pupil, and almost the rival of 
 Phidias, whom he assisted in many of his important enterprises. 
 Amongst his works are recorded — a statue of Venus Aplu-odite, 
 which he made in competition wdth Agoracrites, another pupil of 
 Phichas, over whom he obtained the prize — (this statue was 
 placed in the public gardens at Athens) ; the group in the 
 western pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, represent- 
 ing the son of Jupiter, Perithous, rescuing his wife from the 
 Centaurs ; a statue of Vulcan, which, according to Cicero, repre- 
 sented the lameness of the god without degenerating into deform- 
 ity; a bronze statue of Mars, of which the Ludovisi Mars is sup- 
 posed to be a copy, in the same way that the Achilles of the 
 Louvre is considered to be an imitation of another statue by 
 this gi-eat sculptor. Even the Venus of Milo is, wdth some appar- 
 ent reason, attributed to Alcamenes, who undoubtedly was one 
 of the best artists of the best period of Greek sculpture.— R. M. 
 
 ALCAMO, CiULLO d', a very ancient Italian poet mentioned 
 by Dante, was a native of Sicily, and hved towards the end of 
 
 the twelfth centuiy. One canzone presei-ved by Crescunbeni, 
 and no more, has been authenticated as the work of this father 
 of Italian song. 
 
 ALCANTARA, Diego d', a distinguished Spanish architect 
 of the sixteenth century. He was appointed by King Philip II. 
 to the direction of the works of the royal palaces, and of those 
 of the cathedral of Toledo. He died in 1587.— R. M. 
 
 ALCAZAR, Balthazar d', a Spanish poet, of whom little 
 is known besides the fact that he was a contemporary of Cer- 
 vantes, and wi'ote a number of madrigals and short poems of 
 the kind popular in the sixteenth centmy. 
 
 ALCEDO, Antonio, a Spanish geographer, lived in the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century. He was the author of a 
 geogi-aphical and historical dictionary of the West Indies, trans- 
 lated into Enghsh in 1812. 
 
 ALCESTE, the daughter of Pelias, and wife of Admetus, 
 king of Thessaly, is said to have devoted herself to death in 
 consequence of the declaration of an oracle, to save the life of 
 her husband, who was afflicted with a dangerous disease, but 
 who was rescued from the infernal powers by Hercules. 
 
 ALCETAS, a king of Epirus, predecessor of Pyrehas. 
 
 ALCHINDIUS or ALKINDI, Abou Yakoof ibn Ishak 
 Ibn Assabah, an Arabian physician and philosopher, born at 
 Bassora, who lived at the com-t of the caliph Al-Maniun. He 
 was the author of more than two hundred works on medicine, 
 mathematics, logic, and music, a catalogue of which may be 
 fomid in the work of Casari, " Aj-abica philosophorum biblio- 
 theca." Several of his writings were translated into Latin dur- 
 ing the middle ages. He endeavoured to found his medical 
 system upon mathematical principles. — ^J. W. S. 
 
 ALCIATI, Andrea, an Italian jurist of Alzano ui tlie 
 ]\Iilanese territory. He was bom in May, 1492, and died in 
 June, 1550. He gained great distinction as professor of civil 
 law at the universities of Avignon, Bom'ges, Pavia, Milan, 
 Bologna, and Fen-ara. He introduced some degree of hteraiy 
 refinement into the barbarous language of jurispindence, but he 
 disgi-aced himself by avarice and gluttony. Towards the latter 
 part of his life, he was created prothonotary of Rome by Pope 
 Paul III., and was raised by the emperor to the rank of a count 
 palatine. He wrote a commentary upon Tacitus, and a history 
 of Jlilan.— J. W. S. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, son of Chnias and Dinomache, was bom at 
 Athens about the year 452 B.C. Through his father, he claimed 
 descent from Emysaces the son of Ajax, while his mother was a 
 member of the noble house of the Alcmajonidaj. His father dpng 
 while he was yet young, appointed Pericles his guardian. The 
 concurring testimony of the ancients proves Alcibiades to have 
 been endowed with all the gifts of nature and of fortune, in an 
 extraordinary degree. To extreme personal beauty, a point to 
 which the Greeks attached an importance which we should now 
 think extravagant, were united in him a boundless ambition, an 
 indomitable courage, and the rarest intellectual powers. He was 
 a most persuasive orator, and yet, at the same time, an astute 
 and versatile statesman, and, still further, an able and successful 
 general: he was Demosthenes, Talleyrand, and Marlborough, all 
 in one. But with all this, he was essentially unprincipled, and, 
 after a life of incessant activity, the latter part of which was 
 employed in neutralizing the work of the fomier part, he found 
 himself unable to repair the ruin he had wi'ought; he hved to see 
 the fiill of Athens, in consequence of his own previous machi- 
 nations against her, in spite of the extraordinary efforts he had 
 made in the last years of his life to avert her doom. 
 
 The beauty and genius of Alcibiades di-ew around him, as was 
 natural, a crowd of flatterers and admirers ; the influence which 
 his eloquence obtained for him with the people caused him to be 
 courted and loaded with presents by the tributaries of Athens 
 who had any point to gain in the public assembly ; and last, not 
 least, the great philosopher of antiquity had a singi;lar affection 
 for him, and seems to have earnestly endeavoured to enlist his 
 varied powers in the cause of virtue and justice. Alcibiades, we 
 are told, returned the affection of Socrates, delighted to converse 
 with him, and took in good part the tone of irony or censure 
 which his admonitions sometimes assumed. Each had saved the 
 other's life in battle : at Potida?a, 432 e.g., where Alcibiades was 
 wounded, Socrates stood over him, and kept the enemy at bay 
 until succour arrived, and, eight years later, at the battle of 
 Delium, Alcibiades was enabled to render a similar serrice to 
 Socrates. The philosopher, according to Plato, endeavoured to
 
 ALC 
 
 79 
 
 ALC 
 
 persuade Alcibiades to study philosophy and the immutable laws 
 of morality, in order to qualify himself for ruling the Atl.enians. 
 But the pupil knew his countrymen even better than the philo- 
 sopher, and felt that in practice the appeal to justice was less 
 potent than the appeal to expediency. Nor can we doubt that, 
 although he listened to Socrates with pleasure, he was also 
 familiar with the reasonings of the Sophists, the influence of 
 whose detestable maxims can be traced m all the great crimes 
 and follies with whicli the Athenians as a nation were chargeable 
 at tliis period — such as the slaughter of the Melians, and the 
 Sicilian expedition — and whose sophistical arguments, as mu-rored 
 in the plays of Euripides, are satirized and exposed by the vigorous 
 hand of Aiistophanes. 
 
 The first mention of Alcibiades in the history of Thucydides, 
 occurs in the fifth book, where he is described as having been 
 mainly instrumental in inducing the Athenians to break the 
 peace of Nicias, and re-open the war with Sparta. This was in 
 the year 420. Five years afterwards, he was chosen, with Nicias 
 and Lamachus, to command the great expedition against Syracuse. 
 He had himself, Thucydides informs us, a large share in per- 
 suading the people to organize this expedition. But, in the im- 
 mense plan of operations sketched out by his ambition, Sicily 
 was but a stepping-stone. Had he been successful there, he 
 would have attacked the Carthaginian colonies, and endeavoured 
 to reduce Carthage itself; thence he would have passed over to 
 Ilyat, and after giving the ascendancy to the democratic party 
 in all the cities of the Italian Greeks, he would have directed 
 the forces of the confederacy so formed, assisted by mercenaries 
 whom he would have hired in Spain, against the power of La- 
 cedajmon, in the hope of utterly demohshing it. Nor did his 
 dreams of empu-e stop even here ; — according to Plato, if he had 
 succeeded in making himself the master of all Em'ope, he would 
 not have been contented until he had humbled the Persian 
 power in Asia. 
 
 These schemes, however, were nipped in the bud. Just before 
 the expedition sailed, occurred the mysterious mutilation of the 
 Hermae, or statues of Mercury. Suspicion fell upon Alcibiades, 
 not only as a man of lawless and irregular habits, but also 
 because he was said, some time before this, to have burlesqued 
 in his own house the sacred mysteries of Eleusis. His friends, 
 the Sophists, had probably taught him to disbelieve, and secretly 
 to deride, the ancient superstitions and customs of his country. 
 However, he was permitted to sail with the expedition. The 
 fleet arrived in safety on the Sicilian coast, and its first opera- 
 tions were successful. But suddenly the Salaminian ship, one 
 of the state triremes, arrived with orders for Alcibiades to return 
 to Athens, and stand his trial. But he knew his excitable 
 countrymen too well to trust liimself in their hands. On the 
 voyage Lome he contrived to escape, and shortly after crossed 
 over to the Peloponnesus, and visited Sparta. He then began 
 to devote all his energies to the task of crippling the power of 
 Athens. It was in consequence of his advice that the Lacedse- 
 monians sent the able general Gylippus to take the command of 
 the Syracusan forces, and encom-age them in their strenuous, 
 and at last successful, struggle with the Athenian armament. 
 At his instance, too, they fortified and permanently occupied 
 Decelea, a town within the borders of Attica. He further in- 
 duced them to ^end him \\dth a small squadron to Ionia, where 
 he succeeded in persuading the greater part of the allied cities 
 and islands to revolt from Athens. But the leading men at 
 Sparta were jealous of his commanding influence, and King Agis 
 in particular, who had personal reasons for hating him, was 
 determined upon his death. Orders were sent accordingly to 
 Astyochus, the Spartan admiral, to have him put to death ; but 
 Alcibiades heard of it, and escaped to Tissaplienies, satrap of 
 Caria, \vith whom he soon gained unbounded influence. This 
 was in the year 412. 
 
 An Athenian could not be permanently happy anywhere but 
 at Athens, and Alcibiades, although with his usual versatility he 
 had for three years conformed to tlie rigid and simple manners of 
 the Spartans, was now thoroughly disgusted with them, and 
 thought of nothing but how to repair the injury done to 
 his country, and pave the way for his own recall. He made 
 overtures for that purpose to an oligarchical faction in the 
 Athenian army at Samos, of which the leaders were Pisander, 
 Antiphon, and Theramenes. But after this faction had succeeded 
 in changing the government at Athens, and had established the 
 council of the Fom- Hmidred, they would do nothing for Alciuiades. 
 
 In a few months, however, the Four Hundred were expelled, and 
 the people then unanimously passed a decree for his recall, 411 
 B.C. But he resolved that he would not return before ho had 
 rendered his countiy some signal service. For the ne.xt four 
 years, therefore, he carried on militaiy operations in the JEgean, 
 the Hellespont, and the Propontis, in which he proved himself to 
 possess all the qualifications of an able general. He defeated the 
 Lacedaemonians wherever he met them, and brought back most 
 of the revolted cities of Ionia to the allegiance of Athens. The 
 details of these campaigns are to be found in Xenophon and 
 Plutarch. In 407 he returned to Athens, and was welcomed by 
 the people with acclamations. He was again sent out to Ionia 
 in command of the forces, but a disaster which occurred to the 
 fleet soon after, while he was unavoidably absent, furnished his 
 enemies with a pretext for fi-esh accusations against him, and the 
 foolish Athenians sent out new generals to supersede him in the 
 command. The consequence of this step was the defeat of 
 ^Egospotami in 405, occasioned by the rashness and incapacity 
 of the new generals, in spite of the repeated wai-nings of Alcibi- 
 ades, in which the Atlienian fleet was totally destroyed. The 
 captm-e of Atliens, the destruction of the long walls, and the es- 
 tablishment of the Thirty Tyrants followed. But the people did 
 not lose all hope, nor could the oligarchs feel secure, so long as 
 Alcibiades lived. At the instigation of Critias, one of the Thirty, 
 Lysander, the Spartan general, persuaded Pharnabazus, the 
 satrap of Phrygia, to give orders for his being dispatched. 
 Alcibiades was now living in Phrygia with his mistress Timandra. 
 The barbarians sent by Pharnabazus, not daring to face the noble 
 Greek, set fire to the house. Alcibiades, seizing his sword, and 
 wrapping his cloak round his left arm, rushed through the flames 
 into the open air. His cowardly assailants were afraid to close 
 with him, but, standing at a distance, dispatched him with their 
 darts and arrows. His death occurred in the year 404, in the 
 forty-ninth year of his age. (Plutarch in vita ; Thucyd., lib. v. 
 — viii. ; Xenoph., Ilellen. ; Plato, Alcibiades.) — T. A. 
 
 ALCIMACHOS, a Greek painter, flourishing 340 B.C. Pliny 
 records a picture by this artist representing Dioxippus, the 
 Athenian boxer, defeating a JIacedonian soldier. 
 
 ALCIMUS, high priest of the Jews, during the reign of 
 Antiochus Eupator (1G3 B.C.), was expelled from Jerasalem for 
 idolatry, but retook the city with the aid of Demetrius. 
 
 ALCIMUS or ALETHIUS of Gaul, a poet, orator, and his- 
 torian, who lived in the fourth century, and is believed to have 
 written a life of the Emperor Julian. 
 
 ALCIONIUS or ALCYONIUS, a grammarian of Venice, 
 bom in 1487, and died in 1527. He taught the Greek lan- 
 guage at Florence, and was engaged in the prmting-oflice of 
 Aldus Manutius at Venice. 
 
 ALCIPHRON, a Greek rhetorician and litterateur, appears to 
 have flourished in the second centmy, and to have been a con- 
 temporaiy of Lucian. His only remaining work is a collection 
 of letters, which are valuable from the light they throw upon the 
 social life, manners, and colloquial language of ancient Greece, 
 especially as relating to the lower classes. 
 
 ALCMAN, a Greek lyric poet. He was bom a slave, most 
 probably in Sardis. At an early age he was emancipated, and we 
 find him in Sparta, making songs for the warlike Spartans. He 
 lived to a good old age, and is said to have died of a disgoisting 
 disease. Alcman confesses to a voracious appetite. He prob- 
 ably fell in love with Megalostrata, a richly-gifted poetess, and 
 he appears to have formed a high opinion of woman, and to 
 have been much beloved by the Spartan maidens. The subjects 
 of his muse are various, love-songs predominating. One of his 
 pieces, descriptive of night, has been frequently translated and 
 lauded. Flourished in the seventh centuiy B.C. — J. D. 
 
 ALCjMEON, a Pythagorean philosopher, who Hved in the 
 sixth century B.C. He studied the sciences in the school of the 
 Asclepiades at Crotona, and applied himself with gi-eat diligence 
 to anatomy. He studied particularly the structure of the eye 
 and the ear, and is by some sujiposed to have discovered the 
 Eustachian canal. He placed the soul in the brain, ascribed 
 sleep to temporary stagnation of the blood in the larger vessels, 
 and maintained that health depended on a due proportioning of 
 four antagonistic principles — heat, cold, moisture, and dryness. 
 He was probably the father of philosophic dual'sm — the anti- 
 thesis of good and evil, finite and infinite. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALCMEON, the son of ;Megacles, of the illustrious family of 
 the Alcmeonides, lived at Athens about the end of the sixth
 
 century B.C., and distinguished himself as one of the heads of 
 the conservative faction. 
 
 ALCOCK, John, bishop, a native of Beverley in Yorkshire, 
 educated at Cambridge, and doctor of laws 1461. In 1'162 he 
 was made dean of St. Steplien's, Westminster, and henceforth 
 his promotion was rapid in church and state. The same year he 
 was made master of the Rolls, and in 1470 sent as ambassador 
 to the king of Castile. In 1471 he was chosen bishop of Roches- 
 ter, and in 1472 lord chancellor, during tlie illness of Stillington. 
 He was again appointed to that high post in 1465, but only held 
 the seals from April to September of that year, wlien Rotherliam 
 was reinstated. In 1476 he was translated to Worcester, and 
 made president of the court of tlie Marclies, in Wales. Edward 
 IV. appointed him tutor to his son, but from this office he was of 
 course dismissed by Richard HI. After the battle of Bosworth, 
 Henry VII. made him lord chancellor, and he exliibited great 
 ability in solving the difficult questions respecting the attainders 
 of several nobles and the king himself, which arose at that 
 time. His wary dexterity commended lum to Henry, who pro- 
 moted him to Ely, in possession of which see he died in 1500. 
 He was a man of considerable learning, and of gi-eat proficiency 
 as an .architect ; and Henry so highly valued his talents, that he 
 made him comptroller of all the royal buildings. Bishop Alcock 
 built a cliarity at Beverley, where his parents were buried, and 
 the hall of the episcopal palace at Ely ; as also a chapel at the 
 cast end of the nurth aisle of Ely cathedral, where his own tomb 
 is. But his chief works were the foundation of a grammar school 
 at Kingston-upon-llull, and Jesus college, Cambridge, which last 
 he established out of an old nunneiy of St. Radigund. He 
 wrote a few works, of which the cliief are, " Galli cantus ad 
 Confratres suos curatos in S}Tiodo apud Bnmwcll," 25th Sep- 
 tember, 1498, (with a print showing the bishop preaching to the 
 clergy witli a cock on each side, and in the front page, an alle- 
 gory called " The Abbey of St. Spartee") ; some homilies, and a 
 metrical paraphrase of the penitential psalms. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALCOCK, John, an eminent English nmsician, was a native 
 of London, and born on the 11th of April, 1715. He received 
 his education in the choristers' school of St. Paul's cathedral, 
 and was afterwards articled to Stanley, the celebrated blind 
 organist. In 1737, he was elected organist of St. Andrews' church, 
 Plymouth, Devon ; and a few years afterwards, of Reading in 
 Berkshire. The latter situation he left in 1749, for the appoint- 
 ment of organist at Litchfield cathedral. In 1755, he took his 
 degree of bachelor of music at Oxford ; and in 1761 he resigned 
 his situation as organist at Lichfield, for tliat of Sutton-Cold- 
 field in Warwickshire. In addition to tliis latter appointment, 
 he held the situations of organist of Tamworth in Staffordshire, 
 and vicar-choral of Litchfield cathedral. He completed his gra- 
 duation at Oxford, by taking his doctor's degree in 1765. Dr. 
 Alcock died at Litchfield in March, 1806, at the great age of 
 ninety-one, sincerely and deservedly lamented by his friends and 
 professional brethren. Dr. Alcock's compositions consist of ser- 
 vices, anthems, canons, glees, and psalm-tunes, all of which show 
 him to have been an excellent contrapuntist, as well as a pleasing 
 and scientific musician. He also claims the merit of ha\Tng 
 made a valuable collection of the ancient services and anthems of 
 the church. These IMSS. were consigned to the care of Dr. 
 William Boyce, and form the groundwork of the collection now 
 universally known as " Boyce's Cathedral Music." — E. F. R. 
 
 ALCON OF Thebks, one of the few Greek sculptors who exe- 
 cuted works in cast-iron. Pliny quotes a statue of Hercules as 
 being from the hand of this artist. Most likely this Alcon is 
 the same as Alcon the son of Nileus, a chaser of metals, who, 
 according to Ovid, executed a beautiful vase in commemoration 
 of the self-sacrifice of Methiocha and Menippe, the daughters of 
 Orion. Although no date is known about Alcon, it seems evident 
 that he behings to a very early period of art in Greece. — R. M. 
 
 ALCUIN or ALCWIN, called also Aluinus, the restorer of 
 letters in tlie age of Charlemagne, was bom in or near York 
 about the year 732. Being of noble family, his education was 
 intrusted to the care of Egbert, archbishop of York, whose 
 cloister-school was then one of the most efficient and renowned 
 in Europe. Alcuin's principal master in the school was Gilbert, 
 whom he is said to have accompanied to Rome, by the desire of 
 Egbert, for the puri>ose of purchasing bonks for the library of 
 the monastery. On /Elbert's accession to the see in 766, Alcuin 
 succeeded him in the presidency of the school, in which he con- 
 tinued till 782. The increased celebrity which liis learning and 
 
 success as a teacher of youth procured for the seminary, attracted 
 to it numerous scholars from all quarters, and among other dis- 
 tinguished men who were then educated under his eye was St. 
 Lutger, the apostle of the Saxons. On Gilbert's death in 781, 
 Eanbald, a pupil and friend of Alcuin's, was appointed to the 
 see, and Alcuin was despatched to Rome to obtain the palhum 
 for the new archbishop. It was on his way back from Rome 
 through Italy, that he met at Parma the Emperor Charlemagne, 
 by whom he was earnestly pressed to settle in France, with the 
 view of restoring the light of letters and arts to what was then 
 a rude and semi-barbarous kingdom. Alcuin's ambition of use- 
 fulness could desire no nobler field of exertion, and he promised 
 to return to the emperor after completing the commission which 
 he had undertaken for Eanbald. He arrived at the court of 
 Charlemagne in 782, and the magnanimous emperor himself be- 
 came his first scholar. The hnperial ])alace was transformed 
 into an academy — the first of those palatine schools which long 
 \'ied with the schools of the monasteries in usefulness and fame. 
 Chai'les studied the holy scriptures, dialectics, and rhetoric, under 
 the most learned master of the age ; and his noble example was 
 followed by his sons, his daughters, his sisters, and all his piin- 
 cipal courtiers. A com-t life, however, and the scenes of war 
 and disorder through which Alcuin had often to follow the 
 movements of the emperor, were little congenial to the scholar's 
 liabits, who for fifty years had been accustomed to the simplicity 
 and tranquillity of monastic life. He began to sigh for the quiet 
 cloisters which he had forsaken at York, and Charles, in order to 
 retain him in France, successively bestowed upon him the abbeys 
 of Ferribres, St. Loup, and St. Jossa. In 790 he made a visit 
 to England, from which he was again called back in 792, by the 
 urgent solicitations of the emperor, to take part in repressing 
 the heresy of the Adoptlonists respecting the sonship of Christ, 
 which had recently been put foi"ward by Felix, a French bishop, 
 and Elipand, bishop of Toledo. At a council convoked at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 794, Alcuin took the lead against 
 FeUx, and refuted the heresy by a triumphant display of scrip- 
 tural and patristic learning. His arguments were embodied in 
 a work, entitled " Liber Albini contra Hairesim Felicis." In 796 
 Alcuin became abbot of the monastci-y of St. Martin at Tours ; 
 and though now far advauced in life, he resolved to make that 
 great abbey, which was enriched with magnificent domains, a 
 model of discipline and intellectual activity. He restored among 
 its numerous monks the strictness of the rule of St. Benedict. 
 He added gi-eatly to the riches of the library, by the pmxhase 
 and transcription of books ; and he founded a school for Lnstnic- 
 tion in languages, science, and arts, which speedily became a 
 rendezvous of students from all the kingdoms of Europe. Alcuin 
 gave lessons himself in the holy scriptm-es, in the ancient lan- 
 guages, in grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, and astronomy. The 
 seminary retained its celebrity throughout almost the whole of 
 the middle ages. The most famous of its scholars was Raban 
 Maurus, arclibishop of Maintz ; Haymo, bishop of Halberstadt ; 
 and Richbod, archbishop of Treves. Alcuin never quitted again 
 his abbey of Tours. In 800 he was invited by the emperor 
 to assist at his coronation at Rome ; but he earnestly prayed 
 that so fatiguing a journey might not be imposed upon his ad- 
 vanced age and many infirmities. " Have a pious compassion," 
 he pleaded with his illustrious master ; " pennit repose to a man 
 wlio is worn out with labours ; suffer him to pray for you in his 
 devotions, and to prepare himself, by confession and fasting, to 
 appeal- before the Eternal Judge." He died on the 19th of May, 
 A.D. 804, and was buried in the church of St. jNIai'tin. His 
 writings were verj- numerous. The best edition of them is that 
 of Froben, abbot of St. Emmeran, published at Ratisbon in 1777, 
 two vols, folio. His letters to the emperor, whom he sometimes 
 addresses with an affectionate familiarity, as his " dilectissimus 
 David," are particularly interesting. Though not entuely free 
 of barbarisms, his Latin style is one of the best of the middle 
 ages. Alcuin has no claim to the praise of originahty of mind 
 or creative genius ; nor did he even add much that was new to 
 the existing stores of human knowledge. All that can be claimed 
 for him is, that his superior talents and indefatigable industry 
 enabled him to master all the learning of his age ; and that his 
 enlightened zeal in the interests of knowledge and culture, and 
 a skill in the work of education fully equal to his zeal, made 
 him one of the brightest lights of the period in which he lived, 
 and one of the greatest benefactors of mediajval Europe. — P. L. 
 ALDABI, a Jewish rabbi of Spain, who lived in the latter
 
 half of tlie fourteenth centiuy, and obtained distinction as a 
 theological writer. 
 
 ALDEGATI, JIarco Aktoxio, an Italian poet, bom at 
 Mantua, held the chair of Latin poetrv at Ravenna about 1484. 
 
 ALDEGRAEF or ALDEGREVER, IIeixrich, a German 
 painter, pupil of Albert Durer, bom in Westphalia in 1502 ; died 
 1562. He has left several valuable series of engravings. 
 
 ALDEGUELA, Joseph Martin d', a Spanish architect, 
 was bom at Menzanede in 1730, and died in 1802 at Malaga, 
 where he had erected an excellent aqueduct. 
 
 ALDERETE, Diego Garcias d', a Spaniard, who hved i-i 
 the sixteenth century, and became distinguished for his attain- 
 ments in classical hterature. 
 
 ALDERETE, Joseph and Bernardo, two Spanish eccle- 
 siastics, who were bom at Malaga in the 16th century, and dis- 
 tinguished themselves as anticjuarians and orientalists. 
 
 ALDERSON, John, a distinguished physician, who was bom 
 at Lowestoft in 1758, practised at Hull and \\'hitby, and died 
 in 1829. Rewrote several treatises on various medical subjects. 
 
 ALDHELiI, Saint, of the royal blood of Wessex, and nearly 
 related to King Lna, entered upou the monastic life at Malmes- 
 bury, where he became abbot. He spent his large estate in 
 erecting and endcn-ing churches, and is said to have built the 
 first organ in England. Aldhelm was also indefatigable as a 
 preacher, and most assiduous in teaching the ignorant, for which 
 purpose he made a Saxon version of the Psahns. On the death 
 of Hedda, bishop of Winchester, the see was divided, and 
 Aldhehn, against his will, was made bishop of Sherborne. He 
 was most anxious for union with the Welsh Christians, who re- 
 fused to adopt the Roman usages, and was so far successful as to 
 keep the peace, during his life, between lna, king of Wessex, 
 :uid Grant, the Celtic king of Cornwall. Aldheld died May 25th, 
 709. He had con-esponded with all the learned men of the 
 day, and was himself a scholar of no mean parts. His life, written 
 by King Altred, has unfortunately perished.— J. B., 0. 
 
 ALDHUN, bishop of Lindisfame, who brought St. Cuthbert's 
 body to its final resting-place at Durham, of which see he was 
 the first bishop, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction having been trans- 
 ferred thither from Lindisfame. Died in 1018. 
 
 ALDIGHIERI or ALTICHIERO DA ZEVIO, an Itahan 
 painter, flourishing about 1382. He was attached to the 
 Scaligeri, the lords of Verona, for whom he executed several 
 important works, noted for excellent conception and beautiful 
 colouring. — R. LI. 
 
 ALDIXI, Giovanni, nephew of the famous Galvani, was 
 bom at Bologna, 1762 ; died in 1834. Being perfect master of 
 several languages, he wrote his works in various tongues, and 
 published them in different countries. He wrote in English : — 
 " General Views on the AppUcation of Galvanism to Medical 
 Purposes, Principally in Cases of Suspended Animation," and 
 " A Short Account of Experiments made in Italy, and Recently 
 Repeated in Geneva and Pai-is, for Preserraig Human Life and 
 Objects of Value from Destruction by Fire." — S. 
 
 ALDIXI, ToBiA, superintendent of the Farnesian garden at 
 Rome, was born at Cesena in the 17th century. He has left a 
 description of this garden, in which he was assisted by Pietro 
 Castelh, and which contains many particulars interesting to botan- 
 ists. The Farnesian mimosa takes its name from him. 
 
 ALDOBRAXDIXI, Fiorentino, commonly called Dino, 
 for some time tauglit medicine at Bologna, but finally settled at 
 Sienna. He has left some notes on the treatise of Hippocrates 
 upon the nature of the foetus. Died at Florence in 1327. 
 
 ALDOBRAXDIXI. A noble Tuscan family of this name 
 flourished at Florence from the twelfth to nearly the close of the 
 fifteenth centuiy, and produced several celebrated men, amongst 
 whom were : — Silvestro, who was a professor of law in Pisa 
 during the sixteenth century, and was appointed advocate of 
 the treasury and apostolic chamber by Paul III. — Giovanni, 
 son of SUvestro, was created a cardinal by Pio V. — Tomm.vso, 
 his brother, has left some works of httle consequence, which, 
 however, have been admired by Casaubon. — Ippolitu, anotlier 
 brother, became pope by the name of Clement VIII. (see that 
 name.) — Cixzio Passero, nephew of these three last, was 
 named cardinal in 1593. Tasso has dedicated to him his " Geru- 
 salemme Conquistata." — Pietro, his brother, also a cardinal, was 
 appointed legate to France, and settled the unhappy dissensions 
 which existed between the duke of Savoy and Henri Quatre. — 
 Giovanni Francesco, atliird brother, was a soldier, and fought 
 vol, I. 
 
 under Rodolph II. in his wars with the Tm-ks. His son Silves- 
 tro became a cardinal, and his nephew Giovanni-Giorgia was 
 created prince of Rossano, in the kingdom of Naples. In his 
 person this celebrated family became extinct, his daughter Otta- 
 via can-ying all its wealth to the famihes of Borghese and Pamfili, 
 with whom she became allied by mairiage. — S. 
 
 ALDOBRAXDIXI, Giuseppe, an ItaUan musician of the 
 seventeenth century, was long president of the Philharmonic 
 Society of Bologna. He has left some specimens of his art, 
 which have been published at Amsterdam. 
 
 ALDRED, surnamed the Presbyter, or the Glosser, i.e., 
 Commentator, author of the ciu-ious and valuable Anglo- 
 Saxon manuscript, called " The Book of Dm-ham," presened in 
 the cathedral of that tovra. He lived about the commencement 
 of the nmth centurv. 
 
 ALDRED, called also ALRED and EALRED, was originally 
 a monk of Winchester. His first ecclesiastical dignity was the 
 abbey of Tavistock, whence Edward the Confessor promoted him 
 to the see of Worcester, in which capacity he undertook an em- 
 bassy to the Emperor Henry II. Aldred seems to have been an 
 avaricious man, for we find him holding many benefices, and ad- 
 ministering the affairs of the dioceses of Hereford and Winchester 
 in the absence of their bishop. On his elevation to the arch- 
 bishopric of York in 1060, he prociued the royal hcense to hold 
 in commendani his old see of Worcester ; but Pope Xicholas II. 
 refused Lim the pall when he appUed for it at Rome, alleging 
 that Aldred had been guilty of simoniacal practices. The matter 
 was, however, settled in Aldred's favour, and the pall was 
 eventually gi-anted at the intercession of Tosti, earl of Xorth- 
 umberland, who had accompanied Aldred to Rome, on that 
 prelate's promising to resign the see of Worcester. .Xotwth- 
 standing the favours Aldred had received from Edward, he did 
 not hesitate, after the Confessor's death, to side with Harold, and 
 when that prince had fallen at Hastings, Aldred passed over in 
 hke maimer to the Conqueror, whom he crowned at Westminster. 
 He had the courage, however, to rebuke Wilham severely for his 
 cruelty and oppression, when the true nature of the Xoraian rule 
 was made manifest ; and wom out with grief and disappoint- 
 ment at the faUiue of the inhabitants of the north to restore the 
 national dynasty, he died soon after the capture of York bv 
 William, a.d. 1069.— J. B., 0. 
 
 ALDRIC, S.UXT, an ecclesiastic of high standing under the 
 immediate successors of Charlemagne, was bom in France about 
 800, but was of a German family. He became bishop of Le 
 Mans in 932 ; died in 856. His skill in music has given rise 
 to a false impression, that he was the first to introduce the organ 
 into churches. 
 
 ALDRICH, Henry, D.D., was bom in 1647, and educated 
 at Westminster school. In due course he passed to Christ's 
 Church, Oxford, of which foundation he was afterwards a canon. 
 Aldrich was a man of considerable attainments, a good scholai', 
 architect, and musician. Of his skiU in architecture, Oxford 
 possesses many specimens ; for example, Peckwater Quadrangle 
 at Christ Church, the Chapel of Trinity College, and All Saint's 
 Church. Several services and anthems attest his proficiency in 
 sacred music, and the " Bonny Christ Church bells " prove the 
 versatility of his musical powers. His compendimn of logic is 
 used to this day at Oxford. Aldrich died in 1710. He had 
 collected materials for a histoiy of music, which, however, he 
 never published, and was employed as one of the editors of Clar- 
 endon's Histoiy of the Rebelhon. Besides the " Logic " men- 
 tioned above, he left some tracts on the real presence, and a 
 Latin work on the principles of architecture. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALDRICH, Robert, was bora at Buniham in Bucks, and 
 was appointed archdeacon of Colchester, 1530, canon of Wind- 
 sor, 1534, and bisliop of Carlisle, 1537. The doctrinal changes 
 in Henry's, Edward's, and Mary's time, made no difierence to 
 Bishop Aldrich. He comphed with them all, and died, 1555, 
 in possession of his see. He left a few theological pieces. 
 
 ALDRIXGER, Johann, an Austrian field-marshal under 
 Ferdinand II., who raised himself from the position of a common 
 soldier. He was commissan'-general to the army of Wallen- 
 stein in 1625, and after many successes, drowned himself in 
 the Iser because he failed before Landsluit in 1634. 
 
 ALDROVAXDIXI. A family of artists of this name flour- 
 ished at Bologna in the first half of the eighteenth century. — 
 Giuseppe was a decorative painter, and much esteemed in his 
 own department of art; his son To.aimaso, who died 173G, in 
 
 L
 
 ALD 
 
 82 
 
 ALE 
 
 conjunction with Franceschini, painted the chamber of Council at 
 Genoa ; and Pompeo Agostixo, the nephew of Giuseppe, who 
 resided at Rome, where he died in 1739, has bequeathed to us 
 numerous engravings, and pictures both in oil and distemper. — S. 
 
 ALDROVANXi, Ulisse, a celebrated naturalist, was born 
 at Bolugna on the 11th September, 1522, and died on the 10th 
 November, 1607. At the age of six he lost his father, and 
 was placed as a page in the family of a rich bishop. Quitting 
 this, he was at twelve years of age apprenticed to a merchant. 
 This occupation was not congenial to his taste, and he speedily 
 gave it up. After travelling in Spain, he returned to Bologna, 
 where he prosecuted the study of law. He subsequently went 
 to I'adua, and attended lectures on law and medicine. Being 
 suspected of protestantism, he was an-ested and imprisoned at 
 Rome. On his Uberation, he returned to his native city, and 
 studied botany under Lucas Ghino, who was professor of that 
 science in the university. He continued to pursue his scientific 
 studies both at Bologna and at Padua. In 1553 he took the 
 degree of doctor of medicine, and in 1560 he was appointed 
 professor of natiu-al histoiy and of logic at Bologna. He estab- 
 lished a botanic garden in the city, and was chosen to be inspec- 
 tor of diTJgs. He was fond of natural history in all its dej)ai-t- 
 ments, and spent much of his time and fortune in travelling to 
 distant countiies, and in making collections of animals, plants, 
 and minerals. He wrote histories of birds, insects, fishes, quad- 
 rupeds, metals, and trees. He died at the age of 85, and was 
 buried with pomp, at the expense of the state, in the church of 
 Saint-Etienne, in Bologna. During his hfetime he published 
 only four volumes of the large work which beai-s his name. The 
 remaining ten were published partly under the direction, and at 
 the expense, of the senate of Bologna, and partly by private 
 parties. His botanical works are — " Dendrologia Naturalis, 
 or Natural History of Trees," and " Pomarium Curiosum, or a 
 Description of their Productiveness, Culture, and Economical 
 Uses." These works were published by Jlontalban, professor of 
 botany at Bologna, in 1667, being sixty years after the death 
 of the author. Monti named the genus Aldrovandia, in honour 
 of him. The genus belongs to the natui-al order Droseraceas, 
 and comprehends a singular aquatic plant, which floats in water 
 by means of bladder-like leaves filled with air. — J. H. B. 
 
 ALDRUDA, Bertlnoro, Countess of, a woman of great 
 courage and addj-ess, belonged to the noble family of Frangipani 
 of Rome, and by the death of her husband. Count Bertinoro, 
 early became a widow. Supported by the Guelphs, she raised 
 the siege of Ancona, assailed by the unperial ai-mies in 1172. 
 
 ALDUIN, the first king of the second Lombardian dynasty, 
 flourished about the middle of the sixth century. The Emperor 
 •Justinian entered into an alliance with him, and conceded to 
 lum the province of Pannonia, on condition of his sending mer- 
 cenaries to check the Ostragoths in Italy. It is supposed 
 Justinian fomented the wars which he carried on with varying 
 success against the Gepidse, dowi to the tune of his death, in 
 order to divert the attention of both parties from his own posses- 
 sions. By his wife, a descendant of Theodoric, kmg of the 
 Ostragoths, Alduin left a son, Albom I., by whom the Lom- 
 bard power was firmly established in Italy. — S. 
 ^ ALDUS MANUTIUS (Aldo Manuzio), was born at Bas- 
 siano in 1447. In early Ufe he studied both at Rome and Fer- 
 rara. When Ferrara was besieged by the Venetians, he left it 
 for Jlirandola, the residence of the famous Pico, with whom he 
 was on intimate terms. Under the patronage of Alberto Veo, 
 the lord of Carpi, Aldo thought of establishing a printing-press 
 at Pavia, and ultimately carried out his design at Venice. His 
 labours commenced about 1488, and his first publications made 
 their appearance about two years aftenvards. Aldo soon sur- 
 passed all printers of his time in accuracy, beauty, and copious- 
 ness. Not only did he spare no expense in procuring the most 
 correct manuscripts, but he enjoyed the assistance of a company 
 of learned men, who met regularly at his house, and formed an 
 academy. A Greek psalter is said to have been the first book he 
 pnnted ; and copies of Ilesiod, and Aristotle's " Organon " were 
 issued in 1495. A new and elegant form of type was invented 
 by him, called often the " Italic," or cursive, and in it he prmted 
 hrst an octavo Virgil, while other classics followed in succession. 
 Aldus compiled, also, a Latin and Greek grammar, and a Greek 
 t^Ai^ u'" '''^"°"^- Aldus was compelled to leave Venice in 
 1606, his property being plundered, and did not return till 1512, 
 when he set up his press again, in partnership with his father- 
 
 in-law Andrew Asola. He died in the sixty-seventh year of his 
 age — having been set upon and wounded by three unknown as- 
 sassins. The Aldine editions were famed in their day, and they 
 are still precious hterary curiosities. A catalogue of the works 
 of Aldus has been published by Renouard at Paris. His son, 
 named Paul, succeeded him, and was likewise eminent in learn- 
 ing, criticism, and printing. His edition of Cicero in 1540 was a 
 work of great value. Born at Venice 1512, and died there 1574. 
 Aldus Manutius, son of Paul, was one of the most learned men 
 of his time, and famed also for his printing. Died 1597. — J. E. 
 
 ALE, Egidius, a painter, bom at Liege, died, according to 
 Zani, in 1689. With Morandi, RomaneUi, and Bonatti, he 
 executed the whole decoration of the sacristy of the church of 
 Santa Maria dell' Anima at Rome, of wliich his portion was an 
 altarpiece in oil, and the ceiUngs of the chapels in fresco. 
 
 ALEA, Leonard, a native of Paris, died in that city in 
 1812. As a man of letters, he did much for the revival of 
 religious sentiment in France after the Revolution. His prin- 
 cipal works are — "La Religion triomphant des attentats de 
 Timpiete," and " Reflexions contre le divorce." 
 
 ALEANDER, Hieroxyjius, the Elder, archbishop of Brin- 
 disi, and cardinal of the Roman church, played a not unimpor- 
 tant part in the history of the Refomiation. He was bom at 
 Motta, a small town of Italy, 13th Feb., 1480, and early dis- 
 tinguished himself by his taste for, and rapid proficiency in, 
 liberal knowledge. In addition to the classical languages, he 
 occupied himself with the study of Hebrew and Arabic, and made 
 uncommon attainments in mathematics, astronomy, and music. 
 His father was a physician, and for some time he contemplated 
 adopting the same profession ; but having changed his resolution 
 in favour of the chm'ch, he devoted himself to the professional 
 study of theology. The fiime of his abilities having been carried 
 to Rome, Pope Alexander VI. employed him on a mission to 
 Hungary, but he was disabled from executing it by an iUness 
 whicii arrested him at Venice on his way. Here he made the 
 acquaintance of Erasmus, through Aldus ^lanutius, and aided 
 him in the publication of his celebrated Adagia. In 1508 he 
 was invited into France by Louis XII., and taught Greek for 
 sis years in the universities of Paris and Orleans. Having ex- 
 changed this office in 1514 for the service of the prince-bishop 
 of Liege, to whom he was recommended by Stephen Poncherius, 
 bishop of Paris, and who made him his secretary and chancellor, 
 and a canon in his cathedral, he was sent in 1516 to Rome, 
 to promote the elevation of his patron to the cardinalate. Here 
 he fell under the eye of Leo X., who invited him to remain in 
 Rome, and appointed him to the honourable post of hbrarian 
 of the Vatican. His zeal against Luther recommended him to 
 Leo as a suitable man to send as his nuncio into Germany and 
 the Netherlands, to oppose the doctrines of the German monk. 
 The ^•iolence of his proceedings and language in this character 
 was too much even for his friend Erasmus, who quaireled with 
 him irreconcilably on this occasion. He was present at the 
 diet of Womis in 1520, where he employed all his eloquence and 
 arts, first to prevent the diet from givhig a hearing to Luther, 
 and next, when he had failed in that object, to obtain an impe- 
 rial edict against the refomier. He did his utmost even to 
 prevail upon the young emperor Charles to violate the safe-con- 
 duct which had been given to Luther. At the close of the diet 
 he returned to the Netherlands, where he signalized himself by 
 the craelty of his persecuting measures against the evangelical 
 monks of St. Augustine at Antwei-p. It was at his instance 
 that the two first mart}TS of the Reformation — Henry Voes 
 and John Esch — were burnt to ashes in the great square of 
 Brussels, on the first of July, 1523. For these zealous but un- 
 scrupulous semces Aleander was rewarded, in 1524, with the 
 bishopric of Biindisi, by Pope Clement VII. In the following 
 year, ha\'ing been sent as nuncio to Francis I., he was taken 
 prisoner along with that monarch at the battle of Pavia, and 
 had to pay a heavy ransom to recover his liberty. In 1531 he 
 went a second time into Germany as papal legate, but was un- 
 able to prevent the conclusion of the religious peace of Numberg 
 in that year, which secured for the RefoiTnation some years of 
 tranquillity. In 1538 he was made a cardinal by Pope Paul III., 
 and was destined, along with cardinals Campeggio and Simonata, 
 to preside at the general council which vvas then in contempla- 
 tion. In the same year he was a third time dispatched into 
 Germany, to stimulate the Romish princes of the empire to more 
 vigorous mea.sures against the protestant states, but vnth no
 
 lietter rcsult than on the previous occasion. The state exigen- 
 cies of Charles and Ferdinand still made it necessary for them 
 to temporise with the Eeformers ; and Aleander returned in bit- 
 ter disappointment to Eome. He died 31st Jan., 154:2, and 
 left behind him some fruits of his earlier studies, in several 
 works of a grammatical and lexical character, and an unfinished 
 work, " De concUio habendo," which is said to have been of 
 service to the pope and his bishops and doctors, in the manage- 
 ment of the council of Trent. — P. L. 
 
 ALEAXDEE, Hiekostmus, theYorxGER, grand-nephew of 
 .the cardinal, was bom at Motta in Friuli, Jixly, 1574; died 1629. 
 He has left works on various subjects, antiquities, law, &c. 
 
 ALEAUME, Lovis, a French writer of the 16th century, cele- 
 brated for his Latin poetry ; was bom at Vememl 1525 ; died 1596. 
 
 ALEFELD, the name of several distinguished individuals 
 connected with the duchy of Hoist ein: — Benedict, bom 
 1506; died 1586; left behind him some Latin letters to the 
 supeiintendent of the province. — CHRiSTi.\2f Albert lived at 
 the end of the seventeenth century, and published, at Copenha- 
 gen, a treatise on mathematics. — Dethlev-ab., a politician of 
 the seventeenth centurj'. — Fred-ab., bom in 1623, lost his 
 valuable library by fire in 1682. Died at Copenhagen in 1686. 
 
 ALEFELD, George Ludvig, was bom at Giessen, 1732, 
 and having gained his medical diploma in 1756, was appointed 
 professor of medicine and physics in that university. He died 
 in 177-4, leaving several works on medical subjects. 
 
 ALEGA31BE, Philip, a Jesuit writer, was bom at Brassels, 
 1592. He taught philosophy at the Jesuit college of Gratz, 
 where the prince of Eggenberg appointed him tutor to his 
 son, with whom he travelled through the principal countries of 
 Europe. He has left many writings, the chief of which is an 
 elaborate work on the biography and bibliography of the earlier 
 jesiait \vriters — a continuation of the work published at Antwerp 
 by Bibadeniera. After the death of Alegambe at Rome, 1651, 
 this work was enlarged by Father Nathaniel Southwell. — S. 
 
 ALEGBE, Yves, 5Iai-quis d', a field-marshal of France, was 
 bom 1653; died 1733. He distinguished himself much under 
 ViUars in his German and Flemish campaigns, and, as a reward 
 for his sen-ices, was nominated by Louis ^IV. his commissary 
 to preside over the assemblv of the states in Brittany. 
 
 ALEKSDAEEV orALEXEJEV, Feodor YACo^-LE^^TCH, 
 a painter, called the Russian Canaletto; bom 1755; died 1821. 
 He was patronized by the Emperor Paul, and was distinguished 
 for skill in perspective and general accuracy. 
 
 ALEiL\GXA, GiusTO d', a painter, who lived in the fif- 
 teenth century. He was probably of German origin, though his 
 principal work, a fresco, is to be found in the convent of Santa 
 Maria di Costello at Genoa. 
 
 ALEMAN, Louis, called the Cardinal of Aries, the founder 
 of the " moderate," as opposed to the " ultramontane" party 
 in the church of Rome, was bom at Bugey in 1390. He distin- 
 guished himself as one of the presidents of the council of Basle 
 in 1431, by his vehement opposition to Eugenius IV., who 
 asserted the supremacy of the popes over the councils. It was 
 Aleman who caused the election of the anripope Felix V., whom 
 he afterwards, however, prevailed upon to abdicate. Having 
 lost all his ecclesiastical digniries under Eugenius IV., he was 
 restored to them by Nicolas V. Died in 1452. — A. M. 
 
 ALEMAN, Mateo, a Spanish author, who Avrote in the 
 latter half of the 16th century, and had an office in the treasmy 
 under Philip II. His once celebrated work, " Guzman de 
 Alfarache," was translated by Le Sage into French, and may be 
 regarded as, in some measure, the parent of GU Bias. 
 
 ALEMAND, Lons At;gustin, first an advocate, and after- 
 wards a physician, was bom at Grenoble in 1653. He was an 
 author of some repute in his day. His principal works are : — 
 " Nouvelles observations, ou guerre civile des Fran9ais sur la 
 langue," and " Histoire monastique de I'lrlande," the basis of the 
 " Monastioon Hibernicon."' Died about 1728. 
 
 ALEiL\N, CoxRAD, called also Coxradus de Moxte- 
 Puellarum, was a learned German, rector of the university of 
 Vienna. Bom at JIagdeburg in 1309 ; died at Ratisbon in 
 1398. He has written a "Vita Erhardi Episcopi;" "Vita 
 Dominici ;" " Pohtica a?conomica et monastica," &c. 
 
 ALEMANNI or ALEMANNO, Axtoxio, a Tuscan poet, 
 who flourished about the end of the fifteenth and the commence- 
 ment of the sixteenth centui-ies. He wrote sonnets, and a 
 " Comedia," treating of the conversion of St ilary Magdalene. 
 
 ALEMANNI or ALAilANNI, Cossoio, an enthusiastic ad- 
 mirer of Thomas Aquinas, and author of a summary of the 
 writings of that remarkable schoolman, was bom at Milan about 
 1559, and died in 1634. 
 
 ALEMANNI or ALAMANNI, Luigi, an Italian poet and 
 statesman, was bom at Florence in 1495. The discovery of a 
 political plot in which he had engaged, compelling him to flee, 
 he repaired to Venice, afterwards to Genoa, and ultimately 
 settled in France. So highly was he appreciated by Francis I., 
 as to be sent by him as his ambassador to Charles V. He exe- 
 cuted the mission with great address. He equally enjoyed the 
 favour of Henry II. of France, who repeatedly employed him in 
 important negotiations. Died at Amboise La 1556. — E. M. 
 
 ALEMANNI or ALAiUNNI, Niccolo, a Greek by descent, 
 bom at Ancona in 1583, was educated at Rome, where he became 
 an ecclesiastic, professor of rhetoric and Greek literature, and 
 afterwards librarian to the Vatican. Besides several Latin 
 dissertations, he published the "Secret History" of Procopius. 
 Died at Rome 1625. 
 
 ALEMANNO, Giovaxxi, or Giov.^xxi d'Alejiagxa, a 
 painter of German oiigin, established at Venice during the first 
 half of the fifteenth century. Pictures of his may be seen in 
 several churches of Venice and Padua. 
 
 ALEMANS, Nicholas, a Flemish miniatm-e portrait painter 
 of great fame during the latter part ot the seventeenth century. 
 He studied in Italy. 
 
 ALEMBERT, "Jeax-le-Roxd d', one of the most eminent 
 scientific and literary men of the eighteenth century, was bom 
 on the 16th of November, 1717, in Paiis, where he also died ou 
 the 29th of October, 1783. He was the illegitimate son of the 
 Chevalier Destouches-Canon, and the celebrated beauty, iladame 
 de Tencin. Having been exposed by that lady on the threshold 
 of the church of St.-Jean-Le-Rond, the infant was found by the 
 commissary or police magistrate of the quarter, who gave him 
 the name of the patron saint of that church, and intrusted him 
 to the care of a woman named Rousseau, wife of a glazier, who 
 lived in the street Michel-le-Comte. What were the quaUties of 
 that poor and humble nurse, may be inferred from the filial 
 afiection with which D'Alembert for more than forty years repaid 
 her kindness and care. 
 
 A few days after the bu-th of Jean-le-Rond, his situation was 
 discovered by his father, who provided for his education, and 
 settled upon him an annuity of forty-eight pounds a year. He 
 was educated with a view at first to the profession of the law, 
 and afterwards to that of medicine ; but so strong was his 
 natural bent towards science and hterature, that he finally de- 
 termined to be content with his annuity as a means of subsist- 
 ence, and his nurse's house as an abode, and to devote himself 
 entirely to his favourite studies, which, though fruitful of enjoy- 
 ment and honour, he well knew to be barren of emolument. 
 
 D'Alembert first acquired distinction in mathematical science 
 by his " Jlcmoire sur le calcul integral," presented to the Aca- 
 demy of Sciences in 1739. Of that body he was elected a mem- 
 ber in 1741 ; and he afterwards continued to produce a series of 
 treatises and papers relating to anal\"tical mechanics, which con- 
 tributed, perhaps, more than the works of any other author of 
 the period, to reduce to a systematic form the art of applying 
 mathematical principles to the development of the consequences 
 of those laws of motion and force which had been established by 
 Galileo and Newton. One of his discoveries, not involving any 
 new physical law, but consisting in an admirably simple and 
 general method of expressing mathematically the application of 
 the known laws of motion to any system of bodies connected in 
 any manner, and acted on by any system of forces, how compli- 
 cated soever, is known to this day by the name of " D'Alem- 
 bert's Principle." It is this — " If, from the forces impressed on 
 any system of bodies connected in any manner, there be sub- 
 tracted the forces which, acting alone, would be capable of pro- 
 ducing the actual accelerations and retardations of the bodies, the 
 remaining system of forces must balance each other." A general 
 idea of the scientific labours of D'Alembert may be best given 
 by the foUowng lists of his mathematical, mechanical, and astro- 
 nomical works : — " Traite de Dynamique," 1 vol. 4to ; " Traite' 
 de I'equilibre et du mouvement des Fluides," 1 vol. 4to ; " Re- 
 flexions sur la cause generale des Vents," 1 vol. 4to ; " Re- 
 cherches sur la Precession des Equinoxes et sur la Nutation de 
 I'axe de la Terre," 1 vol. 4to ; " Eecherches sur different points 
 importants du systeme du monde," 3 vols. 4to ; " Tabularum
 
 lunariam emendatio," 1 vol. 4to ; " Opuscules mathematiques," 
 8 vols. 4to. 
 
 In 1754, D'Alembert began to become distinguished in litera- 
 ture and philosophy, as well as in science. He was one of the 
 editors and authors of the well-known Encyclopedia projected 
 by Diderot. The preliminary discourse of that work was read 
 by D'Alembert to the French' Academy, on the 19th of Decem- 
 ber, 1754, the day of his admission into that body. Hisliteraiy, 
 historical, and philosophical works, have been published in a 
 collected form ; the most complete edition is that of Bossange, 
 in five volumes octavo, Paris, 1821. The following are the 
 titles of some of those works :—" Melanges de philosophic, 
 d'histoire, et de littdrature ;" "Essai sur la soci^te des gens de 
 Icttres avec les grands," a work which Condorcet, in his eloge 
 of D'>rUembcrt. treats as having had a large share in promothig 
 that independent spirit and position by which the men of letters 
 of the present age are distinguished from those of fornier times. 
 " Traduction de quclques morceaux de Tacite ;" " Ele'ments de 
 philosophic," fii-st published in 1759. " Sur la destruction des 
 Jcsuites." This work was one, amongst various others, which 
 raised many enemies against its author. As holding an intemie- 
 diate place between science and elegant literature, we may men- 
 tion D'Alembert's treatise on music : — " Elements de musique 
 thdorique et pratique." Having been appointed secretary to the 
 French Academy in 1772, D'Alembert wrote ^loges or discourses 
 on the lives of nearly seventy deceased members of that body. 
 
 The frank, lively, and amiable character of D'Alembert, and 
 his conversational talent, caused him to be a general favourite 
 in the best society of Paris. His literary and scientific celebrity 
 procured for him splendid offers of wealth and honours fi-om 
 Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Catherine of Russia ; the 
 former proposing to him the office of president of the Academy 
 of Berlin, the latter that of tutor to her son. D'Alembert, 
 preferring poverty and independence, steadily declined both pro- 
 posals, but retained the friendship of the sovereigns. With 
 Frederick he continued long afterwards to correspond, and ac- 
 cepted from him a pension of forty-eight pounds a year. 
 
 The income of D'Alembert, though augmented by legacies 
 from Madame GeoSiin and from David Hume, was at all times 
 very small ; yet it was more than sufficient for his fragal manner 
 of life; and even in his poorest days, he found means to support 
 his nurse, to educate tlie children of his first schoolmaster, to 
 assist various young students, and to perform other acts of 
 munificence. 
 
 A brotherly and sisterly affection existed for many years be- 
 tween D'Alembert and ;\Iademoiselle de FEspinasse; and the most 
 severe affliction which he ever suffered, was from the death of 
 that lady, caused by giief at that of her affianced lover, the 
 filarquis de Jlora. 
 
 The health of D'Alembert, according to some authors, not- 
 withstanding, but possibly in consequence of, his extreme ab- 
 stemiousness, was always delicate. After a tedious and painful 
 illness, borne with much patience and fortitude, he died at the 
 age of sixty-six. His eloge, by Condorcet, contains the best 
 account of his life and works. — W. J. M. R. 
 
 ALEN or OLEN, Jan Van, a Dutch painter, an imitator of 
 Mc'li'liior Hondekveter; bom in 1631; died in 1G98. Anoihtr 
 painter of the name of Van Alen lived at Prague about 1618 ; 
 and a third at Dantzlc about 1656. 
 
 ALENCE, JoAcniji d', was born at Paris, and died at Lille 
 in 1707. He has left works on the magnet, the barometer, &c. 
 ALENCOX, Counts and Dukes of, a family of French no- 
 bility. The title originated in the tenth century, under Richard 
 I F., duke of Nonnandy, who conferred the fief of Alen9on on 
 William, the first count of the name. Died 1 028. The last 
 count of Alen9on was Robert IV., who died in 1219. The 
 county now reverted to the crown, and was converted into a 
 dukedom. The first duke of Alen9on was Pierre, son of St. 
 Louis (Louis IX). He died without issue in 1283, and the 
 title passed to the House of Valois. Charles of Valois, brother 
 of Philip the Fair, was the first duke of this family (1298). 
 He fell at Crecy in 1346. The last of the line was :— 
 
 ALENq'ON, Charles IV., Duke of, son of Rene. He was 
 constable of France, and commanded the vanguard at the battle 
 of Pavia ; but died of shame at his disgraceful overthrow there 
 in 1525. The duchy of Alen9on was now conferred by Charles 
 IX. on Catherine de iledicis, who restored it to him in 1566, when 
 he gave it to the most noted individual of the name : 
 
 Alen^on, Francis, Duke of, brother of Charles IX. of 
 France, as also of Francis II. and Henrj' III.; bom 1554, 
 during the religious troubles of France in the reigns of 
 Charles IX. and Henry III. Alen9on pretended friendship for 
 the Huijuenot party, to seiTC his own ambitious designs ; and 
 he was one of the husbands proposed for Queen Elizabeth 
 of Endand ; he was, hov\-ever, present with the army which be- 
 sieged the Huguenots in Rochelle in 1573 — a circumstance 
 that did not aid his suit for the protestant princess. The 
 grand aim of the duke of Alen9on's ambition, besides gaining the 
 hand of Elizabeth — which, on occasion of his visit to England in 
 1581, he very nearly obtained — was to make himself sovereign of 
 the Netherlands. In consequence of the sen-Ices he rendered 
 the confederate states against the duke of Parma, he so far 
 succeeded in this as to be made didve of Brabant and count 
 of Flanders (1582) ; but the farther development of his plans 
 for his own aggrandizement alanned the people of the Nether- 
 lands, and Alen9on found himself compelled to retire to France. 
 His health was already broken up, and he died unregretted at 
 the age of thirty, in 1584. 
 
 Francis of Alen9on never manied, and his death again threw 
 the duchy into the hands of the crown. It was held by various 
 members of the royal family of France in succession, and finally 
 by Louis XVIII. before his accession to the throne. — A. M. 
 
 ALENI, Tommaso, an Italian painter, a native of Cremona, 
 flourishing about 1515. He was a successful imitator of Gale- 
 azzo Canipl. 
 
 ALEOTTI, Giambattista, an Italian architect and engineer; 
 bom about 1546; died 1636. He was employed by Pope 
 Clement VII. to constmct the citadel of Fen-ara, and by Prince 
 Ranuccio to erect the theatre of Parma in 1619. Aleotti also 
 wrote on hydrostatics and pneumatics. Vittoria Aleotti, his 
 daughter, was a musical composer of some note towai'ds the 
 close of the sixteenth century. — A. M. 
 
 ALER, Paul, a learned German jestut, professor in the uni- 
 versity of Treves ; born in 1656 in the territory of Lunembourg; 
 died in 1727. He wrote a '' Gemian-Latin Dictionary," a 
 " Gradus ad Pamassum," and other works. 
 
 AL£S, Pierre- Alexandre, Viscount of Corbet, a French 
 author, who wrote on a great variety of subjects; bom in 1715; 
 died about 1770. During one period of his life, Alfes served in 
 the army. Besides other works, he wTote " Dissertation sur 
 les antlqultes d'Irlande," 1749, 12mo; " De I'origine du mal," 
 Paris, 1758, 2 vols. 12mo; and "Nouvelles observations sur les 
 deux systemes de la noblesse commer9ante ou milltaire," Am- 
 sterdam (Paris), 1758, 12mo.— A. M. 
 
 ALESIO, JIatteo Pietro, an Italian historical painter of 
 the sixteenth century, studied -n-ith remarkable success under 
 the great Michel Angelo, whose style he strove to imitate through- 
 out his whole career. Having passed into Spain when still 
 young, he executed several large frescos for the cathedral of 
 Seville ; but being of a very modest character, on seeing a pic- 
 tm-e by Luiz de Varga, he declared that Spain could not want 
 him any more, and returned to Italy. He was also an engraver. 
 Died in 1600 in Rome, his native town. — R. M. 
 
 ALESIUS Alexander, was one of the earliest and most 
 distinguished converts to the Refonuation in Scotland. The 
 family name was Alane; he adopted the name of Alesius (from 
 aXsivt.;, to be a fugitive) after he was driven into exile. He was 
 born of a respectable family in Edinburgh, 23d April, 1500, and 
 studied at St. Andrews, where he took the degree of Bachelor 
 of Ai-ts in 1515. From the college of St. Leonard's, then newly 
 founded, he passed into the Augustlnlan priory of St. Andrews, 
 with which it was in close connection, whci-e he became a canon, 
 and applied himself, under the instruction of John Major, to the 
 study of scholastic theology. He was at first a zealous opponent 
 of Luther's doctrines, but was soon after gained over to them by 
 Patrick Hamilton, the protomartjT of Scotland, whose trial and 
 martyrdom in 1528 he witnessed, and has given an interesting 
 account of in one of his works. (See " Patrick Hamilton," — an 
 historical blogi-aphy by Professor Lorlmer of London.) Having 
 soon after begun to preach against the corruptions of the clerg}', 
 he was thrown hito prison by his prior, Patrick Hepburn, and 
 would have fallen a victim to his resentment if he had not suc- 
 ceeded in effecting his escape. He fled under night to Dundee, 
 where he was received by a kinsman of his own on board a ship 
 which set sail the next morning for a foreign port. This was most 
 probably in 1530. After many wanderings in Denmark, Franc<>,
 
 Belgium, and Germany, Alesius took up his abode in "Wittem- 
 berg towai'Js the end of 1531, wliere he attached himself with 
 a special aftection to the person and teaching of Jlelancthon, and 
 devoted several vears to the study of Greek and Hebrew, and 
 the evangelical theology. He took an active part in the affau's 
 of the university, and in 1534: filled the honom'able oiSce of 
 Dean of the Faculty of Arts. 
 
 Sleanwhile the bishops at home had proceeded against him 
 for heresy, and had condemned and banished him vrithout a 
 hearing. On receinng intimation of this, and also that they 
 had issued an edict prohibiting the reading of Tyndal"s trans- 
 lation of the New Testament, which since 1526 had been 
 finding its way into the Scottish ports, Alesius determined to 
 appeal to the young king, James V., not only to ask a hearing 
 for himself, but still more to implore him to cancel the un- 
 holy and oppressive edict of the bishops. In 1533 he penned 
 at Wittemberg a highly interesting letter to the king, entitled 
 " Epistola contra decretmn quoddam Episcoporum in Sco'.ia, 
 quod prohibet legere Novi Testamenti hbros lingua vemacula," 
 which was printed and published, and copies of which he de- 
 spatched with a messenger into Scotland. It is written with 
 gre:;t force of argument and beauty (if style, and deserved a better 
 fate than to have been forgotten by his countrT.-men, and almost 
 totally lost. It was never reprinted, apparently, and only two 
 copies of it are known to be now in existence. It immediately 
 involved its patriotic author in an unpleasant controversy. John 
 Cochla?us, a Eomish theologian, who had made himself notorious 
 by the number and the scumlity of his attacks upon the Ee- 
 formers, had no sooner seen the epistle of Alesius, than he ad- 
 dressed a counter-epistle to James V., wliich had the good effect 
 of drav\-ing from Alesius a second epistle to the king, of greater 
 length and still deeper interest than the first. He replies to the 
 sophistical arguments of Cochlafus; reargues with much power 
 the question of allowing the use of the vernacuhu- Bible to the 
 laity, and enters at some length into the general questions which 
 had been raised by the German reformers. This valuable tract, 
 ■vvliich is almost as rare as the first, is entitled " Alexandri Alesii 
 Scoti Eesponsio ad Cochlasi Calnmnias," and was no doubt 
 printed at Wittemberg in 1534. By these writings, Alesius took 
 the honourable position of being the first Scotchman who stood 
 forward to defend, by learned argument, the right of his country- 
 men to possess and to read the word of God in their mother 
 tongue — a service which it is remarkable that none of our his- 
 torians record, and which was first brought mto prominent 
 notice by a recent author, the Eev. Christopher Anderson, in his 
 Annals of the EngUsh Bible. There can be httle doubt that 
 Melancthon was at least joi?it author of these epistles — a highly 
 interesting fact, bringing out, as it does, a connection between 
 'the preceptor of Gennany ' and the early Scottish Eefonnation, 
 which has escaped the notice of all our protestant ecclesiastical 
 historians, both native and foreign. 
 
 In 1535 Alesius removed from Wittemberg to England. He 
 was the bearer of Jlelancthon's present of a copy of his " Loci 
 Conmfiunes " to the English king, and was warmly recommended 
 both to Hemy and Cranmer by his illustrious friend. Both the 
 king and the archbishop received him ^^•ith great kindness. He 
 lived for some time vnXh. Cranmer at Lambeth, was dubbed 
 'king's scholar' by Hemy, and was taken into the service of 
 Cromwell, the king's prime minister, on a handsome stipend. 
 Acring in his capacity of chancellor of Cambridge, Cromwell 
 sent him down to read lectm'es on theology in that university, 
 and he continued there for a time, residing in Queen's college, 
 and delivering pubUc expositions in the schools on the Hebrew 
 Psalter. The disciple of ilelancthon, however, was not listened 
 to at Cambridge very patiently or very long. Opposition arose. 
 Tumults were threatened, and Alesius was obliged to quit the 
 university and return to London. This was in 1536. For the 
 next thi-ee years he supported himself partly by his stipend and 
 partly by the practice of medicine, in which, he tells us, he had 
 encouraging success. In 1537 he was taken into a convocirtion 
 of the clergy by Cromwell, who presided as the kmg's vicar- 
 general, and was invited to dispute with Stokesley and the other 
 popish bishops on the subject of the sacraments, wliich he did 
 with ability and effect. In the same year, or the following one, 
 he married, in the expectation, no doubt, of being allowed to 
 settle down penuanently in England; but in 1539 the perse- 
 cuting str.tute of the Six articles compelled him to retm-n to Ger- 
 many. He was waiTnly welcomed back by his old friends at 
 
 Wittemberg, and through Melancthon's influence was provided, 
 in 1540, with a theological chair in the university of Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder. He was the first professor of the Reformed theo- 
 logy there. But his stay in Frankfort -nas short. A dispute 
 arose between him and another of the professors on an important 
 question of academic morality and discipline ; and his opponent 
 having found means to procure an order from the Elector Joachim 
 of Brandeubm^g enjoining silence on Alesius, the latter was so 
 much disgusted by this strong exerrion of authority on the side 
 of an iunnoral laxity of manners, that he instantly left Frank- 
 fort. His nest move was to Leipzig, where, in 1543, he was 
 appointed professor of theology in the recently-reformed univer- 
 sity, and where he spent honourably and usei'ully the remainder 
 of his singularly eventful life. He never revisited Scotland ; 
 but he continued to take the Hveliest interest in its rehgious 
 affairs. He addressed to his coimtrymen a beautiful and eloquent 
 " Cohortatio ad concordiam pietatis ineundam," in which he 
 warmly pleaded the cause of evangehcal truth and purity, and 
 exhorted them to put an end to thtir religious and political di- 
 Aisions. This interesting composition also passed through Mel- 
 ancthon's hands, and appears, from one of Jklelancthon's letters, 
 to have been submitted to Luther's judgment before being printed, 
 who highly approved of it. 
 
 Alesius retained the friendship of Melancthon till the last day 
 of that great scholar and reformer's life, and was often closely 
 associated with him in the public ecclesiastical transactions of 
 that important period. Melancthon had a high opinion of his 
 abilities as a theologian, and preferred him to every other coad- 
 jutor at the numerous colloquia which he held with the doctors 
 of Rome, and with the heretical teachers who ere long arose in 
 the Lutheran church. His industiy as an author was indefati- 
 gable ; and dming the last twenty years of his life, he gave to 
 the world a long series of works in the departments of exegetic 
 and polemical theology, including Expositions of the First Book of 
 the Psalms, the Gospel of John, the two Epistles to Timothy, 
 the Epistle to Titus, and Disputations on the Epistle to the 
 Romans. His polemical works were directed against the errors 
 of Rome, Servetus, GentUis, and Osiander. He translated into 
 Latin, by Cranmer's request, the Fu-st Liturgy of King Edward. 
 By these writings, and by his numerous personal services to the 
 cause of truth, the reputarion of Alesius became ^\-idely extended 
 in the Reformation age. John Bale dedicated to him, along 
 with John Knox, that part of his work on the Celebrated 
 Writers of Britain which referred to Scotland. Beza, in his 
 " Icones," celebrates him as a man who was a distinguished 
 ornament of his country. 
 
 Alesius died at Leipzig, 17th 5Iai-ch, 1565, after ha^'i^g been 
 tsvidQ rector of the university, and frequently dean of the theolo- 
 gical faculty. Some outUnes of his life were sketched by Jacob 
 Thomasius in one of his "Orationes;" and some additional facts 
 were stated in the '' Observationes Halenses," it is believed from 
 the same pen. Wodrow also made some collections for his life, 
 which are stOl in MS. in the library of the university of Glasgow, 
 but these have been ascertained to be of little importance. A 
 full and accurate life of this distinguished, but almost forgotten 
 Scottish reformer, is still a desideratum, which the author of the 
 present outline hopes, ere long, to be able to supply. — P. L. 
 
 ALESSAXDRE ALESSAXDRO or ALEXIaN'DER AB 
 ALEXAXDRO, a Xeapolit;m jurisconsult, was born about 1461, 
 and died ui 1523. He did not long practise as an advocate, 
 but went to Rome, and gave himself up to the study of classical 
 antiquity. His most remarkable book is the " Geniales Dies," 
 the first edition of which appeared in 1522, ui 1 vol. folio. It 
 is an iniitation of the Xoctes Atticse of Aulus Gellius. 
 
 ALESSAXDRI, Andrea, an Italian sculptor, native of 
 Brescia, and flourishing in the sixteenth century. He is recorded 
 by Cicognara as having largely contributed to the decoration of 
 Santa Jlaria della Salute. 
 
 ALESS.VXDRI, Ixndcexzo, an Italian engraver, flourishing 
 about 1768, at Venice, where, in connection with Pietro Scata- 
 glia, he executed a large number of plates, many of which are 
 from original di'awings of his own. 
 
 ALESSANDRI, Felice, a musician, was bom at Rome in 
 1742. He was educated in the Conservatorio at Naples, and 
 stnught from thence proceeded to Tmin, where, at a veiy early 
 age, he produced one or more operas with success. He then 
 made a sojourn of four years in Paris, where he gained some 
 credit by his compositions lor the Concerts Spirituels. He re-
 
 ALE 
 
 86 
 
 ALE 
 
 turned to Italy to produce his opera of " Ezio " at Verona, in 
 1767, and tlien went to Vienna, where he manned a famous 
 singer named Guadajjni, with whom he came to London in 1768. 
 Here he wrote " La Moglie Fedele," and " II Re alia Caccia," 
 which, though they had merit, met \vith indifferent success. 
 After a visit to Dresden and to Pavia, writing an opera for each 
 place, he returned to this countr}- m 1775, and produced " La 
 Sposa I'ersiana," " La Novita," and, in conjunction with Sacchini, 
 " La Conta<lina in Corte." In 1778 he again went back to 
 Italy, and, after producing operas in several of the principal 
 cities, in 1786 (or in 1784) he went to Petersburg, with the 
 hope of being api)ointed director of the opera at that capital, in 
 which, however, he was disaj)poiuted. He retm'ued in 1788 to 
 the south, and the following year brought out at Berlin " II 
 Ritomo d'Ulisse"' with such success, that the king appointed him 
 second kapellmoistcr. He now wrote " La Compagni a d'Opera 
 a Nanchino," a piece satirising the management, poets, com- 
 posers, and singers of the grand opera in Berlin, which was 
 represented at Potsdam in 1790. This drew upon him the 
 resentment of all the persons it ridiculed to such an extent, that 
 not only was his opera of "Dario" hissed from the stage in 
 1791, but, in consequence of the ceaseless invectives against 
 him in the public journals, in 1792 the king withdi-ew from him 
 a libretto, with which he had commissioned him, and he was 
 compelled to resign his office and retmn to his own country, 
 where he closed his days in obscmity. Gerber gives a list of his 
 dramatic works. — G. A. M. 
 
 ALESON, pRAXijOis d', a writer of history, of the 17tli 
 century ; a member of the Society of Jesus. His work, which 
 relates to the histor)- of Navarre from the death of Jeanne de 
 France, forms, says the Biograpliie UniversoUe, the complement 
 to Joseph de Jloret's " Annales de Navarra," 5 vols, folio. 
 
 ALESS.-VNDRIXI, Giuno, bom 1506, died 1590. He 
 studied medicine at the university of Padua, and was successively 
 physician to Maximilian II., Charles V., and Frederick I. In 
 his writings he demonstrated that the " Theriaque," attributed 
 to Gallien, was not the work of that author. 
 
 ALESSI, Galeazzo, an Italian architect, whose fame has 
 spread througliout Europe, was boni at Perugia in 1500. France, 
 Germany, and Italy can boast of many of the productions of 
 his genius, but the church and monasteiy of the Escurial, in 
 Spain, are considered his chej's-d' ceuvres. Died in 1572. 
 
 ALESSIO, PiEMONTESE, an Italian physician, who flourished 
 in the sixteenth century, and pretended to have discovered an 
 elixir by which he could restore the vigour of youth. 
 
 ALEVAS, a Greek sculjitor and brass-caster, who, according 
 to Pliny, excelled in portraying philosophers. No date is known 
 in connection with this artist. 
 
 ALEX.\NDER. Under this head will be given, 1st, the 
 princes of that name, in the alphabetic order of their countries ; 
 2nd, the popes, saints, and martyrs; 3rd, all not included in 
 these di\Tsions, in the usual alphabetical order : — 
 
 I. ALEXANDER OF CONSTAJS'TIXOPLE. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Emperor of Constantinople, third son of 
 Basilius and Eudoci.i, bom in 870, reigned from the death of 
 his brother Leo in 911, with whom he had been pre\-iously 
 associated by his father in the government of the empire. His 
 condnct after his accession was marked by the most insane riot 
 and debauchery. He deposed the patriarch of Constantinople, 
 EntimiiLs, and banished the Empress Zoe. He had only 
 reigned one year, when ho died suddenly. — J. S., G. 
 
 II. ALEXANDERS OF EGYPT. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., king of Egypt, was the son of Ptolemy 
 Pbyscon; his mother was one of the Cleopatras, Physcon's 
 niece. Alexander was at first king of Cyprus ; but owing to a 
 revolution in Egypt (107 B.C.), became king of that country in 
 conjunction with his mother, whom he assassinated after reign- 
 ing with her for sixteen years. He was in consequence forced 
 to retire again to C)-pms. Died about 85 B.C. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., king of Eg>-pt, son of the preceding. He 
 reigned nineteen days in conjunction with Cleopatra, at once his 
 wife and sister, and then assassinated her ; upon which he was 
 hmiself slain by the people of Alexan.li-ia. 
 
 Ill- — ALEX^VNDERS OF EPIRUS. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., king of Epirus, was the brother of 01\Tn- 
 pias, wife of Philip of Maccdon, who placed him on the throne 
 of fcpunis, and gave him his daughter Clecpatra in marriage. 
 He was slam dunng a campaign in Italy about 326 B.C. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., son of Pjnrhus, acceded to the throne of 
 Epims in 272 B.C. He wrested Macedon from Antigonus 
 Gonatas; but was diiven both from that country and from 
 E pirns by Demetrius, son of Antigonu-s. He regained his own 
 kingdom, however. Alexander was the author of a lost work on 
 militaiT tactics, which has received the commendation of Arrian. 
 Coins of both the above monarchs exist. — A. M. 
 
 IV. ALEXANDER OF GEORGIA. 
 
 ALEXANDER, king of Georgia, succeeded to the throne in 
 1414, and died about 1440 in a monasteiy, ha-s-ing divided the 
 kingdom among his three sons, George, Vaktang, and Demetrius. 
 
 V. — ALEXANDERS OF JUDEA. 
 
 ALEXA2\DER JANN.EUS acceded to the throne of J-idea 
 1 05 B.C. He was an energetic and warlike prince, and left his 
 dominions more extensive than he found them ; but he was de- 
 tested by his subjects, who, led by the Pharisees, repeatedly rose 
 in insurrection against him. By the aid of Greek mercenaries, 
 he maintained himself on the throne for twenty-seven years, 
 quelling these revolts with the utmost disregard of human life. 
 Some of his coins are extant. — A. 51. 
 
 ALEXANDER, a prince of Judea, gi-andson of the preceding. 
 He figured with his father Aristobulus and the rest of his family 
 m Pompey's triumph, after the conquest of Judea in 63 B.C. ; 
 but, escaping from Rome to Syria, Alexander endeavoured to 
 seat himself on the throne of his ancestors, and contested the 
 supremacy of Judea with the Romans from 57 B.C. to 49 B.C., 
 when he was taken and put to death by Quintus Metellus 
 Scipio, son-in-law of Pompey. — A. 31. 
 
 VI. ALEXANDERS OF 3LVCEDON. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., surnamed the Opulent, son of Amyntas 
 L, while his father was yet alive, slew the ambassadors sent by 
 Xerxes to demand submission previously to his invasion of 
 Greece (507 B.C.) He had ascended the throne when the 
 Persian anny entered the country, and was forced to temporise ; 
 secretly, however, he remained a friend to the Greeks, and, by 
 the information he sent them, was instrumental in procuring the 
 ^■ictorj- of PlatseaB. Died about 455 B.C. — A. M. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., son of Am}-ntas II., whom he succeeded 
 in 369 B.C. His short reign was disturbed by a claim which 
 Ptolemy Alorites set up to his tlxrone ; but the dispute was 
 arranged in his favour by the influence of the Thebans, with 
 whom he concluded a treaty of alliance, sending to Thebes, 
 among other hostages, his youngest brother Philip, father of 
 Alexander the Great. He was assassinated, however, soon after, 
 at the instigation of Ptolemy, in 367 B.C., having reigned 
 scarcely two years. — A. M. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., surnamed The Great, son of Olympias 
 and Philip II., the eighteenth king of 3Iacedon ; bom at Pella 
 356 B.C. ; died 323 b.c. He lived thirty-two years. Our 
 space forbids our attempting anvthing beyond a delineation 
 of the main features of so gigantic a form. — His career may be 
 conveniently di-^-ided into thi-ee epochs ; the first including the 
 period previous to his invasion of Asia, the second the whole 
 of his outward march, and the third the interval between his 
 return from the Hyphasis and his death. 
 
 I. Alexander early e\'inced remarkable powers, and a keen 
 consciousness of the dignity of his station. The anecdotes of 
 his boyhood — as the taming of Bucephalus, his interrogation of 
 the Persian ambassadors, and his jealousy of Philip's ^-ictories — 
 manifest a spirit of daring and restless ambition. He was well 
 trained in horsemanship and manly sports, and we hear from 
 ^Eschines of his skiU on the Ixre. He combined his father's 
 prudence, fortitude, and ingenuity, with the ardent temper of 
 OhTnpias ; and liis education served to foster both those elements 
 of future greatness. His first guardians were Leonidas, a rela- 
 tion of his mother, and the Achamanian Lysimachus. The 
 former, of stem and rigid disposition, endeavoured to train Ms 
 pupil to the endurance of toil and hardship. Connected with 
 the latter, were those Homeric studies which so soon impressed 
 a romantic stamp upon Alexander's exploits : the tutor assumed 
 the name of Phoenix, and the prince was pleased to be addressed 
 as Achilles, his boasted ancestor and pattern hero. But Philip i 
 had designed for him a more famous teacher; for in 342 B.C. lie 
 invited Aristotle to undertake the education of his son. Thus, 
 in Alexander's thirteenth year, began a connection such as has 
 never been renewed in historj- — between the great Actor and the 
 great Thinker of the age. Philip displayed a generous respect 
 tor his guest, and restored his native town of Stagira. Here,
 
 ALE 
 
 87 
 
 ALE 
 
 for a space of four years, the pliilosop'her''s instructions ranged 
 over the vnde fields of poetiy, rhetoric, and science. He revised, 
 for the use of his pupil, a copy of the Iliad, and wrote for him 
 a treatise on Government. To his incitement we may trace in 
 part that varied knowledge and enthusiasm for discovery which 
 .so distinguished the Conqueror. It is pleasant to hear of the 
 warm personal attachment which existed between those two 
 illustrious men. Philip himself had trained his son in the art 
 of war and state-craft, and on the occasion of his mai-ch against 
 Byzantium, 340 B.C., he committed Macedonia to his charge. 
 Some letters to Aristotle are the only records we have of this 
 administration. Two years afterwaa-ds, before Chaaronea, we 
 hear of Alexander urging his father to a decisive engagement ; 
 and his own impetuous charge on that eventi'ul day decided the 
 fortune of the field. Philip's marriage with Cleopatra intro- 
 duced dissension into the royal house ; and strife came between 
 the father and son. The prince \'iolently resented an insult 
 offered to him at the nuptial banquet, and retu-ed with his 
 mother from the court. Shortly afterwards, on Phihp's nego- 
 tiating a union between his half-brother Aridwus and a daughter 
 of Pixodarus of Caria, he imagined the scheme a step to sup- 
 plant his succession, and himself sent proposals for the hand 
 of the lady. On discovering this, Philip imprisoned the am- 
 bassador, and banished other five of Alexander's friends. Such 
 was the state of things when Philip — on the eve of his projected 
 invasion of Asia — was cut off by the dagger of Pausanias (336 
 B.C.) The suspicions attached to Olympias of being an accom- 
 phce in the murder do not seriously aft'ect Alexander. Suddenly 
 called upon to assume the vacant throne, he found himself — in 
 his twentieth year — surrounded by difficilties. The architect 
 was removed, and the fabric he had scarcely consolidated was in 
 danger of falling to pieces. Beset by rival claimants for the 
 kingdom, threatened by a new Hellenic alliance, and the hostility 
 of the northern barbarians, Alexander, nevertlieless, proved him- 
 self equal to the crisis. He vigorously suppressed the first ebu- 
 litions of domestic treason, and a few of the leaders suspected 
 of conspiracy were put to death. Demosthenes, organizing 
 a revolt in the south, had opened a correspondence with 
 Attains, who had raised the standard of revolt in Asia: 
 this general was arrested and killed, and the movements of the 
 Greeks were disconcerted by the young king suddenly appearing 
 with his army at TheiTnopylae. He rapidly won favour by uispir- 
 ing fear. He had been appointed head of the Thessalian confe- 
 deracy; the Amphictyonic council at the straits chose him as their 
 chief; and he was elected by the Greeks assembled at Corinth to 
 the leadership of the war against Persia ; — the Laceda'monians 
 alone withheld themselves. Thebes and Athens, which had 
 begun to show signs of disaffection, were awed into acquiescence ; 
 and in the spring of 335 B.C. Alexander found himself at liberty 
 to march into Thrace, and prosecute a campaign against the Tri- 
 balli. Passing the Hajmus, he vanquished that tribe, and carried 
 his anns among the Getae, on the fm-ther shore of the Danube. 
 The Taulantii and lllyrians had leagued against him, and he was 
 engaged in subjugating them, when news of the revolt of Thebes 
 induced him to hasten towards Greece. A report of his death 
 had revived the anti-JIacedonian party in that city. They 
 had initiated an insmrection by the massacre of two ofiicers 
 of the garrison, before they heard of Alexander's return ; and, 
 feeling themselves compromised, shut the gates against him. He 
 offered lenient terms, but, when they were rejected, prepared for 
 an assault : the town was taken by storm, and a terrible retribu- 
 tion awaited it. The populace were exposed to an indiscri- 
 minate slaughter ; six thousand fell ; the prisoners numbered 
 thirty thousand. The troops who had been drafted into Alex- 
 ander's army from the siirrounding Boeotian states, the Thes- 
 pians, Plataians, and Orchomenians, were foremost in the mas- 
 sacre, and when the fate of the city itself was submitted to 
 theu- arbitration, the memory of old feuds sealed its doom. 
 Thebes was razed to the ground ; the temples alone and the 
 Cadmea were left standing. One house was honourably 
 exempted — the house of the poet Pindar. Thebes had more 
 than once betrayed the interests of Hellenic freedom, and her 
 fall was the less pitied ; but the example was none the less 
 striking, and her name remained as a ten-or and a warning in 
 the mouths of all Greeks. 
 
 II. Hostilities, open or covert, between Persia and Macedon 
 had been in progress during the former reign; and in his 
 assumed character of champion of the Greeks, Alexander became 
 
 the minister of the Nemesis which had been hanging over Asia 
 ever since the invasion of Xerxes. The jiower of the " Great King" 
 was not to be estimated by the numbers who paid homage to his 
 name. His vast dominion was made up of various races held 
 together by the loose bond of a weak despotism, and disjointed 
 tribes whose satraps exercised all the freedom of independent 
 princes. The cumbrous mass was already tottering, and so 
 little reliance could be placed even upon those chiefs who 
 were nominally faithfid, that the chief support of the throne 
 lay in the Greek mercenaries of Darius. Alexander was at 
 the head of an army which it had been one of the great 
 triumphs of Philip to organize — the phalanx which had proved 
 invincible against the finest annies of Greece, and the im- 
 rivalled cavahy of Thessaly and Thrace. Early in 334 B.C., 
 having committed the government to the hands of Antipa- 
 ter, he sailed from Sestus with an army of 30,000 infantry 
 and 5000 horse. Before going, he distributed his lands and 
 houses among his friends, leaving for himself with magnanimous 
 confidence " his hopes." One of his first acts on landing in 
 Asia, after sacrificing to the gods, was to visit the legendary 
 tombs on the plain of Troy. There he realized the scenes on 
 which he had long feasted his imagination, and won a new 
 stimulus from the theatre of great deeds. He proceeded ^vith his 
 army to the Granicus, which flows into the Propontis near 
 Cyzicus. On the opposite bank of this stream, an army of 20,000 
 Greek mercenaries and as many native cavalry, was posted 
 under two of the Persian satraps. Meninon of Rhodes, one of 
 the ablest advisers of Darius, counselled the leaders to retreat 
 and lay waste the country ; but, relying on the advantages of 
 the gi'ound, they resolved to oppose the passage. Alexander at 
 once led his forces to the attack, and an obstinate conflict fol- 
 lowed, during which he conspicuously displayed his valour, and 
 was only saved from a Persian cimeter by the prompt inter- 
 vention of his friend Cleitus. The invadei'S wei'e victorious ; the 
 cavalry were put to flight, and the mercenaries surrounded. 
 Only 2000 fell alive into the hands of their enemies ; these 
 Alexander sent in chains to Macedon. He treated his Asiatic 
 prisoners on this and all occasions with marked clemency ; but, 
 with Greeks taken in arms against him, he dealt more severely. 
 The result of this battle secured the submission of the colonies 
 on the jEgean ; Sardis and Ephesus threw open their gates on his 
 approach: Magnesia and Tralles gave in their allegiance. The 
 partizans of the opposite party were expelled, and Alexander re- 
 stored the democracy — acting on the rule which he obsen'ed 
 throughout, that each state and city under his control should be 
 governed according to its own laws. The first opposition he en- 
 countered in his march along the coast was at ]\Iiletus. The 
 Persian fleet of 400 sail anchored outside the harbour, and, with 
 only IGO galleys, he did not think fit to risk an engagement ; but 
 he effected a breach in the wall, and the city was taken by storm. 
 A more serious detention awaited him before Halicamassus. 
 Memnon had concentrated there the whole of his available force, 
 and made preparations for a resolute defence. The city was 
 guarded towards the sea by the fleet ; a deep ditch, high walls, 
 and two citadels protected it on the land side. Alexander filled 
 up the ditch, and battered the walls. Alter futile attempts to 
 destroy his engines, the Persian governors, giving up the defence 
 in despau-, made their escape, and the Macedonians entered the 
 city. Memnon, acting as admiral, proceeded to reduce several 
 of the islands in the jEgean ; but in the following year Alexan- 
 der profited by the death of his formidable 0})ponent. From 
 Halicamassus the army advanced through Caria and Ljcia, 
 investing, by the way, the most important towns. Leaving 
 Phaselis, two roads lay before them. A strong south wind 
 dashing the waves against the shore made the near path by the 
 beach almost impracticable. Alexander, however, sending his 
 main force by a circuitous route, resolved with a few followers 
 to attempt the passage. The wind changed to the north, 
 and the event by which he was enabled to skirt the cliffs in 
 safety was exaggerated into a miracle like that of the Red Sea. 
 He met his troops at Perge, and proceeded through Pisidia and 
 Phrygia. His arrival at Gordium is marked by the famous cut- 
 ting of the knot which tied the waggon of Midas. It was 
 received as a warrant for his sovereignty over Asia, and is per- 
 petuated in a modem phrase. Thence, 333 B.C., he marched 
 through Cappadocia, across tlie range of Tamais, to Tarsus in 
 Cilicia. The satrap Arsames had deserted that city, and he 
 entered it without a contest. He was detained here by a severe
 
 fever, brought on by plun^ng when \iolently heated into the 
 chill stream of the Cydnus. (The story which Plutarch tells 
 of the physician Thilippus is too ostentatiously ehai-acteristic to 
 be reliable.) On his recover}-, he advanced by way of Anchialus 
 and Soli to Mallus, where he received intelligence of the advance 
 of Darius at the head of a huge army. The Persian king lay 
 at Solchi, on tlic borders of a great plain above the hills which 
 environ the gulf of Issus. He was surrounded by the same 
 pomp, and confided in the same parade of power, which Xerxes 
 had found so useless. But he had a force of about 600,000 
 men, and had he followed the advice of Ami,Titus, to remain in 
 a position where he could have full advantage of his numbers, 
 the issue might have been douhtful. Alexander, who had passed 
 the unguarded gates of Cihcia, lay at Jlyriandrus, detained by 
 stress of weather. Darius, Ln the behef that his enemies were 
 scared at his approach, descended from his vantage ground toward 
 Issus, and encamped in a narrow plain on the right bank of the 
 Pinarus. The exultation of the Macedonians may be compared 
 to that of Cromwell's Ironsides when the Scottish army came 
 down from the heights at Dunbar. Alexander marched quickly 
 to the attack, and after a tremendous struggle, the compact 
 strength of the phalanx broke the huddled masses of the Per- 
 sians. Their king fled before the contest was well decided, 
 abandoning the royal tent, with liis -wife and mother, to the 
 mercy of the concjueror. They were treated by Alexander 
 with that consideration and respect which from first to last 
 marked his dealings with female captives. He determined 
 next to conduct his army tlu-ough Phcenicia, as from that coast 
 and from Egypt the fleet which harassed his early course had 
 been mainly supplied. His general, Parmenio, was sent fonvai-d 
 to seize Damascus, where Darius had deposited a portion of his 
 treasure. He himself was welcomed as a deUverer by several of 
 the maritime cities. Aradus, Byblus, and Sidon willingly 
 received him, and the Tynans sent an embassy with offers of 
 obedience. But it was implied that those otfers did not extend 
 to absolute submission, and Alexander returned a polite 
 answer to their evasion. He was anxious to sacrifice to Jlel- 
 cart — the Phenician Hercules — and would for that purpose cross 
 over to their island. The envoys rephed that he might have 
 access to the temple on the mainland, but that they could not 
 admit any stranger witliin their walls. The issue between 
 Europe and Asia was yet unsettled, and they wished to retain 
 the power of arbitration. They may have also felt a certain 
 pride in refusing to open their gates to a conqueror. Tyre was 
 one of the oldest cities of the ancient world. Her traditions 
 went back for twenty -four centmies, a period surpassing that 
 which has elapsed since the times of Alexander. The queen of 
 merchant cities, and the parent of powerful races, she had sus- 
 tained sieges from aiTnies many times outnumbering his, when 
 her site gave less encouragement to defiance. Built on a storm- 
 beaten cliff, separated from the shore by a channel of half a 
 mile in breadth, and suiTOunded by a wall 150 feet high, she 
 was safe, if any city could be safe, from attacks by land, and 
 all but impregnable by sea. There was enough here to have 
 daunted auy ordinary captain ; but it was Alexander's rule never 
 to yield to any surmountable obstacle, and to him no obstacle 
 appeared insurmountable. He resolved on a method of attack 
 wliich has left its impress on the topography of the coast. 
 From the dismantled buildings of old Tyre and the neighbouring 
 forests of Libanus, he reared a gigantic mole, which was slowly 
 built out into the cliannel, and threatened to convert the island 
 into a peninsula ; at the end of this mole two wooden towers 
 were stationed, at once to protect the workmen and annoy the 
 Tyrians by showers of missiles. Tlie latter, however, succeeded 
 in setting fire to the towers, and loosening the mound, thus 
 beginning a destruction which a storm shortly afterwards com- 
 pleted- With dauntless patience, Alexander set his soldiers to 
 renew the laborious construction, while he went himself to Sidon 
 and the other towns of Phoenicia to collect a fleet. The mound 
 was at length finished, and the city was assailed on both sides; 
 but it was from the sea that a breach was first made in the 
 walls. After a siege of seven months — one of the most memor- 
 able of antiquity — Tyre fell into the hands of the JIacedonians 
 332 B.c Exasperated by the long resistance, the rage of the 
 soldiery knew no bounds. The town was fired, and 8000 of 
 the inhabitants massacred. The remainder, numbering about 
 30,000, were sold as slaves ; while, in revenge for the death of 
 certain prisoners slain on the ramparts, 2000 were conspicuously 
 
 crucified. The old prophecies seemed to be again fulfilled 
 against the beautiful city. She was made desolate, and the 
 " isles shook at the sound of her fall." About this time Alex- 
 ander received and rejected conciliatory overtures from Darius. 
 JIarching southward along the coast of Palestine, he was 
 aiTested by the resistance of Gaza. Her walls were of immense 
 height, and Batis, the commander, maintained with his garrison 
 a desperate defence, fighting when the fortress was taken tiU 
 the last was slain. During the progress of this siege Alexander 
 was severely woimded. The Jewish legends teU that he was 
 diverted from an attack on Jeinisalem by a dream, which had 
 inspired him with reverence for their priest, but it is uncertain 
 whether he ever visited that city. His march lay onwards 
 toward Eg}"pt, and at Pelusium he met his fleet, which sailed 
 up the KUe to Memphis, while he arrived at the same point by 
 marching across the desert. He encountered no opposition from 
 the Eg\"ptians, who were ready to consider him as the enemy of 
 their old oppressors. The Persians had trampled upon then- 
 national customs and rites, whereas the policy of Alexander was 
 to respect the altars of the gods in whatever conntiy he fixed 
 his dominion. In pursuance of this plan, and partly impelled 
 by curiosity to see one of the most celebrated shrines in the 
 world, he made a jiilgrimage to the oasis of Ammon, The 
 priests were flattered by his visit ; he was saluted as the son of 
 Jove, and received from the oracle a response according to his 
 desu-es. But the event which chiefly commemorates tliis cam- 
 paign took place at the beginning of 331 B.C. Navigating the 
 western branch of the Delta, Alexander was struck by the situa- 
 tion of a strip of land which separates the lake Mareods from 
 the sea, and is protected from stonns by the Pharos rock. The 
 thought resulted in the foundation of Alexandria — a city, in its 
 magnificence, duration, and influence on the cix-ilization of man- 
 kind, destined to sui-pass even the hopes of the founder. In 
 the same year he retmiied to T\Te, and marched to Thapsacus, 
 a distance of 800 miles, before the end of August. Thence he 
 proceeded without interruption through Mesopotamia to the 
 banks of the Tigiis. 
 
 Darius had assembled the whole force of liis kingdom, and in 
 a wide plaui near the village of Gaugamela prepared for a last 
 trial of strength. The vicissitudes of Issus were repeated on a 
 grander scale. Elephants, scythed chariots, cumbrous instru- 
 ments of teiTor, and countless hosts, were found unequal to 
 resist the stem onset of the phalanx, and the shock of Alexan- 
 der's cavah-y. A second time the king set the example of flight, 
 and the pursuit continued with great slaughter as far as Arbela, 
 a town which has ^ven its name to the battle. Instead of 
 tracking Darius to Ecbatana, the victor marched southward, 
 and made a triumphal entry into Babylon. Here too, as iu 
 Egypt, he found the people willing to accept his rule in exchange 
 for the intolerant tyranny of the Achsemenides. He restored 
 the temples of the old Chaldean religion, and sacrificed to their 
 tutelar god, Belus. The civil offices of the city he apportioned 
 among some of his o-iN-n captains. The army rested for a time 
 in the enjoyment of the sun-ounding luxury, and, in the midst 
 of the splendours of Babylon, Alexander began to assume the 
 outwai-d signs of oriental power. Towards the end of the year 
 he set out for Susa, and found there 50,000 talents of gold and 
 silver. He was joined at this point by reinforcements from 
 Greece, about 13,500 foot, and 1480 horse. Mo\-ing eastwai-d 
 from the acquired territory to tlie original seat of the Persian 
 dynasty, he had to pass two defiles, and encounter a vigorous 
 resistance from the mountain tribes of the Uxians and the satrap 
 Ariobarzanes. He overcame their opposition by skilful strate- 
 getics, and Tiridates the governor delivered Persepohs into his 
 hands. There the army found a treasui-e richer than any they 
 had yet secured. It was the storehouse of the plunder of 
 centuries — the sacred city of the ancient kings — hke the Indian 
 Delhi, the seat and sign of empire. In the midst of a feast 
 Alexander fired the royal palace, whether in a fit of drunken 
 passion or moved by some reason of more deliberate j>olicy, is 
 uncertain. He may have wished to revenge the old burning of 
 Athens, or to render it impossible that a Persian prince should 
 again sit on the throne of his ancestors. The fire spread rapidly, 
 and a considerable portion of the city was consumed. The 
 white marble columns that rise from the platform of Persepolis 
 still attest its ancient magnificence. At Pasargadae, Alexander 
 visited the tomb of Cyrus. In the spring of 330 B.C. he 
 directed his course northward in pursuit of Darius. He passed
 
 ALE 
 
 89 
 
 ALE 
 
 through Ecbatana to Rhagic, and found that the king had fled 
 tlirough the Caspian gates towards Bactri. Darius fell a 
 victim to the treason of Bessus, satrap of that province, who 
 had overpowered and thrown him into chains. Alexander 
 pressed after them to the borders of Parthia, and found the 
 corpse of the king, who had been mm'dered by the conspirators. 
 He sent it to be buried in state at Persepolis, and himself 
 encamped at Hecatompylus. Here he dismissed a number of 
 his Greek auxiliaries who desired to return home, and with his 
 Macedonian troops marched into HjTcania, a wild and ragged 
 district to the south east of the Caspian. Having subdued the 
 Iilardians and other hostile tribes, lie entered the capital, Zan- 
 dracarta, where the mercenaries who had fought against him 
 surrendered. The Athenians and Spartans were subjected to a 
 teniporarj' confinement ; the rest he forgave, and they were set 
 at liberty or Incoi-porated into his army. 
 
 The subjugation of Persia proper completed, we enter upon 
 a new career of conquest, where one is more astounded by 
 the vastness and variety of the regions traversed, than by the 
 number and magnitude of Alexander's previous victories. His 
 eastern marches realize for the first time in authentic histoiy, 
 the fabled wanderings of the heroes, and conduct us through 
 realms yet untraversed by a European army. We are confused 
 by the mere names of the cities, nations, and tribes he \'isited. The 
 course of those marvellous marches will never perhaps be exactly 
 determined, and a bare outline of their results is all that can 
 be offered here. — Alexander left Zandracarta after a sojoui-n of 
 fifteen days, and passing through Aria, where he founded the 
 city of Herat, penetrated southwards into Drangiana. He 
 rested for some time at Prophthasia, the capital of that district, 
 and the scene of one of the thi'ee tragedies which have left a stain 
 upon his glory. We wUl anticipate a little in order to review them 
 together. In adapting hmiself to the manners of his new subjects, 
 the conqueror had assumed, with the tiara, much of the absolu- 
 tism of an Asiatic despot. He claimed a divine right for his 
 sovereignty, he paraded the response of the oracle of Animon, and, 
 too readily accustomed to the servile homage of the East, could 
 not brook the censure which his arrogance excited among his 
 old captains. Chief of these was Parmenio ; liis son Philotas 
 was bound to the monarch by the ties of a long friendship. He 
 presumed upon this to speak freely of Alexander's excesses ; 
 whether there was deeper gi'ound for suspicion against him is 
 unknown, but he had enemies in the camp who took advantage 
 of a plot, foi-med by one of the minor officers, to accuse Philotas. 
 He was an-ested, tried, and condemned on veiy insuificient 
 evidence. A confession was ■^Tested from him by torture, 
 implicating Parmenio, and while the son was executed on the 
 spot, a messenger was sent to have the father cut off in Jledia. 
 Similar was the fate of Calisthenes, the kinsman of Aristotle, and 
 litterateur of the aiTny. When in 328 B.C. Alexander was 
 in Bactria, a conspiracy formed against his life by the royal 
 pages w'as detected. They were executed, and the philosopher 
 who had offended the king by his cynical manners was involved 
 in the charge. There was no proof of his guilt, but he was 
 imprisoned, and seven months after died in chains. The well- 
 known assassination of Cleitus, which took place dm-ing the pre- 
 vious winter, was a sudden crime repented of as soon as it was com- 
 mitted ; but it illustrates the fits of fury, aggravated by intem- 
 perance, to which Alexander was occasionally subject. — From 
 Prophthasia the conqueror marched (330 B.C.) through the ter- 
 ritory of the Ariaspians, and up the banks of the Etymander. 
 Passing into Archosia, he founded another city on the site of 
 the modern Candahar, and directing his course eastward, arrived 
 at the pass by which he was to cross the Indian Caucasus. 
 Ha\-ing surmounted this lofty range, he halted for a few days 
 at Drapsaca, a strongly fortified town on the highlands of the 
 northeni slope. Hence, after a tiresome march he reached the 
 Oxus, and consumed six days in the passage of that river. 
 Bessus had fled before him into Sogdiana, but he was overtaken 
 by liis O'svn treacheiy. Two of his followers, Spitamenes and 
 Dataphernes, delivered him up to the conqueror. He was con- 
 veyed to Zariaspa, the capital where Cleitus was killed, and put 
 to death in the following year after a cruel mutilation. It was 
 a part of Alexander's policy to visit with severity all oftences 
 against the royal dignity. ^Meanwhile, he proceeded through the 
 rich country which surrounds Samarcand, and reaching the 
 northern limit of his course on the shores of the Jaxartes, founded 
 there a distant Alexandria. Remote Scythian races sent him 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 embassies. He was pleased to accept their friendship, and retrace 
 his steps. Spitamenes had a second time tmned traitor, and roused 
 the Sogdians to revolt. The reconquest of the country was only 
 accomphshed after two years' hard fighting. On one occasion, 
 a large detachment of Macedonian troops was entu'ely cut to 
 pieces, and Alexander, in revenge, perpetrated a cruel massacre 
 in the vale of the Polytimus. The year 328 B.C. was marked 
 by the capture of the Sogdian rock, an insulated precipice crested 
 by a strong fortification. Here Roxana, daughter of the chief 
 Oxyartes, was taken, and, won by her beauty, the victor made 
 her his wife. This alliance secured for him the goodwill of some 
 of the native rulers : yet many more battles followed with Spita- 
 menes, till at length the most persevering enemy Alexander had 
 found in Asia was ovenvhelmed and slain. It was his desire to 
 extend his empire on eveiy side to the extreme limits of the old 
 dominion of Cyi-us. He was encouraged in his purpose of m- 
 vading India by a visit which he recei^■ed fi-om Taxiles, ruler of 
 an extensive district between the Indus and the Hydaspes, at 
 war with neighbouring princes, and anxious to secure a formi- 
 dable ally. Alexander left Zai-iaspa in 327 B.C., at the head of an 
 army of 120,000 foot and 15,000 horse, largely recruited from 
 the Asiatic tribes. He crossed the Caucasus, and in the same 
 summer reached the site of Cabul. Skirting the mountains 
 to the north of the Cophen river, he defeated the inhabitants 
 and captm-ed the cities on his route. On the banks of the 
 Indus he came before the stronghold Aornus, the most cele- 
 brated of the rock fortresses, whose threatening aspect invari- 
 ably provoked his attack. Hercules, it was fabled, was, ages 
 before, baffled before this fastness; it was the more worthy 
 prey for his successor. A select body of troops succeeded 
 in scaling a rock, separated from the citadel by a wide gorge. 
 Alexander carried a mound over this, and the place was cap- 
 tured. Early in 326 B.C. he crossed the Indus by a bridge 
 of boats, and after being entertained by Taxiles in the capital 
 which bore his name, marched without opposition to the Hydas- 
 pes. Poras, sovereign of the district south of that stream, had 
 collected an immense army on the opposite bank, fronted by an 
 imposing array of some three hmidred elephants. J\Iany days 
 passed, duiing which Alexander sought to deceive Porus as to 
 his real intentions. At length in a stonny night a large division 
 of his army crossed in a secluded part of the river. A fierce 
 battle followed, in which the valour of the Indian king so com- 
 mended itself to the conqueror, that he consented to govern the 
 country indii'ectly, and left Porus with a nominal independence, 
 annexing to his dominions a portion of the neighbouring terri- 
 tory. On opposite banks of the Hydaspes Alexander founded 
 two cities, Nictea and Bucephala, the grave and memorial of his 
 fiimous steed. He easily subdued the unwarlike Clausians who 
 lay to the west of the Acesines, and passing that river, took pos- 
 session of the countiy which had been resigned by the flight of 
 another Porus, an enemy to the first prince of that name. South 
 of the Hydraotes, the Cathaji, and theii- capital Sangala (Lahore), 
 opposed an obstinate resistance. The city was at length taken 
 and razed ; seventeen thousand of the barbarians were slain 
 during the w.ar. The conquest of the Punjaub was complete, 
 and the victor arrived at the banks of the Hyphasis. 
 
 III. Here, in the ninth year of his reign, Alexander had reached 
 the limits of the known world and the goal of his conquests. 
 His own restless spirit was unbroken. Beyond that river lay 
 new empires, the pathway to future triumphs. But the army 
 was indisposed to enter on a fresh tram of indefinite and perilous 
 adventm'es. His old Macedonian waniors, " souls that had 
 vsTought, and fought, and toiled with him," were at last grown 
 weary of wars and wanderings. They recoiled from the im- 
 mensity of the Indian plains — the livers and nations, and 
 citadels of hostile men : the Ganges was in a land of exile, and 
 the distant ocean they heard of 
 
 " Far, far away did seem to moan and rave 
 On alien shores." 
 
 They resolved to advance no farther. Alexander shut himself 
 up for three days in sullen silence, mourning their weak hearts. 
 But the determination of his soldiers was inflexible. Twelve 
 gi-eat altars were reared to mark the term of their triumphs, 
 and they once more turned towards the West. Alexander had 
 fitted out a fleet on the Hydaspes. He himself in one of the 
 ships sailed with it down the river, while the main body of the 
 army, under the command of his favourite Heplia^stion, marched 
 
 M
 
 along the eastern bank. The martial tribes of the JIalli and Osy- 
 dracae were onlv subdued after a succession of fierce battles. On 
 one occasion Alexander having rashly exposed himself alone 
 among a host of enemies, was very near losing his life. He 
 was only rescued after he had received a severe wound, which 
 detained him for some tunc near tlie mouth of tlie Hydraotes. 
 He descended the Acesines to its confluence with the Indus, and 
 sent a division of the army, under Cratems, to Carmania, by 
 way of the Drangaj, while he proceeded southward through the 
 territories of Musicanus. At Pattala he founded a city and 
 harbour The fleet was enlarged and given in charge to Ncar- 
 chus to conduct to the Persian gulf, while he himself detemiined 
 to lead the rest of the army along the coast. Before setting out, 
 he explored the Delta of the Indus and sailed some short dis- 
 tance into the Indian ocean. It was his last backward look 
 towards those regions from wliich he was wrested. In passing 
 through the hot, sandy desert of Gedrosia the army suffered 
 severely from thirst. An anecdote is related of Alexander which 
 recalls 'our own Sidney. A helmet full of water had been pro- 
 cured, and it was presented to liis parched lips, but he threw the 
 draught to the ground untasted, and shared the common lot. 
 He rested a short time at Pura, and in Cannania was joined by 
 Craterus, and shortly after by Nearchus, whom he had been 
 anxiously expecting. The admii-al proceeded up the Persian 
 gulf. Hephsestion, with the main body of the troops, moved along 
 the shore, and the kuig himself, with the rest, took the upper 
 road to Pasargada; and Persepolis. They met at Susa 324 B.C. 
 The task yet remained to Alexander to link together the dis- 
 connected masses of his vast dominion, and he found himself 
 called upon to exchange the warrior for the statesman and the 
 judge. Left in the midst of a conquered people, the officers 
 whom he had appointed to preside over the various provinces had 
 been guilty of acts of extortion and tyranny which demanded 
 redress. He set himself to remove the most conspicuous offend- 
 ers. In some instances his justice was swift and summary ; in 
 others it was delayed by feelings of fi-iendship. Thus, Oleander, 
 Heraco, and Sitalces, governors of the force in Media, had been 
 put to death ; while Harpalus, wlio had i-uled with despotic op- 
 pression over the satrapy of Babylon, was allowed to escape with 
 his plunder, and rouse a new opposition in Athens. The amal- 
 gamation of two nations, distinct in then- race as in their ci\dli- 
 zation, was an arduous effort. It was mainly with a view to 
 this end that Alexander celebrated his nuptials at Susa with 
 Statira, daughter of Darius. To Hephiestion was allotted her 
 younger sister, Di-j'petis ; Craterus espoused a niece of the de- 
 ceased monarch ; and wives fi-om among the ladies of rank in 
 the Persian court were assigned to eighty of the other officers. 
 Ten thousand of the soldiei-y followed the example of their chiefs, 
 and to each a dowry was granted from the royal treasury. An- 
 other act of public generosity was the paj-ment of the debts of 
 all such as chose to register their names. Meanwhile, Alexander 
 disbanded the Greek mercenaries throughout the kingdom, and 
 drafted among his troops a large number of Asiatic youths trauied 
 to the European arms. This was the occasion of bitter jealousy 
 among the Macedonians, who conceived that their posts of hon- 
 our were being usurped by a barbaric race. Alexander had im- 
 proved the na^•igation of the Tigris and Euphrates, and he sailed 
 np to Opis to a great meeting lA' the army. An offer to release 
 from sen'ice tliose of his old soldiers who wished to return home, 
 gave additional offence, and a mutiny broke out, which it re- 
 quired all his energy and eloquence to quell. At last he suc- 
 ceeded in subduing their pride; a reconciliation was effected, and 
 10,000 veterans accompanied Craterus to Macedonia. About 
 this tune he proceeded to Ecbatana, and celebrated there one of 
 the most magnificent of his festivals. The rejoicings were inter- 
 rupted by the death of Hephaestion. Alexander's giief on this 
 event manifested itself with the vehemence that belonged to 
 him. The walls of Ecbatana were dismantled, and the fire 
 quenched in all her sanctuaries. A pile, such as no monarch 
 had ever seen before, was reared for the corpse of the favourite, 
 and his name was enrolled among the demi-gods of Greece. 
 After a short expedition, in which he subdued the rebel tribes 
 of the Cossa;!, the king marched to Babylon. In this gorgeous 
 city which he had selected for his capital, he resolved to cele- 
 brate the obsequies of his friend. Here, too, a magnificent har- 
 bour was constnicted, and hither (323 r.c.) embassies from all 
 quarters of the habitable globe, Celts, Ethiopians, Carthaginians, 
 Lil>yans, Itahans, and envoys from the future mistress of the 
 
 world came to offer tribute, or crowns, or congratulations to the 
 conqueror of Asia. But there was a double gloom over the 
 pomp and splendour of the times. Omens of death had been 
 partially fulfilled, and uneasy forebodings haunted Alexander. 
 The Chaldeans had warned him from Babylon. On a voyage 
 down the Euphrates, a gust of wind canied oft' his tiara, and it 
 fell among the tombs of the old kings. A stranger came and 
 seated hunself on his vacant throne. One dark sign confirmed 
 another. Patroclus had fallen, and Achilles was to survive but 
 for a brief space. Yet the mind of the king was busied to the 
 last on majestic designs. North and south he stretched his 
 plans for dlscoveiy and his hopes of power. He had sent three 
 admu-als to smTcy the coasts of Arabia, another to navigate the 
 Caspian sea; he was on the eve of setting out himself on a 
 career of western conquest. A sacrifice was instituted for its 
 success, which ended in a banquet. The festivities of that 
 evening only augmented the fever which had already claimed its 
 \-ictiin. From day to day the expedition was postponed, till, on 
 the sixth, Alexander felt that he would no more march at the 
 head of his aitnies. His generals too were seized with despair, 
 and eager to behold again their great commander, were per- 
 mitted to pass one by one through his chamber. He lay there 
 yet alive, but the vital spark was rapidly expiring. A grasp of 
 the hand and an e.^pressive glance, was all that he could vouch- 
 safe to the mourners in that solemn procession. He gave his 
 ring to Perdiccas, and thus Alexander bade farewell to his old 
 guard. The god Serapis was asked whether he should be brought 
 into the temple, but a voice from the adytum replied, that he 
 was better where he was. The great spiiit had passed away. De- 
 mosthenes would not at first credit the report of his death ; had it 
 been true, he said, the whole earth would have smelt of his corpse. 
 His remains were embalmed, and the sarcophagus rested in his 
 city by the Kile. Three centuries afterwards the lid of that sepul- 
 chre was raised, and the featm-es of the gi-eatest conqueror of 
 ancient times were scanned by the first of the Roman emperors. 
 
 Among the soldiers of antiquity, Alexander finds a rival in 
 Hannibal alone. More perhaps than any other commander he 
 combmed the chivahy of the heroic age, and the more care- 
 ful strategetics of later times. His career is equally calcu- 
 lated to excite romantic enthusiasm and thoughtful study. He 
 was at once the Achilles and the Agamemnon of his army ; and 
 if ferocity led him at times rashly to risk his life, his ingenuity 
 cut out a way from difficulties wliicli would have overwhelmed 
 any other mortal. But we must grant to Alexander more than 
 the praise of the warrior. His zeal for discovery, love of 
 knowledge, and varied accompUshments, would alone have made 
 him remarkable. His life became an epoch in the world's his- 
 tory as much by policy as by arms. Bringing, for the first time, 
 the East and West iiito close contact, he acted on the only 
 principle by wliich races can be moulded together, and, in his 
 perception of harmony in diversity, showed that he had not sat 
 at the feet of Aiistotle in vain. He had scarcely begmi to be a 
 lawgiver; but his course, so rapid that he might well be said to 
 overran a great portion of his empire, was everywhere marked 
 by more than ruin. Everywhere he diffused some of the bless- 
 ings of Greek civilization, opened up new possibilities of pro- 
 gi-es's, and scattered seeds far and wide, to spring up with various 
 degrees of influence over the destinies of mankind. His impress 
 on Greece itself was less beneficent ; but Greek freedom was 
 already doomed ; and of the jarring fragments into which, on 
 his premature death, his unwieldy empire fell, each was more 
 prosperous because of his reign. He pointed many paths which 
 no successor was found great enough to follow, and India had 
 to wait two thousand years before culture again came with 
 conquest to her shores. Wrath, intemperance, and pride, mar 
 the symmetiy of Alexander's story ; but those are the common 
 vices of conquerors ; he had virtues of chastity, self-denial, and 
 generous magnanimity shared by few. He was a good son, 
 an affectionate pupil, and a warm friend. The tribute of 
 Arrian is just — " such a man would never have been bora without 
 a special providence," nor is there in the list of the world's 
 heroes a name more sublime than his. 
 
 Plutarch, Curtius, and Arrian are the ancient authorities for 
 Alexander's life. The best English account of his campaigns is 
 that given in the ■^^. and vii. vols, of Bishop Thu-lwall's Historj'. 
 With reference to Jlr. Grote's xii. vol., see a very able article in 
 the National Eevieiv, No. v. — J. N. 
 
 ALEXANDER, jEgus, fourth ^Macedonian prince of this
 
 name, son of Alexander the Great by Eoxana, was born in 323 
 B.C., and declared joint king of Macedon, along with his father's 
 half-brother, Philip An'hida3ns. He fell an early victim to the 
 intestine dissensions which raged in the Macedonian empire after 
 the death of Alexander, and was pnt to death along with his 
 mother, by order of Cassander, in 310 B.C. — A. M. 
 
 ALEXANDER V. was the tlm-d son of Cassander, and dis- 
 puted the Macedonian throne with his brother Antipater. Both 
 were finally cmshed by Demetrius Poliorcetes, in 294 b.c. 
 
 ALEXANDER, third son of Perseus, was earned captive to 
 Rome along with his father, by Paulus iEmilius, in the year 
 168 B.C. He was kept a close prisoner till the death of his 
 father in 165 b.c, when he was set at liberty, and lived the 
 rest of his life as clerk in a public office. He distinguished him- 
 self somewhat by his skill in wood-carving. 
 
 ALEXANDER, son of Lysimachus, one of Alexander the 
 Great's generals, and afterwards king of all the European por- 
 tion of the Macedonian empire, fled from his father's court to 
 that of Seleucus, long of Babylon, after Lysimachus had slain 
 Agathocles, another of his sons. Alexander fought against his 
 father in the battle m which the latter was defeated and slain 
 by Seleucns (b.c. 281), and he subsequently made an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to gain the Jlacedonian throne. — A. 51. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Lyncestes, so sui-named from being a 
 native of the district of Lyncestis in Blacedonin, was implicated 
 in the conspiracy against the life of Philip of Macedon, and 
 though pardoned by Alexander, entered, dming the course of 
 the Persian expedition, into a treasonable coiTespondence with 
 Darius. Being discovered, he was kept for some time in prison, 
 and finally put to death in 330 B.C. — A. M. 
 
 ALEXANDER, son of Polysperchon, one of the generals of 
 Alexander the Great, aided his father in his wars with Cassan- 
 der, and maldng bunself master of the Peloponnesus, reigned 
 .some time there as an independent prince (316 b.c), but was 
 assassinated by one of his officers. 
 
 VII. — ALEXANDER OF PHER.^. 
 
 ALEXANDER, tyi-ant of Pherce, in Thessaly, in 369 b.c, 
 was an energetic, but cruel and perfidious prince, against whom 
 his subjects begged the aid of the Thebans. Pelopidas, the 
 Theban general, had not much success against him, being in his 
 first campaign taken prisoner, and in a subsequent expedition 
 slain. In the end, however, Alexander was forced to submit to 
 the Thebans. After this he directed his svarlike activity against 
 the islands of the yEgcan, and made piratical descents on the 
 Cyclades, in one of which he defeated an Athenian army. Alex- 
 ander of Pherje was murdered at the instigation of his wife, by 
 her two brothers, in 367 B.C. — A. M. 
 
 VIII. — ALEXANDERS OF POLAND. 
 
 ALEXANDER JAGELLO, the son of Casimh- IV., king of 
 Poland, was bom in 1461, and succeeded to the throne on the 
 death of his elder brother, John Albert, in 1501. The earlier 
 part of his reign was spent in repelling the invasion of the 
 Russians under theii' emperor Ivan VazUiwtch. Afterwards 
 the Crimean Tartars invaded Poland, but were totally defeated 
 at Kleck. Alexander died in 1506.— J. W. S. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Benedict Stanlslaus, son of John So- 
 bieski, and pretender to the crown of Poland, was born at 
 Dantzic, 1677, and died as a Capuchin friar at Rome, 1714. 
 
 ALEXANDER WASA, son of Sigismund III., kmg of Poland 
 and Sweden, was bom in 1614, and died in 1635. 
 
 IX. ALEXANDER OF ROME. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS, a Roman emperor, cousin and 
 successor of Heliogabalus, and related to the Emperor Septimius 
 Severus, through the wife of the latter, Julia Domna, whose 
 sister Mtesa's two daughters, Soemis and Mammrea, gave birth 
 respectively to Heliogabalus and Alexander. The father of the 
 latter was Gessius Marcianus, a man of consular dignity ; but 
 he owed his excellent education to his mother Mammasa, a 
 woman of unusual capacity, favourable to the Christians, and a 
 friend of Origen. Born in Phoenicia, the country of his maternal 
 ancestors (a.d. 205), Alexander accompanied Heliogabalus to 
 Rome in 219, where he became the object of the emperor's de- 
 testation and fear, the vicious excesses of that abandoned mon- 
 arch appearing doubly criminal and hateful, as contrasted with 
 the piety and moderation of his youthful and promising cousin, 
 who had been declared heir-presumptive to the throne. The 
 repeated attempts of Heliogabalus, however, to effect Alexander's 
 destruction, were always unsuccessful, and at length Helioga- 
 
 balus, himself assassinated in A.D. 222, made way for a better 
 man. The youthful prince commenced his reign auspiciously, 
 and under the guidance of his mother, and the celebrated legist 
 Domitius Ulpianus, who had been made prefect of the pre- 
 torians — an office at that time uniting both civil and military 
 functions — proceeded to reform the innumerable abuses which 
 had sprung up during the wretched reigns of his immediate pre- 
 decessors. Under Alexander Severus the taxes were greatly 
 diminished, — Lampridius, his historian, says to one-thirtieth of 
 what they pre\'iously were, — justice was administered with 
 purity, and corruption in the pubhc offices generally checked 
 by the expulsion of the unworthy creatm'es of Heliogabalus. 
 What was most difficult and dangerous of all, a degree of dis- 
 cipline was introduced among the pretorians. This attempt, 
 however, cost their prefect Ulpian his life; the imtated soldiers 
 ■felew him in the very presence of the emperor — a fact which 
 leads to the belief that Alexander Severus, though a well-inten- 
 tioned prince, was comparatively a weak one, without sufficient 
 energy and determination to caiTy through, in despite of every 
 obstacle, the reforms he had initiated. We do not read that 
 the pretorians were punished for this act. About a.d. 226, 
 Ardschir (Artaxerxes) overthrew the Parthian empire, on the 
 eastern boundary of the Roman dominions, and founded the 
 Persian dynasty of the Sassanidte. Alexander found himselt 
 compelled to march against the victorious Persians in person, 
 and he is said, though the fact is somewhat obscure, to have 
 gained a great victoiy over Artaxerxes in 232. At all events 
 he celebrated a triumph on his retum to Rome ; and immedi- 
 ately thereafter set out on an expedition against the Germans, 
 who had invaded the Roman pro\nnce of Gaul. At !Mayence, 
 his legionaries rose in mutiny against him, under the leadership 
 of Maximm, and both the emperor and his mother Mamma^a 
 were slain, a.d. 235. The unpopular character of Mammsea 
 to whom Alexander was entirely subject, and whom the soldiers, 
 accustomed to largess and license, disliked on account of her 
 avarice, probably contributed greatly to this event. 
 
 Alexander Severus was thrice married, though only thirty years 
 of age at his death ; but he left no children. One of his wives, 
 Memmia, to whom he was tenderly attached, had been banished 
 to Africa by Mammcea, who could tolerate no rival in infiuence, 
 or in her son's aftections. Like his mother, Alexander showed 
 some Hking for Christianity; but the countenance he gave it was 
 of an indiscriminate character, for he showed to ApoUonius Tyan- 
 jeus, the Pythagorean philosopher, to Abraham, and to Origen, 
 the same amount of reverence that he awarded to Jesus Christ. 
 Over the gate of his palace was inscribed his favourite maxim : 
 — " Do to others as you would have others do to you." — A. M. 
 
 X. ALEXANDERS OF RUSSIA. 
 
 ALEXANDER NEWSKI, one of the "saints" of the Rus- 
 sian church, the son of Jaroslav II., was bom about 1219, a 
 few years after the successful mroad of the Mongols into Russia. 
 He was surnamed Newski, from a victory gained over the united 
 forces of Sweden, Denmark, and the Teutonic order. A second 
 victory on the banks of lake Peipus, obliged them to sue for 
 peace. Alexander died in 1263. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., Paulowitch, Emperor of Russia, was 
 the son of Paul Petrowitch and of IVIaria Theodorowna, a 
 princess of Wurtemberg. He was bom at Petersburg on the 
 23rd, or, according to others, on the 17th of December, 1777. 
 His gi'andmother, Catherine II., the reigning czarina, took him 
 entirely out of the hands of his parents, and confided liim to the 
 care of Count Soltikoff. His instructors were Kralft the 
 natural philosopher, Pallas the botanist, Mason the mathema- 
 tician, and above all, Ca;sar la Harpe, a Swiss, of republican 
 principles. To the influence of the latter, Alexander owed 
 those liberal ideas which broke forth from time to time during 
 his reign, in strange contrast with the traditional policy of his 
 race. At the early age of fifteen, he was married to the Princess 
 Louisa Maria of Baden. This union proved unhappy ; the im- 
 perial couple resorted to a separation, and Alexander afterwards 
 set his subjects a frequent example of conjugal infidelity. 
 Catherine II. having tenninated her career of depravity in 1796, 
 was succeeded by Paul. The folly, or more probably insanity, 
 of this prince excited general discontent, and on March 23rd, 
 1801, he was murdered by a band of conspirators. The exact 
 share of Alexander in this transaction is very obscure, but with- 
 out charging him with premeditated parricide, we may safely 
 assert that he was fully cognizant of the plot for the deposition
 
 ALE 
 
 92 
 
 ALE 
 
 of his father. Tlie young emperor, immediately on his acces- 
 sion, undertook a variety of internal improvements. He founded 
 four universities, and reorganized that of Wilna ; he decreed that 
 the number of gymnasias (colleges preparatory to the univer- 
 sities) should be 204, besides 2000 elementary public schools. 
 He abolished judicial torture, liberated a great number of per- 
 sons unjustly condemned, gave liberty to the press, introduced a 
 greater amount of publicity into the proceedings of government, 
 and encouraged arts and manufactures. He made peace with 
 England, but sought to preserve the friendship of Napoleon. 
 Meantime, he did not deviate from the career of stealthy aggran- 
 dizement marked out by his ancestors. David, the king of 
 Georgia, was induced by subtle diplomacy to cede his dominions 
 to Russia. A rupture' with France next followed, and Alex- 
 ander formed a coalition with England, Austria, and Sweden. 
 The decisive battle of Austeditz broke up the alliance. Austria 
 submitted, and Alexander, after some insincere negotiation, 
 formed a fresh coalition with Prussia and Sweden. This 
 proving also unfortunate, Alexander entered into a treaty with 
 Napoleon, to whose resentment he abandoned his former ally, 
 the king of Pmssia, in violation of the most solemn engage- 
 ments, and even accepted one of the provinces of which the 
 latter was deprived. The treaty embraced also a number of 
 secret articles directed chiefly against England. Alexander 
 now appeared as an open supporter of the policy ol Napoleon, 
 and exthuled all articles of English manufacture from his 
 dominions. The bombardment of Copenhagen, and the seizure 
 of the Danish fleet, he publicly denounced as a piratical ex- 
 pedition, whilst he privately congratulated the British govern- 
 ment on its success. The king of Sweden having refused to 
 exclude British manufactures from his dominions, war was pro- 
 claimed against him by Alexander, who, after a short campaign, 
 and a liberal use of bribeiy, succeeded in stripping him of the 
 province of Finland. He was equally successful in his en- 
 croachments upon the Turkish empire and upon Persia. Austria 
 having resumed the struggle against France, Alexander, so far 
 from assisting her, openly sided with Napoleon. The favour 
 shown by the latter to Poland, however, led anew to a nipture 
 between the two emperors. The well-known Russian campaign 
 of Napoleon now ensued. On the disastrous close of this ex- 
 pedition, Alexander, who had previously allowed the German 
 sovereigns to weaken themselves by struggling single-handed 
 against the great emperor, now embraced the favourable moment 
 to adopt a more generous policy, and by coming forward as the 
 liberator of Europe, to secure for himself an unprecedented 
 influence. Pmssia and Sweden, forgetful of the past, acceded 
 to his proposals. Austria and some of the minor German states 
 joined the alliance, and in the gi-eat battle of Leipzig, the supre- 
 macy of Napoleon received its death-blow. During the allied 
 occupation of Paris, Alexander displayed remarkable modera- 
 tion. About this time he visited England, where the insinu- 
 ating graces of his deportment, together with the part he had 
 played in the overthrow of Napoleon, gained for him a great 
 popularity. At the congress of Vienna, which now met to 
 arrange the affairs of Europe, Alexander laid aside his recent 
 moderation. He advocated the entire suppression of the king- 
 dom of Saxony, and succeeded in obtaining for himself the grand 
 duchy of Warsaw. This tcmtory, together wth some other parts 
 of Poland, were accordingly erected into a kingdom, of which 
 Alexander was declared sovereign, and to which he granted a 
 " paper" constitution. He soon after, along with the emperor 
 of Austria and the king of Prussia, entered into an agreement 
 called the " Holy Alliance," which, when stripped of its veil of 
 religion and idiilanthropy, was simply a confederacy to repress 
 all political rcfoims. This league soon displayed its real nature, 
 by the steps taken under its sanction to repress the constitutional 
 movements in Naples, Sardinia, and Spain. Even the Greek in- 
 surrection found no favour in the eyes of Alexander, so great was 
 his dread of revolutionary principles. He reintroduced the cen- 
 sorship both in Russia and in the kingdom of Poland. The ad- 
 ministration of this latter territory proved unsuccessful. The 
 diet claimed a greater share of power than the autocrat was will- 
 ing to grant, and was accordingly dismissed. Symptoms of an 
 insurrection api)eared, and several students of the university of 
 Wilna were thrown into prison. From this time forward, 
 Poland was subjected to an unmitigated despotism. The latter 
 years of Alexander's life were clouded with melancholy, arising 
 in part from the mystical religious views which he had imbibed 
 
 from Madame Krudener, in part from the conflicting and incon- 
 sistent features of his character, and possibly also from fear of a 
 revolutionaiy movement in his own dominions. Many military 
 men of Russia, it must be observed, had, during the occupation 
 of France, imbibed the ideas of Western Europe, and eagerly 
 wished for an alteration of the government. In September, 
 1825, Alexander left his capital and repaired to the Crimea. At 
 Taganrog he was attacked wath an intermittent fever, which, 
 from neglect, became dangerous. He died 1st of December, 
 1825, leaving the throne to his brother Nicholas. — J. W. S. 
 
 * ALEXANDER IL, surnamed Nicolaewitcii, the pre- 
 sent czar of Russia, was born on the 29th of April, 1818. He 
 is the eldest son of the late Emperor Nicholas, by his wife Alex- 
 andra Veodorowna — a name which, according to custom, she 
 substituted for her original appellation, Fredcrica Louisa Charlotte 
 Wilhelmina, on being admitted, at the period of her marriage, 
 into the Greek communion. She is the sister of the reigning 
 Prussian monarch, Frederick William IV. — a circumstance which 
 goes far to explain the reluctance of the Prussian government 
 to join the Western alliance in the recent war against the 
 Russian power. Alexander was educated from his earliest in- 
 fancy as the heir-expectant of a gi-eat military monarchy ; but 
 it is said that he showed little relish for the arts of war ; that 
 he left to his more ambitious brother the concerns of the army ; 
 and that he thereby compromised his chances of the throne. 
 Like many princes of the remarkable dynasty of which he is the 
 present chief, he has sought a German alliance in marriage. 
 His choice was one of preference and affection, rather than of 
 political expediency. On the 28th of April, 1841, he married 
 the Princess Maximilienne — now Marie Alexandrowna — the 
 daughter of Louis II., the grand-duke of Hesse. Wlien on March 
 2nd, 1855, his father, the Czar Nicholas died, worn down by 
 the disasters of the war with England and France, and con- 
 sumed by the personal toil which his overweening ambition had 
 imposed on him, Alexander succeeded to the throne, and his coro- 
 nation has since been celebrated at the Kremlin in Moscow with 
 unexampled and barbaric magnificence. Though not deficient in 
 talent and intelligence, his views as crown prince were known to 
 be pacific, and Europe looked to him for a change of policy on 
 the part of Russia when he became emperor. It was expected 
 that he would pause in the attempt to enlarge the frontiers of 
 the empire, and apply himself rather to measures of internal 
 improvement. These tendencies did not at once develop them- 
 selves. On succeeding to the imperial sceptre, he gi-atified the 
 warlike portion of his subjects by issuing a strong proclamation, 
 in which he declared his intention of adhering to the policy of 
 his predecessor. But when the united armament, naval and 
 military, of England, France, Tm-key, and Sardinia, had taken 
 Kertch and Yenikale, — when on the 8th September, 1855, the 
 great arsenal of Sebastopol fell, — when the commercial port of 
 Odessa was seen to be at the mercy of the allies, — when Kin- 
 bum was captured and Cherson and NicolaiefF menaced, — and 
 when it was known that the next campaign would open with 
 a combined attack on Sweaborg and Cronstadt, within a few 
 miles of his northern capital, and that Svyeden was ready to 
 reassert her ancient and just claim on Finland, he gladly accepted 
 terms of peace. To this he was additionally urged by the 
 accumulating distresses of his subjects, and the growing un- 
 poijularity of the war. Like his uncle, Alexander, he is said 
 to be favourably disposed to a close alliance with the family 
 of Napoleon, and to be ready to share with the present em- 
 peror of France the supremacy in continental Em-ope. Per- 
 haps, however, in this policy he only displays the accustomed 
 finesse of the house of Romanoff, and will be glad to avenge the 
 fall of Sebastopol and the loss of his navy in the waters of the 
 Euxine whenever circumstances will pennit. Apparently intent 
 now on establishing a large mercantile marine, and in promoting 
 a network of railroads throughout his dominions from Abo to 
 Odessa, and from the Volga to the Danube, it is said that he is 
 really bent on securing steam-ships of war, and the means of 
 easily transporting his numberless troops to any point of his em- 
 pire which may be menaced, or which supplies a good base for 
 operations against a weak neighbour. We write in the year 
 1857. The future alone can solve and explain the policy of the 
 new emperor. His consort has borne him four sons and one 
 daughter. Of these, the eldest son. Nicholas Alexandrowitch, 
 the crown prince and heir to the throne, was bom on the 20th 
 of September, 1843. — T. J.
 
 ALE 
 
 93 
 
 ALE 
 
 XI. ALEXANDERS OF SCOTLAXD. 
 
 ALEXAISTDER I., king of Scotland, was the fifth son of 
 Malcolm Canmore, by his queen ^largaret, sister of Edgar 
 Atheling. The date of his birth is unknown, but he was in the 
 prime of life when he succeeded his brother Edgai-, January 8, 
 1106-7. Soon after his accession he mariied Sybilla, one of 
 the numerous illegitimate daughters of Hemy L of England, 
 the husband of Alexander's sister Matilda or Maud. The 
 principal event of Alexander's reign was his contest with the 
 archbishops of Canterbury and York in behalf of the indepen- 
 dence of the Scottish church. AVhen Turgot, a monk of Dui-ham, 
 and the author of the " Life of Queen JIargaret," was appointed 
 to the bishopric of St. Andrews in 1109, the right to consecrate 
 the new bishop was claimed by both of the prelates referred to, 
 while Alexander and the Scottish clergy denied that it belonged 
 to either. The dispute was compromised on this occasion, but 
 it was renewed on the death of Turgot in 1115. After the 
 lapse of five years, Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, was nomi- 
 nated to the vacant see, and, in conjunction with the Enghsh 
 prelates, used every effort to obtain the recognition of their 
 assumed authority over the Scottish clerg}-, but without effect. 
 Alexander refused to hsten to theii- pretensions, and in the end 
 succeeded in completely vindicating the ecclesiastical indepen- 
 dence of his kingdom. Alexander appeal's to have been a monarch 
 of good abilities, and great courage and firmness of character, 
 though of a somewhat imperious and passionate disposition. 
 In the chronicles and traditions of Scotland, he is distinguished 
 by the epithet of" The Fierce," " because," says David Chalmers, 
 "he was ane gi"itt punisher of malefaetours and evil-doars. He 
 dantouit Murray and Ross that had rebeUit, and caused hang 
 the Lord of Mernls' brother and sone, because they took away 
 the guids of ane puir wjii'." Alexander was a liberal benefactor 
 to the church. Besides large gi-ants to the church of St. 
 Andrews, the monastery of DunfeiTnline, founded by his parents, 
 and other ecclesiastical establishments, he erected the monasteiy 
 of St. Colm on the island of Inchcolm in the frith of Forth, in 
 gratitude for his preservation on that island fi-om a tempest in 
 which he had nearly perished. Alexander died on the 27th of 
 April, 1124, after a reign of seventeen years and three months, 
 and, leaving no issue, was succeeded by his brother David. — 
 (Eadmer's Historia Novorum ; Ailred's Descriptio Belli Stan- 
 dardi, and Genealog. Reg. Anglor. ; Wjii town's Cronykil of 
 Scotland ; Hailes' Annals oj" Scotland, vol. i., Pictorial Hist, of 
 Scotland, vol. i.)— J. T. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., the son of William the Lion, and his 
 wife EiTningarde, was bom in 1198. He succeeded his father 
 December 4, 1214, and was crowned at Scone on the 10th. 
 One of the first acts of his reign was to enter into an alliance 
 with the English barons who had taken up arms against the 
 infamous King John, in the expectation of regaining the counties 
 of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. John 
 was so incensed that he marched to the north at the head of a 
 savage host of mercenaiies, the outcasts of Europe, and laid 
 waste the countiy from the Tyne to the Forth, vowing, as 
 Matthew Paris informs us, that he would " smoke the little red 
 fox out of his covert;" " because," the historian adds, "Alexan- 
 der was of a red or ruddy complexion." Alexander having 
 raised a powerful force to repel this invasion, John was forced 
 to retreat to the south, as he was disinclined to risk a battle, 
 and unable to remain any longer in a district which his merci- 
 less barbarity had reduced to a desert. In retaliation for these 
 outrages, Alexander marched into England, and laid waste the 
 western border counties. He then proceeded to tlie south to join 
 Prince Louis of France, whom the insurgent barons had invited 
 over to their assistance. On his way he made himself master of 
 the town of Carlisle, and at Dover he is said to have done 
 homage to Louis for the estates which he held from the king of 
 England. The French prince and the English barons on their 
 part expressly recognized the right of the Scottish king to the 
 counties of Nortliumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. 
 After the death of John (1216), Alexander was excommunicated 
 by the papal legate for his adherence to the cause of the insur- 
 gents, but the sentence seems to have been veiy little regarded 
 either by the clergy or the people of Scotland. Next year, 
 however, Louis was ignominiously defeated at Lincoln, and 
 made peace with Heniy III., the young king of I^ngland, 
 without consulting his Scottish ally. Alexander on this ellected 
 his reconciliation, both with Henry and the papal see. The 
 
 bonds of amity between the two sovereigns were strenni:hened 
 by the marriage of the king of Scots, 25th June, 1221, to the 
 Princess Joan, Henry's eldest sister. A long period of uninter- 
 rupted peace followed this union, which enabled Alexander to 
 turn his undivided attention to the regulation of the affairs of 
 his own kingdom. About the year 1234, however, dissensions 
 began to arise between Henry and Alexander, in consequence of 
 the revival, on the part of the former, of the claim to the 
 homage of the Scottish kings, and his support of the pretensions 
 of the archbishop of York to the right of ofiiciating at their 
 coronation. Alexander, on the other hand, demanded the resti- 
 tution of the three northern counties, which he claimed in right 
 of inheritance, and complained that the English king had failed 
 to perform the conditions of a treaty entered into by his father 
 John, and for which he had received 15,000 marks. These 
 claims were ultimately arranged in 1237, by the settlement on 
 Alexander of certain lands in Noi'thumberland and Cumberland, 
 of the yearly value of two himdred pounds. In the following 
 year, the queen of Scots, who had long suffered from a painful 
 disease, died at Canterbury without issue. On the 15th of 
 May, 1239, Alexander married at Roxburgh, Maiy, daughter ot 
 Ingelram de Couci, sumamed " Le Grand," the head of a great 
 family in Picardy. The good understanding between the twomon- 
 archs was so little affected at first by this man-iage, that when 
 Henry was about to set out in 1242 on his expedition to France, 
 he confided to Alexander the care of the borders. In that year, 
 however, an unfortunate event occm-red, which led to the inter- 
 niption of their alliance, and had nearly plunged the two coun- 
 tries into a war. Walter Bisset, a member of a powerful family 
 in the north, was overthrown by the earl of Athol at a tom-na- 
 meut held at Haddington. A day or two after, Athol was 
 murdered. Popular suspicion ascribed the deed to the Bissets, 
 and the Scottish nobility flew to amis, and demanded vengeance 
 both on Walter Bisset and his uncle William, the chief of the 
 family. Alexander and his queen did everj'thing in then- power 
 to protect the accused from the fury of theu- enemies, but in 
 vain. Bisset and his kinsmen were stripped of their estates, 
 and compelled to swear that they would make a pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem, and there, for the remainder of their Hves, pray for 
 the soul of the murdered earl. But instead of performing his 
 vow, Bisset repaired to the English court, and sought to inflame 
 Hemy against the Scottish king, by artfully representing that 
 the English monarch was lord superior of Scotland, and that 
 Alexander, being his vassal, had no right to inflict such punish- 
 ments on his nobles without the permission of his liege lord. 
 Moved by these representations, and perhaps also by other 
 motives, Henry, in 1244, determined on an immediate invasion 
 of Scotland, and, assembling a large anny, marched to Newcastle. 
 Alexander, on the other hand, nothing daunted at these prepa- 
 rations, rai.sed a force amounting, according to Matthew Paris, 
 to about 100,000 men, and prepared to repel the unprovoked 
 invasion. But the Scottish king, as Paris tells us, was "a 
 devout, upright, and courteous person, justly beloved by all the 
 English nation, no less than by his own subjects ;" and by the 
 mediation of the English nobles, a treaty was concluded without 
 bloodshed, and on equitable terms. 
 
 Almost the only other events worthy of notice in the life of 
 Alexander, are the insurrections that broke out from time to 
 time among the Celtic portion of his subjects, who endeavoured 
 to assert the ancient principle of succession. In 1215 a disturb- 
 ance arose in the provnnce of Moray, which was sujipressed by 
 the head of the clan Ross. Seven years later a similar insun-cc- 
 tion broke out in Argyleshire, which was put down by Alexander 
 in person. Again, in 1228 Gillespie Mac Scolane, wlio seems to 
 have been the representative of the ancient royal fine, took up 
 anns in the north, near tlie town of Invemess, and baflled the 
 king himself. But next year both the pretender and his two 
 sons were put to death by the earl of Buchan, justiciar}' of tl;e 
 kingdom ; and though no further attempt seems to have been 
 made to dispute the succession to the throne, the Celtic popula- 
 tion still clung to their ancient customs. In 1233 the people of 
 Galloway, who were of the Celtic race, on the death without male 
 heirs of their chief, Alan, high constable of Scotland, and the 
 most powerful subject in the kingdom, resolutely oppo.sed the 
 partition of their coimtry among his three daughters, and, headed 
 by .an illegitimate son of the late lord, and an Irish chief called 
 Gilderoy, took up arms in Aindication of their ancient rights, 
 and were not put do^vn without great difficulty. In 1249
 
 Alexander undertook a maritime expedition against Angus, lord 
 of Artrv-le, who refused to pay homage to the Scottish crown, on 
 the pfe'a that he owed allegiance to the king of Norway. But 
 on reaching the sound of Mull, Alexander was seized with a 
 fever, and died in the island of Kerrara, on the 1st of July, 
 1249, in the fifty-first year of his age and thirty-fifth of his 
 reign. He was buried in Mebose Abbey. 
 
 Alexander is justly characterized by Fordun as "a king pious, 
 just, and brave, as the shield of the church, the safeguard of 
 the people, and the friend of the miserable." He was a liberal 
 patron of the clergy, and a strenuous supporter of the indepen- 
 dence of the Scottish church. He procured from Pope Honorius 
 IV. in 1225 the important boon of a bull authorizing the 
 clergy of his kingdom, on account of their distance from the 
 apostolic seat, to hold provincial councils at their own discretion. 
 Alexander left by his second wife an only son, who succeeded 
 him in the throne. — (Chron de Mailros ; Matt. Paris' Bhtoria 
 Major; Fordun's Scot ickron icon ; Rymer's Fcedera; Hailes' 
 Aunah of Scotland ; Pictorial History of Scotland.) — J. T. 
 
 ALEXANDER III. was bom at Roxburgh, September 4, 
 1241, and was only eight years of age at the time of his acces- 
 sion to the throne. He was crowned at Scone only five days 
 after his father's death, from a well-grounded apprehension that 
 Henry III., king of England, would, under the pretence that the 
 Scottish king was Ms liegeman, endeavour to prevent the coro- 
 nation of the young prince without his permission. In his in- 
 fancy Alexander had been betrothed to Margaret, eldest daughter 
 of Henr}' ; and as the English king had now resolved upon an 
 expedition to the Holy Land, he was anxious to secure the peace 
 of the northern borders during his absence, and therefore con- 
 sented that the marriage between his daughter and the young 
 king of Scotland should be solemnized at York, 20th December, 
 1251. On this occasion Alexander did homage to Henry for 
 the lands which he held in England, and the English king 
 meanly attempted to take advantage of the youth and inexpe- 
 rience of his guest by demanding homage also for the kingdom 
 of Scotland. But the demand had no doubt been foreseen, and 
 the young monarch replied, as he had probably been instructed, 
 " that he had been innted to York to marry the princess of 
 England, not to treat of matters of state, and that he could not 
 take a step so important without the knowledge and approbation 
 of his nobility." 
 
 During the minority of Alexander the country was disturbed by 
 the various factions among the nobility, who contended for the 
 ascendancy in the government. At his accession the powerful 
 family of the Comyns were at the head of affairs; but the interests 
 of the rival faction were espoused by Henry and his daughter, who 
 complained of various grievances inflicted upon her by the Comyns. 
 Encouraged by this support, the leaders of the opposite party sur- 
 prised the castle of Edinburgh, .and took possession of the persons 
 of the king and queen, whUe Henry marched to the border with 
 a numerous army, and (September, 1254) held an interview ^-ith 
 Alexander and his queen, who were removed to Roxburgh for 
 that purpose. The result was, that the government of Scotland 
 was remodelled, the ComjTis and their friends were excluded 
 from office, and a regency was appointed, consisting of the leaders 
 of the English faction, who were to carry on the administration 
 till Alexander should reach the age of twenty-one. But in 
 1257 the Comyns, ha^^ng obtained the assistance of the queen- 
 dowager, availed themselves of a favourable juncture aflPorded by 
 a quarrel between the regents and Pope Alexander IV., in which 
 the former were excommunicated; and suddenly taking up arms, 
 seized the king and queen at Kinross, carried them to Stiriing, 
 and totally dispersed the English faction. In the following 
 year a compromise took place, by which a new regency was 
 established, consisting of six members of the Comyn party and 
 four of their opponents. Tliis arrangement appears to have re- 
 mained undisturl)cd till Alexander attained his majority, and 
 took the reins of government into his own hands. 
 
 _ In 1263 a qn.irrel broke out between Alexander and Haco, 
 king of Norway, which led the latter to attempt the inv.ision 
 of Scotland. The Scottish kings had made repeated attempts 
 to obtain possession of the western islands, whose inhabitants 
 were of Norwegi.in extraction, and, from their predatorj- habits, 
 had long been formidable neighbours to the western coasts of 
 the kingdom. According to the accounts of the Norwegian chro- 
 niclers, the earl of Ross and other northern chiefs were insti- 
 gated by Alexander to invade the Hebrides, with the view of 
 
 compelling the inhabitants of those isles to become feudatories of 
 Scotland, and it is alleged that the invaders burned and plundered 
 the villages and churches, and inflicted the most horrible cruelties 
 upon the helpless inhabitants. Haco, king of Norway, resolved 
 to take vengeance for these barbarities ; and having collected a 
 formidable armament, set sail from Herlover, 7th July, 1263. 
 Some weeks after, he entered the frith of Clyde, made himself 
 master of the islands of Airan and Bute, and laid waste with 
 fire and sword the western coast of Scotland. Haco, however, 
 was ultimately defeated by Alexander, with great slaughter, at 
 Largs, October 2. His fleet was dispersed by a tremendous 
 tempest of wind, rain, and hail ; many of the vessels were driven 
 ashore, and their crews drowned or taken prisoners by the 
 Scots; and Haco, collecting the remains of his shattered arma- 
 ment, proceeded homewards, leaving the object of his expedi- 
 tion unaccomplished. (See Haco.) The victory of Largs 
 freed Scotland for ever from the attacks of these northern 
 marauders, who had so long been the terror and scourge of 
 western Europe; and three years after, a treaty was concluded 
 with the son and successor of Haco, by which the sovereignty of 
 the Isle of Man and of the Hebrides, and all the other islands in 
 the southern and western seas, ■nith the exception of Orkney 
 and Shetland, was ceded to the Scottish Crown for the sum of four 
 thousand marks, and an annual quit-rent of one hundred marks. 
 Margaret, Alexander's queen, died February 26, 1275. She 
 had borne him two sons (of whom the younger died in infancy, 
 and the other without issue in 1284), and a daughter, Margaret, 
 who in 1281 was married to Erick, king of Norway, and died 
 in 1283, lea\'ing an infant daughter, named after her mother, 
 and commonly called by Scottish historians " The Maiden of Nor- 
 way." On the 15th of April, 1285, Alexander married at Jed- 
 burgh Joleteta, daughter of the count de Dreux ; but on the 
 16th of March in the following year, as the king was riding in a 
 dark night along the northern shore of the frith of Forth, be- 
 tween Kinghom and Burntisland, his horse stumbled over a 
 rocky cliff, and he was killed on the spot. This calamitous 
 event took place in the forty-fifth year of his age, and thirty- 
 seventh of his reign. His infant granddaughter, the princess of 
 Norway, was thus left the only survivor of his family. Alexan- 
 der was one of the ablest and best of the Scottish kings. Under his 
 sway the country attained a high degi'ee of prosperity. His me- 
 mory was long and affectionately cherished by his people, and his 
 death, occurring as it did at a most critical juncture, was perhaps 
 the greatest national calamity that has ever befallen the kingdom 
 of Scotland. — {Chron. de Mailros. ; M. Paris ; Fordun's Scoti- 
 ckron. ; Wynton's Cronykil of Scotland ; Norwegian Account of 
 Ilaco's Expedition, by the Rev. James Johnston, 12mo, 1782; 
 Ha.iles' An7ials; Txilers Sistory of Scotland ; Pictorial History 
 of Scotland.)— :i. T. 
 
 XII. — ALEXANDERS OF SYRIA. 
 
 ALEXANDER, sumamed Zabixas or Zebixas (Syriac for 
 " pm'chased slave"), was a person of mean origin, who, by the 
 aid of Ptolemy Physcon, made himself king of Syria in 128 B.C. 
 Cleopatra, however, widow of the prince whom he had de- 
 throned, together ■ndth her son Gr}-pus, maintained herself in 
 possession of part of the realm, and the arrogance of Zabinas 
 made his former patron turn against him. Grj-pus and Ptolemy 
 Physcon soon crushed him, and being taken by pirates in an at- 
 tempt to make his escape to Greece, he was delivered up to the 
 legitimate heir, who put him to death, 122 B.C. — A. M. 
 
 ALEXANDER BALAS (Balas perhaps connected with the 
 word baal, lord) was brought forward as the son of Antiochus 
 Epiphanes, and raised to the throne of Syiia in 150 B.C., chiefly 
 by the efforts of Ptolemy Philometor, king of Egj-pt. The 
 Syrians becoming discontented with his government, Demetrius, 
 son of Demetrius Soter, the predecessor of Alexander Balas, 
 made an attempt to vindicate his claim to his father's throne, 
 and was successful against the usui-per. Ptolemy, however, 
 made his appearance with a fleet and army, and seemed about 
 to turn the scale in favour of Balas, when he unexpectedly de- 
 clared in favour of the rightful heir. Alexander Balas, after 
 being defeated in a battle near Antioch, was slain by an Arab 
 chief, to whom he had fled for protection, 146 B.C. — A. M. 
 XIII. POPES, saixts, axd biartyks. 
 
 ALEXANDER L, pope and martyr. He succeeded Evaristus 
 in the papacy in 108 or 109, which he held nearly ten years. He 
 is honoured as a martyr in the canon of the mass, and tradition 
 assigns to him the introduction of holy water, and the use of
 
 unleavened bread in the eucharist. He is commemorated by 
 the chivrch of Eome on Jlay 3. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., a pope, was bom at Milan, and bore the 
 name of Anselmo Bagio, previous to his elevation to the tiara. 
 In his youth he studied under Lanfranc at Bee in Normandy. 
 After his return to his native country, he took an active part in 
 the controversy then raging concerning the marriage of priests, 
 which Ansehno, in conjunction with Hildebrand, vehemently 
 condemned. He lilvcwise took an active part in reducing the 
 archbishopric of Milan, which liad been to a certain extent in- 
 dependent, under the sway of the papacy. On the death of 
 Nicola II. in 1061, Anselmo was elected pope, without the 
 sanction of the emperor. Cadalous, bishop of Panna, was elected 
 pope in opposition by a council held at Basle, and took the name 
 of Honorius II. The anti-pope now marched to Rome, but being 
 put to flight by the duke of Tuscany, he was deposed by the 
 council of JIantua, and Alexander remained in undisputed pos- 
 session of the papal chair. His first action was to make a circuit 
 through Italy for the purpose of strengthening the papal autho- 
 rity, and ejecting married priests. He gave his blessing to the 
 forces collected by William of Normandy for the conquest of 
 England, hoping that the success of this enterpiise would extend 
 his own jurisdiction over the free church of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 He exerted himself in a very creditable manner to stop a persecu- 
 tion then raging against the Jews in France. He died in 1073, 
 and was succeeded by his old confederate, Hildebrand. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALEXANDER IIL, elected in 1159, died in 1181, after a 
 long and glorious pontificate of nearly twenty-two years. At the 
 conclave held after the death of Adrian IV., twenty-two cardinals 
 gave then- votes for Cardinal Roland, chancellor of the Roman 
 church. But among the cardinals were a few thorough-going 
 political partisans of the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, who 
 knew that Cardinal Roland would not submit quietly to encroach- 
 ments which the imperial power was attempting in that age 
 upon the rights and independence of the church. These accord- 
 ingly, to the number of five, gave their votes for Cardinal Octa- 
 vian. The pope took the title of Alexander III., the antipope 
 that of Victor III. Each party wrote to the emperor and other 
 Em'opean piinces, and also to all bishops, communicating his 
 election. The emperor affected to be unable to decide between 
 the rival claimants, and summoned them both to attend and 
 submit their claims to a council which he had summoned to meet 
 at Pavia. But when Alexander refused to take a step which 
 would be tantamount to an admission that the vaUdity of his 
 election was doubtful, and that the emperor was the supreme 
 judge in a pm'cly ecclesiastical matter, Frederic's envoys threw 
 off the mask, and recognized Octavian as pope. Thus began a 
 schism which lasted for eighteen years ; for though Octavian 
 died in 1164, the emperor unmediately caused to be elected m 
 his room Guido, bishop of Crema, who took the title of Pascal 
 III.; and again, upon the death of Guido in 1168, his adherents 
 elected John, abbot of Sturm, who took the name of Calixtus 
 III. At first there were but two prelates in the whole of Ger- 
 many who dared to recognize the rightful pope in opposition to 
 the emperor's will. But, on the other hand, the kings of France 
 and England acknowledged his claims without delay, and each 
 of these monarchs offered him an asylum in his dominions. 
 Alexander was compelled to embrace the offer. Driven from 
 Italy by the adherents of Octavian, he passed into France and 
 fixed his residence at Sens. It was here, in the year 1161, that 
 St. Thomas a'Becket came to him, to lay before him his dispute 
 with Heniy II. of England. 
 
 Various turns of fortune marked the long contest between the 
 pope and the emperor. In 1165 when, after the reduction and 
 destruction of Milan by Frederic, the Lombard cities entered 
 into a league against him, Alexander seized the opportunity to 
 return to Rome, where the people received him with the utmost 
 joy. In 1166 Frederic marched into Central Italy and occupied 
 Rome, where he caused himself to be solemnly crowned in St. 
 Peter's by the antipope, Pascal III. Alexander was compelled 
 to take refuge, first at Gaeta (an example since followed by 
 Pius IX.), and afterwards at Benevento. At this point events 
 seemed all to have combined in favour of Frederic ; but the tide 
 now turned. A fearful pestilence, which was regarded as a divine 
 judgment on the adherents of the antipope, swept over North 
 Italy, and carried off many distinguished men of the imperial 
 faction. The Lombard league rose anew against the German 
 rule, and founded in 1168 a new city to seiTc as a bulwark 
 
 against the emperor's attacks, which, in gi-atitude for the pope's 
 support, they named Alexandria. After various vicissitudes, the 
 emperor received a signal defeat on the memorable field of 
 Legnano (1176), and he then began seriously to seek for a 
 reconciliation with the pope. The meeting took place at Venice. 
 The emperor having renounced the schism, was foi-mally absolved 
 by the papal legates. Then he went in the doge's barge from the 
 Lido to the chm-ch of St. Mark; the pope awaited him at the door 
 of the church, smTounded by cardinals and bishops ; Frederic 
 took off his cloak and prostrated himself at his feet; the pope, 
 aft'ected to tears, raised him up, and gave him the kiss of peace. 
 
 In 1179 Alexander convoked at Rome the third general councU 
 of the Lateran. Three hundi'ed and two bishops attended it, 
 and twenty-seven canons were passed, chiefly relating to points 
 of ecclesiastical disciplme. At this council the pope made St. 
 Lawrence, archbishop of Dubhn, his legate in Ireland. The state 
 of the Holy Land had never ceased to engage the attention of 
 Alexander; and when, in 1180, he heard of the successes of 
 Saladin, he wrote a circular letter to all Chiistian piinces, ex- 
 horting them to send succour to king Baldwin ; and to all bishops, 
 enjoining them to preach the crusade. Alexander died at Citta 
 di Castello on the 30th August, 1181, and was bmied in the 
 church of St. John Lateran. Contemporaiy writers assiu-e us 
 that he was a veiy learned pope, and deeply versed in holy scrip- 
 ture, the canons and decrees of councils, and the Roman law. 
 The firmness and patience with which he endured the troubles 
 and persecutions occasioned by the schism, were, as we have seen, 
 rewarded by a complete trimnph over liis opponents, and his pon- 
 tificate came to an end in peace.— (Flemy, Hist. Eccl.^ — T. A. 
 
 ALEXANDER IV., pope, — before his election Cardinal Rai- 
 nald, bishop of Ostia, of the famOy of the counts of Segni, — 
 elected on Christmas-day, 1254. He is described as a pious 
 man, much given to prayer and abstinence, but too ready to give 
 heed to flatterers. He seems to have been of a weak character; 
 and it may be charitably supposed that some of his public acts 
 originated with his advisers rather than with hnnself. Such 
 were his excommunication of Seval, archbishop of York, for 
 declining to induct worthless Italians into the best benefices in 
 bis diocese, and his authorizing his legate to absolve Henry 
 III. of England from the vow he had taken to march to the 
 Holy Land for the deliverance of Jeinisalem, on condition that he 
 proceeded to Apulia and made war upon Manfred, regent of 
 Sicily, who was making great progress there against the papal 
 forces. In spite of all the efforts of the pope, Manfred (who was 
 a natural son of the Emperor Frederic II.) succeeded in estab- 
 lishing himself in the Icingdom of the Two Sicilies, and was 
 crowned at Palermo in 1258. On the other hand, this pope 
 made praiseworthy efforts to promote the spread of Christianity 
 in the then pagan countries of Lithuania and Russia. In the 
 contest which occurred in his pontificate between the xmiversity of 
 Paris and the mendicant orders, then newly established, the pope 
 warmly espoused the cause of the mendicant orders. It was on 
 this occasion that St. Thomas Aquinas wrote his famous " Apo- 
 logy for the Mendicant Friars " against William de Saint Amour. 
 For the last four years of his life the pope could not live at 
 Rome, where the faction in alliance with Manfred had gained the 
 upper hand. He died at Viterbo in May, 1261. — T. A. 
 
 ALEXANDER V. The original name of this pontiff was Peter 
 Pilargo, and he was a native of the isle of Candia. His origin was 
 so obscure that he professed to have no recollection of his parent- 
 age. All that is known of his early life is, that he was placed 
 in a religious house by a monk, who noticed him when begging. 
 He made great progress, and afterwards visited the universities 
 of Padua, Paris, and Oxford, at all of which he had a great 
 reputation as a theologian and a scholar. On Ids return to Italy, 
 he was promoted from one bishopric to another, and finally was 
 appointed archbishop of Milan, 1402. In 1404, Innocent VII. 
 made him a cardinal, and in 1409 the council of Pisa, after 
 having deposed the rival popes, Gregoiy XII. and Benedict XII., 
 elected him to the papacy. He assumed the name of Alexander 
 v., but did not long enjoy his dignity (he was seventy when 
 elected), dying the next year. As pope he displayed no energy 
 or decision of character, being governed entirely by Balthasar 
 Cossa, who succeeded him under the title of John XXIII. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALEXANDER VI., Rodcric Borgia, was the son of Godfrey 
 Lenzulia and Jane Borgia, the sister of Pope Calixtus III. He 
 was born 1431, and originally practised as an advocate; after- 
 wards he adopted the profession of arms, which was much more
 
 in accordance with his taste. Pope Calixtus sent for him to 
 Rome, and gave him the archbishopric of Valencia ; and in 1-156 
 made him cardinal-depcon, and afterwards vice-chancellor of the 
 churcli, a post of great dignity, with a large revenue attached. 
 Hitherto his life, which had been most dissolute (he had five 
 illegitimate children by Rosa Vanozza, whose mother had pre- 
 viously been his mistress), had escaped detection ; and inliamed 
 with the ambition of one day sitting on the throne of St. Peter, 
 he outwardly conducted himself in the most decorous manner, 
 so as to win golden opinions from all, both as a preacher and a 
 man. Little is known of him during the pontificates of Pius 
 II. and Paul II., but we find him sent as legate by Sixtus IV., to 
 negotiate the Spanish and Portuguese affairs. He left the court 
 of Lisbon without accomplishing his mission, having offended 
 the king by his dissolute habits ; and on his return to Rome 
 Sixtus was dead, and Innocent VIII. was pope. He now con- 
 trived to bring his mistress to Rome, and lodged her close to St. 
 Peter's, wlierc, under pretence of friendship for her reputed hus- 
 band, he constantly visited her. Innocent died 1492, and it was 
 soon seen, on the assembling of the conclave, that their choice 
 was limited to two candidates, Roderic Borgia, the nephew of 
 Calixtus III., and Juhan della Rovera, the nephew of Sixtus 
 IV. Borgia, the more unscrupulous and the more wealthy of 
 the two, by lavish distributions of money and promise of offices, 
 earned the day, and was elected pope. He assumed the title of 
 Alexander VI., and his first act was to discharge his obligations 
 to the cardinals, the whole of whom, save five, were said to 
 be in his pay, though eventually he managed to dispose of all to 
 whom he was under obligations. It is impossible, in a naiTative 
 like this, to trace at any length the political transactions in 
 which the pope took part ; we can therefore only notice briefly 
 the league he formed with Bajazet the Second, emperor of the 
 Turks, against Charles VIII., king of France, who claimed the 
 kingdom of Naples. Charles invaded Italy, 1494, with twenty 
 thousand men, and canied cver}-thing before him, taking pos- 
 session of Rome itself, and forcing Alexander to take refuge in 
 the castle of St. Angelo. The pope, driven to extremities, made 
 terms with Charles, and gi-anted all his demands ; among others, 
 surrendering to him the person of Zizim, Bajazet 's brother, who 
 had been detained in a kind of honourable captiNnty at Rome, and 
 whom Charles wished to have in his power as an instrument 
 against Bajazet. It is commonly said that Alexander, mindful 
 of his obligations to the sultan, had previously given him a slow 
 poison. Certain it is, that Zizim died very shortly after he was 
 surrendered to the king. Charles, in return, treated the pontiff 
 with studied courtesy and respect, waited upon him, and kissed 
 his feet. He thus continued his march to Naples, and easily 
 obtained possession of his prize, Alphonso II., the king, fleeing 
 at his approach. The alliance, however, between Charles and 
 Alexander did not last long. It did not suit Alexander's views 
 to have the French at Naples, and aided by his son, Ciesar 
 Borgia, the duke of Valentino, he fonned a league against Charles 
 with the republic of Venice, Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan, and 
 other Itahan princes, the Emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand 
 of Spain. The battle of Fomovo decided the Italian question in 
 favour of the allies, and diaries found he had lost his conquests 
 as ca-sily as he had gained them. Freed now from the presence 
 of the French, Alexander was at liberty to devote himself to his 
 main designs, the enlargement of the patrimony of St. Peter, 
 and the aggrandizement of his son Ca?sar. Under his rule, 
 everything was unblu.shingly put to sale. His chief agent and 
 confidant was his son, the notorious Caesar Borgia; and after 
 the death of the duke of Gandia, his elder son (who is said, but 
 without proof, to have been assassinated by order of Csesar, who 
 was jealous of his intimacy with their common sister, Lucretia), 
 all Alexander's affections were centered in Caisar and Lucretia. 
 Unscrupulous and insatiable, he removed by poison or the dagger 
 all who were in his way, and the papal treasury was enriched by 
 the effects of many members of the sacred college, whose deaths 
 were commonly su.spected to have taken place by foul means. It 
 is not surprising, therefore, to find Alexander, hitherto the chief 
 opponent of the French, fonning an alliance with Louis XII., 
 who had succeeded Chades VIII., 1498, and who was anxious to 
 obtain a divorce from his wife Joan, and to maiTy his prede- 
 cessor's widow, Anne of Brittany, whom he had loved as duke of 
 Orieans. The pope con.sented on condition of Louis exerting 
 his interest to bring about the maniage of Cccsar with Clunlotte, 
 the daughter of the king of Naples. The ladv, however, refused. 
 
 and Louis declared he would not force her. He accordingly 
 negotiated a maniage for Cffisar with a daughter of the king of 
 Navarre, and a papal bull was issued which set Cresar free from 
 his priestly vows, and allowed him to marry. Alexander and 
 his son now entered heartily into the schemes of Louis against 
 the duchy of Milan, and Caesar rode in the French king's train 
 to Milan, whence he set out for the subjugation of the Roman 
 nobles, who were plundered, imprisoned, spoiled of their do- 
 mains, or assassinated, as the interests of the wretched father 
 and son seemed to require. Rome itself was the centre of the 
 most iniquitous proceedings, neither life nor property were secm'e ; 
 and if elsewhere a voice like Savonarola's was raised against the 
 prevailing sins, it was silenced at the stake. Meanwhile Alex- 
 ander disregarded even common decency, and celebrated the 
 marriage of Lucretia with her third husband, Alfonso, son of the 
 Duke d'Este, with the most shameless licentiousness and abo- 
 minable orgies. In vain the oppressed nobles appealed to Louis; 
 the pope was always ready to gratify him, and ciiielty and op- 
 pression prevailed at Rome till the death of Alexander. His 
 end was worthy of his life. It is said that he and his son 
 drunk of poisoned wine, which they had intended for Cardinal 
 Corneto, whose estates they w^re anxious to inherit. Caesar 
 escaped with his life, but Alexander died August 2, 1503, aged 
 sixty-two. The most profligate pontiff that ever sat on the 
 apostolic throne, — we may almost say the most profligate man 
 in history, — he has left behind him a name which is a " proverb 
 of reproach." Anxious as he was to uphold the authority of the 
 Roman see, nothing weakened it more than his wicked life; and 
 Luther's preaching would not have met with the success it did, 
 had it not been for the gross practical coiTuptions of morals at 
 the very centre of the church. We may mention here, that 
 Alexander conferred upon the coiut of Castile t'ne whole of the 
 territory' discovered by Columbus. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALEXANDER VII. was born at Sienna in 1599, his original 
 name being Fabio Chigi. Of his early life very little has been 
 recorded. He held the office of vice-legate at Ferrara, repre- 
 sented the pope as nuncio at the congress of Miinster at the con- 
 clusion of the thirty-years' war, was appointed cardinal-minister, 
 and in 1655 succeeded Inocent X. in the popedom, having, by 
 his diplomatic tactics, completely blinded a powerful foction who 
 were opposed to his pretensions. Several events of importance 
 occuiTed dining his pontificate. In 1656 the ex-Queen Chris- 
 tina of Sweden having renounced protestantism, was received into 
 the Romish church with gi-eat pomp. The same year the states 
 of the church were ravaged by a pestilence, which is s.oid to have 
 carried oft' nearly 200,000 of the population. Alexander, about 
 the same time, fidminated a bull against the Jansenists. The duke 
 de Cregin, ambassador of Louis XIV., having been insulted by 
 the papal guards, and due satisfaction not being made, the French 
 king seized upon the town and district of Avignon, which had 
 up to this time belonged to the popes, and prepared to invade 
 Italy. At the same time the Sorbonne gravely questioned the 
 infallibility of the pope in matters temporal and spiritual. Alex- 
 ander was obliged to submit, and to give up some most im- 
 portant places to the duke of Parma, whereupon Louis restored 
 to him the town of Avignon. Alexander levied very heavy taxes 
 from his subjects, and expended the money thus amassed partly 
 in adorning Rome, and partly in enriching his own family. He 
 built an arsenal at Civita Vecchia, decorated the gate del Popolo, 
 cleared the square of the Pantheon, and made many other im- 
 provements. He was a friend of art and literature, and was not 
 without poetical talent. He died in 1667, and was succeeded 
 by Clement IX.— J. W. S. 
 
 ALEXANDER VIII. (Oltohoni) was bora at Venice m 1610, 
 studied at Padua and Rome, became successively bishop of Bres- 
 cia and Frascati, and in 1689, succeeded Innocent XL as pope. 
 He assisted the Venetians with money, troops, and ships, in their 
 wars with Tm-key. He combated the Jesuits, and condemned 
 several of their doctrines. He added the splendid collection of 
 books and JISS. of the ex-Queen Christina of Sweden to the 
 Vatican libraiy, and died in 1691. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Saint, bishop of Jerusalem in the third cen- 
 tury. He succeeded Narcissus a.d. 212; and after rendering 
 most important services to the church, died a martyr in 251. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Saint, bishop of Alexandria, in which see 
 he succeeded Achilles, a.d. 313. He was famous as having 
 begun the controversy with Arius. Of his seventy epistles on 
 that controversy, only two are extant. He died in 326.
 
 ALE 
 
 97 
 
 ALE 
 
 ALEXANDI']R, S.vint, bishop or patriai'ch of Constantinople 
 from A.D. 317 to o40. He was present in 325 at the council 
 of Nice, in 'wiiicli the Arian doctrines were condemned. 
 
 ALEXA.NDER I., patriarch of Antioch, noted as a peace- 
 maker in the early church. He brought the followers of Eusta- 
 thius to renounce their heresy. Died in 42 L 
 
 ALEXANDER, Saint, a native of Asia Minor, and the 
 founder of a monastic order called Kxa^u.tiToi, or " the sleepless," 
 from the circumstance that the monks belonging to it were 
 divided into six choirs, who were in their turn, occupied night 
 and day in religious service. He died in 430. 
 
 ALEXANDER, a Phiygian physician, who fell a martyr to 
 Christianity in 177. 
 
 ALEXANDER, A., author of a well-kno\^'n treatise on chess, 
 and celebrated as a player, bom at Paris in 1770. 
 
 ALEXANDER, jEgus, a peripatetic philosopher of the first 
 centiu-y, and one of the preceptors of Nero. 
 
 ALEXANDER ^TOLUS, one of the Alexandrian poets and 
 gi'ammarians. He was bom in ^Etolia, but removed to Alexan- 
 dria, in the library of which he obtained a situation from the 
 king, Ptolemy Philadelphus. Only fragments of liis numerous 
 poems have come downi to us. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Alexander, the son of Mark Antony and 
 Cleopatra ; born 40 b.c;. In company with his twin sister, he 
 was taken to Rome, and educated by the wife of the triumvir 
 along with her other children. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Apiikodisiensis, the most famous expounder 
 of the Aiistotelian philosophy, was a native of Aphrodisias in 
 Asia Minor. His chief endeavoiu- was to develop cleai'ly the 
 doctrines of his great master. His writings ai*e numerous. Seve- 
 ral are still in manuscript. The most interesting of his pubhshed 
 works is one which discusses " Fate," maintaining the doctrine 
 of freewill against the Stoics. He floiurished about the end of 
 the second century after Christ. — J. D. 
 
 ALEXANDER of Ashby in Northamptonshire, a learned 
 prior, who left some MS. quoted by Fuller in his Church His- 
 tory, lived about the beginning of the thirteenth century. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Benjamin, brother of John Alexander, trans- 
 lated into English Morgagni's work, " De sedibus et causis 
 moriborum." Died in 1768. 
 
 ALEXANDER BEN MOSES ETHUSAN, a Gennan Jew 
 who composed about the beginning of the eighteenth century a 
 history of his people, under the title of " Beth-Israel." 
 
 ALEXANDER of Bernay, a French poet, in considerable 
 repute as the author of several rhymed romances, was a Norman 
 by birth, and lived at Paris about the middle of the twelfth 
 centuiy. His principal work, a continuation of the Alexandiiad 
 of Lambert the Short, is remarkable for its smooth verse and 
 graphic descriptions. It is, perhaps, the oldest romance of the 
 kind in the French language. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALEXANDER, surnamed Celesinus, a Sicilian abbot and 
 historian, wrote about a.d. IIGO a history of Roger II. of Sicily. 
 
 * ALEXANDER, Charles, a French philologist, of late years 
 distinguished by numerous vahuible contributions to philological 
 science, was bom at Paris in 1797. 
 
 * ALEXANDER, Charles, Duke of Anhalt-Beraburg, com- 
 pelled to retu-e from his duchy during the troubles of 1848, and 
 since restored; succeeded his father Alexius in 1834. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Cornelius, a learned Greek, who lived in 
 the century immediately before the Christian era. He wrote 
 numerous works, chiefly on history and geography, and by his 
 great learning won the surname of Polyliistor. 
 
 ALEX^VNDER of Hal£s or Ali>s, — hence called Alexan- 
 der Alesius, from the name of his birthplace, near Glocester. 
 Although early raised to an archdeaconry, he resolved to study 
 at Paris, where he quickly became one of the most famous 
 teachers at the most brilliant epoch of the scholastic })hilosoj)hy. 
 One of his pupils was St. Bonaventura; but it is not true that 
 he had the honour of teaching St. Thomas and Duns Scotus. 
 He died in Paris in 1245. His gi-eat work is a " Summa Thco- 
 logise." Aquinas reproduced many of his dicta. He was sur- 
 named in the middle ages, "Infallible Doctor" and " Fountaui 
 of Light."— J. P. N. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Insulanus, a monkish chronicler of Wcst- 
 phaha, flourished about the year 1210. He continued the 
 " Breviarium Romm Jlemorabiliuni " of another Westphalian 
 monk, Isibord, and to the many incredible cures and miracles of 
 the latter added many more equally incredible. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ALEXANDER, James, a Benedictine monk, author of a 
 celebrated French work, " Traite general des horologes," was 
 bom at Orleans in 1653, and entered a monasteiy of that city 
 in his twentieth year. He addicted himself throughout his 
 monastic life, which extended over forty years, to the study of 
 the exact sciences; and besides the work just mentioned (not 
 published till the year of bis death, 1734), produced at intervals 
 fom-teen elaborate scientific treatises, all of which, with the ex- 
 ception of that on " Tides," remain in JIS. He was also the 
 inventor of a clock, ingeniously contrived to indicate at once 
 mean time and solar time. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALEXANDER, John, an English writer, author of some 
 satirical pieces published Ln " The Library." Died in 1765. 
 
 ALEXANDER, John, a Swiss mathematician of the seven- 
 teenth century, wTote a treatise on algebra, which has been 
 translated into English. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Lychnus, a Greek poet and rhetorician of 
 the first century B.C. He has left some fragments of astrono- 
 mical and geogi-aphical foiTns. 
 
 ALEXANDER, The Right Rev. Michael Solomon, was 
 bom in the year 1799, in the grand duchy of Posen, of Jewish 
 parents, and began life as a Jewish rabbi. Becoming, however, 
 a convert to Christianity, he was baptized in 1826, and soon 
 aftenvards was ordained to a curacy in Ireland. He then became 
 a missionai-y to his own people, in connection with the " Society 
 for promoting Christianity among the Jews," and in 1832 was 
 appointed professor of Hebrew and rabbinical literature in King's 
 College, London. In 1841, overtures were made by the king of 
 Prussia to the English government for the establishment of a 
 protestant bishopric in Jenisalem, under the joint auspices of 
 the sovereigns of England and Pi-ussia ; and an an-angement 
 having been entered into for the accomplishment of this object. 
 Dr. Alexander was consecrated as the first bishop of the united 
 church of England and Ireland in Jerusalem, on Smiday, Novem- 
 ber 7. The estabhshment of this bishopric gave rise to much 
 dispute at the time, and is stQl condemned by many high eccle- 
 siastical authorities. But none could do otliemise than regi'et 
 the sudden death of the amiable bishop, which took place while 
 he was on a joiumey to Cairo, November 23, 1845. — R. S. 0. 
 
 ALEXANDER, JIyndius, a Greek writer on natural his- 
 tory, about two centmies B.C. A few fragments of his works 
 are extant. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Nicholas, a Benedictine monk, favourably 
 spoken of as a writer on medicine and surgeiy, was bom at 
 Paris in 1654 ; died in 1728. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Noel, a French ecclesiastic of some rank, 
 and author of an ecclesiastical history, was born at Rouen in 
 1637. He was a zealous Jansenist, and by his writings brought 
 himself into trouble with Pope Innocent XL, who pi'oscribed 
 him in 1684. He continued his literary labours till his death 
 in 1724. His works comprise a history of the Old, and a com- 
 mentaiy on the New Testament. — J. S., G, 
 
 ALEXANDER, Numenius, a Greek rhetorician of the 2nd 
 century of the Christian era. He wrote a work — " De Figuris 
 Sentcntiaram et Elocutionis." 
 
 ALEXANDER the Paphlagonian, a celebrated impostor 
 in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. He possessed a majestic figure, 
 and gi-eat intellectual power, and was thus enabled to pei-pctrate 
 a successful impostiue, and maintain the credit of an oracle. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Peloplaton, a Greek rhetorician, a native 
 of Seleucia, celebrated for his personal endowments and oratorical 
 talent. He was secretaiy to the Emperor Antoninus Pius. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Sulpitius, a Gallic historian, fragments of 
 whose work on the early history of France are preseiTcd in that 
 of Gregory of Tours, hved in the fourth century. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Tiberius, procurator of Judea, A.D. 46, and 
 subsequently praetor of Egypt under Nero. He commanded a 
 battafion under Titus at the siege of Jeras.ilem. 
 
 ALEXANDER of Tralles, a famous Greek physician, who 
 practised at Rome in the sixth century. Nothing is known of 
 liis life, except that he visited Franco and Spain. He appears 
 from his works to have been a Christian, and to have shared in 
 most of the superstitions which disfigured the Christianity of 
 his time. In his principal work, iiiiif^ia. Ixt^ixoc, iuoxxiiixx 
 (twelve books on medicine), an elaborate treatise on all the 
 diseases of the human body, he mixes up with the results of 
 much scientific investigation, not a little of the credulity with 
 respect to magical appliances which characterized his age. But 
 
 N
 
 this is only a blemisli on a work of science much in ad- 
 vance of its era. The autlior composed it, he tells us, when 
 he had retired from practice; and its minute expositions of 
 ahnost every form of disease fully entitle hun to credit when he 
 clauns for it the authority of a lengthy experience. It has been 
 translated into Latin, and several times reprinted. Alexander 
 of Tralles was one of the first writers on the practice of medicme, 
 after Galen, to question the absolute authority of that celebrated 
 physician. He is honourably distinguished in this respect from 
 most of his contemporaries, who appear to have yielded a blind 
 adherence to everj- dictum of Galen. Several other treatises are 
 attributed to Alexander, but it b only certain that he published 
 one other work, a short treatise on intestinal wonns. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Sm William, first eari of Stilling, a 
 Scottish poet and statesman, was bom in 1580. A remote 
 ancotor, Alexander Macdonald, obtained from the noble house 
 of Argj-U the small estate of Mcnstrie, near Stirhng, and his 
 descendants assumed the name of Alexander from his Christian 
 name. Sir WilUaoi Alexander is believed to have been educated 
 at the univei-sity of Glasgow. He accompanied the earl of 
 Argjll m foreign travels ; and his poetical merits recommended 
 him to the favour of the Scottish court. He was especially 
 beloved by the short-lived Prince Hcnr)', and received many 
 substantial marks of royal favour from King James and his 
 successor. In 1621 he obtained a grant of the tenitory of Nova 
 Scotia ; he was authorized to divide the lands into one hundred 
 portions, and to dispose of these along with the title of baronet, 
 for the stipulated price of £200 each. He acquired another 
 source of revenue, by having granted to him the privilege of 
 issuing base copper coins, denominated turners. He was ap- 
 pointed to a succession of lucrative and honourable ofiices. In 
 1C25 he became master of requests for Scotland; in 1626, 
 secretiiry of state; in 1627, keeper of the signet; in 1628, a 
 commissioner of exchequer; and, in 1631, one of the extraor- 
 dinary judges of the Court of Session. Having been raised to 
 the peerage, he was finally created earl of Stuling, viscount of 
 Canada, and Lord Alexander of Tullibody. In 1635 he obtained 
 from the council of New England an extensive gi-ant of land, 
 including what was then called Stirling, and afterwards Long 
 Island ; and he is to be considered as the founder of that settle- 
 ment, which produced the state of New York. He died at 
 London, in Februaiy, 1G40, and his body was mterred in the 
 parish church of Stirling. His earliest publication bears the 
 title of "Avrora," containing the first fancies of the author's 
 youth, William Alexander of Menstrie; London, 1604, 4to. 
 His dramatic works, in a collective form, are described as " The 
 Monarchicke Tragedies, Croesus, Darius, the Alexandrsean, lulius 
 Cxsar, newly enlarged," London, 1607, 4to. Several of his 
 other poems were separately published ; and a few years before 
 his death appeared " Recreations with the iluscs, by William 
 Earle of Sterline," London, 1637, folio. This collection neither 
 includes the "Avrora" nor the "Elegic on Prince Henrie," 
 printed in 1612, and again in 1613. There is sufficient reason 
 for saspecting that the earl of Stirling was the principal, if not 
 the sole author of the version of the Psalms published under the 
 title of " The Psalms of King David, translated by King James," 
 Oxford, 1631, 12mo. Besides constnicting an elegant house 
 on his estate at Menstrie, Lord Stu-ling reared a magnificent 
 mansion on the castle hill of Stirling, now known as Argyll Lodg- 
 ing, having subsequently passed into the hands of the noblefamily 
 of ArgjU. The earldom of Stirling has been dormant since the 
 death of the fifth earl in 1739 ; and the question of succession, 
 a few years ago occupied the attention both of the ci\-il and 
 criminal courts in Scotland. — C. R. 
 
 ALEXANDER, William, a celebrated physician of the last 
 centmy, was educated at Edinburgh, and, during the later yeais 
 of his fife, practbed in London ; died m 1783. lie has left the 
 followmg works :— " Experimental Essays on the External Appli- 
 cation of Antiseptics in Putrid Diseases;" 1768. "Tentamen 
 Medicum de Cantharidum Hbtoria et Usu;" 1769. "An Experi- 
 mentid Inquiry concerning the Causes wliich have been said to 
 produce Putrid Fevers ;" 1771. " Directions for the Use of the 
 Harrowgate Waters ;" 1773. " The History of Women from the 
 Earliest Anti(iuity to the Present time ;" 1779. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Willlvm, an English engiavcr, who accom- 
 panied Lord Macartney to China in 1792, and executed the 
 designs for a work descriptive of the embassy. He was after- 
 wards appointed one of the curators of the Britbh Museum. 
 
 * ALEXANDER, William Lindsay, D.D., was bom at 
 Leith on the 24th of August, 1808. He attended the grammar 
 school of his native town for two years, and from that was re- 
 moved to an academy in East Linton, which was under the 
 direction of the Rev. Dr. Jamieson. He then passed three 
 sessions at the Edinburgh university, and two other sessions 
 were spent at St. Andrews, where he attended the lectm-es of 
 Dr. Clialmers. After leaving college, he was invited to under- 
 take the oflice of classical tutor in the Tlieological Academy at 
 Blackburn in Lancashire, where he remained for fom- years. 
 He aftenvards preached for some time in Newington chapel, 
 Liverpool. Thence he removed to Edinburgh, to preside over 
 the church of which he still remains the pastor ; and since Dr. 
 Wardlaw's death, he has acted as one of the professors to the 
 Independent Theological Academy in Scotland. He has been 
 repeatedly invited to other charges in Glasgow and London, and 
 has thrice had in his oS'er a professorship in New College, 
 London, and recently the principabhip of that institution. 
 
 The works of Dr. Alexander are very numerous, if we include 
 his pamphlets and published sermons. His larger works are the 
 following: — 1. "The Connection and Harmony of the Old and 
 New Testaments," 1841 ; 2nd edition, 1853. 2. " Anglo- 
 Catholicism not Apostolical," 1843. 3. " Memoks of the Rev. 
 John Watson," 1845. 4. " Switzerland and the Swiss Churches, 
 being Notes of a Short Tour, and Notes of the Principal Religious 
 Bodies in that Coimtiy," 1846. 5. "Christ and Christianity; 
 a Vindication of the Divine Authority of the Christian Religion, 
 grounded on the Historical Verity of the Life of Christ," 1854. 
 6. "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Ralph Wardlaw, D.D.," 
 1856. Besides these works. Dr. Alexander has edited two 
 treatbes on " The Divinity of Christ," with notes and disserta- 
 tions. He has also edited a Latin commentaiy of Andrew 5Iel- 
 ville's "On the Romans" for the Wodi'ow Society, furnishing 
 the same volume with a life of Fenne. He has translated from 
 the German some valuable theological works. He has also been 
 a frequent contributor to several of the quarterly reviews ; and 
 has written for the Tract Society two of the monthly volumes, 
 " lona," and "The Ancient Britbh Chmxh." He edited for 
 some time the Scottish Congregational Magazine, has written for 
 the Encyclopa;dia Britannica, and contributed to Kitto's Cyclo- 
 pedia of Biblical Literature the admirable articles on Paul and 
 his various epistles, which exhibit a rare combination of sterling 
 British thought and feeling, with a vast knowledge of the Greek 
 and Latm Fathers, and of the stores of GeiTnan criticism. — J. D. 
 
 ALEXANDER of Villedieu, a famous gi-ammarian of the 
 thirteenth century, was a native of Nomiandy, and exercised his 
 profession of schoolmaster in Paris, where he published in 1209 
 the work by which he is remembered, " Doctiinale Pueroram." 
 Like many other school-books of that and precedhig centuries, 
 the Doctrinale of Alexander was written in verse, and for con- 
 venience in the treatment of his subjects, as well as out of re- 
 spect to the customs of poetry, duly divided into books. It had 
 a gi-eat success at the time in the scholastic institutions of 
 France, and also in those of Italy and Germany. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALEXANDRA, the daughter of Hyrcanus, wife of Alexander, 
 son of Aiistobulus II., and mother of Mariamnc, wife of Herod 
 the Great, died about 28 B.C. Resenting Herod's depriving her 
 father fii-st of his kingdom, and afterwards of the oflice of high 
 priest, she did all m her power to bring him into disgrace with 
 Antony, and even conspired against both his authority and his 
 life. Herod having some tune after appointed her son Arbto- 
 bulus to the sacred office, a reconciliation seemed to have been 
 effected between them ; but it was only in appearance, for Herod 
 still dreaded her intrigues, and commanded her to be kept pris- 
 oner in her own palace, and to desist from all mterference in 
 public affiiirs. Exasperated by this conduct, she appealed to 
 Cleopatra, who recommended her to come immediately mto 
 Egypt with her son. She attempted to make her escape along 
 with Aristobulus, but her plan was betrayed to Herod, who ar- 
 rested the fugitives ui the very act of flight. Fearing the anger 
 of Cleopatra, however, he did not dare openly to punish them, 
 but treacherously put the yomig man to death while they were 
 both making merry during the celebration of the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles. Dissembling her fuiy at this new outrage, Alexandra 
 pretended to believe that the death of her son was accidental ; 
 but she wrote secretly to Cleopatra, and persuaded her to stir 
 up Antony to call Herod to account for this crime. But on the 
 return of Herod loaded with honours, her wrath knew no bounds;
 
 and when subsequently Herod, under false pretences, put her 
 father Hyrcanus and her daughter IMariamne to death, she endea- 
 voured to seize upon the fortified places, and to rouse the people 
 to revolt. But having failed in this attempt, she was arrested 
 by Herod's order, and cruelly put to death. — S. 
 
 ALEXANDRA, the wife of Alexander Janneus, reigned over 
 Judea nine years after the death of her husband, but was her- 
 self in complete subjection to the Pharisees. Josephus men- 
 tions her as a woman of great courage and sagacity. She died 
 70 B.C., at the age of seventy-three. 
 
 ALEXANDROS, an Athenian painter, of whom fom* mono- 
 chromatic pictures on marble have been found at Resina, near 
 Herculaneum, 1746. He is supposed to have flourished 180 B.C. 
 
 ALEXIS, a Greek comic poet. He died at the age of 106, 
 about the year 288 B.C. He was the uncle and teacher of 
 Menander, and is said to have written 245 plays. 
 
 ALEXIS, patriarch of Constantinople. He was nominated 
 to the dignity by the Emperor Basil in 1025, and consecrated 
 on the same day ou which that emperor died. Died 1043. 
 
 ALEXIS, his real name being Hiekonyjio Rosello, was a 
 Piedmontese, and the reputed author of the " Book of Secrets," 
 which was printed at Basil in 1536. This book, a medical 
 treatise, the result, according to its boastful author, of long ex- 
 perience and many years of travel, was given to the world in 
 pure beneficence. 
 
 ALEXIS, GuiLLAUiME, surnamed the Good Monk, a learned 
 Benedictine, who flourished about the end of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. He died in 1486, leaving numerous works. 
 
 ALEXIS, MiKHAYLOViCH, son of the Czar Michael Theo- 
 dorvich, and father of Peter the Great, was bom in 1G29, and 
 came to the throne of Russia in 1645. During the eai'lier years 
 of his reign, he cared little for the aftairs of state, which he left 
 ahnost entirely in the hands of a brother-in-law. A revolt of 
 the inhabitants of Moscow against the measures of the favourite, 
 roused him to his duty. With the assistance of councillors chosen 
 from among the nobles and people, he revised and improved the 
 whole code of laws, and made regulations as to commerce, wliich 
 greatly benefited Russia, and won for him the surname of the 
 Wise. His reign was occupied with wars against Poland and 
 Charles Gustav of Sweden ; the fonner undertaken to assert 
 the liberties of the Cossacks, or rather, to transfer their alle- 
 giance to himself; the latter, in fulfilment of the terms of a 
 temporaiy truce with Poland. In the treaty then made it was 
 agi-eed that, on the death of John Cassimir, Alexis should suc- 
 ceed to the throne of Poland ; and though the Poles refused to 
 sanction this arrangement, and in subsequent campaigns fought 
 nobly in defence of their liberties, yet such was the prowess of 
 Alexis, that, during his reign, the foundation was laid for the 
 future subjugation of that unhappy country. His wise pohcy 
 raised Russia to a position of consequence among foreign powers ; 
 and he was courageous enough to stand alone as the only Euro- 
 pean prince who refused to acknowledge Oliver Cromwell and the 
 English Commonwealth. He was twice married ; the second 
 time to a poor girl, wlio had been charitably adopted by one of 
 his nobles. She became the mother of Peter the Great. Alexis 
 died in 1676.— J. B. 
 
 ALEXIS, Petrovicii, son of Peter the Great of Russia, was 
 born at JIoscow in 1690. His early training little disposed him 
 to sympathize mth his father's policy. Indeed, his mother 
 Eudocia, who had too good reason to regard her husband with 
 jealousy, had taught him to view with positive aversion the 
 changes that were being introduced into Russian manners. His 
 tutors did not counteract her influence, but rather encouraged 
 his studious halnts and the tastes he had acquired, which were 
 so much opposed to those of his father. The czar soon regarded 
 him with contempt, and spoke of him as one unworthy to succeed 
 to the throne. His mother's divorce and his father's maniage to 
 Catherine increased the causes of estrangement. Several letters 
 passed between them, in which Peter proposed that Alexis should 
 resign all claim to the crown, and the latter professed his willing- 
 ness to comply and enter on a religious life. But while the czar 
 was absent on a campaign against the Swedes, Alexis, consult- 
 ing his own safety, fled from Russia, and placed himself under 
 tlie protection of the Austrian government. He was for some 
 time concealed in Austria, and thence removed to Naples. His 
 flight enraged his father, who immediately sent two of his nobles 
 to induce him to come back. They were the bearers of a letter, 
 in wliich it was promised that an unmediate return would secure 
 
 pardon. Trusting the pledge, he came back to Moscow ; but no 
 sooner had he thus placed himself in his father's power, than he 
 was an-aigned on a charge of rebellion. He professed submis- 
 sion, and the czar declared his willingness to gi-ant a pardon, 
 provided he would then formally renounce all claim to the 
 cro\vn ; and an oath of allegiance to Peter, the son of Catherine, 
 was taken from the assembled nobles. A condition was affixed 
 to the pardon, that Alexis should reveal all the circumstances 
 of his flight, and the names of those who had in any way 
 given him countenance or assistance. After extorting every 
 possible confession, and visiting with the severest punishment 
 all who were implicated in his flight, or who had shown sym- 
 pathy with him in his love for the ancient customs, the inex- 
 orable czar declared that Alexis had forfeited his claim to 
 pardon by concealing some particulars. A sentence of death 
 was pronounced ; but the unfortunate prince died in prison 
 before its execution. — J. B. 
 
 ALEXIS OF SiCYON, a Greek sculptor, pupU of Polyclitus, 
 flourished about 420 years B.C. According to Pausanias he was 
 the father of Cantharos, also a distinguished sculptor. 
 
 ALEXIS DEL ARCO, a Spanish pamter, also known as the 
 SoRDiLLo of Pereda, because he studied under Pereda. He 
 distinguished himself as a good colourist, but his drawing never 
 was very good. His studio was under the direction of his wife, 
 who used to arrange all the contracts, and often, out of avarice, 
 sold pictures executed by the pupils as being the work of her 
 husband; nevertheless, he died very poor in 1700, seventy-five 
 years of age. — R. M. 
 
 ALEXIUS, the name of five emperors of Constantinople : — 
 
 Alexius I., Cojixenus, son of John Comnenus, deposed 
 Nicephoi-us Botaniates, and was proclaimed emperor in the year 
 1081. He succeeded to the purple at a most critical period. 
 The Turks, the hereditary foes of the empire, were rapidly estab- 
 lishing themselves in the Asian pro^^nces, and the formidable 
 Robert Guiscard had landed in Epirus from Italy. Alexius, 
 found himself obliged to make friends of the repubHc of Venice 
 and the court of Germany, and to supply his treasury by appro- 
 priating the wealth of the church. A considerable part of his 
 sacrilegious gains found its way to Hemy IV. of Germany, who 
 in return relieved Alexius of his gi-eatest fears, by withdrawing 
 Robert Guiscard from his conquests in Greece to the assistance 
 of the popedom, tlien threatened by the forces of the Gennan 
 emperor. To rid himself of his other teiTor, the Turks, was 
 more difficult. They threatened the capital with then- fleet, and 
 Alexius had to seek assistance at the hands of the crusaders then 
 being assembled from all parts of Em-ope. His capital was saved, 
 but the crasaders took offence at some instances of double- 
 dealing on the part of the emperor, a characteristic of his con- 
 duct, and, under various leaders, troubled a part of his reign 
 with continual broils. After their departm-e for the Holy Land, 
 he resumed the defence of his dominions, ahnost constantly 
 menaced by external or internal foes, and had hardly succeeded 
 in establishing peace, when he died in 1118, at the age of 70. 
 His character has been very variously estimated ; absm-dly 
 lauded by his daughter Anna, and xmfairly depreciated by the 
 Latin historians, we are left considerably in doubt both as to his 
 talents and his virtues. 
 
 Alexius II., Comnenus, was bora in the year 1167. He 
 succeeded to the empire in his thirteenth year, at first under 
 the regency of liis mother Mary, and afterwards of his cousin, 
 Alexius the Sebastocrator, who, after the marriage of the emperor 
 in 1180 to Agnes, daughter of Louis le Jeime of France, had 
 the empress-mother strangled, and in 1183 the emperor himself 
 He appears to have been at once imbecile and ^^cious. 
 
 Alexius III., Angelus, was the grandson of Theodora 
 Comnena, daughter of Alexius I., and wrested the empire from 
 his brother Isaac, who had a little before dethroned the tjTant 
 Andronicus in 1195. An army of cnisaders, whom he had 
 irritated by his treacheiy, took Constantinople in 1204, and re- 
 instated Isaac. Alexius was allowed to retire into a monastery. 
 
 Alexius IV., son of Isaac Angelus, was strangled by IMur- 
 zufle, his great chamberlain, in 1204, after a very short reign. 
 
 Alexius V., Muuzukle, took possession of the throne after 
 the murder of Alexius IV., but his reign hardly extended to the 
 length of his predecessor's. At the end of three months he fell 
 into the hands of the French, and was put to death. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALEXIUS, called the False, an impostor of the reign of 
 Isaac Angelus, who passed himself off for the son of Alexius II.
 
 ALE 
 
 100 
 
 ALF 
 
 Collecting a considerable anny, he plundered several provinces of 
 the empire. He was ass:issinated in 1191. 
 
 ALEXIUS or ALEXIS DRAGO COMXENUS, a descendant 
 of the imperial Aimily of Comnenus, born at Pera in Constan- 
 tinople about 1553. He was a general in the French service, 
 and died at Paris in 1G19. 
 
 ALEXIUS, CoM.NEXus, four governors of Trebizond bore this 
 name • they are by some historians styled emperors. 
 
 Alexil's L, assiuned the title of Autocrator of Anatolia in 
 1201, having made himself master of an extensive tract of 
 country along the shores of the Euxine, in opposition to the 
 emperor of Constantinople. His dominions were the theatre 
 of continual war, and he had to resist invasions of the Turks as 
 well as the forces of the empire. Died in 1222. 
 
 Alexils II., was bom in 1282. He succeeded his father 
 John II. in 1297, and died in 13o0. 
 
 Alexius III., son of Basilius II., succeeded Michael I. in 
 1349, and alhed himself by marriage to the court of Constanti- 
 nople. He carried on long wars mtli the Turks and the Genoese. 
 Died about the year 1390. 
 
 Alexius IV., assassinated by his son, John the Handsome, 
 the murderer also of his mother — succeeded Manuel III. in 
 UI2. He died between 1445 and 1449.— J. S., G. 
 
 ALEYX, Charles, an English poet, who lived during the 
 reign of Charles I. His works are two poems on the battles of 
 Poitiers and Crecy, published in 1631, and a historical piece 
 on Henry VII., and the \-ictory of Bosworth Field, publislied in 
 1638. He is said to have written also some commendatory 
 verses prefixed to the earlier editions of Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 He died in 1640.— F. 
 
 ALF.VXI, the name of two Italian painters of emmence, 
 DoMEXico of Paris, who died in 1540, and his son, Orazio, 
 who dit'd in 1583. Some paintings by the former, presen-ed in 
 the gallery of Florence, bear a striking resemblance to the earlier 
 pictures of Raphael. — F. 
 
 ALF.\RABIUS or ALFARABI, an Arabian philosopher, bom 
 at Farab in Transoxiana, about the end of the ninth centmy. 
 From his native place he derived this title, his real name being 
 Mohammed. He was an excellent scholar, and thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with the Greek and Arabian systems of philosophy. 
 His works are numerous. He died a.d. 950. — F. 
 
 ALFARAZDAK, an Arabian poet of the eighth century, whose 
 writings are highly esteemed by his countr\inen. 
 
 ALF.\RO Y GOMEZ, Juxs d', a Spanish painter, bom at 
 Cordova in 1640. He was a pupO of Antonio del Castillo, whom 
 he left to enter the school of Velasquez, at Madrid. His pride 
 alienated all his friends and colleagues. He added literary 
 learning to artLstical skill, and wrote several works in connection 
 with art. Died about 1680.— R. M. 
 
 ALFEX, JoHAKNES EusEBius, a Danish miniature and 
 enamel painter of the 18th century. His portraits were highly 
 valued. He worked for some rime at Vienna, and died in 1770. 
 
 ALFEXUS VARUS, Publius, a Roman lawyer, a native of 
 Cremona. By his genius and ability he raised himself from the 
 humble occupation of a cobbler to the dignity of consul He 
 flourished about A.u.c. 754. 
 
 ALFERG.VXUS or ALFRAGAXUS, otherwise caUed Ahmed 
 or Mohammed eisx Corthais al Fargaxi, an Arabian 
 m.-ithematician of the ninth century, flourished about 883. He 
 wrote Elements of Astronomy in Ai-abic, which Golius has 
 translated into Latin, and pubUshed at Amsterdam in 1669. 
 He published also astronomical tables, which were translated 
 into Hebrew, and pnbUshed at Venice. — J. E. 
 
 ALFIKRI, Ogerio, a historian of Asti, who lived in the 
 latter half of the thirteenth century. He has written a chronicle 
 of his native place in Latin, entitled " Chronicon Astense ex- 
 tractum e chronicis Astensibus." This extends as far as 1294, 
 and has been continued to 1325 by GugUelmo Ventura. 
 
 ALFIERI, Count BENEDETro-lNsocESTE, architect, bom 
 at Rome in 1700, uncle of the more celebrated poet Vittorio 
 Alfieri. He exercised his art cliiefly at Turin, where he enjoyed 
 the patronage of Charies Emmanuel III. Several edifices in 
 that city are after designs of Benedetto Alfieri's, more parti- 
 cularly the theatre of the Royal Opera, which is his principal 
 work. The fa9,ide of St. Peter's at Geneva is also due to him. 
 Died in 1707. — A. M. 
 
 ALFIKRI, Vittorio, a distinguished Itahan poet, was bom 
 in Asti, a city of Piedmont, upon the 17th of January, 1749. 
 
 His father, Antonio Alfieri, was of a noble family and afiluent 
 circumstances. In his fifty-fifth year he married Monica Mail- 
 lard, a lady of Turin, and widow of the marquis of Cucherano, 
 of which union Vittorio was the second chUd. When he was 
 three years old, his father died, and his mother again married. 
 From that period tUl his ninth year he was educated at home 
 by a priest, Don Invaldi, who taught him but little; and in 
 1758 his paternal uncle and guardian, Pellegrino Alfieri, placed 
 him in the academy of Turin. Here he continued tUl near the 
 end of the year 1762, passing successively through the classes of 
 humanity, rhetoric, and philosophy, without being much the 
 better of any of them. The natural bent of his genius first 
 displayed itself wliile there (1759), in consequence of the works 
 of Arioito ha^"ing accidentally fallen into his hands. After 
 this he was sent to the university, where, though he studied 
 philosophy, physics, and ethics, he does not appear to have 
 made any proficiency in them ; but, while hating the sciences, 
 his taste for poetry showed itself in the composition of his 
 first sonnet, on the occasion of his visiting his uncle in 1762 
 at Cimeo, of which place he was governor. The latter was 
 paying his addresses to a lady, who also found favour in the 
 sight of the lad, who addi-essed to her the sonnet, which, he 
 assures us, though extremely bad, was pronounced by her to 
 be the best she ever heard. The uncle, however, being a matter- 
 of-fact soldier, and caring not a whit for poetry, badgered him 
 so immercifully, that he did not venture on another rhyme till he 
 was past his 25th year. At the end of the year 1762, he studied 
 the ci\"il and canon law, but with as little success as had attended 
 his efibrts in the other sciences. Indeed, his weak health con- 
 tributed not a little to aU his failures, and he was shortly after 
 attacked with such severe illness that his life was endangered. 
 His French master gave him some novels and romances, which 
 he devoured with avidity. He also made a little proficiency in 
 music. HLs uncle died when Alfieri was Lu his fourteenth year, 
 upon reaching which age he became, by the laws of Piedmont, 
 his own master. His great passion was riding, which, heretofore, 
 had been interdicted. This he now freely indulged in, and be- 
 came an expert horseman. " To this delightful and noble exer- 
 cise," he says, " I was indebted for health, growth, and a robust 
 appearance, and I entered, as it were, into a new existence." He 
 now abandoned the study of the law, and spent the foUowiiig 
 years in idleness and horse-riding, ha\-ing procured a commission 
 in the militia of his native city ; and in 1766, having obtained 
 the king's permission, he set out on his first travels, in company 
 with two others, and attended by a faithful servant, who had 
 accompanied his uncle over a great part of Europe. He first 
 went to LlOan, and thence, by Piacenza, Parma, !Modena, and 
 Bologna, to Florence. Here he began to learn English, instead, 
 as he afterwards reproaches himself, of learning the pure Italian, 
 for as yet he could only speak what he calls a horrible patois. 
 Lucca, Pisa, and Leghorn were next visited, and thence, by way 
 of Sienna, he went to Rome, and afterwards to Naples, where he 
 was introduced at court, returning again to Rome, where he was 
 presented to Clement XIII. He next visited Venice, and went 
 thence to France by way of Genoa, landing at JlarseUles, and 
 going by Lyons to Paris, of which capital he speaks in no very 
 favourable terms. He landed at Dover in January, 1768, and 
 proceeded to London. The whole aspect of England pleased him 
 extremely, and the impressions then made were confirmed by 
 subsequent visits, that " that happy and free country differs from 
 the rest of Eui-ope, in the diffusion of public happiness resulting 
 from being better govemed." In the summer he went to Holland, 
 which would have pleased him even more had he not first seen 
 England. Upon his return home he read some French hterature, 
 especially Voltaire and ilontesquieu, and became imbued with an 
 admiration for the heroes of Greece, from reading a translation 
 of Plutarch. In May, 1769, Alfieri set out on his second tour, 
 and went to Innspruck, and thence to Vienna, where he passed 
 the summer. He was a constant guest at the Sardinian minis- 
 ter's, tlie Count di Conole, where all the poets and hterati of the 
 city were accustomed to meet in the evening ; and Alfieri men- 
 tions that he declined being introduced to Jletastasio, because he 
 had seen the poet, in the gardens at Schonbnm, make the cus- 
 tomary obeisance to Maria Teresa, " con una faccia s'l servihnente 
 lieta e adulatoria." He subsequently \isited Prague, Dresden, 
 and Berlin, where he was presented to Frederick. " The king," 
 he says, " addressed four formal words to me. I observed him 
 with profound attention, fixing my eyes respectfully on his, and
 
 ALl' 
 
 101 
 
 ALF 
 
 I thanked heaven that I was not bom his slave." Thence he 
 went to Denmark, and passed the winter in Copenhagen, leaving 
 it for Sweden in the following spring, and was delighted with 
 "the savage majestic nature of its vast woods, hikes, and preci- 
 pices." Having ■visited the famous university of Upsala, he 
 went to Finland, and thence to St. Petersburg. He seems to 
 have viewed the Russians with great disgust, and did not even 
 seek to be introduced to the Empress Catherine, whom he calls 
 "a philosophical Clytemnestra." He next went to Konigsburg 
 and Dantzic, and all he saw made him " understand better and 
 long more for happy England," whither he again turned his steps, 
 and anived there in the end of 1770. After wasting his time 
 in a discreditable intrigue with a manied lady of rank, and being 
 wounded in a duel by her husband, he went to Holland, and 
 thence through France, Spain, and Portugal, and returned to 
 Tmin in May, 1772, after an absence of three yeai's. He now 
 took a magnificent house in the handsomest quarter of the city, 
 furnished it splendidly, and got his old companions of the academy 
 about him. They were, by his own account, a motley set, " rich 
 and poor, good and bad, wits and fools, learned and unlearned." 
 These formed a club, the president of which was elected weekly, 
 and at which they read their bizarre compositions, generally in 
 French, which, it would seem, was the very worst possible. In 
 addition to these triflings, he was even more culpably occupied 
 with an attachment which lasted two years, though perhaps from 
 it we are to date his first successftil effort as a poet. During a 
 serious indisposition of the lady, Alfieri sat by her bed from morn- 
 ing to night without speaking, lest the sound of his voice should 
 disturb her. " Upon one of these occasions," he says, " to amuse 
 the tedium, I took up a sheet of paper that chanced to lie be- 
 side me, and commenced, without any plan, to sketch out a scene 
 of something, I knew not what to call it, whether tragedy or 
 comedy , whether in one act,- or five, or ten, but which was to 
 be in the form of dialogue, and in verse." This was the first 
 scene of the " Cleopatra." He soon freed himself from his un- 
 worthy passion, and applied himself diligently to the study of 
 Italian, in which he was very imperfect ; and so enamom-ed was 
 he with his new occupation, and inflamed with the captivating 
 and exalting love for fame, that he laboured assiduously, and at 
 length produced the third, and almost totally diflerent, composi- 
 tion of " the Cleopatra," in five acts, which was performed with 
 entire success in Turin in 1775. 
 
 He was now an author, and henceforth literature was to be 
 his vocation. He applied with diligence to accomplish himself 
 in Latin. "A secret voice," he says, " whispered in the depths 
 of my heart, amid all the applause of my friends, — ' You nuist 
 retrace your steps, begin with your childhood again, study your 
 grammar, and in succession everything that is requisite to 
 enable you to write correctly and artistically.' " The veil had 
 fallen from his eyes — he saw his own deficiencies. He says, " I 
 made a vow to myself that I would spare neither fatigue nor in- 
 convenience till I had placed myself in the position of knowmg 
 my o^NTi language as well as any man in Italy." The result was, 
 that from an idler he became a most studious man. In three 
 months after Cleopatra was acted, he had composed two trage- 
 dies, " FUippo " and " Polinice," in French prose, and subse- 
 quently translated them into Italian verse. After this came 
 "Antigone," and, at various intervals, "Agamemnone," "Virginia," 
 "Oreste," "LaCongiuradeiPazzi," "Don Garcia," "Rosmunda," 
 "Maria Stuarda," "Tiinoleone," "Ottana," "Merope," "Saulle," 
 the last of which was written in 1782 ; that is, fourteen tragedies 
 in seven years, besides several other compositions both in prose and 
 verse. Alfieri made two visits for literary pm^poses to Tuscany, 
 and upon the second of these, in 1777, it was that he first met 
 at Florence the beautiful Louisa Stolberg, better known as the 
 countess of Albany, the wife of Charles Edward, who had 
 assumed that title. His description of her is that of a singularly 
 lovely woman. " Un dolce focoso negli occhi nerissimi accoppi- 
 atosi, (che raro addiviene,) con candidessima pelle e biondi cap- 
 elli, davano alia di lei bellezza un risalto, da cui difficile era di 
 non rimanere colpito e conquiso." She was then only twenty- 
 five years of age, fond of the fine arts and of literatm-e, and 
 manied most unhappily to one more than double her years, and 
 of an unamiable disposition and sottish habits. From his cru- 
 elty she sought protection, first in a convent, and afterwards, in 
 1780, at the house of her brother-in-law, the cardinal of York, 
 in Rome. Here Alfieri again met her. After this he visited 
 England for the third time. Meantime the countess went to 
 
 Switzerland, whither Alfieri followed her, having first disposed 
 of all his property in Piedmont. He now resumed his studies, 
 and wrote "Agide," " Sofonisba," "ilin-a," and " Bruto." 
 
 Notwithstanding his dislike to France, Alfieri next went to live 
 at Paris, for the purpose of bringing out an edition of all his 
 tragedies by Didot. At the same time he brought out two prose 
 works, " Del principe e delle lettere," and " Delia Tirannide," at 
 Kehl, in Germany, at the press of BeaumarchaLs. While here, 
 the intelligence of the death of the count of Albany in Rome 
 reached him and the countess m Februar}', 1788. From this 
 period to the death of Alfieri they never separated, but the same 
 tender intimacy was continued ; whether it had now the sanction 
 of marriage is a disputed fact, which will, probably, never be 
 settled. Alfieri remained in Paris over three years, occupied 
 entirely with literature, and engaged upon his memoirs, which 
 he finished up to May, 1790. Meantime, on his return to Paris, 
 the kingly power in France was totteiing to its fall, and the 
 excesses committed by the popular party disgusted him, though 
 an ardent lover of liberty. When the Bastile was destroyed, 
 Alfieri and liis friend Pindemonte were amongst those who col- 
 lected its stones as relics ; and the former composed an ode upon 
 the subject. He then, with the countess, crossed over to Eng- 
 land, where they remained a few months ; but their property 
 being invested in the French funds, they were soon obliged to 
 return to France, and arrived in Paris iu October, 1791, having 
 come through Holland. 
 
 At last Lords XVI. was dethroned and imprisoned, and Alfieri 
 deteiTnined on leading France without delay ; and on the 18th 
 of August left the capital for Italy, having with difficulty obtained 
 passports for himself and the countess. Even then an accident 
 occurred, which had well-nigh defeated his an'angements. After 
 his passports were examined and found right, and he was 
 about to leave by the Banierre Blanche, a drunken mob assailed 
 the carriage, and endeavoured to appropriate its contents. The 
 guards in vain intei-posed ; and at last Alfieri sprang fi-om the 
 caniage, and declaring that he was an Itahan, insisted that 
 he should pass. His courage awed the crowd, and he effected 
 his escape, and reached Florence on the 3d of November. Here 
 he wTote an apology for Louis XVI., and a satiric poem, called 
 " Misogallo," relating to the events he had -svitnessed in France, 
 and breathing the most intense hatred to the government then 
 existing in that countiy. He now amused himself with getting 
 up his plays for performance by an amateur society ; and when 
 he had attained the age of forty-six years, he commenced the 
 study of the Greek language, and such progress did he make, 
 that in less than two years he was able to read Greek with 
 tolerable fluency, and had acquired a good knowledge of its form 
 and constraction ; and in the following year Homer, jEschylus, 
 and Sophocles were almost as familiar to him as his own lan- 
 guage. At the same time he did not neglect Latin, but it 
 seems that his attempts to learn English were but partially suc- 
 cessful. The life of Alfieri was now one of methodical study, 
 and he apportioned a great part of his day rigorously to the duties 
 of literature. 
 
 In 1799 the French entered Tuscany, and seized upon Flo- 
 rence. Upon this he retired to Montughi to pursue his studies, 
 and to withdi'aw hunself from the notice of the French authori- 
 ties, whose resentment he had, on account of his well-known 
 dislike to their excesses, gi)od reason to fear. DeteiTnined to 
 resist to the utmost, he never retired to bed without having 
 arms beside him. The dislike of Alfieri for the French is illus- 
 trated by a cii-cumstance which occmTed between him and the 
 French general MioUis, upon a subsequent occui)ation of Flo- 
 rence. The general, anxious to see the poet, paid him several 
 visits without succeeding, and then wrote to know when he 
 would be visible. Alfieri replied, " If the general, in his quality 
 of commandant in Florence, intimated that I should wait on 
 him, I should immediately obey, as I would not resist the ruling 
 power, whatever that might be ; but that, if his wish to see me 
 was the mere curiosity of an individual, Vittorio Alfieri was of a 
 retiring disposition, and unwilling to form new acquaintance, 
 and so requested to be excused." Alfieri does not give the 
 reply of Miollis, which was verj- spirited : " Having read the 
 tragedies of Vittorio Alfieri, I thought him a different man from 
 what he is, and I wished to see him. Now that I know his 
 nature, I no longer have that desire." When Alfieri left Paris, 
 many of his works, which were printed, but not published, were 
 seized and confiscated ; and fearing that he might be confounded
 
 ALF 
 
 102 
 
 ALF 
 
 with the republican party, wliich he hated, he publicly protested 
 against all editions published without his sanction, and expressed 
 his chagrin in a letter to liis friend the abbot of Caluso, who 
 consoled him by reminding liim "that Milton had written in 
 favour of the execution of Charles the First of England, and yet 
 was admired by people who looked upon that monarch as a 
 martyr." In a simihir spirit, Alfieri declined to be a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences of Turin, then called the "National 
 Institute," after that of Paris. He would not, he wrote to his 
 friend the abbot, belong to a society which liad ejected from its 
 bosom such men as Cardinal Gerdil, Count ISalbo, and the 
 Cavaliere Morozzo, on the plea that they were royalists. " And 
 I, who have never been a royalist, will have nothing to do with 
 republicans of the present fashion ; for my republic is not like 
 tlieirs." Alfieri now turned liis attention to the composition of 
 complies, and with sucli industiy did he work, that before the 
 end of the year 1802, though obliged by illness to suspend his 
 labour for many months, he produced six pieces, each occupying 
 only a week in composition. Some of these were satires on the 
 various systems of governments. Tliese, and the continuation 
 of his Autobiography, were now his principal literary avocations. 
 
 The severity of his application had long seriously affected liis 
 health, which now completely broke down under increased study. 
 Over-abstemiousness aggravated, instead of mitigating, his dis- 
 temper, and even the entreaties of his devoted companion could 
 not induce him to remit liis toil. On the 3rd of October, 1803, 
 he was attacked with fever, and gout in the stomach, and 
 expired on the morning of the 8tli, watched through the long 
 niglit by the same loving eyes that twenty-five years before be 
 had looked upon with such delight. He was buried in the 
 churcli of Santa Croce, in Florence, between the tombs of 
 Jlichcl Angclo and Machiavelli. A monument of white marble 
 was raised to him by the countess of Albany, and executed by his 
 friend Canova in 1810. It bears a portrait of Alfieri, which is 
 said to be a striking likeness. For the inscription which he 
 had designed for himself, has been substituted a better and a 
 simpler one — " Vittorio Alfieri Astcnsi, Aloisia o principibus Stol- 
 bcrgis Albania; Comitessa." This most interesting woman sm*- 
 \'ived the poet more than twenty years, and was ever faithful to 
 the memory of him she loved. After death the wish of both was 
 fulfilled, as she was laid by his side in the church of Santa Croce. 
 
 Beyond all question, Alfieri was one of tlie most remarkable 
 men of his age. Having the misfortune to be bora wealthy, 
 and left without a father in his infancy, he wasted his early 
 years, and yet redeemed, by his after life, the eiTors and follies of 
 youth. As a writer, he may be said to ha\e wrought a revolu- 
 tion in the dramatic literature of Italy. Finding nothing higher 
 than the operas of Wotastasio, or the comedies of Goldoni, 
 his daring and ardent genius created the classic tragedy of Italy, 
 and fur the first time made it a part of the literature of the 
 country. He has been differently judged by different critics, but 
 none withhold from him the praise of being a man superior to 
 all around him. French writers are scant in their encomiums, 
 but they, too, have the generosity to admit that " he largely con- 
 tributed to sustain the literaiy honour of his country, and even 
 acquired for it a new glory, creating a style of poetry which up 
 to that she did not possess." Augustus Von Scblegel, in his 
 criticism, is severe beyond what is Just, and while he dwells upon 
 the faults of Alfieri, scarcely appreciates his merits. " His 
 language," he says, " is so barren of imagery that liis characters 
 seem altogether devoid of fancy ; it is broken and harsh, he 
 wished to steel it anew, and in the process, it not only lost its 
 splendour, but became brittle and infiexible. When we read the 
 tragedies of Alfieri, the world looms upon us dark and repulsive." 
 I5ut Schlegel shouhl liave remembered the strength and enthusiasm, 
 the love of freedom, and the nobility of thought that arc to be 
 found so largely in the works of Alfieri; things all the more 
 admiral'le, that they were till then unknown for ages in the land 
 from wliich he sprang. Periiaps the judgment of Sismondi is 
 the truest : " The creation of a new Italian drama by Alfieri is 
 a phenomenon which strikes us with astonishment. He has 
 united the beauties of art, unity, singleness of subject, and 
 l.robability, the proiiertles of the French drama, to "the sub- 
 limity of situation, character, and the important events of 
 the Greek theatre, to the j)rofound thoughts and sentiments of 
 the English stage." The effects of the works of Alfieri were 
 as wide in their openition as they have been permanent. " Tlie 
 influence of his writings," says another critic, " has been hn- 
 
 mense ; far greater, perhaps, in the rest of the Peninsula than 
 in his oviTi countiy. He gave tone, not only to the language 
 which he was not bom to speak, but to the character of a 
 people to which he scarcely belonged. He wound up the Italian 
 mind to a higher pitch than it had ever reached since the old 
 Eepublican times." 
 
 Alfieri was tall in stature, and had a noble and commandmg 
 air ; though marked with pride, his face was intellectual, tlim, 
 and long, with a lofty and expansive forehead, round which his 
 hair, which was red, fell in thick masses, and his whole air was 
 that of one who was born to command. — Vita (VAJJieri — Biog. 
 Univ., Copping.') — J. F. W. 
 
 ALFIROUZABADI, ABOU-Dn-DHAHER-MOHAMMED-IBN- 
 
 Yakoub, an able and learned Arabian lexicogi'apher, was born 
 A.D. 1328-29, at Karezoun in the province of Shiraz, though, 
 as the name indicates, his fiimily came originally from Firouza- 
 bad. He was a great traveller, and was honourably received 
 at more than one com-t — among the rest, at that of the Sultan 
 Timour. Alfirouzabadi expended the stores of infoiTnation he 
 had amassed in compihng his celebrated Arabic dictionary, " Al- 
 kamousou-1-Mohitt," printed at Calcutta in 1827. He died 
 A.D. 1414-15.— A. M. 
 
 ALFON, Juan, a Spanish painter, who decorated several relic- 
 chases for the cathedral of his native Toledo. Lived about 1418. 
 
 ALFONSO. The dynasties of kings who bore this name will 
 be found in the following order : — 1st, Alfonsos of Asturias and 
 Leon, and of Leon; 2nd, Alfonsos of Castile, and of Castile and 
 Leon ; 3rd, Alfonsos of Aragon and Navarre ; 4th, Alfonsos of 
 Naples ; 5th, Alfonsos of Portugal ; 6th, Alfonsos d'Este. The 
 others of the name follow in the usual alphabetical order : — 
 
 ALFONSO I., king of Asturias and Leon, son of Pedro, duke 
 of Biscay, succeeded Favilla, son of Pelayo, in 739. He early 
 distinguished himself in encounters with the SIooi-s, and for his 
 pre-eminent valour, was rewarded with tlie hand of Pelayo's 
 daughter, Eresminda. His dominions, at his death, extended 
 from the western shores of Galicia into Ai-agon, and from the 
 Bay of Biscay to the confines of Toledo. He was surnamed 
 " El Catolico " (the Catholic), an epithet expressive of his zeal 
 for the church. He died at Cangas in 756. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO II., king of Asturias, succeeded his uncle Ber- 
 mudo in 791. He was the son of Froila I., assassinated in 768, 
 but the usurpers Silo and Mauregato had successively occupied 
 the throne till 788 ; and although old enough at the death of 
 the latter to have assumed the reins of government, the nobles 
 who had been concerned in the murder of his fatlier, preferred 
 inti-usting the supreme power to the brother, rather than the 
 son of Froila. Bemiudo abdicated in favour of his nephew, and 
 retired to a monastery. A conspu'acy of nobles shortly after 
 succeeded in its object, the imprisonment of Alfonso ; but he was 
 rescued at the end of three months, and again established on the 
 throne. He earned on occasional wars with the floors, but 
 piously devoted most of his time to the decoration of Oviedo, his 
 capital, by fine churches and other public buildings. Several of 
 these were of great magnificence. . He died in 842. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO III., king of Asturias and Leon, suniamed the 
 Great (el Magno), succeeded his father Ordono I. in 866. 
 His reign was as much characterized by civil discord as by splen- 
 did conquests. His career of victoiy in the Mohammedan teni- 
 tories was liable to constant intenniptions from revolts at home, 
 in which his nearest relations were frequently the ringleaders. 
 For upwards of thii-ty years he continued to enlarge his domi- 
 nions at the expense of the Moors; and, instead of the limited 
 kingdom of his predecessors, reigned over an expanse of fertile 
 tenitory that touched the Pyrenees on one side, and the Doiu-o 
 on another. But neither the renown of liis conquests, nor the 
 wisdom of his government, could secure to this illustrious prince 
 the attachment even of his family ; and to avoid the bloodshed 
 which must have attended the suppression of a revolt in which 
 his sons were concerned, he resigned his crown to Garcia the 
 eldest. His death occurred two j'cars after, in 912. Alfonso 
 III. was the last to bear the title of king of Astm-ias. His suc- 
 cessors in the kingdom of the north of the Douro prefeiTcd the 
 title of king of Leon. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO IV., king of Leon, son of Ordono II., succeeded 
 his uncle Froila II. in 924. Weak and vacillating in his char- 
 acter, he occupied faiitlessly for six years the throne of his 
 ancestors, and then leaving the goveniment in the hands of his 
 brother, Ramu'O II., retu'ed into a monastery. A year after, he
 
 ALF 
 
 103 
 
 ALF 
 
 attempted to displace Ms brother, and to resume his kiiigly 
 functions, but without success. He died in confinement in 932. 
 
 ALFONSO v., king of Leon, son of Bermudo IL, succeeded 
 his father in 999, at the age of five years. The energetic regency 
 of his mother El\"ira, and afterwards his own vigorous policy, 
 rescued Leon from the grasp of the Jiloors, who had nearly effected 
 the conquest of the kingdom. He died of a womid received at 
 the siege of Viseo in Portugal in 1028. 
 
 ALFONSO VL, king of Leon and I. of CastUe, sm-named 
 THE Brave (el Bravo), was the second son of Ferdinand I., and 
 ascended the throne iu 10G5. Sancho, liis elder brother, at the 
 same time assumed the government of Castile, and the younger 
 brother Garcia, that of Galicia and part of Portugal. It was 
 thus Ferdinand had allotted his estates, ia the vain hope that 
 his sons would respect each other's rights. Sancho invaded 
 Castile, and having, by the assistance of the famous Cid (Rod- 
 rigo de Bivar), defeated Alfonso, sent hun to a monastery. But 
 the dagger of an assassin terminated the career of this conqueror 
 of his family, and Alfonso was recalled. Hardly more scrupu- 
 lous than his brother, shortly after his return he dethroned 
 Garcia, and ha\'ing thus reunited into one powerful monarchy the 
 estates of his father, declared war against the floors, from whom 
 he wrested the city of Toledo in 1085. In the same year, 
 Seville, Badajoz, and Saragossa became tributary to Leon ; the 
 kings of these important cities having unsuccessfully leagued 
 themselves against the conqueror of Toledo. A year after, 
 Yiisuf-ben-Tachefin arrived in the neighbom-hood of Badajoz 
 with a large anny of Almora%ades, and there Alfonso experienced 
 a great defeat, which, but for the «peedy recall of Yusuf into 
 Africa, would probably have cost him many of his conquests. 
 The departiu-e of Yiisuf was the signal for a renewal of dissen- 
 sions in the Moorish camp, and Alfonso found no difficulty in 
 protecting, and even extending his dominions, tiU 1108, when 
 Ali invaded Spain at the head of a large army. The Leonese 
 forces which encountered him at Ucles, were led by Don Sancho, 
 eldest son of Alfonso, whose failing health prevented liim from 
 assuming the command m person, and here again the Almora- 
 vides were successful. But roused by the death of his son, who 
 had fallen in the battle, Alfonso once more marshalled an army 
 and drove the enemy into Andalusia. He died at Toledo in 1109, 
 and was succeeded by his daughter Uracca. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO VII. of Leon. Some wiiters give this title to 
 Alfonso I. of Aragon, the husband of Uracca, the daughter of 
 Alfonso VI., who held the throne after her father's death. See 
 A LFOXSO I. of Aragon and Navarre. 
 
 ALFONSO VIII. of Leon, called also VII. by tiiose who do 
 not include Alfonso I. of Aragon in this djmasty, is usually 
 known as " Alfonso EairTnond," and " the Emperor." He was 
 the son of Raymond, count of Burgundy, and of the Princess 
 Uracca, daughter of Alfonso VL, who, after Raymond's death, 
 married Alfonso I. of Aragon. He succeeded on his mother's 
 death in 1126 to the throne of Leon and Castile, notwithstand- 
 ing the opposition of his stepfather. After the death of his 
 stepfather, and the accession of Ramiro II. to the throne of 
 Ai-agon, Alfonso invaded that tenitory and took possession of 
 several fortresses which he would only restore as fiefs. The 
 kiug of Navai-re and the counts of Barcelona and Toulouse also 
 paid him homage, and he was so elated by these successes that 
 he assumed the title of emperor of Spain. His ambition was, 
 however, but partially gi-atified, for he found all his efforts 
 against the king of Portugal unavailing ; that prince having allied 
 himself with Garcia of Navan'e, was able to humble Alfonso and 
 assert his independence. Alfonso was dLstinguished for his 
 achievements against the Jloslcin power; and the honom* of 
 removing the Christian frontier from the Tagus to the Sierra 
 Morena is shared between him and Alfonso of Aragon. In 
 1157 he fought with but little success against the Almohades, 
 and died when returning from the battle. — J B. 
 
 ALFONSO I., king of Ca.stile. See Alfonso VI. of Leon. 
 
 ALFONSO IL, king of CastOe. See Alfonso VIII. of Leon. 
 
 ALFONSO III., king of Castile, surnamed el Noble (the 
 Noble), and el Bueno (the Good), succeeded his father Sancho 
 III. at the age of three years. His minority was distracted by 
 the feuds of two powerful families, who each claimed the regency 
 of the kingdom ; and also by the interference of his uncle, Fer- 
 nando of Leon. On his marriage in 1170 to Eleanor, daughter 
 of Hemy II. of England, however, he was enabled, by the 
 assistance of that monarch, to repress the disorders of his king- 
 
 dom, and to tiun its forces from intestine warfare to a crusade 
 against the Moors. His first attempts in 1177 were successful, 
 but in 1185 he was defeated by the Almohades at SorUlo, and 
 in 1195, having rashly engaged Abu- Yusuf- Yakub on the plains 
 of Alarcos, without waiting for his allies, the kings of Leon 
 and Navan-e, he suffered the loss of 20,000 infantiy and all his 
 cavalrj'. In 1212 Jlohammed Anasir, Yaknb's successor, in- 
 vaded the southern provinces with an army, it was said, of 
 600,000 men. Alfonso and the kings of Leon and Navarre 
 raised an immense army, marched southwards, and gave battle 
 to the invader at the foot of the Sierra J^Iorena. Alfonso com- 
 manded the centre of the Christian army, and experienced, in 
 his attack on the centre of the enemy, a desperate resistance. 
 The CastUians, obhged to give way, retreated in disorder ; but 
 mingling with the troops of Leon and Navarre, who 'nad been 
 successful in their assault on the enemy's flanks, they again 
 advanced, and breaking through the tenible breastwork of spears 
 that surroimded the African banner, they penetrated to the tent 
 of ^Mohammed, who took horse only at the last moment, and 
 fled to Seville. The Arabian historians assert, that of the 
 600,000 Africans whom Mohammed led to the plains of Tolosa, 
 only 100,000 escaped. Alfonso sm^ived this great victory only 
 two years. He died October 6, 1214. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO IX., king of Leon, succeeded his father Ferdinand 
 II. in 1188. In this reign the com-ts of Leon and Castile were 
 frequently at variance, and more than once declared war against 
 each other; but actual hostilities were prevented, either by the 
 interference of the bishops of the two kingdoms, or by the neces- 
 sity for combining all Christian forces against the floors. Al- 
 fonso at length manied his cousin Berengaria, daughter of the 
 king of Castile ; but this settlement of their disputes found no 
 favour with the pope, who declared the maniage nuU, and 
 solemnly laid both kuigdoms under interdict till it should be 
 publicly dissolved. Alfonso defied the papal ])ull for a time, 
 but in 1201 consented to a divorce. Berengaiia, after the 
 death of her father, Alfonso III. of Castile, undertook the re- 
 gency of that kingdom during the minority of Henry I., and after 
 the death of that prince in 1217, had her son Ferdinand crowned 
 in spite of the opposition of Alfonso, who endeavoured, but with- 
 out effect, to gain possession of the strongholds of the kingdom. 
 His reign was not without lustre. He made several successful 
 inroads into the Jlohammedan territories, and took some impor- 
 tant fortresses. He died while on a pilgiimage to the shrine of 
 Santiago de Compostella in 1230. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO X., king of Castile and Leon, surnamed el Sabio 
 (the Learned), succeeded his father, Ferdinand III., in 1252. 
 In 1255, on the death of William, coimt of Holland, Alfonso 
 put forth claims to the crown of Gennany, and in order to sup- 
 port these by sufBcient largess began a system of oppressive 
 taxation, which gave rise to the most formidable revolts in his 
 kingdom. AMien dra\ving to a close, his reign was likewise dis- 
 tracted by a question of succession that arose out of the death 
 of his eldest son Ferdinand. That prince left two sons, the 
 eldest of whom, by the Roman law, which on this point was the 
 opposite of the Visigothic, should have been declared Infante in 
 preference to Sancho, second son of AU'onso ; but a decision of 
 the Cortes affirmed the superior claims of Sancho, and a ci\'U 
 war followed, m which the countiy suffered giievously, and Al- 
 fonso was di'awn into the commission of a crime that has loaded 
 his name with infamy — the murder of his brother Don Fadrique. 
 Alfonso expired in 1284. Although a weak mouai-ch, he laid 
 his people under many obligations, by his efforts in behalf ot 
 science and literature ; and his digest of laws, known as " Las 
 siete Partidas ; " his astronomical tables, almost the only ones in 
 use at the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and his " Cro- 
 nica de Espana," one of the earliest national histories : are to be 
 regarded as the works of a benefactor to his countiy. Spain 
 owed to him also a translation of the Scriptures, and the resto- 
 ration of the university of Salamanca. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO XL, king of Castile, succeeded his father Fer- 
 dinand IV. in 1312, at the age of two yejxrs. The brothers and 
 uncles of his father contended for the regency, and rendered his 
 minority one continued war of factions. On attaining his 
 m.ajority, however, Alfonso assumed the government, quickly 
 rc'ijressed the di.sorders of his kingdom, and then crossed the 
 southern frontiers to make war on the Jloors. In conjunction 
 with the king of Portugal, he destroyed a Jlohammedan army of 
 200,000 men at the battle of Kio Salado, at which the victors
 
 had to lament the loss of the chivalrous Douglas, the friend of 
 Bruce, who had turned aside from his pious pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem, to aid the Christian kings of the peninsula in their 
 warfare with the infidels. Alfonso, in the year 1344, reduced 
 Algesiras after a long siege, in which it is said the floors, for the 
 first time, made use of gunpowder. The reduction of that place 
 was one of the most brilliant achievements of the century in 
 which it occurred. Alfonso's career of conquest was suddenly 
 terminated in 1350, while he was on his way to undertake the 
 siege of Gibraltar. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO I., king of Aragon and Navarre, whose exploits 
 against the Moors, during a reign of thirty years entitle him to 
 a distinguished place among the heroes of Spanish history, 
 succeeded his brother Pedro I. in 1104. Saragossa, situated 
 in the centre of Aragon, a stronghold of the Moorish power 
 for four hundred years, sent out an anny of Almoravides in 1111 
 to besiege Barcelona, and in defence of that city Alfonso fought 
 a great battle, which resulted in the withdrawal of the enemy 
 from the province of Catalonia. Saragossa itself, after many 
 desperate struggles, yielded at length to his victorious anus, 
 and became the capital of his dominions. The possession of that 
 city had always been the first object of his ambition. It com- 
 manded the navigation of the Ebro, and as a fortress from which 
 an army might at any moment issue to ravage and destroy, 
 threatened the security of the whole kingdom. Alfonso entered 
 it triumphantly on the 18th December, 1118, and profiting by 
 the panic which the conquest of so important a city spread 
 among his enemies, left several strongholds in his rear, and pur- 
 sued his way to the frontiers of Castile, where he captm-ed the 
 cities of Tarragona and Talatayud ; the latter after a battle in 
 which Tcmim, the brother of Ali, lost 20,000 men. About the 
 beginning of the year 1125, he marched southwards with an 
 army of four thousand horsemen, laying waste the settlements 
 of the Moors in Murcia, Valencia, and Andalusia. He amved 
 at Grenada, and expecting the Jlozarabes within the city to 
 revolt in his favour, began a regular siege ; but notflnthstanding 
 the number of his troops, which had gradually increased to 
 60,000, he had to abandon the place, skilfully guarded within 
 its walls by the Mohammedan wali, and courageously defended 
 without by the heroic Temim. This campaign occupied six 
 months, with veiy little eifect in point of actual conquest, but 
 wth much in the way of still further depressing the spirit of the 
 enemy. In 1126, his wife Uracca died, and the following year 
 Alfonso crossed the mountainous frontiers of Castile, and renewed, 
 at the head of a large army, his pretensions to the sovereignty 
 of that kingdom. But he experienced a brave resistance from 
 her son Alfonso VII. (or VIII., see Alfonso VIII. of Leon) ; 
 and at the end of the campaign, which lasted over three years, 
 was only able to command the cession of a single province, 
 Bioja, in exchange for his renunciation of the title of king of 
 Castile. A truce was concluded on these terms, and Alfonso, 
 who never allowed his sword to rust, forthwith crossed the 
 Pyrenees to besiege Bayonne, which fell into his hands after a 
 short resistance. The Moorish fortresses along the course of the 
 Ebro ne.xt attracted his attention, and before undertaking the 
 siege of Tortosa, the ultimate object of his expedition, he resolved 
 to reduce Lcrida, Mcquinen/.a, and Fraga. To the reduction of 
 the latter stronghold he bent all his energies, and was on the 
 point of being successful, when, along with the most distin- 
 guished of his generals, he was drawn into an ambuscade, which, 
 as a last resource, the garrison had laid in the way of the assault. 
 Here, doubtless, he perished, although, from the fact of his body 
 not having been found, rumours were circulated to the effect that 
 he had escaped and retired to a monastery. Alfonso el Batal- 
 lador (the Fighter) enjoyed the renown of thirty-five victories, 
 and his successes he owed in great part to his personal valour. 
 If, as is asserted, he added to that quality the talents of a skil- 
 ful general, we shall look in vain for a greater name than his in 
 the liistory of medieval Spain. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO II., king of Aragon, son of Raymond V., coimt 
 of Barcelona, inherited from his mother, Petronilla, the kingdom 
 of Aragon, about the time of his father's death in 1166, and 
 thus unite.l Aragon with a very large part of the province of 
 Catalonia. In 1167, as heir of his cousin, count of Provence, 
 he took possession of that countv, and in 1172 had added by 
 the testament of Guinard II., to his now extensive dominions, 
 the province of RoussiUun. Like his predecessors, he made war 
 on tlie mhdels, and in one of his expeditions took several frontier 
 
 fortresses of importance. His reign was generally popular, and 
 his death, which occuixed at Perpignan in 1196, was much 
 regretted by his subjects. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO III., king of Aragon, son of Pedro III., succeeded 
 his father in 1285. He died suddenly at Barcelona in 1291, 
 after a reign of six years, the greater pai't of which was taken up 
 in contentions with his nobility, vrith J'rance, and the popedom. 
 
 ALFONSO IV., king of Aragon, succeeded his father Jayme 
 II. in 1328. His reign was embittered by domestic dissensions, 
 and by a straggle with the Genoese for Corsica and Sardinia, 
 gi-anted to liim by the pope, which lasted till his death ui 1336. 
 
 ALFONSO I., Icing of Naples and Sicily, equally well known 
 as Alfonso V. of Aragon, was the son of Ferdinand I. of Ara- 
 gon, and, as his heu', was entitled also to the crowns of Sicily 
 and Sardinia. He acceded to the throne of Aragon in 1416, 
 ha\-ing pre\'iously married JIary, daughter of Henry III. of Cas- 
 tile, ^vith whom he lived unhappily, and who brought him no 
 children. Alfonso V. of Aragon spent little time in his native 
 kingdom. In 1420 he undertook the expedition to recover Sar- 
 dinia, which had been alienated from him by internal fection. An 
 agreement with the viscount of Narbonne, who, with the Genoese 
 and the Aragonese ganisons, divided the island, put him in 
 possession of the province of Arborea. After an unsuccessful 
 attempt on Corsica, in the course of which occuired the siege of 
 Bonifacio, one of the most memorable in history, Alfonso de- 
 spatched his fleet to the aid of Joanna II., queen of Naples, who 
 promised to make him heir to her throne, if he saved the realm 
 from falling into the hands of Louis of Anjou, at that time 
 besieging Naples. Louis was forced to raise the siege, and in 
 1421 evacuated Campania, in terms of a treaty with Queen 
 Joanna. This princess, however, soon quarreled with her 
 benefactor, and at the instigation of the seneschal Caraccioli, 
 attempted to seize the person of Alfonso. Her design failing, 
 she withdrew into the strong castle of Porta Capuana, and, sum- 
 moning to her aid Sforza da Cotignola, lieutenant of her former 
 foe, Louis of Anjou, successfully resisted Alfonso, tiU reinforce- 
 ments from Spain enabled the Aragonese king to possess him- 
 self of Naples. Queen Joanna, who had taken refuge in Nola, 
 now declared the duke of Anjou her successor instead of Alfonso, 
 and the latter being obliged to return to Spain, and occupy him- 
 self for eight years in attending to his interests there, she in the 
 meantime, by the aid of the diJvC of Jlilan, regained all her power. 
 
 About 1432, we find him again in Italy and Sicily, endeavour- 
 ing to come to an understanding with Joanna; for Louis of 
 Anjou was by this time dead, and Caraccioli miu-dered. The 
 queen herself died in 1435, leaving her throne to Rene of Anjou, 
 brother of Louis. The war between Rene and Alfonso continued 
 till 1442, not without reverses to the latter ; for his fleet was 
 destroyed and himself taken prisoner, off the island of Ponza, 
 by the duke of Milan, who, however, persuaded that it would 
 prove the policy most advantageous for himself, set the Ara- 
 gonese prince at liberty. Finally, in 1442, Alfonso seated him- 
 self on the throne of Naples, and the year after. Pope Eugenius 
 IV. confirmed him in his sovereign rights by a bull of investiture. 
 In 1444, the same pope legitunised Ferdinand, natural son of 
 Alfonso, as his successor. 
 
 Alfonso spent the rest of his life in his Neapolitan dominions, 
 and died in 1458 of an illness brought on by the fatigues of the 
 chase, at the age of seventy-foiu". Alfonso was a man of energy 
 and determination ; as a prince liberal, enlightened, fond of splen- 
 dour, and a patron of literature. He introduced various reforms 
 into the administration of his Italian kingdom, and greatly im- 
 proved and adorned the city of Naples ; but, though aiming to 
 desei-ve the title of Father of his People, he is accused of too 
 great a wish to concUiate the nobles at the expense of the lower 
 orders. — A. M. 
 
 ALFONSO II., king of Naples, son of Ferdinand I. and 
 Isabella, was born in 1448. He was an avaricious and cruel 
 prince, though not destitute of vigour and braver)', as was ap- 
 parent in the campaigns he conducted against the Venetians, 
 the Florentines, and others, preriously to his accession to the 
 throne, which took place in 1494. In 1495, when Charles 
 VIII. of France anived in Italy, as if panic-stricken at that 
 event, Alfonso abdicated in favour of his son, Ferdinand II., and, 
 retiring to Sicily, died the same year. — A. M. 
 
 ALFONSO or AFFONSO I., founder of the Portuguese 
 monarchy, was bom in 1094 at Guimaraens, and in 1112 suc- 
 ceeded his father as count of Portugal, — then a vassal state to
 
 ALF 
 
 105 
 
 ALF 
 
 the crown of Castile. In 1128 he overturned the unworthy 
 regency of his mother, and took the authority into his own 
 hands. The king of Castile ha%-ing interfered, was defeated, 
 and obliged to acknowledge the independence of Portugal. The 
 Moorish kings of Seville and Badajoz, ha\-ing received reinforce- 
 ments from the emperor of Morocco, resolved to attack Alfonso, 
 but after some skinnishes, they were totally defeated at Campo 
 Ourique in 1139. He next took Lisbon from the Moors, by the 
 aid of a body of English and French crusaders. Having inter- 
 fered in the war between the kings of Navarre and Aragon, he 
 was taken prisoner, near Badajoz, and only released on the ces- 
 sion of his late conquests. In 1184, the floors, under Aben- 
 Yakof, invaded Portugal, and laid siege to Santarem. Alfonso 
 came to relieve the town, and speedily drove the enemy out of 
 his dominions. He died the year following (1185), to the uni- 
 versal regret of his subjects. Equally noted as a warrior and a 
 lawgiver, he has been compared to Alfred the Great. — J. W. S. 
 ALFONSO or AFFONSO XL, sumamed Gordo, or the Fat, 
 third king of Portugal, grandson of the foregoing ; was bom in 
 1185, and succeeded to the throne in 1211. An unprincipled 
 attempt to deprive his sisters of their inheritance, involved him 
 m war with the king of Leon, in which he suffered a defeat. He 
 nest made war against the iloors, whom he defeated at Alcacer 
 del Sal in 1217. An injudicious attempt to tax the clergy, 
 brought upon him sentence of excommunication from the pope. 
 Alfonso made submission, but died suddenly before a full recon- 
 ciliation had been effected, in 1223. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALFONSO III., a son of the foregoing, was bom in 1210, 
 became regent of Portugal owing to the misconduct of his elder 
 brother Sancho, and on the death of the latter assumed the 
 sovereignty. He expelled the Moors from Algarve, and annexed 
 it to his dominions. The divorce of his wife Mathilda, and the 
 desire of limiting the military orders, drew upon him the censure 
 of the pope, and filled the remainder of his reign with troubles. 
 He died in 1279.— J. W. S. 
 
 ALFONSO IV., was bom at Coimbra in 1290. His early 
 life was stained by repeated acts of rebellion against his father. 
 In 1325 he succeeded to the crown of Portugal, and spent the 
 firet year of his reign in idleness. An indecisive war against 
 Castile succeeded, terminated by a treaty in which both parties 
 agreed to unite their forces against the Moors. In this war 
 Alfonso dLstinguished himself at the battle of Taiifa. In his old 
 age he caused Inez de Castro, the wife of his son Dom Pedro, 
 to be murdered, a crime which involved Portugal in all the 
 horrors of a ci\il war. The king, covered with shame and re- 
 morse, died in 1357. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALFONSO V. was bom at Cintra in 1432, and succeeded 
 his father Duarte in 1438, under the regency, first of his 
 mother, and afterwards of his uncle. He embarked in a crusade 
 against the Moors of Africa, and after a series of sanguinary 
 conflicts made himself master of Tangier in 1471. He estab- 
 lished a colony on the coast of Guinea. He endeavoured to 
 seize the crown of Castile, but was defeated at Toro by Ferdi- 
 nand of Aragon. He founded the first library in Portugal at 
 Coimbra, and died of the plague at Cintra in 1481. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALFONSO ^^., was bom at Cintra in 1643, succeeded to the 
 throne of Portugal in 1656, and, after a feeble reign, was deposed 
 in 1667, to make room for his brother Pedro. Died in 1683. 
 
 ALFONSO I., d'Este, duke of Fen-ara, was bom in 1476, 
 and succeeded his father Ercole I. in 1505. Up till his death 
 in 1534, he was almost constantly engaged in war, first with 
 the Venetians, and then with the popes. It was Alfonso I. who 
 commanded the papal troops, which, on the formation of the 
 league of Cambrai by Pope Julius XL, Ixiuis XII. of France, 
 and the Emperor Maximilian, were sent against Venice. He 
 was successfal in this campaign, in which the poet Ariosto was 
 present. Pope Julius II. afterwards commenced hostOiries 
 against Duke Alfonso, because the latter refused to concur in his 
 change of policy, and join him in a league with the Venetians 
 against the French. Alfonso, however, defeated the papal troops, 
 and subsequently also the Spanish auxiliai-ies sent from Naples. 
 In 1512, the French commander, Gaston de Fois, duke of 
 Nemours, together with Duke Alfonso, defeated the combined 
 papal and Neapolitan troops in a great battle before Kavenna, in 
 which Gaston was slain. Fabrizio Colonna, the pope's general, 
 was made prisoner in this engagement, but honom-ably liberated 
 by Alfonso — a good tum which Colonna requited by contriving 
 the escape of the duke from Rome, when, having repaired thither 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 to make his peace vrith the pope on the evacuation of Italy by 
 the French, orders were issued for his arrest. Leo X., who suc- 
 ceeded Julius, proved more placable than the latter, and once 
 more Alfonso was made gonfaloniere or general of the papal 
 forces ; but Leo X. stiU refused to let him have ilodena and 
 Eeggio, cities which belonged to his duchy. WTien Francis I. 
 invaded Italy, the Ferrarese prince, true to his old policy, again 
 joined the French, and thus found himself a second time arrayed 
 against the supreme pontiff, who, uniting with the Austrians, 
 defeated the French, and would have completely crushed Duke 
 Alfonso, had not death stayed his hand. Alfonso enjoyed a 
 breathing-time during the papacy of Adrian ^^. ; but he was 
 only saved from ruin under that of Clement \1I. (1523), by 
 allying himself with the emperor Charles V., who finally con- 
 firmed him in the possession of Modena and Reggio. This able 
 prince died in 1534. The celebrated Lucrezia Borgia was his wife. 
 Alfonso's favomite arm in war was artillery, and in his cam- 
 paigns he made great use of cannons of his own founding. — A. M. 
 ALFONSO II., d'Este, last of the dukes of Ferrara of the 
 house of Este, and celebrated as the prince at whose court the 
 poet Tasso lived and loved so unfortunately, succeeded his father 
 Ercole 11. in 1559. His mother Eenee was daughter of Louis XII. 
 of France. After the death of his first wife, Lucrezia da Medici, 
 he married Beatrice, sister of the Emperor Maximilian II., whom, 
 in 1566, he aided with a contingent of 4000 men in his war 
 against the Turks. In 1579, Alfonso II. married Margarita 
 Gonzaga. He had no children by any of his three wives, and 
 when he died in 1597 his line thus became extinct. Pope Cle- 
 ment yill. claiming the reversion of Ferrara as a fief of the 
 papal see. The court of Ferrara, though one of the smallest in 
 Italy, was in the time of Alfonso II. perhaps the most splendid. 
 One of his sisters was married to Francesco Maria della Rovere, 
 didie of Urbino ; the other, Leonora, the object of Tasso's affec- 
 rion, lived and died single (1581), at her brother's court. — A.M. 
 ALFONSO III., d'Este, succeeded hisfatherCesare in 1628, 
 not as duke of Ferrara, but merely as duke of Modena and Reg- 
 gio. He abdicated the year following, and retired into a convent 
 of the Capuchins, becoming a member of that order, under the 
 name of Giambatrista da Modena. He died in 1644. 
 
 ALFONSO IV., d'Este, duke of Modena and Reggio, in 
 1658 succeeded his father Francis I., under whom he had served 
 in the war against the Spaniards for the possession of Monfer- 
 rat. The command of the French troops was, on his father's 
 death, continued to Alfonso IV., who had married the niece of 
 Cardinal ilazaiin in 1655. To this piince the gallery of paint- 
 ings at ilodena owes its origin. His daughter, Maria Beatrix, 
 became the wife of James 11. of England. Died 1662.— A. M. 
 ALFONSO de Alcala, a Spanish rabbi, who, having be- 
 come a Christian, was by Cardinal Ximenes employed on the 
 prepararion of the Polyglot Bible of 1514-17, printed "inCom- 
 plutensi Universitate," in 6 vols. foUo. 
 
 ALFONSO DE Benaveste, a Spanish theologian, professor 
 at the university of Salamanca, lived in the fifteenth centnry. 
 He published a work vnih the title, " Tractatus de Poenitentiis 
 et Actibus Poenitenriiirmn et Confessionis, cum forma absolu- 
 tionis et Canonibus Poenitentiaiiis." 
 
 ALFONSO DE Carthagexa — ^ui Latin, Alphonsus a Sancta 
 Maria — a Spanish historian, son of the bishop of Burgos, was 
 bom in 1396. He occupied successively the canonries of 
 Segovia and Sanriago of ComposteUa ; and after a successful 
 mission to one of the courts of Gemiany, on behalf of John II. 
 of Castile, succeeded his father in the bishopric of Burgos. A 
 history of Spain, from the earliest times, with the title, " Anace- 
 phalffiosis, nempe regum Hispanoi-um, Romanorum Imperatomm, 
 Summoram Pontificum, necnon regmn Francomm," some devo- 
 tional books, and a treatise on the laws of chivahy, were his 
 principal works. He died in 1456. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO, Joiix, a celebrated navigator of the sixteenth 
 centmy, was bom at Cognac about the year 1500. An adven- 
 turer of the most enthusiastic character, he surveyed with 
 admirable accuracy the shores of Asia and America, along which 
 he performed numerous voyages. An abridgment of his nar- 
 rative of these voyages, published in 1599 by a poet of the 
 name of Mellin de' Saint-Gellais, was a most valuable contri- 
 bution to geographical science. A copy of verses prefixed to 
 ilellin's work contains the only notices of Alfonso's life which 
 have reached us, and these are of the most meagre description. 
 I He died probablv about the vear 1557. — J. S , G. 
 

 
 ALFONSO DE Palexcia, or Alphoxsus Palextixus, a 
 Spanish historian and lexicographer, author of a chronicle of 
 the reign of Enrique IV., a translation of Josephus, and two 
 lexicographical works, was born in 1423. He had the honour 
 of conducting the negotiations that preceded the auspicious 
 marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. Died in 1495. 
 
 ALFONSO, Peter, a Spanish theologian, of Hebrew origin, 
 physician to Alfonso I. of Aragon ; bom in 10G2; and baptized 
 into the Christian faith in 1106. He published a refutation of 
 Judaism. Died in 1140. 
 
 ALFONSO DE Spixa, or d'Espi'na, a celebrated Spanish 
 preacher and theological writer, bishop of Orense in Galicia, 
 nourished abont the middle of the fifteenth century, and pub- 
 Ibhed anonymously a work entitled " Fortalitium Fidei," (The 
 Stronghold of Faith.) — J. S., G. 
 
 ALFONSO UE Tala\-eka, author of a compilation on 
 veterinary surgerj', published at Toledo in 1564. 
 
 ALFONSO, DE LA ToKKE, a Catalonian wTitcr of the 15th 
 century, author of a curious medley of science, philosophy, art, 
 and morals, which he called " La Visio Delectable." 
 
 ALFONSO DE Zamora, a Spanish rabbi of Leon, who 
 became professor of Hebrew at the university of Alcala, and was 
 employed by Cardinal Ximencs on the Complutensian Polyglot. 
 
 ALFON.SO LOPEZ de Corella, a Spanish physician, a 
 native of Navarre, and some tune professor of medicine at Alcala 
 de Henares. Besides other works he is the author of " Annota- 
 tioncs in omnia Galcni opera," Madiid, 1582, 4to; " De morbo 
 pestilente," Valentia, 1581, 4to ; "Natm-ffi qua;rimonia," Sara- 
 gossa, 1564, 8vo; " De arte curativa, libri iv.," Estella, 1555, 
 Svo ; " Catalogus auctonim qui post Galeni a;viim Hippocrati 
 et Galeno contradixerunt," Valentia, 1519, 12mo ; " Secretos 
 de filosofia, astrologia, y medicina, y de las quatro mathemati- 
 cas," Valladolid, 1546, Svo. — A. M. 
 
 ALFONSO RODRIGUEZ de Guevara, professor of medi- 
 cine at the university of Coimbra. He wrote a " Defensio 
 Galeni," Coimbra, 1559, 4to. 
 
 •ALFORD, Rev. Hexry, B.D., one of onr most famous 
 biblical critics, celebrated also as a poet, and as the author of 
 some volumes of sennons, was born in London in 1810. He 
 was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, and was elected 
 Fellow in 1834. In the following year he became vicar of 
 AVjTneswold, Leicestershire, and held that office till 1853, when 
 he was appointed officiating minister in Quebec Street chapel, 
 London. He held the Hulsean lectiu^eship at Cambridge in 
 1841-2, and since that date has been examiner on logic and 
 natural philosophy in the university of London. His best-known 
 work is an edition of the Greek Testament, the first volume of 
 which appeared m 1844, and the second in 1852. He has lately 
 published a volume of sermons, entitled " The Di™e Love," 
 which has attained to great popularity. His poetical works ai-e, 
 " Poems and Poetical Fragments," 1831, and " The School of 
 the Heart, and other Poems," 1835.— J. B. 
 
 AL-FRAGANIUS, often ALFERGANUS; Mohammed Ibn 
 CoTiiAiR AL Fekgaxi : — the surname derived, as usual, fi-om 
 his native town Fergana, in Sogdiana. This astronomer com- 
 posed an elementary work, which, for a long time, was classical 
 in the East, and was even translated by Golius. It is a good 
 and succinct exposition of the doctrines of the Almagest. Alfra- 
 ganius treats also of solar clocks and of the Astrolabe. He was 
 famed for his powers in calculation. — J. P. N. 
 
 ALFRED, more justly called the Great than any other 
 sovereign to whom that term of honour has been applied, was 
 the youngest son of Ethelwulf, king of the West Saxons and of 
 Kent, by Osburg, the daughter of Oslac, the king's cup-bearer. 
 He was bom A.n. 849, and from hb eariicst childhood showed 
 that generous disposition which joined with his great qualities to 
 make him what he was justly tenned, " the darling of England." 
 He was bom at Wantage in Berkshu-e, a few miles from the 
 valley of the Thames, but on the edge of that great region of 
 wild chalk downs and upland plains, which fomied the centre 
 of the kingdom of the A\'e.st Saxons. The atrection of his bio- 
 graphers has recorded, that, as a child, his mother showed 
 him, and he eagerly committed to memory, many of those old 
 Saxon poems which have ever been the delight of the Anglo- 
 Saxon race. It is said that he was taken or sent to Rome by 
 his father in the year 853, when he was only four yeai's old ; 
 and the monkish historians who record this circumstance add, 
 that he was not only blessed, but anointed as king by the pope, 
 
 an assertion which is scarcely credible, seeing that he was the 
 youngest child, and had three elder brothers, all of whom 
 reigned before him. His father, who was a weak man, governed 
 by women and priests, introduced discord into his family, when 
 Alfi-ed was yet a child, by marrying in his old age a second 
 wife, the beautiful Princess Judith, daughter of Chai-les the 
 Bald, king of the Franks. He also excited discontent in his 
 kingdom by granting to the ruling pope and his successors, 
 the right to collect in England the odious tax long known as 
 " Peter's pence." Ethel-nodf did not long survive his second 
 maniage, djdng in the year 858, when Alfred was only nine 
 years of age. 
 
 On the death of Ethelwulf, his kingdoms of Wessex and 
 Kent were divided between his two oldest sons, Ethelbald and 
 Ethclbert In this partition, Ethelbald received the kingdom 
 of Wessex, or of the West Saxons, comprising the counties of 
 Berks, Hants, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, and Devon (with a 
 supremacy over the Britons of Cornwall); and Ethclbert re- 
 ceived the kingdom of Kent, which included the counties of 
 Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. But they were both cut off early in 
 life. Ethelbald died in the year 860 ; and Ethclbert in the year 
 866. After the death of the latter the two kingdoms were 
 reunited in the person of Ethelred, the third son of Ethelwulf, 
 and the next brother of the still youthful Alfi-ed. 
 
 It was in the reign of Ethelred, and immediately after his 
 accession to the throne, that the grand invasion of England by 
 the Danes commenced. Plunder and the ransom of prisoners had 
 hitherto been the objects of the bands of northern puates which 
 had infested the coast of England; but in the year 866, large 
 aiTnies of Danes and Norwegians began to pour into the king- 
 dom, under able leaders, thoroughly bent on conquering the 
 whole island, and on establishing the permanent ascendancy of 
 the Scandinavian over the Teutonic race. In the year 866, the 
 Danes landed in Lincolnshire, and oveiTan and partially estab- 
 lished themselves in that district. In the year 868, they cap- 
 tured the city of York, the capital of the Saxon kingdom of 
 Northumbria, killed two kings who were contending for ascen- 
 dancy there, and in a short time made themselves masters of 
 that part of England which lies to the north of the Humber 
 and the Mersey. In the following year they invaded the king- 
 dom of Mercia, which included the mitUand counties of England, 
 from the Mersey to the Thames. Here they took the strong 
 castle of Nottingham. 
 
 In the year hi which the Danes took Nottingham, Alfred 
 married Ealhamth, a daughter of Ethelred, earl or aldennan 
 (as the Saxons named that rank) of the Gainishmen, or people 
 in the neighbourhood of Gainsborough ; and in the same year 
 he was first seized with a tenible disease, the exact nature of 
 which is not known, but which was attended with frightful 
 paroxysms of pain, and to which he remained subject to the end 
 of his life. 
 
 On the advance of the Danes hi Jlercia, Burhead, the king of 
 Mercia, who had married a sister of Ethelred and Alfred, 
 eagerly besought their aid, wliich was readily given. The king 
 and his brother advanced vrith a West Saxon army to Notting- 
 ham ; but when they arrived there, they found the Danes 
 strongly fortified in the castle and town. After remaining 
 there until their provisions were nearly exhausted, and untD 
 their iiTegular levies, consisting of raw militia, became eager to 
 return home, Alfred and the kmg were compelled to retire 
 from Mercia, though not without concluding a treaty with the 
 Danes, by which the latter agreed to do so likewise. 
 
 No sooner, however, had the West Saxon army retired, than 
 the Danes oven-an the kingdom of Mercia ; and after laying it 
 waste, advanced into the khigdom of East Anglia, which con- 
 sisted of the modern counties of Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and 
 Cambridge, and of the southern parts of Lincolnshu'e. The 
 Danes were commanded by two formidable chief's, Ingvar, famed 
 for his skill as a commander ; and Ubba, dreaded for his ter- 
 rible courage. After gaining a great \ictory over Earl Algar 
 and the East Angles at Kcsteven, in Luicolnshire, on the 21st 
 September, 869, they advanced to East Thetford, in Norfolk. 
 There they defeated and killed Ulfkctul, the ablest earl of the 
 East Angles, and, in the winter of the same year, they defeated 
 Edward, king of the East Angles, whom they took prisoner, and 
 put to death with cruel torments. Guthorm, one of the most 
 celebrated of the Danish chiefs, seized the kingdom of East 
 Anglia, and retained it to the end of his life. Other Danish
 
 chiefs, in a similar manner, established themselves in the king- 
 dom of Northumbria, which at that time extended from the 
 Humber to the Tyne, if not to the Tweed. 
 
 In the com'se of the -niiiter of the year 870, a large Danish 
 fleet entered the Thames, conveying a numerous army under the 
 command of two Scandinavian kings, named Halfdene and 
 Bagseeg, and five powerful earls, named Osbeam, Frene, 
 Harald, and two Sidrocs, father and son. The object of these 
 invaders was to conquer for themselves principalities in the 
 kingdoms of Wessox and Kent, as Guthorm and other Danish 
 chiefs had done in the east and north of England. They sailed 
 up the Thames without meeting with any resistance, and sud- 
 denly seized on the castle and towia of Reading, which stands at 
 the point where the river Kennet falls into the Thames. Here 
 they threw up new fortifications, and thus established them- 
 selves in the very heart of the West Saxon kingdom. From 
 this point they sent bands of plunderers to collect booty and pro- 
 visions throughout the comities of SuiTey, Kent, Berkshire, and 
 Buckinghamshire, one of which parties was defeated at Engle- 
 field Green, near Windsor, by Ethehvulf, the earl of that district. 
 
 Before the mass of the Saxon troops could be got together, 
 Ethelred and Alfred appeared before Reading with whatever 
 troops they could collect hastily ; but, after a succession of en- 
 gagements, continued for three days with various results, they 
 were compelled to retire across the Thames, near Windsor, and 
 there to wait for reinforcements. Fom- days afterwards, the 
 mass of the Saxon troops having come up, the battle was re- 
 newed at Essedun or Aslulown. Alfred led the attack, fightmg, 
 as the chronicles of that time say, " like a ynli boai-," and in- 
 flicted a signal defeat on the Danes. One of the Danish kings 
 and sis of the Danish eai-ls were killed, and it was said that 
 since the Saxons had landed in Britain, there had never been 
 such a battle. Unfortunately, however, it did not give the 
 Saxons possession of Reading, and there the Danes, having 
 complete possession of the Thames and of the sea-coasts, soon 
 brought together another large army. Two months later, the 
 Danes were strong enough to fight another great battle at Mer- 
 ton, and even to keep the field against Alfred and Ethelred. Soon 
 after this battle Ethelred died. His death took place on the 23rd 
 April, 871, and Alfred immediately assumed the throne of the 
 West Saxons, which was then threatened with instant destraction. 
 
 In the first year of Alfred's reign, the Danes at Reading, 
 ha\-ing received great reinforcements, advanced into Wiltshire. 
 Alfred gave them battle at Wilton, but was defeated. After 
 this defeat, negotiations were opened with the Danes, and they 
 even agreed to reture from the West Saxon kingdom, though on 
 very hard conditions ; but this agreement they did not fulfil, 
 and in the com-se of the year 876, they landed a large army 
 at Wareham in Dorsetshire, and another in Devonshire, where 
 they seized on Exeter. Alfred laid siege to the Danes in Exeter, 
 and compelled them to surrender, and to engage to leave the 
 kingdom. This promise they broke, as they did all similar en- 
 gagements, and in the spring of the year 877, Alfred foimd him- 
 self assailed in all directions, — m the valley of the Thames, on 
 the coast of Dorset, on both coasts of Devonsliu'e, and at Chip- 
 penham in Wiltshire, by a new army advancing out of Mercia. 
 Despair seized his subjects, and all his efforts to get together an 
 army strong enough to keep the field, were for a while unavail- 
 ing ; but his heroic spnit was unbroken, and with a few resolute 
 followers, he retired to the isle of Ethelney, a small tract of dry 
 land, rising amidst the swamps caused by the ovci-flowing of the 
 rivers of Somersetshne. Here he remained during the winter 
 of 877, concealed from his enemies, but constantly employed in 
 organizing the campaign of the coming year. 
 
 Early in the spring of the year 878, Alfred began operations 
 with the men of Somersetshire, and in the seventh week after 
 Easter, he was again at the head of a powerful anny, composed 
 of the men of Somerset, Wilts, and Hampshire. With this army 
 he attacked the Danes at Ethendune, probably E<ldington, near 
 Westbuiy, and, after a desperate battle, defeated them with enor- 
 mous loss. The remnant fled to Chippenham, where they were 
 immediately surrounded by Alfred's army, and in a fortnight 
 reduced to such extremities by famine, that they sun-endered, 
 and agreed to leave the kingdom. This great victoiy very 
 shortly placed Alfred in possession of his hereditary territories of 
 Wessex and Kent, and by a treaty concluded with Guthorm 
 and the other Danish chiefs, who had firmly established them- 
 selves in the east and north of England, he also received a large 
 
 part of the kingdom of Mercia, including all the beautiful 
 counties along the banks of the Severn. The old Roman road 
 from London to Chester, known to the Saxons by the name of 
 AVatling Street, was declared to be the boundary fine between the 
 Saxons and the Danes, through the gi'eater part of its course. 
 
 The victory of Alfred over the Danes gave peace and rest to 
 his people for several years. Even Hastings, the most foi-midable 
 of the sea-kings of that age, after showing himself in the Thames 
 fur a time, shunned a conflict with Alfred, and transported his 
 army to the banks of the ]Meuse and the Seme. Alfred was 
 thus left at peace to reorganize his kingdom; and in doing this, 
 he displayed a talent and a gi-asp of mind even more wonderful 
 than the constancy which he had shown in rescuing it from the 
 hands of its invaders. 
 
 With a view of enablhig his people to resist the attacks of 
 foreign enemies, he organized the military part of the population 
 in such a manner, that one portion of it shoifld always be ready 
 to take the field while the rest did garrison duty at home. He 
 also strengthened the fortifications of London and other principal 
 towns of the kingdom, so as to enable them to resist not only a 
 sudden attack, but a protracted siege. He also attempted and 
 made some progi-ess in organizing that most important of all 
 means of defence, a navy, capable of contending with the pirates 
 who then infested eveiy sea. To effect this gi-eat object, he 
 hu-ed Flemish and other seamen, and attempted to train his 
 own subjects to seamanship, by encouraging commerce, fishing, 
 and navigation. The navy of the West Saxons — the origin of 
 the navy of Britain — made some progress imder this great king; 
 and under his sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons, acquired a 
 strength which only requii-ed to have been maintamed, to have 
 rendered the kingdom secure against aU attacks from without. 
 
 For the piu-pose of giving Ms subjects the security of good 
 laws, Alfred compiled a code from the laws of the West Saxons, 
 tlie Kentishmen, and the Mercians, and to these he added some 
 laws of his- own. That these laws might be carried into execu- 
 tion, he more thoroughly organized the old Saxon system of 
 rendering the popidation of every township and every hundred 
 answerable for all oflences committed within its limits. This 
 was the only kmd of poHce practicable in so rude an age, and it 
 had the gi-eat advantage of giving every free subject an interest 
 in the prevention of crimes. The principle is still retained in 
 the laws of England. In the case of offences perpetrated openly, 
 and with tumult and violence, the people of the himdi-ed or 
 county in which such offences are committed, are liable for all 
 damage done. 
 
 But Alfred, in addition to organizing a system of national 
 defence and of legislation, applied himself, with all the power 
 of his givat mind, and with a zeal which would have been ad- 
 mu-able in any age, and was tnily wonderful in his, to the double 
 object of instructing his subjects in useful knowledge, and of 
 creating a literature in the Anglo-Saxon language — the only 
 language they understood — worthy of being studied by them. 
 There was nothing which he more deplored than the general 
 prevalence of ignorance both amongst the clergy and the laity. 
 In his preface to the translation of the Regida Pastoralis of 
 Gregory the First, he says, " I have very often thought what 
 wise men there formerly were in England, both priests and lay- 
 men, and how happy were those times, when the people were 
 ruled by kings who obeyed God and his evangelists, and how 
 they maintained at home their peace, customs, and power, and 
 even extended them to other lands ; how they prospered in war 
 as well as in wisdom, and how zealous were the priests also in 
 doctrine and knowledge, and all their divine duties ; and how 
 men came hither from foreign lands to seek knowledge, which 
 we can obtain only abroad if we desire it. So utterly was it 
 neglected by the English people, that there were but few on this 
 side of the Humber who understood their prayers in English, or 
 could even explain in English an epistle from the Latin ; and I 
 likewise suspect that there were not many beyond the Humber. 
 They were so few that I do not actually recollect one south of 
 the Thames, when I began to reign." This state of things he 
 set himself vigorously to remedy ; his object, to use his own 
 language, being " that the whole body of freeborn youth in liis 
 kingdom who possess the means, may be obliged to learn as 
 long as they have to attend to no other business, until they can 
 read English writing perfectly, and then let those who are 
 dedicated to learning and the service of the church be instnicted 
 in Latin."
 
 That his lay subjects as well as the clergy might have works 
 in their possession worth reading, Alfred set himself to learn 
 the Latin language, with a view of transhiting from it such 
 works as he thouglit most likely to please and instruct them. 
 The works whicli he so translated, arranged in the order of their 
 importance, arc as follow : first in interest and in value, is his 
 translation of the venerable Bede's History of the English 
 Church, wliich is tlie earliest history of the English people 
 as well as of their church, and is still the foundation of nearly 
 all our knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon race in the times which 
 Bede describes. In addition to this delightful account of their 
 own countiy and race, Alfred supplied his subjects with a know- 
 ledge of other countries, by means of a translation of the Uni- 
 versal History of Orosius, to which he made such additions as 
 the infonnation current in his age enabled him to supply. The 
 most important of these additions are an account of Germany, 
 or rather of all countries in which the Gennan language was 
 spoken in his times, extending from the Mediterranean to the 
 northern bay of the Baltic, the gulf of Bothnia ; and also two 
 accounts of voyages of discovery, one to the north cape of 
 Europe, made by Ohthere, a mariner and whaler of Norway, 
 and another to the recesses of the Baltic, made by another 
 mariner named Wulfstan, probably a native of Schleswic. These 
 additions to the work of Orosius entitle Alfred to be considered 
 the best-informed geogi'apher of his age. In addition to these 
 historical works, Alfred translated the work of Boethius, " On 
 the Consolations of Philosophy," adding to it many original 
 obsen'ations, especially in the second and third books. In the 
 fonner, lie lays down the wisest and freest principles of govern- 
 ment ; in the latter, leaving the philosopher, he assumes the 
 character of the Christian, and wiites wannly and piously of the 
 goodness, wisdom, and holiness of God. In addition to these 
 works on history, geography, and philosophy, Alfi-ed also trans- 
 lated the Pastoral of Gregory the First, and Gregory's work 
 " On the Care of the SoiJ." Many other works hav9 been attri- 
 buted to Alfred, but of the above there is no doubt. 
 
 In the midst of these peaceful pursuits, the great king and 
 his subjects were roused from all thoughts of peace by another 
 frightful invasion of the Danes and Northmen, led by Hast- 
 ings, a wanior of unrivalled skill amongst the sea-kings of that 
 age; they were aided by the Danes who were akeady settled in 
 the eastern and northern counties of the kingdom. In the year 
 892, a Danish fleet, consisting of 250 vessels, landed a large 
 army of Danes and Northmen at Lynnne in Kent ; and soon 
 after a second fleet of eighty vessels landed Hastings himself, 
 and a host of his followers, at the mouth of the Thames. At 
 the same time the whole Danish population in the north and 
 east of England rose in arms, and made common cause with the 
 invaders. But Alfred proved himself fully equal to this, as he 
 had done to all other emergencies. In the years of peace v/hich 
 the kingdom had enjoyed, he had fully organized his people for 
 the defence of their homes and country, and, after three des- 
 perate campaigns, the foreign invaders were driven out of the 
 kiiigd')m, and those who remained in the north and eastern 
 counties were compelled to sue for peace and pardon. 
 
 The Danes and Northmen, having the command of the sea, 
 'anded wherever they thought fit, in spite of the feeble navy of 
 Alfred ; but wherever they landed they were defeated, either by 
 the heroic king or his able officers and loyal subjects. In the 
 first campaign the Danes were defeated in a pitch battle at 
 Famham in Surrey, and their entrenched camp at Benfleet in 
 Essex, was stonned and taken by an army, chiefly raised in and 
 about London. In this assault the wife and two sons of Hastings 
 were taken prisoners, but they were gonernusly returned to tiie 
 Danish chief, not only without ransom, but loaded with presents. 
 In the same campaign the Danes were defeated at Exeter by 
 Alfred in person ; and at Buttington, near Shrewsbury, by one 
 of his ablest generals. It is evident from the position of these 
 places that this was an organized system of attacks, du-ected 
 against all parts of his dominions at one and the same time. 
 
 In the second campaign, the Danes were driven into Chester 
 from which city they were compelled to retire into Wales! 
 After remaining there some time, they passed over into the 
 Danish province of Northumbria, and, marching over that pro- 
 vince and over the province of East Anglia, they again arrived 
 in the neighbourhood of London, and constructed a strong camp 
 near Ware or Hertford. This position they held for some time, 
 and even defeated the Londoners in an attempt to stomi it ; but 
 
 in the autumn of the same year, Alfred succeeded in rendering 
 this position untenable, by drawing off the waters of the river 
 Lea, which formed its main defence. Driven from the banks of 
 the Lea and the Thames, Hastings marched rapidly to the 
 banks of the Severn, and took up a strong position at Quatt- 
 bridge, near the present town of Bridgnorth. But the Saxons 
 were at his heels, and after enduring all the horrors of famine, 
 he was again compelled to take flight. 
 
 In the spring of the following year, Hastings again attempted 
 to renew the war, but being foiled at all points, he fled from the 
 country, with all those of his followers who had survived the 
 sword of Alfred, lea\-ing the kingdom greatly exhausted, but 
 still free and independent. After the departure of Hastings, no 
 other Danish or Northman chief ventured to land on the coasts 
 of England during the reign of Alfi-ed. 
 
 The last fom- years of Alfred's life were spent in peace, but 
 his frame was gi\'ing way under the pressure of disease, and he 
 died on the 28th October, 901, at the early age of fifty-three 
 years, after having reigned thirty years and six months. — T. B. 
 
 ALFRED and ARIRAM, two German architects, natives of 
 Bavaria, who lived in the ninth centuiy. The fonner belonged 
 to the convent of Tcgemsee, the latter to that of St. Emmeran. 
 They were the contemporaries of the Emperor Arnulph, and 
 built the imperial palace at Ratisbonne. 
 
 ALFRED, son of the Saxon king, Etheked II., and brother 
 of Edward the Confessor, Uved for many years at the court of 
 his uncle, Richard of Nonnandy, whither his mother Emma had 
 fled with her sons to escape the troubles consequent on the 
 invasion of England by the Danes. After Emma's marriage 
 with Canute, and the death of that king, Alfi'ed was induced, by 
 a letter purporting to be written by his mother, to land in Eng- 
 land with a small force of only six hundred men, to assert his 
 right to the throne against Harold Harefoot. Who the real 
 writer of the letter was cannot be certainly deteiTnined, but it is 
 clear that it was intended to ensnare the two sons of Ethelrcd ; 
 and it is not improbable that Emma had to do with it, in 
 order tliat the way might be more effectually cleared for the 
 succession of Hardicanute, her son by Canute, in whose cause her 
 sympathies were fully enlisted. Alfred was speedily betrayed 
 through the agency of Earl Godwin ; and his followers having 
 been cmelly murdered, he was carried, first to London, and then 
 to Ely, where he underwent a mock trial, and was sentenced to 
 lose his eyes. The sentence was so cruelly executed that he 
 died in a few days after. — J. B. 
 
 ALFRED, originally a Benedictine monk of Glastonbury, 
 under Dunstan, afterwards abbot of Malmesbury, and bishop of 
 Crediton, then the seat of the present bishopric of Exeter. He 
 died in 999, after having held the see nine years. He maintained 
 a strict discipline over his clergy, and took gi-eat pains with the 
 performance of the sacred offices. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALFRED, ALURED or ALRED, a canon of the church of 
 St. John at Beverley. He was the author of a chronicle which 
 was published at Oxford, 1716, and which many have thought 
 to be only an abridgment of Jeflrey of Monmouth. Alfred is 
 said to have died about 1136. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALFRED or ALURED, who was sm-named the English- 
 man and THE Philosopher, was a writer of the thirteenth 
 century, about whom very little is certainly known. It would 
 appear that he travelled in France and Italy, became at Rome 
 chaplain to Cardinal Ottoboni, whom he accompanied to Eng- 
 land, when he came as legate from Clement IV. He seems to 
 have written chiefly on subjects allied to physical science. Several 
 works are attributed to him: "On the Motion of the Heart," 
 " On the Training of Hawks," " De Musica," " De Rerum Natura," 
 and Commentaries on Aristotle and Boethius. — J. B. 
 
 ALFRIC or jELFRIC, sumamed the Abbot and the 
 GRAiniAKiAN, is the name of an Anglo-Saxon writer to whom 
 many works are attributed. Little is known of his history. It 
 is not even certain that the works which bear his name are the 
 productions of the same man, different surnames being appended, 
 sometimes "the Monk," and sometimes "the Bishop." He was 
 probably born about the beginning of the tenth century, and was, 
 it is said, of noble descent. He studied under Ethelwold at 
 Abingdon and Winchester, and, it is supposed, was made abbot 
 of St. Albans in 969. It is more certain that he superintended 
 for a time the abbey of Cerne in Dorsetshne. There was an 
 Alfric, bishop of Wilton, who succeeded to the see of Canterbury 
 about the end of the tenth centmy. Some identify our author
 
 with him, while others think he was the Alfric, archbishop of 
 York, who died about the middle of the eleventh century. 
 
 Eighteen works have been enumerated as Alfric's, the most 
 famous being two collections of Anglo- Sason homilies, one of 
 which, a "Paschal Sermon, or Sermon for Easter Sunday," at- 
 tracted the attention of the sixteenth-centmy reformers, as an 
 early denial of the doctrine of transubstantiation. It was pub- 
 lished by Archbishop Parker in 15C6. — J. B. 
 
 ALFTEKIN, originally a Tm-kish slave at Bagdad, rose to 
 the command of considerable forces, and after making unsuccess- 
 ful war against Aziz-billah was generously forgiven, and became 
 his devoted servant. Died about 982. 
 
 ALGARDI, Alessaxdro, an Italian sculptor and architect 
 of great eminence, bom at Bologna in 1598, and died at Rome 
 in 1654. Brought up as a painter under Lodo^co Caracci, he 
 soon abandoned that career to become a sculptor. He proceeded 
 to Rome, where, supported by the friendly assistance of Dome- 
 nichino, and under the patronage of Cardinal Ludonsi, he ob- 
 tained a very great success. Amongst his most important works 
 are to be noted : in Rome, the gi-eat bas-reUef in St. Peter's, 
 representing Pope Leo going to meet Attila ; the St. Magdalen 
 and St. John the Baptist for the church of St. Silvester ; a statue 
 of St. Phihp Xeri, and the statue in bronze of Pope Innocent 
 X. ; many fountams and decorations for the Pamfili Villa ; the 
 fa9ade of the church of St. Ignace, and the chief altar of that 
 of San Nicola Tolentino ; in Bologna, the beautiful group of the 
 martyrdom of St. Paul, &c. Algardi imitated the mannered 
 style of his great rival, Cavalier BeiTiini, to whom, however, he 
 was often superior in purity of design, owing to his having spent 
 some time in restoring many of the relics of ancient sculpture. 
 He conducted a numerous school, from which sprang almost all 
 the best sculptors of the following period. — R. M. 
 
 ALGAROTTI, Feaxcesco, an Italian author, who was alike 
 distinguished for his cultivation of polite literature, and of the 
 arts and sciences, was bom in Venice on the 11th of December, 
 1712. He was one of six children of a wealthy merchant of 
 that city. At an early age he was sent to Rome, after which 
 he returned to Venice ; and on the death of his father, his 
 elder brother Bonomo took the charge of his education, and 
 sent him to the university of Bologna, where he studied science 
 and the belles lettres. lu all these branches of learning he 
 soon distinguished himself, and some of his poetical compo- 
 sitions were published without his knowledge in his seventeenth 
 year. He also devoted himself to the study of Greek and 
 Latin, and went to Florence to make himself a perfect master 
 of his own tongue. He subsequently visited Paiis, and became 
 personally acquainted with the most distinguished savans there, 
 being already known to them by his contributions to the trans- 
 actions of the Institute of Bologna. In 1733 he published his 
 " Newtonianismo per le donne," in which he popularized the 
 philosophy of Xewton, as Fontenelle had done that of Descartes, 
 a work which became widely diffused throughout Europe. He 
 next wrote several essays in verse, upon different scientific and 
 philosophical subjects, which greatly increased his reputation. 
 
 He travelled through Italy in company with a painter of the 
 name of Tesi, and was himself a very distinguished connoisseur, as 
 well as proficient in the art of painting, and composed an essay 
 upon the subject, ''Saggio supra la Pittura," which was received 
 with great admiration by his countrymen, and was esteemed by 
 liimself as one of his best productions. Algarotti visited Rus.sia, 
 and on his retiu^ in 1738, was introduced at Reinsbm-g to 
 Frederick the Great, then crown prince, who was at once 
 attracted towards him, and pressed hun to come to him when he 
 should ascend the throne ; the intimacy then formed continued 
 without interruption during the life of Algarotti. Subsequently, 
 Algarotti went to London, where he was well received, and 
 formed the acquaintance of many distinguished persons, and, 
 amongst others, of Pitt, earl of Chatham. On his return, he 
 .settled in Berlin, for many years enjoying the friendship of 
 Frederick, who confeiTed on him the title of count, and made 
 him his chamberlain. He visited the court of the elector of 
 Saxony, Augustus III., who gave him the rank of councillor of 
 war. The pope, Benedict XIV., and the dukes of Savoy and 
 Parma conferred upon him honours and distinctions, and he was 
 everywhere received with the distinction and respect of one who, 
 to elegance of manners and great talents, united the magnifi- 
 cence of a man of wealth, taste, and eradition. 
 
 The chmate of Germany having sensibly affected his health, 
 
 Algarotti returned to his native city of Venice, where he re- 
 mained for some time, but finally fixed his abode in Bologna. 
 Here consumption set in, but he awaited the issue with the 
 resignation of a philosopher. He spent his mornings in the 
 practice of painting, architectiu-e, and the fine arts; after dinner 
 he occupied himself in correcting his works, and in the evening 
 he listened to music, and thus he met calmly liis end. He died 
 at Pisa on March 3, 176-4, at the age of fifty-two. He made a 
 design for his tomb, and composed a simple epitaph, " Hie jacet 
 Franciscus Algarottus. Xon omnis." The king of Prussia, how- 
 ever, raised a more magnificent monument to him at Pisa, on 
 which, in addition to Algarotti's inscription, he caused to be 
 written, " Algarotto Ovidii jEmulo, Newtoni discipulo, Fredericns 
 Rex," for which last word JIagnus was substituted after the 
 king's death. — {Alqarotti Opera ; Biog. Univ.) — J. F. W 
 
 AL-GAZALI, GAZALI, or ALGAZEL (Abou-Hamed-Mo- 
 hammed-ibn-Mohammed) ; bom at Tons in Khorasan in 1038; 
 died in a.d. 1111. Gazali occupies a very peculiar position 
 among philosophic Arabians ; a position, however, that has ex- 
 isted in .all ages, and which has been occupied by thinkers of 
 exactly the same character. He is essentially the Sceptic of 
 Arabian philosophy ; not that his life closed in doubt, but that 
 through his conviction of the powerlessness of Reason he fled 
 to Faith, and found refuge away from Intelligence, in the mys- 
 ticism and extasis of the Sonfis. According to the account he 
 has given of himself, Gazali passed through utter scepticism. 
 He doubted the e^•idence of the senses ; he doubted or denied 
 the evidence on which our acceptance of first principles must 
 ever repose ; and, as a necessary consequence, he declared unre- 
 lenting war against philosophy. The power and originahty of 
 Gazali were so great, that he was enabled to inflict a deadly 
 blow on the cour.se of metaphysical inquiry in the East — a blow 
 the more easily inflicted because of its consonance with the in- 
 chnations and chief chai-acteristics of the Semitic races. (See 
 article AvERRHots.) The works produced by this writer were 
 in ntunber prodigious : two have always been held as the most 
 remarkable — his treatise on the "Tendency of Philosophers," 
 and that still more remarkable production, the " Overthrow of 
 Philosophy." The first treatise seems to be simply expository. 
 It is a resume, and a very clear one, of the existing state of the 
 philosophical sciences ; logic, metaphysics, and physics occupying 
 portions of it : and Gazali writes wholly as a peripatetic, or as 
 if he had been a faithful disciple of Farabi or Avicenna. He 
 stated afterwards, in self-defence, that he thought it right to 
 explain fairly what he meant to demolish. The work Tchd/ot, 
 or the " Overthrow," rests — according to the able summing-up 
 of il. Munk — on two propositions : — Fii'st, Although two cir- 
 cumstances or occurrences may exist always sinmltaneously, it 
 does not follow that one of them is the cause of the other : for 
 instance, a man bom blind, to whom the sense of sight was 
 restored during the day only, or while the sun is up, would 
 imagine that he saw through the agency of the colours presented 
 to him, and would take no account of the light of the sim which 
 enables these colom-s to make an impression on him. Secondly, 
 Admitting the action of certain causes, as constituted by a law ot 
 Nature, it by no means follows that even in circumstances whoUy 
 similar and on similar objects, their effects will always be the 
 same : cotton, for instance, may, without ceasing to be cotton, 
 assume (through the will of God) some quality which prevents 
 it from taking fire. In a word, what philosophers designate as 
 a law of nature or the principle of causality, merely is, " that 
 one thing occurs habitually, because God so wills ; " and we 
 admit it as certain, because God, kno\ving through his pre- 
 science that things will always happen thus, has imparted to 
 us portions of his own knowledge. But there is no immutable 
 law of nature capable of fettering the will of the Supreme. — The 
 fallacies inherent in this style of thought, cannot require, in 
 these our modern times, to be specially pointed out. Aven-ho^s 
 and others appear to have doubted the good faith and sincerity 
 of GazaU. IJnnecessarily, we think. There always have been 
 clever men who rush to enormous beliefs — denying, at the same 
 moment, and even spurning, those simple first principles, on 
 the ground of which alone, any belief whatever can become 
 rationally possible. Perhaps they discern some incongruity, and 
 choose the alternative most acceptable to their moods and incli- 
 nations. — J. P. N. 
 
 ALGAZI, Saxiuel-bex-Is^vac, a rabbi of Crete, author of 
 some rare works. Lived in the sixteenth century.
 
 ALGAZI, Chajiji, a Greek rabbi, who wrote in the seven- 
 teenth century, a work entitled "Xeschiboth Misclipot," (The 
 I'aths of Judgment,) Constantinople, folio, IGGD. 
 
 ALGAZI, SoLOMOX-nEX-ABRAHAJt, a rabbi who has 
 written a great many works on the Talmud; among others, 
 "^Vliabath Oiam," (Eternal Love,) 4to, Constantinople, 1C47; 
 "Zehab Sec;ih," (The God of Ancient Times,) 8vo, Constanti- 
 nople, 1683, &c. He was a native of the Levant, and became 
 grand-rabbi at Mayence. Died in 1683. — A. JL 
 
 ALGER, a learned churchman of the 12th century, who filled 
 various ecclesiastical dignities at Liege, and died at Cluny in 
 1131. He has left works on the " Sacrament of the Lord's Sup- 
 per," on the " Freedom of the Will," and other subjects. 
 
 ALGHAFIKI, AnoU-DlAKAU-AlIMED-BEX-MoHAMMED, 
 
 was an Araliian physician, who flom-ished during the earlier half 
 of the twelfth century in Spain. There are said to be three 
 works of his in mamiscript in the Bodleian Ubrary at Oxford. 
 ALGHALIB-BILLAH. See Alahmae. 
 
 ALGHISI, Galeazzo, was architect and military engineer 
 to the Duke of Ferrara, towards the close of the 10th century. 
 
 ALGHISI, ToMMASo, was an Italian surgeon, celebrated in 
 his day for his skill in operations for the stone. He graduated 
 at Padua under Vallisnieri. BomlGGO; died 1713. His work 
 on "Lithotomy" was published at Florence in 1707, and at 
 Venice the year after. 
 
 ALGMAEDSCH, Mkik-ben-Salo.mon, a Spanish rabbi, 
 who translated into Hebrew the Ethics of Aristotle, lived in 
 the fifteenth century. 
 
 ALGOENER, David, a Lutheran divine, bom at Ulm in 
 1G78, author of a v.ariety of works on mathematics and theology, 
 and editor of Sturm's Prcelediories. Died in 1737. 
 
 ALGOZALI, Abud-Achmad, an Arabian philosopher, who 
 ^vrote on the unity of G<)<1, on law, and many other topics, some 
 of which were translated into Hebrew, and published. 
 
 ALGRIX, Jean, was bishop of Besanyon in 1225, and after- 
 wards, as cardinal and legate under Gregory IX., preached in 
 Aragon the cnisade against the Saracens. Died in 1237. Ser- 
 mons of his are still extant. 
 
 ALHAKEXI I., a Moorish prince, emir of Cordova in the 
 time of Charlemagne, whose son, Louis Debonnaire, unsuccess- 
 fully menaced his throne, in conjunction with two rebellious 
 uncles of the emir. Though not naturally cruel, his character 
 deteriorated towards the close of his reign, when, having settled 
 the succession on his son Abd-er-Rahman, he shut himself up 
 in his seraglio, and abandoned himself to pleasm-e, at the same 
 time levying hea\7' taxes to support his excesses. By means of 
 his numerous body-guard of Christian prisoners and JIamclukes, 
 he crushed the revolts which ensued with such cruelty as to pro- 
 cure for himself the surname of Abou-l'Assin the Great in Wicked- 
 ness. Four years aftenvurds he died of remorse a.d. 821. — A. M. 
 
 ALHAKE.M II., son of Abd-er-Rahman III., and one of the 
 most remarkable of the Moorish princes of Spain, was the ninth 
 king of Grenada, where he reigned during the latter half of the 
 tenth century. The reign of Alhakcm II. was richer in the bless- 
 ings of peace than in the questionable glories of war, and, from 
 the munificent encouragement given to men of letters during the 
 period, may be styled the Atigustan age of Arabic literature. 
 He founded a library of such e.\tent, that an incomplete catalogue 
 of it contained 4-400 pages, and this magnificent collection of 
 books he opened to the students of all nations. Alhakem II. 
 ended his prosperous and splendid reign a.u. 976. — A. M. 
 
 ALHAKEM BIAMBILLAH, sixth Fatimite caliph of Eg^'pt, 
 succeeded his father Aziz-Billah in a.d. 99G. At first a dissolute 
 monarch, he aftenvards became a particulariy strict Mohamme- 
 dan, and destroyed all the \nneyards in his realm. He fell a 
 victim to a conspiracy in the twenty-fifth year of his reign. 
 
 ALHAKEM-IBN-ATTA, the Oxe-Eyed O'ocanna), the 
 original of the " Veiled Prophet " of Moore's well-known poem, 
 founded a body of Arabian sectaries towards the close of the 
 cigiith century. His skill in the natural sciences enabled him 
 to pass himself off for a jjrophet, and even for an incarnation of 
 the Son of God. Merou in Kliorassan was the scene of this 
 imposture. When hard pressed by the soldiers of the caliph 
 Mahdi, A.D. 780, he poisoned all his immediate followers, and 
 then burned himself, in order to make his disappearance from 
 the earth my.sterious and complete. — A. M. 
 
 AL-H.VRTITU, an Arabian astronomer of the ninth century. 
 
 ALHAZEN; among the Arabians ALHAZER, deserves a 
 
 special notice. His treatise on the phenomena of twilight is 
 astonishingly correct in theory, and indicates a distinct know- 
 ledge of astronomical refractions. He teaches how the obsen'er 
 may assure himself of the displacement of a star through effect 
 of such refi-action ; and he very acutely refutes the common 
 conception, that the gi-eat apparent size of the sun or moon, 
 when in the horizon, is owing to this cause. The period at 
 which Alhazen lived is not well determined. — J P. N. 
 
 AL-HEDJADJ-IBN-MUTAR, an Arabian mathematician, 
 who, about the commencement of the ninth century, or close of 
 the preceding, translated into Arabic Euclid's Elements and 
 Ptolemy's Almagest — the Arabic name for the MsyaXji 2uv7-a|(f 
 T?; 'A(rrjo»o,«./af of that author. 
 
 AL-HOMAYDI, a voluminous Arabic author of the eleventh 
 century, who wrote a work, still extant, ginng an account of 
 the principal Spanish Moslems of celebrity. He was a native of 
 Majorca; and a copy of his book is in the Bodleian library. 
 
 AL-HORR, emir of Spain, sent to supersede his predecessor 
 Ayoub in 717, and himself, on account of his tyranny, super- 
 seded two years after. 
 
 ALHOY, Louis, was the successor of the Abbe Sicard as 
 director of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb at Paris. 
 He has left, among other works, a " Discourse on the Education 
 of Deaf Mutes." Bom 1755 ; died 1826. 
 
 ALI, the name of various orientals of celebrity, whom we 
 arrange chronologically, without reference to the order of their 
 surnames : — 
 
 'ALI-IBN-ABF-TA'LIB, the fourth Khaleefeh, i.e., " Suc- 
 cessor " or " Vicar " (of Mahomet) in Arabia. He was bom 
 at Mecca at the close of the sixth, or the commencement of 
 the seventh century of the Christian era. His father, Abu 
 Talib, a member of the illustrious tribe of Koraysh, was Ma- 
 homet's uncle, and having a numerous family, he placed Ali 
 under his nephew's care. Ali devoted himself to the prophet's 
 service, and gave early proofs of great energy of character, as 
 well as of remarkable courage and intrepidity. ^Mien the future 
 legi.slator of Arabia assembled his relatives to announce to them 
 the nature of his mission, and to demand from among them one 
 who should be his ^■izier, Ali, after waiting impatiently for some 
 of his seniors to reply, offered his services with the utmost zeal 
 and enthusiasm, and in his subsequent conduct afforded ample 
 evidence of the sincerity with which he devoted himself to Ma- 
 homet's cause. He was second only to the prophet himself, in 
 the vigour and success with which he proclaimed and established 
 the religion of Islam. When the Korayshites resolved to destroy 
 Mahomet, it was Ali who, clad in the gi-een mantle of the pro- 
 phet, deceived the conspirators, and enabled his benefactor to 
 escape the sword of the assassins ; and at the battle of Bedr, it 
 was the heroism of Ali which mainly contributed to the \ictory. 
 In almost eveiy engagement with the hostile tribes of Arabia, in 
 the campaigns in Syria and Yemen, the most singular success 
 attended the arms of this intrepid wanior. As a reward for his 
 signally important services, Mahomet gave him his daughter 
 Fatimah in maniage, and conferred upon him the title of As'ad 
 AHah Al-ghahb, " the Lion of God always victorious." 
 
 The eminent qualities of Ali pointed him out as the most 
 suitable successor of ilahomet, but he does not seem to have 
 been inspired with the love of empire. It was not till after the 
 death of 'Othman that he was raised to the dignity of Hialeefeh, 
 and it was with great reluctance that he permitted himself to 
 be persuaded to assume the government. No sooner, however, 
 was he invested with supreme power, than he found himself sur- 
 rounded by enemies. Several of the most powerful chiefs, with 
 their followers, arrayed themselves against him, and united ivith 
 the govemor of Syria, and 'Ayeshah, the favourite wife of Ma- 
 homet, in raising the standard of revolt. Ali lost no time in 
 opposing the formidable confederacy, and having in vain en- 
 deavoured to bring about a i-econcUiation, met his adversaries 
 in battle, and was completely victorious. Subsequently to this 
 event he gained several important ^^ctories over liis opponents, 
 and at length united the Arabs and Irakians under his govern- 
 ment ; but Jluawiyah, the governor of Syria, still retained pos- 
 session of that pro\'ince, while the sovereignty of Eg}'pt was 
 seized by his lieutenant, 'Amru. The utmost (lisorder was thus 
 occasioned, and a conspiracy formed, which proved fiital to Ali, 
 who died by the hand of an assassin, a.d. 661, in the sixty-third 
 year of his age, and after a reign of nearly five years. 
 
 Ali, as akeady mentioned, had manied Fatimah, the daughter
 
 ALI 
 
 111 
 
 ALI 
 
 of Jlahomet. As long as she lived he took no other wife, but at 
 her death he had several \\ives, by ■whom he had a numerous pro- 
 geny, who, spreadmg over the East and West, originated vai'ious 
 dynasties, claiming authority as the descendants of the prophet. 
 
 Ah uni^uestionably possessed many qualities worthy of ad- 
 mii-ation. He was no less remarkable for his personal beauty, 
 than for his moral and intellectual endowments. He not only 
 possessed indomitable courage, but was generous and self-sacri- 
 ficing. He was one of the most learned men of his age, and 
 had a high reputation as a poet. These qualities and acquire- 
 ments have combined to render him one of the most illustrious 
 persons in the records of oricntd history. Like Marcus Aurelius 
 Antoninus, this celebrated prince has left behind him a collection 
 of maxims. — F. 
 
 ALI-IBN-ZEYD, Abul-Hassax Attaimi, a Saracen astro- 
 nomer, who flourished dm-ing the reign of the caliph Almansor, 
 and translated a set of astronomical tables, from the Palwi 
 tongue into Arabic. 
 
 ALI-ARRIDHA, a descendant of Ah, venerated by the 
 Scheik sect as one of the twelve legitimate successors of Ma- 
 homet. He was bom in 785, manied a grand-daughter of 
 Hai'oun-al-Rascliid, and perished by poison in 819. 
 
 ALI-IBN-AL-AGRABI-ABUL-HASSAN, an Arabian as- 
 tronomer of the ninth centun'. 
 
 ALI-IBN-AHMED-AL-EJIRA]S;i, a mathematician, astro- 
 nomer, and astrologer of ^losul, who died about a.d. 955. 
 
 ALI-IBN-AHMED-ABULKASSIM ALMODJTABI, an 
 Arabian mathematician of the tenth centuiy, who hved at An- 
 tioch, and •oTote a commentarv upon Euchd. 
 
 ALI-IBN-SIDAH or EBN-ISMAIL-ABUL-HASSAN, a 
 native of Murcia, hved in the tenth century, and compiled a very 
 comprehensive dictionarv of the Arabic language. 
 
 ALI-BEX-EL-ABBAS or ALAEDDIN-AL-MATJOUSI, 
 known likewise as HALT ABBAS, an eminent Arabian physi- 
 cian of the tenth centmy. His principal work, the " Ketab El 
 MaUd," was held in high esteem imtU the appearance of A\-i- 
 cenna's canon, and was even subsequently prefen-ed by many as 
 bemg more practical. He treats of dietetics, of the preservation 
 of health in different climates, of mineral waters, &c. He speaks 
 more clearly than his predecessors concerning the gastric juice, 
 and on biliary calcuh. His knowledge of anatomy was minute 
 and accurate, and he advises young physicians to seek knowledge 
 not in books, but in hospitals. — J. AV. S. 
 
 ALI-IBX-YOUXIS, an Arabian astronomer of great celebrity, 
 bom at Cairo about the middle of the tenth centuiy. His works 
 are considered by the Arabians as among the most valuable in 
 their language. He died in a.d. 1008. 
 
 ALI-IBN-HAMMOUD, the founder of the Hammoudite 
 dynasty in Spain. When the Ediisites, descendants of Ah, were 
 expelled from Africa, he and his brother found safety in the 
 court of Hescham II. at Cordova. 'WTien that prince was assas- 
 sinated in 1013, Ah Hammond resolved to avenge his death, and, 
 in a battle near SevUle, he defeated Soliman, whom he killed 
 with his own hand. He was, however, strangled by liis own 
 attendants in 1017. — F. 
 
 ALI-ALHOSRI, surnamed the Blind, an Arabian poet of 
 the eleventh century. He resided at Seville, and wrote in praise 
 of Sultan Almotamed. 
 
 ALI-BEN-RODHOUAX, an Arabian physician, a native of 
 Djizeh, near Cairo, who died in 1067-8. He was the author of 
 many treatises on medical science and philosophv. 
 
 ALI-IBN-JOUSSOUF-IBN-TACHEFIN, sultan of Africa 
 and Spain. He ascended the throne a.d. 1106. His empire 
 bcluded the provinces of Morocco, Andalusia, Grenada, Valen- 
 cia, as well as a considerable portion of Portugal, Aragon, and 
 Catalonia. Having lost a great part of his vast dominions, he 
 died of giief a.d. 1142-3. 
 
 ALI-IBN-BESSAJL an Arabian historian of the twelfth 
 centur}', a native of Santarem in Portugal. 
 
 ALI-IBN-KHARUF, sm-named Abul-Hassan, an Arabian 
 poet and grammarian, bom at Seville about a.d. 1155, where 
 he died in 1212. 
 
 ALI-AB AOUL-HASSAN, sumamed Nouredeex, or " Light 
 of the Faith," the second sultan of the dynasty of the Ajti- 
 bites, son of the celebrated Saladin, whom he succeeded in the 
 sovereignty of SvTia a.d. 1193. 
 
 ALI-IliN-ABI-ALI-ASSAIF or SAIFEDDIN, an Ai-abian 
 writer, born at Amida a.d. 115G ; died in 1233. 
 
 ALI-IBN-AHMED-IBN-ALI-IBN-MOHAMMED-ABOUL 
 HASSAX, an Arabian philosopher of high repute. He died at 
 Bagdad a.d. 1215. 
 
 ALI-IBX-SAYD, an Arabian geographer and historian. He 
 was bom at Grenada a.d. 1214, and died at Tunis in 1286. 
 
 ALI, siuTiamed Aboul-Hassan, sixth sultan of Africa, of the 
 dynasty of Beni Merin. He succeeded his father Otbman in the 
 tlu-one A.D. 1331. He was put to death in 1351, after being 
 defeated m battle by his son. 
 
 ALI-ASTERABADI, a Persian poet of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, the author of poems highly celebrated in his age, but now 
 almost forgotten, from their merely local interest. 
 
 ALI-IBX-ABD-ER-RAHMAX, an Arabian waiter, who re- 
 sided at Grenada in the 14th centiuy. He was the author of a 
 treatise on the military art, as practised by the floors in Spain. 
 
 ALI-KUDSCHI, a Moslem astronomer, bom towards the 
 end of the fourteenth century. He was the author of some 
 mathematical works. He died a.d. 1474. 
 
 ALI-ABUL HASSAX, succeeded his father Mahomet X. in 
 1466, as the twentieth king of Grenada of the Xasrite dynasty. 
 He was engaged in civil wars, first against the Moors of JIalaga, 
 and afterwards against his rebeUious son Boabdil. He en- 
 deavoured also unsuccessfully to check the encroachments of 
 Ferdiuand and Isabella of CastUe and Aragon, who took fi-om 
 him the stronghold of Alhama. Died about 1484. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALI-SCHIR-A:\IEER, vizier to the Shah Hussem of Persia, 
 flomished in the fifteenth century, and was esteemed as a patron 
 of literature and the arts. 
 
 ALI-BESTAMI or MUSSAKIFEK, a Turkish scheik and 
 author of the fifteenth century. He has left a poem in praise of 
 Mohammed, and various works on divuiity, philology, and law. 
 
 ALI-5IAKDUM, at fii'st a eunuch in the seragho of the 
 Sultan Bajazet II., afterwards pasha of Semendiia, in which 
 capacity he distinguished himself in a war against the Hun- 
 garians, took Dalmaria from the Venetians, and captm'ed Modon 
 and Koron in Greece. He was then advanced to the post of 
 vizier, and fell at last in battle against the Koords, about 1512. 
 
 ALI-^IOEZZIN, a Turldsh admiral, who served under Selim 
 II. He took Cyprus from the Venetians, but was finally de- 
 feated and slain at the battle of Lepanto in 1571. 
 
 ALI-ADIL-SHAH, succeeded to the throne of Visiapore in 
 India in 1557. After some victories over his neighbours, he 
 engaged in an unsueeessfiil attempt to expel the Portuguese 
 from Goa, and died in 1580. 
 
 ALI-MUSTAPHA BEN AHMED BEN ABDEL MOTTAH, 
 a Turldsh poet and historian, was bom at Gallipoh in 1542, 
 served among the janissaries, and died in 1599. 
 
 ALI-BEY, Albert Bobovvski, a Turkish author, was bom 
 in Galicla, translated the Bible into Turkish, and died in 1675. 
 
 ALI-MUES-INSADI or DEFTERDAR, a Tm-kish jmist of 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 ALI-CHORLILI, gi-and vizier of Tiu-key, opposed the at- 
 tempts of Charles XII. to engage the sultan in a war against 
 Russia, and having beeu deposed from his ofiice, died in the 
 Ciimea in 1711. 
 
 ALI-COUMMOURGI, grand vizier under Achmet III., frus- 
 trated the intrigues of Charles XII. of Sweden, conquered the 
 Morea from the Venetians, and having invaded Hungary, was 
 defeated and slain b}- Prince Eugene at Peterwardein in 1715. 
 
 ALI-BEY, a JIameluke, who, during the last ceutmy, usurped 
 the sovereignty of Egv'pt. Having risen from rank to rank, he 
 became one of the twenty-four beys who shared the supreme 
 authority with the Turkish viceroy. In 1766 he succeeded in 
 oveqiowering his colleagues, drove out the viceroy, and assumed 
 the title of sultan. He next allied himself with Russia, then at 
 war with Turkey, subjugated the coasts of Arabia, and penetrated 
 into Syria. The Turks were everv"where defeated, and Damas- 
 cus was about to suiTender, when the treacheiy of Mohammed 
 Bey, All's lieutenant, put an end to his conquests. Deserted by 
 a large part of his followers, he was compelled to flee, and being 
 seized bv Mm-ad Bev, was i>ut to death in 1773. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALI-BEY, the assumed name of DOMINGO BADIA Y 
 LEBLICH, a Spanish traveller, born in Biscaya in 1766. De- 
 sirous of travelling in the north of Africa and the west of Asia, 
 he assumed the name, costume, and language of an Arab. He 
 landed at Tangier in 1803, visited Morocco, Tripoli, Cv^iirus, 
 and Egypt, and arrived in 1807 at Jlecca. Finding his native 
 country on his return occupied by the French, he became an
 
 afran9essado, and accepted office under the usurper. This obliged 
 him subsequently to take refuge in France, where he published 
 an account of his travels. He afterwards set out for SjTia 
 under the name of " Ali Othman," but died rather mysteriously 
 at Aleppo, where liis papers were seized by the pasha. His re- 
 searches were published at Paiis in 1814. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALI, nabob of Oude, succeeded Assaf-Ed-Dowlah in 1797. 
 Showing symptoms of hostility towards the English government 
 in India, he was dejiosed in 1798, when, after procuring the 
 assassination of Mr. Charry, the English resident, he fled, but 
 falling into the hands of justice, spent the rest of his life a close 
 prisoner at Fort-William. Born 1781 ; died 1817.— A. M. 
 
 ALI-PACHA, vizier of the pachalic of Janina or Joannina in 
 Epirus, born in 1741, or, according to another account, in 1750; 
 died in 1822. The life of this man, whose ambition and capa- 
 city caused his career to be at one time invested in the eyes of 
 European statesmen with an extraordinary importance, remark- 
 ably illustrates the social and political condition of the Ottoman 
 cmi)ire in modem times. His father was a pacha of two tails, 
 an insignificant rank in the administrative hierarchy of Turkey, 
 and died when Ali was thirteen years old. His native place 
 was Tepellene, a town in the north of Epirus. His mother 
 Kamco seems to have been a woman of fiendish character, and 
 to have instilled into the mind of her hopeful son lessons of 
 immorality and cnudty, which he faithfully acted upon during 
 the long course of his after life. His career resembles, in many 
 respects, that of a marauding baron in the middle ages. He 
 started in life — so he was accustomed to boast — with " sixty 
 paras and a musket ;" gradually he made himself master of a 
 number of villages round Tepellene, until he found himself in a 
 position to buy a pachalic from the sultan. After a time he 
 obtained possession of Joannina, and was confirmed as the pacha 
 of that district by Selim III. Mr. Hobhouse, who visited 
 Albania in 1809, gives a graphic account of the place and of its 
 master. Joannina stands on the western shore of a beautiful 
 lake, ten miles long ; a chain of mountains, nearly always capped 
 with clouds, and forming part of the great Pindus range, rises 
 immediately from the eastern or oppositeshorc of the lake, while to 
 the west and south extends for many miles a green and fertile plain. 
 A few miles to the north, among hills and oak forests, lies the 
 supposed site of the ancient oracle of Dodona. Not finding Ali 
 in his capital, Mr. Hobhouse followed him to Tepellene, where 
 he found him busily prosecuting a little war against the pacha 
 of Berat. At the moment he arrived, he was keeping feudal 
 state in his castle of Tepellene, the court-yard of which was 
 thronged with soldiers and retainers. Mr. Hobhouse describes 
 him as a short man, about five feet five inches in height, veiy 
 fat, with a round agreeable face, and blue quick eyes. Though 
 totally illiterate, the questions which he put to the English 
 travellers evinced much intelligence ; but the predominant quali- 
 ties in his mind were cruelty and avarice, to the latter of which 
 vices he became so completely a slave, that it ultimately caused 
 his ruin. His revenue in 1809 was about six million piastres; 
 but large and indefinite additions were annually made to this in 
 the shape of sums paid for protection by towns and villages. 
 He paid his tribute regularly to the Porte, and duly furnished 
 his contingent of troops, when called upon, to the Tiukish 
 annies ; but he would never trust himself at Constantinople, in 
 spite of repeated solicitations from the Turkish government. 
 With such a reputation for wealth and ability, his head, he knew 
 well, would not have been safe on his shoulders if he had ven- 
 tured to court. Instances of his atrocious cruelty might be 
 given which would fill a volume; a single one may suffice, 
 related by Hobhouse, who on the whole is inclined to judge 
 leniently of Ali rather than otherwise. Visiting one day the 
 wife of his eldest son, Jlonetar Pacha, he found her in tears ; 
 on being pressed to expl.iin the reason, she alleged that her 
 husband was unfaithful to her. Ali, with whom she was a 
 great favourite, was very indignant, and demanded the names of 
 the guilty parties. She named fifteen of the most beautiful and 
 highborn ladies of Joannina, Christian as well as Mussulman. 
 jVli immediately had these unfortunate ladies seized by his satel- 
 lites, put in sacks, and drowned in the lake. Over the hideous 
 licentiousness of the tyrant it is necessary to draw a veil. Yet 
 Ali zealously obsen-ed the outward forms of his religion, at least 
 in his later years ; he duly kept the Ramazan, and entertained 
 several der\ishcs at his court. All's abilities appear to have 
 been overrated by European statesmen; in the declining and 
 
 distracted state of the Ottoman empire, he was looked upon as 
 a man capable of erecting a powerful independent sovereignty, 
 if not of seizing upon the throne of his master, and both France 
 and England accordingly paid court to him ; but the event 
 belied these expectations. In 1820, Sultan Jlahmoud, who 
 coveted his riches, placed him under the ban of the empire, and 
 sent a large force to invade his tenitories. A judicious use of 
 his hoarded wealth would probably have enabled Ali to make an 
 effectual resistance; but such was his avarice, that he could not 
 bring himself to t:ike this step. His troops, therefore, ill paid, 
 abandoned hun, and he was besieged in the fortress of Joannina. 
 For eighteen months he bravely resisted the assaults of the 
 Ottoman army, but at last he was left with only fifty followers, 
 and obliged to treat for a surrender with Khorchid Pacha, the 
 Ottoman general. Finding that his life would not be spared, he 
 defended hunself bravely to the last ; but after killing one and 
 wounding another of his assailants, he was shot down by a ball 
 in the chest. This was on the 5th Februaiy, 1822. His head 
 was cut off and sent to Constantinople. — T. A. 
 
 ALIAMET, Jacques, a skilful French engraver, whose 
 plates after Wouvermans, Berghem, and Veniet, are favourites 
 with connoisseurs. Bom 1728 ; died in 1788. 
 
 ALIBAUD, Louis, bom at Nismes in 1810, was a man of 
 violent political opinions, who, in June, 1836, fired upon Louis 
 Phihppe, for which he was guillotined the same year. 
 
 ALIBERTI, Giovanni Carlo, an Italian painter, some of 
 whose pictm-es may be seen in the church of Asti, his native 
 town. Bom 1680; died about 1740. 
 
 ALIBERT, .Jean-Louis, Baron, a French physician, cele- 
 brated for his knowledge of diseases of the skin, was born at 
 Villefranche in 1766. He became professor of materia medica 
 at the licole de Medicine of Paiis, and Louis XVIII. appomted 
 him his physician in ordinarj' ; but Alibert made his most im- 
 portant studies, and gave his most important instructions in his 
 special department of skin diseases, at the hospital of St. Louis, 
 where he taught for twenty years. His elaborate work " Traite' 
 Complet des JIaladies de la Peau, Obsei-vees a I'Hopital Saint 
 Louis," with plates, was published at Paris in 1806-1826 ; 
 other works of Alibert's are : " Discours sur les rapports de la 
 Medicine avec les Sciences Physiques et Morales," Paris, 1799 ; 
 '' Physiologic des Passions, ou Nouvelle Doctrine des Sentiments 
 Moraux," Paris, 1825. Alibert died in 1837.— A. M. 
 
 ALIBRAND, Francesco, an Italian author, died in 1711. 
 He was a Jesuit, and among other things WTote a casmstical 
 work entitled "Dell' Opinione Probabile," Messina, 1707. 
 
 ALIBRAKDI, Girolamo, a Sicilian painter, sometimes 
 called the " Raphael of Messina." He was a pupil of Leonardo 
 da Vinci's about 1497. 
 
 ALICE of Champagne, a daughter of Thibaut IV., count of 
 Champagne, lived in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. She 
 became the vrife of Louis VII. of France, and the mother of his 
 son and successor, Philip Augustus. Dming the absence of the 
 latter on a crusade, she held the regency of the kingdom with 
 equal energy and pradence. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALIDOSI, Giovanni-Nicola-Pasquali, an antiquary who 
 lived about the commencement of the 17th century in Bologna; 
 his writings are among the archives of that city. 
 
 ALIGHIERI, an ancient family of Florence. See Dante. 
 
 ALIGHIERI, Giovanni, an Italian miniature painter and 
 illuminator of considerable merit, who illustrated an ancient manu- 
 script of Virgil's works about 1193. 
 
 ALIGNAN, Benoit d', bishop of Marseilles in 1229, has left 
 several works, chiefly on theological and ecclesiastical subjects. 
 
 ALIGRE, Etienne d', chancellor of France, bom at Char- 
 tres A.D. 1550; died in 1635. 
 
 ALIGRE, Etienne-Francois d', first president of the par- 
 liament of France in 1768. He distinguished himself by his 
 political sagacity ; but after many efforts to serve his cowitiy, he 
 became an exile, and died in Brunswick in 1798. 
 
 ALIMENTUS, L. Cincius, an early Roman historian, who 
 receives high praise from Niebuhr, for having examined the facts 
 of Roman histoiy in the right spirit of criticism. He was a man 
 of high rank, acted as prajtor in the second Punic war, and 
 gained renown as a statcsuian. — J. D. 
 
 ALINARD or HALINARD, a learned Benedictine, bom at 
 Bourgogne, toward the end of the tenth centuiy. His profound 
 emdition and remarkable eloquence led to his preferment, and 
 he became archbishop of Lyons in 1046. Died in 1052.
 
 ALI 
 
 113 
 
 ALI 
 
 ALINGTON, Robert, a doctor and professor of theology at 
 Oxford, chancellor of the university, and about 1400 wrote a 
 variety of Latin tracts. 
 
 ALIPIUS, bishop of Tagaste, the pupil and friend of St. 
 Augustine. He was a lawyer by profession, and rose to the 
 highest judicial eminence. Like St. Augustine, he had at one 
 time led a careless hfe, and been deceived by ]\Lanicha;ism. He 
 followed his friend in his last great change, and was baptized 
 with him at Milan by St. Ambrose a.d. 387. He aftei-wards 
 accompanied St. Augustine to Hippo, and became bishop of 
 Tagaste. He probably died about a.d. 429. He is commemo- 
 rated by the Roman cathohc church on August 15. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALIPRANDI, BoNAMENTE, an Italian poet of the 14th and 
 15th centuries, who wi'ote a chronicle of Mantua in verse. 
 
 ALIPRANDO, Michel Angelo, a painter of Verona in the 
 sixteenth centuiy, pupil of Paul Veronese. 
 
 ALIS-IBN-ISA, one of the astronomers of Almamoun. This 
 illustrious caliph, amidst his other efforts in promotion of know- 
 ledge, proposed to obtain a more accurate determination of the 
 magnitude of the earth. The best mathematicians were there- 
 upon commanded to measure a degree of the meridian on Sin- 
 giar, a vast plain of Mesopotamia. They arranged themselves in 
 two divisions, the one under Chahd ben Abdomelic, the other 
 under Alis-Ibn-Isa. One division went northward — the other 
 southward. The degi-ee thus measm-ed cannot boast of remai-k- 
 able accuracy ; but there is considerable doubt as to the value 
 of the unit employed by the observers. The expedition or expe- 
 riment, however, deserves to be recorded, as the first modern 
 anticipation of our recent grand enterprises. — J. P. N. 
 
 ALISON, Archibald, an episcopal clergyman, was born at 
 Edinburgh — of which city his father was a magistrate — in the 
 year 1757. His education was begun at Glasgow university, 
 whence he went up as an exhibitioner to Bahol college, Oxford. 
 In 1784 he took orders in the English church, maiT3ing in the 
 same year the daughter of Dr. John Gregory of Edinbm-gh. He 
 obtained rapid prefennent in the church, being appointed a pre- 
 bendary of Salisbury, and nominated to several benefices in dif- 
 ferent parts of England. In 1797 he received an invitation to 
 become the senior minister of the episcopal chapel in the Cow- 
 gate, Edinburgh. He accepted the offer, and continued to act 
 as the pastor of this congregation up to the year 1831, when ill 
 health compelled him to retire from the active duties of the 
 ministry. He died Ln the year 1839, at the advanced age of 82. 
 
 His reputation as a writer mainly rests on his " Essay on 
 the Natm-e and Principles of Taste," pubhshed m 1790. This 
 work was favourably reviewed by Jeff"rey in the " Edinbm-gh Re- 
 view" for 1811. It is written in a lively and pleasant style, 
 much resembling that of his more distinguished son, the author 
 of the " History of Europe during the French Revolution," but 
 erring too often on the side of diffuseness. It may decidedly be 
 called pleasant reading, though the subject is at first sight a dry 
 one. The theory, to the proof and illustration of which the 
 whole book is devoted, may be briefly stated thus. The con- 
 templation of certain external objects exists in the mind, the 
 emotion of the sublime, or of the beautiful, or the tenific, or the 
 pleasing, &c. &c. Now, what is the real moving cause of the 
 emotion in each case? "Not," says AHson, "any physical 
 quality inherent in the object itself; it is not that a mountain 
 is in itself' beautiful, or a brick-wall iti iistlf ugly." His 
 explanation is, that by tlie law of the association of ideas, 
 the contemplation of such objects awakens in the mind the 
 ideas of other objects, which naturally excite in us the feelings 
 of love, pity, fear, veneration, or any other common and lively 
 sensation of the mmd. Hence, for example, he explains the 
 delight we feel in contemidating the aspects of nature in the 
 season of spring, by saying that those aspects call up the idea of 
 infancy^ and by consequence suggest the long train of ideas, of 
 fearful tenderness, frailty, growth, freshness, hope, and appre- 
 hension, which are naturally associated with the primary idea of 
 infancy. He denies that natm'al beauty can be perceived at all 
 by children. " The beauties of natui-e," he says, " have no exist- 
 ence for those who have as yet but little general sympathy with 
 mankind ; they are usually first recommended to cur notice by 
 the strains of the poets, whom we read in the course of our edu- 
 cation, and who in a manner create them for us by the associ- 
 ation which they enable us to form with the visible external 
 phenomena." Exactly the opposite doctrine to this is taught by 
 Wordsworth, in Ins " Ode on tlie Inthnations of Immortality;" — 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 " Heaven lies about us in our infancy ; 
 Shades of the prison-hoiise begin to close 
 
 Upon the growiug boy ; 
 But he beholds the light, and whence it flows, 
 
 He sees it in his joy ; 
 The youth who daily farther from the east 
 Must travel, still is nature's priest, 
 
 And by the vision splendid 
 
 Is on his way attended ; — 
 At length the man perceives it die away, 
 And fade into the liyht of common day." 
 
 Neither theory seems to give an adequate explanation or 
 analysis of the facts of our Consciousness ; but this defect is 
 more excusable in a poem than in a philosophical treatise. 
 (Knight's Em/Ush Cyclopccdia.') — T. A. 
 
 * ALISON, Sir Archibald, Bart., son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1792 at Kenley, in Shropshire, where his father was 
 then vicar. He was, however, educated in Edinburgh, his father 
 having removed to that city. He studied for tlie Scottish bar, 
 and was admitted as an advocate in 1814. He was appointed 
 sherilf of Lanarkshire in 1834, and in 1852 was created a 
 bai-onet by Lord Derby's government. His chief work is the 
 elaborate and voluminous " History of Europe, from the French 
 Revolution of 1789 to the Restoration of the Bovu'bons in 1815," 
 which he is now continuing to the accession of Louis Napoleon. 
 He has written also on the criminal law of Scotland ; on the 
 "Prhiciphs of Population;" a "Life of Marlborough;" and 
 "Essays, Historical, Political, and Miscellaneous," which first 
 appeared in Blackwood's Magazine. The works of Sir Archi- 
 bald, and especially his " History of Europe," have attained a 
 vei'y extensive circulation and great popularity. — -J. B. 
 
 ALLISON, Thomas, an English sailor, who, in the Russian 
 service, sailed from Archangel to about the seventy-first degree 
 of north latitude, and left a curious account of the voyage, 
 printed in London, with the date 1699. 
 
 * ALISON, William Pulteney, M.D , Edinburgh; D.C.L., 
 Oxon. 185U; F.R.C.P., Edinburgh; Hon. F.R.C.P. Dublin; 
 First Physician to her Majesty for Scotland ; Emeritus Professor 
 of Practice of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh ; formerly 
 President, Royal College of Physicians, and Professor of the In- 
 stitutes of Medicine and Physiology, Edinburgh ; F.R.S.E., and 
 Vice-President, R.S. ; Fellow and formerly President of the 
 Medico-Chirurgical Society, Edinburgh ; Hon. Member of Royal 
 Medical Society, Edinburgh, and Dublin Statistical Society, &c. 
 Dr. Alison was born at Edinburgh in 1790. His father, the 
 Rev. A. Alison, was the author of an " Essay on Taste," and 
 other works. The subject of this sketch, after going through 
 the usual course of classical studies, became a student of medi- 
 chie in Edinburgh university in 1806, and obtained his degi'ee 
 in 1811. During tliis time he acted as occasional seci-etary and 
 assistant to his uncle. Dr. Gregory, professor of practice of 
 medicine, in which duties he continued till the death of Gregory 
 in 1821. In 1819 he began to lecture on physiology, and in 
 1820 he obtained the professorship of medical jurisprudence and 
 police. In 1822 he was associated with Dr. Duncan, jun., as 
 professor of institutes of medicine, and also became one of the 
 clinical lecturers in the infirmary. In 1828 he was appointed 
 sole professor of institutes of medicine, in connection with which 
 he published the " First Lines of Pliysiology " in 1830, and the 
 " Outlines of Physiology and Pathology " in 1833. In 1832 he 
 succeeded to the professorship of practice of medicine, and from 
 that time gave regular lectures till 1855, when declining health 
 obliged him to resign his more arduous duties. 
 
 In lecturing on the different branches of medical science, first 
 in a general course of institutes of medicine, including the ele- 
 ments of physiology, pathology, and therapeutics, and afterwards 
 in the ajiplicatlon of the two last branches to practice, it ap- 
 peared to liiin that the present state of our knowledge admitted 
 of their being taught in connection, not merely as linked to- 
 gether by the details of anatomical structure, but as forming a 
 grand and important department of natural science — that indeed 
 to which many other parts of natural science may be regarded 
 as subordinate and subsidiaiy — the study of the living hotly as 
 existing in health, as aft'ectcd by disease, and as influenced by 
 medicines ; and that in accordance with the well understood ob- 
 ject in all the sciences, of tracing the phenomena included under 
 each head up to certain ultimate facts or laws of natiu'e, in this 
 department of her works a more systematic form might be 
 safely given to these sciences, than had yet been done by any 
 author or teacher in this country. This accordingly was his
 
 object in his lechires and in his writings, and stamps him as 
 one of the soundest and most original ph_vsiologists of his time. 
 
 Besides liis professional labour, Dr. Alison has devoted much 
 of his time and talents to the alleviation of the sufterings of the 
 poor. His he;irt, so full of the " milk of human kindness," bled 
 at what he saw among his fellow creatures, and accordingly, 
 since 1840, several papers and pamphlets have appeared on the 
 condition of the poor, the managennnt of the poor laws, and on 
 the relief to be given. In the Statistical Journal of Dublin 
 many of these papers are to be found. Others were published 
 sep;urately ; among the first being his rcjjly to Dr. Chalmers, the 
 other great philanthropist of those days, written in 1841. Great 
 &i Dr. Alison's abilities are known to be, his unwearied exertions 
 in the cause of philanthro])y, and his unbounded charity, will 
 ever enchcle the knowledge of his labours with the halo of ad- 
 miration and unfading honour. — A. W. P. P., & G. B. 
 
 ALIX OK CuAMPAuNi:. See Alice. 
 
 ALIX, M.VTTiiKW FuANCis, a physician, bom at Paris in 
 1738. The latter part of his life was spent in Germany, where 
 he became professor of anatomy at the college of Fulda. He is 
 distinguished as one of the earliest modern writers on the evils 
 of intramural intemient. He died at Biiickenau in 1782. 
 
 ALIX, P. 31., a French engi-aver, a native of Honflcur, born 
 1752. He died in 1809. lie was a pupil of Le Bas. 
 
 ALIX or ALLIX, Thikkhy, a historian and topographer 
 of Lorniine, was born in 1534, became president of finance 
 under Charles III., and died in 1597, leading several works on 
 history and finance. 
 
 ALK^VDIR-BILLAH, the twenty-second Klialeefeh of the 
 dynasty of the Abbassides, bom at Bagdad 947, died in 1041. 
 
 ALKALIvjVSHANDI, a native of Cako, and author of 
 several works in the Arabian language. 
 
 ALKEMADE, Coknelius van, a Dutch antiquary, born 
 1C54; died 1737 ; author of numerous original works and edi- 
 tions of ancient chronicles, &c. ; such as, " Hollandsche Jaar- 
 ootken of Rymkronyk," Leydcn, 1G99, which gives the earlier 
 histor)' of Holland ; and " Jonker Fransen Oorlog," which gives 
 an account of the struggle between the factions of the Hocksen 
 and Kabbeljawsen at Rotterdam in 1488-89. — A. M. 
 
 ALKHAZKEJI, an Arabian historian of Cordova, where he 
 flourislied about the midtlle of the twelfth century. 
 
 ALKHOWAKEZJII or ALKHARIZMY, an Arabian philo- 
 sopher, a native of Khorassan, bom about the commencement of 
 the ninth century. He was librarian to the Khaleefeh Alma- 
 momi at Bagdad, and wrote some mathematical treatises. 
 
 ALKINDI, a famous Arabian physician of Bagdad, about 880. 
 He wrote many works, and is sometimes called the " Mahometan 
 Pythagoras."— (Bayle, D'Herbelot.) 
 
 ALKM..VAR, Henry d', a Dutch poet of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. In 1477 he became counsellor to David de Bom-gogne, 
 prince-bishop of Utrecht, and in 1485 entered the sei-vice of 
 Rem' 11. of Lorraine. He was the author of several works. 
 
 ALKODHAI, Ahjied-Iun-Mouammed, an Arabian writer, 
 a native of Campos, near Jacn, who flom-ishcd in the eleventh 
 century. He was the author of a biographical dictionaiy. 
 
 ALKODHAI, iIoiiAMMED-lBN-;MoHAMMED, an Aj-abian 
 writer, a native of Estcpona hi Spain. He died about the com- 
 mencement of the fourteenth centiu-y. 
 
 ALLAINVAL, Leonoh-Jean-Ciiiustine Soulas d', was 
 a French writer of comedies in the earlier half of the seventeenth 
 centurj'. He led the life of a homeless and destitute wi-etch m 
 Paris, and died at the Hotel Dicu in 1753. Some of his pieces 
 were very successfid, particularly " L'Ecole des Bourgeois." 
 
 ALLAIRE, JuLiEN-PiEiiiiE, a French agriculturaUst who 
 airlcd in organizing the management of the public forests. Born 
 1742; died 1816. 
 
 ALL.-\IS, Denis Vaihasse d', a French author who wrote 
 a " Grammaire Fran9aise Jlethodique," and a political romance, 
 styled "L'Histoire des Sev.arambes." Bom m Languedoc, 1630. 
 
 ALLALEONA. See Alaleona. 
 
 ALLAM, Anukew, born 1G55, vice- principal of St. Edmund's 
 Hall, O.xford, and one of the assistants to Anthony Wood in 
 compiling his " Athcnoe O.xonienses." Died in 1085. 
 
 ALLAMANl), Jean-Nicoeas-Seuastian, a natural philo- 
 sopher, was born at Lausanne in 1713, and died at Leydcn in 
 1787. He was member of the Royal Society of London, and 
 professor in the university of Franek'er, the museum and botanic 
 garden of which were gi-eatly enriched under his supemitendcnce. 
 
 He edited the works of Prosper, Marchand, Buffon, Boerhaave, 
 and others, and is said to have been the first to explain the 
 phenomena of the Leyden jar. — A. M. 
 
 ALLAMAND, a protestant clergyman of the Canton de 
 Vaud, who published hi 1745, a " Lettre sur les assembMes 
 des religionnaires en Languedoc, ccrite a un gentilhomme pro- 
 testant de cette province par JI.D.L., F.D.M." Other anony- 
 mous works are also attributed to the same individual. — A. M. 
 
 ALLAN, David, known as the Scottish Hogarth. This clever 
 delineator of Scottish character, was bom at Alloa near Stirling, 
 Febraary 13, 1744. In boyhood his artistic tendencies were 
 first displayed when a bmiit foot confined bun to the house, 
 and by caricaturing his schoolmaster ; a proceeding which occa- 
 sioned his dismissal. A friend advised the boy's attendance at 
 the Glasgow academy of the brothers Foidis. His last work 
 there, an oU painting, represented the studio. His talents and 
 progi'ess having been obsen'ed, he was sent to Rome in 1764 by 
 Erskine of IMar. Gavin Hamilton assisted the young student, 
 who was admitted to the Roman academy of St. Lulve, and 
 gained the silver and gold medals. His historical picture for 
 competition was " The Origin of Portraiture " — the Corinthian 
 maid drawing her lover's shadow. It was engraved by Cunego, 
 and extended Allan's reputation, for the stoiy was told effectively 
 and with elegance. He does not seem to have equalled this 
 academic work, or to have maintained interest in such subjects, 
 though he painted "Hercules and Omphale" and "The Prodigal 
 Son." Mhtliful and observant, he delighted in the active world 
 aromid huii. His fom' pictures of the " Carnival at Rome " are 
 filled with ludicrous groups, m the style of Hogarth's " Elec- 
 tion." Leaving Italy in 1777, he remamed two years in London 
 painting portraits, and then retumed to Eduiburgh, where in 
 1786 he was appointed successor to Runciman as master of the 
 Academy of Aits. Illustrations of Ramsay's " Gentle Shep- 
 herd," and other characteristic pictm-es of Scottish rustic life, 
 occupied his pencil, and were engi'aved by himself in aquatmt. 
 On these his fame chiefly rests. They were almost totally de- 
 void of ideahsm, but possessed genuine national humour, de- 
 pending entirely on their artless truthfulness and drollery. The 
 scenery of Newhall was literally copied to enhance then- general 
 fidelity. His " Highland Dance," " Penny Wedding," and " Re- 
 pentance Stool," paved the way for the appreciation of Bumet 
 and David Wilkje. " John Anderson," " Maggie Lauder," 
 " Turnimspike," and " Wooed an' Manied," were attempts to 
 illustrate Burns, but deficient in grace and poetic feeling. In his 
 " Escape from Lochleven" and landscapes, Allan did not fulfil 
 the early promise of his genius. Had he nerved himself for 
 greater achievements, even in his own walk, he would have left 
 a more distinguished name. Died August 6, 1796. — J. W. E. 
 
 ALLAN, George, a Scottish poet of merit, was bom near 
 Edinburgh in 1806. He published a respectable " Life of Su' 
 Walter Scott," in octavo, and was a leading contributor to 
 M'Leod's " Original National ^lelodies of Scotland." He died 
 in 1835. Several of his songs enjoy popularity among his 
 countijmen. — C. R. 
 
 ALLAN, Robert, a lyric poet of Scotland, was bom at Kil- 
 barchan, Renfrewshire, on the 4th November, 1774. He was a 
 musUii weaver, and composed verses at the loom. He pubhshcd 
 a small volume of poems in 1836 ; emigrated to America, and 
 died at New York in 1841. Many of his songs published in the 
 " Modern Scottish Minstrel," evince fine thought, and are per- 
 vaded by remarkable pathos. — C. R. 
 
 ALLAN, Thojias, a celebrated mineralogist, bom at Edin- 
 burgh in 1777, was educated at the High School of his native 
 city, and spent his earlier years in commercial life. He soon 
 e\'inced great taste for the study and collection of minerals, and 
 in search of different specimens visited Paris and the mining 
 districts of Danphine, as well as the more noted mineral and 
 geological districts of his own countrj-. In 1812 he spent some 
 tune in the Favo Islands, and published in the Transactioiisof the 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh an account of their minerals. An 
 accident put him hi possession of a valuable addition to his cabinet, 
 in the shape of a collection, bought by Mr. Allan from a Danish 
 vessel which had been captured on her passage from Iceland, 
 and which proved to have been one carefully made by j\I. Gieseke 
 in Greenland. The cases contained some valuable specimens ; 
 among the rest, an entirely new species which was then named 
 the Allanite. His cabinet, arranged with great taste, was 
 visited and admired by persons from all parts of Europe, among
 
 rthers by Jl. Gieseke, who had been able to trace the where- 
 'iiiuts of his lost Greenland collection, and who professed him- 
 
 If well satisfied with the hands into which it had accidentally 
 i.Jlen. Several contributions were made by Allan to the Trans- 
 : ctions of the Eoyal Society, on geology as well as mineralogy. 
 His only separate work is on the nomenclature of minerals. He 
 wrote the article " Diamond," in the Encyclopsedia Britannica. 
 Died 12th Sei^tember, 1833.— J. B. 
 
 ALLAN, Sir William, R.A. and P.E.S.A., a distinguished 
 painter, bom at Edinburgh in 1782. He studied at the High 
 School, and early displayed inclination to become an aitist ; 
 was apprenticed to a coach painter, and became a fellow-student 
 of David Wilkie and John Burnet at the Trustees' Academy, 
 under Graham. After serving his time, he removed for additional 
 study to London, and finding little encouragement there as a 
 painter, he boldly started for Russia, as a new field. Driven by 
 a storm to Memel, on the Prussian coast, he soon obtained em- 
 ployment at portraiture, and with increased funds jomiieyed to 
 St. Petei-sbnrg and the Ukraine, where he profitably remained ten 
 years, accumulating materials for his principal pictures. Before 
 returning home in 1814, he beheld many episodes of warfare 
 with the invading French ai-my. His " Cu-cassian Caprives," 
 exhibited next year, secured attention, and was purchased by 
 subscription. The late Russian emperor, Nicholas, obtained 
 Allan's " Polish Exiles journeying to Siberia," a work of simple 
 impressive dignity and pathos, and afterwards commissioned his 
 "Peter the Great teaching Shipbuilding." Numerous other suc- 
 cessful works followed : — The Jlurder of Archbishop Sharpe, 
 Knox reproving Queen iLary, Rizzio, Death of Regent JIurray, 
 Slave Market in Constantinople, the Pressgang, Walter Scott at 
 Abhotsford, The Orphan, Bums, Tartar Banditti, Haslan Gherai 
 crossing the Kuban, Jewish Wedding, Fair JIaid of Perth, The 
 Widow, Humanity of Robert Brace, Death of Colonel Gardiner 
 at Prestonpans, Waterloo, purchased by the duke of Wellington, 
 and a companion picture, for the Westminster competition in 
 1844. Foreign travel was frequently resorted to, for study and 
 for restoration of health. Italy, Spain, Barbar}', Turkey, Greece, 
 Russia, and Belgium were thus visited. In 1839, Allan became 
 president of the Royal Scottish Academy. Love for Circassian 
 subjects, and his adventurous life among the Tartars, never quitted 
 him, and he had formed a valuable museum. " BannockbmTi" 
 was the last great subject to which he returned, but before 
 completing it he died of bronchitis, unmarried, February 23, 
 1850. He was buried in the Dean Cemetery, Edinburgh; Lord 
 Jefirey, David Scott, and Professor Wilson lie near his gi-ave. 
 Allan was pre-eminently an historical painter, and few have 
 equalled the skill and ease, or dramatic ^•^grlu^, with which he 
 represents an incident. He is never unintelligible. The clear 
 healthy mind of the man is apparent in his paintings ; his well- 
 balanced powers, his indomitable perseverance and shrewd sense, 
 with an appreciation of beauty, romantic wildness, and unvul- 
 garized character, that prevented him from degenerating into 
 either insipidity or extravagance. In private life, and as a 
 teacher, he seciu-ed the devoted love of all who knew him. His 
 dry humour and active benevolence vnll long be remembered. 
 His sympathies were always manly, generous, and patriotic. 
 His position in the literary circles of Edinburgh was beneficial 
 to Scottish art. Host of liis paintings are in choice collections, 
 and have been well engi'aved. — J. W. E. 
 
 ALLANTSEE or ALANTSEE, Leokhard and Lucas, 
 flourished as publishers in Vienna about a.d. 1500. 
 
 ALLARD or ALL^ERD, the name of several engravers of 
 Holland, who lived dm-ing the last two centuries. 
 
 ALLARD, Guy, a French historian and genealogist, was 
 bom at Grenoble in 1G45. He became a member of the parlia- 
 ment of Grenoble, and died in 1716, leaving a number of works 
 on the histoiy of Dauphine and its principal families. 
 
 ALLARDI, Pierre Gilbert Leroi, Baron d', a French 
 financier, was bom at JIontlu9on in 1749. He opposed the 
 projects of Necker and of Mauiy, and, having survived the 
 storms of the Revolution, died in 1809 at Besan^on. 
 
 ALLART, JIary Gay, a literary lady of France; died 1821. 
 
 ALLATIUS, Leo, a learned Greek of the island of Scio, 
 where he was born in 1586. Embracing the Roman catholic 
 faith, he became librarian of the Vatican imder Pope Alexander 
 VII. Died in 16G9. Allatius is the author of an immense 
 number of commentaries and classical editions ; and being vehe- 
 mently orthodox, he wrote a good deal on theology. He is 
 
 fabled to have used but one pen during forty years. Among 
 his principal works are : " PhUo-Byzantius de Septem JIundi 
 Spectaculis," with a Latin translation, Rome, 1640, 8vo; " Sa- 
 lustii Philosophi Opusculum de Diis et ilundo, cum notis Hol- 
 stenii," Rome, 1638, 12mo; " Confutario Fabulae de Joanna 
 Papissa, ex Jlonnmentis Grjecis," a refutation of the slanderous 
 fable concerning Pope Joan. — A. M. 
 
 ALLE, Geronisio, an Italian monk of Bologna, who flour- 
 ished in the first half of the seventeenth century, and became 
 famous as an orator and poet. 
 
 ALLECTLTS, a favourite of Carausius, whom he assassinated, 
 and usui-ped the sovereignty of Britain. Constantius Chloras, 
 the father of the Emperor Constantine, equipped two fleets in 
 Gaul against him, and having succeeded in landing his forces on 
 the British coasts, Allectus, whom the natives detested, was 
 abandoned by the gi'eater part of his followers, and perished in 
 battle about a.d. 296.— J. W. S. 
 
 ALLEGRAIN, Christophe, a French sculptor of the 
 eighteenth century, the son of a distinguished landscape painter 
 (A. Etienne). Although endowed with great talent, he did not 
 always succeed in freeing himself from the absurdities of man- 
 nerism. Two statues of "Venus" and " Diana" are considered 
 his best works. Bore the title of sculptor to the king. He was 
 bom in Paris in 1710, where he died in 1795. Gabriel, his 
 brother, was like%vise an artist, and imitated the father in his 
 landscape painting. — R. M. 
 
 ALLEGRANZA, Giuseppe, an archasologist of Milan, bora 
 in 1713, and died in 1785. 
 
 ALLEGRETTI, Allegretto degli, a coimcillor of the 
 republic of Sienna, of which city he compiled the annals for the 
 latter half of the fifteenth century. 
 
 ALLEGRETTI, Axtoxio, a Florentine poet of the 16th cent. 
 
 ALLEGRETTI, Carlo, an Italian painter of ]^Ionte Pran- 
 done, who lived in the earlier half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ALLEGRETTI, Iago, of ForU, in Italy, lived in the thir- 
 teenth century, and was distinguished as a physician, an astro- 
 loger, a poet, and a grammarian. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Alessandro, an Italian poet noted *br the purity 
 of his style. He was boiTi at Florence, studied at Pisa, became 
 successively " scholai*, courtier, soldier, and priest," and died about 
 1597. He was most eminent in satire and burlesque. 
 
 ALLEGRI, A:stonio. See Corregio. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Geroxlmo, an alchemist of Verona, who became 
 president of the Alethophilist academy in 1688. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Gregorio, a musical composer, born at Rome 
 about the year 1580. He is best known as the author, along 
 vnth Palestrina, of the music performed during the Holy week 
 in the pope's chapel, to which he was admitted a singer by Pope 
 Urban VIII. in 1629, ha\-ing been a pupil in the school of 
 Palestiina and Nanini, and afterwards an ecclesiastic holding a 
 benefice in the cathedral of Fenno. The famous "Miserere," 
 foi-ming part of the service, of the overpowering effect of which 
 we read so much in the notes of travellers, is his composition. 
 JIusicians tell us that its merit is not so liigh as these descrip- 
 tions would lead us to suppose, but that gi'cat part of the effect 
 is owing to the perfect performance, and to the grandeur and 
 solemnity of the whole scene. Died in 1652. — J. B. 
 
 ALLEGRINI, Francesco, an Italian historical painter and 
 decorator, was bom at Gubbio in 1587, and studied at Rome 
 under the Cavalier d"Ai-pino, whose style he followed with con- 
 siderable success. Assisted by his son Flasiixio, also a dis- 
 tinguished aitist, he worked in the Vatican. Died 1G63. — R. M. 
 
 ALLEIN, Joseph, a nonconfomiist divine, bom at Devizes in 
 1633. He is the author of the well-known treatise, "An Alami 
 to the LTnconverted." He died in 16G8. 
 
 ALLEINE, Richard, born at Ditchct in Somersetshire in 
 1611, educated at Oxford, and after assisting his father in 
 pastoral duties for some time, was in 1641 appointed to the 
 living of Batcombe in Dorsetshire. He was, like many more, 
 ejected at the Restoration, and died in 1681. He wTote several 
 religious treatises, the best known among them being his " Vin- 
 dicise Pietatis," London, 1664. — J. E. 
 
 ALLE^IAND, George l', a French p.ainter of the 17th ccn- 
 tuiy. He painted several pictures for the church of Notre Dame. 
 
 ALLEMAND, Jeax Baptiste l', a French painter, who lived 
 at Rome in the eighteenth centuiy. He was pupil of Joseph 
 Vemet. Some admirable frescos in the palace of Corsiai were 
 executed by liim iia 1750.
 
 ALL 
 
 116 
 
 ALL 
 
 ALLEMAXNI, Pietko, an Italian painter of Ascoli, flourish- 
 ing about 1489. He was a pupil of Carlo Crivelli, and became 
 one of the most distinguished artists of that school. 
 
 ALLEMANT. See Lallemaxt. 
 
 ALLEN, Edmcxd, educated at Corpus Christi college, 
 Cambridge, and a fugitive under Mary. Queen Elizabeth nomi- 
 nated him to the bishopric of Rochester, but he never held the 
 see, dj-ing soon after the appointment had been made in 1559. 
 He translated Melancthon's Treatise on the Sacrament. 
 
 ALLEN, Ethax, the fiunous champion of the Uberties of 
 Vermont, before and during the American war. He was born in 
 Connecticut on the 1 0th of January, 1737, but ere long removed 
 to the district with which his name has been so closely associated. 
 There he became the leader of the settlers in thou- resistance to 
 the chums made by the governor of New York, and successfully 
 vindicated their rights till the breaking out of the Kevolution. 
 
 After the battle of Lexington, Allen raised a corps in Ver- 
 mont, noted in the annals of the war as " The Green Mountain 
 Boys." It consisted of 230 men, and was speedily made illus- 
 trious by the brilliant and successful attack on the fortress of 
 Ticonderoga in 1775, the surrender of which, Allen tells us, he 
 demanded " in the name of the great Jehovah and of the Con- 
 tinental Congress." In the attempt made upon Montreal in the 
 autumn of the same year he was not so fortunate, but was taken 
 prisoner and carried to England, where he was confined in Pen- 
 denuis castle ; but having again been removed to New York, he 
 was set at lilicrtj' after the victory at Saratoga in 1778. His 
 brave deeds had not been forgotten by Wiishington, who gave 
 him a hearty welcome, and showed him the greatest respect. 
 The state of his health did not admit of further militaiy service, 
 but he retired to Vermont, and made himself active in maintain- 
 ing its independence, both against the adjoining States and 
 against the English government. 
 
 Allen occupied himself also in Uterary pm-suits, writing in all 
 four works ; the most interesting is, " A Narrative of Colonel 
 Ethan Allen's Captivity," (Philadelphia, 1779,) which is distin- 
 guished by the graphic style in which he details his exploits, 
 and for the vehemence with which, disregarding the ordinary 
 polish of historical writing, he inveighs against his enemies. 
 He wrote also a book, named " Reason the only Oracle of 
 Man, or a Complete System of Natural Religion," (Bennington, 
 1784,) to which there attaches considerable interest; for, as Dr. 
 Dwight tells us in his book of travels, " It was the first formal 
 publication in the United States openly dii-ected against the 
 Christian religion." Allen died in 1789. The latest account 
 of his hfe is named, " Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain 
 Heroes of '76, with a Sketch of the Early HLstoiy of Vermont, 
 by Henry AV. De Puy," (Buflalo, 1853.)— (Duyckinck's C'yclo- 
 pcedia of American Literature, vol. L) — J. B. 
 
 ALLEN, Ika, brother of the preceding, wrote the " Natural 
 and Political History of the State of Vermont," 1798. 
 
 ALLEN, John, D.D., archbishop of Dublin, to which see he 
 wa.s promoted in 1528. He was educated at Oxford, and in 
 1515 was employed by Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, as his 
 agent to the see of Rome, where he resided nine yeai-s. On his 
 return, he became chaplain to Wolsey, and was accounted " the 
 only match for Stephen Gardiner," another of Wolsey's chaplains, 
 for avoiding of which emulation he was sent to Ireland. He 
 was one of Wolsey's great abetters in procuring the dissolution of 
 forty of the lesser monasteries for the endowment of the cardinal's 
 colleges at Oxford and Ipswich. He was about the same time 
 appointed Lord Chancellor of Ireland, but was deprived of this 
 office in July, 1532, at the instance of Gerald, earl of Kildare. 
 In 1534, when Thomas Fitzgerald, commonly called the " Silken 
 Lord," broke out into open rebellion, and laid siege to DubMn, 
 Allen, with other lords, at first sought refuge in the castle, under 
 the protection of the constable; but fearful of the result, he em- 
 barked in a vessel from Dames Gate, with the intention of flying 
 to England. He was unfortunately stranded at Clontarf, where 
 he hurried to the mansion of Mr. Hollywood of Artane. On his 
 way he was intercepted, or, as other accounts state, on the 
 following morning was dragged out of the house of his enter- 
 tainer, and there, " feeble from age and sickness, kneeling in his 
 shirt and mantle, bequeathing his soul to God, his body to the 
 traitors' mercy, he was murdered in the presence of Lord Thomas 
 on the 28th July, 1534."— (Z>a/ton.)— J. F. W. 
 
 ALLEN or ALLEYN, John, an English phvsician, author of 
 several works on medical science. He died in 1741. 
 
 ALLEN, JoHX, pastor of a Baptist church, Spitalfields, a 
 high Cah-inist of ability, but deficient in principle. In 17C9 he 
 settled as pastor of a church in Newcastle, but soon left through 
 misconduct. He then went to New York, where he preached to 
 large congregations till his death. He was editor of " Tlie 
 Spiritual Magazine," (1752,) a work warmly commended by 
 Romaine. — J. A., L. 
 
 ALLEN, Joiix, a learned dissenting layman, bom at Tniro 
 in 1771, a proprietor of a private academy at Hackney for 
 upwards of thirty years. He died in 1839. He published trans- 
 lations of Outram on Sacrifices (1817), of Sermons by Super- 
 viile (1816), and of Calvin's Institutes (1813, 1838). His 
 original works are — " The Fathers, the Reformers, &c., in Har- 
 mony with Calvin," &c., by a Layman, (1812) ; " Memoirs of 
 the Life of the late Major-General Andrew Bum," (2 vols., 
 1815) ; and " Modem Judaism, or a brief Account of the 
 Opinions, Traditions, Rites, and Ceremonies of the Jews in Mo- 
 dem Times," (1816 and 1830.) The last work is still the best 
 book on this subject in the Engish tongue. — J. A., L. 
 
 ALLEN, John, M.D., was bom near Edinburgh in 1770, 
 and took his degree at the university of that city in 1791. He 
 was a zealous member of the association then instituted for pro- 
 curing parliamentary reform, while he gained fame as a lecturer 
 on comparative anatomy. For forty years he resided at Holland 
 house, as the confidant and friend of Lord Holland. He was 
 noted for his research into matters of history, especially con- 
 nected with the Anglo-Saxons. His detached works are — " An 
 Inquiiy into the Rise and Progress of the Royal Prerogative in 
 England," and "A Vindication of the Independence of Scotland;" 
 but he was best known as a contributor to the " Edinburgh 
 Review," for which he wrote about forty articles, of one of wldch 
 Sir James Slackintosh says that it was written " by one of the 
 most acute and leamed of our constitutional antiquaries." Mr. 
 Allen held the office of Master of Dulwich college, and died in 
 April, 1843. — (^Gentltmans JIagaziiie.') — J. B. 
 
 ALLEN, Joseph W., a painter, whose " V'ale of Clwyd," 
 " Leith Hill," and other landscapes, attracted considerable atten- 
 tion. He took part in establishing the Society of British Aitists, 
 and held a professorship of drawing in the City of London 
 school. Died in 1852. — (^Gentleman's Magazine.^ 
 
 ALLEN, Richard, a learned Baptist minister, who preached 
 in Barbican, and elsewhere in London. He died in 1717, and 
 is the author of two volimies, published anonymously, under 
 the title of " Biogi-aphia Ecclesiastica." — J. A., L. 
 
 ALLEN or ALLEYN, Thoslvs, an English mathematician 
 of the Elizabethan era, whose attainments made the vulgar sus- 
 pect him of sorcery. Patronized by the earl of Leicester, he was 
 accused of practising magic, to obtain for that nobleman the hand 
 of the queen. Alleyn has left some works of an astrological 
 nature, still in manuscript. Bom 1542 ; died 1632. — A. M. 
 
 ALLEN, Thojlvs, a nonconformist, bom at Norwich in 1608, 
 was educated at Caius college, Cambridge, and became minister 
 of St. Edmund's, Nonvich. But he would not read the Book of 
 Sports, and was therefore silenced in 1636. In 1651 he became 
 rector of St. George's, Noi-n'ich, but was rejected for noncon- 
 formity in 1662. He pubhshed a " Chain of Scripture Chrono- 
 logj-." Died in 1673.— J. E. 
 
 ALLEN, Thosias, an English author, bom in 1803 ; died in 
 1833. His principal works are : " The History of the Anti- 
 quities of the parish of Lambeth, and the archiepiscopal palace 
 in the county of Surrey, including biographical sketches of the 
 most remarkable persons who have been bom, or who have 
 resided there, from the earliest period to 1826," 4to, London, 
 1827 ; " The History and Antiquities of London, Westminster, 
 Southwark, and the parts adjacent," 4 vols. 8vo; and "A 
 Histoi-y of the County of Lincoln." — A. M. 
 
 ALLEN, William, a man of science and a distinguished 
 philanthropist, was born in 1770. His father was a silk weaver 
 in Spitalfields, London, and the son, being early introduced to 
 the same business, received a veiy hmited education ; but the 
 force of his natiu^al genius, aided by habits of uncommon indus- 
 trj', enabled him to surmount every obstraction. Quitting his 
 occupation at the loom, he obtained employment in the well- 
 known chemical establishment at Plough Court, Lombard Street, 
 in which he afterwards became the leading partner. Here the 
 energies of his mind found a congenial sphere. AMiilst his days 
 were spent in diligent attention to business, many of the hours 
 usually allotted to rest were devoted to study. His mind ranged
 
 with ardour tlirougliout the wide field of natural, chemical, and 
 experimental philosophy ; and in his thirtieth year, he com- 
 menced giving a course of instructions to an association of literary 
 gentlemen. He was elected a fellow of the Luuiaian Society, and 
 three years later, was appomted to dehver a series of lectm-es at 
 the Royal Institution ; this was speedily followed hy his becom- 
 ing lecturer on chemistiy at Guy's Hospital, an office which he 
 continued to fiU for many years. He made some valuable dis- 
 coveries in chemistry, and in 1807 was elected a fellow of the 
 Koyal Society. But whilst fame and wealth opened before him 
 a brilh.ant career, the religion of the New Testament became 
 increasingly influential in his life and conduct, preserving him 
 from the fascinations of worldly interest and honour, and attract- 
 ing him to a eouree of devotedness to the semce of God, and to 
 the promotion of righteousness amongst men. William Allen 
 was from con^^ction, as well as education, a member of the 
 Society of Friends ; yet he was no sect;man — his heart was open 
 to embrace as brethren all the trae followers of Christ. In 
 conjunction with many of these, both in his own and foreign 
 lands, he was actively engaged in originating and matm-ing a 
 great variety of plans for the benefit of his fellowmen. He slept 
 little, rose early, giving the first portion of the day to retirement 
 and prayer ; he shrank from no effort, he yielded to no dis- 
 couragement in the pursuit of duty — all the best faculties of his 
 soul were devoted to the cause of christian benevolence. In his 
 house was commenced that gi-and movement which has resulted 
 in expunging from the statute-book a great variety of sanguinaiy 
 enactments. With untiring zeal he laboured to effect the extinc- 
 tion of slaveiy and the slave trade; he gave his support to the 
 practice of vaccination when in its infant state ; orlguiated plans 
 for the establishment of savings banks, and made large sacri- 
 fices of time and money in aid of the destitute poor in Spital- 
 fields. He haQed with joy the advent of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, and became one of the earliest and most efficient 
 founders of the British and Foreign School Society. He was for 
 many years the treasurer of this valuable institution. Through 
 the influence of himself and an excellent firiend who was liis 
 fellow-traveller in Russia, the Emperor Alexander was induced 
 to sanction the introduction of scripture lessons into the schools 
 of that vast empire. In the Christian chiu-ch to which he be- 
 longed, AViUiam Allen held the office of a minister of the gospel, 
 and in this capacity he visited most of the countries of Em-ope, 
 declaring to people of evei-y rank the unsearchable riches of 
 Christ, visiting the outcasts in prisons and the sufferers in hos- 
 pitals, and pleading in the presence of sovereigns and princes 
 the cause of the ignorant, the destitute, and the oppressed. As 
 his day's work approached its termination, his spuit became 
 deepened in humility ; he died in the seventy-fourth year of his 
 age, in the faith and hope and peace of the gospel. His life and 
 correspondence were pubhshed by Gilpin, London. — S. C. 
 
 ALLEN, William, a wealthy tradesman of London, who died 
 at an advanced age in 1686. He wrote a number of lucid and 
 vigorous tracts on various theological subjects, which were highly 
 esteemed. Bishop Kidder preached a funeral sermon for liim ; 
 and his collected papers have a perface by Bishop Williams. He 
 was at first a dissenter, but conformed in 1658. — J. E. 
 
 ALLENT, Pierre- Alex^vndre-Joseph, a French miHtary 
 man of considerable reputation under the first empire and the 
 Restoration; bom at St. Omer in 1772; died in 1837. Com- 
 mencing his career as a connnon artilleryman in 1792, he liad 
 become chefde hataillon in the army of Buonaparte, whose cause, 
 however, he did not embrace dm-ing the Hundred Days, ha\-ing 
 in the meantime been created chef de Vetat major m the National 
 Guard. Under Louis Philippe he rose to be a peer of France. 
 Allent was a man of gi'cat general ability, and distinguished 
 particularly for his knowledge of artilleiy and fortification. He 
 Las left some works of merit on militaiy subjects. — A. M. 
 
 ALLEON DULAC, Jeax-Louis, a French naturalist, bom 
 at St. Etienne in 1723. His writings possess considerable in- 
 terest. He died in 1768. 
 
 ALLESTREE or ALLESTRY, Richard, was bom, Marcli, 
 1619, at Uppington in Shropshire, and studied at Christ Church, 
 Oxford. During his academical career he took part in the civil 
 war on the king's side, and was present at the battle of Kington 
 field. In 1643 he became M.A.,but shortly took up aims again, 
 and served the king till the end of the war. He then took orders, 
 and became censor of his college. The parliamentary visitors 
 expelled him, June, 164:8, for the part he had taken against the 
 
 Solemn League and Covenant, and he retired to Shropshu:e, 
 where he became chaplain to the Hon. Francis Newport, to whose 
 father. Allestree's father had been steward. By him he was sent 
 to France, where his father. Lord Newport, had died, to look 
 after his property ; and after the escape of Charles from the 
 battle of Worcester, AUestree was chosen as the organ of com- 
 mimication between the king and his adherents. In this service 
 he displayed much zeal, tact, and courage, and even when seized, 
 1659, at Dover, managed to save his papers. He was soon 
 released, and, on the accession of Charles II., was made canon of 
 Christ Church, king's chaplain, and in 1663 regius proft-ssor of 
 divuiity, on the death of Dr. John Creed. This important post 
 he filled with great success till 1679, when his failing eyesight 
 compelled him to relinquish it. He had been previously appointed 
 provost of Eton, 1665, which post he held till his death, 1680. 
 He was the friend of Hammond and Fell, and was ver}- instra- 
 mental in maintaining the succession of the English bishops 
 during the downfiill of the church. He left behind him various 
 works mentioned by Wood, of which the chief are a sermon 
 " preached at Westminster on the consecration of four bishops," 
 and forty sermons, published after his death. He was buried in 
 Eton chapel.— J. B., 0. 
 
 ALLESTRY, Jacob, a minor English poet. He studied at 
 the university of Oxford, and died in 1686. 
 
 ALLEY, Williaji, a reforming clergj-man of the church of 
 England, persecuted in the reign of Mary, but made bishop of 
 Exeter under Elizabeth. He has left, besides other works, a 
 collection of sermons, which he styles '■'■Uruxou.-jffiiov, or the Poor 
 Man's Library," London, 1565, 1571. Died in 1571. 
 
 ALLEY, Rev. Jerome, LL.B., an Irish dinne, bom in 
 1760, and educated in Trinity college, Dublin. He was rector 
 of the parishes of Beaulieu and Drumcar in the diocese of 
 Armagh, and a member of the Royal Irish Academy. He wi'ote 
 several poems and pamphlets, and in 1826 published " Vindicia; 
 Christiana;, a comparative estimate of the Greek, the Roman, 
 the Hindu, the Mahometan, and the Christian rehgions." He 
 died shortly afterwards. — J. F. W. 
 
 ALLEYN or ALLEN, Cardinal. See Al^vx. 
 
 ALLEYN, Edward, famous as an actor, and as the founder 
 of Dulwich college, was bom in the parish of St. Botolph, Lon- 
 don, on the 1st September, 1566. His hfe is one of peculiar 
 interest, not only because of his excellence as an actor, to which 
 Heywood and Ben Jonson bear testimony in flattering terms, nor 
 even on account of the munificent deed of charity with which it 
 closed, of which Lord Bacon says, " I like well that AUeyn playeth 
 the last act of his life so well," but chiefly because in the records 
 of it which have been preserved, we are brought into close con- 
 tact vAi\\ the greatest names in the history of the English drama. 
 It is with strange feelmgs, for example, that one reads a letter 
 from Alleyn's wife, in which she tells her husband of some poor 
 fellow coming to ask the loan of money, and saying " that lie 
 was known unto you and I\Ir. Shakspeare of the Globe ; " and 
 of the said Mr. Shakspeare, on being appealed to by the cautious 
 dame, replj-ing that " he knew hyni not, only he herde of hyra 
 that he was a roge." 
 
 We have no record as to when Alleyn first appeared on the stage, 
 but he had risen to eminence ere 1592, and was famous for his 
 representation of Greene's "Orlando Furioso" and JIarlowe's 
 " Jew of Malta." He took a prominent character in several ot 
 Shakspeare's plays the first time they were acted; for, with the 
 great dramatist, Alle}Ti seems to have been on temis of close inti- 
 macy. There is an old letter written by George Pcele, where we 
 read that, on one occasion, " when we were all meny at the Globe," 
 he " did not scmple to affimi pleasauntly" to Shakspeare, "that 
 he had stolen his speech about the qualitys of an actor's excellencyc 
 in Hamlet hys tragedye, from conversations man\-fold whych had 
 passed between them, and opinions given by Allejni touching the 
 subject." We are told, indeed, that Shakspeare did not quite 
 relish the joke, but that Ben Johnson put an end to the strife by 
 a witty compliment to Alleyn, saying that doubtless he must 
 have stolen it, for he had seen him uet times without number. 
 In the year 1592 he married Joan Hanvood, at the same time 
 entering into partnership with her stepfather, Philip Henslowe, 
 in the proprietorship of the Rose theatre on the Bankside. Only 
 a few months after his mairiage, tlic theatres in the metropolis 
 were compelled to close on account of the outbreak of the plague, 
 when we find AUej-n betaking himself to the pro\inces at the 
 head of a stroUing company. Some time after liis return, he
 
 ALL 
 
 118 
 
 ALL 
 
 and his father-in-law built the Fortune theatre in Cripplegate ; 
 and on the accession of Kinj; James in 1G03, their company was 
 known as " The Prince's phucrs." Our actor had also a share 
 in a bear-garden, and held with his partner the mastership of 
 the royal games of bears, bulls, and dof^s. From all these sources 
 of revenue, it is not surprising that Alleyn amassed considerable 
 we;dth, and added not a little to his paternal inheritance, and to 
 the dowry his wife had brought him. In 1606 he was rich 
 enough to buy the manor of Dulwich in Kent, and in 1612 to 
 purchase a large interest in the Blackfriars' theatre, some say 
 Shakspeare's shire, which he sold when he retired from London. 
 
 During these years he had conceived the benevolent purpose 
 of devoting the goodly manor of Dulwich to the foundation of a 
 college, for the maintenance of twelve poor men and women, 
 and the education and support of as many children, with a 
 master, a warden, and four fellows. He began in 1G13 to erect 
 the building, and about the tune of his wife's death, in 1617, 
 bad everything in jeadiness. There was some opposition to 
 granting the royal letters patent, for devoting his £800 annually 
 to the support of the college. It was made chiefly by Lord 
 Bacon, who was desirous of turning part of the money into 
 another, and what he thought a more useful channel. In 1619, 
 however, Allejni's wishes were gi-antcd, and the ceremony of 
 formally dispossessing himself of this part of his property was 
 gone through ; while he and his wife (for he had married again) 
 entered the college on the same footing as the objects of his 
 charity. Various motives have, of course, been assigned for this 
 great benevolence on the part of a successful player ; we are told 
 many things " which nobody is in the least bound to beheve." 
 Some speak of the gratification of vanity, wliile others tell us 
 that Alleyn was frightened into it by a real apparition of the 
 devil made to him once, when he was acting " the part of a 
 demon with sbc others." Setting aside the theoiy of this "for- 
 cible notice," as old Fuller calls it — for we can scarce look upon 
 the gift as conscience -money, seeing he did not renounce his 
 connection with the stage — the fact seems to be that Alleyn 
 was long known as a benevolent man, and the poor authors 
 who wrote for "The Fortune" seem often to have appealed, and 
 not in vain, to his kind heart for paj-ments not fully due, and 
 for which they dared not come directly to the elder and more 
 business-like partner. Some old papers in Dulwich college con- 
 tain curious entries made by Henslowe, of sums of money " lent 
 to Mr. AUejTi to lend luito" Ben Jonson, Thomas Decker, or 
 some other needy writer. In addition to Dulwich college, AIIoto 
 founded twenty alms-houses, the half of them in his native 
 parish, and the other half in St. Saviour's, Southwark. He died 
 25th November, 1626, and was buried in the chapel of the col- 
 lege. — (Knight's Cydopwdia, and Chalmers' Biograpliical Dic- 
 tionary.') — J. B. 
 
 ALLIBOXD, Peter, bom 1560, died 1629, rector of Chey- 
 neys, Bucks, and father of John Allibond, the author of a 
 Latin satire on the parliamentary visitors at Oxford. 
 
 ALLIER, AciiiLLE, a French antiquary, whose work, entitled 
 " L'Ancien Bourbonnais," splendidly illustrated, and continued 
 by a number of learned men and artists after his death, was 
 published at Paris in 1833-37, and contains much information 
 on the manners, monuments, and history of ancient France. 
 
 • ALLIER, Antoine, a French statuary, bom at Embrun 
 in 1793. In the earlier part of his life an officer in a cavahy 
 regiment, he withdrew from the anny in 1815, and devoted 
 himself mainly to art, though he was, during many years previous 
 to 1851, representative for the department of the Hautes Alpes. 
 Allier's best statues adorn the Chamber of Deputies. — A. ]\L 
 
 ALLIER, Louis, a numismatist, part of whose rare collec- 
 tion of coins is now in the Bibliothijque National at Paris. His 
 researches embraced especially the Archipelago and Asia Minor. 
 Bom at Lvons in 1766 ; died at Paris in 1827. 
 
 ^ALLIES, Jaukz, an antiquarian, bom in Worcestershire in 
 1787, practised for .some years as a solicitor in London, making 
 while there sevend communications to the Society of Antiquaries^ 
 and to the Archwological Institute. He after\vards retired to 
 his native county, following his favourite pursuit, and died in 
 185G, leaving a work, entitled "The Ancient British-Roman 
 and Saxon Antiquities and Folk-lore of Worcestershire." — 
 {Gevtlemnn'ti Mat/azine.') — J. B. 
 
 ALLIO, Mattko, and his brother Tommaso, two Milanese 
 sadptors ..f eminent skill, working for the cathedral of Milan in 
 1 1 48. Tliey executed several bas-rehefs for the Certosa di Pavia. 
 
 • ALLIOLI, Joseph Francis, a Gei-man theologian, some 
 time professor in the university of Landshut, but, since the year 
 1831, grand-vicar of Augsburg. His latest work is a " Hand- 
 buch der Biblischen Alterthumskunde," (Hanlcbook of Biblical 
 Antiquities,) published at Landshut in 1841. Allioli was born 
 at Salzbach in 1793. 
 
 ALLIONI, Carlo, a physician in Piedmont, and professor of 
 botany in the university of Turin, was bom in 1725. He was 
 eminent as a botanist, and published some valuable works, espe- 
 cially the " Flora Piedmontana," in three volumes folio, contain- 
 ing an account of nearly three thousand indigenous plants of 
 Piedmont. A genus of plants is named AUionia, in honour of 
 him. He died in 1804.— J. H. B. 
 
 ALLIOT, Peter, a French physician of the seventeenth 
 centuiy, was a native of Bar-le-Duc. He pretended to have 
 discovered a cure for cancer, and was summoned from Lor- 
 raine to attend the mother of Louis XIV., attacked by that 
 disease. His prescription, a metallic powder, only aggi-avated 
 the sufferings of his patient, and, after a short residence at the 
 court of St. Germains, he was supplanted in the care of Anne 
 of Austria by a practitioner from Milan, in whose hands she 
 expired. Alliot was the author of several treatises. He left 
 two sons, the eldest of whom, John Baptist, physician to Louis 
 XIV., in a work on the nature of cancer (1698), described the 
 treatment pursued by his father. Both father and son were of 
 opinion that the disease was produced by an acid humour in the 
 glands, and that it was to be counteracted by an alkali. They 
 recommended, therefore, as a lotion to be applied to cancerous 
 ulcers, a preparation of realgar, dissolved in a strong alkaline 
 solution, and precipitated by the acetate of lead. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALLIX, James Alex^vnder Francis, a French general, 
 bom in 1776. Colonel at twenty years of age, he took part in 
 the battle of Marengo, and in the expedition to St. Domingo. 
 Having been overlooked at the commencement of the empire, he 
 transfeiTed his services to Jerome of Westphalia, and was named 
 general of division. He retnmed to France in 1815, and held 
 an important command during the Hundred Days. Died, 1836. 
 
 ALLIX, Pierre, a learned divine, first of the Reformed 
 church of France, and afterwards of the church of England, 
 was bora at Alen9on in 1641, where his father was a protestant 
 minister. Endowed with excellent talents and a strong love 
 of learning, he studied in the colleges of Saumur and Sedan, 
 and commenced his ministry in the small chiu-ch of St. Agno- 
 bile in Champagne. His eloquence in the pulpit was equal 
 to his assiduity and success in the acquisition of theological 
 learning ; and he was ere long translated to the more important 
 post of Rouen, and from thence again, in 1670, to the church of 
 Charenton, near Paris, the principal charge of the Reformed 
 chm'ch of France, in which he had the honour of being the im- 
 mediate successor of the celebrated Daille. In this distinguished 
 post he signalized himself by the ability \vith which he defended 
 the Refomied church against the eloquent attacks of Bossuet, 
 and became associated with Ckiude in the preparation of a new 
 version of the Bible. In 1685 he was compelled, by the revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nantes, to take refuge ■nnth his fomily in 
 England, and founded in London a French chui-ch, which con- 
 fomied to the liturgy of the church of England. The fame of 
 his uncommon learning had preceded him, and he was received 
 vni\\ great kindness by the English clergy. Continuing his 
 studies as an exile, and having mastered the language of his 
 adopted coimtry, he published in 1688, and dedicated to James 
 II., the work by which he is still best and most familiarly known, 
 " Reflections upon the Books of the Holy Scriptures, to establish 
 the Truth of the Christian Religion." These " Reflections" were 
 included by Bishop Watson in his series of " Tracts," and were 
 reprinted in Oxford as late as 1822. Directing his efforts 
 equally against Romanists and Rationalists, he published in suc- 
 cession, in 1686, " Determinatio F. Joannis Parisiensis de modo 
 existcndi Corporis Christi in Sacramento Altaris," accompanied 
 by a dissertation from his own pen, to show that the dogma of 
 transubstantiation was not fixed as an article of the church of 
 Rome till the council of Trent ; in 1690, " Some Remarks on the 
 Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches of Piedmont," 
 followed, in 1692, by " Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical Historj' 
 of the Ancient Churches of the Albigcnses ;" in 1689, "The 
 Judgment of the Ancient .Jewish Chui-ch against the Unitarians 
 in the Controversy upon the Holy Trinity," a work in -which he 
 discovered the depth and accuracy of his Hebrew and rabbinical
 
 ALL 
 
 119 
 
 ALil 
 
 learning. These erudite works were received with great admira- 
 tion. In 1G90 the university of Cambridge honoured him with 
 the degree of D.D. ; and in the same year, Bishop Burnet be- 
 stowed upon him the more substantial benefits of a canonry of 
 Salisbuiy, and the treasurership of his cathedral. Although so 
 eminent in polemical authorship, Allix was a lover of peace and 
 union, and was particularly anxious to bring about a better un- 
 derstanding between the Lutheran and Cah-iuistic branches of 
 the protestant church. For this pm-pose he made great efforts 
 to engage the sympathy and aid of eminent ministers in Holland, 
 Geneva, and Berlui, but without effect. Nor was he more suc- 
 cessful in his interpretations of unfulfilled prophecy. In his 
 " De Messiae Duplicl Adventu Dissertationes Duae adversus 
 Judaeos," (London, 1701,) he fixed the year of Christ's second 
 coming for 1736. It is certainly wondei-ful that a man of so 
 great learning in ecclesiastical history should not have learned, 
 from the innumerable past failures of others in this field, how 
 injudicious it was to enter it. In the latter years of his life, 
 Allix took a considerable part in the Aiian controversy against 
 Whiston and others. He died in London on Febraary 21, 1717, 
 in his seventy-seventh year, leaving several children, the eldest 
 of whom was a minister of the English chm'ch. — P. L, 
 
 ALLONVILLE, Francis Arjiand, Coimt d', a French 
 officer in the army of Conde', noted, like many others of his 
 family, for his loyalty to the Bourbons; died in 1832. His 
 brother, Louis Axexajs'dek, a prefect and state counsellor, 
 published a dissertation on the Roman camps of the department 
 of the Somme. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALLORI, Aless^vxdro, also sumamed il Broxzixo, was 
 the nephew and pupiL of Angelo. He was bom at Florence 
 in the year 1535, and died in 1607. At the age of seventeen 
 he executed a picture of the " Cnicifixion" of such merit, that 
 it was placed in the famous chapel of Alessandro De Medici. 
 After this success he went to Rome, to complete his studies on 
 the relics of the antique, and the works of Jlichel Angelo, whose 
 particular attention to anatomy he carefully followed and im- 
 proved. He paid greater attention to design than any other 
 artist of the day; sometimes to the extent of neglecting the 
 coloming. Of being master also of the latter he gave, however, 
 undoubted proofs in many of his best oil-paintings, especially in 
 the " Sacrifice of Abraham," now in the gallery of Florence. 
 Like his uncle, he was very successful in portraits, and executed 
 many frescos. His treatise on the principle of design has, un- 
 fortunately, been lost, but was highly valued during his lifetime, 
 and added gi-eatly to his fame. — R. M. 
 
 ALLORI, AxGELo, smnamed il Broxzixo, a historical and 
 portrait painter, bom at Florence about 1501, died in 1570. He 
 studied with Pontormo, and, through him, adopted rather the 
 faults than the beauties of Michel Angelo's style. His design 
 was, however, very correct, and the grouping of his subjects very 
 imaginative. Worked a long time for the dukes of Urbino, and 
 at Pisa. Some historical portraits by this artist are amongst 
 the most interesting of the Florentine gallery. He also distin- 
 guished himself as a poet. — R. JI. 
 
 ALLORI, Cristofano, the son of Alessandro, was, like his 
 father and great-uncle, sumamed IL Bronzing. He was bom 
 at Florence in 1577, and died of a wound in his foot in 1619, 
 or, as some writers say, in 1621. He studied under Cigoli, 
 whom he soon equalled, if not sm-passed. His style greatly 
 differs from that of his father, from whom he only imitated 
 the accuracy of design. He was exceedingly studious and care- 
 ful in his work, even to the point of interfering with its progi-ess 
 and ultimate success. Yet this over-nicety, coupled with great 
 power of expression and exqiiisite colomnng, enabled him to 
 produce the many beautiful works that now adorn the galleries 
 of Europe. The most celebrated amongst these are the St. 
 Julian, the Judith, and the !Magdalen at Florence ; several his- 
 torical portraits, both at Florence and Paris ; the Philemon and 
 Baucis at Munich, &c., &c. Some of his oil-paintings having 
 been too much overworked whilst fresh, have gieatly increased 
 in tone, considerably however to the detrmient of effect. — R. M. 
 * ALLOU, Charles, a French archa;ologist, since 1821 a 
 distinguished WTiter on antiquarian subjects ; bom at Paris, 1787. 
 ALLOUETTE, Francis de L', a French antiquarian, author 
 of several histories of illustrious fainihes and other works of 
 research, was born at Vertus in 1530 ; died in 1C08. 
 
 ALLSTON, Washington, an American painter and poet, 
 born in 1779 in South Carolina, visited this couutiy in 1814, 
 
 and made the acquaintance of Coleridge and other celebrated 
 persons. He afterwards journeyed through Paris to Rome, and 
 added to the number of liis friends, Vanderlyn and Thorwaldsen. 
 From 1818 he resided at a village near Boston, and here he pro- 
 duced a number of pictures on biblical subjects, some poems, 
 and a novel. Died in 1843. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALLUT, Anthony, a French advocate, one of the writers of 
 the Encyclopedie, was a member of the legislative assemby dm-- 
 ing the earlier times of the Revolution, was proscribed for his 
 leanings to the party of the Girondists, and brought to the 
 guillotine 25th June, 1794. 
 
 ALLUT, John, the assumed name of a French fanatic, who 
 declared himself in London, about 1714, the apostle of a new 
 religion, the doctrines of which he expounded in a series of 
 works, now extremely rare. 
 
 ALMACHUS or TELEJIACHUS, a brave anchorite, who 
 threw himself into the amphitheatre at Rome to separate the 
 gladiators, and was torn to pieces by the mob, January 1, 404. 
 Upon this the Emperor Honorius, by the publication of an edict, 
 effectually put an end to these bai-barous sports. The Roman 
 chm-ch commemorates him on the day of his mart}Tdom. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALMADA, Alvaro vas de, a famous Portuguese cavalier, 
 celebrated by the national poet Camoens. After pm-suing a course 
 of knight-errantry in various coimtries of Europe, where he was 
 received with distinguished honom-s, he finally attached himself 
 to Don Pedro, regent of Portugal during the minority of Alfonso 
 V. That nobleman haraig fallen in battle, Almada, who had 
 resolved not to suj-vive his friend, threw himself into the enemy's 
 ranks, and fighting desperately in his amiour, was at length 
 overpowered and slain in 1449. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALMADHI, Billah, thud caliph of the race of the Abbas- 
 sides, reigned nine years from the death of his father, Abu- 
 Djafiir Almansur, in 776. 
 
 ALMADHI, ABU-Momv30iED-OBEYDi7LLAH, cahph of a 
 great part of northern Africa, and first of the djmasty of Fati- 
 mites, bora A.d. 873-4, was a descendant of Fatima, daughter 
 of the prophet ; and chief of the sect of Schiites. His reign was 
 fiiiitful in conquest, and he left at his death in 934 au immense 
 dominion in Africa, which his successors extended into Egypt. 
 The fom-th of the race of Fatimites reigned at Cau'o. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALMADJERITTI, Moslemah-Ibn-Ahmed, an Arabian 
 astronomer and alchemist, died at JIadrid in 1007. 
 
 ALMAGRO, Diego de, a Spanish voyager, companion and 
 rival of the renowned Pizarro, was bom at Aldea del Rey in 
 1475. His adventures, which are related in detail by a contem- 
 porary of the name of Zarate, extended from 1525 till his death 
 in 1538 — a period in which the romance of Spanish conquest 
 assumed one of its most splendid aspects. Setting out from 
 Panama in the first-mentioned year, he succeeded, after some 
 fierce encounters with the Indians, in joining PizaiTO, who 
 was reduced to gi-eat straits by the hostihty of the natives 
 and the want of pro\-isions, at a place called Chincama, 3° 
 north latitude. The united force of the two adventurers 
 amounted only to two himdied men, and with these they pene- 
 trated southwards as far as the bay of Quito ; but, harassed by 
 the natives, and unable to find subsistence, they were obliged to 
 retreat — Almagro returning to Panama to demand further sup- 
 plies from the governor of that town. These being refused, ho 
 made his way back unaccompanied to Pizarro, whose forces had 
 been diminished in the interwal to a mere handful. Three years 
 of incredible hardships followed — the adventurous Spaniards 
 pursuing their way along shores crowded with savage tribes, and 
 yielding only the scantiest supplies of food. They reached 
 Tmxillo on the Pcravian coast, and here, then- company being 
 still further diminished by desertion, the enterprise, hopeless 
 from the beginning, was abandoned. Pizarro shortly iiftcr sit 
 out for Spain, to demand from Charles V. the means of making 
 the conquest of the countries he had discovered. He returned 
 with more promises than were fulfilled, and with a patent of 
 vice-royalty, which had been procured by slighting altogether 
 the services of Almagro. Pizzaro and his brothers were to 
 govern in Pern ; Almagro was to content himself with the hope 
 of being appointed connnander of a fortress designed to be built 
 at Tumbez. His anger was about to take an active shape, when 
 Pizan-o thought fit to renounce his absmd pretensions, and so 
 conciliated his fomier companion by promises of equal dominion, 
 that in 1531 Alm.igro willingly aided in the expedition which 
 effected the conquest of Peru. These promises were indifferently
 
 kept, and Almagro, having also procured a patent of vice-royalty, 
 resolved to subdue for himself the neighbouring province of Chili. 
 He had prosecuted this enterprise with success for some time, 
 when he was summoned to the assistance of the brothers of 
 Pizarro, besieged in their capital of Cuzco by some tribes of In- 
 dians. He hastened into Peru, raised the siege, recommenced it 
 on his owii account when refused entrance into the city, and 
 carried Cuzco by storm ; but having to engage an army sent by 
 Pizarro to the relief of his brothers, he was defeated, and, after 
 a captivity of two months and a half, shamefully put to death 
 by his former frieud. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALMAGRO, Diego de, governor of Peru, son of the pre- 
 ceding, bom in 1520, inherited from his father the hatred of 
 Pizarro, who kept him in durance along with his governor, Juan 
 de Herrada, a bold and politic man, who took the first opportu- 
 nity of dehvering himself and his charge from confinement. That 
 occurred in loll, when the two brothers of Pizarro had quitted 
 Peru, and the partizans of Almagro, favoured by the indolent 
 security of the governor-general, had provided themselves ivith 
 arms, and all tilings necessary for an attack on Pizarro's resi- 
 dence, wliich the confederates were sworn to make the scene of a 
 murder, that should avenge the death of the first Almagi-o. On 
 the 2(jth June, Pizarro was assassinated, and Almagro pro- 
 claimed governor of Peru. Cuzco refused to acknowledge his 
 authority, and he was on his way to besiege that city, when 
 Christopher Baca de Castro, charged by the king to settle the 
 afl'airs of Peru, appeaix-d to dispute the legitimacy of the new vice- 
 roy's authority. Almagro having quickly reduced Cuzco to sub- 
 mission, gave battle to the king's commissioner. The result 
 was disastrous. He escaped from the field of battle only to be 
 brought to the block a few months after (15i2.) — J. S., G. 
 
 ALMAMOUN. See Mamoun. 
 
 ALM.A.XSOR. See iLvxsOR. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Antonio d', a Portuguese surgeon, author of 
 several medical treatises, studied anatomy in London under the 
 celebrated Hunter. Died in 1822. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Brites de, the Portuguese Joan of Arc, cele- 
 brated by Camoens and a host of his imitators for a feat of 
 valour quite as extraordinary as any of those which have im- 
 mortahzed the French " Pucelle," was bom at the village of Alju- 
 barotta. Of humble birth, and known in her native village only 
 in her simple calhng of baker, on the occasion of its being invaded 
 in 1385 by the troops of the king of CastUe, she snatched up 
 an instrament of her trade, a kind of shovel, and with that wea- 
 pon made a furious attack on the Castilian soldiers, seven of 
 whom were laid prostrate by this village Amazon. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Don Francisco de, first viceroy of Portuguese 
 India, bom of illustrious parentage towards the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, was appointed governor of the Indies in 1505. 
 In ilarch of that year he sailed from Belem with a fleet of 
 twenty-two ships, being instructed to explore the Red Sea, after 
 fortifying Sofala and Quiloa. He reached the latter place to- 
 wards the end of July, and eflected its reduction without diffi- 
 culty. Proceeding to Slomba^a, he experienced from the iloors 
 of that port a stout but ineffectual resistance. Their treasures 
 enriched all but iUmeida, who claimed an arrow for his share of 
 the booty. In the month of October, he reached the coasts of 
 Portuguese India, and chose for his residence Cochin, where he 
 assumed the title of viceroy, justified, his admirers thouglit, by 
 the extent of his authority, and the homage it exacted from native 
 sovereigns. At the same time, to shield himself from reproaches 
 and to testify his loyalty, he sent to Portugal in 1506, as a pre- 
 sent to King Emmanuel, eight vessels loaded with spices ; and 
 in the same spirit he proceeded to erect a fortress on the island 
 of Sofala, a part of his instructions hitherto neglected. The bril- 
 liant career of his son (see Louren^o d'Almeida) about this 
 time shed a splendid lustre on the administration of Ahneida, 
 soon to be closed by the arrival of Albuquerque, who, shortly 
 after the death of Louren90 in an engagement with the Jloors 
 before Daboul, announced himself at Cochin as new governor of 
 India. Almeida, burning to avenge the loss of his son, refused 
 to yield up his authority till he had chastised the infidels, espe- 
 cially the emir Hossein, admiral of the sultan of Egypt, and the 
 rajah of Calicut, who had shared between them the triumph of 
 Daboul. jVfter mflicting a summary retribution on the inhabitants 
 of the latter port, he encountered his enemies at sea, opposite 
 the town of Diu, and completely destroyed their fleet. Return- 
 ing to Cochin after so brilliant a victory, Ahneida showed him- 
 
 self more unwilling than ever to surrender his dignities; but 
 Albuquerque at length prevailed, and in November, 1509, the 
 victor of Diu finally quitted the shores on which his name had 
 become a terror and his vengeance a proverb. Three ships 
 formed the convoy of the deposed viceroy. Entering the bay of 
 Saldanha, near the Cape of Good Hope, to procure water, a skir- 
 mish took place between the crews and a tribe of Caifres, which 
 necessitated the landing of Almeida with all his forces. He had 
 penetrated about a league into the ulterior of the countrj-, and 
 was returning to the ships, when. La the midst of a cloud of 
 dust raised by a herd of oxen which his soldiers were driving 
 shorewards, a Cafire, perceinng Almeida's hehnet raised for a 
 moment, thrust him through the throat with a stick hardened 
 in the fire. Thus perished in March, 1510, by the hand of a 
 wandering savage, one who, in the course of a few years, had 
 spread the fear of European arms over the greater pait of the 
 Indi;m peninsula. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Don Locrenco de, a Portuguese naval com- 
 mander, one of the heroes of Camoens, was a son of Francisco 
 d'Almeida, viceroy of Portuguese India. Inured to adventme 
 from his earliest yeai-s, he was remarked, even among the veteran 
 heroes of the viceroyalty, for his maiiial dating. Ceylon sub- 
 mitted to his amis in 1505 ; and a year or two afterwards, with 
 a loss of only six or eight of his men, he routed at sea three thou- 
 sand Mohammedans. This gi-eat victory, however, was followed 
 in 1508 by a great reverse, involving the death of Almeida. 
 Hossein, the admiral of the sultan of Egypt, and ilelek-Iaz, 
 admiral of the rajah of Calicut, having effected a junction of their 
 forces in the port of Choul, gave battle to the Portuguese, and 
 avenged the Mohammedan disaster of the preceding year by a 
 victory over the latter, who had to regret the loss of their young 
 and brave commander. Wounded early in the engagement, he 
 continued to give his orders seated on a chair, till struck dead by 
 a buUet which lodged in his breast. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Mello E'Castro Don Ji.ax de, a Portuguese 
 diplomatist, successively ambassador at Rome and London, and 
 aftern-ards minister of foreign affau-s ; died in 1814 in Brazil, 
 whither he had repaired some years before his death. 
 
 ALMEIDA, XicoLAO Tolentixo de, a Portuguese satiri- 
 cal poet, bom at Lisbon in 1745, died in 1811. 
 
 ALMEIDA or ALMEYDA, Theodosius or Theodore, a 
 voluminous Portuguese WTiter, died in 1804. 
 
 ALJIELOVEN, Johannes, a Dutch painter and engi-aver 
 of the first half centmy. 
 
 ALMELOVEN, Theodore J^ixssoN A' an, a learned Dutch 
 physician, bora at Mydrecht in 1657, distinguished himself in 
 languages, philosophy, and medicine at Utrecht ; became pro- 
 fessor of Greek hterature and of medicine at Harderwyk in 1697, 
 and in that capacity continued to enjoy the renown to which his 
 various erudition entitled him till his death in 1712. He left 
 many treatises in Latin, chiefly on medical subjects. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALJIENAR, John, a Spanish physician, author of a treatise, 
 " De Morbo Gallico," flourished in the fifteenth century. 
 
 ALMEXDINGEN, Locis Hercher de, a German juris- 
 consult, distinguished as an essapst on political and philosophical 
 subjects, son of the minister of Hesse Dannstadt at the court of 
 France, was bom at Paiis in 1766 ; died in 1827. 
 
 ALMEON or ALMAJNZOR, an Arabian prince and mathema- 
 tician of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, who wrote astrono- 
 mical obsen-ations on the sun, and is not to be confounded with 
 another author of the same name, who wrote on astrology. 
 
 ALJTER, John Christlsjn, a Danish painter of some cele- 
 brity, bom at Copenhagen in 1742, died in 1792. 
 
 ALMERAS, Baron Louis, a French general, bom in 1764, 
 distinguished himself in 1794 by a brflhant feat of arms, hav- 
 ing, at the head of only two hundred men, repulsed in a pass 
 of the Alps a force of fifteen himdi'ed; was present ynih Kleber 
 in Egypt ; and on his return, having been named general of divi- 
 sion, took part in the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian campaigns 
 of Napoleon. Died in 1823 at Bourdeaux. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALMEYDA, Don Fr^vncisco de, a Portuguese theologian, 
 bom of noble pai-entage at Lisbon in 1701, acquired a reputa- 
 tion as a writer on canon law, which he elucidated in a work of 
 great research, still highly esteemed. 
 
 ALMI'CI, Pietro-Camillo, a learned Italian, bom at 
 Brescia in 1714. He has left a variety of treatises in theology, 
 history, and general literature. He died in 1779. 
 
 ALMODO'VAR, the Duke of, a Spanish diplomatist of con-
 
 siderable skill and learning. He was ambassador from the comt 
 of Spain to Russia, Portugal, and England, and on retiring from 
 public life, occupied himself in Hter:uy pursuits, residing at 
 Madrid, where he died in 1794. 
 
 *ALMODO'VAR, Don Ildefonso Dias de Ribera, Count 
 of, a native of Valentia. After being for some time exiled from 
 his native land, he returned to Spain on the death of Ferdinand 
 VII., and became president of the Spanish Cortes, and minister 
 at war. In 18-13 he was minister of foreign affairs. 
 
 ALMOLI, Salomon, a learned rabbi of the Levant, who 
 lived about the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the six- 
 teenth centmy. Besides a variety of other works, he wrote a 
 treatise on the " Interpretation of Dreams," containing the 
 opinions of the rabbinical writers on that subject. 
 
 ALMON, John, a native of Liverpool, born in 1738. lie 
 received his education at Warrington, and having gone to sea 
 and visited various parts of the world, at length settled in 
 London about the year 1759. Having attached himself to the 
 political party represented by the celebrated Wilkes, he soon 
 rendered himself remarkable by his zeal and abihty in support 
 of their opinions. Almon was the author of a great variety of 
 treatises of a political character, and edited in succession several 
 periodical works. He thus obtained a high degree of influence 
 with his paily, and having become a publisher, realized a con- 
 siderable fortune. Almon is said to have emigrated to America, 
 but subsequently to have returned, and settled at his villa of 
 Boxmoor, where he died in 1805. — F. 
 
 ALMONACID, Sebastian de, a Spanish sculptor, who lived 
 at the end of the fifteenth and the commencement of the six- 
 teenth centmy. He executed various works for the cathedi'als 
 of Toledo and Seville. 
 
 ALMONDE or ALLE5I0NDA, Philip van, an admiral in 
 the navy of Holland, born at Briel in 1646. He gi-eatly 
 distinguished himself by his skill and intrepidity in several 
 naval battles, under Admiral de Ruyter, with the English fleet. 
 He accompanied the prince of Orange in his expedition to 
 England in 1688, and after that period continued to fight side 
 by side with the English, against the naval forces of France and 
 Spain, rendering most miportant service by his well-tried valour 
 and seamanship. He commanded the Dutch fleet in the battle 
 of La Hogue in 1692, and took an important share in the de- 
 struction of the Spanish fleet at Vigo in 1702. Almonde may 
 be justly considered one of the most distinguished heroes in the 
 history of the naval enterprise of Holland. He died at his 
 country seat of Haaswijk in 1711. — F. 
 
 ALMOR, Don Juan, a Spanish artist, who painted several 
 pictures for the convent of the Carthusians, near Saragossa, in 
 which he died about the end of the eighteenth century. 
 
 ALMOSNINO, Moses-Ben-Bauuch, a learned rabbi, a 
 native of Salonild, bom in 1523, whose numerous works exhibit 
 great scholarship and research. He was one of the greatest writers 
 of his age. He died about the end of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ALMOSNINO, Simon, son of the preceding, and an author 
 in Hebrew. — Samuel, another rabbi of the same name, 
 flourished in the seventeenth centmy, and wrote on the minor 
 prophets. 
 
 ALMQUIST, CiiARLES-JoNAS-Louis, a Swedish writer, 
 born in 1793. He was the author of several educational works, 
 but is better known in Sweden by his poems and romances. 
 
 ALNANDER, Olaf-Johann, a Swedish antiquarian writer, 
 a native of Norrkoping. He lived about the end of the seven- 
 teenth and commencement of the eighteenth century. 
 
 ALOMPRA, the founder of the reigning dynasty of Burmah, 
 bom about the year 1710. By the exercise of great talent and 
 vigour, he rose from being the chief of a petty tribe to the pos- 
 session of sovereign power, and distinguished himself not less by 
 the wisdom of his administration, than by his valour, skill, and 
 promptitude as a military leader. He died in 1760. — F. 
 
 ALONSO, De Mendoza, a Spanish voyager o^' the sixteenth 
 century, who founded, in 1548, the town of Paz in Peni. 
 
 ALOXSO, De JIeucauillo, a Spanish voyager of the six- 
 teenth century, the founder in Qidto of the city of Loja or 
 Loxa, the vicinity of which is famous for producing the cele- 
 brated febrifuge, known as Cascarilla de Loxa. 
 
 ALONSO, DE LOS Rios, Fkancisco, and his son and pupil 
 Pedro, Spanish sculptors, natives of Valladolid, flourished in 
 the second part of the seventeenth C(>ntury. They worked for the 
 cathedral and other churches of JIadrid. 
 vol. I. 
 
 ALOPA, Lorenzo d', a native of Venice, bom about tho 
 middle of the fifteenth centmy. He carried on business as a 
 printer in Florence, and being a man of learning, and well ac- 
 quainted with the ancient languages of Greece and Rome, pro- 
 duced some admirable editions of the classic authors, equally 
 distinguished for beautiful typography and accuracy of text. 
 The last works printed by him issued from the press about the 
 end of the century, none having appeared after 1500. — F. 
 
 ALNEWICK, Martin, an English Franciscan, who died in 
 1336, wi'ote on Lombard's " Sentences." — William, an Enghsh 
 Franciscan of the same period, wrote on the same favourite sub- 
 ject, and also on natural philosophy. 
 
 ALNPEKE, DiTLiEB von, a German writer. He lived at 
 Reval towards the end of the thirteenth century. He was the 
 author of a work called the " Chronicle of Livonia." 
 
 ALOADIN. See Aladin. 
 
 ALOIS, Gian-Francesco, an Italian poet, a native of Ca- 
 serta, near IvTaples, who was put to death in 1564, on suspicion 
 of having adopted some of the doctrines of the Reformation. 
 
 ALOISI, Baldassare, surnamed il Galanino, a Bolognese 
 painter; bom 1578; died 1638. He studied with his relatives, 
 the Caracci, under whom he distinguished himself as a historical 
 painter. In after-times, however, circumstances compelled him 
 to attend almost exclusively to portraits. 
 
 ALO'JA, Giuseppe, a Neapolitan engraver of the eigh- 
 teenth century. 
 
 ALOPjEUS, David, a younger brother of Maximilian, bom 
 at Wiborg in 1769. He was successively ambassador from the 
 com-t of Russia at Stockliolm and Berlin, and died in the latter 
 city in 1831. 
 
 ALOP^EUS, Maximilian, a Russian diplomatist, bom at 
 Wiborg in Finland in 1748. He was appointed by Catherine 
 II. mmister plenipotentiary to the com-t of Prussia. Subse- 
 quently to the treaty of Tilsit, he visited London as envoy ex- 
 traordinary at the British court. He died at Frankfort in 1822. 
 
 ALOS, Johannes, a Spanish physician, resident m the latter 
 part of the seventeenth century at Barcelona, where he was 
 professor of anatomy and phamiacy. 
 
 ALOYSIUS, GoNZAGA, was bom at Mantua m 1568. He 
 was the son of the marquis of Castiglione, and is commemorated 
 by the church of Rome on June 21, because, on that day, in the 
 year 1591, he fell a victim to his zeal in visiting the sick during 
 a pestilence at Rome. 
 
 ALPAGO, Andrea, an Italian physician, a native of Bel- 
 luno, lived in the sixteenth century, and wrote several works, 
 relating chiefly to the theory and practice of medicine. 
 
 ALPAIDE or ALPAIS, sumamed the Beautiful, tho mis- 
 tress of Pepin d'Hcristal, mayor of the palace to Thierri IL, 
 lung of France, in the eighth century. She was the mother of 
 Charles Martel. 
 
 ALP-ARSLA'N, a renowned Eastern wan-ior, the nephew and 
 successor of Toghral, sultan of the Seljuks, was bora in 1030, 
 and came to the throne in 1063. He showed gi-eat wisdom in 
 the choice of his ministers, having soon after his accession raised 
 to power Nizamii-1-Miilk, who is known for his gi-eat talents as 
 a statesman and historian. Alp-Arslan soon entered on a career 
 of successful conquest in Asia Minor, having, after several minor 
 achievements, conquered tho Greeks in Syria, under the com- 
 mand of Nicephorus Botaniates. But the Emperor Romanus 
 Diogenes having placed hhnsdf at the head of his forces, speedily 
 turned the tide of fortune, for, marching into Cilicia, he attacked 
 the Turks when tlieir leader was absent, and totally defeated 
 them. He took advantage of Alp-Ar.shin's continued absence to 
 carry on his conquests till the Turks were driven beyond the 
 Euphrates; but in 1071, Alp-Arsldn opposed the emperor with 
 an anny of 40,000, and though the latter was at the head of 
 100,000 men, yet his authority was so broken by disputes and 
 mutinies among his mercenaries, that he suflered a total defeat, 
 and was himself taken prisoner. Romanus was only set at 
 liberty on the promise of a largo ransom, an .annual tribute, 
 and the restoration to liberty of all his Mohammedan captives. 
 It does not ajipear that all these conditions were fulfilled, the 
 emperor having died in the same year. Alp-Arsl;in was assas- 
 sinated in 1072 by Berzem, a rebellious subject, who, when 
 brought before him a prisoner, stabbed him on his throne. — J. B. 
 
 ALPEDRINHA, 1). Jorge da Costa, cardinal, and arch- 
 bishop of Lisbon, born at Alpcdrinha, in Beira, about 1406, was 
 of a noble family, and possessed considerable wealth. He was 
 
 Q
 
 first bishop of Evora, from which he was preferred to the archie- 
 piscopate. He died at the advanced age of 102. 
 
 ALPKTRAGIL'S, an Arabian of Jlorocco; flouiished about 
 the middle of the twelftli century ; celebrated for a new physical 
 thcoiy of the celestial motions. His idea was that the stars 
 move in spirals— thus representuig or rather combining both 
 their proper and diunial motions. 
 
 ALIMIANUS or ALPHANI was a physician of Salernum, 
 in the sixteenth century, and author of a work on the subject of 
 the plague and other pestilential diseases. 
 
 ALl'HARABIUS, Jacouus, an antiquarian of Leonessa in 
 the kingdom of Naples, in the beginning of the 18th ccntuiy. 
 
 ALl'HliGE, also Eli'HKGE, St., and archbishop of Canterbury, 
 was a monk of extreme strictness and holiness of life. Called 
 to preside over the great monastery at Bath, he distinguished 
 his rule by tlie suppression of many in-cgularities. St. Dunstan 
 was so impressed with his value, that he procured his appoint- 
 ment to the see of Winchester a.d. 98-1, whence in 1006 he was 
 translated to Canterbuiy. He received his pall at Rome, and on 
 his return held a national synod, 1009, in which the observance 
 of Friday as a weekly fiist was confirmed, a decree which is em- 
 bodied in the present Englisli Prayer Book. Wlien Canterbuiy 
 was besieged by the Danes, the primate did not abandon his 
 (lock, but remained at his post, animating and encouraging the 
 defenders. On the capture of the city he was taken prisoner, 
 confined for several months, and cruelly massacred in the 59th 
 year of his age. The date of his martyrdom is Apiil 19, 1012, 
 on whicli day he is commemorated in the EngUsh and Roman 
 calendar. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ALPIIEN, D.VNiEL VAN, a Dutch laviycr and author. He 
 was professor of canon and civil law in the university of Leyden. 
 He was born in 1713, and died in 1797. 
 
 ALPHEN, Jerome van, a Dutch theologian, bom in 1700, 
 was protestant minister successively at Nieuw Loosdi'echt, Leeu- 
 warden, and Amsterdam, and died in 1758. 
 
 ALPHEN, Jeuome van, a Dutch poet. He was born at 
 Gouda in 171C; died at the Hague in 1803. 
 
 ALPIIEN, Jekome Simon van, a protestant theologian, 
 born at New Hanau, 1GG5; died 1742. 
 
 ALPHEKY, Nicepiiorus, a clergyman of the church of 
 England in the seventeenth century, said to have been descended 
 from a branch of the imperial fomily of Russia; but this is 
 doubtful. He lield the living of Wooley in Huntingdonshire, 
 but was ejected from liis charge during the Commonwealth. He 
 lived to resume his duties after the Restoration. 
 
 ALPHEUS, a Greek engi-aver, who hved in the first century. 
 
 ALPHI<;US, a Greek poet, a native of Mitylfene, who flour- 
 ished in the Augustan age. 
 
 A'LPHIUS, AviTUS, a Roman poet, who lived probably in 
 the reign of Tiberius. His works are lost, with the exception 
 of six verses to which his name is attached, and which are pre- 
 servx'd in the " Anthologia Latina." 
 
 ALPIN, the last of the Scoto-Irish kings, who reigned over 
 the western district of Scotland before the union of the Picts and 
 Scots. He reigned from 833 to 836, was distinguished for his 
 warlike spirit, and at last fell fighting against the Picts between 
 the rivers Ayr and Doon. 
 
 ALPINI, Prosi'ero, rendered in Latin Pro.sper Alpinus, 
 a celebrated botanist and a physician, was bom at Marostica 
 in the north of Italy, 23d November, 1553. He was educated 
 at the university of Padua, where he prosecuted his medical 
 studies with zeal, and took the degree of doctor of medicine in 
 1578. He entered on the practice of his profession as a physi- 
 cian, but afterwards devoted his attention chiefly to botany. 
 As physician to the Venetian consul, Alpini visited Egypt, 
 where he .spent three years. He became acquainted with the 
 pl.-mts of the country, and aftenvards published a work on the 
 Egyptian Fl()r.i. He returned to Venice in 1580, and was ap- 
 pointed jdiysician to the prince of Jlelti. He was subsequently 
 ajjpointed professor of botany at Padua, and continued to dis- 
 charge the duties of that office until 1G17, when he died in the 
 Glth year of his age. He published works on exotic plants, on 
 the balsam plant, and on rhubarb. The genus Alpiuia was 
 named after luin by Linnasus.— J. H. B. 
 
 A'LPRUNUS, Johannes Baptista, a German physician. 
 He practised medicine at Vienna, where he held the office of 
 physician to the Empress Eleonora, wife of Leopold I. 
 
 ALPTEGHIIJ, the Turkish slave of Ahmerl, second sultan of 
 
 the race of SJim&,n. Having been freed by his master, he at- 
 tained rank in the army, amassed great wealth, and became 
 govemor of Khorassan. He subsequently headed an insurrection 
 against the reigning sultan, and, aided by a large army, took 
 possession of Ghuznee, which he retained till his death in 975-6. 
 liis son-in-law and successor, Subekteghin, was father of the 
 celebrated Mahmud the Ghuzne\'ide. — F. 
 
 ALQUIE, Francois Savinien d', a French writer of the 
 17th century; author of several works, chiefly historical. 
 
 ALQUIER, Ciiarles-Jean-Makie, a French diplomatist, 
 bom at Talmont in the department of La Vendee in 1752. In 
 1789 he was mayor of Rochelle, and imder the National Conven- 
 tion in 1792, the Directory in 1799, and, subsequently, the 
 Consular Government of France, he was ambassador successively 
 in Bavaria, Madrid, Florence, Naples, Rome, Stockholm, and 
 Copenhagen. He died in 1826. 
 
 ALRAKI, R. Joshua Ibn Vibesh, a Spanish rabbi of the 
 12th or 13th centuiy, and author of a herbal in Arabic. 
 
 ALS, Petek, a Danish portrait and historical painter ; bom 
 at Copenhagen in 1725 ; died in 1775. 
 
 ALSACE, Charles Alexandre Mark Marcellin, also 
 nephew of the Cardinal d' Alsace. He was a marshal of France, 
 and died by the guillotine at Paris in 1794. 
 
 ALSACE, Philippe Gabriel Maurice d', nephew of the 
 cardinal. He died at Paris in 1802. 
 
 ALSACE, Thomas-Alexandre-Mark d', also nephew of 
 the cardinal ; prince of Chimay, grandee of Spain, and colonel 
 of the gi-enadiers of France. He fell at the battle of ^linden. 
 
 ALSACE, Thomas-Louis d' Henin-Lietard, Cardinal d', 
 archbishop of !Malines, primate of the Austrian Netherlands, 
 count of Boussu, prince of Chim.ay; born in Bnissels in 1680. 
 He died in 1759, distinguished for devotedness to his duties, and 
 for those virtues suited to his rank. 
 
 ALSARIO or ALZARIO, Della Croce Vincenzo, an 
 Italian physician, bom at Genoa about the year 1576. His 
 works are numerous, and exhibit much talent and eradition. 
 
 ALSCHEIK, Moses, was a rabbi of Galilee, author of com- 
 mentaries on the Old Testament. He died in 1592. 
 
 ALSLOOT, Daniel van, was a Flemish landscape painter, 
 born in Brassels about 1550, and died about 1608. 
 
 ALSOP, Anthony, prebendaiy of Winchester, and rector of 
 Brightwell in Berkshire, was the author of a variety of works 
 exhibiting extensive scholarship and refined taste. He possessed 
 great skill in Latin versification, and many of his poems have 
 been highly esteemed for their ease and elegance. He was acci- 
 dentally drowned in 1772. 
 
 ALSOP, Vincent, a nonconfomiist divine of considerable 
 learning, the author of a variety of works, the best known of 
 which are replies to Sherlock's treatise " On the Knowledge of 
 Christ," and Stillingfleet's " Mischief of Separation." He died 
 at Westminster in 1703. 
 
 ALSOUFY, Abul-Hassan-Abderrahman-ben-Omar, an 
 Arabian astronomer, bom at Rei in Hamadan in 903. He 
 wrote several treatises on his ftivourite science, for the instruc- 
 tion of Sultan Adhad-Eddaulah, at whose court he lived. His 
 death took place in 986. 
 
 ALSTED, John Henry, one of the most prolific writers of 
 the seventeenth centur)', was bom in 1588 at Ballersback, near 
 Hei-born, in Nassau, where his father was a pastor of the Reformed 
 church ; studied at Herbom ; received there, in 1608, his first 
 appointment as head-master of the university — paedagogium — 
 and delivered private lectures in philosophy ; was made extraor- 
 dinary professor of philosophy in 1610, and ordinaiy professor of 
 the same in 1615, after declining invitations to Wesel and Hanau, 
 and another to enter the service of John Sigismund, elector of 
 Brandenburg. In 1618 he was sent by the counts of the Wet- 
 terau to the synod of Dort. In 1G19 he was made professor of 
 theology at Herbom, and on Piscator's death in 1G26, succeeded 
 him in the principal theological chair. In 1G29 he accepted a 
 theological chair in the newly-erected university of Weissenburg 
 in Transylvania, where he continued till his death on 8th No- 
 vember, 1638. Adelung gives the titles of upwards of sixty-two 
 works which Alsted published on various subjects of theology, 
 philosophy, and chronology; nor is the list complete. He chiefly 
 employed himself in reducing the sciences of bis day to methods 
 and compends. His "Encyclopaedia Philosophica" (Herbom, 
 1620, 4to), containing an abridged view of the knowledge of his 
 age, was received with much favour, and was t^vice reprinted.
 
 His " Encyclopaedia Biblica " was based upon tlie false piinciple, 
 afterwards revived by Hutchinson, that the Scriptures contain 
 the first principles of all science and art. His treatise, " De 
 Mille Annis," embodied millennarian views, and fixed the com- 
 mencement of the personal reign of Christ on the earth for the 
 year 1694. By an anagi'am of his name, his contemporaries 
 honoured him with the appellation of "Sedulitas." His writings 
 have long been destitute of all interest and value, save as show- 
 ing the state of knowledge in his time. — P. L. 
 
 ALSTON, Charles, a Scotch physician and botanist, was 
 born at Eddlewood, in the west of Scotland, in 1683. His 
 father was allied to the noble family of Hamilton. Young 
 Alston pursued his studies at the university of Glasgow, and 
 afterwards visited the continent. On the death of his father, he 
 resumed his medical studies at Glasgow, and was pati'onized 
 by the duchess of Hamilton. At the age of thirty-three he went 
 to Leyden, to attend the lectures of Boei'haave. He remained 
 there for nearly three years, and took the degree of M.D. At 
 Leyden he became acquainted with Dr. Alexander Monro, who 
 was afterwards professor of anatomy and surgery in the univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh. On his return to Edinburgh, Alston gave 
 instiiictions in botany in the king's garden at Holyrood, which 
 was under the charge of the duke of Hamilton, hereditary keeper 
 of the palace. On the 17th March, 1738, Alston was appointed 
 professor of botany and materia medica in Edinburgh. He 
 delivered two courses of lectures annually ; one on botany, and 
 another on materia medica. He was laborious in the discharge 
 of his duties, and devoted his attention specially to medicinal 
 plants. He published an introduction to botany, under the name 
 of " Tirocinium Botanicum," in which he gives, first, a general 
 dissertation on the study of botany, with a view of the classifi- 
 cations of Tournefort and Linna3us ; second, elements of botany 
 after Linnajus's "Fundamenta Botanica;" third, the names of 
 plants, chiefly medicinal, cultivated in the Edinburgh Botanic 
 garden, and used for demonstration. At the time of Alston's 
 appointment to the chau-, the sexual system of Linnxus was 
 promulgated, and it seems to have been strenuously opposed by 
 many cultivators of botany, and by Alston among others. He 
 wrote a paper in Latin on the sexes of plants in his Tirocinium, 
 which was afterwards translated by himself, and published in 
 the Edinburgh Physical and Literary Essays for 1771. In this 
 paper he opposes the Linna;an views, and states that, in spinage, 
 hemp, and other dioecious plants, perfect seed can be produced 
 vrithout the contact of pollen. Alston wrote a valuable work on 
 materia medica, in which he corrected many errors relative to 
 species and the medicinal properties of plants. This work was 
 published after his death by Dr. John Hope. In the Edinburgh 
 Medical Essays, Alston wrote dissertations on tin as an anthel- 
 mintic, and on opium. In 1752 he published a dissertation on 
 quicklime and lime-water as lithontriptic remedies, &c. He 
 died on 22d November, 1760, at the age of 77. — J. H. B. 
 
 ALSTON, William, a native of the United States, exercised 
 landscape painting with considerable success. He studied at 
 Rome, where he executed some veiy good pictures, and wrote an 
 interesting handbook on landscape painting. Died in 1830. 
 
 ALSTORPH, Johannes, a Dutch antiquary, bom at Gron- 
 ingen about 1680. He died in 1719. 
 
 ALSTROEMER, Claclas d', a Swedish naturalist, was born 
 on 9th August, 1736, at Alingsas. lie studied under Linnasus, 
 and devoted his attention in j>art to botany. He travelled over 
 Europe, and made a small collection of plants. Linnasus notices 
 him as a contributor to his Species Plantanim ; and he named 
 a genus Alstroemeria after him. He died at Gasewadsholm on 
 5th March, 1796.— J. H. B. 
 
 ALSTROEMER or ALSTROEM, Jonas, a native of Alingsas 
 in Sweden, born in 1685. After undergoing a great variety of 
 adventures, he succeeded, by his indefatigable energy and en- 
 lightened patriotism, in conferring very great advantages on his 
 native country, by introducing numerous improvements in its 
 woollen manufactures. He ultimately attained well-merited 
 distinction, and died at Stockholm in 1761. — F. 
 
 ALT or ALTZIUS, Elias, a German historical and portrait 
 painter of Tubingen, in the second half of the 16th century. 
 
 ALT, FuANC'is-JosErH-NicoLAs, Baron d', a Swiss his- 
 torical writer, born at Friburg in 1689. He died in 1771. 
 
 ALTANI, Antonio, an Italian prelate and diiilomatist. He 
 was appointed bishop of Urbino in 1436, and perfonned sonic 
 important political duties as papal nuncio. 
 
 ALTANI, Antonio, surname d the Young, a poet of the 
 same family as the preceding, born in 1505. He studied at 
 Padua, and became intimate with many of the most remarkable 
 scholars of his age. He died in 1570. 
 
 ALTANI, Enkico, sumamed the Elder, an Italian dra- 
 matist of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ALTANI, Enrico, the Younger, an Italian author, who 
 lived about a.d. 1700. 
 
 ALTAPHLISI, Hobaisch, a Jewish physician, who floiu-- 
 ished before 1535, and whose writings are preserved in the 
 Bodleian libraiy at Oxford. 
 
 ALTARDJEMAY, an Arabian, who lived in the ninth cen- 
 tuiy, and who was commissioned by the caliph Vatck to ex- 
 plore Tartary and the regions north of the Caspian. The naiTa- 
 tive of his journey abounds in fables. 
 
 *ALTAROCHE, Marie Michel, a French literary character, 
 bom in 1811. Having been originally destined for the bar, 
 he embraced the profession of journalism after the Revolution of 
 1830, and was connected with many of the leading Parisian 
 papers ; was one of the originators, and for fomiecn years the 
 principal editor of the Charivari, the Punch of France. He 
 produced a number of novels, songs, political works, &c. In 
 1850 he became manager of the Odeon theatre. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALTDORFER, Albert, a Bavarian painter and engraver, 
 was born at Altdorf, near Landshut, in 1488, and died at Re- 
 gensburg in 1538. He is considered the best pupil of Albert 
 Durer, and executed many important works, amongst others the 
 " Battle of Arbela," now in the Pinacotheca at Munich. 
 
 ALTEN, Karl August, Count of, a Hanoverian officer, bom 
 at Burgwedel in 1764, seized with distinction in the Peninsula 
 under Wellington, and died at Botzen in 1840. 
 
 ALTENBURG, Michael, a Lutheran divine, musician, and 
 poet. Died in 1640. 
 
 ALTENSTEIG, Johann, a Roman catholic theologian of 
 Southern Gennany, flourished in the sixteenth century, and held 
 a professorship in the university of Tiibingen. 
 
 ALTENSTEIN, Karl, Baron von, minister of public in- 
 straction in Prussia, was bom at Anspach in 1770, and died at 
 Berlin in 1840. He seiTed with great zeal and ability as a 
 statesman and financier, co-operating with Niebuhr, Stfigemann, 
 the Hvunboldts, &c. His leism-e was devoted to literaiy and 
 scientific pursuits. He took a leading part in the foundation 
 of the universities of Berlin (1809) and of Bonn. The last 
 twenty-three years of his life were more particularly devoted to 
 the superintendence of the educational system of Prassia, which 
 owes to him many of its most admirable features. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALTER, Franz Karl, a distinguished scholar, born in 
 1749 ; died at Vienna in 1804. He pubhshed an edition of 
 the New Testament, with various readings, the text being that 
 of the Codex Vindobonensis in the imperial libraiy. The work, 
 though of no great critical value, was very carefully and skilfully 
 executed. 
 
 ALTHAMMER, Andheas, a protestant theologian of Ger- 
 many, was bom at Brenz in Suabia in 1498, and died at 
 Jagemdorf in Upper SUesia in 1564. 
 
 ALTHEN, Euan, a Persian, was born in 1711, and died in 
 1774 in France, into which coimtry he had introduced the cul- 
 tivation of madder. He had in early youth been sold uito 
 slaveiy in Asia IMinor, in consequence of the Affghan invasion of 
 Persia, and had been employed in tlie cultivation of madder. 
 He at length escaped, carrying with him some of the seed of 
 this valuable plant, the exportation of which was forbidden on 
 pain of death, and took refuge with the French consul, by whom 
 he was forwarded to Marseilles. It is to be regretted that a 
 man who had enriched France to such an extent, should have 
 been permitted to die in poverty and neglect. A marble nioim- 
 ment was erected to his memory in 1821, on the very day when 
 liis only daughter perished in an hospital ! — J. W. S. 
 
 ALTHOL, LuDWiG Chuistoph, was born at Dctmold, 1758, 
 studied at Halle and Gijttingcn, became jdiysician to the king of 
 Saxony, and died, 1832, leaving several medical works. 
 
 ALTHUSEN, Johann, was born in 1557 at Embden, 
 studied juris))rudence at Basle, became professor of civil law at 
 llerboni, and died in 1638. He defended the civil and religious 
 liberties of his native town, of which he had been chosen syndic, 
 against the counts of East Friesland. He protested against 
 trials for witchcraft, then very numerous. In his political 
 writings lie nuiintains that the sovereignty resides in the people
 
 alone, and that kings are simply magistrates, who, may be 
 deposed and put to death in case of misconduct. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALTICOZZI or ALTICOTIUS, Lokenzo, a learned Jesuit, 
 bom at Cortona in 1C89 ; died 1777 ; wrote against Beausobre's 
 history of Manicha-ism. 
 
 ALTILIO, Gabriello, an Italian poet of the fifteenth 
 centuT}', the exact time and i)l:ice of whose birth are unknown. 
 He res'ided at Naples, tlien tlie focus of European intellect, and 
 ■wrote some admirable poems in the Latin tongue. 
 
 ALTING, Heixuich, a celebrated theologian of the reformed 
 church of Gennany, was bora at Enibdcn in 1583. He was the 
 third son of Menso Alting, a zealous champion of the protestant 
 church in East Friesland. He studied first at Groningen, and 
 then under I'iscator at Herborn. In 1C08 he became tutor at 
 Heidelberg of Prince Frederick, afterwards elector of the Pala- 
 tinate and king of Bohemia, to whom he was devotedly faithful, 
 and by whom he was repaid with an unchanging attachment. 
 In 1G'12 he accompanied the young elector to England, on occa- 
 sion of his maniage with the Princess Elizabeth ; and, on his 
 return to Heidelberg in 1G13, was made professor of theologj-, 
 and rector of the Collegium Sapientiic of that city. In 1618 and 
 1GI9 he took part with his collcngties, Scultetus and Tossanus, 
 in the synod of Dort, where he distinguished himself by his 
 IcjuTiing. At the sack of Heidelberg by the Austiian troops 
 under Tilly, Alting nan-owly escaped being put to death by an 
 Austrian officer, who came in quest of him into the house where 
 he had taken refuge. After a short stay at Schomdorf in Wur- 
 teniberg, he was compelled, in 1G23, to remove with his family 
 to Embden, where he had the offer of an appointment as preacher; 
 but he prcfen-ed to re-enter the sendee of his exiled prince, resid- 
 ing now at the Hague, and who appointed him tutor to his 
 eldest son. In 1025 he declined the office of a theological 
 professorship at Fraueker; but accepted a similar offer in 1G27 
 ft-om the university of Groningen, where he remained for the 
 rest of his Ufe. He still continued, however, to maintain the 
 closest correspondence vaili the banished elector, and was in 
 the habit of paying him a yearly visit. Among other laboiirs, 
 he took part in a new Dutch translation of the Scriptures, which 
 was undertaken by order of the sjniod of Dort. He died on the 
 25th August, 1G44:. His writings evince profound learning. In 
 the department of Hebrew he was particularly eminent, and 
 contributed much to promote those Oriental studies for which his 
 age was so distinguished. The gi-eat Orientalist, John Heinrich 
 Hottinger, was one of his scholars. His most important writings 
 were the following, all posthumous: — "Scripta Theologica Hei- 
 delbergen sia," Friburg, 1G4G; "Exegesis Augustinaj Confes- 
 sionis," Amster., lC-17 ; " Theologia Historica,'' Amster., 1664; 
 " Historia Ecclesia; Palatina;," Francf , 1701. — P. L. 
 
 ALTING, Jacob, a distinguished Hebraist and theolo^an 
 of the Cocceian school, and son of Heniy Alting, was bom at 
 Heidelberg in 1618. He was still a child when the sack of 
 Heidelberg by TUly drove his parents into exile. He studied 
 theology and the learned languages at Groningen, Leyden, and 
 Utrecht, and repaired to Embden to enjoy the instructions of 
 Gumprecht Ben Abraham, a learned Jewish rabbi. In 1C40 he 
 made a journey to England, when he made many learned friends 
 in London and Oxford, and took orders in the chm-ch of Eng- 
 land with a view to settle in the countiy. But in 1643 he 
 gave up this design, and accepted a professorship of Hebrew and 
 the Oriental languages in Groningen. He had for one of his 
 colleagues in the theological faculty, Samuel des Marets (Jlare- 
 sius), with whom he had the misfortune to become involved in 
 a bitter contro\ersy, which continued for many years. !Mare- 
 sius was strongly addicted to the scholastic method of teaching 
 theology, while Alting was a Cocceian in his principles and views, 
 ilaresms accused his young colleague of rationalism and heresy. 
 The curators of the university were obliged to interfere, and en- 
 join silence upon the disputants. The university of Leyden ab- 
 solved Alting from the charge of doctrinal error; but he continued 
 to be rcgnrded with suspicion all his life by tlie anti- Cocceian 
 party. He died at Groningen in 1679. Next to the Buxtorfs, he 
 was one of tlie most distinguished promoters and professors of 
 Hebrew and Oriental learning of his age. He was so much addicted 
 to rabbinical studies and opinions, tliat he was sjioken of as half a 
 Jew. He kept up an extensive correspondence with the learned 
 men of his time. His collected works were published after his 
 death by his pupil and friend, Balthasar Becker, refonned preacher 
 at Amsterdam, in 5 vols, folio. In his work on Hebrew punc- 
 
 tuation, entitled " Fundamenta Punctationis Lingufe Sacrae," he 
 brought fonvard a new theory on the quantity of Hebrew vowels, 
 called the " Systema duarum moramm," afterwards further de- 
 veloped by Danz, but which failed to commend itself to the judg- 
 ment of later grammarians. His grammatical works on the 
 Hebrew, Chaldee, and Spiac languages were long in use in the 
 universities of Holland, but are antiquated and obsolete. — P. L. 
 
 ALTING, JIenso, a Dutch topogi-apher and antiquarian of 
 the 17th century, author of several topographical works. 
 
 ALTISSIMO, or Ckistofoeo Fiorextino, an Italian im- 
 provisatore of the fifteenth century. 
 
 ALTISSIMO, Cristofajjo, dell'. See Papi. 
 
 ALTMANN, Joiiaxx Georg, a geogi-apher, historian, and 
 antiquarian of Aargu in Switzerland, who lived in the first 
 half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 ALTO, a Scottish monk and missionary of the eighth century, 
 who travelled into Bavaria, and foimded a monastery, which 
 was endowed by king Pepin, and dedicated to Boniface. 
 
 ALTOFEK, Christ., a German di\ine and writer, bom at 
 Heersbruck in 1606 ; died in 1660 ; author of a commentary 
 on several of Paul's Epistles. 
 
 ALTOJlAIvI, Antonio Donato, an Italian physician of the 
 sixteenth century, who apjx;ars to have suffered much persecution 
 at Naples, his native city. He has left a number of works 
 containing nothing veiy original or important. 
 
 ALTOMAPJ, Giovanni, the son of the preceding, practised 
 medicine at Na])les towards the end of the sixteenth century. He 
 published an edition of the works of his father. 
 
 ALTOMONTE, Martino, a historical painter, bom at 
 Naples in 1657, of GeiTnan parents, his real name being 
 Hoiienberg. He studied at Rome under Gian Battista Gauli, 
 then proceeded to Poland, where he worked for some time for 
 King Sobiesld, and ultimately settled at Vienna, where he died 
 in 1745.— R. M. 
 
 ALTON, Joseph Wilhelm Edward d', a German archaeolo- 
 gist and naturahst, was bom at Aquileia in 1772, and after residing 
 for a long time near Weimar and at Wiii'zburg, and travelling in 
 several comitries of Europe, was appointed professor of archfeology 
 at the university of Bonn, where Prince Albert was among the 
 number of his pupils. He died in 1840, leaving a work on 
 comparative osteology, which has been continued by his son, 
 Johann Samuel Edward D'Alton. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALTON, Richard, Count, an Austrian general of Irish 
 extraction, who poisoned himself at Trier in 1790, to avoid 
 appearing before a coiut-martial. 
 
 ALTOUVITIS, a poetess of Marseilles, of the 16th century. 
 
 ALTOVITI, Antonio, a Florentine theologian, who was bom 
 in 1521, was appointed ai'chbishop of Florence in 1548; took 
 part in the council of Trent, and died in 1573. 
 
 ALTSCHUL, Elias, the leader of the homoeopathic party in 
 Austria, was bom at Prague in 1812. 
 
 ALUNNO, Francesco, a caligraphist of Ferrara, who lived 
 in the earlier half of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ALUNNO, Nicolo, an Italian painter of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, born at Foligno, and flomishing about 1480. He only 
 worked in distemper, and left several pictures in which the 
 tnithfulness of design is highly remarkable. He enjoyed the 
 gi'eatest consideration dming Ins time. — R. M. 
 
 ALVA or ALBA, Ferdinand Alvarez of Toledo, 
 Duke of, a Spanish general, distinguished under Charles V. 
 and Philip II., bom hi 1508, was descended from a family of 
 Castile, illustrious in the wars of Spain for several genera- 
 tions. He was only two years old when his father Garcias de 
 Toledo fell in battle against the Saracens, and his education 
 was therefore superintended by his grandfather, who sent him to 
 the army at the age of sixteen. He fought under the Emperor 
 Charles at Pavia, and followed him to Algiers. He defended 
 Pci-j)ignan against a sLk months' siege by the French, under the 
 Dauphin, and at last repelled the enemy. This exploit estabhshed 
 his fame, and from that time important trusts were committed to 
 him. As generalissimo of the imperial forces, he attended his 
 master in the war in Germany agmnst the Lutheran princes of 
 the empire, and there, while displaying gi'eat militai-y talent, he at 
 the same time gave indications of that cruelty and fanaticism for 
 which he afterwards became so noted. For example, he strongly 
 advocated the death of the conquered elector of Saxony, and when 
 at Wittcmberg, proposed to the emperor to open the grave of 
 Luther, and bum the bones of the heretic.
 
 ALV 
 
 125 
 
 ALV 
 
 But it was under Pliilijj tliat Alva's name became most pro- 
 minent ill Spanish histoiy. He liad mucli in common witii that 
 tyrant, and proved an acceptable adviser and well-qualified assist- 
 ant in his schemes for the attainment of absolute monarchy, and 
 the suppression of heresy throughout his dominions. At the 
 time of PhUip's accession, Alva was conducting a war against 
 Pope Paul IV., who had entered into an alliance with Henry of 
 France, for the invasion of the Spanish dominions in Italy. In 
 t lis campaign he was successful, and t-ndce the city of Rome it- 
 self lay at his mercy ; but either his own reverence for the sacred 
 capital, or the instructions of the king, kept him from leading his 
 armed forces within the gates. He concluded a peace with the 
 pope in 1557, and subsequently attended as Philip's plenipoten- 
 tiary, in concluding the treaty of Chateau Cambresis, which he 
 afterwards cemented by negotiating the mamage of Philip with 
 the sister of the French king. This treaty contemplated not so 
 much peace between the contracting powers, as combined efforts 
 for the suppression of the protestant cause in Europe. To this 
 object Alva resolutely applied himself, and there can be little 
 doubt that the severe measm-es now adopted against the protes- 
 tants in France, and even the massacre of St. Bartholemew 
 itself, are to be attrilmted mainly to his advice. 
 
 Meanvv'hile, in the Low Countries, matters were going ill for 
 the cause of Spanish monarchy and the church of Rome. The 
 Guesen League had been formed to resist Spanish innovation. 
 The chief nobles, WiUiam of Orange, and the Counts Egmont and 
 Honi, showed themselves little disposed to strengthen the hands 
 of the duchess of Parma, against the demands of their countiy- 
 men, while the common people were forming themselves into 
 bands of image-breakers, entciing the churches, and despoiling 
 them of their ornaments. Alarmed by these commotions, the 
 duchess sent an earnest request for her royal brother to visit the 
 pro\inces in person. He professed that it was his intention to 
 do so, but resolved instead to send Alva at the head of an amiy 
 to chastise the rebels. His approach spread terror among all 
 classes of the inhabitants ; even the regent sought to prevent 
 the entry of his army. But he produced his commission, giving 
 him sole power in mOitaiy matters, and intunated to her that he 
 had further instructions which he could produce if occasion re- 
 quired, investing him vdih still more absolute authority. William 
 of Orange had wisely fled at the approach of his old enemy, but 
 the Counts Egmont and Horn, who had all along shown more 
 loyalty than theu- friend, sought to win the favour of government 
 by remaining. These nobles were received by Alva with an 
 appearance of goodwill, which, however, he did not long maintain ; 
 for shortly after his arrival, at a feast in Kuilemberg House, 
 where he had taken up his i-esidence, they were anxsted at his 
 command, and cast into prison. On the pretext of inquiring 
 into the late disturbances, Alva mstituted a tribunal of twelve 
 persons, chiefly Spaniards, which he named " The Court of 
 Tumults," but which speecUly merited the name given to it in 
 history of "The Bloody Tribunal." Thousands of those suspected 
 of heresy, or who had in any way been connected with the Guesen 
 league, as well as those more immediately concerned in the late 
 insmxections, were brought before it, and vdth scarcely the show 
 of justice, condemned to die. Vast crowds fled in teiror from 
 the country, and the duchess, weary of the appearance of power 
 which she no longer possessed, asked and obtained from Philip 
 her recall from the regency. Her presence had been some check 
 on Alva's cruelty, and her departm"e was the signal for perse- 
 cution more severe than ever. 
 
 Meanwhile the population of the northern provinces had 
 taken up arms against the oppressor, and the Prince of Orange, 
 and his brother Count Louis of Nassau, had levied an anny in 
 Germany for the purpose of rescuing their country from the 
 tyranny of Alva, and on one occasion the count gained a victoiy 
 over the Spanish forces sent to oppose him. This defeat ex- 
 asperated the duke, and hastened the death of the unhappy 
 Counts Egmont and Honi, who had been condemned on a charge 
 of treason. Immediately after their execution, Alva proceeded 
 against the two brothers, and this time succeeded in repelling 
 them, and at length in reducing the province to submission. 
 Emboldened by success, he proceeded to further arbitrary mea- 
 sures, burdening the inhabitants with taxes, for the support of 
 the veiy army which had been to them such a scourge. These 
 oppressions raised further rebellion, and afforded the Prince of 
 Orange and Count Louis an opportunity of making another 
 effort to restore the liberties of their country. Alva so far suc- 
 
 ceeded in repelling them once more ; but it became eddent to 
 Philip that it was impossible to carry out the projects for which 
 his chosen plenipotentiary had been sent ; the duke was there- 
 fore recalled in 1573. He left the Netherlands ■n-ith the boast 
 that, during the six years of his vice-royalty, 18,000 persons 
 had perished on the scaffold, besides the multitudes that had 
 fallen before his troops in battle, or were murdered by them m 
 cold blood. Soon after his return to JIadrid, he lost the favour 
 of Philip, because he defended his son, who had been guilty of 
 seducing a lady of high rank at court. He was banished to his 
 castle of Uzeda, where he remained an exile, till, in 1582, Phihp 
 requu-ed his sendees to lead the land forces in the invasion of 
 Portugal. This trust he executed with great success, and m 
 less than three months completely conquered that country. This 
 was his last campaign, for he died in the same year at the age 
 of seventy-four. — {Bioff. Univ., U. K. Society s Biog. Diet , 
 Schiller's Revolt of the Netherlands.^ — J. B. 
 
 ALVARA'DO, Aloxzo de, a captain who served under 
 Cortes in Mexico, and after the conquest of that country joined 
 the army of PizaiTo in Peni. He held for a time the superin- 
 tendence of the new city of Trtixillo, and afterwards led a force 
 sent to reduce the Chachapoyas, among whom he founded the 
 settlement of San Juan de la Frontera. During the unfortunate 
 dispvites between Ahnagro and Pizarro, he stood firm in defence 
 of Pizarro ; and we hear of his defeat and imprisonment, and 
 of a remarkable escape which he eflfected from his prison in 
 Cuzco to Lima. In many of the rebellions which occupy the 
 history of Peru dming that imhappy period, we find Alvariido 
 engaged in opposuig the insurgents. The last record we have of 
 him is of a defeat which he sustained near the Apurimac, when 
 attempting to quell the rebelUon led by Hernandez Gu-on. — J. B. 
 
 ALVARA'DO, Pedko de, the most noted of the Alvarados, 
 whose names appear so frequently in the annals of Spanish 
 discovery and conquest in America during the sixteenth century, 
 was bom at Badajoz, in Estrcmadura. We first hear of him 
 sailing with Gijalva in the exploring expedition sent by Velas- 
 quez, along the coast of America, and returning with the 
 report of the districts visited, and bearing the first rumom-s 
 of Montezuma, and the wealth of his Mexican empire. In 
 1519 he entered on a command under Heman Cortes in his 
 expedition for the subjugation of Mexico ; and when Cortes 
 left to meet the force which Velasquez had sent to dispossess 
 him of his command, the charge of the conquered city and of 
 the person of Montezuma was committed to Alvarado. A 
 rebellion broke out among the Mexicans during his command, 
 but he was able to resist the insurgents till the victorious retm-n 
 of Cortes. In the disastrous retreat from the city after the 
 death of Montezuma, Alvarado held a position of great respon- 
 sibihty and danger, and did deeds of wonderful daring, showing 
 at the same time gi-eat physical strength. He subsequently 
 sen'ed in the conquest of Guatemala, and was appointed by 
 Charles V. to the government of that province, to which the 
 province of Honduras was added. He died in 1541. — J. B. 
 
 ALVARES DE Lima, the favourite of John II., king of 
 Castile, born in 1388, and named Peter at his baptism. For 
 thirty years he maintained an absolute ascendancy over the king, 
 and was master of the treasury. At length he fell into disgrace, 
 and was beheaded at Valladolid. 
 
 ALVAREZ; several medical men of Spain and Portugal bore 
 this name, namely: — Axtonio A., professor of medicine at Al- 
 cala and ValladoMd. — JuAX A. Borges, veterinary surgeon to 
 Philip IV. and Charles II. of Spain. — Hernando A. Cabral, 
 died at Santarem, in Portugal, in 1636. — Alvarez de Cas- 
 tro, author of an unpublished work on the principles of medi- 
 cine. — Dioacus Alvarez Chacon wrote on the treatment 
 of pleurisy. — Blasius Alvarez de Miraval, professor of 
 medicine at Salamanca. — Nunez Alvarez wrote on the treat- 
 ment of wounds. — Pedro Alvarez, a commentator upon 
 Galen and Hijipocrates. — Thomas Alvarez, employed by King 
 Sebastian of Portugal to superintend the measures for checking 
 a pestilence which ravaged the country in 1569. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALVAREZ, a distinguished Spanish sculptor of modem times, 
 a native of Valencia and established at Rome. Although hav- 
 ing enjoyed the highest patronage, he died very poor in 1830. 
 T!ie statue of " Adonis" is considered his mastei-piece. He is 
 believed to be nephew or son of Manuel. — R. M. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Baltazar, a Portuguese Jesuit, employed by 
 the Inquisition to draw up a list of prohibited books. Died 1628.
 
 ALV 
 
 126 
 
 ALY 
 
 ALVAREZ, Bersardin de, a Spanish adventurer of the 
 16th century, who, after various adventures in Jlexico and Peru, 
 founded a variety of hospitals in the former country. 
 
 ALVARP:Z, Kmmaxlel, a Portii<,niese Jesuit and pliilologian, 
 born in 1526 in Madeira. Died at Lisbon in 1583. 
 
 ALVARKZ, Francesco, a Portuguese monk, the earliest 
 modem traveller who visited Abyssinia. He appears to have 
 been bom at Coinibra in the fifteenth century. Helena, em- 
 press of Abyssinia, having sent an Annenian priest as ambassa- 
 dor to the 'court of Portugal, the king Emmanuel dispatched 
 Duarte Galvao on an embassy in retiu-n, who died on the jour- 
 ney. Lopez de Sigueira, the Portuguese viceroy in India, in- 
 tmsted this important mission to Rodrigo de Lima, to whose 
 suite Alvarez was attached as chaplain. The expedition landed 
 at Mesoah, in 1520, and sutlered incredible hardships and 
 dangers from the nature of the country, and the savage tribes 
 by which it was infested. On reaching Axmn, the capital, they 
 found that the emperor was gone on an expedition into the 
 province of Choa. On their way they \-isited the magnificent 
 temples of Lalibela, excavated in the solid rock. At last, on 
 the 20th of October, 1520, they reached the camp of tlie nejiis, 
 or emperor, David. Doubts were raised concerning the power of 
 the embassy, but the prudence of Alvarez completely overcame 
 all the suspicious of the Abyssinian monarch. Everything was 
 arranged satisfactorily; Alvarez was appointed patriarch of 
 l^Iesoah, and the ambassador was furnished with presents and 
 letters for his sovereign and the pope ; when a quarrel among 
 the Portuguese led to their detention for six years. This 
 interval Alvarez devoted to a close observation of the religion, 
 government, and manners of the Abyssinians. At last, in 
 1526, the embassy was allowed to depart. Lima and Alvarez, 
 after \-isiting India, arrived safely at Santarem, and delivered 
 their lettere to John III. In 1533 Alvarez went to Rome to 
 dehver to the pope the mission with which he had been charged 
 by the Emperor David. The account of his travels was pub- 
 lished in 1540, at the expense of the king, and is to this day a 
 valuable authority on the liistoiy, ethnography, and even the 
 geology and botany of Abyssinia. The observations of Alvarez, 
 it must be noted, were made before the desolating inroads of 
 the Gallas under Goronha. We have no particulars concerning 
 the death of Alvarez, but he must have reached a very advanced 
 age. The original edition of his work is rare, and the Italian 
 and French versions are very much coiTupted. The Spanish 
 version (Antwerp, 1561) is preferable. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Gos^'ALO, a learned Portuguese Jesuit of noble 
 birth, missionary in India, and aftenvards in China, where he 
 founded the academy of llacao, was drowned in 1573, on his 
 passage to Japan. 
 
 ALVAREZ, John, a Portuguese Benedictine of the latter 
 half of the fifteenth century, abbot of Paqo de Souza ; shared 
 voluntarily the capti\-ity of Don Fernando, son of Joao I., in 
 Africa, and on his return published an account of the suiTerings 
 and the piety of that prince. 
 
 ALVAREZ, M.VNUEL, of Salasianca, born in 1729, died 
 in 1797; a sculptor of considerable merit. He is the author 
 of the equestrian statue of Philip V. at Madrid, and of many 
 fine busts for that court. He was president of the academy of 
 fine arts. — R. M. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Don Martin, count of Colomera, a Spanish 
 general, in 1794 commander of the anny of Navarre and Gui- 
 pnzcoa, which unsuccessfully ojiposed the French at Bidassoa, 
 San Sebastian, and Tolosa. Died in 1819. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Thomas, a Portuguese writer on canon law, 
 flourished in the seventeenth centuiy. 
 
 ALVAREZ DE CASTRO, Mariano, a Spanish general, 
 bom in 1775; during the pcninsidar war was engaged in the 
 defence of Barcelona ; assumed the command of Girone, besieged 
 two months by the French ; and made the further defence of 
 that place memorable by a display of heroism, which only began 
 to fail when the prev.alence of an epidemic was added to the 
 other horrors of the siege. Died in 1810. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALVAREZ DE COLMENAR, John, a French writer of 
 the beginning of the eighteenth centuiy, author of " Les Delices 
 de I'Espague et du Portugal." 
 
 ALVAREZ DE CUNHA, a Portuguese author of some note, 
 was bom at Goa in 1626, and died at Lisbon in 1690. 
 
 ALVAREZ DO ORIENTE, Fkrnao de, a Portuguese poet 
 of considerable eminence. He was bom at Goa in Uie earlier 
 
 half of the sixteenth century, and spent his whole life in the 
 East, sharing in the militaiy and naval exploits of his country- 
 men in those regions under the viceroy Antonio Jloniz BaiTCte. 
 His poetry is chiefly of the pastoral kind, and is remarkable for 
 its harmony and grace. — J. W. S. 
 
 ALVAREZ Y BAENA, Joseph Anthony, a Spanish 
 writer, born at Madrid, author of a voluminous account of his 
 native city; died in 1803. 
 
 ALVAROTTO, Jacob, an Italian jurist ; bom at Padua in 
 1385 ; died in 1453. 
 
 ALVARS. See Parish. 
 
 ALVARUS, Pauliis, a Spanish writer, bom at Cordova; 
 died in 861. 
 
 • ALVENSLEBEN, Albert, Count d', represented Pmssia 
 at the conference of Dresden in 1850 ; bom in 1794. 
 
 ALVENSLEBEN, Chakles-Gebhaed, a Prassian general; 
 bom in 1778; died in 1831. 
 
 ALVENSLEBEN, Phillip Charles, Count d', a Piaissian 
 diplomatist and minister of state for foreign affairs ; bom in 
 1745 ; died at Bedin in 1802. 
 
 ALVES, Robert, a Scottish poet, author of a collection of 
 odes and elegies, which appeared in 1782, and of two poems, 
 "Edinburgh" and "The Weeping Bard," published in 1789, 
 was bom at Elgin in 1745. He left at his death, in 1794, a 
 number of pieces in MS., W'hich were published in 1801, with 
 the title, "The Banks of the Esk, and other Poems." — J. S., G. 
 
 ALVIANO, Barthelemi, a Venetian general, bom towards 
 the middle of the fifteenth century, commanded the army which 
 annihilated, in 1508, that of the Emperor JIaximiliau ; was 
 taken prisoner m the following year at the battle of Agnadel, 
 which he had precipitated by an attack on the French lines con- 
 trary to the orders of Petigliano, commander-in-chief; was set 
 at liberty in JIarch, 1513, and in October of that year encoun- 
 tered unsuccessfully a Spanish army returning laden with spoil 
 from the Venetian territories ; recovered his reputation by a 
 series of victories over the Austrians, and by his share in the 
 battle of Marignan, where the Swiss, opposed to the army of 
 Francis, suffered a great defeat. Died in 1515. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALVINCZY or ALVINZY, Joseph, an Austrian field-mar- 
 shal, born in 1735 ; engaged in active service at fifteen years of 
 age, distinguished himself in the rank of major at Torgaw and 
 Toplitz ; was named major-general by Joseph II. in reward of 
 his sei-vices during the war far the succession of Bavaria, and 
 after his campaign, luider Lundon, against the Turks, was pro- 
 moted to be lieutenant field-marshal. Actively employed against 
 the French in 1792 and 1793, he shared the Austrian victor}' 
 of Nerwinde and the defeat of the duke of York at Hondstchoot ; 
 was wounded in 1794, in his defence of the fortress of Lan- 
 drecies ; repaired to Italy shortly after, in the hope of re-orga- 
 nizing the Austrian army, demoralized by successive defeats ; 
 but encountering Buonaparte at Arcole and Rivoli, lost his entire 
 anny, and was generally, though absurdly, accused of treachery. 
 Named commander-in-chief of Hungary in 1798, and in 1808 
 field-marshal, Alvinczy continued to be a favourite at court till 
 his death in 1810.— J. S., G. 
 
 ALVINZI, Peter, a Hungarian theologian, author of some 
 polemical works, and of a series of sermons ; bom in Transyl- 
 vania; died at Cassovie in 1646. 
 
 ALVISET, Benoit, a French Benedictine monk, author of 
 a treatise on the privileges of convents ; died in 1673. 
 
 ALWATHICK, Billah, an enlightened caliph of Bagdad, 
 son of Almut;isem, whom he succeeded in 842 ; died in 847. 
 
 ALXINGER, John Baptist x>\ a German poet, bom at 
 Vieima, author of two volumes of occasional verses of no great 
 merit, and of two poetical romances, more favourably known, 
 died in 1797. 
 
 ALYATTES, king of Lydia, from 618 B.C., reigned fifty-five 
 years, almost incessantly engaged in warfare. His chief adver- 
 saries were the j\Iedes, with whom he carried on a five-years' 
 war, that was temiinated in a remarkable manner — An eclipse 
 of the sun, predicted by Thales the Milesian, fell on the Lydians 
 and Medes engaged in battle, and both armies regarding the 
 phenomenon as a terrible warning from the gods to desist from 
 strife, a peace was concluded, Alyattes giving his daughter in 
 marriage to the son of Cyaxares.— J. S., G. 
 
 ALY-CHYR (Emir Kisam-el-hak-Waddin), a Persian 
 vizier and poet, patron of !Mirkhond the historian, and of several 
 other celebrated contemporaiies, resigned the dignities he enjoyed
 
 under the Sultan Houssein Mii-za, to abandon himself to the 
 cultivation of poetry. He collected at Herat a splendid library, 
 and intrusted it to the care of Khondemir. His numerous poems 
 and notices of Persian literature, written in the dialect of the 
 Djagatai, are preserved in the imperial library of Paris. Died 
 at Herat in 1500, at the age of sixty.— J. S., G. 
 
 ALYJI or HALYM, Ghekai, one of the Tartar khans of the 
 Crimea, reigned three years from the death of Arslan in 1755 ; 
 continued unsuccessfully the wars of his predecessors with the 
 Nogais ; excited by excessive imposts a revolt of his subjects, 
 which was headed by his cousin, Kyrm Gherai ; and in October, 
 1758, having vainly addressed the rebels both with threats and 
 promises, received orders from the Porte to resign his authority 
 into the hands of his cousin. Alym enjoyed the reputation of a 
 talented and accomplished prince. — J. S., G. 
 
 ALTON, Peter Phillip, a French botanist, born in 1758, 
 assumed in 179-1 the direction of the dispensary of Val de Grace, 
 and some years later, that of the hospital of the imperial guard. 
 He published an elementary treatbe on botany, and several other 
 works. Died in 1816. 
 
 ALYPIUS, a Greek musician, known as the author of an 
 introductory treatise on music (E/a-otj-ajj-ij fj.eva-ixy,'), some fragments 
 of which have been preserved, and from which we learn the old 
 Greek notations, and have some light thrown on the subject of 
 Greek music generally. It is very uncertain in what age Alypius 
 lived ; according to some writers he wrote before Euclid. The 
 fragments of his work were published at Leyden in 1616, under 
 the title, " Aristoxenus, Nicomachus, Alypius auctores JIusices 
 antiquisslmi hactenus non Editi." — J. B. 
 
 ALYPIUS OF A^jTiocH, an architect, employed by Julian the 
 Apostate towards the middle of the fourth century to rebuild the 
 temple of Jerusalem, was scared from the attempt, as he declared, 
 by fires issuing from the gi-ound. He was put to death some years 
 afterwards on an accusation of practising sorcery. 
 
 ALYPIUS, LioNiTAs, a saint of the Romish church, bom at 
 Adiianople about a.d. 600 ; a severe ascetic. 
 
 ALZATE Y RAMIREZ, Joseph Anthony, a Mexican 
 astronomer and geographer of Spanish origin, correspondent of 
 the Academy of Sciences of Paris, to which he dedicated nume- 
 rous astronomical reports, a series of letters on natural history, 
 and several charts. Died in 1795. 
 
 AMAC or AMIK BOKHARI, Aeul Nagiiib, a Persian poet 
 of the eleventh centur}', favoured dunng his long life by the 
 princes of the powerful d}Tiasty of the Seldjoukides, became pre- 
 sident of an academy founded by one of these, Kheder-Khan, 
 and in that station enjoyed riches and celebrity. His elegies are 
 admired by all readers of Persian literature. — J. S., G. 
 
 AMADE', Ladislas, Baron d', a Hungarian poet, bom in 
 1703 ; died at Felbar in 1764. 
 
 AMADEI, GiitoLAMO, an Italian priest, professor of theology 
 at Boulogne, and vicar-general of the order " dei sem di Maria 
 Vergine," preached in Gemiany by authority against the doctrines 
 of Luther, and published a work on the immortality of the soul, 
 in which he denounced the refunner. Died in 1543. 
 
 AJIADEI, Stefano, an Italian painter, bom at Peragia in 
 1589, died in 1644. Although a pupil of Giulio Cesare Angeli 
 of the Bolognese school, he rather inclined to the style of that 
 of Florence. He also cultivated Hterature with success. — R. jM. 
 
 AjMADEO or AMADEI, Antonio, of Pavia, a sculptor of 
 the Lombard school. He is one amongst the most skilful in 
 treating that kind of bas-relief so peculiar to the period, and of 
 which the fafade of the Certosa of Pavia presents so many and 
 such beautiful specimens. The monument of Bartolommeo Col- 
 leoni in the cathedral of Bergamo by this sculptor, is justly con- 
 sidered as one of the best works of that time. — R. M. 
 
 AMADESI, Dosiinique, an Italian poet, bom at Boulogne; 
 died in 1730. 
 
 AMADESI, Joseph Louis, an Italian antiquarian, keeper of 
 the archives of the see of Ravenna ; favoured by his position, he 
 published several antiquarian treatises of great research, the most 
 considerable of which were devoted to the elucidation of canon 
 law. Died in 1773. 
 
 A5IADEUS or AMEDEO, the name borne by nine princes 
 of the house of Savoj-. 
 
 Amadkus I., reckoned among the ancestors of the house, 
 was the son of Humbert " of the white hand," count of ]\Iauri- 
 enne, and was living in 1030. It is uncertain whether he 
 survived his father. 
 
 Amadeus II., was the son of Oddo, count of Maurienne and 
 Aorta, brother of the preceding. His mother was the Mar- 
 chi(mess Adelaide, with whom, after the death of his father and 
 his brother, the Marquis Peter, he was associated in the govern- 
 ment. He died before his mother, who hved till 1091. 
 
 Ajladeus III., grandson of the preceding, succeeded his 
 father Humbert II. in 1103. It is said that it was he who first 
 assumed the title of Count of Savoy ; but this much is certain, 
 that he veiy widely extended his dominions. He joined his 
 nephew, Louis VII. of France, in the unfortunate crusade under- 
 taken by him in 1147, and never again reached his dommions, 
 but died in Cyprus in 1148. 
 
 Amadeus IV., was the son of Thomas I., count of Savoy, 
 whom he succeeded in 1233. Like his father, he was a firm 
 adherent of the Emperor Frederick II., and by this policy he 
 succeeded in gaining extended power. His niece Leonora was 
 the queen of Henry III. of England, and his brother Peter was 
 by that prince created earl of Richmond, and built the Savoy 
 house in London. 
 
 Amadeus V., sumamed the Great, succeeded his father 
 Thomas II. in 1249. By marriage and successful policy he did 
 much to extend the power of his family, and won for it the title, 
 F. E. R. T. (Fortitudo Ejus Rhodum Tenuit), by his brave de- 
 fence of Rhodes against the Turks. He died in 1323 at Avig- 
 non, whither he had gone to prevail upon the pope to preach a 
 crusade against the Turks. 
 
 Ajiadeus VI., named the Green Count, succeeded his 
 father A}nnon in 1334. He was one of the most distinguished 
 princes of his house ; and by treaties with the king of France, 
 and the patronage of the Emperor Heniy IV., as well as by the 
 almost uniform success of his arms, he nearly doubled his terri- 
 tories in Piedmont, and greatly extended them beyond the Alps. 
 His device was appropriately a running stream, with the motto, 
 "Vires acquirit eundo." He died in 1383. 
 
 Amadeus VII. , named the Red Count, son and successor 
 of the preceding, was born in 1360. In 1388 he acquired the 
 dominion of Nice by the voice of the assembled citizens, and 
 thus extended the territory of Savoy from the shores of Lake 
 Leman to the Mediterranean sea. He was killed while hunting 
 in 1391. 
 
 Amadeus VIIL, styled the Pacific and the Solomon 
 OF the Age, was the son and successor of the preceding. By 
 purchase, he added to his dominions the county of the Genevois, 
 and several other possessions, and by the death of Louis of 
 Savoy in 1418, his teixitory in Piedmont was gi-eatly enlarged. 
 In 1416, the I]mperor Sigismund elevated Savoy into a 
 duchy, and named Amadeus first duke. His dominions were 
 now so considerable that he was able to take rank among the 
 great powers of Europe ; but in 1834, after the death of his 
 wife, he formally ceded his authority into the hands of his son 
 Louis, and retired with six of his chosen knights into a monas- 
 tery at Ripaille. It does not appear, however, that he denied 
 himself any of his former luxuries, and he seems to have left 
 one place of power only to aim at a higher, for in 1439 the 
 council of Basle, having deposed Eugenius IV., elected Amadeus 
 to the popedom, under the title of Felix V. This election was 
 not confirmed by all the powers of Europe, many of whom still 
 adhered to Eugenius, and, after his death, another pope was 
 chosen, and Amadeus was compelled to abdicate. He died at 
 Lausanne in 1451. 
 
 Amadeus IX., gi-andson of the preceding, succeeded his 
 father Louis in 1465. He was infirm in body, and his reign 
 was but little distinguished, but he has won for himself a name, 
 by his great charity. He died in 1472, and was succeeded by 
 his son Pliilibert. — J. B. 
 
 AMADEUS, Victor, duke of Savoy, and first king of Sar- 
 dinia. See Victor Amadeus. 
 
 AMADOR REBELLO, a Portuguese Jesuit, bishop of Oporto, 
 published an account of the labours of some of liis brethren in 
 India and China. Died in 1622. 
 
 AJIADUZZI, John CiiRisTornEK, an Italian philologist, 
 born at Rimini in 1740, wrote and edited in Latin a number of 
 historical dissertations, in which he displayed great research and 
 some ingenuity. Died in 1792 at Rome. 
 
 AJL'VFANIUS, one of the earliest Latin authors who wrote 
 on philosophy. He introduced the system of Epicums to the 
 notice of the Romans. We know nothing of him except tlu-ough 
 a few remarks by Cicero.
 
 AMALAIRE or AMALARIUS S'illPHORIUS, a bishop of 
 Treves of the time of Louis le Dcbonnaire, by whom he was 
 employed to write on pubhc worship. He left, besides these 
 works, a series of letters and some dissertations on canon law. 
 
 AMAL.-VRIC, king of the Visigoths, elected at the death of 
 his grandfithcr Theodoric in 511; married in 526 ClotilJe, 
 daughter of CIo\-is I., and in consequence of a quarrel with that 
 princess, which arose out of their religious diftcrences, was 
 attacked in his cajntal of Narhonne by her brother Childebert of 
 France, and put to death in 531. 
 
 AMALASONTE, queen of the Ostrogoths, daughter of Theo- 
 doric I., man-ied to Euthcric, of the family of the Amales, was a 
 widow at the death of her father in 526 ; and according to the 
 testament of that illustrious prince, was proclaimed regent of the 
 kingdom and guardian of her son Athalaric, then ten years of 
 age. Accomplished in classic literature, and a zealous patron of 
 learning, she sun-ounded the young prince with instructors the 
 most eminent in art and science, and hoped through these to 
 instil into his mind a reverence for what remained of Roman 
 civilization in Italy, and a distaste for the barbarous manners 
 of his ancestoi-s. She was doomed to disappointment. Athalaric 
 lent an car to other counsellors than those of his mother's choice, 
 abandoned himself to a course of debauchery, and became a ring- 
 leader of sedition. After his death, which happened in 534, 
 Amalasontc, having espoused her cousin Theodat, incuiTed the 
 resentment of Theodora, wife of Justinian, who incited Theodat 
 to attemj)t the dethronement of his spouse. A conspiracy was 
 fonned, of which Theodat assumed the direction, and, in 535, 
 Amalasonte was barbarously strangled. — J. S., G. 
 
 AMALEK, grandson of Esau, by some supposed to have been 
 the father of the Amalckites. 
 
 AM.\LIE, Elizabeth, a landgravine of Hesse Cassel, re- 
 warded at the close of the Thirty- Years' War for her devotion 
 to the protestant party, by a gift of lands and money. Died 1651. 
 
 AMALIE, Catheiuxe, a German poetess, daughter of the 
 count of Waldek. Born in 1C40 ; died in 1696. 
 
 AMALIE, Anme, a Prussian princess, sister of Frederick the 
 Great, evinced her passionate love of music by the composition 
 of an oratorio, in which she displayed a remarkable knowledge 
 of counterpoint. Died in 1787. 
 
 A5L\LIE, duchess of Saxe-Wcimar, bom in 1739, adminis- 
 tered the affairs of the duchy from the death of her husband in 
 1758 till 1775, when she resigned her authority into the hands 
 of lier eldest son. Her court was the resort of Herder, Goethe, 
 Wicland, and Schiller. Died in 1807. 
 
 AJLVLliIC, Arxaud, a churchman who holds a prominent 
 place in the annals of the cnisade against the Albigeois in the 
 thirteenth century. He belonged to the Cistercian order of monks, 
 and, in 1201, was made abbot of Citeaux in Burgundy, and, 
 therefore, head of the order. He was associated with Pierre de 
 Castelnau as papal legate in the south of France, on a mission 
 having for its object tlie extirpation of heresy among the Albi- 
 genses. They tried the force of preaching and argument, but 
 with no success; and when in 1208 his colleague was assassi- 
 nated by one of the retainers of Raymond \^. of Toulouse, Amaud 
 became a zealous preacher and leader of the crusade against 
 Raymond and the heretics. In his cruelties and excesses he was 
 supported by Simon de Montfort. It is said that he was present 
 at the battle fought by the kings of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre 
 against the Moors in 1212, at the Sierra Morena and on his 
 return was appointed archbishop of Narbonne. His last public 
 appearance was at the council of Montpelier in 1224, over which 
 he presided, when the complaints of the persecuted Albigenses 
 were heard. He died in the following year. — J. B. 
 
 AMALRICH OF Bona (B^ne), condemned as a lieretic by 
 the university of Paris, in 1204. He advocated a species of 
 pantheism, and dealt in spiritualistic inteqiretations. His bones 
 were dug up and burned in 1209, though he had recanted before 
 his death. Many of his followers, " brethren of the free spirit," 
 suffered martyrdom.— (Mosheim, thirteenth century.) — J. E. 
 
 AM.\LHIC, UxfiiEU d', an ecclesiastic of the 14th centurj', 
 authiir of .•» history of the popes, dedicated to Urban V. 
 
 AMALTEO, PoMi'ONio, an Italian painter of considerable 
 merit, bom at San Vito in Friuli in 1505; died about 1588. 
 He was a pupil of Pordanone, and excelled for a con-ectness of 
 design and briUiapcy of colouring unfortunately missing in the 
 works of his last years. His two sons Geuolamo and An- 
 Toxio, but especially his daughter Quintilia, were hb suc- 
 
 cessful pupils. This last was very clever in portraits, and also 
 executed several works of sculpture. — R. M. 
 
 AMALTIIEUS or AMALTEO, an Italian family of littera- 
 teurs, settled at Pordanone and afterwards Oderzo : — 
 
 Fkancis, flourished at the end of the fifteenth and the begin- 
 ning of the sixteenth century. He taught belles-lettres in several 
 towns of northern Italy, and wrote elegant Latin verse. 
 
 Paul, brother of the preceding, taught belles-lettres at Por- 
 danone. His Latin poems were printed with the " Asturias," of 
 Riccardo Bartolmi. Died in 1517. 
 
 JIark Anthony, another brother, left in MS. some Latin 
 epistles descriptive of his numerous journeys. Died in 1558. 
 
 Jekome, eldest son of Francis, graduated at Padua, taught 
 medicine and philosophy in that city, and afterwards settled as a 
 practitioner at Oderzo. Died in 1574. 
 
 John Baptist, brother of the preceding, studied at Padua, 
 became secretary to the cardinal of Jlilan, and afterwards to Pope 
 Pius IV., famous for his Latin poems. Died in 1573. 
 
 Corneille, another brother, died in 1603. He wrote a 
 poem, printed at Venice in 1572, with the title of "Proteus." 
 
 Octavius, son of Jerome, physician, philosopher, and poet. 
 Died in 1626. 
 
 Attilius, brother of the preceding, enjoyed the confidence 
 of Popes Gregoiy XIII. and Clement V., who employed him on 
 several important missions. Died at Rome in 1633. — J. S., G. 
 
 AJIAMA, SiXTiN, a Dutch theologian, bom at Franeker in 
 1593, was appointed to the chair of oriental languages in the 
 university of that town in 1618, and attained considerable repute 
 as a scholar by the publication of a number of works, chiefly con- 
 troversial. Died in 1 629. 
 
 AM AM A, a Danish painter and engraver, of the 17th century. 
 
 AM AND, James, a French engr.aver, died at Paris in 1730. 
 
 AMAND, a French surgeon, distinguished in obstetrical 
 practice, and author of a work, entitled " Nouvellcs Obsei-vations 
 sur la Pratique des Accouchements ; " died in 1720. 
 
 AJIANDUS, jEneas Sylvius, a Roman general, who, along 
 with jElianus, about the year 287, headed a revolt of the pro- 
 vinces between the Rhone and the Loire, and after a short period 
 of triumph, in which he and his compeer aped the majesty of 
 Roman emperors, was beheaded by Maximin, 
 
 AMAND US, THE Apostle of Belgium, bom at the end 
 of the sixth century, bishop of Maestricht, a noted preacher and 
 worker of miracles; died about 661 in the cloister of Elnon. 
 
 AMANIEU, Des Escas, an Aragonese troubadour of the 
 latter half of the thirteenth century. His productions, which 
 consist of two poetical epistles, are without value, except as re- 
 cords of some of the manners and customs of the time. 
 
 AMANTHON, Claude Nicolas, a French publicist, bora 
 at Villers-les-Ports in 1760; while actively engaged in the duties 
 of various public offices, contributed nimierous articles to news- 
 papers and journals, and produced eighteen lengthy dissertations, 
 chiefly archa-ological and biographical. Died in 1835. 
 
 AMAR, J. B. Andre, a French advocate, bom at Grenoble 
 in 1750; amved at Paris in 1792 as deputy to the National 
 Convention from the department of Isere. He was distinguished 
 throughout the Revolution as a tyrant of the most suspicious 
 and bloodthirsty temper. He was a member of the committee 
 of Pubhc Safety, and in 1794 president of the National Con- 
 vention. Died in 1816.— J. S., G. 
 
 AMAR DURIVIER, John Augustine, a French litterateur, 
 born at Paris in 1765 ; superintended an educational establish- 
 ment at Lyons, and was afterwards named keeper of the Biblio- 
 theque Mazarine at Paris. The publications of this vmter are 
 chiefly compilations for educational purposes. Died in 1802. 
 
 AMAR A, Sin HA, a famous Hindoo poet and grammarian, 
 flourished about the year 50 B.C. He left a great number of 
 works, which, with the exception of his " Amara-Kosha," a San- 
 scrit grammar and vocabulary, Avere destroyed by the Brahmins 
 in the fifth centuiy. "Amara-Kosha" was published in 1808 
 at Calcutta, with an English translation. It is a cmious and 
 most valuable work. — J. S., G. 
 
 AMARAL, Andres do, a Portugtiese chancellor of the order 
 of St. John of Jenasalem; executed dming the siege of Rhodes 
 in 1522, for a treasonous correspondence with Sultan Soliman. 
 
 AJIARAL, Antonio C^ictano do, a Portuguese writer, born 
 at Lisbon in 1747, published a voluminous account of Lusitanian 
 customs, " Mcmorias Sobre a funna do govemo 1 costumes dos 
 povos que habitarao o teiTcno Lusitano." Died in 1819.
 
 * AMARI, MicnELE, an Italian author and revolutionary 
 statesman, was born at Palemioin July, 1806. His father was 
 condemned to death in 1822, for his connection with a revolu- 
 tionaiy movement, but the punishment was commuted to thirty 
 years' confinement. This did not deter Amari from treading in 
 his father's footsteps. In 1842, when he occupied a government 
 situation at Naples, he published the work by which he is best 
 known, and which has been translated into English by Lord 
 EUesmere, " La Gucrra del Vespro Siciliano." It created con- 
 siderable sensation, was withdi-awn from sale by the Neapolitan 
 government, and its author was forced to seek refuge in France. 
 On the breaking out of the revolution in 18-18, he returned to 
 Sicily, and filled various important offices of state up to April, 
 1849, when he quitted Sicily to live at Paris, and devote himself 
 to literature. Amari has published, besides the work above 
 refeiTed to, various works relating to the period of the Moorish 
 occupation of Sicily, (1857.) — A. M. 
 
 AMARITON, Jean, a learned French jurisconsult of the 
 sixteenth centmy. 
 
 AJIASA, son of Ithra, an Israelite, and Abigail, daughter of 
 Nahash, sister to Zeruiah, Joab's mother, was made captain of 
 his host by Absalom, when he rebelled against his father. 
 Nevertheless, David, on the death of Absalom, made Amasa 
 captain of the host in preference to Joab, and sent him to assem- 
 ble troops on the breaking out of the revolt of Sheba, son of 
 Bichri. Amasa's delay in discharging this duty rendered him 
 suspected, and he was slain by Joab on pretence of a fiiendly 
 inter\new with him, 1019 B.C. — A. M. 
 
 AMASEO, Gkegorio, was a scholar of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, father of the more celebrated Romolo Amaseo. 
 
 AJIASEO, PoMPiLio, son of Romolo Amaseo, and also a 
 scholar of some note. Died in 1584. 
 
 AMASEO, RojioLO, a distinguished Itahan scholar and 
 orator; born at Udine, in Friuli, in 1489 ; died about 1552. He 
 was professor of Humanity successively at Padua, Bologna, and 
 Rome. Under Pope Paul III. he also discharged important 
 poUtical functions. Amaseo has left a considerable number of 
 Latin orations, pronounced by him on various occasions, and also 
 Latin translations of Xenophon's Anabasis, and of Pausanias. 
 The latter work has been frequently reprinted. — A. M. 
 
 AMASIS, a king of Egypt, who is said to have reigned about 
 six generations before the Trojan war. He was a cruel tyi-ant, 
 and was dethroned by the Ethiopians under Actisanes. 
 
 AJIASIS, a king of Egypt in 570-526 B.C., whose reign was 
 remarkable for general prosperity and splendour, and for the 
 wise refonns introduced into the administration of public aftairs ; 
 more particularly for the removal of the restrictions upon trade 
 and intercourse with foreigners, which had previously existed. 
 Amasis, in accordance with this policy, was very friendly to the 
 Greeks, and gave them the port of Naucratis in the Delta. His 
 wife, Laodice, was a Greek princess of Gyrene. Herodotus tells 
 us of the colossal statues and structures with which this monarch 
 adorned the cities and temples of his realm, works sui-passed by 
 those of no other Egj'ptian king. He died in the 55th year of his 
 reign, just as Cambyses was preparing to invade Egypt. — A. M. 
 
 AMASIS, a Persian general under Darius, son of Hystaspes, 
 who distinguished himself by the treacherous stratagem through 
 which he took Barca in the Cyrenaica, in 510 b.c. 
 
 AMASTRIS, niece of Darius Codomannus, and a woman of 
 great abilities, became the wife successively of Craterus, one of 
 Alexander the Great's generals ; of Dionysius, tyrant of Heraelea; 
 and of Lysimachus. Returning to Heraelea when divorced by 
 the last, she was murdered by her two sons, whom Lysimachus, 
 however, punished by death. (See Amestuis.) — A.M. 
 
 AMAT, Felix, a distinguished Spanish churchman, bom at 
 Sabadell in 1750. He held many high offices, among others 
 the abbacy of St. Ildefonso and the archbishopric of Palmyra. 
 Amat, who mingled a good deal in politics, appears, on the 
 whole, to have sided with the French on their invasion of Spain, 
 though, it may be believed, from pure motives. In 1814 he was 
 among the persons banished by King Ferdinand from Madrid, as 
 having held office under King Joseph. He died in 1824. Amat 
 was a prolific author. His principal work is, "Tratado de la 
 Iglesia da Jcsu Cristo," a church history, which was prohibited 
 by the Inquisition. — A. M. 
 
 AMATI, the family of Cremona, consisting of three genera- 
 tions, who founded the universal celebrity of that city for the 
 manufacture of violins, and successively practised their craft from 
 vor.. I. 
 
 the latter half of the sLxteenth till near the end of the seventeenth 
 centmy. Accounts vaiy as to which were the eldest and youngest 
 of this family ; that of "SI. Fetis, which agrees with the majority, 
 and appears to have been the most carefully compiled, states that 
 Amdrea and his younger brother, Nicolo Amati, were the first 
 Italians who made these instrmnents ; the elder devoting himself 
 to the manufacture of violins, while the other constructed violas 
 and basses. Nicolo survived his brother, and was succeeded by 
 his sons Antonio and Hiekonijio ; these dissolved partner- 
 ship upon the marriage of the latter, who, in conjunction with his 
 son Nicolo, produced the greatest number of instraments that 
 bear the family name ; this Nicolo, the grandson of the original 
 maker, was alive at a vciy advanced age in 1692. M. Fetis states 
 that, in 1789, an mstrament of the kind called Viola Bastarda 
 was in existence, which bore the name of the eldest of the family, 
 and was dated so early as 1551, and that he has seen instru- 
 ments with his and his brother's names, bearing date fi'om 1568 
 to 1586. Mr. Dubom'g states that some instruments of a largo 
 size, and most perfect workmanship, were made hj the original 
 brothers in 1570, for the chamber music of Charles the Ninth of 
 France. The instraments of Antonio and Hieronimo are dated 
 from 1589 to 1627. M. Fetis asserts that the Amatis originally 
 copied their instraments from French and from Tyrolese makers, 
 a statement that must be received with caution, since the viol 
 (an instrament with frets like the guitar), which was superseded 
 by the violm, was in common use throughout Europe, until an 
 advanced period in the seventeenth century ; and it is therefore 
 unlikely that the violin can have been brought to the perfection 
 of those made by the first Amatis, either in France or in the 
 TjTol, long before the year 1551. The Amati instraments are 
 distinguished by their beautiful shape and exquisite finish, by 
 their usually small size, by their llatness of model, and by 
 their softness, richness, and sweetness of tone, rather than by 
 their brilliancy and power. Nicolo, the last in the succession, 
 and probably also his father, Hieronimo, increased both the 
 size of the instrument and the convexity of the model, and by 
 this means, we may suppose, augmented the power of the tone. 
 It is considered that the instraments bearing date from 1599 to 
 1620 are the best this family produced. Straduario, who was 
 not bom till 1664, was a pupil of the Amati family, and worked 
 in their factory; and when he was established on his own account, 
 he at first made violins after their model, but soon eflected those 
 modifications in it which distinguished his instraments from 
 theirs. We must always believe, however, that it is to his 
 knowledge of the principles he acquired from his famous teachers, 
 and which they seem to have perfectly mastered, that he at- 
 tained his own eminent success as a maker. 
 
 There was also another Amati, named Giuseppe, who lived 
 at Bologna at the beginning of the seventeenth centmy (pos- 
 sibly a son of the original Andi-ea), and who made violins and 
 basses, his instraments being famous for the same silvery quality 
 of tone that characterizes those of the whole family. — G. A. ^L 
 
 AMATI, Cavalier Carlo, one of the most eminent archi- 
 tects of om- time, was born at Milan about 1786. He has de- 
 signed many public and private buildings, churches, &c., his 
 most renowned work being the Rotunda of San Carlo at Jlilan, 
 but recently completed.— R. M. 
 
 AMATI, GiROLAMO, an Italian scholar of great merit ; bom 
 in 1768. As librarian of the Vatican he had ample scope for 
 developing his principal talent and favourite pm-suit — that ot 
 collating and successfully deciphering ancient manuscripts. JIany 
 celebrated editore of the classics have been greatly indebted to 
 the labours of Amati. He was the first to adopt and to demon- 
 state the truth of an opinion now pretty generally held, that 
 Dionysius Ilalicarnasscnsis, not Longinus, was the author of the 
 " Treatise on the Sublime," so long confidently attributed to the 
 latter. Died 1834.— A. M. 
 
 AMATI, Nathan, a Jewish physician, who, towards the close 
 of the 13th century, translated Avicenna into Hebrew. 
 
 AMATIUS, Caius, an Italian of low origin, who, on the 
 strength of a pretended relationship with I\Iarius and Ca-sar, 
 excited tumults in Rome after the assassination of the latter in 
 44 B.C. Antony first connived at these distmhanccs, and 
 aftenvards had their author strangled in prison. 
 
 AJIATO, also A;\IATUS, a learned and talented monk of 
 Monte Casino, in the eleventh century. 
 
 AJIATO, CiRTio 1)', an Italian barber-surgeon, who pub- 
 lished a book on sm'gery in 1671 at Naples. 
 
 B
 
 AilA 
 
 130 
 
 A]VIB 
 
 AJMATO, Fra Ellv d', an Italian ecclesiastic of the order 
 of the Cannelitcs; bom 16C6, died 1747. He was a volumi- 
 nous author, of more learning and diligence than judgment. One 
 of his numerous works bears the title: " JInseum Literarium, in 
 quo pa;ne omnium scriptorum dubia, supposita, maledica, f:ilsa, 
 fabulosa, satyrica, proscripta, anonyma, sulTiirata, insulsa, puti- 
 daque monuinenta, eruditomm cri'terio strietim expanduntur," 
 (Naples, 1730, 4to.)— A. M. 
 
 A.MATO, GiovANXi Antonio d', called II Giovaxe, ne- 
 phew of Gio. Antonio, lie learned painting of Gian Bernardo 
 Lama, of the scliool of Polidoro of C:u-avaggio, whose style he 
 imitated. Bom 1535 ; died 1598. 
 
 AJIATO, Giovanni Antonio d', sumamed II Vecchio, a 
 Neapolitan painter of the school of Silvestro Buoni, who chiefly 
 treated sacred subjects. Bom 1475 ; died 1555. 
 
 AXIATO, Giov.u.'Ni Maria, an Italian Jesuit, who -svrote on 
 Siciliim antiquities. Bom at I'alermo in 1G66 ; died in 1726. 
 
 AMATO, Giuseppe d', an Italian ecclesiastic, bora 1757, 
 died 1832, whose labours as a missionary in Ava were less 
 successful than his studies in natural histoiy. The results of 
 thi'se latter, in the shape of extensive collections, were lost in 
 the Burmese war of 1834. 
 
 AMATO, Joannes Caeolus, a Spanish physician of tlic 
 seventeenth centur)'. 
 
 AMATO, Leonardus, a Sicilian physician, who wrote in 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 AMATO, Miciiele d', an Italian ecclesiastic of great cnidi- 
 tion. He expeniled his learning on numerous works of a theo- 
 logical nature, one of which is on the subject, " Quibus de 
 causis in antiquis fidei symbolis Nicasno et Constantinopolitano 
 articulus iUe, ' Desccndit ad Inferos,' fuerit prajtcmiissus;" pub- 
 Ushed, along with other three dissertations, at Naples in 1728. 
 Bom 1C82 ; died 1729.— A. M. 
 
 AMATO, SciPioNE, a skilful Italian lawj^er and accom- 
 plished linguist of the seventeenth century. 
 
 AMATO, ViNCENZo, a Neapolitan author, who published, in 
 1C70, a historical work on his native to^vn of Cantazaro. 
 
 A3IAT0, YiNCENZO, a Sicilian musician, was born in 1629, 
 and died in 1670. He held the office of maestro di capella at 
 Palermo, and printed several sacred compositions for three, for 
 four, and for five voices. 
 
 AMATIiICE, Nicola Filotesio dell', a Neapolitan his- 
 torical painter and architect of distinguished merit ; lived for a 
 long time at Ascoli, where he left many works. An " Assump- 
 tion" and a " Death of Jlaiy," now in Rome, are amongst his 
 best productions. He flourished about 1533. 
 
 AilATUS, LusiTANUs, a Portuguese Jew, who became emi- 
 nent as a pliysician and wTiter on medical subjects in the 
 sixteenth century. He was one of the earhest anatomists 
 acquainted with the existence of valves in the veins, and some 
 of his works are still considered worthy of being referred to. 
 
 AMAURY, in Latin AMALRICUS, of Chartres, a theolo^an 
 of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, who taught dialectics at 
 Paris, and who, in commenting on the metaphysics of Aristotle, 
 took occasion to advance the opinion that all thmgs were derived 
 from a primary simple matter, possessing the quality of neces- 
 sarj' movement, identical with the Supreme Bemg, and finally 
 receiving again into itself all the creatures wliich it had produced. 
 Amaurj' endeavoured to make his philosophical doctrines tally 
 with the dogmas of the church, but liad the mortification to find 
 Innocent III. launcliing a bull of condemnation against the 
 " Physion," his prmcipal work, in 1204. He was coinpelled to 
 retract, but it is said the process of denying his conscientious 
 convictions went so much to his heart that he died shortly after. 
 
 According to Amaury's theory there were three periods of 
 imiversal history : the first or Mosaic, con-esponding to the first 
 person of the Trinity, God the Father; the second, or Evangelical, 
 specially presided over by the Son; the third, and this period it 
 was which Amaury considered it his mission to initiate, appro- 
 priated to the Spirit. During this last, the ordinances of the 
 Christian religion, necessaiy dui-ing the previous period, were to 
 be superseded. Ilis followers, of whom he left a sufficient number 
 to excite the fears of the orthodox, earned the doctrines of their 
 master to an extreme, and suffered severe persecution. Numbers 
 of them were burnt ; and, whether owing to the precautions of 
 the church or not, neither the writings of Amaury himself, nor 
 those of David de Dinant, one of iiis disciples who WTote a 
 defence of him, have come down to us. — A. JI. 
 
 AJIAURY I. became long of Jerasalem on the death of liis 
 brother, Baldwin III., in 1165, having previously been count of 
 Joppa and Ascalon. On the in\-itation of the caliph of Egj-pt, 
 he undertook two expeditions to that country, in order to aid in 
 resisting the invasion of Nom-eddin, sultan of Aleppo, one of 
 whose generals was the famous Saladin. In neither of these 
 was the king of Jerusalem particularly successful, nor was he 
 more so when he turned against his former ally, and endeavoured 
 to add Egj^pt to his own dominions. Egyjjt fell into the hands 
 of Saladin, and Amaury I., trembhng for his own tin-one, appealed 
 for assistance to the Greek emperor. This he at first obtained, 
 but latterly he had to resist, unaided, the repeated attacks of 
 Saladin. He died in 1173 of extreme fatigue, inciured in one 
 of his campaigns. — A. M. 
 
 AMAURY or AIMERY II., called Amaury of Lusignan, 
 was nominal king of Jerusalem from 1194 to 1205. The real 
 masters of the realm dming the entire period were the Saracens, 
 to dislodge whom all his eftbrts were imsuccessful. Amaury II., 
 who was king of Cypnis in his own right, had come to the 
 empty title of king of Jerasalem, tlu^ough his wife Isabella, 
 widow of Heniy count of Champagne.^A. M. 
 
 AMAURY, AMALRIC, or AlilERIC, a patriarch of Jera- 
 salem, to whose efforts it was pmcipally owing that Amamy I. 
 was made king. He died in 1180. 
 
 ASIAYA, a Spanish historical painter of the school of Car- 
 ducho. He flomished about 1680. Some of his pictures are at 
 Segovia. 
 
 Ai\IAYA, Francisco, a Spanish jmisconsult of considerable 
 repute during the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 AMAZIAH, son of Joash, was king of Judah when Jehoash 
 was king of Israel. He was successful in a campaign against 
 the Edomites, but was defeated and taken prisoner by Jehoash, 
 who plundered the temple, yet seems to have left Amaziah in 
 possession of his throne. Fifteen years after the death of Je- 
 hoash, he was slain by conspu-ators at Lachish, 811 B.C. 
 
 AMBERES, Francisco de, a historical painter and sculptor, 
 who worked at Toledo about 1508, under the patronage of Car- 
 duial Ximenes. 
 
 AilBERGER, Cheistoph, a German portrait-painter, bom 
 at or near Ntirenberg about 1490, and a pupil of the Holbeins. 
 Several of his paintings may be seen in the galleries of Munich, 
 Vienna, and Berlin. Died 1563. 
 
 A]\IBIGATUS, an ancient king of GaiJ, said to have reigned 
 in the seventh century before the Christian era. Dming his 
 reign the population of the countiy became so numerous, that 
 immense emigi-ations were organized imder liis two sons, Bello- 
 vesus and Ligovesus. 
 
 AMBILLON. See Bouchet. 
 
 ASIBIORIX, a celebrated Gaulish cliief, who offered a formi- 
 dable resistance to Jidius Ca'sar. As prince of the Eburones, 
 a Belgic tribe inhabiting the countiy between the Mouse and 
 the Rhine, he was active in organizing, diuing the absence of 
 Cfcsar in Britain, that extensive conspiracy against the Romans 
 wliich, in the winter of 54 B.C., bm-st forth in the attack on the 
 entrenched camp of Quintus Tilm-ius Sabinus and Lucius Varun- 
 cideius Cotta. The attack was repulsed, but subsequently 
 Ambiorix, who was wily as well as brave, contrived to draw this 
 division of the Roman army into an ambuscade, in which it was 
 almost annihilated. Soon after, he instigated the Nervii to 
 attack the winter quarters of Quintus Cicero, which they did 
 without success. Cassar, deeply provoked at the determined 
 hostility of the patriotic prince, whom he had at first tried to 
 conciliate, marched into the country of the Eburones in his next 
 campaign, and ravaged it with fire and sword, sparing neither 
 sex nor age. The Ebm'ones were swept from the face of the 
 earth, but Ambiorix himself escaped. Nothbig further is known 
 of his histoiy. — A. M. 
 
 AMBIVERI, Fk^vncesco, an Italian author in prose and 
 verse, rector of the Canobian school of Novara. Bora at Ber- 
 gamo in 1592, died in 1627. 
 
 AMBIVIUS, Lucius Turpio, a distinguished Roman actor 
 of the time of Terence (195 — 159 B.C.), and in after tunes 
 thought worthy of being classed with Roscius. 
 
 AJIBLEVILLE, Charles d', a Jesuit, bora at Paiis at the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century. He wi'ote a great deal of 
 ecclesiastical music, some of the most important of which, in- 
 cluding a mass for six voices, was published at Paiis in 1634 
 and in 1636.
 
 AilBLBIONT, FnscHEMBERG, Cotmr d', a French officer 
 of marine, and a writer on naval tactics, who, having joined the 
 Spanish service, vi^as killed in the battle of Cape St. Vincent in 
 1797. 
 
 A3IBLY, Claude Jeass Antoine, Marquis d', a field- 
 marshal and commander of the order of St. Louis under Louis 
 XV. He was a member of the States-General in 1789, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his vehement opposition to the revolution- 
 ary party. He emigrated, and died at Hamburg in 1797. 
 
 AMBODIK, Nestor-BL^.ximovitsch, a Russian physician, 
 was bom in 1740 at Veprik, a %illage in the government of 
 Pultowa, and died in 1812. He studied at the university of 
 Kiev, and afterwards at the military hospital of St. Petersbiu-g, 
 and took the degree of doctor of medicine at Strasbourg in 1776. 
 He became an eminent physician and accoucheiur in St. Peters- 
 burg, and at the same time devoted attention to botany. Be- 
 sides medical works, he published " Elements of Botany," and a 
 "Botanical Dictionary." — J. H. B. 
 
 AMBOISE, the name of a noble French family which be- 
 longed originally to the to^vn of Amboise on the Loire, and 
 produced a number of distinguished men, most of whom were 
 sons of Pierre d'Aniboise, lord of Chaumont, chamberlain to 
 Charles VIL and Louis XL The most remarkable was : — 
 
 A3IBOISE, George d', aix-hbishop and cardinal, the cele- 
 brated prime minister of Louis XIL, bom in the year 14G0. 
 His preferments in the chm-ch began very early, for he was only 
 fourteen when he was made bislwp of Montauban ; but somewhat 
 later he received a temporary check, when, having engaged 
 himself in a plot formed by the duke of Orleans (whose confiden- 
 tial fiiend he had become), to remove the young king, Charles 
 VIII., from imder the tutelage of Anne of Beaujeu, the affair 
 was discovered, and D'Amboise, after being kept in confine- 
 ment for upwards of two years, was " banished " to his 
 diocese of Montauban. Better days dawned upon him when his 
 friend the duke was restored to court favour, and in 1493 he 
 became archbishop of Rouen and heutenant-general of Normandy, 
 in which last office he showed signal administrative capacity. A 
 wider field, however, for the development of his talents as a 
 statesman, and his excellent quahties as a man, was soon to be 
 laid open to him. In 1498 Charles VIII. died, and the dulje of 
 Orleans acceding to the thi-one with the title of Louis XIL, his 
 friend D'Amboise rose into the position of prime minister of 
 France. The archbishop of Rouen did not now behe those indi- 
 cations of high character which he had already given. The 
 fiscal bm-dens of the nation were very greatly and, for that 
 reign at least, permanently diminished. The licence of the 
 soldiery was checked, and a state of admu-able discipUne estab- 
 lished throughout the army. Most important of all, the com-ts 
 of law were purified, and energetic and judicious measm'es taken 
 to make justice as accessible to the poor as to the rich and mflu- 
 ential. The religious orders, too, had to submit to a process of 
 reform which D'Amboise, armed A'l-ith formidable powers as 
 pope's legate for France, imposed upon them. His foreign 
 policy, meanwhile, was perhaps open to more objection ; at 
 least, if it was intended to be beneficial to France and Louis, it 
 was hardly marked by a veiy scrupidous regard for the rights of 
 other nations and princes. He was the right hand of Louis on 
 his expedition to Italy, when the duchy of Milan and other parts 
 of the north of that country fell into the hands of the French ; 
 and it was D'Amboise who, on the Milanese subsequently again 
 placing themselves rmder theu- old duke, Sforza, once more re- 
 duced them to obedience to France. 
 
 When, in 1498, he had negotiated with Pope Alexander VI. 
 the divorce of Louis XII. from Jeanne de France, the unhappy 
 daughter of Loius XL, as a step to liis marriage mth the widow 
 of Charles VIII., the pope had rewarded the important stipula- 
 tions granted in favour of Ca?sar Borgia, by making the prime 
 minister of Louis a cardinal ; and on the death of Alexander, 
 D'Amboise was only prevented from becoming pope by the adroit- 
 ness of Cardinal Julian de Rovcre, afterwards Julius II. The 
 cardinal of Amboise was only fifty when he died in the convent 
 of the Celestines at Lyons (1510). It was while lying hei-e on his 
 deathbed, his thoughts dwelling sadly on the evil that had mixi'd 
 with the good of his busy life, that he exclaimed to the good 
 friar who waited on him : " Brother John ! Wl\y have I not all 
 my life been brother John ? " 
 
 AMBOISE. Three Frenchmen of note bear this name, un- 
 connected with the above family. These are : — 
 
 Amboise, Adrien d', son of Jean d'Amboise, surgeon to 
 Charles IX.; was rector of the university of Paris, and after- 
 wards bishop of Treguier. Died 1616. 
 
 Ajiboise, Francois d', his brother, became a distingiushed 
 lawyer in the tune of Heniy III., who showed him much favour. 
 He wrote a number of works, mostly of a light and facetious 
 nature. Bom 1550 ; died 1620. 
 
 Amboise, Jacques d', another brother, was originally a sur- 
 geon, but afterwards obtained the degree of doctor of medicine. 
 He became rector of the imiversity of Paris in 1594, and distin- 
 guished himself by the energy of his opposition to the Jesuits. 
 Died in 1606.— A. M. 
 
 AMBOISE, Michael d', snmamed L'Esclave FortuniS, 
 natural son of Charles Chaumont d'Amboise, bom at Naples 
 early in the sixteenth century ; author of a number of amatory 
 efi'usions, and translations from the Itahan into French. 
 
 AMBRA, Francesco d', a Florentine, author of three ex- 
 cellent comedies, " II Furto," " La Cofanaria," and " J. Ber- 
 nardi." Died at Rome in 1558. 
 
 AJIBROGI, Antonio JIakia, an Italian Jesuit of Florence, 
 bom in 1713, died at Rome in 1788. He was professor in the 
 Collegio Romano, and author of numerous translations from the 
 Latin and French. 
 
 AMBROGI, DoMENico, a Bolognese painter of the 17th 
 century, who studied under Francesco Brizio, whence he came to 
 be called Mexichino (familiar form of Domenico) del Brizio. 
 He executed landscapes and architectiu-al pieces. 
 
 A3IBR0GI0, Giovanni, was an artist engaged in decorating 
 the cathedral of Florence (the Santa Maria del Fiore) in 1384. 
 The fa9ade ■with which his designs were connected has been long 
 destroyed. 
 
 AMBROGIO or AilBROSIO, Teseo. See Ambrose, 
 Theseus. 
 
 AJIBROGIO da FOSSANO, an Italian painter and archi- 
 tect of the beginning of the sixteenth century. His masterpiece 
 is the celebrated facade of the Certosa, near Pavia. As a painter 
 he followed the school of Mantegna. — R. M. 
 
 AMBROISE, Ausbert, Autpert, or Ansbert, an ecclesi- 
 astic of the age of Charlemagne, ^vrote a " Commentarius in 
 Apocalypsin," Cologne, 1536 ; and other theological works. 
 
 AMBROISE DE LOMBEZ, Father, a Capuchm, author 
 of a " Traits de la paix6 interiem-e." Born at Lombez in 1708; 
 died 1778. 
 
 A:\IBR0SE, Saint, was bora a.d. 340 in Gaul, of which his 
 father was prastorian prefect, and probably in the to'mi of Trier 
 or Treves, then called Augiista Tre^■inonml, the piincipal town 
 in the prefecture. His future greatness is said to have been in- 
 dicated by a circumstance which occurred in his infoncy. The 
 story is told of him, as of Plato, that while he was sleeping in 
 his cradle, a swarm of bees settled on his lips without infiicting 
 any injury. He received the advantage of education at Rome, 
 and studied as an advocate under Anicius Probus and Symma- 
 chus, and then proceeded to MUan for the purpose of following 
 the legal profession. There he gained considerable distinction 
 by pleading causes, until he was appointed consular prefect 
 of Liguria, the pro%'ince in which Milan was situated. 
 
 The manner in which he acquitted himself in this office, was 
 such as to give general satisfaction to the emperor and the 
 people, when an event occiured wliich changed the whole course 
 of his life. On the death of Auxentius, archbishop of JIUan, 
 the chmxh was gathered together to elect a successor. The con- 
 tention between the opposing parties was so strong, that Ambrose 
 deemed it necessary to attend to preserve the public peace. A 
 scene of strife and confusion ensued, in which all parties seemed 
 to forget the important business upon which they were assembled. 
 Ambrose, supported by the authority of his office and vigorous 
 eloqiience, commanded a hearing ; in the midst of his address, 
 in which, like the town-clerk at Ephesus, he entreated them to 
 be quiet, and to do nothing rashly, he was saluted with the 
 general cry, "Ambrose is bishop." The call made upon him to 
 assume the episcopal office was so urgent, that he could not 
 refuse to accede to the unanimous wish of the people. The 
 nu'thods, however, which he took to divert them from their pur- 
 pose, and to impress them with an idea of his unfitness for this 
 tlignity, were strange indeed, and such as betray the singu- 
 larly imhealthy tone of his mind, as well as the morbid feel- 
 ings of the age. He affected the character of harshness, by in- 
 fficting undue severity on malefactors ; he courted a reputation
 
 for uncleanness, by iin-iting dissolute companions to his house. 
 To avoid the importunities with which he was beset, he sought 
 to effect his escape from Mihm ; but missing his way, after 
 wandering about all night, he was found not far from the gates 
 of the city. His olyections were so strong, that, according to 
 one account, he yielded only to the express command of the em- 
 peror, Valentinian I. According to another account, when tlie 
 difliculties arising from his former reluctance were overcome, it 
 was necessar)' for him to obtain the imperial consent before he 
 coidd resign the secular duties of governor, and undertake the 
 spiritual ftuictions of bisliop. In this unprecedented manner, 
 Ambrose, the catechumen, in the thirty-fom-th year of his age, 
 was called to the high dignity of archbishop of Milan, the capital 
 of tlic Western Empire, and was duly consecrated to this exalted 
 office on the eighth day after his baptism. 
 
 The irregidarities of the whole proceeding are transparent ; 
 especially as the transaction occmTed in a period of the chm-ch 
 which our imagination depicts as a scene of perfect order, pmity, 
 and peace. The follomng facts deserve careful consideration : — 
 (1.) The sti-ife between the orthodox and Arian parties was 
 so sharp, that the mterference of a magistrate was necessai-y to 
 preserve the peace. (2.) The ecclesiastical feeling of propriety 
 was so low, as to admit of the election of an unbaptized lay- 
 man to the episcopal othce. (3.) The consent of the emperor 
 was necessaiy before the individual chosen by the chm'ch could 
 assume the episcopal government. (4.) A person was conse- 
 crated bishop immediately after baptism. 
 
 The distinguishing feature of Ambrose's character was ener- 
 getic activity: thus, he made over the whole of his property to the 
 church for the relief of the poor ; and when his feelings of com- 
 passion were strongly excited on behalf of some captives, he 
 hesitated not to employ the treasures, and even the consecrated 
 vessels of the church, for the pui-pose of redeeming them from 
 slavery. Throughout his life he was a wai-m advocate of celibacy ; 
 and numbers, ui-ged by his representations, came forward to de- 
 vote tliemselves to a single life. His attachment to the orthodox 
 creed, shown at the time of his baptism, was afterwards exhibited 
 in his efforts to prevent the appointment of an Arian bishop at 
 Sirmium, who was supported by the zeal and mfluence of the 
 Empress Justina, the mother of Valentinian II. When Justina 
 demanded one of the churches in Milan for the use of the Aj-ian 
 party, the archbishop distinctly and firmly refused ; when vio- 
 lence was offered by a body of guards, who attempted to effect 
 a forcible entrance, Ambrose calmly replied, " You may use your 
 swords and spears against me ; such a death I will readily xin- 
 dergo." 'NMien Symmachus and the heathen senators of Eome 
 presented a petition, that tlie altar of \'ictory should be rebuilt, 
 and offered a vindication in behalf of idolatrous worship, Ambrose 
 directed attention to the true source of these victories, and called 
 upon the heathens to declare what captives they had redeemed, 
 what poor they had reUeved, to what exiles they had sent alms. 
 The ser\-iccs of Ambrose were highly valued as a political agent, 
 in spite of the resentment which the empress felt at his theolo- 
 gical opinions. Thus Ambrose was on two different occasions 
 employed as ambassador to Maximus, who had rebelled against 
 the imperial authority, and was at the head of an army in Gaid. 
 On the first occasion, 385, Ambrose induced hun to defer his 
 design of invading Italy ; in the second embassy, 387, he was 
 not equally successful ; for JIaximus entered Milan in triumph, 
 when the archbishop inculcated a virtuous resignation rather 
 than a vigorous resistance. 
 
 The career of Maximus was closed by the victories of Theodo- 
 sius, and his accession to the throne. This powerful prince came 
 into collision with Ambrose on two striking occasions. Some 
 monks at Callinicum, on the frontiers of Persia, were commanded 
 by Theodosius to rebuild, at their o\\'n expense, a Jewish sjqia- 
 gogne, which had been burnt and destroyed in an outbreak of 
 fanatical excitement. Ambrose exerted his personal and official 
 influence against the execution of this order, and was too suc- 
 cessful in defeating the cause of justice and equity. The great 
 event, however, which has gained for Ambrose his eminent place 
 in ecclesiastical histoiy, arises out of the severe and revengeiul 
 measures which the emperor adopted against the inhabitants of 
 Thessalonica, the metropolis of the Illyrian provinces. A petty 
 dispute gave rise to riot, sedition, and blooclslied, in which the 
 ofhcers of the ganison were inhumanly murdered, and then- 
 bodies treated with base indignity. In a transport of rage, 
 Theodosius ordered a general massacre of the inhabitants, whfch 
 
 was carried into effect under circumstances of complicated craelty 
 and treachery. When Ambrose heard of the atrocious deed, he 
 wrote a letter to the emperor, setting forth the heinous nature of 
 the oftence, and the blood-guiltiness to which the paroxysms of 
 passion had given birth. The emperor was sensibly affected 
 by the remonstrances of the archbishop; but, forgetting how 
 he had on the former occasion been debarred from occupying the 
 usual place of honom' assigned to royalty, he dared to enter the 
 cathedral for the purpose of performing his devotions. This 
 advance into the sacred precincts of the temple was arrested on 
 the threshold by the archbishop, who insisted on the perfoimance 
 of public penance. When Theodosius pleaded the conduct of 
 David, he received the reply, " You have imitated David in his 
 guilt : imitate him also in his repentance." For eight months 
 Theodosius had no other resource but to submit to this exclusion ; 
 and even on the feast of the Nativity, he touchingly lamented 
 that he was not admitted to the sacred courts which were open 
 to the beggar and the slave. At length, on his publicly assum- 
 ing the humble language and attitude of a suppliant, the interdict 
 was removed ; and a salutary precaution was taken agamst the 
 recmTence of a like massacre, by enacting a condition that thhty 
 days should always elapse between the pronouncmg of a capital 
 sentence and the execution of the fatal decree. 
 
 The conduct of Ambrose in these straggles with the emperors, 
 gives rise to various conflicting opinions. In a rude and uncivi- 
 lized age, when the bonds of society were loosed, and the com- 
 munity shaken to its foundations, we contemplate vrith awe and 
 delight the career of one who, in the short space of fourteen 
 years, asserted his right to rule. We admire the successful trans- 
 ference to ecclesiastical government and discipline of that natural 
 vigour and practical energy which Ambrose had acquired in 
 secular concerns. We look upon these straggles as striking 
 proofs of the spiritual power wielded by Cluistian teachers ; for 
 within the space of eighty years from the persecution of Diocle- 
 tian, a successor of that unrestrained and lawless despot humbled 
 himself before the unarmed minister of the religion which Dio- 
 cletian had laboured to destroy. 
 
 The decision and impartiaUty of the archbishop In bringing 
 the emperor of Rome to the bar of public opinion — in rendering 
 him amenable for an act of atrocious tyranny — in affixing the 
 brand of condemnation on a deed of sanguinary revenge, are justly 
 entitled to universal approbation. This tribute to his administra- 
 tive vigour has been the more cheerfully paid, as it is clear that 
 Ambrose acted, not from the love of power or from sacerdotal 
 ambition, but from a sincere conviction that the best interests of 
 mankind, in their temporal welfare and eternal happiness, were 
 involved in establishing the supremacy of the altar over the 
 throne. It should be remembered, too, that the minister of 
 religion had not Icamed to discriminate as to the extent of his 
 powers, and recognized no distinction between pohtical miscon- 
 duct and private flagitiousness. 
 
 At tliis time the first blood was judicially shed for opinions 
 deemed to be heretical. The sufferer was Priscillian, a bishop in 
 Spain. Some of those who spnpathized with him, and shared 
 his fate, wished to prove before Ambrose their innocence of the 
 charges brought against them, but were unable to obtain a hear- 
 ing. When, however, the capital sentence was carried mto 
 execution, the humane feelings of the archbishop asserted their 
 sway ; he denounced the deed of violence, and refused to hold 
 any intercom-se with the bishops who had taken part in the san- 
 guinary transaction. 
 
 The writings of Ambrose are not remarkable for taste or 
 genius ; they have neither the spirit of TertulUan nor the copious 
 elegance of Lactantius ; we look in vain for the lively wit of 
 Jerome, or the gi-ave energy of his distingiushed disciple, Augus- 
 tine. His public and popular compositions are far inferior to his 
 theological works. He was led astray by his fondness for the 
 mystic subtleties of Origen. He looked upon Scriptm'e as one 
 vast allegory, and traced out fantastic analogies and recondite 
 significations in eveiy passage. In one of his practical treatises, 
 where he inculcates the habit of intercessory prayer, and insists 
 on the necessity of being ready to forgive, as we would be forgiven, 
 he expounds the passage, " Enter into thy closet," as meaning, 
 not tlie closet surrounded by walls within which your limbs are 
 inclosed, but the closet within you, within which your thoughts 
 are inclosed, in which your feelings and associations dwell. 
 
 His treatises on Faith and on the Holy Spirit were composed 
 fo"- the instruction of the youthful emperor Gratian ; but to judge
 
 from his ^vTitings, the point which occupied his chief attention 
 was the spiritual direction of vu-gins and mdows. In one of 
 these he recommends, in a passing remark, the invocation of 
 angels, and is the eai'hest ■n'riter who makes any allusion to this 
 practice. His zeal in the cause of cehbacy is showni by the 
 fact, that, within two years from his consecration, he wrote a 
 work " On Virgins," which he dedicated to his sister MarcelUna. 
 
 The age in which Ambrose lived was an age of childish cre- 
 duhty; the human mind was fast sinking into superstition. 
 It would have been remarkable, indeed, if the archbishop had 
 altogether escaped the infection. Accordingly we are told that 
 he learned by a ^-ision the spot where the bodies of some martyrs 
 reposed, which were piously exhumed, and conveyed in solemn 
 pomp to the Ambrosian chm'ch. By the vuiue which went forth 
 from these reUcs, a butcher, named Severas, recovered his eye- 
 sight, and other wonders were attributed to handkerchiefs and 
 aprons which derived miraculous power from these sacred bones. 
 
 Dming the period of his open conflict ydth. the empress, 
 Ambrose introduced into the church at Jlilan the regular prac- 
 tice of antiphonal hymns, a usage which, though long adopted 
 in the East, was unknown in the West. (The Ambrosian chant 
 is not so much distinguished by the antiphonal manner in which 
 it was performed — which is traceable to the practice of the early 
 Jews, and to the choiiis of the classic di'ama — as by the music 
 thus performed, which was appropriated from the Greeks by 
 Fla^an of Antioch, being the simplest chai-acter of music in- 
 cluded in their theory : it comprised the first foiu: modes of the 
 Greek diatonic genus, now known as the four authentic ecclesias- 
 tical modes, and it was m general use in the Western church, 
 imtil, in the sixth centur_v, Gregory modified the system by the 
 addition of the four modes now kno-v\'n as the plagal modes ; it 
 remained still in use in Jlilan, until, in the sixteenth century, 
 Carlo Boromeo first introduced the Gregorian system there, and 
 there a single specimen of pure Ambrosian music is even now 
 in constant employment — an introit, which forms the chief sub- 
 ject of Bird's anthem, " Bow thine ear." One of the Lutheran 
 hymns, the oldest hnnn in the protestant church, is also said to 
 be of Ambrosian origin. — G. A. il.) Augustine refers, m stick- 
 ing language, to the intense effect which this responsive singing 
 produced upon his mind, "bringing all heaven before his eyes." 
 That noble hjTnn, " Te Deimi laudamus," which has been as a 
 well of living water springing up with devotional thoughts, feel- 
 ings, and desires to the chiuch miiversal, has been ascribed to 
 Ambrose ; but there is better reason for concluding that it is the 
 production of a later age. — W. W. 
 
 AMBROSE THE Cajialdule, so called because he became 
 general of the order, was a distinguished Itahan theologian of 
 the early part of the fifteenth centmy. He was made cardinal 
 imder Pope Eugene IV., and at the council of Florence drew up 
 an " Unionis formula inter Ecclesiam Graacam et Latinam." 
 He was the author of numerous works in Roman Cathohc 
 theology. Died in 1439.— A. M. 
 
 AMBROSE, Isaac, an Enghsh divine, bom in Lancashire 
 early in the seventeenth century. He took orders in the Eng- 
 lish church, but afterwards, in 1G41, joined the Presbyterian 
 party, and laboured first at Grastang, and then at Preston. 
 We read of him, that it was hb wont to spend a month every 
 year in a lonely wood, in religious meditation. His best-remem- 
 bered works are "Prima, Media, et Ultima," London, 1640 and 
 1650, and a popular practical treatise called " Looking unto 
 Jesus," which has been often reprinted, and is distinguished by 
 its homely fen'our. He died at the age of seventy-two. — J. B. 
 
 AMBROSE, Theseus, or in the Italian form, AMBROGIO, 
 Teseo, was descended of the noble family of the Conti d'Al)- 
 bonese, and born at Pavia in 1469. He gave himself at an 
 early period to Oriental studies, at the request of the Cardinal 
 Santa Croce, was a regular canon of the Lateran, and afterwards 
 a professor of Syriac and Chaldee in Bologna. He has the hon- 
 our of being the first public teacher of these tongues in Italy. 
 In 1539 he ])ublished at Pavia an " Introductio in Chaldai- 
 cam Linguam," &c., at his own expense, and with his own 
 types — ti/pis author-is UhvL Among his casual visitors was the 
 Austrian chancellor Widmanstadt, whom he instracted in Syriac, 
 and to this tuition we owe the first edition of the Syriac New 
 Testament, which, under his learned patronage and the literary 
 care of Moses of Jlarden, was printed and published at Vienna 
 in 1555. The story is told at length m the preface. — J. E. 
 
 AMBROSINI, Bartolosieo, a physician of eminence, and 
 
 professor of botany in the university of Bologna, was bom 
 towards the end of the sixteenth century. He had the direc- 
 tion of the botanic garden in his native city, one of the eai-Uest 
 botanical gardens in Europe, and celebrated for its plants. Am- 
 brosini was also curator of the Natural History JIuseum. He 
 published a work on the varieties of capsicum, illustrated by 
 figures, superintended an edition of the works of Aldi-ovandi, 
 and pubhshed also several medical works. Dming the plague 
 of 1630, he rendered important services to the inhabitants of 
 Bologna. He died in 1657.— J. H. B. 
 
 AMBROSINI, Hyaclnth, was brother to the preceding, and 
 succeeded him in the garden of Bologna. He pubhshed an ac- 
 count of the plants cultivated in the garden, and commenced a 
 work on the plants then known, with their s}Tionvms and 
 etymologies. Only one volume of the work was published, in 
 the year 1666. The name of these two brothers is presented in 
 the genus Ambrosinia. — J. H. B. 
 
 AMBROSIUS, Atjreliax, a king of Great Britain, who lived 
 in the latter half of the fifth century, and about whose life and 
 exploits the most contradictor}' traditions prevail. He appeal's 
 to have been engaged in wars against the Saxon invaders, and 
 the usurper Vortigera. Some of the chroniclers maintain that he 
 died by poison, whilst others assert that he was defeated and slain 
 by Cerdic, king of the West Saxons. — J. W. S. 
 
 AMBROSIUS, an archbishop of Moscow, whose Russian name 
 was AndrS Sertis Kamensky; bom in 1708. He was a 
 highly cultivated man, of great worth of character, yet met with 
 a lamentable end. When the plague raged in Moscow in 1771, 
 the people spread it more and more by assembling — the infected 
 mingling with the healthy — in immense crowds around a chapel 
 containing a certain image of the Virgin. The archbishop, to 
 prevent the crowding, ^vithdrew tliis favomite image, in retiuni 
 for which benevolent act the mob tore him to pieces. — A. M. 
 
 A^IEUCHL, JoH.\XN LuDWiG, a Swiss poet, bom at Watt- 
 weil, in St. Gall, in 1750, who wrote a number of historical 
 dramas, &c., chiefly on national subjects. Died in 1800. 
 
 A^IEIL, Augustus, Baron, a French general, who served 
 with distinction under Napoleon, and being proscribed on the 
 retmTi of the Bourbons, died in prison m 1822. 
 
 A]MEILHON, Hubert Pascal, a French academician, who 
 saved upwards of 800,000 volumes from destruction during the 
 fury of the first Revolution. He was bom in 1730, and died in 
 1811, leaving a variety of archaiological writings. 
 
 AMEIPSIAS, a Greek comic poet, hved about 419 B.C. 
 
 AJIEL, Hans, of Antwerp, the architect of the fa9ade and 
 steeple of the Antwei-p cathedi-al; flourished about 1422. 
 
 AMELESAGORAS, an ancient Greek historian of Chalcedon. 
 
 * A3IELIE, Maria Frederika Augusta, a princess of 
 Saxony, bom in 1794, is well knowTi in Germany as a success- 
 ful dramatic authoress. 
 
 A]\IELINE, Claude, a French ecclesiastic and writer on 
 ethics of the seventeenth century. 
 
 AMELIUS, a Greek philosopher of the Neoplatonic school, 
 who lived about the end of the third century, but whose birth- 
 place is unknown. He is said to have been the pupil of Plotinus, 
 and the master of Porphny. Of his numerous works nothing 
 has reached us, except a fragment of a commentary upon the 
 opening of John's gospel. His views were of the usual mystical 
 character of the Alexandrian school. — J. W. S. 
 
 AMELIUS, Martin, a German jurist of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, who became regent of Baden, and contributed much to 
 introduce protestantism into that countiy. 
 
 AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, Abraham Nicholas, a 
 political writer of France, who was born at Orleans in 1634, 
 and died at Paris, 1706. Of his life very little is known. He 
 published an account of the Venetian system of government, a 
 history of the council of Trent, together with a variety of me- 
 moirs, essays, and translations. 
 
 AiMELOTE or AMELOTTE, Denis, a French theologian, 
 who flourished in the reign of Louis XIV., and entered with 
 great vehemence into the controversy against the Jansenists. 
 He wrote a translation of the New Testament. 
 
 AJIELUNGIII, Geronijio, hved at Pisa in the sixteenth 
 century, and obtained some celebrity as a comic poet. 
 
 AJIENOPIIIS I., one of the Egyptian Idngs of the eighteenth 
 dynasty, and, according to the tablet of Abydos, the successor of 
 Amon. The name signifies " one with Amun." He was a great 
 and successful warrior, and is represented in stucco in vaiious
 
 places, as a god in the act of receiving lioniage. A fine picture 
 of liim was found at Gournou by tlie late Prussian expedition ; 
 a marble statue of liini is in the noble collection at Turin, and a 
 pair of sandals with his name on the strap is in the museum of 
 Berlin, lie appears to have been the originator of the great 
 palace-temple of Kamak, and is regarded by some as the second 
 founder of the lv::v])tian monarchy. — J. E. 
 
 AMlCXOrills'll., son of Thothmes 111., and one of the kings 
 of the 1 8th d)^^.1sty, whose architectural works are found chiefly 
 in Nul)ia. By some compilers of the royal lists, he was wTongly 
 identided witli "Jlomnon and the speaking statue." — J. E. 
 
 AMEXOPillS III. or AMKNOPIIIS-MEMNON, son of 
 Thothmes IV., and one of the most famous of the lungs of the 
 18th dynasty. Tlie works erected by him in Egypt were numer- 
 ous and magnificent— such as the great palace of Luxor, in the 
 rooms of which his birth and education are pictured out, and 
 the long avenue of sphinxes which joins it to Karnak. His con- 
 quests were extensive, and on a monolith statue in the LomTC 
 is a long and proud record of them. The great fabric of the 
 Amcnopliium was on the western bank of the Nile. Two colos- 
 sal statues still stand in solitary grandeur among its extensive 
 ruins, and one of these, knowm of old as the vocal statue described 
 by Pausanias and Strabo, has connected this sovereign with the 
 Jlemnon of the Odyssey and of Grecian story. 'I'he tomb of Ame- 
 nophis is one of the most coni])lete that has been found ; 352 feet 
 in length, and covered with hieroglypliical characters. — J. E. 
 
 A^iENOPIITIIlS, successor of Kamses, and a king of the 
 nineteenth Egyptian dynasty. His name appears in one of the 
 halls of Luxor. His reign was short, and, according to Egyp- 
 tian custom, his tomb on that account was left unfinished. 
 
 AJIENTA, NicoLO, a poet and philologian of Naples, who 
 lived in the latter pai t of the seventeenth century. 
 
 AMENTES, a Greek surgeon of the first century. 
 
 AlIERAD or AMKRLAN, Eloi d', a French writer, bora 
 about the close of the foiu-teenth century, at the tovra of Bethune, 
 in Artois, where he was master of the choir of singing boys. He 
 was author of a remarkable book on Satanic agency. 
 
 AMEHBACII, BoNiFAcius, son of Johann Amerbach, was 
 born at Basle in 1495, became professor of civil law in his 
 native town, and enjoyed the friendship of Erasmus and Frciben, 
 and died in 1562. 
 
 AMERBACH, Elias Nicolas, a, composer for the organ. 
 He held an appointment as organist in Leipzig in the year 1571, 
 and published several fugues and other pieces for his instrument. 
 
 AMERBACH, Joiianx, a German printer of the fifteenth 
 century, one of the first who introduced the Latin character in 
 place of the Gothic. He was much esteemed by the literary men 
 of that age, and died in 1528. 
 
 AMERBACH, Veit, a German wi-iter, professor of philoso- 
 phy at Ingolstadt, where he died in 1557. 
 
 AMEU BIAKIIAM ALLAH, AnuL Mansur Aimer Ka- 
 MiLLAii, a caliph of Egypt, of the Fatimite house, was born in 
 1095, .and assassinated in 1130. 
 
 AMERGIN or AMERGHIN (Latin, AMERGINUS), sur- 
 named Gi.unoeai,, the "white-kneed," one of the heroes of 
 ancient Irish history, is said to have hved ten or twelve centiu-ies 
 before the Christian era. Tradition represents him to have been 
 the son of Golamh, surnamcd Milo or the Milesian, and Scota, a 
 daughter of Ph.araoh, king of Egypt, in which country he was 
 born. Holding afterwards the otiice of chief priest among the 
 Milesians of Spain, he accompanied them to the conquest of 
 Ireland as one of the leaders of the expedition, which owed much 
 of its success to his ability and courage. Three Danaan (or 
 Damnonian) princes then ruled the island ; and on their remon- 
 strating against the sudden and stealthy invasion, Amergin, who 
 had been sent as the envoy to demand their submission, consented 
 to .allow them time to assemble their forces, th.at the matter 
 might be decided by fair figlit in the field. In the stniggle that 
 followed, the result was for some time doubtful. The invaders 
 suffered severely from storm as well as in battle. Five of Amer- 
 gin's brotliers perished: but at length he and the two sur^'iving 
 sons of Milcsius slew the three Dana.an princes in the battle of 
 Tailtan, and secured possession of the kingdom. Inbhcr Sceine 
 now called Bantry Bay, is s:ud to have derived its name froin 
 Sceine or Sgcnea, Amergin's wife, who was drowned there ; and 
 the name of his mother, Scota, is supposed to be perpetuated in 
 her burj-ing place. Glen Scota, in Tralee. But in the obscurity 
 which rests on the early history of Ireland, it is impossible to 
 
 say how much of the history of Amergin is fable, and whether 
 he be not altogether a fictitious personage. — W. B. 
 
 AJIERGIN or AMALGAIDH, an frish poet, who lived in 
 the middle of the sixth century, and author of the "Dinn 
 Seanchas, or history of noted places in Ireland." This has 
 Ijeen from time to time enlarged by additions, some of them so 
 late as the eleventh centuiy. — (IFfwe, O^BeiUt/.') — J. F. W. 
 
 AJIERGIN, Mac Ajialgaidh, an Irish writer of the 
 seventh century, who lived in the reign of Finghin, king of 
 Munster. He composed a treatise on the privileges and punish- 
 ments of the different ranks in society. There is a copy of this 
 tract among the Seabright MSS. in Trinity college, Dublin. — 
 (C'7?e/%.)— J. F. W. 
 
 AMERIGHI, Michel Angelo da Caeavaggio. See 
 Caravaggio. 
 
 AMERIGO VESPUCCI or AMERICUS VESPUTIUS 
 (generally so written, though Vespucci was his surname), a navi- 
 gator eminent for nautical science and enterprise. He was em- 
 ployed at the com-t of Ferdinand of Arragon, together with other 
 persons, as Pinzon and Solis, at the head of a sort of board of 
 navigation, constructing ch.ai-ts, and tracing out new routes for 
 projected voyages. He was born at Florence, on the 9 th March, 
 1451, of a wealthy family, and educated by his imcle, Giorgio 
 Ajitonio, a monk of the congregation of St. Mark. He went as 
 a merchant to Seville in connection with the Florentine house of 
 Juanoto Bemardi, and seems to have gone to and fro between 
 Florence and Spain for several yeai-s. It is proved by docu- 
 ments that he was in the latter country in 1486, though he 
 lived at Florence in 1489. Himiboldt, in his " Histoire de la 
 Geographie du Nouveau Continent," has carefully investigated 
 the four voyages said to have been made by Vespucci ; two by 
 the command of the king of Castile, and two by that of the 
 reigning monarch of Portugal. His first voyage was in the 
 capacity of pilot in an expedition of Alonzo de Hojeda, on the 
 20th May, 1499, which sailed from a port of Galicia. In 
 twenty-seven days from the Canaries he reached the coast of 
 South America, which he traced westwai'ds as far as Cape de 
 la Vela. Then turning northwards he touched at Hispaniola, 
 and retm-ned to Spain on 15th October, 1499. By some blun- 
 der, which has never been satisfactorily explained, a statement 
 bearing the name of Vespucci was published at St. Die in Lor- 
 raine, in which the year 1497 was substituted for 1499, which 
 made it appear that he reached the mainland of America a year 
 before Christopher Columbus. There is no reason, however, to 
 beheve that he ever attempted to defraud Columbus of his right- 
 ful claim to this great discovery. The suggestion that the new 
 continent should be named after Amerigo, seems t;> have origi- 
 nated with the author of an Italian account of his voyages. 
 The astronomical knowledge of Vespucci was considerable. His 
 love for maritime adventure, as he himself informs us, was owing 
 to his mercantile avocations at Seville. While fitting out ships 
 for long voyages, he imbibed the strong desire to accompany them. 
 His earliest expeditions were made in the service of the Spanish 
 sovereign, and at the time of the death of the gi'eat adiniral, we 
 find him again in Spain sohciting emplojTnent. He was ap- 
 pointed the head of the Spanish pilots on the 2nd of ]March, 1508, 
 and in his commission was ordered to take care that no one 
 should be licensed to so responsible an office, unless he thoroughly 
 knew the theory and practice of the astrolabe and the quadrant. 
 Amerigo died at Seville, Februaiy 22, 1512. He had been 
 afflicted in his old age with poverty, and left to his widow the 
 chance of obtaining a small pension of 10,000 maravedis (a 
 maravedi being about the seventh part of a halfpenny), which 
 his succcessor in office, with difficulty, consented to pay. 
 Amerigo was generous and enthusiastic, a good astronomer and 
 constructor of majis, able and conscientious in victuallmg and 
 ftuTiishing fleets, and, like so many of his contemporaries, never 
 gazing upon the Western ocean vrithout longing to know what 
 lay beyond. It was an age of adventure, and though sm-passed 
 by the original genius of Diaz and Gama, the two Cabots of 
 Venice, and Columbus of Genoa, Amerigo Vespucci desen'cs to 
 be remembered with admiration and respect. — T. J. 
 
 AMEROT, Adriex, a French philologist, who died in 15C0. 
 
 AJIERSFOORT, Evert van, a Dutch painter of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 AMERSFOORT, .Jacob, a Dutch philologian, who was born 
 at Amsterdam in 1786, and became eminent for his knowledge 
 of the Oriental tonsrues. He died in 1824.
 
 * AJIEIvLING, Friederich, one of the most celebrated 
 painters of the present day in Austria, especially famed for his 
 portraits. Some of his paintings, in which he introduces start- 
 ling effects of reflected lights, have obtained extraordinary suc- 
 cess. He was bom at Vienna in 1803. — R. M. 
 
 AMES, Fisher, LL.D., born in 1758, was the son of Natha- 
 niel Ames. Having devoted liiniself to the study of law, he 
 became a barrister in 1781, but in the struggle between Britain 
 and her American colonies, abandoned his profession for the 
 more stUTUig pursidts of political life. His talents as a writer 
 and an orator, his mental vigom* and high moral character, gave 
 him gi'eat public influence. He was a member of the convention 
 of his own state, in which the federal constitution was considered 
 and ratified, and he became the first representative of his own 
 district in the legislative assembly of the new republic ; in the 
 debates of which he took a prominent part for several years. 
 He was elected president of Hai-vard college a few years before 
 his death, which took place in 1808, but declined the office in 
 consequence of his state of health. His works, with a memoir 
 of his life by president Kirkland, were published in 1809. — F. 
 
 AMES, Joseph, was a captain of marines in tlie British 
 navy, born in 1619. Having entered the service at an early 
 age, he was present in most of the engagements between the 
 English and Dutch fleets, and distinguished himself by his 
 gallantly in the battle in which the celebrated Van Tromp lost 
 his life. Having retired from the service, he took up Ids abode 
 at Yarmouth, where he died in 1G95. — F. 
 
 AJMES, Joseph, F.R.S., was an eminent writer on anti- 
 quarian subjects, born at Yannoutli in 1688-9. His princi- 
 pal work, the valuable produce of twenty-five years of laborious 
 research, is entitled " Typographical Antiquities, being an his- 
 torical account of Printing in England." Mr. Ames was long 
 a fellow of the Society of Antiquarians, as well as of the Koyal 
 Society. He died in 1758. — F. 
 
 AMES, Nathaniel, a physician at Dedliam, in New England, 
 author of an astronomical almanac, which was extremely popular. 
 He was born in 1708, and died at Dedham in 1765. 
 
 AMES [AIMESIUS], William, D.D., a learned divine and 
 casuist, was a native of Norfolk, where he was born in 1576. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, where his theological studies 
 were directed by William Perkins, by whom his whole intellec- 
 tual character, as well as his theological opinions and leanings, 
 was powerfully and permanently mfluenced. After becoming 
 fellow of his college, he was, in consequence of being " one of 
 the rigidest of those called Piuntans " (to use his own words), 
 expelled from his fellowship, and forced to become an exile. 
 This took place in 1610. He first betook himself to Leyden, 
 and after a season to the Hague, where he succeeded Dr. John 
 Biu-gess, whose daughter he married, as chaplain to the English 
 troops in that place. His strenuous adherence to Calvinistic 
 views led him, whilst at the Hague, to a pi'otracted controversy 
 with Grevinchovius, a follower of Anninius, on the principal 
 points in dispute between their respective schools. He lost his 
 appointment as chaplain to the English troops, in consequence 
 of being supposed to be the author of a pamphlet bitterly reflect- 
 ing on the English church for her indiii'erence in regard to 
 the Synod of Dort. Though the charge thus brought against 
 him was unfounded, it had some cohjur from his antecedents, 
 as well as from the interest he took in the proceedings of this 
 famous convention. Though not himself a member, he received 
 a stipend of four florins a day from the States-General of Hol- 
 land, to enable him to live in Dort, and aid the president of 
 the Synod by his suggestions ; and there can be no doubt that 
 the influence he exerted on the proceedings was considerable. 
 After the close of the Synod, Ames received the appointment of 
 inspector of the youths who were studying at Leyden, su])ported 
 by biu-saries derived from Amsterdam : and it was for their be- 
 hoof that he composed his " Medulla Theologiro," a work which 
 has passed through many editions. In 1622 he entered on the 
 office of professor of theology at Franequer, where he continued 
 to labour with increasing reputation for nearly twelve years. 
 He enjoys the honour of being the first who assigned to practical 
 theology its due place in the academical curriculum ; and his 
 writings in this department, all of wliich were publislied during 
 his residence at Franequer, are still referred to by theologians 
 and casuists with respect, especially his treatise " Dc Conscientia, 
 ct ejus Jure et Casibus." He issued during this period, also, 
 several polemical wiitings, of which the best known are his 
 
 " Puritanismus Anglicanus," an exposition and defence of the 
 doctrines of the more rigid of the Enghsh Puritans, originally 
 composed by WiUiam Bradshaw, but translated into Latin by 
 Ames ; his " Anti-Synodalia," in which he replies to the argu- 
 ments of the Remonstrant party in the Synod of Dort ; and 
 his " Bellarminus Enervatus," in which he assails Cardinal 
 BeUarmine's defence of popery. His Latin works were collected 
 after his death, and published in 5 vols. 12mo. at Amsterdam, 
 hi 1658. In 1633 he resigned his office at Franequer, and 
 accepted a call to be one of the pastors of the Independent 
 chm-ch at Rotterdam. It is probable that conscientious mo- 
 tives, rather than reasons of health, led to this step. He died 
 in 1638, at the age of fifty-seven, leaving behind him a widow 
 and children, who soon after emigrated to America. Ames was 
 a man of great controversial powers, accurate in his statements, 
 acute in his reasonings, and rigid in his deductions. As a theo- 
 logian he inclined to supra-lapsarianism ; but his writuigs do not 
 betray any antinomian tendencies. On the contraiy, as already 
 mentioned, they are still held in repute for their ethical worth. 
 It is perhaps to be regretted that his zeal for what he believed 
 to be truth was not tempered by more of a charitable and gentle 
 spu-it ; for it must be admitted tliat tlie rigour of his strictures 
 on his opponents is often extreme, and so little disposed was he 
 to allow reasons of a personal natm'e to interfere with the stem 
 discharge of what he thought duty, that he attacked even his 
 own fiither-in-law. Dr. Burgess, and, as a contemporary expresses 
 it, " laid him flat on the ground." But such severity was the 
 fault as much of tlie times as of the man. — (See his Life by M. 
 Nethenus, prefixed to his collected Latin works ; Brook's 
 Lices of the Furitans, vol. ii. p. 405 ; Mosheim's Ecdes. Hist., 
 Art. xvi., sec. 2, pt. 2, ch. 2 ; Hanbury's Memorials of Inde- 
 pendents, scepe.') — W. L. A. 
 
 AMESTRIS, the vnfe of Xerxes, who, according to Herodotus, 
 having discovered an intrigue between her husband and Artiante, 
 indulged her jealousy and vengeance by cruelly mutilating 
 Artiante's mother. Another pruicess of this name is known to 
 history. (See Amastius.) 
 
 AMFREVILLE, D', this name is of frequent occuiTcnce in the 
 history of the French navy dming the seventeenth century. 
 It was borne by three brothers, who were distinguished for then- 
 heroism during the reign of Louis XIV. ; of these the eldest was 
 the JIarquis d'Amfreville, who attained the rank of lieutenant- 
 general of the naval forces of France. 
 
 AMHI<;RST, Jefferey, Lord Amherst, born in 1717, was the 
 second son of Jefterey Amherst, Esq. of Riverhead, in Kent. Hav- 
 ing entered one of tlie regiments of guai-ds at the early age of four- 
 teen, he was a few years aftei^wai'ds engaged in active service on 
 the continent, and was present as aide-de-camp to Lord Ligonier 
 at the battles of Roucox, Dettingen, and Fontcnoy ; having at- 
 tracted the attention of the Duke of Cumberland, he was traus- 
 feiTcd to the staff, and was present at the battles of Laft'eldt and 
 Hastenbeck, as aide-de-camp to his royal highness. In the wai' 
 with France in 1758, Amherst was appomted to command in 
 North America, with the rank of major-general, and in the 
 following year succeeded General Abercroirby as commander- 
 in-chief; and, by his brilliant services, amply justified the wis- 
 dom of the minister-at-war in the selection of so able an officer. 
 He speedily made himself master of Cape Breton, a conquest of 
 the highest importance to the British arms, and subsequently 
 took a prominent part in the many gallant exploits by which 
 tlie war was distinguished. At the termination of hostilities he 
 received the thanks of tlie House of Commons, and was elevated 
 to the dignity of a kniglit of the Bath. Having resigned his 
 command in America in 1763, and returned home, he was re- 
 ceived by the Icing with every mark of respect, and had several 
 new rewards and honours conferred on him, buing appointed 
 governor of Virginia, and colonel of the third ri'giment of foot. 
 In 1770 he became governor of Guernsey and its dependencies, 
 and two years afterwards was appointed a member of the pri\y 
 council, and lieutenant-general of the Ordnance. Six years 
 later he was elevated to the peerage with the title of Baron 
 Amherst of Hohnsdale, in the county of Kent. His lordship 
 was twice married, but having no issue, he received, in 1788, a 
 second patent of peerage, as Baron Ainlierst of Montreal, with 
 reversion to liis nephew. He died in 1797. 
 
 AMIIEHS r, William Pitt, Earl Amherst, was born on the 
 I'lth of January, 1773, and succeeded his uncle Jefferey, first 
 Lord Amherst, in August, 1797. Lord Amherst was a lord of
 
 the bedchamber to George III., George IV., and William IV. 
 He was one of the Canada commissioners, and after having been 
 employed on a diplomatic mission to Northern Italy, he under- 
 took in 1816 an embassy to China, in order to place oiir com- 
 mercial relations with that country upon a better footing. Lord 
 Amherst sailed from England in Febniary, 181G, in H.^M.S. 
 Alcesle, commanded by Captain Mm-ray JIaxwell, and landed 
 at Ta-ku, at the mouth of the Pei-ho, on the 12th of August. 
 An attempt was made by the Chinese to enforce the practice of 
 the kotau, that is, striking the head on the ground as a sign of 
 homage, before a yellow screen, as the preliminary to a repetition 
 of the same ceremony before the emperor. This was refused by 
 Lord Amherst, upon the advice of Sir George Staunton, who 
 liad been present on a similar occasion with Lord Macartney in 
 1793, when the same thing was proposed and refused. Lord 
 Amherst and his suite arrived at Pekin on the 28th of August, 
 at dead of night ; .and though it was pretended that preparations 
 had been made for their reception, the gates were closed against 
 them, and it was dawm of day before they entered the city, which 
 they left the same afternoon, without ha\-ing accomplished the 
 olijeet of this expensive expedition. Upon hearing of the failure 
 of the English mission, the governor of Canton issued a procla- 
 mation, declaring that the ambassador would not be allowed to 
 embark in the river, but must, after traversing the country, find 
 his way as best he could to the ships, which were to remain at 
 anchor among the Ladrone Islands, almost in the open sea. By 
 the firmness, however, of Captain Maxwell, the embassy entered 
 the river, and were in the end verj' civilly treated by the Chinese. 
 He reached England in October, 1817, after an absence of twenty 
 months. On his retura. Lord Amherst was vsTecked on the 
 island of Pulo Leat, from which he proceeded in a boat to Bata- 
 via. He also \nsited the Emperor Napoleon at St. Helena. 
 Lord Amherst was subsequently appointed governor-general of 
 India, and raised to the rank of an earl in 1826, in consequence 
 of his services there. The last thu-ty years of his life were spent 
 in retirement. He died JIarch 13, 1857, at Knowle Park, Kent, 
 the ancient seat of the Dorset family, the heiress of which was 
 his second wife. — J. S. 
 
 AMIIUIuST, Nicholas, a poet and politician, was bom at 
 JIarden, in Kent, in 1706, and having been educated at Mer- 
 chant Tailors' School, entered St. John's college, Oxford, whence 
 he was expelled in consequence of ha\'ing given offence by a 
 pamphlet entitled " Protestant Popery." He revenged himself 
 on the university, however, in his two anomouous satires, 
 "Oeulus Britannia;" and "Terra; Filius;" the latter of which is 
 replete with malignity and exaggeration. After quitting Ox- 
 ford, he settled in London, and became the associate of Pulteney 
 and Bolingbroke in conducting the " Craftsman," in opposition 
 to Walpole's administration. He was the author of a variety of 
 works, including some poems and satirical pieces ; but when, in 
 1742, his party came into power, although he had sensed them 
 with the utmost zeal, he found himself neglected, and died in the 
 same year in gi-eat distress, aggravated in no small degree bv 
 the ingratitude he experienced from those to whose service he 
 had dedicated his li^e and abilities. — F. 
 
 * AMICI, Giov-vxxi Battista, an Italian physician, was 
 bom at Modena in 1784, studied mathematics at Bologna, and 
 in early life displayed wonderful powers in the construction of 
 optical instraments. He was appointed to the chair of mathe- 
 matics in the Lyceum of Panaro, the principal school of the 
 duchy of Modena. He made important discoveries in the con- 
 stmction of mirrors for telescopes, and also constructed micro- 
 scopes which have long been celebrated. He occupied for some 
 time the situation of general inspector of education in the duchy 
 of Modena ; and on the death of Pons, was appointed by the 
 grand-duke of Tuscany director of the obsen-atorj' of Florence. 
 Amici has published numerous memoirs in the transactions of 
 academics and in scientific joumals, and has written upon the 
 circulation of sap in plants, on infusoria, on chara, on oscilla- 
 toria, and on the fecundation of plants. His son, Vincent 
 Amici, is professor of mathematics at Pisa, and assists his 
 father in his researches. — J. H. B. 
 
 AMICI, ToMMASo, an Italian sculptor of the 15th century, 
 was associated with J. Mabila di Maso in 1495, in constract- 
 mg the altar of San Niccolb, in the cathedral of Cremona. 
 
 AMICO, Antonino, historiographer to Philip IV. of Spain, 
 and author of several historical works. Died 1641. 
 
 AillCO, Baktolomeo, an Italian Jesuit, bom in 1562, who 
 
 was professor and prefect of studies in the university of Naples. 
 His chief work was an elaborate commentaiy on the philosophy 
 of Aristotle. Died 1649. 
 
 AMICO, Bernardino, prior of the Franciscans of Jerasalera 
 in 1596. After an absence of several years he retumed to Italy, 
 and published a description of the sacred edifices of the holy city, 
 with engravings, which he dedicated to Philip III. of Spain. 
 
 AMKJO, Faustino, an Italian poet of great promise, was 
 bom at Bassano in 1524 ; died 1558. 
 
 AMICO, Frajsicesco, an Italian Jesuit, bom at Cosenza in 
 1578, who, after ha\'ing been professor of theology at Aquila, 
 Naples, and at Gratz, in Styria, became prefect of studies at 
 Vienna. Died 1651. 
 
 AMICO, Lorenzo, a Franciscan monk, bom at Milazzo in 
 1633, who, after being for some years teacher of theology and 
 philosophy to liis own order, was appointed vicar-general in the 
 province of Palo. 
 
 AMICO, Stefano, a monk of Monte-Cassino, bom at Pa- 
 lermo, author of a voliune of Latin poems entitled "Sacra 
 Lyra." Died in 1662. 
 
 AMICO, ViTO Marlv, was bom in 1693, at Catania. 
 Having entered the Benedictine monastery of S. Nicola deUe 
 Arene, he ultimately became professor of history in the university 
 of his native to-svn. In 1751 he obtained from King Charles the 
 office of historiographer of Sicily. He was the author of a variety 
 of works relating to the history and antiquities of his native 
 country. He died in 1762. — F. 
 
 AMICUS, BoNAVENTUEE d', a Capuchin monk of Amiens, 
 who distinguished himself somewhat as a painter about the close 
 of the sixteenth century. 
 
 AJIICUS, DiOMEDES, a learned physician of Placentia, flour- 
 ished at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. 
 
 AillDANO, PoMPONio, an Italian painter of the sixteenth 
 centmy. He was a native of Parma, and a very skUful imitator 
 of his master, Parmigiano. 
 
 AillGONI or AMICONI, Jacopo, a historical and portrait 
 painter, a native of Venice, who chiefly sought to imitate the 
 Flemish masters. He travelled and worked in Belgium, Ger- 
 many, England, and Spain, in which last country he became 
 court painter ; more famed for brilliancy of colour than for de- 
 sign. Born 1675; died 1752. — R. M. 
 
 AMILCAR. See Hamii.cak. 
 
 AMIOT, a French Jesuit missionaiy to China, bom at Toulon 
 in 1718. He airived at JIacao in 1750, and at Pekin in 1751, 
 where he lived till his death in 1794. He possessed a veiy con- 
 siderable knowledge of the physical and mathematical sciences, 
 a talent for music, a retentive memoiy, and indefatigable activity 
 and perseverance. By diligent study he made himself familiar 
 with the Chinese and Tartar languages, and was thus able to 
 obtain veiy coiTect ideas respecting the history, philosophy, and 
 arts of ancient and modem China. His opiuions on these 
 topics have been embodied chiefly in the " Memoires concernant 
 I'histoire, les sciences, et lesarts des Chinois," 15 vols. 4to, Paris, 
 1776-91. His principal works are : — 1. " Eloge de la ville de 
 Moukden," a translation of a poem by the emperor of China, in 
 praise of the city and country of ^Moukden, the fatherland of the 
 Tartar race, which was published in 8vo. in 1770, by de Guignes. 
 It contains a great number of historical and geographical notes, 
 by Pere Amiot. 2. " Art Jlilitaire des Chinois," a translation of 
 the first three of tlic sis books on militaiy art, in which military 
 students must tmdergo an examination. It may be foimd in the 
 seventh volimie of the " j\Iemoii-es," and in the eighth volume 
 there is a supplement with figiu-es. 3. " Lettre siu: les carac- 
 tferes Chinois " to the Royal Society of London, printed in the 
 first volume of the "Memoires." 4. "De la musique des 
 Chinois," in the sixth volume of the " Memoires." 5. " Vie de 
 Confucius;" the most coixect account of tliis celebrated philo- 
 sopher. 6. " Dictionnaire Tartar-ilantchou Fran9ais," 3 vols. 
 4to, Paris, 1789. Amiot -OTOte also a small grammar of the 
 Mantchou language, which is preserved in the thirteenth volume 
 of the " Memoires." He is said to have translated " Fontaine's 
 Fables " into Mantchou. — J. S. 
 
 AMIOT. See Amyot. 
 
 AMIliDOVALT, an Armenian physician, a native of Amasia, 
 lived dming the latter half of the fifteenth century. He wrote 
 a medical work bearing the title, "Aiikidatz Anbed," ("Useless 
 for the Ignorant.") 
 
 A.MLAVE, See Anlaf.
 
 AJILETH or HAMLETH, the Hamlet of Shakspeare's tra- 
 gedy, was, according to Saxo Grammaticus, the son of Horvven- 
 dill, a prince of Jutland, and lived about two centmies before 
 Christ. Feugo, brother of Horwendill, having traitorously slain 
 the latter at a banquet, married Hamlet's mother Gerutha, whom 
 he had previously seduced. Hamlet, fearing he might be Fengo's 
 next victim, now feigned himself mad ; but the king had his 
 suspicions, and employed a young lady, the Opheha of Shak- 
 speare, to gain Hamlet's love and his secret. He also, accord- 
 ing to Saxo, adopted the other expedient of which Shakspeare 
 makes use, that of concealing a courtier in the queen's room while 
 her son was holdmg an interview with her. Both of these at- 
 tempts faOing, Hamlet was sent oiF to England with two agents 
 of Fengo's, and letters were written on wood requesting the khig 
 of England to put him to death. Hamlet again eti'ected his 
 dehverance in the manner indicated by Shakspeare, who appears 
 throughout his di-ama to have adhered pretty closely to the 
 ancient legend, which he had probably read in Belleforest's 
 French pai-aphrase of the account of Saxo, or in an English 
 translation of Belleforest. The catastrophe, however, as given 
 in the tragedy of Hamlet, differs from the account of Saxo Gram- 
 maticus, according to whom the prince, after slaying the iisurper 
 and a gi'eat many of his adherents, went through a variety of 
 adventures, was twice married, fii-st to an English, and after- 
 wards to a Scottish princess, and was finally slain in battle by 
 Vigleth, successor to Roric, feudal superior of Horwendill. There 
 are reasons for believmg that Saxo Grammaticus derived this story 
 from an Icelandic saga now lost ; and though some recent histori- 
 ans are of opinion that the legend of Hamlet tlie Dane is a baseless 
 fiction, others, and among these Dahlmann in his "Geshiclite von 
 Dannemark," and P. E. Miiller in his "Sagabibliotheck med Am- 
 merkninger," lean to the belief that, among the early piinces of 
 Jutland, there may have been one of this name. — A. M. 
 
 A]\IMAN, Geo. Chkistoph, a physician of Ratisbon, author 
 of some medical works, lived in the 17th century. 
 
 AMMAN, JoHANN Conrad, a physician noted for his skill 
 in instructing deaf mutes. He was born at Schaff hausen in 1 6 69, 
 practised chiefly in Holland, and died near Leyden about 1730. 
 His principal works are: " Sm-dus Loquens," Amsterdam, 1692, 
 8vo., and " Dissertatio de Loquela, qua non solum Vox Humana 
 et Loqnendi Ai-tificimn ex originibus suis eruuntur, sed et tra- 
 duntur Media, quibus ii, qui ab incunabulis Sm-di et Muti fuerunt, 
 loquelam adipisci possint," Amsterdam, 1700, 12mo. The latter 
 work appears to be a Latin translation of the former, which is 
 in Dutch. Amman's method with the deaf and dumb was saga- 
 cious and successful; and his "Sm-dus Loquens," or "Dissertatio 
 de Loquela," is well worthy of attention, not only in a medical, 
 but in a philological point of view. — A. M. 
 
 AMMAN, JoHANN Jacob, a Gennan surgeon, who in 1612 
 and 1613 travelled to Constantinople, Palestme, and Alexandria. 
 His travels, published at Ziirich in 1618, mider the title, "Eeise 
 ins gelopte Land, von dannen durch die Waste und jEgypten gen 
 Alexandiien," &c., contain some cmious and interesting informa- 
 tion. Bom 1586 ; died at Ziirich in 1658. — A. M. 
 
 AMMAN or AMMON, Jost, a very popular old German de- 
 signer and engraver, born at Ziirich in 1539. He spent the latter 
 ])art of his life at Nilrenberg, where he died in 1591, leaving 
 behind him, notwithstanding his comparatively short life, an im- 
 mense number of works ; among the rest an extensive series of 
 female costumes, and a collection of portraits of the kings of Fran ce, 
 from Pharamond to Henry IIL He did a great deal of work for 
 the Gennan booksellers of his time, in the way of illustrating 
 their pubhcations. The plates in an edition of Hans Sachs' 
 "Description of All Ranks upon the Earth" (Eigentliche Beschrci- 
 bung aller Stande auf Erden), jjubhshed at Frankfort in 1568 
 and 1576, are by Jost Amman. Tliis artist was also very skUful 
 in staining glass. For hst of his engravings see Bryan. — A. M. 
 
 AMMANATL See Piccolomini. 
 
 AMMANATI, Baktolommeo, a celebrated Florentine sculp- 
 tor and architect, pupil of Baccio Bandinelli and Sansovino, was 
 bom in 1511, and died in 1589. Works by Ammanati still 
 adorn many Italian cities, among tlie rest Rome, Naples, Flo- 
 rence, and Venice. He executed important commissions for 
 Cardinal da Monti, afterwards Pope Julius III., and Cosmo de 
 Medici, and competed successfully with Benvenuto Cellini for 
 permission to execute the statue of Neptune in the Piazza del 
 Gran Duca at Florence. The gigantic figure of Mount A])ennine 
 at Pratolino, near the same city, is also by Ammanati. His 
 vol. I. 
 
 most remarkable architectural work is the Ponte della Trinita 
 over the Amo at Florence, a light and elegant stmcture, and, as 
 the experience of three hmidi'ed years has well proved, of endur- 
 ing solidity. The statues which decorate this bridge were not 
 executed by Ammanati. He is said to have aimed in sculptm-e 
 at the style of Michel Angelo, but without decided success. The 
 wife of Ammanati was the poetess Laura Battifeni. — A. M. 
 
 AMMANATI, Giovanni, an Italian artist of the 14th centurj', 
 remarkable for his skill Ln inlaying. In 1331 he superintended 
 the decoration of the choir of the cathedral of Orvieto. 
 
 AMMANN, JoHANN, a Gennan physician and botanist, was 
 bom at SchafFhausen in 1707. He prosecuted the study of 
 medicine at Leyden, mider the celebrated Boerhaave. In 1730 
 he visited London, and was elected in 1731 a fellow of the 
 Royal Society. In 1733 he was elected professor of botany and 
 natm-al history at St. Petersbm-g, and became a member of the 
 Imperial Academy of Sciences there. His Herbarium is now in 
 the museum of that city. He published a work on the rarer 
 Russian plants, and contributed several important botanical 
 memoirs of the Transactions of the Academy. A genus Amman- 
 nia, in the natural order Lythraceaj, has been named in honom- 
 of him. He died at St. Petersbm-g in 1741.— J. H. B. 
 
 AjMMANN, Paul, a Gennan physician and botanist, was 
 bom at Breslau on 31st August, 1634. Hepm-suedhis medical 
 studies at different Gennan universities, took the degree of doc- 
 tor of medicine at Leipsic, and in 1664 was admitted into the 
 Academia Csesarea Naturas Curiosorum, the chief natm-al histoi-y 
 society of Germany. He became professor of medicine, and sub- 
 sequently of botany and physiology at Leipsic. Ammann was 
 an able writer, and a man of extensive leai-ning. He seems, 
 however, to have been of a caixstic t\\xn of mind, and disposed to 
 be harsh in his criticisms. Though he wrote several medical 
 works, his fame as a writer is chiefly connected with his botani- 
 cal publications. These consist of his " Character Plantanmi 
 Materialis," in which he shows that the characters of plants, as 
 regards classification, should be derived from the fructification. 
 His "Suppellex Botanica" is an enumeration of the plants cul- 
 tivated in the botanical and other gardens at Leipsic, as well as 
 of those which grew in woods and meadows in the vicmity, with 
 a short introduction to materia medica ; and his " Hortus Bosi- 
 anus" is a description of the exotics cultivated in that garden. 
 He died at Leipsic on the 4th Febniary, 1691. — J. H. B. 
 
 AMMAR-IBN-YASIE, sm-namcd Abou-l-Yokdhan, one 
 of the most celebrated of the immediate followers of Mahomet, 
 who on one occasion miraculously saved his disciples from being 
 burnt alive by the inhabitants of Mecca. Ammar was present 
 at the battle of the Camel in a.d. 657-58, and commanded the 
 cavalry of Ali at the battle of Sefayr, where he fell at the age 
 of ninety. Abdallah-Ibn-Said, gi-andson of Ammar, settling in 
 Spain, founded the Moorish family of the Beni-Said. — A. M. 
 
 AMMIANUS, author of a considerable number of epigrams, 
 to be found in the " Anthologia Grsca." He Uved during the 
 reign of the Emperor Adrian, A.D. 117-138. — A. M. 
 
 AMMLANUS MARCELLINUS, " the last subject of Rome 
 who composed a profane history in the Latin language." He 
 himself tells us that he was of Greek descent, and we gather 
 from his reference to Antioch, as well as from a letter addi-essed 
 to him stUl extant, that that city was his bu-th-place. He is 
 supposed to have been of noble family, as he was admitted 
 when a young man into the ranks of the " Domestic Protectors," 
 a mihtary body, composed entirely of the sons of the nobility 
 and experienced officers. Some of the "Protectors" fonned a 
 body-guard for the emperor, while others were sent to distant 
 provinces, under the highest military ofliccrs. The lot of the 
 latter fell to Ammianus, who was sent by the Emperor Constan- 
 tius to the East, under Ursicinus, the master of liorse. With 
 him he returned to Italy. He afterwards went to Gaul, and 
 subsequently took part in the expedition which Jufian, the sue-, 
 cesser of Constantius, undertook against the Persians. He 
 then remained for some time at Antioch, and ultimately took up 
 his residence in Rome, where he spent his last days, composing 
 his histoiy, and reading parts of it to delighted audiences. The 
 first thirteen books of Annnianus' historj- are lost. The other 
 eighteen extend from the seventeenth year of the reign of Con- 
 stantius to the death of Valens. Tliey deal principally with 
 facts of which tlie writer was personally cognizant, and arc 
 remarkable for their impartiality. There is not the slightest 
 reason for believing that he was a Christian. — J. I). 
 
 S
 
 AMMIIJATO, SciPioNE, caUed II Vecchio, the Elder, an 
 Italian author, canon of the cathedral of Florence, was bom in 
 the Neapolitan town of Lecce in 1531; died in ICOl. His 
 works, which are very numerous, are generally of a histoncal 
 character. The cliief of them are : " Istorie Fiorentine," which 
 he was commissioned to write by Cosmo I., in two parts, the 
 first extending to the year 1434, the second to 1574. This has 
 been pronounced the most complete and exact history of Flo- 
 rence, up to the date mentioned, which we possess. "I Vesco\'i 
 di Fiesole, di Volterra, e d'Arezzo, con I'Aggiunta di Scipione 
 Ammirato il Giovane" (see below), Florence, 1637, 4to; "Al- 
 bero e Storia dei Conti Giudi," Florence, 1G50, folio, also with 
 additions by Scipione Ainmirato the Younger. The works of 
 Ammirato are the result of a very laborious collation of an im- 
 mense number of ancient documents. — A. M. 
 
 AMMIKATO, Scipione, the Younger, amanuensis of Ani- 
 mirato the Elder, and the editor and enlarger of several of his 
 works. His master made him his heir on condition of his 
 adoptinf^the name by which he isnow known, Cristoforo del Bianco. 
 
 A.M.VlON, ancestor of the Ammonites, is stated in Genesis 
 xix. 38, to have been the son of Lot by his younger daughter. 
 
 AMMON, CiiRisTOPii. Fkiedhich d', a German protestant 
 theologian, bom at BajTCuth in 17GG, died in 1820, was famous 
 in his day as an eloquent preacher. He has left among other 
 works an "Entwurf einer reinen Biblischen Theologie" (Sketch 
 of a purely Biblical Theology), Gottingen, 1802, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 * AMjiON, Fkiedkich August, son of the preceding, born 
 1709, became professor in the Medico-Cliinu-gical Academy of 
 Dresden in 1829, and has distinguished himself by his skill in eye 
 diseases. He has published " Clinical Observations on JMaladies 
 of the Eyes," Berhn, 1838-41, 3 vols. 8vo; and other works. 
 
 AMMONAS or AJIOUN ('A^tt/iiva?. 'A^oJv) foimded an an- 
 cient ascetic order in Egj'pt, which became celebrated. Died 
 A.D. 320. For certain "Ascetic Eules" attributed to him, see 
 the " Biblioth. P.P. Ascetica," vol. ii. ; Paris, IGGl. 
 
 AMMONIO, Andrea, an accomplished Italian scholar, the 
 friend of Erasmus, was bom at Lucca in 1477, and died at 
 Ix)ndon in 1517. On his coming to London he was for some 
 time neglected; but in 1513 Henry VIII. made him his Latin 
 secretary, and he also about the same time obtained some 
 church prefenncnts. His works, " Scotici Conflictus Historia," 
 " Bucohca seu Eclogas," &c., and others mentioned by Bayle, 
 have been lost. For a number of letters by Ammonio, see the 
 correspondence of Erasmus. — A. M. 
 
 AilMONIUS QXu.ij.mioi), an ancient Aloxandiian surgeon, 
 most probably in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, (b.c. 285- 
 247), who gained the surname of Lithotomus, from his skill in 
 treating the stone. He invented a method of breaking calculi 
 when they are too large for extracting entire. Celsus has de- 
 scribed it, book TO. chap. 26. The operation of Ammonias did 
 not differ materially from the modem " lithotrity." — A. M. 
 
 AMMONIUS, an Alexandrian grammarian, lived in the first 
 century B.C. He was a disciple of Aiistarehus, and wrote 
 commentaries on Homer and Aristophanes. These only exist 
 in as far as the scholiasts have used them. 
 
 AMMONIUS, a Greek philosopher, one of the instructors of 
 Plutarch, who wrote his life, which has not been preseiTcd. He 
 taught at Athens in the reign of Hadrian, A.D. 117-138. 
 
 AMMONIUS, called Saccas or Sack-cakrier, because he 
 was employed as a porter to caiTy com at Alexandria. He is 
 also designated " God-taught." He is regarded as the foimder 
 of the Ncoplatonic school, and there can be no doubt that he 
 was the first to attempt the reconciliation of the Platonic and 
 Aristotelian systems of philosophy, finding a substantial imity 
 amid minor differences. Among his scholars were Origen, Lon- 
 ginus, and Plotlnus. It is a matter of dispute whether he was 
 a Christian or not. That he was bom of Christian parents is 
 expressly asserted, and he wrote on Christian subjects. He died 
 in A.D. 243, upwards of eighty years of age. — J. D. 
 
 AilMONIUS, a Christian writer of Alexandria, who lived in 
 the third century. He is the author of " A Harmony of the 
 Foiu- Gospels," a Latin translation of which is to be found in 
 the " Bibliothtque des Peres," edition of Bale & Lyon. 
 
 AMMONIUS, an Alexandrian grammarian, author of a dic- 
 tionary of synonyms. He had been priest in a temple dedi- 
 cated to the ape, but was compelled to flee to Constantinople 
 when Theodosius persecuted the pagans of Egypt in a.d. 389. 
 Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian, there became his pupil. 
 
 The work of Ammonias, which is not without value, is entitled 
 Ile^; iiMoiav xou ^^(poim xi^iaiv. It was published by Valckenaer 
 at Leyden in 1739 ; and Schaefer reprinted this edition at 
 Leipsic in 1822, with some additions. Ammonius is also 
 thought to be the author of a treatise, IIe§/ xxv^aXoyia.; (on un- 
 classical expressions), which has not been edited. — A. M. 
 
 AMMONIUS, a Greek poet, whose epic, called raivU, on the 
 war of the Goth Gainas, has not been preserved. He read it 
 before Theodosius II. in 438. 
 
 AMMONIUS, Hermi.e, i.e., son of Hermias, was an Alex- 
 andi-ian philosopher of the fifth century. A disciple of Proclus, 
 and therefore a Neoplatonist, he was at the same tune an 
 admirer of Aristotle, on whose categories he has left excellent 
 commentaries. These were included by Brandis in his " Scholia 
 in Aiistotelem," published at Berlin in 1836. — A. M. 
 
 AMJIONIUS, Lajiprensis, a native of Lampra; in Attica, 
 vrrote a work, Uifi Buu,uv xn.'i Quiriiiy (on Altars and Sacrifices), 
 quoted by Athenajus. He is conjectured to have lived in the 
 third century of the Christian era. 
 
 AilNER, Richard, an English imitarian dissenting minister, 
 bom 1736, died 1803 ; wrote an essay toward the interpreta- 
 tion of the prophecies of Daniel, in order to establish the hypo- 
 thesis of Grotius against that of Mede and Newton. 
 
 AMNON, son of David and Ahinoam ; slain by order of Absa- 
 lom for violating and then repudiating Tamar his sister by the 
 same mother, Maacha. 
 
 ASIO, Antoxy-William, a learned negro, bom in Guinea 
 in 1703. Brought to Amsterdam when quite young, he was 
 presented to the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, whose son 
 Antony-William became his patron and fiiend, and maintained 
 him as a student at the imiversity of Halle. Here Amo greatly 
 distinguished himself, as he also did subsequently at the university 
 of Wittemberg, where, on occasion of his graduating as doctor of 
 philosophy, he wrote a " Dissertatio inauguralis philosophica de 
 humanffi mentis ot.iia.Bua, seu sensionis ac facultatis sentiendi in 
 mente humana absentia, et eorum in corpore nostro organico ac 
 vivo priEsentia, quam publice defendet autor Ant. Gul. Amo Guinea- 
 Afer;" Wittemberg, 1734, 4to. Although made a councillor of 
 state at Berlin, he left Europe on the death of the Duke of Bmns- 
 wick ; and all that has been heard of him since is, that David 
 Henry Gallandat, founder of the Scientific Society of Zealand, 
 when on a voyage to the Gold Coast, found him leading the life 
 of a hennit at Axim, and that he subsequently removed from 
 Axim to St. Sebastian, a Dutch fort at Chamah, also on the Gold 
 Coast. Amo is said to have been perfectly conversant with the 
 Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, German, and Dutch languages. 
 The reader may find further infomiation in Gregoire's De la 
 Ulterature des Negres, and in Winckehnan's life of Gallandat in 
 the Verhandelingen uitf/egeeveri door het Zeeuwseh Genoutschap 
 der Wetenschappen, 1792, is. 19, 20. — A. M. 
 
 AMOLON, AMULON, or AMULUS, a learned French eccle- 
 siastic, successor of Agobard as archbishop of Lyons in 841, and 
 held in high estimation by King Charles le Chauve and Pope Leo 
 IV. He distinguished himself, among other things, by his op- 
 position to the Jews, and liis "Traite centre les Juifs" is still 
 extant, together with some other writings not wthout interest. 
 Died in 852. — (See the Bibliolheca Patrum.) — A. M. 
 
 AMOMETUS QA/j.uf.c-fiTo;') a Greek author, of whose voyage 
 on the Nile ('E» M£',«.(p£Ms a.ia.irXov;') only a few highly interesthig 
 fragments have been preserved. — (See Miiller's Fragment. Hist. 
 Grec. in A. F. Didot's Greek Classics.) 
 
 A]\IONTONS, GuiLLAUME, a meritorious French natural 
 philosopher ; bom 1GG3, died 1705. His work, entitled " Re- 
 marques et experiences physiques sur la construction d'une nou- 
 veUe clepsydre, sur les baromfetres, thermometres, et hygromfetres," 
 Paris, 1695, attracted so much attention among scientific men 
 as to procure him admission into the Eoyal Academy of Sciences. 
 Amontons has been held to be the inventor of the system of tele- 
 gi-aphmg by reading alphabetical signs with the aid of telescopes, 
 though this method was not adopted till fifty years after he pro- 
 pounded it. — (See Fontcnelle's " Eloge d' Amontons," in the His- 
 toire de 1' Academic, 1705.) — A. M. 
 
 AMORETTI, Charles, an Italian natiu-alist, was bom at 
 Oneglia in 1740. The first yeai's of his manhood were passed 
 in orders, but having obtained a licence from the Pope, in 1772, 
 to resume his secular character, he resigned the chair of canon 
 law, which he had occupied for some months at the university of 
 Pamia, and devoted himself to a laborious study of natural
 
 AMO 
 
 139 
 
 Airp 
 
 science. In 1775, vdth the help of Padre Soave, he began the 
 publication of a work entitled " Nuova Scelta d'Opusculi Inter- 
 essanti Sulle Scienze et Sulle Arti," -which extended to twenty- 
 seven volumes, the last of which was published in 1788. His 
 translation of Winckeknann's " History of the Arts of Design 
 among the Ancients" appeared in 1799, and in 1784 his " Life of 
 Leonardo da Yinci," two works which brought him into national 
 repute as a ^xiter on art. As a naturalist, his celebrity rests 
 principally on his " Viasgio da ISIilano ai tre Laghi," published 
 In 1794. Died in 1816.— J. S., G. 
 
 AMORETTI, Maria Pellegrika, an Italian authoress, 
 bom at Oneglia in 1756, received from the university of Pavia 
 the degree of doctor of laws in her 21st year. Died 1787. 
 
 AMOREUX, Pierre Joseph, a physician and naturahst, 
 was bom at Beaucaire about the middle of the 18th century. 
 He settled at Jlontpellier, and took charge of the hbrary of the 
 Faculty of Medicine. He compiled nmnerous works on medicine, 
 natiu-al history, botany, and agriculture. Among these are 
 treatises " On the OUve Tree ;" " On Quick Hedges ;" " On the 
 Golden Apples of the Hesperides ;" " On the Origin of the 
 Cashew ;" " On Sacred Plants ;" " On the Vegetation of Jlont- 
 peUier ; " " On the Poisonous Insects of France ; " " On the 
 Medicine of the Arabs." He died at MontpeUier in 1824. — J. H. B. 
 
 A3I0R0S, Francis, a Spanish colonel, bom in 1769, recom- 
 mended himself by his mihtary services to various important 
 posts under Charles IV. and Joseph Bonaparte ; and during his 
 subsequent exile in France was the first to introduce gymnastics 
 into the military schools of that country. Died at Paris in 1843. 
 
 AMOROSI, Antonio, a painter of Ascoli, pupil of G. Ghezzi. 
 He distinguished himself in the humorous style, called Bcem- 
 boccate. Died in 1740. 
 
 AMORT, EusEBius, a German theologian, bom at Bibermiihl 
 near Toelz, in Upper Bavaria, in 1692, was ordained priest in 
 1717 at PoUingen, where he afterwards taught theology and 
 canon law. The earUest of his verynumerous works were dedicated 
 to Cardinal Cercari, with whom he made a journey to Rome in 
 1734. Some years later, he became dean of the church of 
 PoUingen, and in 1759 was elected a member of the academy of 
 sciences of Munich. Died in 1775. — J. S., G. 
 
 AJMORY, Thojias, an English humorist, bom about the 
 year 1691, was a son of Councillor Amory, secretary for confis- 
 cated estates in Ireland during the reign of William III. He 
 published in 1755 a curious work, entitled " Jlemou-s of Several 
 Ladies of Great Britain, intei-spersed with Literary Reflections, 
 and Accounts of Antiquities and Curious Things, in several 
 Letters;" and some years later, "The Life of John Buncle, Esq., 
 containing various Observations and Reflections made in several 
 parts of the World, and many extraordinary Relations." Died 
 in 1788.— J. S., G. 
 
 A^IORY, Thojias, D.D., an Enghsh Presbyterian minister, 
 was bom at Taunton, in Jidy, 1701. He received the elements 
 of his education chiefly imder the tuition of a Mr. Chadwick, 
 who is said to have been an eminent scholar. Having resolved 
 to devote himself to the Christian ministry, he, in 1717, entered 
 the Dissenting Theological Academy at Taunton, over which 
 the Rev. Henry Grove, who was his uncle, and the Rev. 
 Stephen James, then presided. There he remained between 
 fotir and five years ; after which he went to London, where he 
 prosecuted his studies in natural science mider Mr. Fames, the 
 friend and occasional assistant of Newton. His proficiency as a 
 student was such, that in 1725 he was chosen to succeed ilr. 
 James as colleague ivith liis imcle in the academy, where he 
 lectured in the classics and philosophy. He at the same time 
 began to preach, and after serving a while as colleague with a 
 Mr. Batson at Taunton, he seceded with a portion of the con- 
 gregation, who had built a new place of worship, and became 
 their sole pastor. In 1738 he succeeded, on the death of his 
 uncle, to the principal chair in the academy, and this post he 
 retained till 1759, when he removed to London to assist Dr. 
 Chandler as pastor of the congregation in the Old Je'(\Ty. He 
 officiated also as afternoon preacher at Newington Green, as 
 the associate of Dr. R. Price, and was appointed one of the 
 lecturers at Salter's Hall. Dr. Chandler died in 1766, when 
 Dr. Amory succeeded to the pastoral charge, which he retained 
 till his death in 1774. He was a man of amiable temper, of 
 respectable abilities, and considerable learning, in acknowledg- 
 ment of which he received, in 1758, the degree of D.D. from 
 the university of Edinburgh. But his published sermons are 
 
 excessively tame and cold, and one can easily beUeve that his 
 " popularity " was not great. (See Biographia Britannica, Art. 
 ^'- Amory.'") In his theological views he strongly inclined to 
 Arianism, and both as a tutor and a preacher he contributed 
 his share to the defection from evangehcal sentiments which, 
 in the course of the last century, withdrew so many of the 
 Enghsh presbyterians from the faith of their forefathers. Dr. 
 Amory's published writings consist of a volume of "Jliscel- 
 laneous Sermons," 8vo., second edition, 1756; "Twenty-two 
 Sermons, mostly on the Divine Goodness," 8vo., 1766 ; several 
 single sermons and brief memoirs ; and a " Dialogue on Devotion, 
 after the manner of Xenophon, to which is prefixed Conversation 
 of Socrates on the Being and Providence of God, translated from 
 the Greek," 8vo., 1733 and 1746.— W. L. A. 
 
 A3I0S, one of the twelve minor prophets, was contemporary 
 with Isaiah and Hosea dming the earlier part of their career. 
 The place of his birth is uncertain, though the opening state- 
 ment of his work, that he was among the herdsmen of Tekoa, 
 and the subsequent declaration which he makes, when driven 
 from Bethel on account of his predictions, that before being 
 called to the prophetical office he had been a herdsman and a 
 gatherer of sycamore fniit, seem to point to Tekoa as the place 
 of his origin. At the time when Amos exercised the propheti- 
 cal function, the kingdom of Israel, to which his commission 
 mainly had respect, had recovered from the calamities brought 
 upon it by Hazael, and was enjoying a large amount of prosperity. 
 With returning prosperity, however, impiety, oppression, and 
 licentiousness had anew deluged the country, and the sword of 
 judgment was again to be dra^ATi for the chastisement of the 
 infatuated people. It is this approaching disaster which Amos 
 is commissioned to declare. His view, however, is not confined 
 to the kingdom of Israel. Denimciations of wrath are uttered 
 against all the sun'ounding kingdoms and states, and also against 
 Judah, in reference to each of which the remarkable expression 
 " for three transgressions and for four" is employed ; and at last 
 Israel is brought upon the prophetic stage, and the main severity 
 of judgment is described as destined for her. The approaching 
 storm was to be a tornado of extensive circumference, but its cen- 
 tre was to pass over Samaria. A succession of terrible threatenings 
 is directed against the ten tribes for their stubbornness, for their 
 idolatry, for their impiety, for their voluptuousness, for their op- 
 pression, for their knavery. Yet the book closes with a re- 
 markable prediction of the restoration of the people, when the 
 fallen tabernacle of Da%-id should be raised up, and the waste 
 cities be rebuilt and inhabited. The style of Amos partalces 
 nothing of the rusticity of his occupation. It is at once elevated 
 and polished. His images are most frequently borrowed from 
 rural scenes, and present many stiiking pictures. — W. L. 
 
 AJMOS, WiLLiAJi, a Scotch imter on agriculture, who died in 
 1824. He -ttTote the foLlo\ring works : " The Theory and Prac- 
 tice of Drill Husbandry," 1794 ; " Minutes of Agriculture and 
 Planting," 1804; "Essays on Agricultural JIachines," 1810. 
 
 AilOUR, GuiLLAUME DE Saixt, a French theologian, con- 
 spicuous in the histoiy of the thirteenth century on account of 
 the unportant part he had to play as chief of the Ecole du Pan-is 
 de Notre Dame de Paris, was bom at Saint- Amour, in Franche- 
 Compte. He was canon of Beauvais, and afterwards professor 
 of philosophy at the university just mentioned. His popularity 
 latterly advanced him to be rector and syndic. The circum- 
 stances of the university over which he presided, however, rather 
 than his personal character, gave rise to the celebrity which 
 attaches to his name. In the year 1229, in consequence of a 
 quarrel with the authorities of Paris on the subject of some street 
 brawls, in which several students of the university had been 
 murdered, the masters abandoned their chairs and retired from 
 the city. The Dominicans thereupon laid claim to one of the 
 vacant chau-s of theology, and this having been granted them by 
 the authorities, they were bold enough, on the return of the 
 masters in 1233, to demand a second chair, which was .also 
 granted ; under protest, however, of the latter, who appealed to 
 the see of Rome against the intmsion of the regulars. Innocent 
 IV. and Alexander IV. vainly interposed their authority in the 
 dispute, and it was only terminated in the reign of Clement IV., 
 wlio revoked the ban issued by his predecessors against Guil- 
 laume, but, like them, allowed the Dominicans to retain their 
 chairs. Guilhuime died at Paris in 1272. A complete edition 
 of his works was publislied in 1632. — J. S., G. 
 
 AJIPACH AUF GRDNEFELDEN, Johann Geoeg von, a
 
 German physician, professor at Salzburg, and author of a num- 
 ber of medical treatises, chiefly vetcrinaiy; died in 1832. 
 
 AMPE'LIUS, the author of a small book first brought to light 
 by Salmasius in 1G38, called " Liber ]\Iemorialis." It is not 
 known who or what Ampelius was, nor is the period at which 
 he lived agreed on. 
 
 AMPIlHP], ANDn>S]^rARiE, an eminent mathematician and 
 physicist, and the founder of the sticiice of eloctro-d}Tiamics, 
 was the son of a merchant of Lyons, in which city he was bom 
 on the 20th of January, 1775. From a very early age he 
 evinced a strong disposition towards the study of science in 
 general, and especially mathematics, which he pursued with ex- 
 traordinary perseverance, aided only by the liberality of his 
 father in providing him with books and instiiiments, at the 
 village of Polemieux-lez-Mont-Dor, wlierc his parents resided 
 after having retired from business. By the judicial murder of 
 the elder Ampi>re under the Reign of Terror, his son was over- 
 whelmed with grief, so as to be for a year incapable of study. 
 The recovery of the young Ampere from this condition was 
 marked by an increased interest in natural history, literature, 
 and poetry, without any diminuticm of his zeal for the study of 
 the exact sciences. A few years afterwards, Amp6re fonned an 
 ardent attachment to Mademoiselle Julie Can-on. He was mar- 
 ried to that lady on the 2nd of August, 1799. For about two 
 years after his marriage, he taught mathematics at Lyons. In 
 1801 he found it necessary to separate himself for a time from 
 liis wife and infant son, in order to discharge the duties of pro- 
 fessor of physics and chemistry at the Central School of Bourg. 
 In 1802 he published liis essay on the " JVLathematical Theory 
 of Games of Chance," in which the dangers of gambling, even on 
 fair terms, were reduced to strict mathematical demonstration : 
 a work remarkable, not only for the mathematical skill evinced 
 by it, but for its beneficial moral efl'cct, as serving to overthrow 
 those fallacies by which men possessing a superficial knowledge 
 of the theory of chances are led to iniin. This work having been 
 laid before the Institute by Delambre, established the reputation 
 of Ampere, who was soon afterwards enaljled to rejoin his wife 
 and child, by being appointed professor of mathematics at the 
 Lyceum of Lyons. This event was followed, after a brief inter- 
 val, l)y the death of Madame Ampere. 
 
 In 1805, Ampere obtained, by the recommendation of De- 
 lambre, the oifice of assistant-professor of mathematical analysis 
 at the Polytechnic School, from which, in 1808, he was pro- 
 moted to that of inspector-general of the university, and in 1809 
 to that of professor of analysis, securing the order of the Legion 
 of Honour. In 1 814 he was elected a member of the Institute. 
 In 1820, Ampere acquired his chief title to scientific honour, 
 by discovering the laws of the mutual attraction and repulsion 
 of electric currents, and constructing, on the basis of those laws, 
 the theory of a new branch of physical science, to which he 
 gave the name of Electro-Dynamics. The investigation of this 
 theory is contained in the sixth volume of the " Memoirs of 
 the Academy of Sciences." During the closing years of his life. 
 Ampere, having turned his attention to philosophy, composed a 
 remarkable work on the classification of the sciences. In 1836, 
 during one of his journeys of inspection, he was attacked by his 
 last illness, of which he died at Marseilles on the 10th of June. 
 
 In disposition, Amp6re was kind and simple-hearted, and 
 much given to mental abstraction. Besides the more remark- 
 able works which have already been mentioned, Ampfcre was the 
 author of a number of scientific treatises and papers, of which 
 the titles alone would fill more than a page of this volume. 
 They have reference, amongst other subjects, to the " Geometry 
 of Curves," "The Diff'ercntial Calculus," "Abstract Mechanics," 
 "The Wave Theory of Light," " The Atomic Theory of Chemis- 
 try," and " The NeiTous System of Articulated Animals." In 
 Abstract Mechanics, it is worthy of note that Amp^re was the 
 first who clearly distinguished between " Cinematics," or the 
 science of motion considered in itself, and " Djmamics," or the 
 science of the relations between motion and force. An account 
 of his life and works may be found in his ^loge, by Francis 
 Arago.— W. J. :^L R. 
 
 • AMPERE, Jean Jacques, a French writer, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was bom at Lyons in 1800. His studies were prosecuted 
 at Paris, in philosophy, under the brilliant Cousin, for whose 
 lectures ho exhibited an enthusiasm which strongly marked the 
 force of his bent towards a literary career. He was appointed 
 ja 1830 to a professorship of belles-lettres at ISIarseilles, and in 
 
 1833 succeeded Andrieux in the college of France. He has pub- 
 lished several dissertations on French and foreign literature, and 
 some volumes of travels. — J. S., G. 
 
 AMPHIA'RAUS, a Greek soothsayer, son of Oicles, married 
 Eriphyla, sister of Adrastes, king of Ai-gos. He predicted a fatal 
 issue to the expedition which that monarch undertook against 
 Tliebes, and fled from court to avoid being forced to take part 
 in it. His vnk, however, treacherously disclosed his retreat, and 
 Amphiaraus set out on a journey which mmaerous presentiments 
 told him would be his last. It proved so. He was killed by a 
 fall from a precipice on his way home. — J. S., G. 
 
 AMPHI'CRATES, an Athenian orator of the second century 
 B.C., was banished to Seleucia on the Tigiis, the inhabitants of 
 which were so charmed with his eloquence that they besought 
 him to remain with them ; but he was as ambitious as eloquent, 
 and transferred himself to the court of Cleopatra, daiighter of 
 Mithridates, where, ha^ang failed to secure the favour and autho- 
 rity which he sought, he stai-ved himself to death. — J. S., G. 
 
 AMPHICRATES, a Greek historian, quoted by Diogenes 
 Laertius. He ■^^Tote " Concerning Celebrated Men." 
 
 AMPHIC'TYON, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, absui'dly sup- 
 posed to have been the founder of the coimcU of the Amphictyons, 
 displaced his father-in-law about the year 1497 B.C., and reigned 
 over Attica ten years. 
 
 AMPHILO'CHIUS, bishop of Iconlum, was a native of Cap- 
 padocia, a lawyer by profession, and friend of St. BasU. On 
 Basil's elevation to the metropolitan church of Csesarea, Am- 
 philocliius avoided his company, fearing he should be persuaded 
 to take orders. It happened, however, on his passing through 
 Iconium, which had just lost its bishop, that the clergy and 
 people unanimously elected Amphilochius. Regarding this as 
 the call of God, he obeyed, and ruled that church till his death, 
 A.D. 395. He was a resolute maintainer of the catholic faith 
 against the Arians and Macedonians, and was present at the 
 second oecumenical council at Constantinople, A.D. 381. The 
 Greek and Roman churches commemorate St. Amphilochius, 
 Nov. 23d.— J. B., 0. 
 
 AMPHION OF Cnossus, a Greek brass-caster, pupil of Pto- 
 liseus, of the school of Critias. He belongs to the Phidian period, 
 having worked between the 82d and the 87th Olympiad. 
 
 AMPHIS, an Athenian comic poet, lived about 320 B.C. 
 
 AMPHISTRATOS, a Greek sculptor of the school of Praxi- 
 teles; Hved about 320 B.C. 
 
 AM PIUS, Titus Flavianus, a Roman general of consular 
 rank, lived about the year 70 A.D. He was a relation of Vitel- 
 lius, and in the war between that general and Vespasian, unex- 
 pectedly took part vrith the latter, retaining his command of the 
 army in Pannonia. His relationship to the former, however, 
 caused him to be suspected of treachery by his troops, who de- 
 manded that he should be put to death. He was obliged to save 
 himself by flight.— J. S., G. 
 
 AMPZING or AMPZINGIUS, Johx Assuerus, a Dutch 
 physician, studied theology, and was ordained pastor at Haarlem, 
 but afterwards devoted himself to medicuie, and became pro- 
 fessor at Rostock. Died in 1G42. 
 
 AMPZING, Samuel, a Dutch poet, son of the preceding, 
 flourished in the first half of the 17tli century. He was for some 
 time pastor at Haarlem, of which city he has left a curious account 
 in Alexandrine verse. He left also some works on theology. 
 
 AMR-IBN-ABDELRAHMAN, surnamed Ai.kermani, was 
 a Moorish physician and geometer of the eleventh century. A 
 native of Cordova, he gained his scientific knowledge during a 
 residence in Mesopotamia ; and on his return to Spain acquired 
 considerable reputation by his skill in surgical operations. 
 
 AMR-IBN-OTHMAN, surnamed Sibawayaii, or Odour-of- 
 apples, from his being extremely fond of that frait, was a learned 
 Persian, who, coming to Bagdad in the reign of Haroun-al-Ras- 
 chid, distinguished himself so much by his knowledge of Arabic, 
 that his work on Arabic grammar, called " Sibawayah " from its 
 author, or by way of eminence " The Book," became the standard 
 authority on the subject. The Bibhoth(>que Imperiale of Paris 
 possesses a copy of it, extracts from which are given by Silvcstre 
 de Sacy in his " Anthologie Grammaticale Arabe," Paris, 1829. 
 Sibawayah died about A.D. 810. — A. M. 
 
 AMRU, Ben Baiir, surnamed, on account of his projecting 
 eyes, Al-Jaiiedii, a Jloslem geographer, natm'alist, and theo- 
 logian, was bom at Bassora about A.D. 781-2. He is author of 
 a work on zoology, called " Kitabu-1-hay^van," analysed by Von
 
 Hammer in Ms "Arabische, Persische, und Tiirkische Hand- 
 scliriften," Vienna, 1840, and of some geographical works. In 
 religion he belonged to the sect of the Motazelites; but dissenting 
 from them on the subject of the eternity of futiire punislmients, 
 he foimded a sect of his own, one of whose peculiarities is the 
 rejection of that doctrine. — A. M. 
 
 AMRU-BEN-EL-ASS, held in Arab tradition to be one of 
 the seven companions of the prophet, and an individual of dis- 
 agreeable interest to the moderns, as the instrument of the 
 Caliph Omar in the destruction of the Alexandrian library, was 
 an Arab of the tribe Koraysh, born about a.d. 600, who, though 
 at first a bitter scoffer at the doctrines of Jlohammed, became, 
 after his conversion, one of the most energetic and successful 
 propagators of Islam. As general of Omar, he took Jerusalem, 
 after an obstinate and protracted resistance, and subsequently 
 marching into Egypt, whither Artiyiin, the Greek governor of 
 Jenisalem, had fled, he first took Fannah, the ancient Pelusium, 
 and afterwards Misr — the spot on which the army of Amru 
 lay encamped for seven months before the latter town acquired 
 the appellation of Medinat Fostat (city of tents), and close to it 
 the city of Cairo aftenvards rose. The nest operation of Amni 
 was to reduce Alexandria. In tliis he was considerably assisted 
 by the Coptic Christians of Egypt, who had made a separate 
 treaty with the Islamite leader, and were well treated by him. 
 It was not, however, tUl after a siege of a year and two months, 
 and immense loss of life in numerous ineiFectual assaults, that 
 Amru succeeded in dii\ing the Greeks from their metropolis 
 (about A.D. 6-42) ; and even after he had done so, they retmned 
 diuing his absence in Upper Eg^-pt, retook the city, and forced 
 him agaia to besiege it before he finally secured possession. 
 Amru now penetrated westward into the Pentapolis, and ravaged 
 the countiy as far as Tripoli. He retained the government of 
 the Itlohammedan conquests in Africa diuing the life of Omar ; 
 but Othman, in a.d. C47, deprived him of Ms command in 
 favoiu" of Abdallah-Ibn-Said, foster-brother of the latter caliph. 
 Amru, consideiing this but an ungrateful recompense for his 
 services in the cause of Islam, did everything in his power to 
 foment and further the subsequent revolt against Othman, who 
 was assassinated in a.d. 655-6. JIu'awigah, whom he aided 
 against Ali in gaming the caliphat, replaced Amni in his gover- 
 norship of Egj'pt, where he died in a.d. 663. There seems to 
 be very httle doubt that Amni destroyed a large collection of 
 books in Alexandria. The baths of this city are said to have 
 been supplied with fuel from the manuscripts during six months 
 — apparently an exaggeration. That the librai-y thus consumed, 
 however, was not the library of the Serapeum, or temple of 
 Serapis, as is sometimes stated, appears equally clear. The 
 library of the Serapeum perished in the destruction of the pagan 
 temples under Theodosius, a.d. 389 ; and the collection annihi- 
 lated by the stupid bigotry of the followers of jMohammed, may 
 have been the great library of the Museum, to which that of the 
 Serapeum was an adjunct, and wMch had already been partly 
 consumed by fire when Julius Caesar was besieged in Alexandria. 
 Amru was not altogether the willing tool of Omar in the aftair 
 now alluded to. He had contracted a friendship ydih a certain 
 learned grammarian of the city, named John Philoponus, and at 
 his request he proposed to Omar that the librar)' should be pre- 
 served, and not destroyed. The reply sent back by Omar is ^vell 
 known : "If these books contain merely what is in the Book of 
 God, they are useless ; if they contain what is not there, they 
 are pernicious : burn them." — A. M. 
 
 AMRU-BEN-KELTHUM, an Arabian poet, author of one of 
 the Mo'allakdt, or suspended poems (see above, Amru-el-Kais). 
 lived in the sixth century of the Christian era. The ilo'allakah 
 of this author was a laudatoiy poem on the subject of his own 
 tribe, the Taghleb. It was published by Kosegarten at Jena in 
 1819, and Sir William Jones has translated it into English: 
 London, 1782, 4to.— A. M. 
 
 AJIRU-BEN-LEYTH, second and last sultan of Persia of 
 Ihe dynasty of the Bern' Saft'ar, succeeded his brother Yakiib in 
 A.D. 878-9, and added to his inherited dominions the provhice of 
 Sejistan. Embroiling himself with the Caliph Al-Mu'tamed, he 
 suffered from that monarch a defeat and partial deprivation of 
 his territories, but regained the caliph's favour by defeating and 
 sending prisoner to Bagdad their uuitual enemy Rafi-lbn-llar- 
 thamaii, general of the Fatimite prince, ]\Ioliammed-Ibn-Zeyd, 
 in A.D. 887. Amru, however, was finally dethroned by Ismail, 
 founder of the Saman dynasty, who, at the instigation of Al- 
 
 Jlu'tadlied, the successor of Al-Mu'tamed, led an army against 
 him, and, gaining a decisive victory, sent him captive to Bagdad 
 where he died in prison about the commencement of the tenth 
 century. Amru-15en-Le%-th bears the reputation in history of a 
 cruel, avaricious, and tyrannical prince. — A. M. 
 
 AMRU-EL-KAIS, a famous Arabian poet who lived before 
 Mahomet, but one of whose poems is of the class called Mo'al- 
 lakah, or "Suspended," from their being hung up in the Kaaba 
 at Mecca. He had a feud with Ms own tribe, the Beni-Asad, 
 who had rebelled against and assassinated theu chief, Ms father ; 
 and ha%-ing repaked to the court of the Greek emperor, Hera- 
 clius, to ask assistance in punisMng them, that monarch at first 
 protected Mm, and even set on foot an expedition against the 
 Beni-Asad ; but a member of the tribe succeeded in so far turn- 
 ing the mind of HeracUus against El-Kais, that he presented him 
 with a poisoned tmiic, which killed the poet as soon as he put it 
 on. Abulfeda questions this story. The works of Amru-el-Kais 
 have always continued to attract attention. The best edition of 
 his Mo'allakah is said to be that of Hengstenberg, with a Latin 
 translation ; Bonn, 1823, 4to. Of Ms miscellaneous poems there 
 is a good edition, with translation and notes, by the Baron Mac- 
 Gucldn Slane: Paris, 1837, 4to. There is an-English trans- 
 lation of the Mo'allakah by Sir WUliam Jones. — A. M. 
 
 AMSDORF, Nicholas, one of the oldest and most faithful 
 of Luther's friends and fellow-workers, was born of a noble 
 fixmOy at Tschoppau, near Wiu-zen, in Misnia, 3d December, 
 1483. In 1502 he repaired to Wittemberg, and took his 
 master's degree in 1504. In 1511 he was made professor of 
 theology there, and was presented with a canoniy m the chmx-h 
 of All-Saints. P'rom the first moment that Luther stood fonvai-d 
 to oppose the conniptions of the papacy, Amsdorf appeared at 
 Ms side, and to the last day of the reformer's life he continued 
 his constant and almost too passionate supporter and admirer. 
 He accompanied Luther to the Leipzig disputation, and to the 
 famous diet at Worms, and was with him when he was carried 
 off to the friendly castle of Wartburg. Soon afterwards, when, 
 in Luther's absence from Wittemberg, the monks of the Augusti- 
 nian monasteiT abolished the mass and some other Romish rites, 
 Amsdorf imited with Melancthon, Justus Jonas, and John Dolz, 
 in a formal approbation of that step addi-essed to the elector, and 
 in recommending that the example should be followed in other 
 places. In 1524 he settled in I\Iagdeburg, as evangelical super- 
 intendent, and pastor of the church of St. Ursula ; and was the 
 first man to set up the refomied worship in that important city. 
 A few years after, he did the same service in the ancient im- 
 perial city of Goslar, and in 1534 in the tenitory of Calenberg. 
 In 1537 he took part in the convention of Schmalkald. In 1541 
 he was made bishop of Naumburg by the elector, John Frederick, 
 in opposiiion to Julius Von Pflug, who had been chosen by the 
 cathedral chajjler. After the defeat of the elector at Miihlberg 
 in 1547, Amsdorf was driven from the see, and Von Pflug put in 
 his room. He returned to JIagdeburg, where he took an active, 
 and sometimes even a ^'iolent part in the controversies which 
 soon after arose in the Saxon church. He was a warm antago- 
 nist of the Leipzig Interimists, and acted for some tune along 
 with Flaccius Illyricus, the champion of the anti-Melancthonian 
 party. His zeal against George Major's proposition regarding 
 the necessity of good works to salvation, carried him into the 
 monstrous and incredible extreme of maintaining that good 
 works are positively injurious to salvation. In 1552 he re- 
 moved to Eisenach as superintendent. In 1554 he administered 
 the sacrament to the dying elector, Jolm Frederick, and pro- 
 nounced his fimeral oration ; and in 1558 he was present at the 
 opening of the university of .Tena, the foundation of which was 
 gi-eatly due to his advice and influence. After a most active life, 
 he died at Eisenach in his eighty-second year. He was never 
 married ; and for ten years before his death he kept a coffin at 
 his bedside, to remind him of liis mortality. His writings were 
 veiy nimierous; but having never been collected, they have long 
 been extremely rare. 'I'hey were almost all of the nature of 
 polemical tracts, and of ephemeral interest. His learning en- 
 abled him to assist Luther in his translation of the Bible : and he 
 was the editor of the Jena edition of the refonner's works. — P. L. 
 
 AMU'LIO or DA MULA, an able and learned Italian car- 
 dinal, boni at Venice in 1505, died at Rome in 1570. He had 
 distinguished himself as a student of jurisprudence at Padua, 
 and the Venetians emjiloyed him in public aflah-s of importance. 
 He was their ambassador to Charles V. in 1553, and in 1558
 
 discharged the functions of podesta, or chief magistrate, at 
 Verona. Having recommended himself to Pope Pius IV. by his 
 honourable and vii-tuous conduct, not less than by his abilities, 
 he was made bishop of Ilieti, and elevated to the purple. Annilio 
 also received from the s;ime pope a librarianship in the Vatican. 
 He has left — " Orationes, &c., ex actis concilii Tridentini," and 
 "Nuova Scelta di Utteri di diversi nobihssimi homini," — a selec- 
 tion of letters of illustrious men. (See JlazzuchelU's Scritforl 
 (TJlaliu, and Cordelia's Memoire Storiche de' Cardinali.) — A. I\I. 
 
 AMU'LIUS, brother of Numitor, and along with him king of 
 Alba Longa. Amulius dethroned Numitor, though he suffered 
 him to live as a private individual ; but he put his son Egestus 
 to death, and made Rhea Sylvia, his daughter, a vestal vii-gin. 
 She, however, gave birth to two children, Komulus and Remus, 
 whose paternity she attributed to Mars. Romidus aftenvards 
 killed Amulius, and restored Numitor to the kingly dignity. 
 The date of these events, which, however, modern criticism (see 
 Niebidir's History of Rome) has pronoimccd entux-ly fabulous, 
 must be assigned to the period immediately preceding the foun- 
 dation of Rome, 753 B.C. — A. JI. 
 
 A.MURATH or JIURAD, the name of four Ottoman em- 
 perors or sultans : — 
 
 Amukath I., whose successes first estabUshed the Ottoman 
 power in Europe, was bom in the year of the Hegira 726 
 (1326 A. p.), and succeeded his father Orkhan in 1360. He 
 inaugurated his reign by the expedition which resulted Ln the 
 taking of Atlrianople, the advance of the Ottoman arms as 
 far as the Balkan, and a treaty of peace with the Greek 
 emperor highly favourable to the invaders, who took ad- 
 vantage of it to settle themselves securely in their new pos- 
 sessions. It lasted till 1303, when Pope Urban V. having pro- 
 claimed a crusade, the Greeks made an ineffectual attempt to 
 recover Adrianople. The war thus begun was carried on for 
 several years, usually with advantage to the Tm-ks, who had 
 possessed themselves of some important fortresses in the course 
 of the campaign which preceded the year 1371, when Amurath 
 returned into Asia. His next efforts in Em-ope were to preserve 
 rather than to extend his conquests. A revolt occmred in Ro- 
 mania, which he hastened to suppress by besieging ApoUonia. 
 Accident put him in possession of that place — a portion of the 
 walls having given way just as the besiegers were about to 
 desist from what they considered a hopeless enterprise. Some 
 years later, he sent an army into Macedonia, which overran that 
 province as f;u" as the frontiers of Albania. Success everywhere 
 attended his arms. The Greek emperor, John Paleologus, 
 humbly paid court to his rival at Adrianople, and sent liis son 
 Theodore to be trained for war under the eye of so renowned a 
 leader. While this hannony prevailed between the two emperors, 
 however, their sons, Andi'onicus and Saoudji, were engaged in 
 plotting the destruction of both. An anny of insurgents took 
 the field under the leadership of these artful princes, but dis- 
 persed on the first summons of Ainm-ath, who put Saoudji to 
 death. Several other revolts followed, which Amurath sup- 
 pressed with hke promptitude. One more serious than the rest 
 broke out in Senia, and demanded the personal presence of the 
 emperor. Lazar, kral of that province, had leagued himself 
 with Sisman, kral of Bulgaria, and had attacked the Ottoman 
 forces, twenty thousand of whom perished in one engagement. 
 Amiu-ath liastened to avenge so serious a disaster, and confronted 
 the rebel princes on the plain of Kossova. His army was infe- 
 rior in numbers, but, after a consultation with his lieutenants, 
 he determined to risk the event of a battle, and accordingly gave 
 the signal for attack. Bajazet, his eldest son, who had eagerly 
 urged an immediate engagement, led the advance, supported by 
 his brother Yakub. A fearful struggle ensued, in which the 
 Ottomans were at length victorious. Amurath lingered on the 
 field of battle, happy to have escaped the death which, in a 
 dream of the previous night, he had foreboded for himself Sud- 
 denly one of the bodies on which he trod rose, plunged a dagger 
 into his heart, and thus fulfilled the vision which had all but 
 made a coward of one unaccustomed to fear. Amurath expired 
 in the year of the Hegira 791 (1389 A.D.) 
 
 Amukath II., bom about the year 1404, succeeded his 
 father Mohammed I. in 1422. Mustapha, son of Bajazet-Ildi- 
 rim, opposed his accession, and was seconded by the Greek em- 
 peror Emmanuel, who took offence at the refusal of Amiu-ath to 
 give hostages for his good behaviour. After a short straggle, 
 Mustapha, abandoned by his troops, was seized and put to death. 
 
 Amurath advanced towards Constantinople. Emmanuel made 
 proposals of peace which were scornfully rejected, and the siege 
 of the city commenced. It was, however, renounced after an 
 imsuccessful attack, on the 24th August, 1422. In 1429, 
 haNnng quarrelled with the Venetians, Amurath besieged Thes- 
 salonica, and with much difficulty succeeded in reducing it. 
 This city was lost and regained several tunes by the successors 
 of Amurath, but finally remained in the hands of the Tm-ks. 
 Shortly after the marriage of the emperor, Ln 1433, to a daughter 
 of the prince of Servia, the cordiahty which prevailed between 
 him and his father-in-law was interrapted by a report that the 
 latter had treacherously allied himself with the sovereign of 
 Wallachia. Amurath at length resolved on attacking the two 
 princes, but had hardly taken the field when one made a timely 
 submission, and the other fled to the coiu-t of Albert, Sigismond's 
 successor. In this campaign the Turks carried by storm the 
 town of Semendra, and routed a large army of Hungarians sent 
 to retake it. Albert's death occm-red shortly after, — and 
 Amiu-ath withdrew from Himgary. He encamped before Bel- 
 gi-ade in Servia. Here his long career of ^^ctol•y was signally 
 interrapted, and from his unsuccessful siege of Belgrade, dated 
 a series of misfortimes which extended over the remainder of his 
 reign. Mezid-Bey, one of Amurath's generals, in his attempt on 
 the town of Hemianstadt, was forced to retreat vrith great loss, 
 by the famous Hungarian general Huniades. Other reverses 
 followed in rapid succession to diminish the prestige of the Otto- 
 mans, and to exalt that of the defender of Hemianstadt. That 
 indomitable chief carried fire and sword into Wallachia, and with 
 15,000 men, completely routed 80,000 Ottomans sent to cut 
 short his ravages. On the 3rd November, 1443, the Ottoman 
 and Hungarian armies encountered in the neighbom-hood of Nissa. 
 Amiu-ath lost 6000 men in killed and prisoners. He retreated 
 behind the Balkan moimtains, followed by his enemies, who 
 triumphed in two other engagements. Amurath now sued for 
 peace, and at length, on the 12tli July, 1444, a treaty was 
 signed, by which, at considerable sacrifice, he secured for a very 
 brief period the tranquillity of his empire. The rejoicings proper 
 to the occasion were hardly over, when the emperor was plunged 
 into the most profound sorrow by the death of his son Ala-Ed- 
 din. He determined to abandon the state of a sovereign, in 
 order to indulge undistm'bed his parental grief, and accordingly 
 resigned his authority into the hands of his second son Moham- 
 med, aged fourteen years, whom he took care to surround with 
 experienced and patriotic counsellors. The rumour of his abdi- 
 cation had hardly gone abroad, however, when the enemies of 
 the Ottoman empire were on the alert to take advantage of the 
 new and comparatively feeble government. Huniades was 
 again ordered into the field by the treacherous Wladislas, and 
 promised the sovereignty of Bulgaria, in the event of his con- 
 queiing that province. Under command of tliis fonnidable 
 warrior, 10,000 Hungarians and 5000 Wallachians began their 
 ravages in Bulgaria, and seriously menaced the integrity of the 
 empire. Reluctantly, Amiu"ath consented to leave his retire- 
 ment, and to put himself at the head of an aiTny: 40,000 men 
 followed him into Europe, and he advanced with all possible 
 expedition to encounter the enemy. The Hungarians, although 
 gi-eatly inferior in numbers, prepared to give battle. Their first 
 onset carried the valiant Huniades ahnost into the tent of the 
 sultan, and Amurath was about to seek safety in flight, when the 
 bridle of his charger was seized by one of his officers. The next 
 moment saw him charging at the head of his troops, and eagerly 
 scanning the ranks of the enemy in search of his rival. The two 
 sovereigns met, and in their fierce encounter, Wladislas was un- 
 horsed. A janizary perceiving his fall, advanced and cut off liis 
 head. Raising it on his pike, he shouted to the Hungarians, 
 " Behold the head of your king ! " They were instantly seized 
 with a panic, and fled in ruinous disorder. This victory at once 
 restored security to the empire, and Amurath to his Asiatic 
 retreat. He had hardly reached Magnesia, however, when mes- 
 sengers from Adrianople arrived, demanding his return. A 
 revolt of the formidable troop of janizaries had occurred, and all 
 attempts to suppress it had proved abortive. His presence in 
 the capital instantly restored order. He then prepared to make 
 the conquest of the Peloponnesus, and to clieck the career of 
 Scanderberg in Albania. The Peloponnesian princes were easily 
 mastered, but at the siege of Oroya, Scanderberg, with 4,000 
 men, kept the Ottomans at bay for several months, and at 
 length obhged them to retire. In 1448 Amurath defeated, on
 
 AMU 
 
 143 
 
 AilY 
 
 tlie phiin of Kossova, Lis old adversary, Huniades, who fled into 
 Hungary. In tliis memorable battle 40,000 Turks and 17,000 
 Christians perished. Three years after, Amurath expired sud- 
 denly on an island near Adrianople. 
 
 Ajniukath III., bom in 154o, succeeded his father, Selim 
 II., in 1574. On the day of his accession to power he 
 caused his five brothers to be strangled — a cowardly crime, 
 which fitly inaugurated a reign of disaster and disgrace. Some 
 successes against the Austrians distinguished the commence- 
 ment of this reign. Herbaert, baron of Auersperg, governor 
 of the Carniole, was defeated and slain by the Turkish gover- 
 nors of Pakariz and Huina. The capricious temper of the 
 sultan threatened a rupture also with France and Venice. The 
 ambassador of the former was compelled to exchange his creed 
 for that of the Porte, and the Venetian dragoman, on some 
 trivial pretext, was dismissed from the divan. In the year 
 1578, however, several of the great powers of Europe — Venice, 
 France, Spain, and Switzerland — opportimely proposed to estab- 
 lish friendly relations with the Porte, and Aniurath, who had 
 meditated for some time the conquest of Persia, eagerly accepted 
 the terms of aUiance. The war with Persia lasted till 1590, 
 and secured to the Turks Kurdjistan, Georgia, and several other 
 provinces. Thrice within three years, from 1589, the janizaries 
 surrounded the palace of the sultan, and compelled with threats 
 whatever redi-ess or additional hcence they wanted. Every- 
 where throughout the empire disorders sprang up, which were 
 attempted to be repressed, if at all, only by the local authorities, 
 who could expect no assistance from a sovereign tyrannized over 
 by his own guards. To divert the attention of his subjects from 
 the ruin which impended over the empire, he engaged in a war 
 with Hungaiy, in which Hassan Pacha, governor of Bosnia, 
 attempting to take Sissek, was drowned vrith the greater part 
 of his army. Sinan, the successor of Osman, gained some vic- 
 tories over the Austrians, but his triumphs were of short dura- 
 tion. Eight thousand Ottomans perished at Bucharest and at 
 Giurgevo, the vahant pacha haraig been treacherously deserted 
 by the princes of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. 
 Shortly after this reverse, Amurath, superstitiously afi'ected by 
 a di'eam of one of his favoiuites, renounced the society of his 
 com^, and at the end of three days, on January 16th, 1595, 
 was found dead in his chamber. 
 
 AsiURATH IV., bom in 1611, succeeded his uncle Musta- 
 pha in 1623. The early part of his reign was disturbed by 
 revolts of the janizaries, and by insurrections in various pro- 
 \T.nces of the empire, which the young sultan repressed as 
 they arose, with a cruelty that horrified even the ministers 
 of his vengeance. When roused to anger, his atrocities knew 
 no limit, and all offences were alike capital. He prohibited 
 the use of wine and tobacco on pain of death, and as he 
 seldom remitted an offence, many suftered the extreme penalty 
 of the law for these common indulgences. One incorrigible 
 smoker the savage sultan is said to have forgiven, for the easy 
 assurance vrith which he faced detection. He had roofed over 
 part of a trench, and in this subterranean retreat was enjoying 
 his solitary pipe, when Amurath, on his rounds in quest of 
 transgressors, announced himself — only, however, to be thus 
 addressed, " Hence, son of a slave ; thine edict has no force 
 underground." The sultan's own tastes were much less severe 
 than his statutes. He abandoned himself, shortly after his 
 accession, to the -n-ildest excesses, and, in particular, indulged 
 his passion for wine to a degree that undermined his health, and 
 rendered him a prey to maladies which eventually cut short his 
 horrible career. He died in 1640, at the age of twenty-nine 
 years. The one event of his reign worth recording was the 
 capture of Bagdad, which fell into the hands of the Turks on 
 the 24th December, 1638.— J. S., G. 
 
 * AMUSSAT, Jean Zulema, a French surgeon of distinc- 
 tion, born in 1796, sous-prosccteur to the Faculty of Medicine 
 in Paris, and member of the Academy. M. Amussat has writ- 
 ten some important anatomical treatises ; one of which, " Tor- 
 sion des arteres," was crowned by the Institute in 1829 ; an 
 honour awarded also to his " Kecherche sur Tintroduction de 
 I'air dans les veines," ten years subsequently. The work wliich 
 procured him his admission into the Academy is entitled " Ee- 
 cherches sur I'appareil biliare," Paris, 1824, in which he demon- 
 strates the existence of a spiral valvule in the neck of the bUiarj' 
 vesicle. M. Amussat is also the inventor or improver of a variety 
 of surgical and anatomical instruments. — A. M. 
 
 AMY, a French ^mter, about whom we have little precise 
 information. He was advocate in the parliament of Ais, and 
 died in 1760. His works are pronounced in the "Nouvelle Bio- 
 gi-aphie Universelle " to be very remarkable. They are these : 
 " Observations experimentales sur les eaux des rivieres de Seine, 
 de Marae," &c., 1749, 12mo; " Nouvelles fontaines domes- 
 tiques," 1750, 12mo; "Nouvelles fontaines filtrantes," 1752- 
 1754, 12mo ; " Reflexions sur les vaisseaux de cuivre, de plomb, 
 et d'e'tain," 1751, 12mo. — A. M. 
 
 AMYAND, Claudius, an Enghsh army surgeon, bom in 
 1740, and in 1761 admitted a member of the Royal Society. 
 There are some of his papers in the Philosophical Transactions, 
 treating of certain rare and curious surgical cases. — A. M. 
 
 AMYCLvEUS {A/u.vxXx7o;')^ a Corinthian brass-caster, men- 
 tioned by Pausanias, Uved five centuries before the Christian era, 
 and who, in concurrence with Diyllus, executed a group repre- 
 senting the dispute between Hercules and Apollo. — A. M. 
 
 AMYN-AH;\IED, El Razy, a Persian geographer, whose 
 compilation on the countries of the East, called " Heft Iclym," 
 or the seven climates, completed in 1594, has not yet been edited 
 in Eiu-ope. A copy of it exists in the BibHothfeque Imperial 
 of Paris. — A. M. 
 
 A5IYN MOHAiniED AL AITTR BEN HAROUN, eldest 
 son of the Caliph Haroun Al Raschid, was bom at Bagdad in 
 A.D. 786, and in 809 succeeded his father, whom he does not 
 seem to have resembled. Harovm Al Raschid had given his two 
 other sons, Mamim and Slotassem, the provinces of Khorasan 
 and Mesopotamia respectively. Amyn, however, deposed his 
 brothers from tlieir governorships, and summoned Mamim to 
 court. He refused to obey, and in the war which ensued, 
 Thaher, Mamim's general, defeated the troops of Amyn, who, 
 besieged in his own capital, was only saved from rain by the 
 revolt of Mamim's soldiery for want of pay. This relief, how- 
 ever, was only temporary, and Thaher at length possessed him- 
 self of Bagdad, and put Amyn to death, after he had vainly 
 attempted to escape by volimtaiily dehvering himself up to 
 Harthamah, Thaher's coUeague in command, A.D. 813. — A. M. 
 
 Aj\IYNTAS. Three kings of Macedon bore this name : — 
 
 Amyntas I. was reigning at the time the Pisistratids were 
 expelled from Athens in 510 B.C., and offered Hippias an asylum 
 within his realm. In 507 B.C. he entertained at his court the 
 ambassadors of Darius, sent to demand of the Greeks earth and 
 water in token of submission. These Persians pushed their 
 demands on the hospitality of the Macedonian king so far, as to 
 insist on possessmg his wives and daughters. Alexander, son 
 of Amyntas, under pretence of inti-oducing them to the Mace- 
 donian ladies, put the deputies into the hands of a number of 
 young men disguised in female clothing, who quickly dispatched 
 them. Upon this Megabyzus, the Persian general, sent one of 
 his ofScers, named Bubarcs, to inflict vengeance ; but the afiair 
 seems to have been amicably settled, as Bubares accepted the 
 hand of Gygea, daughter of Amj-ntas. The reign of this mon- 
 arch terminated about 500 B.C. 
 
 Amyntas II., son of Philip, the brother of Pcrdiccas II., and 
 grandson of the Alexander mentioned in preceding article, reigned 
 from 393 B.C. to 369 B.C. Driven from his throne by the Illy- 
 rians, he re-established himself by the aid of the Thessahans, and 
 \rith the further aid of the Spartans reunited to his dominions 
 the town of Olynthus. Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander 
 the Great, was the youngest son of Amyntas II. by his wife 
 Emydice ; and the physician Nicomachus, father of Aristotle, 
 lived at the court of the same prince. 
 
 Amyntas III., son of Pcrdiccas III., and grandson of the 
 preceding, was still a minor at the death of his father in 360 
 B.C., and never in reality acceded to the thi'one, as his uncle 
 Philip, who had been made regent, and whose daughter CjTiane, 
 half-sister of Alexander the Great, Amyntas mai-ricd, usurped 
 the sovereignty. He was put to death for being concerned in a 
 conspiracy against Alexander the Great in the first year of the 
 reign of that monarch, 336 B.C. — A. M. 
 
 AMYNTAS, a Macedonian who fled his country at the com- 
 mencement of the reign of Alexander the Great, and placing 
 himself under the protection of the Persians, received the com- 
 mand of the Greek mercenaries at the battle of Issus, 333 B.C.; 
 after which he went to Egj^pt mth a body of Greeks, and ex- 
 cited a revolt there against Mazaces, the Persian governor. He 
 met wth considerable success at fii-st, but was finally defeated 
 and slain about 330 B.C. — A. M.
 
 ASITNTAS, son of Andromenes, one of Alexander the Great's 
 otricers, suspected of being implicated in the plot of Pliilotas 
 (330 B.C.), but acquitted. He was killed in the coiu-se of the 
 Asiatic campaigns of Alexander. 
 
 AMYNTAS, a Greek author, whose work entitled StkO^o/, 
 descriptive of certain districts of Asia, has been lost. Athenreus 
 quotes some portions of it. (See Miiller's Fragment. Hist. 
 (Jrac, published by Didot Fri-res.) 
 
 AMYNTAS, a king of Galatia, who fought on the side of 
 Antony and Octa-s-ianus at Philippi, 42 B.C., and at Actium, 81 
 B.C., adhered to the latter. On the death of Amyntas, Galatia 
 became a lioman j)ro\'ince. 
 
 AMYNTIATSiUS ('A/ti/ir/avoV), a Greek author, who, in the 
 time of the Emperor Marcus AurcUus (a.d. 161-180), produced 
 a life of Alexander the Great, and a number of other biographies, 
 wliich he called B/o Ua(i>.>.r,>M, as he seems to have been fond 
 of writing them in pairs. None of these works have come iovra 
 to us. (See Photiiis m his Jifi/riobibHon seti Bibliotheca.) — A. ]\I. 
 
 AlIYOT, Jacques, a celebrated French translator, was bom 
 at Jlelun, of poor parents, in 1513, and died at Auxen-e in 1593. 
 ■Wlien he came to Paris to attend the college of France, then 
 rrtfutly founded by Francis I., Amyot's circumstances were so 
 needy that he was obliged to act as servant to more wealthy 
 students, in order to support liimself in the prosecution of his own 
 studies. Sunnounting all his difficulties, he attained the degree 
 of master of arts at Paris, and subsequently that of doctor of 
 civil law at Bourgcs, where he secured the friendship of Jacques 
 Colure, abbd of St. Ambroise, tlu^ough whose influence with 
 JIadame Jlargucrite, sister of the king, he obtained a chair of 
 Latin and Greek in the university of the last-mentioned town. 
 lie taught in Bourges for ten years, but the influence of Amyot 
 was destined to be exerted not so much in extending the know- 
 ledge of the ancient tongues, as in fonning and developing his 
 native langu.nge. He devoted himself to translating from the 
 Greek, and his translations, more particularly his " Vies de 
 Plutarque," were found to be executed in a French style so 
 idiomatic, easy, and elegant, that they became standard and 
 popular works. His first book was a French version of the 
 Greek romance of Heliodorus, called " Ethiopica," treating of 
 " the royal and chaste amom's of Theagenes, a Thessahan, and 
 C'hai-iclea, an Ethiopian," published at Paris in 1545 in folio, 
 and in 1549 in octavo. He next translated some of the Lives 
 of Plutarch, dedicating them to Francis I., who rewarded him 
 with the abbey of Bellozane. Amyot, however, did not now 
 give himself up to a life of ease. Finding such texts of Plutarch 
 as he could procure in France unsatisfactory, he proceeded to 
 Kome in the suite of the cardinal of Tournou, in order to enjoy 
 the advantages of the library of the Vatican. The cardinal also 
 gave him a commission to the councU of Trent, wliich he exe- 
 cuted with a skill that added greatly to his reputation. On liis 
 return to Paiis he was made tutor to the sons of Hemy II. ; 
 and, while holding this oflice, he completed his translation of 
 Plutarch's Lives, dedicating this second part of bis work to the 
 reigning king. The " Jlorals " of the same author he dedicated 
 to his pupil Charles IX., a prince, imfortunately, too intimately 
 coimected with the massacre of St. Bartholomew, for the credit 
 of Ids master's name. Amyot was, perhaps, more a student 
 and man of taste and cultivation than an educator. Charles 
 IX. appe;u-s, at any rate, to have esteemed him, for he made 
 him grand almoner, and presented him with the abbeys of 
 Koches and St. Comeille de Compicgne, while Pope Pius V., to 
 oblige the French sovereign, conferred on this fortunate " poor 
 scholar " the bishopric of Auxerre. 
 
 AVhen Henry III., also a pupil of Amyot's, acceded to the 
 throne, he continued him in the office of grand almoner, and 
 made hun commander of the order of the Holy Spirit, inserting 
 in the statutes of the order the following regulation, expressly 
 on Amyot's account : " Quiconque seroit grand aumonier de 
 France seroit aussi commandeur du Saint-Esprit, sans estre 
 tenu de faire les preuves de noblesse." 
 
 Amyot spent the remainder of his life at Auxerre, but not 
 quite liapfiily or peacefully. Those unquiet times did not leave 
 even the scholar and the priest at rest, and Amyot was involved 
 in the troubles of the League, while at home his diocesans 
 refused to submit to his authority. According to the " Nouv. 
 Biog. Universelle," he died " accable de tristesse et de chagrin." 
 Though he had expended considerable sums on the restoration 
 of the cathedral of Auxerre, he left great wealth, bestowing on 
 
 the hospital of Orleans a legacy of twelve hundred cro-«Tis in 
 return for the alms of a few pence which he had there received, 
 when, " poor and naked, he was going to Paris." 
 
 Amyot's principal works not mentioned above are " Sept li\Tes 
 dcs Histoires de Diodore Sicilien," translated from the Greek, 
 Paris, Vascosan, 1554, folio; and "Amours pastorales de 
 Daphnis et Chloe," from the Greek of Longus, Paris, 1559, 8vo. 
 Both these books have been frequently reprinted. — A. M. 
 
 AMYRAUT or AJIYEALDUS, MoisE, one of the most cele- 
 brated divines of the refonned church of France during the 
 seventeenth century, was bom at Bourqueil in Touraine, in Sep- 
 tember, 1596. His father, who was a protestant, destined hun 
 for the profession of the law, and he was for some time engaged 
 in legal studies ; but the reading of Calvm's Institutes awakened 
 in him such a taste for theological subjects, that he resolved to 
 devote himself to the ministiy of the refomied church. He 
 studied in the college of Samnur, under the famous Scottish 
 professor, John Cameron ; and his subsequent career evinced 
 how deeply he had been unbued with the peculiar doctrinal spuit 
 and tendencies of the master. Having been admitted to the 
 ministiy, his first charge was at St. Aignan, in the pro-vince of 
 Mame. On the removal of Daille in 1626 from the church of 
 Saumur to Charenton, Amyraut had the honour of succeeding 
 him at Saumur, and here his talents and leammg became so 
 conspicuous that he was appointed in 1633 to one of the theo- 
 logical chairs of the university. His colleagues were Lewis 
 Cappel (Capellus) and Joshua de la Place (Placajus), who entered 
 upon office at the same tune, and with whom he miited in pub- 
 lishing the " Theses Salmmienses." Amyraut was selected as 
 early as 1631, by the synod of Charenton, to present a complaint 
 to King Louis XIII. on the subject of some infractions of the 
 edicts under which the rights of the protestant chm'ch were 
 secured. This delicate and weighty business he managed with 
 great address, and left a highly favourable impression of his 
 abihties upon Cardhial Eichelieu and other eminent men, whom 
 he met on this occasion at the court of France. The carduial 
 was then meditating a project for the reunion of the two 
 ehiu-ches, which he soon after secretly communicated to Amyraut 
 through the Jesuit Father Audebert; but on finduig from 
 Audebert that no accommodation was proposed, or would be 
 allowed, on the subject of the eucharist, Amyraut broke oif the 
 interview by assming him that there was no hope of a recon- 
 ciliation upon such conditions. His attachment to the reformed 
 chm'ch was strong and sincere ; and he not only wannly defended 
 it against the attacks of the Romanists, but longed to see its 
 divisions healed by a reconciliation of its Lutheran and Calvin- 
 istic branches. It was with these views that he published his 
 treatise, " De Secessione ab Ecclesia Romana, deque ratione 
 pacis mter evangeUcos in negotio religionis constituendae." But 
 he was no latitudinarian, as was showTi by his " Traite des Re- 
 ligions, contre ceux qm les estiment indifferentes ;" and that he 
 was no rationalist, is proved by his " Traite de I'elevation de 
 la foi et de I'abaissement de la raison." Amyraut, however, haa 
 the boldness to stand forward as an innovator in the estabhshed 
 doctrine, or at least in the estabhshed mode of exliibiting the 
 doctrine of liis own chm-ch; and with his name stands con- 
 nected the modified system of Calvinism called Amyraldism, 
 which excited so much agitation and alarm in the Calvinistic 
 branches of the continental protestant chm-ch during the seven- 
 teenth centmy ; and which the Swiss divines judged it necessaiy 
 to oppose, by adopting in 1675 the "Formula Consensus," the 
 latest of the dogmatic standards adopted by any of the great 
 branches of the Calvinistic church. Amyraldism differed from 
 Arminianism in retaining the Calvmistic doctrine of the absolute 
 and unconditional election of gi-ace ; but it sought to combine 
 with this the idea of a gi-ace which is universal and conditional, 
 which is offered to all upon condition of faith, although in fact 
 accepted by none, on account of the conniption of our nature, 
 until the grace of unconditional election takes effect in the case 
 of some, though not of others. Amyraut hoped, by bringing 
 forward this view, to repel the objections to Calvinism which 
 were continually insisted upon by the Romish divines ; and he 
 was repeatedly absolved from the charge of heresy by the general 
 synod of his own church, several of whose most eminent ministers, 
 including Daill6 and Blondel, regarded liis peculiarities as harm- 
 less, and perfectly reconcilable with the Calvinistic system as 
 usually held and taught. But his views were strongly con- 
 demned by Wolinseus, A. Rivetus, F. Spanhcim, F. Turreth),
 
 AlVIY 
 
 145 
 
 ANA 
 
 Heidegger, and other eminent divines of France, Switzerland, 
 and Holland, and were extensively regarded as opening a door 
 to Arminianism and even to Pelagianism itself. Ainyraut con- 
 tinued at Saumur tiU liis death in IGG-l. His writings were 
 very numerous, but were never collected and reprinted, so that 
 they are now exceedingly rare. One of the latest labours of his 
 life was the drawing up of a system of Christian morals, in 6 
 vols., Saumur, 1652-1660, one of the earliest works produced 
 in tliis department of theology. — P. L. 
 
 AMYRTjEUS, a king of Eg}'pt in the fifth centmy B.C., who 
 ■was a native of Sais, a city on the Delta. Various attempts had 
 been made by the Eg}'ptians to throw off" the Persian yoke, in 
 one of which Amyiiajus joined the Lybian prince Inarus. Inarus, 
 however, was defeated by treachery, and put to death by cruci- 
 fixion in 456 B.C., and Am}'rtn5us, left to his own resources, con- 
 trived to maintain himself and his forces in Lower Egypt, and 
 died after a reign of six years. — F. 
 
 AMYTIS, daughter of Astyages, wife of Cyrus, and mother 
 of Cambyses. 
 
 AMYTIS, daughter of Xerxes, and wife of Megabyzus, who 
 rendered herself infamous by her immoralities. 
 
 ANACAO'NA, sm-named Golden Flower, was the sister of 
 Behechio, cacique or king of Xaragua, one of the kingdoms into 
 which Hayti was subdivided at the period of its discovery by 
 Columbus. She was the wife of Caonabo, who had entered the 
 island and seized upon one of its kingdoms. Her husband having 
 been treacherously captured was sent to Spain, but perished on 
 the voyage, the ship having foundered in a storm, and Anacaona 
 herself fell into the hands of the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding 
 her extraordinary beauty and accomplishments, barbarously put 
 her to death. — F. 
 
 ANACHARSIS, a celebrated philosopher, bom in Scythia ; 
 brother of Kadovides, king of Scytliia, and the son of Gnurus, 
 by a Greek lady. He arrived at Athens in the 47th Olympiad, 
 and calling upon Solon, engaged the attention of that philosopher 
 by the vivacity of his character. He was kindlj' received among 
 the Athenians for the sake of his patron, and soon became 
 accomplished in Greek philosophy. His genius was quick and 
 lively, his eloquence masterly and strong. He remarked that 
 the vine produced thi'ee sorts of grape — the first of pleasure, the 
 second of drunkenness, and the third of repentance. His diet 
 was temperate, consisting chiefly of mUk and cheese, and he con- 
 stantly wore a coarse double gannent. His orations were remark- 
 able for conciseness, as though the result of inflexible resolution, 
 and those who imitated him were said to speak in the Scythian 
 phrase. He was a fluent writer of verses. Croesus, the wealthy 
 monarch of Lydia, heard of his reputation, offered him money, 
 and sent for him to Sardis ; but Anacharsis answered that he 
 had come to Greece in order to learn the language, manners, 
 and laws of that countiy ; that he did not want silver or gold ; 
 and that it would be sufficient for him to return to his native 
 land, a better man and more intelligent than when he left it. 
 Upon his arrival at home, he attempted to change the ancient 
 customs, and to establish those of Greece. This proved dis- 
 pleasing to the Scythians and fatal to himself. He had promised 
 the mother of tlie gods that he would perform sacrifices to her, 
 and establish a feast in her honour, if he retmnied to Scythia in 
 safety. He entered secretly into a thick wood in order to ac- 
 compUsh his vow, and was performing some ceremonies with a 
 drum or cymbal in his hand before the image of Cybele, when 
 he was discovered by a neighbour, who went and told the king 
 SauHus. That monarch surprised Anacharsis, and shot him dead 
 with an arrow. Diogenes Laertius, however, says he was killed by 
 his brother while hunting, and expu-ed with these words on his 
 hps — " I lived in peace and safety in Greece, whither I went to 
 inform myself of the manners of the country, and envy has here 
 destroyed me in my own native land." After his death numerous 
 statues were erected to his honour. Herodotus mentions several 
 particulars concerning him. He is said to have invented tinder, 
 anchors, and the potter's wheel ; but Strabo proves that the last 
 is mentioned by Homer, who lived long before Anacharsis. — T. J. 
 
 ANACLE'TUS or ANENCLETUS, was an Athenian who 
 resided at Rome, and having been converted by the Apostles, suc- 
 ceeded Linus as the second bishop of the Romans, and was the 
 immediate predecessor of Clement. His episcopate is said to 
 have continued from A.D. 78 to a.d. 91. — F. 
 
 ANACLETUS, Antipope, known as Peter the son of Peter 
 of Leo, was the grandson of a learned and influential Jew, 
 
 VOL. I, 
 
 who had been baptized by Leo IX., and had assumed the 
 name of that pontitf. On the death of Honorius II., in 1130, 
 the majority of the college of cardinals elected Gregory of St. 
 Angelo to the pontifical chair as Innocent II. This step dis- 
 pleased the rest of their number, who instantly elected Peter, 
 under the title of Anacletus II. A schism ensued; Innocent 
 fled to Pisa, but in two years obtained the support of the most 
 powerful princes of Europe, while Anacletus was supported only 
 by the kings of Sicily and Scotland. The contest was at last 
 terminated by the death of Anacletus in 1138, when the authority 
 of Innocent was universally acknowledged. — -F. 
 
 ANAC'REON, a native of Teos, on the south-west coast of 
 Asia Minor, — one of the most famous among the early lyrists 
 of Greece. The dates of his birth and death are not exactly 
 detennined; but he flourished from about 560 to 475 B.C. On 
 the invasion of Ionia by Harpagus, general of the elder Cyrus, 
 he migi-ated to Abdera, in Thrace. Some time after, he re- 
 paired to Samos, and spent several years of his life in friendly 
 intercom'se with the tyrant Polycrates. They shared together 
 the pleasures of the age ; and, in requital for the favom's of his 
 host, Anacreon celebrated the name of the prince in some of his 
 verses. After the death of Polycrates, the poet crossed the 
 iEgean to Athens (b.c. 525), on the invitation of Hipparchus, 
 who sent a fifty-oared galley to convey him. Among other ac- 
 quaintanceships, he contracted there an intimacy with Simonidcs 
 of Ceos, — his greatest rival on the lyre. On the overthrow of 
 the Peisistratidae at Athens, he retm-ned to his native city; 
 whence, after a sojourn of about five years, he was again driven 
 by a new revolution. He betook himself a second time to 
 Abdera, where, according to some accounts, he ended his long 
 life of eighty-five years. There is, however, an epitaph ascribed 
 to Simonides, which speaks of Anacreon ha\'ing died at Teos. 
 He is said to have been choked by a gi-ape stone ; but this 
 looks like a fiction, invented to siut the habits of the poet. 
 He appears to have been of an indolent temperament ; the 
 willing slave of those deities of love and whie under wliose in- 
 spiration he wrote. One account, indeed, attributes to him a 
 life opposed to the tenor of his verses. The ancients possessed 
 five books of Anacreon, — containing hymns, elegies, epigrams, 
 drinking songs, and erotic odes. Only a few of these composi- 
 tions have escaped that monkish zeal which, at the beginning of 
 the middle ages, consigned to destniction so many of the relics 
 of antiquity. Of the sixty-eight poems which bear his name, 
 the greater number are probably spmious. His genuine pro- 
 ductions are all in the Ionic dialect, which is singiJarly adapted 
 to the harmony of lyric verse. They are wiitten in a peculiar 
 modification of the iambic measure. His poems are charac- 
 terized by great simplicity of expression, combined with a win- 
 ning sweetness and exquisite melody. They are pervaded by a 
 delicate sense of the beautiful, as well as a keen relish for the 
 luxm-ies of life. There have been numerous imitations and 
 translations of Anacreon ; among the best of which are those of 
 Cowley and Jloore. His name has been applied to the amorous 
 and drinking songs of every language ; but few in any tongue 
 possess the dignity and gi-ace of the " Teian Muse." — J. N. 
 
 ANAFESTUS, Paoluccio, the first Doge of Venice, elected 
 in 697, when the tribunes or chiefs of the Venetian isles agi-eed 
 to unite themselves into a republic under a single governor. 
 He died in 717. 
 
 ANAGNOSTES, Joannes, a Thessalonian who lived in the 
 first half of the fifteenth century, and WTote a narrative of the 
 capture of Thessalonica by the Turks in 1430. Upon the invi- 
 tation of Amurath II. he returned to his native city, from whit'li 
 he had fled when it fell into the conqueror's hands ; but in the 
 course of two years he was deprived of his whole property by 
 confiscation. The date of his death is imcertain. — F. 
 
 ANAN, Ben Suopiiet, a rabbin who lived in tlio third cen- 
 tury of the Christian era, and is ^irosumcd to have been the 
 author of the Hebrew treatises calle.l "The (iroater Order of 
 Elijah," and "The Lesser Order of Elijah," printed originally at 
 Venice by Zanetti, A.n. 1598. 
 
 ANAN, Br.N David, a learned rabbin who lived about the 
 middle of the eighth centmy, and is said by R. Mordecai to 
 have written a work on the Pentateuch. Ho is celebrated as 
 the restorer of the Karaite doctrines, and as the defender of tho 
 law against the traditions of llillel. 
 
 ANANIA SHIRACUNENSIS, an Annenian mathematician 
 of the seventh centmy, surnamed " the Calculator," author of a
 
 work of high reputation among his countrj-men, entitled " The 
 Kalendar," comprising treatises on astronomy and astrology, 
 mathematics and arithmetic. 
 
 ANANIA, GiovAN-Ni d', a learned Itahan, who was profes- 
 sor of civil and canon law at Bologna, and died in 1458. 
 
 AXANIA, Giovanni Lorenzo, was a native of Tavema 
 in Calabria. The fame of his erudition attracted the attention, 
 and procured him the patronage of Mario Caraffii, archbishop 
 of Naples, after whose death he retired to his native city, and 
 spent the rest of liis life in study and seclusion. He composed 
 two very curious works — one on cosmography, and the otlier on 
 the nature of demons — and died about 1582. — F. 
 
 ANAN'IAS or ANANLVH, the name of several indidduab 
 mentioned in the Holy Scriptm-es. The most ancient is kno\vn 
 under the name of Shadraeh, one of the three Hebrews who, 
 by the order of Nebuchadnezzar, were cast into the burning 
 fmiiace, because they refused to worship the graven image which 
 he had made. Another Ananias is mentioned in the Acts of the 
 Apostles as having falk-n dead at the feet of St. Peter ; and a 
 third person of the same name, referred to in the Acts of the 
 Apostles, chap, xxiii., was high-priest of the Jews, a.d. 49. — F. 
 AN^\:NL\S, the name of the messenger of khig Abgarus, who 
 was, the legends tell us, sent from Edessa into Judea to procure 
 a portrait of Christ for the cure of the diseased monarch. 
 
 ANAPIUS and AMPHINOMUS, two brothers, natives of 
 Catana in Sicily, honoured on account of their fihal atfection. 
 During an eruption of Moimt ^Etna, they saved their parents 
 bv carrying them away on their shouldoi-s, and we are told that 
 the flames spared them, while others around were consumed. 
 
 ANARAWD or ANAROD was a ViAsh prince, a contempo- 
 rary of Alfred the Great. He succeeded his father, who had 
 fallen in a battle with the Saxons in 876, and died in 913. 
 
 ANASCO, Juan d', a native of Se\-ille, who lived in the 
 earlier part of the sixteenth century, and was one of the ablest 
 leaders of the Spanish expedition to Florida in 1539^3. 
 
 ANASTASIA, Saint, a Roman lady of noble bu-th, who was 
 the wife of PubUus, the ambassador of the Emperor Diocletian 
 to the court of Persia, and who, ha%nng professed herself a Chris- 
 tian, was burnt to death at Sirmium in 303, the year in which 
 Diocletian issued his edict against the Christians. Two letters 
 which she wrote from prison to St. Cliri'sogonus, a confessor, 
 are still extant. Two other female martyrs of the same name 
 are mentioned in the early history of the church — one of whom 
 had been converted by Peter and Paul, and was beheaded by 
 order of Nero ; the other siiifered death at Sinnich, in Illyria. — F. 
 ANASTASIUS. Four popes bore this name: — Anas- 
 TASius I., a native of Rome, succeeded Siricius in 398 or 399. 
 It was during his pontificate that St. Chrysostom, St. Augustine, 
 and St. Jerome flourished, and several important councils of the 
 church were held. St. Anastasins was a zealous opponent of the 
 doctrines of Origen, which he condemned in his work IIs»/ a^x'""' 
 wliich procured him a high encomium from St. Jerome. He 
 died A.D. 401. — Anastasius IL, a Roman, who succeeded 
 Gelasius in 496. He spent his brief pontificate in the vain 
 endeavour to determine the disputes which disturbed the Eastern 
 and Western churches, and died 498. — Anastasius III., elected 
 in 911, ruled for two years. — Anastasius IV., a Roman, 
 whose name was Conrad, and who was bishop of Sabina and a 
 cardinal, succeeded Eugenius in the papal chair in 1153. He 
 was of advanced age at the period of his election, and held the 
 see only a year aud a half. Anastasius, Antipope, was car- 
 dinal of St. Marcellus, and although protected by the emperors 
 Lothaure and Louis in 855-6, in his opposition to Benedict III., w.as 
 at last withdrawn by his patrons from the hopeless contest. — F. 
 ANASTASIUS, the name of two emperors of the East : — 
 Anastasius I. was bom of an obscure family at Dyr- 
 rachium in Epinis, about a.d. 430. Very little is known 
 of his early history ; but at the advanced age of sixty, he 
 occupied a humble post in the imperial household. He must, 
 however, have possessed considerable talent ; for, on the death 
 of the Emperor Zeno in 491, he successfully opposed the 
 design of Longinus, the late emperor's brother, to ascend the 
 throne ; and ha^•ing succeeded in gaining the hand of Ariadne, 
 the widowed empress, found himself suddenly invested with im- 
 perial power. Being a Eutychian, he found it impossible to 
 persuade the Patriarch Euphemius to crown him, untU he signed 
 the confession of hb faith according to the council of Chalcedon. 
 Immediately after the accession of Anastasius, Longinus rose in 
 
 rebelHon ; bi\t after causing gi-eat trouble for a period of seven 
 years, he was at length seized, and put to death. A few years 
 aftenvai'ds, a dangerous war with Persia occurred, causing a vast 
 loss of life and treasure. At the same time the domestic tran- 
 quillity of the empire was disturbed by ci\-ii and religions troubles, 
 chiefly arising from the emperors animosity against the adherents 
 of tli'e orthodox faith, whom he persecuted wth imrelenting 
 severity, although he had originally professed their principles. 
 Anastasius died in 518, h.i-s-ing sunived Ariadne three years. 
 He was succeeded in the throne by Justin I. 
 
 Anastasius II., bom about the middle of the 7th century, was 
 secretar)' to the Emperor PhLlippicu5, on whose deposition, in 713, 
 he was raised to the throne. On his accession, he punished the 
 conspirators who had dethroned Philippicus, and appointed Leo 
 the Isanrian, afterwards emperor, the commander of his armies. 
 Anastasius was a man of great integrity, as well as experience in 
 civil and military aftairs ; but the incapacity and unfaithfulness of 
 his officers, rendered him unable to retain his position. After a 
 brief reign, he was deposed in 716, and retii-ed to a monastery in 
 Thessalonica. Having endeavoured to recover the throne, he was 
 put to death by Leo, his former general, a.d. 719. — F. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, was secretary 
 to the Patriarch Gennanus, whom he contrived to supplant, and, 
 by the patronage of the Emperor Leo the Isanrian, attained the 
 patriarchate in 739. He died in 753. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, Saint, a name assnmcd by Asmc, a monk, 
 who accompanied Adalbert, bishop of Prague, into Bohemia. 
 He was appointed by Stephen of Hungary to the see of Colocza, 
 and has been called the Apostle of Himgary. Died in 1044. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, sm-named Bibliothecarius, a Roman 
 abbot and cardinal in a.d. 848, was hbrarian of the Vatican, 
 and translated several Greek works on history and biography into 
 Latin. Although he possessed considerable learning, his Latinity 
 is rude and barbarous. He is supposed to have died about 886. 
 ANASTASIUS, Oliater De St., a Carmehte monk, whose 
 real name was De Crock, bom early in the 17th century, author 
 of several religious works and poems. Died in 1674. 
 
 ANASTASIUS CASStN'EXSIS, a monk of Monte Cassino, 
 who was librarian to Pope Stephen III. 
 
 ANASTASIUS PAL^STINUS, a native of Palestine or 
 Antioch, who Uved in the eleventh century, and was author of a 
 work on fasting, and on the seven weeks of Lent. 
 
 ANASTASIUS SINAITA, the name of several ecclesiastical 
 writers who were monks of !Mount Sinai. Of these, four may be 
 mentioned: The first was Anastasius Sinaita, the elder, who 
 was patriarch of Antioch about 561, and died ki 599 ; the second 
 was his immediate successor in the see of Antioch ; another 
 flourished during the seventh century ; and a fourth was patri- 
 arch of Antioch in 629, and died in 649. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, bishop of Laodicea, was an Alexandrian, bora 
 about a.d. 230. In the various branches of science, he greatly 
 surpassed all his contemporaries, and was the first Christian who 
 taught the philosophy of Aristotle. He appears to have held 
 the see of Laodicea from a.d. 270 to a.d. 282. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, a Platonic phOosopher, one of the tutors of 
 lambUchus, who Uved towards the end of the third century. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, patriarch of Constantinople from 449 to 458, 
 who presided at the Council of Constantinople in 450, in which 
 the Eutychian heresy was condemned. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, a Greek jurist, a native of Ben,-tns, who lived 
 in the first half of the sixth century, and had the honour to 
 assist in the compilation of the Pandects of Justinian : he is said 
 to have lost his life during an earthquake. 
 
 ANATOLIUS VINDANIUS, anativeof Berytus, who wrote in 
 Greek a treatise on agricultm-e, in twelve books, called Ivyy^a^ii 
 Via,cy,xSy. He died a.d. 360. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, bom at Clazomenoe in Ionia, in the seven- 
 tieth Olympiad ; died in exile at Lampsacns, at the age of 
 seventy-two. The public life of this iUustrions person — or 
 rather his relations to the state of Athens — constitute one of 
 those painful incidents in Athenian history whicli have been pled 
 over and over again in depreciation of that memorable democ- 
 racy. The condemnation of Anaxagoras for the alleged crime 
 of impiety, and the commutation of punishment from that of 
 death to banishment — an act of mercy due to the friendship of 
 Pericles — are indeed worthy to be placed alongside of the trial 
 and sentence of Socrates : it appears, nevertheless, that the 
 popular mind was exasperated, in this case, not only by appre-
 
 tended danger to the accepted religion, but by heavy suspicion 
 that the philosopher looked with no unfavourable eye on the 
 progress of Persian power. We are obliged to refer the reader 
 for whatever detaUs are needfid in illustration of tliis remarkable 
 exercise of democratic authority, to the pages of historians, and, 
 above all, to the classic work of jNIr. Grote : all our disposable 
 space is required for the right designation of the position of 
 Anaxagoras the Inquirer. — It is extremely difficult to reproduce, 
 in modem times, any one of these old Philosophers as he really 
 was. We are met in the first place by the extremest paucity of 
 documents ; nor would it have been possible to reconstmct one of 
 their modes of thought, but for the precious and apparently most 
 faithful, although brief summaries, which we owe to the immortal 
 Stagyrite. There is the farther difficulty too — caused by the ten- 
 dency of the Thinkers of any epoch to contemplate the specula- 
 tions of those of other epochs from their owii point of vieiv, 
 and to interpret them according to the fonns of the philoso- 
 phies envhoning themselves — a difficulty augmenting with the 
 intervals of time which separate them, and which in this case 
 has been largely increased by the absm-d mysticism thro^vn 
 around all early inquu-ies by Alexandiine commentators and 
 enthusiasts. Above all things, the student must beware of 
 attributing extraordinary and luifathomed profimdity to the 
 systems of ancient Greece, or of expecting to find there, anything 
 save first and rude essays to penetrate towards the laws of the 
 Universe, by men of singular force and clearness of intellect, 
 but aU ignorant of experiment, unskilled in Observation even, 
 and in no-ndse cognizant of any Jilethod that could guide them 
 towards ultimate physical truth. — The follomng rapid remarks 
 may clear away certain eiTors connected with usual appreciations 
 of the ancient philosophies ; they will farther tend to fix the ti-ue 
 and elevated place of Anaxagoras. The behef in a principle of 
 Order is not a result of science, but the cause of it. Science 
 grows out of that necessity felt by the human mind to realize 
 among objective phenomena some law of Order. The eSoit of 
 all the Greek schools, accordingly, was to discover an a^x'^' ; — 
 not a ber/inninrj, but a principle, or substratum, of all things. 
 Inquir}' soon diverged into two methods : — the Jirsf, endeavom'- 
 ing to detect that «?%-.!, or substratum, from indications offered 
 by external phenomena, — the second, expecting to reach the 
 same results by inquiring what laws of order are suggested by 
 the phenomena of mind itself. The latter method was that of 
 Pythagoras and the Ionic school — a school which sought, m the 
 laws of hannony and the relations of number, some key to the 
 solution of the problem of the Universe. The opposite method 
 ■«as followed by the Ionic or physical school — that of which 
 Anaxagoras is the culminnting name, or rather the supplement 
 and philosophical completion. This school is usually said to 
 have begmi with Thales ; and ordinary history presents us with 
 a chronologic;il list of his disciples and interpreters. But none 
 of these ancient schools ought to be treated chronologically, or 
 as a school, according to the modem intei-pretatiun of the word : 
 — the inquirers, so classed, were rather independent thinkers, 
 following something of the same method. The character of Ionic 
 inquiry may, however, be fairly enough characterized by reference 
 to one portion of the speculations of Thales. With hun, as 
 with all, the predominant question was, what is the oc^z'^, ? what 
 the substratum of all this perpl(;xing external variety of change ? 
 Thales looked around him in quest of some one physical substance 
 capable of assuming all varieties of condition; and his limited 
 and poor experimental knowledge induced liim to consider water 
 that substratum. A most imperfect analj'sis certainly, but one 
 whose origin it is not difficult to perceive. Thales had seen water 
 in every cardinal form which matter can assmne ; he had seen 
 it a solid; its normal state is that of a liquid; and he had seen 
 it evaporate or change into invisible air. No question as to the 
 puerility of this speculation, regarded as a physical speculation ; 
 but the critic must reflect that progress in physics has been most 
 laborious and slow. Chemistry had to pass througli alchemy, 
 — why marvel that, at the epocli of Thales, there should have 
 been so rude a beginning of chemical analysis ? Others followed 
 in the foregoing track. One proposed air as tlie substratum ; 
 others, earth ; others, Jlre. But the idea of a substratum or 
 principle as a necessary existence influenced and vivified all. 
 It is interesting also to trace the course of this unitarian specu- 
 lative physics. The supposed i-^x^ became more and more puri- 
 fied and ethereal in the conceptions of Inquirers, imtil Heracli- 
 tus detemiined as its essence— ^/ire in perpetual flux. Empedo- 
 
 cles (444 B.C.) may be said to have inaugurated a new era. He 
 compounded all former systems, declaring that there are four 
 elements or substances, and that these are combined or animated 
 by forces which he termed love and hate. It is strange, that 
 instead of discerning here the crude but meritorious initiation of 
 Inquuy as to the existence of forces which may co-ordinate 
 diflerent natural elements, some historians of philosophy have 
 traced to it our modern doctrine of Polarities ! Passing from 
 Empedocles, who indeed introduced the idea oi forces or co- 
 ordinating powers amid various elements, we reach at once the 
 Clazomenian Anaxagoras. The main or central principle of his 
 system is tliis, — "Matter, ever numerically the same, undergoes 
 combination and separation from the energy and dictates of a 
 Supreme Sluid." Previous to the period of Anaxagoras, not a 
 trace of pure theism appears among the speculations of the 
 Greeks ; their ultimate principle (or God, as moderns have often 
 written it) was a piu-e physical ifx'i' with which, mdeed, they 
 conjoined, or rather to which they assunUated, the nature and 
 action of the human soul ; nor can there be a loftier tribute to the 
 illustrious pliilosopher of Clazomenoe, or a more certain attesta- 
 tion to the reality of the revolution he inaugurated, than the words 
 of Aristotle (Metaphysics, I., 3d) : " ^\Tien a man said, that 
 there is in nature, as in animals, an mtelligence which is the cause 
 of the aiTangement and of the order of the universe, this man 
 appeared alone to have preser\'ed his reason in the midst of the 
 follies of his predecessors. Now we know that Anaxagoras of 
 Clazomenoe first openly maintauied these views." Can a loftier 
 tribute be offered to any philosopher ? Or is it wonderful that 
 the popular polytheism of Athens felt itself in danger, when con- 
 fronted by the criticism of a man wlio first ascended to the idea 
 of one hamionizuig intelligence ? The vou;, however, became a 
 moral providence only in the hands of Socrates.— J. P. N. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, a brass-caster of iEgina, who lived about 
 480 B.C. He executed the famous statue of Jupiter, raised by 
 the Greeks at Elis after the battle of Plattea. 
 
 ANAXANDRIDES, the son of Leon, was the fifteenth khig 
 of Sparta of the line of the Agida;, and reigned about 560 B.C. 
 He was the father of Leonidas. Died probably 620 B.C. 
 
 ANAXANDRIDES, a comic di'amatist, who floimshed during 
 the time of Philip of Macedon, and was a native of Rhodes, or of 
 Colophon in Ionia. He wrote sixty-five plays, fragments of some 
 of which have been preserved ; but havmg hbelled the Athenian 
 government, it is said that he was condemned to die by staiTa- 
 tion ; this, however, is doubtful. — F. 
 
 ANAXARCHUS, sumamed Eud^emoxicus, or " the Happy," 
 was a Greek philosopher, a native of Abdera, who lived in the 
 fom-th century B.C., and is said to have been one of the preceptors 
 of Alexander the Great, or rather, as Lucian obsen-es, one of his 
 parasites ; for when Alexander lolled his friend and foster-brother 
 Clitus, the philosopher was base enough to assm-e the prince that 
 " kings could do no \\Tong." After the death of Alexander, 
 Anaxarchus fell into the hands of his enemy Nicocreon, king of 
 Cyi)nis, who caused him to be pomided to death in a mortar. — F. 
 
 ANAXILAS, a comic poet of Athens, a contemporaiy of Plato 
 and Demosthenes, about 340 B.C. 
 
 ANAXILAUS, a Idng of Rhegium, descended from Alcid.imas, 
 who had brought a Greek colony mto Sicily. His death took place 
 about 476 B.C. 
 
 AN-\XILAUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, who Uved at Rome 
 in the Augustan age, and was a native of L.arissa. He was 
 banished from Italy on a charge of practising magic, wliich 
 originated in his skill in chemistry and experimental philosophy. 
 
 ANAXIMANDER of JIiletus, a disciple of Thales, Uvod 
 610-547 B.C. Under article Anaxagouas, the general cha- 
 racter of the Ionic school has been briefly described. Anaxi- 
 mander, also, sought for a physical i.^x'^,, and he thought lie had 
 found it, in what he termed airu^ov — a word usually translated 
 by " infinitude.'''' According to Aristotle, however, who renders 
 the word by what he deems a synon)nn — f^iyuM., or a mixing of 
 elements — it would apjjcar that Anaximander took, as liis suh- 
 slrutum, a state of being indistinct and undivided, — a condition 
 in which all elements were in a sort of chaotic combination. In 
 so far as this goes, he may be accounted in advance of some of 
 the Ionic school, wlio, as we have seen, sought to reduce all 
 material variety to changes in tiie state of some one element. Far- 
 tlier, the question was most strongly forced on liim, What is that 
 which dirided this fj^lyft-x — by what energy was such a chaos 
 reduced into order, and made to evolve definite, and individual
 
 forms and things? Anaximander had no glimpse of the eleva- 
 tion afterwards reached by Anaxagoras. He had not even a 
 conception of a universal vitality. lie attempted to solve the 
 problem by means of purely mechanical theories — within wliich 
 he strove to reduce the phenomena of organization itself. Take as 
 an instance Ihs account of the creation of man and the anim;ds : 
 ■ — " Our earth was originally a mixture of earth and water. The 
 influence of the sun, increasing incessantly, dried the primitive 
 humidity. The more marshy the earth, the gi-eater the fomia- 
 tive influence of the sun, — at present even, the power of this 
 luminary is most visible in marsliy countries. The sun having 
 put into fermentation the humidity contained within the globe, 
 the water is disengaged in the shape of bubbles. These are the 
 germs of animals ; — animals imperfect at first, and which soon 
 perish : at length man appears, the last and crowning effort of 
 solar heat." An entire system of physics was thus constructed 
 by Anaximander, through the whole of which one may discern 
 certiiin advances in observation. Not a trace, however, of the 
 idea of a pliysical fui-ce ; no approximation to any dynamical 
 theory of the universe ; infinitely less any gleam of that loftier 
 scheme, whose discovery has confcn-ed imperishable honour on 
 the name of Anaxagoras. — J. P. N. 
 
 ANAXIMEXES, flourished about 548 B.C. A philosopher 
 of the Ionic school. According to Anaximenes, the a.^x'^„ or 
 substratum is Air. Spiritual and corporeal qualities seem united 
 muler this element, but there is not a trace of true theism in any 
 known speculation of Anaximenes. The reader is referred to 
 articles Axaxagokas and Anaximander.— J. P. N. 
 
 AX.\XIMENES, a native of Lampsacus, the pupil of Diogenes 
 the Cynic, and the grammarian Zoilus, afterwards became one of 
 the preceptors of Alexander the Great. We read that Alexander 
 having resolved on the destruction of Lampsacus, on account of 
 its detennined opposition to his former attack, perceiraig Anaxi- 
 menes about to entreat his clemency, swore he would not grant 
 the request he was about to make. Anaximenes instantly re- 
 plied, " I supplicate, Alexander, that you sack the city, and 
 reduce its inhabitants to slavery." The conqueror kept his pro- 
 mise, and Lampsacus was saved.^F. 
 
 ANAXIPPUS, a poet of Athens, who lived about B.C. 308. 
 
 ANAYA WALDOXADO, was bom about the middle of the 
 14th century at Salamanca. The manner in which he discharged 
 his trust as tutor to the sons of Juan I., king of Castile, procured 
 Lim the bishopric of his native city. He died about 1440. 
 
 ANCANTHERUS, Claude, a learned physician, who was 
 historiographer to the emperors of Germany, and lived at Vienna 
 in the latter half of the sixteenth century. Several learned his- 
 torical works from his pen have been published; there are some 
 of his inedited MSS. in the library of Vienna. 
 
 ANCARAXO, Gaspard, an ecclesiastic of Bassano, in the 
 second half of the 16th century, the author of several hymns. 
 
 ANCARAXO, PiETRO Giovanni d', was an Italian jmist 
 and poet, a native of Reggio in Lombardy, who lived in the 
 middle of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ANCELL, Samuel, an English military writer, author of 
 " A Circumstantial Journal of the Siege of Gibraltar," published 
 in 1784, and received with considerable favour. In 1801, Ancell 
 commenced the publication in Dubhn of a periodical called " The 
 Moiitldy Jlihtary Companion," which, however, was interrupted 
 by liis death at the close of the following year. — F. 
 
 ANCELOT, Jacques-Aksene-Fran^'ois-Polycarpe, a 
 dramatic writer, bom at Havre, 1794, wlio produced a number 
 of works evincing no inconsiderable genius and ability. 
 
 ANCELOT, ]\Iarguerite-Virginie Chardon JIadame, 
 wife of the preceding, bom at Dijon, 1792, the author of some 
 popular dramatic pieces represented on the French theatre. 
 
 ANCHARANO, Pietuo d', a member of the Farnese family, 
 bom at Ancharano about the year 1350, dedicated himself to 
 the study of civil and canon law, under the celebrated Baldus, 
 and attained high reputation as a jurist. Died 1417. 
 
 ANCHERES, Daniel, a French poet, born near Verdun in 
 1580, who enjoyed the patronage of King Jame-s I. of England, 
 to whom several of his poems were dedicated. He died about 
 the middle of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ANCIIEIISEN, Johann Peder, a learned Dane, bom at 
 Ribe in 1700. In 1737 he became professor of elocution at 
 Copenhagen. He was well versed in history, jurispradence, 
 and antiquities, and was the author of many works displaying 
 accurate scholarship and laborious research. 
 
 ANCHERSEN or ANSGARIUS, Matthias, bishop of Ribe, 
 bom at Colding in North Jutland in 1082, was held in high 
 reput-ation for his skill in languages. He died in 1741. — F. 
 
 ANCHIETA or ANCHIETTA, Jose d', a celebrated Jesuit 
 missionary, bom of a noble family at Lagima in Teneriffe in 
 1533. Having studied at the university of Coimbra, and en- 
 tered the society of the Jesuits, he, with six other ecclesiastics, 
 s.ailed for Brazil. On aniving at Bahia in 1553, he devoted 
 himself with the utmost zeal to the object of his mission. 
 Before a year had expired, a college was founded at Piratininga, 
 several miles from the coast ; here the missionaries were exposed 
 to great privations ; but in the course of a few years, Anchieta 
 acquired a great degree of Influence over the natives; and it has 
 been affimied that in 1562, when the Portuguese colonies were 
 threatened with extinction by the warlike tribes around Espiritu 
 Santo, it was by Ids efforts that the imminent peril was averted. 
 He continued his labours for many years^; and having merited, 
 by his unwearied exertions, the title of the Apostle of the New 
 World, died at a village near Espiritu Santo, in 1597^ — F. 
 
 ANCHIETA, Miguel, a Spanish sculptor of the sixteenth 
 centuiy, was a native of Pampeluna, and celebrated for the 
 skill and taste with which he executed the ornamental caning 
 in several of the principal churches of Spain. 
 
 ANCHISES, the son of Capys and father of ^neas. When 
 Troy was taken, he was carried through the flames of the burn- 
 ing city on the shoulders of his son, and thus his life was saved. 
 He aftei-wards accompanied Jilneas on his voyage to Italy, but 
 died in Sicily in his eightieth year. 
 
 ANCILLON, Charles, a French writer, bom at Metz in 
 1659. Having completed his studies, he entered on the pro- 
 fession of an advocate in his native city, in his twentieth year, 
 and eventually became historiographer to the king of Prussia, 
 and superintendent of a French college at Berliiu He was the 
 author of a variety of works, and died in 1715. 
 
 ANCILLON, David, a French protestant di\ine, bom at 
 Metz in Lorraine in 1617. In early life, while at the college of 
 the Jesuits, he evinced a great love of study, but fiiinly resisted 
 every effort made to win him over to the church of Rome ; and 
 in 1633 he proceeded to Geneva, and having studied theology 
 under Du Pau, Spanheim, and other learned men, entered on 
 the ministry at Charenton. He suffered severely from the revo- 
 cation of the edict of Nantes, having lost the noble library he 
 had been collecting, at great expense and trouble, for forty years. 
 Subsequently he became pastor of the French chui'ch at Berlin, 
 in which city he died in 1692. — F. 
 
 ANCILLON, Jean-Pierre-Frederic, born at Berlin in 
 1766 ; died in 1837. A very distinguished thinker and writer, 
 whose labours alike in history and philosophy, demand especial 
 notice. Ancillon, at first a protestant clerg}Tnan, quickly rose 
 through energy of his scientific genius to a chair in the Mihtary 
 Academy of Prussia ; at an early age, he was elected member of 
 the Academy of Sciences, next he became counsellor of State, and 
 his political sagacity obtained for him successively the offices of 
 private secretary to the king, and of minister of foreign affairs. 
 His great political work is undoubtedly the "Tableau des revolu- 
 tions du system politique -de I'Europe depuis le quinzieme siecle," 
 a work wliich unfolds more clearly and graphically than perhaps 
 any other, the principle and play of the Em-opean states-system 
 up to the period when the first French revolution overturned all 
 systems, and inaugurated a new era. As a comprehensive but 
 brief sketch— one through which the working of great principles 
 is clearly traced amid all the apparent confusion of these ages, 
 and in which exposition is not overlaid by accumulation of mere 
 details — this work of AncUlon has few equals. It is beyond 
 question the most intelligent resume extant of the phenomena of 
 modem European history, and should be read by the student 
 on his closing the grand epos of Gibbon. It is to be regi'ctted 
 that no English translation of these valuable volumes has been 
 imdertaken hitherto. Ancillon wrote history as a philosopher — 
 perhaps his own natural bent was towards philosophy in itself. 
 But as his history verges on philosophy, so does his philosophy 
 unifomily betray the tendencies and sympathies of the man of 
 practical affairs. AnciUon's desire was to be the moderator be- 
 tween conflicting extremes. We know that in his efforts to 
 define the virtues, Aristotle adopted the theory of the Mean; 
 something of the same kind was the aim of Ancillon in regard 
 to intellectual speculation. His results were never very wide of 
 the true results ; nevertheless, his method cannot have a place
 
 in philosophy. In geometry, for instance, we could not recog- 
 nize any theory of the Jlean. The results of its inquiries are 
 absolute. And why should not the results of philosophical science 
 be absolute also ? The difference is this : the foundations or 
 first principles of geometry are clear, and our Ust of them is 
 exhaustive. Not so as yet in philosophy ; but the true remedy 
 is in no theory of the llean ; it is in the renewed search after 
 absolute first principles, renewed efforts to define these, and to 
 survey the entire territory wherein alone they can be foimd. 
 Pantheism, SlateriaUsm, Scepticism, — every extreme is faulty, 
 not because it is an extreme, but because the conclusions of 
 each spring out of the neglect of facts and truths eternal as the 
 human reason. AncUlon failed in discerning this momentous 
 truth ; and his theory of the ^lean, narrowly scrutinized, might 
 confound itself with a scepticism which assuredly the author did 
 not feel. It is sufficiently clear, too, that he had not thoroughly 
 mastered the writings of the gi-eat men of antiquity ; he did not 
 know how utterly Plato and Aiistotle alike, had demolished 
 many of the difficulties which he shnply evaded. Nevertheless, 
 it must be conceded to him that his philosophical ^vi-itings exer- 
 cised a beneficial general influence on the side of that reaction 
 towards spiritualism, which has dintinguished the more recent 
 portion of the last half centur}-. These writings are, — "Melan- 
 ges de Litterature et de Phdosophie," 2 vols., 1809; "Essais 
 Philosophiques," 2 vols., 1817; "Xouveaux Essais de Politique 
 et de PhOosophie," 2 vols., 1824; "Mediateur entre les ex- 
 tremes," 1828 and 1831.— J. P. N. 
 
 ANGINA, Giovanni Giovexale, bishop of Saluzzo, was 
 bom at Fossano in Piedmont in 1545 ; died 1604. 
 
 ANCONA, CiKiAco d', an Itahan antiquarj', bom at Ancona 
 about 1391, who under the patronage of Pope Eugenius IV., 
 Cosmo de Medici, and other persons of influence, travelled through 
 many of the countries of the East, in search of JISS., medals, 
 inscriptions, &c. Some of his published works have been highly 
 eulogized. Died at Cremona about 1450. 
 
 ANGORA, Gaetaijo d', an antiquarian, bom at Naples in 
 1757, who was secretary to the king, and professor of Greek in 
 the university of his native city. His works on antiquaiian 
 subjects have been highly spoken of. Died 1816. 
 
 ANGUS 5IARTIUS, the fourth king of Rome, grandson of 
 Numa, and successor of Tullus Hostifius. During the reign of 
 Ancus JIartius, according to Li^7, the Romans gained important 
 victories over the Latins, and extended their territory to the sea 
 coast, founding Ostium at the mouth of the Tiber. The in- 
 habitants of many of the conquered Latin towns were removed 
 to Rome, where they received the rights of citizenship, and 
 had Mount Aventine assigned them to build upon, while the 
 Mons Janiculus was being for the first time united to the 
 other part of the town by a bridge erected on piles, the Pons 
 Sublicius. An Etrmiau immigi-ation would also appear to have 
 established itself in Rome during the reign of Ancus, headed by 
 the Lucumo, Lucius Tarquinius. As the ordering of the religious 
 ritual for the tune of peace is ascribed to Numa, so the laying 
 down of the proper ceremonies to be observed in entering upon 
 a war, is attributed to Ancus Martius. At his death he com- 
 mitted the guardianship of his two sons to Tarquinius, who 
 was afterwards chosen king. The dates assigned to the reign of 
 Ancus, are from 640 B.C. to 616 B.C. — A. M. 
 
 AND ALA, RuARD, a Dutch philosopher and theologian, bom 
 1665, died 1727. After discharging the duties of the pastorate 
 in various places, he was made professor of philosophy in the 
 university of Franeker, but afterwards passed from the chair of 
 philosophy to that of theology. Andala was an ardent admirer 
 of Descartes. His principal works, as given in the " Nouv. Biog. 
 Universelle," are these : — " Dissertationes Academicaj in Philo- 
 sophiam Primam et Naturalem," Franeker, 1709, 4to; "Syn- 
 tagma Theologico-physico-metaphysicum, Complectens Compen- 
 dium Theologia; Naturahs, Paraphrashi in Principia Philosophic 
 Renati Descartes, ut et Dissertationum Pliilosopliicarum Hep- 
 tada," Franeker, 1711, 4to; "Dissertationum Philosophicarum 
 Pentas," Franeker, 1712, 4to ; " Cartcsius verus Spinosismi 
 eversor et Physicae Experimentalis Architcctus," Franeker, 1719, 
 4to ; and " Verklaring Van de Opcnbaringe Von Johannes," 
 Leeuwarden, 1716, 4to, — a commentary on the Revelation of 
 St. John.— A. M. 
 
 ANDERLONI, Pieteo, an Italian engraver of great eminence, 
 bom at Santa Eufemia, near Brescia, in 1784, died at Milan in 
 1849. He was son of Faustino (himself a distinguished en- 
 
 graver), and pupil both of his father and of Cavalier Longhi, 
 whom he succeeded as professor at the academy of Milan. Upon 
 the death of Longhi, Pietro Anderloni ranked with Toschi and 
 Garavaglia as one of the three best engravers of Italy. Amongst 
 the many works he executed, the "Heliodorus" and the "Attila," 
 after Raphael's pictures in the Vatican, stand foremost. Jilany 
 highly distinguished engravers have proceeded from the school 
 of Anderloni, a great correctness of drawiug and purity of style 
 being its chief quahties. — R. JI. 
 
 ARDERNE, Jajies, dean of Chester m the reign of Charles 
 II. He died in 1691, and bequeathed his books and great 
 portions of his estates to the foundation of a cathedral library 
 for the use of the cler^. 
 
 ANDERSEN or ANDRECE, Laurence, born in 1480, was 
 chancellor of Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden, and archdeacon of 
 UjJsal. He was a man of great learning and ability, and acted 
 an important part in promoting the Reformation in Sweden. He 
 is said to have been the first translator of the Bible into Swedish. 
 Died 1552. 
 
 * ANDERSEN, Hans Ciikistiak, one of the principal 
 li\'ing fitterateurs of Denmark, was bom at Odensee in the 
 island of Funen, on the 2nd April, 1805. His father, who was 
 a shoemaker, was a somewhat remarkable man— amiable and 
 affectionate in disposition, rather freethinking in his opinions, 
 and fonder of reading and solitary reverie than of his business, 
 in which he was not successful. Little Hans was piously and 
 even snperstitiously brought up by his mother, of whom, as he 
 himself teUs us, he has given a portrait in the person of old 
 Domenica in the " Improvisatore," and also in the Fiddler's 
 mother in " Only a Fiddler." After the fiither's death, which 
 occuiTed while Hans was still very young, she supported herself 
 and her only child by going out to wash. In the meantime 
 the httle boy, who had no relish for the out-of-door sports of his 
 equals, remained sofitar}' at home, reading, or playing with a 
 little puppet-theatre which his father, a man ingenious in such 
 things, had made for him. The young poet had a passion for 
 this kind of amusement, and used to compose childish comedies 
 for his puppet characters, a practice which procm-ed him from 
 the other boys the nickname of " Playwi-ight." His regular 
 education all the while was of the most slender description ; 
 after his father's death, the poor mother could send her boy only 
 to a charity school. Young Andersen's passion for reading, 
 however, his talent for reciting dramatic pieces, and his remark- 
 ably powerful, clear, and musical voice, had already brought 
 him into notice in his native town, and he was sometimes in- 
 ^^ted into families of the upper classes to exhibit his talents : 
 still no material aid was extended to him. His mother wished 
 to apprentice him to a tailor, but the boy's literary and theatrical 
 tastes, fostered by what he had heard people say of his fine 
 voice and recitative powers, were already too strong to allow of 
 his settling down to a handicraft. When Hans was about his 
 fourteenth year, he had managed to be present at a number of 
 representations given in Odensee by part of the company of the 
 Theatre-Royal, Copenhagen, and even to get upon the stage in 
 the character of page. From this time, it became a fixed idea 
 with him that he must go to Copenhagen, where his talent for 
 recitation, and fine soprano voice, were to procure him a connec- 
 tion with the Theatre-Royal. " What will become of thee in 
 the great city ? " asked the poor mother. " I will become 
 famous," replied the boy. Hans Andersen was but fourteen 
 when he left his native island and native town to seek his for- 
 tune in Copenhagen, where he arrived in September, 1819, with 
 ten dollars in his pocket. 
 
 The poor youth's first attempts to obtain a situation in con- j 
 nection with the Royal Opera, were, as might h.ave been ox- ; 
 pected, ludicrous and painful failures, and Andersen, completely | 
 dispirited, was on the point of making his way home again ; I 
 when, havmg procured admission to Siboni, an Italian maestro, j 
 at that time director of the Royal Musical Conservatory, the boy 
 so interested him and a number of gentlemen who chanced to be 
 in his house, that they took him under theu- protection. A 
 small sum was subscribed for his support, and Siboni was to 
 cultivate his voice, with a view to his becoming a singer in the 
 Opera. After he h.ad been three-quarters of a year under Siboni, 
 his voice broke, and its musical qualities dis.ippeared. The 
 maestro advised him tc go home and learn a trade ; but .some of 
 his patrons continued to take an interest in him, more particu- 
 larly Weysc the comi)Oser, and the poet Guldberg. The latter,
 
 seeing how defective his education had been, gave him lessons in 
 Danish and in Gennan, and even procured him two lessons a- 
 week in Latin. A subscription was again set on foot in his 
 behalf, and a bare subsistence was thus for a while secured 
 him. Dependent, however, on mere charity, Andersen was con- 
 stantly on the verge of destitution, and from 1819 to 1823 his 
 life was one of hardsliip. At length, a tragedy he had laid 
 before the directors of the Theatre-Royal, brought him under 
 the notice of Councillor Collin — who proved a second father 
 to him. Through this gentleman's influence, the royal bounty 
 was moved in his behalf; the Bureau for Learned Schools 
 granted him free instruction in the gymnasium of Slagelse, and 
 Frederick \^. allowed bun a yearly stipend for his maintenance 
 during several years. His mother was still alive to hear of his 
 good fortune. Andersen's futiu-e course was now comparatively 
 secure, and we need only trace bis farther career in his works. 
 
 His fii-st book, "Foot Journeys to Amager," appeared m 
 1828, the same year in which he became a student at college. 
 He could not at first obtidn a publisher, but he had no sooner 
 got it printed for himself, than the copyright was bought from 
 him ; for the little book, written in an original stj-le pregnant 
 with fantastic humour, had instantaneously become popular. A 
 vaudeville, which was acted with success, and a volume of poems, 
 which was equally well received, followed in rapid succession. 
 Here, however, the tide of public favour began to tm-n, and 
 some other volumes of verse and prose, which he subsequently 
 published, met with a cool reception. In 1833 the king gi-auted 
 him a " reisestipendium," or sum of money for a tour, and An- 
 dersen travelled to Rome. The result of this tour was his 
 romance of the " Improvisatore," Copenhagen, 1834, which the 
 grateful author dedicated to Collin. The work was veiy favour- 
 ably received by the public, less so by the critics, who still — and 
 for long after — remained strangely hostile to Andersen. For 
 many years the influential literary journals of Copenhagen 
 treated his productions either with silent or \nih expressed con- 
 tempt, while these same productions were being translated into 
 all the languages of Europe. Andersen published his first col- 
 lection of "Eventyr" soon after the Impro%'isatore. It is by 
 these " Stories for Children," and the " Picture Book without 
 Pictures," which have been read all over Europe and America 
 with equal delight by old and young, that Hans Christian Ander- 
 sen has mainly acquired his fame out of his own country ; but 
 in Copenhagen his fondness for ^NTitlng " Eventyr" was regarded 
 as childish and unworthy trifling. His other novels, besides the 
 Improvisatore, are " 0. T.," " Only a Fiddler," " The Two 
 Baronesses," and " To Be or Not to Be." Andersen has also 
 written a great deal for the stage, his principal drama being 
 "The Mulatto." His "Poet's Bazaar" is a seiies of sketches of 
 travel. Andersen's most ambitious work is his " Ahasuerus," 
 which appeared in German and Danish in 18-47. It is partly 
 in verse and partly in prose, and its form varies between lyric, 
 epic, and dramatic. "Ahasuerus" is founded on the legend of 
 the Wandering Jew. 
 
 Hans Andersen enjoys a moderate pension from the Danish 
 government. He is unmanned (1857). (^Mit Liv Eventi/r, af 
 H. C. Andersen. Kjvbenhai'n\ 1855. — A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, Ad.vm, author of the "History of Commerce," 
 a native of .Scotland, was bom about 1692. Little is known of 
 his early life ; but, when about thirty-three years of age, he 
 obtained a situation in the South Sea House, in which he after- 
 wards rose to be chief clerk of the Stock and New Annuities. 
 Here he remained forty years, during which period he was em- 
 ployed npon his great work, published in 17G2, than which very 
 few books in the English language aiford more internal e^-idence 
 of laborious research. He died at Clerkenwell in 17C5. — F. 
 
 ANDERSON, Alexander, an acute geometrical \viiter; the 
 first editor of Vieta's tracts, " De Recognitione et Emendalione 
 Kquationum." Bom at Aberdeen in 1582. Some of his works 
 are « follow : — " Ad angularium sectionum analjiiccn theore- 
 mata xnBikixuTi'd." Paris, 1615; "Vindicia; Archimedis, sive, 
 Elenchxis Cyclometria: novaj a Philippo Lansbergio nuper edita-," 
 Paris, 161C; "Exercitationum Mathematicaram Decas Prima," 
 Paris, 1619. For an analysis of the mathematical writings of 
 Robert Anderson, see the " Lady's Diary" for 1840. — A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, Ale-xandeu, was a well-known natm-alist of 
 last centur)-. In his young days, he \isited the Caribbean islands, 
 and reported on their geology and botany. In 1789 he communi- 
 cated to the Royal Society of London a notice of the Pitch Lake 
 
 of Trinidad. He was appointed superintendent of the botanic 
 garden of the island of St. Vincent, and in 1798 published aii 
 account of the productions of the garden. In this he gave a 
 description of the bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa), imported 
 from Tahiti. Some botanical papers by him appear in the 
 Transactions of the Society of Arts. — J. H. B. 
 
 * ANDERSON, Arthur, an enterprising and public-spirited 
 London merchant, bom in Shetland in 1792. His efforts to 
 promote the improvement of the northern isles procured him the 
 honour of representing them in the British parliament, where he 
 supported liberal measures, and particularly exerted himself in 
 the agitation against the corn laws. — W. B. 
 
 ANDERSON, Christopher, a well-known Baptist minister, 
 was bom in Edinburgh, Feb. 19, 1782, and died in the same 
 city on the 18th Febraary, 1852, after a ministry of forty-six 
 yeai-s. Besides liis labours as an honourable and veiy useful 
 pastor, Jilr. Anderson was the originator, and for many years 
 the secretary, of the Edinburgh Bible Society, and of the GaeUc 
 School Society. The urgent need of some such societies was 
 impressed upon his mind during journeys he made through the 
 Highlands and Islands of Scotland. In 1809 he traveUed 
 through a large pait of Ireland : hence his " Memorial on behalf 
 of the native Irish," aftenvards enlarged into " Historic:Q 
 Sketches of the native Irish" (1828). These works originated 
 the Achill Jlission and the Irish Society, which are supported 
 cliiefly by members of the Churches of England and Ireland. 
 For many years Sir. Anderson was one of the most efficient 
 friends of the Serampore ilission. His great work, to which 
 the latter years of his fife were largely devoted, is his " Annals 
 of the EngHsh Bible," 2 vols.; London, 1845. 3Ir. Anderson is 
 also the author of a popular book on " The Domestic Constitu- 
 tion" (182G), a theme which he was eminently qualified to 
 discuss, both by his genial nature and severe domestic trials. — 
 (The Life and Letters of Christopher Anderson, by his Nephew, 
 Ed. 1854.)— J. A., L. 
 
 ANDERSON, Sir Edml'xd, a distinguished lawyer, bom at 
 Flixborough in Lincolnshire about 1450, or, according to some 
 authorities, 1531, of a family originally Scottish. Edmund 
 Anderson was educated at Oxford. After practising -n-ith suc- 
 cess at the bar, he was, in 1579, made serjeant-at-law to Queen 
 Elizabeth, and soon after justice of assize. In politics, deter- 
 mined to maintain the authority of the crown, and in rehgion, 
 that of the chmxh as by law established, he distinguished him- 
 self by his severe procedure against all malcontents and sectaries, 
 more particularly the Bro^Tiists, in the Norfolk circuit of 1581. 
 In 1582 he was appointed lord chief justice of the Common Pleas, 
 and the year after he was knighted. Anderson sat as presiding 
 or assisting judge in a number of important tri.als ; in that of 
 !Mary Queen of Scots, and in that of the secretary Davison, for 
 alleged rashness in proceeding with her execution ; in the earl of 
 Aiimdel's in 1589, in that of the earl of Essex in 1600, and in 
 Sir Walter Raleigh's in 1603. Though usually, as already men- 
 tioned, firm in his support of regal authority, more than one 
 instance can be mentioned in which Lord Chief Justice Anderson 
 opposed, with equal firmness, an illegal exercise of prerogative. 
 On the queen gi-anting letters patent to Mr. Cavendish, an agent 
 of the earl of Leicester, "for making out writs of supersedeas 
 upon exigents in the Court of Common Pleas," the lord chief 
 justice and his brethren refused a first and a second time to 
 admit Cavendish to the office, on the ground that the queen had 
 no right to grant such letters, and that compliance with them 
 would be contrary to their oaths. The queen found herself 
 obliged to yield. Sir Edmimd was also one of the judges who 
 signed a remonstnance " against the ai-bitrary proceedings of the 
 com-t, by which, at the command of a counsellor or nobleman, 
 subjects were frequently committed to prison, and detained with- 
 out good cause, and contrary to the laws of the realm." 
 
 Lord Chief Justice Anderson retained his office under James 
 I., and up till the time of his death in 1605. He is admitted 
 to have been an able jurist, who, though attached to precedent 
 and the letter of the law, could nevertheless, on occasion, exer- 
 cise an independent judgment ; and who, if in disposition the 
 reverse of clement, was nevertheless conscientious in his decisions. 
 He has left " Reports of Cases adjudged in the Courts of West- 
 minster in the latter end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth," 
 London, 1644, foUo. — (See Aikin's General Biography, and 
 Stn^pe's Annals.') — A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON or ANDERSEN, George, author of an "Ac-
 
 AXD 
 
 151 
 
 AND 
 
 count of Travels in the East, by George Anderson and Volg. 
 Iversen," was bom at Tonderen, in the duchy of Schleswig. 
 Between the years 1G44 and IGoO, he visited the Cape of 
 Good Hope, Java, Sumatra, Arabia, Persia, India, China, Japan, 
 TartaiT, Jlesopotamia, SjTia, and Palestine. He was a man of 
 no special cultivation, but endowed with a very tenacious me- 
 mory ; and entering, on his retiun home, into the service of the 
 duke of Holstein-Gottorp, he used to entertain that prince daily 
 with the narrative of his experiences. His book was published 
 at Sclileswig in 1669. He died about 1675. — A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, James, a Scotch genealogist, lived in the earlier 
 half of the eighteenth centmy, and was pastor of a presb)i:erian 
 chm'ch in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, London, and also chaplain 
 to a lodge of Freemasons. It was, doubtless, his holding the latter 
 office that led him to publish, in 1723, a book called "The Con- 
 stitutions of Freemasons." His genealogical works, which are the 
 result of some labour, but display little judgment, are — "Royal 
 Genealogies, or the Genealogical Tables of Emperors, Kings, and 
 Princes, from Adam to these times;" and "a Genealogical His- 
 toid of the House of Yvery," prepared and published at the ex- 
 pense of the earl of Egmont.^A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, Jajies, a Scottish archseologist of eminence, 
 was bom in 1662, and was the son of the Rev. Patrick Ander- 
 son, a clergyman who suffered persecution during the reign of 
 Charles II. After studying at the miiversity of Edinburgh, he 
 adopted the profession of winter to the signet, but the success 
 of a book which he published in 1705, induced him to turn his 
 energies into a different channel. The work refeiTed to was his 
 " Historical Essay, showing that the Crown and Ivingdom of 
 Scotland is imperial and independent," which was enthusiasti- 
 cally received, as a complete and successful refutation of the 
 work of William Atwood, "The Superiority and direct Dominion 
 of the imperial Crown and Kingdom of England over the Crown 
 and Kingdom of Scotland." Honoiu-ed with a vote of thanks by 
 the Scottish Parliament, and encoiu-agcd by promises of material 
 aid, he commenced the great work of his life — a collection of 
 fac-similes of ancient charters of tlie Scottish kings and nobles, 
 with their seals and coins. Pre^'iousl}' to the final dissolution of the 
 Scottish Parliament, a sum of money had been granted him for 
 canying on his expensive undertaking, but he had already greatly 
 exceeded it when the Union took place; and though he was re- 
 commended, by the afore-mentioned body, to the queen and to 
 the parliament of Great Britain, it was long before any sufiicient 
 attention was paid to his claims. The unfortmiate archroologist 
 was, meanwhile, obliged to subsist as well as he could on empty 
 promises and hope deferred. In 1715 he was made postmaster- 
 general for Scotland, with a salaiy of £200 a year, which, though 
 he held the office only for a year and a half, was continued till 
 his death in 1728 ; but his outlay on the undertaking into 
 which he bad launched at the recommendation of the legislature 
 of his countiy was never reimbursed. Such were his embarrass- 
 ments that he had even been compelled to pawn the plates of his 
 fac-similes, and had attempted to obtain subscribers for his work 
 at the ruinously low rate of two guineas per copy. According 
 to Wodrow the historian, he had completed his collections only 
 three or four days before his death. The work was edited in 
 1739 by the celebrated Thomas Ruddiman, and sold at from 
 ten to fifteen guineas per copy. It bears the title : — " Selectus 
 Diplomatum et Numismatum Scotiaj Thesam-us, in duas partes 
 distributus : Prior syllogen complectitur veterum Diplomatum 
 sive Chartanim Regum et Procenim Scotia;, una cum eoram 
 Sigillis, a Duncano II. ad Jacobum I., id est, ab anno 1094 ad 
 1412. Adjuncta sunt reliquorum Scotise et Magnse Britannia; 
 regum Sigilla, a pra;dicto Jacobi I. ad nuperam Duorum Reg- 
 norum in unum, anno 1707, Coalitionem ; item Charactercs 
 et Abbreviatura; in Antiquis Codicibus MSS. Instrumentisque 
 usitatae. Posterior continet Numismata, tarn aiu-ea quam ar- 
 gentea, singulomm Scotia; regum, ab Alexandro I. ad supra- 
 dictam Regnorum Coalitionem perpetua serie deducta; Subnexis 
 quaj reperiri poterant eorundem regum Symbolis Heroicis." In 
 the years 1724-1728, pending the completion and publiontinn of 
 his gi-eat work, Anderson gave to the world four quarto volumes 
 of "Collections relating to the History of Mary Queen of Scots," 
 a valuable series of docmnents, the tiiistwoithiness of which, 
 however, has been questioned. — A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, Jasies, an agi-icultural -s^Titcr, was bom at 
 Hei-miston, near Eilinburgh, in 1739. He was brought up 
 amidst fanning operations, and seems early to have imbibed a 
 
 taste for them ; but he prosecuted the study of chemistry and 
 other sciences at the same time that he was engaged in practical 
 agricultural work. He took a lease of a large extent of barren 
 ground at Monkshill, in Aberdeenshire, for the purpose of cany- 
 ing on his agricultiu-al improvements. In 1771 Mr. Anderson 
 commenced a series of essays on Planting, in the Edinburgh 
 Weekly Magazine, under the signature of Agricola, and he subse- 
 quently published them in a separate fonn. In 1 780 the uni- 
 versity of Aberdeen confeiTcd on him the degree of LL.D. He 
 settled aftenvards near Edinburgh, and took a deep interest in the 
 improvement of fisheries, on which he made a report to govern- 
 ment. His literary labours were continued in two periodicals, 
 one entitled " The Bee," and the other, " Recreations in Agricul- 
 ture." He died 16th October, 1808, at the age of 69.— J. H. B. 
 ANDERSON, James, physician-general to the anny of the 
 East India Company in Madras, distinguished himself towards 
 the close of the eighteenth centuiy by the energy and talent 
 with which he advocated the introduction of various new branches 
 of industry into British India. In 1787 he pubUshed at Madi-as 
 a volume of letters addressed to Sir Joseph Banks, treating 
 principally of an insect resembling the cochineal, which Dr. 
 Anderson had discovered at Madras, and which was considered 
 capable of producing a dye similar to that of the insect already 
 in use. Actual trial, however, con\dnced the experimenters that 
 the dye produced by the new insect was inferior to that of the 
 cochineal ; and a similar result was amved at in the case even of 
 cochineal insects brought from Brazil. Dr. Anderson did not 
 confine his attention to the cochineal cultm'e only, as appears 
 from the title of a book which he pubhshed in 1791, at Madras : 
 " Con-espondence for the introduction of Cochineal Insects from 
 America, the Vamish and Tallow trees from China, the discovery 
 and cultivation of white lac, the cultm-e of red lac, and also for 
 the introduction, ciiltivation, and establishment of mulberry 
 trees and silk-wonns, with a description and di-awing of an im- 
 proved Piedmontese reel for the manufacture of raw silk, to- 
 gether with the cultivation of the finest cinnamon trees of Ceylon, 
 indigo, &c." The culture of the mulbeny, reaiing of silk-wonns, 
 and manufacture of silk in British India, do not appear to have 
 met with much greater success than the introduction of the 
 cochineal, either because the method of procedure adopted was 
 incorrect, or for reasons connected with climate and soil. To Dr. 
 Anderson, however, belongs the merit, and it is no small one, of 
 haN-ing personally exerted himself, and of ha^-ing induced others, 
 to put these matters to the test. He discusses in his correspon- 
 dence the possibility of introducing into Hindostan various other 
 valuable natural products, such as American cotton, the cultiva- 
 tion of which in our East India possessions is exciting much in- 
 terest at the present time (1857). His other publications not 
 yet mentioned are : — " Miscellaneous Communications," Madras, 
 1795 ; "An Account of the Importation of American Cochineal 
 Insects into Hindostan," Madi-as, 1795, 8vo. ; " State of tlie Silk 
 Manufacture at Vellout and Panniwaddy," Madras, 1795 ; 
 " Commiinications from the 1st of October, until the 12th of 
 December, 1795: Letters, &c.," Madras, 1796, two scries; 
 " An Attempt to Discover such Minerals as Correspond with the 
 Classification of Cronstcdt, and thus lead to a more extensive 
 Knowledge of the Mineralogy of this Country" (Coromandel) ; 
 ThePhanix, 1797, pp. 14—17, 80—84, 116, 117; "Journal 
 of the Establishment of Napal and Tnna for the Prevention 
 and Cure of Scurvy, Dysentery, and Ulcers on Sliipboard and 
 Navigation ; of Famine on Shore," Madras, 1808. The precise 
 date of Dr. Anderson's death is not ascertained ; it was probably 
 about 1809.— A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, Joiiann, was born at Hamburg in 1674. He 
 was educated for the law at Halle, and took his doctor's degree 
 at Leyden in 1697. On his return to Hamburg he commenced 
 practising as an advocate, and his ability soon attracted atten- 
 tion and esteem. Ho filled various municipal offices of trast 
 and dignity; was made syndic in 1708; and in 1732 became 
 senior burgomaster of his native city, retaining the office till his 
 death in 1743. As syndic of Hanihurg, Johann Anderson dis- 
 tinguished himself by the ability with which he conducted the 
 foreign relations of the city ; and he acquired so liigh a reputa- 
 tion for statesmanship in North Gennany, that George I. of Eng- 
 land, and August Wilhelm, duke of Brunswick, both invited him 
 to enter their scr\'ice ; but he refused to leave that of his native 
 town. Besides being a skilful dijiliimatist and an able man of 
 business, Anderson possessed gi-eat general cultivation, was fond
 
 of scientific and literary pursuits, and had contracted relations of 
 friendship with Leeuwcnhock, Rdamur, Geoffroy, Jussieu, and 
 Fontenellc. He published nothing original during his lifetime, 
 though he edited Gerard Jlcyer's " Glossarium lingua veteris 
 Saxonicae," and left some valuable works in manuscript; among 
 others, a " Glossarium Teutonicum et Allemanicum." The book 
 by which he is best known appeared at Hamburg in 1746, and 
 was entitled " Herm Johann Anderson, J. U. I), und weyland 
 ersten Biirgcrmeister der freyen Kayserlichen Reichstadt Ham- 
 burg, Nachrichten von Griinland und der Strasse Davis, Zum 
 wahren Nutzen der Wissenschaft und der Handlung." This 
 " Infonnation about Greenland and the Strait Davis, for the 
 true advantage of Science and Commerce," he had obtained by 
 conversing with seafaring men who had visited these regions. 
 The book contains valuable notices of the Icelandic language, but 
 is now very rare. It is preceded by a life of the author. — A. M. 
 ANDKKSON, John, of Dowhill, Glasgow, a gentleman of 
 good family, who suffered severely dming the religious troubles 
 of the latter half of the seventeenth century, for his adherence 
 to the cause of the nonconforming party in the Scottish church. 
 The fiill of the Stuart family gave a favourable turn to his for- 
 tunes. We find him among the burgesses in that Convention of 
 Estates, held at Edinburgh, which offered the Scottish crown to 
 William and Mary ; and it was he who represented Glasgow in 
 the first parliament after the Revolution. He was also, subse- 
 quently to 1689, repeatedly provost of Glasgow. — A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, John, a presbyterian clerg}'man, eminent in 
 the eighteenth centmy as a controversialist. He was tutor to 
 the celebrated John, Duke of Argyll, and became minister of 
 Dumbarton, and afterwards of the North-West church, Glasgow. 
 His writings relate to the comparative merits of prelacy and 
 presbytery, and contain some valuable historical information. 
 The principal are : — " Dialogue between a Curat and a Coun- 
 treyman concerning the English Service, or Common Prayer 
 Book of England," Glasgow, 1710 or 1711, 4to. ; and "A De- 
 fence of the Church Government, Faith, Woiship, and Spirit of 
 the Presbyterians, in answer to a book entitled an ' Apology for 
 Mr. Thomas Rhind,'" 1714.— A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, John, A.M., F.R.SS. L. & E., was born at 
 Roseneath in Scotland, in the year 1726. Ha\-ing pursued an 
 extended course of general study in the university of Glasgow, 
 he was appointed in 1756 to the chair of Oriental languages. 
 Four years after, he obtained the professorship of natural philo- 
 sophy, a branch of study much more congenial to his taste and 
 acquirements. Being a man of enlightened and liberal views 
 regarding education, he determined to make the instruction of the 
 university available to a class which had hitherto been excluded 
 from the academic halls. Accordingly, besides the scientific and 
 mathematical course of physics, which he taught in all its vigour 
 and purity, he established a second of a more popular character, 
 to wliich he invited artisans and mechanics, and others, whom 
 the want of previous mathematical education unfitted for attend- 
 ing the fonnal university lectures. This practice he kept up till 
 the close of his life, and his lectures were attended by large 
 numbers of working men — thus forming the rudiments of the 
 first mechanics' institution. 
 
 Anderson was author of a work, " Institutes of Physics," wliich 
 was held in great estimation, and obtained a wide circulation. 
 He early directed his attention to experiments on projectiles, and 
 made some modifications on the construction of fire-arms. 
 
 Professor Anderson died in January, 1796, and bequeathed by 
 his will the whole of his library, philosophical museum and ap- 
 paratus, and all his efl'ects, as a foundation for an educational 
 institution, to be called Anderson's University. According to 
 the intention of the founder, it was to consist of four colleges, 
 viz., arts, medicine, law, and theology, with a suitable staft" of 
 professors in each. The funds proving inadequate to so exten- 
 sive a plan, the trustees commenced it partially ; and Dr. Gar- 
 nctt, the professor of chemistry and natural philosophy, and sub- 
 sequently Dr. Birkbeck, soon became the instructors of thousands 
 of mechanics. It was part of the plan, that, besides the scien- 
 tific courses, a class similar to that taught by Dr. Anderson him- 
 self should always be formed. Dr. Anderson was, therefore, the 
 first who founded an educational institution, one of the essential 
 elements of which was to throw open " the temple of science to 
 the hard-labouring artisan, and the hitherto despised mechanic." 
 The advantages of such wnirses of lectures being so obvious, they 
 are still crowded by the working men of Glasgow. The plan of 
 
 the founder has been carried out fully with regard to two of the 
 colleges — arts and medicine. Regular courses by teachers of 
 acknowledged merit are given in mathematics, natural philoso- 
 phy, and the modern languages. The medical department, how- 
 ever, has most fully come up to the intentions of the founder. 
 The medical school of Anderson's University is one of the ac- 
 knowledged medical institutions of the coimtiy ; and from the 
 eminence of the professors, many of whom have subsequently 
 obtained positions of gi'cat importance in the countiy, together 
 witli the valuable character of the instniction to be obtained in 
 the Royal Infinnary, gi-eat numbers of students come from all 
 parts of the kingdom to receive their medical education at this 
 school. Besides his work on physics. Professor Anderson was 
 the author of several papers on general subjects, and principally 
 on the Roman antiquities of Britain. — G. B. 
 
 ANDERSON, John, an English physician, who practised at 
 Kingston near London ; died in 1804. He has left " Dissertatio 
 de Scorbuto, Edinburgi, 1771, 4to ;" and " Medical Remarks on 
 Natural, Spontaneous, and Artificial Evacuation." 
 
 ANDERSON, John, a Scotchman, son of David Anderson 
 of Portland, N.B., who, having settled at Glasgow in 1784, 
 acquired a sum of about £500 by his own industry, and then 
 went to Ireland. He fixed his abode in Cork, where he became 
 an export merchant, and soon realised £25,000, which he laid 
 out in the pm'chase of four-sixths of the Fermoy estate, including 
 the little town of that name, then in a state of ruin. This he 
 soon raised to the condition of a thriving town, by extensive and 
 judicious buildings. When the French fleet came into Bantry 
 Bay, government was unable to procm'e land for encamping the 
 troops in the south of Ireland, unless on the most extravagant 
 temis. Lord Carhampton, commander of the forces, stated the 
 difficulties to Mr. Anderson, who at once removed them by giving 
 land on his Fermoy estate, without any charge for the required 
 encampment. He subsequently induced the government in 1797 
 to erect two large and handsome barracks there, by giving the 
 site rent-free. He estabhshed a mail-coach company, and set up 
 the first public coach between Cork and Dubhn. He also founded 
 an agiicultural society, and built a school-house and mihtary 
 college. He soon became highly popular with all classes, and 
 his manners, which were agreeable and even polished, gave him 
 access to the highest circles of society. Though he took no part 
 in politics, the government so highly appreciated his great public 
 services, that they ofiered him a baronetcy, which he declined 
 for himself, but accepted for his son. Mv. Anderson, however, 
 unfortunately extended his operations too wdely : he embarked 
 largely in purchasing lands, the value of which fell greatly upon 
 the close of the war : in mining, too, he was deeply involved, 
 and lost considerably ; and finally, the change of the Irish cur- 
 rency affected his banking operations so severely, that his career 
 of usefulness was arrested in 1816, to the extreme regret of the 
 whole country, the esteem and gratitude of which he never for- 
 feited or lost. Mr. Anderson died in the year 1820 ; but the 
 good which he did remains behind him, and the town of Fermoy 
 is a noble monument of what can be accomplished by one man 
 possessing energy and talent. — J. F. W. 
 
 ANDERSON, John, a Scotch surgeon, who wrote " Histo- 
 rical and Genealogical ^lemoirs of the House of Hamilton," 
 pubhshed at Edinburgh, 1825, 8vo. He was born in Mid- 
 Lothian in 1789, and died in 1832. 
 
 ANDERSON, Patrick, a Scottish Jesuit, bom at Elgin in 
 1575 ; studied at Rome, came back to Scotland in 1620, 
 suffered imprisonment, and retired to London, where he died in 
 1623. He wrote some popular theological works. 
 
 ANDERSON, Patrick, a Scotch physician of the seven- 
 teenth century, whose piUs at one time enjoyed a gi'eat reputa- 
 tion. He treats of their properties in a small volume, now ex- 
 tremely rare, called " Grana angelica hoc est, pilulanun hujus 
 nominis utilitas," Edinburgh, 1635, 12mo. 
 
 ANDERSON, Robert, bom in Lanarkshire in 1750, aban- 
 doned successively the professions of theology and medicine, and 
 gave himself up to that of literature. The period of his princi- 
 pal activity was from 1792 to 1807, between which dates he 
 published, at Edinburgh, his edition of the " British Poets," in 
 fourteen volumes, with meritorious biograjihical and critical 
 notices. He also published separately the lives of Johnson and 
 SmoUet. In 1820, Anderson edited the works of Dr. John 
 Moore, and furnished them with a " Memoir of his Life and 
 Writings." He died at Edinburgh in 1830. — A. M.
 
 ANDERSON, Robert, 9 wiiter of verses, chiefly in the 
 Cumberland dialect, was bom at Carlisle in 1770. His parents 
 being extremely poor, he received a very defective education at 
 a charity school, from which he was removed at the age of ten, 
 and apprenticed to the business of pattern-drawing. The 
 greater part of his term of apprenticeship was spent in London. 
 Going one evening to Vauxhall, the songs which he heard so 
 disgusted him that he resolved to try if he could not vrrite 
 better himself. By next morning he had produced a ballad 
 called " Lucy Gray," which, with some others, he offered at 
 Vauxhall. They were accepted, and had a temporary popu- 
 larity. Returning to his native to-siTi in 179 G, he cultivated his 
 talent for versifying; and various fugitive pieces of his, which 
 appeared from time to time in the newspapers, attracted con- 
 siderable attention, particularly his poem of " Betty Brown." 
 These he, in 1805, collected into a volume, which, under the 
 title of " Ballads in the Cumberland Dialect," passed through 
 several editions. In 1820, Anderson's collected works were 
 published at Carlisle in two volumes, accompanied by an auto- 
 biography of the poet, and an " Essay on the character and 
 manners of the peasantry of Cumberland," written by Mr. San- 
 derson, a friend of the author. Robert Anderson died in 1833. 
 The popularity of his writings had brought him little pecuniai"y 
 profit; and towards the close of his life he lived on the benevo- 
 lence of friends. His poems, which still enjoy some reputation 
 in his native district, are characterized by homely ^agour and 
 coarse hmnom*, suitable to their subjects and to those to whom 
 they were principally addressed.— A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, Robert, bom 1793, respected for his piety, 
 pastoral zeal, and earnest pulpit ministrations, became, in 1826, 
 inciunbent of Trinity chapel, Brighton, where he continued till 
 his death in 1853. He was the author of several works, of 
 which the chief are — "A Practical Exposition of St. Paul's 
 Epistle to the Romans," "The Book of Common Prayer, a 
 Manual of Christian Fellowship," " Discourses on the Lord's 
 Prayer," &c., &c.— J. B., 0. 
 
 ANDERSON, Thomas, a Scotch surgeon, who practised at 
 Leith ; author, among other writings, of a paper published in 
 volume ii. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinbui-gh 
 in 1790, entitled " Pathological Observations on the Brain," and 
 devoted to the demonstration of these two theses : 1. When one 
 side of the brain is affected, it produces its effects on the opposite 
 side of the body. 2. Wien both sides are affected, the whole 
 body suffers. — A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, Walter, a Scotch historical writer, fifty years 
 minister of Chirnside in Berwickshhe. He is author of a " His- 
 toiy of Croesus, king of Lydia," in which he discusses the question 
 of the inspiration of the ancient oracles ; also, of a " Histoiy of 
 France," do\vn to the peace of Munster, publishedui 1769-75-83, 
 a work of no great value ; and of " The Philosophy of Ancient 
 Greece investigated in its Origin and Progress," published in 
 1791 ; superior to his other works, but now superseded. — A. M. 
 
 ANDERSON, Williaji, naturalist ; sui'geon on board the 
 Jtesolution in Cook's second voyage roimd the world in 1772-5. 
 The 66th volume of the Philosopliical Transactions contains a 
 paper entitled — " An Account of some Poisonous Fish in the 
 South Seas, in a letter to Sir James Pringle, Bart., F.R.S., from 
 Mr. WilUam Anderson, late Surgeon's Mate on board bis JIajesty's 
 Ship the Resolution, now Surgeon of that Ship." Vol. 68 of the 
 Philosophical Transactions contains another paper by the same 
 author ; and there is now in the British Museum a work of his 
 in manuscript, wliich gives descriptions of new animals and 
 plants whicli he had seen during his voyages. Anderson died 
 on board the Resolution during Cook's last voyage. — A. ]\L 
 
 ANDERSON, William, curator of the botanic garden at 
 Chelsea, was the son of a respectable gardener, who prosecuted 
 his avocation first in the Highlands of Scotland, and subse- 
 quently in the neighbourhood of ]'^.dinburgh. He followed his 
 father's profession, and, after being employed in nurseries near 
 Edinburgh and London, was in 1815 appointed by the Society 
 of Apothecaries superintendent of the garden at Chelsea. He 
 made great improvements in the garden, and placed it in a 
 tluTOng condition. This situation he filled for nearly thirty- 
 two years. He was elected a Fellow of the Linna;an Society in 
 1815. He wrote several valuable horticultural papers, which 
 were published in the Gardener's Magazine and the Transactions 
 of the Horticultural Society. He died 6th October, 1846, at 
 an age approaching 80. — J. H. B. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 * ANDERSON, William, LL.D., was bom in the year 1799 
 at Kdlsvth, Stirlingshire, where his father, the Rev. John Ander- 
 son, is still United Presbyterian minister, and, though upwards 
 of eighty-six years of age, continues to discharge a great part of 
 pastoral duty (1857). Dr. Anderson studied at the imiversity of 
 Glasgow, and won high honour in many of liis classes. During 
 his student course, he was well acquainted with Chalmers and 
 Ir\-ing, from the latter of whom, specially, he has imbibed much 
 of that peculiar fen'ovu- and enthusiasm for which he is so dis- 
 tinguished. 'Wlien only twenty-two years of age, he was or- 
 dained as minister of John-Street church, Glasgow, where he 
 has since continued to labour, and during a period of thirty-five 
 years has been known throughout Scotland as one of the most 
 original and earnest preachers of the day. Perhaps, however, 
 liis fiime has been greater on the platform and in the lecture- 
 hall than in the pulpit. He has ever stood forward as the 
 champion of ci\-il and religious freedom, and has endured mnch 
 opprobrium for his bold denunciation of the tyrannies of Europe, 
 and his warm eulogiums on such men as Kossuth and Joseph 
 Mazzini. He has delivered and published courses of lectures 
 on " The Mass," " Penance," and " The Genius of Popery," 
 which are distinguished from the common attacks on the chm-ch 
 of Rome, by their candom- and breadth of Christian sympathy. 
 His other works are a volume of " Discourses," and a course of 
 lectures on " Regeneration." He has also written " A defence 
 of the Organ," for the introduction of which into presbyterian 
 worship he is a warm pleader. Dr. Anderson's whole writings 
 are peiwaded with an earnest declaration of his belief in the 
 pre-millennial advent, to which alone he looks with hope for the 
 removal of the disorders of the world. For a fair estimate of 
 his powers, the reader is refen-ed to Jlr. Gilfillan's " Second 
 Gallerv of Literarv Portraits."' — J. B. 
 
 ANDERSON-TORRY, Thomas Gordox, author of the 
 words and music of " The Araby Jlaid" and other songs, was 
 the youngest son of Patrick Tony, D.D., bishop of St. Andrews, 
 Dunkeld, and Dunblane. He was bom at Peterhead, 9th Jidy, 
 1805, was educated at Marischal college, Aberdeen, and the 
 university of Edinburgh, and became incumbent of St. Paul's, 
 episcopal church, Dundee. Died at Aberdeen, 1856. — C. R. 
 
 ANDERTON, Henry, an English painter of the seventeenth 
 centuiy, the pupil of Robert Streater, and to some extent the 
 rival of Sk Peter Lely. Charles II. and the leading members 
 of his court sat to Anderton. Besides portraits, he also painted 
 landscapes and still-life pictures. See " The Art of Painting, 
 &c., from the French of M. de Piles," London, 1706.— A. M. 
 
 ANDERTON, James, of Lostock in Lancashire, the probable 
 author of a remarkable controversial work in favour of Roman 
 Catholicism, Hved about the commencement of the seventeenth 
 century. The work in question — " The Protestant's Apologie 
 for the Roman Church" — as well as others from the same pen, 
 purported to be written by one " John Brerely, priest ; " but the 
 real name of this individual is involved in much obscurity. It 
 seems most probable that John Brerely was identical -n-ith James, 
 younger brother of Roger Anderton of Birchley in Lancashire, 
 who died in 1610. The writer of the " Protestant's Apologie" 
 proceeds upon the principle of justifying each separate tenet of 
 the Roman catholic church by passages quoted from protestant 
 writers. The work passed through three editions, and was ad- 
 mitted, even by the opposite party, to be weighty and important. 
 Brerely's other writings are — " A Treatise of the Liturgy of the 
 Mass, concerning the Sacrifice, Real Presence, and Service in 
 Latin," Cologne, 1620, 4to; "St. Austin's Religion," 1620, 
 8vo; and " The Reformed Protestant," mentioned by Gee in his 
 " Foot out of the Snare." — A. M. 
 
 ANDERTON, Laurence, descended from a protestant family 
 of Lancashire, and educated in the protestant faith, became a 
 catholic and Jesuit. In his j'outh, at Christ's college, Cam- 
 bridge, he is said by Anthony-a-Wood to have received the epi- 
 thet of " golden- mouthed," on account of his eloquence. His 
 works are — " The Progeny of Catholics and Protestants," Rouen, 
 1634, 8vo; "The Triple "Cord," Saint Omer, 1634, 8vo; " One 
 God — One Faith," 8vo.— A. M. 
 
 ANDIER, engraver. See Des Roches. 
 
 AN D JOU, Fakr - Eddin - Hassan - ben - Djemal-Edpin- 
 HossEiN, a learned Persian, who lived at the court of the Sul- 
 tans Akbar and Djihanguir. He was one of the principal authors 
 of the gi-eat Persian dictionaiy called " Ferlienki Djihanguiri," 
 begiui under Akbar, and completed under Djihanguir in 1609. 
 
 U
 
 AND 
 
 154 
 
 AKD 
 
 AXDLO or ANDLAU, AXDELO or ANDELOW, Herman 
 Petek vox, author of a juristic treatise on the Gei-man empire, 
 was descended of an Italian family settled in Alsatia. Little is 
 known about his life. His work is interesting as presenting the 
 earliest systematic exposition of the public law of Germany. It 
 was composed probably about the year IIGO, and was published 
 at Stnasburg in 1G03 and 1G12 in 4to, under the title— "De 
 Imperio Romano, regis et augusti creatione, inauguratione, ad- 
 niinistratione et officio, juribus, ritibus et cercmoniis electorum, 
 oliisque imperii pwtibus." — A. M. 
 
 AXDO'CIDES, an Attic orator, was bom at Athens in 4G7 
 B.C. His father, Leogoras, was a man of luxurious and de- 
 praved tastes, which his son showed no backwardness in imbib- 
 ing. Being descended of a high family, he naturally sided wiili 
 the olig.irchical faction in Athens, and through them obtained 
 several important commissions in the sei-vice of the state. He 
 comes veiy prominently forward in history, during the period in 
 which informers were at a premium in Athens, ii; reference to 
 the mutilation of the Henna;. These handless statues, which 
 stood in all parts of the city, were found one mornmg all slashed 
 in various parts, with the exception of a few, among which was 
 one near the house of Andocides. The Athenians were exceed- 
 ingly anxious to discover the perpetrators of this deed, as they 
 believed a conspiracy lay at the bottom of it. Andocides was 
 supposed to be imjjlicated, and escaped only by hifonning against 
 four of the ringleaders. He most probably mentioned a good 
 number of others, and among them his father, as his defence 
 of himself agamst this report in a speech subsequently delivered 
 " On the Mysteries," is not very satisfactoiy. As Andocides 
 could not clear himself of guilt, he had to leave Athens ; and 
 the rest of his life was spent in wanderings. Again and again 
 he returned to his native city ; at one time was allowed to remain 
 there for six years, but at last died in exile — a punishment to 
 which he had been condemned four times. He did not suffer 
 more than he deserved, for he seems to have been a thoroughly 
 bad man. Three speeches of his remain, and another has been 
 sometimes attributed to him, though it is not now generally 
 regarded as his pi-oduction. They make no pretensions to 
 impassioned eloquence or elevated sentiment, but are plain, 
 distinct, business-like exhibitions of the case in hand, and are 
 important as historical documents. — J. D. 
 
 ANDOQUE, Pierre, a French antiquary of the sixteenth 
 century, author of " Histoire du Languedoc, avec I'etat des pro- 
 vinces voisines," Beziers, 1648, fol. The accuracy of this work 
 has been called in question. 
 
 ANDRADA or ANDRADE, Alfonso d', a Spanish Jesuit, 
 and rector of his order; born at Toledo in 1590, died at Madrid 
 in 10.58. He is author of a great many religious works. 
 
 ANDRADA, Antonio d', a Portuguese Jesuit, was bom at 
 Villa de Oleiros in 1580. He spent the greater part of his life 
 as a missionary in India. He made two expeditions into Thibet, 
 a coimtry then luiknown to Europeans, and on his return to 
 Goa he died suddenly in A.u. iC33. 
 
 ANDRADA, Diego Lopez d', a celebrated Portuguese 
 preacher, born 15C9 ; died 1G35. His sermons and treatises 
 were published at Madrid in 3 vols. fol. in 1G5G. 
 
 ANDR.VDA, Diego de Payva, a Portuguese theologian, 
 author of several controversial works. Born 1528 ; died 1575. 
 
 ANDRADA, Diego de Payva, nephew of the above, author 
 of "Exame d'Antiguidades," Lisbon, 1616, a critical examina- 
 tion of the Monarchia Lusitana of Brito Bernardo ; also of 
 "Casamento Perfecto," Lisbon, 1630. 
 
 ANDR.VDA or ANDRADE, Fernax Perez d', sumamcd 
 " Bo " (Gallician for " the Good,") was the friend of Henry, 
 count of Trastamara, afterwards Henry II.. king of Castile and 
 Leon. The ruins of the castle of Andrada still form an impos- 
 ing feature in the landscape to the east of Pucnte de Eume. 
 The magnificent bridge built across the river Eume in 1382-88, 
 by the same nobleman, has fifty-eight arches, and is tlu-ee thou- 
 sand and forty-five Spanish feet in length. — A. M. 
 
 ANDRADA, Fernao Perez d', a distinguished Portuguese 
 voyager of the earlier half of the sixteenth century, the 
 companion of Francisco d" Almeida and of Albuquerque, under 
 the latter of whom he fought in the sieges of Goa, and in the 
 expedition against Malacca in 1511. Having returned to Por- 
 tugal, Andrada was intmsted by King JIanoel with the com- 
 mand of a mission to China, which he reached in 1517, being 
 the first to open commercial intcrcom-se with that country by 
 
 way of the Cape of Good Hope. He ended his life in his native 
 countiy, after a third voyage to the Portuguese possessions in 
 India, but the precise date of bis death is not known. — A. M. 
 
 ANDRADA, Francisco, a Portuguese poet, brother of Diego 
 Payva, and author of " primeu-o cerco de Diu" (The first 
 siege of Diu), Lisbon, 1589, and of a chronicle of the life of 
 Jolm III. of Portugal, written by order of Philip III., published 
 at Lisbon in 1613. 
 
 ANDRADA or ANDRADE, Francisco Eades d', a meri- 
 torious Sjjanish historical writer of the sixteenth centmy. He 
 was prior to the Benedictine convent of Jaen, and chaplain and 
 almoner to Philip II. Andrada's principal work, which is still 
 held in esteem, is his " Coronica de los tres ordenes, y cabaUerias 
 de Santiago, Calatrava, y Alcantara," fol., Toledo, 1572 — a his- 
 tory of the three Spanish orders of chivalry. Andrada himself 
 belonged to the order of Calatrava, and wrote " Catalog© de las 
 obligaciones que los Caballeros, Comendadores, Priores y otros 
 Religiosos de lo Orden de la Caballeria de Calatrava tienen en 
 Razon de suHabito y Profesion," 1 vol. 8vo, Toledo, 1571. — A.M. 
 
 ANDRADA or ANDRADE, Jacinto Freyre d', an emi- 
 nent Portuguese author in prose and verse, was born of noble 
 parents at Beja, in Alentejo, in 1597. Devoting himself to an 
 ecclesiastical career, he repaired, after completing his education 
 and taking the degree of bachelor of canonical law at Coimbra, 
 to Madrid, where he was favourably received at the court of 
 Philip IV. of Spain, and had the rich abbey of Santa Maria das 
 Chas confen-ed upon him. Portugal, however, bemg at that 
 time subject to the crown of Spain, Andrada, who cherished a 
 patriotic attachment to the house of Braganza, became by-and- 
 by an object of suspicion, and retired to his abbey of Chas, where 
 he lived till John of Braganza seated himself on the Portuguese 
 throne in 1610, under the title of Joao IV. This monarch gave 
 Andrada high proofs of his esteem, maldng him tutor to the 
 young prince, Don Theodosio, and offering him the bishopric of 
 Viseu, a dignity which he could not be prevailed on to accept. 
 His caustic wit latterly brought him into disfavour at comi;. 
 Andrada died at Lisbon in 1657. His most remarkable pro- 
 duction is his life of John de Castro (Vida de Dom Joao de 
 Castro), fomth viceroy of Portuguese India, which appeared in 
 1651, passed through two editions the same year, and became 
 one of the classical works in Portuguese literature. Ferdinand 
 Denis, author of " Resume de I'Histoire Litteraire du Portugal et 
 du Bresil," and of the article on Jacinto de Andrada in the Nouvelle 
 Biographie Universelle, is enthusiastic in his commendation of 
 this work. It has been frequently reprinted. The latest Por- 
 tuguese edition is that published at Lisbon in 1835, under the 
 auspices of the Royal Academy of Sciences, with notes and 
 original documents. A copy of this edition was published at 
 Paris in 1837 by Aime Andre. There exists an EngUsh trans- 
 lation of the Vida de Dom Joao de Castro, executed by Hemy 
 Herringman in the seventeenth century. Andrada had written 
 a great deal in verse, but most of his poems are said to have 
 perished accidentally by fire. Those which remain are to be 
 fomid in the poeticas dos collection, entitled " FenLx renascida, 
 ou Obras melhores engenhos Portugueses," Lisbon, 17-16, 
 (second edition.) — B. D. Soc. Use/. Knoio. — A. M. 
 
 ANDRADA, Miguel Leitam d', was born in 1555 at Villa 
 de Pedrogao in Portugal, and accompanied the king, Sebastian, 
 on his disastrous expedition to Africa, of which he has written 
 the history. 
 
 ANDRADA, Pedro Fernandez d', a writer on militaiy 
 affairs, lived at Seville about a.d. 1600. 
 
 ANDRADA, Paolo Gonzalez d', one of the most eminent 
 poets of Portugal, flourished in the 17th century. 
 
 ANDRADA Y SYLVA, Bonifacio Joze d', a Brazilian 
 mineralogist and statesman, generally recognized as the founder 
 of the independence of his native country, was bom at Villa da 
 Santos in 1765. He studied first in Brazil, then at Coimbra in 
 Portugal, where his talents attracted so great attention, that at 
 the ago of twenty-five he was appointed travelling naturalist to 
 government. In this capacity he visited the greater part of 
 Europe, insjjecting the principal mining establishments, and 
 perfecting himself under the tuition of Lavoisier, Fourcroy, 
 Jussieu, Haliy, Wcmer, and Volta. On this journey he became 
 intimately acquainted with the great Humboldt. On returning 
 from this expedition he was appointed professor of mineralogy 
 and geognosy at Lisbon, and inspector-general of mines in Por- 
 tugal. During the French invasion he commanded a regiment
 
 of volunteers, formed from amongst the students of Coimbra. 
 After the expulsion of the enemy he retumed to Jiis scientific 
 •pursuits, and in 1812 was elected secretaiy to the academy of 
 Lisbon. In 1819, however, he quitted Portugal and retm-ned 
 to his native countiy, where he soon took an important part in 
 public affau-s. The Portuguese government having issued orders 
 to cancel the constitution of Brazil, and to recall I)om Pedro the 
 regent, a junto was formed at San Paolo for the purpose of 
 resistance. ^Vndrada presented a remonstrance on their behalf 
 to the regent, which, backed by the energetic demonstrations of 
 the inhabitants of Eio de Janeu'O and of Jlinas, proved success- 
 ful. The independence of Brazil was finally proclaimed in 1822. 
 After holding the office of minister of foreign aflairs, he was 
 banished to France, where he amused himself with poetry. In 
 1829 he was recalled, became reconciled to the Emperor Pedro, 
 and spent the rest of his days in peaceful retii'ement. He died 
 at Nictheroy in 1838.— J. Vv. S. 
 
 ANDEAGATHIUS, a Roman general, who served in Gaul 
 under the Emperor Slaximus, a.d. 383. 
 
 * ANDRAL, Gabriel, an eminent French physician, was born 
 at Paris in 1797. He rose to distinction at an early age, and 
 in 1839 he succeeded Broussais as professor of pathology to the 
 medical faculty at Paris. He has published several works on 
 morbid anatomy, auscultation, &c., and some important re- 
 ■arches on the chemistiy of the blood, in conjunction with J. 
 '. .ouis Gavarret, author of " General Principles of iledical Sta- 
 
 1131108."—^. B. 
 
 ANDRASSY, a noble family of Hungary, two members of 
 "■ hich, Julius and llano, seiTed with distinction in the national 
 innies in 1848. 
 
 ANDRE' L'ABBi;, a theological author of Marseilles, and 
 .i'lrarian to the chancellor D'Aguesseau, lived in the latter pai't 
 f the last centuiy. 
 
 ANDRE' d'Akbelles, a political writer of France, bom in 
 1770 ; also known as A. de Moxtluel. Died in 1825. 
 
 ANDRE', Chari.es, a barber of Paris, to whom the author- 
 liip of DampieiTe's tragedy on the earthquake of Lisbon has 
 . '--en falsely ascribed. 
 
 ANDRE', Christian ILvrl, an educational writer of Ger- 
 many, was bom in 1763 at Hildburgshausen, conducted several 
 ■ hools in Schnepfenthal, Gotha, and Bruenn, and died at Stutt- 
 ,ard in 1831. 
 
 ANDRE', Du Bois or Sylvius, lived near Arras in the twelfth 
 centuiy, and wrote a chronicle of the kings of France. 
 
 ANDRE', Emil, a German arboriculturist, born at Schnep- 
 fenthal in 1790, wrote on the management of forests. 
 
 ANDRE', Fr.\^'90IS, or SAINT ANDRE', a French medical 
 writer who Uved at the close of the 17th and the beginning of 
 the 18th centmies, and became physician to Louis XIV. 
 
 ANDRE', HiiLiE, a grammarian of Bom-dcaux, who lived in the 
 16th centuiy, and published a translation of the odes of Anacreon. 
 
 ANDRE', JoHANN, an accomplished musician, and the 
 founder of the eminent firm of music-publishers in Offenbach, at 
 which city he was bom in 1741. His family had an extensive 
 silk factoiy in this place, and designing that he should follow 
 the same trade, they discouraged his early predilection for music. 
 When he was twelve years old, a young friend of his who went 
 periodically to Frankfort to take lessons on the violin, repeated 
 these to Andre on liis return. He had not even this poor ad- 
 vantage in his study of the harpsichord and of composition, in 
 wliich he was left entirely to his own resources. In 1760, dur- 
 ing a visit to Frankfort, he was so charmed by the performances 
 of the Italian and French opera companies he heard there, that, 
 ha\ing had already some practice in vocal writing, he composed 
 an opera, which was produced with such success, that it was 
 veiy shortly followed by another ; and this being equally fortu- 
 nate, he was invited to Berlin, where he not only reproduced 
 these, but also wrote several more. Here he pursued his theo- 
 retical studies under the celebrated Marpurg. Besides being a 
 successful composer, he is spoken of as a good pianist. Ho is 
 said to have been an intimate friend of Mozart, but I can find 
 no mention of him in any biography of this master to which I 
 have access, and his fifteen years' greater age, and his habitual 
 residence in difterent j)arts of Germany from those where Mozart 
 chiefly lived, renders the close uitimacy of these two somewhat 
 doubtful. He had three sons, the youngest of whom, Anton, 
 succeeded him in the music warehouse of Offenbach. lie 
 died in 1799.— G. A. M. 
 
 ANDRE', J. Anton, youngest son of Johann Andi-e, and his 
 successor m the music warehouse in Offenbach, was bom in 1775. 
 He evinced veiy early a great talent for composition, as is proved 
 by his first publication, a " Set of Sis Minuets for FuU Orchestra," 
 which appeared when he was but thirteen years of age. He 
 wrote very voluminously, and his music is of an earnest and 
 genuinely artistic character, displaj-ing contrapuntal fluency, and 
 a command of technical resources that exceed the originality 
 and power of invention it CNinces, but never devoid of grace, 
 if sometimes deficient in freshness. An admirable specimen 
 of his abOity is his Mass in E flat ; but the most popular of all 
 his works appears to be his setting of the whole of Biirger's 
 wonderfully suggestive and characteristic ballad of Lenore, I 
 believe for a single voice, which is a general favourite throughout 
 Geraiany. His "School of Composition," in four volumes, is 
 a work very greatly esteemed. He held the appointment of 
 kapellmeister to the grand-duke of Hesse. In 1802 he in- 
 vented, or at least was the first to make use of, a method of 
 musical lithography, which, at the time, had gi-eat success. He 
 is most generally known for his publication of many posthumous 
 works of Mozart, which he obtained by purchase from Herr von 
 Nissen, the second husband of the composer's widow. The 
 musical sldll of Andre is a valuable guarantee to the world of 
 the authenticity of these publications, since all are ■n-illing to 
 receive, on the authority of such an artist, what many might 
 have been disposed to question on the mere dictum of a trades- 
 man ; but we owe no less to his entei-prising spirit in this latter 
 capacity, than to his judgment in the fonner, the possession of 
 many most uiteresting reUcs of the great master. He died in 
 the year 1842.— G. A. M. 
 
 ANDRE', John, an English military officer, was bora in Lon- 
 don in 1751. He was at first destmedfor commercial pm-suits, 
 but soon gave up this view and joined the army. In 1775 he 
 was taken prisoner at the surrender of St. John's in America. 
 On his release, he rapidly rose to the post of adjutant-general to 
 Sir H. Clinton, who then commanded the British forces. The 
 American general, Aniold, being disgusted with his associates, 
 wished to go over to the Royalist party, and to betray the forts 
 and stores in his hands to the British. Andre was appointed by 
 Clinton to make the necessary an-angements with Arnold, and 
 for that pui-pose visited the American camp in disguise. On his 
 retm-n, while already within sight of the British lines, he was 
 seized by three Americans, and his presence of mind for a mo- 
 ment forsaking him, he neglected to produce the safe-conduct 
 fm-nished him by Arnold. Their suspicions were roused, the 
 unfortunate officer was searched, and the plans and despatches 
 concealed about his person bemg found, he was sent as a pri- 
 soner to the American head-quarters. A council of war sentenced 
 him to be hanged as a spy, which was accordingly done on the 
 2nd of October, 1780, at Tappan, in the State of New York. 
 His fate, though in accordance with the laws of war, excited 
 the sympathy even of the Americans. In addition to the military 
 talents which had won for bun so early promotion, this young 
 officer possessed considerable merit as an artist. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANDRE' OF LoNGJUMEAU, a Dominican monk, who lived in 
 the 13th centuiy, and who was sent by Louis IX. of France on <v 
 diplomatic mission to the khan of the Tartars. 
 
 ANDRE', Rudolph, an agriculturist of Gotha in Germany, 
 who was bom in 1792, tumed his attention to the improvement 
 of the breed of sheep, and died in 1825. 
 
 ANDRE' DE Saint Nicolas, a Cannelite monk of Lon-aine, 
 born in 1650. 
 
 ANDRE', Yves Marie, bora at Chateaulin in Brittany, 
 22nd JLay, 1675 ; died 26th February, 1764. The life, charac- 
 ter, and writings of Andre are sufficiently remarkable to secure 
 him a pemianent place in the history of religion, hterature, and 
 philosophy in France. • His chief works have been published 
 recently, with an introduction by Cousin, in the Librarie of 
 Charpcntier. Endowed with a spirit eminently religious, his 
 earMer predilections were towards the church, and he resolved 
 to enter the powerful " Society of Jesus." Disregarding the 
 wamings of his friends and relatives, who discovered an utter 
 incompatibility between the moral independence of the young 
 Andre and the stem ordinances of the Jesuits, he followed the 
 dictate of inclination, and so prepared tlie way for conflicts and 
 misery during the gi-eatcr part of his life. In an hour evil for 
 his temporary peace, he learned wisdom from Descartes, and 
 noiu-ished a personal attraction towards Malebranche which no
 
 circumstances could shake. Although promoted by the Superiors 
 of his Society, — who have ever known that flattery is a more 
 certain salvation against heresy than violence — Andre retained 
 altliough he did not feel it necessary to avow his convictions ; 
 only remaining suspiciously passive during that Anti-Cartesian 
 war, of which in Jesuit language the issue umst be, the destruc- 
 tion of Descartes, or the ruin of religion, of the society, and the 
 church. Suspected of tlie authorship of a pamphlet reflecting 
 on the conduct of his order, Andre's papers were searched, and 
 to the horror of his superiors, they found among them the WSS. 
 of an admiring Ufe of Malebrauche. Andre was sent to the 
 Bastile, — flattery having quite failed. Unliappily force succeeded, 
 for the rebellious father made every submission to his superiors. 
 The days of Jesuit ascendancy, however, were happily nmnbered ; 
 and Andre passed the latter years of his long life in contempla- 
 tion and peace. He wrote much. Chiefly distinguished by his 
 treatise on the Beautiful, he has left many other \mtings re- 
 plete with interest. See, as above, the volume edited by Cousin. 
 Persecution had not taught him intolerance. He was one of the 
 eai-liest in France who succeeded in penetrating to the root of 
 our reciprocal obUgations. His opinions were for the most part 
 those of Ms friend Malebranche. He did not appreciate Bacon, 
 he disliked Ixicke, and he wholly undei-valued Spinoza. Still, his 
 writings will always be read by students of the liistory of philo- 
 sophy : they throw no slight light, also, on the condition, at that 
 epocli, of thought and morahty m France. — J. P. N. 
 
 ANDREA, Alessandro d', an Italian litterateur, bom at 
 Barletta In Naples in 1519, author of a historical work en- 
 titled " Delia GueiTa di Compagna di Eoma e del reguo di Napoli 
 nel Pontificato di Pa;lo IV., I'anno 1556 et 1557." 
 
 ANDREA OF Cyuene, the leader of a Jewish revolt in the 
 second centuiy, who, after committing frightful atrocities, was 
 defeated by Jlartius Turbo. 
 
 ANDREA DA PISA or ANDREA PISANO, one of the 
 greatest amongst the early ItaUan sculptors and architects, was 
 bom at Pisa in 1270. Having, by the study of nature and 
 through the example of the antique, freed himself from the for- 
 mal German influence which had crept into the school of Nicola 
 and Giovanni Pisaiii, Andrea rose to so great a fame that the 
 Florentines invited him to their city to carry out the designs of 
 tlie great Giotto for the fa9ade of Santa Maria del Fiore. He 
 so fully succeeded in giving satisfaction to his employers, that 
 tliey presented lum with the freedom of the city, and intrusted 
 him with aU the public works of the day. The most important 
 of those he carried out are part of the fortifications of Florence, 
 the fort of Scarperia at the Mugello, the decorations of the Cam- 
 panile of Santa Maiia del Fiore, and the tabernacle of San Gio- 
 vanni, but, above all, the bronze gates of the central entrance of 
 the Baptbtery. These were afterwards removed to the side en- 
 trance, to make room for the stiU gi-eater wonder — the gates by 
 Ghiberti. Nor were his labours limited to the embellishing and 
 enriching of Florence, as he worked also for San Maico of Venice, 
 for the Baptistery of Pistoja, &c. He was, moreover, a good 
 painter, a distinguished poet, and an excellent musician. Died 
 at Florence in 1345, the object of universal love and admiration, 
 leaving a worthy successor in his son Giovanni (called Nino). 
 See Nino Pisano. — R. M. 
 
 ANDREA D'ASSISI, surnamed LTngegno, an Italian 
 painter, who was rather the comjianion and assistant of Peru- 
 gino than his pupil. They woriced long together, and Andrea 
 adhered to Peragino's manner in its severest forai. Born 1470; 
 died 1555.— R. M. 
 
 ANDREA DE CIONE or ANDREA ORCAGNA. See 
 Orcagna. 
 
 ANDREA DEL SARTO. See Vannuechi. 
 _ ANDREA DI CASTAGNO, a Tuscan painter, bom 1406, 
 died 1480. Having painted on the walls of the Podesta at 
 Florence the execution of the archbishop of Pisa and his confe- 
 derates in the conspiracy of the Pazzi, he was surnamed An- 
 drea DEGLi Impiceati. He was pupil of Masaccio, and one 
 of the best and most active painters of the time. But a dreadful 
 spot hangs over his name. Whilst working with Domenico 
 Veneziano in one of the chapels of Santa Maria Novella, he be- 
 came aware of Domenico's knowledge of the use of oil colom-s. 
 Feigning friendship, Andrea possessed himself of poor Domenico's 
 secret, and then murdered him. The honid deed remained un- 
 explained until Andrea confessed it on his deathbed. — R. M. 
 
 ANDREA DI JACOPO D'UGNIilENE, an Italian sculptw 
 
 in metals, of the 14th centmy, completed in 1316 the bas-relief 
 for the altar of San Jacopo of Pistoja, representing fifteen sub- 
 jects from the life of Cluist, a work of remarkable ingenuity. 
 
 ANDREA, Giovanni (Bossi), an Italian bishop of the 15th 
 century, librarian and secretary to Sextus IV. 
 
 ANDREA GOBBO or ANDREA DEL SOLAEI, a Milanese 
 painter, who flom-ished about 1530. He belonged to the school 
 of Gaudenzio Ferrari, and was noted as a good colom-ist. 
 
 ANDREA, Onofkio d', a Neapolitan poet of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 ANDREjE, Abraham, the thu-ty-thu-d archbishop of Upsal, 
 was born in Angermannland, became rector of the miiversity of 
 Stockholm, opposed King John in his attempts to re-establish 
 Romanism, hved thirteen yeai-s in exile, was recalled and raised 
 to the primacy on the accession of Sigismund, but was finally 
 deposed and imprisoned in Gripsholm. Died in 1607. — J.W.S. 
 
 A'NDREiE, Giovanni, a crater on canon law, who was bom 
 at Musello, near Florence, in 1275, and died in 1347. 
 
 ANDEEiE or ANDRESSON, Gudmund, an Icelandic author, 
 bom at Biard, wrote a work in favour of polygamy and concu- 
 binage. He died in 1654 at the early age of twenty-four. 
 
 ANDREjE, Jacob, a celebrated Lutheran divine of the six- 
 teenth century, was bom 25th March, 1528, at Waiblingen in 
 Wmiemberg. His father was a smith, which led to his beuig 
 sometunes called by his contemporaries SchmidUn or Fabncius. 
 Havirig studied at Stuttgard and Tubingen, he was in 1549 ad- 
 mitted deacon at Stuttgard ; in 1552 he became superintendent 
 in Goppingen ; and in 1562 he rose to be provost of St. George's. 
 Tubingen, and chancellor of the university, in which offices he con- 
 tinued tUl his death, on 7th Jmie, 1590. He was one of the ablest 
 reformers and theological writers of his tune, and is remembered 
 as the principal author of the " Formula Concordia?," one of the 
 standard documents of the Lutheran chm-ch, by which he hoped 
 to stifle the approxunate Cahanism which had sprung up in that 
 chm-ch from the teaching of Melancthou and the Melancthonian 
 professors of Wittemberg and Leipzig. Whatever good or iU 
 attended the introduction of that rigid formula was attributed 
 mainly to Andi-ea;. It proved anything but a formula of con- 
 cord, and it is generally acknowledged that by this, the main work 
 of his life, he increased rather than remedied the divisions of 
 the protestant church. His writings were very numerous — up- 
 wards of one hundred and sixty, mcluding sixty-six disputations 
 — and are almost all of a polemical character, directed agamst 
 CathoUcs, Calvinists, and Flaccians. They have now nothing 
 more than a historical value, as exhibiting the spuit of the age in 
 which Andreaj hved, and of its ditferent theological schools. — P. L. 
 
 ANDREjE, Johann Gerhard Eelnhard, a Hanoverian 
 apothecary of some eminence in science, who was commissioned 
 by George II. to analyse the various soils of the royal domains 
 in Hanover. He died in 1793. 
 
 ANDREjE, Joh^usin Valentine, a German scholar of the 
 seventeenth century, was bom 17th August, 1586, at Her- 
 renberg in Wurtemberg, where his father, a son of the cele- 
 brated theologian, Jacob Andi'ese, was Lutheran pastor and 
 superintendent. After finishing his pliilosophical and theological 
 studies in Tubingen, he travelled through Svritzerland, Italy, 
 France, and Austria, — was admitted deacon at Vaihingen in 
 1614, appointed superintendent in Calw in 1620, promoted to 
 be court-preacher and ecclesiastical councillor in Stuttgard in 
 1639, and finally, in 1650, rose to be prelate in Bebenhausen, and, 
 in 1654, prelateandgeneral superintendent inAdelberg. In 1642, 
 Augustus, duke of Brunswick, chose him to be one of his eccle- 
 siastical councillors ; and with this prince Andi'ea? carried on 
 for many years an active con-espondence on the spiritual affairs 
 of his duchy. He died at Stuttgard, 27th June, 1654. He was 
 a man of manifold culture and great learning, and far before 
 his age in free and clear views of the moral world and the wants 
 of mankind. Unlike his celebrated gi-andfather, he did not 
 devote his strength to the interests of dogmatic theology ; but, 
 while retaining the strictness of Lutheran orthodoxy, he occu- 
 pied himself m reviving practical piety and moral discipline. 
 His lot was cast in the calamitous days of the Thirty-ye;u-s' 
 War, when not only the material, but the moral interests of 
 the Gennan fatherland suffered severely ; and when the Lu- 
 theran chm'ch had fallen into a condition of dead ortho- 
 doxy and rigid formalism, but little calculated to restrain 
 or heal the demoralization inseparable from a protracted war. 
 Andrea; devoted his life and genius to the cm-e of these evils,
 
 AXD 
 
 157 
 
 AXD 
 
 both in the state and in the church. His publications were very 
 numerous, both in Latin and German, but all of small bulk, with 
 a view to their wider difFusion both among the learned classes 
 and the general mass of his countrvmeu. His principal 
 works were: " Menippus, sive satyricorum dialogorum centuria;" 
 " Subsidia sacne et literariee rei ;" " TheopMlus, seu de reUgione 
 Christiana colenda ; " " Syntagma de curiositatis pemicie ; " 
 " Idea Societatis Christianae ;" " Invitatio ad fratemitatem 
 Christi." He left also an interesting autobiogi-aphy, which, 
 was translated into German, and published by D. C. Seybold in 
 1799. Some of his writings make it probable that he was a 
 member of the secret fi-atemity of the Rosicnicians, which pro- 
 fessed the same practical principles, — P. L. 
 
 ANDRE.E, Tobias, a physician and philosopher of Bremen, 
 who lived in the seventeenth century, and suffered persecution. 
 He was a zealous adherent of Descartes, and professed to have 
 invented an infalUble process for embalming dead bodies. 
 
 AXDEEANI, Andrea, sumamed from liis buthplace II 
 Maxtovano, a lively and correct painter of the Roman school, 
 who also distinguished himself as an engraver on wood- Bom 
 in 1540 ; died in 1623. 
 
 ANDREAS, an archbishop of Krayna in Carinthia, who lived 
 in the latter part of the fifteenth century. Having been sent to 
 the court of Rome by the Emperor Frederick III., he boldly 
 rebuked the vices and corruption of the clergy, and the pope 
 himself. For this he was imprisoned ; and when liberated by the 
 intervention of the emperor, he hastened to Basle, attempted to 
 convoke a general council to reform the church, and sent to all 
 the courts of Europe a protest against the conduct of the pope. 
 He was at last thrown into prison, where, after some months, 
 he was privately strangled in 1484. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANDREAS, JuAx, a Spanish Jesuit, was bom in Valencia in 
 1740, devoted himself to science and hterature, became librarian 
 to the king of Naples, and died in 1817. He is the author of 
 a great number of scientific and literary works. 
 
 ANDREAS, Vaxekius, a Flemish bibUographer, was bom at 
 Brabant in 1588, became librarian to the university of Louvain, 
 and died in 1656. 
 
 ANDREASSI, Yppolito, a JIantuan painter of the sLsteeuth 
 centnrv, a pupQ of Giulio Romano. 
 
 ANDREHAN, ANDREYHON, or ANDENCHAN, Aenoul, 
 a marshal of France of the fourteenth century, who distinguished 
 himself in many engagements with the English and the Spaniards. 
 
 ANDREI'NI, Fran'cesco, an Italian comedian, who lived at 
 the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. 
 
 ANDREINI, GiovANXi Batista, son of Francesco and 
 Isabella, bom at Florence, 1568, died at Paris, 1652. He wrote 
 a drama on the fall of man, which is said to have suggested to 
 Milton his " Paradise Lost," 
 
 ANDREINI, Isabella, an Italian poetess, the wife of 
 Francesco Andreini, was bom at Padua in 1562, became dis- 
 tinguished for talent and beauty, and died at Lyons in 1604. 
 
 ANDREINI, PiETRo Andrea, a learned antiquary of Flor- 
 ence, was bom in 1650, and died in 1720. 
 
 ANDRELI'NI, Publio Fausto, an Italian poet of the fif- 
 teenth century, was professor of classical literature in the uni- 
 versity of Paris. His poems were said by Vossius to consist of 
 a drop of sense lost in a stream of words. 
 
 ANDREOLI GIORGIO DA GUBBIO, an Italian painter 
 and sculptor of the beginning of the sixteenth century. He is 
 especially noted for his beautiful terra-cottas, in the style of 
 Lucca della Robbia, whose only successful imitator he was. His 
 family continued working in Majolia-ware mitil the end of the 
 century, at Urbino. — R. M. 
 
 ANDREOSSI, Antolse Fean<;'OIs, Count, was bora at 
 Castelnaudary b 1761, and died at Montauban in 1828. He 
 sei-ved with some distinction under Napoleon as an artillery 
 officer and military engineer. 
 
 ANDREOSSI, Francois, a French engineer, who assisted 
 Riquet in constructing the canal of Languedoc. He was born 
 at Paris in 1633, and died in his fifty-sixth year. 
 
 ANDREOZZI, Gaet.\:ko, a relation and pupil of the celebrated 
 JomeUi. He was bom about the middle of the last century, 
 and held the office of maestro di capella to the king of Naples, 
 in whose capital he acquired great popularity as a dramatic com- 
 poser, which rapidly spread all over Italy. His opera of " Catone" 
 was produced at Florence in 1787, and that of " Agesilao" at 
 Venice the year fuUowuig. Besides these, his ".iVibace" and his 
 
 '' Ofimpiade" were the most esteemed among his dramatic works. 
 From the character of his subjects, we may suppose that his 
 predilecrion was for the tragic style. Such an inclination would 
 best enable him to succeed, as we are told he did, in his oratorio 
 of " La Passione di Gesii Cristo." He is said also to have written 
 much chamber music, among which his violin quartets may be 
 highly considered. — G. A. M. 
 
 ANDRES, Ajxtoxio, a Franciscan monk of Arragon, of the 
 13th and 14th centiuies, a zealous disciple of Duns Scotus. 
 
 ANDRES, BoxA^'EXTURA JuAx, a Jesuit of Numberg, who, 
 after the suppression of his order, became professor in the uni- 
 versity of WUrzburg, and died in 1822, 
 
 ANDRES, Carlos, a Spanish advocate and author, brother 
 of Juan, was bom in 1753, and died In 1820. 
 
 ANDRES DE GUSSEilE, Thomas, a Spanish archaologist 
 and numismatist of the last centnrv. 
 
 ANDRES DE SAN NICOLAS," an Augustine monk of Pera 
 in the seventeenth century, who was historiographer of his order, 
 and provincial-general of New Grenada. 
 
 ANDRES DE USTARROZ, Juan Francisco, a Spanish 
 historian, who lived In the earfier half of the 17th century. He 
 has left numerous works, 
 
 ANDRES, Juan, a Spanish writer on philosophy, was born 
 in 1740; died 1817. 
 
 ANDREW, one of Christ's apostles, and brother of Simon 
 Peter, was a native of Bethsaidain Galilee. Originally a disciple 
 of John the Baptist, he was led by what he heard from his 
 master to visit Jesus, and becoming fuUy persuaded that he 
 was the Messiah, transferred his allegiance to him. One of the 
 first steps which he took after reaching this conviction, was to 
 conduct his brother Simon to the Saviour, and both of them, 
 after a brief period, became his stated followers, in compliance 
 ■ndth an invitation from himself. Although Andrew seems, fi-om 
 several circumstances menrioned in the gospels, to have enjoyed 
 much of the confidence of Christ, yet he never took the same 
 lead among the disciples as his brother. It is but little informa- 
 tion that is to be found regarding him in Scripture. On Philip's 
 application, he concurred with him in introducing to our Lord 
 certain Greeks who were desirous of seeing him. He was one of 
 the four who obtained from Christ private information regarding 
 the destiny of the temple. Tradition assigns to him Greece, 
 Asia ilinor, Scj-thia, Thrace, as scenes of labour, and alleges 
 that he suffered martyrdom at Patrae in Achaia, He was long 
 regarded as the patron saint of Scotland, and the cross of St. 
 Andrew was the badge of the Knights of the Thistle. — W. L. 
 
 ANDREW, three kings of Hungary, of the house of Arpad 
 bore this name : — 
 
 Andrew I. was the fourth sovereign of Magyars, and appears 
 to have reigned from 1046 to 1061. He perished in battle against 
 the Poles, having been betrayed by his o^vn subjects. 
 
 Andrew II. the eighteenth king of the dpiasty, came to the 
 throne in 1205. He signed in 1222 the celebrated " Golden 
 Bull," the foundation of the Hungarian constitution, and died 
 much esteemed in 1235. 
 
 Andrew III. the twenty-second and last sovereign of the 
 race of Arpad, succeeded to the crown in 1290; and after 
 vanquishing several rival claimants, died in 1300. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANDREW or ANDREASSO of Hungary was bom at 
 Baden in 1324, and succeeded to the throne of Naples. In 1345 
 he was strangled at the instigation of his wife Joanna. 
 
 ANDREW, Alex^vndrowitch, a grand-duke of Russia, a 
 son of Alexander Newski, who flourished in the 13th century, and 
 was engaged in civil war against his brother Demetrius. 
 
 ANDREW, Jaroslawowitcu, a younger brother of Alex- 
 ander Ne>\-ski, rebelled against the Moguls, and died 1264. 
 
 ANDREW, Hyacintuo, a Spanish physician of Cat:iluna, pix)- 
 fessor at the college of Barcelona in the 17th ccntm^-. 
 
 ANDREW, Jasies, a mathematician of Aberdeen, was bom 
 in 1774, and died at Eilinburgh in 1833. He was head-master 
 of the military college at Addiscombe. He is the author also of 
 " Institute of Grammar, &c, &c.," " Key to Scripture Chrono- 
 logy," and published some astronomical tables. 
 
 ANDREWE, Laurence, a native of Calais, who settled as a 
 printer in London at the beginning of the sixteenth century, and 
 translated a variety of Dutch works into English. 
 
 ANDREWES, Lancelot, D.D., bishop of Winchester, w:»s 
 bom in the city of London, in the parish of All Saints, Barking, 
 in the ye;ir 1555, " of houost and religious parents." He was
 
 the eldest of thirteen cliildren, of whom several died young, and 
 two, Thomas and Nicholas, in the same year with himself. 
 Having been well grounded, first at the Coopers' Free School 
 in Radclifte by Dr. Ward, and, second, at Mercliant Tailors' 
 School by Dr. Mulcaster, lie entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, 
 A.D. 1571; became B.A. in January, 1574-5; Fellow of Pem- 
 broke Hall, October, 1576; JI.A., 1578; B.D., 1585 ; D.D., 
 1590. At college he soon acquired so great a reputation for 
 learning, that in his first year he was selected as a scholar of 
 Jesus College, Oxford, which had been lately founded. He was 
 ordained deacon in 1580, and became, successively, vicar of St. 
 Giles, Cripplegate ; prebendary and residentiaiy of St. Paul's ; 
 prebendary of Southwell ; master of Pembroke Hall ; prebendary 
 and dean of Westminster; and bishop of Chichester (1605), 
 Ely (1G09), and Winchester (1618). He enjoyed the favour 
 and respect of three sovereigns, viz., Ehzabeth, James I., and 
 Charles I. He was master of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaklee, 
 Syriac, Arabic, and fifteen modern tongues; so that Fuller 
 quaintly, and perhaps extravagantly says, " the world wanted 
 learning to know how learned this man was : so skilled in all 
 (especially Oriental) languages, that some conceive he might, if 
 then li^ng, almost have served as an interpreter-general at the 
 confusion of tongues." 
 
 This acquaintance with language and divinity, and the loiown 
 holiness of his life, caused him to be chosen as one of the 
 translators of the English Bible, whose " uncommon beauty and 
 man-ellous English" is the admiration even of those who refuse 
 to adopt it. The portion assigned "to Andrewes and his company 
 was the Pentateuch, and the history from the book of Joslma to 
 the 1st book of Chronicles exclusive."— (CoKer.) As a preacher, 
 it would be dithcult to find his superior. He never leaves a 
 subject till he has completely exhausted it : drawing the happiest 
 illustrations from every source ; comparing, explaining, enforcing, 
 with a mixture of quaintness, learning, earnestness, and reverence, 
 which cannot faQ to please, interest, and persuade. His scmions 
 and numerous works, with a life, and various other documents re- 
 specting him, have been lately reprinted in the " Library of Anglo- 
 Catholic Theology," by ilr. J. H. Parker of Oxford. His " Devo- 
 tions," which are well but not sufficiently loiown, were composed in 
 Greek and Latin, for his own private daily life ; and for some time 
 before his death the MS. was scarcely ever out of his hands. It 
 was found worn in pieces by his fingers, and wet with his tears. 
 " Indeed," says Bishop Buckeridge, " his life was a life of prayer. 
 Great part of five hours every day did he spend in prayer." And 
 of his end it is said by the same writer, " When he could pray 
 no longer ^vith his voice, yet by lifting up his eyes and his hands 
 he prayed stOl ; and when both voice and eyes and hands failed 
 in their office, then with his heart he still prayed, until it pleased 
 God to receive his blessed soul to himself." — {Funeral Sermon.) 
 He died Sept. 25, 1626, aged 71 ; and was buried on Saturday, 
 Nov. 11, in the parish church of St. Savioiu-'s, Southwark (close to 
 London Bridge), where the original monument, with a recumbent 
 effigy of the bishop, may still be seen. A veiy elegant Latin epitaph, 
 which no longer remains in the church, is preserved in his works, 
 and is prefixed, with a portrait, to the folio edition of his semions. 
 He was never manied ; and left nearly the whole of a very large 
 property in various charities, especially to the parishes of which 
 he had been minister, or in which he had lived. The whole sum 
 thus bequeathed in his will was £6320. He had, however, not 
 reserved his liberality till after death, " giving his goods to the 
 poor when he could keep them no longer," but during life had been 
 always most munificent ; for, besides public charities, he gave in 
 private alms, in the last six years alone, £1340. May " the fame 
 of him." indeed, " stir up many to foilow his example." — T, S. P. 
 
 ANDREWS, Gekaud, D.D., dean of Canterbury, and rector 
 of St. James's, Piccadilly, was bom at Leicester, April 3, 1750, 
 :uid died June 2, 1825. 
 
 ANDREWS, Jajiks Petit, an English historian, was bom 
 at Newbury, in Berkshire, in 1737, distinguished by his exer- 
 tions on behalf of children apprenticed to chimney-sweepers, and 
 died in 1797. Ho is the autlior of a " Histoiy of Great Britain, 
 connected with the Chronology of Europe ;" a " Continuation of 
 Hcnrj-'s History of Great Britain ;" and of "Anecdotes, Ancient 
 and Modem, with Obser%'ations." — J. W. S. 
 
 ANDREWS, John, a voluminous wiiter on politics and liis- 
 tor)-, now almost forgotten. He died about 1809. 
 I ANDREWS, Pr.TKR llu.v.a, an English dramatic author of 
 
 I httle merit, who died in 1814. 
 
 ♦ANDREWS, Thomas, JI.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., vice-presi- 
 dent of Queen's college, Belfast, is a native of that town, where 
 he received the first rudiments of his education. Thence he went, 
 while still a youth, to France; and in the course of his education 
 there, had the advantage of stud3'ing under M. Dumas of Paris, 
 who was then taldng the high position he now occupies among tlie 
 distinguished chemists of that country. Returning to Ireland he 
 entered the university of Dublin, and in the year 1835 he ob- 
 tained the degree of doctor of medicine in the university of 
 Edinburgh. From an eai'ly period of his life Dr. Andrews devoted 
 himself to scientific investigations; and the important results 
 of his labours have been, from time to time, published in the 
 " Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy," the " Philosophical 
 Transactions," and various scientific journals. His attention 
 was for many years, in an especial degi'ee, directed to the inves- 
 tigation of the important and difficult subject of the heat developed 
 in chemical combination ; and for his earlier labours in this field 
 of research, he was, in 18-15, awarded a royal medal by the council 
 of the Royal Society of London. The council, in its report on 
 making this award, states, " Dr. Andrews may be said to have first 
 opened the subject of heat evolved in chemical combinations, by 
 a valuable paper, published three years ago, which was followed 
 by a second, and attracted to the inquiry the attention of the 
 French Academy, who lately proposed it as the subject of the 
 gi'eat Monthyon prize, with special reference to the experiments of 
 Dr. Andrews." The report proceeds to describe the subsequent 
 results obtained by Dr. Andrews in this subject, and we quote 
 from it the opinion the council entertained as to the value of these 
 investigations :— " This extension or generalization of his former 
 law is possessed of much chemical interest, and is the first great 
 step in a line of inquiry of which the further pursuit is greatly 
 to be desu-ed, from the light which it may be expected to throw 
 upon the fundamental laws of chemical combination." Dr. 
 Andrews afterwards received a reward of one thousand francs 
 from the Academy of Sciences, Paris, for his researches on the 
 same subject. The latest scientific work published by Dr. 
 Andi-ews is an investigation into the nature and properties of 
 that singular body to which its discoverer, M. Schonbein, has 
 given the name oi ozone. Upon the establishment of the Queen's 
 colleges in Ireland in 1845, Dr. Andi'ews was appointed vice- 
 president of the college at Belfast, and in 1849 was selected 
 to fill the chair of chemistiy in the same college. In the same 
 year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. — J. F. W. 
 
 ANDREZEL, Barthelejiy Philibeet Picon d', a French 
 priest, inspector-general of the university; died in 1825. 
 
 ANDRIA, Nicola, a learned physician of Massafra in Italy, 
 aftenvards professor at Naples, who wrote on a variety of physio- 
 logical and chemical subjects. He died in 1814. 
 
 =*= ANDRIAN -WARBURG, Victor, Baron von, an Aus- 
 trian political writer, bom in 1813. 
 
 ANDRIAS, Juan, an author of Xativa in Yalentia, flourished 
 in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and published a contro- 
 versial work against Mohammedanism. 
 
 ANDRIES, JoDicus, a Jesuit, bom at Cortiyck in 1588, 
 died at Brassels in 1658 ; vn-ote an immense host of sermons, 
 both in Latin and Dutch. 
 
 ANDRIEU, a monk, who lived before the 13th centmy ; the 
 author of a work entitled the " Penitence of Adam." 
 
 ANDRIEU, Bertrand, a French medalist, was bom at 
 Boi-deaux in 1761, and died in 1822. 
 
 ANDRIEUX, Fr^vn^ois Guillaume Jean Stanislas, 
 professor of belles-lettres in the Polytechnic School of Paris, 
 was bom at Strasburg m 1759. He received his early education 
 at the college of Cardinal Lemoine, and at the age of seventeen 
 commenced the study of law at the licole de Droit. In 1741 he 
 was admitted avocat by the parliament of Paris, and the fol- 
 lowing year produced his first play, entitled " Anaximandre," 
 which was performed at the Italian theatre. The death of his 
 fother ha^^ng left him to his own resources, he accepted the 
 office of secretaiy to the Due d'Uzes ; but finding the duties un- 
 congenial, he returned to law, and soon obtained some reputation 
 by his defence of the Abb6 JIulot, who was implicated in the cele- 
 brated case of the diamond necklace. The defence was published 
 in 1786, and in 1787 he brought out his comedy, " Les Etourdis," 
 which obtained the favourable criticisms of La Harpe and Palis- 
 sot. The success of this drama induced Andiieux to devote 
 himself more exclusively to literature than to law ; and when 
 the gi'cat Revolution broke out, he hailed its appearance in some
 
 verses descriptive of the abuses that Lad so long prevaOed in 
 France. Adopting the revohitionaiy side of politics, he resigned, 
 in 1791, an appointment in the government office for the liqui- 
 dation of the national debt, and soon became chef-de-divislon. 
 In 1792 he produced his "Epistle to the Pope," which was 
 answered by Fahre d'Eglantine, and the following year resigned 
 his office under government on account of the prevailing an- 
 archy. Three years later he was elected a judge of the Court 
 cf Cassation, of which court he became ^"ice-president, with a 
 pension of two thousand francs, as a tribute to his literary 
 eminence. He was also chosen one of the early members of the 
 National Institute, in the class of letters, and read several of liis 
 papers before the large and brilUant audiences that assembled on 
 the more public occasions. In 1798 he was elected a member 
 of the Council of Five Himdred, and in tliis capacity sided with 
 those who endeavom'ed to avoid political extremes. He devoted 
 his pen to the great subject of national education, pleading the 
 cause of common sense against the violent theorists of the day, 
 and affirming that the great end of education was to make men 
 reasonable and not merely reasoners. In 1799 he was appointed 
 to the Tribunat, the only French assembly that conducted its 
 dehberations in public. 
 
 Hitherto Andiieux had pushed his fortunes partly in the legal 
 and partly in the political world. Ckcurastances now compelled 
 him to devote himself to literature. In his character of tribune 
 he had opposed the introduction of the new code, and Napoleon, 
 whose name the code was destined to bear, resolved to remove all 
 obstacles to his favourite scheme. In September, 1802, Andrieux 
 received his formal dismissal, and closed his political career. 
 He was offered the place of censor of the press by Fouche, but 
 declined it with a jest — in allusion to his own writings — that he 
 was " one of the executed, and therefore could not be execu- 
 tioner." His merits, however, were not overlooked by Joseph 
 Bonaparte, who appointed him his librarian, with a salary of 
 six thousand francs, which he enjoyed for ten years. He was 
 also made hbrarian to the senate, with an official residence. In 
 1804 a chair of belles-lettres was founded at the Poly- 
 technic School, and Andrieux was chosen as the first professor. 
 He there prepared the course which at a later period was given 
 with great success at the college of France. In 1814 he was 
 appointed to the chak of French literature in the college of 
 France, and being endowed by nature with a weak voice, he said 
 that "he made the audience hear by first making them listen." 
 The last twenty years of his life were devoted to an extensive 
 course of lectures on French literature, and to various labours in 
 connection with a new edition of the National Dictionary. After 
 the death of Auger in 1829, he was appointed perpetual secre- 
 tary of the French Academy, and his reports on the treatises sent 
 in to compete for the Academy's prizes, were so distinguished by 
 elegance, that on one occasion it was obsen^ed that the prize 
 (ten thousand francs) should have been given to the winter of 
 the report, rather than to the writer of the essay. In 1832 his 
 strength began gradually to fail, but no entreaty could induce 
 hun to abandon his labours. He would " die at his post," he 
 said, " as that was the only way in which he could now be use- 
 ful." He expired in the spring of 1833, surrounded by his 
 children, and his remahis were inten-ed at Pere la Cliaise. 
 Andrieux pubUshed fifteen plays; a Course of Grammar and 
 Belles Lettres ; a Eeport on the continuation of the Dictionary 
 of the Academy ; a Course of the Philosophy of Belles Lettres, 
 and a large nmuber of miscellaneous writings. He affected the 
 classic style, and wTote with elegance and ])oint ; but his works 
 contain little to procure a permanent reputation. — P. E. D. 
 
 ANDRIOLLI, MiciiKL Axgelo, a physician of Verona, of 
 the 18th centiiry, belonged to the school of the iatro-chemists. In 
 accordance with Syhnus de la Boe, he ascribes intermittent fevcre 
 to an improper combination of the bile with the pancreatic fluid. 
 
 ANDEISCOS, PsEUDOPiiiMPPus, an adventurer, who pre- 
 tended to be the son of Perseus, the last king of Macedonia. 
 After a wandering career, he succeeded in gaining possession of 
 ilacedonia, and obtained some advantages over the Komans ; but 
 growing careless and tjTannical, he was defeated by Metellus at 
 Pydna, taken ])risoner, and put to death, 147 B.C. 
 
 A'NDROCLES, a Roman slave, who is said to have fonned a 
 friendsliip with a lion in the deserts of Africa. Being after- 
 wards captured and condemned to die in the arena, the lion sent 
 to devom- him proved to be his old acquaintance, which recog- 
 nized him at once, and loaded him with caresses. 
 
 ANDROCLES, an Athenian demagogue, the enemv of Alci- 
 biades, was assassinated about 410 B.C. 
 
 ANDROCLES, a king of ilesseua, who died about 740 B.C. 
 
 ANDROCLUS, a king of Athens, who led a colony into Asia 
 Minor about 1000 B.C. 
 
 ANDROCYDES, a Greek physician to Alexander the Great. 
 
 ANDROCYDES of Cizicus, a painter of the Ephesian 
 school, and a rival of Zeuxis. He died about 320 B.C. 
 
 ANDRO'MACHE, the wife of Hector, son of Priam, after 
 whose death she married, first P^Trhus, the son of Achilles, and 
 aftenvards Helenus, a brother of her fu'st husband. 
 
 ANDRO']\IACHUS, the Elder, a Cretan, who lived about 
 A.D. 60, and was physician to the emperor Nero. He is said 
 to have invented the strange medicine called Theriaca Andro- 
 machi, or Venice treacle, a medley of seventy ingredients, used 
 till very lately as an antidote to all poisons, and a remedy for 
 all pestilential diseases. 
 
 ANDRO'ilEDA, a mythological personage, said to have been 
 the daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, and to have been 
 rescued from a sea-monster by Perseus. 
 
 A^DRONI'CUS, the name of four emperors of the East : — 
 
 A-SDP.oxicus I., CosixExrs, a grandson of Alexis I., was 
 born in 1110, and died in 1185. In early life he was miprisoned 
 for twelve years on account of his attempts on the life of the 
 reigning prince, JIanuel. He escaped, became reconciled to the 
 latter, offended anew, and was banished. On the death of 
 Manuel he seized upon the throne, assassinated Alexis, the right- 
 ful heir, and deluged the capital with blood. At last he was de- 
 posed by an insmTection, and put to death with frightful torments. 
 
 Ajn'dkonicus II., Paleologus, was bom in 1258, be- 
 came associated with his father in the empire in 1273, suc- 
 ceeded to the undinded sovereignty in 1282, and died in 1332. 
 His first act was to cancel the steps taken by Michael, his father, 
 towards a reconciliation between the Greek "ind Latin churches. 
 He lost great part of his Asiatic dominions to the Tm-ks, who, 
 under Othman, penetrated to the Bosphoms and ravaged Scio. 
 Andronicus called in the aid of Roger de Flor, a leader of mer- 
 cenaries, who gained some successes over the Turks ; but becom- 
 uig himself dangerous in tmTi, was assassinated by order of the 
 emperor. Andronicus was next involved in wai' with his grand- 
 son, who ultimately compelled him to resign the crown and 
 rethe to a monasteiy. 
 
 AxDROxicus III., a grandson of the former, was born in 
 1295, succeeded to the throne in 1332, and died in 1341. He 
 gained several advantages over the Tiuks and Bulgarians, and 
 reconquered Scio ; but in 1333 he lost Nicea, which the Turks 
 made their capital. A general league formed against these 
 invaders proved useless. 
 
 AxDRoxicus IV. See Paleologus. — J AV. S. 
 
 ANDRONICUS was also the name of three emperors of Tre- 
 bizond: — A>-dboxicus I., Guido Comxexus, succeeded to 
 the throne in 1222, became tributary to the sultan of Iconium, 
 and died in 1235. — Axdroxicus II. died 12G3, after a reign 
 of three years. — Ajndronicus III., Cojlsexus, succeeded in 
 1330, and reigned two years. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, a diplomatist in the service of Attains II., 
 king of Pergamus, who lived about 150 B.C. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, Ajxgelus, a nephew of the Emperor Alexis 
 Comnenus, was born in 1080, and died in 1118. 
 
 ANDRONICUS CAilATERUS, a Greek author, prefect of the 
 imperial guard under Maniiel Comnenus, about 115(j. 
 
 ANDRONICUS CYRRHESTES, the architect who built the 
 Temjile of the Winds at Athens, about 132 B.C. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, Livirs, is said by the Latin -writers to have 
 been the first to get up a play in Latin. He was a Greek by 
 bii-th, Tai-entum most probably being his native place. During 
 the Roman wars in Soutliem Italy, he bec^ame a slave of Livius 
 Salinator, who intrusted him with the education of his children, 
 and presented him with his freedom for his sen-ices. His first 
 play was produced in 240 B.C., a date which accordingly marks 
 the commencement of Latin literature. He ^^Tote both tragedies 
 and comedies, or rather, he translated Greek plays into Latin, 
 adapting them to the taste of the Romans. He also made a 
 Latin translation or paraphrase of the Odyssey ; and though it 
 was soon regarded by educated Romans as worth little, it proved 
 an excellent school-book, and continued to be used as such for 
 at least two centuries. The fame of Andronicus rests more 
 upon the earliness of the period at which he WTote, than upon
 
 AND 
 
 160 
 
 ANG 
 
 his own poetic merits, if it be safe for us to judge from the few 
 fratcments which have come down to us. — J. D. 
 
 AXDliONICUS, Makci's Pojipilics, a Sman philosopher 
 of the Kpicnrean school, taught at Rome about 60 B.C. 
 
 ANDKONICUS, Paleologus, the second son of the Greek 
 Emperor, Manuel Paleologus. 
 
 ANDKONICUS of Olyntiius, a general of Alexander the 
 Great, after whose death he attached himself, first to Antigonus, 
 and next to Ptolemy. 
 
 ANDKONICUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, who 
 taught first at Athens and afterwards at Rome, in the first cen- 
 tury B.C., and is said to have first used the term " metaphysics." 
 
 ANDKOS, Edmukd, one of the English goveitiors in North 
 America in the latter part of the seventeenth century, was bom 
 in Ifi.S", and died at London in 1714. 
 
 ANDKOSTIIENES, an Athenian sculptor, pupil of Eucad- 
 mns, lived about 420 b.c, and comj)leted several statues, which 
 had been begun by Praxias, for the temple of Apollo at Delphi. 
 
 ANDROSTHENES of Thasos, one of the generals of Alex- 
 ander the Great, who accompanied Nearchus in his naval expe- 
 dition to explore the Persian Gulf. 
 
 ANDRO'TION, a Greek orator and historian of high reputa- 
 tion, lived about 320 B.C., was a contemporary of Demosthenes 
 and president of the Athenian Council of Five Himdred. 
 
 ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, Jacques, an architect, who 
 was a native of Orleans, and lived in the latter part of the sbiteenth 
 centuiy. Ha\'ing been enabled, by the patronage of Cardinal 
 d'Armagnac, to travel for the improvement of his art, he executed 
 several works in Paris. Besides erecting many private edifices 
 for the nobility, he commenced the Pont Neuf and the Gallery 
 of the LomTe, neither of which works he completed, having been 
 compelled to quit France in consequence of his protestantism. 
 I He is said to have died at Turin about 1592. — F. 
 
 ANDRUZZI, LuiGi, an Italian theologian, who was bom at 
 C)-pras about 1G88-9. He was professor of Greek in the 
 university of Bologna from 1709 to 1732, and the author of 
 several works in defence of the church of Rome. He died about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century. 
 
 ANDRY, Charles Louis Francois, bora at Paris in 1741, 
 was physician to the hospitals, doctor-regent of the Faculty of 
 Medicine of Paris, one of the first members of the Royal Society 
 of Medicine, and had formerly been one of the four consulting 
 physicians to the Emperor Napoleon. He was distinguished for 
 his kindness to the poor. He died in 1829, leavmg se\-eral 
 works, chiefly of a professional character. 
 
 ANDRY, Nicolas, a French physician,bom at Lyons in 1G58. 
 Abandoning the clerical profession, for which he was at first 
 preparing, he devoted himself to the study of medicine, and took 
 his degree in 1697, subsequently becoming professor in the 
 college of France, member of the committee for the compilation 
 of the Joiunal des Savants, and dean of the Faculty of Medicine. 
 In addition to a critical treatise on the French language. Dr. 
 Andry was the author of a variety of works relating to his pro- 
 fession, all of which exhibit great ability. He died in 1742. — F. 
 
 ANEAU or ANNEAU, Bartholemew, a native of Bruges, 
 who was professor of rhetoric and piincipal of the College of the 
 Trinity at Lyons, about the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 The college being suspected of favouring protestantism, Aneau 
 lost his life by violence in 1565. He was the author of many 
 Greek and Latin poems, as well as other works, which do gi-eat 
 credit to bis learning and genius. 
 
 ANEL, Dominique, a French surgeon, bom at Toulouse 
 about 1679. He entered the service of the emperor of Germany 
 as a surgeon in the army, and subsequently distinguished him- 
 self, especially in the treatment of aneurism and the opthalmic 
 disease known as fistula lachr}-malis. He died about 1730, 
 leaving several interesting works relating to his profession. — F. 
 
 ANELLI, Angelo, an Italian poet, bom at Desenzano ui 
 1761; died in 1820. 
 
 ANEPONYMUS, a Greek philosopher of the thirteenth cen- 
 turj', known by his commentaries on Aristotle. 
 
 ANERIO, Felice, was the successor of Palestrina, a maes- 
 tro di capella to the pope, in which capacity he produced many 
 compositions that are said to possess great contrapuntal merit ; 
 some of them being even yet in familiar use in the pontifical chapel. 
 He was a pupil of Giovanni Maria Nanino, a musician eminent 
 for scholastic acquirements. Besides his extensive ecclesiastical 
 compositions, he produced a set of madrigals for six voices, pub- 
 
 lished at Antwerp in 1599, and a set of canzonets for four 
 voices, published at Frankfort in 1610, one of wliich latter is 
 well-kno^^^l, with the English words adapted to it by Mr. Oli- 
 phant, " Alas, where is my true love ? " as an admirably pure 
 and melodious specimen of vocal writing. — G. A. M. 
 
 ANERIO, Giovanni Francesco, a musician, the younger 
 brother of the preceding, bom at Rome about 15C7. He was at 
 first connected with the chapel of Sigismund III., king of 
 Poland, and afterwards with the cathedral of Vei-ona. He was 
 subsequently called to Rome, where he obtained fmther prefer- 
 ment as a musician. He left several musical compositions. 
 The period of his death is uncertain. — F. 
 
 A'NEURIN, a Welsh bard, who lived in the latter part of the 
 sixth century. On the defeat of his tribe by the Saxons, at the 
 battle of Cattraeth, he was one of the four, out of three hundi-ed 
 and sixty-three chiefs, who escaped the slaughter ; and ha\'ing 
 fled to the court of King Arthur, he formed an intimate friend- 
 ship with the celebrated bard Taliesin. The principal poem 
 attributed to him is called "the Gododins." — F. 
 
 ANFOSSI, Pasquale, was bom at Naples, according to 
 one account, in 1757, accordhig to another, in 1736. He was a 
 student in the conservatorio of his native city, where at first he 
 applied himself chiefly to the study of the violin ; he aftei-wards 
 devoted himself more especially to the cultivation of liis talent 
 for composition, in which he was directed by Sacchini and 
 Piccini. This latter, famous for his rivahy of Glnck, even more 
 than for his own merits, formed a high estimate of his pupil's 
 aoihty, and entertained a great personal regard for him. It was 
 he that procured Anfossi his first engagement, which was to 
 write an opera for the Teatro delle Dame, at Rome, which was 
 produced in 1771 with signal unsuccess. Piccini's influence 
 was so great, that, not^vithstanding this failure, he obtained for 
 his proteg^ an engagement to write another opera the following 
 year, which had the same unfortunate fate as his first essay. 
 Anfossi was discovyaged by these repeated failures, but his 
 master not only exerted himself to obtain for him a third en- 
 gagement, but so stimulated him by his persuasion, and assisted 
 him by his advice, that in writing " II Sconoscinto perseguito," 
 he so far surpassed all he had before produced, that this opera 
 was received with acclamations. The Roman public, notable for 
 their fickleness as for their enthusiasm, now slighted their former 
 idol, Piccini, in favour of his pupil, and this to so gi'eat a degree, 
 that he, more sensitive than many composers of our time would 
 be, quitted Rome in the greatest mortification. Anfossi's firet 
 success was continued in the reception of his " Finta Giardi- 
 niera " and his " Geloso in Cimento ;" but his first tragic opera, 
 " L'Olinipiade," produced in 1776, met with as complete a fiiil- 
 ure. He then left Rome, and after visiting the principal cities 
 of Italy, settled for a time at Venice, where he was appointed 
 director of the conserv-atorio. He visited Paris in 1780, where 
 he produced his French opera, " Caius Marius." In 1782 he 
 came to London, but, as it seems, at a peculiarly unfavourable 
 period ; for his first master, Sacchini, had immediately preceded 
 him, and had left so powerful an impression, that the audience 
 of the king's theatre was unwilling to welcome any successor to 
 him, and, added to this, the aftahs of the opera were then in so 
 emban-assed a condition, that no axtist could have justice done to 
 him by the management. He remained in England, however, 
 until 1785, and two years later he returned to Rome, where he 
 principally remained until his death in 1795. His best opera is 
 said to have been " L'Avaro." Besides his dramatic works he 
 wrote some oratorios, of which " Betulia liberata " is the one 
 most praised, and also some ecclesiastical music, of wliich a 
 " Salve Regina" is said to possess great merit. — G. A. M. 
 
 ANFOSSO, Jacopo, an Italian engraver of gi-eat skill, who 
 lived at Pavia in the sixteenth centiu^'. 
 
 ANGAS, W. Henry, bom at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 6th Oct., 
 1781, was brought up a sailor; and, after visiting many parts 
 of Europe and the West Indies, resolved to devote his life to the 
 welfare of seamen. To qualify himself for this work, he entered 
 as a student in the imiversity of Edinburgh, and aftenvards re- 
 sided for some time at Brussels, where he perfected his know- 
 ledge of the Dutch and French tongues. After visiting the 
 Jlennonite churches of the continent, he was set apart in 1822 
 as a missionary to seamen. In this capacity he went (always at 
 his own expense) to most of the large seaport towns of England, 
 and many on the continent, and originated missions to seamen. 
 In 1831 he ■\isited the West Indies, on behalf of the Baptist
 
 AXG 
 
 161 
 
 A^^G 
 
 Jklissionary Society ; and soon after Ms return he died at South 
 Shields, in September, 1832, in the lifty-fii-st year of his age. 
 (Ll/e, by Dr. Cox.)— J. A., L. 
 
 ANGE DE ST. JOSEPH, whose real name was Joseph 
 Labkosse, was prior of the convent of Carmelites at Perpignan, 
 and was bom at Toulouse in 1636. Harag studied Ai-abic at 
 Borne under Celestin, brother of the learned orientalist Golius, 
 be proceeded on a mission to the East, visiting Smp-na, Ispahan, 
 and Basrali. After his return to Eome in 1679, he travelled 
 through France, HoU.ind, England, and Ireland ; died 1697. — F. 
 
 ANGE DE SAIXTE EOSALIE, whose family name was 
 Fra:ncois Raffard, a member of the order of Barefooted 
 Augustinians, was bom at Blois in 1655. Devoting himself to 
 the study of histoiy, he greatly enlarged the historical works of 
 Father Anselm, and produced other treatises of importance relat- 
 ing to the history of France. He died in 1726. — F. 
 
 AXGEL, Joiix, of Magdalen hall, Oxford, took holy orders 
 in the English church, but afterwards seceded. He was very 
 popular with the Puritans, and was appointed lecturer of 
 Grantham, where he died in 1655. 
 
 ANGELA MERICI, bom at Desenzano in 1511, founded the 
 order of the Ursuhnes, at Brescia in 1537, after her return from 
 a pilgrimage to Palestine. She died in lolO. 
 
 AXGELI, BoxAVEXTURA, an Itahan historian, who was 
 bom at Ferrara about the year 1525. Being suspected of heresy, 
 he was compelled to quit his country in 1576, and during his 
 exile, employed himself in visiting and describing the rivers of 
 Italy, and afterwai'ds produced a history of Parma. He died 
 about the end of the sixteenth century, leaving several works on 
 law and other subjects, evincing considerable learning. — F. 
 
 AXGELI, FiLippo, an Itahan artist, bom at Rome at the 
 end of the 16th centur)', and attached to the coiui; of Cosmo VI., 
 Grand-duke of Tuscany, the distinguished patron of the fine arts. 
 His pictures are extremely rare and valuable. Died 1643. 
 
 AXGELI, GiCLio Cesare, a historical painter of Perugia, 
 bora in 1570, died in 1630. The fame of Lo(io\-ico Caracci hav- 
 ing reached him, he left his home at twelve years of age, went 
 to Bologna to put himself under the tuition of that great master, 
 and eventually became one of the best followers of that school. 
 
 AXGELI, Stefaxo d', an Italian geometer, who was a pupil 
 of the celebrated Cavaheri, and hved about the middle of the 
 seventeenth century. He taught mathematics at Padua, and 
 published a number of excellent works on the subject. 
 
 AXGELICO, Beato, or ERA GIOVAXXI AXGELICO DA 
 FIESOLE. See Pietri Guldo da Mcgello. 
 
 AXGELICO, Michel AxGELO, an Italian apothecary, a native 
 of Vicenza, who hved about the end of the sixteenth, or com- 
 mencement of the seventeenth century. In addition to eminent 
 success in the practice of pharmacy, he dedicated Ids leism-e to 
 the art of poetry, in which he exhibited considerable skill. 
 
 AXGELICO, Michel Asgelo, an Italian poet, the nephew 
 of the preceding, and like him a native of Vicenza. He had 
 studied law, but devoted nearly his whole attention to the belles- 
 lettres, and attamed high reputation as a poet. He died at 
 Vienna in 1697. 
 
 AXGELIE'RI, Boxavextuka, a Sicilian friar of the order 
 of St. Francis, and \icar-general of the order at iladild. He 
 was alive in 1707. 
 
 AXGELIO or DEGLI AXGELI, Pietro, an Italian poet, 
 bom at Barga in Lucca in 1517. Having entered the university 
 of Bologna at the age of sixteen, m order to study law, he greatly 
 distinguished himself for talent and scholarship ; but in conse- 
 quence of an intrigue, and certain satirical verses he had written, 
 he found it necessary to quit the city. At Venice, however, 
 the French ambassador, PeUssier, employed him to copy Greek 
 MSS. for the royal hbrary at Paris. In the suite of another 
 French minister, he subsequently visited Constantinople, Greece, 
 and Asia Minor. In 1543 he was present at the siege of Xice 
 by the French, but in consequence of a duel fled to Florence. 
 In 1546 he was chosen professor of Greek at Reggio. In 1575 
 be published his poem on the Cluistian Conquest of Palestine, 
 and died at Pisa in 1596. — F. 
 
 AXGELIO or DEGLI AXGELI, Antoxio, bishop of Massa 
 in Sienna in 1570 ; died 1579. 
 
 AXGELIS or DEGLI iVXGELI, Aless^vndro, bom at 
 Spoleto in 1562, an Italian astronomer, who was prefect of 
 studies in the college of Rome, and a member of the order of 
 Jesuits: died at FeiTara in 1620. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AXGELIS, D' or DEGLI AXGELI, Fraxcesco-Axtoxio, 
 
 was bom at Sorrento, near Naples, about 1507; became a Jesuit 
 in his sixteenth year, and in 1602 was sent to India as a mis- 
 sionary ; thence he went into Abyssinia, where he preached for 
 eighteen years, and where he died in 1623. He translated into 
 the native language several religious books. — F. 
 
 AXGELIS, D' or DEGLI ANGELI, Paolo, an Italian anti- 
 quary, who was a native of Syracuse, and canon of Sta. Slaria- 
 Maggiore at Rome; died in 1647. 
 
 ANGELIS, Baldassar d', a Xeapolitan lawyer and judge 
 in the seventeenth centmy, and the author of some works of 
 reputation on the subject of law. 
 
 ANGELIS, DoMEXico d', a Neapolitan historian and bio- 
 grapher, bom at Lecce in the province of Otranto in 1675. 
 Having studied at Naples and entered into orders, he became 
 vicar-general of Viesti, and chaplain to the papal and NeapoUtan 
 forces. He was also historiogi-apher to Phihppe V. of Naples, 
 and secretaiy to the Duke de Gravina. He died in 1719. — F. 
 
 ANGELIS, GiROLAMO d', was bom at Castro-Giovanni La 
 Sicily in 1567. His rehgious zeal led him to become a Jesuit 
 missionary. He spent twenty-two years in Japan, where his 
 labours were attended with great success, but where at last he 
 suffered death. He >vrote an account of Yeso, (Rome, 1625.) 
 
 AXGELIS, Pedp.o d', a Portuguese writer, by birth an 
 Italian, went to Paris in 1818, where he was occupied in Uterary 
 pursuits. He subsequently proceeded to Buenos Ayres, and as 
 editor of a re^w called UArcldvo Americano, supported the 
 pohtical views of Rosas. His principal work is a valuable collec- 
 tion of documents relating to the history of the provinces of the 
 Rio de la Plata, Olustrated with notes and dissertations, pub- 
 lished at Buenos Ayres, 1836, et seq., 7 vols. fol. — F. 
 
 ANGELIS, Pierre, a French artist, bom at Dunkirk, 
 1685, painted in the style of Teniers and Watteau : died 1734. 
 
 ANGELO, Battista d', a Veronese painter who lived about 
 1565. He was of the school of Torbido, whom he successfully 
 imitated and even siu^assed in gracefulness of design. His son 
 and pupU, ilarco, was highly esteemed, both as a painter and 
 engraver, but died prematurely at Rome. — R. il. 
 
 ANGELO, Jacopo di, an Itahan Hellenist, a native of Scar- 
 perio ia Tuscany, who hved about the end of the 14th and be- 
 ginning of the 15th centuiy. He settled at Florence, published 
 a Hfe of Cicero, and made some translations from Plutarch. 
 
 ANGELO, Michel. See Bcoxap^koti. 
 
 ANGELONI, Fr.vxcesco, was bora at Temi, in the states 
 of the church, at the end of the 16th centmy. He was secretaiy 
 to Cardinal Aldobrandlni, and besides forming a valuable collec- 
 tion of coins and medals, left behind him a nmnber of MS. com- 
 positions in poctn,-, comedy, and rom.ince ; together with a piece 
 in imitation of the Arcadia of Sannazarius, and some works on 
 antiquarian subjects and numismatology. — F. 
 
 ANGELONI, LuiGi, .in Italian writer, bom at Frosinone in 
 1758 ; died at London in 1842. 
 
 ANGELRAM, bishop of Metz, from 768 to 791 ; supposed 
 to have carried forward the chronicle known as the Nibelung, 
 and his name is associated with the history of the canon law. 
 
 ANGELUCCI, AxGELO, was bom at Naples in the latter part 
 of the seventeenth century. He was a very extensive manufac- 
 turer of sheep-gut vioUn strings, and did ver}- much to improve 
 these veiy important essentials to musical perfomiance. By an 
 elaborate series of experiments, he proved that the quality of the 
 strings depended very greatly upon the age of the sheep, and 
 .ascertained that those of from seven to eight months old, 
 accustomed to pasture on the momitains, were by very far 
 the most desirable for his purpose. His operations were so 
 extensive, that he kept a hundred workmen in constant em- 
 plopnent; and because he thus gave such ver)' large occu- 
 pation to its inhabitants, he w.is reg.irded as a benefactor of 
 the village of Sale in the Neapolitan territoiy, from whence 
 these numerous artificers of fiddlestrings were all selected. In- 
 considerably as many may esteem his fabric;itions, Angelucci 
 was as great an enthusiast in his calling as many an inventor, 
 whose labours may be more easily appreciated by such as are 
 not practically concemed in their results. He opened negotia- 
 tions for estabhshing depots and agencies for carrying on the 
 manufacture and sale of his strings in several of the principal 
 cities of the continent, but he failed in this design, and his 
 affairs became greatly embarrassed in consequence. His pecuni- 
 ary involvement was not the only, nor indeed the worst result of 
 
 X
 
 tis ambitious (for this worthy, an artist in his way, was ambi- 
 tious even about the propagation of sound viohn strings), his 
 ambitious, if not acquisitive intention. The principles which it 
 had been tlie study of his Hfe to mature, were by this means ex- 
 posed, and so became known to any and evei-y one who could be 
 intrusteil to take advantage of his secret. He took this so sorely 
 to heart, that it was supposed to accelerate his death, which 
 occurred at Naples in 17G5, when he had attained a veiy ad- 
 vanced age. — G. A. M. 
 
 ANGELUCCI, Teodoro, a physician and poet of Italy, a 
 native of Belforte, near Tolentino. He was author of a number 
 of treatises relating to his profession, and some poetical pieces of 
 a devotional character. He died at Montagnana in IGOO. 
 
 ANGELUS, Andrew, born at Strasbm-g in 1561, and died 
 in 1598 ; wrote a number of historical and theological works. 
 
 ANGELUS, Arnold, a Jesuit of Holland, bom at Utrecht 
 1620, died 1676; -wTote on theology and against Lutheranism. 
 
 ANGELUS, Bai.dus, a physician of Urbino, in the last half 
 of the sixteenth century, wrote a tract " De Vipera; Natm-a," &c. 
 
 ANGELUS, Christopher, a learned native of Peloponnesus, 
 who, persecuted by the Tm-ks, came to England, and having 
 stu<lied at the university of Cambridge, took up his abode at 
 Oxford, where he published several works, one of them being an 
 account of the persecution he had endm-ed ; and another, being 
 an encomium, in Greek and Latin, upon the sister universities of 
 O.xford and Cambridge. He died at Oxford in 1638. — F. 
 
 ANGELUS, JoHANN, a learned physician and astronomer, a 
 native of Aichen in Bavaria; died at Vienna in 1512. 
 
 ANGELUS, SiLESius, a poet-philosopher, bom at Glatz 
 or Breslau in 1624; died in 1677. Under the nome de ]}lume 
 of JoiiANN Scheffler, lie enjoys consi(leraI)le celebrity in 
 Germany. He belongs to the school of Taider and Behmen ; 
 and liis system may be defined a virtual pantheism, founded 
 on sentiment or love. He never developed his opinions in a 
 scientific form : we find them in a gi-eat number of poetical 
 sentences and spiritual songs. Some of these latter have been 
 recently imported into our English hterature. — J. P. N. 
 
 ANGELY, Ludwig, a dramatic poet, bom at Berlin towards 
 the end of the eighteenth century, was descended from a French 
 family who had established themselves at Berlin at the revo- 
 cation of the edict of Nantes. He wrote a number of original 
 dramas, and translated a gi-eat many of the French di-amatic 
 writers into German. Died in 1835. 
 
 ANGENNES, a noble family in France, distinguished from 
 the fourteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century. Its 
 founder was Robert d'Angennes, Seigneur de RambouiUet et 
 de Marolles, whose son distinguished himself in various situations 
 of trust at the court of Charles VI., and whose gi'andson was 
 chamberlain to the king, and afterwards tutor to the dauphin 
 in 1410. — Ch.\rles was Cardinal de RambouiUet, and ambassa- 
 dor of France to Gregory XIII., and died in 1587. — Nichoeas 
 d'Angennes, Seigneur of RambouiUet, Villeneuve, and Mouton- 
 niere, was ambassador of Charles IX. to the English court, and 
 possessed great skill as a diplomatist. — Claude, bom at Ram- 
 bouiUet in 1534, was bishop of Noyon, and afterwards bishop of 
 Mans, and died in 1601. — Louis was Marquis of Maintenon. 
 Baron of Mesial, Seigneur of Moutonniere, and French ambassa- 
 dor to the Spanish court. Many other members of the house were 
 no less distinguished. The family became extinct in 1640, by the 
 death of Charles d'Angennes, Comte de la Rocliepot. — F. 
 
 ANGERVILLE, Richard, bora at Bury and educated at 
 Oxford, rose in the favour of Edward III., was made bishop of 
 Durham, and aftenvards chancellor and treasurer of the realm. 
 He was a great lover of books, and wrote a " PhUo-Bibloner, 
 or De Aniore Libroram." Died in 1345. 
 
 ANGHIE'RA, Pietro-Martire d', or Petrus 3\Iartyr, 
 an historical writer, born at Arona, on Lake Maggiore, in 1455. 
 In 1477 he visited Rome ; and m 1488 accompanied Lopez 
 Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador to the court of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, and took sen'iee in the anny against the Moors of 
 Grenada. In 1494 he entered into orders, and was afterwards 
 employed in various diplomatic missions in Venice and in Egypt. 
 He ultunately became prior of the cathedral of Grenada, where 
 lie died in 1526. His works are — "Opus Epistolarnm ;" and 
 " De rebus oceanicis et orbe nova decades :" Alcala, 1530. — F. 
 
 ANGILBERT, a poet, styled the Homer of his age. He had 
 studied under Alcuin, the preceptor of Chariemagne;" and having 
 gained the esteem of that prince, and the hand of his daughter 
 
 Bertha, he was appointed chief minister at the court of Pepin, 
 king of Italy, and aftenvards governor of one of the maritime 
 districts of France, and finally secretaiy and minister of his royal 
 patron. Undazzled by these marks of distinction, Angilbert, with 
 the consent of his wife, retired into the monastery of St. Riquier, 
 of which, in 794, he became abbot. He wrote a laudatoi-y poem 
 addressed to King Pepin ; some elegiac verses on the patron saint 
 of Jiis monastery ; a few epitaphs and inscriptions ; and a history 
 of the Abbey of Centule or St. Riquier. Died 814. — F. 
 
 ANGIOLELLO or ANZOLLELO, Giovanni- Maria, an 
 Itahan litterateur, who was a native of Vicenza, and was taken 
 prisoner by the Turks in 1469. He accompanied the amiy of 
 l\Iahomet II. on the expedition in 1473 against the king of Persia, 
 and wrote an account of the expedition after his return to his 
 native land. It is said that he likewse composed a life of Ma- 
 homet. He was still aHve in 1524. 
 
 ANGIOLI'NI, Francesco, an Italian Jesuit, bom in 1738, 
 who translated into Itahan the histoiy of Joscphus (Verona, 
 1780), and also some of the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides 
 (Rome, 1782). "Wlien Catlierine afforded an asylum in her 
 dominions to the Jesuits, Angiolini went into Russia. He wi-ote 
 a I\IS. history of his order from its estabhshment in the Russian 
 empire, and died in 1788. 
 
 AJSIGIVILLER, Count Ciiaules-Claude-Labillarde- 
 kie d', a French statesman, who was so zealous a patron of 
 Hteratm-e and the fine arts, that he was accused, in 1790, of 
 a prodigal expenditure of the public money for thek encoiu-- 
 agcment, and obliged to quit France. He first fled to Russia, 
 and ultimately .settled in Germany, where he died in 1810. 
 
 ANGLA'DA, Joseph, a French physician, born at Perpignan 
 in 1775, author of the following works : — "Diss, sur les con- 
 naissances et les qualitds necessaires au medecui," Montpellier, 
 1797; "^lemohes pour seiTir a, Thistoire generate des eaux 
 minerales," &c., Paris, 1827; "Traite des eaux minerales et des 
 etabUssements thei-maux," &c., Paris, 1833 ; and " Traite de 
 toxicologic generale," &c., Paris, 1835. Died in 1833. 
 
 ANGLEBERME, Jean-Pyrrhus d', a French lawyer, born 
 at Orleans, 1470, who was one of the pupils of Erasmus, and 
 afterwards professor of law in the university of his native city. 
 He was aj)pomted by Francis I. a member of the council of 
 state at Milan ; and having entered the mihtary profession, he 
 lost his life by the explosion of a magazine in 1521. He left a 
 number of works of considerable learning on a variety of sub- 
 jects, as well as that of law. — F. 
 
 ANGLESEY, IMarquis. See Paget. 
 
 ANGLUIIE, Oger d', a Frenchman, who, having visited 
 Palestine and Eg}pt in 1395-6, wrote an interesting account of 
 his travels, which was first printed in 1621, in 8vo. 
 
 ANGLUS, Thomas. See White. 
 
 ANGO, Pierre, a French Jesuit and professor of mathema- 
 tics, author of works on optics, fortification, &c. Flourished 
 in the seventeenth centuiy. 
 
 ANGO or ANGOT, an enterprising seaman and shipowner of 
 Dieppe. The Portuguese having in 1530 plundered several of 
 his vessels, Angot equipped a squadron, blockaded Lisbon, and 
 finally obtained ample compensation. After entertaining his 
 sovereign, Francis I., with more than royal splendour, he lent 
 that monarch a largo sum of money. Subsequently he was un- 
 successful in various enterprises, and applied in vain for payment 
 of the loan. Died in 1551, at Dieppe, in great poverty. — E. M. 
 
 ANGOT, Robert, a French poet of some merit, born at 
 Ciien in 1581. 
 
 ANGOULEME, Due d', third son of Francis I. Died at an 
 early age, without issue. Charles IX. of France, also, bore the 
 title of Due d'Angoulcme till his accession. 
 
 ANGOULEME, Charles de Valois, Due d', a natural 
 son of Charles IX., and of Marie Touchet, and a natural brother 
 of the Marchioness of Veraeuil, mistress of Henri IX., was bora 
 in 1573, and died in 1650. Trained from an early age for the 
 order of Malta, he became, in 1589, prior of France; but quitted 
 the order in 1591, and married a daughter of Marshal d'Amville, 
 afterwards Due de Jlontmorenci. Having received, in 1589, by 
 royal grant, the countries of Clermont-Auvergne and Laura- 
 guais, Charles de Valois was long known as Count d'Auvergne. 
 He held a command in the royal army at the siege of Paris, 
 when Henri III. was assassinated. Entering the .service of 
 Henri IV., he distinguished himself at the battles of Ivry and 
 Fontaine Fran9ais, and on vaiious other occasions. For parti-
 
 AI?G 
 
 163 
 
 ANH 
 
 cipating ■with his sister in successive plots, he was confined in 
 the Bastile about the end of 1604. In 1616 he was released, 
 restored to his military rank, and entrusted with the command 
 of an army. In 1617 he commanded the forces besieging 
 Soissons. In 1620, a royal decree confirmed his right to the 
 duchy of Angouleme, bequeathed to him by the late Duchess 
 Diane. As joint ambassador to the princes of Germany, he 
 contributed to the treaty of Ulm, signed 3rd July, 1620. In 
 1627 he conducted the siege of Rochelle. In 1635, he was 
 joint-commander of the French army in Lorraine. After the 
 death of Louis XIII., and of Cardinal Richeheu in 1643, he re- 
 tired from the public service. He was a man of gi-eat capacity, 
 activity, and eloquence, but utterly unprincipled. His pubUshed 
 works are : — 1. " Me'moires ;" 2. " Speeches delivered in the 
 Assembly of Protestant Piinces in Germany;" 3. "Narrative of 
 events in the Isle of Re :" 4. "Translation of the Sj'anish work 
 of Diego de Toires." — E. ^I. 
 
 ANGOULEME, Louis Antoixe de Bourbon, Due d', 
 son of Count d'Aiiois, afterwards Chai'Ies X., and of Marie 
 Therese of Savoy, was born at Versailles in 1775. With his 
 brother, the Duke de BeiTi, he accompanied their father, when, 
 in 1789, foreseeing the course of events, he left France and 
 repaired to Turin. In 1799, he mamed at Jlittau, his cousin, 
 JIarie Ther^se, the daughter of Louis XVI. and of Marie An- 
 toinette of Austria. The Dulce d' Angouleme, joiumg the Anglo- 
 Spanish army, which crossed the PjTenees in the beginning of 
 1814, addi-essed a proclamation to the French nation, on 11th 
 Febniary, and on 12th Itlarch entered Bordeaux. He com- 
 manded the French anny which, in 1823, entered Spain to aid 
 Ferdinand in suppressing the constitution, and, during his stay 
 there, displayed considerable prudence and moderation. At 
 Ramboiullet, on the 2d August, 1830, he renoimced, jointly with 
 his father, his rights to the throne in favour of the DulvC de 
 Bordeaux, and on the 10th anived in England with the duchess 
 and the other members of the exiled royal famUy. After residing 
 a short time in Scotland, he and his wife quitted Britain, and 
 spent the rest of their lives in various parts of the continent. 
 He died at Goritz in 1844. The duchess, of whom Napoleon said 
 that she was the only member of the famOy that had the spmt 
 and energy of a man, died in 1851. — E. M. 
 
 AXGOULEME, Louis Emmanuel, Due d', second son of 
 Charles de Valois, was bom in 1596. Educated for the chmxh, 
 he had obtained, when only sixteen, a bishopric and two abbeys. 
 On the death of his younger brother, he took the title of Count 
 d'Alais, and entered the army, continuhig, however, for a con- 
 siderable time, to retain his chm-ch preferments. After serving 
 with distinction in Italy and Lon-aine, as well as in France dur- 
 ing the civil wars, he was made colonel-general of the hght 
 horse, and governor of Provence. As his elder brother had 
 become insane, he succeeded his father as Due d'Angouleme. 
 Died in 1653.— E. M. 
 
 ANGOULEME, Turpion, Count d', the first Count d'An- 
 gouleme, is said to have lived in the ninth century. His last 
 male descendant died in 1218. Fran9ois, Count d'Angouleme, 
 who, in 1515, became king of France, raised Angouleme to a 
 duchy in favour of his mother, Louise of Savoy. 
 
 ANGOULEVENT le Cadet, the assumed name of a French 
 satirical poet, lived early in the seventeenth centuiT. 
 
 ANGRAN D'ALLERAY, DEXIS-FKAN901S, a French judge, 
 famous for his benevolence and moral heroism, was born at Paris 
 in 1715. Compelled, on one occasion, to imprison an unfortu- 
 nate but honest father of a family, to enforce payment of a large 
 debt, he paid the amount, and set the worthy man at liberty. 
 Indicted, during the reign of terror, on the charge of having sent 
 money to royalist emigrants, Angran d'Alleray admitted having 
 sent various sums to his ovm son-in-law. " \\'cre you not aware 
 of the law?" said one of the jury. "I was," he replied, "but 
 I was also aware of another law still more sacred, which bids 
 parents aid their chihh'en." On this he was condemned to 
 death, and led to execution, 28th April, 1794.— E. M. 
 
 ANGRIA'NI, or AIGUANI, or AYGUANI, Miciiele, a 
 learned Carmelite monk, author of mnnerous theological works, 
 some of wliich remain in MS., was bom at Bologna about the 
 middle of the fourteenth century, and died in 1400. 
 
 ANGUIER, Francois, one of the most distinguished 
 French sculptors of the seventeenth centuiy, was born at Eu in 
 Noi-mandy in 1004, and died in Paris hi 1669. He studied in 
 Piu-is mider Guilhiin, and in Rome under Alg;u-di. His style, 
 
 although deeply impressed with all the mannerism of the age, is 
 higlily remarkable. The monument of the Duo de Montmorenci 
 at !Moulins is his masterpiece. — R. M. 
 
 ANGUIER, Michel, brother of the preceding, and a sculptor 
 of great merit and celebrity. He also studied under Guillain 
 and Algardi, with the last of whom he remained for ten years at 
 Rome. On his return to Paris, he executed many works, 
 amongst which are noted some decorations in the old Louvre, tlie 
 sculptm-es of the arch of St. Denis, and those of the church of 
 Val de Grace. As great a mannerist, if not more so, than his 
 brother, his works are full of the livehest expression. Bom in 
 1612; diedm 1086.— R. M. 
 
 ANGUILLA'RA, Giovanni Andrea dell', a poet, bom at 
 Sutri, m the papal states, about the year 1517, who translated 
 Ovid's I\Ietamoi-phoses into Itahan. His habits were immoral, 
 and rendered liim the ^dctim of successive misfortunes. The 
 period at which he died is uncertain. 
 
 ANGUILLARA, Luigi, an Itahan physician, was bom at 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century at Anguillara. He was 
 director of the botanic gai'den of Padua from 1540 to 1561; but 
 afterwards retired to Florence, where he died in October, 1570. 
 He was an excellent hnguist, and travelled through various 
 countries of Em-ope. A collection of his letters on botanical 
 subjects was pubHshed in 1561. He appears to have made 
 learned researches into the old names of plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 ANGLTILLE'SI, Giovanni Dominico, a poet and lawyer, 
 bora at Pisa in 1766, who was secretary to the Grand-duchess 
 Elise, the sister of Napoleon. He aftenvards became professor 
 of Latin in the miiversity of Naples, and chancellor of the mii- 
 versitv of Pisa, where he died in 1833. 
 
 ANGUrSCIOLA or ANGUSSOLA, Sofonisba, a female 
 portrait-painter, bora at Cremona in 1535, and possessed of 
 great skill in her art ; the pictures executed by her for Philip 
 II. of Spain, and other sovereigns, obtained the highest admha- 
 tion, and raised her reputation beyond that of most of her con- 
 temporaries. She was honoured with the friendship of many 
 illustrious persons of her time, and died at an advanced age 
 about the year 1620. Her three sisters, Lucia, Em-opa, and 
 Anna-Maria were also remarkable for their skill in painting. — F. 
 
 ANGUS, latinised ^NEAS or iENGUS, an Irish monk, 
 remarkable for his piety and learning, who hved about the close 
 of the seventh century. He became abbot of the monastery of 
 Cluainenach in Leinster, and is said to have been a bishop. 
 He wrote many works; amongst them, a Martyrology in verse, 
 and also one in prose ; a metrical liistory of the Old Testament; 
 and " De Sanctis Hibernia?," in five books. He died between 
 824 and 830, and obtained the title of Ceil-de (Colideus) from 
 his great piety. — (Cohjan.') — J. F. W. 
 
 ANHALT, one of the most ancient and illustrious Saxon 
 djuasties of Northern Gemiany, now divided into several branches, 
 the chiefs of which have the rank of dukes, and are sovereign 
 members of the Germanic confederation. The house of Anhalt 
 is descended from Bernard, youngest son of Albert, sumamed 
 the Bear, Manpiis of Brandenbm'g in 1142, whose immediate 
 representatives ruled over the greater part of Northern Gemiany 
 in the middle ages, being invested with the duchy of Saxony 
 and the marquisate of Brandenburg. We notice — 
 
 Anhalt Berxburg, Christian I., Prince of, was born 
 in 1568, and in 1606 succeeded his father, Joachhn-Ernst, 
 obtaining for his share of the patrimonial dominions Bernbiu-g, 
 Ballenstiidt, Hartzgerode, and the temporalities of the abbey of 
 Gernrode. Before he became of age, he visited Constantinople, 
 France, Italy, and Denmark, and in 1591 led into France an 
 army of twenty thousand men, which the Gennan princes had 
 raised to aid Henrj' IV. in the w.ar of the League. In 1619 
 he aided Prince ^loritz of Orange at the siege of Jiilich, .and 
 having been appointed by Frederick V., king of Bohemia, to 
 connnand his forces, gained some important advantages over the 
 imperial generals Bucquoi and Danipicrre. In 1620, however, 
 he was defeated by Miuximilian, duke of Bavaria, in the battle 
 of Prague. In the following year he was put under the ban of 
 the empire, hut was released in 1623, afti'r which he led a re- 
 tired life in his dominions, and died in KioO. 
 
 Anhalt Bekxburi:, Chiustiax II , Duke of, son of the 
 preceding, was born in 1599. He studied the art of war 
 under the celebrated Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. At 
 the battle of Prague, in which his fatlier commanded the troops 
 of Frederick V. of Bohemia, he led two divisions of the anny.
 
 ANH 
 
 164 
 
 ANI 
 
 Daring the disorders of tlie Thirty Years' War, lie visited in 
 succession every part of Europe, with tlie exception of Russia 
 and Turkey ; and after returning to his dominions, died in 16.56. 
 
 AxHALT Dessau, Prince Leopold I. of, was bom 1676, 
 entered the amiy at the age of twelve, early won the reputation 
 of a distinguished soldier, and attained the rank of field-marshal. 
 He enjoyed the confidence of Frederic William I., and his suc- 
 cessor Frederic II., and died in 1747. 
 
 Anhalt Dessau, Prince Leopold Maximilian of, son 
 of the prcceduig, bom 1700. In his youth he entered the 
 army, and served in Hungary, being present in several of the 
 most remarkable engagements with the forces of Turkey. He 
 ultimately attained the rank of field-marshal, and on succeeding 
 his father, obtained great popuLority for his patriotic efiorts to 
 improve the civil institutions of his countiy. He died in 1751. 
 
 Anhalt Dessau, Leopold Frederic Franz, Duke of, 
 bom in 1710, entered tlie Prussian army at an early age, 
 and made several campaigns under Frederic II. before he was 
 eighteen, at which age he entered on the government of his 
 duchy. For some years after 1763, he engaged in travelling to 
 foreign countries ; and on his return made great improvements 
 in his dominions with respect to education, agriculture, and 
 jurispmdcnce. In 1814 he lost his only son, an event which 
 greatly clouded his remaining years. He died in 1817. 
 
 Anhalt Kotiien, Louis, Prince of, was born at Dessau 
 in 1579. In the Thirty Years' War he supported the protestant 
 party, and was appointed, by Gustavus Adoljjlms, in 1631, 
 governor of Magdeburg and Halberstadt. This prince was re- 
 markable for his great attainments, being an accomplished Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew scholar, and conversant with many of the 
 modem languages of Europe ; he was likewise the personal 
 friend and correspondent of some of the most distinguished men 
 of his time. The latter period of his life was entu-ely devoted 
 to literary pursuits. He died in 1650. 
 
 Anhalt Kotiien, Frederic Ferdinand, Duke of, was bom 
 in 1769, and in 1819 succeeded to the duchy, and died in 1830. 
 
 Anhalt Zerbst Dessau, Rodolph, Prince of, bom about 
 the year 1400, was one of the most galLant soldiers of his 
 time, and enjoyed the friendship of Maximilian I., king of the 
 Roman'*, and of the Emperor Frederick III., in whose military 
 expeditions he took an important part. He died by poison 
 diuing the Italian campaign of 1513. 
 
 Anhalt Zerbst Dessau, Joachim Ernst, Prince of, 
 was bora in 1536, succeeded his brother Charles at the age of 
 twenty-five, and came into possession of the whole principality 
 of Anhalt on the death of his cousin Wolfgang in 1566. He 
 died at the age of fifty, leaving six sons. — F. 
 
 ANHALT, Antonio Gunther, Prince of, born in 1653, 
 was present at the sieges of Grave, Oudenarde, and Philipsburg, 
 and fought in the sen-ice of Prassia against the forces of the 
 sultan at Vienna. Subsequently he had the command of a large 
 amiy in the .service of Holland and England. Died 1714. 
 
 ANIANUS, a Roman jurist, who abridged the code of Theo- 
 dosius for Alaric, king of the Visigoths in Spain. 
 
 ANIANUS, .an Italian priest, a native of Campania, who 
 lived at the beginning of the fifth centuiy. He defended Pela- 
 gianism at the council of Diospolis in 415, and made a Latin 
 translation of some of the works of St. Chiysostom. 
 
 ANIANUS, an Egypti.in monk, who lived in the first half of 
 the fifth century, devoting himself to the study of chronogi'aphy, 
 on which, according to Syncellus, he composed a treatise. 
 
 ANIANUS, an astronomer of the fifteenth century, author of 
 a remarkable Latin poem, entitled " Computus Manualis," in 
 which tlie Julian calendar, solar and lunar cycles, moveable 
 feasts, &c., are exhibited in hexameters. 
 
 ANIBEUT, Louis Matthieu, an antiquarian and poet of 
 France, born at Trinque-taillc-lez-Arles in 1742. In addition 
 to some poems and comedies, he composed several volimies of 
 antiquarian memoirs, relating to the republic of Aries, and the 
 general history of Provence. Died 1782. 
 
 ANICE'TUS, St., was bishop of Rome in a.d. 150 or 157, 
 and suffered martyrdom in 161, under Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 ANICir, Peter, a Tyrolcse peasant, bom near Iniisprack in 
 1723. Although occupied in husbandry up to liis twentj'-eighth 
 year, he had exhibited marvellous talents for scientific study, 
 wliich were cultivated by the assistance of the Jesuits of Inns- 
 pruck. At the recommendation of the professor of mathematics, 
 the Empress Maria Theresa employed him to measure and con- 
 
 struct a map of tlie Northern Tyrol. He executed this difficult 
 and laborious task almost unaided, and ^vith a degi-ee of accuracy 
 scarcely surpassed by those who enjoy the highest scientific ap- 
 pliances for such undertakings. Died 1766. — F. 
 
 ANICHINI, Francesco Ludovico, an engraver of gems 
 and medals. He lived and worked at Venice about the middle 
 of the sixteenth century. Some of his gems deserved to be 
 honoured by the admiration of the great Micliel Angelo. — R. M. 
 
 ANICIR, Abu-l-Abbas-Al-Fadl-Ibn-Hatim, an Arabian 
 astronomer and meteorologist, who lived at the comi of the 
 caliph Al-Matadlied, about a.d. 900. 
 
 ANIL^.US and ASINJ:US, two brothers, of Jewish ex- 
 traction, who lived near Babylon about a.d. 20, and raised an 
 insurrection against Aiiabanus, king of Partliia. 
 
 ANIMUCCIA, Giovanni, was bom at Florence in the early 
 part of the sixteenth century. He was a fellow-student of 
 Palestrina, Nanmo, and other eminent musicians, in the cele- 
 brated school that Claude Goudimel of Burgundy estabhshed at 
 Rome in 1540. He held the office of maestro di capella in the 
 pontifical chapel, in the discharge of which he produced many 
 ecclesiastical compositions. He is said to have beeu the first 
 who attempted to make music a medium for the expression 
 of the sentiment of the words to wliich it was set, beyond 
 the vague principle that prevailed in the chmxh system as 
 adopted from the Greeks, of appropriating each mode to a 
 special character in the general sentiment of the subject ; but 
 his distinction in the history of the musical art is more impor- 
 tant, because more certain, as the fomider of the oratorio, the 
 class of composition that is ranked above all others as embody- 
 ing the highest order of expression in the gi-andest, the most 
 comprehensive, and the profoundest technical means. The 
 origin of the oratorio is remarkably analogous vnth that of the 
 Greek di-ama, which was also, be it remembered, the develop- 
 ment of a religious solemnity, rising gradually from the sunple 
 hymns of the people, by means of the recitations with whicli 
 Thespis interspersed these to the great classic tragedies, wherein 
 the chonis still formed an essential part. St. Filippo Neri, for 
 the purpose of attracting the public to the evening discourses 
 which he delivered in the oratory of the Chiesa Nuova, had 
 some hymns of praise, or laudi, as they were called, performed 
 when his congi-egation assembled. These were set to music by 
 Animuccia, and consisted at first of laudatory verses, that 
 were sung in responsive alternation by the two sides of the choir, 
 like the strophe and antlstrophe of the Greek chorus, with an 
 occasional part for a solo voice, like that of the chorus-leader ; 
 subsequently they assumed the character of dialogues ; then they 
 took the fonn of commentary upon a naiTative from sacred story, 
 throughout the recital of which they were interspersed; and 
 finally were modified into the mysteries or miracles, dramatic 
 renderings of the incidents recorded in holy writ, or of allegories 
 illustrating its tenets, which were, for long, prevalent in church 
 practice, but, in this case, were always accompanied with music ; 
 and, from being always performed in the oratory of the church, 
 they soon came to be defined by the name of oratorios. It ap- 
 pears that no specimens remain of these crade essays of Ani- 
 muccia, in the fonn of composition in which some of the gi-eat- 
 est masters have produced some of their gi'eatest mastei-pieces ; 
 but much of his pm'ely ecclesiastical music is presen'ed in manu- 
 script in the libraiy of the Vatican, besides a set of madi-igals 
 and motets, which he pubhshed at Venice in 1548, and some 
 masses which he published at Rome in 1567, from which latter 
 Padre Slartini reprinted two in his treatise on composition, as 
 exemplary specimens of the treatment of the sixth and eighth 
 modes. He died in 1571, and was succeeded in his appoint- 
 ment at St. Peter's by Palestrina, who, some authorities appear 
 to hint, ofliciated for him during the last two years of his life, 
 when, probably from illness, he may have been incapacitated for 
 the discharge of his duties. He is as highly extolled for the 
 purity of his life, as for the excellence of his music. — G. A. M. 
 
 ANIMUCCIA, Paolo, brother of Giovanni, and though not 
 so eminent, he was still a musician of great merit. He held the 
 office of maestro di capella in the church of St. John of Lateran 
 at Rome, and composed many madrigals and motets. He stands 
 in an honour.able rank among that remark.able constellation of 
 Italian contrapuntists, who, throughout the sixteenth centuiy, 
 did very much to advance the progress of music. — G. A. M. 
 
 ANI'SIO, Giovanni, a Neapolitan, bom 1472, died 1540, 
 'cno^vn as a Latin poet under the name of Janus Anysius.
 
 AXISSOX-DUPEREON, a family of Daupliine, of which the 
 follo^ving members deserve notice : — Charles Axissox, a monk, 
 ambassador to the Roman coml on behalf of Henri IV. — 
 Lacrext, nephew of the preceding, a publisher, who lived at 
 Lvons about 1G70. — Jean, the eldest son of Lam'ent, hved 
 about the end of the seventeenth and the commencement of the 
 eighteenth centuries. He edited the Greek lexicon of Da Cange, 
 was appointed supeiintendent of the rojal printing-office at 
 tae Louvre, and in 1713 was sent to London as one of the 
 French commissioners for arranging the preliminaries of the 
 peace of Utrecht. His eldest son, Louis Laurent, became 
 director of the royal printing-office in 1723, and was succeeded 
 in 1733 by his brother Jacques. — Etiexne Alexandre 
 Jacques, a son of the latter, was bom in 1748, and in 1788 
 succeeded to his fathers office. In 1790 he undertook to print 
 the assignats, but failed to give satisfaction, and was obliged to 
 resign. In 1791 he was arrested on some unkno^vn chai'ge, 
 and having vainly attempted to extricate himself by biibeiT, was 
 executed. He claims the invention of several improvements in 
 the piinting-press. — Alexandre Jacques Laurent was 
 born in 1776, and after being employed in various departments 
 of the ci^-il serrice under the empire, became director of the 
 imperial printing-office in 1809, a situation which he retained 
 after the abdication of Napoleon. The privileges of the royal 
 press were, however, soon abolished. On the return of Xapoleon 
 from Elba, Anisson withdrew into private life, but was re- 
 appointed at the tei-mination of the " hmidred days." In 1823 
 the privileges of the royal press were restored, but on the re- 
 estabhshment of the censor^sliip in 1827, Anisson tendered his 
 final resignation. The remainder of his life he devoted to the 
 study of political economy. He represented, in succession, vari- 
 ous constituencies in the chamber of deputies, and in 18-44: was 
 raised to the peerage. He was one of the founders of the 
 French free-trade association. — J. W. S. 
 
 AXITCHKOV, DiMiTRi Sergiewitch, a Russian meta- 
 physician and mathematician, bom 1740, died 1778. 
 
 AXJOU, Counts afteraards Dukes of, a powerful French 
 family, closely connected with the royal house, who maintained 
 a considerable share of independence until the reign of Louis 
 XI. The most ancient branch of these princes derives its origin 
 from Ingelger, a favourite of Charles the Bald, a.d. 870. 
 
 AXJOU, Charles of. See Charles of Anjou. 
 
 AXKARKRO'XA, Theodor (Christoffers), a Swedish 
 admiral, was bom in 1687, and died in 1750. 
 
 AXKARSTROEM, Johann Jakob, a Swedish noble, who 
 was bom in 1759, and executed in 1792, for the assassination 
 of the t}Tant king, Gustav III. 
 
 AXKER or AXCHER, Peder Kofod, a Danish lawyer, pro- 
 fessor of jurisprudence at the university of Copenhagen. He 
 was bom in 1710, and died in 1788. 
 
 AXLAF or AilLAVE. There have been several Danish 
 chiefs of this name connected with Irish history. The first of 
 whom mention is made in Irish annals, invaded L'eland with 
 his brothers Sitric and Ivar, in the beginning of the ninth cen- 
 tury. The most distmguished of the name was Anlaf, who 
 flomished in the 10th century, probably the grandson of Ivar, a 
 man of great abilities as a warrior, and a cautious and skilful 
 poUtician. He espoused the cause of the king of Scotland 
 against Athelstane of England, but being unsuccessful, he was 
 forced to return to Ireland. After the death of Athelstane, 
 Anlaf entered into communication with the Danes of Northmn- 
 berland, and, with the assistance of Olaus, king of Norway, 
 raised a large force, with which he entered Xorthmnberland, and 
 took possession of York without opposition. An engagement 
 took place in 942 at Old Chester, between his troops and those 
 of King Edmund, which, though not decisive for either side, led 
 to a treaty by which Edmund ceded to Anlaf all the territory 
 north of the Roman highway, and thus divided England into 
 two nearly equal parts. Two years afterwards, however, he was 
 involved in hostilities with Reginald, the son of his brother 
 Godfred, in whose favour a portion of his subjects revolted, 
 and Edmund, taking advantage of this state of things, at fii-st 
 mediated between them, but upon their joining to overthrow him, 
 he attacked and utterly routed the armies of both, forcing Anlaf 
 to retire to Ireland. In the reign of Edred, Anlaf was recalled 
 by the Danes, and established in the government of Nortliunibria ; 
 but he was again driven from it and compelled to fiy to Ireland, 
 and Eric was chosen to fill his place. Once morc he returned 
 
 and defeated Eric, to be again routed in his turn, and to be 
 again victorious. After these series of defeats and successes, 
 we find no further authentic traces of him. — ( Wills.') — J. F. W. 
 
 AXX, Salst, is said to have been the mother of the Vir^n. 
 
 AXXA, the sister of Pygmalion, and of Dido, the foundress 
 of Carthage, appears to have Uved about 880 B.C. 
 
 AXXA, Ajl^ll*., princess of Prussia, was the sister of Fre- 
 derick the Great. She was bom in 1723, and, like her brother, 
 possessed considerable talent for music She was the pupil of 
 the celebrated contrapuntist, Kimberger, and composed several 
 sacred cantatas, besides other compositions, said to have much 
 merit. She died at Berlin in 1787, and bequeathed to the 
 gymnasiiun of that capital a valuable hbrary of music. — G. A. M. 
 
 AXXA COilXEXA, one of the most successful female 
 cultivators of hteratm-e, was bom in a.d. 1083. She was the 
 daughter of the Emperor Alexius Comnenus and of Irene. 
 She boasts that she was not " unacquamted with letters, but, 
 on the contrary, had given the utmost study to Greek, was not 
 unpractised in rhetoric, and had carefully read Aristotle's arts 
 and Plato's dialogues." She was married to Xicephorus Bryen- 
 niiis, a man whom she represents as a paragon of excellence. 
 On the death of her father, she induced her husband to conspire 
 against her brother, who had succeeded to the throne, and both, 
 m consequence of this act, were banished to Bithynia. Here 
 Xicephorus died, and Anna, in her sohtude, began to ^viite the 
 Alexiad, or history of her father Alexius, mainly to cany out a 
 literary project of her husband. This work is one of the most 
 interesting in the whole series of Byzantine productions, though 
 the style is inflated, and the vanity of the writer frequently appeai-s. 
 The Alexiad is not properly a history, but a glorification of its 
 hero. Yet Anna throws so much of her personahty into the 
 narrative, and at the same time many of the events are so note- 
 worthy, that the reader finds great dehght in the perusaL — ^J. D. 
 
 AXXA rWAXO^^'XA, empress of Russia, second daughter of 
 the Czar Ivan or John, the elder brother, and for some time the 
 associate, of Peter the Great. She displayed all the talent and 
 imscmpulousness of the unperial house of Romanoff; making 
 promises which she never meant to keep, yet governing the 
 empire with considerable tact and judgment. She was not 
 popular, because she suffered her poUcy to be influenced by her 
 favourite, Bu'on. She discouraged gambling and drunkeimess, 
 the common vice of her covmtry, while she fostered music and 
 the drama. In her reign the ItaUan opera was first introduced 
 into St. Petersburg. One of her imperial freaks was the erection 
 of the famous palace of ice. She died in 1740. — T. J. 
 
 AX-XADDI-:M0HA:MMED-IBX-ISHAK, otherwise kno\TO 
 as Abu-l-Faraj-Ibn-Abi-Syakub, an Arabian bibhographer 
 of the tenth century. 
 
 AXNAS or AXAXUS, the elder, the son of Seth, was high- 
 priest of the Jews, a.d. 7. He was appointed to his office by 
 Cyrenius, governor of Sma, and deposed by Valerius Grains, the 
 procurator of Judea. His son, bearing the same name, likewise 
 held the office of high priest, and died about a.d. 67. 
 
 AXXAT or AXXATS, Francois, otherwise called Canard, 
 a Jesuit of Rodez in France, m the 17th centiu^', who became 
 provincial of his order, and confessor to Louis X\T.. 
 
 AXXAT, Pierre, the nephew of the former, a French theo- 
 logical author, who died in 1715. 
 
 AXXATUS, Jerome, a Jesuit, bom in 1590, rector of various 
 colleges, and ultimately confessor to Louis XIV. ; a great oppo- 
 nent of the Jansenists. Died in Paris, 1670. 
 
 AXXAYA, Pedro d', a Portuguese admiral, a.d. 1500. He 
 reduced the kingdom of Sofala, and some adjacent provinces of 
 eastern Africa, under the Portuguese authority. 
 
 AXXE, duchess of the Viennois, after the death of her brother 
 John I., resisted the claims of Robert of Burgimdy with remark- 
 able address and vigour. She died 1296, greatly reverenced by 
 her countrymen. 
 
 AXXE OF Austria, the queen of Lewis XIII. of France, 
 was the daughter of Philip II. of Spain, and was married in 
 1615. During the Ufetime of her liusband, she was constantly 
 at variance with his great minister. Cardinal Richelieu, and once, 
 on the suspicion of conveying state intelligence to her native 
 countiy, she underwent the ignominy of having her person 
 searched, and her papers seized. The duke of Buckingham, the 
 ill-fateil minister of Charles I. of England, was deeply attached 
 to Anne, and made open love to her. She reprimanded him so 
 gently that it was thought she retm'ned his affection. When
 
 Lewis XIII. died in 1643, Anne, as mother of the infant monarch, 
 was appointed regent, and displayed no ordinary political tact in 
 making Cardinal Mazarin her minister. The Parisians, however, 
 were uneasy : JIazarin was a foreigner, his financial policy was 
 unpopular, and an insun-ection arose which might have assumed 
 fearful dimensions. It is known in French histoiy as the war 
 of the Fronde. The queen, the cardinal, and their partizans, 
 were opposed to the nobility of the kinj;Jom and the citizens of 
 the capital. The fonner finally prevailed. The higher and 
 middle classes were thoroughly humiliated, as the result of 
 Anne's administration. She died at the age of sixty-four in 
 1 6C6. She was beautiful in person, had much of German phlegm 
 and Austrian pride, yet she was amiable and forgiving. — T. J. 
 
 ANNE OF Beaujeu, the eldest daughter of Lewis XL of 
 France, was bom in 1462. Her father, jealous of her talents, 
 married her to Pierre de Bourbon, sure of Beaujeu, a piince of quiet 
 manners and dull understanding. But on his deathbed, Lewis 
 acknowledged the claims of Anne, by appointing her governess of 
 the kingdom, during the minority of her brother, Charles VIII. , 
 who at that time was only fourteen years of age. John, duke 
 of Bourbon, the brother of her husband, and Lewis, duke of 
 Orleans, heu- ])resumptive to the crown, disputed her claims 
 to this pre-eminence ; but such were her tact and influence, 
 that the States-General decided in her favour. Lewis XI. 
 had a deformed daughter, a younger sister of Anne, whom the 
 duke of Orleans was forced to marr}-. He was but a sorry 
 brother-in-law ; and having insulted Anne, she ordered him to 
 be arrested, but he shut himself up in his fortress on the Loire. 
 Being pressed by her forces, he speedily fled, and sought refuge 
 in Brittany. Anne, pm-suing the favourite policy of her father, 
 was not reluct.ant to find an excuse for annexing that country to 
 the French crown. She attacked the Bretons, and routed them ; 
 took the duke, their leader, prisoner ; and by the pohtic mar- 
 riage of the young king of France to her namesake, the youthful 
 duchess of Brittany, who had just succeeded her father, Francis 
 XL, she fulfilled all her wishes. She retained her rank and 
 influence after Charles VIII. had ascended the throne, and 
 when, dj-ing childless in 1498, he was succeeded by the duke of 
 Orleans, that prince respected her claims and position, and said, 
 " that it did not become the king of France to avenge the feuds 
 of the duke of Orleans." Anne died November 14th, 1522, 
 leaving one daughter, Susanne, heii-ess of her magnificent posses- 
 sions, who married her cousin, Charles de Montpensier, con- 
 stable of Bourbon. — T. J. 
 
 ANXE OF Bohemia, fii-st queen consort of Richai-d II., king 
 of England, was the eldest daughter of the Emperor Charles IV. 
 and his fourth wife, Elizabeth of Pomerania. She was bom 
 about the year 1367 at Prague, and man-ied in the year 1380 
 to the unfortunate Richard before he attained his majoiity. She 
 may justly be entitled one of the nursing-mothers of the great 
 Reformation, for she protected Wicklifte towards the close of his 
 life, when threatened by the council of Lambeth in 1382. She 
 was a diligent student of the Holy Bible. It was she who ob- 
 tdned an amnesty for the multitude who had become involved 
 in the insurrection headed by Wat Tyler. This mediation, and 
 her conspicuous \-irtues, acquu-ed for her the title of the " Good 
 Queen Anne." She died without Issue, on the 7th Jul)-, 1394, 
 at the royal palace of Shene, now Richmond, and was buried at 
 Westminster abbey. Her husband, uiconsoLable for her loss, 
 buried her with splendid obsequies. There is reason to believe 
 that the broad doctrines of the Reformation found their way 
 through the influence of her court to Bohemia, and led to the 
 rise, in her native country, of the Calixtines, and other bodies 
 like-minded, whose influence yet surv-ives. Jerome of Prague 
 and John Huss, Ziska the blind general, and some of the most 
 important leaders and movements of the Thirty- Yeai-s' War, 
 would probably never have excited attention, had it not been 
 for the marriage of good Queen Anne with Richard II. — T. J. 
 
 ANXE OF BiuTTANY Or Bketagne, only daughter of Francis 
 II., duke of Brittany, was bom at Nantes, January 26, 1476. 
 When a child five years old, the family of Edward IV. of Eng- 
 land had caused her to be betrothed to the young prince of 
 Wales, and it was not until his untimely death that the contract 
 was dissolved. Lewis of Orleans, heir presumptive to the French 
 throne, when he fled to Brittany to avoid the anger of Anne of 
 Beaujeu [see article, Anxe of Beaujeu], became deeply ena- 
 moured of her ; and Anne, not yet fifteen, gave him in return 
 her first love. She was soon after married by proxy to Maximi- 
 
 lian of Austria, whose high-sounding titles are said to have 
 dazzled her ambition ; but her clever namesake of Beaujeu had 
 other intentions. Anxious to attach Brittany to the kingdom of 
 France, she demanded Anne in maniage for Charles VIII., and 
 encircled the duchy -n-ith her armies to seciu-e the accomphsh- 
 ment of her desires. Anne of Brittany resisted with such means 
 and as long as she could : nor did she jield until the duke of 
 Orleans, her favoured suitor, advised her to give way. Married 
 to Charles, December 16, 1491, she acted with fidelity and dis- 
 cretion, and at his death displayed deep grief. But her old 
 lover, now Louis XII., divorced the deformed lady he had been 
 compelled to espouse, and soon persuaded Anne to forget her 
 soiTOW by marr_\-ing him at Nantes. It is said that as queen of 
 France she exercised unbomided influence over her husband, and 
 her detractors aflirm that she sacrificed France to the petty in- 
 trigues of Brittany. She died in 1514. — T. J. 
 
 ANNE OF Cleves, the fourth wife of Henry VEIL of England, 
 was the second daughter of John III., duke of Cleves, siuiiamed 
 "the Pacificator." She was bom 22nd of September, 1516, 
 and educated in the Lutheran religion. Holbein painted a 
 matchless miniatm-e of the princess, which charmed the uxorious 
 Henry; but when she arrived in England, and met him at 
 Rochester, he recoiled from her in bitter disappointment. The 
 portrait had evidently been flattered, for Holbein had omitted 
 the marks of small-pox which disfigiu^ed her face. The amiable 
 and unfortunate lady did her best to propitiate her brutal bride- 
 groom, acting with singidar courtesy and forbearance. She was 
 married on the 6th of Januaiy, 1540, being the feast of the 
 Epiphany ; attiring herself with elaborate splendour, and gra- 
 tifying all by her gentleness and dignified modesty. Perceiving 
 that Henrj''s dislike to her was insurmountable, his parasites 
 proposed that she should be divorced; a measure which was 
 adopted by convocation and juirliament in July ; and Cranmer, 
 who " had pronounced the nuptial benediction, had the morti- 
 fjing oflice of dissolving the marriage." She soon became a 
 convert to the Roman catholic church, stayed in England, sur- 
 vived Henry, and died peacefully at Chelsea palace on the 17th 
 of July, 1577. She was magnificently bmied in Westminster 
 abbey, near the high altar, at the feet of King Sebert, the 
 original founder. To Miss Strickland's " Queens of England," 
 the reader is refen-ed for ample particulars concerning her daily 
 habits, costume, and mode of life. — T. J. 
 
 ANNE OF Cyprus, married in 1431 to Lewis, duke of Savoy. 
 She died in 1462, celebrated throughout the country of her 
 adoption for prudence in the management of public aflaks. 
 
 ANNE, QuEEX OF England, second daughter of James II. 
 by his first wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Lord Clai-endon the 
 historian, was bom in the year 1664. 'WTien she was five years 
 old, her father, then duke of York, joined the church of Rome; 
 nevertheless, both she and her elder sister Jlaiy, who aftei-wai'ds 
 married William of Orange and became queen of England, were 
 educated as protestants. In 1683 Anne married Prince George 
 of Denmark, brother of the king of that country. He was a 
 well-meaning, inoffensive man, but intellectually a mere cipher. 
 He went by the nickname "A'6< il possible " a phrase which was 
 continually in his mouth. Several children were the fruit of 
 the marriage ; but all save one, the duke of Gloucester, of whom 
 we shall speak presently, died in infancy. It was not long after 
 their marriage that both Anne and her husband fell under the 
 commanding influence of the Churcliills, aftei-wards duke and 
 duchess of JIarlborough. It was by means of the ascendancy 
 which Lady Churchill — the famous Sarah Jennings — had obtained 
 over the mind of the princess, that she was mduced to persuade 
 her husband to imitate Churchill's treacheiy, and desert to the 
 camp of William, on the very same night that he had supped 
 with his father-in-law. Nor did Anne herself act a less repre- 
 hensible part. Her father had always treated her with the utmost 
 indulgence ; yet, at the very crisis of Ids affairs, she left Londou 
 clandestinely with Lady Churchill and the bishop of London, and 
 proceeded to a meeting of William's adherents at Northampton. 
 James seems to have felt her desertion more keenly than that 
 of any other person. On the receipt of the intelligence he burst 
 into teai-s, and exclaimed, " God help me ! my very children 
 have foi-saken me." By the Act of Settlement, passed after the 
 expulsion of James, the crown was settled upon the Princess 
 Anne and her heirs, should her sister ^lary die without issue. 
 For several years after the accession of William, Anne lived in 
 retirement at Berkeley House. Her private chai-acter was in
 
 ANN 
 
 167 
 
 ANN 
 
 eveiy way estimable; slie was a fond mother, we are told, a 
 tender wife, and an indulgent mistress ; and after being relieved 
 from tlio thraldom of the JIarlboroughs, she showed tliat she 
 possessed a kind and charitable disijosition. Queen Miuj died 
 at the end of the year 169-1 ; and, unhappily, the sisters were not 
 on good terms at the tmie of her death. After that event, the 
 princess made overtures to "William for a reconcQiation, to which 
 William consented, out of poUcy. He at the same time had a 
 cordial dislike to her; he is reported to have said, that if he had 
 married the Piincess Anne, he would have been the most miser- 
 able man alive; and Lady JIarlborough says that he often treated 
 her with less respect, than if she had been the wife of a Dutch 
 burgomaster. Anne herself seems to have heartily reciprocated 
 his dislike. But while James II. and his son were alive, and 
 their claims to the cro-ini supported by the Jacobites in England 
 and Scotland, and by several foreign powers, both William and 
 Anne felt it necessary, interested as they were in the main- 
 tenance of the protestant succession, to wear at least the out- 
 ward semblance of amity. It was an-anged accordingly in 1696, 
 that she should live at St. James's Palace, and have the use of 
 Windsor in the summer. In 1700 Anne was plunged into the 
 deepest distress by the death of her only sm-viving child, the 
 duke of Gloucester, a few days after he had completed his 
 eleventh year. He was a lively and precocious child, and many 
 interesting anecdotes are told of him. But in 1698 William had 
 appointed Bishop Bm-net his tutor against the wishes of Anne ; 
 and Burnet appears to have greatly overtasked the brain of the 
 poor little pi-ince, to whom he taught jurisprudence, the feudal 
 system, mathematics, &c. The boy was afflicted with water on 
 the brain, which makes this mode of treatment the more extra- 
 ordinaiy. The one prominent feeling in Anne's mind at his 
 death seems to have been remorse, on account of her undutiful 
 conduct to her father. She wrote to James II. in a strain of 
 the deepest penitence, saying that she regarded this blow as a 
 judgment upon her for her former conduct. 
 
 In 1702 she ascended the throne. The great and glorious 
 events of her reign belong to the histoiy of England, not to the 
 biography of Queen Anne, except so fm as their com'se was 
 modified by her ovvn views or prepossessions. She was thoroughly 
 conservative in sentiment, and sincerely attached to the cluu'ch 
 of England ; and it must be mentioned to her honour, that she 
 voluntarily deprived herself of the revenue derived to the crown 
 from the tirst-fruits and tenths of ecclesiastical benefices, in order 
 to found therewith the fund for the augmentation of small livmgs, 
 known to this day as " Queen Anne's bounty." This was in 
 1704. During all the early part of her reign, the ]\Iarlboroughs 
 retained their ascendancy at court and at the council table. The 
 Whigs had it all their own way ; they earned on vigorously the 
 war with France ; and the great victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, 
 and ]yial]jlaquet, attested the military genius of Marlborough. 
 In 1708 Prince George of Denmai-k died. In 1709 occun-ed the 
 famous trial of Dr. Sacheverel before the House of Lords, for 
 preaching the doctrine of passive obedience. All the Toiy and 
 Jacobite feeling in the country was aroused in his fivour, and 
 the odium which his trial excited against the government was 
 one of the chief causes of the do-mif;dl of the Whigs. Another 
 cause was, that by this time the duchess of JIarlborough had 
 been completely supplanted in the queen's affections by a new 
 favourite, Mrs. Masham, once a humble dependent of the duchess, 
 but now more powerful at court than her old mistress. The Whig 
 ministry fell in 1710 ; the duke of Marlborough was deprived of 
 all his employments ; a new ministry was formed under Harley, 
 the friend and ally of Mrs. Masham ; peace was concluded ; and 
 the treaty of Utrecht followed in 1713. In the following year, 
 on the 1st August, Anne died of an attack of dropsy. In per- 
 son she is described to have been stout ; she had dark-brown 
 hair, a round and comely countenance, and a remarkably pleasing 
 and melodious voice. She had, as we have seen, many gond 
 points of character ; but perhaps it wa.s as much owing to the 
 glories of her reign as to her personal virtues, that she has received 
 in history the title of " the good Queen Anne." — T. A. 
 
 ANNE OF Fkkkaka, daughter of Hercules I., duko of 
 FeiTara, married in 1549 Francis, duke of Guise, and manifested 
 great energy in the wars of the League. She was for some time 
 a prisoner at Blois. 
 
 ANNE i)K GoNZAGUE, wife of Edward, Count Palatine ; died 
 at Paris, 1684. Over her Bossnet pronounced an eulogium. 
 
 ANNE OF HuNGAKY, daughter of Ladislas VI. (or Uladis- 
 
 laus, son of Casimir, king of Poland, who had been elected king 
 of Bohemia), by lus wife, Anne of Gascony. She married Ferdi- 
 nand, archduke of Austria, infant of Spain, and afterwards em- 
 peror ; and through her the kingdom of Bohemia has ever since 
 belonged to the Austrian family, illustratuig the old maxim, 
 that the house of Hapsburg has gained its chief power by politic 
 marriages. She died in 1547. — T. J. 
 
 ANNE OF Warwick, the first princess of W^ales, and the 
 last queen of the Plantagenets, was bom at the ancestral castle 
 of the Beauchamps, at Wanvick, in 1454. To avoid the wrath 
 of the high-spirited Margaret of Anjou against the great earl of 
 Warwick, the countess, Anne's mother, withdrew to Calais, 
 where Anne was brought up, though it seems that she was often 
 brought to England with her elder sister Isabel. From the dawn 
 of her be.auty, she was the favomite of the duke of Gloucester, 
 aftem'ards Richard III., who was bom at Fotheringay two years 
 before her, and was her early playfellow. Caring little for her 
 ill-tempered cousin, Aime was married in August, 1470, at An- 
 gers in France, to Edward of Lancaster, son of Henry VI. and 
 JNIargnret of Anjou. After the battle of Tewkesbury and the 
 cruel murder of her husband, she disgiused herself as a cook- 
 maid in London ; but the spies of Richard discovered her, and 
 she was removed to a religious sanctuary in St. Martin's-le- Grand. 
 Forced in 1473 to maixy her powerful and unscrapulous cousin, 
 she displayed an abhorrence of him, which was not softened until 
 after the birth of her son Edward, in 1474. Richard h.aving 
 gained the throne, Anne was cro^vned with him, July 5, 1483. 
 In the following year, her only son died at Middleham, and, it 
 would seem, by some fearful catastrophe. From that day she faded. 
 Richard was suspected of wishing to divorce her, but her death, 
 on the 16th of Mwch, 1485, spared hun the crime. It is 
 affinned by some that she died of poison. She suffered much 
 dming her eventful life of thu-ty-one years, but bore her trials 
 with meekness, and it was not until her son expired that the 
 heart of the h.apless mother was broken. Her remains lie in the 
 royal abbey of Westminster, near the tomb of Anne of Cleves ; 
 but no monument marks the burial-place of the daughter of 
 Nevill the kingmaker. — T. J. 
 
 ANNEBAUT, Claude d', a Nomian baron, who distin- 
 guished himself under Francis I. at the battle of Pavia, and rose 
 to be marshal and admiral of France. Being commissioned in 
 1545 to attempt an invasion of England, he collected a large 
 fleet, and ravaged the coasts of Hampshu-e and the Isle of 
 Wight, without, however, venturing to attack Portsmouth. In 
 the following reign he was disgraced, and died in 1552. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANNESLEY, Arthur, Earl of Anglesey, and Lord Valentia 
 in Ireland, was bom in Dublin on the 10th of July, 1614. He 
 was sent in the year 1645 by the parliament as a eonnuissioner 
 to Ulster, where he acquitted himself so well that he was again 
 sent to Ireland with the conunissioner to treat with the duke of 
 Ormond for the deliveiy of Dublin to the parliament in 1647. 
 On the restoration of the Rump parliament, Mr. Annesley took 
 a very prominent part in endeavouring to procure the admission 
 of the excluded members ; and when, in 1660, this object was 
 effected, and a new council of state ap])ointed, he was made its 
 president, and in that position he aided general Jlonk in bring- 
 ing about the restoration of Charles II. Upon that event he was 
 made a piivy councillor, and the next year was created Baron 
 Annesley and Earl of Anglesey, having previously succeeded to 
 the Irish earldom of Valentia by his father's death. In 1665 the 
 office of vice-treasurer of Ireland was conferred upon him, which 
 he afterwards resigned for that of treasm-er of the navy in 
 1667. In Februarj', 1672, he was appointed one of the com- 
 mittee of the privy coimcil, to inspect and report upon the 
 papers respecting the settlement of Ireland, .and in the following 
 year he was appointed lord pri\y seal. Lord Anglesey was one 
 of the few who disbelieved in tlie existence of the Popish Plot, 
 and he had the boldness to express his sentiments openly in the 
 House of Lords — a course which exposed him to the charge of 
 being a Roman Catholic; and on infonuation by Dangerfield 
 of endeavouring to suppress evidence in n-lation to the plot, 
 Lord Anglesey fell into disfavour with Charles II., and a com- 
 plaint having been preferred against him by the duke of Ormond, 
 the privy seal was taken from him. He then retired into privacy, 
 and occupied bimscHin literature, composing a "History of the 
 Wars in Ireland." Upmi the accession of James II. he returned 
 to court, and was received into favour by that monarch. It 
 was even supposed by his friends, that bad he lived a month
 
 longer, he would have been made lord chancellor of England ; 
 but this seems to want confirmation. lie died on the 6th 
 April, 168G, aged seventy-three years. Though Lord Annesley 
 has been spoken of disparagingly by Burnet and others of his 
 contemporaries, there seems no reason to doubt his honesty, 
 whatever opinion might be entertained of his judgment or his 
 talents. He was a man of some scliolarsbip and hterary preten- 
 sions, and left a considerable nmnber of works. — (Athence Oxo- 
 nienses; Royal and Nohle Authors. Biog. Brit. Lit.) — J. F. W. 
 
 AXNESLEY, Samuel, bom at Kenilworth in 1620. He 
 was of good family, being related to the earl of Anglesey. Haring 
 studied at Queen's College, Oxford, he was, in 1644, made 
 chaplain to the lord high admiral, and went to sea with liira. 
 lu 1618, the university of Oxford made him D.C.L. He held 
 several places of preferment under the Commonwealth, the last 
 of which was St. Giles', Cripplegate, to which he was presented 
 by Richard Cromwell. Refusing to confunn, he was deprived 
 at the Restoration, but continued to officiate m nonconformist 
 congregations till his death, 1696. Baxter speaks in the highest 
 terms of Annesley "s excellence and piety. One of his daughters 
 married the Rev. Samuel Wesley, and became the mother of the 
 celebrated John Wesley. His published works consbt mostly of 
 sermons. — J. B., 0. 
 
 xVNNIBALE, Padovano, a native of PuJua, as is indi- 
 cated by his name, was so distinguished for his organ-playing, 
 that he was appointed to that of St. JIark's at Venice, when 
 he was but twenty-five years of age. He held this post for 
 thirty years, dming which time he produced many compositions, 
 not only for the organ, but also for the lute, and for the virgi- 
 nals (or whatever description of keyed instrument with strings 
 was then in use), upon both of which he was a notable player. 
 He died in 1655, lea\ing behind him the reputation of being one 
 of the most able executive musicians of his day. — G. A. M. 
 
 ANXIBALLLV'NUS, Flavius Claudius, a nephew of the 
 Emperor Constantine I., Uved in the fouith centiuy. On the 
 p-irtition of the empire he received Pontus, Cappadocia, Armenia, 
 Bithynia, and Caesarea, but was assassinated a.d. 337. 
 
 ANNI'CERIS, a Greek philosopher of Cyrene, of the Epicu- 
 rean school, who lived about 330 B.C. 
 
 ANNIO DA VITERBO, or Giovanxi N.\nxi, was bom at 
 Viterbo in 1132. He entered the Dommican order, and became 
 master of the household to Pope Alexander VI., and died in 
 1502. His philological and antiquarian attainments were con- 
 siderable, but he is chiefly known in connection with certain 
 literary forgeries of that epoch, in which he was probably the 
 dupe of some unkno^vn individual. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANNO or HANNO, an archbishop of Cologne, who Uved in 
 the eleventh century, and became regent of the German empu-e 
 during the minority of Henry IV. 
 
 ANNO'NE or ANNO'NI, Joiiann Jakob, a natm-alist and 
 antiquarian of Basle, who lived ui the last century. His museum 
 b still preserved in his native to>vn. 
 
 ANOT, Pierre Niciiol,vs, a French historian, was bom in 
 1762, and died in 1823. 
 
 ANQUETIL, Louis Pierre, was bom at Paris in 1723, 
 and died in 1806. He is the author of a history of France in 
 14 vols., and of several valuable works on the affairs of the 
 " League," the " Fronde," &c. His essay on the " Motives for 
 War " is much admired by diplomatists. 
 
 ANQUETIL-DUPERRON, Abrailvm Hyacustiie, a 
 younger brother of the preceding, was bom at Paris in 1731, 
 and died in 1805. At an early age he was inspired with the 
 wish to study the languages and literature of the East. After 
 having made himself acquainted with the Hebrew, Arabic, and 
 Persian tongues, he enlbted as a private soldier in a regiment 
 bound for the French possessions in Indi:u Here he became 
 intimate with the Parsee priests or " destoui-s," studied under 
 their guidance the Sanscrit, PehUi, and Zend languages, and 
 obtained a number of manuscripts containing the doctrines of 
 Zoroaster. On his return to Eiu-ope, he published a translation 
 of these under the title "Zend Avesta." This work excited the 
 greatest curiosity among the learned, but upon close examina- 
 tion it was fomid full of errors — the result of Anquetil's imper- 
 fect acquamtance with the original tongues. The remainder of 
 his life was spent in Paris, amidst voluntary privations, endui-ed 
 in imitation of the sages of Indi.i. He died in 1805. He was 
 aided in his researches in India by his younger brother Anquetil 
 DE Brlv^court. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANSALDI, Casto Ixxocenzio, a Dominican friar of Pia- 
 cenza, author of many works on history, archaiology, and divinity. 
 He was bom A.d. 1710, and died in 1779. 
 
 ANSALDI, IxxocEXTE, a Tuscan painter, more noted for 
 his writings on art, than as an artist. Bom 1734; died 1816. 
 
 ANSALDO, Giovaxxi Andrea, an Italian painter, bom at 
 Voltri in 1584, died in 1638. He studied first under Cambiasio, 
 but, hanng seen a painting by Paolo Veronese, gave himself up 
 entirely to the imitation of that great master, which imitation 
 he not only carried mto all his own numerous works, but even 
 enforced it on his many pupils. — R. il. 
 
 ANSALO'NI, Giordano, a Sicilian monk of the seventeenth 
 century, who, hearing of the persecution of the Christians in 
 Japan, travelled thither in order to undergo martyrdom, — a 
 project wluch proved completely successful. 
 
 AN SARI, Abu-l-ILvsui, a Persian poet of the 11th century, 
 who Uved at the court of ilahmud of Ghizni. His chief merit 
 Ues in ha\-ing brought into notice the great Fu-dusi. 
 
 ANSART, Andr£ Joseph, a French writer on church his- 
 tory, lived in the last ceutmy. 
 
 ANSART, Louis Joseph Auguste, a French ecclesiastical 
 author, who lived fi-om 1748 to 1823. 
 
 ANSBERT, a French saint of the seventh century. 
 
 ANSBERT, a Gemian chronicler of the twelfth century, who 
 accompanied the Emperor Frederic Barbai'ossa to Palestine, and 
 wrote a most interesting history of that expedition. 
 
 ANSCIIAR, ANSCARIUS or ANSGERIUS, smuamed the 
 "Apostle of the North," a monk of Picardy, was bom in 801, 
 and died in 864. He was educated at the convent of Corbie, in 
 liis native provuice, and removed thence, as teacher of Uterature, 
 to the monastery of Carvei in WestphaUa. He afterwards 
 travelled in Denniai-k and Sweden as a missionan.', and preached 
 in those regions with great zeal and success. He was succes- 
 sively appointed archbishop of Hamburg and Bremen, and papal 
 legate amongst the Danes, Swedes, and the Slavic tribes on the 
 Baltic. His joiuTial appears to have been lost. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANSEAUME, a French dramatic author of the last centmy. 
 
 ANSEGI'SUS, a monk of Gaul, Uved about a.d. 800, and 
 had great influence imder Charlemagne and his successor. 
 
 ANSEGISUS, an ai-chbishop of Sens, who Uved in the ninth 
 centiu-y, and held the office of pontifical vicar in France. 
 
 iiNSEGISUS (ANSUSUS, ANSERSUS, ANSEISUS or 
 ANCIGISUS), a warlike bishop of Troyes in France, who Uved 
 in the tenth century. 
 
 ANSELIN, Jean Louis, an engraver of Paris, a pupU of St. 
 Aubin, was bora in A.d. 1764, and died in 1823. 
 
 ANSELM, St., of Canterbury, was bom at Aosta in Pied- 
 mont, A.D. 1033, and belonged to a noble Lombai-dian famUy 
 on the father's side. At an early age he entertained a strong 
 desu'e to lead the life of a monk, a desire which seems to have 
 been excited by the pious instructions of his mother. But the 
 influence of his father, and the youtliful exercises in which he 
 was engaged, checked this propensity, so that he became frivo- 
 lous and worldly-minded. Being aUenated from his father, 
 whose discipline towards him was severe, he left home, wander- 
 ing about fur several years in Bm-gundy and France, tiU at 
 length he came to A^Tanches in Nonnandy, where he heard of 
 the fame of Lanfranc, prior of the abbey of Bee. Under the- 
 superintendence of this celebrated teacher, he apjilied himself 
 with untiring industry to the studies he had entered upon at a 
 veiy early age ; and his former desire for a monastic life re- 
 tm-ned. After many mward struggles he became a monk of 
 Bee, at the age of twenty-seven. Three years aftenvards, he 
 succeeded liis instractor as prior. The duties of this office were 
 nmnerous, including the direction of the studies, disciplinary 
 oversight, and the cure of souls. In aU respects he acquitted 
 himself with great credit to the place, and with marked success. 
 Here he was occupied with the deepest problems of speculative 
 theology, in free intercourse with the inquisitive and ai-dent 
 spirits who had come to the abbey. He had great knowledge 
 of the human heai-t, and could unfold tmth with such wse 
 moderation and earnest piety, as to secure for it a ready entrance 
 into the mind. To the young he was verj- r.ttentive, treating 
 them with mildness and discretion. The JISS. of the cloister 
 Ubrary he enlarged and corrected, in addition to his other 
 labours. However occupied, he never omitted his private duties 
 of devotion, his ascetic practices, fastmgs, and nightly vigils. 
 ^\'hen Abbot Herluin died in 1078, he was unanimously elected
 
 AXS 
 
 169 
 
 ANS 
 
 liis successor. This increased his responsibilities ; but he con- 
 tinued to make the spiritual oversight of the abbey his chief 
 concern, and intrusted certain brethren with external duties as 
 fur as he thought it advisable. 
 
 In consequence of the abbey having possessions in England, 
 he made several visits to that island, and was always received 
 most hospitably. He procured there even the respect of the 
 king (William the Conqueror) ; while, on the other hand, he 
 stood in such relation to the ecclesiastical ruler of the West, that 
 Gregory the seventh exempted the abbey from spuitual juris- 
 diction. A third journey to England introduced him into a 
 wder sphere of activity. Hugh, count of Chester, one of Wil- 
 liam's barons, being attacked with a dangerous sickness, ear- 
 estly pressed the reluctant abbot to \isit him ; and therefore he 
 i'>termined to repair to England again. Very reluctantly he 
 as chosen archbishop of Canterbmy, the place ha\ing been 
 leant some years — i. e., since the death of Lanfranc. The 
 i.nglish clergy were very anxious for this appointment, and 
 luught him into the king's presence (William Rufus), who, sick 
 ;■ a dangerous disease, at once nominated Anselm archbishop. 
 Kut the pious man foresaw difficulties and troubles in the new 
 isition. The king was arbitrary, and disposed to keep the 
 lurch in subjection: the archbishop anxious to secm-e its free- 
 im from worldly domination. In 109i WUham rejected, as 
 small, a present of five hundred pounds from Anselm. The 
 ; ?xt year he refused pennission to the archbishop to convene a 
 :i;itional synod for the reformation of abuses. With great diffi- 
 culty did Anselm obtain the recognition of Urban II. by WUliam ; 
 ;;ud after several refusals, he got permission to go to Rome to 
 insult the pope in person, on the means of remedying the evils 
 f the chm-ch in England. He left the country in 1097. After 
 ;.Ls departure, the revenues and privileges of the see were seized 
 by William, and all Anselm's acts invahdated. From Rome he 
 \vent to a monastery in Campania, where he finished his treatise 
 on the Incarnation of Deity (Cur Deus Homo). At the synod 
 of Ban, in 1098, he defended the Latin doctrine of the proces- 
 sion of the Holy Spirit against the Greek church, with ai'guments 
 which he afterwards published in his work on the subject. From 
 this council he went to Rome, where he assisted at a synod 
 which enacted strict regulations respecting lay investitm'e. 
 Afterwards he set out for Lyons, where he was most kindly re- 
 ceived by the archbishop. Here he was fully occupied with 
 practical works of piety, as well as with the composition of 
 treatises — " On the Conception of the Virgin," " On Original 
 Sin," and a " Meditation on the Redemption of Man." 
 
 After the death of William Rufus, the way was open for him 
 to return to England ; and this step he resolved to take. Before 
 he reached Clugny, a letter reached him from Henry I., express- 
 ing a desire to see him in England, and promising to follow his 
 counsels. But when he was required to take the oath, and be 
 reinvested by the king, he refused, pleading that he was bound 
 by the decrees of the Roman synod not to do so. It was there- 
 fore agreed to apply to the pope, Pascal II., that he should dis- 
 pense with those decrees relating to investiture by a layman. 
 But the pope would not consent ; and the king adhered to the 
 royal prerogative. In this dilemma it was determined that 
 Anselm should go in person to Rome, Henry sending ambassa- 
 dors again. Accordingly, the archbishop went to Rome a second 
 time in 1103, and found the pope finn in refusing to give the 
 monarch the right of investiture. Thence Anselm departed for 
 Lyons, and wrote to the king, asking him whether he would 
 allow him to return to England on condition of abiding by the 
 papal decision. As the royal answer was unfavourable, he stayed 
 for some time at Lyons. At length the pope yielded so far as 
 the oath of investitiu-e was concerned ; and the monarch on his 
 part gave up investiture with the ring and crosier. Anselm now 
 returned to England, and henceforward enjoyed the full confi- 
 dence of the king, passing the remainder of his days in writing 
 several of his works, and administering ecclesiastical discipline. 
 He restored the rights of the see of Canterbury, whicii had fallen 
 into neglect : while he insisted upon the papal acknowledgment 
 of the English church's independence in himself, its head, wliose 
 exclusive right it was to be the pope's vicar in England. With 
 regard to the reform of both clergy and laity — a subject that 
 lay near his heart — he enacted important decrees in relation to 
 it at the sjTiod of Westminster (1102); but it was difficult to 
 carry them into execution. Another object of his care was the 
 reformation of monasteries, as he rightly thought that they 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 should be examples of piety. Nor was the sphere of his activity 
 as archbishop confined to England. It extended to Scotland, 
 Ireland, and the smaller islands adjoining. His influence was 
 felt on the continent, too, in manifold ways ; for the freedom 
 and purity of the church at large were the gi-eat aims of his 
 pious solicitudes and efforts. His death took place on the 21st 
 April, 1109, in his seventy-sixth year, and the sixteenth of his 
 primacy: and he was buried in the cathedral at Canterbury 
 beside Lanfranc. 
 
 There is no doubt that Anselm was possessed of the highest 
 qualities of head and heart. While he was the man of his times, 
 entering into all the leading questions belonging to the church, 
 he also penetrated into the futm'e. His understanding was clear, 
 subtle, comprehensive, vigorous; and his piety disinterested. 
 He had finnness and decision, tempered with moderation and 
 wisdom. While the richness of his spuitual life flowed out in 
 works of piety, in benevolent efforts to ameliorate body and soul, 
 in instracting and guiding the monks and clergy over whom he 
 presided, and in promoting the purity as well as the indepen- 
 dence of the church ; he had a metaphysical and original spirit, 
 which worked into the depths of scientific theology with pene- 
 trating eye. Hence he is commonly considered the fathtr oj 
 scholasticism, standing at the head of those subtle dialecticians, 
 who, for several succeeding centuries, moulded the philosophy 
 and theology of the West into systems pervaded by ingenious 
 speculation, and by mental abihty of a high order. Anselm 
 reproduced ecclesiastical truth in the manner and spirit of Au- 
 gustine, whom he resembled in metaphysical ability and con- 
 structive power. His works are numerous, embracing logic, as 
 his " Dlalogus de Grammatica," which shows an acquaintance 
 with Aristotle ; general principles of theology and philosophy 
 united, " Dialogus de Veritate;" while others are occupied with 
 speculative theology, pneumatology, the incarnation, redemption, 
 free-will and its relation to grace, the diNine foreknowledge and 
 predestination, the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, the origin of 
 evil, origmal sin, &c., &c. 
 
 Perhaps the ablest of his works is the " Jlonologiura," on the 
 existence and attributes of God ; the doctrine of which was sup- 
 jilemented and developed in various other writings, especiaUy 
 the " Proslogion." Tlie doctrine of the Trinity was mifolded 
 in his treatise "De fide Trinitatis et de Incamatione Verbi ; " 
 and the procession of the Holy Spirit is defended against the 
 Greeks in " De Processione Spiritus Sancti." The treatise 
 " Cur Deus Homo " is upon the incarnation. The great pro- 
 blem which Anselm endeavoured to solve was, the reconcilia- 
 tion of metaphysics and divinity. While he was a most devout 
 believer in the theology of the church, he cautiously tried how 
 far the harmony was to be established between the Godhead of 
 Revelation and Reason. His famous philosophical axiom, the 
 a priori proof of the being of God, was, " the idea of God in the 
 mind of man is the one unanswerable e\-idence of the existence 
 of God." This same thought suggested itself afterwards to the 
 reflective minds of Des Cartes and Leibnitz ; and is still the 
 great problem of metaphysical theology. The fame of Anselm 
 will always rest upon it. 
 
 Besides his scientific works, he left " Spiritual Meditations" 
 (Meditationes) ; " Prayers" (Colloquia Coelestia) addressed for 
 the most part to God and Chiist, but sometimes to the virgin 
 and saints ; and " Letters" (Epistola;) divided into four books. 
 A complete list of his wiitings comprises about thirty treatises. 
 
 The first edition of Anselm's works was published at Niirn- 
 berg in folio, 1491, reprinted there 1494. A much better 
 edition was that of Gerberon, published at Paris in folio, 1G75 ; 
 second edition of the same 1721, Paris, folio. The best is that 
 published at Venice, 1744, in 2 vols, folio. The completest 
 modem work on Anselm is that of Professor Il.asse, in 2 vols. 
 8vo., 1843-1852, the first being occuiiied with his life, the 
 second with his doctrines. These editions of Gerberon con- 
 tain the life of Anselm by his friend Eadmer, which, together 
 with his letters, constitutes the materials of all subsequent 
 accounts. — S. D. 
 
 ANSELM or ANSELME, a monk of the abbey of St. Rcmi 
 of Rlicims, was a writer of the eleventh century, of whose life 
 nothing is now known. He is the author of a work entitled 
 " Itinerarium Papa; Leonis," or, more properly, a history of the 
 dedication of the church of St. Remi at Rlieims. Anselm relates 
 all tliat Leo did on his journey from Rome to Rheims to conse- 
 crate the church ; and also the sittings of the council lield in the
 
 new cbuicli by Leo, on October 3, 1049, and two following days. 
 Anselm's work was published by Jlabillon in the " Acta Sanc- 
 torum Ordinis S. Benedict!," Sajculum VI. — S. D. 
 
 ANSELM or ANSELMO, bishop of Lucca in Tuscany, was 
 bom about 1036 '^pe Alexander IL, his uncle, sent him in 
 1073 to the Emperor Henry IV. to receive the investitiu-e of a 
 bishopric, but he would not accept of it from the secular power. 
 In consequence of the death of Alexander, he was chosen to 
 succeed him in the bishopric of Lucca the same year. He now 
 received investiture, taking the ring and crosier from the hands 
 of Henry ; but, repenting of the act, n-tired to the monasteiy of 
 Clugny and became a monk. But Gregory VII., into whose 
 hands he returned the ring and staff, induced him to return to his 
 bishopric His eftbits to establish a reform among the canons 
 of his cathedral led to disputes and troubles. At a council held 
 at Lucca, the refractory canons were excommunicated, and 
 joined the party of the antipope Guibert, who, coming into 
 Tuscany, gave the bishopric to one of them. Anselm, there- 
 fore, di-iven from Lucca iu 1083, went to Mantua. Pope Gre- 
 gpry VII. appointed him his legate for all Lombardy, and to 
 act as bishop. He was very zealoas in seconding Gregory, and 
 assisting all the clergy wlio adliered to him, when Henry IV. 
 marched against Rome with Guibert, whom he wished to be pope 
 in place of Gregory. He died in 108G, and was buried in the 
 cathedi-al of Mantua. Of his numerous writings, the chief are 
 " Collectionis Canonum Libri XIII.," only portions of which 
 have been printed by Holstenius, the rest being in MS. in vari- 
 ous libraries. He also wrote " Contra Guibertum Antipapam, 
 Libri duo," first published by Canisius in his " Antique Lec- 
 tiones," 4to, Ingolstadt, 1C04. On the 18th March, the day 
 of his death, the Church of Rome celebrates his memory as a 
 saint. — S. D. 
 
 AXSELM OF Laox, hence called Lauduxexsis, and gener- 
 ally styled ScHOLASTicus, was a celebrated theological teacher. 
 The year of his birth is not known, but is supposed to have been 
 before the middle of the eleventh century, at Laon in France. 
 He studied under Anselm of Canterbury in the abbey of Bee ; 
 and returning, taught scholastic theology in Paris from 1076. 
 Here he became celebrated ; and is thought to have contributed 
 to the foundation of the university of Paiis in future years. At 
 the close of the eleventh centiu^y he returned to his native town, 
 Laon, where he superintended the schools connected with the 
 cathedral, having been elected archdeacon. He was subsequently 
 dean of the church. His school of theology attracted pupOs 
 from all countries — Italy, Spain, Germany, England, and else- 
 where. In 1113 Abcl;u-d came to Laon to hear his lectures, 
 but expressed disappointment with them. His theology con- 
 sisted of a simple exposition of the holy scriptures sujiported by 
 the authority of the Fathers, which did not suit the metaphysical 
 taste of Abelard. Several bishoprics were offered to him, but he 
 refused to accept any, from attachment to his favourite calling of 
 teacher. He died in 1117, and was buried in the abbey of St. 
 Vincent. His principal work is an interlinear gloss upon the 
 Old and New Testaments, consisting of short notes on the Vul- 
 gate text. lie also re\-ised and augmented the " Glossa Ordi- 
 naria," or Marginal Gloss of Walafrid Strabo. Both were 
 printed at Basle in folio, 1502, 1508 ; and at Antwerp 1634. 
 Anselm was also the author of commentaries on single books of 
 scripture. — S. D. 
 
 ANSELM or ANSELME, count of Ribemont, a town of 
 France, was a soldier and writer of the eleventh century. His 
 liberality to .the church is highly praised. Wlien the famous 
 crusade for the recovery of the Holy I -.nd was determined upon 
 in 1095, he took part in it under the leadersldp of Godefroy de 
 Bouillon. He was engaged in the sieges of Nicsea and Antioch, 
 whose perils he escaped; but was af"!rwards killed by a stone 
 falling ujion his head at the siege of the castle of Areas, about 
 bii miles from TripolL This was in 1 099. Anselm vrrote two 
 accounts of the memorable events in which he had been engaged, 
 addressed to Jlanass^ the Second, archbishop of Rheims. The 
 first has been lost. The second, describing the siege and capture 
 of Antioch, and the various battles between the Christians and In- 
 fidels, was publisheu by D'Achcry in his " Spicilegium." It was 
 written after the Christians had taken Antioch in 1098. — S. D. 
 
 ANSELM OF Gembloux, Axselmu.s Gemblacexsis, was a 
 monk of the abbey of Gembloux, a to^vn in Brabant. He belonged 
 to the abbey of Hautvilliers, and afterwards to that of Lagni, in 
 both of which he directed the schools. Having retmned to the 
 
 monasteiy of Gembloux, he took charge of the library and the 
 school. In 1113 he was elected abbot, and discharged the 
 duties belonging to that office with great diligence and care. 
 He died in 1136. He wrote one work — a continuation of the Uni- 
 versal Chronicon of Sigebert, from 1112 to 1136 — wliich is con- 
 sidered veiy accurate. It was published along with Sigebert's 
 and the continuations of thi-ee Benedictines do-svn to 1224, by Au- 
 bertus Jliraeus, at Antwrp, in one quarto volume, 1608. — S. D. 
 
 ANSELM, bishop of Haveljerg in Saxony, was the ambassa- 
 dor of Lotharius IL, 1135, at the court of Constantinople when 
 John Comncnus was emperor. He held public and private con- 
 ferences with members of the Greek church relative to the points 
 of difference between that and the Latin church. One of these 
 was with ^>icetas, archbishop of Nicomedia, about the procession 
 of the Holy Spirit. When at Rome in 1145, Pope Eugenius the 
 Third requested him to write an account of these conferences. 
 Accordingly, he composed a work entitled aiTizi!/j.itx ; i. e., 
 things opposed to one anothei — which is printed by D'Achery in 
 his Spicilegium, vol. i., new edition. This is one of the most 
 important controversial treatises relative to the two churches, and 
 shows great impartiality on the part of Anselm, betraying un- 
 consciously many things in which his Greek opponent had truth 
 on his side. It appears that he was afterwards sent on a second 
 embassy f-^ Constantinople by Frederick Barbarossa, to negotiate 
 an alliance with the Emperor Emanuel Comnenus against the 
 king of Sicily. Having returned from this mission in 1155, he 
 was elected archbishop of Ravenna, and Frederick gave him the 
 exarchate of the province. He died in 1159. — (See Spieker in 
 Ilgens Zeitschrift.^ — S. D. 
 
 ANSELME, canon of the cathedral of Liege, Anselmus Can- 
 ONicus Leodiexsis, was a writer of the 11th centmy. In 1053 
 he accompanied Theodouin, bishop of Liege, on a pilgrimage to 
 Rome, and, after his return, became dean of the cathedral of 
 Liege, l^e times of his birth and death are equally unknown. 
 His only work is a history of the bishops of Liege, which has 
 never been published entire. It was originally in two parts, the 
 latter alone being the production of Ansehne himself. The best 
 edition is that of JIartene and Durand, in their collection of an- 
 cient writers and monuments, 1729, Paris, folio, tom. iv. — S. D. 
 
 ANSELME DE LA Vierge Marie, or Le peke ANSELME, 
 a writer on heraldry, was bom at Paris in 1 625. At the age of 
 19 he entered the order of Augustins Dechausses, and observed 
 all its austerities. He died in 1694, aged 69. His great work 
 is " HLstoire Genealogique et Chronologique de la Maison Royale 
 de France," &c,, 4to, Paris, 1674, 2 vols.— S. D. 
 
 ANSEj^JII, Batista, a Genoese physician, who lived in the 
 seventeenth century, and wrote on the plague. 
 
 ANSELMI, Michel Axgelo, a historical painter, bom at 
 Lucca in 1491, died at Parma in 1554. He was one of the 
 best pupils of Razzi, but modified his style under the guidance 
 of Corregio, whom he assisted in his celebrated works in the 
 cathedral of Panna. — R. M. 
 
 ANSELMO, Giorgio, an astronomer and mathematician of 
 Parma, uied in 1440. 
 
 ANSELMUS or ANSELl^II, Aurelio, a physician of Man- 
 tua, who flourished in the seventeenth century. 
 
 ANSIAUX, Emmaxuel Axtoixe Joseph, a jurist of Liege, 
 was bora in 1761, and died at Munster in 1800, lee "ing several 
 historical memoirs relative to his native town. 
 
 ANS-IBN-MALIK, an associate of the prophet Mahommed, 
 who died in 710, at the extraordinary age of 130 years. 
 
 ANSIDE'I, Baltasar, an author of Perugia in Italy, who 
 was born in 1556, and became librarian at the Vatican, and 
 keeper of the archives in the castle of San Angelo. 
 
 ANSIDEI, Giuseppe, an Italian poet, was bom in 1642, 
 and died in 1707. 
 
 ANSLAY (ANNESLAY). Briax, the author of a rare work 
 entitled the " Cj'te of Ladyes," published in 1521. 
 
 ANSLO, Reixier vax, a Dutch poet, was bora at Amster- 
 dam in 1626, and died in 1669 in Italy, where he had embraced 
 Catholicism, and enjoyed the friendship of Christina of Sweden. 
 
 ANSON, Lord George, third son of William Anson, Esq. 
 of Shuckborough in Staffordslme, was bom in the year 1697. 
 He went early to sea, and in 1716 was appointed second 
 lieutenant of H.M.S. Ilamj^shire. He passed rapidly through 
 the different subordinate grades of the sendee, being assisted 
 probably by the influence of tiie earl of JIacclcsfield, then lord 
 chancellor of England, who had manied his maternal aunt, imtil,
 
 ANS 
 
 171 
 
 ANS 
 
 in 1724, he was made post-captain, and appointed to the Scar- 
 borough man-of-war. Shortly afterwards he was ordered to 
 South CaroUna, a colony which had been founded fifty-four 
 years before, by some settlers from Virginia. Anson seems to 
 iiave possessed the English colonizing spirit to an eminent degree. 
 He was but three years on the Carolina station; yet in that time 
 he amassed considerable property, laid out a new town, called 
 after him Anson Burgh, and gave his name also to a county, 
 which is still called Anson County. In 1728 he i. turned to 
 England, and was paid off. For the next four years he was but 
 little employed; but in 1732 he was appointed to the Squirrel, 
 Lind ordered again to the Carolina station, where he remained 
 rill the spring of 1735. Two yeai-s afterwards he was first 
 ..ppointed to the famous Centurion, a fifty-gun ship, and ordered 
 : ) cruise on the coast of Guinea. He returned to England by 
 .vay of Barbadoes and Carohna in 1739. In all these various 
 Liiiployments he conducted himself viith singular ability and 
 discretion. When the war with Spain broke out in 1 . ^9, it was 
 resolved to send an expedition to harass the Spanish settlements 
 ;n the PacLfic and destroy theu" trade, and Anson was at once 
 
 •lected as the commander. He hoisted his broad pennant 
 r.s commodore, on boai"d the Centurion, in September, 1740. 
 The squadi-on consisted, besides his own ship, of four men-of- 
 'var, a sloop of war, and two ^■ictualling ships. Calling on the 
 
 . :iy at Madeira and Jamaica, he jiroceeded to attempt the pas- 
 - ige round Cape Horn. There is always some difiiculty in 
 
 taking this passage from the eastward, owing to the prevalence 
 nid strength of the westerly winds ; but in the present day, 
 
 hen the science of navigation is better understood, and all that 
 
 ae master of a vessel requii'es is plenty of sea-room, the feat is 
 uiore easily performed than in the days of Anson, when the old 
 practice of hugging the land was in some measure followed by 
 all navigators ; and they would persist in beating backwards and 
 : jrwards against a foul wind in vain attempts to weather some 
 :: adland, when a bold stretch off the land for tlu"T or four 
 liundred mUes would probably have brought them into different 
 ^vinds, or at any rate have enabled them to fetch clear of the 
 land. Anson had a very rough passage, in the course of which 
 he was separated from the other vessels of the squadron, part of 
 which never afterwards rejoined him. Scurvy now broke out 
 among the crew, and Anson steered for Juan Fernandez, in order 
 to obtain a supply of fresh vegetables. He helped -with his own 
 hands in caitying the sick sailois on shore. The humanity 
 which he showed on this and other occasions endeared ]iim won- 
 derfully to his sailors ; but he never relaxed the bonds of the 
 strictest discipline, and the Spanish prisoners whom he took, 
 particularly some ladies who were passengei-s on board the 
 Teresa, a rich merchantman which fell mto his hands off the 
 coast of Peru, found with surprise and satisfaction that an 
 English naval ofiicer was a very different sort of person from a 
 buccaneer, although, from the fact of many of the buccaneering 
 chiefs hav: g unfortimately been Englishmen, they had been 
 accustomed to confound the two. Anson took and burned the 
 town of Paita in Peru, and after long and weary watching, suc- 
 ceeded, on the 3Uth June, 1743, in intercepting and capturing 
 the JIanilla galleon, bound to Spain with an unmense treasure. 
 Yet, from the disasters which befell his ships, the main design of 
 the expedition, that of humbling the Spanish power in the 
 Pacific, was very imperfectly answered. He returned to England 
 in 1744, and was immediately made a rear-admiral, and a vice- 
 admiral in 174G. AVhen commanding the Channel fleet in 1747, 
 he engaged, off Cape Finisterre, a French fleet of inferior force, 
 bound with a convoy to the East Indies, defeated it, and cap- 
 tui-ed sis men-of-war, and foiu- East Indiamen. Two of the 
 prizes were named L' Invincible and La Gloire. The captain of 
 the former, II. St. George, said, when handing his sword to 
 Anson, with a strangely-timed politeness, " Monsieur, vous avez 
 vaincu V Invincible, et la Gloire vous suit." For this service 
 Anson was made a peer, with the title of Lord Anson, Baron of 
 Soberton. He married, in 1748, a daughter of Lord Hardwicke, 
 by whom he had no issue. In 1751 he was made first lord of 
 the admiralty, and continued to hold the post nearly until his 
 death in 17G2 ; but did not again distinguish himself in action. 
 Anson possessed all the ingredients of a thoroughly manly 
 character ; he was courageous, cool, sincere, and humane. No 
 better eulogy could be given of him than is contained in those 
 touching lines in Cowper's " Castaway," alluding to oue of his 
 sailors who was lost overboard ; — 
 
 " No poet wept him ; but the page 
 Of narrative sincere. 
 That tells his name, bis rank, his age, 
 
 Is wet with Anson's tear; 
 And tears, bv bards or heroes shed. 
 Alike immortalize the dead." 
 (JHogropfi. Britan. Anson's Voyage.) — T. A. 
 
 ANSON, Pierre Hubert, a French financier, was bom in 
 1744, and died in 1810. He took a share in the Revolution 
 during its earlier stages, but retired subsequently from public life, 
 and turned all his attention to a^culture. 
 
 ANSPACH, ANSBACH or ANOLZBACH, Margraves of,— 
 a German piincely family, connected with the house of Branden- 
 bm-g. Their dominions are now merged in the kingdom of 
 Bavaria. Of the family we notice — 
 
 Anspach and Baireuth, Christian Frederick Kari^ 
 Alex^vnder, Markgi-af von, was bom in 1736, succeeded to 
 the principaHty in 1757, and passed the greater part of his life 
 in travelling, engaged in artistic and amorous piirsuits. He 
 finally sold his dominions to the king of Prussia, and retired to 
 England, where he married Lady Craven, and lived as a private 
 man at Hammersmith, until his death in 1806. 
 
 Anspach, Elizabeth Berkley, ilargravine of, other- 
 wise known as Lady Craven, was bom in London in 1750, and 
 died at Naples in 1828. She was manied first to the earl of 
 Craven, and afterwards to the subject of our last memoir. In 
 1821 she received Queen Caroline in her mansion at Hammer- 
 smith, generally known as Brandenburg House. She \'lsited most 
 European countries; amongst others the Crimea, then little 
 known in England. Her literary productions, both in English and 
 French, enjoved in their day a considerable popularity. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANSPPvAND or AZIPRAND, a kmg of Lombardy, who suc- 
 ceeded Eribert II. in 712. 
 
 * ANSTER, Jonx, LL.D., a distinguished poet and essay- 
 ist, was bom at CharleviUe in the county of Cork. He entered 
 Trinity college, Dublin, ia the year 1810. Dming his under- 
 graduate course, he gave evidence of those poetic p wers which 
 in after years, when matured by study and .bought, placed him 
 amongst the best writers of his day. Some of these earlier 
 pieces were published before he took his degree. Subsequently 
 to that period, he published a prize poem on the death of the 
 Princess Charlotte, and in 1819 he pubhshed Ids " Poems, with 
 translations from the GeiTnan," in which volume most of his 
 earUer productions reappeaix-d, and others which he had contri- 
 buted to Blackwood's M;.gazine ; among the latter were frag- 
 ments of translations of Goethe's " Faust." These were at once 
 received into favour. Their truth and \'igour were at once ac- 
 knowledged, and it is said that the great GeiTnan poet himself 
 recognized their excellence. These extracts were repruited in 
 England and America, and their success encouraged Anster to 
 u.:dertake the laborious task of translating the entire poem, 
 which he completed in 1835. The pubhcation of this work 
 cstabhshed the reputation of Anster. It is a production of rare 
 felicity and genius, and one of the few instances in which trans- 
 lation attains to the level of origin.al comp -sition. It at once 
 attained the highest position, and, notwithstanding the many 
 translations, both in prose and verse, that have since appeared, 
 retains its popularity. It is a standard book on the continent, 
 and has been twice reprinted in Gemiany. In 1837, Dr. Anster 
 published a small volume of poems under the title of " Xcniola," 
 which contains many pieces of merit. He has also contributed 
 largely to the leading British periodicals, and hasrbcen a con- 
 stant writer in " The Dublin University Magazine," and the 
 " North British Review." He was called to the Irish bar in 
 1824. Of late years he has not practised much, confining hun- 
 self to the duties of his chair as regius professor of civil law in 
 the university of Dublin, which he discharges with great ability. 
 The sen-ices rendered by him to literature have been recognized 
 by a pension on the civil list, confen-ed upon him by her Ma- 
 jesty in 1841.— J. F. W. 
 
 ANSTETT, Jean Protasius, a diplomatist in the service of 
 Russia, born at Strasburg 17G0, died at Frankfort 1835. 
 
 AXSTEV, CiiKisToruKR, an English poet, was bom in 1724, 
 and died in 1805. His principal work, the "New Bath Guide," 
 has passed through several editions. 
 
 ANSTIS, John, an archa;ologist, was bom in Cornwall in 
 1G69, appointed by Queen Anne to a situation in the Herald's 
 College, imprisoned on the accession of George I. as an adherent 
 of the Stuart dynasty, and died in 1744.
 
 AXS 
 
 172 
 
 ANT 
 
 ANSTRUTHER, Sir Joiix, an English statesman, was bom 
 in 1753, distinguished himself as a member of the party who 
 endeavoured to arrest tlie progi-css of the French Revolution. 
 He died in 1811. 
 
 ANTA'LCIDAS, a Spartan, who brought about a famous 
 treaty of peace in 387 n.c, favourable to the interests of Persia. 
 Sparta liad been engaged in an unsuccessful war against several 
 of the otlier Greek states, when Antalcidas succeeded in gaining 
 over Artaxerxes, king of Persia, to his views, and in bringing 
 the war to an end. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANTANDROS, a brother of Agathocles tyrant of Syracuse, 
 whom he rivalled in cruelty. 
 
 ANTAR, a hero and poet of the ancient Arabians, who lived 
 before the epoch of JIahomct, and of whose achievements the 
 most wonderful fables are related. He is the principal character 
 in a voluminous romance, a portion of which was translated into 
 English by Derrick Hamilton. 
 
 ANTELAMI, Benedetto degli, a sculptor and architect 
 of Parma in the twelfth century. A bas-relief by this artist in 
 the cathedral of that city, bearing the date of 1178, shows the 
 most decisive step of this age in the transition from the Byzan- 
 tine towards the early Tuscan style. — R. M. 
 
 ANTELMI, Joseph, a writer on ecclesiastical history, who 
 was bom at Frcjus in 1()48, and died in 1697. 
 
 ANTELMI or ANTHELMI, Pierre, an ecclesiastic and anti- 
 quarian, who lived at Pre jus in the 17tli century. 
 
 AXTELMI, Pierre Thomas, a mathematician of Provence, 
 professor at the military school, and director of the observatory, 
 who died in 1783. 
 
 ANTE'NOR, a Trojan prince, said to have betrayed his country 
 to the Greeks, and to have afterwards founded Padua. 
 
 ANTESIGNAN, Pierre, a philologian of Rabestein, near 
 Albi, lived in the sixteenth century. 
 
 ANTHELMUS, NANTHELMUS, ANSELMUS, ANSELI- 
 NUS, St., a prelate of Savoy, of the twelfth century. 
 
 ANTHE'MIUS, an able statesman of the Eastem empire, 
 regent during the minority of Theodosius II., much praised for 
 his public ^^^tues by Chrysostom. 
 
 ANTHEMIUS, Procopius, an emperor of the West, who, 
 after a troubled reign, was deposed, and slain by his son-in-law, 
 Ricimer, in 472. 
 
 ANTHEMIUS, an architect of Tralles in Asia Jlinor, who 
 flourished under the reign of Justinian, and built the cathedral 
 of St. Sophia at Constantinople. He was also eminent as a 
 mathematician and engineer, and appears to have been well 
 acquainted with the force of confined steam, if not with some 
 rude outline of the steam-engine. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANTHING, Karl, was governor-general of the Dutch pos- 
 sessions in India, and died in 1823. 
 
 ANTHOIXE, Antoine Ignace, Baron d' St. Joseph, a 
 French political economist, bom In 1749, died in 1826. 
 
 ANTHOINE, Francois Paul Nicholas, bom in 1720, be- 
 came a zealous adherent of the revolution, died at Metz, 1793. 
 
 ANTHOIXE, Nicolas, of LoiTaine, was burnt to death in 
 1632, for having embraced Judaism. 
 
 * AnTIIOX, Charles, LL.D., was born at New York in 
 1797. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar of the 
 supreme comt of his native city. But classical Hterature was 
 Lis fiivourite pursuit, and the reputation which he acquired as a 
 scholar, led to his appointment as professor of languages in 
 Columbia college. Henceforward he has devoted himself wholly 
 to academic labours ; and by the many valuable works which he 
 has published, he has given a stimulus, not only in America, but 
 elsewhere, to the study of the Latin and Greek classics. — W. B. 
 
 ANTHONY, Saint, the patriarch of monachism, and its 
 foimder too, unless that honour be given to Paul the Hermit, was 
 bom in the town of Coma, on the confines of the Thebais, in 
 2.51. At the age of thirty-five, after selling his property, he 
 withdrew from the world into solitude, lived in a ruined tower 
 among the mountains, became a severe ascetic, maintained 
 terrible contests with trooi)3 of fiends, and .sought by various 
 mortifications to attain spiritual perfection. His fame brought 
 crowds to visit him. The monk enjoyed visions not only of 
 angels and devils, but of satyrs and centaurs. He lived to the long 
 age of one hundred and four, and is the subject of extravagant 
 eulogy by many of the fathers, such as Jerome, Chrj-sostom, 
 Nazianzen, and Augustine. Two monastic establishments were 
 formed under his patronage, and the institution rapidly spread 
 
 through the ancient church. Anthony, with all his fame, was not 
 spoiled by it, for he repudiated the honour of working miracles, 
 and bade sucli as applied to him, to look to Christ. His occasional 
 appearances at Alexandria produced an extraordinary impression. 
 He desired to be buried in a secret place, lest a superstitious 
 reverence should be paid to his remains. Many of his sayings 
 which have been handed down to us, lead us in spite of his 
 eiTors, and they were those of an honest self-abnegation, in the 
 language of Neander, " to recognize in him a gi-eat soul." His 
 life, -(vritten by Athanasius, has been transmitted to us, as well 
 as his monastic rales, and a few discourses. The life of him 
 just referred to, is thought by some to be spmious, and by others 
 to be largely interpolated, but Dupin and Tillemont argue for its 
 genuineness. His " Opuscula," in a Latin translation from the 
 Arabic, were published at Rome in 1646. — J. E. 
 
 ANTHONY, Francis, an English physician and alchemist, 
 was bora in 1.550, and died in 1623. 
 
 ANTIBOUL, Charles-Louis, bom at St. Tropez about 
 1752, was administrator of the department of Var, and a deputy 
 of the national convention. He was condemned for his attach- 
 ment to the Girondists, and put to death in 1793. 
 
 ANTICLI'DES, a Greek historian during the reign of Alex- 
 ander the Great, whose works, of which only a few fragments 
 remain, were highly esteemed in that age. 
 
 ANTI'CO, Laurenzo, a grammarian of Lentino in Sicily, 
 who lived about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and 
 was the author of several works on philology. 
 
 ANTIDOTUS, an Athenian encaustic painter, pupil of Eu- 
 phranor, lived about 364 B.C. 
 
 ANTI'GENES, the name of several Greek physicians, of whom 
 one mentioned by Coelius Aurelianus was styled Antigenes the 
 Cleophantine. Another Antigenes is said to have lived at Rome 
 in the second century of the Christian era. 
 
 ANTIGENES, a Greek historian, who wi-ote a life of Alex- 
 ander the Great. 
 
 ANTIGENES, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
 and one of the chiefs of the Argyraspides. After Alexander's 
 death he became governor of Susiana; and after the defeat of 
 Eumenes, whose partisan he was, he fell into the hands of Anti- 
 gonus, and was put to death about 316 B.C. 
 
 ANTIGE'NIDAS, the name of twoTheban musicians, both of 
 whom were celebrated for their skill in playing the flute. The 
 one was the son of Dionysius, and gave instmctions to Alcibiades; 
 the other, the son of Satyms, had the honour of playing at the 
 marriage festival of Iphicrates and the daughter of Cotys, king 
 of Thrace, and of performing before Alexander when the poet 
 Philoxenus recited his verses. — F. 
 
 ANTIGNAC, Antoine, a native of Paris, bom in 1772, who 
 devoted his leism-e to poetiy and singing, adopting convivial and 
 amatory subjects. A number of his verses were inserted m 
 periodicals at the time in which he lived, and he published 
 separately some collections of songs and poems. Died 1823. 
 
 ANTI'GONE, the daughter of (Edipus, king of Thebes, by his 
 mother Jocasta, whose history forms the subject of one of the 
 tragedies of Sophocles. 
 
 ANTIGONE, a queen of Egypt, who was the second wife of 
 Lagus, founder of the dynasty of the Ptolemies, and mother of 
 Bernice, wife of Ptolemy I., king of Eg}'pt. 
 
 ANTI'GONUS, Carystius, so called from his birth-place, 
 Carystus in the island of Euboea, was a naturalist who flourished 
 in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 285-247 B.C. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, sumamed Cyclops, was one of the generals 
 of Alexander the Great, and bom about the year 382 B.C. 
 When the empire was subdinded after the death of Alexander, 
 he established himself in Asia Minor, where he had already 
 possessed the government of Plu-)'gia and Lydia. He united 
 with Antipater and Ptolemy in an endeavour to destroy Per- 
 diccas, whose ambition led him to desire the government of Asia 
 Minor; and after the death of Perdiccas in 321 B.C., he made 
 continual war with Eumenes, whom he at last succeeded in de- 
 feating. The death of Antipater in 319 B.C. also favoured his 
 ambitions schemes. Proceeding to Babylon, he compelled Seleu- 
 cus to taice refuge in Egypt, when a new league was fonned, in 
 which not only Seleucus, but Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander 
 arrayed themselves against him. A furious war commenced 315 
 B.C., and continued ibr four years, when peace was concluded 
 by a treaty, in which the confederates siurendered to him the 
 whole of Asia, on condition that the Greek cities should remain
 
 free, that Cassander should govern certain European provinces, 
 and Lysimachus and Ptolemy should reign over Thrace and 
 Egypt. This treaty, however, was soon broken by Ptolemy, who 
 made a descent upon Asia Jlinor, but was defeated with gi'eat 
 loss by Demetrius, the son of Antigonus. The success he thus 
 obtained induced Antigonus to adopt the title of king, which he 
 also confciTed xipon his son; and from this period, 30G B.C., his 
 reign may be said to have begun. A new combination was soon 
 formed against him, and in 301 B.C. he met the army of the 
 confederates at Ipsus in Phrygia, when he was defeated, and 
 died of his wounds in his eighty-fourth year. — F. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, surnamed Doson, was king of Macedonia, 
 and born about 263 B.C. He was gi-andson of Demetrius Poli- 
 orcetes, and governed ]\Iacedonia dming the minority of his 
 nephew Philip, son of Demetrius II., whose widow he espoused, 
 and was in consequence proclaimed king 229 b.c. After con- 
 quering Cleomenes, king of Sparta, and obtaining various martial 
 triumphs, he died 221 B.C., and was succeeded on the throne by 
 PhOip, the lawful heir to the kingdom. — F. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, sm-named Gonatas from the place of his 
 birth, was the son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and gi-andson of the 
 preceding; bom 319 b.c. He gave liberty to the Armenians, 
 expelled the Gauls who had made an iniiption into his kingdom, 
 and was at last di-iven from his dominions by P^tIius, king of 
 Epiras. But he eventually succeeded in recovering a great part 
 of Macedonia, and having followed Pyirhus into the neighbour- 
 hood of Argos, defeated him in battle. After this event Anti- 
 gonus enlarged his territories, reigned thirty-four years, and was 
 succeeded by his son Demetrius II., 239 B.C. — F. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, SociKEUs, a high priest of the Hebrews about 
 310 B.C., and successor of Simeon the Just. 
 
 ANTIGONUS was the son of Aristobulus, a king of the 
 Jews, and the last of the celebrated Asmonean dynasty. By 
 means of an anny obtained from the king of Parthia he took 
 possession of Jerusalem, and caused the ears of his uncle Hyr- 
 canus to be cut off, to incapacitate him for the office of high 
 priest. The Roman senate then proclaimed him an enemy of the 
 republic, and Mark Antony ordered him to re-establish Herod on 
 the throne. After an unavailing defence and a siege of six 
 months, Jerusalem was taken 37 B.C., and Antigonus was carried 
 in fetters to Antony, who, at the request of Herod, put him to a 
 shameful deatli at Antioch, 35 B.C. — F. 
 
 ANTILLON, a learned Spaniard, bom about the year 1760 
 at Santa-Eulalia in Ajragon, who, having studied at Saragossa, 
 became professor of astronomy, geography, and history, in the 
 royal college of Madrid; died 1820. 
 
 ANTIMACHUS. Three Greek poets bore this name : — 
 
 Anti'machus, a native of Glares in Ionia, who flourished 
 nbout 404 B.C. His principal work was a poem on the Theban 
 war. It was of great length, and at a public recital of the 
 verses, all the audience left him except Plato, when Antima- 
 chus declared he would read on, as Plato was equal to a whole 
 audience. Quintilian places him in the first rank as a poet 
 after Homer. Of his works, the few fragments preserved have 
 been published under the title, " Antimachi Colophonii EeliquiEe," 
 Halle, 178G. 
 
 Antimaciius of Teos in Ionia, flourished at a very remote 
 period ; of his works nothing is accurately known. 
 
 Antimachus of Heliopolis in Egypt, lived .somewhat prior 
 to the age of Au.gi\stus, and, according to Suidas, wrote a poem 
 of 3780 hexameters on the creation of the world. — F. 
 
 ANTI'MACO, Makco-Antonio, an excellent Greek and 
 Latin scholar, who was born at Mantua about 1473. Having 
 first taught Greek in his native town, he became professor of that 
 language in the university of Fcrrara, and died in 1552. 
 
 ANTT'NOUS, a youth of I5ith3'nia, celebrated for his extraor- 
 dinaiy beauty. He was so great a favourite of the Emperor 
 Adrian, that at his death he erected a temple to him, and wished 
 it to be believed that he had been changed into a constellation. 
 According to some authors, Antinons was accidentally drowned 
 in the Nile; according to others, he threw himself from a rock 
 into the river, to fulfil the decree of an oracle, which demanded 
 for the emperor's preservation the immolation of one wlio was 
 dear to him. Antinopolis or Antinoo was built in his honour ; 
 and his personal beauty has been recorded in innumerable Greek 
 medals and statues. — F. 
 
 ANTI'OCIIIS, a Greek lady, who devoted herself to the study 
 of medicine; she is supposed to have lived in the 3d century i;.c. 
 
 ANTI'OCHUS, king of Messene, reigned at first conjointly 
 with his brother Andi-ocles ; but the two princes havuig quar- 
 relled, a civil war commenced, in which Androclea perished. 
 Antiochus expired shortly after, in 744 B.C. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, a Greek historian, bora at Syracuse, lived 
 about the commencement of the Pelopoimesian war, 424 B.C. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, the name of fourteen kings of Syria : — 
 
 Antiochus I., surnamed Soter, the Saviour, was a son of 
 Seleucus Nicator, and born about 324 b.c. After a reign of 
 19 years, dm-ing which the Syrian monarchy had been greatly 
 diminished, he was killed in a battle with the Gaids. 
 
 Antiochus II., son of the preceding and of Stratonice, suc- 
 ceeded his father in 261 B.C. He was poisoned at Ephesus by 
 his queen Laodice in 246 B.C. It is supposed that the sixth 
 verse of the eleventh chapter of Daniel refers to this Antiochus. 
 
 Antiochus III., surnamed, on account of his rapacity, Hier- 
 ax, or The Hawk, was the second son of the preceding, and 
 inherited Cilicia. He succeeded in wresting the other estates of 
 the famOy from his elder brother Seleucus, but was shortly after 
 obliged to seek refuge in Egypt, where he was mm-dered by some 
 brigands of Thrace, 227 b.c. 
 
 Antiochus IV., surnamed The Great, was the second 
 son of Seleucus Callinicus and Laodice. He was bom about 
 the year 238 b.c, and succeeded his eldest brother, Seleucus 
 Ceraunus, in the year 223. In the second year of his reign he 
 wrested a part of Ccele-Syria from Ptolemy Philopator; but, 
 repulsed from the fortress of GeiTha by the Egyptian general 
 Theodotus, and having received news of the revolt of the 
 brothers Molo and Alexander, satraps of Media and Persia, he 
 abandoned his conquests in that province and proceeded against 
 the rebels. A few months sufficed for this expedition, which 
 was terminated by the voluntaiy deaths of Molo and Alexander. 
 Antiochus next reduced to submission Artabazanes, king of 
 Media Atropatene. Seleucia was added to his dominions 219 
 B.C., and shortly after Coele-Syi-ia, Idumea, and Phenicia. Two 
 years later the memorable battle of Raphia occurred, and Antio- 
 chus, signally defeated, was glad to secure a peace with Ptolemy 
 by the relinquishment of all his conquests. The year following 
 he undertook a campaign in Asia Minor against his cousin 
 Archa3us, who sustained a two years' siege in Sardes, but was 
 finally betrayed into the hands of the king and put to death. 
 The celebrated expecHtion into Upper Asia, which procm-ed 
 Antiochus his sm-name of The Great, set out in 212 B.C., and 
 had for its object to subdue the Parthian king Arsaces, and 
 Euthydemus, king of Bactriana. It lasted till 205 B.C., and 
 although generally successful, tenninated without displacing the 
 obnoxious sovereigns. A year after his return to Syria, Antio- 
 chus began preparations for a war with Eg}-pt, in which kingdom 
 Ptolemy Philopator had just been succeeded by his son Ptolemy 
 Philometor, a boy of five yeai-s. He regained Coele-Syi-ia and 
 Palestine, but was prevented from invading Egypt by an em- 
 bassy from Rome, which informed him that the youthful Ptolemy 
 had been placed under the protection of the conscript fathers. 
 In the year 199 B.C., while Antiochus was prosecuting a war 
 against Attains in Asia Minor, Palestine and Coele-Syria were 
 recovered by the Egyptians; but the following spring he de- 
 feated the P>gyptian general Scopas at Paneas, and a third time 
 obtained the mastery of these countries. Shortly after, com- 
 menced his warfare with the Romans, in which he was rapidly 
 shorn of all his conquests, and finally compelled to pay a humi- 
 liating tribute. His resolution to engage the formidable masters 
 of the West was the result of Hannibal's airival at his court. 
 In the year 192 b.c. he invaded Greece, bnt after some trifling 
 successes was routed by JI. Acilius Glnbrio at Themiopyla-, 
 whence he escaped to Calchis with only 600 horsemen. Another 
 and more rainous defeat happened to him in the winter of 190 
 B.c;. near JIagnesia, where, of 82,000 Syrians opposed to 30,000 
 Romans under eomm.and of the two Stipios, 54,000 wore left on 
 the field of battle. He besmight a peace from the victors, which 
 was granted on condition that he should surrender all Asia to 
 the west of Taurus, and that he should pay the expenses of the 
 war. To raise the money required for the hitter purpose, he 
 attempted to plunder the temple of Jupiter Belus in Elymais, 
 but the inhabitants would not permit the sacrilege, and in the 
 tumult their resi.stance gave rise to, Antiochus perished. The 
 prophecy in Daniel xi. 10-19, is generally referred to this king. 
 
 Antiochus V., surnamed ErirnANEs, born about the year 
 200 B.C., was the fifth son of the preceding, and succeeded
 
 his brother Seleucus IV. in 175 B.C. Two yenrs after his 
 accession, on the death of his sister Cleopatra, he reclaimed 
 Ca-le-Syria, Phenicia, and Palestine, alicniited to Egypt as the 
 dower of her marriage with Ptolemy Epiphanes. This pro- 
 duced a war with the guai-dians of the young Ptolemy Pliilo- 
 metor, and Antiochus made four campaigns in Egypt from 172 
 to 1C9 B.C., in which he possessed himself of nearly the whole 
 country. The Komans, however, interfered in the last-men- 
 tioned year to have the kingdom restored to Ptolemy, and Antio- 
 chus, abandoning the siege of Alexandria which he had prosecuted 
 for some time, returned to Syria. He despatched his anny un- 
 der ApoUonius to pillage Jerusalem, which was abandoned dur- 
 ing three days to the fuiy of the soldiers. Of the inhabitants 
 80,000 were massacred, and 40,000 sold as slaves. Next year, 
 1G7 B.C., he besieged in person the cajiital of Judea, and after 
 burning the citadel, profaned the temple of Solomon by setting 
 up in the holy place a statue of Jupiter Olympius. His wanton 
 cruelty excited the revolt of the Maccabees, which, dming the 
 remainder of his reign, kept him in continual alarm. He died 
 at Tabaj in Persis, in 164 B.C., of a loathsome disease, wluch 
 Jews and Greeks concurred in rcgai'duig as a special vengeance 
 on the most wanton of tyrants. 
 
 Antiochus VI., surnamed Eupator, son of the preceding, 
 succeeded his father 1G3 B.C., at the age of nine years. He was 
 put to death by Demetrius Soter in 160 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus VII., sm-named Dionysius, son of Alexander 
 r>alas, was brought forward in 144 B.C. to dethrone Demetrius 
 Nicator. After a reign of less than two years, he was killed by 
 Tr}-phon, one of the two chiefs who bad established him on 
 the throne. 
 
 Antiochus VIII., surnamed Sidetes, younger son of De- 
 metrius Soter, was bom at Eome in 164 B.C. He canned on 
 the war against the Jews, was repulsed in 135 B.C. by Simon, 
 one of the Maccabees, but defeated Simon's son John in 132 
 B.C., and had the walls of Jerusalem razed. He perished in 
 a battle with the Parthians about the beginning of 128 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus IX., sm-named Gr4YPUs or The Hook-nosed, 
 was the second son of Demetrius Nicator and Cleopatra, and suc- 
 ceeded his brother Seleucus V., whom his mother had put to 
 death in 124 B.C. He was assassinated at Heracieon in 96 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus X., surnamed Cyzicenus, youngest son of An- 
 tiochus Sidetes and Cleopatra, dethroned his brother Antiochus 
 
 IX. in 113 B.C., and reigned conjointly with that prince fifteen 
 years from 111 B.C.; but in 95 b.c. was defeated in a battle 
 near Antioch by his nephew, Seleucus VI., and finding liimself 
 about to be taken prisoner, committed suicide. 
 
 Antiochus XI., surnamed Eusebes, only son of Antiochus 
 
 X. and Cleopatra, on the death of his father in 95 B.C., had 
 himself proclaimed in opposition to Seleucus VI., whom he de- 
 feated at Mopsuestia, and obliged to leave the kingdom. Victo- 
 rious also over Antiochus XII., he was worsted in 92 b.c. by 
 two other sons of Antiochus Grj-pus, Philip and Demetrius III., 
 and compelled to talce refuge among the Pai-thians. He re- 
 turned to Syria shortly after, and maintained for some years 
 a contest with Philip and Demetrius ; but in 83 n.c. Tigi-anes, 
 king of Armenia, during the distractions of the kingdom, pos- 
 sessed himself of the crown, and again forced Antiochus into 
 exile. What became of him afterwards is not certainly known. 
 
 Antiochus XII., surnamed Epii'HAnes Philadelphus, 
 second son of Antiochus Giy{)us, after a reign of three years was 
 drowned in the Orontes in 93 b.c, on the banks of which river, 
 near Antioch, he had just been defeated by Antiochus XI. 
 
 Antiochus XIII., surnamed Dionysius, youngest son of 
 Antiochus Grj'pus, succeeded his brother Demetrius III. He 
 invaded the territories of Aretas, and perished in a battle with 
 that sovereign in 85 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus XIV., surnamed A-siaticus, son of Antiochus 
 XI., began liis reign after the dispersion of the army of Tigranes 
 the Annenian (Antiochus XI.) He was the last of the dynasty 
 of the Seleucida;, and witnessed the conversion of his kingdom 
 into a Koman province, an event brought about by Pompey in 
 65 B.C. He survived his downfall sixteen years. — J. S., G. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, the name of four kings of Connnagene, a 
 small countiy between the Euphrates and Mount Taurus, first 
 noticed in history as separate from Syria, to which it originally 
 belonged, in the year 65 B.C., when Antiochus Asiaticus was 
 deposed by Pompey, and his dominions converted into a province 
 of the empire. 
 
 Antiochus I. took part, 49 b.c, in the civil war between 
 Cicsar and Pompey, siding with the latter, whom he assisted with 
 200 horsemen. Samosata, his capital, was unsuccessfully besieged 
 by Antony in 38 B.C. Nothing further is known of his history. 
 
 Antiochus II., supposed to have wrested the throne from his 
 brother Mithridates, was accused before the Roman senate of 
 having murdered an ambassador sent by his brother to Augustus, 
 and condemned to death in 29 b.c. 
 
 Antiochus III. died in a.d. 17. After liis death, Com- 
 magene became a province of the Roman empire. 
 
 Antiochus IV., surnamed Epiphanes, son of the preced- 
 ing, after long supplication at Rome, received the crown of his 
 ancestors from Caligula ; but had only worn it a year or two 
 when he lost the favour of the tyrant, and in consequence his 
 kingdom. It was restored to him by Claudius in 41 A.n., and 
 in 55, for his servnces against the Parthians, Nero enlarged it by 
 the gift of Amienia. lie assisted Titus at the second siege of 
 Jerusalem, and enjoyed the favour of Vespasian ; but in 72 a.d. 
 he was accused at Rome of having formed an alliance with the 
 Parthians, and again deposed. The remainder of his fife was 
 passed at Rome. Commagene once more lapsed into a Roman 
 province. — J. S., G. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS OF AscALON, in Palestine, a Greek philoso- 
 pher, pupil of Pldlo, and successor to that distinguished philoso- 
 pher as head of the New Academy, lived in the first half of the 
 century before Christ. M. Tcrentius Varro, Brutus, and Cicero 
 were among his disciples at Athens. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS OF Laodicea, a sceptic of the first or second 
 century before Christ. He was a disciple of Zeuxis, and master 
 of Tenodotus. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, a Greek astronomer, a number of whose works 
 are presei-ved in the library of the Vatican. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, a physician, contemporary of Galen at Rome 
 in the second century of the Cluistian era. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, a physician, saint, and martyr, of the reign of 
 Adrian, studied medicine that he might be able to relieve the 
 sufferings of the poor, especially among his converts, and in his 
 double character of physician and missionary, travelled over 
 Galatia and Cappadocia. He was put to death in the island of 
 Sardmia in 120. His memory is celebrated as saint and martyr 
 by the Romish chm'ch on the 13th of December. — J. S., G. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS of JEgje m Cilicia, a Greek sophist, flourished 
 about A.D. 200. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, another physician, saint, and martyr, whose 
 memory is celebrated by the Greek and Romish churches on the 
 15th of July, was one of the victims of the persecution insti- 
 tuted by the Emperor Diocletian, a.d. 303-311. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, bishop of Ptolemais, in Palestine, celebrated 
 for his eloquence, Uved about a.d. 400. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, a Greek monlc of St. Saba, near Jerusalem, 
 lived about A.D. 614. 
 
 ANTI'PATER, the general and friend of Philip of Macedon, 
 and of Alexander the Great, was the son of lolaus, and born 
 about 390 b.c Alexander the Great, when setting forth on 
 his Asiatic campaign, appointed him regent of JIacedonia, leav- 
 ing an army under his command. In the political troubles 
 which followed the death of Alexander, Antipater took an acti\e 
 part, and when the empire was divided between the generals 
 of the deceased conqueror, Macedonia fell to his share. Anti- 
 pater cultivated and patronized literature, and one of liis letters 
 to his son Cassander has been highly extolled by Cicero. He 
 died 319 b.c— F. 
 
 ANTIPATER, king of lilaccdonia, was the grandson of the 
 preceding, and on the death of his eldest brother, Philip IV., 
 who had succeeded Cassander, ascended the throne 296 b.c. 
 Subsequently he lost his kingdom and fied into Thrace, to Lysi- 
 machus, whose daughter Euiydice he had man-ied, where, being 
 accused of treason, he was put to death about 290 B.C. — F. 
 
 ANTIPATER of IIierapolis in Phiygia, a Greek rheto- 
 rician who lived 193-211 b.c ; who held the post of secretary 
 to the Emperor L. Septimus Severus. He was raised to the 
 consular dignity, and appointed governor of Bithynia. None of 
 his writings have been prescr\'ed. 
 
 ANTIPATER of Idujiea, according to Josephus, the son 
 of a noble Idumean of the same name, who had received from 
 Alexander Jannajus the government of that province. He took 
 a prominent part in the affairs of the .Jews during the disputes 
 between Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus II. In 48 B.C., the zeal
 
 ANT 
 
 175 
 
 ANT 
 
 he displayed in the cause of Caesar during the Egyptian -war, 
 obtained bini the office of procurator of Judea. He died of poison, 
 administered to him 43 b.c. by the cupbearer of Hyrcanus, at 
 the instigation of Jlahchus, a man whose life he had twice pre- 
 served. His second son was Herod the Great. — F. 
 
 ANTIPATER, L.elius-Ccelius, a Roman lawyer and his- 
 torian, bora about 153 B.C., who was much distinguished for his 
 eloquence. Among his pupils was the orator L. Licinius Crassus, 
 whose friendship, and that of the celebrated Caius Gracchus, he 
 enjoyed. Only a few fragments of his works have been pre- 
 served, but that he was held in high repute as an historian, as 
 well as an eloquent pleader, is obvious from references made to 
 him by Valerius Slasimus and the historian Livy. — F. 
 
 ANTIPATER of Tarsus, a stoic philosopher, who lived in 
 the second century b.c„ and was the disciple of Diogenes the 
 Babylonian. In addition to his writings on the controversy 
 between the stoics and academics, he wrote works on divination, 
 on dreams, on superstition, on the Deity, and on ethical sub- 
 jects. His acuteness has been extolled by Cicero. — F. 
 
 ANTIPATER of Tyre, a stoic philosopher of the iirst cen- 
 tury B.C., who appears to have written a book upon Duties, and is 
 much praised by Cicero. He died at Athens about 46 B.C. 
 
 ANTIPATER was the eldest son of Herod the Great by his 
 first wife Doris. After Herod had divorced Doris and mairied 
 the beautiful Mariamne, 38 b.c, he banished Antipater from his 
 court ; but after Mariamne had fallen a victim to the jealousy 
 and cruelty of her husband, he recalled Antipater, being afraid of 
 the vengeance of the two sons of his murdered wife. Antipater 
 is characterized by Josephus as " a mysteiy of wickedness." He 
 induced Herod to put the two sons of IMariamne to death, B.C. 
 6, and havmg conspired against the life of Herod himself, was 
 executed by the sanction of Augustus. — F. 
 
 ANTIPATER. The name of three different poets, some of 
 whose writings are extant in the Greek Anthology. The most 
 ancient of these is Antipater of Macedonia, a contemporary 
 of Philip V. The second was Antipater of Sidon, who Uved 
 ibout 100 B.C., and of whom PHny reports that he was seized 
 with a fever every year on his bu-th-day, and that on one of 
 these anniversaries the malady proved fatal. The thu-d was 
 Antipater of Thessalonica, who flourished during the reigns 
 of Augustus and Tiberius. — F. 
 
 ANTIPHANES of Argos, a brass-caster, pupil of Periclitus, 
 lived about 372 B.C. 
 
 ANTIPHANES, a physician of Delos, who lived in the 
 second century B.C., and who taught that the cliief cause of 
 human disease was the variety of food. 
 
 ANTIPHANES. The name of several ancient Greek writers, 
 who flomished at different periods. One of them, refeiTed to by 
 Athenseus and Clement of Alexandria, wrote a book on the pros- 
 titutes of Athens. Another was a native of Berga in Thrace, 
 and the author of a histoiy of marvellous events, also cited by 
 Athenasas ; a third was a comic poet and native of Euboea, con- 
 temporary with Thespis ; and the fourth was a comic poet, born 
 at Smyrna or Rhodes, and who lived in the age of Alexander 
 the Great, and -vvrote more than 260 dramas, of which Athenaeus 
 has presei-ved some fragments. — F. 
 
 ANTIPHILOS, a Greek architect, employed in the erection 
 of the treasury at Olympia in the fiftli century b.c. 
 
 ANTIPHILOS OF Egypt, a painter, pupil of Ctesidamus, 
 lived about 316 b.c. He was the rival of Apelles (anotherpainter 
 at the court of Ptolemy Pliilopator), whom he falsely accused of 
 a conspiracy. For this cahunny he was sentenced to become 
 the slave of Apelles. His productions were noted for striking 
 and unusual effects. From a burlesque picture by this artist of 
 a certain Grilles, this name was henceforth given to all sorts of 
 caricatures.. — R. M. 
 
 ANTIPHILUS, a Greek poet, who appears to have lived a 
 little before the time of Nero. A number of epigi'ams \vritten 
 by him are still extant. 
 
 A'NTIPHON. The name of several persons, more or less 
 celebrated in ancient history. The most noted of these was 
 
 Antiphon, the son of Sophilus the orator, who was born at 
 Athens about 479 B.C., and was suraamed Riiaininusiu.s. He 
 is called the eldest of the ten Attic orators, and seems to have 
 been the first who composed speeches to be delivered in courts 
 of justice. He attained a high reputation for his judicial learn- 
 ing, and In his school of rhetoric at Athens, had among bis 
 pupils the historian Thucydides, who speaks in terms of high 
 
 commendation of his virtue, his wisdom, and his eloquence. 
 Antiphon took a veiy active part in the political affairs of Greece. 
 The chief event of his life was the overthrow of the Athenian 
 democratic constitution, and the establishment of the Council of 
 the Foiu- Hundred, a re^'olution which Thucydides attributes 
 entirely to him. The revolution, however, proved fatal to Anti- 
 phon. Notwithstanding all his efforts, the government of the 
 Four Hundred was overthro^vn. Alcibiades was recalled to 
 Athens, and Antiphon was brought to trial for high treason, 
 condemned and executed 411 B.C. The only writings of this 
 orator which have been preserved, are fifteen speeches relating 
 to cases of murder ; several of the cases referred to being merely 
 imaginaiy, and intended to serve as illustrations of the method 
 of employing evidence to estabUsh the guilt or mnocence of an 
 accused person. 
 
 Another person of the name of Antiphon is mentioned in the 
 " Memorabilia" of Xenophon, and is said to have written a treatise 
 on tn'ith, in which he denied the doctrine of Providence. There 
 was also a tragic poet of this name, who lived in the fourth 
 centuiy B.C., who was put to death by Dionysius, because he 
 refused to praise the tyrant's compositions. Another Antiphon, 
 mentioned by Plutarch, was a philosopher, and lived before the 
 time of Aristotle. — F. 
 
 ANTIQUIS, Giovanni d', a musician, who lived dming the 
 latter half of the sixteenth century. His compositions were 
 rather of a popular than an elaborate character, consisting chiefly 
 of \dlanellas for three voices, (a kind of part songs, as we should 
 perhaps now name them,) of a simple and rhythmical character, 
 like the fal-las and ballets afterwards in great esteem in Eng- 
 land, and of canzonets and madrigals. His most celebrated 
 production, and this was extremely so throughout all Italy, was 
 a dialog-ue for eight voices. Antiquis was maestro di capella at 
 Bari, in the tenitoiy of Naples. — G. A. M. 
 
 ANTI'STHENES, an Athenian philosopher, founder of the 
 sect of the Cynics, flourished 400 years before Christ. In his 
 youth he fought at Tanagra. He became a zealous disciple of 
 Socrates, and was present at his martyrdom. He was the master 
 of Diogenes. The date of his death is unknown. Some attri- 
 bute the name of his school to the Cynosarges, a gymnasiun. 
 which was situated near Athens; and others derive it trom xi^iv, 
 a dog, for vaiious and contradictory reasons. Cicero has handed 
 down to us one dogma of Antisthenes, which entitles him to our 
 respect : " Populares deos multos, naturalem imum esse." His 
 philosophical system seems to be a caricatm'e of the irony of 
 Socrates. His written works extended, according to the state- 
 ment of Diogenes Laertius, to ten volumes (to>o() ; but all have 
 perished. Many of his witty sayings are on record. He regarded 
 vutue as the only thing worthy of desire or esteem ; but what 
 he understood by virtue, it is diffieult to ascertain. Xenophon 
 gives the fairest picture of his character, introducing him into 
 the symposium or banquet, and making him pronounce a foi-ci- 
 ble oration on the wealth of poverty. Two short orations, attri- 
 buted to this author, are contained in the "Oratores Grocci" of 
 Aldus and Reiske (vol. viii.) ; also in Dobson (vol. iv.) Om 
 limits do not allow us to discuss at length the details of his 
 ethical system, or to speculate on the manner in which it was 
 developed and modified by Diogenes. — T. J. 
 
 ANTOINE DE Bourbon, king of NavaiTC, was bom in 
 1518. He was the son of Charles de Bourbon, duke of Ven- 
 dome, and by his marriage with .Jeanne d'Albret, obtained the 
 principality of Beam, and the title of king of Navarre. He 
 was a prince of a feeble and in-esolute character ; and after the 
 death of Francis II., when he wished to obtain the regency, 
 Catherine de Medicis compelled him to renounce his claims, on 
 which he was satisfied to become the lieutenant-general of tlio 
 kingdom. In 1562 he commanded the amiy at the siege of 
 Rouen, where he received a wound on the shoulder, which ulti- 
 mately proved fatal. — F. 
 
 ANTOINE, Paul-Gabriel, a Jesuit professor of philosophy 
 and theology at Pont-a-Mousson, was bom at Luneville in 1679 ; 
 died in 1713. 
 
 ANTOINE, Jacques-Denys, an architect, bom at Paris, 
 1733. He was the son of a johier, and began life as a bricklayer; 
 but his remarkable talents enabled him to advance himself into 
 an eminent position as an architect. Besides erecting the mint 
 at Paris, he built many important edifices, not only in Paris, but 
 at Madrid, I'eme, and Nancy. He died in 1801. — F. 
 
 ANTOINE, Pierre-Joseph, a French engmeer, bom 1730
 
 at Brasey, near St. Jean-de-Losne, was professor of architec- 
 ture in the school of the fine arts at Dijon; died 1814. His 
 brother, Astdine Antoine, born at Auxonne in 1744, was 
 also remarkable for his skill as an engineer. Died 1818. — F. 
 
 ANTOINETTE d'Okleans, the daughter of Leonore, duke 
 of Longueville, and JIaria de Bourbon, was born about the 
 middle of the 16th ccntuiy. Wearied of tlie world afcer the 
 death of her husband, Charles de Gondi, she entered a convent, 
 and subsequently became coadjutrix in the abbey of Fontevrault. 
 She afterwards quitted the order to found a convent of the 
 daughters of Calvary, according to the rule of St. Benedict ; and 
 died in 1G18.— F. 
 
 ANTOINETTE, Makik. Sfe .Mai;ii;. 
 
 ANTOLI, a Jewish ivriter of the thirteenth ccntuiy. 
 
 ANTOLI, Jacob B.\k Samsox, a Spanish rabbin, bom in 
 the kingdom of Naples during the reign of the Emperor Frederic, 
 in the first half of the thirteenth ccntuiy; died in 1232. 
 
 ANTOLI'NI, Giovanni, an architect burn in 1755, author 
 of a treatise on arcliitccture, and a work entitled " Le Eovine di 
 Vellrja;" died in 1841. 
 
 ANTOLINEZ, Francisco, a Spanish landscape painter of 
 great promise, who died vciy young at Madrid in 1700. He 
 used to work in secret, and on pictures of vciy small size. — R, M. 
 
 ANTOLINEZ, Jose, a Spanish landscape painter of the 
 SeviUian school, who learned the art from F. Rizzi. His 
 pictures were especially charming for delicacy of colouring. Jose 
 was exceedingly proud of his talents. He died also young, 
 in consequence of a fever he caught whilst exerting himself too 
 much in fencing. Bom 1G39, died 1G74. — R. M. 
 
 ANTOMMARCHI, Francesco, a physician, bom during the 
 latter half of the eighteenth centmy, who rendered liimself re- 
 markable by his devotion to the sernce of Napoleon diu'ing his 
 captivity in St. Helena. He was professor of anatomy in the 
 university of Florence, when he received the appointment of 
 physician to the ex-emperor. He was at first coldly received 
 by the illustrious captive, but gained at last his entire confi- 
 dence. After Napoleon's decease, Antommarchi returned to 
 France ; which, however, he left to take up liis abode in Poland 
 in 1831. The controversy which arose regai-ding his alleged 
 cast of the emperor's head, and the suspicion to which he was 
 subjected, appear to have induced him, in 1836, to betake him- 
 self as a practitioner of liomoeopatliy to America, and he died 
 at St. Antonio in Cuba in 1838. — F. 
 
 ANTON, Clemens Theodor, king of Saxony, was bom in 
 1755. He was the second son of Frederick Cliristian, elector 
 of Saxony, and succeeded to the government in 1827 on the 
 death of his elder brother, Frederick Augustus, who had been 
 king since 1806. His dominion was only nominal, as he cared 
 little for the aftau-s of state, all his inclinations being toward 
 the church, for which he was originally destined. He was at 
 first unsuccessful in his choice of ministers, and various out- 
 breaks occurred among his people ; but having ultimately created 
 Baron von Lmdenau and his nephew, Prince Frederick Augustus, 
 co-regents, the latter years of his reign were marked by various 
 reforms in the criminal and municipal code of the coimtry, and 
 by a treaty with Prussia of great advantage to Saxony. Anton 
 died in 1836, leaving the kingdom to his nephew. — J. B. 
 
 ANTON, Conrad Gottlob, an eminent philologist, bom 
 at Lauban in Upper Lusatia in 1745, became in 1780 professor 
 of the Oriental languages at Wittenberg, and died in 1814. 
 
 ANTON, Gottfried, was bom in 1571, and died in 1618. 
 He was a (hstinguished professor of Roman and feudal law, and 
 became rector (equivalent to the English chancellor) of the 
 tuiiversity of Gicssen. 
 
 ANTON, Karl Gottlob, a German antiquary, bom at 
 Lauban, 1752, author of a great number of historical, antiqua- 
 rian, and philological works; he died at GoerHtz in 1818. His 
 fither, JoHANN Nicholas Anton, was a Lutheran divine, 
 and ai-chdeacon of Schmiedeberg in Saxony, where he was bora 
 in 1737. He was the author of several works on theological 
 subjects, and died in 1814. — F. 
 
 ANTON, Paul, a Lutheran prelate, the friend of the Pietist 
 le.idrr Fmiicke, was bom in 1661, and died in 1730. 
 
 ANTONELLE, Pierre Antoine, Marquis d', a French 
 political economist, was bom at Aries in 1747. He early em- 
 braced the principles of the Revolution, and was chainnan of the 
 jury at the tri.ol of the Girondins. He was aftcnvaids accused 
 of complicity in the conspuracy of Babeuf, and suflered much 
 
 persecution from Fouche as an "anarchist." He died in 1817, 
 having devoted the last years of his life to literary and philo- 
 sophic pursuits. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANTONELLI, Leonardo, cardinal-bishop of Velletri, a 
 zealous supporter of Jesuitism; born 1730, died 1811. 
 
 ANTONELLI, Niccolo Maria, an Itahan theologian, was 
 born in 1698, and died in 1767. 
 
 ANTONELLI, Seeastiano Andrea, an Italian historian, 
 apostolic prothonotaiy in the seventeenth century. 
 
 * ANTONELLI, a cardinal and prime minister to Pope Pio 
 LX., was bom towards the end of the last century. 
 
 ANTONELLO, Mamertini da Messina, called also Anto- 
 nio DA JIessina, or Antonello degli Antonii, a Sicilian 
 painter, belonging to a family of distinguished artists, was bom at 
 Messina in 1414, died in 1496. Happening in 1442 to see a pic- 
 ture by J. Van Eyk, painted in oil colours, he was so struck with 
 its brilliancy that he at once resolved upon seeking its worthy 
 author. For this purpose he went to Bruges, where he remained 
 with Van Eyk until the death of the latter in 1445. Antonello 
 then proceeded to Venice, where he communicated the new pro- 
 cess to Domenico Veneziano. Besides the use of oil colours, 
 Antonello adopted also, in his after-life, the style of Van Eyk, 
 so much so as to render it difficult to distinguish his works from 
 those of the Flemish master. — E. M. 
 
 ANTONI, Aless^vndro Vittorio Papacino d', a Sar- 
 dinian general of artillery, was born in 1714, near Nice, and died 
 at Turin in 1786. 
 
 ANTONI, ViNCENZo Berni degli, a jurist of Bologna, 
 was bom in 1747, and died in 1810. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANTONIA, the name of several noble ladies of ancient Rome : 
 
 Anton I A, the daughter of Caius Antonius Hybrida, was 
 manied to her cousin Marc Antony the triumvir. She was 
 divorced in 47 B.C. to make way for Fulvia. Her sister, who 
 bore the same name, was married to Caius Caninius Gallus, 
 tribune of the Plebs, 56 b.c. It is supposed by some that 
 these ladies are one and the same, and that the wife of the 
 triumvir was first man-ied to Gallus. 
 
 Antonia Major, elder of the two daughters of Marc Antony 
 and Octavia, was bom 39 B.C., and became the wife of L. Domi- 
 tius Ahenobarbus, mother of Cneius Domitius, and then the 
 grandmother of Nero. 
 
 Antonia Minor, sister of the preceding, was bom 36 b.c. 
 She became the wife of Dmsus, and grandmother of Caligula. 
 She was noted alike for her pradeuce and her beauty. 
 
 Antonia, the daughter of the Emperor Claudius, suffered 
 death at the instigation of Nero, because she refused to marry 
 him after the death of two husbands. — J. B. 
 
 ANTONIA'NO, Silvio, the Italian cardinal, bom at Rome 
 1540, died 1603. He was the son of a draper, and began early 
 to display a taste for polite hterature. Pleased with his talents, 
 Hercules II., duke of Fen-ara, nominated him at the age of 
 16 years professor of eloquence in that city. After the death 
 of his patron, he was invited to Rome in 1559 by Pius IV., and 
 appointed secretary to cardinal Charles Bon-omeo. He was soon 
 selected to fill the chair of belles-lettres in one of the colleges 
 in that city, and his lectures were so popular, that on one occa- 
 sion, when he explained the oration of Cicero for Slarcellus, 
 twenty -five cardinals were among his hearers. He was a highly 
 distinguished member of the academy of the Vatican. Having 
 been ordained priest in 1567, he was soon nominated the secre- 
 tary of the sacred college, and afterwards canon and cardinal, 
 I\Iarch 3, 1598. He -nTOte a work, entitled " Dell' Educazione 
 Cristiana de' Figlinoh," libri tr^, Verona, 1584, 4to; and also 
 "Orationes Tredecim," Rome, 1610, 4to, published after his 
 death, to which his life is prefixed. — T. J. 
 
 ANTONIANUS, Johannes, a Dommican monk of Nimwegen, 
 who lived in the sixteenth century. 
 
 ANTONIA'SSO, a Roman painter, lived early in the sixteenth 
 centurj'. 
 
 ANTO'NIDES, several celebrated natives of Holland have 
 home this name : — 1. Jean van der Goes, a spirited poet, 
 born at Goes, May 3, 1647 ; died in 1684. 2. Henricus 
 Nerdenus, born at Naerden, near Amsterdam, in 1546; died 
 in 1604. He wrote "Systema Theologian," 1613, and other 
 works. The prcfiice to the " Systema " contains some interest- 
 ing details concerning the Reformation in the low coimtries. 
 3. John, a celsbrated oriental scholar, born at Alckmar, who 
 flemished in the seventeenth century. He wrote " Epist. Pauli
 
 ad Titum, Arabice, cum J. Anton interlineari versione Latina ad 
 verbum," Antwerp, 1612, 4to. 4. Theodore, a tbeologian, 
 who flourished In the early part of the eighteenth century. He 
 wrote, in Dutch, Commentaries on the Epistles of St. James, 
 St. Peter, and St. Jude, and on the Book of Job. — T. J. 
 
 ANTONINA, the wife of Belisarias, a woman of abandoned 
 character, lived towards the end of the sixth century. 
 
 ANTONINI, Annibale, an Italian author and lexicographer 
 cf the last century. His principal work is a triglot lexicon of 
 the Latin, Italian, and French languages. 
 
 ANTONINI, FiLippo, an Italian antiquary of the ICth cent. 
 
 ANTONINI, Giuseppe, an Italian jurist and antiquary, 
 lived in the earlier part of the eighteenth century. 
 
 ANTONI'NUS, a name borne by six Roman emperors — 
 Antoninus Pius, M. Aurelius, L. Cojlmodus, Cakacalla, 
 DiADUMENiANus, and Heliogabalus. 
 
 ANTONINUS, Pius, the sixteenth in order of the Roman 
 emperors from Julius Ccesar, was born at Lanuvium, a.d. 86. 
 By a strange fataUty, history is nearly silent as to the events of 
 Lis reign. That portion of the history of Dion Cassius which 
 contained the narrative of his life and actions, is unfortunately 
 lost ; and the only sources of authentic information that we 
 possess consist of a few pages by an obscure chronicler, Julius 
 Capitolinus, together with the numerous coins and insci-iptions, 
 dating from his reign, which have come down to us, the latter 
 supplying a kind of knowledge eminently satisfactory so far as 
 it goes, because contemporary and thoroughly reliable. 
 
 The name of Antoninus, written at full length, was Titus 
 Aurelius Fuhius Boiouius AitIus Antoninus. His father was 
 Am*elius Fulvius, his mother Arria Fadilla. His gi-andfather 
 was a native of Nemausus or Nismes, in Transaljiine Gaul. His 
 father dying while he was yet young, Amus Antoninus, his mater- 
 nal grandfiither, took charge of his education, and brought him 
 up at his estate of Lorium, a station on the Via Aurelia, aboiit 
 twelve miles from Rome, near the modem village of Castel di 
 Guido. Arrius was the intimate fiiend of the Elmperor Nerva, 
 and a man of considerable distinction, having held, besides 
 other posts, the proconsulate of the province of Asia. Thus 
 introduced into public life under the most favourable auspices, 
 and having constantly before his eyes an example of the highest 
 administrative energy and ability during the successive reigns of 
 Nerva, Trajan, and Hadiian, — gifted himself by nature with a 
 capacious mind and an equable temperament, and fortified, 
 through the lessons of the Stoic philosophy, with the best system 
 of moral training wliich the human mind, unassisted by revela- 
 tion, has ever discovered, — Antoninus soon rose into distinction 
 in the public service, deserved and obtained the esteem of 
 Hadrian, and developed a genius for government which that 
 emperor was not slow to perceive, and — a rarer characteristic — 
 was equally prompt in doing justice to. In the year 120 he 
 was first made consul, and when his year of office was expired, 
 he retired to his estate at Lorium, content if he had remained 
 thenceforward in a private station. But Hadrian soon drew him 
 from his retirement, and nominated him one of the four consular 
 officers, to whom he confided the administration of Italy. As 
 proconsul of Asia, a post to which he was subsequently appointed, 
 he yet fmiher increased his reputation for justice and generosity ; 
 lie surpassed in the exercise of this employment, says Capitolinus, 
 the glory of his grandfather, who had till then remained with- 
 out a rival. His administrative talent and singular probity were 
 not lost sight of by the discerning Hadrian, and after the death 
 of Jilius Ca;sar, he resolved to adopt him as his heir, and as his 
 successor in the empire. In announcing this step to the senate, 
 he concluded his panegyric upon Antoninus in these words : " In 
 imposing the empire upon him, I do not consult him; I only 
 consult the interest of the state. He will accept from patriot- 
 ism the mission wliich his modesty would have declined." 
 
 The adoption of Antoninus took place in February, a.d. 138 : 
 four months later Iladiiun died, and his adopted son assumed 
 without opposition the reins of government. Soon after, he 
 received from the senate the surname of Pius, of which various 
 explanations are mentioned by Ca])itolinus. The following ap- 
 pears to be the most probable : — Offended on account of certain 
 severities which Hadrian had exercised towards members of their 
 body, the senate was disposed, after his death, to withhold from 
 him the usual divine honours paid to deceased emperors. But 
 when Antoninus strongly opposed this, and insisted upon their 
 decreeing the apotheosis of Iiis benefactor, the senate, feaiing, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 perhaps, that they had gone too far, not only yielded the point 
 at issue, but, in recognition of his filial zeal, decreed to him the 
 title of Pius, the exact force of which is " dutifully affectionate." 
 
 Ascending the throne at the mature age of fifty-two, Antoninus 
 swayed for twenty-three years the destinies of the Roman world, 
 which, during the whole of that period, from Britain to the 
 Libyan desert, and from Parthia to Lusitania, enjoyed with 
 trifling exceptions a profound peace. Periods like these are 
 usually the blank spaces of history, though changes are often 
 silently going on in them, which are fraught with future bless- 
 ings to the human race. Relieved from persecution during this 
 mild reign, Chiistianity made great advances in every part of 
 the empire. It was in this reign, also, that a great number of 
 those wise laws and imperial rescripts were framed, and those 
 improvements in jurispnidence effected, which, when codified and 
 methodized under Justinian, formed the basis of the civil law and 
 judicial procedure of modern Em'ope. 
 
 The private life of Antoninus was not altogether happy, owing 
 to the irregularities of his wife Faustina. He had four childi-en 
 by her; two sons who died previously to his adoption by 
 Hadi-ian, and two daughters, one of whom, Annia Faustina, 
 married Marcus Am-elius. The elder Faustina died in the year 
 142 ; Antoninus procured her deification, and had a temple 
 erected in her honour; but a more durable monument to her 
 memory consisted in the institution which he founded for the 
 support and education of young girls {Puellce Faustiniance), whoso 
 parents were either dead or in needy circumstances, and wliich 
 he endowed with ample revenues. The personal habits of 
 Antoninus were simple, and such as became a Stoic philosopher. 
 His table was supplied from the produce of his own estates ; 
 and he pm-posely confined his journeys within the boundaries of 
 Italy, in order that he might not burden the provinces with the 
 ine\'itable expenses of an imperial progress. 
 
 In his administration of the affairs of Italy, Antoninus happily 
 united the character of an energetic refonner with that of a wise 
 consei-vative. The great improvements in Roman law which 
 were effected under his auspices, and by the instrumentality of 
 the able lawyers whom he employed, have been already noticed. 
 We learn from inscriptions that he was not less active in the 
 prosecution of great public works, among which are mentioned 
 the mole of Puteoh, the lighthouse of Caieta, and the port of 
 Terracina. Again, on the side of conversatism, we find him — ■ 
 ignorant as he unfortunately was of that religion, the treasures 
 of which contain equally " things new and old " — endeavouring 
 to keep alive among his subjects a reverence for the old gods and 
 heroes of their mythology, for Jineas, Mars, Romulus, and 
 jEsculapius. To Christianity he granted all that she needs at 
 the hands of princes — perfect freedom of action. Save that, in 
 some parts of the empire, in spite of the humane intentions of 
 Antoninus, individual governors would somethnes act upon tho 
 sanguinary edicts of former emperors, and institute partial per- 
 secutions, the Christian chmxh was allowed to pm'suu her 
 divine mission of converting the world in peace. 
 
 Of foreign or civil wars we hear almost nothing in the reign of 
 Antoninus. The revolt of the Brigantes, a British tribe, and the 
 invasion of the empire by the Moors, an independent people of 
 Libya, are the most import;mt events of the kind mentioned, and 
 in both cases, the assailants were easily crushed by the able lieu- 
 tenants of the emperor. It was on the former of these occasions 
 that Lollius Urbicus, commander of the legions in Britain, erected 
 the wall of Antoninus as a ram])art against tho barbarous Cale- 
 donians, extending from the frith of Fortli to the frith of Clyde. 
 Yet the power of Rome was respected and feared far beyond tho 
 borders of the empire ; and the coins of this reign attest that 
 Antoninus gave kings to tho Armenians and the Quadi of Ger- 
 many, at the request of those nations themselves. 
 
 Antoninus had a majestic presence, and a remarkably deep- 
 toned melodious voice, which enhanced tho effect of his natural elo- 
 quence. He greatly enjoyed the pleasures and pursuits of acountry 
 life, and used to escape, whenever he could find an opportunity, 
 from the cares of state to one of his numerous estates. It was 
 at Lorium that he died, on the 7th March, 161, at the age of 
 seventy-five. As he lay on his deathbed, tho tribune on duty 
 came, it is said, to ask what was to bo the password for tho 
 night. Antoninus replied, " yKquanimitas," tho name of the 
 favourite virtue of the Stoics : it was his last word. He w;i3 
 succeeded by his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius. — (^Biogr. Uni- 
 vcrselle; Smith's Greek and lioman Bioyruphy.') — T. A.
 
 ANTONIXUS, an Egyptian philosopher who lived in the 
 fourth centurv. 
 
 ANTONINUS, Di Forciglioni, St., an Italian theolo^an, 
 was born at Florence in 1389, and died in 1450. 
 
 ANTONINUS LIBERALIS, the author of a collection of 
 metamorphoses, or tales of mythical metamorphoses, taken from 
 poets, and narrated in prose. Nothing is known of the author. 
 Some conjecture tliat he w;us a Latin rlietorician in the reign of 
 Claudius, of whom the only fact related is, that he had a bitter 
 grudge against another rhetorician. Others, with more probabi- 
 lity, suppose that he lived in the time of the Antonines. — J. D. 
 
 ANTONIO d'Antonio, a SiciUan painter, flourishing at 
 Messina about 1267. He is supposed to be the founder of the 
 fiimily Degli Antonii, from whom Antonello da Messina was a 
 descendant. As an artist, Antonio ranks with the Byzantine 
 school. — R. M. 
 
 ANTONIO, Don or Dom, prior of Crato, and titular king of 
 Portugal, bom in 1.531, was the son of Louis, the second son of 
 King Emmanuel. His efforts to assert his right to the throne 
 were opposed by Philip II. of Spain, who considered him a bas- 
 tard : and although he invoked the aid of Holland, France, and 
 England, he found it impossible to make good his claims, and 
 died at Paris in 1595.— F. 
 
 ANTONIO DE Lebrixa, a Spanish historian, bom in An- 
 dalusia, 1444, who, having studied at Salamanca, was appointed 
 by Ciirdinal Ximenes professor of eloquence in the university of 
 Alcala-dc-Henares ; he di<J in 1532. 
 
 ANTONIO DA LOCATE, a Milanese sculptor of the fifteenth 
 century, who assisted Ambrogio da Fossano in executing the 
 celebrated fafade of the Certosa, near Pavia. 
 
 ANTONIO, Margakitiia or Margalitha, a Jewish rabbin 
 of the sixteenth centuiy, who embraced Cluistianity, and became 
 professor of Hebrew at Leipzig and Vienna. 
 
 ANTONIO, JIouosixo, an Italian poet of the 17th century. 
 
 ANTONIO, Nicolas, knight of the order of St. James, and 
 canon of Se\'ille, was bom in that city, a.d. 1617. He studied 
 law at Salamanca, and filled afterwards (a.d. 1659) the office 
 of agent-general of the Spanish king at the court of Rome. 
 He compiled a " Bibliotheca of Spanish AVriters," which was 
 printed at Rome in the year 1672, in two vols, folio. He 
 also published at Antwerp in 1659, in folio, a treatise, " De 
 exilio ; sive, de poena exilii, exulumque conditione et jmibus." 
 Recalled by his royal master from Rome, to fill important offices 
 at Madrid, he acted with much discretion, and died poor in the 
 year 1684. He exploded some of the ecclesiastical fables pre- 
 valent in his age, and is said to have brought on liis memory 
 the odium of the Jesuits. — T. J. 
 
 ANTONIO, Pascal Francisco Juan Nepomuc Aniello 
 Silvester de Bourbon, a Spanish prince, who was bom in 
 1755, and died in 1817. 
 
 ANTONIO, Pedro, a Spanish historical painter, bom at 
 Cordova, 1614, died 1675. He was pupil of Antonio del Cas- 
 tillo, and was considered a good colourist. His best works are 
 in his native town. — R. M. 
 
 ANTONIO, St., of Portugal, was bom at Lisbon in 1195. 
 Having studied at Coimbra, he entered the order of St. Francis, 
 and devoted himself to missionary labour in Africa. He was 
 cast by a storm on the shores of Italy, which country became 
 the scene of his labours. He died at Padua at the age of 36, 
 and was canonized by Gregory XI. — F. 
 
 ANTONIO, Veneziano, a distinguished painter, bom at 
 Venice in 1319, died of the plague at Florence in 1383. He 
 was pupil of A. Gaddi, whom he soon surpassed. Envy drove 
 him from his native city ; but he found a compensation in the 
 reception he met with in other towns. He resided and worked 
 chiefly at Pisa and Florence. His frescos are not only noted 
 for charm of conception, correctness of design, and harmony of 
 colour, but also for the degree of preservation they have been 
 able to maintain. This was attributed to some secret process of 
 his, he being highlv versed in chemistrs-. — R. M. 
 
 ANTON io DA VIGGIU, a distinguished Lombard sculptor 
 of the fifteenth ccnturj', who executed some of the best statues 
 for the Duomo of Milan. 
 
 ANTONI'US, sumamed The Bee, a Greek monk who lived 
 about the end of the eighth century. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Caius, second son of the orator, sumamed 
 Hybrida, was one of the lieutenants of Sylhi about the year 
 82 B.C. Having detached some squadrons of the army of that 
 
 general, then at war with Mithridates, he plundered Achaia. 
 Though accused of many crimes by the Greeks, LucuUus the 
 praetor suffered him to go unpunished ; but six years afterwards, 
 Gallius and Lentulus, the censors, expelled him from the senate. 
 Cicero calls him the brigand of the anny of Sylla. Drumann 
 (Gesch. Rom. i. p. 534) says that the name of Hybrida was 
 given to him because he was homo semij'erus, half a brute. 
 Some writers confuse him with his nephew of the same name, 
 who favoured the conspu'acy of Catiline, and was consul with 
 Cicero. Tliat Caius was the son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, 
 and therefore the grandson of the orator. Cicero, to remove 
 perhaps a dangerous rival from Rome, gave up to him the 
 government of Jlacedonia. Some years afterwards he was 
 accused by Marcus La^lius, and sent into exile. He died broken 
 down by misfortunes. — T. J. 
 
 ANTONIUS of Carthagena, a Spanish physician, who 
 lived in the first half of the sixteenth century, and was physi- 
 cian to the dauphin of France, and professor of medicine at 
 Alcala-de-Henares. There were two other Spanish physicians 
 of the same name, the one called Antonius d'Aquilera, 
 the other Antonius of Viana, who, as well as the first-men- 
 tioned, were authors of medical treatises. — F. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Gottfried, a German lawyer, bom at Freu- 
 denberg in Westphalia about 1550, was chancellor and one of 
 the founders of the university of Giessen, and the author of several 
 works on jurisprudence. He died in 1618. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Lucius, the brother of the triumvir, had all 
 his vices, without a single redeeming point of character, except, 
 perhaps, courage. He was tribune of the people in the same 
 year that JuHus Cxsar died, and consul at Rome in the year u.c. 
 713. The interest of Ful\-ia, his ambitious sister-in-law, gained 
 him a triumph on the first day of his consulship, for a pretended 
 \'ictory which he had achieved over some of the inhabitants of 
 the Alps. In the fife of JIark Antony, we find her inducing 
 Lucius to take up anns against Octavius Csesar, with the inten- 
 tion of overthrowing the triumvirate. He was forced by famine to 
 surrender at Peiiisium with 300 men, and afterwards liberated 
 by the clemency or the policy of the conqueror. How he died 
 is uncertain ; some aflinn that he was slain at the shrine of 
 Julius, as having been one of his enemies. — T. J. 
 
 ANTONIUS, LuDovicus, professor of medicine at Coimbra, 
 was a native of Lisbon, and the author of a variety of learned 
 works relating to his profession. He died in 1547. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Marcus, a celebrated Roman orator, the 
 grandfather of the triumvir, was bom 143 B.C. He was quaes- 
 tor in Asia in 113, praetor in 104, proconsul in Cilicia, with a 
 commission to put down piracy, consul at Rome in 99, and 
 finally censor in 97. His eloquence, according to Cicero, ren- 
 dered Italy the rival of Greece. He was renowned for his 
 pathos. Aristocratic in his views and sympathies, he espoused 
 the cause of Sylla during the civil wars, and fell a victim to 
 the proscription of JIarius and Cinna, when they seized on Rome 
 in the year 87, B.C. His head was exposed on the tribune, 
 which had often rung with his orations. He wrote a treatise, 
 no longer extant, " De ratione dieendi," which is noticed by 
 Cicero and Quintilian. — T. J. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Marcus, commonly called Mark Antont, 
 was grandson of Antonius the orator, who took the aristocratic 
 side in the wars of Marius and Sylla, and was put to death by 
 the former. He was bom about the year 670 A. u.c. His mother, 
 Julia, belonged to the family of the Csesars. Her second hus- 
 band, Cornelius Lentulus, was put to death by order of Cicero, 
 in the year of his consulship, for having taken part in the 
 Catiline conspiracy, and the fate of his stepfiither is said by 
 Plutarch to have been the original ground of the rooted feeling of 
 animosity which Antony ever harboured towards the great orator. 
 
 Antony seems very early to have fiillen into habits of dissi- 
 pation and excess, chiefly through the example of his friend 
 Curio. When the connection between them was broken off by 
 Curio's father, Antony repaired to Greece, and studied oratory 
 at the famous schools of Athens. The instructions he then 
 received he knew how to put in practice on several critical occa- 
 sions in his after life with remarkable success. He served his 
 first campaign under Gabinius in Syiia and Egypt, and in the 
 course of it gave eminent proofs of courage and military skill. 
 Upon returning to Rome, he was elected tribune of the people 
 and augur. Having joined the party of C»sar against Pompey, 
 he was compelled by those of the opposite faction to leave Rome,
 
 and resort to Cresar's camp. Partly through his instigation 
 Cresar crossed the Eubicon, and commenced the civil war. In 
 tlie campaign which followed, and whicli was terminated by tlie 
 defeat of Pompcy at Pharsalia, Antony played a distinguished 
 part. After the battle, Cassar was appointed dictator, and sent 
 Antony, as his master of tlie horse, to undertake the government 
 of Rome. While thus engaged, he indulged in scandalous de- 
 bauchery and excess of every kind, so as to incur the displeasure 
 of Ca3sar. Antony seems to have stood in awe of his great chief, 
 r.ud the knowledge of his displeasure checked him in liis profli- 
 gate career. At this period he manied Fulvia, the ambitious 
 widow of the demagogue Clodius. After the mui-der of Casar, 
 42 B.C., Antony was at first in favom- of measures of pacification ; 
 but finding that the party of the conspirators was not so strong 
 as he had supposed, and imagining that if Brutus were removed 
 he could easily seize the supreme power for himself, he changed 
 his tactics, and made the celebrated inflammatoiy speech to the 
 people over the body of Ca;sar, which Shakspeare has so won- 
 derfully reproduced in his play of Juhus Cffisar. This policy 
 answered for a wliile, but soon a new competitor appeared on the 
 stage in Octavius, CiEsar's heir and grand-nephew. After trying 
 the chances of war with doubtful result, they came to an 
 understanding, the result of which was the formation of the 
 second triumvhate, consisting of Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus, 
 and a general proscription of their pohtical opponents, in which 
 Cicero fell a victim to the long-cherished hatred of Antony. The 
 triumvirs then turned their ai-ms against Brutus and Cassius, 
 who, being defeated in the battle of Phihppi, slew themselves, 
 42 B.C. 
 
 The final episode in Antony's eventful life now commenced. 
 In Cihcia, after the battle of Philippi, he first met the beautiful 
 Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, the last descendant of the race of the 
 Ptolemies. He was at once fascinated by her charms, as Julius 
 Csesar and Pompey had been before hmi, and foi-got at her feet 
 his wife, Rome, and his military honour. From that time nothing 
 succeeded with him. One more chance was given hun, when, after 
 the death of Fulvia, he came to an arrangement with Octavius, 
 by which the empire was divided between them, and Antony took 
 to wife the virtuous Octavia, the sister of his rival. For some 
 time all went well, but when, in the course of his expedition 
 against Parthia, he had landed in Syria, the consciousness of 
 being so near Cleopatra proved too strong a temptation for a man 
 whose life, with few exceptions, had been one career of vicious 
 indulgence, and he sent for her and lived with her as before. 
 Retribution was not long in falling upon him. His expedition 
 against Parthia faOed, and Octa\ius, to avenge the injury done 
 to his sister, declared war. The naval battle of Actium followed, 
 31 B.C., in which Cleopatra, with her sixty ships, took to flight 
 in the midst of the battle, and Antony, forgetful of his brave 
 soldiers, of his own honour, of everything but his infatuated 
 passion, followed her out of the action. They repaired to Egypt, 
 which was soon invaded by Octavius ; and Antony, after a vain 
 attempt at resistance, deceived by a false report of the death of 
 Cleopatra, fell upon his own sword, and so died. He was fifty- 
 bhree, some say fifty-six, years of age at the time of his death. 
 (Plutarch, in vita : Dion Cassius.) — T. A. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Marcus Julius, son to the triumvir by Fulvia, 
 was so great a favourite of Augustus, that after the conquest of 
 Egypt lie was raised from one post to another, vmtil he reached 
 the consulship m the year u.c. 744. He owed his advancement 
 partly to his maniage with Marcella, the daughter of Octavia, 
 and therefore the niece of that prince ; but he was ungrateful 
 to his benefactor, for he dishonoured Julia, the cIiDd of Augustus, 
 and being also suspected of a conspiracy against the emperor, he 
 was condemned to death. Some say, that in order to escape the 
 infamy of his sentence, he destroyed himself. He wrote a 
 heroic poem in twelve books, entitled " Diomedeaj," and several 
 treatises in prose. To him Horace addressed the second ode cf 
 his fourth book. He left one son, Julius Antonius, a noble 
 but unfortunate youth, who was banished by the emperor to 
 Marseilles, under the pretence of pursuing his studies. There he 
 probably died. The honours begrudged him in life were bestowed 
 on his bones, which, by a decree of the senate, were deposited 
 in the tomb of the Octavii. With him the ancient house of 
 Antonia probably terminated. It was illustrious, as Tacitus 
 reflectively observes, but unfortunate : Mulld claritudine (jencris, 
 sed improsperd. — T. J. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Makcus de Dominis, a Venetian, in 1090, 
 
 bishop of Segni, and then, 1602, archbishop of Spalatro, and 
 prhnate of Dalmatia. During the conflicts between the pontiff 
 Paul and the Venetian republic, he was alienated from the pope- 
 dom, and being threatened by the Inquisition, he came over to 
 England, and openly professed protestantism in St. Paul's. In 
 London he wrote his principal work, " De Republica Ecclesias- 
 tica." James I. made him dean of Windsor. The Spanish am- 
 bassador plotted against him, and when he applied for the arch- 
 bishopric of York, he received for answer a command to leave 
 the country in three weeks. Cleans were taken to win him back 
 to the church. He recanted in Bnissels, and did penance in St. 
 Peter's, but was taken up by the Inquisition, and brought, as la 
 supposed, by them to a violent death in 1624. His body was 
 ckagged through the streets of Rome, burned by the hangman, 
 and its ashes cast into the Tiber. It was by his influence that 
 Father Paul's famous history of the council of Trent was first 
 pubhshed in England. — J. E. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Parmensis, bishop of FeiTara, A.d. 419. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Primus JIarcus, a bold and enterprising man, 
 who contributed not a little to clothe Vespasian with the pm"ple. 
 He was bom at Toulouse in Gallia Nai-bonensis (about a.d. 20), 
 and having been convicted in the reign of Nero of forging a will, 
 he was condemned to banishment. In those troublous times, 
 he soon recovered his rank as a senator, commanded a legion 
 under Galba, was neglected by Otho, and when the cause of 
 Vitellius began to decline, subsequently attached liimself to 
 Vespasian. Brave and energetic in war, though coniipt and 
 profuse in peace, he became of signal use to that asphant to the 
 imperial crovsTi. Hearing that the amiy of Vitellius was de- 
 moralized by mtestine feuds, he marched his legions against it, 
 and gained a great victory at Bedriacum, a small city between 
 Mantua and Cremona. The soldiers of Vespasian soon after 
 anived, and crossing over the field covered with the traces of a 
 recent carnage, they concluded that the campaign was at an end, 
 and began to show signs of insubordination. MeanwhOe the 
 forces of Vitellius rallied, and would have amply revenged thek 
 recent defeat, had not Antonius displayed the utmost courage 
 and address. Animated by his eloquence and excellent an-ange- 
 ments for encountering the foe, his soldiers gained a second vic- 
 tory (a.d. 691), and by taking Cremona, still more deeply 
 damaged the cause of VitelHus. After a series of sanguinary 
 conflicts, Antonius became master of Rome, put an end to the 
 civil war, and placed the crown on the head of Vespasian. Soon, 
 however, he lost his authority with the army, and went to Ves- 
 pasian, who does not appear to have manifested any gi-atitude 
 towards him proportioned to his signal services. After this 
 Tacitus mentions him no more. From an epigram of ftlartial, wo 
 learn that he retired to Toulouse, and amused his leism-e in com- 
 posing verses. According as we intei-pret an ei)igi'ani ui Martial, 
 which says that he had passed the fifteenth Olympiad, and count 
 an Olympiad as including four or five ye;u-s, we may presume 
 that he Uved to the age of 60 or 75. Tacitus did not adniu-e 
 him ; but Martial praises hun as a noble character, and a shicere 
 friend. He is not the only illustrious general whose youth has 
 been tarnished by meanness, and his age by avaiice. — T. J. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Saint, a martyr, who was put to death at 
 Wilna in 1328. 
 
 ANTONY, sumamed The Bastard of Burgundy, was 
 the natm'al son of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, and was 
 bom In 1421. He was distinguished for his great militaiy 
 talents, and, in 1478, received from Louis XI. the duchy of 
 Chateau Thierry as a reward for his services. Died 1504. 
 
 ANTRACPNO, Giovanni, principal physician to Popes 
 Adi-ian VI. and Clement VII., died in 1630. 
 
 ANTRAIGUES, Emmanuel Louis Henri de Launay, 
 Count, was Ijorn at Vivarrias in France in 1755. At the out- 
 break of tlic Revolution, he ado])tcd the popular side, and pub- 
 lished an essay on the riglits of the States-General, and was 
 rctiuned as a member of that body. lie soon, however, changed 
 his opinions, left France in 1790, and became the most restless 
 intriguer in favour of a counter revolution. He was fin.ally assas- 
 sinated near London in 1812, by his ovra servant. — J. W. S. 
 
 ANTYLLUS, a Greek surgeon of the third century, appears 
 to have been c(mvcrsant with the operation of tracheotomy. 
 
 ANUND, AMUNl), or OERNUND, a king of Sweden in the 
 seventh century, celebrated as a great maker of roads. 
 
 ANUND, Jacob, a king of Sweden, who succeeded in 1024, 
 and died in 1035.
 
 ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d', an eminent 
 French geogi-apher, was born in 1G97, and died in 1782. He 
 was particularly versed in the geography of the classic and the 
 niediajval epochs. His maps of the world as known to the 
 ancients, of the Roman empire, of Gaul, Italy, and Greece, are 
 particularly valuable. 
 
 AXWEHI or AXWARI, a poet of Persia, was bom in the 
 province of Khorassan, and died at Balkh about a.d. 1200. 
 His original name was Nacoveui. He was distinguished in 
 elegy, satire, and amatory poetrj'. He also studied astrologj', 
 and made some unsuccessful predictions. 
 
 A'NYTE OF Tegea, a poetess of considerable celebrity, to 
 whom are assigned several epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 
 There is scarcely any clue to her exact date, and it is uncertain 
 whether there were not two Anytes, one of Tegea, and another 
 of Mitvlcne. The most probable conjecture assigns her to the 
 period immediately subsequent to the reign of Alexander the 
 Great. Her epigrams are full of spirit, and characterized by sim- 
 plicity. An epigrammatist calls her the female Homer. — J. D. 
 
 A'NYTUS, an Athenian, the son of Athenion, lived about 
 410 B.C. He was an influential demagogue, but deserves notice 
 only as one of the accusers of Socrates. 
 
 AODTH, FiNLiATH, an Irish monarch, who ascended the 
 throne a.d. 8C3. He married Jlalmaria, the daughter of 
 Kenneth MacAlpine, king of the Irish colony of Scotland. He 
 died in a.d. 879, after a reign of sixteen years. After his 
 death his widow married his successor to the throne, Flan 
 Siona.— (IFiY/s.)— J. F. W. 
 
 APA'CZAI or APATZAI-TZERE, Johanx, a Calnnist di^-ine, 
 bom in 1621 at Apatza in Transylvania. After pursuing his 
 studies at Clausenburg and Carlsburg, he became professor of 
 oriental languages and philosophy in the university of Utrecht. 
 His zeal, however, for the doctrines of Des Cartes rendered it 
 necessary for him to leave Holland, and he returned to his native 
 country, where he obtained a chair in the academy at Clausen- 
 burg ; at which place he died in 1559. — F. 
 
 A'PAME, the name of several princesses of antiquity. The 
 first was the wife of Seleucus Nicator, and the mother of Antiochus 
 Soter, who founded, in her honour, the city of Apamia in 
 Phrygia ; another princess of the same name was the daughter of 
 Antiochus Soter; and the third was the wife of Amynander, 
 king of Athamania, about 208 B.C. 
 
 APARICIO, Dox Jose, a distinguished Spanish painter of 
 modem times. He was bom at AUcante in 1773, and studied 
 at Jladrid, Paris, and Rome. His style inclines to that of 
 Da^^d. Died in 1838.— R. M. 
 
 APCHON, Claude-Marc-Axtoixe d', was bom at Mont- 
 brison about 1723. He at first embraced the military profes- 
 sion, but subsequently entered the church, and became bishop of 
 Dijon in 1755, and archbishop of Anch in 1776. He was a 
 man of great excellence of character, and much distinguished for 
 his charity and benevolence. He died at Paris in 1783. 
 
 APEL, Friedrich August Ferdixand, a Gernian lawyer, 
 brother of Johann August, bora at Leipzig, 1768, died in 1830. 
 
 APEL, JoHAXX, was bom at Niimberg in 1486. In 1502 
 he was one of the first students enrolled in the new university of 
 Wittemberg, in which he was afterwards rector and professor of 
 law. He was a zealous adherent of Luther and the doctrines 
 of the Reformation. He died about 1540. 
 
 APEL, JoHAxx August, a popular German author, bora 
 at Leipzig in 1771, who wrote on a great variety of subjects, 
 and produced a number of compositions in poetry, romance, the 
 dmma, &c. He died in 1816. 
 
 APELLAS or APOLLAS, a geographer of Gyrene, who is 
 presumed to be the person refen-ed to by Athen^us, as the 
 author of a work on the towns of Peloponnesus, and who is 
 therefore supposed to have lived 235 B.C. 
 
 APELLAS, one of the sculptors in bronze of the time and 
 school of Phidias. 
 
 APELLES OF Ephesus, a Greek painter of the third century 
 B.C., who possessed high reputation at the court of Ptolemy Phi- 
 lopator, and is mentioned by Lncian, in his treatise of " Calumny," 
 as having executed a fine picture, illustrative of that subject. 
 
 APELLES, one of the greatest painters of antiquity, supposed 
 to have been bom at Cos, a small island in the iEgean sea. The 
 date of his birth is uncertain. We only know that he was at the 
 summit of his fame in the reign of Alexander the Great, whose 
 portrait he often painted. Alexander, indeed, refused to sit to 
 
 any one else. He employed only four colours, and was sldlful in 
 the use of his varnishes, which, while they heightened the effect 
 of his pictures, contributed to their preseiTation. He was the 
 pupil of Pamphilus, a Macedonian, then residing at Sic3'on, whose 
 works bore a high reputation, and who charged a vast sum for 
 them. He was driven by a storai to take shelter at Alexandria 
 during the I'eign of Ptolemy Lagus, who had been a sort of 
 colonel of life-guards to the JIacedonian conqueror. An enemy, 
 wishing to injure him in the estimation of Ptolemy, told him one 
 day that the king had invited him to dinner. On aniving at the 
 palace, he found Ptolemy enraged at his intrasion, and was 
 commanded to point out the author of the hoax. This was im- 
 possible, as the impostor was not in the room. Apclles seized a 
 piece of charcoal, and sketched so lively a portrait of his enemy 
 on the wall, that Ptolemy immediately recognized the great 
 master. Alexander treated him with a familiarity which reminds 
 us of the honours paid to Titian by Charles V. ^lany anecdotes 
 are told of his pictures, and many sayings in connection with art 
 owe their origin to him. He never passed a day without trying 
 to improve himself as a draughtsman ; hence the phrase. Nulla 
 dies sine lined. He once hid himself behind a picture which he 
 had placed in the street, and waited to hear the criticisms of the 
 passers-by. A shoemaker came and complained of the boots. 
 Apelles remedied the defect, and the cobbler returning shortly 
 afterwards, and finding his advice taken, proceeded to criticise 
 the leg of the figure. Apelles, stepping out from his conceal- 
 ment, is said to have exclaimed, " Let not a cobbler go beyond 
 his last ; " hence the well-known proverb. His favourite subject 
 was Aphrodite, the very type and perfection of feminine grace ; 
 and some of the most celebrated beauties of Greece unveiled 
 themselves before him, and served as copies for his pencil. 
 Phiyne bathing in the sea at Eleusis furnished the model for one 
 celebrated picture, and he fell in love with Campaspe, one of the 
 mistresses of Alexander, who had sent her to sit for another. 
 Alexander is said to have presented him with the lady of whom 
 he was thus enamoured. jElian tells the same story, but calls 
 her Pancaste. Seeing Lais of Corinth, then a young girl, 
 returning from the fountain, and, perhaps, balancing her nm on 
 her head, he persuaded her to become one of his models, and 
 shamefully contributed to her nun. His masterpiece was 
 " Venus rising out of the sea," which Augustus dedicated in the 
 temple of Julius Ca>sar at Rome. The lower parts were injured, 
 and no person could be found capable of restoring them. Kero 
 had a copy, or, as some say, another picture painted by Dorotheus, 
 and placed in the room of it. Death cut off Apelles before he had 
 completed another Aphrodite for his native city, which was to 
 have excelled all his previous achievements. His principal 
 portrait of Alexander was treasured up at Ephesus in the temple 
 of Diana. He painted King Antigonus in profile, to conceal the 
 absence of one eye. In the time of Pliny, other triumphs of his 
 pencil were to be found at Rome. He WTote a work on painting, 
 which is lost. The exact date of his death is uncertain. — T J. 
 
 APELLES, a heretic of the 2nd century, originally a follower 
 of Marcion, but left his school in consequence of some difference 
 of doctrine. He taught that the God of the Hebrews was an 
 inferior deity, that there was no resurrection of the body, and 
 that difference of sex caused a difference of soul. Although 
 a Gnostic, he held that Christ assumed a real body composed 
 of the elements into which, on his ascent to heaven, that body 
 was dissolved. He wrote a book called ixvi^ums^ containing 
 an account of the visions of Philumene, a \-irgin whom he fan- 
 cied to be inspired. Jerome speaks of a " Gospel of Apelles," 
 as having given origin to many heresies in the church. — F. 
 
 APELLICON OF Teos, a Peripatetic philosopher of the first 
 century B.C., lived at Athens, and spent his fortune in collecting 
 a library of old and rare books, gathered from eveiy part of 
 Greece. He died shortly before the capture of Athens, 86 B C, 
 by L. Cornelius Sylla, who took possession of his library and 
 carried it to Rome. Among the numerous valuable MSS. in the 
 collection, it is said there were autograph copies of the works of 
 Aristotle and Theophrastus. Strabo speaks of him as rather a 
 lover of books than of wisdom. — F. 
 
 APER, a Greek grammarian, who was a disciple of Aristar- 
 chus, and hved in the earlier part of the first century. 
 
 APER, Marcus, a Latin orator, who lived dming the reign 
 of Vespasian. He was a native of Gaul, but on establishing 
 himself at Rome, rose to be successively senator, quxstor, and 
 praetor. He died about a.d. 85.
 
 APEZTPXUIA, Don Juan Felipe, a Spanish sculptor of 
 merit in the latter part of the 18th century; died 1785. 
 
 APHA'REUS, a Greek poet and orator of the 4th century B.C. 
 
 APHERDIA'XUS, Peter, a Dutch poet and grammarian in 
 the latter part of the sixteenth century. 
 
 APHRODISIUS OF Traeles, a sculptor at Rome, who, 
 according to Pliny, executed, unaided, some of the statues in the 
 palace of the Caesars. He lived in the first century. 
 
 APHTHO'NIUS, a rhetorician of Antioch, in the third or 
 fourth century of our era, to whom the title of the " Sophist'' 
 lias been given. A work on rhetoric, rhetorical declamations, 
 and other writings attributed to him, have been lost ; but there 
 still exist some of his " Rhetorical Exercises," and a collection 
 of forty fables, which has been frequently reprinted. 
 
 APL\NUS, Peter and Philip, father and son, were two 
 eminent mathematicians and astronomers of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. Their real name was Bienewitz ; and Biene, signifying a 
 bee, gave origin to their Latinised name. The elder of the two, 
 bom at Leissnig in Misnia in 1495, was professor of mathema- 
 tics in the university of Ingoldstadt, and was patronized and 
 ennobled by the Emperor Charles V. He died in 1552. His 
 son Philip was born at Ingoldstadt in 1531, and succeeded his 
 lather in the chair of mathematics, although not yet twenty-one 
 years of age. He took the degree of M.D. at Bologna in 1564; 
 nd four years afterwards, ha^•ing embraced protestantism, was 
 jrced to vacate his professorship ; he was, however, appointed 
 :.j the chair of mathematics and astronomy at Tiibingen, where 
 he died in 1589. Both of these eminent men were authors of a 
 number of valuable scientific works, of most of which various 
 litions have been published. We owe to Peter Apianus the 
 :;:st statement of the pregnant fact, that the tails of comets are 
 turned away from the sun ; the prolongation of the tail within 
 the orbit, passing through the centre of that luminary. — F. 
 
 APICIUS, a name which has passed iato a proverb for 
 gluttony, was borne by three famous epicures. The most re- 
 markable of these was Marcus Gabius Apicius, who lived 
 about the beginning of our era. Stories almost incredible are 
 told of how he sailed from place to place in search of the most 
 superior lobsters (za;/?;?), of how he spent a sum equal to 
 £730,000 in procming the most delicate luxuries, and when 
 at last he found his exchequer reduced to about £80,000, he 
 poisoned himself rather than live on such a pittance. The story 
 is authentic ; both Seneca and Dion Cassius tell it, and Martial 
 has recorded it in an epigram. The only ancient work on the 
 culinary art which is still extant bears the name of " Ceelius 
 Apicius," but it is generally believed that it was the production 
 of none of those epicures, but of some later writer, who affixed to 
 his production this name, as one proverbial in the annals of his 
 art.— J. B. 
 
 APIN, Johann Ludwig, bom at Hohenlohe in Franconia 
 in 1668, became fellow of the medical college at Kiimberg, 
 and in 1702 was appointed to the chair of physiology and 
 surgery in the university of Altorf ; but died in the year following. 
 
 APIN, SiGiSMUXD Jacob, a German philologist, son of the 
 preceding, was bom at Herrspruck in 1693. He was rector of 
 the school of St. Giles at Brunswick, and author of many learned 
 works ; died in 1732. 
 
 APION, a Greek grammarian, was a native of Oasis in 
 Africa, and the son of Posidonius. He studied at Alexandiia, 
 and afterwards betook himself to Rome, to teach rhetoric. He 
 was famed as an interpreter of Homer, and his wide and varied 
 knowledge is praised by the ancients. He was a man of the 
 most inordinate vanity. There is scarcely a fragment of his 
 writings now extant ; but the memory of one of his books, written 
 against the Jews, is preserved by the reply to it which Josephus 
 has left in his work, " Against Apion." Josephus says that he 
 died a victim to a disease brought on by his licentiousness, but 
 we cannot rely on the testimony of so keen an antagonist. He 
 flourished in the fii-st century of the Christian era. — J. D. 
 
 • APJOHN, James, JI.D., an able Irish chemist, was bom 
 on the 1st of September, 1796, in the parish of Grean, and 
 county of Limerick, at Sunville, the property of his patemal 
 ancestors. He was educated at the diocesan school of Tipperary, 
 then conducted by the late Rev. ^larshal Clarke, where he was 
 placed as a boarder, and continued there for about four years, 
 after which he entered as a student of Trinity college, Dublin, 
 in the year 1814, under the tuition of the Rev. Dr. Wall. In 
 his college course, Apjohn exliibited those talents which made 
 
 him eminent in after life, having obtained a scholarship in 
 1816. Two years after, he took his degree of bachelor of 
 arts, and applying himself to the study of medicine, he 
 took the degree of M.B. in 1821. Dr. Apjohn now settled 
 in Dublin, and applied himself sedulously to his profession, 
 and actively co-operated with Sir Henry Marsh, Dr. Jacob, 
 Dr. Graves, and Jtlr. Cusack, in establishing the medical 
 and chimrgical school m Park Street in that city, and was 
 appointed lecturer in chemistry in that institution in 1825. 
 To this branch of his profession. Dr. Ajjohn devoted much of 
 his attention, and his character as an accomplished chemist was 
 speedily established, so that in 1828 he was unanimously elected 
 to the professorship of chemistry in the Royal College of Surgeons 
 in Ireland. Dr. Apjohn took his degree of M.D. in 1837, and 
 the board of Trinity college appointed him, in 1841, lecturer on 
 applied chemistry. In the year 1850, the chair of chemistry in 
 the nniversity becoming vacant. Dr. Apjohn was unanimously 
 elected to fill it, with which professorship that of mineralogy 
 was subsequently combined. Dr. Apjohn has long been an effi- 
 cient and distinguished member of the Royal Irish Academy, of 
 which he is a vice-president, and has contributed many valuable 
 papers in its publications ; — in particular, a very able essay, read 
 before the academy in 1837, on " A new method of investigating 
 the specific heats of the gaseous bodies," for which he was 
 awarded the high honour of the Cunningham gold medal. As a 
 chemist, practical and theoretical. Dr. Apjohn has long con- 
 fessedly held the first place in Ireland, and his reputation has 
 extended beyond his native land, being weU known to the physi- 
 cists of England and the continent of Europe. In 1853 he was 
 elected unaramoushj a member of the Royal Society. He has 
 from time to time contributed to the progress of science by 
 his publications, of which more than twenty original memoirs 
 on various subjects connected with chemistrj- and general phy- 
 sics, have appeared from his pen. In the Encyclopaedia of 
 Practical Medicine, the articles on " Spontaneous Combustion," 
 on " Electricity," on " Galvanism," and on " Toxicolog)'," were 
 ^vritten by Dr. Apjohn. — J. F. W. 
 
 APOCAUCUS, Alexis, gi-and-duke of the Byzantine army 
 in the reign of John Palteologus, was bom about the end of the 
 13th century; and although of obscvu-e origin, raised himself to 
 a position of great dignity and authority. During the minority 
 of the young prince, his ambition led him to aspire to the throne 
 itself, and greatly accelerated the fall of the Greek empire. After 
 causing much disorder in the state, he at length reaped the 
 reward of his tyranny. While inspecting a prison at Constanti- 
 nople, in which were confined a number of the partisans of his 
 rival, he was attacked by two of the prisoners who were of the 
 race of the Pal»ologi, and put to death in 1345. — F. 
 
 APOLLINA'RIS, Aurelius, a Latin poet of the third cen- 
 tury, who ^NTote in Iambic verse a biography of the Emperor 
 Cams. The work has perished. 
 
 APOLLINARIS, C. Sulpicius, a celebrated grammarian of 
 Rome, supposed to be a native of Carthage, who taught during 
 the reign of the Antonines. Among his pupils were Aulus 
 Gelhus, author of the Noctes Attiae, and Helvius Pertinax, who, 
 from a teacher of grammar, rose to be emperor of Rome. 
 
 APOLLINARIS, Saint, was bishop of Valence, a town on 
 the Rhone, during the earher part of the sixth century. 
 
 APOLLINARIUS or APOLLINARIS, a learned native of 
 Alexandria, who lived in the earlier part of the fourth centun,-, 
 and taught grammar and rhetoric at Bcr) tus and at Laodicea, 
 where he married and became a presbyter. For associating with 
 the heathen sophist Epiphanius, and attending his lectures, he 
 and his son, who is styled Apollinarius or Apollinaris, 
 junior, were both excommunicated; they were aftcnvards re- 
 stored to the church, and Apollinarius, junior, became bishop of 
 Laodicea. In A.d. 362, when the Emperor Julian prohibited the 
 Christians from reading the works of the classic writers, they 
 undertook to compose some sacred classics to supply the place of 
 the heathen authoi-s. The father turned the Pentateuch uito heroic 
 verse, in imitation of Homer ; and composed, it b said, dramas and 
 lyrics out of the rest of tlie Old Testament, after the manner of 
 Jlenander, Euripides, and Pindar. His son employed himself 
 on the New Testament, and turned the gospels and epistles into 
 dialogue, in imitation of Plato. Nearly all these writings are lost; 
 but there is extant a Greek poetical version of the Psalms, which 
 is ascribed to the elder Apollinarius, and the tragedy of the suffer- 
 ings of Christ, published among the works of Gregory Nazianzen,
 
 APO 
 
 182 
 
 APO 
 
 is presumed to hare been from his pen. A few fragments only 
 remain of the writings of the younger of these two scholars, who 
 died between a.d. 380 and 392. — F. 
 
 APOLLINARIUS, Claudius, Saint, was bishop of Hiera- 
 polis in Phrj'gia, in the second centuiy. Little is known of his 
 history ; but he is highly spoken of by Theodoret as a scholar 
 and divine. lie died prior to a.d. 211. 
 
 APOLLODOKO, Francesco, an Italian painter of the 
 seventeenth century, was bora at Friuli, and lived at Padua; 
 where, under the name of II Porcia, he became celebrated for 
 his portraits of the literary men of the period. 
 
 APOLLODOEUS, a Greek mathematician, referred to by 
 Diogenes Laertius and by Athenasus, as having transmitted the 
 famous theorem of Pythagoras to posterity'. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, an Athenian philosopher, and friend of 
 Socrates, who lived in the course of the fifth centmy B.C., and 
 is mentioned by Xenophon and by Plato. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, an Athenian sculptor, mentioned by Phny, 
 flourished during the earlier part of the fourth centmy B.C. He 
 became noted for his fastidiousness and severity in criticising his 
 own works, and for his frantic energy in breaking to pieces many 
 of them, which, though admired by others, failed to come up to 
 his own standard of excellence. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, an Athenian merchant, lived about 400 
 B.C., and is noted as haraig been the plaintiff in a lawsuit against 
 Phomio, who was defended by Demosthenes. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, a celebrated ancient grammarian, was by 
 birth an Athenian. He was the son of Asclepiades, and one of 
 the scholars of the Rhodian philosopher PauKtius, and the gram- 
 marian Aristarchus. He flourished about 140 B.C. He wrote 
 a considerable ni\mber of books, but only one of them has come 
 down to us. It is called the "Library," and gives an account 
 of the heathen gods and heroes. It begins with the first state 
 of things, when Heaven ruled all the world, and breaks off with 
 the exploits of Theseus, the latter part of the work being lost. 
 It is a compilation, made principally from the CycUc poets. It 
 has become valuable to us, because many of the sources from which 
 it was drawn have perished ; but even in ancient times it was 
 highly esteemed as a consecutive compendium of the traditions 
 relating to the gods and heroes. A collection has been made of 
 fragments of eleven other works by Apollodorus. — J. D. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, an Epicurean philosopher, mentioned by 
 Diogenes Laertius. He flourished about 80 B.C. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, an eminent lawyer, lived about the end 
 of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century of the Chiistiau 
 era. He was one of the compilers of the Theodosian Code. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, author of a history of the Parthians, cited 
 by Strabo and Athena^us. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, the name of several physicians mentioned 
 by Pliny and Athenajus. 
 
 APOLLODOEUS of Athens, sumamed the " Shadow 
 Painter " (Sxiayja^oj), lived about the ninety-third Olympiad. 
 He was the first who paid attention to the modification of colours 
 by the effect of light and shade. He is supposed also to have 
 introduced the first prospectical graduation of tints for producing 
 the effect of various distances. — R. M. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Carystus in Eu))oca, a Greek poet, 
 who lived at Alexandria towards the end of the fourth centur}' 
 B.C., and wrote many comedies, since lost. These works 
 achieved a high reputation, and were largely borrowed by the 
 Latin comic poets, according to their usual practice, to which a 
 parallel might easily be found in modem times. He is mentioned 
 by Suidas. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Cassandria, first a demagogue, after- 
 wards a tjTant, flourished about 280 or 300 B.C., and was re- 
 markable for perfidy and cruelty. He was overthrown and put 
 to death by Antigcnus. He is mentioned by Diodorus, Poly- 
 bius, and other historians. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Damascus, a celebrated architect and 
 engineer, was born about A.D. 60. He designed and executed 
 most of those splendid edifices and great works of engineering 
 with which the Emperor Trajan delighted to adorn and improve 
 his dominions, and of which some remains exist, and are ad- 
 mired at the present day, — such as the column of Trajan, the 
 ruins of his forum, the triumphal arch of Benevento, the trium- 
 phal arch, the bridge, and the harbour of Ancona, and probably 
 also, the best part of tliat triumphal arch which was finished 
 and appropriated by Constantine, but which is beUeved to have 
 
 been commenced by Trajan. The greatest engineering work of 
 Apollodonis was the immense bridge of Trajan over the Danube, 
 afterwards destroyed by Adrian. The high spirit of Apollo- 
 dorus, capable of respecting true greatness alone, led him to 
 show more openly than was consistent with prudence, his con- 
 tempt for the taste and understanding of Adinan ; and on the 
 accession to the empire of that mean tyrant, the great architect 
 became an object of persecution, and liis works of destruction ; 
 and at length, by means of a false accusation, he was judicially 
 nmrdered, a.d. 130. During a period of exUe, Apollodorus 
 composed a treatise on engines of war (noX;i);z»;T/;sa), which is 
 still extant in the collection called " Veteres Mathematici." In- 
 formation respecting him may be found in the works of most of 
 the historians who have treated of the period when he lived, such 
 as Pausanias and Eutropius. — W. J. M. R. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, Ephilus, a Stoic philosopher, mentioned 
 by Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Gela, a Sicifian poet, mentioned by 
 Suidas, who flourished about the end of the fourth and beginning 
 of the third centuries B.C. He wrote comedies, of which a few 
 fragments are presei-ved. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Lemnos, about 400 B.C., wrote a work 
 on agiiculture, cited by Aristotle and Pliny. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Pergamus, a rhetorician, and the in- 
 structor of Augustus in oratory. Born 60 B.C. ; died a.d. 22. 
 He is mentioned by Suetonius and Tacitus. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Tarsus, a tragic poet, mentioned by 
 Suidas. 
 
 APOLLO'NIDES, a Greek physician of the fifth century B.C. 
 APOLLONIDES, a governor of Argos, under Cassander, in 
 the fourth centuiy B.C. 
 
 APOLLONIDES, a citizen of Chios, who was banished to 
 Upper Egypt by Alexander the Great. 
 
 APOLLONIDES of Nic.ea, a Greek pliilologist and com- 
 mentator of the first century B.C. 
 
 APOLLONIO, Jacopo, a landscape painter of great merit, 
 a pupil and imitator of the Bassani, born at Bassano in 1586 ; 
 died in 1638. 
 
 APOLLO'NIS or APOLLO'NIA, the wife of Attains I., king 
 of Pergamus, lived about 220 B.C., and is celebrated on account 
 of the filial love of her four daughters. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, the name of a number of Greek physicians, 
 of whom we mention : — Stratonius, of the school of Erasistra- 
 tus, hved about the third century B.C. — Herophilus, flourished 
 at Alexandria under the Ptolemies. — The Empiric, lived in the 
 second century b.c. — Glaucus, flourished about the same time. 
 — Organicus, supposed by some to be identical wth Herophi- 
 lius. — A. OF Pkusa, an accoucheur of the same century. — Ani- 
 mal, of the first century B.C. — Opiiis, and A. of Tarsus, both 
 of the same centuiy. — A. of Pergamus, a writer on hydropho- 
 bia, of the same epoch; and A. of Citiusi in Cyprus, lived about 
 70 B.C., and wrote on epilepsy. — J. W. S. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, a Roman senator of the second centurj', who 
 suffered death for having embraced Christianity. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, a Greek mosaicist, established at Venice dur- 
 ing the 13th century, and employed in the church of San Marco. 
 APOLLONIUS, a Stoic of Chalcis, summoned to Rome by 
 Antonuius Pius, to superintend the education of his nephew, 
 Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, the son of Nestor, of the school of Lysippus 
 of Sicyon, lived between 330 and 300 B.C. He is the sculptor 
 of the celebrated Belvedere Torso, which Michel Angelo used to 
 consider superior to all the other relics of antiquity. But for 
 the appearance of the Phidlan marbles, brought into light by 
 Lord Elgin, the work of Apollonius would still hold the same 
 pre-eminence in the public estimation. — R. M. 
 
 APOLLONIUS OF Cvrene, an obscure philosopher of the 
 Megaric school, who lived during the third century B.C. 
 
 APOLLON lUS, Dyscoltis, a Greek historian and grammarian 
 of Alexandria, who flourished in the second century. His criti- 
 cism on the veracity of ancient historians has unfortunately been 
 lost; but his philosophy of language is a most interesting work. 
 APOLLONIUS,' Laerinus, a Dutch traveller of the sLs- 
 teenth century. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, MoLON, an orator of the first centurj' B.C., 
 noted as the master of Cicero. He afterwards served Jufius 
 Cassar as an intei-preter. 
 
 APOLLONIUS of Pekga, lived at Alexandria, under the
 
 APO 
 
 183 
 
 APO 
 
 reign of Ptolemy Philopator, from 222 to 205 B.C. Amid that 
 constellation of illustrious geometers, which comprehends the 
 names of Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius, and Ptolemy, the 
 great writer, whose achievements we shall briefly explain, occu- 
 pies no second place. Unfortunately, it is of his works only 
 that we can speak ; for, concerning the man Apollonius, or any 
 incidents of his life, nothing whatever is known. — I. The dis- 
 tinctive place occupied by Apollonius may be easily defined. 
 Geometry in its hu-gest signification consists of two parts. The 
 FIKST concerns itself with the measurement or evaluation of 
 enclosed or finite spaces ; a subject of remarkable simplicity, so 
 long as its inquiries are limited to spaces enclosed by straight 
 lines, but at once difficult and complex when the bounding 
 lines are curves. The glory of ha\'ing effected the transition 
 from the simple to the arduous class of such problems, belongs 
 unquestionably to Archimedes, whose genius indeed still Ulu- 
 iniues all this region of inquiry. His memorable discoveiy of 
 the method of Exhaustions, contains the germ of om- potent In- 
 finitesimal Calculus, or at least the fundamental idea of that 
 calculus as it presented itself to the mind of Newton. With 
 this portion of geometrical science, the labours of Apollonius 
 had little to do. But there is a second great diWsion of the 
 subject ; and if we do not allege that Apollonius stands towards 
 that division, altogether as Archimedes to the Jirst, it is only 
 because it is impossible to forget the Data of Euclid, and 
 those fi'agments of his treatise on Porisms. The large and im- 
 posing section of geometrical inquiry now referred to, is that 
 which the Stagj-rite must have had in his eye, when he asks 
 ('Metaphysics, Book II., chap. 3,) " With what conceptions are 
 iiathematicians engrossed, if not such as relate to 0}-der and pro- 
 jiortion ? " It is occupied not vrith the measurement of spaces 
 (unless incidentally), but with consideration of the properties of 
 Form, as Form — with the properties of enclosed spaces, in so far 
 as such properties result from their figure and position ; and with 
 no great injustice to the well-known author of the "Elements," 
 this division of the science may rightly be termed "The Geometry 
 of Apollonius." Here also, the acknowledged Head and Leader of 
 future inquiry is pre-eminently distinguished, if not by the inau- 
 guration, at least by the confirmation and development of a most 
 fertile and powerful method. It is known to every reader of 
 the Elements that geometers often advance to new theorems by 
 starting from bases or truths already demonstrated ; which truths 
 they combine by tentative methods, and reach at length the 
 end aimed at. This method the Greeks termed Sy/ifhesis. But 
 synthesis is a difficult and confined method ; permitting little free- 
 dom to invention, rightly so called. The honour of suggesting 
 an inverse process — the process called Analysis — is attributed to 
 Plato. Geometrical analysis consists in assuming as tnie, the 
 truth supposed to be true, or assuming as constructed, the pro- 
 blem required to be constructed; and then, by reasoning down- 
 wards, in endeavouring to reach some truths already established, 
 or some recognized property. There is no doubt of the vast 
 superiority of tliis analytic method, or of the amazing freedom 
 within which an expert inquirer feels himself, while he is exercis- 
 ing it. If, from a plain, one is required to ascend to a mountain 
 top, how limited his choice of a pathway — how uncertain the 
 best that he can think of! But, from the top of the mountain, 
 practicable routes may be descried on every side — routes ap- 
 parently practicable at least, — ^for in neither case can the adven- 
 turer escape deceptions caused by the foreshortenings of perspec- 
 tive. If Plato suggested the process of geometrical analysis, 
 it was reserved for Apollonius to realise it, — to exemplify, in the 
 more arduous regions of inquir}', its consummate freedom, its 
 vast capacity, its power to excite an infinity of tours de force. 
 From causes which cannot now be specified, this method was 
 lost for ages. But it ever suggested itself anew — although in 
 modified and comparatively feeble forms — to men of genius; and 
 its late but confirmed triumph over comparatively barren Syn- 
 thesis, is at the root of the re%ival, which, in our modem times, 
 is rapidly restoring geometrical methods to their rightful place. 
 It was an intimate sense of the power inherent in analysis, as 
 well as the feeling of its great beauty, that more than justified 
 the emphatic words of Carsot, — " This is the geometry that 
 was so fertile in the hands of Archimedes, of Hipparchus, of 
 Apollonius; none other was known to Napier, Victa, Fennat, 
 Descartes, Galileo, Pascal, Huygens, Roberval; and surely a geo- 
 metry which was cultivated, as if with the force of a predilection, 
 by our Newtons, HaUeys, and Maclamins, cannot be supposed 
 
 to be without its peculiar advantages." — II. But passing from 
 general considerations, let us glance at the specific works of 
 Apollonius. These were arduous and numerous ; but owing to 
 the loss and destruction of monuments of literature and science 
 that accompanied the fall of the Empire, we should have kno-mi 
 little of them, unless for the indications contained in those most 
 precious " Collections of Pappus." In the first place, as to his 
 smaller treatises. These, according to Pappus, who has given 
 us the heads of their contents, although in a most enigmatical 
 form, were entitled, " De Sections Eationis," " De Sectione 
 Spatii," " De Sectione Determinata," " De Tactionibus," " De 
 Inclmationibus," " De Locis Planis." Of these six treatises, in 
 which the great geometer appears to have unfolded all the re- 
 sources of analysis in the resolution and discovery of problems 
 and theorems, one alone sunived the ravages of time, ^iz. the 
 " Section of Eatio," a translation of which from an Arabic 
 manuscript we owe to our admirable Halley. The hmts given 
 by Pappus, however, have enabled skilful men so far to recover 
 the others, that we may safely account ourselves to be in pos- 
 session of most of the methods of Apollonius. The treatise on 
 " Plani Loci" was, after the failure of many previous geometers, — 
 amongst whom we must place even Fermat, — ultunately repro- 
 duced by Robert Simson of Glasgow, in a work that will ever 
 be accounted a model of geometrical rigour and elegance. The 
 character and contents of the " Section of Space " were divined 
 by Halley. The " Determinate Section " was revived also by 
 Simson. The two books on Inclinations we owe anew to JIarinus 
 Ghetaldns ; and the two books on Tangencies, to Vieta, Ghet- 
 aldus, and Anderson of Aberdeen. Several of these treatises 
 were published in English by the late llr. Lawson. Whoever 
 refers to the scantiness and obscurity of those hints of Pappus 
 which led to so successful a reconstruction of the works of 
 Apollonius, will not consider it inappropriate to recall the 
 triumphs of the modem comparative anatomist, which, through 
 effect of determinate laws, have enabled him to reconstruct out of 
 a few scattered bones, races of animals that for ages have been 
 extinct. But the grand prodiiction of the ancient geometer is 
 unquestionably his " Conic Sections," a work in eight books, 
 which we may venture to say are now possessed by us, almost 
 if not wholly, in their original pmity and completeness. Om" 
 magnificent edition of the Conies, printed by the liberality of 
 Oxford, is one of the greatest of those achievements which make 
 science so profound a debtor to Dr. Halley. The fii-st four 
 books are given in their original form, accompanied by a Latin 
 equivalent ; three are translated from an Arabic manuscript ; 
 and the eighth as it was restored after Pappus, by the unsur- 
 passed sagacity of the editor. It were not easy to overrate the 
 merits of this memorable work. Not only is every logical geo- 
 metrical artifice, known until quite modem times, developed and 
 employed in it, but that remarkable power of generalization — of 
 finding his way from single propositions towards new and large 
 fields of thought — which pre-eminently distinguished Apollonius, 
 inspires it all. In the first four books all the finest properties 
 of conies are brought out ■with the penetration, and co-ordinated 
 with the skill of a master. In the third book, for instance, we 
 find a proposition that is in reality the basis of the modem 
 theory of reciprocal polars — the proposition, viz. : — " If, from 
 the points of meetmg of two tangents to a conic section, a 
 transverse be drawn cutting the curve in two points, and the 
 chord joining the points of contact of the two tangents in a 
 third point, then this third point and the point at which the two 
 tangents meet, will be hamionic conjugates, in reference to the 
 first two points." It is in the fifth book, however, that the 
 genius of Apollonius chiefly appears. In tliat book, for the first 
 time, we find researches conceming Maxima and Minima ; 
 and no initiated reader can fail to detect the gemi of our mo- 
 dem theory of centres of osculation, and therefore of a perfect 
 detemiination of the evolute of a conic. — Our space limits us to 
 one general reflection. It were vain, of course, to expect, in the 
 Greek geometry, resources in any way comparable to those of the 
 science in the posture it has assumed since the times of Caraot 
 and iMongc. At length its procedures have escaped all limita- 
 tion ; so soon as one new property of figurate space is established, 
 we can discern that property penetrating a wide range of forms, 
 modified by fixed laws. Pure gcomotr}', indeed, which has 
 nothing of the obscurity of the algebraic methods of the middle 
 ages, now surpasses them in facility and generality. Neverthe- 
 less, the rudiments of the greater part of these recent and
 
 APO 
 
 184 
 
 APP 
 
 most potent metliods, are found amid the WTitings of such men 
 as ApoUonius ; and tlie great historic task remains, to detect 
 and scrutinize these rudiments, and to track that flow of thouglit 
 which, notwithstanding breaks and large and dreary spaces of 
 barrenness, is yet continuous, and unites an ApoUonius witli a 
 Monge. The opportunity is clear. The important task may be 
 accomplished by whomsoever, with the requisite acuteness and 
 knowledge, sluill — mainly on the ground of those precious frag- 
 ments, by Robert Simson, now resting in unread manuserijit in 
 the library of the university of Glasgow — liave the courage to 
 occupy some years of his life in preparing a new and adequate 
 edition of Pappus. — J. P. N. 
 
 APOLLONIUS OK Rhodes, a Greek poet, who was bom in 
 Alexandria about 237 B.C., fled, to avoid a persecution, to 
 Rhodes, where he completed his epic poem on the Argonauts, 
 but was recalled in his old age to Alexandria, where he became 
 librarian to the mu.seum, and died about 186 B.C. 
 
 APOLLONIUS TiiK Sophist, an Alexandrian lexicographer, 
 who lived in the n-ign of Augustus. 
 
 APOLLONIUS oi.- Trali.ks, a Greek sculptor of the Rho- 
 dian school, who, with Tauriscus, executed the colossal group 
 of Amphion and Zethus, now existing at Naples, and known as 
 the Toro Farnese. At the time of Pliny this gi-oup was in 
 Rome. ApoUonius is said to have lived .about 184 B.C. — R. M. 
 
 APOLLONIUS OF TvANA, a mystic of antiquity, concerning 
 whose life and doctrine the greatest uncertainty prevails, and 
 whose very existence has been called in question. The follow- 
 ing facts are all that can be disentangled from the web of 
 mythology and fiction in which the career of this remai-kable 
 thinker has been enveloped. He was bom about 4 b.c. at 
 Tyana, a city of Cappadocia, his birth being, according to tradi- 
 tion, accompanied by various prodigies. His education was at 
 first committed to Euthydemus, a rhetorician of Tarsus; but, 
 di.<gustcd with the laxity of morals prevalent in that city, he 
 removed to Aege, and there made himself acquainted with the 
 tenets of the leading philosophical schools of Greece. He de- 
 voted himself finally to the Pythagorean doctrines, renounced 
 all the pleasures of sense, and distributed his patrimony among 
 his relatives. He now travelled about the countr}', instmeting 
 the people, reforming public morals, and rcstciring the Greek 
 religion to its original piu-ity. He is next said to have visited 
 Babylonia, Parthia, and India. We next find him in Asia Minor, 
 exhorting the people to A'irtue and philosophy. He visited 
 Rome dming the reign of Nero, being actuated with the desire 
 of seeing " what sort of a beast a tyrant was." He next 
 travelled in Spain, Africa, Sicily, and in Eg}'pt, where he became 
 acquainted with Vespasian, who placed the greatest confidence 
 in his advice and predictions. He visited Upper Egypt and 
 Ethiopia, and on his return met, by invitation, with the Emperor 
 Titus in Cihcia. On the accession of Domitian he ceased to 
 enjoy the imperial favour, and became involved in a conspiracy 
 against the tyrant, who issued orders for his arrest. ApoUonius 
 voluntarily repaired to Rome, confuted his accusers, and is said, 
 after his acquittal, to have returned by magical means to Greece, 
 and afterwards, whilst lectiuing at Ephesus, to have announced 
 to his audience the assassination of Domitian, which was at that 
 moment happening at Rome. He died, it is said, about A.n. 
 97. His earliest biographer was Philostratus, who lived in the 
 reign of Septimius Sevenis. ApoUonius laid very httle weight 
 on the scientific doctrines of Pythagoras, turning his attention 
 exclusively to morals and religion. He was probably a wise and 
 virtuous man, whose earnestness, bordering perhaps upon fana- 
 ticism, attracted general attention, and made him the subject of 
 innumerable fables. — T. W. S. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, WiLUKLM, a Dutch reformed theologian of 
 Zeeland, who lived in the seventeenth century, and is chiefly 
 known from his controversy with Wedel, on the power of govern- 
 ment in ecclesiastical affairs. 
 
 APOLLOPIIANES, a Greek comic dramatist, who lived 
 about 400 B.C. 
 
 APOLLOPIIANES, physician to Antiochus Soter, lived about 
 the middle of the third century. 
 
 APOLLOS, bom at Ale-xanrlria, and descended from Jewish 
 parents, was a man of gi-eat eloquence, and thoroughly versed in 
 tiie Old Testament scri|)tures. At first he was only acquainted 
 with the baptism of John ; and having come to I']phcsus, he 
 began to teach the things of the Lord. His zeal and ability 
 attracted the notice of Aquila and Priscilla, who instracted hun 
 
 more fully in the doctrines of the gospel. He now became de- 
 sirous of proceeding to Achaia ; and having obtained letters of 
 introduction to the brethren there, he was hailed as a valuable 
 accession to their cause, and laboured among them with distin- 
 guished ability and success. He was a powerful preacher; and 
 in consequence of his extensive acquaintance with the Old Testa- 
 ment, he was particularly successful in convincing the Jews that 
 Jesus was the Messiah. At Corinth, he watered the seed which 
 had been sown by Paul ; his eloquence was so attractive, that 
 a numerous party became his special adherents, as there were 
 others who named themselves after Paul and Cephas. On ac- 
 count of the unhappy divisions which thus arose, ApoUos left 
 Corinth, and returned to Ephesus ; and it was probably from him 
 that Paul received his first accounts of what was transpiring in 
 Achaia. The contentions at Corinth, though relating to them- 
 selves, had no effect upon the friendship of the two preachers ; 
 for, when ApoUos was altogether averse to return to that scene 
 of labour, though he was so much admired there, Paul, with an 
 entire freedom from the meanness of jealousy, used every per- 
 suasion to induce him to go back. He retired, however, for a 
 time to Crete, carrying with him a recommendation from Paul 
 to Titus ; and it is the opinion of Jerome, that, after the di- 
 visions at Corinth were healed, he returned to that city, and 
 laboured in preaching the gospel. — W. L. 
 
 APONO, Peter of. See Abono. 
 
 APOSTOLI, Francesco, a Venetian author, was bom in 
 1746, and died in 1816, having spent the latter part of his life 
 in the position of a police agent. 
 
 APOSTOLI, Giovanni Francesco, an Italian poet of 
 Montferrat, who wrote chiefly in the Latin language. He lived 
 in the latter part of the sixteenth century, became professor of 
 "humanity" (classical literature) at Casale, and was admitted 
 a member of the academy derjl Illustrati of that to\vn. 
 
 APOSTOLI, PiETRO (or Pedro de los APOSTOLOS), 
 an Italian Cannelitc of the sixteenth century. 
 
 APOSTOLI, PiETRO Frajjcesco deglx, an Italian theo- 
 logian of Novara, who lived about A.D. 1650, and was nmch 
 celebrated as a preacher. 
 
 APOSTOLIUS, Aristobulus, an unimportant Greek poet 
 of the fifteenth century. 
 
 APOSTOLIUS, Michael, a divine and rhetorician, one of 
 the Greelts who fled to Italy on the taking of Constantinople in 
 1423. He was at first patronized by Cardinal Bessarion, but 
 having offended this dignitary by a controversial essay on the 
 respective merits of Aiistotle and Plato, he repaii-ed to Crete, 
 where he died in 1480. 
 
 APOSTOOL, Samuel, a Dutch theologian of the 17th century, 
 a leader of the more acrimonious party among the anabaptists. 
 
 APPEL, Jacob, a Dutch portrait and landscape painter, who 
 followed the style of Tempesta. Bom at Amsterdam in 1G80 ; 
 died 1751. 
 
 APPELMAN, Bernardt (Hector), a Dutch landscape 
 painter of the seventeenth century, — a native of the Hague. 
 
 APPENDINI, Francesco Maria, an It.alian linguist, 
 historian, and critic, of Pririne in Turin, afterwards professor of 
 the new college of Ragusa, lived from 1768 to 1837. 
 
 APPERLEY, Charles James (Ninu-od), a writer on various 
 sporting subjects, was bom at Plasgronow in Denbighshire in 
 1777. He was educated at Rugby, served for some time in the 
 army, and finally settled as a gentleman-famier, devoting his 
 time to fox-hunting. He wrote for the " Sporting Magazine," 
 but becoming embaiTassed in cu-cumstances, he withdrew to 
 France. He is the author of " Nimrod's Hunting Tours," 1835; 
 "The Life of the late John Myttin, Esq.," 1837; "The Chase, 
 the Turf, and the Road," 1837 ; " Nhnrod's Northern Tour," 
 &c., 1838 ; " Sporting by Nimrod," 1840 ; "The Horse and the 
 Hound," 1842 ; " Nimrod Abroad," &c , which have had a wide 
 circulation. Appcrley died in 1843. — J. W. S. 
 
 APPERT, Benjamin-Nicholas Marie, bom at Paris in 
 1797, early devoted himself to the cause of education. When 
 only sixteen, he was appointed an assistant sub-professor in the 
 school of design ; but a few years afterwards, he conceived the 
 jiroject of instituting a system of mutual education among those 
 classes whose circumstances placed them in a great measure be- 
 yond the reach of the ordinary means of instniction. His efforts 
 mot with distinguished success. A vast number of military 
 scliools were established, and in the course of two or three years, 
 more than one hundred thousand persons ui the army had learnt
 
 APP 
 
 185 
 
 APP 
 
 to read and \Yrite. He subsequently extended his scheme to the 
 prisons of France, in whicli he was aided by the Due d'Angou- 
 Jeme. In 1846 he visited the various hospitals and prisons in 
 Belgium, Pnissia, Germany, and Austria, and afterwards pub- 
 lished the results of his obseiTations. — F. 
 
 APPEET, Frax^ois, brother of the preceding, discovered 
 a mode of preserving animal and vegetable substances for human 
 food, which he describes in his treatise, " L'art de conserver 
 toutes les substances animales et vegetales," Paris, 1831. 
 
 APPIANI, Andrea, the gi-eatest Italian painter of modem 
 times, was born at Jlonza, near Milan, in 1754. Already, at 
 an early age, he distinguished himself as a designer of incom- 
 parable grace, and was soon called fully to display his talents in 
 some frescos intnisted to him. The success of his first produc- 
 tions having been immense, he was dii'ectly afterwards called 
 upon to paint the cupola of Santa JMaria di San Celso at !Milan. 
 He carried out this work in a manner little dreamt of since the 
 splendid era of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. He was 
 unanimously styled the Modem Raphael, and was beset, from every 
 quarter, with requests to execute works. However, with the ex- 
 ception of an excursion to Rome, he preferred remaining at Milan, 
 where he executed a great number of works for chmxhes, for pri- 
 vate and public palaces, and especially for those of the com-t. On 
 the occasion of a Napoleonic fete, he was called upon to decorate 
 a triumphal arch, which he did in the most astonishingly short 
 time, and with a skill almost without parallel, by a series of 
 battles painted in distemper, in the chiaro-scuro style. The fete 
 finished, the temporary structure of the arch was removed, and 
 the twenty-four subjects painted for it by Appiani were taken 
 care of by the Academy, and eventually published in prints 
 executed by the first engravers of Italy, who vied also for the 
 honour of illustrating his more important productions. Beloved 
 by his fellow-citizens, he was not overlooked by the govemative 
 powers. Napoleon appointed him his painter, and conferred on 
 liim the cross of the Legion of Honour, and that of the Iron 
 Crorni, besides granting him an annual pension. He was made 
 member of the Institute, and almost all the important academies 
 of Italy and France. He died in 1818.— R. M. 
 
 * APPIANI, Andrea, of Mil.\n, gi-andson of the preceding, 
 a living artist of great merit. He studied imder the celebrated 
 Hayez, and distinguished himself in several of the exhibitions 
 both in his native comitry and abroad. 
 
 APPIANI, Francesco, a painter of Ancona, bom in 1702, 
 one of whose finest pictures, representing the death of St. Do- 
 minic, was executed for Pope Benedict XIII. He continued to 
 paint at the advanced age of ninety, and died in 1792. 
 
 APPIANO, the name of a family, the members of which 
 possessed sovereign authority in Pisa and in the island of Elba, 
 from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. The founder of 
 the dynasty was Vanni d'Appiano, a man of humble birth, and 
 a native of the village of Appiano, who, having established himself 
 in Pisa, became a member of the Guelph faction, kno^vn as the 
 Bergolini, and opposed to the Giubeline faction of the Raspanti. 
 AVhen Charles IV. of Germany returned to Pisa from Rome in 
 1355, a fire which took place in the palace was represented as 
 the work of Vanni and his party, and the charge being believed by 
 the emperor, Vanni suft'ered death. Jacopo d'Appiano, on the 
 death of his father Vanni, succeeded to his authority with the 
 party he had supported, became secretary to Pietro Gambacorti, 
 who in 13G9 was proclaimed captain-general of the community 
 of Pisa, and whom in 1392 he contrived to supplant and put to 
 death. Jacopo himself died in 1398, at an advanced age, and 
 was succeeded in the sovereignty of Pisa by his son, Gheuardo 
 d'Appiano, who sold Pisa to the duke of Milan for 200,000 
 gold florins, and the sovereignty of the town and district of 
 I'iombino, and of the islands of Elba, Pianosa, and Monte- 
 christo, and who took possession of his new principality in 1399. 
 Gherardo, the first sovereign of Piombino, died in 1 105, and was 
 succeeded by his son Jacopo II., d'Appiano, who having died 
 in 1440, without issue, was succeeded by Count Kinaldo Orsino, 
 the husband of Jacopo's sister, and who died of the plague in 
 1450. His successor, Emjianuello dAppiano, being strongly 
 supported, obtained po.s.session of Piombino and its dependencies 
 from the relatives of Or.sino, and dying in 1457, left his teni- 
 tories to Jacopo III., d'Appiano. This prince, by his arbitraiy 
 proceedings, gave gi-eat offence to his people. A conspiracy was 
 formed against him, which, however, failed ; but was followed 
 by an attack from the troops of the duke of Milan, although 
 vol. I. 
 
 with no better success. In 1465 he made an aiTangement with 
 Ferdinand, king of Naples, and became entitled to assume the 
 royal coat-of-arms of Naples, and to add the name of AiTagon to 
 that of Appiano. He died in 1474, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Jacopo IV., d'Applvno d'Arragona, who was a good 
 prince, and restored to his people those privileges of which his 
 father had deprived them. His reign, however, was much dis- 
 turbed by disputes with the pope, and his tenitories were in- 
 vaded by Cffisar Borgia, who placed a ganison in Piombino ; 
 but Jacopo, after an appeal to the Emperor Maximilian I., was 
 reinstated in his dominions amid the rejoicings of his people in 
 1503. He died eight years afterwards, and was succeeded by 
 his son, Jacopo V., d'Appiano d'Arragona, who, in 1520, 
 obtained from the Emperor Charles V. a renewal of the inves- 
 titure of his principality, and the addition of the imperial eagle 
 in his armorial bearings. From 1539, for some years his terri- 
 tories were thi-eatened by the celebrated Barbarossa, when it was 
 necessaiy for the duke of Tuscany to aid Jacopo in protecting 
 his state. Jacopo died in 1545, and was succeeded by his son, 
 under the title of Jacopo VI., d'Appiano d'Arragona, who, 
 during his minority, vvas under the guardianship of Charles V., 
 and had nearly been deprived of his tenitories by Cosmo, duke 
 of Tuscany, but took possession of his patrimony in 1559, much 
 to the joy of the people, who were weaiy of foreign dominion. 
 At his death in 1585, he left the sovereignty to his natural son, 
 Alessandro d'Appiano, whose tjTannical conduct led to his 
 assassination in 1589. He was succeeded by his son, Jacopo 
 VII., d'Appiano, the last of the family who held the sove- 
 reignty, and who died in 1600, without issue. — F. 
 
 APPIANO, Nicoi.A, an Italian painter of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, and one of the pupils of Lionardo da Vinci. 
 
 APPIANO, Paolo Antonio, an eloquent Jesuit preacher, 
 born at Ascoli in 1639, and author of a variety of historical 
 works. He died at Rome in 1709. 
 
 APPIANUS, the author of a Roman histoiy in Greek, was, 
 as he himself tells us, an Alexandrian. He attained the highest 
 position in his native place, and aftcnvards went to Rome, where 
 he acted as an advocate in the courts of the emperors. Through 
 the urgent solicitation of the orator Fronto, \vho was his 
 close friend, Appian obtained the ofiice of procurator from the 
 Emperor Antoninus Pius. It is not known what province it 
 was of which he was made procurator; but we gather fi-om 
 Fronto's letter of application, that Appian was considerably ad- 
 vanced in years when he got the appointment, and that he sought 
 it not fi-om motives of ambition or for the sake of money, but 
 that he might spend his remaining years in dignity. The his- 
 tory of Appian was divided into twenty-four books, of wliich only 
 eleven have come down to us, along with fragments of some of the 
 others. Appian grouped his facts, not according to chroV)logical 
 order, but according as they referred to particular nations. Thus 
 one book naixated the transactions of the Romans with the 
 Gauls, another with the Spaniards, and another with the Sici- 
 lians, while a few books discuss particular wars ; one, for instance, 
 being devoted to the Mithridatic, and nine to the civil wars. 
 Appian does not stand high as a historian. His work is a mere 
 compilation, not always veiy carefully executed ; but it has be- 
 come valuable on account of the loss of some of those books 
 from which he has drawn his materials. — J. D. 
 
 APPIUS CLAUDIUS, the n.amc of a patrician family of gi-eat 
 celebrity in the annals of ancient Rome, the founder of which 
 was Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis, who was by 
 birth a Sabine, and came to Rome A.u.c. 250, with a great 
 number of adherents under his conunand, by whom new teni- 
 tories were acquired on the Anio, and a new tribe fonned, to 
 which the title of Claudia Gens was given, after the name of its 
 orif^nator. Appius Claudius became consul A.u.c. 259 (482 
 B.C.), and distinguished hhnself by his zealous .support of the 
 patrician order against the plebeians. His son of the same name 
 lived in the second half of the fifth century B.C., and became 
 consul in 471. He inherited the prejudices of his father against 
 the common people, and made liimself so unpojuilar, that in the 
 war he conducted against the Volsci, A.u.c. 283, the Roman 
 army suft'ered themselves to be defeated, to show their dislike 
 to their general. His brother, Caius Claudius Appiu.s, was 
 consul 460 B.C. ; and althougli, like his family, he resisted the 
 encroachments of the plebeians, ho was nevertheless a man of 
 great moderation. His colleague was the famous Cincinnatus. 
 — Appius Claudius Crassinus, became consul 451 b.c, in 
 
 2 A
 
 the year of Rome 303 ; and notwithstanding his strong aristo- 
 cratic prejudices, he gave his support to the popular measure of 
 creating the Decemviri, of whom lie was appointed one. His 
 tyrannical conduct, however, produced great commotions in 
 Rome ; and his attempt upon the chastity of Virginia, the daughter 
 of the centurion L. Virginius, so incensed the army, that he was 
 aiTested and thrown into prison, where, according to Livy, he 
 desti-oyed himself, or, according to Dionysius Halicarnassus, was 
 put to death by order of the tribunes. — Appius Claudius 
 Cj:cus was elected censor A.u.C. 442, and rendered his period 
 of office memorable by constracting the aqueducts of Rome and 
 the Appian way, or Rtgina Viai-um. lie triumphed over the 
 Samnites in two successive campaigns : and in his old age gained 
 the siuTiame of Caucus, from having become blind. Cicero pro- 
 nounces a high encomium upon the patriotism with which he 
 exerted himself, although suffering from age and blindness, to 
 prevent the senate from granting to Pyrrlius, king of Epirus, a 
 peace which would have been dishonourable to the Roman name. 
 — (Cic. Tusc. Disp. de Animi Perturbationibus ; De Senectuie; 
 Cato Major; Livy, iii. 33, &c.) — F. 
 
 * APl'LEG.\TH, Augustus, famous for his inventions in 
 the art of printing, was bom in 1790, at Jlile-end, near London, 
 and was educated at Dr. Wanostrocht's, Alfred house, Camber- 
 well, He became partner with his brother-in-law, Edward 
 Cowper, late professor of mechanics in King's college. When 
 associated with that gentleman, ]\Ir. Applegath made the ma- 
 chine for stereoplates in 1816, .ind the type perfecting machine 
 in 1818; and when the great attempt was made, in 1816-20, by 
 the Bank of England to prevent the forgeiy of their notes, Mr. 
 Applegath invented and took a patent in 1818 for the plan 
 adopted. ^Yhen Mr. Cowper retu'ed in 1820, the subject of our 
 notice pursued his inquiries alone, and made improvements in the 
 perfecting machine, and contrived several new machines for the 
 Morning Hentld and St. James' Chronicle, which were patented 
 in 1821, 1822, and 1824. In 1826 he made the machine for 
 the Times, known by the name of the " four feeder," and also 
 several machines for the imperial card factory in Ru.ssia, and many 
 machines both for block and plate in silk printing. In 1840 he 
 devised the rotaiy vertical machines, which have printed the Times 
 ever since at 12,000 and 13,500 impressions per hour, and has 
 just completed a ten feeder for the scnice of the Penny Standard. 
 He is now engaged in several machines for printing in colours, 
 from the largest handbill down to a perfumer's label, one of which 
 produces the picture on coloured cards at one operation. Mr. 
 Applegath considers himself only a tyro iu comparison with the 
 wide field yet remaining unoccupied. 
 
 APPLETON, C0.MMODORE, an English admiral in the time 
 of the Commonwealth, who was celebrated for having fought a 
 desperate battle with the Dutch fleet under Van Galen, in the 
 harbour of Leghorn, in 1652. 
 
 APPLETOX, Jesse, an American divine, bom at New Ips- 
 wich, U.S., 1772, who in 1797 became pastor of the chm-ch at 
 Hampton in Xew Hampshire ; and in 1807 was appointed pre- 
 sident of Bowdoin college in the state of Maine, where he died 
 in 1819. A collected edition of his works was published at 
 Andover in 1837. 
 
 APPON Y, Anton Rodolphus, Count »', an Austrian diplo- 
 matist, born in 1782, who was successively ambassador at 
 Florence, Rome, London, and Paris, where he exercised his 
 diplomatic functions for many years. 
 
 APPULEIUS, Lucius, a Roman ambassador, sent with C. 
 Petronius into Asia, 156 B.C., to inquire into the origin of the 
 hostility between Attains, king of Pergamus, and Prusias, king 
 of Bith^^lia. 
 
 APPULEIUS, MAKCUs,a Roman who in 44 B.C. was qua?stor, 
 probably in some part of Asia Minor, and gave his support to 
 Bmtus after the death of Julius C»sar. 
 
 APPULEIUS, Sextus, a Roman consul in 29 B.C., and sub- 
 sequently proconsul in Spam, for a victory in which country he 
 had a triumph in 26 B.C. 
 
 APPULEIUS, Se.xtus, a Roman, who was elevated to the 
 consuLship in a.d. 14, the year of the death of Augustus, and 
 who, with Sextus Pompeius, was among the first who took the 
 oath of allegiance to Tiberius. 
 
 APPULEIUS, a native of Mad.aura in Africa, flourislied m 
 the reign of the Antonines, and is reckoned by some as the most 
 original philosopher of the second century. He received the 
 rudiments of his education in Carthage, removed afterwards to 
 
 Athens, where he became enamoured of the Platonic philosophy, 
 and he seems likewise to have studied at Rome. His dehght in 
 obsen'ing the various characters of men, led him to spend a 
 gi'eat deal of time in adventures and travels ; and after thus 
 visiting many parts of Italy, Greece, and Asia, he settled in his 
 native countr}-, where, especially at Carthage, he received many 
 public honom's, and became illustrious as a philosopher and 
 litterateur. Several of the works of Appuleius have come down 
 to us, some of them on philosophical subjects. The work by 
 which he is best known, and which was most probably his latest, 
 is his " Jletamorphoses," often styled the Golden Ass. This 
 strange book is a humorous romance, picturing in very strong 
 and vivid colours the prevalent magical delusions, and the utter 
 licentiousness of the times. Some have absurdly supposed an 
 allegorical meaning to underlie the work ; but there can be httle 
 doubt that Appuleius simply describes what he had seen or 
 heard of during the course of his adventures. Appuleius shows 
 extraordinary mastery over the Latin language. His descriptions 
 are most precise, while they are given with great spirit and 
 vividness. The book abounds m wit and humour, is always 
 lively and sparkling, never wearies, and has some passages of 
 gi-eat force, eloquence, and thoughtfulness. — J. D. 
 
 APRAXIN, a distinguished Russian family bore this name: — 
 Theodor Matvayevich Apraxin was bom in 1671, and 
 in 1710 was elevated to the dignity of count of the Russian 
 empire, and privy councillor. After the death, in 1682, of 
 the Czai' Theodor, he became the favourite of Peter the Great, 
 and co-operated with that celebrated monarch in all his great 
 projects, and especially in those relating to the Russian navy. 
 In 1692 he was appointed governor of Ai'changel ; in 1700 he 
 became governor of Azov; and in 1717 he held tlie dignity of 
 president of the college of the admiralty, with the titles of 
 general, admiral, and senator. During his hfe, which termi- 
 nated in 1728, he distinguished himself in the naval and military 
 service of his coimtiy, retaining at once the favour of the czar, 
 and great popularity among his contemporaries. His brother, 
 Peter SIatvayevich Apraxin, sened in the Russian army 
 under Peter the Great, and died in 1720. Count Stepan 
 Theodorovicii Apraxin was born in 1702, entered the army 
 at the age of seventeen, and advanced rapidly through the vari- 
 ous stages of mihtary rank, to that of tield-marshal in 1756. 
 In the campaign of 1737 he served against the Turks, and was 
 present at the storming of Ockzakow ; at the conclusion of the 
 war he had the command of the Russian army in Astrakhan ; 
 in 1742 he was ambassador to the Persian court; and in 1757 
 he had the chief command of the Russian anny intended to act 
 against Frederick the Great. Died in 1758. — F. 
 
 APREECE, AP h'HYS or RHESE, John, a Welsh antiqua- 
 rian, bom early in the 16th centurj'. In 1574 he graduated in civil 
 law at O.xford. His works are all connected with the antiijiuties of 
 hLs native country; perhaps the most interesting of them is his 
 " Defensio Regis Arthuri," in which he attempts to prove the 
 historical verity of the life and exploits of King Arthm\ — J. B. 
 
 APRES DE MANNEVILLETTE, Jean Baptiste Nicolas 
 Denis i>', was an eminent French hydrographer, bom at Havre 
 in 1707, who devoted himself during several voyages to the im- 
 provement of the charts necessary to navigation, in which, by 
 the accuracy of his scientific smreys and observations, he did 
 vast sei-vice to mercantile and naval enterprise. His gi-eat work, 
 consisting of numerous charts and memoirs, and styled " Le 
 Neptune Oriental," appeared in 1745. He is said to have been 
 the first navigator who carried into effect Halley's suggestion 
 of determining the longitude by the observation of lunar dis- 
 tances ; and to have been the first Fi'ench seaman who explored 
 the route pursued by Boscawen m 1748, through the Archi])elago 
 north-eaot of Madagascar. He died in 1780. — F. 
 
 A'PRIES, a king of Eg}-pt, son of Psammuthis, who is 
 ajiparently the Pharaoh-Hophra of the scriptures, in whose reign 
 Jemsalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 586 B.C. 
 
 APRONIUS, Lucius, a Roman eques, who in a.d. 8 was consul 
 suffectus. In a.d. 14 he sencd under Dmsus in Pannonia, on 
 occasion of his mission to the revolted legions ; subsequently he 
 was a general of the army of Gennanicus, and obtained a triumph 
 for his military services. In A.d. 20 he succeeded Fmius Camillus 
 as proconsul of Africa; and in a.d. 28 was propraetor of Lower 
 Germany, where he is supposed to have fallen in a battle with 
 Frisians. His son, Lucius Apronius C.ksianur, was elected 
 consul with Caligida, a.d. 39. — F.
 
 APR 
 
 187 
 
 AQU 
 
 APROSIO, LuiGi or Axgelico, a learned monk of the order 
 of St. Auc:nstme, bom at Ventimiglia, in Liguria, in 1607. 
 After inhabiting in succ-.ssion many different monasteries, he 
 established himself at his native place, where he became vicar- 
 general of the Inquisition, and founded a library celebrated as 
 the Bibliotheca Aprosiana. He wrote a gi-eat variety of works, 
 but under an assumed name; and died in 1681. — F. 
 
 APSHOVEN or ABTSHOVEN, Theodosius, a Flemish 
 painter of landscape, interiors, and still life, of the seventeenth 
 century. He was pupil of David Teniers. 
 
 APSINES, a rhetorician, a native of Gadara in Phoenicia, 
 who flouiished during the reign of Jlaximin. He enjoyed a high 
 reputation at Athens as a teacher of eloquence. There are ex- 
 tant two treatises on rhetoric, which are ascribed to him, and are 
 published in the " Rhetores Gra^ci, Venet.," 1508. 
 
 APSLEY, Sir Allen, bom about the year 1615, acted a 
 distinguished part on the Royalist side during the ciwl wars, but 
 is better known for his connection with his brother-in-law, the 
 famous Colonel Hutchison, w-ho protected him during the ascen- 
 dancy of the Commonwealth. He died in 1683, leavmg a poem 
 entitled " Order and Disorder, or the world made and undone, 
 being meditations upon the creation and the fall, as it is recorded 
 in the beginning of Genesis," London, 1679. — J. B. 
 
 APSYRTUS or ABSYRTUS, a celebrated veterinary surgeon, 
 bom at Prasa or Nicomedia, in Bithjmia. He wrote several 
 works, of which, however, only a few extracts remain, pre- 
 served in the Greek collection of wiiters on veterinary surgery, 
 made by order of the Emperor Constantine Poi-phyrogenitus, 
 A.D. 9-15-59. It is interestmg to know, that among the diseases 
 mentioned by this ancient writer, is that of glanders, which 
 Lafosse and others have supposed to be a comparatively modem 
 disease, but which Apsyrtus clearly describes. — F. 
 
 APTHORP, Eustace, a native of New England, but educated 
 at Cambridge. He spent some time as a missionaiy at Massa- 
 chusetts, but returned to England, and became vicar of Croydon 
 in 1765, rector of St. Maiy-le-Bow in 1778, and, in 1793, 
 prebend of Finsbuiy in St. Paul's cathedral. He died in 1816. 
 He published several sermons. — J. B., 0. 
 
 APULEIUS, L. C.EciLius JIinutianus, a Latin gi-am- 
 marian, author of a work, " De Orthogi'aphia," first published 
 by A. Mai, Rome, 1823. 
 
 APULEIUS, a Latin naturalist, known as Apuleius Platoni- 
 cus, and also as Lucius Apuleius Barbaras, is the author of a 
 work on plants, entitled " Herbaiium" or " De Jledicaminibus 
 Herbarum." It consists of 128 chapters, each descriptive of a 
 single plant. The first edition of this work, which is supposed 
 to belong to the fom-tli centmy, was piinted at Rome about the 
 year 1480.— J. S., G. 
 
 AQUtEUS, Stephanus, the Latin name of Etienne de 
 l'Aigue, a French writer, bom either at Beauvais or Bniges. 
 His principal performance, a worthless commentaiy on Pliny, 
 was published at Paris in 1530. 
 
 AQUAPONTANUS (Bridgewatek), Johaxnes, an Eng- 
 lish Jesuit, bom at York at the end of the sixteenth centmy, 
 was rector of a college at Lincoln ; then betook himself to 
 Rheims, and wrote some tracts against the Anglican church. 
 
 AQUARIUS, Matthias, a writer on the Aiistoteli:m and 
 scholastic philosophy, belonged to the order of St. Dominic, was 
 professor of theology at Turin, Venice, Milan, Naples, and Rome, 
 and died at Naples in 1591. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Andrea Matteo. See Acquaviva. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Belizarius. See Acquaviva. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Claudius, a famous general of the order of 
 the Jesuits, promoted to that rank in 1581 ; took pail in the 
 strife about the heresy of Molina, and died in 1615. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, OcTAVius, made a cardinal in 1591, and 
 aftenvards archbishop of Naples, was devoted to the study of 
 Aquinas, and made an abridgment of his Sunmia. Died in 1612. 
 
 AQUILA ('ApsvAocf), a celebrated Jewish proselyte, author of 
 a Greek version of the Old Testament, was, according to Epi- 
 phanius, a native of Sinope, and a rclarive of the Emperor 
 Hadrian, who employed him to superintend the erection of the 
 city jElia Capitnliiia, on the site of Jcrasalem. Here he was 
 brought under the influence of Christianity and converted from 
 paganism ; but continuing to practise astrolog)', he was cut off 
 from the communion of the Cluistian church, and went over to 
 the Jews as a proselyte. To recommend lumself to the Hellenist 
 churches, he translated the Old Testament into Greek, avoiding, 
 
 as he pi-etended, the en'ors of the Septuagint, and rendeiing 
 with the most literal fidelity the Hebrew text. His version, of 
 which only a few specimens are extant, was adopted in all the 
 synagogues. — J. S. G. 
 
 AQUILA, a Roman rhetorician of the fourth centmy. 
 
 AQUILA, Caspar, a distinguished disciple and coadj;ctor of 
 Luther. He was bom at Augsburg in 1488, of the family of 
 Adler (eagle), and after studying in that city in the Graina- 
 sium of Ulm, and in Italy, he was, first a preacher in Bern, and 
 then, in 1515, military chaplain to the Imperial General Francis 
 von Sickingen. \\licn Luther commenced his great movement, 
 Aquila threw himself into it with much ardom-, and preached 
 so warmly in support of it in the neighbourhood of Augsburg, 
 that he was apprehended by order of Stadion, bishop of that 
 city, and cast into prison, from which he was only released by 
 the intercession of Queen Isabella of Denmark, the emperor's 
 sister. In 1520 he -v-isited Luther at Wittemberg, and soon 
 after re-entered the sendee of Francis von Sickingen, in the 
 capacity of tutor to his sons. When in the castle of Ebemburg 
 with his charge, he narrowly escaped death at the hands of the 
 garrison. For refusing to comply with the foolish request of the 
 soldiers to baptize one of their cannon, they seized the conscien- 
 tious tutor, tumbling him into the mouth of a mortar, and made 
 repeated attempts to fire him ofl:' like a bullet from the top of 
 the walls. Pro\identiany the powder was damp, and he was at 
 length rescued from his strange and perilous position by one of 
 the officers. Having returned to Wittemberg in 1524, he was 
 one of Luther's assistants in his great work of Bible translation. 
 In 1527 he was recommended to the pastorate of Saalfeld, where 
 he was advanced to be superintendent in the following year, and 
 signalized himself by his zeal and pradence m the diffusion of the 
 resuscitated gosj)el. Wlien the troubles of the Interim broke 
 out, he wrote against it so warmly that the Emperor Chaiies 
 V. set a price of 4000 or 50o0 gulden upon his head. He 
 found refuge at Rudolstadt, in the hospitable castle of the 
 duchess of Schwarzbm-g. In 1550, when the danger was over, 
 he was made dean of Schmalkald ; and in 1552 retiuned to his 
 former office at Saalfeld, where he died 12th November, 1560. 
 He was zealous in opposing what he considered to be the dan- 
 gerous corruptions of Lutheran doctrine, which crept in under 
 the influence of Jlelancthon after the death of Luther. He was 
 one of forty-six theologians who supplicated the elector, Jolm 
 Frederick IL, and the other evangelical princes and states, in 
 1560, to call a free and lai\-ful synod for the purpose of restrain- 
 ing and purging out these alleged corraptions. The best kno\vn 
 of his writings, which were all in Gemian, were his " Christliche 
 Erklarung des lOeiner Katcchismus," Augsburg, 1538 : and 
 " Fragstiicke der ganzen Christlichen Lehre," 1547. — P. L. 
 
 AQUILA, John dell', an Itahau physician, died in 1510. 
 
 A(jUILA, Julius, a Roman jurist of the fifth century. 
 
 AQUILA, Serafln'o dell', an Italian poet, so called fi-om 
 liis having been bom at Aquila, a city in the province of Abruzzo, 
 enjoyed a great reputation as a sonneteer, and also as an impro- 
 visatore, in the second half of the fifteenth century. He died at 
 Rome on the 10th August, 1500. 
 
 AQUILA'NUS,SEBASTiANUsorSEBASTiANODELL' Aquila, 
 an Italian physician, bora at Aquila, was a Galenist, and professed 
 medicine at FeiTara in 1495. In his treatise, "De Morbo Galileo," 
 he recommends the use of mercuiy. Died in 1513. 
 
 AQUILIUS, Gallus, a Roman Jurist, tribune of the people 
 under the consulship of Pompcy, and afterwards quajstor along 
 with Cicero, lived in the last half of the century before Christ. 
 He is the author of a famous statute, " De dolo nialo." 
 
 AQUILIUS, Henricus, a Belgian writer, author of a valu- 
 able work on the history of the duchy of Gelders, hved about the 
 middle of the sixteenth centuiy. 
 
 AQUILIUS, Manius, a Roman consul, concluded the war 
 with Aristonicus, son of Eumenes, king of Pergamus, in 129 B.C. 
 Three years later, he was accused of malversation by P. Len- 
 tulus, but escaped condenmation by bribing his judges. 
 
 AQUILIUS, Manius, consul with JIarius in a.d. 101, re- 
 pressed a revolt of the slaves of Sicily, and was honoured on his 
 retm-n with an ovation ; but, two years later, he was charged 
 with malversation, and it required all the eloquence of Marcus 
 Antonius to procure his acquittal. Afterwards proconsul in 
 Asia Minor, he was taken prisoner by Mithridates V., and put to 
 death by having molten gold poured down his throat. — J. S., G. 
 
 AQUILIUS, Sabinus, a Roman jurist of the third centurj',
 
 called the Cato of his age, was consul in 214 and again in 216. 
 He was banished bj Heliogabalus. 
 
 AQUIN, Louis Clai-de d', was bom at Paiis in 1694. 
 His playing on the hai-psichord, when he was but sis years old, 
 was so remarkable, as to attract the attention and patronage of 
 the king, Louis XIV. When he wa.s still a child, while only in 
 his twelfth year, he played the organ in the Sainte Chapelle in 
 Paris. In 1727 he was appointed organist of the church of St. 
 Paul in that city. He was almost equally precocious as a com- 
 poser and as an executant, and liis productions, though but ex- 
 tremely few of them were printed, are very voluminous ; they 
 consist of motets, cantatas, portions of operas, sinfonias for the 
 organ, and an extensive variety of trios, fugues, and other in- 
 strumental pieces, the majority of which are preserved in the 
 libraries of his native city. Mnnpurg includes his name in the 
 list of thirty-three musicians of difierent countries, who were, 
 in 1755, eminent performers on the organ and harpsichord, and 
 able writers for those instruments. Handel visited Paris ex- 
 pressly for the purpose of hearing him play, and said of liim, 
 " He is the only one whom the fashionable mania has not cor- 
 rupted, and wlio preserves the true majesty of the organ." He 
 died at the age of seventy-eiglit, in the year 1772. — G. A. M. 
 
 AQUIN, PiiiLLiPE d', or AQUINAS, Phillipus d', a Jew- 
 ish rabbi, converted to Christianity at Aquino in Naples, taught 
 Hebrew at Paris, and was appointed professor at the college of 
 France by Louis XIII. Ilis works are numerous. Died at 
 Paris in 1650. 
 
 AQUIN DE CHATEAU-LION, Pierre Louis, a French 
 poet and critic, son of Louis Claude d'Aquin, died in 1797. 
 
 AQUINAS or D'AQUINS, Thomas, called "The Angelic 
 Doctor," was the most eminent scholastic of his age. He was 
 descended from the noble and powerful family of Aqmns. The 
 year of his birth is not ascertained, but it was either in 1224, 
 1227, or the two intervening years. His father, Randulf or 
 Eodolf, had several children, of whom he was the youngest. At 
 the age of five he was sent to the monastery of ftlonte Cassino, 
 whence he repaired in his eleventh year to the new university of 
 Naples, founded by Frederick II. in 1224. Here he continued, 
 engaged in acts of religious devotion and in philosophical studies, 
 till he was seventeen, when he became a Dominican. But his 
 family were averse to his entering the monastic profession, and 
 endeavoured to rescue liim from its grasp. Hence the Domini- 
 cans removed him from Italy, and were conducting him to 
 France, wlicn his two brothers, who were serving in the amnios 
 of Tuscany, brought him back as a prisoner to the paternal castle 
 of Aquins. Here he spent two years in confinement, exposed 
 to ^he solicitations of his mother and sisters, and to the stronger 
 importunities of his military brothers, who also introduced a 
 beautiful courtesan into his chamber to tempt him. It is re- 
 lated, that when on the point of yielding to the solicitations of 
 the female, he suddenly resolved to expel her from his presence, 
 and, for this purpose, snatched a buming brand. Falling down 
 before the mark of the cross which the brand had impressed on 
 the floor, he repeated his vows of chastity and prayers for grace. 
 After this trial, his mother yielded to his strong detennination, 
 and favoured his escape from durance. But the command of 
 Frederick II. caused his release. He was placed under the care 
 of Albert the Great of Cologne, the most renowned of the Domi- 
 nicans at that time, and soon made great progress under his 
 tuition. It is said that his taciturnity, together with his large 
 fame, procured him among his fellow-students the appellation of 
 the " Dumb Ox of Sicily." Wlien his preceptor was appointed 
 to occupy the chair of theology for three years in the college of 
 St. James at Paris, Aquinas accompanied liim, returning with 
 him to Cologne, where he remained till 1253 and was ordained 
 priest. Having retumed to Paris in that year, he began lectures 
 on " The Book of Sentences " of Peter Lombard, and gradually 
 attracted the notice of the great and learned. In 12G1 he was 
 summoned to Rome by Urban FV., and lectured tliere for several 
 years. Nor were his lectures confined to Rome ; for he visited 
 the principal cities of Italy, such as Bologna, Pisa, Viterbo, &c., 
 where his fame attracted multitudes of liearers. In 1265, Cle- 
 ment IV. offered him the archbishopric of Naples, wliich he de- 
 clined. He also refused the abbacy of Jlonte Cassino, though 
 better suited to his tastes and studies. In 1269 he again lec- 
 tured in Paris, under the royal patronage, returning to Naples 
 in 1272. Here he was summoned by Gregory X. to attend tlie 
 second council of Lyons in 1274, which was convened for the 
 
 purpose of reconciling the Greek and Latin chm-ches. Tliough 
 feeble and wom with long sickness, he set out on the journey ; 
 but finding himself at last too ill to proceed, he requested to be 
 carried to the Cistercian abbey of Fossa Nuova in the diocese of 
 Terracina, wliere he lingered nearly a month, having felt from 
 the first that it was to be the place of his rest. The time was 
 spent in prayer and holy conversation. It is said that he dic- 
 tated his " Exposition of Canticles " at the request of the monks 
 in tins abbey, and expired, with eveiy demonstration of profound 
 devotion, on the 7th March, 1274, at the age of forty-eight. 
 Several miracles are related to have occurred at the time of his 
 death : and credulous authors describe prodigies which he per- 
 formed in his lifetime. He was canonized by John XXII. 
 
 Great as was the reputation of St. Thomas Aqrunas in his 
 lifetime among his contemporaries, it increased after his death. 
 Even his body was eagerly claimed by varioiis cities ; by none 
 wth more importunity than Paris. The monks of Fossa Nuova, 
 however, refused to part with his mortal remains. Urban V. 
 afterwards presented them to the city of Toulouse, where they 
 were finally deposited with great solemnity in the church of the 
 Dominicans. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas was gifted with great mental powers, which 
 he consecrated to the study of theology and the service of the 
 chui'ch. He is the most renowned of all the schoolmen. His 
 intellect was acute, clear, logical, passionless. He looked at 
 every subject through the understanding, and reduced it with 
 minute precision and accuracy to the syllogistic form. He had 
 gi-eat perspicacity of thought and perspicuity of expression, and 
 can-ied the penetration of his intellect into all theological sub- 
 jects -n-ith the boldest and calmest confidence. His definitions 
 and distinctions are minute as well as numerous, often impal- 
 pable to the common intellect. Aquinas may be said to have 
 carried the AristoteUan logic, as applied to theology, to its 
 utmost limit. In him the scholastic system of theology reached 
 its highest point. In philosophy he was more a Realist than a 
 Conceptualist or Nominalist, though he was not absolutely so ; 
 for, like his great master Albert, he was somewhat of an Eclectic. 
 
 His theological works are very numerous ; but by far his 
 greatest is the " Sum of Theology." This is divided into three 
 parts — the natural, moral, and sacramental. The first treats of 
 God — his existence, attributes, providence, &c. The second 
 refers to man as a moral and intellectual agent, the principles 
 of human action, and the virtues in wliich they are embodied. 
 Tlie thhd is on the incarnation, and tlie sacraments of the 
 church. Angels and demons are treated under the first part. 
 " In his works," says Milman, " or rather in his one great work, 
 is the final result of all which has been decided by pope or 
 council, taught by the fathers, accepted by tradition, argued by 
 the schools, inculcated in the confessional. The ' Sum of 
 Theology' is the authentic, authoritative, acknowledged code of 
 Latin Christianity." There are various editions of this " Summa 
 Tlieologia;." An edition of all his works was published by 
 order of Pope Pius V. at Rome, 1570-71, foUo, 17 volumes in 
 18mo. This is often considered the best. Other editions were 
 published at Venice, 1593, 18 vols, folio; at Antwerp, 1612, 
 19 vols, fulio; at Paris, 1636-41, 23 vols, folio. The second 
 Venice edition appeared in 28 vols. 4to. in 1775. A full life 
 was published by Morelles in the Antwerp edition of 1612, 
 carefully compiled from preceding writers. — S. D. 
 
 AQUI'NO, Carlo d', an Italian writer, professor of rhetoric 
 in the college of Jesuits at Rome, was a son of Bartolommeo, 
 prince of Caramanico. Among his numerous works is a Latin 
 translation of Dante. Died in 1737. 
 
 ARABELLA STUART. See Stuart. 
 
 ARABIUS, ScHOLASTicus, a Greek epigrammatic poet, sup- 
 posed to have lived about the year 550. 
 
 ARARSCHiVH, a JIahometan writer, bom at Damascus, 
 author of two works — "The wonderful effects of the Di\nne 
 Decrees in the affairs of Tamerlane," and a theological treatise 
 " On the Unity of God." He died at his native city in 1460. 
 
 ARACHIE'LL'S, Cacciaturo, an Armenian theologian, 
 educated at Rome, died at Venice in 1740. 
 
 ARADON, Jerome, a French general of the second half 
 of the sixteenth century, employed against Henry IV. in the war 
 of the League. 
 
 ARAGO, Domin'ic-Fraxcois, bom at Estagel, near Per- 
 jiignan, early in the year 178G ; died in Paris on the 2d October, 
 lb52. The life of tliis remaikable sacaiU partook very little of
 
 ARA 
 
 189 
 
 AKA 
 
 [he evenness and quietude of the course tlirough which our 
 iiiodem votaries of science usually pass from the cradle to the 
 tomb. Disturbed, on the contrary, in its earliest epoch, by sliip- 
 wrecks and captivity, closing amidst political storms still more 
 disastrous and disheartening, one cannot but marvel at the buoy- 
 ancy, the resolution, and self-dependence, which, amid all distrac- 
 tions, could yet command at will the calmness requisite for scien- 
 tific thought ; and — in years when no passion was quenched, nor 
 one human sympathy enfeebled — -establish for the name of the 
 wayfarer an honourable and permanent place in the annals of 
 physical discovery. The autobiography of this singular person 
 extends, unfortunately, only to the year 1830 ; but although 
 imperfect, and written too much on the plan of chiefly noticing 
 ipif/ranunatic incidents — incidents somewhat belonging to tlie 
 melodrama of life— it is, nevertheless, beyond question one of the 
 most interesting of all existing productions of this interesting 
 class. The youth of Arago, as indicated in that autobiography, 
 suflBces to explain the natm-e of the career and conduct of the 
 man. We find him, in the first place, contending successfully 
 against all influences of home, rejecting the course of life which 
 his father had designed for him, and adhering, without the hesita- 
 tion of a moment, to his own deteiTnination to become a soldier. 
 At that time — more emphatically than even at present — France 
 abode by her declaration, that no man should obtain responsibility 
 in her amiies who had not passed with credit through the scientific 
 and military courses of the Ecole Poly technique. Admission to 
 this famous school, however, was not open. The knowledge and 
 abiUty of the candidate must stand the test of a severe and scni- 
 tinizing examination. With characteristic impetuosity, young 
 Arago threw himself on the study of mathematics ; and it may 
 astonish aspirants after honours far higher than those pri- 
 marily sought for by the French student, that, in preparation 
 for tliis initial examination, he might have been found occupied 
 with such books as Euler's "Analysis Infinitorum ; " Lagrange's 
 " Theorie des Fonctions " and " Mecanique Analytique ; " and 
 the "Mecanique Celeste" of Laplace. At the age of seven- 
 teen, Arago received the approbation of his examiner, the illus- 
 trious Monge ; and soon after entering the school, he underwent 
 another examination by Legendre. The incidents of both exami- 
 nations are given very graphically in the autobiography : — the 
 meeting -with Legendre being described as follows : — Dramatis 
 personce : first, an obsciu-e youth of seventeen ; second, Legen- 
 dre, one of the greatest of that galaxy of geometers who illumined 
 scientific Europe during part of the last century and the first 
 thirty years of the present one, — Legendre, who, although some- 
 what abnipt in manners, was no less famous for his integrity 
 than for his acqun-ements : " I entered his apartment at the 
 moment when M. T., who had fainted under examination, was 
 being carried out by the servants. I thought that this incident 
 would have moved and softened M. Legendre. Nothing of the 
 sort ! ' Your name ? ' said he. 'Arago.' ' Then you are not a 
 Frenchman ? ' ' If I had not been a Frenchman I should not 
 have been in your presence, for I have never heard of the recep- 
 tion of any one into the school, until he had given proof of his 
 nationality.' ' I insist, however, that there is no Frenchman of 
 the name of Arago.' 'And, on my part, I insist that I am a 
 Frenchman, and a good Frenchman, however odd my name 
 may sound to you.' 'Be it so; let the discussion cease. Go 
 now to the board ! ' I had scarcely prepared the chalk," con- 
 tinues Arago, "when Legendre returned to his first impression, 
 saying to me, ' You were bom in one of the departments recently 
 annexed to France?' 'No, Monsieur ; I was born in the depart- 
 ment of the Pyrenees-Orientales, at the foot of the Pyrenees.' 
 ' Ha ! why did you not tell me so at once ? I see it all now. 
 You are of Spanish extraction ? Is it not so ? ' ' Possibly, but 
 in my humble family no archives are preserved that might 
 enable me to ascertain the civil condition of my ancestors : every 
 one there is the child of his own labour. I again say that I 
 am a Frenchman, and that ought to be enough!" Assuredly 
 the brusqueness of the examiner had its match in the self-con- 
 fidence — to call it by the mildest name — of the unabashed stu- 
 dent ! The singular narrative proceeds : " The vivacity of my 
 last reply did not strike Legendre favourably, as I had imme- 
 diate occasion to know. Having prepared a problem requiring 
 the use of double integrals, he stopped me as I proceeded, say- 
 ing, ' The method you are employing was not given you by your 
 professor, — where have you found it?' 'In one of your own 
 memoii-s.' ' Why have you made choice of it now ? With the 
 
 hope of bribing my judgment ? ' ' Certainly not ; I adopted it 
 because I think it preferable to the other.' ' If you do not suc- 
 ceed in showing me the reasons of your preference, I declare that 
 you shall have a bad mark, at least as to character ! ' I then," 
 continues Arago, " entered into explanations establishing the 
 superiority of the method of double integrals, in every point of 
 view, over the method taught by Lacroix. From that moment 
 Legendre appeared satisfied and soothed." The recital concludes 
 thus : " Legendre asked me to determine the centre of gra\'ity 
 of a spherical section. 'That is an easy matter,' I said. 'Well, 
 if it seems so easy I shall make it more complex. Suppose the 
 density of the section not uniform, but varjing according to a 
 given function of the distance from the centre.' Happily I got 
 well through the solution, and from that moment I had obtained 
 by conquest the goodwill of my examiner. He addressed me as 
 I retired in words which, coming from him, seemed to my fel- 
 low-students a very favom'able augury of my rank and promotion : 
 — ' I see you have employed your time well ; go on in the same 
 manner during your second year, and we shall part very good 
 friends ! ' " The scene was essentially and eminently character- 
 istic. It may induce us, not unreasonably, to question the 
 amiability of Ai'ago ; one thing, however, is clear — the raw 
 Youth, who thus ventured to contend with one of the strongest 
 men in France, could not issue in a Man likely to quail before 
 any difficulty, or be found wanting in applicable resources in 
 times of trial. It is needless to add, that Arago passed through 
 the Polytechnic School with the gi-eatest distinction. Within 
 eighteen months from the date of his admission, he had gained 
 the fiiendship of the most eminent men in Paris, and reached the 
 high office of secretary of the Obseiwatory. — The subsequent life 
 of this extraordinary person divides itself into three epochs : — 
 I. Soon after his occupancy of the honourable position just named, 
 he became closely associated with Biot, now the veteran of the 
 French Institute, in attempts to determine the refracting powers 
 of the different gases ; out of which a much more important asso- 
 ciation sprung, one that issued in an enterprise of high value to 
 science, but to one of its fellow-labourers fraught with adventure 
 and danger, as well as productive of gloiy. The measurement 
 of an arc of the meridian between the parallels of Dunkirk and 
 Barcelona had, about the close of last centuiy, been determined 
 on by France — never behind in scientific ardour and enterprise, 
 any more than in ai-ms. The execution of this great work was 
 intrusted toDelambre and Mechain, than whom none more capable 
 or more accurate could have been selected. Mechain had the 
 charge of the southern portion of the smTey; but, notwithstand- 
 ing the carefulness and ability of this excellent and conscientious 
 obsei-ver, his results were not satisfactory — a discrepancy of up- 
 wards of 3° turning up on the completion of his calculations. 
 Mechain afterwards discovered the source of the error ; but it 
 broke his heart. He left, however, a strong recommendation, 
 that while certain measurements should be revised, govemment 
 should not stop at Barcelona, but direct the prolongation of the 
 work as far south as the Balearic Islands. This completion of 
 the enterprise was undertaken by Biot and Arago, in conjunction 
 with two Spanish commissioners, Chaix and Kodi'iguez. In 18(K>, 
 the Spaniards encamped on Mount Campecey, in Ivi9a ; while 
 Biot and Arago occupied the summit of one of the loftiest of the 
 Catalonian Pyrenees. In April, 1807, Biot returned to Paris with 
 the results then attained, leaving the task of uniting Majorca 
 with Ivi9a and Fomientera to Rodriguez and Arago. Now began 
 the extraordinaiy hardships of the obsen'ers. Wc speak not 
 of material hardships — such as arise from exposure, from annoy- 
 ances belonging to those wild regions, from banditti, &c. — but of 
 hardships springing mainly out of the unsettled state of Europe : 
 alliances among kingdoms then shifting as the sand ; friendships 
 passing into enmity with the suddenness and apparent caprice of 
 the oscillation of a wind wave. While Arago was in Majorca, 
 the French aniiies entered Spain : the ignorant ])opulace imagined 
 that the Geodetic signals of the Frenchmen right over their port, 
 were telegraphic signals to the hostile generals ; and Arago had 
 to take refuge in the Castle of Belver. Narrowly avoiding death 
 by poison, ])lanncd for liim by a furious and rascally priest, he 
 escaped to Algiers. Embarking for France in an Algerine ves- 
 sel, lie had just reached the gulf of Lyons when a Spanish cor- 
 sair captured the vessel, and carried the crew to Rosas. Brought 
 back to Spain, he was confined at first in a windmill, and after- 
 wards transferred to the hulks on Palamos, where his sufferings, 
 even from hunger, were very gi-eat. Redauned successfully by
 
 ARA 
 
 190 
 
 ARA 
 
 the friendly Dey, he again set sail, and had once more approached 
 within sight of the French coast, when a stonn hurried the ves- 
 sel southward, and landed him once more in Africa. ^Misfortune 
 on the heels of misfortune ! The old Dey had been beheaded ; 
 his brutal and saiiguinaiy successor would have thrown Arago 
 into the slave prison, had he not quickly and most opportunely 
 been hung himself. After a detention of more than six months 
 our philosopher again embarked, and with all his instruments, 
 charts, and manuscripts, complete and uninjured, he attained the 
 harbour of Marseilles on the 2nd of July, 1809. How perfectly 
 must these three years of fatigue, privation, and every danger, 
 have transformed the petulant confidence of the student into the 
 endurance of the man ! Arago returned to Paris amid the ac- 
 clamations of the whole scientific societies of France ; and — a 
 thing previously miheard of — he took his seat in the Academy 
 of Sciences at the early age of twenty-three. — II. The second 
 great epoch of Arago's life is comparatively tranquil, extending 
 from his election as academician, to the year 1848. During 
 greater part of that time he presided over the management of the 
 Observatory; and subsequently to the death of Fourier in 1830, 
 he was Perpetual Secretary of the French Academy. The tran- 
 quillity here spoken of was indeed quite other than repose : nay, 
 if we were asked for analogous cases — cases in which more aston- 
 ishing, more unresting mental activity has been manifested, than 
 that which characterized this long period of Arago's tranquil 
 life, we must revert to such men as a Leibnitz, or an Alexander 
 Humboldt, and a very few others who have taken rank in scien- 
 tific history. No extensive reader can now be uncognizant of those 
 exquisite, those generous, just, and, in the main, discriminating 
 Eloges, or sketches of the characters and labours of great men, 
 with which Arago continued to adorn the volumes of the Academy 
 from 1830, almost until the year of his death. A translation of 
 them is one of the many favours recently bestowed on the Eng- 
 lish Hterature, by the pen of Wrs. Sabine. " Zealous defender," 
 says Humboldt, " of the interests of Reason, Arago often makes 
 us feel how much nobility and gravity elevation of character can 
 impress on every work of the intellect. When exposing the prin- 
 ciples of science, on which he threw an admirable and persuasive 
 clearness, the style of the orator becomes yet more expressive, 
 inasmuch as it is distinguished by additional simplicity and 
 precision. He then reaches what Buftbn has designated ' the 
 truth of style.' " Aldn to these short but comprehensive biogra- 
 phies, are the multitude of treatises inserted in the "Annuaire," 
 — treatises on almost eveiy department of physical science — 
 on meteorology, magnetism, astronomy, and various special 
 subjects, — the essays on the labours of Sir William Herschel, 
 on the Steam-Engine, on the claims of James Watt to the dis- 
 covery of the composition of water, and many others that have 
 a permanent place in the literature of our time. Less perfect 
 perhaps, but still extremely interesting, Arago's " Popular Lec- 
 tures on Astronomy" — now published for the first time : — less 
 perfect probably, because no lecture can be what it was, bereft 
 of the impressiveness and the charm belonging to the presence 
 and individuality of the speaker. In quite another sphere, 
 Arago's activity was also incessant — we mean within the Obser- 
 vatory at Paris. It is no secret that the astronomical depart- 
 ment of this institution had not kept pace, in its instramental 
 furnishings, with other great observatories of Europe ; and, pro- 
 bably, the only work it could do well, was not much suited to 
 the tastes and ambition of Arago. That its available instruments 
 were not idle, however, is amply testified by its published records. 
 But in this obsen-atory, under Arago's supervision, was inaugu- 
 rated a vast and regulated scheme of magnetic investigations. 
 The labour bestowed on these was enormous, and the results of 
 corresponding importance. First of all, the connection between 
 the Auroras and magnetic storms was established there ; and of 
 nnich more consequence, the laws of the diurnal magnetic varia- 
 tions were distinctly laid down. But we have no space to enu- 
 merate the various successes of our philosopher in Geodesy, Cli- 
 matology, improvements in instruments, &e., &c. It is essential, 
 however, to explain some of his more remarkable positive and 
 enduring contributions to science. — Humboldt says tmly, that 
 the years 1811, 1820, and 1824, were the proudest years of his 
 career. It is delightful to know, and the revelation must have 
 delighted both discoverers, that after the discord of European war 
 had ceased, and the intercourse and interests of nations were 
 again cemented by peace, our own lirewstcr had, without hint or 
 possibility of concert, been workuig in the same path, and that 
 
 he had discovered many of the most important of the truths that 
 will ever illustrate the Frenchman's name. But let us specify : 
 in the first place, Ai'ago's name is indissolubly associated with 
 what is technically termed rotatory magneiisjti, meaning the dis- 
 covery of a singular sympathy between a rotatory disc of an un- 
 magnetic metal rotated underneath a magnet, and the position of 
 the magnet itself. The discovery was sufficiently suigular to 
 attract the attention of our best men of science : — it long 
 occupied Herschel and Babbage : it is due, however, to our 
 unequalled Faraday to state, that to him belongs the undivided 
 honour of giving the true explanation of the phenomena, and of 
 co-ordinating them with other critical fiicts of magnetism. Pass- 
 ing with the merest notice Arago's experimental deductions from 
 Oersted's cardinal discovery of the relation between the magnetic 
 and electric forces, such as his process of magnetization by an 
 electric helix, we feel it needful to speak somewhat fully of 
 his relations to the discoveiy of the phenomena and the con- 
 finnation of the wave theory of light. In reference to the facts 
 and empirical laws of Polarization, we have already said, that 
 when the long-suspended intercourse of Nations was renewed, 
 Arago found himself in happy agreement with Sir David Brew- 
 ster. Justice, however — not what the French call "patriotism" 
 — requires us to state, that in this special line, his fertility had 
 been largely sm-passed by that of the Scottish philosopher. Tlie 
 great distinction of the Frenchman in optics (except, perhaps, his 
 unquestionable right to the brilliant discovery of chromatic po- 
 larization), consists in the success which attended his efforts to 
 elucidate those questions by which alone the relative merits of 
 the conflicting theories of Emission and Undulation could be de- 
 cided. The theories alluded to, occupy an extensive common 
 territory ; i.e., they explain equally satisfactorily a large class 
 of optical phenomena. But there are points in which they are 
 discrepant. For instance, according to the Newtonian theory, 
 a ray of light ought, on passing from a rare medium into a 
 denser one, to move more swiftly ; the contrary, according to 
 the hj'pothesis of Undulations. So early as 1818, Arago hit 
 upon a method of testing this subject experimentally. His 
 method rested on the theoiy of the phenomena of Interference. 
 If one of the two rays which interfere — producing, through 
 such interference, the system of alternately dark and bright 
 bands, — is made to pass through a thin plate of glass, the 
 shift in the position of these hands ought at once to indicate 
 whether that ray has been accelerated or retarded. It is diffi- 
 cult now to understand why evidence of this nature was ever 
 refused, clear as its gi'ound appeared, and decisive as the result 
 was on the side of the doctrine of propagation by waves. But 
 the French philosopher did not stop, at least he did not desire 
 to stop, with an argument resting hi the least upon theory. 
 Stirred anew, in 1835, by Wlieatstone's ingenious method of mea- 
 suring directly the velocity of electricity, he leaped to the idea of 
 employing similar means of measuring directly the velocity of 
 light. Aided by Breguet, he had almost completed a suitable 
 apparatus, when failing health compelled him to relinquish the 
 pursuit. But he lived to enjoy the satisfaction of knowing 
 that the labours of MM. Foucault and Fizeau, resting on his 
 suggestions, issued in the absolute demonstration of the truth 
 which he had previously deduced from the phenomena of Inter- 
 ference. Few experimental results of recent times have had a 
 larger influence in settliiig a question of theory. — It is impos- 
 sible to describe here the important results deduced by experiment 
 by Arago concerning the laws of the interference of polarized 
 light ; neither can we do more than refer to his many practical 
 applications of such researches to the discovery of evanescent, 
 and until then, apparently unapproachable facts connected vrith 
 celestial physics. — In fine, this may justly be said: — The place 
 of Arago in science is not the place due to discoverers of large 
 or fundamental laws. He cannot, for instance, rank with a 
 Fresnel. He cannot take rank with a Faraday : and there are 
 a few much younger inquirers amongst us whose permanent 
 place will be found higher than his. But if we estimate him by 
 bis activity, by his ingenuity and enthusiasm, by the life which 
 his energy stiiTed eveiy where around him, and by the importance 
 of the theoretical consequences of his remarkable disclosures of 
 the empirical laws of various classes of phenomena, it must be 
 acknowledged by eveiy impartial inquirer, that neither in previous 
 nor in recent times, has he had many equals, certainly only few 
 superiors. — III. It remains that we briefly sketch what may be 
 termed the public or jiolitical life of Arago. It may be accepted,
 
 on tlie avera_^e, as an axiom, tliat eveiy Frenchman of ability 
 and uprightness is by nature a republican. Exceptions arise — for 
 instance, in the case of Guizot, whose temper of mind, however, 
 brings him rather within the type of the new Genevan Puritans, 
 than of Frenchmen as they are. But this republicanism is much 
 more the expression of a tlm-st after equaliti/, than a thirst after 
 Uberty. The Celtic race does not appear to object in the main 
 to rigorous central despotism, provided, under that despotism, all 
 citizens are treated ahke ■ although it cannot be questioned that 
 these forms and possessors of central power, have ever been 
 obeyed most loyally, when they knew to mingle with the claim 
 to allegiance, the gratification they offered to a sense of national 
 glory, or some other of those sentiments that bear so large a 
 sway over the judgments of our gallant, but restless and im- 
 pulsive neighbom-s. Legendre, we have seen, doubted the 
 citizenship of Arago ; assuredly the academician turned out as 
 strong a Frenchman in all things as Legendre, or any one 
 else, could in conscience desire. As pupil of the Polytechnic 
 School, Arago was the first on the list of the protesters against 
 the assumption by the first Consul, of the Imperial PurjJc. 
 Xapoleon, although the reverse of generous to those disposed to 
 thwart his will, was swayed on this occasion by one of the 
 contradictions that made up his extraordinary nature ; he re- 
 spected the courage of young Arago, probably because he had 
 lecognized his genius. A very expressive anecdote, narrated in 
 the " AutobiogTaphy," relating to the period now spoken of, 
 merits repetition. A large number of the pupils of the famous 
 school, refused to concur in the vapid adulations of other con- 
 stituted bodies. General Lacuee, governor of the Polytechnic, 
 stated the case as it stood to the emperor. " Monsieur Lacuee," 
 exclaimed Napoleon, in the midst of a group of courtiers, who 
 applauded by word and gestm-e — " Jlonsieur Lacuee, you must 
 not permit these wild republicans to continue in the Ecole 
 Polytechnique — you must expel them ! Bring me, to-morrow, 
 a list of their names, and their rank as to promotion." On re- 
 cei\ing the hst next day, he did not pass farther than the name 
 of the pupil at the top, whose rank was "first in the Artillery." 
 "I cannot expel those who are first in merit: would that these 
 republicans had been at the bottom (a la queue). M. Lacuee, 
 let the affair remain as it is ! " Napoleon, we have said, was a 
 mass of contradictions. Despot or not, he had a distinctive 
 iJolatiy — the worship of the head. There are countries where 
 the fetichism is different, — where the sacred order is the group 
 around the tail. Arago did not enter much into active political 
 life untU dm-ing the latter years of the reign of Louis Philippe. 
 It were not easy to measure the calamities to France arising 
 from sad defects in the character of this monarch. Correct as to 
 all minor matters, unimpeachable as to private decomm, and 
 with a certain inclination towards hberalism, he never touched 
 fine sentiment in the hearts of Frenchmen ; and his liberalism 
 stopped quite short at the very moment when larger views 
 might have saved his throne. Private vktues are not always 
 l-ublic benefits. Louis was thrifty (all praise to him therefore!), 
 l)ut in France there is Uttle hope for a huxter-king. He was 
 not fortunate in his counsellors. Possessed of more generosity 
 and of a larger nature, he might have obtained good counsellors. 
 As it was, his choice lay between two men — the Genevan Guizot, 
 more, with all his great ability, of a Puritanic schoolmaster than 
 a Statesman, and another — a Frenchman m the worst sense, as 
 well as in a few good senses — of brilliant talents, exciting as an 
 orator, rapid and flashy as a writer, quick to seize the impulse 
 of occasion, but in principle very loose, and nothing as to 
 character. We refer of coiu-se to Thiers, author of " History of 
 the Republic, Consulate, and Empire." An agitation that ulti- 
 mately overtlirew Louis Philippe — a simple, constitutional, and 
 safe agitation for an extension of the suffrage — began in France. 
 Ai-ago joined in the movement. He, as well as others, was 
 tired of a huxter-sovcreignty, and a huxter-constituency : he 
 longed for the infusion into that constituency of a portion of a 
 class not subject to the influences in presence of which Louis 
 Philippe's favourite shopkeepers were always ready to bow. He 
 epoke with great effect, first, we believe, in 1840 ; and his deci- 
 sion and ability drew the public attention strongly towards him, 
 as one whose resolution and finnnessgavc gi-ound for good hope. 
 It is not needful to recapitulate the events of 1848, nor to rc- 
 Burvey the sad disasters that have followed them. Arago was 
 Minister of JLirine and War under the revolutionary regime; and 
 he necessarily accepted the responsibility of the fearful and most 
 
 fatal blunders of that government. It may not become ns, wLt 
 have been led by gradual steps — by the long process and teaching 
 of experiment — to the precious practical securities we enjoy, to 
 criticise over-severely the mistakes of men, who, untaught by 
 sure experience, came to confound the desirable with the prac- 
 ticable. It is well that a writer should urge his countrymen 
 onward, and prepare in so far as in him hes for the advent of 
 repubhcanism. For the statesman on the contraiy the question 
 is, has republicanism become possible ? We cannot establish 
 social, and therefore political equality, by edicts. The United 
 States of America stand secm-ely on their republicanism, just 
 because of this ; inequality of wealth even, does not destroy the 
 personal independence of the workman ; no man there, however 
 rich, but has as much need of a workman as a workman has of 
 him. Give us an opposite state of things : give us a social 
 condition, in wliich wealth can command the workman, or in 
 which a powerful priesthood has fixed the allegiance of the mass, 
 — then mental subservience in all things comes through force of 
 habit ; poUtical independence is impracticable, and a republic is 
 the sheerest of chimeras. — Let us pass, however, from a subject 
 wliich is very painfid. In his personal relations Arago was 
 most estimable— impetuous certainly, but always kind. The 
 fact that a discoverer was a Frenchman, certainly did, not un- 
 frequently, influence his first impressions as to the merit of the 
 discovery, but he generally repaired the wrong. The few affect- 
 ing sentences pronounced by M. Barral over the grave of his 
 teacher, will not improperly conclude this notice : — " Illustrious 
 JIaster, Much-loved JIaster, Noble Citizen, — It is a duty, and, 
 at the same time, a veiy sad honour, for me to express a senti- 
 ment which now fills every heart. Thy constant solicitude for 
 the progress of human knowledge has always induced thee to take 
 the young by the hand, and to inspire them with thy passion 
 for science. On the eve of thy death the last word which thou 
 spokest to us was ' Work, work diligently ! ' This sublime 
 lesson will remain engi-aven on the heart of eveiy young philo- 
 sopher. They will feel compelled to follow the path which thy 
 genius has opened. In falling asleep into iminortahty, thou hast 
 desu'cd to teach them, that work is the only means of rendering 
 service to their countiy and to humanity. Thanks on their 
 behalf— Adieu in the name of youth, in the name of its ad- 
 miration of thee — of its love for thy memory. I tell it thee, and 
 thou mayest count upon it. Adieu ! " — J. P N. 
 
 * ARAGO, Emmanuel, son of the preceding, was bom in 
 1812, adopted the profession of advocate, and began his career 
 at the age of twenty-four. He early displayed a political enthu- 
 siasm of the most democratic character, and, previously to the 
 revolution of 1848, frequently signalized himself in political pro- 
 cesses as much by his sympathy for the accused as by his vigor- 
 ous rhetoric. On the 24th Februaiy, 1848, along with San-ans 
 the younger, Chaix, and Dumeril, he entered the chamber of depu- 
 ties and protested against the regency named by Louis Philippe. 
 Lamartine, Ledru Rollin, and other representatives, supported 
 the protest, and the pro^isional government was forthwitli con- 
 stituted. Fom- days after, Arago repaired to Lyons with the 
 powers of commissaiy-general. His next employment was a 
 mission to the court of Berlin, pre\iously to which he had been 
 elected representative of a department. Since the election of 
 Louis Napoleon, he has offered an uncompromising opposition to 
 the measures of government. — J. S., G. 
 
 * ARAGO, Etienne, a French dramatist, bom at Pcrpignan 
 in 1803, while director of the Theatre du Vaudeville took an 
 active part in the revolution of 1830, and in the insurrections of 
 June, 1832, and April, 1834; but losing his license in 1840 hi 
 consequence of his hostility to the government, ho supported 
 himself by writing for various journals till 1848, when he be- 
 came postmaster-general under the republic. He was exiled in 
 1849 for his share in the insurrection of 13th June, headed by 
 Ledni Rollin. His dramatic pieces, chiefly vaudevilles, number 
 a hundred and twenty, of which " Les Aristocratcs," his last 
 and only unassisted effort, is the most popular. — J. S., G. 
 
 * ARAGO, Jacques Etiknne Vutok, a French traveller 
 and litterateur, brother of the preceding, bom at Estagel in 
 1790, has published, besides several theatrical pieces, 1. "Pro- 
 menade autour du monde pendant les annees, 1817-1820;" 2. 
 "Voyage autour du monde," 1838. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARAGO, Jkan, a French general, distinguished under Santa 
 Anna in the war of Mexican independence, was bom at Estagel 
 in 1788; died in 1836.— J. S., G.
 
 ARAGON, Alphoxsus d', a Spanish Jesuit and philologist, 
 travelled as a missionary in Paraguay two years from the hegin- 
 ning of IGIG. Having resimied his labours in 1G29, he died 
 about the middle of that year from overexertion. 
 
 ARAGON, Fekdi.vand d', a Spanish historian, archbishop 
 of Saragossa, was a grandson of Ferdinand, king of Castile and 
 Aragon. Died in 1575. 
 
 ARAGON, Ferdixand-Ximexes, a Portuguese theologian 
 of the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ARAGON, LsAHELLA OF. See Isabella of AnACox. 
 ARAGON, MARxrxus d', duke of Hermola, a Spanish anti- 
 (juarian of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARAGON, Mary of. See Mary of Aragox. 
 AR.A.GONA Giovaxxa d' or Joax of Aragox, princess 
 of TagUacozzo, and wife of Ascanius Colonna, was born at 
 Naples, and descended from the kings of Aragon. She was 
 distinguished for her extraordinaiy beauty, to which all the wits 
 of the time p;ud tribute. The poems written in her praise were 
 collected by Jerom Ruscelli, and published at Venice under the 
 extraordinary title of " A Temple to the Divine Lady Donna 
 Joanna of Aragon, erected by the greatest wits, and in all the 
 principal languages in the world." But she is celebrated as well 
 for the qualities of courage and prudence, which were displayed 
 in the active share she took in the disputes between the Co- 
 lonnas and Pope Paul IV. Died in 1577. — J. B. 
 
 ARAGONA, TuLLiA d', a celebrated Italian poetess, bora 
 about 1510, was the illegitimate daughter of a Ferrarese lady 
 and of Tagliavia, cardinal-archbishop of Palermo. Her beauty, 
 as well as her talents, surrounded her with admirers, among 
 whom were reckoned the most celebrated men of her time. She 
 resided some years at Venice, then at Ferrara, and afterwards at 
 Rome, where she married. The last years of her life were passed 
 under the protection of Leonora Toledo, duchess of Florence, 
 to whom she dedicated a volume of her poetry, " Rime della 
 Signora Tullia di Aragona e di diversi a lei," 1547. We men- 
 tion two of her romantic poems, " Dell' Infinita d'Amor," and 
 " II Meshino, or Tlie Unfortunate." Her death occurred about 
 the year 15 Go. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARAGONA, SiJiox Tagliavia d', a Sicilian cardinal, 
 author of some works on ecclesiastical subjects. Died at Rome 
 in IGO-i. 
 
 ARAGONESE, Luca Sebastiaxo, an Italian artist, a na- 
 tive of Brescia, who flourished about 15 G7. He was celebrated 
 rather as a fine designer than as a painter. — (Lanzi's Ilistory 
 of Painting in Italy.) 
 
 ARAJA, Fkaxcesco, was born at Naples in the year 1700. 
 The success of his operas of " Berenice," produced at Florence, and 
 "Amor per regnante," at Rome, led to his engagement as chapel- 
 master at St. Petersburg to the Empress Catherine. Here he 
 produced his "Abiatare," " Semiramide," " Scipione," "Ai-sace," 
 and " Scleuco," and wrote the first opera that ever was com- 
 posed in the Russian language, " Cephalo-et Procres," for which 
 the empress, in expression of her national spirit, presented him 
 with a magnificent sable skin. He returned to Italy in 1759, 
 and is said to have died at Bologna. — G. A. M. 
 
 AR.MvCE.JEFF, Couxx Alexis, chiefly famous fi-om his 
 having established the system of military colonies in Russia. 
 Bom in 1769 of a noble but poor family in Novogorod, he 
 obtained a cadetsliip in the corps of artillery and engineers, and 
 in verj' early youth manifested the qualities for which he was 
 distinguished in later life of extraordinaiy exactitude and fidelity 
 in the execution of the orders of his superiors, and firmness, 
 amounting to cnielty, in the maintenance of discipline among 
 his inferiors. He frequently declared that all the actions of men 
 might be classified under two heads — actions commanded, and 
 actions prohibited. He was raised by the Emperor Paul from 
 the command of the miniature army allowed him when grand 
 duke by the Empress Catharine, to the post of general and com- 
 inander of St. Petersburg, where his despotic bnitality occaj^ioned 
 the suicide of Colonel Lelin. Held in universal detestation, he 
 was unwillingly dismissed by Paul, recalled, and again dismissed, 
 until shortly before the emperor's violent death. Paul, instinc- 
 tively aware that he was surrounded by enemies, was desirous 
 of the protection and support of the iron will and tried fidelity 
 of Arakcejetf, and dispatched a courier to recall him. Count 
 Pahlem, the chief of the conspiratore, delayed the courier, and 
 hastened the execution of the plot, so that Arakccjeff arrived too 
 late to save the emj)eror. Received into favom- by Alexander, 
 
 he was nominated minister of war in 1802, and in 1812 we find 
 him at the emperor's head-quarters and assisting in his oeimcils 
 of war during that critical period. He persuaded Alexander to 
 adopt the system of military colonies, an innovation specially 
 odious to the Russian peasantry, as interfering with the cherished 
 privileges of their rural communes, which may emphatically be 
 termed the national institution of Russia. Constant bloody 
 revolts took place, and great numbers of officers, landed proprie- 
 tors, and government employes were killed by the exasperated 
 peasants. The firmness and cruelty of Arakccjeff, however, 
 prevailed ; the niral populations were decimated, and theu- resis- 
 tance literally drowned in blood, but the mihtary colonies were 
 established. The institution was so utterly antagonistic to the 
 nature of the Russian people that it never prospered. On the 
 death of Alexander, Arakcejeft' was neglected, and his system, 
 though maintained by Nicholas I., remained undeveloped, and 
 was abandoned shortly after the accession of Alexander II. 
 ArakcejefF, though capable of ordering and witnessing with 
 composure the most terrilile punishments and executions, was 
 personally a notorious coward, and never took part in any engage- 
 ment. He attributed this defect to an excess of nervous hrita- 
 bility. He died forgotten at Wologda in 1834. He may be 
 regarded as the t}'pe of zealous servihty. — II. Q. 
 
 ARA'LDI, Alessandro, an Italian painter of the school of 
 Parma. He was a pupil of Bellini. There remain an Annun- 
 ciation by Araldi, and altarpieces in several churches. Lanzi 
 pronounces him an indisputably good artist in the mixed style, 
 called "antico modemo." Died about 1528. — (Lanzi's Histori/ 
 of Painting in Itali/. 
 
 ARAM, EuGEXE, a man of considerable erudition, was bora 
 at Ramsgil, a village in Netherdale, Yorkshire, in 1704. Though 
 almost entirely self-educated, he acquh-ed a very extensive acquain- 
 tance with languages, and knew something of heraldry and 
 botany as well. He passed as usher fi-om one school to another, 
 and was employed in this capacity at Lynn in Norfolk, when he 
 was aiTested on a charge of murder. The circumstances which led 
 to his arrest were these : — A skeleton was found near a limekUn 
 at Thistlehill, in the neighbourhood of Knaresborough, and was 
 supposed to be that of a man named Clark, whose sudden disap- 
 pearance some years before had attracted attention. A man 
 named Houseman, who proved to have been an associate of 
 Eugene Aram, trembled violently when questioned ; and, taking up 
 one of the bones, said, " This is no more Clark's bone than it is 
 mine ; Clark never was buried here." Fiu-ther examination 
 brought out the statement that Aram had murdered Clark, and 
 the body was found buried in St. Robert's Cave, near Knares- 
 borough. On the 3rd of August, 1759, Aram, Houseman, and 
 a man of the name of Terry, an innkeeper at Knaresborough, were 
 arraigned for the murder before Justice Noel. No evidence was 
 offered against Houseman. On his testimony Aram was con-\'icted ; 
 TeiTy was acquitted. 
 
 When Aram left Knaresborough some fourteen years before, 
 it was under suspicious circumstances. Clark, a shoemaker at 
 Knaresborough, had lately married, and was in some degree of 
 credit in his neighbourhood. In concert with Aram and House- 
 man he planned and executed a fraud, by which several persons 
 were swindled. On pretence of giving a wedding party, he bor- 
 rowed several pieces of plate ; at the same time he contrived to 
 get into his possession cloth, leather, and other things, fi-om shops 
 in the town, and soon after disappeared. Aram's wife overheard 
 her husband and Houseman speak of murdering her, as knowing 
 more of their secrets than they wished. From that moment she 
 believed that Clark was murdered by them. 'NMthin a few days, 
 some of the property was found in Aram's garden ; some was 
 also traced to Houseman. No plate was found, and it was sup- 
 posed that Clark had fled with it. 
 
 These incidents, occurring some fourteen years before, had 
 gi'adually faded from memoiy ; but when Aram was accused, 
 they were at once revived, and suggested a motive for the act. 
 No witnesses were called for him at the trial. He read an 
 elaborate but unavailing defence, relying exclusively on the im- 
 probaljility of the accusation bemg trae. After his conviction, he 
 is said to have confessed the murder to two clergymen appointed 
 by the judge to visit him ; but the fact of such confession is 
 not sufficiently authenticated. On the morning of the day of his 
 execution, he made an attempt on his own life ; and a paper 
 was found in his cell, in which he justified his intended suicide. 
 "To die is natural and nceessaiy. Perfectly sensible of this, I
 
 •"^D[L0J^1i^lJ MDILfBE^re^CKE. 
 
 WILLIAM MACKIN/II . f. I A •
 
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 fear no more to die than I did to be bom. Though I am now 
 stained by malevolence, and suffer by prejudice, I hope to rise 
 fair and unblemished, lly life was not polluted, my morals 
 were irreproachable, and my opinions orthodox." 
 
 Aram's defence is no doubt a very striking document. A 
 much more remarkable paper, however, is a letter from him to 
 a clergyman, written in York castle during his imprisonment. 
 The perfect self-possession with which it is written, the way 
 in which questions of language and ethnology are discussed by 
 a man whose days were already numbered, is a thing of which 
 we know no other example. — {Biog. Britannica, second edition. 
 Annual Reg., 1759. London Magazine, 1759.) — J. A., D. 
 
 ARABIA, JIeir-ben-Isaac, a Spanish rabbi of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 ARAJIONT, Gabriel de Luetz, Baron d', ambassador from 
 Henry II. of France to the Turkish court, died 1553. 
 
 ARANAS, Hyacixtho d', a Spanish carmelite of the early 
 part of the last century, who was commissarj'-general of his order. 
 
 ARANDA, Frajs'cisco and his brother Juan, Spanish sculp- 
 tors of the beginning of the sixteenth century. Their names are 
 recorded amongst those of artists that worked for the celebrated 
 tabernacle of the cathedral of Toledo. Their style retains much 
 of the stiffness of the Gothic school. 
 
 ARANDA, D', a monk, a native of Sessa, who publLshed some 
 madrigals and other music at Venice, about the year 1571. 
 
 ARAXDA, Emjiamuel d', a Spanish traveller of the six- 
 teenth century. He was captured by Moorish pirates, and has 
 left a very interesting account of the miseries endured by the 
 slaves in Algiers. On his escape, he was appointed to an im- 
 portant office in Bruges, and enjoyed the favour of the Spanish 
 long. Several editions of his works have appeared. 
 
 ARAXDA, Juan, an author of Jaen in Spain, who lived in 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARAXDA DE DUERO, Antoxio, a Spanish traveller, a 
 monk of the Franciscan order, who hved in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, and became prefect of his order in Castile. 
 
 ARAXDA, Pedro Pablo Abaraca t Bolea, Count d', 
 a Spanish statesman of the last century. After serving for a 
 short time in the army, he was appointed ambassador to the 
 Polish court, and subsequently president of the council of Castile. 
 In this position he proved the most able and upright statesman 
 his countiy had ever possessed ; reforms innumerable were 
 eflFected, and had not priestly influence and court intrigue ulti- 
 mately effected his downfall, Spain would have again become 
 powerful, prosperous, and happy. He retired into private hfe, 
 and died in 1799.— J. W. S. 
 
 ARAXDO, JiIatheo d', a Spanish musician of whom little 
 is kno^wn. 
 
 ARAXJO, Pedro d', a Spanish sculptor, living in the early 
 part of the eighteenth century. He was attached to the court 
 of iladrid, for which he executed a gi-eat number of busts, re- 
 markable for resemblance and spirit. 
 
 A1L\XTIUS, AR.\XZIO, or ARAXZI, Julius Cesar, a 
 physician of Bologna, who flourished in the IGth century. He 
 studied anatomy under the great Vesaliiis, and occupied the chair 
 of anatomy and medicine in Bologna, from 155G to the time of 
 his death. He is the first who discovered the true stnicture of 
 the foetus and the placenta. Certain fibrous masses on the valves 
 of the aorta are also called from him " Corpora Arantii." 
 
 ARATORE, an Italian poet of Liguria, who lived about the 
 year 510 a.d. 
 
 ARATUS, a physician, was a native of Soli, in Cilicia. He 
 devoted himself very much to the study of natural phenomena. 
 Two of his scientific poems have come down to us — one, called 
 " Phenomena," on the stars, and the other discussing Meteorologj', 
 or the prognostics of the weather as they can be gathered from 
 the stars. In the fonner poem occurs the part of a line quoted 
 by Paul in his address to the Athenians on Slars' Hill, " For we 
 are his offspring," Acts xvii. 28. He flourished in the third cen- 
 turj' before Christ. — J. D. 
 
 ARATUS OF SiCYON, the head of the Achaean confederacy, 
 lived from 271 to 213 B.C. He deUvered his native town from 
 its tyrant Nicocles, obtained the assistance of Ptolemy and of 
 Antigonus Gonatas, by whose aid the power of Sparta was 
 entirely broken, and had almost secured the union and independ- 
 ence of Greece. He was poisoned by Philip II. 
 
 ARATUS, a son of the fonner, assisted his father in the 
 management of Acha?an affairs. Also poisoned by Philip II. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ARAUJO, AxTOXio, a Portuguese Jesuit, who was bom in 
 1566, in the Azores, and passed most of his life as a missionary 
 among the Tupinambi Indians of Brazil. He died 1632. 
 
 ARAUJO or ARAUXO, Francisco, a Spanish musician, a 
 native of Corea. He published a treatise on the organ, and 
 other musical works. He died in 1663. 
 
 ARAUJO, Jozfi Boreas d', a Portuguese nobleman, philo- 
 sopher, and amateur artist, bom at Lisbon 1677 ; died 1743. 
 
 ARAUJO DI AZEVEDA, Antonio de. Count da Barca, 
 a Portuguese statesman, was bom in 1784. He studied at 
 Oporto and Coimbra, where he acquired an extensive knowledge 
 of mathematics, natural history, and modem languages. He 
 entered into the diplomatic career, and represented Portugal at 
 the courts of the Hague, Berlin, and Petersburgh. He followed the 
 Portuguese court in its flight to Brazil. He devoted his time to 
 literature and science, and endeavoiired to improve the agricul- 
 ture and manufactures of Brazil. An attempt to introduce the 
 cultivation of tea engaged much of his attention. In 1816 he 
 founded a school of the fine arts at Rio Janeko, and the year 
 after, he died of a hngering fever. — J. W. S. 
 
 ARAUXO, Salgado, a Portuguese ecclesiastic, papal pro- 
 thonotary, and author of several works, chiefly historical, flourished 
 about the beginning of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ARBACES, a govemor of Media, who, in concert with the 
 govemor of Babylonia, overthrew Sardanapalus, and founded the 
 Median empire. 
 
 ARBASIA, Cesare, an Italian painter, a native of Saluzzo. 
 He was an able artist, an imitator of Leonardo da Vinci, and 
 excelled chiefly in fresco. Ai-basia flomished about the close of 
 the sixteenth century, and exercised his art for the most part in 
 Spain, where he painted the ceUing of the cathedral of Cordova, 
 He was one of the founders of the academy of St. Luke at 
 Rome. — (Lanzi's Histoi-y of Painting in Italy.) — A. M. 
 
 ARBAUD DE Porcheres, Francois d', a French poet of 
 some distinction, bom in Provence about the end of the six- 
 teenth century. An ode addressed to Lotus XIII., and another 
 addressed to Cardinal Richelieu, are his two most successful pro- 
 ductions. After a long residence at court, he retired from it in 
 disgust, and died in Burgundy in 1640. — E. il. 
 
 ARBAUD DE PoRCHfiRES Jean d', brother of the preceding, 
 was author of a poetic version of the Psahns. 
 
 ARBEAU, Thoixet, a canon of the cathedral of Lengres, 
 whose real name appears to have been Jean Tabourot, was the 
 author of a curious and now very rare book on dancing, which 
 claims to be the first work of its kind. Its title is " Orcheso- 
 graphie, Sletode, et Teorie en foiine de discours et Tablature 
 pour apprendre a Dancer," &c., 4to Lengres, 1588 and 1596. 
 No particulars of the author seem to be known. — E. F. R. 
 
 ARBETIO, a Roman general, who scn-ed successively under 
 Constantine the great, Constans, Julian, and Valens. 
 
 ARBIE, An'toine de l', a French botanist, who lived in 
 the eighteenth centur)'. He is principally kno>vn for his " Flora 
 of Auvergne," which was published in 1795, in one volume. A 
 second edition was published in two volumes in 1800. — (Bis- 
 choff, Lehrbuch der Botauik. — E. L. 
 
 ARBLAY, Madame d', better known as Miss Frances Bur- 
 ney, was bom at Lynn-Regis, in the county of Norfolk, on the 
 13tli of June, 1752, and was the second daughter of Dr. Bumey, 
 author of the " Historj- of Music," then organist in that town. 
 When she reached her eighth year her father removed to London, 
 and lived on temis of familiarity with the distinguished artistic 
 and literary society of that day. In the memoirs of her father, 
 she gives an interesting account of her childhood. At the ago 
 of eight, her education was so defective that she did not know 
 her letters ; her improvement must have been rapid, however, 
 for two years afterwards she was busily engaged in composition, 
 writing fairy talcs, elegies, odes, farces, and tragedies, which 
 were carefully concealed from her father, but read and admired 
 by her younger sister Susannah. Within a few years her 
 taste had advanced so much, that the whole of these early essaj-s 
 were consigned by her own hand to the flames. Although de- 
 stroyed, it appears they were not forgotten ; one of the sketches, 
 the " Histor)- of Caroline Evelyn," still haunted her imagination, 
 and she finally detemiined to write the adventures of " Evelina," 
 the daughter of her former heroine. Two volumes were com- 
 posed, written out in a feigned hand, and her brother was com- 
 missioned to procure a publisher; at that time without success. 
 The manuscript was offered to Dodsley, who declined looking at 
 
 2B
 
 an anonymous work ; and Lownes, to whom it was afterwards 
 offered, declined to look at an unfinished one. Afterwards, she 
 dictated a third volume to her brother, and on its completion, 
 the last-named publisher gave her twenty pounds for the manu- 
 script. "EveUna appeared in 1778, and after a little while it 
 began to be the talk of the town. It was criticised favourably by 
 the monthly re\newers ; it passed into the hands of Burke, Rey- 
 nolds, Johnson, and Mrs. Tlirale, all of whom accorded to it tlie 
 highest praise. Dr. Johnson, in particular, declared to Jlrs. Thrale 
 that there were passages in it worthy of the pen of Richai'dson. 
 Jliss Bumey, in her diary, st.ates that for some tune after its 
 pubhcation, no one — with the exception of her sister and her two 
 brothers — suspected her of the authorship, and that she heard it 
 read and criticised at a friend's house, and enjoyed, in silence, the 
 ignorance of her relatives, and their guesses and speculations as to 
 who could have written it. It was not till six months aftei-wards 
 that the secret was made known to her father. She passed at one 
 step from obscurity to celebrity ; wherever she went — to Tun- 
 bridge, to Bath, to Brighton — she was the observed of all obser- 
 vers. In 1782 "Cecilia," her second book, appeared, which, al- 
 though wanting in freshness and comic breadth and spirit, when 
 compared with her former production, exhibits deeper knowledge 
 of life and character, and is written with greater purity and grace 
 of style. The proof sheets were read by Dr. Johnson, and several 
 passages bear the impress of his massive hand. Its success was 
 ample and immediate, the reading public received it with accla- 
 mation, her pubUsber paid her two thousand pounds, and, by imi- 
 versal consent, it was placed among the classics of her country. 
 After the publication of " Cecilia," Miss Bumey resided some 
 time with '^lrs. Delaney, a mdow lady, who lived at Windsor. 
 The king and queen were frequent visitors at her house, and on 
 one occasion the authoress of " Evelina" was introduced to George 
 III. She has described the interview at considerable length in 
 her diary ; the king asked many questions relative to the writ- 
 ing and pubhcation of " Evelina," to which the flattered and 
 somewhat excited authoress rendered the most coherent replies 
 her agitation would permit. If the condescension of the king 
 fascinated Miss Bumey, Jliss Burney's simplicity and natiu-al 
 manners seem to have pleased the king. In 1786 she was ap- 
 pointed one of the dressers or keepers of the robes to Queen 
 Charlotte, with ayearly salar}' of £200, apartments in the palace, 
 a footman, and a carriage for the use of herself and her colleague, 
 Mrs. Schwellenberg, a hideous German virago and disciplinarian. 
 During her attendance on royalty she was expected to lay aside 
 her pen, which had already brought her fame, and, in other cir- 
 cumstances, would have brought her fortune. Her duties were so 
 severe that her health began to fail ; her friends were alarmed, 
 and urgent representations were made to her father to have his 
 daughter removed from com-t. Dr. Bumey, prouder of his daughter 
 as keeper of her majesty's robes, than as the first novelist of 
 the day, was, for a while, unwilling to comply; till, finally, her 
 state of health became a matter of such grave import, that he 
 was forced to yield, and she returned home after an absence of 
 five years. In 1793 she married a French refugee oflScer, the 
 Count D'Arblay, and shortly after resumed her pen. In 1795 
 her tragedy of "Edwy and Elgiva" was brought out at Draiy 
 Lane, and was "laughed to Lethe" by the whole house. So 
 complete and final was its failure that it was never printed. The 
 next year she produced " Camilla, a Picture of Youth ;" it was 
 published by subscription, and realized above three thousand 
 pounds. Its success, hov.^ever, was not remarkable. In 1802 
 she accompanied her husband to France, and in 1812 retumed 
 to England, and purchased a handsome villa, called Camilla 
 cottage. In 1814 she produced her last and dullest fiction, 
 entitled " The Wanderer, or Female Difficulties ;" it found few 
 admirers, obtained little praise, and has long since sunk into 
 oblivion. For the " Wanderer" she is said to have received the 
 large sum of £1500. Four years aftenvards, her husband died 
 at Bath. The only other literary work which Madame D'Arblay 
 lived to give to the world, was the " Memoirs of her Father," 
 which appeared in three octavo volumes in 1832. The porten- 
 tous diction of the book took the public by surprise. The 
 style of her novels is graceful and flowing ; in the " Me- 
 moirs," every sentence is lumbering and involved; there is 
 no ease, no gaiety, no naturalness ; and the whole reads like 
 an elaborate caricature of Johnson and Gibbon. There are 
 few worse-written books in the language. In 1837 the Rev. 
 Alexander Ch.arles Louis D'Ai-blay, her only son and the sole issue 
 
 of her marriage, died. For two years before this melancholy 
 event, Madame D'Arblay was in feeble health, and affected 
 with a disease in the eyes, which rendered reading or writing 
 almost an impossibihty. Her death took place at Bath, on 
 the 6th of January, 1840, in her eighty-eighth year. Her 
 diary, edited by her niece, was completed in seven volumes, in 
 1846; though it contains a good deal of trivial matter, and 
 is full of small gossip, it is eminently readable. All the writer's 
 amusing egotism and self-admuation are reflected in its pages. 
 In spite of length, it is an invaluable supplement to the history 
 of that time; and, after " Evelina" and "Cecilia," will be the 
 most endming monument of its author's genius. — A. S. 
 
 ARBOGAST, a native of Ii-eland, who became bishop of 
 Strasbnrg a.d. 674. After leaving his native land he settled 
 in Alsace, where he built an oratory, li\-ing in privacy and 
 " ser\nng God diligently in fasting and prayer." From time 
 to time he went forth amongst the people, " instracting them in 
 the knowledge and fear of God, and in the tme invocation 
 of that omnipotent power by his son Christ, reprehending their 
 idolatrous worship, and confuting their fanatical opinions." He 
 attracted the notice of Dagobert II., who, upon the death of St. 
 Amaud, promoted Arbogast to the see of Strasburg, which he 
 governed for five years. He died in 679, and was buried near 
 the common place of execution, called St. Michael's Mount, at 
 his oyra request, " in imitation of Christ, who suffered without 
 the walls of Jerusalem, in the place of the wicked." Many 
 yeiu's aftenvards, a monastery dedicated to his name was built 
 over his tomb. Some homiUes and a commentary on St. Paul's 
 epistles are attributed to him. — {Brusck{usS)—J . F. W. 
 
 ARBOGAST, Louis-Frederic-Antoixe, a distinguished 
 French mathematician, successively member of the legislative 
 assembly and of the national convention, and professor of 
 mathematics at Strasburg: — born in Alsace in 1759; died at 
 Strasburg in 1803. Arbogast's great scientific work is the 
 " Calcul des Derivations ; " a book of which it is not too much 
 to say, that it is one of the most fertUe and suggestive of any of 
 the gi-eat analj-tical treatises belonging to this remarkably fertile 
 period. There is no doubt that Arbogast anticipated many of 
 the conclusions and methods of the "Calcul des Fonctions" of 
 Lagi-ange. The largeness of his views, and the extreme gener- 
 alizing of his expressions, give his work indeed an aspect of 
 cumbrousness which does not really belong to it ; nor will any 
 one wonder at this, when informed that Taylor's theorem and 
 many other of our highest fonnulae, are only particular cases 
 of the theorem of Ai-bogast. To this mathematician belongs 
 the honour of having first used and widely illustrated that sepa- 
 ration of the symbols of operation from symbols of quantity, which 
 marks a new and signal era in modem Analysis. — J. P. N. 
 
 ARBOGASTES, a Gaul who ser\-ed in the Roman armies, in 
 the latter part of the fovuth century. Left in Italy by Theo- 
 dosius as minister to Valentinian II., he virtually exercised 
 sovereign power, while Valentinian retained merely the name of 
 emperor. He at length secretly murdered Valentinian, and 
 raised Eugenius to the purple in his stead. In 394, Theodosius 
 marching against Eugenius and Arbogastes, entirely defeated 
 them. Eugenius was taken and put to death. Arbogastes 
 escaped, but soon after committed suicide. — E. M. 
 
 ARBOGASTES, Saujt, bishop of Strasburg from 669, till 
 his death in 687. 
 
 ARBOREUS, Jean, a doctor of the Sorbonne, and author of 
 ingenious commentaries on difficult passages of Scripture, was 
 born at Laon, about the beginning of the 16th centiury. 
 
 ARBORIO DI GATTINARA, Mercurixo, a celebrated 
 legist and diplomatist, of Italian extraction, was bom at Verceil 
 in 1465. In 1507 he was appomted first president of the 
 parliament of Burgundy. Deprived of this position in 1518, 
 through the cn\-y of the nobihty, he retired to the court of the 
 Emperor Maximilian, after whose death he repaired to Spain, 
 where he was made chancellor to Charles. In this capacity he 
 drew up the treaty of Cambray, and the concordat between 
 Charles and Clement VII. In 1529 he was made a cardinal. 
 Tbe treaty he negotiated the same year at Bologna, for the 
 defence of Italy, was thought a masterpiece of diplomacy. Died 
 at Inclispmckin 1530.— E. M. 
 
 ARBORIO DI G.VrnXARA, Axgelo-Axtonio, a kins- 
 man of the preceding, archbishop of Turin, and an eloquent 
 pulpit orator, was bom at Pa\'ia in 1658, and died in 1743. 
 
 ^VRBORIO DI GATTIXARA, Giov.vnxi-Mercurlvo, a
 
 brother of the precedinij, bishop of Alexandria in Piedmont, and 
 author of semions and funeral orations, was born at Lucca in 
 1085, and died at Alexandria in 1743. 
 
 ARBORIUS, C.ECiLius Argicius, matemal grandfather of 
 the poet Ausonius. Having lost his ample property in his native 
 district Augustodunum (now Autun), in consecpience of the 
 ci\'il wars, he settled, in 264, near the spot where Bayonne was 
 J afterwards built. Here he again attained opulence, and lived to 
 the age of ninety, generally esteemed and beloved for his virtues, 
 as well as admired for his pre-eniiuence in mathematics and 
 astronomy. — E. M. 
 
 ARBOKIUS, ^Ejiilius Magnus, a learned and eloquent 
 la^vyer and professor of jurispnidence and rhetoric, son of the 
 preceding, was bom about 270, near Bayonne. About 331 
 Constantine the Great invited him to Constantinople, to instruct 
 one of that emperor's sons in elo(|nence. Arborius, like his father, 
 was a distinguished mathematician and astronomer. He died 
 at Constantinople in 335. — E. jM. 
 
 ARBI^ISSKL or ARBRISSELLES, Robert d', founder of 
 the order of Fontevrault, was bom at Arbrissel, a village in the 
 diocese of Remies, 1047. Repairing to Paris in 1074 to study 
 theology, he subsequently took orders, and m 1085 became 
 vicar-general to the bishop of Rennes. In this position he 
 evinced indefatigal)le ardour in promoting church discipline, and 
 in combating clerical abuses of every kind. His zeal as a re- 
 fonner procured him numerous enemies, and, on the death of the 
 bishop, he removed to Angers, where he began to give lectm'cs in 
 theology. Soon afterwards he resolved to live as a liennit in the 
 forest of Craon. His austerity and eloquence speedily attracted 
 crowds of followers, and, in a few years, the forests of Brittany 
 and Normandy contained thousands of his devoted disciples. 
 The first monastic establishment he founded was in the forest of 
 Angers, on ground bestowed on him by the lord of Craon. He 
 was appointed its prior in 1096 at the council of Tours, where 
 he preached before Pope Urban II., who, stmck with his elo- 
 quence and zeal, confeiTed on him the rank of papal preacher. 
 Quitting his retirement near Angers, he began to travel bare- 
 footed through towns and villages, preaching repentance. He 
 soon formed a numerous body of ardent missionaries, whose 
 preaching had immense success among all classes of the com- 
 munity. Numerous monasteries were founded, the principal of 
 which was that of Fonte\Trault, near Poitiers. The extravagant 
 austerities of Robert d'Arbrissel gave occasion to various attacks 
 on him, which formed the subject of keen controversies among 
 the theologians of his age. He died at Orsan, a monastery of 
 his order, at the age of seventy, in 1117. — E. M. 
 
 ARBUCKLE, James, a Scottish poet of considerable genius, 
 author of " Snuff," and other poems, mostly humorous and sati- 
 rical, flourished about the beginning of the 18tli centuiy. 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, Alexander, one of the earliest Scottish 
 printers. In 1597 he printed and published the first Scottish 
 Bible, and in 1582, Buchanan's " Rerum Scoticaram Historia." 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, Alexander, a celebrated Scottish lawyer, 
 divine, and poet, and an ardent adherent of the Reformation, 
 was born in Kincardineshire in 1538. His piincipal works are : 
 " History of Scotland ;" "Orationcs de origine et dignitate juris;" 
 " The Praises of Women ;" " The Miseries of a Poor Scholar." 
 Died in 1583. 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, John, an eminent physician, and one of the 
 distinguished writers who adorned what has been called the 
 Augustan age of English literature. He was bom at Arbuthnot, 
 in Kincardineshire. The precise year of his birth is not known, 
 but is believed to have been 1G75. He was son of a clergyman 
 of the episcopal church of Scotland, and was educated at the 
 university of Aberdeen, where he took the degree of M.D. 
 Young Arbuthnot sought his fortunes in London, where he 
 at first supported himself by teaching mathematics. His 
 first publication, in 1692, was a translation, with very con- 
 siderable additions, of Iliiygens' " Treatise on the Laws of 
 t'hance," a method of calculating the chances in games of haz- 
 ard. In 1697 he jiublished an " Examination of Dr. Wood- 
 ward's Account of the Deluge," and within a year or two, "An 
 Essay on the Usefulness of Mathematical Learning." He also 
 published a tract, in which he brought forward the regular pro- 
 portion of male and female births as a proof of providential de- 
 sign. These tracts brought their author into immediate notice, 
 and aided him in obtaining practice as a physician. In 17(14 
 be was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in the year fol- 
 
 lowing was appointed physician extraordinary to Queen Anne, 
 by her especial command. Prince George had been taken sud- 
 denly ill, and through some accidental cuxumstance was attended 
 by Arbuthnot, who was ever after employed as his phvsician. 
 This led to coui't honours and rewards. In 1709 he became 
 physician in ordinary to the queen, and in the same year was 
 elected fellow of the College of Physicians. His acquaintance 
 ■nith Swift, which aftenvards ripened into the truest friendship, 
 commenced in or about the year 1701, and arose very much 
 from the habits of life of the period. The persons who made 
 any claims to literature, passed half their days and nights in 
 the clubs. At one of these clubs Arbuthnot met Swift, — 
 the "mad parson," as he was at first designated, — .and their 
 first acquaintance arose from a practical joke. Some years, 
 however, seem to have passed without their having again met, as, 
 in the journal to Stella, Swift speaks of him as a stranger. In 
 the year 1705, Arbuthnot published "Tables of the Grecian, 
 Roman, and Jewish Measm-es, Weights, and Coins," a book 
 translated into Gennan in 1756, and still refeiTed to occasion- 
 ally. In the year 1706, while the act of union between the 
 kingdoms was in debate before the parliament of Scotland, Ar- 
 butlmot published a tract of very considerable power, under the 
 name of "A Sermon Preached at the Market Cross of Edinburgh 
 on the Subject of the Union." In the year 1708, Swift came to 
 London on some commission from the clergy of Ireland. The 
 immediate object of his jom-ney was soon successfully accom- 
 plished, but he was found too useful to the ministiy to be allowed 
 to retmn. He remained, assisting Oxford and Bolingbroke by 
 eveiy weapon which a literary man could wield. Among the 
 most effective of a Imndi'ed satires issued by him and his as- 
 sociates, was that known by the title of " Law is a Bottom- 
 less Pit, or the History of John Bull." This was, for a while, 
 attributed to Swift ; but in his journal to Stella, it is men- 
 tioned as Arbuthnot's ; and Spence tells us that Pope spoke 
 of it, saj-ing Arbuthnot was the sole author. The effect was at 
 the time prodigious, and even yet, when the colours have faded 
 with time, cannot be read without amusement. The movements 
 of nations and of armies are described under the familiar 
 metaphors of a suit at law, conducted with all the dishonest 
 chicanery of an attorney who has no other object than to prolong 
 litigation. It is usually published with Swift's works, with 
 which are also published several other of Arbuthnot's political 
 squibs. Among them, the " St. Albans Ghost," in which Sarah, 
 duchess of Marlborough, is held up to ridicule. AVhiston and 
 Garth are abused in this pamphlet, which almost fixes it as 
 Arbuthnot's. Bumett — but he was quite as likely to be at- 
 tacked by Swift — figiires as Dry-bones. 
 
 The dissensions between Oxford and Bolingbroke were in 
 vain sought to be appeased by Arbuthnot and Swift. Boling- 
 broke's successful intrigues broke up the ministry. Then came 
 the queen's death, which was attended with loss of place and 
 power to Arbuthnot, who for a while regarded it as not impro- 
 bable that he might be allowed to remain as physician to the new 
 sovereign. The hope does not appear to have been a very rea- 
 sonable one, consideruig all the circumstances of the case, and 
 particularly the extent to which he might, however unjustly, 
 be regarded as a party to the objects of those who meditated 
 bringing in the Pretender on the queen's death. He was not 
 unlilvely to have been a Jacobite, and was certain of being called 
 so. Arbuthnot, since his appointment, had chiefly resided in the 
 palace at St. James's ; he now moved to a small house in Dover 
 Street, " where," as he sa3-s in a letter to Pope, " he woidd be 
 glad to see Dr. Parnell, Mr. Pope, and his old friends, to whom 
 he can still afford a half-pint of claret. As our friendship," ho 
 adds, " was not begun upon the relation of a courtier, so I liope 
 it will not end witli it." He now went on a visit to Paris, where, 
 however, he did not long remain, for we have him, in November, 
 1714, writing to Swift from London, in his own peculiar vein of 
 humour, mentioning a consolation which the dean luid, and which 
 no layman could .share with him, or deprive him of: — " I cannot 
 but think there is one thing in your circumstances that must m;ikc 
 any man hapjiy, wiiich is a liberty to preach ; . . . for my part, 
 I never imagine any man can be uneasy that has his opportunity 
 of venting himself to a whole congregation once a week." Tiie 
 Scril)lerus Club, as it was called, had been formed by Pope, Gay, 
 Parnell, Swift, and Arbuthnot, in the year 1713 or 1714 — Ilar- 
 ky, Attcrbury, and Congreve were members. AVith which of 
 them the plan originated is not known — most probably, we think,
 
 •with Pope — but in the execution of the works which this frater- 
 nity of humorists contemplated, Arbuthnot's learning was relied 
 on as that without which little or nothing could be done. The 
 abuses of learning were to be the subject of a satire in the 
 manner of Cervantes. In a letter to Swift, Arbuthnot says — 
 " Mankind presents an inexhaustible source of invention in the 
 way of folly and madness ;" and in another, he gives an 
 amusing map of diseases, to illustrate a portion of the work 
 which was to describe medicine. " The Great Dbeases, like 
 capital cities, with their Sjinptoms, all like streets and suburbs, 
 with the Roads that lead to other diseases. It is thicker set 
 with to>vns than any Flanders map you ever saw. Ratcliffe is 
 painted at the comer of the map, contending for the universal 
 empire of this world, and the rest of the physicians opposing his 
 ambitions designs with a project of a treaty of partition to settle 
 peace." Another of his whimsical fancies is thus communicated 
 to the same correspondent : — " Whiston has at last published 
 liis project of the longitude; the most ridiculous thing that 
 ever was thought of: but he has spoiled one of my papers 
 of Scriblerus, which was a proposal for the longitude not 
 very unlike bis, to this purpose — that, since there was no pole 
 for east and west, all the princes of Europe should join and 
 build two prodigious poles upon high mountains, with a vast 
 lighthouse to sei-ve for a pole-star. I was thinking of a calcula- 
 tion of the time, charges, and dimensions. Kow, you must 
 understand his project is by hghthonses, and the explosion of 
 bombs at certain hours." The queen's death broke up the design, 
 by separating from each other the members of the partnership ; 
 but in this club originated " The Memoirs of ILirtinus Scrib- 
 lerus," pubUshed, after Arbuthnot's death, in Pope's works, but, 
 most probably, altogether of Arbuthnot's composition. The 
 " Essay on the Origin of the Sciences," ascribed to Scriblerus, 
 was the joint work of Arbuthnot, Pope, and Parnell. 
 
 Arbuthnot continued to exercise his profession as a physician, 
 and pubUshed a few medical and scientific tracts, and seems to 
 have had his full share of the honours and profits of successful 
 practice. Among Swift's letters we find him repeatedly men- 
 tioned with that earnestness of regai-d which Swift, m all his 
 real or assumed misanthropy, felt for those whom he called his 
 friends. " Arbuthnot's illness," he says in one letter, " is a very 
 sensible aflliction to me, who, by li\'ing so long out of the world, 
 have lost that hardness of heart contracted by years in general 
 conversation. I am daily losing friends, and neither seeking nor 
 getting others. Oh, if the world had a dozen Arbuthnots in it, 
 I would bum my Travels [Gulliver's] ; but, however, he is not 
 without fault. There is a passage in Bede commending the 
 piety and learning of the Irish in that age, when, after abundance 
 of praLses, he overthrows them all by lamenting that, alas ! they 
 keep Easter at a wrong time of the year; so our doctor has every 
 quality that can make a man sensible or useful, but, alas ! he hath 
 a sort of slouch in his walk." Years of doubtful health followed, 
 borne with serene cheerfulness. In his last illness he wrote an 
 aflecting letter, which is preserved in Pope's correspondence. It 
 is fortunate that Arbuthnot's letters to Pope and Swift are pre- 
 served. Johnson, comparing Pope's correspondents wth each 
 other, says — " Swift writes like a man who remembered he was 
 writing to Pope, but Ai-buthnot like one who lets thoughts drop 
 from his pen as they rise into his mind." 
 
 In the parts of the Memoirs of Scriblerus ascribed to Arbuth- 
 not, there are passages which might lead us to tliink some other 
 hand must have been at work upon it ; but it must be remem- 
 bered that extravagance and absurdity of all kinds was the 
 subject of the caricature, and we cannot always determine 
 which of the triumvirate — Swift, Arbuthnot, or Pope — was for 
 the moment sitting in " Rabelais' easy-chair." 'WTiatever be the 
 excesses into which exuberant mirth may have led the Doctor, 
 as his friends were fond of callmg Arbuthnot, there can be 
 no doubt of his habitual feeling of piety. Tliis he probably 
 owed to his Scottbh education, as to it he certainly owed 
 the accurate learning which so remarkably distinguished him. 
 AVhen one of hb sons, " whose life," he says, " if it had so 
 pleased God, he would have redeemed with lib own," died, the 
 language of his letter communicating the fact b, " I thank God 
 for a new lesson of submbsion to his will, and also for what he 
 hath left me." Swift, speaking of him, said, " He has more wit 
 than we all have, and his humanity is equal to hb wit." In the 
 summer of 1734, Arbuthnot retired to Hampstead, suffering 
 from asthma. Hb letters show that he had not then wholly 
 
 given up his medical practice, for he speaks of the necessity of 
 his return to London in the winter, when he reckoned a return 
 of the symptoms. " I am not in circumstances to lead an idle 
 country life, and no man at my age ever recovered of such a 
 disease, except by the abatement of the symptoms." We regret 
 that the plan of oiu- work does not admit of extracts from these 
 letters, which will be found in many editions of Pope and Smft. 
 He retm-ned to London, and died on the 2 7th of February, 1734-.5. 
 
 Two vohunes, entitled " The Miscellaneous Works of Dr. 
 Arbuthnot," were published at Glasgow in 1750, and again, with 
 some additional pieces, in 1751. Arbuthnot's family were im- 
 patient at the publication, and denied the genuineness of its 
 contents in language stronger than was warranted. Most of the 
 papers are Arbuthnot's. The book b now not easily prociu-ed. 
 In 1770 it was reprinted, mtli a life of Arbuthnot, the facts of 
 which Arbuthnot's son, we are told by Dr. Kippis, admitted to 
 be truly stated. In the kind of way in which Swift and Arbuth- 
 not published trifles on broadsides and fljing sheets for the 
 political purposes of the hour, it b not sm^jrising that mb- 
 takes should be made as to the authorship, and papers written, 
 which the author himself would as entirely forget when they had 
 answered their momentary purpose, as the banister the names 
 of Ins clients and hb cases, though remaining on old briefs to 
 testify for or against him. Arbuthnot's habits of writing, and 
 carelessness of what he had written, rendered mbtakes even more 
 likely than in the case of almost any other man. " No adven- 
 ture of any consequence ever occurred, on which the doctor did 
 not write a pleasant essay in a great folio book which used to lie 
 in his parlour. Of these, however, he was so negligent, that 
 while he was writing them at one end, he suffered his children 
 to tear them out at the other for their paper kites." Of Arbuth- 
 not's works, there b no collected edition. The Glasgow book 
 which we have mentioned, professes only to supply such as had 
 not been printed in Swift's Mbceilanies. — (^Biographia Britan- 
 nica, SwijYs and Pope's Letters.^ — J. A., D. 
 
 ARC, Philippe-Auguste de Sainte-Foix, Chevalier d', a 
 dbtinguished French historian and miscellaneous writer, natural 
 son of the count of Toulouse ; died at Tulle in 1779. 
 
 ARCADELT, Jacques, a musician of great eminence, who 
 was bom in the Low Countries at the end of the fifteenth 
 or beginning of the sixteenth century. He b stated by some 
 writers to have been a pupil of Josquin de Pres ; but as this mas- 
 ter had no school of music at the time when he can have been 
 stud}ang, these authorities must confound his name with another. 
 In 1536 he went to Rome; here, from Januarj- till November, 
 1539, he held the office, foimded by Pope JuUus II., of maestro 
 de Fulii, in St. Peter's. On the 30th of December in the fol- 
 lowing year, he was appointed one of the singers in the pope's 
 chapel, which he continued to be for nine years, if not longer. 
 In 1544 he was created an abbe. He became chapel-master to 
 Cardinal Charles of Lon-aine, duke of Guise, who visited Rome 
 on an embassy from the court of France in 1555. In hb suite 
 he went to Paris, where he probably died. He wrote many 
 masses and motets, madiigals and songs, and was esteemed 
 one of the best masters of the madrigal style. The greatest 
 favourite of all hb compositions appears to have been "II bianco 
 e dolce cigno," one in his first book of madrigals (printed by 
 Bumey in hb history), which b remarkable for the smoothness 
 of its melody, and the purity of its counterpoint, but still more 
 for the beauty of its expression. His madiigals were so popular 
 in his time, that, accordiing to Adami, the compositions of others 
 were not unfrequently printed mider hb name. The melodious- 
 ness of his songs b extolled by several authors. Much of hb 
 sacred music is preserved in manuscript in the hbrary of the 
 Vatican, and he printed the following works : — Three books of 
 masses for tlu-ee, four, five, and seven voices ; five books of 
 madrigals, " L'Excellence des Chansons Musicales" (a collection 
 of songs), " Chansons Fran^aises a plusieurs parties," and many 
 single songs in French and Italian collections, full particulars of 
 which are given in Fetis' Biographie Universelle des Mxisiciens. 
 — (Bumey, Ffetis, Schilling.) — G. A. M. 
 
 ARCADIO, Alessasuho, a Piedmontese physician of the 
 seventeenth century', author of numerous works on medical and 
 mbcellaneous subjects. 
 
 ARCADIO, Gian-Fbakcesco, a Piedmontese physician of 
 some distinction, author of various works, mostly medical, was 
 bora at Bistagno about the middle of the sixteenth century, and 
 died in 1620.
 
 J- 
 
 AEC 
 
 197 
 
 ARC 
 
 AECADIUS, the elder son of the Emperor Theodosius the 
 Great, was bom in Spain in a.d. 383. Theodosius superintended 
 his education with great solicitude, intrusting to Themistius his 
 literary, and to Arsenius his religious training. Though by no 
 nieans depraved, Arcadius was strikingly dissimilar to his father. 
 IV-eble and defoiTned in person, he was destitute of mental 
 vigour, and incapable of independence either of thought or 
 action. Theodosius, before his death, divided the empire into 
 Eastern and Western, leaving the former to Arcadius, and the 
 latter to Honorius, and appointing Rufinus guardian of Ar- 
 cadius, and Stilico of Honorius. The very day appointed for 
 the marriage of Arcadius to the daughter of Rutinus, the young 
 mperor was, by a daring arrangement of the eunuch Eutropius, 
 
 dded to Eudoxia, the daughter of Bauto, a Roman general, 
 uut by bu-th a Frank. Rutinus haNing been soon aftei-wards 
 assassinated by Stilico's emissaries, Eutropius became prime 
 minister, but, in 399, was banished to C)-pnis, and beheaded, to 
 satisfy the envj' of the empress, and the hostiUty of Tribigildus, 
 leader of the Goths settled in Phrygia. The influence of the 
 same vindictive empress accompUshed the exile of the good and 
 great John Chiysostom. Arcadius died in 408. — E. M. 
 
 AECADIUS, a native of Antioch, author of various works on 
 grammai', the oidy one of which now extant is a treatise on 
 accentuation, being an abridgment of Herodian's work entitled 
 
 Ka^-OAiz^ Ufotraihicc, 
 
 ARC^US or D'ARCE, Fraxciscus, a celebrated surgeon, 
 member of the Inquisition, and author of medical dissertations, 
 was bom at Fresno in 1494, and died about 1575. 
 
 ARCAXO, JIauko, or Giovanni d', an Itahau satirical and 
 burlesque poet, bom in 1490 ; died in consequence of a fall from 
 Lis horse in himting, in 1536. 
 
 AECASIO, Giax-Fr.ajxcesco, a celebrated Italian jurist 
 and scholar, professor of Roman law in the university of Tmin, 
 and author of " Commentaria Juris Civilis," was bom at Bisagno 
 in 1712, and died in 1791. 
 
 ARCAUL.\JO, DicKAxiA. See Frajveee Moneti. 
 
 AECE, the name of a Spanish glass-stainer, who executed 
 several windows for the cathedral of Burgos. He ilourished to- 
 wards the end of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARCE, Don Caledonio t>\ a Spanish sculptor of the eigh- 
 teenth century, attached to the court and academy of Uadrid. 
 He continued the style of the Barambio school, as best shown in 
 his equestrian statue of the Spanish king, Charles IV., which is 
 considered the masterpiece of this artist. He read before the 
 academy several good essavs on sculpture, some of which were 
 published. Died in 1795.— R. JI. 
 
 ARCE, Don Jose, a Spanish sculptor of the seventeenth 
 century, a pupil of ilontanes. His colossal statues for the 
 cathedral of Seville are amongst his best works. 
 
 ARCERE, Louis-Etienne, a French priest of the oratory, 
 professor of literature, and author of various historical works 
 and miscellaneous dissertations, was bom at Marseilles in 1698, 
 and died in 1782. 
 
 ARCESILAUS, the name of four kings of Cyrene : — 
 
 Akcesilaus I., king of Cyrene, son and successor of Battus, 
 founder of the kingdom, flourished about the beginning of the 
 sixth century before Christ. 
 
 Akcesilaus II., succeeded his father probably about 555 or 
 660 B.C. ; defeated the Lybians, and was finally cut oS" by 
 domestic treason. 
 
 Akcesilaus III., succeeded his father Battus III., and 
 attempting to abolish the restrictions imposed on the royal 
 authority, was driven into exile. Returning from Samos at the 
 head of an army, he recovered his throne. Driven a second 
 time into exile, he was assassinated about 514 B.C. 
 
 Akcesilaus IV., the eighth and last king of Cyrene, and 
 founder of the colony aftenvards called Berenice, died about 
 431 B.C., murdered, it would appear, for persisting in his 
 attempts to make himself absolute. He has been immortaUzed 
 by Pindar's testimony to his eminent qualities. — E. M. 
 
 ARCESILAUS, the name of four Greek artists : — 
 
 Akcesilaus, son of Aristodicon, a Grecian sculptor of the 
 early Argivo-Sycionic school, living about 500 B.C. Simonides 
 celebrated a "Diana" by Arccsilaus in some of his verses. 
 
 Akcesilaus of Pakos, a Greek painter in encaustic, who 
 flourished about 420 B.C. He decorated several temples. 
 
 Akcesilaus, son of Tisicrates, a painter of the Ionic school, 
 flourished about 300 B.C. 
 
 Akcesilaus, one of the first Greek sculptors that estab- 
 hshed themselves in Rome, Uved about 170 b.c. Phny, on the 
 authority of Varro, states that so great was the demand for the 
 works of this sculptor, that they were often taken away from 
 his studio before they were actually finished. This was the case 
 with the " Venus Genetrix," in the fonun of C»sar. Very high 
 prices were given for his productions, not only by the public and 
 by the patrons, but also by the other artists of the time, who 
 were anxious to have sketches and models by Arcesilaus. — R. M. 
 
 ARCESILAUS, a Greek philosopher, disciple of Theophras- 
 tus, and founder of what is sometimes called the New, and 
 sometimes the Middle Academy, was bom at Pitane, in JEolia, 
 316 B.C. Combating the dogmatism of the Stoics, he denied 
 the possibility of attaining certauity in the pursuit of knowledge, 
 and held that the wise man is to regulate his conduct by the 
 greatest attainable probability. He renved the Socratic method 
 of discussion. He was an elegant and persuasive speaker, pos- 
 sessing great logical skill and pre-eminent power of expression. 
 He died, unmarried, 241 B.C. Afiluent in circumstances, he 
 was in character honoiuable, generous, and genial. — E. M. 
 
 ARCH.\GATHUS, a Greek physician, bom in the Pelopon- 
 nesus in the third century before Christ, settled at Rome in the 
 consulship of L. JilmOius Paulus and Livius Salinator, and was 
 allowed, at the public expense, to establish a shop for surgery in 
 one of the most populous quarters of the city. His numerous 
 operations procured for him the name of Carnifex. 
 
 ARCHAIMBAUD, Benedictus, bom at Lyons in 1643, and 
 died in 1688, obtained high honotir in the papal church, was a 
 member of the congregation of the oratory, and composed a brief 
 histoi-y of the canon law, '• Abrego Historique du Droit Canon." 
 
 ARCHAXGE de Clermont, a French historian of the seven- 
 teenth century, author of a " Traite du calviure de Hierusalem 
 et de Dauphine," 1638. 
 
 AECHANGE DE Rouen, a French theologian of the com- 
 mencement of the eighteenth centiu-y, author of two lives of 
 saints, and of a work entitled, " Paroles du Nouveau Testament 
 pour eclairer les gens du monde sur I'importance du salut," 1691. 
 
 ARCHAKGELUS de Burgonovo, an Italian theologian of 
 the order of the ilinorites, distinguished as a Hebraist, published 
 in the second half of the sixteenth century the following works : — 
 1. "Trattato ossia dichiarazione della virtii e dignita del nome 
 di GesiL," 1557; 2. ''Apologia pro defensione doctrinre Cabalce 
 contra P. Garziam," 1564 ; 3. " Cabalistaram Selectiora," 1569. 
 
 ARCHANGELUS or DE ARCHAN'GELO, Ottavio, an 
 Italian poet, bom at Catania in Sicily, published in 1646 at 
 Palermo, " Canzoni SicUiane," and afterwards a history of his 
 native city, and some poems. 
 
 ARCHDALE, John, English govemor of Carolina, appointed 
 in 1695, suppressed the disorders of the colony, and pubhshed, 
 on his return, " A new description of that fertile and pleasant 
 pro-idnce of Carolina, with a brief account of its Discovery, 
 Settling, and the Government thereof, to this time," 1707. 
 
 ARCHDALL, Rev. Mer\'yn, A.M., a learned antiquarian 
 and genealogist, and a member of the Royal Irish Academy, 
 was bom in Dubhn in 1723. He laboured industriously for 
 many years in the collection of materials for an Irish Monas- 
 teriology, in wliich he was assisted by Dr. Pococke, and in the 
 year 1786, published a large quai'to voliune, entitled " Monas- 
 ticon Hibemiciiniun, or a history of the abbeys, priories, and 
 other religious houses in Ireland." In 1789 he published 
 a rensed edition of Lodge's Peerage of Ireland, in 7 vols. 8vo. 
 He died on the 6th August, 1791.— (6'«i^'s -l/d*/.) — J. F. W. 
 
 ARCHDEKIN, Richard, or ARSDEKIN, also called MAC- 
 GILLACUDY, an Irish Jesuit and controversial writer, was 
 bom in Kilkenny in 1619. He filled successively the chairs of 
 classical literature, moral philosophy, and scriptural theology, 
 partly at I>ouvain, and partly at Antwerp, and died in the 
 latter city on the 3rd August, 1693. His principal works are 
 — " Of Miracles : and new Mu-acles done by the relicks of St. 
 Francis Xavier," a very scjirce book, and said to be the first 
 ever printed in English and Irish conjointly ; " Pr»cipia3 Contro- 
 versiae fides ad facilem Mcthodum rcdacta ;" and a life of St. 
 Patrick.— ( Mare, C'A't///y.)— J. F. W. 
 
 ARCHEDICUS, an Athenian poet, lived about the year 302 
 B.C. Only the titles of two of his comedies have reached us, 
 
 Ai«,u.a{rav»» and 0r,rccv(O!. 
 
 ARCHEL.\US, son of Apollonius, a sculptor of Priene in 
 Ionia, the author of the celebrated Apotheosis of Homer.
 
 AECHELAUS, a Spartan kins; of the race of the Agides, began 
 his reign of sixty years about 884 B.C. His throne was shared 
 by Charilaus, with whom he took ^Egys, a town of Laconia. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, a Greek philosopher, surnamed PiiYsiCUS, 
 from his having been tlie first to introduce the physical philo- 
 sophy of Ionia into Athens, was the son of ApoUodonis, or, 
 according to some accounts, of Mydon, and flourished towards 
 the middle of the tifth century before Christ. He was probably 
 a native of Miletus, although by some authors called an Athenian. 
 What is known of his life rests on the authority of Diogenes 
 Laertius, and amounts to this — that he was a pupil of Anaxa- 
 goras, and one of the teachers of Socrates. Porphyry adds, that 
 the last-mentioned philosopher, in his youth, visited Samos in 
 company with Archelaus. His philosophy, if we may judge from 
 the scanty notices of it which have reached us from antiquity, 
 formed a sort of link between the Ionian physical and the Athe- 
 nian ethical schools, and partook of the characteristics of both. 
 None of his works have been presen-ed, and only a very few of 
 liis opinions can be collected from ancient authors. He is said 
 to have maintained that men and animals were formed from the 
 earth by heat — that the sea was supphed by waters oozing 
 tlirough the c:irth — that the earth was not a plain, but rounded 
 — and in ethics, that the just and the bad are not so by nature, 
 but by law.— J. S., G. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, king of Macedonia, son of Perdiccas II., 
 famous for his efforts to introduce into his kingdom the arts and 
 literature of Greece, was at first only distinguished for his craelty 
 in ridding himself of his rivals. On the death of his father he 
 assassinated his cousin Alexander, and also his half-brother, the 
 son of Perdiccas and Cleopatra, rightful heir to the throne. His 
 reign extended from 413 B.C. to 399 b c, and was illustrated, 
 according to Thucydides, by a gi'eat number of public works, 
 as well as by an unexampled patronage of arts and letters. He 
 was assassinated by Crata'US. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, one of the generals of the army of Alexander 
 the Great, was left at Susa in command of a force of 3000 men; 
 and after the death of that prince obtained the government of 
 Mesopotamia. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, a Greek poet of the fourth century B.C., sup- 
 posed to have been a native of Chersonesus, in Egypt. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, a Greek geographer of the 4th century B.C. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, son of Herod the Great by JIalthace of Sa- 
 maria, reigned over Judea, Samaria, and Idumea for a period of 
 nine yeare from the death of his father. Herod, by a will made 
 a few days before his death, confeiTcd the kingdom on Archelaus, 
 and rescinded a fonner will in which it had been assigned to 
 Herod Antijjas. Antipas appealed to Augustus to confirm the 
 original testament ; but the emperor, after hearing both parties 
 at Rome, decided in favom* of Archelaus, whom he sent back to 
 Judea with the title of ethnarch. His reign was one of oppres- 
 sion and bloodshed. He massacred three thousand persons dur- 
 ing a feast of the passover, their only crime being that they had 
 remonstrated against his attempt to profane the temple by in- 
 troducing into it the Roman military emblem — a golden eagle. 
 Irritated by his cruelty, and also by his marriage with GlaphjTa, 
 widow of his brother Alexander, the Jews, in the ninth or tenth 
 year of his ethnarchate, 6 or 7 B.C., petitioned the emperor to 
 deliver them from their oppressor ; and Archelaus having been 
 cited to Rome, was banished to Vienne, in Dauphiny. Judea 
 and Samaria were annexed to the province of Svria. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, chief general of Mithridates VL of Pontus, a 
 Cappadocian by birth, commanded the forces of that prince in 
 his first triumphant war against the Romans, and was also suc- 
 cessfully emjtloyed to negotiate an alliance with the principal 
 states of Greece ; but defeated at Cha?ronpa and at Orchomenus 
 by the Roman general Sulla, he brought himself into susjiicion 
 with his master by the terms of a treaty of peace to which he 
 consented, and was banished. He repaired to Rome about 81 
 B.C. Nothing further is known of him. His son 
 
 AuciiKL.vus I., high priest of the goddess of Comana (in 
 Pontus), was appointed in 63 B.C. to the office of priest in the 
 temple of Artemis Tamica, and to the lordship of the town and 
 teiritory of Comana, by Pompey the Great. He espoused Bere- 
 nice, queen of Egyj^t, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, and for sLx 
 months, during the banishment of that prince, occupied the 
 throne; but was defeated in 55 B.C. by the Roman general 
 Gabinius, and put to death. 
 
 Archki.au.s II., son and successor of the preceding, was 
 
 concerned in some disturbances in Cappadocia, and driven out of 
 that prorince in 51 B.C. by Cicero, then proconsul of Cihcia, 
 and in 47 B.C. deprived of his office by Julius Ca?sar. 
 
 Archelaus III., son of the preceding, obtained from Antony 
 the sovereignty of Cappadocia, was confiiTned in his dominions 
 by Octa\-ius after the battle of Actium ; but falhng under the 
 suspicion of Tiberius, lie was brought to Rome and detamed 
 prisoner till his death in 17 a.d. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, bishop of Cashara or CaiTha, in Mesopotamia, 
 lived about 278 a.d. He convened an assembly of heathens to 
 hear a dispute between him and the heretic Planes, who had just 
 escaped from prison. The bishop was ^^ctorious, and had his 
 opponent again imprisoned. Archelaus left an account in Syriac 
 of the controversy, which was translated into Greek and Latin. 
 
 ARCHEL.\US, the author of a Greek poem on alchemy, is 
 supposed to have lived in the fifth centmy. His work is en- 
 titled, 'A^x-^'^-o" '^i^o^oipcu m^i rijs'l'.^a; Tix^ri; S/oc Itixc^v 'IxuSuv, 
 (an Iambic poem on the sacred art, by Archelaus the philoso- 
 pher), and exists in JIS. in several European libraries. 
 
 ARCHEJIACHUS of Eubcea wrote a book on the history 
 of his native island, and is generally identified with the Ai'che- 
 machus of Euboea, who is author of a work named MiTaiyvfx.ittiy of 
 which we have a fragment in Plutarch. 
 
 ARCHENHOLZ, Johann Wiluelm, Baron von, a German 
 author, was bom at Langenfurt, a suburb of Dantzic, in 1745, 
 and died at Hamburg in 1812. He entered the Prussian army 
 in 1760, and served till the close of the seven-years' war, when 
 he had attained the rank of captain, and received his discharge, 
 as some say, on account of his wounds ; according to others, for 
 disreputable conduct. He now travelled over Europe for six- 
 teen years, after which he returned to Geimany, and devoted 
 himself to litei'ary work, li^ng principally at Hamburg. His 
 most valuable book is his " Geschichte des Siebenjiihrigen 
 Krieges" (History of the seven-years' war), 2 vols.; Berlin, 1793. 
 He also wrote a history of Queen Elizabeth, and a history of 
 Gustavus Vasa, ynih other works. — (^Conversations-Lexicon, 
 Zehnte A vflage.') — A. M. 
 
 ARCHENNUS or ANTHERJIOS, one of the earliest Greek 
 sculptors. He is suj)poscd to have been the first to represent 
 Victory with wings. Probably living 560 B.C. 
 
 ARCHER, JoHX, physician to Charles II., published a work 
 entitled " Eveiy Man Ms Own Doctor," in which he gives a 
 compendious herbal. It was printed in London in 1673. 
 
 ARCHER, Sir Symon, born in 1581, was the friend and 
 correspondent of the antiquary Dugdale, and associated with 
 him in the preparation of his Antiquities of Warwickshire. 
 
 ARCHER, Thomas, an English architect of the school of 
 Vanbrugh, whose chief erections — St. Philip's church at Bir- 
 mingham, and St. John's in Westminster — were savagely ridi- 
 culed by Walpole, but have since found more favourable and 
 even laudatory critics ; died in 1743. 
 
 AIJCHESTRATUS, a Greek poet, bom either at Syracuse or 
 at Gela, in Sicily, lived about the year 350 B.C. He is the 
 author of a famous poem, called variously Txc-T^aXoyta., Txirr^oyof/,iee., 
 and 'HiucrxBiix, a manual of good living, in which he embodied 
 vast gastronomical researches. 
 
 ARCHESTRATUS, an Athenian general in 407 B.C., after 
 the battle of Notium superseded Alcibiades in the command of 
 the Athenian fleet. He died at !Mitylene. 
 
 ARCHEVH'^SQUE, Hue, a French poet of the 13th century, 
 author of three poems, called ditties — '' Dit de la Dent," " Dit 
 de la mort Largesse," and " Dit de la puissance d' Amour." 
 
 * ARCHIAC, Etienn'e-Jules-Adolphe Desmier de 
 Saint Simon, Viscount d', a French geologist, bom at Rheims 
 in 1802, was an officer of cavalry from 1821 till the revolution 
 of 1830, when he quitted the sen-ice. Since the tennination of 
 his militaiy career, he has honourably distinguished himself in 
 science by the following works, the last not yet completed : — 
 
 1. " Memoires sm- les sables et gies moyens tertiaires," 1837; 
 
 2. "Description geologique du departement de I'Aisne," 1843; 
 
 3. " Eltudes sur la formation cretac^e des versants sud-ouest, 
 nord, et nord-ouest du plateau central de la France," 1843 and 
 1846 ; 4. " Histoires des progi-6s de la geologic de 1834 h 
 1851."— J. S., G. 
 
 ARCHIADAS or ARCHIADES, a Greek philosopher of the 
 first half of the fifth century, distinguished for his virtues by the 
 epithet of 'O Evs-sSstrTaTOf, was the son-in-law of Plutarch the 
 Athenian, who revived the Platonic philosophy.
 
 ARC 
 
 199 
 
 ARC 
 
 ARCHIAS OF Corinth, the founder of Syracuse, lived in 
 tlie eighth century before Christ. lie was directed by the oracle 
 of Delphi to repair to Sicily. There, by the help of a colony of 
 Dorians, he founded Syracuse, 733 B.C. 
 
 ARCHIAS, the Fugitive-Hunter (A^j;!*? ^uyxdoiy.^x;'), so 
 called from his having been the agent of Antipater in his bloody 
 proscription of the Athenian chiefs, 322 B.C., was an Italian 
 Greek, and originally an actor. 
 
 ARCHIAS OF Corinth, a celebrated naval architect, who 
 designed and constructed the famous three-decker that Archi- 
 medes launched for Hieron the second of Syracuse. He was 
 flourishing about 250 B.C. 
 
 ARCHIAS, AuLus Licinius, a Greek poet, the friend and 
 client of Cicero, was born at Antioch about the year 118 B.C. 
 His poems have been lost, with the exception of a number of 
 epigrams, and these are of doubtful authenticity, as well as 
 Questionable merit. His fame with posterity he owes to Cicero, 
 who defended the poet's right to be a citizen of Rome in the 
 splendid oration, " Fro Archia poeta." — J. S., G. 
 
 ARCHIAS OF Athens, a sculptor and toreutes of the time 
 and school of Phidias. 
 
 ARCHIBIUS, the name of three Greek grammarians — one, 
 the fiither of Apollonius, author of the Homeric Lexicon ; another, 
 a son of this Apollonius ; a third, a son of Ptolema^us. The last 
 taught gi-ammar at Rome in the reign of Trajan. 
 
 ARCHIDAMIA, a Spartan woman, who successfully opposed 
 the proposal to remove the women of Laceda3mon to Crete, when 
 King Pyirhus was about to take the town. 
 
 ARCHIDAMUS, a Greek physician, a contemporaiy of Hip- 
 procrates, in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. He is q^iioted 
 by Galen, and mentioned by Pliny. 
 
 ARCHIDAMUS, the name of five Spartan kings:— 
 
 Archidamus I., son of Anaxidamus, thirteenth of the Pro- 
 clid dynasty, ascended the throne probably about G30 B.C. 
 
 Archidamus II. reigned 42 years, from about 4G9 B.C. 
 He led an army into Attica in 431, and again in 430 — on the 
 second occasion laying waste tlie Athenian territory ten miles 
 round the capital. His death occurred in the following ye.-ir. 
 
 Archidamus III., son of Agesilaus the Great, ascended the 
 throne in 361 B.C. Ten years before his accession he invaded 
 and ravaged Arcadia, and in 362 successfully resisted Epami- 
 riondas in his attack on Sparta. In 338 he went to aid the 
 Tarentines against the Lucanians in Italy, and there peiished in 
 a battle. 
 
 Archidamus IV., son of Eudamidas I., was defeated and 
 taken prisoner by Demetrius Poliorcetes in a battle fought near 
 Mantineia, 296 u.c. 
 
 Archidamus V., on the death of his brother Agis IV., in 
 240 B.C., fled into Messenia, was recalled by the general of the 
 Achxan league, Aratus, but was shortly after put to death by 
 the murderers of Agis. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARCHIDEMUS or ARCHEDAMUS, a Stoic philosopher 
 of Tarsus in Cilicia, author of two works : — lU^i (puvtis and 
 lh.(i iToixiiuy. lived about the year 160 B.C. 
 
 ARCHIGENES, a celebrated Greek physic:ian, son of Philippus, 
 a native of Apamca, and pupil of Agathinus, founder of the sect 
 of the Episynthetics, settled at Rome in the reign of Domitian, 
 and enjoyed a great reputation under that emperor and his suc- 
 ces-sors, Nerva and Trajan. (81-117 a.d.) 
 
 ARCHILOCHUS of Paros, one of the most famous Greek 
 lyric poets, was the son of Telesiclcs and Enipo. The poet's 
 mother, according to his own statement, was a slave. Wlien a 
 )'ounginan, lie was compelled by poverty to leave Paros to colo- 
 nize Thasos, and one writer states that he was chosen to be the 
 leader of the colony. Here, however, he soon became disagree- 
 able to the majority of the people, in consequence of his sarcastic 
 poetry, and he seems to have left the place. He fell, during 
 a war which the Parians carried on with the Naxians, by the 
 hands of one Charondas, whom the Delphic priestess would 
 not admit to the tenijilo till he had a])pcase(l the soul of the poet. 
 An epigi-am informs us that his grave was by the sea-shore. 
 Ai'chilochus is represented by the ancients as one of the gi-eatest 
 poets that ever lived. His name is often associated with that of 
 Homer. He appears to have been a man of extraordinary powers 
 of mind, extremely versatile, and always successful in whatever 
 he attempted. The rhythmical inventions ascribed to him are very 
 numerous. His life, however, was embittered by poverty and 
 misfortune, and he spent his great powers in lashing indiscrimi- 
 
 nately all that came in his way. He spoke ill of ft-iends and foes. 
 His ire was poured out especially on Lycambes, who had re- 
 fused to give him his daughter Neobule in maniage; and so sting- 
 ing was the satire, that a story was cmrent in ancient times, that 
 both Lycambes and Neobule had hanged themselves out of vexa- 
 tion. His poems were also blamed for their impurity ; so much 
 so, that the Spartans interdicted them, and the Emperor Julian 
 forbade any priest to read them. The few fragments of Archi- 
 lochus that have come down to us fail to give us a complete 
 notion of the man, or to justify to us the extravagant praises 
 lavished on him by most ancient critics. Neither do they reveal 
 the depth of wretchedness and bitterness which some have 
 ascribed to the poet. They are pervaded by a theistic fatalism ; 
 but, at the same time, they are manly and vigorous, urging pa- 
 tience in the endurance of suffering. Archilochus flourished 
 about the beginning of the seventh centuiy B.C. — J. D. 
 
 ARCHIMBAULD, Jac, a Dominican of Vennont, bom in 
 1583, and died in 1667; taught philosophy in various places, 
 and composed several devotional pieces. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES {' X^x'l^n^ni) of Syracuse, the greatest 
 mathematician and engineer of antiquity, was bom about the 
 year 287 B.C. According to Plutarch (" Life of Marcellus"), 
 Hiero, king of S}Tacuse, was related to Archimedes ; and it is 
 certain that to that sovereign Archimedes was a friend and 
 counsellor, and was by him induced to apply his scientific know- 
 ledge to practical purposes, — -circumstances which, dui'ing the 
 lifetime of Archiniedes, might increase his consequence amongst 
 his countrymen, by connecting his name with the dignity of his 
 royal patron ; but which, in after ages, have sen'ed chiefly to 
 perpetuate the memory of the monarch, by associating it with 
 the imperishable gloiy of the sage. The natiu-e and extent of 
 the scientific labours of Archimedes will be best understood from 
 a brief notice of those fragments of his works which have been 
 handed down to our times. The best edition is tho Oxford 
 folio, edited by Torelli, in 1793. " Hie) t-?; ripxi^x; xot,i nv 
 xuXivh^ov," (on the sphere and the cylinder.) In this work 
 occurs the celebrated theorem, considered by Archimedes himself 
 as the gi-eatest of his discoveries, that the volume of a sphere 
 is two-thu'ds of that of its circumscribing cylinder. " KixXou 
 fiiT^y.ri;," (the measurement of the circle.) This work contains 
 the demonstration, that the area of a cuxle is equal to that of a 
 triangle, hanng the circumference of the cu'cle for base, and the 
 radius for height ; and also a closer approximation than had 
 been previously attained, to the ratio of the circumference of a 
 circle to its diameter, viz., less than 3f, and gi-eater than 3|J. 
 Its investigations are founded on the principle, that the circum- 
 ference of a circle is less than that of any circumscribed polygon, 
 and gi-eater than that of any inscribed polygon ; and that 
 a series of successive approximations to the circumference of a 
 circle, may be obtained by deteiTnining successively the circum- 
 ferences of two series of polygons, cuxumscribed and inscribed 
 respectively ; each polygon in each series having double the 
 number of sides of that which precedes it. " risji xuvouiiuv xui 
 (r<pai^itiihim," (on conoids and spheroids,) a treatise on the gco- 
 metiy of solids generated by the revolution of conic sections 
 about their axes. " lis;/ ix!xav," (on spirals.) This treatise 
 relates to that spiral which has since been called " the spiral 
 of Archimedes," and which is traced by a radius-vector 
 whose length is proportional to the angle through which it has 
 swept from the commencement of the cuitc. " TsT^aj-a/nir^o,- 
 Taja/3o/55f," (the quadrature of the parabola.) This, like the 
 treatise on the sphere and the cylinder, is an example of that 
 "method of exhaustions" of the ancient geometers, which led 
 the way to the modem calculus of fluxions or inlinitesimals. 
 "'Vx/x.ju.iTr,;," called in Latin " Arenarius," whicii may be trans- 
 lated "the sand-counter," (an essay on the powers of arithmeti- 
 cal notation.) "lUft iirirriimv IropporrixSv rt xivr(xl3x(Sy irnriSiur" 
 
 (on balanced planes, or, on the centres of gravity of planes ;) a 
 work in which arc demonstrated the fundamental principles of 
 the balance of parallel forces, by a method which is followed by 
 the first mechanical writers of the i)res<'nt time. "lU^J tmv 
 u^MTi iifi<rTa/j.ivuv," (on bodies floating in water;) containing tho 
 tme principles of the e(iuilibrium between the weight of a 
 floating body, and the hydrostatic pressure of the liq\iid in which 
 it floats. 
 
 These immortal works, to this day the delight of every one 
 whose knowledge of nu'chnnics and geometry is sufliciont to en- 
 able him to understand them, bear unfortunately but a small
 
 proportion to those possibly even greater works of Arcliimedes 
 wliich are lost to the world for ever ; and which may be sup- 
 posed to have contained many truths, whose re-discovery has 
 employed and will employ the labours of scientitic men of 
 modern times. Not less than the scientitic knowledge of Archi- 
 medes, was his practical skill ; a subject of wonder to his 
 contemporaries, of incredulity to many subsequent ages, and of 
 admiration to more recent times, since the marvels reported to 
 have been achieved by him, which once seemed incredible, have 
 been realized by the re-discoveries of modern science. Thus the 
 burning of the IJoman Heet, by concentrating within a small 
 space the sunbeams reflected from a vast number of suitably 
 placed plane mirrors, was long regarded as fabulous, untU the 
 experiment was successfully repeated by Buft'on. This achieve- 
 ment took place during the siege of Syracuse, by the army of 
 the Roman republic under Marcellus, in the year 212 B.C. ; 
 when Archimedes, at the age of seventy-five, employed his ex- 
 traordinary skill in contriving machines for the defence of his 
 native city, with such success, that the Roman soldiers, inspired 
 with a fear, miparalleled before or afterwai'ds, used to fly on the 
 appearance of any object above the rarajjarts, believing it to be 
 some new engine of destruction. 
 
 VVlien Syracuse was at length taken by surprise, Archimedes 
 was slain amidst the general massacre of its defenders. Mar- 
 cellus, who had desired to presen-e liis life, lamented his death, 
 and fulfilled his wishes by causing the representation of his 
 famous theorem of the sphere and the cylinder to be can-ed on 
 his tomb. With Archimedes fell the Greek science and philoso- 
 phy in Sicily ; and in like manner did all arts and learning fall, 
 in every region conquered by the Romans. — W. J. JI. R. 
 
 ARCHBIELUS, a poet of Greece, who flourished about 220 
 B.C. An epigram bearing his name is found in Athena;us; it is 
 the only well-authenticated writing of his now extant. 
 
 ARCHINTO, a noble fimiily of Jlilan, which claimed descent 
 from the royal house of Lombardy. Several of its members greatly 
 distingiushed themselves at different periods, of whom the follow- 
 ing, arranged in alphabetical order, are the most celebrated : — 
 
 Alberico, born in 1G98, died in 1758. He was archbishop 
 of Nicxa, and afterwards was created a cardinal. In 1753 we 
 find him acting as governor of Rome. 
 
 Alessandro, created a count by Charles V., died at Milan, 
 1567. He was the author of many theological works, the whole 
 of which are preseiTcd in manuscript in the Ambrosian library. 
 
 Alessandro, bom 1577; died 1645. He belonged to the 
 order of Jesus ; and besides two works on rhetoric, has left several 
 eulogistic writings upon the members of that society, which are 
 preserved in its libraiy at Milan. 
 
 Ambrogio Giovanni, who in 1518 held the office of decurion, 
 or chief of ten, in Milan. He was the author of several literary 
 works, and editor of those of Pius II. 
 
 Anselmo and JIanfredo, who, in 1135, founded the mo- 
 nastery of Chiaravalle. 
 
 Carlo Antonio, who lived in the first half of the 17th cen- 
 tury, and became an abbot of the Canons Regular of the Lateran, 
 was author of several works in praise of the fathers of his order. 
 
 Carlo, Count, son of Count Filippo, born at Milan in 16G9 ; 
 died 1732; was reputed one of the most learned men of his age. 
 He was founder of an academy for sciences and mechanics in his 
 native city, which he enriched with a valuable library, and the best 
 mathematical instruments then known. He was also the founder 
 of the press, knowm as the ^Edes Palatinne, from which so many 
 great works have been issued. He wrote on various subjects, 
 both in Itahan and Latin ; and three monarchs confeiTcd titles 
 upon him as marks of their esteem. 
 
 F'lLippo, born 3d July, 1500; died 1558. The only eccle- 
 siastic, of lesser dignity than a cardinal, who was ever appointed 
 vicar of the pope. He was held in much esteem both by Paul 
 IV. and the Emperor Charles V., who confided to him the settle- 
 ment of many affairs of great importance, and by the fonner of 
 whom he was created archbishop of Milan. Besides many pub- 
 lished works, he has left a groat number of MSS., wliich are still 
 to be found in the family library in liis native city. 
 
 FiLirro, Count, was bom at Milan in IGli); died 1720. lie 
 was a member of the college of Nobili Giurisconsulti in Milan, 
 and successively filled various important offices of gi'cat tmst. 
 He was the author of several works, — his letters alone, in the 
 possession of the family, occupying twelve folio volumes of JIS. 
 
 Girolamo, bom about 1671, died in 1721; began life as a 
 
 jmisconsult, and ended as a dignitaiy of the church. He was 
 created titular archbishop of Tarsus, and was sent as nuncio to 
 the grand-duke of Tuscany, and afterwards as legate a latere 
 to Gennany. There still exists an unpubhshed work of his upon 
 the Council of Trent. 
 
 Giuseppe, born in 1651, died in 1712; first studied law in 
 Paris, but forsook it to follow the ecclesiastical career, in which 
 he attained to high honours, being appointed by Innocent XI. 
 vice-legate of Bologna, and afterwards, by the same pontiff and 
 his successors, apostolic nuncio to various states. By Innocent 
 XII. he was made archbishop of Milan, and in the same year 
 cardinal, by the title of Santa Prisca. He is the author of several 
 works, some of which have been published. 
 
 ARCHINUS, a citizen of Athens, who, in 401-3 B.C., aided 
 Thrasybulus in the expulsion of the thirty tyrants and the 
 re-establishment of democracy in that city. Some writers 
 ascribe to him the honour of originating that patriotic scheme 
 which others carried to a successful issue. 
 
 ARCHIPPUS, an Athenian comic poet, of whom little is 
 now known, flourished in the earlj' part of the fifth century B.C. 
 His writings are characterized by coarseness of expression. 
 
 ARCHON, Louis, a writer of French ecclesiastical history, 
 horn in 1645 at Riom in Auvergne ; died in 1717. He 
 obtained a canomy in his native town, was made chaplain to 
 Louis XIV., and in 1678 appointed to an abbey in the diocese 
 of Clermont. He WTote " Histoire ecclesiastique de la chapelle 
 des rois de France sous les trois races de nos rois jusqu'au regne 
 de Louis XIV." 
 
 ARCHYTAS Qk^x^ra.;') OF Tarentum, mathematician, 
 general, statesman, and philosopher, flourished about the middle 
 of the fifth century before the Christian era, and was the son 
 either of JInesagoras, or (according to Aristoxeiras) of Hestiajus 
 ('Ecrr/aiof). Aixhytas was one of the most renowned of the re- 
 nowned Pythagoreans, lawgivers and governors of the ancient 
 Greek colonies in southern Italy, and founders of the experi- 
 mental and inductive method in science. Seven times did he 
 command in war the armed force of his fellow-citizens, and was 
 never defeated. He was the friend and instnictor of Plato, 
 whom, by his intercession, he saved from the craelty of Diony- 
 sius the younger. A letter of Aixhytas to Plato, and Plato's 
 answer, are extant in the works of Diogenes Laertius. Accord- 
 ing to this author, Archytas was the first who reduced mechanics 
 to scientific principles, and the first who applied mechanism to 
 descriptive geometry. He is said to have constmcted various 
 marvellous machines, such as automatic flying birds. In logic 
 and ethics, he was not less eminent than in mathematics and 
 mechanics, as is well attested by the fragments of his works 
 (unfortunately small and few) which have been handed down 
 to our times, and of which the following are the titles : — 
 " Aitcr^i^a.) mfi f/.ix.^yi[j.a.ri}c.ii; iTia-Tvif/.-^;," (discourses on mathe- 
 matical science ;) " Atxa Xoyoi xtx.^oXiy.o),'" (the ten categories,) 
 otherwise called "Ih^J ncvrhipuinu;" "lU^) 2o?/«f," (on wisdom;) 
 " Ihj/ 'A^X^'i" (on principles;) '^ Yl'-Ci roS liou xai 'Aiir^i,(riu;," 
 
 (on the understanding and the emotions;) "Ilsfi toS'Ovto;, (on 
 heing;) " Iltji Euhxi/Myla;," (on happiness;) " IhjJ mu ayccBcS 
 'Av?5oj XXI luSx!/M>yo;," (of a good and happy man ;) " IIe{) t?j 
 v9-iyiij T«/5s/a?," (on moral instniction ;) " lli^i 'Hofx.ov xu.i Atnaio- 
 irCtr,;^" (on law and justice.) The latest complete edition of the 
 fragments of Archytas is that published by Orcilli at Leipzig, 
 1821. On the authority of Horace, (Book'l., Ode 28,) Ai-chy- 
 tus is believed to have lost his life by shipwreck on the coast of 
 Apulia. — (Diogenes Laertius, Libri ; Histoire des Sciences Ma- 
 thematiqves en Italie.^ — W. J. M. R. 
 
 ARCHYTAS or Mitylene, a musician, mentioned by Dio- 
 genes Laertius. 
 
 ARCHYTAS, a writer on agriculture, mentioned by Diogenes 
 Laertius. 
 
 ARCHYTAS, an epigrammatic poet, mentioned by Diogenes 
 Laertius. 
 
 ARCHYTAS, an architect and mechanical author, mentioned 
 with doubt by Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 ARCIMliOLDI. A noble family of Jlilan, of which the most 
 distinguished members were — 
 
 Anton ello, the son of Giovanni A., was bom before his 
 father entered into orders. A good Hellenist, he translated 
 many works from the Greek, amongst which were several of the 
 writings of St. Chrysostoni. Philip II. of Spain, in 1557, created 
 him a senator of Milan. Died in 1578.
 
 Giovanni, born at the beginuiiig of the fifteenth centurv'. 
 He embraced the ecclesiastical profession, and in 1484 was 
 created archbishop of his native city, a dignity he resigned in 
 favour of his brother Guido in 1488. Died at Eome in 1491. 
 
 GioVAXxi AxGELo, the natural son of Luigi, bom at Milan 
 in 1485, like several other members of his family attained the 
 archepiscopal dignity. His treachery and cupidity are said to 
 have had a great effect in forwarding the cause of the Reforma- 
 tion in the north of Europe. He is the author, among other 
 ■svorks, of the now rare " Catalogus Hsereticorum," published at 
 .Milan in 1554. 
 
 GuiDO AxTOXio, the brother and successor in office of the 
 foregoing, was the companion of the famous Gian Giacomo Tri- 
 vulzio during his travels in Palestine. He died in 1497. 
 
 Ottaviaxo, bom at Milan in 1471 ; a great linguist, and a 
 man of much varied accomphshment. At the early age of thirty- 
 two he was nominated archbbhop of his native city, but died 
 before his installation took place. — (Argellati, Blbliotheca Scr'ip- 
 ttrum Afediolanensium; Morigi, La Nobilita di Jlilano; Miinter, 
 Bansie Eef or mat ions Historie.~) — S. 
 
 AECIMBOLDI, Giuseppe, an Italian painter, a native of 
 ^lilan, bora in 1533, died at Prague in 1593. This artist, who 
 was sldlful in portrmts, was court-painter to Slasimilian II. 
 and the Emperor Rodolph. He was fond of paiutiog " capricci"' 
 or fancy pieces, in which the figures of men and women were 
 resolved on close inspection into flowers and leaves ; or, as in the 
 case of a representation of agriculture, into spades, ploughs, and 
 similar implements. — (Lanzi, Bryan.) — A. M. 
 
 ARCIONI, Daxiele, a goldsmith of Milan, and sldlful 
 '.vorker in Kiello, or inlaying. He belongs to the fifteenth cen- 
 lury. — (Lanzi's Eistory of Painting in Italy.') 
 
 ARCISZEWSKI, Christopher, a Polish noble, bom in the 
 1 itter half of the 16th century at Schmiegel, a town in the grand 
 iuchy of Posen, of which his father, Ellas Arciszewski, was 
 owner, and in which he officiated as a Unitarian minister. 
 Ijeing a man of indomitable courage, great mihtary sMll, and 
 ' xtraordinary scientific attainments, he was nominated govemor- 
 .reneral of iSrazU by the Dutch government, and during his 
 •ii'nure of that office, constructed fortresses at Pernambuco and 
 "ther towns, of which he himself acted as directing engineer. 
 The Dutch recognised his merits by striking a medal in his 
 lionour, an unpression of which is now much prized by numis- 
 matists. He died at Lissa, in his native province, 1656. — S. 
 
 ARCKENHOLTZ, Johajxx, a native of Swedish Finland, 
 was born in the year 1695, and died at Stockholm (where he 
 held the office of historiographer to the king) in 1777. His 
 works, which were all written in French, comprise " Memoires 
 I oncemant Christine Reine de Sufede," in 4 vols. 4to; "Lettres 
 ur les Lapons et les Finnois," published at Frankfort and Leipzig; 
 "Memoires de Rusdorf, Ministre de I'Electeur Palatin," &c. &c; 
 "RecueU des sentiments et des propos de Gustave Adolphe," pub- 
 lished at Stockholm. The memoirs of Chiistina were severely 
 ' riticised by Voltaire, D'Alembert, and Holberg; to the last of 
 ■■."horn the author replied, and is said to have silenced his objec- 
 tions. In his latter years Arckenholtz was much adilicted to the 
 -tudy of the mystical \-iews of his coimtrjnnan, Swedenborg. — S. 
 
 ARCO, Aloxzo del, a Spanish painter, was bom at Madrid 
 ill 1625, died 1700, and was commonly known by the name of 
 (1 Sordillo de Pereda, on accoimt of his deaiuess, and fi'om his 
 being a pupil of Pereda, The most noted of his works is the 
 Baptism of St. John, in the church of that saint at Toledo. 
 He is reputed a good colorist, but defective as a draughtsman. 
 
 ARCO. Several members of an ItaUan family of this name 
 have played no miimportiuit part in history, amongst the most 
 remarkable of whom we mention : — 
 
 FiLippo, who, as general of the imperial troops, surrendered 
 the fortress of Neuf-Brisach to the duke of Burgundy in 1703, 
 was accused of high treason, and beheaded in 1704. 
 
 FiLippo, an active and able financier, who was bom at Munich 
 in 1757, and died at Ulm in 1805, after hanng filled the office 
 of commissary-general of Suabia, in the nimie of Bavaria. 
 
 FuAxcESCO reigned as duke of Sienna. 
 
 GiAsiBATTiSTA Gherardo, born at Arco in the Tyrol in 
 1739, who, in political science, was verj* far in advance of 
 his time. A mere enumeration of the titles of his published 
 works will suffice to bear out this statement. Tlie first of 
 which mention is made, is a dissertation, entitled " Dell' Ar- 
 monia politico-economica trii la citta e il sue territorio," in 
 
 Vi'L. L 
 
 which is suggested the abolition of the law of primogeniture, 
 and of the ''Fidei-Commissa;"' written in reply to a question 
 proposed by the Academy of Sciences, Literature, and Arts, 
 founded by Maria Theresa at Mantua, This dissertation was 
 followed by others, in which the doctrines of free-trade (in- 
 cluding that in com) were warmly advocated, the right of 
 free transit for goods through all states clearly set forth, and 
 the all-important subject of rehgious toleration boldly dis- 
 cussed. The various titles of these writings wiU sufficiently in- 
 dicate the manner in which their different subjects were treated. 
 1st. "Del Diritto ai Transit!;" 2d. " Dell' Influenza del Com- 
 mercio Sopra i Talenti e sii i Costumi ; " 3d. " DeU' Influenza 
 dello Spirito di Commercio suU' Economia Interna dei Popoli 
 e sulla Prosperita degli Stati ;" 4th. " Dell' Annona ;" 5th. 
 " DeU' Influenza del Ghetto Nello Stato." Besides these 
 works, Arco is the author of a treatise, entitled " Del Fon- 
 d;miento del Diritto di punire," and another, " De' Fonda- 
 menti e Limiti della Putema Antorita," in which these subjects 
 are treated with his usual lucidity. To reward his many ser- 
 vices, Joseph II. appointed Arco governor of the duchy of 
 Mantua, an office which he filled with equal dignity and use- 
 fulness ; and during his tenure of which, he became the founder 
 of what are now called " model-training farms," at which 
 poor orphan children were instructed in agricultm-e, and fitted 
 to become useful members of the community. FaUing health 
 obliging him to relinquish his public duties, he retired to Goito, 
 near Mantua, where he died in 1791.^-(Tipaldo, Biogrujia 
 degli Italiani iUustri del secolo xviii. ; Peechio, StoHa deW 
 Economia Publica in Italia.) — S. 
 
 ARCO or ARCHUS, Niccolo d', a very elegant writer of 
 Latin verse, was bom in the year 1479, in that part of the 
 Tyrol which at the time constituted a part of the republic of 
 Venice. Died in 1546. 
 
 AECOLEO, AxToxio, an Italian poet, and author of several 
 very meritorious di'amas, was bom in the isle of Candy iu the 
 seventeenth centmy. 
 
 ARCON, Jeax-Claude-Eleoxore Le Michaud d', a 
 celebrated French engineer, bom at Pontarlier, 1733 ; died at 
 Auteuil, 1800. He has left several works upon military tactics 
 and fortification. 
 
 ARCONATUS, Jerome, a native of Silesia, bom in the year 
 1553 ; died, 1599. He embraced the profession of arms, but 
 is more distinguished as a poet than as a soldier. 
 
 ARCONI, Cesar d', a native of Gascony, Uved dming the 
 middle of the 17th century. A physician by profession, he yet 
 devoted himself much less to medicine than to the study of theo- 
 logical subjects, upon which he has left numerous works. 
 
 ARCOXVILLE, Marie Gexeviete Charlotte, whose 
 maiden name was d'Arlus, was one of the most learned women 
 of whom there is any record. Besides poems, romances, and 
 biographies, she published, anon}"mously, many works upon 
 science ; comprising treatises upon physics, agiiculture, chemistry, 
 botany, anatomy, &c., &c. ; and left no less than seventy manu- 
 script volumes, filled with anecdotes and obsen-ations on the 
 society amidst which she hved. Bora 1720 ; died 1805. — S. 
 
 ARCOS, Don Rodrigo Ponz de Leon, Duke of, the in- 
 capable viceroy of PhiUp IV. of Spain, in Naples, was bom of an 
 old Spanish family towards the close of the sixteenth century. 
 He held the ^•ice-regal dignity at the time of the insurrection 
 under the famous Massaniello, whom, it is by some writers 
 asserted, he treacherously betrayed to death. A second insui- 
 rection breaking out shortly afterwards, a fleet imder Don Juan 
 of Austria was sent from Spiiin to quell the insurgents, who, 
 however, refused to lay down their arms. Hoping thereby to 
 appease them, Don Juan removed Aixos from office. The ex- 
 viceroy left Naples in the month of Januarj-, 1648, after a short 
 and disgraceful administration of the aflairs of that kingdom. — 
 (Parrino, Teatro eroico e politico dei ficeri di Napoli ; Orloff, 
 Memoires historiques sur le royaume de Naples.) — S. 
 
 ARCTINUS OF Miletus, author of two epic poems, of which 
 only some fragments reiniun. One of them recorded the ex- 
 ploits and fate of Memnon, ally of the Trojans ; the other was 
 entitled " The Destmction of Troy." Floiuished about 770 B.C. 
 
 ARCUDI, Alessandro To>lmasc), an Italian DominicJin, 
 author of various satirical works, more remarkable for bitterness 
 of censure than taste or genius, was bom at Galatina, in the 
 kingdom of Naples, in 1655, and died in 1718. 
 
 ARCUDIUS, Petrus, a Roman catholic writer, bom at 
 
 2 C
 
 Corfu about 1570, was sent to Rome when ten years of age, 
 where he was educated, and became a priest and doctor in phi- 
 losophy and theolog}'. He was sent into Poland by Pope Gregory 
 XIV., for the purpose of trpng to induce the members of the 
 Eastern church there to submit to the papal see. He after- 
 wards published various dissertations in Greek and Latin, to 
 promote a reconciliation between the Eastern and Western 
 churches. Died about 1G3G. — E. M. 
 
 ARCULAIUUS. There have been several persons of this 
 name, the most distinguished of whom are — Danii:l, professor of 
 theology at Marpurg, bora at Hesse-C;isscl, and died in 1596, 
 author of a commentary on Isaiah and the Acts. — John 
 Daniel, a Lutheran di^•ine, born in 1G50, gi-andson of the 
 preceding, held various academic offices, and died at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Maine in 1710. His works are little known at the pre- 
 sent time. 
 
 ARCULF, a French bishop of the seventh ccnturj', who 
 visited Constantinople, Egypt, and Palestine. 
 
 ARCUSSIA, CuAULES d', a French nobleman, author of an 
 interesting work on " Falconry," was born at Provence about 
 1545, and died hi 1G17. 
 
 ARCY, Patuick d'. See Darcy. 
 
 ARDABURIUS, two generals of the Eastern empire, the one 
 the father and the other the son of Aspiu:. They Uved in the 
 fifth century. 
 
 ARDfiE, Jacques d', a professor of theology and author of 
 a history of the bishops of Liege, and various other works, in 
 Latin verse, was bom at Liege, and Uved during the first half of 
 tlie seventeenth centuiy. 
 
 ARDELL. See Macardell, James. 
 
 ARDEJIANS, Don Teodoro, a SiJanish painter, sculptor, 
 and architect, as well as wiiter on architectui'e and physical 
 science, was born at JIadrid in IGGl, and died in 1726. 
 
 ARDEN, Edward, a gentleman of Warwickshire, bom in 
 1531, executed under the reign of Elizabeth, on the charge of being 
 concerned in a Roman catholic conspiracy against the queen. 
 
 ARDEN, Richard Pepper, Baron Alvaklet, was bom 
 at Stockport in 1745. He was called to the bar in 1769. He 
 became solicitor-general and a member of parliament in 1782. 
 He retired from office in April, 1783, and strenuously supported 
 Pitt in his opposition to the coalition of North and Fox. In 
 December he again became solicitor-general, and, in 1784, attor- 
 ney-general. In 1788 he was knighted and made master of 
 the Rolls, and, in 1801, chief justice of the Court of Common 
 Pleas, and created a peer, with the title of Baron Alvanley. He 
 died in 1804. He was an upright and amiable man, and a 
 sensible and agreeable speaker. — E. M. 
 
 ARDENE, Esprit-Jean de Rome, a French poet and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Marseilles in 1G84. After studying 
 at Nancy, he removed to Paris in 1711, where he obtained the 
 friendship of Racine, Fontenelle, la Fontaine, &c. Died in 1748. 
 
 ARDENE, Jean Paul dk Rome d', brother of the preced- 
 ing, bom at Marseilles in 1689, was author of several works on 
 the management of plants. 
 
 ARDENNE, Remaclus d', or Remaclus Aeduenna, 
 author of numerous Latin poems, and secretai-}' to the pri^-y 
 council of Margaret of Burgundy, born at Florennes about 1480. 
 
 ARDENTE, Alessandro, a.i Italian painter at the comt 
 of Savoy, who died 1599. His sacred subjects and portraits, 
 executed in the Gaudenzio Fen-ari's style, are highly estimated 
 in the histories of painting. He was a native of Faenza. 
 
 ARDERN or ARDEN, John, or Johannes d'Arderne, 
 the earliest English surgeon of gi-eat distinction, author of an 
 interesting work on medicine and surgery, and inventor of vari- 
 ous surgical instruments, was bom at Newark in 1349, and 
 settled in London in 1370. The date of his death is uncertain. 
 ARDEIINE, James, D.D., an English divine, chaplain in 
 ordinaiy to Charles II., and dean of Chester; died 16'Jl. He 
 «Tote " Directions concerning the Matter or Style of Seraions," 
 and some other works. 
 
 ARDERON, W., an English writer on natiu-al history, who 
 contributed several papers on miscellaneous subjects to the 
 " Philosophical Transactions," in the middle of last century. — 
 (See Phil, Trans., 1747.) 
 
 ARDICES OF CoKiXTir, one of the earliest Greek painters. 
 He is reported by Pliny as having been the first to introduce shad- 
 ing in the monochromatic pictures then in use, by means of lines. 
 ARDINGELLI, Nicholas, a Florentme cardinal, sent by 
 
 Pope Paul III. to France, to effect a reconciliation between 
 Charles V. and Francis I. Besides political dissertations, he 
 publisiicd an account of his negotiations in France. Died in 
 1547 at the age of forty. 
 
 ARDIZZON, Antonio, a learned Italian, who visited Goa, 
 and wrote various works, some in Italian and others in Portu- 
 guese. Died at Naples in 1G99. 
 
 ARDIZZON, Jacobus, a leamed Veronese jurist of the 
 fourteenth centun', author of an able work on feudal law. 
 
 ARDIZZONI, i AURizio, a Genoese physician and medical 
 writer of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ARDOINA, Anna Maria, a learned and gifted Italian 
 poetess, daughter of the prince of Pallizo, and wife of the prince 
 of Piombino, was bom in 1672, and died in 1700. 
 
 ARDSHIR, Babegan, a wise and heroic sovereign of Persia, 
 who, after a beneficent and glorious reign of forty years, died 
 about the midiUe of the third century. 
 
 ARDUIN or ARDOIN, elected long of Italy on the death of 
 the Emperor Otho III. m 1002. In 1004 he was defeated by 
 Henry II. of Germany, who, as successor to Otho, claimed the 
 sovereignty of Italy. Arduin was deserted by most of his ad- 
 herents, and Heiuy was crowned king of Italy. A reaction soon 
 took place in favour of Arduin, but part of the country continued 
 to acknowledge the rights of Henry. In 1015 Arduin, forsaken 
 by most of his followers, entered the monastery of Fructuaria, 
 in the diocese of Ivi-ea, and assumed the habit of a monk. Here 
 he soon afterwards died. — E. M. 
 
 ARDUINI, an Italian physician of the fifteenth century, 
 author of a treatise on poisons. 
 
 ARDUINO, LuiGi, was bom at Padua, February, 1759 ; died 
 !rd Febraaiy, 1833. He became professor of rural economy in 
 the university of Padua, and devoted his attention chiefly to 
 agriculture. He published an Italian translation of several works 
 on agricidture, and in the Memoirs of the Academy of Padua 
 there are memoirs by him on the cultivation of economical plants. 
 In 1810, when Napoleon offered a piize for the means of replacing 
 cane sugar by some uidigenous production, Arduino published a 
 work on the extraction of sugar from Holcus Cafi'cr, a kind of 
 Guinea com. — J. H. B. 
 
 ARDUINO, Maestro, a Venetian sculptor and architect of 
 the fifteenth century. He made the design and laid the first 
 stone of the church of San Petronio of Bologna. 
 
 ARDYS, king of Lydia, succeeded his father Gyges in 680 
 B.C., or, according to others, 631 B.C. He was succeeded by 
 his son Sadyattes. He made himself master of Priene, and in- 
 vaded the Milesian territoiy. During his reign the Cimmerians 
 entered Lydia and took the city, but not the Acropolis, of Sardis. 
 
 AREGIO, Pablo de, a celebrated Spanish painter, who 
 flourished in the early part of the sixteenth centmy. 
 
 ARELLANO, Juan de, a Spanish painter, famous for his 
 exquisite skill m painting flowers, was bom at Torcaz in 1614, 
 and died in 1676. 
 
 ARELLANO, Gilles, or ^Egidius Easiirez de, member of 
 the council of Castile, president of the Inquisition, professor of 
 law, and author of able works on antiquities and jurispradence, 
 lived in the early part of the seventeenth centmy. 
 
 ARELLIUS, a Roman painter of the tune of Augustus, or 
 immediately after. He used to give in his goddesses the por- 
 traits of li\-ing models, a practice, according to Phny, objected 
 to and interfered with by an act of the Roman Senatus. 
 
 AREMBERG, a noble Gemian family, deriving its title from 
 a town and castle near Cologne. The countship of Ai-emberg, 
 in 1547, fell by marriage to the house of Eigne, and in 1576 
 was raised to a principality. 
 
 Aremberg, Leopold-Philip-Karl-Joseph von Eigne, 
 Duke of, was bom at Mons in 1690. Entering the Austrian 
 army, he was wounded at the battle of Malplaquet when nine- 
 teen. Servmg in Hungarj-, he received another wound at Teme- 
 swar. At the battle of Belgrade he commanded the right wing, 
 and, by his genius and energy, contributed to the victoiy. In 
 1737 he was made a field-marshal and commander-in-chief of 
 the ai-my of the Netherlands. He afterwards greatly distin- 
 guished himself at Dettingen. He was an ardent cultivator of 
 literature, and zealously patronised men of letters. Voltdre and 
 Rousseau were his intimate friends. Died in 1754. 
 
 Aremberg, Karl Leopold von Eigne, Duke of, son of 
 the preceding, became a field-marshal, and distinguished himself 
 during the seven years' war.
 
 ARE 
 
 203 
 
 ARE 
 
 Akemberg, Ll'dvic En'gelbkrt yon Ligxe, Duke of, soa 
 and successor of the preceding, died at Brussels 1820. — E. M. 
 
 ARENA, Antoixe d', a French jurist and Macaronic poet, 
 was bom near Toulon, and died in 1544. 
 
 ARENA, BARTHELEiiY, a French republican statesman, was 
 bom in Corsica in 1775, and died at Leghorn in 1829. 
 
 ARENA, Giuseppe, brother of the preceding, was made com- 
 mander of one of the Corsican battalions at the age of twenty- 
 one, and became adjutant-general dm^ing the campaign in Italy. 
 Apprehended in 1800 for participation in a plot against Napo- 
 leon, he was condemned and executed at Paris in 1802. 
 
 ARENA, Giuseppe, a musician, bom in Naples about the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, who composed " Tigi-ane," 
 '' Achille in Sciro," "Alessandro in Persia," " Farnace," operas 
 which were performed at Rome. 
 
 ARENA or HARENA, Jacobus, an Italian professor of 
 law, judge, and author of various able works on jurispnidence, 
 flomished in the first half of the fom-teenth centuiy. 
 
 ARENALES, Joze de, a South American officer, who, after 
 traversing a large portion of South America, published at 
 Buenos Ayres, in 1833, an interesting account of his travels. 
 
 AREND or AEENTS, Balthasar, a German theologian. 
 Died in 1687. He is author, among other works, of " Geistlicher 
 Krieg das Himmekeich mit Gewalt zu Stiirmen" (Spiritual war 
 to storm the Khigdom of Heaven \vith violence), Gliickstadt, 
 1671 ; and "Des Leibes nnd der Seelen Zustand nach dem Tode," 
 (State of Body and Soul after Death), Gliickstadt, 1776. 
 
 AREND or ARENTS, Caius, a Gei-man theologian, bom in 
 1614; died in 1691. He is author of '' Goldhaus ChristUcher 
 and von Gott gesegneter Ehefrauen," Gliickstadt, 1666 ; and 
 '' Drei Schoene Aniaranthen auf den Sarg, Dr. Christiani von 
 Stocken," Gliickstadt, 1685. Caius Arend suffered considerable 
 hardships during the troubles of the thu'ty years' war, and used 
 to fortify himself with the pithy maxim : — " Geduld frisst den 
 Teufel," (Patience eats up the de^il.) 
 
 ARENDS, Jan, a Dutch painter of distinction, whose pro- 
 ductions are mostly sea-pieces, was bom at Dodrecht in 1738, 
 and died in 1805. 
 
 ARENDS, Thomas, a Dutch dramatic poet of some merit, 
 who would have attained greater eminence had he trusted more 
 to Ms own genius, instead of imitating French models ; was 
 bom at Amsterdam in 1652, and died in 1700. 
 
 ARENDT, JLuiTix Frederic, a Danish antiquary, cele- 
 brated for his researches in various parts of Europe, was bom at 
 Altona in 1769. Having been sent by government on a botanic 
 mission, he \'isited the unexplored parts of Norway, and returned 
 with antiquarian observations instead of plants and seeds. This 
 lost him liis public situation. Devoting himself to the study of 
 languages and antiquities, he ^•isited various countries, endm-ed 
 great hardships, and died near Venice in 1824. 
 
 ARENSBECK, Peder Dierk, a distinguished Swedish clas- 
 sical and oriental Unguist, successively professor at Strengnas, 
 : ad pastor at Stockholm. He took part in a new translation of 
 tlie Bible into Swedish. Died in 1673. 
 
 ARESAS, a Pythagorean of JIagna Grsecia, successor to 
 I'ydas in the Pythagorean school of philosophy, and author of a 
 '.vork on the nature of man, of wliich some fragments remain. 
 
 ARESI, Paolo, a celebrated Italian preacher and theological 
 writer, was bom at Cremona in 1574, and died in 1644. 
 
 ARESON, Hans, a native of Iceland, distinguished as a poet, 
 was bom in 1484. Having early taken holy orders, he was 
 appointed bishop of Holum. He was forcibly ejected from his 
 -\:e by a neighbouring prelate, but reinstated in 1524. In 1540 
 lie opposed the Protestant rcfomiation, wliich was then spreading 
 into Iceland, under the sanction of Frederick III. of Denmark; 
 and finding himself unsupported by the rest of the clergy, broke 
 out into open rebellion. After some partial successes, he was 
 defeated at Saudufell, taken prisoner, and put to death along 
 with his illegitimate sons, ui 1550. Areson introduced the mi 
 of printing into his native countiy. — J. W. S. 
 
 ARESTI, Flouiano, a musician, who was bom in Bologna 
 in the latter part of the seventeenth century, where he held the 
 office of organist in the metropolitan church, and was a member 
 of the Pliilhannonic Academy. In 1712 he went to Venice, 
 where he died in or before 1719. He was much esteemed as a 
 dramatic composer for the excellence of the following operas: — 
 "Crisippo," FeiTara, 1710 ; ''Enigma disciolto," Bologna, 1710 ; 
 " La costanza in cimento con la crudelta," Venice, 1712; "II 
 
 trioiifo di Pallade in Ai-cadia," Bologna, 1716. — (Fetis Schil- 
 hng.)— G. A. M. 
 
 ARETJIUS, a physician of Cappadocia, of Greek origin, who 
 appears to have lived about a.d. 100, but of whom little is 
 knoii\Ti. He belonged to the eclectic school, and was a careful 
 observer in anatomy and physiolog)'. He is often alleged to 
 have distmguished the nerves of motion from those of sensation. 
 But the nerves of motion of Aretasus were most probably the 
 sinews or tendons, which were by the ancients in general con- 
 fomided under one name with the nen-es. He wTote upon leprosy, 
 upon fevei-s, and the diseases of females. An edition of his works, 
 byErmerins, was published at Utrecht in 1847. — J. W. S. 
 
 ARETAPHILA, a woman of Cyrene, whose beautv. vutue, 
 and patriotism are extolled by Plutarch in his book " De MuU- 
 erum Virtutibus." 
 
 ARETAS, a name common to several kings of Arabia Petrsea, 
 who lived m the 1st and 2nd centuries B.C. Of these we mention : 
 — Aeetas I., of whom nothing is known. — Aretas II. en- 
 gaged in war with the kings of Syria, and was made tributary 
 to the Roman empue by Pompey. — Aretas III. (Eneas) was 
 confii-med in his sovereignty by Augustus, and appears to have 
 possessed Damascus. 
 
 ARETE, a female philosopher of Cyrene, flourished towards the 
 end of the fom-th century b.c. 
 
 ARETHAS, an archbishop of Coesarea (Cappadocia), who 
 Uved towards the end of the tenth century, and wrote a commen- 
 tary on the Apocalypse. 
 
 ARETIN, Christoph, Baron von, was bom in 1773 at In- 
 goldstadt, and died in 1834 at Munich. Devoting himself to the 
 legal profession, he filled several important posts up till 1809, 
 about which thne his publication of a work in favour of Napoleon, 
 entitled " Die Plane Napoleon's nnd seiner Gegner in Deutsch- 
 land" (the Plans of Napoleon and of his Opponents in Germany), 
 led to the loss of aO the offices that he held, the principal" of 
 which was the chief Hbnuiansliip m the central library of Mmiich. 
 By the yeai- 1819, however, he had attained the position of pre- 
 sident of the appeal com-t of the Regenkreis. He had, in 
 the meantune, written a variety of political works applicable 
 to the times, and characterised by a liberal and popular 
 spirit. His plays, " Lud\\-ig der Baier," and "Das Madchen 
 aus Zante" (Lewis the Bavari;m, and the ilaiden of Zante), 
 published respectively in 1821 and 1822, have also a poUtical 
 tendency. His last work, completed by Rotteck, was — " Staats- 
 reeht der Constitutionellen Monarcliie," a new edition of which 
 was published at Leipsic in 1838-39. — {Conversations-Lex. 
 lO^er Avtl.)—A.. M. 
 
 ARETIN, Joa.i.sN Adam Christoph Joseph, Baron von, 
 brother of the preceding, a Bavarian dij)lomatist and \vriter, was 
 bom at lugoldstadt on the 24th August, 1769. He was early 
 employed in the diplomatic and admuiistrative services, but held 
 no very important posts in either till 1816, when he was appointed 
 chamberlam to the king. Next year he took his seat at the Diet 
 of Frankfort as representative of Bavaria. He died of apoplexy 
 on the 24th August, 1822. His works are : — 1. " Magazin 
 der BUdenden Kunste," 1791 ; 2. " Handbuch der Philosopliie 
 des Lebens," 1793; 3. "Catalogue des Estanipes gravces par 
 D. Chodo^viecky," 1796; 4. "Sammlungder Baierischen Staat^- 
 vertrage," 1801.— J. S., G. 
 
 * ARETIN, JoHANN Georg, Baron von, was bom on the 
 28th April, 1771. He has published a great number of works, 
 chiefly on agricultural science. 
 
 ARETINE, Florlvne, a composer of Bologna, who lived in 
 the latter part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ARETINO, Angelo, an Italian jurist, who lived in the fif- 
 teenth century at Rome and Ferrara, and wrote a commentary on 
 the " Institutes" of Justinian, and on the Pandects. 
 
 ARETINO or xVRRETIO, Buonaguida, an Italian writer on 
 canon law, of the thirteenth century. 
 
 ARETINO, Carlo, a distinguished scholar of the noble 
 family of Marsuppini of Ai'ezzo, was bom about 1399. His 
 father, Gregorio, was secretarj' to Charles VI. of France, and 
 governor of Genoa. Carlo received his education in Latin from 
 the celebrated Giovanni da Ravenna, and his Greek from Ema- 
 nuello Gresolora. He became intimate with Cosimo and Lorenzo 
 di Medici. He gave public lectmcs in Florence, which attracted 
 the attention of the learned, and, amongst others, of Eugenius 
 IV. He was appointed to the chair of rhetoric in Florence, 
 which he filled for many years; having, amongst his pupils,
 
 ^ 
 
 Benedetto Collucio, Jacopo riccolomini, and other distinguished 
 men. From 1441 to 144 1 he became secretary to Pope Eugenius 
 IV., on the recommendation of Lorenzo di Medici. He subse- 
 quently was made secretary to the Florentine republic, which 
 otlice he filled till his death, on the 24th April, 1453, in his 
 fifty-fourth year. Carlo .iVi-etino is described by one of his bio- 
 graphers as " modest, temperate, a man of few words, of a hand- 
 some presence, thoughtful, and somewhat melancholy." Besides 
 many orations, he transhited the Bafrachomyomaclna into Latin 
 hexameters, a performance that is highly spoken of. Ho also 
 translated tlio "Odessey" and part of the "Iliad" into Latin, 
 and composed several original poems in that language. — J. F. W. 
 
 ARETINO, Giovanni, flomished in the fifteenth century. 
 He was suniamcd Tortellius. He was chamberlain to Pope 
 Nicholas V. He wrote a book "De Potestate Literanim." It is 
 affirmed that his learning was insignificant, and that he would 
 never have been heard of, if he had not held an office so near 
 the person of the pope. 
 
 ARETIKO, Giovanni Appoloni, a distinguished musician 
 of the sixteenth century. Many of his madrigals have been 
 published. 
 
 ARETINO, Leonakpo, so called because he was of Arezzo, 
 and better known under this designation than that of his family 
 name, Brunus or Bruni, was born about 1370. He was an able 
 Greek scholar, and contributed much to the restoration of classi- 
 cal literature in Italy. He translated into Latin some of the 
 lives of Plutarch, and the ethics of Aristotle. He composed 
 three books of the Punic war, as a supplement to those which 
 are wanting in Livy. He is blamed for having .appropriated 
 to himself some writings which he had only translated from 
 the Greek of Procopius. He died at Florence in the year 
 1443. Gesner, in his Bibliothcca, gives a catalogue of his 
 works ; and it is confidently affirmed that a large collection of 
 his MS. letters is extant in the libraiy of the university of 
 Oxford. In the year 1434, he was secretary to Pope Innocent 
 VII. He had previously been appointed (in the year 1413) 
 secretary to Pope John XXIII., and accompanied him to the 
 council of Constance. He was frugal and conscientious in his 
 habits ; and though mixed up with the fierce schisms of the 
 popedom, he maint.aincd lys integrity to the last. — T. J. 
 
 ARETINO, PiETRO, one of the many celebrities who owe 
 their birth and cognomen to the town of Arezzo in Italy, was 
 the natural son of Luigi Bacci, a gentleman of that to-ivn. He 
 was bom on the 20th of April, 1492. Of the earlier part of 
 his life there is little to be commemorated, having followed the 
 trade of a bookbinder, in which occupation he seems to have 
 gained a knowledge of letters. Before he had attained his 
 twentieth year he commenced writing, and amongst other pub- 
 lications he WTOte a sonnet against indulgences, which was re- 
 ceived with such disfavour that he was forced to fly from Arezzo 
 to Perugia. He subseipiently wandered throughout Italy for some 
 years, and at length settled at Rome, where he attached himself 
 first to Pope Ixo X. and afterwards to Clement VII. Here he 
 fonned the acquaintance of some of the greatest men of his age ; 
 and it is said that, at a subsequent period, he was recommended 
 for a cardinal's hat, and was veiy near obtaining that high dis- 
 tinction. During his stay at Rome, he occupied himself in the 
 production of many of his works, the greatest portion of which 
 are characterized by their gross licentiousness and impudent and 
 slanderous attacks on men of rank. At length he composed six- 
 teen sonnets upon the sixteen obscene pictures of Giulio Romano, 
 but their grossncss was so intolerable that he was obliged to fly 
 from Rome ; and placing himself under the protection of the 
 celebrated capt.iin of " the black band," Giovanni di Medici, he 
 accompanied him to Milan, where he succeeded in ingratiating 
 liimself with Francis I., who gave him a costly gold chain as a 
 mark of his regard. Pietro attempted to regain the favour of his 
 Roman patrons, but failed by reason of an amour with one of 
 tlie domestics of a high official of the pope. In 1527 he went 
 to Venice, in which city he remained till his death. During 
 this period he occupied himself in writing, not only licentious 
 and satirical pieces, but also works on morality and divinity. 
 Tlie production of these last cannot be attributed to any senti- 
 ment of real piety : this his disgraceful life and morals, which 
 he never abandoned, show to be impossible. He was actuated 
 solely by the love of money, upon the acquisition of which he 
 was mainly intent ; and, indeed, one of his literary pursuits was 
 the composition of fulsome and me;m letters to great and wealthy 
 
 men soliciting pecuniaiy aid. In this he was singularly success- 
 ful, and there were few potentates of Europe from whom he did 
 not receive gifts or pensions. In this course of life Aretino lived 
 to his sixty-fifth year, when, in 1555, death surprised him in 
 the very indulgence of his libertine thoughts. He was buried 
 in the chiu-ch of St. Luca in Venice. 
 
 Time has done ample justice to the memoiy of this man by 
 stripping him of the high reputation which he had unduly ac- 
 quired as a man of letters, and exhibiting him to the world in 
 his disgusting moral defonnity, as impudent, sensual, gross, and 
 profligate ; one who abused and prostituted his genius to the 
 worst pui-poses. That he was possessed of excellent natural 
 abilities and of some learning is not to be denied, but he was in 
 this last respect gi-eatly inferior to many of his contemporaries ; 
 and the titles of "Divino" and "Flagello de' principi," by which 
 he was known, appear to us now as if conferred rather in deri- 
 sion than in honour. Whether the former title was originally 
 assumed by himself (to which his impudence was quite equal) 
 or confen-ed upon him by his admirers, certain it is that he 
 used it on all occasions, and invariably affixed it to his signa- 
 ture. The latter title was a piece of empty braggadocio. He 
 had not the courage, though he had the will, to assail princes, 
 save when they were powerless to avenge themselves, as in the 
 case of Clement VII. He was content to satisfy his malignant 
 nature by attacking men of genius and distinction, whose rank 
 was not sufficiently elevated to make them fomiidable, or likely 
 to mar his worldly prospects. Yet such an arrant poltroon was 
 he, that he constantly skulked and concealed himself in dread 
 of chastisement fi-om those he libelled. In this he was not al- 
 ways successful. 
 
 The works of Aretino are enumerated and described very fully 
 by JIazzuchelli ; they are difficult to be procured, and not worth 
 procuring. Those in prose amount to thirteen in number, his 
 poetical compositions are sixteen ; besides these, four other works 
 are attributed to him, but without sufficient authority. His 
 dramatic pieces alone can be considered to have much merit. 
 Of Aretino's " Dialogues," we hesitate not to say, that but for 
 their licentiousness and immorality, they would excite no feeling 
 but contempt. His theological pieces exhibit gross ignorance. 
 His poetical compositions are of unequal merit ; many of them are 
 extremely gross, others are satirical and malevolent ; and one, a 
 tragedy in blank verse, " L'Orazia," the Abbe Ginguene speaks 
 of in very high terais. — J. F. W. 
 
 ARETINO, Ranuocio, lived in the 15th centuiy, was apos- 
 tolic secretary to Nicolas V. He was a good classical scholar, 
 and has left some translations of Greek works into Latin. 
 
 ARETINO. See Guido. 
 
 ARETINO, Spinello. See Spineixo. 
 
 ARETINUS, Franc, a learned lawyer, who flourished at 
 Siena in 1443, and came to Rome in the time of Sextus IV. 
 
 ARETINUS, Franc, an excellent Greek scholar of the 
 fifteenth century, who translated some of Chrysostom's com- 
 mentaries and sermons. 
 
 ARETINUS, Paulus, an It.alian physician of the latter part 
 of the sixteenth century, published " Responsoria Hebdomada; 
 Sancta3," &c., Venice, 1567, and " Sacra Responsoria," &c., 
 Venice, 1574. Nothing is known of his life. 
 
 ARETIUS, Benedict, bom at Beme about 1505, was 
 celebrated as a Swiss preacher and botanist, lie was appointed 
 in 1548 professor of logic in the university of Marbourg, but he 
 soon relinquished that office and returned to Berne. In 15G3 
 he became professor of languages. He was an ardent Calvinist 
 and an able theologian. He kept up a coiTespondence with Con- 
 rad Gesner and other scientific men, and he prosecuted botanical 
 science. He made frequent trips to the Swiss mountains for the 
 purpose of herborizing, and he published an account of the flora 
 of Stockhom and Niessen, two mountains in the canton of Berne. 
 He published also theological works of merit, of which the best 
 known are his Commentary on the New Testament and his 
 " Problemata Theologica." He wrote also on medicine and 
 astronomy. The name of Aretia is given to a genus of primu- 
 laceous plants. Aretius died on 22nd April, 1574. — J. H. B. 
 
 AREUS, the name of two kings of Sparta: — Aretjs I., 
 twenty-sixth king of Sparta, succeeded his grandfather Cleo- 
 menes II. in 309 b.c, .and reigned till 2G5 B.C., when he fell in 
 a battle against the Macedonians. — Areus II., grandson of 
 Areus I., reigned as a child for eight years under the tutelage of 
 his uncle Leonidas II., 265-25G b.c
 
 ARE 
 
 205 
 
 AEG 
 
 AREZZO, Betrico d', an Italian poet of the fourteenth 
 century, bom either at Arezzo or Reggio. Nothing is known of 
 his life. His poems are : — 1. Two " Ballate," with the " Canzoni 
 di Dante," 1518 ; 2. " Rime," at the end of Giusto de' Conti's 
 "BeUa Mano," 1750.— J. S., G. 
 
 AREZZO, Claudio Mario, a Sicilian historian and poet, 
 lived towards the middle of the sixteenth century. He was bom 
 at Syracuse of a noble family, and attracted by his learning the 
 notice of Charles V., whom, in the character of historiographer, 
 he accompanied in his ItaUan and German wars. Some time 
 after his return to his native city, he became the object of a con- 
 spiracy which threatened his life, and he fled into Spain. An 
 edition of his works was published at Basle in 1544, with the 
 title " CI. Jlaiii Aretii Libri aliquot, lectu non minus jucundi 
 quam utiles : quomm seriem versa pagina videbis ; omnia non 
 ante visa." — J. S., G. 
 
 AREZZO, Do:mexico d', a poet who lived in the end of the 
 fomleenth century, and wrote a voluminous work, entitled 
 " Pons MemorabUium Uuiversi," preserved in MS. in the Vatican 
 hbrary at Rome. 
 
 AREZZO, Fraxcesco d', a monk of the Franciscan order, 
 
 nfessor to Ferdinand I., duke of Tuscany, and author of several 
 ::i'?ological works, died in 1616. His principal performance is 
 entitled, " Summa theologiae speculativje et moralis, ac com- 
 mentaria scholastica in tertium et quartum sententiarum libnun 
 Joannis Duns Scoti," 1581. 
 
 AREZZO, Frederigo d', an Italian poet, contemporary 
 with Petrarch, who wrote two letters to him. Crescimbeni 
 says that his style was elegant and easy, and his thoughts poeti- 
 cal and graceful. Several of his poems are preserved in the 
 Vatican library at Rome. 
 
 AREZZO, Gambemo d', a poet, who flourished about 1471, 
 in the time of Duke Borso da Este. Amongst other works he 
 composed a poem in two books, the first treating of the private 
 f iimlies of Arezzo ; and the second, of the distinguished men of 
 that city, and of Italy in general. This poem is preserved in 
 MS. in Florence. He also wrote a poem in terza rima, which 
 he called a comedia, after the great work of Dante. — J. F. W. 
 
 AREZZO, Gorello d' or Ser Gorello de' S^^^GARDI, 
 was a native of Arezzo, lived in the fourteenth century, and 
 vrrote the " Cronaca di Ser Gorello," a metrical history of his 
 native town, from 1310 to 1384. This curious work is pre- 
 served in the " Rerum Italicarum Scriptores," vol. xv. 
 
 AREZZO, GuiTTOXE d', one of the earliest of the Italian 
 poets, having hved about the middle of the' thirteenth centmy. 
 Of his birth or early history we have not much information of a 
 reliable character. Some assert he was bom at Arezzo, from 
 which he takes his cognomen, while ilazzucheUi, on the autho- 
 rity of a passage in a letter of Pietro Aretino, asserts tliat he 
 was a native of the territory of Lubbiano. The family from 
 which he sprang is equally a matter of dispute, but upon all 
 bands it is agreed to have been a respectable one. He is said 
 to have served with distinction in the wars between the Floren- 
 tine republic and the Pisans, in which he was severely wounded. 
 He then, in 1267, entered into an association of gentlemen, 
 known as the " Fratelli Guadcnti," a sort of military order 
 established by Loderingo d'Andolo, whence he acquired the title 
 of Fra Guittone. He subsequently founded the monastery " degli 
 AngeU" at Florence, but died in 1294 before its completion. 
 As a poet, Guittone deservedly ranks amongst the founders of 
 the art in Italy, as well as one of the early formers of the pure 
 style of Italian prose. He is not indeed the author of the son- 
 net, as some have asserted, but he was assuredly the first wlio 
 gave it polish and regularity. Both Dante and Petrarch make 
 mention of Guittone ; the former in the Piu-gatorio, as a writer 
 of amatory poetry, and again in his work, " De Vulgari Elo- 
 quentia ;" but he does not form a high estimate of him. Petrarch 
 is more favourably disposed towards him, and speaks of him ap- 
 provingly both in a sonnet and in his " Trionfo d'Amore." His 
 works are enumerated by JIazzuchelli. Most of the poems have 
 been published in the " Antichi Poeti," Venice, 1532, and else- 
 where. His prose works were collected by Bottari ; Rome, 
 1745. — (Ginguen(5, Tiraboschi.) — .7. F. W. 
 
 AREZZO, Paoi.o d' or Scipione Burali d'Arezzo, was 
 bom at Atri, near Gaeta, 1511. After some years' brilliant suc- 
 cess as a la\vyer, dmnng which Charles V. made him a mcmbo- 
 of the collateral council of the kingdom of Naples, a disgust for 
 the world taking possession of him, he retu-ed into a monasteiy 
 
 of the Theatine order, and devoted himself entirely to devout 
 meditation and the discharge of pious ofiices. His contempt for 
 worldly distinction seems to have been very sincere, as he suc- 
 cessively refused not only several bishoprics which were pressed 
 upon his acceptance, but declined the honours of the archiepis- 
 copal see of Brindisi, to which he was called by Pliilip II. in 
 1562. His talents, however, were of such service to the church, 
 that the pope coidd not allow him to remain in obscurity. He 
 was first nominated bishop of Piacenza in 1568 ; two years 
 afterwards had a cardinal's hat conferred upon him ; and finally, 
 in 1576, was compelled by the sovereign pontiflF to accept the 
 archiepiscopate of Naples — a dignity, however, which he did not 
 Uve to fiU, having died a few days after his appointment to it. 
 He is chiefly remembered for his bold and successful resistance 
 to Phihp's renewed attempts to introduce the inquisition into 
 Italy.— (UghelH, Italia Sacra.)—S. 
 
 AREZZO, TojniAso, was bora at Orbitello, in Tuscany, m 
 1756. Having taken orders. Pope Pius VI. placed such con- 
 fidence in his abiUty and discretion as to send him as his dele- 
 gate to Russia, for the purpose of endeavouring to effect a union 
 between the Greek and Romish churches, — a mission, the object 
 of which was frustrated by the death of Paul I. Arezzo was 
 summoned by Napoleon to a conference at Berlin, at which the 
 emperor strove to inoculate him with views inimical to the inter- 
 ests of Rome, but without success, for immediately on his arrival 
 in the Holy City, Arezzo betrayed his confidence to the pope, 
 who nominated him governor of Rome during its occupation by 
 the French in 1808. On the return of Pius VII. to the Etem:il 
 City, Arezzo was immediately promoted, with the dignity of car- 
 dinal, to many high offices; the last to which he was raised being 
 that of vice-chancellor of the chiu-ch, bestowed on him by Pius 
 ^^II. He died at Rome in 1833. His memoirs, written by 
 himself, but never published, contain matter of much interest 
 regai'ding the stuTing period in wluch he lived. He was foimder 
 of the celebrated academy Degli Ariostei, and the restorer of 
 the college of Jesuits, founded at Ferrara, by Ignatius Loyola. 
 — (Arnault, Biograjihie des Contemporams.^)—S. 
 
 ARFE, Henrique de, a German silversmith and sculptor, 
 established in Spain about 1500, where he executed the taber- 
 nacles of the cathedrals of Leon, Cordova, and Toledo, all works 
 that still retain the German style. His son Antonio and 
 grandson Juan, the latter especially, continued the same career 
 with great success, having, however, modified the old style of the 
 father into one of more modem character. The tabernacle of 
 Se\ille, by Juan, is considered a masterpiece of taste in design, 
 and delicacy in execution. Juan wrote, besides, a treatise on 
 die-sinking, a branch in which he was also very proficient. An- 
 other member of the same family, Jose dk Arfe, having 
 studied in Italy, fm-ther enlarged his style, and executed several 
 colossal works for the cathedral of Seville, said to have been 
 admirable, but unfortunately lost to us. Died in 1666. — R. M. 
 
 AEFIAN, Antonio de, a pupil of Luis de Vargas, and a 
 celebrated painter both in oil and in fi-esco, in the latter of which 
 he more particularly excelled, — flourished at Seville, in Spain, 
 about the middle of the sixteenth centiuy. He was the first 
 who in painting bas-reliefs, by gi\'ing them a background, gave 
 them the appearance of standing out from the canvass. His son 
 Alonzo was also celebrated as a painter. — S. 
 
 ARGAIZ, Gregorio de, a Spanish monk, who lived in the 
 17th century, and wrote a historj' of the Spanish church, which 
 was discovered to have been comjiiled from forged documents. 
 
 ARGALL, John, a student of Christchurch, Oxford, in the 
 latter pai-t of Queen Mar}''s reign. In Elizabeth's roign he took 
 orders, and obtained the living of Halesworth, in Sullblk. He 
 died suddenly in 1606. He published two tracts, " De vera 
 Penitentia," and "Introductio ad artem Dialecticam." 
 
 ARGALL, Richard, an Enghsh poet of Uttle repntc, who 
 lived in the reign of James I. 
 
 ARGAND, AiMft, a natural philosopher and chemist, was 
 bom at Geneva about the midtlle of last century. He was the 
 inventor of the lamp called by his name, which was produced 
 while he was resident in England in the year 1782. A 
 person named Lang^ pretended to have perfected his discovery, 
 by adding to the burner a glass chimney, which, confining 
 the air around the flame, causes it to rise above the wick, 
 and thereby to give a much gi-cater amount of light than it 
 could othenvisc do ; although the fact appears to be, that this 
 improvement had already been made by Argand's brother.
 
 Lango persisting in his claim as original discoverer of this 
 method of concentrating the light, Argand compromised the 
 matter with him, and they jointly took out a patent for the 
 exclusive manufacture and sale of the lamps. This monopoly 
 excited the jealousy of the whole trade engaged in the manufiic- 
 ture of lamps ; and the outbreak of the Revolution, by sweeping 
 away all privileges, eftectually deprived poor Argand of any 
 advantage he might have gained from his invention. Mortified 
 and heart-broken, he withdrew from England to Geneva, where 
 he betook himself to the visionaiy science of alchemy, and died 
 in 1803, in great poverty. — S. 
 
 AUGATHONIUS, a king of Tartessus, in Spain, who lived 
 in the sixth century li.c, and is said to have attained a gi-eat 
 age. Herodotus relates that the Phoca^ans vi.sited Tartessus in 
 the reign of this prince, and were kindly entertained by him. 
 He is said to have reigned eighty years. 
 
 * AKGELANDEli, Fiieukiuck-William-Augustus, a 
 Piiissian astronomer, born at Memel in 1799. This distin- 
 guished person first occupied the presidency of the observatory 
 at Abo ; from which he was translated to the chair of Bonn, 
 where he still resides. He is of the class of the men of whom 
 Bessel was the type on the continent, and which are repre- 
 sented by Airy and Kobinson in our own country, — men who 
 join mechanical tact in observing to the fullest science. Arge- 
 lander's memoirs are very nmnerous, and of great value. We 
 may specify his work on the " Sun's Motion of Translation," 
 and, although of a lighter kind, an " Essay on the Zodiacal 
 Light." His greatest work, however, is undoubtedly the "Atlas 
 of the Stai's," on an extension of which his remarkable and 
 steady energies are now employed. — J. P. N. 
 
 ARGELLATI, Filippo, one of the most celebrated biblio- 
 graphers of Italy, was bom at Bologna' in 1685, and died at 
 Milan in 1755. Entkely devoted to the interests of literature, 
 little is known of his uneventful life, and that little reflects less 
 his character as an author tlian as the editor and publisher of 
 other men's works. It was solely owing to his dismterested 
 representations, that his gr(!at patron, Count Carlo Archinto, 
 formed that society of Jlilanese noblemen, from whose press, 
 called " yEdes Palatina?," issued so many valuable works. The 
 first of these was Muratori's celebrated collection, in twenty-five 
 vols., entitled "Kerum Italicaiiim Scriptores;" on the appearance 
 of which, the Emperor Charles VI. granted Argellati an annual 
 pension of three hundred ducats, with an honorary title of im- 
 perial secretaiy, to which were added an additional three hundred 
 ducats, on the republication, at the same press, of the works of 
 Sigonius. — (Tipaldo, Biog. degli Ital. lUust. del Sec.) — S. 
 
 ARGELLATI, Francesco, son of the preceding, was bom 
 at Bologna 1712 ; died 1754. He was appointed engineer to 
 the emperor in 1740, and seems to have been a man of consider- 
 able science. He has left works on various subjects, particulaily 
 a Decameron in imitation of Boccaccio's. — S. 
 
 ARGENS, Jean Baptiste Boyer, Marquis d', one of the 
 shallowest and most useless of that tribe of superficial freethinkers, 
 whom Frederick the Great congregated ai'ound him, luider the 
 pleasant fancy that they were philosophers. Bom in 1704 at Aix 
 in Provence, he had scarcely reached the condition of manhood 
 when he ran off with an actress, to Spain. His father took the 
 trouble to send after him : he was captiu-ed and brought home. 
 He foimd refuge in the anny, at that time, or even later, no 
 gi-eat hinderance to indidgence; but on account of an injury, 
 caused by the fall of his horse, he w<is obliged to leave it in 
 1734 : — while a soldier, D'Argens was of course gallant enough. 
 Disinherited by his father, he set to write for food : it must 
 have been his marquisate which, even at that fiat period, enabled 
 liim to extract the shabbiest dinners from sheer fiinisiness like 
 those "Jemsh Letters," "Chinese Letters," "CabaUstic Letters," 
 &c. While prince-royal, Frederick sent for him, and afterwards 
 attached liim to his com't, giving him a pension of £300 a year. 
 D'Argens stiU wrote on, and produced his " Philosophy of Good 
 Sense," — dreariest of all dreary treatises ! By-and-by he eloped 
 with another actress, and lost the favour of Frederick. It were 
 a prostitution of the name, to designate the writings of a set 
 of persons like D'Ai-gens, as Philosophy : he has left nothing 
 worth opening but his rather clever correspondence with the King. 
 D'Argens, of course, did not believe in a God ; but he believed in 
 the DevU. He was a prey to the absurdest superstitions, having 
 firm faith in imlucky and lucky days, and trembling from head 
 to foot on finding himself the tliirtceuth guest at a dinner-table. 
 
 He must, we presume, have been of some use : it is said that 
 he exercised his official influence with special purity. D'Ar- 
 gens cfied in Provence on 11th January, 1771. liequiescat — 
 we have no desire for his reappearance or the rehabilitation of 
 the like of him on earth ! — J. P. N. 
 
 AKGENS, Luc de Boyer, Chevalier d', a brother of the j 
 preceding, who entered the Maltese order, and died in 1772. '' 
 
 ARGENSOLA, Bartholome Leonardo y, a brother oF 
 Lupercio L., was bom in 1566, wrote a variety of historical 
 works, and died in 1G31. 
 
 ARGENSOLA, Lupercio Leonardo y, a Spanish historian 
 and tragedian, was bom in 1563, at Barbastro; studied at Sara- 
 gossa; became secretary of state to the viceroy of Naples; and 
 died in that city in 1613. 
 
 ARGENSON, Voy'er d', a family of Touraine in France. 
 
 Ren]5 de Voyer, Comte d'Argenson, filled various impor- 
 tant functions under Richelieu and Mazarin. He died in 1651. 
 
 Marc Renj^ d' Argenson, a grandson of the preceding, 
 became lieutenant-general of police in Paris, an office which he 
 filled in the most admirable manner. He was aften\-ards made 
 president of the council of finance, but, becoming involved in 
 the schemes of Law, he was obliged to resign, and died in 1721. 
 
 Ren£ Louis, Marquis d'Argenson, was bom in 1696, 
 and distinguished himself as a political writer. His views are 
 more In accordance with those of the present day than of his own. 
 His work on the government of France was reprinted in 1787. 
 
 Marc Pierre, Comte d'Argenson, was born in 1696, 
 became minister to Louis XV., and rendered the greatest services 
 to his country in the war which was tenninated by the treaty 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle. He enjoyed the friendship of D'Alembert, 
 Diderot, and Voltaire ; and the celebrated Encyclopedia was 
 dedicated to him. He died in 1764. 
 
 Marc Antoine Ren^ de Paulmy' undertook the publica- 
 tion of a universal library of novels, of which forty volumes only 
 appeared. He died in 1787, governor of the arsenal. 
 
 I\Iarc Rene, Marquis de Voy'er, was born in 1772, dis- 
 tinguished himself at Foutenoy, and was created a field-marshal. 
 He died in 1782. 
 
 Marc Rene de Voyer d'Argenson, a politician of the 
 Revolution era, was bom in 1771, and died in 1842. — J. W. S. 
 
 ARGENTA, Jacopo, of Ferrara, became painter to the court 
 of Turin in 1561. No work by this artist remains, and Lanzi 
 thinks he must have been an Illuminator rather than a painter. 
 
 ARGENTAL, Ciiakees Augustin de Ferriol, Count, a 
 French diplomatist, the intimate friend of Voltaire, died in 1788. 
 
 ARGENTELLE, Louis Marc Antoine Robillard d', 
 a French botanist, who resided for a long time in India and the 
 Mauritius. He was bom in 1777, and died in 1828. 
 
 ARGENTERIO, Giovanni, a Piedmontese physician of the 
 sixteenth century, who taught the medical sciences at Turin, 
 Naples and Pisa, and everywhere appeared as an opponent of 
 Galen. Two of his brothers, Bartoloji£ and Giacomo, were 
 likewise distinguished physicians. 
 
 ARGENTI or ARIENTI, Agostino, an Italian lawyer, who 
 was one of the earliest pastoral dramatists in the modem ItaUan 
 language. He published his " Lo Sfortunato" at Venice in 
 1568. Died in 1576. 
 
 ARGENTI or ARIENTI, Borso, a lawyer, afterwards an 
 ecclesiastic, brother of the preceding, and like him, known as one 
 of the minor poets of Italy, died in 1594. 
 
 ARGENTI, Giovanni, a Jesuit of Modena, who was born in 
 1564, and died in 1629, leaving works on the state of his order 
 in the northern and eastern parts of Europe. 
 
 ARGENTINI, Stefano, a nmsician of Rimini in Italy, who 
 lived towards the beginning of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ARGENTO, Gaetano, a jurist of Naples, was born In 1662, 
 was raised by the Emperor Charles VI. to the rank of vice- 
 prothonotary in 1714, and died in 1730. 
 
 ARGENTRIj;, Beutkand d', a jurist of Bretagne, noted for 
 his strenuous exertions for the preservation of the privileges of 
 the feudal nobility of his native province, and his opposition to 
 the centrahzing measures of the French government. He wrote 
 a histoiy of his native province. Bora in 1519; died in 1590. 
 
 ARGEXTRI5, Charles du Plessis d', bishop of Tulle, 
 and author of numerous learned and able religious and ecclesias- 
 tical works, was bom near Vitre in 1673, and died in 1740. 
 
 ARGENVILLE, D'. See Dezallier. 
 
 ARGER, Pierre, a native of Flanders, who repeatedly 
 
 l^
 
 AEG 
 
 207 
 
 ARI 
 
 repaired to Paris to assassinate Henry IV. Detected and con- 
 victed, he was put to death on the wheel, along with his accom- 
 plice Ricodivi, in 1589. 
 
 ARGHUN KHAN, the fom-th Persian king of the race of 
 .Jenghis Khan, ascended the throne in the year 1284, and 
 reigned for six years and a half. His uncle Nikudar, whom he 
 succeeded, had been zealously attached to the JIahomedan faith, 
 and a cruel persecutor of the Jews and Christians. Arghun 
 changed this policy, tolerated aU religions, and rather favoured 
 the members of these persecuted sects, elevatins them to the 
 more important offices. His first measure was to avenge the death 
 f his father, Abaka, whom he had reason to suspect had been put 
 : ' death by his uncle's favourite, Shams-ud-din. Arghun raised 
 : 1 the office of prime minister, a Jew named Sa'd-ud-daula, who, 
 Called in various languages, and in the revenues of the provinces, 
 -ucceeded in working numerous reforms, and in raising the em- 
 ;Lre to a state of unexampled prosperity. Arghun died in 1291, 
 and was succeeded by his brother K;u Khatu. — J. B. 
 
 ARGILEOXIS, the mother of Brasidas the Spartan general. 
 When complimented by strangers on the matchless valour of her 
 -on, she modestly replied : "My son was brave, but Sparta has 
 -rill many citizens as good as Brasidas." — E. M. 
 
 ARGILLATA or ARGELLATA. Pieteo d' an anatomist 
 
 nd surgeon, who occupied the chair of logic, astrology, and 
 
 .edicine at Bologna, early in the 1.5 th centnry, and is said to 
 
 xve taught the doctrines of Avicenna. He died in 1423, and 
 
 .ft a work entitled " Chirurgiffi Libri Sex," (Venice, 1480.) 
 
 ARGOLI, AxDREA, an astronomer, bom in 1568 at Taglio- 
 ■zzo, in the NeapoUtan province of Abruzzo, died in 1657. 
 His writings are chiefly on mathematical subjects. A brother of 
 liis was a noted polemic ; and a son of his, Giovaxni, was a juiist, 
 and wrote annotations on several of the classics, some of which 
 •'.re preserved in the Thesaurus of Graevius. 
 
 ARGOXNE, Noel, or Boxa^-enture d', a French advo- 
 ate, afterwards a Carthusian monk, author of numerous able 
 • orks, theological and literary, was bom at Paris in 1634, and 
 Tied near Rouen in 1704. 
 
 ARGOTE, Jekoxoio Coxtadoe d', born in Collares 1676, 
 as one of the earliest members of the Royal Academy of 
 i [istory at Lisbon, and was employed by John V. of Portugal 
 I write a history of the archiepiscopal church at Braga. 
 i le has left a work entitled " De Antiquitatibus conventus 
 liracaraugustani Libri Quatuor, Vemaculo Latinoque Sermone 
 Conscripti," printed in 1728. Argote died in 1749. — J. B. 
 
 ARGOTE DE MOLINA, Don Gonzalo, a Spanish soldier, 
 bora at Seville in 1549, was distinguished imder Philip II. In 
 hLs wars against the Moors, and also for his contributions to 
 literature. He wrote on hunting, and an account of the noble 
 fiunUies of Andalusia. Died in 1590. 
 
 ARGOU, Gabriel, bom at Vivarais, took his oath as an 
 advocate in the parliament of Paris in 1664, and died some time 
 before 1710. He has left several works, the best known of 
 which is his " Institution an Droit Franpais," which some have 
 ascribed to the Abbe Fleury, with whom he was on terms of 
 great intimacy. — J. B. 
 
 * ARGOUT, Antoene-Maurice-Apollixaire, an able, up- 
 right, and laborious French statesman and financier, was bom in 
 1784. Entering at the age of twenty the administrative service, 
 Le successively held high preferments during the empire, and after 
 the restoration. Faithfiil to Charles X. till his abdication, he 
 served under Louis Philippe with equal zeal, and subsequently 
 to 1848 has continued to devote his great powers and experience 
 to the public service. In 1852 he was made a senator. — E. M. 
 
 ARGUELLES, Augustine, a Spanish patriot and statesman, 
 was bom at Ribadesella, a small to'ivn hi the Astnrias, in 1775. 
 He played a conspicuous part as a liberal royalist, during the 
 revolutionary movement in Spain, and for a time was tutor to 
 the young queen and her sister. Died 1844. 
 
 ARGUJO, ARGUIXO, or ARGUISO, Juan de, was bom 
 at Seville in the latter half of the sixteenth century. He was 
 a musician as well as a poet, but is remembered now only from 
 Lope de Vega having dedicated some of his works to him. 
 
 * ARGYLL, Duke of. See Campbell. 
 ARGYRAMMOS, Alexander, a passionate lover of the 
 
 ancient glory of his native countrj', Greece. He devoted his 
 energies to the compilation and publication of the great Greek 
 Lexicon, called KiSutos the first volume of which appeared in 
 the year 1819. 
 
 ARGYROPYLUS, John, a man of great learning, bom at 
 Constantinople in the beginning of the fifteenth centurv, came 
 into Italy as a teacher of Greek in the year 1434. He was so 
 prejudiced in favour of the Grecian philosophy, as to deny all 
 merit to the Latin writers. Under the protection of the Medici, 
 he contributed much to the revival of Greek learning, and pub- 
 lished a translation of many of the writings of Aristotle. Died 
 at Rome in the seventieth year of his age, about 1489. — S. 
 
 ARGYRUS, Isaac, a Greek monk of the fourteenth centnry, 
 celebrated as an astronomer. Almost all the most important 
 Ubraries of Europe contain some of his writings, which have not, 
 however, been considered of sufficient importance to be collected. 
 
 ARI or ARA, sumamed Hin Frodi or " The Leamed," was 
 bom in Iceland in 1068. He was educated under a leamed 
 layman, named Hall Thoraiinsson, whose instructions he en- 
 joyed tUl Hall died, at the age of ninety-four. It is supposed 
 that from the conversation of this sage, he acquired much of the 
 knowledge which fitted him for becoming the earliest historian 
 of his native island. It is said that Ari afterwards visited Ger- 
 many, but this is extremely doubtful. He entered into holy 
 orders, and died in the year 1148. Ari began a book named 
 " Landnamabok," or, a history of the colonization of Iceland, 
 which was completed by subsequent writers. He also wrote the 
 " Islendinga-Bok," which is of great interest to students of the 
 early history of that island. Snorro Sturleson, in his " Heims- 
 kringla," speaks of a work by the same author on the kings of 
 Norway, which has however perished. — J. B. 
 
 ARIADNE, the daughter of Leo I., and successively the wife of 
 two emperors of Constantinople, Zeno and Anastasius I., Kved 
 in the early part of the fifth century. There are conflicting 
 accounts of the incidents of her life among various writers, but 
 all agree that she was a woman of much talent and energv. 
 
 ARLEUS or ARID.EUS, one of the generals of Cyrus the 
 younger, to whom the Persians, after the battle of Cunaxa, 
 offered the crown. Lived about 400 B.C. 
 
 ARIALDUS, a deacon of the Milanese church, took a promi- 
 nent part in the controversy concerning the celibacy of the 
 priesthood, during the pontificates of Stephen X., Nicholas II., 
 and Alexander II. He was put to death by order of Oliva, a 
 niece of the archbishop of Lilian, in the year 1066. Pope 
 Alexander II. caused his name to be added to the calendar. 
 
 ARIARATHES, the name of nine kings of Cappadocia, who 
 flourished between 370 and 36 B.C. 
 
 ARLA.RATHE3 I. was the eldest son of Ariamnes, and so lov. d 
 his brother Holophemes, that he not only exalted him to the 
 highest dignities in the state, but adopted his children as his 
 own. On the death of Alexander the Great, Eumenes went to 
 take possession of Cappadocia, but met with a vigorous repulse 
 from Ariarathes, whom, however, he finally defeated and put 
 to death, with many of his followers, 322 B.C. 
 
 Akiarathes II., son of Holophemes. After the death of 
 his uncle, he took refuge, ■nith a few of his friends, in Armenia, 
 until the death of Eumenes, when, bemg assisted by Ardoates, 
 king of the countrv-, he returned into Cappadocia, and recovered 
 the kingdom, which he left in peace to his eldest son. 
 
 Ariarathes III., before he succeeded to the sole possession 
 of the throne, reigned for some years along with his father, 
 Ariarathes II. His wife was Stratoiiice, a daughter of the king of 
 Syiia. He died 220 B.C. 
 
 Ariarathes IV., while still a child, succeeded his fiithcr, 
 220 B.C., died 166 B.C. His wife, Antiochis, daughter of An- 
 tiochus the Great, being disappointed in her hopes of gi^ng an 
 heir to the throne, imposed upon her husband two supposititious 
 sons, whom she pretended she had home to him during Ids absence. 
 Some time afterwards, becoming pregn.ant herself, she disclosed 
 to Ariarathes the artifice she had practised upon him, and made 
 him send her the elder of her supposed sons to Romo, while the 
 younger was despatched to Ionia, that they might not dispute 
 the succession with her legitim.ate children. 
 
 Ari.vratiies v., sumamed Philopator, on account of his 
 extraordinarj- affection for his father, succeeded to the throne 
 163 B.C. It Wiis during his reign that letters were firet intro- 
 duced into Cappadocia. He lefl six sons, five of whom were 
 put to death by their mother, Laodice. For this unn.atural 
 deed, she in her turn was killed by the ex.isperated populace, 
 and the youngest child, who had been saved from the fate of his 
 brothers by a relative of Ids father, was placed on the tlirone 
 under the title of
 
 ART 
 
 208 
 
 ARI 
 
 Ariakathes VI. He manieJ tlie sister of MitliriJates, 
 king of Pontus, who caused him to be assassinated, 96 i$.c. 
 
 AuiAKATiiES VII. had no sooner assumed the pui-jde than 
 his uncle, Mithridates Eupator, made an attempt to seize upon 
 the royal power. Ariarathes immediately assembled an army to 
 oppose him, when Jlithridates, invitmg him to a conference, slew 
 him in the sight of both annies. 
 
 AuiAKATHKS VIII., a younger son of the sixth king of 
 the same name, was driven from his throne by Mithridates, 
 shortly after his accession, and sur\'ived but a very Uttle while. 
 
 Ariarathes IX., was, after the battle of Philippi, deposed, 
 and put to death by Antony, 36 B.C., after a reign of only six 
 years. — S. 
 
 ARIAS FERNANDEZ, Antonio, a celebrated painter of 
 Spain, flourished in the seventeenth century. So precocious 
 were his talents, tliat at the very early age of fourteen he was 
 appointed to decorate the high altar of the monastery of the 
 Carmelites at Toledo. 
 
 ARIAS, Francisco, a Spanish Jesuit of great reputation for 
 leai-ning and piety, was born at Se\ille in l.'iSS, and died in 
 160.3. He was intimately allied in ecclesiastical matters with 
 the apostle of Andalusia, Juan de Avila. Two devotional works 
 of Arias have been translated into Latin and into various modern 
 languages. 
 
 ARIAS, Francisco Gabino, bom at Satta, in Buenos 
 Ayres, lived at the close of the eighteenth century. Originally a 
 soldier, he forsook the profession of arms, to devote himself to 
 the exploration of the unknown regions of the South American 
 continent, which through his enterprise were opened up to his 
 countrymen. He bequeathed to his son the task of giving 
 publicity to the account of his travels, which he had written 
 during his various expeditions, but unfortunately they have not 
 yet been printed. Arias died 1808. — S. 
 
 ARIAS MONTANUS, Benedictus, editor of the Antwerp 
 Polyglott, a Spanish ecclesiastic, was born at Frexenell in Estra- 
 madura (some say at Seville), in 1527. He studied at the 
 university of Alcala, entered the order of the Benedictines, and 
 accompanied the bishop of Segovia to the council of Trent in 
 1562. On his return to Spain, he led a life of entire seclusion, 
 till Philip II. selected him as editor of the projected Bible. The 
 book was printed by Plantin, at Antwerp, in eight folios, be- 
 tween the ye.ars 1568 and 1573. Only four hundred copies were 
 thrown off, and the greater part of them were lost by the wreck 
 of the vessel which was conve^-ing them to Spain. Like many 
 scholars who have laboured on the text of Scripture, Montanus 
 was ignorantly accused to the inquisitors of Rome and Spain, 
 for tampering with the words of the sacred volume. Leo de 
 Castro, professor of Oriental languages at Salamanca was his 
 great antagonist, but signally failed in liis charges. When 
 Montanus, after several voyages to Rome, had successfully vin- 
 dicated himself, the king offered him a bishopric, which he 
 declined, and accepted only 2000 ducats and a royal chaplaincy. 
 He retumed again to his hermitage at Aracona, but in a short 
 time was induced to assume the office of librarian at the Es- 
 curial — ultimately retiring to Seville, where ho died in 1598. 
 Montanus also wrote commentaries in Latin on several books of 
 scripture, and the barbarously literal Latin version which accom- 
 panies his Polyglott was adopted by Walton, and has been often 
 reprinted. — .J. E. 
 
 ARIIiERT, duke of Aquitainc. See Cariukut. 
 AKIliLRT I., king of the Lombards, elected in 653, enjoyed 
 a peaceful reign of nine years, the most remarkable acts of 
 which were the expulsion of the Arians from his dominions, and 
 the .settlement of the Nicenes. Died 661. 
 
 ARIBERT II. succeeded his father Ragimbert, king of the 
 Lombards, 701 A. I). He was driven from his throne by Ans- 
 prand 712; and, in despair at his evil fortunes, drowned himself 
 in the river Ticino. During his reign he bestowed certain pos- 
 sessions in the Cottian Alps on the see of Rome, the history of 
 which is involved in much obscurity, and has given rise to a great 
 deal of controversy. — S. 
 
 ARICI, Cesare, a native of Brescia in Italy, was appointed 
 tmder Napoleon I. one of the judges of the dcjiartment of Mella, 
 of which his native city was the chief town. He is the author 
 of several didactic poems, on such subjects as the cultivation of 
 the olive and the rearing of sheep. Bom 1782 ; died 1836. 
 
 * AHIENTI, Carlo, bom at Milan at the beginning of this 
 century. Studied at the Milanese academy, and at Rome. He 
 
 is one of the best historical painters of the day in Italy. He 
 has established himself at Turin. — R. !M. 
 
 ARIENTI, Cecco, author of a work called " Libro d'Anno-' 
 tazioni sopra le vulii dell' Acque e dei Bagni della Porella." 
 Died in the year 1508. 
 
 ARIENTI, ToJiMAso, a Bolognese physician, and author of 
 an unpublished work, entitled " Praxis omnium morbonnn cum 
 medicinis cujusque generis," was professor of siu^gery at Bologna 
 towards the end of the fomteeuth century. He was murdered 
 by one of his own sen'ants. 
 
 ARIENTI. See Argenti. 
 
 ARIF-AL-HARWI, Maulana, from what is related of him 
 in Daulatshah's " Lives of the Persian Poets," seems to have 
 flom'ished in the early part of the fifteenth century. Very little 
 is known of his life, but such of his works as still exist prove 
 him to have been a man of superior genius. 
 
 ARIGISUS or ARECHIS I., a dulie of Beneventum, who 
 reigned for fifty years from a.d. 591. 
 
 ARIGISUS or ARECHIS II., raised to the duchy of Bene- 
 ventum A.D. 758. He was the first who held the dignity of 
 prince of Beneventum, having in 774 successfully opposed the 
 attempt of Charlemagne to seize his tenitory. He was a wise 
 prince, and is remembered as the author of a " Capitulare," or 
 series of laws, which show great wisdom and equity. — J. B. 
 
 ARIGNOTE OF Samos, a female philosopher of the school 
 of Pythagoras. She was reputed to be liis daughter, but the 
 only foundation for this supposition seems to be, that they were 
 both natives of Samos, and that she was a disciple of Ids school. 
 Arignote left some writings on the mysteries of Bacchus. 
 
 ARIGONI, Giovanni Giacomo, a musician of the end of 
 the sixteenth and beginnmg of the following centmy. The 
 publication of his madrigals in 1623, and his " Concerti di ca- 
 mera," in 1635, both at Venice, gives reason to suppose that he 
 was a resident, if not a native, of that city. Besides these 
 printed works, he wrote many more concerti di camera, and other 
 pieces in the madrigal style, several of which were preserved in 
 the royal Ubrary of Copenhagen, but lost in the great fire wliich 
 destroyed that institution m 1794. He is said to have had great 
 merit in the style of music he produced, and the sumame of 
 L'Affettuoso, by which he is commonly designated, bespeaks 
 the generally prevailing character of his compositions. He was a 
 member of a society named Fileutera, which seems to have been 
 regarded as a high distinction. — (Fetis, SchiUmg.) — G. A. M. 
 
 ARIGONI or ARRIGONI, Honorius, a celebrated Italian 
 numismatist, was born at Venice in 1668. His collection of 
 medals is one of the most perfect known. He has left an ac- 
 count of it in a work entitled " Numismata qusedam cujuscun- 
 que formas et metalli musaii Honorii Arigonii Veneti, ad usum 
 juventutis rei nummaria; studiosi," Venice, 1741-59. — (Mos- 
 chini.) 
 
 ARIMINO, Gregorio, of Rimini, general of the Augustine 
 order, died at Vienna in the year 1358. He taught the scholastic 
 philosophy m the university of Paris about 1307, and in 1351 
 was principal professor in the Augustme convent at Rmiini. 
 He was named " Doctor Authenticus." 
 
 ARINGHI, Paolo, a Romish theologian, died in 1676. His 
 principal work, on the catacombs and monuments of Rome, is 
 named " Roma Subteiranea Novissima." It is little more than 
 a Latin translation of the work of Bosio. 
 
 ARIOALD, or ARIUALD, or CAROALD, was the husband 
 or Gundaberga, sister of Adaloald, king of the Lombards, and 
 succeeded that monarch in the year G25-6. 
 
 ARIOBARZANES, three kings of this name, the descendants 
 of one of the Persians who put Smcrdis the magian to death, 
 reigned in Pontus. The first was delivered up to the king ot 
 Persia by his owa son Mithridates I., who was succeeded by 
 Ariobarzanes II. in 363 b.c, mentioned with his three sons 
 by Demosthenes as Athenian citizens. According to Diodorus, 
 he was satr.ap of I'hiygia, while Ncpos ascribes to him also 
 the govemorsliip of Lydia and Ionia. The fact appears to be, 
 that having o])Rnly rebelled against Aitaxerxes II., he estab- 
 lishedforWmself an independent kingdom. — Ariobarzanes III. 
 was the son of Mithridates III., whom he succeeded 266 B.C. 
 Having ratified an alliance with the Gauls, which had been con- 
 tracted by his father, they aided him in repelling the Eg}-ptians, 
 sent against him by Ptolemy Philadelpbus ; but having after- 
 wards incun-ed the displeasure of his allies, they made war 
 upon his son Mithridates IV. Ai-iobarzanes died 240 B.C. — S.
 
 1= 
 
 AEI 
 
 209 
 
 AEI 
 
 ARIOBARZANES, the name of three kings of Cappadocia : 
 — Akiobarz^\:ses I., surnamed Philoroma>us from liis attach- 
 .,.nt to the cause of Eome, lived in tlie early part of the first 
 r.ntuiT B.C. He was four times driven from his kingdom by 
 Jilithridates, and four times reinstated by the Roman arms. He 
 finally abdicated the crorni in favour of his son, 63 B.C. — 
 Ariobaezanes II., son of the preceding, succeeded his father, 
 63 B.C., though some ■writers date his accession to the throne a 
 few years earlier. It was he who at liis own cost rebuilt the 
 Odeon at Athens after its destruction by Sylla. — Akiobak- 
 ZAXES III., the son and successor of the foregoing, died about 
 42 B.C. Julius Ca;sar added to Ins possessions, and aided him 
 in his wai's with Phamaces II., king of Pontus. — S. 
 
 AEION, a celebrated Greek bard, wlio flourished about 700 
 B.C. He was bom in Jlethj-mna, a city of Lesbos, but spent 
 most of his days with Periander, tyrant of Coiinth. Almost 
 nothing is known of this poet ; but a beautiful story, illus- 
 trative of the protection which the gods afforded to poets, has 
 been related by Herodotus. Ai-ion had sailed to Italy and Sicily, 
 and having made a considerable sum of money, he wished to 
 reriim. Placing most confidence in the sailors of Corinth, he 
 hu'ed a Cormthian ship, and set sail. The sailors, however, cast 
 greedy eyes upon the gold of the poet, and resolved to put hun 
 to death. They told Aiion their intention, and he simply re- 
 quested periBission to sing. So, arrajing himself in the robes 
 ■riirn by poet-singers, and standing on the benches of the ship, 
 I- sang an air then well known, and, having finished his melody, 
 Liirew himself into the sea, robed as he was. A dolphin appeai-ed, 
 and carried him on its back to Tfenanim. He then made his way 
 to Periander, related to him what had happened, and, on the 
 arrival of the ship at Coiiuth, confronted the sailors to their 
 utter confusion. Herodotus says that it was he who discovered 
 and named the dithyramb. — J. D. 
 
 ARIOSTI, AxTiLio, often called Padre Aeiosti, was boni 
 ■t Bologna in 1660. He became a monk of the Dominican 
 ;Jer ; but he had so ardent a love for music, that he ob- 
 .iaed a dispensation from the pope to enable him to retu'e 
 from his holy calling, and ptu'sue his favomite art as a pro- 
 fession. He then devoted himself to the practice of the ^•iolon- 
 cello and the viol d'amore, on both of which instruments, espe- 
 cially the latter, he obtained great proficiency. In 1696 he 
 produced, in his native city, his one-act opera of Dafne, which 
 met with the greatest success. This led to his engagement 
 as kapellmeister in 1698 by the electress of Brandenbm-g, in 
 whose suite he went to Berlin. Here he met with Handel, 
 then a boy, to whom he gave some lessons on the hai-psichord, 
 and with whom he fonned an intimate friendship. On the 
 occasion of the marriage of his patroness, in the year 1700, 
 he produced an opera, called " La Festa d'lmenei," which is 
 said to have been a close imitation of the style of Lulli ; it 
 was coldly received. The year following he brought out 
 another opera tenned " Atis," in which a piece of music called 
 the Sinfonia Infernale, representuig the torments of the hero 
 who is mad with love, created particular sensation ; this work 
 is said to have been as direct a copy of the style of Ales- 
 -- mdro Scarlatti, as its predecessor was of that of Lulli, and its 
 lecess was equally inditl'erent. Disgusted at his failure as a 
 iinposer, which he attributed to the bad taste of the Germans, 
 liter a few years he tlu'cw up his appointment and retm-ncd to 
 Italy. Here, though not more original, his music pleased better, 
 and his operas of "Erifile," produced at Venice in 1706, and 
 "La piu gloriosa fatica d'Ercole," produed at Bologna in the same 
 year, were received with the utmost favour. In 1708 he went to 
 Vienna, where he wrote his opera of " Amor tra nemici," for the 
 celebration of the birthday of the Emperor Joseph, but the Ger- 
 man bad taste, as he esteemed it, was as rampant in Austria as 
 it had been in Pnissia, and the work Wiis received accordhigly. 
 In eight years from this time he came to London, where he 
 made the same powerful impression by his playing on the \'iol 
 d'amore, that he had made in every place he had visited. After 
 a short residence here, he returned again to Italy, to be recalled 
 in 1721 by the invitation of the noble directors of the Royal 
 Academy of JIusic. He was placed by them with Buononcini 
 in opposition to his old friend Handel, and in the course of this 
 contest, produced the operas of " Ciro," " I\Iu7.io Scevola," 
 " Coriolano," and " Lucio Vero," the last two of which only 
 were printed, and they were the only two that met with any 
 success. He now became greatly embarrassed in his pecimiar}- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 affixh-s, so, finding that Buononcmi had gained the large sum 
 of a thousand pounds by the subscription publication of some of 
 his music, he printed a set of sis cantatas, with a dedication to 
 George I., in the hope that he might become a like gainer ; but 
 though he begged for subscribers in a most servile manner, his 
 purpose so eutu'ely miscarried, that he could barely pay the cost 
 of his jomiiey back to Bologna. The date and place of his 
 death are not known. He wrote fifteen operas, an oratorio 
 called " Santa Eadcgonda Regina di Francia," and many sepa- 
 rate vocal pieces and compositions for his favomite instiimient, 
 the last of which are spoken of as possessing very superior merit. 
 Upon the whole, it appears that his more ambitious works were 
 defonned by a pedantic affectation, but that, when he wrote 
 naturallv, he always produced sometMng of interest. — (Hawkins, 
 Fetis, SchiUing.)— G. A. M. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Aless^V2<dro, a Bolognese monk of the order of 
 St. Francis, who, in 1476, was sent en a mission to the M;u-o- 
 nites of Blount Lebanon. He spent three years in Spia, and 
 ■nrote a topographical description of Palestine, and his pilgrim- 
 age to Jlount Sinai. Sixtus the fifth appears to have had a high 
 opinion of him, and employed liim upon ecclesiastical matters at 
 Romagna. He wrote several other works, some only of which 
 have been printed. — (JIazzuchelli, Scrittori d'l/alia.) — J. F. W. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Alfonso, a son of Gahriello, was a canon in the 
 cathedi'al of FeiTura, apostolical prothonotary and chamberlain 
 to Clement VIII. He wrote some poetical pieces, which are 
 found ia the " Rime scelte de' Poeti Feixaresi." He died about 
 1592.— (Mazzuchelli.)— J. F. W. 
 
 ARIOSTO, AzzoNE, a native of Bologna, who wrote some 
 odes, which he dedicated to Gregory XV. in 1621. — (Mazzu- 
 chelh.) 
 
 ARIOSTO, Battista, the author of a work entitled " Ex- 
 hortatio ad juvenes," the manuscript of which is preserved in 
 the Vatican library at Rome. — (JIazzuchelli.) 
 
 ARIOSTO, Francesco, was bom in Ferrara early in the 
 fifteenth centmy, and filled the chair of philosophy and civil law 
 in that city. He was also employed diplomatically by dukes Borso 
 and Ercole I. He ■RTote a work on the spiing of Petroleum at 
 Monte Gibbio. He died in 1492, and was buried in the chm-ch 
 of St. Francesco, in Ferrara. His grand-nephew, the gi-eat poet, 
 placed an inscription over his tomb. — (ilazzuclielli.) — J. F. W. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Gabriello, one of the brothers of Lodovico, and 
 himself a man of considerable talent, especially in the composition 
 of Latin poetry, a volume of which was pubUshed at FeiTara in 
 1582. After his death, Siho Ghaldi wrote an excellent elegy 
 upon him, in the second of his cfialogiies upon the poets of his 
 time. He was a cripple from his bu'th, and lived in continual 
 suffering. He died in his native town of Ferrara about the 
 year 1552, according to JIazzuchelli. This date is probably a 
 mistake for that of the death of his brother Galasso, and it 
 would seem that Gabriello lived many years longer, as it is 
 stated that his son Orazio was born in 1555. He completed 
 the comedy of his brother, " La Scolastica," which the latter 
 left unfinished.— J. F. W. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Galasso, a brother of Lodovieo, who was ac- 
 quainted with most of the distinguished men of his times, his 
 correspondence with wliom is preserved. He was a man of some 
 Uterary ability, and wrote a comedy. He went as ambassador 
 of the duke of Fcn-ara to the comt of Ch:u'les V., where he died. 
 — (Mazzuchelh.)— J. F. W. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Lonovit'o, a celebrated Italian poet, was born on 
 the 8th Sejiteniber, 1474, at lu'ggio, near Jlodona, of which 
 place his father Niccolo was governor for the duke of Ferrara. 
 The family of Ariosto was ancient, and of resjiectable if not 
 noble rank, and was connected by marriage with several princely 
 families of Italy, amongst others with that of Este. In 1479 
 Niccolo left Reggio, and went to Ferrara, where he was subse- 
 quently cluvsen "Judge of the twelve," or president of tho 
 council. Here Lotlovico received his first etlucation, and at a 
 very early age exhibited his talents for poetry, and used to dra- 
 matise such stories as he could find for his brothers and sisters, 
 and amongst others he composed a tragedy of " Pynunus and 
 Thisbe," wliich they acted. His father destined him for the pro- 
 fession of the law, and he spent five yeare hi the college of Ferrara, 
 applying himself but littler to the sul)ject, but rather to general 
 literatiu-e. His father at last abandoned the idea of tho law for 
 Lodovico, and suffered him to follow the bent of his own inclina- 
 tions. Accordingly, at the ago of twenty, he devoted liimself 
 
 2D
 
 Arj 
 
 210 
 
 ARI 
 
 diligently to the stndy of the classical authors. Plautus and 
 Terence were his first fovomites, and after their example he 
 WTote two comedies. A story is told of his ftither exhibiting 
 considerable violence in some argument witli him : the son was 
 silent, but in discussion with his brother afterwards, he men- 
 tioned circumstances that showed the father's anger had arisen 
 from his misconception of facts that could be at once explained. 
 " And why did you not say so, and ^■inllicate yourself? " said the 
 brother. " The truth is," said Lodovico, " I was thinking only 
 of a passage in my play of ' Cassaria,' in which an old man 
 quarrels witli his son ; and I was watching my father for the 
 ])Ui-pose of learning how I might increase the eft'ect of the scene." 
 His father died when Lodovico was twenty-four years of age, 
 and he had to struggle with the management of a small and en- 
 cumbered property, being the eldest of ton childi-cn, whom, by 
 gi-eat personal sacrifices, he maintained and portioned. Between 
 this time and his thirty-fifth year, he wrote most of his smaller 
 poems in Italian and Latin, and by means of them became 
 known to the cardinal, Ippolito d'Este, who took him into his 
 senice, and emjiloyed liim in several important affairs, particu- 
 larly with Pope Giulio the second, all of which he conducted with 
 skill and prudence. He now conceived the idea of writing his 
 poem of " Orlando Fiirioso," by which he looked fonvai-d to 
 surpass all those who had gone before him. This work occu- 
 pied him over ten years, in the midst of all kinds of distractions 
 and interniptions. He at length commenced the publication in 
 1515, and completed it the year follo-ning, in forty cantos. 
 This poem was received with almost universal favour ; one voice 
 alone was heard in condemnation, that of the Cardinal Ippolito, 
 who had never treated Ariosto according to his deserts. When 
 Ariosto brought him a copy of the poem, the cardinal asked, 
 " \Vhere could you have found all those tomfooleries ? " The cardi- 
 nal, indeed, appears to have treated the poet with singular imkind- 
 ness; and when going to Hungary, m 1517, whither the delicate 
 health of Ariosto prevented his attending him, the cardinal left 
 him in great distress. In this extremity he was fortunately 
 relieved % Alfonso, duke of Ferrara, who made him one of his 
 gentlemen, and, though he admitted him into terms of gi-eat 
 famili;irity, he does not appear to have done better for him than 
 his former master. A pension was given him, charged on the pro- 
 duce of a certain impost ; the impost was subsequently abolished, 
 and with it went, of course, the pension, leaving the poet to 
 straggle on as best he could. A cousin of the poet's. Count 
 Rinaldo Ariosto, died in 1518, and Lodo\-ico and his brothers 
 claimed the mheritance as next of kin. He was opposed by a 
 natural son of the deceased, and by the ducal chamber, which 
 insisted that the property escheated to the duke. The case was 
 decided against the poet ; he appealed, and the litigation lasted 
 for his life, and was still undetermined at the time of his death. 
 While in office, Ariosto was sent once or twice to Florence and 
 Urbino, and in 1522 he was appointed governor of the wild 
 district of Garagnana, situated in the Apennines, and the scene 
 of constant robberies and disturbances. Here he remained for 
 three years, and seems, by his finnness, justice, and frank and 
 kmd demeanour, to have succeeded in restoring the country to 
 a tolerable state of order ; and romantic stories are told by his 
 Italian biographers, of the respect in which he was held by U'e 
 bandits of the place : one, in particular, details how he owed 
 his Ufc to the admiration of these lawless people for his poetry. 
 In 1523 he declined the office of ducal ambassador to Poj)e 
 Clement the seventh, and the following year resigned his 
 goveiTimcnt, returned to FeiTara, and resumed his attend- 
 ance at court, where he became acquainted with Ercole Ben- 
 tivoglio, the duke's nephew, and a poet of some consideration. 
 The dulte was fond of theatrical amusements, and appointed 
 Ariosto director of the splendid theatre which he had built; 
 Ariosto's were, if not the first, among the first Italian comedies 
 in verse. The principal persons about the court acted them. 
 Riccoboni, in his history of the Italian theatre, says that 
 Ariosto's talent for the humorous is equally displayed in his 
 dramatic works as in his great narrative poem. Previou.sly to 
 this, the poet had divided amongst his brothers the old ancestral 
 mansion of the Ariosti, and purcliased some ground and a small 
 liouse, which he enlarged, and here, with his two unmarried 
 sisters, he passed the remainder of his life. The house is still 
 standing, having been purchased and repaired bj' the community 
 of Ferrara. Wiien asked how it was that he who had descrilicd 
 such magnificent palaces in the Orlando, was contented to build 
 
 so simple a house for himself, he replied, " Because one can put 
 words together with more speed and ease than stones." Al- 
 fonso took the poet with him to Bologna in 1530, on the 
 occasion of his meeting the Emperor Charles the fiith, and als^K 
 to their subsequent meeting at Mantua, two years afterwards. 
 On this latter occasion, Aiiosto presented to the emperor a last 
 re\'ised edition of the Orlando, m which a glowmg panegyric upon 
 Charles was introduced, and, in consequence, he received a diploma 
 as laureate, signed by the emperor hunself. The fact of his 
 having been publicly crowned by the emperor at ilantua wants 
 confinuation, and is discredited by the best authorities. In 
 September, 1531, Ariosto was sent on a mission to Alfonso 
 d'Avalos, who had entered Mantua at the head of an imperial 
 force, with designs, as was supposed, unfriendly to the duke 
 of FeiTara. In this the poet was successful. Alfonso being 
 a friend of literature, was charmed with Ariosto, treated him 
 with distinction and courtesy, and confeiTed a pension of one 
 hundi-ed golden ducats upon him. Ariosto now apphed himself 
 to the preparation of a new edition of the " Orlando Fiuioso," 
 which was extended to forty-six cantos, completed in the 
 latter end of 1532, and pubhshed by Francesco del Rosso. The 
 labour which he bestowed on the correction of this work was so 
 great, that it is believed to have accelerated the fatal malady 
 with which he was shortly aftenvards attacked. His health 
 gradually declined, and at last recovery was hopeless. When 
 death approached, he met it with fortitude and calmness, declar- 
 ing to those who stood round his bed that he died contented, 
 especially if it were true that human souls after death recognize 
 and commune with each other in another world. He died on 
 the Gth of June, 1553, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and 
 was bmied ■s\-ithout display in the church of St. Benedetto. 
 Forty years aftern'ards, Agostino Mosti, who had been his pupil, 
 erected a monument to his memory in the new church of St. 
 Benedetto, to wliich he transferred the remains of the poet. 
 The last years of Aiiosto's hfe appear to have been happy. 
 He was fond of gardening, and treated his trees much as he 
 did Ills verses, but with less beneficial results, for while his 
 constant pruning and care improved the latter, they generally 
 destroyed the former. AMiether Ariosto was mamed or not 
 remains undetennined. The lady with whom he hved for many 
 years, and whose name occurs in his poems, was, it may be 
 presumed on good grounds, really his \nk ; but as he held 
 a benefice which could not be filled by a maiTied man, he 
 may on that account have been withheld from acknowledg- 
 ing this relationship. He had two sons, Vu'ginio and Gabriello. 
 Ariosto's personal appearance is thus accurately described by 
 Sir John Harrington: — "Tall of person, of complexion melan- 
 choly, given much to study and musing, and would there- 
 with sometimes forget himself; he was of colour like an olive, 
 somewhat tawny in his face, but fair-skinned otherwise ; his 
 hair was black, but he quickly gi-ew bald ; his forehead was 
 large ; his eyebrows thin ; his eye a little hollow, but very full of 
 life, and very black ; his nose was large and hooked (as they say 
 the Ivings of Persia were) ; his teeth were white ; his checks wan ; 
 his beard thin ; his neck well-proportioned ; his shoulders square 
 and well made, but stooping, as ahnost all that look much on 
 books in their youth are inclined to be ; his hand somewhat diy ; 
 and a httle bow-legged. His comiterfeit was taken by Titian, 
 that excellent drawer, so well to the life, that a man would think 
 it were alive." Lord Byron confirms this praise of Titian's picture 
 by saj-ing, " It is the portrait of poetr)', and the poetrj' of por- 
 traits." It may safely be asserted that, in his peculiar walk, no 
 poet has ever surpassed, if any has equalled, Ariosto. Compari- 
 sons have frequently been instituted between him and Tasso, but 
 they present few points of similarity, and in all such Ariosto has 
 the advantage. In one respect, too, Ariosto is superior to Tasso. 
 The former is always easy and felicitous in his style, while the 
 latter is often apparently laboured and difficult. This results 
 from the fact that Ariosto's corrections were incessant, Tasso's, on 
 the contrary, rare. No poet has bhoidcd with so much skill the 
 serious and the amusing, the graceful and the ten-ific, the sub- 
 lime and the familiar. No one has brought forward so great a 
 number of personages and such a variety of diverse actions, which 
 all, nevertheless, conduce harmoniously to the one end. No one 
 is more poetical in his style, more varied in his tableaux, more 
 rich in his descriptions, more faithful in his portraiture of char- 
 acters and manners, more trathful, more animated, more lifelike. 
 In addition to several satires which are equal to any in the Ian-
 
 ARI 
 
 211 
 
 ART 
 
 .-aage, and to his dramatic pieces, he composed sonnets, canzonesi 
 vjcc, and several Latin poems which, though of considerable merit, 
 arc little known. The editions of the Orlando are numeroiis ; the 
 latest by Signor Panizzi, m 1834, is perhaps the best. It has been 
 translated mto Enghsh by many hands, the last being that of Jlr. 
 Eose. — [Vila di Ar. Pizna — Garofulo lirahoschio.) — J. F. W. 
 
 AKIOSTO, Okazio, a son of Gabriello Ariosto, was born at 
 Ferrara in 1555. Like his uncle and father, he was possessed 
 of poetic genius. He was a secular priest, and canon of the 
 cathedi-al of Ferrara ; and the intunate friend of Angelo GrUlo, 
 a poet of some celebrity. He was also a friend of Tasso, for 
 whom he wrote the arguments prefixed to the several cantos of 
 the "Jerusalem Delivered." On the dispute which arose be- 
 tween the admirers of Lodovico Ariosto and Tasso, Orazio 
 wrote a work entitled a " Defence of the Orlando Furioso," but 
 he exhibited in it nevertheless the greatest admu-ation for Tasso. 
 He had undertaken a gi-eat poem, called "Alfio," of which he 
 had composed sixteen cantos at the tune of his death, which oc- 
 fiured 19th April, 1593, in his thirty-eighth year. He is said 
 also to have written a comedy entitled " La Striga," but it was 
 never printed. — (ilazzuchelli, Biog. Universelle.) — J. F. W. 
 
 ARIOVISTUS or EHRENVEST, a chief of the Suevi or 
 Swabians, who entered Gaul in the first century B.C., at the in- 
 vitation of the Sequani and Avenii. He soon afterwards de- 
 feated the Gauls, who had formed a league against him, and 
 became so formidable as to alarm the Romans. He was at last 
 defeated by Julius Cssar, ;md compelled to evacuate Gaul. 
 
 ARIPHROX, a Greek poet, who lived about B.C. 550, the 
 author of a beautiful ode to Hygiea. 
 
 ARISI, Francesco, a lawyer of Cremona, was bom in 1657, 
 and died in 1743, leaving a great niunber of works, legal, his- 
 torical, and poetical. 
 
 ARIST^XETUS, a Greek writer of the fourth century, who 
 was a native of Nica?a in Bithynia, and a friend of the sophist 
 Libanius. He perished in an earthquake at Nicomedia, a.d. 358. 
 He left two books of elegant love epistles, the best edition of 
 which is that of Boissonade, Paris, 1822. 
 
 ARIST.EXUS OF Megalopolis, was a Greek commander, 
 who took a prominent part in the afiairs of Achaia, in the tune 
 of Philopoemen, B.C. 198. 
 
 ARIST.EON, a Greek author who is known to have written 
 I treatise on Hannony, of which a fragment only has been pre- 
 • iTed by Stobajus. 
 
 ARISTiEUS, a sculptor of the second centuiy before the 
 Christian era, who executed two marble statues of the centam'S, 
 f(jund at Tivoli in 1746. 
 
 ARISTjEUS. Two ancient geometers were thus called. Of 
 the first we know only the name ; the second, on the other hand, 
 stands out very boldly, and stUl enjoys a renown. According to 
 Pappus, Aristffius contributed very greatly to the advancement of 
 the liigher Greek geometry. He wrote a treatise on the Conies in 
 fi^■e books, comprehending nearly all that ApoUonius subsequently 
 included in his first four books : and, in another work, he dis- 
 cussed, also in five books, the difficult subject of solid Loci. Pap- 
 ]>us places this book immediately after the Conies of Apollonlus, in 
 t lie course of study he recommends. Euclid seems to have cher- 
 !-lied for Aristaius a special regard ; nor are facts wanting which 
 iulicate that he had at one time been his pupil. The works of 
 Arista^is were attempted to be restored by Viviani. — J. P. N. 
 
 ARISTAGORAS, a native of Miletus, son of Molpagoras, 
 having been temporarily intrusted with the government of his 
 native city, instigated the Persian satraps of Asia Elinor to 
 attempt the conquest of Naxos and the Cyclades. His advice 
 was taken, but finding himself overlooked, he incited the lonians 
 to revolt, and obtained assistance from Athens. He was finally 
 defeated, and died in Thrace about 498 B.C. — J. W. S. 
 
 ARISTAGORAS, a Greek, wlio Uved about 350 B.C., and 
 wrote on the geography of Eg)-pt. 
 
 ARISTANDROS of Pakos, a Greek brass-caster, floiu-ish- 
 ing about 410 b.c. 
 
 ARISTANDROS, a soothsayer of Lycia, wlio attended Alex- 
 ander in his Persian expedition. Ho had previously been in the 
 service of Philip, and it was he who inteiiircted his famous 
 dream before 01ym[)ia gave birth to Alexander. He ajjpears to 
 have written a work on omens and portents ; some books on 
 agi-iculturc have also been ascribed to him, but it is far more 
 likely that these were written by another Akist^vndkos, whom 
 Van-o surnames " The Athenian." — J. B. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, an Athenian, who flom-ished about the 
 latter part of the Peloponnesian war, and was one of the most 
 violent of the oligarchic party. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, a Lacedaemonian of whom we read in the 
 Anabasis. He succeeded Oleander as harmostes of Byzantium 
 in 400 B.C. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS of Tegea, a writer of tragedy, who was 
 cotemporaiy with Euripides. The whole of his seventy plays 
 have perished, but we learn from Suidas that he was the first to 
 introduce the cothurnus on the stage. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS of Samos ; a Greek astronomer with un- 
 usual claims to notice; lived about 280-264 B.C. Concerning 
 the incidents of his life nothing of importance is known ; but 
 what we have learnt of his works establishes his title to lasting 
 honour. He seems to have been an exact geometer, and deeply 
 impressed with the idea that the study of the physical universe 
 ought not to be mixed up with metaphysical speculation. The 
 only work bearing his name that has reached us, is the one in 
 wliicli he determines the relative distances of the sun and moon 
 from the earth. His method is geometrically correct, but he 
 could not establish the requisite data with sufficient accuracy — 
 his results were in eiTor therefore. He had discerned also tlie 
 cause of the phases of the moon. But undoubtedly his greatest 
 acliievement is this : first of all he discovered the true char- 
 acter of the system of the world, and alone really anticipated 
 Coperaicus. This memorable fact is placed beyond reach of 
 question by Archimedes in his Arenarius. As the passage is a 
 classical one in its relation to philosophical history, we think 
 it right to reproduce the precise words of the Syracusan — raura, 
 
 "SiMfjiios C:roB-i<nuy i^i^uxiv yocc'^oc? .... vrrCTi^iTcti yoc^ roe. /xltt 
 atrXayvj tZv airway, y,a,i toi a>.iov f^iyiiy u.xitr,Toy ray il yoiy !7i^i^ieirOxi 
 T£g/ TOy ciXibf xoLTO. xvxXov ^iei^i^iictv^ o; iiriv £v /i^iiru ru Z^oum xiiu^iyos. 
 
 Archimedes quotes from a work by Aristarchus in opposition to 
 astrology or astrologers ; but though the work is lost, there can- 
 not be a doubt as to the meaning or authority of the latter part 
 of the foregoing paragraph, "^e (Aiistarchus) lays it down 
 that the fixed stars and the sun are motionless ; but that the 
 earth is carried in a circular orbit around the sun, the sun being 
 in the centre of that circle." Had Copernicus been acquainted 
 with the Arenarius of Archimedes, which he was not, (the 
 " Editio Princeps" not appearing until after his death), he could 
 have claimed no originality in reference to the fundamental idea 
 that led to the gi-eat reformation of astronomy ; and it ought to 
 be understood, that the honom' of this clear geometrical antici- 
 pation, belongs to Aristarchus alone ; as neither in any ancient 
 philosophy, nor in the glosses of subsequent commentators, is 
 there one shadow of evidence that the simple tnith had ever be- 
 fore been suspected. Notions, indeed, did float among the an- 
 cient systems (see Plutarch's Numa and other such authorities), 
 that Fire is the centre of the universe ; but this^'re was some 
 mythological person or substance, and had nothing to do with 
 the sun. Take in CNidence the following notices of the scheme 
 of Philolaus. Plutarch writes as follows : " The general opinion 
 is that the earth is at rest. Philolaus, the Pythagorean, on the 
 contrary, assumed that it, as well as the sun and moon, revolve 
 in an oblique circle around Firk." So also Stobasus : " Philo- 
 laus admitted a double fire — one in the centre of the universe, 
 which he named ' Host of Heaven,' ' Dwelling of Jupiter,' 
 ' Mother of the Gods,' ' Altar,' ' Unity,' and ' Sura of all Na- 
 tm'c;' and a second, suiTounding the wliole on the outside. ' The 
 one in the midst,' he says, ' is, from its nature, the most ex- 
 cellent. Around it, in circular dance, move ten godlike bodies, 
 — the stany sphere, and in transverse orbits the five planets, the 
 sun, the moon, the earth, and the antipodal earth. After and 
 within all follows FiUE, which, like a blazing star, is placed 
 in the centre.' " — The scheme of Philolaus had reference to the 
 supposed perfection of the Pythagorean At** or Ten, and to the 
 fancied purity and nobility of the element Fire. It partook, 
 therefore, of the folly of all early Greek physics ; while the con- 
 jecture of Aristarchus rested on the power it contained to ex- 
 plain actual phenomena. — J. P. N. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, the gi-eatest critic of antiquity, was bom in 
 Samothrace, and flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Philadclphus. 
 He was a pupil of Aristophanes of Byzantium, a gi'ammarian, to 
 whom is due the credit of inventing the Greek accentual marks. 
 He afterwards founded a grammatical or critical school, first at 
 Alexandi-ia, and then at Rome. He died in Cypms, at an ad-
 
 vanced age. It is said that he starved himself, to put an end to 
 severe sufferings caused by di'opsr. The ancient grammarians 
 speak of Aristarchus in the highest terms of praise, and his ovm 
 school worshipped him as a god. They prefen-ed his opinion to 
 that of any other, even though it might seem wrong. We are 
 told by Suidas tliat it was said he had written upw:u'ds of eight 
 hundred commentaries. Some modem critics have doubted 
 whether he ever committed his criticisms to writing, basing theu- 
 doubt on the following anecdote : — Some person seems to have 
 asked the critic why, seeing that he found so much fiiult with 
 Homer, he did not himself write a poem. To which question the 
 critic replied, that he could neither wiite as he wished, nor wished 
 to write as he could. He may have said this, however, and 
 ^^Titten many a critical work, pro^nded only he wrote no work 
 that claimed to be itself the subject of criticism. It is certain 
 that he vnrote some discussions on analogy, in opposition to 
 Crates, his great antagonist in criticism. Aristarchus illustrated 
 very many writers of antiquity; but his especial attention was 
 devoted to the construction of a proper test of Homer. He seems 
 to have made two recensions; and the notes of subsequent 
 scholiasts appear always to refer to his text. Hence the Homer 
 which we now have is substantially the Homer which was edited 
 by Aristarchus. He was a man of great critical acumen, superior 
 to most of his contemporaries in the intimate knowledge of all 
 the niceties of the Homeric dialect; yet differing from modem 
 critics, in exercising his own powers too freely on his author, 
 and making his text square with what the author should have 
 written, not with what he had written. — J. D. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, a disciple and friend of the apostle Paul, a 
 native of Thessalonica. 
 
 AKISTARETE, the daughter and pupil of Nearchus ; accord- 
 ing to Pliny, she painted a iine picture of iEsculapius. 
 
 ARISTEAS OF PnocoxNESus, and son of Caystrobius or 
 Democharis, was said to be the author of an epic poem in three 
 books, called " Arimaspeia." He is mentioned by Herodotus, 
 from whose vague notice we may infer that Aristeas professed 
 to have travelled as far as the Issedones, a barbarous northern 
 nation, and to have heard among them the accounts of the one- 
 eyed Arimaspi, and the other fabulous nations described in his 
 epic. His history is wrapped up in myths. He was connected 
 with the worship of Apollo, and is represented as liaNing had 
 power to make his soul go uito and out of his body as he hked. 
 Herodotus mentions two occasions on which he disappeared in 
 Proconnesus ; and he informs us, on the authority of the inha- 
 bitants of Metapontum, that the strange poet had turned up in 
 that city, 340 years, according to his calculation, after his second 
 disappearance in Proconnesus. On this occasion Aristeas infonned 
 his new friends, that he was in the habit of visiting them occa- 
 sionally, but coming as he did in the company of the god Apollo, 
 he always assumed the form of a raven. It is impossible to say 
 at what time such a person flourished. Suidas says that, in 
 addition to the epic, he wrote some things in prose, and that he 
 also composed a theogony in a thousand hnes. But there hangs 
 a double uncertainty about this statement, for the text of Suidas 
 is corrupt in this passage, and the most probable date of Aiisteas 
 assigns him to an age when prose was unknown. — J. D. 
 
 ARISTEAS, the alleged author of that ancient account of the 
 origin of the Greek translation of the Old Testament, from which 
 it derives its name of the Septuagint or the Seventy. He was an 
 officer of the body-guard of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and was re- 
 puted by Philo, Josej)hus, and the Talmudists, to have been the 
 author of a letter to his brother Philocrates, in which he narrated 
 all the circvmistances connected with the execution of that trans- 
 lation, and the effect of which was to attach a high degi-ee of 
 dignity, and even of supernatural authority to the work. Ludo- 
 vicus de Vives was the first modern scholar who threw discredit 
 upon the genuineness and historical authenticity of the letter. 
 Humphrey Hody, in 1G85, in his learned work, " Dc Biblioram 
 Textibus Originalibus," &c., discussed the question at full length, 
 and is generally considered to have conclusively established the 
 spuriousiicss of the work, and the fabulous character of its nar- 
 rative. The letter is now universally regarded as the work of 
 some Alexandrian Jew, who Uved at a much later period. — P. L. 
 
 ARISTEAS OF Ckotona, the pupil of Pythagoras, after- 
 wards his son-in-law, and subsequently his successor. For these 
 facts, which contain all we know about liim, we are indebted to 
 Jamlilicus. 
 
 ARISTEUS, the son of Adcimantus, was the general who 
 
 commanded the Corinthian forces at the siege of Potidaa, at the 
 commencement of the Peloponnesian war, 432 B.C. 
 
 ARISTIDES, a Greek statuary of the fifth century B.C., 
 much celebrated for his figures in bas-relief executed upon 
 triumphal chariots. He is mentioned by Pausanias. 
 
 ARISTIDES, sumamed the Just, a distinguished statesman 
 of ancient Athens, was the son of a certain Lysimachus, who 
 appears to have been connected with some of the oldest families 
 of the aristocracy, though he left his son no patrimony to speak 
 of, as the latter was always remarkable for his poverty. The 
 date of Aristides' birth cannot be assigned. He attached him- 
 self to the aristocratic party in his native state, and thus be- 
 came the political antagonist of Themistocles, of whose un- 
 scrupulous schemes and bold innovations he was long the steady 
 opponent. Aristides fought in the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., 
 at the head of his tribe, the Antiochis ; and according to Plutarch 
 (though Herodotus tells the story differently), it was owing to 
 his persuasions that the tenfold command under which the aiTny 
 had originally been placed by the Athenians, was delegated into 
 the hands of one individual, Miltiades, — a measure which mainly 
 contributed to the success of the Greeks. Plutarch relates that 
 the bmnt of the engagement fell upon the tribes Leontis and 
 Antiochis ; and that, as the leader of the former was Themistocles, 
 a favourable tiuTi was given to the battle by the furious ^•igour 
 with which the two great statesmen, warmed by a noble emula- 
 tion, led on their men. The year after the battle of ^Marathon, 
 Aristides was created archon, 489 B.C., and gamed the honour- 
 able appellation of " The Just," by the unswening integiity 
 which characterised his conduct as chief magistrate. Gradually, 
 however, the democratic policy of Themistocles, who was suc- 
 cessfully developing the maritime power of Athens, gained the 
 ascendancy ; and about 483 B.C. Aristides was ostracised, or 
 sent into honom-able banishment for ten years. The story goes, 
 that when the people were giving their votes on this occasion, a 
 man who happened to be standing near Aristides, not knowing 
 him by sight, and being himself unable to write, handed him his 
 ostrakon, or earthenware voting-tablet, with the request that he 
 would inscribe the name of Aristides on it, as that was the per- 
 son he wished to see expelled from the state. " Has Aristides 
 injured you?" asked the statesman. "No," answered this 
 Athenian citizen, destined in all future time to sen-e as the type 
 of ignorant malevolence, " I don't even know him ; but I hate to 
 hear him always called the ' The Just.' " Aristides retired to 
 yEgina. Three years later, when the invasion of Xerxes made 
 the presence of such an able citizen desirable, he was recalled ; 
 though it is not very clear whether the ostracism was formally 
 reversed before or after the battle of Salamis, 480 B.C. Aiistides 
 had, at all events, a very important share in that great victory; 
 and his conduct previously to the battle, in seeking, by a perilous 
 night voyage from jEgina through the heart of the Persian fleet, 
 an interview with Themistocles, in order that, by a friendly com- 
 pact, they might sacrifice their private rivalries to the public 
 good, forms one of the finest instances of poUtical magnanimity 
 on record. In the battle of Plata\a, 479 B.C., which completed 
 the destruction of the gi-eat invading annament of Xerxes, Aiis- 
 tides commanded the Athenian forces, and shared with the 
 Spartan Pausanias, who was commander-in-chief, the honours 
 of the -victory. 
 
 Notwithstanding his consenative principles, Aristides appears 
 to have found himself compelled, after the battle of Plata;a, to 
 put himself at the head of the reforming movement in Athens. 
 He was the author of a decree by which all citizens were admitted 
 to a share in the administration of public affairs, and which 
 made any burgess, without regard to property or other qualifi- 
 cation, eligible to the archonship. 
 
 Ha\ing been appointed colleague of Cimon, in conducting the 
 Athenian share of the war which the confederate Greeks stUl 
 continued to prosecute against Persia, Aristides recommended 
 himself so strongly to the allies by his justice, candour, and 
 affability, that, refusing any longer to submit to the " hegemony " 
 of the Spartans, who had disgusted them by their arrogance and 
 avarice, they requested him to assume the general command ; 
 thus recognizing Athens as the leading power in the confedera- 
 tion, 477 B.C. The Athenian statesman showed himself worthy 
 of the confidence reposed in him. Intrasted with the deUcate 
 and difficult task of determining the contribution which each 
 separate state was to fiimish towards defraying the expenses of 
 the war, he discharged his duties with such impartiaUty and
 
 sTiill, that not a murmur of discontent was elicited. The locality 
 fixed upon for the treasuiy of the confederacy was the island of 
 Delos, the sacredness of which promised secm'ity ; but tlie fund 
 was subsequently removed to Athens itself, which became thence- 
 forward the depository. This arbitrary act of transference was, 
 we can have no doubt, rendered necessaiy by the pressure of tlie 
 times, since Aristides deemed it advisable. It was the last 
 public business of importance with which he was connected. 
 Aristides died about 468 B.C., the third year after the ostracism 
 of Tliemistocles. He had not grown wealthy in the service of the 
 state ; otherwise, though it may have been merely as a mark of 
 respect that he was buried at the public expense, it would not 
 have been thought necessary to portion his daughters from the 
 pubhc treasury, or to confer upon his son a gi-ant of land. 
 
 Plutarch dcaws a parallel between Aristides and Cato the 
 Censor ; in modern history he has been not unaptly compared to 
 George Washington. It was a high, but not an undeserved tribute 
 of admiration which was paid to him, when once in the theatre 
 at Athens, the entu-e audience turned towards him as those lines 
 of Jischylus, in the " Seven against Thebes," were recited : — 
 
 " To be and not to seem, is this man's maxim ; 
 His mind reposes on its proper wisdom, 
 And wants no otlier praise." 
 
 —A. M. 
 
 ARISTIDES or ARISTODEMUS of Thebes, a painter of 
 the Sicyonic school, the father of Aristides and Nicomachus. 
 He lived about 382 B.C. 
 
 ARISTIDES, the son and pupil of Aristides of Thebes, a 
 Greek painter, living about 350 B.C. Like his father, he pre- 
 feiTed to paint Uvely and passionate subjects. 
 
 ARISTIDES, a Greek painter of Thebes, scholar of Euxeni- 
 das — 340 B.C. He was a contemporary of Apelles, and 
 divided with him an admiration which assumes often the ap- 
 pearance of exaggeration. The most wonderful artistic powers 
 have been attributed to him : and after making due allowance 
 for the enthusiasm of hero-worship, enough remains to satisfy 
 us that Aristides was a great master of liis art, if not also the 
 first who succeeded in portraying the aSections of the mind. 
 The appreciation of his works was extraordinary. His picture 
 of an incident in the sacking of a city — the child at the breast 
 of the bleeding mother— was sent by Alexander, when he con- 
 quered Thebes, to Pella. A battle scene between the Greeks and 
 the Persians, containing 100 figures, was prnxhased by the long of 
 Elateus, at the rate of about £27 of our money for each figiu-e, 
 and Attains offered for his Bacchus 000,000 sesterces, or be- 
 tween four and five thousand pounds sterUng. Aristides was 
 the first foreign painter who lived at Rome. His fame is sullied 
 by his licentiousness, — having been fidly entitled to be placed 
 among the Uo^voy^ai^oi of Athcnaius. — A. L. 
 
 ARISTIDES, QuiNTiLiANus, a Greek writer on music, who 
 has been elaborately proved by the internal evidence of his work, 
 to have lived prior to Ptolemy, and to have been most hicely 
 a contemporary of Plutarch, in the reign of the Emperor Ha- 
 drian. Contraiy to the general impression among learned men, 
 that there is no direct testimony on this subject, but without 
 giving any authority, Dr. Schilling definitely states that he was 
 bom at Adria, in Mysia, 130 n.c, and that he held an appoint- 
 ment as teacher of nmsic in Smyrna. His treatise upon music, 
 iiccupying twenty sheets of the collection of seven Greek musical 
 authorities, printed by Meibomius, is esteemed the best and 
 most complete account of the Greek system of music that 
 I'xists. He states that the science of music com[irises the know- 
 ledge of arithmetic, geometry, i)hysics, and metaphysics, and 
 that it involves not only a technical exercise, but the full com- 
 prehension of the entire nature of man. He defines the thirteen 
 modes as reduced in nmnber from the fifteen that were at one 
 time in use, but he gives no account of the further reduction of 
 the number to seven. He assigns a special character to each 
 mode, appropriating each to the expression of a particular senti- 
 ment. He treats at great length upon rhythm, to the influence 
 of which a large proportion of the effect of the Greek music is 
 to be attributed. His system is said to be an attempt to com- 
 bine those of Aristoxcnes and Pythagoras. — (Burney, Scliilling, 
 Fiitis.)— G. A. M. 
 
 ARISTIDES, Saint, of Athens, lived in the beginning of 
 the second centuiy, and is noted as the author of the most an- 
 cient apology for Christianity. It was presented in the year 125 
 to the Emperor Hadrian, and is cited by Euscbi'us and Jerome. 
 
 ARISTIDES, iELius, a Greek sophist, flourished about the 
 year 176. He enjoyed a great reputation in his day, and has 
 left fifty-five discourses (including those discovered by Mai and 
 ilorelli), most of them marked with vigour, but deficient in 
 grace ; nor can it be said that they confirm the suffrages of the 
 ancients, who compared the author to Demosthenes. Two of 
 his discourses, the fifth and sixth, are curious, as aftbrding us 
 the first indications of animal magnetism. His account would 
 pass for a mesmeric exhibition of the nineteenth century. He 
 says he fell periodically into a state of spontaneous somnambu- 
 lism, wlien, being under the inspu-ation of jEsculapius, he pre- 
 scribed with a loud voice, before many witnesses, medicines to 
 be administered to himself, difterent from those recommended 
 by his physicians. First edition by Euphrosinus Boninus, Flo- 
 rence, 1517; later, Leipzig, 1829, 3 vols. — A. L. 
 
 ARISTIDES OF MiiacTus, a very early Greek author, the 
 first writer of tales of fiction. His chief work is named " Mi- 
 lesian," and is noted for its licentiousness. — Another Aristides 
 of Miletus, wrongly confounded with this -WTiter, is referred to 
 by Plutarch. He ^vrote historical works on Sicilian and Italian 
 aflairs. 
 
 ARISTILLUS, two brothers, both good asti-onomers. The 
 younger commented on Aratus ; the former laboured at Alexan- 
 dria, and seems to have been the first to refer the places of the 
 fixed stars to the zodiac. Ptolemy has recorded a high opinion 
 of Aristillus. 
 
 ARISTION, a Greek philosopher, of the centmy before Christ. 
 Ai'istion was a citizen of Athens, though bom of a slave-mother ; 
 and he studied philosophy with the view of aiiling his political 
 ambition. Having been sent on a deputation to Jlithridates, he 
 contrived, by resigning himself as an instrament into the hands 
 of that monarch, to buy his support by the sale of the relics of 
 his countiy's independence. On his rctm-n to Athens, he pre- 
 vailed upon the citizens, by praises of his patron, to prefer 
 the protection of the Eastern monarch to the dommation of 
 the Romans ; and thus getting himself named pra?tor, he sub- 
 jugated his countrjnnen to a yoke as odious as it was unjust. 
 His tyranny was as usual accompanied by debauchery. To add 
 to the miseiy of a situation sufficiently complicated by e^-ils, Sylla 
 appeared before the city, and a famine conmienced its desolation 
 within. In the end, the tyrant and his accompfices were slam 
 by the Romans in the acropohs. — A. L. 
 
 ARISTIPPUS, a native of Gyrene, in Africa, where his father 
 was rich and influential, rendered himself famous in Greece for 
 having founded a new school of philosophy, remarkable for its 
 paradoxes even among the most paradoxical people of the world. 
 \Vliile yet young, he was sent by his fiithcr to Athens, where, 
 having become one of the pupils of Socrates, he was bold enough 
 to dissent from the opinions of his great master. He subse- 
 quently figured at the court of Dionysius of Syracuse, where his 
 love of pleasure endeared him to the tyi-ant ; and his fine raillery, 
 directed against the aspiring and mystical philosophy of Plato 
 and his other associates, brought out in rohef the sensualism of 
 his own. His life was that of a rich man courting the world 
 and its pleasures, and yet sacrificing at the sacred shrine of 
 philosophy. But this jdiilosophy of his, if it deserves the name, 
 was merely the handmaid of his sensualism; his love of the 
 Corinthian Lais, and his devotion to all forms of luxiuy, being 
 only a tenet of his creed. He believed in nothing but the in- 
 timations of the senses, declaring our notion of tnith to be a 
 delicate internal touch, which may be different in different indivi- 
 duals, and thus independent of any standard of a moral rule. 
 The result of such a scheme vras, and could only be, that the 
 senses, under the guidance of a very indulgent reason, are of use 
 to man just in so far as they are the mhiisters of his jdeasure. 
 The school was continued tmdcr his daughter Ai'ctc. lie flour- 
 ished about the year 370 is.c. — A. L. 
 
 AIUSTIPPUS THE YouNGEit, a Greek philosopher, grand- 
 son of the preceding, lived about the year 364 B.C. 
 
 ARISTIPPUS, tyrant of Argos, Hved about the middle of 
 the tliird ccntuiy it.c. 
 
 ARISTO, TiTu.s, a Roman lawyer of the first centurj', -wTote 
 notes on Cassius, who had been his master, on Sabinus, and on 
 the " Libri Posteriores" of Labeo. 
 ARISTO. See Akistox. 
 
 AlilSTOBULUS OF Cassandria, in Macedonia, a Greek 
 historian of the foiuth century B.C., was one of the generals of 
 Alexander the Great, and took part iii several expeditious, of
 
 AEI 
 
 214 
 
 ART 
 
 wliich he left an account. Only a few fragments of his work 
 have reached us. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS the Jew, a Greek peripatetic philosopher, 
 flourished under Ptolemy VI., Philometor, about the year 150 
 B.C. A number of interpolations in ancient authors, intended 
 to show that they were acquainted with the books of Closes, are 
 attributed to Aristobulus. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS I., king of the Jews 105 B.C., was the 
 eldest son of John Hyrcanus, prince of that people. His mother 
 having refused to relinquish the government which had been left 
 to her, Aristobulus threw lier into prison, where she died of 
 hunger; and he not only took the reins into his own hands, but 
 even assumed the regal title. Sj-ria at tliis time being in a state 
 of great distraction, he turned his anns against it, and subdued 
 Iturea, givuig to the inhabitants the option of either quittmg their 
 countrv, or of submitting to circmncision, and being incorporated 
 with tiie Jewish nation. Being obliged by sickness to return to 
 Jerusalem before the close of the campaign, he left the conquest 
 to be completed by Antigonus, his brother. Through false re- 
 presentations made by the enemies of Antigonus, Aiistobulus 
 was led to believe that he aspired to the crown, and commanded 
 him to be put to death. After this he suffered severely from 
 remorse, which aggravated his bodily malady, and he died of 
 hsemorrhage, after having reigned one year. — W. L. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS II., son of Alexander Janneus, king of the 
 Jews, and of Alexandra, queen of the Jews, and grandson of 
 John HjTcanus, the prince, disputed the succession with his elder 
 brother Hyrcanus, and, hanng vanquished him, became king in 
 the year 69 B.C. He made every eftbrt to induce the Romans to 
 recognize his title ; but as sunilar applications were made on the 
 part of H^TCanus, he was not successful. With considerable 
 difficulty he maintained his position for several years, until, 
 havuig provoked Pompey, by preparing for war while his case 
 was under consideration, the Roman general marched against 
 Jerusalem, and took it. Before the capture of the city, Aiisto- 
 bulus tendered his submission in person, and was detained. He 
 was one of the captive princes who graced the triumph of Pompey ; 
 and although most of the others were, with unwonted clemency, 
 sent home to their several countries, he was kept in custody, from 
 a fear that he would excite disturbances in Judea. After a time, 
 however, he made his escape, collected an army, marched to 
 Mach»rus, and repaired its fortifications ; but he was defeated 
 by Lisenna, and, being taken captive, was sent a second time as 
 a prisoner to Rome. At length he was set at hberty by Ca;sar, 
 with the view of being employed in S}Tia against Scipio, the 
 friend of Pompey; but on his way thither he was poisoned by 
 some of the adherents of Pompey. — W. L. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS, grandson of Hyrcanus IL, and brother of 
 Mariamne, Herod's wife, was advanced by Herod, at the age of 
 seventeen, to the office of high-priest. This appointment was 
 made in consequence of the earnest entreaties of ilariamne and 
 her mother Alexandra to Cleopatra and Antony, who constrained 
 the Jewish king, contrary to his own -wishes, to depose Ananel, 
 and to put Aristobulus in his place. But though he thus yielded 
 to circumst.inces, he was determined to be avenged. Aware of 
 her danger, Alexandra prepared one coffin for herself and another 
 for her son, in which they were to be canned to the sea-coast by 
 night, with the view of escaping to Egypt. The stratagem, how- 
 ever, was disclosed to Herod, and Aristobulus and his mother 
 were seized. Afraid to proceed openly against them, yet jealous 
 of the increasing popularity and Asmonean descent of the young 
 high-priest, he proposed to Alexandra, while visiting her at 
 Jericho, a pleasure excursion, and going into a lake with Aristo- 
 bulus to bathe, he gave instructions to his servants to drown 
 him. Under pretence of aiding him, they continued plunging 
 him till life was extinct. — W. L. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS, a son of Herod the Great and of Mariamne, 
 put to death at Scbitste by order of his father. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS the Younger, a grandson of Herod the 
 Great. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS, son of Herod king of Ch.nlcis, and gi-eat- 
 grandson of Ilorod the Great, lived towards the end of the first 
 century, and was made king of Armenia by Xcro. 
 
 ARISTOCLES. Several Greek artists bore this name; we 
 notice: — Aristocles of Cydonia, one of the earliest Greek 
 sculptors, probably lived before 500 B.C. Pausani.is quotes a 
 group of Hercules fighting an Amazon, as the work of this 
 sculptor. — ^^Vristoclks of Sicyon, the brother and pupil of 
 
 Canachus, was a Greek carver in wood, and a brass-caster, 
 living about 490 B.C. — Aristocles, a Greek painter, Uving 
 about 429 B.C., who, according to Pliny, decorated the temple 
 of Apollo at Delphi. — Aristocles, the son and pupil of Nico- 
 machns, a Greek painter of the Sicyonic school. He flourished 
 about 326 B.C. — Aristocles, the son and pupil of Clcoetas, a 
 Greek toreutic sculptor of the Athenian school of Phidias. — R. M. 
 
 ARISTOCLES, a name borne by several philosophers and 
 literati of Greece, amongst whom may be mentioned, Aristocles 
 of Lampsacus, a stoic; Aristocles of Rhodes, the contemporary 
 of Strabo ; Aristocles of Pergamus, a peripatetic, who lived in 
 the reign of Trajan ; Aristocles of ilessene, of the same sect, 
 who flourished under Septimius Severus; and Aristocles, a 
 Greek phvsician of the firet centurv, whose writings have perished. 
 
 ARIstOCR.\TES I. and II.", two kings of Arcadia; the 
 foi-mer of whom reigned in the eighth century B.C., and the 
 latter led the Arcadians against the Spartans in the second 
 Jlessenian war; but having been guilty of treachery to his 
 country, was stoned to death about 668 B.C. 
 
 ARISTOCRATES : amongst others worthy of note who bore 
 this name we mention — Aristocrates, an Athenian, against 
 whom Demosthenes delivered an oration. — Aristocrates, the 
 son of Scellias, one of the Athenian generals condemned to death 
 after the battle of Arginusse. — Aristocrates, a Greek histo- 
 rian of the second century B.C., who wrote a history of Laconia. 
 — Aristocr.\tes, a Greek physician of the first century. 
 
 ARISTODE'MUS : of the famous men who bore this name 
 we notice — Aristodemus, the first Heraclid king of Sparta. — 
 Aristodemus, a king of Messenia, who died in 72.3 B.C., dis- 
 tinguished himself in the war against Sparta, and sacrificed his 
 daughter to save the ilessenian state. — Aristodemus, Mala- 
 Kos, a tyrant of Cumse, was the contemporary and friend of 
 Tarquinius Superbus, who died at his court 496 B.C. — Aris- 
 TODEMX".s, one of the Spartan host who made Thermopylas 
 immortal. For some reason he was absent when the conflict 
 took place, and was, therefore, branded as " the Coward" — till 
 he fell at Plata;a, fighting bravely to wipe away the stain, 479 
 B.C. — Aristodemus, a tragic actor of Athens, lived about 
 340 B.C., and was a leading man amongst the Macedonian party. 
 — Aristodejius of Miletus, a general in the employ of Anti- 
 gonus, lived about 315 B.C., and was employed in the war 
 against Cassander. — Aristodemus of Nysa lived about 50 b.c, 
 and taught rhetoric at Rome. — Another Aristodemus of Xysa, 
 a Greek gramm.irian, flourished about B.C. 30. — Aristodemus 
 was the name of several Greek authors, one of whom wrote a 
 collection of fables, another a history of inventions, and a third 
 commented upon Plato. — J. W. S. 
 
 ARISTODEMUS was also the name of three Greek artists : — 
 a painter of Thebes of the fourth century B.C. (see Aristides), 
 a sculptor of the age of Alexander the Great, and a painter of 
 Caria, of the time of Nero. 
 
 ARISTOGITON, an Athenian orator, who lived about 340 
 B.C. ; the rival of Demosthenes. 
 
 ARISTOGITON of Thebes, a Greek brass-caster, who 
 worked with Hypatodorus for the temple of Apollo at Delphi, 
 about 420 b.c. 
 
 ARISTOLAUS, the son and pupil of Pausias, a celebrated 
 Greek painter, who lived about 330 B.C. 
 
 ARISTOM'ACHUS, a perip.atetic philosopher of Cilicia, of 
 the third century B.C., who studied the natural historj' of bees. 
 
 ARISTOMEDES of Thebes, one of the first Greek sculptors 
 who worked in marble. He executed, with Socrates, about 490 
 B.C., a statue of Cybele in Pentelic marble, mentioned by 
 Pausanias. 
 
 ARISTOMEDON, a brass-caster of Argos, about 490 b.c. 
 
 ARISTOM'ENES, the leader of the Messenians in their 
 second war of independence against the Spartans, memorable for 
 his valour, his military skill, and his wonderful adventures. 
 
 ARISTOMENES, a comic poet of Athens, lived about 425 B.C. 
 
 ARISTON. Under this name we notice — Ariston, a king 
 of Sparta, who came to the throne about 560 B.C., and reigned 
 for fiftv vears. — Aristox, a Greek physician of the fifth century 
 B.C., supposed to be the author of a work on diet. — Aristox 
 of Megalopolis, an Achaan statesman of the second century B.C. 
 
 Ariston of Corinth, a pilot in the SjTacusan service, who 
 
 suir^ested a stratagem bv which the uihabitants of that city 
 overcame the Athenian fleet, 414 B.C.— Ariston of Cyrene, 
 lived about 403 B.C., and headed the democratic party in a ci\t1
 
 ivar iu liis native state. — Aeiston of Chios, a stoic pliiloso- 
 pher, who lived about 275 B.C. — Ariston, a poiipatetic philo- 
 sopher of Ceos, hved about 230 B.C. — Auiston of Tyre, a friend 
 of Hannibal during his exile in Asia, lived about 200 B.C. — 
 Akiston of Alexandria, -a peripatetic philosoplier, who lived 
 about 30 B.C. — Aristox of Pella, a Greek author of the first 
 centurj. — Ariston, a Greek traveller, who explored the eastern 
 coast of Africa at the command of tlie Ptolemies. 
 
 ARISTON, the son and pupil of Aristides of Thebes. His 
 works were impressed with the same tendency towards exagger- 
 ation that characterized the school of his father. A " Satyr 
 with a cup," by this artist, is recorded by Pliny. He was the 
 master of Euphranor. Lived about 330 B.C. — R. M. 
 
 ARISTON OF Sparta, a sculptor in metals, wlio, with his 
 brother Telestas, executed the colossal statue of Jupiter, pre- 
 sented by the Cleitorians to the temple of Olympia. 
 
 ARISTONICUS. Under this name we notice — Aristonicus 
 of JIarathon, an Athenian orator of the anti-Macedonian party, put 
 to death by Antipater in 322 B.C. — Aristonicus of Tarentum, 
 ail ancient writer on mythology. — Aristonicus, an illegitimate 
 son of Eumenes II. of Pergamus, engaged in an unsuccessful war 
 against the Romans, and put to death in 129 B.C. — Aristoni- 
 cus, an Alexandrian grammarian, the contemporary of Strabo, 
 who wrote pedantic notes on the Homeric poems. 
 
 ARISTONIDAS, a Greek sculptor, who excelled in the mani- 
 pulation of castuigs. Pliny makes especial mention of a statue 
 of Athamas at Thebes, in which this artist, by the mixture of 
 the metals employed, succeeded in giving the appearance of 
 blushing. No jirecise date is known about Aiistonidas. — R. M. 
 
 ARISTONIMUS, a Greek poet who succeeded Apollonius as 
 curator of the Alexandrian library. 
 
 ARISTONUS, a Greek sculptor of the ^Eginetan school, was 
 the author of a statue of Jupiter presented by the Metapontians 
 to the temple of Olympia. Date uncertain; probably 475 B.C. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated comic writer, and citizen of 
 Athens, who was born about the year B.C. 444. He is the only 
 author of the school of old Greek comedy, whose plays are ex- 
 tant. His father's name was Philip, and he belonged to the 
 tribe Pandionis and the Cydathen»on demos. It is difficult to 
 understand the relation in which he stood to the spirit of the age 
 in which he lived, or to compare him with modern writers. If the 
 best papers of the Tatler and Spectator may be justly compared to 
 the "lost comedies of Menander," the plays of Aristophanes ex- 
 hibit such a compound of caricature, farce, broad satire, and noble 
 sentuneuts, served up with a condiment of fun, as reminds us, 
 though presented in a ditferent fonn, of tlie wittiest portions ot the 
 weekly serial " Punch," and the sketches of Gilray and Doyle, 
 llis \vi-itings have been called a continued political farce ; and 
 the expression is just, if we intei-prct the word political in the 
 sense of including the caricature of the actual state of public 
 affairs, with so much of private life as could not be separated 
 from that which is public. A public tribunal of character is an 
 actual necessity where a popular government exists ; and in the 
 times of Aristophanes, when the press had not been invented, no 
 other tribunal could exist but the theatre. He is said to have 
 been a pupil of Prodicus — a statement which some have doubted, 
 ■.\i he speaks of liim slightingly. The distinguished merits of his 
 comedies e.xcitcd so much envy against him, that Cleon, an 
 Atlienian demagogue, wliom he had lashed without mercy, con- 
 tested llis right to be accounted a citizen of Athens; and because 
 lie had an estate in ^"Igina, his enemies endeavoured to represent 
 him as a stranger. Plato speaks of him as voluptuous in pri- 
 vate life, and as spending whole nights in l)riiliant conviviality. 
 The character given of him in Rymcr's Short View of Trwjedy 
 is terse and forcible. He is described as " appearing iu his 
 function a man of wonderful zeal for virtue and tlie good of his 
 country, laying about him with undaunted resolution for his 
 faith and religion." In pursuance of this design he attacked the 
 Peloponnesian war, attributing it to Pericles, and to the influ- 
 ence exercised over that statesman by the Hetaira Aspasia. In 
 this fatal war he finds the source of the mischievous influence of 
 such coarse demagogues as Cleon. Nor did the corruptions 
 introduced into the sj-stem of public education at Athens by the 
 teaching of the so])hists escape the severity of his rebuke. He 
 laughed to scorn their efforts to substitute opinion for trutli, to 
 make the arts of persuasion the object of conversation and 
 mutual intercourse, and to introduce everywhere a dreary scepti- 
 cism in matters of rehgion. He inveighed with equal vigoiu- 
 
 against the courts of law, the litigious spirit of his countiymen, 
 and the insolence and exaggerated clauns of the public judges. 
 The following is a list of his comedies at present extant : — 1. 
 "The Hippeis, Horsemen, or Knights; " 2. " Acharnians ; " 3. 
 "Clouds;" 4. "Wasps;" 5. "Peace;" 6. "Birds;" 7. " Lysis- 
 trata;" 8. " Thesmophoriazusre ; " 9. "Frogs;" 10. " Ecclesi- 
 azusK;" 11. " Plutus." He wrote several others, which, un- 
 happily, are lost. Among these were — 1. " The Ddtaleis," 
 or " Banqueters," produced before Aristophanes was of sufficient 
 age to contend for a prize in his own name, and therefore 
 brought out under the name of Philonides. This comedy, ex- 
 hibited in the fifth year of the Peloponnesian war (or as others 
 say, the fourth), holds up to public contempt the character of 
 the spendthrift, and attacks, as producing that character, the 
 new system of education, which the Ionian and Eleatic philoso- 
 phy promoted, and which the sophists conducted. The chorus 
 consists of banqueters in the temple of Hercules, and the 
 point of the whole drama is a recommendation to return to the 
 severe g}nnnastics, which had fonned so large a part of the 
 ancient education of Athens. 2. " The Babylonians." The 
 anonymous life of Aristophanes infoiTns us, that when the dema- 
 gogue Cleon questioned the poet's right to be a citizen of Athens, 
 because he had lampooned Cleon in that play, Aristophanes did 
 not make use of his unrivalled talent for sarcasm in reply to the 
 doubt cast on his parentage or birthplace, but simply quoted the 
 two verses of Telemachus in the Odyssey : — " That is, I take 
 my mother's word: my mother vows 'twas he; I know not: who 
 can swear he knows ? " The attack on him was unsuccessful. 
 Aristophanes wrote, in all, fifty- four di-amas. Of the remainder 
 which have been lost, all that we know leads us to conclu<le that 
 they touched on tlie same topics, ridiculed the same theories, 
 and were full of the same bold and spirited humour as those that 
 siu-vive. Instead of analysing the latter separately, we prefer to 
 recommend to the general reader the literal translation of them 
 pubhshed in Bohn's classical library. Jlr. Cotton of Rugliy 
 has written a fine scholarly account of them in Dr. Smitli's 
 " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biogi-aphy." They are replete 
 with quaint and wild buftbonery, and wisdom taught in fun. 
 In one the hero goes up to heaven on the back of a dung-beetle, 
 and finds Mars pounding the Greek states in a mortar. An- 
 other finishes with a word of 170 letters. We find in one place 
 a chorus of frogs ; birds build cities in the clouds ; a dog is tried 
 for stealing a Sicilian cheese ; and an iambic verse is formed of 
 the gnmts of a pig. Wliether these dramas exercised much in- 
 fluence on the opinions and conduct of the Atlienian people, 
 may be doubted. The orators, after all, were the men who 
 " wielded at will the fierce democracy of Athens." The incre- 
 dible shamelessness with which Aristophanes mocks all the 
 gods of his country, must have rendered him a most questionable 
 supporter of religion. It is rather to be presumed, that he pur- 
 posely defended the popular superstitions m a way more likely to 
 injure them, than any dux'ct attack. Who, as Heeren observes, 
 could appear with reverent devotion at the altar of Jove, after 
 laughing at him in the "Clouds'?" Of his gross and profligate in- 
 decency, nothing can be said in extenuation, except that it was 
 in accordance with the spirit of the age in which he lived, and 
 hardly surpasses the jokes of Harlequin, among the nations of 
 the south of Europe, especially in his extemporaneous perform- 
 ances. Plato admired the writings of Aristophanes so much, .is 
 models of pure Attic, that tliey are said to have been found 
 under his pillow after his death. Aristophanes died about 380 
 B.C. There are numerous editions of his plays. The first was 
 "The Aldine," Venice, 1498, folio, omitting the Thesmoplioria- 
 zusa; and Lysistrata. Kuster's edition, Amsterdam, folio, 1710, 
 contains valuable Scholia, and was partly edited by Richard 
 Bentley, the celebrated critic. That of Bekker, iu 5 vols. 8vo, 
 London, 1829, is founded on the collation of two MSS. from Ra- 
 venna and Venice, unknown to former editors. Dindorf lias pub- 
 lished the "Scholia on Aristoi)hanes" in 3 vols., Leipsio, 182G. 
 Mitcli(dl has publislied five plays, and translated the first three 
 of them into I']nglish verse : — namely, tho " Acliarnian.s," 
 " Knights," " Wasps, " Clouds," and " Frogs." Mr. llickic 
 gives us a literal translation of all tho plays, in 2 vols., London, 
 1.S53. Mr. Cookesley lias edited the "Birds," and "Plutus," 
 with English notes. Cmiiberland translate<l the "Clouds," 1797. 
 Fielding and Young, the " Plutus;" and some anonymous writers, 
 also, separate plays. Voss, Brunswick, 1821, and Droyson, 
 Berlin, 1835-1838, have translated all uito German. Wicland,
 
 
 AEI 
 
 21G 
 
 ARI 
 
 the "Achamians," "Knights," "Clouds," and "Bu-ds;" and 
 Welcker, the "Clouds" and "Frogs." Madame Dacier pub- 
 lished at Pans, 1692, a French version of tlie "Plutus" and 
 the " Clouds," with critical notes, and an examination of each 
 play, according to the rules of the theatre. Quintus S. Florens 
 rendered the " Wasps," " Peace," and " Lysistrata" into Latin 
 verse, but his translation is obscure on account of the obsolete 
 words and phrases which it contains. Stanley, in his " Lives of 
 the Philosophers," gave an Enghsh version of the " Clouds," 
 London, 1C87.— T. J. 
 
 AEISTOPIL\NES of Byzantiuji was one of the most 
 celebrated of the Alexandrine scholars of the tliird century 
 B.C. He was the pupil of Callimachus and of Zenodotus of 
 Ephesus, and the teacher of Aristarchus, the ablest of the Ho- 
 meric critics of the school of Alexandria. He received from 
 Ptolemy I'hilopator the superintendence of the Alexandrian 
 library, and occupied a distinguished place in the history of his 
 age, both as a poet, an annotator, and a scholar. His principal 
 works were commentaries on Homer, Sophocles, and Emijiides ; 
 and he is said to have mvented the Greek accents, and to have 
 introduced a system of punctuation. — F. 
 
 AKISTOPIION, a celebrated Greek painter, was a native of 
 Thasos, and lived during the fifth century B.C. 
 
 ARISTOPHON OF ^izEsiA, an Athenian orator of the foui'th 
 centuiy B.C., who was sent by the council of Four Hundi-ed to 
 negotiate with the Lacedemonians. Another orator bore this 
 name, — he was the contemporary of Demosthenes, and it is said 
 that ^Eschines at one time acted as his clerk. 
 
 ARISTOPHOX, a comic poet of the time of Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 ARISTOTILE, surnamed il Fioravante, a celebrated 
 architect of Bologna, — lived in the fifteenth centmy. Having 
 gone to Russia under the auspices of Ivan IIL, he became the 
 author of many public works in that countiy, and so highly 
 valued were his talents, that his royal patron finally prevented 
 his return to his own country. The chmxh of the Assumption, 
 the cathedral of St. Michael, the palace of Belvedere, and the 
 restoration of the Kremlin, all testify to the talents and labom-s 
 of this artist.— A. L. 
 
 ARISTOTILE, or BASTIANO DA SAN-GALLO, an Italian 
 artist, born at Florence, 1481; died 31st May, 1551. He 
 Studied under Penigino and Jlichel Angelo, and became known by 
 the title of Aristotile, "the httle Aristotle," which was confen-ed 
 upon him in consequence of his resemblance to a bust of the 
 great philosopher. The early paintings of this artist were gener- 
 ally after the designs of his contemporaries, principally Michel 
 Angelo ; and he seems to have been impressed himself with 
 the conviction that he was deficient in invention: for after a 
 considerable period devoted to coppng, in which he produced a 
 gi'eat number of JIadonnas and other pictures (many of which 
 found their way to England), he turned his attention to archi- 
 tectiu-e and decoration. In this department of art he was 
 eminently successful — a proof of which may be found in the 
 beautiful palace of the bishop of Troia, in the San-Gallo of 
 Florence. Afterwards, in conjunction with Andrea del Sarto, 
 he carried his reimtation to a great height, by his fine illus- 
 trations of 5Iachiavelli"s comedy of Mandragora, and by his 
 decoration of the gi'and court of the palace de Medicis, on the 
 occasion of the marriage of Duke Cosmo with Leonora de 
 Toledo. — A. L. 
 
 ARISTOTIMUS, a tjTant of Elis, lived in the 3rd centur}- b.c. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. Is it required that the name and fame of this 
 chief of the intellectual world, be defined and described ? Second 
 in power among ancient thinkers to his master Plato alone, he 
 far sui-passed him in range of inquiry ; and the influence of no 
 man, whether over Modern times or Antiquity, over the East as 
 well as the West, over Christian and Arabian alike, at all ap- 
 proaches to his. 
 
 I. — Let us rapidly survey, at the outset, the material incidents 
 that seem to have aided the development of this gigantic mind. 
 Aristotle was born in the year 384 u.c. at Stagyra, — (accord- 
 uig to some the modern JIacre or Nicalis ; according to others, 
 and more probably, the modem Stavro,) — a village of some poli- 
 tical note in Greece, sitiuited at the base of that peninsula of 
 which Mount Athos is the apex. His father, Nicomachus, was 
 a learned man and an eminent physician, the friend of Amyntas 
 II. of !Macedon, at whose court he appears to have stayed. The 
 ability of Nicomachus, and his love of physical inquiry, must 
 
 have largely influenced his son, and given him many of his 
 tastes ; while the position he occupied at the JIacedonian court 
 necessarily affected the whole life of Aiistotle. Nicomachus 
 died when his son had reached his seventeenth year, and he be- 
 queathed the care of him to Proxencs of Atamxa, in Mysia, 
 who then resided at Stag)ra. The affection, largely and dis- 
 creetly bestowed by Proxenes and his excellent wife, was at 
 no time forgotten by Aristotle. On the death of Proxenes he 
 adopted his orphan child, and afterwards gave to him in mar- 
 riage his daughter Pythias. We find in his testament, as re- 
 ported by Diogenes Laertius, a paragraph that is almost touch- 
 ing, in which he orders monuments to be raised to the me- 
 mories of Proxenes and his second ^lother. Nor was tliis a 
 solitary or singular manifestation of sentiment on the part of 
 Aristotle. He seems to have ever lingered over the memories 
 of past acquaintanceships and personal kindnesses, — a chai-ac- 
 teristic seldom displayed in his writings or in fonual eulo- 
 gies, but by acts, and through the whole life of the man. How 
 he laments, for instance, over his fi'iend Hermias, with whom 
 he found refuge at Atarnaja, and who, falling through treachery 
 into the hands of Artaxei-xes Ochus, was strangled by that 
 t_\Tant ! The grief of Aiistotle found vent in the only poems 
 he ever wrote — one, a noble and simple pEeau, replete with 
 power and beauty ; and the other, four verses, with the sub- 
 joined meaning, inscribed on the mausoleum erected by him in 
 the temple of Delphi, to the memoiy of Hennias : — "A king 
 of Persia, violator of law, destroyed him whose effigies is be- 
 fore you. A generous enemy would have contended with him 
 in arms ; a traitor sm-jirised him under the mask of friendship." 
 Soon after the death of Nicomachus, Proxenes sent Aiistotle to 
 Athens, where he hved about twenty years. He had the benefit 
 of the instructions of Plato, to whom he afterwards erected 
 an altar ; but very soon he became a teacher and master him- 
 self. During the lifetime of Plato, he opened a com'se of rhetoric, 
 in opposition to the teachuig of that most effeminate and coriTipt- 
 ing of rhetoricians, Isocrates ; and soon after the death of the 
 immortal head of the Academy, he began to give instraction hi 
 philosojihy, initiating that school which, from Aristotle's habit 
 of walkuig up and down while adch-essing his pupils, afterwards 
 acquired the famous name of The Peripatetic. About this period 
 he passed into Asia Minor, with the intention of traveUing; 
 but the tragical death, or rather murder of Hermias, seems 
 to have an-ested his design, and he sought refuge in ^litylene 
 in the isle of Lesbos, with Pythias, sister or adopted daughter 
 of Hennias, with whom — having subsequently married her — he 
 passed some years of pm-est happiness. It seems to have been 
 at Mitylene that he received the welcome in\itation from Phihp, 
 to become the tutor of Alexander. Never, perhaps, in all history 
 has there been another such conjunction ! Two imperial Sove- 
 reigns — the teacher and the taught : one striding on to the pos- 
 session of the fruits of all inquiiy and thought, and laying firm 
 the foundation of a dominion that time can never shake : the 
 other, able, worthy, and resolute to subjugate the world ! The 
 extraordinaiy connection lasted but four brief years ; neverthe- 
 less, the power of the monitor established from the tii-st an 
 authority over that unbridled genius, and inspired him with a 
 respect which never wavered. The benefits were mutual. Aris- 
 totle taught the future Conqueror, the elements of morals, the 
 great principles of politics, eloquence, music, and poetry; and he 
 opened before him the vast field of natm'al liistoiy : that copy 
 of the Iliad which was Alexander's constant companion during 
 his triumphant Eastern march, had been annotated by Aristotle. 
 The King, on the other hand, contributed largely in return to 
 the perfection of those immortal stnictm-es that were being slowly 
 reared by the philosoidier. Pliny informs us, that through all 
 his progress in Asia, he kept a very anny of men employed in 
 collecting and sending to Aiistotle the animals, plants, and cmi- 
 ous productions of the new climates, and hitherto altogether 
 unexplored regions of the East. Athenreus affirms that, in carry- 
 ing out this great and pious work of gratitude and personal 
 predilection, Alexander spent about £'200,000 : — spent most 
 nobly ! It rendered possible that marvellous " History of Ani- 
 mals," and those other physiological treatises which the most 
 illustrious naturalists of the present day admu-e more — much 
 more justly and discriminately — than could have been done by 
 anticpiity itself. There is but one thing to deplore. Aided also 
 by the munificence of his royal fiiend and pupil, Aristotle bad 
 fijiished a "collection of poUtical constitutions" of all known
 
 states, Greek and barbarian, accompanying them with criticism 
 i!il commentary, such as he alone in the ancient world could have 
 •induced. Of this vast work — the foundation of his theore- 
 tical dissertations on politics — not a line remains. — It is pleasant 
 t;i pause a moment in contemplation of this happy period of 
 Aristotle's life. He had returned to Athens on the departure of 
 Alexander for the East, and completed the formation of his 
 > hool ui the Lycffium. The Aiistotle of the common appre- 
 nsion is simply an austere abstraction — a rugged titanic In- 
 ilect, above concern in human interests, and incapable of human 
 emotion. The actual Ai-istotle, on the contrary', was slender iu 
 make, scrupulous as to dress, — one who chose to have rings on 
 bis fingers, and preferred a smooth chin. He had small eyes, 
 and a feminine voice ; and he loved intensely liis daughter Py- 
 thias, Herpilis his second spouse, and his son the young Nico- 
 ichus, who all at that time shared his abode. With such a 
 iiTOunding, and amid the facilities afforded him by the un- 
 \\earied and ceaseless soUcitudes of Alexander, the cup of his 
 happiness was full. But alas ! this serene period was of short 
 'luration. The foul miurder of Callisthenes, a nephew of Aris- 
 tle, moved his sensitive mind to its depths ; and during the 
 ■; years that remained of the Conqueror's brief Ufe, their in- 
 rcourse seems to have been rare and very painful. Other 
 ■ubles immediately arose. On Alexander's death, the enemies 
 ■ our illustrious Thinker imagined that their time had come. 
 '.n accusation of impiety was got up by a priest, Euiynne- 
 a — the charge being that the philosopher had erected altars 
 memory of his first Wife and of his friend Hermias ! Inge- 
 us, but not rare : it is never difficult to extract impiety 
 t of a pious act! Aristotle fled, so that — as he said him- 
 A — the Athenians might be spared a new crime against phi- 
 -ophy. He retired to Chalcis, where, after the mtenal of a 
 ir, he died in the month of September, 323 B.C., at the age 
 sixty-two. Of the uitellectual character and achievements of 
 ; 3 great inquirer, we shall speak below. The incidents of his life, 
 ~ now sketched, are of a nature to reheve us from the task of 
 re than alluding, in the briefest way, to that charge of his 
 ntemporary detractors, — brought up, of course, with redoubled 
 :iis by numerous Ecclesiastics — the charge, viz., of ingi-ati- 
 •le towards his master Plato. It would certainly be strange, 
 I man, who, in every well-authenticated passage of an active 
 ■, showed himself incapable of forgetting a kindness — who re- 
 id every obligation tenfold — should, in this single instance, 
 hive acted in flagrant opposition to every habit and tendency of 
 his nature : — it would indeed be strange, if he, through whose 
 just, magnanimous, and careful appreciation, the names and 
 doctrines of his predecessors have mainlj' been presented fi-om for- 
 getfulness, should have thought it permissible, or even safe for 
 him, to misrepresent and travestie those grand speculations which 
 were as public, and had as great a certainty of passing down to 
 posterity as his own : — it would be doubly strange if the author 
 of those two immortal chapters, " The Analysis of the Virtues " 
 — chapters composed of port-raits, most true and most generous 
 — undisfigured by exaggeration — the manifest product of a noble 
 as well as of a penetratmg nature ; it would indeed be strange 
 if such a nature could on such an occasion have suddenly become 
 the bondslave of envy, malice, and all meanness ! But his vindi- 
 I ation is easy. The genius of the one philosopher differed greatly 
 from that of the other. Aristotle could not comprehend Plato, 
 and therefore opposed him. The mode he chose for that opposi- 
 tion is described in an often-quoted passage from the first book 
 of the Ethics : — " It will perhaps be better to examine the 
 theory carefully and narrowly, even although, on inquir}', it may 
 become a very delicate one, seeing that philosophers who are 
 ■• ry dear to us have supported the theory of ideas. It will be 
 jlit also, when alluding to these philosophers, to put wliolly 
 -ide all personal feelings, and to flunk only of the defence of 
 the truth. Both, indeed, are dear ; nevertheless, it is a sacred 
 duty to give preference to the defence of trath." Who shall 
 condemn the method of Aiistotle ? Shall we substitute tlie form 
 of polemics of the present day ? 
 
 II. — But we nuist hasten to consideration of the positive achieve- 
 ments of our philosopher, a task that can be accomplished here 
 only in the most cursoiy way. And first, a general summary. 
 It is impossible to read even the titles mdicntive of the range 
 of research accomplished by a man whose life reached only to 
 sixty-two years, without profoundest astonishment ; nor per- 
 haps is a better illustration furnished by Histor}-, of the great 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 truth, that universality is an unfiiUing characteristic of loftiest 
 geniuses, — not tmiversality as to information, but miiversal- 
 ity as to thought. It may be said with justice, that there 
 was not one subject of interest mooted in his day, which the 
 Stagyrite did not touch and adorn ; and he laid besides, the 
 foundations of many new sciences. The only portions of his 
 works that have reached our time, which may be termed of incon- 
 siderable value, are his Physics, — such as the " Meteorology," 
 the book de Mimdo, the de Coelo, the treatise on the Piinciples of 
 Physics, &c. &c. No good work on physics could be written in 
 Aristotle's time. The value of Erperiment was not recognized, 
 nor its methods understood ; and besides, the entire physical 
 speculation of Greece proceeded on the gi-ound of a false method. 
 Yet, even in these treatises, one is constantly meeting with re- 
 marks, whose sagacity has the air of prophecy, for they assuredly 
 foreshadow some remarkable modem positive discoveries. — 
 Leaving the Physics, we find ourselves in presence of that amazing 
 collection which may be termed the Natural History of Aris- 
 totle — consisting of the immortal History of Animals — the trea- 
 tise on the Parts of Animals — another on their ^Motions — a third 
 on their Walk — a fourth on their Generation : next comes the trea- 
 tise on Plants, and portions of the Parva Naturalia : with tliis 
 division we must also partially connect a very remarkable work to 
 which we shall again refer — the treatise ti^i -i^vx^,;, or concerning 
 the Human Soul. The works here enumerated are of great magni- 
 tude; Schneider's edition of the Histoiy of Animals alone, occupy- 
 ing four volumes octavo. This last work, above all, is a reper- 
 tory, not of facts only, but of principles : — the inestimable value 
 of the whole class depending on this, that they are the results of 
 acute and conscientious obseiTation, and skilful classification, 
 two powers in regard to which Aristotle has never been surpassed. 
 "I cannot read this book," said Cuvier, "without unbounded 
 wonder. It is indeed impossible to conceive how one man was 
 able to collect and compare the multitude of special facts, and 
 the mass of aphorisms contained in it, — of none of which had 
 his predecessors the remotest idea. The History of Animals is 
 not a Zoology, commonly so called, — that is to say, a mere de- 
 scription of various animals ; it is more nearly a General An- 
 atomy, in which the author treats of the generalities of the organ- 
 ization of animals, and in which he exposes their differences and 
 resemblances, as indicated by a comparative examination of their 
 organs, — thus laying the true basis of all grand classifications." 
 — The student who may well have regarded this immense natural 
 historj' as adequate to absorb the whole lifetime of a man even 
 of the loftiest genius, dying at the age of sixty-two, has only to 
 turn to a new volume, and his amazement is renewed. He is 
 again in presence of amplest labours for another life — an aston- 
 ishing amount of yet more arduous thought — the foundation of 
 sciences much more remote. We speak of course of the achieve- 
 ments of Aristotle in mental, moral, and .esthetic inquiry. 
 The .€;sthetics consist of the well-knowm treatises on Khetoric 
 and Poetics, — the latter of wliich long swayed all modem criti- 
 cism — not indeed with unmixed effects, for Aristotle was defi- 
 cient in the faculty of Imagination, neither possessing the glorious 
 luxuriance of the faculty as Plato possessed it, nor careful to ap- 
 preciate it. The Moral, or as the philosopher temied them, the 
 practical sciences, consist of those Ethical treatises to which we 
 shall refer below; — the Economics, and the Politics. The latter 
 treatise — the thoughtful and compressed result of his lost collec- 
 tion of upwards of 150 actual Constitutions — is one of the works 
 in which the penetrating genius of the Stagyrite is the most 
 clearly revealed. Nothing to wliich it is more unlike, than a 
 book of description ; it is a methodical deduction of great prin- 
 ciples of government, a discrimination of the princijiles under- 
 lying every different form of government, and a proi)hetic de- 
 claration concerning their comparative stal)ilities. A few re- 
 marks in this precious volume made the fortunes of l^Iacliiavel 
 and Montesquieu ; nor has even Rousseau in the Contrat Social 
 escaped its all-pen-ading influence. Every framer of an Utopia 
 has borrowed from Aristotle ; but alone, his Politics are not an 
 Utopia, The book is the result of experience, of the widest re- 
 search and impartial reflection ; and it will continue the great 
 classic, so long as man remains as he is. — The last di\ision of 
 this section of the labours of Aristotle is probably that which 
 has most occupied the attention of philosophical writere from his 
 time until now — those namely relating to pure thought : they 
 are, the Ougaxon and the JIetapiiysics. It were vain to at- 
 tempt in this place an analysis of either of these verv memorable 
 
 "2 E
 
 ARI 
 
 218 
 
 ARI 
 
 works. The Organon includes the Categories ; the book on In- 
 terpretation ; the two books of the Prior Analytics ; the two books 
 of the Posterior Analytics ; the eight books of the Topics ; and. 
 the Ai-guments of the Sophists. This work is devoted to expos- 
 bg the formal laws of the thinking faculty, or the mode in 
 which, thi-ough \Trtue of the necessity of its constitution, the 
 Mind must proceed towards the discoveiy of Truth. It has no- 
 thing to do with positive Truth itself, but only \\ith the legitimate 
 or only possible means by which Truth can be established. An en- 
 terprise undertaken for the first time, and, as accomplished by the 
 Stagyrite, accomplished for ever. Even Kant and Hegel have 
 asserted, that no philosopher has either added to the logic of 
 Aiistotle, or taken anything away from it, — an assertion Hter- 
 ally true, notmthstanduig the long labours of our lamented 
 Hamilton. — It is curious to notice how Bacon permitted him- 
 self, in wilful misconception, to WTite concerning the Organon. 
 But Time is the grand corrector ; the throne of the Stagyrite 
 is secure! — The treatise on Jlctaphysics is much more ab- 
 struse, and wholly incapable of being briefly analysed. It, on 
 the contrary, does not concern mere forms of any kind ; it is a 
 treatise on 15eing in itself, or, on Ontology properly so called; it is 
 the theory of first principles — piinciples lying wholly beyond the 
 domain of material obsen'ation. It has been commented on 
 times without number, — very recently by Cousin; but the student 
 will find much more help from the laborious and acute work by 
 Eavaisso7i. There is also a recent Latin translation accompanied 
 by a critical commentary, from the pen of Zevort. — We cannot 
 tenninate our mere " list of contents," better than in the words 
 in which St. Hilaire graphically describes the historical fates of 
 this vast mass of thought : "It was the Logic that first made its 
 way among the Greek and Latin schools. Not being required to 
 accept any positive system, every one hastened to study and com- 
 ment on the Organon ; the Fathers of the church, and, after 
 them, all Christians, were ardent as the Gentiles ; and the 
 middle ages did not hesitate to attribute to St. Augustin an 
 abridgment of the Catefjories. Boethius in the sixth century 
 translated the Organon. The Greek commentators were nume- 
 rous, even after the schools of Alexandiia had been shut by 
 the decree of Justinian. The study of logic did not cease an 
 instant at Constantinople, or in Western Em-ope. Bede, Isidore 
 of Seville, cultivated it in the seventh centiuy, as Alcuin in the 
 eighth, at the Gemian com-ts. It was the Organon that, in the 
 eleventh centiuy, gave birth to the quarrel between nominahsm 
 and realism, and to aU the teaching of Abelard. Towards the 
 close of the twelfth centurj', several other of Aiistotle's works 
 were introduced into Europe, or, more probably, they were then 
 discovered ; and from that date, his metaphysical and physical 
 doctrines began to assume an influence. The church liccanie 
 alarmed, because these doctrines provoked and authorized here- 
 sies. An envoy was sent by the pope to inspect the university 
 of Paris, — the centre and focus of modern learning and intelli- 
 gence ; and in 1210, all the works of Aristotle — the logic ex- 
 cepted — were condemned to be bmut : not only was every one 
 forbidden to read them, but it was enjoined on those who had 
 read them, to forget what they had read. The precaution was 
 useless ; it came too late. The example of the Arabs, who had 
 no master in their schools save Aiistotle, and who, accord- 
 ing to their wont, had translated and commented on all his 
 writings ; the UTCsistible wants of the spirit of the time, wliich 
 loudly demanded a larger sphere than that within which the 
 church had confined intelligence for five or sis centuries ; the 
 pradence even of the church itself, now retm-ned to a wiser 
 policy, — all conspired to break down artificial banners ; and 
 after some fruitless eflbrts, the dike was opened, and the tor- 
 rent rushed out in every direction. For nearly four centuries 
 liberty then reigned through the schools, — sufficient to nourish 
 all minds. Albertus Magnus commented on the whole works 
 of the Stagyiite ; Thomas Aquinas explained some of their 
 more difficult portions ; a crowd of illustrious doctors immedi- 
 ately followed then* example; and Aristotle, translated by the 
 care of Pope Urban V. and of Cardinal Bessarion, became 
 forthwith, in respect to science, that which the Fathers of the 
 church, or even Scripture itself, were in relation to faith. It is 
 not requisite to remark, that in this case, as with religion, en- 
 thusiasm and blind submission quickly overpassed all limits. 
 No one was allowed to think othenvise than Aristotle ; and 
 every doctrine set up against one of his, was equivalent to a 
 heresy Suffice it to recall tlie deplorable fate of Ramus who 
 
 perished, more as the victim of his com-ageous resistance to this 
 philosophical despotism, than because of his doubtful opinions; 
 suffice it that so late as 1629, in the reign of Louis XIII., a 
 decree of parliament awai-ded the punishment of death to the 
 authors of attacks on the system of 2\jistotle. Happily, this 
 prohibition was yet more ridiculous than odious. But what is 
 curious, — after some hesitation, protestantism adopted Aristotle 
 as ardently as the catholic church. Melancthon introduced his 
 writings into the Lutheran schools. The society of Jesus 
 adopted the peripatetic philosophy in its entheness; and with its 
 peculiar ability, turned it agamst aU bold thinkers of the time, 
 and especially against the adlierents of Des Cartes. It was not 
 until the eighteenth century — a centuiy victorious over so many 
 other abuses — that this one also came to an end. Aristotle 
 reigned no more, except in our seminaries ; the manuals of phi- 
 losophy in use among ecclesiastical establishments were, and still 
 are, nothing but a diy resume of his doctrine. But the general < 
 reaction went to excess, in spite of the wise counsels of Leibnitz; ] 
 the Stagyrite was treated with that unjust disdain with which ' 
 men had begun to regard the whole past. Even the gravest 
 historians of philosophy — among others, Bruclcei — could not do 
 him justice. The yoke had been broken too recently, and men 
 could not forget how oppressive it was. At last, however, 
 Aristotle has assumed the place in philosophy which is unques- 
 tionably due to him. Thanks to Kant, to Hegel, to Brandis, 
 in Germany, that the study of Aristotle did not altogether 
 perish ; thanks to Cousin among om'selves, the gi'eat doctrines 
 of the Greek philosopher arc now at once better kno^^^l, and 
 more accm-ately appreciated." Thanks, we beg to add, still 
 more, to our Scottish Sir William Hamilton ! 
 
 III. — This sketch of Aristotle — even in reference to the minute 
 scale on which it has necessaiily been planned — would be wholly 
 incomplete, without an effort to discriminate, briefly, the position, 
 on the long roU of philosophy, occupied by so profound a thinker, 
 in reference to those grand questions, whose solution, final or 
 approximate, is the aim and end of the highest science. To 
 accomplish, in so far as it is possible, the object now indicated, 
 we shall analyse shortly Aristotle's works on the Soul and on 
 Ethics, and then sum up what we conceive to be his Theodicy. 
 
 1. The treatise Ti(i '^ux^is, or concerning the soul. The work, 
 whose contents and character we are about to explain, is at 
 once the most satisfactoiy, and, with the exception perhaps of 
 the Met(q)Jiijsics, the most difficult of Aiistotle's. It is well 
 known that, on the death of the philosopher at Chalcis, his manu- 
 scripts were found in a perplexing condition. Few of them were 
 arranged, and many of the most important of his dissertations 
 bore evident marks of incompleteness. Nor were they edited as 
 they then might have been : hence the doubts and differences of 
 opinion among all subsequent editors. The treatise Ti^' ■4"'x^is is 
 almost the only exception. Aiistotle left it finished ; nor does 
 the compactness of its structure, and the logical aiTangement and 
 dependence of its parts, leave room for question. Nevertheless it 
 is most difficidt. With all the help rendered by Trendlenberg — 
 its best editor — the student will find it very hard to master. 
 The expression of Aristotle is ever concise ; so fearful was he of 
 being di-awn aside by one hair's-breadth from the quest after 
 pure tiTith, that his conciseness increased as his subject rose in 
 difficulty and loftiness. While inquuing into the natm-e of the 
 Soul, this character of his style seems to have reached its culmi- 
 nation. The subtlety and arduousness of the subject, too, appear 
 in one respect to have almost overborne Aristotle. His opinions 
 are sometimes not decided, uisomuch that the most opposite 
 views have been attributed to hun. But the perusal and study 
 of the TEjf •^•■'x^i '"'ill reward any effort. The inquirer will 
 find in it exquisite analyses of the senses, — the fu'st exemplifi- 
 cation, also on a large scale, of that inductive psychology, the 
 honour of originating which has been eiToncously given to the 
 Scottish school, — one of the finest and most accurate views ever 
 taken of the functions of the vital principle, accompanied by in- 
 dications of many of those general ti-uths which are now accepted 
 as elements of our comparative physiology ; and here, also, lie 
 the germs and the causes of the chief of those philosophical dis- 
 putes that gave intellectual activity to the middle ages. Eschew- 
 ing details, however, and all special questions, let us glance at 
 the essential characteristics of tliis elaborate treatise. Aiis- 
 totle's method, in the present case, is alike marked and pregnant. 
 Urged by his unresting desire to discover the whole, to which 
 any special phenomena may seem to belong, he casts a glance
 
 over entire animated nature, and thinks he discovers every- 
 where traces of a •vj/wx'-i' In the plant, in the zoophyte, in the 
 animal, in man, there is, present and energetic, a gi-eat forma- 
 tive principle, operating simply, and in one mode only, in some ; 
 in several modes, in others. According to our pliilosopher, there- 
 fore, the first question is — what is this all-pervading principle — 
 what can the study of its vast and varied phenomena teach us, 
 concerning its nature and essence ? A mode of inquiry alike 
 specious and enticing ; and the pm-suit of which has stamped on 
 the work we ai-e consideiing, its right to the position assigned 
 to it by most editors — a position, \tz., at the head of the Natm-al 
 History of the Stagyiite : but equivalent, at the same time, to 
 that peremptoiy subordination of psychology to physiology, 
 which, at all periods of philosophical history, has run into excesses 
 so giievous, ending in the enthe assimilation of the destinies of 
 nan to the destinies of the plant. Irrespective however of 
 its consequences (on the ground of which it is neither logical 
 nor safe to condemn a doctrine), the method has been repudi- 
 ated by the soundest philosophers, as imperfect in itself, and 
 utterly incomplete. On what ground is it assumed that the 
 -.iiere vital principle, and what we term the human soul, ai-e 
 vhe same in essence? Is there no surer mode of ascertaining 
 facts regarding the latter, than through an induction spreading 
 over the phenomena of life as manifested through the whole 
 organic creation ? What about the evidence of Consciousness 
 •aid the imperative intimations of the human Reason ? Collect and 
 lompare as many outward phenomena as one pleases, can the 
 inquirer ever reach that distinct knowledge of the soul of an 
 mimal, to which reflection may lead him concerning his own ? 
 This Aristotle wholly ignores ; and he has, therefore, committed 
 the logical error of attempting to reach trath concerning what is 
 comparatively clear, tlu-ough investigation of what must ever 
 remain mysterious. The grand positive doctrine inculcated in 
 this book, followed almost necessarily from the foregoing method 
 of inquiry. — Wiat is Soul ? Is it a substance — a distinct essence 
 or existence ? Aristotle replies, it is not a substance : it is a 
 power manifesting itself in various ways, and giving form to 
 the matter to which it belongs ; in other words, organizing and 
 sustaining it : in his own language it is an ivT'Mxtia, or 
 principle of energy — a potential, as modem physicists would 
 phrase it ; a principle which, when in positive action, he desig- 
 nates by the term ivi^yiU. This entelechy puts forth its power ; 
 and, as energy — is the cause of nutrition, sensibiUty, locomotion, 
 and intelligence ; when not in act, it is only a potential— it is 
 not a substance. The conclusion, we have said, flows directly 
 from the method ; and the two conjoined, inexorably determine 
 Aristotle's place in the annals of philosophy. Obsei-ve, in contrast, 
 tlie result of the labours of two of her foremost thinkers, the one 
 in modem and the other of ancient times, — both having followed 
 the method of Consciousness. First, as to Des Cartes. No mar- 
 vel that the Meditations were so hateful to Aristotehans — their 
 main foundation, or rather their very tii-st principle being the 
 assertion of the substantiality of the soul, and the trae duality 
 of our human nature. But from Des Cartes go back to Plato, 
 and the last moments of Socrates. " Socrates," says Crito, 
 " have you no wish to express to myself and your friends 
 — no command that we may execute relative to your children, 
 or any other thing that concerns you?" " Tliat which I 
 liave always desired of you, Crito, nothing more ; watch over 
 yourself; yon will in this way render service to me, to my 
 family, to yourself, although at present you promise me nothing; 
 while, if you neglect yourself, and do not precisely follow the 
 counsels just given, and which I have given you for long, your 
 finest promises now would be of little avail." " We shall strive," 
 replied Crito, " to act as you have counselled. But how shall 
 we bury you?" "Quite as you please," said Socrates, "provided 
 you can lay hold of me, and that I do not escape you." Then 
 turning to us all with a sweet smile, "I cannot, my friends, per- 
 suade Crito that /, who converse with you, and arrange what I 
 have to say to you, am indeed Socrates. He is bent on imagin- 
 ing, on the contrary, that the thing he will so soon see dead is 
 Socrates, and he asks how he shall bury me ! Our entire con- 
 versation, and my eftbrt to prove that when the poison shall 
 have done its work, I shall remain with you no more, but go to 
 possess felicity incifable, seem to have passed over him unheeded, 
 or as if I had only wished to console you, and sustain myself. 
 Be my sureties to Crito, not as he wished to be surety for me 
 with the judges, namely, that I should not attempt to escape ; do 
 
 yon, on the contraiy, be my sureties that I shall escape the 
 moment I am dead ; and thus poor Crito may be induced to re- 
 gard things more calmly, when, seeuig my body burnt or laid 
 underground, he will not soitow for me as if I suifered pains 
 — he will not say at my funeral ' that is Socrates,' — that he 
 canies Socrates, or inters Socrates ; for you should know, my 
 dear Crito, that to speak erroneously is not a fault against 
 things merely, but an evil done to minds. Be of good courage, 
 and declai-e at once that it is my body you are bm-jing ; bury it 
 as you please, and in the way that shall appear most confonn- 
 able to the laws." — Is it necessary to point the contrast ? From 
 each of the opposite views there has been a long descent. The 
 Platonic doctrine culminated in Christianity: — Aristotle, with all 
 his greatness, produced Cabanis. — The manifestations of the 
 entelechy ai-e, as we have said, nutrition, sensibility, locomo- 
 tion, intelligence. In man, the potential has become wholly an 
 ivi^ynoc; all these functions are performed. Faithful to our ob- 
 ject, we pass without further remark Ai'istotle's acute and per- 
 fect analysis of the phenomena of the first three functions, and 
 tm-n to his doctrine concerning IntelUgence. It is in this part 
 of his work that we recognize a vagueness and uncertainty, so 
 foreign to the resolute and clear-cut mind of the Stagyiite. 
 Aristotle divides the human intelligence into two distinct parts 
 — the passive and the active intellect. The passive intellect 
 simply receives the impression of intelligent things, just as the 
 sensibility receives the impression of sensible things. The active 
 intellect, on the other hand, takes hold of these things as under- 
 stood, compares them, classifies them, forms general truths, 
 dwells in contemplation of these traths, and thinks of them as 
 totally independent of matter. Observe, next, another point. 
 The entelechy, in so far as it manifests itself in nutrition, is of 
 course inseparable from matter, and must perish -n-ith the body, 
 of which it is a mere power. So also with the function of sen- 
 sibility ; so with the passive intellect, and all its attributes, such 
 as memoiy, and — according to Aristotle — every foiTn of imagi- 
 nation. Being mere functions, which cannot be exercised unless 
 in connection with the matter to which they belong, they must 
 perish with the body, — in other words, all that large portion of 
 the soul must die. But what of the active Intellect? That 
 faculty appears to operate above the sphere of actual matter, — 
 can it exist by itself and think, independently of matter ? In 
 other words may it be — immortal ? Aristotle has nowhere 
 clearly explained himself, on this, one of the final problems of 
 philosophy. He tells us, indeed, that this active principle is a 
 principle divine, indestractible, eternal; and he hints that it is a 
 substance. The obscure and uncertain words in which these 
 opinions are indicated, saved the illustrious Stagyrite with 
 churchmen, — with those especially who trembled at the name of 
 Des Cartes ; hut they can satisfy no free mquirer. Immor- 
 tality on such terms, were mdeed no immortality at all, for it 
 would exclude all personality. Memory gone, and not merely 
 the entire previous fmiiiture of the mind, but the power of 
 acquiring more, — gone through the vanishing of all the rest of 
 the entelechy, — what could remain ? An abstract intellectual 
 activity without materials for thought, — a part, it may be, of the 
 Divmity lent to man for a season, and now having returned ! 
 We agree entirely with Professor Butler : " I do not hesitate to 
 pronounce, that to me, the e\idence that Aristotle held the su- 
 blime and consoling doctrine of immortality is far from satisfac- 
 toiy. It is impossible, that if he held it, the very importance of the 
 question, and the natm-al earnestness which such a conviction 
 would biing with it — as well as its certauity of a strong sym- 
 pathetic support hi the hearts of all his authtors, should not have 
 led to statements more decisive and unequivocal than any which 
 the most scnipulous research can detect in his extant writings. 
 It is not sufficient to satisfy the demands of hmnan anxiety on 
 this subject, that an etemity should be pronounced essential to 
 an active intellectual principle, which itself seems described as 
 unable to exercise any consciom energies, apart from the bodily 
 structure ; a quickening essence, whose veiy existence retreats 
 into nothingness, when nothing is left that it can quicken. The 
 spirit of Aristotle's physiology unquestionably is materiality ; 
 and in exalting the ' active intellect ' above the human bodily 
 structure, he seems to have exalted it above humanity itself. It 
 is quite evident that Aristotle was (and naturally) perplexed to 
 conceive the kind of erislene that could belong to a separate 
 reason ; and has altogether evaded the consideration of it."' 
 Professor Butler might have added, that the subordinate place
 
 ASI 
 
 220 
 
 ARI 
 
 allotted in this treatise to the Will — the trae personahty of 
 Man, — and the entire and strange exclusion from the phenomena 
 of Soul, of the Moral Faculties, necessarily deprived a 
 thinker of so searching a genius, of the power to approach to 
 certainty on these ultimate and momentous themes. 
 
 2. — We next turn to one of Aristotle's most pleasing pro- 
 ductions — the famous treatise in which he has fully recorded 
 his thoughts on the subject of Human Morality. Outside the 
 vohune containing the writings of Plato, antiquity has not trans- 
 mitted a better work than the Nicomachean Ethics ; and if we 
 except the " Critique of the Practical Reason," it has no rival among 
 the speculations of the modem world. Fortunately, it is also 
 the clearest of Aristotle's writings, insomuch that it has been a 
 favourite with younger students in every age. The account just 
 given of the Tif' 4'';t?»> ^'ill, of course, have prepared the reader 
 to apprehend defects of a serious kind in an Aristotelian theoiy 
 of morals ; and such defects there undoubtedly are. — The true 
 theorj' of morals, as completed by the efforts of the array of great 
 thinkei-s who have preceded our age, and which appears to com- 
 mend itself to the conscience of modem times, may be summed 
 up in a few substantive propositions : — First, there is a law of 
 morality, which human nature feels to be unperative — a law 
 whose behests are revealed by the Conscience. Obedience to this 
 sovereign law is Duty; and the performance of duty is man's 
 SuPREJiE Good. Secondly, men are free. We can obey the 
 commands of conscience or we may disobey them. Because of 
 this freedom, we are responsible. Third, the law declared by 
 conscience is of external origin, and overhangs all humanity. 
 We feel that its dicta are not of personal origin, or private inter- 
 pretation : it is an universal law imposed on man ; and, as Laws 
 imply a Legislator, we are led to a sovereign Legislator, or an active 
 and moral God. To that august Being lies our responsibility ; 
 and the full realization of such responsibility implies the concep- 
 tion and the reahty of Immortality. These few principles kept 
 steadily in view, will enable us to appreciate the position and 
 the labours of Aristotle. — Now, there is not a doubt that in re- 
 gard to the second of these elemental propositions — -considering 
 it as the assertion of a fact — the Stagyrite never felt hesitation ; 
 and that m this respect he saw much more clearly than Plato. 
 In the first five chapters of the Third book of the !iIorals, for in- 
 stance, we find the following unmistakable expressions : — " The 
 end pursued being an object of the will, and the means which lead 
 to that end being capable of being submitted to om- deliberation 
 and preference, it follows that the acts related to these means 
 are acts of intention and voluntaiy acts ; and tliis is the domain 
 
 within which all the virtues are exercised." "If 
 
 \'irtue depends on vs, so does vice : whenever it is in our sole 
 power to do a thing, it must also be in our power not to do it ; 
 whenever we can say No, we may also say Yes." .... 
 " If to do good or evil depends on ourselves, it is also in our own 
 power not to do them ; and this is what we mean when we speak 
 of men being good or bad." .... "The assertion" 
 (alluding enJently to Plato), " that no one is perverse of his own 
 free will, neither is any one happy in spite of himself, contains both 
 trath and error. No ! no man enjoys the happiness that vh-tue 
 
 gives against his will ; but vice is voluntary." 
 
 " Shall it be alleged that a man is not the principle and father 
 of his actions, as he is of his children? If this paternity is un- 
 doubted, if we cannot refer one action to other principles than those 
 within us, it must be acknowledged that the acts whose principle 
 is within ourselves, depend on us, and that they are voluntaiy." 
 Had all disciples of the Stagyrite but followed him in this clear 
 assertion of human liberty. History might still have required to 
 record many speculative aberrations, but she would not have been 
 called upon toblushovermultitudesofimworthy practical heresies. 
 Unfortunately, the concun-ence of Aristotle with the complete 
 theory of morals, is limited to the above. In the first place, his 
 method is at fault, exactly as in the treatise on the Soul. Instead 
 of counselling the moralist to mquire within — himself setting 
 the example — he seeks the solution of his problem through in- 
 ductive treatment of external phenomena ; and — again yielding 
 to his passionate fondness for generalization — he even accepts the 
 pai-adox, that the science of poUtics is the primary moral science 
 — the science of private or personal morals being a secondary 
 or derived science ! In the former, the action and attributes of 
 virtue are manifested on the most important theatre and largest 
 scale; therefore, the laws of virtue as tlius detemiined ouglit to 
 control the hfe of every individual constituent member of society ! 
 
 Surely, a practical inversion, sufficiently strange to have started 
 some joints even of the cunning and compact system of th* 
 Stagj'rite ! Aristotle's second en'or is much more grievoi 
 affecting his enthe theory ; but the existence of that error 
 sm-prise no one, since it is an inevitable consequence of hia 
 method in psychology. Starting with the undeniable proposi- 
 tion, that the incitement to action is the expectation of Good; he 
 asks what is the good which man covets or ought to covet, — what 
 ought he to covet as the Supreme Good? Plato would have 
 answered in an instant, and in words that would have been re- 
 echoed by all mankind ; — the sovereign good is to obey the im- 
 perative law of DUTY. Aristotle had not descended tlu-ough the 
 path of consciousness among the arcana of the soul ; he sought 
 trath from a scrutiny of outward acts, and he gave the fatal 
 replj' — The supreme good is Happiness. Tliat the sovereign 
 Ruler has not constituted this world so that man's right actions 
 may not consist with his happiness, is most true ; but hapjiiuess 
 is the sequel and natural concomitant of right actions ; and the 
 hope of it is not the cause of such actions or our stimulus to 
 accomplish them. It scarcely requires to be remarked, that in 
 this unfortunate doctrine, we have the parentage of Epicurus, 
 and, what is infinitely worse, of his modem representatives. But 
 though the name of Aristotle has been made their shield, his 
 own purity and nobility saved this great philosopher from ex- 
 cesses or even from serious practical en'or, — just as we have seen 
 him lingering arovmd the grand conception of immortality, albeit 
 his imperfect system could in nowise lift him so high ! No 
 sooner, indeed, does he escape from these first perplexities, than 
 he reascends to the level of himself. \Miat is Hajipiness, he asks — 
 what is it, which, in view of the conditions of humanity, is alone 
 worthy of that name ? DisceiTi first the end, or chief function of 
 man upon the earth. The privileged distinction of our race is this 
 — to live in the exercise of activity of mind, guided by virtue. To 
 choose and follow out a life with such an end, is — according to 
 Ai-istotle — to secm-e Happiness or the Supreme Good. Fain would 
 we have offered an adequate analysis of the remainder of the 
 Ethics, but our space restricts us to the merest outhne. The 
 philosopher takes up, in the first place, the general theory of 
 Virtue. That we be guided by virtue, we must first leam what 
 virtue is. And he produces here his famous doctrine of the Mean. 
 He tells us that, as with physical so with moral causes, evil 
 and sure destruction may issue from the best impulse, provided it 
 does not act with sufficient force, or is allowed to act too strongly. 
 Courage, for instance, consists in avoiding certain dangers and 
 confronting others. But to brave all hazards indiscriminately, 
 were rashness ; while the effort to escape danger in every case, 
 and to shrink from injury and sacrifice, is sheerest cowardice. 
 The virtue consists, then, in a Mean Ijetween two excesses which 
 equally ruin it. Of course, Aristotle does not apply this univer- 
 sally ; nay, he avers that there are acts, which, so soon as 
 their name is pronounced, we know to be evil and vicious ; but 
 he contends that, in general, virtue is such a Mean, detected and 
 detennined by the Reason. It is easy to see wiiy this theory was 
 a great favourite with jViistotle. It enabled him, in as far 
 as practical guidance was concerned, to substitute for the moral 
 faculty which he scarcely owned, a rale of right — dependent on the 
 Reason — compliance with wluch must preserve humanity from 
 vice. Passing with a single remark the section in which the 
 important distinction between the intellectual and the moral 
 virtues is established, and its consequences so acutely and 
 vigorously traced — a distinction which is the very corner-stone 
 of the theory of Education — we would rest for a moment on those 
 most delightful chapters to which reference has already been 
 made — viz., the analysis of the separate vii-tues — chapters alto- 
 getlier fragrant with truth and beauty. Aristotle has put these 
 careful analyses into something of the form of portraits ; but how 
 unlike the characters of Theophrastus ! How utterly unUke the 
 characters of Bruyere ! The impression unifonnly left by a jiera- 
 sal of such wTitings as these last, is, that the writer oftenest searches 
 for a sneer, a stroke of wit, or a piece of wickedness. Aristotle, on 
 the contrary, is filled by a sense of the majesty of truth and the 
 solemnity of his object. Virtue is the noblest of all things — 
 vice the meanest ; and men should see both as they are. No one 
 could have v^^itten as he has done, unless his own soul had known 
 those virtues, and his life been mspired by them — an inference 
 one does not draw regarding Theophrastus or Brayere, or vcr}' 
 many of . the members of that profession of modem times, 
 whose aim is to teach vu-tue by a jest. " In my opinion," says
 
 one of his admirers, " the portrait of the man distinguished by 
 magnanimity, or the great soul, gives us the loftiest idea of the 
 character of Aristotle. I greatly esteem his genius, but here I 
 have the unveiling of his heart ; for I do not believe that any one 
 could deUneate so tnily the quahty of gi-andeur of soul, unless 
 he personally possessed a large share of it. The talent of the 
 writer, all dazzling as it is, does not now occupy my thoughts; 
 I contemplate only the qualities and sentiments which must 
 have belonged to the man who describes them with accuracy so 
 perfect." The most elaborate of these separate analyses are 
 devoted to Justice and Friendship. In the chapter on Justice, 
 Aristotle briefly discusses the abstract virtue, but, in conformity 
 with his nature, he penetrates to the foundations of Jurispru- 
 dence: and it is singular to notice that upwards of two thousand 
 rears ago those large principles were clearly laid down, against 
 •vhich Utopists of all descriptions have ever giievously sinned, 
 \nd which — not in the vain words of speculation merely, but by 
 the hard practice of existing societies — are still contravened, to the 
 great detriment of humanity. He distinguishes, for instance, be- 
 tween legal or reparatory justice, and political or distributive 
 iistice, tracing thoroughly their divergencies. In front of legal 
 i ustice, for instance, all men are equal. If a crime be committed, 
 
 ■ >o matter hy whom, it must be punished, or the wrong repaired. 
 The formula of Law, in this respect, are universal, and its decrees 
 at once impartial and imperative. With regard to political or 
 distributive justice, the case is different. Rights of this sort 
 must be proportioned to the men who enjoy them. The third 
 
 hapter of Book V. contains Aristotle's reasonings in concisest 
 I'lrm; and the conclusion is, that an equal dishibution among 
 unequal persons were positive inequality, and therefore injustice. 
 True political justice opens to the various faculties of citizens, 
 the freest play; and harmony follows inevitably, as well as poli- 
 ■ ': cal strength. Have we forgotten the effects of tliis maxun in 
 
 ue hands of the modem Author of it? — " /« carriere ouverte 
 
 ■ ux talens!" — Aristotle passes to the consideration of Friend- 
 nip, or rather of those affections which are the bonds of human 
 iciety. The discussion occupies two chapters, inferior to none 
 J the Ethics. He subjoins a summary or resum^ of his whole 
 
 I'ictrine concerning happiness; and with it his remarkable book 
 
 Vjses. On its general merits no further remark is needed, for 
 
 iie nature of our estimate is sufficiently clear. Assiu-edly, when 
 
 lie turns from contemplation of the massive ■wisdom and rich 
 
 ■r iteliness of the Ethics, to the study of any modem work what- 
 
 icver on morals, no reflection aiises that is flattering to our 
 
 - If-love. Nor. we repeat, do its most serious fundamental errors 
 
 ^Tcatly impair its practical value — a singular instance of the 
 
 comparative harmlessness of speculative error, if committed by 
 
 one who, with pure conscience and lofty intellect, will scan the 
 
 world as it is, in quest of the bonds which unite society — bonds 
 
 which are the actual laws of the Sovereign Pro\'idence. 
 
 3. — We reach the culminating problem of all speculative 
 philosophy, — the question of the Theodicy. It is more neces- 
 sary than ever that the reader shoidd now remove himself from 
 the point of view adopted in modem times, and not be encum- 
 bered with foregone conclusions. The Being of a God, as 
 we comprehend that sacred name, viz., not merely as the sul)- 
 sfratum of all greatness and perfection, but as an actual and 
 beneficent moral principle, endowed with personality, and work- 
 ing as an ever-living Providence ; the existence of such a God 
 can be demonstrated in one way only. The acute and fear- 
 less German — the author of the Critique of the Pure Reason — 
 has thoroughly demolished the mass of cosmogonic and other 
 li-monstrations, of which, especially since the tunes of Paley, we 
 1 ive heard so much, — demonstrations which can never lead 
 liirther than the propositions : " There is Order in the world," 
 and " that order must have a cause." Beyond this line a region 
 of difficulty lies, through which this description of argument can 
 never pierce. — In the beginning of last section we indicated the 
 only path open to the human reason, which leads to belief in a 
 God. The bases of such demonstration are — the personalit}' and 
 free-will of the human spirit, and the existence of a " catego- 
 rical imperative," or an imperative law of conscience — the origin 
 of which clearly lies beyond or out of Humanity. The necessit}' 
 of a Legislator follows, Responsibility follows, and with these. 
 Immortality, and a God who is a righteous Providence. These 
 were the conceptions that inspired Plato, and gave him his 
 comictions. He added other arguments indeed, but unless 
 on the strength of these considerations he would never have 
 
 ascended so near to the vision and the hopes of the Christian. 
 We have already discerned that the Stag}-rite, profound though 
 he was, never dived so deeply among the recesses of conscious- 
 ness ; he was, on the contrary, mostly the Natural Historian. 
 It is a question of great interest then — what was Aristotle's 
 conception of God .' Doubtless, he made all that could be made 
 of the external method ; those modem writers who have pre- 
 tended to make more, will be found, on scrutiny, to have mis- 
 taken assertion for proof, and to have given us a dislocated jumble 
 of what they believed beforehand, rather than true or feasible 
 logical proofs of it. The Theodicy of this gi-eat inquirer is sys- 
 tematically expounded — with fitting dignity and solicitude — in 
 the last four chapters of the last book of the Metaphysics ; but he 
 recurs to the question — uniformly in the same spirit — in his 
 Physics and elsewhere. It is not our intention to develop the 
 reasonings of Aristotle, but only to render their nature somewhat 
 palpable, and to expose then- results. Take the following in 
 illustration of the character of these reasonings : Jlovement (by 
 which he means material change) is eternal, for, if it were not, 
 time would not be etemal, and we should have had simply 
 nothingness. But if movement or change be etemal, there must 
 exist an etemal cause of that change. Is this cause itself under 
 the influence of motion or change ? Assm-edly not ; for if it 
 were, we should require a stUl higher cause to account for that 
 motion or change. The first, or etemal cause of motion, must, 
 therefore, be itself motionless and incapable of being moved. 
 — He next shows, that this primeval cause is a Substance or 
 Being, without beginning as without end, unchangeable, un- 
 limited as to the sphere of its action, absolutely infinite, because 
 of the plenitude of its Being, — all perfect in intelligence, happy 
 through the perfection of its nature, and drawing that happiness 
 from contemplation of its own ineffable perfection ; — this Being is 
 Aristotle's God. Neither this conception, however, nor its con- 
 sequences, can be understood, unless we recall the noti(ms regard- 
 ing matter, that prevailed among the ancient schools, and Aris- 
 totle's views in particular. No doubt existed, in those times, re- 
 garding the eternity of matter : Plato held this as well as Aristotle. 
 The question, what is matter ? seldom, if ever, engaged the 
 greatest thinkers ; they recognized it as beyond reach of solution. 
 UTien they spoke of matter thus abstractly, they probably meant 
 nothmg more than our metaphysicians, when using the word 
 substance, i. e., they intended to say only that a reality, capable 
 of becoming — capable of taking on fonn and change, eternally 
 exists. The practical and really important question was this : 
 how is matter susceptible of change ; in what manner are changes 
 impressed ; or, to use their own language, in what way is motion 
 originated? Now, this change, or motion, must result from the ac- 
 tion of forces exterior to matter and distinct from it, or interior 
 and inseparable from it. Plato's view was the fomier of these; Aris- 
 totle's, the latter : and it was the fortune of the eloquent head 
 of the Academy, that his physical and metaphysical speculations 
 led him to that conclusion, as to the existence of an active 
 and providential God — directing and applying these forces, 
 which he had already deduced far more securely from considera- 
 tion of the moral personality and accountability of Man. It is 
 not improbable, indeed, that his previous knowledge derived from 
 tlus higher source, may have influenced Plato in the choice of his 
 hypothesis ; for, looking at the question impartially, the view 
 adopted by Aristotle was as probable, if not more protmble and 
 natural, than his. Contemplate the rotting leaf, and note how 
 it changes. Every fibre is in activity, passing into new forais. 
 There is no sign or mark of external forces ; the leaf appears 
 instinct with the capacity to transform itself — to pass into 
 novel forms of Being. The short account given above of the 
 speculations in the te;) 4"'X''f' render these wider doctrines of 
 the Stagj'rite readily intelligible. The substance calk'd matter, 
 he says, is instinct with energies in a potential form. Every 
 portion of matter has its entelechy. But this potential ri.ses 
 into energy, or becomes apparent, when it acts. Tiie adequate 
 cause of change, then, is, something that will originate mo- 
 tion in those potentials, or rouse them from inactivity. There 
 are two distinct causes of motion — impulsion, or motive. That 
 the prime cause of the motion or change in the universe cannot 
 be impulsive, he had already shown, — the primal cause must be 
 motionless. There remains, therefore, motive or desire. With- 
 out hunger, the cause of nutrition would continue inert ; without 
 tlie desire to understand, Intellect would never move. The prunal 
 cause, therefore — the God of Aristotle — may act as a motive, al-
 
 though it cannot act as a positive force. All the potential forces 
 inhering within matter are awakened, and have been eternally 
 influenced by the sight of perfection ; and the order and har- 
 mony of the world issues from their effort to reach it. The Deity 
 of the Lycffium is thus a Final Cause ; — not a Providence. 
 Motion and change, and every effort here below, arise without 
 action on His part : nay, according to Aristotle, he has no cog- 
 nizance of the world ; — absorbed in contemplation of himself 
 — for there is nothing higher — he is in everlasting happiness 
 and repose, knowing nothing of strife or evil. A doctrine of 
 strange sound! Yet, apart from the hght thrown on this 
 mighty problem by man's moral activity and freedom — such is 
 the best solution that could be fmniished by the ancient world. 
 Observe, too, its singular practical influence ! Another proof 
 that speculative en-or never availed to sully the Stagyrite. 
 Although able to discern the Everlasting God, only as a 
 Final Cause; — that Final Cause is All-perfection. 
 The unity, harmony, and beauty of terrene things arise from an 
 universal struggle to attain that perfection ; it is only where 
 the eye has wavered, and the quest is lost, that disorder reigns. 
 
 Our portrait of Aristotle is finished. There is not a work he 
 ever wrote which may not nomish and inspire every student ; and 
 there are many of them, such as the Organon, wholly above 
 reach of cavil ; which are possessions for all sects and all men, 
 as well as for all time. He was one of the greatest glories of 
 Greece. — If we have freely dissented from him, his o-\vn words 
 are ample apology : "It is best to examine theories carefully and 
 naiTowly, even though philosophers who are very dear to us have 
 espoused them. It is best also to put aside personal feelings, 
 and to think only of the tnith. Both are dear, nevertheless it is a 
 sacred duty to give preference to the defence of truth." — J. P. N. 
 
 ARISTOXENUS, a peripatetic philosopher, who devoted 
 himself especially to music. He was born between the third and 
 fourth centm-ies before the christian era, at Tarentum (district of 
 Calabria), and first studied music under his father Spintharus, 
 or, as he is named by some, Mnesias of JIantinea. From his 
 instniction, he passed successively under that of Lamprus of 
 Er)'tlu-fe and of Xenophilus, and finally settled in Athens as 
 a disciple of Aristotle. He is said to have written four hun- 
 dred and fifty-three works, of which, however, but very few 
 have been preserved. Of these, the most important is his 
 treatise on the " Elements of HaiTnony," in tliree books, 
 which is the earliest complete work upon the subject that 
 has come down to us. Ancient manuscripts of tliis treatise 
 are to be foimd in many of the principal hbraries of Em-ope ; 
 but while these all agree, they still appear to have been tran- 
 scribed from a comipt original, as the insertion of the intro- 
 duction to the entire work in the middle of the second book, and 
 another important and obvious transposition, to say nothing of 
 several incongruities in the text, suflficiently prove. These dis- 
 crepancies have led some learned critics to suppose the copies to 
 be all spurious, but there is ample evidence to the contrary, in 
 the references to, and citations from the work by Euclid, Cicero, 
 and Ptolemy. It was first printed by Meursius, and subse- 
 quently included by Melbomius, in his echtion of seven Greek 
 authors upon music. The tenn harmony is not employed in this 
 work, as meaning the combination, but a succession of sounds, 
 or, more extensively, the just fitness and perfect sjnnmetry in all 
 things, of which music is the symbol. It maintains the pla- 
 tonic principle, that music affects, for good and for ill, the moral 
 nature of man. It expounds what is called the Greater System, 
 consisting, in modern terminology, of a scale of two octaves, and 
 a fourth, beginning with the A we write in the first sp.'ice of the 
 bass clef, which comprises five tctrachords. It rejects the two 
 last modes as being duplications of others, reducing the number 
 to thirteen, though, on the same grotmd, the thirteenth might as 
 reasonably have been rejected, since it is a reduplication of the 
 first. Its important fe.iture is, however, its opposition to the 
 theory of Pythagoras, who in.sisted upon a mathematical division 
 of the musical degrees, whereas Aristoxenes professes that the 
 ear must be the sole arbiter of their just proportions, the one 
 refeiTing evcr3'thing to the sense, the other to the reason ; 
 though the latter affinned that the sense must be cultivated 
 before it can be capable of discrimination, while the former pre- 
 tended that man is bom with the intuitive capacity for what is 
 tiTic, which he -nail at all times appreciate whenever it may be pre- 
 sented. AVe may trace in this theoiy of Aristoxcr.us an incipient 
 foreboding of the exquisite distinction of the interval of the major 
 
 tone from the minor, that gives its especial beauty to our modem 
 scale, which is derived from the harmonic system of natm-e, where- 
 as that of the Greeks was produced entirely according to artificial 
 calculations ; and thus Aristoxenus has been called the Father of 
 Temperament. Tliis important pomt in liis theory, however, 
 like all, and perhaps more than all, that concerns Greek music, 
 can only have a speculative interpretation in our times, since his 
 division of the interval of a tone into four equal parts is so in- 
 appreciable by modem eai's, and so iiTeconcilable with the acous- 
 tical system of harmonics, upon which the modem principles of 
 music are founded, that we can no more guess at the effect, than 
 reason upon the propriety of any theoiy based upon tliis founda- 
 tion. The musical system of Aristoxenus obtained many adhe- 
 rents, and the supporters of the rival Pythagorean and Aristoxe- 
 nean systems, who called themselves respectively canonici and 
 hamionici, maintained their opposition with such warmth, as 
 has not been exceeded by the most violent musical disputes of 
 later days. Besides this complete work of Aiistoxenus, there 
 exist some fragments of his upon the elements of rhythm, a dis- 
 sertation upon flutes, and the principle of boring them, and an- 
 other upon flute-playing, both of which bear upon the principles 
 of intonation that he disputed with the Pythagoreans, and he is 
 said to have written a copious history of music and musicians, 
 down to his own time. Cicero appears in some of his writings 
 to ridicule the general philosophy of Aiistoxenus, implying that 
 it was sufficient for him to discuss music without entering upMi 
 subjects he could not understand; but in other passages he 
 speaks of him in tenns of great respect. — (Hawkins, Bumey, 
 Donkin, Schillmg, Fetis.)— G. A. M. 
 
 ARISTOXENUS, a Gre^k physician of the first century. 
 Galen has preserved to us his theoiy of the pulse. 
 
 ARISTUS, one of the historians of Alexander the Great; 
 cited by Strabo, Arrian, and Athenxus. Another Akistus was 
 the friend of Cicero, and teacher of Brutus. 
 
 ARIU, Emilio, a Venetian sculptor of the fifteenth century. 
 ARIUS, the founder of Arianism, was a native of Africa, and 
 the son of Ammonius. He is generally supposed to have been a 
 scholar of Lucian of Antioch. He was first a deacon in Alexan- 
 dria, and afterwards he was ordained presbyter A.D. 313 by 
 Achillas, bishop of Alexandria, with the charge of a church in that 
 city called BaucaUs. The peculiar notions of Arius were first 
 brought prominently forward in a dispute which arose between 
 him and Alexander, the successor of Achillas, A.D. 318. It 
 would appear that Alius had for some time before tliis been 
 spreading his opinions with regard to the Trinity, and in conse- 
 quence of the strictness of his life, and his modest and pleasing 
 manners, had inoculated many with his doctrines. Alexander, 
 according to one account, wavered in his judgment of these doc- 
 trines ; but ultimately he attacked them ui a public assembly of 
 presbyters, and excluded Arius and his followers from church- 
 fellowship. Notwithstanding this, the views of Arius found 
 favour with some of the Eastern clergy, and a considerable party, 
 headed by Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, while disagreeing with 
 Alius on several points, maintained that there was no important 
 doctrine involved, and that Alius had been too harshlj' dealt 
 with. The followers of Alius so increased in numbers, and the 
 contests became so seriou.s, that the Emperor Constantine, after 
 several vain attempts to conciliate the contending parties, called 
 a council at Nicica, a.d. 325, where the anti-Arians were com- 
 pletely victorious. They most probably owed their victory to 
 the support of the emperor, as the Eusebian party were far more 
 numerous than the anti-Arians. They proposed a creed of their 
 own composing, which all signed except Arius and two others, who 
 were banished to lUyiicum in consequence of their refusal. The 
 opinions of Arius were still making progress ; and the emperor, 
 lia\'ing become an antagonist of Arianism only from expediency, 
 was induced to look favom-ably on the condemned doctrines. 
 Arius was recalled from Illyricum, and being favoured with two 
 interviews with the emperor, satisfied him of his orthodoxy. The 
 sentence of excommunication that had been passed against him 
 was revoked by a synod at Jerusalem, and he was now permitted 
 to retm-n to Alexandria. On landing at that city disturbances 
 arose. For Athanasius, who, when deacon, stood forth as the 
 most powerful antagonist of Arianism in the council of Nica3a, 
 had been bishop of Alexandria for some time, and though he was 
 now an exile at Treves, the impression against Arianism which 
 he had produced on the minds of his flock still remained. Arius 
 was recalled by Constantino, and as there was now no obstacle
 
 AEI 
 
 223 
 
 ARK 
 
 in the way, he was to be publicly readmitted into the fellow- 
 -iiip of the church at Constantinople. The ceremony was to 
 . ikc place on a Saturday, sendees being then held both on Sa- 
 mrdays and Sundays. On Saturday, Alexander, the bishop of 
 Constantinople, being a vehement opponent of Arius, refused to 
 ridinit him. The party of Alius, however, were bent on their 
 liject, and going to the bishop informed him that they would 
 orapel him by an imperial decree to receive Alius back into the 
 hurch. The bishop was in great distress on this account, and 
 rayed that either he or Arius should not see the next day. Alius 
 lied on the Satui-day evening. Eumour subsequently related 
 that he had died wliile marching in triumphal procession fi-om 
 the palace to the church. Alius ^^Tote a book called " Thaleia" 
 '1 defence of his opinions; fragments of it are extant m the 
 'irks of Athanasins. He also wrote songs for sailors, travellers, 
 nd millers, hoping in this way to make religion win its way into 
 le hearts of the ignorant. None of them remain, but some of his 
 tters have been preserved. In one of these we have the fol- 
 '.ving statement of his belief. iHe says that " the Son is not 
 ; nbegotten, nor a part of an unbegotten in any way, nor derived 
 I'rom any previously existing substance, but that he came into 
 Insistence by purpose and will before the times and the ages, 
 mplete God, only begotten, unalterable, and did not exist before 
 .' was begotten or created, or defined or founded, for he was 
 liot unbegotten. We are persecuted because we say the Son has a 
 beginning, but that the Father has no beginning." The words 
 " complete God" must be taken in a modified sense, as Arius 
 ■i'.nself says elsewhere: "Christ is not true God, but he was 
 . iinself made God by participation ; nor does the Son know the 
 Father accurately, nor does the Word see the Father nor under- 
 stand him." The statement likewise that the Son is unalter^ 
 able, must be taken with modifications. Arius explains it himself. 
 He says that Christ was by nature changeable, but that through 
 -iB regular practice of virtue he had become morally unchange- 
 i'le, and that God had chosen him for his peculiar work, because 
 had foreknown that his life would be sinless. It may be worth 
 hUe to remark that Arius, in propounding his views, believed 
 ■ was defending the old doctrines of the chm-ch against new 
 :id dangerous heresies. — J. D. 
 
 ARIVEY, PiERKE DE l' a French author, was a canon in 
 lie church of St. Stephen at Troyes, in which city he was born 
 : the beginning of the sixteenth century. He published some 
 ■medies, and several translations of Italian works. 
 AR.JASP, a king of ancient Tartary, who reigned about 500 
 K.C. In order to oppose the doctrines of Zoroaster, he made war 
 ^vith Gushtasp, king of Persia, and after various successes and 
 ^verses, was slain by Asfandiyar, son of Gushtasp, who was to 
 licceed his father in the Persian throne in the event of his being 
 ietorions. 
 ARJE, Jacob-Judas, a Spanish rabbi of the seventeenth 
 . ontnry, author of several works of profound learning and great 
 research, the chief of which is the " Tabnith Hecal," or Descrip- 
 tion of the Temple of Solomon. (Middleburg, 1642.) 
 
 ARJOXA, JLvNUEL DE, a poet of Spain, bom at Osuna in 
 1761; died in 1820. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, Sir Ricn,A.RD, one of the most distinguished 
 members of that band of inventors and men of practical talent, 
 I'v whom the manufacturing system of the British empire has 
 
 ■ en brought to its present state of excellence and superiority, 
 
 ■ as bom at Preston, in Lancashire, on the 23rd of December, 
 I 732. Being the thirteenth child of very poor parents, he grew 
 
 p in the midst of toil and want ; and it was in this always 
 dnful but often salutary school, that he acquired that patient 
 vlustry and that indomitable iinnness which enabled him to 
 nprove and apply to practical purposes, inventions of which the 
 -•rms may perhaps have been discovered by others, but of which 
 :ie useful application was entirely his own. He was brought 
 i|i as a barber, hairdi-esser, and wigmaker; and is said to have 
 uide some money by an invention for dyeing human hair, which 
 was then much sought after to be manufactured uito wigs. In 
 Arkwright's days, Preston, the place of his birth, was not a manu- 
 facturing town, and there may, therefore, be some truth in tlie 
 assertion, that Ins attention was first turned to cotton machin- 
 ery by the fact of his having manied, in the year 1761, a wife 
 who was a native of the manufacturing town of Leigh, and in 
 which spinning, by means of the wheel and spindle, was canied 
 on in almost every cottage. It was not, however, until seven or 
 eight years after his marriage, that he succeeded in bringing his 
 
 labours, as an inventor of spinning machinery, to any successful 
 result. His application to that subject must have been close 
 and absorbing, for it is said that it took him away from his ordi- 
 nary occupation so often and so long, that his wife, fearing that it 
 would bring him and her with their children to the workhouse, 
 broke his models, in the hope of bringuig liirn back to the more 
 profitable occupation of the lather-brush and curling-tongs. In 
 spite of this domestic opposition, he persevered untU he had 
 brought his own inventions, or the abortive mventions of others, 
 to such a state of perfecrion, as to secure millions to his own 
 family, hundi-eds of millions to his country, and an addition to 
 the daily comforts of the greater part of the human race. 
 
 The instrument wliich Arkwright labom-ed so long, and in the 
 end so successfully, to produce, was a macliine or ft-ame for spin- 
 ning several tlireads at one time, and by one application of force, 
 in the place of the single thread produced on the ordinaiy spin- 
 ning wheel. The method by wliich he ultimately succeeded in 
 doing this, is thus described in Baines' history of the " Cotton 
 Trade," in a passage which renders the operation and the inven- 
 tion as clear as they can be made by a verbal description : — " In 
 every mode of spinning, the ends to be accomplished are, to 
 draw out the loose fibres of the cotton wool in a regular and 
 continuous line, and, after reducing the fleecy roll to the re- 
 quisite tenuity, to twist it into a thread. Previous to the 
 operation of spinning, the cotton must have undergone the 
 process of carding, the efiect of which is to comb out, straighten, 
 and lay parallel to each other its entangled fibres. The carding 
 or sUver (as it is called) of cotton, requires to be drawn out to 
 great fineness, before it is thin enough to be twisted into a 
 thread. The way in which this is done, is by means of two or 
 more pairs of small rollers placed horizontally — the upper and 
 lower roller of each pair revolving in contact. The carding 
 or sliver of cotton being put between the first pair of roUers, is, 
 by their revolution, drawn through and compressed ; whilst pass- 
 ing through the rollers, it is caught by another pair of rollers 
 placed immediately in front, which revolve with three, four, or 
 five times the velocity of the iirst pair, and which therefore draw 
 out the sliver to three, four, or five times its fonner length 
 and degree of fineness ; after passing tlirough the second paii- o£ 
 rollers, the reduced sliver is attached to a spindle and fly, the 
 rapid revolutions of which twist it into a thread, and at the same 
 time wind it up on a bobbin. That the rollers may take hold 
 of the cotton, the lower roller is fluted longitudinally, and the 
 upper is covered with leather. Such is the beautiftd and 
 admirable contrivance, by which a machine is made to do what 
 was formerly, in all ages and countries, effected by the fingers 
 of the spinner. It is obvious that, by lengthening or multiply- 
 ing the rollers, and increasing the number of spindles, all of 
 which may be turned by the same power, many threads may be 
 spun at once, and the process piay be carried on with much 
 greater quickness and steadiness than by hand-spinning. There 
 is also the important advantage — the thread produced will be of 
 more regular thickness, and more evenly twisted." 
 
 Such was the principle of Arkwright's macliine. His patent 
 was taken out on the loth July, 17C9 — the day from which 
 the greatness of the cotton manufacture may be dated. An 
 immense advantage of this invention is, that the spinning frame 
 of Arkwright, and similar machines which have grown out of it, 
 admit of being worked by the power of steam and of falling 
 water. The power of horses is said to have been first used in 
 working these machines, in the sm;ill mill which Arkvviight 
 constnicted at ifsottingham ; but in the year 1771, Arkwnight, 
 who had been joined by two eminent caj>italists — iMr. Stratt of 
 Derby, and Jlr. Need of Nottingham — built a mill at Cromford, 
 near JIatlock, in Derbyshii-e, the machincrj' of which was tm-ned 
 by the river Derwent. In this beautiful spot, Arkwright built 
 the first cotton mill in England. He subsequently fonncd other 
 establishments of a similar kind in other parts of England and 
 in Scotland ; accumulating in a short time a prodigious fortune, 
 and giving a wonderful impulse to the industrj- and productive 
 power of this and other countries. The results of Arkwright's 
 discovery were, however, multiplied a humh-edfold by Jiunes 
 Watt's not less wonderful improvement of the steam engine, 
 which created a motive power of inexhaiustible strength, and 
 capable of being produced wherever fuel could be procured in 
 sufficient abundance. It is the latter invention which has given 
 so rapid and wonderful a development to the cotton manufacture 
 of Lancashire and Lanarkshire, and which has made Manches-
 
 
 ter, Glasgow, and Liverpool the gi-eatest industrial commercial 
 cities of modem times. In addition to the merit of inventing 
 the spinning frame, Arkwight may also claim the merit of hav- 
 ing invented and organized the factory system, which adds im- 
 mensely to the rcsom-ces of the lahoming classes, and may be 
 made productive, not only of wealth, but of intelligence and 
 virtue. The plans introduced by Arkwright were generally 
 founded on good sense, and have stood the test of experience. 
 Arlovright's career as a manufactm-er commenced in 17G9, 
 and in 1786 he had become a man of large estate, was raised 
 to the rank of sheriff of Derbyshire, and received the honour of 
 knighthood from George the third. His career was pleasantly 
 prosperous to the close of his life, which took place on the ord of 
 August, 1792, in his sixtieth year. Arkwight, in the course of 
 his life, experienced the extremes of poverty and of wealth ; he 
 had no education except that of the world, and never attained 
 anything hke refinement of manners or character. His merits 
 were ingenuity, energy, and unconquerable jierseverance. By 
 these he founded his o^vn fortunes, benefited the world, and pre- 
 sented an example worthy of general imitation.- — T. B. 
 
 A1;L.\NIBCEUS, Piulip, the assumed name of the writer of 
 a contemporary history of the Thirty Years' War, entitled "Anna 
 Svecica," Frankfort, 1G31. In the title-page the author styles 
 himsflf Pliilo-Historicus. 
 
 ARLAUD, Jacques Antoine, a miniature painter, born at 
 Geneva in 1668. Having proceeded to France he gained a high 
 reputation for his skill, and was patronized by the duke of 
 Orleans, for whom he made an admu-able drawing of " Leda and 
 the Swan," from a small marble bas-relief by Jlichel Angelo. 
 He afterwards went to England, where he also met with nmch 
 success, and at last returned to his native place, and died in 
 1746. His brother, Bekoit Aklaud, and his nephew Louis 
 Ajifi Arlaud, were both celebrated for their skill as artists. 
 The fonner made a portrait of Shakspeare, which was engraved 
 by Ducange. — F. 
 
 ARLEBOUT, Isbrand-Gisbert, a Dntch physician, who 
 lived in the earlier part of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARLENSIS DE Scudai.upis, Pietro, an alchemist and 
 astrologer of the sixteenth centuiy, who wrote a book, " De 
 Sympathia VII IMetallorum, VII Lapidum et Planetarum," pub- 
 lished at Madrid, and in 1610 at Paris. 
 
 ARLER, PiETKO, an architect, born at Bologna in 1333, of 
 a German family, constracted several churches of Prague, and 
 assisted in the erection of the cathedral of that city, in which he 
 was employed till 1386.— R. M. 
 
 ARLINCOURT, Victor, Vicompte d', a French poet and 
 romance writer, born at Merantres, near Versailles, in 1789. 
 Ilis father was a farmer-general, and suffered along with many 
 others of his order at the Revolution. When scarcely of age, 
 young Arlincourt published a small poem, " Une Matinee de 
 Charlemagne," which so delighted Napoleon, by comparing him 
 to the old monarch, that he appointed the author equerry to the 
 queen-mother, and auditor to the council of state. A writer of 
 romances, among which his " Solitaire" was the most successful, 
 and subsequently of a strange species of literature which, carry- 
 ing the name of romance, was yet only a vehicle of his spite 
 against democracy, and of a fierce satire on his contemporaries, 
 he became a publicist ; but neither his political actions nor his 
 works have won nmch favour. His latest efforts in literature, 
 which were those of a dramatic author, were also destined to 
 failure. He died in Jannai-y 1856. — A. L. 
 
 ARLINGTON. See Ben.net. 
 
 ARLOTUS DE PRATO, an ecclesiastical writer of the 13th 
 century, known as the first who compiled a Bible Concordance. 
 There are various editions without name: Nm'cmberg, 1485; 
 Bologna, 1486 ; Anvers, 1472 and 1485. 
 
 ARLOTTA or CHARLOTTE, the beautiful daughter of the 
 tanner of Falaise, whose ankles, seen as she was washing clothes 
 in the stream, won the heart of Robert, duke of Nonnandy. 
 She became his mistress and the mother of William the Con- 
 queror, who was born about a.d. 1027. Her name seems to 
 come from the old Nonnan or Danish com])ound Herleve ("much 
 loved.") Duke Robert died while on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 
 when William was about seven years of age, and Arlotta married 
 a Nonnan gentleman, to whom she bore three children. It is 
 said " that William in his youth could not bear any allusion to 
 his illegitimacy, but that, in later years of liis life, he often called 
 himself the " Bastard." — T. J. 
 
 ARLOTTI, a name common to many Italians of the sixteenth 
 
 and seventeenth centuries : — 
 
 Arlotti, Decio, an Italian poet of Reggio, died in 1759. 
 
 Arlotti, Girolamo, an Italian commentator of the fifteenth 
 centuiy, author of " Scholia on Cicero's Letters," Venice, 1549. 
 
 Aklotti, Lodovico, an Italian poet and theologian of the 
 16th century. His poems appeared in the collection of Scajoli. 
 
 Arlotti, jMarcantonio, an Italian poet of the second half 
 of the sixteenth century. His poems are inserted in the " Giu- 
 bilo delle Muse," and the "Raccolta de Poeti Illustri." 
 
 Arlotti, Pompeo, an Italian physician of Reggio who lived 
 in the second half of the sixteenth century. He was known by 
 some works on venesection. 
 
 Arlotti, Rodolfo, an Italian poet of Reggio who lived at 
 the end of the sixteenth centiu-y. A tragedy and some curious 
 letters of his are to be found in Guasco's iStor. Lit. — A. L. 
 
 ARLOTTO MAINARDI, commonly called II Piovano Ar- 
 lotto, born in Florence, 25th December, 1395, was originally 
 a wool-carder, and afterwards a priest. Though so well known 
 for his J'acetke and hon inots, his personal history affords only 
 the few gleanings to be found in tlie memoir prefixed to his 
 works, and the characteristic glimpses in the various jokes and 
 stories attributed to him. His wit made him famous, not only 
 in Italy, but in France and England. Though beloved by car- 
 dinals, popes, and kings, he had no ambition beyond that of a 
 simple priest, nor any desire for money beyond what was neces- 
 ary to enable him to be charitable. Like other facetious writers, 
 Arlotto has been charged with more jokes than he ever uttered. 
 But, on the other hand, he could appropriate, in such way as 
 genius does, the ideas of others. The story of Whittington and 
 his Cat, found in his "Facezie," was probably the result of one 
 of his journies to England. Like most other inveterate jokers, 
 he retained his peculiarity to the end ; a life of drollery having 
 been appropriately wound up by the inscription on his tomb, writ- 
 ten shortly before he died; "The priest Arlotto has constructed 
 this tomb for himself, and for such ofliers as may desire to lie 
 here along with him." The "Facezie" have often been reprinted. 
 The best etlition is that of Florence, 1500. 
 
 ARLUNO or ARLUNUS, Bernardino, an Italian juris- 
 consult of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARLUNO or ARLUNUS, Giovanni Pietro, one of four 
 brothers of the preceding, physician to the duke of Milan. He 
 left several books on gout, asthma, and quartan ague. 
 
 ARMA, Giovanni Francesco, an Italian physician, who 
 was bom in Piedmont, and lived about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century. He was physician to the duke of Savoy. His nume- 
 rous works were printed at Turin between 1549 and 1573. 
 
 ARJIAGNAC, a powerful family of Gascony, in the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries, renowned for faction and ci-ime. 
 The principal members were : 
 
 Armagnac, Jean L, Comte d', took an active part in the 
 war against the English in Gascony and Guienne, dnring the 
 year 1336. Died 1373. 
 
 Armagnac, Jean III., Comte d', grandson of the former, 
 was count of Fezensac and Rodez, as well as viscount of Lomagne 
 and Anvillars, and having married the heiress of Comminges in 
 1378, he bore the title of that county. In 1391 he was killed 
 when leading an army of adventurers against Lilian. 
 
 Armagnac, Bernard VIL. Cojite d', constable of 
 France, bom about the middle of the 14th century; killed in 
 1418; was the son of Jean II., and succeeded his brother Jean 
 III. He began his career of ambition by despoilmg his father 
 of his means, and causing his death, with that of his two sons, 
 by long imprisonment. At a time when France was toni by 
 intestine strife, he joined and became head of the Orieans faction 
 against that of Bu'rgimdy ; and ha\'ing fought against the court, 
 and made a peace, he led the royal army on its march from 
 Agincourt to Paris. He then seized the constableship, placed 
 himself at the head of affairs, took the management of the 
 finances, nded the kingdom according to his will, and filled the 
 country with ten-or. The death of the dauphin, son of Charies 
 VI., was suspected to have been hastened by him, and the re- 
 straint which he imposed upon the queen seemed to foreshadow 
 still darker evils, when the duke of Burgimdy, coming to her 
 release, appeared with an army before Paris. The city was be- 
 trayed to the duke, and the now discomfited constable was made 
 prisoner. The crowd of Paris broke into the prison where he 
 lay, and massacred him.
 
 ARM 
 
 225 
 
 ARM 
 
 Akmagnac, Jean IV., d', born about 1395, was the son 
 of the constable. His entire life was a series of revolts, breaches 
 of faith and forgeries. He joined the English against the dau- 
 phin, defied the authority of his prince, struck money in liis o«ni 
 name, forged a will by his relative the countess of Comminges, 
 who had made the king her heir, and at length died broken 
 down with remorse for his crimes. 
 
 Armagnac, Jean V., son of John IV. and Elizabeth of 
 NavaiTe, was, if possible, a worse man than either his father or 
 grandfather. His private life was most impure, and ha\ang 
 been discovered cari7ing on a secret intercourse with the Eng- 
 lish, Charles VII. ordered him to be apprehended. He fled to 
 his estates in Airagon, and proceedings were taken against him 
 in parhament, which ended in a decree of banishment and confis- 
 cation. He then professed penitence, and thus procured the in- 
 tercession of Pius II. ; but the king was inflexible, and it was not 
 till the accession of Louis XI. that he succeeded in being restored. 
 In 1465 he again took arms against the king, and only consented 
 to disband his troops on receiving 10,000 livres. The money 
 was paid, but the men were retained. On this he was once 
 more proceeded against, and forced again to flee to An-agon ; he 
 was condemned to death, and liis estates were forfeited, yet he 
 recovered his property by force, and bade defiance anew to the 
 royal arms. His own deceitful policy was at length resorted 
 to ; the Cardinal d'Albi, called the " de\-il of Arras," was sent 
 to negotiate with him. A treaty was agreed upon, and while the 
 count was in the act of signing a document which gave him fav- 
 ourable tenns, the king's soldiers rushed in and killed him. — A. L. 
 
 * ARMAND, Alfred, born in Paris in 1850. He is the 
 most eminent French architect of the day in connection with 
 railways. Amongst his productions may be noticed the follow- 
 ing stations built by him between 1839 and 1851 : — Versailles, 
 St. Cloud, the Rouen station in Paris, St. Germain, AiTas, 
 Amiens, Lille, Calais, St. Quentin, and Douay. 
 
 ARMAND, FiiAN^ois-HuGUET, a French comedian bom at 
 Richelieu, in 1699; died at Paris, on 26th November, 1765. 
 Armand occupied the stage for forty years, and enjoyed an extra- 
 (jrdinary reputation for satirizing, in the characters of Scapin, 
 Crispin, and Pantalon, all the foibles and eccentricities of his 
 age. Lckaiu called him " le modWe de tons les comediens." 
 
 ARMANDI, Pierre Damien, a French general, born in 
 1778, died in 1855. He took part in all the wars of the 
 republic and the empire, and after the fall of the latter, was 
 intrusted with the education of one of the sons of the king of 
 Holland, eldest brother of Louis Napoleon. To his cai'c also 
 King Jerome confided the charge of his eldest son. He has 
 written " L'Histoire Militaire des Ele'phants." — A. L. 
 
 ARMANI or ARMANNI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian 
 poet and improvisatore, born 1768; died 1815. 
 
 ARMANI, PiETKO Martire, an Italian painter, bom 1613; 
 died 1669. He was a pupil of Lionello Spada, and practised 
 his art at Reggio. 
 
 AR.MANN, ViNCENZ, or ARMANNA, Vincenzo, a Flemish 
 painter, died in 1649. He lived at Rome, and painted many of 
 his landscajies while in the inquisition, to which he was com- 
 mitted for having eaten fat in Lent. 
 
 * AR.MANSPERG, .Ioseph Louis, Count of, president of the 
 ( ouncil of regency in Greece, under King Otho I. ; born at Kiit- 
 zing in Bavaria, 28th February, 1789. This patriotic nobleman 
 iMitered with great enthusiasm into the war of German liberty in 
 1812, spoke boldly for the rights of his country, but in vain, at 
 the congress of Vienna, and afterwards filled various situations 
 of honour and trust under King Louis. Appointed to the pre- 
 sidency of the regency in Greece in 1832, he held that office for 
 two years, and then retired into private life. — A. L. 
 
 ARMATI, Salvino »egt-i, a member of a patrician family of 
 Florence, to whom it seems probable that the world owes the 
 invention of spectacles. Montucla decides in favour of Armati. 
 Manni cites on behalf of his claim, the following inscription on 
 a tombstone : — Qui giace Salvino d'Armati degl' Armati Firenze 
 inventor degli Occhiali anno Mcccvii." 
 
 ARMBRIISTER, John Michael, born in Wurtcmberg, 
 1761, was fur some time editor of the Zurich Gazette. He ob- 
 tained a situation under the Austrian government, and rose to 
 be secretary of the supreme com't of j)olice and censorship, and 
 editor of the official organ of the government. Besides the 
 various periodicals which he edited, lie wrote numerous books 
 of anmsement for children. Committed suicide 1817. — J. B. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ARMELLE, Nicole, a celebrated fanatic, who pretended to 
 divine illumination, born at Campenac 1606; died at Vannes 
 1671. An Ursuline wrote her life, under the title "L'Eeole du 
 pur amour de Dieu," Paris, 1704. 
 
 ARMELLINI, Girolamo, an Inquisitor-general of the Romish 
 faith at Mantua, about the year 1516. 
 
 * ARMICLLINI, Carlo, was bom in Rome about 1780, of an 
 old and highly respectable Roman fanuly. He was educated for 
 the bar, and devoted himself with great ardour to the study of 
 jurisprudence and literature. He rose to distinction at an early 
 age, for his classical learning, legal science, and patriotism. 
 When the dissensions between Napoleon I. and the pope, left 
 Rome for a time free from priestly rule, and gave her back her 
 ancient title of republic, young Armellini, already famous for his 
 knowledge of jurisprudence and practical legal capacity, took his 
 seat among the judges of the republic, and was actively employed 
 in the administration of the new laws of the state, the abolition 
 of clerical privileges, &c. On the fall of Napoleon and the res- 
 toration of the pope, Armellini had acquired so high a reputa- 
 tion, that, although a noted repubfican, he was allowed by the 
 papal government to remain in Rome Ln the tranquil exercise of 
 his profession ; and during the long period of his legal activity 
 — from 1815 to 1848 — he was engaged in the most important 
 causes of his time, and was considered one of the gi-eatest orna- 
 ments of the Roman bar. On the death of Gregoiy XVI., in 
 1846, the universal and clamorous demand for administrative 
 refonns in the Roman States, at length wrung from Pius IX. a 
 constitution, and ArmeUini was made a member of various com- 
 missions appointed for the reconsideration of the laws. He was 
 elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1848, and took a promi- 
 nent part in the formation of the nev? scheme of civil and criminal 
 law, the abolition of exceptional tribunals, &c., &c. Every at- 
 tempt at substantial legislative reform was, however, rendered 
 abortive by the obstinate resistance of the papal court, em- 
 boldened by the ill success of the straggle for uidependence in 
 Lombardy ; the slight reforms already granted were, one by one, 
 withdra^vn, and the Roman volunteers, hastening to aid in the 
 Lombard war, were recalled. The menaces of the exasperated 
 people, however, and the intrigues of Austria, induced the pope 
 to fly in disguise to Gaeta, and put himself mider the protection 
 of the king of Naples. A provisional government was then es- 
 tablished in Rome, of which AiTnellini was a member. One of 
 its first acts was to send messages of conciliation to Gaeta, 
 requesting the pope's return. The pope, however, rejected 
 these advances, and excommunicated the provisional govern- 
 ment. Rome bemg thus left without a sovereign, Armellini and 
 his colleagues resolved to appeal to the suffrages of the nation, 
 to decide upon the new organization of the state ; and they 
 issued a decree (written by Ai-mellini), for the convocation of a 
 Constituent Assembly. The first meeting of the Assembly took 
 place on the 8th of February, 1849, and the sitting was opened 
 by Armellini. In an eloquent address he set before the Assem- 
 bly the actual position of the state, the absolute refusal of the 
 pope to listen to any terms offered by the provisional govern- 
 ment, the impossibility of reconciling the universal and impera- 
 tive demand for administrative reform with the temporal sove- 
 reignty of the pope and the existing privileges of the priests ; 
 and he concluded with the words, " God and the People," — 
 words well known throughout all Italy as the formula of the 
 national association of '' Young Italy," founded by Joseph 
 Mazzini. The words were recidveil with enthusiasm by the As- 
 sembly, and the rejmblic was voted by a majority of 133 to 11. 
 The executive power was vested in a triumvirate, composed of 
 Armellini, Montecchi, and Salieeti. Their first care was the or- 
 ganization of municipalities throughout the country, the abolition 
 of clerical privileges, and the reformation of the civil ami criminal 
 law. On the defeat of the Piedmontese army by the Austrians at 
 the battle of Novara, the Roman Assembly, desirous of strength- 
 ening and giving new vigour to the government, with a view of 
 can-ying on the war of independence against tho Austrians, 
 reconstitute<l the executive power. The new triumvirate was 
 composed of Armellini, Aurelio Safti (a young Roman noble), and 
 Josejih Mazzini, who, though a (ienocse by birth, had been 
 recently declared a Roman citizen by the Constituent Assembly, 
 in consideration of his great services to his country. The new 
 triumvirate displayed extraordinaiy activity in preparing to send 
 supplies and men to the relief of Venice, then besieged by the 
 Austrians ; but thcu- uitcution was frustrated by the unexpected 
 
 2F
 
 necessity of defending Rome itself from the French invasion, 
 backed by the armies of Austria, Spain, and Naples. During 
 all the dangers of the siege, Amiellini, though a very old man, 
 remained faithful to his principles, and calmly fulfilled the duties 
 of his office, watching over the administration of the legal tribu- 
 nals, and occupyuig himself in the compilation of a new legisla- 
 tive code. He remained in Rome to the last, and did not hesitate 
 to expose himself even to the enemy's fire, by accompanying his 
 fellow triumvirs to assist in the last council of war, held at the 
 head-quarters of General Garibaldi, on the heights of San 
 Pancrazio. On the fall of Rome, Armellini went into exile, and 
 has since resided with his son, also an exile, in retirement at 
 Brussels. The papal government was withheld from confiscating 
 his property by the interposition of the French ambassador. He 
 is now, at the advanced age of eighty, still firm in his republican 
 principles, and unshaken in his faith m the approacMng regenera- 
 tion of his country. — E. A. H. 
 
 ARMEXINI, Gio. Batista, an Italian painter, a native of 
 Faenza, H\-ing in 1587, at which date he published his " Vcri 
 precetti della Pittm-a," (True Precepts of Painting,) a work of 
 some merit. He was a pupil of Peiin del Vaga. 
 
 ARilESSIN, Nicolas de l', a French engraver of great 
 merit, bom in 1684 ; died in 1745. He was the son and pupil 
 of another distinguished engraver of the same name, whom he, 
 however, surpassed, especially with his fine reproductions of the 
 works of ^^'atteau and Boucher. — R. M. 
 
 ARilFELT, GusTAF Mauhitz, Barox, a Swedish general, 
 was bom at Juva, in Finland, on the 1st April, 1757. He en- 
 joyed the confidence of Gusta\-us III., and on the breaking out 
 of the Russian war in 1788, was appointed to command one of 
 the three di\nsions of the anny. On the death of Gusta^iis in 
 1792, Armfelt was named governor of Stockholm, and a mem- 
 ber of the regency. In this latter character he incurred the re- 
 sentment of the president, Charles, duke of Sudermania, uncle 
 of the young king, Gustavus IV., and was easily persuaded to 
 accept an embassy to Naples. During his absence, he was con- 
 de'nned as a traitor. He fled into Russia, and afterwards 
 resided in Germany, whence he was recalled, after the corona- 
 tion of Gustavus lY., in 1799. Various important services 
 were rendered by him to the state from that time till 1810, 
 when a suspicion of his having been concerned in the death of 
 the piince of Augustenburg, again obliged him to seek refuge in 
 Russia. The remainder of his life was passed in that country 
 in the enjonnent of almost princely dignities. He died at 
 Tzarskoe-Selo, on the 19th August, 1814.— J. S., G. 
 
 ARMFELT, Karl, Baron i>\ a Swedish general, bom 1666; 
 died 1736. He fought under Charies XII. After the battle of 
 Pultowa he defended Helsingfors against Peter, and subsequently 
 engaged Apraxin with 6000 men against 18,000. He com- 
 manded the well-known expedition to Nonvay, in which his 
 trooi)S suffered great disasters. 
 
 ARMIN or AR.MYN, Robert, a player of Shakspeare's com- 
 jiany, whose name occurs with that of Shakspeare in a certificate 
 of 1589. A tract in the Bodleian library has the following 
 title, " A Nest of Ninnies. Simply of themselves, without com- 
 pound. Stultoram plena sunt omnia. By Robert Armin," 
 1608. He is also the author of a comedy entitled " The History 
 of the Two JIaids of More Clacke." — J. S., G. 
 
 ARMINIUS or HERJIANN, the deliverer of Germany from 
 the power of Rome, was the son of Sigimer, chief of the Chenisci, 
 and bom probably in the year 16 B.C. The enterprise which he 
 carried on to so triumphant an issue, was begun in a.d. 9, when 
 Vams, little alive to the dangers of his position, had awakened 
 the fierce hatred of thraldom which characterized the German 
 tribes, by innovations on local customs in the last degree offen- 
 sive. In that year he persuaded the Roman general to march 
 into the country between the Weser and Ems, which he said had 
 revolted, and on the way harassed him with such success, that 
 on the third day he could offer battle. In a narrow defile 
 between the towns of Wiedenbmck and Detmold, the Roman 
 legions, hemmed in on all sides, were slaughtered almost to a 
 man. Vams threw himself on his sword. In the years 14-17, 
 Cajsar Gennanicus, although successful in several engagemer.ts, 
 vainly cndeavomed to recover the territories lost by this disaster. 
 Arminius survived till a.d. 21. He is said to have been assas- 
 sinated by some of his kinsmen. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARJIINIUS, FuLGESTius, bishop of Nusco; flourished 
 towards the end of the seventeenth centuiy. He published : — 
 
 1. " Gli immortali Cipressi ; descrizione de Funerali d'Ant. 
 Carrafiv, duca d' Andria?," 1645; 2. " Le pompe della morte per 
 la morte di Cornelia, Giudici, duchcssa di Bisaccio," 1647; and 
 several other works of a similar character. 
 
 ARMINIUS, jAConrs, thecelebrated founder of the theological 
 system called after him, Anninianism, was bom at Oudewater, 
 on the Yssel, in South Holland, in 1560. His fimOy name waa 
 Harmensen, or in its Gei-man form, Hermann. From the name of 
 his native place, denoting " old watei-," he was sometimes called 
 " Veteraquinas." His father died while he was yet a boy, but by 
 the assistance of several friends, who had a high opinion of his 
 talents, he was enabled to prosecute his studies in Utrecht, 
 Marburg, Leydcn, and Geneva, At Leyden he enjoyed the in- 
 stractions of Lambert Danasns ; and in Geneva, of Theodore Beza. 
 He taught, for some time, in the university of Basle, and vrith so 
 much applause that he was offered the degree of doctor of divinity, 
 when he was only in his twenty-second year, which, however, 
 he modestly declined. After a visit to the university of Padua, 
 and a short sojourn in Rome, he returned to Holland. The fame 
 of his talents and learning had preceded him, and in 1588 he 
 was appointed by the magistrates of Amsterdam one of the 
 preachers of that city, in which office he continued, with increas- 
 ing reputation, for the next fifteen years. 
 
 Arminius had early evinced a strong tendency to introduce 
 innovations into estabhshed systems. During his residence in 
 Geneva, he had given great offence to the Aristotelians by his 
 advocacy of the new rival philosophy of Peter Ramus ; and he 
 had not been long in Amsterdam when his love of novelty in 
 speculation, and the restlessness of his genius, led him to adopt 
 theological views, which, by kindling the flames of a lengthened 
 polemical warfare, involved the remainder of his life in great 
 unhappiness, and ultimately convulsed and divided the protestant 
 church of the United Provinces. 
 
 The doctrine of the Belgic confession, as adopted at the era of 
 the Reformation, was strictly CaWnistic, but a layman named 
 Dirick Volkaerts had recently attacked it in a series of writings, 
 which had drawn down upon him the sentence of heresy. In the 
 controversy excited by these attacks, the defenders of the doctrine 
 of the Confession had also recently become divided among them- 
 selves into two parties — the smaller called the " Sublapsarians," 
 the larger still adhering to the " Supralapsarian " views of Beza. 
 Arminius was engaged by some admners of his talents to defend 
 the doctrine of Geneva in opposition to the views both of Vol- 
 kaerts and the Sublapsarians ; and it was while engaged in the 
 studies necessary to this undertaking that he began to waver in 
 his attachment to that doctrine, and to think that the truth lay 
 on the side of its opponents. For a time, however, he concealed 
 his new convictions ; and it was only gradually that they dis- 
 covered themselves in his pulpit expositions of such testing 
 passages of scripture as the seventh and ninth chapters of the 
 Epistle to the Romans. His orthodoxy had already been pub- 
 licly challenged, when in 1003, on the death of Francis Junius, 
 professor of divinity at Leyden, Amiinius was appointed to suc- 
 ceed to his chair. Before his installation, Francis Gomar, his 
 future colleague, demanded an explanation of his doctrinal views, 
 and allowed himself to be satisfied by a public declaration, on the 
 part of Arminius, that with Angustin, and other ancient teachers 
 of the church, he rejected the comiptions of the Pelagian heresy. 
 But it was not long before the two colleagues came into open colli- 
 sion. In 1604 Arminius charged the teaching of Gomar, on the 
 subject of predestination, with a dangerous leaning to the heresy of 
 the ManiclKTans, who made God the author of sin ; while Gomar, 
 in reply, accused Arminius of holding views which were more 
 flattering to human pride than the doctrines of Rome itself — 
 inasmuch as they represented man to be independent of the 
 gi-ace of God, in so important a matter as an inward ability and 
 inclination for that which is good. A controversy, waged by 
 antagonists of such eminence, instantly engaged the attention 
 and divided the sympathies of the whole church and country; 
 and during the brief remainder of his life, Anninius found him- 
 self exposed to incessant attacks which embittered his existence. 
 To allay the strife, a general synod of the church was convened 
 in 1606, and a public conference was held between Arminius 
 and Gomar in 1608, but both these measures failed of the de- 
 sired effect. The war was still raging when Arminius died, on 
 the 19th October, 1609. Nor did it die with him. After his 
 death his adherents pushed his peculiar views to extremes which, 
 it is probable, he hunself would have condemned ; and the more
 
 his system was developed, the stronger and more detennined was 
 tlie hostility which it ciJIed forth. The synod of Dort, which 
 was convoked on the loth of November, 1618, and continued its 
 sittings till the Oth of May, 1619, solemnly condemned the "five 
 articles " in which the Eemonstrants, as they were now called, 
 expressed their views ; and two hundred Arminian clergy were 
 cast out of the national chiu'ch. The writings of Amiinius were 
 collected and pubUshed at Ley den in 1621) ; and his hfe was 
 written by Caspar Brandt, and also by Peter Bertius, the latter 
 of whom went over, at a later period, to the church of Rome. 
 This incident sei-ved to illustrate and confirm a charge which 
 was sometimes laid against the Arminian news, that they had a 
 strong affinity, in some points, with the theology of Rome — an 
 affinity which has recently been acknowledged by the able Roman- 
 ist, Jliihler, in his " Symbolik ;" while the example of Clericus, or 
 Jean le Clerc, and others who, in the following century, became 
 professors of the seminary of the Remonstrants in Amsterdam, 
 no less verified the tendency which was often imputed to Ar- 
 minianism by its opponents — to land its disciples in the fatal 
 extremes of Rationalism and Sociuianism. — P. L. 
 
 * ARMITAGE, Edward, a living English painter, of great 
 and original talents. He studied in Paris under Delaroche. 
 He has painted, amongst several fine works, some frescos for 
 the new houses of Parliament, with very great success. — R. M. 
 
 ARJIOXVILLE, Jean Baptiste, a member of the national 
 convention, was bom in 1756, and died in 1808. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, a famous border clan, who, from a very early 
 period, possessed great pait of Liddesdale and of the debatable 
 land. They were distinguished, along with their neighbours the 
 Elliots, as the most lawless of all the freebooting hordes. Their 
 favomite retreat was the Tarras ]\Ioss — a desolate morass where 
 they often bafBed their pursuers. We find them in gi-eat 
 strength at the time of Elizabeth's death making a raid into 
 England as far as Penrith, where, however, they were so totally 
 defeated by James VI. that they never recovered the blow. 
 Several members of this clan figure largely in popular tradition, 
 and in the old ballad literature of the border. We notice — 
 
 AioisTKOXG, Archie, a member of the clan, became jester 
 at the English court, but was in 1G37 dismissed in disgrace 
 because his wit offended Archbishop Laud. 
 
 Armstrong, Johnie, of Gilnochie, who was brother of the 
 laird of JIangertoun chief of the clan, occupied a tower the 
 niins of which are still pointed out near the town of Langhohn. 
 His name was a teiTor over all the border, and his ravages ex- 
 tended as far south as Newcastle. In 1529, James V. set out 
 on an expedition against the lawless march-men. Armstrong 
 and a number of his followers presented themselves before the 
 king to make a profession of loyalty. They were, however, re- 
 ceived as outlaws and condemned to death. This scene forms 
 the subject of one of the most spirited of the border ballads 
 collected by Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 Armstrong, Willi^vm, of Kininmonth, or Kinmont Willie, 
 also claims descent from this clan. The ballad which bears his 
 name is, perhaps, the finest in all the literature of the border. 
 It details how he had been treacherously scnzed by the English 
 warden, Lord Scroope, imprisoned in Carlisle, and condemned to 
 death. The Scottish koopor, Lord Bucclench, after finding nego- 
 tiation of no avail, made a raid upon Carlisle, entered the castle, 
 and, without doing further hann, earned off the bold freebooter 
 in safety. The name of Kinmont Willie was proverbial all over 
 the borders. On one occasion there was a royal expedition to 
 Dumfries against him and another riever named JIaxwell, which 
 had, however, no success. 
 
 Armstrong, William, known as Christie's Will, occu- 
 pied the tower of Gilnochie during the reign of Charles I. His 
 name is connected in tradition with the famous carrj'ing off of 
 Lord Uurie, president of the Coiu-t of Session, till a case was 
 decided in favour of the Earl of Traqnair, to whose interests the 
 president was opposed. Christie's \\'ill was the last border 
 freebooter of any note. — (Scott's Minslreby of the Scotlish 
 Border.) — J. B. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, Fr.vncis, a physician of Uppingham, in 
 Rutlandshire, who discovered a vegetable green paint, and died 
 in 1789. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, George, a physician, established in London 
 a dispensaiy for the relief of the infant poor. Died in 1781. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, an PInglish military engineer, who 
 died in 1758, the author of a history of the Isle of ^liuorca. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, M.D, a poet, and the friend of MaUct, 
 Young, and Thomson, was bom in 1709 at Castleton, in Liddes- 
 dale, Roxburghshire, the parish of which his father was minister. 
 He received his early education at the parish school, and then 
 entered the university of Edinburgh, where he took his degree in 
 medicine with honours. He was always noted for his versifying 
 tendency, though he kept rather too closely by his model and 
 master, the bard of Winter. It was, however, through his 
 intimacy with Thomson he was induced to try his success as an 
 author, and in 1735 was persuaded to publish "An Essay for 
 abridging the Study of Physic," — a burlesque on the quackery 
 and the low state of medical education of the period. In 1737 
 he came forth in a professional work of some celebrity, and 
 immediately thereafter in " The Economy of Love," a poem, 
 chiefly remarkable for its indecency, which had the effect of 
 dislodging Armstrong from bis position as a practitioner. His 
 great work, " The Art of Preserving Health," a poem in four 
 books, appeared in 1744, and soon gained a wide popularity. 
 He was now employed as surgeon in a militaiy hospital ; and 
 through the fiivour of Wilkes, some years later, he was sent out 
 to Germany as physician to the forces. In this capacity he 
 continued till the close of the war, and retiu-ned to London in 
 1763. He spent his time in occasional practice, varied by 
 literary pursuits, sending forth a " Collection of Jliscellanies," 
 or a "Volume of Essays," or an abortive "Tragedy," or 
 "Sketches of Travel." Though his income was limited, he left 
 about £3000 at his death, which happened 7th September, 1779. 
 His main claim to notice as a poet rests on his poem on 
 " Health," which, according to Wharton, is distinguished for its 
 classical correctness and closeness of style. It is a kind of dic- 
 tionary of domestic medicine in blank verse, containing much 
 learning, much information, much medical and mor;d philosophy, 
 but without much original power either of poetical conception or 
 execution. Thomson, in his luxurious way, has hit off Armstrong's 
 likeness in his Castle of Indolence, canto i., stanza ix.; while 
 Armstrong has given a medical finish to the same canto, by con- 
 tributing the stanzas that follow the seventy-fourth. — W. B., D 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, a physician who was bom in 1784, at 
 Ayres Quay, near Sunderland, and at the age of sixteen was 
 apprenticed to a surgeon of Monkweamiouth. He afterwards 
 entered as a medical student at the university of Edinbiu-gh, 
 and commencing to practise in his native to>.T>, became very 
 popular. Ho aftern-ards removed to London, where he con- 
 tinued to prosper. Araistrong was a disciple of the " Sangrado " 
 school, and made vigorous use of the lancet, ascribing most 
 diseases to infiammstion. Amongst liis numerous works, the 
 principal are — " Facts and Observations relating to Puerperal 
 Fever;" "Illustrations of Tj-phus Fever;" "Illustrations of 
 the Scarlet Fever, Measles," &c. He died in 1829.— J. W. S. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, D.D., first bishop of Graham's Town, 
 South Africa, was bom August 22nd, 1813, at Bishopwear- 
 mouth, in the county of Diu-ham, where his father was an 
 eminent physician. He v>'as educated, first at the Charterhouse 
 School in London, and then at Lincoln College, Oxford ; talking 
 his degree of B.A. in 1836. In 1843 he was presented to the 
 rectory of St. Paul's, Exeter, and shortly afterwards married the 
 eldest daughter of Edward ^\'hitmorc, Esq. Two years later 
 (by an exchange of livings), he became vicar of Tidenham in 
 Gloucestershire, and was consecrated bishop of Graham's Town 
 on St. Andrew's day, 1853, by Archbishop Sumner, in the jwrish 
 church of Lambeth. He was a contributor to the " Britisli 
 Critic," the " Christian Remembrancer," the " English Review," 
 and the " Quarteriy," and edited the " Tracts for the Christian 
 Seasons," " Tracts for Parochial Use," and " Sermons for the 
 Christian Seasons," published by Parker of Oxford, which met 
 with great success. Exemplary as a parish priest, he became 
 still more consj)icuous for his devotcdness as a cohmial bishop. 
 The same energy r.nd earnest piety which characterized his 
 efforts in the cause of female penitents in England, were dis- 
 played in the more arduous undertaking on which he entered, of 
 endeavouring to evangelize the Kafirs in South Africa ; and he 
 died amid the loudly-expressed regrets of all classes, at Graham's 
 Town, on the 16th'May, 1856.— R. S. 0. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, Mostyn, an English geographer of the last 
 century, of whom little is known. 
 
 ARSiSTRONG, Sir Thomas, a native of Nymegen in Hol- 
 land, was, during Cromwell's days, a finn adherent to the royal 
 cause. After the Restoration, lie was attached to the fortunes
 
 of Jlonmnutli, and was implicated in tlie Eye House plot. lie 
 suffered death in 1C81. 
 
 ARMYN. See Ahmik. 
 
 ARMYNE, Lady JIary, the wife of Sir William Armyne, 
 was the daughter of Henry Talbot, the fourth son of George, 
 earl of Shrewsbury. Slie was celebrated for the extent of her 
 theological and historical knowledge, for her liberality to the 
 poor, and for her patronage of North American missions. She 
 endowed several hospitals, and died in 1(575. — T. J. 
 
 ARN/ESON, Jon, a Danish lawyer of last century, born in 
 Iceland; wrote a history of the jurisprudence of his native countrj-. 
 
 ARN.ESON, Jox Magnus, a theologian of Iceland, was 
 born in 1665, became bishop of Skalholt, and died m 1743. He 
 wrote a life of Bishop Einar Hurstenzcin. 
 
 ARNjESON, S.emundus, wrote a series of chronological 
 tables taken from the Scriptures and Philo-Judxus, 1669. 
 
 ARNAL, a French comic dramatist and actor, born in 1799. 
 
 ARNAL, Etienne d', a French engineer, was bom in 1733, 
 and died in 1801. He endeavoured to apply fire as a motive 
 power for ships, mills, &c., but without success. 
 
 ARNAL, Juan Peduo, a Spanish architect, more known for 
 his erudition and his studies on the Alhambra and other Moresque 
 antiquities of Spain, than for any original production of his own ; 
 was born in 1735, and died in 1805. He was dii-ector of the 
 school of architectm-e at the academy of St. Fernando of Madrid. 
 
 ARNALD, RiciiAUD, born in 1696, fellow of Emanuel 
 college, Cambridge, rector of Thm-castou, Leicestersliii-e, and 
 prebendary of Lincoln. He was the author of the commentary 
 on the apocryphal books which usually accompanies the com- 
 mentaries of Patrick, Lowth, and Wiitby. He died in 1756. 
 
 ARNALDI, Enea, Count, an arcliitect of Vicenza, who lived 
 in the last century. 
 
 ARNALDO, PiETRO Antonio, a theologian of Nice, who 
 lived in the seventeenth century. 
 
 ARNALDO OF Brescia. See Arnold, &c. 
 
 ARNALDUS de Villanova. See Arnauld de Ville- 
 
 NEUVE. 
 
 ARNALL, William, an English aiithor of small note, who 
 lived in the earlier lialf of the last centuiy. He supported the 
 policy of Sir R. Walpole in various works, and appears to have 
 received a liberal amount of public money for his services. 
 
 ARNAUD de Carcasses, a troubadour of Provence, bom 
 about the commencement of the tliirteenth century, who wrote 
 a poem called " Le Pcroquet." 
 
 ARNAUD, Daniel, a troubadour of the twelfth century, 
 born at Ribeerrac, in Perigord, who was one of the minstrels at 
 the court of Piichard Ca'ur de Lion; died about 1189. 
 
 ARNAUD, FRANrois, a French abbe and litterateur, bom 
 at Aubignon, near Cai-pentras, in 1721, removed to Paris in 
 1752; conducted, along with M. Suard, the "Journal Etranger" 
 from 17C0 to 1762, and was successively admitted into the 
 Acaddmie des Inscri[)tious, and the French Academy. He ob- 
 tained the abbaye of Grandchamp in 1771. Died in 1784. A 
 complete edition of his works, original and translated, was pub- 
 lished at Paris m the same year. — J, S., G. 
 
 ARNAUD, FiiANrois-TiioMAs-MARiE Baculard d', a 
 voluminous French littcratem*, bom at Paris in 1718. He ac- 
 quired a name in literature before he had attained his nineteenth 
 year. Like his friend Voltahc, he found a patron in Frederick 
 the Great, who invited him to Berlin, and on his arrival, com- 
 plimented him with a copy of verses, in which he was styled the 
 Ovid of France, and, more absurdly still, the successor of Vol- 
 taire. He was imprisoned during the reign of terror, and spent 
 the last years of his life in the most wretched poverty. He died 
 in 1805. His principal performances are : — 1. " Les Epoux 
 Malheureux, ou I'llistoire de JL et do Mine de la Bodoyere, 
 ecrite par un Ami," 1745 ; 2. " Delassements de I'llomme 
 Sensible, ou Anecdotes diverscs," in 12 vols., 1784. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARNAUD, Georqe d', a Dutch philosopher and jurist, de- 
 scended from a family of French refugees, was bom at Francker 
 in West Fric'sland, in 1711. He was about to succeed his 
 teacher, Wieling, as professor of law, when he died in 1740. 
 His works are : — 1. " Specimen Animadversionum Criticanim 
 ad aliquot Scriptores Grajcos," 1728; 2. "Lectionum Grajcarum 
 Libri Duo," 1730 ; 3. " De Diis IlajsSjoif, seu Adsessoribus ct 
 Conjunctis," 1732 ; 4. " De Jure Servoram," 1734; 5. Variarum 
 Conjecturarum Libri Duo," 1730 ; 6. Vitse Scaivolarum," pub- 
 lished after the author's death, 1767. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARNAUD DE RoNsiL, George, a French surgeon, prac- 
 tised his art, especially that part of it relating to hernia, in Paris, 
 and afterwards in London, where he became a member of the 
 College of Surgeons. He was bom about the commencement of 
 the eighteenth century, and died m 1774. His works are: — • 
 1. " A Dissertation on Hernias or Ruptures," 1748 ; 2. " A 
 Treatise on Hemiaphrodites," 1750; 3. "Plain and easy In- 
 structions on the Diseases of the Bladder and Uretlira," 1754; 
 4. " On Aneurisms," 1760 ; 5. " M^moires de Chirurgie, avec 
 quclques Remarques historiques sur I'Etat de la Mtidecme et de 
 la Chirurgie en France et en Angletcrre," 1768. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARNAUD, Henri, whose name is connected with one of the 
 most interesting periods in the history of the Vaudois, was born 
 at La Tour, Piedmont, in 1641. He was fitted for combining 
 with the office of pastor that of militaiy leader, by the fact that 
 ere he entered the clim-ch he ser\'ed under William of Orange; 
 and at this period the Vaudois specially needed such a pastor. 
 After long years of persecution, they had, about 1685, been 
 compelled by Victor Amadeus of Savoy to quit their valleys. 
 According to Amaud's account, which is believed to be some- 
 what exaggerated, 14,000 vvrre cast into prison, where 11,000 
 perished, and only 3000 survived to go into exile. It is with 
 the fiite of these 3000, who betook themselves to Switzerland 
 and some other protestant countries, that the history of our 
 " soldier-priest" is connected. He found his countrymen by no 
 means satisfied with exile ; and after several unsuccessful at- 
 tempts, Ai-naud, encouraged by the great events of 1688, placed 
 himself at the head of 800 determined adventurers, and, on the 
 19th August, 1689, embarked on the Lake of Geneva, and 
 landed at Yvoire on the other side. They then set forward to- 
 ward their valleys, passing through a difficult country beset with 
 hostile forces, and at last crowning an unprecedented march by 
 storming the bridge of Salabertran guarded by 2500 men, com- 
 pletely routing the enemy, and entering in triumph the valley of 
 San Martiiio. The brave men were, however, still beset by 
 hostUe troops, and were compelled to betake themselves by 
 passes of incredible difficulty to the rock of the Balsille, where, 
 through the long winter, they stood the attacks of hunger and 
 cold, and resisted a besieging force of 25,000 men. The spring 
 found the number of the besieged reduced to 400, and their enemies 
 still bent on their destruction; but when at last the besiegers suc- 
 ceeded in reaching the summit of the Balsille they found it deserted. 
 By a steep precipice, hitherto thought impassable, the Vaudois had, 
 one by one, descended, and escaped to the steeps of Mount Guigni- 
 vert ; there for several days they wandered, and were fast losing 
 all hope of ultimate safety, when the welcome news reached them 
 that Victor Amadeus had abandoned the alliance of France, and 
 joined the league against Loius XIV. Their former persecutor 
 found those brave men of sei-vice to him in his new relations. 
 A colonel's commission having been granted to Arnaud by William 
 of England, he led 1200 of his countrymen in the war of the Spanish 
 succession, and performed valuable service to the allied powers. 
 He was but ill repaid ; for when the duke of Savoy concluded 
 in 1698 a treaty with France, he agi-eed to drive the Vaudois 
 once more from their valleys. Arnaud found an asylum for 
 them under the duke of Wm'temburg, and closed his stining life 
 by settling as their pastor at the village of Schonberg, where he 
 died in 1721 at the age of 80. When in retirement he com- 
 piled the famous " Histoire de la glorieuse Rentree des Vaudois 
 dans leurs Vallces," the material for which had been recorded in 
 a diaiy apparently kept by one of Amaud's companions. It was 
 published in 1716. A translation, with a historical introduction, 
 has been published in England by H. Dyke Acland. — J. B. 
 
 ARNAUD de Nobleville, Louis Daniel, a French sur- 
 geon, bom at Orleans in 1701, died in 1778. He published 
 " Cours de Medceine Pratique," 1769, and several other works. 
 
 ARNAUD DE Marsan, a Proven9al troubadour, who lived 
 about the beginning of the thirteenth centuiy. The only one of 
 his songs which has been presen'ed, exhibits an interesting pic- 
 ture of the mode of life peculiar to the nobles of his age. 
 
 ARNAUD or ARNAUT de Makvelh, a troubadoiu- of the 
 twelfth century, born at Marvelh, in Perigord, who sung the 
 praises of Adelaide, the wife of Roger II., viscount de Beziers. 
 
 ARNAUD, De Saint Jacques Achille Lerox, marshal 
 of France, was bom, according to M. de Bazancourt, on the 
 20th August, 1801, but there are various dates and years as-' 
 signed for his birth. It is certain that he entered the Due de 
 Grammout's comjiany of the "Gardes du Corps" on the 16th
 
 ])i>cember, 181G, haTOij; had for a short time enjoyed the advan- 
 tages of a course of study at the Lyc^c, cstablislied by the great 
 Xapolcon. His father was prefet of Aude, under the republic 
 ;'nd empire, but dying in 1803, left his family in rather 
 straitened circumstances, which were however managed with 
 singular skill and economy, by the young mother suddenly 
 jilaced at the head of the lioixsehold. The early career of the 
 luilitaiy hero of the coup d'l'iat was chequered and erratic, giving 
 promise of restlesncss rather than of success in life. From the 
 i:ardes du corps he went to the regiment of Corsica, thence into 
 the regiment of the "Mouths of the Rhone," thence into the 
 li'th of the line, which he quitted in 1822, under rather unfa- 
 urable circumstances, without having acquked in his six years' 
 yvice a higher gi-ade than that of sub-lieutenant. It is strange 
 say, that his demission from the 49tli was accompanied by his 
 -ignation of the service altogether, and, stranger still, that the 
 rgies of the man who secured the covp d'etat of absolute power 
 : 1851, should have been directed in 1822 to the cause of free- 
 111 in Greece. Between 1822 and 1831 there is a blank in 
 the marshal's life, which is not satisfactorily explained by the 
 iiifomiation that he " was travelling abroad." It is evident 
 that he did nothmg in Greece to rescue his name from the ob- 
 scurity which rested on it and on his path in life for nearly nine 
 Mars. In 1831 he retm-ned to the French sendee as sub-lieu- 
 iiant, and his first exploits were performed against the revolted 
 asants of La Vendee, where he acted as orderly-officer to 
 iieral Bugeaud, and laid the foundation of that intimacy ■with 
 - chief, which ripened into higher and profitable favour subse- 
 ■ntly in Africa. In 1832 he accompanied the Duchess de 
 in to Palermo, and again a lapse takes place in his life; all we 
 Hiw being, that when, in 183G, Lieutenant St. Amaud went to 
 Alrica, his highest aspirations were bounded by the lace of a 
 ' ijitaui's unifonn. He sought distinction with so much ardom", 
 ihat. La 1837, he was promoted to a company in the Foreign 
 l.i'gion, which had not long been formed, and in which he 
 "und extraordinary associates from all paiis of the world. 
 i'liey were thorough soldiers, nide, high-spirited, careless of 
 iifc; and they were fast conquering for France the gi'eat nurseiy 
 men, who are the scions of her new militaiy system. At the 
 i aming of Constantine, St. Aniaud was particularly distin- 
 _ui,shed, and in consequence of his courage, and the frequent 
 airution of his name in despatches, he was nommated of the 
 l.rgion of Honour. Thenceforward he became one of the most 
 rising officers of the African army. lie was present at the 
 taking of Djelli in 1839, of the Arab fortresses at Monsaja, 
 nliere he was severely wounded, in 1840, at the capture of 
 Tekedernt, and at the battle of Mascara in 1841. He en- 
 lircd the newly-formed corps of Zouaves as commandant or 
 inajor in 1841, and in the year following he was invested with 
 the militaiy command of Milianah, in which he displayed such 
 '•nergy, that on the 2oth March, especially recommended by 
 Marshal Bugeaud, he received the gi-ade of lieutenant-colonel. 
 Two years aftervvards he was promoted to the rank of colonel, 
 and was charged with the command of the subdivision of Orleans- 
 \ ille. But his star was still rising. The great insurrection of 
 i'.uu-Maza gave Colonel St. Arnaud an o})portunity for the ex- 
 hihilion of ceaseless activity; and at last, when the Arab patriot 
 ^\ as compelled to yield, he laid down his arms at the feet of the 
 youthful colonel of Zouaves, who was rewarded by the cross of 
 Commander of the Legion of Honour, and was, on 3rd No- 
 vember following, made mtijor-general. Thence offering a strong 
 mtrast to the halting gait with which Fortune met his advances 
 1 the e:u-lier period of his career, she seemed to run after him 
 iS he listed. From 1847 to 1851, in every ravine, against every 
 tribe of the Kabyles, St. Amaud acquired fresh reputation, in- 
 creasuig honours and renown, until he received the rank of 
 general of division in 1851. Although he was notoriously repub- 
 lican m his sentimi'uts, he witnessed, without onotion, the fall of 
 Louis Philippe, and of his old friend and patron. Marshal Bugeaud, 
 from whose fate he probaldy learned a lessim, which he turned 
 to account on the 2nd December, 1851. The present emperor 
 seems to have understood the character of the man, and to have 
 appreciated the strength of his political attachments. On the 
 2Gth October, 1851, he was .suddenly called from the command 
 of a division of the army of Paris to the cabinet, and was created 
 minister of war, in which department he prepared evciything for 
 the military success of the coiip d'etat on the 2iid December fol- 
 lowing. For his shai-e in that sanguinary tragedy, he received the 
 
 baton of a marshal of France on the next anniversary of the very 
 day he consummated for the donor the means of making the gift. 
 
 In March, 1854, he was sent out to the East to take the 
 command of the French army ui the war against Russia, and if 
 his despatches and letters are to be trusted, he set out with the 
 most profound contempt for his allies, and with the settled 
 detemiination either to ignore or depreciate their sluire in his 
 victories. Giddy with success, the vanity which constituted a 
 large portion of the impulses that animated him, putl'ed him up 
 to an extraordinary degi-ee of arrogance, and at times he seems 
 not only to have forgotten the English, but the French, in the 
 all-absorbing " Je " which so often appears in his writings. He 
 sought to approjiriate to himself the credit of proposing the 
 Crimean expedition, to which, in fact, he was for a long time 
 opposed, and he treated Omar Pacha, and indeed, as fai- as he 
 could, all the other generals with ill-concealed disdain. But an 
 internal malady, to which his violent passions and restless exist- 
 ence had given overwhelming power, now began to make itself 
 felt, and this iron man of action found himself prostrated occa- 
 sionally by violent attacks of pain, conquered for the time by his 
 tremendous volition only to gather fresh force for the assault. 
 It is not wonderful if the impatience and u-ritation thus created 
 found vent in hasty and ill-considered accusations against his 
 allies and their leaders, but such was the force of his character, 
 that even in the exhaustion of his mortal conflict, he asserted for 
 himself and his anny, precedence in all military matters, and acted 
 without deference to the vnshes or feelings of his colleagues in 
 self-rehant determination. On the voyage to the Crimea he 
 was attacked by spasms of the heart in an aggravated fomi, 
 and for a moment his firmness and resolution left him ; but he 
 recovered sufficiently to direct the descent of his troops to the 
 battle of the Ahna, to cany it out, and to transmit to posterity 
 his reproaches against the English general for the slowness of 
 his movements before the battle and at it, and for his inactivity 
 after it was won. On the night of the 25th September, the 
 marshal was seized with s}Tnptoms of cholera, and after a strenu- 
 ous but ineft'ectual struggle with this complication of disorders, 
 was obliged to place the command of the anny in the hands of 
 General Canrobert. He was earned with ditheulty into Balaklava, 
 and thence he was transported on board the Berthollet, where he 
 expired, at four o'clock, on the afternoon of 29th September, 
 just as the vessel apjiroached the Bosphonis, to the intense grief 
 of his ai'iny, and to the regret of Lord Raglan and of the allies. 
 His loss at such a crisis was iiTeparable, for there can be no 
 doubt but that the marshal was a man of such infinite resources 
 and activity of mind, that he would have adopted a decided 
 course of action the moment his army was before Sebastopol. 
 His death was touching and dignified ; and he has left behind 
 hun a fame, the brightness of which, in the eyes of his country- 
 men, will not be obscured by the memory of his defects. His 
 remains were earned to France, and interred in state at the 
 Invalides, and his statue has been placed in the llall of Honour 
 of the Lycee. In person JI. St. Amaud was of the middle 
 height, slight in figure, of a soldierly carriage and aspect, with 
 resolute anil composed features, lighted up by dark eyes of great 
 fire and vivacity. His manners were, when he pleased, agi'ee- 
 able and courtierlike, and he expressed liis ideas, especially in 
 writing, with clearness, eloquence, and force. Ilis letters to M. 
 de St. Arnaud, his brother, to liis wife, to M. de Forcade, and 
 others, were collected and published in Paris, 1855. — W. H. R. 
 
 ARNAUDE i)K RocAS, a Cypriot lady, who, on the capture 
 of Nicosia by the Turks in 1570, became a captive to the con- 
 querors. Her beauty attracted their admiration, and she was 
 placed in a vessel bound to Constantinople, as a fit person for the 
 sultan's harem. Such a destiny was revolting to her jmre and free 
 spirit, and in a moment of desperation she set fire to the powder 
 room, blew up the ship, and perished with all on board. — T. J. 
 
 ARNAUDIN, a French autlior, supposed to have been born 
 in 1C90 at Paris, and to have died in 1717. He jiublished, at 
 the ago of twenty-three, a translation of Cornelius Agrippa's 
 work, " De Pra;cellentia Feminei Sexus," with the title " I)e la 
 grandeur ct de rexcellence des feinmes au-dessus des hommes." 
 
 ARNAULD, Antoine, a French general, born at Grenoble in 
 1749 ; after some honourable service as a volunteer, was employed 
 in the army of the Rhine in 1800, and distinguished himself in the 
 battle of Ku-chbcrg, near IMm, and also in that of Hohenlinden. 
 He was named general in 1803, and appointed to a command on 
 the coasts of Zealand, where he died in the following year.
 
 ARNAULD, Antoine, father of the great Amauld, a French 
 (wocat, bora at Paris in 1560; died 29th December, 1619 
 He was the eldest son of Antoine Amauld, councillor of Cathe- 
 rine de Medicis ; and, having been received advocate before the 
 parliament, was soon distinguished by his eloquence and esteemed 
 for liis probity. In 1594 he aciiuired great celebrity by his 
 pleading against the Jesuits in favour of the university of Paris. 
 Against the same society he published another work, " Le Franc 
 et veritable discours du Roi sur le retablissement qui lui a ete 
 demande par les Jesuitcs ;" in 1592 he published the first and 
 second "Philippics;" in 1593, the " Fleur dc Lys ;" in IGOG, 
 the "Anti-Spaniard," in the Collection of free and excellent 
 speeches on the present state of France, and also in the Memoirs 
 of the Ligue, vol. iv. ; and, in 1612, "Advice to the King Louis 
 XIII. how to reign well." The Jesuits accused him of being a 
 Huguenot, but he was opposed to Protestantism at the same 
 time tliat he opposed the Ligue. He had an unusually large 
 family.— P. E. D. 
 
 ARNAULD, Antoine, a man of great intelligence and vig- 
 our, and of considerable mark in philosophy : born at Paris, 6th 
 Febru.iry, 1612 ; died at Liege on 6th August, 1694, aged eighty- 
 three. The life of Amauld was a troublous one. He took orders 
 in the Roman catholic church, became doctor of Sorbonne, and 
 put himself at the head of the strict party — the pai-ty of 
 the Jansenists. Meeting at every point, and denouncing the 
 moral laxity of the Jesuits, he was honoured by the special ran- 
 cour of that celebrated body. They succeeded in diiving him 
 into exile, and hunting him from place to place ; but they could 
 not subdue Arnauld : his pen continued ready and keen in con- 
 troversy, although the hand that wielded it shook through age. 
 We cannot enter on the history of these controversies, — Ainauld's 
 own works, chiefly occu])ied with his part in them, filling forty- 
 two quarto volumes. — But it is needful to speak in some detail 
 of Amauld the metaphysician. One of the earliest admirers 
 and discriminating disciples of Des Cartes, he learned from this 
 great Inquirer, freedom of thought ; and he exercised it to the 
 signal benefit of philosophy. His principal writings relate to 
 three important subjects : — I. Arnauld was the author of that 
 very excellent treatise on logic — the UArt de peyuer — which, 
 in a very short time, supplanted the wretched scholastic abridg- 
 ments and misrepresentations of Aristotle, then universally used 
 in schools and universities : it quickly passed the boundaries of 
 France, and became an especial favomitc in Germany and Eng- 
 land. It does not refer, unfortunately, to the processes of in- 
 duction ; but, considered as a treatise on pure logic, it is still 
 unsuqiassed, if anywhere rivalled, in method, clearness, and 
 elegance. This work is a very model of composition ; Ar- 
 nauld having fully mastered the difficult art of knowing what 
 it is necessary to say, and what, if said, would only be a 
 superfluity. II. Equally remarkable is his treatise on Percep- 
 tion, or, as he calls it. True and False Ideas. This is a pole- 
 mic against Malebranche : but the part of it which interests us 
 most, is a complete and unmistakable anticipation of Dr. Reid's 
 famous demolition of what he termed the Ideal Theory. The 
 theory in question was not held at any time by leading philo- 
 sophers, although it may be detected among the schools they 
 founded. A few secondary teachers, luistaking the language of 
 their masters, liad evidently fallen into the absurd notion, that 
 actual images of external bodies exist separate from their bodies 
 as well as from the perceiving mind ; and that v/e perceive 
 solely through the intermediation of these images. l\Ialebranche 
 had lent his authority to this fully. Arnauld's arguments were 
 these, — the .student may compare them with Dr. Reid's : — 
 First, Experience reveals nothing, which is not cither a Thought 
 of the Intelligence, or an External Body. Secondly, Experi- 
 ence .shows very clearly that the local presence of an object, 
 or its actual contact with the Mind, is not an indispensable 
 condition of Perception ; as, for instance, when we perceive 
 bodies which, like the sun, are very far off. Thirdly, If it be 
 admitted that Deity always acts by the simplest modes, we 
 should expect Him to have endowed lis with the power to per- 
 ceive External Bodies in the most direct way, and, therefore, 
 without tlie aid of intei-mediate Images, which can add no- 
 thing wh.atever to our knowledge. Fourthly, If we perceive 
 E.xternal Things only by aid of their Images, we cannot be said to 
 see these things at all ; we cannot know even that they exist. 
 III. The other point of Arnauld's philosophy deserving notice is 
 his doctrine concerning necessary traths, as he unfolds it in an 
 
 advanced portion of the foregoing work. He asserts that what 
 we term Necessary Truths are mere results of comparison and 
 reasoning. A fatal deviation from the views of Des Cartes ! 
 Comparison and Reasoning may form general truths, but they 
 never can evolve the attributes of Universality and Necessity. 
 Comparison and Reasoning present, in its largest and purest 
 form, a statement of what is ; but to allege that a truth must 
 be, is wholly beyond their power. Amauld was undoubtedly 
 the most powertul — the presiding genius of the famous Port- 
 Royal.— J. P. N. 
 
 ARNAULD, Henri, brother of Anthony, was bom at Paris, 
 1597, died 8th June. 1694. He was elected bishop of Toul by 
 the diocesan chapter, but did not accept the office, on account of 
 disputes regarding the right of presentation. In 1645 he went 
 to Rome to arrange the disputes between Innocent X. and the 
 Barberinos, and conducted the negotiation with so much suc- 
 cess, that the latter erected a statue to his honour, and caused 
 a medal to be strack to commemorate his mission. On his 
 return to France, he was appointed bishop of Angers, and only 
 once quitted his diocese, m the hope of converting the prince of 
 Tarentum. In 1052, the town of Angers ha\'ing revolted against 
 the royal authority, the queen-motlier advanced to punish the 
 insurrection, but was prevented by the appeals of the good 
 bishop. It is said of him, that being recommended to take one 
 day in the week for relaxation, he replied, " So I will, if you 
 will find the day on which I am not a bishop." His " Negotia- 
 tions at the court of Rome and other courts of Italy," were 
 published in Paris, 1748. They contain many cm-ious anecdotes, 
 given in a style that was common to all the Arnaulds. — P. E. D. 
 
 ARNAULD, .Jacqueline Marie Angelique, the famous 
 abbess of Port-Royal, was the daughter of Antoine Arnauld 
 and elder sister of the preceding. Five of her sisters and 
 many of her nieces and other relations assumed the veil under 
 her presidency. Her maternal grandfather, M. Marion, advo- 
 cate-general to Henry IV., obtained for her the coadjuterie of 
 the abbey of Port-Royal when she was in her eighth year, and 
 little anticipated the life of labour and self-denial which she was 
 to lead. At the age of eleven she entered on full possession. 
 The rules of the Cistercian order had been daily violated by the 
 nuns in this house ; and so far as form would pennit, their time 
 was passed in gaiety and song. But the sermon of a Capuchin 
 friar moved the young superior to a new course, and the Mere 
 Angelique, as she was now called, became a stern and unbending 
 reforaier. The abbey of Maubisson, after a long stmggle, was 
 reduced to order by her, and other Cistercian houses bowed to 
 her pure and devoted supremacy. The history of Port-Royal 
 will be found in other lives, such as St. Cyran, Pascal, and 
 De Sacy. Angelique was a pattern of all good works, distin- 
 guished by her meekness and yet by her force of character; 
 kind but stem, generous though exacting, humble and still con- 
 scious of lier dignity ; combining in her character the devotion of 
 her who bathed the Redeemer's feet with her tears, and the 
 heroism of her who of old urged Barak to the conflict, and sang 
 his ode of victory. But the wars of the Fronde dispersed the 
 establishment, and the Jesuits were resolved to put down such a 
 stronghold of the Jansenists, and such a popular resort of nu- 
 merous scholars and recluses. The lady, now seventy years of 
 age, was obliged to leave the chosen scene of her labours ; the 
 sisters were tom from her by force, and every variety of perse- 
 cution was employed by Mazarin, Louis XIV., and the Jesuit 
 intriguers. This great and good woman died at an advanced 
 age, leaving an imperishable name. — J. E. 
 
 ARNAULD, Jeanne Catherine Agnes de St. Paul. 
 sister of Anthony and Jacqueline, died 19th February, 1671. 
 She published two works, one entitled " L'image d'nne reli^ense 
 parfaite et d'une imparfaite," Paris, 1660; the other " Le cha- 
 pelet secret du .saint sacrement," 1663. She also laboured on 
 the constitutions of Port-Royal. There were six sisters, nuns in 
 the same convent, and their niece Angelique, daughter of Arnauld 
 D'Andilly, also a nun of Port-Royal— born 1624, died 1684 — 
 composed the " Menioires pour servir a la vie de la mere Marie 
 Angelique Arnauld reformatrice de Port-Royal," published in 
 1737. 
 
 ARNAULD D'Andilly, Robert, eldest son of the elder 
 Anthony, born at Paris in 1588, and died 27th September, 1674. 
 At court he was held in high estimation, and used his influence 
 for the benefit of those who re(juired his aid. Balzac said of 
 him, that " he never blushed for the christian virtues, and was
 
 never vain of the moral virtues." At the age of fifty-five, he 
 retired from the world to the solitude of Port-Royal des Champs. 
 Among his publications were : — Translations of the Confessions 
 of St. Augustine; A History of the Jews; Lives of the Holy 
 Fathers; The works St. Theresa; Jlemoirs of his Life; A 
 Poem on the Life of Christ, &c. His eldest son, Amauld 
 D'Andilly, at first followed the profession of arms, but after- 
 wards resided with his uncle the bishop of Angers. He died in 
 1698, and left avolumeof memoirs, published in 1756. — P. E. D. 
 
 ARNAULD DE TixTiGXAC, or Cotigxac a Provcn9al 
 troubadour of the fom-teenth century, who was a protege of 
 Louis king of Sicily. 
 
 ARNAULD DE ViLLEXEmT; or ARNALDUS de Villa- 
 HOVA, bom about 1235 or 1240, the place of whose birth is 
 uncertain, although supposed by some to be Villeneuve in Nar- 
 bonne. He taught medicine and alchemy at Barcelona, and, in 
 1285, became court physician to Peter IIL, king of Arragon, 
 but did not long retain this office, in consequence of having, for 
 his opinions, suffered excommunication. He then took refuge 
 in Paris, and afterwards betook himself to Montpellier, where he 
 occupied the place of regent of the faculty of medicine. He 
 subsequently went to Florence, Bologna, Naples, and lastly 
 Palermo, where he placed himself under the protection of 
 Frederic IL, being alanned lest the opinions he had published 
 on some matters relating to theology .ind the church should 
 expose him to the wrath of the incjuisition. Arnauld appears 
 to have been occupied in political matters from 1310 to 1313, 
 and especially in conducting a negotiation between the king 
 of Sicily and the king of Naples. In 1313, Clement V., while 
 -uffering from an attack of gi-avel, summoned him from Sicily 
 ' Avignon, as the most skilful physician he could obtain. The 
 >liip, however, in which he set sail to France, was wrecked, and 
 Arnauld perished; he was buried at Genoa in 1313. Amauld 
 may be justly considered, not only as one of the most leamed 
 physicians, but as one of the most accomplished scholars of the 
 a^^e in which he Uved. The best edition of his works is that of 
 Basle, fol. 1585.— F. 
 
 * ARNAULT, LuciEN Ejqle, a French dramatic author; 
 was bom in 1787. He held some important offices under the 
 empire, and has since been honoured with various magisterial 
 appointments. Several of his tragedies : — " Pertinax," " Pierre 
 'le Portugal," " Le dernier jour de Tibere," and " Catherine de 
 Medicis," have been frequently represented. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARNAULT, VixcEXT Axtoixe, a French dramatist, bom 
 at Paris in 1766 ; on his return to France, after the reign of 
 t-rror, attached himself to Napoleon, who employed him in the 
 ■ ivernment of the Ionian islands, and throughout the times of 
 : :ie empire treated him with marked affection. He was in 
 exile at Brassels from 1815 till 1819, and died at Paris in 1834. 
 Besides a number of tragedies frequently represented, and some 
 miscellaneous pieces in prose and verse, Arnault published — 
 " La Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon," 1822; and " Les 
 Souvenirs d'un Sexagenaire," 1833. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARN.WON, Frax^ois, a French theologian, bora in 1740 
 at a village near the famous fountain of Vaucluse, w.as the 
 author of a controversial treatise, entitled " Discours Apologe- 
 tique de la religion Chretienne," 1773 ; and of three works 
 connected with the history of his birth-place: — 1. "Voyage a 
 Vaucluse ;" 2. " Petrarque fi Vaucluse," 1803 ; 3. " Retour de 
 la fontaine de Vauclu.se," 1805. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARNAY, JoiiAxxES Rudolpiius d', a Swiss antiquarian, 
 bom at Milden in 1710, became professor of history and belles- 
 lettres at Lausanne in 1734, and died in 1766. Ilis principal 
 work is " Histoire ou traite de la vie privee des Romains," 1752. 
 
 ARND, CiiKisTiAx, professor of logic at Rostock, bom 1623, 
 died 1653 ; wrote " Disscrtatio de philosophia vetenim," Rostock, 
 1650 ; " Discursus politicus de piincipiis constituentibus et 
 conservantibus rempubUcam," 1651 ; and "De vero usu logicse 
 in theolngia," 1850. 
 
 AHNl), Joshua, a German theologian, antiquarian, philoso- 
 pher and poet, brother of Christian Arnd, was bom at Gustrow, 
 on the 9th September, 1626. He succeeded his brother as pro- 
 fessor of logic at Rostock in 1653; but in 1656 resijmed his 
 chair to a.ssume the duties of pastor in his native town. Of his 
 numerous works the following may be mentioned : — 1. " Manuale 
 Legum Mosaicaram," 1066; 2. " Antiquitatum Judaicarum 
 Cla\is," 1710; 3. "Memoria M;u:tini Lutheri, Carmme Ileroica 
 Celebrata," 1608.— J. S., G. 
 
 ARND, Karl, a German author, bom 1673; died 1721. 
 He was professor of poetry and Hebrew at Rostock, and has left 
 among other works, " Bibliotheca Politico-heraldica," Leipzig, 
 1705 ; " Bibliotheca AuUco-politica," Rostock, 1706. 
 
 * ARNDT, Erxst Moritz, a distinguished German patriot, | 
 author of numerous works, chietly of a political character, and of j 
 various IjTics which have become highly poj)ular in his native 
 country, was born on the 26th December, 1769, at Schoritz, in 
 the island of Riigen. He was originally intended for the chm'ch, 
 and studied theology and philosophy at Greifswald and Jena. 
 Relinquishing the clerical career, he became, in 1806, professor 
 extraordinarius at Greifswald, where he read lectures on history. 
 While at Greifswald, he published his " Geschichte der Leibeigen- 
 schaft in Pommem imd Riigen," (History of Serfdom in Pomme- 
 ran and Riigen,) a work which excited much animosity agamst 
 Amdt among the German nobility. In 1807 appeared the first 
 volume of his " Geist der Zeit," (Spirit of the Time,) which con- 
 tained such vehement attacks on Napoleon, that its author was 
 forced, after the battle of Jena, to flee to Stockholm, where he 
 remained till 1809, when he returned to Germany, resuming, in 
 1810, his duties at Greifswald. He gave up his chair, however, 
 in 1811, and on the approach of the war of 1812, withdrew to 
 Russia. This year, and those immediately follomng, embrace 
 the most important period of Amdt's patriotic activity. His 
 political tracts, full of a fiery eloquence, and scattered in thou- 
 sands over the length and breadth of the country, greatly contri- 
 buted to elevate the national consciousness of the Gennans, and 
 to inflame popular indignation against the French yoke. His 
 " Der Rhein, Deutschland's Strom aber nicht Deutschland's 
 Grenze," (The Rhine Germany's Stream, but not Germany's 
 Boundary,) the " Soldatencatechismus," (Soldier's Catechism,) 
 and " Uber Landwehr und Landsturm," (On Militia and a 
 General Rising,) deserve to be specially mentioned. To this 
 period also belong his best poems, among others, the noble 
 ode " Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland ? " (Wliat is the 
 German Fatherland ?) which has now become almost the Ger- 
 man national anthem, and is certainly worthy the honour. 
 In 1818 he was appointed to the professorship of modem 
 history in the university of Bonn ; but he had not been a 
 year in this post when his unabated zeal for the popular 
 cause drew upon him the suspicions and the active hostility 
 of those in power. He was suspended from his office, legal 
 proceedings were instituted against him, and, though acquitted, 
 he was compelled to retire into private life, his salary being 
 continued to him. Twenty years later, Amdt received per- 
 mission to resume lecturing from King Frederick WUliam IV., 
 a boon of moderate value, now that the best years of his life 
 were past. In 1848, Professor Amdt, who stUl continued to 
 take an active interest in public affairs, was one of the depu- 
 ties from Rhenish Prussia to the German National Assembly at 
 Frankfort, which he quitted on the 21st M.ay, 1849, along with 
 the rest of the Gagern or constitutional party. The latest occa- 
 sion on which Amdt took up his pen in behalf of German 
 nationality was, we believe, at the time of the war in Schles- 
 wig-Holstein, when he published what he termed " The Last 
 Words of Ernst Moritz Arndt of Riigen," a singularly stirring 
 and vigorous appeal to the countrj', which showed that his heart 
 still glowed with its old fer\-our. In 1851, Amdt, though up- 
 wards of foui-score, was still Icctiu-ing with wonderful \'igour and 
 animation once a week during the summer session in Bonn, 
 where the writer of the present notice saw liis class-room filled 
 with an enthusiastic audience of students, whose affection and 
 reverence the aged patriot doubtless felt to be a higher lionour 
 than the tardy ribbon of the Rothe Adlcr, confeiTcd on bun in 
 1842. Some of the principal works of Professor Amdt, not 
 already mentioned, are " Nebenstunden, cine Beschreibung und 
 Geschichte der Schottliindischen Inseln und der Orkaden," (Bye- 
 hours, a description and hi.story of the Scottish Islands, and of the 
 Orkneys,) Leipzig, 1820 ; " Versuch in Vergleichenden Volker- 
 geschichten," (An Ess.ay in Parallel National Histories,) second 
 edition, Leipzig, 1831 ; " Schriften fiir und an Seine lieben 
 Deutschen," 3 vols., Leipzig, 1845, a collection of his best fugi- 
 tive political pieces. His " Erinnerungen aus dcm iiussern 
 Leben," third edition, Leipzig, 1812, is to a certain extent an 
 autobiography. A " Neuo Auswahl," (new selection,) from his 
 poems, was published at Leipzig in 1850. — A. M. 
 
 ARNDT, Gottfried August, professor of political economy 
 at Leipzig during forty years, was bom in 1748, and died in
 
 ARN 
 
 232 
 
 ARN 
 
 1819. He is the author of numerous historical and juristic works. 
 (Ersch and Griiber's German Kncyclopced'ui.^ 
 
 ARXDT, Joii.vxN, one of the most popular religious wiiters 
 that the Lutheran chm-ch has produced, and a man whose life 
 exhibits tlie spiiit of his times, both m the good it achievcil and 
 the controversy it provoked. He was bom at Ballenstadt in 
 1555, and in 1576 was a student at Uehnstedt. In 1577 we 
 find him at Wittcmberg; for a brief period he sojourned at 
 Stra-sburg, and afterwards at Basle. In 1583 he was settled as 
 pastor at Badeboni, but violent opposition forced him to resign, 
 and he retired to Quedlinbnrg, and was some time aftenvai'ds 
 both at Brunswick and Eisleben. In IGll he was called to be 
 general-superintendent at Zelle, where he died on 11th ilay, 
 1G21, four hours after having preached his last sermon from the 
 text, " They that sow in tears shall reap in joy," a true account 
 of his own labours, and a prophetic picture of their results. His 
 publications were numerous, all of them bearing, more or less 
 directly, on practical Christianity or vital godliness. The most 
 famous of them is his book in four parts, on "True Christianity," 
 " Vom wahren Cln-istenthum." It produced a powerful reaction 
 in Germany, and has been translated into all the European 
 tongues, and even into some of the languages of the East, It 
 was a manly protest against the cold scholastic orthodoxy which 
 reigned about him, and excited on all hands the most ^rulent 
 controversy. Amdt felt that Christianity was neither a ceremo- 
 nial to be observed, nor simply a creed to be believed, discussed, 
 analysed, and defended, but a life to be possessed and cherished. 
 He was, in early life, attracted toward the mystics, such as Kem- 
 l>is, Tuler, and the author of the " German Theology," a tractate 
 recently translated into English by Susannah Winlnvorth. His 
 central idea is Christ in us, rather than Christ for us. He sought 
 to turn men from the noisy and pugnacious divinity of the 
 schools to the earnest and experimental religion of the heart. 
 He was addicted to chemistrj' and medicine in his younger years; 
 and in the third and fourth books of his " True Christianity," 
 many iigures taken from these sciences give his langu:ige 
 a jieculiar mystical or Rosicnician tinge, detracting from its 
 clearness and precision. The so-called pietism of Anidt and his 
 followers has liad an immense influence on the Continent, both 
 directly arid indirect!)', on the study of theolog)'. An excellent 
 edition of his principal work, with some minor pieces, was pub- 
 lislied by Krummacher in 1852 ; and an English translation of 
 the "True Christianity" appeared in London in 1815. — (See 
 an excellent article by Tholuck, in Herzog's Real-Ency.') — J. E. 
 
 ARXDT, JonANN Gottfried, author of " Chronicles of 
 Livonia," and other works on subjects connected with the same 
 country. Bom at Halle in 1713 ; died at Riga in 1737. 
 
 * ARNDTS, Li;dwig, a German writer on jurispinidence, was 
 bom in 1805. In 1837 he became professor extraordinary at 
 Bonn, and in 1839, professor ordinary at Munich. During a 
 residence in Italy in 1834-35, he undertook a new collation of 
 the Famesian manuscripts of Festus, which ser\-ed as the basis 
 for the subsequent edition of that author by Ottfried Sliiller. 
 The juristic department to wliich Professor Arndts principally 
 devoted himself, was that of Roman law. He has published a 
 manual on tlie Pandects, and contributed largely to Weiske's 
 " Rechtslexicon." In 1848 he was elected deputy from Strau- 
 bing to the Frankfort National Assembly, from which he se- 
 ceded on the 12th May, 1849.— A. M. 
 
 ARNE, Michael, an English musician, son of Dr. Ame, 
 was bora in 1741. He showed early a predilection for music, 
 wliich, not being opposed as his father's had been, induced so 
 rapid a development of his talents, that at ten years' old he was 
 noted for his pcrfonnance on the liai-i)sichord. In 17G4 he 
 wrote, in conjunction with Battishill, an opera called "Alcmena," 
 which was produced at Dniry Lane theatre without success. His 
 most noted work, the opera of " Cymon," was brought out at the 
 same theatre in 17C7 ; and it is upon this that his reputation 
 as a composer rests. About 1780 he applied himself assiduously 
 to the study of chemistry, and zealously prosecuted a series of 
 experiments, in the hope of discovering the philosopher's stone, 
 for which he built a laboratory at Cliclsea ; he mined himself, 
 however, in this quixotic pursuit, but had the discretion to re- 
 turn to the practice of his profession to retrieve his broken for- 
 tune, wlien he wrote several light compositions for Covent 
 Garden tlieatre, and for Vauxhall and Ranelagh gardens, many 
 of the songs in which obtained gnat popularitv. He died about 
 1806.— (iy(V(^. Did. Mus. Fctis, Schilling, Hogarth.)— G. A. iM. 
 
 ARXE, Thomas Augustine, a musician, was the son of an 
 upholsterer of London, where he was bom on the 12th of March, 
 1710. At the usual age he went to Eton college, from whence 
 date the first accounts of his musical predilection in the com- 
 plaints, by his fellow-students, of his constant practice of the 
 flute. Considering that it would distract his attention from 
 more serious pursuits, his father forbade him to study music, so 
 that he could only indulge his love for it in secret. Accordingly, 
 he hid an old spinet in an mifrequented room in the house, 
 and, muting the strings with a handkerchief, he pui-sued his 
 favourite study when the fomily was asleep. His pocket-money 
 being limited, and his desire to hear music unbounded, he bor- 
 rowed a suit of lively, and went nightly in the disguise of a 
 footman to witness the performances at the Opera in tlie gallery, 
 to which, at that time, the sen-ants of the gentry, who went to 
 their boxes, had gratuitous admission. AMiile serving a three- 
 years' clerkship to a respectable solicitor, he received lessons on 
 the violin from Michael Festing (the leader of the nobility 
 and gentn-'s concerts at the Crown and Anchor Tavern, and 
 musical director at Ranelagh), from which he profited so rapidly, 
 that in a few months he was able to lead some private concerts. 
 At one of these his father first became aware of his proficiency, 
 and of the earnestness of his devotion to music ; the elder Arne 
 now relinquished his fruitless opposition, and his son prosecuted 
 his studies with redoubled ardour. His unrestricted practice ino- 
 culated the whole household with musical propensities, and his 
 sister, aftei-wards popular as Mrs. Cibber, displaying a voice as 
 beautiful as her taste was refined, became his pupil, and he 
 brought her out when she was but eighteen, at the theatre 
 in Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, in Lampe's opera of "Amelia." Her 
 success was decided, and this led to AiTie's writing his first 
 opera of " Rosamond," for her to represent the heroine. It 
 was produced at the theatre where she had made her fir.st 
 appearance, on the 7th of March, 1733, and it immediately 
 gave its composer a forwai-d rank in general esteem. Two 
 months later he brought out at the little theatre in the 
 HajTnarket, a burlesque opera, adapted from Fielding's " Tom 
 Thumb, or the Trag<'dy of Tragedies," and now called " The 
 Opera of Operas," — it was a travestie of the Italian di'amatic 
 style, then at the height of fashion, and the public entered 
 warmly into its humour. His younger brother, who had already 
 appeared in his " Rosamond," sustained the character of the 
 hero in this production. In 1736 he mairied Cecilia Yoimg, a 
 pupil of the celebrated Geminiani, and a popular vocalist. In 
 the same year he wrote " Zara," and, in 1738, produced imder 
 Gairick's management, at Dniry Lane theatre, the work which 
 stamped his character as a musician, his music for the revival of 
 Milton's "Masque of Comus." In 1740 he wrote the music of 
 Thomson and Mallet's " Masque of Alfred," out of which the 
 noble tune of Rule Britannia has retained the popularity it at 
 once acquired, that will cany it down the stream of time, as it 
 has home it across the broad ocean to wherever Englishmen in- 
 habit, as one of our most characteristic national melodies ; this 
 work was perfonned at Clifden, the residence of Frederick, 
 prince of Wales, on the 1st of August, the anniversary of the 
 Hanover accession, to celebrate the marriage of the princess of 
 Brunswick ; it was produced in public in 1746, and rein-oduccd 
 with some alterations in 1751. In 1742, Ame and his wife 
 went to Ireland, both to exercise their profession, she as singer, 
 he as composer. In 1744, Gannck engaged him as composer 
 at Drury Lane, and in the nest year he and his wife commenced 
 their engagement, for the recess of the theatrical season, at 
 Vauxhall Gardens, which was then one of the most fashionable 
 places of resort in the metropolis. On the death of Mr. Gordon, 
 he was appointed principal violin at Diiiry Lane. On the occa- 
 sion of Garrick's re\ival of several of Shakspeare's plays, Arne 
 set such of the lyrics in these as had not popular music associ- 
 ated with them ; thus he produced, " Blow, blow thou winter 
 wind" and " Under the greenwood tree." " AVhere the bee 
 sucks," which was one of the songs he wrote for Vauxhall, 
 will ever deserve to be esteemed as one of those genuine in- 
 spirations which, more than all the results of study and elabo- 
 ration, prove th« existence of real genius. About this time he 
 took his degree of doctor of music at Oxford. It is said that 
 he gave oratorios during the lenten season in opposition to Han- 
 del ; but the advertisements in the journals of the day prove this 
 statement to be incorrect, since he only gave a few perfonnances 
 of his oratorio of "Abel," which was first produced at Druiy
 
 ARX 
 
 233 
 
 ARN 
 
 Lane in 1755 ; his oratorio of " Judith " was not written nntU 
 1764, five years after Handel's death. In 1762 he wrote liis 
 opera of " Ai-taxerxes," the text of which he translated from 
 Mt-tastasio. This was an attempt to appropriate to the English 
 language and to the English stage the form of the ItaUan opera, 
 the action being conducted without speaking, having the dialogue 
 set to recitative ; it was an attempt also to Anglicise the Italian 
 style of florid vocalization. In both of these attempts he was so 
 completely successful, that for eighty years Artaxerxes kept unin- 
 temipted possession of the stage. The character of JIandane, 
 the prima donna, was regarded as a necessary test of the powers 
 of any lady who pretended to excellence as an EngUsh drama- 
 tic singer; this was originally written for the composer's pupil, 
 -Miss Brent, the other principal characters bemg sustained by 
 ItaUans. In 1765 he wrote his Italian opera of " Olimpiade," 
 wliich was produced with applause at the King's Theatre. In 
 the same year he lost his ydt'e. He continued his successful 
 career as a composer until within two years of his death, which 
 ook place at the age of sixty-eight, on the 5th of March, 1778. 
 ile is buried in the churchyard of St. Paul's, Covent Garden. 
 Besides the works that have been named, he >vrote music for 
 the following dramatic pieces : — The Blind Beggar of Bethnal 
 Green, 1711; The Fall of Phaeton, 1736; Brit.innia, 1744; 
 King Pepin's Campaign, 1745 ; The Temple of Dullness, 1745 ; 
 Don Saverio, 1749 ; Eliza, 1750 ; Cimona, Elfrida, and also 
 Caractatas, of Slason ; The Guardian Outwitted, 1765 ; The 
 Birth of Hercules, 1766; Achilles in Petticoats, 1774; Thomas 
 and Sally, 1760 ; The Ladies' FroHc, 1770 ; The Trip to Ports- 
 mouth ; The Fairies ; Ode on Shakspeare ; further, he wrote 
 rjlditional music to Dr}-den's King Arthur, which Pm-ceU had 
 riginally set ; he adapted the old airs and wrote some ori- 
 ginal music for Slid.is and for Love in a Village ; he produced 
 
 luntless songs and other detached pieces at Vauxhall, (including 
 ; iie especially successful dialogue of Colin and Phcebe,) many of 
 which are contained in The Oracle, or the Resolver of Ques- 
 tions, in JIayday, and in other collections ; he wrote many 
 glees, some of which are still popular ; he is also the author of 
 several sonatas for the violin, and of a suite of pieces for the 
 h;u^sichord. Ame's oratorios made no impression in their own 
 time, and they have not survived to ours ; his operas, though they 
 are now out of date, were so extensively popular, and had such 
 jnseqnent influence upon the music of their period, that they 
 I'-rit considerarion in the history of the art ; his immortahty 
 V, ill rest, however, upon his detached melodies, which had a style 
 entirely their own, until it was copied by Shield and Dibdin, and 
 less successful imitators, and which have had a decided effect 
 upon the character of English music. — (Biogr. Diet, of Mus. ; 
 Uarmonicon ; Penny Cyclop. ; Biog. Dram. ; and original 
 sources. F^ris, Schilling.)— G. A. JJ. 
 
 ARNE, SusAJNNAH Maria. See Cibber. 
 
 ARNEMANN, Justus, a German physician, author of a 
 number of medical treatises of no great merit, and editor of 
 various medical joiimals, was bom at Lmiebm-g in 1763. After 
 filUng the chair of medicine at Gottingen for a short period, he 
 settled as a practitioner at Altona, near Hamburg. He com- 
 mitted suicide m 1807.— J. S., G. 
 
 ARNIGIO, Bahtolommeo, an Italian physician and poet, 
 author of a series of volumes of miscellanies; was bom at 
 Bre.scia in 1525, and died in 1577. 
 
 ARNIM, Elizabeth vox, more usually styled Bettina 
 Bkextano, wife of Ludwg Achim, and sister of Clemens Bren- 
 tano, was bom in 1785 at Frankfort-on-the-Mainc. She spent 
 part of her youth in a cloister, where the solitary life she led fos- 
 tered her naturally strong tendency to fimtastic day-dreaming 
 and eccentric disregard of the ordinary conventionahties of social 
 life. She found a friend after her own he;irt in the Friiulein 
 von Giinderode, a young lady characterized by the same strong 
 emotional susceptibilities as Bettina, and who restrained them 
 even still less. F. von Giinderode committed suicide, because 
 'Veuzer, a philological professor at Heidelberg, for whom she 
 
 id formed an ardent attachment, did not respond to her passion 
 "ith equal wamith ; and Bettina, on her side, when still ex- 
 tremely young, conceived an equally extraordinary, though less 
 tragical attachment, for the poet Goethe, at that time nearly 
 sixty. It is to her connection with Goethe that Bettina owes 
 most of her celebrity ; we have an account of it in her singular 
 and interesting book, "Goethe's Briefwechsel mit cinem lunde" 
 (Goethe's Coirespondence with a Child), Berlin, 1835. Goethe 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 appears on the whole to have tolerated merely, rather than 
 encouraged, the strange mixture of childlike reverence, enthusi- 
 astic admiration, and womanly passion, with which this eccen- 
 tric and gifted young creature approached him. Latterly, he 
 peremptorily ended all intercom-se with her ; though at one time 
 he amused himself with tmning her letters into sonnets. These 
 sonnets appear in his works, and when we comp:u-e them with 
 the original letters of Bettina, it is astonishing to find what very 
 slight alterations have been necessary to convert the efiusions of 
 a " child," as Bettina styles herself, into poems worthy of 
 appearing among the most strictly original productions of the 
 greatest German author. Professor Daumcr, following in Goethe's 
 track, pubhshed in 1837 a volume of verses constracted from 
 the same letters, and entitled " Bettina's Poems, fi-om Goethe's 
 Correspondence with a Child." These are sufliciently favourable 
 testimonies to the quahty of Bettina's compositions, which, 
 though frequently high-flown, strained, and obscure, are full, 
 nevertheless, of profound intuitions, and a fine sj-mpathy with 
 Nature. Besides the letters from Goethe himself, the " Brief- 
 wechsel " contains some remarkable and really valuable commu- 
 nications fi-om Goethe's mother, with whom Bettina was on 
 tenns of intimate friendship. The coirespondence of Bettina 
 •nith her unhappy companion before mentioned, appeared in 
 1840, under the title of " Die Giinderode." In later yeaj-s she 
 turned her literary activity into the channel of social reform, as 
 appears from her works entitled " Dies Buch gehort dem Konige " 
 (This book is the King's), Berhn, 1843 ; and " Ilius Pampliilius 
 und die Ambrosia," Berlin, 1848 ; productions which betoken 
 more warmth and benevolence of heai-t, and greater exuberance 
 of fancy, than practical wisdom. — A. M. 
 
 ARNIM, Geoeg Abraham von, bom at Boitzenburg, in 
 Ukermark, in 1651, entered the army when only sixteen, rose 
 to the command of 8000 Brandenburghers m Italy during the 
 war of the Spanish succession, and retired from the anny in 
 1715, having been present at twenty-five battles and seventeen 
 sieges. Died in 1734. 
 
 ARXDI or ARXHEIM, Johann Georg, Baron von, com- 
 mander-in-cluef of the Saxon army dm-ing a part of the Thuiy 
 Years' War, was bom at Boitzenburg, in the Mark of Branden- 
 bm-g, in 1586. His fii-st military services were performed imder 
 Gustavus Adolphus, whom he deserted in 1626, to accept a 
 command imder WaUenstein, in which his genius for diplomacy, 
 as well as his military talents, had to be exerted. He entered 
 the sen-ice of the elector of Saxony in 1630, and the year 
 following, commanded the Saxons in the great battle of Leipzig. 
 On the 3rd May, 1634, he defeated the imperialist forces at 
 Liegnitz; but after the treaty of Prague, 1635, retired discon- 
 tented to his castle of Boitzenbm-g. He died in 1641. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARNIM, LuDwiG Achim von, an able and original, though 
 very fanciful Geiman romancist, of the baronial house of Amun, 
 was bom in 1781 at Berlin, and died at his estate of Wiepers- 
 dorf, near Dahme, in 1831. He devoted himself in his earlier 
 years to the natural sciences, and published at Halle, in 1799, 
 a " Theory of Electric Phenomena." His first eft'ort in fiction, 
 " Ariel's Offenbarungen " (Ariel's Revelations), though strongly 
 marked with his o^vn peculiar genius, at once indicated his posi- 
 tion as belonging to the modern " romimtic school." Himself 
 deeply interested in the popular lyric poetiy of his country, Lud- 
 wig von Amim materially contributed to excite among his coun- 
 trymen a wamier and higher appreciation of the rich stores of 
 " Volkslieder " which Germany possesses, by the publication, in 
 1806, of the well-known and favourite " Des Knabcn Wunder- 
 horn" (Boy's JIagic Horn), a collection of songs and ballads which 
 he prepared, in conjunction with his relative, Clemens Brentano. 
 In 1809 appeared tlie " Wintergarten," a collection of novelettes, 
 and, in 1810, his highly interesting romance, " Armuth, Reich- 
 thum, Schuld und Busse der Griifiii Dolores " (Poverty, Riches, 
 Guilt, and Penitence of the Countess Dolores). "Isabella of 
 Egj-pt," Heidelberg, 1811, by some considered Amun's finest 
 work, is a romance of gipsy life. Between 1806 and 1813, the 
 political troubles of the period fell severely upon Amim and his 
 connections, and personal and patriotic cares almost entirely 
 precluded literary effort. In 1617, however, his romance of the 
 " Kronenwiichtcr, oder Berthold's ei-stes und zweites Lehen " 
 (Guardians of the Crown, or Berthold's first and second Life), 
 showed that his fancy was still unimpaired, and his origin.ility 
 unexhausted. Amim's fictions iU'e deficient mainly in forni, as 
 he indulges too much his love for the fantastic and bizarre ; but 
 
 2 G
 
 ARN 
 
 234 
 
 ARN 
 
 lie possesses deep feeling, considerable humour, and great power 
 of observation. Ilis " Siimmtliclie Werke " were edited at Berlin 
 in 1839-46, in 19 vols., by W. Grimm.— A. M. 
 
 ARNISAEUS, IIicxNiNGUS, a Gennan physician, born 
 towards 1580, at a village near Ilalberstadt ; taught moral 
 philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Odcr ; was afterwards appointed 
 to one of the medical chairs in the university of Helmstadt, 
 and at tlie time of his death in 1G3G, held the office of physician 
 to Chiistian IV. of Denmark. He has left numerous works on 
 metaphysical, political, and medical subjects, of which the fol- 
 lowing are the principal: — 1. "De Jm-c Majestatis," IGIO; 
 
 2. " Disputatio de Lue Venerea Cognoscenda et Curanda," IGIO ; 
 
 3. "De Jm-e Conuubiorum," 1G13; 4. " De Subjectione et 
 Exemptione Clericoi-mn," 1614 ; 5. " Disquisitiones de Pai-tus 
 Ilumani Legitimis Terminis," 1G14. — J. S., G. 
 
 AKNKIEL, Fkiedrich, a German historical writer, burgo- 
 master of Apenrade about the middle of the last centmy. He 
 is author of " Rettung des ersten Nordischcn Christenthimis," 
 (IiL-scue of the earliest Northern Christianity), Gliickstadt, 1712. 
 
 AKNKIEL, TuociLLus, a Lutheran div-ine, studied at vari- 
 ous universities, and became ultimately general superintendent of 
 Holstein in 1G89. He published a number of small theological 
 treatises. Died in 1713. 
 
 ARNO, tenth bishop and first archbishop of Salzburg, in 
 Germany, was originally attached to the coiu't of Thassilo, duke 
 of Bavaria, by wliom he was sent as ambassador to Charlemagne 
 in 787. After the annexation of Bavaria to the Frankish em- 
 pire in 792, AiTio received from Charlemagne the archbishopric 
 of Salzburg. Died in 821.— J. S., G. 
 
 ARNO, a German theologian, prior of Reichensberg, in 
 Bavaria, from 11G9 till 1175, is the author of, — 1. "Scutum 
 Canonicorum Regulariiun," pubUshed in the "Miscellanea" of 
 Raymundus Duellius, 1723 ; 2. "De Eueharistia," a controversial 
 Work, in whicli he was assisted by his brother Gerhohus. 
 
 ARNOBIUS THE Eldeh, or Afeu, was a teacher of rhetoric 
 at Sicca in Numidia, during the reign of Diocletian. Our chief 
 account of him is from the works of Jerome. For some time 
 Amobius vehemently opposed the Christian faith, but was led 
 from an impression made upon hhn in a di-eam to seek for 
 baptism. The bisliop to whom he applied doul)ted the sincerity 
 of his profession, when Amobius, to prove the genuineness of his 
 conversion, vsTote his celebrated work in seven books against the 
 pagans. His knowledge of the Bible seems to have been limited 
 to the books of the New Testament, and his work is rather that 
 of a philosophical heathen, who was thoroughly dissatisfied with 
 his old form of religion, than of one who was completely m- 
 structed in the Christian faith. He thus describes the change 
 wliieh had been effected in him : " Not long ago I worsliijiped 
 the images that came from the forge, and the gods that were 
 made on the anvil and by the hammer ; when I saw a stone 
 that had been polished and besmeared with oil, I addi-essed it 
 as if a living power had been there. Now I know what all that 
 is." The date at which Amobius composed his work was al)out 
 A.D. 303. In the earher books he refutes the charges of the 
 pagans against the Christian rehgion, especially the old accusa- 
 tion which was continually revived, that the calamities of the 
 times were the offspring of Christianity ; he points out that 
 polytheism is irreconcilable with good sense and reason, and 
 dwells on the demoralizing tendency of heathenism. In the 
 latter books, Amobius describes the superiority of tlie Chris- 
 tian faith, and contrasts its views respecting the Deity and 
 sacrifices with those of paganism. His language respecting 
 the nature and immortality of the soul was closely connected 
 with the Gnostic philosophy, and did not agree ;vith the ortho- 
 doxy of the North African church. We derive from liis writings 
 our fullest information respecting the ritual and worship of 
 heathen antiquity, so that Amobius has been called the Varro 
 of ecclesiastical writers. There is a calmness and dignity in 
 his style which raises hun above his contemporaries. This supe- 
 riority is clearly discernible in the works of his distinguished 
 disciple Laetantius. It deserves to be mentioned, as an instance 
 of the manner in which the works of one -nTiter were assigned 
 to another, that the first editor of Amobius' works against the 
 pagans, added as an eighth book the Octavius of Minutius Felix, 
 mistaking Octavius for Octavus. Amobius wrote also a work 
 on rhetoric, which is lost. — W. W. 
 
 ARNOBIUS THE Younger, so called to distinguish him 
 from Amobius Afer, was a bishop or presbyter in Gaul. Several 
 
 of his works have been ascribed to the elder Aniobius. Flourished 
 about A.D. 4C1. He wrote a commentary on the Psalms, in 
 which he shows that his sentiments were semi-pelagian; and 
 had a controversy with Serapion respectmg the Trinity, the 
 incarnation, and the consistency of grace vrith freewill. The 
 anonymous work entitled " Pra^destinatus," has been attributed 
 to him on insufficient grounds, though from some passages in his 
 commentaiy on the Psalms, as well as the general agi'eemeut of 
 sentiment, there is reason to conclude that Arnobius had con- 
 sulted Prcedestinatus. — W. W. 
 
 ARNOLD, an archbishop and elector of Mayence, massacred 
 by the people of that city in 1200. 
 
 ARNOLD, abbot of Liibeck, a German chronicler of the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 ARNOLD, a leader among the Albigenses, and a companion 
 
 of Pierre de Vaud, lived towards the end of the twelfth century. 
 
 ARNOLD, Andkeas, a theologian of Niirnberg, who lived 
 
 in the seventeenth ceutiuy, and became professor of Greek litera- 
 
 tui'C in his native town. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict, an American general, was born at 
 Norwich, Connecticut, in 1740. He rose from an hmnble 
 sphere, where he early displayed a restless disposition, hav- 
 mg twice enlisted as a private in the British army, and as 
 often deserted the ranks. He had, however, settled at Newhaven, 
 and entered into an extensive business when the Revolution 
 broke out. As soon as the stming news of the battle of Lex- 
 ington reached his ears, he set about raising a body of volunteers, 
 placed himself at their head, and marched to Cambridge. He 
 was there mvested with a colonel's commission, and received 
 instractions to attack the fortress of Ticonderago on Lake 
 Champlam. Ethan Allen had set out before him on the same 
 eiTand, and Arnold had to content himself with taking part in 
 the achievement imdcr that daring leader. After commanding 
 for a short time a small fleet on the lake, he was, along wth 
 General Montgomeiy, charged with the difficidt and momentous 
 duty of leadhig 1100 men across the wilds to Quebec, to stir up 
 rebellion there, and displace the British garrison. In this 
 misuccessful attempt Montgomeiy lost liis life, and Amold was 
 severely wounded. After tliis we find Amold in various impor- 
 tant commands, but as often involved in quaiTels with the Con- 
 gi'css and Ids fellow-officers. It would be of httle interest now 
 to enter into his grievances in dctaiL He seems to have been a 
 singularly brave, but reckless and imprincipled man. Washing- 
 ton valued him for his acts of dai-ing, and woidd gladly have 
 covered his faults, but the Congi-ess and the other officers re- 
 garded hun with dislike, and sought eveiy possible means to 
 humble and annoy him. After many disputes about the honour 
 that was due to him for his senices, we find him invested with 
 the government of Philadelphia. There his impradence was 
 most marked; indeed it would be difficult to clear hhn from 
 the charge of actual dishonesty. He was brought before a court- 
 martial ; four charges were urged against him ; two of these were 
 found proven, and he was sentenced to be reprimanded by the 
 commander-in-chief. Amold could not bear the affi'ont, nor 
 endure longer the difficulties into which he had brought himself. 
 He formed the disgraceful design of deserting to the ranks of 
 the enemy, and put himself in communication with Sir Henry 
 Clinton, the British commander. It was an-anged that Amold 
 should api)]y for the command of the fortress of West Point, 
 and then liand it over to the enemy. His favour with W;ish- 
 ington readily procured him the appointment. Major Andre 
 was sent by Su- Henry to negotiate with Amold. They had an 
 interview near West Point, when the traitor general gave the 
 needed instructions as to how the attack should be made, and 
 handed over the papers with the plans and measurement of the 
 fort to Andre, who concealed them about his person. On his 
 way to the British camp, the young ofliccr fell mto the hands of 
 the Americans, and the whole plot was, of com'se, discovered. 
 The news of his capture reached Amold just in tune to enable 
 him to make his escape, and reach the British camp in safety. 
 There he retained his rank of brigadier-general, and fought 
 with as much daring against the cause of American independence 
 as he had before faught against the forces of the king. We find 
 him in an expedition against Vu-ginia, and again in an incursion 
 into bis native state. Afterwards he did service in Nova Scotia 
 and the West Indies, and at last settled in England, where ho 
 died in 1801. — I. B. 
 ARNOLD BOSTIUS, a Flemish Carmelite friar of the fifteenth
 
 ARN 
 
 235 
 
 AEN 
 
 ccntiiry, who wrote in support of the doctrine of the imma- 
 culate conception. 
 
 ARNOLD OF Brescia, one of the reformers before the Refor- 
 mation, a disciple of Abelard of Paris and of Berengarius. As 
 arly as the middle of the twelfth centmy, his bold spirit, his 
 iviiowledge of scripture, and his eloquence, had succeeded in 
 rousing France and Italy against the abuses of the Romish 
 church. Driven by the clergy from Italy, he sought refuge in 
 Zurich, where he made many converts. At length, through the 
 instigation of St. Bernard of Claii-vaux, he was charged with 
 heresy, and excommunicated by Innocent II. At this juncture 
 serious popular tumults took place at Rome; and Arnold, has- 
 tening thither, was received with great cordiality, and soon vested 
 with supreme power. In 1155, however, after Arnold had 
 held it for nearly ten years, Adrian IV. laid an interdict upon 
 the city, and expelled him. For a tune he found shelter in 
 (i^ampania. He was nevertheless seized and taken back to 
 Home, where, in the same year, he died by the hand of the 
 xecutioncr, and his ashes were flung into the Tiber. He was a 
 ■an of great eloquence and sanctity. He taught that Christ's 
 iringdom is not of this world; that temporal dignities and lai-ge 
 independent revenues ought not to be held Ijy the clergy; and 
 ! hat nothing should be left to them but spiritual authority, and 
 moderate subsistence. He is also reckoned by Dr. Wall among 
 , iiose who denied the scriptural authority of infant baptism. His 
 followers were called Amoldists, and held the same opinions as 
 the Waldenses. — (Mosheim ; Jones' History of the Christian 
 n,urch.)—3. A., L. 
 ARNOLD or ARNOLT de Bruck or de Pkug, a German 
 usitian of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARNOLD OF BuDERiCH, a German divine of the fifteenth 
 
 ntury, prior of an Augustine convent near Oudenarde. 
 
 ARNOLD, Christoph, a German phOologue, born 1G27, 
 
 ilied 1680, author, among other works, of " Testimonium 
 
 llavianum de Christo," Niimberg, 16G1, 12mo; inserted by 
 
 llavrccamp in his edition of Josephus. 
 
 ARNOLD, Christoph, a German astronomer, bom in 1650 
 
 at Sommerfeld, near Leipzig, who, although but a husbandman, 
 
 'levoted all his spare tune to the obsen-ation of the heavenly 
 
 idies, and mauitained a correspondence with the most learned 
 
 -tronomers of his age. By means of an observatory which he 
 
 iJ erected on his house, he made several remarkable discoveries, 
 
 which he du'ected the attention of the scientific obsen'ers at 
 
 I 'ipzig. He discovered the comets of 1683 and 1686, and 
 
 attained celebrity by his observation of the passage of IVIercui-y 
 
 liver the sun's disc in October, 1690, on which occasion the 
 
 municipal authorities of Leipzig presented him with a donation in 
 
 L'lilJ, and freed him from the local mnposts. He died in 1695 — F. 
 
 ARNOLD, or ARNULF, of Corvt:!, a German Benedictine 
 
 monk of the eleventh century. 
 
 ARNOLD, D., surnamed Fl^vndrus, a Flemish musician, 
 who lived at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARNOLD, Franz, a Roman catholic theologian of Cologne, 
 who lived in the earlier half of the sixteenth century. He was a 
 violent opponent of Luther, who replied to his " Der unparteische 
 I.aye"' (The impartial Layman), published anonymously at Dres- 
 den, 1531, 8vo, in a pamphlet entitled " Wider den Meuchler 
 /.u Dresden" (Against the Dresden Assassin) ; " Auf das Schmiih- 
 liuchlein Luthers," Dresden, 1531, is a rejoinder by Arnold. 
 Some details about this writer are to be found in "Unschuldige 
 Xachrichten " for the years 1733-34, which are cited by Ade- 
 iung, supplement to Jocher. — A. SI. 
 
 ARNOLD, GicoKG, a German lawyer, bom in 1531, who 
 was doctor of laws of the university of Pisa, and chancellor of 
 the chapter of Naumburg. He wrote a life of Slaurice, elector 
 of Saxon)'. 
 
 ARNOLD, George, a Tyrolese, who lived in the second half 
 of the sixteenth century, and was organist to the bishop of Bam- 
 berg. Several of his musical pieces have been published. 
 
 ARNOLD, Georo Daniel, a German jurisconsult, and 
 author of poems in the Alsatian dialect, was bom at Strasburg 
 on the 18th February, 1780, and died in 1829 on his birth-day. 
 Endowed with great natural abilities, he improved them by 
 assiduous study, and habits of accurate observation during tra- 
 vels over great part of the Continent and in Great Britain. In 
 1806 he was appointed professor of civil law in the college 
 estabUshed at Coblentz, but subsequently to 1810 lived in his 
 native city, first as professor of liistoiy, and latterly as professor 
 
 of jurispradence. In 1812 he published his highly meritorious 
 work, " Elemcnta juris civilis Justinianei, cum codice Napole- 
 oneo et rehquis legum codicibus collati," Argent, et Parisiis. 
 His lyrical poems indicate little poetic talent, but his cleverest 
 production in light literatm'e is his comedy of " Pfingstmontag " 
 (VVliit-Monday), 1815 ; wiitten mainly in the Alsatian dialect, 
 and illustrative of Strasburg manners and character. Goethe 
 has highly praised this original and spuited comedy, and honours 
 it with an analysis in his " Ueber Kunst u. Alterthum." — A. JI. 
 ARNOLD, Duke of Gueldres, was bom in 1410, lost the 
 tcn-itory of .Jiilich in a war against Gerhard, duke of Berg, was 
 imprisoned in the castle of Buren by his son Adolphus, and liber- 
 ated by Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who, however, deprived 
 him of his dukedom. Arnold died in 1473. 
 
 ARNOLD, Gottfried, one of the most noted names among 
 the German pietists, was bom at Annaberg, where his father 
 was schoolmaster, in 1665. He attended first the gymnasium 
 of Jena, and then the university of Wittemberg. He became a 
 domestic tutor in 1689 at Dresden, and was brought into con- 
 nection with the famous Spener. He was some time engaged at 
 Frankfort as corrector of the press. In 1693 he removed to 
 Quedlinburg, and remained tutor in a famUy for four years. In 
 1697 he became professor of histoiy at Giessen, but continued 
 in that office only two years. His attempt to quicken a dead 
 theology made him many antagonists, none of whom he was at 
 any time inchned to spare. On his return to Quedlinbiu-g he was 
 recognized as an organ of his party. At the recommendation of 
 the good professor Francke, Sophia Charlotte, duchess of Isenach, 
 made him court preacher, but the opposition he provoked in- 
 duced liim to quit the place in five years, and to settle as pastor 
 of Wcrben. Two years aftenvards, Frederick I. of Prassia made 
 him pastor and inspector of Perleberg, where he died in 1713. 
 He had, in 1704, been appointed royal historiographer. Arnold 
 published various works, the best known of wliich is his " Un- 
 parthepsche Kirchen und Ketzer-historie," in two folios. This 
 work has been severely and somewhat unjustly attacked by 
 Mosheim and by DowUng. Arnold did not belong to the best 
 or more genial class of pietists. He was a man of melancholy 
 temperament, and prone to dark exaggerations. The reigning 
 theology was a diy, austere, and soulless orthodoxy, and he 
 scourged it in no measured terms. His mysticism was also rather 
 extreme, but his piety was wann, and his character upright and 
 consistent. To the clergy he was specially obnoxious, as he 
 dwelt so much on the necessity of a converted ministry, and 
 blamed them as the authors of that spiritual sterility, which ho 
 painted in such gloom, and denounced with such acerbity. He 
 wanted the serenity of Spener, the cheerful tone of Amdt, and 
 the beneficent impulses of Francke. His mind was often under 
 morbid influences from dwelling too much on the dai-ker side 
 of the picture which the church and the world of his times 
 presented. — J. E. 
 
 ARNOLD van der Halden, one of the three Smss leadere 
 who met at Griith to inangui-ate the Helvetic confederation. 
 
 ARNOLD or ARNOLDUS, Haldrenius Vesaliensis, a 
 German theological author, a native of Wesel, on the Lower 
 Rhine, died 1534. He was teacher of Greek in the Gj-mna- 
 sium Laurentianum at Cologne, and had the degree of D.D. from 
 the university of that city. None of his works were published 
 dming his lifetime. We mention "De vera Ecclesia Christ i con- 
 tra Philippi Melancthonis Responsioncm pro Buccro," contained 
 in the "Plnlippica Sexta" of J. Cochlauis, Ingolstadt, 1554, 4to; 
 " Auli Gellii Noctcs Attica;, et JIacrobius in Somnium Scipionis, 
 et \\\. ejusdem Saturnalia," Cologne, 1536, fol. — A. JI. 
 
 ARNOLD or ARNOLDUS OF IscA, a Gcnnan monk and 
 theologian; died in 1619. 
 
 ARNOLD, Johann von Bergel, corrector of tlie press at 
 Mayence in the commencement of the sixteenth century, author 
 of a poem "Do Chalcographiaj Invcntione," JIayence, 1541, in 
 which he makes Gutenberg, aitled l)y Faust and Sclioefer, inven- 
 tor of the art of printing. This poem may be found in W'olf's 
 j^fomnnenta Tijpotjraphica, and in JLarchand's Ilisloire de 
 Vlinprimcric. — A. M. 
 
 ARNOLD, Johann-Christian, a physician, bom at Weis- 
 senfels in 1724. He was professor of natviral philosophy in the 
 university of Erlangen, and author of a variety of works on 
 physical science; died 1765. 
 
 ARNOLD, Joiiann-Gerhard, became, in 1G84, hcad-m.as- 
 ter of the gjnnnasium of Durlach, in Baden ; but losing all his
 
 ARN 
 
 236 
 
 ARN 
 
 property during the war \nth. France, he fled to Frankfort-on- 
 the-Maine, where he was made rector of the gyninasuim. Died 
 1717. He is author, among other works, of " Fortsetzung der 
 Einleitung Pufendorf's in die Historie derEuropseischenStaaten," 
 (Continuation of Purt'endorf's Introduction to the Histoiy of the 
 European States), Frankfort, 1703. — A. 51. 
 
 AHNOLD, JoiiANX-GoTTFRiKD, a musician of Germany, 
 born at Nicdcrnliall, near CEhiingcn, in 1773. He was devoted 
 to his art from an early period of Ufe, and gained extraordinary 
 skill as a violinist and composer. He possessed a high reputa- 
 tion throughout Germany, and died at the early age of thhty- 
 four, in 1806, lea^ng many musical woi-ks of merit. — F. 
 
 ARNOLD, JoHX, noted for his improvements on the con- 
 struction of the marine chronometer, was born at Bodmin, in 
 Cornwall, in 1744. He lived for some tune in Holland, and on 
 his retm-n to England gained a Uving as an itinerant repairer of 
 clocks and watches, but was soon induced by a gentleman who 
 had marked his abihties, to settle in London. He was patronized 
 by George IIL, who gave him £100 to enable him to make some 
 experiments, and was afterwards assisted by the Board of 
 Longitude. He found employment in making chronometers for 
 the ships in the service of the East India Company. The 
 chief improvements which Arnold introduced are known as the 
 detached escapement and the expansion-balance. The principle 
 of this last has been since found inadequ.ate. In 1780 he pub- 
 lished an account of thirteen months' observation on the going 
 of a pocket chronometer : indeed, this study occupied his constant 
 attention till his death in 1799. In 1806, the Board of Longi- 
 tude published " Explanations of time-keepers constructed by 
 Mr. Thomas Eamshaw, and the late Mr. John Arnold." — J. B. 
 
 ARNOLD, Joseph, an English physician, bom in 1783. He 
 entered the navy as surgeon in 1808, and having served till 
 1814, devoted himself, during a voyage to Botany Bay, to the 
 study of natural history, and subsequently, dmiiig his stay in 
 Java, made a rich collection of natural objects. He bequeathed 
 his museum of shells and fossils to the Linnsean Society, and 
 died in 1818.— F. 
 
 ARNOLD OF Lalaixg, a Flemish chronicler of the fifteenth 
 century, abbot of St. Marie at Bniges. 
 
 ARNOLD, LuYDii's or a Lyue, a Flemish theologian of the 
 sixteenth ceutuiy, an opponent of Reuchlin. 
 
 * ARNOLD, Matthew, a hving English poet, the eldest son 
 of the late Dr. Arnold, was bom on the 24th December, 1822, 
 and educated at Winchester and Rugby. He was elected 
 schohar of BalUol College, Oxford, in 1840 ; obtained the Newde- 
 gate prize for an Enghsli prize poem in 1844, and was elected 
 fellow of Oriel College in the following year. In 1846, and for 
 some years afterwards, he was employed as private secretary to 
 Lord Lansdowne. In 1851 he married Frances, daughter of 
 Mr. Justice "Wightman, and about the same time was appointed 
 one of H.M. Inspectors of British Schools ; which office he held 
 till the year 1857, when he was elected by Convocation Pro- 
 fessor of Poetry at Oxford, in succession to Professor Garbett. 
 Mr. Arnold has, during the last few years, published several 
 volumes of poetry. His verse is always calm, chaste, and noble. 
 There is a certain antique stateliness and self-possession about 
 his thoughts, in striking contrast with much of the poetry of 
 the day ; the march of his nmnbers is fine and strong, deepen- 
 ing at times, in the more important passages, into a composed 
 majesty and solemnity. — A. S. 
 
 ARNOLD OF Meldorp, a German divine of the 12th century. 
 
 ARNOLD, Nicholas, a divme and polemic of the Reformed 
 church, bom atLesnain Poland, in 1618. He was first rector 
 of the academy of Jablonow, then visited various universities 
 both on the Continent and in England. Finally, in 1651, he suc- 
 ceeded Cocccius, at Franekcr, as professor of theology, discharg- 
 ing at the same time the duties of university preacher. Contro- 
 versy was his element, and Socinianism his special abhorrence. 
 His commentary on the Hebrews is of little use, though once prized 
 highly. The book he is best known by is the famous " Lux in 
 Tenebris," two volumes quarto; and it bristles all over with 
 assaults on all manner of heresy — now the Socinian, and now 
 the Anabaptist, then the papist, and tlien the Amiinian. His 
 pugnacity seems to have been constitutional, and was supported 
 with no little dexterity and eradition. But texts are frequently 
 strained, and conclusions are cleverly fastened on an adversary 
 which his premises will scarcely warrant. Arnold died on the 
 15th October, 1680.— J. E. 
 
 ARNOLD, Olorints or Cygn.eus, a Dutch theologian, 
 whose original name was Swaexs. Persecuted for his rehgions 
 opinions in the Netherlands, he sought security at Bois-le-Duc, 
 where he wrote several works ; he died in 1622. 
 
 ARNOLD, Richard, an Enghsh chronicler of the latter half 
 of the fifteenth century, author of a work known as Arnold's 
 Chronicle, in which is contained a curious and interesting account 
 of the city of London from the time of Richard I., the first 
 edition of which appeared at Antwerp in 1502. 
 
 ARNOLD OF Rotterdam, or Geilhovex, a Dutch theo- 
 logian and casuist of the fifteenth centmy. 
 
 ARNOLD, Samuel, an English musician, bom in London 
 on the 10th of August, 1740. His first musical instructor was 
 Mr. Gates, and his education was completed by Dr. Nares, both 
 organists of the chapel-royal ; but it must always be considered 
 that his acquaintance with Handel, who lived tUl Arnold was 
 nearly nineteen years' old, was not without its infiuence upon 
 the development of his capacity. Having already obtained con- 
 siderable popularity by the publication of some single songs, in 
 1763 he was engaged by Mr. Beai-d (the tenor singer, whose 
 name is famous in connection with many of Handel's oratorios, 
 in which he was the original singer), who was one of the pro- 
 piietors of Covent Garden theatre, as musical director of that 
 establishment, and he wrote his opera of " The JLiid of the 
 Mill," as the first duty of his appointment. In 1767 he set 
 Dr. Brown's poem of " The Cure of Saul " as an oratorio, which 
 was produced with remarkable success, during the Lenten season, 
 at Covent Garden theatre. This induced him to continue these 
 serial performances, and to produce for them, in succeeding years, 
 several other works of the same character. In 1769 he became 
 lessee of Maiylebone gardens, at which he produced many songs 
 that acquu'ed general popularity ; but the rascality of his princi- 
 pal agent in this enterprise, made him a loser by it to the 
 amount of ten thousand pounds. In 1773 his latest and most 
 successful oratorio of " The Prodigal Son," was chosen for per- 
 formance at the installation of Lord North as chancellor of Ox- 
 ford, where it created so great a sensation, that he was oflered the 
 honorary degree of doctor of music, which, however, he refused, 
 preferring to earn this distinction by writing an exercise for the 
 purpose, and submitting it to the professor of music, in fulfil- 
 ment of the university statutes. Accordingly, he set Hughes' 
 ode, " The Power of Music," the score of which was returned to 
 him unopened, by Dr. W. Hayes, the professor, with a protest 
 that he could not criticise a production of the author of " The 
 Prodigal Son," and thus his degree became doubly honorary. 
 This is a striking illustration of the state of music in England at 
 the time, since we have nothing left us but the record of thes<» 
 interdoctorial comiesies to prove even the existence of a work ot 
 which the merit, then so extravagantly extolled, has been all 
 insufficient to carry it down to us. In 1776 he was engaged by 
 George Colman the elder, as musical director of the Hapnarket 
 theatre, which leii to his close mtimacy with this esteemed 
 di'amatist, and also with his still more popular son, who suc- 
 ceeded his father in the management, and for many of whose 
 dramatic pieces Dr. Arnold wrote the music. On the death of 
 Dr. Nares in 1783, he succeeded him as organist and composer 
 to the chapel-royal, in which capacity he had occasion to write 
 his senices, anthems, and other church music, much of which 
 was never published. At the commemoration of Handel in 
 Westminster Abbey the year following, he ofliciated as sub-con- 
 ductor. In 1786 he commenced the publication by subscription, 
 under the special patronage of George IIL, of his edition of the 
 works of Handel ; the incompleteness of this is attributed to the 
 falling off" among the subscribers of interest in the undertaking, 
 and the consequent insufficiency of means to carry it beyond 
 forty volmnes ; but its incorrectness can be ascribed to no- 
 thing but the carelessness of the editor, and it will always be 
 a stigma upon his name. About the same time he issued his col- 
 lection of " Cathedral Music," in four volumes, in continuation of 
 that of Dr. Boyce, a compilation of gre.it utility. In 1789 he 
 became conductor of the concerts of the Academy of Ancient 
 Music. In 1793 he was offered the organistship of Westminster 
 Abbey, which he declined on the score of his numerous avocations 
 disabling him to discharge the duties of the office ; but the dean, 
 himself a pluraUst, was so anxious to have the doctor's name, 
 that he overcame his conscientious scmplcs, by allowing him to 
 perform the official functions by deputy. In 1776 he became 
 conductor of the annual performance of sacred music in St. 
 
 Jl
 
 Paul's cathedral, for the benefit of the sons of the clergy, which 
 was one of the chief sources of income to that venerable charity, 
 until, in 1843, the bishop of London prohibited it on the grounds 
 of its inappropriateness to the religious character of the edifice. 
 Upon the death of Mr. Stanley, he undertook, in conjunction 
 with Linley, the direction of the Lenten oratorios at Drury Lane 
 theatre, which proved a lucrative speculation, until ^Ir. Ashley 
 opposed them by his miscellaneous perfonnances at Covent 
 Garden, which continued in vogue under subsequent managers, 
 until the throwing open of the theatres for the drama, on the 
 Wednesdays and Fridays of Lent, put an end to those artistic 
 abominations, which did the last and perhaps the greatest in- 
 jury to the cause of music in this country prior to the regenera- 
 tion of the art among us, which is now working with manifest 
 results. Dr. Arnold, however, resumed his series of oratorios 
 at the Haymarket, and for these perfoiTnances, besides writing 
 some original compositions, he compiled the hash of pieces from 
 the forgotten works of Handel, that he called Redemption (in 
 reference, possibly, to the purpose of redeeming much good 
 music from oblivion), by means of which many of the most pas- 
 sionate love-songs from the master's Italian operas have been 
 made familiar to the last half century with the sacred words the 
 doctor fitted to the notes, with sacrilegious disregard of their 
 inappropriateness to the sentiment. He fonned tlie design of 
 establishing a theatre in London for the performance of Enghsh 
 operas, and of associating this with a musical academy ; and to 
 tliis end he built the Lyceum theatre in the Strand, to produce 
 operas and operettas only, but the opposition of the proprietors 
 of the patent threatres prevented a Ucense being gi-anted to this 
 establishment until 1809, when it was opened as the English 
 Opera House by his son, S. J. Arnold, the di-amatic author. Dr. 
 Arnold's death was occasioned by a fall from a chair when reach- 
 ing for a book in his library, which broke his knee, and mduced 
 a Kngering illness, that terminated on the 22nd of October, 1802. 
 He is buried in Westminster Abbey, and his funeral obsequies, 
 for which Dr. Callcott composed an anthem, were performed 
 with great solemnity. The vast number of his operas and 
 smaller dramatic pieces; his pantomimes, his profusion of sepai-ate 
 songs, and other pieces of chamber vocal music; his sonatas, con- 
 certos, and other instrumental compositions; his odes, his vohmii- 
 nous music for the church, and his seven oratorios, not to speak 
 of the two extensive pubhcations he edited, his two ecclesiastical 
 and his two theatrical engagements, and his endeavours to 
 estabhsh an English lyric theatre, sufficiently prove his indefati- 
 gable industry, and we may say, his earnest zeal in the cause of 
 music; but we look in vain for evidence of his talents, for 
 his churcli music is of an insipid character ; his oratorios are 
 dead, and though many of the dramatic pieces for which he 
 wrote, retained, until lately, possession of the stage, it was either 
 with the omission of the music, or with such utter disregard to 
 it, as showed tliat it had no share in preserving their popularity. 
 A list of his works may be found in the Harmonicum. — (^Harmo- 
 nicon. Biug. Diet. Mus. F^tis, Schilling, and original som-ces.) 
 — G. A. M. 
 
 ARNOLD or ARNOLDUS, S.vxo, a German hagiologist of 
 the eleventh century. 
 
 ARNOLD OF ScHYK, a landamman of Uri, who lived in the 
 fifteenth centiuy, and fell at tlie battle of St. Jacobs. — J. W. S. 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas, a Scottish physician, born m 1742. He 
 devoted hhnself to the investigation of mental diseases, and 
 published " Observations on the nature, kinds, causes, and pre- 
 vention of Insanity," London, 1782. He died in 1816. 
 
 ARNOLD, TiiOMA.s, one of the most distinguished divines 
 and liistorians of tlie present century, was born at East Cowes, 
 in the Isle of Wight, on the 13th June, 1795. His father, the 
 original seat of whose family was Lowestoft, in Suffolk, was 
 then residing in the Isle of Wight in the capacity of collector of 
 customs for the port of Cowes. His mother was a Miss Dela- 
 field, daugliter of Joseph Delafield, Esq., of Camden Hill. He 
 was named Thomas after Lord Bolton, his godfather, then 
 governor of the island. After being educated at Warminster 
 and Winchester, he entered the university of Oxford in 1811, 
 having obtained a scholarship at Corpus Christi college. He 
 took a first class at the degree-examination in 1814, and was 
 elected fellow of Oriel college the following year. He also gained 
 the bachelor's prize for an English essay on colonization. He 
 made many valuable friends at the university, of most of wliom 
 he retained the intimacy through life, while of none did he ever lose 
 
 the respect. At Corpus he became acquainted with the present 
 Judge Coleridge, and with Keble, the author of the " Christian 
 Year;" at Oriel, with Copleston, late bishop of Llandaff; 
 Davison, author of a well-known work on prophecy; and Dr. 
 AVhately, archbishop of Dublin. A letter from Judge Coleridge, 
 inserted in Stanley's Ufe of Dr. Arnold, gives a gi-aphic ac- 
 count of Arnold's college life. We see him, scarcely emerged 
 from boyhood, a thin hglit figure, with an eye indicating daring 
 and decision, eagerly taking the democratic side in the debates 
 of the common room, yet by nature so full of modesty and rever- 
 ence, that the example and arguments of his seniors soon led 
 him, for a time, to ultra-Toiyism ; passionately fond of country 
 walks and of bathing ; entering heailily into all the studies of 
 the place, particularly Aristotle, whom he always held in singu- 
 lar veneration, yet no less eagerly reading the works and 
 drinking in the peculiar tone of thought of the poets of the Lake 
 school, to whom some of his Oxford friends introduced him. 
 
 Arnold remained at Oxford, taking pupils, and studying in 
 the college libraries till the year 1819, when, in anticipation of 
 his maniage, he settled at Laleham, near Staines, in ^Middlesex. 
 In August, 1820, he manied Maiy Penrose, youngest daughter 
 of the Rev. John Penrose, rector of Fledborough in Notting- 
 hamshhe. He had been ordained deacon in the estabhshed 
 chm'ch the year before. Previously to liis ordination, he seems to 
 have been troubled by distressing scruples with reference to sub- 
 scription to the Thu-ty-nine Articles, which principally took the 
 form of objections to portions of the Athanasian creed. This 
 led to his defening taking priest's orders till 1828; and when 
 he did so, it was not till after he had distinctly explained to the 
 ordaming bishop the sense in which he subscribed to that creed. 
 But whatever was the exact nature of his doubts, they entirely 
 passed away, and never recun-ed in the course of his after life. 
 
 He supported himself at Laleham, by preparing private pupils 
 for the universities. The same quality of inspiring feel- 
 ings of warm and lasting attachment which had belonged to 
 him as a student, followed hmi now as a tutor. Among his 
 pupils were Archdeacon Onnerod and Dr. Hamilton, the present 
 bishop of Salisbuiy. He remained at Laleham for nine years, 
 and here his six eldest children were born. At the end of 
 that time, the lu-gent solicitation of his friend Dr. Whately, who 
 was anxious to see him in a wider field of usefulness, induced 
 him to offer liimself as a candidate for the head-mastership of 
 Rugby school, in Warwickshire. Prior to this time the school 
 had enjoyed but little reputation ; and that httle was of an unde- 
 sirable kind. Mr. Disraeh, in " Vivian Grey," one of his earliest 
 productions, makes his youthful hero decidedly object to being 
 sent to Rugby: — "It was too low." In one of Arnold's testimo- 
 nials — a letter from Dr. Hawkins, now provost of Oriel college — 
 it was predicted, that if he were elected he would change the 
 face of education all through the public schools of England. This 
 letter and similar ones from other competent persons, seem to 
 have decided the trustees, and they appointed him at once to 
 the vacant office. He entered upon it in August, 1828, and 
 from that time till his death in 1842, he was incessantly en- 
 gaged in the work of directing and perfecting the institution, 
 which, in his view, was nothing more nor less than a mighty 
 piece of social machiner)', du'ected to important moral and in- 
 tellectual ends, and requiring constantly the eye and hand of the 
 conductor to remove obstacles, to sustain it in pow-erful working, 
 and to keep it trae to the destination to which he had designed it. 
 
 Arnold's work as an educator was the most important jiart of 
 his life. It is in tliis sphere that the immediate results ilowhig 
 from his influence and example have been most extensive. We 
 shall therefore analyse it at some length. Before lie went to 
 Rugby, tlie education given at the great public schools of the 
 country — Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Westminster, &c. — was by 
 no means in high repute. Religious people condemned it for its 
 demoralizing effects upon the characters of the boys, and philo- 
 sophical reformers derided it for its inefficiency as an hitellcctual 
 discij)]ine. Tlie evils of the system were doubtless great ; but 
 in order to a better appreciation of the value of Arnold's work, 
 a distinction must bo drawn between those evils which were 
 inherent in the system itself, and those which were accidental. 
 The discipline of English public schools differs from that pre- 
 vailing in the con-csponding institutions on the Continent chiefly 
 in this respect, tliat, except wliilo actually receiving instruction, 
 the boys are left very much to themselves to fonn tlicir own 
 friendships, frame their own code of morals, and erect their own
 
 ARN 
 
 238 
 
 AEN 
 
 standard of public opinion. But to mitigate the ill effects of 
 lea\'ing boys quite to themselves, which is sure to end in the 
 absolute despotism of the strongest, the system oi fagging is 
 introduced ; that is, the boys of the highest class in the school, 
 who arc sometimes called prefects, sometimes prepositors, some- 
 times monitors, are allowed to exercise a lawful and recognized 
 authority over the boys of the junior classes. This authority 
 does not extend to the class immediately below themselves, the 
 boys of which form a kind of aristocracy, exempted from the 
 burdens of their inferiors, but not possessed of the powers of 
 their superiors. On the Continent the practice is widely 
 different. There the boys are usually subjected to a consider- 
 able degree of supervision, not only at lesson time, but also 
 at their amusements and their meals. Fagging is here not 
 needed, and consequently is not permitted. The advantages of 
 the English system are these — that as the school becomes 
 under it a scene of moral probation much like the actual world, 
 boys of fiiTn, upright, and vigorous character become earlier 
 trained to self-control, to the sense of responsibility, and to the 
 intelligent exercise of power, than they would under any other. 
 On the other hand, boys of weak or unfixed character be- 
 come infected by the example and awed by the ridicule of 
 vicious boys, who may be older or more determined than them- 
 selves ; and then the school influences become on the whole 
 injurious rather than beneficial, and however much their intel- 
 lect may be developed, such boys are morally worse when they 
 leave the school than when they entered it. The accidental 
 e^ils which Arnold found existing in the public school system 
 were partly moral, arising from indifference or unskilfulness on 
 the part of schoolmasters, in respect of the moral culture of 
 their scholars ; partly connected with the intellectual training, 
 such as the undue preference commonly given to elegant scholar- 
 ship over the knowledge of the real life and mind of the an- 
 cients ; the total disregard with which modem languages, modem 
 literature, and science of every kind were commonly treated ; 
 and generally, the exaltation of showy and ornamental over 
 sound and useful knowledge. 
 
 Now, how did Arnold, when made the head-master of a public 
 school, meet and grapple with these evils ? lie knew well that if 
 he retained the English system in its main features (and he ilid 
 not see his way clear to changing it), e\als of the first class. 
 though they might be mitigated, could not be entirely removed ; 
 and he accordingly bent the whole force of his poweiful mind 
 to the task of reducmg them to a minimum. To bring the boys 
 imder a stricter discipline, he gradually weeded out all the old 
 boarding-houses which he found existing in the to^Ti, and 
 obliged all to live in the houses of the different under-mastcrs. 
 The sixth or highest foi-m, to which the powers of fagging were 
 intiTisted, came under his own immediate instruction, and he 
 spared no pains to imbue them, collectively and indi\adually, 
 \vith a portion of the conscientious and devout spirit, and the 
 deep sense of responsibility, ^vith which he himself was animated, 
 in order that through them similar influences might gradually 
 permeate the whole mass. But perhaps his chief weapon in the 
 warfare which he never ceased to wage against moral evil, was the 
 pulpit of the school chapel. He prevailed upon the trastees to 
 ap])oint him chaplain soon after his arrival, declining the salary 
 which had till then been attached to the office ; and thence- 
 forward, Sunday after Sunday, in those plain but telling dis- 
 courses, which those who heard them can never forget, and 
 which -ft-ill probably never be surpassed as models in their 
 peculiar kind, he spoke to the boys beneath lum of their 
 besetting sins or failings, their peculiar temptations, their daily 
 duties, and their etcmal destiny, in language level to the capa- 
 city of the youngest, and in that tone of sincerity which never 
 fails to carry conviction with it. Another very effective moral 
 engine, was the power which he claimed from the first, and 
 always unhesitatingly exercised when he thought it necessarj-, 
 of removing from the school " unpromising subjects ; " that is, 
 boys who, though not radically vicious, nor so misconducting 
 themselves as to merit expulsion, were yet from various causes 
 incapable of deriving good from the system themselves, while 
 their influence upon others was decidedly pernicious. This was 
 the most delicate and difficidt part of his system of discipline, 
 and the uncompromising way in which he carried it out fre- 
 quently caused bim to incur gi-eat odram ; yet he stood firm, 
 maintaining .always that without such a rule he would neither 
 hold office himself nor could justify the existence of the public 
 
 school system in a Christian coimtry. Still, with all this, he 
 felt that the uncontrolled and unwatched association of the 
 scholars together was the weak point of the system, and that 
 the moral ruin to which it sometimes led was fearful. To use 
 liis o^vTi words (Life by Stanley, sixth edition, p. 88) — " Of all 
 the painful thmgs connected with my einplo}Tnent, nothing is 
 equal to the grief of seeing a boy come to school iimocent and 
 promising, and tracing the corruption of his character from the 
 influence of the temptations around him, in the veiy place which 
 ought to have strengthened and improved it." And although 
 in the case of Rugby his extraorduiaiy personal qualities, par- 
 ticularly his fiminess in regard to removing boys, neutralized to 
 a great degi-ee its inherent e\ils, yet it cannot be said that his 
 example proves the superiority of the English system in itself. 
 His o\vn success was j'crsonal ; and it cannot be expected that 
 the ordinaiy ran of schoolmasters will ever possess, in an equal 
 degi-ee, the insight, courage, and force of character which in his 
 case accomplished such great results. 
 
 With regard to the accidental evils of the public school 
 system, we have shown what steps he took to remove those 
 which related to discipline and moral training. And that his 
 example has here been of immense advantage is strilcingly proved 
 by a letter from Dr. Maberly, head-master of Winchester school, 
 given at page 144 of the Life. Dr. Maberly says: — "A most 
 singular and stiiking change has come upon our public schools — 
 a change too great for any person to appreciate adequately who 
 has not known them in both these times. This change is 
 undoubtedly part of a general improvement of out generation in 
 respect of piety and reverence ; but I am sure that to Dr. 
 Arnold's personal earnest sunplicity of pui7>ose, strength of 
 character, power of influence, and piety, which none who ever 
 came near him could mistake or question, the cairying of this 
 improvement into om- schools is mainly attributable." The 
 deficiencies of the system on the intellectual side were more 
 easily counteracted. The study of the modem languages and 
 mathematics was introduced by liim, and extended to a large 
 portion of the school ; examinations and prizes were multipfied ; 
 history and geogi-aphy became prominent subjects of instruction. 
 Above all, the influence of his own fresh and ever-active mind, 
 still accumulating fresh stores of knowledge, while making the 
 most of the old, communicated the generous love of learning and 
 the zeal for self-culture, first to his own immediate pupils — the 
 sixth form — then through them to the whole school. 
 
 In 1835, the Whig ministiy appointed him a fellow in the 
 senate of the new university of London. He eagerly embraced 
 this opportunity of introducing, as he hoped, a decidedly 
 Christian element into the course of study adopted in tliis 
 institution. With this %'icw he proposed, at first successfully, 
 that a knowledge of the Scriptures should be required of all 
 candidates for the degree in arts. The dissenters, however, 
 took the alarm; the council of University college in Gower- 
 strect remonstrated vehemently against the measure ; and the 
 senate finally detennined that examination in the Scriptures 
 shoidd be voluntary merely, not compulsoiy. Finding his 
 darling aim thus baffled, and feeling also that the distance at 
 which he lived from London must always prevent him from 
 being actively useful in the senate, he resigned his fellowship at 
 the end of 1838. Although often thus practically convinced, 
 when it came to the point, that he had little really in common 
 with any one political party more than another, Arnold always 
 sided with the Whigs, and .always considered himself a decided 
 Liberal. He himself thus sketches the history of his early 
 political opinions (Life, p. 508) : — " I was brought up in a 
 strong Tory family. The first impi'cssions of my own mind 
 shook my merely received impressions to pieces, and at Win- 
 chester I was well nigh a Jacobin. At sixteen, when I went up 
 to Oxford, all the influences of the place, which I loved exceed- 
 ingly, yom- influence above all," — he is -m-iting to Judge 
 Coleridge, — " blew my Jacobinism to pieces, and made me again 
 a Tory. I used to speak strong Toryism in the old Attic 
 Society, and greedily did I read Clarendon with all the sym- 
 pathy of a thorough Royalist. Then came the peace, when 
 Napoleon was put do^vn, and the Tories had it their own way. 
 Nothing shook my Toiyism more than the strong Toiy senti- 
 ments that I used to he.ar at Canons," (the scat of Sir ITiomas 
 Plumer, then master of the rolls,) " though I liked the family 
 exceedingly. But I heard language at which my organ of 
 justice stood aghast," &c. From that time fonvard he attached
 
 himself to the Liberal party, cai'eless of the odium wliich he 
 thereby incuiTed among the great body of the clergy, and wliich 
 attained to such a height, that on one occ;ision he was attacked 
 by name, and his opinions denomiced, by a clergyman preaching 
 before the university of Oxford. Lord Iilelbom-ne, who admired 
 liis character, -nished to nominate him to a bishopric ; but the 
 archbishop of CanterbuT}', Dr. Howley, opposed the appoint- 
 ment, chiefly on the gi-ound of his mipopularity among the 
 clergy ; and Lord Jlelboume, who had a salutaiy hoiTor of 
 ecclesiastical commotions, abandoned the idea. But he offered 
 him the wardenship of Manchester coUege in 1840, which 
 ^Vraold, however, declined ; and in 18-11, just before he went 
 out of oflice, confeiTed on him the appointment of Regius 
 Professor of modem history at Oxford. Arnold gladly accepted 
 the offer. He delivered an inaugm-al coiu-se of lectm'es iu the 
 Lent tei-m of 1842, at which the concom-se of students was so 
 great that the ordhiary lectm'e-room would not hold them, and 
 the lectm'es had to be delivered in the theatre — a cu'cmnstance 
 probably unprecedented at Oxford since the middle ages. 
 
 In 1833, Arnold prnxhased a small property in Westmore- 
 land, called Fox How, upon wliich he built a house. His 
 school vacations were thenceforward passed here (imless when 
 he travelled on the Continent) in the society of his friend 
 Wordsworth, Colonel Hamilton, author of "CyrU Thornton," Su- 
 Thomas Pasley, and occasionally Southey. Here he found 
 leism'e to write his Roman histoiy, and to collect materials for 
 Ins work on Chm-ch and State, the composition of which he 
 looked forward to as the chief literary object of his life. His 
 health had on the whole remamed very good amidst the fatigues, 
 aimoy;uices, and responsibilities of liis work at Rugby, and both 
 he and his fiieuds looked forward to a long career of literaiy 
 activity at Fox How, after he should have resigned his post at 
 Rugby. But it was not so to be. At the close of the smiimer 
 half-year in 1842, early on a Sunday mormng, he was attacked 
 by spasms of the heart, attended by the severest pams. ]\Iedical 
 assistance was called in, but m vain. Consciousness, however, 
 remamed to the last. He ascertained, by searching questions 
 from the physician, the gi'eat danger in which he was, and with 
 tliat undaunted corn-age, in the near prospect of death, which 
 bad never once failed bun through life, luiited to the devontest 
 seutuiients of humUity and Chi-istian hope, Arnold breathed his 
 last, about eight o'clock on the morning of the 12th June, 1842. 
 Had he lived to the following day, he would have been exactly 
 forty-seven years old. 
 
 As a writer, Ai-nold's early death, and the constant pressure 
 of his active occupations, prevented liim from accomplishing more 
 than a small portion of the great labours which he had sketched 
 out for himself. These consisted mainly of tlu-ee works : — a 
 " History of Rome," to be canied down at least to the fall of 
 the Western empire ; a "Commentary on the New Testament;" 
 and a " Treatise on Church and State." His Histoiy of Rome, 
 ;u> he left it, is contained in three octavo volumes, and extends 
 only to the end of the second Punic war. The intended com- 
 mentary is actually represented merely by a few essays on pro- 
 phecy and the intei-pretation of Scripture; while only a fragment 
 is left of the intended work on Church and State. His other 
 works arc — an edition of Thucydides ; sis vohmies of Seniions, 
 chiefly addressed to the Rugby boys ; a volume of lectm-cs on 
 Jlodern History, dehvered at Oxford ; and a volume of miscel- 
 laneous works, consisting mostly of republished pamphlets on 
 political or social topics. More than those of most men, his 
 writings all bear the strong impress of his personal character. 
 His biographer truly says, that they were " not so much words 
 as deeds." Thus, iu writing the history of Rome, he had ever 
 in view the political and moral lessons which the fortunes and 
 fate of Rome present for the instruction of modem times, and 
 his gi-eat aim was t(j impress these vividly and effectually on the 
 hearts and minds of his countrymen. 
 
 Viewed generally, iu the eustinblu of his life and character, 
 Arnold will probaby rank in the judgment of posterity among 
 the greatest names of the nineteenth century. Fearless, dis- 
 mterested, transparently truthful, religious without cant, and 
 zealous without rancour, he produced through life the impression 
 on his warmest opponents of a man whom it was impossible not 
 to respect, while his own friends, and more especially his pupils, 
 conceived an admiration and a love for him, the intensity of 
 which it would be diflicult to exaggerate. Few men in modem 
 tunes have so well realised and represented the ideal of the old 
 
 Icnightly character as the schoolmaster of Rugby. He was pre- 
 eminently sans peu7' et sans reproche. Generous, pure-imnded, 
 and devout ; full of syuipathy with the suffering ; scornhig aud 
 labouring to put down all that was base and selfish ; firm and 
 faithful in eveiy relation of life, he ever appeared as a tower of 
 strength to wealv and vacillating ^mtue, and as the stern rebukcr 
 of low aims, of sloth, of moral cowardice, and of injustice. The 
 incompleteness of the writhigs which he has left may prevent 
 his attaining to lasting celebrity as a writer ; but Ai-nold's 
 work is not to be measm-ed by these. Like Dr. Johnson, the 
 man was far gi-eater than an}-thing that he has written ; and 
 England will be changed indeed when she ceases to recognize 
 such men as the tmest of her sons and the greatest of her 
 benefactors. 
 
 Dr. Arnold's life has been admirably written by the Rev. 
 Ai-thur P. Stanley, son of the late bishop of Nonvich, and one 
 of his old pupils. — T. A. 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas Keechevek, rector of Lyndon, Rutland- 
 shue, and the author of several most useful educational works, 
 was the son of Thomas Arnold, JI.D. of Stamford, and bom 
 1800. He was educated at Cambridge, where he became fellow 
 of Trinity, and m 1830 was presented to Lyndon, where he died, 
 March 9, 1853. In addition to liis fame as the writer of the 
 educational works above refen-ed to, Mr. Arnold had a good 
 reputation as a theologian. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ARNOLD or ARNALD of Vekdala, a bishop of Slaguc- 
 lone, in Languedoc, who was employed by the pope (Benedict 
 XII.) in persecuting the Albigenses. 
 
 * ARNOLD, William Delafield, fomih son of the late 
 Dr. Arnold, was born 7tli April, 1828. He was educated at 
 his father's school at Rugby, thence in 1846 he passed to 
 Christ's Church, Oxford, and in 1848 he joined the Indian 
 anny. The failure of his health made it necessary for him to 
 leave the anny in 1855, but in the same year he was appointed 
 to the office which be stiU holds, that of director of public edu- 
 cation in the Punjaub. Mr. Amold's most famous work is 
 " Oakficld ; or Fellowship in the East," a tale of unusual 
 power, and of no ordinaiy interest, gi\ing an insight into the 
 life and struggles of a young soldier mid the temptations and 
 coiTuptions of the Bengal army. It was at first published anony- 
 mously, but when those who considered themselves aggiieved 
 by the disclosures which it made, accused the unknown writer of 
 cowardice, he boldly gave his name. He has also published a 
 translation of Wiese's lectures on English education, and a small 
 volume of lectures on English histoiy. Mr. Arnold maiTied in 
 1850 the daughter of General Hodgson. — J. B. 
 
 ARNOLD OF WiNKELitiED, a Swiss hero, who, at the battle 
 of Sempach (138G), sacrificed himself to insure victoiy to his 
 countrjnnen. The Austrian knights, dismounted, had formed 
 themselves hito a phalanx wliieli the Swiss vainly strove to 
 pierce ; when Arnold mshing on the spear points of the enemy, 
 and buiying several in his bosom, thus opened a gap m the 
 fence of steel. The Swiss mshed in through the opening, and 
 routed the Austrians with temhle slaughter. — J. W. S. 
 
 ARNOLDI or DI ARNOLDO, Alhiouto, an Italian sculptor 
 and architect of the fomieenth century. He executed a colossal 
 group, representing the Virgin and Child, with two angels, for 
 the church of S. Jlaria de Bigallo in Florence, completing the 
 work, at which he wrought diuing a period of five yeai's, iu 13G4. 
 As architect, he was engaged at a later date on the cathedral of 
 Florence. — A. Jf. 
 
 ARNOLDI, Bahtiiolomew, an Augustine friar, who lived 
 iu the age of Luther, and was a zealous opponent of tlie new doc- 
 trine. He was born at Usingen, and died at Erfort in 1532. 
 
 ARNOLDI, Conuad Joiiann, a Lutheran divine, bom at 
 Brabant, on the Moselle, in 1G58, occupied several important 
 positions in the church and in public seminaries, and became at 
 length professor of logic and metaphysics in the university of 
 Giessen. He wrote sonic programmes and dissertations, and 
 died in 1735. 
 
 ARNOLDI, Daniel, a Gennan philologist, bom at Berge- 
 doif in 1595; died in 1G51. 
 
 ARNOLDI, .JoHANN VON, w:is bom in 1751 at Ilerbom, in 
 the duchy of Nassau. Having studied ui his native town and 
 ui GiJttingen, he entered upon his professional career as an ad- 
 vocate. In 1777 he was appointed secretary of the archives of 
 Dillenburg; in 1784 he became a member of the chamber of 
 finance, and in 1792 a councillor of state. During the wars
 
 ARN 
 
 240 
 
 ARN 
 
 of the revolution he took an active part in the civil and military 
 affairs of the Netherlands; and when the stadtholder, William V., 
 lost his patrimony in those pronnces Li 1795, Aiuoldi was zeal- 
 oiLsly employed in endeavouring to procure for his sovereign a 
 suitable compensation, although he was not successful in this ob- 
 ject. In 1803 lie entered the service of Prince William-Frederic, 
 afterwards William I., king of the Netherlands, whom he served 
 with equal zeal and fideUty. In 1809 he executed, with gi-eat 
 skill, the dangerous commission intrusted to him, of exciting 
 Westphalia to rise against Napoleon; and in 1813 he effected 
 an arrangement between the two branches of the house of 
 Orange, by negotiating, as their representative, an exchange of 
 the hereditaiT lands of the family. After the congress of Vienna 
 in 1815, William I. rewarded his long and valuable sei-vices as 
 a statesman, by naming him a pri\'y councillor, with a liberal 
 pension, and makhig him a knight, and subsequently commander 
 of the new order of the Belgic Lion. He was the author of 
 numerous political and historical treatises, and died in 1827. — F. 
 
 AKNOLDI, Philip, a Lutheran preaclier, born in 1582 at 
 Zinten, a small town in Prussia, and rose to be archbishop of 
 Tilsit, where he died in 1642. His published polemics were 
 directed principally against the Anabaptists. 
 
 ARNOLDI, WiLHELM, bishop of Treves, was bom at Budaw 
 in 1798, and having studied in that city, and entered into orders 
 in 1825, became a canon and archdeacon, and was elected to the 
 episcopal dignity in 1839. 
 
 ARNOLDUS DE ViLLAXovA. See Arxauld de Ville- 
 
 NEUVE. 
 
 ARNOLFINI, Giovanni-Attilio, an Italian engineer, born 
 at Lucca in 1733; died 1791. 
 
 ARNOLFO or ARNULFUS, was archbishop of Milan. His 
 elevation to the archiepiscopate took place in 1093, and having 
 been deposed soon afterwards, he made his peace with Rome, and 
 was reinstated in 1095. He was present at the council of Cler- 
 mont, and accompanied Urban 11. in preaching the crusade in 
 Lombardy. He died at Jlilan in 109G. — F. 
 
 ARNOLFO or ARNULFUS, a historian,was a contemporaiy of 
 the preceding, and wrote in 1085 a history of Milan, from a.d. 
 925 to A.D. 1076, which was entitled "Historia Mediolanensis," 
 and first published at Hanover in 1711. 
 
 ARNOLFO Di Cambio, better known as Arnolfo di Lapo, 
 one of the most eminent architects and sculptors of Italy, was 
 born at Florence in 1232. He was a pupil of Nicola Pisano, 
 whose Gennan or Gotliic tendency in style he adopted to a great 
 extent. It is Arnolfo, however, who made the first steps to- 
 wards modifying this tendency. The most celebrated of his 
 works as an architect are the churches of Santa Croce, the 
 Cathedral, and Or San Michele ui Florence, in which the gradual 
 transition from the Gothic severity to the Italian elegance is 
 markedly apparent. Ferguson, in his Handbook of Architecture, 
 writing on the Florentine cathedral, as designed and partially 
 built by Arnolfo, calls it "the greatest and most perfect example 
 of Italian Gothic, and one of the largest and finest churches 
 produced in the middle ages ; as far as mere grandeur of con- 
 ception goes, perhaps the very best." Arnolfo having died in 
 1300 could not complete this work, and many deviations from 
 his original design were made by those who finished it ; the 
 most important being the celebrated dome raised upon the 
 great octagon by Brunellcschi, between 1420 and 1444. 
 
 As a sculptor, he worked for the cathedral of Or^deto, on the 
 fa9ade of which a JIadonna, the Apostles, and several subjects 
 from the Old and New Testament, by this artist, are amongst 
 the best parts of that wonderful monument of the skill of the 
 Pisani school. — R. JL 
 
 ARNONE, Alhekto, an Italian painter, pupil of Luca 
 Giordano and Carlo Maratta; died in 1721. He excelled in 
 portraits, and was patronised by Philip V. 
 
 ARNOT, Hugo, was the son of a merchant in Leith, and was 
 bom in 1749. His original name was Pollock, but he adopted 
 that of Arnot, on succeeding to the estate of Balcormo in Fife- 
 shire, which had belonged to his mother's family. After com- 
 pleting his preliminary studies at the university, he became, in 
 1752, a member of the Scottish bar. In 1777 he pubhshed an 
 " Essay on Nothing," which had been read before the Specula- 
 tive Society, an association of young men for mutual improve- 
 ment in composition and debate. In 1779 he produced his 
 " History of Edinburgh," a work of great general merit as well 
 as local interest; and in 1785 he published "A Collection of 
 
 Celebrated Criminal Trials in Scotland, with Historical and 
 Critical Remarks," a work of gi-eat research, in which the cases 
 are very happily chosen, and the narrative given with liveliness, 
 ease, and caustic humom-. He died in 1786. — F. 
 
 * ARNOTT, Dr. Neill, was born at Dysart, near Montrose, 
 in the year 1788. He studied at Aberdeen, removed in 1806 
 to London, and soon obtained the appointment of surgeon in the 
 naval service of the East India Company. In 1811 he settled 
 as a medical practitioner in London, where he became distin- 
 guished as a lecturer. In 1827 he published his gi-eat work, 
 " Elements of Physics or Natural Philosophy, General and 
 Medical, explamed in plain or non-technical language." In 
 1838 he wrote an "Essay on Wamiing and Ventilating," sub- 
 jects to which he has devoted much attention. He is loiown as 
 the inventor of the " Arnott Stove," the " Amott Ventilator," 
 and the " Water Bed." Dr. Amott is now lidng in retirement 
 from his professional duties. — J. B. 
 
 ARNOUL or ARNULF, an ecclesiastic who accompanied 
 Robert II., duke of Normandy, as chaplain in the first crusade • 
 was appointed in 1099, by the christian princes, to administer the 
 revenues of tlie cluu-ch in Jcmsalem, and by his intrigues con- 
 trived to obtain the patriarchate of the holy city in 1111; he 
 died in 1118. 
 
 ARNOUL, Bishop of Lisieux, died 3rd August, 1183. 
 He was known favourably for the vain efforts he made to recon- 
 cile Henry II. of England with Thomas-a-Becket. He wrote 
 " Epistolge Conciones et Epigi-ammata," Paris, 1585. 
 
 ARNOUL, Rene, a French poet, bom 1569 ; died 1639 ; 
 author of " L'Enfance de Ren^ Amoul," Poictiers, 1587. 
 ARNOUL. See Ahnulf. 
 ARNOUL. See Arnolfo. 
 
 ARNOULD, Amdroise Marie, a French financier, bom 
 1750 ; died 1812. He rose through various ranks to be coun- 
 cillor of state, a position which he owed to his influence on all 
 questions connected with poUtical economy. He wrote several 
 works on commerce and finance. 
 
 ARNOULD, Jean Francois Mussot, a French actor, one 
 of the originators of pantomime, born 1734 ; died 1795. 
 
 ARNOULD, Joseph, an ingenious watchmaker, bom 1723 ; 
 died 1791 ; author of several inventions in his craft, more curious 
 than useful. 
 
 ARNOULD, Madeleine Sophie, a celebrated French 
 actress, bora at Paris 1744; died in 1803. Though famous as 
 a comedian and a singer, Sophie made herself still more illus- 
 trious by her wit, which was satirical and caustic. Many of her 
 sayings are recorded in " Amouldiana, on Sophie Amould et ses 
 Contemporaines," and still obtain a currency as bon mots. — A. L. 
 ARNOULT, Jean Baptiste, a French teacher, bom 1689; 
 died 1753 ; distinguished by his little book of proverbs, French, 
 Itahan, and Spanish, entitled " Traite de la Prudence," Bes- 
 an9on, 1733. 
 
 ARNOUX, Jean, a French theologian and preacher, bom at 
 Riom in Auvergne in the year 1575; died in 1636. He was 
 appointed confessor to Louis XIII. in 1617. Towards the 
 end of his life he was so unfortunate as to fall into a condition of 
 monomania of a peculiar kind, fancying himself a cock, trying 
 to fly, perching upon rafters, eating food out of a wooden bowl, 
 and crowing, to the annoyance of his neighbours, in the moming. 
 He is the author of " Oraison Funtibre de Henri IV." — A. L. 
 
 ARNSCHWANGER, John C, a divine of Numberg, bom 
 there 1625 ; died 1696. He is chiefly known for his sacred 
 poetry, which was vei-y popular in his own time. 
 
 ARNSTEIN or ARSTEN, .Jo. H., a Lutheran preacher, bora 
 1644; died in 1698. He taught and preached in various places, 
 wrote annotations on Plntarch, and several theological tracts. 
 
 ARNTZENIUS or ARNTZEN, Johann, a philologist of 
 great learning and critical acumen, was born at Wessel in 1702, 
 and died in 1759 at Utrecht, where he was professor of history, 
 poetry, and rhetoric. His editions of Aurelius Victor, Amst. 
 1733; of the Panegyricus of Pliny, Amst. 1738; and of 
 Pacatus Drepanius, Amst. 1753, are valuable. 
 
 ARNTZENIUS, Heinricii Joiiann, son of Johann, pro- 
 fessor of jurispradence at Utrecht, where he died in 1797; 
 published meritorious editions of Arator, Zutphen, 1769; and 
 of the Panegyrici Veteres, Utrecht, 1790-97. 
 
 ARNTZENIUS, Otto, brother of Johann, bora at Amheim 
 1703 ; died in 1763 at Amsterdam. He was teacher successively 
 in the gymnasia of Utrecht, Gouda, Delft, and Amsterdam, and
 
 1 
 
 lias left, besides other works on pliilological subjects, an excellent 
 edition of the " Disticha de Moribus " of Dionysius Cato ; second 
 edition, Amst. 1754. — A. JI. 
 ARNU, Nicolas, a French theologian, bom 1629 ; died 1692. 
 AKNULF, St., born near Nancy, about the year 580. He 
 was of the Carlo%Tngian race, and was at first connected with 
 ;he court of Theodebert II. After the death of his wife he 
 
 ntered into orders, and became bishop of !Metz in 614, but re- 
 : ired from the episcopal office to the monastery of St. Mort, 
 
 unded by his friend St. Romaric. He had two sons by his 
 wiarriage, one of whom, named Anchises, was father of Pepin de 
 Heristal, whose son, Charles Slartel, was the ancestor of one of 
 the royal houses of France. St. Amulf died in 640. — F. 
 
 ARNULF, St., was bishop of Soissons in the eleventh cen- 
 tury, but vacated the charge in order to found a monastery at 
 AJdenburg, in the diocese of Brages, where he died in 1087. 
 ARNULF, king of Germany, and afterwards emperor, grandson 
 
 t Louis le Germanique, was elected to the throne of Gennany 
 . . 887 on the deposition of his uncle, Charles le Gros. Of an 
 
 .iibitious character, and gifted with remarkable miUtary talents, 
 
 •;• aimed at subjecting the whole Frankish monarchy, and 
 
 ■;ortly after his election, compelled Eudes and Charles le 
 simple, competitors for the throne of France, to acknowledge 
 
 is supremacy. He then turned his attention to Italy, and, 
 ; .king advantage of the struggle between Guido and Berengai-ius, 
 
 ^arched an army into Lombardy. In 896 he laid siege to 
 i: >me, which was held by Guide's widow for her son, Lambert. 
 The city was taken by stomi, and Amulf was proclaimed emperor. 
 He died three years aftem'ards, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Louis, the last of the Caro\-ingian race in Germany. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARNULF or ERNULF, Bishop, was a French monk, bom 
 at Beauvais about a.d. 1040, and educated at Bee. He was 
 in\-ited to England by Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 whither he came in 1072. On Anselm succeeding Lanfranc 
 in the primacy, Amulf was made prior of Canterbury, and 
 
 bsequently abbot of Peterborough, where he introduced several 
 
 forms. In 1115 he was made bishop of Rochester, on the 
 
 :;mslation of Bishop Ralph to Canterbm-y. He ruled this 
 
 ■'icese for nine years, and is highly commended by William of 
 3l;ilmesbury for his zeal and assiduity as a bishop. He died in 
 1124, aged eighty-four. His "Textus Roffensis" was pubhshed 
 '■;■ Thomas Heame, Oxford, 1720. He wrote also a tract, '• De 
 
 oestis nuptiis," and a letter on various questions respecting 
 
 le holy eucharist, which had been propounded to him by one 
 Lambert, abbot of Munster. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ARNULF. See Ak.noul. 
 
 ARNWAY, JoHX, a sufferer in the civil war, was bom of a 
 pood Shropshire family in 1601, and educated at St. Edmund's 
 l.'all, Oxford. He took orders, and became rector of Hodnet and 
 Ijhtfield, and was much esteemed for his liberal almsdeeds. He 
 V. as ejected by the parhamentary agents on account of his loy- 
 
 ty in raising men for the king's service, and betook himself to 
 
 xford, where he was made D.D., and, in 1642, archdeacon of 
 ' itchfield and Coventry, on the promotion of Dr. Brownrigge to 
 
 II' bishopric of Exeter. He was subsequently imprisoned, but 
 
 ter the death of Charles he was released, when he escaped 
 the Hague. He afterwards accepted an in\-itation to Vir- 
 
 iiia, where he died in 1653 in much distress. He seems to 
 i.ave experienced cruel treatment from the parliament, of which 
 he has left an accotmt iu his "Alanmi to the People of Eng- 
 land." He also wTote "The Tablet," or the Moderation of 
 ChaHcs I.— J. B., 0. 
 
 ARODON, Bkxjajiix d', a Jewish rabbi, who wrote in Ger- 
 man a curious book " full of precepts for the ladies . . . filled 
 ^vith obsen-ations not only in regard to cleanliness of body, but 
 . !;ewise with respect to the practice of prayer and good works." 
 --(Bayle.) An Italian translation by Rabbi Jacob Alpron, was 
 i ublished at Venice in 1652. 
 
 AROMATARI, Dorotka, a Venetian lady, lidng in 1660, 
 who "produced with her needle," according to Boschini, as 
 quoted by Lanzi, " all those beauties which the finest and most 
 diligent artists exhibited with their pencil." — A. M. 
 
 AR0M.A.TARI, Giusepi'e degli, a famous Italian physician, 
 bom at Assisi in the duchy of Spoleto about the year 1586, 
 prosecuted his studies at I'emgia, and after\vards at Padua, where 
 he was received doctor in his eighteenth year. He immediately 
 commenced practice, and met with the greatest success. James 
 I. of England proposed to make him his physician, but he 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 declined the offer, as well as similar ones from the Duke of 
 JIantua and Pope Urban V., and remained in Venice till his 
 death in 1660. He published only one medical work, "De 
 Rabie Contagiosa," 1625. To that treatise he appended a letter 
 on the reproduction of plants, " Epistola de generatione Plan- 
 tarum ex Seminibus," which gave the first hint of the Linnsean 
 theory on the subject. — J. S., G. 
 
 AROUDJI, ARUCH, AROUDS, corrupted into Horuc, 
 HoRRUC, Orox, fii-st Turkish sovereign of Algiers, was bom 
 probably of Greek parentage in 1473. In the com'se of an ad- 
 venturous life as a pirate, in wliich he carried the flag, first of 
 the sultan of Egj-pt and then of the bey of Tmiis, he collected a 
 considerable fleet, and in the year 1514, when the inhabitants of 
 Algiers were in dread of an invasion of Christians, was of suf- 
 ficient consequence to be appealed to for assistance. He seized 
 the opportunity to establish himself as master of the city, put 
 the governor to death, and had himself proclaimed sovereign. 
 The disaffected among the citizens be massacred at a religious 
 festival. His next enterprise was to establish his brothei", Kair- 
 ed-Din in the tenitory of which Tlemcen was the capital, and in 
 this he succeeded so far as to diive out the reigning sultan ; but 
 h;mng in 1518 initated the Spaniards in Oran (to whom the 
 exiled sultan had in vain appealed for assistance), by prohibiting 
 the neighbouring tribes of Arabs from sTipplj-ing them with pro- 
 visions, he was besieged in Tlemcen, and peiished in the defence 
 of the city. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARPAD, the conqueror of Hungary, and founder of the 
 Arpad dynasty, which reigned till 1301, was bom in the second 
 half of the ninth century. He was the son of Almus, whom the 
 seven Magyar clans, dwelling in the steppes north-east to the 
 Caspian, had elected their hereditary chief about 889, defining 
 at the same time the rights and duties of the prince and the 
 clans by solemn agreement. Thus united into one nation, the 
 Magyars, mustering about 250,000 waniors, were led by Almtis 
 tlu-ough Southem Russia to Kiew, where they first defeated the 
 Kumans, atixiliaries of the Russians, and then induced them to 
 join their expedition under Ahnus, -with the \-iew of re-establish- 
 ing the empire of Attila and the Huns, the tradirional ancestors 
 of the ]\Iagyars. This tradition was not entirely devoid of foun- 
 dation, since the Magyars, the Kumans, and, besides them, the 
 Bulgarians, the Turks, Circassians, and Tmxomans, belong to 
 the Turanian race, and to its Tm-co-Tartaric branch, of which 
 the Hims of Attila had been the most renowned conquering 
 nation. Propitiated by rich presents from the Slavonic popula- 
 tions of Russia and Hahtch, Almus, with his increased people, 
 crossed the Cai-pathians about 893 without resbtance, and re- 
 signed his leadership at Munkacs, immediately after their 
 anival in the country wliich they claimed as their heirloom. 
 His son Arpad was here proclaimed prince of the Himgarians, 
 who felt that the fiery energy of youth was more requu-ed for 
 the conquest of an empu-e, than the cool experience of age. 
 Himgary was at that time inhabited by Slavonians in the north, 
 by Bulgarians and 'Walachians in the south and east, the south- 
 western portion of the countrj' beyond the Danube owing alle- 
 giance to the German empire. This thin population was ruled 
 by five independent chiefs, who did not choose to combine thcu- 
 forces against the invaders. By five successful campjiigns, 
 several lucky annexations, and a matrimonial alliance between 
 his son Zoltan and the daughter of the Bulgarian prince, 
 .Maroth, who held the fertile coimtr}' between the Szamos, the 
 Tlieiss, and the Maros, Ai-pad within five years succeeded in ex- 
 tending his sway from the Northern Carpathians to the Drave 
 and Danube, and from the Transylvanian mountains to the 
 Styrian Aljis. It was his good luck, that the power of his 
 otherwise fonnidablc enemies — the German empire, and the 
 Slavonic kingdom of Moravia — was crippled at that time, the 
 first by the minority of the last Carlovingian emperor, Louis the 
 Child, the latter by the contest of the brothers Moimir and 
 Sviatopluck for the ^hmuian crown. Having completed the 
 conquest of Hungary, Arpad, in 899, assembled the chiefs of 
 the nation on the plain of Szer, near Szegedin, in a regular 
 diet, which laid the foundation of the Himgarian constitution, by 
 organizing the municipal self-govemment of the country, wth- 
 out giving any great preponderance to the prince, who only in 
 war could exercise uncontrolled power in his capacity as coin- 
 niander-in-cliief. The conquerors, all free and equal among 
 themselves, admitted the nobility of the conquered populations to 
 the siunc rights and privileges, wliilst the servile class of the 
 
 2H
 
 ARP 
 
 212 
 
 AER 
 
 Slavonians, Bulgarians, and Wallacliians remained in tlie same 
 condition as before. The country was divided into counties, 
 and a regular administration introduced. Ha^^ng thus achieved 
 his great task, Arpad fixed his residence at the island of Csepel, 
 in the Danube, close under Pest, and wisely refi-ained from taking 
 part in any new military expedition, fully satisfied that con- 
 quests beyond the natiu'al boundaiies of the country cannot be 
 maintained. He could not, however, control the roving propen- 
 sities of liis subordinate leaders, who, year after year, made pre- 
 datory inroads into Germany, the Byzantine empire, Italy, and 
 even France. Ai-pad died in 907, without being able completely 
 to transfoiTn his nomadic hordes into an agricultm'al nation. 
 Their raids into the neighbouring empires imder his son Zoltan 
 and his grandson Toxus became still more fomiidable, so much 
 so, that the nations of western Europe inserted the prayer into 
 the litany of that time : " From the Hungarians presei-ve us, 
 Lord I " Both the emperors of the west and of the east had to buy 
 an armistice by heavy tribute, during wliich Heniy of Gennany 
 built towns and fortified them, that the country should not be 
 overrim by the Hungarians, whilst the Byzantine emperor tried 
 to convert them to Christianity, through those chiefs who were 
 sent to Constantinople as hostages for the good behanour of 
 that nation during the tmce. Whilst in this manner the pre- 
 datoiy excm-sions became less fi'equent dming the tenth cen- 
 tury, the princes of Hungary were intent to strengthen their 
 power, by inviting foreign colonists and knights to settle in the 
 country, granting them the same rights and immunities as were 
 enjoyed by the Magyare. From these, and from the vast num- 
 bers of prisoners brought from the predatory excursions through- 
 out central and southern Em-ope, the JIagyars became by de- 
 grees familiarized with the manners, customs, civilization, and 
 morals of the Christian population of Eiu-ope. Prince Geiza, 
 the great-gi-andson of Ai-pad, was favourably inclined to the 
 Christian creed, and finally converted by his wife Sarolta, though 
 he casually srill sacrificed to his idols of old, meeting the re- 
 proaches of his wife by the assertion, that he could afford to sei-ve 
 both the old gods and the new one. It was his son St. Stephen, 
 who, in the year 1000, converted the Hmigarians, and got the 
 royal crown. — F. P., L. 
 
 ARPAJON, Louis, two French generals, distinguished, one 
 in the reign of Louis XIII., the other under Louis XIV. 
 
 AEPE, Peter Friedrich, a Danish philosopher and jurist, 
 bom in 1682 at Kiel, in Holstein, studied at the university of 
 his native town, and afterwards at Copenhagen, where he was 
 employed as tutor to a young nobleman. He afterw:u'ds passed 
 some time in Holland. On his return to Kiel, he was appointed 
 professor of law; but in 1724 was dismissed from his chair, 
 and retired to Hamburg, where he passed the remainder of his 
 life in multifarious fiterary labours. Two of his works deserve 
 particular menrion : — 1. " Theatram Fati ; sive notitia Scriptorum 
 de Providentia, Fortuna, et Fato ;" and 2. " Themis Cimbrica ; 
 sive de Cimbrorum et vicinanim gentium antiquissimis institutis," 
 1747.— J. S., G. 
 
 ARPINO, Cavalier Giuseppe Cesari d', also called II 
 GiusEPPixo, bom at Arpino in 1560. At thii-teen years of 
 age he was sent by his father to Rome to wait upon the artists 
 then employed in the Vatican, when he showed so great a talent 
 for painting as to attract the attention and deseiTe the immediate 
 patronage of Pope Gregory XIII., by whom he was attached to 
 the works with a considerable stipend. Thus he became, first 
 the pupil, and soon the rival, of Roncalli. Palma the younger, 
 and Muziano, with whom he was working in the Vatican. Four 
 consecutive popes continued their favours to this eminent and 
 graceftil artist, one of them (Clement VIII.) having raised him 
 to the dignity of knighthood. He was equally successful at the 
 court of Henry IV. of France, where he accompanied his great 
 friend and patron, the Cardinal Aldobrandini, on the occasion of 
 the marriage of the French king with Maria of Sledicis. The 
 abundance, liowever, of favours and honours confciTed on him, 
 finished by affecting both his personal character and his artistical 
 style. Whilst the lively conception, the accurate design, and 
 careful execution, that marked the latter, became poor, coarse, 
 and neglected, his temper, too, became altered, and turned 
 haughty and quarrelsome. He had many squabbles with Michel 
 Angelo da Caravaggio, whom he refused to fight with bccatise he 
 was not a knight, and with Annibale Caracci, who, when called 
 out by D' Arpino, declined to confront him with any other weapon 
 than his brush. D'Arpino lived to the full age of eighty years, 
 
 
 and died in 1640, leaving an immense number of works, id|k| 
 earliest amongst which are the most esteemed. — R. JI. »l 
 
 ARPIXO, Jacopo Francesco, physician in ordinary to I 
 Prince Maiuice of Savoy, was born at Podivarino in Piedmont. 
 He published in 1655, a work entitled " Historia de St 
 Epidemico, anno 1654, in oppido et agro patrio, ad Colleg 
 Physico-JIedicum Taniinense." 
 
 ARQUATO, Giovanni Francesco, an Italian physician, 
 was bom at Trivisano, in the states of Venice, about the com- 
 mencement of the seventeenth century. His principal work, 
 publislied at Venice— the first volume in 1608, and the second 
 in 1622 — is entitled "Medicus Refoi-matus." 
 
 AR-RA'DHI-BILL.iH, Abu-l'-Arbas Moh^uimed, the 
 twentieth caliph of the house of Abbas, son of Almuktadir- 
 Billah, reigned from the dethronement of the usui-per Al-Kahir 
 in 934, tiU his death in 940. Two years of his reign were 
 passed in forced subserviency to the ■nill of an ambitious slave, 
 named Bahkham, from whose administration directly followed 
 the decline of the caliphate. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARRAGON, Jo.\N of. See Aragona, Giovanxa d'. 
 
 ARRAGOX, TuLLiA d'. See Aragona, Tullia d'. 
 
 ARRAGOSIUS, Gulielmus, a French physician, bom near 
 Toulouse in 1513; was successively physician to Heniy II., 
 Francis II., and Charles IX. of France, and to the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian. He died at Basle in 1610. Two Latin epistles are all 
 that have been preserved of his writings. 
 
 ARRAIS, Duarte Madeira, a skilful Portuguese surgeon, 
 physician to John, foiuth king of Portugal, was bom at liloi- 
 menta, near Lamego, and died at Lisbon in 1652. He wrote 
 some valuable medical treatises in Portuguese and Latin. 
 
 ARRAIZ, Ajiador, bom in the city of Beja in 1530, rose to 
 be bishop of Portalegre. He wrote dialogues after the style ct 
 Plato. They were named " Dialogos Morals," or in the Latin 
 translarion, " Dialogi decem de Di\ina Providentia." Arraiz died 
 ia 1600 ; he takes rank as one of the classic writers of Portugal. 
 
 ARRAN, Earl of. See Hamilton. 
 
 AR-RASHID, Abu Mohajimed Abdul Waiied II., tenth 
 sultan of Westem Africa, of the dynasty of the Almohades, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Al-Mamun Abu-l'-ola Idris, in 1232, and 
 after subduing the formidable opposition of his kinsman Yahia, 
 reigned peacefully till his death in 1242. 
 
 ARRAULT, Charles, a distinguished French lawyer, bom 
 at Bois-commun in 1643, became hatonnier of the advocates of 
 the parliament of Paris, and standing counsel to the regent 
 (duke of Orleans). Some of his pleadings were published, and 
 fully sustained the fame of his brUUant appearances at the bar. 
 
 ARREBOE, Anders, a Danish theologian and poet, was bom 
 in theisland of jEiToe in 1587. In 1610 hewas appointed preacher 
 at the palace of Copenhagen, and in 1618, on the recommenda- 
 tion of Christian IV., was elected to the bishopric of Drontheira, 
 from which he was dismissed for licentious conduct in 1621. 
 He was afterwards readmitted into the church, and at the time 
 of his death in 1637, had held -nith credit, for some years, the 
 pastorship of Vordinborg. His poetry, notwithstanding its 
 antiquated style and its want of invention, is still admired in 
 Denmark for certain features of power and beauty, such as are 
 not to be perceived in any other Danish productions of the 
 seventeenth centuiy. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARREDOXDO, Don Isidoro, a Spanish painter, pupil of 
 Garcia, and afterwards of Rizzi, whom he succeeded as painter to 
 Charles II. of Spain, was bom in 1653 at Colmenar de Oreja, 
 and died at Madiid in 1702. 
 
 ARRERAC, John d', a counsellor in the parliament of Bor- 
 deaux, published a book on civil and political philosophy, divided 
 into Irenarchy, or the state of peace, and Polenarchy, or the state 
 of war, 1598". 
 
 * ARREST, D', a modem astronomical observer of great merit. 
 We owe to him the discovery, in 1851, of the interior comet 
 which bears his name. The period of D'Arrest's comet is 6*44 
 years ; its mean distance from the sun 3'46 ; its perihelion 
 distance 1'17; its aphelion distance 5'75. The inclination of 
 the plane of its orbit to the plane of the ecliptic is 13° 56' 12". 
 
 ARRHENIUS, Clas or Claudius, a Swedish historian, 
 successively professor of logic and metaphysics, and of history, 
 at Upsal, member of the Swedish college of antiquities, librarian 
 to the university, secretarv' and historiographer to the king, was 
 boiTi at Linkoping in 1627, and died at Stockholm in 1695. 
 His principal work is a histoiy of the Swedish church, published
 
 in 1685, with the title "Historite Svecorum Gothoi-umque Ec- 
 clesiastics; Libri IV. Priores." Arrhenius was raised to the rank 
 of a nobleman in 1684, and took the name of Oemhielm, or the 
 Eagle-helmet. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARRHENIUS, Jacob, a Swedish Mstorian, brother of the 
 preceding, was bom at Linkoping in 1642. He was professor 
 of history in the miiversity of Upsal from 1687 till 1716, when 
 lie resigned in favour of his son Laurentiiis. His works treat 
 principally of disputed points in ancient history. 
 
 ARRHIB-EUS, a Macedonian cliief, who revolted against King 
 Perdiccas in the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 ARRHID^EUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
 was employed to convey the body of the king from Babylon into 
 Egypt. In 321 B.C., after the death of Perdiccas, he was pro- 
 1 laimed, along with Pithon, regent of ilacedonia, wliich office 
 Eurydice compelled him to resign. He was afterwards assigned 
 the government of a part of Phrj-gia. — J. S., G. 
 
 AERHIDiEUS, son of Philip II. of Jlacedonia by a dancer, 
 named Phillma of Larissa, reigned six years and four months 
 from the death of Alexander the Great. Imbecile in mind and 
 body, while his throne was nominally shared by the infant son of 
 -Uexander and Roxana, he was completely the slave of his wife 
 Emrdice, along -with whom he was assassinated, by oi'der of 
 Olympias, in 317 B.C. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARRIA, a celebrated Roman matron, wife of Ctecinna Psetus, 
 consul during the reign of Claudius, about a.d. 41. Psetus 
 having raised an unsuccessful revolt against Claudius in Illyria, 
 was condemned to die ; whether by liis own hands or not, is im- 
 certain. At any rate, some opportunity was afforded him of 
 avoiding pubUc punishment by suicide, which the Romans did 
 not deem a crime. Psetus hesitated ; Arria seized the dagger, 
 plunged it into her bosom, and then presenting it to her hus- 
 band, said, " It is not painful, Psetus." Other anecdotes, ex- 
 pressive of her conjugal devotion, are on record, and have im- 
 mortalized her. — T. J. 
 
 ARRIA, daughter of the preceding, was the wife of Thrasea 
 Psetus. ^Mien her husband was condemned to death, she %vished, 
 like her heroic mother, to show him how to die, but was per- 
 suaded to hve on for the sake of her daughter Faunia. 
 
 ARRIA, a female philosopher, devoted to the system of Plato. 
 She was a contemporary of Galen, who has left a warm eulogy 
 on her merits. She had the merit of suggesting to Diogenes 
 Laertius the compilation of his precious collections. 
 
 ARRIAGA, Juan Chrisostome d', a Spanish musician, 
 who exhibited from his infancy such a genius for music, as in- 
 duced his patrons, in his thirteenth year, to send him to be 
 trained at Paris, was born at Bilboa in 1808. He was entered 
 a pupil at the Consei-vatoire, and studied harmony under Ffetis, 
 and the violin under BaUlot. His biiUiant career, of which the 
 few memorials in the shape of compositions that remain are stiU 
 unpublished, was terminated in 1825 by a lingering disease, the 
 consequence of unremitting mental exertion. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARRIAGA, Pablo Joseph d', a Spanish Jesuit, was bom 
 at Vergara in 1562. He was sent as a missionary to Peru, and 
 became successively rector of the colleges of Arequipa and 
 Luna. He perished by shipwTeck on a voyage to Rome. His 
 principal works are: — 1. " Directorio Espuitual," 1608; 2. 
 '"Extirpacion de la Idolatria de los Indios del Piru y de los 
 medios para la Conversion dellos," 1G21; 3. " Rhetoris Chris- 
 tiani Partes Septem," 1619. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARRIAGO, RoDRiGO d', a Spanish Jesuit, bom at Logrono 
 in Castile, taught philosophy at Valladolid and Salamanca, and 
 theology at Prague, from which latter city he was several times 
 sent on important mbsions to the court of Rome. His principal 
 work, "Cursus Philosophicus," published at Antwerp in 1632, 
 was received with great favour by his brethren in Spain, and 
 hardly desen'es the neglect into which it has fallen. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARRIANUS, a philosophical and historical \vriter, was a native 
 of Nicomedia, in Asia Minor. He lived some time in Greece, 
 where he was highly honom-ed, and there met the Emperor 
 Hadrian, who bestowed on liim special marks of respect. In the 
 reign of Antoninus Pius he was raised to the consiUship. He 
 seems to have retired to his native city in his old age. Arrianus 
 was a pupil of the famous stoic Epictctus, and tried to do for 
 his master what Xenophon did for Socrates. He published the 
 lectures of Epictetus m eight books, four of which have come 
 down to us. It was he who compiled the world-renowned 
 " ilanual of Epictetus," the best compendium of the stoic phi- 
 
 losophy. He also wrote the " Anabasis of Alexander the Great," 
 a work much inferior to that of Qiuntus Curtius in power of 
 description, but fai- more acciurate in details, and more trust- 
 worthy in its authorities. Several other works of Anianus are 
 mentioned : — ^A treatise on the Chase ; a work on India ; a 
 voyage round the Euxine ; and a work on Tactics. — J. D. 
 
 ARRIAXUS, a Greek, who composed an epic poem in twenty- 
 four books, called " The Alexandiiad." 
 
 ARRIANUS, a Greek, author of a treatise on "Meteors," 
 and another on " Comets." 
 
 ARRIBAS, an early king of the Molossians in Epirus, de- 
 scended from Achilles. 
 
 ARRIGHETTI, Nicolo, was bom at Florence in 1580, be- 
 came the pupil and friend of Galileo, translated the diiilogues of 
 Plato into Italian, and died in 1639. 
 
 ARRIGHETTI, Nicolo, a learned Jesuit of Florence, who 
 lived in the eighteenth century, professed the natm-al sciences at 
 the university of Sienna, and wrote upon heat and hght. 
 
 ARRIGHETTO or ARRIGO, Enrico, was born at Setti- 
 mello, near Florence, in the twelfth century, and became cele- 
 brated for a Latin poem, entitled " De diversitate fortunse et 
 phOosophias consolatione," which gives an account of his own 
 distress. He had held the valuable living of Colenzano, but 
 through a protracted lawsuit had lost it, and was thus reduced 
 to beggary. 
 
 ARRIGHT, AxTONio JIaria, a lawyer of Corsica, of a fiimily 
 connected with the Bonapaites, was bom about the end of the 
 seventeenth centiuy, became professor of jmisprudence at Padua, 
 and died in 1753. 
 
 ARRIGHI, Jean Toussaixt, Duke of Padua, a Corsican 
 who became a general in the French senice. He was bom in 
 1778, and served Napoleon to the last with bravery and fidehty. 
 He was banished in 1815, but recalled m 1820. 
 
 ARRIGHI, Joseph, an Italian painter of Volterra, a favourite 
 pupil of Balassar Franceschmi, who has materially aided Ai-righi 
 in all those works of his which remain. 
 
 ARRIGHI, Laxdlni, a Florentine improvisatore of the last 
 centm^, one of the best Itahan poets of that peiiod. His best 
 known works ;u:e "II Sepolcro dTsacco Newton," 1751; and 
 "La Bibliade," describing the principal libraries, ancient and 
 modem. 
 
 ARRIGHI, Lorenzo, a monk of Bologna, of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 ARRIGONI, Carlo, a musician of the former half of the 
 eighteenth century, who was equally celebrated as a composer 
 and as a performer on the lute. He was bom at Florence, from 
 whence, at the age of fifteen, he proceeded on Ms artistic travels, 
 in the course of which he met \\'ith such success that he was 
 engaged by Prince Carignano as maestro di capella. In 1732 
 he was invited to London, together with Porporu, by the noble 
 directors of the Royal Academy of Music, as a rival to Handel, 
 and here, in 1734, he produced his opera of " Fernando." He 
 left this country in 1736, and two years later he is traced to 
 Vienna, where he brought out his opera of " Esther." He died 
 about 1743, in Tuscany. — (Fetis, Schilling.) — G. A. M. 
 
 ARRIGONI, Fr.\ncesco, an author of I5ergamo, who lived 
 in the seventeenth century, and was employed by Cardinal F. 
 Borromeo in translating Greek manuscripts. 
 
 ARRIGONI, Giovanni Battista, a poet of Mantua, of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 ARRIUS, QuiNTUs, a Roman pra:;tor who lived about 72 
 B.C., and was employed in the sei-vile war. 
 
 ARRIUS, QuiNTUs, a son of the former, and friend of Cicero. 
 
 ARRIVABENE, Andrea, a Venetian printer and translator 
 of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARRIVABENE, Fernando, a jurist and philologian of 
 Mantua, was bom in 1770, and died in 1834. 
 
 ARRIVABENE, Giovanni Francesco, a poet of Mantua, 
 lived in the sixteenth century, best known as the author of two 
 maritime eclogues, "LTdromanzia" and "Cloimto," 1547. 
 
 ARRIVABENE, Giovanni Pietro, a poet of Mantua of 
 the fifteenth century, whose principal work, named " Gonzag- 
 idos Libri Quatuor," celebrated the exploits of Lodovico Gonzago 
 III., marquis of Mantua. 
 
 ARRIVABENE, Lodovico, an Italian poet of the 16th cent. 
 
 ARROWSMITH, Aaron, a celebrated geographer, was born 
 at Whiston, in Diu-ham, in 1750. He was instmcted in mathe- 
 matics by Emerson, and was afterwards employed by Cary the
 
 ARR 
 
 244 
 
 ARS 
 
 map and globe maker. In 1790 he published a large map of 
 the world on Mercator's projection, which soon became very 
 popular. A map of the world on the globular projection, with 
 a volume of explauatorj" matter, and a map of northern America, 
 soon followed, and won for him a European reputation. His 
 map of Scotland in 1807, for the first time represented the 
 geogi-aphy of that country with any approach to accuracy. His 
 maps, though, of course, inferior to those of the present day, 
 were a striking improvement upon all his predecessors. He died 
 in 1823.— J. W. S. 
 
 ARROWSMITH, Jonx, D.D., a Puritan minister and writer, 
 was bom at Gateshead, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, on 29tli 
 March, 1602. He was educated at St. John's college, Cam- 
 bridge, which he entered in 1618 ; he took his A.B. degree in 
 1619, and his M.A. in 1623, when he was elected fellow of 
 Catherine Hall. After some years' residence as a fellow, he 
 became imiversity preacher in 1630, and in the follo-n-ing year 
 removed to Lynn, in Norfolk, where, after sening for some time 
 as a curate, he became minister of St. Nicholas' church. In 
 1633 he took the degree of B.D, and in January, 1647 [1648], 
 he was made D.D. When the assembly of divines was con- 
 vened in 1643, he was appointed to sit in it as member for 
 Norfolk, and he seems to have taken an active part in the 
 business of the assembly. He was one of those intrusted with 
 the dramng up of the assembly's catechism ; and he was 
 selected to be one of a committee, appointed in 1644, to' treat 
 with the commissioners of the church of Scotland upon agree- 
 ment in matters of religion. After being some time preacher at 
 St. JIartui's, Ironrnonger-lane, London, he was appointed to 
 the mastership of St. John's college, Cambridge. A few years 
 after he was vice-chancellor of the university. In 1651 he was 
 made Regius professor of divinity, with which appointment he 
 received the rectoi-y of Somersham ; and in 1653 he became 
 master of Triidty college. Wlien Cromwell's " Triers " were 
 appointed to sit in judgment on every presentee to a church, 
 benefice, or cure, so that only such a one as they approved to 
 be, " for the gi-ace of God in him, his holy and unblamable con- 
 versation, as also for his knowledge and utterance, able and fit 
 to preach the gospel," should be inducted, AiTowsmith was one 
 of their number. In 1655 the state of his health led him to 
 resign the di\-inity professorship ; but he retained the master- 
 ship of Tiinity college tUI his death, which took place in Febnxary, 
 1658-9, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. He was buried 
 m the college chapel. An-owsmith was a man of learmng and 
 acuteness, and secured the esteem of his cotemporaries, as well 
 by his amiable spirit and unblemished character as by his 
 abilities. His works are chiefly polemical. The most impor- 
 tant are " Tactiea Sacra, sive de Milite Spu-ituali Pugnante, 
 Vincente, et Trimnphante DLssertatio," 4to, 1657; "Armilla 
 Catachetica : A Chain of Principles, or an Orderly Concatena- 
 tion of Theological Aphorisms and Exercitations, wherein the 
 Chief Heads of the Christian Religion are asserted and im- 
 proved," 4to, 1659, 8vo, 1822; " Theanthropos : An Exposition 
 of the First Eighteen Verses of the First Chapter of the Gospel 
 according to St. John," 1660.— W. L. A. 
 
 ARROY, Besian, a French ecclesiastic of the 17th centuiy, 
 author of a few works, chiefly apologetic and historical. 
 
 ARROYO, Diego d', a Spanish painter, celebrated for liis 
 miniatures; died A. D. 1551. Another d'Arroyo, Juan, was 
 one of the founders of the Se\-ille academy in the 17th century. 
 
 ARRUNTIUS commanded the left wing of the fleet of 
 Octavianus at the battle of Actium 31 is.c, and was consul 
 22 B.C. His son Arruntius was consul 6 B.C. 
 
 ARRUNTIUS, a physician at Rome in the first century, who, 
 according to Pliny, realised by his practice no less than 250,000 
 sesterces (nearly £2000) per annum. 
 
 ARSACES, the classical and historic name of several Par- 
 thian and Annenian kings (Pers., Arschak ; Arm., Arschag). 
 They are not easily distinguishable from each other, but the 
 order seems to have been as follows : — 
 
 Arsaces I., siuTiamed The Brave, founded the Parthian 
 dynasty about 250 B.C. Roused by an insult from the satrap 
 of Antiochus II., and taldng advantage of that monarch's war 
 with Egypt, he persuaded the Parthians to cast off the S}Tian 
 yoke, and assumed the dignity of an independent sovereign at 
 Hccatompylus ; but, according to Arrian, survived only two years. 
 
 Arsaces, Tiridates, brother of the preceding, was the 
 next monarch of the new kingdom. His struggle with Seleucus 
 
 Callinicus, who attempted to recover Parthia, was terminated by 
 the disastrous defeat and capture of the SjTian king, 238 B.C. • 
 from wliich some date the era of the Arsacidfe. 
 
 Arsaces, Artabanus I., succeeded his father Tiridates, 217 
 B.C. He attempted to add Media to his dominions ; but Anti- 
 ochus the Great recovered that province, and, invading Parthia, 
 compelled Artabanus to accept a treaty of peace, in which the 
 latter bound himself to aid the Syiians against the Bactrians. 
 
 Arsaces, Priapatius, son of Artabanus, succeeded to the 
 throne ; but of his reign there is almost nothing known. 
 
 Arsaces, Phraates I., son of Priapatius, distinguished his 
 short reign by the conquest of the Mardi, a warlike people near 
 the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Arsaces, Mitrridates I., brother of the preceding, has the 
 reputation of an amiable and enterpiising sovereign. The Bac- 
 trians and Medes were compelled to submit to him, and he ex- 
 tended his conquests even into India. Afterwards assailed by 
 Demetrius Nicator, king of Syria, he defeated the invader, and 
 took him prisoner, but treated him with great generosity, giving 
 him his sister in maniage, and aiding him to recover some 
 revolted provinces of his Syrian empire. 
 
 Arsaces, Phraates II., son and successor of Mithridates I., 
 defeated Antiochus VII. of Syria ; but lost his life in resisting 
 the aggressions of a Scythian anny which he had invited into 
 his territories to aid him against the Syrians. 
 
 Arsaces, Artabanus II., uncle of the preceding, was slain 
 in a war with one of the Scythian tribes. 
 
 Arsaces, Mithridates II., surnamed The Great, was 
 the son of Artabanus II. He extended considerably the boun- 
 daries of his kingdom ; and it was during his reign that the 
 Romans and the Parthians first came into contact, 92 B.C. 
 
 Arsaces !Mnascires, and Arsaces Sanatrceces, were 
 the tenth and eleventh kings of the dynasty, but nothing certain 
 is known of them. 
 
 Arsaces, Phraates III., sm-named Theos, reigned during 
 the tliird war of the Romans against Mithridates of Pontus, 70 
 B.C. Solicited by both parties, he vacillated, temporised, and 
 remained in a gi-eat measure neutral. He was assassinated by 
 his two sons, who succeeded him. 
 
 Arsaces, Mithridates III., was dethroned for tyranny, or, 
 according to some, driven from the throne by his brother Orodes. 
 
 Arsaces, Orodes I., defeated Crassns, and thrice uivaded 
 Syria. But the Romans proved too strong for him, and cha- 
 grin, added to the infirmities of age, led him to abdicate in 
 favour of his son Phraates, by whom he was put to death 37 B.C. 
 
 Arsaces, Phraates IV., successfully resisted the invasion 
 of Parthia by Antony. His reign was afterwards disturbed by 
 the rebellion of Tiridates ; and his youngest son fell into the 
 hands of Augustus, who restored him in exchange for the stan- 
 dards and prisoners taken from Crassus and Antony. 
 
 Ars.vces, PhrAjVtaces ; Arsaces, Orodes II. ; Arsaces, 
 Vonones I. — these princes were successively dethroned by their 
 own subjects within less than three years. 
 
 Arsaces, Artab^vnus III., an enterprising but tyrannical 
 ruler, carried his amis with success into Mesopotamia, and 
 placed his eldest son on the Armenian throne. But the discon- 
 tent of his subjects and Roman intrigue drove him more than 
 once into exile. He reigned fiir twenty-eight years from a.d. 16. 
 
 Arsaces, Gotarzes ; Arsaces, Bard^usies ; Arsaces, 
 Vonones II. — were the twentieth, twenty-first, and twenty- 
 second kings of the dynasty, but their brief reigns contained 
 nothing memorable. 
 
 Arsaces, Vologeses I., was one of the greatest of the 
 Parthian monarchs. Expelling Mithridates, he placed his brother 
 on the throne of Armenia, and when the Romans interfered, he 
 measured his strength with them in the field successfully ; but 
 the quarrel was afterwards adjusted, and Vologeses became an 
 honom-ed ally of Vespasian and Titus. 
 
 Arsaces Pacori:s, and Arsaces Ciiosroes, sons of 
 Vologeses I., followed in succession. Of the former veiy little 
 is known. The latter conquered Armenia, but was compelled 
 to succumb to the power of Trajan; Hadrian, however, permit- 
 ted him to reascend the throne, and the remainder of his reign 
 passed in tranquillity. 
 
 Arsa("es, Vologeses II., son of Chosroes, seemed to have 
 reigned for more than half a century. He at first maintained 
 friendly relations with Rome, but declared war with I\Iarcus 
 Aurelius. After some successes, he was compelled to accept a
 
 AES 
 
 245 
 
 ART 
 
 peace, wliicli made the Tigris the western boundary of the Par- 
 thian empire. Ausaces, Vologeses III., son of the former, 
 was engaged in hostilities with tlie Emperor Severus, and subse- 
 quently with Caracalla. 
 
 Arsaces, Artabanus IV., son of Vologeses III., having 
 escaped with difficulty the treacherous designs of Caracalla, took 
 the field against liim, defeated the Roman army at Nesibis, and 
 obtained an honourable peace from Caracalla's successor, Macri- 
 nus. His subsequent war with Persia, however, teniiinated in 
 his capture and death ; and with him ended the long line of the 
 Parthian Ai-sacidse, A.D. 226.— W. B. 
 
 Arsaces I. was placed on the throne of Annenia by his 
 father Artabanus III., king of Parthia; but in the com-se of the 
 same year was treacherously slain by some of his officers, at the 
 instigation of Mithridates, an Iberian prince, who took posses- 
 sion of the sovereignty. 
 
 Arsaces II. was the brother of Artabanus IV. of Parthia, 
 by whose influence he obtained the Armenian throne. He joined 
 Alexander Severus in the war against Ai-taxerxes, the son of 
 Sassan ; and died about the midille of the second centuiy. 
 
 Arsaces III., sm-named Tiraxus, reigned in the middle of 
 the fourth century. In the war of the Romans against Sapor 
 II., he was found at first fighting on the side of the Persians, 
 but afterwards made peace with Constantius, and married a 
 relation of the Roman emperor. In the reign of Julian he again 
 changed sides ; but Sapor, after a time, threw him mto prison, 
 where, at his own request, one of his slaves put him to death. 
 
 Arsaces IV., a weak and unfortunate monarch, was attacked 
 by Theodosius and Sapor III., who divided his dominions be- 
 tween them ; but he was pennitted by the Roman emperor to 
 2;ovem Little Ai-menia as a tributaiy prince, till his death in 
 A.D. 389.— W. B. 
 
 ARSACHEL. See Aezachet.. 
 
 ARS-BREMOND. See Bremond. 
 
 ARSENIUS, Saint, a deacon of the church of Rome, in the 
 latter half of the fourth centuiy, was preceptor of Arcadius, the 
 fldest son of the Emperor Theodosius, who directed him to treat 
 liis pupil vrithout regard to his noble birth. The disposition of 
 the prince, however, drove him from that office ; and he retked 
 to a hermitage in Egypt, where he died, A.D. 445, at the age of 
 ninety, having resisted more than one temptation to excliange 
 Ids poverty and seclusion for court favom' and affluence. — W. B. 
 
 ARSENIUS, AuTOEiANUS, patriarch of Constantinople about 
 the middle of the thirteenth ceutmy. The reputation for sanctity 
 which he acquired as an anchorite, induced Theodosius Lascaris 
 II. to draw him from his solitude ; and in the space of one week 
 he rose from the lowest to the highest ecclesiastical office. Left 
 liy the Greek emperor in charge of his infant heir, the patriarch 
 lioldly resisted the usurper MichaeHs Pala^ologus, but was ulti- 
 mately deposed and banished to the island of Proconnesus (now 
 Mannora), where he died. — W. B. 
 
 ARSENIUS, Aristobulus, archbishop of Monembasia (now 
 .Malvasia), in the Morea, was distinguished by his literary ac- 
 qiiu-ements. His principal work, " Prajclara dicta philosopho- 
 nim imperatonmi," &c., was published at Rome, and his edition 
 of Greek Scholia on Emipides at Venice, where he died in exile 
 A.D. 1535. 
 
 ARSENIUS, a Greek bishop of Elasso, who visited Moscow 
 with the patriarch of Constantinople, at the institution of the 
 Russian patriarchate, in the end of the sixteenth century. He 
 ■wrote a nan-ative of their mission, and of the variations of the 
 (ircck church, which was printed at Turin in 1749. 
 
 ARSENIUS, a Russian monk, whom the patriarch Joseph 
 shut up in the convent of Solowitz, for attempting to reform the 
 liturgy of the old Slavonian church in the seventeenth century. 
 
 ARSENNE, Louis- Charles, a French historical painter, 
 bom at Paris in 1790, author of a manual in which he traces 
 some of the relations of mediaeval and modem art. 
 
 ARSHENEVSKY, Basil Kondratevitcii, professor of 
 mathematics in the university at Moscow, died in 1808. He 
 published two discom'ses on the progi-ess and relations of some 
 of the physical sciences. 
 
 ARSHI, a Turkish poet of the sixteenth century, celebrated 
 for his ingenious chronograms. 
 
 ARSILLI, Francesco, an accomplished Italian physician of 
 the sixteenth centuiy, professor of medicine at Rome, under 
 Leo X. ; wrote a number of Latin poems, of which only one has 
 been published, " Do Poetis Urbanis." 
 
 ARSINOE, the name of several princesses connected with the 
 Ptolemies of Egypt ; the following were the most distinguished : — 
 
 AiisiNOE, (hiughter of Ptolemy Lagus, king of Egypt, and 
 of Berenice, was manied to old Lysimachus, king of Thrace. 
 Lysimachus having fallen in battle, his territories were seized by 
 Seleucus, who in tmii was slain by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who put 
 to death the children of Arsinoe, manied her— though her half 
 brother — -and tlien banished her to the island of Samothrace. 
 She was aftei-wards summoned to Egypt to form an incestuous 
 alliance with Ptolemy Philadelphus, who reigned from 284 
 B.C. to 276 B.C. 
 
 Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy Euergetes, called Eurydice 
 by Justin, and Cleopatra by Livy ; manied to her brother, 
 Ptolemy Philopator. She accompanied the anny of her hus- 
 band to the battle between the Egyptians and Antiochus at 
 Raphia, the border town between Egypt and Palestine, rode on 
 horseback through the ranks, and contributed mainly to the 
 victory over the Syrian amiy, 217 B.C. Led astray by his 
 mistress Agathoclea, Ptolemy, soon after the birth of Arsinoe's 
 only child, employed PhUammon to put her to death. 
 
 Arsinoe, daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, and 
 first wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. By her he 
 had three children — Ptolemy, who succeeded him, Lysimachus, 
 and Berenice ; but having found that liis vrife was intriguing 
 with Amyntas, and vrith his physician, Chrysippus of Rhodes, 
 he put these two to death, and banished the queen to Coptos in 
 the Thebaid.— T. J. 
 
 Arsinoe, a concubine of Philip of Macedon, afterwards 
 man-ied to a Macedonian named Lagus, was the mother of 
 Ptolemy I. 
 
 Arsinoe, wife of Magas, king of Cyi-ene, whose daughter 
 Berenice was manied to Ptolemy III. 
 
 Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy XL, and sister of the cele- 
 brated Cleopatra, at whose desire she was put to death by 
 Antony, on her release, after having graced the triumph of 
 Cffisar.— W. B. 
 
 ARTABANUS, the smiiame of several Parthian Idngs. See 
 Arsaces. 
 
 ARTABANUS, commander of the body guards of Xerxes, 
 conspired against his master, and slew him, 465 B.C. His sub- 
 sequent attempts to remove the sons of the murdered monarch 
 were unsuccessful, and he died by the hand of Artaxerxes. 
 
 ARTABANUS, a brother of Darius Hystaspes, and a coun- 
 sellor at the court of Xerxes. 
 
 ARTABASDUS. See Artavasdes. 
 
 ARTABAZES, the name of three Armenian kings. See Ar- 
 tavasdes. 
 
 ARTABAZUS. The following celebrated Persian generals 
 bore this name : — 
 
 Artabazus, the son of Phamaces, who led 60,000 Parthians 
 imder Xerxes, in his expedition against Greece. He was with 
 Mardonius at Platea, and distinguished himself by the ability 
 with which he extricated his men from the rout, and retreated 
 to Byzantium, 480 b.c. 
 
 Artabazus, an officer of Artaxerxes I., in concert with 
 Mcgabyzus, quelled the revolt of Inarus in Egypt, 450 b.c. 
 
 Artabazus, a general whom Artaxerxes II. employed 
 against the rebel satraps, 362 b.c. He afterwards sei-vcd 
 Darius Codomannus, and attended him in his flight after the 
 battle of Arbela.— W. B. 
 
 ARTACHjEES, a Persian, distinguished by his stature, and 
 the extraordinary loudness of his voice; he re-cut the canal 
 through the isthmus at Athos for Xerxes. 
 
 ARTALDUS. See Artaud. 
 
 ARTALE, Giuseppe, an Italian officer of distinguished 
 bravery. He fought against the Turks at the siege of Candia, 
 and served with h(mour several princes. He also acquired con- 
 siderable fame as a poet. He died in 1679. 
 
 ARTAPIIERNES, a son of Hystaspes, was satrap at Sardis, 
 under his brother Darius. He put down a revolt of the lonians, 
 499 B.C., and introduced a iiuinber of wise regulations for the 
 improvement of the province. 
 
 ARTAPIIERNES, son of the preceding, accompanied Dates 
 in command of the expedition which Darius sent against tlie 
 Athenians, 490 b.c , and ten years later, led the Lydians and 
 Mysians in the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. 
 
 ARTAPIIERNES, envoy from Artaxerxes I. to the Spartans 
 425 B.C., was arrested by Aristides in Thrace, but aftcnvards
 
 released and sent home with proposals for an alliance between 
 Athens and Persia. 
 
 AKTARIA, an enterprising publisher of music at Vienna, 
 who introduced music-engraving into that city, died in 1799. 
 
 ARTARIO, Giuseppe, an Itahan sculptor, born at Argegno, 
 near Lugano, in 1G97, died at Cologne, 17G9. The son and 
 pupil of Battista, a clever architect of his time, he finished liis 
 studies in Eome, where he avoided following the predominant 
 mannerism, and ailhered solely to the simple style of antiquity. 
 Many are the works which this ai-tist carried out, especially those 
 for the elector of Cologne, in whose sen'ice were spent the 
 last years of his active hfe. — R. IM. 
 
 ARTASIRES {Arm. ARDASHES or ARDASHIR), the last 
 Arsacid king of Armenia. He was placed on the throne by Bah- 
 ram V. of Pereia, who subsequently deposed him, annexing his 
 dominions to Persia, under the name of Persarmenia, 248 B.C. 
 
 ARTAUD (Lat. ARTALDUS), a Benedictine monk, who 
 succeeded Hcribert of Vermandois, in the archbishopric of 
 Rheims, in 932. He anointed Louis d'Outre Mer to the throne 
 of France, and after various vicissitudes became his chancellor. 
 
 ARTAUD, Francois, who had charge of the museum at 
 Lyons m the beginning of the nineteenth century, was a member 
 of the French academy, and an ardent antiquarian. He pub- 
 lished several archaeological dissertations, and a larger work on 
 the mosaics of the district, left unfinished at his death in 1838. 
 
 ARTAUD, Jk.\n Baptists, a French di-amatist, born at 
 Jlontpellier in 1732. His works, of which the first and most suc- 
 cessful was " La Centenaire de Molifere," are now httle known. 
 
 ARTAUD DE MONTOR, Alexis-Francois, chevaUer, a 
 popuhir French diplomatist, bom at Paris m 1772, latterly de- 
 voted hunself to literary pursuits, and has pubhshed a jiumber 
 of works, aesthetic and historical. 
 
 ARTAVASDES or ARTABAZES. Thi-ee kings of Ai-menia 
 bore this name : — 
 
 Artavasdes I., son of Tigranes I., allied himself vrith the 
 Romans when Crassus invaded Parthia. He subsequently joined 
 the Parthians, was taken prisoner by Antony, and after the 
 battle of Actium was put to death by Cleopatra, 35 B.C. He 
 had been educated in Greece, and Plutarch speaks of him as the 
 author of several dramatic and historical works. 
 
 Artavasdes IL, a son or gi-andson of the preceding, was 
 placed on the throne of Armenia by Augustus, 5 B.C. ; but in 
 the course of the following year his subjects expelled him. 
 
 Artavasdes IIL was king of Armenia towards the close of 
 the tliird centuiy, and assisted Sapor I. of Persia in his war 
 against Valerian. — W. B. 
 
 ARTAVASDES or ARTABASDUS, an Ai-menian com- 
 mander in the semce of the Eastern empire, who rebelled 
 against Constantino Copronymus, and was proclaimed emperor 
 in 742 ; but in the following year he was defeated, taken 
 prisoner, and deprived of his eyesight by Constantine. 
 
 ARTAXERXES, the name of four Persian kings, derived 
 from "arta" honoured, and the Zend "ksathi'a," khig : — 
 
 Artaxerxes L, suiTiamed Lo^■GIMA^aTS, or the Long- 
 handed, because his right hand was longer than his left, son of 
 Xerxes L, reigned from 465 B.C. to 425 B.C., " and was," says 
 Plutarch, " of all the Persian kings, the most distmguished for 
 his moderation and greatness of mind." He did not succeed to 
 his father's throne till he had slain the usui-per Artabanus, who 
 had assassmated Xei-xcs, and at whose instigation Artaxerxes 
 ])ut to death his own elder brother. The Eg}'ptians revolted 
 during his reign under Inarus, who, aided by the Athenians, 
 mamtained a successful resistance to the Persian generals till 
 456 or 455 B.C., when Inarus was defeated, treacherously made 
 prisoner, conveyed to Persia, and slain. Another insm-gent, 
 however, named Amyrtajus, entrenching himself among the 
 marshes of the Delta, defied all the eflbrts of the Persians to 
 subdue hun. Some time after these events, Megabyzus, the con- 
 queror of Inarus, revolted in Syria ; a reconciliation, however, 
 took place between him and Artaxerxes, whose reign does not 
 seem subsequently to have been disturbed. He received tlie 
 exiled Themistocles at his court ; and permitted the Jews to re- 
 establish the observances of their religion at Jerusalem. 
 
 Artaxerxes IL, sumamed Mnemon, on account of liis 
 extraordinary memory, was the eldest son of Darius II. or Darius 
 Nothus, by Parj-satis, daughter of the first Ailaxei-xes. Cyras, 
 the second son, was his mother's favourite, and when l)arius 
 was djdng she attempted to prevail on him to make Cyrus bis 
 
 successor, on the ground that Artaxerxes, or, as he was at first 
 called, Ai'sicas, had been borne to him when he was as yet in a 
 private station, but the younger prince when he was a king, 
 Paiysatis was unsuccessful, and C}tus, after being detected in 
 a plot against his brother's life, was sent back to his satrapy on 
 the coast of Asia Slinor. Artaxerxes II. ascended the throne 
 405 B.C., and reigned till 359 B.C. Aided by Greek mercenaries, 
 CjTus soon revolted, marched against Babylon, and came to an en- 
 gagement with his brother at Cunaxa, where Cyras was slain, 401 
 B.C. (See Cyrus.) The successful retreat of the ten thousand 
 Greek auxiUaries, almost from the Persian monarch's palace 
 doors, revealed the essential weakness of Persia as a military 
 power, and the Lacedaemonians in particular made strenuous 
 efforts to liberate the Asiatic colonies from servitude. Their 
 expeditions under Thimbron and DercylUdas met, however, with 
 little success, and it was not till the conduct of the war had been 
 intrasted to Agesilaus, that the severe defeat suffered by his 
 satrap Tissaphernes, convinced Artaxei^xes that he must adopt 
 new tactics. He now, therefore, sent into Greece the " 30,000 
 archers," which Agesilaus, alluding to the impress upon the 
 Persian money of the period, said drove him out of Asia. The 
 able Spartan was recalled, and in 394 B.C. Ai'taxerxes, by the 
 aid of the Athenian Conon, gained the decisive naval victory of 
 Cnidus. In 388 B.C. ensued the peace of Antalcidas, so dis- 
 graceful to Greece, and entirely of the Persian long's modelling. 
 Artaxerxes, however, was imsuccessful against the revolted 
 Egyptians, whUe insurrections of liis satraps, and a long struggle 
 with Evagoras, prince of Cyprus, contributed to make his reign 
 unquiet. He was obliged to put to death liis son Darius for 
 attempting to dethrone him, and the conduct of another son, 
 Ochus (See Artaxerxes IIL), additionally embittered the 
 closing years of his reign. He died at the age of nhiety-four, 
 leaving, says Plutarch, the character of a lenient prince, who 
 loved his people. 
 
 Artaxerxes III., the Ochus mentioned in the preceding 
 article as son of Artaxerxes IL, reigned from 359 b.c. to 338 
 B.C. He was a crael and sanguiuaiy prince, and paved his 
 way by murder to the throne. Aiiaspes his brother, Arsames, 
 an illegitimate but favourite son of Aitaxerxes IL, intended by 
 that monarch as his successor, and twenty-fom- other royal 
 childi'en, became liis victims, before he considered hunself secure 
 of power. He was more successful than his father in subduing 
 the Egyptians, owing to the assistance of Greek generals and 
 mercenaries. In Egypt he caused the ox Apis to be slain, and 
 sen'ed up to him at a banquet. He was poisoned by the eunuch 
 Bagoas, to whom he had abandoned the reins of power. 
 
 Artaxerxes or Ardsiiir, founder of the dynasty of the 
 Sassanidae. See Sassaxid.e. — A. M. 
 
 ARTAXIAS, otherwise ARTAXES, was the name of several 
 Ai'menian kings : — 
 
 Artaxias L, a general under Antiochus the Great, with his 
 sanction assumed the sovereignty of Greater AiTnenia, about 190 
 B.C. ; founded the capital Artaxata on the Araxes ; and after 
 a reign of twenty years, was detlironed by Antiochus Epiphanes. 
 Artaxias II., the eldest son of Aitavasdes I., was called 
 to the throne when his father was taken prisoner by Antony, 34 
 B.C., and in a few years was assassinated by some of his kins- 
 men, while attempting to maintain himself against Augustus, by 
 the assistance of the Parthians. 
 
 Artaxias III. was the title assumed by Zeno, a son of 
 Polemo, king of Pontus, when Gennanicus conferred upon him 
 the sovereignty of Armenia, 18 B.C. Nothing is known of his 
 reign except that he rendered himself popular among his sub- 
 jects, by his thorough conformity to the national customs. — W. B. 
 ARTEAGA, Hortensio-Felice Paravicino, born at Ma- 
 drid in 1780, was chaplain to Philip III., and celebrated as a 
 preacher, though his printed sermons have not spread his fame ; 
 he published ;dso a volume of poems, and left an unfinished 
 manuscript on " Christian Constancy." 
 
 ARTEAGA, Stefano, a Spanish Jesuit of the eighteenth 
 century, who, when the order was suppressed in Spain, with- 
 drew to Italy, and afterwards settled in France. He wrote 
 several works on poetry, one of which, entitled " Le Eevoluzioni 
 del Teatro Slusicale Italiano," is of great excellence. 
 
 ARTEAGA Y ALFARO, Matias, a Spanish pamter and 
 engi-aver, who died in 1704. The perspective of his paintings 
 has been much admired, but his fame rests still more on tho 
 excellence of his engi'avings.
 
 ARTEDI, Peter, an eminent nahu-alist, was bom at Anund, 
 in the province of Ingermanland, in Sweden, on 22nd Febmar}-, 
 1705. In bis youth be showed a leaning to natural history-, 
 and took an interest in the study of fishes. In 1724 he went 
 to the university of Upsal, where he studied medicine and 
 natural history. He became the intimate friend of Linnaeus, and 
 prosecuted along with him his studies at Upsal. He ■\Tsited 
 England in 1734, and subsequently went to Leyden, where he 
 met LimiJBus, and was introduced by him to Seba, an apothe- 
 cary of Amsterdam, whom he assisted in bringing out a work on 
 fishes. He had pre^^ously given aid in this department to 
 Linnaeus. His aiTangement of fishes became popular in Europe. 
 He died at the early age of tliirty, on the 27th September, 
 1735, by accidentally falling into one of the canals at Amster- 
 dam. His manuscripts came into the possession of Linna;us, 
 and his " Bibliotbeca Ichthyologica," and " PhOosopliia Ichthyo- 
 logica," were pubhshed at Leyden in 1738. His botanical work 
 was a ti-eatise on the natm-al order " LTmbellifera?," in which be 
 endeavoured to found generic characters on the involucre and in- 
 volucel of these plants. A genus of umbelliferous plants was 
 named by Linnfeus Artedia, in honour of his friend. — J. H. B. 
 
 ARTEIIIDORUS, a grammarian, 240 B.C., seems to have 
 been a pupil of Aristophanes of Byzantium ; only a few unim- 
 portant fragments of his works remain. 
 
 ARTEMIDORUS, a Greco-Roman painter of the first cen- 
 tury of our era. He was one of the last adherents to the 
 obsolete hieratic school, which was stiU in request to furnish 
 images for temples of a strict orthodox character. The severity 
 of his designs being no longer in accordance with the laxity in 
 religions matters prevalent at the time, his works were the 
 object of ridicule to the beaux esprlts of Rome. JIartial wrote 
 an epigi-am upon a "Venus" by this artist, which he considered 
 as better suited to represent a " ^linerva." — R. M. 
 
 ARTEillDORUS, Capiton, a Greek physician and gram- 
 marian, flourished in the reign of Adrian, 117-138. His edition 
 of Hippocrates was held in esteem so late as the age of Galen. 
 
 ARTEIIIDORUS of Cxidus, son of Theopompus, is said by 
 Plutarch to have delivered to Cssar, on the fatal Ides of JIarch, 
 a letter warning him of the conspu-acy of Bratus and Cassius. 
 
 ARTEMIDORUS, Corxelius, a Roman physician, bom in 
 Asia Minor, who attached himself to Verres, and aided him to 
 destroy the temple of Diana at Perga, in 79 B.C. 
 
 ARTEMIDORtfS, Daldiaxus, was a native of Ephesus, 
 and author of five books concerning dreams, " 'Ove/'o-js^/t/ssm," 
 is by some supposed to have flourished under the emperors 
 Adrian and Antoninus Pius, and by others mider JIarcus 
 Aurelius. His work, which is only valuable for the glimpses 
 of ancient manners in which it abounds, was laboriously compiled 
 from researches made in various countries, such as Greece and 
 Italy, through which he journeyed in order to make the acquain- 
 tance of whoever, like himself, was reputed skilled in the inter- 
 pretation of di-eams. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTEMIDORUS of Ephesus, a geographer, lived 104 B.C., 
 travelled extensively in Europe and Asia, and wrote a " Descrip- 
 tion of the Earth," in eleven books, which seems to have been 
 anciently much esteemed. — (See Geogr. Veteres, Oxford, 1703.) 
 
 ARTEMISIA, daughter of Lygdamis, and queen of Caria 
 by marriage, flomished 480 B.C., and furnished five ships to 
 the expedition of Xerxes against Greece. She displayed so 
 much bravery at the battle of Salamis, that Xerxes exclaimed, 
 " the men behave like women, and the women like men." She 
 passionately loved Dardanus, a gentleman of Abydus ; and when 
 he neglected her, threw herself fi'om the promontoiy of Leucas 
 (now Santa !Maura), and was drowned. — T. J. 
 
 ARTEMISIA, another queen of Caria, wife of Mausolus, who 
 bmlt to liis memory a stately tomb called JIausoleum, considered 
 one of the seven wonders of the world. She often %asited the 
 spot which contained his ashes, mingled the dust with water, 
 and drinking it, exclaimed, that she ^vished to become the living 
 sepulchre of her departed lord. Though so tender a ■n-idow, she 
 was a vigorous governor ; for she commanded in person her 
 army in a war against the Rhodians, took possession of their 
 island, and displayed much address in maintaining the sovereignty 
 over them which she had acquired by her bravery. She hved in 
 the foiuih century B.C. — T. J. 
 
 ARTEMIUS or ARTHEMIUS, one of the martyrs of the 
 Greek church, was commander-in-chief of the Roman forces in 
 Egypt, towards the end of the reign of the Emperor Constantius. 
 
 He aided George, bishop of Alexandiia, in overthrowing the 
 pagan altars of that city ; and, for his zeal in that matter, was 
 beheaded at Antioch, by Julian the Apostate, in 362. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTEJION, a Greek painter, flouiishing about 340 B.C. He 
 is said to have followed the exaggerated style of the school of 
 Ai-istides. 
 
 ARTEMON, a S}-rian, who, m 187 B.C., after the death of 
 Antiochus the Great, at the request of the queen, Laodice, per- 
 sonated that monarch whom he much resembled, and from his 
 couch committed the queen and her children to the care of the 
 coiu'tiers who smTOimded him. 
 
 ARTEMON, a Greco-Roman sculptor, who, towards the end 
 of the first century of our era, executed, with Pythodorus, 
 several of the best statues in the palace of the Caesars. 
 
 ARTEJION OF Cassaxdrlv, a Greek grammarian, men- 
 tioned by Athena;us as the author of a work entitled " Collec- 
 tion of Books," and of another entitled "Convi\ial Songs," lived 
 about the year 300 B.C. 
 
 ARTEilON, OF Clazojienct:, a celebrated Greek engineer, 
 said to have been the inventor of the " testudo" and of the bat- 
 tering ram, was present with Pericles at the siege of Samos. 
 
 ARTEilON OF PEBGA3IUS, a Greek rhetorician, author of 
 a histoiy of Sicily, of which the only remains are the portions 
 cited by the grammarians. 
 
 ARTEMON or ARTEMAS, a heretic of the tliird centiuy, 
 founder of the sect of the Artcmonites, who denied the divinity 
 of Christ, and maintained that the apostles and their successors, 
 to the time of Victor XIIL, bishop of Rome, held the same 
 doctrine. He is supposed to have lived near Rome, of which city 
 his friend Tlieodotus was an inhabitant. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTEPHIUS or ARTEFIUS, an alchemist, supposed to have 
 lived in the twelfth century, was an Arabian, according to some 
 accounts, and a converted Jew according to others. Several of 
 his treatises are extant ; one in the " Theatmm Chemicum " of 
 Zetzner, 1613, and another translated by Pierre Amauld, Paris, 
 1612. In the first he declares himself writing at the somewhat 
 advanced age of one thousand and twenty-five years. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTE VELD, Jacob vax, a celebrated Flemish patriot 
 of the fourteenth centmy. His riches, eloquence, and experi- 
 ence in diplomatic business, put him at the head of afiairs in his 
 native to\\"n of Ghent, at a time when the Flemings, subject to 
 Louis II., count of Flanders, bad resolved to extend their fiber- 
 ties, or at least to rid themselves of certain imposts which they 
 thought oppressive. The French wars of Edward III. of Eng- 
 land, in which he requested the assistance of the discontented 
 Flemings against the lord-superior of their coimt, Philip VI. of 
 Valois, presented an excellent opportunity for revolt, and accord- 
 ingly, in 1339, Arteveld, acting for the duke of Brabant, the 
 cities of Louvain, Ghent, Ypres, and many others, concluded a 
 treaty with Edward, by which the English king, styling himself 
 king of France, was acknowledged lord-superior of Flandei-s. 
 Edward's victory over the French fleet off Sluys in 1340, con- 
 firmed for a time both his titles; but the defeat of St. Omer 
 obhged him to make peace •n-ith France, and a rupture ensued 
 between the Flemings and their new superior. The alliance was 
 revived after Edward's renewal of the war with Philip, and he 
 was now persuaded by Arteveld to make his son, the Black 
 Prince, count of Flanders. This project was defeated, and the 
 career of its author terminated by a revolt of the citizens of 
 Ghent against the authority of Arteveld, which appears to have 
 taken its rise in the personal enmity of one Gherard Denis. Ar- 
 teveld and fifty of his friends were murdered by a rabble of 
 their fellow-citizens, on the 2nd Jlay, 1344. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTEVELD, Philip van, son of the preceding, inheriting 
 his father's wealth, and something of his ambition and his genius, 
 lived quietly in his native town of Ghent till 1382, when his fel- 
 low-citizens, having revolted from Count Louis III. of Flanders, 
 summoned hun to the supreme command of the city, — a dignity 
 which Van der Hosch, who had carried on the revolt from the 
 death of its originator Hyons, was willing enough to resign. 
 After summarily avenging the death of his fatlier, Arteveld 
 obliged Louis to raise the siege of Ghent, and pursued him to 
 Bi-uges, where the Ghenters gained a great victory, which re- 
 sulted in the flight of Louis, and the submission of most of the 
 Flemish towns to the dictatorship of Arteveld. Charles VI. of 
 France took the exiled count under his protection, and finally 
 sent Messire de Clisson with an amiy to reinstate him. <)ii 
 the 29th November, the French anny, in which Charles himself
 
 =n 
 
 held a subordinate command, and the Flemings, commanded by 
 Arteveld, met at Rosebeck. The engagement, doubtful for a time, 
 resulted in the defeat of the Flemings, 9000 of whom perished 
 on the field of battle, and 26,000 in the pui-suit. Arteveld was 
 among the slain. Arteveld's career has been made the subject 
 of a drama by Henry Taylor. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTHMANN, a German instrument-maker of the eighteenth 
 century, whose lutes and \'iolins were miiversally admired, Uved 
 at Wechmar, near Gotha. 
 
 ARTHUR, a king of Britain, in the time of the Saxon inva- 
 sions in the fifth and sixth centuries. Many writers (Milton 
 amongst others) have doubted whether this famous chieftain 
 ever existed ; others imagine that in the stoiy of his career, as 
 told by the monkish historians and ancient poets, they can detect 
 certain points of truth. What amount of truth and error exists 
 in these old chronicles can never be fully ascertained. The 
 actions and characters of men living in the gi'ey morning-light 
 of time, are sure to be distorted and exaggerated. In the ddvm 
 of history we have only doubtful unages of things, never clear 
 vision ; and om- efforts to separate the time from the false, even 
 were they successful, would hardly repay the trouble. It is 
 v.'iser, perhaps, to accept a heroic legend with poetic faith, than 
 to explode it by a too-zealous research. 
 
 According to the legendary historians, Ai-thm- was the son of 
 Uther Pendragon, by Ignera, wife of Gorlois, duke of Cornwall, a 
 lady whose channs he enjoyed by assuming, thi'ough a magical 
 device, the person of her husband. He was elected king of 
 Britain at the age of fifteen, and immediately declared war 
 against the Saxons in the North of England, and defeated them 
 so sorely in several battles, that they were obliged to seek re- 
 fuge on the sea. Shortly after, they landed in Devonshu-e, 
 where Arthur again attacked them, and the poets proudly sing 
 how he slew nearly five hundred of them by his owti good 
 sword. He went to Scotland, subduing the Scots and Picts 
 there. Next, he earned his aims to Ireland and Iceland, both 
 falhng before him. Returning to Britain in triumph, he married 
 Guenhever, said to be the fairest lady m the land : with her he 
 lived in great peace and content for twelve years. Thereafter 
 he conquered Gaul and Nonvay, and even, it is said, fleshed his 
 sword " Calibum " on the hordes of Muscovy. Returning from 
 these conquests, he was crowned in England ; routs of tributary 
 kings attending, and holding rich and solemn feast around him. 
 On the Roreans demanding tribute, Arthur with his chivalry 
 crossed into Gaul, defeated the Romans in a mighty battle, and 
 was preparing to stonn across the Alps, when intelligence 
 reached him from home that his nephew Modred had revolted, 
 and allied himself with the Saxons, Scots, and Picts. He re- 
 turned in haste, flung hhnself on the rebels in Kent, chased 
 them into Cornwall, and there, on the banks of the river Camlan, 
 he fought the last of his fields. In this battle Modred was slain, 
 and Arthur mortally wounded. He died, and was bimed at 
 Glastonbury. It was long beheved by his countrymen that he 
 was not dead, but carried to fairy- land, there to couch on flowers 
 till his deep wounds were healed, and that he would yet reap- 
 pear, and, with his terrible sword, lead them to victory over 
 their enemies. — A. S. 
 
 ARTHUR, Prince of Wales, was son of Henry VII. of Eng- 
 land, and the first husband of Catheiine of Arragon. He was 
 born in 1486, and died in 1502, a year after his marriage. 
 
 ARTHUR I., duke of Brittany, son of Godfrey the Handsome, 
 count of Anjou, fourth son of Heni-y II. of England, born in 
 1187, was put to death by his uncle in 1202. 
 
 ARTHUR II., duke of Brittany, son of John and Beatrice of 
 England, was born in 1262, and died in 1312. 
 
 ARTHUR III., duke of Brittany and Touraine, constable of 
 France, was bom in 1393. He distinguished himself at the 
 siege of Soissons in 1414, and in the following year received from 
 Charles VI. the duchy of Touraine, and other heritages, on the 
 simple condition of taking them out of theur owners' hands. He 
 was wounded at the battle of Agincourt, and carried prisoner to 
 London, but recovered his liberty shortly after, and, returning to 
 France, was appointed constable of the realm. He was in dis- 
 grace with the ministers of Charies VII. from 1424 to 1432, but 
 in the latter year resumed the chief direction of militaiy afl'airs. 
 In the years 1438-1448, he commanded under Charies VII. at 
 the sieges of Montereau and Pontoise, and in the campaigns in 
 Guienne and Koniiandy. On his nephew's death, at the com- 
 mencement of 1456, Ai-thur succeeded to the duchy of Bretagne, 
 
 but still retained, from love of its duties, the post of constable of 
 France. He died in December of the same year. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTHUR, Rev. Archibald, was assistant and successor 
 to Dr. Reid in the chair of Moral Philosophy in Glasgow. He 
 was bom at Abbot's Inch, in the parish of Renfrew, in 1744, 
 and died in 1797. There is a posthumous volume by him, en- 
 titled " Discourses on Theological and Literaiy subjects," 1803, 
 edited by Professor Richardson, and containing an account of 
 his Ufe. His views do not seem profound or original, but his 
 style is elegant, and he has some good remarks on cause and 
 effect, and on beauty. — J. M'C. 
 
 ARTHUR, Sir George, Bart., the fourth son of John 
 Ailhur, Esq., of Plymouth, was bom in 1784, and entered the 
 army at an early age. Having seen active ser\'ice in the Penin- 
 sula, he was successively governor of Honduras, Van Diemen's 
 Land, Canada, and Bombay. He was also a lieutenant-general 
 in the amiy, and colonel of the 50th regiment of foot. He 
 received the honour of knighthood in 1837, and was created a 
 biu-onet m 1841. He died September 19 1854.— E. W. 
 
 ARTHUR, James, born at I^imerick, was a Dominican friar 
 and professor of divinity at Salamanca, but lost his chair in 1642 
 for refusing to subscribe to the doctrine of the immaculate con- 
 cejition. He ^vrote a commentai-y on Thomas Aquinas' " Sum 
 of Theology." Died 1670. 
 
 ARTHUS, ARTHUSIUS, or ARTUS, a compiler and 
 translator, bom at Dantzig in 1570, studied at Jena, and in 
 1618 was rector of the public school of Frankfort-on-the-Maine. 
 The date of his death is uncertain. His works, written in 
 Dutch, German, and Latm, are of no particular merit. 
 
 ARTHUSIUS, GuLiELMus, a physician, author of several 
 professional works, published at Strasbm'g between the years 
 1628 and 1630. 
 
 ARTIAGU. See Arteaga. 
 
 ARTIEDA, Andres Rey de, a Spanish philosopher and 
 poet, bom at Valencia in 1560, practised for some time as an 
 advocate, and aftei-wards distinguished himself in the anny of 
 the duke of Parma, govemor of the Low Countries. Died at 
 Valencia about the year 1G25. He published, besides some 
 theatrical pieces, a work entitled " Discursos, Epistolas y Epi- 
 grammas de Artemidora," 1605." — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTIGA, Francisco d', a Spanish artist of the latter 
 part of the seventeenth century, distinguished as an architect, 
 painter, and engraver, of florid imagination and tasteful design. 
 He obtained celebrity also as a mathematician and poet. Died 
 in 1711.— R. M. 
 
 ARTIGAS, Fernando Jose, was bom at Monte Video 
 about the year 1760. Originally a captain of brigands, and 
 in that character possessing unlimited influence in the Banda- 
 Oriental, he headed the revolutionists of Buenos Ayres, who, 
 in 1811, defeated Elio, the Spanish viceroy, at Las Piedras, 
 and twice laid siege to Monte Video. In 1814, a decree of 
 outla\vry having been issued against him, he mustered his 
 forces, and in several skirmishes defeated the troops of the 
 government, who were at length obliged to acknowledge him as 
 chief of the Banda-Oriental. His contest with the government 
 was resumed in the following year, and maintained with various 
 success till 1820, when he was forced, by a lieutenant of the 
 name of Ramirez, to seek refuge in Paraguay. Francia, dictator 
 of Paraguay, sent him to the callage of Cumgaty, and there the 
 last years of his adventurous life were passed in the peaceful 
 occupation of cultivating a fann, which had been assigned for 
 his support. He died in 1826. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARTIGNY, Antoine Gachat d', a French litterateur and 
 antiquarian, canon of Vienne, in Dauphind, was bom 1706, and 
 died in 1778. 
 
 ARTIGUES, Herbert, a French dramatist, lived about the 
 middle of the eighteenth century. 
 
 ARTIS, Gabriel d', a French protestant controversialist, 
 bom at MUhaud, in AvejTon, died in London in 1 730. 
 
 ARTIS, Jean d', or ARTISIUS, a French canonist, profes- 
 sor of canon law in the university of Paris, and author of vari- 
 ous polemical and antiquarian works, was bom at Cahors in 
 1572, and died at Paris in 1651. 
 
 ARTMANN, Jerome, a celebrated organ-biulder of Bohemia, 
 lived in the seventeenth century. 
 
 ARTNER, Maria Therese von, author of several tragedies, 
 and other poetical pieces; born at Schnitau in Hungaiy, 19th 
 April, 1772; died at Agram, 25th November, 1829.
 
 ARTOIS, Jacquks van, a celebrated Belt^ian painter, born 
 at Brussels in 1613 ; died about 16G5. He studied under 
 Wildens, and woi-ked for and with Vandycke, who was on 
 intimate terms with him. Endowed with an extraordinary 
 facility, he produced a great number of works, which procured 
 him large returns, unfortunately too lightly dissipated. His 
 paintings are very remarkable for delicacy of handling and 
 strength of colouring. Some of the best works of this master 
 are to be seen at Munich, and in the gallery of Vienna there 
 are two very large landscapes by him. — R. JI. 
 
 ARTOJIEDES, Sebastian, a Lutheran preacher at Lan- 
 genzee in 1544 ; died at Konigsberg in 1602. He published 
 several religious works. 
 
 ARTOMIUS, PioTR, an ecclesiastical poet, bora at Grodzisk 
 in Great Poland, on the 26th July, 1552, and died at Thorn, 
 2nd August, 1609.— G. M. 
 
 ARTOP^EUS, Grecized form of the German surname Becker 
 (Baker), the name of several German authors who contributed 
 to the propagation of protestantism — 
 
 Artop.eus, Johaxn, bora 1520, died about 1580, was pro- 
 fessor of jurisprudence in the university of Freiburg. He is 
 author of " Colloquia duo elegantissima, alterura sensus et 
 rationis, altenun adulationis et paupertatis, quibus viva humante 
 vita3 imago esprimitur," Basle. 1547, 8vo; " Notie ad Erasmi 
 Parabolas," Freiburg, 1566. 
 
 Aktop.els, Joh.vxx Chkistoph, canon of the chapter of 
 St. Thomas at Strasburg, where he was born in 1626, and died 
 in 1702. To this writer is attributed " Seria Disquisitio de 
 statu, loco, et vita animaram posliiuam discesserant a corporibus, 
 pra'sertim fidelium," inserted in the Fasciculus rariorum et 
 curiosonim scriptorum theologicomm de anima," Frankfort, 1692, 
 Svo. He left various other dissertations on subjects of theology 
 and of history. 
 
 Artop.ecs, Petrus, a native of Pomerania, died in 1563. 
 He was protestant minister in the principal church of Stettin ; 
 .and wrote, among other works, " Christiana trium Linguarum 
 Elcmenta," Basle, 1545, 8vo ; " Biblia Veteris et Novi Testa- 
 ment!, et Historic Artificiosis Picturis Effigiata, cum Explica- 
 tione Latine et Germanice," Frankfort, 1557, 8vo. — A. M. 
 
 ARTORIUS, Marcus, an ancient physician, author of a 
 treatise on hydrophobia, quoted by Coelius Aurehanus, but no 
 longer extant. He was the physician of the Emperor Augustus, 
 and is said to have saved the life of that monarch at the battle 
 of Philippi, B.C. 42. He was drowned at sea 31 B.C. 
 
 ARTOT, Joseph, a celebrated violinist, born at Brussels, 
 4th Februarj', 1815, died 20th July, 1845. At the early age 
 of seven years, he was able to execute in public several pieces of 
 great difficulty, and at twelve was appointed one of the profes- 
 sors of the violin at the ConseiTatory in Paris. 
 
 ARTUS, Thomas, Sieur d'Ejibry, a French scholar, born 
 at Paris, of a good family, about the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. Of his life nothing is knoi\'n, except his hanng fonned a 
 kind of literary connection with Blaise de Vigenere, a well-known 
 French translator of several Latin and Greek authors. 
 
 ARTUSI, Giovanni JLvria, an ecclesiastic of Bologna, in 
 which citv he was born in the year 1565. He was the author 
 of a treatise on music, entitled " L'Arte del Contrappunto," pub- 
 lished at Venice in 1586. This work contains a great variety of 
 excellent rules, selected with much judgment from the works 
 of various modern writers. These are disposed in analytical 
 order, and so well compressed, that small as the book is, it must 
 have been one of the most useful treatises that had at that time 
 been pubhshed. In the year 1589, Artusi printed a second part 
 of his work, in which he has explained the nature and uses of 
 dissonances : it forms a curious and valuable supplement to the 
 former. In 1600 he published a discourse in dialogue, entitled 
 " L' Artusi, ovnero ilella Iniperi'czzioni della moderaa Musica," 
 containing a well-written and interesting account of the state of 
 instrumental music in his time, with rules for conducting musi- 
 cal performances, either vocal or instrumental. Three years 
 afterwards there appeared a supplement to this work, containing, 
 amongst other things, an inquiry into the principles of some of 
 the modern innovations in music. Artusi's bust work was a small 
 tract, entitled " Impressa del motto R. M. Gioseffo Zarlino da 
 Chioggia." The date of his death is uncertain. — E. F. R. 
 
 ARTUSINI, Antonio, an Italian lawyer and poet, bom at 
 Forli, 2nd October, 1554, and died about 1630. 
 
 ARTVELT, Andries van, a marine painter, who excelled 
 vol. I. 
 
 in the delineation of storms. He was born at Antwerp about 
 the end of the sixteenth century. 
 
 ARUM, Dominic, a Dutch lawyer, descended from a noble 
 family of Friesland, was born at Leeuwarden in 1579, and died 
 at Jena, while officiating as judge of the academic appellate 
 court there, 24th Febi-uaiy, 1637. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Blanche, Lady Arundel of Wardour, 
 fifth daughter of Edward Somerset, earl of Worcester, and the 
 wife of Thomas, second Lord Anindel, defended Wardour castle 
 with the gi-eatest resolution, and with only a handful of men, 
 against the parliamentai-y forces under Sir Edmund Hungerford and 
 Edmund Ludlow, but was obliged eventually to surrender upon 
 honourable terms. These tenus, however, w-ere violated by the 
 besiegers, and the latter were consequently dislodged by the de- 
 termination of Lord Ai-undel, who, on his return, ordered a mine 
 to be sprang under the castle, and thus sacrificed to hLs loyalty 
 that noble and magnificent structure. Lady Blanche Arundel 
 was a devoted Roman catholic, and her son, the third Lord 
 Arandel, was imprisoned in the tower for five years on the infor- 
 mation of the infemous Titus Gates, but was afterwards released, 
 and became lord keeper of the Privy Seal. — E. W. 
 
 ARUNDEL, JIary, an eminent and learned English gentle- 
 woman of the 1 6th century ; mamed first to Robert Ratclifte, who 
 died 1566, and subsequently to Henry Howard, earl of Arundel. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, the son of 
 Richard Fitz-Alan, earl of Arundel, was bom at Arundel castle, 
 Sussex, in the year 1353. He rose in the church with a rapidity 
 which can only be accounted for by the powei-ful influence of 
 his family. When hardly of age, he was archdeacon of Taun- 
 ton, and when only twenty-two was consecrated bishop of Ely. 
 In 1386 he was appointed lord high chancellor, an office which 
 he resigned in 1389, but to which he was reappointed in 1391. 
 Meanwhile he had been raised to the archbishopric of York, from 
 which, in 1396, he was translated to the see of Canterbury and 
 the primacy of England. In the year following this last elevation 
 the tide of his fortune turned. Involved with the head of his 
 family in the cause of the duke of Gloucester, and treacherously 
 dealt with by the king, he was driven into exile. He applied to 
 the pope, who interested himself in his behalf, but the expostu- 
 lation of Richard induced him to refrain from interfering in the 
 quaiTcl. Disappointed at Rome, Arundel directed his attention 
 to England, and enlisted in the cause of Henry, with whose 
 elevation to the throne his own retum to honour was secured in 
 1399. Once more at the head of the clergy of England, he be- 
 came a zealous defender of theu- rights. In 1404, when the 
 Commons of the lack-learning parliament assailed their li\ings, 
 and proposed that they should be seized to fill the empty ex- 
 chequer, the archbishop's eloquence so moved them that they 
 withdrew their " execrable scheme," as he was pleased to name 
 it. But Ai-undel is perhaps better known in connection with 
 the persecutions of the Lollards, in which he was the priiue 
 mover. He established an inquisition at Oxford to inquire mto 
 the opinions of persons suspected of heresy ; he proposed that 
 the bones of Wickliffe should be exhumed and exposed to dis- 
 honour; and, sensible of the influence of Wicklifl'e's Bible, he 
 passed a decree against the translation of the scriptures into 
 English, or the reading of such translations. One of the last 
 acts of his life was the passing sentence on Sir John Oldcastle 
 of Cobham, who headed an insui-rection of the Lollards in 1413, 
 Arundel died in the same year. — J. B. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Sir Tiki.-mas, son of Sir Jlatthew Arandel of 
 Wardour (whose father was created a knight of the Bath at the 
 coronation of Anne BolejTi, and was beheaded in 1552), was 
 bora about the year 1560. At an early age he went to Ger- 
 many, and serving as a volunteer in the imperial army in Hun- 
 gary, he took the standard of the Turks with his own hand in 
 an engagement at Gran, for which deed he was created by 
 Rodolph II. a count of the holy Roman empire, and the patent 
 extends to his heirs male and female. On returning to Eng- 
 land, in spite of professing the Roman catholic religion, he was 
 elevated by James I. to the peerage in 1G05, as Lord Arundel 
 of Wardour. He died in 1632.— E. W. 
 
 ARUNS, youngest son of Tarquin the Elder, and brother of 
 Tarquin the Proud, lived and died in the fifth century B.C. — 
 (Livy, i. 56, and ii. 6.) 
 
 ARUNS, son of Tarquin the Proud and of Tullia, was 
 killed in battle by Brntus, in the beginning of the sixth cen- 
 tury B.C. 
 
 2 I
 
 ARU 
 
 250 
 
 ASC 
 
 AEUNS, a Roman historian, author of a history of the Punic 
 war, written in imitation of the style of Sallust, lived about 60 
 B.C. — (Plinv's Xcitm-al Histury, xxix. 5.) 
 
 ARUSIANUS MESSIUS or MESSUS, a Roman gramma- 
 rian, whose name is known chiefly in connection with a gram- 
 matical work entitled " Quadriga, vcl exempla elocutionum ex 
 Virgilio, Sallustio, Terentia, et Cicerone, per literas digesta," 
 lived towards -the end of the Roman empire. — (Niebuhr's edition 
 oi Fronto, p. 31, &c.) 
 
 ARVANDUS, prefect of Gaul under the Emperor Anthemius 
 from 4G7 to 472, was charged with mal-administration and 
 treason, and condemned to die by the Roman senate. His 
 punishment was changed into peqietual exile. 
 
 ARVIDSSON or ARWIDSSON, Truls or Tkoils, a Swed- 
 ish engi-aver, was born at WesteiTik about the year 1660, and 
 died 3rd October, 1705. 
 
 AEVIEUX, Lauuknt d', a celebrated traveller, was bom at 
 Marseilles on the 21st June, 1635. At an early age he is said 
 to have had a passion for travelling, and a gi'eat aptitude for the 
 acquisition of languages. In 1653 he accompanied to Sidon 
 51. Bertandier, a relation, who had been appointed consul at that 
 place. He remained in the east for a period of twelve years, 
 duruig which he resided successively in various cities of Syria 
 and Palestine, and became well acquainted with the Syriac, 
 Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and Hebrew languages. He died 3rd 
 October, 1702.— G. M. 
 
 * ARWIDSSON, Adolf Iwar, a Swedish wiiter, keeper of 
 the royal library of Stockholm, was bom in 1791 at Padajoki, 
 in Finland. He was professor of history at the university of 
 Abo in the year 1817, was banished by the Russian government 
 in 1821, for an article in a political journal, and has since resided 
 at Stockholm, where he published in 1842 a collection of ancient 
 Swedish songs, " Svenska forasanger." — J. S., G. 
 
 ARYABHATTA or ARJABAR, a celebrated Indian mathe- 
 matician, reputed to have anticipated many of what are con- 
 sidered the most important of modern discoveries in astronomy. 
 He taught the diurnal revolution of the earth, assigning as its 
 cause the existence of a subtle fluid smTounding om- planet at a 
 little distance from its surfice; and maintained the doctrine, 
 strange enough for his times, that the moon and the planets 
 shine by a light bon-owed from the sim. He described the 
 planetary orbit as an ellipse, and proposed to assign to the year 
 365 days, 6 hours, 12 nunutes, and 30 seconds. Nothing is 
 Icnown of his hfe, but he is generally believed to have lived about 
 the beginning of our era. — J. S., G. 
 
 ARYSDAGHES or ARISTAKES, Saint, bom at Cresarea, 
 in Cappadocia, about the year 279 ; succeeded his father, 
 Gregory the Ilkmninator, as patriarch of Amienia in 331. He 
 was mm-dered in 309 by a chief named Archelaus. 
 
 ARYSDAGHES, sm-named Bibliophilus, a grammarian 
 of Armenia, author of a dictionaiy and gi-ammar of his nati\-e 
 tongue, which are preserved in MS. in the P'rench National 
 Library. Died in 1239. 
 
 ARZACHEL, Abraham Alzarachel, lived at Toledo 
 about 1080 ; one of the most laborious and assiduous obsen-ers 
 in the astronomy of those times. His tables are kno\^Ti as the 
 Tolcdan Tables : he invented a new form of the Astrolobe ; and 
 wrote on eclipses, &c. His most useful and pennanent contri- 
 bution to science, however, is a large collection of observations 
 made to deteraiine the elements of a theory of tb.e sun, — obser- 
 vations conducted by a method much preferable to that followed 
 by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. He corrected Albategnius in 
 several of his determinations, especially as to the sun's apogee 
 and the eccentricity of his orbit. In the list of Arabians, Arza- 
 chel deserves a very liigh place. — J. P. N. 
 
 ARZAN, a pagan high-priest of Amienia, who resisted with 
 an amiy the missionary enterprises of the first patriai'ch of 
 Armenia, Gregory the Illuminator ; beheaded 302. 
 
 ARZAN, Arzruny, a theologian of Annenia, who studied 
 imder the patriarch Isaac I., and wrote concerning the ancient 
 worship of the Annenians. Died in 459. 
 
 ARZAO, Antonio Rodriguez, a Brazilian traveller of the 
 seventeenth century, who explored the territory of Miuas about 
 the year 1694, and retiumed to Espirito Santo with some speci- 
 mens of gold which he had discovered on the banks of the Rio 
 Doce ; was bom at Taboata, and died at San Paulo. 
 
 ARZAO, jVntonio Rodriguez, another Brazilian traveller, 
 who set out from San Paulo in the year 1714, and in a northerly 
 
 direction from that town. He discovered a country abounding in 
 gold and diamonds, which he called Serro do Frio. 
 
 ARZERE, Stefano dell', an Itahan artist, who lived about 
 1560. According to Ridolfi, he was a native of Padua, and 
 painted well in fresco. Along with Domenico Campagnola 
 and Gualteri, he adorned, with colossal figures of emperors and 
 illustrious characters, a large hall in Padua, afterwai-ds converted 
 into a public libraiy. From the gigantic size of these figures 
 tlie place received the name of Sala de' Giganti (Hall of the 
 Giants). "The colouring," says Lanzi, "is rich, and of a fine 
 chiaroscuro, and it would be difficult to find in all Italy a piece 
 which appears to have suffered less from tune." Several altar- 
 pieces in the churches and convent of Padua were executed by 
 this artist. — A. M. 
 
 ARZU, SiRAj Uddin-Ali-Kh^vn, a Hindostanee poet of 
 the eighteenth centuiy, known also as Khan Saiiib. 
 
 ASA, thu'd king of Judah, was the son of Abijah. He reigned 
 forty-one years, from 955 to 914 B.C. 
 
 ASADI OF Tus, one of the most ancient of the Persian poets, 
 was bom about the commencement of the tenth ceutmy, in the 
 reign of Mahmoud of Ghizni, at whose court he was chief poet 
 He was the preceptor of the celebrated Fu-dausi, and author of 
 an epic poem called the "Gushtasp Nama," in which he relates 
 nmnerous adventm-es of Rustam's ancestors, and of the more 
 illustrious monai-chs of the Peshdadian dynasty. This work has 
 been almost wholly incorporated with the more extensive and 
 famous "Shah-nama" of Firdausi. In his old age Asadi retired 
 to Tiis, his native city, where he died at a very advanced period 
 of his life.— G. M. 
 
 ASAIRI. See Azaira. 
 
 ASAM, CosMAs Dominian or Damian, and Egid, two 
 brothers, distinguished painters of Bavaria, flourished in the first 
 half of the eighteenth centmy. Cosmas died in 1739, but the 
 date of Egid's death is unknown. 
 
 ASAN. Three kings of Bulgaiia, who reigned in the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centmies. 
 
 ASAXDER, a sou of Philotas, and brother of Parmenio, was 
 appointed govemor of Lydia, by Alexander the Great, in 334 
 B.C., and after the death of Alexander became satrap of Caiia. 
 
 ASANDER, a king of the Bosporas, in the Tauric Cher- 
 sonese, was born in 107 B.C., and died in 14 B.C. 
 
 ASANIDES, a Bulgarian family, who founded the Wallachio- 
 Bulgarian kingdom, of which Widdin became the capital. 
 
 ASAPH (Assembler), one of David's chief musicians, and 
 reputed author of twelve psalms — viz., 50th and 73rd to 83rd — 
 three of which, however, from their references to late events m 
 the history of Israel, must rather be ascribed to one of his de- 
 scendants, who were also choristers in the temple. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASAPH, St., was originally a monk of Llan-elvv', wliich was 
 then presided over by Bishop Kentigem, a Scotchman, aftenvarJs 
 bishop of Glasgow. On Kentigem's return to his own country, 
 Asaph succeeded him, and was so remarkable for holiness that 
 the place took its name from him. He probably flomished 
 about 590, but the date of his death is not known. After 
 Asaph's death, the see was vacant more than 500 years, when 
 Geoft'rey of ^Monmouth was appointed, smce which time it has 
 been the seat of a bishopric. Asaph is commemorated by the 
 Roman catholic church on Jlay 1. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ASBIORN, a name frequently met with in early Norwegian 
 histoiy.— AsBiORN the Noble, lived in the reign of Olaf Tryg- 
 gvason, and smTered a crael death with unwonted patience. — As- 
 BiORN SiGURDSON lived in the same reign, and was noted like 
 his father Sigurd for hospitality. He must have possessed con- 
 siderable influence at court, for we read that, when condemned 
 to banishment for murdering an enemy in the royal presence, he 
 successfiilly resisted the sentence. — Asbiorn Blak, a traitor 
 servant of Canute IV. of Denmark. He betrayed his master 
 into the hands of his rebellious subjects in Odensee. who put 
 him to death. — J. B. 
 
 ASC ALUS, Conrad, a Gei-man philosopher of the earlier half 
 of the seventeenth ceutnr)', aathor of " Physica et Ethica, Mo- 
 saica," Hanau, 1613, 8vo, in which he reproduces the doctrine 
 of a universal soul ; " Libri III. de Natura coeli triplicis," 
 Siegen, 1597, 8vo; " De Religionis per JI. Luthenim Refor- 
 mata; Origine et Progi-essu in Germania et Dania," Copenhagen, 
 1621, 4to.— A. M. 
 
 ASCANI, Peli-egrino, a clever Italian painter of flowers 
 and fmits in the 17th centurj'. He was a native of Caq^i.
 
 ASC 
 
 251 
 
 ASC 
 
 ASCAMIO, Giov^VNNi d', an Italian painter of the last half 
 of the fourteenth century, continued the series of sacred pictures 
 begun by his master, I5erna of Sienna, in the church of St. 
 Giinignano, and also executed some worlis at Florence for the 
 palace of the Medicis. 
 
 ASCANIO, Sai.vator, a learned and dogmatic Dominican 
 monk of Spain, confessor to the bishop of Malaga, and visitor of 
 the chm-ches in Naples and Sicily. Died at Pisa, 1706. 
 
 ASCANIUS, the son of ^Eneas by Creusa, his first \vife, ap- 
 pears to have lived about the year 1188 B.C. According to 
 Livy, he was the fomider of Alba Longa. 
 
 ASCANIUS, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, who lived in the 
 middle of the eighteenth centmy. He was skilled in every de- 
 partment of natural histoiy, particularly mineralogy, and was for 
 many years inspector of the mines of NoiTvay. In 17G7 he 
 pubhslied in Daiush a work, entitled " Figures enluminees d'His- 
 tou-e Naturelle." He was author besides of a variety of papers 
 on natm-al histoiy, one of which is preserved in the forty-ninth 
 volume of the " Philosophical Transactions," and another in the 
 " Transactions of the Eoyal Academy of Stockliolm." — G. M. 
 
 ASCARELLI or ASCARIEL, Deborah, a Jewess, bom at 
 Rome in the latter part of the sixteenth century. She was well 
 acquainted with Hebrew and Italian literatm'e, and published 
 some translations from the Hebrew in Italian verse. 
 
 ASCARUS OF Thebes, a Greek brass-caster, ll\ing about 
 500 B.C. according to Pausanias, executed a votive statue of 
 Jupiter for the temple of Olnnpia. 
 
 ASCELIN or ANSELJIE, Nicolas, a Dominican, and a na- 
 tive of Lombardy, sent by Innocent IV., in 1245, on a mission 
 to the ^longols of Persia. 
 
 ASCENSIONE, Giacinto Agostixo dell', an Italian 
 sm-geon, who lived in the latter half of the 17th century; was 
 author of a sui'gical treatise published at Messina in 1693. 
 
 ASCH, George Thomas von (Baron Yegor Pheodoro\'itch), 
 was bora at Petersburg in 1729, and died there in 1807. He 
 was a graduate of the miiversity of Gottingen, and served for 
 many years as general staff-sm-geon in the Russian army, 
 
 ASCH, Peter Ernst von, one of the most eminent physi- 
 cians of his time in Moscow, and brother of the above. His only 
 known work is entitled, " De Natm-a Spermatis Obser\'ationibus 
 Mici-oscopicis Indagata," published at Gottmgen in 1756. 
 
 ASCHAJM, Anthony, ^car of Bm-niston, in Yorkshire, lived 
 about the middle of the sixteenth century. He published a 
 number of works on astronomy, besides certain Eilmanacs or 
 prognostications, in which he pretended to much secret and pro- 
 found knowledge derived from the study of the stars. 
 
 ASCHAM, Anthony, a political writer of the seventeenth 
 centuiy, was born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, and educated 
 at Eton College, from which, in 1633 or 1634, he was 
 elected to King's College, Cambridge, where he obtained the de- 
 gree of A.M. About the commencement of the civil war he 
 joined the Presbyterians, and became an influential member of 
 the Long Parliament. He is said to have been employed in 
 drawing up the king's trial. After the execution of Cliarles, he 
 was sent by the new government as ambassador to Spain, and 
 was assassinated at Jladiid by some English officers who had 
 served in the Spanish army. Ascham was author of several 
 works, partly political and partly religious. — G. M. 
 
 ASCHAM, Margaret, married in 1554 to Roger Ascham. 
 She published her husband's work, entitled "The Schoolmaster," 
 in 1570, and Ues buried in St. Sepidchre's church, London. 
 
 ASCHAM, Roger, born in the year 1515 at Kirbywiske, in 
 Yorkshire. He was the thnd son of John and Margaret Ascham. 
 His father was house-stewai-d in the noble family of Scroop ; 
 his mother was connected witli some fanulies of distinction. It 
 is told of his parents, that having lived for forty-seven years 
 together, they died on the same day, and nearly at the same hour. 
 Some time Ix-forc his father's death, Roger was taken into the 
 family of Su- Anthony Wingficld, and educated togctlicr witli his 
 patron's sons. In the year 1530 he was sent, at Sir Anthony's 
 expense, to St. John's, Cambridge. His tutor w'as Hugh Fitz- 
 herbert. On the 20th of Feb., 1538-39, Ascham obtained the 
 degi-ee of B.A., and in the March following Avas elected Fellow. 
 
 The period at which Ascham's Cambridge life commenced, 
 was one of great excitement. An intellectual revolution may be 
 described as having then commenced. The old scholastic studies 
 still sun'ived. The Refonnation had everywhere leavened the 
 public mind, but was not yet the religion of the state. The 
 
 destruction of the Constantinopolitan empu-e had scattered many 
 learned Greeks tlu-ough every part of Europe, who brought with 
 them theii- language and its literature. The doctrines taught by 
 Luther were the subject of disputation in eveiy school of learning. 
 The new studies of Greek Uterature, and what were called the 
 new tenets of religion, were making way in Cambridge. Ascham 
 attached himself to both, and both were then regarded with dis- 
 trust ; as to Greek, eveiy one wlio studied it became a heretic ; 
 and so little could be learned of it (such was the argument of 
 those who opposed its introduction), that even, as to the pro- 
 nunciation, there was not one of these strange characters that 
 was not tlae subject of dispute as to the soimd which it was 
 intended to express. Disaffection to the old religion was still 
 punished by exclusion from the natural and proper rewards of 
 diligence ; and I\Iedcalf, the master of the college, was only 
 enabled to secm'e Ascham's election to a fellowship by pretending 
 to oppose it, and thus defeating a more fonnidable opposition. 
 
 Ascham took liis master's degree in his twenty-first year. He 
 soon became eminent as a writer of Latin and teacher of Greek. 
 On the resignation of Sn John Cheke, appointed tutor to Piince 
 Edward, Ascliam was made Public Orator of the University, and 
 all its formal and complimentary letters were written by him. 
 Not merely was the language of the letters his, but Ms was the 
 handwriting ; and the admiration with which he is spoken of in 
 reference to these academical exhibitions, has as often reference 
 to one as the other. The beauty of liis pemnansliip occasioned 
 his first introduction to court ; there, among his pupils in this 
 ai-t, were Prince Edward, the Prmcess Ehzabeth, and the two 
 sons of Brandon, dulce of Suffolk. His pupil Griudal had been 
 appomted tutor to the Princess Ehzabeth, and, on his death, 
 Ascham succeeded him. 
 
 In the year 1544, Ascham published his " Toxophilus the 
 Schoolmaster, or Partitions of Shooting, in two books," dedi- 
 cated to King Hemy VIII., then settuig out to invade France, 
 and animated to the entei-])rise by the record of England's pre- 
 vious victories. The book is one, in many respects, of consider- 
 able interest. It is one of the monuments of a stage of English 
 hterature, at a period when few scholars condescended to write 
 English. It is the work of a man, liimself fond of archeiy, 
 thoroughly acquainted with his subject, and even on this account 
 valuable. At the time it was written, soldiers had not yet been 
 anned with hand-gims ; and the bow, in English hands, was a 
 weapon which no foreign troops could resist. At the tune Ascham 
 wrote it was preferred to the musket, and, but for the long peace 
 of King James's reign, it is not impossible that it might have 
 kept its gi-ound for a longer time than it did. Ascham re- 
 ceived a pension, which Johnson, writing in the year 1761, 
 regarded, when considered with reference to the comparative 
 value of money, and to the modest wants of a student in Ascham's 
 position, as equal to one hundred pounds a year. 
 
 In 1550 he visited Gemiany in attendance on Sir Richard 
 Morissine, ambassador at the com-t of the Emperor Cliarles the 
 Fifth. In addition to his ordinaiy duties as secretary, he acted 
 as tutor to the ambassador. During this residence in Gennany, 
 which continued for three years, he wrote a rerious tract, in which 
 he describes with some power the principal persons about the em- 
 peror's com-t. Wliile he was still in Germany, his friends suc- 
 ceeded in getting him appomted Latin secretaiy to King Edward. 
 The death of the young king, however, was the signal for his re- 
 tm-n to England. This event at first seemed likely to deprive him 
 of his pension and his employment as secretary. However, with- 
 out in any way compromising his opinions, he retained the good 
 will of tlie persons about Mary's comt, and Gardiner continued to 
 employ him in writing official letters. The queen herself conversed 
 with him often. His sen'ices were not inconsiderable, if it be tnie, 
 as was quaintly said at the time, that he impeded some intended 
 jobs, " liindering those who dined on tlie church from supping on 
 tlie universities." On the queen's marriage with Philip, Ascliam 
 wrote within three days forty-seven letters to as many foreign 
 l)riuces, of whom the lowest in rank was a cardinal. In 1554, 
 IJoger himself man-icd JLargaret Howe, a lady of good family and 
 some fortune. On Elizabeth's accession he filled the place of 
 Latin secretary, and that of reader to the queen in the learned 
 languages. He read with her for some hours each day. Ascham 
 appears to have loved a court life, but he was a man who never 
 asked a favour, which is ascribed sometimes to his indolence, 
 sometimes to his disinterestedness, lie was not, however, neglected. 
 His offices were liberally rewarded, and he was given, ui the year
 
 1559, the prebend of Westwano;, in the cathedral of York, which 
 he held till his death. In loG3 he was led by Sir Edward 
 Saekville to write his " Schoolmaster," a treatise on education. 
 Sack^lle's death, soon after it was commenced, inten-upted 
 the work. It remained unpublished during the author's life, 
 and was printed by his widow. We wish the plan of our 
 work admitted an analysis of a book that even yet may be 
 studied with advantage by men practically engaged in the 
 education of youth. Ascham's favourite maxim was — docendo 
 disces. A letter to liim from one of his Cambridge friends, 
 written at an early period of Aseliani's career, suggests to him 
 that " a fable of jEsop, read and explained to thy pupil by thy- 
 self, will profit thee more tlian if thou shouldest hear the whole 
 Iliad expounded in Latin by the Icamedest man now living." 
 Ascham at all times acted in the spirit of this letter, and with 
 his pupils was huBself, in many respects, a learner. It could 
 seldom happen to a man to liave such pupils, and though some- 
 thing nuist be allowed for the phraseology of the period, and for 
 the exaggerations with which the accomplishments of piinces are 
 spoken of, yet there can be no doubt of the perfect success of the 
 method pursued by Ascham in the case of King Edward and of 
 Elizabeth, and by Aylmer in that of Lady Jane Grey; and perhaps, 
 in the introduction of the New Learning. — as the study of Greek 
 was then called — into Cambridge, Ascham's own earnest char- 
 acter and gentle temper, with this well-considered system of 
 teacliing, eft'ected more, in reality, than was afterwards done by 
 him when his lessons were given to queens and ambassadors. 
 
 The latter years of Ascham's life are said to have been passed 
 in poverty, brought on by gambling and cock-fighting. Both 
 assertions have been disputed, and that of gambling, at least 
 gambling with dice, the form which the accusation assumed, is 
 not proven. That of cock-fighting, the " alectryomachia," cannot 
 be denied. It is mentioned by his eulogist, Grant, in whose 
 funeral oration Ascham's biographers have found most of their 
 materials ; and he himself refers to what he calls his " Book of 
 the Cock-pit," a treatise wliich, if it ever existed in more than 
 contemplation, has not been preser^-ed. If he was fond of cock- 
 fighting, it is scarcely possible that he should not have been led 
 to bet upon the birds, and this may have been the gaming. 
 
 The scandal and ofl'cnce in Ascham's day did not arise from 
 the inhumanity of the sport, but from its unsuitableness to the 
 gi-avity of the scholastic characteK. It is unjust to judge of a 
 question of this kmd by a reference to modern manners. "A 
 yearly cock-fight was, till lately, a part of the annual routine of 
 the northern free schools. The master's perquisites ai-e still 
 called cock-pennies." 
 
 Any account, however brief, of Ascham, would be miperfect, 
 which omitted Fuller's amusing woi-ds : — " He was," says the 
 ■\vitty old chronicler, " an honest man, and a good shooter. 
 Ai-cheiy was his pastime in youth, which, in his old age, he 
 exchanged for cock-fighting. His ' Toxophilus' is a good book 
 hv young men; his 'Schoolmaster' for old; his 'Epistles' 
 for all men." 
 
 Ascham was never of a robust constitution. This he dwells 
 on in his letters, and makes it an apology for his practice of out- 
 of-door exercises, being unable to continue reading for any length 
 of time. He at last, when he was little more than fifty years 
 of age, grew so weak, that he was unable to read in the evenings, 
 or at night. He then became, for a wJiOe, an early riser. The 
 year before his death, he suffered from hectic, from which lie 
 never wholly recovered. On the 23d of December, 1568, he was 
 led to resume his night studies, from his anxiety to present the 
 queen with a Latin poem on the new year. This brought on 
 ague, and death followed on the 30th. His death occasioned 
 very general regi-et, and the queen is stated to have said that 
 she would rather have ten thousand pounds tlu-own into the sea, 
 than have lost her tutor Ascham. 
 
 Ascham's works are few. Of those in English we liave 
 spoken. The " Toxophilus," first printed in 1545, and after the 
 author's death, in 1571 and 1579, hasbeen now and then rejirintcd 
 for archery societies, and is in the edition of his collected English 
 works by Jlr. Bennett, 1761. Bennett has printed from the 
 edition of 1571, and does not seem to have known the previous 
 one. The " Schoolmaster" is printed in Bennett's echtion from 
 an edition by Upton, and contains his very valuable notes, and a 
 life by Johnson. The English works were reprinted in 1815; 
 but in this edition, the spelling, and occasionally the language, 
 is injudiciously modernized. The imcertainty of fame is shown 
 
 by the fate of Ascham's works. It is probal)le that his Latin 
 letters — the style of which was the admiration of his own age — 
 are now but rarely looked into, and those in English seldom 
 read, except for philological purposes. We have said that we 
 think his English writings well worth study for other reasons ; 
 and there are so many curious facts of historical interest men- 
 tioned in his Latin letters, that we should not be surprised at 
 their being, after a sleep of tliree hundred years, disturbed from 
 the dust of old libraries. In these Latin letters, the style of 
 Cicero is not unsuccessfully imitated. The Latin verses with 
 which he was prejjaring to hail the queen on new- year's- day, are '■ 
 printed among his other poems in the earlier editions of his ■ 
 Latin works, the first of which was published in 1576, but have 
 been omitted in Elstob's (1703), otherwise, we believe, the best 
 edition. — (^Biographia Brltannica, Johnson's Lije of Asckain, 
 Grant, IM vita et oh. Rogeri Ascham, H. Coleridge's Northern 
 Worthies.)— 3. A., D. 
 
 ASCHANEUS, Martin L., a Swedish author and ecclesias- 
 tic of the seventeenth century, and one of the three "royal an- 
 tiquarians." He is supposed to have died about 1G36. 
 
 * ASCHBACH, Joseph, an eminent German historical author, 
 was bom in 1801 at Hochst. He studied at Heidelberg, and be- 
 came professor of history at Bonn in 1842. His most important 
 liistorical researches relate to the earlier historj' of Spain, and are : 
 " Geschichte dcr Westgothen," Frankfort, 1827; " Gesch. der 
 Omaijaden in Spanien," 2 vols. Frankfort, 1829-30 ; " Gesch. 
 Spaniens u. Portugals Zur Zeit der Herrschaft der Almoraviden 
 u. Almohaden," 2 vols. Frankfort, 1833-37. The " Jahrbiicher" 
 of Heidelberg and Berhn contain numerous essays on historical 
 subjects by Professor Aschbach, and he was the projector and editor 
 of the valuable " Kirchen-Lexicon," 4 vols., 1846, to which he 
 contributed many articles. — A. M. 
 
 ASCHEBERG, Eutger Count von, a Swedish field-mar- 
 shal, born 2nd June, 1621, died 17th April, 1693. He com- 
 menced his career as page to a colonel of cavalry, under whom 
 he learned the art of war. He afterwards signalised himself in 
 various campaigns in the Thirty Years' War in Germany. 
 
 ASCHENBRENNER, Christian Heinrich, a German 
 musician, born at Alt Stettin, 29th December, 1654, and died 
 at Jena, 13th December, 1732. He was instructed in music by 
 his father, and in the course of his life acquired great eminence 
 as a performer. At the age of seventy-one, he was esteemed in 
 Vienna, where he resided, as tlie first violinist of his time. — G. M. 
 
 ASCLEPI, Giuseppe, an Italian physician, Jesuit professor 
 of philosophy at Sienna, and of mathematics at Rome, was 
 bom at jMacerata in 1706, and died m 1776. 
 
 ASCLEPIADES, the name of a great number of Greek 
 physicians, who were either regarded as actual descendants of 
 the god ^sculapius, or more probably, as only united in a sort 
 of brotherhood by the possession of certain secrets of the healing 
 art, derived from the founder of their society. The temples of 
 Greece and Asia I\Iinor were their homes, and their art was 
 usually exercised in conjunction with that of the priest. Those 
 of the Asclepiada;, as they were collectively called, worthy of 
 mention, are noticed below among the poets and literary men 
 who also bore the name of Asclepiades. 
 
 AscLEPiADES, a Platonic philosopher, knoviTi only from 
 the story, in Athena3us, of his working m a mill by night, to 
 be able to attend, during the day, the lectures of the Athenian 
 philosophers. Died probably about the year 320. 
 
 Asclepiades, Bithynus or Prusinensis, supposed to 
 have been a native of Pmsa, in Bithjmia, settled at Rome in the 
 first ccntuiy B.C., and, as it would appear from the statements 
 concerning him in Pliny, gained a reputation of the first order 
 as a physician. He is frequently mentioned by other ancient 
 authors, generally with admu-ation of his talents and his character. 
 His famous maxim, that a physician's duty is to cure his patients 
 quickly, surely, and agieeably, and his good opinion of wine as 
 a remedial agent, probably influenced his popularity. Some 
 fragments only of his works are extant. 
 
 Asclepiades of Mendes, in Lower Egj'pt, cited by Suetonius 
 in his life of Augustus, wrote a work entitled " 0£oAoy(*,u.£wa." 
 
 Asclepiades of PhHontus, a philosopher of the school of 
 Eretria, and the personal friend of its foimder, Menedemus. 
 
 Asclepiades of Apamea, a Greek grammarian, whose works 
 are enumerated by Suidas, was a native of Bithynia, taught 
 grammar at Rome in the time of Pompey the Great, and after- 
 wards settled in Tm'detania, in Spain.
 
 AscLEPiADES, Pharmacion, lived about the end of the 
 first eentuiy. He wrote on phamiacy in ten books, of which the 
 first five treated of external remedies, and the last of internal. 
 He is frequently quoted by Galen. 
 
 AscLEPiADEs of Samos, a Greek epigrammatic poet, lived at 
 Alexandria about 280 B.C. He is mentioned by Theocritus and 
 Moschus, the former of whom is said to have been his pupil. 
 
 AscLEPiADES of Adramyttium, another Greek epigram- 
 matic poet. 
 
 AscLEPiADES!, a lyric poet, who gave his name to the 
 Asclepiadic verse. 
 
 AscLEPiADES of Tragilos, a town in Thrace, wrote a treatise 
 
 culled " T^xyaiovf/.iya.'' 
 
 AscLEPiADES, ninth bishop of Antioch, distinguished as a 
 commentator, lived about the year 211. 
 
 AsCLEPiADES, bishop of Tralles about the year 484. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASCLEPIADIUS, a Latin poet, some of whose poems are 
 prcseiTcd in ]\IS. in the National Library at Paris. 
 
 ASCLEPIGENL\, daughter of the Neoplatonist, Plutarch of 
 Athens. She taught the doctrines of the school to Proclus, 
 during his residence at Athens under the care of her fatlier. 
 
 ASCLEPIODORUS, one of the generals of Alexander the 
 Great in .330 B.C. 
 
 ASCLEPIODORUS, a celebrated Greek painter, contemporary 
 with Apelles, was a native of Athens. 
 
 ASCLEPIODOTUS, a Greek philosopher and natm-alist of 
 the Keoplatonic school, who lived about a.d. 450. He studied 
 plants and animals, performed some surprismg ciu-es by means 
 of white hellebore, di-ew up a classification of colours, and ap- 
 pears to have fonned a museum of all the species of timber then 
 known. His commentary upon the Timajus of Plato has perished. 
 
 ASCLEPIODOTUS, a Greek epigrammatic poet, appears to 
 have lived about the end of the first centuiy. 
 
 ASCLEPIUS, a Greek physician, placed by some in the second 
 century b.c, and by others in the sixth century a.d. He com- 
 mented upon Hippocrates, and records the first-known case of 
 superfoetation. 
 
 ASCLEPIUS, a Greek philosopher, whose period is unlcnovra, 
 and to whom are attributed a dialogue with Hennes, and a work 
 entitled "Definitions" ('O^oi). 
 
 ASCLEPIUS OF Tralles, a Greek philosopher of the fifth 
 century, who studied under Ammonius, and whose mipubUshed 
 commentary on the metaphysics of Ai-istotle is still extant. 
 
 ASCOLI, Cecco d'. See Cecco d' Ascoli. 
 
 ASCOLI, David di, a Jewish author of the sixteenth centuiy, 
 who was subjected to a long imprisonment for having written an 
 "Apologia Hebrasorum," in which he protested bravely, and with 
 much learning, against the bull of Pope Paul IV., commanding 
 all Jews to wear as a badge of their profession a yellow hat. 
 
 ASCONDO, Francisco, a Spanish architect, was bora at 
 JuiTeta in Biscay in 17U5; erected numerous monasteries in 
 Castile, and died in 1781. 
 
 ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, Quintus, a Pvoman critic and 
 grammarian, bom at Padua, lived about a.d. 50. His commen- 
 taries on the orations of Cicero have been several times published. 
 
 ASDRUBALI, Francesco, an Italian physician, was born in 
 the last centur)', and died in 1832 at Rome, where he had ob- 
 tained the highest standing as an accoucheur. 
 
 ASEDY. Sec Asadl 
 
 ASELLI, ASELLIO, or ASELLIUS, Caspar, a celebrated 
 Italian physician and surgeon, born at Cremona about 1581, and 
 died in 1G26. lie served some time as a military surgeon, and 
 was aftenvarJs appointed professor of anatomy and surgery at 
 Padua. He was tlie discoverer of the lacteal vessels, to which 
 he assigned the function of conveying the chyle. His discovery, 
 though now universally regarded by physiologists as genuine and 
 important, was not generally received as true until fifteen or 
 twenty ye;u-s after it was made. — G. M. 
 
 ASELLIO, PuBLius Sempronius, a Roman historian and 
 military tribune under Scipio Africantis, lived about the year 
 133 B.C. He wrote an historical account of public events which 
 occurred between the Punic war and the time of the Gracchi. 
 
 ASELLUS, Claudius, a Roman soldier mentioned by Appian 
 as having been at the siege of Capua, 202 p,.c. 
 
 ASELLUS, Tiberius Claudius, a Roman knight, who 
 lived about tlie year 142 B.C. He was degraded from liis rank 
 by Scipio Africanus, in the exercise of his oflice as censor, and 
 reduced to the class of airarii. 
 
 ASENATH, daughter of Poti-pherah, priest and governor of 
 the city of On, near or the same as Heliopolis. She married 
 Joseph, the illustrious son of the patriarch Jacob. 
 
 ASENSIO Y MEJORADA, Don Francisco, a Spanish 
 engraver, celebrated for the extreme delicacy of his workman- 
 ship, was born, at what date is uncertain, at Fuente-la-Encina, 
 and died at ^Madrid in 1794. — Another person of the same name 
 was famous as a portrait painter at Saragossa, towards the end 
 of the seventeenth centuiy. 
 
 ASFANDIYAR or ASFUNDIYAR or ASFENDIAR, a 
 renowned Persian hero, who lived between the fifth and sixth 
 century B.C. He was the son of Gushtasp (Darius Hystaspes), 
 and was the first to introduce the religion of Zoroaster into Per- 
 sia. His learning and military skill contributed greatly to the 
 victories obtained by his father over the neighbouring nations. 
 He was killed in a contest with Rustam, who had refused to adopt 
 the creed of Zoroaster. — (Malcolm, Ilisf. of Persia.^ — G. JI. 
 
 ASFELD, BiDAL. There were four brothers of this name, 
 sons of Bidal, Baron de Willenbruch and de Harsfoldt, mmister 
 of Queen Christina of Sweden at the court of Louis XIV. 
 
 AsFELD, Alexis Bidal, Baron d', born about the year 
 1648, and killed at Aix-la-Chapelle in the end of October, 
 1689, where he distinguished himself by his bravery and military 
 sldll, under tlie dulce of Luxemburg and the marshal de Crequy. 
 
 AsFELD, Benoit Bidal, Baron d', born in 1658; died 
 29tli April, 1715. He took part in many campaigns, and, after 
 a brilliant career, died at last of his wounds. 
 
 Asfeld, Jacques-Vincent Bidal d'. Abbe de la Vieuville, 
 who wrote some treatises on religious topics, and was esteemed 
 as a man of learning and piety, was born in 1664, and died at 
 Paris in 1745. 
 
 Asfeld, Claude Francois, JIurquis d', marshal of 
 France, was born 2nd July, 1667, and died 7th March, 1743. 
 As lieutenant of a regiment of dragoons, he took part, under bis 
 eldest brother, in the bombardment of Luxemburg. In 1689 
 he served in the army of Germany, commanded by the marshal 
 d' Humiercs. He took a prominent part in various sieges during 
 the campaigns in the Netherlands. He afterwards distinguished 
 himself as a commander in a gi-eat variety of battles, and rose to 
 the highest military honours. He was particularly famous for bis 
 skill in the taking of fortresses. In a single campaign, in 1704, 
 he compelled the surrender of SalvateiTa, Segura, Idanlia, Nova, 
 Castelbranco, Montalvan, and other fortified places. — G. M. 
 
 ASGILL, Sir Charles, an English general, was bora about 
 the middle of the eighteenth centmy, and died in 1823. He 
 entered the British army as an ensign in 1778, and afterwards 
 went to America, where he joined the army imder the command 
 of the Marquis Cornwallis. 
 
 ASGILL, John, a writer on politics and theology, at the close 
 of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century. 
 The date of his birth is uncertain. He was sent early to Lin- 
 coln's Inn. He published, in 1698, two p.amphlets which at- 
 tracted very considerable attention — one entitled " Several .asser- 
 tions proved, in order to create another species of money than 
 silver and gold;" the other, "An Essay on a Registry fur 
 Titles of Land." The tracts are very remarkable, when the 
 period at which they were written is considered. In the first 
 tract, lie contends for the proposition so often advocated in our 
 days, of ha\'iiig all taxes levied on land only. " What we 
 call commodities is nothing but land severed from the soil. 
 
 . . . Man deals in nothing but in earth. The inercliMuts 
 are the factors of the world, to exchange one part of the earth 
 for another. ... All must be paid for to the ownier of the 
 soil, as the ultimate receiver." The essay on the registry of 
 lands, in the same way, anticipates much tliat has been urged 
 within our own time. Asgill's own affairs were neglected wJiile 
 he sought to regulate tliose of others. However, lie worked 
 hard .at the bar. One of his clients was Dr. Barebone, a pro- 
 jector, who built the new square of Lincoln's Inn. Barebone and 
 Asgill were both embarrassed in their circumstances. Barebone 
 died, angiy with the world, and, most of all, with his creditors. 
 He made a will, and appointed Asgill executor, .issigning as a 
 motive lor his choice, tliat Asgill would be sure to pay no one. 
 The executor called a meeting of Barebonc's creditors, read tlic 
 will, told them the motive which led to the appointment, and 
 said witli becoming solemnity, " I will religiously fulfil the will 
 of the deceased." In 1700, Asgill published a tract, the object 
 of which was to prove that physical death was altogether owing
 
 to man's unbelief, and lie described himself as not doubting tbat, 
 ■when his work on earth was done, he should be translated to 
 heaven without passing through death. Asgill's was not more 
 foolish than a hundi-ed other such speculations, but it accidentally 
 made more noise at &st, and, in its consequences, exhibited a dis- 
 graceful spuit of persecution. The essay was published on the eve 
 of his leaving England to seek practice in the Irish law coiu-ts, 
 where there was a rich harvest of litigation, arising from disputes 
 as to forfeited lands. The fame of Asgill's book went before 
 him, and the desire to see and hear a man, of whom much good 
 and evil was said, aided him in obtaining business. He made 
 some money, manned a daughter of Nicholas Browne (James 
 II. 's Lord Kciunare), bought a portion of the Kenmare property, 
 which pm-chase led to years of Htigation between liim and the 
 family. He was elected member of the Irish House of Com- 
 mons ; but his book was the cause, or the pretence, for expelling 
 him on the ground of blasphemy, a few days after he had taken 
 his seat. In 1705 he returned to England, and sat for the 
 borough of Bramber, in Sussex. Barcbone, it would seem, had 
 left some property, which gave the right of nomination. He 
 sat for a few years, enjoying the pri\'ilege of freedom from 
 arrest. A dissolution left him unprotected. On the reassem- 
 bling of parliament, he resumed his seat, but the house be- 
 came scandalized at his thus defying his creditors, and took 
 advantage of his book to expel him for blasphemy. Asgill's 
 affau's went on from bad to worse. He retired, first to the 
 Mint, then to the King's Bench, thence was removed to the 
 Fleet, and for thirty years lived in the rales of one or other of 
 these prisons. He published political pamphlets, and supported 
 the House of Hanover, whose " hereditary " right to the crown 
 of England he insisted on as against that of the Pretender. 
 Most of Asgill's books were printed like verse, in lines of un- 
 equal length. This strange appearance of the page perhaps 
 made them more read. He practised conveyancing, and drew 
 bills and answers in Chanceiy. He is described as singularly 
 cheerful in his conversation, and attaining a great age, nearly 
 100, with little perceptible decay of his mental faculties. The 
 death of his wife seems to have been the only thing that deeply 
 aflccted him. He died within the rules of the King's Bench, m 
 November, 1738. — (See The Doctor^ by Southey.) — J. A., D. 
 
 ASH, Edwaud, an eminent London physician, was born 
 in Birmingham about the year 1770, and died in April, 1S29. 
 He was the first to discover the principles which have since 
 been employed in the construction of the galvanic battery. 
 He comnmnicated his discovery to Humboldt, who, in 1797, 
 published an account of it, together with additional obseiTations 
 of his own. He possessed considerable literaiy talent, and was 
 engaged with some others in the publication of a weekly paper 
 called "Tlie Speculator," in which he wrote some critical ai'ticles. 
 — (Paris, Life of Sir Humphry Davy.') — G. M. 
 
 ASH, John, an English physician, was bom about the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth centuiy, and died in London, June 18, 
 1798. He was held in high estimation for his professional skill, 
 and practised with gi-eat success, first in Birmingham and after- 
 wards in London. He devised a singular method of curing men- 
 tal alienation, with which, in his old age, he was threatened. He 
 sedulously apjjlied liimself to the study of botany and mathematics, 
 and continued this exercise until his faculties regained their equi- 
 librium. He published a number of medical works, and a Latin 
 oration delivered before the London college of physicians. — G. JI. 
 
 ASH, John, LL.D., a Baptist minister at Pershoro, Worces- 
 tershire, and author of a dictionary of the English language, of 
 considerable repute, and of other works. He was born near 
 Loughwood, in Dorset ; was educated under Bernard Foskett, at 
 the academy in Bristol; and settled at Pershore in 1751, whore 
 he continued till his death in 1779. His dictionary is remark- 
 able as containing many words not found in simUar books, and 
 still commands a good price. — J. A., L. 
 
 ASH, Simeon. See Ashe, Simeon. 
 
 ASHBURNE, Tiiojias d', a friar of the order of St. Augus- 
 tine, was born at Ashbum, in Derbyshire, and lived about the 
 middle of the fourteentli century. He took part in the contro- 
 versy with the Lollards, and wrote a treatise against the '' Tria- 
 logus " ol Wickliffe. Other theological tracts, and some poems, 
 have also been ascribed to him. 
 
 ASriBUnXIIAM, John, an adherent to the royal cause 
 during the civil war, was the son of Sir John Ashburnham of 
 Ashbmidiam in Sussex. He was long suspected of treaclieiy to 
 
 Charles I., as he had some concern in the flight from Hampton 
 Court, and the surrender of his majesty into the hands of Colonel 
 Hammond, governor of the Isle of Wight. He wrote a "Letter," 
 printed 1648, and a " Nan-ative," not published till 1830, in 
 which he attempts the vindication of his good name. — J. B. 
 
 ASH BURTON, Lord. See Baring. 
 
 ASIIBURY, Joseph, an English comedian, who was bora in 
 London in 1638, and died at DubUn, 24th July, 1720. He re- 
 ceived an excellent education, and ha\T.ng entered the army, he 
 rose to the rank of captain, in Ireland. He could not, however, 
 repress his passion for the stage, and after a successful debut at 
 Dublui, in the character of Othello^ he resolved to adopt the 
 stage as a profession. He afterwards visited London, where 
 his reputation was confirmed by public opinion. Havino' 
 engaged a company, he returned to Dublin, and re-opened a 
 theatre, of which he continued manager till liis death. — G. M. 
 
 ASHBY, Rev. George, born 1724, was educated at Eton 
 and St. John's College, Cambridge, of which he was many years 
 master. He was well known in the literaiy circles of the dav, 
 more from the valuable assistance he rendered to others than 
 from his own publications. Bishop Percy, and many others, have 
 acknowledged their obligations to him. He died at BaiTow in 
 Suffolk, of which he was rector, in 1808, aged 84. — ^J. B., 0. 
 
 ASHBY, Henry, a celebrated engraver of writing, was born 
 17th April, 1744, at Wotton-under-Edge in Gloucestershire, and 
 died at Exning, in Suflbll-c, 31st August, 1818. Many specuncna 
 of his calligraphy are preseiTcd, and are justly admired. 
 
 ASHBY, Sir John, an English naval commander, bom in 
 1642 ; died 1693. He took a prominent part in the famous 
 battle of La Hogue. — (^Naval History, iii. 148-154.) 
 
 ASHE' Rab or Rav, a celebrated Babylonian rabbi, was 
 bom 353 ; died 427. He is said to have been elected presi- 
 dent of the college of Sora, or Sura, in the pronnce of Babylon, 
 when only fourteen years of age. He held that office till his 
 death. He was one of the first, as Rabbi Abina, about 120 
 years after, was one of the last, to form the Talmud of Babylon 
 into a codex. 
 
 ASHE, St. George, D.D., a dlstmgiushed Lish prelate, 
 was bom in the county Roscommon in the year 1G58. He was 
 educated in Trinity college, Dublin, of which he became a fellow 
 in 1679, and professor of mathematics. He left Ireland, how- 
 ever, some years after, and became secrctaiy and chaplain to 
 Lord Paget, ambassador to the court of Vienna, in the reign of 
 William III. After the act of settlement, Dr. Ashe returned to 
 Ireland, and was in 1692 made provost of the college by letters 
 patent. He was promoted to the bishopric of Cloyne in 1G95, 
 where he remained till 1697, when he was transfeiTed to 
 Cloglier, and from the latter see he was promoted to that 
 of Deny in 1716. He was also a member of the Royal Society, 
 and some communications from him appear in its proceedings ; 
 these, with some mathematical papers and a few sermons, are 
 all that he has left to the world. He bequeathed his mathe- 
 matical library to Trinity college, Dublin. — J. F. W. 
 
 ASHE, Simeon, a distinguished pmitan minister, ejected 
 from his li\-ing about 1633, was a warm supporter of the parlia- 
 ment till the death of the king, but his sympathies were never with 
 Cromwell and the Commonwealth, and he took an active part in 
 the Restoration. He died in 1662, just when he was pi-eparing to 
 leave his charge in consequence of the act of uniformity. — ^J.B. 
 
 ASHE, Thojias, bom toward the end of the 16th century; 
 was author of several tables intended to facilitate the use of the 
 Year-books and English liaw Reports. 
 
 ASHER, Ben Jechiel, a Jewish rabbi, born at Rothenburg 
 about the end of the thirteenth centuiy, died in 1321. He was 
 for some time chief rabbi in his native city, and afterwards head 
 of the Jewish university at Toledo. 
 
 ASHFIELD, Edmund, a painter of the time of Charles II. 
 
 'ASHIK (he who is in love), a celebrated Tm-kish poet, was 
 bom of good family at Perserin, in Roumclia, in 1518. His 
 numerous erotic poems, and his lives of the Turldsh poets, are 
 highly commended. He died in 1571. 
 
 ASHLEY, John, an English musician and trader in music, 
 under whose management Haydn's "Creation" was first per- 
 formed in England. He had four sons also distinguished as 
 musicians : — General, noted as a violinist, was a pupil of 
 Giardini and Barthelomon : he died in 1818. Charles Jane, 
 a performer on the violoncello. John James, an organist; and 
 Richard, prmcipal viola at the Italian Opera House.
 
 ASH 
 
 255 
 
 ASH 
 
 ASHLEY, Robert, a traveller and translator, -was bom in 
 Wiltsliii'e in 1565. After studying at Oxford, lie entered the 
 Middle Temple, but latterly forsook bis profession, to mdulge his 
 taste for travel, and spent several years in wandering thi'ough 
 France, Holland, and Spain. His works are translations from 
 the Italian, French, and Spanish. Died in 1641. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASHJIOLE, Elias, an eminent antiquarian, and founder of 
 tlie Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, son of Simon Ashmole (of the 
 city of Litchfield, in StatfordshLi-e), saddler, and Anne Boyere, 
 was bom at Litchfield on the 23rd of May, 1617. At an early 
 age he was taught gi-ammar and music, and placed in the choir 
 of the cathedral. At the age of sixteen he was removed to 
 London, and taken into the family of James Paget, one of the 
 baroiiS of the Exchequer, who had manied his mother's sister. 
 Under Paget's direction, he commenced the study of the law. 
 In the year 1638 he married, and hi the same year was admitted 
 a solicitor in Chancery. In the year 1641, he was sworn an 
 attorney of the Common Pleas. At the close of that year, his 
 wife died. Ashmole was a royalist, and in 1645 became one of 
 the gentlemen of the ordnance in the garrison of Oxford. At 
 the same time he entered Brazenose college, and applied him- 
 self to natural philosophy, anatomy, and astrology. In 1646 he 
 liecame a freemason. The king's affairs becoming desperate, 
 Ashmole withdrew for a while to Cheshire, and on his return to 
 London, fell in with Jloore, Lilly, and Booker, then reputed to 
 !ic the greatest astrologers in England. Ashmole was elected 
 -reward of this fraternity, which succeeded in bringing to its 
 annual meetings some of the most distinguished men in Eng- 
 land. In 1647 he went into Berkshire, and resided for a while at 
 Inglefield, adding botany to his studies. The " Wife of Bath " her- 
 self does not appear to have been more experienced in matrimonial 
 life, than the wealthy widow, whose charms now won the heart 
 of "our free and accepted mason." Her father was Sir William 
 I'orster. Her first husband was Su- Edward Bradford, Bart. ; 
 her next, a Sir. Hamlyn ; her third. Sir Thomas Mainwaiing, 
 Knight ; and her fourth and last was our hero, Elias, whom she 
 married in 1649. It is not surprising that Ashmole was not 
 allowed to possess himself quietly of the widow and her lands. 
 A son by her first husband sought to mm-der him. Some 
 langers followed in the shape of a chancery suit with innumer- 
 :^lile parties, representing various interests. When these were a 
 iittie lulled, Ashmole found that the lands which he thought he 
 liad made his o'wn were sequestrated, he being a royalist. His 
 astrology and freemasonry now stood him m stead, for Lilly 
 had gi'eat influence with the prevailing party, and succeeded in 
 getting the sequestration removed. He now settled in London, and 
 Ivept open house for all the astrologers of the day, having found, as 
 Anthony Vv'ood says, "the true elixir in his wife's lands and join- 
 tures." In 1650 he translated and printed a treatise on the 
 '■ Philosopher's Stone," by Dr. Dee. On the title-page he styles 
 himself James Hasolle, an anagram of his real name. In 1652 
 he learned Hebrew, in order to read some books on the occult 
 sciences. In the same year he published his " Theatram Che- 
 micum Britannicum," a collection of old Enghsli treatises in 
 rhyme on the philosopher's stone, and the art of transmuting 
 metals. This book introduced him to Seldcn. In 1658 he 
 ]iubUshed " The Way to Bliss," a tract on the Hemietical phi- 
 liisophy, which, however, he now seemed on the pohit of 
 abandoning, and in the same year he began collecting mate- 
 rials for his " History of the Order of the Garter." About this 
 time he also made a catalogue of the coins given to Oxford 
 v Archbishop Laud. The Tredescants, father and son, had for 
 ;i considerable time been curators of the botanic gardens at Lam- 
 beth, and had collected many curiosities which were given to 
 Ashmole by John Tredescant and wife. On the Restoration, 
 Ashmole was made Windsor lierald, and obtained with this a nuni- 
 lior of important and lucrative offices. In 1G60 he was called 
 to tlie bar, and became fellow of the Royal Society. On the 
 1st of April, 1668, Ashmole's second wife died, and on the 3rd 
 of November he was married to his third, Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Sir William Dugdale. In 1669, the university of Oxford 
 gave him the degree of M.D. On Sir Edmund Walker's ('eath 
 ill 1677, he was offered the office of Garter King at arms, 
 vhich he declined in favom- of Dugdale. In 1679, an acciden- 
 f il fire which broke out near his chambers in the IMiddle Temple, 
 i'stroyed a large collection of ancient and modern coins, and 
 •tlier matters of antiquarian interest, which it had been the ob- 
 ject of his life to collect. His manuscripts were luckily at Lam- 
 
 beth. In 1682 he gave to Oxford all the curiosities he had 
 received fi-om the Tredescants, with great additions of his o^vn. 
 In 1686, on Dugdale's death, he again refused the office of 
 Garter. In 1692 he died. A minute account of his life, drawn 
 up by hhnself in the form of a diary, supplies the chief materials 
 for his biography. — J. A., D. 
 
 ASHilORE, JoHX, an English poet of the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century, author of a volume printed in 1621, con- 
 taining " Certain Selected Odes of Horace Englished," and other 
 translations, appears to have lived in Yorkshire. 
 
 ASHMUN, Jehudi, the agent in Liberia of the American 
 Colonization Society, was born at Champlain, New York, in 
 1794. He was educated for the mmistiy, and for a short period 
 held the appointment of professor in the theological seminary of 
 Bangor, i\Iaine. In June, 1822, after an unsuccessful attempt 
 to found a journal in the interest of the Colonization Society, 
 he was commissioned to conduct a band of negro settlers to 
 Liberia, and accordingly set sail for Cape Montserado, which he 
 reached on the 8th August. The gi-eatest diffBculties in the 
 way of the settlement had been overcome by the talents and 
 energy of Aslimun, when Ills health gave way, and he was 
 obliged to return to America. He died a fortnight after his 
 anival at Newhaven, lUth Augiist, 1828. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASHRAF, Shaii, second sovereign of Persia, of the Affghan 
 dynasty, succeeded his cousin Meer Mahmud Shah in 1725, 
 and reigned till 1730, when he was slain by Nadir-Kuli. 
 
 ASHTON, Charles, bom 1665, chaplam to Bishop Pati-ick, 
 canon of Ely, and master of Jesus college, Cambridge, was a dis- 
 tinguished scholar of his day. He contributed many tracts to the 
 " Bibliotheca Literaria," and published, under the initials R. W., an 
 edition of Hierocles. After his death in 1752, his edition of Jus- 
 tin ]\Iartyr was published by Mr. Kneller, a fellow of his college. 
 
 ASHTON or ASTON, Hugh, an organist in the time of 
 Henry the Eighth. A Te Deum for five voices, of his composi- 
 tion, is preserved in the music school at Oxford. Other of his 
 works may be found in the British ]\Iuseum, Harl. JIS. 75-78 ; 
 and Append, to Royal MSS., 58. He was the author of the 
 earliest "hompj-pe" that has descended to our times. (See 
 Stafford Smith's Miisica Antiqua, where it is printed.) — E. F. R. 
 
 ASHTON, Sir Thojias, an alchemist of the reign of 
 Henry VI., who was exempted, by royal patent, from the penal- 
 ties attached to the prosecution of the occult sciences. 
 
 ASHTON, Thoslas, bom 1631, and fellow of Brazenose 
 college, Oxford. In consequence of a dispute with the head of 
 his college, he was forced to resign his fellowship. In 1656 
 CromweU appointed him chaplain to the forces in Jersey, but he 
 quaiTelled with Colonel Jlason the govemor, against whom he 
 levelled two tracts, called " Blood-thirsty Cyrus unsatisfied with 
 blood," and " Satan in Samuel's Mantle." The date of his 
 death is unknown. Wood calls him a " forward and conceited 
 scholar."— J. B., 0. 
 
 ASHTON, Thomas, bom 1716, and fellow of King's college, 
 Cambridge, 1733. In 1752 he became rector of St. Botolph, 
 Bishopgate, and, in 1762, preacher of Lincoln's Inn. He re- 
 signed this after two years. He died in 1775. 
 
 ASHTON, William, an Irish dramatic writer, who lived in 
 the 18th century. He \vi-ote " The Battle of Augluim," which 
 was dedicated to Lord Cartai'ct, then lord-lieutenant of Ireland. 
 
 ASHURST, Henry, the son of a Lancashire squire, realised 
 a large fortune in London, and during the times of the Protec- 
 torate, and those of Charles II. , was distinguished by his exten- 
 sive charities. Died in 1680. 
 
 ASHWARBY, John, a learned professor of theology at Ox- 
 ford, bora at Lincoln, and flourished about 1380, was a great 
 defender of AVycliff'e's opinions. 
 
 ASHWELL, George, fellow of Wadbam college, Oxford, 
 was born in 1(>12, and in 1658 became rector of Hanwell, near 
 Banbur)'. His chief works arc: — 1. "Fides Apostolira," a dis- 
 sertation on the Apostles' Creed; 2. " Gestus Eucharisticus;" 
 3. " De Sociiio," &c. He died at Hanwell, 1693. 
 
 ASHWELL, Thomas, a cathedral musician, wlio lived in the 
 reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Queen JIary. Some of 
 his compositions are preserved in the music school at Oxford, and 
 in the British Museum. lie was a writer of considerable emi- 
 nence in his day, althongb now forgotten. — E. F. R. 
 
 ASIIWORTH, Calioi!, D.D., an English dissenting minister, 
 was born in Lancashire in 1722. Having received an education 
 for the ministiy at the Northampton academy, over which Dr.
 
 ASI 
 
 256 
 
 ASP 
 
 Doddiidge presided, he became pastor of a dissenting congi-ega- 
 tion at Uaventry. On the death of Dr. Doddridge in 1752, he 
 was elected to be his successor in the academy, liaving been 
 recommended for this office to the tnistees by Dr. Doddridge in 
 his w-ill. He accepted the office, but declined to leave his con- 
 gi-egation at Daventiy, so that the academy was removed to 
 that place. He continued to discharge Ms academical functions 
 with great reputation until 1775, when he died on the 18th 
 of July, in the fifty-third year of his age. He received, in 
 1759, an unsohcited diploma of D.D. from one of the Scottish 
 universities — a tribute to his abilities, learning, and diligence as 
 a professor. His works are— "Funeral Semion for Dr. AVatts," 
 1749; "Funeral Sermon for the Eev. James Floyd," 1759; 
 "Funeral Sermon for the Rev. Samuel Clark," 1770; "A 
 Collection of Psalm Tunes, \\-ith an Introduction to the Art of 
 Singing," &c. ; " The Principal Rules of Hebrew Grammar, 
 ■with Complete Paradigms of the Verbs ; " " An Easy Intro- 
 duction to Plane Trigonometiy." — W. L. A. 
 
 ASIXARI, Federigo, Count of Camerano, was born at Asti, 
 in Piedmont, in 1527. He was the author of a great number of 
 sonnets, madrigals, glees, and otlier lyrics. 
 
 A.'~INA1{I, Ottavio, brother of the preceding, and a tragic 
 poet of some merit. 
 
 ASINELLI, Gerardo, and his brother, Bolognese archi- 
 tects of the 12th centuiy. Amongst their works may be men- 
 tioned the tower of Bologna, and a leaning tower, la Garizenda. 
 
 ASINIUS, GiovAXXi Batista, an Italian jurist of the 
 sixteenth century, professor at the colleges of Pisa and Florence. 
 
 ASIOLI, BoNiFAzio, an Italian musician, who was bora at 
 Coreggio on the 30th August, 1769. He began the study of 
 his art at five years of age, under the instruction of Don Luigi 
 Crotti, an organist in his native to^^Tl, and his application was 
 so assiduous, that before the completion of his eighth year he 
 composed three masses, twenty other ecclesiastical pieces, two 
 sonatas, and two concertos. This prodigious fecundity induced 
 his parents to take him to Parma, to study composition under 
 Morigi, which, for all his fertility of production, it appears his 
 first master did not teach him. Here he remained for two years, 
 when he was taken to Vincenza to give some concerts, in which 
 he created a great sensation by his extempore fugue-playhig and 
 other feats of artistic agiUty. From thence he proceeded to 
 Venice, where he remained for four months, astonishing every- 
 body with his musical powers. He now returned to his native 
 city, and there, after three years of close apjilication and con- 
 stant production, he was appointed maestro di capella at the 
 singularly early age of thirteen. This rare distinction seems to 
 have given fresh impetus to his industry, for before he was yet 
 eighteen, he composed no less than five masses, twenty-four 
 other pieces of church music, two overtm'es, eleven single songs, 
 choruses for "La Clcmenza di Tito;" two "Intermezzos, la Gab- 
 bia de' Pozzi," and a cantata, "11 Ratto di Proserpina;" an ora- 
 torio, "Giacobbo in Galaad," three comic operas, and six instru- 
 mental works ; and, however inconsiderable may have been tliose 
 productions of his infancy before enumerated, we may naturally 
 suppose these, the results of a regular course of study, written in 
 discharge of the duties of an important official appointment, to 
 have been works of serious artistic pretension. At this time, 
 namely in 1787, he went to Turin, where he remained nine 
 years, dming which he wrote with his habitual profuseness, his 
 productions being chiefly of a secular character, consisting of 
 operas and cantatas. In 179G he went to Venice with the 
 Marchioness Gherardini, who was at this time his zealous patro- 
 ness, and in the same year he came to London, where his talents 
 were highly esteemed, and where much of his music was printed. 
 In 1799 he went to Milan, where, after a short time, he was 
 most waiTnly encouraged by the viceroy of Italy, under whose 
 auspices he organized the Conservatorio, which was opened in 
 1809, under his superintendence in the office of censor. The 
 discharge of this appointment induced his production of several 
 theoretical works on the elements of hannony, on singing, and 
 on the piano-forte. In 1810 he visited Paris by the invitation 
 of Napoleon, where he seems to have channed as gi-eatly by his 
 amiable manners as by his musical abilities. In 1813 he gave 
 up the office of censor at Milan, to return to his native town of 
 Coreggio, but not to sink into inactiNnty, for here he instituted an 
 academy of music, for the use of which he wrote several more tlieo- 
 retical treatises, and he still continued his practice of composition. 
 He appeal's to have resided in Coreggio for the remainder of his 
 
 life, which closed on the 18th of ilay, 1832. In considering 
 the countless fmits of his prolific industiw, we can only wonder 
 that a man who had the opportunity to do so much, who 
 availed himself so extensively of it, who exerted so wide an in- 
 fluence in his own time, and who lived so recently, should have 
 left so few and such miimportant traces as we possess of his 
 existence. A list of the very voluminous productions of Asioli 
 is to be found in M. F^tis' Blo(jrai>kie Universelle. — (Biog. 
 Diet. Mus., Fetis, Schilling)— G. A. M. 
 
 ASIR-UDDIN AKHSIKTI, a Persian poet of the twelfth 
 centurv, the contemporary of Khakani and Anwari. 
 
 ASIR-UDDIX-UMAXI, a Persian poet of the 13th century. 
 
 ASIUS, an elegiac poet of Samos, who flourished in the fifth 
 or sixth century B.C., and whose fragmentary poems have been 
 published by Diintzner (Cologne, 1840, 8vo.^ 
 
 ASKELOF, a Swedish writer, boiTi in 1787, who for several 
 years edited a weekly Hterary journal, the " Polj'phemus." 
 
 ASKEW, Anx, daughter of Sir William Askew of Kelsay, 
 Lincoln, boni in 1529, and burnt for heresy, in Smithficld, 
 July 16th, 1546, in^thetwenty-fifth year of her age. She became 
 the unwilling wife of a Lincolnshire gentleman, named Kyme ; 
 and when she began to read the Holy Bible, he drove her fi-om 
 his house. Coming to London to sue for a separation from 
 her cruel husband, she was received with kindness by Queen 
 Catherine Pan- ; but he accused her to the king, rendered more 
 than ever harsh by declining health. After various examina- 
 tions, she was committed to Newgate, hoiribly tortured by the 
 Lord Chancellor Wriothesley and Sir Robert Rich, and finally 
 blunt for maintaining the doctrines of the Reformation. She 
 died with great serenity, and as she said herself, " for her Lord 
 and Master." — (Fox's Book of Martyrs.')— 1. J. 
 
 ASKEW, Amtoxy, a physician, who was bom at Kendal in 
 1722, educated at Cambridge and Leyden, and died in 1772. 
 He was eminent as a classical scholar, and held several impor- 
 tant posts in his own profession. He may be regarded as the 
 patriarch of the " Bil)liomaniacs." 
 
 ASLACUS, Conrad, was born at Bergen in 15G4, studied 
 at Copenhagen under Tycho, visited most European countries, 
 became professor of philosophy at the university of Copenhagen, 
 and died in 1624. 
 
 ASMON.EANS, a dynasty which ruled in Judea for upwards 
 of two centm-ics, the last piince being Antigonus, the predeces- 
 sor of Herod the Great. 
 
 ASMON^EUS, the head of the family of the ^laccabees. See 
 Maccadees. 
 
 ASNE, ]\IicuEX, l', an eminent French engraver, was bom 
 at Caen in 1596, and died at Paris in 1667, leaving about sis 
 hundred engravings after the woi-ks of Titian, Rubens, the Ca- 
 racci, and Albano. 
 
 ASOKA or DHARMAZOKA, a king of Magadha, in India, 
 who reigned about 350 B.C., and favoured the Buddhist religion. 
 
 ASOPODOROS OF Arc;os, a brass-caster, pupil of PolycJe- 
 tus, who flourished about 420 B.C. 
 
 ASP, JIatiiias, a divine and linguist of Sweden, was born in 
 1696, became professor at Upsala, and died in 17G3. 
 
 ASP, Pehr Olof, a Swedish diplomatist, was bom in 1745, 
 and died in 1808. 
 
 ASPAR, a Byzantine general, who, on the death of Marci- 
 anus, placed Leo of Thrace upon the throne, and was put to death 
 by him in 471. 
 
 ASPASIA or MILTO, an Ionian lady, bom at Phocis about 
 421 B.C. Her long-flowing hair — her graceful fonn, and amiable 
 character, attracted the notice of one of the satraps of C\tus the 
 younger, and he forced her father to give her up to that prince. 
 Placed in his seraglio, the modesty and tears of Jlilto so won 
 his affections, that she became his chief counsellor, and his queen 
 in all but the title. He named her Aspasia, in honour of the wife 
 of Pericles, already so celebrated. When Cyras was killed, 401 
 B.C., in his rebellious attempt to overthrow his elder brother 
 Ai-taxerxes, ^lilto became the prey of the conqueror. Warmly 
 attached to Cjtus, for a long time she was inconsolable. AMien 
 somewhat reconciled to her lot, she became conspicuous among 
 the gentlewomen of the coiul of Artaxerxes. She had the rare 
 merit of inditlerence to money. When Cynis presented her with 
 a valuable chain of gold, she sent it to his mother, Paiysatis, 
 and when Parysatis, in return, gave her a large sum, she handed 
 it over to C}tus with the words, " It may be of service to you, 
 who are my riches and ornament." — T. J.
 
 ASPASIA. Among the accounts that have come down to us 
 of Aspasia, daughter of Axiochus, we have no certain intelHgence 
 of the dates of her birth or death. She belonged to a family of 
 some note ui MUetus, and was early distinguished for the graces 
 of her mind and person. She came to Athens with the tide of 
 Asiatic immigi-ation, which marked the era in Greece succeeding 
 the Persian war, and by her beauty and accomplishments soon 
 attracted the attention of the leading men in that city. She 
 engaged the affections of Pericles, and he is said to have divorced 
 his former wife in order to marry her. Their union was har- 
 monious throughout : he presen-ed for her to the end of his life 
 the same tenderness : she remained the confidant of the states- 
 man's schemes and the sharer of his troubles. Their house was 
 the resort of the -wdsdom and wit of Athens. Orators, poets, 
 and philosophers came to listen to the eloquence of Aspasia; 
 and in their conversation, wliich turned upon the politics, Utera- 
 ture, and metaphysics of the age, they paid deference to her 
 authority We hear from Plato, who offers a high tribute to her 
 genius, that she funned the best speakers of her time, and chief 
 among them, Pericles hunself. The sage Socrates was a fre- 
 quent visitor at her saloon, dra-oTi thither, it is insinuated, by the 
 double attraction of eloquence and beauty. Anaxagoras, Pheidias, 
 and the restless Alcibiades were numbered among her admirers, 
 and we may credit the imagination of Savage Landor for a suc- 
 cessful revival of the other names which adorned that Ulustrious 
 circle. The envy which assailed the administration of Pericles, 
 was unsparing in its attacks on his mistress. Jealousy of 
 foreigners and dislike of female influence combined to offend the 
 prejudices of the mass. Her fearless speculation aroused their 
 superstitious zeal. She shared the impeachment, and naiTowly 
 escaped the fiite, of her friend Anaxagoras. She was accused by 
 Hennippus of disloyalty to the gods, and of introducing free 
 women into her house, to giMtify the impm'e tastes of Pericles. He 
 himself pleaded her cause, and, on this occasion alone, he is said to 
 have abandoned his accustomed majesty of demeanour, and bm'st 
 into tears before the assembled populace. The passionate appeal 
 was trimuphant, and Aspasia was acquitted. But she was still 
 at the mercy of the comedians. All manner of nicknames were 
 uivented to suit her relationship with the Athenian Jove, — and 
 all manner of tales were told of her intriguing sphit and coiTupt 
 morals. Those lampoons are preserved for us in some of the 
 verses of Aristophanes, and the gossip of later writers. She is 
 charged with inducing Pericles to imdertake the war against 
 Samos, in order to befriend Miletus, her native city, and with 
 obtaining the decree against the Megareans, to avenge the 
 abduction of two light girls in her train. This latter statement 
 rests for its sole authority on two lines of the Achanianians, 
 in which there is a joke on the word aa-^a-o-ixt, but no amount 
 of similar authority could justify such an intei-pretation of Greek 
 history. (For the real occasion of these wars, see the article 
 Pericles.) Aspasia is also accused of filling Greece ivith 
 courtezans, and of coiTupting the morals of Athens, by giving ui 
 her own. life a conspicuous example of license. To expjlain the 
 origin of those i-eports, we need but refer to the state of female 
 society at that tune in Attica. The regular wives of Athenian 
 citizens were kept from interference with public life, with a 
 rigour only less strict than that of an Eastern harem. They 
 lived in secluded apartments at home, and had httle knowledge 
 of social affiiirs or general interests. The Hetjerse, among less 
 honourable distinctions, had the advantages of vivacity, fi-eedom 
 of thought, and a considerable degi-ee of mental culture. Their 
 society was undoubtedly more attractive and more sought after 
 by many of the distinguished men of the time. " The wife for 
 oiu- house and home," says Demosthenes; "the Hetfcra for our 
 solace and delight." We have in the table-talk of Athenajus 
 abundant specimens of the mt and the manners of this class of 
 women ; and we see from his account the wide range of character 
 and position which their common name included. Her free and 
 various conversation — her talents and ambitious spirit, with the 
 variety of those admitted to her social circle, led Aspasia to be 
 classed with the Heta^rse ; but we have no reliable evidence of 
 any moral infidelity on her part, either before or after her union 
 with Pericles. If we admit Athena^us and the comedians as 
 authorities on which to found our judgment of character, we 
 must immensely lower our estimate of Socrates, and the noblest 
 names of Greece. If not, neither can we take their account of 
 Aspasia as historical. It is unfair to estimate the morals of 
 one age by the highest standard of another ; but it is still more 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 unfair to take om- impression of the _gi-eat politicians of any age 
 or country from the writers of political squibs. Aspasia had 
 one son, named after his father, Pericles : he was made a 
 citizen of Athens on the abrogation of the old law, which with- 
 held from political rights the childi-en of ahens. She sirrvived 
 Pericles by some years, and is reported to have married an 
 obscure Athenian, Lysicles, whom she raised by her example 
 and precept to be one of the leaders of the repuWic. We have 
 a doubtful fragment of her poetiy, quoted by Athenaius, and 
 the oration in the Jlenexenus is attributed to her dictarion. We 
 cannot, however, draw from tliis any certain conclusion as to its 
 authenticity. The authorities regarding Aspasia are fully col- 
 lected in Bayle; but the best historical account of her is to be 
 found in the sixth volume of Grote. Among more imaginative 
 sketches we may refer to Miss Lj-nn's " AmjTiione," for a glow- 
 ing pictm-e of the union of beauty and wisdom, vrith nobility of 
 soul, which characterized the -great Ionian. — J. N. 
 
 ASPASIUS OF Ravexxa, a celebrated sophist, son and pupil 
 of Demetrianus, and principal teacher of eloquence at Rome, 
 hved about the beginning of the third century B.C. The ora- 
 tions ascribed to him are no longer extant. 
 
 ASPASIUS, a celebrated Greek philosopher, and author of 
 commentaries on the ethics of Aiistotle, lived about a.d. 80. 
 
 ASPASIUS DE Bi'BLOs, an ancient teacher of rhetoric, and 
 author of certain treatises on that subject, a work on Byblos, 
 and a panegyric on the Emperor Hadiian, hved, according to 
 Suidas, in the latter half of the second century. 
 
 ASPEGREN, GuSTAF Carstex, a Swedish natm-alist, was 
 bom at Carlskrona on 17th August, 1701, and died on 11th 
 July, 1828. He was the son of a baker, and it was intended at 
 fk'st that he should follow his father's trade. But his fondness 
 for natural histoiy led him to devote himself to the study of 
 it. He formed a small botanic garden, and made a valuable 
 museum. He became a coirespondent of the chief scientific 
 men in Em'ope. He assisted Kilsson in the Fauna of Sweden, 
 Wahlenberg in its Flora, and Agardli in its Algte, and he pub- 
 hshed works on the plants of his native coimtiy. — J. H. B. 
 
 ASPELIN, David, a Swedish scholar and poet, was bom 
 2nd August, 1780, and died at Tolff, 25th August, 1821. 
 
 ASPELMAYER or ASPEL:\IEYER, Franz, a celebrated 
 musician, ballet composer to Joseph II. of Austria, and author 
 of several musical works, was born about the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, and died at Vienna, 9th August, 1786. 
 
 ASPER, Caius-Juliaxcs, a favourite of the Emperor 
 Caracalla, to whom he was recommended by the dignity of his 
 character and manners, lived about the year 220 a.d, 
 
 ASPER, jEmilius, a Latin gi-ammarian, who wrote commen- 
 taries on Terence and Vu-gU, is supposed by Lindemann to have 
 lived about the beginning of the sixth century. 
 
 ASPER, Hans, a Swiss painter, born at Zurich m 1499. 
 He was a pupil of the younger Holbein, whose style he success- 
 fully imitated. Although highly esrimated throughout his 
 native country, where even a medal was struck in his honour, 
 yet he failed in obtaining a more substantial support, so that, 
 Jifter a most laborious career, he died in utter distress in 1571. 
 
 ASPER. See Aspre. 
 
 ASPERTINI, Amico, an Italian historical painter, bom at 
 Bologna in 147-1. He was a pupil of Francis Francia, but painted 
 on the principle of eclecticism, making the tour of Italy, to copy 
 here and there whatever most pleased him, forming attenvards a 
 style of his own. Vasari gives an amusing portrait of Amico, 
 wliom Lanzi pronounces " a compoimd of pleasantry, eccentricity, 
 and madness." He was called Amico da due Penelli, or 
 Two-brush Amico, from his being able to paint with both liands 
 at the same time. Lanzi, however, quotes Gucrcino, as stating 
 that i\spcrtini handled two pencils in the sense of painting some- 
 times for low prices, or out of despite and revenge ; while at 
 other times he ^^Tought carefully and well for friends and liberal 
 patrons. His " Pietii," in the church of S. Petronio (Bologna), 
 is an example of his whimsical style, while the specimens of his 
 art in S. Martino and elsewhere are highly commendable. — A. M. 
 
 ASPETTI, TiZLVNO, a sculptor of Padua, bom in 1565 ; died 
 1607. His mother was the sister of Titian. Aspetti was a 
 pupil of Sansovino, and produced many beautiful works in marble 
 and bronze at Padua, Florence, and Pisa. Vasari mentions a 
 Tiziano Padovano ; but in a note to the English edition of Vasari, 
 published by Bohn in 1851, the Tiziano da Padova, spoken of 
 by Vasari, is stated to be identical with Tiziano Minio of Padua, 
 
 2 K
 
 ASP 
 
 258 
 
 ASS 
 
 and not with Tiziano Aspetti, the latter behig but three years okl 
 when Vasari published the second edition of his Lives. — (Vasaii's 
 Lives of the Painters, vol. iii. p. 442, and note.) — ^A. M. 
 
 ASPILCUETA, P. Juan, sixrnamed Navarro, a Spanish 
 missionary, born in the kingdom of Navarre, died at Bahia 1555. 
 He belonged to the families of Xavier and Loyola, and entered 
 the order of the Jesuits m 1544. In 1549 he proceeded to 
 Brazil in company with Nohrega, and is said to have surpassed 
 all the missionaries in the art of subduing the natives. He was 
 the first to acqim-e then- language coiTectly, and preached and 
 composed prayers and hjinns in the Brazilian. He made many 
 important discoveries in the geography of the country.— G. M. 
 
 ASPILCUETA, Martin, smiiamcd the " Doctor of Navarre," 
 a Spanish jurisconsult of great reputation, born 13th December, 
 1493, died 22nd June, 1586. 
 
 ASPLUND, Arnold, a distinguished Swedish ecclesiastic, 
 and author of a great number of sermons, was bom at Stockholm, 
 26th September, 1736, and died 12th January, 1815. 
 
 ASPKE or ASPER, Constant Ghilain Charles van 
 HouBRACK, Baron d', a Belgian by birth, but a major in the 
 Austrian army, in which he signalized hunself by his bravery and 
 mihtary skill on various important occasions. He was born at 
 Ghent m 1724, and died m 1802. 
 
 ASPRUCK, Franz, a painter, engraver, and bronze and 
 silver founder, lived at Augsbm'g in the early part of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 ASPULL, George, a celebrated pianist, bom at Manchester 
 in 1813, displayed from his infancy tlie most extraordinary 
 talents for music. At nine years of age, he made his appearance 
 at a concert given by his brother, and excited in the public mind 
 the astonishment and admu'ation which attended him through- 
 out his short but brilliant career. Rossini, to whom he played, 
 pronounced liira the most extraordinary creatm'e in Europe. He 
 died at Leamington in 1832. A volume of his compositions 
 was published by his brother. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASQUINI, Basilio, an Italian writer, author of " j\Iemoirs 
 of the Illustrious Men of Friuli," and of numerous other bio- 
 graphical works, the greater part of which remain in MS., was 
 professor of rhetoric, and afterwards rector of a college, in his 
 native town of Udine. Died in 1745. 
 
 ASQUINI, Count Fabio, of Friuli, in Italy, celebrated as 
 an agricultm-ist, was bom at Udine in 1726. He was the first 
 to introduce mulberry trees and sillcvvorms into his native pro- 
 Nince, and he successfully exerted himself throughout Italy to 
 recommend potatoes as food, and tmf as fuel. He founded at 
 Udine, a society of agincultiu'c, commerce, and the arts, the 
 success of which led to the institution of many similar societies. 
 He died in 1818.— J. S., G. 
 
 ASSAFADI, an Arabian biographer, and commentator on 
 the Koran, so named from the place of his bkth, Safadah, in 
 Syria, was born in 1296, and died in 1362. His name in full 
 was Khah-Ibn Aybek Abu-s-defa Salahu-din. 
 
 ASSAID, Abu-l-hasjVn-Ali, twelfth sultan of Western 
 Africa of the dynasty of the Almohades, succeeded his brother 
 Al-rashid in 1242. Defending his dominions against rival chiefs, 
 he was killed in besieguig the castle of Abu-Zcyyan. 
 
 ASSALINI, an Italian physician, bom at Modena in 1765, 
 held an appointment in the French anny during the campaign 
 in Egypt, and earned the favour of Napoleon by his humane 
 exertions to stay the ravages of the plague which broke out at 
 Jaffa, Dui'ing the time of the empire, he enjoyed the rank of 
 tirst surgeon to the court, and surgeon in ordinaiy to the Italian 
 viceroy. He accompanied the emperor into Russia, and on his 
 return settled in Italy. Died in 1840. His works are " Obser- 
 vations sur la peste," 1803, and a work on diseases of the eye, 
 published in 1811. — J. S., G. 
 
 AS-SAMAANI, Abu-s-ad-Abdu-l-Kekisi Ibn Abi Bekr 
 Mohammed at-Temimi AL-MERWAzi,sm-named Kawwamud- 
 DiN (the pillar of the faith), a celebrated Mohammedan writer, 
 author of a history of Bagdad, a histoiy of Meru, and a work on 
 genealogy. Born at Meru 1113; died 1166. 
 
 AS-SAMH, Ibn Malik al Khaulaxi, sixth governor of 
 Jlohammedan Spain under the caliphs, succeeded Al-horr about 
 the year 719. After dividing Spain into five military districts, 
 he led an expedition into France, where, laying siege to Toulouse, 
 he was defeated and slain in 721. 
 
 ASSANDRO, Giovanni Battista, an Italian priest of the 
 early part of the seventeenth century, lived at Cronona. He 
 
 published a work entitled " Delia Economia, ovvero disciplina 
 domestica." 
 
 ASSARACCO, SARRACCO, Andrea, an Italian historiat 
 of the early part of the sixteenth centmy, was a native of Bes- 
 polato. He wrote a history of the Franks, Milan 1516. 
 
 ASSARACUS, an ancient Trojan king, the great-gi-andfather 
 of ^neas, from whom Vu'gil names the Romans "Doraus Assa- 
 raci." — (jEneid I.) 
 
 ASSARINO, LucA, an Italian miscellaneous writer, was born 
 of Genoese parentage at Seville in 1607, resided a number of 
 years at the com-t of the duke of Jlantua, and died at Tmin in 
 1672. He wrote histories and romances, some of which attained 
 considerable popularity. 
 
 ASSAROTTI, Ottavio Giovanni Battista, the founder 
 of the institution for deaf mutes in Ms native town of Genoa, 
 was bom in 1753, and entered at an early age an order of eccle- 
 siastics devoted to charitable education. His benevolent labours 
 among deaf and dumb chilchen, which for some years attracted 
 little attention, were begun ui 1801, and continued with untiring 
 zeal till the year of his death, 1829. The esteem m which his 
 memory is held among liis countrymen, and the noble institution 
 which arose out of liis labours, are the memorials of a true 
 philanthropist. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASSAS, Nicolas, Chevalier d', celebrated for an act of 
 patriotism which cost him his life, was captain in the regiment 
 of Auvergne when the French army was stationed near Gueldres 
 in 1760. On the 15th October, while engaged in reconnoitiing, 
 he was taken prisoner by a division of the enemy advancing to 
 surprise the French camp, and was threatened with death if a 
 word escaped him. He shouted " A Moi, Auvergne, voila les 
 ennemis," and was instantly struck down. An annual pension 
 is allowed to liis descendants. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASSCHERADES, Charles Gustavus Schultz d', a 
 Swedish diplomatist and historian, was for many years minister 
 at the court of Berlin. Died at Stocldiolm in 1799. 
 
 ASSELINE, Gilles Thomas, a French litterateur, provi- 
 sem* of the college of Harcom-t, enjoyed some celebrity as a poet 
 in the early part of his career. He was bom in 1682, and died 
 at Issy, near Paris, in 1767. 
 
 ASSELINE, Jean Reni^, a French ecclesiastic, born at 
 Paris in 1742, became professor of Hebrew in the Sorbonne; 
 was appointed bishop of Boulogne in 1790, and aftenvards suc- 
 ceeded the Abbe Edgeworth as confessor to Louis XVIII. He 
 died in 1813. 
 
 ASSELYN, Jan, a historical and landscape painter of some 
 celebrity, lived at Amsterdam in the first half of the seventeenth 
 century. The transparency of his colour, and the excellence ot 
 his animal figures, especially horses, are frequently remarked. 
 Died in 1660. 
 
 ASSEMANI, Giuseppe Luigi or Aloysio, son of a brother 
 of Giuseppe Simone. Assemani was bom at Tripoli in 1710. 
 He remained at Rome after completing Ms studies, and was 
 appointed in 1737 professor of Syriac in the university of 
 Sapienza. He died in 1782. Of the gigantic work which he 
 projected, " Codex Liturgicus Ecclesia; Universal," a thhd part 
 was published, which extended to thuleen volumes, 1749 — 
 1766. His other works, especially a history of the Nestorian 
 and Chaldean patriarchs, are of considerable unportance to the 
 student of ecclesiastical history. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASSEMANI, Giuseppe Simone, a celebrated Orientalist, 
 was bom at Tripoli, in Syria, in 1687. In his eighth year he 
 was sent to pm'sue his studies at the Maronite college of Rome, 
 and rapidly acquired a name for talent and industiy. He was 
 on the point of returning to his family, when he received a com- 
 mission from Clement XL to aiTange and catalogue some Syriac 
 MSS. which had just been brought from Egypt, and the satis- 
 factoiy accomplishment of this task led to his being appointed 
 secretary for Oriental languages in the Hbrary of the Vatican. 
 In 1715 he was sent to the East in search of MSS., and, on his 
 retm'n, was appointed mider-keeper of the Vatican. He was 
 raised to the dignity of keeper on the death of Maiclli, and, 
 somewhat later, was created archbishop of Tjtc. He died in 
 1768. His labours in collecting and deciphering Oriental MSS., 
 and his researches into Oriental institutions, customs, and tradi- 
 tions, especially those connected with sacred literatm'C, are 
 represented by an immense mass of MSS., and by a number of 
 j)ublications, any one of which might have been considered the 
 labour of a lifetime. The most important of these is an
 
 imfinislicd work, entitled " Bibliotheca Orientalis Clemen tino- 
 Vaticana," 1719-1728.— J. S., G. 
 
 ASSEMANI, SiMONE, nephew of Giuseppe Luigi, bom either 
 
 at Tripoli or at Rome in 1752, became professor of Oriental 
 
 languages in the seminary of Padua. His reputation as a scholar, 
 
 i founded as much on his immense con-espondence with learned 
 
 I foreigners as on his published works, has considerably declined 
 
 ! since his death at Padua in 1821. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASSEMANI, Stefano Evodio, sister's son of Giuseppe 
 Simone, was born at Tripoli about the year 1707. After the com- 
 [ jiletion of his studies at the Maronite college of Piome, he tra- 
 versed Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, as a missionary of the 
 I Propaganda, and in 1736 was appointed archbishop of Apamea. 
 The following year he visited England. He succeeded his uncle 
 ill 1768 as keeper of the Vatican, and held that dignity till his 
 death in 1782. He catalogued the libraiy of Cardinal Chigi, the 
 Florentine Oriental MSS., and, along with his uncle, those of the 
 ^'ntican. His other works are not of much importance. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASSEN, Jan van, a Dutch historical and landscape painter, 
 liorn at Amsterdam in 1635 ; died in 1695. 
 
 ASSENEDE, Diderik van, a Dutch poet of the early pai-t 
 of the fourteenth century, author of a version of the romance of 
 Vlores et Blanchefleui-, imitations or translations of which are to 
 ill' found in almost every Evu'opean language, is supposed to 
 have been a native of Assenede, a town in Flanders. 
 
 ASSEOLA or OSCEOLA, an Indian chief, bom about 1800, 
 limited as the leader of the Seminoles, who refused to remove from 
 the eastern peninsula to the west of the Mississipi. The generals 
 of the United States were obliged to have resort to treachery 
 before this daring spirit could be subdued. Asseoladied in 1838. 
 
 ASSER, Menevensis (so called from Menevia, the Latin 
 name of St. David's in Pembrokeshire), reputed the author of a 
 liistory of King Alfred, " De rebus gestis iElfredi." Pie was pro- 
 1 Kibly a Welsh ecclesiastic ; appears to have been invited by Alfred 
 into Wessex, and to have been employed by the king in his 
 schemes for the improvement of bis subjects, and at his death in 
 ;ilO occupied the see of Sherborne. The history extends from 
 849 to 889. Several other works are attributed to Asser. 
 
 ASSERETO, Giovacchino, an Italian painter, born at 
 < !enoa in 1600, was a pupil of Borzone and Ansaldo. He formed 
 liis chiaroscuro on the manner of the latter, and designed in the 
 style of Ansaldo. Assereto was only sixteen when he pamted a 
 Ti'mptation of St. Anthony for the monks of that order. Various 
 works of his may be seen in the churches of Genoa. — A. M. 
 
 ASSERIUS MENEVENSIS, a monk of St. David's, and 
 friend of King Alfred, who m 880 invited him to his comi, and 
 made him bishop of Sherbome. Asserius died in 910. The 
 genuineness of the life of Altred, usually attributed to Asserius, 
 has been disputed, and the " Annales Britannicro," which go by 
 Ms name, are generally allowed to be spm-ious. — J. B., 0. 
 
 ASSEZAN, Pader d', a French di\amatic author of the last 
 half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 ASSHETON, William, D.D., was bom at Middleton, in 
 Lancashire, in 1641. He was successively chaplain to James, 
 duke of Ormond, prebendaiy of Knaresborough, and rector of 
 Beckenham. He died at Beckenham in 1711. His vrorks, 
 most of which are devoted to subjects of ephemeral interest, 
 have never been collected. 
 
 ASSHOD, four kings of Armenia bore this name : — 
 
 AssHOD I., sm-named Medz, or the Great, first lung of 
 the Jewish dynasty of the Pagi-atida;, took possession of the 
 government on the death of his father Sempad in 856, and in 
 the course of his wise and temperate administration, secured the 
 favour of two successive caliphs, so far as to be allowed to enjoy 
 complete independence. He was formally crowned by an am- 
 bassador of the caliphate in 885. Died in 889. 
 
 AssiioD II., surnamed Ergathi, was crowned about the year 
 915, and, after a long struggle with the Ai-abs under Yusuf, 
 who put forward another Asshod, first cousin of Asshod 
 Ergathi, as legitimate sovereign, reigned peacefully till his death 
 in 928. His title of Shahanshah (king of kings), he owed to 
 the favour of the caliph of Bagdad, with whom, and the Greek 
 emperor Constantino, Asshod maintained friendly relations. 
 
 Asshod III., smmamed Ogiiormaz (the Compassionate), 
 succeeded his father Assas in 952. The first years of this 
 reign were peaceful, and allowed the sovereign, as his tastes 
 strongly inclined him, to promote the arts and industiy of his 
 kingdom. In 961 he repulsed an invasion of Seif-eddaulah, 
 
 prince of Aleppo ; and somewhat later powerfnlly aided the Greek 
 emperor, John Zimisees, in his Syrian campaign. He died in 977. 
 
 Asshod IV. was the second son of Kakig I. On the death 
 of his father in 1020, he made himself master of the greater 
 part of the kingdom, and compelled his brother John, who re- 
 tained only Ani and the country of Shiraz, to allow him the title 
 of king. The dominions of both the brothers were invaded by 
 the Emperor Basil II., and both reduced to a state of vassalage. 
 Asshod died in 1039.— J. S., G. 
 
 ASSIGNIES, Jean d', a Cistercian monk, subprior of the 
 monasteiy at Cambron, and aftenvards abbot of the Cistercian 
 monastery at Nizelle in Brabant, born 1562, died 1612. He 
 published some devotional works, and left a quantity of MSS., 
 which are presen-ed in the libraries of Cambron and Nizelle. 
 
 ASSIGNY, Marius d', a clergyman of the chmxh of Eng- 
 land, as his name indicates of French extraction, was bom in 
 1648, studied at Cambridge, and took his degree of B.D. in 
 1668. His principal works are " The Divine Art of Prayer," 
 1691; "The Aii of Memory," 1699; and "The Histoiy of 
 the Earls and Eai-ldom of Flanders," 1701. 
 
 ASSING, Rosa Maria, a Gemian poetess, was bom in 1783 
 at Dusseldorf. She belonged to the family of Varnhagen 
 von Ense, which was driven, by the outbreak of the French 
 Revolution, to Strasburg. In 1796 they settled at Hambiu-g, 
 where, in 1799, the father died, leaving his family in diJEculties, 
 which forced Rosa Maria to have recom-se to teaching. Under 
 external cu'cumstances of a gloomy and depressing character, a 
 rich interior life had developed itself in the yomig girl ; she 
 moved in the most intellectual cuxles of Hamburg, and was on 
 terms of intimacy with her brother's friend, Chamisso. In 1810 
 she mamed Dr. Assing, a physician from Konigsberg ; and the 
 blended dignity and sweetness of the lady, combmed with her 
 talents and accomplishments, made their house, for many years, 
 a favourite place of reunion for the leading Uterary men resident 
 in Hambm'g. Frau Assing wrote much more than she published 
 dming her lifetime, and it was not tiU " Rosa Maria's Poetischer 
 Nachlass" (Poetical Remains), Altona, 1841, was published, 
 after her death in 1840, that the public were able fully to 
 apjireciate her genius. — A. M. 
 
 ASSOHAYLI, a celebrated Arabian writer, bom at JIalaga, 
 in Spain, in 1115 ; died in the kingdom of Morocco in 1185. 
 
 ASSOMPTION, Charles de "l', a Flemish monk of the 
 Cannelite order, author of a number of doctrinal treatises, be- 
 came pro\'incial of his order at Douay. He died in 1686. 
 
 ASSOMPTION, Juste de l', a French Camielite monk, 
 whose real name was Alexander Roger, bom 1612, died 
 1679 ; author of two treatises on the sacraments. 
 
 ASSONVILLE, Guili>aume, a French physician, who lived 
 in the sixteenth century, and wi'ote on pestilential fevers. 
 
 ASSOUCY, Charles Coypeau d', a comic French poet, or 
 rather buffoon, who lived in the seventeenth century, and. wi'ote 
 some feeble parodies. 
 
 ASSO Y DEL RIO, Ignacio Jordan d', a Spanish lawyer 
 and naturalist, lived dirring the second half of the eighteenth 
 century. While he attended to law and languages, he also pro- 
 secuted natm'al history, and has left works in aU these depail- 
 ments. He published treatises on the botany and zoology of 
 Ai-agon. — J. H. B. 
 
 ASSUMPCAO, Josi d', a Portuguese di\'ine of the last cen- 
 tuiy, who produced Latin verses in gi-eat abundance. 
 
 ASSUMPCAO-VELHO, Joachim d', a Portuguese physician 
 and astronomer, was bom in 1753, and died in 1792. 
 
 ASSUNTO, Onorio dell', a Camielite monk of Italy, was 
 bom in 1639, became professor of philosophy and theology m 
 several colleges, and died in 1716. 
 
 AST, Georg Anton Friedrich, a German philologist, 
 bom at Gotha in 1778, died at Munich 31st December, 1841, 
 Ha-^ang distinguished himself as a student at the gjmmasium of 
 his native town, and at the university of Jena, Ast was invited 
 in 1805 to take a chair of classical literature in the university 
 of Landshut. Here he remained till 1826, when he was 
 appointed to a similar professorship in Munich, where he after- 
 wards became aulic councillor, and member of the Academy of 
 Sciences. Professor Ast published various works on philosophy 
 and aesthetics, but his latest and most important labours were 
 devoted to the intei-j)retation of I'lato. His " Life and Writings 
 of Plato," which forms a valuable introduction to the study of 
 that philosopher, was published at Leipsic in 1816; and between
 
 the years 1819-32, Le produced a complete edition of all Plato's 
 works, in eleven volumes, accompanied by a Latin translation 
 and a very copious commentary. In 1834-39, he completed 
 his services to the student of' Greek literature, by adding a 
 comprehensive " Lexicon Platonicum," in three volumes. Pro- 
 fessor Ast's knowledge of the author on whom he bestowed so 
 much tune and pahis was undoubtedly gi-eat, but the student 
 must exercise his own judgment as to the value of his critical 
 dicta, and of the masses of material contained in the Commen- 
 taries. — A. M. 
 
 ASTA, Andkea dell,', an Italian artist, bom at Naples in 
 1G73 ; died there ui 1721. He was a pupil of Francesco Soli- 
 mene, but, studying at IJome, he introduced into his style some 
 imitation of Itaffaelle and the antique. His two pictm-es most 
 worthy of note are the " Natinty," and the " Epiphany of 
 Christ," in the chiu-ch of S. Agostino de' PP. Scalzi. — A. M. 
 
 ASTARIUS or ASTL^PJUS, Blasius, a physician of Pavia, 
 who lived in the first half of the sixteenth centuiy, and wi-ote 
 several works on the treatment of fevers. 
 
 ASTARLOA Y AGUIIIRE, Don Pablo Pedko d', a Spanish 
 philologian, was bom at Durango in 1752, studied at Larrasoro, 
 acqiui-ed a knowledge of sixty languages, wrote a learned treatise 
 on the Basque tongue, "Apologia de la Lengua Bascongada," 
 and died m 1806. 
 
 ASTARLOA, Pedro, a Basque author, brother of the above. 
 
 ASTARRITA or ASTARITO, Gennako, a Neapolitan com- 
 poser, was bom in 1749, and died about the beginning of the 
 present century. 
 
 ASTBURY, JoiiN, an English potter, was born in 1678, 
 acquii-ed a knowledge of some improved processes in the art 
 from the brotliers Elers of Niimberg (who had established a 
 manufactoi-y of earthenware at Bradwell about 1690), and 
 formed a similar establishment at Sheldon. He applied also 
 pipe-clay in the eailhenware manufacture. Died in 1743. 
 
 ASTE, Francisco I^Iaria d', an archbishop of Otranto, 
 who was bom in 1654, and died in 1719. 
 
 ASTEL, J., an English chgmist of the scYcnteenth centuiy, 
 wrote a work on the " Alcahest," or imiversal solvent of the 
 alchemists; London, 1675, 12mo. 
 
 ASIELL, Mary, a literaiy lady who enjoyed considerable 
 reputation in her day, was bom at Newcastle-upon-T}'ne in the 
 year 1668. Under the care of lier uncle, a clergyman of the 
 chiu-ch of England, she made rapid progress m such studies as 
 philosophy, mathematics, logic, and the languages. At the time 
 of the Revolution she removed to London, where she projected 
 schemes for the elevation of her sex, patronised by Queen 
 Anne and several ladies of rank, wrote books on that subject, 
 and on matters of controversy, and died in May, 1731. Of her 
 numerous works we notice two : " A serious proposal to the 
 ladies for the advancement of their true and greatest interest." 
 She advocates the establishment of a college for females, which 
 proposal seriously alamied good Bishop Bm-net, who feared the 
 college would too much resemble a nmuier)', and gave great 
 amusement to the wits of the "Tattler," who joke at the expense 
 of oiu* authoress, whom they call JIadonilla. She wrote also an 
 elaborate work, named " The Christian Religion as professed by 
 a daughter of the Chm-ch of England," 1708. — J. B. 
 
 ASTER, Ernst Ludwig, a Pi-ussian niQitaiy engineer, was 
 bom at Dresden in 1772, served in the Saxon anny until 1815, 
 when he entered the Prassian service, and superintended the re- 
 construction of the fortifications of Ehrcnbreitstein and Coblentz. 
 
 ASTERIUS, a Greek orator of the fourth centmy, who em- 
 braced Christianity at the prcachmg of St. Lucian, relapsed into 
 idolatiy during the persecution under Maxunin (a.d. 304), was 
 reconverted by his old instmctor, and became a zealous advo- 
 voeate of Arianism. 
 
 ASTERIUS, St., a bishop of Amasea, in Pontus, who lived 
 in the fifth century. A few of his works are still extant ; they 
 consist chiefly of homilies addressed to Ms flock. 
 
 ASTESANO, a Minorite monk of Asti in Piedmont, who 
 lived about 1300, and wrote a work on cases of conscience. 
 
 ASTESANO, Antonio, a poet and annalist of Asti, who 
 lived in the fifteenth century, and wrote, in Latin elegiac verse, 
 a history of that city from its origin to 1342. 
 
 ASTESATI, Giovanni Andrea, a Benedictine monk and 
 historian of Brescia, was bom 1673, and died in 1747. 
 
 ASTI, DoNATo jV>!tonio d', a lawyer who lived in the 
 eighteenth century, and practised ui the supreme court of Naples. 
 
 ASTLE, Thomas, an English archaeologist, who was bom in 
 1753, and died in 1803, leaving a work on "The Origin and 
 Progi-ess of Writing, as well Hieroglyphic as Elementaiy." 
 
 ASTLEY, Sir Jacob, afterwards Lord Astley of Read- 
 ing, a royalist general in the Great Civil War. In his youth 
 he served under Maimce of Orange, Christian IV. of Denmark, 
 and Gustavus Adolphus, and was afterwards present at the 
 battles of Ivineton, Brentford, Newbmy, and Lostwithiel. He 
 died in 1651.— J. W. S. 
 
 ASTLEY, Philip, a noted equestrian, was bom at New- 
 castle-under-L}Tie in 1742, sei-ved with some distinction in 
 the anny, and afterwards opened a theatre for the display of 
 equestrian perfomianccs. In 1794 he again joined the anny 
 for a short time. He afterwards founded the Cirque Olympique 
 at Paris, in conjunction with Antoine Franconi, and died in 
 1814, lea\'ing several works. — J. W. S. 
 
 ASTOLFI, Giovanni Felice, a theologian of Bologna, who 
 lived in the seventeenth centuiy. 
 
 ASTOLPH or AISTULPH, a king of the Lombards, who 
 succeeded to the throne in 749, conquered the exarchate of Ra- 
 venna, and attacked the states of the chm-ch. Pepin, king of 
 the Franks, interposing, defeated Astolph, and compelled him to 
 relinquish liis purpose. The territory of Ravenna was ceded to 
 the pope, despite the protestations of the Greek emperor. — J. W. S. 
 
 ASTON, Anthony', a comic dramatic author, who Uved early 
 in the eighteenth centuiy. He published two plays : " Pastora, 
 or the Coy Shepherdess," 1712; and "The Fools' Opera," 1731. 
 
 ASTON, Hugh. See Ashton. 
 
 ASTON, Sir Thojias, a gentleman of Chesliire, who served 
 as iiigh sheiifF of his native county in 1635, and afterwards 
 raised a body of horse in favour of Charles I. He was defeated 
 near Nant\vich by Sir W. Brereton, taken prisoner, and died in 
 1645 of woimds which he had received m an attempt to escape. 
 
 ASTOR, Diego d', a Spanish engraver and die-sinker of 
 distinguished talents. He worked for and was attached to the 
 royal mint of Madrid, at the beginning of the 17th century. 
 
 ASTOR, JoHANN Jacob, was bom in 1763 at Wattendorf, 
 in Gennany, emigrated to America in 1784, where he embarked 
 in the fiu- trade, especially with the Mohawk Indians. Having 
 gradually acquired considerable resources, he conceived the idea 
 of foiTuing a fm- company in opposition to the Hudson Bay Com- 
 pany. His project received the sanction of Congress in 1809, 
 and the American Fm- Company commenced operations with a 
 capital of a million dollars. Two expeditions, one by land and 
 one by sea, which were sent out to the shores of the Pacific, 
 have been described by Washington Irving in his " Astoria," 
 and " Adventures of Captain Bonneville." A fort was erected 
 on the river Colombia, which however fell into the hands of the 
 English in the war of 1812, and the whole project proved abor- 
 tive. Meantime Astor acquired immense wealth in the trade to 
 China. At his death he bequeathed fmids for establishing and 
 maintaining at New York a public library of one hundi-ed 
 thousand volumes. — J. W. S. 
 
 AS TORGA, Antonio Pedro Alvarez Olorio, Marquis 
 d', a diplomatist, wlio was viceroy of Naples in 1672. He be- 
 longed to an ancient Spanish famUy, several of whom have a 
 place in histoiy. 
 
 ASTORGA, Emmanuele d', a musician, who was bom in 
 Sicily in 1680. His family name is entirely unlcnown, but his 
 fatlier, Hieronimo, was a baron of ancient and honom-able de- 
 scent, who took an active part in the struggles to fi-ee his native 
 island from the dominion of Spain. This patriot was betrayed 
 by his own soldiers to the Spanish power ; his estates were con- 
 fiscated, and he was condemned as a traitor in 1701, his wVo 
 and son being compelled to witness liis execution. The awful 
 spectacle threw the unfortunate lady into convulsions, from 
 which she died upon the spot ; and this double shock of the loss 
 of both his parents, occasioned Emmanuele such deep and con- 
 stant despondency, as was feared would cost him his reason if 
 not his life. The Princess Ursini, chief lady of honour to the 
 queen of Pliilip V., now interested herself v\'annly for him, and 
 through her exertions he was placed in a convent at Astorga, in 
 Leon, from which place he took the name by which he is always 
 known. In this retreat he gradually recovered his energies, and 
 he was soon distinguished for his channing tenor voice, for his 
 expressive singing, and for his graceful vocal compositions. In 
 1703 he entered the sen'ice of the duke of Panna, in which 
 position he won general admu'atiun, and the special confidence
 
 AST 
 
 261 
 
 ATA 
 
 . t liis patron ; and he produced many compositions for one and 
 
 V) voices, with accompaniments for the harpsichord, or, in some 
 
 -es, for the orchestra. These he was in the habit of singing 
 
 rli the duke's daughter, and the intimacy thus induced excited 
 
 .■ father's suspicion of an attachment between the two, which 
 
 i ruinpted him to dismiss the young, noble, and unfortunate 
 
 musician from his court. He did not, however, withdraw his 
 
 favour from Emmanuele, but sent him to Vienna with letters to 
 
 the Emperor Leopold, who received him with great kindness. 
 
 lL:re he wrote, it seems, for some private court perfonnance, his 
 
 ?:oral opera of " Dafiie," which much increased his reputa- 
 
 1. He remamed in Vienna tiU the death of the emperor in 
 
 iTuG, when he proceeded to Florence, and, after a short stay 
 
 there, to London. He remained in this country for two years, 
 
 liuiing which time he wrote his " Stabat Mater," which is the 
 
 5t esteemed of all his works. The manuscript of this extremely 
 
 ;d and exquisitely expressive composition was in the posses- 
 
 .1 of the Academy of Ancient JIusic, until the dissolution of 
 
 it society, and the greater part of it is pruited in Latrobe's 
 
 lection. From England he went to Madiid, where he expe- 
 
 :iced renewed kindness from the Piincess Ursini, which in- 
 
 :ed his sojourn at the court of Spain for several years. We 
 
 xt hear of liim in Bohemia, where, in 1726, he reproduced his 
 
 ra of '• Dafne," at Breslau, this being the only occasion on 
 
 ich he superintended the public performance of any of his 
 
 oic. From Breslau he went to Prague, and either there or 
 
 some adjacent monastery he is supposed to have closed his 
 
 ys. Besides the works ah-eady named, he composed a requiem 
 
 i several cantatas, which are notable, not for any contra- 
 
 ital elaboration, but for expression, for peculiai' fitness for 
 
 ' voice, and for the modem character of the harmony. — 
 
 - iwkins, RocHitz, Confers. Lex., Fetis, Schilling.) — G. A. JL 
 
 ASTOEI, GiovAXNi AxToxio, an archaologist of Venice, 
 
 > bom in 1672, enjoyed the friendship of Mallei, Poleni, and 
 
 cr literary men of the day, and died in 1743, leaving, amongst 
 
 uer productions, a work on the Cabui. 
 
 ASTORIXI, Elia, an Itahan philosopher, was bom at Albi- 
 dona, in Calabria, in 1651. He entered the CanTiehte convent 
 of Cosenza in his sixteenth year, and studied first the Peripa- 
 tetic, and afterwards the Cartesian philosophy, with such suc- 
 cess that he was accused of witchcraft, but fortimately acquitted. 
 To escape futm-e dangers he fled to Gennany, and became vice- 
 chancellor of the university of ilarburg. He next graduated as 
 doctor of medicine at Groningen, and became there professor of 
 mathematics. He aftenvai'ds received pennission to retmii to 
 Italy ; and havmg for some time professed mathematics at 
 Siemia, and fomided there the academy of the Fisiocritici, he 
 re-entered his monastery of Cosenza. Fresh persecutions, how- 
 ever, springing up, he quitted Cosenza, and resided at Terra- 
 nnova as librarian to Piince Carlo SpineUi until his death in 
 1702. Amongst his MS. works may be mentioned the " Phi- 
 . losophia Symbolica" and " Ars Magna Pythagorica." — J. W. S. 
 ASTOEPILCO, a descendant, by the female line, of the Inca 
 Atahualpa, foimd bv Humboldt in his travels. 
 
 ASTKAMFSYCHUS, a Greek poet, who has left a work on 
 the interpretation of dreams, named " Onehocriticon." 
 
 ASTRONOMUS, or " The Astroxojiek," a French astro- 
 logian and chronicler, whose real name is imknown, and who 
 bears this epithet derived from his favourite science. He lived 
 towards the end of the runth century at the com't of Loms le 
 Debonnaire, for whom he predicted future events, and of whose 
 reign he has wiitten a historj'. — J. W. S. 
 
 ASTROS, Paul-Theiu:se David d', a French cardinal, 
 was bom at Tounes m 1772. In the exercise of his functions 
 as metropohtan \'icar-general, he gave offence to Napoleon, and 
 was imprisoned dm-mg the last years of the emphe. He suc- 
 ceeded to the archbishopric of Toulouse and Narbonne in 1830, 
 and in 1850 was raised to the rank of cardiual. Died in 1851. 
 ASTRUC, Je^vn, a celebrated F'rench physician, bom in 
 Lower Languedoc in 1681, took his degree of doctor at the uni- 
 versity of ilontpelUer in 1703 ; was honoured three years after- 
 wards with an appointment to lectiu-e on medicine in the ab- 
 sence of Professor Chu-ac ; succeeded to one of the university 
 chairs in 1717 ; removed to Paris in 1728, and the following 
 year accepted the post of first physician to tlie lung of Poland. 
 He returned to Paris in 1730, and shortly after became profes- 
 sor of medicme in the Royal College. He died in 1766. His 
 treatises on professional subjects, nmnerous aud cai'cfully elabo- 
 
 rated, are still held in general esteem, especially his " De Mor- 
 bis Venereis Libri Sex," published at Paris in 1736; but the 
 pubUcation by which he is best kuowTi in modem times is a work 
 on bibhcal literature, entitled " Conjectures sur les Memoires 
 originaux, dont il paroit que Moise s'est servi pour composer le 
 livre de la Genfese;" Bruxelles, 1753, 12mo. His hypothesis 
 is still held by many critics. — J. S., G. 
 
 ASTUKICA, a Spanish theologian of the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century, who embraced the theory of Copernicus, 
 and maintained the then startling doctrine that the Holy Spuit, 
 in reference to physical science, spoke conformably to the ordi- 
 nary opinions and language of men — not intending to teach any 
 science of that description. Foscarini, a Cannelite, had pre- 
 viously held similar language. The church became alarmed, 
 and there quickly followed the prosecution of GaUleo. — J. P. N. 
 ASTYAGES,' called by Diodorus 'Ae-iraJas, the last king of 
 the Medes, was a contemporary in the seventh century B.C. of 
 Alyattes, king of Lydia, whose daughter he married. 
 
 ASTYDAJIAS tile Elder, a Greek tragic poet, descended 
 from a sister of ^schylus, was a son of the poet !Morsimns. He 
 studied oratoiy xmder Isocrates, but afterwards devoted himself 
 to the drama, and was honom-ed by the Athenians with a statue 
 in the theatre. He hved in the fourth centmy B.C. 
 
 ASTYDAMAS the Younger, son of the preceding, a Greek 
 tragic poet, to whom Suidas attributes the following di-amas : — 
 " Hercules," " Epigoni," " Ajax Furens," " BeUerophontes," 
 " T\To," " Alcmene," " Phoenis," and '' Palamedes." 
 
 ASTY]MEDES, a chief of the Rhodians, who was employed, 
 in 167 B.C., when the Romans were at war with Perseus, king 
 of Macedonia, to negotiate a peace with the fomier. He was 
 admiral of the Rhodian fleet in 153 B.C. 
 
 ASTYOCHUS, a Spai-tan admiral, commanded a fleet in the 
 years 412-411 B.C., when several of the islands on the coast of 
 Asia ilLnor had revolted from Athens, and had invoked the pro- 
 tection of Sparta. He was superseded, after eight months, on 
 suspicion of ha\ing sold himself to Tissaphemcs, agent of the 
 king of Persia. 
 
 ASULA or ASOLA, Giov.vsni ilATTEO, a musician of 
 Verona, who is stated by some to have Hved from 1565 till 
 1596, by others tUl 1600. It is curious that neither Lichten- 
 thal nor Baini, nor om- two Enghsh extensive musical historians, 
 give any accoimt of him, siace his merits and the high esteem in 
 which he was held entitle him to considerable notice. He was 
 an ecclesiastic by profession, and consequently liis principal com- 
 positions ai-e for the church : these consist of masses, motets, 
 a set of psalms for five voices, dedicated in 1592 to Palestrina, 
 and a number of contrapuntal exercises upon the Canto Fermo, 
 ^vhich are said to be in the style of Porta ; besides these, how- 
 ever, he ^vrote madrigals and many other pieces of chamber 
 music, and he is said by Ai-teaga to have set the Trionfo 
 d'Amore of Petrarch as an opera, Padi-e JIai-tmi, and Padre 
 Paolucci, each prints a composition of his as a specimen, in 
 their respective treatises on counterpoint. His " Falsi bordoni 
 sopra gh otto tuoni ecclesiastici," must have been extremely 
 popular at and after the time it was produced, for this work was 
 printed foiu: times, namely, at Venice in 1575, in 1582, aud in 
 1584, and in Jlilan in 1587. — G. A. M. 
 
 ASULANUS, Andreas, or Andrea Asolaxo or d'Asol,v, 
 an ItaUan printer of the latter pait of the fifteenth century and 
 beginning of the sixteenth, so called from his ha^^ng been bora 
 at Asola, near Brescia. Ilis name occm-s on vaiious works, 
 published between the yeai-s 1480 and 1500, and aftenvards in 
 conjunction with that of his son-in-law, Aldus ^lanutius. — J. S.,G. 
 ASYCHIS, a king of Egjiit, of whom Herodotus reports, on 
 the authority of the priests, that he built the eastern portico of 
 Vulcan's temple at ^lemphis, and one of the brick pyramids, 
 was the successor of Mycerinus. 
 
 ATAHUALLPA, the last inca of Pern, was the son of the 
 eleventh inca, Huaj-na Capac. His mother was of royal lineage, 
 and through her he inherited the kingdom of Quito. With his 
 eldest brother Huascar, who succeeded to the throne of the 
 incas in 1523, he remamed at peace five years ; but on being 
 summoned to acknowledge the dependency of his kingdom on 
 that of Pern, he prepai-ed for war, entered the donnuions of 
 Huascar witli 30,000 men, defeated him in a pitched battle, 
 and thrust him into prison. Three years afterwards, Pizarro 
 captured the island of Puna, and Huascm- hearing ui prison of 
 the victorious stranger, sent ambassadors to Puna requesting as-
 
 ATA 
 
 262 
 
 ATH 
 
 sistancc. Tlie inca also proposed an interview mth the Spaniard, 
 and thus was brought about for PizaiTO the long-desired oppor- 
 tunity of intermeddling in the affairs of Peru. By an act of 
 base treacheiy, he succeeded in obtaining possession of the per- 
 son of the inca. His subsequent procedure was summary in the 
 extreme. Iluascar had been put to death by order of his brother, 
 and now Atahuallpa was declared guilty of treason to the Span- 
 ish croivn, and sentenced to be burned alive. The sentence was 
 commuted to strangulation, in consideration of Lis professing 
 Christianity, and receiving baptism. — J. S., G. 
 
 ATAIDE or ATAYDE, Dom Luis d', Senhor do Condado da 
 Tougia, Portuguese viceroy of India, was bom probably about 
 the ye:ir 1520. He was named viceroy in the year 15G8, at a 
 time when a collision of native princes threatened the extinction 
 of the Portuguese authority in India. These princes were the 
 Nizam, the chief of Balagat, and the Zamorin of JIalabar. They 
 were successively routed on their own tenitories, and com- 
 pelled in 1571 to sue for peace. Next year Ataide was super- 
 seded by Antonio de Noronha. He was again appointed vice- 
 roy in 1580, but died shortly after his arrival at Goa. — J. S., G. 
 
 ATANAGI or ATANAGUS, Dioxisio, an Itali;m author, 
 born at Caglio in Urbino, who lived, first at Kome and after- 
 wards at Venice. Died about 1570. 
 
 ATAR, Bf:x David, or David Abenatar, a Jewish rabbi 
 of Amsterdam in the seventeenth century. He translated the 
 Psalms of David into Spanish verse. 
 
 ATAR, Ben Samuel, a Jewish author, who lived in the 
 sixteenth centmy, and published a collection of Hebrew traditions. 
 
 ATAR, CoHis, a Jewish apothecary, who Uved in Egypt in 
 the thirteenth centuiy, and wrote a work on the preparation of 
 medicine, and another on the business of the apothecary. 
 
 ATENULPH I., the founder of the second principality of 
 Benevento, from which he expelled his brother Landulphin 900. 
 He had previously conquered Capua. The latter part of his life 
 was spent in unsuccessful war against the Saracens. 
 
 ATENULPH II., joint sovereign with Landulph I., his 
 brother, of Capua and Benevento. He died in 933, after hav- 
 ing expelled the Saracens from Italy. 
 
 ATEPOMARUS, a king of Gaul^who is said to have founded 
 Lyons, and to have invaded Italy. 
 
 ATHA a daring impostor under the KhaUf Jlehedy, or his 
 predecessor, Al-Mansur. He taught the doctrine of the' metem- 
 psychosis, and claimed to be himself an incarnation of di\-inity. 
 He had lost one of his eyes, on account of which he always wore 
 a veil, for which he received the epithet of IMocanna. Atha is the 
 hero of Jloore's " VeUed Prophet of Khorassin." 
 
 ATHAIRNE of Binn Edair (Howth), an Iiish poet who 
 lived, in the reign of Conaire the first. Diuing the general pro- 
 scription of the Irish poets, he fled with therest of the bai-ds 
 into Ulster, where they received shelter and protection from 
 Connor ilacNessa, the king of the pronnce, and desen-edly 
 considered the Mascenas of Ireland. Here Athaii-ne, in con- 
 junction with three others, compiled a code of laws which, in 
 common with the institutes of other Reachtaires (lawgivers), 
 are called by the general name of Breithe Neimliedh, or " laws 
 of the nobles." — {O'Reilly.) 
 
 ATHALARIC, k-ing of the Ostrogoths in Italy, succeeded his 
 uncle Theodoric in 556, and died in 634. 
 
 ATHALIAH, daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, and wife of 
 Jehoram, king of Judah, was bora about 927, and died about 
 878 B.C. She usurped the throne, and put to death many 
 members of the royal family, but was at last dethroned by a 
 popular rising, and put to death. 
 
 ATHA-JIELIK, a Persian historian, bom in Jawain, near 
 Nishapur, about a.d 1227. His great work, for writing which 
 his position at the court of the Mogul princes of Persia afforded 
 peculiar facilities, is named " History of the Conquest of the 
 World." It treats of the foundation and conquests of the Mogul 
 empire. Atha-Melik was also celebrated as a statesman, and 
 held the government of the city of Bagdad. 
 
 ATHANAGILD, the fourteenth king of the Goths in Spain, 
 came to the throne in 554, defeated his rival, Agila, by the aid 
 of the Emperor Justinian, and died at Toledo in 5GG. 
 
 ATHANARIC, a king of the Goths in Thrace, who reigned 
 in the fourth century. He was unsuccessful in war against the 
 Emperor Valens, who compelled him to renounce all claim upon 
 the Roman provinces; and being afterwards attacked by the 
 Huns, he fled to Constantinople, where he died in 381. 
 
 ATHANASIO, Don Pedro, a Spanish painter, born at 
 Granada in 1638, a pupil of Alonzo Cauo, and chiefly executed 
 sacred subjects. 
 
 ATHANASIUS (commonly called The Great), the most 
 distinguished of the Greek fiithers, was bom at Alexandria, pro- 
 bably in the year 296. Of his early life and education hardlv 
 anything is known. We only know that he ■was received into the 
 fiimily of Alexander, bishop of Alexandiia, and so much did he 
 profit by the intellectual and relirious advantages there enjoyed, 
 that, whUst stiU a mere youth, he was appointed secretary to 
 the bishop. Not long after, he was ordained a deacon of the 
 church, and speedily was promoted to the office of chief or 
 leader of the company of the deacons (jou x"?"" '■^» hxxitur 
 r,yovu,iye;, Thcod. H. E. I. 26). During the session of the council 
 of Nice, he was the life and soul of the party opposed to Anus ; 
 and he so distinguished himself there by his zeal and ability, 
 that Alexander proposed him as his successor in the see of 
 Alexandria, a dignity to which, noti^-ithstanding his youth, and 
 though he fled the city to escape it, he was raised on the death 
 of the bishop, with the full concmrence of all the clergy and 
 the people of the district. This took place a.d. 328, as the festal 
 letters of Athanasius attest. His first impulse on becoming 
 bishop of this important see, was to promote the interests of the 
 church by the extension of Christianity in Abyssinia ; but from 
 these peaceful labours he was soon called to the struggles of the 
 polemical arena. Arius, who had been banished after the con- 
 demnation of his doctrines by the Nica^an council, was, about the 
 year 331, tlu'ough the influence of the emperor's sister, Constan- 
 tia, and on a protestation of his attachment to catholic doctrine, 
 restored to the favour of Constantine, and sought readmission 
 into the chmxh of Alexandria. This was refused ; upon which 
 the emperor issued an edict commanding Athanasius to receive 
 him ; but, as Milman remarks, " Constantine found, to his 
 astonishment, that an imperial edict which would have been 
 obeyed in trembling submission from one end of the Roman era- 
 pu-e to the other, even if it had enacted a complete political 
 revolution, or endangered the property and privileges of thousands, 
 was received with deliberate and steady disregard by a single 
 Christian bishop," (Histoiy of Christianity, vol. ii. page 450). 
 The struggle into which Athanasius thus plunged was a severe 
 and protracted one, and was conducted on his part with the 
 utmost corn-age, constancy, and resolution. He had many ene- 
 mies among the Arian party, and they were incessant in their 
 endeavours to prejudice the emperor against him. All sorts of 
 charges were brought against him. He was accused of abetting 
 conspiracy against the tlu-one, of licentious indulgence, of tyi-anny 
 and violence in his diocese, of extortion in the city where he 
 presided, of having authorized the profanation of the sacred 
 books and vessels in one of the churches in his diocese, of sor- 
 cery and of murder. Of these charges the greater part were gross 
 falsehoods, and the rest were founded only on exaggerated or 
 distorted representations. Athanasius had no difficulty in meet- 
 ing them, and triumphantly refuting them, to the discomfiture of 
 his antagonists. In presence of the emperor at Psammethia in 
 332, he boldy confi'onted his accusers, and extorted from Con- 
 stantine a testimony to his innocence and to his worth. Sub- 
 sequently, in 335, a council held at Tyre, composed almost 
 entirely of liis opponents, and presided over by Eusebius of Cx- 
 sarea, his deteiTnined enemy, acquitted him of some of the 
 charges brought against him, but refeiTed others to the investi- 
 gation of a committee. As this committee was composed only 
 of those opposed to him, and as they would allow no one of his 
 party to accompany them to the scene of investigation, Athana- 
 sius protested against the injustice of the whole procedure, and 
 appealed to the emperor against the sentence of deposition which 
 they pronounced upon him. Repairing for this purpose to Con- 
 stantinople, he one day presented himself, accompanied by a 
 train of ecclesiastics, before the emperor as he rode through the 
 city. Startled and offended, Constantine urged on his horse, 
 but Athanasius exclaimed with a loud voice, " God shall judge 
 between thee and me, since thou thus espousest the cause of my 
 calumniators : I demand only that my enemies may be sum- 
 moned, and my cause heard in the imperial presence." This 
 demand was too plainly founded in justice to be refused, and the 
 em])eror accordingly summoned the accusers of Athanasius to 
 appear at Constantinople. Six of them obeyed the summons, 
 but const iuus of the weakness of their case, they came furnished 
 with a new charge, and one calculated to excite the jealousy of
 
 ATH 
 
 26£ 
 
 ATH 
 
 ■ emperor. Constantinople was dependent for its supply of 
 u on Egypt, and the prelate of Alexandria was accused of 
 k'lning to force the emperor into his measm-es by stopping the 
 ,-jl)plies of corn from that port. This charge prevailed. The em- 
 peror, sensitively alive to whatever threatened the prosperity of 
 ' ; new metropolis, was hurried into a belief of the calumny, and 
 innocent Athanasius was banished to the city of Treves in 
 I !ul. His exile lasted only for a short time. In the year 337 
 Constantine died, and his son, Constantine II., who had obtained 
 the western part of the empire, restored Athanasius to his see 
 in the following year. Arius also was by this time dead, and it was 
 hoped that the dissensions, of which he was the exciting cause, 
 would cease, now that he was out of the way. This reasonable 
 expectation, however, was not to be fulfilled. Though Athanasius 
 was welcomed on his retm-n to Alexandria with the liveliest de- 
 monstrations of joy on the part of the clergy and people, the 
 party of Arius stiU remained, and were animated with imabated 
 hostihty to him. No sooner, therefore, was he reinstated in his 
 office than they resumed their machinations for his do^^^^f;^ll. 
 Having succeeded in prejudicing the mind of the Emperor Con- 
 stantine against liim, they went so far as, in a council held at 
 Antioch, to appomt Pistus to supersede him as archbishop of 
 Alexandria. To counteract these proceedings, Athanasius con- 
 voked a council at Alexandria, by which he was acquitted of all 
 the charges brought against him, and, ■with commendations of 
 his character and administration, confirmed in his right to his 
 see. Another council, however, convoked at Antioch where the 
 emperor was present, and where his adversaries attended in 
 force, revoked this decision, condemned Athanasius, and nomi- 
 nated Gregory, a native of Cappadocia, bishop in his stead. On 
 the publication of this edict at Alexandria, the most violent 
 scenes occmTed. The new prelate, a man of fierce and vehement 
 spirit, enforced submission to his rule by the most unscrupulous 
 severity. The chmxhes were violently occupied ; the clergy who 
 adhered to Athanasius were treated with the utmost indignity ; 
 \irguis were scom-ged or beaten ; and a ferocious soldieiy let 
 loose upon the people, committed the hideous excesses to which 
 the unbridled license of such usually gives lise. Athanasius fled 
 to Eome, where he foimd a protector in the Emperor Constans, 
 who, as he had succeeded his brother in the larger part of his 
 dominions, followed hhn also in his adoption of the Xicene doc- 
 trines. In a letter addressed to the bishops of every church, the 
 exiled prelate detailed the injuries he had received, exposed the 
 wrongs inflicted upon his flock, and implored their interposition 
 on his behalf. The Roman bishop, Julius, warmly espoused his 
 cause, the more so, perhaps, because it afforded him an oppor- 
 tunity of advancing his claims to jimsdiction over the bishops 
 of the East, whom on this occasion he summoned to give account 
 of their proceedings at a council to be held at Rome. Whether 
 from a desire to resist these pretensions, or distrusting the good- 
 ness of their cause, the bishops refused to attend ; and in theu- 
 absence Athanasius, after having been heard in his o\vn defence, 
 was honom-ably acquitted and restored to his place. This de- 
 cision was confirmed by the emperor, and by a second council 
 held under his auspices at Milan a.d. 343. Constans having 
 proposed to his brother, that, for the sake of promoting con- 
 cord, a council of both empu-es should be convoked, it was 
 agreed that tliis should be done, and Sardica, as a neutral place, 
 was fixed upon as the place of meetuig. Tliis council was held 
 A.D. 346, and was attended by one hundred bishops from the 
 West, and by seventy-five from the East. The Arian party was 
 here in a minority, and having in vain endeavoured to carry the 
 imreasonable proposal, that Athanasius and all whom they had 
 excommunicated should be excluded from the council, they ulti- 
 mately seceded and betook themselves to PhilippopoUs in Thrace, 
 where they held a rival council. By those who remained at 
 Sardica, Athanasius and his friends were honourably absolved 
 from all the charges which had been laid against them, and were 
 restored to then* otfices. The uifluence of the Emperor Constans 
 was exerted to induce his brother Constantius to restore Atha- 
 nasius to his see ; and some acts of misconduct on the part of 
 the Arians, combined ^vith considerations of a political nature, 
 at length induced the Eastern potentate to comply with that 
 proposal. The mm'der of Gregory in the following year (349) 
 paved the way for the restoration of Athanasius, and the em- 
 peror even went so far as to write three letters, in wlii.h he 
 entreated the exiled prelate to return to his former place. Atha- 
 nasius visited Constantius on his way to Alexandria, and with 
 
 that singular influence which he seems to have possessed over 
 all with whom he came in contact, he appears, for the time at 
 least, to have drawn towards him the emperor's favour. His 
 return to Alexandiia was hailed by his adherents with the utmoi<t 
 enthusiasm and demonstrations of joy ; but it fonned only the 
 prelude to fresh stiife and new troubles. The vigour with which 
 he proceeded against the Arian party stimulated them to renewed 
 assaults upon his reputation and efforts for his overthrow, and 
 the death of hLs patron, Constans, removed the only powerful 
 protector to whom he could look. Constantius once more became 
 zealous for the Arian party, and in councils held at Aries (a.d. 
 353) and Jlilan (a.d. 355), especially the latter, he threw the 
 full weight of unperial influence into the scale against Athanasius 
 and his friends. The expulsion of Athanasius from Alexandria 
 was again decreed, but, from motives of policy, some time was 
 allowed to elapse before this determination was put in execution. 
 At length the Dux Syiianus, at the head of an armed force. 
 attempted to secure the person of the archbishop, invading the 
 chm-ch while he was engaged m his sacred duties. A little be- 
 fore midnight on the 9th of Februaiw, a.d. 356, whilst the con- 
 gregation were engaged in services preparatory to the observance 
 of the communion on the following day, the solemnities were 
 interrupted by the sound of trmnpets and the clash of arms ; 
 the doors were violently burst open, and troops of armed soldiers 
 rushed into the chm-ch. Athanasius remained unmoved amidst 
 the tumult, and by his dii-ections the choir continued to chant 
 the 136th psalm, of which the burden is, " For his mercy en- 
 dm-eth for ever," tiU the noise of the disturbimce was almost 
 drowned in their swelling strains. At length, however, as the 
 soldiers drew nearer to the place where the archbishop was 
 seated, the pious zeal of his clergy forced him to retu-e, and he 
 was conveyed by some secret passage to a place of safety. For 
 a considerable time he remained concealed in Alexandiia in spite 
 of the most strenuous efforts made by his enemies to discover 
 him, and at length escaped to the sandy deserts. There, sur- 
 rounded and protected by the solitarieswho, foUovring the example 
 of the hermit Anthony, had retired from the haunts of men, he 
 spent about three years, safe from the mahce of his enemies, 
 though they spared no etforts to lay hold of him. His austerities 
 gamed for huii the high esteem of the ascetics with whom he 
 had taken refuge ; and whilst the Arian party, headed by George 
 of Cappadocia, who had succeeded him as archbishop of Alexan- 
 diia, were pursuing their triimiph vrith the most ferocious cruelty, 
 Athanasius was beguiling the hours of his exile by the compo- 
 sition of works which confounded his adversaries by their united 
 boldness and ability, and which stfll remain as an endming 
 monument of his genius and worth. In the meantime Con- 
 stantius died (a.d. 361), and was succeeded by Julian, com- 
 monly called the Apostate, who, at the commencement of his 
 reign, issued an edict permitting the banished bishops to retm-n 
 to theu: sees — a step which, in the case of Athanasius, was ren- 
 dered the easier in consequence of his successor having recently 
 fallen by the hand of the assassin. His retiun was, as formerly, 
 hailed with joyful enthusiasm by his o^vn party ; and, once more 
 reinstated in his authority, he proceeded to repair with a \'igor- 
 ous hand the disorders which had been introduced dming his 
 absence, whilst at the same time he set an example of modera- 
 tion and lenity in the treatment of his adversaries. His troubles, 
 however, were not at an end. Again was he to incm- the un- 
 perial resentment, and to taste the bitterness of exile. Insti- 
 gated by the representations of the heathen party, and, doubtless, 
 recognizing in Athanasius a most potent obstacle in the way of 
 the re-estabhshment of heathenism, the emperor commantkd 
 hun to leave not only Alexandiia, but Eg}-pt, and threatened the 
 prefect with a hea\w fine if he did not see this edict strictlj 
 executed. The hara-^sed prelate escaped once more to the desert, 
 where he remained till the death of Juhan, which happened only 
 a few months after. During the brief reign of Jo\-ian, Athana- 
 sius enjoyed a period of repose and influence ; nor does he 
 appear to have been disturbed during the early part of the reign 
 of Valens, by whom Jo^^an was succeeded. He employed the 
 hiterval, amongst other duties, in the composition of his life of 
 Anthony, and two treatises on the doctrine of the Trinity. In 
 367, Valens issued an edict commanding the deposition and 
 banishment of all those bishops who had returned to their sees 
 after the death of Constantius ; and though the entreaties of the 
 people of Alexandria secui-ed a delay m the execution of this 
 edict on their beloved bishop, the latter was compelled at length
 
 ATH 
 
 264 
 
 ATH 
 
 to yield, and for a fifth time went forth into exile. This time, 
 however, his banishment was of short duration. For some nn- 
 explained reason Valens himself recalled him, and with this his 
 persecution ended. He continued from this tune forward in the 
 unmolested discharge of his duties till the yeai- 373, when he 
 expired on the second of May, after holding the primacy for 
 forty-six years. 
 
 With httle in his outward appearance to command admira- 
 tion, Athanasius was endowed with quaUties of mind and spirit 
 which justly entitled him to be called Great. To much acuteness 
 he added great force and depth of mtellect ; his temper was 
 earnest, constant, and fearless ; and his life, though spent amidst 
 incessant broils, persecutions, and accusations, appears to have 
 been without a stain. His zeal for tnath was such as to over- 
 come all selfish considerations, and make him willing to endure 
 the heaviest toil, to encounter constant danger, to submit to 
 the severest privations, and to brave the fury of imperial indig- 
 nation, rather than }'ield one jot or tittle of what he believed to 
 be God's tnith. His works, which amply attest his ability as a 
 ■\mter, furnish also the best representation of the whole man in 
 his opinions, his labom's, his suti'erings, and his general character. 
 As they ai-e amongst the earhest, so they are amongst the most 
 perfect specunens of purely theological polemics. The author 
 takes his stand on the words of scripture, and, regai'dless of all 
 philosophic or rationalistic considerations, contends mth unfal- 
 tenng boldness and micompromising severity for what he con- 
 ceives to be the doctrine therein taught. His name is identified 
 chiefly with the defence of the doctrine of the Trinity, including 
 that of the supreme divinity of Jesus Christ and of tlie Holy Spirit ; 
 these doctrines he maintained against the Ainans, but his argu- 
 ments have been found of equal avail in more recent times against 
 the Socinians and Humanitarians : indeed, it is remarkable how 
 little the leamuig, the reflection, and the disputations of subse- 
 quent ages have been able to add to what the writings of Atha- 
 nasius contain on this subject. The best edition of his works is 
 that published at Padua in 1777, in fom- vols, folio ; and next to 
 this stands the edition of llontfaucon (the Benedictine), in three 
 vols, folio, Paris, 1698. An excellent edition of his principal 
 dogmatic works has recently appeared in one vol. royal octavo at 
 Leipsic, edited by J. C. Thilo. Several of his wTitings have been 
 translated into English, viz., his " Four Orations against the 
 Arians," by Samuel Parker, Oxford, 1713 ; his "Treatise of the 
 IncaiTiation of the Word ; " and his " Life of Anthony the Monk," 
 by William Wliiston, in his " Collection of Ancient Monuments 
 relating to the Trinity and Incarnation," London, 1713 ; his 
 " Select Treatises against the Aiians," and his " Historical 
 Tracts," m "The Library of the Fathers," Oxford, 1842-3. 
 A curious and valuable addition has recently been made to the 
 works of Athanasius by the discovery, in the library of the 
 monastery of St. Mary Deipara in the Lybian desert, of JISS. 
 containing a S}Tiac version of fifteen of his festal letters : these 
 have been secm-ed for the British JIuseum, have been edited by 
 the most eminent Syriac scholar in Britain, the Rev. W. Cureton 
 (London, 18-48), and have been translated by another eminent 
 S}Tiac scholar, the Rev. Dr. Burgess, and published as part of 
 " The Library of the Fathers." The possession of these has 
 enabled us to correct some dates hitherto erroneously given in 
 lives of Athanasius. It remains only to add, that, by the com- 
 mon consent of scholars, the creed which bears the name of 
 Athanasius is not his production ; its real author is imknown, 
 and it has by some been thought to have been produced in Spain 
 in the seventh or eight century. (See Gieseler's Church Eistoyy, 
 voL ii., page 278.) The life of Athanasius has been written by 
 Gregoiy of Nazianzen (Orat. 21); by Jlontfaucon, in the edi- 
 tion of his works; and most fully by Mohler (^Athanasius der 
 Grosse, &c., 2 vols., Mainz, 1827) ; see also Cave's Historia 
 LUterarta, vol. i., page 141 ; the Memoires of Tillemoni, vol. 
 viii. ; the Church Hlstwies of Neandcr, Mihnan, and Waddington : 
 Bitter's Geschichte der Christ. Philos., vol. ii., p. 30 ; and Domer't. 
 Entwichelungsgpsch d. Lehre von d. Person Christi. — W. L. A. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, a bishop of Ancyra in the fom-th centuiy. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, a priest of Alexandiia in the latter part of 
 the fifth century, persecuted by Bishop Dioscurus. 
 
 ATIL\XASIUS, a Greek lawyer of the sixth century. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, a bishop of Naples, who usurped the govern- 
 ment of the city from his brother Sergius, the reigning duke, in 
 878, and died in 900, having been excommunicated for entering 
 into a league with the Saracens. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, a patriarch of Constantinople in the 13th 
 centuiy, who entered upon his office in 1289, abdicated in 1293, 
 resumed the patriarchate in 1304, and resigned again in 1310. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, Petrus, a metaphysician and theologian of 
 Cyprus, who died at Paris in 1638, leaving commentaries on the 
 works of Aristotle and Jamblichus. 
 
 ATHEAS, a king of Scythia, contemporary of Phihp of 
 Macedon ; bold, wai-Uke, and politic ; promised to proclaim 
 Philip his successor, if that monarch would furnish him with 
 supplies against his enemies. These suppUes having arrived too 
 late to be of use, Atheas sent them back, and refused to pay for 
 them, declaring " that corn-age was the only wealth of the 
 Scytluans." When Philip desired to enter Scythia, Atheas said 
 that he might come, but not with an army. On receiving this 
 rebuff", the Macedonians waged war against the Scythians, but 
 with little success ; for wliile the latter avoided a pitched battle, 
 they harassed their opponents -with forays. — T. J. 
 
 ATHELSTAN, ADELSTAN, ^THELSTAN, or EALSTAN, 
 an Anglo-Saxon kmg, the son and successor of Edward the 
 Elder, and gi-andson of Alfred the Great. His mother Egwina 
 was of unknown origin. Athelstan was bom in 895, and on 
 the death of Edward in 925, was chosen king by the people of 
 Mercia and Wessex. Northumbria, Scotland, the British states 
 of Cumberland, Wales, and Cornwall, acknowledged him as 
 superior lord, and his alliance was com'ted by all the princes of 
 Western Em-ope. Louis TV. of France was protected by him 
 duiing the usurpation of Raoul, and recovered the thi'one by his 
 aid. The Emperor Otho the Great married one of his sisters, 
 Elgifa. In 937, Constantino of Scotland, with Anlaf, an exiled 
 Northvmahrian prince, and a nmnber of petty chiefs, formed a 
 league against bun, but were totally defeated at Brunesbm-h or 
 Brunanburh. Athelstan died at Gloucester a.d. 941, in the six- 
 teenth year of his reign. — J. W. S. 
 
 ATHEN.EUS of Nauckatis in Egypt, the author of a 
 work called " Deipnosopliista?." This name has been variously 
 translated as " the feast of the learned," " men learned in the 
 mysteries of the kitchen," or "contrivers of a feast." Athena;us 
 describes to his friend Timocrates a banquet given by Lam-entius, 
 a distinguished Roman, to those of his friends most remarkable 
 for then* intelligence and learning. These discuss all kinds of 
 subjects in a rambling way, sometimes gii-iug learned disserta- 
 tions on fishes or on herbs, sometimes telHng anecdotes of poets 
 and historians, then enlarging on the various kinds of musical 
 instruments, or on the thousand forms of jests ; in fact, taking 
 up every conceivable subject. Though the book is thus a most 
 incoherent medley, it is extremely valuable. For Athenxus 
 being a very gi-eat reader, quotes very many passages fi'om poets 
 whose works are now lost ; and his book is full of archaeological 
 infonnation, and is a storehouse of facts relating to the hterary 
 history of Greece. He flourished most probably in the beginning 
 of the third century of the Christian era. — J. D. 
 
 ATHEN.EUS, a Greek author on the miUtary art;, who lived 
 about 200 B.C. 
 
 ATHEN^EUS, a Greek peripatetic philosopher of Selencia, 
 who lived about 50 B.C., and, coming to Rome, was implicated 
 in the conspiracy of JIm-rena against the Emperor Augustus. 
 
 ATHENjEUS, a Greek physician of Tarsus or At'talia (it is 
 uncertain which), who lived m the first century, practised medi- 
 cine vdih success at Rome, and founded the medical sect of the 
 Pneimiatists. He maintained that the ovaries in female animals 
 were iiseless, and existed only for symmetry. 
 
 ATHENiEUS of Cyzicus, a mathematician, quoted by 
 Proclus. 
 
 ATHENjEUS of Byzantiuji, a miUtary engineer employed 
 by the Emperor Galienus. 
 
 ATHENAGORAS, one of the Greek fathers, is the author of 
 two works, an apology for Christians, and a treatise on the re- 
 sm-rection of the dead. There is no reUable information with 
 regard to his history, since he is not mentioned by any of the 
 fathers or church historians. A writer of the time of Theodo- 
 sius the Less, asserts that at first he was at the head of an Alex- 
 andiian school ; that he confessed the Chiistian faith, while yet 
 wearing the philosopher's robe ; that he had uitended to write 
 against Christianity, but on reading the scriptures he had been 
 subdued by the Holy Spirit, and from a persecutor became a dis- 
 ciple of Christ ; and that he flourished in the reign of Hadrian, 
 to whom he addressed his apologj'. ilost of these assertions 
 have been rejected as false by modem critics, and scholars are
 
 ATH 
 
 265 
 
 ATI 
 
 more inclined to trust the statement contained in the inscription 
 which is prefixed to the " Apology " in the manuscripts. It is 
 to the following etfect : — " The embassy of Athenagoras the 
 Athenian, a Christian philosopher, for the Christians : to the 
 Emperors Marcus Am-elius Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Corn- 
 modus, victors in Armenia and Sarmatia, and wliat is greatest 
 of aU, philosophers." According to this, Athenagoras flourished 
 about A.D. 170. Baroniiis and TUlemont have hinted that 
 Athenagoras may be the same as the mart}T Athenogenes, but 
 the idea is based only on the most distant pouits of similarity. 
 
 In his "Apology," Atlienagoras repels the charges brought 
 against the Christians of atheism, of eating human flesh, and of 
 the wildest hcentiousness in theu- meetings. He writes with 
 vigour and considerable logical power. This treatise is inter- 
 esting on account of the reference which Athenagoras makes to 
 the Trinity, and the inspiration of the prophets. The tractate 
 on the Resurrection rebuts the objections that had been bi-ought 
 against the doctiine. It indeed professes a double aim — to prove 
 the truth of tlie doctrine to those who denied it, and to correct 
 the misapprehensions of some who believed it. Athenagoras 
 wrote other works, btit not a vestige of them remains. A trea- 
 tise on " True and Perfect Love," ascribed to Athenagoras, was 
 published in 1569 in a Frencli translation, but the work is uni- 
 versally regarded as a forgery, being most probably the fabrica- 
 tion of the person who pretended to translate it. — J. D. 
 
 ATHENAGORAS, a Greek physician, who has left a work 
 on the pulse and the mine, but of whom nothing else is known. 
 
 ATHENAGORAS lived in the fii-st centmy B.C., and wrote 
 on agrictilture. 
 
 ATHENAIS, daughter of the mechanician Leontius ; by force 
 o( her education, her genius, and her channs, she rose to the 
 throne of Constantinople. She Uved during the seventh century. 
 
 ATHENAS, PiERKE Louis, was born in 1752 at Paris, 
 •vhere his father carried on the business of a drysalter. He 
 studied the natural sciences under the first philosophers of the 
 Jay ; and, ttiming his knowledge to practical purposes, he made 
 many important unprovements in agriculture, and discovered a 
 valuable tin mine at Periac. He filled the post of secrettuy 
 to the chamber of commerce at Nantes till his death in 1829. 
 Athenas was also eminent as an archasologist. — J. W. S. 
 
 ATHENION OF Makonea, a Greek painter in encaitstics, 
 a pupil of Glaucion and Michophanes, lived about 348 B.C. 
 
 ATHENION, a native of CiUcia, who, being brought as a slave 
 I" Sicily, became one of the leaders of the uisuiTection of Sah-ius, 
 111! B.C. He laid siege to the foi-tress of Lilybajum, which he 
 was unable to take. After some disputes with his colleague, 
 Salvius, they were defeated by the Roman army under Lucullus; 
 but the revolt was not fiually extinguished until 99 B.C., when 
 Athenion was defeated and slain by ilanUus Aqiulius. — J. W. S. 
 
 ATHENION, a Greek physician of the second century B.C. 
 
 ATHENION, a Greek comic writer, whose works have perished. 
 
 ATHENIS and his brother BUPALOS, eariy Greek sculptors, 
 " ns and pupils of Anthemus, and hved about 548 B.C. 
 
 ATHENOCLES of Cyzicus, a commentator upon Homer. 
 
 ATHENODOROS, the son of Agesander, a Greek sculptor of 
 the Rhodian school, who, with his father and Polydorus, exe- 
 cuted the celebrated group of the Laocoon, the best specunen 
 now extant of the third stage of sculpture in Greece, during 
 which the highest display of execution was successfully coupled 
 with the utmost pathos of conception. The Rhodian school, 
 perhaps the first of that jieriod, was especially foremost in the 
 treatment of subjects of dazzUng effect. Athenodoros is sup- 
 posed to have lived about 220 B.C. — R. M. 
 
 ATHENODORUS (K«»«v;t-„?), a stoical philosopher of the early 
 part of the first century. He was honotu-ed by having had among 
 his hearers Octax-ius, afterwards Augustus, and by having been 
 appointed to instruct the young Claudius. Of his works we 
 have only a few titles. 
 
 ATHENODORUS, a Greek rhetorician, cited by Quintilian 
 II. 17, as ha\'ing taken a part in the question, Whether rhetoric 
 is properly an art ? 
 
 ATHENODORUS, a Greek physician— second half of first 
 century. He wrote a book upon epidemics (E:Tihf,f/.ix), whicli is 
 cited by his contemporary, Plutarch, as containing a fact im- 
 portant to nosologists, that the disease elephantiasis made its 
 first appearance in Greece in the prior centuiT. 
 
 ATHENODOROS of Arcadia, a pupil of Polyclitus, a 
 brass-caster, who hved about 428 B.C. 
 
 A'OL I. 
 
 ATHENODORUS, Cokduliox, a stoic philosopher of Tar- 
 sus, who lived in the first century b.c, and was keeper of the 
 hbrary of Pergamus. 
 
 ATHENODORUS of ^nos, a Greek rhetorician of the latter 
 half of the second century. He taught rhetoric at Athens, and 
 gave promise of great talent, but died young. He is mentioned 
 by Philostratus in his fives of the sophists. 
 
 ATHENODORUS of Teos, a performer on the cithern, who 
 was employed in the concerts given at Susa on the marriage of 
 Alexander with Statha in 324 B.C. 
 
 ATHENOGENI^S, a Christian mart}T, who was thrown from 
 a rock. St. Basil states, that in going to meet his fate he com- 
 posed and sent to a fiiend a hymn on the Trhiity, in which he 
 proclaimed the divinity of the Holy Spirit. 
 
 *ATHERSTONE, Edwin, was born a.d. 1788, m the town 
 of Nottingham. He and P. J. Bailey, the author of " Festus," 
 are thus to\^Ti-fellows, as well as intimate friends. His parents 
 were large-hearted people of the primitive Moravian faith. They 
 gave buth to twenty-eight children, of whom Ed\vin was one of 
 the youngest. He was educated at Fulneck, near Leeds, piinci- 
 pally by Gennan masters, of whom his chief recollections are, that 
 they smoked incessantly. One of his masters was the brother 
 of James Montgomery. Besides contriburions to the " West- 
 rmnster" and "Edinbm-gh" Re\'iews, liis pubhshed works, which 
 commanded the most discriminating notice at the time of then- 
 appearance, are as foUow : — " The Last Days of Herculaneima," 
 1821. "The FaU of Nmeveh," the first six books of which 
 appeared in 1828, and obtained from Lord Jefli-ey the warmest 
 praise. The work was completed in thu-ty books in 1847. 
 Atherstone and Martm were devoted fiiends, and they wrote 
 and painted "The Fall of Nineveh" simidtaneously, and the 
 painter adopted various hhits fi-om the works of tlie poet. In 
 1830, Atherstone's "Sea-Kings of England" was published. 
 In addition to these he gave a scries of lectures on poetry, in 
 the chief cities of the United Kingdom, which were everywhere 
 warmly received. He has latterly wTitten, though nearly seventy 
 years of age, a prose epic, entitled " The Hand™ting on the 
 Wall," and a work on the Philosophy of Elocution is also nearly 
 completed. Several as yet unpubUshed plays and romances 
 have been prepared by the same imwearied hand. Atherstone 
 was personally acqtiainted with Scott, Coleridge, Hazlitt, Lamb, 
 Kemble, and other celebrated men of the age. — J. 0. 
 
 ATHIAS, Isaac, a Spanish Jew, who hved at Amsterdam in 
 the beginning of the seventeenth century. He wrote, in Spanish, 
 "A Treasmy of Precepts," and in Hebrew, " The Force of Faith." 
 The former has been piinted twice ; the latter remains in MS. 
 
 ATHIAS, Salomon, a .Jewish writer, who composed a com- 
 menta;y on the Psalms, piinted at Venice in 1549. 
 
 ATHARS, Joseph R., son of Tobias Atliars, a famous 
 rabbi and printer at Amsterdam. He printed two editions of 
 the Hebrew Bible, one in 1C61 and another in 1667, both imder 
 the inspection of the learned Lensden. For the last edition the 
 states-general honoured liim with a gold cham and medal. 
 Though it was inore con-ect than any that had preceded it, stUl 
 there were many inaccuracies in it both in vowel-points and 
 accents. Athars also piinted Bibles in Spanish, Jewish- Gennan, 
 and Enghsh. He was wont to boast of the immense nimiber of 
 English copies sold by him. He died, according to Le Long, of 
 the plague in 1700. — J. E. 
 
 ATHLONE, Earl of. See De Ginckle. 
 
 ATHRAH, Ebn Athrah al Moaradi, a Spaniard of 
 Granada, born in the year 481 of the Hegira, wTote a commen- 
 tary upon the Koran. Another person of the same surname, 
 bom at Mecca, wrote a small treatise on nature ; but, fallmg 
 into infidelity, was said to be stmck dumb. Died in the year 
 of the Hegira 541. 
 
 ATHRYILATUS, a Greek physician, who figures as one of 
 the interlocutors in Plutarch's Spiiposiacon. 
 
 ATIA, daughter of Marcus Alius Balbus, and Julia, the 
 youngest sister of Julius Ca;sar, died 43 b.c. By her first hus- 
 band, C. Octavius, slic was the mother of Octavius Augustus. 
 She has been extolled by Tacitus as the equal of the mother of 
 the Gracchi, and of Aurelia, the motlior of Julius C;rsar. She 
 was bold and crafty enough to react the legend of Olympias — 
 pretending that Apollo visited lier m the form of a dragon, and 
 that Octavius was therefore the son of a god. — A. L. 
 
 ATIENZA, Calatrava, a Spanish painter — second half of 
 seventeenth century — founder of the Academy of Seville. 
 
 2 L
 
 ATILTCINUS, a Roman jurisconsult of the latter half of the 
 second century, whose name is mentioned in the Institutes. 
 
 ATILIUS.'a freed man of the first half of the first century. 
 He was the cause of a tenible disaster in the fall of an amphi- 
 theatre, insufficiently constnicted by him, at Fidcnrc, whereby, as 
 Tacitus reports, 50,000 people were killed or wounded. 
 
 ATILIUS, Lucius, lived in the 2nd centuiy B.C., and was 
 celebrated for his attempt, wlien young, to get the Samothracians 
 to deliver up Persius, king of Macedon, to Cn. Octa^•ius. 
 
 ATILIUS, Lucius, jurisconsult, a very early commentator on 
 the laws of the twelve tables, and designated iSajnens. 
 
 ATILIUS, Lucius, tribune of the people, 311 b.c, originator 
 of the law which confen-ed on the people the right of naming 
 si.xtcen mihtary tribimes for the four legions raised annually. 
 
 ATILIUS, JIakcus, a veiy early comic poet among the 
 Romans. We have the titles of four of his comedies, and the 
 judgment of Cicero, who calls them rough. 
 
 ATIUS, Pelignus (Caius), lived in the first century b.c. ; 
 kno^^•n for taking part with Pompey against Crosar. 
 
 ATKIXS, Akkaiiam, a private gentleman who resided at 
 Clapham, and died towards the close of the last centmy. He 
 endowed a large number of dissenting churches in London and In 
 the neighbouring counties : the endowment being held on condi- 
 tion that the churches practise " open communion." 
 
 ATKINS, John, a navy siu-geon, of Plaistow in Essex. 
 Having entered the na^■y about 1703, he served in various parts 
 of the world, and published his experiences, under the title of 
 " The Navy Surgeon." He was the author of many other works, 
 which have passed through several editions — most of them 
 mai-ked by originaUty, and often enhvened by wit. 
 
 ATKINS, Richard, of Baliol college, Oxford, a cavalier of 
 Charles the Fii-st's time ; author of " The Origin and Growth of 
 Printing in England," and one or two historical tracts. Like 
 many others who injured their estates for the cause of the 
 Stuarts, Atkins perished in want and neglect. He died in debt 
 in the Marshalsea, on the 14th September, 1G77, and was buried 
 in the church of St. George the JIartyr, Southwark. — T. J. 
 
 ATKINSON, Benj.\min Andrew, a presbyterian theologian, 
 well known about 1725 for his disputes agamst the Arians and 
 the Romanists. His principal works ai'e : — " Confession of his 
 Faith," London, 1713 ; " A Sennon for Refonuation of Manners," 
 1726; "Catholic Principles," 1730; "Christianity not Older 
 than the First Gospel Promise," (against Tindal), 1730 ; 
 " Scripture History, Precepts, and Prophecies Vindicated," 1731 ; 
 " The Holy Scriptures a Perfect Rule, and Popish Objections 
 Answered," 1735 ; "A Judgment of Private Direction," 1735 ; 
 " Good Princes Nursmg Fathers and Nm'sing ^Mothers of the 
 Church," 173G.— A. L. 
 
 ATKINSON, Joseph, a dramatic writer, was bom in Ire- 
 land, and entered the army, in which he rose to the rank of 
 ca]>tain. He wrote three plays, which were all successful : 
 " Mutual Deception," a comedy, produced in 1795, whicli 
 Coleman suhsequently altered and curtailed, and brought 
 out with tolerable success at the Hapnarket, under the title 
 of " Tit for Tat." The other two pieces of Atkinson's were 
 comic operas. " A JIatch for a Widow " was acted at Crow 
 Street in 178G, and printed in 1788. "Love in a Blaze" 
 came out at the same theatre in 1800. — J. F. W. 
 
 ATKINSON, Thomas, a bookseller in Glasgow, who had 
 some literary reputation, and left a sum of money for erecting a 
 building for scientific purposes in his native city. Born 1800, 
 died 1833. 
 
 ATKYNS, Sir Robert, Lord Cliief Baron of the Exchequer; 
 descended from an ancient family in Gloucestershire ; was one of 
 tlie most eminent lawyers of the seventeenth centuiy. He was 
 consulted by the friends of Lord William Russell, on the arrest of 
 that nobleman for treason ; and subsequently, lie displayed vast 
 legal knowledge by his arguments on several political trials. He 
 died in 1709, aged eighty-eight years, ha^^ng long retired from 
 juiblic life. He deserA-es mention in a national biogi-aphy, were 
 it only because he is said by Wood to have written a treatise 
 against the exorbitant power of the Court of Chancery. — T. J. 
 
 ATKYNS, Sir Robert, junior, son of the foregoing, bom 
 in 1G46, was a learned, opulent, and liigh-minded countiy gen- 
 tleman, who, in troublous times, commanded the esteem of all 
 ])arties in the state. He wrote an elaborate work, entitled " The 
 Ancient and Present State of Gloucesterslm-e." He died October 
 2yth, 1711, aged sLsty-foui- years, and was buried at Saperton 
 
 in Gloucestershii-e. A handsome monument is erected to his 
 memory and that of his father, in Westminster abbey. — T. J. 
 
 ATKYNS, Tracy John, called to the Enghsh bar in 1732, is 
 known chiefly as the compUer of the " Reports of Cases argued 
 and determined in the Coiut of Chancery in the tune of Chancellor 
 Hardwicke," a work of high authority. 
 
 ATOLPH, ADOLPH, ATAULPH, or ADAULPH, the first 
 king of the Goths. He appears to have been a brother-in-law m 
 of Alaric, whom he jouied during the siege of Rome with an i 
 army raised in Pannonia, and whom he succeeded. He defeated 
 some pretenders to the empire, but was unable to take Massilia. 
 In 414 he mamcd Placidia, the sister of the Emperor Honorius. 
 He assumed the manners of the Romans, and, ha\'ing conquered 
 Spain, was assassinated at Barcelona in 415. 
 
 ATONDO Y ANTILLON, D. Isidoro, a Spanish admiral 
 — seventeenth century — represented as the first Spaniard who 
 took possession of Cahfomia. The government of Madi-id hav- 
 ing resolved on colonizing that country, sent du-ections to that 
 efl'ect to the -^nee-king of Mexico, and Atondo was intrusted with 
 the chai'ge of an expedition. Three Jesuits were to accompany 
 him to represent the spiritual command of the new colonies. 
 With two ships and 100 men, Atondo sailed from Chacala. 
 After undergoing many privations, fighting many battles with 
 the Indians, chiefly to compel supplies, and being obliged to re- 
 victual at Cinaloa, he made, October 1G83, for the large bay in 
 26° 30' latitude, to which he gave the name of St. Bniiio. 
 Here he took a ceremonial possession of the province of Lower 
 Calilbmia, in the name of the Spanish government; but the 
 sterility of the soil sent him back to Cinaloa, where he found 
 greater encouragement in fishing for pearls, — nor did he succeed 
 better when again forced by a government order to betake him- 
 self to the new colony. He found it impossible to remain, sent 
 back the missionaiies, and subsequently returned to Mexico. 
 The expedition lasted three years, and cost 225,000 pesos. — ^A. L. 
 
 ATOSSA, daughter of Cyrus — 530 b.c. — was successively 
 mamed to Cambyses, Smerdis, one of the Magi, and Darius, son 
 of Hystaspes, the last of whom she incited to invade Greece. 
 
 ATRATUS or BLACK, Hugh, cardinal of the Roman church, 
 was bom at Evesham in Worcestershire, made cai-dinal by 
 Martin II. in 1281, and died 1287. 
 
 ATROCIANUS, Joannes, a Latin poet, philologist, and 
 botanist, was born in Germany towards the end of the fifteenth 
 century. Some time a schoolmaster at Fribourg, he afterwards 
 went to Basle, which he quitted on the establishment there of 
 the refonned religion, and then went to Colmar. He pubhshcd 
 an edition of jEnulius Maccr and Strabus Gallus, 1527 and 1530. 
 Another work of his is called " Elegia beUo rustico, anni 1525, in 
 Germania exorto," 1528 and IGll, curious for its account of the 
 religious war among the peasants, and several historical details. 
 Freher in his Genu. rer. Script., gives also the following work, 
 "Nemo evangelicus, Epicedion de obitu Frobennii t}'j>ogi-aphorum 
 principis; Motu^io. hoc est superbia," Bale, 1528. This poem, 
 directed against the Reformers, was reprinted with the "Nemo" 
 of Ulrich von Hutten. The only other work attributed to 
 Atrocianus is " Querela MissiE, fiber epigrammaticum," Bale, 
 1529.— A. L. 
 
 ATROPATES, Satrap of Media, commanded a division at the 
 battle of Ai-bela, 331 B.C. 
 
 ATSIZ. See Atsyz. 
 
 ATSYLL, Richard, an English engraver — commencement 
 of the sixteenth century. He was employed as seal-engraver to 
 Heniy VIII. , for wliich employment he received £25 a-year. 
 
 ATTA, Titus Quintius, a Roman dramatic poet, who com- 
 posed comedies of character, called " Comedian togatae et taber- 
 naria?," 80 b.c. 
 
 ATTAIGNANT, Gabriel Charles de l', poet, bom at 
 Paris in 1697, died 10th January, 1779. He was a canon of 
 Rome, and at the instigation of the Abb6 Gauthier, chaplain of 
 Incurables and confessor of Voltaire, renounced the world, which 
 he was accused of lo\'ing too well. Voltaii-e seized the oppor- 
 tunity for an epigram, ui which the office of the abbe, as chap- 
 lain of Incurables, was said to have been well applied towards 
 both devotees. Attaignant's poems are lively and satirical. They 
 were published in 4 vols. In 1757. A selection appeared in 
 1810, edited by Millevoye.— A. L. 
 
 ATTAIGNANT, Pierre, died 1556, said to have been the 
 first Frenchman who used Ufcs for printing music. 
 
 ATTAJI or ATHADJI, Newi-zade, the chief instractor of
 
 Sultan Miirad III., was a professor of law, afterwards a judge. 
 Diod at Constantinople in 1635. 
 
 ATTALE, a Greek physician, who lived in the 2nd century B.C. 
 He was a pupU of Soranus, and belonged to the methodical school. 
 He is mentioned by Galen, who relates that he had by improper 
 treatment occasioned the death of Theagene, a stoic. 
 
 ATTALE, a philosopher of the school of the Stoics, lived 
 abont forty years e.g. Seneca, in his youth, followed the lessons 
 ^ven by Attala, from which he inforais us he derived much ad- 
 vantage. From him we learn that Attale declaimed vehemently 
 against the vices and errors of human life, as they appeared to 
 him in his contemporaries, attacked voluptuousness, and recom- 
 mended charity and universal temperance. 
 
 ATTALIATE or ATTALEIATES, Michael, was proconsul 
 and judge under the Emperor Michael Ducas, about 1072, at 
 whose request be compiled a compendium of law, entitled "A 
 legal work or pragmatical treatise," &c. 
 
 ATTALUS, a Greek sophi.st, 180 B.C. 
 
 ATTALUS, a Greek mathematician, 150 or 160 B.C. 
 
 ATTALUS, a Stoic philosopher of the first centmy, and 
 teacher of Seneca. We know nothing farther concerning him. 
 
 ATTALUS, lieutenant of Philip of Macedon, 370 B.C. He 
 was uncle to Cleopatra, whom Philip espoused after he repudi- 
 ated OljTnpias. He was so imfortunate as to produce, first, a 
 quarrel between PliiUp and Alexander ; secondly, one between 
 Philip and Pausanias, in which the latter killed the king ; and 
 thh-dly, one between himself and Alexander, which was avenged 
 by his death, from the hand of Hccateus, in behalf of his prince. 
 —(Diod. Sic, Justin, Quint. Curt.) 
 
 ATTALUS, lieutenant of Alexander the Great — 330 B.C. — 
 has been represented as so like Alexander, that at a distance the 
 one could not be distinguished from the other, a cu'cmnstance so 
 opportune for his master, that he took advantage of it in order 
 to deceive the enemy, or to conceal the execution of a project. — 
 (Quint. Curt., Arncui, Diod. Sic.) 
 
 ATTALUS I., king of Pergamus, one of the kingdoms 
 which were fonued after the breaking up of the old ]\Lacedo- 
 nian empire, succeeded his cousin Eumencs L On the occa- 
 sion of a gi'eat battle which he fought against a host of Gala- 
 tians or Gauls, at that imsettled time, ovemmniag Asia 
 Jlinor, he assumed the title of king. By taking advantage of 
 the emban-assments of the king of Syiia, he conquered many 
 towns on the coast of the ./Egean Sea, but soon having reason 
 to be alarmed by the incursions of PhOip V. of Thrace, he 
 discovered the policy of joining a league which was formed 
 between the Romans and Jitolians against Philip and the 
 Achaeans, in 211 B.C. From this war Attalus was called to 
 defend his kingdom against Pnisias, king of Bith}Tiia. Li 
 the midst of all this fighting, Attalus was able to gratify the 
 Roman love of superstition. The Sibylline books required the 
 black stone, which lay at Pessinus, and represented the great 
 mother of tiie gods, to be brought to Rome. Attalus assisted 
 in this, and there was peace for a few years, till Philip, in 
 revenge for his old enemy having sided with the Rhodians, in- 
 vaded his kingdom, and ravaged the neighbourhood of Pergamus. 
 After a sea-fight at Chios, the activity of Attalus was not 
 abated. The war against Philip was prosecuted in other quar- 
 ters, and at home Antiochus invaded Pergamus ; but the Romans, 
 true to their friendship, came to the relief of their ally, and the 
 Syrian withdrew. Attalus was still engaged assisting the 
 Romans when he died at Pergamus, 197 B.C. He was a great 
 and good man, a patron of letters, and, as some say, the fomider 
 of the library at Pergamus. The " Attalica; vestes," an inven- 
 tion of gold-tissue cloth, dates from his reign. The events in 
 the life of Attalus are recorded in Pvlybim, Livy, Pausanias, 
 Eusebius, and Bio. Lacrtius. — A. L. 
 
 ATTALUS II., son of the preceding, surnamed Piiiladel- 
 Piius, did not ascend the throne of Pergamus till after the 
 death of his elder brother Eumenes II., whom he had served 
 lovingly and fivithfully as ambassador, minister, and general. 
 Ho was then sixty-two years of age, but he did not fail to 
 respond to the exigencies of his situation, or to maintain at 
 least for a time the grandeur of bis family. He restored 
 Ariarathes to his kingdom of Cappadocia, and was soon at war 
 with his old enemy Prusias, in which he was so far worsted, 
 that he was obliged to call in the mediation of Rome. But he 
 subsequently got his revenge by upholding Nicomcdes, the son 
 of Prusias, against his father, and assisting Alexander Balas in 
 
 usurping the throne of Syria. After again helpmg the Romans 
 in then- war with the impostor, Philip of Macedonia, he abandoned 
 himself to indolence, and was completely guided by Philopoemen, 
 one of his friends. He died at the age of eighty-two, and was 
 succeeded by Attalus, the son of his predecessor and brother. — 
 (Pohihins, Straho, Livy, Diod. Siculns, &e.) — A. L. 
 
 ATTALUS III., Philometor, last Idng of Pergamus, was 
 the son of Eumenes II. He was educated at Rome, and marked 
 every step of his progress by blood. He slew the best friends 
 of his father, under pretence that his mother had died of poison. 
 He so mixed up crime and folly, that he studied botany to dis- 
 cover poisonous herbs to send to his friends ; yet, in the midst of 
 his madness, he showed signs of genius, and it is said that 
 Celsus and Galen were indebted to him for valuable remedies. 
 At length, having resolved to erect a tomb to his mother, Stra- 
 tonice, his ardour exposed him to a stroke of the sun, of which 
 he died. He reigned six years, leavmg a testament : — " Popu- 
 lus Rom. bonorum meorum hwres esto." Aristonicus disputed 
 the testament, and, after a bloody war, Pergamus became a 
 Roman province. — (Polyhius, Straho, Diod. Siculus, &c.) — A. L. 
 
 ATTALUS THE Makttr, put to death at Lyons, a.d. 177. 
 Along with Alexander, a fellow martyr, he was first exposed to 
 wild beasts, and then he was subjected to torture. When asked 
 by his toimentors the name of his God, he rephed, " that God 
 being One needs no name." — {Etiseb., Rujimts.') 
 
 ATTALUS, Flavius Priscus, was elected Roman emperor 
 in the year 409 of our era. At first a pagan, afterwards a 
 Cluistian, and a member of the senate ; he fonned one of a 
 deputation to the Emperor Honorius, at that juncture when 
 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, was besieging the city for the first 
 time. It having pleased the barbarian to oppose the phantom of 
 an emperor to Honorius, Attalus was elected by the command 
 of Alaric, and afterwards, when the slave-king showed himself 
 refractory, the Goth set forth the destniction of Rome in effigy, 
 by exhibiting Attalus first as an emperor, and aftenvards as a 
 slave. Attalus was still nominal emperor under Ataulf, the suc- 
 cessor of Alaric ; but on the death of his protector he fled to 
 Spain, was captured, led before Honorius, (to whom he had 
 once offered his life and a pension,) and sentenceed to lose the 
 fingers of his right hand, and to finish his days at Lipari. — 
 (Zozinnis, Socrates, Procopius.) — A. L. 
 
 AT-TAMIMI, an Arabian physician, who lived about the end 
 of the tenth century. He devoted much attention to phannacy, 
 and pretended to have discovered a universal antidote, on which 
 he wrote a number of works. Wiistenfeld mentions seven of his 
 works in his "Geschichte der Ai-abischen jErtzte und Natm- 
 forscher;" Gottingen, 8 vols., 1840. 
 
 ATTAR or ATIIAR, Coge or Kiio.jah, vizier of the kingdom 
 of Ormuz, died in 1513. He was mtrusted with the regency 
 during the mmority of Seif-Eddyn IV., and for many years 
 resisted all attempts made by the Portuguese to gain possession 
 of Oi-mnz. 
 
 ATTAR, Ferid-tjd-din, a Persian poet, was bom at 
 Khorassan in 1119, and died in 1202. His poetry was much 
 a'lmired, especially for the profound knowledge which lie dis- 
 played in it of the doctrines of the Sufis. There is a copy of the 
 whole of his works in the royal library at Paris. 
 
 ATTARDI, BoNAVENTURE, an Italian monk of the order of 
 St. Augustin, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century, 
 and was professor of ecclesiastical history in the university of 
 Catania. He published a treatise respecting the island on which 
 St. Paul was shipwrecked. Palermo, 1738. 
 
 ATTAVANTE of Florence, a miniature painter of the 
 latter part of the fifteenth century, who is supposed to be the 
 author of the beautiful illustrations of the manuscript of the 
 Silius Italicus prcser\'ed in the libraiy of San Marco at Venice. 
 
 ATTAVANTI, Paolo, an ecclesiastic, author of some works 
 on religious subjects, was bom at Florence in 1419, and died 
 there in 1499. He enjoyed a high reputation as a preacher, and 
 his eloquence was compared to the music of Orpheus. 
 
 ATTEIUS, Capito. See Capito. 
 
 ATTEIUS, surnamed Pr/Etextatus, and afterwards Piii- 
 LOLOGUS, a Greek grammarian, was a native of Athens, and 
 lived about fifty years before the Christian era. He wrote a 
 compendium of Roman histoiy, from which Sallust selected such 
 portions as suited his pui^posc when compiling his work. 
 
 ATTENDOLO, Catherine. Sec Sforza. 
 
 ATTENDOLO, Dario, an Italian la^vyer, was born at
 
 ATT 
 
 268 
 
 ATT 
 
 -^ 
 
 Bagna-Cavallo, in the duchy of Fen-ara, in the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century. He wrote a treatise " On the Duel," and " A 
 Discourse on the Point of Honom-." The foi-mer was published 
 at Venice in 1560, and the latter in 1563, and both, coirected 
 and revised by the author, were republished in 1565. 
 
 ATTEXDOLO, Giova^'xi Battista, an Italian scholar and 
 poet, was bom at Capua, and died m 1592 or 1593. He became 
 a seculai- priest, and was distingiushed for his knowledge of lan- 
 guages, particularly Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. Among his 
 works are several sermons, and a number of poems. 
 
 * ATTERBOM, Peter-Daniel, a Swedish poet, was born in 
 1790, in the village of the Ostrogoths, where his father was 
 pastor. He was a devoted admirer of German hterature, to 
 which he dedicated much of his leisure. In 1819 he was ap- 
 pointed teacher of Gennan to the prince royal, aftei-wards king 
 of Sweden. He was author of a variety of works, both in prose 
 and verse. — (^Conversations-Lexicon.^ 
 
 ATTERBURY, Francis, son of Lewis Atterbury, bom at 
 Milton, Jklarch 6, 1662 ; was educated at Westminster school, 
 and thence elected to Christ Church in Oxford, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself by an admirable Latin translation of Dry- 
 den's "Absalom and Achitophel," and by a charming epigi-am on 
 the white fan of a lady, whom he afterwards made his wife. 
 He received the degree of M.A. April 20, 1687, and soon en- 
 tered into the Roman catholic controversy, by writing a thought- 
 ful treatise on the origin of the Refomiation. "WliUe tutor to the 
 honourable Jlr. Boyle, afterwards Lord Orrery, he took part in 
 the celebrated discussion on the genuineness of the epistles of 
 Phalaiis. The keen wit and ingenuity of Lord OiTery's answer to 
 Bentley on that subject were attributed to Atterbmy ; but neither 
 tutor nor pupU was a match for Bentley in critical scholarship. 
 About the same time we find him in London, chaplain to King 
 William and Queen Mary(1694), and as preacher at Bridewell, de- 
 livering several remarkable sermons; whUe he assailed Dr. Wake, 
 afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, in an angiy controversy on 
 the prixoleges and powers of convocation. About the year 1696, 
 a pamphlet was published, supposed to be written by Dr. Binckes, 
 which insisted on the right of the clergy to frequent synods, ac- 
 cording to the canons of the Cluistian church, and the constitu- 
 tion of the realm. Dr. Wake thought that the arguments ad- 
 vanced in this publication impugned the authority of Cluistian 
 princes over their convocations, and issued a reply, designed to 
 maintain the royal supremacy. To this treatise Atterbury pub- 
 lished an answer in 1700, without his name. In the preface he 
 tenns Dr. Wake's book " a shallow, empty perfonnance, wiitten 
 without any knowledge of our constitution, or any skill in the par- 
 ticular subject of debate. The best construction," continues he, 
 " that has been put upon Dr. Wake's attempt by candid readers, 
 is, that it was an attempt to advance the prerogative of the 
 prince in church matters as high, and to depress the interest of 
 the subject spiritual as low as ever he could, with any colour 
 oftrath." To this book, Dr. Wake, in 1703, published a re- 
 joinder. The result of the controversy was advantageous to both 
 parties. Dr. Wake was made a bishop, and Atterbury received 
 from the university the degree of doctor of divinity. Jleanwhile, 
 in the year 1700, he was made archdeacon of Totness, and canon- 
 residentiary of Exeter. Queen Anne, on her accession to the 
 throne, appointed him her chaplain ; and in 1701, he was pre- 
 sented to the deanery of Carlisle. On the 30th of August, 1706, 
 he preached in St. Paul's cathedral the celebrated sermon on the 
 funeral of Mr. Thomas Bennet, the bookseller, which engaged 
 him in a wann dispute with Hoadley, afterwards bishop of Here- 
 ford. His text was, "If in this life only we have hope in Christ, 
 we are of all men most miserable ; " and he endeavoured to 
 prove, that were there no faoire life, men would be really more 
 miserable than beasts, and the best men more miserable than 
 the worst. Tliis position Hoadley considers dangerous and 
 immoral. " The apostle," says he to Atterbury, " speaks 
 of Christians professing faith in Christ ; you speak of persons 
 practising the moral precepts of religion. The apostle speaks 
 of the condition of such Christians in a state of the most 
 bitter persecution ; you speak of the condition of \'irtuous per- 
 sons in the ordinary course of God's pro\idence. . . You 
 have mistaken the assertion itself, which the apostle layeth 
 down, the persons concerning whom he intends it, the times to 
 which he manifestly limits it, and the conclusion which he de- 
 signed should be drawn from it." This home charge soon drew 
 from Atterbury a masterly vindication of his arguments in the 
 
 form of a preface to the sermons, published in 1708. In 1711 he 
 was made dean of Christchurch, and in June, 1713, on the death 
 of Dr. Spratt, he was yet further advanced to the see of Roches- 
 ter and deanery of Westminster. He was not popular at Christ- 
 church, and his opponents declared that he was promoted to 
 restore tranquillity to the university which he disturbed, and 
 the college over which he sought to tyrannize. It was not long 
 before Queen Anne's death that he obtained his bishopric. His 
 friends for the most part were men poising two successions in 
 their hands, and doubtful whether they should favour the Pre- 
 tender (whom in their hearts they preferred) or allow the claims 
 of George of Hanover. It was said that as Lambeth was opposite 
 to Westminster, and the archbishop old and infirm, Atterbury 
 looked with a longing eye to the primacy ; but his party spHt into 
 two factions at the critical moment that preceded the death of 
 Queen Anne. As soon as this event was known, he offered 
 to put on his lawn sleeves, and go forth and proclaim King 
 James. This daring honom- was not accepted by his associates. 
 George I. ascended the throne, and the bishop's chances of 
 promotion were lost. As dean of Westminster he olBciated 
 at the coronation of the new king, and, when the ceremony 
 was concluded, -vvished to present him with the royal canopy 
 and chair of state, which were the perquisites of the dean; 
 but the offer being rejected, the bishop's heart was fiUed with 
 resentment. Had the Tories been continued in office during 
 the new reign, they would probably have never tampered 
 with the Pretender. Irritated by exclusion, they began to con- 
 spire. Declararions in favour of the Pretender were posted in 
 the markets, and in some places his title was proclaimed, ^\^len 
 the bishops set forth a loyal declaration, testifying their abhor- 
 rence of rebellion and their allegiance to King George, Atterbury 
 refused to sign it. Jleanwhile his party were indefatigable in 
 opposition. It was confidently aflirmed that their movements 
 were not intended so much to emban-ass the ministry as to change 
 the dynasty. They complained that the law was violated, in 
 order that they might upset the constitution ; and as the father 
 of the Pretender had been excluded in 1688, so now the son was 
 to be set on the throne for the same reasons and upon the same 
 principles. Meanwhile a secret conspiracy was at work to secure 
 these objects, and Atterbury was too prominent a person not to 
 be suspected of participating in it. He was accordingly appre- 
 hended, August 24, 1722. He was taken before the comicil, 
 and immediately committed to the Tower. The commitment of 
 a bishop under such circumstances, gave rise to various specula- 
 tions. His friends laid the whole blame on the ministry. His 
 enemies declared that he had tampered with the Pretender even 
 in the reign of Queen Anne ; that he had even proposed to re- 
 ceive his son as heir of the throne, to educate him in the pro- 
 testant faith, and to act as lord protector during his minority. 
 Atterbury was brought to trial before the House of Lords on 
 Monday, May 6, 1723, and after a long debate condemned to 
 banishment, by a majority of eighty-three to forty-three. On 
 Tuesday, June 8, he embarked on board the Aldborough man- 
 of-war, and landed the Friday following at Calais. He went 
 thence to Brussels, and not long after to Paris, where he 
 softened the rigours of his exile by study and conversation ; and 
 as there is too much reason to fear, by abortive schemes of rebel- 
 lion against the royal line of Hanover. He was well acquainted 
 with the French language, which he learned late in life. He died 
 in Paris, February 15, 1731. His body was brought to England, 
 and privately interred in Westminster abbey, on the 12th of May 
 follo%ving. 'Whatever may be thought of his poHtical character, it 
 is universally agi'eed that he was one of the greatest men of the 
 age for genius and skill in pohte literature, that he wrote Latin 
 with a purity worthy of Cicero, and his own language in a 
 manner superior to most of his contemporaries. In the House 
 of Lords he was an excellent speaker. His character as a 
 preacher is well described in the Tattler, Vol. H., No. 66. His 
 subjects were chosen -n-ith skill ; his method was clear and per- 
 spicuous ; and he cast an air of novelty and invention around 
 the commonest topics of the pulpit. His opponents describe him 
 as quarrelsome and litigious, but if we may judge fi-om his por- 
 traits, his disposition appears to have been gentle and engaging, 
 his gravity free from arrogance, and his mien the very type of 
 finished elegance. — T. J. 
 
 ATTERBURY, George Luffjlvn, a celebrated composer 
 of glees and part songs, bom in 1740. His most popular works 
 were, " Come let us all a-JLaying go," glee, four voices; "With
 
 ATT 
 
 269 
 
 ATT 
 
 horns and liounds in chonis," catcli, three voices; "Take, oh take, 
 those lips away ! " round, three voices ; " Sweet enslaver," round, 
 three voices ; " Joan said to Jolm," catch, three voices ; " Lay 
 that sullen garland by," glee, three voices ; " Come, fill the 
 board," glee, three voices ; " Oh, thou sweet bu-d !" glee, four 
 voices ; and " Adieu ye streams," glee, four voices. He died in 
 1800, during the performance of one of his benefit concerts. — 
 E. F. R. 
 
 ATTERBURY, Lewis, fiither to the celebrated bishop of that 
 name; bora about 1G31, in Northamptonshire; a student at 
 Cliristchm-ch, Oxford, in the beginning of 1647 ; and preacher 
 duiing the times of the usui-pation ; after the restoration, chap- 
 lain to Heniy, duke of Gloucester, and rector of Milton, near 
 Newport -Pagnell ; unhappily drowned near his own house, De- 
 cember, 1G93. His eldest son, Lewis, was likewise a student of 
 Christchurch, D.C.L., 1G87. He published several volumes of 
 sermons, and died October 24, 1732. — T. J. 
 
 ATTERIDE, D', a Portuguese priest of noble family, a bishop 
 and inquisitor. He was present at the coimcil of Trent, and 
 wrote a history of it up to the seventh session. Died 1611. 
 
 ATTERSOLL, William, an English divine of the seven- 
 teenth centmy, wi'ote a popular commentary on the book of 
 Numbers, 1618, wliich was translated into Dutch in 1667, in 
 which he avers in the title that he has decided five hundred 
 theological questions. 
 
 ATTEY, John, a musician of the seventeenth century, in the 
 service of the earl of Bridgewater. He was the author of a 
 volume entitled " The First Booke of Ayres, of Four Parts, vrith 
 Tablature for the Lute ; so made that all the pai'ts may be plaidc 
 together with the Lute, or one voyce with the Lute and Base- 
 vyoll," folio, London, 1622. He died m 1640, at Ross, in Here- 
 fordshire.— E. F. R. 
 
 ATTICIUS, FoRTUNATiANUS. See Fortunatianus. 
 
 ATTICUS, a Platonic philosopher of the second century. 
 Several philosophical and historical productions are ascribed to 
 him, six extracts from which, preserved by Eusebius, are the only 
 remains of the works of Atticus now extant. 
 
 ATTICUS, patriarch of Constantinople in the fifth centmy, 
 was born at Sebaste in Annenia, and died 10th October, 425. 
 He was author of a treatise in two books, entitled " De Fide et 
 Vu'ginitate," composed for the daughters of the Emperor Arcadius. 
 Some remains of his other writings are still extant. 
 
 ATTICUS, DiONYsius, an ancient sophist or teacher of 
 rhetoric, lived about fifty years before the Clu'istian era. He 
 ■\\-as a native of Pergamus, and a pupil of Apollodorns, who 
 taught Augustus Ca?sar. His real name was Dionysius, but he 
 was sumamed Atticus on account of liis having long resided in 
 Athens. — (vStrabo, lib. xiii. ; Quintilian, lib. iii.)— G. M. 
 
 ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, a distinguished Roman, the 
 contemporary of Cicero and Cassar, who displayed such address 
 and tact, that during the war between Cassar and Pompey he 
 managed to remain neutral ; sent money to the son of Marius, 
 while he secured the attachment of Sylla ; and when Cicero and 
 Hortensius were rivals, was equally intimate with both. When 
 young, he resided at Athens, where he so far won the affections 
 of the citizens, that the day of his departure from then- city was 
 one of universal mourning. He was an author and poet of no 
 mean pretensions. He reached the age of seventy-seven years 
 without sickness. When at last he became ill, he refused sus- 
 tenance, and died A.u.c. 751, or two years before the Christian 
 era. He was a disciple of Epicurus. — T. J. 
 
 ATTILA, one of the eai'liest of those gi'eat Scythian con- 
 querors who have in successive ages overran the finest and most 
 fertile regions of Europe and Asia, with vast araiies of cavahy 
 raised on the steppes of Central Asia, made his appearance on 
 the frontiers of the Roman empire, which was then tottering to 
 its fall, about the year of our Lord 430. According to tlie histo- 
 rian Prisons, as quoted by .Jorvandc^s, bishop of Ravenna, in his 
 history of the Goths, Attila was the son of Mandzaeh, a chief 
 of the most warlike race of tlie Huns. The researches of Hum- 
 boldt have recently shown that the Huns were of the Finnisli or 
 Urulian race ; but their movement southward and westward in the 
 beginning of the fifth century, was caused by the irraption, into 
 their territory, of the Iliouqua, a tawny tribe of herdsmen of Turk- 
 isli origin, who dwelt in tents of sldns on the elevated stejipe of 
 Gobi. A portion of the race had been driven southward and west- 
 ward toward the frontiers of Asia. After long wars with the tribes 
 wliich were then in possession of what now fonns the empire of 
 
 China, the tribes thus expelled from their several pastures 
 traversed the great plains of Central Asia for a distance of more 
 than three thousand miles, urging forward the Finnish tribes 
 from the soiuxes of the Ural. From these wild regions poured 
 forth bands of Huns, Ava.rs, Chasars, and a numerous mixtiu-e 
 of Asiatic races. " Warlike bodies of Huns," says Humljoldt, 
 " first appeared on the Volga, next m Pannonia, then on the 
 Manic and the banks of the Po, laying waste those richly culti- 
 vated tracts, where, since the time of Antenor, men's creative 
 art had piled monument on monument. Thus swept a pestilen- 
 tial breath from the Mongolian deserts over the fair Cisalpine 
 soil, stifling the tender, long-cherished blossoms of art." The 
 time was most favourable for such an iniiption, for the powerful 
 and most warlilie tribes of Gennany had abandoned their original 
 homes, and were pressing fonvard into the Roman empire — the 
 Goths mto Spain, the Vandals into Africa, the Lombards into 
 Italy, the Franks and Burgundians into Gaul, the Saxons, 
 Angles, and Frisians into Britain. Hence the resistance of the 
 Germanic tribes was comparatively feeble, and thus, in the 
 language of JoiTandes, the most valiant race of the Hmis raled 
 the empire of Scythia and of Germany, never before united imder 
 one chief; and, with an anny of 70(3,000 men, threatened and 
 laid waste the Roman empire, west and east, from tlie mouth of 
 the Rhine to the banks of the Euphrates, and gave law more 
 than once to the Franks and the Bui-gundians, at the same time 
 that they crossed the Caucasus, and invaded the empire of 
 Persia. The power of Attila thus extended from the swampy 
 wilds of Scythia to the banks of the Rhine, and from the forests 
 of Scandinavia and the shores of the Baltic, to the head of the 
 Adiiatic, and the desert valley of the Danube. The royal 
 village or camp was on the north banks of the Danube, in the 
 country which still bears the name of Hungary. Attila and 
 his brother Bleda obtained the command of the Hunnish tribes 
 and armies, about the year 403, on the death of their uncle 
 Kh-gilas. The power of the Huns had already become foraiidable 
 to the degenerate Romans, both of the Eastern and the Western 
 empires ; and the first act of Attila was to receive the ambassa- 
 dors of Theodosius, the emperor of the East, whose dominions 
 the Huns had recently ravaged, and to dictate his own tenns of 
 peace and submission to the successor of Constantine. This 
 interview was held on horseback, on the gi-eat plain of Upper 
 Maisia, near the city of Margeros. By this treaty Theodosius 
 conceded to the Huns a safe and plentiful market on the shores 
 of the Danube ; agreed to pay to Attila a yearly tribute of seven 
 hundred pounds weight of gold, and a fine of eight pieces of 
 gold for every Roman captive who might escape from slavery 
 amongst the Huns ; to sm-render all Hunnish fugitives who had 
 taken refuge in the court and provinces of Theodosius ; and to 
 renounce all treaties and engagements with the enemies of the 
 Huns. The provision of the treaty promising the surrender of 
 all Hunnish fugitives, was carried out by the giving up of certain 
 youths of the royal race of the Huns, who had taken refuge with the 
 emperor, and they were cracified on the Roman teiTitory as soon 
 as suiTendered. After inflicting this signal disgi'ace on the 
 emperor of the East, AttUa allowed a short respite to the 
 Roman empire, whilst he more finnly consolidated his own 
 power by the conquest of the remaining tribes of Scythia and 
 Germany, which had not submitted to his anns, and freed him- 
 self from a rival by murdering his brother Bleda. He had not 
 only the skill to reconcile the Huns to this crime, but also to 
 persuade them that he himself possessed the sword of the 
 Scythian Mars, and, in right of it, tlie dominion of the whole 
 world. The finding of the sword of JIars occurred in this man- 
 ner : — A herdsman seeing a heifer of his herd lame and bleeding, 
 and not knowing how she had been wounded, followed the track 
 of her blood, until he discovered a sword which she bad trodden 
 on in grazing. This he toolv to Attila, who received it with 
 great exultation, declaring that it was the sword of Mars, and 
 secured to its possessor universal dominion. The first expedition 
 of Attila did not give much encouragement to these hopes of 
 universal empire. Having collected an immense army, he led 
 his forces through the passes of mount Caucasus, with the in- 
 tention of conquering the Persian empire ; but the Persian 
 cavahy, which had more than once defeated the Roman legions, 
 proved itself more than a match for the wild horsemen of tho 
 steppes, and Attila, after sustaining a great defeat on the plains 
 of Media, was compelled to retreat, leaving Persia unconquered. 
 The news of this defeat was received with great exultation at
 
 ATT 
 
 270 
 
 ATT 
 
 Constantinople, but the Greeks soon learned to their cost that 
 Attila was more than a match for them. In the following year he 
 threw himself and his wild rapacious hosts on the provinces of 
 the Eastern empire, penetrated into Illp-ia, and ravaged all the 
 European provinces of the empire, from the Adriatic to the 
 Black Sea. Thrice the armies of Theodosius attempted to re- 
 sist the advance of the armies of Attila, and as often they wore 
 defeated by the Hims. After those defeats the tenitories of the 
 empire lay open, to the gates of Constantinople and the most 
 southern point of Greece. The open country was converted 
 into a wilderness, and seventy of the finest cities of Macedonia, 
 Thrace, and Greece were turned into heaps of smoking niins. 
 It was only by enormous bribes and the most humble submission, 
 that Theodosius induced Attila to retire fi-om his desolated 
 dominions. The ambassadors of Theodosius, who were sent to 
 implore the mercy of Attila, found the king of the Huns in the 
 royal village or camp, on the banks of the Danube. On seeing 
 them he exclaimed, " ^\^lere is the fortress, where is the city of 
 the Roman empire, which can pretend to resist, when it pleases 
 me to destroy it?" The Greek emperor and his ministers, fully 
 convinced of their weakness, submitted to the terms imposed, 
 but attempted to free themselves from this foi-midable enemy, 
 by employing an assassin to destroy Attila. This assassin was, 
 however, so much tenified when he found himself in the presence 
 of that formidable conqueror, that his heart ftuled him ; he fell 
 at his feet, and laid open tlie whole conspiracy. This dastardly 
 attempt excited more contempt than indignation in the mind of 
 the haughty king of the Huns. He contented himself with 
 sending an emba.ssy to Constantinople, to demand the head of 
 Crysophias, the chief minister of Theodosius, and the author of 
 the plot. Even this demand he consented to change into a de- 
 mand for greater tribute. And the attempt did not interrupt 
 the preparation which Attila was making for the conquest of 
 Gaul — an entei-prise which, if successful, would have placed all 
 Europe at his feet. In the year 4.51 Attila crossed the Rhine, 
 and advanced at the head of an almost innumerable host as far 
 as the banks of the Loire, where he laid siege to the city of 
 Orleans. The city was bravely and successfully defended; and 
 this resolute resistance gave time to ^Etius, the last gi'eat general 
 of the Western empu-e, not only to bring together all the Roman 
 forces, but to fonn an alliance, and to secure the assistance of 
 the Goths, Franks, Saxons, and the Celtic inhabitants of Gaul. 
 On the alliance of the whole force of Western Eiu-ope, Attila 
 raised the siege of Orleans, and retired behind the Loire and 
 the Seine, to Chalons, on the banks of the Mame. Here a great 
 battle took place, which stopped the progi-ess of Scythian con- 
 quest, and preserved the ascendancy of the Gennanic, Latin, and 
 Celtic races in Western Europe. Attila and the Huns were 
 defeated with enoiTnous loss — a loss so enormous, that some 
 estimates raise it as high as 300,000 lives; whilst few rate it at 
 less than 160,000. After this great defeat, Attila retired to his 
 fortified camp near Chalons, on which the allies were unwilling 
 to risk an attack ; but all hope of \ictory having been abandoned, 
 and the resources of the country being wasted and destroyed, 
 the Hun soon after broke up his camp and retreated across 
 the Rhine. In the following year Attila burst into Italy, at the 
 head of another enomious army, demanding from the Emperor 
 Valentinian III. the hand of his sister Honoria, and the smrender 
 of nearly half the provinces of the empire. These temis being 
 refused, he laid siege to the great and flourishing city of Arque- 
 leia, at the head of the Adriatic, which he took and levelled 
 with the ground. He afterwards destroyed the cities of I'adua, 
 Vicenza, Verona, and Bergamo, and laid waste the plains of 
 Lombardy. Many of the inhabitants fled to the Alps and the 
 Appenines, whilst others escaped to the desolate islands of the 
 Adriatic, near the mouth of the river Brenta, where they laid 
 the foundation of the city of Venice and the Venetian republic. 
 After layuig waste the fairest provinces of Italy, the approach 
 of .Stius, and the forces of Pope Leo I., again induced Attila to 
 retire beyond the Alps, to his encampment on the plains of 
 Hungar}-. There he organized anotlier expedition against Gaul, 
 which was likewise repulsed by the Romans, aided by the Gothic 
 and Germanic tribes, which had established themselves beyond 
 the Rhine. After this repulse Attila planned another expedition 
 against Italy, but fortunately for the world this was prevented 
 by his own death. He died suddenly of apoplexy, amidst the 
 orgies of his maniage with a young girl named Illico, to the 
 unspeakable relief of Europe and Asia. After his death his empire 
 
 fell rapidly to pieces, although the name and memory of the 
 Huns have been preserved to our own times. — T. B. 
 
 ATTINGHAt'SEN, Gueraed, one of the founders of Helve- 
 tian independence, was landamman of the canton of Uri in 1206, 
 distinguished by his exertions in bringing about the confedera- 
 tion of the cantons of Uri, Schwitz, and Underwald. 
 
 ATTIRET, JevVX Dkxis, a French Jesuit and painter, bom 
 at Dole, 1702, died at Pekiu, 17G8. After studying at Rome, 
 he retmTied to France, and practised as an artist at Lyons, but 
 at thirty years of ago, entered the order of the Jesuits, and went 
 to China, where he took the title of painter to the emperor of 
 the Celestial Empire, became cliief of the Chinese artists, and 
 was honoured with the dignity of mandarin. 
 
 ATTON or ACTON, sometimes called Atto or Acto, a 
 French monk, who was elected bishop of Vercelli in Italy in 
 92'1. Heissupposcd to have died about 960. Of the life of Atton 
 little is known. The works attributed to him are : — 1. " Capitu- 
 lare," or a collection of canons of the chui'ch of Vercelli; 2. 
 " Libellus de Pressuris Ecclesiasticis," a treatise on ecclesiastical 
 jurisdictions; 3. "Epistolfe," consisting of eleven letters, mostly 
 on theological subjects ; 4. " Sermones," a collection of sermons, 
 eighteen in number ; 5. " Expositio Epistolarum Sancti Pauli," 
 commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul ; 6. " Polypticum," 
 called also " Perijendiculum," a satire on the manners of his time. 
 
 ATTUMONELLI, Michel, an Italian physician, bom at 
 Andria, in the province of Bari and kingdom of Naples, in 1753; 
 died at Paris 17th July, 1826. He studied at Naples, tmder 
 Cuillo and Cotugno, and received his diploma at Salemum. On 
 his retiuTi to Naples he was appointed clinical professor at the 
 Oipedale degli Incurabili, and was highly esteemed both for his 
 professional and general knowledge. He afterwards went to 
 Paris, where he practised extensively until the time of his death. 
 He published a translation of Condorcet's " Politique de la France 
 regeneree," besides the following original works : — " Elementi di 
 Fisiologia Medica o sia la Fisica del corpo umano," Naples, 2 
 parts, 1787, 1788; " Memou-es sur les Eaux Mincrales de 
 Naples, et sur les Bains de Vapeur ;" " Memoires sm* I'Opium," 
 Paris, 1802 and 1811, 8vo; "Trattato de Veneni die com- 
 prende varie Dissertazioni Mediche del sr. Sauvages," Naples, 
 1785, 2 vols. 4to. — (Querard, la France LiUeraire. Callisen, 
 Medicinesches SchriftsieUer-Lexicon, &c.) — G. M. 
 
 ATTWOOD, George, an English mathematician of con- 
 siderable eminence, bom in 1745; died in 1807. He was 
 fellow and tutor of Tiinity college, Cambridge, where he took 
 the degree of A.B. in 1769. His pubhshed wiitings are: — 1. 
 " A Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion of Bodies," Cambridge, 
 1784, 4to; 2. "Analysis of a Course of Lectures on the Prin- 
 ciples of Natural Philosophy, read in the university of Cam- 
 bridge," London, 1784, 8vo ; 3. "A Dissertation on the Con- 
 struction of Arches" (followed by a supplement), London, 1801. 
 
 ATTWOOD, Thomas, an English musician of deservedly 
 high esteem, who was bom in London in 1767. In 1786 he 
 entered the choir of the chapel royal, and studied under Drs. 
 Nares and Ayrton. In 1785 he went to Vienna, to continue his 
 studies under Mozart, and on his retum to London, liis attention 
 was devoted to composition for the theatre. He produced seven- 
 teen musical pieces, the so-called operas of the time, a time 
 when music of all kinds, and dramatic music especially, was at 
 the lowest standard in England. In 1795 or 1796, he suc- 
 ceeded Mr. .Jones as organist at St. Paul's cathedral, and, on 
 the death of Dr. Dupuis, in June of the latter year, he was 
 appointed composer to the chapel royal. In this capacity he 
 wrote his church music, little of which was printed before the 
 collected edition, published after his death by Dr. Walincsley, 
 his godson and pupil. He wi-ote his anthem, "I was glad," 
 for the coronation of his constant patron as King George the 
 Fourth, in 1821, in acknowledgment of the merit of which, 
 he was in the same year appointed special composer to the 
 private chapel in the Pavilion at Brighton. He was ap- 
 pointed a professor in the Royal Academy of Music a few 
 years after its fonnation in 1823. On the death of Mr. Staf- 
 ford Smith in 1826, he was appointed organist of the chapel 
 royal. On Mendelsshon's coming to this country in 1829, 
 Attwood was one of the first to perceive and to acknowledge 
 his transcendent talent. He wrote his anthem, " Lord, 
 grant the king a long life," for the coronation of King William 
 the Fom-th, in 1831, and he commenced an anthem for the 
 coronation of Queen Victoria, which, however, he did not live to 
 
 I
 
 fl 
 
 complete. As a member of the Concentores and Harmonists' 
 Societies, he had opportunity for the production of his numerous 
 1,'li'es and other concerted pieces of chamber vocal music. He 
 dieJ on the 28th of March, 1838, and is buried in St. Paul's 
 cathedral. — G. A. M. 
 
 ATTWOOD, Thomas, third son of JIatthias Attwood, Esq., 
 ironmaster, of Hales Owen, Salop, was born in 1784. He tirst 
 became known as a political character by his vigorous opposition 
 to the orders in council in 1812, and condemned the retm-n to 
 cash payments at the end of the war. His letters on cmrency, 
 published mider a fictitious signatm-e in the " Globe" news- 
 paper in 1828, established his reputation as one of the ablest ad- 
 vocates of paper money. In the following year, he joined with 
 the late Messrs. Scholefield and Jluntz in formmg the Binningham 
 political imion, which largely contributed to the passing of the 
 reform bUI. On the enfranchisement of Birmingham under the 
 reform act, Mr. Attwood was chosen one of its members, and 
 continued to represent it down to his retirement from public life 
 in 1810. He died of a paralytic seizure, after several years of 
 illness, at Malvem, March 6, 1856. — E. W. 
 
 ATTWOOD, William, an English political writer of the 
 end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. Besides a number of controversial works, Attwood 
 published a small volume, entitled " The Histoiy and Reasons of 
 the Dependency of Ireland upon the Impend Crown of the Kmg- 
 dom of England, rectifying Mv. Molineaux's state of the case of 
 L-eland's being bound by Acts of Parliament m England," 1698; 
 also, a work entitled " The Superiority and dii'ect Dominion of 
 the Imperial Crown of England over the Crown and Kingdom of 
 Scotland, the true foundation of a complete Union, reasserted," 
 1705, 8vo. — (Watt, BibUotheca Brltaimica. Nicolson, English 
 Eistorical Library, 193-196. Irish Historical Library, 65, 66.) 
 
 AT WATER, Caleb, an American waiter on geology. He 
 has contributed the following papers : — 1. Tracts and remarks 
 relating to the climate, diseases, geology, and organized re- 
 mains of parts of the state of Ohio. (American Journal, vol. 
 xi.) 2. On the prauies and bairens of the West. (Ibid, vol. i.) 
 3. Notice of the scenery, geologj^, mineralogy, &c., of Bel- 
 mont county, Ohio. (Ibid, vol. i.) 4. Tracts relating to certain 
 parts of the state of Ohio. (Ibid, voh x.) 5. Accoimt of ancient 
 bones and some fossil shells found in Ohio. (Ibid, vol. ii.) — 
 (£ibliograj)hia, Zoohgice, et Geologia.') — E. L. 
 
 ATWOOD, Thomas, an Enghsh philanthropist, bom about 
 the beginning of the eighteenth centuiy; died 27th May, 1793. 
 He is said to have been, at one period, chief judge of the island 
 of Dominica, and subsequently of the Bahamas. In 1791 he 
 pubHshed an octavo volume of nearly 300 pages, entitled " The 
 History of the Island of Dominica;" and aftera-ards a httle 
 pamphlet, entitled " Observations on the true method of treat- 
 ment and usage of the Negro Slaves in the British West India 
 Islands." He died in the lung's Bench prison, broken down by 
 misfortunes. — {Gentlemans Magazine, bdii. 676. Literary Me- 
 moirs of Living Authors of Great Britain.) — G. M. 
 
 ATZEL. See Attila. 
 
 ATZYS, a sovereign of Kharisme in Persia, who died in 
 1155. He succeeded his father, Cothb-Eddyu, in 1127, and 
 extended his kingdom by the conquest of numerous provinces in 
 the neighbourhood of the Caspian sea. He reigned twenty-nine 
 yeai-s, and was succeeded by his son II- Areola. 
 
 AUBAIS, Charles de Barchi, Marquis d', a French 
 writer, born at Beauvoisin, near Nismes, 20th March, 1686 ; died 
 6th March, 1777. Among his published works are: — "Genealogie 
 de la Muison de Genccs, originahe de Dauphin*^," 1713, in fol. ; 
 "Pieces fugitives pour servn- a I'histoirc de France, avec des 
 notes historiqucs et gcogi-aphiques," 1759, 3 vols. 4to. This 
 work was compiled with the co-operation of Leon Menard. 
 "Geogi-aphie historiqne," 1761; " Histoire de la Maison de 
 Narbonne-Pellet," without date.— (Les Trois Siicles de la Lit- 
 terature Francaise ; Le Long Bibliotheqiie historique.) — G. M. 
 
 AUBAN, JIakquis de St., a French general, bom about 
 the middle of the seventeenth century; died 14th .July, 1713. 
 He sen-ed, with great distinction, in the campaigns of Louis 
 XIV., and was present at thirty-eight sieges and battles. Uv 
 was author of the two following works : — " Considerations sur 
 la reforme des annes jugec au conseil de guerre," 1773, in 8vo; 
 "M^moires sur les nouveaux systemes d'artillerie," 1775, in 
 8vo. — (Courcelles, Dictionnaire des Geueraux Franqais.') 
 
 AUBli, Charles, a French entomologist. He has distin- 
 
 guished hunself more particularly by descriptions of the family 
 of Coleoptera. He has published the following works and 
 papers : — " Iconographie des CoMoptferes d'Europe," Paris, 1836, 
 with coloured plates ; " Jlonogi-aphia Pselaphionim cum Sjmo- 
 nymia extricata," Paris, 1834, with figures; "Species general 
 des Coleopt6res de la Collection de M. le Comte Dejean," Paris, 
 1838. He has also published several other papers in the Trans- 
 actions of the French Entomological Society. — E. L. 
 
 AUBE, D'. See Richer D'Aube. 
 
 AUBENTON. See Daubenton. 
 
 AUBER, a French writer, bom at Rouen about the middle 
 of the eighteenth centmy, died in 1804. He embraced the 
 profession of a schoolmaster, and, in 1795, was appointed pro- 
 fessor of belles-lettres in the school of the department of the 
 Lower Seine. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences at 
 Rouen, and was esteemed a man of varied and extensive acqiure- 
 ments. He left, at his death, the followmg works : — " Memoire 
 sur le Gisement des cotes du Departement de la Seme-Inferieure, 
 sur I'etat actuel de ses Ports tant sur la Manche que sur la 
 Seine, sur les moyens de les perfectionner, et sur les canaux qu'il 
 serait utile d'y etablir pour facUiter la navigation interieure," 
 Rouen, 1795, in 4to; " Rajiport sm les moyens d'amchorer les 
 laines," Rouen, 1795, in 4to ; " Rapport sur les prix nationaux 
 d'agiiculture dans le departement de la Seuie-Inferieure, avec des 
 notes y relatives," Rouen, 1795, in 4to ; "Memohes sur la n€- 
 cessite de conserver, de multiplier, de rdmiu* dans les departe- 
 ments les cbefs-d'oeuvre de I'art et en particulier ceux de la 
 commune de Rouen," Rouen, 1797, in 4to; "Reflexions sur 
 I'etude des belles-lettres dans les repubhques," Rouen, in 8vo. 
 
 * AUBER, Daniel Francois Esprit, a French musician, 
 is the son of an opulent printseller of Paris, and was bom at 
 Caen, in Normandy, during a visit of his parents to that city, 
 on the 29th of January, 1784. His father designed him for a 
 mercantile life, and though he placed him under Mr. Ladurner 
 to learn the pianoforte, it was only for the purpose of gi\Tng 
 him an elegant accomplishment that would grace his appeai-ance 
 in society. He was placed in a commercial house in London, 
 and here, in the hours not devoted to his office, he won constant 
 admhation, not only by his playing, but by the httle romances 
 he composed with the greatest fluency. His stay in this coun- 
 try was but brief, and on his retm-n to Paris he amused himself 
 with a more serious class of composition, writing a trio for piano- 
 forte, violin, and violoncello, and several other chamber pieces. 
 It was probably about this time that he became a pupil of 
 Boieldieu, for his productions now assumed a more important 
 character than is compatible with the capabilities of an unin- 
 stmcted amateur. He was an intimate of M. Lamare, the 
 violoncellist, an executive artist, whose fingers picked out ori- 
 ginal passages on his instrument, but whose wits could not 
 string them together in any form of composition, nor originate 
 melodic phrases of any interest whatever ; his friend Auber, 
 therefore, wrote several concertos for bun, which he played, and 
 even printed imder his own name, and which gamed hun con- 
 siderable esteem as a composer. Auber also wrote a concerto 
 for the violin, of which himself received the credit. He set to 
 music an old libretto called "Julie," with quartet accompaniment, 
 which was privately perfomied at Paris by a party of amatem-s ; 
 and he wrote another httle opera, with accompaniments for a 
 full orchestra, which was represented, also privately, at the re- 
 sidence of the Prince de Cliimay. His earnestness in the pur- 
 suit of music increased with the admiration he excited, and he now 
 went through a serious course of study imder Cherubini, whoso 
 theoretical knowledge, practical talent, and experience, emi- 
 nently fitted him to develop the powers of such a pupil, and 
 under this master he wrote a mass for fom' voices, besides many 
 less extensive pieces. The liigh esteem in which, from these 
 various and numerous productions, he was now held in the 
 private musical circles of Paris, at once stimulated his ambition 
 to appear in pubhc, and facilitated his means of gratifying it ; 
 accordingly, in 1813, he brought out a comic opera, in one act, 
 called " Le Sejour Militaire," which, however, to tlic great dis- 
 appointment of his many admirers, proved a total failiu-e. This 
 ajipcars to have put a temporary check upon his musical predi- 
 lection, for we hear notliiiig more of his compositions for several 
 years ; but the death of his father is said to have made an im- 
 portant change in the state of his affairs, and he tlien fonnally 
 abandoned the comiting-house, and, abjuiing amateurship, took 
 steadily to the practice of his favomite art as a profession. In
 
 AUB 
 
 272 
 
 AUB 
 
 1819 he produced his second opera in public, " Le Testament 
 et le Billet-doux," which had no better success than his former 
 essay ; but he had stiU perseverance to wi-ite, and interest to 
 bring out " La Berg^re Chatelaine " in the following year, 
 " Emma" in 1821, " Leicester, on le Chateau de Kenilworth," 
 in 1822, " Vendome en Espagne" (an opera he wrote in conjunc- 
 tion with Herold) in 1823, and in this year he wrote also "La 
 Neige," which was the first of his works that met with any de- 
 cided success, and that was ever performed out of his own coun- 
 try. His operas up to this period bear the impression of the 
 all-per\-ading influence of Rossini's style, which then reigned 
 paramount throughout Europe ; but his own peculiar pliraseology, 
 and his forms of constraction, began to be asserted in the one act 
 opera, "Le Concert a, la Com-," given in 1824, and though "L6o- 
 cadie," produced in the same year, made no effect, his individu- 
 ality of thought and expression were decidedly confirmed in 
 "Le Mafon," produced in 1825, and the success of this work 
 surpassed that of all which had preceded it. His reputa- 
 tion stood now so high, that in this year the cross of the Legion 
 of Honour was conferred upon him. In 1826 he brought out 
 " Le Timide," which created no sensation ; and he then seems 
 to have purposely reserved himself for more careful applica- 
 tion to his first grand opera, " La Muette de Portici," (ilas- 
 aniello,) his imquestionable masterpiece, which was produced 
 after a lapse of two years at the Academic Royale de I\Iusique 
 in 1828, met with the brilliant success it eminently merits, 
 and immediately spread its composer's fame all over Europe. 
 Critics have in vain sought to detract from the credit of this 
 success, by ascribing it to the dramatic interest of the libretto, 
 and to the sympathy with the story of the political feeling of 
 the moment ; but the eminently di-amatic music, which certaiuly 
 could only have been written to illustrate powerful di-amatic 
 situations, give \'itality to those situations, such as no form of 
 words could impart; and the revolutionary spirit of the time 
 could neither have made a bad opera successful, nor maintained 
 the entire work upon the stage of every country, and its count- 
 less melodies in universal popularity all over the world, for all 
 these years after the political agitation that was then ripening 
 had come to its crisis, subsided, and been followed by another, 
 still more violent, which also now belongs to the past. Public 
 honours now accumulated upon Auber, he being elected membre 
 de I'Academie des Beaux Art de I'lnstitut in 1829. " La 
 Muette" was followed in this year by "La Fiancee," and that 
 by " Fra Diavolo" in 1830, which is perhaps to be ranked as 
 second of his great successes. " PhUtre," " Le Dieu et la Baya- 
 dere," and "Le Serment," were the next that followed; and " Gus- 
 tave IIL" his second grand opera, was produced at the Academic 
 in 1833, and transplanted at once to London. "Lestocq," "Le 
 Cheval de Bronze," " L'Ambassadrice," " Le Chaperon brun," and 
 " Le Domino Noir" followed ; then " Le Lac des Fees," the third 
 grand opera. After this came " Lcs Diamans de la Couronne," 
 " Zanetta," " Acteon," " La Part du Diable." On the death of 
 Cherubini in 18-12, Auber was appointed to succeed him in the 
 direction of the Conservatoire. A\Tiatever duties this important 
 office in the famous French musical academy may have brought 
 upon him, they did not relax his industry as a composer, for he 
 continued to write a new opera on an average once a year, and 
 with such certainty of attraction to the theatre, that he was 
 able to make his condition for the first perfonnance of a 
 work, that it should be played at least forty times, and so he 
 secured success and remuneration. " Le Due d'Olonne," " La 
 Sirfene," " La Barcarole," and " Hayd6e," were the next fruits of 
 his fertility ; " L'Enfant Prodigue," tlie fourth grand opera, was 
 produced at the beginning of 1850, and " Zerline, ou la Cor- 
 beille d'Orangcs" (written also in the same form, that is, with 
 recitative instead of spoken dialogues, for Mademoiselle Alboni), 
 in the year following. Since then he has been less prolific, but 
 has yet produced " Marco Spada," " Jenny Bell," and, last of 
 all, the additions to " Fra Diavolo" for the Italian vei-sion, given 
 for the first time at the Lyceum theatre in July, 1857. Auber, 
 with all his success and with all liis merit, cannot be classed as 
 a great musician, which is, because of a want of profundity in 
 his works that must result from his temperament as a man, not 
 from his defective qualification as an artist. His genius is espe- 
 cially dramatic, and it is in the most exciting dramatic situations, 
 such as that of the dumb girl watchhig the mannage of her 
 lover, of her revealing herself to him and his bride, of her pro- 
 tecting them from the insurgents, in " La JIuette," and of the 
 
 duet between the king and AmeUa, and of the one between 
 Aukastrom and his wife, in " Gustave," that it asserts itself to 
 the best advantage ; but he has also an infinite power of vivacity, 
 as is amply proved in " Fra Diavolo," " Le Domino Noir," and 
 many other of his comic operas. His melodies, of which he 
 has produced more than perhaps any composer that ever existed 
 are irresistibly striking, essentially indi\-idual. piquant, pretty 
 tender, but rarely, if ever, pathetic, and never grand ; the feeling 
 they embody is intense, but never deep. His habit of making 
 repeated rhythmical closes, instead of giving continuous develop- 
 ment to an idea, imparts an air of triviality to his longer pieces 
 that nothing but their ceaseless fluency and constant animation 
 could counterbalance. His instnimentation, the colouring of 
 music, is perhaps that branch of the art in which he is most 
 consummately a master ; briUiant, sparkling, rich, and clear to 
 transparency ; his method of treating the orchestra alone is sufS- 
 cient to make him a valuable study. He entered pubUc life at 
 the advanced age of twenty-nine, and now, when he is seventy- 
 three, he has been for thii-ty years one of the most generaUy 
 popular composers throughout the world. The late com- 
 mencement of his career, and, veiy much more, the peculiar 
 character of his productions, make a remarkable analogy be- 
 tween his genius in music and that of Walter Scott in letters, 
 and the more closely this compaiison is traced, the more dis- 
 tinctly ■nUl it prove itself in the nature of tlieir several works, 
 and in the efiect these have made upon the world. — (Fetb, Con- 
 versations-Lexicon, and original som'ces.) — G. A. M. 
 
 AUBERNON, Phillip, a French commissary oflicer, who 
 filled important ofiices throughout the times of the repubUc, the 
 consulate, and the empire ; died in 1832. 
 
 AUBERT, bishop of Cambray and Arras from 633 to 668. 
 
 AUBERT, bishop of Avranches m the first half of the eighth 
 centun,'. Conformably to a vision with which he was favoured, 
 he founded a monastery on the rock called Mont de la Tombe. 
 It was a fiimous resort of the pious in the eleventh and twelfth 
 centuries — J. S., G. 
 
 AUBERT, AuGUSTiN, a modem French painter of consider- 
 able merit. He was a pupil of Peyron, resided and worked in 
 Marseilles. Born in 1781 ; died in 1832. 
 
 AUBERT, AuGusTLX, a French ai-tist, was bom in 1781, 
 died in 1832. 
 
 AUBERT, EsPEiT, a French author of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, a native of Avignon. 
 
 AUBERT, Father, a French Jesuit of the last century, who 
 wi-ote on the tidal phenomena presented by a well near Brest. 
 
 AUBERT, FRAN901S, a French author of the last century, 
 who wrote on the " soul of animals." 
 
 AUBERT or GAUBERT DE PIUCIBOT, a French trouba- 
 dour, died about the year 1263. He is called also Le Moixe de 
 PiuciBOT, on account of his having passed the earlier part of his 
 life among the Benedictines of that district. 
 
 AUBERT, GuiLLAUME, a French jurist of the sLxteenth 
 centuT}-, who -vrcote a histoiy of the first crusade. 
 
 AUBERT, Hubert Francois, a lawyer of Nancy m France, 
 who lived in the last century, and wrote a memoir of Stanislaus, 
 king of Poland. 
 
 AUBERT, Jacques, a French physician, who flomished in 
 the sixteenth century, and \\Tote on the origin of metals, on the 
 plague, on the diagnosis of diseases, besides a commentary upon 
 the " Physics" of Aristotle. 
 
 AUBERT, Jean Louis (l'Abb^), a French critic, was bom 
 in 1731, became professor of French literature at the Royal 
 college, and diief editor of the " Gazette de France," and 
 was subsequently appointed " royal censor." As a writer of 
 fables, he was considered by Voltaire equal to Lafontaine, — a 
 tribute with wliich he was by no means contented. He distin- 
 guished himself also as a poet and a re\'iewer, in which latter 
 capacity he was dreaded by many of his contemporaries. His 
 works wore published at Paris in 1774. He died in 1813. 
 
 AUBERT, Michel, a French engraver of the last century. 
 
 AUBERT, Pierre, a French liistorian of the seventeenth 
 century, who wrote a clironicle of the kings of France. 
 
 AUBERT DE la Chesxaye des Bois, a French capnchm, 
 bom 1699, died 1784, author of a "Dictionary of the Nobility, 
 containing the Genealog}' of the noble families of France," Paris, 
 1770-1780, 15 vols. 4to. The three last volumes are extremely 
 scarce, having for the most part been destroyed at the Revolution. 
 
 AUBERT DE VITRY, Francois 3euVS Philibert, was bora
 
 at Paris in 1765. His political works excited some attention 
 ;ug the revolutionary epoch, and caused him to be proscribed, 
 
 : he escaped by flight. Under the directory he was made 
 .otary of legation at Brussels. Under the constdate and the 
 ore he continued to enjoy the confidence of the ruling powers, 
 
 : was finally employed as secretary to the privy councO of the 
 
 -tphalian kingdom. On the fall of the Bonaparte dynasty, 
 
 was dismissed from his employment, but received a small 
 
 pension. He died at a very advanced age in 1849, leaving a 
 
 variety of works on education, population, and subsistence, &c., 
 
 besides translations from the English and German. — J. W. S. 
 
 AUBERT DU BAYET, Jean Baptiste Anxibal, a French 
 general, was bom in Louisiana in 1753, and sen-ed under La- 
 fayette in the army sent by France to the aid of the American 
 revolutionists. On his return to Europe, he took part in the 
 revolutionary movements of his native country, and was elected 
 a member of the constituent assembly, where he generally voted 
 with the Girondins. He afterwards fought under Kellermann at 
 Vahny, and conducted the defence of ^Mainz. He was ulri- 
 mately appointed by the directory ambassador at the Tm-kish 
 court, and died at Constantinople in 1797. — J. W. S. 
 
 AUBERT-ROCHE, Louis, a French physician, was bom 
 early in the present century, and having graduated at Paris, 
 entered into the service of ilehemet All of Eg^-pt. Here he 
 held the ofiice of principal physician to the Ras-ed-din hospital 
 at Alexandria, and studied the Oriental plague with great care. 
 This disease, he maintains, is not propagated by contact, but by 
 atmospheric influences — a theory which has given rise to much 
 controversy. He has also published an essay on the use of 
 haschisch in this disease. — J. W. S. 
 
 AUBERT DU PETIT-THOUARS. See Du Petit- 
 Thouars. 
 
 AUBERTIN, Antoixe, a monk of the abbey of Elial in 
 France, who lived in the seventeenth century, and wrote the 
 lives of some saints. 
 
 AUBERTIN, DoiiixiQUE, a French ofiicer of the last cen- 
 tury, who vrrote a narrative of the Vendean insurrection. 
 
 AUBERTDf, Edue, a French protestant and theologian of 
 the seventeenth centiuy. 
 
 AUBERY, AxTors'E, a French historian of the seventeenth 
 century, who wrote a general history of cardinals since the pope- 
 dom of Leo EX., 5 vols. 4to, 1642, and memoirs of Richelieu and 
 Mazarin, — works of httle value. 
 
 AUBERY, Claude, a French physician and naturalist of 
 the sixteenth century, was persecuted in his native country for 
 having embraced Cal\'inism, and fled to Lausanne, where he 
 professed philosophy. Being, however, molested by the S-sviss 
 clergy, he returned to France and to his former faith. His chief 
 work is the " Tractatus de Concordia Medicorum," Berne, 1585, 
 in which he defends the -^-iews of Paracelsus. 
 
 AUBERY, Jacques, a French jmist of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, an advocate of the parliament of Paris. 
 
 AUBERY, Louis, lord of Maurier, was bom about the be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth centuiy, was employed in several 
 diplomatic appointments, wrote a Mstoiy of Holland, in 2 vols., 
 and died m 1687. 
 
 AUBESPINE, a noble family of France, the following mem- 
 bers of which are worthy of notice : — 
 
 Claude de l', Baron de Chateauneuf, bom towards the com- 
 mencement of the slx.teeuth century, was secretary of state and 
 finance from about the year 1542 till his death in 1567. He 
 was employed in the most unportant negotiations of the reigns 
 of Francis I., Henry IL, and Charles IX. 
 
 Gabriel de l', Bishop of Orleans from 1604 till the year of 
 his death, 1639, was a son of Guillaumc de I'Aubespine, baron 
 of Chateauneuf. He exhibited on several important occasions 
 the family talent for diplomacy ; and his writings throw light on 
 the ancient liturgy and discipline of the Galilean church. His 
 name on his works is latinized into Albespinus. 
 
 Charles de l'. Marquis de Chateauneuf, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, an intriguing statesman of the first half of the seven- 
 teenth centurj', was born in 1580. He was employed in suc- 
 cessive nnssions to Holland, Germany, Venice, and England ; 
 succeeded his father in 1021 as chancellor of the orders of the 
 king, and was named Garde des Sceaux (Keeper of the Seals) 
 in 1630. He was imprisoned by order of Richelieu from 1633 to 
 1643, and regained his ofiice of keeper in 1650 only to be again 
 deprived of it in the folloNving year. Died 1653. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Madellixe de l', daughter of Claude XL, and aunt of the 
 two preceding, celebrated by the court poets of the reigns of 
 Charles EX., Henry III., and Henry IV., for her beauty and 
 poetical talents, married, in 1562, Nicholas de Keufville, seig- 
 neur de Villeroi, and died In 1596. — J. S., G. 
 
 AUBETERRE, David Bouchard, Vicomte d', bom at 
 Geneva, recovered the estates of his family which had been con- 
 fiscated in the time of his great-grandfather, and obtained from 
 Henry III. the government of Perigord. He rendered important 
 service to Hemy IV. in the war of the League. He died in 
 1598, from a wound received at the siege of L'Isle. 
 
 AUBETERRE, Francois d'Esparbez de Luss an, Vicomte 
 d', a French marshal, distinguished In the wars of Henry IV., 
 who appointed him to the government of Blaye. He declared 
 for the party of the queen-mother In 1620, and, In the same 
 year, was raised to the rank of marshal. Died in 1628. 
 
 AUBETERRE, Hexri Joseph Bouchard d'Esparbez, 
 JIarquis d', a French marshal and diplomatist, bom in 1714, 
 was wounded In 1743 at the battle of Dettingen, and again in 
 1744 at the taking of Chateau Dauphin, in Piedmont. He was 
 afterwards employed in embassies to Vienna, Madrid, and 
 Rome. Died in 1788. 
 
 AUBIGNAC, Francois Hedelln, Abbe d', a French mis- 
 cellaneous writer of the seventeenth century, son of a banister, 
 was educated for his father's profession, and for some time 
 exercised it at Nemours ; but, having entered Into holy orders, 
 he was appointed tutor to the young duke of Fronsac, and, 
 through Ms Interest, abbe of Aubignac He wrote dramatic 
 pieces of various kinds, a treatise on monsters and demons, and 
 two dissertations on the dramatic art, in the latter of which he 
 censured furiously ComeUle's Inattention to the unities. Their 
 conformity to the Aristotelian canon is the only merit of his own 
 dramatic pieces. Died m 1676. — J. S., G. 
 
 AUBIGNlS, Merle d'. See D'Aubigxe. 
 
 AUBIGNE, Theodore Agrippa d', a Huguenot historian 
 and dramatist, bom 1550, near Pons, m the province of Saui- 
 tonge. He was a precocious Ungnist, ha\Tng translated Plato's 
 Crito at seven years of age. Employed by Henry of Navarre, he 
 wrote a tragedy called " Curce," which was remarkable for 
 ability. He remained poor, and a strenuous assertor of protes- 
 tant principles, after the defection of his royal patron to the 
 church of Rome. His chief work was a history of his own times, 
 a memoir fuU of lively anecdote and satire. He spent the last 
 ten years of his life at Geneva, where he died in 1030, and was 
 btuied in the chm-ch of St. Rene. His decHnmg age was em- 
 bittered by the undutifulness of his son, afterwards the father of 
 the celebrated Madame Scarron, who became the wife of Louis 
 the Fourteenth. Four times he was condemned to death. The 
 Roman catholics never ceased to persecute him, and he retorted 
 with a vigorous pen, while he superintended the fortifying of 
 Basle and Berne, as a protection to the political interests of the 
 Reformation. His writings were as varied as his adventures ; 
 consisting of controversial tracts, memoirs, plays, and poems. 
 His name is stfll reverenced by the French protestants. — T. J. 
 
 AUBIGNE DE LA FOSSE, Nathan d', a physician of 
 Geneva, author of a work entitled "Bibliotheca chimica con- 
 tracta," Geneva, 1654 and 1673, 8vo. 
 
 AUBIGNY, Robert Stewart, Comte de Beaumost- 
 le-Roger, Seignieuk d', Marshal of France, died in March, 
 1544. He was descended from a Scottish family of dlstmction. 
 He passed the Alps with Charles VIII., and signalized himself at 
 the defence of Navarre, and In various battles and sieges. 
 
 AUBIN, N., a French protestant minister of the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth centuries, was bom at Loudun, in Poitou. In 
 1693 or 1694 he published an account of the strange aftair of 
 Urban Grandier at Loudun. In 1698 he published a French 
 translation of Brandt's life of De Ruyter, Amsterdam, foUo ; and 
 in 1702, a " Dictionnaire de Marine," Amsterdam, 4to. 
 
 AUBLET, Jean Baptiste Ciiristophe Fusee, a French 
 botanist, was bom at Salon, in Provence, on 4tli November, 
 1720. In early life he w;is passionately fond of plants. He 
 prosecuted the study of botany at Montpelier, and afterwards 
 repaired to Lyons and Paiis. In the latter city he became 
 acquainted with Bem;u-d de Jussicu, who introduced him to 
 several valuable patrons of science. He prosecuted the study 
 of botany, chemistrj-, mineralogj', and zoology for about seven 
 vears. He was then appointed to establish a botanic garden in 
 the Isle of France, where he arrived in August, 1752. He 
 
 2 JI
 
 AUB 
 
 274 
 
 AUB 
 
 remained for nine years on the island, and diew up a notice of 
 its Flora. He also introduced many valuable plants into the 
 island. He was subsequently sent to Guiana, and reached the 
 island of Cayenne in 17G2. He made extensive collections of 
 plants, and on his retiu-n to Paiis in 1765, he pubhshed his 
 " Historj' of the Plants of French Giuana." He died at Paris on 
 Cth May, 1778. His herbarium was aftere-ards purchased by 
 Sir Joseph Banks, and is now hi the British iluscum. — J. H. B. 
 
 AUDKEE, I!i2NE, a French general, born at Rennes, 17G3 ; 
 killed at the siege of Saragossa, December 1, 1808. His name is 
 inscribed on the bronze tablets of Versailles. 
 
 AUBREY or AWBREY, Williaji, was bom at Brecknock 
 in 1529, and became rcgius professor of law at Oxford. He 
 was appointed a member of the council of the Welch marches, 
 vicar-general to the archbishop of Canterbmy, a master in chan- 
 ceiT, and a master of requests to the queen. He was one of the 
 commissioners on the trial of Mary Queen of Scots, and laboured 
 hard to save her life, — a circumstance which secured for his 
 family the favour of James I. He died in 1595. — J. W. S. 
 
 AUBREY, John, a well-known antiquaiy, was bom at 
 Easton-Piers, near Malmesbury, on the 3d November, 1626. 
 His father belonged to an old and wealthy family of Hereford- 
 shire, and the estate on which he was bora was the property of 
 his mother. John was her eldest son, and was first educated at 
 INIalmesbmy imder a preceptor who, many years before, had 
 Thomas Hobbes for one of his pupils. In 1642 he entered 
 Trinity college, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, and remained 
 at the university four years. In 16-46 he went to London, and 
 became a student of the Jliddle Temple, and after that period 
 his principal residence through life was in the metropolis. He 
 became, about the time of his settlement in London, a member 
 of HaiTington's famous liota club. After the Restoration he was 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society soon after its foundation 
 in 1662. In 1660 he went over to Ireland, and narrowly 
 escaped shipwreck ; and in 1664 he paid a brief \Tsit to France. 
 At his father's death in 1643, he owned estates in several coun- 
 ties; but in 1670, by lawsuits and mismanagement, almost 
 every acre had gone, and he was left in comparative destitution. 
 In 1664 he was manied, but not happily. Wlien he was about 
 forty-seven years of age he began his great work, " Perambida- 
 tions, or Sun-ey of the County of Surrey." At the same time, 
 through his acquaintance with Anthony Wood, he prepared 
 " Mmutes of Lives" of eminent men for the Athena; Oxoniensis. 
 The lives of Hobbes, Milton, and others, were of Aubrey's com- 
 position. Blackburn's life of Hobbes, in Latin, was chiefly fur- 
 nished from Aubrey, for though a much younger man, he was 
 on intimate terms ^-ith the philosopher. He had also contin- 
 buted largely to Dugdale's " ]\Ionasticon Anglicanum." The 
 " History of Wiltshire" occupied a large portion of his later years, 
 but he left it xmfinished to the care of Janner, then a yoimg and 
 eager antiquarian. In 1696 he published a vohune of "Mis- 
 cellanies," dedicated to the earl of Abingdon, a book wliich has 
 been twice reprinted. Lady Long of IJracot, Wilts, had been 
 his benefjictor for years ; and on a journey from London to her 
 residence, he died at Oxford hi 1697, and was buried in St. 
 Michael's church of that city. Most of his compositions, such as 
 his " Architectonica Sacra," were left in MSS. at his death. 
 " Old Aubrey," as he is usually termed, was a most curious and 
 diligent collector of very interesting gossip. He knew Hobbes, 
 Milton, Dryden, Hooke, Samuel Butler, Boyle, and others, while 
 Shakspeare, Bacon, Ben Jonson, and Raleigh, were well known 
 to others, with whom Aubrey, so as to treasiu-e up his coveted 
 scraps of information, delighted to converse. The person, fea- 
 tures, dress, habits, pecuharities, and sayings, of such men and 
 many others, were noted down minutely by him, and told in his 
 own quaint and antique style. As may be seen in his Miscel- 
 lany, he was somewhat credulous and rather superstitious ; but 
 his Lives are rich in odd and authentic anecdotes. The Wilt- 
 shire Topographical Society published, in 1845, a life of Aubrey, 
 written by Mr. Britton, and an edition of the Lives, &c., was 
 published in 1813.— J. E. 
 
 AUBRIET, Claude, a French natural histoiy artist. He 
 was bora at Chalons-sur-Mame in 1657, and died at Paris in 
 1743. He was appointed artist to the king of France, and 
 accompanied the celebrated botanist Touraefourt in his voyage 
 to the Levant. On his retiu'n to Paris he replaced Jean Jou- 
 bert, and continued the execution of a series of drawings of 
 plants on vellum which had been begim by Nicholas Robert, 
 
 The engraxings illustrating the works of Toumefourt and Sebas- 
 tian Vaillant are after designs by Auliriet. In the Bibliotheque 
 Nationale of France are five volumes, in folio, of representations 
 of shells, fishes, bhds, and butterflies, executed by Aubriet. Dc 
 Candolle has named a genus of plants Aubrietia, belonging to 
 the natural order Cruciferoe, after this distinguished artist. 
 {Nouvelle Bioyraphie Gencrale.^ — E. L. 
 
 AUBRION, Jean, a French chronicler of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, who was employed by his fellow-citizens of Metz, m several 
 negotiations with Charles the Bold of Bm-gundy. 
 
 AUBRIOT, Hughes, a provost of Paris in the fourteenth 
 centuiT. He built the BastUe, in which he was aftenvards im- 
 prisoned until the year 1381, when he was liberated and chosen 
 a leader of the insurgent " Maillotins." He escaped from Paris, 
 however, and retired to Burgundy, where he died. 
 
 AUBRIOT, Jean, a bishop of Chalons-sur-Saone, who lived 
 in the earlier part of the fomteenth century. 
 
 AUBRUSSEL, Ir;NACE, a Jesuit of Verdun in France, was 
 bom in 1663, and died in 1730, in Spain, whither he had gone 
 to conduct the education of the prince of Asturias. 
 
 AUBRY, Charles, a Latin poet, who hved about the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth centun% He published: — 1. "Ad 
 Ludomum XIV. Epigrammata," Paris, 1G86; " Ecloga in obi- 
 tum ducis Aurelianensis," Paris, 1701, in 4to; " Victores Gall! 
 ad Rhenum, duce Hectore de Villars," Paris, 1702, in 4to; 
 " Gallorum ad Landaviam et in pugna Spirensi duplex palma, 
 AquUa et Gallus, fabula," Paris, 1703, in 4to. 
 
 AUBRY, Charles Louis, a French economist and writer 
 on agriculture, bom at Ferte-Milon in 1746, died at Paris in 
 1817; author, also, of a treatise on the weights, measures, and 
 money of all nations, and another on the conversion of the old 
 money of France into modem. 
 
 AUBRY, Claude Charles, a French general, bom at 
 Bourg-en-Brasse, 25th October, 1775, died at Leipsic, 10th 
 November, 1813. He entered the French anny as under-heu- 
 tenant of artillery in 1792, and served with distinction in the 
 campaign of the MOanese in 1800, in the French expedition to 
 St. Domingo, in the campaign against Austria in 1809. the in- 
 vasion of Russia in 1812, and the campaign of 1813 in Ger- 
 many. He attained the rank of general of brigade in 1809, and, 
 in 1812, that of general of division. He fell at the battle of 
 Leipsic, having both his thighs shot off by a cannon ball. — G. M. 
 
 AUBRY DE JIONTDIDIER, a French knight of the latter 
 portion of the fourteenth century and time of Charles V., known 
 in histoiy fi-om his connection with the story of the " Dog ot 
 jMontargis." Aubry, in 1371, was assassinated by a companion 
 m arms, called Richard de Macaire. The murderer would have 
 escaped from the penalty of the law, but, from the moment of 
 the crime, was constantly pm-sued by the faithful dog of the 
 dead man. The king hearing of the circumstance, conceived the 
 notion of a combat between the dog and Macaire, and ordered it 
 to take place at Piiris on one of the little islands of the Seine, 
 ^^lacaire was armed wdth a mace, but was di-agged down by the 
 invincible ferocity of his antagonist, and confessed his crime. The 
 story has given lise to several ballads and dramatic pieces, which 
 have made it familiar both in France and Germany. Tlie first 
 picture exhibited in Edinburgh by Rosa Bonhcur was " The Dog 
 of Montargis," a painting of great and unmistakable merit, but 
 one that attracted no attention, as the artist had not then ac- 
 quired a " reputation." — P. E. D. 
 
 AUBRY DU BOUCHET, bom at Ferte-MUon about 1740. 
 He was elected deputy to the states-general for the baiUiage of 
 Villers-Cotterets. He voted for all the mnovations, and pro- 
 posed a new geographical division of France. 
 
 AUBRY, Etienne, a French painter, bora at Versailles in 
 1745, died at Rome in 1781. He was pailicularly successful 
 in painting family scenes, interiors, and other similar subjects. 
 
 AUBRY, Francois, member of the National Convention at 
 the period of the French revolution, was born at Paiis about 
 1750, and died in England in 1802. Though an actor in the 
 revolution, he was distinguished, throughout that troubled period, 
 by a remarkable degree of moderation. The accounts we have 
 of his public conduct are in many points contradictory, but, 
 notwithstanding what has been said to the contrary, it would 
 appear that he was opposed to the putting of Louis to death. 
 On the 4th April, 1795, he succeeded Carnot in the direction of 
 milit;uy operations as a member of the Committee of PubUc 
 Safety, but retired on the 2nd of August following. He subse-
 
 quently became a member of the club of Clichy, wbicb was 
 accused of lia\ing a connection with the royalists ; and, on the 
 revolution of the 4th September, 1797, he, in common with all 
 the other members of the club, was banished to Cayenne. He 
 made his escape, however, in company with Pichegru and 
 several others to Demerara, from which, it is said, he proceeded 
 to the United States, and thence to England. He was not per- 
 mitted to revisit liis native countiy. During his exile he wrote a 
 work on the Revolution, which has not been pubhshed. Of the 
 large collection of tracts on the French revolution, in the British 
 Museum, tlm-teen are from the pen of Aubiy. — G. M. 
 
 AUBRY, Jacques Charles, a French jurisconsult, bom in 
 1668 ; died in 1739. He was author of a gieat number of me- 
 moirs and other papers, which are to be found scattered thi-ough 
 different collections. The most remarkable of these are : " Deux 
 Jlemoires pour les dues et pairs, centre le comte d'Agenois," &c. 
 
 AUBRY, Jean, a French alchemist and physician, lived at 
 Palis in the middle of the seventeenth centmy, and died about 
 16G7. In the early part of his life he had entered into orders 
 as a monk, and had travelled in the East, for the pm-pose, ac- 
 cording to his own account, of converting the Turks to Chris- 
 tianity. In consequence of a want of success in this mission he 
 retm'ued to his native country, where he applied himself to the 
 study and practice of medicine. On this subject he entertahied 
 many extravagant and ridiculous notions, but is said to have 
 performed numerous astonishing cm-es, through the confidence 
 with which he had the art of inspiring his patients. He pub- 
 lished a work entitled " Le Triomphe de I'Archee et le Desespoir 
 de la Medicine," Paris, 1G56, in 4to. He published various 
 other medical works, all more or less tinctm-ed with the doc- 
 trines of the alchemists, which he employed in explanation of the 
 symptoms and treatment of disease. His other works are : — 
 " La Merveille du Monde, ou la Medicine veritable nouvellement 
 uscitee," Paris, 1655, in 4to; "Medicine Universelle des 
 s," Paris, 1661, in 4to; "Abrege de I'ordi-e admirable et 
 ' s beaux secrets de Saint Raymond Lulle," Paris, 1665. — G. M. 
 
 AUBRY, Jean-Baptiste, a learned Benedictuie monk, bom 
 ' Dapviller, near Epinal, in 1736; died at Commercy, 4th 
 'ber, 1809. Though a Jesuit, he entered the order of St. 
 diet; and such was the high opinion of his erudition enter- 
 d by his brethren, that, after the death of Remy Ceillier, 
 • appointed him to continue, with the assistance of one of 
 : < ir number, "L'Histoire des autem-s sacr^s et profanes." The 
 ^^ul■p^cssion of the monastic orders reduced Aubry to seek for 
 tby means of subsistence in the exercise of his literaiy talents. 
 His principal works are: — " L'Ami philosophic et politique, 
 ■ iitc surs I'essence, les avantages et les devoii-s de I'amitie," 
 is, 1776, in 8vo; "Thcorie de I'ame des b(^tes," 1780-90; 
 lu-.stions philosophiques sur la religion natm-elle, dans les- 
 ■j;!' lies on r^sout, avec les seules lumidres de la raison, les objec- 
 tions des athees, des materialistes, des pyrrhoniens et des 
 ' i-^tes," 1782, in 12mo; " L'Anti-Condillac, ou Harangue aux 
 logues modernes," 1801; " Nouvelle Theorie des etres," 
 '< 'M, ; " Aubade, ou Lettres k MM. Geoffrey et Mongin," who 
 had criticised the fonner work in the "Jom'nal des Debats;" "Le 
 Nouveau Mentcur," a work on elementary instraction. — G. M. 
 
 AUBRY, Jkan Francois, physician to Louis XVI., king 
 of France, died at Luxcuil, his native place, in 1795. Few par- 
 ticulars of his life are known. He estabhshed his reputation by 
 a work entitled " Les oracles de Cos," Paiis, 1776, in 8vo; ibid, 
 1781, et Montpellier, 1810. 
 
 AUBRY, Marie-Olympie de Gouges. See Gouges. 
 
 AUBRY, Philip Charles, a French man of letters, bom 
 at Versailles, 8th Febmary, 1744; died 23rd May, 1812. He 
 at first obtained employment in the Ministry of Marine, but 
 losing this situation in consequence of certain reductions taking 
 place in that department of the ))ubhc service, he rctmned to 
 liis native city, where he adopted the profession of teacher of 
 languages. He wrote verses both in Latin and French, and 
 published a small collection of lyric poetiy, under the title of 
 " Le Petrarque Franfais," Tours, 1799. His other works are : — 
 "L'Esprit d'Addison," consisting of select passages from the 
 works of that author ; " Les Passions du jeune Werther, trad, 
 de Goethe," Paris, 1777, 2 vols. — G. M. 
 
 AUBISSON DE VOISINES, d', J. Fr., a French writer on 
 geology. He has written a general treatise on geognosy, em- 
 bracuig an account of the mineral and physical constitution of 
 the earth. It was originally pubhshed at Strasbui-g in 1819, 
 
 and subsequent editions in Paris. He also wrote a memoir on 
 the basaltic formations of Sase, accompanied with observations 
 on the origin of basalt in general. — E. L. 
 
 AUBUSSON, Jean d', a troubadour of the thii-teenth cen- 
 tury, attached to the fortmies of Frederick II., emperor of Ger- 
 many. He has left an allegorical poem in the form of a dia- 
 logue, on the subject of the expedition of Frederick against the 
 confederation of Lombardy. Some extracts from this production, 
 which abounds in fantastical conceits, are given in the original, 
 in Raynou.ard's "Choix des Poesies originales des Troubadours," 
 Paris, 1820, vol. v., p. 236.— G. M. 
 
 AUBUSSON, Jean d', a French man of letters, who lived in 
 the second half of the sixteenth century. He was author of a 
 number of works published at Paris, between 1550 and 1561, 
 and quoted by Duverdier and La Croix du Maine. 
 
 AUBUSSON, Pierre d', one of the most remarkable gi-and- 
 masters of the order of St. John of Jerasalem, was born a.d. 
 1423. He sprang from an old French family. The Ottomans 
 in his day began to threaten Europe with a second Mahometan 
 invasion ; and having sen'cd in Hungaiy against them, he de- 
 termined to spend his life in extu-pating their hordes. After 
 perfoi-ming various services to the French kings, Charles VII. 
 and Louis XL, he obtained a commandery in the above-men- 
 tioned order, was shortly afterwards made gi'and-prior, and in- 
 trasted with the charge of the fortifications of Rhodes, and on 
 the death of Orsini in 1476, was elected grand-master. He 
 maintained the city of Rhodes against the Turks, duiing a siege 
 that lasted eighty-nine days (1480), and forced them to retn-e 
 with the loss of nearly 10,000 men. When Bajazet and Zizim 
 disputed the succession to the throne of Tm-key, and the latter 
 was worsted, he sought an asylum with D'Aubusson, who 
 received hmi com-teously, but he afterwards handed over his 
 person to the pope, Alexander VI., who made him a cardinal as 
 a rewai-d for this base act. He died at Rhodes, July, 1503, in 
 the eighty-first year of his age, of deep melancholy, caused by 
 the scandals of Christendom. The work entitled " De Scrip- 
 toribus Gennania;," Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 1602, contains a 
 Latin description of the great siege of Rhodes, in which the 
 cardinal was engaged, and many think that it is the production 
 of his pen. — (Bouhour's Vie du Grand-mattre D' Aubusson ; 
 N. Biog. Univ., " D'Aubusson.") — T. J. 
 
 AUCHER-ELOY or PETER MARTIN REMI AUCHER, 
 the son of a vrine merchant, was bom at Blois, 2nd October, 
 1793. He was educated at the college of that city, and he 
 afteiTvards studied pharmacy at Orleans and at Paris. lie 
 went to the latter city in 1812. 'While there, he prosecuted his 
 botanical studies under the auspices of Antoine, Laurent, de 
 Jussieu, and Desfontaines. In 1813 he was attached to the 
 service of the army hospitals in Spain, and made a collection of 
 plants there. In 1817 he married a young lady named Eloy, 
 and he added her name to his own. He then adopted the 
 profession of a bookseller and printer. He still, however, con- 
 tinued to attend to botany, and explored the flora of the 
 department of the Loire et Cher. He subsequently went to 
 Russia with his wdfe and daughter, in the hope of joinmg 
 an expedition to the Caucasus. In this, however, he was 
 disappomted. He failed also in obtaining any emplojTnent Li 
 printing ; and was reduced to great straits by illness. He was 
 at last appointed secretary to Prince Waldhowslc)', and finally 
 was engaged by HaUl Pacha, the Turkish ambassador at St. 
 Petersburg, to accompany him to Constantinople, for the pur- 
 pose of establishing a Tm'ko-French newspaper. During the 
 joumey, an opportmiity was afforded for botanizing. Finding 
 that the promises of Halil Pacha were not fulfilled in the way 
 he expected, Auchcr-lCloy undertook a scries of journeys in 
 Turkey, Greece, Eg}Tt, Syria, and Persia, with a view of col- 
 lecting botanical and zoolngical specimens. His collections 
 were sent to Paris, and were there disposed of to advantage, by 
 the kind offices of Brongniart. Assistance was .also given from 
 the Paris Jluscum, and by the Jlinistcr of Public Instraction. 
 The botanical collections were excellent and valuable, and 
 they were soon dispersed over various public and private 
 herbaria in France, Britain, and elsewhere. The specimens 
 laid the foundation of a flora of the East. During his joiuneys, 
 Aucher-l'21oy had many difficulties and dangers to encoimter. 
 One of his last visits was to Persia. He proceeded by tlic 
 north of Anatolia, Erzeroum, Mount Ararat, Tabriz, and 
 Gliilan, to the sliores of the Caspian. From Teheran he as-
 
 AUG 
 
 276 
 
 AUD 
 
 cended tlie volcanic peak, Demawend, visited Ispahan, directed 
 his course to the Persian gulf, and thence to Ferozbad. He 
 explored JIuscat and the island of Oiinuz. He was compelled, 
 by the state of his health, to return to Shu-az, which he reached 
 in a very enfeebled condition. Thence he proceeded to Ispahan, 
 where he was laid up with severe illness. Diuing occasional 
 brief respites, he still continued his botanical researches, until at 
 length he was forced to desist ; and he died on the 6th October, 
 1838, in the convent of Djulfa, in the anns of Dr. Bertoni, who 
 had been assiduous in his attendance on liim. ]M. le Comte 
 Jaubert took charge of the pubUcation of Aucher-Eloy's letters, 
 and his account of his various journeys in the East, from 1830 
 to 1838. A genus of Composita; has been named Auchera by 
 De Candollc— J. H. B. 
 
 AUGHMUTY,SiR Samuel, an English general, bom in 1756, 
 was the son of the Rev. Samuel Auchmuty, D.D., a clergyman 
 of the church of England, settled in New York. He entered 
 the British army as a volunteer in 1776, was present at the 
 actions of White Plains and Brookh-n, and earned by two years' 
 meritorious servdce the rank of ensign. He sei-ved vvith distinc- 
 tion in India from 1783 to 1796, taking part in the first siege 
 of Seringapatam ; and in the latter year had attained the rank 
 of heutenant-colonel. In the years 1801-3, he was employed as 
 adjutant-general to the forces in Egypt ; and, on his return to 
 England in 1804, was honoured with a grand cross of the Bath. 
 He was appointed in 1806 to the command of the troops in 
 South America; and in January, 1807, carried by assault the 
 city of Monte Video — a sei-vice for which he received the thanks 
 of Parliament. In 1810 he signalised himself in India by the 
 taking of the island of Java, and was again thanked by both 
 houses. He died in 1822, having held for some time the post 
 of commander of the forces in Ireland. — J. S., G. 
 
 AUCKLAND, Earl of. See Eden. 
 
 AUCLERE, Gabriel Andr^, a French jurist, bom about 
 the middle of the last century, died in 1815, chiefly known for 
 his endeavours to restore the ancient pagan worship ; his ideas 
 on which are given in a work entitled " La Treicie." 
 
 AUD A, Angelo, an Italian of the seventeenth century, who 
 has left several works on monastic subjects. 
 
 AUDA, DoMiNico, a monk of Lantusca, near Nice, who 
 lived in the earlier portion of the seventeenth century, practised 
 as a physician. His principal work, " Breve Compendio di 
 Maravighosi Segreti," Rome, 1655-1660, treats of secret 
 remedies, alchemical processes, and the presei-vation of health. 
 
 AUDjEUS or AUDIUS, a sectarian who flourished in the 
 fourth centuiy in Mesopotamia. He was banished into Scythia 
 at the instigation of the clergy, and preached Christianity among 
 the Goths, in whose tenitory he founded monasteries remarkable 
 for the rigour of theu- discipline. His doctrines are not exactly 
 known, but appear to have been upon the whole orthodox. 
 
 AUDE, Jkax, a French dramatic author, was bom in 1755, 
 was employed by Buffon as private secretar}', and afterwards 
 produced a number of comedies, farces, and vaudevilles. He died 
 in 1841.— J. W. S. 
 
 AUDEBEKT, Jean Baptiste, a French painter, was bom 
 at Rochefort in 1759. In 17S9 he became acquainted with one 
 Gigot d'Orcy, a wealthy amateur in natural liistory, who em- 
 ployed him to paint the rarest specimens in his private museum, 
 and in the public collections of England and Holland. These 
 figures served to illustrate the entomological works of Olivier. 
 Audebcrt soon aftenvards pubHshed a natural history of the 
 monkey tribe (Paris, 1800, fol.), illustrated with sixty colom-ed 
 engravings. His "History of Humming-Birds," &c. (Paris, 
 1802, foL), is considered the most splendid work of this kind ever 
 produced. He executed also the illustrations for Levaillant's 
 •' Birds of Africa." Audebcrt died in 1800, leaving some other 
 works unfinished. — J. W. S. 
 
 AUDEFROY LE BASTARD, a trouvere or troubadour of 
 the twelfth century, whose poems, though monotonous, please by 
 their waiTnth, simplicity, and delicncv of sentiment. 
 
 AUDENARDE or OUDENARDE, RouEitr van, a Flemish 
 engraver of gi-eat merit. He was a pupil of Carlo Maratta, 
 with whom he studied in Rome. Bom at Gand in 1063, died 
 in 1743. 
 
 AUDIBERT, Louis-FnAxq-ois-IIiLARiox, a French writer, 
 bora at Marseilles about the end of the last century. He pub- 
 Hshed " Histoire et Roman," Paris, 1834, Svo. ; biographies of 
 the cardinal de Retz, Louis XL, Montesquieu, and Talma ; two 
 
 memoirs, inserted in "Le Plutarque Francois," and " Melange de 
 Litteratm-e et d'Histoire." Paris, 1839, 8vo. 
 
 AUDIBERT, Urbain, a botanist and agiiculturist, was bom 
 at Tarascon, on the Rhone, on 27th Febniaiy, 1789, and died 
 on 22nd July, 1846. He prosecuted his botanical studies under 
 De Candolle, and afterwards devoted much attention to the 
 cultivation of forest trees, ^anes, cereal grains, and plants used 
 for fodder. Along with Requien and Dunal, he undertook bota- 
 nical trips, vrith the %new of completing the flora of the mid- 
 land pai-t of France. He assisted in various agricultural and 
 horticultural works, such as the " Annales de I'Agiiculture Fran- 
 9aise," and the "Annales de Socitto d'Horticulture." — J. H. B. 
 
 AUDIERNE, Jacques, a French mathematician, was bom 
 about 1710 at Beauchamps, in the valley of ^Montmorency, and 
 died about 1785. He taught mathematics at Paris, and pub- 
 lished, for the use of his pupils, " Les Elements d'Euelide 
 demontres d'une maniere nouvelle et facile," Paris, 1746, 12)no; 
 "Traits complet de Trigonometric," ibid, 1756, Svo; and "Ele- 
 ments de Geometric," ibid, 1765, 8vo. 
 
 AUDIFRED, J. P., a French mathematician of the last 
 century. In conjunction with F. N. Babeuf, he pubUshed a 
 work entitled "Cadastre perpetuel," Paris, 1789, 8vo. He also 
 took part in a work entitled " Nouvelle Theorie Astronomique." 
 
 AUDIFFREDI, Jean Baptiste, an astronomer and biblio- 
 grapher, was bom at Saorgio, near Nice, in 1714, and died 3rd 
 July, 1794. He published " Phenomena Cajlcstia Observata," 
 Rome, 1753 to 1756 ; " Transitus Veneris ante solem observati 
 Romse, 6 Junii, 1761, Expositio," Rome, 1762, 8vo ; " Investi- 
 gatio parallaxis sohs, exercitatio Dadei Ruffi," (anagram of 
 d'Audiffredi), Rome, 1765, 4to ; " Dimonstrazione della stazione 
 della Cometa, 1769," Rome, 1770. He subsequently exchanged 
 the study of astronomy for that of bibliogi-aphy, and published 
 " Catalogus historico-criticus Romanarum editionum soeculi XV," 
 Rome, 1785; "Catalogus bibliothecaj Casanatensis libroram 
 ty|3is impressoram," Rome, 1761-1788, four vols, folio. This 
 catalogue goes no farther than the letter L; "Catalogus historico- 
 criticus editionum Italicarum sajculi XV," Rome, 1794, 4to. 
 
 AUDIFFRET, a noble family, originally of Italy, but estab- 
 lished for six centuries at Barcelonetta. This family has given 
 to France many distinguished names. Among these are — 
 
 AuDiFFRET, Jean-Fran^ois-Hugues, Comte d', a su- 
 perior oflicer, who served in 1746 under the Prince de Conti. 
 He died about the end of the last century. 
 
 AuDiFFRET, PoLYEUCTE, a learned numismatist, bom 
 about 1750, and died in a convent at Naples in 1807. 
 
 AUDIFFRET, FRANgOIS-CESAR-JosEPH-MADELON, boni 
 
 in 1780, and died in 1814. He published " L'Almanach des 
 Spectacles," Paris, 1809, 18mo. 
 
 AuDiFFRET, Hercule, bom in 1603, and died at Paris 
 in 1659. He published several works on religious subjects. 
 
 AuniFFRET, Jean Baptiste, a diplomatist and geographer, 
 bom at Marseilles in 1657, and died at Nancy in 1733. He 
 published " La Geogi-aphie Ancienne, Modeme, et Historique," 
 Paris, 1689-91, two vols. 4to, and in 1694, in three vols. 12mo. 
 
 AuDiFFRET, Louis, who hved about the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century. He viTote a work entitled " LTmmuablc 
 fidelite de la ville de Marseille," published in 4to. — G. M. 
 
 AUDIGIER, a French historian of the eighteenth century. 
 He was bom at Claremont, in Auvergne, and liaving entered the 
 church became canon of the cathedral of his native town, at the 
 time that the celebrated ilassillon was bishop. He is author of 
 a work entitled " Histoire ci\nle, litteraire, et religieuse de la pro- 
 vince de I'Auvergne." It is to be found in manuscript in the 
 national libraiy at Paris. 
 
 AUDIGUIER DU MAZET, Henri d', advocate-general of 
 the queen-mother. He is remembered as the author of a pam- 
 phlet entitled " Le Censeur Censure." 
 
 AUDIGUIER, Vital d'Sieur de la Menor, a man of 
 letters and a soldier, was born about 1569, and died at Paris in 
 1624. He hesitated long about the choice of a profession, but 
 at length embraced that of anns. In the end, however, he gave 
 himself up entirely to the culture of letters. He published a 
 great number of works both in prose and verse. A complete 
 list of them has been given by Sorel. 
 
 AUDIN, J. M. v., a man of letters and a bookseller, was 
 bom at Lyons in 1793, and died 21st Febiiiar}', 1851. His 
 first literaiy production, which was published in 1811, was an 
 octavo pamphlet, entitled "La Lanteme Magique;" his next.
 
 a 
 
 AUD 
 
 277 
 
 AUD 
 
 ■which appeared in 1814, was another pamphlet, hearing the 
 title of "Blanc, Bleu, et Rouge, Louis XVIII., le patrie et 
 rhonnenr ; " another entitled " Tableau Historique des evenements 
 qui se sont accomplis depuis le retour de Bonaparte jusqu'au 
 retablissement de Louis XVIII.," was published in 1815. A 
 variety of other publications, from the pen of the same author, 
 appeared between 181 G and 18.39. 
 
 AUDIN-EOUVIEEO, Joseph Marie, a French surgeon, 
 author of an essay on the physical and medical topogi-aphy of 
 Paris, a treatise on inoculation, and a well-kno-vvn work entitled 
 "La Medecrue sans Medecin," was bom at Carpentras in 1764, 
 and died of cholera in 1832. He realised a large fortune by the 
 sale of a kind of pills, which he called " Grains de Sante." 
 
 AUDIXET SERVILLE, J. G., a French entomologist. He is 
 principally known for his writings on the family Orthoptera. 
 Besides papers in the "Annales de Sciences Naturelle," his 
 principal works are the follomng : — " Tableau Jlethodique des 
 Insects de I'ordre des Orthopteres," Paris, 1831, and "Histou-e 
 Xaturelle des Insects Orthopteres," Paris, 1839. 
 
 AUDIXOT, XicoiAs Medaed, a French comedian and 
 dramatic author, bom at Bourmont in 1732. He erected the 
 theatre called L'Ambic^-Comique. Died in 1801. 
 
 AUDLEY or AUDELEY, Sir James, one of the followers 
 of the Black Prince, celebrated for his gallantly at the battle of 
 Poictiers, appears to have been the son of an Oxfordshire knight. 
 He was seneschal of Pictoa in 1369, in which year he died. 
 Audley was one of the original knights of the order of the Garter. 
 
 AUDLEY, Edmund, bishop, was the son of James, Lord 
 Audley, one of the original knights of the Garter. The date of 
 his birth is uncertain, but he took his B.A. degree at Oxford, 
 1463. In 1471 he became prebend of Lincoln, in 1475 prebend 
 of Wells, and same year archdeacon of the East Riding. In 
 1480, Edward IV. presented hun to the see of Rochester, when 
 he resigned his other preferments. In 1492, Henry VII. trans- 
 lated hnn to Hereford, and in 1502 to Salisbury, and made him 
 chancellor of the order of the Garter. He died in 1524, and 
 was bmied in Salisbury cathedral, lea%'ing behind him the char- 
 acter of a generous-hearted prelate. — J. B., 0. 
 
 AUDLEY, Thomas, aftenvards Lord Audley, the son of a 
 yeoman of moderate means, was bom at Colne, in Essex, in 
 1488. He was at an early age entered of the Inner Temple, 
 and in due time called to the bar. Having attained consider- 
 able celebrity as a common lawyer, by dint of consummate sldll, 
 artifice, and dissimulation, he acquired popularity, and rose rapidly 
 into notice. But whatever credit attaches to the talent and 
 diligence which raised him from a very humble to a very exalted 
 position, his fame is marred by an imscrupulous disregard of 
 every principle of justice and humanity. 
 
 In 1523 he obtained a seat in the Commons' House, where he 
 warmly espoused the cause of Cardinal Wolsey, and, in opposi- 
 tion to the Speaker, Sir Thomas More, encouraged the uncon- 
 stitutional attempts of the crown to extort money from the people, 
 attempts which were only frustrated by the determined attitude 
 of the country, throughout which discontent had almost ripened 
 into open rebellion. On the subsequent disgrace of Wolsey and 
 the elevation of Sir Thomas More to the woolsack, Audley, 
 on the recommendation of the court, was in 1529 elected Speaker 
 of the House of Commons, where, not from conscientious motives, 
 but as the tune-serving slave of Ileniy the Eighth, he fostered 
 the king's designs with reference to the church, and promoted 
 the dissolution of his marriage -nith the estimable but unhappy 
 Catherine of Aragon. The skill which he displayed in man- 
 aging the Hoase of Commons, whose sympathies for the queen 
 were strong, raised him greatly in the king's favour, and in 1532, 
 on the retirement of Sir Thomas JIoi^, whose inflexible integrity 
 would not bend to the king's wishes, the Great Seal was con- 
 ferred on Audley, as Lord Keeper, when he received the honour 
 of knighthood, retaining his seat in the House of Commons. In 
 the followng year he was made Lord Chancellor, and, presiding 
 over the iniquitous proceedings of the House of Lords, was the 
 cliief instigator and promoter of those measures which disgraced 
 the house, and of those legal murders which ensued. To Audlcy's 
 wilfid perversion of the settled rule of law, which required two 
 witnesses to establish a charge of treason, the venerable Bishop 
 Fisher owed his mart)Tdom. To Audley's infamous charge to 
 the jury on the trial of Sir Thomas More, and tlie perjury of 
 his tool, the Solicitor-General Rich, may be attributed the verdict, 
 by which that estimable man was condemned to an ignominious 
 
 death. Although Audley had lent his servile and powerful aid 
 to those measures by which the unfortunate Queen Catherine 
 had been supplanted by Ann Bolej-n, no sooner had the king 
 set his eyes on Jane Seymour and resolved upon another victim, 
 than Audley unhesitatingly conformed to the will of the tyrant, 
 and, applying himself with avidity to the nefarious work, he never 
 relinquished the %Tndictive prosecurion until the head of Henry's 
 second queen rolled from the scaffold on Tower Hill. The follow- 
 ing day witnessed the nuptials of the king with his new favourite, 
 and with indecent haste was a bill brought into the house, under 
 the auspices of Audley, to bastardise the issue of the king's 
 former marriages, settle the throne on the issue of the present or 
 any subsequent marriage, and confer on the king the arbitrary 
 and unconstitutional power of disposing of the crown in the event 
 of his death without legitimate children. Fortunately, perhaps, 
 for Jane Seymour, she died in giving birth to a son, and though 
 Audley was not included ui the batch of nobles created on the 
 auspicious occasion of the birth of a Prince of Wales, the honour 
 of nobility was not long -witliheld from him, for, in the following 
 year, the ser\'ices of a wiUiug tool being esscnrial to secure the 
 condemnation of the king's cousins, the Marquis of Exeter and 
 Lord Montague, Audley was elevated to the peerage as Baron 
 Audley of Waldon, for the special purpose of presiding over these 
 trials. For these and the many other crimes which stamp with 
 indelible odium the memory of Audley, he unblushingly sought 
 compensation, frankly avowing that " he had in this world sus- 
 teyned great damage and inj'amie in serving the kinge's high- 
 ness, which this grant (the lands of the dissolved abbey of Wal- 
 don) shall recom2)ens.'" To the judicial murderer of Fisher, 
 More, Boleyn, Courtney, De la Pole, &c., the desired boon could 
 not be denied, and, in addition to this substantial reward, 
 he shortly afterwards received the order of the Garter. In 
 1540 the king, having expressed his disaffection for his new 
 queen, Ann of Cleves, resolved to wreak his vengeance on 
 Cromwell, through whose rnstramentahty the marriage had 
 been brought about ; and having created his Ul-fated favourite 
 Earl of Essex, to add the more signal cruelty to his impenfling 
 fall, Audley was selected to work out the destraction of his col- 
 league, for which purpose he framed a bill of attainder, contain- 
 ing a series of incongraous accusations, and most iniqnitously 
 caused the earl to be attainted without being heai-d in his defence, 
 and thus, without trial, evidence, or examination, he was brought 
 to the block. Having consigned the promotei-s of the marriage 
 to an ignominious death, the next care of the submissive slave 
 of royalty, was to pave the way for, and accomphsh the dissolu- 
 tion of the man-iage itself; and Ann of Cleves was fortunate 
 enough to escape with her head, to make way for Catherine 
 Howard, and furnish another victim to the rutliless king and his 
 obsequious chancellor. It is no mean compliment to the talent 
 of Audley, however great the infamy implied, that he so long 
 retained the favour of Henry the Eighth, and that, having taken 
 so active a part in matters so closely touching his m.ajesty, he 
 should have been spared to die in his bed without having in- 
 curred the king's displeasure. He died on the 30th April, 1554, 
 in the fiftv-sixth year of his age. — F. J. H. 
 
 AUDOIN or AUDOUIX DE CHAIGNEBRUN, Henri, a 
 French surgeon of some celebrity, who devoted his attention to 
 epidemic and epizootic diseases, bom 1714, died 1781. 
 
 AUDOLEOX, a king of the Paeonians in the 4th century B.C. 
 
 * AUDOUARD, JLvTHiEU Francois Maxence, a French 
 surgeon, bom in 1776, author of a work entitled "Relation 
 historique et medicale de la fitjvre jaune de Barcelone." 
 
 AUDOUIN, Jean Victor, a celebrated French entomologist 
 He was bom at Paris on the 27th April, 1797, and died on the 
 9th November, 1841. He first studied the law, intending to 
 follow the profession of his father, but his taste for natural his- 
 tory was so decided that he eventually determined to abandon 
 the law. In 181G he became acquainted with Alexandre Brong- 
 niart, who possessed a fine collection of insects. This incident 
 directed his attention more particularly to the study of ento- 
 mology. In order to study natural historj' more successfully, 
 he entered himself as a medical student in Paris, and was made 
 doctor of medicine in 1826. On this occasion he WTOte a thesis 
 upon the genus Cantharis, to which the common blistering fly 
 belongs. Two years before this, in conjunction with Dum.as and 
 Adolphe Brongniart, he had commenced editing the " Annales 
 des Sciences Xatiu-elles," and from 1824 he assisted Latrcille in 
 the chair of entomology at the Museum. About the same time
 
 he was made sub-librarian of the Institute. In 1827 he mamed 
 a daughter of Alexandre Brongniart. In 1832 the Entomolo- 
 gical Society of France was founded. He became the first pre- 
 sident, and continued so for many years. In 1833 he succeeded 
 Latreille in the chair of entomology. In 1837 he was appointed 
 by the government to investigate the nature of the insect which 
 was at that time devastating the vineyards of France. The result 
 of tliis mission was the publication of a series of papers on this sub- 
 ject, embracing the natural history of the insect, and suggestions 
 for its destruction. These were published in the " Comptes 
 rendus de I'Academie des Sciences," in the " Annales des Sciences 
 Naturelles," and in the " Transactions of the French Entomolo- 
 gical Society." These researches fonned the basis of a great 
 work, which was published in Paris after the death of Audouin, 
 entitled "Histoh-e des Insects Kuisible a la \-igne et particu- 
 liercment de la pyrale, qui devaste les vignobles," &c. This 
 work was beautifully illustrated, and pubUshed in parts. The 
 latter parts were edited by llilne Edwards and W. Blanchard. 
 Although Audouin is principally known as an entomologist, he 
 by no means confined his attention to this particular branch of 
 science, and, perhaps, liis great reputation as an entomologist 
 depended as much on a general knowledge of the principles of 
 physiologj' and classification as his acquaintance with the forms 
 of insect life. He pubhshed several works in conjunction with 
 Milne Edwards. Several of these were devoted to the anatomy 
 and physiology of the Cnistacea. A more general work by these 
 two celebrated authors, was entitled " Researches on the natm'al 
 history of the shores of France," Paris, 1830. Audouin was 
 distinguished for the abiUty with which he apphed his ento- 
 mological knowledge to practical purposes. At the time the 
 silkwoims of France were sufteiing from the attacks of a peculiar 
 fungus, this disease was investigated by Audouin, and he produced 
 a work on it, entitled '' Anatomical and Physiological Researches 
 upon a contagious disease wliich attacks silkworms, and which 
 is ordinarily called ' muscardine.' " He published a gi-eat num- 
 ber of papers on entomology in the " Transactions of the French 
 Entomological Society," and also contributed various articles to 
 the " Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Naturelle," the " Dic- 
 tionnaire Universel d"Histou-e Naturelle," and the English " Cy- 
 clopaedia of .Anatomy and Physiology." — (Kouvelle BiograjMe 
 UnicerselkJ) — E. L. 
 
 AUDOUIN DE GERONVAL, Maurice Ernest, a French 
 Utterateur, was bom at Paris in 1802, and died in 1839. He 
 published historical and pohtical essays, some papers on agricul- 
 ture, and a few works of imagination. 
 
 AUDOUIN, Pierre, a distinguished French engraver of 
 modciTi times. A pupil of Beauverlet ; he executed several of 
 the best illustrations to the " Musee du Louvre," edited by 
 Laurent. He was born in Paris in 1768, died in 1822. 
 
 AUDOUL, Gaspard, an advocate of the parliament of Paris, 
 and member of the council of the duke of Orleans, was a native 
 of Provence. His "Traite de 1' Origine de la Ri'gale et des 
 Causes de son etablLssement," 1708, was condemned by a brief 
 of the pope in 1710. 
 
 AUDOVERE, wife of Chilperic, king of France, died about 
 the year 580. See Chilperic. 
 
 AUDRA, Joseph, a French abb^, professor of liistory and 
 philosophy at Toulouse, was bom at Lyons in 1 7 1 4. He published, 
 in 1770, an abridgment of Voltaire's " Essai sur les Jleem's," 
 which drew down on bim the censure of his ecclesiastical superiors. 
 Died in the same year. 
 
 AUDRADUS, called also MODICUS, chorepiscopus, or 
 rural bishop of Sens, bom about the beginning of the ninth 
 centurj', died about the year 854. He adopted the character of 
 a prophetic visionaiy, and wrote an account of his visions, and a 
 poem entitled " Fons Vita;." 
 
 AUDRAN. The name of several celebrated engravers of 
 Lyons during the seventeenth century. Amongst the eight 
 members of this highly distinguished family, Jea^j and Ger- 
 ard stand foremost. They reproduced a large number of the 
 best paintings by the leading artists of their time. Gerard, 
 especially, is considered as ha\Tng been the greatest historical 
 engraver of France during the whole centur)'. 
 
 AUDliAN, Prosper Gabriel, a distinguished Hebraist, 
 bom at ParU in 1744. He was for some years a judicial mem- 
 ber of the civic court of Paris, but resigned that situation in 
 1784. He published a Hebrew grammar in 1805, and a griun- 
 mai- of Arabic in 1818. Died m 1819. 
 
 AUDREIN, Yves JIarie, a French ecclesiastic and politician, 
 deputy to the legislative assembly from Jlorbiliau, belonged to 
 the revolutionary party, and voted for the execution of the king. 
 He was murdered in 1800, while on his way to Quimper, of 
 which he had just been appointed bishop. 
 
 AUDREN DE KERDREL, Jean Maure, a French Bene- 
 dictine monk, author of a "History of Brittany;" died at 
 Marmoutier in 1725. 
 
 AUDRICHI, Everardo, an Italian philologist and anti- 
 quai-ian, lived towards the middle of the eigliteenth century. 
 
 AUDRY, AUDRI, or ALDRIC, Saint, was bom m 755, 
 and died in 840. He was of noble family, and succeeded his 
 friend Jeremie as archbishop of Sens in 829. 
 
 * AUDRY DE PUYRAVEAU, Pierre Francois, a French 
 politician, who played a conspicuous part in the revolution of 
 1830, was bom atPuyraveau in 1783. His immense storehouse 
 in Palis was the head-quai-ters of the msui-gents, and almost 
 his entu-e property was risked in their hands. His energy and 
 decision detennined the success of the movement at a moment 
 when the plans of its leaders had fallen mto ominous confusion. 
 He was a member of the constituent assembly in 1848, but has 
 since retired from pubhc hfe. 
 
 AUDUBON, John James, the distinguished American omi- 
 thologist, was born in Louisiana about 1780. His parents, 
 who were of French origin, and in we.ilthy cuxumstances, sent 
 liim to Paris to finish liis education, ar d he there studied design 
 under the painter David. After his ritmn to America, Audu- 
 bon's father presented him with a lar^'c and valuable plantation ; 
 he man-ied, and might have Uved a Ui' • of ease and comfort m 
 the bosom of a happy domestic circle ; but it was the nature of 
 Audubon to fiind home in the mireclaimed sohtudes of his native 
 continent, and companions in the wUd denizens of the prairie 
 and forest. A passion for free nature had gro\vn with his growth 
 and strengthened with his strength ; and the study of bu-ds had, 
 beyond everything else, an iiTesistible charm for him. Audubon 
 began to devote his Ufe to the ornithology of North America. For 
 years he saw httle of his famUy, and spent many consecutive 
 months m long and quite soUtary journeys through the untrodden 
 wildernesses, not even retummg to shelter and civiUzation for 
 the purpose of sketching the objects of his pursuit, but execut- 
 ing those coloured designs wMch have since become so famous, 
 on the spot where the originals were obtained, and where the 
 proper environment for each subject was immediately under 
 his eye. Hence the wonderfid fidefity and lifelike truth, not 
 only of Audubon's bird-portraits, but of the accessories in 
 each pictm-e. These excursions, commencing about 1810, were 
 continued during fifteen years, liis family residence having been 
 latterly fixed at Henderson, a village on the Ohio. He was 
 doomed to lose the precious results of these fifteen years of ad- 
 venturous toil. Ha\-ing gone to Pliiladelphia with two hundred 
 drav^ings, representing one thousand dift'erent bu'ds, he deposited 
 them iu the house of a relative, and left the city for some weeks. 
 He returned to find his drawmgs destroyed by rats. A severe^nd 
 lengthened fever was the consequence of this heavy blow ; but 
 Audubon had physical and mental elasticity enough to recover 
 from the shock. He agaui shouldered his fowUng-piece, and 
 resmncd his former mode of life. After four years and a half 
 of umnteiTupted devotion to his purpose, the damage was made 
 good, and the naturaUst was again in a position to impart the 
 fruits of his labour to the world. Finding, however, that pro- 
 per facilities for bringing cut the extensive and costly publica- 
 tion wliieh he had in view, could not be afforded hun in his native 
 country, Audubon, in the year 1826, came over to England, 
 where, as in France, he was received with the utmost distinction 
 by men of the highest rank in science. The engravers were now 
 set to work; and about the close of 1830 appeared at London 
 the first volume of " The Birds of America," iu foho, containing 
 a himdred coloured plates, each subject being represented of life- 
 size. The kings of England and France had placed their names 
 at the head of his fist of subscribers. It was not till the year 
 1839, eleven years subsequently to the pubHcation of the first 
 volume, that the appearance of the fomth and last completed 
 this splendid work, which contauis in all 1005 figures of birds. 
 Audubon had, me;mwhile, crossed and recrossed the Atlantic 
 several times, alternately superintending the issue of his " Bu"ds 
 of America," and adding, by new and more extended labours 
 in his old field, to the materials he had already collected. 
 Parallel with the pubUcation of the volumes of plates at Lon-
 
 don, had proceeded at Edinburgli the issue of the necessary 
 complement to these, the "Ornithological Biography, or an 
 account of the habits of the Birds of the United States of 
 America, accompanied by a description of the objects represented 
 in the vrork entitled 'The Bhds of America,'" the first volume 
 of which appeared in 1831, the fifth and last in 1839. 
 
 The same year Audubon retrnmed finally to Ms native country; 
 not yet, however, to lead a life of repose. He now, along with 
 his two sons, and two other companions, undertook a series of 
 excursions, which resulted in his work entitled " Quadrupeds of 
 America," published at Pliiladelphia between the years 184G 
 and 1850, and accompanied, as in the case of the " Birds," by 
 a parallel issue of " Biographies," a title which, as apphed by 
 Audubon to his descriptions of the favourite objects of his 
 study, serves to indicate the dignity wdth which these objects 
 were invested in his eyes, and the almost human interest 
 with •which they inspired him. These "Biographies" are sin- 
 gidarly entertaining, full of the romance of that wild and 
 solitary life which enabled him to compUe them. Audubon 
 died in 1851.— A. M. 
 
 AUENBRUGGER or AVENBRUGGER D'AUENBURG, 
 Leopold, a German physician, bom at Graetz, in Styria, in 1722 ; 
 died at Vienna in 1708. He appears to have been one of the 
 first to employ percussion as a means of detecting diseases of the 
 chest. He is the authov of a work entitled " Inventiira novum 
 ex pcrcnssione thorac!.s hui>';ani, ut signo, abstrusos intemi pec- 
 toris morbos detegendi," Vienna, 1761. 
 
 AUER, Anthony, a Bavarian artist, distinguished as a 
 painter on porcelain, bom at Munich in 1777, and died 1814. 
 
 AUER, Paul Johann, a German painter of liistory and 
 landscape, bom at Nuremberg in 1638, died in 1687. 
 
 * AUERBACH, Berthold, a veiy able and popular Ger- 
 man writer of the present day, of Je\vish extraction, a native of 
 the Wiirtemberg district of the Schwarzwald, or Black Forest. 
 The fame of Auerbach, who has translated into German the works 
 of Spinoza, rests principally on his " Schwarzwiilder Dorf- 
 geschichten" (Village Stories from the Schwarzwald), of which 
 he has published more than one scries. Some of the " Dorf- 
 geschichten" have been translated into English, and have at- 
 tracted a certain amount of attention, though not so much as 
 they deserve. These stories generally present very simple and 
 ordinary incidents of village hfe in the Schwarzwald, and the 
 characters are usually such as may eveiy day be met with among 
 the Gennan peasantry. But the genius of Auerbach is sho«m 
 in the deep significance whicli he attaches to scenes of humble 
 life, every-day occun-ences, and common people, and in the fasci- 
 nating interest with which, by vulue of his poetic insight, and a 
 very gi-acefid and pleasing style, he contrives to invest them 
 for the reader. As he gi-asps inner character more than outward 
 form, his " Village Stories," while they frequently put before us 
 exquisitely touched idyls of Gennan country life, lise clear above 
 the level of mere sketches of manners and costume, and belong to 
 that class of poetic creations which deal with the universal tniths 
 of human nature. In " Liebe Menschen," the longest story in 
 his little volume, entitled " Deutsche Abende," Auerbach tries 
 another scene and different characters ; for he styles this " an 
 idyl of the cultivated world." But he is more successful in the 
 hamlet than in the city. The " Schatkiistlein des Gevatters- 
 mannes" is a collection of stories from the " Volkskalcnder" 
 (Popular Almanack), edited by Auerbach. His latest produc- 
 tion was published in the present year, and is entitled " Bar- 
 fiissele" (The Barefooted Maid). This finely conceived and 
 beautifully told story is drawn from that source which Auerbach 
 seems to find so inexhaustible, the Schwarzwald. — A. M. 
 
 AUERBACH, JoiiANN GoDFUKY, a GeiTnan portrait painter, 
 bom 1697, became court-painter at Viomia, and died 1753. 
 
 AUERSPERG, Princes and Counts, of an Austrian family in 
 possession of princely estates in the Carniole. The reigning 
 prince, Charles, bom 1814, succeeded his father in 1827. 
 
 AUFFMANN, Joseph Anton Xaver, a German musi- 
 cian, organist at Kempsten, published, in 1754, three concertos 
 for the organ : " Triplus concertus harmonious." 
 
 AUFF1!.\Y, FuAN^'ois, a French pnct of the beginning of 
 the seventeenth centiuy, canon of Saint Brieuc. 
 
 AUFFRAY, Jean, a voluminous writer on political economy, 
 was bom at Paris in 1733, and died in 1788. 
 
 AUFFSCHNAITER, Benedict Anton, a Gennan musician, 
 lived at the commencement of the eighteenth century. 
 
 AUFIDIA GENS, a plebeian ftxmily of republican Rome; 
 the following members of which may be mentioned : — 
 
 AuFiDius Cnius, jurist, a contemporary of Atilicinus. 
 
 AiiFiDius Cneius, tribune in the year 170 B.C. 
 
 AuFiDius Sextus lived about the middle of the century 
 before Christ. 
 
 AuFiDius Cn., quEestor in 119, and tribune in 114 c.c. 
 
 A tribune of the name of Cn. Aufidius is mentioned by 
 PHny.— J. S., G. 
 
 AUFIDIUS, Titus, sometimes erroneously classed among 
 the Roman jurists, was quaestor in the year 84 B.C., and subse- 
 quently became pra?tor of Asia. Though he spoke but little in 
 public, he was ambitious of being ranked among the gi-eat ora- 
 tors of his day. Cicero allowed that he possessed the virtues of 
 a citizen, but not the qualities of an orator. 
 
 AUFIDIUS, Titus, a Sicilian physician, who lived in the 
 first century B.C. He was a pupil of Asclepiades, and is gener- 
 ally supposed to be the same person called by Coclius Aurelianus, 
 sunply Titus. He is said to have been the author of a work on 
 the soul, entitled " De Anima," and another on chronic diseases. 
 
 AUFRERE, Anthony, an English scholar, bom in 1756 ; 
 died at Pisa, 29th November, 1833. At an early age he 
 evinced a great taste for Gennan literature, which was not, at 
 that period, so much studied in England as at present. He 
 published the following translations from the Gennan : — 1. 
 " A tribute to the memory of Ulric von der Hutten," from 
 Goethe, 1789 ; 2. " Travels through the kingdom of Naples," 
 by Salis Marschlius, 1795, in 8vo ; 3. "A warning to Britons 
 against French Perfidy and Craelty, or, a short account of the 
 treacherous and inhuman conduct of the French officers and 
 soldiers towards the peasants of Suabia, during the invasion of 
 Germany in 1796, selected from well-authenticated German 
 pubhcations," 1798, 8vo. Aufrere also echted the " Lockhart 
 Letters," 2 vols. 4to, and was a frequent contributor to the 
 " Gentleman's Magazine." 
 
 AUFRERI, Etienne, an eminent French jurist, who lived 
 at Toulouse in the end of the fifteenth and the first half of the 
 sixteenth centm-y. He was author of a number of legal trea- 
 tises, reprinted in Ziletti's collection, entitled " Tractatus universi 
 Juris in unum congesti." 
 
 AUFRESNE, Jean Rival, a celebrated actor, bom at 
 Geneva in 1720 ; died at Petersburg in 1806. He was the son 
 of a watchmaker, named Rival, in Geneva, a man of literaiy 
 tastes and habits, and a friend of Rousseau and Voltaire. He is 
 mentioned by the former in his " Confessions." Aufresne par- 
 ticularly excelled in his representation of the piincipal chai-acters 
 in the tragedies of Corncille. 
 
 AUFSESZ, Barons d', a very ancient German family, so 
 called fi'om the castle of Aufsesz, situated near Bamberg, where 
 they possessed most extensive domains. The title of vice- 
 gi-and-cupbearer of the empire was hereditary in that family, 
 which is now divided into many branches. 
 
 AUGARON, Jacques, a French surgeon, who lived about 
 the middle of the sixteenth century. He is known as the author 
 of a work entitled " Discom's sur la curation des arquebusades 
 et autres plaies," Paris, 1577, in 4to. 
 
 AUGE, D^VNiEL d', sometimes called Augetius or Augen- 
 Tius, (the Latin fomi of his name,) a French philologist and 
 man of letters, was born at Villoneuve-l'archevr'(|ue, in the dio- 
 cese of Sens in Champagne, about the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century, and died about the year 1595. He was tutor to the 
 son of Francois Olivier, chancellor of France, and subsequently 
 became professor of the Greek language in the university of 
 Paris. Among his published works, which are very numerous, 
 the following have been esteemed the principal : — " Institution 
 d'un prince cbretien, traduite du Grec de Synoso," Paris, 1555, 
 in 8vo ; " Deux Dialogues de I'invention poetiqne, de la vraje 
 cognoissance de I'art oratoire, et de la fiction de la fable," Paris, 
 15G0, in 8vo ; " Oraison consolatoire sur la mort de mcssire 
 Francois Olivier, chaucclier do France, h Madame Antoine de 
 Ccrisy, sa femme," Paris, 1560, in 8vo ; "Oraison fun6bre de 
 Francois Olivier," Paris, 1560, in 8vo. — G. M. 
 
 AUGEARD, Jac<juks->Lvtiiieu or N., a French financier, 
 bom at Bordeaux in 1731 ; died at Paris in 1805. He was 
 fanner-general and '■'■ seaxtnire des cnmmandenx ns" to the Queen 
 Marie Antoinette, and, as he was devoted in his attachment to 
 the royal family, he became an object of suspicion to the repub- 
 lican party. IJcing accused of a design to aid in the escape of
 
 Loiiis X\^I., lie was arrested, and brought before the Chatelct, 
 but, after a strict examination, was acquitted. After tlie aiTcst 
 of the king at Varennes, he retired to Brussels, and did not re- 
 turn to France until some time after the 18th I3rumau-e, 1799. 
 He left behind him mcmou's of the intrigues of the comi from 
 1771 to 1775, but these have never been published. He left 
 also, it is said, many valuable manuscripts relating to finance. 
 
 AUGEARD, Mathieu, a French jurist, born about the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century, died 27th December, 1751. 
 In 1710, 1713, and 1718, he pubHshed three volumes of a col- 
 lection entitled " Arrets notables des differents tribunaiLx du 
 royaume," in 4to, fomiing part of the " Journal du Palais." 
 
 AUGENIO, Orazio, a physician and philosopher, born at 
 Monte Santo Castello, in Ilomagna, about 1527 ; died at Padua 
 in 1C03. He published a gi-cat number of works on medical 
 subjects. Many of these have been collected and republished 
 under the title of "Opera omnia," Frankfort, 1597 and 1G07. 
 
 AUGER, ATHiVNASE, Abbu, a French writer, bom at Paris, 
 12th December, 1734 ; died 7th Febniary, 1792. He, for some 
 time, occupied the chau- of rhetoric in the college of Rouen. Be- 
 sides a great number of translations from the Greek, Auger pub- 
 lished the following original works : — " Projet d'Education Pub- 
 lique, precede de quelques Reflexions sur I'Assemblee Nation- 
 ale," 1789, in 8vo ; "De la Constitution des Remains sous les 
 Eois et au temps de la Eepublique." 
 
 AUGER, Edmond, a French Jesuit, 1530-1591. Appre- 
 hended at Valence, he was sentenced by the Baron des Ardrets 
 to be hanged. He was placed upon the ladder, and such was 
 the eifect of what was intended to be his d3-ing speech, that a 
 Huguenot minister interfered and saved him from death. He 
 published several works, wliich will be found enmnerated in the 
 Bib. Script. Soc. Jes. 1676. 
 
 AUGER, Louis Simon, a critic and litterateur, bom 29th 
 December, 1772, and died January, 1829. Auger was of very 
 himible origin, and forms one of the not very numerous ex- 
 amples of men attaining to gi-eat eminence in literatm-e, in 
 spite of the mediocrity of then- genius. Auger, in the begin- 
 ning, mistook his bent, and sm-prised even hunself in the act 
 of attempting the ^ivacity of the vaudeville, and other hght 
 pieces, at the very time when he was conscious he was, if any- 
 thing, a very grave critic. Discovering his mistake, he turned 
 to criticism and journalism, taking a part in the " Decade 
 Philosophique," " Journal de I'Empu-e," and " Jom-nal General 
 de France." This naturally led him into qnan-els, and his bit- 
 ter contests with such men as Jouy and Constant were not 
 favom-able to one naturally pompous even without \-ictoi7. He 
 wrote many critical works, some of which were prized by the 
 Institute ; was censor under Louis XVIII., and perpetual secre- 
 tary of the Academy. His death was extraordinary. He left 
 one night the bosom of a happy family, and drowned himself in 
 the Seine, without leaving a word of explanation. — A. L. 
 
 AUGEREAU, Ai^toine, better known by his Latinized 
 name, Augurellus, — a famous printer, whose works date from 
 1531 to 1544. 
 
 AUGEREAU, Pierre FRAN901S CHARLES,duke of Castig- 
 lione, and marshal (rf France, one of the remarkable characters 
 to which the French Revolution gave prominence, was the son 
 of a fmiterer, and born at Paris, November 11, 1757. He was 
 from his youth a soldier ; having first entered a regiment of 
 French carbineers, and subsequently the Neapohtan anny. When 
 his countrjTnen were ordered to depart from Italy, he joined the 
 forces of the Revolution intended to act against Spain ; and 
 soon rose to the rank of adjutant- general. In 1794 he began 
 to distinguish himself by deeds of braveiy and daruig, taking on 
 one occasion a foundiy from the enemy, and on another rescuing 
 a brother officer, who, with his division, was in imminent dan- 
 ger. He now proceeded to Italy, and in high command, became 
 one of Napoleon Bonaparte's most conspicuous paladins. In 
 1796 he won tlie passes of Millesimo; at Dcgo, he was equally 
 serviceable ; and it was ho, who, at the head of liis own brigade, 
 stonned tlie bridge of Lodi. He aftenvards took Bologna, and 
 acquued for himself" a name, ever to be execrated, by the bnital 
 crimes wliich he permitted his soldiers to perjjetrate at Lugo. 
 AVhen Napoleon afterwards began to pause, amidst his veiy suc- 
 cesses, at the enormous armies which the court of Vienna de- 
 spatched to Italy, it was Augcrcau who counselled advance instead 
 of retreat ; and to him Napoleon owed the victory of Castiglione, 
 and the still more biilliant success at the bridge of Arcole. 
 
 Amidst the conflicts of faction, Augereau, having been sent by 
 Napoleon to Paris, became military commander of the capital 
 and led the coup d'etat, or revolution of Fructidor, by which the 
 enemies of the Directoiy were seized and overthrown. Ap- 
 pointed to the command of the army on the German frontier, he 
 became so wildly democratic, that the DLrectory displaced him, 
 and sent him to Perpignan. He refused to assist Napoleon in 
 the revolution which preceded the consulate and the empire. 
 He took no share in the campaign of ]\Iarengo ; but in 1805, 
 being made a marshal, he commanded the forces which reduced 
 the Voralberg. He was conspicuous at Jena (October 15, 
 1806), and was with Napoleon at Berlin. In the winter cam- 
 paign which followed he lost his health ; yet he commanded 
 the French left at Eylau (Februaiy 6, 1807), where the car- 
 nage was horrible, advancing amidst a thick snow-storm, and 
 retrie\'ing, by his energy, the wi'ong direction which his division 
 had taken, blinded by the tempest. In 1809 and 1810, he 
 commanded the French in Catalonia, displaying the same cruelty 
 at Hostahich and Gerona wliich he had manifested at Lugo. 
 He did not take part in the Russian campaign of 1812, but was 
 left at Berlin to form a corps of resen-e. He was in the great 
 "fight of the nations" at Leipsic (October IGth, 17th, and 
 18th, 1813), and in 1814 was at Lyons, as the head-quarters 
 of the army destined to repel the march of the Austrians from 
 that dii-ection on the caf)ital. Yielding to superior numbers, 
 he rethed to the south, and displaying little attachment to 
 Napoleon, he acknowledged the Bom-bons, retained his honom's, 
 and became a peer. Dm-ing the celebrated " hundred days " of 
 
 1815, he remained in privacy; but on the retm-n of Louis 
 XVIIL, he again assumed a public station, and as the last act 
 of an eventfid life, voted for the condemnation of liis brother 
 soldier. Marshal Ney, to an ignominious death. This deed the 
 French have never forgiven him. He died of dropsy in June, 
 
 1816. He was essentially a soldier — brave, daring, and unscni- 
 pulous ; one of the men to whom faction gives prominence, and 
 revolution, power. — T. J. 
 
 AUGHUN, Khan, an enlightened and beneficent prince, the 
 fom-th sovereign of Persia of the f;iinily of Jenghis Khan, suc- 
 ceeded his uncle Nikudar in 1284, and died in 1291. 
 
 AUGIER-DUFOT, Anne-Amable, a French physician, 
 bom 1733, died 1775. He left several works, which will be 
 found described in Eloy's Diet. Hist, de la Medicine. 
 
 * AUGIER, Emile, a French dramatic writer, bom at Valence 
 (Drome), 17th September, 1820. His works, though at fii'st 
 disapproved by the Theatre-Fran9ais, came to be of repute, and 
 " Gabrielle," perhaps the best of them, was marked by the 
 favour of the Academy. 
 
 AUGIER, Jean Baptiste, Baron, was bom at Boiirges, 
 27th January, 1769. The fervour of the Revolution drew him 
 from the profession of the law, and in 1793 he distinguished him- 
 self in defenduig Bitche, afterwards so celebrated as a depot for 
 English prisoners. Honom'ed by Napoleon, who made him a 
 baron, Augier repaid his master by advocating his deposition, 
 and received the order of St. Louis at the restoration in 1814. 
 He afterwards exerted himself to crush what he called the " com- 
 mon enemy," and was, in retmTi, rewarded by being made pre- 
 sident of the electoral college of St. Amand. — A. L. 
 
 AUGUILBERT, Theobald, an Irish physician, beginning of 
 sixteenth centmy. He wrote a strange book — a treatise on gas- 
 tronomy — " Mensa Philosophica," under the name of Michael 
 Scot, Paris (without date); Frankfort, 1602. — A. L. 
 
 AUGUIS, Pierre-Jean-Baptiste, a French magistrate, 
 bom 1742, died 1810. Beginning with arms, Auguis renounced 
 war for legislation. He was a magistrate at Melle, afterwards a 
 deputy, and a member of the Council of Ancients. He was re- 
 markable for his persecution of the terrorists. — A. L. 
 
 AUGUIS, Pierre Ren£, bom at Melle, 1786; died at 
 Paris, 1846 ; a French litteratem-. In 1814 be was imprisoned 
 for his part in some articles of the " Monitem-," reflecting upon 
 Louis XVIIL, and again in 1815, when he was confined 
 for two years. After the revolution of 1830, he was appouited 
 a deputy, and sat long on the benches of the opposition. 
 Auguis's works are on various subjects. He translated Steme's 
 " Sentimental Journey," and wrote " Histoke de Catharine II. 
 et de Paul I., son Fils," 1813; "Napoleon, la Revolution, la 
 famille des Bourbons," 1815; " L'ombre de Robespiei-re ; frag- 
 ment e]iique;" "Nouvelle Odyssee," poems, 1812. 
 
 AUGURELLI or AUGURELLO, poet, phUosopher, and
 
 AUG 
 
 281 
 
 AUG 
 
 chemist, bora at Einiini, 1454 ; died, 1537 ; famous for his per- 
 severing efforts ill search of the philosopher's stone, on which 
 subject he published a poem, in three books, called " Chrj'so- 
 poia," Venice, 1515. This poem he dedicated to Pope Leo X., 
 who, in return, made him a present of an empty purse of extra- 
 vagant dimensions, telling him that one who could make gold 
 could find no difBculty m tilhng it. His " Carmina " (Verona, 
 1491), have been inserted partly in " Grater's Dehcite Italonim 
 Poetarum," 1608. Augurelli was a man of genius; though de- 
 preciated by ScaUger, he was honoured by Bembo, who consulted 
 him for his taste in composition, which was marked by simphcity 
 and con'ectness. — A. L. 
 
 AUGURLNUS. This name was borne by several families of 
 ancient Kome. We notice the more eminent individuals : — 
 
 AuGURtxcs, Roman consul, 497 years B.C., famous for the 
 part he took in favour of Goriolanus, then in banishment. He 
 was one of those who went out to meet the hero on his return. 
 
 AuGUKixus, Lucius Mixucius, famous for having been 
 elected prefect of the corn market at the time of the di'eadful 
 scarcity, 439 B.C. All his efforts were ineffectual to save the people 
 from starvation and suicide ; but Spurius JIa»hus, a rich Roman 
 knight, came to his aid with a show of munificence which, how- 
 ever good for the people, was proved by Minucius to have been 
 only a device to veil his ambitious designs upon the republic. 
 i\Isehus was eventually slain, and ^Minucius distributed the corn 
 he had stored up, at a low price, to the famishing people. For 
 this he was rewarded by the gift of a bull -s^ith gilded horns, and 
 a statue. If Niebuhr is right in ■\'indicatmg the innocence of 
 Ma;hus, we have an example of injustice scarcely paralleled in 
 the excesses of a people. 
 
 AuGUKiNus, C. Minucius, a Roman tribune, 187 b.c, 
 chiefly remembered for having insisted that Scipio, the Asiatic, 
 should be fined, and give caution for the payment. Scipio 
 having refused, Augminus proposed that he should be put in 
 j'lison — an attempt opposed by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, 
 the father of the Gracchi. 
 
 AuGURLNUs, Sentius, a Roman poet. He was much be- 
 loved by Pliny the younger, who praised him as being one 
 of the greatest poets of his time. His poems bore the title 
 of " Poematia." — A. L. 
 
 AUGUSTA, Jan, a Bohemian theologian, born at Prague, 
 1500 ; died loth Januaiy, 1575. He studied under Waclaw- 
 Koranda, a famous professor among the Utraquists. Resorting 
 to AVittenberg, he became acquainted with Luther and llelanc- 
 thon, but neither of the two parties appears to have given up any 
 'ling to the other. Augusta, no doubt, left the sect of the 
 i traquists, but he did not embrace the opinions of Luther, who, 
 ill* thought, was more for doctrine tlian discipline. He became 
 line of the sect of Bohemian brethren, and was appointed a pas- 
 tor of the congregation of Leutoniysl. He made repeated at- 
 tempts at a junction of his church with the protestants, but in 
 vain, even if it may not be said that his good intentions brought 
 him into peiil,-- because the brethren, true to their feeling with the 
 protestants, resolved to withhold their assistance from King 
 Ferdinand in the war of Smalkald against the elector of 
 Saxony, and that monarch banished the sect from Bohemia, and 
 threw Augusta into prison at Prague, where he was three tunes 
 put to the rack. The charge agauist hun and his friends was, 
 that they had been plotting for a transference of the cro\vn from 
 Bohemia to S;ixony. He confessed nothing, and suffered hi 
 jiatience; nor was it till the death of FercUnand that he was 
 liberated. He wrote many works m Bohemian. His life was 
 written by Jan Blahoslaw. — A. L. 
 
 AUGUSTE, D'Udine, an Italian poet, bom at Udine in the 
 sixteenth centiuy. He was author of a work entitled " August! 
 Vatis Odse," which was published at Venice in 1529, in 4to. 
 
 AUGUSTENBURG, Christian Augustus, Duke of Schles- 
 wig-Holsteui, Sonderburg, and Augustenburg, was bom 9tli July, 
 1768. He was raised by Charles XIII. to the dignity of prince 
 royal of Sweden, under the name of Charles. On the 22nd 
 Januaiy, 1810, he made his public entry into Stockliolm, and 
 received the title of the adopted son of the king. He died on the 
 28th of Hay following, under suspicion of having been poisoned. 
 
 AUGUSTI, Friedricii ALBEitr, a protestant theologian, of 
 Jewish family, bom in 1G96 at Frankfort-on-the-Oder ; died 
 at Eschenberg in 1782, where he was pastor. He was converted 
 to Christianity in 1722, by Eeinhard, Lutheran superintendent 
 or bishop at Sondershausen. Among his works are the follow- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 uig: — "Dissertatio de adventus Christi necessitate, tempore 
 tcnipli secundi ;" Leipsic, 1794, 4to. " Dissertationes historico- 
 philosophiea;, in quibus Judseorum hodiernorum consuetudLnes. 
 mores, et ritus, tam in rebus sacris quam ci\Thbus exponuntur ;" 
 Gotha, 1753, 8vo.— A. M. 
 
 AUGUSTI, JoiiANN Christian Wiehei.m, gi-andson of the 
 preceding, was bom at Eschenberg m 1772, and died in 1841. 
 He studied at Jena, where he afterwards became professor of 
 Eastern languages. After being connected successively with 
 the universities of Breslau (1812), and of Bonn (1819), he was 
 appointed in 1828 consistorial councillor at Coblenz, where he 
 died. He has left — " Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der Christlichen 
 Archfeologie " (ilemorabUia in the domain of Chiistian Archceo- 
 logy), Leipsic, 1817-30 ; " The Handbook of Christian Archeo- 
 logy," published at Leipsic in 1836-37, is a later edition of the 
 same work. " Lehrbuch der Clu-isthchen Dogmengeschichte " 
 (Manual of the History of Chiistian Dogmas), Leipsic, 1805 and 
 1835. " Grundriss einer liistoiisch-kiitischen Eiuleitung ui das 
 Alte Testament " (Outlines of a historico-critical Introduction to 
 the Old Testament), Leutenberg, 1809.— A. M. 
 
 AUGUSTIN or AUGUSTIXO, sm-named the Venetian, an 
 engraver, pupil of Raunondi. Bom 1490 ; died in Rome about 
 1540. His plates, which are marked vrith an A and V on a 
 small tablet, are numerous, but do not equal his master's. 
 
 AUGUSTIN, Jean Baptiste-Jacques, a French painter 
 of miniature and enamel of modern times. He began his career 
 in Paris in 1781, when, self-taught and free from aU the 
 vagaries of the Rococo and Boucher style, he completely aston- 
 ished the pubhc by the sunplicity and truthfulness of his por- 
 traits. Equally patronized dming the Empire and the Restora- 
 tion, he closed his life iu Paris 1832, aged seventy-three. 
 
 AUGUSTDsE, Saint, or AUGUSTINUS, Aurelius, the 
 most eminent of the Latui fathers, the founder of the Western 
 theology, and the greatest of theologians, was bom on the 13th 
 of November, in the year 354, at Tagaste in Numidia, now 
 called Tajelt. His fathpr, Patricius, a man of rank though 
 poor, embraced Chiistianity late in life, and died when his 
 son was seventeen years of age. His son tells us that he 
 was a man of violent temper, but at the same time of a kindly 
 disposition ; and he specially records that he never beat liis 
 wife, a circumstance which excited the wonder of surroimding 
 matrons, whose husbands, though far less passionate than Pa- 
 tricius, frequently left the marks of blows on their persons; 
 and which, he says, was to be accounted for by the fact, 
 that she never resisted him when angry, but would wait for a 
 fitting opportunity and then brmg him to reason. This excel- 
 lent person, Monnica by name, was a model of gentleness and 
 %irtue, the child of Christian parents, and, from her youth up, 
 accustomed to Hve under the influence of Cluistian principles. 
 As her patience and gentleness were rewarded by her gahiing her 
 husband to embrace Chiistianity, so to her son she acted the 
 part of a kind and wise and watchful mother, seeking to imbue 
 his mind from the outset with rehgious tmth, and to train him 
 in the ways of piety and vh-tue. For a time, however, it ap- 
 peared as if her care had been bestowed in vain ; Uke many a 
 pious mother besides, she had to go through the severe discipline 
 of seeing her child apparently hastening to ruin before she was 
 permitted to reap the reward of her anxieties and her labours, 
 in seeing him enter decidedly the paths of virtue and goodness. 
 The hot passions which he inherited from his father, and which 
 his father had done little, either by precept or example, to 
 induce him to check, hunied him, while still a youth, into 
 many follies and excesses, of which he himself gives a -v-ind pic- 
 ture in his Confessions. Meanwhile, howe\er, his mtellcctual 
 culture was going forward. He tells us he loved the Latin 
 authors, but hated the Greek, — a cu-cumstance, he says, he never 
 could fully account for, but which, with much naivete he adds, 
 was probably owing to the difficulty of learning the Greek, to 
 him a foreign language, and to the harshness of his teacher, 
 who enforced liis lessons "saevis ten-oribus ac pccnis," with 
 savage teiToi-s and punishments. His first school was at Ma- 
 daura, whence he was removed to Cai-thage, wherc, notwith- 
 standing his sensual indulgences, he applied himself with charac- 
 teristic vigour to the study of eloquence and philosophy. The 
 perasal of Cicero's treatise entitled " Hortensius," in his nine- 
 teenth year, first awakened him to a nobler state of being than 
 he had hitherto aimed at. The study also of Aristotle's Cate- 
 gories, whieli, savs he, "solus apud meipsum legens cognoveram," 
 
 2N
 
 AUG 
 
 282 
 
 AUG 
 
 exerted a potent and beneficial eft'ect upon his mind. This 
 treatise he read in his twentieth year ; and about the same time he 
 mastered, by his own eftbrts, " omncs hbros artium quos liberales 
 ^■ocant," including, apparently, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arith- 
 metic, and music. He now became impelled by a love of truth 
 to pursue his studies, having before only aspu'ed to be an adroit 
 master of words. With this, however, was mixed up much of 
 carnal pride and self-conceit, which led him to despise the 
 scriptmx's for tlieir simplicity, and paved the way for his em- 
 bracuig the doctrines of the JIanicheans. He was attracted to 
 these by their offering to his ardent thirst for knowledge a pre- 
 tended solution of the great problems which arise out of our 
 spiritual relations ; and so strong was the hold which they took 
 upon him, that he remained for ten years in the condition of a 
 student of them, aspii'ing to be i-eceived into the number of the 
 elect, to whom all mysteries were supposed to be revealed. 
 During this period he was engaged in teaching grammar and 
 rhetoric, first in his native place, afterwards at Cai-thage. In 
 his twenty-sixth or twenty-seventh year he composed his first 
 work, a treatise " Do Pulchro et Apto," (On the Beautiful and 
 Befitting) ; tliis is lost, and indeed seems to have been so in its 
 author's lifetime, for he says in his Confessions that he cannot 
 tell whether it was in two books or three, and that it had gone 
 from him he knew not how. 
 
 Various circumstances conspired to detach Augustine from 
 the Slanichean party. He was disappointed in the teacher 
 whose instructions he attended, a person named Faustus, whose 
 eloquence for a whUe concealed his ignorance, but coidd not 
 permanently hide it from the scrutiny of such an observer as 
 Augustine. He was much influenced also by a disputation held 
 at Carthage against the Blaniclieans by one Helpidius, in which 
 the latter brought fonvard so many things concerning the scrip- 
 tures which his opponents could not meet, that Augustine longed 
 to confer seriously with some one who was learned in these 
 writings. Still he ilid not fonnally break off at this time from the 
 Manicheans ; he knew but very imperfectly the system of Chiis- 
 tian trath, and did not believe that his difficulties could be solved 
 by embracing it ; and his mind appears to have been tossed upon 
 a sea of doubts amidst an almost unmitigated darkness. In 
 this state of mind, and sorely against the wishes of his mother, 
 he went to Rome, bemg disgusted with the license of the stu- 
 dents in Carthage, who seem to have behaved with the utmost 
 iTidencss and indecency. Whilst at Rome he was seized with a 
 dangerous fever whUe resident in the house of an adherent of tlie 
 Manichean sect, dming which his mind was in gi-eat distress, 
 but more than ever turned against Christianity. After his 
 recoveiy he taught rhetoric for some time at Rome, all the time 
 seeking to make himself better acquainted with the doctrmes of 
 the Manicheans and to test theu- validity. He had soon occasion 
 to find that the students at Rome were, in principle, no better 
 than those at Carthage, though theu- outward beha\'iour might 
 be more courteous; and he accordingly availed himself of a 
 request from Milan to the prefect of the city to send a master 
 of rhetoric to that town, to offer himself as a candidate for that 
 appointment. He was successful in his application, and went 
 to Milan with a diploma from the prefect. Here he came under 
 the influence of Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a man of eminence 
 alike for his piety and his eloquence. To him Augustine was 
 attracted in the first instance by his kindness to him. " The 
 man of God," says he, " received me like a father, and loved the 
 stranger Uke a true bishop. And I began to love him, at first 
 indeed not as a teacher of the truth, which I had no hope of 
 then finding in the church, but as a man who had been kind to 
 me." He became an assiduous attendant on Ambrose's ministry, 
 not, as he confi'sses, from any great interest he took in the mat- 
 ter of his discourses, but because he was delighted with the 
 elegance and suavity of his style, and, as a teacher of rhetoric, 
 wislied to study him as a master of oratory. Gradually, how- 
 ever, he found that there was something beyond the mere elocu- 
 tion of the preacher desen-ing his attention. He felt convinced 
 that the Christian faith could, in many points, be successfully 
 defended against the Manicheans, and at length he was- brought 
 to renounce his adherence to that sect. At this time, however, 
 his mind was in anythmg but a settled state : he was in fact 
 neither a Manichean nor a Christian ; and though he became a 
 catechumen, and so placed himself under Christian instruction, 
 he was in reality a scejitic, " in doubt about all things, and fluc- 
 tuating from one tldng to another through all." Still he adopted 
 
 the wise expedient of thoroughly exploring the Christian doc- 
 trine, if, haply, he might find a resting-place m it for his intel- 
 lect and heart ; he was a diligent bearer of Ambrose, from whom 
 he imbibed, mth much readiness, the maxim often enunciated 
 by him, " The letter kiUeth, but the spirit giveth fife ; " but he 
 demanded a cei-tainty of conviction before he would embrace 
 Christianity, which the nature of the case did not admit — a 
 mathematical certainty, such as we have for the beUef that 
 " seven and three are ten ; " and, consequently, he still remained 
 in doubt and pei-plexity, like a man afraid of falling over a 
 precipice should he advance. He seems at this time also to 
 have been still mider the influence of those sensual lusts which 
 had t}Tannized over him at an earlier period of his life, and to 
 have led a life by no means pure. He was helped to a healthier 
 state of mind by the perusal, through means of a Latin transla- 
 tion, of several treatises of Plato and the Platonists, which, says 
 he, " enkindled within me an incredible conflagi-ation." The 
 effect of these on his mind was to counteract the materializing 
 tendency of Manicheism, and to prepare him for the reception of 
 the spiritualities of Christianity. Platonism of itself could not 
 satisfy liim ; he rested in it for a while ; but ere long found that it 
 was not adequate to his inner needs ; it taught him to seek " in- 
 corporeal verity," and helped hmi " to prattle as if he were a pro- 
 ficient," but it could not satisfy the conscience nor pm-ify the heart. 
 " I was puffed up," says he, " with knowledge ; for where was 
 that charity which buildeth on the foundation of humiUty, which 
 foundation is Christ Jesus ? or how could these books teach me 
 it ? " Kein\-igorated, however, by his Platonic studies, he turned 
 with fresh ardom- to the perusal of scriptm-e, and especially to 
 the epistles of St. Paul. These he read with a mind gradually 
 opening to divine truth, and gi-owing into a conformity to the 
 mould of docti-uie therein taught ; and to this, aided by the 
 teaching of Ambrose and the conversations of SimpHcian, a 
 presbyter of the church at Milan, his ultimate conversion to 
 Christianity is to be instrumentally ascribed. Having, after 
 many struggles, and as the result of grave defiberation, resolved 
 publicly to profess himself a Christian, he was baptized by 
 Ambrose on the 25th of April, A.D. 307. A friend and fellow- 
 townsman, named Alypius, and bis natiural son Adeodatus, born 
 whilst he was pursuing his studies at Carthage, were bap- 
 tized along with him. His motlier ]\Ionnica, to whom he had 
 conveyed the news of his conversion, was present at this cere- 
 mony, having hastened from Africa on purpose ; to her it was 
 an occasion of joy and exultation, when her moiu-ning was turned 
 into gladness, and a full reward for all her Lnstractions, anxieties, 
 and prayers, was pom-ed into her bosom. As if the great end 
 of her life was now gained, she did not long suiTive this event. 
 Her son having resolved to return with her to Africa, she was 
 taken ill during her journey at Ostia, on the banks of the Tiber, 
 and died there after a short illness in the fifty-sixth year of 
 her age. 
 
 After her death Augustine remained some time at Rome, where 
 he composed his treatises "De^Moribus Ecclesire Catholicas; " " De 
 Moribus Manichivoi-um ;" " De quantitate Anima; ; " and"De 
 Libero Arbitrio ; " the last of which, however, was not completed 
 till some years aftenvards. He had pre^'iously, whilst at Milan, 
 written his treatises " Contra Academicos ; " " De Ordine;" and 
 " De Immortalitate Anima;." After spending some time in 
 Rome, Augustine returned in the year 388 to Tagaste, where he 
 sold the remains of his paternal property, and gave the proceeds 
 to the poor. The next three years he spent in reth-ement, de- 
 voting himself to devotional exercises, and to the composition of 
 his treatises " De Genesi contra Manichajos;" "De Musica;" 
 " De Magistro ; " and " De Vera Religione." In the year 391 
 he was, somewhat against his own wishes, ordained a presbyter 
 by Valerian, bishop of Hippo ; and, after some time devoted to 
 the study of Scripture as a preparative for his work, he entered 
 upon the public discharge of the duties of his office. Though 
 much immersed in these, he still found time for the exercise of 
 his pen, and it is to this period of his fife that we owe his tract 
 " De utilitate credendi," and two treatises in confutation of the 
 Manicheans. He also wrote at this time his discourse upon the 
 Creed (" De Fide et Symbolo"), which was delivered as an 
 address before the councU of Hippo, held a.d. 393. Two years 
 subsequent to this, he was elected bishop of Hippo, as colleague ot 
 Valerian, and in accordance with Valerian's earnest wish. From 
 this time his history and writings are closely associated with the 
 Donatist and Pelagian controversies, in which he took the main 
 
 I
 
 AUG 
 
 283 
 
 AUG 
 
 part on the orthodox side. It is from his writings against Pelagius 
 that we obtain the fullest view of his theological system. Of this 
 the following synopsis is given by Gicseler (Church Hist. vol. i. 
 p. 380) : — " By the sin of Adam human nature became physi- 
 cally and morally coiTupt. From it evil lust has come, which, 
 while it has become the inheritance of all men by generation, 
 has risen to original sin, in itself danmatoiy, and prevails so 
 much over the will of the natural man, that he can no longer 
 will what is good, as he should do, out of love to God, but sins 
 continually, as his actions may also externally show. From this 
 corrupt mass of humanity, God resolved from eternity to save 
 some through Christ, and consign the rest to deserved perdition. 
 Though baptism procures forgiveness of sin, even of original sin, it 
 does not remove the moral corruption of man. Therefore, divine 
 grace, alone and in-esistibly, works faith in the elect, as well as 
 love and power to do good. Those to whom the grace of God 
 is not imparted, have no advantage from Christ, and fall into 
 condemnation, even an eternal one." In maintaming these 
 dogmas, Augustine displays gi-eat vigour and acuteness, immense 
 resources, and a fearless resolution to follow out his conclusions 
 to then- legitimate dialectical issue. His naturally ardent tem- 
 perament made him a severe and unsparing controversialist ; but 
 he seems to have nobly kept himself from confounding the 
 persons of his antagonists with their opinions. Whilst he 
 treated the latter with the utmost rigour, he was respectful and 
 even kind towards the former. Thus he speaks of Pelagius, the 
 man of all others whom he most vehemently opposed, " as a 
 man to be proclaimed good, an illustrious Christian" (De peccat. 
 meritis et remissione, hb. iii. c. 3), and he says of him — " I 
 not only have loved him, but I love him still" (Ep. 186). He 
 speaks in the kindest and most indulgent spirit to the Mani- 
 cheans, even whilst writing earnestly against their doctrines, and 
 Locke has thought his tolerant words to them so excellent, that 
 he has inserted them among the choice specimens in his " New 
 Method of a Commonplace Book" (Works, vol. iii. p. 491, fol.). 
 The only exception to this prevailing gentleness towards his an- 
 tagonists, is fm-nished by his acquiescence m the persecution of 
 the Donatists. 
 
 Augustine held his place as bishop of Hippo till the year 
 430, when he died in the 76th year of his age. His end was 
 peaceable, though amid scenes of violence and sufll-ring. The 
 Vandals, under Genseric, had laid siege to Hippo, and for many 
 weeks had exposed its inhabitants to peril and straits. The 
 aged bishop, pained by the scenes which constantly met his 
 eye, and anticipating still greater disasters, earnestly besought 
 of God deliverance for the people from their enemies, and for 
 himself a speedy emancipation from all earthly burdens and 
 cares. His prayer for himself was lieard ; in the third month 
 of the siege, on the 28th of August, he was, to use the words of 
 Gibbon, " gently released." 
 
 Augustine was a man of a powerful, capacious, and acute 
 intellect, which he had cultivated by the diligent study of the 
 best authors, whose works he could procure in the Latin language. 
 Beyond this his reading does not seem to have extended ; of 
 Greek he knew little, and of Hebrew nothing. As an author, 
 his style is somewhat rugged, but fidl of force and fire ; and in 
 many of bis works there is an undercurrent of sentiment and 
 tenderness which lends an indescribable charm to the whole. His 
 conduct, after he became a Christian, was marked by scrapulous 
 integrity and purity, and impressed all who beheld it with a con- 
 viction of the sincerity of his profession. As a bishop he was con- 
 scientious and diligent; unmoved by worldly ambition, he remained 
 "faithful to his first bride, his earliest though humble see" (idil- 
 man. Hist, of Christianity, iii. 282) ; and when dangers surrounded 
 his flock, he refused to desert them, but, like a true pastor, re- 
 mamcd to share with them in their privations, and to lend them 
 what aid and encouragement his presence could supjily. He 
 was mercifully spared the agony of witnessing the ravaging of 
 his fold. By liis death, " he escaped the horrors of the capture, 
 the cruelties of the conqueror, and the desolation of his church" 
 (Milman, iii. 284). 
 
 At his death, Augustine left a vast mass of writings, a large 
 proportion of which still remain. Besides those already men- 
 tioned, the most important are his " Confessiones ;" his " I»e- 
 tractationes ; " his treatise "De Civitate Dei;" and his homilies 
 and comments on portions of Scripture. His Confessions con- 
 tain a history of the earlier period of his life, interspersed with 
 reflections nnd addresses to God, which, if they somewhat inter- 
 
 rupt the course of the nairative, more than compensate for this 
 by the msight they give us into the heart and soul of the man. 
 His IJetractations was the work of his old age, and contains a 
 sort of review of all his previous writings and opinions, in 
 which, with characteristic candour, he retracts and condemns 
 what his maturer judgment led him to deem en'oneous or im- 
 perfect. His work " On the City of God" is, perhaps, as a whole, 
 his greatest production ; it is an elaborate defence of Christi- 
 anity, and a refutation of pagan mythology and philosophy, 
 undertaken in consequence of an attempt on the part of the 
 heathen to cast the odium of the sacking of Rome by the Goths 
 on Chiistianity. On this work Augustine spent thirteen years, 
 from A.T). 413 to A.d. 426, and it remains a monument of his 
 knowledge, eloquence, and mental strength. " The ' City of 
 God,' " says Milman, " is at once the funeral oration of the 
 ancient society, and the gratulatoiy panegj^ric on the birth of 
 the new. It acknowledged, it triumphed in, the in-evocablo 
 fall of the Babylon of the West, the shrine of idolatry ; it hailed, 
 at the same time, the universal dominion which awaited the new 
 theocratic polity. The earthly city had undergone its predes- 
 tined fate ; it had passed away, with all its vices and super- 
 stitions — with all its virtues and its glories (for the soul of 
 Augustine was not dead to the noble reminiscences of Eoman 
 gi-eatness) — with its false gods and its heathen sacrifices : its 
 doom was sealed, and for ever. But in its place had arisen the 
 city of God, the church of Christ ; a new social system had 
 emerged from the ashes of the old: that system was founded by 
 God, was ruled by divine laws, and had the divine promise of 
 perpetuity." (Hist, of Christianity, vol. iii. p. 280.) 
 
 As an interpreter of scripture, Augustine does not rank veiy 
 high ; he lays down excellent rules of exegesis, hut does not 
 himself adhere to them, and consequently it is rather for their 
 homiletical and spiritual merits than for their exegetical worth, 
 that his commentaries are in repute. It is in the department 
 of ethical and polemical theology that his merit lies. He was 
 the father alike of the mediaeval scholasticism and of the theo- 
 logy of the Reformation, and to his writings also may be traced 
 the germ of the theology of the mystics. The light that was 
 in him was not extinguished by his death, but only ascended to a 
 higher place, and has been shining through the centm-ics ever since. 
 
 The best edition of Augustine's works is the Benedictine, in 
 11 vols. fol. Paris, 1679, 1700; it has been reprinted recently 
 in 11 thick imperial 8vo vols. Next in value to this is the 
 Plantine edition, published at Antwerp in 1577, in 10 vols, fol., 
 and often since reprinted. His life has been written by Tille- 
 mont, in the 13th volume of his " Memoires," by Kloth, (Aachen, 
 1840); and by Bindemann, Berl., 1844. P'or his ojiinions, see 
 Ritter's Gesck. cL Christ. P/til.^ vol. i. p. 153; and Neander's 
 Church Histoiy, vol. iv. p. 14—23, 303— 387.— W. L. A. 
 
 AUGUSTINE or AUSTIN, Saint, and first archbishop of 
 Canterbiu-y, was a Benedictine monk of the convent of St. 
 Andi-ew at Rome, when Pope Gregoiy I. chose him to cany 
 out his long-cherished design of converting England to the 
 Christian faith. Augustine and his companions set out, but 
 were so temfied by the accounts they heard of the inhabitants 
 of Britain, that Augustine retumed to Rome to obtain the pope's 
 peiTnission to abandon their mission. Grcgoiy, however, en- 
 couraged them ; and having interested the king and queen of the 
 Franks, and the archbishop of Aries in their behalf, persuaded 
 Augustine and his companions to go on with the work whicli 
 they had undertaken. Etlielbcrt, at this time king of Kent, 
 and the third Bretwalda, had married Bertiia, the daughter of 
 Charibert, a Frank chieftain, and had granted her the free exer- 
 cise of her religion, allowing her chaplain, Lindbard, bishop of 
 Scnlis, to celebrate divine service in the old Roman church of St. 
 Martin at Canterbury. Already not hostile to CJn-istianity, 
 Ethelbert kindly received the missionaries, and permitted them 
 to fi.K their abode in the isle of Thanet, ami eventually in bis 
 capital, Cantcrbuiy. He shortly afterwards was baptized, and 
 his example was followed by many of his subjects. Augustine's 
 success was now rapid, and the king gave him full license to 
 preach through all his dominions, declaring, however, that no 
 compulsion should be used to oiVect a change of religion. Vo\h^ 
 Gregory watched carefully over the rising church, and ordereil 
 Augustine to repair to Aries, to bo there consecrated bishop of 
 the English. Augustine obeyed, and shortly after his return, 
 received his pall from Rome, whither he had sent Laurence and 
 Peter, his companions, to report the condition of his church to
 
 AUG 
 
 284 
 
 AUG 
 
 the pope. The pope also sent a sohition of various questions 
 proposed to Mm by Augustine, some of which were needed for 
 his guidance, while at others we smile. The pope's original 
 intention was, to have divided England uito twenty-four dioceses, 
 under metropohtans at London and York, but Canterbury was 
 substituted for London in compliment to king Ethelbert, who 
 was a most zealous upholder of the faith. Augustine now tried 
 to bring about union with the Welch Chiistians, but as subjection 
 to his authority was a sine qua non, in his eyes, no progiess was 
 made. Both parties separated in anger, but there is no reason 
 to lay the massacre of the monks at Bangor to Augustine's charge. 
 In G04, Augustine consecrated Mellitus bishop of London, and 
 Justus bishop of Rochester, and after naming Laurence as his 
 successor, died, probably in 607. He was buried in the church of 
 St. Peter and St. Paul, afterwards called St. Augustme's Abbey, 
 which King Ethelbert had founded. The same munificent 
 monarch aided in erecting a cathedral chmxh at Canterbury, " in 
 the name of our Holy Saviour, God, and Lord Jesus Chiist ;" 
 whither, in 1091, the body of Augixstine was translated. To 
 Ethelbert, the cathedrals of St. Paul's, London, and of Roches- 
 ter, also owe their foundation and endowments. Augustine 
 was probably a man of no great intellect or attainments, but 
 ho accomplished a great work, and is entitled to the respect of 
 Englishmen, from his having been the instmment of firmly plant- 
 ing Christianity in this nation. He is commemorated m the calen- 
 dars of the English and Roman churches. May 2G. — J. B., 0. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, THE Blessed, general of the order of St. 
 Augustine in the 13tli century, had been preceptor to Manfred, 
 king of Sicily ; and died a hennit near Sienna. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, Antony, a native of Saragossa, and son of 
 the vice-chancellor of Aragon, studied literature and law at 
 several universities in Sjiain and Italy. His reputation for 
 learning and sagacity led to his being frequently employed in 
 important missions by the Papal Com-t, and he was successively 
 bishop of Alifa, of Lerida, and of Tarragona. He died in 1574, 
 having published many works, chiefly on ecclesiastical law and 
 numismatics. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, Jean-Baptiste-Jacques, a French painter, 
 self-taught, whose original style produced a material improve- 
 ment in the art at Paris, in the close of the 18th century. 
 
 AUGUSTINI AB HORTIS, Christian, a physician of 
 Kaesmark in Hungaiy, was taken into the service of Ferdinand 
 II., and ennobled by him as the founder of the botanical garden 
 at Vienna; he died in 1650. 
 
 AUGUSTULUS, Rojiulus, with whom closed the line of 
 Roman emperors in the West, was son of Orestes, a Pannonian 
 noble, and owed his investiture with the purple to his father's 
 rank and popularity in the army. His own beauty also, and the 
 prestige of his name, Romulus Augustus, which recalled the 
 respective founders of the city and the empire, won for him at 
 first considerable favom*. But he soon proved himself so utterly 
 incapable, that his subjects, in derision, gave him the name of 
 Augustulus (the diminutive of Augustus), by which he is now 
 known in history. After an inglorious reign of one year, dm-ing 
 which the government was wholly in the hands of his father 
 Orestes, he was dethroned by Odoacer, king of the Henili, who 
 assigned to him the villa of Lucullus in Campania, as his resi- 
 dence, and a considerable annual ])ension for his support. A 
 decree of the senate, on receiving his abdication, renounced the 
 sovereignty of Rome in favour of Constantinople, and put a foiinal 
 end to the Western empire, A.d, 476.- — W. B. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, first Roman emperor; Caius Octavius, after- 
 wards Caius Julius Cesar Octavianus, and later Augus- 
 tus, "Augustus" being a title of honour conferred on the first 
 emperor, and though borne officially by his .successors, used in 
 history as his proper name. He is also commonly known as 
 Octavius. He was born at Velitrne on the ninth of the kalends 
 of October, in the year 63 B.C. — year of Rome 691 — and died at 
 Nola on the 29th August, a.d. 14, at the age of seventy-sis. He 
 was the son of Caius Octavius and Atia, daughter of Julia, sister 
 of the celebrated Julius C:T;sar. Cresar was tluis the gi-eat-uncle 
 of Octavius, and he named Octavius his son and heir. The 
 youth of Octavius was one of delicate health and maternal super- 
 intendence, accompanied by the studies appropriate to his station, 
 and varied by the duties of an office which Ca;sar had confeiTcd 
 (m him as director of the popular plays. At the age of eighteen 
 he was at Appolonia on the Adriatic, engaged in the study of 
 Greek literature and philosojiliy, when a messenger arrived 
 
 informing him that CiEsar had been slaui. He took his course 
 apparently without hesitation, notwithstanding the opposition of 
 his mother's second husband, Philippus, who advised him to 
 remain in the obscurity of private life rather than encounter the 
 dangers which could not fail to suiTound him if he claimed the 
 inheritance of Cassar. He repau'ed first to Brundisium, where 
 he was favom-ably received by the legions, and afterwards to 
 Rome, where IMarc Antony was exercising the principal if not 
 supreme authority and power. His part was difficult, but he 
 played it with consummate skill, enUsting on bis side the sym- 
 pathies of the soldiery, and appearing rather as the injured heir, 
 who was improperly kept out of his mdisputable rights, than as 
 the ambitious adventurer who, trading on the name of his uncle, 
 was ready to grasp a crown. He appeared before the praetor, 
 formally claimed his inheritance, accepted its responsibilities, and 
 received in consequence the name of " Caius JuHus Caesar Octa- 
 vianus." By the law of Rome, he was henceforth regarded as 
 the virtual representative of Cajsar, as much as if he had been 
 the son of the dictator. His object was to raise troops, and he 
 appUed himself assiduously to this, the only course that could 
 enable him to achieve and maintain a high position. So well 
 did he succeed that, m a short time, Marc Antony, seeing his 
 own power decaying, and apprehensive lest he should find him- 
 self without support, withdi-ew to his province of Cisalpine Gaul. 
 There, however, he was opposed by Decimus Brutus, the actual 
 governor, who refused to resign the province. Octavius there- 
 upon offered his aid to Antony's opponent, and the senate 
 approved of the aiTangement. Cicero also was induced to advo- 
 cate the cause of Octavius, and in the year 43 B.C. the young 
 adventurer was officially appointed propra3tor with a military 
 command, and afterwai'ds praator with a seat in the senate. He 
 now jomed the consuls Hirtius and Pansa, for the purpose of 
 relieving Mutina, where Antony was besieging Decimus Brutus. 
 Antony was defeated and driven across the Alps, the two con- 
 suls were slain in battle, and Octavius remained the sole and 
 successful general of the forces. The senate now appeared dis- 
 inclined to acknowledge his sendees ; but Antony and Lepidus 
 Imping entered into alliance recrossed the Alps, and Octavius 
 was appointed to the jomt command of the forces with Decinms 
 Bnitus. He had now an opportunity to push his fortunes. He 
 induced his troops to clamour in his favour for the consulship, 
 and this being refused on account of his youth — as he was only 
 twenty years of age — he resolved to take the celebrated step of 
 his great-micle, and crossed the Rubicon on his way to Rome. 
 The senate yielded; but receiving some remforcements from 
 Africa, again attempted to control Octavius. He established his 
 troops in the vicinity of the Quiiinal hill, entered the city with 
 a guard, was gi-eeted by his mother and the vestal virgins, and 
 safely defied the power of a senate that was without military 
 preparation. He and his Idnsman, Quintus Pedius, were ap- 
 pointed consuls, and he caused his adoption by Cffisar to be 
 regularly confirmed and publicly acknowledged. A prosecution 
 was commenced against the assassins of Cajsar and their accom- 
 plices, and the accused not appearing were condemned in their 
 absence, and declared enemies of Rome. At the same time the 
 proscription against Ajitony and Lepidus was withdi'awn, and 
 Octavius prepared to enter into negociation with those leaders. 
 
 On an island of a small stream, which, in modem times, 
 separates the Papal States from the duchy of Modena, met the 
 three commanders of the Roman aiTnies. Five legions attended 
 each chief; but these remained at a distance diuing the confer- 
 ence that was to partition the empii'e, and to doom to destraction 
 all who might be inimical to either of the three negotiators, 
 Lepidus arrived first, closely examining the willows to see that 
 no one was concealed in them. Antony and Octavius next 
 appeared, submitting to mutual search, in case weaj)ons might 
 be hidden under theur garments. A compact was made. An- 
 tony was to have Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavius, 
 Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. Tliree hundred senators and two 
 thousand equites were doomed to slaughter, and the three, 
 called henceforth triumviri, set out for Rome, where the slaugh- 
 ter was um-elentingly carried on under the stimulus of mercenary 
 reward. 
 
 After the battle of Phllippi, in which Brutus and Cassius, 
 with the remnant of the republican party, were extinguished, a 
 new division of the provinces was efl'ected, and Lepidus lost his 
 power, leaving Antony and Octavius to compete for the supre- 
 macy. Sicily was held by Sextus Pompeius, and Octavius, un-
 
 able to take possession of the island, endeavoured to secnre the 
 aid of Pompeius by a matrimonial alliance. Ho married Scri- 
 bonia, a sister of the father-in-law of Pompeius, and this lady- 
 became the mother of his daughter Julia. The Sicilian gover- 
 nor, however, would not abandon his pronnce, and a new junc- 
 ture of affairs brought Octa%'ius and Antony into more friendly 
 alliance. Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavius, and 
 a new cast of the provinces was made, by which Pompeius was 
 to retain his island territories. With these militaiy leaders, 
 however, war was a necessity, and hostilities once more were de- 
 clared between Octa\'ius and Pompeius — the former putting 
 away his wife Scribonia, and mairying Li\-ia Dnisilla, vnfe of 
 Tiberius Nero. It was also arranged that a son of Antony 
 should marry the daughter of Octavius, and this temporary 
 reconciliation led to a combined action on the part of Octavius 
 and Antony, resulting in the downfal of Pompeius, and the 
 acquisition of Sicily. 
 
 The period was now to anive when the definitive straggle 
 between Octavius and Antony must determine the fate of Rome. 
 They had cleared the arena for the last combat, and the victor 
 was to -win the prize of the empire. Antony had forsaken 
 Octada, and abandoned hmiself to the fascinations of Cleopatra. 
 Octavius, therefore, declared war on the latter, and the struggle 
 was brought to an issue at the naval battle of Actium, in the 
 autumn of the year 31 B.C. Antony and Cleopatra fled to 
 Egypt, were pursued by Octa%qus, tei-minated their lives by their 
 own hands, were inteiTed in the same tomb, and Octavius became 
 the sole master of the power of Rome. He retm-ned to the 
 capital, was honoured by three triumphs, the temple of Janus 
 was closed, and Rome was at peace with the world. 
 
 Having thus obtained the supreme power by force, Octavius 
 determined to retain it by pohcy, and the steps by which he 
 accomplished his purpose, proved that he was quite as fitted to 
 manage a tremulous and divided senate at home, as to lead a 
 wavering army to victoiy in the field. It is said, indeed, that 
 he thought of laying down the power he had acquired, and that 
 he consulted his confidential friends, Agi-ippa aud Moecenas, as 
 to whether he should adopt this course or not. That he really 
 consulted lIoBcenas and Agi-ippa, there is no reason to doubt ; 
 but that he ever seriously intended to abandon the commanding 
 position he had gained, is not in the least probable. Fi'om the 
 first, he cautiously veiled his ambitious designs under a show of 
 extreme moderation, and his conference with his friends was 
 simply a de\ace for evading the full responsibility of the course 
 he had already resolved to pursue. The event soon proved this, 
 the advice of Agrippa, who recommended him to resign his power, 
 being neglected, while that of JIaacenas, who advised him to 
 retain it, was followed. He commenced the consolidation of his 
 power by refonning the senate, which was to be henceforth the 
 instrament of his ambition. During the troubled times of the 
 civil wars, the senate had lost much of its dignity and influence ; 
 in the absence of better men, a number of citizens, alike unquali- 
 fied in rank, character, and intelhgence, ha\'ing been admitted 
 into that once illustrious body. Octavius, acting as censor in 
 conjunction with his faithful friend Agi-ippa, imdcrtook the 
 reformation of this abuse. Some members of notoriously bad 
 character were expelled, a number more were induced to retire, 
 and the door was closed against their retmn, by raising the 
 qualifications for a senator far higher than it had previously 
 been. In effecting these refonns, Octa\nus was, no doubt, acting 
 a patriotic part, and ho received in acknowledgment of his 
 laboui-s the honourable title of Prince of the Senate, which had 
 always been bestowed by the censors on the citizen most distin- 
 guished for his worth and services. During the same year 
 (b.c. 29) he received the title of Imperator, not in the old sense, 
 as given by the victorious army to the general on the field of 
 battle, in which alone it was understood during the republic ; but 
 in a new sense, as indicating supreme and ponuanent power. 
 The titles of king and dictator were both objectionable, tlie for- 
 mer being odious to the people, and the latter buried in the gi-ave 
 of its last possessor, Julius Cxsar. The title of imperator, how- 
 ever, designating the various oflices Octavius filled, and the mani- 
 fold state functions he discharged, represented a far more absolute 
 and lasting command than citlier. TIk; new power was uniformly 
 employed for the good of the state. During the ensuiug year, 
 Octavius signalised his sixth consulship by taking a census of 
 the people, which had been long neglected, by improving the 
 administration of the treasury, and by the construction of noble 
 
 and useful buildings, amongst which were the temple and Ubrary 
 of the Palatine Apollo. 
 
 The year folloiving, however, e.c. 27, was the most memor- 
 able one, both in the history of Octavius and of the empire. In 
 this, the second year of his consulship, he went through the form 
 of resigning his usuq^ed and exceptional powers into the hands of 
 the senate. In an elaboi-ate speech he apologised for the despotic 
 violence of many of his acts, and proposed to the senate to re- 
 store the old republican form of government, which was in reality 
 to restore to the senate the administration of the state. " Being 
 now at hberty to satisfy his duty and inclination," he said, 
 " he solemnly restored the senate and people to all their ancient 
 rights ; and wished only to mingle with the crowd of his fellow- 
 citizens, and to share the blessings which he had obtained for 
 his countiy." There can be little doubt that, in taking this 
 course, he but acted a ])art, and that he \vished to place the vast 
 power he had acquired on a popular and legitunate basis, by 
 seeming to accept it at the hands of the people. His speech to 
 the senate, ostensibly an abrogation of all power, was in reaUty 
 an effective but disguised appeal for absolute dominion. Of 
 com'se it was successM. Had the mere retention of power been 
 the only object in view, there was, indeed, no necessity for any 
 such appeal at all. With a victorious anny devoted to his person 
 and his cause, he was independent of the senate and the people. 
 The senate had lost its power, having gi-adually become weakened, 
 degraded, and disorganised, during the distractions of the civil 
 wars. The people worn out with the bloody strife of factions, 
 longed for a regular government, scarcely caring to criticise its 
 precise nature, so that it was settled and strong. Octavius was 
 the only man they could look to. All his rivals and competitors 
 being now extinguished, he remained alone on the stage of pub- 
 lic affairs, the saviour of the republic, the representative of the 
 empire. He was thoroughly master of the situation, and could 
 have kept his position without appealing to the senate or the 
 people ; but he wished to use his power for the good of the state, 
 and to this end it was needful that he should be popular as well 
 as strong. Hence his speech to the senate, which produced 
 exactly the effect he desued. They refused to accept his resig- 
 nation, imploring him to remain at the head of affairs, and not 
 desert, in the hour of her need, the repubhc he had saved. He 
 partially acceded to their vrishes, consenting to accept the go- 
 vernment of the most important provinces, and to share with 
 the senate the administration of the empue. A di%-ision of 
 the provinces was accordingly made, by which those which were 
 on the frontiers — the most exposed and unsettled — all in fact 
 that required anything like active govemment at all — were to 
 be admmistered by Octavius. While thus affecting to divide his 
 power with the senate, he was in reality the sole ruler of the 
 empne. He declined, however, to accept the government for a 
 longer period than ten years, hoping, as he intimated, that at 
 the end of that time the republic would be able to dispense with 
 his ser\T[ces. But, at the expiration of the ten years, the ad- 
 ministration was of course gi\'en to him again, and this was re- 
 peated to the end of his life. During the same year (IGth 
 Januaiy, B.C. 27) Octavius also received from the senate and the 
 pe(q)le the title of Augustus, the Sacred, or the Consecrated, 
 by which name he was henceforth known. This act, which was 
 a popular recognition of something very like a di\ine right to 
 nile, vested in the chosen imperator, shows how completely his 
 policy had succeeded amongst the people. The Augustan yeai's, 
 and the commencement of the empire, date from this period. 
 
 The changes thus efl'ected by Augustus in the constitution of 
 the state, outwardly small, amounted in reality to a comjilete re- 
 volution — the change of the most powerful repulilic the world 
 has ever seen into an absolute monarchy. The change was out- 
 w:n-dly small, because it was the policy of Augustus from the 
 first, instead of startling the people by innovations, to adapt 
 the existing republican machinery to his purpose. The forms of 
 the re])uhlic was scrupulously preserved. None of the old oflices 
 were abolished. Tacitus, who was an acute critic as well as a 
 competent judge, tells us that " all the names of magistrates 
 were retained." Though disguised luuler the form of a com- 
 monwealth, the government of Augustus was an absolute mon- 
 archy nevertheless. The power he jiossessed was such as had 
 never been enjoyed by any Roman before. He gradually as- 
 sumed the oflices and discharged tlie functions of all the leading 
 magistrates of the republic, till at length he possessed and exer- 
 cised all the powers of the government at home and abroad —
 
 legislative and executive, civil and military, social and religious. 
 The union of these dififerent functions in one person — the perma- 
 nent exercise of these various powers, constituted, in ftict, the 
 change which he effected; and it is the change thus efi'ected 
 that Tacitus aptly characterises by saying, that he by degrees 
 " assumed the functions of the senate, of the magistrates, and of 
 the laws." 
 
 In the first place, the perpetual proconsular power was con- 
 ferred upon Augustus by the senate, and he enjoyed it at home 
 and abroad. In his prov-inces he had authority as full and com- 
 plete as any proconsul had enjoyed under the republic. When 
 at Rome, he governed his provinces by deputies, who were his 
 representatives, always possessing a military force sufficient for 
 that pm^pose. In this way he retained tmder his command the 
 chief armies of the empire. Again, a few years later, in the 
 eleventh consulship (b.c. 23) of Augustus, the senate conferred 
 on him the trihunitian power for life. It does not appear that 
 he was made tribune, but he received and exercised for thirty- 
 seven years all the authority of the office, as if he had been 
 actually elected to it in the old constitutional way. The power 
 of the tribunes under the republic was an important element of 
 the Roman constitution — a check to the absolute authority of 
 the consuls, that helped to keep the balance true. It was the 
 special business of the tribunes to defend the distressed, and 
 arraign the enemies of the people. They could airest by a word 
 the proceedings of the senate, and possessed, it would appear, an 
 arbitrary power of throwing into prison all who opposed tlieir 
 measures. The possession of this office gave Augustus a civil 
 power, which, combined vAth his imperial and proconsular autho- 
 rity, was more than any constitutional monarch in Europe pos- 
 sesses. His person was thus declared inviolable ; and he could, 
 according to the old forms, obstruct any measm-es in the senate, 
 and prevent the passing of any law in the popular assemblies. 
 Though scarcely in a position to fulfil its special duties, the as- 
 sumption of the title and power of tribune was a pofitic step on 
 the part of Augustus, as he thus declared himself the guardian of 
 the popular element in the constitution, and the preserver of the 
 people's rights. Still further, the office of pei-j)etual censor was 
 vested in Augustus, and he thus possessed a social power of the 
 widest kind — could degrade at will any citizen, even of the very 
 highest rank. Finally, on the death of Lepidus a few years 
 later, Augustus was made pontifex maximus, probably by the 
 voice of the popular assembly, the choice of the pontifex maxi- 
 mus having been vested in them fifty years before. His appoint- 
 ment to the office made Augustus the head of the college of 
 Priests, and he thus acqmi'ed and exercised the highest religious 
 functions of the empu-e. It should be added, that while paying 
 the senate the greatest outward respect, he had early superseded 
 their administrative functions, by appointing a council or cabinet 
 composed of fifteen of their number, with whom he dehberated 
 on matters of state — on all matters to be proposed to the senate, 
 who thus soon lost the power of originating any measures at all. 
 
 It will be seen from this sketch how completely Augustus ab- 
 sorbed in himself the large and almost imlimited powers which 
 the republic intnisted to its first magistrates. Without creat- 
 ing a single new office, or assuming any fresh title, he became an 
 absolute monarch in the midst of the republic. Professing to 
 follow the wishes of the people, and to obey the mandates of the 
 senate, he in reality, from the veiy first, led the one, and com- 
 manded the other. It should be added, however, that whatever 
 were the motives of his policy, or the means by which he so suc- 
 cessfully carried it out, he invariably used the great power he 
 acquired well. During the forty years of his comparatively 
 peaceful reign, he devoted himself to secui-e the welfare of the 
 state and people of Rome. His name is identified with triumphs 
 in arts as well as in arms. He executed a number of most im- 
 portant public works ; improved and beautified tlie city so, that 
 it was said " he found the city brick and left it marble ;" he 
 developed the commerce of the empire, which had previously 
 been much neglected ; and by Ids encouragement of literatm-e 
 and art, gave a name to the most splendid era of Roman letters. 
 The great political events which mai-k the reign of Augustus 
 belong to the history of Rome, and need not be chronicled here. 
 He chiefly devoted himself to subduing rebellion within tlie limits 
 of the empire, consolidating the conquests already made, and 
 promoting the internal peace and prosperity of the state. How 
 thoroughly his attention was devoted to the welfare and progi-ess 
 of the empu-e, may be gathered from the fact that, while at the 
 
 head of affairs, he thrice took a census of the people — at the 
 beginning, in the middle, and at the very close of his reign. 
 
 [In the fourth year before the account called Anno Donuni, 
 " Jesus was bom in Bethlehem of Judea, in the days of Herod 
 the king." — Matt. ii. 1. — En.] 
 
 Tlie thii-d and last census was taken by Augustus with the aid 
 of Tiberius, in the year a.d. 14. He had for some time been in 
 feeble health. In the summer of this year, after superintending 
 the celebration of some games at Naples, he retired to Nola, 
 where he died on the 19th of August, in the seventy-sixth year 
 of his age, and in the same room in which his father had died. 
 Feeling his end near, he called his friends together, and asked 
 them if they thought he had played his part well in life ; and if 
 they did, he added, " Give me then yoiu- applause." He died while 
 he was kissing Li\na, and telling her to remember their imion. 
 An accomplished actor undoubtedly he was, and he played a great 
 part. A rumour that he was poisoned by his wife has been pre- 
 seiTed by the historians, but not the slightest evidence is alleged 
 in confirmation of it. By his will he left Livia and Tiberius his 
 heirs. The ceremonial of his funeral and the accompanying 
 events belong to the period of his successor Tiberius, the com- 
 mencement of whose reign is intimately connected with the close 
 of the reign of Augustus. In tliis imperfect sketch some facts 
 have been stated -(vithout any limitations, which in a history 
 would require a careful examination. Of all periods this is one 
 of the most eventful, and of all perhaps the most fruitful in con- 
 sequences ; for it is the period in which was consoUdated that 
 system of government and administration which has detennmed 
 the character of European civilization. It is remarkable also for 
 the personal histoiy of the man, which, from the battle of Actium, 
 comprised a period of nearly forty-four years, and from the time 
 of his landing at Brundisium in B.C. 44, a period of fifty-seven. 
 
 Augustus was a man of middle stahu-e, or rather below it, but 
 well made. The expression of his handsome face was that of 
 unvaiying tranquillity ; his eyes were large, bright, and piercing; 
 his hair a lightish yellow ; and his nose somewhat aquiline. 
 The profound serenity of his expression and the noble character 
 of his features are shown by his gems and medals. He was 
 temperate even to abstinence in eatmg and diinking, and he thus 
 attained a great age, though he was of a feeble constitution ; 
 but though a rigid father, and a strict guardian of public morals, 
 he is accused of incontinence. He was fond of simple amuse- 
 ments, and of children's company. In all his habits he was 
 methodical, an economizer of time, and averse to pomp and 
 personal display. He generally left the city and entered it by 
 night, to avoid being seen. The master of so many legions — he 
 who directed the administration of an empire which extended from 
 the Eujilirates to the Pillars of Hercules, and from the Libyan 
 Desert to the German Ocean — lived in a house of moderate size, 
 without splendour or external show. His ordinary di-ess was 
 made by the hands of his wife, Ms daughter, and his grand- 
 daughters. The young women were kept under a strict disci- 
 pline, and their conduct every day was cai-efuUy registered in 
 a book. He assisted in the education of his grandsons and 
 adopted sons, Caius and Lucius. From his youth he had prac- 
 tised oratory, and was well acquainted with the learning of his 
 day. Though a ready speaker, he never addressed the senate, 
 the popular assemblies, or the soldiers, without preparation, and 
 it was his general practice to read his speeches. He was a man 
 of unweaiied industry, a great reader, and a diligent writer. He 
 drew up memoirs of his o%\ti life, in thirteen books, which com- 
 prised the period up to the Cantabrian war, and also various 
 other works in prose. He also WTote a poem in hexameter 
 ver.se, entitled "Sicilia," and a book of Epigrams, some of which 
 are extant, and are very obscene. His Latin style, as appears 
 from the few specimens which are extant, was simple and ener- 
 getic, like his character ; he disliked tri\'ial thoughts and far- 
 fetched words, and his object was always to express his meaning 
 in the clearest possible waj'. 
 
 The age of Augustus is the most brilliant literary period in the 
 history of Rome. There were the la^^Tcrs il. Antistius Labeo 
 and C. Ateius Capito; the poets Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and others; 
 and the historian Livy. The literary remains of Augustus 
 were published by J. A. Fabricius, Hamburg, 1727, 4to. 
 
 The rcl:itiousliip of the various members of the family of 
 Augustus is very comphcated, but it is necessary to imderstand
 
 it well in studying the liistoi-y of liis period. The tables pre- 
 pared by Lipsius show the relationship of all the members of the 
 Octavian, Aiitonian, Julian, and other Gentes who were con- 
 nected with the family of Augustus. There are some difficulties 
 about a few names ; but they ai"e of no importance. — (Nicolaus 
 of Damascus, Life of Augustus, ed. Orelli; Suetonius, Aur/ustus; 
 Dion Cassius, lib. xlv. — Ivi. ; Appian, Civil Wars, ii. — v., and 
 Jlhjrica; Cicero, Letters and Philippics ; Vellcius Patcrculus, ii. 
 59 — 12-1; Tacitus, Annul, i. ; Monumentiun Ancyranum, in 
 Obt^rliu's Tacitus or the editions of Suetonius ; Plutarch, A ntonitis ; 
 CUnton, Fasti Hellenici; Easche, Lexicon Rei Nuniarim ; Eckliel, 
 Doctrina Num. Vet. vols. vi. viii.) — T. S. B. 
 
 AUGUSTUS I. OF Saxony, succeeded to the electorate in 
 the year 1553, through the mfluence of the Emperor Charles V., 
 who had procured the deposition of his cousin, John Frederick, be- 
 cause the latter was a zealous protectant. His reign over the coun- 
 try was, on the whole, beneficial. A knight named Gnimbach 
 ha^ing plundered Wurzburg and assassinated its prince-bishop, 
 took refuge with John Frederick, who had acquired the duchy 
 of Gotha. Grambach persuaded lus host to attack Augustus, 
 to claim his crown, and to raise all Germany against the 
 emperor, Maximihan II. The emperor demanded Grumbach's 
 head, and John Fredeiick having refused to smxender him, 
 was put imder the ban of the empire. Augustus, upon this, 
 seized Gotha, made Frederick prisoner for life, partitioned his 
 territories between his two sons, and slew Gnimbach. Con- 
 ""' ring the state of opinion in the time of Augustus, he was in 
 ance of most of his contemporaries, in pomt of constitutional 
 ^...ereignty. He governed according to law. He consulted his 
 parliament on all matters of moment, and especially the raising 
 of money by taxation. He seems to have cordially detested the 
 theology of Geneva, for he drove all Calvinists from Saxony, and 
 set forth a system of belief, which was called Formitla concordice, 
 
 1 which embodied the views of Luther. His edicts were so 
 
 r. that he has sometimes been termed the Saxon Justinian. 
 built the palace of Augustenberg, near the to^\'Ti Oederan, 
 
 1 \-iUage of Flohe, and prepared the way for the architectural 
 
 jirovement of Dresden, which was afterwards canied into 
 effect by Augustus II. The tilting suit said to have been worn 
 by him, and now preserved Ln the Dresden museum, is so heavy, 
 that the wearer must have been a man of extraordinary strength. 
 He managed the finances of his comitry with prudence and 
 economy. He died in 158G, sincerely regi-etted by his subjects, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Christian I. — T. J. 
 
 AUGUSTUS II. OF Saxony, a prince whose affairs exercised, 
 perhaps, a greater influence on the states of Europe than those 
 of any other monarch, during the eighteenth century, was the 
 second son of John George III., elector of Saxony, and was born 
 at Dresden in 1670. On account of his enormous strength, he 
 was sumamcd the iron-handed and the strong. It would be 
 difficult to find a man at present who could walk in lus armom-, 
 and his cap enclosed an iron hat heavier than a caldron. He is 
 said to have lifted a trumpeter in full armour, and to have held 
 him aloft on the palm of his hand ; to have twisted the iron 
 balustrade of a stair into a rope, and broken a horseshoe witli 
 one grasp. Handsome in his person, he studied in his youth 
 the art of war, by taking part in several campaigns, while he 
 learned the duties of statesmanship by visiting the various courts 
 of Europe. The popish princes of Europe, and especially of 
 Austria, gained much influence over him, and, perhaps, to this 
 circumstance, was partly owing his desertion of the protestant 
 faith. His elder brother succeeded his father in the electorate 
 in 1G91, but three years aftenvards he died, and Augustus 
 received the government. He soon showed his leaning for 
 Austria by allying himself to her interests, and raising forces 
 against France. With these he should have marched to the 
 Rhine ; but as he refused to serve as a subaltern under the 
 imperial general. Prince Lewis of Baden, the court of Vienna 
 gave him the command of an expedition against the Turks, who 
 threatened Hungaiy, and had lately attacked Vienna itself. In 
 tliis campaign he showed more strength than wisdom, and it did 
 not lead to any decisive results. 
 
 John Sobicski, the illustrious king of Poland, died in lOOG, 
 and left the crown of Poland vacant. Augustus, probably at 
 the instigation of the court of Vienna, announced his pretensions 
 to the succession. His chief competitor was the prince of Conti. 
 His ambassador expended ten millions of florins at Warsaw, in 
 the interests of his master. Tlio Lutheranism of Auirustus 
 
 being an obstacle to his success, he abjured the religion of which 
 his forefathers had been the most consistent and faithful sup- 
 porters. He publicly made a profession of Romanism at Baden, 
 near Vienna, on Whitsimday, 1G97. After a series of iritrigues 
 he acquh-ed the Polish crown, although his rival had been elected 
 by the diet. His fii-st efforts were to regain the southeni 
 possessions of Poland, which had been lost to the Tm-ks ; and by 
 the aid of Peter of Russia, afterwards the Great, he succeeded. 
 He next attacked Sweden, but with Ul consequences ; for he 
 aroused the dormant energies of its youthful monarch, Charles 
 XII. The rapid movements of Charles forced him to abandon 
 his plans, and in July, 1701, his aiTny was defeated by the 
 Swedes at the river Duna, who marched on Poland, and demanded 
 that the Poles should elect another king. Augustus in vain 
 resisted ; and after a sanguinary battle at Pultusk, Charles pene- 
 trated to Warsaw, and at his instigation, Stanislaus Leczinski 
 was elected monarch, July 12, 1704. A long war followed, as 
 the result of which Augustus acknowledged the title of his 
 successor, and his dommions were confined to Saxony. The 
 overthrow of Charles at Pultowa recalled him to the throne. 
 The pope absolved liirn from his oath of abdication. The Poles 
 regarded hun as a foreigner and a usurper, and he only main- 
 tained his gi'ound in the country as the vassal of Russia. Civil 
 troubles followed, of wliich Russia took advantage, and the 
 Polish army was reduced. Augustus died in 1733. His royal 
 splendom' painfully contrasted -with the miseiy to which, dming 
 a large part of his reign, his Saxon subjects were reduced. 
 His character has been justly dra\vn, as consisting of contra- 
 dictions. His \aces and virtues were equally strange. Polite- 
 ness and good sense, enormous strength and brilliant courage, 
 were counterbalanced by incontinence, shameful ambition, and a 
 disregard of the most solemn engagements ; while as a friend he 
 was amiable, as a lover he was capricious, and as a husband 
 unfaithful. His life was marked by the most extraordinary 
 turns of fortune ; at one time he stood at the lieight of power, 
 at another he was plunged into the lowest depths of distress. 
 His death gave rise to a bloody war between the houses of 
 Bourbon and Austria. It is due to him to say that he encouraged 
 art-manufactures, and the celebrated porcelain of Dresden owes 
 its origin to his patronage. Though the rudiments of a collec- 
 tion were made in the reign of Duke George, the friend of Lucas 
 Cranach, Augustus was the tnie founder of the gi-eat picture 
 gallery of Dresden. The worst political result of his chequered 
 reign was the aggrandizement of Russia, and eventually added 
 the fair plains of Poland to the dominions of that gi-owing, for- 
 midable, and ambitious empne. — T. J. 
 
 AUGUSTUS III., the son of the preceding, was bom at 
 Dresden in 169 G. He succeeded his father as elector of Saxony, 
 and sought to obtain the crown of Poland. Russia and Austria 
 supported his pretensions, and he was eventually acknowledged 
 the undisputed monarch of that countiy, although his competitor 
 was Stanislaus, whose daughter had become the queen-consort of 
 Lewis XV. HLs reign over Poland was marked by utter weak- 
 ness, of which Russia to tliis day reaps the advantage. His 
 daughter manied the dauphin of France, and was the mother of 
 Lewis XVI., Lewis XVIIL, and Charles X. He died at Dresden 
 in October, 1763. From his reign dates the fall of Saxony. — T. J. 
 
 AUGUSTUS I., Frederick, first king of Saxony, and son 
 of the Elector Frederick Christian, was born at Dresden, 23rd 
 December, 1750, and died 5th May, 1827. He succeeded his 
 brother, 17th December, 17G3, under the guardianship of his 
 uncle. Prince Xavier, who governed in his name until 15th 
 September, 1768, when the young prince attained his majority. 
 Ho married m 17G9 the princess Jlaric-Amilie, who was born 
 in 1751, and died 15th November, 1828. During the wliole of 
 his reign, Augustus manifested a sincere desire to promote the 
 happiness of his subjects, and he has never been accused of any 
 abuse of his power, of encroaching on the rights of others, or of 
 engaging in any enterprise solely from a love of vain-glory. He 
 laboiu-ed to reduce the public debt, and alleviate the public bur- 
 dens, lie encouraged agriculture and the rearing of cattle, and 
 bestowed especial favour on improving the breeds of sheep, — a 
 branch of industiy which made important progress under his 
 reign. He regulated by wise laws the labours of the mines, tlie 
 salt-pits, and the forests ; and promoted the establishment of 
 nianufactm'es ; while commerce, which had suffered so much dur- 
 ing the seven yeare' war, attained under his wise and paternal 
 rule to a degree of prosperity previously unkno\\Ti. He placed
 
 AUG 
 
 288 
 
 AUG 
 
 the anny on a better footing, and organized schools for the in- 
 straction of its future officers. The unportant subject of popular 
 education engrossed much of his attention. The universities of 
 "Wittemberg and of Leip'zig found in him a warm patron and a 
 jiowerful support. He refoimed the schools of Fiirstenschulen 
 de Pforta, of ileisin, and of Grimma ; he founded the seminaries 
 of Dresden and of Weissenfels ; he instituted elementary schools 
 fur the children of Annaburg, as well as for those of the mines 
 of Erzgebu-g, and introduced numerous improvements into the 
 academy of the mmes of Freiberg. He effected also important 
 and beneficial changes in the criminal courts. Torture was 
 aboUshed in 1770, and capital punishments were made not only 
 less frequent, but less cruel. Pubhc offices ceased to be an ob- 
 ject of traffic ; the administration of justice was separated from 
 that of finance ; and the police of the country was placed on a 
 footing more consistent with public protection and liberty. In 
 all pai-ts of the country hospitals were erected for the sick, for 
 women in childbhth, and for orphans. 
 
 WTiile thus employed in ameliorating the internal condition of 
 the countiT, Augustus, though a friend of peace, was frequently 
 drawn into war with neighboiu-uig states, but in these he appears 
 always to have been actuated by patriotic motives. He con- 
 cluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon at Posen, on the 11th 
 December, 1806, after which he took the title of king, and in that 
 quahty entered into the confederation of the Rhine. This com- 
 pelled him to take part, by furnishing his contingent of troops, 
 in the numerous wars in wliieh, at that period, the confedera- 
 tion became involved, but which belong rather to Em'opean his- 
 tory than to the biogi-aphy of the sovereign of a comparatively 
 inconsiderable temtoiy. In the month of September, 1818, he 
 celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his accession, and in the 
 month of Jamiaiy following, that of his marriage. He died at 
 the age of sixty-six, and was succeeded by Anthony, the eldest 
 of his surviving brothers. — G. M. 
 
 AUGUSTUS II., Feedekick, king of Saxony, was bom 
 18th May, 1797. He was the eldest son of Prince Maximilian, 
 younger brother of the Hngs Frederick-Augustus and Antoine, 
 and of his wife Caroline-Maria-Theresa, princess of Parma. 
 At the age of seven years, he lost liis mother, but his education 
 had a short time before been intrusted to the management of 
 General de Forell, grand-master of the court ; and though the 
 whole of the royal fomily were obliged subsequently to leave 
 Dresden, and even subjected to many vicissitudes, the studies of 
 the young prince were never for a moment mterrupted. His 
 frequent change of residence, on the contraiy, gave hun an op- 
 portunity of meetmg with many gi-eat and learned men, and of 
 profitmg by their converse and instruction. He was instmcted 
 in all the details of military semce, by the IMajor de Cemnni, 
 superior commander of the Saxon anny, who had been specially 
 charged with this office. He entered into these studies with 
 great ardour, and in 1818, he was appointed major-general. In 
 1819, he was initiated into the management of pubhc affairs. 
 In the autiamn of 1820 to 1821, he was intrusted vrith the 
 command of a brigade of infantry. In 1830 he was nominated 
 general-in-cluef of the army, in place of general Lecoq, who 
 went to Switzerland, where he died. Frederick was a wise and 
 patriotic ruler ; and by the many reforms which he introduced 
 into every branch of the administration, as well as by liis 
 patronage, both of the fine and the useful arts, gained the love 
 and confidence of his subjects. He married in 1819, the Arch- 
 duchess Caroline of Austria, who died in 1832 ; and on the 
 21th Api-il of the following year, he married Maria, princess of 
 Bavaria, and sister of the princess royal of Pi-ussia. In 1838, 
 he lost his father, the prince Maximilian, who had renounced in 
 his favour his right to the crown. — G. M. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, Emile-Leopoi.d, duke of Saxe-Gotha and of 
 Allenburg, was bom in 1772, and died in 1822. He was the 
 fifth in succession from Ernest the Pious, and son of Ernest II., 
 and of Charlotte Amelia, princess of Saxe-Mciningen. After the 
 death of liis father in 1804, he assumed the reins of govern- 
 ment, and pm-sued dm-ing eighteen years, m times of gi'eat 
 difficulty, the same just and liberal system of administration 
 by which the country had been governed ever since the time of 
 Ernest the Pious. He was attached to literary pursuits, and 
 published many highly esteemed works of fiction and romance, 
 besides a number of short poems, and sketches of eminent 
 characters. He also occupied himself during the last sis years 
 of Ills life in the publication of " Lettres EmiUennes." He had 
 
 married, first in 1797, Louisa Charlotte, princess of Jleeklenburg- 
 Schwerin, who died in childbed, after having given buth to a 
 daughter, who became the reigning duchess of Saxe-Coburg, and 
 died in 1832 ; secondh', in 1802, Carofine Amelia, piincess of 
 Hesse-Cassel, who died cMldless. He was succeeded by 
 Frederick IV., his brother, with whom became extinct, in 1825, 
 the special branch of the house of Saxe-Gotha. — G. M. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, Frederick Willl-vm Henry, prmce of 
 Prussia, born 19th September, 1790, died 19th July, 18-13. 
 He was -son of Augustus Ferdinand, and of the Princess Anne- 
 Eliza, Louisa, of Brandenbm-g-Schwerin. He devoted his atten- 
 tion to the study of fortification and artillery, and entered on 
 his mihtary career in the war against France in 1806 and 1807. 
 He was taken prisoner at Prenzlau, and earned by Napoleon to 
 Berlin. He was afterwards sent as a prisoner of war to Nancy, 
 and from that to Soissons. He subsequently went to Paris, 
 where he remained imtil the peace of Tilsit, when he was set at 
 Hberty. He then travelled into Italy and S^^•itzerland, and on 
 lus return to Berlin, he apphed himself with activity to the 
 reorganization of the Prussian amiy. In 1813, he had the 
 command of the twelfth brigade in the second corps d' arnuk, 
 commanded by general Ivlein, and conducted himself with great 
 bravciy at Kulm, Dresden, and Leipzig. During the campaign 
 of 1814, he distinguished MmseU" at Montmu-ail, Laon, and 
 Paris, the last of which he entered at the head of the first divi- 
 sion. Having been appointed to besiege the fortified places 
 after the battle of Waterloo, he took Maubeuge on the IGth, 
 and Landi-ecies on the 23d July, 1815. Pie afterwards entered 
 ]\Iarienburg, bombarded Philippeville, and took many other places. 
 With him tenninated the collateral branch of Prussia, of which 
 Augustus Ferilinand was the head. — G. JI. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, Frederick, prince of Great Britain, and 
 dulce of Sussex, the sixth son and ninth child of George III., 
 was born at Buckingham palace, 27th Januaiy, 1773, and died 
 at Kensington palace, 21st April, 1843. After spending some 
 time at home in private study, he went to the university of 
 Gottingen, and aftenvards travelled in Italy. Here he formed 
 an attachment to Lady Augusta Mm-ray, whom he met at Eorae, 
 and to whom he was manied there by an Engfish clergyman m 
 April, 1793. Some doubt having aiisen as to the vaHdity of 
 the maniage, the ceremony was repeated at St. George's, Hano- 
 ver square, London, on the 5th December of the same year. 
 The marriage, however, was, at the instance of the cro^vn, 
 declared in 1794, by the prerogative comt of Canterbmy, to be 
 null and void, mider the royal maniage act, by which it is pro- 
 vided, "that no descendant of his late majesty, Kmg George II., 
 shall be capable of contractmg matrimony without the previous 
 consent of his majesty." This decision, however, owing to 
 special circumstances in this case, is considered by eminent 
 jurists to be unsound in point of law. After a separation of 
 some years. Lady Augusta died on the 5th of March, 1834. 
 The fnut of this unhappy union, were a son. Colonel Sir Augustas 
 d'Este, born 13th January, 1794, and a daughter, Ellen 
 Augusta d'Este, both of whom survived their parents. Piince 
 Augustus, in 1801, was crcited a peer of the realm, imder the 
 titles of Baron Arklow, earl of Inverness, and dulvc of Sussex. 
 In pohtics, he had at an early period of his life adopted liberal 
 ■(iews, to which to the last he continued stedfastly to adhere. 
 Both by Ills speeches and by his votes in parliament, he sup- 
 ported the abolition of slavery and of the slave-trade, and the 
 removal of the Koman Catholic and Jewish disabiUties, as well 
 as all other civil distinctions founded on differences in refigious 
 creed. He took also an active part in the passing of the reform 
 bill, and, subsequently, of the laws for the establishment of 
 free trade. In 1810 he was elected grand-master of the free- 
 masons of England and Wales, and in 1816, president of the 
 Eoyal Society, an office which he held until 1839. Some years 
 before his death, he married the Lady Cecilia Letitia Buggui, 
 widow of Sir George Buggin, who was aftenvards raised to the 
 dignity of duchess of Inverness, a rank which she was not 
 otherwise entitled to assume, as the marriage had been con- 
 tracted contrary to the pro\-isions of the royal mamage act. 
 The duke of Sussex was connected with many public benevolent 
 institutions, and subscribed Hberally considering his means, 
 which, for liis station, were comparatively hmited. In private 
 life he was distinguished by his freedom from all offensive 
 ostentation and display of rank. He left behind him one of the 
 largest private Ubraries in the kingdom. A descriptive catalogue
 
 of the works in this collection was di-awn np by Dr. Pettiir^i-ew, 
 the dulie's librarian, and published under the title of " Biblio- 
 theca Susscxiana." The iirst volume appeared, in two parts, in 
 1827, and the second in 1839. In lb"27 the libraiy consisted 
 of 50,000 volumes, 12,000 of which were theological — G. M 
 
 AUGUSTUS, William, prince of Prussia, brother of 
 Frederick II., and general-in-chief of the Prussian army, was 
 born at Berlin, 19th August, 1722, and died 12th June, 1758. 
 He commenced his mihtary career in the two first campaigns of 
 Silesia, and distinguished himself at the battle of Hohenfriedberg, 
 4th June, 1745. After the disastrous retreat at Zittau in 
 1756, having been harshly reprimanded by his brother, he quitted 
 the army, and died shortly afterwards. The coiTespondence 
 which took place between the two brothers was published in 
 1769, under the title of "Anecdotes illustrative of the Histoi-y 
 of the House of Brandenburg, and of the last war." — G. M. 
 
 AUGUSTUS OF BiiuNswicK. See Brunswick. 
 
 AULAF or ANLAF, otherwise ONLAF (apparently identical 
 with the Danish Olafr, Eng. Olave, Lett. Olaus), was the name 
 of several Northumbrian princes of Danish extraction. 
 
 AuLAF, son of Silitric, m the beginning of the lOtli century, 
 was compelled by Athelstane to take refuge in Ireland, where 
 he had to maintain himself against the natives with the sword. 
 Having married a daughter of the Scottish khig, Constantine, he 
 subsequently made several unsuccessful attempts to recover his 
 Nw-thumbrian dominions, until the reign of Edred; when finally 
 abandoning England, he plunged into a series of new struggles 
 with the Irish chieftains, and after various vicissitudes, died in 
 lona, wliile on a pilgrimage to that island. 
 
 AuLAF, tlie son of Guthfirth, nephew of the preceding, 
 shared in early life the conflicts and fluctuating fortunes of his 
 uncle in Ireland. His name is connected with the plundering of 
 Kildare in 929, of Armagh in 932, and of Kilcullen a few years 
 later. He afterwards led his Danish followers against Edmund 
 for the recoveiy of Nortliumbria, and wrung from the Saxon 
 prince a treaty which gave him the whole English territory north 
 and east of Watling Street. He is said to have embraced Chris- 
 tianity, and to have died by the visitation of God after sacking 
 a church. — W. B. 
 
 AULAGNIER, Alf.xis-Fran^ois, physician to Joseph 
 Buonaparte, king of Naples, was born at Gras.se in 1767. He 
 published several medical works, and died in 1839. 
 
 AULANIUS, EvANDRUs, a toreutic and plastic sculptor from 
 Athens, working In Rome about thirty years B.C. He is quoted 
 by Pliny as the restorer of a " Diana" m the temple of Apollo 
 on the Palatin. 
 
 AULARD, Pierre, a native of Languedoc, and one of Na- 
 poleon's generals who fell at the battle of Waterloo. 
 
 AULBER, JoHANN CiiRisTOPii, a German historical author, 
 was bom at Waiblingen in 1671, and died in 1743. He was 
 for some time pastor primarius in Presburg, and in 1730 became 
 abbot of Konigsbmnn. He wrote — " Gediichtniss dor vor 200 
 Jaln-en durcli Luther ausgegangenen Reformation " (Memorials 
 of the Reformation commenced by Luther 200 years ago). 
 
 AULBER, Mattiiakus, a German theologian, born at Blau- 
 beuren in 1495, who aided in spreading the Refonnation. 
 Routlingen was the principal sphere of his labours, and it was 
 owing to his influence that this town adhered to the Augsburg 
 Confession. In 1535 Aulber was commissioned by the duke 
 of Wiirtemberg, along with some other preachers, to protestantise 
 his duchy. Having afterwards become cathedral preacher at 
 Stuttgart, he in 1562 retired from this post, on tlie ground that 
 he could not recognize the " real presence " in the Eucharist. 
 He has left a treatise entitled — " Via compendiaria reconciliandi 
 partes de Cocna Domini Controvertentes," to be found in the 
 " Acta et Scripta Publica Ecclesiae Wurtembergica; " (Tiibingen 
 1720), along witli letters addressed to Aulber by Zwinglc and 
 Luther on tlie subject referred to in the title just quoted. — A. ]\L 
 
 AULETTA, PiKTRo, an Italian musician, composer of several 
 operas, lived in the early part of the 18th century. 
 
 AULICH, Louis, a Hungarian general wlio distinguished 
 himself in tlie recent struggle of his country for independence. 
 His services against Wlndischgi-iitz were acknowledged by 
 Kossuth in the proclamation of GiidoUo ; and lie won additional 
 honom-s in some of the most brilliant exjiloits of the war. He 
 succeeded Giirgey as secretary at war in July, 1819, suiTondercd 
 with him to the Russians at Vihigos, and was executed at Arad 
 in October of that year. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AULISEO, DoMENico d', a learned Italian of the 17th 
 century, was teacher of fortification in the mihtary school at 
 Pizzofalcone, and aftenvards professor of civil law at Naples. 
 His literary and scientific acquu'ements, and his numerous pub- 
 lications on a variety of subjects, procm'cd for him the title of the 
 Polyhistor of liis age. 
 
 AULIZECK or AULICZECK, Dominik, a Bohemian artist, 
 connected with the porcelain manufactory at Nymphenburg. He 
 was afterwards appointed sculptor to the court, and died m 
 1803, with the rank of a privy comicillor. 
 
 AULNAYE, Franc. Henr. Stanislaus pe l', a native of 
 Madrid, studied at Versailles, and rose to distinction in France 
 as a writer on various subjects. His essay on the ancient panto- 
 mime earned off the prize of the French academy ; and his " His- 
 toiy of tlie Religions of the World" has appeared in more than 
 one language. He died hi 1830. 
 
 AULON, Jean w', a gentleman of Languedoc, who was 
 equerry to Charles VII. of France, and afterwards steward of 
 the household in the estabhsliment which that monarch assigned 
 to Joan d'Arc. He distinguished himself at the siege of Orleans, 
 was wounded before Saint-Pierre-le-Moustier, and fallmg into the 
 hands of the Burgundians, at the same time with the Maiden, 
 shared her captivity at Beaulieu. After she was given up to 
 the English, d' Anion fiUed several offices of trust under Charles 
 VII., and was latterly attached to the household of his son the 
 Due de Ben-i.— W. B. 
 
 AULUS, a celebrated engraver of gems at Rome, diu-ing the 
 tune of Augustus. 
 
 AULUS, Gelhus, a Latin grammarian, born at Rome to- 
 wards the beginning of the 2nd centuiy. After studying there 
 till he came of age, be repaired to Athens, where he enjoyed the 
 instiiictions of Peregrinus Proteus, and the friendship of Herodes 
 Atticus. On his retum to R(nne, he applied himself to the 
 study of law, and acquired a reputation in that science, which 
 led to his being frequently appointed arbiter in cases of dispute. 
 His "Noctes Atticaj" (Attic Nights), so-called, because chiefly 
 written in the leisure of his winter evenings at Athens, is a 
 melange of notes on history, grammar, philosophy, &c., thrown 
 together with little regard to method, and fomiing a journal or 
 eommon-place-book of his reading. Its principal value consists 
 in prcsen'ing fi-agments of more ancient writers. — W. B. 
 
 AUMALE (Lat. Alba Marla, whence the English form 
 Albejiarle) — the town of this name m Nomiandy gave theu- 
 title to the counts and dukes of Aumale, of wliom the following 
 have been of some note : — 
 
 Aumale, Etienne, Comte d', son of the first count, was 
 a supporter of Wifliam Rufus in Normandy, but conspiring 
 against him, became a crusader, and died in the Holy Land. 
 
 Aumale, Guillaume, Cojite d', son of the preceding, 
 supported Stephen against Maud, and commanded a division of 
 the English army at the battle of the Standard, A.D. 1138. 
 
 Aumale, Jean VIII., d'Arcourt, Comte d', also Comte 
 DE Mortmain, Seigneur D'Anvers, &c., was born in 1396, 
 sent to court at an early age, and fought his first battle on the 
 field of Agincourt. Afterwards employed in various important 
 services by Charles VI. and the Dauphin, he rose to be lieuten- 
 ant-general of the kingdom, and governor of Normandy. He 
 took a prominent part in the wars with the English, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by the defeat of Pole, brother to the earl of 
 Suffolk, near Vitry, A.D. 1423 ; but, in the following year, fell 
 at the battle of Verncuil. 
 
 Aumale, Claude de Lorraine, Duo i>', son of Rent5 
 II., dulce of Lorraine, was gi-and-Iumtsman to Francis I. of 
 France, and rendered important military services to that monarch, 
 on account of which he was created duke of Guise. He was 
 also governor of Cliani])agne, and died in 1550. 
 
 Aumale, Claude II. de Lorraine, Dut; d', third son 
 of the preceding, hihcrited from him this dukedom and that of 
 Lorraine; the dukedom of Guise going to his eldest brother. 
 He supported the Royalists, took a leading share in the massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew, and was killed at the siege of Roclielle. 
 
 AuJiALE, Charles de Lorraine, Due d', son and suc- 
 cessor of Claude II., was a keen supporter of the League. He 
 di'ieiuled Paris against Henry IV., and after the accession of 
 that prince, souglit employment at the court of Spain. 
 
 Aumale, Hen. Euo. Phil. Louis d'Orleans, Due d', 
 fourtli son of King Louis Pliilipiie, was bom in 1822. Choosing 
 the profession of anus, he served with some eclat in Africa 
 
 2
 
 AUM 
 
 290 
 
 AUR 
 
 under Generals Bugeaud and Baragiiay d'llilliers. He married, 
 in 18-1-1, a Neapolitan princess, daughter of the duke of Pa- 
 lermo ; and was again with the army in Algeria, when the recent 
 revolution compelled him to seek refuge with the other mem- 
 bers of his family in England. — W. B. 
 
 AUMONT, Jean D^bora 1522; died 19th August, 1595. 
 In 1579 Honry III. nominated him a marshal of France, and in 
 1589 he was one of the first to acknowledge Hem-y IV., who 
 made him governor of Champagne. He was at the battle of 
 Arques, and at that of Ivry, and was afterwards governor of 
 Brctagne, where he had to struggle with the duke of Mercceiir, 
 and the leaguers of the province. He was killed by a musket 
 shot at the siege of Camper, four leagues from Tours, — after 
 having served no less tlian six kings — Francis I., Henry II., 
 Francis II., Charles IX., Ilemy III., and Ileniy IV. 
 
 AUNARIUS, Saint, bishop of Auxerre, died in 605. In 
 581 he convoked a synod of the priests of his diocese, and drew 
 up forty-five canons for the regulation of the Christians of his 
 day. In these, all persons are forbidden " to disguise them- 
 selves on the 1st of January as stags or cattle, or to pay devil's 
 dues, or to assemble in private houses on the eve of festivals, or 
 to pay vows to trees or fountains, or to make figures of feet, or 
 of men, in linen. Laymen are also forbidden to dance in the 
 church, or to have singing girls there, or to hold feasts there." 
 
 AUNGEEVYLE, Kichard, commonly known by the name 
 of Richard ue Bury, was bom at Bury, in Suffolk, 1281. 
 His father, a knight, died while Richard was yet a child, so that 
 his education devolved upon his uncle, a priest. He distinguished 
 himself at Oxford, and aftenvards became a monk of Durham. 
 He was called from his soUtude to educate Prince Edward, after- 
 wards Edward III., who, on his accession to the throne, loaded 
 him with preferments, and eventually made hun bishop of Dur- 
 ham, to which see he was consecrated in 1333. In 1334 he was 
 made high chancellor, and in 1336 treasurer of England. 
 Aungervyle was one of the most learned men of the day, and 
 is said to have had more books than all the bishops of England 
 together. When he could not purchase books, he had them copied, 
 and kept persons for tliis pui-pose in his palace. He left his 
 books to the university of Oxford, placing them in a hall on the 
 site of the present Trinity college, and di-ew up rules for their 
 management in his " Philobiblon." At the dissolution of the 
 religious houses, they were moved to various collections. His 
 correspondence with Petrarch, also evidences his hteraiy attain- 
 ments. He died in 1345, and was bm-ied in Durham cathedral. 
 His Philobiblon was published at Spires in 1483, afterwards by 
 Dr. James in 1599.— J. B., 0. 
 
 * AUPICK, a French general, bom at Gravelines, 28th Feb- 
 raaiy, 1789. He was captain in 1815, and was severely 
 wounded at the battle of Liguy. He afterwards sei-yed in Spain 
 in 1823, and in Algeria in 1830. In 1847 he commanded the 
 Polytechnic school from the month of November, and after the 
 Revolution of February, 1848, he was sent as ambassador to 
 Constantinople, w^hich office he retained till 1851, when the 
 French government transferred his services to London. In a 
 few mouths he was replaced by Count Walewski, whom he suc- 
 ceeded at the court of Madrid. In concert with M. Perrot, 
 General Aupick has published "A Historical and Statistical 
 Atlas of France," Paris, 1823. 
 
 AURBACH or AUliPACH, Johannes d', a Gcnnan jmis- 
 tical writer, who lived in the fifteenth century, and was vicar of 
 Bamberg. His works are — " Sunima Magistri Johannis de 
 Aurbach Vicarii Bambergcnsis," printed at Augsburg in 1469 ; 
 " Directorimu Curatomm, Domini doctoris Aurbacli," 4to, with- 
 out date or printer's name. These are manuals drawn up from 
 the writings of the canonists. Both volumes, which are inter- 
 esting specimens of early typography, are contained in the 
 library of the British museum. Some other works of a similar 
 character bear the name Aurbach in their titles. It is doubtful 
 whether there was but one Joliann Aurbach, or more. Adelung 
 argues for the fomier alternative. — A. M. 
 
 AURBACIIER, Ludwig, bom in 1784 in Bavaria, died in 
 1847, relincjuished the clerical profession for that of pedagogy, 
 and was for some thne one of the masters in the military school 
 at Munich. He is author of " Pivdagogischc Phantasien " 
 (Pedagogic Fancies), Munich, 1838 ; and of the better known 
 " Adventures of Seven Suabians," which Karl Simrock turned 
 into verse under the title of " The Suabian Iliad." — A. M. 
 AURELLVN, E.Mi'EKui;, (L. Domitius Valerius Auue- 
 
 LiAJsrus,) was bom about a.d. 212, near Simiium in Pannonia. 
 His father was a peasant cultivating the estate of Aurelius, a 
 Roman senator, and his mother held an inferior office m a temple 
 of the sun in the neighbourhood. Natm-e had endowed him 
 with gi-eat bodily strength and activity, and he exhibited from 
 early youth that excessive delight m mihtary exercises which 
 was his great characteristic throughout life. He soon entered 
 the ranks of the Roman army, and is said to have killed nearly 
 a thousand men with his own hand in the course of a single 
 campaign against the Sannatians. He quickly rose to eminence 
 in his profession, and when militaiy tribune — an officer of whom 
 each legion had six- — defeated the Franks, who had crossed the 
 Rhine near Mentz, and now for the first time appear in history. 
 The date of this event is uncertain. In 257 he obtained a 
 signal victory over the Goths in Illyricum, for which he was 
 raised to the dignity of consid, and styled by Valerian the 
 liberator of IlljTia and restorer of Gaul. He had by this time 
 gained in the army the reputation of a severe and rigid disci- 
 plinarian. We hear nothing of Aiu-eUan under the reign of 
 Gallicnus, which lasted from 2G0 to 267; but he distmgidshed 
 himself highly in the gi'eat campaign of Claudius II. against the 
 Goths m 269, and was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 cavahy of the empire. On the death of Claudius, in August 
 next year, Aurelian was hailed as his successor by the legions 
 of Illp-icum. He found huuself opposed to Quintillus, the 
 brother of Claudius, who assumed the purple at Aquileia in 
 Italy. Quintillus, however, occasioned him but short anxiety, 
 for, being deserted by liis troops, he submitted to a vohmtary 
 death after a reign of seventeen days. 
 
 Ainxlian repaired to Rome, but was soon recalled mto Pan- 
 nonia I y an uivasion of the Goths. The evU was averted for 
 a time by the retreat of the barbarians after an obstmate engage- 
 ment; but meantime four confederated German tribes — the 
 Alemanni, the Jugonthi, the Slarcomanni, and the Vandals — 
 advanced from the north and threatened Italy. The emperor, 
 eager to cmsh these barbarian hordes, cut off their retreat, and 
 the Germans ui despau- pushed on for Rome. Aurelian was 
 defeated at Placentia, and the anxiety of the Roman populace 
 produced some seditions, which were punished, after the return 
 of peace, with extreme severity. He checked the invaders, 
 however, at Faiio, on the IMetauras, and at length drove them 
 out of Italy. 
 
 The indolence and worthlessness of Gallicnus had occasioned 
 and justified two formidable usurpations in the two extremities 
 of the empu-e. Odenathus, the Saracen king of Tadmor or 
 PalmjTa, had extended his power over Syria and Jlesopotaniia. 
 He paid allegiance to Gallicnus, and received from him the titL 
 and dignity of Augustus, in reward for his victories over Sapor, 
 king of Persia. But this privilege was not accorded to his 
 widow Zenobia, who inherited her husband's territories, and 
 augmented them by the acquisition of Cappadocia and Egj'pt. 
 Aurelian, in 272, marched against her, was victorious in two 
 pitched battles at Innnoe and Emessa, in Syria, and laid siege 
 to Palmyra. The city was not reduced till next year, but 
 Zenobia was first taken captive. Palmyra was plundered and 
 abandoned to ruin, the mhabitants having revolted again as 
 soon as the emperor's back was tumed. 
 
 Gaul, Spain, and Britain had been separated from the body 
 of the empire by Cassianus Postumus about A.d. 260. These 
 countries now acknowledged the sway of C. Pesuvius Tetricus, 
 who, having reigned with little distm-bance for six years, fell 
 before Aurehan in 273, voluntarily placing himself in the hands 
 of his rival at the battle of Chalons on the Marne. Tetricus 
 and Zenobia graced the triumph of the conqueror. The next 
 warlike expedition undertaken by Am-elian was directed against 
 Vararanes, king of Persia. But the ferocity of his militaiy 
 discipline, and the harshness of his character, raised against him 
 a numerous conspiracy among his officers, and he was assassi- 
 nated at Csenophi-urium in Thrace, where he waited for fair 
 weather to cross into Asia, in Jlarch, 275, iu the fif'th year of 
 his reign. 
 
 The Christian church enjoyed comparative peace under the 
 sway of this emperor. In the beginning of his reign he was 
 appealed to by the catholic party in the East to eject Paul of 
 Samosata, bishop of Antioch, who had been deposed by a 
 council, but refused to resign the possessions of the chiu-ch. 
 Am-elian referred the question to the bishops of Italy (Euseb , 
 II. E. VII. 30), and upon receivuig then- decision against Paul, ■
 
 expelled him. But he gave way at length to the popular feeling 
 against the Christians, and left at his death an edict directed 
 against them, which afterwards caused the ninth persecution. 
 Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who ventured to assume 
 duiing his hfe the arrogant and impious titles of Dominus and 
 Deus, and to wear the regal diadem. The province of Dacia, 
 conquered hy Trajan, was abandoned dming his reign, a.d. 274, 
 and the fortifications of Eome, afterwards completed by Probus, 
 began soon after the suppression of the Gennan invasion — 
 melancholy indications of the diminishing strength of the empire. 
 The hfe of Aurelian was written by the historian Vopiscus 
 towards the end of the centuiy. There is some unceiiainty as 
 to the order of the events in this reign. — A. H. P. 
 
 AURELIO, king of the Asturias, second half of eighth cen- 
 tury. His memory is associated with the disgrace of fulfilhng 
 a treaty, whereby a number of Christian maidens should be sent 
 yearly as a tribute to the Moorish kings. 
 
 AURELIO, Giovanni JIuzeo, an Italian poet of the first 
 half of the sixteenth century, praised by Scaliger as having 
 attained to the elegance of Catullus. Two of his poems are con- 
 tained in the "Cannina Illustrium Poetarum Italonmi." 
 
 AURELIO or AURELIUS, Ltjdovico, Italian historian and 
 savant, died 1637. He wrote "Ristretto delle Storie del Monde 
 di Orazio Trossellino Gesuita;" last edition, Venice, 1653; and 
 "Annales Cardmahs Baronii" (his principal work), which has 
 been several times reprinted. 
 
 AURELIO or AURELIUS, a Venetian poet, 1700. 
 
 AURELIUS, a painter of the time of Augustus, who was said 
 to have drawn his goddesses in the likeness of his mistresses. 
 
 AURELIUS, jEgidius, a Swedish savant of the seventeenth 
 century. His works are " Ai-ithmetica Practica;" Upsal, 1614; 
 "Calendarinm Novum CEconomicum, ab 1645, usque ad 1G65." 
 
 AURELIUS, Cornelius, Dutch historian, who thus Lati- 
 nized his family name of Sopsen. He lived in the fifteenth and 
 beginning of sixteenth century. He was preceptor to Erasmus, 
 and wrote some works now Uttle kno^vn. 
 
 AURELIUS, Opilius. See Orii.ius. 
 
 AURELIUS, Phillipus. See Piiillipus. 
 
 AURELIUS, Verus, a Latin historian of the third century. 
 
 AURELIUS, Victor Sextus, a Latin historian, middle of 
 fourth century. Of African origin, and come of obscure parents, 
 he devoted himself to letters. The Emperor Julian appointed 
 him governor of Pannonia. Theodosius afterwards gave him the 
 prefecture of the city; and in 373 he divided the consulate 
 with Valentinian. He remained steadily attached to the pagan 
 faith, and even recommended it in his works. Of these, the 
 only really authentic specimen which we have, is that called 
 " De Cssaribus," containing the biogi'aphies of the emperors, 
 from Augustus to Constantius. That called " Origo Geutis 
 Romana;," tliough going under his name, has been attributed to 
 Asconius Pedianus ; and that entitled " De Viribus Illustribus 
 Urbis Roma;," also bearing his name, has been fathered on Pliny 
 the younger, Conielius Nepos, and iEmilius Probus. The last 
 edition is that by Amtzenius, 1733. — A. L. 
 
 AURELIUS ANTONINUS, JIarcus, commonly called the 
 "Philosopher," was bom at Rome in the Ca^lian mount, 26th of 
 April, A.D. 121. His father, Annius Verus, claimed descent 
 from King Numa, and his mother, Domitia Calvilla, called also 
 Lucilla, was said to liave sprimg from a Salentinian king. 
 Many of his relatives held important offices in the state. His 
 father died while Marcus was yet young, and he was adopted 
 into the family of liis grandfather, Annius Verus, by wliose 
 name he was called. Before this he had been probably called 
 Catilius Sevcrus, though on the day of naming he may have 
 received the name of Annius Verus. From infancy ^larcus 
 was sedate, and this gi-avily was fostered by the intense 
 care that was taken to give him as complete an educa- 
 tion as possible. No sooner was he beyoiul the years of the 
 nurseiy, than he was smroundcd by teadiers, who instructed 
 him in music, geometry, and Latin and Greek literature. The 
 most famous of these teachers were Ilerodes Atticus and Corne- 
 lius Fronto. He aftenvards enjoyed the prelections of Sextus of 
 Cha?ronca, said to be the grandson of Plutarch, and those of Ju- 
 nius Rusticus. So precocious was the boy, that in his twelfth year 
 he jmt on the philosopher's robe, and for the rest of his life he con- 
 timu'd a stoic. The result of so early and so severe application to 
 ])hiloso])hical studies, was, as might have been expected, a weak 
 constitution, of which he never got rid all his life. He tried in- 
 
 deed to prevent the effects of hard mental labour, and he enjoyed 
 wrestling, boxing, racing, bird-catching, ball-playing, and hunt- 
 ing. But his learned pursuits were too powerful attractions 
 against such exercises. While yet a child, he became a very 
 great favourite with the Emperor Hadrian, who loaded him with 
 honours, making him a knight when six years old, and a Salian 
 priest when eight. In his fifteenth year he was betrothed to the 
 daughter of L. Caesar, at the request of HaiWan, who had ap- 
 pointed L. Cfcsar his heir. On the death of L. Cassar, which 
 took place in the eighteenth year of ilarcus, Antoninus Pius was 
 selected as heir on condition of his adopting Marcus ; and thus 
 Marcus became an inmate of the palace. He lived there with 
 the same moderation and self-denial which had characterized his 
 previous life. During the long reign of Antoninus Pius, which 
 lasted from 138 to 161 A.D., we hear nothing of Marcus except 
 his elevation to the highest honours. He lived on the most inti- 
 mate teiTns with the emperor, aided him in his counsels, and was 
 greatly beloved by him. He married Faustina, the daughter of 
 the emperor, the match with the daughter of L. Cffisar having 
 been broken oft' on account of disparity of age. When Antoninus 
 Pius was dying, he called all his friends and chief officers toge- 
 ther, pointed out and commended Marcus as his successor, and 
 ordered the golden image of Fortune to be straightway carried to 
 the chamber of I\Iarcus. On his elevation to the throne, Marcus 
 gave the son of Lucius Ca;sar an equal share in the goveranient, 
 and henceforth they reigned together imder the names of M. 
 Aurelius Antoninus and L. Am'elius Verus. The first year of 
 Marcus's government gave him plenty of trouble. For a war 
 broke out in Parthia, a British war was threatening, and the 
 Catti had poured into the Roman province in Germany and into 
 Rhoetia. In addition to this, the Tiber overflowed its banks, 
 canying granaries away, destroying a vast number of cattle, and 
 spreading wide distress and destitution. IMaixus was unremit- 
 ting in liis exertions to relieve the suffering citizens of Rome, 
 and made preparations against the foreign foes. Marcus himself 
 remained in Rome, actively employed in attending to foreign 
 affairs and in framing wise laws. He appointed registrations of 
 bu-ths and deaths both at Rome and in the provinces ; he made 
 new laws with regard to guardians, public expenses, and infonu- 
 ers; he took great care of the roads, and he made some wise 
 regulations with regard to public games. He was very diligent, 
 too, in his attendance at the senate ; and was sure to examine 
 himself any criminal case where the sentence of death was likely 
 to be pronounced. About that time a war vnth the Marcomanni 
 broke out, and in the very same year a most fearful pestilence 
 raged throughout Rome, canying off thousands. To such straits 
 was he brought by these wars, that, unwilling to extort money 
 from the provinces, he made a public sale of the imperial orna- 
 ments, crystal and myrrhine cups, the silk and gold-embroidered 
 female robes, and many other valuables which he had found in 
 the secret treasuiy of Hadrian. Marcus went to the East, and 
 after visiting SjTia, Asia Minor, Egj-pt, and Greece, returned to 
 Rome. Wars in the Nortli again burst forth, and JIarcus left 
 Rome, never to return. He died cither at Vienna or at Sirmium, 
 on the 17th of March, 180 a.d. As to his behaviom- towards 
 the Christians, he has been accused of coiantenancing the per- 
 secutions that took place against them in Gaul and elsewhere. 
 This accusation rests on three grounds. 1. He wrote, in an- 
 swer to a question proposed to him by the president of the 
 Gauls, that " if the Christians confessed tliey should be con- 
 demned to death, and that the rest should forthwith be set free. 
 2. It is regarded as vciy improbable that persecutions could go 
 on in any part of the Roman empire without the sanction of 
 Marcus. 3. The fact that so many apologies were addressed to 
 him, shows that the Christians apprehended danger. Now, the 
 first reason is set aside when we remember that tlic Chri:>tians 
 were accused of the most hideous crimes, of nuudering infants, 
 of eating human flesh, and of the most licentious conduct. Mar- 
 cus's direction is therefore far more sensibly inteqireted as mean- 
 ing, that if they confessed to such hideous crimes, they sliould be 
 put to death. And this is in consonance with the scntinu'nts of 
 Marcus, as expressed in his Meditations, and with a genuine let- 
 ter of liis handed down by ICuscbius. " If any one," he says, 
 " causes trouble to any one, siniidy because he is a Christian, let 
 the person informed against be acquitted, althougji it be plain 
 that he is a Christian, but the informer shall be punished." Nor 
 is the second reason of much weight. Marcus would no doul>t 
 hear of the persecutions of tlie Christians, but the accounts
 
 AUR 
 
 292 
 
 AUR 
 
 he would receive would be that they had been punished for 
 capital crimes. There was, however, no instance of martyr- 
 dom in Rome, the city of martyrs, during the time in which 
 Marcus lived there. Maicus's treatment of the Christians is 
 often said to be the only stain on his character. He has been 
 universally rej;;arJed as one of earth's noblest sons, full of Idnd- 
 ness, very patient, very indulgent to the faults of others, deal- 
 ing very harshly with his own, respectful and attentive to all, 
 and combining in no common dcgi-ee the thoughtfulness of a 
 philosopher with the practical power of a statesman and a gene- 
 ral. Unfortunately the facts of his life are naixated by very 
 superficial writers, so that they seldom give us insight into the 
 real man. lie is best seen in his work, commonly called " The 
 Meditations." These are jottings in his diaiy. We find him 
 now examining himself, now strengthening his mind for endur- 
 ance, now consoling himself amid trials, and now bracing him- 
 self for manly exertion. His philosophy was stoicism, softened 
 and sweetened by his own gentle nature. The two poles of his 
 creed were, tliat the happiness of a human being was entirely 
 dependent on himself, and that every one is sent into this world to 
 Work for the common good. By the first he became the thorough 
 stoic. All depended upon one's own opinions. Pain was not 
 pain, if one could only think that it was not pain. " See to 
 your opinions," therefore, is his pei-petual advice. And this mis- 
 chievous element in his philosophy he seems to have introduced 
 into liis life ; for he resolutely shut his eyes to the conduct of 
 his -nife, adopted brother, and son, and made himself thi ik, or 
 pretended to think, differently from what any man ^vith ordinary 
 discernment could think. The tendency too of this stoical senti- 
 ment was isolation. He felt he was independent of the world, 
 of its opmions and its passions, and he would have looked down 
 upon it, had there not been a countei-poise. There was a strong 
 counterpoise, and therefore there is little of intellectual haughti- 
 ness in the ^leditations. He deeply felt that he was only a small 
 part of the whole — one chord in the great harmony of the uni- 
 verse, and that it was his bounden duty on all occasions to forget 
 himself and work for the human race. And belie\-ing, as he did, 
 that no soul was willingly deprived of the trath, he is always 
 charitable towards the mistakes and failings of his fellow-men. 
 Besides this, he is deeply impressed with the shortness of life. 
 A calm melancholy pervades the whole of the ]\Ieditations, as if 
 the writer were impressed with the idea that all things here are 
 full of change, that he and his fellow-men, vnih all then- pas- 
 sions and triflings, vrill soon give way to others, anii that only 
 the ruling faculty of the mind, that which emanates from and 
 belongs to the Duector of the imiverse, will never perish. Be- 
 sides the Meditations, Marcus wrote Constitutions which are fre- 
 quently referred to by lawyers of a later era ; and recently a con- 
 siderable number of his letters, addressed to Fronto, have been 
 discovered and published. His Meditations have been translated 
 into English, French, German, and Italian, having always been 
 admired by noble and deeply religious mhids. — J. D. 
 
 AUREOLUS, Caius, or JIaxius Acilius Aureolus, a 
 usurper, who proclaimed himself emperor of Rome in the reign 
 of Gallienus, a.d. 267. He was originally a shepherd, but en- 
 tered the military semee and attained the rank of general in the 
 reign of Valerian. Gallienus defeated him in a pitched battle, 
 fought, it is supposed, somewhere between Milan and Bergamo. 
 He resumed his anns in the succeeduig reign, l)ut was obliged 
 to suiTcnder to Claudius II., who put him to death, a.d. 268. 
 
 AURIA, GiAX DoMENico d', a distinguished Neapolitan 
 sculptor of the sixteenth century. He was a pupil and fellow- 
 labourer of Giovanni da Nola. Amongst the many works he 
 contributed to the embellishment of Naples, the Fontanaa Jledina, 
 on the "largo" of Castel Nuovo, stands foremost. — -R. M. 
 
 AURIA, JosEi'H, a Neapolitan of the middle of the sbctecnth 
 century. He belongs to the cla.ss of geometers which contains 
 Commandin, Maurolycus, Barozzi, &c., &c., who did Phuope the 
 invaluable sen-ice of translating the best scientific works of 
 antiquity. Auria published the interesting treatise of Theodo- 
 sius, " De Diebus et Noctibus." 
 
 AURIA, ViNCENZO, a celebrated Sicilian antiquary and poet, 
 bom at Palermo in 1625. He studied law at the university of 
 Catania, and took his degree of doctor hi 1652, but shortly after 
 abandoned his ^^ews towards the legal profession, and devoted 
 himself to letters. His published works are exceedingly nume- 
 rous. He died in 1710. 
 
 AURIFABER (GOLDSCHMID), Johann, a German 
 
 di\-ine, was an intimate friend of Luther, and took an active 
 interest in the publication of the reformer's works. He edited 
 the "Letters of Luther" in two volumes, and the " Table Talk" 
 Died at Erfurt in 1575. 
 
 AURIFERI, Behxakdius, a Sicihan botanist, bom in 1739 ; 
 pubhshed in 1789 " Hortus Panormitanus," a valuable account 
 of the plants in the royal gardens of Palermo. Died in 1796. 
 
 AURIOL, Blaise d', a French jurist and poet, professor of 
 canon law in the university of Toulouse, died in 1548. He was 
 created a knight on the occasion of Francis the First's visit to 
 Toulouse. He left some poems and some professional works. 
 
 AURIOL (AUREOLUS), Pierre d,' a celebrated French 
 theologian of the foiuleenth century', was a native of Toulouse, 
 and belonged to the order of the Cordeliers. He succeeded Duns 
 Scotus in one of the chairs of the university of Paiis, and after- 
 wards filled the ai-chiepiscopal see of Aix. 
 
 AURISPA, Gioy^AXxi, a leamed Italian, was bom at Noto, 
 in Sicily, about 1369 ; collected a number of Greek MSS. at 
 Constantinople, became apostolic secretary to the popes Eugenius 
 IV. and Nicholas V., and died in 1459. He took a very pro- 
 minent part in the revival of learning in modern Eiu-ope. 
 
 AURIVILLIUS, Karl, a distinguished Oriental scholar, was 
 bora at Stockholm in 1717, and stuilied at Jena, Paris, Ley den, 
 and Upsala, of which latter he became secretar}', after the death 
 of Linnffius in 1767. In 1773 he was appointed one of the 
 commissioners for preparing a new Swedish version of the Bible, 
 for which he translated the greater part of the Old Testament. 
 
 AURIVILLIUS, Magnus, a Swedish theologian, who was 
 bom in 1673, attended Charles XII. as chaplain at Pultowa 
 and Bender, and was afterwards a member of the court which 
 condemned Baron Gortz to death for assisting Charles. 
 
 AURIVILLIUS, Peiir Fabian, the son of Karl, was bora 
 in 1756, and studied at the university of Upsala, where he 
 became librarian, and professor of classical litei-ature, posts which 
 he retained until his death in 1829. His arrangement of the 
 library appears to have been inconvenient. 
 
 AUROGALLUS, (Goldhahn) Matthias, a philologian, 
 who was born in Bohemia, became the friend of Luther, and 
 rector of the imiversity of Wittenberg, where he died in 1543. 
 
 AUROGALLUS, I^Iattileus, a gi-ammarian of the era of 
 the Reformation, bom in 1480 at Commettau ui Bohemia, He 
 seems to have Latinized his Bohemian name, in compliance vnth 
 a custom common hi those times. (Melancthon, Greek form of 
 Schwartzcrdt, black earth ; (Ecolampadius, Greek for Hauschein, 
 house-light.) Am-ogallus was professor of Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew in the miiversity of Wittenberg, of which seat of learn- 
 ing he became rector in 1542, but died the following ye;u-. He 
 was intimate with Luther, and materially aided him by his 
 scholarship when the reformer was engaged in translating the 
 Bible into German. Aurogallus published the following works: 
 — " De Ebrwis m-bium, regionum, populorum, fluminum, mon- 
 tium, et aliorum loconun nominibus," &c., Wittenberg, 1526, 
 8vo ; " Grammatica Hebrseae Chaldaiaeque Lingua?," Bale, 1539, 
 8vo ; " Psalmi Davidis cmn versione mterlineari Santis Pagnini," 
 Antwerp, 1608, 8vo; " Collectio Gnomicomm, cum CaUimachi 
 Hvmnis, Gracisque in illos Scholiis," Basil, 1532, 4to. Tliere 
 is extant an intimation of the death of Am-ogallus, made by his 
 successor in the chair, to the other members of the university 
 of Wittenberg, mviting them to assemble before the house of the 
 deceased scholar, and accompany the corpse to the place of in- 
 terment. Jlr. Robert Browning has, with singular power and 
 originality, thrown into a poetic form precisely such an invitation 
 as this in his work entitled " Jlen and Women." — A. M. 
 
 AURUNCUS, Postiilmius Pominius, a Roman who lived 
 in the fifth centmy u.c, and was consul at the time when the 
 Plebs withdrew to the Mons Sacer. 
 
 AURUNGZEBE, or AURANGZIB, Mogul emperor of Hin- 
 dostan, born 22nd October, 1618, ascended the throne of Deliii 
 in August, 1658, and died at Almiednuggur on the 21st of 
 February, 1707, in the eighty-ninth year of his age and fiftieth 
 of his reign. His proper name was Mohammed, but he received 
 from his grandfather the designation Aurangzib, or " ornament 
 of the throne," to which on his accession he added Mohi-eddin, 
 " reviver of religion," and Alem-gir, " the conqueror of the 
 world." He was the son of Shah-Djehan and the empress 
 Mchd-Alia, and the great-grandson of Akbar Khan. His 
 mother, the empress, died in 1631, leaving fom- sons — Dara, the 
 eldest and heir to the throne, Shujah, Aunmgzebe, and JIurad ;.
 
 and two daughters — Padisliah and Kaslinara. To his sister 
 Kashnara Aiirungzebe is said to have been indebted for much of 
 his success in his struggles with the other members of the 
 imperial family. 
 
 The first period of Am-ungzebe's career extends from his 
 entrance on public life, at the age of fourteen, to the year 1G57, 
 during which he bore the title of Shahzadeh, or prince imperial. 
 He appears early to have conceived the project of seating him- 
 self on the throne, and to have made such preparations as could 
 not fail to be serviceable, if the chapter of accidents — seldom 
 wanting in an eastern dynasty — were to present the fitting 
 occasion to his ready ambition. He therefore was temperate as 
 became a Mahomedan, subtle as became a schemer, active 
 as became an aspu-ing prince, brave as became an ambitious 
 soldier. But his qualities were devoted to the ends and pur- 
 poses of his own advancement, and he made use of them like 
 tools to make or to mend his fortune. He enlisted the bigot in 
 his ser\'ice by a close attention to the stricter rules of his faith, 
 and caught the priesthood by the simjile art which has seldom 
 been known to fail — the promise of their supremacy over 
 heretics or infidels. The pradent ranged themselves on his side 
 from his apparent sagacity and extreme deference of manner. 
 Like Absalom, he stole the hearts of the people, and made a 
 powerful party in circumstances where there was no Joab. 
 His elder brother Dara was the advocate of liberal opinions, and 
 held that the diftcrences between the Hindoos and the Maho- 
 medans were of minor importance, and need not interfere with 
 the poUtical equality of those who professed the fiiith of Brah- 
 mah. Amiingzebe thereupon stood forth as the champion of 
 the Moslem faith in all its purity and exclusiveness. His next 
 brother, Shujah, was a wine drinker — a latitudinarian in the 
 ceremonies and practices as Dara was in the creed. Aiu'ungzcbe 
 therefore drew the bands of his ceremonialism as tight as the 
 dogmas of his belief. His third brother Murad was a sensualist. 
 Aurungzebe therefore appeared as the pm'ist in morals. His 
 policy was based upon a knowlege of human nature, and it led 
 to personal success. In 1657, when Aurungzebe was nearly 
 forty years of age, the Emperor Shah-Djehan was seized with an 
 illness which held out little prospect of recovery, and the 
 princes commenced their strife. Dara was at Delhi. Shujah 
 was governor of Bengal ; Aurungzebe, of the Deccan ; and 
 Murad, of Guzerat. The imperial authority fell, of com'se, into 
 the hands of Dara, and he exercised it in a manner which soon 
 provoked hostilities. He interdicted all communication with his 
 three brothers ; seized at the capital their papers, theu- agents, 
 and their goods ; and showed that he was prepared to reduce 
 them to submission to himself, if not even to suspend and sujjcr- 
 sede their power. Shujah at once took arms, and Aurungzebe 
 prudently watched the result, thinldng it better to allow his 
 elder brothers to exhaust then- forces in the first place. With 
 his younger brother he temporized, leading IMurad to suppose 
 that his amljition was rather that of the saint than of the sove- 
 reign, and that he would help Mm-ad to the throne. The 
 armies of the two elder brothers met at Mongcer, and Shujah 
 wa-s defeated ; Dara's army being commanded by his eldest son, 
 Suliman. Aurungzebe and Murad then advanced with theu- 
 joint forces, and gave battle to the victors, defeating the young 
 general. Dara then appeared in person with his whole force ; 
 but Aunmgzebe had gained over the generals of the imperial 
 party, and Dara was compelled to take to fiight, seeking refuge 
 in Agra. Shah-Djehan, however, was still alive, and he made 
 overtures to Aurungzebe, expecting to draw him into his power 
 by proffers of peace. The trap was too apparent, but the prince 
 accepted it, and used it for the capture of his father, whom he 
 thenceforth detained a prisoner, but at the same time lavished 
 on the old Mogul all the luxuries of an eastern palace. Au- 
 rungzebe's power was now indis))utable, and he was crowned in 
 the garden of Izzabad, near Delhi, 2nd August, 1G58. Dara 
 and Murad were put to death, and Shujah after many adven- 
 tures came to a violent end in Arracan. 
 
 Aumngzebe's long reign was more remarkable for its internal 
 policy than for its outward events. In some respects it may be 
 compared to the reign of Louis XIV. of France. Both reigns 
 were of unusual duration and of unquestionable brilliancy. In 
 both the monarch was a personage of note, endowed with qiudi- 
 ties that leave their traces in the annals of courts. In both 
 there appeared to be a culmin.ation — but a culmination which was 
 only the precm'sor to extensive changes. Both monarchs framed 
 
 theu- policy upon a strict adherence to their own form of religion, 
 and, by so doing, sowed the seeds of national convulsion or na- 
 tional decay. They were the monarchs of sects rather than of 
 nations ; and if it be true that Louis XIV. by the obliteration of 
 the protestants of Franco, prepared the way for the after revo- 
 lution, it may also be said that Aurungzebe, by his exclusive ad- 
 herence to his Mahomedan faith, prepared the way for the down- 
 fall of the Mogul dominion. The first years of his reign were 
 years of peace and of apparent prosperity. But even then the 
 Mahratta power was beginning to acquu'e strength under the 
 guidance of the chief Sewadji, who had been insulted by Amauig- 
 zebe, and who ever after maintained a hostile front to the Mussul- 
 man emperor of Delhi. The Rajpoots also, a race of high caste 
 Hindoos from whom the Se])oy troops of Bengal in after years 
 derived a large portion of their recruits, were alienated by the 
 distinctions of religion enforced by theiemperor; and the Hindoos 
 at large were exasperated by the imposition of the jczia or capi- 
 tation-tax, and by the Mahomedan outrages on their idolatrous 
 temples and the edifices devoted to their Hindoo superstitions. 
 But nevertheless, Aurungzebe was an able administrator, and 
 possessed those characteristics which have left to certain Maho- 
 medan princes the reputation of rectitude and discrimination. In 
 time of famine he remitted the taxes of the husbandmen and 
 cultivators of the soil; conveyed grain to destitute districts; 
 opened his treasury to the national necessities, and set the ex- 
 ample of rigid economy by curtailing the luxuries of the court. 
 But his virtues, like his vices, were those that may be found in 
 the history of princes, only half-way on the road to ci^'ilization. 
 They look picturesque at a distance, but they combine with the 
 crimes that never fail to appear in tlie annals of Mahomedan 
 despotism. 
 
 In 1GG3 Aurungzebe attempted the conqixest of Assam by his 
 general the Ameer Jamla, of whom he entertained a certain 
 amomit of jealousy, and who had been one of his firmest adher- 
 ents. The expedition was at first successful, and amassed a 
 considerable amount of plunder; but the rainy season came on, 
 and brought with it a destructive fever which thinned the ranks of 
 the Slongols and forced them to retire. Jamla was carried off 
 by fhe disease, and the emperor, according to Bernier, remarked 
 to the son of the general, " You have lost a father, and I the 
 greatest and most redoubtable of my friends." In the following 
 year he resorted to the valley of Cashmere for the restoration of 
 his health, and it was dvuing this period that Sewadji pillaged 
 the city of Surat, captured some vessels intended for the pilgi'ims 
 to Mecca, and commenced his predatory war which was to de- 
 velope the Mahratta power. In 1G66 the old emperor Shah- 
 Djehan died, and it has been inferred that Aurungzebe must 
 have poisoned him; but the insinuation is not supported by con- 
 temporary authority, nor does there appear to have been a mo- 
 tive for the superfluous murder. After the year 1G70 the Mongol 
 power was more severely tried, and the Mahrattas even gained a 
 victory over their Mussulman foes in a pitched battle fought in 
 1672. The Affghans also showed a hostile disposition, and the 
 emperor was obliged to head his forces against the mountaineei-s. 
 In 1G7G Aurungzebe commenced his attack upon the Hindoos 
 by the vexatious and impolitic measures which divided his sub- 
 jects into favoured and unfavoured sects. In 1679 the capita- 
 tion-tax was enforced, and the Rajpoots were arrayed against the 
 throne. In 1G80 Sewadji died, and was succeeded by his son, 
 who had the misfortune to fall into the hands of the emperor, 
 and was put to death with gi-cat cnielty. After l(i8S Aurung- 
 zebe made himself master of the kingdoms of Goleonda and 
 lk>japoor, with the intention of devoting his energies to the 
 subjugation of the Mahrattas, and this struggle occupied him to 
 the end of his life. As he grew old he gi'ew suspicious, and not 
 without reason. He was apprehensive that his father's fate 
 might be bis own, and that his son might jilay over again the 
 usual course of eastern ambition. Thoughts of Dara antl Murad 
 would perpetually recur, and his corres))ondence reveals the 
 vanity and vexation of his existence. Eiulowed with a compa- 
 ratively high intelligence, he had seen the em]iire of Akbar be- 
 ginning to fade, and to crumble under the imjicy which he had 
 inaugurated, and whicli a long reign had enaiiled him to bring 
 to perfection. The JMussulmans of India regard him as the 
 greatest of their sovereigns; and in a region where perpetual 
 war is only to bo averted by the substitution of despotism, ho 
 is ])erhaps entitled to the honour of administering the affairs of 
 Hindostan with less than the usual rapacity and bloodshed. But
 
 AUS 
 
 2D4 
 
 AUS 
 
 Iiis traditinn.ll popularity among the llussulmans of the East 
 must be attributed quite as much to their present prejudices in 
 favour of a Mussulman rale, as to any great deeds which can be 
 found in the history of Alem-gir. He represents in tlie popular 
 estimation of India, the greatness of the empire whicli the Mus- 
 sulmans have once more attempted to revive at Delhi, by means 
 not dissimilar to those that enabled Aurangzebe to reach the 
 Mogul throne. He died at Ahmednuggm- in the Deccan, on the 
 21st Februaiy, 1707, master of twenty-one provinces, and of a 
 revenue of about forty millions sterling. In the early part of 
 his reign he had cautioned the penmen of his empire against 
 writing histoiy, and to this circumstance the world of letters is 
 indebted for a more truthfid account than could, in all proba- 
 bility, have appeared under his own eye, or during his lifetime. 
 A private record was kept by JIahommed Hashein at Delhi, and 
 published in the reign of Jlahommed Shah, who conferred on 
 the writer the title of Kliafi Khan, (Khafi, Concealer.') From 
 this work the Hon. Mountstuart Elpldnstone derived the mate- 
 rials for that portion of his "History of India" wliich relates 
 to the reign of AmTingzebe. Bernier, a French physician, who 
 resided for twelve years in India, and officiated professionally at 
 the court of the emperor, has also left an account of the empire 
 in his " Voyages et Description de I'Empire Jlogol." — P. E. D. 
 
 AUSOXIUS, D. Magnus, a Latin poet of the fourth century, 
 bom in 309. He tells us that he was a native of Burdigala 
 (Bordeaux), and that his father, Julius Ausonius, was a physi- 
 cian. Ausonius became a teacher of grammar and then rhe- 
 toric, and attained so gi-eat fame in that capacity that the Em- 
 peror Valcntinian invited him to the palace, as teacher to 
 Gratianus, and bestowed on him gi-eat honours. He was sub- 
 sequently raised to the consulship by the Emperor Gratianus, 
 his fonner pupil. He spent his last days comfortably in his 
 native city, and died in the reign of Theodosius, considerably 
 advanced in years. His poems treat of a great variety of suli- 
 jects. Some are on famous cities; others describe the teachers 
 in Bordeaux ; others are devoted to the memory of his friends 
 and the wise men of Greece ; the epitaphs of heroes, and the 
 Caesars, form the subjects of others. Ausonius had no idea 
 of the true nature of poetry or its aims. Stringing words into 
 rhythm was an amusement to him, and seems to have given 
 enjoyment to one or two of the emperors, for whom he says he 
 wrote some of his ridiculous verses. He thought of nothing 
 beyond this but the exhibition of his rhetoric, learning, and 
 mechanical ingenuity. His ingenuity was stretched to its utmost 
 in attempts to fashion the most absurd fonns of verses. He has 
 one poem where every line begins and ends with a monosyllabic 
 word, the word at the end of the first line being also the first of 
 the second, and so on. He has another called the " Nuptial 
 Cento," composed entirely of extracts from Virgil, the first half 
 of a line being taken from one part and the other from anotlier. 
 Altogether, more tasteless effusions than these much bepraised 
 poems of Ausonius could scarcely be conceived. They arc wholly 
 and irredeemably bad in substance, though curious and not alto- 
 gether inelegant in form. The poem that has been most praised, 
 the " Jlosella," one of his idyls, is no exception. It is full of 
 learned jargon, a whole catalogue of fishes being introduced. 
 Perhaps the best l)it in it is a description of the movements of a 
 fish when hooked and brought to land. A question has been 
 raised as to whether Ausonius was a Christian or not, but there 
 can be no doubt that he was a Christian by name, education, and 
 profession. In one poem, wliich perhaps is too good to be his, 
 he describes his daily habits, and among these he mentions his 
 prayers to the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost ; and anotlier poem 
 testifies, in a similar way, to his doctrinal belief. But his epi- 
 grams show that he was at heart a heathen. — J. D. 
 
 AUSSERRE or AUXERRE, Piekke d', a French avocat, 
 bora at Lyons about 1530; died 1595. He was the first to con- 
 vey to Lyons the news of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and 
 was the principal instigator of the Lyonese vespers. In 1593 
 he was named first president of the parhamcnt of Toulouse when 
 it was transfeiTcd to Bezi{>rs. 
 
 AUSSIGNY, TiiiBAULD d', a bishop of Orleans in the fif- 
 teenth century, author of a " History of the Siege of Orleans 
 and of the Doings of Joan the JIaid." 
 
 AUSTEN, Jane, was bom December 16, 1775, at Steventon, 
 in Hampshire, of which parish her father was rector. Mr. Aus- 
 ten, who is stated to have been a highly cultivated and aceom- 
 plislied man, took considerable pains with his daughter's educa- 
 
 tion, rendering it superior to what was the custom then to bestow 
 on females in her rank of life. Jliss Austen is said to have been 
 beautiful, and possessed of fascinating manners. During the last 
 years of the rector's life the family resided chiefly at Batli ; on 
 his decease, his widow and two daughters retired to Southamp- 
 ton, where they remained tOl 1817, and afterwards, to the village 
 of Chawton, in the same county, at which place Jane WTOte her 
 novels. In the siunmer of 1817, she was forced by declining 
 liealth to forsake retirement and seek proper medical advice. 
 She went to Winchester, and there expired on the 24th July of 
 that year, aged forty-two, and was buried in the cathedral. 
 
 Miss Austen published her first novel, "Sense and Sensibility," 
 in 1811, which soon attracted attention, and the authoress re- 
 ceived £150 from its profits. "Pride and Prejudice," "Mans- 
 field Park," and " Emma " followed. After her death her friends 
 published " Northanger Abbey," and " Persuasion ; " the first 
 being her earliest and poorest performance, the latter, completed 
 but a short time before her death, the most finished, and, in 
 certain passages of pathos, surpassing all the rest. 
 
 Miss Austen's novels are occupied with delineations of English 
 society in the middle and higher ranks. Her characters are the 
 most eveiy-day characters, and her incidents the most eveiy-day 
 incidents. There is nothing to startle the reader in her pages. 
 Her books contain nothing more exciting than a village ball, or 
 the gossip at a village spinster's tea-table ; nothing more tragic 
 than the overturning of a chaise in a soft ditch, or a party being 
 caught in a shower going to churcli. Miss Austen has little 
 humour. Her ridicule is refined and feminine. There is never 
 more than a smile upon her hps. In her o^ti delicate walk she 
 is without a rival. There are scarcely any books so perfect as 
 hers within their limits. Never was there such exquisite man- 
 ners-painting; never was English middle-class life, with its little 
 vanities, its petty spites, its quiet vh'tues, so delicately and tnitli- 
 fully rendered. 
 
 Miss Austen knew perfectly her own strengtli. In a letter to 
 a friend she compares her productions to "a little bit of ivoiy, 
 two inches thick," in which she worked " with a brush so fine, 
 as to produce little eft'ect after much labour." Although never 
 violently popuLu" — her merits are much too exquisite for that — - 
 she has received ample recognition and fame. Dr. Whatety, now 
 archbishop of Dublin, made her works the subject of an elabo- 
 rate article in the Quarterly Renew in 1821. The Edinburgh 
 Re\'iew also spoke highly in her praise, and Sir Walter Scott 
 enters the following sentences in his diarj', after reading " Pride 
 and Prejudice " for the thu'd time : — " That young lady had a 
 talent for describing the involvements, and feelhigs, and charac- 
 ters of ordinary life, which is to me the most wonderful I ever 
 met with. The big how rcow strain I can do myself, like any 
 now going ; but the exquisite touch that renders ordinary com- 
 monplace things and characters interesting, from the truth of 
 the description and the sentunent, is denied me. What a pity 
 such a gifted creature died so early."— A. S. 
 
 AUSTEN or AUSTIN, William, an English brass-caster of 
 the fourteenth centmy. He executed the monument of Richard, 
 earl of Wai-wick. — R. ]\I. 
 
 • AUSTEN-GODWIN, Robert, A.C, a distinguished liv- 
 ing geologist. He was for some time secretary of the Geological 
 Society of London, and has published a large number of papers 
 on various geological subjects. The following are the most 
 important — " Considerations on Geological Evidence and In- 
 ferences," Rep. Brit. Association, 1838 ; " Notes on the Organic 
 Remains of the Limestones and Slates of South Devon," ibid, 
 1839 ; " On the Raised Bc.xh near Hope's Nose in Devonshire, 
 and other recent disturbances in that neighbourhood," Proceed- 
 ings of Geological Society, vol. ii. ; " On tlie Part of Devonshire 
 between the Ex and Beriyhead, and the coast and Dartmoor,"' 
 ibid, vol. ii. ; " On the Geology of the South-east of Devon- 
 shire," Transactions of Geological Society, vol. vi. ; " On the 
 Origin of the Limestones of Devonshire," Proceedings of Geolo- 
 gical Society, vol. ii. ; " On Orthoceras, Ammonites, and other 
 cognate genera, and on the position they occupy in the animal 
 kingdom," ibid, vol. iii. ; " On the Bone Caves of Devonshire," 
 ibid, vol. iii. ; " On the Geology of the South-east of Surrey," 
 ibid, vol. iv. ; " On the Coal Beds of Lower Normandy," Jour- 
 nal of Geological Society, vol. ii. — E. L. 
 
 * AUSTIN, Horatio Thomas, a distinguished British naval 
 officer and artic discoverer, entered the senice in 1813. During 
 the following year, while midshipman on board the llamilies, .
 
 ' ■ witnessed some of the cliief operations of the war between 
 , at Britiun and the United States of America, includmg the 
 .tacks upon Washington, Baltimore, and New Orleans. He 
 was successively employed, dming the ensuing ten years, off the 
 coast of Africa, and upon the Channel and South American 
 if ions, obtaining his promotion to the rank of lieutenant in 
 ■22. In 1824, he entered upon a widely different field of 
 ,ice, being appointed first-lieutenant on board the Fur// 
 _']) (under Captain Hoppner), one of the vessels engaged in 
 ' ip'.ain Party's thu'd voyage of discovery in the Arctic seas — 
 the main object of the undertaking, as in the case of the two 
 prior expeditions, being the search after a " north-west passage" 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Lieutenant Austm shared 
 in the perils and hardships of this voyage, which proved less 
 successful than Parry's two preceding efforts of a like descrip- 
 tion. Alter passing the winter of 1824-25 upon the eastern 
 shore of Prince Regent Inlet, it became necessaiy, in the fol- 
 lowing summer, to abandon the Fury her officers and crew 
 returning to England on board the Hecia her consort in the 
 expedition. Subsequently, after being employed for a time in 
 sun'eying-duty otV the Isthmus of Panama, as well as in various 
 duties on the Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish coasts (obtaining 
 his commission as captain in 1831, and attaining post-rank in 
 1838), the subject of our present notice served v\-ith considerable 
 distinction upon the coast of Syria, being at the time in com- 
 mand of the Cyclops steam-frigate. The arms of Britain were 
 then employed in driraig the Eg^-ptians out of Syria, with a 
 view to the restoration of that province to the sovereign of 
 Turkey. In this senice. Captain Austin assisted (1840) at the 
 bombardment and captm-e of the fortress of Jebail. He was 
 present at the talang of Batroun, and aided in the stonning of 
 Sidon ; sharing also in the triumph acliieved by the British 
 squadi'on before the walls of St. Jean d'Acre. Captain Austin's 
 senices on the Syrian coast were rewarded by the companion- 
 ship of the Order of the Bath. After a fm-ther lapse of ten 
 yeai'S, Captain Austin was recalled for a time to the scene of 
 his earlier duties, being selected in 1850 to command one of 
 the expeditions fitted out in the search after Sir John Franklin, 
 who had then been absent from England, in piu'suit of discovery 
 in the Arctic seas, for a period of five years ; dming the latter 
 portion of which time tlie fate of himself and his companions 
 had become an object of anxious suspense to all classes of 
 his countr)-inen. The expedition of which Captain Austin 
 took charge consisted of two sailing vessels, the Resolute 
 and the Assistance accompanied by two screw steam-tenders, 
 the Pioneer and the Intrepid. Into the details of the voyage 
 then made by Captain Austin and his fellow officers to the 
 Arctic shores of the American continent (many of them of a 
 highly interesting character), om- limits forbid us to enter. 
 The whole of the vessels composing the searching squad- 
 ron returned to England in the following year, after passing 
 the winter of 1850-51 in the vicinity of Griffith Island, near 
 the western extremity of Barrow Strait (N. lat. 74° 32', W. 
 long. 95° 10'). It was dming the course of this voyage that 
 the trace of Franklin's first wintering-place, after leaving Eng- 
 land (1845-46), was found by Captain Ommaney, the officer in 
 command of the '■'•Assistance ■" but the expedition was unsuc- 
 cessful in the search after any trace of Franklin's further pro- 
 ceedings, notwithstanding the efforts energetically made (chiefly 
 during the spring of 1851, and by means of sledging parties 
 from the ships) in various directions to the westward of Barrow 
 Strait. In the course of these endeavours, between eight and 
 nine hundred miles of newly discovered coast were examined by 
 the officers of the squadron under Captain Austin's command, 
 partly in the direction of Melville Island, and partly to the south 
 and south-west of Cape Walker (lat. 74° C, long. 97° 35'). During 
 the period that the squadron under Captain Austin's orders was 
 thus engaged, the scarchhig expeditions under Captain Penny 
 and Sir John Ross, R.N., as well as that sent by the American 
 government, were engaged in similar labours, principally in the 
 direction of Wellington channel, an extensive opening to the 
 northward of Barrow Strait. Upon the release of his ships from 
 the ice, with the brief summer of 1851, Captain Austin, con- 
 vinced of the hopelessness of any further search in the direction 
 towards which his efforts had already been directed, determined 
 on returning to England devoting on the way a brief period 
 to the examination of Jones Sound, an estuary on the north- 
 western coast of Baffin Bay. An official investigation subse- 
 
 quently took place, before a committee appointed by the Board of 
 Admiralty, into the jouit conduct of the expeditions commanded 
 on this occasion by Captam Austin and Sir. Penny, chiefly in 
 reference to alleged remissness on the part of the former officer hi 
 not fmther followmgup the exploration of Wellington Channel ; m 
 which du-ection there prevailed on the public mind at that time, 
 and for long afterwards, a very ei'neral impression that Franklin's 
 com'se had probably been shaped. This inquiry resulted in the 
 complete exoneration of Captaui Austin from the charges pre- 
 feiTed against him, while it showed that he had ably and honoiu"- 
 ably fulfilled the duties of a commander. The knowledge, 
 acquired at a later period, of the probable course which Franklin 
 and his ill-fated companions must have actually pursued, makes 
 it, indeed, matter of deep regi-et that the squadron under Cap- 
 tain Austm's command should have returned to England, while 
 still efficient in all respects for the prosecution of further search. 
 But in the disregard then shown to the intervenuig space be- 
 tween the western extremity of BaiTOw Strait and the nearest 
 shores of the American contuient — over which we now know 
 that our unfortmiate counti-j-men must actually have passed — 
 the commander of the expedition in question only shared the 
 ojjinion generally entertamed at the time by the most competent 
 authorities, and expressly stated in the orders under which he 
 sailed. Captain Austin was promoted in 1857 to his present 
 rank of rear-admu'al, ha\ing filled, during a portion of the mter- 
 vening period, the post of superintendent of Deptford Dock- 
 yard.— W. H. 
 
 AUSTIN, JoHX, of St. John's College, Cambridge, and after- 
 wards of Lincoln's Inn, London, joined the Roman catholic church, 
 and published in 1C51, mider the title of " The Christian Mode- 
 rator," an ingenious and well-wiitten book in its defence, which 
 passed through several editions in less than two years. He com- 
 posed also a " Hannony of the Gospels," " a Breviary," and a 
 number of controversial tracts. 
 
 AUSTIN or AUSTINE, Roueiit, D.D., was the author of 
 a poUtical pamphlet published in 1C44, under the title "Allegi- 
 ance not Impeached ; " its object was to prove that the oath of 
 allegiance as well as natural right, justified paiiiament in arming 
 for the defence of the country and cro^vn, though in opposition 
 to the personal commands of the sovereign. 
 
 AUSTIN, Samuel, a native of Cornwall, and an alumnus of 
 Exeter College, Oxford, was an associate of Drayton and other 
 poets of the day. He published in 1G29 a poem entitled " Urania, 
 or the Heavenly Muse," containing religious meditations on the 
 fall and redemption of man. 
 
 * AUSTIN, Sarah, commonly known as Jlrs. Austin, an 
 authoress of the present day. Distinguished by her familiarity 
 with the German language and literature, she has done good 
 ser\ice to the English public by translations from some of the 
 most popular writers of that countiy. Her translation of 
 Ranke's History of the Popes, and " The Characteristics of 
 Goethe," are her best knofl-n works. 
 
 AUSTIN, WiLLiAJi, an English engraver, at the begmning 
 of the eighteenth centuiy, especially noted for some fine repro- 
 ductions of several of the works by Rnysdael and Zuccarelli. 
 
 AUSTREBERTA, Saint, bom at Artois hi G33, was of the 
 royal Slerovingian line ; she became a nun to escape a hateful 
 maniage, and rose to be abbess of the Convent of Favilly. 
 
 AUSTREGILDA or AUSTREIIILDA, second wife of Gon- 
 thram, king of Burgundy and Orleans, whose former wife was 
 repudiated through her intrigues, and whose two brothers she Ls 
 said to have slain with her own hand. She died in 580. 
 
 AUSTREGISILUS or AUSTRILLUS, Sai.nt, one of the 
 household of Gonthrani of Burgundy in the sixth century: aban- 
 doning court service and taking priestly orders, he became suc- 
 cessively abbot of St. Niziers, and bishop of Bourgos. 
 
 AUSTREMOINE, Saint, whose Latin name is Stukmonr'S, 
 was sent by Pope Faliian to convert the ])agans of Gaul in tho 
 middle of the third century. He founded the church of Auvcrgiio 
 and was its first bishop. 
 
 AU TAIUTUS, captain of the Gauls who served in the pay of 
 Carthage during the second Punic war; having joined a revolt, 
 he was taken and executed by Hamilcar. 
 
 AUTELLI, GiAfOMo, an Italian artist in mos.aic, during the 
 early j)art of the seventeenth century. Some works of his are 
 to be seen in the museum of Florence. 
 
 AUTENHIETH, d' Ji:an Hiiu.M.VNX Fkudi.nand, a Ger- 
 man physician, born at Stuttgard on the 20tli October, 1772,
 
 and died at Tubingen in 1835. From an early period of his 
 life lie displayed a great taste for the natural sciences. Having 
 taken his degrees in medicine at the age of twenty-one, he visited 
 Austria and Hungaiy, and afterwards went to Pavia, where he 
 studied under Frank and Scarpa. In 1794 he visited the United 
 States of America ; and on his return he was appointed curator in 
 the museum of natural liistory at Stuttgard. In 1797 he accepted 
 the position of professor of anatomy and chemical medicine at 
 Tubingen. He v^^rote extensively on natural history, physiology, 
 and practical medicine. In 1801 he published a "Manual of 
 Surgical Human Physiology," which was extensively read. In 
 1803 he published a work entitled " Remarks on the various 
 races of men and their common origin." In 183G he published 
 a work on psychology, entitled " Ansichten uber Natur und 
 Seelen lebcn." In 1838 Ileinhard published a "Manual of No- 
 sology and Special Therapeutics," being a rescript of the lectm-es 
 of Autenrieth. He has also contributed many papers to the 
 literature of anatomy and natural history — one on the human 
 embryo, published in 1797, and another on the poison of fishes, 
 pubhshed in 1833. — (^Xoucelh Biographie Universelle. Biblio- 
 fjraphia Zoolitqim et Geolor/im.^ — E. L. 
 
 AUTHARIS or ANTHARIC, king of the Lombards in the 
 latter part of the sixth century, repulsed the invasion of the 
 Frankisli monarch, Childebert II, and pushed his conquests to 
 Istria and the districts beyond the Po. 
 
 AUTICHAJIP is the titular name of a French family which 
 has fm-nished able officere to the national sen-ice from as early a 
 period as the fourteenth century. The following members of it 
 have gained distinction in more recent times : — • 
 
 AuTicHAMP, Jean Fr. Tii. Louis de Beaumont, Marquis 
 d', one of the best cavalry officers that France has produced, was 
 aid-de-camp to Marshal de Broglie in the Seven Years' war, and 
 rose to be commander of tho gendarmerie of Luneville. Leaving 
 his country with the Prince de Condt^ in 1789, he took service 
 in the Prussian army, and subsequently under the Russian flag. 
 On his return to France Ifi 1815, Louis XVIII. restored his 
 military rank, and at the age of ninety he took an active part 
 for that monarch in the itvolution of 1830. 
 
 AuTicHAMp, Ant.. Jos. Eulalie de Beaumont, Comte 
 d', brother of the preceding, seiTcd with Lafayette in America, 
 returned to France during the consulate, and died in 1822. 
 
 AuTicHAMP, Charles de Beaumont, Comte d', son of the 
 preceding, entered the army at an early age, and at the Revolu- 
 tion took refuge in Vendee, where he became a leading spirit 
 among the royaUsts, whose struggles have rendered the province 
 famous. At the Restoration he was named a peer of France, and 
 lived till 1852.— W. B. 
 
 AUf OCLES, an Athenian general, also distinguished as an 
 orator : be lived in the fourth century before the Christian era. 
 
 AUTOCRATES, a Greek comic poet mentioned by Suidas ; 
 he wrote also a number of tragedies. 
 
 AUTOLYCUS, Greek mathematician, bom at Pitane, an 
 jEolian town in Asia, 330 B.C. He taught mathematics at 
 Arcesilas, and has left us some specimens of the earliest 
 Grecian mathematics; a treatise on the "Sphere in Movement" 
 (t£{( »/»«u^j'vv:; (T^a/jaf); and the " Risings and Settings of the 
 Stars" (fej' 'V.-riTckuv XU.I Auirim^. The Greek part is that of 
 Dasypodins, Strasburg, 8vo., 1572. — A. L. 
 
 AUTOMNK, Bernard, a French legist and critic, bom at 
 Agon 15(J7 ; died 1G6G ; author of the works, " Commentaire sur 
 la Coutume de Bourdeaux," 1728; "Conference du tboit Romain 
 avcc le ch-oit Fran9ais,"1614 ; and "Censura Gallica in jus civile 
 Romanorum, 1G15; in the last of which he satuizes the sub- 
 tleties of the Roman legists. 
 
 AUTON or ANTON, Jean d', Fl-ench chronidfer and poet, 
 bom 14GG, died 1527. His poems recommended him to Ann 
 of Britflnny, spouse to Louis XII., who patronized him, and 
 rewarded him with church revenues. His principrd work is his 
 " Chronique du Roi Louis XII." He translated Ovid's Meta- 
 morphoses, and left in MS. " Epitres cnvoyees au Roi tres-chre- 
 ticn;" "L'Exil de Gesnes la superbe." 
 
 AUTPERT, AUSBERT, or ANSBKRT, Ambroise, Bene- 
 dictine abbot of St. Vincent in the eighth centnry, a commen- 
 tator on the Psalms, Canticles, and Apocalypse. He was the 
 first wlio called upon the pope for an approval of his works. 
 
 AUTREAU, Jacques, an eccentric French poet and painter, 
 bom 1G5G ; died in the hospital of Incurables, 1745. His dra- 
 matic pieces, " Le Port ii I'Anglais ; " " La Fillc Inquiete," 
 
 " Panurge h Jlarier," and "La Magie de I'amour," were repre- 
 sented at the Theatre Italien, and the Tlieatre Francaise. Rous- 
 seau wrote the music for an opera by Autreau. It is also said 
 that he was the author of a couplet, in which Autreau was 
 represented as " Ce peintre Autreau toujours ivre," a pleasantry 
 wliich the cynic repaid by a song celebrated at the time, and not 
 of such agreeable memory as to find a place in the "Confessions." 
 
 AUTREY, Henri-Jean-Baptiste Fabry de Moncault, 
 a French writer, bom 1723 ; died 1777. He commanded a 
 brigade of cavahy in Britanny, and employed his leisure in refut- 
 ing the encyclopedists and philosophers of the eighteenth century. 
 He wrote " L'Antiquite Pestifiee," in answer to a book of Bou- 
 langer, Paris, 176G; and " Le Pyrrhonien Raisonnable," 1765; 
 "Les Quakers h leur Frcire" (Voltaire), " Lettres plus Philoso- 
 pliique (Voltaire) que sa Religion et ses Livres," 17G8. Vol- 
 taire laughed at this book : " They fancy," said he, " they can 
 jirove original sin geometrically." 
 
 AUTRONIUS, Pcetus, a Roman consul, first century b.c. 
 He was associated in Cataline's conspiracy. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Cojites et Dauphins d'. This title was, 
 about the middle of the eighth century, conferred on one Blan- 
 din, who sen'ed the Duke Waifre in his opposition to the founder 
 of the Carlovingian dynasty, Pepin le Bref. The name figures 
 through a gi-eat part of the early histoiy of France. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Edouard d', an English historiographer, 
 latter half of seventeenth century. He was a native of Jersey; 
 became rector of Hallingbmy in Essex ; and, subsequently, chap- 
 lain to William III. His works comprise the history of the 
 Continental campaigns. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Guillaume d', bishop of Paris— 1100-1200 
 — a person of great acquirements, whose works were collected 
 and published by Le Feron in 1G74. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Latour d'. See Latour. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Martial d'. See Martial. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Peyrols d', a Proven9al poet of the twelfth 
 century ; author of a " Dialogue avec I'Amour." 
 
 AUVERGNE, Pierre d', a scholastic, thu-teenth century; 
 author of " Sunima Questionum Quodlibeticarum." 
 
 AUVERGNE, Pierre d', a troubadour, of the thirteenth 
 century, whose pieces range over the subjects of gallantry, devo- 
 tion, and politics. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Pierre d', or Petrus de Cros, commen- 
 tator, died 1307. Under the direction of Thomas Aquinas, he 
 became a famous theologian and philosopher. He is the author 
 of " Appendix Commentarioiiim divi Thoma? Aquinatis ad Libros 
 Aristotelis," 1495; " Coixmentarii in Libros Aristotehs de 
 Motibus Animalium," 1507 ; " Commentarii Super Quatuur 
 Libros Meteororum Aristotelis," MS. 
 
 AUVIGNY, Jean du Castre d', litterateur, bom 1712, 
 and killed at the battle of Dettingen in 1743. He wrote many 
 works, chiefly in conjunction with I'Abb^ Desfontaincs ; among 
 others, " Vies des Homines Illustres de la France," 10 vols.; and 
 "Anecdotes Galantes et Tragiques de la Cour de Neron." 
 
 AUVRAY, Jean, a Freuch litteratem-, born 1590, died 
 1G33, who dedicated a misused leism'e to the production of 
 poems, which, though in many respects excellent, are dis- 
 figured by inconsistencies, if not disgraced by licentiousness. 
 His two principal works, " Tresor Sacrd de la Muse Sainte;" 
 and his " Banquet des Muses ou Recueil de Satyres, Pandgy- 
 riques, Mascaades, Epitaphes, Epithalames, Gayetez Amourettes 
 et autres Poemes Profanes," exhibit a perfect contrast of piety 
 and pruriency ; Satires; Rouen, 1G31. 
 
 AUVRAY, Louis-Marie, Baron, marcchal de camp liono- 
 raire, bom 17G2; died 1833; author of "Statistics of the de- 
 partments of the Sarthe." 
 
 AUVRAY, Phillipe-Pierre-Joseph, a French painter, 
 bom 1778 ; died 1815. Many of his works appear in the gal- 
 lery of Dresden. 
 
 AUWERA, JoiiANN Georg Wolfgang a'ON, a German 
 sculptor of the early part of the eighteenth centiuy; died at 
 Munich in 175G. He executed several colossal statues for the 
 cathedrals of Mainz and Bamberg, in which he fully displayed 
 all the eccentricities of the mannerism tiicn prevalent. — R- M. 
 
 AUXI')(EUFF, Pierre, preacher and theologian in the uni- 
 versity of Paris, commencement of fifteenth century, celebrated 
 for the scmions which he preached in the churches of Paris. 
 They have been translated into Latin. The latest edition is 
 that printed at Anvers by Lcstunius, 1G43.
 
 AUX 
 
 297 
 
 AVA 
 
 AUXENCE or AUXENT, Saint, a Syiian by birth, died 
 470. The Greeks celebrate his memoiy on the 14th Februarj-, 
 as a holy man, and a worker of miracles. 
 
 AUX-EPAULES, Richakd Seigneur of Homme, and 
 Saint 5Iarie-du-Moxt, a captain, who played an important 
 part in the war in Normandy, between Hemy VI. of England, 
 and Charles VII. of France. 
 
 AUXILIUS, a French theologian in the tenth centmy ; author 
 of some treatises against Pope Sergius III., wherein he boldly 
 rectmnted certain indignities ofi'ered by papal authority to liis 
 predecessor, Formosus. 
 
 AUXIRON, Claude Francois d', an engineer and econo- 
 mist, was born at Besan9on in 1728, and died at Paiis in 1778. 
 He was author of the following works, which were pubUshed 
 anonymously — "Memohe sur les Moyens de fom-nir des eaux 
 saines a la capitale," Paiis, 17G5, 12mo ; " Principes de tons les 
 Gouvemements, ou Examen des causes de la faiblesse ou de la 
 splendeur de tout Etat considcre eu lui-meme et independam- 
 ment des moeurs," Paris, 1766, 2 vols, in 12mo; and a work en- 
 titled " La Theorie des fleuves, avec Fart de batir dans les eaux 
 et d'en prevenir les ravages," translated from the German of J. 
 J. Silberschlag.— G. M. 
 
 AUXIRON, Jean Baptiste d', a physician and mathema- 
 tician, bom at Baume-les-dames about 1680, died at Besanfon 
 in 1760. His published works are — " Demonstration d'un 
 secret utile a la ^larine," Paris, 1750, in Svo; and "NouveUe 
 Maniere de dinger la bombe," Paris, 1751, in Svo. 
 
 AUXIRON, Jean Baptiste d,' a professor of French law 
 in the imiversity of Besan9on. He was bom in that city in 
 1736, and died there in 1800. He published several works, 
 chiefly of local interest, and left behind him, in manuscript, a 
 valuable work on the means of extmguishing mendicity in France. 
 
 AUZ.\NET, Barthelemy, or AUSSANET, Pierre, a 
 French lawj-er, was bom at Paris in 1501, and died in 1673. 
 Among his works, collected and published in one volume, are — 
 " Obsen'ations et Memohes de IVtude de la jurisprudence," and 
 "Notes sm* la coutume de Paris," Paiis, 1708, in foUo. 
 
 AUZOLES, Jacques d', lord of la Peyre, a French chronologi- 
 cal ^vriter, was bom in the castle of la Peyi*e in Auvergne, 14th 
 May, 1571, and died at Paris, 19th May, 1642. He studied at 
 Paris, where he became secretaiy to the duke of Montpensier. 
 Among his works, which are numerous, are " La genealogie de 
 Melchis^dec," 1622 ; " La Veritable Genealogie de Job," 1623 ; 
 "Sainte Geographic," 1 vol. folio, Paris, 1629. 
 
 * AUZOU, Louis Napoleon, l'Abbe, originator of the 
 
 " French catlioUc church," was bom 1st Januaiy, 1806. After 
 
 I the revolution of 1830, he excited a great reUgious ferment in 
 
 ] France, which ended in a schism among the Romanists of that 
 
 I country, and the estabUshment of what was at first called the 
 
 " Reformed church," and afterwards the " French catholic 
 
 chiu-ch." Notivithstanding this schism, Auzou continued to 
 
 exercise the sacerdotal functions, without any opposition on the 
 
 part of the government, until May, 1853, when, in consequence 
 
 'if the interference of the pohce, he was obliged to quit Clichy, 
 
 ' f which place he had been appointed cure. He then proceeded 
 
 (Jliartres, where he preached against divine right, and the 
 
 irpatlon of the priesthood. Retmiiing to Paris, he there 
 ordained two priests, Huos and Picot, celebrated a funeral scrnce 
 for Moliere and for Pepin, and assisted in a religious ceremony 
 in favoiu- of citizen Pepin, who was beheaded in the forty-fourth 
 year of the re])nblic. Among the principles advocated by Auzou, 
 were the abolition of ecclesiastical celibacy, and the suppres- 
 sion of fees for marriages and burials ; " the French catholic 
 church," he said, " relied on the generosity of the faithful." He 
 afterwards, however, became reconciled to the church, having 
 made a formal retractation and submission. He is the author 
 of numerous works on ecclesiastical subjects, a list of which is 
 given in the Xouv. Biotj. Univ. — G. M. 
 
 AUZOUT, Adrien, a French mathematician, was bom at 
 Rouen about the beginning of the seventeenth centnrj', and died 
 in 1691. He invented an instrument called the micrometer, by 
 which astronomers are still assisted in measuring the apparent 
 diameters of the heavenly bodies. He was amongst the fu-st men 
 of science who tm-ned tlieir attention to the subject of weights 
 and measures, both ancient and modem. He was also a skilful 
 maker of telescopes, and other philosophical instmments. The 
 following list of his works is given by Lalande — " Epistola de 
 duabus novis in Satumo et Jove factis observationibus ;" " Lettre 
 vol. I. 
 
 a M. l'Abbe Charles, sur le Raguaglio di due nnove osservatione, 
 &c., d' Joseph Cainpani, avec de remarques nouvelles sur Satume 
 et Jupiter, sur les lunes de Jupiter," &c. ; " Traite du Micro- 
 metre, ou maniere exacte pom* prendi-e le diametre des planetes 
 et la distance entre les petites etoiles ;" " Divers Ouvrages de 
 JIathematique et de Physique," &c. — G. M. 
 
 AVALONIUS, Elv.\n, an English missionary of the second 
 century, who preached the Christian faith to the idolatrous 
 Britons. He is said to liave written a treatise on the origin of 
 the Church of Great Britain. 
 
 AVALONIUS, MiLciiiNus, or Mevxnus, an EngUsh poet, 
 who hved about the year 560. The three following works have 
 been ascribed to him — "De Gestis Britannorum ;" " De Anti- 
 quitatibus BritanniiE ;" " De Regis Arthuiii Mensa Rotunda." 
 
 AVALOS or D'AVALO, a noble Neapohtan farnOy of 
 Spanish origin, of whom we mention : — 
 
 AvALOs, RuY Lopez d', Conde de Ribadeo, lived in 
 the fifteenth centmy, and was gi-and constable of Castile, under 
 Kmg Juan II. 
 
 AvALOS, Inigo, who hved in 1481, attended Alfonso V. of 
 Aragon in his expeditions against Naples and Sicily, and after- 
 wards served against the Venetians. 
 
 AvALos, Alfonso I. d'. Marquis of Pescara, held impor- 
 tant oflices under Ferdmand II. of Naples, whom he served vnth 
 zeal and fidelity dming the French invasion. He died m 1495. 
 
 Avalos, Inigo d'. Marquis del Vasto, a brother of the 
 former, who ser^'ed imder Gonzalvo de Cordova against the 
 French, and died in 1503. 
 
 Avalos, Alfonso II., Marquis del Vasto, a son of the 
 foiTner, by Lam-a Sanseverma, entered into the service of the 
 Emperor Charles V. In 1525 he contributed to the victoiy of 
 Pavia, by routing the Swiss in the serdce of France. Avalos 
 was next sent with the viceroy Moncada to relieve Naples, wliich 
 the French, under Lantrec, were besieging by land, and were 
 blockading by the Genoese fleet, under Doria, by sea. In an 
 attack upon the latter, Moncada was slain, and Avalos taken pri- 
 soner, but succeeded in inducing Doria to change sides and assist 
 the emperor. Naples was saved, and the French amiy obliged to 
 smrender. In 1530 he took part in the campaign which ended 
 in tlie destruction of the Florentine republic. Two years subse- 
 quently, he was summoned to march into Hungary against 
 the Sultan Solyman, but the retreat of the Tm-ks rendered the 
 services of the Italian contingent unnecessary. In 1535 he fol- 
 lowed Charles V. to Tunis, on which occasion he had the com- 
 mand of the land forces. He aftenvards was nominated gover- 
 nor of the illlanese, and in this capacity he was defeated by the 
 French at Cerisollis. He lost the favour of the emperor, and 
 died suddenly of a fever at Vigevano in Lombardy. 
 
 Avalos, Costanza, a sister of the foi-mer, eminent as a 
 poetess, lived in the first half of the sisteenth century. 
 
 Avalos, Ferdin^vnd d', ^Marquis of Pescara, the son of 
 Alfonso I. d'Avalos, was bom at Naples in 1490. He entered at 
 an early age into military sen-ice, and was taken prisoner by the 
 French at the unfortunate battle of Ravenna. He soon recovered 
 his liberty, and displayed extraordinary ability in the wars of 
 Charles V. The victoiy of Bicocca was mainly due to his 
 judicious manoeuvres. The honom- of the battle of Pa\'ia be- 
 longed to him alone, but he died of the wounds received on that 
 memorable day, at the early age of thirty-six. — J. W. S. 
 
 AVANCON, GuiLLAUME, d,' cardinal-archbishop of Embrun, 
 was born in Dau])hin(i about the year 1530. He exhibited the 
 sternness of his character towards the heretics of his time, and 
 especially made himself remarked for severity at the council of 
 Trent. Died in 1600. 
 
 AVANZI, GiAcoMO d', or Giacomo di Bologna, an Italian 
 painter of the early part of the fifteenth century. He worked 
 for the Chiesa del Santo in Padua, where his pictures were often 
 mistaken for productions of Giotto, which they greatly resemble 
 in style. He was very careful in his design and execution. 
 
 AVARAY, Antoine Louis Francois, Due d', son of Claude 
 Antoino de Beziade Avaray, a French oflicer, who assisted Mon- 
 sieur, afterwards Louis XVIIL, to escape from Paris, on the 21st 
 June, 1791. His services on tliat occasion and others, which 
 he rendered to the cause of royalty during the times of Napo- 
 leon, were rewarded with estates and the title of duke, which, 
 after his death, in 1817, were transferred to his father, Claude 
 Antoine de Beziade. 
 
 AVARAY, Claude Tiieophile Beziade, Marqm's d', 
 
 2P
 
 AVA 
 
 298 
 
 AVE 
 
 a French lieutenant-general, distingmslied in tlie war of the 
 Spani-^h succession. The victory of Almanza is attributed to 
 his skill and valour. Died in 174.5. 
 
 AVARAY, Claude Antoi.ne de Beziade, a French general, 
 horn in 1740, distin;;uished himself in the Seven Years' War, 
 ■was wovinded in the battle of Minden, and attained the rank of 
 colonel in his twenty-fifth year. He represented the nobihty of 
 Orleanais in the States-General of 1789, and was aftenvards a 
 member of the Constituent Assembly. Died in 1829. 
 
 AVAUX, Claude de Mesmes, Comte d', a distinguished 
 French diplomatist, was bom in 1595. After passing through 
 a variety of government offices, he began to be employed in 
 diplomatic business in the year 1G27, and, in the course of a few 
 missions, so won the esteem of Eicheheu, as to be entrusted with 
 the greater part of the complex negotiations by which the car- 
 dinal designed to put an end to the Thirty Years' War. He lost 
 the favour of Mazarin, Kichelieu's successor, and in 1648, two 
 years before his death, ceased to be employed in public business. 
 
 AVAUX, Jean Antoine de Mesmes, Comte d', was 
 president of the parliament of Paris, at the death of Louis XIV., 
 and attached himself to the party of the duke of Maine, who 
 contested the regency with the duke of Orleans. In 1718, he 
 headed the parliament in addi-cssing a remonstrance to the 
 regent, and was banished, along with the other members, to 
 Pontoise, where, it is said, he held a sort of com-t, to which 
 numbers of the Parisian nobility flocked, as much to enjoy the 
 flavour of Jlonsieur de BIcsmes' excellent -ndt, as to witness the 
 curious spectacle of a parliament in exile. Several of his epi- 
 grammatic sayings are presen-ed in D'Alembert's " eloge" of the 
 president. Died in 1723. — J. S., G. 
 
 AVAUX, Jean Antoine, Cojite d', a celebrated French 
 diplomatist, brother of the preceding, was employed by Louis 
 XIV. in various negotiations, especially in those with Holland, 
 pre\'ious to the departure of the prince of Orange for England. 
 He was sent to London in 1688. Died in 1709. 
 
 AVAUX, Jean Jacques de JIesmes, Comte d', president 
 k mortier of the parliament of Paris, and member of the aca- 
 demy ; died hi 1688. 
 
 AVEI), Jacques-Andr^-Joseph, a French portrait painter 
 of considerable merit, bom at Douay in 1702 ; died in 1766. 
 
 A^''EDIK, patriarch of Araienia towards the commencement 
 of the eighteenth centiuy. He was imprisoned in 1701 for hav- 
 ing engaged in a persecution of the catholics of his patriarchate. 
 
 AVEIRO, DoM Josfi DE Mascaeeniias, Duke of, a Por- 
 tuguese statesman, who, along wth the marquis of Tavora 
 and several other noblemen, was executed in 1759 for having 
 attempted the life of Jose I. Aveiro had been for a long period 
 engaged in plotting the downfall of Jose's favourite minister, 
 Cavalho, and was easily induced by the Tavora family, who had 
 other reasons for desiring the death of the king, to take part in 
 the conspiracy. — J. S., G. 
 
 AVELIXE, Pierre, a French engraver of great merit, who 
 reproduced many of the woiks by Watteau, Boucher, Joardaens, 
 &c. Other members of his family were also engi-avers of some 
 note, but none surpassed, or even equalled him. He was bom 
 in Paris in 1710, and died in 1760. 
 
 AVELLAXEDA, Aleonso Fernando de, a Spanish mis- 
 cellaneous writer, who wrote, dming the Ufetime of Cei-vantes, 
 a continuation of Don Quixote. 
 
 AVELLAXEDA, Didacus de, a native of Toledo, author of 
 a genealogical account of his family, lived at the commencement 
 of the seventeenth century. Another Didacus deAvellaneda, 
 a Jesuit of Toledo, wrote two treatises concerning the confes- 
 sional. Died in 1598. 
 
 AVELLAXEDA, Garcia de, count of Castrillo, Spanish 
 viceroy of Naples, lived in the latter part of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. The cliief events which occurred during the period of his 
 administration, were the duke of Guise's unsuccessful attempt 
 in 1654 to excite a revolution in the Neapolitan territories, and 
 tlie plague which ravaged the capital two years later. Avcllaneda 
 is commended for the vigorous measures which he took to stay, 
 if jiossible, the dreadful ravages of the pest. — J. S., G. 
 
 AVELLANI, Giuseppe, an Italian poet of considerable 
 merit, bom at Venice, 1761. He wrote a great many pieces in 
 prose and in verse, the most important of which were " Padova 
 Riaquistata," and " Isabella liovignana." 
 
 AVELLAR, Francisco Gomez de, a Portuguese bishop 
 and statesman, celebrated for numerous improvements in agri- 
 
 cidture which he introduced into his diocese, and also for his 
 patiiotic exertions during the period of the French invasion, was 
 bom of humble parentage in 1739. He was named bishop of 
 Algarvez in 1789. Died in 1816. 
 
 AVELLINO, Andreas (Santo), an Italian jurist and priest, 
 canonized by Clement II., was born in 1521, and died at Naples 
 in 1608. 
 
 AVELLINO, Francesco Maria, an Italian archfeolopst, 
 bom at Naples in 1788. After a course of study for the bar, he 
 became tutor to the family of Murat. In 1815 he was appointed 
 to the Greek chair of the university of Naples, in which he after- 
 wards taught political science, and, still later, law. His archajo- 
 logical treatises, especially those on numismatics, to which 
 branch of antiquarian science he principally devoted himself, are 
 of European repute. Died in 1850. — J. S., G. 
 
 AVELLINO, GiuLio of Messina, an Italian landscape 
 painter, who died in Ferrara in 1700. He had been a pupil of 
 Salvator Rosa, and strove all his life to imitate the style of that 
 great master. Although he succeeded to a considerable extent, 
 he never reached the same importance. 
 
 AVELLINO, Onofrio, a clever Neapolitan painter, bom in 
 1674 ; died at Rome in 1741. He painted history and portrait; 
 but his portraits are his most valuable works. Onofrio Avellino 
 was a pu]iil of Luca Giordano, and afterwards of Solimena. He 
 copied the pictures of both of these artists largely ; and his copies 
 have been frequently sold as originals. He settled in Rome a 
 few years previously to 1729, painting in churches and executing 
 commissions for private individuals. His portraits were latterly 
 much too rapidly executed, as a large family compelled him to 
 regard the quantity more than the quality of his work. The 
 vault of S. Francesco di Paola, in Rome, is this artist's principal 
 production. — A. M. 
 
 AVELLOXI, Francesco, an Italian dramatist, bom at 
 Venice in 1756, was a son of Coimt Cassimir Avelloni of Naples. 
 His first adventure in life, his being robbed on the way from 
 Rome to Naples by a band of thieves, whose captain treated him 
 to a philosophical dissertation on thievery, supplied him with the 
 materials for his first dramatic attempt, "Giulio Assasino," a 
 piece which met with immense success on its first presentation, 
 and continued to be popular till its penniless author was ready 
 with another. He is said to have written nearly six hundred 
 pieces. Died in 1837.^ — J. S., G. 
 
 AVEMPACE; AVEN-PACE; IBN-BADJA ; a Spanish 
 Arab of wide renown ; a physician, astronomer, and mathemati- 
 cian ; famed for his talent in music ; and one of the most ori- 
 ginal speculative thinkers at that time in Spain. Ilm-Badja was 
 bom in Saragossa about the close of the eleventh century. H(> 
 lived and -nTote, for the most part at Seville, and, while yet 
 young, he died at Fez in the year 1138. He was the first 
 among the Arabs in Andalusia who cidtivated philosophy suc- 
 cessfully— (Avicebron being a Jew, was unlcnown to him) ; and 
 his contemporary Abu-Becer (Tofnil) does not cease to regret 
 that a prematm-e death prevented his master from opening up 
 all the treasures of science ; his most unportant writings being 
 left incomplete, and those that were finished having been written 
 in haste. He wrote, however, very largely — many treatises on 
 physics, besides his main work, " The Rule or Regime of a Her- 
 mit," of which Averrhofes speaks so highly. This treatise un- 
 fortunately is among our lost works ; nor could we have known 
 its contents but for the details recorded by a philosophic Jew of 
 the nineteenth centmy — Moses of Narbonne. It seems, according 
 to the analysis of M. Munk — an analysis resting on infonna- 
 tion drawn from all available sources — that Ibn-Badja desired 
 to unfold how, by the successful development of his faculties, 
 Man may reach the end of identification with the " Active In- 
 tellect," — that divine light and power, emanating directly from 
 God. The idea of the treatise is thus in utter and effective hos- 
 tility to the sceptical philosophy of Gazali, whose aim was to estab- 
 lish the impossibility of attaining any such result by the culture 
 of Reason. In the treatment of his theme he manifests singular 
 acut(niess and originality, and the exercised facidties of a man 
 of the world. His conception— briefly expressed — is, that we 
 must rise above the contemplation of individual facts, and look 
 for certainty and purity only in general laws, which are free 
 from imperfection. Intending to discourse at some length con- 
 cerning the Arabian jiliilosophy in article AvERnnoi.s, the 
 illustrious pupil of Ibn-Badja, we shall not enter at present on 
 details.— J. P. N.
 
 AVEN, or DAVENT, or DAVIS, or D'ASVESNES, an en- 
 graver, of whose origin and date little is knoviTi. Not so, lio\r- 
 ever, of his works, which are highly important and deservedly 
 esteemed. They chiefly consist of reproductions from dra«-ings 
 or paintings hy Giulio Romano, Primaticcio, and Rosso Aven's 
 prints are now very scarce, and therefore greatly sought after. 
 
 AVENARIUS, a Latinized name of some learned men in 
 Germany, called Habermann, that is, "Man of Oats:" — • 
 
 AvENARius, JoiiANN I., a protestant theologian of the six- 
 teenth century. He was professor of theology at Jena, ;ifter- 
 wards archbishop of Zeitz. His " Lexicon Ebraicum" was said 
 by Causabon to have been the best then existing, and his prayers 
 " Precationos," have gone through a great many editions. 
 
 AvENAKius, Jon ANN IL, professor of eloquence, grandson 
 of the preceding. His works are chiefly questions on political 
 economy and practical philosophy. 
 
 A'\'t;narius, Johann IIL, a protestant theologian in the 
 second half of the 17th century, wrote " Theses de Catechismo," 
 and some other works. 
 
 AVENELLES, Maitre Albin or Aubin des, a satirical 
 poet, canon of Soissons, bom 1480. He translated the famous 
 " Eemi^de d'Amour" of jEneas Silvius, Pope Pius IL, "La 
 Complainte " of the same pope, and his " Description de Cupido," 
 Paris, 1548 and 1556. 
 
 AVENELLES, Philippe des, a French litterateur of the 
 sixteenth century, and a translator of Plutarch. 
 
 AVENELLES, Pierre des, an advocate of the parliament 
 of Paris, who betrayed the confidence of his friend Renandie, 
 the leader of the protestant plot of Ambrose in 1550 ; and by de- 
 nouncing the conspiracy to the duke of Guise, got for his rewai'd 
 a judgeship in Lon-aine, and 12,000 livres. 
 
 AVENPORT, Francis Christopher, an English theolo- 
 gian, born at Coventry, 1598 ; died at London, 1655. He put 
 on the habit of a Franciscan, and aftenvards taught philosophy 
 
 ! theology at Douay. Afterwards he became chaplain in 
 
 iiiiary to Charles II. He wrote a System of Faith, and a 
 1 rcatise on Predestination, Douay, 1665. 
 
 AVENSROT, Jan, a Dutch writer of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, author of " Epistola ad Regem Hispanise," revealing the 
 secret of the war in the Low Countries, Amsterdam, 1615. 
 
 AVENTINUS, Johannes, the author of the history of 
 Bavaria, bom, 1466 ; died 9th January, 1534. His trae name 
 was Thurjiayer. Having studied at Ingolstadt, he taught 
 belles-lettres at Vienna, and afterwards mathematics at Cracova. 
 His fame procured him a call to Munich in 1512, to instruct 
 Louis and Ernest, the two sons of Duke Albert the Wise, and 
 brothers of William IV. In 1522, after sLx years' devotion, he 
 produced his "Annales Bojorum," destined to become a classical 
 work. In 1529 he was imprisoned for his attachment to the 
 Reformation ; from this time he fell into a state of melancholy, 
 and, though sixty-four years of age, bethought himself of the 
 expedient of ameliorating his lonely condition by manying a 
 young wife. The remedy proved unsuccessful, for the object of 
 his choice possessed a bad temper, unchecked by any respect for 
 the gi-eat historian, and Avcntinus died shortly afterwards. 
 The first edition of his Annals was intrastcd to Hieronymus 
 Ziegler, who cut out all the passages inimical to the pope ; but 
 the complete copy appeared under the care of Nicholaus Cisner, 
 lJa.sil, 1580. There are several German editions. Ilis life was 
 first written by Ziegler, afterwards by several others. His 
 name forms a title in Bayle's Dictionary, which may be consulted 
 for Aventinus' other works. — A. L. 
 
 AVENZOAR, (Abou-Mekwan-ben-Ardei.-Malek-p.en 
 ZoAu), born at Pennaflor, near Seville, during the latter half of 
 the twelfth century ; one of the most famous of Arabian physi- 
 cians, talcing rank after Averrlio6s of Rhages. This family had 
 long cultivated the art of curing ; he was instracted from his 
 youth by his father. The greatness of his character, and his 
 success in medicine, removed all difliculties from his career. 
 The prince of Morocco attached him to his court, loaded him 
 with titles and honours, and kept him in his household until his 
 death, in a.d. 1262, at the ripe age of ninety-two. Avcnzoai- 
 did not, like his contemporaries, think it ennugh to follow the 
 maxims of the Greeks and Romans ; the credit belongs to liim of 
 having practically asserted for medicine a place among the ever 
 advancing sciences of observation. He was also a skilful analyst: 
 "I was extremely anxious," says he, "to ascertain for myself 
 the composition of every description of medicine." — J. P. N- 
 
 AVERANI, Benedetto, an Italian litterateur, bom at 
 Florence, 19th July, 1645; died at Pisa, 28th December, 1707. 
 He was a member of the Academy Delia Crusca, and professor 
 of Greek and Latin eloquence at Pisa. His " Dissertationcs" 
 were published at Florence, 1716 and 1717, 3 vols. 
 
 AVERANI, Giuseppe, an esteemed Italian jurisconsult 
 and philosopher, bom at Florence, 1602 ; died 24th August, 
 1738. Wlien veiy young, he attracted attention by a treatise 
 on the movement of heavy bodies on inclined planes, " De JIo- 
 mentis Coi-porum Gra\'ium in Planis Inclinatis," in which he 
 supported Gahleo against his master Vannius. Patronized by 
 Magalotti and Redi, he was called to the chair of law in the 
 university of Pisa, w-hen only twenty-two years old, on which 
 occasion he delivered an oration, which Redi, in his peculiar 
 way, pronounced to be " Superbissima, Latinissima, et Ai'chi- 
 Eloqucntissima." He was aftenvards intrusted with the edu- 
 cation of Duke Cosmo's son, Giovanni Gastone, who was the 
 last of the Mcdician dukes ; and without renouncing his legal 
 studies, applied himself to a series of experiments on the burning- 
 glass, light and electricity, sound and smell, which procured for 
 him an adoption into the Royal Society of England in 1712. 
 Consulted and respected by all Italy, he died shortly after 
 putting the last hand to his work, " Intei-pretationes Juris." 
 His other works are enumerated by Le Clerc, Bibliotheque An- 
 cienne et 3lodei'ne. — A. L. 
 
 AVERANI, NicoLo, an Italian mathematician, brother of 
 the two preceding, died in 1727. He is knowni principally as 
 the editor of the works of Gassendi. 
 
 AVERARA, Giovan Battista, an Italian painter of the 
 first half of the sixteenth centuiy, a native of Bergamo. He 
 is believed to have studied at Venice, from the fact of his having 
 so sedulously imitated the great Titian. Died in 1548. 
 
 AVERARO, Antonio, an Italian theologian of Milan — 
 1500-1600. He was one of the most famous preachers of his 
 time. He has left " Ragionamenti Sopra le XuixL Teologali," 
 1509, besides an epitome of arts, and some poems. 
 
 AVERBACH, Samuel ben Daa'id, a Polish rabbi of Lub- 
 lin — middle of the seventeenth century ; author of " Chescd 
 Samuel," and commentaries on the Old Testament. 
 
 AVERDY, Clement Charles Fran(;'0is de l', a juris- 
 consult, bom at Paris, 1723 ; died 24th November, 1793. He 
 became comptroller-general of the finances in 1759. Some say 
 a few years later. He introduced, according to Voltau-e, many 
 excellent measures, such as the abolition of all transit duties on 
 gi\ain tlu'ough France, the removal of all impediments to the 
 exercise of professions, and the revision of the privileges of civic 
 corporations. But the extravagance of the court at that time 
 neutralized the advantages of economical reforms, and faction, 
 always seeking for a victim, fixed upon L'Averdy, against whom 
 there was directed a storm of lampoons, even gi'cater than that 
 suffered by his predecessor Bertin. He retired in disgust to his 
 estate, Gambais, near Monfort-l'Amaury, where he resided until 
 the outbreak of the Reign of Terror, when accused falsely of 
 having been accessory to the famine of the time, he was brought 
 to the guillotine on the 24th November, 1793. — A. L. 
 
 AVERELL or AUERELL, William, an English black-letter 
 writer of the sixteenth centuiy. Some pamphlets of his arc 
 curious and scarce. They are mentioned in Lowndes' Biblio- 
 gnq)licr's Manual — "A Wonderful and Strange Newes which 
 happened in the counties of Suffolk and Essex, tlie 1st of Febru- 
 ary, being Fridaye, where it Rayned Wheat the space of VI. or 
 VII. Miles Compas," 16mo, 1563; "A Memailous Combat of 
 Contrarieties," 1588 ; " Four Notable Histories applyed to Foure 
 Worthy Examples," 1590 ; and "A MjTrom- for \'irtuous May- 
 des," 1590.— A. L. 
 
 AVERKAJII'EN, IIknrich van, surnamcd the Dumb on 
 account of his habitual taciturnity, a Flemish landscape painter of 
 the latter part of the sixteenth century, more noted for liis 
 drawings than for his pictures. 
 
 AVEROLDI or AVEROLDO, Giulio Anto.nio, an Italian 
 antiiiuary, born in Venice, January, 1651 ; died at Brescia, 5th 
 June, 1717. lie formed a rich collection of books, inscriptions, 
 and medals. 
 
 AVERONI, Valentino, an Italian theologian, a native of 
 Florence — sixteenth century. He was a monk of Vallonibrosa, 
 and left some translations of Aquinas and other writers. 
 
 AVERRlIOftS, Aboul-Walii) JIohammed Iun-Ahmed 
 IBN Rose HI) ; the gi-eatest Arabian inquirer of the West :
 
 AVE 
 
 300 
 
 AVE 
 
 rivalled among pliilosopliic Arabians only by Ien-Sixa or 
 AviCENNA of the East. — In order that any biography of Ibn 
 RosoiiD be intelligible, it is necessary to view him in rela- 
 tion to the character of his race and the chxumstances that 
 encircled him. Without special reference indeed to the idiosyn- 
 cracy of the Semitic people, one cannot appreciate the deserts 
 either of Avcrrho^s, or of any other vrorker in the many-veined 
 mine of philosophy. The difference between the modes of 
 approaching philosophical subjects, belonging to the Semitic and 
 Indo-European families, is so great, that it almost amomits to 
 contrast. Whence that difference comes, or what is its root, is 
 not a question for this place. The fact, however, is undeniable, 
 that the Semitic race is essentially unscientific, and therefore 
 adverse to the presentation of philosophical or moral tnith in a 
 scientific form. The Indo-European genius, on the contrary, 
 tends irresistibly towards intellectual system, or science. Open 
 the Vedas — the works of any Greek— or any cliaracteristic spe- 
 cimen of Teutonic speculation ; and then any literature whatever 
 of Semitic origin. In the latter there is nothing beyond the 
 principle of belief or intuition, supported by tme or false Revela- 
 tion ; in the former we have inquiiy and speculation, a thirst 
 unquenchable after the reconcilement of the mysteries of the 
 universe, and an unresting effort to reach the primal harmony 
 of things. Each philosophy is characterized by its two poles. 
 Among the Semitic races, these are, on the one hand, a living 
 belief, which means a true life ; on the other, a disastrous fana- 
 ticism. Among Indo-Teutons the two poles are, first, a high, 
 aspiring, and, withal, a reverent although audacious intellectual 
 acti\-ity; the other, a certain baseless speculative frenzy, or some 
 dry and worthless dogmatism. It is strange how often the con- 
 trast of races reappears in the conflict of schools. The world is 
 now so little simple — race mingling all over with race, and these 
 diverse national characters, appealing successfully to individual 
 idiosyncracies — that one need not marvel at the apparition of that 
 contrast — analogous to the foregoing — which now separates what 
 are tei-med the orthodox and rationalizing theologies of Europe. 
 The euthanasy of the contest is, of course, recoyicikment. Com- 
 prehension of the Infinite and of man's real subordinate relations, 
 cannot be achieved, unless through concun-ent efforts of all the 
 faculties that dignify the human soul. It may very faii-ly be 
 asked whether, if those general statements be true — there can 
 be an Arabian philosopliy, and what significance is included 
 under the tenn 'Arabian philosopher' ? The remark of a recent 
 critic, as sagacious as learned, contains the con-ect reply. " It 
 is only by an abuse of words, that the tenn ' Ai-abian philosophy ' 
 is applied to a philosophy which never had a root within the 
 Peninsula, but which owed its birth to tlie reaction of Persic 
 — (Indo-European) — against Arabian genius. The philosophy 
 in question is wi-itten in Arabic— that is all ! It is not Arabian 
 either in spirit or in tendency." Men like Averrhoes were not 
 Arabian philosophers ; but rather veiy illustrious persons belong- 
 ing to a branch of the Semitic race. And they strack out no 
 national note: their efforts against the force of national ten- 
 dency were vain. But, although they did not affect the character 
 of their own people, and achieved nothing permanent as agents 
 in the development of Arabian thought, they impressed a large 
 influence on Europe, and largely sustained the life of the spirit 
 of inquiiy during those pregnant Jliddle Ages. 
 
 By the times of which we are about to write, the gi-eat Cali- 
 phate had — like Rome — separated into an Eastern and a Western 
 power — the Western, under a branch of the Ommyiades, ha^-ing 
 its seat in Andalusia. The great masters of the East had de- 
 parted. Avicenna died in 1037; his opponent, Algazali, in 
 1111; and that liberal spirit, which — originated by the reaction 
 of Persic thought — had, under Al-Raschid and Al-Mamoun, ren- 
 dered the court of the caliphs the centre of science, so illustrat- 
 ing the cities of Bassora, Cufa, Balkh, Ispahan, and Samarcand, 
 had given way before popular reaction. But the torch lighted at 
 that centre, had been borne westward, and now blazed bright in 
 Spain. The ultimate issue was the same — viz., extinction; but 
 ere that catastrophe occun-ed, Inquir}' had challenged, and, under 
 good auspices, had won renown. Cordova, Grenada, Seville, 
 and indeed most of the cities in the southern part of the Penin- 
 sula, rivalled one another in the magnificence of their schools, 
 their colleges, their academies, and their libraries. No spot on 
 the face of the earth is fitter to cultivate thought, or to lead to 
 contemplation — calm or Insurious — than fair Andalusia. Set- 
 ting aside its poets, we find here a Tofail, an Ibn-Badja, the 
 
 gi-eat family of Ibn-Zohr, and, as the culmination and close of 
 the brilliant histoiy, Averrhoes, who himself fills nearly tlie 
 whole of the twelfth century. When Averrhoes died in l]n}< 
 speculative philosophy, among the Arabians, had to part with 
 its last representative. — The Kadhi Ibn-Roschd was bom at 
 Cordova about the year 1120. He seems to have ever loved 
 Cordova. " If," he says, " a learned man dies at Seville, and 
 his libraiy is to be disposed of, it is sent to Cordova, where the 
 sale is secure. If, on the other hand, a musician dies at Cor- 
 dova, his instraments are transfeiTed to Seville." The early 
 associations of Aven-hotis were all favoui-able to him. His pa- 
 rentage caiTicd honour with it ; he is said to have been a scholar 
 of Avempace (Ibn-Badja) ; certainly Abnbacer (Ibn-Tofail) was 
 the ai'chitect of his fortune ; and he had the closest relation with 
 the great family of Ibn-Zohr (the Avenzoars). The emir Yussuf 
 was then on the throne. The following is the account by AveiTho^s 
 himself of his introduction to him — "When I appeared before 
 the Commander of the Faithful, I found him alone with Ibn- 
 Tofail. The latter spoke highly of me, boasting of my nobility, 
 and of the antiquity of my family. As to this point, indeed, he 
 somewhat exaggerated ; at least he adduced circumstances of 
 which I was quite ignorant. After certain formal conversation, 
 the Emir asked me — ' What is the opini(5n of philosophers con- 
 cerning heaven ? Is it an eternal substance, or a new and recent 
 accident f I was afraid and stunned, and could not at the 
 moment state what I knew. The Emir understood my confu- 
 sion, and turned to Ibn-Tofail, who thereupon discussed what 
 Aristotle and Plato said on the subject, repeating also wth won- 
 derful stretch of memorj' all that the Moslem theologians had 
 brought against the philosophers. The Emir having thus put 
 me at ease, led me to converse in my turn. As I retired, I was 
 presented with a purse and a cloak of honour of gi-eat value." 
 Yussuf, at the suggestion of Tofail, induced Averrhoes to begjii 
 the true labour of his life — xxt.., comments on Aristotle. The 
 bare titles of the works produced with this view by the Arabian 
 would weary the reader. They are not indeed exact commenta- 
 ries on Aristotle, for Averrhoes knew the immortal Greek only 
 through the medium of imperfect translations, made from the 
 Syiiac. Nevertheless his own genius enabled him to penetrate 
 so cleai-ly into the aim and meaning of the Stagj'rite, that far 
 from unworthily, he came to represent him through a long period 
 of the middle ages. — Court favour was not permanent with 
 Aven-hofes. The Emu- who succeeded Yussuf — Jacouh Alman- 
 sour-blllak — loved to converse with him; but, in the end, he 
 withdrew his countenance, and banished the philosopher to an 
 obsciu-e to\vn, Lucena. The cause was clear : Ibn-Roschd had 
 been heard to speak slightingly of the tale in the Koran concern- 
 ing the destniction of the tribe of An. Moslem fury vras roused : 
 it was the old stoiy — Woe to him who will speak against the gods! 
 But the affection of Almansour viitually remained, and as soon 
 as he could he recalled Avcrrho6s. Better still he revoked his 
 former edicts against philosophy. The favour of the Emir, how- 
 ever, proved of no ultimate avail. Philosophy succumbed, and 
 disappeared from the Caliphate when Aven-hoes died. The Koran 
 is, as it then was. But this thinker became a power among the 
 Teutonic races ; nor, considering him as the only accessible 
 exponent of Aristotle, can we hesitate to hold in highest value 
 the services he rendered to philosophy. — Of the personal char- 
 acter of Averhoes almost nothing is known. What is told of 
 him belongs to legend, and informs us far less of what he was, 
 than concerning what was thought about him. Renan says with 
 perfect truth, that neither by his studies nor by his character does 
 lie aj)pcar to have departed much from the tj'pc of the " learned 
 Mussulman." He knew what the others knew ; for medicine, 
 Galen; for philosophy, Aristotle, or his translators; for astro- 
 nomy the Almagest. Like every other Mussulman, he cultivated 
 jurispradence ; and, like every distinguished Arabian, he was 
 devoted to poetry. 
 
 It would be a great mistake to suppose that the Aristotelianism 
 of these Ai'abians was the Aristotelianism of Aristotle. It can 
 scarcely be said, indeed, that they ever saw the Stagyrite as he 
 was. His doctrines, or rather Ins reputed doctrines, came to 
 them through that all-distorting school of Alexandria ; and the 
 spirit of his method was so little preserved, that their best 
 Inquirers wasted their powers on those veiy questions, regarding 
 which their nominal Master studiously exercised wisest resen'e. 
 The problems that interested them most were two : one regard- 
 ing the origin of finite and diversified Being ; the other concera-
 
 ing the relations of the "active" and " passive" intellect. It 
 were out of place in a vs-ork like this — which is not a histoiy of 
 philosophy — to detail the special views of Averrhoes, as to either 
 of these problems ; especially as liis speculations have not affected 
 any system of modern thought. The intelligent student will 
 readily apprehend that a disposition to excess, might — in the dis- 
 cussion of such questions— lead to absolute materialism on the 
 one hand, or to absolute pantheism on the other. Averrhoes 
 probably did not find the true mean ; but that he was not far from 
 it is sufficiently proved by the fact, that the most opposite sects 
 ha\ e equally abused him. — Without doubt he was a man of very 
 great sagacity, as well as power. For a time the fame of 
 Aven-hoes was almost equivalent to the fame of Aristotle. With 
 a large class of schoolmen and ecclesiastics, his name for several 
 centuries was the name of Anticlu-ist ; wliile others followed 
 him with a compensating devotion. It is a stupendous thing — 
 the apparition of a mighty mind ! This Stagyrite — in how many 
 aspects do we see bun — how often does he or his shadow appear 
 and reappear in history ! If a tnie history of Aristotle shall ever 
 be written — one that shall tell what the intellect bearing that 
 name has accomplished towards the modification of our mundane 
 course of thought — Aven-hoes, as one of the most potent of his 
 imperfect representatives, must have for himself a chapter in 
 that history. — Like most learned Arabians, Averrhoes vs'as great 
 as a physician. — See as to details the very interesting volume of 
 Renan, " Aven-hofes et TAverrhoisme." — J. P. N. 
 
 AVERSA, ToMxrASO, an Italian poet, bom at Amistrato in 
 Sicily. Besides a translation into Sicilian rhj-me of Virgil's 
 jEucid, he wrote a number of tragedies and comeiiies now little 
 known. Died in 1663. 
 
 AVERY, John, an organ-builder of considerable eminence, 
 who flourished in England between the years 1775 and 1808. 
 His principal organs were St. Stephen's, Coleman-street, city, 
 London, 1775; Croydon church, Surrey, 179-1; Winchester 
 cathedi-al, 1799 ; Christ chmxh, Bath, 1800 ; St. Margaret's, 
 Westminster, 1804; Kmg's College chapel, Cambridge, 1804: ; 
 Seven Oaks' chm-ch, Kent, 1798 ; Cariisle cathedral, 1800. He 
 died 13th November, 1808. — (Emibault and Hopkins' Hist, of 
 the Organ.)— E. F. R. 
 
 AVESBURY, Robert, register of the Archiepiscopal court 
 of Canterbury, died in 1356. The date of Hs birth is uncer- 
 tain. He was the author of a histoiy of the reign of Edward 
 III. as far as that date, which was first published by Thomas 
 Heame at Oxford, 1720. 
 
 AVESNE, Francois u', a French fanatic, bom at Fleurance 
 in the Lower Annagnac, died about the year 1662. He was a 
 disciple of Simon Jlorin, and published libellous letters and 
 pamphlets against the king and Cardinal Slazarin, in which he 
 claimed for himself all the "illumination" of his master. 
 
 AVIANI, an Italian artist of superior merit. He flourished 
 at Vicenza about the year 1630, and painted architecture, land- 
 scape, and marine pieces. Bom during the lifetime of Palladio, 
 or while his school still flourished, and residing in a city abound- 
 ing in good specimens of architectural taste, he " produced," says 
 Lanzi, " pictures of so pleasing a character, filled with fittle 
 figures by Carpioni under his direction, that it is surprising he 
 did not attain equal celebrity with Viviano and other first-rate 
 artists." Views by A%-iani arc to be found in the Foresteria, or 
 Stranger's Lodge of the Padri Serviti in Vicenza, in the cele- 
 brated Rotunda of Palladio, and in other private and public 
 collections of his native town. — A. M. 
 
 AVI.XNUS, Flavius, a Latin poet, supposed to have lived 
 about the year 160. He wrote forty-two fables in elegiac verse, 
 which he dedicated to one Thcodosius, probably Macrobius Theo- 
 dosius, a grammarian. They have been frequently reprinted. 
 
 AVICEBRON; othenvise S0L03I0N II'.N GABIROL. The 
 identity of the persons supposed to be indicated by these two 
 names, was not established until quite recently. Ibn Gabirol of 
 Malaga, who lived during the latter half of the eleventh centuiy, 
 was hold in repute, in so far, as a philosopher, but chiefly as a re- 
 ligious poet. The principal work of a writer whom they named 
 Aviccbron, made, on its translation into Latin, a marked sensa- 
 tion among the schoolmen of the thirteenth century. Albertus 
 Magnus, Aquinas, and other Christian philosophers, eagerly 
 quote and comment on a treatise "Fons Vit;c;" but they give 
 no personal details concerning Avicebron — not even as to the age 
 or place in which he lived. It was reserved for M. JIunk of 
 the Royal Library of Paris, to demonstrate that Avicebron and 
 
 Solomon Ibn Gabirol are one ; and so to give the Mckor 
 Havyim (^Foiis Vitce) the right to precedence in that history of 
 philosophy in Andalusia, which brilliantly terminated the intel- 
 lectual eftbrts of the Semitic races in southern Spain. Avicebron 
 must thtis have preceded Avempace or Ibn Badja, the earliest 
 of the illustrious Arabians whose philosophic researches culmi- 
 nated in Averrhotjs. But although preceding them, he cannot be 
 considered as their teacher. So strong was the line dividing at 
 that time the adherents of different creeds, that probably they 
 knew nothing of Gabirol ; assuredly they have never quoted him. 
 Neither is he entitled to the appellation of a Jewbh philosopher 
 in any ordinary sense ; for his influence over the beliefs and 
 speculations of his co-religonists seems as insignificant as that 
 of Averrhoijs over the Moslems. His thoughts, however, entered 
 as an element into the mass of inquiry forming the science of 
 the middle ages ; and he farther manifests the nature of the 
 foi-m that must be imposed on the peripatetic philosophy, ere 
 that philosophy could command the allegiance of a Jew. AVTiat 
 has been remarked in our sketch of Aven'hot's may be repeated 
 emphatically here : — Philosophy, in the forai of science, has never 
 been acceptable to any Semitic people. Religion with the Jews 
 was ever essentially a Belief, not a Philosophy ; a religion sum- 
 med up in the lofty personal monotheism of Genesis, and an 
 imwavering conviction in the free-will and consequent responsi- 
 bility of man. Speculation as to the reconcilement and relations 
 of these, — still more as to the entire relations between the mfinite 
 and the finite, were foreign to Hebrew genius ; and only in two 
 of the ancient Je'nnsh books that sm'vive, has either prophet or 
 lawgiver condescended to scientific reasoning. In Job and Ec- 
 clesiastes we have discussion — not without its shai-pness ; but it 
 is limited to points in the theory of practical morals, nor do even 
 these somewhat exceptional ^vl•itings manifest the faintest trace 
 of anxiety regarding such ultimate problems as have stirred 
 the intellect of all Indo-European nations. The conflict of the 
 two tendencies now mdicated, is the key to the history of Jewish 
 philosophy as such, or rather to the position of distinguished 
 Jews ; nor may the searching inquu-er comprehend, unless by 
 its light, more modem phenomena indicating the same conflict. 
 When the Jews ceased to live as an isolated nation, and had in so 
 far been dispersed through the allurements of commerce, contact 
 with Greeks and Persians brought their best thinkers into clear 
 presence of a course of speculation previously wholly foreign to 
 them. Yet the influence of Alexandina could produce only a Philo. 
 At a still more recent period, the barren formality of a textual criti- 
 cism, and the dulness of endless disputation concerning the autho- 
 rity of tradition which di\idcd and agitated the Karaites and 
 Rabbanites, were invaded by the bold speculations of Saadia Ben- 
 Joseph al-Fazzoumi, the famous Egyptian Talmudist, born in 
 the year 892. Some of Saadia's opinions are so adventurous, 
 especially regarding the nan-atives in the book of Job, that, while 
 perusing them, one might fancy one'ssolf reading some modern 
 critical work. Nevertheless, although asserting prerogatives 
 for Reason, and denying that any doctrine can be consolidated or 
 defended unless it is understood, he claims for philosophy nothing 
 farther than a secondary rank, — that, viz., of rational expounder 
 and advocate of the religious creed of Judaism. Avicebron fol- 
 lowed Saadia after the interval of nearly a century. By this late 
 time the philosophical writings of the Arabians had found their 
 way to Spain, and begun to stir the thouglilful in Andalusia; and 
 the community of Jews had founded a new school in Cordova, hav- 
 ing first thrown oft' allegiance to the Babylonian academy at Sora. 
 Profiting by a conjuncture so auspicious, Ibn Gabirol penetrated 
 into regions of speculation never before explored by any Jew ; 
 and through effect of the originality and independence of his 
 genius, he rose high above all his co-religionists in Spain. In 
 such circumstances we might expect, indeed, to find him much 
 more influenced than his predecessors by the spirit of tlie Ly- 
 cajum ; but it does siu-prise one that Avicebron could f/iungc 
 at once into the midst of the most arduous problems originated 
 by Aristotle, and that the light he threw on them so largely in- 
 fluenced the greatest schoolmen of two centuries later. Aquinas 
 asserts, for instance, that this Jew was the first in modem 
 times, who made the clear distinction between JIatter and Fonn, 
 and applied that distinction in solution of the mystery of a Finite 
 Creation. "Quidam dieunt," he tells us, "quod anima et oninino 
 onuiis substantia pra'ter Deuni est composila ex materia et forma. 
 Cujus qnidem posil ionis prinuis auctor invenitur Avicebron, auetor 
 libri, Fontis Vitse." By matter or substance, is meant something
 
 AVI 
 
 302 
 
 AVI 
 
 which has the capacity of 6eco??itrt7, or of receiving an individuality. 
 Foi-m is that by which individuality is constituted. And tlic power 
 by wliich matter receives or is impressed by Foito, is, according to 
 Avicebron, the Will of God, as distinct from his Intelli- 
 gence. Matter — he avers — receives, or is impressed, according 
 to the faculty of reception with which the will of God has en- 
 dowed it : the power as manifested, notwithstanding the gorge- 
 ousness of the universe, is exceedingly small in comparison with 
 what this sovereign Will may produce. The intelligent reader 
 will not fail to mark the connection of the foregoing doctrine, 
 with the specialties of Avicebron's creed ; nor can he require to 
 be reminded that the distinction between what is due to the su- 
 preme Will, and what to the supreme Intelligence, continues the 
 ground of sejiaration between two gi-eat schools of speculative 
 philosophy, up to the present hour. We have abeady hinted 
 that this remarkable person had no disciples among the Jews. 
 But though they consigned his philosophy to what they fancied 
 was oblivion, they admired and cherished his rehgious hymns, 
 giving them a place in the ritual of the synagogue. — J. P. N. 
 
 AVICENNA; IBN-SINA, Abou-Ali Al-Hosein Ibn-Ab- 
 DALLAii ; the most celebrated of Arabian physicians, and the 
 greatest philosopher produced by that race, in the East. He was 
 born at Aischena, in the province of Bokhara, in August, 980 
 A.D. The tales that have come to us concerning his precocity, 
 and the extent of his acquu-ements, reach the marvellous. At 
 the age of sixteen he had made himself ac(]Uainted with all the 
 sciences, and established the highest reputation as a physician. 
 Having succeeded in curing Prince Nouh ben-Man90ur of a 
 serious disease, he became a favourite at the palace, and had the 
 treasures of the magnificent royal library opened to him. None 
 of all tlie court favour that flowed fast on Avicenna, can have 
 been more welcome to him than this. It enabled him to satiate 
 liis thirst for knowledge, and to perfect the studies he had begun. 
 After his twenty-second year, we find him travelling through 
 various districts and cities near the Caspian, settling for a time 
 at Djordan, where he composed his great work — the " Canon of 
 JMedicine" — a work that carried his name through Europe as 
 well as Asia, and sustained his reputation for several centuries. 
 Having removed to Hamadan, in consequence apparently of the 
 unsettled condition of those regions, the Prince Schems-Eddaula 
 made him his vizier, and placed him in charge of the army. 
 Unfortunately a suspicion had been gathering over Avicenna — 
 viz., that he was not a sound Mussulman. The troops muti- 
 nied, and, but for the efforts of the prince, would have killed him. 
 The stonn passed over, and the philosopher returned to court, 
 where he composed the gi-eatest of his works, the " Al-Schefa." 
 Avicenna loved pleasure quite as well as study ; and it is said 
 that at this period of his life, after discoursing eloquently in the 
 evening to a large auditoiy, he spent the greater part of the 
 night in all sorts of excess. After the death of Schems-Ed- 
 daula he was suspected of treason, and imprisoned in a for- 
 tress, from which he escaped, — taking refuge with Ala-Eddnula, 
 prince of Ispahan. Again luxurious court life, excess, and riot. 
 A constitution naturally most robust gave way, and he died at 
 Hamadan in July, 1037, at the age of fifty-seven. We are told 
 that as the dark shadow touched him, Avicenna repented of his 
 joys, and took means to secure that he should die as the Faithful 
 ought. It is amazing that, during a life so disturbed from 
 within as from without, any man could have accomplished what 
 this extraordinai*y genius seems to have done with a])parent ease 
 and unconcern. Of bis gigantic works — numbering more than a 
 hundred — any one was sufficient to establish a reputation ; nor 
 was any science known in his time which, in some manner, he 
 did not advance. The philosophy of Avicenna was the Peripa- 
 tetic, although several elements are found in it which Aris- 
 totle would have disowned. He certainly inclined towards the 
 pantheism pecuhar to the East. Those same problems, after- 
 wards discussed by Averrhoes, appear to have mainly occupied 
 him — viz., the theory of being, and the theory of the soul. His 
 notion regarding the question of finite being was this : — Admit- 
 ting that the first cause is single and absolute, he attempts to 
 solve the mystery of the multiplex, or of the world, as follows — 
 It is not from God directly that all change or motion comes. 
 The first cause energizes only on a sphere that suiTounds all 
 things, and from wliich inferior spheres draw their acti\ity. 
 God has knowledge only of things that are universal, and not 
 concerning special or accidental occurrences. He is influenced 
 by the Peripatetic view, that in all special things there is an 
 
 entelechy, or faculty of special action, and that the First cause 
 merely draws that forth. The reflecting student will not find 
 it difficult to discern, that under cover of different language, we 
 have being agitated in our own day the veiy problem which so 
 puzzled Avicenna. But the "theory of the soul" chiefly ar- 
 rested him. As a matter of course he adopted, in outline, the 
 doctrine of Aristotle ; and like Ibn-Tofail and almost every 
 Arabian writer, the end of his inquiry was, how the human soul 
 may best reach union with the supernal " active intellect." 
 He recommends elevation through speculative exercise; but, 
 above all, that one subject desire, and search after moral purity, 
 so that the vessel be pure into wliich the supernal or active in- 
 tellect may come ! Poor mortal ! — We borrow the foUowing 
 quotations from M. Munk (taken from Avicenna's " Meta- 
 [ihysics"): — "As to the rational soul, its true perfection coij- 
 sists in becoming an intellectual world, in which one may find 
 the form of all that exists, the rational order that prevails evei-y- 
 where, the good that penetrates all. . . Being m this 
 
 world and within the body, submerged under bad desires, we are 
 not capable of rcachirig this lofty enjoyment : we do not indeed 
 seek it, or feel capable of reaching it, unless we gain mastery i 
 over these desires and passions. . . It appears that Man 
 
 cannot detach himself from this world and its bondage, unless 
 he attaches himself strongly to that higher world, and shapes his 
 desires so that they all di-aw him towards it. . . . There 
 are men of natm'e most pure, whose souls are fortified by their 
 purity and their immovable attachment to mtellectual life, — 
 these men receive in every act the aid of the supernal intellect : 
 others have even no need of study to attain that conmumion : 
 they know, of themselves ; they are inspued." One might fancy 
 that doctrines like these would have guaranteed the soundness 
 even of a Mussulman ; but they did not avail Avicenna in this 
 direction. The true Semitic spirit speedily gave biilh to Alga- 
 zali, who, on that favourite ground of orthodoxy — the asser- 
 tion of the powerlessness of reason, and the denial of causaUty — 
 attacked all philosophy. — Avicenna held stoutly by the per- 
 sonality of the human soul, and its indestructibility apart fi'om the 
 body. Hesitation on this subject was reserved for his western 
 successor, Ibn Roschd. Without injustice to the illustrious 
 Spanish Ai'ab, history must award to his eastern predecessor the 
 merit of having first explained to modem times the nature of 
 the philosophy of the Stagyrite. — J. P. N. 
 
 AVIENUS, EuFus Festus, a Roman geogi-apher and poet, 
 was twice proconsul. He left a metrical version of the " Ui^m- 
 yr,si; " of Denys, under the title of " Descriptio Orbis Terra," 
 and several other geographical poems, an edition of which was 
 published at Venice in 1488. 
 
 AVIGADOR, SoLOJitiN Ben Abraham, a Jewish philoso- 
 phical writer of the commencement of the fifteenth century, 
 supposed to have been a son of Abraham Ben MeshuUam 
 Avigador. 
 
 AVILA, Don Sanciio de, a Spanish general, bom at Avila 
 in 1523. He was one of Alva's Heutenants in the Low Countries, 
 and, according to the Dutch historians, as notorious for cmelty 
 as his master. The Spanish biogi-aphers speak only of his valour 
 and warlike skill. Died in 1583. 
 
 AVILA, Gil Gonzalez de, a voluminous Spanish biogi-apher 
 and antiquarian, was bom at A\-ila in 1577. He passed the 
 period of his studies at Rome ; returned to Spain at twenty years 
 of age ; became deacon in the church of Salamanca ; and in 1612 
 was appointed royal historiogi-apher for the two Castiles. Died 
 in 1058. Of his numerous and useful works, the two following 
 may be noticed : 1. " Teatro de las Grandczas dc Madiid, corte 
 de los Reyes Catholicos de Espana," 1G23. 2. "Teatro Eccle- 
 siastico de las Iglesias Metropolitanas y Catedrales de los Reynos 
 de las dos Castillas, vidas de sus Arzobispos y Obispos y cosafl 
 memorablas de sus Sedes," 1G45-55. — J. S., G. 
 
 AVILA, Hernando d', a Spanish painter and sculptor, a 
 pupil of Francisco Comonte, who flourished about 1565. He 
 win-ked for the cathedral of Toledo, and for King Philip II. 
 
 AVILA, Juan de, a celebrated Spanish preacher, commonly 
 called " the apostle of Andalusia," was born at Almodovar del 
 Campo in 1500. His missionary labours in the towns and in the 
 wilds of Andalusia were prosecuted witli untu-ing zeal and with 
 singular success, until, at the age of fifty, with a constitution 
 completely worn out, he was obliged to desist. Died in 1569. 
 His " Cartas EspJrituales," or spiritual letters, have been trans- 
 lated into most European languages. — J. S., G.
 
 AVI 
 
 303 
 
 AYR 
 
 AVILA, LuDOVicus Lobeka d', a Spanish writer on medi- 
 cine, physician to Cluirles V., lived aljont the year 15-10. He 
 publislied two treatises, one in Spanish and another in Latin — 
 " De Morbo Gallico." 
 
 AVILA Y ZuNiGA, Luis i>e, a Spanish historian and diplo- 
 matist, was ambassador to the courts of popes Paul IV. and 
 Pius IV., and afterwards followed Charles V. into Germany. He 
 commanded the cavaliy at the sie<re of Bletz, and published 
 after his return to Spain an account of Charles' wars in Germany 
 in the years 1546 and 1547. 
 
 AVILER, AuGUSTiN Charles d', a French architect of the 
 seventeenth century. His early career was marked with strange 
 adventures. Whilst travelling by sea from France to Rome, 
 where he intended to perfect his studies, he fell into the hands 
 of Barbaresque pirates, who disposed of him to the bey of Tunis. 
 This bey, however, having discovered the talents of his slave, 
 employed him in the construction of a mosque, in the canying 
 out of which he so entirely succeeded in pleasing his master, 
 that this latter restored him to liberty. Once more free, Aviler 
 turned his steps towards Rome, where for some time he remained, 
 completing his studies. On liis retmni to France he executed 
 several important works for various towns of Languedoc. He 
 also wrote some essays on architectm-e, which greatly increased 
 his fame. He died at Montpellier in 1700. — R. M. 
 
 AVISON, Charles, a celebrated composer and writer on 
 music, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1710. When a young 
 man, he visited Italy for the purpose of study, and after his 
 return to England, became a pupil of Geminiani. In 1735 
 he was ajjpointed organist to the church of St. Nicholas in his 
 native town. Tlie work by which Avison is best known is his 
 " Essay on Musical Expi-ession," published in 1752. It contains 
 some judicious reflections on music, but the division of the mo- 
 dem authors into classes is rather fanciful than just. Through- 
 out the whole of this work we find the highest encomiums on 
 Marcello and Geminiani; and on the latter, frequently to the 
 prejudice of Handel. In the ensuing year it was answered 
 anonymously by Dr. William Hayes, the professor of music in 
 the university of Oxford, in a pamphlet entitled " Remarks on 
 Mr. Avison's Essay on Musical Expression." The author of this 
 brochure points out many errors against the established rules of 
 composition in the works of Avison ; and infers from thence, 
 that his skill in the science was not very profound. He then 
 proceeds to examine the book itself, and to say the truth, he 
 has seldom failed to estabhsh his point, and prove his adver- 
 sary in the wrong. Before the conclusion of the same yeai-, 
 Avison re-published his Essay, with a reply to these Remarks, 
 in which he was assisted by the learned Dr. Jortin. 
 
 Of Avison's own com])ositions, there are extant five collections 
 of " Concertos for a full band" (one of which contains the origi- 
 ifal of ''Sound the Loud Timbrel"); some Quartettes and Trios, 
 and two sets of " Sonatas for tlie Harpsichord and two Violins." 
 His music is light and elegant, but it wants originality, a neces- 
 sary consequence of his attachment to the style of Geminiani, 
 which in few particulars only, he was aide to imitate. Avison 
 died in 1770. — (^Iluwlcins ; BruiuVs Newcastle.')— Y.. F. R. 
 
 AVITUS, Marcus JLkcilius, an emperor of the West. 
 He was descended from a Gaulish family of Auvcrgne, and ac- 
 quired the favour of Constantius, the colleague of Ilonorius, and 
 of Tlieodoric, king of the Visigoths. He served with distinction 
 under Actius, became prefect of Gaul, and concluded a favour- 
 able treaty with the (!oths. He afterwards retired into private 
 life until the invasion of Attila, when he induced the Goths 
 to join the Romans against the common enemy. He was pro- 
 claimed emperor in 455, took for his colleague Marcianus, and 
 died the year following. — T. W. S. 
 
 AVITUS, Sextus Alcimus Ecdicius St., a bishop of 
 Vienne, who was born in the fifth century, and died in 525. 
 His claim to modern notice is an unfinished poem, which bears 
 a striking resemblance to the " Paradise Lost" of Milton. 
 
 AVOGADKO, one of the most ancient families in Lom- 
 bardy. It received the name Avogadro (advocate), because one 
 of its members was charged with the advocacy of church afiairs. 
 
 AVOGADRO, Alberto, an Italian poet, who lived in the 
 house of Cosmo de Medicis. His poem on the magniticence of 
 his protector, has been printed in Lanii's Delieia! ernditornm. 
 
 AVOGADRO, Camillo, an Italian poet, born at Jlilan, 
 about the end of the iit'teenth century. Another of the same name 
 assisted his father Muttco in a Lexicon Cicaronianum. 
 
 AVOGADRO, Giuseppe, Count of Cassanova, bom at Ver- 
 celli, 1731 ; a writer on agriculture. By new plans of cultiva- 
 tion introduced on his estates, he reaUzed a fortune. He wrote 
 several books on his favomite subject. 
 
 AVOGADRO, Lucia, an Italian poetess, whose lyrics won 
 the applause of Tasso. She died in 1568. 
 
 AVOGADRO, LuDOVico, a gentleman of Brescia with the 
 rank of Count. He was distinguished by his having headed the 
 conspiracy to drive the French from Brescia in the war of the 
 leag-ue of Cambray. He fell in an attack on the town in 1512. 
 
 AVOGADRO, Nestor Dexi.s, a lexicogi-apher, who flour- 
 ished in the fifteenth century. A Latin dictionary of his went 
 through eight editions from 1488 to 1507. 
 
 AVOGADRO, PiETRo, an Italian historical painter, flourish- 
 ing in Brescia at the beginning of the eighteenth century. He 
 was a pupQ of Ghiti, and studied at Bologna. He was particu- 
 larly noted for his skill in foreshortening, and the cleverness of 
 his com])Osition and general efiect. — R. M. 
 
 AVOGADRO, PiETRO, an Itahan fitterateur, lived about 
 1490, and wrote memoirs of the illustrious men of his country. 
 
 AVOGADRO, Vincent-Maria, a Sicilian theologian, born 
 at Palermo, 1702. He was a Dominican, and taught theology at 
 Girgenti. He wrote " De Sanctitate Librorum qui in Ecclesia 
 Catholica Consecrantur." 
 
 AVOLO, C^SAu, an Italian philosopher of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, author of " De Causis Sympathia; et Antipathia;." 
 
 AVONMORE, Viscount of. See Yelverton. 
 
 AVONT, Peter van den, a Flemish landscape and figure 
 painter, flourished about 1619 at Antwerp. He often executed 
 figures in the pictures of other artists. These figures are parti- 
 cularly well diawn, and his style, generally, is full of care and 
 feeling. He was also noted as a very good engraver. 
 
 AVRANCHES, Henry d', a court poet in the service of 
 Henry III. He was a Frenchman, as his name indicates, and 
 probably wrote in French. He affords the first instance of an 
 officer m the English court afterwards denominated /)oe!!-?flMreate. 
 His pay was six shilUngs per day (equivalent to seven and six- 
 pence of the present currency) as the "king's versifier," Avi'anches, 
 or "Master Henry," as he is tenned, must have been aman of note, 
 and, consequently, had his enemies. In one of his poems he had 
 reflected on the boorish manners of the denizens of Cornwall. The 
 insult was taken up by one Michael Blancpaine, i.e., W'hite- 
 bread or Whitbread, a Cornish man, with great spirit. It is 
 amusing to witness the atrabilous rancour of the literaiy char- 
 acter manifesting itself in these far-off ages. Michael, in a 
 Latin poem, recited before the abbot of Westminster and other 
 high ecclesiastical dignitaries, tells Master Henry how he had 
 once termed him the arch poet, but that henceforth he will only 
 call him a poet ; nay — and he waxes wroth as he approaches his 
 climax, — he shall be dubbed a petty poetaster ! Entries of pay- 
 ments to Avranehes occur in JLadox's " History of the Ex- 
 chequer," under the years 1249-1251. — (Walton's Iligt. ofEng. 
 Poet. ; AnstiiiCs Lives of the Poets-Laureate.') — E. F. R. 
 
 AVRIGNY, Charles-Joseph Laiii.LARn d', a Frencli 
 poet, born at Martinique, 1760; died, 17th September, 1823. 
 He made an early promise in having secured the only favourable 
 notice of the Academy for his prize poem on the prayer of Patro- 
 clus to Achilles. Having married the fomous singer, Renault, 
 of the " Opera Comi(iu('," he wrote for the theatre with various 
 success — his clever little piece, " La Lettre," becoming an estab- 
 lished favourite. But D'Avrigny's most successful effort was his 
 prose " Tableau Ilistorique des Connnencements et des Progrfes 
 de la Puissance Britannicpie dans les Indes," one of the best frag- 
 ments of histoiy in our time. He was di'amalic censor under 
 the Empire and the Restoration. — A. L. 
 
 AVRIGNY, Hyacinth E Robillard d', a French histo- 
 rian, born at Caen, 1675; died at Alen^on, 1719. Though little 
 known, his works have ])laced him among the best historians of 
 the time of Louis XIV: " Jlemoires pour Servir a I'llistoire 
 Univcrselle do I'Europe depuis, 1600 a 1716;" and " Memoires 
 Chronolngiques ct Dogmatiques pour Servir k I'llistoire Ecclesi- 
 astique depuis, 1600 ii 1716." — A. L. 
 
 AVRIL, JicAN Jacques, baron, a French general, who 
 served under Hoehe, Massena, and Bninc. During tiie Hun- 
 dred Days he refused to act, and was deprived of liis honom-s, 
 which were restored by Louis XVIII. 
 
 AVRIL, Jean Jacques, the name of two French engravers, 
 father and sou. The former died in 1832, with the renown of
 
 ba\-ing carried his art to the highest perfection. However vai-ied 
 his subjects, all were executed with a precision and taste seldom 
 or ever excelled. The son, who died in 1831, canied off the 
 second grand prize decreed by the National Institute. 
 
 AVEIL, Le Pere Philippe, Jesuit and French missionary, 
 seventeenth centur)% He was ordered to penetrate into China 
 through Tartary, and he traversed Syria, Km-distan, Ainnenia, 
 and Persia, but was arrested by the governor of Astracan, and 
 obliged to retiun. He published his travels under the title of 
 " Voyage en divers dtats d'Europe et d'Asie," Paris, 1G92. 
 
 AVRILLOT, Barbe, better known by her name of Acaeie, 
 founder of the order of the Cannelites in France ; born at Paris, 
 1st July, 1565 ; died, 18th April, 1G18. It is said that Barbe 
 wished, at the age of five years, to take the veil, but that her 
 parents, ha\-ing little faith in her early asceticism, manied her 
 to an accountant called Peter Acarie. This man happened to 
 be a warm friend to some of the League, and when Paris suc- 
 cumbed to Henry IV. in 1594, Peter was obliged to flee, leaving 
 his wife and six children to be deprived by his creditors of all his 
 means and effects. Then it was that Barbe showed a resignation 
 and courage worthy of her early promise : the old call recmTcd, 
 and having placed her infants in an asylum, she resolved on 
 estabUshing an order of CamieUtes in France. In tliis project 
 she succeeded. She became directoress of the religious house 
 she had founded, and engaged one of her friends, JIadame Sainte- 
 Beuve, to establish a convent of Ursulines in the same faubourg. 
 She went under the name of Sister JIary of the Incarnation, and 
 died in her retreat among the Carmelites of Pontoise. Several 
 works are attributed to her. — A. L. 
 
 AVY, Antoixe Sylvain, Baron, bom at Cressier, 25th 
 May, 177G ; died, 13th January, 181-1. This general of the 
 French ai-my sensed in GeiTnany and Spain. He was killed at 
 the siege of Anvers, at the age of thirty-eight, and has his name 
 on the bronze tables of Versailles. 
 
 AWDELAY, AWDLAY, or AUDLEY, John, an English 
 poet, about 142 G. He was a canon in Shropshire, and chantry 
 priest to Lord Strange. His poems are curious for their anti- 
 quity and coimty patob. His condition is told by himself: — 
 
 " Jon, the blynde, Awdelay, 
 The furst priest to the Lord Straunge he was, 
 Of this chamitre, here in this place, 
 That made this bok )jy Goddus grace, 
 Deef, sick, blynd, as he lay." — A. L. 
 
 AWHADI DI MARAGHA, a Persian poet of the thkteenth 
 century, who developed the doctrines of Sufi. 
 
 AXAJACATL or AXAYACATZLIN, emperor of the an- 
 cient Mexicans or Azteques, died 1477. He was father of the 
 celebrated Iilontezuma, who was one of nine sons. Follo\ving 
 Humboldt through the obsciu-ity of Mexican histor}', we learn 
 that Axajacatl was the sixth king of Mexico, called in the lan- 
 guage of the natives Tenochritlan. He inaugurated his reign 
 by an expedition against Tehuantepec to obtain human sacrifices, 
 and aftenvards, ha\ing repulsed the people who attempted to 
 take possession of his kingdom, canied the war among his 
 neighbours. It was under his reign that 50,000 Indians 
 brought from the mountains of Cujoacan, the enonnous rock 
 which is covered with bas-rehefs, and sensed for the altar of the 
 great temple called Teocalli. The ostentatious devotion roused 
 the envy of the people of Tlatelolco, who, under the impression 
 that their neighbour was getting into too much favom' with the 
 gods, erected a Teocalli of their own, and the rivalship ended in 
 a war. The king of the Tlatelolcans was slain, and his body 
 carried to Axajacatl, who tore out the heart, as a sacrifice to 
 the Jlexican deities. Afterwards, in 1475 and 147G, Axajacatl 
 subdued several of the neighbouring nations, Tochpan, Tlaxi- 
 malojan, and Michoacan, and proved himself the greatest of the 
 kings who reigned before the celebrated Jlontezuma, his son ; 
 having added thirty-seven provinces to his kingdom. He was 
 at once voluptuous in his pleasures, rigid in the execution of the 
 laws, and devout in the religious cultm-e of his subjects, who 
 were noted for their sanguinary disposition. — A. L. 
 
 AXEL, a Swedish pliilosopher of the sixteenth century, secre- 
 tary to Gustavus Adolphus, and author of a treatise in the 
 Swedisli tongue, on Morals, 1GG2. 
 
 AXELSEN or AXELSON TOTT, a powerful Danish family 
 which flourished in the latter half of the fifteenth century, and 
 the members of which figured in the wars between Christian f. 
 and John IV. of Denmark, and Karl Knutsen and Eric the 
 
 Pomeranian, kings of Sweden. Peter Axelsen was the head 
 of the family. He had nine sons, of whom Olaf, Iver, Eric 
 and Aage acquired some reputation. The first, Olaf, made him- 
 self master of Gothland ; the second, Iver, retained the posses- 
 sion, and became a corsair. The third, Eric, was governor of 
 Stockholm ; and the foiuth, Aage, a Danish councillor of state. 
 
 AXEN, Pethus, a German jurisconsult and man of letters, 
 was born at Husum in Holstein in 1G35, settled as a lawyer in 
 Schleswig in 1C70, and died in 1707. Axen was a good philo- 
 logist, and carried on a coiTCspondence with some eminent classi- 
 cists, such as Grosvius and Gronovius. He has left a variety of 
 works, printed and in manuscript, of a historical or pliilological 
 nature, among the rest : — " Phaedri Fabuloe jEsopicae, cum prio- 
 ribus ac posterioribus notis Rigaltii," Hamburg, 1G71, 8vo. 
 Axon's own very copious and dift'use notes to the first book, are 
 to be foimd only in the first edition. In the university library at 
 Kiel there is now a manuscript of Cornelius Nepos, which once 
 belonged to King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, and which was 
 one of the treasm-es of Axen's extensive librarj-. — A. M. 
 
 AXIOTHEA. There were two persons of antiquity, cele- 
 brated under this name. One was a gentlewoman of Athens, 
 who, attired as a man, regularly attended the lectures of Plato, 
 and another, who became the wife of Nicocles, king of Cj-prus. 
 
 AXPOELE, W. VAN, a Flemish historical and portrait 
 painter, who, together vrith. Johann Martins, executed in 141!) 
 several paintings in oil colom-s for the municipal palace of Gand. 
 These paintings chiefly consisted of portr;uts of the counts of 
 Flanders. 
 
 AXT or AXTIUS, Johann Conrad, a German physician 
 and botanist, Uved at Arnstadt, a town of Thuiingia, dniing the 
 latter half of the seventeenth centmy. He studied at the uni- 
 versity of Helmstaedt, and there received his degree of doctor of 
 medicine. He WTote a treatise on "Coniferous Plants," which 
 was published at Jena in 1G79, He also published some 
 medical treatises. — J. H. B. 
 
 AXTEL, Daniel, a colonel in the sen-ice of the parliament 
 in the gi-eat civil war, who guarded the high comt of justice 
 during the trial of Charles I. He served in Ireland midor 
 Cromwell, and was appomted governor of Kilkenny. On the 
 Restoration he was excepted from the act of amnesty, and suf- 
 fered death amidst the grossest indignities. 
 
 AXTELMEYER, Stanislas Reinhard, a Genuan philo- 
 sopher, who flomished early In the eighteenth century, and wrote 
 upon the adulteration of food, " Hokus Pokeria," Ulm, 1704. 
 He \vrote a variety of other works, scientific, political, and sati- 
 rical, under very strange titles. 
 
 AXULAR, Pedro, a Basque author, a native of Sarra uii 
 the frontiers of Navarra, who lived about 1G40, and wrote 
 a work entitled " Geroko Guero," containing a singular mixture 
 of Roman catholic and classical mythology. 
 
 AYALA, BARNABi; d', a Spanish painter, a pupil of Francisco 
 Zm'bazan. He was successfid in imitating the style of his mas- 
 ter, especially in the treatment of drapery. Ayala was one of 
 the founders of the Academy of Se\-ille, his native town, in 
 which he died in 1673.— R. M. 
 
 AYALA, Baltiiasar d', a lawyer of Antwci-p, who flour- 
 ished in the sixteenth centmy. 
 
 AYALA, Pedro Lopez de, a Spanish chronicler and trans- 
 lator, born in the kingdom of Murcia in 1332, was the son of the 
 Adelantado, Fernando Perez de Ayala. He was taken piisoner 
 by the Black Prince at the battle of Najera m 13G7, and sent 
 to England, where, according to the accoimt of his captirity 
 which he left in his poems, he was kept in chains in a dark 
 dungeon. After his release he became councillor to Henry of 
 Trastamarre, who had diiven his brother, Peter the Cniel, from 
 Castile. In the reign of Henry's son, John I., he fought at the 
 battle of AJjubarotta, and was agam taken prisoner. He died 
 in 14(17. His translations gave a marked impulse to Spanish 
 literature, and his " History of Castile " is one of the most valu- 
 able records that have come down to us from the middle ages. 
 
 AYALA, Sebastiano, a Jesuit, born of a noble family at 
 Castro-Giovanni in Sicily in 1744; died in 1817, He was pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at Malta, and after the suppression of his 
 order, became, through the influence of Count Caunitz, minister 
 of the republic of Ragusa, at the court of Vienna. He pub- 
 lished a life of Jletastasio, and some other valuable works. 
 
 AYBAR, Xijienes Perez, a Spanish historical painter, who 
 studied his art under bis relative Ximenes of Taragona. His
 
 AYC 
 
 305 
 
 AYR 
 
 ■works are noted for their good colouring and clever composition 
 He was flouri.sliing in lGb2. 
 
 *AYCARD, JIarie, a living Frencli novelist, the authoress 
 of many agreeable tales, and of a more ambitious work, entitled 
 " Mademoiselle Clairval." 
 
 *AYCARD, Marie, a French novelist and di-amatic writer, 
 bom at Marseilles in 1794. Since 1830, when he published 
 his first successful novel, " Flora," he has produced several ro- 
 mances, comedies, and vaudevilles of considerable merit. 
 
 AYESHA, one of the wives of Mahomet, the daughter of 
 Abubeker, the first caliph and successor to the great impostor, 
 was only nine years old wlien married to her husband, and was 
 his only virgin wife. He loved her deeply, though she had no 
 children, and he expired in her arms. After his death, the 
 Mussulmans highly venerated her, and called her " Mother of 
 tlie Faithful." She became involved in the intrigues which 
 followed, and after an eventful life, she died in tlie fifty-eighth 
 year of the Hegira, 677 a.d., aged sixty-seven. — T. J. 
 
 AYGLEFv o"r AIGLER, Berxard, cardinal, died in 1282. 
 He was sent into France, w'ith the powers of legate, by Clement 
 IV. He is the author of " Speculum Monachorum," and 
 " Commentarium in rcgulam Sancti Benedicti." 
 
 AYLESBURY or AILESBURY, Sir Thomas, a mathema- 
 tician of the reign of Charles I., was born in 1576. He became 
 secretaiy to Charles, earl of Nottingham, Lord High-Admiral 
 of England, and aftenvai'ds to his successor, George VLIliers, 
 Duke of Buckingham. After the execution of the king he retired 
 to Brussels, and subsequently settled at Breda, where he died in 
 1657. He was celebrated for his liberal patronage of letters. 
 
 AYLESBURY, William, son of the preceding, was bom 
 in Westminster about the year 1612. He was appointed by 
 Charles L, tutor to the young duke of Bucldngliam, and his 
 brother. Lord Francis ^'illiers, with wliom he travelled on the 
 continent. He translated, wiLli the assistance of Charles Cottrel, 
 " The Historic of the Civill Warres of France, written in Itahan 
 by H. C. Davila," 1647. He died at Jamaica, where he had been 
 sent as secretary to the governor, in 1G57. 
 
 AYLETT or AYLET, Robert, LL.D., an English poet, sup- 
 posed to have been born about the year 1583. He took his 
 ili'gree at Cambridge, and appears to have afterwards been 
 iijipointed to a mastership in the high-com-t of Cliancery. He 
 pulilished in 1654, " Divine and Moral Speculations, in metrical 
 numbers, upon various subjects." 
 
 AYLIFFE, John, an English canonist of the first half of the 
 eighteenth century. He wrote : — " The Ancient and Present State 
 of the University of Oxford, &c. ; " " Parergon Juris Canonici 
 Anglicani;" and "Pandect of tlie Roman Civil Law." 
 
 AYLINI or AILINO, Giovanni, sm-named Maniaco, an 
 Italian liistorian of the second half of the fourteenth century. 
 
 AYLLON, Lucas Vasquez d', a Spanish adventurer of the 
 sixteenth century, who was employed by the regal council of 
 llispaniola to prevent Velasquez and Nan-aez from attacking the 
 empire of Montezuma. Li one of his expeditions into Florida, 
 he was guilty of the most cruel treachery towards the Indians, 
 and is supjinscd to have perished in that province. 
 
 AYLMER, John, bishop of London, was of a good Norfolk 
 family, and bom in 1521. He was noticed by the duke of Sulfolk, 
 and by him made tutor to the Lady Jane Grey. In 1553 he 
 was made archdeacon of Stow, but Mary's accession that year 
 caused him to escape to Zurich. When Elizabctli ascended the 
 throne, Aylmer returned home, and was present as archdeacon 
 of Lincohi in the synod of London (1562), in which capacity 
 lie signed the Thirty-nine articles. The queen, for a long 
 time, kept him from the episcopate, in consequence of an in- 
 discreet passage about Inshops in a former work of his ; but, 
 eventually, in 1576, when Sandys was translated to York, Aylmer 
 succeeded liim in London. The queen had no reason to regret 
 her choice, for Aylmer was one of her readiest instruments in 
 carrying out tlic policy in churcli matters wliicli she liad proposed 
 to licrself, and he persecuted papist and puritan with the most 
 entire impartiality. He quite entered into his royal mistress's 
 dislike of the puritans, and was vigorous in enforcing conformity 
 in his diocese ; indeed, on more than one occasion, the Privy 
 Council had to inteiferc. As might be expected, he figured in 
 the Marprelate tracts as an " oppressor of the children of (iod," 
 "Don John," "Devil John," a "breaker of the Sabbath," &c. 
 During the latter ye^rs of his episcopate, lie was very anxious to 
 be translated to Winchester or Ely, and in order that Bancroft 
 vol. t. 
 
 might succeed him, but without success. He died in 1594, and 
 was bm'ied in St. Paul's. He was doubtless a good scholar, and 
 able administrator of existing laws ; but his manners were offen- 
 sive, and we do not find any trace of very high principle influenc- 
 ing his conduct. He left a large family. He was the author 
 of " An Harborowe for Faithful and Trewe Subjects against the 
 late Blowne Blaste concerning the Government of Women," 
 Strasb., 1559, being an answer to Knox's famous " First Blast of 
 the Trumpet against the monstrous Regiment of Women," and a 
 treatise on " The Queen's Ecclesiastical Supremacy." — J. B., 0. 
 
 AYLOFFE, Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born in 
 1708, was the sixth baronet of a family described as of Fram- 
 field in Sussex. He was educated at Westminster, and at St. 
 John's college, Oxford ; became a fellow of the Royal Society 
 in 1731; and the year following, a fellow of the Society of 
 Antiquaries. In 1763 he was appointed one of three commis- 
 sioners for the new State-Paper office, and this appointment led 
 to his pubhshing a work on the national records, entitled " Cal- 
 endars of the Ancient Charters, and of the Welsh and Scottish 
 Rolls now remaining in the Tower of London." He afterwards 
 undertook to translate the " Encyclopedic " of Diderot and 
 D'Alembert, but the work met with no encouragement, and was 
 discontinued. Ayloffe is the author of several valuable papers 
 in the Archajologia, Died in 1781. — J. S., G. 
 
 AYMli, Jean Jacques or Job, procurenr-general of the 
 department of Drome, and afterwards a conspicuous member of 
 the council of Five Hundi-ed, was born at Montehmart in 1752. 
 He was banished to Cayenne in 1798, but escaped after eighteen 
 months' exile ; and returning to France, was received into favour 
 by Napoleon, who made him director of a department. Died in 
 1818. Ayme left an account of his "Deportation." " 
 
 AYMON, Jean, a French ecclesiastical writer of the beginning 
 of the eighteenth centmy, was a native of Dauphine. He re- 
 nounced the commmiion of the Romish church, but without 
 offence to his ecclesiastical patrons, and was afterwards accused 
 of pm'loining manuscripts from the king's libraiy at Paris — twc 
 circimistances which convey no favourable impression of his 
 character. His principal work is entitled "Actes Ecclesiastiques 
 et Civils de tons les Synodes Nationaux des Eglises Reformees 
 de France," 1710. — J. S., G. 
 
 AYMON or AIMONE, Count of Savoy, born at Bourg-en- 
 Bresse in 1291, was the second son of Amadous V. He created 
 tlie office of chancellor in Savoy, and established a supreme court 
 of justice at Chambery. He is usually called " the Pacific " in 
 the history of his times. Died in 13-13. 
 
 AYNliS, Francois David, a French writer, born at Lyons 
 in 1776, died 1827; was sometime principd of the college of 
 Villefranche, and noted for his i-oyalist opinions. He published 
 an " Authentic correspondence of the comt of Rome with France, 
 from the invasion of the Roman States to the abduction of the 
 Sovereign Pontifl",'' 8vo, 1808, first edition witliout name of 
 printer or place ;'" Official documents relating to the invasion 
 of Rome by the French in 1808," Lyons, 8vo, 1809 ; also a 
 Dictionary of Geography, and various educational works. 
 
 AYOLAS, Juan u', a Spanish adventurer, born at the end 
 of the fifteenth century, died 1538. Accompanying Don Pedro 
 de Mendoza in the discovery of the river La Plata, he occupied 
 Buenos Ayres with a number of Spaniards, Germans, and 
 Flemings, and was named governor of the settlement. In an 
 expedition up the La Plata, he was informed by Gonzala Ro- 
 mera, a Portuguese sun-ivor of the expedition of Sebastian Cabot, 
 that a rich country was to be lound hi the interior, and Ayolas 
 set out with four hundred men to explore the Paraguay. He 
 took possession of Lampere, and named it " Assumption," re- 
 maining there six months on friendly terms with the Carlos 
 Indians. He then penetrated eighty leagues farther into the 
 country of tlu^ Payagoes, and is sujiposed to have been murdered 
 by them. — (lleneia, lliMorin General; Southey, 7//*'^ Jirtizil.) 
 
 AYOUIUIES or AYYUBITES, the Saracen dynasty founded 
 by Saladin, son of Ned.jemuddin Ayoub, which in Egypt sup- 
 planted the Fatimite caliphs about 1171. Several of the des- 
 cendants of Saladin, known as Ayoubites, afterwards ruled in 
 Egypt, Syria, Armenia, and Arabia Felix. In the thirteenth 
 cenlnry their power fell before that of the Mamelukes. 
 
 AYltAULT orAIRAULT, Pikurk (Petrus .Erooius), a 
 French lawyer, born at Angers 15;j(; ; died 160 1. He first prac- 
 tised as avocat at Angers aiul afterwards at Paris, where he be- 
 came one of the most celebrated advocates of the pariiament;. 
 
 2Q
 
 AYR 
 
 306 
 
 AYR 
 
 Ten years later he returned to Angers to exercise the functions of 
 criminal lieutenant, and was noted for his extreme severity. His 
 son Rene, who had been sent to Paris to complete his studies 
 under the Jesuits, joined the order without the sanction and 
 "Against the will of his father, who employed all legal and judicial 
 means to compel Rene to renounce his intentions, and to return 
 home. For this piu-pose he sunnnoncd the Jesuits, and appealed 
 to the pariiament of Paris ; but finding that his son had been 
 made to disappear, he petitioned the pope, and obtained from 
 Hcnrj' III. royal letters, urging on Cardinal d'Este and the 
 Jlarquis Pisani to solicit an order from the pontiff for the resto- 
 ration of his son. His efforts were vain, and three years later 
 he endeavoured to influence Rene, by a work called " Traite de 
 la puissance patenielle," which appears to have been aftenvards 
 published in Latin, under the title " De patrio jure, ad fihum 
 pseudo-jesuitum," 1593. This work either did not reach the 
 son, or was ineffectual; and Ayrault on the 25th April, 1593, 
 before a notary public and in the presence of witnesses, repu- 
 diated him, deprived him of his benediction, and prohibited his 
 other sons from acknowledging their brother. At his death, 
 however, he withdrew the ban, and among liis papers was found 
 the restored paternal blessing. He appears to have had a strong 
 personal affection for Ren6, and the circumstances seem to have 
 brought him in soitow to the grave. Ayrault published a large 
 number of law books, among others " De I'ordre et instraction 
 judiciaire dont les anciens Grecs et Romains ont us(S en accu- 
 sations publiques," Paris, 1575, a work frequently reprinted, 
 and still not unworthy of consultation, as it contains by antici- 
 pation the principle of a modem code. — P. E. D. 
 
 AYRENHOFF, Cornelius Hermann vox, a German di-a- 
 matic author, was born at Vienna in 1733. Entering the mili- 
 taiy profession, he rose to the rank of colonel, was appointed 
 president of the institution for military invahds at Vienna, and 
 in 179-1 was made Ueutenant-field-marshal. He retired from 
 the amiy at the close of the war with France, and died at his 
 native place. Ayrenhoff wrote both tragedy and comedy, but 
 was particularly successful in comedy, some of his pieces, such as 
 " Der Piistzug" and "Die Grosse Battcrie," having been long 
 popular all over Gennany. Ayrenhoff produced a gi'eat deal, but 
 his literaiy activity was of less value to his countiy than it would 
 have been, had his taste been more strictly national. He con- 
 ceived that the French model was the only proper one on which 
 to write plays ; and, even when Lessing had refonned the Ger- 
 man stage, continued by argument and example to maintain his 
 exploded theory. Ayrenhoff's works, in whole and m part, have 
 passed through several editions. The " Siimmtliche Werke," 
 containing his tragedies, comedies, minor poems, essays, tales, 
 &c., were pubhshed at Vienna, in 6 vols. 8vo., in 1816. — A. M. 
 AYRER, the name of several German writers on medical 
 subjects : — Christopher Heinrich Ayrer, author of " Me- 
 thodica et succincta informatio medici praxin aggredientis," 
 Frankfort, 159i ; and '" Regimen zur Zeit der rothen Ruhr," 
 Leipzig, 1601. — Emmanuel Wilhelm Ayrer, born 1647, 
 died 1690; author of a thesis, " De Vermibus Intestinonim," 
 Nuremberg, 1670. — Johann Wilhelm Ayrer of Altdorf, 
 born 1G71, author of a thesis, " De Schrho Hepatis." 
 
 AYRER, Georg Heinrich, a voluminous German writer on 
 jurisprudence, was bom at Mehiingen in 1702, and died in 1774. 
 He studied at Jena ; and in 17.'?7 became ordinarius professor 
 of law at Gottingen. George IIL, as elector of Hanover, raised 
 him in 1768 to the rank of privy councillor of justice. Adelung 
 gives a long Ust of Professor Ayrer's juristic tracts and larger 
 works. Sixteen of the most important of his minor productions 
 were edited after his death in two volumes octavo, under the 
 title, " Georg. Henr. Ayreri Opuscula varii argimienti, edidit et 
 prsefatus est Joannes Henricus Jungius, Academia3 Georgias 
 Augustiae Secretarius ; Gottingen, 1786." One of these opuscula 
 is an " Oratio Secunda de Gulielmo Augusto Serenissimo Cum- 
 bria9 Ducc, Rebellium Scoti* Doniitorc, Patrisque et Patriae. 
 Defensorc felicissimo," a tract said to be interesting, as exhibit- 
 ing the light in which the question of the Hanoverian succession 
 was viewed in Germany. — A. M. 
 
 AYRER, .Jacob, an early German dramatist, a younger con- 
 temporaiy of Hans Sachs; died, according to Tieck, about 1618. 
 He was doctor of laws, and practised as a notaiy at Nuremberg. 
 Ayrer's writings were collected after his death, under the title, 
 " Opus Theatricura, dreissig ausbiindig SchOne Komedien und 
 Tragedien von allerhand denkwiirdigen Rijmischen Historien, 
 
 &c., Samt noch andern sechs und dreissig schiinen lustigen 
 und kurzweiligcn Fastnacht oder Possenspielen, durch weyland 
 den eibam und wohlgeliihrten Herm Jacobum Ayrer, Nutarium 
 publicum, &c." — (Opus Theatricum, thirty extraordinarily beau- 
 tiful comedies and tragedies on all sorts of memorable Roman his- 
 tories, &c., together with thurty-six beautiful, droll, and diverting 
 gestes for Shrovetide, by the late worthy and learned Master 
 Jacob Ayrer, notary public), Nuremberg, 1618, folio — a volume 
 now very rare. Five of Ayrer's plays were reprinted in Tieck's 
 " Deutsches Theater." The productions of this old dramatist 
 are highly interesting specimens of early dramatic literature; 
 and though perfectly artless and hregular in form, are said by 
 Vilmar to be characterized by a dialogue so lively and entertain- 
 ing, and occasionally by action so rapid and spirited that, even 
 from a modem point of view, we are not at liberty to despise 
 them. This favourable criticism, however, Vilmar applies more 
 especially to Hans Sachs, who is less coarse than Ayrer. — A. M. 
 
 AYRER, Melchior, a Gemian mathematician, chemist, and 
 physician, bom at Nuremberg 1520; died 1579. In 1544 he 
 obtained his degi-ce as master of arts imder Melancthon at 
 Wittemberg, and spent three subsequent years in Italy. He was 
 afterwards physician to the Electress Palatine, wife of Frederick 
 II. He left several works which have never been published. 
 
 AYRES, Ferreira Gonzala, a Portuguese navigator of 
 the fifteenth centuiy, and companion of Zarra, the first ex- 
 plorer of the island of Madeira. He was one of the first colonists 
 of Madeira, and out of respect for his newly-found Eden, he 
 called his son Adam, and his daughter Eve. He left a MS. 
 work entitled " Desculiremento da ilha de Madeira." 
 
 AYRES, John, a celebrated penman, writing-master, and 
 arithmetician of the reign of Charles II. He was also styled 
 Colonel Ayres. By his school in St. Paul's Churchyard he is 
 said to have earned £800 a-year. He pubhshed several works 
 connected with the art of penmanship — the " AccompUshed 
 Clerk," 1683; "A Tutor to Penmanship, or the Writmg-Mas- 
 ter," 1695 ; "Arithmetic made easy, for the use and benefit of 
 tradesmen," 1714. The latter went thi-ough twelve editions. 
 
 AYRES, Philip, an English writer of the latter half of the 
 seventeenth century. Little or nothing is knowm of his life. 
 His works were " The Fortunate Fool," a translation from the 
 Spanish of Salas Barbadillo, 32mo, 1670; "The Count of 
 Cabalis, or the extravagant mysteries of the Cabalists exposed 
 in five pleasant discourses on the secret sciences," 16mo, 1680. 
 " Emblems of Love," (" dedicated to the Ladys,") 1683 ; " Lyric 
 Poems ; " " Pax Redux, or the Christian's reconciler ; " 4to, 1688. 
 
 AYRMANN, Christoph Friedrich, a German historian 
 and classicist, was bora in 1695 at Leipsic, and died in 1747. 
 He studied at Wittenberg, and became, in 1721, professor of 
 history at Giessen. Under the nomme de plume of Gennanicus 
 Sincems, Apmann published editions of Floras, Eutropius, 
 CiTsar, Suetonius, Justin, and Terence, with German notes; 
 and among his historical writings are — " Dissertatio historico- 
 chronologica de Sicula Dionysiorum tyrannidc," Giessen, 1726, 
 4to ; " Introduction to the histoiy of Hesse in ancient times, 
 and during the middle ages" (in German), Frankfort and Leipsic, 
 1732, 8vo ; " Dispntatio de originibus Germanicis, sine tempo- 
 ribus Geraianiii; priscis," &c., Giessen, 1724, 4to. — A. M. 
 
 * AYRTON, William, a musical critic, was born in London 
 about 1781. His father. Dr. Edmund AjTton (bom 1784), was 
 organist of Southwell in Nottinghamshire, came to London to the 
 appointment of gentleman of the chapel-royal in 1764, and was 
 soon engaged also as vicar-choral at St. Paul's ; he succeeded Dr. 
 Narcs as master of the boys of the chapel-royal in 1780, which 
 othce he resigned in 1805 ; he received his degree at Cambridge 
 in 1784, officiated as assistant-director at the famous commemo- 
 ration of Handel in that year, and died in 1808, leaving some 
 compositions that are little loiown. The present Mr. Ayrton, hke 
 his father, received the education of a scholar as well as of a 
 musician, and was thus qualified to write upon the art. He mar- 
 ried a daughter of Dr Arnold, through which connection he was 
 doubtless warmly interested in the proceedings of the English 
 opera at the Lyceum theatre, under the management of Blr. S. J. 
 Arnold, his brother-in-law. He had a fashionable and lucrative 
 connection as a teacher of music, from which he has retired in 
 competent independence. He was one of the members of the 
 Philharmonic Society at its foundation in 1813, and was two 
 years since engaged upon the revision of its laws. He was 
 music-director of the lOng's theatre, under the management of
 
 AYS 
 
 307 
 
 AYT 
 
 Messrs. Taylor and Waters, and in this capacity produced, in 
 1817, Don Giovanni for the first time in Enghand, and after- 
 wards the other operas of Jlozart. He is a fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and also of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1823 he com- 
 menced the publication of the " Harmonicon," a monthly musical 
 periodical, in conjunction with Jlr. Clowes, the printer, which 
 was continued for eleven years. The work was at first designed 
 as a medium for introducing the printing of music in type, seve- 
 ral pages of which were included in every number; but this ele- 
 ment, as being antagonistic to the music trade, was always an 
 embarrassment to, and in the end caused the discontinuance of, 
 the pubUcation. The writing in this journal was far in advance 
 of any criticism upon music that had appeared in England up 
 to that time; but it was marked by the spirit of acerbity 
 towards rising English composers that has since characterized its 
 anther as a renewer in the several periodicals upon which he has 
 been engaged. The " Harmonicon" had doubtless a beneficial 
 influence on the progress of the art, appearing as it did at a time 
 when that art was at its lowest among us ; but the editor lost 
 the better part of his power in disregarding that the nursling 
 artists of the period of regeneration requh'ed encom^agement no 
 less than instruction. — G. A., M. 
 
 AYSCOUGH, George Edwakd, editor of " The works of 
 George Lord Lyttleton, formerly printed separately and now first 
 collected, together \vith some other pieces never before printed," 
 was a lieuteiiant in the fii-st regiment of Foot Guards, and led a 
 profligate life. The date of his birth is not mentioned, but he 
 had George III. and the Duke of York as his godfathers. In 
 1776 he published " Semiramis," a tragedy acted at Drm-y Lane 
 with an epilogue by the elder Sheridan ; and in 1778 " Letters 
 from an officer in the Guards to his friend in England, contain- 
 ing some account of France and England." Died October 1779. 
 
 AYSCOUGH, James, a London optician of the early part of 
 the last century, author of " A short account of the natm-e and 
 use of spectacles, in which is recommended a kind of glass for 
 spectacles, preferable to any hitherto made use of for that pm-- 
 pose," 1750. Several editions were piinted imder various titles. 
 
 AYSCOUGH, Samuel, a laborious bibliographer and cata- 
 loguer of books, was born at Nottingham in 1745. His father 
 had squandered his means in wild projects, and Samuel was 
 obliged to work in early life as a miller. By aid of an old school- 
 fellow he removed to London, and was engaged by Mr. IJiving- 
 ton the bookseller, after which he entered the British ilusemn, 
 as an assistant to the principal librarian. In 1785, after many 
 years of subordinate duty, he was officially appointed " assistant 
 librarian," and, about the same time, took holy orders, and 
 became assistant ciu-ate of St. Giles'-in-the-Fields. For fifteen 
 years he preached the annual Fairchild lectm-e at Shoreditch 
 uhurch before the Royal Society. A year before his death, he 
 obtained the living of Cudliam in Kent, and performed duty 
 there, although still residing in the British JIuseum, where he 
 died, October, 1804. Ayscough's labours, although confined to 
 the department of catalogues, were extremely multifarious, and 
 eminently useful. Among his works were : — 1. " A Catalogue 
 of the Manuscripts preserved in the British Museum hitherto 
 midescribed, consisting of five thousand volumes, includhig the 
 collection of Su- Hans Sloane, Bart., the Rev. Thomas Bircli, 
 D.D., and about five hundred volumes bequeathed, presented, or 
 purchased at various times." 2. " Remarks on the Letters of 
 an American Farmer, or a Selection of the Errors of Mr. J. H. 
 W. Johns." 3. " A General Index to the iVnnual Register from 
 1758 to 1780, both inclusive." The third edition, published in 
 1799, extends the Index from 1781 to 1792. 4. "A General 
 Index to the Jlonthly Review, from its commencement to the 
 end of the seventeenth volume." 5. "A General Index to 
 the first fifty-six volumes of the Gentleman's JLagazine." G. 
 " An Index to the remarkable passages and words made use of 
 by Shakspeare." 7. " A General Index to the first twenty 
 volumes of the British Critic." 8. Tlie catalogue of the printed 
 books in the British Museum was prepared by Dr. Matv, Mr. 
 Harper, and Sanuiel Ayscough. 9. " Catalogue of the ancient 
 Rolls and Charters of the British Museum," unpublished. 
 Ayscough also prepared indices for many particular works, and 
 from this branch of labour alone, received the sum of £1,300. 
 He was a man of very extensive ac(iuircments, rather blunt in 
 manner, but remarkable for the benevolence of his disjwsition, 
 and much respected by his colleagues, who placed a monumental 
 inscription on his tomb in St. George's, Bloomsbmy. — V. E. D. 
 
 AYSCLT, Edward, author of "A Historic contayning the 
 Warres, Treaties, Maniages, and other occun-ents between 
 England and Scotland, from King William the Conqueror untU 
 the Happy Union of them both in om- gratious King James ; 
 with a brief declaration of the first inhabitants of this island, 
 and what sevcrall nations have sithence settled themselves 
 therein, one after another," London, 4to, 1607. All known of 
 him, is that he resided at Gotham in Lincolnshh-e. 
 
 AYSCUE, AYSCOUGH, ASCOUGH, or ASKEW, Sir 
 George, an English admiral in the service of the Common- 
 wealth, and afterwards Ln that of Charles II., born at South 
 Kelsey, Lincolnshire, son of William Ayscue, one of the gentle- 
 men of the privy chamber to Charles I., and brother of Sir 
 Edward Ayscue, who was one of the parhumentary commis- 
 sioners appointed to remain with the Scottish army. George 
 Ayscue entered the navy early in life, and received knighthood 
 from Charles I. In 1648, when a number of ships quitted the 
 service of the parliament, and declai-ed in favour of the Piince 
 of Wales, Ayscue did not join the revolters, but brought bis 
 ship the Lion into the Thames. He was then appointed to 
 the command of a squadron; and in ilarch, 1649, an order was 
 passed for him to command " as Admiral of the Irish Seas ; " in 
 wliich capacity he conveyed Cromwell's army to Ireland, and 
 gave such satisfaction in his command, that the parhament con- 
 tinued him in the office, paid liis an-ears, and presented him 
 with £100. In 1651, Ayscue went to the West Indies, and 
 perfomied signal service, by secm-ing Barbadoes and other 
 islands to the side of the parliament. On his return he was 
 employed in the naval wars with the Dutch, but, from some 
 misunderstanding, was either superseded or laid down his com- 
 mission, receivbig, however, a gi-ant of £300, and an estate in 
 Ireland. In 1658 he went, at Cromwell's desire, to Sweden, 
 and was honourably received by King Charles Gusta\-us. At 
 the Restoration, he was admitted into the royal ser\-ice ; and in 
 1664, held a command under the duke of York. The following 
 year he was rear-admiral of the blue under the earl of Sand- 
 wich, and led the attack on the Dutch fleet on the 3d June. 
 In the action of the 1st June, 1666, he served under Jlonk m 
 the attack on Van Tromp, and on June 3d, ran his ship, the 
 Royal Prince, on the Galloper sand, and was compelled to sur- 
 render to Admiral Swers. He was sent to Holland, and shut 
 up in the fortress of La;vestein, but the date of his retuni 
 to England appears to be miccrtain, nor is it kno\Mi where or 
 when he died, ilost probably he did retm-n, and lived in re.^ 
 tirement, or held commands m ships not employed in active 
 service. He appears to have been a good officer of average 
 ability and unquestioned courage. — P. E. D. 
 
 AYSSON, Diego Ximenes, a Spanish poet of the latter 
 part of the sixteenth centmy, author of " Los famosos y eroycos 
 hechos del Cavallero," &e., Antwerp, 166S. 
 
 AYTA or AYTTA, Ui.ric-Vigek v^vn Zuichm, a jurist 
 and statesman of the Spanish Xetherlands, born 1507 ; died 
 1577; employed by Charles V. in several negotiations. In 
 Italy and Germany he came in contact with most of the cele- 
 brated men of his time ; but after the death of his wife, entered 
 the church, and in 1556 was appointed to the rich abbey of St. 
 Bavon, and becmne a councillor of the States of Holland. At 
 Zuichom he founded an hospital, and at I.ouvain endowed the 
 college of Viglius. He left the following works : — " Institu- 
 tiones D. Justiniani in Gra^cam Linguum per Theophilum Ante- 
 cessorem olim traductas, ac nimc prinuun in lucem restitute curii 
 ac studio Viglii Zuicliemi Frisii," Louvain, 1534, being the 
 Greek version of the Institutes which he had discovered durhig 
 his residence at Padua, and considered a stand;u-d edition ; 
 " Justificatio rationum ob quas reginii Ilungariiv, Belgii guber- 
 natrix, contra ducem Clivi;c anna sumpsit," Antwerp, 1543 ; 
 two " Commentariis ; " and " EpistoloE poUticae et historical ail 
 Joach. Hoppemm," Louvain, 1661. 
 
 AYTON, Sir Rov.kut, was born in 1570 at Kinaldie in 
 Fifeshire, on an estate which had belonged to his family for 
 several generations. From St. Andrews, wlu-re he took the 
 degree of M.A., he went to France, and, according to Dempster, 
 highly distinguished hunself in that country as a linguist ami 
 jjoet. He pi-oved hiniself also a good courtier by his poem on 
 the accession of James L to the throne of Englaticl ; a piece of 
 ingenious bombast which was all the more refreshing and delect-, 
 able to the monarch, that the burden of it was his prodigiou.s 
 erudition, and not the mightiness of his state. Ayton was
 
 rewarded with various appointments in the royal household. 
 " He was acquainted," according to Aubrey, " with all the wits 
 of his time," especially Hobbes and Jonson. His Latin poems 
 passed through two editions in his lifetime ; but his English 
 songs and lyrics, which alone are of much value, have come 
 down to us only traditionally, and therefore maimed and altered. 
 
 * AYTOUN, William Edmoxstoune, was bom at Edin- 
 burgh in 1813. He studied at the university of his native city, 
 and was called to the Scottish bar in 1840. In 1845 he was 
 ai>pointed by the crown to the chah of rhetoric and belles-lettres 
 in the university of Edinburgh, and after the fomiation of the 
 Derby administration in 1852 was made sheriff' of Orkney and 
 Shetland. He married a daughter of the late Professor Wilson. 
 If Professor Ayton's publications are not numerous, they are 
 all characterized by high merit. The " Lays of the CavaUers " 
 is the work by which he will be remembered. In addition, he 
 has written " Finnilian, a Sp.ismodic Tragedy," and " Bothwell," 
 and has edited an admirable collection of the ballads of Scotland. 
 He has also, for many years, been one of tlie most constant 
 and brilliant contributors to Blackwood's ^lagazme. — A. S 
 
 AZAIS, Pierre Hyacinthe, a French philosophical writer, 
 bom at Sorreze, 17C6 ; died at Paris 1845. In early life he was 
 employed as secretary to the bishop of OUron en Beam, but the 
 bishop was desirous that Azais should enter the priesthood, and 
 he quitted the episcopal palace for an abbey in the Cevenncs, 
 where he officiated as organist. 'SMien the Kevolution revealed 
 the hoiTors of insurrection, he denounced its atrocities in a 
 vehement pamphlet, which obtained for him a sentence of trans- 
 portation, but he found refuge in the hospital of Tarbes. He 
 there developed the theorj' of conipensation with which his name 
 has come to be associated, and which meant that, in the consti- 
 tution of the world, happiness and unhappiness were propor- 
 tionate to each other, and compensated each other. In 1806 
 lie repaired to Paris, developed his doctrines before a brilliant 
 audience, and obtained an appointment as inspector of the 
 library at Nancy. In 1815 he wrote in favour of Napoleon, 
 and in consequence was deprived of his office ; but JIadame de 
 Stael interested herself on his behalf, and obtained for him a 
 pension from the government. His garden then became the scene 
 of philosophic instmction, and there he discom'sed to his dis- 
 ciples with a grave eloquence which suited the simplicity of his 
 life, and the elevated nature of his conceptions. His principal 
 works are " Des Compensations dans les destinees humaines," 
 1809; "Systeme Universel," 1812 ; "Manuel du Philosophe," 
 1816; " Du Sort de I'homme," 1820; " Jugement impartial 
 siu- Napoleon ; " and a " Course of Philosophv." — P. E. I). 
 
 AZALAIS or ADELAIDE DE PORCAIVAGUE, a French 
 poetess, who died about IIGO. Only one of her compositions 
 has been presen'ed, a ballad or romance, in which she lovingly 
 sings the praise of Guy, and charges Rambaud with infidelity. 
 
 AZAMBUJA, Don Jono Esteves d', cardinal-archbishop 
 of Lisbon, raised to that dignity in 1402. In 1409 he was sent 
 to the council of Pisa, and from Italy went to Jenisalem. On 
 his return, Gregory XII. made him a cardinal. Died 1415. 
 
 AZAMBUZA, DiOGO d', a Portuguese navigator of the 
 latter part of the fifteenth centuiy, charged by King John II. 
 with the establishment of a colony on the west coast of Atriea. 
 The expedition consisted of twelve vessels, which sailed from 
 Lisbon in 1481, and after twelve days of prosperous navigation 
 arrived at the small port of Bcsequichi. There Azambuza notified 
 his anival to the negi'o monarch Casamense, who appointed a 
 meeting for the morrow. The Portuguese landed in state, and 
 celebrated mass on the shore. Azambuza was clad in a robe em- 
 broidered with gold, and, marshalling his men, awaited the ap- 
 proach of Casamense, who came accompanied by a large multitude 
 of negroes armed with lances and spears. The Portuguese leader 
 made two demands — that he should have leave to mstruct the 
 ])cople in the Christian faith, and that he should have leave to 
 erect a fort. The first was defen-ed for consideration ; to the 
 second, the negro chief, after some hesitation, gave consent. The 
 Portuguese selected an eminence which seemed suitable for theh 
 purpose, and commenced work on the following day. In three 
 weeks the fort was completed, though not till after the lisk of a 
 c oiiflict with the natives, who had taken umbrage at the acci- 
 dental appropriation of some materials which they held sacred. 
 When the work was achieved, Azambuza sent a portion of his 
 squadron to Portugal to infonn the king of his success, and King 
 Jolin named the establishment Fort St. George El Mina, grant- 
 
 ing, at the same time, certain privileges to any subject who 
 shciuld repair to his newly-acquired dominion. He also added 
 to his own titles that of lord of Guinea, and made Azambuza the 
 first governor of the colony. The latter remained at the settle^ 
 ment for three years, and traded with the natives. He then 
 returned to Portugal. He was a man of great ability, and one 
 of the best of the early European adventurers who opened up 
 the highways of the ocean to after generations. — P. E. D. 
 
 AZANZA, Don Miguel Josk d', a Spanish statesman, 
 born 174G, died 1826. At the age of seventeen he went to the 
 Havana, and afterwards to ^lexico, where he became secretary 
 to the marquis of Sonora. In 1769 he accompanied the mar- 
 quis to New California, in search of gold mines, which were sup- 
 posed to have been discovered in that country, and concealed by 
 the Jesuits. He then entered the militaiy sei-vice, and in 1781 
 was present at the siege of Gibraltar. Shortly after, he joined 
 the Spanish emb;issy to St. Petersburg, and from thence passed 
 to Berlin, where he remained two years. In 1788 he was ap- 
 pointed con-egidor of Salamanca, and in 1789, intendant of the 
 army and kingdom of Valencia. In 1793, on the breaking out 
 of the war with France, he became niinister of war, which office 
 he held till 1796, when, in consequence of a dispute with the 
 prime minister, Godoy, he resigned, and took the post of viceroy 
 of New Spain. Humboldt bears testimony to the favoiu'ablc im- 
 pressions he had made on the Jlexicans by the uprightness of 
 his rule. In 1799 he returned to Spain, and remained without 
 public emplonnent till the fall of Godoy in 1808. He was then 
 appointed minister of finance, and a member of the supreme 
 junta, which was to take charge of the national affairs in the 
 absence of King Ferdinand. Jlurit having A-irtually suspended 
 the powers of the junta, that body applied for instractions to 
 Ferdinand, who was at Bayonne. The king sent two decrees 
 by a courier, who was charged to deliver them to Azanza ; but 
 the latter suppressed the documents, and when Ferdinand abdi- 
 cated in favour of a Buonaparte, destroyed them, and submitted 
 to the French. Joseph Buonaparte received the throne from his 
 imperial brother, and Azanza was summoned to Bayonne to 
 lay before the emperor the financial state of the kingdom. He 
 was there captivated by the apparent confidence of Napoleon, 
 and became president of the junta which Napoleon had ap- 
 pointed to inaugurate a new constitution and a new king. 
 Azanza, at the first meeting, made a speech in honoiu- of the 
 emperor, and prepared an address to Joseph. Several other 
 sittings were devoted to minor discussions, and at the twelfth 
 and last, on the 7th July, King Joseph swore to the constitu- 
 tion, and Azanza and the assembly took the oath of fidelity t'> 
 the foreign monarch ; after which they waited on Napoleon, to 
 thank him for all he had done for Spain. The address so stag- 
 gered Napoleon, that Southey says, " For the first and perhaps 
 the only time in his public life, he was at a loss for a reply." 
 Azanza was appointed minister of the Indies, but resigned that 
 office to become minister of Justice. He was also appointed 
 commissary-royal of the kingdom of Grenada, and in 1810 be- 
 came duke of Santa-Fe, and was sent to congratulate Napoleon 
 on his maiTiage with Jilaria Louisa. When the fortunes of the 
 French began to wane, Azanza did not forsake his new master, 
 but, after the battle of Vittoria, accompanied Joseph to France, 
 and resided at Paris till 1820, when the decree of the centr;d 
 junta of Cadiz, declaring the ministers of Joseph " traitors," 
 was annulled, and he returned to Spain with a view to semce 
 under King Ferdinand. His offers were declined, but he ob- 
 tained a pension of 6250 francs, and took up his residence at 
 Boideaux, where he died in his eightieth year. In estimating 
 the conduct of Azanza, and the other Sjianiards who took ser- 
 vice under the French, it must be remembered that the throne 
 of Spain had been vacated, and that the appointment of a new 
 government might hold out the hope — fallacious as it might be 
 — that better principles of administration would be introduced. 
 Azanza appears to have desired the political reformation of his 
 country. He governed Jlexico well, and during his residence 
 there, collected the reports of the expeditions to the north 
 of California, under his predecessors. These manuscripts were 
 consulted by Humboldt. In 1815, he and his colleague O'Fanill 
 drew up a memoir in justification of their conduct — " Memotia 
 de Don Miguel Jose de Azanza y Don Gonzalo O'Farrill sobre 
 los Hechos que justifican su conJucta politica dcsdc JIarzo, 
 1808, hasta Abril de 1814," Paris, 1815, 8vo; a work contain- 
 uig official documents wliich do not appear elsewhere. — P. E. D.
 
 AZARA, Dox Josef Nicolas d', a Spanish diplomatist, 
 bom in 1731 ; died at Paris in 180-1. In 1765 he joined the 
 Spanish embassy to the court of Rome in a subordinate situa- 
 tion, but gave so much satisfaction, that in 1785 he was ap- 
 pointed ambassador, and retained the office till 1798. At 
 Rome he was a liberal patron of the fine arts, and, through his 
 influence, Raphael Jlengs was allowed to reside at Rome, on a 
 pension from the king of Spain. On the death of Mengs, 
 Azara supported his family, and superintended the publication 
 of his works. The most celebrated artists were his frequent 
 visitors, and Canova, Winckehnann, Gavin Hamilton, Visconti, 
 Angelica Kauffmann, Fea, and Leroux d'Agincoiu't, miglit be 
 seen at his weekly entertainments. With the prince of Santa 
 Croce, he undertook excavations at Tivoli, on the site of the 
 villa of the Pisos, and there, among other antiquities, dis- 
 covered the bust of Alexander the Great, which he presented to 
 Napoleon, who sent it to the Louvre. It is supposed to be tlie 
 only authentic representation of Alexander. Azara was one of 
 those who had contributed to the abolition of the order of the 
 Jesuits, by Clement XIV., in 1770, und thLs ciixumstance led 
 him to be regarded with disfavour by Pius VI. ; but the French 
 invasion of Italy called his ser\-ices into play, and he succeeded 
 in sax-ing Rome from invasion by the armistice of Bologna, 
 which he concluded with Xapoleon m 1796. In 1798 he was 
 appointed Spanish ambassador to Paris, and in 1 802 held the post 
 of Spanish plenipotentiary at the peace of Amiens. By desire 
 of Napoleon he was allowed to remain at Paris ; and while pre- 
 paring with his brother Don Felix, the South American traveller, 
 to return to Italy, was seized with a fatal illness. Azara's only 
 independent work was a pamphlet on the vuiues of Jnan de 
 Palafox, a Spanish foe to the Jesuits, Rome, 1777, but his edi- 
 torial labours were of considerable importance. He published : 
 — " The Works of Garcilaso de la Vega," 1765, to which he 
 prefixed a history of the Spanish language ; " An Introduc- 
 tion to the Natm'al Histoiy and Physical Geography of Spain," 
 Madrid, 1775, a work translated and composed from the notes 
 of William Bowles, a native of Ireland ; " The Works of 
 Raphael Mengs," Parma, 1780. This work was translated into 
 English, in 2 vols. 8vo, 1796; "A Translation of Middle- 
 t(ju's Life of Cicero ; " and " La Religion Vengee," a posthumous 
 poem of Cardinal de Bernis. — P. E. D. 
 
 AZARA, Felix de, a Spanish traveller, was bom 18th 
 ilay, 1746, at Barbunales, and died at AiTagon in 1811. He 
 w.is, in the first instance, a militaiy man, and attained the rank 
 I if brigadier-general. In 1775 he was wounded ha the expecH- 
 tion against Algiers. He subsequently went to America as one 
 of the commissioners appointed to trace the line of demarcation 
 between the Spanish and Poitnguese possessions in the New 
 World. He did not return to Madrid until 1801. He pub- 
 Ibhed a work on the Natural History of Paraguay, in which 
 he gives an account of the animals and plants of that countiy. 
 He also published an Account of liis Travels in North America, 
 fh)m 1781 to 1801.— J. H. B. 
 
 AZARIAH or AZARIAS, the name of several persons men- 
 tioned in the Old Testament : — AzAniAH, called also Uzziab, 
 king of Judah. — Azauiaii, the name given to two sons of Je- 
 hoshaphat, slain by their elder brother Jehoram. Azariah, 
 one of the high-priests, second in descent from Zadok. — Aza- 
 RIAIi, grandson of the above, supposed to be the same as 
 Zechariah the son of Jehoiada. — Azariah high-priest in the 
 reign of Uzziah, whose attempt to assume the office of priest lie 
 withstood (2 Chron. xxvi.) — Azariah, higli-priest mider He- 
 zekiah. — Azariah, higli-priest under Josiah. — Azariah 
 (Abednego), one of the three companions of Daniel. 
 
 AZARIAH or AZARIAS, a general of the Jews in the 
 time of the JIaccabees, defeated by the Syrians under Gorgias. 
 
 AZARI.VH de Rossi or de Rubeis, an Italian rabbi, dis- 
 tinguished as the father of historical criticism among the Jews. 
 He flourished in the sixteenth century, was a native of Mantua, 
 but resided in Ferrara. His great work, "McorEuayim" (tlic 
 Enlightener of the Eyes), was printed at !M:mtua in 1574. It 
 is divided into three parts — the first describes an eartlnpiake in 
 Ferrara in 1571, and contains a learned dissertation on tlie 
 causes of earthijuakes ; the second is a Hebrew translation of 
 the History of the .Septuagint by Aristeas ; the third and most 
 important section treats of various matters of history, chrono- 
 logy, philology, &c., and displays singularly varied erudition. 
 
 AZARIO, PiETRO, an Italian chronicler of the fourteenth 
 
 century, author of "Liber Gestorum in Lombardia et pra3cipue 
 per Dominos ilediolani ab anno 1250 usque ad annum 1362." 
 
 * AZEGLIO, Marchese Massimo d', one of the most dis- 
 tinguished men of the day in Italy, is a native of Turin, where 
 he was bom in 1798. Although educated for a diplomatic or 
 militaiy career, he acqmred his first celebrity as a historical 
 landscape painter, a branch of art in which he soon became 
 entu-ely absorbed. With very few exceptions, all his pictures 
 were illustrations of the history and poetry of Italy ; and it is 
 necessaiy to note this pecuUarity in the choice of subjects as a 
 proof of that constant patriotism wliich characterises the whole 
 life of this great man. The style displayed in his paintings 
 is original, poetical, grand ; it both surprises and attracts ; the 
 figm-es of his subjects are full of life and action ; the general 
 efi'ect strikingly impressive. It is difficult to imagine or to ex- 
 press the sensation that the exliibition of Azeglio's pictures used 
 to produce upon the masses of the Italian public. They were 
 as many dh-ect appeals of the patriotic artist to his slumbering 
 nation ; and so the nation felt them, and was proud of such a 
 son. But, however active the painter might be, it was impos- 
 sible for him to satisfy the daily-increasing demand of his 
 countrpnen for such demonstrations. It was then (1833) that 
 he published his first novel, " Ettore Fieramosca." This book, 
 and the one that followed it, the " Nicolo de Lapi," published 
 in 1841, have done more towards reawaking and impro\ing the 
 spirit of the Italians than aU other writing or proselytism put 
 together. Nor did d'Azeglio, whilst fostering the regeneration 
 of his countrymen, limit himself to works of fiction. An essay 
 on the events of the day in the Roman states, published in 1846, 
 placed him boldly before the public as the champion of wise re- 
 fomis and moderate liberalism. The fame that this pamphlet 
 dcsen-edly procm-ed to Azegho was such that, when Pius IX. 
 was called to the see of Rome, that pontift' did not disdain, in 
 those days of honest intentions, to consult him on many a 
 matter of internal and extemal policy ; and it is firmly believed 
 that the few steps in the right direction that the good jiope suc- 
 ceeded in making dunng the first year of his reign, may be 
 attributed to the influence and advices of Azcglio, who was 
 then publishing more and more of the results of his studies on 
 public matters. 
 
 The events of 1848 having overtaken the development of 
 progressive refonn, Azeglio is found fighting, as one of the 
 leaders of the Roman auxiliaries, in the Venetian provinces, for 
 the common cause of independence ; thus supporting the doctrines 
 he had enunciated and spread, until seriously wounded at the 
 battle of Vicenza, he was obliged to retire awhile from the 
 scene of action. But if the body retired from the strife, the 
 mind cfid not. By a series of pamphlets and articles in the 
 newspapers, written during and after his convalescence, ho 
 exerted himself to keep the national movement within the 
 limits of independence and constitutionalism, combating the 
 diffusion of repubhcanism, to which he was opposed. Then 
 came the suspension of hostifities with Austria, during which he 
 was called to the Piedmontese parliament, where he soon became 
 one of the leading members. But it was after the disastrous 
 battle of Novara, in 1849, that all his personal and political 
 qualities were most called into play. At that difficult moment 
 a man was required, who, full of love for the couutiy and for 
 liberal institutions, should also possess finnness and courage 
 equal to the difficulty and imjiortance of the moment, to assume 
 the direction of aflairs for the new king, Vittorio Emanuele, 
 under circumstances of the most disheartening disadvantages. 
 Azeglio accepted the mission, replaced (Jioberti's ministry, and 
 by his wise and firm conduct succeeded in freeing Piedmont from 
 the immediate pressure from abroad, and in protecting and con- 
 solidating the recently-established constitutional liberties at 
 home, against the attacks both of retrogrades and ultras. Din- 
 ing tlie various periods in which he remained in jiower, Azeglio 
 proved that, although not sharing the more advanced ideas of 
 liberalism, and earnestly opposed to republicanism, Italy does 
 not possess a more staunch and more siiuvre clianipion in the 
 siqiport of national independence and constitutional government. 
 The improved state of all'airs wliicli resulti'd from his exertions 
 having restored repose to the country and increased its vitality, 
 the moderate views of Azeglio ceased to be on a par with the 
 expectations of the day. This caused him to retire once more 
 to his old pursuits, art and literature, leaving the direction of 
 aflau-s in the more daring hand of Count Cavom". — R. JI.
 
 AZE 
 
 310 
 
 AZI 
 
 AZEGLIO, Taparelli Cesare, Marquis d', a counciUor of 
 Victor Emmanuel, Idiig of Sardinia, born at Turin, 17G3, died 
 1830. He served in the army against the French in 1792, was 
 made prisoner, and detained in France till 1796. In 179S he 
 emigrated with the comt of Turin, and in 1814 was appointed 
 ambassador extraordinary to Eome. In 1822 he founded a 
 journal called " L'^Vmico dTtalia," which continued till 1829. 
 
 AZEMAR, Fkax^'ois B^s^ile, a French general, born at 
 Cabanncs, 17G(j, died 1813. He served yrith. the army of the 
 North, and in Holland. In 1798 he was made prisoner in Italy, 
 and on his return, became chef de bataillon. He was lulled at 
 the battle of Gros Drebnitz, and his name is inscribed on the 
 bronze tablets of VersaOles. 
 
 AZEVEDO, Aloxso d', a Spanish poet, who published at 
 Rome in 1G15, a poem entitled " Creacion del Mundo." It is 
 didded into seven days, and is written in octave rhyme. 
 
 AZEVEDO, Alonso d', a Spanish lawyer, was bom at 
 Placentia in the first half of the sixteenth century, and died 
 23rd July, 1598. There is in the British jMuseum a collection 
 by Azevcdo of the laws enacted by Philip II., from 1552 to 
 156-1. It was published at Salamanca in 1565, under the title 
 of "Repertorio de Todas las Pragmatieas y Capitulos de Cortes," 
 &c. He also, according to Antonio, was sole editor of the col- 
 lection of " Royal Constitutions," published at Salamanca in sLx 
 vols, folio, in 1583-98, under the title of "Nueva Eecopilacion." 
 
 AZEVEDO, Angela d', a female dramatic author, who 
 lived in the first half of the seventeenth century. She was a 
 Portuguese by birth, but her works are written in Spanish. 
 
 AZEVEDO, DoM Jerome, viceroy of the Indies, was born 
 in the sLxteentli ccntuiy, and died about 1618. His administra- 
 tion commenced 15th December, 1612, and terminated 16th 
 November, 1617. He devoted much attention to geography, 
 and set on foot an exploration of the island of ^ladagascar. 
 
 AZEVEDO, Felix A'lvares, a Spanish general, was bom 
 at Otero, in the province of Leon, and died 9th March, 1808. 
 He held for some time the office of rector of the college of St. 
 Pelago at Salamanca, but afterwards went to Madrid, became 
 an advocate, was subsequently enrolled among the royal guards, 
 and was sent by that body to Leon to raise troops for the War 
 of Independence. Being appointed to a command in the consti- 
 tutional amiy, he signalized himself in various engagements with 
 the royalist forces ; and fell at the village of Padornello. — G. JI. 
 
 AZEVEDO, Fraxcisco d', a Portuguese poet, was born at 
 Lisbon in the beginning of the seventeenth centuiy, and died 
 4th April, 1680. He left, in manuscript, a poem entitled 
 " Epigrammatum Liber Unus." 
 
 AZEVEDO, Igxa'zio d', a Portuguese Jesuit, was bom at 
 Oporto in 1527, and died 15th July, 1570. He was sent on a 
 mission to Brazil, but the vessel in which he sailed was attacked 
 and captured otf the island of Pahna, by Jacques Sourie, vice- 
 admiral of the queen of Navarre, when Azevedo, and his 
 brethren of the order who accompanied him, were massacred, 
 and their bodies thrown into the sea. 
 
 AZEVEDO, JoAO, a Portuguese monk, was born at SantJl- 
 rem, 27th Januaiy, 1665, and died at Lisbon, 16th June, 1746. 
 He devoted much of liis time to the study of theology, and en- 
 tered into the order of the eremites of St. Augustine. His 
 published worlcs mentioned by !Machado are — " Tribunal The- 
 ologicum et Juridicum contra Subdolos Coufessarios in Sac- 
 ramento Poenitcntia; ad Venerem Sollicitantos ;" " Tribunal 
 de Desenganos Dividido em 24 Desenganos Delibera9oes The- 
 ologicas Escriturarias Doutrinas, Politicas e Christanas." — G. !M. 
 
 AZEVEDO, JoAO, a Portuguese canon, was born at Lisbon 
 about the year 1625, and died 19th November, 1697. He held 
 the office of judge-depute of the Inquisition, first in the bishopric 
 of Coimbra, and afterwards in Lisbon. He was subsequently 
 made a member of the king's council, and of the council-general 
 of tl.e Inquisition. 
 
 AZEVEDO, Luiz Axtosio d', a Portuguese grammarian, was 
 a native of Lisbon, and, in 1815, held the office of rcgius pro- 
 fessor of grammar and the Latin language in that city. 
 
 AZEVEDO, LuiZA d', a poetess, whose works obtained some 
 celebrity in the seventeenth century. She was born at Villa de 
 Paredes in 1635, and died in 1679. 
 
 AZEVEDO, Luiz u', a Portuguese Jesuit and missionary, was 
 bom at Chaves, on the frontier of Gallicia, in 1573, and died 
 22nd Febmary, 1634. He was admitted into the order at six- 
 teen years of age, and was sent to Goa to finish his studies. 
 
 In 1604 he was sent to Abyssinia, where he estabUshed a school 
 for childi'en. He is said to have been much beloved for his 
 active humanity. He attained a perfect acquaintance with the 
 ditit-rent dialects of Abyssinia, particularly the Amharic, into 
 which he translated the books of the New Testament. He 
 wrote also a catechism in the same dialect, and a grammar of 
 that dialect in Latin, with several other works, mentioned by 
 Southwell, in his " Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu." 
 
 AZEVEDO, Manuel Soares d', a jurisconsult, and mem- 
 ber of the Portuguese Academy of Histoiy, lived in the first half 
 of the eighteenth centuiy. He wrote a work entitled " Dissertatio 
 Historica-jmidica de Potestate Juda2onim in Mancipia." 
 
 AZEVEDO, Pedro, a Spanish physician, lived in the first 
 half of the eighteenth centiuy. He graduated at Paris, and after- 
 wards taught in the medical schools for many years. He wrote 
 a nimabcr of works, which, however, have never appeared in a 
 collected edition. Among these are two discom-ses, one entitled 
 " Sur rUtilite des Expeiimentations dans la Pratique," and the 
 other, ''An in Inflammationibus Kermes Slinerale." — G. il. 
 
 AZEVEDO, Pedro, was born in the Canaiy islands, and was 
 originally destined for the chmxh. He, however, turned his at- 
 tention to medicine, and wrote a work on the plague, which was 
 published at Saragossa in 1589, under the title " Remedies con- 
 tra Pestilencia," 8vo. This work was written also in Portu- 
 guese by the same author, but was not printed. — G. M. 
 
 AZEVEDO, Sylvester, a Portuguese friar of the order of 
 Dominicans, died in 1587. He was sent from ^Malacca on a 
 mission to Camboia, and composed, in the language of that ■■ 
 country, a treatise on the mysteries of the Christian faith. 
 
 AZEVEDO-COUTINHO, a Portuguese bishop, was bom in 
 Brazil, 8th September, 1742, and died 12th September, 1821. 
 In 1791 he pubUshed a treatise entitled " Eusaio Economico 
 Sobre o Conunercio de Portugal e Suas Colonias." In 1794 
 he was appointed bishop of Pernambuco, and published at Lon- 
 don a work which was intended as an answer to a motion in the 
 British parMament for the abolition of slavery. It was entitled 
 " Analyse sm- la justice du commerce du rachat des esclaves de 
 la cote d'Afrique." He was afterwards chosen to represent the 
 capital of Brazil in the Cortes of Portugal. — G. M. 
 
 AZEVEDO-COUTINHO, Marcos, a BraziUan traveller, 
 was bom in the sixteenth centmy, and died in the seventeenth. 
 He was an intrepid explorer of the solitudes of Brazil ; and, in 
 1596, is said to have discovered the famous emerald nunc, 
 dming an expedition known under the name of " Jornada das 
 Esmeraldas." 
 
 AZEVEDO-COUTINHO Y BERNAL, Josepii-Fi-liy- 
 Antoine Francois d', a Belgian genealogist, was bom at 
 Mechlin, 22nd April, 1717, and died about 1780. He held the 
 rank of canon in his native town, and compiled a gi-eat number 
 of genealogical tables, three of which, illustrative of the gene- 
 alogy of the family of Corten, are now in the library of the 
 British Museum. 
 
 AZEVEDO-DA-CUNHA, Felix d', a Portuguese naval 
 officer, who acquii-ed some reputation as a poet in the beginning 
 of the eighteenth centuiy. He published at Lisbon in 1706, 
 " Patrocmio empenhado pelos clamores de limu prezo duigido 
 ao senhor Luiz-Ceziu- de Menezes, governador o capitao genend 
 do Estado do Brasil." 
 
 AZEVEDO-MORATO, Manoel d', a Portuguese poet of the 
 eighteenth century, was born at Cinmbra. He published, in 1716, 
 a little poc-m entitled " Saudadcs de dona Ignez de Castro." 
 
 AZEV^EDO-TOJAL, Pedro d', a Portuguese lawyer and 
 poet, who lived in the first half of the eighteenth centmy. In 
 1716, he published at Lisbon a heroic poem in twelve cantos, 
 entitled " Carlos reduzido, IngkateiTa illustrada." 
 
 AZEVEDO-Y-ZUNIGA, Caspar d', fifth count of Mon- 
 terey, viceroy of Mexico, and afterwards of Pern. He equipped 
 a fieet for the discovery of the great southern continent ; and 
 Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, to whom the command of the 
 expedition was intrusted, is said to have discovered some 
 islands about the 28th degree of south latitude. The count 
 died on the 16th March, 1616. 
 
 AZLM-ED-DAULAH-BEHADOUR, the last titular nabob 
 of the Carnatic, bom 1770, and died loth August, 1819. 
 
 AZIX, d', a French engineer, lived about the com- 
 mencement of the eighteenth century. He wrote a work en- 
 titled " Nouveau systeme siu- la maniere de defendre les places 
 par le moyen des contremines."
 
 AZI 
 
 311 
 
 AZZ 
 
 AZINHERO, CiiRiSTOPiTE-RoDRiQUE, a Portnguese jims- 
 consult and historian, was born at Evora in 147-i. Here he 
 practised as an advocate, and occupied much of his leisure in 
 the study of liistory. He wrote a work entitled " Siunmario 
 das Chronicas dos Keys de Portugal revisto." 
 
 AZIZI-KARA-CHELEBIZADE, A'bdu-l-Aziz Effexdi, 
 a Turkish historian and poet, was born at Constantinople in 
 1591, and died in 16G7. He held various high offices, both 
 civil and ecclesiastical, and was one of the most Lntrigvung poli- 
 ticians of his age and coimtry. He was author of a variety of 
 works, none of wliich have been printed. Among these, one of 
 the most remarkable is the history of his own time. — G. M. 
 
 AZXAR or AZINARIUS, count of Gascony, died in 836. 
 He is first mentioned in history under the title of the count of 
 Jaca, and from him is traced the descent of the ancient kings 
 of Navarre. In 819 he was invested by the Emperor Louis le 
 Debonnaire with the government of the March of Aragon ; and, 
 in 824, he became connected with the unsuccessful expedition 
 from Aquitaine against the Navarrese, who had entered mto 
 alliance with the Moors. He subsequently contrived to render 
 himself independent in his county of Gascony (citerior Vascony), 
 of which he died in possession. — G. M. 
 
 AZO or AZZO, or AZZOLINUS, Fortius, an eminent 
 Italian jmust, was bom about the middle of the twelfth century, 
 and died in 1200. He became professor of jm-isprudence in the 
 university of Bologna ; and such was his popularity, that, it is 
 said, the number of his students soon amounted to ten thousand, 
 so that he was obhged to lecture in the open air, in tlie squai'e 
 of San Stefano. He was author of six jm-idical works, which 
 were so highly valued, that Azo's fame as a jurist sui-passed that 
 of all his predecessors. He was styled " The fountain of law ; " 
 The trump of truth;" and, in his epitaph, "The god of 
 lists." — G. M. 
 
 AZOPARDI, FRAN901S, a musician of Malta, where he acted 
 iiiaitre de chapelle about 1750. He is best laiown as the 
 thor of a treatise on composition, published in 1760, under 
 ' title of " H ]\Iusico Practico." 
 
 AZOR or AZORIUS, Juan, a Spanish theologian, bom at 
 Zamora 1533 ; died 1603. Entering the order of the Jesuits, he 
 first taught theology ui the college of Alcala, but his reputation 
 caiised his superiors to remove him to Rome, where he was ap- 
 ]"iinted to the chair of moral theology in the college of Jesus. 
 He there professed and published his system under the title of 
 " .Moral Institutes," and developed his ideas of right and wrong 
 on principles whicli are sufficiently curious. He maintained, for 
 instance (book ii., page 105), that it is lawful "for a man of 
 honour " to kill those who may attempt to give him a box on 
 the ear, or a blow with a stick — at least he thinks it probable. 
 So also (book xi., c. 1) wo may kill those who deprive us of om- 
 goods, even though we do not anticipate violence, as, for instance, 
 when they take flight. The Dominicans, out of opposition to 
 the Jesuits, attacked the " Moral Institutes ;" but Clement VIII. 
 issued a brief approving of the publication, and it is to be found 
 at the beginning of the first volume. Pascal took up the dis- 
 cussion in the " Provincial Letters," and introduces Father Azo- 
 rius and the doctrine of " probable-ism," of which Azorius was 
 one of the principal defenders. Notwithstanding the opposition, 
 however, the " Rloral Institutes " were widely circulated in Spain 
 and France, and attracted the attention of Bossuet, who thought 
 that they might be useful to priests, " especially to cures and 
 confessors." He even recommenils them to his clergy in his 
 s3modical statutes. Editions of the Institutes were multipHed 
 by the presses of Rome, Venice, Cologne, Lyons, &c. ; and 
 Azorius published some other works, but none that attained to 
 similar celebrity.— P. E. D. 
 AZORIA. See Aquila, Caspar. 
 
 AZKAKI, a Persian poet and philosopher of the eleventh 
 century, was born at Herat. He was the author of a work 
 called "The Book of Sindbad," consisting of maxims of practi- 
 cal philosophy. Some other works have been ascribed to Azraki, 
 but it is doubtful whether they are still extant. 
 
 AZULAI, AnRAiiAM-BEN-MoRDECAi, a Jewish cabalistical 
 writer, died at Hebron in 1644, wrote "Zohare Chamma," and 
 "Cliesed le Abraham." — His grandson, R. CiiAji.^i David 
 AzuLAi, is the author of a celebrated bibliographical history of 
 Hebrew writers, named " Shem Hagged Ohm" (the Names of 
 tlie Great Ones). 
 
 AZUNI, DoBiENico Alberto, an Itahan lawj-er and an- 
 
 tiquaiy, was bom at Sassari, in Sardinia, 3rd August, 1749, 
 and died at Cagliari, 23rd January, 1827. He studied law at 
 the university of Turin. Before the Revolution he was a sena- 
 tor at Nice. He aftenvards went to Paiis, and was appointed 
 one of the commissioners for di-a-sving up a commercial code of 
 laws. In 1807 he was president of the Genoa com-t of appeal, 
 but fimally returned to Sai-dinia, and discharged the duties of 
 judge at Caghari, and became dh-ector of the library of the uni- 
 versity. Azuni published many important legal works. He 
 devoted some tune to the study of natural histoiy ; and in his 
 work on " The Geogi-apliical, Political, and Natural History of 
 Sardinia," he gives an accoimt of the zoology and botany of the 
 island.— J. H. B. 
 
 AZURARA or ZURARA, Gomez-Eannes d', a distinguished 
 Portuguese historian, who was bom at Azurara in the fiist half 
 of the fifteenth centm-y ; and died in the second half. At an 
 early period of life he entered the order of Christ, and was 
 soon after invested with the title of commander of Alcains. His 
 style as a writer is characterised by a certain ease and firmness 
 of diction, rather than by profound and instractive views. In 
 1454 he was charged with the formation of the fibrary founded 
 by Alphonso, and appointed to write officially the chronicles of 
 the kingdom. He was author of a variety of historical works, 
 which have been republished in recent times — " Memorias da 
 Academia das sciencias, CoUec9ao de livros ineditos da Historia 
 Portugueza," i. ii. ; "0 Panorama, Journal Literario ; " "Ferdi- 
 nand Denis, Chroniques Chevaleresques de I'Espagne et du Por- 
 tugal," 2 vols, in 8vo. — G. M. 
 
 AZZANELLO, Gregory, an Italian writer, bom at Cre- 
 mona about the end of the fomleenth or beginning of the fif- 
 teenth centuiy. He was attached to the com-t of Jean-Galias 
 Visconti, first duke of Milan. 
 
 AZZARI, FuLVio, an Itafian historian, a native of Reggio 
 in Lombardy, flomnshed about the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tmy. Though attached to the anny, in which he rose to the 
 rank of captain, he wi'ote, in Latin, a liistory of Lombardy, of 
 which an abridgment was published in 4to in 1524. 
 
 AZZARKAL, Aboul-Kahin-Ibn-Abderrahman, an 
 Arabian astronomer and mathematician. He lived in the first 
 half of the eleventh century at Toledo, where he is said to have 
 studied. His gi-eat scientific acquirements recommended him 
 to Al-Mamorji, king of Toledo, who appointed him his prhicipal 
 astronomer. 
 
 AZZ-ED-DAULAH-BOKHTYAR, sovereign prince of 
 Chusistan and Bagdad. He succeeded his father, Moezzed- 
 Daulah, 1st April, 967, and died 30th May, 978. 
 
 AZZEJIINO, Paolo, a Venetian artist of the early part of 
 the sixteenth centuiy, who possessed great skill in " niello," or 
 inlaying on gold, silver, and iron. Works of this kind are called 
 " Damascheni," from the city most celebrated in earlier times 
 for inlaying; and from the expression "AH' Azzemina," or "Alia 
 Gemina," apparently a corniption of " Damascheni," Paolo de- 
 rived his name. — A. M. 
 
 AZZI, Fran^ois-JIarie d', an Italian poet, born at Arezzo, 
 Cth May, 1655; died 8th September, 1707. His poetical pieces 
 were pubhshed in 1 volume, entitled " Genesi, con alcun sonetti 
 morali del cavalier Francesco- Maria degli Azzi," Florence, 1700. 
 
 AZZI, Horace Degli, an Italian theologian, and native of 
 Parma, lived about the end of the seventeenth or beginning of 
 the eighteenth century. He entered the order of the Muiorites, 
 among whom he was known mider the name of Horace de 
 Parma. He is the author of several theological works. 
 
 AZZI NE' FORTI, Faustine t>\ an Italian poetess, born at 
 Arezzo, 1st JIarch, 1650, and thcd in her native town, 4th 
 Jlay, 1724. Her poetry, consisting of odes, sonnets, madrigals, 
 eclogues, and fugitive pieces, was much admired by her contem- 
 poraries. Nearly the whole of her poems were publisheil at 
 Arezzo, in one volume, quarto, under the title of "Serto Poctico 
 d' Faustina degli Azzi Ne' Forti." 
 
 AZZO, Alberto, a lord of Canossa, and fcudatoiy of the 
 bishop of Reggio, lived in the second half of the tenth cen- 
 tury. He is distinguished for the construction, under the rock 
 of Canossa, of an impregnable fortress, in which he sheltered 
 Queen Adelaide, widow of Lothaire, in 956. He was afterwards 
 raised by the emperor to the rank of marquis. 
 
 AZZO, Albert, Marquis DT-^ste, died in 1029. During his 
 marquisate, the hostihties of the house of DT'^ste against the 
 emperors of Germany commenced. In 1014, he and his son
 
 Ugo were placed under the ban of the empire, stripped of their 
 estates, and thrown into prison. Tliey contrived, however, to 
 escape, and to recover possi'ssion of their property. 
 
 AZZO 11., Marquis D'Este, son of tlie above, died in 1097. 
 He was appointed lieutenant of the emperor, Henri II., and in 
 that capacity, presided over two assemblies at Milan. He in- 
 creased his influence, and extended his dominions, by forming 
 alliances with some of the most powerful houses of France and 
 Italy. He afterwards treacherously usurped possession of the pro- 
 x-ince of Maine, which he had been solicited to defend. 
 
 AZZOGUIDI, Taddeo, head of tlie party that expelled the 
 papal troops from Bologna, 20th March, 1376, and thus 
 secured the independence of the city. 
 
 AZZOGUIDI, Valeke-Fklix, an Italian antiquary, bom 
 at Bologna in IGol; died 18th April, 1728. He published a 
 curious work, in which he attempts to prove that Bologna is 
 seven centuries older than Rome. He is also the author of 
 " Chronologica et apologetica dissertatio super qua;stiones in 
 sacrre Genesis historiam excitatis." 
 
 AZZOGUIDI, Germain, an Italian physician, bom at 
 Bologna in 1740 ; died in 181-4. He was appointed professor 
 in the university of his native city. The following are among 
 his published works — " Observationes ad uteri Constructionem 
 Pertincntes;" " Opuscula Anatomica Selectiora," Leyde, 1788; 
 " Institutiones medicaB in usum Aiiditoram Suonun," 2 vols. 8vo; 
 "Lett ere sopra i mali etfetti dell' Inoculazione," in 12mo; " Com- 
 pcndio di Fisiologia et di Anatomia Comparata," in 4to. — G. M. 
 
 AZZOLINI, Decius, surnamed the Young, an Italian cardi- 
 nal, born at Fermo, in the pa])al states, in 1623; died at 
 Rome in 1689. He wrote a volume of political aphorisms, 
 which was translated into Latin by Ilenumg. 
 
 AZZOLINI, Lorenzo, an Itahan poet, and a native of 
 FeiTno, died m 1632. He entered into orders, and became 
 successively secretary to Pope Urban VIII., and bishop of 
 Nami. His works, since published, are — " Stanze nelle Nozze 
 di Taddeo Barberini et di Anna Colonna ;" and ' ' S;,tira contra 
 la lussuria dans Scelta di Poesie Italianne." 
 
 AZZOLINO or MAZZOLINI, Gio. Bernardino, a very 
 talented Neapolitan painter and modeller in wax, who settled in 
 Genoa in 1510, or, as Orlandi thinks, on plausible grounds, 
 1610. The "Annunciation," by this artist, in the church of 
 the Monache Turchine, and his " Martyrdom of St. Appollonia," 
 in San Giuseppe, are pronounced by the art-historians to be very 
 fine pictures. Lanzi says he formed heads in was " with an 
 absolute expression of life." — A. M. 
 
 AZZONI-AVOGARI, Rambaedo degli, an Italian arche- 
 ologist, born at Treviso in 1719; died in 1790. Among the 
 works of Azaoni are the following — "Memorie del beato Enrico, 
 morto in Trivigi I'anno 1315;" " Con-edate di Documenti ; 
 con una Dissertazione sopra san Liberale e sopra gli altri santi 
 d' quali riposano i sacri corpi nella Chicsa della giadetta citta;" 
 and " Con.siderazioni sopra le prime notizie di Trivigi conteuuti 
 negli scrittori e ne' marmi antichi, opera postuma." 
 
 AZZUBEYDI, Mohammed-Idn-el-Hasan, an Arabian 
 gi-ammarian and lexicographer, bom at Seville in Spain ; died 
 in 989. Among his works still extant, are " An Arabic Dic- 
 tionary ;" " Biography of Spanish JIussulmans, distinguished 
 by their skill in gi-ammar and rhetoric ;" a work on the " Syn- 
 tax of the Arabian Tongue ;" and a collection of poems. 
 
 AZZYZ BILLAH, Arou-Mansoitu-Nezar, a caliph, bom 
 at Madieli a.d. 955 ; died in 996. Many of the public edifices 
 and mosques at Cairo were erected by his orders.
 
 B 
 
 BAA 
 
 BAADE]\, CLEJtKNT-Ar.ois, a Bavarian counsellor, was bom 
 8tli April, 17G2, and died 23rd March, 1838. He is known as 
 the author of a biographical work, entitled " Gelelirtes Baiem." 
 BA-\DED, Francis-Xavier, bom at jMunich in 17G5 ; died 
 in the same city on 23d Jlay, 18^1. A very vigorous thinker 
 and writer, recently exercising much influence over philosophical 
 and religious speculation in Germany — Julius Muller, whose 
 work on Sin and Redemption is well known in tliis country, was 
 taugiit by Baader, and owns his gi-eat obligations to him. 
 Baader's life was curious, and very honourable. The Idug 
 of Bavaria, having the ambition to erect tlie uuiversity of Mu- 
 nich into the Metropolis of Reaction against the pantheisms 
 desolating Germany, imagined that he had found m Baader a 
 philosopher to his taste ; and he promoted him, accordingly, to 
 the suitaljle chair. But he did not thereby fuilher his favourite 
 aims. Not unlike anotlier Sovereign in the north of Germany, 
 Louis' conceptions of Christianity were limited to the fancies and 
 figments of the middle ages, whose doctiines and presence he 
 desii'ed to restore, — all of them at least, except tbeu daiing, and 
 the degree of liberty which Philosophy even then enjoyed. 
 Baader to some extent was a mystic, but an independent one 
 withal ; and the King's Christianity was not his. He did not 
 think that painted windows mean religion. Neither did the two 
 agree better as to politics. In 1815, Baader made a fen^ent 
 appeal to the sovereigns constituting the Holy Alliance, to legiti- 
 mize their cause by a grand inaugiu-al act of justice, — viz., by 
 restoring the Polish nationality ; and he fm-ther told them that 
 their professions must not be mere professions — that the French 
 Ee\'olution had rendered it imperative, alike for kings and com- 
 binations of kings, that they realize, socially, the gospel principles 
 of justice and chaiity. Of course, Baader endeavoured vainly 
 to charm the deaf adder : his reputation and personal influence, 
 however, presen'ed him his professorship. — Baader's writings 
 are far from clear. He never gave out his opinions in a syste- 
 matic foi-m ; his chosen office was that of a controversialist, and 
 yhat he tliought, has to be collected from a whole host of 
 pamphlets. These pamphlets, however, have a peculiar interest. 
 Their style is odd, but the thought is always sliai-p and clear ; 
 and, whether wielded in offence or defence, Baader's weapons 
 cut deep. Although considerably affected by mysticism, he rests 
 his polemic on the fullest assertion of human liberty. Nothing 
 else, indeed, will destroy pantlieism ; and such assertion is ever 
 fatal to it. It is asserted that Baader's writings liad much 
 influence over Schelling in his latter years, — whether altogether 
 for good, wc do not at present undertake to say. Concerning 
 his Theosophy and Tlieory of Redemption, our space will not 
 permit us to speak : they are made known to the English 
 student by the work of J. JIuller. Iixespective, however, of his 
 larger theories, his writings abound with passages and discus- 
 sions of gi'eat interest. No man, for instance, has shown more 
 forcibly the dependence of the intelligence, and of belief generally, 
 on the state of the conscience and the vigour of the will. We 
 cannot, lie says, split man into parts. Uncontrolled by the moral 
 will, and uncorrected, at eveiy step, by conscience, the intellect 
 wanders — occupying itself with Tfjnes Falui. To tliink riglitly, 
 one must live well. — Should the student desire to know more of 
 Baader, we commend him to Iloflnian's Introduction to the doc- 
 trines of this philosopher. — J. P. N. 
 
 BAADER, Joseph, a Bavarian engineer, born at Munich in 
 17G3, died in his native city, 20th November, 1835. He at 
 iirst studied medicine, but afterwards gave himself up exclusively 
 to engineering. His principal writings (in German) are the fol- 
 lowing — " Theory of the Forcing and Suction Pump," Baircnth, 
 1797, in 4to, 2nd ed., Hof. 1820; "Advices concerning tlio Im- 
 provement of Hydraulic Machines employed ui Mines," Baireuth, 
 
 A'OL. I 
 
 BAA 
 
 1800, in 4to, 2nd ed., Hof. 1820 ; "A New System of Loco- 
 motion," Munich, 1817 ; and " Huskisson and the Railways," 
 Munich, 1830.— G. M. 
 
 BAAK-HATTIGH, Joiianx, a landscape painter of the 
 Dutch school. In 1G42 he presented a pictm-e, in the manner 
 of Poelenburg, to the hospital of St. Hiob of Utrecht, his native 
 town. His works are very scarce. — R. M. 
 
 BAAL, king of Tyre, died about the year 592 B.C. He suc- 
 ceeded Ithobal, and was dethroned by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 BAALE, Henry van, a Dutch dramatic poet, died in 1822. 
 " De Saracenen" and " Alexander," are the two poems by which 
 he is known. 
 
 BAALEN, Peter de, a Dutch physician, Icnown only as the 
 author of a medical work entitled " De Cortice Pcmviano, ejusque 
 in febribus intermitteutibus Usu," Leyden, 1735, 4to. 
 
 BAAN, Jacob van, son of Johannes, bora at the Hague m 
 1673. Under the tiution of Ids fatlier, he became, at an early 
 age, nearly as skilful as he in portrait painting ; came with the 
 prince of Orange to this countiy, when the latter was elected 
 king of England. Here he executed several portraits, amongst 
 which that of the duke of Gloucester is particularly noted. 
 Although fully occupied, he could not resist his wish to see 
 Rome; to which place he proceeded, declining, on Ms way thence, 
 the offer of the gi-and duke of Tuscany to fix huuself at Ins 
 court. Wlien in Rome, besides portraits, he executed several 
 frescos and pictures of interiors. His fine appearance and gi'eat 
 activity procm-ed him, amongst the Italians, the sumame of the 
 " Gladiatore." Having proceeded to Vienna (where he met with 
 the most flattering reception), he died there of a violent malady 
 in 1700, universally regretted. — R. M. 
 
 BAAN, JoiijVnnes van, a Dutch portrait painter of the 
 seventeenth century, equally distingiushed for his artistical skill 
 and for his personal character, was bom at Haarlem in 1G33 ; 
 died at the Hague in 1703. Having lost his parents when only 
 three years old, he was intrastcd to the care of his maternal 
 uncle Pieman (an artist of the school of Velvet Breughel), who, 
 after having inspired his young ward with a taste for art, and 
 given him the first radimental instractions, put him under Jacob 
 Backer at Amsterdam to complete his studies. Baan, however, 
 did not follow the numner of either of his masters, but preferred 
 •imitating Van Dyck, in whicli he succeeded to such an extent 
 that his works are often taken for productions of that great 
 artist. Having thus obtained a considerable fame, he was called 
 to England by Charles II., where he executed the portraits of 
 the king, of the queen, and of many of the nobility of the day. 
 On his return to Holland, amongst other portraits, he painted 
 those of Cornelis and Jan van Witt ; and wlun the two brotheis 
 were murdered by the infiuiated mob, he i-cfused to give up their 
 pictm'cs to the assassins who wanted to have them destroyed. 
 He declined also to paint Louis XIV. of France, when invading 
 Holland in 1G72, and, later, to become the court painter of tlie 
 electors of Brandenburg. Baan continued to work at tlie Hague 
 up to the last years of his life, the object of great esteem to his 
 friends, and implacable envy to his enemies and rivals, who 
 repeatedly attempted to murder liim. As liis master-jiieces are 
 reckoned tlie jiortraits, above-ineutioncd, of the Van Witts, at 
 Amsterdam ; that of the count of Nassau, at the Hague ; and 
 his own at Dresden. — R. M. 
 
 BAAR or BAR, Geouge Louis de. See Bar. 
 
 BAARLANl) or BAIU.AND, Adrian van, a Flemish histo- 
 rical and geographical writer, born in 1488 ; died in 1542. A 
 collected edition of his writings was printed at Cologne in 1532 
 BAARLAND or BAltLAND, HrnERX van, a Flemish 
 physician, but a native of Baarland in Zealand, lived in the first 
 half of the sixteenth century. He practised first at Nainur, 
 
 2 R
 
 BAA 
 
 314 
 
 BAB 
 
 and passed afterwards a part of liis life at Basil. His published 
 works are — " Epistola inedica de aquarum distillataram facul- 
 tatibus;" Antwerp, 153G, in 8vo. " Velitatio medica cum 
 ArnoIJo Nootsio, qua docetur non paucis abuti uos vulgo medi- 
 camentis simplicibus, ut capillo veneris, xylaloe, xylobalsamo, 
 spolio;" Antwei-p, 1532, in 8vo. He also published translations 
 from the Greek into the Latin of the two following works — 
 " Sancti Basilii oratio de agendis Deo gi-atiis et in Julittam 
 martyrem ;" and " De mcdioanientis paratu facilibus," of Galen. 
 
 BAARSDOKP or BAEKSDOltP, Cornelius, physician and 
 chamberlain of Charles V., was born at Baarsdoi-p m Zealand, 
 and died in 1565. He left a work entitled " Methodus universe 
 ai'tis medicM," after Galen ; Bruges, 1538, in fol. 
 
 BAASHA, king of Israel, son of Ahijah, usurped the king- 
 dom after slaving Nadab, the son of Jeroboam. (1 Kings xv.) 
 
 BAART or BAARDT, Petkk, a Dutch physician and poet 
 of the seventeenth century. His " Friesch borre Practica" is 
 compared by his countrymen to the Georgics of Virgil. 
 
 BAAZ, Benedict, a Swedish -writer, died in 1650. He was 
 governor of the palace at Stockholm. His " Oratio de geminis 
 germanis sororibus, sobrietate et castitate " was published at 
 Upsal in 1629. 
 
 BAB, John, an Armenian theologian, who died about the 
 end of the ninth century. He left the following manuscripts — 
 " A Commentary on the four Gospels ;" " Explanation of the 
 Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans ;" " Chronology of Ecclesias- 
 tical History," from the bu-th of Jesus Christ until the time of 
 the author. 
 
 BABA, a Turkish impostor, who lived in the first half of the 
 thirteenth centur}\ His followers adopted as their confession of 
 faith, " There is but one God, and Baba is his deputy." 
 
 BABA, Sevadji Aeeverdi, a Persian poet of some celebrity, 
 born at Abiverd in the Khorassan, lived in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. His verses, which are not without merit, are still re- 
 peated by his countrymen. 
 
 BABA-ALI, the first independent dey of Algiers, died in 
 1718. He was elected in 1710 in the place of Ibrahim, who 
 was swept from power by a revolution. Baba-Ali, not long 
 afterwards, threw otF the yoke of the Tm-kish pashas, arrested 
 the pasha who had wished to prevent his election, and sent him 
 to Constantmople. Thither also he dispatched an ambassador, 
 with orders to declare that Algiers had no longer any need of a 
 pasha, as the dey was perfectly competent, without such super- 
 vision, to perform all the functions of government. His demand 
 was conceded, and, from that day, Baba governed the Algerine 
 temtory until his death. — G. JI. 
 
 BABA-LAL, the leader of a peculiar sect, named Baba-Lalis, 
 was born at JIalwa about the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
 turj'. He left a great number of verses on religious subjects. 
 
 * BABBAGE, Ciiaules, born in 1790 ; one of the ablest 
 mathematicians and most philosophic thinkers now in Eng- 
 land. Mr. Babbage's early career while at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, was distinguished by his efforts, in association with Sir 
 Jolm Herschel and Mr. Peacock, now dean of Ely, to intro- 
 duce into their university, and among the scientific men of this 
 country generally, a knowledge of the refined analytic methods 
 which had so long prevailed over the continent, iluch that is 
 valuable and characteristic in the structm-e of the mind of 
 Englishmen has sprung out of the insular nature of their home : 
 that a great many drawbacks have accompanied these undoubted 
 advantages, is well illustrated by the fact, that while the calculus 
 of Leibnitz had in France been canied to a high perfection — in 
 reference especially to the facility of its applications — and had 
 branched out in many important directions, we contmued satisfied 
 in this countiy with the clumsy algorithm of fluxions, and with 
 geometrical methods which had not then acquired any generality, 
 and that rarely overpassed the cramped domain of the ancient 
 synthesis. The youthful triumvirate just named, made a suc- 
 cessful inroad on these prejudices and predilections. In the first 
 pl.ace, they translated or rather edited the smaller treatise on the 
 calculus, by Lacroix, — edited we say, for, partly because of the 
 admirable notes, and partly through the merit of Sir John 
 Herschel's appendix on Finite Differences, the English work 
 greatly suq)assed the French original. They next accomplished, 
 also in conjunction, another important victoiy — the publication 
 of a solution of exercises on all parts of the infinitesimal calculus 
 — a volume which, notwithstanding more recent works with a 
 bimilar aim. remmns of greatest value to the student. To the 
 
 volume now refen-ed to, Mr. Babbage contributed an independent 
 essay on a subject at that tune quite new, viz., the solution of 
 Functional Equations — betraying, thus early, an inchnation 
 which has remained w^ith him through life, towards the study of 
 the calculus of forms, or of operations in themselves; i.e., of opera- 
 tions independently of the nature of the quantities operated upon. 
 Something of this predilection may be traced in Mr. Babbage's 
 essays on Porisms. It afterwards giiided him to a remarkable 
 proposal, as yet not adequately realized, viz., the proposal of a 
 notation of mechanical actions ; but it shines most clearly through 
 what, with justice, we may consider his crowTiing scientific effort 
 — the invention and partial constraction of his famous calcu- 
 lating engine. The possibility of constructing a piece of mecha- 
 nism capable of perfonnmg certain operations on numbers, is by 
 no means new ; it was thought of by Pascal and other geometers, 
 and veiy recently it has been reduced to practice by M. Thomas 
 of Colmar, and those excellent Swedes the MJI. Schentz ; but 
 neither before nor smce has any scheme so gigantic as that of 
 Mr. Babbage been anyri-here imagined. His achievements were 
 twofold; — he constructed a Ditt'erence Engine, and he planned 
 and demonstrated the practicability of an Analytical Engine. 
 As the facts connected with this whole subject are of great in- 
 terest, and bear, as will be seen below, on a just appreciation of 
 Ml'. Babbage's character and life, we insert, contrary to our wont, 
 an account of these two unparalleled enterprises, extracted 
 from Professor Nichol's " Cyclopedia of the Physical Sciences :" 
 " In the first place, Mr. Babbage perfected a difference engine 
 of very comprehensive powers. It is well known to the mathe- 
 matician, that any serits — be the relation uniting its terms as 
 complex as it may — will, in the end, yield a certam order of 
 difterences that shall be 0. The complicacy of the relationship 
 merely afiects the order of those differences which becomes — 
 the more complex the relationship, the higher that order. Now, 
 Mr. Babbage's enteqjrise was this, — he undertook to construct 
 an engine capable of managing a series so complex, that the dif- 
 ferences of its terais do not reach zero untU we ascend to the 
 seventh order : or, in analytical language, he undertook to manage 
 the integral, defined by the equation A7 (f.z = 0. And this 
 holds when (p.z contains no power of a variable higher than the 
 sixth; or, when, 
 
 An immense range of nautical and astronomical tables lies within 
 the limits now defined ; but, still further, while an engine with 
 such capabilities commanded everything within its grasp, accu- 
 rately and completely, it also tabulated approximately, or between 
 inteiTals of gi'cater or less extent, any series whatsoever that 
 coidd be treated by the method oj" differences. The student will 
 readily see that the hope to succeed in such an enterprise, hew 
 novel soever it appeared, was not chimerical ; it rested on this 
 only, that an engine could be made capable of perfonning at 
 command all operations of addition. The chasm between the 
 idea and the realization of it, is in this case vast indeed ; but we 
 believe it has been universally conceded, that all difficulties had 
 yielded to the genius of Mr. Babbage. Secondly, During the con- 
 straction of the difference engine, Mr. Babbage's views enlarged 
 — probably through his growing familiarity with the capabihties 
 of machinery ; and a new and nuich more gigantic conception 
 arose before him in perfect definiteness. If an engine could be 
 constructed to perform, at command, the process of addition, no 
 reason seemed to exist why one might not perform the whole of 
 the elementary changes to which quantity can be subject, viz., 
 addition, subtraction, mnltiplicaiion, and division. " But all 
 changes that can be produced on quantity, or any development to 
 which quantity can be subject, are mere combinations of these : 
 so that an engine capable of perfonning these, might become an 
 instrument to execute any de\elopment whatever. And such an 
 instrament is the proposed analytical engine. Without stopping 
 to describe the machinery, we shall take it as a fact accepted every- 
 where, that Jlr. Babbage devised the means of executing directly 
 all elementary operations. And the next requisite was, th.at he 
 should be able to cause his engine perfonn all these, according 
 to any special order; or, what is the same thing, to develop any 
 function whatsoever, whose law of development is ascertamed 
 and fixed. To obtain a clear conception of the mode in which 
 he realized this object, it is necessaiy that the reader have in his 
 mind a distinction, already of vast value in analytical science, 
 and exemplified eveiywhere in our industrial mechanisms — the
 
 distinction, viz., between the operations to be performed, and the 
 quantities or substances operated on. An operation is the 
 method, or the law, according to wliich some object or material 
 is to be changed : and is perfectly distinct from consideration of 
 the material or object itself. Can an engine be made, then, so 
 that it be adjusted to the perfonnance of any oi-der of operations, 
 however complex ; so that, whatever its abstract capacities, it 
 may, at any time, be constrained to work according to some fired 
 law or order to the exclusion of every other? Suppose the zero, 
 or neutral state of the annhjiical engine, to be a mere expression 
 or possession of capability to execute all the elementary and 
 essential changes on quantity, can it be adjusted to perform these 
 according to a fixed law, or what is the same thing, to develop 
 any function f The answer has been practically given by the 
 Jacquard Loom. In this case, the cards oblige a machine, in 
 which there really is a latent power to work any pattern— to 
 work out one particular pattern ; and Mr. Babbage saw that, in 
 the same way, a peculiar and appropriate set of cards of opera- 
 tion might compel the calculating machine to act for the time 
 according to one certain fixed law and no other. The wonderful 
 results of the Jacquard, illustrate the amazing comprehensive- 
 ness of this principle ; and it may fm-ther assist our conceptions, 
 if we liken the numerical or other quantities, which form the 
 subject-matter of the functions, to the material on which the 
 Jacquard mechanism works. These numbers, or subjects, are 
 introduced into the analj-tical engine, by aiTangements quite 
 independent of those which regulate the opieratiojis to which they 
 are to be subjected. The two, in fact, work independently, 
 although haraionizing throughout ; and the result of the two is 
 the reproduction of tlie matter — introduced in a raw state — in 
 the shape of cloth with the pattern woven. It is clear, too, that 
 the matter or things acted on need not be numbers. Such an 
 engine could overtake any problem concerning objects, whose 
 natural fundamental relations can be expressed by the relations 
 -f-, — X) and -r- '. — • For instance, if the fundamental rela- 
 tions of pitched sounds were susceptible of any similar expres- 
 sion, the engine would be capable of tceaving elaljorate and 
 scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent." 
 — The nature and foundation of these undertaldngs being vm- 
 derstood, the reader will follow with lively interest the rather 
 singidar history of ilr. Babbage's transactions in connection 
 \rith them. The earliest public notice on record, in relation to 
 these extraordinary contrivances, is contained in a letter ad- 
 dressed by Government to the council of the Royal Society, 
 bearing date 1st April, 1823, and requesting the consideration 
 of the councU for the plan submitted to the government by Mr. 
 Babbage, " for applying machinery to the pm-poses of calculat- 
 ing and printing mathematical tables." This proposal had 
 tefcrence, of coui-se, only to the difference-engine : the analytical 
 engine not being invented or even imagined at that time. It 
 must be obsen'ed that Jlr. Babbage had pre\'iously explained 
 the principles of his invention in a letter to Su- Humphrey Davy, 
 bearing date July 3, 1822. The council of the Royal Society 
 had no doubt whatever on the subject ; and they recommend-ed 
 that government should undertake the pecuniary responsibility 
 of the lionstruction of an engine so invaluable to science, and 
 that required an outlay for which the inventor could never be 
 recompensed. The constraction of the difference-engine was 
 undertaken accordingly, and commenced under the guidance of 
 Mr. Babbage, who stipulated from the beginning that no pecu- 
 niary reward should, in any case or foiTn, accrae to him per- 
 sonally. Mr. Babbage considered liimself fortunate in engaging 
 the aid of Mr. Clements, a talented and very ingenious engineer ; 
 but, as often occurs with associations, the result was not auspi- 
 cious. No man can answer for more than his personal efforts : 
 when hound by association, the course of his acts and their 
 results are beyond his control. Considering the necessity of in- 
 venting and constnicting tools for the execution of the necessary 
 operations, it is not wonderful that delays occurred, not ex- 
 pected by over-sanguine persons ; and that the expense exceeded 
 the first estimate. In 1828 government again required the ad- 
 vice of the Royal Society. It was given after full investigation, 
 and amounted to an earnest recommendation that the engine be 
 completed. This latter recommendation w.is accompanied by 
 the statement that Jlr. Babliage had already expended XGOOO 
 of his private fortune in furtherance of the cnteii^rise. The 
 government resolved to persevere, and determined that the work- 
 shop should be removed to the immediate neighbourhood of Jlr. 
 
 Babbage's house, in Dorset Square. But to add to the authority 
 of the opinion of the Royal Society, and farther to test the value 
 of the invention, a voluntary and formal commission of inquiry 
 was instituted, consisting of men eminent as to science, station, 
 and pubUc influence. The report of this commission was entirely 
 favourable. Soon after, goverament appeared to hesitate ; and 
 the hesitation was increased by two circumstances. First, Mr. 
 Clements withdrew from the work, and in virtue of a singular 
 legahty, took possession, as belonging to himself, of aU the 
 valuable tools constnieted for the completion of the engine, at 
 the mutual expense of the treasury and Jlr. Babbage. Secondly, 
 the idea of the analytical engine — one that absorbed and con- 
 tained, as a small part, the ditierence-enguie — arose before Mr. 
 Babbage. Of course he could not help it, that a vast idea of 
 this kind should spring up before him, or that he saw means to 
 realize it. Like a faithfid man, he communicated the fact of 
 his discoveiy, — the upshot being, that an alarmed government, 
 with Mr. Goulbm-ne and Sir R. Peel at the head of the Treasur}% 
 abandoned the great entei-prise. They offered !Mr. Babbage in 
 recompense, that the difference-engine, as constructed, should 
 be considered his o^vn property, — an offer which the inventor 
 courteously declined to accept. That engine is now in the mu- 
 seum of King's college, London. The drawings of the machinery 
 not constnieted, and of many other contrivances, are also in 
 King's college. The result is a very melancholy one : great 
 hopes in the meantime have perished, and the realization 
 of vast benefits has been postponed. On recently abandoning 
 the chair of the Royal Society, the earl of Rosse nobly performed 
 his duty by entering a protest in the name of the leading savans 
 of England — ilr. Babbage has many other claims on the grati- 
 tude of his countrymen. We pass by his physical researches, such 
 as those on rotatory magnetism. His volunteer or ninth Bridge- 
 water Treatise is perhaps the most profound and remarkable of 
 that rather unfortunate series of publications. The electors of 
 Finsbury, however, did not choose to send him to the House of 
 Commons. The vox populi — at least the voice of our present 
 electors — certainly emits at times rather odd utterances. — J. P. N. 
 
 BABBARD, Ralph, an English mechanician, who lived in 
 the second half of the sixteenth century. He addressed to Queen 
 Elizabeth a list of his inventions. From the details of one of 
 these, he is believed to have been the first mechanician who 
 formed an idea of the steam-boat. 
 
 BABEK or PAPECK, a Persian lord, who lived in the first 
 half of the thu-d centmy. Babek had a servant named Sasan, 
 in whom he discovered such high qualities that he made him his 
 son-in-law ; and from this marriage sprung the celebrated Ai-ta- 
 xerxes. 
 
 BABEK, sumamed IIorremi or Houremdix, a kind of 
 atheistical Persian, who lived about the eighth centuiy. He be- 
 came the head of a numerous sect, whose religion is represented 
 as consistiiig in joy or pleasure. He afterwards raised an army, 
 with which he conquered and slew the general of the caliph 
 Al-]\Iamoun, by whose successor, however, he was made pri- 
 soner, and subjected to a cniel death. — G. M. 
 
 BABEL, HuGUES, a philosopher and rhetorician of the 
 Netherlands, who died in 1556. He taught Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew at Louvain, and afterwards travelled in England and 
 Holland. He published " Grannnatica ; Dialectica; Rhetorica;" 
 and left some poems which have not been published. 
 
 BABELL, WiLLiAsr, organist of the church of All-IIallows, 
 Bread Street, London, and a member of the private band of 
 George I. He was celebrated as a performer on the harpsi- 
 chord, and is stated to have been the first English musician who 
 simplified music for keyed-stringed instruments, and divested 
 it of the crowded and cou plicated harmony with which, before 
 his time, it had been embarrassed. He arranged the favourite 
 airs in tlie operas of Pyrrhus and Demetrius, Hydaspes, Rinaldo, 
 &c., as showy and brilliant lessons for the harpsichord. There 
 are also extant of his compositions — " Twelve Solos for a Violin 
 or Hautboy;" " Twelve Solos for a German Flute or Hautboy;" 
 "Six Concertos for small Flutes and Violins;" and some other 
 works. He died, a young man, about the year 1722, having 
 considerably shortened his days by intemperance. — E. F. R. 
 
 BABELOT, a Franciscan friin-, and almoner of the duke dc 
 Montpensier, lived in the second half of the sixteenth centurj'. 
 He exchanged a mona.stic life for that of a soldier, and gave 
 himself up to an implacable hatred against the Calvinists, many 
 of whom he put to death. He was, however, in turn, taken
 
 prisoner by tlie soldiers of tlie prince of Conde, and hanged, ac- 
 cording to Brantoine, on a gibbet of estraordinaiy height. — G. M. 
 
 BABEXO, St. Hubee, Louis, a German philosopher, bom 
 at Leinengcn in Bavaria in 1C60, died in 1726. He entered 
 the order of the Benedictines in 1682. He was afterwards pro- 
 iessor of scholastic theology, and chancellor and \-ice-rector of 
 the university of Salzburg. He published " Problemata et 
 theoremata philnsophica," Salzburg, 1689 ; " Qurpstiones plii- 
 losophicas," Salzburg, 1692; " Fund.itrix ettalensis, id est, 
 thaumatiu-ga," Munich, 1694, in 4to ; " Eegula monim, seu 
 dictamen conscientise," Salzbui-g, 1697; "Tractatus dejure et 
 justitia," 1699 ; " Deus absconditus in sacramento altaris," 
 Salzburg, 1700 ; " De statu parvulorum sine baptismo morien- 
 tinin," Salzburg, 1700 ; " Philosophia Thomistica SaHsbm-gen- 
 sis," Augsbm-g, 1716, 1724, in fol. ; " Principia bonitatis et 
 malitiaj attuuni humanorum," Salzburg, in 4to ; " Vindicianim 
 praedetei-minationes physicK," Salzburg, 1707, in ito ; " Disser- 
 tationes theologicaj contra Onesnelii propositiones," in 8vo ; 
 " Prolusiones academical," 1724. — G. M. 
 
 BABER, or the Tiger, is the surname by which histoiy 
 knows Zehii--ed-din Mohammed, the conqueror of India, and 
 founder of the so-called Mogul dj-nasty. Descended from Timur 
 on the father's side, and from Genghis Khan on the mother's, 
 Baber was of mixed Turkish and Mongol origin. But in feel- 
 ing, as in personal characteristics, he was a Tartar (Tm-k), and 
 often in his memoirs speaks most contemptuously of the i\Ion- 
 gols or Jloguls. Yet Hindoo ignorance has designated as that 
 of tlie Great Mogul (Mongol), the throne which Baber esta- 
 blished in Hindustan. 
 
 On the death of Timur, his dominions in Central Asia were 
 divided among his sons and other princes of Ms family, and 
 for several generations the descendants of the great conqueror 
 waged perpetual war with each other for the inheritance of 
 their common ancestor. One of the most powerful and suc- 
 cessful of Timur's descendants was his gi-eat-grandson, Abu 
 Syed, the grandfather of Baber, who reconquered a gi-eat 
 portion of Timur's ancient empire, and left the most impor- 
 tant provinces of Central Asia to his sons. The thu-d of 
 these, Omar Sheikh Mirza, father of Baber, was sovereign of 
 Ferghana, a fruitful but inconsiderable region of Turkistan, l}dng 
 in the valley of the Sir (the ancient Jaxartes), and now included 
 in the khanate of Kokan. Baber was bom on the 14th of Feb- 
 mary, 1483, the buth-year of Luther. When he was a boy of 
 twelve his father died, bequeathing to him the insecure throne 
 of Ferghana, and wars on all sides with his paternal and mater- 
 nal uncles, the other princes of Tm-kistan. Besides these com- 
 plications, the Uzbecks, imder Sheibani-Khan, were mustering in 
 the desert, planning the conquests which they aftenvai-ds effected 
 in Turkistan. 
 
 Baber had inherited from his father a restless, profuse, and 
 good-natm-ed disposition. He had, moreover, an innate love 
 of letters, and this was fostered by the general culture, strange 
 to say, diffused among the couiis of the descendants of Timur, 
 in spite of their perpetual wars. In the interesting " Memou-s" 
 which he wrote in his later years, he naively avows that he 
 was " alw.ays ambitious," and the wars of self-defence into 
 which he was forced by the attacks of his imcles, when he 
 iocended the throne of Ferghana, soon became wars of aggres- 
 sion on liis part. The youth of fifteen seized on Samarcand, 
 the capital of Timur ; but while engaged in this enterprise, a 
 revolt broke out in Ferghana which lost him for the time his 
 hereditary dominions. For the next ciglit years Baber's career 
 was one of romantic vicissitude. At one time he was in tri- 
 umphant possession of Transoxiana ; at another time he was a 
 fugitive among the mountains, destitute and lonely, meditating 
 flight to China. At last, when fortune pronounced against him 
 in Turkistan, and the Uzbecks were masters of Ferghana, he de- 
 termined to give up the game, and push his fortunes south of 
 the Hindoo Koosh, where one of his cousins, the raler of Cabul, 
 had been dispossessed by a minister, and where any descendant of 
 Timur had some sort of claim to sovereignty. Considerable ob- 
 scurity rests on this portion of his adventurous career. But it 
 is certain that his incursion into Cabul was tolerably successful, 
 and in a few years we find the despairing fugitive ma.stcr of the 
 key of India. Baber had now two different objects, which drew 
 him different ways. One was to recover his paternal dominions ; 
 the other, to repeat his ancestor Timur's invasion of India. In 
 the former of those designs, in spite of many attempts and some 
 
 considerable successes, he ultimately failed. The Uzbecks were 
 too strong for him. But in the other, and seemingly more diffi- 
 cult enterprise, he succeeded. After several expeditions, whicli 
 are to be considered forays rather than invasions, he became 
 padisha of Hindostan, and where Timur had failed to perpetuate 
 his sway, Baber founded a dynasty. 
 
 At the date of Baber's last two and successful expeditions 
 (1524-5), Sultan Ibrahim, the nominal sovereign of India 
 was the representative of the Mahomedan and Afghan dynasty 
 of Lodi, fomided in the middle of the preceding century by 
 a successful adventurer. But in the hands of the cruel and 
 incompetent Ibrahim, the sceptre of Hindostan was melded so 
 as to produce universal discontent and general rebellion ; the 
 hour which in his "Memoirs" he tells us that he had loni' 
 looked for, had come at last for Baber. Ibrahim had m a 
 yoimger brother a pretender to the throne ; and in the goveixor 
 of the Punjaub, who feared that his turn as a rictim >\as 
 coming next, he had a subject disaffected and powerful. Dou- 
 lut Khan, the viceroy of the Piuijaub, inrited the aid and pre- 
 sence of Baber, who marched his foi-ces to Lahore, and there 
 defeated an anny of Al'ghan chiefs, who objected to the inter- 
 vention of the monarch of Cabul. But from tliis expedition 
 Baber, personally, was recalled by an attack of his old enemies, 
 the Uzbecks, upon Balkh. WTiile Baber was repulsmg the 
 Uzbecks, his army of India was making way imder the command 
 of Allah-ad-din, the prince-pretender, whose claims Baber nomi- 
 nally supported, but abandoned as soon as supremacy in India 
 was within his own grasp. RetuiTdng from Balldi to Lahore, 
 Baber reassumcd the command, and marchmg forward, was met 
 by Ibrahim Avith a large amny, some seventy miles to the north 
 of Delhi. The battle of Paniput, which decided the fate of 
 India, was fought on the 21st of April, 1526. According to 
 Baber's own account, he had only 12,000 men to oppose Ibrahim's 
 aiTny of 100,000. But Baber was completely victorious, and 
 Ibrahim was slain. Delhi suiTcndered to the Tartar conqueror, 
 and Baber estabhshed himself at Agi-a. With characteristic 
 generosity, the victor, in his joy, sent a coin by way of present 
 to every man, woman, and child, whether slave or free, in the 
 kingdom of Cabul. 
 
 The victoiy of Paniput, and its immediate results, still left 
 much to be done. Baber occupied only the comitiy to the 
 north-west of Delhi, with a nan-ow tract along the Jumna to 
 Agra. Ibrahim was defeated and dead, but his rebellious Mo- 
 hammedan vassals were as httle disposed to submit to Baber as 
 to Ibrahim, and were preparing to make common cause with the 
 Hindoo princes against the daring invader. Worst of all, Baber's 
 own chiefs and troops began to murmur. The natives were 
 openly and passively hostile, refusing allegiance and supplies ; 
 the task of conqueiing India, seemed, they said, intenninable. 
 To hunger and thirst was added the heat of the Indian simnner, 
 and they clamom-ed for leave to retm-n to the friendly shelter 
 of the mountains of Cabul. It was in emergencies hke these 
 that the spuit of Baber showed itself, in a way which explains 
 to us how he could achieve so much vath scanty means. He 
 harangued his chiefs and officers, not imploringly, but defiantly ; 
 granting them penriission to return, but declaring that, if left 
 solitarj', he at least would remain. The declai'ation was suc- 
 cessful ; but, before long, Baber's influence over his followers 
 was stUl more severely tried. The powerful and warlike Rajpoot 
 princes had laid aside tlieir differences, and miited then* forces 
 under Rana Sanka. With a large army they were at Sikri, 
 only twenty miles from Agra. Baber's advanced guard suf- 
 fered a check. An astrologer publicly predicted a defeat. A 
 panic seized on the Tartar army. Baber's oratory was tasked 
 to the uttermost. Finally, by appealing less to religious fana- 
 ticism or to their love of plunder, than to their sense of honom*, 
 he succeeded once more; and the victory of SOcri, gained in Feb., 
 1527, was to the Hindoo princes what the battle of Paniput 
 had been to then- Mohammedan and Afghan suzerains. The 
 worst was now over. By degrees, Baber's soldiers gi'ew to like 
 the countiy, and were reconciled to the climate. With the \ic- 
 toiy of Sikri, Baber himself assumed the title of padishah, or 
 emperor, and of ghazee, or, " victorious over the infidels." The 
 ensuing four years were spent in the easy subjugation of Hindoo 
 rajahs and Jlohammedan viceroys. 'WTien after having ruled in 
 Inifia little more than four yeare, Baber died near Agra, on the 
 26th of December, 1530 ; and only in the forty-eighth year of 
 his age, he lefc an Indian empire to liis successors to consolidate
 
 and expand. He died comparatively young ; for his constitution 
 had been shattered by habits of intoxication, to which he often 
 refers penitently and soiTowfulIy in his " Jlemoirs." During 
 the last fifteen months of his life he was unable to attend to the 
 business of government ; but his death was preceded by the ex- 
 hibition of a fine trait of generosity and parental afl'ection. His 
 favourite son (and successor), Humayoun, was dangerously ill, 
 and the father, in accordance with the Oriental superstition, 
 resolved to sacrifice his own life to preserve that of his son. He 
 walked three times round the bed of Humayoun, and then, after 
 deep prayer to God, exclaimed, " I have borne it away, I have 
 borne it away." Humayomi recovered, and Babcr died. In 
 accordance with liis o^\^^ wishes, his corpse was removed to and 
 buried at Cabul. \\'Tiere he lies, according to Sir Alexander 
 Burnes, "a running and clear stream yet waters the fragi-ant 
 flowers of the cemeteiy, which is the great holiday resort of the 
 people of Cabul." " There is," adds the same writer, " a noble pro- 
 spect from the hill that overlooks Baber's tomb." He is described 
 as a man above the middle size, and of great vigour of body. 
 
 As a conqueror, Baber cannot be compared to his ancestors, 
 Timur and Genghis Khan ; nor as a ruler, to his descendants, 
 the wise Akl)ar and the splendid Aurungzebe. It is as a man, 
 much more than as a conqueror or a ruler, that Baber attracts ; 
 and this is owmg to the frankness with which he has exhibited 
 himself in his autobiographical " Memoirs," a work miique in 
 Oriental Htcratm-e. In that singular book, which iu style alone, 
 by its easy and familiar simplicity, contrasts most favom-ably 
 with the studied pomposity of so much of Eastern composition, 
 we are presented with the picture of a wild Tartar piince en- 
 gaged from early boyhood in savage and desperate warfare, and 
 yet preserving through life the wannest and most sleepless 
 affection for liis friends ; a strong love and ceaseless cultivation 
 of poetiy ; a keen relish for the beauties of nature ; a moral 
 sense which the necessities and temptations of his position could 
 not extinguish ; and a fund of sentiment, which seems strangely 
 but charmingly out of place in the emulous descendant of the 
 terrible Tinnir and Genghis. It is as if Alexander the Great 
 were writing with the pen of Beranger ! In his worst plights 
 he never ondts to console himself with the muse, or forgets to 
 note and describe anythuig beautifid or picturesque Ln the scenery 
 amid which he is wandering, perhaps a hopeless exile. When 
 the Mogul djTiasty (erroneously so-called) is extinguished and 
 forgotten, India will still owe to Baber the new plants and fruit- 
 trees which, in his love of horticulture, the often cnicl invader 
 introduced into his conquered dominions. Baber's affectionate 
 disposition gives, perhaps, the principal fascination to his book ; 
 and nothing reads more pleasantly than his garrulous and loving 
 gossip about his relatives and friends. He never forgets persons 
 and places once dear to hun. On the throne of Cabul he sighs 
 for the pleasant fields of Ferghana, endeared by recollections of 
 boyhood; and in the midst of his triumphant Indian cam- 
 paigns " a musk-melon from Cabul " excites in the wild Tarttu- 
 a strange feeling of home-sickness, and he " shed tears on 
 eating it." " Sentiment " is generally considered to be a 
 recent and European growth, but it is .to be found not only in 
 abundance, but genuine in quality, scattered among the pages 
 of Baber's " Memoirs," and rescuing from dulness his details of 
 marches and battles. The most accessible fonn in which this 
 work has appeared is the English translation, excellently edited 
 and annotated, pubhshed in London in 182G, as "Memoirs of 
 Zehir-ed-din-Mohammed Babcr, emperor of Ilindostan, written 
 by himself in the Jaghatai Tiirki, and translated partly by the 
 late John Leyden, Esq., M.D., partly by William Erskine, Esq., 
 with notes and geograpliical introductions." There may be also 
 consulted an abridgment of tliis translation, executed by R. D. 
 Caldecott, Esq., and published in 1844 as " The Life of Baber, 
 emperor of Hindostan." A succinct, lively, and sympatlietic 
 account of Baber's career is to be found in the second volume of 
 Mr. Mountstuart Elphinstone's " History of India," London, 
 1841.— F. E. 
 
 BABER or BABOUIJ, a Persian prince, grandson of Timur, 
 governed Astcrabad in 144G, and died of intemperance in 14G7. 
 
 BABEUF, FiiANcis Noel, a French writer and political 
 theorist, was born at St. Quentin in 17G4 ; died at Taris, 27th 
 May, 1797. Left an orphan at the age of sixteen, he com- 
 . menccd his career as apprentice to an architect, and was subse- 
 quently engaged in land-surveying. When the Revolution brolce 
 out, he was one of its earliest and most violent partizans. 
 
 defending and propagating its prmciples in the Correspondent 
 Picard, a journal published at Amiens. For these writings he 
 was prosecuted, carried to Paris and tried, but was acquitted 
 14th July, 1790. He was then appointed administrator of the 
 department of the Somme; dismissed soon after, but managed 
 to procure a similar appointment at Slontdidier. He was here 
 charged with forgery, fled to Paris, was arrested, and sent for 
 trial before the tribunal of the Aisne, where he had the good 
 fortune to be once more acquitted. In 1794 he retumed to 
 Paris and established a journal called " Le Tribim du Peuple, 
 or Le Defenseur Liberte de la Presse," in which he wrote under 
 the name of Caius-Gracchus, taking for his motto the maxim 
 of Rousseau, that " the end of society is the public good." 
 He here promulgated the doctiincs of absolute equality, which 
 he soon after endeavoured to reduce to practice. In !March, 
 1796, Babeuf and his adherents formed themselves into a 
 secret committee of the Soci^te du Pantheon, a society sup- 
 posed to number about 1G,000 persons, di\ided into local sec- 
 tions, and dii-ected by commissioners who communicated with 
 the central leaders, but not with each other. Their plan was to 
 seize Paris by a simultaneous attack of all the sections, and 
 they hoped to enlist in their favour a certain number of the 
 troops, as well as to secure the aid of the working classes as 
 soon as the fray had commenced. The plans in fact were 
 drawn up with considerable skill, and might possibly have been 
 successful, but for the treacherj' of an agent named Grisel, who 
 revealed the plot to the government. To ascertain the true 
 nature of the danger, the director BaiTas pretended to join the 
 conspirators ; and next day, at a meeting held to fix the time 
 for action, the principal movers of the scheme were arrested. 
 Babeuf was captured at his own house, while engaged with 
 Buonarotti (who afterwards wrote the nan-ative of the con- 
 spu-acy) in drawing up the manifestos that were to be issued 
 on the day of the iusmTcction. The trial was commenced at 
 once. The conspirators, to the number of sixty-five, were 
 brought before the high court of Vendome ; an inferior court not 
 being able to tiy one of the prisoners, Drouet, who was a repre- 
 sentative of the people. The trial lasted three months. Ba- 
 beuf pleaded the truth of his principles, but the plea was of 
 course rejected. On the 2Gth Jlay, 1797, the jur}' returned a 
 verdict condemning Babeuf and Darthe to death ; seven others, 
 among whom were Buonarotti, were sentenced to transportation, 
 and fifty-six were acquitted. Babeuf and Daiihe stabbed each 
 other in the very presence of the judges when sentence was 
 pronounced, and, like Robespierre, were di-agged in an expiring 
 state to the scaffold. 
 
 Babeuf 's principles, though containing some elementary truths, 
 were of the ■\\ildest and crudest description. Absolute equality 
 was his one idea, and to this he would have sacrificed, if neces- 
 sarj', all the arts of life, and all the fruits of civilization. 
 " Philosophy, theology, poetry, fiction, painting, sculpture, &c., 
 were httle more than supci-fluous recreations. He was a com- 
 munist, and would have had no i^i'operty ; a unlformist, and 
 would have had all people dressed alike. He was, however, per- 
 haps the first who perceived that the great Revolution was a 
 change in the social condition of France, and not merely a poli- 
 tical overturn. He left a work on suiTeying, entitled " Cadastre 
 Perpetuel," Paris, 1789, and a " System of Depopulation, or 
 the Life and Crimes of Can-ier," Paris, 1794. — P. E. D. 
 
 BABEUF, Ejiile, a French writer, son of the preceding, was 
 bom in 1795. He followed the calling of bookseller till 1814, 
 when his enthusiasm for Napoleon carried him to Elba, in the 
 suite of the emperor. After the Restoration he was condemned 
 to imprisonment for offensive political writing, but regained his 
 liberty in 1818.— J. S., G. 
 
 BABEY, Atiiaxask Mahie Piicuke, a French advocate, 
 deputy to the states-general from Laval, and afterwards a 
 member of the convention, was born at Orgelet in 1744. He 
 distinguished himself in July, 1791, by a motion for the 
 detln'onement of the king, in the event of his refusing to sub- 
 scribe the constitution. After the trial of Louis, Babey voted 
 for banishment, and reconnnended the convocation of the oii- 
 ginal assemblies. He was imprisoned in 1793, but escaped to 
 Switzerland, whence he was recalled the year following. Died 
 in 181.5. 
 
 BABI, Jean FKAN<;'ors, born at Tarascon in 1759, com- 
 manded during the Reign of TeiTor the army of Toulouse. Afti r 
 the fall of Robespierre he was arrested, and l)rought to trial as
 
 one of the most unscnipiilous agents of the " Comite de Sahit 
 Public," but escaped with a few months' impiisonment. He 
 was executed in 1796 for having taken part in an attack on 
 the camp of Crenelle. — J. S., G. 
 
 BABIE DE BERCENAY, Francois, a voluminous French 
 litterateur, bom at Lavaur (Tarn) in 17G1 ; died about the 
 year 1830. Of his numeroiis works, the most important are: 
 — "L'education Militaire Nationale," 1789, dedicated to La- 
 fayette; " Jlemoii-es sur les Consulats," 1798; "Vie de Slaric 
 Antoinette d'Autriche," 1802. 
 
 BABIN, Fkan^ois, a French theologian, born at Angers in 
 1651; died in 1734. He was gi'and-vicar and deacon of theo- 
 logy in his native town, and wrote the first eighteen volumes 
 of the " Conferences du diocese d'Angers." 
 
 • BABINET, Jacques, an eminent French physicist of oin- 
 own time, member of the Academy of Sciences. It were not easy 
 to enumerate the obligations of physical science to M. Babinct's 
 fertile genius. His original labours mainly illustrate the depart- 
 ment of physical optics, and those natural and chiefly atmo- 
 spherical phenomena connected with that very interesting sub- 
 ject. He has written and experimented on the curious appear- 
 ances of coloured rings ; on the theoiy of the colours of double 
 surfaces somewhat apart ; on the phenomena of depolarization ; 
 on dichroism; on vibrations of the polarized rays; on polarimeters; 
 on the polarization of the atmosphere and the neutral points ; 
 on the theory of the rainbow ; on crowns, anthelia, &c., &c. 
 AVe owe him also many admirable analyses of original memous, 
 such as those of Jamin, and of Fizeau and Foucault. But the 
 jiroduction by which he is most widely known, is probably the 
 four volumes of that interesting and exceedingly perspicuous, 
 " Etudes et Lectures sur les Sciences d'obseiTation et Icurs appli- 
 cations pratiques." These essays were, for the most part, con- 
 tributed at first to the " Revue des deux mondes." They include 
 discourses on almost eveiy physical speculation or practical 
 invention attracting the attention of the day. We have essays 
 on the electric telegraph, on the gi'eat comet, on the stereoscope, 
 on table-turning, on special points in meteorology, on the general 
 progress of meteorology, on the diamond, on the phu'ality of worlds, 
 &c., &c. The infoiTnation conve_yed by these nonchalant essays 
 is veiy gi'eat, and no style can sui-pass Babinet's in cleamess. 
 They ought to be translated into our tongue. The wide circula- 
 tion they must obtain, ought to attract for them the notice of 
 some entei'prising publisher. We expect yet much more from 
 il. Babinet.— J. P. N. 
 
 BABINGTON, Anthony, an English gentleman, distin- 
 guished by his attachment to the cause of the unfortunate 
 i\Iary, qneen of Scotland, died 20th September, 1586. He was 
 a wealtliy landed proprietor in Derbyshire, and a zealous Roman 
 catholic. Having, in conjunction with a number of other gentle- 
 men, and an obscure fanatic of the name of Savage, entered into 
 a conspiracy for the liberation of Mary, and the assassination of 
 Queen Elizabeth, he was aiTested and brought to trial, along 
 with fourteen of his accomplices. Babmgton was found guilty, 
 condemned, and put to death. — G. M. 
 
 BABINGTON, Charles Cahdale, an English botanist, 
 resident at St. John's college, Cambridge, has devoted his atten- 
 tion in a special manner to British botany. He has published a 
 manual of British botany, containing the flowering plants and 
 ferns, arranged according to the natm'al .system : " Flora Bathon- 
 iensis, or a catalc\gue of the plants indigenous to the vicinity of 
 Bath ; " " Primitia; Flora; Samicas, or an outline of the flora of the 
 Channel Islands ; " besides numerous monographs in the Transac- 
 tions of the Linnean Society of London, and the Botanical Society 
 of Edinburgh. He is an M.A. of Cambridge, an F.R.S., and 
 a member of the Archaeological Society. — J. H. B. 
 
 BABINGTON, Gervase, Bishop, was born of a good Not- 
 inghamshire family about 1551. He became fellow of Trinity 
 college, Cambridge, and enjoyed considerable reputation as a 
 university preacher. Heniy Herbert, earl of Pembroke, made 
 liim his chaplain, and afterwards, in 1591, procured for him the 
 bishopric of Llandatf. This see, in consequence of the land hav- 
 ing been alienated by Bishop Kitclicn, IJabington used to call 
 Ihe see of " Affe." In 1594, Queen Elizabeth promoted liim to 
 Exeter, and, in 1597, to Worcester, which bishopric he held till 
 his death in 1610. He was much i-cspected by his contem- 
 poraries as a prchite and preacher, and his character may be 
 summed up in the following verses placed under his picture 
 in the beginning of his works, which consist of Notes on the 
 
 Pentateuch, and an exposition of the Creed, Commandments, 
 and Lord's Prayer : — 
 
 " Noil melior, non integrior, non cultior alter, 
 Vir, priesiil, prsecn.more, fide, arte fiiit ; 
 O.sqiie probiim, viiltnvqiie gravis, pectusque sereniim: 
 Alme Deus, tales practice ubique gregi." — -J. B., O. 
 
 BABINGTON, Jonx, an English mathematician of the first 
 half of the seventeenth century, author of a treatise on " Fire- 
 works," published at London in 1G35. A treatise on geonietiy 
 is appended to the work. — J. S., G. 
 
 BABINGTON, William, 1\I.1)., an eminent chemist and 
 mineralogist, was bom at Portglenone, a vUlage in the county of 
 Antrim in Ireland, June, 1756. He received the rudiments of his 
 education in the town of Londonderry, where he was sulisequently 
 bound to an apothecary. Having completed the terra of his ap- 
 prenticeship, he left Ireland and proceeded to London, ard 
 obtained emploj-ment in Guy's hospital under Mr. Frank, then 
 surgeon to that institution. Leaving Guy's hospital for a short 
 period, he went to Haslar's hospital, and afterwards to Winches- 
 ter, but eventually returned to Guy's hospital, to which he was 
 elected apothecary. Here he displayed his ability, especially in the 
 branch of chemistry, and was associated with Dr. Saunders, then 
 the lecturer in chemistry to that institution. Jlineralogy next 
 engaged his attention ; and the fine collection of mineralogic:.! 
 specimens belonging to the earl of Bute being for sale, Babinf;- 
 ton purchased them. In 1797 Babington took out his degree 
 of doctor of medicine, on which occasion he resigned liis situation 
 in Guy's hospital, and commenced to practise as a physician. 
 He was, ere long, again connected with the scene of his former 
 labom-s, being elected physician to Guy's hospital, and a fellow j 
 of the Sledical Society. He may be said to liave been one of 
 the founders of the Geological Society of London, of which he 
 was elected vice-president in 1810, and president in 1822. Dr. 
 Babington was also mainly instnmiental in estabhshing the 
 Hunterian Society, to the Transactions of which he contributed 
 several valuable papers ; and he was admitted a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and also of the College of Physicians. In 1833 
 Dr. Babington presided at the Centenaiy Festival in honour of 
 Dr. Priestley, upon the 2Gth of March, being then in his 77th 
 j'ear. Here he caught cold, which ultimately resulted in influ- 
 enza, then prevalent, and he died on the 29th of Slay following. 
 Dr. Babington was deservedly esteemed for his scientific and 
 professional acquirements. He fomied the connecting link be- 
 tween the departed and living philosophers of the 18th and 19th 
 centuries : for, from Priestly down to Wollaston and Davy, ho 
 was the personal friend, associate, and collaborateur of the most 
 distmguished men of England. Besides papers in the Transac- 
 tions of several societies, Dr. Babington published "A Systematic 
 An-angement of Minerals, Founded on their Chemical, Physical, 
 and External Characters;" a "New System of Mineralogy ;" and 
 "A Course of Chemical Lectiu'cs." — J. F. W. 
 
 BABO, Joseph Maria von, a German dramatic writer, was 
 bom at Ehrenbreitstein, 14th January, 1756, and died at Municii, 
 5th Febraaiy, 1822. He was for about forty years intcndant 
 of the Munich theatre, which, under his management, rose to a 
 high dcgi-ee of eminence. He will be longest remembered l)y 
 his chivalric drama, " Otto von Wittclsbach" (1782), the best 
 imitation of Goethe's Goetz von Berlichingen, that has ever 
 appeared, and which is still frequently represented at the inferior 
 Gemian theatres. His di-amatic works were published at Berlin, 
 1793 and 1804.— K. E. 
 
 BABO, L., Baron de, an agricultural writer, president of 
 the agi-icultural society of Heidelberg, was bom at JIanheim in 
 1790. He first studied jurisprudence, and subsequently devoted 
 his attention to agricultm-e. He has published works on the cul- 
 ture of the vine, on the husbandry of meadows, and on agriculture 
 in general. — J. H. B. 
 
 BABON, BuKORAVE, of Ratisbon, died in 1030. He iiad 
 thirty-two sons and eight daughters, who were all pcn-tioned by 
 the Emperor Heniy II. JLany of the noble houses of Geiinany 
 trace their descent from the family of Babon. 
 
 BABOU, Jean, Baron de Sagonne, lord of Bourdaisi^re, 
 died 11th October, 1569. About 1529 he held the post of 
 grand-master of the artillery, and was aftenvards governor and 
 bailiff of Gien. He commanded the artilleiy at the battle of 
 St. Denis, 10th November, 15G7, and ser\-ed at the battle of 
 Jarnac, 13th March, 1569. In the month of May following he 
 was raised to the dignity of counsellor of state. — G. M.
 
 UABRIUS, BABEIAS, (Ba^j/sj, B«;3§i«j), the author of a 
 
 ileotion of ^sopian fables, in choliambic verse, is supposed to 
 ,i..ve lived some time before the Augustan era. He is men- 
 tioned by A^■ianus and quoted by Suidas, but no notices of his 
 history have reached us. His fables, since the time of T}^^vhitt, 
 have been edited by various persons, and of late years a large 
 addition has been made to theu- number by the discovery of a 
 >IS. belonging to the convent of St. Lam-a, on Jlount Athos. 
 The recent edition of M. Boissonade, Paris, 184-t, contains all 
 that is knowTi of the works of this author, and is valuable also 
 for the critical commentary and the Latin translation with 
 which it is accompanied. — J. S., G. 
 
 BABUER or BABURE, Theodokus, a Dutch painter of 
 interiors and perspective ; lived at Antwerp at the beginning of 
 *' ^ eighteenth centuiy. He was a pupil and an imitator of 
 
 ;er Reefs. His masterpiece is at Rome in the chm'ch of St. 
 r in Montorio. — R. ]\I. 
 
 .lABYLAS, Saixt, bishop of Antioch, suffered martyrdom in 
 reign of the Emperor Decius, a.d. 251. 
 
 ilACCA, Peter, a Hungarian theologian, author of "De- 
 
 -ir, simplicitatis ecclesite Christi adversus decisionem quffis- 
 um aliquot theologicarum, ejusque vindicise adversus Irenaji 
 :ilicii Philadelphi epistolam," 1653. 
 
 I'.ACCALAR-YSANNA, Vixcentius, Marquis de S. Phil- 
 
 '. a Spanish historian, born In Sardinia of a Spanish family, 
 
 - ennobled by Philip V. for his services to the cause of royalty 
 duiing a revolt of the Sardinians. He wrote a history of the 
 Jews in Spain, and memoirs of the times of Philip V. 
 
 BACCARINI, GiACOMO, an Italian painter of the seven- 
 teenth century, native of Reggio, by Modena, was pupil of 0. 
 Talami, whose imitation of the Caraccis' manner he faithfully 
 followed; died in 1G82. 
 
 BACCHANELLI or BACCANELCIUS, Jean, an Italian 
 -ician, bom at Reggio in the sixteenth centmy. He dis- 
 
 ■ 'd liis writings after the manner of Jisop, which were full of 
 iiR- and spirit. He wrote two works which were printed to- 
 gether — " De consensu medicorum in curandis morbis libri qua- 
 tuor ;" " De consensu medicorum in cognoscendis simplicibus 
 liber," 1554. We find in these works all that is most useful in 
 the practice of Greek and Arabian physicians. — E. L. 
 
 BACCHEREST, a Dutch admiral, who lived in the second 
 half of the eighteenth centur}'. He commanded a squadron of 
 the fleet sent to the relief of the English admiral. Sir Charles 
 Hardy, who had been blockaded in the Tagus by Rochambeau. 
 
 B.iCCHIDES, a general of Demetrius Soter, and governor of 
 Mesopotamia, lived in the second half of the second centuiy b.c. 
 He invaded Judea, for the purpose of reinstating Alcimeus in 
 the priesthood; and Judas Maccabeus having attacked him 
 with inferior forces, perished in the contest. Bacchides, however, 
 was forced by Jonathan to quit Judea. — G. M. 
 
 BACCniXI, Benedetto, bom at Florence, 31st August, 
 1651. After having studied theology and sacred history, he 
 entered the order of St. Bemard, in which he became an eminent 
 preacher. He was considered a good Greek and Hebrew scholar, 
 and having reached the highest dignities in the order, he visited 
 the principal cities of Italy, sought by all the literaiy men of that 
 epoch, and particularly esteemed and honoured by Francis, the 
 second duke of Modena. He is the author of many philosophical 
 and polemic works, and has left a gi-eat number of manuscripts. 
 He died at Bologna, 1st September, 1721. — A. C. JI. 
 
 BACCHYLIDES, a Greek lyric poet, was a native of Julis, a 
 town on the island of Ceos. He was a cousin of the still more 
 famous lyric poet Simonides, with whom he remained for some time 
 at the ajurt of Iliero in Sicily. He travelled also in Peloponnesus. 
 He is said to have been a rival of Pindar. He flourished about -170 
 B.C. Only fragments of his various poems have come down to 
 us. They are too few to afford us clear insight into the worth of 
 the man. They seem to have been very carefully finished, and 
 abounded in beautiful, well-chosen epithets. He frequently al- 
 ludes to the changeableness of fortune, appears depressed with 
 the ills of this life, and thinks, like many other classic poets, 
 that it is best for man not to be born at all. There is one beauti- 
 ful fragment, descriptive of a time of peace. His fragments have 
 been collected by Neue, and are also given by Schneidewin and 
 Bergh in their collections. — J. D. 
 
 BACCHYLUS (R«z;^!jXAos), bishop of Corinth in the second 
 half of the second century, is refeiTed to by Eusebius and St. 
 Jerome as the author of a treatise, " De I'ascha." 
 
 , BACCI, Ajs;dk£, a celebrated Italian physician, bom at Sant 
 Elpidio, in the district of Ancuna, towards the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. He became physician to Pope Sixtus V., and 
 lectured on botany at Rome from 1567 to 1600. — W. S. D. 
 
 BACCIARELLI, Marceluno, an Italian historical and 
 portrait painter, bom at Rome, 1731 ; died at Warsaw in 1818. 
 He was pupU of Benefiale, whose abhon-ence of the existing 
 mannerism he equally shared. He was called, when still very 
 young, to the com-t of August III., elector of Saxony and king 
 of Poland, at Dresden. In that jdace he became acquainted 
 with Stanislas PoniatowsH, whom he followed to Warsaw on his 
 succession to that throne. His proficiency in art and high cha- 
 racter deservedly obtained for him letters patent of nobility from 
 the Polish parliament, and the degi-ee of Senior for Fine Arts 
 from the university of Warsaw, besides the appointment of 
 dii-ector of the works and palaces of the Polish crown. He was 
 elected a member of almost all the academies of the time. His 
 numerous works bear a slight resemblance in colom-ing to those 
 of Boucher and Vanloo, but are far superior to them in con-ect- 
 ness of costume and design. His series of Polish kings, and the 
 six large pictures illustrative of Polish history, in the palace of 
 Warsaw, are considered his master-pieces. — R. il. 
 
 BACCIO, Della Porta, or Fra Bartolom.^ieo di San 
 Marco, called also simply il Frate (the Friai-), one of the 
 greatest painters of the Cinquecente in Italy, was bom at 
 Savignano, near Prato in Tuscany, in 1469. Having shown a 
 remarkable disposition for the arts of design, he was introduced 
 by Benedetto di Majano to Cosimo Roselli (a Florentine painter 
 of considerable merit), under whom he began his studies, and 
 veiy soon made gi'eat progi-ess. It was in Roselli's studio that 
 he met Mariotto Albertinelli, who became and remained, through- 
 out his life, his most intimate friend and faithful companion. 
 When Baccio left Roselli, he gave himself up entirely to study 
 the works of Leonardo da Vinci, towards whose style he always 
 felt a decided inclination. It is said that the smTiame of Della 
 Porta was given to him during this period on account of his 
 living at that time near the gate (porta) San Piero, in Florence. 
 Impressed with deep-rooted religious sentunents, Baccio soon 
 distinguished himself in the treatment of sacred subjects, and 
 found ample scope for the exercise of his talents in tliis branch, 
 working for the Dominican monks of San Marco. Amongst the 
 works that he then executed, assisted by, or to say better, in com- 
 pany of Mariotto, is the fresco of "The Last Judgment," hi which 
 he displayed all the characteristics of his early style, — purity of 
 design, tenderness of expression, and softness of colouring. About 
 this tune he became acquainted with Savonarola, a friar of the 
 convent for which he was employed. The animated sermons by 
 which that refomier and patriot strove to stop the con-uption of 
 the rich classes, the intrigues and usurpations of the Medicis, 
 the venality and abuses of the court of Rome, made the deepest 
 impression upon the already enthusiastic mind of our painter, 
 who nearly abandoned his art to follow the steps of the insi)ired 
 monk ; but the voice of tnith was soon to be silenced. The 
 populace that gathered with bewildered admiration round the 
 denouncing preacher, was so far tampered with by the Medicis, 
 that, at once tuiTiing round against him, they attacked the con- 
 vent, massacred his partisans, and burned upon a pile as a 
 heretic Savonarola himself, whom, but few a days before, they 
 worshipped almost as a saint. Baccio miraculously escaped 
 from sharing a similar fate ; but, either disgusted with the world, 
 or in compliance with a vow he had made in the moment of 
 danger, resolved upon entering the monastic life, and became a 
 Dominican friar in the convent of that order at Prato. To his 
 friend JIariotto was left the completing of those of his works 
 that were still unfinished. During four years from that time 
 Baccio, now Frii Bartolommco, gave himself up entirely to the 
 practict.'S of his new calling, and never touched a picture until, 
 at the end of that period, he was ordered to do so by his supe- 
 rior. Whilst obeying this command and deeply engaged in new 
 works, in which his old skill and his wonted softness and har- 
 mony of colour shone unimpaired, a stranger c;illed at the 
 cloister inquiring for the Frate (as he used then to be styled by 
 the artists). This visitor was no less than the divine Raphael 
 Sanzio, who, although only twenty-fonr years old, had already 
 acquired an immortal fame ; and between these two noble sjiunts 
 so differently circumstanced in the world, yet so kindred in their 
 inward artistical aspirations, there sprung up, to last for their 
 lives, the most intimate, the most sympathetic friendship, — the
 
 marriage of the beautiful and tlie holy, I would almost call it, 
 from which so many and such gi-eat wonders of art were to be 
 brought into light. Dm'ing tlie placid hours of their long and 
 intimate interviews, the Frate revealed all the recondite mys- 
 teries of his incomparable colouring to his new friend, who, iu 
 return, initiated the pious man into all the intricacies of per- 
 spective. But more important results were being prepared dur- 
 ing these interviews than the two artists themselves were then 
 aware of. From that time dates the second period of Barto- 
 lommeo's style ; a spark of the greater genius had Idndled a 
 stronger light of expression for his future works. Energy had 
 joined and united with devotion ; and, on the other side, the 
 dehcate blending of colours that Raphael introduced after this 
 time, and the greater breadth and freedom in the cast of 
 (h-aperies which he adopted, are entirely due to the influence 
 and example of the good monk, who was an miparalleled master 
 in both, especially iu the treatment of drapeiy ; he having made 
 it the subject of particular studies, with the aid of lay-tigures 
 invented and introduced into use by him. It was perhaps on 
 account of the remembrance of the happy hours passed together, 
 and the friendship that had then ensued between Raphael and 
 himself, as well as out of love for art, or out of religious senti- 
 ments, that Fri Bartolommeo, eight years afterwards, when 
 bereft by death of his old friend, the faitliful Blariotto, felt an 
 in-esistible desire to visit Rome. The humble and submissive 
 monk communicated this ardent wish to his superior, who, luckily 
 for art, was pleased to consent. Thus the next year, 1513, saw 
 the Frate in Rome. There, in the presence of the sublime works 
 on which the great Michel Angelo and the divine Raphael were 
 engaged for Pope Leo X., the poor monk was quite taken by 
 surprise. But this surprise, although for a while it depressed 
 his spirit, did not sow any invidious feeling in the honest heart 
 of Bartolommeo. On the contrary, his affection for his friend 
 gi-ew with his admiration, and during all the tune he remained 
 in Rome he constantly frequented Raphael's studio ; and when, 
 either recalled by his superior, or obliged to leave on account of 
 the Roman air not agi'eeing with him, on his starting for Flo- 
 rence he intrusted two of his unfinished pictm'es to Raphael to 
 complete ; and Raphael, notwithstanding his numerous occupa- 
 tions, completed them with as much care, if not more, as if they 
 had been his own works. No wonder that art should reach such 
 a climax, when her ministers were so great, so noble, so affec- 
 tionate to each other ! Once more in his cloister, and recovered 
 from the momentaiy awe which so natm-ally had come over the 
 modest and inexperienced monk whilst in the vortex of Rome, 
 Fra Bartolommeo, reassuming his brash, executed several pic- 
 tures which proved the master-pieces of his life ; amongst them, 
 it suffices to quote, the " Saint JIark" (now in the gallery of 
 Florence), and the " Madonna della Misericordia" at Lucca. 
 Every successive work was now showing, if it were possible, 
 traces of still further progress, when, in 1617, death sto])ped his 
 career, he being only forty-eight years old. Few of his works are 
 to be seen out of Italy, and these are — one at Vienna, two small 
 ones at Paris, and another at Berlin — all of them in the public 
 galleries. In England, the Grosvenor collection only possesses 
 a work by this great master. Fra Bartolommeo is justly styled 
 by Mrs. Jameson, in her excellent memoirs of the early Italian 
 masters, the last of the elder painters of the first Italian school ; 
 and that lady aptly quotes some words of Sir David Wilkie 
 which I must repeat : — " Here," he says, " a monk, in the re- 
 tirement of the cloister, shut out from the taunts and criticism 
 of the world, seems to have anticipated, in his early time, all 
 that this art could amve at in its most advanced maturity ; and 
 this he has been able to do without the usual blandishments of 
 the more recent periods, and with all the higher qualities peculiar 
 to the age in which he lived." — R. M. 
 
 BACCIOCHI. See lUroNAp.viiTE. 
 
 BACCIOCHI-ADORNO, Hcutcnant-colonel in the army of 
 Cond^, bom in Corsica, entered the French sen'ice in 1761. His 
 attachment to the cause of the Bourbons throughout the times 
 of the Revolution, was rewarded after the second Restoration by 
 the dignity of " inspectem' aux re\-ues," and the cross of the 
 legion of honour. — J. S., G. 
 
 BACCIOCHI, Fklix Pasc.\i>, husband of the eldest sister 
 of Napoleon, was born in Corsica in 17G2, and died at Bologna 
 28th April, 1841. His family was of noble blood, but poor. 
 He entered the ai-my at an early age, and in 1797, while only a 
 captain of infanti7, he married Maria Eliza Buonaparte — Napo- 
 
 leon being at that time general-in-chief of the army in Italy. 
 The young general was by no means pleased with the marriafe 
 but nevertheless pennitted his new relative to share the fortunes 
 of the family, and Bacciochi became successively colonel, pre- 
 sident of the electoral council of the Ardennes, senator (1804), 
 general, and gi-and cross of the legion of honour. He obtaineil 
 finally the principality of Piombino and Lucca, and was crowned 
 with his wife on the 10th July, 1805 — the coronation being the 
 prelude to a separation. Bacciochi remained the general, and 
 Eliza Buonaparte, as sister of the emperor, assumed the state of 
 the princess. He afterwards rethed to Germany, and in 1831 
 was allotted a revenue of 100,000 crowns, with the title of a 
 prince of the Roman empire. — P. E. D. 
 
 BACCIUS or BACCIO, Andrea, an Italian physician of 
 the second half of the sixteenth century, was a native of Milan. 
 Professor of botany in one of the colleges at Rome, and physician 
 to Pope Sixtus-Quintus, he squandered his fortune, and was 
 obliged to seek refuge from his creditors in the house of Ascanius 
 Colonna. His principal work is entitled, " De naturali vinorum 
 historia, de vinis Italiaj et de conviviis antiquorum, deque Rheni, 
 Gallia;, Hispaniai, et de totius Em'opa; \'inis," 1576. — J. S., G. 
 
 BACCUS, Heinricii, a German printer of the first half of 
 the seventeenth centm-y, author of an account of the kingdom of 
 Naples, printed in the Thesaurus Antiq. et Hist. Italia;. 
 
 IjACCUSI, Ippolito, a musician, was bom at Verona, some 
 say so early as 1550, but there is better reason to beheve, later 
 in the same centuiy. He was maestro di capella in the cathedral 
 of Verona in 1590; and all his known works were pubhshed 
 subsequently to this date. These consist entirely of ecclesiastical 
 music, among which his arrangements of Psalms are avowedly 
 formed upon the model of the famous Flemings, his predecessors. 
 He was the first to write instrumental accompaniments to church 
 music. He is said to have been a monk. A list of Ms works is 
 given in Fetis' Biographic. — G. A. M. 
 
 BACELLAR, Antonio Barbosa, a Portuguese historian 
 and poet, bom at Lisbon in 1610, was educated at ajesuit semi- 
 nary for the profession of law, and became a magistrate of Porto. 
 His verses are without particular merit, but an account of Brazil, 
 which he published in 1654, had gi'cat success, and was trans- 
 lated into Italian. Died in 1663. — J. S., G. 
 
 BACH. The family of musicians remarkable above all others 
 for the number and ability of its members who, for two centuries, 
 successively distinguished themselves throughout Lutheran Ger- 
 many. Their origin is traced to Veit Bach, a miller and baker of 
 Presburg, who left his native country in consequence of the reli- 
 gious troubles that prevailed there in the latter part of the uLx- 
 teenth century, and settled at Wechmai-, a village of Saxegotha, 
 where he pursued his calling, and became noted for singing to 
 his accompaniment on the guitar. He had two sons, both reputed IJ 
 for their musical talent, the elder of whom, Hans, a carpet H 
 weaver, died in 1625, leaving three sons, who were all sent by n 
 the count of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt to Italy, to develope the |.j 
 gi'eat disposition for music which they evinced. In the next i 
 generation Johann Cluistoph and Johann Bernhard at Eisenach, 
 and Johann Michael at Gehren, were distinguished organists .nnd 
 composers. Johann Emst, the son of Bombard, born at Eise- 
 nach in 1722, at which place he was afterwards kapell-meister, 
 took a prominent rank beside his cousins, the distinguished sons 
 of the colossal Sebastian. His music has great merit. The 
 descendants of the e;u-lier branches of the family, who followed 
 music as a profession with less consideration, were so nimierous, 
 that towards the end of the seventeenth century there was 
 scarcely a town in Thuringia, Saxony, or Franconia, that had 
 not one of them as organist, or cantor, or official head of all 
 musical arrangements. These were as much united by brotherly 
 as by artistic feeling, and they held an annual meeting at Eise- 
 nach, Erfurt, or Arnstadt, for interchange of greetings and 
 comparison of progress. So many as a hundred and fifty of 
 these relatives have assembled on such occasions, when their 
 chief amusement always consisted of mutual musical perform- 
 ances. The compositions of all of them were kept together in a 
 constantly-gro\ving collection, that was called the Archives of 
 the Bachs ; which valuable and interesting family memorial was 
 in the possession of C. P. E. Bach at Hamburg, when he died in 
 1788, and then passed into the hands of M. Poelchau, a famous 
 collector of music at BerUn. The sons of Emmanuel were the 
 first of the Bachs that deserted the pursuit of their ancestors. 
 The latest of the name publicly engaged in music— but of whose
 
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 321 
 
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 connection witli tliis fiimily there is no certainty — was Johann 
 David of Stargard in Pomerania, who printed a book of chants 
 in 1831.— G. A. M. 
 
 Bach, Johaxx Sebastian, the great musician, not only 
 the most distinguished of his remarkable family, but one of the 
 most illustrious men in the history of the art, was bom at 
 Eisenach on the 21st of March, 1685, and died at Leipzig on 
 the 30th of July, 1750. His father, Johann Ambrosins, was 
 one of twin brothers, who were so much alike in person and 
 voice that their wives could only know one from the other by 
 their dress; their temper, their constitution, their talent, and 
 their music were alike ; when one was sick the other was UI, 
 and their death took place very nearly at the same time. This 
 occurred when Sebastian was but ten years old, whose elder bro- 
 ther, Johann Christoph, took him under his protection, and taught 
 him the principles of the art for which his ftvmily was famous, 
 and in which himself was destined to become pre-eminently 
 distinguished. It is not to be supposed, however, that in the 
 household of his father, a musician, he had not made the early 
 familiarity with music, without which even his marvellous organi- 
 zation could not have been developed. His own ardent love of 
 his pursuit, and his brother's want of sympathy with this, are 
 eqn^y proved by an anecdote of his desire to study some of the 
 compositions of the most profoimd writers of the day, and his 
 being forbidden the use of a volume which contained them. He 
 procured the book, however, by stealth, and copied the valued 
 pieces, which, as he was obliged to do in secret, he could only 
 write on moonlight nights, and thus spent sis months upon the 
 fisk. He had scarcely finished his labour, when his brother 
 -covered the transcript and took it from him, and he did not 
 j.iin it until shortly afterwards the death of Ghristoph left the 
 y again without a protector. In this destitute condition he 
 ■vent with a schoolfellow to Luneburg, and obtained there an 
 ,'agement as treble singer in the choir of St. ilichael's school, 
 lich he kept till his voice broke. With enthusiasm that no 
 iiculties could check, he walked several times to Hamburg to 
 ar the performances of Eeinken the famous organist, and also 
 ' ZeU to witness those of the prince's band, losing no opportu- 
 nity that coxdd afford him gratification from or improvement in 
 his beloved art. '\Mien he was eighteen, he was engaged to play 
 "' ? violin in the band of the duke of Weimar, and it was pro- 
 ■ly then that he became acquainted with the concertos of 
 . aldi, to which he always attributed his ideas of the principles 
 Miusical construction that he subsequently developed to such 
 npleteness as makes his works a model of form for all time, 
 -jiecially devoted to the organ as an instrument, and anxious 
 ■ the field in which to exercise liis wonderful powers of inven- 
 umu, he gladly quitted the duke's service in the following year, 
 to accept the office of organist at Amstadt, in which, for the 
 first time, he had an opportimity to prove his remarkable ability. 
 ' nile in this situation he made several art-pilgiimages, for the 
 •id of hearing any player from whose experiences he might 
 derive any improvement. In particular, he once walked to 
 Lubeck, where the celebrated Buxtehude was organist of St. 
 Mary's church, with whose playing and composition he was so 
 delighted that he prolonged his stay for three months. In 1707 
 he was appointed organist of the church of St. Blasius at Miihl- 
 haosen, in which place we may suppose he manied his relative, 
 the daughter of Johann Jlichael Bach of Gehren, by whom he 
 had seven children. The year following he returned to Weimar, 
 no more in the subordinate capacity of an orchestra player, but in 
 the important character of organist. His reputation as an execu- 
 tant, as a composer, and as an extemporist, began now to spread 
 itself all overGennany, and his miremitting study gave ever further 
 justification to the high esteem in which he was held. In 1717 
 Prince Leopold of Anhalt Kothen, a great lover of music, observ- 
 ing and appreciating the rare talent of Bach, offered him the 
 office of master of his chapel and director of his concerts, which, 
 as giving him still greater opportunity than he had yet enjoyed, he 
 gladly accepted. On the death of Zachan, the master of Handel, 
 Bach was innted to succeed him as organist at Halle, and went 
 there to prove his fitness for the appointment ; but, for some 
 unknown reason, the post was given to Kirchhoff, a pupU of the 
 former organist. About this time Marchand, a French player, 
 was exciting great admiration m the court of Dresden ; and it 
 was proposed that Bach should make a trial of skill with him, 
 to prove the superiority of French or German art. Accordingly 
 Bach went to Dresden, and having heard his rival, and so satis- 
 VOL. r. 
 
 fied himself that he was worthy to compete ■n-ith him, sent him 
 a most courteous challenge, which Marchand accepted. On the 
 appointed day Bach appeared before the elector and his retinue; 
 but Marchand, after he had been long waited for, was ascer- 
 tained to have suddenly quitted the city, and thus left the field 
 to his opponent, who made such a performance as satisfied all pre- 
 sent of his incomparable ability. In 1722 he revisited Hamburg, 
 for the purpose of again hearing the veteran Keinken, then nearly 
 a hundred years old. It was not as a mere listener that he now 
 met the master; he was on this occasion to prove himself a noble 
 successor to the old man's reputation, which he did by extem- 
 porizing at great length, and with such effect as only his won- 
 derful genius could produce, on one of the Lutheran chorals, or 
 h)-mn tunes, when Reinken exclaimed, " I thought this art would 
 die with me ; but here I find it has a more able representative." 
 In this year Bach's first publication appeared; for, although 
 from a very early period he had vnih ceaseless assiduity studied 
 and practised composition, and thus developed the style entirely 
 his own, it was not until his thirty-eighth year that one of his 
 works was printed. This may have been because of the less 
 frequency of publication at that time than at present ; because 
 he never wrote anything for popularity, and so there could not 
 have been a general demand for his music ; and because it was 
 his habit so carefully to perfecrionize what he \\Tote by correc- 
 tion and recorrection, that he must have been reluctant to let a 
 work pass through the press, as this would be an obstacle to 
 further improvement. Even this first publication, the first part 
 of " Das Wohltemperirte Clavier," known in England as the 
 " Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues" (the latter half of which was 
 written some yeare later,) which was reprinted three times dur- 
 ing his life, underwent very important modifications in each 
 successive edition. With reference to this work it is appropriate 
 to state, that Bach liked especially to play upon the clavichord, 
 " a portable keyed instrument of small power, which, unlike the 
 harpsichord, yielded more or less tone according to the force used 
 by the player ; " and that, disregarding the custom which had 
 prevaDed untU his day, of writing in a few keys only, and tuning 
 keyed instruments so as to render these nearly perfect at the ex- 
 pense of the rest, he used to tune this with equal temperament, 
 a task he never would trust to another, and which he accom- 
 plished with singular rapidity. It is also to be remarked, that he 
 was the first who used the thumb and the fourth finger in fingering 
 on the pianoforte key-board ; and his preludes and fugues in each 
 of the twelve major and twelve minor keys, exemplify as well 
 his method of tuning as his system of fingering. In 1723, the 
 most important event in his career, his appointment to the organ 
 of St. Thomas' school in Leipzig, obhged him to resign his 
 engagement with Prince Leopold, who, however, remained his 
 warm friend till he died, when Bach wrote a funeral cantata for 
 his obsequies. In his new situation, the master, now generally 
 acknowledged as such, had a larger field of action than he had 
 yet enjoyed. His playing became more and more famous, and he 
 had constant opportunity for the production of important works. 
 His income was soon increased by his additional appoint- 
 ment as composer to the duke of Weissenfels; he had many 
 pupils for composition and for plapng; he was frequently 
 engaged to judge new organs, and to elect organists, and he now 
 published numerous works. Many as were these sources of 
 income, the expenses of his numerous family, and his hospitality 
 to the artists from all countries who visited him, necessitated 
 frugality in his household ; but though he might, had he travelled 
 as a player, have gained riches and honours wherever he went, 
 since there was no one who could equal him as an executant, he 
 preferred the simple life with its simple means, which enabled 
 him to labour uninterruptedly in his art, and to win the personal 
 regard of all who had occasion to meet him. His playing on 
 his favourite clavichord was remarkable for the beauty of his 
 touch, and the depth of his expression ; his playing on the organ 
 was widely distinguished from this, as were his compositions for 
 the one from those for the other, by the breadth and grandeur 
 characteristic of this comprehensive instrument ; and he had a 
 peculiar felicity in the choice and combination of the stops, 
 which gave an entirely unique effect to his performance. He 
 now wTote the greater p.art of his enormous number of church 
 compositions, including most of his motets and chiu-ch cantatas, 
 and his ser%-ices for evcrj' Sunday and festival day for five years, 
 for the use of his choir. Though he never wTOte what we now 
 would esteem as light music, he was not without relish for the 
 
 2S
 
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 322 
 
 BAG 
 
 compositions of others of a less severe character than his own, 
 and, accordingly, used to make frequent pleasure-trips to Dres- 
 den, with his eldest son, for the sake of hearing the operas of 
 Basse, then constantly given there. He had lost his first wife, 
 and married a second, by whom he had thirteen children, making 
 a family of twenty in all, eleven sons and nine daughters. In 
 173G he received the further appointment of kapell-meister to 
 the court of Dresden, under Augustus III., king of Poland, and 
 elector of Saxony, who had, like his father, abjured the Lutheran 
 faith, in favom- of that of the chmxh of Rome, and this office 
 gave Bach occasion to write his Masses and other pieces for the 
 Boman semce. He had now attained the summit of his great- 
 ness ; his siniple and homely nature found its chief pleasure in 
 bis family circle, in witnessing the successes of his elder sons, 
 whom he had taught to emulate himself, and in trainmg his 
 younger childi-en to follow m their com'se. He had some quan-els 
 with the master of his school, which were not, however, of a 
 nature to disturb his comfort ; at least, they did not internipt his 
 artistic pursuits. He was unaffectedly pious, without any of the 
 polemical scruples that induced his ancestor to leave Hungaiy, 
 since he wrote indifferently for the Lutheran church and for 
 that of Rome, although a ze;ilous member of the former. He never 
 sought applause, and his self-satisfaction being the goal of his 
 endeavoiu-, he disregarded the honour that everywhere awaited 
 him, and thus he Hved, composing, and playing, and teaching ; 
 advancing his art in all. He always had a great wish to know 
 Handel, the only one of his contemporaries whom posterity ranks 
 with him ; and in 1719, while residing at Kijthen, on hearing 
 that the famous Saxon was visiting his native town of Halle, he 
 went there in hopes to meet him, but found that he had departed 
 on that very day. Wiile Bach was at Leipzig, Handel again 
 visited Halle, when Bach, being prevented by illness from leav- 
 ing home, sent his eldest son to invite him to come there, but 
 equally in vain. Frederick the Great, famous for his love of 
 music as renowned for his battles, often inquired of Bach's second 
 son, Emmanuel (who had an engagement in his court), after his 
 father, in consequence of which Bach was persuaded in 1747 to 
 visit Potsdam, where the Prussian monarch was staying. The 
 king was surrounded by his musicians, the usual evening concert 
 was about to commence, and Frederick, with his flute in his 
 hand, was ready to play the solo which was to be the first piece, 
 when, according to custom, an officer presented to him the list 
 of the arrivals in the town, on which he saw the name of the 
 master. " Gentlemen," cried the king, "old Bach is come," and 
 so broke up the meeting; the presence of the great musician 
 engrossing all his attention. A messenger summoned Bach to 
 the palace, without allowing him time to change his travelling 
 dress, and the king received him with the most eager welcome. 
 In the palace were several pianofortes, then a newly-mvented 
 instrument, made by SUbermann, and Bach must play upon 
 them all ; the king was delighted with his guest, and wrote him 
 a subject for a fugue on which the master extempoiized to the 
 amazement of the many musicians and courtiers who gathered 
 to hear him. Bach afterwards wrote a veiy elaborate work upon 
 this theme, which he dedicated to his royal admirer. The fol- 
 lowing day he went to Berlin to try the principal organs in that 
 city, and to see the opera-house and concert-room, where he 
 astonished those who accompanied him by the deep acoustical 
 knowledge he displayed in his remarks on these buildings. He 
 relumed to Leipzig to quit it no more. His sight had been 
 injiu"ed at a very early age, probably by the moonlight transcrip- 
 tion of his brother's forbidden volume ; and it now failed him so 
 gi'catly that he was persuaded to let an English oculist operate 
 upon him ; the experiment was unsuccessful, and a second 
 attempt reduced the sufferer to total blindness. It is supposed 
 that this course of treatment, and the violent medicines that 
 accompanied it, induced the illness which prostrated him for six 
 months, and ended with his death. Ten days before this took 
 7)lace, his sight suddenly retiu-ned, but after a few hours he 
 became delirious ; then he had an apoplectic fit ; and then he 
 breathed his last. 
 
 He was, perhaps, the m.ost severely conscientious artist that 
 ever devoted himself to music ; he deemed that to compromise 
 his art would be to compromise himself, and that to lend him- 
 self to anything which did not, to the utmost of his power, tend 
 to exalt it, was in the last degree unworthy of him and of 
 music. He was the greatest contrapuntist that has been, and is 
 especially remarkable for the strict integiity of his part-writing, 
 
 the complexity of which, we must own, often prevents the broad 
 and massive effect that greatly distinguishes the music of Handel 
 from his ; his very extensive employment of passing notes induces 
 many harshnesses which will not bear analysis ; and his principle 
 of making each part in his score an independent melody, is often 
 carried out at the cost of the euphony, and the clearness of the 
 whole. These pecuharities were the result of his never-ending 
 study ; his wonderful power of expression evinced in his free 
 movements, in his great choral works, particularly in his famous 
 " Passions-Musik," is the manifestation of his transcendent gcnias. 
 As he despised popular applause, so his music is little open to 
 popular appreciation, and it is, and always will be, much more 
 interesting and much more satisfactory to those who participate 
 in its performance, than to any passive listener ; his music is 
 beyond that of any other composer, difficult of comprehension, 
 but its measureless beauties will ever repay the pains of the 
 student who unravels them. His principles of playing are detailed 
 in his son, C. P. Emmanuel's " Versuch iiber die wahre Art das 
 Clavier zu spielen," and his system of composition in his pupil 
 Kirnberger's " Kunst des reinen Satzes." A Ust of all his known 
 works is given in Dr. Forkell's Life, and in M. F^tis's Blographie. 
 A monimient to Bach was erected at Leipzig in 1841, at the 
 instigation of Mendelssohn, who contributed largely towards its 
 expenses, and gave some public perfonnanccs of the master's 
 music, to further the fund. The Bach Society in London was 
 founded in 1849, by Dr. W. Stemdale Bennett for the study of 
 the master's works. A complete edition of his instrumental com- 
 positions is now in course of pubhcation by Peters of Leipzig, of 
 which at present eight volumes for the organ, and twenty-three 
 for the pianoforte, have appeared ; and one of his still more 
 numerous vocal works is being issued by the Bach Gesellschaft, 
 which was instituted at the centenary of his death, to produce 
 this publication by annual subscription. Both of these series 
 contain works that have never before been printed. — G. A. M. 
 
 Bach, Wilhelm Friedebiakn, a musician, the eldest son 
 of the gi'cat Sebastian, was born at Weimar in 1710, and died 
 at Berlin in 1784. His father taught him the organ and the 
 clavichord, and the principles of composition, and thought ver\- 
 highly of his abihty ; he learnt the violin of the elder Graun. 
 His father's appointment at Leipzig, when he was thirteen years 
 old, gave him the opportunity to study jurisprudence and ma- 
 thematics in that university, in which he attained considerable 
 proficiency ; he was for many years his father's constant asso- 
 ciate, accompanying him wherever he went. In 1733 he was 
 appointed organist of St. Sojihia's church in Dresden, but held 
 the office only a short time, and then returned to Leipzig. Li 
 1747 he was engaged as organist at St. Mary's chvuxh in Halle, 
 and in consequence of his long residence of twenty years in that 
 city, he is often called Bach of Halle. His brother, C. P. Em- 
 manuel, used to speak of him as the only artist worthy to succeed 
 their illustrious father ; and other contemporaries describe bun as 
 the greatest player, the greatest master of fugue, and the greatest 
 extemporist of his day. His strangely uncouth temper, how- 
 ever, his moroseness, his constant fits of abstraction, and his 
 addiction to drinking, rendered him a disagreeable acquaintnnce, 
 and incapacitated him for his duties : thus, he had no friends, 
 and even his talent faOed to render him popular. \Mien he left 
 Halle, probably because his eccentricities could no longer be 
 tolerated, he went successively to Leipzig, Brunswick, and Giit- 
 tingen, and finally settled at Berlin, where he died in extreme 
 povei-ty. He was too idle to WTite, and, therefore, he has left 
 but few proofs of liis power : a list of these, including music for 
 the festival of Advent and for that of AVhitsuntidc, and some ela- 
 borate organ fugues, is given in M. Fetis's Biugi'aphie. — G. A. M. 
 
 Bach, Carl, Piiilipp Emmanuel, a musician, the second 
 son of the immortal Sebastian, was born at 'Weimar on the 14th 
 of March, 1714; died at Hamburg on the 14th September, 1788. 
 His father's settlement at Leipzig when he was nine years old, 
 gave him opportunity for the study of jurisprudence in that imi- 
 versity, which he afterwards continued at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 
 He learned music from his father, and attained such eminence as 
 a player, that Clementi professed to have derived from him that 
 beautiful manner of singing upon the pianoforte, for which him- 
 self was especially famous, and which may be regarded as the 
 distinguishing merit of all the disciples of his style ; and such dis- 
 tinction as a composer, that Haydn ascribed to him the prmciples 
 of construction upon which he based his own greatness; and 
 that Mozart used to speak of his productions as the standard at
 
 wliich he aimed in his own. This high esteem in which he was 
 held, however, is mainly to be attributed to the little knowledge 
 (that then existed of his father's placing and compositions ; and 
 Ithe illustrious authorities quoted above, extolled in his reflection 
 Iwhat they knew not in the great original. The qualities most 
 Ivaluable to the art, which the habitual privacy of the father's 
 life concealed from the world, the son, whose courtly manners, 
 personal amiability, and general intelligence rendered him the 
 universal favourite of society, made public, and thus the ;u-t and 
 the world have the advantage of them. The highest eulogium 
 that can be passed upon his playing is to say, that it was an 
 imitation of his father's ; the general character of his music is 
 immeasurably below that of the same great model : it has the 
 merit of expression, but presents little other token of genius, 
 while its technical coiTectness has all the appearance of laborious 
 " -iduction. At Frankfort he established an academy of music, 
 which he wrote many compositions. He left this town in 
 7 38 to settle in Berlin, where, two years later, he was ap- 
 pointed chamber musician to Frederick the Great ; his chief duty 
 being to accompany the king's flute performances upon the 
 inoforte. From his long residence in the Prassian capital he 
 ■tten called Bach of Berlin, as, from his subsequent settlement 
 twenty-one years at Hamburg, he is also sometimes called 
 h of Hamburg. He went to tliis latter place to succeed 
 j^mann as kapell-meister in 1767, when, so great a favourite 
 \' as he at court, that he had the utmost difficulty to leave BerUn ; 
 >,.ij when he protested against his detention that he was not a 
 I'nissian subject, his wife, whom he had maixied there, and his 
 cliilJren who had been bom there, were for some time refused 
 •' ^ pei-missiou without which they could not quit their native 
 ;itiy. AMien, at last, he departed, the Princess Anna Amalia 
 ■ him the honorary title of her kapell-meister. The recollec- 
 1 of these diiBculties made him for ever afterwards refuse to 
 .: the free city of Hamburg for any of the appointments which 
 •re offered him at diflerent German courts. He was the con- 
 >-rvator of the famous "Archives" of the Bachs, which passed 
 • iiis death into the hands of JI. Pcelchau of Berhn. His two 
 ? — one an advocate, and the other a painter, who died at 
 lie — were the first members of the Bach family that were not 
 ii.u.-icians. His most important works .are the oratorio of "Die 
 I-raeliten in Der Wiiste," and a setting of Klopstock's " Mor- 
 L'>n::esang am Schopfungsfeste ; " besides which, and several 
 '■iIii-T vocal compositions, he wrote very extensively for his in- 
 • iiment. A list of his pubhshed and unpubhshed music is to 
 •''und in M. Fetis's Biof/rapJiie and Dr. Schilling's Lexicon. 
 ~ life, as narrated by himself, is given in Burney's Musical Tour. 
 r.-VCH, JoHAjfN Christoph Fkiedrich, a musician, the 
 '.h son of the famous Sebastian, was born at Leipzig in 1732, 
 
 ■ died at Buckeburg in 1795. He studied jurisprudence in 
 university of his native city, being designed for the profes- 
 ; of an advocate; but his talent for music, which could not 
 
 ■ be developed in his father's household, soon became conspi- 
 iis, and the count of Schaumbm-g appreciating this, and 
 '•rtaining a strong personal regard for him, engaged him as 
 
 kapell-meister, and he hved at Biickebiu-g in fulfilment of 
 . office: whence he is often distinguished by the addition of 
 the name of this town to his own. From the time of his ap- 
 . intment till his death, he had the custom, which nothing 
 I'lced him to break, of devoting certain hours in eveiy morning 
 composition. He never quitted Biickebvu'g save for a few 
 months, when he visited his brother Christian in London. His 
 numerous compositions are remarkable rather for their purity than 
 vigour. A list of these is given in JL Fetis's Bingrajiliie. His 
 son WiLHELM, bom at Buckeburg in 1754, and his gi-andson Au- 
 gust WiLHELM (son of the last named), bom at Berlin in 1786, 
 were both reputed composers of instmmental music. — G. A. JL 
 Bach, Johann Christian, a musician, the eleventh and 
 youngest son of the pre-eminent Sebastian, was boiTi at Leip- 
 zig in 1735, and died in London in January, 1782. As his 
 father died when he was but fifteen years old, he had less of 
 the incalculable advantage of this great man's instruction, than 
 either of his brothers : he completed his musical studies under 
 his distinguished brother, C. P. Emmanuel, whose position at 
 the court of Berlin enabled him to give the young oi-phan not 
 only a home, but an introduction to the best society. Christian's 
 talent soon attracted attention, his excellent harpsichord-playing 
 was admired, and his compositions were successful. The gal- 
 lantry, not to say sensuality of his disposition, made him ever 
 
 passionately devoted to the society of women, and this brought 
 him into connection with the Italian singers of the Berlin opera, 
 by whose persuasion, when he was nmeteen, he went to J^lilan. 
 He had been but a year in the Lombard capital, when, by the 
 interest of the empress, he was appointed organist of the Duomo. 
 Here he wrote several operas, in wliich the severe school of his 
 education gave way to the fighter Neapolitan style, and he won 
 general favour. From his residence in this city, he is sometimes 
 called Bach of Slilan, but he is better known as Bach of London, 
 from his longer settlement there. In 1762 (not in 1759, as 
 stated by 51. F^tis and Dr. Schilling), Signora JIatei, directress 
 of the Italian opera m London, engaged him to come to England, 
 and, save for an occasional trip, he never quitted this country. 
 His opera, " Orione ossia Diana vendicata," was produced in 
 February, 1763, with decided success; in this work the ricliness 
 of the instiaimentation exceeded an}-thing that had been heard, 
 and in it the clarionet was employed for the first time in England. 
 Bach at once became a general favourite. He was engaged by 
 the queen as chamber musician, organist, and composer. He 
 wrote constantly for the opera ; he gave concerts in conjunction 
 with Abel, the player on the viol da gamba ; and he produced 
 countless instrumental works, all of which were extremely popu- 
 lai-. His playing had fallen into neglect whOe he was in Italy, 
 and now, though he pm-posed to resume his practice, he never 
 regained his execution. Probably from this reason, he never 
 wi'ote any difficulties for his instnunent, and, as his music was 
 as easy to understand as it was to play, it was as much admired 
 by all the ladies as he was himself. His brother Emmanuel 
 often reproved him, by letter, as a renegade from the classical 
 style of his father; and when those around him admonished him 
 of the difference between his music and that of his accomplished 
 and conscientious mentor, he used to reply — " Emmanuel fives 
 to compose, but I compose to live." It was his love of pleasure 
 and his gaiety of character that induced the prevalent lightness 
 of his music, rather than his want of ability to vk-rite in a more 
 earnest style, as is proved by some motets he wi-ote for Germany, 
 some JIasses he ^vrote for Rome and Naples, and even some 
 pieces he wrote for the English church, all of which severe critics 
 warmly praise. In 1767, CeciHa Grassi was engaged in London 
 as prima donna at the opera, and she had not been long in this 
 country when Bach manied her. Though this may have re- 
 fonned him of his gallantries, it did not cure him of another 
 unfortunate propensity ; for his habit of diinking became so 
 strong that he now rarely -nTote save imder spirituous excite- 
 ment. Such a course of life could not endm-e, and thus he died 
 at a much earfier age than his brothers, leaving debts to the 
 amount of four- thousand pounds, a biilfiant popularity which 
 did not long sm-vive him, and a widow, who received from the 
 queen fifty pounds to cany her to her native country, and a 
 pension of eighty pounds a year as a tribute to his memory. 
 M. F^tis gives a list of the greater part of his works. — G. A. M. 
 * BACH, Alexander, Bai-on, Austrian minister, bom 4th 
 January, 1813, at Loosdorf in Austria Proper, is the son of a 
 solicitor. He studied law, and took his degree at the Vienna uni- 
 versity. Ha\'ing obtained a subordinate place under the crown- 
 solicitor, he travelled in Europe and in the East, and at the 
 death of his father succeeded him in his law business, getting 
 soon an extensive practice. Young, successful, and ambitious, 
 he entered on a political career under unusual circumstances. 
 Prince Mettemich's long administration, with its obstractive 
 policy, which viewed with distrast even the development of 
 literature and the constraction of raih-oads, had in the course of 
 time created a general feeling of opposition among the educated 
 classes of Vienna, which found its centre in the .luridisch-poli- 
 tisclie Verein, a club founded by Dr. Bach and his friends, who 
 used there socially to assemble, and to discuss the questions of 
 the day from the legal point of view, and succeeded by their 
 strict adherence to the letter of the law in preventing its dissolu- 
 tion by the police. The sudden outburst of the Paris revolution 
 in FebruaiT, 1818, had taken Prince Mcttemich by surprise, 
 and as his prestige broke down, by the fact that he was unable 
 to prevent or to suppress (JIarch 13th) a noisy street demon- 
 stration in favour of constitutional government and the freedom 
 of the press, he was dismissed from his high post by the im- 
 perial family, and found it safe to seek an asylum in England. 
 The system of govennnent was altered by this event, which was 
 countenanced by Bach's club, but the members of the ad- 
 ministration remained the same as before. Prince Mettemich's
 
 underlings, however, unaccustomed to work on their own respon- 
 sibility, proved utterly unfit for the task of reorganizing the 
 Austrian government. They failed to allay the fears of the 
 aristocracy, to command the respect of the middle classes, and 
 to grapple with the increasing financial difficulties. When in 
 May they published the new constitution — in fact a bungling 
 transcript of the Belgian fundamental law — a street demonstra- 
 tion^ beaded by the students of the university, but favoured by 
 the national guard, turned them out of office, and extorted the 
 recognition of the principle of manhood-suffi-age and the promise 
 of a speedy convocation of a constituent assembly. They were 
 replaced by some members of the above-mentioned club. Dr. 
 Bach, who in the meantime had become common-councilman 
 and member of the provincial deputation, was appointed minister 
 of justice. He at once began to develope his political creed, op- 
 posed on one side to the idea of Geraian unity, by which most of 
 ins more ambitious friends had been dazzl(\4; on the other, to 
 the historical rights of Hungary, and to the aspirations of Italy, 
 Bohemia, and Austrian Poland. His aim was a centralized, 
 constitutional, democratic Austrian empire, disregarding the his- 
 toiy, rights, and claims of the difterent provinces, and the widely- 
 spread schemes of German unity. His colleagues, however, 
 were too weak either to carry or to repudiate a scheme which 
 was ine\'itably leading to war with Hungary, and even in case 
 of success, to the predominance of the army, and to the rule of 
 the sword. The administration of Baron Pillersdorf was there- 
 fore signalized by continuous vacillation, by street emeutes at 
 Vienna, and by bloodshed at Prague and Lemberg. The cabinet 
 yielded to the mob in the capital, but refused to close the 
 Italian war by negotiation, and to come to good understanding 
 with Hungary. They supported the Servian insurrection, and 
 Ban Jellachich in his private war against Hungaiy, against the 
 wishes of the Austrian constituent assembly ; but they controlled 
 it often successfully by the silent votes of Galician peasants, 
 though none of the miniisters was an eloquent man, and with 
 the exception of Dr. Bach, not even a debater. Thus they lost 
 the support of the people, and especially of the inhabitants of 
 Vienna, who yearned for peace with Italy, and did not ^vish to 
 jeopardize the veiy existence of the empu-e by a Hungarian war. 
 Therefore, when the ministry ordered imperial regiments to the 
 support of Ban Jellachich, defeated by the Hungarians on the 
 29th of September, a portion of the garrison of Vienna mu- 
 tinied on the 6th of October, and, together with the population 
 of the capital, expelled the troops, stomied the arsenal, killed 
 the minister Count Latour, and sought the life of Dr. Bach, 
 who had to flee. The court retired to Olmiitz, where a new 
 cabinet was formed under the premiership of Prince Schwar- 
 zenberg. Dr. Bach remaining minister of justice. Under this 
 administration, Vienna was beleaguered and stoimcd, Italy sub- 
 dued, and Hungary, refusing to merge into an ideal Austria, 
 and clinging to its institutions, was invaded by all the avail- 
 able forces of the empire. After the complete defeat and expul- 
 sion of the imperial army. Prince Schwarzenberg sought the 
 intervention of Russia, supported in his \'iews by Dr. Bach, 
 whilst Count Stadion opposed them, and became a lunatic when 
 they were earned against his wishes. Dr. Bach succeeded him at 
 the home office in March, 1849, and remained after the death of 
 Prince Schwarzenberg, the leading member of the cabinet. He 
 drew up the constitution of the empu-e at the end of the Hun- 
 garian war, but had now to learn that a country won by the 
 sword, cannot be ruled but by the sword : his schemes remained 
 on paper, and his constitution was still-born. During the Russian 
 war he supported Count Buol against the militaiy party in his 
 leanings towards the Allies, and his "astounding ingratitude" (in 
 the words of Prince Schwarzenberg) towards Russia. By this 
 coiu-se he earned the enmity of the Austrian aristocracy, always 
 unfriendly towards the man who had risen from the middle 
 classes to one of the highest posts of the realm. This hatred, 
 liowever, was soon allayed by Dr. Bach's successful endeavours 
 to have the Austrian concordat signed, which surrendered the 
 rights of the crown about the church exclusively to the papal 
 see. His services were lately rewarded by the title of baron. 
 He is a bachelor. — F. P., L. 
 
 BACH, Victor, a physician, bom about the year 1770 at 
 Villefranche (Aveyron) ; died at Paris in the year 1799. He 
 practised his profession in Paris during the period of the Revo- 
 lution, the principles of which he strongly espoused. He took 
 an active part in the struggles of the convention, and was nomi- 
 
 nated elector of the department of the Seine. His opinions were 
 strongly democratic. He was tried for an expression of these 
 opinions in a pamphlet in the seventh year of the Revolution. 
 After the fall of Larevellier-L^paux and his colleagues, he ad- 
 dressed the club of Mandge on the dangers of the country, and pro- 
 posed, in order to secure its safety, a constitution similar to the 
 system of Babeuf. Bach had often predicted that the Republic 
 would be destroyed by a soldier, and subsequent events justified 
 his predictions. Faithful to his principles, and not willing to 
 live under a military despotism, he shot himself at the foot of the 
 statue of Liberty on the " Place de la Concorde," the same spot 
 where Louis XVI. was guillotined. — E. L. 
 
 BACHARTIER-BEAUPUY, Michel Akmaud, a French 
 general of division, bom at St. Medard, Dordogne, 14th July, 
 1755, killed at the battle of Rcutlingen, 19th October, 1796. In 
 1773 he was sub-heutenant in the regiment of Bassigny, and was 
 raised to the rank of general of division in 1795, havmg, in the 
 mterval, passed through all the intermediate gi-ades. 
 
 BACHAUMONT, Francois le Coigneux de, a French 
 litterateur, born in 1624, was "conseiller-clerc" to the parliament 
 of Paris. He was one of the most successful epigrammatists of 
 an age in which epigrams were at then- highest value, and served 
 equally the purposes of statesmen and of wits. Bachaumont 
 found ample scope for his pleasantry in the character and mea- 
 sures of Cardinal Mazarm, and in the burlesque war of the 
 "Fronde" to which one of his bon mots gave rise, showed himself 
 a persevering, as well as a fomiidable enemy of the minister. 
 He wrote in conjunction with Chapelle, " Voyage en Provence." 
 Died in 1702.— J. S., G. 
 
 BACHAUMONT, Louis, a French litterateur, bom towards 
 the end of the seventeenth century, is the author of a curious 
 literary and historical miscellany, published after his death, with 
 the title " Memoires Secrets." The work is in great part a re- 
 cord of the gossip and scandal cuiTcnt among the hbertinc 
 churchmen, marquises, players, men of letters, and intriguing 
 com'tiers, whose society he frequented. Died in 1771. 
 
 * BACHE, Alexander Dallas, LL.D., the able and most 
 efficient superintendent of the gigantic sun'ey of the American 
 coasts, so creditably undertaken, and so admirably carried out 
 by the government of the United States. Dr. Bache was 
 selected for the highly responsible office, which he has now 
 occupied for many years, on account of the reputation he had 
 acquired through other unportant services. Nominated in early 
 life professor in the Ghard college, he visited Europe in search of 
 the freshest thoughts and the newest arranggments connected 
 with practical education ; and the result of his tour was one 
 of the best and most thoughtful surveys of the actual condition 
 of things, in regard to this great subject, that has yet appeared. 
 Fortunately he was soon transferred from the Girard college 
 to the service of the State. The former — through whatever cause 
 — has not turned out a success. We suspect that, like many 
 such institutions in our own country, its riches outran its ob- 
 jects. Charitable institutions are not needed on a great scale in 
 the United States, and therefore do not thrive there. The Gii'ard 
 college is apt to remmd the visitor of those enormously overgrown 
 and comparatively useless "hospitals" in Edinburgh. Dr. Baclie 
 escaped from the sinecure, and entered on a sphere of activity 
 that could not be occupied unless by a man of large acquu'emcnt, 
 and who, at the same time, was eminently a man of work and 
 sagacity. The department of the Coast Survey is, in reality, 
 liis own creation. It is not slightly to the credit of the Houses 
 of Congress, and of the government at Washington, that they so 
 heartily inaugurated, and have so liberally sustained so gi'eat and so 
 necessary an enterprise; but we feel assmed that they appor- 
 tion to the intelligence and conscientious industiy of Dr. Baclie a 
 due share of its success. The survey department of Washington 
 is now a large national institution. It has already given forth 
 most accurate maps, not only of the contom's of the coasts, 
 but of the soundings of every harbour and channel as yet 
 utilized ; and we have little hesitation in saying, that when it is 
 completed, it will take its place as a model survey, that should be 
 imitated — according to its means — by every maritime nation now 
 existing, or which circumstances may henceforward endow with 
 power. It might repay the trouble, if our own h'gislators would 
 compare what has been done for some of our own comparatively 
 limited coasts, with tlie results established by this American 
 survey. But Dr. Bache did not confine himself to his primal 
 and simple duty — that of fixing contours and recording sound-
 
 in^s. His reports are becoming a repertory of all the phenomena 
 of currents and titles on the coasts of both oceans. Like the 
 wLse man who, while husbandhig his strength, evokes from it 
 all it can accomplish, he has arranged that hid stafl" take note of 
 magnetic and metereological phenomena. His last report on 
 magnetism has just reached this countiy. We cannot within 
 our narrow limits go into detail ; but in fullest sincerity, and 
 not without a certain portion of the adequate knowledge, we 
 congratulate the United States that they possess an officer Uke 
 Pr. Bache, and express, at the same tune, our assurance that 
 the support so liberally given by that government, will have its 
 reward in the recognition, by all nations, of the value of the con- 
 tributions thus obtahied to the " physics of the globe." — J. P. N. 
 BACHE, Benjamin Fk.vnklin, an American printer and 
 journalist, grandson of Dr. Franklin. He was apprenticed to an 
 eminent printer in Paris, and on his return to America began 
 the publication of the General Advertise): Died in 1799. 
 
 BACHE, WiLLLVM, an Americ;m physician, author of some 
 papers on subjects of natm-al history, died in 1797. He was a 
 grandson of Dr. Franklin. 
 
 BACHELET-DA:\IVILLE, Louis Alexandre, a French 
 genera] of brigade, born at St. Aubm, in the Lower Seme, 1st Nov- 
 ember, 1771 ; killed at the attack of the village of Gossa in 
 Saxony, 16th October, 1813. He entered as a soldier in the 
 '-rst battahon of the Lower Seine, in March, 1792, and was en- 
 _i;d in the campaigns from 1793 to 1799, when he became 
 .. '-de-camp of General Vandermaessen. He aftei-wards served 
 the Spanish campaigns, and on the 30th May, 1813, was 
 inoted to the rank of general of brigade. His name is in- 
 : ibed on the bronze tablets at the palace of Versailles. — G. M. 
 BACHELIER, Jean Jacques, a French landscape painter, 
 n at Paris in 172-1 ; died in 1805. He consecrated the whole 
 liis long life to the benefit of his art, especially in its apphca- 
 a to porcelain and encaustic painting. He founded in 1766 a 
 ■ school for artisans, and remained for forty years at the direc- 
 !i of the Sevres manufacture, where he substituted artistical 
 u' signs for the Chhiese patterns in use when he entered it. He 
 injoyed the friendship of the count of Caylus, whom he assisted 
 in his artistical researches and experiments. — R. M. 
 
 BACHELIER, Jexs Marguerite, a French notary, and 
 
 in 1793 member of the revolutionary committee of Nantes; 
 
 I in that city, 10th August, 1843. He was condemned to 
 
 .th as an accomplice of Carrier, but was pardoned shortly after. 
 
 UACHELOT, Jean Alexis Augustin, a French theologian, 
 
 ni in 1790. He was sent by the pope, with the title of "prefet 
 
 ,"jstolique," to the Sandwich islands iu 1826, but was met by 
 
 the opposition of the Enghsh missionaries, and obliged to with- 
 
 tbaw from the islands. Died in 1838. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BACHELOT DE LA PYLAIE, A. J. M., a distmguished 
 French naturalist and antiquary, bom at Fougeres in the de- 
 partment of nie-et-Vilaine in 1786, has published, besides a 
 manual of conchology and some other treatises, an interesting 
 work on the Flora of Newfoundland, entitled " Flore de TeiTe 
 Neuve et des iles Saint Pierre et Miquelon," Pai-is, 1829. JL 
 Bachelot de la Pylaie generously presented to the museum of 
 Paris, some years ago, the most curious of the plants he had col- 
 lected in his numerous travels. — J. S., G. 
 
 BACHELU, Gilbert-Desire-Joseph, Baron, a French 
 general, born at Dole (Jm-a), 9th Febraary, 1777; died at Paris 
 in June, 1849. He served under Napoleon at Quatre Bras and 
 Waterloo. After the disbanding of the army of the Loire, he 
 was arrested and sent into exile, but was recalled in 1817. In 
 1831 he became member of the council-general of Jura ; in 1837 
 he was chosen deputy by the electoral college of Dole ; and in 
 1838 by Chalons-siu--Saone.— G. M. 
 
 BACHET, Gaspahd, bora m 1593, died in 1G38 ; one of 
 the earliest members of the French Academy of Sciences, and an 
 excellent and original analyst. We owe to him an edition of 
 Diophantus and a commentaiy on his works. Bachet, among the 
 first of the moderns, cultivated tins curious and rather difficult 
 branch of analysis ; — he effected the general and complete 
 resolution of indeterminate equations of the first degree, wliat- 
 ever the nmnber of the indetcrmuiate quantities and of the 
 equations. He gave this solution in a work published at Lyons 
 in 1612, entitled " Pleasant and delectable Problems depending 
 on the Properties of Numbers." This work is the precursor of 
 the " JIathcmatical Recreations." — J. P. N. 
 
 BACHEVILLE, the brothers Bartii^lemy and Antoine, 
 
 French officers and travellers, both born at Trevoux; and died, 
 the younger at Mascate, in June, 1820; the elder at Paris, in 
 1835. They both entered the army, and assisted at all the 
 battles in which the French arms were distinguished from 1804 
 until 1814. On the abdication of Napoleon, the elder brother, 
 Barthelemy, followed him to Elba, and afterwards both brothers 
 fought at Fleunis and at Waterloo. After that brief and disas- 
 trous campaign they retired into domestic privacy ; but ha\-ing 
 been accused of a pohtical conspu'acy, they contrived to escape 
 from France, where a price had been set upon their heads, and 
 sought refuge in Switzerland. They afterwards travelled through 
 Bavaria, S;vsony, and Silesia, and arriving at Varsovie, were 
 kindly received by the Countess Dembinska, with whom they 
 resided several months. They next proceeded to Moldavia, where 
 they separated. Antoine remained at Jassy, and Bai'thelemy 
 departed for Bucharest, wliich he soon after left for Constanti- 
 nople. Learning that the French ambassador there was nego- 
 tiating for his extradition, he embarked for Sm)-rna, whence he 
 passed to Athens. Reduced to indigence, and almost to despair, 
 be one day received a visit from the agent of the celebrated Ali 
 Pacha, who took bim mto his service. He now depai-ted with a 
 caravan for Janina, but after some days' journey they were 
 assailed in the gorges of Jlount Olympus by a band of brigands, 
 by whom the countiy was infested. Bai-thulemy took the com- 
 mand of the caravan, attacked and defeated the banditti, and 
 compelled them to seek their safety Ln ffight. The success 
 of this encounter gained him the confidence of AJi Pacha, who, 
 however, subsequently treated him with great inlnmianity. 
 
 In the meantime, Antoine, becoming extremely impatient 
 once more to see his brother, set out for Constantinople, after- 
 wards travelled into Egypt and Persia, and finally reached ilas- 
 cate, where the fiitigues of bis journey, and his grief on account 
 of his separation from his brother, brought on the disease of 
 which he died. At length Barthelemy, disgusted with the atro- 
 cities of Ali Pacha, secretly quitted his sen-ice, and returned to 
 France ; and, having purged himself of his contumacy, he was 
 acquitted. — G. M. 
 
 BACHIARIUS, an ecclesiastic of the fifth century, said by 
 Miraeus, following Bale, to have been an Irishman, and a dis- 
 ciple of St. Patrick ; but this statement has been impugned as 
 wanting authority. It would seem to be cle:ir that, whatever 
 was his native land, he left it, either on accomit of the heresies 
 or troubles which disturbed it. He was the author of a treatise, 
 " De Fide," and other works, as Gennadius mentions. There 
 is extant also an epistle of considerable length ;vritten by him to 
 Januarius, " De Recipiendis Lapsis," which is to be foimd in the 
 BibUotheca Patrum. Besides these, Florius, who has edited the 
 ^viitmgs of Bachiarius, attributes two other treatises to his author- 
 ship. From the writings of Bachiarius, it is not easy to form an 
 exact judgment of his erudition and abilities, but they indicate 
 considerable knowledge of the theological learning of the tunes, 
 and display an amiable temper and christian spirit. — J. F. W. 
 
 BACHILANI, an Arabian philosopher and theologian, who 
 was sent by the caHph from Bagdad to Constantinople about the 
 commencement of the tenth century, to confer with the Greek 
 theologians on certain points of doctrine. 
 
 * BACHMANN, Gottlob Ludwig Ernst, professor ordi- 
 nary and head-master of the gymnasium at Rostock, was born at 
 Leipzig, 1st Januaiy, 1792. He studied at Leipzig and Jena, 
 and soon after became teacher at several schools. In 1824 he 
 resigned his post, and diu'ing three years occupied himself in 
 searcliing the gi'cat libraries of Vienna, Rome, Naples, and Paris, 
 for Greek manuscripts. As the fruits of these researches, he 
 published " Die ^gyptisclicn Papyrus dcr Vaticanischen Biblio- 
 thek" (The Egyptian Papyri of the Vatican Librar)-), 1828; 
 " Anecdota Gra-ca e Codieibus BibUotheca! Rcgiaj Parisiensis," 
 two vols. ; the " Alexandra" of Lycoplu-on ; " Schoha in Homcri 
 Ihadein," and other philological works. — K. E. 
 
 BACHMANN, James Joseph Anthony Leger, Baron de, 
 major-general in the Swiss guard of Louis X\'^I., was bom in 
 Switzerland in 1733. He headed the Swiss gu:u-d in defence of 
 the king on the 9th August, 1792, and was next d.iy consigned 
 to the Abbaye. He pleaded in vain the right of a foreigner be- 
 fore the revolutionary tribunal, but was condemned and executed. 
 
 BACHSTROM, Johann Friedrich, a Gemian theologian 
 and physician, bom in Silesia towards the end of the seventeenth 
 century, died about the middle of the eighteenth. In the course 
 of his unsettled life he became professor of theology at Halle,
 
 BAG 
 
 326 
 
 BAG 
 
 almoner of a regiment at Warsaw, fellow of the Royal Society of 
 London, and, finally, chief of a printing establishment at Con- 
 stantinople. He wrote " Nova ^Estus Mai-ini Theoria." — J. S., G. 
 
 BACICCIO. See Gauli, Gian Battista. 
 
 BACILLUS, a Roman pra>tor, lived in the second half of the 
 first century before the Christian era. In a fit of despair, in 
 consequence of the refusal of Caisar to place him at the head of 
 a province, he committed suicide. It is possible that this may be 
 the same person as BabuUius, whose death, according to Cicero, 
 took place at the same date. 
 
 * BACK, Sir Geoiige, a naral officer in the British sers-ice, 
 and highly distinguished as an arctic explorer and navigator, is a 
 native of Stockport in Cheshire, where he was born in 179G. 
 Entering the na\7 as midshipman in 1808, he scn'cd dming that 
 and the following year on the French and Spanish coasts, assist- 
 ing in several of the warlike operations carried on during the 
 contest then in progi-ess between France and Britain. At the 
 destruction of the guns and signal-posts of Baignio, he was made 
 l)risouer and sent to France, where he remained until 1814. 
 Upon regaining his liberty, 5Ir. Back was employed for a time 
 on the Dutch coast, and afterwards on the Halifax station. In 
 the beginning of 1818, we find him entering on that course of 
 adventm-e in the arctic regions which fonns the most distinguish- 
 ing feature in his career, and which subsequently led to his 
 receivuig in 1839 the honour of knighthood. The first of Sir 
 George Back's experiences in arctic discovery was acquired in 
 1818, when he served as admiralty-mate under Lieutenant 
 (aftenvai-ds Su- John) Franklin, appointed to the command of 
 the Trent, one of the two vessels which constituted the expe- 
 dition of Captain Buchan, undertaken at the instance of the 
 British government in that year. The Dorothea and Trent left 
 England in the spring of 1818, and were compelled to rctiun, 
 after encoimtering many perils, in the autumn of the same year. 
 This voyage is more particularly referred to elsewhere. (See 
 Buchan.) In the following year, we again find Mr. Back asso- 
 ciated with Franklin, whom he accompanied in each of the perilous 
 land jomTiies made by that officer through the northerly regions 
 of the American continent — the first between the years 1819-22, 
 and the second in 1825-27. The nan-ative of the former of these 
 expeditions (see Fra^'klin) constitutes one of the most exciting 
 tales of peiils encountered, and hardships endured, that the re- 
 cords of discovery present. During a gieat portion of two succes- 
 sive years, the whole party were for months together in immi- 
 nent danger of starvation ; their ultimate safety being in a gi'eat 
 measure due to Jlr. Back's almost unexampled powers of endur- 
 ance. His journey of more than eleven hundred miles, performed 
 on foot, in snow shoes, and dming the depth of winter, between 
 Fort Enterprise (the winter quarters of the party) and Fort 
 Chipawyan — often without food for several days in succession — is 
 a memorable instance of heroic devotion to the cause in which 
 he and his companions were engaged. In Franklin's second 
 land journey. Lieutenant Back (his promotion to that rank 
 having taken j)lace in 1821) again shared the fortunes of his 
 friend, passing two successive winters at Fort Franklin, upon 
 the shore of the Great Bear Lake. During the period of this 
 expedition, his promotion as commander took place, 1825. Back 
 returned to England in 1827, and an interval of between five and 
 six years occurred before his next ajipearance upon the scene of 
 arctic adventure. In 183.'} he undertook the command of an 
 expedition fitted out for the purpose of obtaining information 
 respecting Captain John Ross and his companions, who had then 
 ijcen absent from England, in the prosecution of discovery in the 
 polar seas, for a period of nearly four years. (See Ross.) The 
 coui-se which it was detciTnined that the searching-party should 
 take, consisted in a land journey from the western coast of Hud- 
 son Bay to the banks of the Great Slave Lake ; and thence, in a 
 north-easterly direction, to the nearest shores of the polar sea. 
 Captain Back was accompanied upon this occasion by Dr. Richard 
 King, who filled the post of surgeon and naturalist to the expe- 
 dition. Fort Reliance, near the eastern extremity of Great Slave 
 Lake (lat. 62° 47', long. 109°), was made the head-quarters of 
 the party, and there Back and his companions passed the two suc- 
 cessive winters of 1833-34 and 1834-35. In the interval, during 
 the summer and autunm of 1834, our hero discovered, and traced 
 to its outlet in the polar sea, after a course of between five and 
 six hundred miles tlu-ough a rugged and " iron-ribbed" country, 
 the Thlew-ee-choh, or Great Fish river — since more generally 
 known by the name of its discoverer. The hai'dships endm-ed, 
 
 and difficulties surmounted, in the course of this undertaking, 
 can only be appreciated by a perusal of Captain Back's own narra- 
 tive of his achievement. The sufferings from cold dm-ing the 
 first of the two winters passed at Fort Reliance were extreme — 
 the thennometer falling on one occasion to 70° below zero. 
 " Such, indeed, was the abstraction of heat, that with large logs 
 of dry wood on the fire, I could not get the thennometer higher 
 than 12° below zero. Ink and paint fi-oze. The sextant cases 
 and boxes of seasoned wood, principally fir, all split. The skin 
 of the hands became dry, cracked, and opened into unsightly and 
 smarting gashes, which we were obliged to anoint with grease. 
 On one occasion, after washing my face witliin three feet of the 
 fire, my ban- was actually clotted with ice before I had time to 
 dry it." The sensations produced by the intensity of cold were 
 found to bear curious resemblance to those resulting from exces- 
 sive heat. The hunters compared the sensation of handling their 
 guns to that of touching red-hot iron. The main purpose for 
 which the arctic land expedition of Captain Back had been under- 
 taken, was rendered nugatory by the aiTival from England dur- 
 ing its progress, towards the close of the wmter of 1833-34, of 
 news of the safety of Captain Ross and his companions ; but it 
 was in an eminent degi-ee serviceable to the cause of geogi-aphical 
 discovery. Upon his return to England in the autumn of 1835, 
 Back was promoted to the well-earned rank of post-captain. Bis 
 period of repose from active duty was a brief one. In the fol- 
 lowing spring he was appointed to the command of the Terror, 
 and sailed from the Orkneys upon a new expedition of discovery 
 on the arctic shores, undertaken at the Instance of the Royal 
 Geographical Society. The naiTative of this journey, from the 
 pen of its commander, exhibits renewed instances of the daunt- 
 less fortitude and patient endm'ance by which British enterprise 
 within the polar seas has been so conspicuously distinguished, 
 and foi-ms a thrilling record of perilous adventure. Becoming 
 tightly frozen in the ice, off the shore of Southampton Island, 
 at the northern extremity of Hudson Bay, in September, 
 183G, the Terror was drifted along with the frozen mass 
 in varioiLS directions, and did not get released until July of 
 the following year, when the injuries she had sustained made 
 it absolutely necessaiy to seek a iKnneward passage across the 
 Atlantic, which she miraculously accomplished in safety; putting 
 into Lough Swilly, almost in a sinking state, in September, 1837. 
 With this enterprise, Captain Back's career of active discovery 
 closes. Shortly after his return, he received the medal of the 
 Royal Geographical Society ; and in 1839 had the honour of 
 knighthood confeiTcd upon him. Duiing the interest so gene- 
 rally excited, wthin the subsequent period, by the melancholy 
 fate of his early friend and companion In arctic adventm'e, Frank- 
 lin, the opinion of Sir George Back has natm-ally been looked to 
 with the deference due to practised experience, and to the ma- 
 tured judgment of a highly cultivated intellect. — W. H. 
 
 BACK, Jacques de, a Dutch physician, bom at Rotterdam 
 in the beginning of the seventeenth century. He was the first 
 to adopt and sustain Harvey's doctrine of the circulation of the 
 blood. He publislied a work entitled " Dissertatio de Corde, in 
 qua agitur de nullitate spiritumn, de hajmatosi, de viventium 
 calore," Rotterdam, 1648. The author denies in this work the 
 existence of the nervous fluid, and refers all the operations of 
 the nervous system to the action of vibrations.— E. L. 
 
 BACKER, Adrian van, a historical and portrait painter of 
 Amsterdam, was bom in 1643, and died in 1686. 
 
 BACKEREEL, Giles, of Antwerp, a landscape and figiu^ 
 painter of the Flemish school, born in 1572, died in the early 
 part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 BACKER, Jacou van, also called the Palermo, a histo- 
 rical painter, bom at Antwerp m 1530 ; died in 15G0. He 
 was one of the best colorists of the Dutch school, and excelled 
 in the ordonnance and drapery of his works. He derived his 
 surname from being employed to paint for the Italian picture- 
 dealer PaleiTTio, by whom he was actually worked to death. — R. M. 
 
 BACKER, Jacob van, born at Harimgen in 1608, a Dutch 
 painter of history and portraits of considerable merit. He 
 studied and worked mostly at Amsterdam, where he produced a 
 large number of pictures, especially remarkable for the sldlful 
 treatment of the nude. He was exceedingly quick in his work, 
 and an instance is quoted in which he began and finished, 
 in one morning, a life-sized half-length portrait. Died 1651. 
 
 BACKER, I'etek, a Pmssian sculptor of the seventeenth 
 century, a pupil and assistant to Schlutter ; executed several of
 
 BAG 
 
 327 
 
 BAG 
 
 the statues sui-rounding the one of Friediich Willielm on the 
 ineat bridge at Berlin. — R. M. 
 
 BACKHOUSE, George Gaining, her Britannic Majesty's 
 commissary-judge at the Havanna; bom in 1818; son of John 
 Backhouse, under-secretary for foreign aifairs. He died Aug. 
 30, 1855, being mortally wounded whilst defending himself from 
 a iiang of robbers who had entered his house. 
 
 BAGKHOUSE, John, under-secretary of state for foreign 
 afl'airs, receiver-general of excise, bom at Liverpool, and son of 
 John Backhouse, a merchant of that town. About 1812 he was 
 appointed by the commercial bodies of his native town their 
 agent in London for the protection of the trading privileges of 
 Liverpool. This led to his aquaintance with George Canning, 
 then member for the town, who in a few years appointed Mr. 
 Backhouse his private secretary. Through Mr. Canning's in- 
 terest, he was appointed in 1822 to a cierksliip to the India 
 board, which oflBce he resigned after two years on being made a 
 commissioner of excise. In 1827 he was appointed receiver- 
 general of that department, and about the same time he was 
 advanced to the office of under-secretary for foreign affairs, 
 which appointment he held for sixteen years. He edited 
 the " Narration of Robert Adam's Residence in the Inteiior of 
 Africa," &c., and wrote frequently in some of the periodicals. 
 He died at Chelsea, November 13, 1845.— T. F. 
 
 BACKMEISTER, Haktmann Ludwig Christian, a Ger- 
 man historian, bom in 1736; became principal of the German 
 college at St. Petersburg in 1770. He wTote a history of 
 Sweden, memou-s of Peter I., and other works which contributed 
 greatly to the progress of letters in the Russian empire. 
 
 BACLER D'ALBE, Louis Albert Ghislain, a French 
 painter, engineer, and topographer, who, from a retreat among 
 the Alps, wliich he had chosen for the prosecution of his labours 
 as a painter, was summoned by Napoleon at the commencement 
 of his first Italian campaign, to assume the direction of the 
 bureau topographique ; and who, following the fortmies of the 
 emperor, earned by liis courage under arms, and his ingenious 
 and indefatigable labours in the particular service to which he 
 belonged, a high rank among soldiers, as well as among artists. 
 He was bom at Saint Pol in the department of Pas-de-Calais, in 
 1762, and died at Sevres in 1824. He became adjutant-com- 
 mandant in 1807, and in ]813 general of brigade. His paint- 
 ings, the more ambitious subjects of which were drawn from his 
 campaigns in which he sensed, are remarked for the same beauty 
 of drawing which characterized his exquisite topographical 
 sketches. He published " Annales Pittoresques et Historiqnes 
 de Paysagistes," &c., 1803; "Souvenirs Pittoresques ou Vues 
 Lithographides de la Suisse," &c., 1818 ; " Souvenirs Pittor- 
 esques, contenant la campagne d'Espagne," 1824. — J. S., G. 
 
 BACO DE LA Chapelle, a French magistrate, died in 1801. 
 He was one of the deputies to the Estates General in 1789, but 
 his labours were almost exclusively confined to the committees. 
 The only occasion on which he mounted the tribune was to de- 
 nounce the Abbe Maury, as the author of all the troubles which 
 divided the assembly. In 1792 he defended the city of Nantes, 
 of which he was mayor, from the attacks of the Vendeans. In 
 1796 he was sent by the executive-directory as commissioner of 
 the government to the Isle of France. 
 
 BACON, Anna, wife of Nicolas Bacon, keeper of the seals, 
 and mother of the celebrated philosopher, Francis, was the 
 daughter of Anthony Cook, tutor to Edward VI. She was a 
 woman of remarkable accomplishments, and to her Francis 
 owed the greatest part of his early education. A translation by 
 Anna Bacon of Jewel's Apology for the Chui'ch of England, was 
 published in 1564. 
 
 BACON, Anthony, eldest son of Sir Nicolas Bacon, lord- 
 keeper to Queen Elizabeth, by his first wife, and half-brother to 
 the celebrated Lord Bacon, was bom in 1558, and educated at 
 Cambridge. He was personally acquainted with most of the 
 learned men of that age, and at Geneva he lodged in the house 
 of Theodore Beza. In 1585 he visited Henry of Navarre, then 
 at Berne. Here he became acquainted with Lambertus Uana;us, 
 who dedicated several of his works to him. In 1586 he formed 
 un intimacy with Philip Plessis de Momay at Montaubon. In 
 1591 he returned to England. — T. F. 
 
 BACON, Francis, of Veralam, Viscount St. Albans: one of 
 the grandest names in the annals of England ; one of the greatest 
 men ever produced by any countiy or any age. He lived at a 
 period still resonant with the memories of Spenser, Shakspcare, 
 
 Raleigh, Sidney, and the long roll of the knights, counsellors, 
 and commanders of Ehzabeth ; yet, spacious though these times 
 were, his mtellectual majesty filled them all. Bacon was bom 
 on the 22d January, 1561, at his father's house in the Strand, 
 London — York House, not far from Charing Cross ; he died at 
 the residence of Lord Amndcl on the 9th April, 1627, aged 
 sixty-six years. — The life of this illustrious person, this adorn- 
 ment of the world, closed in night; the postscript of his dedica- 
 tion of the " Instauratio Magna" to our miserable James I. may 
 well draw forth tears still — " Det vestra majestas obolum 
 Belisario." — Bacon's personal history is a very strange one. Son 
 of the keeper of the Great Seal, nephew of Lord Burleigh, and, 
 wlien very young, a favourite vrith Ehzabeth, he might have 
 looked not unnaturally to a career of easy prosperity. A great deal 
 of the mysteiy which hangs over the causes of his want of 
 success will probably be dispelled on the publication of his letters 
 and other documents, now being collected with reverential in- 
 terest by Mr. Spedding. In the mean time we know only the 
 naked fact, that the future Chancellor had literally to fight his 
 way, and that he had no trifling contest. Leaving Cambridge 
 at the age of sixteen — where he took no degi-ee, and which 
 seems to have been in novrise pleasant to him — he went abroad. 
 Recalled from his joumey in France by the news of the death ot 
 his Father, he returned to find liimself ncai'ly penniless — the 
 house at Gorhambury, and most of the fortune of Sir Nicolas 
 Bacon, having gone with the title to the eldest son. Sir Anthony. 
 Bacon had a repugnance to the pursuit of jurispradence for 
 which his father had destined liim ; and he expected that the 
 patronage of Burleigh might save him from a disagreeable 
 necessity. Burleigh, however, had other \'iews. Robert Cecil's 
 fortune had to be made, and Burleigh stumbled upon the fatal, 
 although not unwelcome discovery, that his nephew was a 
 " theorist." The fearless genius of Bacon was indeed ah-eady 
 showing itself. It is said that even when an undergraduate at 
 Trinity, he had begun to dream of a renovation of the Sciences, 
 and their deliverance from the yoke of modem and dried-up Aris- 
 totehanism ; and it is easy to conceive how the officialism, even 
 of the able Cecils, must have been often startled by contact with 
 an imagination so vivacious, and a character so novel, bold, and 
 apparently u-regular. Repelled from hope of political employ- 
 ment, young Bacon entered Gray's Inn, and sun-endered his 
 energies to the study of law. Still, at the chambers. No. 1 
 Gray's Inn, Sidney must have often met the young law student ; 
 Giordano Bnino held converse there, and many other " innova- 
 tors ; " and, there, were traced the first lineaments of that mighty 
 work, which its author, with a confidence that belongs to 
 the greatest minds, afterwards styled " temjwi-is partus maxi- 
 mus." At this early period the foundations of enmities were 
 also laid, which accompanied Bacon and menaced him with dis- 
 aster through his whole life. In some inauspicious hour he met 
 with Coke, a man of no genius, with neither taste nor learning, 
 but withal a technical lawyer of the highest class — hating, above 
 all things, brilliancy of wit, new propositions, and every thing that 
 belonged or could belong to any Instauratio. — Turning a new 
 page in Bacon's life, we find him next, member of the House of 
 Commons, to which he was elected tlirough the influence of his 
 brother. Sir Anthony. Although he had attained to no lucra- 
 tive practice, he had already established so high a reputation for 
 oratory, that Elizabeth herself used to attend his pleadings; 
 and the accounts handed down of his appearances in parUament- 
 ary debate — especially by Raleigh and Ben Jonson — continn 
 our a priori assurance that he must have been an orator of the 
 loftiest class. Bacon rarely indulges in plays of fancy, but his 
 ■\\Titings breathe throughout of an Imaginative power, in the 
 form in which John Milton possessed it, and which is rightly 
 temied the Creative Faculty. Grave and wise, he held his audi- 
 tors in subjection by the fullness of his knowledge, the earnest- 
 ness of his convictions, his solemnity of manner, and the altitude 
 of his diction. Raleigh says that Francis I'acon sui^passcd every 
 one in the art of speaking as much as in the art of writing. No 
 court favour, however, of any substantial kind ! Burleigh con- 
 tinued silent, and the great Queen, altliough personally partial 
 to him, seems to have had as rooted a dislike of " idealogues" as 
 a modern ruler of far less merit, although for the moment of 
 wider renown. Bacon too o]iposod certain subsidies — a crime 
 inexpiable at courts ; and thus the measure was filled of what 
 was temied his disgrace. Half in despondency, half in disdain, 
 he resolved to abac don public life, and to sequester hunself at
 
 BAG 
 
 328 
 
 BAG 
 
 Gambridge or elsewhere, so that those trains of Thought which 
 he meant to bequeath to future ages, might flow freely forth and 
 engu'dle the whole world of Knowledge. And now beg;m his 
 intercourse with the rash, fiery, incontrollable, and most gener- 
 ous Robert Devcreus, Earl of Essex. This misguided but very 
 loveable nobleman, with a grace as well as a munificence that has 
 few parallels in private history, oftered his friend in the existing 
 sore depression of his fortunes, and under the blight of eveiy 
 reasonable hope, the small but competent domain of Twickenham, 
 at v;uious times famous since, but never adorned as by the 
 residence of Bacon. The fine gift of Essex was soon repaid. 
 It was here — in this quiet retreat, that those Essays were com- 
 posed and pubhshed, which rapidly made the name of the future 
 Ghancellor known wherever literature existed. There is a 
 character about these essays, one much likes to remai-k, and 
 wliich ought largely to guide the world in its judgments. The 
 " Idealogue," the " Speculative Theorist," proved Umself the 
 wisest of practical men. How weighty his thoughts are, and 
 how true ! Name not Rochefoucault ! But lay them beside even 
 the keen sprightliness of ilontaigne. He sees into men, be- 
 cause his own large soul had grasped the conditions of all human 
 life : he did not tnist to mere empuicism or experience. The 
 production of this unmortal work, was, we firmly beheve, held 
 by Essex as Ids surpassing reward ; but, besides. Bacon loved him 
 much, and served him truly. Alas, for the evil days that came ! 
 We cannot naiTate here the story of the foUies, and at last the 
 grievous crimes, of the impetuous Devereux. It is kno-mi how 
 they stung Elizabeth, and went far to break her strong he:at. 
 Correspondence of large amount during these mom-nful years 
 passed between Essex and Bacon, and most of it is presen'ed. 
 Bacon was faithful to the last. He warned, entreated, and 
 besought him. He told him with the frankness of highest 
 affection, the tendency and sure end of his mad com-se. He 
 opened to him modes of return and reconcilement ; but Essex had 
 become the slave of temper and passion, and his career ended 
 ■with an insane effort at insurrection in the centre of London. We 
 presume that the sequel was the most tiying incident in Bacon's 
 life; much more so than his own subsequent calamities. Honom's 
 and station had now reached him, and it fell to him in the 
 name of the commonweal to prosecute his early benefactor as a 
 pubUc traitor. There have sm'ely been few such tragedies : 
 Bacon performing sternly a most absolute duty, to do which 
 might have rent his heart-strings ; and the aged Elizabeth, 
 on her death-bed, tliinking less of the immortal glories of her 
 reign, than of the withholding of the J^inc;, which would have 
 rescued the misled but gallant Essex from the block. — Tmn 
 another page. The throne of EUzabeth is now occupied by 
 James I. The condition and prospects of Bacon had changed. 
 He had married Alice Bamham, daughter of a rich London alder- 
 man ; he obtained the honour of knighthood; and, in consequence 
 of the death of his elder brother, he had succeeded to Gorham- 
 bury and the moderate family estate. His intellectual power 
 too had overborne the opposition of Gecil, and raised him quite 
 supreme above the unforgetting and restless malignity of Sir 
 Edward Goke. In proof that pohtical life could not avail to divert 
 him from the grand aim and passion of his existence, we find 
 belonging to that date his " Treatise on the advancement of the 
 Sciences," the " Gogitata et Visa," and the essay (his only un- 
 satisfactory production) " De Sapientia Veteram." \Y[ule these 
 were being written and published, he rose from Sohcitor to 
 Attorney General, and finally to the office — probably long 
 coveted — of Keeper of the Great Seal. The wretched court of 
 James had only two great men within it, — how different, the 
 bare mention of their names will tell — Bacon and Buckingham. 
 The latter an utter profhgate, careless of personal as weU as of 
 the national honour, but of great talent withal, and power to 
 deal with mankind ; the fonner, the only man to whom that dis- 
 mal period of the annals of St. James's, could have owed any 
 enlarged or upward tendency. The times of EUzabeth had 
 passed. RicheUeu reigned in France, and a contemptible 
 pedant in England. Bacon, elevated to the peerage and having 
 became Lord Ghancellor, we may suppose did his best. But 
 during this period the head of Raleigh fell. Warrior, dis- 
 coverer, colonizer, historian, and poet ; worth in nobleness and 
 loyalty and truth, the whole race of the Stuarts ! Would that 
 the documents promised so soon may tell jilainly, and offer ex- 
 culpation regarding Bacon's responsibiUty as to this cowardly 
 and wretched crime! The Ghancellor was at the zenith of 
 
 his fortunes. Buckingham and He conducted the enthe State of 
 England ; the fii'st through his power over the lowest motives 
 effective over mankind, the other through his power to appeal 
 to influences of a different class. — But, follow Bacon to his 
 peaceful study ! How eagerly and fondly he must have sped to 
 that refuge. Ajid now accordingly it was, that he perfected and 
 pubhshed his " Xo\'um Organmn." Few then imderstood that 
 superb production: not a gi-eat many understand it stUl. But 
 the pedant King praised it, and the GhanceUor's fame seemed 
 likely to be as wide as the world. He was named Viscount St. 
 Albans ; power as well as fame was at his feet ; but, — three days 
 after the issue of liis letters-patent a new Parliament assembled. 
 — Page the last. — It cannot be unknown to students of History, 
 that the English people have at once a high pride and a signal 
 patience ; power of endurance to the last, but at the same time 
 a sense of honour, which if not quick or spasmodic, is inherent 
 and enduring as their life. Our annals have illustrated this 
 character times without number ; and should occurrences offer 
 again, they ^vill again show it written down ^^-ith a pen of iron. 
 The arbitraiincss of Elizabeth had left sores, although her glory 
 in so far had condoned them. Her successor added feebleness ; 
 and the court imder James and Buckiugham was both hated and 
 despised. Also, in some strange and yet imexplauied viay, 
 those earnest religious movements which issued in GromweU's 
 Ironsides, had begun to stir the hearts of the people. Under 
 such chcumstances, and therefore in no complacent or perhaps 
 very just or prudent condition of thought or pm-pose, the pai'ha- 
 ment of 1G21 assembled. The maxim of aU gi-and English 
 movements has ever been " Strike high." The Commons began 
 by assaulting monopoUes given to creatures of Buckingham, but 
 as these were readily suiTendered, they struck high — even at the 
 head of the admmistration — the Lord St. Albans. The facts 
 were clear; Bacon had accepted monies from suitors (with what 
 amount of criminahty we shall discover below), — hence his " cor- 
 raption." The Chancellor could not and would not stoop to deny 
 any facts ; the hostile temper of the Commons seemed weU-nigh 
 unmanageable : a victim was needed, and Bacon was offered up 
 — on the score of " conoiption " — -by Buckingham and James! 
 He did not, we have said, deny any facts; but in his appeal to the 
 king and his peers, he proudly denied all guilt, and spmued 
 the idea that the fountain of justice had ever been poUuted 
 by acts or decrees of his. But he fell : and of com-se he had no 
 friend or protector in a court as dastardly as unpiincipled. 
 Bacon's last days were passed in comparative poverty, but not 
 apart from the best of consolations. He sought, indeed, the re- 
 storation of his position, of which he knew he ought not to have 
 been deprived ; but ha^nng done this justice to himself, he occa- 
 pied the hours that remained to him in the completion of his 
 immortal works — especially in the revision and final arrangement 
 of that vast production— the sulject of the aspu-ations of his 
 earliest youth- — the " Instam-atio Magna." He was smTounded at 
 Gorhambiu-y by most attached fi-iends, and probably he was 
 most happy : assuredly his bearing was not that of a man who 
 felt that he had meanness or great guilt upon his souL " I 
 leave my name and my memoiy," says he, " to the judgment of 
 charitable men, to foreign nations, and futm-e ages." A gi-and 
 tnist, that, in the mam, will ever be fiiithfully administered ! We 
 cannot defend every act of Bacon in life ; he would not have 
 entered such a defence himself. How, mdeed, could such a 
 student and such a politician pass through those ages wholly 
 unscathed? Slost probably he knew not, nor cared to know, the 
 fullness of the ^ileness with which he was associated ; but was 
 satisfied to thuik the best, and to do his best. At all events, we 
 know the worst of Viscount St. Albans ; his breast is transpa- 
 rent : — cast a stone at his silent and solemn statue, let him who 
 may! We repeat a few lines in application to him that, for the 
 same object, have been quoted oftencr than once before : — 
 
 " And be it said, he had this excellence, 
 That, undesirous of a false renown, 
 He ever wished to pass for what he was ; 
 One that swerved much and oft, hut being still 
 Deliberately bent upon the right, 
 Had kept it in the main ; cue that much loved 
 Whate'er in man is worthy high respect, 
 And in his soul devoutly did aspire 
 To be. it all, yet felt from time to time 
 The littleness that clings to what is human. 
 And suffered from the sliame of having felt it,'' 
 
 Such a briefest outline of the life of Bacon. There are 
 still, however, two sets of inquiries and considerations we must 
 
 I
 
 BAG 
 
 329 
 
 BAG 
 
 bring before our readers, iilthough most cui'sorily. We have 
 to explain disputed points regarding liis philosophy, and to look 
 somewhat into the grounds of that popular obloquy which stUl 
 overhangs his gi'oat name. 
 
 I. — Bacon, as a reformer in philosophy, evidently laboured 
 under a disadvantage, which belonged also to Des Cartes and 
 many other immortal men. He was not " learned,^'' in the ordi- 
 nary sense of that term — i. e., he had not mastered the ideas of 
 his great predecessors. He missed, therefore, the instruction he 
 might have obtained from a full view of the history of Human 
 effort in quest of Knowledge. He misunderstood Aristotle, taking 
 Mm as then represented at Cambridge. He knew notliing of the 
 power of riato. The syllogism having become the sheerest 
 technicality, and being applied to subjects never intended to be 
 brought under its sway, he spurned it from him without due 
 inquiry as to its merits and its fitting sphere. Neither does he 
 seem to have recognized, that although Aristotle and every pre- 
 vious Inquu-er of note had not possession of any code of inductive 
 investigation, they all practised it, — witness the unrivalled "His- 
 tory of Animals," by the Stagyaite. But, although this ignorance, 
 and the unreasoning contempt that belongs to ignorance, must in 
 so far have impeded him, the creation of an Inductive Philosophy 
 was only so much the more his ovni. For the first time in the 
 annals of science, the conduct of observation and of subsequent 
 generalization, so that the mind may ascend to Laws, was 
 analysed, and examined in every process, great and small. As 
 to the prosecution of the physical sciences, nothing can be added. 
 In the way of aid, to what Bacon wrote. In later years, his 
 " Organon" has received a most pleasing exposition from Sir 
 John Herschel, in bis Introduction to the Study of Natui'al 
 Philosophy ; and a developed, as well as concise completion of 
 it, is given in the Logic of John S. Mill. The remarks that 
 can be made here are, of course, not expository, — they are cri- 
 tical only. It may perhaps, not without justice, be stated, that 
 iKicon has placed too exclusive a weight on what may be termed 
 t lie mechanical laws of discovery. Most true, he has laid down 
 tlie laws — that, in the main, must guide every Inquii-er, and 
 which wll ever assist the acutest. He has warned every one 
 iif the sources of error that envii-on him, and explained the code 
 liy which every physical investigation must be tried. Neverthe- 
 less, no such mechanical education has ever made a Discoverer ; 
 and Bacon may have taken too little cognisance of the action of 
 that inherent Originality, or instinct of Causality, which, althougli 
 capable, like all other instincts, of being largely strengthened 
 and sharpened through use, is still a peculiar power or instinct ; 
 .showing in this, as in all tilings, that the som-ce of truth and 
 energy resides in a mental principle, which, though it obeys 
 sides, dominates them all. On this point, however, which, 
 although momentous, is a very delicate one, we shall not at pre- 
 sent dwell : — two questions regarding Bacon's doctrine and its 
 tendencies, of paramount interest, imperatively demanding notice. 
 In the first place, how stands this grand Instauratio in respect 
 of the fundamental and ultimate question of all Philosophy ? Is 
 it, indeed, the modem groundwork of pure JIaterialism ? It 
 \vere of little sei-vice to refer to the ravings of such writers as the 
 clever Joseph de Maistre ; for it nmst be conceded to bun, that 
 within the entire compass of Bacon's works — neither in any 
 characteristic of his massive and most tolerant mind — can an 
 expression or inclination be found savouring of modern Catholic- 
 ism : but there is a deeper question — How stands Bacon in 
 relation to Hobbes? Is the latter bis legitimate descendant 
 and issue? The entire character of the mind of the illus- 
 trious Chancellor forbids the afiirmation. And let us dispel one 
 grand delusion. There ai-e men who, in their relations to the 
 deeper problems of the universe, hold by nothing save lor/ic. 
 No matter how vital the result, one sot will demonstrate 
 Materialism, and another leads us as ruthlessly to transcen- 
 dental dogmas, tliat defy and crush every moral instinct. Logic 
 . IS perfect as an instramcnt, but ere we permit it to lead us far, 
 I it needs to be ascertained that the whole of the fundamental 
 I conditions are known; and that, of the multitude of Forces which 
 ■■ stream from the primal Unity, and concur in the production of 
 real plienomona, our survey has omitted none. Alas ! we know 
 only a few ! And, therefore, in the course of every long process 
 "I Reasoning regarding the ultimate nature of things, it becomes 
 lis ever to pause, and refer back to those moral intuitions which 
 are the root of all power of speculation in rational Beings. 
 Very gi-eat men have been and are, the slaves of despotic 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 logic; but the greatest men do not permit themselves to be 
 oveiTuled by those decrees. In the large soul of Lord Bacon, 
 knowledge, wisdom, and belief, were of course, even of greater 
 weight than the issues of scientific deduction ; nor was he, nor 
 need any man penetrating like liim so far into the regions of 
 the unknown, be startled by the charge of " inconsequence." 
 The fairest and most popular account of Bacon relating to 
 such ultimate problems has been given recently by Remusat. 
 This accomplished writer asserts with justice, that while what- 
 ever Bacon states is right, he cannot be charged with hanng 
 ventured — in reference even to domains of thought not ex- 
 pressly under his view— to assume anything that is wrong. 
 We must treat every Reformer in relation to the abuses he 
 meant to reform. It is one thing to say that in Life the 
 knowledge of all things begins with and rests on experience, and 
 quite another, that knowledge is formed only of artificial com- 
 binations of facts empirically grouped, and perceived externally. 
 Bacon asserts the former; he does not peril his reputation on 
 propositions having relationship to the latter. Something also 
 must be allowed to the fact, that the problems now in agitation 
 had not appeared in Bacon's time. Nevertheless, in no age could 
 he have been a disciple of Condillac, or a young Hegelian. He 
 knew more than most mortals what is in man. And he felt 
 himself as an atom under the gi-eat schemes and providence of 
 God. — A few words as to another all-important point, viz.. 
 Bacon's position as to Religion. The question raised as to this 
 has been twofold, viz : — regarding the rebgious consequences of 
 his system, and his religious condition as a man. In regard to 
 the former point, we care to give no reply, save that which may 
 be inferred from the remarks just made. If the philosophy and 
 method of Bacon had been proposed by its great author as ab- 
 solute ; if he had understood it in the sense of Hobbes, Locke, 
 or Diderot — (we blush at coupling the latter name with the 
 other two) ; if he had entered on the sphere filled by Des 
 Cartes, and denied intuitions and the primaiy ground of all 
 certainty, we might have held that there is reason for the 
 charge. But this piide of England did nothing so incomplete. 
 Bacon did not pusli his philosophy into domains of thought, 
 where other paramount elements demand acknowledgment. In 
 fiict he did not, as a logician, enter these domains at all. He 
 stood forth as a " Natural Philosopher," and as that solely. 
 He has said over and over, that there is a domain of Faith, — 
 evidently meaning thereby the domam of om- intuitions. To 
 that he refen-ed much of Psychology, most of our higher Jlorals, 
 and all Religion. But assm-edly attacks on the Baconian philo- 
 sophy, on the score of its irreligion, come with the poorest grace 
 from Joseph de Maistre, and multitudes in our own land, who, 
 at the shrine of what they are pleased to call "orthodoxy" — 
 meaning thereby their ovra special systems — are stiU prepared to 
 withstand every canon of rational inquiry, and eveiy canon of 
 historical criticism, — nay, who will even twist and tortiu'e the 
 words of scripture itself in a fashion that would disgrace a 
 school-boy, in order to sustain some ancient, or modem, ami ab- 
 surd idola. — As to Bacon's personal religion, om' words must be 
 few. The region we are touching on is the very sanctuaiy of the 
 soul ; they who dare enter it, must go with unsandallcd feet. 
 What Bacon thought concerning the dogmatism of his age, he 
 has not told us ; probably he stood towards it, as original 
 thinkers do towards dogmatism in every age. That he was as 
 reverent as Socrates is plain ; and one holds simply in dis- 
 gust the assertions, that as to his religious professions, ho must 
 have been a hypocrite or confonner. This man was transparent 
 throughout, and it says little for the criticism of modern times, 
 that its aim has been to find motives of a recondite kind that 
 Bacon never had. Read this portion of his nature by the 
 light of the rest of his natm-c. Over what groat mind, in the 
 long annals of our English histoiy, did the sense of the Infinite 
 ever more permanently hang ? It was indeed the speciality of 
 his character that he lived in the future and the uuliniitcd. 
 What views as to the onward progress of science ! What con- 
 ceptions as to the grasp of the Human Intellect ! How gi-eat 
 tiiose conceptions, partaken of among modern great men by Leib- 
 nitz alone, as to the sure onward advance of tho Human Race, 
 in tlieir perception of rights and tlieir enjoyment of liberty — 
 conceptions which are tlie tmest holocaust, the truest sacrifice 
 on any Human Altar ! Let us j)ass from the last scene. What- 
 ever his possible views concerning everything that is written in 
 the Thirty-Nine Articles, Bacon died in humble reverence and 
 
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 BAG 
 
 330 
 
 BAG 
 
 dependence. Requiescat ! No greater soul lias England ever 
 consigned to earth. 
 
 II. — The fates and reputations of illustrious men whose lives 
 closed in discredit with the " powers that then were," have been 
 wonderfully 'iniform. The impressions most agi-ceal)le to exist- 
 ing influences go first abroad, and soon become rounded into 
 traditions. Think of Cromwell. Who understood him until 
 the conscientious toil, and corresponding sympathy and sagacity 
 of Mr. Carlyle rescued him from the gi'ave ! Nay, even yet, the 
 effigies of the man whose name is engraven on most of the best 
 legislation of his country, and whose deeds will never be effaced 
 from the liistoiy of Em-ope, cannot, it seems, appear amidst 
 our line of kings, in the gallery of a British House of Parlia- 
 ment. For illustration of the effects of tradition, one needs 
 not go so far as Kome. A hne of Alexander Pope, written 
 not probably in malice, but in sheerest carelessness, by one 
 who was a consentbig and concurrmg party to the manners, and 
 habits, and pm-poses of an age, probably the meanest and 
 least sincere of any remarkable period in Enghsli literature — 
 passes to this day as the trae description of one of the 
 greatest citizens the soil of England ever bore. It is griev- 
 ing to have to say that Bacon has recently received similar 
 treatment from two of om- own best writers — Lord Chief Justice 
 Campbell, and Lord l\Iacaulay. Lord Campbell has deserved so 
 well, and continues to deserve so well of his country, through 
 exercise of his sound and quick judgment, his sympathy with all 
 legal rights, and Ms stern integrity — that he may bear to be 
 told that amusing memoirs are not history, and that the charac- 
 ters of the greatest men of the past can scarcely be well discussed 
 by a writer in satin slippers in an easy chair, between after- 
 dinner nods during a winter afternoon. The case of Lord 
 Macaulay is diiferent. He is not an amateur, but a historian 
 by profession, and now by proud rank. In his treatment of 
 Lord Bacon and many others, he seems to have thrown over- 
 board one of the innermost canons of all inductive philosophy. 
 Particular facts can never be rightly exliibited, unless they are 
 viewed in relation to the ideas or scheme of causality under 
 which they must be ranged. For instance, a new planetary per- 
 turbation is never treated in abstract science without reference 
 to the law of Grantation. Is the character of a vast Mind of 
 less import ? Ai'e we to hold that character as of no account, 
 in oui- eflbrt to comprehend special cu-cumstances miperfuctly 
 narrated, and still less perfectly imderstood ? Lord Macaulay 
 has smned greatly against Bacon and many other of our poten- 
 tates: and in this same regard he has shmed against past ages 
 and the tnie inductive philosophy ; the movements originatmg 
 our great Revolution cannot be explained by modem whig maxims. 
 Space does not permit our entering on details. But we rejoice 
 to have to state, that Bacon, as he was, will so soon be presented 
 to the judgment of om* EngHsh people, through the affectionate 
 labom'S of Mr. Speddiug. Let it be stated briefly, in the mean- 
 time, that Lord Macaulay's brilliant essay is a veiy false one. 
 Bacon never crouched to the Cecils or to the com-t, although he 
 used the language common ui times when the " di\'ine right " 
 had not been questioned. He was the truest of friends to Essex 
 — in truth, his only real friend. But he performed, also, his 
 duty to the Commonwealth of England. As to his integrity 
 as a judge, we must speak more in detail. Macaulay tells us 
 that he had "jackals" hunting for bribes. No charge more mi- 
 founded was ever before written down. He tells us further, that 
 this was necessary to sustain Bacon's ostentatious extravagance; 
 and in his quotations it would appear, that having been seen 
 once riding in state, it must rightly be inferred that so Bacon 
 rode always. Very strange ! Lord ]\Iacaulay has surely not 
 forgotten his Ethics ? Can he recollect the yttEj-aXoT^sn-ua, which 
 means no evil, but on the contrary, a certain largeness of soul ? 
 It is not every great man who chooses to live like Andrew Mar- 
 vcll in a gan-et. Would, indeed, we had more Andrew Man-ells ! 
 But the momentous question recurs, did Bacon take bribes — was 
 he in very fact a corrupt judge ? It is necessai-y, in the first 
 place, to clear away one cause of misunderstanding very powerful 
 in these our modern days. In the times we are treating of, it 
 had not become a matter of delicacy that one should not take 
 money from a friend, but only an " acceptance," or a present 
 of china, or a title, or a gold snuff-box. Elizabeth herself 
 received presents in money, but she was not bribed thereby. 
 Bacon did receive presents of money from two suitors, but neither 
 was he bribed. Nor was any chai-ge of false or partial mo\e- 
 
 ments in his high capacity as a judge ever laid against him. 
 We have said that in his submission to James, and to the ver- 
 dict of the Houses of ParUament, he denied and spui-ned all such 
 imputations. And in the lowest crisis of his fortunes he w-rote 
 the following sentence, dictated at once by the noblest self-con- 
 fidence, and the consciousness that he had not lent himself to prac- 
 tices unw-orthy of his deserts, and of those who held the loftiest 
 seats in his countrj', England. The sentence has few equals in 
 pregnancy ; it might be printed in letters of gold. 
 
 " I WAS THE JUSTEST JUDGE THAT WAS IN EnGLAXD 
 THESE FIFTY YEAKS. BuT IT WAS THE GKEATEST CEN- 
 SURE IN PakLIASIENT that WAS PASSED THESE TWO HUN- 
 DKED YEARS." 
 
 The reader should know that ninetcen-twentieths of the state- 
 ments, and — worse than direct statements — the insinuations 
 which deface Lord Macaulay's essay on Bacon, are sheerest 
 romance. It seems strange that a writer, himself so brilliant, 
 should have been inspired by such an animus. But antithesb 
 is not always ti-uth ; nor is bhnded hero-worship in one direc- 
 tion, inconsistent with the most in-everent iconoclasm in others. 
 Lord Campbell appeals in self-defence to the " mipartial severity 
 of history." May God forgive us all! Is it meant by "impar- 
 tial history," that the conduct and acts of immortal men are 
 not to be interpreted in so far by their characters ; that the 
 brOhancy of the sim shall be measm-ed by his spots; or that 
 the history of his spots shall be produced as the history ot 
 his vast cosmical mfluences ? Thanks to the Universal Parent, 
 it is not by such " impartiality of history," that at the mighty 
 assembly of all men and tribes and nations, and of all ages, even 
 the meanest of us shall ultimately be judged ! 
 
 We must offer in conclusion an expression of sincerest 
 pleasure, that a really good edition of Bacon's works is now 
 being pubHshed — the edition, \-iz., by Speddiug, Heath, & ElUs. 
 In so for as it has gone, it is admirable aUke m arrangement 
 and criticism. The best part, however, has yet to come, viz., 
 Bacon's private letters. But Mr. Speddiug must not suppose that 
 his labours can close thus. He owes to himself and to England 
 a full and systematic life of her superb chancellor. — J. P. N. 
 
 BACON, John, a distinguished English sculptor, born at 
 Southwark in 1740, died in 1799. Of poor but respectable 
 parents, he w-as apprenticed to a manufacturer of pottery. Whilst 
 in this employment he had occasion to see clay sketches sent by 
 sculptors to be baked at the establishment. This kindled his 
 decided inclination, and led him to try his skill m similar works. 
 Unaided and in concealment, he thus produced his first essays, 
 which obtamed nine times the prize of the Art Society. This 
 brought him into notice and opened his cai-eer. The statue of 
 Mars completed his success, and he was received an associate at 
 the London Academy in 1770. Presented to the king, he exe- 
 cuted his bust with good success, and thus obtained the royal 
 favour, which afterwards secm-ed him the preference in the com- 
 petition with Banks and Nollekens for the Pitt's monument for 
 Westminster Abbey. This monument, and that of Lord Hali- 
 fax for the same abbey, and the one of Mrs. Draper (the Eliza 
 of Sterne) in the Bristol cathedral, are considered, with the Mars 
 ah-eady mentioned, as his masterpieces. It was his boast, and 
 certauily his greatest merit, that he had succeeded as a sculptor 
 without having studied abroad. Of a blunt character, and 
 not very kind to his rivals, he nevertheless possessed a grateful 
 and honest heart. His conduct tow-ards his eccentric friend, 
 Johnson, the builder and banker, when the latter was in diffi- 
 culties, deserves all praise. His style was gi-and and bold, and 
 in good taste. Some of his works in bronze w-ere also particu- 
 larly successful. — R. M. 
 
 BACON, Nathaniel, son of Edward, third son of the lord- 
 keeper, Su- Nicolas, by Ids first wife. He w-as bred to the bar, 
 and was for some years in the commission of the peace for 
 Essex. In 1643, he was elected recorder of Ipswich, and in 
 1G51, town-clerk. He sat as a bm-gess in the Long Parliament 
 for the university of Cambridge. He was afterwards appointed 
 a judge of the admiralty, and was finally elected a burgess for 
 Ipswich in the parliaments of 1G.54, 1656, and 1658. He was 
 also recorder of St. Edmund's Bury, and a bencher of Gray's 
 Inn. He was a zealous republican, and took an active part in 
 the transactions of the times. He was most probably the 
 Nathaniel Bacon who wrote " An Historical Discourse of the 
 Uniformity of the Government of England," first published in 
 1047, and which has passed through several editions. Many of
 
 BAG 
 
 331 
 
 BAG 
 
 his letters are extant in manuscript, as also collections for a 
 history of Ipswich, from the Saxon heptarchy to the death of 
 Charles I. He died in 1660.— T. F. 
 
 BACON, Sir Nathaniel, half- brother of Sir Francis Bacon, 
 an English historical painter at the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century. Of liis works are known a picture of a servant girl 
 with dead fowls, one of Ceres, and another of Hercules. 
 
 BACON, SiK Nicolas, bom in 1510 at Chiselhurst, 
 Kent, son of Robert Bacon, Esq., was educated at home, and 
 then sent to Corpus Cliristi college, Cambridge, where he took 
 his degree, and, after travelling on the continent became a 
 student of Gray's Inn, and rose to eminence as a lawyer. On 
 the dissolution of monasteries under Henry VIII., he was ap- 
 pointed solicitor to the court of augmentations for managing 
 church property appropriated to the Crown, of which he obtabed 
 a grant of a respectable share to himself. He was also appointed 
 attorney to the court of wards, which office he retained under 
 Edward VI. and Jlary. Queen Elizabeth made him keeper of 
 the pri\'y seal, an honour which he owed chiefly to the influence 
 of her favourite Cecil, afterwards Baron Burghley, whose in- 
 terest in Sir Nicolas was probably attiibutable to their having 
 married sisters, the two daughters of Sir Anthony Cook ; but his 
 high qualities, and Elizabeth's sagacity in discovering them, no 
 doubt had their weight ; but she declined to give him any other 
 title than that of lord-keeper, with a seat at the privy councO. 
 
 On the 25tli January, 1559, Sir Nicolas opened the first 
 parhament of Elizabeth with an admirably conciliating speech 
 on the controversies which then agitated the Roman catholic 
 and protestant parties. In ^larch following the queen ap- 
 inted a public conference at Westminster Hall, on the con- 
 iverted doctrines and rites of the Romish church ; nine dirines 
 ivt-re to argue on each side, and Sir Nicolas was to preside 
 and act as moderator. It has been alleged, that on this occa- 
 sion his accustomed impartiality was impaired by his bias in 
 favour of protestantism. Be that as it may, his conduct gave 
 crieat offence to the Roman catholic party, some of whom re- 
 i-ed to argue any longer, and the conference was not only 
 ruptly broken up, but the bishops of Winchester and Lincoln 
 ■ re committed to the Tower, and their fellows bound over to 
 i^wer for their contempt. Bacon was amongst those who 
 ■ ive to induce Elizabeth to marry, and in the parliaments of 
 ^'Jo and 1567, by the urgency of his speeches, he drew upon 
 ;aself a sharp rebuke from her offended JIajesty. Again, on 
 • subject of the succession to the throne, he incurred the 
 ■en's displeasure by his advocacy of the claims of the House 
 ; Suft'olk, to which she was so opposed, as to prefer the Stuarts, 
 i spite her jealousy of Mary, and her antipathy to Romanism. 
 Fortunately for Sir Nicolas, a fitting successor could not readily 
 be found, or he would have lost the gi-eat seal. His name was 
 erased from the privy council, and he was ordered to confine 
 himself to the court of chancery. In 1568 he presided over 
 the inquiry into the conduct of JIary Queen of Scots, then a 
 prisoner at Bolton castle, and acquitted himself with great 
 f-redit ; but when, two years afterwards, negotiations for Mary's 
 liberty were reopened, he displayed a spirit of antagonism, which 
 excited in Scotland great animosity. He strongly opposed the 
 interference of parliament with the succession, and several mem- 
 bers who disregarded his injunctions were summoned before the 
 privy council, where he reprimanded them severely, and even 
 committed one of them to prison. On a renewal of these dis- 
 cussions in 1572, he summarily disposed of the question by an 
 abrupt prorogation of parliament. He took an active part in 
 the prosecution of the duke of Norfolk in 1572 ; and though 
 unqualified to sit on the trial, not being a peer of the reahu, he 
 must be held responsible for the flagrant pen-ersion of law and 
 justice, by which the noble prisoner was deprived of fair notice 
 of trial, interdicted from all communication with his friends, 
 and kept in ignorance of the charges brought against him until 
 called upon in court to answer them ; whilst the main proofs of 
 guilt alleged and accepted were questionable confessions, ex- 
 torted from witnesses put to the torture by order of the council. 
 Bacon died 20th February, 1570, and was buried in St. Paul's 
 cathedral. He enjoyed the reputation of being a sound scholar. 
 As a judge he was highly esteemed for his legal attainments and 
 great ilnpartiality, though warped occasionally by the political 
 influences of the stormy period in which he lived. It would have 
 been man-elious had he passed through his long official career 
 unswayed by prepossessions and prejudices, at a time when 
 
 opposing parties were so strongly distinguished by religious and 
 political feelings; but he must have been gifted with a large 
 share of temperance and discretion to have held office, succes- 
 sively, under such monarchs as Hem-y the Eighth, Edward, 
 Mary, and Elizabeth, and after playing a conspicuous pai-t in 
 the troubled aft'airs of the state, not only retained his head upon 
 his shoulders, but escaped any serious degradation. The greatest 
 blot upon his memory appeal's to have been his conduct towards 
 the unfortunate princess, JIary, against whom — probably as much 
 influenced by religious enthusiasm as poUtical rancour — he acted 
 with immitigated vindietiveness. Not content with opposing the 
 right of Mary and her son to the throne, he lost no opportunity 
 of heaping obloquy upon her character, maintaining that, 
 although a captive sovereign, she was amenable to the law as 
 a rebellious subject ; but he was the servant of Mary's unna- 
 tural kinswoman, Elizabeth. He was xmquestionably a man of 
 untiring diligence, lively genius, and ready wit, indulging in the 
 latter very ft-eely even on the bench. Amongst the witticisms 
 attributed to him is the facetious rejoinder to a culprit under 
 trial, who craved mercy on the plea of kindi-ed, alleging that, as 
 the name of the judge was Bacon, and that of the prisoner Hog, 
 they were too nearly allied to be separated; upon which the 
 judge replied — " You and I cannot be kindred imless you be 
 hanged, for Hog is not Bacon until it be well hanged." Though 
 Su- Nicolas carried to his grave a fairer name than most of the 
 distinguished worthies of that capricious age, his weU-eamed 
 fame was doomed to be eclipsed by that of his illustrious son, 
 Francis Lord Verulam, Viscount St. Alban's. — F. J. H. 
 
 BACON, Sir Nicolas, son of Sir Nicolas, and the first 
 person advanced to the dignity of baronet, May 22, 1611, upon 
 the institution of that order. He had been previously knighted 
 by Elizabeth in 1578. He died in 1624. 
 
 BACON, Phanl-el, D.D., rector of Balden, Oxfordshire, 
 and vicar of Bramber, Sussex. He was a native of Reading ; of 
 Magdalen college, Oxford, M.A. 1722, B.D. 1731, D.D. 1735. 
 He died at Balden, January 10, 1783, in his eighty-third year. 
 He was the author of five dramatical works, which were after- 
 wards collected in a volume and entitled " Humorous Ethics." 
 He was also author of the " Snipe," a ballad, and " A Song of 
 Similies," which are to be found in the Oxford Satisage. — T. F. 
 
 BACON, Richard Mackenzie, a musical critic, was bom 
 at Norwich, May 1, 1776, and educated in the grammar school 
 of that city. His father was proprietor of the Norwich Mercury, 
 which he inherited from him, and bequeathed to his son ; he 
 began to write for this journal at seventeen years old, and its 
 editorship was the standard occupation of his whole life. He is 
 most known as ha^dng been the projector, editor, and chief wiiter 
 of the Quarterly Musical Magazine and Revieic, which was the 
 first journal devoted to music in England, and the character of 
 its criticisms was far above anything that had then apj)eared 
 here ; the first number of this work was issued in January^ ISIS^ 
 and it was for some time continued, as its name implies, quarterly, 
 but the latter numbers came out irregularly, the tenth and last 
 appearing in 1826. He issued proposals for an extensive musi- 
 cal dictionan,', for which he had collected the materials, but it 
 was never printed. He contributed musical notices to Colburn^ 
 Magazine, and some other periodicals. His " Elements of Vocal 
 Science," was extracted from the renew for separate publication. 
 His qualifications for musical criticism were derived rather f\-om 
 intercourse with artists than from knowledge of ai-t, and the 
 character of his writing was accordingly somewhat superficial. 
 He originated the Nonvich triennial musical festival, for the 
 benefit of the county hospital, the first celebration of which was 
 held in 1824, when the arrangements were wholly intmsted to 
 him and Jlr. E. Taylor, the present Gresham professor. He was 
 the author of several political pamphlets, of a "Life of Pitt," and 
 of a " Life of the Earl of Suffolk." He was distinguished for his 
 elocution and for his conversational powers. He died at Nor- 
 wich, November 2,-1844.— G. A. JI. 
 
 BACON, Robert, by some supposed, but scarcely with suf- 
 ficient reason, to have been a brother of Roger Bacon, was pro- 
 bably bom 11C8. He studied at Oxford and Paris, and on his 
 return to England, read lectures on divinity at the farmer place, 
 In 1233, his colleague in that office. Dr. Edmund Rich or Ab- 
 ingdon, hanng been made archbishop of Canterbury, Bacon 
 succeeded him as trca.surer of Salisbury cathedral. "The same 
 year, in a sennon before Ilcni-y III., Bacon inveighed strongly 
 against the mischief done to the realm, by tho king's fondness
 
 for foreigners, especially instancing Peter de Rupibus, bishop of 
 Winchester. His boldness had great weight with the king, and 
 procured himself much popularity. In 1240 he entered the 
 order of preaching friars, and died in 1248. He wrote many 
 works, which have all perished. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BACON, KoGEii, somethnes called Friar Bacon, bom in 
 1214, at Ilchester in Somersetshhe ; died in 1292. This great 
 man, for whom we may claim the title of founder of experi- 
 pieutal philosopliy, stands conspicuous in a dark age for his firm 
 assertion of the only sound piinciples of physical investigation, 
 and for the sagacity and success with which he applied these 
 principles in his experimental researches. He was of an ancient 
 and distinguished family ; his university studies were pursued, 
 first at Oxford, and afterwards at Paris, where he took the 
 degi-ee of doctor in theology. The time of his joining the order 
 of Franciscans appears to have been about the year 1240, 
 soon after his return from Paris to his native country. Being 
 impressed with the necessity of alljdng literatm-e to science, he 
 made himself master of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic, and 
 was renowned for the extent of his erudition. He was also a 
 most accomplished mathematician. The natural sciences appear 
 to have attracted him somewhat late in his course of study ; he 
 tells us that " after having long laboured at tlie study of books 
 and languages, becoming at last sensible of the poverty of his 
 knowledge, he desired thenceforward, neglecting Aristotle, to 
 penetrate more intimately into the secrets of nature, by seeking 
 to obtain ideas of all things from his own experience." Hence- 
 forth ho turned all his energies in this direction, sparing neither 
 time nor money. His success in physical research (together, 
 perhaps, with his extensive learning) procured him the uni- 
 versal designation of "The Admu-able Doctor;" while, at 
 the same time, they laid him open to the suspicion of 
 magic and sorcery. This suspicion, together with his daiing 
 spirit of innovation, made him many enemies, and then: perse- 
 cutions embittered many years of his life. Pope Innocent IV. 
 ordered him to suspend his lectures at the miiversity of Oxford ; 
 and he was soon afterwards imprisoned. On the accession of 
 Clement IV., who had heard of his fame when papal legate in 
 England, he was set at liberty ; and it is to him that Bacon 
 dedicates his " Opus M.ijus." As long as his pontificate lasted 
 Bacon was under efficient protection ; but under the next pope, 
 Nicholas III., his enemies again prevailed, and Bacon spent ten 
 long years in close confinement, aggravated by unnecessary 
 severity. He was seventy years of age when he was at length 
 liberated, and the eight remaining years of his life furnished no 
 important contribution to science or literature. 
 
 The most important works of Roger Bacon are the " Opus 
 Majlis" (his principal production) ; the " Opus Minus ; " " Opus 
 Tertium;" the " E^pistle on the Secret Processes of Art and 
 Natm-e, and the Nullity of Magic ; " the " MiiTor of Secrets ; " 
 and the " Muror of Alchemy." The fu-st part of the " Opus 
 Majus" treats of the four universal causes of human igno- 
 rance, viz., 1st, deference to authority; 2nd, traditionary 
 habit; 3d, the imperfection of the undisciplmed senses; 4th, 
 the disposition to conceal our ignorance, and make a show 
 of our supposed knowledge. In regard to authority, he seeks 
 to show that Aristotle and antiquity were not infallible. He 
 speaks indeed with great applause of Aristotle ; " yet," he 
 adds, " those who came after him corrected him in some things, 
 and added many things to his works, and shall go on adding to 
 the end of the world." " There are two modes of knowing," he 
 says, "by argument, and by experiment. Argument concludes 
 a question ; but it does not make us feel certain, or acquiesce in 
 the contemplation of truth, except the truth be also fomid to be 
 so by experience." One of the most remarkable sections of the 
 book is devoted to " experimental science," to which he ascribes 
 three prerogatives, distinguishing it above other branches of 
 inquiry, viz., "Fu-st, She tests by experiment, the noblest conclu- 
 sion of all other sciences. Next, she discovers respecting the no- 
 tions which other sciences deal with, magnificent truths to which 
 these sciences of themselves can by no means attain. Her third 
 dignity is, that by her own power, and without respect of other 
 sciences, she investigates the secrets of natiu-c." One of his 
 examples is the rainbow ; and he describes a very full and accu- 
 rate course of experiments, with a view to determine its cause ; 
 furnishing an admirable instance of experimental investigation, 
 in an age wlien such investigations were almost unknown. 
 Another remarkable section of the work is devoted to optics. It 
 
 contains statements of many of the laws of refraction and reflec- 
 tion, and incontestably proves that Bacon was acquainted with 
 magnifying glasses. But the most extraordinary paragraph 
 here is that which relates to telescopes. "It is easy," he says, 
 " to conclude from the rules estabhshed above, that the largest 
 things can appear small, and vice versa, and that very distant 
 objects can appear very near, and vice versa ; for we can cut 
 glasses in such sort, and dispose them in such a manner with 
 regard to our sight and external objects, that the rays are 
 broken and refracted in the du'ection which we wish, so that we 
 shall see an object, near or remote, under whatever angle we 
 wish, and thus at the most incredible distance we shall read the 
 most minute letters, we shall count the gi-ains of sand or dust, 
 on account of the greatness of the angle under which we see 
 them : for the distance has no effect directly in itself, but only 
 
 by alteiing the size of the angle In this manner, 
 
 also, we may make the sun, the moon, and the stars descend, 
 by bringing their figures nearer to the earth." It is doubtful 
 whether Bacon ever actually made a telescope, but he at least 
 did much towards laying down the theoiy of its construction. 
 The section on mathematics gives him an undoubted claim to be 
 regarded as the projector of the refomi in the calendar. He 
 proposed to Pope Clement IV. the requisite con-ection, but with- 
 out success. 
 
 In his " Treatise on the Secret Works of Nature and Art, and 
 the NuUity of Magic," he introduces descriptions which apparently 
 refer to steam traveUing, both by land and water ; to balloons ; 
 the diving-bell ; and suspension-bridges. In the chapter on 
 optics, he explains the mirage by refraction. In the last part of 
 the treatise, which is devoted to alchemy, he describes the com- 
 position and effects of gunpowder ; but his knowledge of it would 
 appear to be at least in part borrowed from his contemporaries. 
 
 Though the fame of Roger Bacon has been completely echpsed 
 by that of his great namesake, who, following in his footsteps, at 
 the distance of three hundred years, earned for himself the title 
 of " father of inductive pliilosophy," it must yet be acknowledged 
 that, besides possessing a practical skill in experiment to which 
 the great chancellor was a stranger, the poor monk had also a 
 clearer insight into the respective functions of experiment and 
 mathematical deduction, as instraments of physical investigation. 
 
 On the other hand, Roger Bacon was infected with some of 
 the crude notions of the age. In regard to astrology, he believed 
 that the stars exert an influence on the various paiis of the 
 human body, and that by this means the mind is excited to par- 
 ticular acts, free-will remaining unimpaired. In his " Mirror of 
 Alchemy," he mamtains that nature, in the formation of metaUic 
 veins, tends constantly to produce gold, but is hindered by vari- 
 ous accidents, and thus creates metals which contain impure 
 matters mingled with the fundamental body. But it must be 
 said in justice to him, that though his chemical notions were 
 deranged by the ideas of the time, he did much for the advance- 
 ment of sound chemical knowledge ; in fact, he is acloiowledged 
 to have introduced the study into England, and to have been 
 the earliest winter on chemistry in Europe. 
 
 Popular superstition long invested Bacon with the character 
 of a magician, and various absurd stories were believed respecting 
 him ; amongst others that he forged a brazen head, which waa 
 able not only to speak, but to give oracular responses. In the 
 old English comedies he is introduced (hke Doctor Faust in Ger- 
 many) as the impersonation of magic. — J. D. E. 
 
 BACON, Samuel, an American missionary, who was com- 
 missioned by the federal government in 1820, to establish a 
 colony in Africa. He arrived at Sierra Leone with forty-eight 
 men on the 9th March of that year; but endeavoiuing to pene- 
 trate farther into the coimtry, he was seized with a malady 
 which rapidly proved fatal. 
 
 BACREVANTATZY, David, a theologian of the greater 
 Armenia, was employed by the Emperor Constantius in G47 to 
 restore order among his compatriots. 
 
 BACSA'NYI, John, Hiuigarian author, bom 1763 at Tapo- 
 Icza, county Zala. He founded in 1785, together with his 
 friends Baroti and Kazinczy, the first Hungarian literary review, 
 which, however, was suppressed in 1792 for its liberal tendency. 
 In 1793 Bacsanyi was dismissed from the treasury- clerkship, on 
 account of a patriotic song of which he was the autlior ; and in 
 1794 imprisoned in an Austrian fortress as being concerned in 
 the conspiracy of the Abbot JLirtinoxics. Released in 1796, 
 Bacsanyi contributed articles to the Hungarian review, Magyar
 
 BAG 
 
 333 
 
 BAD 
 
 ]\finerva, became clerk at the Bank of Austria, and married 
 the German popular authoress, Gabriele Baumgarten. When in 
 1809 Napoleon occupied Vienna, and invited the Hungarian 
 nation to declare its independence, Bacsanyi translated his pro- 
 clamation, and had accordingly soon to emigrate to Paris. 
 After tlie downfall of Napoleon, the Hungarian poet was deli- 
 vered up to the Austrians, who kept him under police sm'veil- 
 lance at Lmz in Upper Austria, without, however, confiscating 
 his French pension. In 1843 he was elected member of the 
 Hiuigarian Academy, and died on the 12th of May, 1845. His 
 works are remarkable rather for the refined style, than for ori- 
 ginality of thought.— F. P., L. 
 
 BACZKO, LuDwiG Adolph Franz Joseph von, a German 
 miscellaneous writer. He was bom at Lyck in Eastern Pnissia, 
 in 1756, and, though in his 21st year he had become Wind, yet 
 honourably filled the chair of history in the militaiy academy of 
 Konigsberg. Amongst the various productions of his pen de- 
 serve to be noticed — " Geschichte Preussens;" "A History of the 
 French Revolution ; " " Die Eeue," a tragedy ; " Ueber mich 
 selbst und meine Ungliicksgefahrten, die Blinden," &c. He 
 died at Konigsberg, 27th March, 1823. His autobiography 
 was published by his eldest son. — K. E. 
 
 BADA, Don Jose de, a Spanish architect, born at Malaga 
 in 1719, died in 175G ; especially noted for having completed the 
 cathedral of that city. — R. M. 
 
 BADAJOZ, Juan de, a Spanish architect of the sixteenth 
 century, was one of those consulted for the erection of the Sala- 
 manca cathedral. Several important works were by this artist 
 cai'ried out in Old Castile, in which he fidly displayed his exceed- 
 ing fondness of ornamentation and sculptoric accessories ; the best 
 specimen of this tendency being the cloister of St. Zoilo. — R. 1\I. 
 
 BADALOCCHIO, Sisto, sm-named il Rosa, an Italian 
 painter, born at Parma in 1581, died at Rome in 1G47. He 
 was pupil and intimate fiiend of Annibale Caracci, whom he 
 followed to Rome, and assisted in his numerous works in that 
 city. He was equally tied with friendly bonds to Giovan Lan- 
 Trnnco, another pupil of Annibale, to whom he was superior in 
 'i-rectiiess of design and precision of execution, but inferior in 
 ii\cntive power. This rendered him invaluable in cari-ying out 
 the conceptions of others, the more so as his natural modesty 
 Glided to improve this circumstance. Thus he proved of great 
 ;i^-istance not only to his master and friend, but also to Guido, 
 I'omeiiichino, and Albano. The few works he produced by him- 
 self are, however, not to be despised; witness his "Galatea" at 
 Home, and the "St. Francis" of the galleiy of Panna. Bada- 
 I'lcchio was also an engraver of uncommon merit, as shown by bis 
 reproduction of the Coreggio's fi-escos of the cupola at Parma, 
 and his plates in illustration of the Famese gallery. — R. M. 
 
 BADARACCO, Giuseppe, an Italian painter, born at Genoa 
 about 1588, died 1657; studied under Strozzi and Ansaldo, but 
 chiefly apphed hunself to the imitation of Andrea del Sarto, in 
 which he was completely successful. — R. M. 
 
 BADARACCO, Gian Raffaele, the son of the preceding, 
 studied painting, first under his father, then under Carlo Maratta, 
 and lastly with Pictro da Cortona. In his numerous pictures he 
 excelled for suavity of colouring and facility of touch, but exag- 
 gerated the use of ultramarine. — R. M. 
 
 BA'DA'RAYANA-ACHA'RYA, a celebrated Hindu philoso- 
 pher, founder of the Vediintin school, and author of a set of 
 aphorisms, entitled " Brahma-Sutras, or Shariraka-Mimilnsa," 
 on which the celebrated Lhankara-Achdrya virote a commen- 
 tary in the eighth century. He is identified by Hindu writers 
 with Krislma-Dwaipiiyana, called the " Vy;lsa," or compiler, to 
 whom are attributed the original compilation of the Vedas, and 
 the authorship of the Bhagavad-gi'tii, and the gi-eater part of the 
 eighteen Puranas. Of those, the Vedas cannot have been com- 
 piled later than the seventh century n.c, while the Bhagavad- 
 gita belongs to the first century of om- era, and the earliest of 
 the Puranas to the third century. This ascription, though 
 clearly absurd, is sufiicieut to prove the antiquity of Biid:iray;ina, 
 and the high esteem in which he was held. The Vediintin 
 Sutras are probably all that he has a claim to. They were 
 written before the Mimansa Sutras of Zaimini, and therefore 
 belong, probably, to the 3rd or 4tb century before Christ, although 
 Weber places Biidarayana in the 4tb or 5th century.— C. T. 
 
 BADHY, John, an artificer, martyred in 1409, dui-ing the 
 persecution of the Lollards under Henry IV. 
 
 BADCOCK, Richard, a British botanist, lived during the 
 
 first half of the eighteenth century. He was one of the first 
 who observed the microscopic structure of the anther, and the 
 discharge of the pollen in plants, on which he communicated 
 some observations to the Royal Society of London in 1746. 
 
 BADCOCK, Samuel, an mgenious controversialist, bom at 
 South Jlolton in Devonshire in 1747; died in London in 1788. 
 He was for some time pastor of a dissenting congregation in his 
 native shhe, but afterwards entered the Church of England as 
 curate of Broad Clyst in the diocese of Exeter. He combated 
 the materialistic views of Dr. Priestley, in an able sketch of the 
 controversy between that author and his opponents. — J. S., G. 
 
 BADEGISILUS, a French prelate of the sixth centuiy. 
 Chilperic I., who had previously made him mayor of the palace, 
 gave him the bishopric of Mans in 581. 
 
 BADEHORN, Sigisjiond, a German theologian, professor of 
 Hebrew at Leipzig; bom in 1585, died in 1626. He published 
 " Armatura Davidica," 1620. 
 
 BADEN, Dukes, Margi-aves, Grand-dukes of, an ancient 
 German family, of which the origin has been traced to Gottfried, 
 duke of the Allemanns, who lived about a.d. 700. Their ele- 
 vation to the rank of sovereign princes — a rank which they still 
 continue to enjoy — commenced as far back as the eleventh cen- 
 tmy. They are first noticed in history under the title of dukes 
 of Zahringen. About 1040, Berthold, son of Gebhard, built the 
 castle of Zahringen in Brisgau ; and having obtained from the 
 Emperor Heniy III. the government of the duchy of Swabia, 
 he became the root of the ducal house of Zahringen ; the armo- 
 rial ensigns of which are still borne by the gi'and-dukes of Baden. 
 
 The following are the princes of this house : — 
 
 Hermann L, second son of Berthold I., duke of Zahringen 
 and Carinthia. He possessed, during the lifetime of his father, 
 Baden and Hochberg in Brisgau ; and was the first that took 
 the title of margrave of Baden. By his mamage with Judith, 
 daughter of Adelbert, count of Caliv or Calb, he obtained as her 
 dowry the county of Utfgau, which now forms part of Baden. 
 In 1073 he left his native countiy, and sought retirement in the 
 abbey of Cluny, where he died, 25th April, 1074. 
 
 Hermann II., only son of the preceding, died in 1130. 
 In February of that year, when at the diet of Basle, he 
 first assumed the title of margrave of Baden. He obtained, 
 also, from the emperor the title of duke of Verona. He was 
 interred in the church of the monastery of Backnang, which he 
 had founded for the regular canons of the order of St. Augustine. 
 
 HermjVnn III., son of the preceding, died in IIGO. He 
 served in the army of the Emperor Conrad III., and assisted at 
 the siege of Weinsberg in 1140. He aftenvards accompanied 
 Conrad to Palestine m the second crasade. 
 
 Hermann IV., son of Hemiann III., died in 1190. He 
 divided with his brother Henry the patrimonial domains, and 
 founded the two lines of Baden and Hochberg. In 1189 he 
 accompanied the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa to the Holy 
 Land, and signalized himself in the battles with the sultan of 
 Iconium. He died in Cilicia, and was interreil m the cathedral 
 of Antioch. 
 
 Hermann V., called the Pious, died IGth January, 1243. 
 He succeeded his father, Hemiann IV., in the teiTitory of Baden ; 
 Hemy, his brother, being the first of the margraves of Hochberg. 
 He took part with the Emperor Frederick II. in the contests 
 between that prince and his rebellious son, Henry. 
 
 Hermann VI., son and successor of Hennann V. He ex- 
 tended the influence of his house by his mairiage with Gertrade, 
 daughter of Henry the Impious, and heiress of Frederick the 
 Warlike, duke of Austria, llennaim assumed the titles of his 
 wife, which were confirmed to him by Po])e Innocent IV., by 
 letters dated at Lyons, 16th October, 1218. He died, as is 
 supposed, by ])oison, 4tli October, 1250, leaving as his heir his 
 infant son, Frederick, then one year old. 
 
 Frederick L, Margrave of Baden; born in 1249; died 29th 
 October, 1268. He succeeded his father, Hemiann VI., in 1250, 
 under the guardian.ship of his mother ; but, being deprived of 
 her inheritance, they both took shelter at the court of Louis the 
 Severe, duke of Bavaria. Here Frederick contracted an intimate 
 frieiulship with a young prince about his own age, Conradin, 
 grandson of Frederic II. In 1267, Conradin being induced by 
 the Neapolitans to assist in the war against Cliarles of Anjou, 
 who bad usurped the throne, Frederick resolved to accompany 
 his friend in that fatal expedition. In a sanguinaiy battle 
 which was fought on the plains of Tagliocozzo, on the 23d Aug.,
 
 BAD 
 
 334 
 
 BAD 
 
 1268, Charles of Anjou was victorious, and the two friends fled 
 together in a fishennan's boat. They were speedily pursued, 
 captured, and executed together in the market-place at Naples. 
 Thus perished on the same day the last of the ancient house of 
 Hohenstanfen, and the eldest branch of the house of Baden. 
 Frederick was succeeded by his uncle Eodolph I. 
 
 The following ai-e the most remarkable of the successors of 
 Rodolph. 
 
 Berxiiard I., son of Rodolph VII., sumamed the Long. 
 In 1372 he divided with his brother, Eodoiph VIII., the paternal 
 domains ; of which the inferior part, with Pforzheim and Dot- 
 lach, feU to Bernhard, and Baden, with the superior part, to 
 Rodolph; but the latter having died in 1391, the entb-e succes- 
 sion was left by his children to Bernhard, their uncle. Bernhard 
 took an active part in the wars of the princes of the empire 
 against the free towns of Germany. In 1412, be assisted 
 Charles, duke of Lon-aine, against Edward, duke of Baden, who 
 liad invaded his countiy. He subsequently in\'ol\cd himself in 
 a contest with the people of Brisgau, on account of their receiv- 
 ing into their towns a number of his subjects, and peimitting 
 them to enjoy all the privileges of citizenship. These differences 
 the Emperor Sigismund laboured in vain to reconcile ; and in 
 October, 1422, the towns entered into a confederation for five 
 years against the margrave of Baden. Two years aftei-wards, 
 the confederates, in conjunction with the count of Wmiemberg 
 and the bishop of Spire, made an iniiption into the margi-avate, 
 bumt Rastadt, with many of the smrounding villages, and laid 
 siege to Muhlberg. The siege bad continued for three weeks, 
 when Dietric, archbishop of Cologne, John, bishop of Wmtz- 
 bourg, and Albert, count of Hohenlohe, arrived as mediators. 
 Thi-ough their friendly interference the belligerent parties were 
 reconciled, and a treaty of peace, consisting of nine articles, was 
 di"awn up and signed on the 3d July, 1424. 
 
 James I. Margrave of Baden, son of the preceduig ; bom 
 loth March, 1407 ; died in 1453. By his wisdom and his 
 liberality to the chmxh, he obtamed the surname of Solomon. 
 His dominions were at first distm-bed by violent fends and rob- 
 beries, but by the rigour with which he punished delinquents, he 
 soon established tranquillity. He took part with the Emperor 
 Frederick III. in bis wars with the Swiss ; but ultimately be- 
 came one of the mediators for bringing about a peace. 
 
 Chakles I., son and successor of the preceding, died of a 
 pestilence, supposed to be cholera, in 147.5. Being chosen as 
 umpii-e in the quarrels, which at that period were frequent, be- 
 tween the states of Gemiany, he was raised to a distmguished 
 place among the princes of the empire. 
 
 CHniSTOPHEK, Margi-ave of Baden, eldest son of Charles I., 
 boni 13th November, 1453 ; died 19th April, 1527. In 1469 
 he assisted the Archduke ^Maximilian in a war against France, 
 and took, among other places, the town of Luxemburg. In 
 1515, beginning to sink under the infirmities of age, he divided 
 his domuiions among his three sons, Bernhard, Philip, and Emest, 
 and relinquished the government entirely into their hands, on 
 condition that duiing Ms life they should exercise it in his name, 
 and as his deputies. A contemporary writer, Philip Berould of 
 Boulogne, says he surpassed all the princes of his time in the 
 greatness of his mind, and the Gei-mans unanimously accord to 
 him a place among the gi-eatest captains of the age. 
 
 Bernhahu III., son and successor of the preceiUng, bom 7th 
 October, 1474 ; died 29th June, 1536. He was educated in 
 the Low Countries at the court of Maximilian, and passed great 
 part of his life at Bodcmacher, a town in the vicinity of the 
 court of Bmssels. To him has been ascribed the introduction 
 of the protestant religion into his dominions. 
 
 Philip, son of Christopher, died 17th September, 1533. In 
 1521 he assisted at the diet of Wonns, and in 1525 at that of 
 Spu-e ; at the latter of which he acted as principal commissaPi', 
 in the absence of the emperor, Charles V. By his will, dated at 
 Muhlberg, 14th Jlay, 1533, he bequeathed his dominions to his 
 two brothers, Bernhard and Ernest. The family of Baden was 
 thus divided into two branches, viz., Baden-Baden, which is now 
 extinct, and Baden-Durlach, which still sunivcs. — G. JI. 
 
 BIAItGRAVES OF BAUEN-UADEN. 
 
 William I., Margrave of Baden-Baden, bom 15th July, 
 1593 ; died 22nd Jlay, 1G77. With a view to conciliate the 
 favour of the emperor, Ferdinand III. of Austria, he endeavoured 
 to re-establish the catholic religion in Baden. In 1631 he was 
 nominated by the emperor to the command of the army of 
 
 the Upper Rhine. He was, however, completely defeated by 
 Gustavus Adolphus, under whose command the Swedish troops 
 invaded and laid waste the margravate. In 1640 William opened 
 the diet of Ratisbon, as plenipotentiary of the emperor ; but 
 all his efforts to effect a reconciliation between the catholic and 
 protestant parties proved imavailing. 
 
 Lewis William L, Margi-ave of Baden-Baden, bom at 
 Paris, 8th April, 1655 ; died at Rastadt, 4th January, 1707. 
 His mother, a princess of Carignan, was desirous of having him 
 brought up in Paris ; but, at the age of three years, he was, by 
 order of his father and gi-andfather, removed to Baden, where 
 he received a liberal education. He obtained his first instruc- 
 tions in the art of war under Jlontecncnli, with whom he served 
 from 1674 to 1676 inclusive. In 1678, after the peace of 
 Nimeguen, he returned to Baden ; to the sovereignty of which 
 he had succeeded the previous year. In 1703, when Vienna was 
 besieged by the Tm-ks, he returned to the army, threw himself 
 into that city with a large body of Gemian ti-oops, and, by a 
 most ngorous sally, helped to effect a junction between Sobieski, 
 king of Poland, and the duke of Lorraine. In his subsequent 
 military career he evinced equal skill and bravery as a leader. 
 He distinguished himself at the battles of Barkan, Wissehrad, 
 Offen, Belgrade, and Buda; he conquered Sclavonia and Bosnia; 
 was victorious on the fields of Nissa and Widin, and at the great 
 battle of Salenkemen, fought on the 19th of August, 1691. In 
 1697 he was a competitor for the throne of Poland, then v.acant 
 by the death of Sobieski ; but failed to attain the oliject of his 
 ambition. In his latter years his achievements were less brilliant; 
 but he is entitled to hold a distinguished place among the war- 
 riors of that age. He took part in twenty-six campaigns and 
 twenty-five sieges, and had the command in not fewer than 
 thu1:een battles. — G. M. 
 
 margraves of BADEN-DURLACH. 
 
 Geoege-Fkederick L, Margrave of Baden-Durlach, bom 
 30th Januaiy, 1573 ; died at Strnsburg, 24th September, 1638. 
 He succeeded his brother, Ernest-Frederick I. ; and defended the 
 protestants against Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria. In 1610 
 he joined the union of Halle, which had been fomied against the 
 house of Austria, under the auspices of Hemy IV. He espoused 
 the cause of tlie elector-palatine, Frederick V., who had been 
 called to the throne of Bohemia, and to whom he continued 
 faitliful to the last. In 1622 he abdicated in favour of his 
 eldest son, Frederick I., and levied an army of 16,000 mca 
 against the Count de Tilly, by wliom he was totally defeated at 
 the battle of Wimpfen. This disaster was followed by fresh 
 calamities. His dominions were invaded by the Bavarians, and 
 he himself compelled to take refuge in Geneva. Having obtained 
 succour from Charles I., king of England, he again took the 
 field in 1627. But his bad fortune continued to follow him, and 
 h.araig been defeated by Wallenstein, he retired to Strasburg, 
 where he ended his days. 
 
 Frederick I., Margrave of Baden-Durlach, son of the pre- 
 ceding, bom 6th July, 1594 ; died 8th September, 1659. 
 After the peace of Westphalia he was reinstated in his domi- 
 nions, which had been invaded by the Austrians, and his rights 
 were guaranteed by France and Sweden. 
 
 Frederick II., son and successor of the preceding, lived 
 in the second half of the seventeenth century. Ha\'ing been 
 intrusted with the command of the amiies of Charles Gustavus, 
 king of Sweden, he distinguished himself under MontecucuH in 
 the war against the French. 
 
 Charles-William I., Margrave of Baden-Durlach, bom in 
 1679 ; died 11th May, 1738. In 1715 he founded the city of 
 Carlsmhe, about one league from Durlach, and in commemora- 
 tion of that event established a new order, called " the Order of 
 Fidelity." He had been a zealous student at Geneva, Lausanne, 
 and Utrecht ; and he continued through life to cultivate litera- 
 ture and science. He was at the same time fond of luxury, 
 and addicted to gross sensuality. It is said that, imitating the 
 example of Eastern princes, he kept a seraglio in his palace. 
 He was succeeded by his grandson, Charles-Frederick. — G. JI. 
 
 GRAND DUKES OF B.\DEN. 
 
 Charles-Frederick, at first margrave, subsequently elec- 
 tor, and finally grand-duke of I'aden, born at Carlsruhe, 22nd 
 November, 1728; died 11th June, 1811. He succeeded his 
 p-andfother, Charies-William, lltli May, 1738. Having finished 
 his acndeiiiical course at Lausanne, he visited France, England, 
 Italy, and Holland, and in 1750, having attained his majority,
 
 BAD 
 
 335 
 
 BAD 
 
 nturned to his native city. He adorned his capital with 
 numerous public edifices ; and, by the civil and rehgious liberty 
 enjoyed under his government, attracted thither gi-eat numbers 
 of strangers, who there took up their permanent residence. By 
 the extinction of the elder branch of the family in 1771, he suc- 
 ceeded to the dominions of his cousin, the margrave of Baden- 
 Baden. At the period of the Revolution he lost his possessions 
 in Lorraine and Alsace ; and so anxious was he to retain friendly 
 relations with France, that he not only made many great sacri- 
 fices to secure this object, but even in 1804 issued a decree of 
 exclusion against all the emigi-ants, and every indi\'idual attached 
 to the army of Conde. He continued faithful in his attachment 
 to the fortunes of Napoleon, under whose influence he was 
 enabled considerably to extend his dominions. In 1803, he 
 took the title of elector, which he aftei-wards exchanged for that 
 of grand-duke, which had been conferred on him by his powerful 
 aUy. He was twice manied, and had fom-teen children, the 
 fruit of these unions. One of his daughters was mamed to 
 ^Maximilian, king of Bavaria ; another to Gustavus IV., king of 
 Sweden ; and a third to the Emperor Alexander. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his grandson, Lewis-Frederick. 
 
 CiiAKLEs-LEwas-FREDEKiCK, Grand-duke of Baden, gi-and- 
 son of the preceding, bom at Carlsruhe, 8th June, 1786 ; died 
 at Eastadt, 8th December, 1818. In 180'i he assisted at the 
 coronation of Napoleon ; and in 1806 manied Mademoiselle 
 Stephanie Tascher de la Pagcrie, the adopted daughter of Napo- 
 leon, and cousin of the Empress Josephine. He was shortly 
 afterwards called on to take part in the campaigns of Prassia 
 and of Poland ; and having distinguished hunself at the battle 
 of Jena, and at the siege of Dantzic, he obtained the rank of 
 general of infantrj'. He aftenvards assisted in the campaign 
 of Austria; and in 1811 he succeeded his grandfather, whose 
 poUtical principles he adopted. He was among the last to 
 abandon the French alUance ; nevertheless he succeeded in main- 
 taining liis dominions entire, part of which had been coveted by 
 the king of Bavaria. A short time before his death, he gave to 
 his people a constitution similar to that of the kingdom of Wur- 
 temberg. He left no sons, and was succeeded by his uncle, 
 Lewis- Augustus- WUUam. 
 
 Lewis- Auc;rsTus-WiLLiAM, Grand-duke of Baden, son of 
 Charles-Frederick, bom 9th February, 1763, died at Carlsruhe, 
 30th March, 1830. Being at first destined to a military career, 
 he served in the Prussian army until the treaty of 1795. He 
 afterwards returned to Carlsruhe, where he held the office of 
 minister-of-war until the death of his father. When called to 
 the thi-one in 1818, he hastened to ratify the constitution which 
 had been accorded by his father ; but the Chambers ha%ing 
 shown themselves hostile to the government, were several times 
 prorogued. During his reign the county of Hohengeroldseck in 
 the Black Forest, was reunited to the grand duchy. The Grand- 
 duke Lewis having died without issue, was succeeded by Leopold, 
 the eldest of the margi-aves. 
 
 Leopold I., GranJ-duke of Baden, successor of the pre- 
 ceding, died 24th April, 1852. He was the eldest son of the 
 Grand-duke Charles-Frederick, by his maniage with the coun- 
 tess of Hochberg, of the house of Geyar-Gyersberg; the children 
 of that union haNing by the organic statute of 1806, and the 
 letters patent of 4th October, 1817, been declared capable of 
 succeeding. Baden had enjoyed a constitutional government 
 since the 22nd of August, 1818, and many laws had been passed 
 of great public utility ; but during the reign of Leopold a reac- 
 tion took place, and on the 28th July, 1832, the law of the 
 press was withdra^\'n by the Baden government. The conflict 
 between the hberal and reactionary parties continued until Feb- 
 ruary, 1848, when the revolution in France revived and extended 
 the hopes of the liberals. The adoption by the government of 
 Baden of the constitution of the empire, voted 28tli Jlarch, 
 1849, became the pretext for a republican insmTcction, which 
 m the month of May burst out at Rastadt with peculiar violence; 
 and the grand-duke was compelled to abandon liis dominions, 
 and take refuge in Strasburg. But Prussia speedily sent to his 
 assistance an army under the command of General Peucker, 
 who, in the following month, attacked and defeated the repub- 
 licans, and reinstated Leopold in his sovereignty. His restora- 
 tion was at first followed by sanguinary executions, but, w'tU 
 the concurrence of the Chambers, the government was soon led 
 to the adoption of more moderate and conciliatory measures. 
 New laws were passed regidating the administration of the com- 
 
 munes, the press, and the right of popular meetings. A new 
 penal code was adopted, and a new code of procedure; and, while 
 public liberty was m a great degi'ee secured, the administrative 
 authority was placed on a finner basis. — G. M. 
 
 BADEN, Gl'stav Ludvig, eldest sou of Jacob Baden, was 
 bom 1764. He acquired a reputation by his historical mono- 
 graphs. As a writer of history he does not rank so high. His 
 "Histoiyof the Kingdom of Denmark," was published in 1829-32. 
 
 BADEN, Jakoe, a distinguished Danish critic, grammarian, 
 and philologist, was bom at Wordingborg in 1735. He studied 
 at Copenhagen, Gottingen, and Leipzig, and on his return to 
 Ids native country in 1760, commenced a com-se of lectures 
 at Copenhagen. He was elected shortly after rector of the 
 Pwdagogium at Altona; in 1766, of the high school at Hel- 
 singor; and in 1779, professor of eloquence and Latin at Copen- 
 hagen. He was the founder of the so-called Critical Journal, 
 1768-79, which contributed greatly by its acumen and abifity 
 to the fonnation of the public taste. Baden was the first who 
 established lectures on the Danish language, and his Danish 
 Grammar continued long to be the established authority. He 
 was also a pioneer in his Latin-Danish, and Danish-Latin Dic- 
 tionaiy. He prepared school selections from Horace, Virgil, and 
 Phasdrus, -n-ith various translations from the same authors. His 
 " Opuscula," 1760, show how much he accomplished alone as a 
 Latinist. From 1793 to 1801, he edited the University Jour- 
 nal. He died in Copenhagen, 1804. — M. H. 
 
 BADEN, Laurids de, a Danish theologian, bom at Horsen 
 in 1616; died in 1689. He pubhshed a work on morals, en- 
 titled " Himelstige." 
 
 BADEN, Sophia Louisa Chari-otte, a Danish authoress, 
 bom at Copenhagen in 1740 ; published in 1792 " DerForstatte 
 Grandison" (The New Grandison). 
 
 BADEN, ToRKiLL, a Danish plulologist, rector of an academy 
 at Holberg in Zealand; was born iu 1668, and died in 1732. 
 His principal work is entitled " Roma Danica, harmoniam atque 
 affinitatem linguaa Danlcse cum Romana Exhlbens." 
 
 BADEN, ToRKEL, brother of Gustav Ludvig, bom 1765, is 
 highly esteemed as an archaeologist. After having studied in the 
 university of Copenhagen, he spent many years in travelling 
 through Germany and Italy. In 1794 he was appointed professor 
 of eloquence and philosophy at Kiel, and in 1804 secretaiy to the 
 Academy of Ail at Copenhagen, which office he retained till 1812. 
 His writings on ancient art, pubhshed at various times from 1792 
 to 1825, brought him into connection with the most esteemed 
 archaeologists and friends of art m all countries. His Letters on 
 Ai't, to and from C. L. von Hagedorn, were published at Leipzig, 
 1797. In 1820 he was engaged in a contest with the learned 
 Finn Magnusen, on the availability of the northern mythologj' 
 for representation tlirough the fine arts ; but from the classical 
 tendency of his mind he appears somewhat bluid to the peculiar 
 gi'andeur and poetic wealth of his native north. In 1821 he 
 pubhshed an edition of Seneca's tragedies, a work of great criti- 
 cal and philological ability. — JL H. 
 
 BADENIUS, Andreas, a German theologian, died in 1667. 
 
 BADENIUS, Christian, a German theologian, son of the 
 preceding, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. His 
 principal work, " Johanniticum de Veritate Testimonium," was 
 published in 1710. 
 
 BADENS, Francois, a Flemish painter, native of Antwerp, 
 in 1571; studied at Amsterdam and in Italy, and received the 
 surname of the Italianer, on account of the warm southerly 
 tints of his figures. He was equally successful in portraits, land- 
 scapes, and allegories. Died 1603. — R. M. 
 
 BADE SI, Girolamo, a Roman \\Titcr, who flourished about 
 the year 1570. He wrote various poems, and Lodo\'ico Jacopo 
 da S. Carlo states that he received a magnificent reward in 
 money for a Latin poem, entitled " De SaceUo EsquiUno a Sixto 
 V. Pontifice Extmcto."— A. C. M. 
 
 BADESSA, Paulo, a Sicilian poet of the middle of the six- 
 teenth centur)', was a native of Messina. He left translations 
 of the Iliad and Odyssey, and of Ovid's JIetamorplu)ses. 
 
 BADHAM, Charles, M.D., F.R.S., professor of medicine iu 
 the university of Glasgow. Having completed liis medical edu- 
 cation at Edinburgh, lie entered Pembroke college, Oxford, 
 where he graduated, B.A., M..\., and JLD. He commenced 
 his career in London as a medical lecturer. In 1808 he pub- 
 lished a treatise on bronchitis, and not long after became a 
 fellow of the College of Physicians. About 1815 he published
 
 a translation of the " Satkes of Juvenal." He was also a con- 
 tributor to Blackwood's Magazine. He was appointed to the 
 Glasgow medical chair in 1827. He died in London, 1845. — T. F. 
 
 BADHAM, David Charles, was born in 1805. He came 
 of a family of scholars. His father was professor of medicine in 
 the miiversity of Glasgow, and the author of a spuited translation 
 of Juvenal in Valpy's Classical Library ; his brother is one of the 
 most accomplished scholars of our day, and especially noted for 
 his skill in restoring the cormptions in the text of Plato. David 
 Chai-les Badham was educated at Eton and Emanuel college, 
 Cambridge, whence he went to Pembroke college, Oxford. He 
 became one of the travelling fellows of that university, and was 
 elected a fellow of the College of Physicians. He practised for 
 some time at Paris, and at Pome. Returning to England in 1845, 
 he married a daughter of the late ilr. Deacon Hume of the Board 
 of Trade ; and was ordamed by the late bishop of Non«ch, Dr. 
 Stanley. He held for some time the curacy of Wymondham, 
 Norfolk, and that of East Bergholt, Suifolk. He was for several 
 years one of the most frequent contributors to Blackwood's and 
 Fraser's Magazines: his writings were subsequently reprinted 
 under the title of " Ancient and Slodem Fish Tattle." He was 
 also the author of two useful works on " Insect Life," published 
 in 1845, and of the "Esculent Funguses of England." He died 
 in August, 1857, in his fifty-second year. — E. \V. 
 
 BADL\, CaPvLO Fraxcesco, bom at Ancona in 1675, a 
 distinguished orator, and doctor of laws. For the space of 
 thirtj'-eight years he preached in Italy, and also at Vienna. In 
 1727 he was created by the king of Sai-dinia, Victor Amadeus, 
 abbot of St. Nicholas ; and aftenvards refused the bishopric of 
 Placentia. He died in 1751, leaving many works. — A. C. M. 
 
 BADIA, TosiJiASO, an Italian cardinal, bom at Modena in 
 1483 ; died in 1547. He was present at Worms in 1540, and 
 wrote a letter on the proceedings of the diet, which has been 
 pubhshed. 
 
 BADIALE, Aless.^ndro, an Itahan painter and engraver, 
 bom at Bologna about 1623; died in 1668. He was a pnpU of 
 Flaminio Torre. — R. M. 
 
 BADIER, Jean Etiexne, a French Benedictine monk, born 
 in 1650; died in 1719. He wrote a work, entitled " De la 
 saintete de I'etat monastique," &c. 
 
 BADILE, Giovanni Antonio, an Italian historical painter, 
 bom at Verona in 1480 ; died 1560. He was the uncle and the 
 earliest master of Paolo Veronese. He is considered the first of 
 his school who discarded the old or sacred style, to introduce the 
 full display of expression and life. — K. M. 
 
 BADIN, Martin, an English translator, published at Lon- 
 don in 1705, " The Commentaries of Ca?sai\" 
 
 BADINO, LuiGi DoNATO, bom at Mondovi, on the 7th of 
 August, 1675. Ha%"ing entered the chmxh, he gave liimself 
 entirely to study, and in a few years obtained, first a professorship 
 in the college where he had been edcuated, and soon after the 
 rectorship, which dignity he filled for three years. He wrote 
 many poetical compositions, chiefly in Latin, wliich are highly 
 esteemed. Several scientifical academies inscribed his name on 
 their roUs, and his friendship was courted by the most distin- 
 guished personages. At the age of forty-eight, he was re-elected 
 rector, and continued in that office for sis years. At the open- 
 ing of the royal college, King Victor of Savoy appointed him 
 regins professor of eloquence, which appointment he held for 
 14 years, and died on the 18th of November, 1742. — A. C. 31. 
 
 BADIUS, Joseph and Conk.\d, celebrated printers of the 
 fifteenth century. Joseph was bom in 1462 at the village of 
 Asseche, near Brussels, from which he Latinised his name to that 
 of Ascensius ; he was aided not only by his brother, but by his 
 two sons-in-law, Robert Etienne and Michael Vascosan, the 
 latter of whom is said, indeed, to have substituted the modem for 
 the rude old Gothic type. Before he came to Paris to found bis 
 celebrated printing establishment, he acted as professor of belles- 
 lettres at Lyons. Amongst his own writings is the " Nancula 
 Stu'tarum Virginum," of which a translation into his own lan- 
 guage appeai-ed in his lifetime. Erasmus speaks in high terms 
 of him. He died in 1535. — Conrad Badius was bom in P.iris 
 about tr.e year 1500 ; and as he succeeded his brother some 
 thu-ty-thrc-f; years, his name is connected with a still greater 
 number of important publications. He was also a good scholar, 
 and made translations into French of some of the writings of 
 Erasmus. — J. F. C. 
 
 BADIUS, Ralph, a Florentine theologian of the second half 
 
 of the seventeenth century. He published " Constitutiones et 
 Decreta universitatis FlorentinaB," &c. 
 
 BADLAND, Thomas, a Nonconformist minister, ejected 
 from WLUeuhall, Staffordshire, was afterwards pastor of the 
 Presbyterian congregation at Worcester, for whom he drew up 
 the declaration of its religious sentiments, dated 1687. He died 
 Jlay 5, 1698, aged sixty-four. 
 
 BADOARO, Frederico, an Italian diplomatist, founder of 
 the academy Delia Fama at Venice, was bom in 1518, and died 
 in 1593. He was ten times elected to represent the repubUc of 
 Venice at the courts of Charles V. and Philip II. 
 
 BADOARO, Giacomo, a dramatic -writer of the seventeenth 
 century ; bom at Venice. His principal di-amas are — " Elena 
 Rapita," and " Nozze di Enea con LaN-uua." 
 
 BADOARO, Giovanni, an Italian cardinal, successively 
 patriarch of Venice and bishop of Brescia; died in 1714. He 
 left a work, entitled " Industrie spiritual! per ben vivere e santa- 
 mente moiire." 
 
 BADOARO, Lauro, bom at Venice from a noble family in 
 1546, a man of gi-eat learning. He is the author of many works 
 of a religious kind, and manuscripts in prose and verse. 
 
 BADOERO, PiETRO, doge of Venice from 939 till the year 
 of his death, 942. He seciu-ed by a treaty with Berenger 11., 
 king of Italy, the Ubei-ties of the republic, and the rights to coin 
 gold and silver. 
 
 BADOLET, John, a protestant minister and professor of 
 Humanity at Geneva ; hved towards the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century. His most considerable work is entitled, " Con- 
 scientia; Humanre Anatomia." 
 
 BADON, Edmund, a French dramatic writer, died in 1849 
 at too young an age to allow a just opinion of bis merits. He 
 wrote, in connection with the more celebrated Frederic Souli^, a 
 comedy in three acts, called " Une Aventure sous Charles IX.," 
 and a piece by himself — " Un Duel sous RicheUen" — of much 
 merit ; as well as the romance of " Montbran, or the Huguenots 
 en Dauphine." — J. F. C. 
 
 BADOU, Jean Baptiste, a French theologian, bom at 
 Toulouse; died in 1727. He left a work, entitled "Exercises 
 Spirituels," &c. 
 
 BADRESCHI, sumamed Raeei Zahoqot Ben Moseh 
 IL\.esa, a native of Barcelona : the age he hved in is uncertain. 
 He is the translator, in the Hebrew language, of the commentary 
 of " Maimouides to Jlisna," of which a manuscript is preserved 
 in the library of the Vatican. Wolfio, however, states that this 
 manuscript contains only the treatise, n^B^J Nasim, (Women) ; 
 and says that Badreschi was the writer of the letter to Rabbi 
 Selemoh Ben Adereth, which is found, with the answer to it, in 
 the edition published at Cracow. — A. C. M. 
 
 BADUARIUS or PADUARIUS, Bonsemblantes, an Ita- 
 lian theologian ; died at Padua in 1369. He wrote " Quaes- 
 tiones Philosophic et Theologife." 
 
 BADUEEO, Ursus L, Doge of Venice. He was elected in 
 864, expelled the Saracens firom the coasts of Dalmatia, and 
 was honom'ed with the title of " Protospatary " by the Emperor 
 Basil I. Died in 881. 
 
 BADUERO, Ursus IL, Doge of Venice, elected in 912, ob- 
 tained for the republic, from Randolph of Burgimdy, the right 
 to coin money. He retired into a convent in 932. 
 
 B^EBIA, Gens, s'jmamcd also Dives, Herennics, Sul- 
 CAN, P^vjiPHiLUS. Cn. B»bius PampMlus was consul in the 
 year 182 b.c. The other remarkable members of this gens fol- 
 low in chronological order: — 
 
 B.EBius, Lucius, one of the ambassadors sent by Scipio to 
 Carthage in 202 B.C. He was charged to assume the command 
 of the Roman camp. 
 
 B.EBius, QuiNTUS, tribune of the people, remarked for his 
 opposition to the war against Philip of Macedon, lived about 
 the year 200 B.C. 
 
 B.EBIUS, JL^RCUS, was sent into Macedonia, along with two 
 other commissioners, in the year 186 b.c, to inquire into the 
 complaints of the ilaronites and others against Philip. 
 
 B.EBIUS, AuLUS, condemned at Rome in 170 b.c, for hav- 
 ing put to death the members of the senate of ^toha. 
 
 B.EBIUS, Lucius, one of three commissioners sent into Ma- 
 cedonia in 168 B.C., to report on the state of the country pre- 
 vious to the setting out of an expedition under Paulus Emilius. 
 
 B.EBIUS, Caius, tribune of the people, an avowed partisan 
 of Jugurtha.
 
 -t 
 
 BAE 
 
 337 
 
 BAE 
 
 BiEBius, Caius, general, towards the year 60 b.c. Sextus 
 L'a-sar appointed him to the command of the Koman troops in 
 the civil war. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAECK, Abeahaji, a distingnished Swedish physician, the 
 contemporary and intimate friend of Linnseus, was horn in 1713, 
 and died in 1795. His knowledge of medicine was veiy exten- 
 sive ; he became first physician to the king, and president of the 
 council of medicine, and was created a knight of the order of the 
 Polar star. Linnaeus has applied his name to a genus of plants 
 (Baechea). On the death of Linnrcus, Baeck was selected by 
 the Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, to wi-ite an obituary 
 notice of that great natm'ahst ; and he did the same kind office 
 for the mcmoiy of Hasselquist and Olaiis Celsius. He also 
 pubhshed memohs upon subjects of natural history, principally 
 in the Transactions of the Swedish Academy. — W. S. D. 
 
 BAECK or BAEX, JoACHur, a French theologian, bom at 
 Utrecht in 15G2 ; died in 1619. Of his writings, which are 
 chiefly controversial, the most important is entitled, " L'Adver- 
 saire des mauvais cathoHques." 
 
 •BAEHR,JoiiANN Christian Felix, professor ordinaiy and 
 principal librarian of Heidelberg, was bom at Dannstadt, 13th 
 Jane, 1798. He studied at Heidelberg under Creuzer, and soon 
 distinguished himself as a classical scholar. His principal works 
 are his edition of Herodotus, and his " Geschichte der Eomis- 
 chen Literatur," which was followed by three continuations, ^^z., 
 "Die Christlichen Dichterund Geschichtschreiber Roms," 1836; 
 " Die Christlichromische Theologie nebst eineni Anhange iiber 
 die Rechtsquellen," 1837 ; and " Geschichte der Eomischen Liter- 
 atur im Kai'olingisclien Zeitalter," 184:0. He has published 
 numerous minor philological works, dissertations, and reviews, 
 and is tlie editor of the lltiddberger Zahrhiicher. — K. E. 
 BjEHREXS, J. E. F., a German writer on agriculture, author 
 a work entitled " System der Natiirhchen und Kiinstlichen 
 ingemittel fiii' Praktische Landwirthe, mit Hinsicht auf Eng- 
 lie Landwirthschaft," was born in 1760, and died in 1830. 
 that work, a part of which, as the title implies, is devoted 
 a consideration of English agi-iculture, he insisted on the ue- 
 >ity for employuig artificial manures. — J. S., G. 
 BAELI, Francesco, bom at Milazzo in Sicily in 1639 ; a 
 torian and a poet. His principal work is " II Siciliano Veri- 
 1," or the History of Messina. Was Uving in 1707. 
 i;J2NG or B^ENGIUS, Christian Stephanus, a Danish 
 r Norwegian geographer of the seventeenth century; author of 
 ■ I'escriptio Urbis Christiana} in Nom-egia," 1651. 
 
 U.EXA, Antonio Ladislau Monteiro, a Portuguese writer, 
 ihor of two valuable works, illustrative of the history and geo- 
 iphy of Para; died in 1851. He held the rank of colonel in 
 artillery corps, established in the province to which his works 
 •r. Their titles are — " Compendio das eras do Para," 1838, 
 111 " Ensaio Corografico sobre a Provincia do Para," 1839. 
 * BAER, Karl Ernst von, a distinguished hving Russian 
 luralist, was born in the province of Esthonia, on the 17th 
 liruary, 1792. He was early led accidentally to the study of 
 luny, and for some years apphed himself sedulously to this 
 i'nce, devoting to it eveiy leisure moment that he enjoyed 
 whilst at the high school of Revel, to which he was sent in 1808. 
 The turn of his mind thus leading him to the investigation of 
 nature. Von Baer went in 1810 to study medicine at Dorpat, 
 where he remained until 1814. The instructions of the distin- 
 guished professors who filled the medical chahs at Dorpat during 
 this period, such as Ledebour, Parrot, and especially Bm'dach, 
 were of the greatest seiwicc to Von Baer, developuig m his mind 
 that spuit of investigation which has since led him to such im- 
 portant and brOliant results. On leaving the university of 
 Dorpat, Von Baer, finding that Russia as it then was, presented 
 but indifferent prospects to the natm-alist, turned to Germany, 
 where he contmued his studies, supporting himself at the same 
 time by the practice of his profession. During his sojourn m 
 Germany, he studied comparative anatomy under Dollinger of 
 Wiirzburg; and amongst liis other acquaintances was Nees von 
 Escnbeck, whose principles appear to have had much influence 
 upon the direction of his mind. In 1817, however, tlic great 
 naturalist's desire to devote himself to science, was to a certain 
 extent fulfilled ; for in this year, liis old tcaclier, Burdach, hav- 
 ing become professor of anatomy and physiology at Kijnig.sberg, 
 invited Von Baer to join him there as prosector. In 1819, he 
 was appohited extraordinary professor of zoology, and soon after- 
 wards professor of that science, and received permission to found 
 vol. 1. 
 
 a zoological museum in Konigsberg; in 1826 he undertook 
 the direction of the anatomical museum in Burdach's place. 
 In the year 1819 he appears to have visited St. Peterburg for a 
 time, but soon retmTied to Kijnigsberg ; and it was not untU 
 1834, on his receiving the appointment of librarian to the 
 Academy of Sciences of that city, that he took up his pemianent 
 abode there. Since that period he has been well known all over 
 Europe, as one of the most active members of the Academy, and 
 the most distinguished of Russian comparative anatomists and 
 physiologists. The Russian government, rarely backward in 
 recognizing and rewarding talent and industiy, even in its 
 scientific subjects, soon indicated its appreciation of Von Baer's 
 powers by the numerous and important commissions conferred 
 upon him, and as early as the year 1838, he received the 
 honom-able appointment of councillor of state. The numerous 
 writings of Von Baer show his mind to be of the highest pliilo- 
 sophical order, whilst, at the same time, we meet in many of 
 tliem with traces of a cm-ious diy hmnour, such as we should 
 hardly expect to find in works of such a strictly scientific 
 nature. The great nmnber of important discoveries made known 
 to the world by his memohs, are the fniit of the most careful 
 investigations, followed out with extraordinary tact ; and al- 
 though liis mind appears never to have allowed itself to be led 
 astray by preconceived ideas, or by a deshe to generahse from 
 insufficient data, it is astonishing how far his views have almost 
 always been in advance of his age, and to how gi'eat an extent 
 zoological science has gradually become assimilated by the united 
 labours of many excellent obsen'ers, to the condition in which 
 it must have existed many years before in the mind of the great 
 Russian naturalist. 
 
 At a veiy early period. Von Baer occupied himself especially 
 with the study of the reproduction and development of animals, 
 subjects which before his time were but veiy miperfectly under- 
 stood. His first work upon this interesting branch of science 
 was his " Epistola de Ovi Mammalium et Hominis Genesi," pub- 
 lished m Leipzig in 1827 ; and this was followed in 1828, by the 
 first volume of a large work, " Uber die Entwickelungsgeschichte 
 der Tliiere" (on the Developmental Histoiy of Animals), of which 
 the second volmne did not appear tUI 1837 ; and in 1835, by his 
 " Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fische" 
 (on the Development of Fishes). These works, with numerous 
 papers on similar subjects, published by Von Baer in different 
 scientific periodicals, in the Memohs and Bulletins of the Aca- 
 demy of Saint Petersburg, and m the Nova Acta Academiaj 
 Natm-a3 Curiosormn, opened up a new field of investigation, 
 which other naturalists, in Germany especially, soon entered 
 upon with great zeal, and these researches have gi-adually led to 
 a viist change in the principles upon which philosophical zoology 
 is founded. The knowledge of Von Baer, is, however, by no 
 means confined to those strictly zoological subjects, from his in- 
 vestigation of which he has derived his most brilliant fiime. The 
 polar regions of the vast Russian empue appear always to have 
 presented some singular attraction to his mind, and on his acquir- 
 mg a high position in St. Petersburg, he made use of his oppor- 
 tunities to collect all the information av;dlable upon those 
 interesting countries, consulting the numerous reports of Rus- 
 sian travels belonging to the ministiy of ]\Iarine, settling various 
 questions of climatology, the distribution of plants and animals, 
 and lij-psometric relations as far as the materials at his com- 
 mand would permit. These endeavours, which proved not only 
 the zeal and energy .shown by the Russian voyagers, but also 
 the fitness of Von Baer to undertake the direction of further 
 exjilorations, soon attracted the attention of the government, 
 and in April, 1837, the emperor ordered that Von Baer should 
 be furnished with funds to enable him to make a scientific ex- 
 pedition to the arctic shores. He left St. Petersburg at the end 
 ofJMay, and reached Archangel overland on the 6th of June; 
 but after his arrival at that port, considerable time was lost in 
 consequence of the vessel appointed for the seiwice of the expedi- 
 tion being too small for the jiurpose, so that it was necessary to 
 hire a larger one. Notwithstanding this delay, however. Von 
 Baer succeeded in making valuable investigations, especially on 
 the shores of Nova Zcmbla, the results of which prove, that the 
 Fauna and Flora of that inhospitable land arc far less scanty than 
 might have been anticipated. The results of this voyage were 
 communicated by Vou Baer at various times to the Academy 
 of St. Petersburg, and published m the Jlemoirs and Bulletins of 
 that society.— ^V. S. D. 
 
 2 U
 
 BAE 
 
 338 
 
 BAF 
 
 BAER or BAERIUS, Nicot^as, a Gemian writer, bom at 
 Bremen on the lltli July, 1G39; died 12th August, 1714. He 
 was distinguished by a gi-eat faciUty in poetical composition, 
 being accustomed, we are told, to recite poems extempore, in 
 Latin or German indifferently. His principal published works 
 consist of four poems on subjects of natural history, entitled 
 respectively, " Arctophonia," " Phalainodia et Crocodilophonia," 
 " Korakophonia," and " Ornithophonia." He also translated the 
 Eclogues of Virgil into GeiTnan. — W. S. D. 
 
 BAEREBISTE, king of the Dacians; a contemporary of 
 Caesar and Augustus. He attacked and rendered tributary Thrace, 
 Macedonia, and a part of Pannonia, and, when on his way to 
 subdue Hlyria, was assassinated by some of the rebels, supposed 
 to have been sent by Augustus. 
 
 BAERMAXN, Georg Nicolas, a German mLscellaneous 
 writer and translator, was bom at Hamburg, 19th May, 1785, 
 and died 28th FebruaiT, 1850. His di-amas, novels, tales, &c., 
 have no great merit, and his translations served no higher pur- 
 pose than to fill the shelves of circulating libraries. — K. E. 
 
 BAERSDORP, Corxeille vax, a Dutch physician, bom at 
 Baersdorp, a village in Zealand, about the beginning of the six- 
 teenth centur)' ; he died at Brages, on the 24th of November, 
 1565. He became first physician, counsellor, and chamberlain 
 to Charles V. He left a work entitled " De Arthi-itidis Prai- 
 ser\'atione et Curatione," Frankfort, 1592, in 8vo ; also " lile- 
 thodus universie artis medic?e formuhs espressa ex Galeni tra- 
 ditionibus, qua scopi omnes curantibus necessai'ii demonstrantm-, 
 in quinque partes dissecta," Bniges, 1538. — E. L. 
 
 BAERT, Alexandre Balthasar Francois de Paule, 
 Baron de, a French geographical writer, bom at Dunkerque in 
 1750 ; died at Paris in 1825. He opposed the regicides in the 
 legislative assembly of 1792, repaired to America after the death 
 of the king, and subsequently journeyed in Russia, Spain, and 
 England. Baert is the author of a work which was frequently 
 in the hands of Napoleon, " Tableau de la Grande Bretagne, de 
 ITrlande, et des possessions Anglaises dans les quatre parties du 
 monde," 1800.— J. S., G. 
 
 BAEZA, Diego de, a Spanish preacher and theological 
 writer, bom at PonfeiTada in Galicia; died in 1647. He pub- 
 lished " Commentaiii morales in Historiam Evangelicam." 
 
 BAFFA, Fr^vxcesca, a Venetian poetess, who flom-ished in 
 the year 1545. "This lady was so much distinguished," says 
 Agostino della Chiesa, " for her gi-eat learning, that many per- 
 sons came from far distant lands to visit her." She is the author 
 of many sonnets and madrigals, which have been highly praised 
 by Doni and Betussi for pmity of language, and sweetness in 
 versification. The Countess Luisa Bergalli, in her collection of 
 the writings of the most illustrious poetesses of ancient and 
 modem times, gives to Francesca a prominent place. — A. C. M. 
 
 BAFFI, Bartolommeo, an Italian theologian, professor at 
 Pavia in the latter half of tlie sixteenth centmy. He published 
 a number of Latin orations. 
 
 BAFFI, LucuLLO, bom at Perugia in the sixteenth century. 
 He practised medicine in his native city, and was elected a 
 member of the academy Degl' Insensati. He is the author of a 
 canzone on the bulh of the royal prince of Tuscany, which was 
 published at Venice in 1590. He also dedicated a small poem 
 to Philip Alberti. Bonciario had a great opinion of Baffi's Ute- 
 rary merit, and calls him " vimm cultissimum et acerrimum." 
 Giacobillo informs us that he left many poetical and historical 
 opuscules, which, however, have not been puljlished. The date 
 of his death is uncertain: Giacobillo fixes it about 1612, whilst 
 Oldoini says he died on the 16th of March, 1634. — A. C. JI. 
 
 BAFFIN, WiLLiAsi, a celebrated English pilot and navigator, 
 is believed to have been bom about the year 1584. Nothing is 
 known of Baffin's early life, and it is chiefly in coimection with 
 the professional emphjyment of his sen-ices' in the tield of arctic 
 discovery that his name has descended to posterity. In 1612, 
 Baffin accompanied Captain James Hall on the fourth voyage 
 which that adventurer had undertaken towards the arctic shores 
 of the New World ; prompted partly by the hoped-for diseoveiy 
 of a north-west passage from the Atlantic into the Pacific 
 Ocean, and in part by the spirit of maritime enterprise which 
 belonged to the age. At that time, the hopes of finding a pas- 
 sage to Cathay and the Indies, by way of the northem shores of 
 the American continent — hopes which" had stunulated the enter- 
 prise of Englishmen for more than half a century previously, and 
 which have continued to exert their influence down to the pre- 
 
 sent day — were in full activity. For the little that is known of 
 this voyage, which is elsewhere referred to (see Captain James 
 Hall), we are indebted to Baffin, and it is remarkable for being 
 the first on record in which is laid do^vn a method, as practised 
 by the narrator, for determining the longitude at sea by an ob- 
 servation of the heavenly bodies. The mode of obsen-ation which 
 Baffin adopted proves him to have possessed a very considerable 
 degree of knowledge in the theory as well as the practice of 
 navigation. Baffin seems to have borne an active part in the 
 maritime enterprise of his age, since we find him in the follow- 
 ing year (1613), in command of one amongst sis. English ships 
 which were engaged — along with those of other nations (French, 
 Dutch, Spanish, and Biscayan) — in the fisheries within the sea 
 lying between Greenland and Spitzbergen. And in 1614 he was 
 again engaged, with Fotherby, in a voyage to the coasts of Spitz- 
 bergen, apparently undertaken in the expectation of finding a 
 north-east passage to the Indies, by way of the arctic shores of 
 Europe and Asia. But it is to the voyages he perfonned in the 
 two succeeding years, 1615 and 1616, that the fame of Baffin 
 is chiefly due. In both of these voyages he sailed in the capa- 
 city of pUot, Robert Bylot acting as master. Upon each occa- 
 sion, the object sought was the same — the discovery of the 
 north-west passage. A coiTect version of the voyage perfonned 
 by Bylot and Baffin in 1615, derived from manuscript docu- 
 ments in the British Museum (including a chart of the voyage 
 fi-om Baffin's own draft), was first published in one of the 
 volumes issued by the Hakluyt society — NaiTative of Voyages 
 towards the North-west, in search of a Passage to Cathay and 
 India, 1496 to 1631 ; by Thomas Rundall, 1849. This nar- 
 rative had been previously printed, in a mutilated form, by 
 Purchas, who admits that he had been furnished by Baffin him- 
 self with various other documents illustrative of his voyages, 
 including his journals and charts, which Pm-chas had omitted 
 as " somewhat troublesome and costly to insert :" an omission 
 which, in reference to the later of the two voyages now adverted 
 to, long caused gi-eat injustice to be done to the memory of 
 Baffin. This voyage of 1615 was performed, Baffin tells us, m 
 " the good shipp called the Discoiterare, beinge of the burthen 
 of 55 tonn, or theare aboute." The course taken was through 
 Hudson Strait, in a westerly direction, and the voyage was pro- 
 secuted as far as a short distance beyond Cape Comfort, on the 
 shore of Southampton Island, lat. 65° 6' N., long. 83° W. 
 The voyage of the following year, 1616, was made in the same 
 ship, and was under the command of the same officers. Upon 
 this occasion, the Discovery — then employed on her fifth voyage 
 in the search after a north-west passage — sailed from Gravcsend 
 on March 26, but was obliged by foul weather to put in, first at 
 Dartmouth, and again at Plymouth, so that a final start was 
 not made until April 19. Her crew, including the master and 
 pilot, consisted in all of seventeen persons — one more in number 
 than had been engaged in the voyage of the preceding year. 
 Baffin pursued upon this occasion a more northerly course, and 
 first sighted land in lat. 65° 20', upon the west coast of Green- 
 land. The instiiictions for the voyage, which had been drawn 
 up T\-ith remarkable clearness and precision, directed him to keep 
 along the coast of Greenland, up the chaimel which had been 
 discovered by Davis thirty-one years previously, to as high a 
 latitude as 80° — if the direction of the land would allow of his 
 doing so — then to shape his course to the west and south as far 
 as the parallel of 60°, and aftenvards so to guide himself as " to 
 fall in with the land of Yedzo (Jesso) ;" thence to "touch the 
 north part of Japan," and subsequently, with all expedition, 
 make his return home. Baffin failed, as all succeeding navigators, 
 during the two and a half centuries which have since elapsed, have 
 failed, in accomplishing so magnificent a project ; but he sailed 
 to a higher latitude, by several degi-ees, than had ever before 
 been reached in that part of the world, and he was the first 
 to delineate the coasts of that spacious ann of the Atlantic 
 which is with justice known by his name — Baffin Bay. Upon 
 the detailed narrative of the voyage, derived from Purchas, our 
 limits forbid us to dvrell ; but we may note the fact that Baffin 
 obser\'ed, in its course, the two openings which have been 
 proved by the discoveries of recent years to afford the only 
 practicable passages, in this direction, into the Polar Sea — 
 namel}'. Sir James Lancaster's Sound, and Sir Thomas Smith's 
 Sound, names which he bestowed in compliment to certain of 
 his patrons in the undertaking. Through the fonner, Lan- 
 caster Sound, a passage was found by PaiTy, two centmies
 
 BAF 
 
 339 
 
 BAG 
 
 later, to the ocean wliicli washes the northern shores of the 
 New World ; and by way of Smith Sound — the most northerly 
 opening of Baffin Bay — Dr. Kane has more recently pene- 
 trated to within eight degrees of the pole. Baffin himself, 
 however, believed these, as well as other estuaries which he dis- 
 covered in the course of this voyage, to be closed up by land, 
 and our voyagers returned to England with the conviction that 
 no passage to the westward existed m the direction which they 
 had been pui'suing. Tliere is extant a letter which Baffin ad- 
 dressed to Sir John Wolstcnholme, in reference to this voyage, 
 the residts of which amply justify the tone of modest self- 
 gratulation in which the writer refers to them. "And I dare 
 boldly say (without boasting), that more good discouerie hath 
 not in shorter time (to my remembrance) been done since the 
 action was attempted, considering how much ice we have passed, 
 and the diificultie of sayling so neere the pole." The convic- 
 tion entertained by Baffin himself of the futility of any further 
 attempt in this direction operated to discourage subsequent 
 explorers from following his track, and the neglect of Pm'chas 
 to publish in detail the observations made diu-ing the voyage, 
 led the geographers of succeeding generations to entertain 
 the most vague and erroneous notions respecting the great 
 arm of the Atlantic which the English pilot had discovered. 
 Baffin Bay became, in course of time, almost banished from 
 the charts; and it remained for Ross and Parry to restore 
 the lines of coast, with their numerous headlands, sounds, and 
 adjacent islets, which the earher voyager had traced above two 
 centuries before, and to substantiate, in a remarkable manner, 
 his accuracy of observation and his keen sagacity. There is 
 Httle more to be told of Baffin. He is said to have entertained 
 the project of effecting a passage from the seas of Tartary and 
 China round the north coasts of Asia and Europe ; but to have 
 failed in finding any one who would advance the necessary funds 
 for such an enterprise. Baffin afterwards sailed to the East 
 Indies, and is stated to have been mate upon a voyage from 
 Surat to Mocha in 1618. Three years later, in 1G21, he engaged 
 in an English expedition, acting in concert with the ruler of 
 Persia, to drive the Portuguese out of the Persian Gulf, and was 
 Idlled in the beginning of 1G22, at the siege of Ormuz. — W. H. 
 
 BAFFO, George, born at Venice at the beginning of the 
 
 ■vonteenth centmy. He wrote his poetical compositions in the 
 
 ' uetian dialect, and is undoubtedly the most licentious poet of 
 
 is age. His works are known under the name of " Cosmopoli," 
 
 iiJ were pubhshed at Venice in 1787. The sweetness peculiar 
 
 to that dialect has 'endowed his compositions with a chann which 
 
 entices the reader's attention ; and it is worth remarking, that 
 
 this poet was as reserved in his conversation as he was licentiotis 
 
 ill his writings. He died in 1768. — A. C. M. 
 
 BAFOK, Bai>tiiazar, a Gennan councillor of state and 
 diplomatist, who enjoyed the confidence of the emperors IJodolph, 
 Mathias, and Ferdinand, and was sent by the last as ambassa- 
 dor to the court of Sigismond III. of Poland ; died at Warsaw 
 in 1620. His name frequently occm's in the history of the 
 religious wars of Bohemia. 
 
 BAG/EUS, (Bx.ya.'ios,') a Persian nobleman, lived in the second 
 half of the sixth century before the Christian era. By command 
 of Darius Hystaspes, he caused Oroes, the rebellious satrap of the 
 province of Lydia, to be assassinated by his own guards. 
 
 BAGjEUS, (Ba'ya.lo;,') a Persian general, lived in the first half 
 of the fourth century B.C. He commanded a body of cavalry 
 that vanquished Agesilas, in the year 396 B.C. 
 
 BAGAKD, Cesar, a French sculptor of great skill and facility, 
 was born at Nancy in 1630 ; died in 1709 ; studied under Jaquin 
 in Paris, where he executed some statuary for a fete on the 
 occasion of the marriage of the king, Louis XIV. Returned to 
 his native town, he produced many and important works, all 
 beaiing the stamp of an easy genius, but greatly imbued with 
 the exaggeration of the time. His son, Toussaint, was also a 
 distinguislied sculptor, who died in 1742. — R. M. 
 
 BAGARRIS, Pikruk Antoine Rascas, Sieur de, a Pro- 
 ven9al antiquaiy of the commencement of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, who possessed a colli^ction of medals and engi-aved stones ; 
 a discourse on which he was honoured on one occasion to deliver 
 to Heniy IV., who forthwith gave him the title of Maitre des 
 cabinets, medaillcs et antiquites dc S. M., and instructed him 
 to furnish a set of medals emblematic of the chief points in the 
 history of his reign. Heniy dying two years afterwards, this 
 task was never accomplished. Bagarris left court, and retm-aed 
 
 to Provence in 1611. He published a tract, now extremely 
 rare, entitled " La necessite de I'usage des medailles dans les 
 nionnaics." His medals and other antiquities now form part of 
 the collection in the Bibliothcque Royale. — J. S., G. 
 
 » BAGATTI-VALSECCHI, Cavalier Pietro, an Italian 
 enamel and glass painter, Hving at Milan, where he was born 
 at the beginning of the century ; studied partly in France, and 
 partly in Italy. Although his works on glass are very remark- 
 able, his celebrity especially rests upon the exqiusite beauty of 
 his enamel and porcelain paintings. Specimens of both were in 
 the Exhibition of 1851.— R. M. 
 
 BAGE, Robert, a novelist, born near Derby in 1728. He 
 was originally a paper-maker in his native place, but was un- 
 successftd in business, and tm-ned his attention to literatm-e. 
 His works were remarkably popidar in his day, and were indeed 
 superior to the novels then connnonly read. They are named 
 " Mount Heneth," " Barham Downs," " The Fair Syrian," and 
 "James Wallace." He died at Tamworth in 1801, and was 
 honoured by Su- Walter Scott becoming his biographer. — J. B. 
 
 BAGET, Jean Chevalier de, a French general, born at 
 Lavit-de-Lamagne (Tani-et-Garonne) 19th October, 1743 ; died 
 14th February, 1821. He took part in the campaigns of 1759, 
 1761, and 1762 in Gennany. At the outbreak of the Revolution, 
 he held the rank of captam, and in March, 1792, was appointed 
 aide-de-camp of General Valence. He joined the army of the 
 Moselle in 1793, and fought at the battle of Ai'lon, where he 
 was wounded at the head of his regiment. He was afterwards 
 raised to the rank of general of brigade. 
 
 BAGETTI, Cavalier Giuseppe Pietro, an Italian land- 
 scape painter and draughtsman, a native of Turin, bom 1764, 
 died 1831.— R. M. 
 
 BAGFORD, John, an industrious antiquary, born about 
 1650, was of humble lineage, and received but a slender educa- 
 tion. Though little noted as a writer, his laboriou? research 
 into matters of antiquarian interest, especially connected with 
 the history of books, typography, &c., have been of service to 
 more recent authors. He made a large collection of materials 
 for a History of the Art of Printing, only the prospectus of 
 which appeared, but his MSS. are still preserved in the British 
 Museum. He died in 1716, a pensioner in the Charter House. 
 
 BAGGE, James, a Swedish admiral, born in 1499 in the 
 provmce of Haland ; died between 1565 and 1570. He, at first, 
 served in the army sent by Gustavus I. to the aid of Denmark ; 
 and distinguished himself at the siege of Haimslad, where he 
 was wounded. In 1555, he conducted an expedition against 
 the Muscovites, who were about to invade Finland. He showed 
 great ability in the fulfilment of this mission, and succeeded in 
 concludmg a peace fur forty years. He afterwards broke up the 
 confederation of the Ilanseatic to\vns that had combined to ruin 
 the commerce of the town of Revel. In the naval engagement of 
 Bernholm, he defeated the Danes, but was himself defeated in 
 turn, and died in captivity. — G. M. 
 
 BAGGER, John, bishop of Co])enhagen, was born in 1646. 
 After studying at Copenhagen, and travelling in Germany, Hol- 
 land, and England, he was appointed by the king to teach the 
 Oriental langaxages in an academy recently established in his 
 native place. Removing thence in 1674 to the pastorate of the 
 church of the Holy Virgin in Copenhagen, he was in the fol- 
 lowing year appointed bishop of the metropolitan diocese. As 
 bishop and dean of theology. Bagger revised the liturgy and lessons 
 of the church, and ptiblished several treatises and discourses 
 both in Latin and Danish. With sectarian bigotry he opposed 
 the admission into Demnark of the Calvinist refugees from 
 France. Died in 1693. Ilis son. Christian, became a fiunous 
 lawyer, and rose to be a councillor of state. — J. E. 
 
 BAGGESEN, Zens, distinguished himself both as a Danish 
 and a German poet. He was born at Corsocr in Zealand, 15th 
 February, 1764. With a mind ill at ease, he left his countiy 
 in 1789, and by the aid of his patron, the prince of Augustcn- 
 burg, was enabled to tra\'el in Germany, France, Italy, and 
 Switzerland. At Paris ho witnessed the early stages of the 
 French revolution ; at Berne he married a grand-daughter of the 
 great Albrecht von Ilaller. Incapable of steadily devoting him- 
 self to any constant pursuit, he several times went to Denmark, 
 and left it again. In 1800 he settled in Paris, was appointed in 
 1811 to a professorship of Danish literature at Kiel, upon which 
 he never seems to have entered, and which he resigned in 1814; 
 he then resided at Copenhagen until 1820, when he agtiin went
 
 BAG 
 
 340 
 
 BAG 
 
 abroad and died at Hamlnirg, Srd October, 182G, on his return 
 to his countiy. His chief German works ai-e " Parthenais oder 
 die Alpenreise," an idyllic epos in hexameters, and " Adam and 
 Eva oder die Geschichte des Sundenfalls," a humorous epic poem 
 (1826). His Gei-man lyrics, "Gedichte" and " Haideblumen," 
 are remarkable for simplicity and tenderness, but deficient in 
 originality and power. His odes are imitations of Klopstock. 
 In his " Karfunkel-oder Klingklingelahnanach," he ridiculed the 
 Italian and Oriental metrical forms, then much in vogue in 
 Germany. Among his Danish writings, his lyric and mock- 
 heroic poems rank highest; his "Comiske Fortaellinger" (Comic 
 Tales), though written in imitation of Wieland, nevertheless are 
 justly admired. In his great prose work, "Labyrmthen, Digter- 
 vandringer i Europa," he has told his own stoiy. Complete 
 editions of his Danish works m 12 vols., Copenhagen, 1827- 
 1832, and of his German poetical works in 5 vols., Leipzig, 
 1836, have been published by his sons. — K. E. 
 
 BAGER, Halgvin, a Swedish poet of considerable reputa- 
 tion in the eighteenth century. 
 
 BAG LION E, Cesare, an Italian painter of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, a native of Bologna ; studied under his father, an artist of 
 little name. He painted, vpith particular success, landscapes, 
 flowers, and arabesques, the latter especially, which he constantly 
 intenningles with his figures. His frescos, in the ducal palace of 
 PaiTTia, exhibit a variety and originahty of conception that makes 
 one regi'et his spoiling them by the overcrowding of the orna- 
 ments. Died at Parma, 1590, learaig several good pupils ; 
 amongst them Spada, Dentone, and Pisanelh. — R. M. 
 
 BAGLIONE, Cavalier Giovanni, an Italian historical 
 painter ; bom at Rome about 1573, died about 1650 ; was brought 
 up by an obscure teacher, Francesco Morelli, whom he soon left to 
 study the works of the great masters. His success was complete, 
 and his indefatigable ardom- for art fomid full scope in the nmner- 
 ous orders intrusted to him by the pope, Paul V., the duke 
 of Mantua, and others, by whom he was highly esteemed and 
 duly patronized. Amongst his best works are the frescos in 
 several churches at Rome, as St. Giovanni in Laterano, St. 
 JIaria Maggiore, St. Onofrio, and other excellent pictures in 
 the palaces Cliigi and Ruspigliosi. Not the least claim of Baglione 
 to fame are the mteresting notices of the Hves of painters, sculp- 
 tors, and architects of his time, written and published by him. 
 Some writers on art pretend that his manner approaches that 
 of his contemporaiy, Cardi (better kno\^Ti as Cigoli) ; but Bag- 
 lione's lacks that vigour and brilliancy of colouring that procm-ed 
 to the other the surname of " Florentine Correggio." — R. M. 
 
 BAGLIONI, AsTORRE, died in Cypnis in 1571. After the 
 death of his father, he rethed with his mother to Venice. The 
 gallant defence which he made of Famagouste, when besieged by 
 the Tm-ks, has perpetuated liis memoiy. Encomvaged by him, 
 the garrison and the inhabitants held out for four months, and 
 fought with the energy of despau*. They undennined the 
 walls and fortifications of their town, so that the Turkish forces, 
 when they commenced the assault, were buried in the ruins. 
 Sixty thousand Tm'ks perished during the siege ; and, after four 
 months of the most heroic eftbrt, the town was smrendered on 
 honourable conditions to Mustapha, the commander of the Tm-k- 
 ish army. This perfidious general, however, having, with seem- 
 ing kindness, received into his tent Baglioni, with the leading 
 men of the town and officers of the ganison, caused them all 
 to be inhumanly cut under the eyes, with the exception of one, 
 Bragadin, whom he reserved for the most cruel tortures. In losing 
 Famagouste, Venice lost for ever the island of Cypnis. — G. M. 
 
 BAGLIONI, Lelio, a Florentine theologian ; died at Sienna 
 in 1620. Of his numerous works, the most important is " Trac- 
 tatus de Pra;destinatione." 
 
 BAGLIVI, George, a celebrated Italian phj-sician. He 
 was bom at Ragiisa in 1069. He commenced the study of the 
 medical profession at the university of Salerno, and aftenvards 
 studied at Padua and Bologna, subsequently visiting the hos- 
 pitals of Italy and Dalmatia. In 1692, he settled in Rome, 
 where he became acquainted with the famous JIalpighi, whose 
 friendship he retained till his death. He was soon after ap- 
 pointed by Pope Clement IX., professor of anatomy at the col- 
 lege of La Sapicnza, which was also kno^vn as tlie Archilyceum. 
 In 1696, he published a work entitled " De Praxi Medica ad 
 priscam observandi rationem revocanda libri duo. Accedunt 
 dissertationes novffi, de Anatome, morsu et eft'ectibus Tarantula3 
 ubi obiter de ovis ostrcaram delectis, de natura lapidis serpcn- 
 
 tini vulgo Cobra de Capelo," Rome, 8vo. In this work he pro- 
 claimed his intention to devote himself to the obseiTation of 
 disease, and his determination not to follow the fashionable 
 theories of the day. Of all wi-itings, he declared those of Hip- 
 pocrates to be the most valuable. At the same time he dis- 
 agreed mth Hippocrates in regarding the seat of disease in the 
 fluids of the body. He stated his conviction that all morbid 
 changes first occm'red in the solids of the body, and that these 
 subsequently communicated their disordered condition to the 
 fluids. These views he repeated in his work entitled " Speci- 
 men qnatuor librorum de Fibra IMotrice et Morbosa ; cui annexae 
 sunt qnatuor Dissert ationes." This work was first published in 
 Rome in 1702, and subsequent editions appeared in 1703 and 
 1704. Although the views of Baglivi are now justly brought 
 into question, they exercised at the time he published them a 
 most beneficial uifluence on the practice of medicine. The 
 humoral pathology was a mass of crudities and speculations 
 when he attacked it, and his sound observations on disordered 
 conditions of the solids, led to the more accurate investigation of 
 the fluids, which have led at the present day to the general con- 
 \'iction, that they are first disturbed, in diseased conditions. 
 He published, besides the works mentioned, several minor works. 
 A collected edition of his writings was originally published in 
 1704, and the value that has been attached to these works is 
 shown in the fact, that subsequent editions have appeared ever/ 
 few years since. In 1788, Pinel edited them in 2 vols., in 
 France, and in 1828 an edition, edited by Kiihn, appeared in 
 Germany. He died in Rome in 1706, at the early age of thirty- 
 eight. He had, however, obtamed a European reputation, and 
 had been elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and 
 of many of the continental scientific societies. — E. L. 
 
 BAGNACAVALLO, Bartolommeo, smiiamed the Elder, 
 an Italian painter, bom at Bagnacavallo in 1484, died 1542, 
 his real name being B. Ramenghi. He studied first at Bologna 
 under Francia ; then he proceeded to Rome, where he attended 
 the school of Raphael, and worked vrith the other pupils of the 
 great master in the decoration of the Loggie. Not being able to 
 cope with the best of his colleagues (although possessed of much 
 of the grace characteristic of both his two masters, and display- 
 ing excellent colouring), Bagnacavallo preferred leaving Rome 
 and returning to Bologna, where, in the two Cotignolas, and 
 Innoccnte da Imola, he found rivals much more easy to surpa.=s. 
 By the works he then executed, in which his adherence to Ra- 
 phael's style is constantly evident, Bagnacavallo deserved and 
 obtained to be considered the best painter of the Bolognese 
 school at that time. Several fine specimens by this artist, be- 
 sides what is to be seen in Bologna, are now in the galleries uf 
 Dresden, Berlin, and Naples. — R. M. 
 
 BAGNACAVALLO, Bartolommeo, the Younger, ne- 
 phew of the elder Bartolommeo, a painter who distinguished 
 hunself, especially in ornaments. 
 
 BAGNACAVALLO, Gian Battista, the Elder, a son of 
 the elder Bartolommeo, who, after having studied under his 
 father, worked first with Vasari at Rome, then with Primaticcio 
 in France, where he died in 1601. 
 
 BAGNACAVALLO, Gian Battista, the Younger, son 
 of the younger Bartolommeo, also an artist of very good name, 
 who, with Scipione, his cousin, equally a painter, flourished 
 about the beginning of the seventeenth centuiy. — R. M. 
 
 BAGNALL, Williaji, the preserver of Charles II. after the 
 battle of Worcester. He then lived in Sidbuiy, and died Sep- 
 tember 21, 1652, aged thirty-six. 
 
 BAGNUOLO, a Neapolitan general, bom in the kingdom of 
 Naples at the end of the sixteenth, died in the second half of 
 the seventeenth centiuy. He was called by Philip IV. to serve 
 in the anny which was sent to expel the Dutch from Brazil. 
 He e\'inced great ability in the contest with JLaurice of Nassau; 
 and afterwards received from the viceroy the chief command of 
 the Brazilian army. His successful defence of the capital, when 
 besieged by Prince Maurice in 1638, procured for him from 
 Philip IV. the title of prince.— G. M. 
 
 BAGOAS, a eunuch, at first in the service of Darius, and 
 afterwards the favourite of Alexander the Great. He was 
 remarkable for his beauty of person, and was in consequence the 
 object of an odious passion on the part of Alexander. 
 
 BAGOAS, an Egyptian eunuch who lived in the first half of 
 the fourth century before the Christian era. He commanded 
 the armies of Artaxerxcs-Ochus, whom he afterwards slew.
 
 BAG 
 
 341 
 
 BAH 
 
 BAGOAS, Carus, a favotuite of Herod the Great, lived in 
 the first half of the first century of the Christian era. He was 
 sumamed Caras on account of the great attachment manifested 
 to him by Herod. This, however, did not prevent him from 
 I conspiring against that prince, on account of the cruelties which 
 he perpetrated in Judea. The plot was discovered, and Bagoas 
 was put to death with his accomplices. — G. 31. 
 
 BAGOLIXO, Sebastian'o, an Italian painter, poet, and 
 musician, bom at Alcamo in SicUy in 1560 ; died 160i. — E. M. 
 
 BAGOPHANES, a Babylonian general, lived in the second 
 luilf of the fourth century B.C. Efe commanded the citadel of 
 Babylon, and after the battle of Gaugamele, returned to Babylon, 
 conveying the royal treasures to Alexander. 
 
 BAGOT, Charles, the Eight Hon. Su-, G.C.B., second son 
 of William, first Lord Bagot, was bom Sept. 23, 1781. In 
 1807 he was under-secretary of state for foreign afiairs, under 
 Mr. Canning. In 1814 he was appointed minister plenipoten- 
 tiary at Paris, and in the following year was sent on a special 
 mission to the United States. In 1820 he was appointed 
 ambassador at St. Petersburg, and transferred to the Hague in 
 1824. On the dissolution of Lord Jlelboume's ministry in 
 1841, he was sent out by Sir Eobert Peel as governor-general 
 of Canada, in succession to Lord Sydenham. He was sworn a 
 privy councillor in 1815, and created a G.C.B. in 1820. He 
 died in Canada whilst still holding the governorship of that 
 : iiportant colony, 3Iay 19, 1843. — E. W. 
 
 BAGOT, Lewis, Bishop, son of Sir Walter Bagot, bom in 
 740, and educated at Christ chmxh, Oxford, of which cathe- 
 
 al he was made dean in 1777. In 1782 he was promoted to 
 r.-.e bishopric of Bi-istol; in 1783 to Norwich; and in 1790 to 
 St. Asaph, when he rebuilt the palace. He died in 1802. 
 
 BAGOT, EiCHARD, Bishop, was the third son of WilUam, 
 first Lord Bagot, and born in 1782. He was educated at Eugby 
 and Christ church, Oxford, and in 1804 was elected feUow of 
 \'.l Souk. In 1807 he became canon of Windsor, and in 1817 
 
 non of Worcester. In 1829 he was consecrated bishop of 
 xford, over which see he presided dming the "Tractarian" 
 
 ntroversy with considerable discrerion and pnidence. Zealots 
 ; both extremes were angry at his moderation, but he persevered 
 
 a just and fair course, not narrowing the hberty of the Eng- 
 -h church, though prompt and decided when he thought that 
 
 "'rty abused by the celebrated Tract XC. He then recom- 
 
 •nded that the publication of the tracts should cease, and he 
 was obeyed. Bishop Bagot carried the same moderation and 
 love of justice with him to Bath and Wells, to which see he was 
 translated in 1845 ; and, without entermg into controversy, it 
 may be sufficient to say, that his successor. Lord Auckland, has 
 taken the same view of the charges against Archdeacon Denison 
 as he had done, in refusing to allow a prosecution to be entered 
 upon. In 1852 an attempt was made by Mr. Horsman to 
 ' ing Bishop Bagot into disrepute, for ha\'ing instituted ilr. 
 
 •nnet to the vicarage of Frome ; but it fell to the ground, as it 
 
 IS shown the bishop had not only examined the clerk in ques- 
 tion, but had delayed institution as long as the law allowed 
 him. Bishop Bagot died at Brighton in 1854. He manied in 
 1806 Lady Hairiet Villiers, daughter of the earl of Jersey, who, 
 with a large family, survives him. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BAGEATIOX, Peter, Prince, a Eussian general, bom about 
 1762, died 24th September, 1812. He entered the sei-vice of 
 Russia in 1782 with the rank of sergeant, and subsequently took 
 part in the war against the tribes of Caucusus and of Kuban, 
 who had submitted to Eussian domination. In 1788 he had 
 attained the rank of colonel, and in that capacity he assisted at 
 the assault of Oczacow. He sei-ved in the wars of Italy and 
 Switzerland under General Souwarof, by whom he was held in 
 high estimation. On the 10th April, 1799, he rendered himself 
 master of Brescia, and took 1800 prisoners. After having sig- 
 nalized himself in various engagements, he returned to Eussia, 
 when both he and Souwarof fell into disgrace with the Emperor 
 Paul I. ; but under the successor of that prince he was reinstated 
 m his rank, and had the command of the advance-guard of the 
 Austro-Eussian army, led by Kutusoff, under whose conduct he 
 performed prodigies of valour. Eaised to the rank of lieutenant- 
 general, he commanded the advance-guard at Austcrlitz, under 
 the prince of Lichtenstein ; and in the campaigns which followed, 
 folly sustained his high reputation. He took part in the cam- 
 paign of 1812, but was mortally wounded at Mojaisk. — G. M. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Christopher, an English theologian •, died at 
 
 Paris in 1625. His principal work is entitled, " Declaratio mo- 
 tuum inter Jesuitas et sacerdotes seminaiiorum in Angha." 
 
 BAGSHAW, Edward, was bom in London, and educated at 
 Brazenose college, Oxford. He afterwards entered the iliddle 
 Temple, and studied law. As Lent-reader, in 1639, he attacked 
 episcopacy, and was stopped in consequence by the lord-keeper. 
 Finch. He became a member of the Long Parliament as repre- 
 sentative of Southwark. Thinking that the parUament was rash 
 m its legislation, he meditated going over to the king ; and for 
 that pm-pose journeyed to Oxford, but was overtaken by a party 
 of the parliamentary troops, carried back to London, and lodged 
 in prison. In 1G33 he published the " Life and Death of Eobert 
 Bolton," who had been his tutor. In 16G0, at the Eestoration, 
 he was treasurer of the Jliddle Temple. In that year he published 
 a treatise which he had composed during his imprisonment — 
 "The Eight of the Crown of England as it is Established by Law."' 
 He also published a tractate on the Defence of the Church, and 
 one defendii:g the university against Prj-nne. He died in 1662, 
 and was buried at Jlorton-Pinloiey, Northamptonshire. — J. E. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Edward, son of the preceding, was bom in 
 1629, and educated at Christ chm-ch, Oxford. In 1656 he was 
 appointed usher of Westminster school, but soon quarrelled with 
 Dr. Busby, the head-master. In 1658 he was ordained by 
 Brounrigge, bishop of Exeter, and became vicar of Amersdin in 
 Oxfordshire. At the Eestoration he was made chaplain to the 
 earl of Anglesey, but fancying himself neglected, he committed 
 himself to irregular practices, which ended in his imprisonment 
 for refusing to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. Died 
 1671. None of his writings are of the least worth. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Henry, brother of the above, was bom in 
 1632, and educated at Christ church, Oxford. He obtained 
 several preferments, and died rector of Houghton-le-Spring, and 
 prebend of Durham, in 1709. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BAGUTTI, PiETRO Martire, an Italian sculptor, flourishing 
 at Bologna about 1785. 
 
 BAGWELL, WiLLiAJi, a mathematician and astronomer, 
 noted in the seventeenth century for a popidar work entitled 
 " The Mystery of Astronomy made Plain." He was a member 
 of a conunittee appointed by government to examine the vaHdity 
 of Bond's claim to the discovery of the longitude. 
 
 BAHAEA3I, CuRi, sultan of Persia, Uved in the first half of 
 the fifth century. The name of liis preceptor, Noaman, sur- 
 named The Wise, has been thought worthy of preservation. 
 Baharam reigned eighteen years. 
 
 BAHIL, Matthias, a Hungarian theologian of the second half 
 of the eighteenth century ; author of a work, entitled " Traurige 
 Abbildung der Protestanten in Ungam." 
 
 BAHN, Jerojie, a theologian of Hamburg, died in 1744. 
 His principal performance is entitled " HechstverderbUche Aufer- 
 ziohung der Kinder bey den Pietisten." 
 
 BAHN, Nicholas, a German theologian, pastor at Dobra ; 
 published " Das unschuldig vergossne Blut," and several other 
 meditative pieces. Died in 1704. 
 
 BAHNSEN, Benedick, a German writer, author of some 
 mystical works, the principal of which is entitled " The di\-ine 
 revelations communicated to Cluistoff Gottcm, from the year 
 1616 till the year 1624 ;"' Hved in the second half of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 BAHE, Joseph Friedrich, a German theologian, bom in 
 1713; was successively pastor at Wittenberg, Bischofswerda, 
 and Schoeufeld. He afterwards filled the office of superinten- 
 dent. Bahr is the author of a Life of Christ, and of a treatise 
 against the Socinians. Died in 1775. 
 
 BAHE, Thojias, a Geraian theologian of the second half of 
 the seventeenth centiuy ; autlior of " Dissert. II. de Cartesio 
 de omnibus dubitante." 
 
 BAIIEDT, Ch.vrles Frederic, one of the most extreme of 
 tlie Gennan rationalists of last century, was bom in Saxony, 
 15th August, 1741. He was educated at Leipzig, and soon 
 displayed that turn of mind wliich has given hhn his notoriety 
 in his two works — " The Trac Christian in Solitude," and his 
 " Commentary on Malachi." He entered the university of 
 Giesscn in 1770, and taught for some time, still growing more 
 and more violent in his peculiar opinions, and in his numerous 
 publications receding still further and further from the national 
 creed. The storm which rose against him obliged him to leave 
 Giesscn, and he went for a season to the Pliilanthropinum of BI. 
 Salis, at Marschbcrg in Switzerland. Afterwards he tried to
 
 BAl 
 
 342 
 
 BAI 
 
 establish a seminary at Heidenheim, but his failure involved him 
 in debt, and he sought refuge in Prussia. At Halle he published 
 a number of characteristic tracts and treatises, such as the 
 " Bible in Miniature." In the morning he read lectures on phi- 
 losophy, and criticism on Juvenal and Tacitus; and in the evening 
 he officiated as the jolly landlord of a tavern which he had fitted 
 up in the neighbourhood, and in which, having dismissed his wife 
 and childi-en, he had made a concubine of his maid-servant. 
 But some doings of a secret society over which he presided having 
 oozed out, he was sent to the fortress of Magdeburg; and on being 
 released, after a year's confinement, he died April 23, 1793. 
 Bahrdt's life and labours were rationalism in caricature. — J. E. 
 
 BAI, ToiiJiASO, a musician, was born at Crevalcuore, near 
 Bologna, about the middle of the seventeenth century, and died 
 at Rome, December 22, 1714. He was appointed master of the 
 Sistine chapel, in which he had been for some time a singer, the 
 year before his death. His " Miserere," the only one deemed 
 worthy a place with that of Allegri, until the production of that 
 by Baini, was first performed in 1712, and has since then been 
 always given at the early morning service on Good Friday, save 
 on two occasions, when pieces of other composers were substituted 
 for it, which were both withdrawn in its favour. He wrote also 
 some masses and motets. — G. A. M. 
 
 BAIARDO, Andrea. This poet's name is sometimes writ- 
 ten Baiardi. He was a native of Parma, and held military rank 
 in the service of the duke of Jlilan, and was the lord of the 
 castle of Albari m the neighboiu-hood of Parma. He was mar- 
 ried, and is described as being attached to his wife, though, in 
 his poems, two mistresses are celebrated, one of whom he calls 
 his Aurora, the other his Phoenix. He describes himself as a 
 slave to the latter for twenty-five years. How far the loves of 
 Italian poets are allegorical or physical, there is always some 
 difficulty in discovering, and the wile of Baiardo may have had 
 little or nothing to complain of, unless she was compelled to 
 listen to her husband's verses. His principal poem is a romance 
 in octave stanzas, in which the loves of Adriano and Narcissa are 
 related. It was written at the request of Fenice, Baiardo's fair 
 Phoenix. The poem, Quadiio tells us, has been, through mistake, 
 referred in books of authority to Boiardo, the author of the 
 Inamorato. A volume of lyrical poems of his was published 
 at Milan in 1756, and others are said to be stOl unpublished, 
 in the possession of his fiimily. The precise dates of liis birth 
 and death are unknown; he was living in 1521. — J. A., D. 
 
 BAIARDO or BAIARDI, Otxavo Antonio, born about 
 the year 1G90. He was one of the first collaborators to that 
 magnificent work " Le antichita di Ercolano esposte conqualche 
 spiegazione." He left also some poetical compositions unedited. 
 This antiquarian died about the year 1765. — A. G. M. 
 
 BAIDER, Simon, a German sculptor of the fifteenth century; 
 executed in 1470 the bas-reliefs of the gates of the cathedral of 
 Constanz, his native town, in the style of Syrlin, the Elder. — R. M. 
 
 BAIDHAR or BAISSAR, king of Egypt, lived at an uncer- 
 tain epoch. He divided his kingdom among liis fom* sons, Cabth, 
 Ishmoum, Atrib, and Ssa. 
 
 BAIDHU-KHAIJ or BAIDU-OGUL, a Tartar or MongoUan 
 king of the race of Djenghiskhan, died in 1294. In order to 
 place hiin on the throne his partizans had put his predecessor 
 to death ; but Gazan, the governor of Khorazan, sent an army 
 against him, and Baidhu, deserted even by his own relations, was 
 defeated and put to death by Neuruz, general of Gazan, after a 
 reign of only eight months. 
 
 BAIER, JoiiANN WiLHELM, was bom at Jena in 1675, and 
 died at Altorf in 1729. His two principal works are entitled, 
 "Disputatio de Behemoth et Leviathan, Elcphante et Balajna," 
 Altorf, 1708; and "Disputatio de FossiUbus DUuvii Uuiversi 
 Monumentis," Altorf, 1712. 
 
 BAIER, John Ja:\iks, a physician and naturalist, was born 
 at Jena on 14th June, 1677, and died 14th July, 1735. He 
 published a book on fossils and various botanical monographs 
 and papers in the Nova Acta; also an account of the medicinal 
 plants in the garden of the university of Altdorf. 
 
 BAIF, Jean Antoine ue, a natural son of Lazare do Baif, 
 Abbd de Grenetiere ; born at Venice in 1532, while his father 
 was ambassador there. Lazare was a man of considerable 
 talents, and several works of liis remain in Latin and French. 
 He translated the Electra of Sophocles, and the Hecuba of 
 Euripides into French verse; and he took anxious care of his 
 son's education. Jean Dorat was then in the height of his 
 
 reputation, which, for classical literatm-e, was well deserved. In 
 his own day he was called the French Pindar, and the office 
 of "Poet-royal" was created for Mm. Scaliger says that 
 Auratus — such was his name among the gods, a name fabri- 
 cated from the French Uorat — composed 50,000 verses, Greek 
 and Latin. Nobody of any high rank married that was 
 \vA I'pitlialaniiuniized — no heir to a kingdom or a title was bom 
 that was not welcomed into the world with song. Still, the 
 schoolmaster was a good schoolmaster, and to him young De 
 Baif was sent. It is not possible, within our limits, to give 
 any sketch of the antecedent state of French poetiy ; but Do 
 Baif s fortune was cast on a day of change, and Dorat was 
 not only Ids classical instructor, but also the teacher of Ron- 
 sard, Belleau, and Du Bellay. " One saw," says Du Verdier, 
 " a troop of poets rush from the school of Jean Dorat, as 
 from the Trojan horse." Du Bellay was the leader of this 
 host. The object of the classicists was to reform the French 
 language and literature on the model of the Greek and Latin. 
 Experiments were made in versification. Hexameters, penta- 
 meters, trimeters, made their appearance m France, with no 
 better success than in Italy and England. Du Bellay's voice 
 cheered on the reformers. " Frenchmen," said he, " adorn 
 your temples with the classic spoils — pillage the Delphic temple 
 — fear not the dumb Apollo — seize the Roman capitol — make 
 it your own, like the Gauls of old — heed not the clamorous geese 
 that would defend it." On rushed the " brigade," as they were 
 first called. They soon assumed, or were given, another name, 
 which still distinguishes them—" The Pleiades," or " Pleiad," as 
 it was more often written. They were seven — Dorat, Ronsard, 
 Du Bellay, Thyard, De Baif, Jodelle, and Belleau. Many of 
 then- poems are wholly free from the affectation of latinized and 
 " aureate" words, but they commenced by corrupting their 
 native language in this way, and tlius provoked the satire of 
 Rabelais (Book ii., chap, vi.), who holds it as a decided point, 
 " that we ought to speak the common language." De Baif 
 thought to enrich the French language, and was proud of every 
 deviation from ordinaiy forms. His verses, fonned in imitation 
 of the classical metres, he called " Baifins." He formed an 
 alphabet for himself, and an odd thing it was — ten vowels, 
 nineteen consonants, eleven diphthongs, and three triphthongs. 
 He set his own verses to music, and obtained a patent from 
 Charles IX. for an academy of poetry and music. De Baif 
 had concerts, wliich were attended by the kings, Charles IX. and 
 Henry III. This was the first attempt to create i. literary 
 " society" in France. De Baif died at Paris, poor and neglected, 
 in 1592. Of De Baif, Cardinal Perron said that he was " a vciy 
 good man, but a very bad poet." — J. A., D. 
 
 BAIF, Lazare de, or BAFIUS, a French scholar and diplo- 
 matist, who died in 1547. He was a councillor under Francis 
 I., and ambassador at Venice and in Germany. Besides translat- 
 ing from Sophocles and Euripides, he left treatises " De Re 
 Vestiaria," " De Re Navali," and " De Re Vascularia." Died hi 
 1547. Du Bellay says that he was the first to introduce from 
 the Greek the words epigram, elegy, &c. — J. B. 
 
 BAIL, Charles Joseph, a French publicist, born at Bethune 
 m 1777 ; died 20th Febniary, 1827. He at first embraced the 
 profession of arms, and took part in the campaign of Belgium in 
 1793. In 1817 he was charged with the administrative organi- 
 zation of the kingdom of Westphalia, and was appointed to the 
 office of inspector of reviews, which he held until 1818. He 
 subsequently engaged as a contributor to various works on his- 
 tory, pohtical economy, &c. His works, published after liis 
 death, evince varied and profound eradition. — G. M. 
 
 BAILAY, Nathaniel, an English grammarian of the eigh- 
 teenth centmy ; author of a work, entitled " Dictionarimn Britan- 
 nicum, quo continentur EtymologiEe Verborum," 1736. 
 
 BAILDON, Joseph, a gentleman of the chapel royal during 
 part of the reigns of George II. and George III., and organist of 
 St. Luke's church, Old Street, London. He gained one of the 
 first prizes given by the Catch Club in 1763, for a catch ; and 
 a second for his fine anacreontic glee, " When gay Bacchus fills 
 my breast," in 1766. This is all the information we can gather 
 concerning him. — E. F. R. 
 
 BAILEV, Jacob W., an American chemist and natm-alist of 
 the present centuiy, died of consumption on 26th February, 1857. 
 He was a proficient in chemistiy, mineralogy, and botany, and 
 especially devoted his attention to microscopic researches. He 
 did much for microscopic geology, and his papers on fossil
 
 infusoria are of liigli merit. The microscopic orders of Desmi- 
 diaceas and Diatomaceae engaged miicli of his attention. He was 
 professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology in the United 
 States militaiy academy at West Point. 
 
 * BAILEY, Philip Jajies, author of "Festus," "The Angel 
 World," " The Mystic," and other poems, was born at Basford, 
 near Nottingham, in the year 181 G. His education was origi- 
 nally conducted at various schools in his native town ; aftenvards 
 he matriculated at Glasgow university, but seems to have de- 
 voted more time to private and self-suggested studies, than to 
 the public work of his classes. Nevertheless, he must have 
 wrought very hard, as his first and largest poem, finished before 
 Ms twenty-third year, sparkles in eveiy page with all kinds of 
 scientific, theological, mythological, historical, and philosophical 
 illustration. After a series of preparatory studies, he was called 
 to the English bar in the year 1840, but never practised. He 
 had published "Festus" in the previous year, and was now 
 abandoning himself to the luxuries of a multifarious literature, 
 so that legal pursuits inevitably became distasteful. The en- 
 thusiasm which this poem excited on its first appearance, espe- 
 cially in America, was extraordinaiy. Every critic, great and 
 small, was stirred up to prophesy, and he who had just left his 
 boyhood heard himself saluted even by the wise, as the brother 
 of Milton and Goethe. He seems to have endured this cruelty 
 of popular applause vrith extreme fortitude, suffering silently 
 without a solitary cry of vanity, and at this moment is one of 
 the most modest and retiring persons in the literary world. 
 In 1850 he published "The Angel World," which is now incor- 
 porated with " Festus." His last effort is " The Mystic," which 
 eminently deserves the name. The little that is intelligible is 
 very bad, and indicates an exhaustion of imagination in the 
 autlior, which is a dangerous prognostic. Wliatever may be the 
 ultimate fate of " Festus," considered as a poem ; whether it main- 
 tain its present high rank, or lose it in the ever-recurring change 
 of public sympathy, opinion, and taste, this much may be said 
 with safety, that it cannot at any time, nor under any cuxum- 
 stances, cease to excite wonder and admiration. The incredible 
 rapidity with which it was composed, the daring novelty of style, 
 the intense continuous earnestness of its thought and sentiment, 
 and the clearness with which it mirrors some of the most char- 
 acteristic features of its age, render it impossible that it should 
 lie forgotten. It possesses a historical as well as a poetical 
 significance ; and though it may have failed in its attempt to 
 elucidate many or 'even any of the problems, which, for the last 
 thkty years, have been violently agitating the greatest minds of 
 Christendom, yet the magnificent manner in which it essays the 
 task will insure it a long, vivid, and reverential remembrance. 
 Only of the very grandest works — those which are inhcrentl)'' 
 sublime, as well as historically valuable, works like the Iliad, 
 the Divina Comedia, and Paraclise Lost, — can we pronounce with 
 eonfidence that they are xrrifji.(x. t; an (a possession for ever) ! 
 "Festus" is not such a poem as these, audit would be hazardous 
 to predict immortality of any thing lesser; but it exhibits a 
 luxuriance, both of tliought and imagery, in the speculative and 
 critical portions, a sweetness and purity of sentiment in the 
 " home scenes," irradiated at times with a bright himiom*, and 
 cveiywhcre a lofty spiritual feeling, that lift it far out of the 
 region of ordinary and evanescent verse. — J. ]\I. R. 
 
 * BAILEY, Sajiuel, commonly spoken of as " Mr. Bailey of 
 Sheffield," is well known as an author of various works in mental 
 philosophy, pulllieal economy, and the science of government. 
 It was in 182'J that his first, and by many considered his best 
 work — " Essays on the Formation and Publication of Opinion " 
 — first appeared; and it had the good fortime to attract the 
 notice of Brougham and Mackintosh, and others, whose com- 
 meiKlation was equivalent to lasting fame. When Sir James 
 Mackintosh wished to recommend " that earnestness, and that 
 sincerity — that strong love of truth, and that conscientious soli- 
 citude for the formation of just opinions, wliich are not the least 
 wtues of men" — he felt that it would be an act of injustice not 
 to refer his readers to this work of Mr. Bailey's, " as enforcing 
 that most neglected part of morality." At a subsequent period, 
 j^Ir. Bailey published " Essays on the Pursuit of Truth, and on 
 the Progress of Knowledge ;" and the volumo fully sustained, if 
 It did not much extend, his fiime as a philosopher. In the same 
 department he published, at various times, " A I'eview of Berke- 
 ley's Theoiy of Vision," " The Theory of Keasoning," and " Dis- 
 courses on Various Subjects." Within the last few years he 
 
 has retm-ned to the studies of his youth, and given to the world 
 his " Letters on the Philosophy of the Human Mind." Mr. 
 Bailey adheres to the school of Rcid and Stewart, but he gives 
 it an independent support, and does not hesitate to controvert 
 or supplement the doctrines of these illustrious philosophers. 
 Mr. Bailey has written largely, also, in the region of political 
 economy, and his works are characterized by great penetration 
 of judgment, and thorough masteiy in the art of exposition. In 
 his hands the most difficult subject becomes plain. This is well 
 illustrated in his " Rationale of Political Representation" — a 
 work from which much may be learned on the worldng of the 
 British constitution, and on what is necessary to perfect its 
 working. Jlr. Bailey will never, perhaps, be a popular writer, 
 but he wiU always be looked up to with respect by thoughtful 
 inquirers, and his writings will be resorted to by such for their 
 sound philosophy and practical good sense. — C. W. C. 
 
 BAILLER, PiETER VAN, a Flemish engraver of the seven- 
 teenth centuiy; studied at Rome, and on his return to Antwerp 
 reproduced se\-eral of the masterpieces of Rubens, Van Dyck, 
 Rembrandt, Guido, and Annibale Caracci. — R. M. 
 
 * BAILLfiS, Jacques Marie Joseph, bishop of Lu9on in 
 France; born in 1798. He was raised to episcopal dignity in 
 1845, after having filled successively the office of secretary to 
 the bishopric of Verdun, and that of vicar-general of Toulouse. 
 
 BAILLET, Adrien, a French litteratem*, bom in Picardy in 
 1649. From his earliest years he showed an extraoi-dinaiy 
 passion for books ; and though his parents were poor, he suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining a liberal education, and in 1674 took orders, 
 and became vicar of Lardieres. He soon resigned this position 
 for the more congenial occupation of librarian to Lamoignon, 
 president of the parliament of Paris. So great was his enthu- 
 siasm for his work, that he denied himself every luxmy, scarcely 
 ever took exercise, and never slept more than five hours per day. 
 He left many works, the fruit of long and laborious research. 
 His principal undertakmg was named "Jugemens des Savans 
 sur les Principaux ouvi-ages des Auteurs," and was intended to 
 comprise criticisms of all classes of writers — poets, philologists, 
 geographers, historians, men of science, &c.,&c. He overtook 
 only a small part of his vast scheme, and even that was assailed 
 by hosts of adverse critics, most prominent among whom was 
 Rlenage in his Anti-Baillet. Among his other works are — " A 
 Life of Des Cartes ; " " History of Holland ; " " Curious Ac- 
 count of Muscovy," &c.,&c. He died in 1706 — J. B. 
 BAILLIE, Lady Grisell. See Sir Patrick Hume. 
 BAILLIE, Joanna, a distinguished poetess, daughter of the 
 Rev. James Baillie and Dorothea Hmiter, was born at the manse 
 or parsonage-house at Bothwell, near Glasgow, in the year 1762. 
 She was niece of the gi-eat anatomists, William and John Hunter, 
 and sister of Dr. Matthew Baillie. From the first, she lived m 
 a family possessing peculiar mental endowments. When her 
 brother became settled as a physician in London, she took up her 
 abode at Hampstead, where she continued to reside during the 
 remainder of her uneventful life. In 1798, she published a 
 volume of dramas, to which she gave the title of "A Series of 
 Plays, in which it is attempted to delineate the stronger passions 
 of the mind, each passion being the subject of a Tragedy and a 
 Comedy." To this a second volume was added in 1802, and a 
 third in 1812. In 1804 she published a volume of "Miscel- 
 laneous Plays;" in 1810 the " Family Legend," a drama founded 
 on a romantic Highland tradition, was acted in liidinburgh, Mrs. 
 Siddons sustaining the principal female character. In 1836 she 
 published three more volumes of dramas, some of which were in 
 continuation of her plan of " Plays on the Passions." Miss 
 Baillie's plays were written, not for the closet, but the stage ; she 
 never abandoned the hope that at some time they might become 
 favourite acting plays. In this hope she was disappointed. 
 Thesuecess of tlie "Family Legend," with an Edinburgh audience, 
 was attributable so much to peculiar circumstances, that it is 
 scarcely fair to argue anything from it. John Kemble brou;^ht 
 out " De Monfort" in London, and acted the principal part. 
 It was again brought out for iMlmund Kean. It was played for 
 eleven nights by Kemble ; still it has not kept .any permanent 
 hold on the stage. Miss Baillie has published several pieces ot 
 poetry, many of them exceedingly graceful. In the year before 
 her death, she superintended a collected edition of her dr.amatic 
 and poetical works. She died at Hampstead on the 23d of 
 Febniary, 1851, in her eighty-ninth year. — J. A., D. 
 
 BAILLIE, John, was born at Inverness in 1766, and iu
 
 1791, arrived at Bengal as a cadet in the semce of tlie East 
 India Company. He speedily became distinguished for hiis 
 knowledge of the Oriental languages, and was in 1797 em- 
 ployed by Lord Teignmouth to translate from the Arabic a work 
 on Mahommedan law. He was also appointed professor of the 
 Arabic and Persian languages, and of JNIahommedan law in the 
 newly-established college of Fort-William. Soon after the out- 
 break of the j\Ialu-atta war, he entered on active serWce, and 
 held for several years the difficult position of political agent in 
 the important province of Bundlecund. His duties there were 
 so well discharged, that the governor-general declared that "the 
 British authority in Bundlecund was alone presei-ved by Ids for- 
 titude, abihty, and influence," and he was at last successful in 
 transferrmg the whole of that tenitoiy to the British power. 
 He speedily rose in the anny, and on his return to England in 
 1818, he had attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1820 
 he entered parhament as the representative of his native burgh, 
 and in 1823 became a du-ector of the East India Company. He 
 died in 1833.— J. B. 
 
 BAILLIE, JIattiiew, a distmguished British physician and 
 anatomist. He was bom on the 29th of October, 1761, at 
 Shotts m Lanarkshire. At the time of his birth, his father 
 was minister of Shotts, but he subsequently removed to Both- 
 well, and afterwards to Hamilton. He left the latter place on 
 being elected professor of divinity in the university of Glas- 
 gow. The mother of Dr. Baillie was a sister of the celebrated 
 anatomists and physiologists, Wilham and John Hmiter. Young 
 Baillie received his early education at Hamilton, and aftenvards 
 at Glasgow. At the latter place he commenced the study of 
 the law, in order to fit him for practising at the bar. This 
 design was, however, set aside by the deshe of his uncle William, 
 in London, who promised to do what he could for him, if he 
 followed the medical profession. He accordingly obtained a pre- 
 sentation from Glasgow, of a studentship in Baliol college, Ox- 
 ford, and commenced his studies in that university in the year 
 1779. On his way to Oxford he saw Ms uncle for the first 
 time in London. He spent one year in Oxford, and then went 
 to reside with liis uncle in London, spending only so much time 
 at Oxford as enabled him to keep his terms. After working at 
 anatomy with his uncle for two years, lie began to assLst him by 
 acting in the capacity of demonstrator in the anatomical theatre 
 in Great Wmdmill Street. In 1783 Dr. Hunter died, and left the 
 use of his splendid museum, library, house, and theatre in Great 
 Windmill Street, to Dr. Baillie for thirty years. He was no 
 sooner put in possession of this munificent gift, than he joined 
 Mr. Cruickshanks in dehvering the anatomical lectures in the 
 school. His success as a teacher was equally great with that of 
 his uncle, and although only twenty-four years of age, he found 
 himself sun'ounded by as large a class as had attended his uncle. 
 He was a clear and fluent lecturer, and possessed that gi'eatest 
 element of all successful teaching, a profound conviction of the 
 importance of his subject to those whom he taught. He spent 
 much of his time in making jireparations for his museum, and 
 was probably induced to do this, as that bequeathed by his 
 imcle was destined at the end of thirty years for the university 
 of Glasgow. The museum which he thus accumulated, he 
 bequeathed at his death to the College of Physicians in Lon- 
 don. In 1787 he was appointed physician to St. George's 
 hospital, altliough at that time he had not taken his degree of 
 M.D. He was, however, possessed of the prefiminaiy degi-ee of 
 bachelor of medicine. In 1789 he got his doctor's degree, be- 
 came a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of London, and 
 married Sophia, second daughter of Dr. Denman, the celebrated 
 accoucheur, and father of the late Lord Chief-Justice Denman. 
 With all bis successes and advantages, however, he did not get 
 into practice, and it is related of him that lie had serious 
 thoughts of removing from the metropolis, where medical merit 
 is too often only recognized at so late a period of a physician's 
 life, that he has but little time left to enjoy it. He, however, 
 persevered, and in 1795 brought out his great work on "The 
 Jlorbid Anatomy of the Human Body." A second edition of 
 this work was published in 1797, in which he added consider- 
 ably to its value by an account of the sjnnptoms exhibited dur- 
 ing life by those who suffered from the various morbid states of 
 the organs described. In 1799 he pubHshed a series of carefully 
 executed engravings, illustrative of the text of his " Morbid Ana- 
 tomy." These were an exceedingly valuable contribution to the 
 science of patholog}', and may be said to have laid the founda- 
 
 tions of the modem science of morbid anatomy. He now began 
 to find his practice increase, and as he was never of a strong 
 bodily constitution, he felt it necessary to resign his physiciancy 
 to St. George's hospital, and to give up his lectures at the ana- 
 tomical school. Tins took place in 1799. His complete suc- 
 cess in practice, however, did not occur till after the death of 
 Dr. PitcaLrn, who was president of tlie College of Physicians. 
 Dm-ing the illness of the latter, he recommended Dr. Baillie 
 in his place, and on his death, Baillie natmvdly succeeded to his 
 practice. He not only succeeded Dr. PitcauTi in his practice 
 but also in his position of president of the Eoyal College of 
 Physicians. He now removed from Wmdmill Street to Gros- 
 venor Street. Here he continued to practise his profession till 
 his death, which took place on the 23rd of September, 1823. 
 In the spring of this year, he contracted an inflammation of the 
 wind-pipe, which, although he retu'ed from London to Tun- 
 bridge Wells, continued to increase, and ultimately caused his 
 death, which took place on an estate he had purchased in Glou- 
 cestershire. In his will he dkected that 150 copies of his in- 
 troductory lectm-es to his anatomical classes, and his Gulstonian 
 lectm-es on the nervous system, delivered at the College of Physi- 
 cians in 1791, should be printed and pubhshed. Dr. BailUe was 
 frequently called upon to attend the royal family. He was 
 physician to George III. for ten years, and the medical attend- 
 ant of the Princess AmeUa, and the Princess Chai-lotte of Wales. 
 Dr. Bailhe was not only a distinguished physician, but the influ- 
 ence of his teaching, writmg, and character, exercised a gi'eat 
 influence on the medical profession of tliis comitiy. The habit 
 of expressing himself with facility he had acquu-ed by his long 
 practice in the lectm-e-room. He was of an initable disposition, 
 but had great power of self-control. When in full practice, how- 
 ever, the demands of his fanciful patients were sometimes too 
 much for him. After spending some time one day with a nerv- 
 ous lady, who was nevertheless going to the opera in the even- 
 ing, she called out on the top of the stairs, " And may I eat 
 some oysters, doctor?" On which he exclaimed, "Yes, madam, 
 shells and all." Personally he was of middle statm'e and slight 
 form, with a sagacious penetrating countenance. There is a 
 monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey. — {Gold- 
 Headed Cane; Wardrop's edition of BaUUe''s Works.') — E. L. 
 
 BAILLIE, Robert, of Jei-viswood, an eminent Scottish 
 patriot in the reign of Charles II. The exact time of his bhth 
 is uncertain. His father, George Baillie, was a cadet, of the 
 ancient family of Baillie of Lamington in Lanarkshhe. Robert 
 mariied a daughter of the celebrated Johnston of Warriston, and 
 became closely connected with the presbyterian party, and con- 
 sequently an object of suspicion and dislike on the part of the 
 duke of Lauderdale and his profligate minions, who then mis- 
 govenied Scotland. The first incident that brought Baillie into 
 collision with the government, was his interference on behalf of 
 his brother-in-law, the Rev. Mr. Kirkton, the author of the well- 
 known History of the Church. An infamous person of the 
 name of Carstairs, who was employed by Archbishop Sharp as a 
 spy, to discover the frequenters of conventicles, one day in 
 June, 1676, inveigled Kirkton into a house near the Edinburgh 
 tolbooth, and, imder the pretext of a waiTant from the council, 
 endeavoured by threats, and by presenting a pistol to his breast, 
 to extort money for his release. BailUe having discovered the 
 detention of his brother-in-law, accompanied by some friends, 
 burst open the door of the house and released him. Carstau-s 
 complained to Sharp, liis patron, of this interference, and the 
 archbishop, on the plea that if his creatiu'e was not supported 
 by the goveniment, no one would afterwards give infonnation 
 against the presbyterians, antedated a wan-ant for Kirkton's 
 arrest, and having obtained the signatures of nine councillors to 
 it, delivered it to Carstairs. Supported by the forged document, 
 this infamous person procured the condemnation of Baillie and 
 his friends for a tumult against the government. The former 
 was ordered to be imprisoned for a year, and to be fined in iloOO ; 
 the latter in smaller sums, and to be imprisoned till theu* fines 
 should be paid. Baillie, however, in consequence of the general 
 indignation which this scandalous sentence excited, was released 
 at the end of four months, on payment of one half of his fine to 
 Carstairs. But the duke of Hamilton, the earls of Morton, 
 Dumfries, Kincardine, and Lords Cochrane and Primrose, were 
 dismissed from the council for their opposition to the govern- 
 ment on this occasion. During the next seven years, Mr. 
 Baillie seems to have lived in strict privacy; but in 1083 he is
 
 found taking part in a scLeme which some noblemen and gentle- 
 men had set on foot for the establishment of a Scotch colony in 
 Carolina. " Any condition," as Hnme remarks, " seemed prefer- 
 able to their li\-ing in their native country, which, by the preva- 
 lence of persecution and violence, was become as insecure to them 
 as a den of robbers." At this junetui'e, however, they were in- 
 duced to enter into communications with the leaders of the Whig 
 party in England, who were revolving a plan for a rising against 
 the government, while unknown to them, certain fierce republi- 
 cans formed a separate plot, commonly called the Eye-house 
 Plot, for the assassination of the king and his brother. This 
 conspnacy was betrayed to the government, who resolved to 
 avail themselves of the opportunity to crush then- political 
 opponents. Lord William Russell, Algernon Sydney, and other 
 lesiders of the popular party, in definnce of law and justice, 
 were executed for a crime of which they were entirely innocent ; 
 and Sir. Baillie and a number of other Scottish gentlemen were 
 apprehended in London, and sent down to Scotland for trial, on 
 the charge of complicity in the plot. No e^'idence, however, 
 conld be obtained of their connection with the alleged conspiracy. 
 The government, therefore, resolved to adopt the illegal expedient 
 of putting to Baillie an oath of purgation. He was accused, not 
 by indictment, but on a royal letter, of a conspiracy to raise re- 
 bellion, and of a share in the Rye-house Plot, and was informed 
 that if he would not clear himself of these charges by oath, and 
 answer all the questions that should be propounded to him, he 
 should be held as guilty. As he refused to comply with this 
 demand, he was fined in £C000 sterling, a sum equal to the value 
 of his whole estate. He was then remanded to prison, and con- 
 fined for several months in a loathsome dungeon, which rained 
 his health, and reduced him to the last extremity. His be- 
 haviour under these trials, according to Bishop Burnet, " looked 
 like a reviving of the spirit of the noblest of the old Greeks or 
 Romans, or rather of the primitive Clmstians and first martyrs 
 in these last days of the chm'ch." 
 
 Meanwhile the government were taking measm-es to supply 
 the lack of e^^dence against him, by trying to vsring confessions 
 from his friends by the administration of torture ; and at length 
 he was dragged from his siek-bed, and on the 23rd of December, 
 1684, though so weak that he was unable to stand, he was 
 placed at the bar of the justiciary court on a charge of high 
 treason, and had to be supported by cordi.als to prevent him from 
 sinking. He solemnly denied that he had ever been accessory 
 to any conspiracy ' against the king's life, and the e^^dence 
 ::ainst him was so defective, that in violation of the solemn pro- 
 aise of the council, the confession extorted from Principal Car- 
 t;drs was produced in court by the Lord Advocate, " the bloody 
 "lackcnzie," as "an adminicle of proof," and the unprincipled 
 iiwyer, ia a virulent liarangue, denounced Baillie as an accessory 
 • > the "horrible plot," for assassinating the king and his brother. 
 The venerable prisoner, looking fixedly on JIackenzie, said, "Wy 
 Inrd, I think it strange that you charge me with such abomiu- 
 ible things. Did you not own to me privately in prison, that 
 you were satisfied of my innocence ? And are you now con- 
 vinced in your conscience that I am more guilty than before ? " 
 I'he whole court turned their eyes upon Mackenzie, who was 
 'iverwhelmed with confusion, and muttered out, " Jerviswood, I 
 i>wn what you say, but my thoughts there were as a private man ; 
 what I say here is by special direction of the privy council," and 
 viointing to the clerk, he added, " he knows my orders." 
 "Well," replied Baillie, " if your lordship have one conscience 
 lor yourself and another for the council, I pray God forgive you 
 — I do." At nine o'clock in the morning, a verdict of giiilty 
 was brought in by the jmy, who had been impannelled at 
 midnight. The council, apprehensive that the prisoner might 
 anticipate the sentence by a natural death, ordered him to be 
 executed on that afternoon. When this doom was pronounced, 
 he said calmly, " My lord, the time is short, the sentence is 
 sliai-p, but I thank my God, who has made me as fit to die as you 
 are to live." His sister-in-law, Mrs. Kcr of Graden, wlio had 
 attended him in prison, and stood beside him during his trial, 
 supported him also in his last moments. He was so weak, that 
 he required to be assisted in mounting the ladder, and seating 
 himself on one of the steps, he began to say, " My faint zeal for 
 the protestant religion has brought me to this end;" when the 
 drums were ordered to beat and silence l)is voice. He then sub- 
 mitted to his sentence, which was executed to the letter, with 
 all its revolting barbaxities. The address which he was pre- 
 
 VOL. I, 
 
 vented from delivering on the scaffold, was afterwards printed 
 and cuxuhited, greatly to the annoyance of the government, who 
 attempted in vain to procure its suppression. 
 
 This unfortunate gentleman was as distinguished for his ami- 
 able disposition, and his abilities and learning, as for his patriot- 
 ism and his fidelity to his religious principles. Burnet terms 
 him " a worthy and learned gentleman ;" and the celebrated Dr. 
 Owen said to a friend, " Yon have truly men of great spirits in 
 Scotland ; there is Mr. Baillie of Jerviswood, a person of the 
 greatest abilities I ever almost met with." His iniquitous at- 
 tainder was reversed at the Revolution, and his estate restored 
 to his family. — (Wodrow ; Burnet ; Fountainhall's Decisions; 
 Pict. Hist, of Scotland.)— J. T. 
 
 BAILLIE, Robert, an eminent Scotchman, and principal of 
 the university of Glasgow, was the son of Thomas Baillie of that 
 city, a cadet of the family of Jeiwiston and Lamington. He 
 was born on 30th Apiil, 1G02, or, according to others, in 1599. 
 He received his education first in the grammar school, and after- 
 wards in the college of Glasgow under Piincipal Shai-p. He 
 matriculated in March, 1617 ; graduated in 1620 ; received 
 episcopal ordination from Archbishop Law in 1C23 ; was a 
 regent of the college in Augixst, 1625, in winch capacity he was 
 intrasted with the education of Lord Montgomery, by whom he 
 was presented, in 1631, to the church of Kilwinning m A}Tslnre. 
 Though by education an Episcopalian, Baillie stood aloof from 
 the high-chm-ch party, and when Laud attempted to force the 
 new canons and service-book on the Scottish chmxh, Baillie 
 joined himself to the Presbyterians. In 1633 he was ofiered a 
 charge in Edinbm-gh, but declined it. At the famous assembly 
 of Glasgow which preceded the ci^'il war in 1638, Baillie was pre- 
 sent as a member of the Irvine Presbyteiy. In 1640 he published 
 his " Laudensium," and was deputed to London in order to accuse 
 Laud and negotiate with the king. Next year, on his retm-n, 
 he was made joint professor of divinity -with David Dickson, in 
 the rmiversity of Glasgow — an office he retained till the Resto- 
 ration. He was one of the five clerical commissioners sent to 
 the Westminster Assembly of Divines in 1643, and in March, 
 1649, he went with the commissioners of estates to the Hague 
 to invite Charles II. to assume the govemment of Scotland. 
 During Cromwell's advance on Glasgow, Baillie fled to the 
 Cumbray isles, where he enjoyed the protection of Lady Mont- 
 gomery. After the Restoration, Baillie was appointed principal 
 of the university of Glasgow in Januaiy, 1661, vice Patrick 
 Gdlespie, who was a favom-er of Cromwell. Wodrow says 
 that Baillie was offered a bishopric by Charles, but declined the 
 favour. In the spruig of 1662 he was seized with a serious 
 illness, which terminated his life in July following, in the sixty- 
 thu-d year of his age. Baillie's scholarship was most extensive 
 and varied. He rmderstood thirteen different languages, and 
 wrote Latin with elegance and ease. Though he seldom took 
 part in discussion, his learning and sagacity rendered him of 
 gi-eat value to public movements. His ready memory and large 
 acquaintance with history were of signal service to him. His 
 principal works are controversial pamphlets : " Defence of Scot- 
 tish Reformation," " Parallel betwixt the Service-Book and the 
 Missal," "Cantcrburian Self-Conviction Queries anent the Ser- 
 vice-Book," " Laudensium," " Opus Histoi-ieum et Chronolo- 
 gicuni," &c. His "Letters and Journals" were fii-st issued in 
 Edinburgh, in 2 vols., 1775, and have been recently edited 
 by David Laing, Esq., m 3 vols. — W. B., D. 
 
 BAILLIE, William, a native of Ireland, born in 1736. He 
 entered the British service, in which he rose to the rank of cap- 
 tain. Retiring from the army, he gave hhnself up entirely to 
 the cultivation of the art of engraving, which he pursued dili- 
 gently and wth much success, not as a profession, but solely 
 for the love of the art. The works of Rembrandt were his 
 favourite studies, and he has left many fine engi-avings after the 
 best etchings of that master. — J. F. W. 
 
 BAILLON, Ejianuel, a French naturalist, died at Abbeville 
 in 1802. He devoted his attention in a special manner to 
 ornithology, and collected important information regarding the 
 sea-birds of the coasts of Picardy. The subject of vegetable 
 physiology also engaged his attention. He published a memoir 
 on the causes which lead to the destraction of woods, and the 
 means of counteracting them ; also on tiie mode of preventing 
 the inroads of moving sands by means of plants with creeping 
 stems, such as Arundo arenaria. 
 
 BAILLOT, PiEKKE Maiue Franc ois de Sales, a violinist, 
 
 2X
 
 was bom at Passy, near Paris, in 1771, and died at the French 
 capital in 1842. In his earUest years he showed a disposition 
 for music, and at seven years old received lessons on the violin, 
 the instrument of his predilection, from Polidori, a Florentine. 
 His family went to Paris in 1780, when he was placed under 
 Sainte-Maine, to whose instruction he ascribed the precision and 
 finish for which his playing was remarkable. Soon after he was 
 ten years old, he heai-d Viotti play, whose perfomiance made so 
 deep an impression upon him, as to become a constant object of 
 emulation ; some years later, when he again heard this great 
 artist, and made his personal acquaintance, his boyish impression 
 was more than reahzed. "I expected," he said, "to find an 
 Achilles, but here is an Agamemnon." 
 
 In 1783 his father, who was an advocate, went in an official 
 capacity with his family to Bastia in Corsica ; he died shortly 
 after his arrival, when M. de Boucheponi, the intendant, took 
 yoimg PieiTC under his protection. With this gentleman's family 
 he passed thirteen months at Rome, where he studied his instni- 
 ment under Pollani, from whom he acquired his fine broad style 
 of bowing. He now travelled for some years with his patron in 
 the quality of secretary, but never relaxed his assiduous study 
 of the violin. In 1791 he returned to Paris to meet his ideal, 
 Viotti, and to have his own talent aclmowledged by him. He 
 rchnquished an engagement Viotti had given him at the Italian 
 opera, to enter the office of the minister of finance, and in his 
 leisure he had still time to practise his instrument. He then 
 served for some months as a volunteer in the army. In ] 795 
 he made his first public solo peifonnance at Paris. On the for- 
 mation of the Conservatoire at Paiis, he was appointed professor 
 of the violin, first as a substitute for Rode (then in Russia), and, 
 in consequence of his prolonged absence, at the opening of the 
 institution the professorship was confeiTed upon Baillot on his 
 own account. In 1805 he visited Russia, and returned to Paris 
 laden with honours, after three years. He was commissioned by 
 the Conservatoire to construct, in conjunction with Rode and 
 Kreutzer, an elementary work for the violin, of which, in deference 
 to his superior Hterary attainments, his two coadjutors left the 
 chief share to him, and the celebrated "Methode du Violon" 
 was the result. He had studied composition successively under 
 Catel, Reicha, and Cherubini, and had thus acquired, not only 
 the power to produce some works of very considerable merit, but 
 also that of analysing the creations of the great masters to an 
 extent not often attained by players of solo instraments, and this 
 incited him to the establishment of his reno\vned quartet perfor- 
 mances, which commenced in December, 1814, to be continued 
 every succeeding winter, and in which he displayed especial talent 
 that has scarcely been excelled. In 1815 he visited London, 
 where he played at the concerts of the Philharmonic Society, of 
 which institution he was elected a member. He was, one after the 
 other, appointed to all the places of distinction for his instalment 
 in Paris. In 1833 he published his "Art du Violon," inwliich, 
 by means of his enlarged experience, he was able to embody a 
 more perfect system than was developed in the "Jlethode;" in 
 thb work are contained the whole pruiciples of the French school 
 of ^'iolin-playing. He wrote some other essays on musical sub- 
 jects which are extolled for their purity of style, and, besides his 
 concertos, and other solo pieces, several quartets, sonatas, and 
 similar compositions. He is ranked at the head of modern French 
 violinists, being the one who amalgamated into a complete style 
 the various excellencies that distinguish their school. — G. A. M. 
 
 BAILLY, AxToiNE, a French statesman, son of A. D. Bailly, 
 was inspector-general of finance. He wrote two valuable works, 
 one on the finance of France, and another on that of England. 
 They are respectively entitled " Uistoire Financiere de la France 
 depuis I'origine de la monarchic jusqu'ii la fin de," 1786 ; and 
 "Administration dcs Finances du royaume — imi de la Grandc- 
 Bretagne et d'Iriande," 1837. Died in 1851. 
 
 BAILLY, CiiAr.LES, chamberlain and secretary to Mary 
 Queen of Scots. Died December 27, 1C24. 
 
 BAILLY, David, a Dutch portrait painter, bora at Leyden 
 in 158G; died 1638 ; studied first undir Picter Bailly, his father, 
 then imder Verbourg and Van der Voort, and finally at Rome. 
 Established at Leyden, at his retiuii, lie executed many portraits 
 remarkable for finish and design. During his last years he 
 used to make beautiful pen-and-ink drawings of the portraits he 
 intended afterwards to colour. — R. M. 
 
 BAILLY DE JUILLY, Edme Louis Barthelejiy, a 
 French politician, bom at Troyes in 1760. Previous to the 
 
 outbreak of the Revolution, he was professor at the college of 
 Juilly. In 1792 he became a member of the convention, where 
 he voted against the regicides. He was named secretary in 
 1794, and on the memorable 20th Jlay of the following year 
 filled the chair of the convention in the absence of its president, 
 Vernier. In 1797, and again in 1798, he narrowly escaped 
 " deportation," as a member of the party in the assembly who 
 were suspected of royalist tendencies. During the consulate and 
 the empire, he was prefect of the department of Lot. Died in 
 1819.— J. S., G. 
 
 BAILLY DE MONTHION, Francois Gideox, Count, a 
 French general, bom in the isle of Bourbon, 27th January, 
 1776; died in 1846. Being destined for a miUtary career, he 
 entered as sub-lieutenant in the 74tb regiment of the Une, on the 
 24th Februaiy, 1793, and took part in the campaigns of the 
 Moselle and the Xord. When the convention had decreed the 
 dismissal of all the officers belonging to the nobility, he was com- 
 pelled to quit the service of the RepubHc. That season of inac- 
 tion, however, was not of long duration ; for, on the 10th October, 
 1793, he was ajjpointed aide-de-camp to General TmTean, whom 
 he followed to the armies of the eastern PjTenees, Quest, Sambre- 
 et-JIeuse, and JIayence. He afterwards fought under Turrean 
 upon the Rhine, upon the Danube, and in Italy. He signaHzed 
 himself at JIarengo, and was promoted to the rank of colonel 
 on the field of Austerfitz. On the 4th October, 1812, he was 
 made general-of-division ; and from the 8th November, 1813, 
 until the 1st January, 1814, he perforaied the functions of 
 major-general of the grand army, in the absence, from a tempo- 
 rary illness, of Prince Wagram. He assisted in the campaign of 
 France of 1814; and in 1815, when the kingdom was again 
 tlireatened with invasion, he took part in the campaign of Bel- 
 gium and in the battle of Waterloo, where he was wounded. On 
 the 3d of October, 1837, he was raised to the peerage, and re- 
 ceived the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. — G. M. 
 
 BAILLY, George, a French general, bom in 1685; died 
 22nd March, 1759. He entered the army in 1705, and in 1706 
 took pai-t in the campaign of Gemnany. On the 1st May, 1745, 
 he was made field-marshal ; on the 1st July, 1746, he obtained 
 the rank of heutenant-general of ai-tillery, and on the 10th May, 
 1748, that of lieutenant-general of the king's amfies. 
 
 BAILLY, Jacques, consei-vator of the king's pictures ; bom 
 at Versailles in 1701 ; died in 1768 ; was father of Jean Bailly, 
 first mayor of Paris, and left a catalogue of the pictm'es in the 
 royal cabinet at the Luxembourg. 
 
 BAILLY, Jean-Sylvaix ; bom at Paris in 1735; was mayor 
 of Piuis in the famous 1790 ; perished on the scaffold in that 
 ever-terrible year, 1793. We cannot enter here into the dread- 
 ful stoiy of the great Revolution, on which it has ever appeared 
 the direst blot that men like Bailly, quiet, humane, and who had 
 sacrificed so much for the French people, should have met the 
 reward of the guillotme. We ai-e still too near the epoch of 
 those fearful tragedies, to be able to estimate that period impar- 
 tially, or rightly to cast up its accounts. The case of Bailly, 
 however, is pecuhar; and some welcome light has been thrown 
 upon it, — welcome, because the most unwelcome thing on earth 
 would be the conclusion, that good and peaceful men were 
 destroyed by the society they had benefited, even though that 
 society had been lashed into demoniac fury. The trath, as 
 seen calmly, is as follows : — B:ully was mayor on the 17th 
 July, 1791 ; and imder his orders the massacre of the Champ 
 de Mars took place. Advisedly, we call this calamity a mas- 
 sacre, — rigorously \dewed, it might be termed a premeditated 
 one. The people collected on that day on that famous plain, 
 in beUef of their entu-e security, and they gave the best pledge 
 that could be given that then- intentions were social and 
 peaceable. It was meant to be a simple French out-of-door 
 festival. Thousands took their wives ; mothers had their cliil- 
 dren; no man was anried; and the gi'ound was occupied by 
 venders of small refreshments with small stalls. Bailly, as 
 mayor, was deceived by representations made to him, and he let 
 loose the National Guard, or the Bourgeoisie, on the assembled 
 multitudes. No one has ever accused Bailly of doing what he 
 conceived a wrong. He was simply unfit for his position ; he 
 did not discem that, after the destruction of royalty and the 
 noblesse, a war of classes had arisen in France. But the people 
 whose blood had flowed could not pardon the crime b'^caiise of 
 the personal excellence of the criminal. And when the Gu-onde 
 fell, Bailly fell with it. It is painfid to add that, after his con-
 
 demnation, Bailly remarked, " It is not for the sad day of the 
 Champ de ]\Iars that I die ; my death is caused by the meeting 
 at the Tennis Court." The day of the Tennis Court simply 
 effaced from existence the desolating oligarchy that had almost 
 extinguished France. But from scenes so harrowing, let us at 
 present avert our fixce. — Bailly's personal inclinations were 
 wholly towards science : happy had he not strayed into the 
 sphere of j)olitics for which he had no aptitude, and which did 
 not suit his character. He has left us a most eloquent history 
 of astronomy from the earliest times, filling five quarto volumes. 
 No more imposing histoiy was ever wiitten. It is not technical, 
 but he seizes the peculiarities of the gi-eat discoverers, and gives 
 a true pictm'c of the men even when he fails to describe, with 
 the wishcd-for accuracy, the special facts they discovered. Ills 
 sympathies were with greatness : nothing finer has yet been 
 written than his version of the story of Copernicus and Galileo. 
 Throughout this large work, Bailly's feeling of justice shines 
 clear. His cn-ors are on the side of exaggeration. His sense of 
 wonder was possibly in excess ; and this may account in part 
 for his abeiTation respecting the antiquity and perfectness of 
 the Indian astronomy. But, with all its imperfections, his work 
 stands to tliis hour our only approximation to an extended his- 
 tory of astronomy. Dclambre gives us the History of Formula; ; 
 he seems to know nothing and care nothing about any man, 
 unless in so far as he was a formula-maker. Bailly, on the con- 
 trary, is full of sjnnpathy, and desired to know alike the men 
 who were the workers, and the ages amidst which they wrought. 
 Tlie rarest of all great historians is, perhaps, the great historian 
 of abstract science. — J. P. N. 
 
 BAILLY, Joseph, a medical doctor, born at Besan9on in 
 1779. Attached to the anriy, he attended the French troops in 
 their unfortunate expedition to Saint Domingo, and afterwards 
 served in the campaigns of Germany and of Russia. He also 
 attended the expedition of 1823 into Spain. The fruits of such 
 varied experience have been preseiTed in several essays ; but he 
 has left no large work ; nor, which seems strange, do his essays 
 refer to his own immediate profession, but treat of agi-iculture, 
 mendicancy, arts, and sciences, with accounts of places he has 
 visited; with memoirs left unfinished. He died in 1823. — J. F. C. 
 
 * BAILY, Edward Hodges, R.A., F.R.S., one of the best 
 I'nglish sculptors of modern times, was bom at Bristol in 1788. 
 The son of a ship-carver of good reputation, he began early to have 
 liis eye on plastic productions, and to show taste for the art in 
 which he was to become so proficient. Yet his inclination was 
 thwarted for a while, he being destined for commerce. This de- 
 ign was, however, to be frustrated. Young Baily soon left the 
 l''dger for the clay and wax, and in a vciy short time was able 
 to attract the attention and sympathy of the great Flaxman, who 
 received him in his studio, and completed his artistical education. 
 A successful competitor for the silver medal of the Society of 
 Art, and other academical prizes, he put a seal to his reputation 
 by his " Eve at the Fountain," which he produced when only 
 twenty-five years of age. This statue is still the brightest jewel 
 of his glory. By the modest grace and genuine spontaneity of 
 the conception, coupled with the general charm of forms displayed 
 in this work, Baily not only commands the admiration and praises 
 of the connoisseur, but carries with himself the favour of the 
 people at large. 
 
 Many and highly important are the works that this sculptor 
 has produced during his long and active career, all impressed 
 with a grandiosity and ease of conception that fully reveals the 
 innate genius of the master. Some of his monumental statues, 
 often of a colossal size, are equal, if not superior, to the best of 
 Chantrey; nor did Baily disdain the humbler branch, portrait- 
 busts, in which he exhibits the same characteristics of his larger 
 works, and even displays a greater amount of care in the details. 
 His latest works, the "Graces" and the " Morning Star," clearly 
 show that the inventive power of this artist is still burning unim- 
 paired with all the vigour of youth and geniality. Baily, highly 
 and deservedly esteemed throughout his native country, is con- 
 sidered abroad, with Foley and Macdowcll, as one of the great 
 champions of the modern English school of sculpture. — 11. JL 
 
 BAILY, FuANcis, born on the 28th April, 1774, at New- 
 bury, Berkshire ; died at a ripe age at his resilience in London 
 on 30th August, 1844. It is not easy to write of Francis Baily in 
 tenns equal to the importance of his labours, his worth as a man, 
 or to the affection with whieh his memory is cherished by every 
 person of note in the scientific world of Great Britain, or in the 
 
 higher literary as well as the scientific world of our metropolis. 
 During the earlier portion of his life he occupied himself as a 
 stock-broker at the Exchange, remaining in this position up to the 
 year 1825, and constructing a reputation for practical sagacity 
 and an integrity beyond reach of suspicion, which certainly only 
 a few of those who follow that rather critical and difficidt pro- 
 fession have succeeded in attaining. ^Ir. Baily owed what may 
 be tcnned prosperity in the trade sense — viz, a large fortune, 
 crowned by honour — to the possession of various quahties not 
 often found together. The first of these was a high moral 
 nature, issuing in scnipulous regard for the rights and claims 
 of others — probity in its practical form. But he had also pru- 
 dence and sagacity in the widest meaning of these words, and in 
 reference to thcli- widest relations. Nothing is more fallacious 
 than the current notion that sagacity comes necessarily from ex- 
 perience ; and that only to know the great laws of commerce, it is 
 requisite to be a broker, a banker, or a merchant. It might be 
 patent in these our times to the man " who runs," that simple 
 practice in a profession bestows neither sagacity nor prudence. 
 A sagacious merchant must be possessed of the reflective and 
 generalizing faculties in a very large degree, before he can com- 
 prehend in the least the meaning of those facts and events which 
 he calls his " experience," or be able to use the past as a ground 
 from which he may look into the future. How rare this com- 
 bination ! How few mercantile men, even of the prosperous 
 class, can ever become statesmen, the histoiy of the IJritish 
 reformed parliament can emphatically tell ! The value univer- 
 sally attached to the practical side of 5Ir. Baily's nature — 
 if, indeed, one may attribute any side to a natm'e so complete 
 — is evinced by the fact that he was chosen by the members 
 of the Stock Exchange, to prosecute, or rather to prepare the 
 prosecutor's case, in the celebrated fraud of Du Beranger 
 (that in which Lord Cochrane was supposed to be impli- 
 cated) ; and he accomplished his task so admirably, that a chain 
 of evidence made up of links more closely bound together, was 
 never produced in any court of justice. All this while he was 
 producing works establishing great general principles, which are 
 referred to still, and will yet long be referred to as absolute 
 standards. He began with a work on rules for determining the 
 value of Reversions. This was succeeded in 1808 by " The 
 Doctrine of Interest and Annuities Analytically Investigated and 
 Explained;" and in 1810 he produced his "Doctrine of Life 
 Annuities and Insurances Analytically Investigated and Ex- 
 plained." " This is a work," says Sir John Herschel, " in many 
 ways remarkable, and its peculiarities are of a highly charac- 
 teristic nature ; method, symmetry, and lucid order being brought 
 in aid of practical utility in a subject which had never before 
 been so treated, and old routine being boldly questioned and 
 confronted with enlarged experience." In very early life Mr. 
 Baily travelled in western America. In those wcstem wilds he 
 met with Mr. Ellicot, the govemment-surveyor of the United 
 States ; and as companionship in the wilderness is apt to become 
 very close, he seems to have become influenced by the pursuits 
 and difiiculties of Ellicot, and es[ieeially arrested by his account 
 of that superb display of meteors in 1799, which Ellicot had seen. 
 From that period forth he showed a keen relish for the pursuit 
 of astronomy. It may seem odd that a stock-broker should 
 write on the eclipse of Thales : the wonder is that he did not 
 thereby destroy his character on 'Cliange ! No better illus- 
 tration has been affbrded in modern times of the truth, that 
 relaxation does not consist in sleep or torpor, but in the ex- 
 ercise of diffaxnt faculties of the soul. — Wo have not space 
 to enumerate all the services rendered to pure science by Francis 
 Baily. The titles even of his various memoirs — all of them 
 marked by the rare speciality of his intellect — we cannot even 
 enumerate. But this must be said : In cveiy scientific act 
 of Baily, one recognizes the presence of a conscientious and 
 able man of Inisincss, and of a lover of pure science. Ho 
 was one of the founders of the Astronomical Society — perhaps 
 he first of all suggested the project. He wrote much con- 
 cerning special ])henomena — always pointing out the peculi- 
 arities in these phenomena that ought to bo obsen-ed, in order 
 that they be fruitful. He helpeil towards the remodelling 
 of our nautical almanac; or rather, he was the prime mover in 
 this reform. He analysed our astronomical catalogues, and pub- 
 lished lists of qiicreiida. He proposed and helped towards the 
 revision of our catalogues, and the reduction of tlie catalogues of 
 Lalandc and Lacaille. By common consent he took the direction
 
 BAI 
 
 348 
 
 BAI 
 
 of such inquiries as the following: — "The Determination of the 
 length of the Pendulum ;" " The Fixution of the Standard of 
 Length;" "The Detemiination of the Density of the Earth." 
 Mr. Baily was among the most affable and friendly of men. 
 His table was a favourite one in London ; for he knew what 
 the Stagyrite calls true "magnificence" — the fulness of hospi- 
 tahty, as well as its limits. No man was more accessible or 
 more kind. Let a scientific project of any kind, havmg right, 
 or a high probability of right, at its base, be presented to him — 
 no matter who the projector — lie had a word of encouragement 
 as well as honest criticism. Baily could not be a martinet ; he 
 lived amidst wannth, and was ever warm himself. Utinnm 
 superstes esses ! The reader who would know more of this 
 remarkable person, is referred to the tasteful and appreciative 
 memoir of him by Sir John F. W. Herschel, in the Transactions 
 and Proceedings of the Eoyal Astronomical Society. — J. P. N. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, Ciikistopiier, archbishop of York, and 
 cardinal of the Roman church, was a native of Westmoreland, 
 and educated at Queen's college, Oxford. After holdmg vmious 
 minor prefennents, he became dean of Lichfield in 1503, and 
 in 1505 dean of Windsor, and a privy councillor. In 1507 he 
 was made bishop of Dm-ham, and in 1508 archbishop of York. 
 Bainbridge was in great favom- at court, and Henry VII., with 
 his usual preference for ecclesiastics, employed him on several 
 embassies, as did also Hemy VIII. On one of these to the 
 pope, JuUus II., he was created cardinal of St. Praxede by that 
 pontiff m 1511. Bainbridge died at Rome in 1514, it is supposed 
 by poison, administered by a domestic in revenge for some blows 
 received from his eminence. Bainbridge was biu-ied in the Eng- 
 lish church of St. Thomas at Rome. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, John, a physician and astronomer, bom in 
 Leicesterslihe in 1582. After studying at Cambridge, and tak- 
 ing the degi-ee of M.A., he returned to his native county, where 
 he taught a grammar school, and applied liimself to the study 
 of mathematics and astronomy. In 1619 he published "An 
 Astronomical Description of the late Comet, fi-om the 18th of 
 November, 1618, to the 16th of December following," and in the 
 same year was appointed by Sir Hemy Savile his first professor 
 of astronomy at Oxford. He pubhshed also editions of some of 
 the ancient writers on astronomy, and at the request of Arch- 
 bishop Usher, " A Treatise on the Dog-star and the Canicular 
 Days," 1618. He left also many unpublished works, which are 
 presei-ved in the hbrary of Trinity college, Dubhn. He died at 
 Oxford in 1G13.— J. B. 
 
 BAINE or BAYNE, Rodolf, an English philologist of the 
 sixteenth century, author of a Hebrew granunar, and a commen- 
 tary on the Proverbs, was professor of Hebrew at Paris, and 
 became afterwards bishop of Lichfield. He lost his bishopric 
 at the commencement of Ehzabeth's reign. Died in 1560. 
 
 BAINES, Edward, author of the " History of the County 
 Palatine of Lancaster," proprietor and editor of the Leeds Mer- 
 cury, and representative of the borough of Leeds in three parlia- 
 ments, was born at Walton-le-Dale, near Preston in Lancashire, 
 on the 5th of Febniary, 1774. His father, descended from a 
 family of Yoi-kshire yeomen, was prevented from setthng in 
 business in Preston by a pro\-ision of the municipal charter 
 enforced by a conservative coi-])oration ; and this event gave him 
 a bias in favour of liberal politics, and against monopolies and 
 restrictions of every kind. The son, Edward, after an ordinary 
 school education, was apprenticed to a printer, who for a while, 
 during the excitement of the French revolution, published a 
 newspaper of liberal views. Being a youth of %ngorous talents 
 and an enterprising spirit, he removed to Leeds before the expira- 
 tion of his apprenticeship, for the purpose of obtaining a more 
 perfect acquaintance with his business ; and it was without know- 
 ing a single inhabitant, and with very slender means, that he 
 entered the town of which he was afterwards to become a distin- 
 guished ornament. Having commenced business as a printer, 
 and being known to several gentlemen of the liberal party as a 
 man of integrity, piiidence, and energy, and also a decided friend 
 of freedom and political reforms, he was assisted to purchase the 
 copyriglit of the Leeds Mercui-y. This was in the year 1801, 
 when that newspaper had a very small circulati(jn, and, like 
 nearly all other provincial newspapers at that day, was without 
 either editorial article or reporter, scanty in its dimensions, and 
 possessing little that could infonn or influence the minds of its 
 readers. Mr. Baines was one of the public writers who, by then 
 abilities and character, raised the provincial press nearly to a 
 
 level with the metropolitan press; and during almost half a 
 century, by his personal exertions and his pen, he exercised an 
 important influence in the great county of York on behalf of liberal 
 politics and aU social improvement. It may give some idea of 
 the increased importance of the newspaper press of England 
 within his day to state, that the Leeds Mercury, which only con- 
 tained about 21,000 words in the year 1801, after many succes- 
 sive enlargements contained 180,000 words m the year 1848 
 and that its circulation in that inteiTal multiplied about twelve- 
 fold. In many places the periodical press has been discredited 
 by violence, by personalities, or by unvrorthy subserviency to the 
 views of a party ; but llr. Baines, whilst vigorously defending a 
 Hberal policy, and the public men by whom it was maintained, 
 preserved an enthe personal independence, as well as a dignified 
 moderation. This course, adopted from principle, proved to be the 
 truest policy, and, combined with his success iu business, gained 
 for hun the confidence of his fellow-citizens. In an age of 
 improvement, he was one of the first to advocate eveiy measure 
 calculated to correct abuses, to extend popular rights, to spread 
 knowledge and education, to establish valuable mstitutions, and 
 to ameliorate the condition of the workmg class. His warm 
 benevolence unpelled him to take a foremost part in relieving 
 the distresses of the poor. He was a congi'cgational dissenter, 
 and he co-operated with the friends of rehgiuus liberty in advocat- 
 ing the perfect civil equahty of all religious commmiities. In 
 the year 1817, when much distress prevailed in the country, it 
 was not unnaturally accompanied by political agitation. The 
 demand for parliamentaiy refonn, made so many years before by 
 Fox, Pitt, and other statesmen, was revived ; and Mr. Baines 
 took a leading part at a great public meeting in advocating the 
 abolition of the decayed boroughs, and the extension of the fran- 
 chise to the unrepresented towns. The stem opposition of the 
 government provoked public feeling, and demagogues availed 
 themselves of that feeling to stir up the suffering people to meet 
 in lai-ge and angiy assemblages. Alarmed by these proceedings, 
 and suspecting seditious conspiracies, the home secretaiy. Lord 
 Sidmouth, employed spies to obtain infomiation ; but the spies 
 created the conspiracies which they were employed to detect, and 
 spread abroad nimours of insurrection, which alarmed the whole 
 countiy. Mr. Baines was happily enabled to trace the proceed- 
 ings of a spy named OHver, who had wickedly endeavoured to 
 foment conspiracy in Yorkshire, v^-ith the view of drawing some 
 of the most zealous refonners into his net ; and the man's machi- 
 nations being exposed in the Leeds Mercury, the exposm'e was 
 read in both houses of parliament, by Earl Grey and Sir Francis 
 Bm-dett, and, as a consequence, the spy-system was exploded, 
 and the pubHc alarm was at once allayed. Among the valuable 
 institutions which Mr. Baines assisted to estabhsh were the 
 Royal Lancasterian School, the PhOosophical and Literary So- 
 ciety, the I\lechanics' Institution, the ]\Iodel Infant School, the 
 House of Recovery (or Fever Hospital), the Temperance Society, 
 and many others. And among the national measures which he 
 earnestly advocated from an early period of their discussion, were 
 the refonn of the House of Commons, the removal of the test 
 and corporation acts, cathoUc emancipation, the repeal of the 
 combination laws, the abolition of colonial slaveiy, the reform of 
 municipal corporations, the removal of the corn laws, the dissen- 
 ters' marriage act, and the abolition of church-rates. When a 
 proposal was made, which found considerable favour for a time, 
 to remodel the House of Lords, he strenuously combated it, 
 maintaining that the hereditary peerage, however it might be 
 open to theoretical objections, was one of the essential parts of 
 the English constitution. At all times he showed himself as 
 decided in his'attachment to the constitution as in his opposition 
 to injustice and abuses. Mr. Bauies's active pen was not confined 
 to the editing of his newspaper. Especially after he began to 
 receive assistance from his second son and partner, Edward, he 
 indulged a strong taste for topogi'aphical research, by composing 
 brief histories of the comities of York and Lancaster, and after- 
 wards an elaliorate and standard " History of the County Pala- 
 tine of Lancaster," in four 4to vols., with abundant illustrations. 
 From the commencement of the railway system, he actively pro- 
 moted that improved method of communication. He was a 
 director of some lines, and a shareholder in several ; but he never 
 speculated. Being alive to the importance of agricultural un- 
 provenicnt, he reclaimed a considerable portion of Chat moss, 
 near Manchester, and in his latter years he took great interest 
 in his farm, which, however, but indifferently repaid a rather
 
 large ontlav. \Mien he had been more than thirty years engaged 
 in public life, the borough of Leeds was enfi-ancliised under the 
 reform act, and Mr. Baines was thought by many of the electors 
 to be well qu:ilified to represent them in parliament. But his 
 modesty, no less than his literary and business engagements, 
 caused him to shrink from the honour ; and he actively promoted 
 the return of the eloquent advocate of the reform act in the 
 House of Commons, Jlr., now Lord JIacaulay, together vrith a 
 wealthy manufacturer of the to^vn, Mr. John Marshall, jun. 
 In little more than a year, however, a vacancy was created in 
 the representation by the appointment of Mr. Jlacaulay to a 
 seat in the council of the governor-general of India ; and Mr. 
 Baines now allowed himself to be nominated as the candidate of 
 the liberal party. Though opposed by Su- John Beckett, who 
 belonged to a family of wealthy and influential bankers in Leeds, 
 Mr. Baines was returned, after a severe contest, in Feb., 1834, and 
 he continued to represent the borough in thi'ce parliaments, being 
 jre-clected at the general elections of 1835 and 1837. Nothing 
 could be more exemplaiy than his discharge of parliamentary 
 duty. His attention to the local interests of his constituents was 
 prompt and efficient ia the highest degree, and in national ques- 
 tions he gave a general support to the liberal administrations of 
 Lords Grey and J^Ielboume, but still maintained entire indepen- 
 dence of judgment and action. He was considered as a repre- 
 sentative of the dissenters, and he strongly pressed an abolition 
 of the church-rates — a measure wliich the government more 
 than once attempted to carry, but without success. He also 
 sought to improve the livmgs of the poor clergy out of the re- 
 venues of the church, by more strictly le%Ting the first-fruits and 
 tenths, and by applving Queen Anne's bounty more in accordance 
 ivith the original intention. In this object he did not succeed, 
 but the end he had in view has since been in some degree attained. 
 At the general election of 184:1, owing to failing health, he 
 withdrew from parliamentary life ; but he continued to dischai-ge 
 the duties of a magistrate and a citizen, with an especial regard 
 to the interests of the poor, untU his death on the 3d of August, 
 1848, in his seventy-fifth year. Such was the general sense of 
 liis virtues that he received a pubUc funeral, and a marble statue 
 to his memory is placed in the noble town-hall of Leeds. Jlr. 
 Baines remarkably combined pubhc ■nith domestic virtues, in- 
 1 fatigable energy v.-ith cahn pnidence, and commercial success 
 ■A'ith sincere piety, and a philanthi-opy which extended from his 
 poorest neighbour to the most friendless slave and most benighted 
 heathen. He maixied the daughter of Mr. JMatthew Talbot, 
 the learned author of a valuable analysis of the Holy Bible, 
 by whom he had eleven chUdren, nine of whom survived him. 
 The eldest, Matthew Talbot, attained eminence at the bar, was 
 elected member of parliament for Hull in 1847, and for Leeds 
 in 1852, and subsequent parliaments; he became successively 
 president of the poor-law board, and chancellor of the duchy of 
 Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet, and at the privy council. 
 The second son, Edward, has for many years, in association with 
 his younger brother, Frederick, been the editor of the Leeds 
 Mercury, is the author of the History of the Cotton Manufac- 
 ture, the biographer of liis father, and an active promoter of 
 popular education, but relying on the efforts of the people them- 
 selves, to the exclusion of government action. The third son, 
 Thomas, is the author of the Histor}' of Liverpool. — E. B. 
 
 * BAINES, Hexky, superintendent of the botanic garden at 
 York. He has published a Flora of Yorkshire. 
 
 • BAINES, Matthew Talbot, late chancellor of the duchy 
 of Lancaster, a member of Lord Palmerston's cabinet and of the 
 pri\-}' council, was the eldest son of the above Edward Baines, 
 and was bom at Leeds on the 17th Febi-uaiy, 1799. He was 
 educated at Eichmond school, Yorkshire, and Trinity college, 
 Cambridge; he was senior optinie in 1820, scholar of Trinity 
 college. Dr. Hooper's declamation-prizeman, and King William 
 lll.'s declamation-prizeman. He was called to the bar in 1825, 
 and after a successful professional course, was made a Queen's 
 counsel in 1841, and became one of the leading barristers on the 
 northern c'u-cuit. From 1837 to 1847 he tilled the office of 
 recorder of Hull, and so completely acquired the confidence of the 
 inhabitants, that in the latter year he was chosen to represent 
 the borough in parfiament. He was the author of two useful 
 acts for removing defects in the administration of the poor and 
 in criminal justice. He was appointed by Lord John Kussell 
 president of the poor-law board in January, 1849, and filled that 
 difficult and delicate office with satisfaction to all parties until 
 
 August, 1855, except during the brief interval of Lord Derby's 
 administration. In 1852 he was elected to represent his native 
 town, Leeds, in the House of Commons, and has been three times 
 re-elected for the same borough. In December, 1855, he was 
 appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in 
 the cabinet, and resigned office ^vith Lord Palmerston in Feb- 
 ruar\-, 1858. He is distinguished by calm and clear judgment, 
 indefatigable application to business, and uprightness and dignity 
 of character. — E. B. 
 
 BAINI, Giuseppe, a musician and writer on music, was 
 bom at Rome in 1770, where he died in 1844. He sung as a 
 boy in the pontifical chapel, where he was afterwards retained 
 as a bass, when he became celebrated for the singular beauty of 
 his voice, and the excellence of liis style ; and in 1817 he was 
 appointed director — an office which, until then, had been in- 
 cluded in that of " maestro di capella." He received his first 
 instruction in counterpoint from his micle, Lorenzo Bauii of Venice, 
 a musician of the ancient Roman school, who produced a stabat 
 mater and several motets, which are much commended ; and he 
 continued his study of composition in the same style under 
 Giuseppe Januaconi, whose friend and pupil he became in 1802. 
 His education was not confined to music, but combined with this 
 general learning, and especially theology ; he was thiis enabled to 
 enter the church, and in this profession to rise to the distinction 
 of a don and an abbe. He is best known as a composer by his 
 " Miserere," produced in 1821, which is performed in the Sistine 
 chapel on Holy Thursday, in alternation with that of AUegri 
 and the one of Bai, being the only work that is allowed to take 
 place beside these famous masterpieces. There are several other 
 ecclesiastical compositions of his, which are like this in the severe 
 style, and which remain in manuscript. The original bias of his 
 mind, his early associations in the choir, and the whole tendency 
 of his musical training, peculiarly disposed him to appreciate 
 the merits of Palestrina, on which he set so high a value that 
 he undertook the collection and publication of the entire works, 
 printed and unpiinted, of this great master. Baini is chiefly 
 distinguished for his wrirings upon music, which display a depth 
 of knowledge, a diligence of research, an enthusiasm for his sub- 
 ject, and a mastery of diction, that have gained him the highest 
 esteem. His first work, printed in 1806, " Lettera sopra il 
 motetto a quattro cori del Sig. Marco Santucci," is an elaborate 
 piece of criticism; his next, printed in 1820, " Saggio sopra Viden- 
 tita de' ritmi musicale e poetico," was written in reply to sixteen 
 questions proposed to him by the Count de St. Leu, who pub- 
 lished a French translation of the book; Ms third and most 
 important, printed in 1828, " Memorie storico critiche della vita 
 e delle opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina," is one of the 
 most valuable authoriries on musical history extant. Baini's 
 reverential admu-ation for the greatest master of the diatonic 
 style, stimulated him to spend extraordinary pains upon this 
 biography. It has been urged against it, that his superla- 
 tive idea of Palestrina led him to depreciate other composers, 
 his contemporaries, and that he evinces throughout the work a 
 remarkable deficiency of knowledge of the works and the merits 
 of all musicians out of Italy ; accordingly, Franz Handler, in his 
 elaborate and conscientious German ti'anslation of the book, has 
 incorporated extensive commentaries of his ovm, which, while 
 they in no respect interfere with what the author writes of his 
 hero, make the book equally complete in collateral particulars. 
 For this work Bami had especial advantages in his priest's 
 office, which gave him access to ecclesiastical and even private 
 Ubraries, that would have been closed to him had he been a 
 lavman : in particular, he made great use of the celebrated JIS. 
 of Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni, " Notizie de' contrappuntisti Com- 
 positori di musica degl' anni dell' era ciistiana 1000," by means 
 of which, more than all the other authorities at his command, 
 he has been able to give a most copious account of the progress 
 of music m the papal chapel in the period prior to Ockenheim, 
 and so to supply the insufficiencies and correct the errors of 
 Adami, Gerber, and other esteemed musico-ecclesiastical histo- 
 rical writers. Though he reached to an advanced age, his 
 health was for very long greatly impaired by his unceasing 
 labours, especially in his clerical duties, in discharge of which, 
 particularly in the office of the confessional, he was unremit- 
 tingly zealous. Thus he distinguished himself in the fourfold 
 capacity of singer, composer, critical historian, and priest, with 
 almost equal eminence ; but the character in which he has ren- 
 dered the most endming advantage to the world, is that of a
 
 BAI 
 
 350 
 
 BAJ 
 
 writer upon music, in which his name will always hold the first 
 rank. — G. A. M. 
 
 BAINVILLE, Jaques, born in Provence; came to Paris, 
 tried poetr}', and was advised by Boileau, who was a relative of 
 his, to earii his bread by painting, for which he showed some 
 talents. Some fugitive verses of his are menrioned, also an opera, 
 and a few drinking-songs. The precise dates of his bu-th and 
 death are not recorded, bnt are to be referred to the latter half 
 of the 17th and the becinning of the 18th centuries. — J. A., D. 
 
 BAIRAKTAR or BEIPvAKDAR, Mustapha-Pacha, grand 
 vizier of the Ottoman empii-e, bom in 1755; died 14th Nov., 
 1808. From his first entrance on the au-eer of ai-ms he was 
 distinguished by his valour. He became pacha of Piouschoidc 
 in 1806, and fought against the Russians, who had invaded 
 Moldavia and Wallacliia, and taken possession of Buchai-est. 
 On the revolt of the janissaries, and the deposition of Selim, he 
 concluded an armistice with the Russians, and marched on Con- 
 stantinople, with a view to re-establish Selim, who had been his 
 benefactor, on the throne. Selim, however, after being retained 
 for a short time a prisoner, was strangled by Jlustajiha. Biu- 
 raktar avenged the murder of his friend by deposing Mustapha, 
 and elevating ilahmoud to the throne.— G. il. 
 
 BAIRD, Sir David, Bart., K.C.B., was bom at Xewbyth, 
 Scotland, in 1757. Entering the army in 1778, he served m 
 India, and was one of Lord Hanis's brigadier-generals at the 
 taking of Seringapatam, in which he distinguished himself by 
 leading the assault. He was, however, superseded in the com- 
 mand of the town which his intrepid conduct had done so much 
 to win, by Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards duke of Welhngton, 
 but at that time an oflicer of inferior rank to himself, though of 
 higher and more influential connections, as being the brother of 
 the JIarquis Wellesley, then governor-general of India. For 
 Ms gallantry at Seringapatam, General Baird received no more 
 substantial reward than the thanks of both houses of parliament. 
 Having subsequently held a command for a short time at JIadras, 
 during which he engaged in hostilities against ScLndiah and the 
 rajah of Rajpoor, he returned to England. In 1805 he went 
 out on an expedition against the Dutch settlements at the Cape 
 of Good Hope and took Cape To^^-n, a position the unportance 
 of which can scarcely be oveirated in reference to our Indian 
 empire and commerce. In 1807 he sen-ed under General 
 (afterwards Earl) Cathcart at the taking of Copenhagen ; and he 
 subsequently went out to the Peninsula in command of a diri- 
 sion, to co-operate with Sir John Sloore. He shared the glory 
 of Coranna, where he was so severely wounded that he was 
 unable to take advantage of the accidental promotion offered by 
 Sir J. Moore's lamented death. At the close of the war he was 
 rewarded with a baronetcy and the order of the Bath, and sub- 
 sequently held a military command in Ireland. He retked into 
 private life, and died in 1829, aged 72. — E. W. 
 
 * BAIRD, William, M.D., youngest son of the Rev. James 
 Baird, was bora in 1803 at the manse of Eccles in Berwick- 
 shire. He received his education at the High School of Edin- 
 burgh, and afterwards studied medicine and surgery in the 
 university of that city, and at Dublin and Paris. In the year 
 1823, Dr. Baird, having previously made a voyage to the West 
 Indies and South America, entered the maritime service of the 
 East India Company, as surgeon, .and remained in it until 1833; 
 during tins period he ^^sited India and China five times, and in 
 all his voyages availed himself zealously of the opportunities for 
 studying liis favourite science of natural histoiy, wliich his posi- 
 tion presented to him. In 1829, Dr. Baird assisted in the 
 foundation of the well-known Benvickshire XaturaUsts' Club, an 
 admirable institution, the example afforded by which has led to 
 the formation of similar societies in other parts of our island, wliich 
 have contributed greatly, not oidy to the advancement of our know- 
 ledge of the natural history of particular districts, but also to the 
 spreading of a love for this attractive science generally throughout 
 the country. On quitting the Ea,st India Company's serx-ice. Dr. 
 Baird practised his ])rofession in London for some years, until 
 in 1841 he accepted an appointment in the zoological depart- 
 ment of the British Museum, where he still remains (1858). 
 Dr. B.aird's qualifications as a zoologist are of a high order, and 
 his published writings .ire numerous and excellent. They con- 
 sist chiefiy of scattered papere on various subjects in the Edin- 
 burgh Philosophical Journal^ Ijmdon's Magazine of Xatural 
 History, and its successor, the Annals and Magazine of Natural 
 History, in the Zoologist, and the Proceedings of the Zoological 
 
 Society. His most important work is, however, the " Natural 
 History of the British Entomostraca," published by the Ray 
 Society in 1850, wliich contains a most admirable account of 
 the stmcture, physiology, and habits of the minute Crustacea 
 which swaiTn in such abundance in our fresh and salt waters. 
 He is also the author of a popular " Cvclopajdia of the Natimtl 
 Sciences," 8vo, 1858.— W. S. D. 
 
 BAISANCOR, a name common to many ilongolian and 
 Tm-coman emperors : — 
 
 Baisaxcor, son of Caidu-Khan, succeeded his father in the 
 empire of the Jlongols. He had two brothers, Giucalemgom 
 and Giusmagm. The fomier became head of the tribe called 
 Tahiut, the latter that of the tribe named Sahiut. Baisanccr 
 was succeeded by his son Tumakliah. 
 
 Bais.vn-cor-JIirza, sultan of the dynasty of the Turko- 
 mans, died in 1491. On his accession to the throne he was only 
 two years old, and he reigned not more than one year and eight 
 months. He was put to death by Rostam, who had seized upon 
 his dominions. 
 
 Baisaxcor-Mirza, one of the last princes of the race of 
 Tamerlane, of the branch of iliranschah, died in 1499. — G. M. 
 
 * BAITER, JoiiAxx Georg, a Swiss philologist, was bom at 
 Ziirieh in 1801. He studied first in his native town, and after- 
 wards under Thiersch at Munich. From 1825-1829, he resided 
 at Gottingen and Konigsberg. He then retmned to Ziiiich, where 
 he became one of the masters of the gj-mnasimn, and professor 
 extraordinary at the imiversity, which latter post he resigned in 
 1849. His first work was an edition of "Isocratis Panegy- 
 ricus." He assisted OreUi in editing the works of Cicero, 
 " Ciceronis Scholiasts," and the " Onomasticon TuUianiun." 
 With Sauppe he published the " Oratores Attici," with Orelli 
 and Winckelmann, the works of Plato, 1839-1842, and with 
 Orelli, the " Fabellae lambicae" of Babrius. — K. E. 
 
 BAITON, (BajTo/y,) a Greek geometer in the service of Alex- 
 ander the Great, who employed him to measiu-e the distances 
 of the stations on the line of maixh tlu-ough Asia. He WTOte 
 a work, " 'Sra.Of^.oi -rr.; 'AXilavS^sa ^cciia;" of which only a few 
 fragments are extant. 
 
 BAIUS or DE BAY, Michael, was bom at Melui in 1513. 
 He was appointed by Charles V. professor of dixinity in the 
 university of Louvain, and afterwards became chancellor and 
 inquisitor-general. His university, under the influence of Philip 
 II., or his representative, Cai'dinal Granvella, sent him as its 
 deputy to the council of Trent, at which he signafized himself. 
 Baius held strongly what are called Augustinian doctrines, and 
 openly and powerfully condemned the reigning Pelagianism of the 
 church of Rome. Assaults had already been made upon him from 
 various quarters, especially fi-om the Franciscan monks ; and in 
 1567 he was formally accused to the com-t of Rome. Seventy- 
 six propositions were extracted from his works, all bearing more 
 or less upon the questions of natural ability, and the merit of 
 good works. Pope Pius V. issued an insidious condemnation, 
 branding the opinions, without naming the author. The pro- 
 gi-ess of Luthcranism had made his holiness somewhat cautions 
 and reserved. The person of Baius therefore was safe, though his 
 theology was condemned ; but the affront offered to the Francis- 
 cans and Jesuits had been too deep to be thus easily atoned for, and 
 Gregoiy XIII., at the instigation of the Jesuit Lolez, pronounced 
 a second condemnation. Baius submitted to the papal ch.air; 
 but his doctrines had t.aken root both in Douay and Louvain, 
 and they were revived by Jansen with more than their original 
 eloquence and power. His works were published at Cologne in 
 1696, but the pope forbade their circulation. Baius died ICth 
 September, 1589. Baius was so fond of Augustine, that he Is 
 said to have read him through nine times. — J. E. 
 
 BAIUS, Jacobus, a Belgian theologian, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, died in 1614. He wrote " Institutionum Christianse 
 Rehgionis Libri III." 
 
 BAJAZET I., emir or cliief of the Ottoman Turks, succeeded 
 his father, Amurath I., in 1389. He was the first of his 
 family who assumed the title of sultan. The Turkish empire at 
 that time extended westward from the Euphrates to the shores 
 of Europe, and Amurath had crossed the Bosphoms, subdued 
 the greater part of Thrace, and fixed the seat of liis power at 
 Adrianople. B.ajazet wrested the northem parts of Asia Minor 
 from the dominion of various Turkish emirs whose power had 
 long been established there. In Europe he conquered ^lacedonia 
 and Thessaly, and invaded Moldavia and Hungary. Sigismond,
 
 BAJ 
 
 351 
 
 BAK 
 
 king of Hungary, met him at the head of 100,000 men, includ- 
 ing the flower of the cliivah-y of France and Germany, but was 
 totally defeated at Nicopoli on the Danube, September 28, 139G. 
 Cajazet is said to have boasted, on the occasion of this victory, 
 that he would feed his horse on tlie altar of St. Peter at Rome. 
 His progress, however, was arrested by a violent fit of the gout. 
 He was preparing for an attack on Constantinople, when he was 
 interrupted by the approach of Tiinom- the Great, by whom he 
 was defeated at Angora in Anatolia, July 28, 1402. He was 
 taken captive, and died about nine months afterwards at Antioch 
 in Pisidia. He was succeeded by Mahomet I. The iron cage 
 in which Bajazet is said to liave been imprisoned is rejected as a 
 fable by modem writers. He was surnamed "Ilderim," or "the 
 Lightning;" an epithet dra-svn, says Gibbon, from the fiery energy 
 of his soul, and the rapidity of his destructive march. — Bajazet 
 n. succeeded his father, Mahomet II., in 1481. His brother, 
 Zizini, contested the empire witli him, with the assistance of 
 Caitli-Bey, sultan of the Mamelukes in Egypt, but was com- 
 pelled to retreat into Italy, where he died in 1495. Bajazet 
 undertook an expedition against Caith-Bey, but without success, 
 being defeated, with great loss, near Mount Tauras in Cilicia, in 
 1489. He was more fortunate in Europe, where, in the same 
 year, his generals conquered Croatia and Bosnia. He was en- 
 gaged in long and bloody hostilities with the Moldavians, the 
 Rhodians, and especially the Venetians, who frequently invaded 
 the south of Greece ; and with Ismael, king of Persia. In 1512 
 he was compelled to resign his dominions to his son, Selim I., 
 and died shortly afterwards, probably by poison. — A. H. P. 
 
 BA.JON, a French physician and naturahst. He died to- 
 wards the end of the eighteenth century. In 1763 he was sent 
 as senior surgeon to Guiana, where he stayed twelve years. 
 During his sojourn at Cayenne, he wrote to Daubenton several 
 times on natm-al-history subjects, and was consequently named 
 a coiTespondent of the Academy of Sciences. He obtained, dur- 
 ing his travels, a great many plants and animals, and published 
 his observations on them in Paris, 1777-78, 2 vols., in 8vo. 
 Bajon has published many articles in the Medical and in the 
 Physical Journal. Bufton has made great use of his " Memou-e 
 .sur le Tapir." We do not know for certainty the exact date of 
 Bajon's birth or death. — E. L. 
 
 BAKE, Laurence, a Dutch poet, bom in the latter part of 
 the seventeenth centuiy. His piincipal poems were of a religious 
 character. He died in 1714. 
 
 BAKER, David, born at Abergavenny in 1575 ; educated 
 first at Christ's hospital, then at Broadgate's hall (now Pem- 
 broke college), Oxford. He entered a student of the Middle 
 Temple, but having embraced the Roman catholic religion, went 
 into Italy and became a Benedictine. He returned to England, 
 ind died in 1641. Cressy, in his Church Histoiy, has made 
 aisiderable use of materials collected by Baker. — J. B., 0. 
 BAKER, Sir George, Bart., M.D. Cantabr., 175G, physi- 
 ( Ian to George III., and president of the College of Physicians ; 
 born 1722; died .June 15, 1809. His son republished in 1818 
 a volume of medical tracts, read by him at the College of 
 Physicians, 1767-85. 
 
 BAKER, George, author of the "History of Northampton- 
 hire," was a native of the borougli of Northampton. Tlie Ih-st 
 part of his history was published in 1822, and about one-third 
 "f thefiilh part in 1841. Here, from the faihu-e of the author's 
 health, it terminated abruptly. He died at Northampton, Octo- 
 ber 12, 1851, aged seventy. 
 
 BAKER, Henry, an English naturalist. He was the son of 
 William liaker, a chancery clerk, and was born on the 8th of 
 May, 1698, in Chancery Lane, London. In 1713 he was ap- 
 prenticed to a bookseller, but in 1720 became clerk to Mr. 
 John Forster, attorney. Mr. Forster had a deaf and dumb 
 daughter, who became a pupil of Baker's, and sucli was his suc- 
 cess, that he soon became famous as an instmctor of deaf and 
 dumb persons. In 1724-25, he published some exceptional 
 poetry, and devoted himself to literature. In 1729 he married 
 the daughter of tlie celebrated Daniel Defoe. He now turned 
 his attention to .sul)jects of natural philosophy and history, and 
 in 1740 lie was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, 
 and of the Royal Society soon after. He subsequently became a 
 frequent contributor to the Pliilosophical Transactions. The 
 following are the titles of some of his papers — " E-xperimenta 
 et observationcs de Scarab»o qui trcs annos sine Alimento 
 Vixit," No. 457, p. 441 ; " On the Grubs destroying the Grass 
 
 in Norfollc," Ibid. 43, p. 35 ; "Observations on a Polype Dried," 
 Ibid. 42, p. 432 ; " A Letter concerning some Vertebrae of Am- 
 monitce or Cornu Ammonis," Ibid. 46, p. 37 ; " An account of 
 the Sea Polype (Sepia)," Ibid. 50, p. 777 ; " An Account of 
 some uncommon Fossil Bodies," Ibid. 48, p. 117; "A Letter 
 concerning an extraordinary large Fossil Tooth of an Elephant 
 found in Norfolk," Ibid. 43, p. 331; "On an extraordinary 
 Fis-h, called in Russia Quab ; and on the Stones called Crabs' 
 Eyes," Ibid. 45, p. 174. In many of his researches he employed 
 the microscope, tlien an instrument new to science, and in 1745 
 he published a work on the microscope, in two volumes, with 
 the title " Of Microscopes, and the Discoveries made thereby." 
 This work contains an account of many of the earliest observa- 
 tions made with the microscope, and is still consulted. In 
 1753 he pubhshed a more advanced work entitled " Employ- 
 ment for the Microscope." It consisted of two parts ; first, an 
 examination of salts and saline substances, tlieir amazing con- 
 figiu'ations and crystals ; second, an account of various animal- 
 cules, with obseiTations and remarks. For his researches on the 
 forms assumed by ciystalline substances, he received from the 
 hands of Sir Hans Sloane the Copley medal of the Royal So- 
 ciety. In 17G8 he published a work entitled " JMicroscopical 
 Observations." He died in the Strand, in November, 1774, and 
 was buried in the churchyard of St. Maiy-le-Strand. His natural- 
 histoiy collections were veiy extensive, and were sold by auction 
 after his death, and occupied ten days in their sale. He is said 
 to have introduced into this countiy the culture of the Rheum 
 palmatum, the rhubarb plant, the leaf-stalks of which are so 
 largely used as an article of diet at the present day. He also 
 gave a liistoiy of the Coccus jwlonicus, the cochineal of the 
 north. His active devotion to the science of natural history, 
 produced a decided impression in the latter part of the eigh- 
 teenth centmy. — E. L. 
 
 BAKER, John, an English statesman, died in 1558. In 
 1526 he was attached to the embassy of the bishop of St. 
 Asaph to the coml of Denmark. On his return he became a 
 member of the House of Commons, and was shortly aftenvards 
 elected speaker. He subsequently held in succession the offices 
 of attorney -general, member of the privy council, and chancellor 
 of the exchequer. — G. M. 
 
 BAKER, John, an English admiral, died 10th November, 
 1716. In 1692 he sailed in the capacity of captain with Sir 
 George Rook, to escort the English fleet from Smyrna. In the 
 reign of Queen Anne, Baker distinguished himself in an expedi- 
 tion against Cadiz. He afterwards assisted at the taking of 
 Gibraltar, and shared the honour of the victory obtained over 
 the French fleet at Jlalaga. In 1716 he was commissioned by 
 the government to renew the treaties of alliance between Eng- 
 land and the states of Barbary, including also Minorca. His 
 conduct and success in tliis important mission justified his 
 appointment. A monument to his memory has been erected in 
 Westminster abbey. — G. M. 
 
 BAKER, Sir Richard, was bora at Sissinghurst in 1568, 
 The earlier part of his life seems to have been sufficiently pros- 
 perous : he received a liberal education, and occupied various 
 positions of trast. He was knighted by King James in 1 603 ; 
 but having become involved in some pecuniary obligations, he 
 lost his fortune, and was compelled to turn his attention to 
 literature. His earliest j)rintcd work bears the date 1636, so 
 that it would appear that he did not begin to write till nearly 
 sixty-seven years of age. His works are the more remarkable 
 from the fact that they were nearly all composed wliile he was 
 a prisoner in the Fleet, where he died in 1644. Baker is best 
 known as the author of a " Chronicle of the Kings of England, 
 from the time of the Romans' Government unto the death of King 
 James," London, Kill, which was contimied by Edward Philips, 
 the nephew of Milton, and was long held in repute as the most 
 authentic history of England. — J. B. 
 
 BAKER, Thomas, wa.s born at Ilton in Somersetshire in 
 1625, and entered at Oxford in KMO. He afterwards became 
 vicar of Bishop's Nynnmet in Devonshire, in which retirement 
 he devoted himself to mathematical studies, and became a great 
 proficient. The Royal Society presented liim with a medal, as 
 a mark of esteem ; and in their Philosophical Transactions for 
 1684 an account of his great work is ))reserved. The book 
 was entitled " The Geometrical Key, or the Gate of Equations 
 Unlocked," &c. He died June 5, 1690.— J. B., 0. 
 
 BAKER, Thomas, was born at Crook in the county of
 
 Durham, in 1656, of a family conspicuous for loyalty. In 
 1674 he entered at Cambridge, was elected fellow of St. Jolm's 
 in 1680, and ordained priest by BLshop Barlow of Lincoto, Dec. 
 19, 16S6. He soon afterwards became chaplain to Lord Crew, 
 bishop of Dmbam, who gave him the living of Long Newton. 
 When King James IL published his declaiation, Caker refused 
 to read it, and otiended thereby his more courtly patron. Baker, 
 however, could not bring himself to transfer his allegiance to 
 William IIL, and, in consequence, was ejected from Long New- 
 ton. He then retired to his fellowship, which he contrived to 
 hold, without taking the oaths, till 1717, when he was diiven 
 from that also. He continued to reside at Cambridge till his 
 death in 1740, and, it is said, was allowed the proceeds of his 
 fellowship by Matthew Prior, who succeeded him. Baker's cliief 
 work was " Eeflections on Learning," to show the necessity of 
 revelation. He also puijlished an edition of Bishop Fisher's 
 funeral sermon on Margaret, countess of Kichmond. He was a 
 great antiquarian and collector of JISS., and coiTesponded with 
 the literary men of his day, including BLshop Burnet, to whom 
 he supplied several corrections of his Histoiy of the Reforma- 
 tion, noticed by Biu-net in his preface to his third volume. He 
 gave the earl of Oxford twenty-tlu'ee volumes of JISS., which 
 are now m the Harlei.an collection, and bequeathed many more 
 to the university of Cambridge and St. John's college. — J. B.,0. 
 
 BAKEW'ELL, Rohkrt, was the son of a farmer at Dishley, 
 Leicestershire, where he was bom in 1726. While superintend- 
 ing his father's farm, he began to turn liis attention to the im- 
 provement of the breed of cattle, especially sheep. And after 
 he came into possession on his father's death, he carried out his 
 improvements so successfully, that the " Dishley, or new Leices- 
 tershire Sheep" became celebrated over the whole country. The 
 eminence to which the English breed of cattle has attained may, 
 in a great measure, be attributed to him. Died in 1795. — J. B. 
 
 BAKHUYSEN or BACKHUYSEN, Ludolpii, a Dutch 
 marine p.ainter of great fame, was bora at Embden in 1631 ; died 
 1709. He learned painting under A. van Evcrdingen, and by 
 his indefatigable study of natiu"e, succeeded in becoming the best 
 marine painter of his time. He delighted especially in repre- 
 senting storms ; to do which efficiently, he used at the beginning 
 of a tempest to rush to sea in a small boat, often to his imminent 
 peril. The peculiarity of his subjects, coupled with a certain 
 buoyant originality of character, tended to make him highly re- 
 nowned and greatly sought for. When Peter of Russia visited 
 Holland, he was desu-ed by that great man to give him lessons 
 in naval drawings. Louis XIV., who had been presented in 
 1665 by the municipality of Amsterdam with one of Bakhuysen's 
 best pictures, greatly patronized him ever afterwards. Bakhuy- 
 sen was also a good engi-aver of sea-pieces, and a writer of 
 spirited verses. All the biographers of this original and unpar- 
 alleled artist quote a whim of his, during the last days of his 
 life, curiously illustrative of his character. Afflicted with a pain- 
 ful malady, and feeling his end approach, he scrambled out of 
 bed, and went to purchase some of the best wine that could be 
 got, which, along with a purse well filled with gold, he placed at 
 his side ; then, when dying, requested the friends that smTounded 
 him to take both, and use them at the moment of his burial. — R. M. 
 
 BAKHUYSl'.N, Ludolpji, the Yoitngek, a gi-andson of the 
 preceding, a pauiter of martial subjects, died in 1787 at Rotter- 
 dam. — R. M. 
 
 BAKKAR, CoRXELis, a Dutch painter of portraits and in- 
 teriors, pupil of A. C. Hauch, was a native of Goudenerde, and 
 flourished about 1771. — R. M. 
 
 BAKIvAREVlTCH, Mikh.vel Nikitish, a Russian writer 
 of the present century. He was attached to the Moscow uni- 
 versity, where he lectured with great success on Russian litera- 
 ture. He also contributed largely to periodical hterature. As 
 a writer, he is esteemed for the high tone of his sentiments and 
 the elegance of his style. He died in 1820. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARKER, Peter, a Dutch poet, bom at Amsterdam iu 1715 ; 
 died in 1801. Of his poems, the satires against the Enghsh 
 are oftenest mentioned. They were written when the author 
 was eighty-two, and have received the doubtful praise of being 
 as \ngorous as any earlier work of his. In the fifty-first volume 
 of the Transactions of the Academy of Leyden, he published an 
 essay on Dutch versification. — J. A., D. 
 
 B.VL^VAM, the son of Beor, a famous eastern soothsayer, 
 concerning whose incidental connection with Israel we read in 
 the book of Nmnbers. 
 
 BALAGUER, Juan Bautista, a Spanish sculptor daring 
 the first part of the eighteenth centmy, was a native of Valencia 
 where he mostly resided and worked. He studied under Fran- 
 cisco Estcle, and gave many proofs of his earnest application to 
 art. His statues, although not free fi-om the prevailing man- 
 nerism, were graceful and highly finished. Died in 1744. — R. M. 
 
 BALANZAC, Francois de Bremond, Baron de, one of the 
 leaders of the Reformation-party in France, died in 1592. In 
 1568 he was condemned to death by decree of the parliament 
 of Bordeaux as head of the protestant party ; but having been 
 by mistake named Charles, the decree was not executed. 
 
 BALASSA, Count Vai-entixe de Gyarmath and Kek- 
 kew, the fii-st distinguished hnical poet of Hungary, was born 
 towards the middle of the sixteenth century. He took part in 
 the civU wars of his comitry, fighting first for the pretender of 
 Transylvania, Bekessy, then for the Austrian House. Dissatis- 
 fied with the condition of Hungary, and with the part he had 
 taken in the troubles, he left his country in 1589, returned in 
 1594, took service against the Turks, and fell in the same year 
 at the siege of Gran. His songs remain popular up to the pre- 
 sent day ; their subject is love, patriotism, chivahy. He trans- 
 lated Italian and Latin poetry with gi-eat felicity. — F. P., L. 
 
 BALASSI, Mario, a Florentine painter, born 1604; died 
 1667; studied under three masters, (Ligozzi, Rosselli, and Crcsti 
 da Passignano,) a circumstance that unpressed him with a ten- 
 dency to doubt his own work, and which, when more advanced in 
 age, actually led him to retouch all his former productions, rather 
 to spoil than to improve them. He enjoyed gi'cat fame diuing 
 his lifetime, and at his death, his portrait was placed in the 
 gaUei-y of Florence amongst those of distinguished artists. — R. M. 
 
 BALBxVN, Gheias-eddix-Balban-Shaii, a celebrated king 
 of Delhi, hved abont 1260, and died in 1286. Ilis administra- 
 tion was regular and equitable. His court excelled in magni- 
 ficence that of all his predecessors, and excited the admiration of 
 all the sovereigns of India. The liberal patronage bestowed on 
 learning, both by him and his son, attracted to Delhi men ol 
 letters from all parts of Asia. The loss of his son, Jlohammed, 
 embittered his last days and shortened his life. — G. M. 
 
 BALBE, Count Prospero, a very learned Italian, bom in 
 Sardinia, 2nd July, 1762. After having been amljassador to 
 the French republic in 1796, and to Madrid in 1816, he was, 
 upon the re-establishment in 1816 of the university of Turin, 
 raised to the president's chair, which he filled till his death on 
 the 14th March, 1837.— J. F. W. 
 
 BALBES BALBI, an ancient Sardinian family claiming a 
 descent from the Roman Balbus, who, about the end of the sixth 
 century, founded the republic of Quiers. Dining the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries, that republic was in a most flourishing 
 condition, and the family of the Balbcs then held in it the first 
 place. At the time of the invasion of the Emperor Frederick 
 Barbarossa, they were induced to embrace the party of the 
 Guelfs ; and the fortresses with which they then encircled their 
 temtoiy are still kno-svn as the Tours des Balbes. — G. M. 
 
 BALBI, Adrian, a celebrated geographer, born at Venice 
 in 1782. He was professor of physics and geography in his 
 native city till 1820, when along with his wife, an actress, he 
 joiumeyed into Portugal. A statistical essay on the kingdom of 
 Portugal and Algai-ve compared with the other states of Europe, 
 was the fruit of his short residence in that country. He removed 
 to Paris shortly after its publication, and commenced to collect 
 materials for his great work, " Atlas Ethnogi-aphique du Globe 
 ou Classification des Peuples anciens et modcrnes d'apres leurs 
 Langues." The first volume of that work, in which its author 
 was the first to take full advantage of the results of modem 
 travel, was published in folio iu 1826. He continued to reside 
 in Paris till 1832, publishing in succession statistical accounts 
 of various countries of Europe, and elaborating his celebrated 
 " Abrcgd de Gcogi-aphie redige sur un Plan Nouvean." He re^ 
 moved after the completion of that work to Padua, where, 
 besides an elementary treatise on geography and several valuable 
 contributions to political science, he published in 1830, "The 
 World compared with the British Empire." Died 1 848. — J. S., G. 
 
 BALBI or BALBO, Girot.a.mo, a Venetian of the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centimes. He studied at Rome under the cele- 
 brated rhetorician Pomponio Leto ; obtained a professorship in 
 Paris, which he left soon after and came to England, from 
 whence he w.as called to Vienna by the Emperor Maximilian, 
 who appointed him professor of jurisprudence. He afterwards
 
 BAL 
 
 353 
 
 BAL 
 
 occupied the same chair at Prague. Here he entered the church, 
 and Ladishius, king of Hungary, intrusted him with the educa- 
 tion of his children. He was elected provost of the college of 
 Preshurg; and aftenvards ambassador to Pope Clement VII. 
 He died in 1535, having left many works. — A. C. 51. 
 
 BALBI, LA CoMTESSE DE, confidante of Louis XVIIL, bom 
 jn 1753 ; died about 1836. In 1770 she married the comte de 
 Balbi, whom she managed to interdict as a lunatic. With a 
 view to support her unlimited extravagance, she ensnared by her 
 charms the comte de Provence, whom she often reduced to em- 
 barrassment by her prodigalities. After the outbreak of the 
 Kevolution she accompanied JIadame to Mens, whither Jilonsieur 
 immediately followed. She then retired with Jlonsieur to Cob- 
 lentz, but soon losing her power over him she withdrew to Hol- 
 land, where, in consequence of the loimour of her amom-s, she 
 ■was excluded from comi:. She nest proceeded to England, 
 where she remained until the time when Napoleon was named 
 first consul, and then taking advantage of the decree authorizmg 
 the return of the emigrants, she went back to France. In 1815 
 she, with much difficulty, obtained a particular audience of the 
 king ; and from that time until her death she remained at Paiis 
 in the strictest retirement. — G. M. 
 
 BALBILUS, C, governor of Egypt in the reign of Nero, 
 A.D. 55. He was a Roman senator, and a man of great learn- 
 ing. He wrote a work on Egypt, and a naiTative of his travels. 
 BALBIN, Decius C-elius, a Roman emperor, died at Rome 
 in 238. He was of an ancient and illustrious patrician family, 
 a man of talent and liberal education, an able orator, and one of 
 the first poets of his time. He is first noticed in historj' as a 
 Roman senator, and afterwards, on two different occasions, as 
 consul. As the sequel to one of those militaiy revolutions which 
 were of such frequent occurrence in ancient Rome, he was, in 
 conjunction with llasiminius Pupienus, raised to the purple, 
 and permitted to assume the title of Augustus. They were at 
 the same time declared to be the saviours of their country; the 
 one by his wisdom, the other by his courage. After a turbulent 
 reign, embittered towai-ds its close by mutual jealousies and dis- 
 sensions, they were put to death by the pretorian guards. — G. il, 
 BALBINUS, a Roman consul about thii'ty years before the 
 Christian era. He had been proscribed by the trium\irate in 
 the year 43 B.C., but was restored about four years afterwards. 
 BALBIS, John Battista, an Italian botanist, was born at 
 Moretta in Piedmont in 17G5, and died on 13th Februaiy, 1834. 
 lie prosecuted his medical studies at the university of Tmm, 
 and applied himself especially to botany under the du-ection of 
 .\llioni. He became a member of the pro\isional government 
 after the conquest of Piedmont in 1798. He was subsequently 
 elected professor of botany at Tuiin after the death of Allioni. 
 He afterwards retired to Padua, and assisted Xocca m the pub- 
 lication of his Flora Ticinensis ; and finally, in 1819, he be- 
 came professor of botany and director of the botanic garden at 
 Lyons. He published works on materia medica, and on officinal 
 plants, the Flora of Tmin and of Lyons, besides miscellaneous 
 botanical works and memoirs, some of which were published in 
 the transactions of the Turin academy. — J. II. B. 
 
 BALBO, Count Cesahe, born at Turin in 1789. At the 
 ;ige of eighteen, the yoimg count was nominated auditor of the 
 Council of state by Napoleon I., and went to Paris in that capa- 
 city. He afterwards entered the army, and sen'cd in the cam- 
 jiaign of Grenoble. On the fall of Napoleon, he returned to 
 Italy, and commenced his literai-y and pohtical career. A\'hen the 
 simultaneous revolutions in the vaiious states of Italy, in 1848, 
 ■nipelled her absolutist princes to grant constitutions to their 
 subjects, Balbo, already knoivn from his writings as a devoted 
 servant of the House of Savoy, was a member of the Piedinontese 
 cabinet. He is chiefly remarkable from the fact that his first 
 important work, " Le Speranze dTtalia," published in 1844, may 
 be regarded as having given the progranmie of the so-called 
 "Moderates" of Italy, and as having, together with the writings 
 of d'Azeglio, Durando, and others, created the monaixhical Pied- 
 montese party, as opposed to the national party, composed chii-fly 
 of Republicans, and represented by Joseph Mazzini. Balbo also 
 wrote a summaiy of Italian histoiy, a translation of Tacitus, a 
 life of Dante, and other less important works. He died in June, 
 1853. His five sons fought in the Lombard campaign in 1848; 
 and one of them, Ferduiand, died bravely at the fatal battle of 
 Novara in 1849.— E. A. 11. 
 
 BALBOA, JIiGUEL Cavello, a Spanish missionaiy, author 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 of a valuable history of Peru, published some years ago at 
 Paris, lived in the second half of the sixteenth centmy. He 
 settled at Santa Fe de Bogota in Spanish America, about the 
 year 15 G 6, and ten years afterwards removed to Quito, where, 
 by the favour of his bishop, he enjoyed excellent advantage for 
 prosecuting his historical labours. — J. S., G. 
 
 BALBOA, Vasco Nunez de, a celebrated Spanish adven- 
 turer, bom at Xeres de los Cabelleros in 1475, died at Castile 
 d'Or in 1517. He was descended of a noble though poor 
 family; and when Rodrigo de Bastidas had foraied his great 
 mercantile enterprise, which was expected to be so useful to 
 geogi-aphical science, he voluntarily engaged to take part in the 
 expedition. On arriving at Haiti he at first established himself 
 there as a cultivator of the soil, but, falling into debt, he quitted 
 the island, and accompanied Enciso in his expedition to the con- 
 tinent. Though an adventm'er in search of fortune, his great 
 ambition seems to have been to extend the boundaries of geo- 
 graphical knowledge, and especially to be able to announce to 
 Europe the splendours of another great ocean. He had hardly 
 reached the continent when he began to manifest extraordinarj' 
 sagacity and energy as a colonizer. Ha\"ing constrained Fer- 
 nandez Enciso, the legally recognized chief, to demit his au- 
 thority and quit the colony, he, with a handful of Spaniards, 
 and the assistance of a wonderful dog named Leoncillo, sub- 
 jugated vast numbers of the native Indians, whom he had 
 afterwai-ds the ai-t of attaching to his person, and reducmg to a 
 cheerful obedience to his rule. He made numerous expeditions 
 into the regions which had been pointed out by tradition as rich 
 in gold and silver ; and accumulated a vast amount of treasure, 
 which, on his return to the colony, he divided equally, not only 
 among those who had been his companions in the expedition, but 
 also among those whom he had left behind. He now turned his 
 attention to the great object of discover)- on which he had set 
 his heai-t. On the 1st September, 1513, he commenced his 
 perilous enterprise. Accompanied by a small band of followers, 
 he began to thread the almost unpenetrable forests of the Isthmus 
 of Darien, and, guided by an Indian chief named Ponca, clam- 
 bered up the rugged gorges of the mountains. At length, after 
 a most toilsome and dangerous jom-ney, they approached, on the 
 25th September, the smnmit of the momitain range, when Bal- 
 boa, lea\'ing liis followers at a little distance behind, and advanc- 
 uig alone to the western declivity, was the first to see the vast 
 unknM^Ti ocean ; and, liftuig his hands to heaven in token of 
 admii'ation, his companions rushed forward to embrace their 
 chief, and congi-atulate him on his important discover}'. He 
 afterwards took solemn possession of the ocean in the name of 
 his sovereign. Smrounded by his followers he walked into the 
 water, carrying in his right hand a naked sword, and in his 
 left the banner of Castile, and declared the sea of the south, and 
 all the regions whose shores it bathed, to belong to the cro^m of 
 Castile and Leon. ^Meanwhile Enciso had returned to Europe, 
 and represented the conduct of Balboa in so unfavourable a 
 light, that the king superseded him in his office by sending out 
 Don Pedrarias Davila as governor of the new colony, which has 
 been named Castile d'Or. On the amval of Pedi-arias, Balboa, 
 contraiy to the urgent remonstrances of his followers, at once 
 resigned his office ; but neither the Spaniards nor the natives 
 were inclined to submit to the govennnent of Pedrarias. Balboa 
 disinterestedly assisted him to establish his authority, and in 
 gratitude for this unportant ser\'ice Pedraiias bestowed on him 
 the hand of his eldest daughter. The new governor had, not- 
 withstanding, never ceased to regard Balboa as a rival, and at 
 last, overcome by jealousy, ordered him to be beheaded. — G. M. 
 
 BALBUENA, Beknakdo de, bom at Val de Pena.s, 15G8. 
 He is the author of an epic poem, " EI Bernardo, a \-ictoria de 
 Roncesvalles." He died bishop of Porto Rico, South America, 
 in the year 1527. 
 
 BALBUS, PiETUO, an Italian theologian, bishop of Tropea, 
 died at Rome in 1479. He is the author of " Gregoiii Nysenni 
 Dialogus de Iminortalitate Animai." 
 
 BALBUS, sumamed Mensor, a Roman engineer of the time 
 of Augustus. He was employed in the registry of that sun-ey 
 of all the provinces which the emperor caused to be executed 
 about the middle of his reign. Balbus is cited by Frontuius 
 as the author of some commentaries. — Another Baliuis, to 
 whom Lachmann attributes an "Expositio et Ratio Onmium 
 Formarum" of all the provinces of the empii-e, was a military 
 engineer in the service of Trajan. — J. S., G. 
 
 2Y
 
 EAL 
 
 354 
 
 BAL 
 
 BALCANQUAL, Walter, D.D., accompanied James I. to 
 England, and was sent as representative of the cluirch of Scot- 
 land to the synod of Dort. He afterwards became dean of 
 Rochester, then of Durham, and died in 1645. 
 
 BALDASSARI, Giuseppe, an Italian naturalist, born at 
 Jlonte-Oliveto ilaggiore, occupied the chair of natural history 
 in the university of Sienna, about the middle of the 18th centiuy. 
 His writings are piincipally on geological subjects, the chief of 
 them being " Osservazioni sopra il sale della Greta," published 
 at Sienna in 1750, in which he first proved chalk to be a salt; 
 a treatise, " Delle acque mineral! de Ghianciano nel Sencse," 
 Sienna, 1756. He also published a work of a theological nature, 
 containing dissertations on the first man, the \-irtues of the tree 
 of life, the food of the antediluvian men, and the universaUty of 
 the deluge. This appeared at Venice in 1757. The Transactions 
 of the Academy of Sciences of Sienna contain several memoirs 
 by Baldassari.— W. S. D. 
 
 BALDASSERONI, Giovanni, a Tuscan statesman, bom at 
 Livoume in 1790. At first employed in the custom-house of 
 Pisa, he e\-inced so much talent ui the execution of the duties of 
 his office, that in 1845 he was nominated councillor of state, 
 and in 1847 obtained the chief direction of the administration 
 of finance. 
 
 BALDASSINI, Francesco, an Itahan naturalist of the pre- 
 sent century. His writings, which consist principally of scattered 
 papers, are devoted to the study of the mollusca ; his only inde- 
 pendent work, " Considerations upon the mode in which it is 
 supposed that the Lithophagous !^Iollusca perforate Rocks," was 
 published at Bologna in 1830. 
 
 BALDE, Jacobus, one of the most remarkable of modem 
 Latin poets, was bom in Ensishcim, a small town of Alsace, in 
 1603. He left his native country for Bavaria, where he entered 
 the society of Jesuits in 1G24. The Jesuits, discovei-ing his ta- 
 lents, made him professor of rhetoric, an office which he held for 
 six years. After this he entered a monastery, and had intrasted 
 to him by JIaximilian, the elector of Bavaria, the finishing of 
 a history of Bavaria, which had been begun by Andrew Brunner. 
 He gave more attention, however, to his poems than to his his- 
 tory, which he never finished. He died at Nuremberg in 1668. 
 Balde left behind him a very illustrious name ; but as his 
 works were exceedingly voluminous, they were soon forgotten, 
 and remained utterly disregarded until Herder took the trouble of 
 wading through his poems, and presenting the best of them to 
 the German world. Since that time he has had a prominent 
 place in German literature. He was one of the most successful 
 imitators of Horace. There have been several editions of his 
 works, including those poems which are half German and half 
 Latin. The best is said to be the edition of Cologne of 1660- 
 64, in four volumes, but it is veiy rare. In more modem times, 
 selections from his poems have been published, giving the cream 
 of the poet's works, by John Conrad, Orelli, and others. — J. D. 
 BALDE or BALDJLUS, Phillip, a Dutch missionary, 
 chaplain of the states-general on the island of Ceylon, is the 
 author of an interesting book of travels, entitled " Description 
 of the East Indian Countries of Malabar, Coromandel, Ceylon, 
 &c.," Amsterdam, 1671. 
 
 BALDELLI, Francesco, a learned Italian of Tortona, who 
 lived in the sixteenth century. He is only known by the great 
 quantity of works on various subjects which he has given to the 
 world. 
 
 BALDELLI, Giambattista, bom at Cortona in 1766. 
 After extensive travel he was elected president of the academy 
 Delia Cmsca in 1815. He wi-ote many works. He was also 
 a man of science. He died April, 1831. 
 
 BALDEIUC or BAUDRY, bom about the middle of the 
 eleventh century at Jleuse-sur-Loire. This distinguished eccle- 
 siastic, who rose to be bishop of Dol, was at once a historian, a 
 poet, and, for those days, a traveller, and withal a great refomier 
 of the abuses of monasteries. His history of the first crusade 
 is the more valuable, as it was written after the accounts of 
 crasaders who had taken part in the expedition. His biogra- 
 phical history of one of his O'wn friends, Robert d'Ai'brisscl, 
 throws light on the manners of the time. He also wrote a his- 
 tory of Philippe I. An account of a tour in England is one of 
 the most curious productions of his pen. He visited Rome fre- 
 quently, and was present at all the most important councils 
 held during his life, which terminated in 1130.-— J. F. C. 
 BALDESCHI, Angelo, or, as he was known by his Latinized 
 
 name, Axgelus de Ubaldis, an eminent scholar, particularly 
 distinguished as a legist, was bom at Perugia in 1325. Devoting 
 himself to the study of law, he soon acquired a high reputa- 
 tion in his native city ; and his fame spreading throughout Italy, 
 he afterwards visited Rome, Florence, Bologna, and Ferrara, de- 
 livering lectures, and expounding the principles of that science. 
 In the year 1380 he was invited to visit Padua, a request with 
 which he complied ; after which he appears to have settled at 
 Florence, where he died in 1400. Baldeschi left many works, 
 principally professional, though he did not omit to cultivate 
 lighter Hterature. He acquired not only fame, but the more 
 substantial frait of his labour, considerable wealth, a great part 
 of which he spent in works of piety and charity. Pirro says 
 that he was " acri et solido judicio prjeditum," and he obtained 
 the honourable appellations of "il dottore de"giudici," and "il 
 padre del la practica legale." The atmosphere of Penigia seems 
 to have been peculiarly favourable to the production of lawyers, 
 and the family of Baldeschi, prolific in them, as llazzuchelH 
 gives notices of over twenty of the name and town who were 
 all more or less distinguished as legists. — J. F. W. 
 
 BALDI, AccuRzio, an Italian sculptor, native of Sansovino 
 in Tuscany, executed important works in 1584 for the church 
 of Santa Maria della Scala at Sienna. — R. M. 
 
 BALDI, Bernardino, bom of a noble family at Urbino, on 
 the 6th of June, 1553. He is considered by Tiraboschi, " a man 
 to whom there was scarcely anjiihing unkno^\'n in Hterature and 
 science." A profound mathematician, he has translated various 
 works of Eron Alexandiinus, Ctesibius, Ai-istotle's treatise on 
 mechanics, and collected in a chronicle, stiU unpublished, and 
 forming two large voliunes, the names of more than two hundred 
 ancient and modem mathematicians, with their lives and works ; 
 his manuscripts on archaeology, philosophy, history, and philo- 
 logy, are numerous ; and Italy deservedly has granted him a 
 conspicuous place amongst her literary celebrities. His "Lexicon 
 Vitmvianum"' is a work of gi-eat merit. Count Giulio Perticari 
 published in the year 1823 "The Life of Guidobaldo I., Duke 
 of Urbino,' wiittcn by Baldi. His style, whilst simple and 
 clear, is at the same time full of strength and harmony, and has 
 been compared to that of Guicciardiiii. He died on the 10th 
 October, 1617.— A. C. M. 
 
 BALDI, Lazzaro, an Italian historical painter, bom at Pis- 
 toja in 1623 or 1G24, died in Rome in 1703; studied under 
 Pietro da Cortona, whose manner he entirely adopted. He was 
 employed by Pope Alexander VI. to decorate the Quirinal palace. 
 BALDIXGER, Ernst Gottfried, a celebrated German 
 physician, was bom on 13th I*Iay, 1738, at Gross-Vargula, near 
 Erfurt, and died at Marburg, 21st January, 1804. tie 
 prosecuted his early classical studies at Gotha and Langen- 
 salza, and his medical curriculum at the univereities of Erfiut, 
 Halle, and Jena. He gi-aduated as doctor of medicine at 
 Jena in 1760. He at first acted as surgeon in the Pnissian 
 ai-my, and in 1768 was elected to the chair of medicine and 
 botany at Jena. In 1773 he occupied a similar chair at Got- 
 tingen. He became physician to Frederick II. , margrave of 
 Hesse Cassel, and he was intrasted with the reorganization of 
 the university of Marburg. He published various medical and 
 botanical works. Among the latter are works on the study of 
 botany, on the seeds of fems, on medicinal plants, and a cata- 
 logue of the plants in the botanic garden of Jena. — J. H. B. 
 
 BALDINI, Baccio, a Florentine silversmith, fellow-labourer 
 and pupil of Sandro Botticello, whom he equalled in merit. He 
 was also an engraver, hanng produced several prints, the eai-Uest 
 of which dates fi-om 1477. — R. M. 
 
 BALDIXI, Giovanni, a Florentine painter, at the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, was the first teacher of Garofalo. 
 
 BALDINI, Taddeo, an Itahan landscape painter of the 
 
 seventeenth century, was a successful imitator of Salvator Rosa. 
 
 BALDINO, Era Tiburzio, a Bolognese painter, established 
 
 at Brescia about 1611, was an artist of gi-eat imagination, and 
 
 excelled in architectonic display. — R. M. 
 
 BALDINUCCI, FiLiPPO, a learned Florentine, bom in 1C24, 
 who undertook, at the instance of Leopold de Medici and Cosmo 
 III., his great work upon the history of celebrated artists. It 
 has been several times republished, and is a standard work. 
 He died on the 1st of January, 1696. — A. C. M. 
 
 BALDOCK, Ralph de. Bishop, was educated at Merton 
 college, Oxford, and became dean of St. Paul's in 1294. In 
 1304 he was elected bishop of London, but, from an informality
 
 BAL 
 
 355 
 
 BAL 
 
 ill the election, was obliged to repair to Kome. He there ob- 
 tained the papal sanction, and was consecrated at Lyons. In 
 1307 Edward I. made him lord chancellor, but he did not hold 
 this post after the king's death. He wrote " Ilistoria Anglica," 
 an English History, which has perished, and collected the sta- 
 tutes and constitutions of lus cathedi'al church. He built one 
 or two chapels in St. Paul's, and died in 1313. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BALDOCK, Egbert de, was archdeacon of ]\Iiddlesex, and 
 lord chancellor under Edward IL, who nominated him to the 
 see of Norwich. He never held the see, in consequence of a papal 
 provision in another's favour, and was soon after involved in 
 the ruin which overtook liis master, having been throASTi into 
 prison by the mob, where he died miserably. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BALDOVINETTI, Alessio, a Florentine painter, bora 1425; 
 died 1499. He was a pupil of Pucello, and distinguished him- 
 self for the great accuracy of his work. He also worked in mosaic 
 ■with good results. His gi'eatest glory consists in having been 
 the teacher of Ghirlandajo, the master of Michel Angelo. — R. M. 
 
 BALDOVINI, Francesco, born at Florence in 1G35, was 
 educated at a Jesuit college, and took the degree of doctor of laws 
 at Pisa ; became secretary to Cardinal Nini of Vienna, enjoyed 
 several ecclesiastical appointments and dignities, and was mem- 
 ber of several academies. He died in 171G. He is remembered 
 chiefly for an eclogue in the ixitois of Tuscany, entitled " La- 
 mento di cecco da Varlungo," published in 1G94 under the name 
 Fiesolano Branducci, an anagram which did not conceal the 
 author, but lessened the scandal of an ecclesiastic writing a 
 stoiy, the subject of which was a comic love adventure. The 
 poem has been often reprinted, as a specimen of the peculiar 
 dialect in which it is written. — J. A., D. 
 
 BALDUCCI, Francesco, bom at Palermo towards the end 
 of the sixteenth century. From his early youth he cultivated 
 poetry and belles-lettres; but his uneasy disposition made him 
 travel from one place to another, and his prodigality reduced 
 liun often to the utmost poverty. To escape from it, he enlisted 
 in the troops of Clement VIIL ; hut soon wearying of a mihtary 
 life, he repaired to Eome, and sought the protection of the great, 
 from whom he obtained honours and pecuniary rewards. He 
 was the secretary of many highly influential noblemen ; but his 
 unstable nature forced him often to change his masters. He 
 wrote both in Latin and Italian ; and liis works, which are 
 numerous, have been recorded at length by Blazzuchelli. He 
 died in the year 1C42.— A. C. M. 
 
 BALDUCCI, Giovanni, a Florentine paiuter, who assumed 
 the surname of Cofeci, that of his maternal micle, in remembrance 
 iif the care bestowed on him by the latter during liis orphan 
 infancy. Having studied under Naldini, and shown a great ver- 
 satility of talent, he obtained the patronage of Alexander Medicis 
 (afterwards Pope Leo XL), whom he followed to Eome. Many 
 are the works that Balducci earned out in his active life, and 
 under so influential a protection. The best are those in the 
 cathedrals of Florence, Volterra, and Pistuja in Tuscany ; those 
 at St. Prassede and St. Giovanni Decollato in Rome ; and liis 
 last production, tlie picture for the monasteiy of St. Giovanello 
 at Naples. He died in this last place in 1600. — R. M. 
 
 BALDUCCI, Giovanni, an Italian sculptor, painter, and 
 architect of the fom-tecnth century. A native of Pisa, and a 
 contemporary with Andrea and Nino Pisano, he evidently fre- 
 quented their school and acquired much of their manner. He 
 worked as a painter in tlie cathedral of Arezzo, but not with the 
 success that he obtained as a sculptor ; as such his masterpiece 
 in the ancient church of St. Eustorgio at Milan, the tomb of St. 
 Peter the martyr, executed in 1339, is one of the most interest- 
 ing productions of sculpture in Italy during the blending of the 
 intellectual Gennan or Gothic style of the north, with that more 
 florid and elegant of the southern schools. Whilst at Milan, he 
 designed and erected, in 1347, the fa9ade of the church of Brera, 
 now destroyed, which he also ornamented with sculptures, luckily 
 presei-ved in that academy. — R. M. 
 
 BALDUIN, Friedricii, a German protestant pastor, professor 
 of theology at Prague, published a " Commentary on the Epistles 
 of St. Paul," and a " Defence of the Confession of Augsburg." 
 Died at Wittenberg in 1G27. 
 
 BALDUNG, Hans Grien, a Gennan artist, born in 1470 
 atGiniinden in Suabia; died at Strasbourg in 1545; continued 
 the transition from the old Niiremberger school towards the 
 Alsatian and French manner. He worked a long time in the 
 Brisgau, where amongst others he executed his best picture, 
 
 the altarpicce for the Munster of Freyburg. The galleries of 
 Vienna, Berlin, and Munich, contain other specimens of his art, 
 remarkable for beauty of colouring, and the characteristic slender- 
 ness of his forms. He was also an engraver of merit. — R. M. 
 
 BALDWIN I., count of Flanders, was gi'eat-grandson of 
 Lyderic, who received the dignity of hereditary forester, or count 
 of Flanders, from Charlemagne. Succeeded a.d. 863. — Bald- 
 win IL, son of the preceding, succeeded in 880; died 918. — 
 Baldwin III., grandson of the last, reigned 958-961, dming 
 the hfe of his father, Arnolph I. — Baldwin IV., grandson of 
 the last, reigned 988-1034. — Baldwin V., son of the last, 
 aided his son-in-law, William the Norman, in the conquest of 
 England. Died 1067. — Baldwin VI., called " The Peaceable," 
 son of the last, married Eichildis, heiress of Haiuault. Died 
 1070. — Baldwin VII., grandson of Robert, brother of the last, 
 reigned 1112-1119.— Baldwin VIIL of Flanders, IV. of Hain- 
 ault, inherited the latter ten-itory from Eichildis, wife of Baldwin 
 VI., from whom he was fourth in descent, the intermediate 
 generations being all named Baldwin, counts of Hainault ; and 
 obtained Flanders by marrying Margaret, heiress of Baldwm 
 VII., reigned 1171-94.— For Baldwin IX., see Baldwin L, 
 emperor of Constantinople. He was the most celebrated of the 
 family. His possessions in the Netlierlands subsequently des- 
 cended to the house of Burgundy.— A. H. P. 
 
 BALDWIN I., emperor of Constantinojjle, was bom at Va- 
 lenciennes in 1171, died in 1206. He was the son of Baldwin, 
 count of Hainault, and Margaret, sister of the count of Flan- 
 ders. In the year 1200 he took the cross with his brother 
 Thierry, and in 1202 joined the Venetians in their attack upon 
 the eastern capital. He was crowned emperor 3Iay 16, 1204, 
 but did not remain long in the metropolis of the empire, having 
 set out in pursuit of Mourzoufle, who still continued to occupy 
 Thrace. The latter was captured, and condemned by the new 
 emperor to be cast from the top of a high column. The following 
 year Baldwin was taken prisoner by the king of the Bulgarians, 
 whom the Greeks had enlisted in their favom-, and that monarch, 
 having kept him a year in irons, caused his legs and arms to 
 be cut ofi^, and the body to be precipitated from a precipice. 
 Such is one version of his death, but it seems equally probable 
 that he died in prison. Baldwin was much esteemed by the 
 Greeks for his charity, temperance, and justice. He mamed 
 Maiy of Campagne, daughter of the king of France, and left 
 two daughters. — P. E. D. 
 
 BALDWIN IL, the last Frank emperor of Constantinople, 
 was born in 1217, and died in 1273. He was the son of Pierre 
 de Courtenay, and succeeded his brother Eobert in 1228, having 
 associated with him in the empire John of Brienne, count of La 
 Marche, whose daughter he espoused. He was twice besieged 
 in Constantinople, and being too weak to defend his doinhiions, 
 repaired to Italy to seek aid from the pope. At the court of 
 France he met with a favourable i-eception from St. Louis, to 
 whom he presented the crown of thorns, which was held by all 
 Christendom to be the genuine relic ; and in 1239 set out for 
 Constantinople with a body of crusaders, who soon quitted him 
 and took the route for Palestine. He succeeded in raising some 
 new forces in the West, however, and with these obtained tem- 
 porary advantages over the emperor of Nicca ; but in 1261 
 ^lichael Paleologus invested Constantinople, and entered it on 
 the 29tli July. Baldwin from his palace saw the city in flames, 
 and in disguise fled to Negropont, and ultimately to Italy, where 
 he died in obscurity. He had one son, Philip, who assumed tlie 
 vain title of emperor, and died in 1286. — P. E. D. 
 
 BALDWIN I., king of Jerasalem, was a native of Flanders, 
 and descended from Baldwin, fifth count of Flanders. In 1096 
 he accompanied his brother, Godfrey de Bouillon, in the first 
 crusade. In Asia Minor, through which the first cioisadirs 
 passed, several of the leaders endeavoured to establish princi- 
 palities for themselves, and hero Baldwin disputed with Tanered 
 the possession of Tarsus and Malmistra. He succeeded in 
 establishing the county of Edessa, whose inhabitants had re- 
 volted against their ruler, and Edessa remained in the hands of 
 the Latins for forty-seven yc.irs. Personal ambition appears to 
 have been his principal motive ; and Tasso says of him — " The 
 Eternal sees in Edessa the ambitious Baldwin, who seeks only 
 for human honours, and is devoted to them alone." He took 
 no part in the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 ; but in 1100 
 resigned ICdessa to Baldwin de Bourg, for the purpose of succeed- 
 ing Godfrey on the throne of the sacred city. In 1102 anew
 
 body of cnisaders ha-(-iiig amved at Jemsalem, Baldwin led 
 them to the battle of Rama, where the Christian forces were 
 routed. He fled to Joppa, and was there besieged by the Sara- 
 cens ; but a successful sortie, in which the mfidels were defeated, 
 once more restored the courage of the crusaders. In 110-1 
 Baldwn, with the aid of a Genoese fleet, captured Ptolemais 
 (Acre), and in 1109 he took Ber)-tus. The following year he 
 besieged and took Sidon, and in 1115 built the castle and for- 
 tress of Jlontreal. After gaining several victories over the 
 Saracens, he was attacked with djsenteiy in Egn't, and died in 
 the desert in 1118, on his way back to Palestine. His body 
 was carried to Jerusalem, to be inten-ed next that of Godfrey. 
 Although thrice married, he left no childi-en. — P. E. D. 
 
 BALDWIN II., king of Jerasalcm, was the eldest son of 
 Hugh, count of Eethel, and cousin of Bald-i\-in I., whom he had 
 succeeded as count of Edessa. He was crowned king of Jem- 
 salem on Easter-day, 1118. Godfrey de Bouillon, the first 
 king, had refused the diadem and insignia of royalty, saying 
 that he " would not wear a crown of gold where the Saviour had 
 worn a crown of thorns." The emblems of royalty are thus 
 enumerated in the assizes of Jerusalem : — " They put the ring 
 on his finger, as signifying faith ; then they girded on the 
 sword, which means justice, to defend the faith and holy church ; 
 and after that the cro\\-n, which signifies dignity ; and then the 
 sceptre, which signifies to defend and punish ; and then the apple, 
 or globe, which signifies the earth and soU of the kingdom." In 
 1119 Baldwin marched to the relief of Antioch, and defeated 
 the Moslems in several engagements. In 1124 he was taken 
 prisoner by the Saracens. During his captivity the aff:nrs of 
 the kingdom were administered by Eustace Gamier, lord of 
 Cesaraja and Sidon, and dming this regency the city of Tyre 
 was taken by the crusaders. In August, 1124, Baldwin was 
 ransomed, and ineffectually attempted to besiege Aleppo. The 
 six latter years of his fife were devoted to various expeditions, 
 and at his death, August 21, 1131, the kingdom of Jerusalem 
 had been gi-eatly enlarged. At this period it comprehended the 
 whole of S^Tia, with the exception of Aleppo, Damascus, 
 Emesa, and Hamaah, with their tenitories. It was during the 
 reign of Baldwin II. that the pope gave his sanction to the 
 institution of the knights of St. John of Jei-usalem, and the 
 knights-templars, who occupy so prominent a place in history. 
 WUliam of Tyre gives Baldwin a tavourable character, and saj's 
 that he was a brave soldier, a pmdent leader, and a pious man. 
 He had no immediate heir, and was succeeded by Foulque of 
 Anjou, who had mairied his daughter Mehsanda. — P. E. I). 
 
 BALDWIN III., king of Jemsalem, was born in 1130, and 
 died Febraary 23, 1163. He succeeded his father, Foulque, in 
 1143, and governed at fii-st under the regency of his mother, 
 Melisanda. During his reign the Christians of the East lost 
 the county of Edessa, which was invaded by the sultan of 
 Aleppo. A new crusade was the consequence, led by the Em- 
 peror Conrad, and Louis-le-Jemie of France. These princes 
 arrived in Palestine in 1148, and Baldwin joined them in an 
 attempt to besiege Damascus; but the enterprise was rendered 
 abortive by the jealousies of the several forces. In 1149 he 
 rebuilt and fortified the ancient town of Gaza, and in August, 
 1153, took the city of Ascalon, after a siege of seven months. 
 In 1159 he made himself master of Cesarasa, wliich he ceded to 
 Renaldo, prince of Antioch. He left no children, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Amaury, to whom he had previously given 
 the lordship of Ascalon. — P. E. D. 
 
 B.\LDWIN IV., king of Jerusalem, was bom in 1160, and 
 died March 16, 1186. He succeeded his father, Amaury, in 
 1173, and in November, 1177, was present at the battle of 
 Rama, where Saladin was defeated. The power of the Chris- 
 tians, however, was on the decline, and Saladin, who was mas- 
 ter of Egypt and the greater part of Syria, siu'prised Baldwin 
 near Sidon, in the following year, defeated him, and very nearly 
 captured the young monarch. In 1183 Baldwin became leprous, 
 and was incapable of fulfilling the duties of his station. He 
 therefore gave his sister Sybilla, widow of William of Jlontferrat, 
 in marriage to Guy of Lusignan. His design in this alliance 
 was to provide for the kingdom a regent, and a tutor for his 
 nephew Baldwin, the heir presumptive to the throne. But Guy 
 did not long retain his offices. The barons of the Holy Land 
 deprived him of both, giving one to the count of Tripoli, and 
 the other to the count of Edessa. Guy, enraged at the affront, 
 withdrew with his wife to Ascalon, which fomied a portion of 
 
 her dower. There he engaged in schemes which caused him to 
 be cited to Jerusalem. He refused the summons, under the pre- 
 test of illness. The king thereupon marched on Ascalon, and 
 finding the gates closed, retm-ned to Jerusalem, with his autho- 
 rity compromised, and the kingdom on the verge of ruin. The 
 following year (1184), seeing the rapid progress of Saladin, he 
 sent the patriarch of Jemsalem, with the grand-masters of the 
 Hospital and the Temple, to implore from Europe the aid of 
 Christendom. During their absence his disease proved fatal, and 
 he died without heirs. His nephew, who had been crowned in 
 1183, luider the title of Baldwin V., died in 1185, poisoned, 
 it is said, by his mother Sybilla, who -wished to secm-e the 
 throne for her second husband, Guy of Lusignan. — P. E. D. 
 
 BALDWIN, Archbishop, was bom of obscure pai-ents at 
 Exeter, but was liberally educated, and became abbot of Ford, 
 a Cistercian house in Devonshire. In 1184 he was, after soma 
 technical diflBculties had been surmounted, elected archbishop of 
 Canterbuiy, being the first of his order so elevated. He received 
 his pall in 1185 from Pope Lucius III., and was appointed 
 apostolic legate by Urban III. He effectually asserted the 
 claims of Canterbuiy to pre-eminence in the English church, 
 and insisted on all English bishops receiving consecration from 
 the hands of the archbishop of that see. He died at Acre, at 
 which place he had joined the king's army. He was a man of 
 gi-eat abstinence, and of a lenient disposition. He wrote several 
 theological tracts, published by Tissier, 1662. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BALE, JoHX, Bishop, was bom November 21, 1495, at Cove, 
 in Suffolk, and educated at Jesus' college, Oxford. He early 
 sided with the Reformation movement, and enjoyed the protec- 
 tion of Cromwell, after whose death, however, he was forced to 
 fly the country. Edward VI. recalled him, and made him bishop 
 of Ossory, to which see he was consecrated in 1553, by the 
 archbishop of Dublin. His zeal for the Reformation, not al- 
 ways tempered with discretion, rendered him veiy obnoxious to 
 the Romish party, and he had to escape to Holland, whence he 
 retired to Basle, where he remained during Mary's reign. On 
 Elizabeth's accession, he returned home, and was made preben- 
 dary of CanterbuT}', in possession of which prefeiTnent he died 
 in 1563. His chief work is his " Lives of the most eminent 
 writers of Great Britain," written in Latin, published at different 
 times. He vrrote many controversial pieces, disfigured by mucli 
 intemperance of language and coarseness, and most winters of 
 credit consider him unfair and uncandid beyond the usual rancour 
 of controversy. He also wrote nineteen miracle plays to for- 
 ward the Reformation, and had some of them acted on Sundays 
 at Kilkenny, during his sojourn in Ireland. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BALECHOU, Jean Jacques Nicolas, a French engi-aver, 
 bom at Aries, 1715 ; died at Avignon, 1765 ; produced several 
 prints after Veraet and Vanloo that could rank amongst the 
 best specimens of engraving, if the zeal for eldng out all the 
 details of colour and touch of the originals did not degenerate 
 into mannerism and dryness. A portrait of Augustus, king of 
 Poland, for the gallery of Dresden, is justly considered his 
 masterpiece. — R. M. 
 
 BALEN, Hexdrik van, a historical painter of the Flemish 
 school, bom at Antwerp 1560 ; died 1633 ; studied first under 
 Adam Van Noort, and then in Italy. He retumed veiy pro- 
 ficient in his art, especially in design and colour. His studies 
 from the life-model are particularly valued. — R. M. 
 
 BALEN, Johannes van, bom at Antwerp in 1611, died 
 ia 1653, the son of the preceding. 
 
 BALEN, Matthias, a Dutch historical and landscape painter 
 of the seventeenth century, a native of Dortrecht ; a pupil of 
 Honbraken. He also was a skilful engraver. 
 
 B.-VLEN, Pierre, a historical painter, bom at Liege in 1580; 
 studied under Lambert Lombard, his father-in-law. He visited 
 Italy, and, with the exception of his large pictm-e of the " Trinity" 
 at Liege, executed only works of a very small size. — R. M. 
 
 BALES, Peter, a f:imous master of the art of penmanship, 
 was bom in London in the year 1547. He seems to have 
 acquired an extraordinary power of writing in miniature, for 
 Holinshed in his Chronicles tells us that he wrote within the 
 compass of a penny, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Decalogue, 
 two short Latin prayers, his o«ti name and motto, with the day 
 of the month and year. This extraordinaiy muUnm in parvo he 
 presented to the queen in a ring, which she sometimes wore. 
 Tins feat seems to have brought him into notice at court, for, 
 during several ye.ars, we find him emplojing his art to sen'e the
 
 BAL 
 
 357 
 
 BAL 
 
 puq)oses of government in detecting conspirators. In 1590 he 
 iiublished bis "Writing Schoolmaster, in three parts," which three 
 were the arts of swift, true, and fair writing. We hear of him 
 also engaged in trials of skill with his rivals in the art, and 
 winning at one time a gold pen worth £20, and at another, the 
 ;;nns of caligraphj. He died about the year IGIO. — J. B. 
 
 BALESTKA, Antonio, an ItaUan painter of considerable 
 name, was born at Verona in 1G66 ; died in 1734 ; or, according 
 10 some biographers, in 1740. After having been a pupil of 
 Ik'Uucci at Venice, he continued his studies m Bologna and 
 IJome, in which latter place, imder Carlo JIaratta, he gave all 
 bis attention to the works of Raphael and of the Caraccis. Nor 
 \vas this enough for hun : to complete his information of art, he 
 also visited Naples, where he made himself acquamted with the 
 works of the Lanfranchis, SoUmene, and Luca Giordano. Having 
 thus confronted the difterent styles, he returned to Venice, able 
 to produce works embracmg many features of each of them, 
 without a decided tendency towards any pecuhar one. His de- 
 >iL;n was very pure ; his composition full of grace ; but the choice 
 of his medimns was bad, and his paintings have, therefore, much 
 altered since then. He kept a school at Venice, numerously 
 attended, from which many distinguished artists have proceeded. 
 Out of gratitude for the instnictions he had derived from the 
 academy of San Luca at Rome, where he had been a fortunate 
 competitor for the prize, and of which he had afterwards been 
 elected a member, he founded for that institution an annual 
 prize for painters and sculptors, wliich was still competed for 
 but a few years ago. He was the author of several etchings, 
 highly estimated in the artistical world. — R. M. 
 
 BALESTRA, Pietro, a Sienese sculptor, flourishing about 
 1700 ; the author of the fine statue of Pius IIL in the cathedi-al 
 of his native town. 
 
 *BALFE, Michael Willi^ui, a musician, was bom at Dub- 
 lin, May 15, 1808. He is the first English subject of modern 
 'lies whose talent as a composer has been acknowledged, and 
 liose works have been performed throughout the contment of 
 luirope; and it will be through him, and such as him, whose 
 merit is so justly appreciated abroad, that onr countrymen will, 
 'ooner or later, be compelled to rehnquish the prevalent prejudice 
 _■ dnst English musical capability. When he was four years 
 '.'I his family resided at Wexford, and it was here, in the eager 
 [jleasure he took in Ustening to the performances of a mihtaiy 
 band, that Balfe gave the first signs of his musical aptitude ; 
 struck with the boy's constant and ardent attention, Meadowes, 
 the band-master, sought, and obtained his father's leave, to teach 
 liim the nohn, and at five years of age, he took his first lesson. 
 Before the end of six months, he wrote a polacca for the band, 
 and liis progress in playing was so great as to mduce his father 
 to remove back to Dubhn, in order to obtain for hun better 
 instruction. He was placed under O'Roiurke, (a musician of some 
 merit, who aftenvards, under the name of Rooke, settled in 
 London, and made himself known by the production, in 1837, of 
 his opera of Amilie,) who brought him out as a -viohnist in a 
 concert at the Royal Exchange in May, 1816. MHien Rooke 
 quitted Dublin, Balfe continued the study of the ^dolin under 
 James Barton, and of composition under Alexander Lee, the 
 popular ballad writer. When httle more than nine years old, 
 he composed the ballad of " Young Fanny, the Beautiful JIaid," 
 which was purchased of him by Willis, the publisher, for twenty 
 printed copies ; the melody became a great favourite, and some 
 time afterwards, Ha}iies Bayley -wrote to it the words of the Lover's 
 Mistake, with which Madame Vestris sang it in the comedy of 
 Paul Pry. Besides playing and composing, he now sang in 
 public, and with his threefold ability, became a small celebrity. 
 When he was sixteen, his father died, and left him to depend 
 entirely upon his own resources ; he accordingly came to London, 
 and gained no httle credit by his perfonnance of violin solos at 
 the so-caUed oratorios. He then was engaged in the orchestra 
 at Drury Lane, and when T. Cooke, the director, had to appear 
 on the stage (which was the case in the more important musical 
 pieces), he led the band. At this time he took lessons in com- 
 position, of C. F. Horn, the organist of the chapel-royal, 
 Windsor, and music-master of the princesses, and the father 
 of the popular song-writer. In 1825 he met Count Mazzara, 
 a Roman nobleman, at a party, who was so chaiTned with his 
 playing and his singing some songs of liis own, and so touched 
 by his personal likeness to a son he had recently lost, that he 
 uivited Balfe to accompany him to Italy, proposing to defray 
 
 his entire expenses ; this generosity dehghted the young artist, 
 who accompanied his patron to the land of song, believing that 
 he thus entered the very sanctuaiy of the muse to whom he 
 was devoted. Resting at Paris on the journey to Rome, Balfe 
 was introduced to Cherubhii, who was so pleased with his 
 talent as to oifer him lessons in composition, but even this 
 temptmg offer was insufficient to check Bahe's earnest desire to 
 reach the sunny south, and breathe the atmosphere of music. 
 At Rome he was located in the house of his patron, and studied 
 counterpoint under Federici, who was afterwards head of the 
 Conservatorio at Milan. In 1826 the count's affairs called him 
 from Rome, but he left not Balfe without giving him some valu- 
 able introductions, and depositmg a smn of money at a banker's 
 for his use. With these letters Balfe went to Milan, where he 
 studied singing under Fdlippo Galli, and wrote the music for 
 the ballet of Perouse (transplanted from the English stage by 
 Glossop, the manager of the Scala, and Barrymore, his pantomim- 
 ist), for which he was much praised. Glossop's resignation of the 
 management disappomted him of an appearance as a smger at 
 the Scala, so he retiu-ned to London, but finding here no occupa- 
 tion, he went to Paris, where Cheinibini introduced him to Rossini, 
 who was then director of the Italian opera ; the author of the 
 Barbiere was quick to perceive his talent, and offered him a 
 lucrative engagement as principal bar}^tone, with the single con- 
 dition that he should take a com'se of preparatory lessons of Bor- 
 dogni ; and iL Gallois, a Paris banker, presented him with a muni- 
 ficent smn to meet his expenses till the engagement commenced. 
 He made his first appearance at the close of 1828 as Figaro, 
 with success, and besides the distinction he gained as a suiger, 
 in the course of the season he did himself much credit by the 
 composition of some additional pieces for ZingareUi's Romeo e 
 Giulette, which was revived for Mesdames JlaUbran and Blusis, 
 tills being his first attempt at operatic writing. 
 
 At the close of his Paris engagement he returned to Italy, 
 and rested for some time at the residence of a new patron, the 
 Count Sampieri of Bologna, for whose bhthday he wrote a 
 cantata, which was so much admired that he was elected mem- 
 ber of the Plulhannonic Society. In the carnival season of 
 1829-30, he sung principal barytone at Palermo, and here he 
 produced his first complete opera, "I Rivali," which was written 
 in the brief term of twenty days, when the manager had a dis- 
 pute with the chorus, to enable him to dispense with that 
 rebelfious body. Passing through Bergamo, after this engage- 
 ment, he first met Madlle. Rosen, a Genuan singer, whom he 
 mamed. In the autumn of this year he sung at Pa^^a, where 
 also he brought out his second opera, " Un Avertimento ai gelosi." 
 In 1831 he produced " Enrico quarto " at I\Iilan, where he was 
 engaged to sing with Malibran at the Scala. The following 
 year he wrote the gi'eater part of an opera on the subject of 
 Hamlet for Venice ; but the death of the emperor, and the con- 
 sequent closing of the theatres, prevented its perfonnance. He 
 has, however, since appropriated the whole of the music. He 
 continued his career as a singer in Italy until the spring of 1835, 
 w hen he came to London, and appeared at several public and 
 private concerts. He wrote his opera of " The Siege of Rochelle," 
 for the Lyceum, where it was in rehearsal when the failure of 
 Mr. Arnold's management closed the theatre, and it is owing to 
 the accident of the parts having been copied, that ]Mr. Bunn 
 chose it to fill up a gap at Dnny Lane, where it was produced 
 in October with brilliant success ; and supported by an attrac- 
 tive afterpiece, it was played for more than three months with- 
 out intennission. Balfe was thus estabfished as a popular 
 composer in London, and was straightway engaged to -mite 
 "The Maid of Aitois" for Malibran, at the same theatre, 
 which was produced in the sunnner of 1836. " The light of 
 other days," in this opera, has been the most popular song in 
 England that our days have known ; and the rondo finale has 
 been ahnost as great a favourite in every country on the con- 
 tinent. In the autumn of this year Balfe appeared as a singer 
 at Drury Lane, and produced his opera of " Catherine Grey." 
 In 1837 he brought out his "Joan of Arc," which was rivalled 
 by the Amilie of his old master, Rooke, at Covent Gai-deu. 
 In 1838 he brought out his " FalstafT" at her JIajcsty's theatre, 
 the first opera written for that establishment by a native 
 composer since the Olympiade of Arne. In 1839 his " Dia- 
 deste " w-as given at Drury Lane, and this year he entered the 
 field as a manager at the Lyceum, when his wife sang for the 
 first time in England. In 1840 he had again the dhcction of
 
 the same theatre, where he brouglit out his " Keolanthe," not- 
 withstanding the success of which, the season terminated in 
 baultruptcy. 
 
 He now went to Paris, and, after a long sojourn there, brought 
 out " Le Puit d'Amour " at the Opera Comique, wliich was 
 afterwards given in London under tlie name of " Genevieve." 
 He came back to England to produce at Drury Lane, in the 
 November of this year, the most successful of all his works, 
 " The Bohemian Girl," wliich has proved the most universally 
 popular musical composition which has emanated from this 
 country. His reputation in England had, through the compara- 
 tive non-success of his later operas, and through his three years' 
 absence, greatly declined ; but this opera not only re-estabhshed 
 his popularity, but gave him a stronger position than he had yet 
 held. It has been translated into almost every Emopean 
 language, and is as great a favomite on the other side of tlie 
 Atlantic as on this. In 1814 he wrote " Les quatre Fils 
 Aymon," for Paris, produced here as "The Castle of Ay- 
 mon," which was the first of his operas given in Germany. 
 In the same year he brought out "The Daughter of St. Mark" 
 at Drury Lane, and in 1815 "The Enchantress." In 1816 he 
 wrote for the Academic Eoyale " L'Etoile de Seville ;" in the 
 course of the rehearsals of which he was called to London to 
 arrange his engagement as conductor of her JLijesty's theatre, 
 which office he filled till the shutting up of that establishment 
 in 1852. "The Bondman" came out at Drury Lane m the 
 autumn of 184G, and Balfe passed the ensuing winter at Vienna, 
 directing the perfonnance of his already popular operas. In 
 1848 he brought out "The Maid of Honour" at Drury Lane. 
 In 1819 he went to Berlin to reproduce some of his operas, 
 when the king offered him the decoration of the Prussian Eagle, 
 which, as a British subject, he was unable to accept. In 1850 
 he conducted the national concerts at her Majesty's theatre, a 
 series of performances that disappointed the very high expecta- 
 tions, artistic and pecimiary, of the dilettante who mismanaged 
 them, although they were the occasion of the production of some 
 important works. In 1852 " The Sicilian Bride" was given at 
 Drury Lane. At the close of this year, Balfe went to St. Peters- 
 burg with letters from the prince of Prussia, where he was much 
 feted, and made more money in less time than at any other 
 period. His next work was " Pittore c Duca," written for the 
 carnival of 1855, and given at Trieste vnlh but indifferent success, 
 in consequence of the failure of the prima donna. In 185G he 
 returned to England after four years' absence : he brought out 
 his daughter as a singer at the performances of the Royal Italian 
 opera at the Lyceum in 1857 ; and his latest work, "The Eose 
 of Castile," was produced by the English company, also at this 
 theatre, in the October of the same year. His single songs and 
 other detached pieces are almost innumerable. Balfe possesses 
 in a high degree the qualifications that make a natural musician, 
 of quickness of ear, readiness of memoiy, executive facility, 
 almost unhmited and ceaseless fluency of invention, with a 
 fehcitous power of producing striking melodies. His great expe- 
 rience added to these has given him the complete command of 
 orchestral resources, and a remarkable rapidity of production. 
 Against these great advantages is balanced the want of conscien- 
 tiousness, which makes him contented with the first idea that 
 presents itself, regardless of dramatic truth, and considerate of 
 momentary effect rather than artistic excellence ; and this it is 
 that, with all his well-merited success with the million, will for 
 ever prevent his works from ranking among the classics of the 
 art. On the other hand, it must be owned that the volatility 
 and spontaneous character of his music would evaporate through 
 elaboration, either ideal or technical ; and that the element which 
 makes it evanescent, is that which also makes it universally 
 popular. — G. A. M. 
 
 BALFOUR, Alexander, a Scottish novelist, born at Mon- 
 kie, Forfarshire, in 1767. His parents were poor, and his edu- 
 cation but slender. His earlier years were spent in business, in 
 which he was alternately prosperous and unfortunate. In 1818 
 he entered on bis literary career, liaving settled in Edinburgh as 
 clerk to the publishing house of Messrs. Blackwood. In 1819 
 ho published a novel, entitled " Campbell, or the Scottish Pro- 
 bationer," and edited the poetry of Richard Gall. During the 
 following years he was a contributor of prose and verse to the 
 Edinburgh Mar/aztne; and at different times the following larger 
 works appeared from his pen — "Contemplation, and other 
 Poems," 1820; "The Foundhng of Gleuthorn, or the Smug- 
 
 gler's Cave," 1823 ; and " Highland Mary." He died in 1829. 
 A memoir of his life was prefixed to a selection from his writino^, 
 edited by Dr. Moir, and entitled " Weeds and Flowers." — J. B. 
 
 BALFOUR, Sir Andrew, a celebrated Scottish naturalist, 
 was born at the family seat of Denmiln, in the parish of Abdie 
 in Fife, on 18th Januaiy, 1G30. He was the fifth son of Sir 
 Michael Balfour. After pursuing his studies at school, he was 
 sent to the university of St. Andrews, where he took the degree 
 of master of arts. Having early shown a taste for botany and 
 natural history, he was led to enter upon medical studies. He 
 visited various universities, as Oxford, Paris, Jlontpellier, and 
 Padua. At Paiis he spent several years acquiring a knowledge 
 of medicine and of natural science. On 20th September, 1661, 
 he took the degi-ee of doctor of medicme at the university of 
 Caen in Normandy. When in France he visited the garden of 
 the duke of Orleans at Blois, and became acquainted with the 
 celebrated Morison, who at that time had charge of the garden. 
 On his return to London he was introduced to Charles II., and 
 was soon after appointed by the king tutor to the young earl of 
 Rochester, with whom he travelled for four years on the Con- 
 tinent. During all lus peregrinations botany was his favourite 
 pursuit. When his duties as tutor were finished, he still con- 
 tinued his continental torn', and after travelling for fifteen years, 
 he returned to Scotland with large collections of various objects 
 of natural history. He settled, first at St. Andi'ews as a 
 physician, and there, it is said, he first introduced the dissection 
 of the human body into Scotland. In 1670 he removed to 
 Edinbm'gh, and acquired ere long extensive practice. He was 
 made a baronet by Charles II., and was appointed physician in 
 ordinary to his ^lajesty. He continued to retain his zeal for 
 botany, and, adjoining his house in Edinburgh, he had a small 
 botanic garden, where he cultivated many foreign plants. He 
 was the means of initiating many into the study of natural 
 history, and among the rest Patrick Murray, baron of Living- 
 ston. The baron founded at his seat a botanic garden, wliich 
 soon contained about 1000 species of plants. After the death 
 of the baron, Balfour got the collection at Liraigston trans- 
 ferred to Edinburgh, and there uniting it with his own, he 
 founded the botanic garden. With the aid of Sir Robert Sib- 
 bald he succeeded in getting the garden put on a respectable 
 footing, and in seeming the services of Jlr. James Sutherland as 
 intendant. Balfour was also one of the founders of the Royal 
 College of Physicians of Edinburgh. He died in 1694, in the 
 C3rd year of his age, and bequeathed his extensive museum and 
 his herbarium to the university of Edinburgh. Brovni dedicated 
 the genus Balfouria to him. — J. H. B. 
 
 BALFOUR, Francis, a native of Edinburgh, who was fcr 
 sevei'al years a distinguished physician in the service of the East 
 India Company at Calcutta. He has published several works 
 in which he defined a theory, which has been supported by many 
 learned medical obsei-vers, that fevers, especially in eastern coun- 
 tries, are very sensibly affected by the lunar influence. The chief 
 of his works are — " On the Influence of the Jloon in Fevers," 
 Calcutta, 1784; "The Forms of Heiia-en," 1785 ;" On Sol- 
 lunar Influence in Fevers," 1795, &c. &c. — J. B. 
 
 BALFOUR, James, of Piliig, a member of the Scotch bar, 
 was appointed to the chair of moral philosophy in Edinburgh 
 university in 1754, and continued to fill it till 1764, when he 
 was appointed professor of the law of nature and nations, 
 which he held till about 1779. He was born in 1705, and died 
 in 1795. He is the author of three small works. The first, 
 " Delineations of the Nature and Obligations of Morality," pub- 
 lished anonymously about 1752 or 1753, is directed against the 
 moral scheme of Da\id Hume (Home). (See reference to it in 
 Burton's life of Hume, vol. i. p. 344.) He begins with the 
 principle that private happiness must be the chief end and object 
 of every man's pursuit, shows how the good of others affords the 
 highest happiness, and then calls in, to sanction natural con- 
 science, the authority of God, who must approve of what promotes 
 the greatest happiness. This does not give morality a sufficiently 
 deep foundation in the constitution of man or the character of 
 God. His second work, " Philosophical Essays," pubhshed in 
 1768, is written against Hume and Lord Kaimes, and is in 
 defence of active power and liberty. In this treatise he boldly 
 opposes the theory of Locke, that all our ideas are derived from 
 sensation and reflection. " It may indeed be allowed, that the 
 first notions of things are given to the mind by means of some 
 sensation or other ; but then it may also be true that after such
 
 BAL 
 
 359 
 
 BAL 
 
 tices are given, the mind, by tlie exertion of some inherent 
 -.ver, may be able to discover some remarkable qualities of such 
 ...iiigs, and even things of a verj' different nature, which are not 
 to be discovered merely by any sense whatever." — J. M'C. 
 
 BALFOUR, Sir James, president of the court of Session 
 
 in Scotland, in the reign of Queen JL-try, was descended from 
 
 the ancient family of Balfour of Jlountqnhanny in Fife. He 
 
 - -.s intended for the church, and appears to have made consider- 
 
 le progress in the study both of divinity and law, but soon 
 
 came embroiled in the poUtical strife of that stormy period. 
 
 He joined the conspirators who, after the murder of Cardinal 
 
 Peaton, held out the castle of St. Andrews against the gover- 
 
 r Arran, and, on the surrender of that fortress, was sent with 
 
 - companions to the Fi^'nch galleys. It was to Balfour that 
 
 in Knox addi-essed the celebrated remark, while lying off St. 
 
 .drews, expressive of his confident expectation of deUverance. 
 
 1 his escape from France in 1550 he joined the refoiTners, and 
 
 ,s appointed oflBcial in Lothian and rector of Fhsk. In 1563 
 
 • was nominated by Queen ilary a lord of Session, and next 
 
 ir became one of the four judges of the new commissary 
 
 irt. On the mm-der of Eiccio in 1566 Balfour was knighted, 
 
 J promoted to the office of clerk-register in the room of Jlac- 
 
 _ !, who was concerned in the conspiracy. In the beginning of 
 
 : following year. Sir James, who had become an unscrupulous 
 
 rtisan of Bothwell, was appointed governor of Edinburgh 
 
 -tie, and became deeply implicated in the murder of Damley ; 
 
 ieed, the "band" or covenant for the perpetration of that 
 
 rocious deed was di-awn up by him. It was through his 
 
 ichery that the famous silver casket intrusted to him by 
 
 rhwell, containing the letters and sonnets of the queen, fell 
 
 :o the hands of her enemies. He was rewarded with the 
 
 ' jiy of Pittcnweem, and shortly aftenvards with the presi- 
 
 ncy of the court of Session, and a pension of £500 in lieu of 
 
 ; clerk-registry, which he resigned in favomr of JIacgill. After 
 
 ■ death of the earl of Moray, Balfour changed sides, and was 
 
 irged by Lennox, the new regent, with a share in the murder 
 
 Damley. The accusation was subsequently reHved by Mor- 
 
 -1, and Sir James was in consequence obliged to retire to 
 
 ance, where he lived for some years. In spite of all his 
 
 'lies, he died in his bed early in 1583-84. Balfour was a man 
 
 considerable abilities and learning, but utterly devoid of prin- 
 
 ie, and was justly styled " the most corrupt man of his age." 
 
 was the author of a collection of the statutes, entitled " The 
 
 icticks of Scots Law." — J. T. 
 
 LiALFOUR, Sir James, a Scottish annalist and herald, was 
 ' eldest son of Sir Michael Balfour, of Denmylne in Fife, comp- 
 iler of the Scottish household in the reign of Charles I., and 
 15 born about the close of the sixteenth century. Yoimg Balfour 
 ins to have spent several years in travelhng on the continent. 
 ; his retmn he passed some time in London, in antiquarian 
 1 heraldic pursuits, and was honoured with the friendship of 
 r Robert Cotton, the distinguished antiquary. Sir William 
 _'ar. Garter king-at-arms. Sir William Dugdale, Sir Robert 
 toun, and the poetical earl of Stirling. At an earlier period, 
 ;ippears to have been intimate with the celebrated Drummond 
 ■ Ilawthomden. On the recommendation of George, first earl 
 ; Kinnoul, Balfour was created by Charles I., Lord Lyon king- 
 arms, June 15, 1630. In the following year he obtained a 
 mt of the Lands of Kinnaird in Fife, and in 1633 was created 
 liaronet. Though a firm royalist, he was decidedly hostile to 
 '• impoUtic attempt of Charles to impose the liturgy on Scot- 
 iiJ. During the civil contests which ensued. Sir James lived 
 retirement at Falkland and Kinnaird, engaged in historical 
 'J antiquarian pursuits, and formed a valuable collection of 
 arters and manuscripts, illustrative of the history of Scotland, 
 any of which were aftenvards unfortunately destroyed. He 
 rote a concise history of the kings of Scotland, and compiled 
 a- annals of several of these sovereigns on a more extensive 
 ale. After Ipng nearly two centuries in !MS., these works 
 ' re published in 1824 in four volumes, 8vo. Besides his 
 iiinals, Sir James composed no less than sixteen treatises on 
 genealogies and hcraldiy ; together with his work on gems. He 
 died in February, 1657, leaving a very numerous family, but the 
 male line is now extinct. — T. J. 
 
 * BALFOUR, Joiix HtTTOx, professor of botany in the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. He was bom in Buccleuch Place, Edin- 
 •igh, on the 15th of September, 1808. He is related on his 
 ther's side to Dr. James Hutton, the well-known author of 
 
 the Huttonian Theory. He received his early education at the 
 High School, Edinburgh, under two of its famous masters — 
 Carson and PiUans. He matriculated at the university of Edin- 
 burgh in 1821, and attended the literary and philosophical classes 
 necessaiy for the M.A. degree, for four years. He then proceeded 
 to St. Andrews, to study philosophy and mathematics, and was 
 a pupU of the celebrated Dr. Chalmers, with a view of entering 
 the church. He subsequently attended the di^-inity and Hebrew 
 classes in the university of Edinburgh. He did not, however, go 
 on with his theological studies, and commenced the study of 
 medicine in Edinbm-gh in the year 1826. Here he passed through 
 the various classes with edat, and was elected president of the 
 Royal Medical Society in 1831, and again in 1832. He passed the 
 Edinburgh College of Surgeons in 1831, and took liis degree of 
 M.D. in the university of Edinburgh in the same year. He sub- 
 sequently travelled on the continent, and studied in Paris. He 
 was elected a Fellow of the College of Surgeons in 1833, and 
 of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1835. Having acquired 
 a taste for botany under his distinguished preceptor, Professor 
 Graham, he collected a large herbarium, and became a lecturer 
 on botany in the Extra-academical school of Edinburgh in 
 1840. His success as a teacher was very great, and in 1841, 
 when the chair of botany became vacant in the university of 
 Glasgow, by the resignation of Sir WiUiam Jackson Hooker, he 
 was appointed to the professorship. Here he continued four 
 years, till the death of Dr. Robert Graham, professor of botany in 
 the university of Edinburgh, when he was elected to the posts 
 held by Dr. Graham. These consist of a professorship of medicine 
 and botany, and the regius professor of botany in the university 
 and keeper of the royal botanic garden, and her ^Majesty's bo- 
 tanist for Scotland. Dr. Balfour is not only an excellent teacher 
 of botany in his class-rooms, but he has contributed largely to 
 its literature. He has published several volumes, besides a large 
 number of shorter articles contributed to Transactions, Joumab, 
 and Cyclopa?dias. One of his earliest works was a " Manual of 
 Botany," which was published in 1849, but which, through 
 some misunderstanding with the publisher, he has not edited 
 since the first edition. In 1851 he published a more important 
 and extended work, intended as a manual for the use of the 
 students of his class, with the title " Class-book of Botany." 
 This work fidly bears out its title, and is admirably fitted for 
 use in the class-room. This work was succeeded by an epitome 
 of its contents, entitled " Outlines of Botany." He is also the 
 author of the article " Botany," in the eighth edition of the En- 
 cyclopEEdia Britannica. Dr. Balfom''s theological education has 
 evidently given his studies a religious dkection, which is indi- 
 cated in two of his most recent works. " Phyto-theology " 
 was published in 1851, and consists of a series of sketches 
 intended to illustrate the wisdom and beneficence of the great 
 laws which govern the structure and functions of the vegetable 
 kingdom. In 1858 he published a volume on "The Plants of 
 Scripture." Besides these works, he has published a great 
 number of papers to be found in the Transactions of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, the 
 Proceedings of the British Association for the advancement of 
 science, and in the Annals and JLagazine of Katural History, 
 and the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, and other perio- 
 dicals. He is also one of the editors of the two last-n.amed 
 journals. Dr. Balfour was elected a fellow of the Royal Society 
 of London in 1856. He is a fellow of the Linna^an Society of 
 London, a coiresponding member of the Royal Horticultural 
 Society of Liege ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 
 deljdiia ; of the Jledico-Chirargical Society of Genoa ; of the 
 Society of Natural Sciences of Cherbourg ; honorary member ot 
 the Pennsylvanian Horticultural Society, and of many other 
 societies, Scotch and foreign. — E. L. 
 
 BALFOUR, Robert, a learned Scotchman, bom about the 
 year 1550. He w.as for many years principal of Guiennc col- 
 lege, Bordeaux. He published in 1616 a commentary on the 
 logic and ethics of Aristotle, which displays extensive learning, 
 as well as a vigorous intellect. His edition of Cleomedes is 
 spoken of in the liighest terms of praise by Barthius. Accord- 
 ing to Dempster, Baltbur was a philosopher profoundly skilled 
 in the Greek and Latin languages, a mathematician worthy of 
 being compared with the ancients, and to these qualifications he 
 joined a wonderful sagacity of manner, and the utmost warmth 
 of affection towards his countrymen. — J. T. 
 
 BALGUY, John, an English theologian, bom at Sheffield in
 
 BAL 
 
 360 
 
 BAL 
 
 1686 ; died at Han-owgate in 1748. He took his degree at St. 
 John's college, Cambridge, and was ordained to the ministn- in 
 1711. His controversial writings, the most important of which 
 are his " Letters to a Deist," procured him the friendship of Dr. 
 Clarke and Dr. Hoadlev, the latter of whom appointed him to a 
 prebend in the church of Salisbury. — J. S., G. 
 
 BALGUY, Thomas, son of the above, was bom in 1716, and 
 graduated at Cambridge. He, too, attracted the notice of Hoad- 
 lev, by whom he was made prebend of ^^'inchester La 1757, and 
 in 1758 archdeacon of Winchester. He was very assiduous in 
 visiting his clergy, and dehveriiig charges. In 1781 George 
 III. offered him the bishopric of Gloster, which, on account of 
 his years, he declined. He died in 1795. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BALIOL, Edward, eldest son of John Baliol, shared the 
 fortunes of his luckless father, and was his companion in cap- 
 tivity in the Tower. On liis release, he accompanied him to 
 France, and ultimately inherited his extensive estates in that 
 country. Little or nothing is known of his history till after 
 the death of Robert Bruce, when the weakness of Scotland, 
 during the minority of Da\id II., induced B.aUol to attempt the 
 recovery of the crown which his father had lost. Making common 
 cause with Thomas Lord Wake and Henrj' de Beaumont, whose 
 claims to certain Scottish estates had been rejected by the gov- 
 ernment, Edward Baliol, with the treacherous connivance of the 
 EngUsh king, Edward III., brother-in-law of Da%-id Brace, in- 
 vaded Scotland in July, 1332, at the head of a considerable body 
 of troops. The death of Randolph, the great earl of iloray, and 
 the election as regent, in his room, of the feeble and vacillating 
 earl of ^Mar, at this critical juncture, gi'eatly facilitated the success 
 of tliis attempt. Baliol and his associates landed at Kinghom in 
 Fife, and proceeding northwards, encamped at Forteviot on the 
 Earn. A powerful anny, under ilar, lay on the northern bank of 
 that river, near Dupplin, ready to oppose the fui^ther progress of the 
 invaders. But through the treachery of a Scottish baron, named 
 Murray of Tullibardine, and the incapacity of the regent, Baliol 
 surprised the Scottish camp at midnight of the 12th of August, 
 and routed them with prodigious slaughter. All opposition to 
 Baliol's claims was, for the time, at an end, and on the 24th of 
 September he was crowned at Scone. On the 23d of November 
 he met the English king at Roxburgh, and resigned into his 
 hands the independence of Scotland, acknowledged him as his 
 liege lord, and surrendered to him the town and castle of Berwick, 
 engaging at the same time to assist him in aU his wars. The 
 authority of the usurper, however, was shorthved, for on the 15th 
 of December, while he lay encamped in careless security at Annan, 
 he was surprised during the night by a body of horse, commanded 
 by the young earl of Jloray, Sir James Fraser, and Archibald 
 Douglas, the brother of the good Sir James. After a brief resist- 
 ance, his troops were routed, his brother Henry, and several other 
 nobles slain, and Baliol himself was compelled to flee, almost 
 naked, and with scarcely a single attendant, into England. In 
 March following he returned to Scotland, and established his 
 quarters at Roxburgh. In Slay, 1333, Bahol joined his forces 
 with those of Edward III., who now openly invaded Scotland, and 
 laid siege to the toivn of Berwick. The fatal battle of Halidon- 
 Hill, fought by the Scots for the purpose of relie^■ing that im- 
 portant place, in which the regent was mortally wounded, and the 
 greater part of the Scottish nobles either killed or taken prisoners, 
 once more laid Scotland prostrate for a time at the feet of the invad- 
 ers. In a mock parliament, held at Edinburgh on the 18th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1334, Baliol ratified his former treaty with Edward, and 
 ceded to him the whole of the border counties, together with the 
 province of Lothian, and completed his degrading subsen-iency by 
 doing homage for the remainder. His power, however, rested 
 on no stable foundation, and in spite of the assistance afforded 
 him by the English king, he gained no permanent footing in 
 Scotland. In November, 1334, he was once more compelled to 
 flee to England. He returned next year imdcr the protection of 
 an English army, and for two or three years exercised a merely 
 nominal sway at Ferth ; but at length in 1335-6, wearied out 
 with an unavaiUng struggle to maintain his authority, he relin- 
 quished the contest, and resigned all his claims hito the hands 
 of Edward III. at Roxburgh, with a view to facilitate the design 
 of that monarch upon the Scottish crown. Bahol was rewarded 
 for his subsenioncy with a donation of five thousand marks, and 
 an annu.al pension of £2000. After this base transaction lie 
 sank into obscurity, and died childless, at an advanced age, in 
 1363. — (Fordun, Hemingford, Haile's Annab, Tytler.) — J. T. 
 
 BALIOL, John, king of Scotland, was descended from an 
 ancient Norman family, who took their name from their manor 
 of Bahol in France. The founder of the Enghsh branch of the 
 family came over with the Conqueror. His son Guy obtained 
 from WilUam Rufus large possessions in Dm-ham and Northum- 
 berland. The fourth in descent from him, John de Baliol of 
 Bai-nards Castle, was a noble of great wealth and power, and a 
 firm adherent of Hem-y III. in his wars with the barons. He 
 has obtained a place among the benefactors of hterature, by 
 founding in 1263 Bahol college, Oxford, which was afterwards 
 enlarged by his widow, Devorgilla, one of the three daughters 
 and co-heiresses of Alan, lord of Galloway, by Margaret, 
 eldest daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, brother of Jlal- 
 colm IV. and William the Lion, kings of Scotland. His son, 
 John Baliol, was the successful competitor with Robert Bruce, 
 earl of Annandale, for the crown of Scotland. On the death of 
 Alexander III. in 1286, the crown having devolved on his grand- 
 daughter, Margaret of Nonvay, a child only three yeai-s old, 
 Edwai'd I., the able but unprincipled king of England, formed 
 the project of annexing Scotland to his own dominions, by a 
 marriage between the yoimg queen and his only son, Edward, 
 prince of Wales. This scheme was frustrated, however, by the 
 death of Margaret, who fell sick on her passage from Norway 
 to Scotland, and died at Orkney, September, 1290, in the eighth 
 year of her age. The untimely death of the maiden of Nonva}- 
 immediately involved the kingdom in all the evils of a disputed 
 succession and an intestine war. Thirteen competitors for the 
 crown presented themselves, but the claims of ten of these were 
 obviously inadmissible, and were speedily withdrawn. The 
 three remaining claimants were John de Baliol, grandson of 
 ilargaret, the eldest daughter of Da\id, eai-1 of Huntingdon, 
 brother to King WilUam the Lion; Robert de Bruce, son of 
 Isabel, second daughter; and John de Hastings, son of Ada, 
 the third daughter of Earl David, and their pretensions were 
 wannly supported by their respective partisans. These di\Tsions 
 among the Scottish nobles afforded to the ambitious king of 
 England a favom-able opportunity for executing his long-cherisbed 
 designs against the independence of Scotland ; and " baring 
 assembled his prix-y councU and chief nobility," as an old Eng- 
 hsh historian candidly states, " he told them that he had it in 
 his mind to bring imder his dominion the king and the re;dm of 
 Scotland, in the same manner that he had subdued the kingdom 
 of Wales." It has frequently been asserted that the Scottish 
 parliament requested Edward's advice and mediation in settling 
 the succession to the throne. This, however, was not the case ; 
 but some important documents recently brought to hght, show 
 that a direct ui^-itation to interfere in the affairs of Scotland was 
 given to him by Robert Bruce and his adherents, in order to 
 conciliate the favour of the English monarch, and to gain their 
 own selfish ends. Pretending to regard this inntation as an 
 expression of the national wish, Edward collected a powerful 
 army to support his designs, and requested the clergy and nobi- 
 lity of Scotland to hold a conference with Mm at Norham on 
 the 10th of Jlay, 1291. "SMien the conference met, Roger Bra- 
 bazon, the English justiciary, demanded, as a preUmLnary con- 
 dition of his master's interference, " the hearty recognition by 
 the meeting of his title as superior and lord paramount of the 
 kingdom of Scotland." This claim was heard with astonish- 
 ment and dismay by all the assembly, except those who had 
 basely instigated the demand. With some difficulty Edward 
 was induced to allow the Estates time to consult with their 
 absent members, and another meeting was appointed for the 2nd 
 June, which was held on a green plain called Holywell Haugh, 
 opposite Norham castle. It soon appeared that, through the 
 intrigues and bribes of the English monarch, aided by the mutual 
 jealousies and conflicting interests of the Scottish barons, the 
 imperious demands of Edward were to be conceded, and that 
 the independence of the couutry was to be basely sacrificed. The 
 competitors for the crown, in the first instance, and then the 
 other barons and prelates, acknowledged the English king as 
 lord paramount of Scotland, and bovmd themselves to submit to 
 his award. Nine days later, the four regents who had been 
 appointed to govern the kingdom during the interregnum 
 solemnly surrendered their trust into the hands of Edwai-d, and 
 the governors of its castles also gave them up to his disposal, 
 on condition that he should restore them in two months from the 
 date of his award. At the same time Bruce and Baliol, with the 
 regents and many of the principal barons and one bishop, swore
 
 Ity to tlie king of England. On the 3rd of August, commis- 
 lors appointed by Edward met at Berwick to receive the 
 iins to the croNvn ; but the fiual decision of the case was post- 
 led till the followmg year. AMien the parliament met at 
 1 wick, 15th October, 1292, for the settlement of the question, 
 iol and Bruce were heard at great length in support of theu- 
 liective pretensions. The former rested his claims on the 
 :, that he was the gi-andson of the eldest daughter of David, 
 1 of Huntingdon. The latter pleaded that he was nearer in 
 ;'d than liis rival to their common ancestor, that his title was 
 j ported by the custom of succession to the Scottish crown, 
 which the brother, as nearest in degree, was preferred to the 
 1 of the deceased king, and especially that his right to the 
 \vn had been recognized by the estates of the realm in the 
 . :^n of Alexander II., who had presented him to the nobles 
 and magnates of Scotland as his lawful heir, and that the 
 \\ hole of them had then, by the king's command, taken the 
 (iath of fealty to Bruce. After various deliberations, the final 
 (1- cision was given by Edward in favour of Bahol on the 17th 
 November. On the 19th the new king received seizin of his 
 i^'dom from the regents, and next day he swore fealty to 
 - Lward in the castle of Norham. On the oOth — St. Andrew's 
 day — he was solemnly crowned at Scone ; and that he might 
 keep in mind his dependence on his feudal superior, he was made 
 to renew his homage and fealty to Edward at Newcastle on 
 the 26th of the following month. Both at the commencement 
 and the close of these proceedings, the English king had protested 
 that, although he consented now to act as lord paramount, he 
 did not resign liis right of property in the kmgdom of Scot- 
 1, whenever he should think fit to assert it ; and he soon 
 , le it appear that it was his object, by a series of galling 
 Lidignities, to goad his vassal into resistance, that he might thus 
 be furnished with a plausible pretext to annex Scotland to his 
 -■■■ n dominions as a forfeited fief. In the com-se of a year, Baliol 
 ^ summoned on no fewer than six occasions to appear per- 
 ally before his liege lord in the English parhament, to answer 
 iplaints, mostly of a trifling natm-e, preferred against him by 
 - uwn subjects. When Baliol remonstrated against tliis treat- 
 i.:ent, and reminded Edward that, by treaty, no Scottish sub- 
 i' ct was to be compelled to answer in an English coiurt for any 
 : done in Scotland, the English king rephed with unblush- 
 _ uffrontery, that he did not intend to be boimd by a promise 
 iih had been made merely to siut his own convenience. The 
 iimce of Baliol. at length gave way under these repeated 
 ilts, and he refused to plead before the English parhament, 
 <n an appeal made by JIacduff, granduncle of the earl of Fife, 
 - ainst a sentence of the Scottish estates. He was, therefore, 
 u'clared guilty of a contempt of court and of open disobedience. 
 The case was decided agauist hun ; and as a punishment for his 
 contmnacy, the three principal castles of Scotland were ordered 
 to be delivered over to the custody of the English king. At this 
 juncture a war broke out between France and England, and 
 Baliol, stimulated by the estates of his kingdom, resolved to 
 avail himself of the favourable opportunity to shake oft" the Eng- 
 lish yoke. He, therefore, not only refused to obey the summons 
 of Edward to attend him m person with his vassals in the Frencli 
 war, but he entered into a treaty offensive and defensive with 
 Philip, king of France, which was signed at Pai'is on the 23rd 
 of October, 1295 — " The groundwork," says Lord Hailes, " of 
 many more equally honom-uble and ruinous to Scotland." Early 
 in the spring of the followmg year Edward invaded Scotland 
 at the head of a numerous and well-appointed anny. His first 
 exploit w;is the capture of the tovn\ and castle of Benvick, after 
 a desperate resistance, which so enraged the English king, that 
 he gave up the inhabitants to an indiscriminate massacre that 
 lasted for two days, during wliich the streets ran with blood. 
 Before leaving Berwick, Edward received on the 5th of Aj)ril 
 Baliol's renunciation of his allegiance, on the gi-ound of the in- 
 sults offered to himself, and the giievous injuries inflicted upon his 
 subjects. " The foolish traitor," exclaimed the savage monarch, 
 when he received the letter, " of what folly is he guilty ! but 
 since he will not come to us, we will go to him." The carl of 
 Surrey was dis})atchcd with a powerful force to besiege the castle 
 of Dunbar, the key of the eastern marches. A numerous Scot- 
 tish ai-my assembled for the relief of this important fortress, 
 and took up a strong position on an eminence in its vicinity. 
 But having unfortunately mistaken a movement of the enemy 
 for a retreat, they mshcd dow^n precipitately to the encomiter, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 and were defeated with gi-eat slaughter. Next day the castle of 
 Dunbar sun-endered at discretion, and this example was speedily 
 followed by the strong fortresses of Roxburgh, Dumbarton, Jed- 
 burgh, Edinburgh, and Sthling. The battle of Dunbar, for the 
 present, decided the fate of Scotland. Baliol rethed beyond the 
 Tay with the remains of his defeated and dispirited army, and 
 perceiving that farther resistance to the power of the invader 
 was hopeless, he sent a rhessage to Edward, wdio had now 
 reached Perth in his triumphant progress tlu-ough the king- 
 dom, offering submission and imploring mercy. He was informed 
 that this would be gi-anted him only on condition, that he would 
 make an unconditional smTender of his kingdom to the English 
 king, accom])anied by a public acknowledgment of his rebelhon. 
 To these humiliating terms Bahol submitted. The degi-ading 
 ceremonial of his abdication and penitence took place in the 
 churchyard of Stracathro, near Jlontrose, on the 7th of July, 
 1296, in the presence of the bishop of Durham and the barons 
 of England. He was first of all divested of his royal robes, 
 crown, and sceptre, and then, dressed only in his slmt and 
 drawers, with a white rod in his hand, he confessed that, misled 
 by evil and false counsel, he had giievoiosly offended his liege 
 lord, and recapitulating his various transgressions, he acknow- 
 ledged that he was justly deprived of his crown. Three days 
 after this, at the castle of Brechin, he resigned his kingdom 
 into the hands of Edward himself. After this humiliating cere- 
 mony, Bahol and his eldest son were sent to London, where 
 they remained for three years in confinement in the Tower. In 
 spite of his abdication, however, the Scots continued for some 
 years to acknowledge Baliol as their rightful kuig; his claims 
 were recognized by the pope, the king of France, and other con- 
 tinental princes, and Wallace himself held the ofiice of governor 
 of Scotland, in the name of King John. He remained in con- 
 finement until 1299, when, at the earnest reciuest of Pope Boni- 
 face, Edward consented to release the fallen monarch, and to 
 deliver him to the bishop of Vicenza, the papal nmicio. He was 
 conveyed to his ancestral estate of Bailleul in Normandy, where 
 he lived in obscurity till his death in 1314. — J. T. 
 
 BALL, John, an itinerant preacher who took part in the Kent 
 insurrection in 1381. He had previously been excommmiicated 
 more than once for preaching " errors and schisms and scandals 
 against the pope, the archbishops, bishops, and clergy." At 
 Blacklieath, i5all was appointed preacher to the rebel army, and 
 on the occasion harangued from the test : — 
 
 " When Adam delved and Eve span, 
 Who was then the gentleman ?" 
 
 He was execated along with other rebels at Coventry. — J. S., G. 
 
 BALL, John, a Puritan divine, bom at Cassington, or Cher- 
 sington, in Oxfordshhe in 1585 ; died in 164.0. He was curate 
 of ^\^litmore in Staffordsliii-e at a salary of £20 a year. Baxter 
 said of him that he deseiTcd as high esteem and honour as the 
 best bishop in England. His works are very numerous, and of 
 considerable merit. " A short treatise concernhig all the princi- 
 pal grounds of the Christian rehgion," &c., his first publication, 
 passed through fourteen editions before 1632. — J. S., G. 
 
 BALL, Robert, LL.D., an Irish naturalist, was bom at 
 Qucenstown in the county of Cork, on the 1st April, 1802. 
 Dming his pupilage, he displayed a love of learning and a strong 
 predilection for natural history, and was a successful competitor 
 for honom-s with several persons who have since obtained high 
 distinction. After attaining his majority. Ball took an active 
 part in the various public institutions of Youghal, where he 
 then resided, of wliich town he w^as elected a local magistrate. 
 In the meantime he applied liimself to the study of medicine, 
 with the intention of adopting it as his profession ; but he was 
 induced to abandon this design, and enter the civil scnice, and 
 shortly after he obtained a place in the Irish office in Dublin. 
 He filled situations in various government departments from 
 that period, and discharged the duties imposed upon him with 
 zeal and ability vmtil the year 1854, when he was put on the 
 retired list, with a small pension. During all this period Mr. 
 Bull did not fail to prosecute his scientific pui-suits. To the 
 study of natm-al history he especially devoted himself, and soon 
 aequu-ed a high reputation in that department of science. In 
 1837 he was elected secretary to the Royal Zoological Society of 
 Ireland, of which he continued an active and most useful mem- 
 ber, delivering from time to time public lectures in connection 
 with the society. In the following year he ■(> as elected upon tho 
 
 2 Z
 
 BAL 
 
 362 
 
 BAL 
 
 committee of science in the comicil of the Royal Irish Academy, 
 of whicli body he subse(jut'ntly became treasurer, a chartered 
 office of high position and tmst in the academy. The Botanical 
 Society of Edinburgh and the Eay Society appointed him local 
 secretary for Dublin, and he was a member of the lloyal Society. 
 He also filled tlie post of secretary to tbe Geological Society of 
 Ireland, and, subsequently, became its president ; and he was one 
 of the original founders of the Dublin Statistical Society. Upon 
 the death of Dr. Wliitle Stokes, Ball was appointed in 18-10 to 
 succeed him as director of the museum of the university of Trinity 
 college, Dublin, and upon that occasion, he presented to the 
 college bis very valuable collection of the natural history of Ire- 
 land. In the year 1850, the university conferred upon him the 
 honorary degree of doctor of laws. Dr. Ball was president of the 
 Dublin University Zoological and Botanical Association, and was 
 appointed president of one of the sections of natural history at 
 the meeting of the British Association in Dublin in 1857. Unfor- 
 tnnatc'lv, liowever, before the period arrived for him to occujiy 
 tliis honourable position, ids life was terminated somewhat sud- 
 denly, after having been only a few days ilL He died on the 
 SOtll of I\Iarch, 1857.— J. F. W. 
 
 BALLANX'HE, Pieriie Si.'MON, a French writer, bom at 
 Lyons in 1776. His writings, both in prose and poetry, are of 
 a strangely mystical char:icter, the meaning of which would 
 probably have been allowed to rest in imdisturbed obscurity, 
 only for the stir given to particular khids of inquiry by the Ee- 
 volution of 1818. It was then that dreamers after a political 
 millennium, of whose approach they saw signs, found prophetic 
 indications of the great social era in the enigmatical language of 
 Ballanche. It is a pity that the author did not live a little 
 longer to correct or confirm the readings of his interpreters. 
 During his lifetime he enjoyed the esteem of Chateaubriand, and 
 of the choice circle which clustered round the once beautiful 
 JIadame de Recamicr, who admired the choice language, if they 
 failed to comprehend the abstruse meaning of "Antigone" and 
 "Oq)heus," or the revelations of "Ilebal," a Scottish chief, who, 
 by virtue of the gift of second sight, beholds humanity putting 
 on new forms. The day Ballanche was received into the aca- 
 demy, he found himself unable to overcome his recluse shyness 
 so as to read his own address, which a friend read for him. He 
 suffered imder some defect of speech, which made him an un- 
 willing talker. He died 12th June, 1817.— J. F. C. 
 
 BALLANTYNE, James, partner with Sir Walter Scott in 
 the celebrated printing business, the failure of which involved 
 the last years of the great novelist's life in unexpected cala- 
 mity, was educated at Kelso, where in 1795 he set up for law- 
 yer and editor of a newspaper. Ou the solicitation of Sir 
 Walter Scott, for whom he publi-shed the first volume of the 
 Slinstrelsy of the Scottish Border in 1802, he removed his 
 printing business to Edinburgh. In 1809 the firm of John 
 Ballantyne & Co. was organized, with Scott and James and John 
 B.allantyne for partners. Scott's connection with a concern, 
 which speedily attained an imexampled celebrity, was unsus- 
 pected till the failure of the house in 1825, and then it excited 
 surprise as much as regret. James Ballantyne, a kind-hearted 
 and talented man, a good critic, and a friend highly esteemed 
 by Scott, died in 1833.— J. S., G. 
 
 BALLANTYNE, Joiix, younger brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Kelso in 1774. In early life he was partner with 
 his father, who earned on a small business as a general dealer 
 in Kelso, and this business he afterwards prosecuted on his own 
 account till 1805, when he became clerk in his brother's print- 
 ing establishment in Edinburgh. In 1809 his name appeared 
 as the representative of a finn organized by his brother James 
 and Sir Walter Scott, in opposition to that of Con.stable & Co. ; 
 and from this concern, besides the profits of his quarter of a share 
 (Scott held one half share and the two Ballantynes the other), 
 he derived j£300 a year as manager. In 1813, when the firm 
 of John Ballantyne & Co. found itself in difficulties, which were 
 only got over by the help of the firm in opposition to which 
 it was established, the nominal head of the concern became 
 an auctioneer of books and curiosities in Edinburgh. Scott 
 aftenvards wrote for him the Lives of the Novelists. His apti- 
 tude for business has been seriously questioned ; but in the 
 jorial literary and artistic society which he frequented, his racy 
 humour and endless stories never failed to be appreciated. He 
 died at Edinburgh in 1821. John Ballantyne is the author of 
 a novel entitled " The Widow's Lodgings." — J. S., G. 
 
 BALLANTYNE, Rev. John, was bom at Piteddie, pai-ish 
 of Kinghorn, Fifesliue, May 8, 1778, and received his early edu- 
 cation in the village school of Lochgelly. He matriculated in 
 the university of Edinbm'gh In 1795. His parents belonged to 
 the church of Scotland, but he joined from conscientious motives 
 the Burgher branch of the Secession chm'ch, and attended the 
 theological hall of that body. After being licensed to preach the 
 gospel, he taught schools at Lochgelly and at Colinsburgh. In 
 1805 he was settled as minister at Stonehaven in Kincardineshire. 
 His first work, entitled " A Comparison of Established and Dis- 
 senting Churches," appeared in 1824, and a new and enlarged 
 edition in 1830. His " Examination of the Human Mind," was 
 published in 1828. The author received from a wealthy friend, 
 who had been pennitted to pemse the work in MS., £200, to 
 bear any loss in the publication, or to be othenvise devoted to 
 schemes of Christian benevolence. In this work he pui-poses to 
 give a view of the general principles of the mind of man, accom- 
 panied with a brief illustration of their nature, mutual relations, 
 and more important tendencies. He treats of the sensitive prin- 
 ciple, the associative princi])le, the voluntary principle, and the 
 motive principle. The work is characterized by much indepen- 
 dence of thought, and contains some original views on the subject 
 of the association of ideas and the nature of the will. Though 
 a decided advance in several respects on the systems of Dr. 
 Brown and Professor James Mylne, who at that time guided the 
 metaphysics of Scotland, it is still very defective in the view 
 given of necessary tmth and of the moral power in man. He 
 intended to apjily the doctrines he promulgated to the more 
 interesting phenomena of human nature, and is said to have 
 left a considerable body of MSS. He died at Stonehaven in 
 1830, and was buried in the parish church of Feteresso, where 
 a marble monument is erected to his memory. — J. M'C. 
 
 BALLARD, George, bom at Campden, Gloucestershire, 
 early in the eighteenth century. He stmggled through many 
 difficulties in pm-suit of his favomite studies of historical, philo- 
 logical, and biographical antiquities, and left in the Bodleian 
 library at Oxford, a collection of papers still valuable to writers 
 on Saxon and other antiquarian literature. His only published 
 work was " Memoirs of British Ladies who have been celebrated 
 for their Writings," 1752. It began with Juliana, an anchorite 
 in the reign of Edward III., and ends with Constantia Grier- 
 son, who died in 1733. Ballard died in 1755. — J. B. 
 
 BALLARD, a French fiimily, who during upwards of two 
 centuries enjoyed exclusively the privilege of printing music in 
 France. Their names are: — Robert, who flourished under 
 Henry II. and Charles IX. — Pierrk, who pubhshed in the 
 reigns of Henry III. and Heniy IV. 150 psalms of David, with 
 music. — RoBEiiT, syndic of the corporation of booksellers in the 
 reign of Louis XIII. — Christophe and Jean Baptiste, who 
 held in succession a patent from Louis XIV. — Christophe 
 Jean Francois, who died in 1750. — Pierre Robert Chris- 
 tophe, who was the last to hold a priwlege which his family 
 had uniformly abused to the discountenancing of all improve- 
 ments in their art. — J. S., G. 
 
 BALLARDI, Charles Akthony Louis, a physician and 
 botanist, was bom at Cigliano in 1741, and died at Turin in 
 1828. He prosecuted his studies at Turin, and assisted Allioni in 
 the preparation of his Flora Pedemontana. He superintended 
 and arranged the botanic garden. His botanical works are a 
 " Supplement to the Flora of Piedmont ;" and a " Dissertation 
 on the species of Cassia which may be substituted for Senna, 
 and on the cultivated Rhubarb." — J. H. B. 
 
 BALLARINI, IIippolytus, abbot of St. Michael de Murano 
 at Venice, and afterwards general of the order of Calmadule.s, 
 died in 1558. He wrote " Tractatus de Diligendis Inimicis." 
 
 BALLE, Nicolas Edinget, a Danish theologian, born in 
 1744, died in 1816. He WTote " Oratio de Dignitate verbi diviiii 
 per Lutlierum Rcstituta," 
 
 BALLENSTEDT, Joiiann Georg Justus, a geologist and 
 pastor of Pabstorft' in Prussia, was bom at Schoningen in 1756. 
 In 1819, he commenced the publication of a geological ma- 
 gazine at Quedlingberg, under the title of "Archiv fiir die 
 neuesten Entdeckungen aus der Urwelt," of which five volumes 
 appeared ; several memoirs by Ballenstedt himself are to be 
 found in its pages, and he also published a separate work, " Die 
 Urwelt, oder Beweis von dem Daseyn und Untergange von mehr 
 als einer Vorwelt," which met with a veiy favom-able reception 
 in Germany, and reached a third edition. — W. S. D.
 
 BAL 
 
 363 
 
 BAL 
 
 BALLEXTYXE or BALLENDEN, Johx, a distbgnished 
 Scotch poet of the reign of James V., author of a translation of 
 " Boece's Latin Historv," was a native of Lothian. He studied 
 at St Andrews, and afterwards at Paris, where he took the 
 degree of doctor of divinity. His name appears in the records 
 of James' reign, as " Clerk of the Kingis Comptis," and also as 
 court poet, in which latter character, notwithstanding a certain 
 freedom of speech in his allusions to afiairs of state, he was so 
 acceptable to the "kingis grace," as to have frequent dealings with 
 the royal treasurer. Besides the work above mentioned, Ballen- 
 tyne published a translation of the first five books of Li\'T. He 
 died at Rome in 1550. An edition of his " Boece " was published 
 at Edinburgh in 1821.— J. S., G. 
 
 BALLElilXI, GiKOLAMO, a learned Italian, brother of Pietro 
 Balleiini, bom at Verona in 1702 ; died in 1770. He edited the 
 works of Cardinal Noris, and those of Gilbertus, bishop of Verona. 
 BALLEPJNI, PiETKO, an Italian theologian of the first half 
 of the eighteenth century, was professor of belles-lettres, and 
 afterwards of theology at Verona. He published, " Sletodo 
 di S. Agostino negli studj ;" "S. Leonis magni Opera;" De 
 jure diviuo et natural! circa usuram Libri \T[." 
 
 BALLESTEROS, Fk.vscis, a Spanish general, bom at Sara- 
 gassa in 1770 ; died at Paris, 2nd June, 1832. He entered the 
 army in 1788 in a regiment of volunteer infantry of Aragon, and 
 took part in the campaign of Catalonia in 1792 and 1795. He 
 was deprived of his mihtary rank in 1804, on a false accusation 
 of embezzlement, but was soon afterwards restored, and named 
 commander of the resguardo (custom-house ofiicei-s) of Oviedo, 
 a most lucrative employment, commonly reserved for favourites. 
 He afterwards rose to the rank of lieutenant-general, and was 
 intrusted with the chief command of the army of Andalusia. 
 He subsequently fell into disgrace with the government of the 
 day, and was arrested on a charge of high treason ; and although 
 he soon regained his hberty, he was deprived of his command. 
 After passing through a variety of fortune, he died at Paris in 
 obscurity and neglect. — G. il. 
 
 BALLEYDIER, a French general, bom at Annecv 01°°* 
 Blanc), 12th Febraary, 1703, died about 1840. His first mili- 
 tary appointment, which took place at the beginning of the 
 Revolution, was to the command of the volunteers of Annecv, 
 and in this capacity he seri-ed \vith great distinction under 
 generals Kellerman and Dugommier. He afterwards joined the 
 army of Italy, in which he was equally distinguishecL Raised 
 to the rank of colonel, he signalized himself in the campaigns of 
 Holland and Russia ; but although tivice nominated general of 
 brigade , he, with singular modesty, declined the rank. — G. M. 
 BALLI, Fabio, a Sicilian noble and jurisconsult. His " Can- 
 aoae SiciUane" are published in the Muse Siciliane, Padua, 1617 
 and 16G2. The date of his birth is uncertain, but he died at a 
 great age in Padua, 1632. 
 
 BALLI, GirsEPPE, bom at Palermo in 1567. His parents 
 wislied him to follow the profession of arms, but he preferred an 
 ecclesiastical life. He passed some time in Spain, and there 
 took his degree of doctor in theology. He was canon in the 
 cathedral of Ban, in the kingdom of Naples. In 1655 we find 
 him resident at Padua, where he published several theological 
 works which excited a good deal of controversy. " He was," 
 says Quadrio, " a celebrated mathematician, and a good poet." 
 He died at Padua in 16-10.— J. A., D. 
 
 BALLI, TosoiASO, a Sicilian nobleman, bom at Palermo 
 about the middle of the sixteenth century. The name is some- 
 times written Ballo. He was ChevaUer de St. Etienne, and a 
 member of the Accesi of Palermo. Several of his smaller poems 
 are contained in the publications of the Accesi. His most im- 
 portant work is a poem in the octave measure, entitled "Palermo 
 liberato, Poema Eroico." — J. A., D. 
 
 BALLIN, Claude, a French silversmith, bom in Paris, ICl 5, 
 died 1678; was patronized by Cardinal Richelieu, who intrasted 
 him with several works ; so too did Louis XIV., and well did 
 Ballin deserve it, since his works were the best of the kind pro- 
 duced during the seventeenth century. In his last years he was 
 assisted by Claude, liis nephew, who was also bora in Paris, 
 1660, and died 1754.— R. M. 
 
 BALLIXGALL, Sir George, was bom 1786, and began life 
 as a militar)' surgeon, and sensed in that capacity in the East 
 Indies and on the continent. In 1823 he was appomted pro- 
 fessor of military surgery in the univci-sity of Edinburgh, and 
 was knighted in 1830. He was a member of many foreign 
 
 medical societies. He died Dec. 4, 1855, having held his profes- 
 sorship upwards of twenty-two years. — E. W. 
 
 * BALLOU, Abdj, a prominent American non-resistant and 
 christian socialist, now (1857) about sixty years of age, resident 
 in ililford, Massachusetts. Previous to 1842, he was for several 
 years pastor of the Congregational church in Jlendon, Massa- 
 chusetts. In 1839 he commenced the publication of a bi-weekly 
 paper, the Practical Christian, wherein he has set forth his 
 peculiar theological, moral, and social opinions. In regard to 
 the former, he is of the Unitarian-Restorationist school ; as re- 
 spects the latter, an earnest and able advocate of the anti- 
 slavery movement, in unison with the American Antislavery 
 Society, of the temperance (total abstinence) cause, and of peace 
 on non-resistant grounds. His conviction of the necessity of a 
 thorough regeneration of the spirit and framework of human 
 society, on absolute christian principles, took so deep a hold of 
 his mind, that in 1842, with a few sympathizing friends, and 
 with very small pecuniary means, he purchased a small tract of 
 land in the town of MUford, and established upon and within it 
 a " Practical Cliristian community." He gave it the name of 
 Hopedale. It was based strictly on non-resistant principles, 
 refusing to seek the aid of the government or of the laws, either 
 for personal protection or the security of any right or possession. 
 It remains to this day, possessing the unqualified good-will of 
 the surrounding population. The settlement now contains about 
 forty dwelling-houses, besides printing-office, mills, and shops, 
 and over two hundred residents. — S. M. 
 
 BALLOU, HosEA, known as Father Ballou, the founder 
 of universalism in America, was bom at Richmond, New Hamp- 
 shire, in 1771. His father, a Baptist clergyman, supplied him 
 with but scanty means of education. We are told that he learned 
 to write with a cinder on stripes of bark by the light of the fire. 
 Ha-ilng embraced the universalist doctrine, he was expelled fi-om 
 his father's church, and soon became an irinerant preacher. 
 After labouring in different parts of the country, he settled as 
 minister of the second universalist society in Boston, where he 
 died in 1852. During his long ministry of sixty years, he was 
 ever earnest in promulgating his peculiar tenets, and was so 
 successful as to found a sect in his coimtry. In his various 
 writings he also avowed Ids belief in the unitarian doctrines. 
 His nephew, Hosea Ballou, is still editor of the Universalist 
 Quarterly Review, which the subject of our notice began under 
 the title of the Universalist Expositor. — J. B. 
 
 BALMER, Robert, one of the professors of theology in the 
 L^nited Presbyterian Church, was bom in the parish of Eckford, 
 Roxbtirghshire, 22nd November, 1787. He entered the imiver- 
 sity of Eduiburgh in 1802, was ordained at Berwick on Tweed 
 23rd ilarch, 1814, and elected professor of theology in April, 
 1834. He received in 1840 the honorary degree of D.D. from 
 the university of St. Andrews, and few titles have been better be- 
 stowed. Dr. Balmer was a man of high attainments in ethical phi- 
 losophy and theology. His reading was rather select than exten- 
 sive, and his memory was very retentive and ready. He did not lay 
 claim to profound erudition or great research, but he was versant 
 with the best writers on di\"inity, both at home and abroad. 
 His mind was distinguished more by the clearness and beauty, 
 than by the grasp and power of its conceptions. He was far 
 above any kind of dogmatism, and his whole conduct was m.irked 
 by a singular modesty and candour. AMiile he liked to be in- 
 dependent in forming his opinions, he was ever careful to assign 
 the honour due to all who had written before him. He was tmly 
 a lover of trath, and of all good men. His English style is per- 
 spicuous and classical, and the two octavo volumes published 
 since his death are a delightful specimen of his pulpit discourses, 
 and academical prelections. Dr. Balmer, in a word, was char- 
 acterized, not by genius, but by a combination of powers which 
 occasionally approached it. Nor can we omit to mention his 
 quiet and gentle deportment, his retiiing and scholarly habits, 
 his exquisite taste, his scmpulous accuracy, his catholic spirit, 
 his childlike simplicity, and his elevated piety. Dr. Balmer died 
 after a brief illness, on July 1, 1844. — J. E. 
 
 BALM£S, James Lucian, bom at Vich in Catalonia, on the 
 28th of August, 1810 ; a philosopher and a publisher. He w;is 
 considered a good mathematician, and taught that science in the 
 college of his native place, until he was exiled from Spain by the 
 government of Espartero. He edited the newspaper, /vOs Pen- 
 samientvs de la Nacion, which was published in JLidrid. He 
 wrote many polemical works. He died July 9, 1848. — A. C. M.
 
 BALXAYIS, Hexet, of Halhill, was born of poor parents 
 at Kirkakly early in the sixteeiitli cotiturv. After gettinj; a 
 brief and scanty education at St. Andrews, lie went to Cologne, 
 and in a free school of that city studied to gi-eat advantage. On 
 returning to Scotland, he applied himself to Roman jurispru- 
 dence, and practised for some time in the courts of St Andrews, 
 at that time the ecclesiastical metropolis. At an early period be 
 embraced the principles of the Reforaiation ; and, notwithstanding 
 bis change of religion, was appointed a lord of Session in 1538. 
 He sat in the parliament of that year and some succeeding ones. 
 In 15-13 he became secretary of state under the regent, the earl 
 of AiTan, and was instrumental in passing Lord Jlaxwell's act, 
 in spite of prelatic opposition — that act bemg that the whole 
 Bible should be translated into the vulgar tongue. He was one 
 of the commissioners appointed to treat for a maniage between 
 Edward of England and the young Queen of Scots; but the 
 match was broken off by tlie influence of the Cardinal Beaton, 
 who saw in it the downfall of the popish faith. Balna\TS was 
 dismissed from office, and confined with the earl of Rothes and 
 Lord Gray in Blackness castle, till the arrival of an English fleet 
 in the frith of Forth. After the murder of the cardinal he was 
 sent with the prisoners, after the surrender of the castle of St. 
 Andrews, to Rouen, and kept there in close confinement. His 
 sentence of forfeiture being reversed, Balnavis returned, and took 
 a lending part with the reformers till the new faith was ulti- 
 mately established. In 1563 he was appointed a second time a 
 lord of Session ; and the same year he was by the General 
 Assembly nominated one of the commissioners to re\'ise the Book 
 of Discipline. The year following he accompanied the Regent 
 JIurray to York, as one of the Scottish commissioners in refe- 
 rence to the charges against Queen Mary for the murder of 
 Darnley ; and he was afterwards deputed to London on the same 
 business. Died at Edinburgh in 1571 — Mackenzie says, in 1579, 
 a date as far wrong as that of his buth, 1520, given In the 
 NouveUe Biog. Univ. Sir James Mel\-il calls him "a godly, 
 learned, and ■wise, and long experimental counseller." Mackenzie, 
 on the other hand, styles him one of the " main sticklers and 
 hectors" in the rebellion against Queen Mary. He wi-ote, at 
 Rouen, a small treatise on " Justification," of wliich his fellow- 
 prisoner, John Knox, thought highly. Among his works are 
 some poems, pubUshed in Ramsay's collection, and " The Con- 
 fessions of Faith, compiled by H. Balnavis of Halhill, and one of 
 the Lords of Session and Counsell of Scotland, being a Prisoner 
 within the Old Pallaice of Rouane, in the yeare of the Lord 
 1548," Edinburgh, 1584.— J. E. 
 
 BALOUFFEAU or BALOUFFETEAU, Jacques, a noto- 
 rious French shai-per, who prosecuted his calling -with great 
 success under various aiistocratic names in several countries of 
 Europe, was the son of an advocate of the parliament of Bor- 
 deaux. The ministry of England and the king of France were 
 among his dupes; the former paying for a denunciation of a pre- 
 tended conspiracy £2000, and the latter 2000 crowns. He 
 was gibbeted at Paris in 1828.— J. S., G. 
 
 BALOGH, JoxAS, a Hungarian deputy, bom in 1800. In 
 all the Hungarian diets of which he was a member, he con- 
 stantly appeared as a defender of the rights of the people. After 
 a course of active patriotism, in which he encountered many 
 obstacles, he was compelled to quit his country, and found, with 
 the illustrious Kossuth, an asylum in Turkey. — G. M. 
 
 BALON, NEKSiiS, a heresiarch of the fourteenth century, 
 was educated in a monastery of Upper Armenia, in which conntiy 
 liis zeal for the tenets of the Anabaptists excited such troubles 
 as finally obliged him to seek refuge at the papal coiu"t of Avignon. 
 He wrote a history of the kings and patriarchs of Armenia. 
 
 B.VLSAMO, Paulo, an Italian abbot and writer on agricul- 
 ture, bora at Termini in Sicily in 1763 ; died at Palermo in 
 1818. He was sent by the government of Naples into Lombardy, 
 France, and England, to report on the state of agriculture in 
 those countries. In England he made the acquaintance of 
 Arthur Young, a memoir of whom he afterwards inserted in the 
 Annals of Agriculture. He is the author of a great number of 
 papers in that collection. — J. S., G. 
 
 BALTADJI, Mohammed, grand vizier of the Ottoman em- 
 pire, was bom towards the middle of the seventeenth century. 
 He was originally a soldier in the troop of Baltadjis, or body- 
 guard of the sultan. After his advancement to the viziership 
 he commanded the army which the sidtan sent into Russia to 
 co-operate with Charles XII. of Sweden. The treaty of peace, 
 
 however, which Baltadji concluded at Falezi with the minister 
 of Catherine, gave such oflence to Charles that he accused the 
 grand \-izier of treason, and required his dismissal from power. 
 He was banished to Lemnos, where he died in 1712. — J. S., G. 
 
 BALTARD, Louis Pierre, a French landscape painter, 
 architect, and engraver, bom in Paris 1765 ; died 1840 ; is the 
 author of the work " Paris and its ilonuments." His son 
 YiCTOR, still living, continues both as an architect and an en- 
 gi'aver, to add to the high renown of bis father's name. — R. M. 
 
 BALTAZARINI, an Italian musician, called in France 
 Beaujoyeux, the first famous viohnist on record. He was 
 sent from Piedmont by Marshal Brissac, in 1577, to Catherine 
 de Medicis, and appointed by that princess her first valet de 
 chambre, and superintendent of her music. In France he con- 
 tributed greatly to the amusement of the royal family and 
 nobility, by his ingenuity in contriving magnificent plans, 
 machinery, and decorations for ballets, masques, and other dra- 
 matic entertainments. His success in this department obtained 
 for liim the quaint title of Beanjo3-eux. In 1581, Henry III. 
 ha\'ing married liis favourite minion, the Due de Joyeuse, to 
 Mademoiselle de Yaudemont, sister to his queen Louise de 
 LoiTaine, Baltazarini produced a ballet on the occasion, on the 
 subject of Ceres and her Nymphs, which was performed at 
 the LouvTe, and printed under the foUo-sving title : " Balet 
 comique de la Ro)'ne, faict aux nopces de Monsieur le Due de 
 Joyeuse et Mademoiselle Yaudemont sa sccur. Par Baltazar de 
 Beaujoyeux, Yalet de chambre du Roy et de la Royne sa mere. 
 A Paris, par Adrian le Roy et Robert Ballard," 1582, 4to. The 
 t}-pes and paper of this rare book (a copy of which is in the 
 writer's possession) are equal In beauty to those of Elzevir in 
 the next century. The music, which is clearly cut in wood, 
 was not composed by Baltazarini, who only acted as ballet 
 master on the occasion, but by Messrs. de Beaulieu and Salmon, 
 of the king's band, whom his majesty had ordered to assist him 
 in composing and preparing all that was "most perfect" in 
 music for this festival. " And JI. Beauheu," says Baltazarini, 
 " whom all professors regard as an excellent musician, has, on 
 this occasion, even surpassed himself, assisted by MaLstre Sal- 
 mon, whom JI. Beaulieu and others highly esteem in his art." 
 This piece is interesting as the origin of the Balet Historique 
 in France ; where dancing has been long more successfully culti- 
 vated than elsewhere, and where it stUl holds a prominent place 
 on the stage. — E. F. R. 
 
 BALTEN or BALTON, Pieter, a Flemish painter, bora at 
 Antwerp 1540, died 1579 ; studied at the academy of his native 
 city, imitating in his works the manner of Pieter Breughel the 
 Elder. These works generally were small in size, but very highly 
 finished and beautifully designed. In a jiictm-e of St. John in 
 the wilderness, now at Yienna, by a curious whim of the Emperor 
 JIaximilian he was desired to replace by an elephant the figure 
 of the preacher. — R. M. 
 
 BALTIMORE, Cecil Calvert, Lord, was the founder of 
 the colony of Maryland. His father, George, first Lord Balti- 
 more, held important offices under James I., and obtained from 
 that monarch extensive gi-ants of land in Ireland and Newfound- 
 land. Having become a Roman catholic, he was deprived of his 
 offices, and induced to seek a sphere of action in founding across 
 the Atlantic a colony, which should be governed on the prin- 
 ciples of religious tolerarion. For this purpose he turned his 
 attention to a settlement in Newfoundland; but that having 
 fallen into the hands of the French, he induced Charles I. to 
 make a grant of the tract of country which now forms the Stnte 
 of Jlarj-land. He died before the charter was made out ; it was 
 therefore dra^vn up in the name of his son Cecil, who, with his 
 heirs and successors, was invested with full powers in the new 
 colony, on condition of paying to government " two Indian ar- 
 rows of those parts every year on Easter Tuesday, and also the 
 fifth part of all gold and silver mines which shall hereafter be 
 discovered." About two hundred emigrants, chiefly Roman 
 catholic.', having landed in 1634, they proceeded to organize 
 the colony, which was named Maryland, in honour of Henrietta 
 JIaria, wife of Charles I. The experiment was completely suc- 
 cessful ; a representative government was established, and all 
 forms of belief being tolerated, except the Jewish rehgion, the 
 new colony became an asylum for the persecuted. Lord Balti- 
 more died in 1676. It does not appear he ever resided in, or even 
 visited the colony, in which he took so deep an interest. — J. B. 
 
 BALTLMORE, Frederick, an EngUsh traveller, who pub-
 
 lislied in 17G7 an account of Lis " Travels in the East," and in 
 1769 a work entitled " Gaudia Poetica," &c. ; died in 1771. 
 He is said to have bestowed a yearly pension of £200 on the 
 celebrated Corsican general, Pascal Paoli. 
 
 BALTZAR, Thojias, born at Lubeck about 1630, was es- 
 teemed the finest jierformer on the violin of his time. He came 
 to England in 1056 (not 1658, as generally stated), at which 
 time the instniment had not yet been enabled to assert its 
 powers here, nor to emerge (as it shoi'tly aftenvai'ds did) from 
 the low estimation in which it was held. His first patron in 
 England was Sir Anthony Cope of Hanwell in Oxfordshire. 
 An account of Baltzar's performance slnjrtly after his amval 
 here has been left by John Evelyn. Under the date, March 4, 
 1656, he says: — "This night I was invited by Mr. Roger 
 L'Estrange to hear the incomparable Lubicer on the violin. 
 His variety on a few notes and plaine gi'ound, with that won- 
 deifiil dexterity, was admirable. Though a young man, yet so 
 perfect and skilful, that there was nothing, however cross and 
 pei-plext, brought to him by our artists, which he did not play 
 off at sight, with ravisliing sweetness and improvements, to the 
 astonishment of our best masters. In sum, he plaid on that 
 single instniment a full concei-t, so as the rest flimg down their 
 instruments, acknowledging the victory. As to my own par- 
 ticular, I stand to this hour amaz'd that God should give so 
 great perfection to so young a person. There were at that time 
 as excellent in their profession as any were thought to be in 
 Europe, Paul WHieeler, Mr. Mell, and others, till this prodigy 
 appeared. I can no longer question the effects we reade of in 
 David's harp to channe evil spirits, or what is said some par- 
 ticular notes produced in the passions of Alexander, and that 
 king of Denmark." Anthony Wood tells us, under the year 
 1658, that "Tho. Balsar or Baltzar, a Lubecker borne, was 
 now in Oxon, and this day (July 24) A. W. (Anthony Wood) 
 was with him and Mr. Edw. Lowe, lately organist of Ch. Church, 
 at the meeting-house of \\\\l. Ellis. A. W. did then and there, 
 to his veiy great astonishment, hear him play on the nolin. 
 He then saw him run up his fingers to the end of the finger- 
 board of the violin, and run them back insensibly, and all with 
 alacrity, and in veiy good tune, which he nor any in England 
 saw the like before. A. W. entertain'd him and Mr. Lowe witli 
 what the house coiUd then afford, and afterwards he invited 
 them to the tavern ; but they being engaged to other company, 
 he could no more hear him play or see him play at that time. 
 Afterwards he came to one of the weekly meetings at Mr. Ellis's 
 house, and he pjlayed, to the wonder of all the auditory, and 
 exercising his fingers and instniment several ways, to the utmost 
 of his power. Wilson, thereupon the public professor (the 
 greatest judge of musick that ever was), did, after his humom- 
 some way, stoop down to Baltzar's feet to see whether he had 
 a huff [hoof] on ; that is to say, to see whether he was a devil 
 or not, because he acted beyond the parts of man. About that 
 time it was that Dr. Joh. Wilkins, Warden of Wadham Coll., 
 the greatest curioso of his tune, invited him and some of the 
 musitians to his lodgings in that Coll., purposely to have a con- 
 cert, and to see and hear him play. The instruments and 
 books were carried thither, but none could be persuaded there 
 to play against him in consort on the violin. At length the 
 company perceiving A. W. standing behind in a corner, near the 
 doore, they haled him in among them, and play, forsooth, he 
 must, against him. Whereupon, he not being able to avoid it, 
 he took up a violin and behaved himself as poor Troylus did 
 against Achilles. He was abashed at it, yet honour he got by 
 playing with and against such a grand master as Baltzar was. 
 Mr. Davis Mell was accounted hithertoo the best for the violin 
 in England, as I have before told you ; but after Baltzar came 
 into England, and show'd his most wonderful parts on that 
 instrument, Mell was not so admired, yet he played sweeter, 
 was a well-bred gentleman, and not given to excessive di-inldng, 
 as Baltzar was." 
 
 At the restoration of Charles the Second, Baltzar was ap- 
 pointed leader of the king's celebrated band of twenty-four 
 violins, and about the same time, according to Wood, " he com- 
 menced Bachelor of Jlusick at Cambridge." He died in July, 
 1CC3, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Wood says of 
 him, that, " being much admired by all lovers of musick, his 
 company was thoj-eforc desired ; and company, especially musi- 
 cally company, delighting in drinking, made him drink more than 
 ordiuaiy, which brought him to his grave." 
 
 The arrival of Baltzar in England may be considered as an 
 event which tended in no small degi'ee to place the violin in 
 that station among the stringed tribe which it has since so 
 deservedly occupied. He is said to have first taught the Eng- 
 lish the practice of shifting (that is to say, of what is teiTned 
 the whole shift'), and the use of the upper part of the finger- 
 board. It is certain that the power of execution and command 
 of the instrument exhibited by Baltzar were matter of novelty 
 among us, although we had a native performer of no mean 
 abilities at that period, in the person of Davis Mell, who in deli- 
 cacy of tone and manner, seems even to have exceeded the more 
 potent and renowned German. 
 
 The compositions of Baltzar are now veiy rarely met with. 
 Dr. Bumey mentions a MS. collection of his solos in liis pos- 
 session, presented to liim by the Rev. Dr. Jlontague North. A 
 set of sonatas by Baltzar for a " lyra Adolin, treble violin, and 
 bass viol," formed lot 55 of the sale catalogue of the celebrated 
 Thomas Britton, the musical small-coal man. The only jyriiited 
 compositions of this master are the solos contained in Henry 
 Playford's Division Violin, 1692, ob. quarto. — (Burney; Hawk- 
 ins; Evelyn's Diary; Wood's Life; Ashmolean MS. 8568; 
 Roger North's Memoirs of Music.') — E. F. R. 
 
 BALUE, Jean de La, a French cardinal, and prime minister 
 of Louis XL, bom about 1421 at Verdun, died at Ancona in 
 1491. He was of very humble origin, and appears to have 
 passed the first years of his life in his native town. Louis XL, 
 to whom he was introduced by Charles of Melun in 1464, made 
 him his secretaiy and his almoner, and in 1465 appointed him 
 archbishop of Evreux. In 1467 he was nominated bishop of 
 Angers, and before the close of the same year received the car- 
 dinal's hat, under the title of Sainte-Suzanne. — G. M. 
 
 * BALUFFI, Cagetano, a Spanish writer, author of a "His- 
 tory of Keliglon in America." The work is compiled from original 
 documents to which the author had access dming his residence 
 in various parts of the New World. 
 
 BALUZE, Stephen, historian, boni at Tulle, December, 
 1630. Educated for the bar, he early renounced that profession, 
 indulging his taste for historical research. He had a passion for 
 old manuscripts, of which he contrived to make a large and curi- 
 ous collection, procured from various parts of Em'ope. The reputa- 
 tion he acquu-ed m this way excited a sort of competition amongst 
 those who were at once powerful and learned, for the services of 
 so promising a librarian. The famous minister, Colbert, bore 
 away the prize even from some high dignitaries of the church. 
 After some time the king, Louis XIV., appointed Baluze in- 
 spector of the college royal. Like many very learned men, our 
 antiquarian stumbled iqion a path of inquiry, which he was 
 probably too simple to see would bring him into collision with 
 the proud monarch himself. The Cardinal Bouillon laid chum 
 to the independent sovereignty of Sedan. Baluze, who was 
 writing a history of the House of Auvergne, found the cardinal's 
 title well founded. Such a disclosure was regarded by the im- 
 perious Louis as S(imething like treason, and with the vindictive 
 meanness of the t}Tant, he confiscated the historian's property, 
 and ordered him into exile. Allowed to return to Paris in 
 1713, he was not, however, restored to his place; but nothing 
 could repress a spirit at the same time genial and even social. 
 Baluze loved to blend merriment and learning, and was sur- 
 rounded by men as witty as wise. The ultramontane party 
 found in him a formidable antagonist, and to this day his writ- 
 ings supply liberal Frenchmen with arms against the encroach- 
 ments of Rome upon the liberties of the Galilean church. His 
 freedom from vanity, and true devotion to learning, are shown 
 in a curious clause of his will, by which his manuscripts were 
 ordered to be sold to meet the wants of antiquarians. He died 
 July, 1718.— J. F. C. 
 
 BALZAC, Jean Louis Gukz, Skioneur pe, an eminent 
 French writer, was born at Angouleme in 1594 ; died at Paris, 
 Febniary 18, 1654. Among the authors of the seventeenth 
 centuiy there are few whose writings contributed more to the 
 improvement of the French language tlian those of Balzac. 
 Pompous, affected, and without the genius of originality, he 
 was still an artist in the use of language — an admirable work- 
 man, without the power of designing, who could use his mate- 
 rials with skill even in inferior conqxisitions. With little or no 
 enthusiasm for ideas, he had a scrupulous regard for words. He 
 gave polish, precision, and pliability to the language ; and in so 
 doing prepar(!d the way for Pascal, who threw into tlie well-
 
 BAL 
 
 3GG 
 
 BAM 
 
 constructed plirases the flash of his genius, and brought music 
 of a higlier order from the instmmeut that Balzac had labori- 
 ously attempted to perfect. He was at first attached to the 
 ser\-ice of the cardinal of Valetta, who took him to Italy. On 
 his return to Paris he met with a flattering reception from per- 
 sonages of rank and influence, who had already enjoyed and 
 admired his letters — among others from the bishop of Lu9on, 
 aftenvards Cardinal Eichelieu. In 1G24 his letters were col- 
 lected and printed, and the pubUc received them with the same 
 favour that had previously been given to the originals by the 
 court. His grandiose phrases supplied a want of the age. The 
 homely simplicity of the sixteenth century no longer sufliced for 
 a generation fast advancing to the extreme of fastidiousness, 
 and Balzac supplied the new language that was suitable to the 
 altered condition of society. His success, however, was the 
 occasion of envious and virulent attack. Some accused him of 
 plagiarism, and some slandered his life. To seek repose he 
 retired to his estates on the banks of the Charente, and there 
 employed his leisure by replying to his numerous correspondents, 
 some of whom were monarchs. In this retreat he died, Feb. 
 18, 1G55. So highly was he esteemed, that when in 1634 he 
 expressed a desire to enter the academy, he was immediately 
 elected by the sutfrages of all. Towards the close of his life he 
 w.as much given to works of piety and benevolence, and among 
 his other honours is that of first using the word bienfidsance, 
 which has been permanently retained in the French language. 
 He also founded the prize of eloquence in the French Academy, 
 which is still continued, but with little apparent result. His 
 published works are numerous, and most of the original editions 
 had the advantage of appearing in the type of the Elzevirs at 
 Leyden and Amsterdam. The following list is tolerably com- 
 plete. His works, including the French and Latin poems, were 
 ])ublished in two vols, folio, Paris, 1GG5 ; and separately, " Aiis- 
 tippe," Leyden, J. Elzevir, 1G58, and Amsterdam, D. Elze^dr, 
 1GG4 ; " Lettres Choises," Leyden, 1648-52; " Lettres Fami- 
 liferes," Leyden and Amsterdam, 1636 and 1661 ; " Le Socrate 
 Chretien," Amsterdam, 1652 ; " Le Prince ;" " Lettres a Con- 
 rart," Leyden, 16.59, and Amsterdam, 1652; " (EmTes Diverses," 
 Leyden, 1651 or 1G58 ; and " Les Entretiens," Leyden, 1658. 
 Some " Letters," " Thoughts," and " Selected Works," have also 
 been published in Paris in recent times. — P. E. D. 
 
 BALZAC, HoNORiS de, a French novelist, bom at Tours in 
 1799 ; died at Paris, August 20, 1850. His ftither had been 
 secretary to the council of state under Louis XV., and the young 
 Balzac was brought up at the college of VendOme, where he left 
 the character of being " idle and disobedient." He was then 
 placed with a notary, and commenced his Uterary career by 
 writing articles for the journals. Before the age of twenty-three 
 he had published seven or eight tales. His industiy was re- 
 markable, but his earlier pieces never attained much celebrity. 
 In 1826 he joined Barbier, the printer, in the publication of the 
 " Annales Romantiques," and united in his own person the 
 three branches of commercial literatm-e — he was author, printer, 
 and bookseller — an arrangement which in his case was not more 
 successful than it has been elsewhere. The first of his works 
 that attracted the attention of the public was " The Physiology 
 of Marriage," a work full of originality and piquant obsen'ation. 
 He now formed the bold conception of depicting the natural 
 history of society as it existed in his own day in France. He 
 wished to treat the moral world of men and women in the same 
 manner that the naturalist treats the habits of the lower ani- 
 mated creatures — to describe minutely and accurately, but 
 merely to describe. He therefore prepared to paint in detail 
 private life, life in the provinces, military life, country life, poli- 
 tical life, &c., viewed philosophically and analytically. Dm-ing 
 twenty years of indefatigable industry and prolitic authorship, he 
 pursued this course of study, and gave to the world an immense 
 number of compositions, some of which must hold a first rank 
 in tlieir special departments of literature. With a rich imagina- 
 tion, and man'ellous sagacity for seizing the peculiarities of 
 character, he combined a looseness of taste which an artist of a 
 higher order would have striven to correct. His works, however, 
 were pre-eminently popular in France, and many of them are 
 well known throughout Europe. After the publication of his 
 "Medicin de Campagne " in 1835, he received a letter of con- 
 gratulation from the countess de Hanska, then resident vnth 
 her husband at Geneva. This led to a coiTespondence, and 
 after the death of her husband, who had large estates in Russian 
 
 Poland, to an offer of maniage, which was accepted, although 
 de Balzac was already suflering from the disease of the heart 
 which two years later proved fiital. He was buried in Pere-la- 
 Chaise, a large multitude accompanying his body to the grave, 
 and Victor Hugo pronouncing an elocjucnt and characteristic 
 oration. Balzac had called his whole writings " The Comedy of 
 Human Life," but a witty writer has termed this comedy the 
 " pathological museum of human nature," a collection of speci- 
 mens every one of which exhibits disease. With a rich imagina- 
 tion he had no high ideal ; he held the mirror — not up to 
 nature — but up to modem French society — a mighty difference, 
 on wliich de Balzac had probably not reflected. — P. E. D. 
 
 BAJIBAM, Hautwk;, a Gei-man Lutheran theologian, deacon 
 of the church of St. Peter's at Hamburg; died in 1742. He 
 l(;ft, among other works, " Merckwiirdige Historien inden Reli- 
 gions — Streitigkeiten mit den Refomiirten." 
 
 BAMBINI, Cavalier Nicola, a Venetian historical painter, 
 born 165 1 ; died 1736 ; a pupil of Mazzoni whilst at Venice, and 
 of C. Maratta when at Rome. His drawing was both elegant 
 and firm ; his composition noble and poetical. Knowing liis 
 weakness in colour, be had some of liis pictures retouched by 
 Cassana,— R. M. 
 
 BAMBINI, GiACOMO, a Fen-arese painter at the beginning 
 of the seventeenth century ; was a pupil of D. Mona at Parma. 
 At his return to Feirara, associated with Giulio Cromer, he 
 opened a school for the study of nature. He displayed, in the 
 few works he was able to complete, a vigorous manner enhanced 
 by coiTectness of design. Died veiy young in 1629. — R. M. 
 
 BAjSIBOCCI, Antonio, an Italian sculptor, bom at Pipemo 
 about 1368 ; died at Naples in 1435 ; was an artist of great 
 and versatile talents, especially reno^vned for his magnificent 
 tombs. The most important amongst these are that of Cardinal 
 i\Iinutolo (the object of Boccaccio's praises); that of Cardinal 
 Carbone ; and above all the Aldemareschi mausoleum. Bam- 
 bocci stands as the link between Ciccione and Aniello Fiore ; and 
 together with these, is one of the greatest glories of the Neapolitan 
 school of scvdpture during the fifteenth century. Nor did Bam- 
 bocci confine himself to sculptm'e ; he equally exercised, with 
 great success, architecture and painting, in which last he had 
 been taught by Zingaro. — R. M. 
 
 BAMBOCCIO. See Laar, Pieter van. 
 
 BA]\IBRIDGE, Christopher. See Bainbridge. 
 
 BAMESBIER, Joiiann, a German painter, established at 
 Amsterdam during the second part of the sixteenth century, 
 was one of the best pupils of Lambert Lombard. — R. 51. 
 
 BAMFIELD, Joseph, a native of Ireland who made some 
 figure in the civil wars dm-ing the reign of Charles the First. 
 Clarendon, in his History of the Rebellion, asserts that liis real 
 name was Bamford, and that he was a man of wit and parts. 
 He entered the anny at an early age, and rose to the rank of 
 colonel of foot. During the first years of the war, he was actively 
 engaged in the sei-vice of the long, and yet Clarendon says, 
 " he had not behaved liimself so well in it, as to draw any sus- 
 picion upon himself from the other party, and was, in trath, mnch 
 more conversant with the presbyterian party than with the king's." 
 When the parliamentary forces under Sir William Waller marched 
 against Arandel castle, Bamfield, who was in the garrison, 
 endeavoured to put himself at the head of a party, with the hope 
 of being made governor ; but his intrigues resulted only in 
 increasing the animosities amongst the soldiers, and led ultimately 
 to the surrender of the place. When in 1648 the king was 
 anxious to send the duke of York out of the kingdom, Bamfield 
 was intrasted with the aiTangement for his escape, " being a man 
 of an active and insinuating nature, and dexterous enough in 
 bringing anything to pass that he had the managing of himself." 
 Bamfield managed the matter in a way to justify the opinion 
 entertained of his adroitness, and conveyed the young prince from 
 St. James' to a private house, and thence, in woman's attire, 
 down the river to a vessel vv'hich sailed to Holland. For this 
 service, Bamfield was made a groom of the bed-chamber to the 
 prince ; but Sir John Berkley, whom he hated, was appointed 
 govemor, an act to which he looked as a degradation to himself, 
 and so incensed was he, that when Sir John came to the Hague, 
 Bamfield endeavoured to excite the fleet to declare against Sir 
 John when the duke should come on board, and cause him to be 
 dismissed, " and then he believed he should be able to govern 
 both his ].i Jmess and the fleet." Bamfield still continued about 
 the person of the duke, and by his restless and intriguing spirit so
 
 ba:\i 
 
 367 
 
 BXS 
 
 practised upon Hm, that he was at last, bv command of the king, 
 dismissed from his place about the duke, and thereupon he 
 returned to England ; but it seems he was never called in question 
 for the part he took in the escape of the duke. From that 
 period Bamfield appears to have been without any employment, 
 though he sought it from the new government, who, like the 
 royalist party, were imwUling to trust liim. Upon the I'estoration 
 he was stUl neglected, and retired to HoUandi, where he Uved to 
 an advanced aire, and pubUshed his " Apology." — J. F. W. 
 
 BAilFYLDE or BAilFEEDE, C. Wakwick, an English 
 landscape painter, flourishing about 1770. Several of his works 
 were engraved by Benaeech and Hassel. 
 
 BAilFYLDE, Fk^vxcis, an English divine, author of a sin- 
 gular work, entitled " All in One, all Useful Sciences and Pro- 
 fitable Arts in One Book of Jehovah Aelohim," &e., was born 
 of a good famUy in Devonshire, and was successively prebendary 
 in the church of Exeter and minister of Sherburne. He was 
 removed from the latter cure in 1662, by the operation of the 
 act of miiformity, but continued lus ministerial labours at Sher- 
 burne, and afterwards in London, where he died in 1681. The 
 last ten years of his hfe were spent in prison. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAXCEL, Louis, a French theologian, bom at Valence in 
 Dauphine, was professor of theology, and deacon of the faculty of 
 Angnon. He edited several of the works of Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 BAXCHIERI, Adria^'o, a musician, was bom at Bologna 
 about 1567, and died in 1631:. He was a monk, and rose to be 
 titulai-y abbot of his order. He held an oiBce as organist, being 
 much esteemed for his playing. He wrote very extensively 
 both secular and sacred music ; the greater part of his masses, 
 motets, madrigals, and lighter pieces, are for three voices ; but he 
 produced also several works for a larger choir, besides some with 
 organ accompaniment, and some for instruments only. There 
 are likewise many didactic works by this author, on the canto 
 fermo, on the canto figurato, on the twelve modes, on the 
 organ, on the musical uses of his monastery, and on the general 
 principles of music ; one of these, the " !Modema Pratica ilusi- 
 cale," published at Venice in 1613, is one of the earUest books 
 in which the unsatisfactory and obsolete practice is employed of 
 figuring the basses to denote the harmony. He was, further, the 
 author of some comedies, which he published under the name of 
 "Camillo Scaligeri deUa firatta." M. Fetisgivesalistof hispiinted 
 works. — G. A. M. 
 
 BAXCHIN, an Angustine monk of the fourteenth century. 
 He was present at the council held in Loudon in 1332 to 
 condemn the doctrines of Wickliffe, and wrote a work against 
 the reformer, entitled " Contra Positiones AVickleiS." 
 
 BAXCK or BANK, Jans van dek, a Dutch painter, estab- 
 lished in England during the seventeenth centmy ; excelled in 
 his portraits, many of which were engraved by Faber and others. 
 He has been often mistaken for Pieter van der Bank. — R. M. 
 
 BAXCK or BANK, Pieter van der, a Flemish engraver, 
 bom in Paris 1619 ; died in London in 1697. 
 
 BANCO, Giovanni, or Nanni d'Antonio, an Italian sculp- 
 tor and architect of the DonateUo school, was bom at Sienna in 
 1374; died 1121. He worked for the Florentine cathedi-al. 
 As a sculptor, his statue of St. Philip at Florence is considered 
 his masterpiece. — E. M. 
 
 BANCROFT, Aaron, father of the more celebrated George 
 Bancroft, was bom at Reading, Jlassachusetts, in 1755. For 
 axty years he laboured as a clergyman, fii-st in Kova Scotia, 
 and laterly in Worcester. His best-known work is a " Life of 
 George Washington ;" but he published at various tunes numer- 
 ous addresses and sermons. Of his '' Sennous on the Doctrines 
 of the Gospel," John Adams says that he " never read a volume 
 of sermons better adapted to the age or countrj' in which it was 
 written." Bancroft died in 1810. — J. B. 
 
 BANCROFT, Edward, an English physician of the latter 
 part of the eighteenth century. He lived long in America, 
 where he was intimate with Franklin and Priestley ; and earlier 
 in life visited British Guiana, an essay on the natural history 
 of which colony he published in London in 1769. He also pub- 
 lished an " Essay on the Yellow Fever, with observations con- 
 cerning Febrile Contagion ;" and " Experimental researches con- 
 cerning the theorj' of Permanent Colours," the latter in 1791 ; 
 and communicated to the Royal Society a memoir on the Woor".r:i 
 poison, wliich the Indians of Guiana apply to their an-ows. The 
 works of Bancroft contain many good observations, and are still 
 of value.— W. S. D. 
 
 * BANCROFT, George, an American diplomatist, is a native 
 of Massachusetts, where he was bom in 1800. His father, who 
 was a di-sine and an author of some Httle celebrity, sent his son 
 to Harvard college, where he completed his education, and then 
 travelled to Europe to improve his mentiil stores and his know- 
 ledge of men and things. He spent four years in visiting Eng- 
 land, Germany, France, and Italy. On returning to his native 
 country, he became Greek professor in his o%vn college. Whilst 
 holding this post, he found time to contribute largely to American 
 hterature, and was one of the first to unfold to his countrymen 
 the depth and value of Gemian thought and intellect. In 1823 
 he published a volume of poems, and in the following year a 
 translation of one of the historical treatises of Heeren. Having 
 attached Mmself to the democratic party, he publicly declared 
 himself, in 1826, a supporter of the doctrine of universal sufirage; 
 and it was not long before he attained to political advancement. 
 In 1831 he pubhshed the first volume of his " History of the 
 United States," which at once stamped him as a historian of 
 original and philosophical \-iews. The second and third volumes 
 were subsequently issued, and confirmed the judgment of his 
 counti-j-men. In 1838 he was appointed to the collectorship of 
 the port of Boston, and united in liis person, for three years, the 
 man of business and the man of letters. In 1814 he was an 
 imsuccessful candidate for the govemorsliip of his native county 
 of Massachusetts ; but in the following year, was appointed by 
 President Polk to the administration of the naval department, 
 into which he introduced several important reforms. From 
 1846 down to 1819 he resided in London as minister-plenipo- 
 tentiary fi.-om the United States. In this country his high per- 
 sonal, political, and literary character made him widely popular. 
 Returning to New York, he resumed his literary labours, and 
 published the fourth volume of his "American History" in 1852. 
 It is understood that he is a frequent contributor to the North 
 American Review ; his writings have been translated into several 
 continental languages. — E. W. 
 
 BANCROFT, John, nephew of Richard Bancroft, entered 
 Christ church in 1592, and in 1632 was consecrated bishop of 
 Oxford. Died in 1610. Tliis prelate bmlt the original palace 
 at Cuddesden, where his successors still reside. His character 
 does not rank high, especially among puritan writers. 
 
 BANCROFT, Richard, archbishop of Canterbury, was bora 
 at Farnworth in Lancashii-e, September, 1544. Having com- 
 pleted his studies at Cambridge, he became chaplain to Cox, 
 bishop of Ely, who gave him in 1575 the rectory of Fevers- 
 ham. The following year he was licensed as one of the univer- 
 sity preachers, and in 1584 he was admitted to the rectoiy of St. 
 Andrew, Holborn. Promotions flowed fast upon him — in 1589 
 a prebend of St. Paul's, in 1592 a prebend of Westminster, in 
 1594 a stall at Canterbury, in 1597 bishop of London, in 1604 
 archbishop of Canterbury, in 1605 a pri\-y councillor, and in 1608 
 chancellor of the university of Oxford. These successive eleva- 
 tions in so brief a period, and in those times, show that Bancroft 
 was both an ambitious churchman and a very successful courtier. 
 He was engaged to some extent in politics, under EHzabeth, and 
 Ids violent antipmitan sentiments must have commended him 
 to his royal and lordly patrons. He took a part in the fiimous 
 dispute at Hampton court, between the episcopal and presby- 
 terian clergj-. To the proposal of Reynolds, that there should 
 be a new translation of the bible, Bancroft was hostile, remark- 
 ing, that "if every man's humour should be foUowed, there 
 would be no end of translating." But when the project was 
 started, he gave it all the encoiu-agement and assistance in his 
 power. His famous sermon against the puritans is a pungent 
 and ingenious tirade. He was a prelate of great ability, quick, 
 vigilaut, and high-minded — a clever polemic within a narrow 
 range, a statesman of no mean order, a resolute champion of the 
 Chmxh of England, and an unsparing foe to nonconformity. 
 His persecuthig measures were very opposite to the sage coun- 
 sels of Bm-leigh and Bacon. Not only did he deprive many 
 puritan clergy, but he deepened the quarrel by asserting the 
 divine right of episcopacy. " His system," says Hallam, " was 
 sucli as low-born and little-minded men, raised to power by for- 
 tune's caprice, are ever found to pursue." Bancroft died 2nd 
 November, 1610, and his body, according to his instructions, was 
 buried in the chancel of Lambeth chiu-ch. He bequeathed his 
 library to his archiopiscopal successors. — J. E. 
 
 BANDARRA, Goxzai.o, a Portuguese poet, who, towards 
 the middle of the sixteenth century, although a poor cobbler,
 
 composed stining lines on the fate of liis unhappy country, 
 which obtained the greatest success. The Spanish government 
 liaving got hold of hira, accused him before the Inquisition in 
 1541; but pubhc ojnnion being in his favour, that tribunal 
 dared not carry out their sentence. Bandarra's couplets became 
 iu lG-10 the Marsellaise of the Portuguese nation. — A. C. M. 
 
 * B^VNDEL, JosiiPH Ernst von, a Gennan sculptor, was 
 bom at Anspach in 1800. He was entered a pupil at the Royal 
 Academy at JIunich, and soon exhibited a life-size statue, in 
 plaster, of Jlars reposing, which attracted much attention. His 
 marble statue of Charitas (1833) was still more admired. He 
 chiefly excels in busts, of which those of King ilaximiUan of 
 Bavaria (1832), and of the reignhig prince of Lippe-Detmold 
 may be mentioned. He made liimself widely kno\\Ti, when, in 
 ll-^'SS, he proposed a colossal statue of Armuiius to be erected on 
 the height of the Teutoburg forest ; his design was hailed with 
 great, but transitoiy enthusiasm, and some years after was 
 abandoned for want of funds. He now lives at Berlin. — K. E. 
 
 BAXDELLI, Matteo, an Italian theologian, sent by Boniface 
 VIII. in 1298 to conduct the aftairs of the chm-eh in Constan- 
 tinople, is the author of a work entitled " Luoghi Commniii di 
 Tutta la Santa Scrittm'a." 
 
 B.'VNDELLO, Matteo, bom in 1480 at Castelnuovo, near 
 Tortona. When thu-teen years of age he was sent to Eome, 
 and soon after admitted into the order of the Dominicans. In 
 his youth he travelled all through Italy, Spain, France, and 
 Germany, after which he settled in Mantua, invited there by 
 Giulio Cesare Scaglieri, who honoured him with his friendship. 
 Intrusted with the education of Lucrezia, the daughter of 
 Pietro Gonzaga, he insinuated hunself mto that sovereign's 
 favour, who introduced him to other Itahan princes. He 
 was charged by them with many important negotiations, in 
 which he displayed gi'eat diplomatic ability. Having espoused 
 the French interests in Italy, and the Spaniai-ds having suc- 
 ceeded in diiving the French army behind the Alps, he was 
 compelled to quit his country and repair to France, where Cesare 
 Fregoso offered him an asylum in his castle at Bassen, near 
 Agen. Here he passed his time re\-iewing his manuscripts, but 
 his protector having been murdered, King Henry II. oftered Imn 
 the bishopric of Agen, then vacant. Bandello being thus 
 relieved from want, continued his literaiy pursuits, leaving the 
 care of his diocese to John Valerio, bishop of Grasse. His 
 works are many ; he WTote in Latin and Itahan, but he has 
 gained his celebrity only by his novels, wliich he published when 
 seventy years of age. He might indeed be considered Bocaccio's 
 teacher in obscene descriptions, which are not even heightened 
 by any merit in style or language ; but his conciseness, cleaiTicss, 
 and versatUity, have given hini a conspicuous place amongst the 
 novelists of Italy. He died at Agen in 15G2. — A. C. II. 
 
 BANDELLO, Vincent de, general of the order of Domini- 
 cans, bora at Castel-Nuova in 1435, was professor of theology 
 at Bologna. He ridiculed the Franciscans fur holding the im- 
 maculate conception, in a work entitled " Libellus Iiccollectorius 
 de Veritate Conceptionis B. Marise Virginis." Died in 1506. 
 
 BANDIERA, Attilio, bom at Venice in 1810. Emilio, 
 born at Venice in 1815. The brothers Bandiera, spnmg of an old 
 patrician family, were sons of Baron Bandiera, rear-adinh-al in 
 the Austrian seiTice. Educated to the same profession as their 
 father, they had risen at an early age to a high rank in the 
 Austrian navy; but, notwithstandmg the briUiant career assiu'ed 
 to them by their own and their father's position, the uniform 
 they wore was hateful to them, and they endeavoured by every 
 secret means in their power, to place themselves in contact with 
 the conspirators m every part of Italy, and with the Itahan exiles 
 abroad. The two brothers were imited by an uitense aft'ection, 
 by a nmtual belief that it was the duty of every Italian to wage 
 unceasing war with the foreign rulers of Italy, and by giief at 
 what they, in common with their countiymen, regarded as their 
 father's shame. The name of Bai'on Bandiera was held in uni- 
 versal execration in Italy, in consequence of his having, in direct 
 defiance of the articles of the capitulation of Ancona, aiTested 
 the Italian patriots who had embarked thence for France. In 
 1842 the brothers succeeded in entering into correspondence 
 with Joseph JIazzini, then an exile in England. They wrote to 
 him letters expressive of the reverence of ardent disciples, address- 
 ing him as their leader and teacher, and informing him that their 
 principles and political creed were identical with those promul- 
 gated in the Giovtne Italia, the organ of a national Italian 
 
 association bearing that name, and founded by liim with a view 
 of uniting the Itahans of every part of the Peninsula into one 
 vast conspiracy, having for its aim the expulsion of the Austrians, 
 the overthrow of the existing governments of Italy, and the 
 union of all the Italian states into one nation, with Kome for the 
 capital. The fact that the brothers Bandiera were engaged 
 in Italian conspiracies having been betrayed to the Austrian 
 government by Micciarelli, a pretended friend, since editor of a 
 '"moderate" newspaper in Malta, they were obliged to fly from 
 Venice by night to Corfu. The AustrLin government, fearing 
 that the example of the Bandiera might be contagious, should 
 their desertion become known to the other Italian officers in 
 the service, endeavoured by concihatoi-y measures to induce 
 them to return. " The Archduke Raimeri," wrote Emilio to 
 Mazzini, "viceroy of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, sent one 
 of his people to my mother, to tell her that if she could succeed 
 in bringing me back to Venice, he would engage his sacred word 
 of honour, that not only I should be acquitted, but restored to my 
 rank, to my nobility, and to my honours." The mother hastened 
 to her son, but failed to shake his resolution to desert the sei-vice 
 of Austria, and devote hunself to the cause of Italy. In the 
 same letter he adds, " In vain I endeavoiu- to make her compre- 
 hend that duty orders me to remain here ; that I should be happy 
 to see my country again, but that when I shall du-ect my steps 
 towards it, it will not be to hve there an ignominious life, but to 
 die there a glorious death — that no affection ought to be able to 
 detach me from the flag I have embraced — that the flag of a 
 king may be abandoned, that of a country, never ! My mother, 
 agitated, bhnded by passion, cannot comprehend me ; calls me 
 impious, unnatural, assassin, and her tears rend my heart ; her 
 reproaches, well as I feel I do not merit them, are to me as so 
 many strokes of a poniard ; but the desolation does not deprive 
 me of mind. I know that these tears and this anger fall upon 
 our tyrants, whose ambition condemns families to such straggles. 
 Write to me a word of consolation." At Corfu, the brothers 
 received a citation to appear before the Austrian court-martial, to 
 which they replied together by a refusal, which they published 
 in the Maltese journals. They were joined at Corfu by Domenico 
 Moro, a young officer who had been their friend from infancy, 
 and now followed their example of desertion from the service of 
 Austria, and by Xicola Ricciotti (see Ricciotti), a Roman 
 exile, who came from Spain where news of the agitations in 
 Romagna had reached him. Ricciotti went first to London, to 
 see and confer with Mazzini, and learned from him that the 
 brothers Bandiera were then endeavouring to organize an insur- 
 rection in central lta\j, and that they were induced to hope 
 for success from the extraordinary ferment and agitation that 
 prevailed thioughout those provinces, dming the whole of the 
 year 1843. On reaching Coifu, however, Ricciotti foimd that 
 the brothers Bandiera had abandoned the idea of action in the 
 Centre, and had decided on attempting to head an insmTec- 
 tiou in Calabria. He acquainted Mazzini with their plans, and 
 ilazzini, believing the success of the entei-piise impossible, and 
 earnestly desirous of preserving lives on which he set the highest 
 value, used every efl'ort to dissuade them from their pm-pose. 
 It is probable, from the reverence in which he was held by the 
 Bandiera, that his representations might have succeeded in pre- 
 venting the movement, had it not been for the machinations of 
 the Neapohtan government, which, informed of their scheme, 
 determined to further it, in order the more surely to destroy them. 
 Neapolitan police agents were despatched to Corfu in various 
 disguises. Some of them even entered the ranks of the conspira- 
 tors ; all poured into their ears the most encouraging reports. 
 They stated that all Calabria was in flames, that bands of armed 
 insurgents oveiTan the momitains, that leaders alone were want- 
 ing, vie. 
 
 The manner in which the conspiracy became known to the 
 Neapolitan government was for some time a mystciy ; nor was- 
 it explained until the pubhcation of the reports of the commit- 
 tees of the English Houses of Lords and Commons on the sub- 
 ject of letter-opening at the English post-office, when it became 
 known that the English cal)inet had for months intercepted and 
 opened the letters addressed to Mazzini. Attiho Bandiera had 
 written to Mazzini — "Trusting to the well-known integi-ity of 
 the English j)ost, you may safely direct here to my name." 'Hiis 
 trast was their ruin. Mazzini did not discover the violation of his 
 correspondence until too late to save his friends. The represen- 
 tations of the Neapolitan agents as to the state of Cal.abria,
 
 induced the Bandiera to risk their lives in an attempt to rouse 
 their countrymen to what they deemed to be their solemn duty. 
 They determined to proceed at once to Calabria, throw them- 
 selves among the supposed insiu-gents in the mountains, and, if 
 unsuccessful in creating a general insurrection, at least set an 
 example of constancy unto death. Slazzini, to the last, used 
 every effort to deter them, but in vain. He has since written of 
 them — " Impatient to bear witness, they sought on all sides an 
 arena upon which to fling tliemselves. The Italians, said they, 
 need to learn that hfe is but the reahzation, the incarnation of 
 thought ; that they alone believe who feel the necessity of trans- 
 lating, come what may, into acts, that which they believe to be 
 the true. Italy will live when Itahans shall have learned how 
 to die. And for this there is no teaching but example." Acting 
 upon this conviction, they sold all the souvenirs they possessed 
 of any value to purchase anns, and set forth. " In a few hours," 
 wrote Attilio to Mazzini, " we set out for Calabria. Seventeen 
 other Italians follow us, exiles for the most part; we have a 
 
 Calabiian guide If we fall, tell our countiymcn to 
 
 imitate om- example. Life has only been given us to employ it 
 usefully and nobly ; and the cause for which we combat, and 
 shall die, is the purest, the holiest that has ever warmed human 
 breasts." Emilio also wrote — " One line from me also ; for per- 
 liaps these will be the last you receive from us. May heaven 
 bless you for all the great good you have done to our country. 
 On the eve of our peril I proclaim the gratitude and veneration 
 due to you from every Itahan. . . . Adieu, adieu ; poor in 
 all things, we elect you om* executor, that we may not perish in 
 the memories of om' fellow-citizens." As soon as they landed 
 in Calabria, a traitor who had been placed among them disap- 
 peared. He hastened to inform the government of the du'ection 
 they had taken. They wandered for three days in the moun- 
 tains without meeting any of the promised insurgent bands, till 
 at San Giovanni in Fiore, they found themselves suddenly sur- 
 rounded by forces immensely superior to their own. They fought, 
 however, long and bravely. One of them, named ]\Iiller, was 
 killed on the spot. Moro fell covered with wounds; two escaped 
 into the mountains ; the rest were taken prisoners. On the 25th 
 .July, the Bandiera and seven of their companions — Nicola Eic- 
 ciotti, Domenico Moro, Auacarsi Nardi, Giovanni Veneracci, 
 Giacomo Rocca, Francesco Berti, and Domenico Lupatelli— were 
 shot at Cosenza. They were sleeping calmly on tlie last morn- 
 ing. When awakened, they dressed themselves with great care, 
 as if for a religious ceremony. A cathoHc priest presented him- 
 self, but they gently rejected his services, saying — " We have 
 sought to practise the law of the gospel, aiul to make it triumph, 
 even at the price of our blood. We hope that our works will 
 recommend us to God better than your words. Go and preach 
 to our enslaved brethren." When they reached the place of 
 execution, they requested the soldiers to " spare the face made 
 in the image of God." When the signal to fire was given, they 
 shouted " Viva 1' Italia," and fell dead. In fulfilment of their 
 wish, JIazzini published an account of their life and death, with 
 extracts from their correspondence, under the title, " liicordi dci 
 Fratelli Bandiera, edei loro compagni di Martirio in Cosenza." 
 EditidaGius: Mazzini, Paris, 18-44.— E. A. H. 
 
 BANDINELLI, Bartolommeo, or Baccio, one of the 
 greatest sculptors of Italy, was boi-n at Florence in 1487; died 
 in 1559. But for his deep-rooted envy towards Michel Angclo, 
 this artist by his undoubted genius would have obtained even a 
 greater and more desirable fame. This en\'y is the key to the 
 style of his works; he wanted, in everything he produced, to beat 
 the Buonaroti; and (to adopt the phrase that the great Michel 
 Angclo used when remarking upon Bandinelli's copy of the 
 ■' Laocoon"), " lie who tries to loovk aftkr any (jiven ti/pe, must 
 always remain behind." Nevertheless, the works of this artist 
 are not to be despised. It is a gi-eat deal to say (and yet it is 
 but just) that, had not a Michel Angelo existed, Baccio would 
 have been the greatest sculptor of the age. But it can be sug- 
 gested tliat, without the greater genius paving the way, or by 
 his wonderful productions exciting rivality, perhaps Bandinelli's 
 talent woidd have rem;uned dormant. 
 
 Endless are the anecdotes relafed of the life of this great 
 sculptor in connection with his jealousy of Michel Angelo ; and, 
 whilst all sen-e to show the capabilities of the first, they all tend 
 to prove the unrivalled position of the latter. The reader must 
 be referred for such details to the works of Vasan, Cellini, Lanzi, 
 Cicognara, &c. Be it here enough to say, that no artist ever 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 came so near the grand manner of Buonaroti as Bandinelli did. 
 Many of Baccio's works could pass indeed for those of the 
 former, but that imitation, by the eldng out of characteristics, 
 degenerates into exaggeration. This is especially the case with 
 BandinelU's gi-oup of " Cacus," considered by many as his master- 
 piece. Wanting to show greater anatomical knowledge than his 
 rival, Baccio ended by overcharging the details of his otherwise 
 admirable work. In the beautiful series of bas-reliefs for the 
 Florentine cathedral, perhaps executed at a moment when the 
 strife was not so bitter, Baccio has produced some of the finest 
 si^i'cimcns of modem art in existence. Many more works at 
 Florence, and several small models, now spread all over the 
 world, bear witness to his great capabilities ; but none so nuich 
 as the bas-relief representing the " Descent from the Cross," now 
 at Milan, in which he surpassed all his other productions, and 
 fully equalled, if not overstepped, Jlichel Angelo himself Ban- 
 dinelli was also a p:unter, in which art he studied after 
 Leonardo, his great spnpathy for whom was, perhaps, the origin 
 of his hatred for Michel Angelo. He attempted also architecture, 
 but was obliged to have recourse to the assistance of Giuliano 
 di Baccio d'Agnolo. — R. M. 
 
 BANDINELLI, Clemente, a natm-al son of Baccio; forced 
 by the whimsical and embittered character of the father to leave 
 his native town, Florence, and to proceed to Rome, where, gi\ing 
 undoubted proofs of a superior talent, he worked himself to death 
 by excessive application, when very young. — R. M. 
 
 BANDINELLI, Marco, surn;uned Marchixo di Guido, 
 an Italian painter of the seventeenth centuiy, originally was the 
 model, cook, and valet to the gi-eat Guido Reni, and ended by 
 becoming himself an artist of very fah- reputation. He was a 
 native of Bologna. — R. M. 
 
 BANDINELLI, Michel A:<gelo, a nephew and godson of 
 Baccio ; proved himself by his pictures in Santa Maria Novella 
 of Florence, worthy of his godfather, and of the christian name 
 bestowed upon him. — R. M. 
 
 BANDINI, Giovanni, a Tuscan sculptor of the sixteenth 
 centmy; executed the statue representing " Ai-chitecture" on 
 tlie tomb of Michel Angelo, at Santa Croce. He was remarkable 
 for his busts. — R. M. 
 
 BANDONINA or BLANDONIA, a French nun of the middle 
 of the sixth century, who continued, in the convent to wluch 
 she had retned with Radegonde, wife of Clotaue I., tlie bio- 
 graphy of that queen begun by Fortunatus, bishop of Poitiers. 
 
 BANDRAN or BANDRAND, 1\Iiciiel Antoine, a geo- 
 gi-apher, bora at Paris in 1G33 ; died 1700. He studied at the 
 college of Clermont, where he acquired a taste for geogi-aphy. 
 He is author of a " Geographical and Historical Dictionary." 
 
 BANDURI, Anselmo, a Benedictine monk, distinguished as 
 an antiquarian, was bora at Ragusa in Dahnatia in 1671, and 
 died at Paris in 1743. He was hbrarian to the duke of Orleans. 
 Banduri published, " Imperium Orientale," and " Numismata 
 Imperat. Rom." &c. — J. S., G. 
 
 BANEL, Pierre, a French general, bom at Lectonre in Gers, 
 30th July, 17G0, killed at fhe attack of the castle of Cossaria in 
 Piedmont, 13th April, 1796. He was at first a soldier in the 
 49th regiment of infantry, but quitted the service 17th July, 
 1789. On the 20th June, 1792, he re-entered the anny as 
 adjutant-major of the 2nd battalion of Gers. In 1795 he was 
 nominated general of brigade, and, the same year, passed into 
 the army of Italy, under the command of Augereau. His name is 
 inscribed on the bronze tablets at the palace of Versailles. — G. M. 
 
 BANER, BANIER, or BANNER, John, a celebrated Swedish 
 general, born 23d June, 1595; died in December, 1611. Ho 
 was descended of an ancient Swedish family, and received an 
 excellent education. In his infancy, he accidentally fell from 
 the fourth story of the castle of Iloerningsholm, without receiving 
 the slightest injury; and this accident was reckoned an omen of 
 future greatness. He entered the niilitaiy sen'ice in 1615; and 
 from 1626 to 1629 distinguished himself in the campaigns of 
 Poland and Russia. In 1630 ho was raised to the rank of gen- 
 eral, and in tliat capacity accompanied Gustavus Adolphus into 
 Germany. After the death of the king, he was in ](;34 nomi- 
 nated field-marshal, and general-in-chief. Alter a brilliant niili- 
 taiy career, he died at Ilalberstadt, under suspicion of having 
 been poisoned, though it is more probable that his death was 
 occasioned by excessive diinking, to which he was addicted. — G. M. 
 
 BANES, Dominic, professor of tlieology at Salamanca, was 
 born at Valladohd in 1527, and died m 1604. He wrote " Do 
 
 3 A
 
 Generatione et CoiTuptione, sive in Aristotclis eosdem libros 
 Commentaria et Quajstiones," 1583. 
 
 BANG, F]:i:i). Louis, a Danish physician, bom in the island 
 of Zeland, on the 4th Januaiy, 17-17; died at Copenhagen on 
 the 2Gth December, 1820. He visited Franco and Germany fur 
 the advantage of study, and became, in 1782, professor in the 
 university of Copenhagen, liosides several ascetical writings 
 and memou-s inserted in the Acts of the Society of Medicine of 
 Copenhagen, he \vrote several medical works. — E. L. 
 
 B^VXG, Jeax, a Danish physician, bom in August 1737 ; 
 died in 1808. He became doctor of medicine in 1774, and pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Copenhagen in 1805. 
 
 BANG or BANGIUS, Peter, a Swedish theologian, professor 
 at Abo, and afterwards bishop of Wyburg, was born at Helsin- 
 borg in 1G33, and died in 1G9G. He wrote " Priscorum Sueo- 
 Gothoram Ecclesia," &c. 
 
 BANG or BANGIUS, Thomas, a Danish philologist and 
 theologian, born in the i.^land of Fionia in IGOO ■ died in IGGl. 
 He taught Hebrew, and afterwards theology, in the university 
 of Copenhagen. His works are chiefly on philological subjects. 
 
 BANIM, John, an Irish novelist of distinguished ability, and 
 not inappropriately named the Scott of Ireland, was born in the 
 city of Kilkenny, on the 3rd of April, 1798, being the second son 
 of his father Michael ; his eldest brother Michael being also a 
 man of great genius. After passing through the hands of two 
 schoolmistresses, John Banim was, in his fifth year, sent to the 
 English academy in Kilkenny, presided over by an oddity of the 
 name of George Charles Buchanan, whose portraitm-e John Danim 
 has given in one of the characters in his tale of "Father Connell." 
 After his tenth year, he was sent to the seminary of the Rev. 
 Mr. Magrath, then reckoned the best Roman catholic school in 
 Ireland. John Banim's literary propensities exhibited themselves 
 at a veiy early period. It is related of him that he composed a 
 fairy tale at the age of six years, and a romance, in two thick 
 volumes, is still presei-ved, written by him in his tenth year ; and 
 about the same time he produced several poems. While still a 
 boy, he introduced himself to the poet Moore, then a member of 
 the Kilkenny theatricals, and was kindly received and encouraged 
 liy him. In his thirteenth year, John Banim was placed in 
 Kilkenny college, a very ancient and distinguished preparatory 
 school, and famous for having educated some of the most distin- 
 guished literary men of Ireland. Here he evinced a decided talent for 
 drawing and painting, which he was determined to pursue as a 
 profession, and accordingly, in 1813, he went to Dublin, and 
 became a pupil in the celebrated schools of the Royal Dublin 
 Society, where he continued for two years, a regular and indus- 
 trious student, and obtained the highest prize the year after his 
 entrance. At the expiration of the two years, and when only 
 eighteen, he retiu-ned to his native city, where he commenced hfe 
 as an artist, and formed a strong attachment for a young lady, 
 one of his pupils, which was returned, but resulted unhappily in 
 a separation that led to her death, and nearly reduced iiim to the 
 grave. John Banim at length recovered, and with restored 
 health, his old love of literature revived in all its strength, and 
 he resolved to abandon the profession of an artist for that of an 
 author, and, accordingly, early in the year 1820, he left IviUicnny 
 and settled in Dublin. Here he had to struggle against poverty, 
 obtaining but a precarious support from occasional literary em- 
 ployment. He now became acquainted with Shiel, and other 
 literary men, and in 1821 published his first work, a poem 
 called "The Celts' Paradise," which was not without merit. 
 Shiel introduced him to the theatre, and he brought out under 
 his auspices his fii'st Jilay, " The Jest," at Covent Garden, and 
 shortly after, that of " Damon and Pythias." This last was very 
 successful, and all the London journals gave it high praise. 
 Shortly after this John Banim returned to his native town, and 
 there, in conjunction with his brother Michael, designed the 
 scries of tales aftenvards so well known as " Tales by the OTIara 
 family," some of which were composed by the elder brother, whose 
 abilities, though less cultivated, were of no mean order. The 
 following year John Banim married Ellen Ruth, the daughter of 
 a gentleman-farmer of Kilkenny, and with his young wife, went 
 to London to seek his fortune as a literary man. Here he 
 encoimtered the usual trials of those who write for their sub- 
 sistence, but he met them all manfully, writing for periodicals 
 while preparing his talcs. At length the first of the scries of 
 the "Talcs by the O'llara Family" appeared in the month of 
 April, 1825, and were immediately successful ; of these, John 
 
 Ranim wrote the whole of "The Fetches" and "John Doe," 
 wth the exception of one scene which Jlichael wrote, as also 
 " Crohoore of the Bill Hook," but, in reality, the work of each 
 was strictly criticised and revised by the other. Early in 182C 
 "The Boyne Water" was published, which, \nth a few topo- 
 graphical passages relatuig to Limerick, was the sole composition 
 of John, who went to Den-y for the purpose of collecting materials. 
 Dm-ing this period, Banim had fonned an acquaintance with 
 Gerald Gritlin, who, like himself, had come to London as a 
 litterateur, and the acquaintance ripened into a cordial and last- 
 ing friendship, notwithstanding some misunderstanding at its 
 commencement, which was happily removed. In November, 
 1826, the second series of the tales appeared, comprising "The 
 Nowlans" and " Peter of the Castle." The success of this series 
 was fu-lly equal to that of the first, and, indeed, the tale of " The 
 Nowlans" has, with justice, been reckoned amongst the most 
 powerful novels of the day. In the year 1827, he completed his 
 tragedy of " Scylla," which was not, however, put on the stage 
 until ten years afterwards. And it was at this period that he 
 became intimately acquainted with John Stirling. The third 
 series of " The Tales by the OTIara Family," appeared shortly 
 after. It consisted of a three- volumed novel, " The Croppy," and 
 was written by Michael Banim, passing through the hands of 
 John for re\asion. John Banim still continued to write for 
 the periodicals, and also for the stage, and, amongst other di'a- 
 maticpieces, produced " The Smuggler" and "The Death-Fetch;" 
 but his health faihng him, he was obliged to leave London and 
 go to Boulogne. " The Ghost-Hunter and his Family," and the 
 " ]\Iayor of Windgate " next appeared, the former being princi- 
 pally the composition of Michael. John Banim's physical feeble- 
 ness increased more and more, and the death of a child, and 
 delicacy of his wife, added to his afflictions. His finances were 
 reduced to the lowest ebb, so that with all his exertions he was 
 unable to support his family. At this juncture, the English 
 press, led by the Times, came to his aid, and subscriptions were 
 raised, both in London and Dublin, to defray his expenses. From 
 Boulogne he went to Paris. There he lost a son, which event 
 affected him so deeply that he left that city early in 1835, and 
 arrived at Dublin in the month of August in that year, with a 
 frame utterly br(jkcn. Here he was received by hosts of sympa- 
 thizing friends, and a performance of some of his own pieces was 
 got up for his benefit at the Theatre Royal, Hawkins Street, on 
 the 2Gth of July, the lord-lieutenant attending, while Banim 
 reclined on a sofa in a private box. In September he retm-ned 
 to his native city of Kilkenny, where he was received with the 
 greatest enthusiasm and respect, and he finally settled in a small 
 cottage outside the town. Here he was consoled by the company 
 of his old friend, Gerald Griffin, and by occasional visits from the 
 most distinguished persons in rank and literature. The last 
 joint work of the brothers was " Father Connell," and it is to be 
 feared that his too ardent occupation at this composition, increased 
 his maladies, and hastened his death. He died in July, 1842, 
 and was buried m the graveyard of the Roman catholic chapel 
 of St. John's, Kilkenny. As a man of genius, John Banim deser- 
 vedly holds a high place in the literature of Great Britain. His 
 novels will ever retain a hold upon the mind so long as mankind 
 shall love trathful delineations of character, and strong dramatic 
 power of narration. As a poet, he has no uiconsiderable merit, 
 and many of his compositions are full of pathos and vigour. 
 Miss Mitford has written of him, with, however, but a partial 
 appreciation of his powers. John Banim was the founder of 
 that school of Irish noveUsts, which, always excepting its purity, 
 so much resembles the modem romantic French school, that if 
 it were possible to suspect Messieurs Victor Hugo, Eugene Sue, 
 and Alexander Dumas, of reading the English, which they never 
 approach without some ludicrous blunders, one might fancy that 
 many-volumed tribe to have stolen their pecvJiar inspiration from 
 " The OTIara Family."— J. F. W. 
 
 '*' BANIM, JIiCHAEL, the elder brother of John Banim, was 
 bora in Kilkenny in August, 1796, being the eldest son of his 
 father. He was educated at the same school in the countiy as 
 John, but remained in his native city after John WTut to London, 
 setting up for himself in trade in Kilkenny, where he became a 
 respected and influential citizen, and filled the office of maj'or of 
 the city. In conjimction with his brother, he wrote the celebrated 
 " Tales by the O'Hara Family," several of which are, so far as 
 regards invention of plot and general structure, due to him. nL« 
 literary life is so intimately connected with that of his brother.
 
 BAN 
 
 371 
 
 BAN 
 
 that we refer the reader to that biograiiliy. After the death of 
 John Banim, Jlichael wrote a tale called " Clougli Fioiin," or 
 the Stone of Destiny, which displays what were his peculiar talents 
 in contradistinction to those of his younger brother. If it wants 
 the finish which John ronferred on their joint productions, it has 
 the force of style, and life like delineation of character and scenery 
 which Michael contributed to the O'llara tales. — J. F. W. 
 
 BANISTP]R, John, a botanist of the seventeenth century, 
 who visited the East Indies, and subsequently settled in Virginia. 
 He sent to Ray in 1G80 a catalogue of the plants of Virginia. 
 He also wrote papers on Aristolochia sei-pcntaria, or snake-root, 
 on Virginian curiosities, on insects, and on snails, which are 
 published in the Philosophical Transactions. He came to an 
 untimely death by fallmg from the rocks in Virginia in one of 
 his excursions. A genus of plants, Banisteria, commemorates 
 hmi.— J. H. B. 
 
 BANISTER, John, was the son of one of the waits of the 
 parish of St. Giles, London. He received the rudiments of his 
 musical education from his father, and arrived at such profi- 
 ciency on the violin, that he was sent by King Charles the 
 Second into France for improvement ; and, on his retuiTi, 
 was appointed leader of the king's band. This appointment 
 took place in 1GG3. Pepys, in his interesting Diary, under the 
 date Feb. 20, 1666-67^ says:— "They talk how the king's 
 violin. Banister, is mad that a Frenchman come to be chief of 
 some part of the king's musique." The Frenchman here alluded 
 to was the impudent pretender, Louis Grabu. Banister was 
 dismissed from the service of the king for saying, in the hearing 
 of his majesty, that the English perfoi-mers on the violin were 
 superior to those of France. Banister was the first musician who 
 established lucrative concerts in London. These concerts were 
 made knoMii through the medium of the London Gazette ; and in 
 No. 742, December 30, 1672, there is the following advertise- 
 ment : — " These are to give notice, that at Mr. John Banister's 
 liouse, now called the Musick-school, over against the George 
 Tavern, in White Friars, this present Monday, will be Musick 
 performed by excellent masters, beginning precisely at four of the 
 clock in the afternoon, and every afternoon for the future, pre- 
 cisely at the same hour." Many similar advertisements may be 
 seen in the London Gazette (1672 to 1678), from which it ap- 
 jK-'ars that Banister continued these concerts from their commence- 
 iicnt till near the period of his decease, which occiUTed in the 
 month of October, 1679. He was buried in the cloisters of West- 
 minster Abbey. B^^iiister wrote the music to the tragedy of Circe, 
 \rritten by Dr. Charles Davenant (eldest son of Sir William 
 Davenant), and produced at the Duke of York's theatre in 1676. 
 Downcs (Roscius Anglicanus) calls it an " opera," and says, 
 ■'All the musick was set by Jlr. Banister, and being well per- 
 fonned, it answered the expectation of the company." A por- 
 tion of the music (the first act only) is preserved in a MS. 
 volume, now in the library of the Sacred Ilarmonio Society, 
 London. One of the songs is printed in the second book of 
 Clioice Ayres and Songs, 1676. From a perusal of these 
 specimens, we are inclined to give Banister a much higher sta- 
 tion among the di'amatic composers of this country than has 
 hitherto been assigned to him. — (Bimiey ; Hawkins; Notes to 
 Roger North's Memoi.res o/ Musick.)— E. F. R. 
 
 BANK BAN or the BAN BANK, a famous Hungarian rebel; 
 lived in the first half of the thirteenth century. Having placed 
 liimself at the head of the numerous malcontents of the country, 
 he assaulted the palace of the king, Andrew II., who was then 
 absent, but on his return the Ban was condenmed to death. 
 
 BANKERT, Adkien, a Dutch admiral, died at IMiddleburg 
 in 1684. He distinguished himself in several engagements with 
 the English, and with the united ileets of England and France, 
 lu 1674 he made an unsuccessful attempt at a descent on the 
 English coast. 
 
 BANKERT, Joseph van Tkappkn, a Dutch admiral, and a 
 native of Flushing; lived in the first lialf of the seventeenth 
 century. He at first distinguished himself under the famous 
 Admiral Tromp, at the battle of Dunkiik. Being afterwards 
 appointed to the command of a fleet sent against the Portuguese, 
 he took the little island of Tagaripa, and captured several vessels 
 with rich cargoes. He died on the voyage back to Holland. — G. M. 
 
 BANKES, Hknuy, a descendant of Sir John, bom about 
 1757, was for many years a member of {)arliament, and trustee 
 of the British Jluseum. He published in 1818 a " Civil aiul 
 Constitutional History of Rome," 2 vols. 8vo, and died in 1835. 
 
 BANKES, Sir John, who succeeded Su- Edward Littleton 
 as lord chief-justice of the Common Pleas, was born at Kes- 
 vnck, Cumberland, in 1589. He became involved in the troubles 
 of his time, having declared himself on the side of the king. At 
 the Wiltshire assizes he pronounced the conduct of the parlia- 
 mentary generals to be treasonable. He was immediately voted 
 a traitor by the House of Commons, and his seat of Corfe castle 
 in Dorsetshu-e was besieged. The siege is memorable for the 
 courage with which Lady Bankes, vrith a garrison never greater 
 than forty men, defended the fortress till the besiegers were de- 
 feated by the earl of Caernan-on in August, 1643. Su- John 
 died in the following year. — J. B. 
 
 BANKS, John, a dramatist, who lived in the seventeenth 
 century, and wrote several tragedies, very popular in their day. 
 Of these the best known was " The Unhappy Favouiite, or the 
 Earl of Essex," in which the character of Queen Elizabeth was 
 first sustained by Nell Gwjim. 
 
 BANKS,. Sir Joseph, a distinguished cultivator of natural 
 science, was bom in Argyle Street, London, on 4th Januaiy, 
 1743. He was descended from an ancient family of the name 
 of Banke. His great-grandfather was M.P. for Grimsby, and 
 subsequently for Totness. His grandfather was high-sheriff of 
 Lincolnshn-e in 1736, and for sometime M.P. for Peterborough. 
 His father died in 1761. His early studies were prosecuted 
 under his father's roof, at Beverly Abbey. At nine years of 
 age he went to Harrow, and at thirteen to Eton. He left Eton 
 at eighteen, and was entered as a gentleman-commoner at Christ 
 Church, Oxford, in December 1760. He evinced a decided 
 taste for natural history, and especially for botany, which he 
 prosecuted with great ardour and enthusiasm. In 1764, when 
 he became of age, he succeeded to an ample paternal fortune, 
 which he prudently employed for the advancement of science. 
 On May 1, 1766, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, 
 and ill the summer of that year, he visited the coasts of New- 
 foundland and Labrador, -with his friend Mr. Phipps, a lieutenant 
 in the navy. He returned with valuable collections of plants 
 and insects. In 1768, through the influence of Lord Sandwich, 
 first lord of the Admiralty, he was allowed to join the gi'cat 
 navigator, Captain Cook, who had been commissioned to ex- 
 amine the transit of Venus in the Pacific ocean, and to vmder- 
 take a voyage of discoveiy. Banks made ample preparation for 
 the scientific part of the voyage, and induced Dr. Solander, a 
 medical botanist, and a pupil of Linnseus, to join him. Banks 
 had now an opportunity of gi-atifying fully his botanical tastes. 
 He displayed astonishing vigom' and enthusiasm in all his re- 
 searches, and willingly encountered trials and dangers. He 
 made large collections, and brought home m 1771, numerous 
 specimens, more particularly from Otaheite, Tierra del Fuogo, 
 New Zealand, and Australia. The materials which he accumu- 
 lated were laid open to all naturahsts, and many men of science 
 availed themselves of the generosity of the collector, who, though 
 he did not pubhsh the details of his labours, was thus instru- 
 mental m promoting to no small extent the cause of natural 
 history. Banks, on his return from this voyage, was treated 
 with eveiy mark of respect, and was honoured with a private 
 royal interview. His majesty ever afterwards took a warm 
 interest in him. Several important plants were introduced 
 into Britain by Banks. He ofl'ered his ser\aces to government 
 to accompany Cook in his second voyage. His ofl'er was ac- 
 cepted, and he proceeded to malce preparations for it on a grand 
 scale, engaging di'aughtsmen, secretaries, servants, and appa- 
 ratus of all kinds. Unfortunately, however, he was thwarted in 
 all his arrangements by the comptroller of the navy, and he was 
 forced to gi\'e up his plans in disgust. He still, however, inter- 
 ested himself in the voyage, and ultimately secured the appoint- 
 ment of Dr. John Reuiliold Forster and his son, as naturalists to 
 the expedition. Forstcr's drawings on his return were purchased 
 by Banks. Defeated in this scheme, he now imdcrtook a voyage 
 to Iceland, taking as his companions Dr. Solander, Dr. Liiul, 
 and Von Troil. Having equipped a vessel at his own expense, 
 he sailed in July, 1772. The party visited Stall'a on their way, 
 and made known the existence of the wondrous basaltic columns 
 of that island. The account of their works with drawings, was 
 afterwards publislicd by Pennant in his tour in Scotland, from 
 l'>auks' notes. The jiarty spent about six weeks in Iceland, and 
 the res\ilt of their researches was published by Von Troil, who 
 was afterwards bishop of Liukioping. Large collections were 
 made, and Banks purchased numerous Icelandic books and manu-
 
 BAN 
 
 372 
 
 BAR 
 
 scripts, which he presented to the British ^luseum. Banks took 
 an active part in the proceedings of the Royal Society. When 
 Sir John Pringle retired from the presidency in 1777, Banks 
 was fixed upon as his successor. He entered upon the duties 
 of the office in 1778, and continued to discharge them with zeal 
 until his death. He married in 1779, and in 1781 he was 
 created a baronet. His office as president of the Royal Society 
 brought him into difficulties for some time, on accomit of dis- 
 content among the members of the physical section, who seemed 
 to fe;ir that natural histoiy would occupy the place of mathe- 
 matics and physics. Dr. Hureley, afterwards bishop of St. 
 Asaph's, was the leader in the emeute. The malcontents were 
 however finally defeated, and unanimity was restored in the 
 Society. On July 1, 17'J5, Banks was invested with the order 
 of the Bath, and on 29t\i ]\larch, 1797, he was made a member 
 of the privy council, and in 1802 he was elected a member of 
 the French Institute. For tlihty years he continued to be 
 the centre of attraction for all naturalists. His hospitality to men 
 of science of all nations was remarkable. His house and his 
 collections were open to them. He devoted a large part of his 
 income to botanical science, and he aided eveiy scheme which 
 aimed at its advancement. He supported and encouraged 
 voyages of discovery. He took an active part in the manage- 
 ment of the garden at Kew, and he was an able promoter of the 
 Horticultural Society of London. He originated the plan of a 
 colony at Botany Bay. ilany useful plants and fruits were by his 
 instrumentality introduced into our colonies. His Ubrary was con- 
 suitable by all lovers of science. Slany works on natural history 
 owe theu- value in part to the assistance afforded by the Banksian 
 collections. Dming the time of war, he was insti-umental in 
 getting the government to protect naturalists of aU nations in 
 their researches, and to hold their collections as sacred. On ten 
 dilTerent occasions, collections addressed to the Piuis Museum, 
 and captured by the British, were returned to the French by his 
 exertions. He suffered much from gout in the latter years of 
 his life. He died at his house in Soho Square, London, on 19th 
 August, 1820, at the age of seventy-seven. He left no family. 
 His memory will be cherished with gratitude by all the friends 
 of science. He bequeathed to the British Museum his valuable 
 libran', his foreign coiTCspondence, and liis herbaiium, under 
 the care of the celebrated botanist, Robert Bro^'STi. He did not 
 publish any large work, but he contributed many papers to the 
 Transactions of the Horticultm'al and Liimrean societies, to the 
 Society of Antiquaries, and to the board of agriculture. A cata- 
 logue of the Banksiau library by Dr. Dryander, one of Linnaeus' 
 pupils, was published in 5 vols. 8vo. A New Holland genus, 
 Banksia, was named in compUment to him. — J. H. B. 
 
 BANKS, PERcn'AL Weldon, M.A., banister of Gray's Inn, 
 called to the bar Januaiy 30, 1835. He was the "Moi-gan 
 Rattler" of Frasei-'s 3Iajazine and other periodicals. Died 
 August 13, 1850, aged 44. 
 
 BANKS, Thomas Christopher, law genealogist and anti- 
 quarian. He was the author of the " Dormant and Extinct 
 Baronage of England," London, 1807-9, 3 vols. ; " History of 
 Families of the Ancient Peerage of England," London, 1826, as 
 well as of various other genealogical works. He died at Green- 
 wich, September 30, 1854, in his 90th year. 
 
 BANKS, Thojias, an English sculptor of the second half of 
 the eighteenth century. Although not so highly esteemed as he 
 deserves, he must he considered as the pioneer of the style in 
 which Bacon and Cbantrey became so proficient afterwards. His 
 works in St. Paul's and Westminster Abbey are f;iir specimens 
 of his talent. Yet some small bas-reliefs, representing the 
 " Seasons," show even a greater power both in composition and 
 execution. — R. JI. 
 
 BANNERMAN, Alexaxdeu, an English engraver, bom at 
 Cambridge in 1730. According to AValpole, he was especially 
 clever in portraits ; and his print of the '' Death of St. Joseph," 
 after Velasquez, is quite enough to entitle him to rank with the 
 best artists of the time. Died at the beginning of this century. 
 
 • BANNERMAN, Siu Alexander, son of the late T. Ban- 
 ncrman, Esq., of Aberdeen, and many years M.P. for that city, 
 was born in 1783. After holding some inferior offices under 
 the Crown, he was appointed in 1851 lieutenant-governor of 
 Prince Edward"s Island, and at the same time received the 
 honour of knighthood. In 1854 he was made governor and 
 commander-in-chief of the Bahamas, and was transferred to- 
 wards the close of 1857, to the post of governor and commander- 
 
 in-chief of Newfoimdland. The Bannennan family, as their 
 name implies, were anciently standai'd-bearers to the kings of 
 Scotland. — E. W. 
 
 BANNAKER, Bexjajiin, an American negro, who, in the 
 condition of a slave on one of the plantations in the state of 
 Maryland, apphed liimself with such zeal to the study of astro- 
 nomy as to master many of its highest problems, and to add to 
 its records many valuable obsen-ations. With the help of the 
 works of Fergusson and the tables of JIayer, he prepared for pub- 
 lication a tract entitled " Ephemerides," &c. He left also some 
 very cuiious and valuable JISS. Died in 1807. — J. S., G. 
 
 BANQUO, a famous Scottish thane, died about 1050. In 
 conjmiction with Macbeth, cousin of Duncan the king, he 
 obtained a victory over the Danes, who had landed on the Scot- 
 tish coast. JIacbeth, shortly afterwards, violently dethroned 
 Duncan, and caused him secretly to be assassinated. Banquo, 
 though not an accomplice, was a witness of the crime ; and being 
 consequently regarded by Macbeth with fear and suspicion, the 
 latter invited liim and his son to supper, and hired assassins to 
 attack them on their retirni home during the darkness of night. 
 Banquo was slain, but the youth made his escape. Shakspeare 
 has intenvoven this transaction with the theme of his celebrated 
 tragedy of Macbeth. — G. M. 
 
 BANTIUS, L., of Nola, served in the Roman anny at the 
 battle of Canna?, in 216 B.C. Here he was severely wotmded 
 in protectLag the person of the consul Paulus Emihus. This 
 prociu-ed him the friendship of Hannibal, who had wtnessed and 
 admhed his valour. 
 
 BAODAN^, king of Ii'eland, lived in the sixth century. He 
 ascended the thi-one about 565, but was soon after dethroned 
 and put to death by Colman, the son of Dermod. 
 
 BAOITHIN, Saint, an Irishman, succeeded St. ColtmibkiU 
 in the abbacy of Hy, whose life he wTote in Irish verse, and also 
 some MSS. still extant. He died Januarj- 9th, 599.— J. F. W. 
 
 BAOUR LORDIAN, Pierre JIarie Francois Louis, bora 
 at Toulouse in 1770, began his Uterary career by satires, which 
 attracted considerable attention. But what raised his reputa- 
 tion was his translation of Ossian, which was received with an 
 enthusiasm that reached even Napoleon himself, who marked 
 out Baour for his special favour. Elected member of the Aca- 
 demy in 1815, he thought it due to his reputation to complete 
 a translation he had made of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, 
 which he achieved with distinguished success. AMien eighty 
 years of age, blind and suffering, he translated the book of Job. 
 The French Academy, respecting his infirmities, and venerating 
 his talent, dispensed with his personal attendance, by inscribing 
 liis name upon the feuille de presence, a favom* that had never 
 been conferred except on two individuals — Suard and Delille. 
 Baour Hved to the year 1857. — ^J. F. C. 
 
 BAPHOilETUS. The name of the image which the 
 knights-templai-s were charged with worshipping, when the 
 order was suppressed by Philip IV. of France. It is probably 
 a coiTuption of " JIahomet," and the charge may have aiiscn from 
 the circumstance that some of the templars had gone over to 
 the Jloslem faith. 
 
 BAPTISTA, Joseph, a Jlexican theologian, author of "In- 
 fomiationes Confessariorum in India vel America," was professor 
 of theologv at Tetzuco, in the sixteenth century. 
 
 BAPTISTA or BATTISTA, Giuseppe, a Neapolitan poet 
 and theologian, was bom in 1675. He v\TOte "EpiccdiiEroici;" 
 " Poesie Meliche ;" and " Vita del B. Fehce Capucino," &c. 
 
 BAQUOY, JIaurice, a French engraver of landscapes, died 
 in Paris in 1747. His son, Jean Charles (1721-1777), was 
 equally renovvncd for his plates illustrating the iletamorphoses 
 of Ovid, as Pierre Charles, grandson of Mamice (1759- 
 1829), for those of the works of Voltaire and Racine, and for 
 his prints after Poussin. — R. M. 
 
 BAR, a family of Beiry, settled at Bourges since 1270. They 
 owed their elevation, in the fom-teenth or fifteenth century, chiefly 
 to the protection granted them by John duke of Berry, and con- 
 tinued to them by his uncle and successor Charles VII. Among 
 the members of that finnily, the following have been noticed : — 
 
 Jean III. de Bar, lord of Villemenard, valet de ckantbre and 
 apothecary to the king, lived in the fifteenth centuiy. 
 
 Je^vn IV. DE Bar, lord of Bang}', La Guerche, &c., died in 
 1470. He held successively the offices of general of finances, 
 captain of the castles of Tom's and Amboise, and, lastly, bailiflf 
 of TomTainc under the kings Charles VII. and Louis XI.
 
 BAN 
 
 BAR 
 
 Pierre or Pyon de Bar, lord of Villemenard and of Salnt- 
 GLrmaiii-du-Puy, younger brother of the preceding, after whose 
 example he served as vakl de chambre and equeny to Charles 
 \l\. He was at the same time occupied in the administration 
 t f finances. In 1445 he was nominated one of the first com- 
 uiissioners for the carrying out of the important reform known 
 under the name of " D'etablissement de la milice d'ordonnance," 
 and wliich consisted in substituting for the old anarchical bands 
 a regular, permanent, national army. — G. M. 
 
 BAR, Counts and Dukes of, held possession of that province 
 ■with the title of dukes from 958 until 1034, when they took no 
 higher title than that of counts. In 1355 they again assumed 
 the title of dukes, wliich they continued ever afterw;u-ds to retain. 
 The lords of that name succeeded in the following order: — 
 
 Frederick or Ferri I., count of Bar, died in 984. He 
 became count of the palace under Charles the Simple, and ob- 
 tained the county of Bar by Ins marriage \nt\\ Beatrix, niece of 
 the king of Germany and sister of Hugh Capet. In 959 he 
 became duke of Lorraine Mosellane, or High Lorrain. 
 
 Thierri I., son of tlie preceding, count of Bar, died 1024. 
 Frederick or Ferri II. lived about the first half of the 
 eleventh century. He left two daughters, the elder of whom 
 having married Louis, count of Montbelliard and of Mousson, 
 recovered possession of the castle of Bar, which had been seized 
 in 1037 by Eudes, count of Champagne. 
 
 Thierri III. succeeded to Thien-i II., but was forced to abdi- 
 cate in favour of his brother Renaud. 
 
 Eenaud I., sm-named One-Eyed, died in 1150. Having 
 made himself odious to his subjects, the people of Verdim 
 several times threw oft" his yoke. He died on his return from the 
 crusade, in which he had accompanied Louis the Young. 
 
 Eenaud II., son of the preceding, died in 1170. He was 
 constantly at war with his neighbom-s ; aiid but for the media- 
 tion of Saint Bernard, he would have been involved in hostilities 
 with the inhabitants of Jletz. 
 
 Henry' I., son of the preceding, died in 1191. He accom- 
 lauied Philip Augustus to the crasades, and died at Acre. 
 
 Thibaut L, brother of the preceding, count of Bar, died in 
 1214. In 1211 he engaged in a cnxsade against the Albigenses. 
 Henry II., son of the preceding, died in 1240. He fought 
 and distinguished himself at the battle of Bouvines ; and after 
 having several times ravaged Lon-aine and Champagne, was 
 made prisoner by Jean de Chalons and Henri do Vicnne. He 
 fell in laattle agaiijst the JIussulmans. 
 
 TiiiBAUD II. succeeded his father, Count Hemy II., at the 
 ' chinning of the year 1240. Having taken part with the 
 iuntess of Flanders, the celebrated Marguerite, in her contest 
 with the children of her first husband, Bouchard d'Avesnes, he 
 ■was taken prisoner, anrl detained several yeai'S in rigorous cap- 
 tivity. He died in 1296 or 1297, leaving two cliUdi-en by his 
 second wife, Jeamie de Tocy. 
 
 Henry III., successor of the preceding, died in 1302. He 
 tuok part with his father-in-law, Edward I. of England, against 
 riiUip the Fair. In 1297 he was defeated near Comines by 
 Jeanne de Navarre and taken prisoner. He recovered his liberty 
 'iU condition of rendering homage to the king of France for the 
 county of Bar. Ilavuig aftenvards gone to the assistance of the 
 kingdom of Cj^pnis, which had been invaded by the Turks, he 
 died on his return. 
 
 Edward I., son of the preceding, died in 1337. He fought 
 at Cassel with Philip of Valois, and died at Cyprus. 
 
 Robert, successor of Edward II. He made war on Lor- 
 raine, and married Marie of France, daughter of King John. 
 
 Edward III., son of the preceding, died at the battle of 
 Agincourt in 1415. 
 
 Louis, cardinal-bishop of Chalons-sm-Marne, brotlier and 
 heir of the preceding, lived in the fifteenth century. — G. M. 
 
 * BAR, Adhien-Aime-Fleury de, a French general, born 
 at Thiais, Seine, 13tli December, 1783. In 1813 he was severely 
 wounded at Bautzen; was made prisoner, and detained until 
 the following year. After 1848 he was nominated colonel of 
 tlic third legion of the National Guard; and in July, 1849, 
 represented the department of the Seine. 
 
 BAR, Jacques Ciiarlics, a French writer of the eighteenth 
 century, author of a work entitled " Recueil de tous les Cos- 
 tumes des Ordres Religieuses et Militaires,'" &c. 
 
 BAR, Jean Etienne, advocate, born at Anneville, Manche, 
 in 1748; died in 1801. He practised as advocate at Thion- 
 
 ville at the epoch of the Re\olution, and was sent to the Con- 
 vention by the department of the Moselle. He was one of those 
 who voted for the death of Louis XVI. After the death of 
 Robespierre he was appointed secretary of the Convention. He 
 was afterwards a member of the council of Five Huudi-ed, and 
 latterly became president of the civil tribunal of Thion^-ille. 
 
 BAR, Louis de, pope's legate in France, and afterwards a 
 functionary at the com-t of Pope Gregoiy XIII., was a native of 
 Sens, and died in 1G17. He wrote "Ex quatuor evangeUstarum 
 textu confecta naiTatio." 
 
 BAR, Nicolas de, a French painter, established in Italy 
 during the seventeenth century, and kno^wm in that country as 
 SiGNOR NicoLETTO ; acquired a considerable fame, inherited 
 by his son, surnamed IL Gigeio, (the Lile), who especially ex- 
 celled in sacred pictures — R. M. 
 
 BARAC-HAGER, Sultan, lived in the first half of the thir- 
 teenth century. He was sent by the king of the Moguls on an 
 embassy to Mohammed, king of Khowaresme, by whom he was 
 detaiued a prisoner. He afterwards became master of Kerman, 
 and rendered himself independent governor of that province. He 
 governed 11 years, and was succeeded by his eldest son. 
 
 * BARAGA, an Illyrian missionary, author of a " Histoiy of 
 the Indians of Western America," a translation of wldch was 
 published at Paris in 1837. He was settled for some time on 
 the shores of Lake Superior. 
 
 BARAGUAY-D'HILLIERS, Louis, a French general, born 
 at Paris, 13th August, 17G4 ; died at Berlin in 1812. He was 
 lieutenant in the regiment of Alsace at the outbreak of the 
 Revolution ; and during a long course of service passed succes- 
 sively through all the different gi-ades. In 1812, when com- 
 manding a division of the army of Russia, he had the misfortune, 
 along with the greater part of his division, to f\ill into the hands 
 of the enemy. He was suspended ft'om his functions by Napo- 
 leon, who ordered an inquiiy into his conduct ; but Baraguay- 
 d'Hilliers, unable to survive the mortification of having his 
 bravery called in doubt, was seized at Berlin with an illness, of 
 which he died. — G. M. 
 
 * BARAGUAY-D'HILLIERS, a French general, son of the 
 preceding, born 6th September, 1795. He entered the army at 
 a very early age, and hke his father, rose through all the subor- 
 dinate gi'ades to that of the rank of Heutenant-general, which he 
 attained on the Cth August, 1843. He was representative of 
 Doubs in the constituent and legislative assemblies after the 
 revolution of 1848, and he has since been invested with the 
 grand cross of the legion of honom-. — G. M. 
 
 BARAK, son of Ahinoam, one of the judges of Israel, lived in 
 the first half of the 13th centuiy before the Christian era. 
 
 BARAILLON, Je^vn Franc^ois, physician, and member of 
 the National Convention of France. He was bom at Vierzat, 
 January 12, 1743 ; died at Chambon, March 14, 1816. Before 
 the Revolution he was physician at Chambon, and was well known 
 by his dissertations on medicine and archa;ology. The opinions 
 which he held obtained for him the appointment of justice of 
 the peace of Chambon; and in September, 1792, he became 
 deputy to the Convention. Towards the end of the same year, 
 he accused the minister Pache of the bad organization of the 
 army ; in a short time aftei^wards he reproached Robespierre 
 himself for his arrogant claims and badly-dissembled ambition. 
 On the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for the detention of the 
 monarch, and for his exile until the dispute had terminated. 
 " I am not here," added he, " to judge ciiminals, my conscience 
 refuses it." Latterly, he demaiuled of the executive power an 
 account of the counter orders given to the National Guards, 
 who went to the succour of Vendee, and proposed an amnesty 
 in favour of the inhabitants of that countiy, who had laitl down 
 their arms. At the commencement of the year 3 lie invoked 
 the humanity of the Convention on behalf of tlie imprisoned 
 priests. He urged tlicm to accuse the public distiubers, and to 
 prosecute the successors of RobespieiTC. On the 25th April, 
 1795, he became member of the connnission of Public Iiistnu'tion, 
 and in this capacity he presented, on the 15tli of June, 1796, 
 a progranmie for the anniversary fete of the death of the king. 
 He arranged on the 4th of February following, that the botani- 
 cal gardens of Montpellicr and Strasbourg should be connected 
 with the schools of medicine ; and organized in three months 
 the central schools of seventeen departments. He criticised 
 severely the system of the Polytechnic schools, of the secondary 
 schools, and of the schools specially fur medicine. At the end of
 
 BAR 
 
 374 
 
 BAR 
 
 1795 he wished the Convention to restore the law of June 10, 
 1793, relative to the cli\ision of the commonwealth. Baraillon 
 was one of the deputies who attended the wounded on the 13th 
 Vendemaire, in the year 4 (5th October, 1795). On the 9th 
 Brumaire he proposed as an emblem for the seal of the state, 
 the cap of liberty and equality. Wimn the Convention was dis- 
 solved, he entered into counsel with the Five Hmidred, and 
 became their secretaiy. He took no part in the plot of the 18th 
 Fructidor (September 7) ; he was then absent ; but on the 23d 
 Vendeiniare, in the year 6 (20th October, 1797), he addressed 
 to liis colleagues a letter, in which he urged them to oppose the 
 fanatical priests, the former nobles, the agents of the princes, 
 and the faithless functionaries. On the 27th December, 1797, 
 whilst praising the patriotism of the Abbe Gregory, he accused 
 him of exciting fanaticism by his episcopalian writings. He 
 spoke, also, on the recruiting of the army, besides various other 
 subjects; at last, in the year 1798 he entered the council of the 
 Ancients. His intentions were very honest, and he always loved 
 liberty ; but in favour of it he used means, the energy of which 
 resembled violence. It was, no doubt, through these principles, 
 that at this time he became the defender of power. He moved 
 the order of the day on the request to send a deputation to the 
 funeral of the ex-minister Lecarlier. On the trial of the Jaco- 
 bins of the Manage he gave a discourse, in which he denounced 
 the partisans of terror. He contested, afterwards, the resolution 
 wliich gave the Du-ectoiy the right of allowing the troops to 
 enter the constitutional boundary. At length, although opposed 
 to the measures which initiated the 18th Bramau-e, he became 
 member, and subsequently, in 1801, the president of the legisla- 
 tive body. He retired once more into private life in 180G, and 
 recommenced the practise of medicine, and his archasological 
 studies. Besides many articles inserted in different jom-nals, 
 he wrote several independent works. — (Xouvdle Biographie ; 
 Bio(jruphie des Contemporaincs ; Biofjraphie Medicale!) — E. L. 
 
 * BARALT, R^UTiAEL JIaria, born at JIaracaibo in Mexico, 
 at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Ha\-ing undertaken 
 to write the histoiy of his countiy, he came to France for the 
 pui'pose of collecting documents, and published in Paris, 1841, 
 an abridgment of the histoiy of Venezuela, from the fifteenth 
 century down to 1787. He is living m JIadrid, where he con- 
 ducts the journal. El Clamor Ftdilico. — A. C. M. 
 
 BARAilBIO, Fkay Gregorio, a Spanish historical painter ; 
 flourished about 1738, and worked at Burgos. 
 
 BARANOV, Alex^vxder Andrew Vith, governor of the 
 Russian possessions in the north-west of America, died in April, 
 1819. He was at first engaged in commercial pursuits in wes- 
 tern Siberia, but afterwards went to America, where he opened 
 up new commercial relations with the natives, founded a com- 
 mercial colony at Behring's Straits, and took possession of the 
 isle of Sitkliy. He subsequently established a little colony in 
 the neighbourhood of San Francisco. On retm-ning in 1818 
 towards hLs native country, he touched at the island of Batavia, 
 where the climate proved fatal to him. — G. JI. 
 
 BARAXOVITCII, Lazar, archbishop of Tchemigov, was a 
 native of White Russia, He was raised to archiepiscopal rank in 
 16G8, and from that time till his death in 1693, was distin- 
 guished by the zeal and ability with which he defended the 
 Greco- Russian chm-ch against the attacks of the Polish Jesuits. 
 His popularity enabled liim to render material assistance to the 
 czar, in the insiurection of the Zaporogbetz Cossacks in 1GG9. 
 He wrote some devotional pieces, a poem entitled " Platch," and 
 another on the vicissitudes of human life. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARiVNOWSKI or BARANOVIUS, Albert, a Polish 
 theologian, successively bishop of Przemisl, of Wladislas, and 
 archbishop of Gnesen, died in 1G15. He published the con- 
 stitutions and proceedings of several councils. 
 
 * BARANTE, Amaijle Guillaume Prosper Brugiere, 
 Baron de, a French politician and miscellaneous author, bom at 
 Riom in 1782, entered public life in 1806 as auditeur to the 
 council of state. In 1815, after some diplomatic and magis- 
 terial experiences, he became councillor under Louis XVI 11., 
 and secretaiy-general to the ministiy of the interior. In 1819 
 he was elevated to the cliamber of peers, the duties of which 
 occupied his attention till 1830, when he was sent as ambassa- 
 dor into Sardinia. From 1835 to 1818 he was ambassador at 
 the court of Russia, but since the revolution he has withdrawn 
 altogether from public life. Besides his " Histoire de Bour- 
 gogne," 1824-1828, and " Histoirc de la Convention Natiouale," 
 
 M. de Barante has published several voliunes of miscellanies, an 
 interesting account of French literature from 1789, and a trans 
 lation of Schiller's di-amatic works. He is also the author of 
 the translation of Hamlet in Guizot's Shakspeare. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARANTE, Claude Igxatius Brugiere de, a French 
 writer, bom at Riom, in Auvergne in 1670, was the friend and 
 contemporary of Le Sage and Regiiard, like whom he commenced 
 his hteraiy career by some comedies which he wrote for the old 
 Italian theatre. His critical sagacity was brought into play 
 by the publication of a fragment attributed to Petronius, the 
 authenticity of which he disproved. He died in 1745. — J. F. C. 
 
 BARAONA Y SOTO, Luis de, a Spanish poet of the 
 sixteenth century. He is the author of a poem, " Las lacrimas 
 de Angelica," intended to be the continuation of Ariosto's " Or- 
 lando Furioso ; " but although Cen'antes praises it veiy highly, 
 it is veiy infeiior to the Itahan chef d'auure. He died at 
 Grenada in 1586. — A. C. M. 
 
 BARAT, Nicolas, a French Hebraist, pupil of Richard 
 Simon, was bom at Bourges. He assisted Thomassin in his 
 Glossarium Hebraicum, and published "Nouvelle BibUotheque 
 Choisie." Died in 1706. 
 
 BARATTA, Fkaijcesco, an Italian sculptor of the seven- 
 teenth centmy. He was a native of JIassa-di-Carrara, and studied 
 in Rome under Bernini and Algardi, from whom he acquu-ed 
 much of the eccentricities of manneinsm, characteristic of those 
 great sculptors. Died in Rome in 1666. — R. M. 
 
 BARATTA, Pietro, a Venetian sculptor, flourishing in the 
 seventeenth century, whose statue in the church of St. John and 
 Paul of Venice, is considered his mastei-piece. — R. M. 
 
 BARBA, Geronimo, a Spanish sculptor and architect, exe- 
 cuted in 1709 a bas-relief for the sacristy of the cathedi-al of 
 Se\ille, which cost 11,227,290 reals, a very large sum at that 
 period. He was assisted by Dou Pedro Comejo in this work, 
 which in its exuberance and confusion of detaUs, its total want 
 of taste and ordonnance, is a most perfect specimen of the ex- 
 cesses of mannerism. — R M. 
 
 BARBA, Giovanni, tm Italian bishop, author of "Delle 
 Ai-ti e del Metodo delle Lingiie, libri iii.," died in 1749. He 
 was originally an advocate at Najdes. 
 
 BARBA, Juan Sanchez, a Spanish sculptor of the seven- 
 teenth centmy. His statue of " The Dying Saviour" at JIadrid, 
 his native town, is the best specimen of his style. Died in 1670. 
 
 BARBA, PoJiPEO della, a physician and philosopher, bora 
 in Brescia. Wrote discourses on the Platonic philosophy, and 
 the Somnium Scipionis of Cicero. He was physician to Pope 
 Pius IV. Died in 1582. 
 
 BARBACENA, Fehsberto-Caldeira-Brant, Marquis of, 
 a Brazilian marshal and senator, bom at Sabora in 1772 ; died 
 at Rio Janeiro, 10th June, 1842. He sei-ved at iirst in the 
 Portuguese navy, but aftenvaids entering the army, reached the 
 rank of marshal. He was distinguished by his ability and 
 activity, which recommended him to several important public 
 functions, one of which was that of negotiating mth the mother 
 countiy the independence of Brazil. As a rewai-d of his suc- 
 cesful efforts on this occasion, he was named viscount and mar- 
 quis. Brazil owes to him many important ameliorations. — G. M. 
 
 BARBADILLO, Alfoxzo Geronimo de SAi^s,a Spanish 
 poet, romancer, and di-amatist, contemporaiy with Cer\-antes, 
 was bom at Madrid in 1580, and died in 1630. He called 
 himself Criado de su JIagestad, and deplored through life the 
 scanty remuneration of his office. His poems ai'e scarcely un- 
 worthy of the age of Cervantes ; but his romances, compared 
 with those of the author of Quixote and the Exemplary Talcs, 
 are exceedingly dull and mechanical. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARBADORI, Donato, an Italian diplomatist, and a native 
 of Florence, died in 1379. \\Tien in that year the populace had 
 seized on the government, he paid wdth his head his attachment 
 to the party of Albizzi. 
 
 BARBADORO, Bakthelemy, a learned Florentine in the 
 second half of the sixteenth centmy. He discovered the Electra 
 of Euripides, and the Agamemnon of jEschylus. 
 
 BARBAKELLI, Giorgio. See Giorgione. 
 
 BARBARIGO, Gregory, an Italian cardin.al, bishop of 
 Bergamo, and afterwards of Padua, was bom at Venice in 1625, 
 and died at Padua in 1697. He was much esteemed for his 
 charities, among wMch is noticed his foimding of a seminary. 
 
 BARB Alio, Francesco, bom of a patrician family at 
 Venice in 1398. Moreri and Mazzuchelli consider Mm one of
 
 BAR 
 
 375 
 
 BAR 
 
 the most distinguislied authors of the fifteenth century ; and the 
 
 -ts he occujiiod in the state as senator, governor of Vicenza, 
 
 .!xissador to Pope ^Martin V., genoral-in- chief at Brescia, and 
 
 ...any embassies to Florence, to the Emperor Sigismund, and to 
 
 many other sovereigns, prove that be was as skilful m diplomacy 
 
 ns he was versed in literatm'e. Ilis eloquence was marvelloiLS, 
 
 1 many times he harangued the senate, and the troops at 
 
 scia, thus mducing the state and the ai-my to defend for three 
 
 > -ars the walls of that besieged city against the superior forces 
 
 of the didie of Jlilan. He wrote many works which are enume- 
 
 ■itid by Mazzuchelh. He published also his voluminous cor- 
 
 -iondence in Latm. He died in 1454. — A. C. M. 
 
 ilARBAROSSA, HoRuc, called Barbarossa from his red 
 
 ird, was the son of a Greek of Jlitylene, and by profession a 
 
 ■sak chief. In 1516 he assisted Selim, king of Algiers, in 
 
 >, ing the Spaniards out of that country, and harag obtained 
 
 -ession of the capital, put Selim to death, and mounted the 
 
 .me himself. Died ia 1518. — Kilvikeddin, also called Bar- 
 
 >ssa, brother and successor of the last, smTendered the sove- 
 
 i.'uty of Algiers to Selim I., sultan of Turkey, in exchange for 
 
 t'U'ce of 2000 janissaries. In 1533 he offered his services as 
 
 uiral to Solyman II., the successor of Selim, and was after- 
 
 ;'ds promoted to the rank of capitan pasha, or high-admiral of 
 
 ■ Tm-kish fleet. He immediately formed the design of an- 
 xing the whole of the north coast of Africa to the Ottoman 
 [Ave, and couquered Tunis ; but it was retaken in 1535 by 
 
 emperor, Charles V. In 1538 he gauied a victory over the 
 |ii?rial fleet under the command of .iVndreas Dona in the bay 
 Ambracia. Died in 154G. — Bakbakossa, a smuame of the 
 iperor Frederic I. of Gei-many. — A. H. P. 
 ISARBAROSSA, Paul-Emile, a native of Trepani ; author 
 several poems of a mystic character, among wliich may be 
 ritioned, "Jacob's Ladder; " "The Crown of Minerva," &c. 
 
 ■ (lied Ln 1614. 
 
 I'.ARBAROUX, CnARLES-JEA>'-JlARiE, was bom at ]\I;ir- 
 
 ii'S on the 6th of JIarch, 1767. He was called to the bar 
 
 tliat city at an early period, and at once distinguished himself. 
 
 ing, handsome, energetic, and impetuous, he passionately 
 
 braced the revolutionary doctrines as enunciated at the com- 
 
 iieement of that momentous epoch. He established a journal 
 
 I'.i'd the Marseillaise Observer, and did therein much sendee 
 
 I i the revolutionaiy cause. In 1792 he was one of a deputa- 
 
 tiiin to the states-general from his native city, and there formed 
 
 lose fiiendship with Madame Roland, her husband, and the 
 
 unde party in general. In the same year he was returned as 
 
 jutyfor the department of the Rhone, and enrolled himself 
 
 ively with the Ghonde party. He it was who, when the 
 
 'olution seemed in danger from the veto of the king, wrote 
 
 sionately to Marseilles for 600 men "who knew how to die," 
 
 ich 600 men came, bringing Rouget de Lille with them, who 
 
 iiposed the Slarseillaise Hymn on the march. To the last he 
 
 s a brave opponent of Robespierre, but in vain ; and finally, 
 
 the autumn of 1793, he escaped to the coast in the neigh- 
 
 urhood of Bourdeaux. Here, in various hiding-places, he 
 
 !cfid till the summer of 1794, until, finding arrest imminent, 
 
 endeavoured to destroy hunself with a pistol, but failed and 
 
 s guillotined at Bom'deaux, already half-dead, on the 25th 
 
 I le, 1794. With no gifts for a statesman, he was one of the 
 
 '■■ loveable characters of the revolutionary period. He pub- 
 
 iied "An Essay on Extinct Volcanoes near Toulon ; " an ode 
 
 : the same subject, and a fragment of M^moires. — J. S. S. 
 
 BARBATO, Bartii^lemy, born at Padua, hved in the 
 
 ildle of the seventeenth century. He was a poet and com- 
 
 iitator; wrote a "History of the Plague," 1630-31; and 
 
 ited Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. 
 
 BARBATO, Jerojie, an Italian physician, living in the 
 md half of the seventeenth centur)-. He was the first who 
 i.overed the serum of the blood, a subject on which he wrote. 
 '■'■ merit of this discovery was for a tune given to Thomas 
 illis, but was restored to Barbato by Andiioli, who corrobo- 
 o'd his opinions. — E. L. 
 
 BARBAULD, Anna L.etitia, the eldest child, and only 
 
 lighter of John Aikin, D.D., was bom at the village of Kib- 
 
 rth Harcomt in Leicestershire, on June 20, 1743. Her 
 
 Illy education was entirely domestic, and conducted principally 
 
 . her mother, to whom and the celebrated Dr. Doddridge, for 
 
 j sunie years domesticated with her parents, she was indebted for 
 
 the formation of her character. Induced by her solicitations and 
 
 talents, her father, who taught a school for boys, introduced her 
 to the classics, and on his removal, in her fifteenth year, to 
 Wanington iu Lancashke, to become classical tutor to a dissen- 
 ting academy, she enjoyed in the society and scenery around her 
 the most favom-able stimulus to her powers. In 1773, by the 
 persuasion, and with the assistance of her brother, she published 
 a volume of poems, which proved so successful that four editions 
 were called for within the year of publication ; and it was followed 
 very soon after by " Miscellaneous Pieces in Prose," the joint 
 production of her brother and herself. In 1774, she married 
 the Rev. Rochmont Bai-bauld, descended from a family of French 
 protestants, and pastor of a dissenting congi-egation at Palgi-ave, 
 near Diss. Her husband having opened a boarding-school at the 
 village of Palgi'ave in Suffolk, she shared with him the task of 
 instruction, and by her literary celebrity secm-ed for the institu- 
 tion a rapid and iminterrupted success. Some of her pupils, 
 Taylor of Nomich, Dr. Sayers, Sir WilUam Gell, and Lord 
 Denman, rose to distinction. In 1775 she pubhshed a small 
 volume, entitled " Devotional Pieces compiled from the Psalms 
 of David," which met with httle favour ; but " Iljnnns in Prose 
 for Children," which immediately followed, gi-eatly increased her 
 fame and influence. Her health ha\-ing been impahed by eleven 
 years' tuition, she accompanied her husband to the contuient in 
 the autumn of 1785. After spending nearly a year, they re- 
 turned to England, and removed to Hampstead, where Mr. Bar- 
 bauld had accepted the pastorate of a small congregation. Mrs. 
 Bai-bauld resumed her educational labours with success ; but with 
 the exception of a few pamphlets on the political topics of the 
 day, some valuable contributions to Dr Aikin's Evenings at 
 Home for children, and two critical essays prefixed to ornamented 
 editions of Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination, and Collins' 
 Odes, she added nothing for many years to her previous com- 
 positions. In 1802, she quitted Hampstead, and took up her 
 abode in Stoke Nevs-ington, her husband having accepted the 
 pastorate of the congregation (formerly Dr. Price's) at Ne'n-ington 
 Green; and in 1804, she gave to the pubUc a selection from the 
 Tatler, Guardian, and Freeholder, with a preliminaiy essay, wluch 
 was speedily followed by a selection from the letters of Richardson, 
 accompanied by an able life and finished literary review of the 
 novelist. In 1808 she became a widow, by the death of Mr. 
 Barbauld, after a long and painful illness. To refieve her dejec- 
 tion, she consented to edit a collection of the British Novelists, 
 which was published in 1810, and besides an introductory essay, 
 contained biogi'aphical and critical notices of the authors. This 
 was followed by "Eighteen Hundi'cd and Eleven," the longest 
 and most highly- finished of all her poems. From this period her 
 hterary labom's ceased, and after spending the evening of life 
 among affectionate friends, she expired without a straggle on 
 March 9, 1824, in the eighty-second year of her age. Her works 
 were collected by her niece, Lucy Aikin, and published (1825) 
 in two vols., prefaced by an interesting memoir, and a touchuig 
 tribute to her genius and ra-tues. — W. M. H. 
 
 BARBAZAN, Arnauld Guiliielm, Sue de, a French cap- 
 tain, distingifished by Charles VI. vriih. the title of " Chevalier 
 Sans Reproche," and by Charles VII. with that of " Restaura- 
 teur du Royaume et de la Couronne de France," was bom of a 
 good family towards the end of the fourteenth century, and 
 died m 1432. He eamed the fomier of his titles while yet 
 young, by his successful defence of the national honovu- in a 
 combat fought in 1404, between six French and six English 
 knights before the castle of Jlontendre ; and the latter he merited 
 by his extraordinaiy exertions on the side of the dauphin, at a 
 time when the cause of native royalty, powerless in presence of 
 the Anglo-Burgundian league, boasted few adherents. He was 
 killed at Bullegneville.— J. S., G. 
 
 BARBAZAN, Etiesne, a French waiter, born in 1696 ; died 
 at Palis, 1770. He wrote on the poetic literature of France of 
 the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centmies ; also, 
 dissertations on the French and Celtic languages. 
 
 BARBE, Piiii-EirE, a French piiest, bom in London in 
 1723; died in 1792. lie was rector of the college of Langi-es, 
 and afterwards of that of Chaumont. His principal works were 
 a "Translation of the Greek Fathers," for JL de Juignd's col- 
 lection, and " Fables et Contes Philosophiques." 
 
 BARB^-MiUJBOIS, Francois de, Comte et Marquis, a 
 French statesman, born at ^Ictz in 1745, entered public life in 
 17(i9 as sccretaiy of legation at Ratisbonnc. He was successively 
 charge d'atl'aues at the coui'ts of Siixony and Bavaria, and con-
 
 gul-general at Washington. In 1785 Louis X\T^. appointed 
 him intendant of St. Domingo, and on his return to France in 
 1790 gave him a post in the foreign office. He was present at 
 the German diet held in 1791, and in the year following was 
 intrusted with a special mission to Vienn;a. In 1795 he took 
 his seat in the Conscil des Anciens as member for the department 
 of Moselle, an accusation of treason, with which it was attempted 
 to exclude him fi'om the legislature, not having been sustained 
 by his colleagues. His speeches in favour of a modification of 
 the laws with respect to emigrants and theii- relatives, brought 
 him into suspicion as a rovaUst ; and in 1796 the accident of 
 his being honourably mentioned m a royalist document which 
 fell into the hands of government, was sufficient to procure his 
 condemnation. He was banished to Guiana, but returned to 
 France after the 18th Brumane, year 8, and was appointed direc- 
 tor of the treasury. From that office he was somewhat uncere- 
 moniously ejected by Napoleon in 1806. Two years aftenwords 
 he was nominated president of the Com' des Comptes, and in 
 1813 took his seat in the senate. In June, 1814, having been 
 one of the deputies who counselled the recall of the Bom'bons, 
 he was created a peer by Louis XVIII., and continued in his 
 post of president. Duiing the Hundred Days he was a Kapo- 
 leonist, but so privately as to be able to accept with a good 
 grace the post of minister of justice under the restored dynasty. 
 In 1815 he exchanged the seals of that office for those of his 
 former presidency, the duties of which he discharged throughout 
 the reign of Charles X., and duiing a part of LouLs-Philippe's. 
 He died in 1837. Barbe'-JIarbois is the author of the following 
 works — " Complot d'Amold et de Sur Henri Clinton contre les 
 Etats Unis d'Amerique," &c. 1816 ; and " Lettres de Madame la 
 Marquise de Pompadour," &c. 1811. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BAEBERI, Cavalier, of Rome, the greatest mosaicist of 
 the day; exhibited in 1851, in Hyde Park, and obtained the 
 council medal for his table-top, ornamented with views of different 
 cities of Italy. — E. M. 
 
 BAEBERI, FiLLiPO de, an Italian theologian of the fifteenth 
 centiu-y, inquisitor in Sicily and Malta, lived in the second half 
 of the fifteenth century. He i^Tote, besides a number of theologi- 
 cal tracts, " Vurorum Illustrium Chronica," 1175. 
 
 BARBERI, GiovAXNi, the Roman architect who in 1786 
 designed and constructed the f:i9ade of the new sacristy of St. 
 Peter of Rome. He was also a painter of perspective. — E. M. 
 
 BARBERIXI, a celebrated Florentine family, originally of 
 Tuscany. In 1623, Jlaffeo Barberini ha«ng been elected pope, 
 under the name of Urban YIIL, Taddeo, his nephew, and other 
 members of the family, became proprietors of large estates in the 
 papal dominions. The principality of Palestrina fell to Taddeo, 
 but this princely possession so far from contenting, only stimu- 
 lated his ambition. As general of the papal troops he made 
 war on neighbouring states, and generally with success, during 
 his uncle's reign ; but on the accession of Innocent X., he was 
 obhged to take refuge in France, where he died in 1647. The 
 family were allowed to retain Palestrina. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BARBES, Armaxd, bom at Point-a-Pitre (Guadaloupe) in 
 1810. He was brought to France in his infancj', and resided for a 
 time at Fourtoul near Carcassonne. The death of his father, who 
 had been a wealthy merchant, ha%'ing put him in possession of 
 a large fortune, he was conveyed by his tutor to Paris, after the 
 revolution of July. Here he became affiliated to the Societe des 
 droits de I'homme, and having been compromised in the insur- 
 rection of April, 1834, was arrested and detained in prison at 
 Sainte Pelagic for four or five months; but not being found suf- 
 ficiently culpable to warrant a public accusation, he was set at 
 liberty. He soon became involved in fresh troubles, but was a 
 second time released without being brought to trial. Some 
 months aftenvards, however, the jealousy of the goveniment was 
 again awakened ; and Barbes being brought before the correc- 
 tional tribunal of the S('ine, was condemned to one yeai-'s im- 
 prisonment for the clandestine manufactm-e of gunpowder. At 
 the expiration of his term of confinement, he entered into a 
 conspiracy, which terminated in an opfti insurrection, in which 
 Lieutenant Drouineau, one of the officers of the government, was 
 killed. Barbes was brought before the court of peers, personally 
 charged with the assassination of Drouineau, declared guilty, and 
 condemned to death. Ilis sentence, however, was commuted by 
 Louis Philippe into perpetual imprisonment. At the revolution 
 of Februar)', 1848, he was once more set at hberty, and was 
 elected representative of the department of Aude, in the cousti- 
 
 tuent assembly. Having taken part in the affair of the 15th 
 May, Barbes was arrested, and brought before the high court of 
 justice, convoked at Bourges for the prevention of conspiracies 
 tending to subvert the government of the republic. He was 
 found guilty, and sentenced to deportation ; but this sentence 
 was commuted to that of perpetual imprisonment, which he still 
 continues to undergo in the prison of Belle-ile-en-Mer. — G. M. 
 
 BARBESIEUX, Louis-Fkax(;'Ois Letellier, Marquis de, 
 minister of Louis XIV., bora at Pai-is in 1668 ; died 5th Janu- 
 an-, 1701. As a minister, he was not destitute of talent; but 
 allowed himself to be engi-ossed by his pleasures, to the neglect 
 of public business. 
 
 BARBETA, Jean, a native of Hungary, hved in the 17th 
 century, and wrote " The History of Dalmatia." 
 
 BAEBETTE, Paul, a Dutch physician and surgeon, who 
 lived at Amsterdam in the latter half of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. He was the first who proposed gastrotomy in the case of in- 
 tussusception of the intestines, a disease of which he gave a clear 
 definition. He successfully improved the canula of Sanctorius, 
 In use for the operation of paracentesis, by subsrituting for the 
 conical point a lancet-shaped one. He regarded sudorifics as a 
 specific in all diseases, and prescribed bleeding to an unreason- 
 able extent. In his estimation, the cause of all diseases was the 
 coagulation of Ij-mph by an acid. Without originality, his works 
 were numerous, and were crowded with formulas. — E. L. 
 
 * BAEBETTI, Axgelo, a distinguished wood caixer of Flo- 
 rence; exhibited in Hyde Park, in 1851, some of his fine pro- 
 ductions, which obtained for liim the prize medal, and a most 
 flattering report from the jurors of the great exhibition. — R. M. 
 
 BAEBEU-DUBOURG, Jacques, a French phy.sician and 
 botanist, was bom at Mayence, 12th February, 1709, and died 
 at Paris, 13th December, 1779. After acquiring his medical 
 degi-ee, he settled in Paris, and there devoted himself to botanical 
 pursuits. He directed his attention in a S2)ecial manner to fungi. 
 Besides medical and philosophical works, he published " Botan- 
 iste Fran^ais," or an account of the plants found in the vicinity of 
 Paris ; " Manuel de Botanique ;" and " Usage des Plantes." Du 
 Petit Thouars established the genus Barbeuia from JIadagascar 
 in honour of him. — J. H. B. 
 
 BARBEYRAC, Charles, bom at Cerast in Provence, took 
 his degree of doctor of medicine in 1649. He was appointed 
 by the Cardinal Bouillon, liis physician in ordinary, -nith a pen- 
 sion of a thousand livres ; the cardinal did not impose any 
 conditions on this gift, and Barbeyrac fixed his residence at 
 ilontpelher, where Locke met him, and has recorded his being 
 struck by the great resemblance between him and the English 
 physician, Sydenham. He died at MontpeUier in 1699. He 
 was uncle of Jean Barbeyrac, the great jmist. — J. A., D. 
 
 BARBEYRAC, Jean, bom in Beziersin Languedoc, in 1674. j 
 His family were Calvinists ; on the revocation of the edict of ' 
 Nantes, they removed to Lausanne. He first studied theology, 
 and from that passed to the faculty of law. In 1697 he settled 
 as a teacher of polite literature at Berne, and aftenvards filled 
 the chair of law at Lausanne and Groningen. In 1709 he pub- 
 lished his " Traite de Jeu," a singular work, in which he endea- 
 vom-edto show that games of chance are not necessarily immorab 
 He translated into French the juridical works of Grotius, PufFen- 
 dorf, Bynkcrshoeck, and Cumberland, and added notes which 
 estabUshed his fame through Europe as a great jurLst. In 1725 
 he published a tract asserting against the claims of the Austrian 
 Netherlands, the exclusive right of the Dutch East India Com- 
 pany to trade with India. In 1728 he published a volume en- 
 titled " Traits de la morale des Peres," in which he inveighed 
 severely against St. Augustin's allegorizing interpretations of 
 scripture. He translated some of Tillotson's sermons. In 1739 
 his "HLstou-e des anciens traites" was published; he died in 
 1744.— J. A., D. 
 
 BAEBIANO, Alberic I., Cotmt, an Italian warrior; died m 
 1409. He was the first to renounce tlie employment of foreign 
 troops, and to train to arms an Italian corps, with which he 
 took part in the terrible affair of Cesene in 1377. 
 
 BAEBIANO, Alberic IL, son of the preceding, and count 
 of Zagonara, hved in the fifteenth centuiy. To insure the safety 
 of his possessions, which were situated in the midst of the Appe- 
 nines, he put himself under the protection of the Florentines; 
 but in 1424 was compelled to renounce that alliance. 
 
 BARBLVNO, John, brother of Alberic I., an Italian lord; 
 died in 1401. Having entered the sen-ice of the Bologncse, he
 
 BAK 
 
 377 
 
 BAR 
 
 fought witli them and the Florentines against tlie sovereigns of 
 Kaples and Mihm ; and during the troubles of FciTara in 1394, 
 be took part with Azzo d"Este against Nicolas III. 
 
 BAEBIE DU BOCAGE, Alex^^xdre Francois, son of 
 Jean Denis Barbie du Bocage, born at Paris, September 14th, 
 1798. He attached himself to the study of geogiviphv, and suc- 
 ceeded his father in his cliair. He was subsequently chosen 
 secretary to the Geographical Society and to the Society of 
 Antiquaries, but he did not long enjoy these honom-s, and died 
 in 1835. Besides contributions to scientific periodicals, he pub- 
 lished a " Dictionary of Biblical Geogi-aphy."— J. F. W. 
 
 BARBIER, AxToiXE Alexandre, a learned bibliographer, 
 bom in 1765 at Contommiers; died at Paris, 1825. He at 
 first followed the clencal profession, which he afterwards re- 
 noimced, and manied in 1793. He then came to Paris, and 
 was commissioned by the National Convention to collect the 
 books and objects of art belonging to the suppressed convents. 
 Napoleon appointed hhn his librarian in 1807. We are indebted 
 to Barbier for the foundation of the hbraries of the Louvi-e, 
 Compiegne, and Fontainebleau. His writmgs are scattered 
 through the various P'rench encyclopaedias. Among them is " A 
 Catalogue of the Library of the Council of State."' His son is 
 at present hbrarian at the LomTC. — J. G. 
 
 BARBIER, d'Ajxcoxi, a French author, bom at Langres in 
 1641, of poor parents ; having contrived to go through the 
 necessary course of studies at Paris, he was appointed teacher at 
 the college of Lisieas, where an offence done to him by the 
 Jesuits, threw him into the ranks of their opponents. His talents 
 for criticism became noticeable by an attack of a writing of the 
 Jesuit Bonhours, so complete in style that the latter's reputation 
 received an irrecoverable blow. He also criticised the famous 
 dramatic poet, Racine, but v>ath a coarseness which was destnictive 
 of the intended effect. His life was passed in misfortunes, which 
 for a moment appeared to have ended, by his appointment to be 
 the preceptor of young Colbert, son of the great minister. But 
 the latter's death occuning soon after, Barbier found himself in 
 such poverty that he married the daughter of his publisher, for 
 the sake of finding a maintenance. While on his death-bed, the 
 Academy, of which he was a member, sent a deputy to console 
 him. Upon being assured that he would leave a great name, he 
 sadly replied, " Not so, because I have only written criticisms, 
 which in no case survive ; because, if the work falls, the criticism 
 falls with it, and if it sunives, the criticism is condemned for 
 injustice to obscurity." He died in 1694. — J. F. C. 
 
 BARBIER, Edmoxd Jean Fraxcois, son of the preceding, 
 bom in Paris, 1689 ; died 1771. He became advocate to the 
 parliament in 1708, and rose to the first rank in his profession. 
 The work by which he is best known is " A Historical and 
 Anecdotical Journal of the Reign of Louis XV." 
 
 * BARBIER, Hexrv Augustus, a cotemporary French poet, 
 bom in Paris, 29th April, 1805. Educated for the bar, "the 
 glorious three days" of July, 1830, gave him a distaste for his 
 intended profession, by firing the dormant spirit of poetical 
 genius. He began by publishing some satuical pieces, marked 
 by great strength and vehemence, which chimed in wth the 
 temper of the moment, and raised the author's fame at once. 
 These productions were, however, echpsed by his " Jambes," 
 which, equalling in vigor his pre^-ious poems, surpassed them in 
 finish of thought and style. M. Barbier has also the honour to 
 figure amongst that band of Shakspearians, de Vigny, de Wailly, 
 and Deschamps, who have attempted, with less success than 
 their undertaking deserved, to make their countiymen acquainted 
 with the works of the immortal English poet. His contribution 
 to the labour of love, is a translation into verse of JuUus Caesar. 
 Annnated by that directness of purpose which gives such zest 
 to the writings of this justly eminent author, are his " Rimes 
 Heu-oiques." His only work of prose, excepting articles in 
 periodicals, " Les Mauvais Gar9ons," written in connection with 
 M. A. Rover, is an exposure of the vices which marked the Paiis 
 of the fifteenth centmy. — J. F. C. 
 
 BARBIER, Marie Axxe, a literarj' lady, bom at Orleans 
 near the end of the seventeenth centurj' ; died at Paris in 1742. 
 She wrote some dramatic works, in which she unnecessarily 
 degrades her heroes, and exaggerates the virtues of her heroines. 
 
 BARBIER, John Baptiste Gregory, a French physician, 
 flourished at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the 
 nineteenth century. He became professor of botany at Amiens, 
 and had charge of the botanic garden there. His works are an 
 
 VOT.. I 
 
 elementary treatise on materia medica, with a treatise on phai-- 
 macologv, and on hvgienic therapeutics. They were pubUshed 
 at Paris' from 1803 to 1819.— .L H. B. 
 
 BARBIERE, Domexico del, also called il Fiorextixo, 
 an Italian artist, bom at Florence in 1501. He studied under 
 Rosso, whom he followed to France, and assisted in his works at 
 Fontainebleau and Jleudon. He afterwards established himself 
 at Troyes, where he continued to acquire great fame both as a 
 painter and as an engi-aver. He was, besides, a very skilful 
 modeller in stucco. — R. 'M. 
 
 BARBIERI, Fr.vn'CESCO, suraamed il Legxaxo, from his 
 native place, a small town of Lombardy ; a historical and land- 
 scape painter, who studied under Gardini, and strove to imitate 
 Ricci and Carpioni. His style was full of life and spuit ; his 
 di-awing, however, weak. Bom in 1623 ; died in 1698. — R. M. 
 
 BARBIERI, Glvx Fkaxcfsco. See Guercixo. 
 
 BARBIERI, Jeax Makie, an Itahan philologist, bom in 
 1519 at Modena ; died 1574. He wrote a historj' of Attila, 
 and a eulogium on Jlaiy Stuart. 
 
 BARBIERI, LoDovico, a Bolognese painter and engi-aver, 
 floui-ished about 1675; was a pupil of Tiarini. Jlost of his 
 pictm-es are at Bologna. His etchings are much valued. He 
 is often mistaken for Luca Barbieri. — R. M. 
 
 BARBIERI, Luca, another Bolognese painter, equally a 
 pupil of Tiaiini, and linng at the same tune as the preceding. 
 With Castelli and Carbone, he executed several works for the 
 churches of his native town. — E. M. 
 
 BARBIERI, Paolo Axtoxio, the brother of Guercino, was 
 also an artist of the Bolognese school, who, out of modesty or 
 despondency, in order not to compete with his brother, followed 
 the humbler cai'eer of animal and fniit painter. In these, how- 
 ever, he proved remarkably successful. I^Iost affectionately 
 attached to his brother, he acted as his steward and book-keeper. 
 In tliis last capacity he compiled the most interesting records of 
 aU the doings of the great Guercino ; a journal only intemipted 
 by his death in 1640. Guercino, who returned the fraternal 
 affection with equal warmth, deeply mourned for his loss ; and, 
 when d}-ing, requested to be buried near his brother. — R. II. 
 
 BARBIERI, Pier Axtoxio, an Itahan painter, bom at 
 Pa\'ia in 1663 ; studied under Sebastiano Ricci, and worked for 
 several churches of his native town, his masterpiece being in that 
 of Santa ]\Iaria-in-Pertica, — R. M. 
 
 BARBIERS, Pieter, the Elder, was bom at Amsterdam 
 in 1717 ; died in 1780. He treated with the same facihty land- 
 scapes, allegories, and ornaments. His two sons and pupils, 
 Barthelemy, and Pieter, the Youxger, were equally distin- 
 guished artists. — R. M. 
 
 BARBIERS, Pieterszoox, or son of Pieter, the Younger, 
 was born in 1772 ; died in 1824. He surpassed as a painter, 
 both of landscape and history, the fame of his father, who had 
 been his teacher. — R. M. 
 
 BARBIER-VEMARS, Joseph Nicholas, a philologist, a 
 native of LomTCS (Seine and Oise). He assisted in compiling 
 several important publications ; among others, " The Annals of 
 Arts and Manufactures." 
 
 BARBO, Louis, an Italian historian, born 1381 ; died in 
 1443. He assisted at the council of Constance, and became 
 bishop of Trevise. He wrote a " History of the Reformation of 
 the Augustines." 
 
 BAR BO, Paul. See Paul II. 
 
 BARBOLANI, Torquato, ^larquis, an Italian poet, bom 
 at Artzzo; died in 1756. He translated the Orlando Furioso 
 of Ai-iosto into Latin verse. 
 
 BARBOSA, Auius, a learned Portuguese poet ; died in 1530. 
 He studied Greek at Florence, and wrote a volume of Latin poems. 
 
 BARBOSA, a native of Portugal, who held the professorship 
 of Jus-Romanum at Coimbre, previous to his being made chan- 
 cellor of Portugal. He left many commentaries on various sub- 
 jects. He died in 1606. 
 
 BARBOS^V, Antonio, a Portuguese jesnit, missionary of his 
 order in Cochin-China, is the author of " Dictionarium Lingua; 
 Anamiticaj," published in 1651. 
 
 BARBOSA, DoM Jose, bom at Lisbon in 1674. He was 
 attached to the royal House of Bragaiiza as historiographer, and 
 wrote the "Historj' of the Queens of Portugal." Died 1750. 
 
 BARBOSA, DoM Vincent, a Tlicatine monk, born at Re- 
 dondo in Portugal, in the year 1663. He has left a collection 
 of the reports sent to King Peter II., on the laboiu-s and travels 
 
 S B
 
 BAR 
 
 378 
 
 BAR 
 
 of the mission established at Borneo. It is ahnost the only work 
 giving an account of that island. He died in 1741. 
 
 BARBOSA, Edoakdo, bom at Lisbon in 1480. He tra- 
 velled all through India, ^■isited the Moluques islands, and was 
 JIagellan's companion and historiographer in his circumna\-igation 
 of the world. He was murdered by the natives in the island of 
 Zebu in the year 1521.— A. C. M. 
 
 BARBOSA-MACHADO, Diego, bom at Lisbon m 1682 ; a 
 distinguished member of the Historical Academy of Lisbon. He 
 is the author of a Latin work, entitled " Bibliotheca Lusitana," 
 of great literary merit, being, says Ticknor, " one of the amplest 
 and most important works of literary biogi-apliy and bibliography 
 ever published." He died at Lisbon in 1770. — A. C. M. 
 
 BARBOT, James, an English voyager, who lived in the 
 beginning of the eighteenth centuiy. In 1699 he visited New 
 Calabria, and several parts of the coast of Africa. 
 
 BARBOT, Jean, a French voyager. He was obliged to 
 leave France at the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and came 
 to England. He wrote a " Description of the Western Part of 
 Africa and the adjacent Countries." 
 
 BARBOT, Marie Etiexxe, Vicomte, a French general, 
 bom at Toulouse, 2nd April, 1770 ; died 17tli February, 1839. 
 He was at first employed as adjutant to the army on the coasts of 
 Brest and Cherbom-g ; and acted in this capacity from 1805 to 
 1811, when he was elevated, to the rank of field-marshaL 
 
 BARBOTAN, Claike Joseph, Comte de, a French general, 
 bom about 1719; died 11th April, 1794. He represented the 
 noblesse of Dax in the States General of 1789 ; and becoming 
 afterwards a member of the extreme right in the constituent 
 assembly, he was accused of conspiracy, and brought before the 
 tribunal of Gers, by which he was acquitted. Dubarran, how- 
 ever, annulled that judgment; and Bai-botan was brought before 
 the revolutionary tribunal, condemned, and executed. — G. M. 
 
 BARBOU. The name of a distinguished family of piinters. 
 The first of them published in 1539, at Lyons, a remarkable 
 edition of the works of Clement JIarot. His son, Hugues 
 Bakbou published at Limoges in 1580, a beautiful edition 
 of Cicero's Epistles to Attieus. In 1746 Joseph Geeakd 
 published a neat edition of Latin cb^ssics. The last of the 
 faniilv was Hugues Barbou, who died in 1808. 
 
 BARBOU-DESCOURliiRES, Gabriel, a French general, 
 bom 23rd November, 1701 ; died at Paris, 8th Febraary, 1816. 
 He entered the army in 1779, as a volunteer in the regiment of 
 Artois, and took part in the expedition of St. Domingo. On 
 his return, having signalized himself at the battle of Fleurus, he 
 was, on the 7th September, 1794, raised to the rank of general 
 of brigade. In 1798 he was nominated general of di\'ision. In 
 1814 he obtained the order of chevalier of St. Louis, and grand- 
 officer of the legion of honour. — G. 51. 
 
 BARBOUR, John, archdeacon of Aberdeen in the latter part 
 of the fourteenth century. He is supposed to have been bom 
 about the year 1310 ; but nothing is known of his parentage or 
 birthplace. On the 13th of August, 1357, Edward III. of 
 England, on the application of David, king of Scotland, gi-anted 
 a safe conduct to Archdeacon Barbour, with three scholai'S in 
 his company, going to study at the university of Oxford. Bar- 
 bour must have been at this time a man of mature age, for he 
 was in the same year appointed by the bishop of his diocese, one 
 of the commissioners who were to meet at Edinburgh, for the 
 purpose of deliberating about the ransom of King David from his 
 prison in England. In 1304, another safe conduct was gi-anted 
 to Barbour, with four horsemen Ln his company, to pass tljrough 
 England, to study at Oxford, or elsewhere, as he might think 
 proper. Nest year, and again in 1368, he was allowed to pass 
 through England to France. On the latter occasion for the 
 purpose of study. In 1373 Barbour was clerk of audit of the 
 king's household, and also one of the auditors of the exchequer. 
 The latter office he held on other two occasions — in 1382, and 
 again in 1384. It is uncertain at what time he began the com- 
 position of the great national poem which has poi-petuated his 
 name ; but it appears, from his own statement, that in the year 
 1375 he had composed about two-thirds of the work. In 
 1377, probably on the completion of the poem, a donation of 
 ten pounds was paid to him by command of the king. Next 
 year he received another mark of royal favour, in the grant of 
 twenty shillings yearly trom the rents or brurow-mails of the 
 city of Aberdeen forever, and his assignees whomsoever, with 
 pcrmbsion to dispose of it in mortmain. This power of assign- 
 
 ation he exercised immediately in fovour of the dean and chapter 
 of Aberdeen, under the condition that they should say a yearly 
 mass for his soul. This gift was made expressly as a reward 
 for his services in composing " The Book of the Gests of King 
 Robert Bruce." In 1388 another pension was granted to him 
 by Robert II. of ten pounds sterling yearly for his life, payable 
 out of the great customs of Aberdeen. It has been conjectured 
 that this mark of royal bounty was conferred upon the poet for 
 another work, called " The Brute," Inndng for its subject the 
 royal race of Stewart, and deducing their origin from a fabulous 
 prince of Troy named Bratus. This work is refen-ed to in 
 various passages of Wyntown's Chronicle ; but it has unfortu- 
 nately perished. The archdeacon appears to have died at an 
 advanced age Ln 1395, probably on the 13th of JIareh, the day on 
 which a religious service for his soul was celebrated annually in 
 the cathedral of Aberdeen, down to the Reformation. The repu- 
 tation of Barbour, as a historian and poet, rests mainly upon 
 his celebrated metrical history of King Robert Brace. This 
 noble work is equally valuable for the general authenticity of its 
 details, many of which he must have received f)om eye-witnesses 
 of the exploits, and for its fresh and graphic descriptions of 
 character and maimers, as well as of natural scenery, and of 
 battles and sieges. He has delineated, .vith the hand of a 
 master, the portraits of the great dehverer of Scotland, " hardy 
 of heart and hand ;" of his brother, the fiery, rash, and head- 
 strong Edward ; of the good Sir James Douglas, who was so 
 worthy in his time, that his high price and bounty made his 
 name renowned " in foreign lands ;" of the sagacious Ran- 
 dolph, whose " tnisty heart and loyal service were enhanced by 
 his com'teous and debonair manners, and shone out in his fair, 
 pleasant, and broad countenance ;" and of the worthy compeers 
 of these noble patriots ; and he gives us charming pictures of 
 their manners, and modes of thinking, under all the varieties of 
 their romantic fortunes. He was fortunate in the choice of a 
 subject for his national epic, suggesting, as it does, " high actions 
 and high passions," and naiTaling exploits, which have become 
 "household words" among the people of Scotland in all suc- 
 ceeding ages. The adventm-es of the good king, and the various 
 reverses of fortune in his eventful life, from his engagement with 
 the Red Comjm, down to his " crowning mercy" at Bannock- 
 burn, and the complete expulsion of the English invaders from 
 the counti-y, are all nan-ated with gi'eat sphit, and in strains 
 which come warm from the heart of the poet ; while the various 
 episodes, with which the old chronicler reheves his stem story of 
 hardship and battle, give a very pleasing impression of the kind 
 and humane character of the chivalrous monarch, and his little 
 band of devoted fiiends, and throw not a little light on the 
 gentle and affectionate disposition of their biogi-apher himself. 
 It is a proud thing, it has been justly said, to have given a sub- 
 ject for such an Odyssey, and to have had a poet worthy to cele- 
 brate it. Barbour's learning must have been gi-eat for the time, 
 and he was e\ade!!tly well read, both m the classical and the 
 romantic literature of the day. His descriprive powers were of 
 a high order, and, in the opinion of an accomplished critic, 
 Thomas Warton, " he has adorned the English language, by a 
 strain of versification, expression, and poetical images, far supe- 
 rior to the age." There are only two MS. copies of " The 
 Brace" known to be in existence, one in the Advocates' library, 
 Edinburgh, written in 1489 ; the other in the hbrary of St. 
 John's college, Cambridge, penned in 1487. The earUest printed 
 copy extant is dated Edinburgh, 1571. — {The Brus, printed 
 for the Spalding Club ; The Bruce, edited by Dr. Jamieson, 
 Edinburgh, 1820, 4to ; Irving's Lives of the Scotlish Poets; 
 The Pictorial History of Scollund.') — J. T. 
 
 BARBULA, the name of a Roman family of the patrician 
 order of Emilienus. The follo^ving are among the most remark- 
 able persons of that family : — 
 
 Barbula, Quintls ^MiLius. He became consul in the 
 year 317 B.C. — Barbula, L. iEsiiLius. He gieatly distin- 
 guished himself in the contests with the Tarentines, who had 
 invoked the aid of Pyirhus against the Romans. He was not 
 less successful against the Etrascaus, and other enemies of the 
 commonwealth. — Barbula or Barbulas. He was partisan 
 and friend of Marc Antony in the year 43 B.C. — G. M. 
 
 BARCA, Don Vincente Calderon de la, a Spanish por- 
 trait and historical painter of the 18th century, who, like his 
 master, Francisco de Gaya, was remarkable for his unruly style, 
 full of fire and expression. Died veiy young, 1794. — R. M.''
 
 BAR 
 
 379 
 
 BAR 
 
 BARCA, Joseph, an Italian general, oriscinally of Milan, 
 lived in the first half of the seventeenth centniy. He rose to 
 the rank of captain- general in the service of Spain. 
 
 BARCA, PiETRO AxToxio, a Milanese architect of the eigh- 
 teenth century, the author of most ingenious essays on the tine 
 and useful arts. — R. M. 
 
 BARCALI, sm-named JIohajimed Bex Pie Ali, a Mo- 
 liammedan theologian of the 16th centun,', author of an exposi- 
 tion of ilohammedanism, entitled " Thaiikat Jlohammediat." 
 
 BARCELOS or BRACELOS, Pierke, a Portuguese gene- 
 alogist ; died in 1340. His genealogy of the piincipal families 
 if Portugal was printed in lo-lO. 
 
 BARCENA, Alfonse, a Jesuit, bom at Cordova ; died at 
 Cusco in Pern in 1598. He acquired gi-eat reputation by his 
 mission to South America. He wi-ote a gi-ammar, and several 
 works for the use of the Indians. 
 
 BARCHAil or BARKHAM, John, D.D., second son of 
 Laurence Barcham of St. Leonard's in Devonshire, bom at 
 Exeter in 1572. He was made chaplain to Ai-chbishops Ban- 
 croft and Abbot, rector and dean of Bocking, and D.D. He was 
 a celebrated antiquary, especially in the knowledge of coins. He 
 «Totc the histories of John and of Henry II., kings of England, 
 which are published by Speed in his liistory. He also wrote 
 a preface to Crakenthorp's book in reply to JIarc. Ant. de Do- 
 minis. Anthony Wood, on the authority of Sir- William Dug- 
 dale, attributes to him the authorsliip of the principal part of 
 Guilhm's Heraldiy ; but, in Dr. Bliss's opinion, without sufficient 
 foundation. He died at Bocking, March 25, lG-12. — T. F. 
 
 BARCHETTA, Ajn'DRea, a Keapohtan sculptor at the be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth century, particularly noted for his 
 ■.vood car\-ings, of which the statues of St. Maria-la-Nuova at 
 Naples are the best specunens. — R. M. 
 
 BARCHI, Joseph-Marie, a biographer, a native of JIantua; 
 ved in the beginning of the sixteenth century. He wrote the 
 Life of Anne Juliette Gonzague, Archduchess of Austria." 
 
 BARCHOU DE PEXHOEN a French writer, a native of 
 Urest, of the present century, was elected a member of the 
 Xarional Assembly in 18i8, in which he sat amongst the legi- 
 timists. His principal work is a translation of, vrith an essay 
 upon, the philosophy of Schelling, ■with miscellaneous produc- 
 tions, which obtained for their author a seat in the Academy of 
 i.iscriptions and Belles-lettres. He died in 1857. — J. F. C. 
 
 BARCIA, A-N'dk:6 Gonzales de, a learned Spaniard, who 
 lived at the commencement of the eighteenth century. He 
 wrote on the history of Florida. 
 
 BARCIONENSIS, Johannes Franciscus, a native of Bar- 
 C'-'lona, who lived in the fifteenth century, and wrote a historical 
 work on the kinss of Spain, &c. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARCKHAUSEN or BARCHUSEN, John Conrad, a 
 German physician, was bom at Horn on 16th March, 16G6, and 
 died on 1st October, 1723. After studying at Berlin, Mayence, 
 and Vienna, where he devoted his attention specially to chemistiy 
 and pharmacy, he travelled in Germany, Hungary, Italy, and 
 Greece. He was afterwards chosen professor of chemistry in 
 the university of Utrecht in Holland, where he obtained his 
 degree of doctor of medicine. He pubUshed several pharmaceu- 
 tical and chemical works. Moench has dedicated a genus of 
 composite plants to him, under the name of Barkhausia. — J. H. B. 
 
 BARCLAY, afterwai-ds BARCLAY-ALLARDICE, Robert, 
 of Ury and Allardice, celebrated in the earlier part of liis life for 
 liis pedestrian achievements, was bom at Ury, August 25, 1779. 
 He was a lineal descendant of the apologist of the Quakers. In 
 his decUning yeai-s he devoted much time and money to agricul- 
 tiu-al pursuits ; and the annual sale at Ury for many years 
 attracted eminent agriculturists fi-om all parts of the Idngdom. 
 He died at Ury, May 8, 185-1, in his 75th year. — T. F. 
 
 BARCLAY, Alexander, a writer in prose and verse, who 
 was bora in Scotland at the close of the fourteenth century. 
 After travelling on the continent and acquiring proficiency in 
 foreign languages, he took orders; and througli various stages 
 rose at last to be vicar of AH Saints, Lombard Street, and one 
 of Queen Mary's chaplains. He died in 1552. His principal 
 works are, "The Ship of Fools," partly original, but chiefly 
 translated from the Gennan of Sebastian Brandt, 1508; "The 
 Castle of Labour," an allegorical poem, 150G ; " The ilirror of 
 Good Manners," &c., &c. — J. B. 
 
 BARCLAY, George, a Scottish gentleman, and a partisan 
 of James II., lived in the second half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 In 1696 he was the chief mover in a plot for seizing the person 
 of the prince of Orange. The plot was discovered, and Barclay 
 made his escape ; but his accomplices vrere executed. 
 
 BARCLAY, Henry, an American di^'ine, who assisted in the 
 translation of the liturgv' into the ^lohawk language, printed in 
 1769. He graduated at Yale college, was ordained in England, 
 and after spending some years as a missionaiy among the 
 Jlohawk Indians, became rector of Trinity church, New York. 
 Died in 1765.— J. S., G. 
 
 BARCLAY, John, bom in 1582, at Pont a Monsson in 
 Lorraine, was educated at the Jesuit college in his native town, 
 where his father, who was a native of Scotland (see Willl\m 
 Barclay), occupied the chair of law. The Jesuits obsening the 
 talents of the young man, endeavomed to attach him to their 
 order; but his father opposing this design, a quan'el ensued, and 
 in 1G03 both father and son repau-ed to England and paid court 
 to James I. ; but their adherence to the Roman Catholic faith 
 stood in the way of their promotion. Barclay's works are of a 
 miscellaneous character. The most famous of them, enritlcd 
 "Argenis,'" is a political romance, which long maintained a high 
 popularity, and has been commended, both for matter and style, 
 by some of tlie highest literary authorities. Barclay died at Rome 
 in 1621, before he had completed his fortieth year. — J. D. E. 
 
 BARCLAY, John, a Scotch physician, who in the year 1614: 
 published a work in praise of the tobacco-plant, entitled " Ne- 
 penthes, seu de nicotiauEe herbte viribus." — ^J. H. B. 
 
 BARCLAY, John, a Presbyterian clergyman, founder of a 
 smaU sect in Scotland, called Bereans — an appellation assumed 
 by them from their habit of supporting their doctrines by a 
 reference to the words of Scripture, like the Bereans commended 
 in the Acts of the Apostles xvii. 10. Sir. Barclay was bom at 
 Muthill in Perthshire, in 1734, and studied at the university of 
 St. Andi-ews, where he took the degree of A. SI. At this period 
 the church of Scotland was agitated by a controversy respecting 
 the theological opinions of Dr. Archibald Campbell, professor of 
 church history in St. Andrews, who was accused of Socinianism, 
 because he maintained " that the knowledge of the existence of 
 God was derived from revelation, not from nature." Though 
 diffeiing widely from the professor on other points, Barclay 
 became one of his most zealous supporters, and adhered through 
 life to this controverted dogma, which, indeed, held an important 
 place in his peculiar religious creed. Having passed through 
 the usual cunnculum, Barclay was, on the 27th Sept., 1759, 
 licensed as a preacher of the gospel by the far-famed presbytery 
 of Auchterarder, and became assistant to Mr. Jobson, palish 
 muiister of Enrol, near Perth ; but, owing to a diflference of 
 opinion on theological points, a rupture took place between them, 
 and their connection was dissolved. In 1763 Barclay became 
 assistant to j\Ir. Dow, minister of Fettercaim, in the presbytery 
 of Fordoun, Mearas, where he continued to labour for nine years. 
 He was a faithful and zealous pastor, and as he possessed a 
 luxuriant fancy, with a vehement manner of deliveiy, his popu- 
 larity as a preacher was veiy gi"eat, and he attracted crowds of 
 hearers from neiglibouring parishes. But his constitutional 
 impetuosity of character, combined with his peculiar theological 
 tenets, soon involved him in controversy. In 1766 he pub- 
 lished a paraphrase of a portion of the psalms, with a prelimi- 
 nar}^ dissertation, in which he affirmed, that in all the psalms 
 which are in the first person, the speaker is Christ, not David ; 
 and that in the others, the situation of the chm-ch, oppressed or 
 triumphant, is portrayed. These sentiments gave offence to the 
 presbyteiy, which was aggi-avated by the acrimony with which 
 Barclay defended his obnoxious views, both from the pulpit and 
 through the press. On the death of Sir. Dow in 1772, another 
 person was appointed his successor, in opposition to the wishes 
 of the parishioners, mainly through the influence of the pres- 
 bytery, who, it is alleged, were jealous of his great populaiity, 
 and canned their dislike to Mr. Barclay so far as to refuse him 
 the necessary testimonials for obtaining a Uving elsewhere. 
 Their decision was approved of by the General Assembly, to 
 which Jlr. Barclay appealed. On this he left the communion 
 of the Established Church, and founded the sect aiUed Bereans, 
 or Barclayites, of which a few congi'egations still exist. Ho was 
 ordained at Newcastle, October 12, 1773, by some presbyteriau 
 ministers belonging to the north of England, and in 1774 he 
 settled in Edinburgh, where he remained for three years. He 
 aftem^ards preached in London and Bristol, and other places in 
 England. His death took place suddenly at Eduiburgh on the
 
 BAR 
 
 380 
 
 BAR 
 
 29th of July, 1798. He was the author of numerous theological 
 treatises, which he collected and published in tlnxe volumes. 
 Barclay was a person of energetic character, fond of discussion, 
 and possessed of strong controversial powers. — J. T. 
 
 BARCLAY, Robert, the son of Colonel David Barclay, was 
 bom at Gordonstown in Jlorayshire, 16-18. He was early sent 
 to Paris to be educated under his uncle's care, but his uncle being 
 a zealous catholic, and likely to influence the mind of Robert 
 towards Romanist doctrines, the flvther recalled him. It appears 
 that the father became a Quaker in 1GG6, and therefore after the 
 retiu^n of the youth, who was only sixteen when brought back. 
 The son adopted Quakerism soon after the father, joined the 
 society, and became veiy zealous in propagating as well as de- 
 fending their sentiments in England and on the continent. In 1676 
 he \'i.'sitcd Holland and Germany, where he became acquainted 
 with Elizabeth, Princess Palatine, who continued a warm friend 
 to him and his coreligionists ever after. In that same year 
 he published his celebrated Apology, under the title " Theologia3 
 vere Christiante Apologia," 4to, Amsterdam. It was trans- 
 lated into English by himself, and published in 1678. It has 
 gone through many editions in 4to and 8vo, and was translated 
 into most continental languages. Written with much ability, with 
 clearness of reasoning and perspicuity of expression, it also shows 
 great uigemiity in the advocacy of unpopular opinions. In 1677 
 he again visited Holland, in company with William Penn and 
 George Fox; and in 1679 procured from Charles II. a charter 
 erecting his paternal estate of Uiy into a free barony, with civil 
 and criminal jurisdiction to him and his heirs, which was after- 
 wards ratified by act of parliament. The alterations, however, 
 which were made during the reign of George II. in the govern- 
 ment of Scotland, exthiguished it. In 1679 he visited Holland 
 a third time ; and in 1682 was appointed governor of East Jersey 
 in North America, with liberty of appointing a deputy. The 
 province was never visited by himself. He spent the remainder 
 of his life in retirement at the paternal residence of Uiy, where 
 he died, October 3, 1690, .aged forty-two, leaving seven children. 
 His Apology is the only one of his works that is much known ; 
 and that contains the best exposition of the doctrines and prac- 
 tices of the Quakers. It is regarded as the standard of that sect. 
 Other publications are " Truth Cleared of Calumnies," Aberdeen, 
 1670. This was his first work. "A Catechism and Confession 
 of Faith," 1675; "Theses TlieologicaB," 1675, which were the 
 foundation of the Apology; " Treatise on Universal Love," 1677; 
 "Anai-chy of the Ranters and other Libertines," 1676. A few 
 other small tracts proceeded from his pen. — S. D. 
 
 BARCLAY, Thomas, a Scottish scholar of considerable 
 celebrity, who was educated at Bom-deaux and Toulouse, and 
 became the head of what was called the Squillanean. He was 
 appointed regius professor of civil lavf at Poitiers, and afterwards 
 taught the same science at Toulouse with great applause. 
 
 15ARCLAY, William, a celebrated Scottish civilian, father 
 of the author of the Argenis, was bom in Aberdeenshire ui 
 1541. His early years were spent at the court of Queen Maiy ; 
 but on the dethronement and captivity of that unfortunate 
 princess, he emigi-ated to France in 1573, and, with a number 
 of his countrymen, studied civil law under the famous Cujacius, 
 at Bourges. In 1578 the dulce of Lorraine appointed him 
 professor of ci\dl law in the recently-established university of 
 Pont a Jlousson, through the recommendation of his uncle, 
 Edmund Hay, the first rector of that seminary. He was also 
 nominated by the duke, in 1582, a councillor of state and master 
 of requests to his hospital. In 1600 he published, in Latin, a 
 treatise " On the Royal Power, against Buchanan, Biiitus, 
 Boucher, and other King-killers," in which he argues, that the 
 sovereign is supreme in temporal affairs, that the people arc 
 bound to yield implicit obedience to his orders, and that the 
 laws owe their validity to his will. He admits, however, that 
 subjects have a right to resist their sovereign in cases of extreme 
 cruelty. Having (luaiTclIed with the Jesuits, in consequence of 
 his refusal to allow his distinguished son, John, to become a 
 member of their body, Barcl.ay was obliged to resign his chair 
 in 1603, and to seek refuge in England. His defence of despotic 
 power recommended him to the favour of James I., who had 
 just ascended the English throne ; but his refusal to abandon 
 the Roman Catholic faith lost liim the promotion which he was 
 offered by that monarch. Barclay returned to France in 1604, 
 and became professor of civil law at Angers. His death is sup- 
 posed to have taken place about the close of 1605. A treatise 
 
 which he wrote on the power of the pope, showing that he has 
 no authority over secular princes, was published after liis death, 
 in 1609, by his son. He is also the author of a Latin commen- 
 tary on the title of the Pandects, "De Rebus Creditis et de Jure- 
 jurando," Paris, 1605 ; and of a " Commentary on the Life of 
 Agi-icola," Paris, 1699.— J. T. 
 
 BARCLAY DE TOLLY, IMiciiael, Prince, a celebrated 
 Russian field-marshal, bom in Livonia in 1750 ; died at Inster- 
 biug, 25th May, 1818. He was descended of a Scottish family 
 that had been established at Livonia from the year 1689. He 
 commenced his mihtary career in the campaigns against the 
 Turks, the Swedes, and the Poles. He was wounded in tlie 
 right arm at the battle of Eylau ; and was raised to the rank of 
 lieutenant-general. About the end of 1808 his wounds com- 
 pelled hun to seek a temporary repose ; but in !March of the 
 following year he resmued his command, and surprised the 
 Swedes at Umeo, by a march of two days over the ice which 
 covered the Gulf of Bothnia. The Emperor Alexander made 
 him governor-general of Finland ; and in the following year 
 nominated him minister of wai'. He was author of the plan of 
 operations, which was followed with signal advantage by the 
 Russian anny in the campaign of 1812. After the battle of 
 Bautzen, 26th May, 1813, he was appointed commander-in- 
 chief of the Prusso-Russian anny ; and, under him, Wittgen- 
 stein commanded the Russians ; Blucher, the Prussians ; and 
 the Grand Duke Constantine, the Imperial Guard. On the 31st 
 March, 1814, the day on which the allied armies entered Paris, 
 Barclay was named general field-m.arshr.l. After having ac- 
 companied Alexander to London, Barclay rejoined the amiy, 
 and took up his head quarters at 'Varso\'ia ; but, on the return 
 of Napoleon from Elba, he brought back the Russian army, by 
 forced marches, to the Rhine, and from that to Chalons-sur- 
 Marne, Mclun, and Vertus. On his retmii to St. Petersbiug 
 in 1817, the emperor gave him a most distinguished reception, 
 and appointed a gi'and review to be held in his honour. His 
 he.alth being much shattered, he, next year, undertook a voyage, 
 with a view to its re-establishment ; but he died on the way, at 
 a short distance from Insterburg in Prussia. — G. M. 
 
 BARCO DE AVILiV, Garcia, and his brother Juan Ro- 
 driguez, two Spanish fresco pauiters employed by the duke of 
 Alba in the decoration of his palace. They worked in 1476. 
 
 BARCOKHEBA or BARCOKECAS, a famous Jewish im- 
 postor, lived in the first half of the second centiuy of the Christian 
 era. His name is composed of two eastern words, signifying 
 '• the son of a star ; " but his real name was Simeon. After the 
 destraction of Jerasalem by Titus, the Jews, at different periods, 
 sought to regain their independence ; and Bai-cokheba, secuig 
 his countrymen still impatient of the Roman yoke, resolved to 
 attempt a new movement for theu emancipation. With this 
 view he tried to sound the dispositions of the Jews of Mesopo- 
 tamia, Eg}'pt, Greece, Italy, and Gaul ; and, by his directions, 
 his emissaries, of whom the celebrated Akiba was one, travelled 
 over all the provinces of the Roman empire. When aU was ready, 
 Barcokheba solemnly announced himself as King and Messiah, 
 and seized by surprise on many fortified places. All the uihabit- 
 ants, particularly the Christians, who refused to submit to him 
 were put to death. When the great success which at first attended 
 his entei-prise became known, great numbers of Jews, from all 
 parts of the world, hastened to range themselves under his stand- 
 ard ; and so fomiidable did tliis insmTection become, that Julius 
 Severas, general of the annies of Adrian, and one of the greatest 
 captains of the age, was compelled to act with extreme caution, 
 and to content himself with surprising such detached bodies of 
 the enemy as happened to be otf their guard. Soon, however, 
 the superior discipline of the Roman army prevailed. The Jewish 
 amiy, shut up in the fortress of Bethar, succumbed under fatigue 
 and famine ; Barcoklieba perished miserably, and all his followers 
 were massacred or reduced to slavery. From this period may be 
 dated the enthe dispersion of the people of Israel over the face of the 
 earth. This war cost the conquerors much blood. It continued 
 for five years, and did not terminate until the year 136. — G. M. 
 
 BARCOS, Martin de, a French theologian, distinguished as 
 a controversial writer, was boiTi at Bayonne in 1600, and died 
 in 1678. He studied theology luider Jansenius, bishop of Ypres, 
 and succeeded his uncle Jean Duvergier, as abbe of Saint Cyran. 
 His principal performances are those in which he defends the 
 supremacy of the pope. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARD, Samuel, an American physician, bom at Philadel-
 
 pliia, 1st April, 1742 ; died May 24, 1821. He studied medi- 
 cine at London and Edinburgh, where he received the degree 
 of doctor of medicine in 17G5. On his return to his native 
 countiy, he founded at New York a school of medicine, a public 
 library, and a hospital for the use of the pupils. He reckoned 
 amongst his nmnerous pupils the celebrated Washington. In 
 ISlShe was nominated president of the College of Sm-geons at 
 New York. He published a memoir on malignant sore-throat, and 
 a treatise on midwifery, entitled "A Compendium of the Theory 
 and Practice of Midwifery," New York, 1814-15, Bvo. — E. L. 
 
 BARDAJI Y AZAKA, Don Eusibio de, a Spanish states- 
 m:m, bom at Huete in the province of Cuen9a in 1765 ; died at 
 JIadi-id, 7th March, 1844. His first office was that of head of 
 the bureau of chanceiy at Madiid in 1808, and he next accom- 
 panied D. Pedi-o Cevallos in his mission to Bayonne. He held 
 successively a great nmnber of important offices in the state, and 
 finally, on the 17th Dec, 1837, quitted the field of politics. — G.M. 
 BAR DAS, a patrician of Constantinople, brother of the Em- 
 press Theodora, mother of the Emperor Michael III., died 21st 
 April, 8GG. IJeing a man of learning, he re-established the 
 sciences, which had declined in the empue since the time of Leon 
 the Isam-ian, who had burned t'he libraiy of Consttmtiuople. In 
 8.38 he expelled Ignatius from the patriarchal chair, winch he 
 liestowed on the eunuch Photius, his nephew. This circumstance 
 became a source of schism in the Greek church. — G. JI. 
 
 B ARDAS-SCLERUS, general under the Emperor John Zimis- 
 ces, died about 990. He acquired great authority at Constanti- 
 nople by his boldness and his intrigues. In 975, after the death 
 of Jolm Zimisces, he caused himself to be proclaimed emperor 
 by the army. He was opposed by different generals, but was 
 almost always victor. At length he encountered Bardas Phocus 
 in a battle fought at Amorea in Phiygia, and this contest having 
 terminated the war, the two generals resolved on fighting a duel 
 the next day. Scleras was dangerously wounded, and was 
 reduced to the necessity of seeking an asylum in the dominions 
 of the caliph of Bagdad, who ordered him to be arrested. Ha\'ing, 
 the foUowmg year, obtained his liberty, he miited with Bardas 
 Phocus, who had assumed the pui-ple, and shared the empire 
 with him. He afterwards tendered his submission to the Em- 
 peror Basil, who bestowed on him the office of grand-master of 
 the palace. — -G. M. 
 
 * BARDELEBEN, Kukt de, a Prussian deputy, born 24th 
 April, 1796. In 1834 he was called to represent the nobility 
 in the provincial diet of Konigsberg; and in 1840 he was one 
 of those who petitioned the king for the organization of a repre- 
 sentative government. In 1848 he sat as deputy of the circle 
 of Konigsberg in the national assembly of Frankfort. He was 
 not a member of the assembly of 1849, but in that which followed 
 he again represented Konigsberg, and manifested an energetic 
 opposition to the politics of M. de lilanteufel. — G. M. 
 
 BARDESANES, a famous heretic, was a native of Edessa, 
 and flourished towards the close of the second centuiy. The 
 chronicle of Edessa fixes his birthday to the 11th July, 154 
 A.D., but this date cannot be completely reUcd on. The facts 
 of his history are involved in obscurity or perplexity. Eusebius 
 asserts that B;irdesanes was first a heretic, and then came round 
 to the orthodox faith, though he never completely threw oflf all 
 liis en'ors. Epiphanius, on the other hand, tells us that he was 
 i>rought up an orthodox Christian, and aftenvards became here- 
 tical. The most feasible explanation of these diverse statements 
 is, that he might be at once called a heretic or an orthodox 
 Christian, according to the latitude allowed by the writer : for, 
 while differing from the orthodox church in some points, he dif- 
 fered also from many of the heretics, wrote agauist their errors, 
 and seemed thus to take part mth the church. The doctrines 
 on which he differed from the church were — the origin of evil, 
 the person of Christ, and the resurrection of the body. He 
 asserted the existence of two gi-eat principles or roots ; one of 
 good, and the otlier of eviL He reckoned evil in man to be the 
 result mainly of his gross body, which he received from the 
 devil only after he had jdelded to his suggestions. The body of 
 Christ, therefore, could not be this gross earthly body, but a 
 heavenly body. At the same time, he maintained that Christ 
 was born by means of Mary, not of her. He could not agi-ee, 
 also, to the opinion that the bodies which had died would rise 
 again, as they were fitted only for sinful men. Bardesanes 
 WTOte various books. Among tliese are mentioned Syriac imita- 
 tions of the Psalms of David, by means of which he spread his 
 
 pecuhar tenets. He also wrote a work accm-ately described by 
 Eusebius and others to be " on fate," but which bears the name 
 of the " Book of the Laws of Countries." It was till lately 
 known only by the fragments of a Greek translation of it which 
 had been preserved in Eusebius. In 1855 the Syriac work 
 itself was published in Cureton's Spicilegium Syriacum. It 
 discusses the subject of fate and free-will ; and is especially 
 designed to show that the stars have no infiuence on the habits 
 and destinies of men. There can be no doubt that in the manu- 
 script now edited by Cureton, which was obtained by Archdeacon 
 Tattam in 1843, from a Syrian convent in the desert of Nitria, 
 we have the original : for, though one ancient writer says that 
 Bardesanes laiew Greek, other testimony is strong that he wrote 
 only in Syriac, and that his acquaintances translated his writings 
 into Greek. There are a few striking differences between the 
 Syriac and the Greek. Eusebius informs us that the work was 
 addi-essed to Antoninus, but whether to Mai-cus Aurelius Anto- 
 ninus, or to his colleague, Annius Venis, who must have visited 
 Edessa in the days of Bardesanes, is left uncei-tain. Most have 
 supposed that it was to Aamius Veinis. — J. D. 
 
 BARDI, Andkea, a Florentine poet, a contemporary of 
 Petrarch. 
 
 BARDI, DoNATo. See Doxatello. 
 
 BARDI, Jeuojie, an Italian physician and theologian, bom 
 at Rapallo on the 7th March, 1603 ; died 1670. His bad 
 health obliged hun to separate himself fi-om the Jesuit brother- 
 hood, to which for five yeai's he had belonged. From Genes, 
 where he aftenvards went, and where he received his degree of 
 doctor of medicine and divinity, he came to Pisa, where he 
 obtained from Julien de iledicis, governor of that town, the chair 
 of philosophy. At a later period he retumed to Rome, where 
 he remained from 1651 to 1667, and obtained from Alexander 
 YII. a licence to practise medicine. He wrote " Xaverius 
 Peregrinus, pede pari et impari Descriptus," Rome, 1659, 4to; 
 a poem, for which Bardi obtained from the pope a pension of 
 fifty Roman crowns. He left a manuscript under the singular 
 title of " i\Iusica, Medica, Magica, Dissona," &c. — E. L. 
 
 BARDI, Pierre de, count of Vemio, born in Florence in 
 the first part of the seventeenth century ; author of critical and 
 philosophical works. 
 
 BARDILI, Christopher Godfrey, born at Blauberen, 
 1761 ; died 1806. Being thoroughly dissatisfied with the com-se ot 
 modern German philosophy, he undertook to place it on a sound 
 footing, by basing all science on the principle of logical identity. 
 According to hiin non-contradiction is the sole test of trath. 
 Hence he was di-iven to maintain that the universe of actual 
 existences contains all possible existences. His principal work is 
 a " Sketch of the first logic, pm-ged from the errors wluch have 
 generally disfigured it hitherto, particularly those of Kant's phi- 
 losophy," Stutgard, 1800.— J. D. E. 
 
 BARDILI, Hans Wendel, a Geiman writer, author of tra- 
 vels and voyages, born at Reutlingen ; died in 1740. 
 
 BARDIN, Etienne-Alex^vis'dek, Baron, bom 1774; died 
 1840. He pm-sued a mihtary career, and took part in all the 
 campaigns of the Revolution and the Empire. He wrote several 
 valuable works. The best known is a " i\Ianual on Infantry." 
 
 BARDIN, Jean, a French liistorical painter, bom at Jlon- 
 bard in 1732, studied first under Legrenee, the elder, and then 
 at Rome. He has the credit of having been the master of David 
 and Regnault. — R. M. 
 
 BARDIN, Pierre, a French lawyer, bom at Toulouse in the 
 first part of the fifteenth century. He wrote chiefly on eccle- 
 siastical subjects. 
 
 BARDIN, WiLLiAJi, a lawyer of the fifteenth centuiy. He 
 WTote a " History of Languedoc." 
 
 BARDIS^VNES, the Baisylonian, a liistorian of the times 
 of Hehogabalus and Alexander Severus, is quoted by Porjihyry 
 as the author of a work ' On the Philosophy of the Indians," 
 some notices of which he had obtamed from Indian envoys to 
 the court of Ileliogahalus. 
 
 BARDOLINI, Matthew, an Italian geogi-aphcr, who lived 
 in the beginning of the sixteenth centmy. He wrote a work on 
 " The Planisphere." 
 
 BARDON DE BRUN, Bernard, a French tragic writer, 
 who lived about the middle of the sixteenth centuiy ; author of 
 " Saint James," a tragedy in five acts. 
 
 BARDOU, Jean, a French priest and litterateur ; died in 
 1803. He WTote, " Amusement of a Solitary Philosopher."
 
 BARDOZZI, Jeax de, a learned Hungarian ; died in 1819. 
 He wrote chiefly on Hungarian histoiy and commerce. 
 
 BARUYLIS or BARDYLLIS, a king of Illyria in the fourth 
 century, who raised himself to the throne from being a captain 
 of brigands. He invaded ^Macedonia in the reign of Ajnyntas 
 II., and again in that of Perdiccas III., whom he vanquished 
 and killed, 360 B.C. In the following year Pliihp entered his 
 dominions, and, it is supposed, put him to death. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAKDZIXSKI, Jxs Axax, a Polish theologian and poet of 
 the seventeenth centuiy, professor of theology in the Dominican 
 seminaiy at Warsaw. He translated Lucan's Pharsalia, Boethius' 
 De Consolatione, and the tragedies of Seneca. Died in 1705. 
 
 BAREBONE or BARBONE, Praise-God, a member of the 
 legislative body assembled by Cromwell in 1653, after the dis- 
 solution of the long parhament. The royalists facetiously distin- 
 guished him by calling the convention B;u-ebone's parhament. 
 Previous to the issuing of the writ which created him, and six 
 other persons of moderate fortune, members for the city of Lon- 
 don, he was a cunier in Fleet Street. At the time when j\Ionk 
 was in London, Barebone headed the mob who presented a peti- 
 tion to parliament against the recal of Charles II. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARELLAS, Etiexxe, a Spanish historian, bom in Cata- 
 lonia in the beginnmg of the seventeenth century. 
 
 BARELLI, Francois Louis, bom in Kice ; died in 1725; 
 author of "A Biography of the Founder of the Barnabites." 
 
 BAREXTIX, Charles Louis Frajs'^ois de Paulle de, 
 keeper of the seals mider Louis XVI., was bom in 1738, and 
 died in 1819. Succeeding Lamoignon in 1788, he opened, on 
 the part of the king, the second convocation of the noblesse, and 
 afterwards the States General, the tlu'ee orders of which he ex- 
 hausted his ingenuity m attempts to reconcile. Jllrabeau, and 
 afterwards GaiTan de Coulon, denounced him as an intriguer, 
 and caused him to be brought before the tribunal of the Chatelet. 
 He was acquitted, and shortly after left France. At the Restor- 
 ation, Louis XVIII. created him honorary chancellor. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARENTIN, JIoxtchal, Vicomte de, a French general, 
 bom at Paris in 1737 ; died m 1824. After some senice as 
 captain of cavalry in the seven years' war, he was appointed to 
 a command in the Scotch body guard, -nith which company he 
 served under Conde at the battle of Jlittau. He wrote " Geo- 
 graphic Ancienne et Historique, composee d'apres les cartes de 
 d'Anville," 1807.-^. S., G. 
 
 BARENTIX-MOXTCHAL, Madame de, hved m the be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century. Wrote an abridgment of the 
 Old and New Testament. 
 
 BARENTS or BARENTSEN, Tiiiert, often surnamed Ber- 
 XARDT Dick, a Dutch painter, bom at Amsterdam in 1534 ; 
 died in 1592. He was the son of Bemardt Barents, an indif- 
 ferent artist, who gave him tlie first instructions until he left for 
 Italy, where he studied under Titian, and acquired a reputation, 
 lie painted both portraits and history in the style of his Italian 
 master. He also was a good poet and musician.— R. 51. 
 
 BARENTS or BARENTZ, William, a celebrated Dutch 
 pilot of the 16th century, was a native of Ter Schelling, an 
 island lying off the coast of Friesland, and was also a burgher 
 of Amsterdam. No particulars of his family or early life are 
 known ; and it is only from the part which he bore in three 
 voyages of discovery, made in the years 1594, '95, and '96, that 
 his name has descended to us. The name of the famous Dutch 
 pilot, which is variously written, appears to have been, properly, 
 Barentszoon, that is, the son of Barent or Bernard ; whence the 
 common Dutch contraction of Barentsz. He appears to have 
 belonged to the humbler ranks of life. Barents was unquestion- 
 ably a man of considerable capacity and talent, and seems to 
 nave possessed, in an eminent degree, the faculty of inspiring 
 the respect, confidence, and warm personal attachment of those 
 Avho were the companions of his voyages. His determination, 
 perseverance, and undaunted courage, were abundantly evidenced 
 on many trying occasions ; and his feats of seamanship wUl bear 
 comparison with the boldest of those accompUshed by our modem 
 navigators. The narrative of the voyages performed by WiUiam 
 I>arents, from the pen of one who had home a share m the two 
 later of them, was first published at Amsterdam, in the year 
 159 '^, under the following title — "A Tnie Description of Three 
 Voya{'es by the North-East toward Cathay and China, under- 
 taken by the Dutch in the Years 1594, 1595, and 1596," by Genit 
 de Veer ; and an English version of the work, by William Phillip, 
 appeared in London m 1669. We owe to the Haldun Society 
 
 an excellent edition of this work, issued in 1853, and accom- 
 panied by valuable illustrative matter. The object which the 
 Dutch sought to attain in these fainous voyages had already 
 commanded, during more than forty years, the attention of the 
 maritime nations of western Europe. Sir Hugh Willoughby, in 
 his disastrous expedition of 1553, had visited the coasts of Nova 
 Zembla (hitherto known only to the Russians) ; and previously 
 to 1584, an Enghsh vessel had crossed the sea of Kara, and 
 penetrated as far east as tlie mouth of the great river ObL 
 But at this time, and down to the date of the Dutch pilot's 
 discoveries. Nova Zembla (properly Novaya Zemlya, i.e., New 
 Land) appears to have been regarded as an island of moderate 
 extent, the designation being applied to the southerly portion 
 only of the chain of islands now comprised under the name. In 
 all tlu-ee of the voyages in which Barents was engaged, he acted 
 as chief pUot ; not holding, in either case, the nominal command 
 of the expedition. The post of chief pilot v/as often, however, 
 amongst the earlier voyagers, one of more real responsibihty 
 than that of the master of the ship , and hence the frequent 
 cases in which the name of the pilot, rather than that of the 
 commander, became in those days attached to newly-discovered 
 lands and seas. In the first of his three famous voyages (in 
 which four ships were employed), Barents reached the western 
 shore of Nova Zembla in July, 1594, and traced its coasts as 
 far to the northward as a point to which the Dutchmen gave 
 the name of De Hoeck van Nassau (lat. 77° 25'); whence they 
 struggled on agamst adverse winds, and the obstructions caused 
 by ice, for a considerable distance to the eastward. Upon their 
 return, the seamen employed themselves in lading their vessel 
 with the teeth of the walrus, or sea-horse, which abounds in 
 those latitudes. For the voyage of the following year, the 
 States General equipped a fleet of seven ships, but the enterprise 
 appears to have been commenced at too late a period of the 
 season, and they returned to the Maas without accomplishing 
 anything important in the way of discovery. The coasts of 
 Nova Zembla were found unapproachable from the ice, and even 
 Barents penetrated no farther than the strait of Nassau (or 
 Waygatz), which inten-enes between Waygatz island and the 
 Russian mainland. The tliird voyage (1596) was that most 
 fruitful in discovery, as well as that ia which the skill and 
 fortitude of the hardy Dutchman and his companions were 
 most severely tried. The two ships of which this expedition 
 consisted, were fitted out at the expense of the merchants of 
 Amsterdam. Starting at an earlier season than in the preceding 
 year, they had abeady, by the 1st June, reached so high a lati- 
 tude as to have no night. On the 9th June, they arrived at land, 
 to which the name of Bear Island was given, from the circum- 
 stance of a large white bear being killed there ; ten days after- 
 wards, the vessel ia which Bai-ents sailed was nearly under 
 the line of the 80th parallel, immediately east of the shores of 
 Spitzbergen, of which extensive group of islands the Dutch pilot 
 was thus the discoverer, and the mainland of which he completely 
 circumnavigated. Aftersvards steering, in a lower latitude, to 
 the eastward, Barents again reached the shores of Nova Zembla, 
 and, passing the Hoeck van Nassau of his fonner voyage, 
 struggled on ■n'ith much difficulty along an ice-bound coast, 
 until, on August 26th, his vessel ai'rived at the Ice Haven, 
 where he and his companions " were forced, in great cold, 
 poverty, misery, and giief, to stay all that winter," and whence 
 they did not get released until June 14th of the following year, 
 passing nearly ten months in that dreary and inhospitable 
 locality ! This is the first instance on record of a ship's crew 
 wintering within arctic latitudes. The sun entirely forsook them 
 on Nov. 4th ; his entire disc reappeared above the horizon on 
 January 27th, fourteen days earher than had been calculated 
 upon by Barents, as the complete disappearance of that lumi- 
 nary, in the earUer half of the winter, had not taken place until 
 a later date, by several days, than that which his calculations 
 had assigned for it. But the refractive powers of the atmo- 
 sphere, towards the horizon, were in that age unknown. Several 
 months, however, had yet to elapse ere they could hope to 
 escape from their winter prison. Their ship had been seriously 
 damaged by the ice; but they repaired the two boats which 
 belonged to her, and at length, on the 13th June, prepared to 
 leave their gloomy abode. Barents first drew up in writing, 
 and left in the wooden hut which had so long afforded them 
 shelter, a list of their names, with an account of their misfor- 
 tunes, and a description of what had befallen them while resid-
 
 BAR 
 
 383 
 
 BAR 
 
 ing there. Of the seventeen who constituted the party when 
 first located in tlieir winter quarters, two had already died from 
 scurvy, and all were greatly enfeebled. The number of deaths 
 was subsequently increased to five. They departed from Ice 
 Haven in their two boats, retraced their course along the whole 
 western shore of Nova Zembla, and thence proceeded along the 
 northern coasts of the European mainland, until they reached 
 the mouth of the little river Kola, in Russian Lapland, where 
 the survivors found a welcome reception on board of three Dutch 
 sliips which lay there, and which ultimately conveyed them to 
 tl'cir native land. They reached the river luaas in October, 
 1597. But Barents, to whom all had been accustomed to turn 
 
 ith confidence under the most tiying circimistances, had died 
 \orn out by fatigue and anxiety) on the 26th of June, a few 
 (lays after their leaving Ice Haven — greatly to the grief of his 
 companions ! Some difference of opinion prevails vfith regard to 
 the precise locality which may be supposed to coincide with the 
 Ice Haven of this memorable expedition, as well as with respect 
 to the identification on the modern chart of the headland of 
 Nassau and other points mentioned in the narrative of Gerrit 
 de Veer. For a discussion of these questions, we may refer to 
 the Hakluyt Society's interesting volume. But the general truth- 
 fulness of the Dutch record is strikingly attested by the course of 
 modern discovery, and the morse and seal himters of the north 
 still preserve the tradition of the memorable wintering of Barents 
 and his companions in the Ice Haven of Nova Zembla. — W. H. 
 
 BAR£RE, de Vieuzac Bertrand, christened by Burke tlic 
 
 Anacreon of the Guillotine," was born at Tarbes, in the 
 Upper PyTcnees, in 1755. He was an advocate by profession, 
 and soon displayed his own peculiar talent — the gift of melli- 
 fluous speech and clever selection of the winning side. Possessed 
 of a local notoriety, he was sent by Bigorre as one of its repre- 
 sentatives to the States General of 1789. He immediately flung 
 himself into the ranks of the extreme left, and published reports 
 of the national assembly in a paper called the Break of Day. 
 In 1792 the department of the Upper Pyrenees elected him to 
 the National Convention. In December of that year he was made 
 its president, in which capacity he conducted the trial of the 
 king. He was courteous and kind to Louis, but voted for his 
 death, without appeal and without delay, when he saw that 
 his death was popular. Afraid of RobespieiTe, he complimented 
 and supported him, in his heart yearning for a cessation of the 
 Terror ; but when Robespierre fell, he exceeded his bitterest 
 enemies in denunciation of the fallen dictator; but in vain. He 
 was tried in 1795 as a terrorist, and sentenced to deportation. 
 A strong attempt was made to have him guillotined, but finally 
 he got out of France. Buonaparte, on his accession, permitted 
 his return ; and from that period to the flight of Napoleon he 
 remained in Paris, earning his living by fugitive literary efforts. 
 The Bourbons, on their restoration in 1814, did not disturb Bar6re; 
 but during Napoleon's brief retura he was elected a member of 
 the representative chamber, and immediately set to work to make 
 a new constitution. Thus occupied on the final return of Louis 
 XVIII. in 1815, he could no longer be overlooked: he was 
 tn-aigned as a regicide ; escaped to Belgium ; lived there ti-an- 
 i|uilly till 1830; returned to France, and settled at his native 
 I'arbes, where he died in 1841 at the age of 85 years. He 
 published gi-eat numbers of small works, translations, pamphlets, 
 lie. ; and a portion of his memoirs was published in 1842, 
 edited by H. Camot & David of Angers. — J. S. S. 
 
 BARET, J., a mathematician, professor at Nantz ; died 1814; 
 author of a tract on the calculation of the longitude by sea. 
 
 BARET, Jean, a French historian of the 17th century. 
 
 BAREUTH, FREDERic-SopiiiE-WiLHELMiNE,born atPots- 
 •lani; died in 1758. She was the daughter of Frederick Wil- 
 hain I. of Prussia. She has left very interesting Memoirs. 
 
 * BAREZZI or BAREGGI, Stefano, a Rlifanese painter of 
 lu- day, more distinguished for being the inventor of the process 
 
 by which frescos are transfeiTcd upon canvas or boards, than for 
 any artistical production of his own. — R. M. 
 
 BAREZZI or BAREZZO, a learned Italian printer, bom at 
 Cremona, and followed his profession at Venice in the beginning 
 of the seventeenth century. He was remarkable for his crudi- 
 dition, and wrote several biographical and historical works. 
 
 BARFKOVIUS, Jean, a German author and preacher in 
 the beginning of the eighteenth centuiy. He translated a col- 
 lection of German songs into Polish. 
 
 * BARFOD, Paul Fredeuiic. a Danish writer, bom 1811, 
 
 near Grenaan in Jutland. Among his historical works may be 
 mentioned, " The History of Denmark and Norway under Fred. 
 VI. ; " " Biography of the Ranzau Family ; " and " The Jews 
 in Denmark." Barfod is remarkable as being one of the 
 most powerful supporters of the idea of a United Northern, or 
 Scandinavian Idngdom. He established in 1839 a quarterlv 
 periodical, Brage og Idun, for which the three nations, Swedes, 
 Danes, and Norwegians furnished contributions. The mere 
 announcement of this work was so enthusiastically received in 
 Sweden, that the king interfered by a despatch addressed to all 
 his ambassadors upon the subject ; and though this work did 
 not obtain the position which was expected, it became widely 
 cu-culated, and contains much admirable writing. — AL H. 
 
 BARFUSS, John Albert, Count of, a Prassian general 
 distinguished in the Rhenish campaign of the Elector Frederic 
 III., and also in that of the Emperor Leopold I., against the 
 Turks, was born in 1631, and died in 1704. He remained in 
 active service till 1699, when he was deprived of his commands 
 at the instigation of Baron von Kolbe. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARGEMON or BERGEMON, a Provcn9al poet; died 
 about 1285. 
 
 * BARGES, Je.ot Joseph Leandre, a French abbe, cele- 
 brated as an Orientalist, was bom at Auriol in 1810. He 
 studied Hebrew and Arabic at IMarseilles ; the fonner with tlie 
 assistance of a learned rabbi, and the latter under Dom Gabriel 
 Jaouil. In 1837, after officiating for some time as vicar of one 
 of the parishes of his native district, he was appointed professor 
 of Arabic at Marseilles. In 1842 he was translated to the chair 
 of Hebrew in the university of Pai-is, and m 1850 was named 
 honorary canon of tlie metropolis. He has twice made a jour- 
 ney into Algeria, the capital of the western part of which province, 
 Tlemcen, he particularly visited, with a view to preparing for 
 publication a MS. history of its kings, written in Arabic by 
 ]Mohammed-et-Tennessy. Besides that work, and a gi-eat number 
 of papers in various journals, he has published " Aper9u his- 
 torique sm- I'Eglise d'Afrique en general et en particulier sur 
 I'eglise episcopale de Tlemcen," 1848. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARGETON, Daniel, a French lawyer and publisher; died 
 at Palis in 1757. He was for some time confined in the Bastile 
 for conspu-acy, but afterwards got his liberty. He wrote a num- 
 ber of letters to prove the utility of taxing the clergy. 
 
 BARGINET, Alexander Petek, bora at Grenoble, 1798 ; 
 died in 1843. He was one of that numerous body of wniters pro- 
 duced by the Restoration. Besides his labours as a journalist, he 
 has left a long list of works, embracing history, topography, &c. 
 
 BARGONE, GiACOMO, a Genoese painter of the second half 
 of the 10th century, a pupil of Semini and Lazzaro Calvi. His 
 progress was so rapid and so great, that his second master, out 
 of jealousy, administered some poison to hun, which fii-st affected 
 his mmd, and aftenvards caused his death, whilst still in the 
 piime of youth. — R. M. 
 
 BARGUANI, Francois, an Italian poet, bom in lOGl; 
 died 1742 ; author of several Latin poems and orations. 
 
 BARHAM, Richard Harris, better known by his literary 
 pseudonym, Thomas Ingoldsby, was bom at Canterbury, 
 December, 1788, educated at St. Paul's school, from whence he 
 went to Brazonose college, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 
 1811. He was appointed a minor canon of St. Paul's in 1821. 
 He contributed for many years to various periodicals, among 
 which were the Edinhurgh Review and Blackwood's Magazine; 
 but his most popular series of papers were given to Bailk'g's 
 Miscellany, under the title of " The Ingoldsby Legends," since 
 published in 2 vols., 8vo. His novel, " My Cousin Nicholas," 
 was published in 3 vols. About one-third of the articles in 
 Gorton's Biographical Dictionaiy were written by him. He died 
 in Amen Corner, London, June 17, 1845, aged 5G. — T. F. 
 
 BARICELLI, Jules Casar, an Italian physician, lived m 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century. Author of several 
 valuable medical and philosophical works. 
 
 BARILE, Giovanni, a Florentine artist of the first half of 
 the 16th centuiy. He was equally a painter and a sculptor in 
 wood. In the latter capacity he worked at Rome in the Vatican, 
 and acquired a veiy good fame. Amongst other pupils he gave 
 the first lessons in art to Andi-ea del Sarto. — R. M. 
 
 BARILE, Giovanni Dominico, an Italian tlieologian of the 
 first half of the eighteenth ceuturj', author of " Scuola di teologiche 
 verita ajicrta al mondo Christiano d' oggidi, osia I'amor I'latonico 
 smaschcrato," Modena, 1716.
 
 BAR 
 
 384 
 
 BAR 
 
 BARILI, AxTONio de' Neri, and his son Domenico, Italian 
 sculptors and architects, employed between 1485 and 1511 to 
 work for the cathedral of Sienna, theh native town. — R. JI. 
 
 BAKILLETTO, Francois, a Venetian gondoHer, lived pro- 
 bably about the middle of the seventeenth centm-y. Author of 
 some poems. 
 
 BARILLERE, a French publisher, in the commencement of 
 the seventeenth century. Wrote a work on the internal navi- 
 gation of France. 
 
 BARILLON, Jeax, a French historian ; died in 1553. He 
 left an unpublished history of the first seven years of the reign 
 of Francis I. 
 
 BARING, Alexander, first Lord Ashburton, was the second 
 son of Sir Francis Baring, Bart., an eminent London mer- 
 chant (whom see below), by Hamet, cousin and co-heir to 
 the late Archbishop (Herring) of Canterbury, and was bom in 
 1774. He was actively engaged in early life in the service of 
 his mercantile house in tlie United States and elsewhere, and 
 thus laid the foundation of his subsequent usefulness. He sat 
 in the hberal interest for Taunton, CoUington, and Thetford, in 
 various parliaments between 1812 and 1832, when he was 
 chosen for North Essex, as a moderate conseiTative, his political 
 opinions having undergone a considerable change. He held the 
 post of master of the Mint and president of the Boai-d of Trade 
 imder Sur R. Peel's short administration of 1834—5, on whose 
 retii-ement from office Mi'. Baring was raised to the peerage as 
 Lord Asliburton — a title which had once been enjoyed by the 
 celebro.ted Juhn Dunning, who had married one of the Baring 
 family. In the House of Lords he supported the policy of Su- 
 R. Peel, who in 1842 sent him as special commissioner to the 
 United States, to settle some disputes which thi-eatened to in- 
 volve England in a war with America. He was also one of the 
 first noblemen who saw the commercial and social benefits of 
 the pennj'-post system, when first proposed by Jlr. Rowland 
 Hill in 1837, and took an active part m carrying that measm'e 
 tln-ough the House of Peers. He died at Longleat, Wilts, May 
 13, 1848.— E. W. 
 
 BARING, Daniel-Eberhard, a German historian, bom 
 1G90; died 1753; author of an essay on the ecclesiastical and 
 literary history of Hanover. 
 
 BARING, EvERARD, a learned German, bom at Lubec in 
 1G08 ; died in 1C59. He passed a gi'eat portion of his life in 
 the army ; afterwards he became tutor to the princes Ernest- 
 Augustus and John Frederick of Bninswick. He edited part of 
 the Iliad of Homer, for the use of schools. 
 
 BARING, Sir Francis, Bart., an eminent London merchant, 
 financier, and capitalist, and the founder of the great commer- 
 cial house of Barings & Co., was bom in 1740. He was the 
 third son of John Baring, Esq., of Larkbear, near Exeter, many 
 years M.P. for that city, and grandson of a Lutheran clergyman 
 at Bremen. He was an East India director, and in that capa- 
 city rendered gi-eat services to the East India Company. He 
 was also largely interested in government loans, by which he 
 realized an immense fortune in the important political crises 
 of 1797 and 1806. He was raised to the baronetage in 1793, 
 and died September 12, 1810, lea^^ng behind luni realized and 
 landed pn^perty to the extent of above two millions sterling, 
 and having laid the foundations of a mercantile business scarcely, 
 if at all, inferior to the house of the Rothschilds. — E. W. 
 
 * BARING, Francis Tiiornhill, the Right Honoui-able Sir, 
 Bart., eldest son of the late Sir Thomas Baring, and grandson 
 of Sir Francis Baring (whom see), was bom in 179G, and gra- 
 duated at Christ Church, Oxford, as a double first-class in 1817. 
 He was afterwards called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and was 
 elected member for Portsmouth in 182G. He has lieen succes- 
 sively a lord of the Treasury, joint secretary to the Treasury, 
 and Chancellor of the Exchequer, during the latter part of Lord 
 Melbourne's administration. He was also first lord of the 
 Admiralty during part of Lord John Russell's govemment of 
 184G-52. Ho has continued to represent Portsmouth without 
 interruption down to the present time, March, 1858. — E. W. 
 
 • BARING, Thomas, M.P. for Huntingdon, next brother of 
 the Right Hon. F. T. Baring, Bart, (whom see), was bom in 
 1800. In 1843 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the city 
 of London, but was chosen in the following year for Huntingdon ; 
 wliich borough he has continued to represent down to the present 
 time. In pohtical views he is opposed to his brother ; but his 
 reputation rests more upon his great ability as a capitalist and 
 
 financier, which induced the earl of Derby to offer to hb accept- 
 ance the chancellorship of the Exchequer in 1852. He was 
 chairman of the comniittee of inquiry into the working of the 
 government of the East India Company, upon whose report the 
 modifications in its administration were introduced in 1853. 
 He is understood to be the chief working manager of the great 
 commercial house to which we have aheady alluded in the pre- 
 ceding articles. In Febraary, 1858, he was chosen to present 
 the petition of the court of du-ectors against Lord Palmerston's 
 proposed bill for abofisbing the existing government of the East 
 India Company. — E. W. 
 
 * BARING, William Bingham, second Lord Ashburton, 
 eldest son of the first lord by a daughter of W. Bingham, Esq., 
 of Philadelphia, U.S., was bom in 1799. He sat for many 
 years in the House of Commons as member for Thetford, Calling- 
 ton, Winchester, and North Staffordshire, and was secretary to 
 the Board of Control, 1841-45, and paymaster-general of the 
 forces and treasm-er of the naxj, 1845-46. He succeeded to 
 the peerage on his father's death in 1848, and has taken au 
 active part in the promotion of the education of the middle 
 classes in art and science. — E. W. 
 
 BARIOL or BARJILIS, Elias, a Proven9al poet, lived 
 about the middle of the twelfth centuiy. 
 
 BARISANUS or BARISONE, a sculptor in bronze, during 
 the 12th century, in Italy. Of his works two only ai-e known to 
 us, the bronze gates of the cathedral of Trani, and those of the 
 cathedral of Jlonreale. They are amongst the earliest specimens 
 of raised reliefs applied to such decoration ; similar gates of ante- 
 rior date havmg only niello-traced representations upon their 
 siuface. — R. M. 
 
 BARISON, king of Sardinia, hved in the second half of the 
 twelfth centmy. In 11G4, being then lord of Arborea, he 
 attempted, under fiivom- of the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, to 
 establish his title to the kingdom, newly wrested from the Sara- 
 cens by some Pisan nobles with whom he was connected ; but 
 having been advanced money by the Genoese, he was seized in 
 the midst of his success by his impatient creditors, and cast uito 
 prison, where he died. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAR J AC, Gabriel, a Genoese theologian of the second half 
 of the sixteenth centmy, author of " Introductio in artem Jesu- 
 iticam," &c., 1599. 
 
 BARJAC, Pierre de, a French Provencal poet, lived about 
 the middle of the twelfth centmy. 
 
 BARJAUD, Jean-Baptiste-Benoit, bom at Montlucon in 
 1785 ; died in 1813. He e\inced gi-eat taste for poetry, and 
 wrote several comedies and poems. He entered the army in 
 1812, distinguished himself at Bautzen, and was mortaHj 
 woimded at the battle of Leipzig in 1813. 
 
 BARlvAB-KHAN I., called also Barracan, chief of a horde 
 of Kharizmians, who appeared in Palestine about the year 1243, 
 and in 1244 effected the conquest of Jerusalem. In conjunc- 
 tion with the forces of the A}-ubite sultan of Egypt, Nojm-ed- 
 Deen, Barbacan and his followers, shortly after the reduction 
 of the holy city, obtained a great victory over the three military 
 orders at Gaza. He was slain in a battle with the troops of the 
 suhan in 1246.— J. S., G. 
 
 B ARKAH-KHAN II., Mogul sovereign of Kapchak, succeeded 
 his brother Batu in 1255. He adopted the Mohammedan faith 
 early Ln his reign; but devoted the remainder of it in the manner 
 of his ancestors, to predatory excursions. In one of these he 
 ravaged Lithuania and subjected the inhabitants to a capitation 
 tax. In 1264 he invaded the tcnitories of his kinsman Abaka, • 
 Mogul Khan of Persia, and was repulsed with loss, but resumed 
 the campaign in the following year, and had advanced triiunphantly 
 as far as Teflis, when he was surprised by death in the midst of 
 preparations for a general engagement. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARKER, George, F.rIs.', of Springfield, Birmingham, a 
 zealous supporter of all the charitable institutions of Birming- 
 ham, and an hidustrious promoter of science. The Plulosophical 
 Society of that town owes its birth, in 1806, to his exertions and 
 influence. He was a distinguished botanist, and was elected 
 F.R.S. in 1839. He died Dec. G, 1845, in liis 70th year.— T. F. 
 
 BARKER, Robert, an Irish painter, bom in 1739 ; died, 
 1806 ; the first artist who produced the kind of scenic pictures 
 called Panorama. — R. JI. 
 
 BARKER, Samuel, an Enghsh painter of flowers and fruits, 
 pupil of Vanderbanck, and a close imitator of Baptist ; died, i 
 1729.— R. M.
 
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 •BARKER, Francis, M.D., a distinguished cliemist and plij- 
 Eician, was bom in Waterford in Ireland. He entered Trinity col- 
 lege, Dublin, and hanng obtained his degree in 1792, repaired to 
 Edinburgh, then celebrated as the first medical school in Europe. 
 There he passed some years in the study of his profession, and 
 became acquainted with many distinguished men — amongst 
 others, with Sir ^^'alter Scott, with whose family he formed an 
 intimate friendship. At this time he became a member of the 
 Speculative Society, in which the present Lord Brougham took 
 a leading part. ANTien about to take his medical degree, he 
 composed a thesis, " De invento Galvani," in which, previous to 
 the discovery of the voltaic batter}', he suggested the idea of 
 the identity of the nen-ous lluid and djTiamical electricity. 
 Returning to his native city, he took an active part in estab- 
 lishing there the first fever hospital ever opened in Ireland. 
 After a five years' residence in Waterford, he came to Dublin, 
 where he took the degi-ee of doctor of medicine in Trinity 
 college, and in the year 1808 was elected to fill the chair 
 of chemistry there, in the room of Dr. Percival, then lately 
 deceased, and which he continued to occupy for many years, 
 till succeeded by Dr. Apjohn. As a chemical lectm'er. Dr. 
 Barker was descrv-edly popular, and, by his hospital practice 
 and clinical lectures, added much to the high character enjoyed 
 by the medical school of Tinnity college. In conjunction with 
 Dr. Todd, Dr. Barker established the first medical journal that 
 was pubhshed in Ireland. In 180-1 he was elected senior phy- 
 sician to the Cork Street hospital, and published many able 
 reports on fever, which are still quoted by Copland and' other 
 systematic writers on medicine. In 1820 Dr. Barker was 
 appointed secretaiy to the general board of health in Ireland, 
 and continued in that office till 1852. Dm-ing that period he 
 published many official reports on the state of fever, on county 
 hospitals, and on infinnaries, which bear a high value, and 
 fonned the basis of many of the legislative enactments on those 
 subjects. Dr. Barker, in conjunction with Dr. ChejTie, pub- 
 lished in the year 1821 a work on "Epidemic Fevers in Ire- 
 land," 2 vols. 8vo., which holds a high place in standard medical 
 literatni-e; in 1826 he edited the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, and 
 published observations on the work, in which he was aided by 
 Dr. Montgomery'. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARKER, Thomas, often called Barker of Bath; born 
 in that city in 1769 ; died in 18-17 ; began his career by very 
 attentively coppng the Flemish and Dutch masters, especially 
 Rembrandt and Ruysdael, and ha\ing acquired sufficient profi- 
 ciency, executed several pictures of familiar character, amongst 
 which are noted those of the " Woodman," and of " Old Tom." 
 He also painted a large fresco in his house near Bath. — R. M. 
 
 BARKER, William Gideon jMichael Jones, better known 
 a.s " the Wensleydale poet," was the only son of Thomas and 
 Sarah Barker of East Wilton, Yorkshire, and was adopted and 
 educated by the late Rev. W. Jones, vicar of that parish. His 
 first publication was a copy of verses of considerable promise, 
 " Stauzas on Cape Coast Castle." He subsequently produced 
 some other small and casual works ; but that which made his 
 name most widely known in the north of England was his " Three 
 Days, or History and Antiquities of Wensleydale," published in 
 1854. He was an active member of the Archaeological Institute, 
 and was mainly instnimental in sa\-ing from modem " restora- 
 tions" three beautiful churches in the district of Wensleydale. 
 His death happened at Leeds, April 10, 1855. — E. W. 
 
 BAR KEY, Nicolas, professor of theology at the Hague, was 
 bom b 1709, and died in 1788. He published "JIuseum 
 Hagamim," 1775-80; "Bibliotheca Bremensis nova," 1760-67; 
 and " Bibliotheca Hagana," 1768-77 
 
 * BARKLY, Sir Hi:nrv, the son of the late .Eneas Barkly, 
 Esq., of Jlonteagle, Ross-shire, and an extensive West India 
 merchant in London, was born in 1815. He was brought up 
 to a mercantile life, but entered parliament in 1845 as M.I', 
 for Leominster, which he continued to represent till 1849, when 
 he was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of British 
 Guiana, in succession to Sir H. Light. He was himself a large 
 landed proprietor in that colony, and took the greatest pains to 
 develop its internal resources, by reconciling contending factions, 
 and more especially in respect of the sugar crops, by the reduction 
 of the price of labour, by immigration, and by the introduction of 
 railways. His evidence on British Guiana, given before the 
 House of Commons, is most authentic and valuable. In 1853 he 
 was promoted to the governorship of Jamaica, and at the same 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 time created a K.C.B. (ci\Tl). In 1856 he was still further pro- 
 moted by the late Sir \V. Molesworth, during his brief but able 
 administration of the colonies, who appointed him to succeed 
 the late Sir Charles Hutham as captain-general and governor- 
 in-chief of Victoria, where the ability of his administrative facul- 
 ties is beginning to make itself felt (1859). — E. W. 
 
 BARKOK, Malek-al-Dhaer Abd Said, a Mameluke 
 sultan of Eg}'pt, founder of the Circassian or Borgite dynasty. 
 He wrested the throne from the last of the Baharites, or Tar- 
 tar's, about the year 1382. In the early part of his reign, which 
 extended over seventeen years, he was harassed by successive 
 seditions, and had to defend his frontiers against the incui-sions 
 of neighbouring pi-inces ; but was latterly distinguished as a 
 patron of the ai-ts, and also of letters, for which he did much by 
 founding a college at Cairo. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARKOV, Ivan, a Russian writer of some note, especially 
 for his translations. He was translator to the Academy of 
 Sciences at St. Petei-sburg. He died in 1768.— J. F. W. 
 
 * BARKOW, Hans Karl Leopold, a Gemian physiologist 
 and anatomist, was bom in the year 1798 at Trent, in the Isle 
 of Rugen. He studied for a short time at Greifswald, and in 
 1816 proceeded to Berlin, where, by the advice of Rosenthal 
 and Rudolphi, he devoted himself to the study of anatomy. In 
 1821 he became prosector in Greifswald, and five years after 
 this, prosector and extraordinary professor of medicine in the 
 university of Breslau, where he was appointed ordinai-y professor 
 in 1835. From an early period Barkow paid great attention to 
 the anatomy and physiology of monsters and abortions, his dis- 
 sertation on entering upon his prosectorship at Greifswald being 
 entitled, " Commentatio Anatomico-physiologica de Monstris 
 duplicibus verticibus inter se junctis;" whilst he has ^ven us the 
 results of his further investigations upon this curious and inter- 
 esting subject in his " ilonstra animalium dupficia per anatomen 
 indagata," etc., forming two quarto volmnes, illustrated by fifteen 
 plates, published at Leipzig in 1830 and 1836. Barkow is also 
 the author of numerous medical, anatomical, and physiological 
 papers, published Ln various journals, and in the Acta Academite 
 Naturre Curiosoiiun, besides two or three independent works 
 on the arteries and nerves, and one on the torpidity of tmimals. 
 The latter appeared at Berlin in 1846.— W. S. D. 
 
 BARKSDALE, Clement, born at Winchcomb in Glouces- 
 tershire in 1609, and educated at Abingdon and Jlerton college, 
 and Gloucester hall (now Worcester college), Oxford. In 1637 
 he was appointed master of the Hereford grammar-school, and 
 after the Restoration, the king gave him the living at Naunton 
 in Gloucestershire, which he held tiU his death in 1688. He 
 was a man of varied accomplishments, but his works, which 
 were numerous, attract no attention now. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BARKYAROC or BARKIAROKII, fourth Seljooldan sultan 
 of Persia, succeeded his father, Malek-Shah, about the year 
 1092. He died in 1104, at the age of twenty-five. His short 
 reign was distracted by tmnults, arising from the opposition of 
 his uncles and brothers. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARL.tVAJI, a celebrated monk of the order of St. Ba.'-ilius, 
 was a native of Seminaria m Calabria, and lived in the first 
 half of the fourteenth century. The ornament of his order in 
 j)hilosophy and science as well as theology', he visited, for the 
 ])Urpose of acquaintuig himself with the Greek language, ..Etolia, 
 Thessalonica, and finally Constantinople, where he so won the 
 favour of Andronicus the Younger, as to be appointed to an abbacy 
 in the capital. In 1339 he was employed on an unsuccessful 
 mission to the papal court of Avignon, his olijcct being to recom- 
 mend a union of the Greek and Latin churches. On his return, 
 he injured his reputation by entering into controversy with the 
 ridiculous sect of the llesycliasta.', and, to escape their clamours, 
 was at length obliged to depart for Italy. Clement VI. gave 
 him the bishopric of Geraci. Besides many controversial works, 
 he wrote " Ethica; secundum Stoicos Libri ii." and " fi-oyir-rixr,;^ 
 sive Arithmeticne Algebraica; Libri vi." — .1. S., G. 
 
 BARL.EUS, Gasi'ARD van, a modern Latin poet, born at 
 Antwerp in 1584. He was first professor of logic in the uni- 
 versity of Leyden, but lost his chair on account of his defence 
 of the Anninian.s, when their opponents gained the ascendancy in 
 the synod of Dort. He next studied physic, and took a doctor's 
 degree at Caen. In 1631 he was appointed by the magistrates 
 of Amsterdam to the chair of ])liilosoipliy in their university, 
 which he held till his death in 1643. His works are numerous 
 and somewhat miscellaneous, stretching over the fields of niedi- 
 
 3 C
 
 BAR 
 
 386 
 
 BAR 
 
 cine, theology, and poetry. Among them may be noted his 
 " Orationes," 1632; his " Poemata," 1645; his " Epistola;," 
 1667; and his ''Ens Rationis," 1677. — J. B. 
 
 BARL.EUS, Melchior van, uncle of the preceding, and a 
 native of Antwerp, Uved in the second half of the 16th century. 
 His principal works are poems written in the Latin language. 
 
 BARLES, Louis, a French physician, who Jived at Marseilles 
 towards the end of the seventeenth century. He published a 
 translation of Degraaf s works on the organs of generation. He 
 has attached to this work some notes from Van Hoorm and 
 Veslingius, with several plates ; the title is " Les Nouvelles 
 decouvertes sur les organes des fennnes servant h la generation," 
 Lyons, 1674 ; " Les Nouvelles decouvertes sur les organes des 
 hommes servant h la generation," Lyons, 1675. These- two 
 treatises are united. Lyons, 1680. — E. L. 
 
 BARLETTA, Gabeiello, a celebrated Italian preacher of 
 the fifteenth century, supposed to have been born at Barletta in 
 the kingdom of Naples. A volume of his sermons, printed at 
 Brescia in 1497-98, is extant, and from that publication, as 
 well as from contemporary notices of the preacher, it would 
 appear that his style, although occasionally relieved by quaint 
 and felicitous turns, was on the whole low and vulgar. 
 
 B.\RLOW, Francis, an English painter and engraver, born 
 in Lincolnshire in 1646; died in 1702; particularly noted for 
 his etchings of animals. — R. JI. 
 
 BARLOW, Sir George Hilaro, Bart., G.C.B., fourth son 
 of William Barlow, Esq., of Bath, was born about the year 1762. 
 He entered the civil service of the East India Company in 1778; 
 in 1787 was selected by Lord Cornwallis to conduct an inquiiy 
 into the state of commerce and manufactures in Benares, for 
 which he received the thanks of the board of directors. In the 
 following year he became sub-secretary to the supreme govern- 
 ment in the revenue department, in which he carried into effect 
 many useful and salutary reforms. In 1796 he became chief 
 seeretaiy to the supreme government, in which department he 
 effected reductions to the extent of £12,000 a-year. In 1801 
 he was promoted to a seat at the council board of the Bengal 
 presidency, and in this capacity he was enabled to render Lord 
 Wellesley many important services, as he had done to Lord 
 Cornwallis, when that nobleman established a new code of laws 
 and jmnsprudence. In 1802 he was made provisional governor- 
 general of India, and raised to the baronetage in the following 
 year. In 1805 Lord Cornwallis retvu-ned to India to resume 
 the reins of government on the retirement of Lord Wellesley ; 
 but dying in the course of a few months, he left the administra- 
 tion of the country to Sir G. Barlow, who carried into effect the 
 pacific intentions of his predecessor, by making peace with the 
 Mahratta powers. On the death of Mr. Pitt in 1806, he was 
 succeeded in his governorship by Lord Jlinto, and was honoured 
 with the order of the Bath. In 1809 he was appointed gover- 
 nor of Madras, where he suppressed a serious mutiny by bis 
 energy, firmness, and activity. It was the expressed intention 
 of George III. to have raised Sir G. Barlow to the peerage for 
 these services, when the Regency brought with it a change of 
 government at home, and Sir G. Barlow was recalled. He 
 returned to England in 1814, with a pension of £1500 a-year. 
 He died at his residence in Surrey, December 18, 1846. — E. W. 
 
 BARLOW, Joel, an American poet, who flourished during 
 tlie stirring years of revolution, was born at Reading, Connec- 
 ticut, in 1755. He was the son of a farmer, and the youngest 
 of his ten children. In 1787 his reputation was established by 
 the publication of his gieatest poem, " The Vision of Colum- 
 bus," which he dedicated to Louis XVI. of France. In the 
 following year he visited England, whence he crossed to Paris, 
 attracted by the news of the Revolution ; there he remained for 
 two years, attached to the Girondists. In 1795 he was appointed 
 by Washington, American consul at Algiers, and was successful 
 in ncgociating a treaty with that government, as well as with 
 Tunis and Tripoli. Having spent several years longer at Paris, 
 he returned to America with a considerable fortune; and, h.aving 
 built an elegant mansion near the city of Washington, he devoted 
 himself to literary pursuits. In 1808 he published his "Vision 
 of Columbus " in an enlarged form, and named it " The Colum- 
 biad." He projected a history of the United States, and had 
 indeed begun to prepare it, when in 1811 he was ap})ointed 
 minister jdenipotentiary to the French government. In the 
 following year ho was invited by the duke of Bassano to attend 
 a conference with Napoleon at Wilna in Poland. Travelling in 
 
 haste, he was seized with inflammation, and at Zarnowitch, a 
 little village near Cracow, on the 12th December, 1812, the 
 strangely varied, but withal brilliant career of this revolutionary 
 poet and statesm.an came to a close. — J. B. 
 
 BARLOW, NiciiOEAS, a celebrated English horologist, who 
 invented in 1676 the repeater clock, and about fifteen years later 
 the repeater watch. 
 
 * B.\RLOW, Peter, an eminent engineer and scientific 
 writer, now professor of mathematics at Woolwich. The world 
 of science owes much to Professor Barlow. He led the way in 
 the attempt to correct practically the deviation of the compass 
 due to the local attraction of ships. His coiTCcting- plate, how- 
 ever, did not apply to the case of ii-on ships. He is the author 
 of a very valuable mathematical and physical dictionary ; and 
 he wrote for the Encyclopa;dia !Metropohtana, one of its most 
 valuable volumes, viz., an account of all modern macliineiy. 
 The life of Mr. Barlow has been a most useful one, and his 
 labours are all very meritorious. — J. P. N. 
 
 BARLOW, Thojias, bishop of Lincoln from 1675 till his 
 death in 1691, was educated at Queen's college, Oxford. He 
 resided at tlie university upwards of fifty years, holding in suc- 
 cession various lionorary and magisterial offices. His works, a 
 list of which is given by Wood, consist chiefly of controversial 
 and casuistical dissertations in theology. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARLOW, William, D.D., bishop of Rochester, 1605; 
 translated to Lincoln, 1608; a native of Lancashire; became 
 fellow of Trinity hall, Cambridge; prebendary of Westminster, 
 1601; dean of Chester, 1602; prebendary of Canterbury, 1605; 
 died at Buckden, September 7, 161.3. When dean of Chester, 
 he drew up, by direction of Archbishop Whitgift, an account of 
 the conference at Hampton court in January, 1603, which was 
 published in 1604. He also published some controversial tracts, 
 and a life of Dr. Richard Cosin. — T- F. 
 
 BARLOW, William, an eminent scientific writer of the 
 beginning of the seventeenth centuiy, became chaplain to prince 
 Henry, eldest son of James I., and in 1614 archdeacon of Salisbury. 
 He was the first English writer on the nature and properties of 
 the magnet. A treatise on this subject, and his "Navigator's 
 Supply," 1597, are his principal works. Barlow died in 1625. 
 
 BARLOWE, WiLLiAJi, bishop of St. Asaph's in the reign 
 of Henry VIII. Before the Reformation he was prior of the 
 Augustine monastery at Bisham in Berks, but being regarded 
 as singularly favovu'able to the king's designs with respect to 
 the church, was honoured with an embassy to Scotland in 1535, 
 and in the same year was created bishop of St. Asaph's. He 
 was translated to the bishopric of Bath and Wells in 1547 ; was 
 deprived of that see on the accession of Queen Mary, and retired 
 to Germany. Elizabeth gave him the bishopric of Chichester 
 in 1559. Died in 1568. He wrote some controversial pamph- 
 lets, and a work entitled " Cosmogi'aphy." — J. S., G. 
 
 BARMEKIDES, an illustrious family of the Khorassan, the 
 romance of whose histoiy is equally familiar to Europeans in the 
 Thousand and One Nights, and to Orientals in the pages of their 
 historians and poets, tiomished at the court of the first Abasside 
 khalifs. Barmek, the founder of the family, transmitted the 
 honours conferred on him by the Khalif Abd-al-^Ialik to his son 
 Khalid, and from him they passed to his son Yahia, who becom- 
 ing tutor to the famous Haroun-al-Raschid, acquired an influence 
 over that prince, which, with Haroun's personal affection for the 
 family, carried his sons Fadl or Fazl, Jaafar, Slohammed, and 
 Mousa, to the highest dignities of the court. The vntues and 
 munificence of the Barmekides, were, fur a long period displayed 
 under favour of Haroun, as well as to the admiration of his sub- 
 jects ; but one of the brothers, Jaafar, having at last become an 
 object of suspicion to the cruel and treacherous khalif, Yahia 
 and his sons were suddenly seized, Jaafar beheaded, and (he 
 others condemned to perpetual imprisonment. The year 802 
 is assigned as the date of this tragedy. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARNABAS, a companion of the apostle Paul, and a fellow- 
 labourer, of whom we read in the Acts of the Apostles. 
 
 BARNARD, Sir Andrew Francis, K.C.B., was bom in 
 1773, and served under Abercromby in Egypt, and Wellington 
 in the Peninsula. On the occupation of Paris by the allied 
 forces in 1814, he was appointed to the connnand of that city; 
 he was afterwards an equerry to George IV., and clerk-marshal 
 of the household to William IV. and to the late Queen Dowager 
 Adelaide. He died unmarried, January 17, 1855. — (Hard- 
 wicke's Aimual B'wiji-aphtj.') — E. W
 
 BAR 
 
 BAR 
 
 BAEXARD, Lady Anxe, or LINDSAY, author of the cele- 
 brated Scottish ballad of " Auld Robin Gray," was bom at Bal- 
 carres, Fifeshire, on the 8th December, 1750. She was the 
 eldest child of James, earl of Balcarres, her mother being a 
 daughter of Sir Robert Dalrvinple of Castleton, Bart. She 
 composed her fomous ballad in her twenty-first year, scrupu- 
 lously concealiug the authorship, which she wished should be 
 known only to the members of her own family. It soon attained 
 wide popularity, and many conjectures were hazarded as to its 
 origin. Amidst the strongest inducements to di\-ulge the secret, 
 fhe concealed it for upwards of half a century, when she revealed 
 the authorsliip to Sii' Walter Scott. In 1793 she married 
 Andrew Barnard, Esq., secretary to Lord Macartney at the Cape 
 of Good Hope, who died in 1807. During a course of years 
 she resided in Edinburgh, and afterwards in London, cultivating 
 the society of the most distinguished hterary persons of both 
 capitals. She was much esteemed in the learned circles, and 
 was beloved for her benevolence. She composed family memoirs, 
 and maintained a correspondence with some of her celebrated 
 contemporaries. Her death took place at London, on the Cth 
 of May, 1825. The best account of this gifted lady will be 
 found in Lord Lindsay's Lives of the Lindsays. — C. R. 
 
 BARNARD, Edward Williaji, of Brantinghamthorp, 
 Yorkshire; member of Trinity college, Cambridge ; B.A., 1813, 
 M.A., 1817 ; died at Dee Bank, Chester, January- 10, 1828, in 
 hb 37th year. Author of " Fifty Select Poems of M. A. Flaminio 
 imitated ; " " Trifles," in imitation of the chaster style of Mele- 
 ager, 1818 ; and " The Protestant Beadsman," 1822.— T. F. 
 
 BARNARD, John minor canon of the cathedral church of 
 St. Paul, London, published in the year IG-tl one of the 
 most valuable collections of church music which this country 
 can boast. It is entitled *' The First Book of Selected Church 
 Musick, consisting of Services and Anthems, such as are now 
 ■used in the Cathedral and Collegiate Churches of this kingdom, 
 never before printed, whereby such books as were, heretofore, 
 with much dilficulty and charges transcribed for the use of the 
 Quu-e, are now, to the saving of much labour and expense, pub- 
 lished for the general good of all such as shall desire them, 
 either for public or private exercise. Collected out of divers 
 approved authors." The contents are services for morning 
 and evening, the communion, preces and responses, by Tallis, 
 Byrd, Bevyn, William Mundy, Parsons, Dr. Giles, Orlando Gib- 
 bons, Rogers, Morley, and Woodson ; the litany by Tallis ; and 
 anthems, in four, five, and six parts, to a great number, by 
 Tallis, Hooper, Farrant, Shepherd, W. Muiidy, Gibbons, Batten, 
 Tye, Morley, A\Tiite, Giles, Parsons, Weelkes, Bull, and Ward. 
 This work, unfortunately, was not printed in score, and the 
 consequence of the parts being separated is, that no perfect copy 
 is now known. The most complete is that belonging to the 
 cathedral of Hereford ; but in tins the cantus, or treble part, is 
 wanting. — E. F. R. 
 
 BARNARD, Sir John, an eminent merchant and alderman 
 of London, was bom of a Quaker famUy at Reading, in Berk- 
 shire, in 1685. His father was a wine merchant of some note 
 in that town. He received only a scanty education, which his 
 early introduction to business prevented him from supplement- 
 bg to any great extent ; but notwithstanding this disadvantage, 
 he showed, on an important occasion, such aptitude for public life, 
 that he was returned as member for the city of London in 1721. 
 In 1728 he was chosen alderman, was knighted in 1732, oflBci- 
 ated as sheriff in 1735, and in 1737 became lord mayor. He 
 joined the English church in 1703. Died in 176-1. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARNAVE, Antoixf.-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, was bom 
 at Grenoble in 1761. His father was an advocate, and he 
 followed the same profession, in which he soon distinguished 
 himself. In 1783 he published two political works of a liberal 
 tendency, one distinctly in favour of the Enghsh system of govern- 
 ment. He was elected to the states-general at their assembling 
 in 1789, and became a vehement opponent of the royalists, and 
 even fought a duel with Cazales, a strenuous royalist. When 
 Mii'abeau, seeing the danger of unregulated popular fury, grew 
 more moderate, Bamave separated from him, and threw himself 
 into the extreme sections of the revolutionists — a course he 
 bitterly regretted, as afterwards he did his utmost to save the 
 monarchy, and moderate the popular frenzy. When Louis XVL, 
 having attempted flight, was arrested at Yarennes, Bamave was 
 one of the deputation appointed to bring him back. During 
 this journey he made the friendship of the kmg, and from that 
 
 period was his secret addser. Finally, when Robespierre's 
 power grew in the ascendant, he was thrown into prison with 
 the rest of the Girondists, and, despite a most eloquent defence, 
 was giuUotined on the 29th November, 1793. On the scaffold 
 he stamped his foot with passion, and looking upward cried, 
 " This, then, is my reward." Gifted with much talent and great 
 eloquence, Bamave in a settled constitutional government would 
 have attained a high position ; but he lacked unscrapulonsness 
 for so wild a time, and fell a victim to the belief that he could 
 hotmd on the populace to a certain distance, and then arrest its 
 course with logic and oratoiy. — J. S. S. 
 
 BARNER, Jacob, a German physician and chemist, bom at 
 Elbing in 1611, and died in the same town in 1686. After 
 ha^•ing studied at Leipzig, he prosecuted the study of chemistry 
 at Padua, 1670. He subsequently became professor of medicine 
 and philosophy at Leipzig. He returned afterwards to Elbing, 
 where he died. He wrote "' Dissertatio epistolica ad virum 
 summi nominis Joelem Langelot," Yienna, 1667, in 8vo ; 
 '• Exercitium chimicum delineatum," Padua. — E. L. 
 
 * BARNES, Albert, the popular American commentator, 
 was born at Rome, in the state of New Y'ork, 1st December, 
 1798. In 1830 he became pastor of the first presbyterian 
 church in Philadelphia, over which he still presides. His fame 
 rests on a series of commentaries on the books of the New 
 Testament, and on Isaiah and Job in the Old. He lays claim 
 to no peculiar learning or critical acumen, but his " Notes " 
 have been found useful to the private student of scripture, 
 and have attained an extensive popularity and a wide circula- 
 tion, not only in America, but in Great Britain as well. Dr. 
 Barnes has also published sermons " On Rerivals," " Practical 
 Sermons for Yacant Congregations and Families," and a work 
 on slavery. His theology has been the subject of much dispute 
 in America, which has resulted in the formation of the sect 
 kno-wu as the New School Presbyterians. It is said that he has 
 written most of his books in the morning before nine o'clock, 
 that his Uterary labours might jiot interfere with ordinary pro- 
 fessional duty. — J. B. 
 
 BARNES, Baexabt, an English poet, bom about the year 
 1569, son of Dr. Barnes, bishop of Durham. Wood says that 
 he studied at Brazennose, but quitted Oxford without taking a 
 degree. He appears afterwards to have followed the military 
 profession. His first production seems to have been his " Par- 
 thenophU and Parthenope," &c., 159-4. In the following year 
 he published his " Divine Centur}- of Spiritual Sonnets," and 
 in 1007 a tragedy entitled "The Devil's Charter," which was 
 played before king James at court, The date of his death is 
 uncertain. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARNES, Joshua, a learned and versatile English author, 
 was bora in London in 165-1, and died in 1712. He was edu- 
 cated at Christ's hospital, and at Emmanuel college, Oxford, of 
 which he was elected a fellow in 1678. In 1676 he pubUshed 
 a poetical paraphrase of the history of Esther; in 1688 a life of 
 Edward III. ; in 1705 an edition of Anacreon (this publication 
 contains a fist of forty-three of the editor's works), and in 1710 
 an edition of Homer. He also printed an edition of Euripides. 
 Barnes was more remarkable for his acquirements than his 
 talents. He boasts, in the preface to his " Esther," that he 
 could compose Greek hexametei-s at the rate of sixty an hour. 
 
 BARNES, Dame Juli^vxa, the author of the book commonly 
 called " The Book of St. Albans," from its having been priiitcd 
 in that monasteiT in 1486. It is a treatise on hawkmg, hunting, 
 and coat armour, and is now of extreme rarity. The author 
 was prioress of the Benedictine monaster}* of Sopewell, near St. 
 Albans, and is supposed to have been a daughter of Sir James 
 Bemcrs, of Berners-Noting in Essex, and sister to Richard, Lord 
 Beraers. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARNES, Dr. Robert, one of the earliest preachers and 
 martyrs of the English Refomiation, was bom in the neighbour- 
 hood of LjTin in Norfolk, and at an early age was admitted into 
 the order of the Augustinians at Cambridge. Perceiving the 
 uncommon talents of the young novice, the convent sent him to 
 study theologj- at Louvain, where he took the degree of doctor; 
 and on his return to England, his talents and learning procured 
 him promotion to the priorate of the monastery. Coverdale was 
 one of the monks of his house, and was much influenced by the 
 prior's early example of devotion to the cause of the Reformation. 
 The church of the Augustinians at Cambridge was one of the 
 first churches where Lutherauism obtained a hearing in England,
 
 and Bilney and Latimer often preached there, when they were 
 exchided from the pulpit of the university church. Having 
 given great ofTence to Wolsey by the freedom of his censures, 
 Barnes was apprehended openly in the senate-house, and cwTied 
 up to London, to answer for his boldness to the powerful car- 
 dinal. Accused of heresy in twenty-five articles, as well as of 
 personal insult, he was compelled to make his choice between 
 recantation and death. His firmness gave way ; he publicly 
 burned his fagot at St. I'aid's, in Februaiy, l.')25, and was 
 detained a jirisoner in the monastery of the Augustinians in 
 Austin Friars. Having ere long recanted hi.-; recantation, his 
 life was again in great jeopardy ; but he succeeded by a strata- 
 gem in eft'ecting his escape to Germany. Repairing to Witten- 
 berg, he aiiplied himself for several years to the study of theology 
 and churcli histor}-, under Luther and his colleagues, and passed 
 under the name of Doctor Antonius Anglus. When Henry VIIL 
 became desirous, in 1.535, of obtaining a favourable judgment 
 from the Saxon divines on the subject of his divorce, and of 
 forming a league with the protestant princes of Gemiany, 
 Banies' long residence and good credit in Saxony pointed hhn 
 out as a suitable agent to be employed in these negotiations. 
 The king app'iinted him one of his chaplains, and intnisted him 
 with a connnission both to the theologians and the princes. 
 Before his return to England, he published at Wittenberg in 
 1535, his " Vita3 Romanorum Tontificum, quos Papas voca- 
 mus," with a preface to the reader by Luther, and an " Epistola 
 Nuncupatoria " to Henry, by Barnes himself. He continued to 
 enjoy the favour of the khig for some years after his return 
 home, and was employed by Cromwell to negotiate the mamage 
 of Henrj' with Anne of Cleves ; but the disgust of the fickle 
 monarch with his German bride proved as fatal to Barnes as it 
 did to Cromwell himself. On a complaint being made against 
 him, in 1540, to the king, by Bishop Gardiner, for a somewhat 
 violent sermon which Barnes had preached in reply to one of the 
 bishop's, Henry left his unfortunate chaplain in the hands of 
 his implacable enemy, by whom he was hurried first to the 
 Tower, and then, without trial, to the stake at Smithfield, on 
 the 30th of July. He died with great constancy. His "Con- 
 fession at the stake" was translated by Luther, and circulated 
 through Gei-many. His " Sententia;, sive Christianae Reli- 
 gionis Prjecipua Capita," were published at Wittenberg, with a 
 jireface by Bugenhagen or Pomeranus. John Bale, who was a 
 fellow-student of Barnes' at Cambridge, gives a list of many 
 other pieces published by him, most of them in English ; but 
 the greater part of them would appear to be lost. His " Sup- 
 plication to the King," with the " Declaration of his Articles 
 condemned for Heresy by the Bishops," is still extant. — P. L. 
 
 BARNES, Thomas, for many years editor of the Times 
 during its progi-ess towards the leadership of the press, was bom 
 in 1784, the birth-year of his future school-fellow and friend, 
 Leigh Hunt. Educated with the latter at the Blue Coat school, 
 where both had for predecessors Coleridge and Charles Lamb, 
 Piarnes so distinguished himself as to be included among the pro- 
 mising pupils sent annually to the universities at the expense of 
 that noble foiuidation. Pembroke college, Cambridge, was the 
 scene of his academic studies, winch he pursued with such suc- 
 cess, that when he took his B.A. degree in 1808, he was first 
 in the list of senior optimes. Three years later he graduated 
 as M.A. For the future journalist, whose studies of predilection 
 were not the classics and mathematics, but the literature of his 
 own country, and whose disposition was eminently convivial 
 (Liigh Hunt describes him in after years as engi-ossed by "his 
 Fielding and his bottle"), the prosecution of a quiet career of 
 university success seems to have had no charm. His natural 
 destination was a literary life, and quitting the university, he 
 repaired to the great metropolis, where he gradually established 
 a connection with the press. During the last years of the con- 
 tinental war, whUe the Examiner was being maintained by 
 Leigh Hunt at the head of the metropolitan weekly press, Barnes 
 was contriliuting acute and genial criticisms on our chief poets 
 and novelists to the columns of the luisuccessful Champvm, and 
 working in a subordinate capacity on the Times. His marked 
 abilities attracted the attention of the late Mr. Walter, the pro- 
 prietor of the Times, the son of its founder, and the prime archi- 
 tect of its success. Soon after the dismissal of the late Sir John 
 Stoddart from the editorship, Barnes was appointed to the post, 
 which he retained, and the duties of which he discharged with 
 signal energy and skill for upwards of twenty years. He was 
 
 not merely the ostensible editor, who represented in public the 
 interests of the joiuTial, and managed its confidential communi- 
 cations with political leaders. Although during his editorship 
 he commanded the best jom-naUstic talent of the countr}', and 
 was constantly aided by the powcrfid pen of the late Captain 
 Sterling, Banies found leisure and inclination, amid the toils ot 
 responsible editorship, to contribute extensively to the columns 
 of the Times. His elaborate characters of public men, were 
 always a prominent feature of the leading journal, and among 
 them may be cited the celebrated sketch of Lord Brougham, 
 published after the difiiision in 1839 of the false report of his 
 lordship's death. In short, to Thomas Barnes, quite as much as 
 to Anthony Sterling, or to the second John Walter, may be 
 ascribed the commanding position which the Times occupied in 
 the journalism of the world. In the famous defection of the 
 Times from the whigs during the last years of the reign of 
 William IV., Barnes was largely concerned. It drew dovvn 
 upon him a vast amount of public unpopularity ; but he did not 
 forfeit in consccjuence the attachment of the " liberal " friends 
 of his youth, with whom to the last his personal relations were 
 of the most amicable kind. Not the least remarkable ciicum- 
 stance in the career of Barnes was, that although by tempera- 
 ment and habit a convivialist (in allusion to his frailties, 
 O'Connell used to designate him "gin-drinkingest Bames"), and 
 although the duties of an editor of a leading daily newspaper 
 demand the closest and most persistent application, yet Barnes 
 succeeded in harmonizing self-indulgence with the unremitting 
 discharge of his onerous and responsible functions. He had 
 become a co-proprietor of the Times, when he died in his fifty- 
 seventh year, at his house in Soho Square, on the 7th of May, 
 1841. He had long been sufferhig from a painful disease, and 
 sank under an operation performed the morning of his death. 
 — (^Gentleviaii's Magazine for July, 1841 ; Herodotus Smith ; 
 Sketches of the Periodical and Newspaper Press, &c. &c.) — F . E. 
 * BARXETT, John, a musician, was bom at Bedford, July 1, 
 1802. He is distinguished as being the first Enghshman who 
 produced an opera in the modern fonn, in which the music 
 throughout illustrates the action, in which an extensive technical 
 design embodies a continuous dramatic expression. His mother 
 was a Hungarian, and his father a Pnissian, whose name was 
 Bemhard Beer, which was changed to Barnctt Bamett on his 
 settlement in this country as a jeweller. John in his infancy 
 showed a most powerful disposition for music, and though, as 
 his childhood advanced, he proved to have a fine alto voice, 
 nothing was done to cultivate his natural ability until, when he 
 was eleven years old,, he was introduced to Louis Goldsmith, 
 editor of the Antigallican Monitor, who at once perceived in 
 him so strong an indication of talent, as induced huu to take 
 the boy to S. J. Arnold, proprietor of the Lyceum Theatre, 
 whom he easily persuaded to enter into articles with his parents, 
 engaging to provide him with musical instraction in return for 
 his services as a singer. Immediately upon the signing of this 
 agi-eement, with but two days to study his part, the young 
 vocalist appeared upon the stage at the Lyceum, and continued 
 a very successful career until the breaking of his voice. Mean- 
 time his tuition, which had been intrasted, first to C. E. Honi, 
 the singer and composer, and aftem'ard to Price, the chorus- 
 master of Drary Lane, had been successively neglected by both 
 of them, and he owed entuely to his own loving perseverance in 
 the study, the already remarkable progress he made in composi- 
 tion. He wrote two masses, and many lighter pieces, some of 
 which, that were published while he was yet a boy, prove the 
 early existence of that talent which has since been advantage- 
 ously developed. After Ids term with Arnold, he took some 
 pianoforte lessons of Perez, organist of the Spanish embassy, 
 and, subsequently, of Ferdinand Ries, from whom also he learned 
 something of harmony, and this was the first earnest instruction 
 he received. He went on writing, and produced many songs, of 
 which some became extremely popular. It was not, however, in 
 the fame of popular song-writing that his emulous spiiit was to 
 be satisfied ; he felt the aspirations of a trae artist, and few as 
 were the opportunities this country then presented for their 
 fulfilment, by taking advantage of every occasion that arose to 
 bring himself before the public, he in time wrought out that 
 position as a dramatic composer, in which he stands among the 
 foremost of his countrymen. His first theatrical essay was the 
 musical farce of " Before Breakfast," produced at the Lyceum 
 in 1825, the success of which led to his writing many other
 
 pieces of more or less the same cliaracter ; the most important 
 of these was " The Carnival at Naples," given at Covent Garden 
 in 1830. His oratorio of the " Omnipresence of the Deity," 
 was published in 1829, but never as a whole perfoniied in 
 public. A composition of more consequence to his fame as a 
 musician than anything he had yet produced, was the operatic 
 comedy of " The Pet of the Petticoats," brought out at Sadler's 
 Wells in 1831, and subsequently transplanted to the more 
 important theatres. The charm of the music of this piece, and its 
 highly dramatic character, then quite new in an English writer, 
 attracted connoisseurs from all parts of London to the then 
 obscure little theatre where it was played, and gained its author 
 general admiration. In 1832 Barnett was engaged by Madame 
 Vcstris as music-director at the Olympic ; in the midst of tlie 
 busy avocations of which office he had to fulfil a contract for 
 Drury Lane, in the setting of a Ijrical version of Mrs. CentlivTc's 
 Bold Stroke for a Wife, for Braham to personate the hero. 
 Though this work, as being a neai-er approximation to the 
 legitimate form of opera than any on which he had yet been 
 engaged, was attractive to his ambition, the difficulties under 
 wluch it was written — of there being but very short time allowed 
 for its composition, which time was preoccupied with other pur- 
 suits, and of some of the principal parts having to be fitted for 
 actors instead of singers, because they were accustomed to sus- 
 tain the same characters in the comedy — rendered its production 
 anythmg but a labour of love. For all this, " Win her and Wear 
 her," as the piece was named, contained some of its author's 
 best music, portions of which he has incorporated in his later 
 works ; and that it did not succeed according to its deserts, must 
 be attril)uted partly to the inappropriateness of the subject, and 
 still more to the inefficiency of the performance. Soon after 
 this he published his " Lyric Illustrations of the Jlodern Poets," 
 a collection of songs of great poetical feeling, which scarcely 
 received the attention to which its pretensions entitle it. His 
 nest work of any consideration was that by which, as his most 
 successful, he is most extensively and most advantageously 
 known. " The Mountain Sylph " was originally designed as a 
 musical drama for one of the minor theatres ; but when Mr. 
 Arnold was about to open the new Lyceum, built after the 
 biiming of the old, w-ith great professions of what the manage- 
 ment was to eft'ect for English music, it was extended into its 
 complete operatic form ; and after many managerial impediments, 
 produced at the new theatre in August, 1834, not without 
 opposition on the first night, but with an ultimate success 
 that at once enriched the manager, and still maintains the work 
 a standard favourite upon the stage. Here then was the first 
 English opera constructed in the acknowledged form of its age 
 since Anie's time-honoured Artaxerxes ; and it owes its impor- 
 tance as a work of art, not more to the artistic mould in wliich 
 it is cast than to the artistic, conscientious, emulous feeling that 
 pervades it. Its production opened a new period for music in this 
 country, from which is to be dated the establishment of an 
 English dramatic school, which, if not yet accomplished, has in 
 these four and twenty years made very notable advances. Bar- 
 nett dedicated this work to his old master, extolling him as the 
 fosterer of the British muse ; but before a year was out, he was 
 writing in the public journals, complaining, with too much justice, 
 that this same Arnold refused to remunerate him for the compo- 
 sition of a new opera. It must be admitted, however, by those 
 who wish him best, th.at his literary talent, or rather the conten- 
 tious use he had too frequently made of it, has raised him many 
 enemies, and so been an obstacle to his artistic career. He now 
 spent some time at Paris, with the purpose of producing there 
 his " Fair Rosamond," but returned, on the invitation of Mr. 
 Dunn, to give this opera at Drury Lane, where it was brought 
 out in February, 1837. Its success was by no means commen- 
 surate with its merits, but its good impression has overlived its 
 season of performance. In this year Barnett married the daughter 
 of Lindley the violoncellist, with whom he went to Frankfort- 
 on-the-Mainc, where he studied Vogler's system of harmony, and 
 the principles of composition under Snyder von Wartensee. 
 Here he wrote a symphony, and two violin quartets, which are 
 still unpublished. He returned to London in 1838, and in the 
 February following produced his " Farinelli " at Drury Lane. 
 This is in many respects his best opera ; but though the queen, 
 to whom it is dedicated, several times witnessed its iierformance, 
 for some reason that has not come to light it was withdrawn 
 when at the height of its career, and its peculiar construction, 
 
 being written without a principal tenor part, has prevented its 
 reproduction. In the autumn of this year, in conjunction with 
 Morris Barnett, the actor, dramatic author, and journalist, he 
 opened the St. James' theatre, with the intention of making it a 
 new home for English opera ; but the failure of tlie initial work, 
 the performance of which had been demanded by the prima 
 donna, caused the closing of this unfortunate undertaking with 
 the first week, and all its brilliant promises thus came to nothing. 
 At the beginning of 1811 Barnett went to Cheltenham to 
 establish liimself as a teacher of singing, where he has since 
 remained in veiy extensive practice. He took with him his 
 unproduced opera of "Kathleen," and has, while there, nearly 
 completed two others, besides writing a treatise on singing, and 
 several detached compositions ; his single songs number nearly 
 four thousand. His music is marked by strong dramatic character, 
 and warm poetic feeling, with always an earnestness of purpose 
 that gives significance to his lightest trifles, but it also shows 
 a want of systematic principles, if not of fundamental knowledge ; 
 a reliance on the example of the great masters, instead of a com- 
 prehension of the laws under which these have been produced ; 
 and it is much to be regretted, for his reputation's sake, that he 
 has brought but one work of importance before the world, since 
 his studies at Frankfort may have made up for the deficiencies 
 of his early education. The felicity and decided character of his 
 melodies, and his skill in orchestration, must not be omitted in 
 the enumeration of the qualities by which he is entitled to a place 
 of honour among the musicians of the age. — G. A. M. 
 
 BAPiNEVELDT, Joiian van Olden, grand pensionarj' of 
 Holland, was born of a noble family at Amersfort, in the pro- 
 vince of Utrecht, in 1549. He had scarcely reached his twentieth 
 year when he was called to the office of councillor and pension- 
 ary of Rotterdam ; and such was the opinion even then enter- 
 tained of his eminent abilities and integrity, that he was allowed 
 an important share in the management of those transactions 
 with France and England, by which the United Provinces sought 
 to maintain themselves against Spain, whose yoke they had just 
 thrown oft'. His conduct in the high office of grand pcnsionaiy 
 of Holland and West P'riesland, which he afterwards filled, not 
 only secured tlie independence, but restored the trade and im- 
 proved the finances of the United Provinces. After the election 
 of Maurice to the dignity of stadtholder, Barncveldt became the 
 champion of popular hberties, and opposed with determination 
 the ambitious designs of the new prince. He was so far suc- 
 cessful as to have a trace of twelve years concluded with Spain, 
 in opposition to the ^^ews of the stadtholder ; and such was the 
 popularity of that measure, that he must have had the advan- 
 tage of his rivals, if theii" respective claims had come to be sub- 
 mitted to an assembly of the states; but about this time the 
 fanaticism of two sects, the Anninians and the Gomarists raged 
 throughout Holland, and the gi'and pensionaiy was involved in 
 the ruin of the former. After the condemnati<m of the Armi- 
 nians by the synod of Dordrecht, he was adjudged to death as 
 traitor and heretic, by twenty-six deputies named by Jlaurice. 
 The sentence was carried into eft'ect in 1G19. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARNEWALL, Anthony, an Irish soldier, who was born 
 in the early part of the eighteenth century, of the noble house 
 of Trimleston, being the son of John, the eleventh baron. He 
 left Ireland, and entered into the service of the emperor of 
 Germany, (in General Hamilton's regiment of cuirassiers,) a 
 practice then prevalent amongst the Irish Roman catholic families 
 of birth. He was present in most of the actions with the Turks, 
 rose rapidly, and was made a lieutenant the day jneceding the 
 battle of Crotzka. At the first charge, both the cornet and 
 captain of his troop were slain ; Barnewall seized the standard, 
 tore oft' the flag from it, which he tied round his body, and 
 renewed the charge. He fell at length covered with wounds, 
 after having three times rallied his men. He was universally 
 esteemed, not only as a valiant and good soldier, but as a man 
 of honourable principles and amiable dispositions. — .1. F W^. 
 
 BARNEWALL, John, a distinguished Iri^ll lawyer, third 
 Baron Trimleston. Before his accession to the title, he filled 
 several high offices, being second justice of the king's bench in 
 1509, vice-treasurer of Ireland in 1522, and high treasurer in 
 1524. He was ajipointed chancellor of Ireland in 1534, which 
 oftiee he filled till his death. He took .an active part in the 
 troubles that agitated that kingdom during the period, and was 
 one of the persons commissioned by the privy council in 1537 
 to treat with O'Neill, then in open rebellion against the English
 
 government. After much debate, the chancellor prevailed upon 
 O'Neill to submit to the terms proposed, and to disband his 
 forces. Lord Trimleston died on the 25th July, 1538. — J. F. W. 
 
 BAENKWALL, Nicholas, first Viscount Kingsland, was a 
 member of the ancient family of that name, long established at 
 Turvey in Ireland. When the rebellion broke out in Ireland, 
 he obtained a commission to raise soldiers for the defence of 
 the county of Dublin. He rendered efficient scnice to the royal 
 cause, and -was created baron of Turvev and Viscount Bamewall 
 of Kingsland in 1C45 ; he died in 16C3.— J. F. W. 
 
 BARNEWALL, Nicholas, grandson of the fonner, and 
 third Viscount Kingsland, was born in 1GG8. He espoused the 
 cause of James, and held a captain's connnission in the earl of 
 Limerick's regiment of dragoons ; his adherence to the Stuarts 
 caused him to be outlawed. He was present at the battle of the 
 Boyne, after which he went to Limerick, where he continued 
 during the siege of that town, and mitil its smTender. In con- 
 sequence of the articles of treat}' upon that occasion, witliin 
 which he was comprehended, he procured the reversal of his out- 
 lawry in 1G97. After the settlement, he took the oath of alle- 
 giance to King WiUiam III., but he did not take his seat as a 
 peer, by reason of his refusing upon a scruple of conscience to 
 take the oath, and make and subscribe the declaration according 
 to the act made in England. In 1703 he joined with the Roman 
 catholics in a petition against the passing of the act to prevent 
 the further growth of their religion. Died in 1725. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARNEWALL, Robert, fifth Baron Trimleston, like most 
 of his ancestors, was prominently engaged in the political trou- 
 bles which disturbed Ireland in the reign of Elizabeth and her 
 predecessors, and he is highly spoken of by the historians of 
 these times. In 15G1, he was joined in commission with the 
 archbishop of Dublin, and other lords, for the presenation of 
 the peace of the pale, during the absence of the Lord Deputy 
 Susses. Hollinshed gives the following account of him : — 
 " He was a rare nobleman, and endowed with sundry good gifts, 
 w'ho, having well wedded himself to the reformation of his 
 country, was resolved for the whetting of his wit, which, never- 
 theless, was pregnant and quick, by a short trade and method 
 he took in his study to have sipt up the very sap of the common 
 law, and upon this determination, sailing into England, sickened 
 shortly after at a worshipful matron's house at Combury, named 
 Margaret Tiler, where he was, to the great grief of all his coun- 
 try, piu-sued with death, when the weal of his country had most 
 need of his life." This event took place in 1573. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARNFIELD, Eichakd, a poet, who hved at the close of 
 the Elizabethan era. Little is known of his life, but it woidd 
 appear that he was bom about 1574, and gi-aduated at Oxford 
 in 1592. It has been conjectured that he was destined for the 
 profession of law, and was a member of Gray's Inn. In 1594 
 he published his " Affectionate Shepherd," and in the following 
 year " Cj-nthia," which contains the famous ode, " As it fell 
 upon a day," which was attributed to Shakspeare, and printed 
 in the Passionate Pilgrim in 1595. There can, however, be little 
 doubt that Bamfield was the author of the ode. He included it 
 in his next volume, which appeared in 1595, and in an altered 
 form in 1G05, it is named the " Encomion of Lady Pecunia." 
 This is the last work we have from his pen, and though the date 
 of his death is not anywhere recorded, it has been conjectured 
 with some probability that it happened soon after the publica- 
 tion of the " Encomion." — J. B. 
 
 BAROCCIO, .Alfonso, sumamed Gatta, a native of Ferrara, 
 was bom in 1531. He studied rhetoric and the humanities, 
 and became a good Greek scholar that he might thoroughly 
 understand Plato and Aristotle. Under the celebrated Vincenzio 
 Maggi he acquired a great knowledge of medicine and philo- 
 sophy ; and was subsequently appointed to the professorship in 
 these faculties, which he filled for forty-five years, at the same 
 time attending diligently to his practice. He was invited to 
 accept a lecturesliip in the imiversity of Padua, and also at 
 Bologna, but he declined both offices from attachment to his 
 native city. His reputation was so high that the duke of Mir- 
 andola induced Baroccio to attend upon him through a long 
 illness, during which time he employed his leisure in composing 
 his work "De Sanitate Tuenda," which has, however, never been 
 published. He was well read in astronomy, and had a taste for 
 poetry. The historiographer of the Uomini Illustri di Ferrara 
 calls Mm a "rare philosopher, and an eloquent orator;" but 
 while we must make large allowance for national partiality, there 
 
 is no doubt that he was a man of great and varied attainments. 
 He died in 1GU6 in his native city. — J. F. W. 
 
 BAROCCIO, Ambrogio, a Milanese painter and sculptor of 
 the 15th centuiy, established at Urbino, and from whom the 
 Barocci family of artists of that town are descendants. — R. M. 
 
 BAROCCIO, Fedekigo, and more conectly F. FioRi, sur- 
 named IL Baroccio, on account of his connection -n-ith the 
 family of that name, one of the great Italian painters of the 
 16th ientuiy, was born at Urbino in 1528 ; died in 1612. Not 
 entirely free from the mannered tendency of the time, he strove 
 to introduce into his style a greater depth of feehng than was 
 usually exhibited in those days ; and, by a successful imitation of 
 Coreggio, excelled in gi'ace and sweetness of types, as well as in 
 transparency and harmony of colour, and in skiLfid treatment of 
 shadows, copied from small lay figures, which his early educa- 
 tion as a sculptor enabled him to model in wax. He possessed 
 both coiTectness of design and sound judgment of composition. 
 With so many qualities, it is to be regi-etted that he did not suc- 
 ceed in a more faithful adherence to natm-e, and in avoiding a 
 certain exaggeration of muscular forms, which are the only faults 
 to be found in his numerous masterpieces, amongst which are 
 considered most important the " St. Jlichelina ;" the " St. Philip 
 at Rome ;" the " St. Francis with the stigmata ;" " Chiist with 
 the Magdalen;" the "Hcrodias" in the Florentine gallery; and 
 the " Hagar in the Desert " at Dresden. — R. M. 
 
 BARON, Bonaventure, an Irish monk, who lived in the 
 seventeenth centurj', was born in Clonrael in the county of Tip- 
 perary. His real name was Fitzgerald ; and he was descended 
 from a branch of that fiimily which have given many distinguished 
 men to Ireland. His uncle, Luke Wadding, a learned Franciscan, 
 took charge of his education, and sent him to Rome, where he 
 entered a convent of that order. He wrote in Latin with elegance 
 and purity, and published many works in that language, both in 
 prose and verse. At length he lost his sight, and died at Rome 
 m the year 1G9G, at a very advanced age. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARON, HvAciNTiiE Theodore, a French physician, bom 
 at Paris in 1G86 ; died the 29th June, 1758. He became pro- 
 fessor of surgery and materia mcdica in Paris, and aftenvards dean 
 of the faculty in 1739. He instituted several useful reforms in 
 the coiu-se of instruction, founded the hbrary of the faculty, and 
 caused the codes to be printed. He wrote several works. — E. L. 
 
 BARON, John, JI.D., F.R.S., was an intimate friend of the 
 celebrated Dr. Jenner, and pubHshed an accoimt of his Ufe ; 
 London, 1827-38, 2 vols. 8vo. He was also the author of two 
 works on tuberculous diseases. He died in 1851. — T. F. 
 
 BARONI, Cavalcabo Clejiente, a member of a noble 
 family settled near Roveredo in Italy, was bom on the 23d uf 
 November, 1726. He studied in the universities of Bologna and 
 Padua, and applied himself diligently to the study of Latm, a.s 
 well as his native language ; composed in both those tongues 
 in verse as well as in prose ; and also translated some works 
 from the former. At the age of twenty-one, he wrote his first 
 original work, " Intorno all Ceremoni ed ai Comphmenti degli 
 Antichi Romani," wliich Mazzuchclli pronounces a very learned 
 treatise. It was published about three years aftenvards. While 
 attached to belles-lettres, Baroni did not omit the study of philoso- 
 phical subjects, and took a part in the discussion on demonology, 
 which a work of his friend and neighbour Tartarott6 gave rise 
 to, whose views he supported to some extent. At the same time 
 he published an essay, ■' Del Impotenza del Demonio," in which 
 he maintained the fallacy of attributing certain physical feats to 
 demoniacal agency. ]Maffei was so impressed with the ability of 
 this composition, that he sought for the personal acquaintance 
 of its author, who went to Verona, the only journey he ever 
 made, to visit the veteran scholar. In the contest between Mau- 
 pertius and Zanotti upon the essay of the former on moral philo- 
 sophy, Baroni entered the lists in support of the essay, and wrote 
 numerous letters on the subject, which were subsequently collected 
 and published at Venice in 1757. He wTote several treatises on 
 moral philosophy and metaphysics, of which many are unpub- 
 lished. To the exertions and influence of Baroni are principally 
 due the est.iblishment of the Academia degli Agiati at Roveredo 
 in 1750. He was appointed " revisore" in it, and read from 
 time to time many scientific and literary dissertations there. He 
 died in 1796.— J. F. W. 
 
 BARONIUS, C.ESAK, the famous historian and cardinal, was 
 bom at Sora in Naples, 31st October, 1538. His father and 
 mother were both of noble families. His education was begun 
 
 I
 
 BAR 
 
 391 
 
 BAR 
 
 at Veroli, and he studied divinity and law at Naples. After- 
 wards, in 1557, he went to Rome for the same purpose, enrolling 
 himself as a pupil of Caesar Costa, and jmttiiig himself under 
 the discipline of St. Philip de Ncri, the founder of the congi-e- 
 gation of the oratoiy, hy whom he was ordained priest, and 
 attached in 1567 to the church of St. John the Baptist. St. 
 Philip ha^^ng resigned his office in 1593, nominated Baronius 
 as his successor. Pope Clement VIII. ratified the choice, and 
 made him his confessor. He became a cardinal, 5th June, 1596. 
 Previous to his elevation he had been apostolical protonotary, 
 and after it he had charge of the Vatican library. On Clement's 
 death in 1605, Baronius would have been chosen his successor, 
 thirty-three voices declaring in his favom-; but the influence of 
 Spain was strongly employed against him, on account of a 
 treatise he had written " On the Monarchy of Sicily," in which 
 he had argued against the Spanish claim to that island. The 
 health of the cardinal was undermined by severe and continuous 
 study, his digestive organs had become wholly powerless, and he 
 died at Rome, June 30, 1007, and was interred in the church 
 of St. Mary in Vallicella. The great work of Baronius, sug- 
 gested to him by Philip de Neri, is his " Annales Ecclesiastic!," 
 the laboiu" of thu-ty yeai-s. The first volume was published at 
 Rome in 1588, and the twelfth and last was printed in 1607. 
 These volumes, all in folio, and bringing the history down to the 
 year 1198, were dedicated to the various catholic sovereigns. 
 Materials left for three more volumes were used by Raynaldus. 
 Editions of this huge repository were printed in various places, 
 such as Venice, Cologne, Antwerp, Jlentz, Amsterdam, and 
 Lucca. Baronius himself fmTiished correction for the edition 
 of Mentz. There have been also several abridgments and con- 
 tinuations. This work was written avowedly as a grand cor- 
 rective to the centm-iators of ^Magdeburg. The industry and 
 research displayed in it are truly gi'eat, though the tinge and 
 colouring are often apparent. Baronius was a devoted son of 
 the church, and expended liis historical erudition in her defence. 
 He has made not a few mistakes in chronology, and has not 
 applied a severe critical examination to several treatises of more 
 than doubtful authenticity. The histoiy of the Latin chmxh is 
 fuller than that of the Greek church. Indeed, his Greek 
 scholarship was defective, and he had to trast to others for 
 translations of some important Greek documents. His style is 
 not characterized by either terseness or elegance, and the 
 annals are rather a series of dissertations, than a simple continu- 
 ous nan-ative. His principal opponents were Lucas Holstenius, 
 who boasts of having detected eight thousand falsehoods in the 
 " Annals," Isaac Casaubon in his Exercitationes, and Comber. 
 Baronius published various other historical works of less value. 
 A new edition of the "Annals" is in preparation at Rome. — J. E. 
 
 BAROZZI or BAROZZIO, Jacopo. See Vignola. 
 
 BARRABAND, Pierre Paul, a French artist, born in 1767; 
 died in 1809 ; studied in Paris under Malaine, and treated the 
 difl'erent branches of painting, history, landscape, portraits, 
 flowers, animals (birds especially), still-life, &c., all with uncom- 
 mon success. He was employed for the manufactories of Sevres 
 and of the Gobelins. Appointed professor at the academy of 
 Lyons, he died very soon after his removal to that place. — R. M. 
 
 BARRADAS or BARRADIUS, Sebastiano, a celebrated 
 Jesuit, surnamed the St. Paul of Portugal, was born of 
 noble family in 1542, and died in 1615. He was professor of 
 philoso])hy at Coimbra, and left two volumes of commentaries. 
 
 BARRAL, THE Abbe Pierre, a learned writer, born at 
 Grenoble near the commencement of the eighteenth centuiy, 
 died at Paris in 1772, author of " A Historical, Literarj', and 
 Critical Dictionary of Celebrated Men." 
 
 BARRANCO, Francisco, a Spanish painter, flourishing in 
 Andalusia about 1046 ; left several pictures of familiar or bur- 
 lesque character, much praised for colour and tnUhfulness. 
 
 BARRAS, Paul-Fran^ois-Jean-Niciiolas, count of, was 
 the eldest son of the junior branch of one of the oldest and mi)st 
 famous houses of Provence. He was born, June 20, 1755, at 
 Fos-Euiphoux, a village in that department. Early in youth he 
 was devoted to a militaiy career, and became a lieutenant in 
 the regiment of Languedoc. He was next sent to the Isle 
 of France, and joined the corps of Pondicherry. Here it 
 was that he first manifested the one characteristic that has 
 rendered his name memorable in history — rapid, decisive, coura- 
 geous action. Pieiiig wrecked on the coast of the Maldives, the 
 Bailors in blank despair gave up all efforts to save themselves 
 
 and passengers ; but Barras took the command, got a raft made, 
 and succeeded in saving all the crew. He was engaged at the 
 siege of Pondicherry, and after that place surrendered to tho 
 English, he remained some time in India, until quarrels caused 
 him to resign and return to France. Amved in Paris, he plunged 
 into the most headlong dissipation, and soon squandered his 
 slender means. He recniited his finances by marriage with a 
 wealthy lady, but left her to reside in the provinces, while he 
 still followed up his gay career in the metropolis. The revolu- 
 tion of 1789 found hun again beggared, and he saw at once the 
 chances that now opened up to a bankrupt and unscnipulous 
 man. He went down to Provence, and soon acquired notoriety 
 by his vehemence as an ultra-revolutionist. After holding several 
 minor offices, he was at last, in 1792, constituted a deputy to the 
 national convention. One of his first acts was to vote the death 
 of the king without delay or appeal. In 1793, when the Eng- 
 lish took Toulon, Barras and Freron were despatched to the 
 south. Barras acted with great energy. He went to Nice, and 
 aiTested there the general in command, in the midst of his army, 
 for complicity in the surrender of Toulon. He then placed Mar- 
 seilles in a state of siege, and superintended the operations for 
 the recapture of Toulon. Successfid in the south, he ret'oi'ned 
 to Paris, and took the lead against RobespieiTe. He it was who 
 commanded the troops that dispersed the levies of Henriot, and 
 annihilated the Reign of Terror. Several times afterwards he 
 displayed the greatest energy and corn-age in the suppression of 
 dangerous manifestoes, and finally, on 5th October, 1795, he 
 appointed Bonaparte his deputy against the insurgent section, 
 whose decisive action may be said to have ended the Revolution, 
 as a progressive event. In 1796 Barras was appointed one of 
 the council of Five, and from that period till the return of 
 Bonaparte from Egypt, he was the leading spirit in the con- 
 ducting of the affairs of France, showing himself at all times a 
 man of ready and courageous action. When Bonaparte became 
 first consul, Barras retired into private life, and settled at 
 Brussels. In 1813, being implicated in a plot against the 
 imperial government, he left Brussels for Rome. Here he still 
 intrigued, and being arrested, might have been in danger, had not 
 the fall of Bonaparte in 1814 saved him. During the hundred 
 days of Napoleon's return. Ban-as refused to acknowledge him in 
 any way ; and when the Bourbons were finally settled on the 
 throne, he took up his abode near Paris, as a quiet unobtrusive 
 citizen, till his death on the 29th January, 1829. He was be- 
 lieved to have written Memoires, but all his papers were seized 
 by the government, and nothing has ever come to light.- — J. S. S. 
 BARRl^, Antoine or Antonio, a musician, said by M. Fetis 
 to have been a Frenchman, by other writers, an Italian. In 
 1550 he was in Rome practising his art, and there he met with 
 a patron in Onofrio Vigili, with whose assistance he established 
 in 1555 a press for printing music, from which, in the course of 
 that year, he issued two collections of madrigals, containing, 
 besides some of his own compositions, many pieces by other 
 authors. Three years later, he had a printing establishment in 
 JMilan, where he published a third similar collection, and Walther 
 speaks of some more madi'igals of his composition beuig published 
 at Venice some years later. — G. A. M. 
 
 * BARRE, John Augustic, a French sculptor, the son of 
 Jean Jacques Ban-e, born in i'aris in 1811; studied first with 
 his father, and then under Cortot. — R. M. 
 
 BARRE, Jean de la, a man of letters, bom in Paris, 1650 ; 
 died about 1711. He wrote a continuation of Bossuet's Dis- 
 course on Universal Histoiy. 
 
 BARRE, Jean FuanIjOIS le Fevre, chevalier de la, re- 
 markable only for his tragical fate. At the instance of one 
 Duval de Sancourt, this unfortunate youth was accused before 
 the diocesan court of Amiens, of having nuitilated a wooden 
 crucifix displayed on the bridge of Abbeville ; and the offence 
 having been magnified by the arts of his base and cruel accuser 
 into an outrage on religion, he was condemned to have his tongue 
 cut out, his right hand amputated, and afterwards to suffer at 
 the stake. An order of the pariiament of Paris commuted the 
 first part of the sentence. He was born in 1747, and suft'ered 
 at Abbeville in 1766.— J. S., G. 
 
 * BARRE, Jean Jacques, a French medallist of our day, 
 was born in I'aris in 1793; studied under Tiolicr at the mint 
 of the French metropolis, where by rapid and continuous pro- 
 gress he rose to become, in 1842, the chief engraver of this 
 establishment. — R. M.
 
 BARRE, Louis, bom at Lille in 1799. He was professor of 
 languages in Belgium. He took part in writing several valuable 
 dictionaries. He also translated several English books, among 
 which we may mention Sir Walter Scott's poems. 
 
 BARREAU, Alexandrine Rose, a French heroine, who 
 served \vith the grenadier battalion of her native district. Tarn, 
 in numerous campaigns of the republic and the empire, and who 
 particularly signahzed herself in an attack on the redoubt of 
 Alloqui in 1794; was born at Sarteiis in 1771, and died at 
 Avignon in 1843. At Alloqui she avenged with a woman's 
 fury the loss of her husband and her brother, who had fallen 
 by her side early in the engagement. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARREAUX, Jaques Val^e, Seigneur des, bom at Paris 
 in 1G02 ; educated at La Fleche by the Jesuits. He affected 
 the philosophy and the tastes of an Epicurean ; this led him to 
 change his residence according to the changes of the seasons, and 
 he seems to have lived in the houses of fiiends or relatives. His 
 winter was passed in the south of France ; his summers in the 
 north. At times he went to visit Balzac on the banks of the 
 Charente ; and he passed long periods at the house of an uncle 
 at Clievailles-sur-LoLre. In 1G42 he went to Holland to visit 
 Des Cartes. He finally retu-ed to Chalons-sur-Saone, where he 
 breathed what he called the best and purest air of France, and 
 there he died in 1G73. Of his poetry, which was once admired, 
 nothing now remains. He Uved himself to sm-vive the verses to 
 which he owed his chief reputation, all but one remarkable son- 
 net, beginning — 
 
 "Grand Dieu! tes jugemens sont remplis d'eiiuiti;" 
 
 and this, he is said, in a death-bed confession, to have declaimed 
 was not his. Des B;irreaux confined his wishes and prayers to 
 three things : " Oubli pour le passe, patience pour le present, et 
 misericorde pour I'avenir." — J. A., D. 
 
 BARRE DE BEAUMARCHALS, Antoine de la, aleamed 
 man, bom at Cambray about the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century ; died about 1757. His works contain some curious 
 bits of literar}' history. He translated Steele's Christian Hero. 
 
 BARRELIER, Jacques, a French botanist, born at Paris in 
 1606, and died 17th September, 1673. He studied medicine, 
 and obtained his diploma in 1634. He subsequently joined the 
 Dominican order, and engaged in theological pm-suits, his leisure 
 hours being devoted to botany. In 1646, along with the general 
 of the Dominicans, he visited Provence, Languedoc, and Spain, 
 and made large collections of plants. Afterwards he examined 
 the Appenines, and visited Italy. He resided at Rome for 
 twenty-three years, and founded a botanic garden at the con- 
 vent of Saint Xyste. He retm-ned to Paris in 1672, and resided 
 in the convent of the order in the Rue St. Honore, where he 
 devoted himself to the preparation of an extensive botanical 
 work, entitled " Hortus MundL, scu Orbis Botanicus." A portion 
 of the manuscript had been completed, and some of the plates 
 engraved at Rome, when he was cut off by an attack of asthma. 
 An account of his collections and obser\-ations in France, Spain, 
 and Italy, was published by Jussieu, at Paris, in 1714, and 
 contains 334 plates, with 1324 figures. Plumier has named a 
 geims, in the family of Acanthacea;, Ban-eliera. — J. H. B. 
 
 BARRERA, Francisco, a Spanish painter of the fii-st half 
 of the seventeenth century; noted for having, in 1640, opposed 
 a tax before the tribunals, which it was intended to levy upon 
 the mastership of painters. — R. II. 
 
 B.\RIihRE, Pierre, a French naturalist, bom at Pei-pignan 
 about 1600, and died 1st November, 1755. He studied medi- 
 cine at Perpignan, and was made doctor in 1717. He devoted 
 his attention to botany, and was led to travel in different coun- 
 tries. In 1722 he was sent to Cayenne, where he resided for 
 three years ; and he pubUshed the result of his researches in 
 regard to the natural history of that part of the world. On his 
 return to France, he became professor of botany at Perpignan. 
 He practised also as a physician, and was subsequently elected 
 dean of the medical faculty of Perpignan. He published several 
 medical and botanical works. In one of these he shows the im- 
 portance of the knowledge of botany for a physician. A genus 
 Barr^ra was established by Willdenow in honour of him. — J.H.B. 
 
 B.-VRRETO, Francisco, a Portuguese Jesuit imssionary, 
 born at Montemayor in 1588 ; died at Goa in 1663. He wrote 
 an account of the missions and of the state of Christianity in 
 the province of Malabar. 
 
 BARRETO, Francisco de, Portuguese governor of the 
 
 Indies, famous for his conquests in Africa, a vast region of which, 
 called Monomotapa, he subjected to Portuguese authority ; suc- 
 ceeded Don Pedi-o JIascarenhas in 1558. Camoens, the poet, 
 suffered some of his intermmable wrongs at the hands of Bar- 
 reto, who banished him to Macao. He died in 1574 while en- 
 gaged in the conquest of Monomotapa. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BARRETT, Alfred, Wesleyan minister and theological 
 writer, born at Sheffield, October 17, 1808, entered the ministry 
 in 1832, and has been from the commencement of his public 
 life a most acceptable and useful preacher. He is the author of 
 "An Essay on the Pastoral Office," 8vo, 1839 ; '"The ilinistry 
 and Polity of the Christian Church," 8vo, 1854; both of which 
 treatises have especial reference to the ecclesiastical economy 
 of the Wesleyan methodists ; " Cathofic and Evangelical Prin- 
 ciples," 8vo, 1843, a work on the tractarian controversy; ''Pas- 
 toral Addresses," 2 vols., Svo, 1846, which, from their practical 
 character and devotional spirit, have obtained a large circulation 
 and a well-merited popularity; "Christ in the Storai," IGuio; 
 besides several usefid biographies. — \V. B. B. 
 
 BARRETT, Eton Stannakd, an Irish writer of considerable 
 ability, was born in Cork in the latter half of the eighteenth cen- 
 tur}-. He was educated at Wandsworth Common, where he was 
 looked upon as a genius amongst his schoolfellows, ha^ing written 
 a play, with prologue and epilogue, which was performed with 
 gi'eat success. After leavmg school he entered the middle tem- 
 ple, but does not appear to have followed the legal profession. 
 He became connected with the London press, and an author. 
 His first publication was a volume of poems, of which one entitled 
 " Woman," contained some Unes of gi'eat beauty, wliich, strange 
 to say, bear so singidar a resemblance to some lines of Ehzabeth 
 BaiTett (Browning), that they have been confounded with them. 
 His next work was a satirical poem, which appeared in 1807, 
 called " All the Talents," in ridicule of the whig administra- 
 tion then formed. His most celebrated work is the " Heroine," 
 a mock romance, in wliich the absurdities of the school of 
 romantic fiction, then popular, are exposed and ridiculed with 
 great pungency and humour. He also wrote '" Six Weeks at 
 Long's," which was very successful, and several political and 
 controversial pamphlets. He died on the 20th March, 1820, 
 in Glamorganshire, of rapid decluie, while stUl occupied in hte- 
 raiy ptu-suits. He was a man of great private worth and attrac- 
 tive manners. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARRETT, George, an English landscape painter, bom in 
 Dublin in 1728; died in 1784. A self-taught ai-tist until 1762 ; 
 in that year he visited London, where, resuming his studies 
 under West, by the advice of so good a friend he was enabled to 
 carry the prize of the Society of Arts. He became a membu 
 of the newly-founded Royal Academy, to the development of 
 which he greatly contributed. The works of this artist belong 
 to two distinct styles : of the first, good specimens were to be 
 seen at Norbury Pai-k but a few years ago ; of the second, the 
 galleries of the didces of Portland and Buccleuch can boast of 
 possessing the best. — R. M. 
 
 BARRETT, Dr. John, senior fellow and vice-provost of 
 Trinity college, Dublin, was as remarkable for the extent and 
 profundity of his philological and classical learning, as for the 
 eccentricities of his habits of life and personal deportment. He 
 was the son of a clerg^Tnan, and entered college in 1767, 
 obtained a scholai-ship hi 1773, and a fellowship in 1778, and 
 was elected vice-provost in 1778. He spent liis life in almost 
 solitary seclusion, devoted to the two passions that absorbed him 
 — reading, and the most penmious hoarding of money — the 
 latter habit being probably induced by the extreme poverty of 
 his early life ; yet, with all this, he was a man of the strictest 
 integrity, and never known to commit a dishonourable action. 
 With strong feelings of religion, he indulged in cursmg and 
 swearing as a thoughtless habit ; he was ever ready to do kind 
 actions, provided he was not called on to give money, and 
 though ignorant of everything that ])ertained to the most ordi- 
 nary at!:iirs of life, his mind was a perfect storehouse of strange 
 knowledge, and liis mcmorj- so tenacious that he could remember 
 •■dmost everything he had seen or read. Dr. Barrett's writings 
 were as eccentric as his manners ; he was, perhaps, the last 
 who published a work on astrology, and the " Inquiry into the 
 Origin and Signs of the Zodiac " is as extraordinary an example 
 of learned ingenuity as is extant. For the profundity of its know- 
 ledge and number of quotations, it may be placed beside Burton s 
 Anatomy of Melancholy. His most important critical work
 
 was an edition of St. Matthew's Gospel, from a veiy ancient 
 manuscript discovered by liim almost erased from the vellum, 
 which was written over with a modern subject. He succeeded 
 with incredible labour in deciphering the original, which proved 
 to be one of the oldest biblical manuscripts in existence. Dr. 
 Ban-ett died in 1821.— J. F. W. 
 
 BARRETT, Joiix, a musician, pupil of Dr. Blow, was master 
 of the choral school attached to Christ's hospital, London, and 
 organist of the church of St. Mary-at-Hill, at the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century. He was a good musician, and composed the 
 music to several plays. In the Pills to Purge Melancholy, 1719, 
 there are many of his songs. He composed the air, " lanthe, the 
 lovely," adapted, in the Beggars' Opera, to the words, "When he 
 holds up his hanil arraigned for his life." — E. F. R. 
 
 BARRETT, Ranei.agh, an English painter, particularly 
 noted for his excellent copies after the great masters, was mucli 
 employed by the duke of Devonshire and Sir Robert Walpole. 
 Died in 1761.— R. M. 
 
 BARRETT, Willtaji, a native of Somersetshire, who died 
 in 1789. He wrote a work entitled " History and Antiquities 
 of the Town of Bristol." 
 
 BARREYRA, Isidoki, a learned Portuguese of the seven- 
 teenth century, a celebrated preacher and author. 
 
 BARRI or BARRY, Girald or Gikaldus Cambrensis 
 DE, as he is usually called from the countiy of his birth, was 
 bom at the castle of Manorbur in Pembrokeshire, about the 
 year 1146. His father, William de Barri, vv^as of Norman Hneage 
 and a person of distinction ; his mother was the grand-daughter 
 of Rys ap Theodor, prince of South Wales. At an early age, 
 Giraldus having exhibited a taste for letters, his uncle, David 
 Fitzgerald, bishop of St. David's, superintended his education, 
 and sent him about 1168 to Paris| where he remained for throe 
 years, and attained a high character for learning. Returning to 
 England he entered into holy orders in 1172, and at once exhi- 
 bited his prompt and active spirit, and his zeal for the church. 
 Being appointed legate to the archbishop of Canterbury, he en- 
 forced the papnent of tithes to that prelate in Wales with great 
 vigour, forcibly taking the property of recusants, and even excom- 
 municating the governor of the province of Pembroke. He sus- 
 pended the archdeacon of St. David's, who refused to put away 
 his wife, and was rewarded by being promoted to his place. In 
 his new character of archdeacon he scon became involved in a 
 dispute with the bishop of St. Asaph's, touching the dedication of 
 a new church that stood on the borders of the two dioceses; and 
 his address and daring gained the victoiy. On the death of his 
 uncle, the bishop of St. David's, in 1176, Giraldus was elected 
 by the canons, and subsequently recommended by the archbishop 
 of Canterbury to Henry II., as his successor. But the learning, 
 ability, and ambition of Giraldus were by no means recommenda- 
 tions to a monarch who had alread}', in another ecclesiastic, un- 
 fortunate experience of the inconvenience of such qualities. He 
 accordingly objected to the appointment, saying, " that it was 
 neither expedient or necessaiy to elect too upright or active a 
 man to the vacant see of St. David's, as such a choice might 
 prove detrimental to the crown of England, or to the see of Can- 
 terbury." The high birth and influence of (iiraldus were addi- 
 tional reasons for the king's dissent. Gix'aldus again went to 
 Paris, where he applied himself anew to study, and acquired so 
 high a character, that he was chosen professor of canon law in the 
 academy of Paris, which honom", however, he declined. In 1180 
 he returned to England, and was soon after induced by the king 
 to reside at court, and accepted the post of tutor to Prince .lohn 
 in 1185. In this capacity he accompanied the prince to Ire- 
 land, upon the appointment of the latter as viceroy of that king- 
 dom, occupying also the post of secretaiy to the prince. He was 
 commissioned by tlie king to inquire into and report upon 
 the state of affairs in Ireland. He was offered the bishoprics 
 of Leighlin and Ferns, and subsequently the archbishopric of 
 Cashel ; liut he refused them, principally occupying himself 
 while in Ireland with collecting materials for his two worics, the 
 " Topography of Ireland," and the " Conquest of Ireland." 
 Leaving Ireland, Giraldus accompanied lialdwiu, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, upon a mission through Wales in aid of the crusades. 
 He a.ssumed the cross himself, and the effect of his zeal and elo- 
 quence in inducing the Welsh to go to the Holy Land was extra- 
 ordinaiy, insomuch that King .Tolin afterwards reproached him 
 for draining the county of Pembroke of men. In 1 ISO Giraldus 
 attended King Henry on his military expedition to France ; and 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 returning to England after the death of that monarch. King 
 Richard appointed him, upon his departure to the Holy Land, 
 coadjutor to the bishop of Ely in the regency of the kingdom. 
 During this period he refused the bishopric of Bangor and of Llan- 
 daff, and retired to Lincoln, to study theology under William de 
 Jlonte, where he continued for the space of six years, prosecuting 
 his studies with indefatigable ardour, and composing several of 
 his literary works. The see of St. David's became again vacant 
 in 1198, and Giraldus was again elected to it by a convocation. 
 A rival was set up by the archbishop of Canterbuiy ; and Giraldus, 
 after returning from a visit to Ireland, went, by the advice of his 
 friends, to Rome, to assert the rights of the see of St. David's, 
 and to support his own election. He was received with distinc- 
 tion by Innocent III., to whom he presented his works with a 
 remark, whose sarcasm was not the less keen that it was con- 
 veyed in a punning jest — " Pres(.'ntanmt vobis alii libras, sed nos 
 liliros." As might be expected in the com't of Rome, money out- 
 weighed merit. The archbishop's suit prospered, while the book- 
 writer was repaid with empty compliments. A harassing and 
 tedious litigation of five years ensued, which ended in declaring 
 his election null. Even then Giraldus stood up for the rights of 
 tlie see, apart from his own election, with such a fearless spirit 
 that he won the open praise of the bishop of Ostia. Giraldus 
 now returned to England, where he suffered much annoyance in 
 consequence of his continued defence of the rights of the see of 
 St. Da\dd's. At length, worn out by his fruitless exertions, dis- 
 gusted with the faithlessness and profligacy of the churchmen, he 
 obtained permission to vacate his archdeaconry in favour of his 
 nephew, Philip de Barri. And so, after enjoying the popularity of 
 all classes in Wales, and the favour of three successive monarchs, 
 Giraldus voluntarily resigned all his church preferments, and 
 withdrew to a life of studious retirement. Thus he passed the 
 last seventeen years of his life in peace, revising his former lite- 
 rary works, and in composing others, of which he has himself 
 given a copious index. From this tranquil seclusion, not even 
 the offer of the once dearly-coveted object of his ambition — the 
 see of St. David's, with the certainty of his election — could se- 
 duce him. 
 
 Giraldus died in his native province at St. David's, in the 74th 
 year of his age, and was bmied in the cathedral church. From 
 whatever point we view Girald de Barri — or rather, looldng at 
 him in the various characters of scholar, patriot, divine, and his- 
 torian — we must pronounce him one of the most distinguished 
 men of his own times. As a scholar his learning was extensive ; 
 as a patriot he was honest and faithful to his king and his country 
 — one who, fitted to live in courts, does not appear ever to have 
 suirendered his independence. As a divine he was versed in the 
 theology of his age, but his knowledge was qualified by his strong 
 prejudices; and he seems — no uncommon error — to have exalted 
 ills peculiar church above the great catholic principles of Chris- 
 tianity. Though ambitious, energetic, and even occasionally 
 violent, he was nevertheless independent in mind, honest in 
 his acts, and pure in morals and practice. His character as a 
 historian has been variously estimated; and it must be admitted 
 he is not without grave faults. These are perhaps principally 
 conspicuous in his works on Ireland. He entered the country 
 deeply imbued with prejudices, both political and religious, which 
 distorted and discoloured everything which he saw there; and his 
 ignorance of the language and hal)its of the people, and his over 
 credulity in believing what he heard from interested parties, 
 aggravated the effects of his prejudices. It is not, then, to be 
 wondered at that there is much in these works to be desen'edly 
 censured as unjust to the Irish, hurtful to their feelings, and 
 contrary to the real facts. These errors have been partially 
 refuted by Usher and O'Sullivan, but received a fuller exposure 
 at the hands of tlie learned John l>ynch, in his celebrated work, 
 Cambrensis Eversus, published in 1662. Still, considering the 
 times in which he wrote, the character of an al)le historian 
 cannot be withheld from Giraldus ; and there is nnich imjiortant 
 information to be collected from writings that, with all their 
 faults, still hold their place amongst the valuable chronicles of the 
 middle ages, and are cited, iierhaps too trustfully, by all English 
 writers upon the history of the period to which they refer. The 
 works of Giraldus are numerous, and are enumerated by Ware 
 and Iloare. The most important are those on Ireland, already 
 referred to, and bis " Itinerary and Description of Wales." Ho 
 also wrote many ri'ligious and ])olitical tracts. In personal ap- 
 pearance he was remarkably handsome and prepossessing, and 
 
 3 D
 
 his character is drawn with hiief, yet vigorous ft'licity by Pitseus: 
 " Statura procems, foiina venustus, moribus benignus, alloquio 
 dulcis et affabilis, modestus, in omnibus temperans et moderatus, 
 eruditus sed superstitiosus." — J. F. W. 
 
 BARRI, GiovAXNi, a Venetian painter of the second half of 
 the seventeenth century, equally distinguished for his pictures, 
 in which the characteristics of Titian's school are quite evident, 
 and for his etchings. He rendered gi-eat sen-ice to art by the 
 work he published under the title of "A Pictui-esque Journey" 
 (Viaggio Pittoresco). It is a catalogue of all the most important 
 paintings in the different towns of Italy at that time. This book 
 was translated into English, and republished in London in 1679 
 by W. Lodge.— R. M. 
 
 BARRIEXTOS, Genes, a Spanish theologian; died in 1694. 
 He abandoned the court of Charles II., by whom he had been ' 
 favourably distinguished, to engage in missionary labours among 
 the natives of the Philippine islands. He wrote " Expugnacion 
 de el Probalismo Reflexiones Theologicas." 
 
 BARRIERE, sumamed La Barke, notorious for his attempt 
 to assassinate Henry IV. of France. He was seized at the 
 moment when his purpose was about to take effect ; and having 
 been convicted on the testimony of a Domiuican, whom he had 
 endeavoured to make his accomplice, was executed in 1593. 
 
 BARRINGTOX, Johx Shute, first Viscount Barrington, 
 bom at Theobalds, Hertfordshire, in 1678, was the youngest son 
 of Benjamin Shute, his mother being a daughter of Can'l, author 
 of the famous and ponderous commentary on Job. He repaired 
 in youth to the university of Utrecht, and while resident there, 
 published several Latin essays and academic exercises, such as 
 " Oratio de studio Philosophise conjungendo cum studio Juris 
 Romam,"1698; "Exercitutio Physica de Ventis," 1696 ; "Ex- 
 ercitatio Philosophica de Theocratia Morali," 1697; " Disser- 
 tatio de Theocratia Civili," 1697. These tracts indicate a Hberal 
 and accomplished mind, and are the fruits of studious industry. 
 Heineccius has praised some of them — a high compliment from so 
 distinguished a jurist. Returning home, Jlr. Shute entered the 
 inner temple, and pursued the study of law. His sentiments on 
 the relation of dissent to the church of England, were always 
 manly and generous, as is sho'mi by some of his publications at 
 this period, such as — " The Interest of England considered, and 
 the Right of Protestant Dissenters." So high was the estimate 
 formed of Ids powers and principles by the great Lord Somers, 
 that, at the age of twenty-four, he was asked by the queen's 
 ministry to take charge of the presbyterian interest in Scotland, 
 and to engage it in favour of the union with England. Swift 
 says of him, that, according to report, he was " the shrewdest 
 head in England, and as for his principles, he is a moderate 
 man, frequenting church and meeting indifferently." For his 
 services at this junctui-e he was rewarded in 1708 by the place 
 of commissioner of customs, but the tories displaced him in 1711. 
 In the meantime a gentleman of the name of AVildman, in Berk- 
 shire, settled an estate upon him, and he assumed the name 
 of Barrington by act of parliament, on succeeding to the 
 estate of Francis Barrington of Tufts, who had married his 
 first cousin, and died witliout issue, ^\^len George I. ascended 
 the throne, Mr. Barrington was returned to the House of 
 Commons for Berwick-on-Tweed. In 1717 the office of master 
 of the rolls in Ireland was given him in reversion ; and in 1720 
 he was raised to the Irish peerage by warrant of privy seal, dated 
 St. James, June 10 ; and by patent at Dublin, July 1, by the 
 style and title of Baron Banington of Newcastle, and Viscount 
 Barrington of Ardglass. In 1722 he was again returned for 
 Berwick, but during the next year he was expelled the house 
 for his connection with the Harburg lottery. A company had 
 been formed under the auspices of tlie king, who was very par- 
 tial to his German territory, to open up and improve the port 
 of Harburg, the prince of Wales being governor, and Lord 
 Barrington sub-governor of the association. Shares rose to an 
 extravagant price, a lotteiy was opened, but very speedily the 
 bubble burst, the matter ending in terrible loss. There was a 
 question, too, about the extent of German and English power in 
 the bnsiness; and the Commons, at the instigation of Walpole, 
 resolved that the company had acted wthout orders from his 
 majesty, that the affair was a kind of public cheat, and that the 
 sub-governor be expelled the house. Certainly Lord Barrington 
 had not governed the company wisely, for he allowed his subor- 
 dinates to act not only without his consent, but against his 
 Dpinion. In 1725 appeared Lord Barrington's principal work, 
 
 his " Jliscellanea Sacra." His lordship, in this book, treats on 
 the methods by which Christianity was originally propagated, and 
 the various supernatural gifts bestowed on the early preachers ; 
 the instrumentality employed, and the success resulting from it, 
 being wrought into a demonstration of the divine origin and 
 truth of the christian faith. The reasoning is not profound, but 
 clear ; the erudition is not extensive, but it is respectable ; and 
 the candour and liberality of the author are apparent on every 
 page. Various other religious treatises were published by him 
 — "An Essay on the several Dispensations of God to JIankind," 
 1725; "A Discourse on Natm-al and Revealed ReUgion," 1732, 
 &c. His lordship took an active pai-t in all questions bearing on 
 toleration, and published again and again on a topic which lay 
 near his heart, for he generally worshipped with the dissenters. 
 As a friend and follower of Locke, such a course was to be ex- 
 pected from him. Lord Barrington died at his seat, Beckct, 
 Berkshire, 4th September, 1734. He left six sons and three 
 daughters, and some of these sons are noticed in their place. 
 His fourth son, Daines, was eminent in science and scholarship ; 
 his fifth son, Samuel, was a brave seaman ; and his sixth sod, 
 Shute, became bisliop of Durham. — J. E. 
 
 BARRINGTON, Daines, the Honourable, a celebrated na- 
 tm-alist and lawyer, born in 1727. He was the fourth son of 
 John Shute, first Viscount Banington. His mother was a 
 daughter of Sur William Daines. He was educated at Oxford, 
 and aftei-wards entered as a student at the middle temple. Ue 
 was called to the bar in 1749. In 1757 he became marshal of 
 the court of admiralty ; and in 1753 he was appointed secretary 
 for the affairs of Greenwich hospital. In 1752 he was employed 
 in his o-\vn profession as junior counsel for the prosecution on the 
 well-known trial of Hiss Blandy for the murder of her father. 
 He was elected recorder of Bristol in 1753 ; and in 1757 was 
 made a puisne Welsh judge. In the year 1785, havuig an 
 ample income, he retired from active and public life, and retained 
 only his place of commissary-general of the stores at Gibraltar. 
 He died in his chambers at the temple on the 11th of March, 
 1800. In 1766 he produced the work on which much of his 
 reputation depended — a project for repealing obsolete and use- 
 less statutes. He devoted much atteution to the question of 
 the north-west passage, and det:dled the result of his inquiries 
 and investigations in several papers read before the Royal Society. 
 It is said that his reports were chiefly instrumental in causing 
 government to send out the expedition under the command of 
 Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord JIulgrave, for the purpose of 
 maldng discoveries in the North Seas. His natural history 
 papers, read before the Royal Society, and existing in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions, are chiefly as follows : — " On some par- 
 ticular Fish found in Wales," vol. 57, p. 204; " On a Mole from 
 North America," vol. 61, p. 292; "On the Specific Character- 
 istics which distinguish the Rabbit from the Hare," vol. 62, p. 4; 
 " On the Periodical Appealing and Disappearing of certain Buds 
 at different times of the Year," vol. 62, p. 265 ; " On a Fossil 
 lately found near Chnst Church in Hampshire," vol. 63, p. 171; 
 " On the Lasropus or Ptannigan," vol. 63, p. 224 ; " On the 
 Singing of Birds," vol. 63, p. 249 ; " On the GUlaroo Trout," 
 voL 64, p. 116.— E. L. 
 
 BARRINGTON, Shute, D.D., bishop of Durham, brother 
 of the preceding, was born in 1734, and educated at Eton and 
 Merton college, Oxford. Having been made a royal chaplain 
 and canon of Christ Church, he was consecrated bishop of Llan- 
 daff in 1769, translated to Salisbury in 1782, and to Durham 
 in 1791. He continued to hold that wealthy see for thirty-three 
 years, down to his death in 1826. He was particularly cele- 
 brated for the judiciousness with which he distributed his 
 patronage. Amongst those whom he advanced and promoted 
 in the established church were Archdeacon Paley, the late 
 Bishop Burgess, and Bisliop Phillpotts. He published " Grounds 
 of Separation between the Churches of England and Rome," 
 1809; "Grounds of Union between the Churches of England 
 and Rome considered," 1810 ; a volume of " Charges and Ser- 
 mons," 1811; and the " PoUtical Life of Wilham, Viscount 
 Barrington," 8vo, 1815. He also contributed some valuable 
 notes to the third edition of :Mr. Bowyer's " Critical Conjectures 
 on the New Testament," published in 1782. — E. W. 
 
 BARRINGTON, Willl^m Wild>l,vn, second Viscount, was 
 bom in 1717. He was for many years employed in the public 
 service under the administrations of the duke of Newcastle and 
 the marquis of Rockingham, bemg secretaiy-at-war from 1755 to
 
 17G1, and ar;ain frcim 17C5 to 1778. He was also chancellor 
 of the exchequer for a short time, under the duke of Newcastle 
 in 1761-C2, and for many years held the posts of one of the 
 lords of the admiralty and treasurer of the navy. He died 
 FeijiTiaiy 1, 1793, after a long life spent in the discharge of his 
 ofKcial duties with more than ordinary ability. — E. W. 
 
 BARRIOS or BARIOS, Daniel Levi or ISIichel, a Span- 
 ish theologian and poet, of Jewish origin, lived at Amsterdam 
 in the 17th century. He wrote a "Universal Histoiy of the 
 Jews," and an account of Jewish literature in Spain. 
 
 BARROS, JoAo DE, born at Lisbon of a noble family. His 
 childhood was spent at the court of King Emanuel, with the pages 
 and princes of that monarch. He soon displayed a decided taste 
 fur history. When scarcely twenty-fom' years of age, he wrote 
 a historical novel entitled " El Emperaor Clarimondi," which, 
 although defective in {esthetic power, still channs the reader by 
 the purity and elegance of its style. King Emanuel foresaw in 
 Barros the ciiiinent historian of Portugal, and encouraged him 
 to write the histoiy of the discoveries and conqixests of the Por- 
 tuguese. John IIL, at his accession to the throne, conferred on 
 his protege and friend, the governorship of the Portuguese 
 Guiana, and on his return from Africa, he raised him to the 
 general trcasurership of the cohjnies, and soon after bestowed on 
 him the important dignity of colonial secretaiy, which office he 
 filled for thirty-eight yeai-s. It was during that long and hon- 
 ourable office tliat Barros wrote, in forty books, " The Histoiy 
 of the Conquests of Portugal in Asia and Africa ; " the first part 
 of which he published in 1552, a year bef<jre the departure of 
 Cainoens for India, The second part was published a short 
 lime before his death, which happened at Alitem, his country 
 residence, in the year 1571. — A. C. M. 
 
 BARROSO, Miguel, a Spanish painter of considerable merit 
 and extraordinary erudition, born at Consuegra in Old Castile 
 ill 1538; died in Madrid in 1590. He was pupil of Becerra, and 
 -trove to imitate Correggio, in which endeavour, but for a want 
 < if vigour and a mistaken method of light and shadow, he would 
 have been very successful. — R. M. 
 
 * BARROT, Cajiille Hyacinthe Odilon, a French states- 
 man, son of Jean Andr6 Barrot, was born at Villefort in 1791, 
 ' ducated at Saint Cyr, and afterwards at the Lyc^e Napoleon. 
 ![e was admitted a member of the court of cassation in 1814, 
 nd continued to practise as avocat till 1831. In 1830 he was 
 tme of three commissioners whom the provisional government 
 intrusted with the duty of conveying the royal family to Cher- 
 Imurg. His subsequent career, chequered by the events con- 
 iii'Cted with the rise and downfall of the younger branch of the 
 I lourbons, has been that of an accommodating, if not a vacillating 
 [lolitician. In the reign of Louis Philippe, he was the recognized 
 leader of the party known as the Gauche moderee, in which 
 character he declaimed in the assembly against the reactionary 
 policy of the king, and in public patronized the refonn banquets 
 and other political demonstrations which led to the overthrow 
 I' the monarchy in 1848. At that epoch, supporting the rights 
 I the count of Paris to the crown, and those of the duchess of 
 ' irl(;ans to the regency, he undertook with M. Thiers to form a 
 > ibinet. The attempt failed, and Barrot, minister for a few 
 iiours, became, on the 10th December, president of the council 
 under Louis Napoleon. He was superseded in the following year, 
 the policy of the president, it was supposed, requiring agents still 
 more flexible than M. Barrot. Since 1851 he has withdrawn 
 IVom public life. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BARROT, Ferdinand, brother of the preceding, was 
 named secretary-general to Louis Napoleon immediately after 
 his election. In 1849 he l)ecame minister of the interior, and 
 held that office till March following. Since 1852 he has been 
 connected with the department of public works, agriculture, and 
 commerce. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARROT, Jean Andui;;, father of Odilon Ban-ot, was a 
 member of the convention in 1792. He voted against the party 
 of the regicides. As a member of the chamber of deputies in 
 1814-15, he took an active part against Napoleon. After the 
 restoration, he olitained an important magisterial appointment. 
 Died in 1845.— J. S., G. 
 
 BARROW, Isaac, a celebrated divine and mathematician, 
 was the son of Mr. Thomas Barrow, a citizen of London, where 
 he was bom in October, 1G30. His education commenced at the 
 Charterhouse, where he remained two or three years without 
 evincing anything i-einarkable, except an inclination for quarrelling 
 
 and idle sports. Being removed to a school at Felstead in Essex, 
 he made so great progress in learning, that his master procured 
 him an appointment to the office of private tutor to Lord Vis- 
 count Fairfax in Ireland. In 1648 he was admitted a pensioner 
 of St. Peter's college at Cambridge ; of which college, his uncle, 
 afterwards bishop of St. Asaph, was fellow ; but in 1 G45 he removed 
 to Trinity college. At this time he was in great difficulties, his 
 father and relatives having sustained heavy losses in consequence 
 of their attachment to the royal cause ; so that his chief support 
 was from the liberality of Dr. Hammond. It would appear that 
 he was very diligent and persevering in his studies, devoting 
 himself chiefly to science, especially natural philosophy, and 
 conducting himself with all prudence and moderation as well as 
 respectful deference to his superiors, though he and they belonged 
 to opposite parties; for he would not take the covenant, but 
 continued a royalist like his relatives. In 1G49 he was chosen 
 fellow of his college, an appointment owing to his merit as a 
 scholar, and to his general behaviour, which had procm-ed him 
 the good-will of the governors of the university, though the prin- 
 ciples of his party were obnoxious to them. Soon after his elec- 
 tion, finding that the times were unfavourable to men of his 
 si'ntiments respecting church and state, he resolved to devote 
 himself to medicine, and accordingly studied for some years ana- 
 tomy, botany, and chemistry ; after which he studied chronology 
 geometry, and astronomy ; but afterwards, by the advice of his 
 uncle, the bishop of St. Asaph, and on mature deliberation, he 
 abandoned all idea of the medical profession, detcniiining to 
 make divinity the object of his studies, in connection with mathe- 
 matics and astronomy. To these he also joined poetry. When 
 Duport resigned the chair of Greek professor, he recommended 
 his pupil for his successor ; but the latter being suspected of an 
 inclination towards Arminianism, did not obtain the office. 
 Owing to this disappointment, and probably other causes, he 
 resolved to go abroad ; and to defray the expenses of his journey 
 sold his books. Accordingly he set out in 1G55, visiting France 
 and Italy. In 165G he took ship at Leghorn for Smyrna, whence 
 he proceeded to Constantinople. Here he remained above a year, 
 duringwhich time he read overall theworksof St.Chrysostom,once 
 bishop of that see, whose writings he preferred to all the fathers. 
 Retm-ning from Turkey to Venice, he came home through Ger- 
 many and Holland in 1G59. Soon after he was ordained by 
 Bishop Brownrig, though the church of England was then at a 
 low ebb ; but the king was soon restored, and therefore his friends 
 naturally expected preferment for one who had suffisred so much 
 in the royal cause. In this respect, however, their expectations 
 were disappointed. Yet he -wrote an ode on his majesty's restor- 
 ation, in which Britannia is introduced congratulating the king 
 on his return. In the year IGGO he was chosen to the Greek 
 professorship at Cambridge, and read lectures on the rhetoric of 
 Aristotle. His lectures were lent to a friend, who never returned 
 them, so that they were lost. In 1GG2 he was elected to the 
 professorship of geometry at Grcsham college, on the recommen- 
 dation of Dr. Wilkins. Here he not only discharged the proper 
 duties of his office, but supplied the place of his colleague, Dr. 
 Pope, the astronomical professor. In 1GG3 he was in the first 
 list of members made by the Royal Society after receiving their 
 charter; and was appointed in the same year first Lucasian pro- 
 fessor of tnathematics at Cambridge. At this time he resigned 
 his Greek and Gresham professorships. In 1GG9 he resigned the 
 mathematical chair to his illustrious friend, Isaac Newton, 
 in order that he might devote his attention entirely to divinity. 
 In 1670 he was created doctor in divinity by royal mandate ; 
 and in 1672 became master of Trinity by the king's order, who 
 obsen'cd, that "he had bestowed it on the best scholar in Eng- 
 land." The patent for his mastership was drawn m such a wnj 
 as to permit him to marry ; but he caused the permissive clause 
 to be erased, as inconsistent with the statutes of the college. On 
 this occasion he ptirted with a small sinecure in Wales, given him 
 by his uncle, and a prebend in the cathedral of Salisbmy, the 
 emoluments of which he had bestowed in charity, because his 
 relations were then no longer necessitous. In 1G75 he was 
 chosen vice-chancellor of the university ; and on the 4th of Jlay, 
 1G77, while in London, died of fever, in the forty-seventh year 
 of his age. His mortal remains were inteiTcd in Westminster 
 abbey, where a monimient was erected to his memory at the 
 expense of his friends. 
 
 In person Barrow was below the middle height, lean, and of 
 pale aspect. His dress was very slovenly. He was simple,
 
 upright, modest, candid, and friendly. He had no disguise or arti- 
 fice, but was free and communicative in conversation. He was 
 very generous and charitable. The estate he left was books, which 
 had been so well chosen that they sold for more than they cost. 
 
 His sermons are rather treatises or dissertations, than discourses 
 for the multitude. They are vigorous in conception, exceUent in 
 matter, and nervous in style, though there are too many paren- 
 theses, which interrupt the thread of discourse and obscure to 
 some extent its perspicuity. Pervaded by a manly eloquence, they at 
 once cany conviction to the mind. Charles II. called him " an un- 
 fair preacher, because lie exhausted eveiy subject, leaving nothing 
 for any person that came after him to say." The length of his ser- 
 mons is unusual. That on the duty and reward of bounty 
 occupied three liours and a half in preaching. The first edition 
 of his theological works was edited by Dr. Tillotsou, and pub- 
 lished in 1G85, in three folio volumes. A fomih was added in 
 1687, containing the " Opuscula." The three English volumes 
 consist of treatises on the " Pope's Supremacy and the Unity of 
 the Church;" "Expositions of the Lord's Prayer, the Decalogue, 
 the Creed," &c., and sermons. The best edition is that of 1830, 
 in eight volumes, 8vo. 
 
 As a mathematician, Dr. Barrow was no less celebrated than 
 as a divine. His ])rincipal mathematical works are "Euclidis 
 Elementa," published at Cambridge in 16.55, 8vo, during his 
 absence on the continent. This was translated into English, and 
 published in 1660, London. Euclid's " Data," Cambridge, 1657, 
 8vo, was subjoined to the preceding in later editions. But his 
 best work in this department is his " Lectiones Optica; xviii. ; 
 Cantabrigian in Scholis Publicis Habitas," &c., London, 1669, 4to. 
 Sir Isaac Newton rerised and enlarged it. He was only sm"passed 
 in mathenuitical science by his gi'eat pupil. 
 
 The genius of Barrow was comprehensive, for he not only 
 excelled in divinity and mathematics, but also indulged in the 
 flowery paths of poetry, having composed verses both in Greek 
 and Latin. And when we look upon his christian virtues, he 
 stands before us as a man rarely excelled in the combination of 
 great natural abilities, profound acquirements, and unostentatious 
 piety. His life, written by Arthur Hill, is commonly prefixed to 
 editions of his collected works. — S. D. 
 
 BARROW, SiK .John, LL.D., F.R.S., was born in 1764 in 
 a small cottage in the village of Dragleybuck, North Lancashire. 
 His early education, but for his extraordinary ajititude and dili- 
 gence, would liave been scanty, inasmuch as it was formally 
 concluded in his thirteenth year, at which age, according to his 
 autobiogi'aphy, liaving read a number of the classics and made 
 some progress in the mathematics, he was taken from school 
 and set to assist in surveying some estates in Yorkshire. His 
 next occupation was that of superintendent and clerk at an iron 
 foundry in Liverpool. At the end of two years he quitted that 
 situation ; and, after making a voyage to Greenland on board a 
 whaler, found congenial employment in a mathematical academy 
 at Greenwich. Here he was taken notice of by Sir George 
 Staunton, who, on becoming secretary to Lord JIacartney, then 
 about to set out on an embassy to China, appointed him comp- 
 troller of the ambassador's household. From this period, 1792, 
 so favourably were his intelligence and his zeal for the public 
 service reported by the members of this embassy, Mr. Barrow 
 was always consulted by the government on the occasion of any 
 difficulty arising in our relations with the Celestial empire. He 
 returned to England in 1794, and in 1797 accompanied Lord 
 Macartney to the Cape of Good Hope, as private secretary. His 
 lordship, quitting the colony in the following year, appointed 
 Mr. Barrow to the post of auditor-general of public accounts, 
 civil and military, wliich he held till the evacuation of the Cape 
 in 1803. On his return to England in that year, he published 
 a volume of " Travels in South Africa," to which he added a 
 supplement in the following year. Lord Melville, on taking 
 office as first lord of the admiralty in 1804, ajjpointcd BaiTow to 
 the post of second secretary ; and that office, with a short inter- 
 niption occasioned by a cliange of ministry, he held till 1845, 
 when he retired from public life. He was created a baronet 
 in 1835. Equally as an author and as a public sen-ant, he 
 enjoyed the respect of his countiymcn. His sei-vices in this 
 latter character to the cause of science, especially his exertions 
 in connection with the expeditions of Franklin and Ross, were 
 recognized in 1845 by the presentation of a candelabrum, the gift 
 of officers who had sen-ed in various arctic voyages. His labours 
 as an author, modestly enumerated iu his autobiography, com- 
 
 prise, besides the work above-mentioned, " Travels in China," 
 " Chronological History of Arctic Voyages," and " Voyages of 
 Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions." He died 
 in 1849, having completed his eiglity-fifth vear. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARROW, William, LL.D., prebendary of Southwell, rec- 
 tor of Beelsby, Lincolnshire, aiul archdeacon of Nottingham; bom 
 in the West Riding of Yorkshire; educated at Sedbergh and 
 Queen's college, O.xford ; B.A. 1778, M.A. 1783, B. andD.C.L. 
 1785 ; died April 19, 1836. He was the author of the " Bampton 
 Lectures," 1799, besides other theological works. — T. F. 
 
 BARROWE, Henry, an eminent sectary, was a native of 
 Norfolk. He was of honourable descent, " a gentleman of a good 
 house," according to the testimony of his contemporaiy. Lord 
 Bacon (Works, fol. ed., vol. iv. p. 356). He received his educa- 
 tion at Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, where he took his 
 degree of B.A. in 1569. Having devoted himself to the stu.ly 
 of law, he became a member of Gray's Inn. At this period he 
 seems to have freely indidged in the gaieties of the metropolis, 
 and it is probable also in many of its vices. Through liis 
 family connections, he found access to Queen Elizabeth, and 
 was for some time a frequenter of her court. His change 
 from this mode of life to one of " preciseness in the highest 
 degi-ee," is described by Bacon as " a leap, the strangeness 
 of which made him very much spoken of." " Being missed at 
 com-t by his consorts and acquaintance, it was quickly bi-uited 
 abroad that Banowe was turned puritan." — (JBraclford Dialo'jue, 
 in Young's Chronicle of the Pilyvims, Boston, p. 433.) A puri- 
 tan, however, BaiTowe did not long remain ; the point at which 
 Puritanism stopped fell far short of that to which his studies of 
 scripture led hun in reference to ecclesiastical matters. He 
 accordingly associated with those who were tending towards the 
 independent or congregational platfonn of church polity, and 
 among them he came to occupy so much the place of a leade.'-, 
 that the early congregationalists in England have often been called 
 " BaiTowists." Had he remained a puritan he would in all pro- 
 bability have been safe ; but by becoming an Independent he ex- 
 posed himself to constant vexation, and ultimately brought down 
 on himself a martyr's fate. On the 19th of November, 1586, 
 whilst \'isiting some of his nonconfonuist brethren, who were for 
 conscience' sake imprisoned in the Clink, he was himself arrested 
 and imprisoned. In the afternoon of the same day he was 
 brought before the high commission court, where, though it w;is 
 Sunday, Whitgift, bishop of Londoi-., presided. Being required, 
 according to the fashion of this uiquisitorial tribunal, to swear 
 the oath ex efficio, by which the person under trial " was boimd 
 to answer all questions, and might thereby accuse himself or his 
 most intimate friend" (Hume, vol. v. p. 267), he refused, partly 
 on the ground of the solemnity of oaths in general, and jiartly 
 on the gi'ound of the unconstitutional nature of that oath in par- 
 ticular. Some sharp words passed between the bishop and him ; 
 and the conference ended by his being remanded to prison. On 
 the 27th of the same month he was again brought before the cx)urt 
 of commission, when he again refused to take the oath. He was 
 scut back to prison, where he was confined for four months. On 
 the 24th of .March he was examined before the commission on his 
 affirmation without oath. On this occasion he avowed opinions 
 on ecclesiastical matters which went far beyond those held by 
 the puritans, especially in the denial of the legitimacy of an 
 establishment of the church by the state, and the assertion of 
 the right of private christians to share in the regulation and 
 management of churches. He protested, at the same time, his 
 full allegiance to the queen, and his entire submission to the 
 civil power in all temporal matters. In such examinations and 
 discussions other three months were consumed, and at length he 
 was, with a companion of the name of Greenwood, a minister, 
 committed to the Fleet prison, where they lay for several ye.nrs. 
 During this inten'al Barrowe's pen was not idle, and several 
 controversial works were issued by him, " scandalous and sedi- 
 tious writings," as the biographer of Whitgift calls them, but 
 which contain nothing beyond an exposition and defence of his 
 peculiar ecclesiasticid views. For these writings, however, it 
 was resolved to bring him again to trial ; and accordingly he 
 was, on the 23rd of JIarch, 1593, indicted at the Old Bailey, 
 along with several others, for writing and publishing certain 
 books and pamphlets tending to the slander of the queen's govern- 
 ment. The only one of his writings given in as evidence against 
 him, was a work entitled "A Brief Dissection of the False 
 Church," in which, whatever there mav be of ecclesiastical
 
 liberalism, there is nothing indicating the slightest tendency to 
 political disaffection. It had been resolved beforehand, however, 
 that Barrowe and Greenwood should be made examples of, m 
 the hope that their death, if they persisted in refusing to recant 
 their obnoxious tenets, might do something towards arresting 
 the progress of separatism ; and accordingly no attention was 
 paid to his defence, whilst his courage, ability, and manifest 
 innocence of the thir-gs laid to his charge, only tended to exas- 
 perate his persecutors the more against him. He was, with four 
 others, sentenced to suffer death as a felon. After several tan- 
 talizing reprieves, he and Greenwood were, on the 6th of May, 
 lo93, conveyed to Tyburn, and there executed. A large amount 
 of public sympathy attended them during their sufleiings, and 
 followed them to their untimely and umnghteous fate. Nor did 
 the queen feel satisfied with the deed she had authorised. She 
 on one occasion asked Dr. Eeynolds what he thought of these two 
 men, Barrowe and Greenwood. At first he declined to answer, 
 but the queen insisting on a reply, he said that " he was per- 
 suaded, if they had lived, they would have been two as worthy 
 instruments for the church of God, as have been raised up in 
 this age." Her majesty sighed, and said no more. Sometime 
 afterwards, when riding in Hyde Park, she again retiuned to the 
 subject, and asked the earl of Cumberland, who was present 
 when they suffered, what end they made. "A very godly end," 
 was his answer, " and they prayed for your majesty and the 
 state." — (Wall's J/ore Work for the Bean, 4to, i68i.) Bar- 
 rowe's writings are all controversial, and on questions of chm-ch 
 polity ; they are now very scarce. His memory is reverenced by 
 the Enghsh Independents, as that of the man whose writings and 
 
 .!iom-s first gave a firm footing to their body. — See Hanbury's 
 .Unmoriah relating to Independents, vol. i., p. 35-G2 ; Price's 
 UUtory of Protestant Nonconformity, vol. i., p. 407 fl. ; Flet- 
 cher's History of Independency, vol. ii., p. 131 fl. ; Stoughton's 
 Spiritual Heroes, p. 24: fl. — W. L. A. 
 
 BARRUEL, AuGUSTix de, a learned Jesuit, born Oct. 2, 
 1741, near Viviers. Obliged by the Revolution to give up the 
 ]iublication of an ecclesiastical journal, he became a refugee in 
 England, where he attacked the Revolution in his " Memoires 
 
 ur le Jacobinisme," a work prohibited in France. Having 
 ; ' dd court to the first consul in a little willing, recommendmg 
 li lelity to the government, he obtained leave to return. In 
 18u3 he wrote an elaborate defence of the Concordat, which was 
 attacked by the Abbe Blanchard. Barruel published various 
 writings, principaUv directed against the Revolution. He died 
 at Paris, Oct. 5, 1820.— J. F. C. 
 
 BARRUEL-BEAUVERT, Antoixe-Josepii, born Jan. 17, 
 1750, at the chateau of Beauvert in Languedoc. Although of 
 poor parentage, by taking the title of Count, to which he claimed 
 right, he made an advantageous match, and, entering the army, 
 lose to the rank of colonel, when the Revolution broke out. In 
 vindication of the nobles, he WTote a vehement pamphlet, under 
 the title of " Acts of the Apostles." When the king was 
 
 rrested at Varennes, Barruel offered himself a hostage in place 
 
 ■f his majesty, who conferred upon him the decoration of Saint 
 Louis. During the Reign of Terror, he baffled for a tune the 
 jiiilice of Buonaparte. Arrested at last, he was, after two years' 
 imprisonment in the temple, released through the interference 
 
 't' .Josephine, and was appointed inspector of weights and mea- 
 ^ires at Besanfon. Having, in 1816, accused a person of the 
 name of Biennais of haraig been one of the assassins in the 
 September massacre, and the latter being acquitted, the shame 
 of having made a charge proved false drove him to insanity, 
 and he died by his own hand. — J. F. C. 
 
 * BARRY, Sir Charles, the architect of the new palace of 
 ^Vi-stminster, was born in 1795, and completed his first studies 
 
 liider Middleton and Bailey. He then proceeded to Italy in 
 
 1817, from whence he passed into Egypt and Greece. On his 
 nturn, after four years' absence, he soon began to give undoubted 
 proofs of his superior attainments in several successful competi- 
 tions, especially those of a church at Brighton, the athenaeum 
 of JIanchcster, and the gi-ammar school of Birmingham. IIuv- 
 hig thus secured an extensive reputation, he was constantly em- 
 ployed in the metropolis upon works of great importance, amongst 
 which are the treasuiy, the college of surgeons, the travellers' 
 and refonn clubhouses, &c. Up to this period of his life, the 
 styles of his preference are those he had so carefully studied 
 whilst abroad. Then came the occasion for the display of his 
 studies on the national Gothic At the burning down of the 
 
 old house of parliament in 1834, a competition for designs of 
 a new one was opened, in which Barry carried the palm ; and 
 the immense building, now nearly completed, after seventeen 
 years of labour and two millions and a half of outlay, and ex- 
 tending almost one thousand feet along the river at Millbank, is 
 the edifice to which his name wiU henceforth mostly be attached. 
 This gigantic undertaking has not, however, prevented its 
 designer from attending to other works in the meanwhile. 
 Amongst some of his last, the Ellcsmere palace at Green-park, 
 shows that the studies made in Italy are neither forgotten nor 
 disregarded, ilany are the proofs of estimation that have been 
 bestowed upon this gi-cat architect from eveiy quarter of Europe ; 
 whilst the approval and satisfaction of his countiy have been 
 embodied in the mark of honour conferred on him by her majesty 
 the queen, in creating him a knight in 1852, on the opening of 
 the Victoria Tower. — R. M. 
 
 BARRY, David. See Baert^iore. 
 
 BARRY, David Fitzjames, an Irishman, and one of the 
 lords of parliament in that kingdom in 1585. Though at one 
 period he joined the earl of Desmond, yet he was afterwards a 
 loyal and active subject of the English crown. He was raised to 
 the peerage of Buttevant in 1613; and in right of it sat in the 
 upper house in the parUament held in Dublin that year. He 
 died, April 10, 1617.— J. F. W. 
 
 BARRY, Sir David, a distinguished physician, was bom in 
 the county Roscommon in Ireland, on the 12th March, 1780. 
 He received a good education, and was an excellent scholar. 
 Having taken out his sm-gical diploma, he obtained the post of 
 assistant- surgeon in the army in the year 1806 ; but after a few 
 years he resigned that appointment for an ensigncy in the same 
 regiment. In Portugal he again resumed his profession as assist- 
 ant-surgeon of the 58th Foot, serring in that coimtr}-; and was 
 present at the battle of Salamanca. From this period he filled 
 several appointments in the peninsula. He returned to England 
 in 1820, and took his degree of doctor of medicine. In 1822 he 
 went to Paris, where he remained fom' yeai-s studying medicine and 
 physiology in the schools of that capital, and made known his re- 
 searches to the Royal Institute of France and the Royal Academy 
 of iledicine of Paris. These were subsequently published at Lon- 
 don in 1826, and created a good deal of interest and discussion. 
 Dr. Barry was sent by the government to Gibraltar in 1828, with 
 a view to investigate the cause and nature of the yellow fever, 
 then raging there, where he remained over a year; and on his 
 return to London he published a valuable report of his observa- 
 tions. In 1831 he was appomted, in conjunction with others, to 
 report upon the cholera ; and for that purpose proceeded to 
 Russia. On his return he received knighthood. He acted on 
 other commissions, mcluding the medical charities of Ireland. 
 He died suddenly on the 4th November, 1845. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARRY', Edward, D.D., bom at Bristol in 1759, was edu- 
 cated at St. Andrews, where he took the degree of JI.D. He 
 held the li\'ing, first of St. Mail's, and afterwards of St. Leon- 
 ard's, Wallingford. Died in 1822. He published a number of 
 sermons and pamphlets. 
 
 BARRY, George, D.D., bom m Berwickshiie in 1747, is 
 the author of an interesting and elegantly-written work, entitled 
 " The History of the Orkney Islands," &c. He was minister of 
 Shapinshay for several years; but after the publication of Sir 
 John Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, his contributions 
 to which attracted particular attention, he became connected with 
 the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, as superinten- 
 dent of their schools in Orkney. The sections of his work 
 devoted to natural history are specially esteemed. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARRY, James, a historical painter, bom at Cork in Ireland 
 in 1741; died in 1806. Having by his e:u-ly efibrts deserved 
 the patronage of Burke, he obtained from him the means of 
 visiting Italy, where, however, he adopted no higher standard for 
 his study than the works of the Cavalier d' Arpino, whose charms 
 of colour even he was unable to hnitate. Returned to England 
 in 1775, his works exhibited a grandiosity of conception and 
 knowledge of theory, that make one still more regret his bad 
 colouring and unskilful execution. Besides a " Venus Anadio- 
 mene," an " Adam and Eve," " Jupiter and Juno," he produced 
 a series of paintings, called by him the " Elysium," which he 
 presented to the Society of Arts. His unfinished " Pandora," 
 and two smaller pictures for Boydell's gallerj', are considered his 
 best works. A certain eccenti-icity or hypochondria of character 
 was perhaps the chief impediment to Barrj-'s taking a higher
 
 flight in the field of art, and caused him many troubles in life. 
 Appointed professor of painting at the Royal Academy in 178G, 
 tlirough his whimsicalities he lost that position in 1799. Al- 
 though befriended by Su- Joshua Reynolds in his early career, 
 he used to treat \\-ith contempt that great painter, to whom, as 
 the " fellow in Leicester Square," he affected to send those who 
 apjilied to him for portraits. — R. M. 
 
 BARKY, James, Lord Santky, an eminent Irish lawyer, 
 born in Dublin in 1598. He was the son of a rich merchant ; 
 and adopting the profession of law, he finally obtained the oflice 
 of lord chief-justice of the king's bench in that country. He was 
 a firm friend of the unfortunate earl of Straftbrd. He was the 
 author of " The Case of Tenures." Died in 1G72.— J. F. W. 
 
 BARRY, LoDOWiCK, an L-ish author, who hved in the middle 
 of the reign of James I. He wrote a comedy, called " Ram 
 Alley; or, Merrie Tricks." It was first printed in IGll, re- 
 published in 1G3G, and revived as an acting play at Drmy 
 Lane theatre in 1723. It was agaui republished in 1780 in 
 Dodsley's Old Plays. It is written with a good deal of comic 
 jjower. Wood, in the Athenas Oxonienses, calls him Lord 
 Barry, a mistake in which he has been followed by Walpole in his 
 Royal and Noble Authors, and by other writers.— J. F. W. 
 
 BARRY, Makie Jeanne G<>:mard de Vaubeunier, 
 Comtesse du, mistress of Louis XV., was born of an indigent 
 family at Vaucouleurs in 174:G. While very young she went to 
 Paris, where from being in the employment of a marchand de 
 modes, she very soon passed under the pi-otection of the infamous 
 Count Jean Du Barry. The count, even more mercenary than 
 wicked, had his protegee introduced to Louis XV., who was so 
 intoxicated with her beauty, that he only required, previous to 
 avowing his passion for her, that she should espouse a brother 
 of Count Jean, and be formally presented at court as Comtesse 
 Gulllaumc du Bariy. This ceremony of presentation, the pre- 
 face to a scandal which filled Europe with amazement, was 
 enacted in April, 17G9, and from that date till the death of 
 Louis, madame du Bariy was the veritable queen-regnant of 
 France. On the accession of Louis XVI., she was, singularly 
 enough, allov.'ed a pension and a i-esidence at Luciennes. In 
 1792, after the execution of the king, she emigrated to England, 
 but retm-ning to Paris in the following year, was brought before 
 the revolutionary tribunal and adjudged to the scaffold. She 
 was executed on the 8th December, 1793, the day following 
 her condemnation. — J. S., G. 
 
 BARRY"", JIaktin, JI.D., chiefly distmguished as a physio- 
 logist, was born at Fratton in Hampshire, on the 28th of March, 
 1802. Dr. Bariy devoted his attention almost exclusively to the 
 development of the mammalian ovum and embiyo, which, when 
 he took it up, was one of the most obscure parts of embryolo- 
 gical science. The results of these researches were communi- 
 cated to the Royal Society of London, in three memoirs, which 
 were published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1838, 1839, 
 and 18i0 respectively ; so highly were these communications 
 esteemed by that learned body, that the royal medal was awarded 
 to him in 1839, and he was admitted a fellow in 18-10. There 
 can be no doubt that these researches gave a great impulse to 
 the progress of knowledge in the special departments to which 
 they relate, especially in this country, where it had been pre- 
 viously much neglected, and there are many important points as 
 to which his views, though at first disputed, have suice been 
 generally accepted. Among these may be specially mentioned, 
 his doctrine tliat the nucleus of a cell, instead of being merely 
 subservient to the development of that cell, takes an import- 
 ant sb.are in the subsequent processes in which the cell may be 
 concerned ; and his assertion that the spermatozoon in the act 
 of fecundation, penetrates the interior of the ovum. This last 
 statement, which was promulgated by him in 1840, and con- 
 firmed by additional observations in 1843. was at first strenu- 
 ously denied by one of the most eminent Gennan embryologists. 
 Professor Bischoff ; but the fact having been verified by several 
 subsequent observers in the ova of different animals, was at last 
 witnessed by Professor Bischoff himself In addition to the fore- 
 going memoirs, and others on connected subjects. Dr. Barry also 
 contributed to the Philosophical Transactions of 1840-41, three 
 memoirs " On the Corpuscles of the Blood ; " and to those 
 of 1842, a memoir " On Fibre." He finally took up his abode 
 in the neighbourhood of near relatives, at Beccles in Suffolk, 
 where, after a fingering illness, he died on the 27th of April, 
 1855.— W. B. C. 
 
 BARRY, Spranger a celebrated actor, the contemporary 
 and rival of Gan-ick. He was bom in Dublin in 1719, and 
 brought up to the trade of his fiither, that of a silversmith. 
 He embraced the dramatic profession in 1774 ; and possessing 
 gi-eat advantages of voice, addi'ess, and person, he rose to the 
 highest eminence, and had constant engagement in London, 
 dividing public favour with Garrick, the former playing in 
 Covent Garden the same characters which the latter peiformed 
 in Drury Lane. He subsequently came back to his native city, 
 where he built Crow Street theatre, and conducted it for some 
 time. The speculation was, however, unprofitable ; and, after 
 having lost heavily by it, he returned to London, and again, to 
 a great extent, retrieved his fiirtunes, living in full possession of 
 public favour till his death in 1777. He was a man of profuse 
 hospitality, and of extravagant habits. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARRYJIORE, David Barry, earl of, grandson of David 
 Fitzjames, earl of Buttevant, the first peer of that title, having 
 been raised to the earldom by Charles I. in 1626. He displayed 
 great military capacity, heroism, and loyalty, in the Irish rebel- 
 lion of 1641, having ganisoned his castles of Castlelyons and 
 Shandon, and maintained them with small forces against the 
 rebels, keeping open the passages between Youghal and Cork. 
 He distinguished himself in the battle of LiscaiTol. He died 
 29th September, 1642.— J. F. W. 
 
 BARSABAS. See Joseph Barsaeas — Judas Barsabas. 
 
 BARSUK-MOISEEV, Thomas Ivanovitch, a learned phy- 
 sician, a native of Little Russia, who pubhshed several treaties 
 and translations. He died in 1811. 
 
 BARSANTI, Francesco, was a native of Lucca, and bom 
 about the year 1G90. He was intended for the civil law, and 
 with that intention was sent to the university of Padua. His 
 stay there, however, was but short, since he soon changed his 
 mind, and determined to adopt the profession of music. Ac- 
 cordingly, he placed himself under the tuition of some of the 
 ablest of the Italian masters, and having attained a considerable 
 proficiency in the science, he came over to England at the same 
 time with Geminiani, in the year 1714. He was a good per- 
 former both on the hautboy and flute, and for several seasons 
 played the former in the opera band. After some years' resi- 
 dence in London, a lucrative situation was offered to him in 
 Scotland, which he accepted. Whilst he continued in that 
 countiy, he collected and aiTanged a number of the fine old 
 Scots tunes. They were published under the following title — 
 " A Collection of Old Scots Tunes, with the Bass for Violoncello 
 or Harpsichord, set, and most humbly dedicated to the Right 
 Honourable the Lady Erskine, by F'rancis Barsanti. Edinburgh: 
 printed by Alexander Bailfie, and sold by Jlessrs. Hamilton 
 and Ivincaid," price 2s. 6d., folio, pp. 15. This collection was 
 published 14th of January, 1742. (See Caledonian 31ercury 
 and Scot's 3/affaziiie for January, 1742.) About the year 
 1750 Barsanti returned to England, but being then advanced 
 in years, he was glad to be taken into the opera band as a per- 
 former on the viola; and in the summer season, into that of 
 Vauxhall. Towards the conclusion of his life, he was indebted for 
 support almost entirely to the industry of his wife and daughter. 
 The latter was a popular performer and singer ; her portrait is 
 prefixed to Bell's edition of Shakspeare's Midsummer Night's 
 Dream. Barsanti published, besides the Scots tunes already 
 mentioned, " Six Solos for the Flute, with a Thorough Bass;" 
 " Six Solos for a Gennan Flute, and a Bass ; " " Geminiani's 
 Six Solos for two Violins, and Bass;" " Twelve Concertos for 
 Violins;" and " Sei Antifone." The latter work is a collection 
 of motets for five and six voices, in the style of Palestrina and 
 the old Italian masters. It possesses considerable merit. — 
 (Hawkins; Burney; and original sources.) — E. F. R. 
 
 BARTALIXI, Francesco, an Italian painter, bom at Siena 
 in 1560 ; died in 1 609 ; a pupil of Vanni, executed several charm- 
 ing works for the churches of his native tovvn, amongst which 
 the " Madonna" at the chapel of St. Joseph is his masterpiece. 
 
 BARTAS, GuiLLAUME de Salluste du, born in the year 
 1544 at !Montfort in Annagnac, a distinguished soldier and 
 statesman, and a popular poet. Du Bartas was a protestant, 
 and held a confidcJitial place in the household of Hemy IV., 
 while Henry was still engaged in straggling for the throne of 
 France. Du Bartas went on missions of one character or other 
 to Denmark, England, and Scotland. James wished to retain 
 him in his service. He was at the battle of Iviy, where he was 
 wounded ; he lived, however, to commemorate it in verse, and died 
 
 I
 
 a few months after the battle. WTiatever time was not occupied 
 with his duties to his prince, was spent hy him at liis castle of 
 Bai'tas in tlie composition of poems, wliich attracted in his own 
 day universal admirafion, then passed into becoming tlie subject 
 of ridicule almost as universal, and are now all but forgotten. 
 "La Premiere Semaine" (The Week of Creation), is said to have 
 passed through thirty editions within six years ; was translated 
 into Latin, Itahan, Spanish, German, and English. The French 
 critics declaim against the barbarism of Du Bartas' style, which 
 some of them chai-acteristically refer to his having lived at such 
 a distance from Paris. — J. A., D. 
 
 BARTELS, Ernst Daniel August, a German physician, 
 bom at Brunswick on the 2Gth December, 1778. He studied 
 medicine at Jena, and was successively professor of anatomy 
 and physiology at Helmstiidt, Marburg, and Breslau. In 1827, 
 on tlie death of C. A. W. Berends, he took the chair of clinical 
 medicine at the university of Berlin, in which city he died on 
 the 2Gth June, 1838. He was the author of several works on 
 medical and other scientific subjects — chemistry and physics, 
 physiology and natural history. — W. S. D. 
 
 BARTELS, Gekakdt, a Dutch painter of history and por- 
 traits, born in 1.570. His works are scarce and highly valued. 
 
 BARTH or BART, a celebrated French seaman, was born at 
 Dunkirk in 165-1. After some servnce in tlie Dutch and 
 French na^'ies, he became captain of a privateer, with a license 
 from Louis XIV. to cruise in the Mediterranean. He was 
 taken prisoner by the English, and confined at Plymouth, but 
 escaping on board a fishing-boat, returned to France. Louis 
 'ive him the command of a vessel, with which, eluding the 
 ■ Mickade established by the English at the port of Dunkirk, 
 in; earned further laurels by a successful cruise against the 
 Dutch. He was then promoted to the command of a squadron 
 — a compliment which the bluff sailor acknowledged at court 
 ill these words : "Sire," said he to Louis le Grand, " you have 
 'lone well." His active career was terminated by the peace of 
 Ivyswick. He died at Dunkirk in 1702. One anecdote, of the 
 many which are related of tliis indomitable sailor, completely 
 fxpresses his character. He commanded the squadron which, 
 locompanying to Elsinore the prince of Conti, king of Poland 
 Irct, was attacked by the English and ncai-ly taken. After the 
 ■tion the prince expressed his joy at having escaped being made 
 risoner. "We had nothing to fear on that score," replied 
 llirth; "my son was in the gun-room ready to blow us up, if 
 anything had happened." — .1. S., G. 
 
 BARTH, Christian KarIj, author of " Deutschlands 
 rrgeschichte" (The Primeval History of Germany), a highly 
 ingenious and learned work, and other writings relating to Ger- 
 man antiquities. He was bom at Baireuth in 1775, and held 
 important posts under the Bavarian government. — K. E. 
 
 * BARTH, Heinricii, an eminent German traveller, was 
 born at Hamburg, 18th April, 1821. After having been edu- 
 cated at the gymnasium of his native town, he devoted himself 
 to the study of philology and archaeology in the university of 
 i'.erlin, and whilst yet a student travelled through Italy and 
 Spain. In 18 14 lie took his degree at Berlin, and then went to 
 I;imdon in order to acquire the English and Arabic languages. 
 Some months after, he entered upon his first African journey, in 
 wliich he explored the whole range of the northern coast of this 
 continent. On his way to Egv'pt he was plundered and severely 
 wounded by a baud of robbers. Fortunately, he had early in 
 1816 crossed from Tunis to Malta, and there deposited the 
 greater part of his papers .and collections, or they would have 
 been irretrievably lost. Having stayed for some time in Egypt, 
 he pursued his way through Arabia, Palestine, and Asia Minor 
 to Constantinople, wlience, by way of Greece, he returned home, 
 after an absence of three years. In the spring of 1818 he settled 
 at Berlin, where he lectured on ancient geography, histoiy of 
 the Greek colonies, &c., and at the same time pulilishcd his 
 " Wandernngen durch die Ktistenlander des Mittelmeeres in den 
 Jahren 1815-47." The first volume of this work had scarcely 
 appeared, when Barth and his countryman, Dr. Overweg, by the 
 interposition of Chevalier Bunsen, were allowi'd to join the ex- 
 jiloring expedition which was being sent to Central Africa under 
 the auspices of the British government. The records of this 
 celebrated expedition will be familiar to almost every reader. 
 Earth's travels extended over vast tracts of country, the greatest 
 part of which was untrodden ground. From bis Iiead-quarters 
 at Kuka, the capital of Bornu, he visited Adaniiiwa, Yola, 
 
 Kanem, Musgo, Bagi'rmi, Logon, &c. ; he followed the course 
 of the Niger for several hundred miles, and for seven months 
 resided at Timbuctoo. Richardson, whose narrative was pub- 
 Ushed in 1853, and Dr. Overweg, were removed by death ; and 
 after innumerable dangers and hardships, Barth came home alone 
 in September, 1855, and almost in triumph entered his native 
 town, where his father, a tradesman retired from business, who 
 is said to have expended upwards of £2000 for the travels of his 
 son, had lived to see him safely returned and crowned with success. 
 The kings of Pnissia and Wurtemberg sent their orders to the 
 indefatigable explorer, and public curiosity and sympathy followed 
 him everywhere. He now lives in London, where he is busy in 
 publishing his " Travels and Discoveries in North and Central 
 Afiica," three volumes of which have appeared. A Gennan 
 edition, under the title " Reisen und Entdeckungen in Nord und 
 Centralafrika " (Gotha, Perthes), is in progTCss. — K. E. 
 
 BARTH, JonANN August, a German celebrated for his im- 
 provements in typography. Died at Breslau, 1818. 
 
 BARTH, Paul, a Gemian orientalist, bom at Nuremberg in 
 1635 ; died in 1G88. Author of an Ai-abic version of the 
 Gospels, and Acts of the Apostles. 
 
 BARTIIEE, Melchior, a GeiTnan sculptor of the seven- 
 teenth century, established at Venice, where he studied under 
 Giusti il Corto, the Short. His works in the church of the 
 Fran in that city displ.ay all the eccentricities of the mannerism 
 of the time. Died in 1674.— R. M. 
 
 BARTHELEMON, Hypolite, a musician, was bom at 
 Bordeaux in 1731, and died in London in 1808. He produced 
 his opera, " Le Fleuve Scamandre," at Paris in 1763. Two years 
 later he came to London, where he was engaged as chief of the 
 orchestra at the King's Theatre. He -wi-ote bis Italian opera of 
 "Pelopidas" for this establishment in 1766, which was brought 
 out with extraordinary success ; he was, in consequence, held in 
 such esteem, that Garrick went to engage him to compose for 
 Drury Lane, but doubting his ability to set the English language, 
 he wrote the words of a song, to which Barthelemon should 
 write the music as a test of his proficiency, reading the words 
 over his shoulder as he penned them ; the other simultaneously 
 \vrote music to them, and when the dramatist handed the poem 
 to him, he, at the same time, presented his music to the 
 astoirished dramatist, who immediately concluded the engagement 
 with him. Not only did this song (sung in the comedy of 
 the Country Girl,) become very popular, but the operatic farce 
 of A Peep behind the Curtain, for which he was especially 
 engaged, was performed more than a hundred times during the 
 season, and this success led to his composing music for several 
 other pieces for the English theatre, among which Burgoyne's 
 JIaid of the Oaks is particularly to be mentioned. For some 
 years he led the band at Vauxhall Gardens. In 1777 he made 
 a musical tour through Germany and Italy, and in the latter 
 married a singer, who returned with him in 1799, passing through 
 France to London. In 1784 he was engaged with his wife at 
 the Rotunda in Dublin. His wife was a composer as well as a 
 singer, having published a voliune of simple hymns and anthems. 
 With all the credit he gained for his music, he was still more 
 admired for his violin playing; his contemporaries praise warmly 
 his broad and singing style, for which they consider him indebted 
 to the examjile of the celebrated Abel. — G. A. M. 
 
 * BARTIIELEMY, Augustus, a satirical poet, bom i(t Jlar- 
 seilles in 1796. His first satire, directed against the monkish 
 order of the Capuchins, appeared before he left his native jilace 
 for the capital, where on arriving he seemed to change round ; 
 for he wrote an article in the ministerial joumal, the " Drapeau 
 Blanc," against the liberty of the press, of so telling a character, 
 that Charles X. sent him 1500 francs out of his pri\T purse. 
 A duel, occasioned by his satirical muse, led to the friendship 
 with his second on the occasion, Mery, which combined both 
 in that literary partnership which has imited their names 
 in a common celebrity. After several compositions in pro.se 
 and verse, chiefly satirical — some from his single pen, and 
 others in connection witii iMery — appeared in 1829 the "Filsde 
 L'llomme," a little poem, wliieli was forthwith seized, and a 
 prosecution directed against Barthelemy alone. He defended 
 liimself in person, but with so little success that lie was con- 
 demned to three months' imprisonment and 1000 francs fine. 
 Ministerial anger was the more embittered by a satire entitled 
 " Waterloo," directed against the minister of war. General Bour- 
 mont, who on the eve of the battle went over to the allies. The
 
 satire was the more stinging because the materials were supplied 
 by Generals Gourgaud and Girard. The prefect of police, too, 
 bore the poet a grudge on his own personal account ; so that, 
 upon the day of expiration of the poet's imprisonment, he was 
 presented from the poUce-office a bill of 1181 francs, either to 
 pay or remain three months longer in prison. He accepted the 
 latter alternative, and in the meantime broke out the revolution 
 of July, 1830. He was liberated, and celebrated " the three glo- 
 rious days" in a poem called " The Insurrection," which pleased 
 Louis Philippe so much that he conferred on the author a pen- 
 sion of 1200 francs. Barthelemv, however, commenced in March, 
 1831, a weekly poetical satire called " Nemesis," in which he 
 lashed the king's ministers, and his pension was withdrawTi. In 
 April, 1832, the "Nemesis" ceased to appear, and the author 
 published a pamphlet, than which nothing could ran more con- 
 traiy to public opinion, for it was a defence of mnrtial-law ; and 
 it raised such an outcry that he felt obliged to publish a self-jus- 
 tification, in which he laid down that the " foolish man was he 
 who never changed his opinion." Fair judgment of a poet who 
 has so varied in opinion can hardly be expected by his own con- 
 temporaries, beyond the admission of gi'eat talents, the appUca- 
 tion of which must be awarded by future times, less biassed by 
 contending passions. — J. F. C. 
 
 BARTHELEMY, Jkax Simox, a French historical painter, 
 born at Leon in 1742, died in Paris in 1811 ; studied first under 
 Halle, then at Rome. His pictures illustrative of Buonaparte's 
 expedition into Eg^pt are reckoned his best works. — E. M. 
 
 BARTHELE.MY, J. J., the well-known author of the " Voyage 
 d'Anacharsis," born at Cassis in Provence in 1716. Although 
 brought up to the church, his tastes for antiquarian research 
 were too decided to allow of his distinguishing himself in any 
 other walk. Besides the Greek and Latin languages, he had, 
 previously to his arrival in Paris in 1744, studied Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Chaldean, and Arabic. More frequently found poring 
 over antique medals than books of divinity, he was induced by 
 the keeper of the museum in which these precious remains were 
 placed, to accept a situation under himself. On bis friend's 
 death in 1753, the Abbe Barthelemv succeeded to his post. It 
 was for the sake of adding to the riches of the collection under 
 his care that Bartbelemy set out on a tour of discovery, during 
 which he traversed Italy, nsiting the riui s of Pa'Stum, Pompeii, 
 and Herculaneum. The researches of tin inquisitive antiquarian 
 led to a more important result than that of adding curiosities to 
 a royal museum. They produced that famous work which 
 placed the author amongst tlie most eminent writers of his 
 country. It was in 1788 that, after thirty years spent upon 
 the work, he published the "Voyage d'Anacharsis," in which is 
 presented, in a style which French critics pi-onounce equal to 
 the subject, a picture of Greece at the time of Pericles. Besides 
 this, he wrote some ingenious dissertations upon Phenician 
 monuments, on the language of Palmyi'a, and other topics, con- 
 sulted only by the curious and learned. In 1747 the Academy 
 of Inscriptions opened its doors to the leamed abbe, and in 
 1789 he was admitted a member of the French Academy. 
 Wlien the Revolution broke out, Bartbelemy was deprived of his 
 places and emoluments ; but so completely apart from public 
 concerns had his exclusively studious life been passed, that even 
 the terrorists of 1793 paid homage to his virtues and his genius, 
 by very soon reinstating him in his position. Like most gi-eat 
 celebrities, he has left memoirs of his own life, usually prefixed 
 to his popular work. He died in 1795. — J. F. C. 
 
 BARTHELEMY or BARTHOLOM.EUS, Pikure, a French 
 priest who accompanied Rajnnond de Saint Gilles in the first 
 crusade. In 1099, at the siege of Antioch, he pretended that 
 St. Andrew had appeared to him, and hnd shown him the spot 
 where the lance that pierced the side of our Saviour was con- 
 cealed. He was suspected of impostiu-e, and jmt to the proof 
 bv fire, in consequence of which he died. — J. S., G. 
 " BARTHEZ or BARTH^S, P.\ul .Iosei-h, a French physi- 
 cian, who enjoyed a great reputation in the latter half of the 
 eighteenth centur)', the son of Guillaume Barthez de Mai-mo- 
 nieres, engineer of the province of Languedoc, was bom at Jlont- 
 pellier on tlie 11th December, 1734. He received his education 
 at Narbonne, where his father resided, and afterwards at Toulouse. 
 During his earlier years he had a desire for an ecclesiastical life, 
 but tiiis was ovemiled by his father, who sent him to study 
 medicine at Montpellier in 1750, and here he took his degree of 
 doctor of medicine in 1753. Soon after this, Bartliez went to 
 
 Paris, where his talents procured him a good reception from 
 Renault, d'Alembert, the Abbe Bartbelemy, and many of the 
 other leading scientific and literai-y celebrities of the French 
 capital. In 1756 he was appointed surgeon in the army, but 
 after serving a short time, he was seized with camp fever, and 
 on his recoveiy, returned to Paris, when he became one of the 
 staff' of the Journal des Savants and of the Encycloped'te. In 
 1759, when only twenty-five years of age, he obtained a chair 
 in the university of Jlontpellier; and here his teaching is de- 
 scribed as having been so successful as to conduce greatly to the 
 celebrity which that university subsequently enjoyed. Dissatisfied 
 with the mechanical and chemical theories of life held by the 
 physiologists of the day, Bartbfez reverted to the views of Hippo- 
 crates, which had been already to a certain extent revived by 
 Stahl, and attributed the phenomena of life to the action of a 
 peculiar pi-inciple, or vital force, inherent in organized bodies — 
 vegetable as well as animal. Nor did he confine himself to 
 advocating these opinions in his lectrnxs, but supported them in 
 several published works, some of which met with a very favour- 
 able reception. After fulfilling the duties of his chair for up- 
 wards of twenty years, he was called to Paris in 1780, to receive 
 the honours due to his distinguished talents, in the shape of an 
 appointment as one of the royal physicians, chief physician to 
 the duke of Orleans, and councillor of state. On the breaking 
 out of the French Revolution, Barthez was compelled to seek 
 safety in obscurity, and retired to Carcasonne, where he prac- 
 tised medicine gratuitously, and continued his scientific labours, 
 until, on the restoration of order in France, and the re-establish- 
 ment of the medical universities, he was elected honoraiy profes- 
 sor of the medical faculty in his native Montpellier (his age 
 being considered too gi'cat for active teaching), and appointed 
 con.sulting physician to the first consul. These offices he retained 
 under the empire, and was also made a member of the legion 
 of honour and an associate of the institute. During the latter 
 years of his life, he was affficted with stone in the bladder, bat 
 could not bring him.self to undergo an operation. He died on 
 the 15th October, 180G, of a malignant fever. 
 
 As a physiologist, Barthez is regarded as the fovmder of a new 
 ei-a ; but he is, at the same time, accused of too great a facility in 
 generalizing, and of, to a certain extent, neglecting the due criti- 
 cism of the facts upon which he bases his arguments. His earhest 
 pubhshed works are — "Oratio de Principio Vitali Hominis," and 
 "Nova Doctrina de Functionibus Corporis Ilumani," pubhshed 
 respectively in 1773 and 1774, at Montpelher; they contain bis 
 first exposition of his physiological views. In 1778 he pub- 
 lished a large work on the same subject, entitled " Nouveaujt 
 elements de la Science de I'Homme." Of this a second edition 
 appeared in Paris in 1806, the year of his death ; but, singularly 
 enough, although so many years had elapsed since the publication 
 of the first edition, the second is identical with its predecessor, 
 and contains no reference to the great progress which the science 
 of human physiology had made in the intei-val. During his 
 rethemeut, Barthez wrote a treatise imder the title of "Nouvelle 
 mecanique des mouvements de I'Homme et des Animaux," which 
 was published at Carcasonne in 1798. His only important 
 work, on a purely medical subject, is his "Traite des Maladies 
 Goutteuses," but he was the author of numerous papers scattered 
 in various journals. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BARTHOLD, Friedrich V*''ilhelm, a distin_gui.shed Ger- 
 man historian, was born at Berlin, 4th September, 1799. H.av- 
 ing devoted himself to the study of historj' in his native town 
 under 'Wilke, and aftenvards at Breshm under Wachler and 
 Kaumer, he became in 182G, one of the masters of the Collegium 
 Fredericiauum at KOnigsberg; in 1831 profes.sor extraordinaiy, 
 and in 1834 professor ordiuai-y at the university of Greifswald. 
 His works are characterized by great depth of research, and a 
 careful study of details, by which means he has succeeded in 
 producing complete and lively jiicturcs of several periods of Ger- 
 man histoiy. His chief productions are — "Der Rdmerzng Konig 
 Heinrich's von Liitzelliurg;" " Geschichte von Riigen und Poni- 
 mern ;" " Georg von Freundsberg ; " and " Die Fnichtbringende 
 Gesellschaft; Geschichte der Deutschen Stiidte und des l)eut- 
 schen Biirgerthums." — K. E. 
 
 BARTHOI.DY, Jacor Salomon, a Prussian diplomatist, 
 was born of a Jewish family at Berlin, 13th Jlav, 1779, and 
 died at Rome, 27th July, 1825. Having studied jurispradcnce 
 at the university of Halle, lie resided for several years at Paris, 
 and then travelled in Italy and Greece. On his retui-n he em-
 
 BAR 
 
 401 
 
 BAR 
 
 braced Christianity, and in 1809 served in the Austrian army 
 ai^ainst Napuleon. He was a deputy to tlie Vienna and Aachen 
 congresses, and in 1815 was appointed Prussian consul-general 
 for Italy, and afterwards ambassador to the court of Florence. 
 During his stay in Italy he fonried a valuable collection of 
 articles of art and vertu, which, after his death, was purchased 
 for the Berlin museum. He promoted the line arts also by his 
 revival of fresco painting, having his house at Rome painted al 
 fresco by the first German artists of the day, such as Cornelius, 
 Overbeck, Vcit, Schadow, &c. He has left a " History of the 
 Tyrolese war in 1809," and a "Life of Cardinal Consalvi," with 
 whom he had formed an acquaintance in 1814.— K. E. 
 
 BARTHOLIN, the name of a family in Denmark, greatly 
 distinguished by learning, and the many important oiEces held 
 by its various members : — 
 
 Bautiiolin, IvASPAii, was born Februaiy 12, 1585, at 
 Malmo, of which place his father was minister. He first 
 studied theology and philosophy at Rostock and Wittenberg. 
 Afterwards, he studied medicine at Basle, where he took his 
 degree. He practised for some time at Wittenberg, and in 
 1613 was called to the university of Copenhagen, as pro- 
 fessor of the Greek language and medicine; in IG'24 he became 
 also professor of theology in the same university. He died at 
 Sora in 1G29. His works, all of a medical, philosophical, and 
 theological character, are numerous. The most remarkable of 
 these, his " Institutiones Anatomicas," was translated into Ger- 
 man, French, English, and other languages, and became a hand- 
 book in many universities during the seventeenth century. 
 
 Baktholin, Jacob, son of the preceding, was principally 
 known as an orientalist ; he published the cabalistic works, 
 "Bahirand Majan Hachochma." He died at Heidelberg, 1G53. 
 Bautiiolin, Thomas, brother of the above, born IGIC, 
 celebrated for his skill in philology, natural history, and inedi- 
 liiie. He was appointed professor of mathematics in the univer- 
 ^ity of Copenhagen in 1G47, and in the following year of ana- 
 ' iny, which post he relinquished in IGGl, when he retired to his 
 lutry estate, and in 1670 became physician to the king, which 
 'ice with several others he held till his death in 1G80. His 
 iiiatomical and medical works are numerous, and he added 
 many valuable facts to the editions of his father's writings on 
 anatomy, published at Leyden in 1G41. His biblical archaeo- 
 logical works, together with others relating to antiqiuty and 
 natural histoiy, all acquired great celebrity. He was one of the 
 most learned and industrious physicians of his day, and defended 
 Harvey's theory of the circulation of the blood. 
 
 Bartholin, Kaspar, son of the above, born 1654, was 
 iilso a profound anatomist. He died in 1704. 
 
 Bauthomn, Thomas, brother of the above, was born in 1G59. 
 lie wrote the celebrated work " Antiquitatum Danicarum de ca-usis 
 "ontemptae a Danis adhuc Gentilibus mortis," Copenhagen, 1G89. 
 lie died in 1G90.— M. H. 
 
 BARTHOLOMvEUS, a Franciscan monk of the latter half of 
 the fom-teenth centuiy. His family name was Glantville, and 
 he was related to the noble house of Suffolk. His work, " De 
 I'roprietatibus Renuu," produced in 13GG, gives an account of 
 the author's knowledge and observations on all subjects, atlording 
 a valuable illustration of the manners of his age ; the most 
 important part of it is the last book, which treats of the principles 
 of music, and describes all the instruments then known. It was 
 translated into French in 1372 by Jean Gorbichon, also a Fran- 
 ciscan, and into English in 1398, by John Trevisa, the vicar of 
 Berkeley. In was printed in the original Latin in 1480; a Dutch 
 translation was printed at Haarlem in 1485, and the English 
 version, of which 1\IS. copies had been extensively multiplied, was 
 printed by Caxton, and several after him. — G. A. M. 
 
 BARTHOLOM^US, a Martyribus, so called from the 
 name of the church in which he was baptized, archbishop of 
 Braga, was born at Lisbon in 1514, and died in 1590. He was 
 present at the third council of Trent, to which town he jour- 
 neyed on foot from Braga, a distance of thirty-two leagues. He 
 made himself remarked for courage at one of the diets of the 
 council, by protesting against the anomalous etiquette that 
 allowed the cardinals to sit with their hats on in presence of 
 the pope, while it required the bishops to stand uncovered. lie 
 was summoned by royal writ to the Cortes of Thomar in 1581, 
 and was received with the honours due to his rank and character. 
 An edition of his works, including his " Stimulus Fastorum," 
 was published in 1734-35. Died in 1590.— J. S., G. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 BARTHOLOM^US, a Syrian monk of about the year 730, 
 who wrote a refutation of the Koran, published in vol. i. of 
 Variorum Sacrorum. 
 
 BARTHOLOM^US, bishop of Urbin towards the middle of 
 the fourteenth centuiy. He wrote "Milleloquium Augustini," 
 and " Milleloquium Ambrosii." 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, Alkked, F.S.A., architect. He wrote a 
 paper called " Hints relative to the Constniction of Fireproof 
 Buildings," and published a compilation of documents for the 
 execution of the detail of buildings, called " Specifications for 
 Practical Architecture." He was for some time editor of the 
 Builder^ in which he wrote a Synopsis of the Building Act, after- 
 wards published in a separate form. He died at Warwick-house, 
 Gray's Inn, January 3, 1845, in his forty-fourth vear. — T. F. 
 
 BARTHOLOxMCEUS, Brexiensis, so called "from Brescia, 
 where he was born in 1178 ; distinginshed both as a soldier and 
 writer. He was killed at the taking of his native town. 
 
 BARTHOLOMCEUS of Cologne, a distinguished scholar of 
 the sixteenth century, and friend of Erasmus. 
 
 BARTLEMAN, James, the finest and most intellectual bass 
 singer of his time, was born in the city of Westminster, on 
 the 19th September, 17G9, and received at the usual age 
 into the abbey choir, then under the mastership of Dr. Cooke. 
 lie soon showed voice and capacity beyond his years, and be- 
 came a great favourite with his master. He was distinguished 
 also in boyhood by the patronage of Sir John Hawkins, in whose 
 family he was a frequent and cherished xislter, and whose 
 daughter in her Anecdotes, has preserved some interesting 
 traits of his honest single-mindedncss. In 1788 Bartleman's 
 name appears for the first time among the singers at the An- 
 cient concerts, where he remained till 1791, when he quitted 
 them to assume the post of first solo -bass at the newly estab- 
 lished Vocal concerts. In 1795 he returned to the Ancient 
 concerts, and inmiediately took the station which, till compelled 
 by ill health, he never quitted, that of principal bass singer in 
 the first concert of the metropolis. Bartleman was a man of an 
 original and enthusiastic cast of mind, which undoubtedly would 
 have enabled him to excel in any walk of art he undertook. By 
 his powerful talent, he contributed to keep alive the passion for 
 Purcell's and Handel's music, which at that time, together with 
 the great Italian masters Pergolesi, Jomelli, &c., almost exclu- 
 sively enjoyed the favour of the musical public. With a low 
 baritone voice, not of great jiower, not remarkable either for 
 sweetness or roundness of tone, this highly-gifted singer pro- 
 duced effects by mental energy, and a just conception of the 
 characters he for the time represented in his songs, that made a 
 lasting impression upon his auditors. His style was at once 
 bold, commanding, and illuminated whatever it glanced upon. 
 With a fancy lively to an extreme degree, and a cliastened tem- 
 perance which he derived i'rom his education in tlie chm'ch, the 
 dramatic effect, visible in all his efforts, was refined and ren- 
 dered fit for the more polished singing of the chamber and con- 
 cert room. The songs he made his own were, " ruddier than 
 the cherry," in Acis and Galatea, which, before he sung it, 
 was always considered a nide and unmanageable composition. 
 " Thus saith the Lord to Cyrus liis anointed," was another of 
 his chef (Tceuwes. Here the magnificent conception of the author 
 kept alive the interest to the very last note of the song. But 
 his greatest triumph was in Purcell's music ; the enormously 
 difficult phrases in "Let the dreadful engines of eternal will" 
 he so alternately elevated and subdued, ai'cording to the senti- 
 ment so powerfully embodied by our native composer, blending 
 the several gradations of passion with delicacy and })recision ; 
 while, at the same time, his whole strength was tasked to the 
 utmost, that the effect upon the auditor, it is no exaggeration to 
 say, was perfectly astounding. Bartleman's execution was that 
 of his time and school, and confined chiefly to written divisions; 
 his own ornaments were few, simjile, and chaste, and always in 
 strict keeping with the feeling of the air in which they were 
 introduced. It is melancholy to record, that nraiiy of the latter 
 years of Bartleman's life were passed in almost uuremittiug pain. 
 His ardent mind long struggled against disease, and he was 
 often delighting crowded audiences with liis performance, while 
 the dew of bodily agony stood upon his brow. In 1818 he 
 was frequently prevented from taking his place in the orchestra ; 
 and in the following season he was unable to sing even at his 
 own benefit. His couch, however, was smoothed by the tender 
 attentions of his family and friends, and his mind supported by 
 
 3E
 
 the consolations of which he had learned the value in liis youth, 
 and had never neglected in manhood. He lingered till the 15th 
 April, 1821, when the earthly scene closed upon him. A modest 
 insciiption, which mai-ks the spot in the cloisters of Westminster 
 Abbey where his remains rest (close to those of his master. Dr. 
 Cooke), is prefaced by the first notes of Pergolesi's air, " Oh 
 Lord ! have mercy upon me." It is not known that Bartleman 
 ever composed either song or glee. He was a good perfonner 
 on the violoncello, and possessed a large and valuable library of 
 ancient music, which after his decease was sold by auction, and 
 the respectable auctioneer ran away with the proceeds, which 
 thus became lost to his two sisters, who survived him. — (ZZor- 
 monicon ; Musical World; Smyth's Biographical Worthies; 
 and original sources.) — E. F. R. 
 
 BARTLETT, Joiix, an English musician of some eminence 
 in the early part of the seventeenth century. He published " A 
 Booke of Ayres, with a Triplicitie of Jlusicke, whereof the First 
 Part is for the Lute or Orpharion, and Viole de Gamba, and 4 
 Parts to Sing: the Second Part is for 2 Trebles, to sing to the 
 Lute and Viole : the Third Part is for the Lute and one Voyce, 
 and the Viole de Gamba." London, John W'indet, 1G06, folio. 
 It is dedicated by the composer to " the Right Honourable his 
 singular good Lord and ^laister, Sir Edward Seymore." Bart- 
 lett took the degree of bachelor of music at Oxford in 1610. — 
 (Rimbault's BihUoiheca Madrigaliana ; Wood's Fa^fi Oxoni- 
 ensis.') — E. F. R. 
 
 * BARTLETT, Joiix R., an American writer, bom at Pro- 
 vidence, R. I., in 1805. While engaged in the service of a bank, 
 and subsequently in commercial hfe, he was noted for his interest 
 in the spread of knowledge, and the foundation of Hterary 
 institutions in his native place and in New York. He was, along 
 with Mr. Gallatin, the original projector of the American Ethno- 
 logical Society, and took an active interest in the New York His- 
 torical Society. In 1850 he was sent by President Taylor, at the 
 head of a commission, to mn a boundary Ime between the United 
 States and Jlexico, under the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo ; 
 and on his return he published his " Personal Narrative of the 
 Explorations and Incidents in Texas," &c. Mr. Bartlett has 
 also written " The Progi-ess of Ethnology," and " A Dictionary 
 of Americanisms ; a Glossary of words and phrases usually 
 regarded as peculiar to the United States." — J. B. 
 
 BARTLETT, Willia5I Hexrt, artist and author, was bom 
 at Kentish Town, Loudon, on the 2Gth March, 1809. In 
 1822 he was articled for seven years to Jlr. John Britton, the 
 architectural antiquary, under whom he made rapid progress. 
 JIany of the finest and most elaborate drawings in Britton's 
 Cathedral Antiquities of England were executed by his dis- 
 tinguished pupil. In 1832 Bartlett undertook an illustrated 
 work on Switzerland, in conjunction with his accomplished and 
 amiable friend, Dr. Beattie, who contributed the letterpress of 
 the volume. This work which, like all his productions, met 
 with remarkable success, was followed in rapid succession by a 
 series of similar volumes on the Waldenses, Scotland, Ireland, 
 Holland, Turkey, and other countries both of the Old and New 
 world. The number of plates they contain, engraved from his 
 drawings, amounts to neai-ly a thousand. He explored the East 
 at five different times, and made four voyages to America 
 between the years 1831 and 1853. In ISl-l appeared his 
 " Walks about Jerasalem," the first of those illustrated volumes 
 of which he was the author as well as artist. The cordial 
 reception it met wth led to the production of a number of 
 works of the same class — " The Topography of Jerusalem," 
 " Forty Days in the Desert," " The Nile Boat," " The Over- 
 land Route," and "Footsteps of our Lord"— all of them ad- 
 mirably adapted to the use of biblical readers. These were 
 followed by " Pictm-es from Sicily" and " The Pilgiim Fathers." 
 In 1855 Jlr. Bartlett undertook a sixth journey to the East, 
 principally with a view to explore the Seven Churches of Asia 
 Minor. ()wing to the state of the country, which at that time was 
 devastated by pestilence and infested with robbers, his life was 
 exposed to considerable danger, but he succeeded in accomplish- 
 ing the object of his visit. His health, however, had suffered 
 severely from fatigue and anxiety; and on his pass.age from 
 Malta, on board the French steamer Egyptus, he was suddenly 
 taken ill on the 12th of September, and expired on the following 
 day. The results of his last journey to the East were embodied 
 in a work, entitled "Jerasalem Revisited," which appeared 
 shortly after his death. Mr. Bartlett was a person of most 
 
 amiable and generous disposition, as well as an accomplished 
 artist, and a graphic and instructive writer. — (Brief Memoir 
 by Dr. Beattie.)— J. T. 
 
 BARTLIXG, Friedrich Gottmeb, a German botanist, 
 who has written a botanico-geographical treatise on the shores 
 and islands of the Libumian sea. Hanover, 1820. — J. H. B. 
 
 BARTLING, Heixrich Ludvig, another German botanist, 
 has published a work on the natm'al orders of plants, with their 
 characters and aflinities. Gottingen, 1830. He has also given 
 an account of the botanic garden at Gottingen, and, along with 
 Wendland, has written a monogi-aph on the Diosmese. — J. H. B. 
 
 BARTOLDO, a Florentine sculptor of the fifteenth century, 
 employed by Donatello, his master, in earning out in bronze 
 his designs for the pontifical chairs of the church of San Lorenzo 
 at Florence. — R. JI. 
 
 BARTOLDY, George Wilhelm, a man of great learning, 
 was born at Colberg in 1765. In 1797 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of physics at Stettin, and in 1801 pro\'inciai councillor. 
 He wrote several works, principally educational, and translated 
 Bacon's Novum Organum. He died in 1815. — J. F. W. 
 
 BARTOLI, Daniele, bora at FeiTara in 1608. At the age 
 of fifteen years he was admitted into the order of the jcsiuts, and 
 after having completed his scholastic career, visited as a preacher 
 all the principal cities of Italy. His eloquence was wondcifiil, 
 and his renown as a sacred orator became universal. The first 
 work he published was the history of the Society of Jesus ; or 
 rather of the missions and travels of the Jesuits in the East 
 Indies, Japan, China, England, and Italy. His style is alw.ays 
 terse, flowing, and at times lofty. Monti and Giordani, at the 
 beginning of this centmy, anxious to promote the study of the 
 Italian language, recommended Bartoli's vTitings for their ele- 
 gance in style and purity of diction ; and Monti, in his disserta- 
 tion on the vocabulary of la Crusca, styles Daniele Bartoli " the 
 purest and one of the greatest prose ■miters of Italy." He wrote 
 also many essays on scientific subjects; and although some of 
 his theories have been refuted by Galileo, they are still cited as 
 models of the didactic style in which he excelled. His works on 
 moral science and philology are numerous. Died 1684. — A. C. M. 
 
 BARTOLI, Pietro Saxte, an Italian painter, and especially 
 an engraver of great merit, bora at or near Peragia in 1 035 ; 
 died in 1700 at Rome. He studied painting under Nicolas 
 Poussin, whose works he so faithfully copied as often to leave 
 doubts in Poussin himself which was the copy and which the 
 original. His aptitude to imitations, and the great accur.icy 
 and pm-ity of drawing which his master so strongly enforced, 
 prepared Bartoli to become an excellent artist for the reproduc- 
 tion, by means of his etchings, of the drawings, paintings, and 
 sculptures, as well of modem time as of antiquity. The works, 
 of this kind that he eventually produced are both very numerous 
 and highly important. Amongst them are foremost the illus- 
 trations of the Trajan and Antoninus columns ; the antiquities 
 of Rome ; the Biblical subjects from Raphael's fi-escos in the 
 Vatican ; besides the reproductions of works by GiuUo Romano, 
 Pietro da Cortona, Moia, Albano, Carracci, &c. — R. M. 
 
 BARTOLINI, Giuseppe JIaria, an Itahan historical pain- 
 ter, bom at Imola in 1G57 ; died in 1725 ; a pupil of Pasinelli 
 and Cignani ; executed se^■eral fine works, and opened a school 
 for artists in his native city. — R. JI. 
 
 BARTOLINI, LoREXzt), the greatest Italian sculptor of our 
 days, was bom .at Florence in 1778, and died in 1850. In the 
 history of modem sculpture, whilst Thorwaldsen embodies the 
 German version of the Greek ideal, and Ranch that of an intel- 
 lectual classicism, Bartolini impersonates the ideal of realism. 
 His first studies were in the art of painting, and made in Pa.ns 
 at a time when the regeneration of that art in France was 
 being effected by the strenuous eflbi-ts of the celebrated David. 
 The decided bias of this great painter for the simultaneous imi- 
 tation of nature and the antique, was the principle which im- 
 pressed the future sculptor with the tendency that characterized 
 the best period of his subsequent glorious career. Feeling a 
 greater sympathy for sculpture than f )r the sister art, Bartolini 
 soon left Desmarets the painter, with whom he was studying, 
 to follow Lemot the sculptor. It is under this distinguished 
 artist, and side by side with Pradier, that the sculptoric educa- 
 tion of Lorenzo was completed. More inclined towards real 
 nature than his master, and less of a materialist than his fellow- 
 student, Bartoluii soon proved by his bas-relief of " Cleobis and 
 Biton," that he was able for himself to strike out a new path,
 
 BAR 
 
 403 
 
 BAR 
 
 rich in originality and distinction. Every step he advanced, 
 every new work he produced, made this fact more apparent. 
 Freeing himself by degrees from the toe conventional imitation 
 of a hackneyed Grccism, he borrowed every day more direct from 
 the book of nature those forms that, without strained effort or 
 vicious application, were to embody and express his ideas in 
 sculpture. His group of "Charity"' illustrates the climax of 
 his progiTss in this direction. Nothing can l)e more simple and 
 more grand — more natm-al, and yet elegant — more unpretending 
 in appearance and more impressive in effect, than this master- 
 piece produced by Bartolini when he had returned to Florence 
 and estabhshed himself there. It is the real triumph of con- 
 ception and form, in their inseparable and spontaneous coexist- 
 ence and manifestation. Hud Bartolini's worship of nature 
 been limited in his after-works to the chaste and noble selection 
 characteiistic of this gi'oup, we should have had a period in 
 sculptm-e equal to that of the Phidian era. But this was not to 
 be the case. Without actually falling into materiaUsm, there 
 is no doubt that the Florentine sculptor submitted every day 
 more and more to the influence of unreserved individuality of 
 forms, to the great detriment of the importance of his con- 
 ceptions. Form and conception were twin-sistei-s in the group 
 of " Charity ;'' they are — the first the mistress, the other the 
 attendant, in the statue of the " Faith in God" (la Fiducia 
 in Dio), which exemplifies the extreme realism of Bartolini. 
 Yet what depth of expression is contained in the simple and 
 "Imost uncouth attitude of this kneeling figm-e ! It seems as if 
 ■-' soul of the sculptor had secretly breathed a kiss upon the 
 liable fonn of the theorist's submissive slave. And why? 
 Jjecause as long as the theorist is possessed of real genius, how- 
 ver strange and contradictory to its end be the principle he 
 mts to enforce, he cannot help, in his own application of it, 
 : consciously to relieve its probable excess or extravagance by 
 uie stamp of his own geniality. 'When this wonderful statue 
 made its appearance in the various exhilntions of Italy (espe- 
 cially in the north), the novelty of the style, the hidden pathos 
 of the work, and, above all, the easy triumph that the imitation 
 of nature will always command upon the masses (a triumph so 
 universally neglected for the cold and aU-levelling glory of conven- 
 'ional success), they called forth throughout the country a general 
 outburst of admiration, and a subitaneous conversion towards 
 the theory embodied in it. But when the enthusiastic proselyte, 
 ".naware of what really renders such theory not only palatable, 
 it even attractive, rushes into servile and blind imitation, able 
 ly to reproduce all the worst characteristics eked out, we 
 utterly miss the redeeming flame of the original mind. This, 
 at first, proved to be the case with the impression that Bartolini's 
 style created upon Italian sculptors. He adopted the unreser\-ed 
 imitation of nature as his general standard, and yet was grand. 
 His followers — at least the many that possessed no individuality 
 of their own, or renounced it too easily — fell into an aping of 
 the more objectionable features and low details of nature, such 
 as represented by the Uving models of the day, and they became 
 liiliculous. Nevertheless, the mission of the great sculptor has 
 not been fruitless. The exaggerated, narrow-minded fashion 
 has nearly passed away ; the justice of the principle, when pro- 
 perly \-iewed, and still more properly applied to the expressions 
 demanded of modern art, has asserted itself; and the new school 
 now flourishing in Italy (which that excellent authority In art, 
 Mrs. Jameson, is pleased to call romantic and picturesque) 
 ascribes its existence and success to the influence of the original 
 genius of Bartolini. Before closing this notice, it is necessaiy to 
 add, as a corollary of the tendency of this artist, that he parti- 
 cularly excelled in portraying individualities, and produced the 
 largest and best collection of busts, especially of women, that 
 has ever been produced by a single sculptor either in ancient or 
 modem times. — R. M. 
 
 BARTOLO was bom in 1356, and died in 1410. He still 
 presented in his works all the stiffness of the Byzantine school. 
 He had a son called Bartolo Taddeo, or otherwise Taddi:© 
 Di Bartolo Battilori ; this artist, who rose to great im- 
 portance by his studies and progress, flourished about the end of 
 the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century. To a 
 successful imitation of Giotto, he added more life and grace than 
 his figures display. Many were his works at Siena, Pisa, Pe- 
 rugia, &c., several of which are still in existence — those at the 
 town-hall of Siena being considered his last and best. Amongst 
 his pupils there was DoMEXito Bartolo his nephew, who 
 
 worked until the middle of tlie fifteenth century, and who, by 
 the greater breadth of treatment and accuracy of design, espe- 
 cially of perspective, as exliibited in his pictures at the hospital 
 of Siena, brought the reputation of his name to the climax, so 
 much so as to deserve, in aftertimes, to be praised and studied 
 bv the divine Raphael himself. — R. Jl. 
 
 ' BARTOLOCCI or BARTOLOCCIUS, Jt'Lics, an Italian 
 monk of the order of St. Bernard, author of "BibUotheca Magna 
 Rabbinica," 1G7.5-1693 ; bom 1613; died 1G87. 
 
 BARTOLOilMEI, Girolamo, bom at Florence in 1584. 
 He had a great facility in versification, and \NTote ten trage- 
 dies, contained in two volumes in 4to, which were published iii 
 1655. He dedicated to Louis XIV. an epic poem entitled "L' Am- 
 erica," in which he displays all the faults peculiar to the writers 
 of that age, called by the Italians, Seicentisti. He wrote also 
 some dramas for music, and a Latin work, entitled " Didascaha, 
 sive Doctrina Comica," by far superior in style and language to 
 his Italian compositions. He died in 1662. — A. C. M. 
 
 BARTOLOMilEO. Many Italian artists bear this name, 
 amongst whom must be noticed Bartolojimeo of Ors-ieto, and 
 Bartolommko di JIartino of Siena, both painters of con- 
 siderable merit, the last especially. They flourished at the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century. — Bartolommeo of Urbino, 
 pupn of Gentile ; and Bartolommeo of ForU, scholar of Fran- 
 cia, painters about the end of that century.— Bartolommeo 
 of Pola, proficient in the art of inlaying, about 1500 ; and Bar- 
 TOLOMJiEO of Castiglione, a pupil and assistant of Giulio Ro- 
 mano, flourishing; about 1540. — R. M. 
 BARTOLOMMEO, Fra. See Porta. 
 BARTOLOMMEO, Maestro, of Florence, one of the eai-liest 
 painters of Italy, whose "Annunciation," painted in 1250, might, 
 from its many beauties, be taken for a posterior rather than 
 for an anterior production to the works of Giotto. — R. M. 
 
 BARTOLOM JIEO, Maestro, a Venetian sculptor and archi- 
 tect of the fomteenth centuiy, the artist that designed and 
 erected the world-famed "Porta della Carta," between the cathe- 
 dral of St. JIark and the doge's palace at Venice. He is also 
 the sculptor of the bas-relief over the entrance of the Confi-a- 
 twnita della Jlisericordia, representing the Virgin ilaiy receiving 
 the prayers of the faithful— a work of exquisite beauty and 
 nobleness. — R. JI. 
 
 BARTOLOZZI, Francesco, an Italian artist of uncommon 
 talent, was bom at Florence in 1725. He studied painting under 
 Ferretti, and engra\-ing under Wagner, and so highly distinguished 
 himself in the latter, that he almost entirely abandoned the 
 former art. Bartolozzi treated every kind of engraving with 
 equal skill, but particularly excelled in the dotted manner, so 
 much so that ever since it has commonly been called after his 
 name. He passed a great part of his life in England, where his 
 reputation reached the highest point. It is beyond the hmits of 
 this work to quote all his masterpieces. His works are enume- 
 rated to upwards of seven hundred. They comprise copies from 
 ahnost all the prominent masters, besides many subjects from his 
 own drawings. In 1806 he accepted an invitation from the king 
 of Portugal, and proceeded to Lisbon, where, after a few years 
 of constant activity, he died in 1813. — R. JI. 
 
 BARTON, Benjamin Smith, an American physician, was 
 born in 1766 at Lancaster, a town of Pennsylvania, and died in 
 December, 1815. His father was an episcopal clergyman, who 
 was fond of natural history, and who imfortunately died when 
 his son Benjamin was only fourteen years old, leaving his family 
 very ill pronded for. He prosecuted his early studies at Phila- 
 delphia. \Mien about twenty-one years of age he repaired to 
 Edinburgh, and spent two years there in attending medical 
 classes. During his residence there, he gained the Har\-cian 
 prize for an essay on the medical qualities of henbane. Subse- 
 quently he repaired to GiJttingcn where he graduated. On his 
 return to Philadelphia he commenced practice as a physician, and 
 at the same time continued to prosecute natural science. At the 
 age of twenty-four he was apjiointed professor of natural history 
 and botany in the college of Philadelphia. In 1802 he was chosen 
 vice-president of the American Philosophical Society. He after- 
 wards became professor of materia medica ; and on the death of 
 Dr. Rush he was chosen professor of practice of physic. In 
 1809 he was president of the Medical Society of Philadelphia. 
 His labours produced an injurious effect on his health. He was 
 attacked with symptoms of pulmonary consumption, for which 
 he took a voyage to France. The disease, however, speedily
 
 BAR 
 
 404 
 
 BAS 
 
 proved fatal. He lias published several botanical and medical 
 works. Among these may be noted — "An Essay on the JIateria 
 Medicii of the United States ;" " Fragments of the Natm'al 
 History of Pennsylvania ;" " Elements of Botany ;" " Flora 
 Virginica;" " Remarks on the Geogi'aphical Distribution of Plants 
 in North America ;" " Notes on American Antiquities ;" and a 
 " Memou- on Goitre." His writings tended much to illustrate 
 the natural history and antiquities of North America. Barton 
 was instrumental in sending Pursh to explore the Alleghany 
 mountains, and the western part of the United States ; he also 
 assisted Nuttall in 1810 to visit the northern and north-western 
 parts of the states. An American genus of plants has been 
 called Bartonia in honour of Barton. — J. H. B. 
 
 BARTON, Berxari), a member of the Society of Friends, 
 was bom in London in 1784. In 1806 he went to Woodbridge 
 in Suffolk, and was employed in a banking establishment there 
 almost to the period of his death. His first volume, entitled 
 " Metrical Effusions," appeared in 1812 ; in 1820 he published 
 a second volume of poems, which was ■well received. He 
 aftei-n-ards issued some eight or nine volumes in all, one of 
 wliich, " Household Verses," published in 1845, was dedicated 
 to her majesty ; but none of these later works seems to have 
 increased the reputation acquired by his first essays. Bernard 
 Barton was, on the whole, a fortunate man ; his poems procm-ed 
 him many friends and con-espondonts, and the respect and 
 affection of the whole religious world. At the time he seems to 
 have entertained the idea of relinquishing his profession, and 
 betaking himself to a literaiy life, but was dissuaded by Charles 
 Lamb, who wrote " throw yourself rather, my dear sir, fi-ora the 
 steep Tarpeian rock slap-dash headlong on iron spikes." This 
 was sound advice. Barton had not strength enough to force his 
 way through the press of literary aspirants to any conspicuous 
 position ; perhaps he was himself conscious of this ; at aU events 
 the project was never carried into execution. Sir Robert Peel 
 granted him a pension of £100 per annum. He died suddenly 
 on the 19th February, 1849, of spasm of the heart. As a poet, 
 BeiTiard Barton is not entitled to high consideration. The gift 
 of genius can hardly be conceded to him. He had no fii"e, no 
 imagination, no passion ; but his mind was cultivated, his heart 
 pure, and he wrote like a good and amiable man. — A. S. 
 
 BARTON, Elizabeth, commonly called the Maid of 
 Kext, an ignorant nun, bom about the commencement of the 
 sixteenth century, who being afflicted with epilepsy, or some 
 similar disease, was set up for a prophetess by some political 
 intriguers in the reign of Henry VIIL Two priests, JLasters 
 and Booking, directed her vaticinations ; and being A-iolently 
 opposed to the king's mamage with Anne Boleyn, they caused 
 their dupe to fulminate denunciation after denunciation against 
 all the promoters of that measure. The imprisonment and exe- 
 cution of all three followed ; a monk of the name of Deering, also 
 concerned in the impostm-e, sharing their fate. Fisher, bishop 
 of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, were both accused of being 
 implicated in the treason of the priests, but the accusation seems 
 to have been trae only in the case of Fisher, More having been 
 guilty of no more than an impmdent coiTCspondence with the 
 visionary. It proved, however, the ruin of both. — J. S., G. 
 
 * B.\RTON, William P. C, was professor of botany in 
 Philadelphia, and published in 1817 the "JIateria Medica of the 
 United States;" and from 1818 to 1824, a compendium of the 
 " Flora of Philadelphia," and a " Flora of North America." 
 
 B.'VUTHAM, Joux, an American naturalist of some celebrity, 
 who flourished in the eighteenth century. He was the son of a 
 rich quaker in Pennsylvania, and travelled through various parts 
 of North America, with the new of prosecuting natural history. 
 In 17G5 and 17G6 he visited Florida. The results of his obser- 
 vations were published. He was a correspondent of Linnaeus, 
 who named the genus of mosses Bartramia in honour of him. 
 His works are — " Observations on the Inhabitants and Products 
 of North America," and " Description of Florida." He notices 
 in the latter work, for the first time, the plant called lUicium 
 Floridanum. — J. H. B. 
 
 BARTIvAM, WiLLiAJi, son of the preceding, was bom about 
 1739. He early imbibed his father's tastes for botanical 
 research, and accompanied him on his travels. In 1771 he 
 began a scientific examination of Georgia, Florida, and the Caro- 
 linas, the result of which was published in 1791, and an English 
 edition in the following year. He also wrote an American Orni- 
 thology. Died in 1823'. — ^J. B. 
 
 BARTSCH, Joiix, a Dutch physician, lived about the first 
 half of the eighteenth centuiy. He was a friend of Linna;us and 
 Bcerhaave, who sent him to Surinam to examine the natural 
 products of the country. He died there from the effects of the 
 climate. Linnajus named the genus Bartsia, one of the Scrophu- 
 lariacere, after him. — J. H. B. 
 
 BAEUCCO, GiACOMO, an Itali.an painter of the Venetian 
 school, especially an imitator of Palma the Younger. He flour- 
 ished at the beginning of the seventeenth centurj', and was a 
 native of Brescia, in which place the greatest number of his 
 works is to be seen. — R. M. 
 
 BARUCH {Blessed), the friend and amanuensis of Jere- 
 miah, and the supposed author of a book of the Apocrypha 
 which bears his name, was of a noble family belonging to the 
 tribe of Judah. He accompanied the prophet into Egypt in the 
 eleventh year of Zedekiah's reign, after which we find no further 
 mention of him in scripture. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BARUZZI, Cavalier Cixcinnato, one of the most distin- 
 guished sculptors of the day in Italy, is a native of Bologna, and 
 a pupil of Canova, with whom he remained until the death of 
 that great artist, whose group of the "Pieta" he was appointed 
 to finish. Barazzi has especially distinguished himself' in the 
 treatment of female figures, of which he has produced a very 
 large number, all impressed more or less with the characteristic 
 grace of his master. Three casts in the crystal palace at Syden- 
 ham, and several marbles in the Chatsworth gallery, are good 
 instances of the superior merit of this eminent sculptor. — R. M. 
 
 BARWICK, Pierre, a physician, born in the year 1619, at 
 Wetherstack in Westmoreland, and died in London in 1705. 
 He studied at the university of Cambridge, and was phvsiciun-in- 
 ordinary to Charles II. He has written a " Defence of the Dis- 
 covery of the Circulation of the Blood by Harvey ; " and a 
 "Life of John Barwick," his brother, written in Latin, 1721, in 
 8vo. We also owe to Barwick a book entitled "De ils qua; Medi- 
 coram Animos Exagitant," London, 1G71, 4to. — E. L. 
 
 BAS.\ITI, Maeco, an Italian painter of the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century. He was of a Greek family established in 
 Friuli, and studied at Venice, where he spent the greatest part of 
 his life in constant rivalry with Giovanni Bellini. His works 
 are remarkable for spirit in the conception, for skilful arrange- 
 ment in the composition, and excellent design in the execution. 
 His colour, however, although harmonious and fresh, was some- 
 times feeble and uncertain. The " Saviour at the Jlount of 
 Olives," the " St. Peter " at Venice (of which a repetition is now 
 at Vienna), and the "Assumption" at Murano, are considered to 
 be his mastei-pieces. — R. M. 
 
 BASEDOW, JoHAxx Berxhard, a celebrated German 
 educational reformer, was born at Hamburg, 2nd September, 
 1723. He attended first the Johanneum in his native town, 
 and then the university of Leipzig. In 1753 he was appointed 
 to a mastership in the academy of Soroe, Zealand, where he, 
 however, soon displayed violent heterodox opinions, and, therefore, 
 was removed to the g}Tnnasium of Altona (1761). We learn 
 from Goethe, with whom he afterwards (1774) became inti- 
 mately acquainted, and who in his Dichtung und Wahrheit, 
 has given a highly gi-aphic sketch of " Vater Basedow," that he 
 not only was a staunch unitarian, but also used to denounce bap- 
 tism as a useless custom, and, altogether, by his unbelief gave 
 great offence to all religious people. Inflamed by the Emile, 
 he resolved upon realizing Rousseau's educational ideas, and 
 upon improving the pedantic and inefficient system of tuition 
 then prevailing at the German schools, by a more natural and 
 practical way of imparting knowledge. In imitation of the 
 celebrated Amos Comenius, whose Orbis Pictus had exercised 
 a beneficial and lasting influence upon education, he published in 
 1771 his " Elementanverk" in three languages, adorned with 
 one hundred illustrations by Chodowiecki. By these illustrations, 
 the senses of the children were to be worked upon ; the languages, 
 dead and firing, were to be acquired, not in a gi-ammatical, but 
 rather a conversational way ; and the children, by being made 
 acquainted with foreign languages, scenes, customs, di'csses, 
 &c., were to be made practical people and trae citizens of the 
 world. Basedow resigned his place, and travelled in order to 
 collect funds for the canying out of his schemes. By the invita- 
 tion of Francis, prince of .\nhalt-Dessau, a high-minded patron 
 of learning and the fine arts, he went to Dessau, where in 1774 
 he opened a model school, called the Philanthropinum. Assisted 
 by eminent teachers, such as WoLke, Campe, Kolbe, Ohvier,
 
 BAS 
 
 405 
 
 BAS 
 
 Gutsmuths, Salzmann, and otliers, Basedow soon attracted 
 general attention by the results of his method, and gathered a 
 host of followers (philanthropists) around him. On the other 
 band, Basedow and his system amnot be entirely freed from the 
 reproach of shallowness, free-thinking, and want of real learning. 
 The Philanthropinum itself prospered only for a short period, 
 and there is no doubt that the restlessness of its founder, and 
 his haughty, unndy, and quan-elsome temper, were amongst the 
 chief causes of its speedy decay. After having given rise to many 
 similar institutions, of which, however, only that founded by 
 Salzmann at Schncpfenthal, near Gotha, is still flourishing, it 
 was dissolved in 1793. Basedow had left it already in 1778, 
 and after several changes of residence, had died at Magdeburg, 
 2.5th July, 1790. Amongst Basedow's numerous writings may 
 be quoted, " Praktische Plnlosophie fur alle Stiinde ; " " Phila- 
 lethie, Nene Aussichten in die Wahrheiten und Religion der 
 Vernunft;" " Theoretisches System der gesunden Vernvinft;" 
 " Esamen in der allernatiirlichsten Religion ; " " Einer Philadel- 
 phischen Gesellschaft Gesangbuch fiir Christen und fiir philo- 
 sopliische Christgenossen ; " and "Jesus Christus die gi-osse 
 Chriiitenwelt und die kleine Auswahl," &c. — K. E. 
 
 BASELLI, Benedetto, an Italian pliysician and surgeon, 
 born at San-Pellegrino, in the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 and died Jlay 17, lti21. He studied medicine at Padua under 
 Jerome Massuria, Fabricius d'Aquapendente, and Campo-Longo. 
 In 1594 he applied for admission to the college of physicians of 
 his own country ; but they refused him, on account of his prac- 
 tising surgery. The old physicians regarded this art as beneath 
 them. It was in order to combat this prejudice that Baselli wrote 
 the work : " Apologise, qua pro chirurgia; Nobilitate Chirurgi 
 strenue Pugnantur, Libri Tres," Bergamo, 1604, 4to. — E. L. 
 
 BASHAW, Edward, an English nonconformist of the 17th 
 centm-y, held a living at Exeter. He died in Newgate in 1671, 
 having been imprisoned for refusing to take the oath of allegiance 
 and supremacy. His principal performance was a " Dissertation 
 against the Socinians." 
 
 BASHKIN, Matvaei Semenov, a heretic of the middle of 
 the sixteenth century, who promulgated at Moscow, in the reign 
 of Ivan the Terrible, a system of doctrine compounded in about 
 equal parts of Aiianism and Socinianism. He was imprisoned 
 by Ivan, but gave up the names of his associates, and escaped 
 with a short term of confinement. 
 
 BASIL, calle.l also ASCHOLIUS or ACHOLIUS, bishop of 
 Thessalimica in the reign of Theodnsius, whom he baptized in 
 yOO. St. Ambrose honoured him with a particular friendship. 
 He was present at the council of Constantinople in 381, and at 
 that of Uome in the year following. 
 
 BASIL I., surnamed the Macedonian, emperor of the 
 East, born at the town of Macedonia, near Adrianople, in 813 ; 
 died in 886. He embraced the profession of arms, but, as his 
 parents were very poor, it is probable that he entered the army 
 as a common soldier. He was made prisoner by the Bulgarians; 
 but having made liis escape, he came to Constantinople, with 
 nothing but his wallet and his statf. Here he had the good 
 fortune to attract the notice of the Emperor Michael, who 
 made him first his equeny, then his grand chamberlain, and 
 finally, his partner in the empire. Basil laboured to persuade 
 Michael to renounce certain excesses to which he was addicted; 
 hut Jlichael, indignant at finding a censor in the man whom he 
 had raised to the purple, resolved to put him to death. In this, 
 however, he was anticipated by Basil; who thus, from 867, was 
 sole occupant of the throne. After a reigil of nineteen years, 
 he was killed in the chase by a stag. — G. M. 
 
 BASIL II., emperor of the East, bom in 956; died in 1025. 
 He succeeded John Zimisces in 976. His brother Constantine, 
 who was associated with him in the empire, was a person desti- 
 tute of talents and virtue, and enjoyed no authority ; while 
 Basil, on the other hand, was a man of active bravery, though 
 no friend to letters. During his reign several revolts occurred, 
 which he promptly suppressed. In 1014 he turned his arms 
 against the Bulgarians, whom he defeated; having slain, in one 
 d-i}', five thousand men, and taken fifteen thousand prisoners. 
 He subseiiucntly vanquished the Saracens, who had made inroads 
 upon his territory. In all his expeditions he was equally suc- 
 cessful, and he reigned longer than any of his predecessors. — G. M. 
 BASIL, prince of Moldavia in the seventeenth century. He 
 was deposed by his subjects, with the assistance of Stephen 
 XII., surnamed the Fat. 
 
 BASIL, surnamed the Hawk, lived in the tenth centuiy. 
 His origin is obscure; but in 959 he was engaged in a plot 
 against the life of Rumain the Young, who had succeeded his 
 father Constantine in the empire. The plot was discovered, and 
 Basil, who was found to be labouring under mental abeixation, 
 was consigned to the isle of Proeonnesus. 
 
 BASIL, Saint, the Great, was bom at Cassarea in Cap- 
 padocia, a.d. 329. Many of the circumstances connected with 
 his parentage, the place of his birth, and his education, 
 have given rise to considerable discussion. The Magdeburg 
 centm-iators, who wrote in the sixteenth century, assert that his 
 father was a bishop ; other writers say that he was a priest. 
 Whatever weight is due to these several statements, these asser- 
 tions show that the doctrine of the celibacy of the clergy was 
 very f;ir from being generally received in the fourth century. 
 In early youth Basil received a pious education under the care of 
 his mother Emmelia, and his grandmother JIacrina. The latter 
 had been under the instruction of Gregoiy Thaumaturgus, bishop 
 of Neocassarea, and had suflered for the truth's sake in the 
 days of persecution. On leavuig his parental roof, he went to 
 Ca;sarea in Palestine, where he became acquainted with Gregory 
 Nazianzcn, after which he removed to Constantinople. Thence 
 he proceeded to Athens, where, on meeting again with Gregoiy, 
 the two friends became united in one heart and one soul. Upon 
 his father's decease, Basil practised at Ca?sarea with considerable 
 success in forensic causes. So little, however, was the satisfac- 
 tion he felt from the study of rhetoric, and so ensnaring his 
 celebrity was considered to be, that he resolved to withdi-aw 
 from the secular profession, and to give liimself up to the study 
 of the holy scriptures. At this period (357), when he arrived at 
 manhood, he was baptized by Dianius, bishop of Ca?sarea, who 
 afterwards admitted him to the office of a deacon. Among his 
 instnictors was Libanius, the most celebrated sophist and elo- 
 quent orator of the age ; who gave lessons in the art of rhetoric 
 and declamation at Constantinople, Athens, and during the 
 remainder of his life at Antioch. The friendship which was 
 thus formed between the teacher and the pupil was maintained 
 to the end of life, though Libanius never professed the principles 
 of the christian faith. 
 
 Saint Basil now resolved to retire, as much as possible, from 
 the world ; to this he was instigated by the sudden death of his 
 brother Naucratius, at the age of twenty-one. With the view 
 of perfecting himself in ascetic discipline, Basil travelled over 
 Egypt, Palestine, Syiia, Mesopotamia, and at length he settled 
 in Pontus, near Ibora, where his mother and sister had formed 
 a convent of nuns. Here he was joined by Gregoiy Nazianzcn ; 
 the two friends took Origcn as their guide in the interpretation of 
 scripture, and extracted from his writings replies to the more 
 difficult questions in theology ; some of which are extant under 
 the title of " Pliilocalia." At this time the Ascetica were written, 
 or rather such of these treatises as had been correctly ascribed to 
 him. Saint Basil was not happy in these solitudes. His peace 
 was disturbed by the discovery that his friend Eustathius of 
 Sebaste, had espoused the doctrines of Arius. In other respects, 
 he seems to have been far from realizing the objects he desired, 
 for he candidly admitted that, while he had fled from many 
 evils, he had not been able to fly from himself, so that he 
 enjoyed no great advantage from his solitude. On his return 
 from his travels he was made reader in the chm-ch of Cirsarea ; 
 we have no certain account of his admission to the ministry, 
 except that while he was still a deacon, he attended Basil of 
 Ancyra to the synod of Constantinople in 359, when he took 
 part against the Anomocans or Heterousians, who maintained 
 that the Son was not of the same essence with the Father. 
 Dianius, the bishop of Ca?sarea, who was noted as an Arian, 
 sought for Basil's spiritual advice and comfort on the bed of 
 death. When, however, the sec became vacant, the poinilar 
 party, as at Milan in the case of Ambrose, raised to the office 
 of bishop, Euscbius, an unbaptized layirian ; and the prelates 
 yielding to the violence of the people, confirmed the election. 
 This appointment gave rise to considerable disturbances, for 
 Euscbius, who had previously occupied the civil tribunal, was 
 Iiut little versed in the controversies of the age. To prevent an 
 open rupture Basil, with the monks over whom he presided, 
 withdrew to the wilder parts of Pontus, until the church at 
 Cassarea, with the consent of the bishop, called for his return, 
 after some negotiations in which Gregoiy Nazianzcn acted as 
 mediator. Euscbius, it is said, governed the people, but Basil,
 
 who was now admitted to tlie order of tlie priesthood, governed 
 Eusebius. 
 
 During tliis temporary retirement from Cacsarea, Basil sought 
 cut for his followers a sequestered spot, where the foot of man 
 had never trodden, and formed them into a community, with 
 regidar rules and canons. This was the origin of monastic 
 discipline in the eastern church, as previously to this hermits 
 and anchorites lived by themselves in solitary places ; from this 
 period we meet with monasteries in the neighbourhood of large 
 cities, and from these regulations of Basil, the several con- 
 stitutions of religious orders take their rise. Wliile he was thus 
 employed, the inliabitants of Ncocaisai-ea wished to appoint him 
 bishop, as successor to Slusonius ; but the Sabellian faction 
 strongly opposed his election, and assailed his character with the 
 charge of making innovations in matters of religion, the estab- 
 lishment of monasticism, and the introduction of a new mode 
 of singing psalms. Such charges as these are a satisfactory 
 testimony to his piety and zeal, as they show that his bitterest 
 adversaries had nothing worse to bring against liim. 
 
 From the peculiar position which Basil held at Ca?sarea, we 
 cannot be surprised to hear that Eusebius regarded Mm with 
 jealousy. His instancy in the work of the ministry, and the 
 reputation he enjoyed with the people, gave offence to the bishop, 
 who felt himself but a novice. Basil found it, therefore, expe- 
 dient to retire again to Pontus for a season, till the displeasure of 
 Eusebius wore off. In 304 a semi-Arian synod was held at 
 Lampsacus, a city on the Hellespont, with the proceedings of 
 wliich Basil is connected, though he was not present. Some of the 
 bishops who took part in the deliberations of this council, invited 
 Basil to meet them at Eusinoe, as they were on their road to 
 Lampsacus, that they might have his opinion on the matters 
 which came under debate. In the year 3G8, a great dearth 
 came over the whole country of Cappadocia, which excited the 
 sympathies and called forth the energies of Basil to supply the 
 necessities of those who were ready to perish. For this purpose 
 lie sold the possessions which he had received on the death of 
 his mother ; by his urgent appeals he prevailed upon the wealthy 
 to give of their abundance, and then discharged the humblest 
 offices in dealing out bread to the Iningry. 
 
 On the death of Eusebius in .370, Basil was appointed liis 
 successor, chiefly through the weight and influence of the vener- 
 ble prelate of Nazianzen, the father of his friend Gregory. His 
 labours on attaining the arcliiepiscopal see were directed to the 
 securing the peace of the church, which was distmbed not 
 merely by Aiianism, but by the %-iolent expressions and indis- 
 criminate language of some who maintained the orthodox faith. 
 In his letters we have notices of many laws wliich he made for 
 regulating social life, and for restraining unlawful marriages. 
 In 372 Valens came to Cajsarea to carry out the design he had 
 long fomied, of bringing over the East to the reception of Arian 
 tenets. Basil had already repelled the advances of Jlodestus 
 the prefect, when he visited him with the same object, and 
 attempted to draw him from the faith by promising him the 
 emperor's assistance in the event of the see becoming vacant. 
 The prefect expressed liis surprise that Basil should presume to 
 oppose the wishes of the emperor, when so many others had 
 yielded to his will. To this the saint replied, that Christianity 
 was to be measured, not by dignity of persons, but by soundness 
 of faith. Wlien, too, he was assailed by threats, and the pros- 
 pect of confiscation, exile, and death, his answer was, " He who 
 has but a few books and a wretched gannent, can suffer nothing 
 from confiscation ; banishment was nothing to one to whom all 
 places were alike ; and torture could not be inflicted where there 
 was not a body to bear them. By putting me to death you 
 would confer on me a benefit, for you would send me earlier to 
 my rest." From the account which Modcstus gave, Valens 
 leanit that neither threats nor promises could avail with Basil, 
 and having the generosity to admire virtue in an enemy, he 
 commanded all rigorous proceedings to be stayed. On visit- 
 ing Cassarea, the emperor endeavoured to gain the good opinion 
 of the archbishop by a devout attendance at public worship, 
 though the Arian prelates warmly advocated the banishment 
 of Basil. The cause of orthodoxy, as the story goes, was at 
 this time supported by various signs and wonders. The Arian 
 prelates bad, as they thought, prevailed on the emperor to banish 
 the archbishop. Every preparation was made, and the chariot 
 was ready to convey him into exile ; but when the wan-ant was 
 brought for the emperor to sign, consternation seized upon his 
 
 mind, and he tore the warrant in pieces. Galates, the emperors 
 son, was seized with a malignant fever, which abated as soon 
 as the archbishop entered the house ; but when the emperor 
 would not adopt Basil's faith he attended no longer, and the 
 Arian bishops were called in, but the child died. Nor was it 
 only from the emperor that troubles came upon Basil ; Euse- 
 bius, the governor of the pro\-ince, and uncle to the empress, 
 brought a scandalous charge against him respecting a lady of 
 rank and fortune, who had taken sanctuary in his chui-ch. On 
 this occasion the indignation of the people was roused in defence 
 of their pastor, and the governor would have been torn in pieces 
 by an irritated mob, if Basil had not devised means to pacify 
 their wrath and divert their rage. 
 
 Many serious abuses had crept into the diocese, which Basil 
 laboured to remove. As the officers of the church were exempt 
 from the necessity of bearing anus, some sought for admission 
 to the lower ranks of the ministry that they might avoid militaiy 
 service. The facility with which the chorepiscopi or suffragan 
 bishops admitted candidates to the inferior orders of the ministry, 
 on the testimony of presbyters and deacons mthout due exami- 
 nation and inquiry, opened a wide door for this abuse. It is 
 painful to find that some of these suffi'agan bishops were charged 
 witli receiving money from apphcants for ordination, and that they 
 endeavoured to shelter themselves under the plea that the money 
 was received after the imposition of hands. It would be tedious 
 to relate how much Basil suffered from the strife of tongues, or 
 how his own peace was disturbed by the dissensions which pre- 
 vailed in other churches. The people of Antioch, harassed by 
 persecution from the Arian party, and torn by intestine divi- 
 sions, called forth a large measure of his sjonpathy. A lament- 
 able account is given of their state in a letter drawn np by 
 Jleletius, the rightful bishop, subscribed by Basil and other pre- 
 lates, wherein are details of public assemblies being dispersed, 
 of heresy prosperous, of Arianism triumphant. This letter was 
 du-ected to the bishops of Italy and France, appeahng to them 
 for sympathy, assistance, and advice. These, however, did not 
 care to interfere ; so tiiat Basil complained of the pride and 
 superciliousness of the West. Equally distressing was the charge 
 brought by Eustathius against Basil, of unsoundness in the doc- 
 trine of the Holy Trinity. The only ground for this was, that 
 the archbishop did not unifonuly adopt the same form of \vords 
 in the doxology at the end of his sermons, and employed some 
 novel expressions which were said to be inconsistent with ortho- 
 doxy. The outci-y to wliich this report gave occasion, induced 
 the patriarch frequently to preach on the doctrine of the Trinity, 
 and to write his treatise " De Spiritu Sancto." 
 
 A coolness arose between Basil and his friend Gregory Nazi- 
 anzen, v.'hich has been the subject of great misrepresentation. 
 Gibbon states, that the first favour which Basil, after his eleva- 
 tion to the bishopric, " condescended to bestow on his friend 
 was received, and perhaps was intended, as a cniel insult. Basil 
 appointed his friend to the bishopric of Sasima, which is described 
 as a wretched village, without water, without verdure, without 
 society." It is clear that Gregory was not pleased with this 
 sphere of labour; but there is no evidence to show that Basil 
 intended in any way to cast a slight on tbe merits and services 
 of his friend. The influence which Basil acjuired was seen in 
 the large sums placed at liis disposal for the relief of the needy. 
 AVith these he founded a magnificent hospital, called afterwards 
 the Basileas, in which every description of human misery, in- 
 cluding the unhappy class of lepers, received relief. There was 
 one feature in this noble institution, for which it is worthy to 
 be had in special remembrance. Spacious workshops were pro- 
 vided for every kind of handicraft, and all the inmates took part 
 in supporting the institution of which they were members. 
 
 When Basil had occupied the see of Cwsarea a little more 
 than eight years, his feeble frame gave symptoms of approach- 
 ing dissolution. Before his departure, he collected his remain- 
 ing strength, and ordained some of his disciples to succeed him 
 in the see. When this was done, he breathed his last with the 
 divine ejaculation, " Into thine hands I commend my spirit." 
 The esteem in which he was held was evinced by the number 
 that attended his funeral ; Jews as well as gentiles took part in 
 his obsequies, and mourned their loss. The date of his death 
 is generally fixed at January 1, 379, at the age of fifty; but 
 from the repeated instances in which Basil speaks of himself as 
 advanced in years, we may reasonably give credit to those who 
 refer his death to a later period. Saint Basil holds an eminent
 
 place for the possession of gi-eat natiu-al talents, improved by 
 all the advantages of education, cultivated with commendable 
 industry, and heiglitened by large experience. He was learned 
 in all the literaiy lore of the philosophers, and the study of the 
 holy scriptiu-es ; his style of writing is admirable, perspicuous, 
 and powerful, flowing with unaffected grace and natural sweet- 
 ness. Pliotius gives him the preference over all the Greek 
 fathers in respect of style, which, from the elegance of his lan- 
 guage, rendered his writings very difficult to be translated into 
 Latin. Yet though his aft'ections were set on things above, we 
 cannot but lament the influence of his degrading example in en- 
 couraging the puerile observances of superstition. His attention 
 to the sons of want, is a stiiking proof of his practical piety ; but 
 wliat shall we say of his will-worship in Idssing the most loath- 
 some wounds ? In his younger days lie was of a fresh and 
 florid complexion, of a healthy constitution and vigorous habit ; 
 but by excessive fasting and abstuience, combined with the 
 effects of study and constant turmoil, he became the subject of 
 habitual weakness, the victim of premature decay. Such, how- 
 ever, was the veneration in wliich he was held, and such the 
 temper of the age, that many aifected his bodily intirmities, and 
 sought to share the honour paid to the saint by a servUe imita- 
 tion of his taciturn habits, neglected beard, sordid apparel, and 
 spaiing diet. His works are very volmninous ; the best edition 
 is that of the learned Benedictine, Julian Gamier, Paris, 1721, 
 1730, which was reprmted in 1839. — -W. W. 
 
 BASILE DE Soi.ssoNS, a French capuchin, missionary of his 
 order in ICngland in the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 He wrote several controversial treatises, the principal of which is 
 entitled " Defense Invincible de la Presence reelle de J. C. en 
 I'Euchariste," &c.. Paris, 1676. 
 
 BASILETTI, LuiGi, an Italian painter of modern times, a 
 native of Brescia, where he died about 1845. He studied at 
 Rome, and treated history, portrait and landscape painting, with 
 equal success ; nor was he unacquainted with architectural doc- 
 trines. Landscape, however, is the branch in which he deserved 
 most praise. Basiletti, an ardent lover of art generally, fostered 
 with unremitting perseverance the excavations going on in his 
 native town, until the efforts were crowned by the discovery of 
 the famed temple, and bronze statue of Victory. — E. M. 
 
 BASILIDES, a famous gnostic, who lived and taught in 
 Ku'vpt duiing the first half of the second century. Nothing is 
 < 'itainly known of his early life, or of the place of his birth. 
 His writings are also lost, fragments only bemg preserved in 
 the books of his opponents, such as Clement of Alexandria, 
 Tcrtullian, Irenseus, and Epiphanius. He held the dualist 
 i.dtion of two primitive principles, one of good or of light, and 
 iuiother of evil or of darkness, who ruled especially over the 
 wurld of matter. The good principle, or being, with his seven 
 ai'ons or emanations, formed the Ogdoad. From each of these 
 sprang other emanations, making the number of 365, and form- 
 ing the worlds or heavens symbolized in the Greek tenn 
 «jS;«|aj. The tenth £eon of the last or lowest heaven made this 
 world according to God's design, but owing to his stupidity, not 
 according to God's eternal laws. To help men placed so unfor- 
 tunately, the first-born ajon was commissioned, and he was 
 united to the man Jesus at his baptism. Man is purified from 
 the defiling contact of matter through a long process of spiritual 
 ascension, till he arrive at highest union with the kingdom of 
 light. Basilides is supposed to have died about the year 130. — 
 Matter. Hist. Critique da Gnosticisme — Uerzog. Ritter. <^c. — J. E. 
 BASILIANUS, Roman governor of the province of Egypt 
 about the year 213. At the time of the murder of Caracalla, 
 and the accession of JIacrinus, the latter intrusted Basiliamis 
 with the command of the prajtorians. 
 
 BASILISCUS, emperor of the East, brother of Verina, wife 
 of Leo I.; died in 477. In 468, during the reign of Leo L, 
 Basilisens was intrusted with the conduct of the war against 
 Genseric, who had rendered himself master of Africa; but hav- 
 ing been corrupted by the Arians with a promise of the empire, 
 he betrayed his trust, and allowed time to the Vandal king to 
 collect troops, and to organize a fleet, by which the ships of the 
 Romans were burned or dispersed. Basiliscus was obliged to 
 conceal himself until his sister had propitiated her husband, the 
 Emperor Leo; but after his death in 474, Basiliscus usurped the 
 em[)ire. It was, however, claimed two years afterwards by Zeno 
 the Isaurian, the legitimate emperor, who came to Constantinople 
 with a large araiy, and gave battle to the usurper. Basiliscus 
 
 was defeiited, and, with his wife and children, shut up by order 
 of Zeno in a tower in the castle of Cappadocia, where they were 
 left to die of cold and hunger. — G. M. 
 
 BASILIUS, a Bulgarian monk and physician, who lived in 
 the twelfth century, and founded the sect of the Bogomiles, a 
 name signifying " God be merciful unto us." His doctrine was 
 a combhiation of the old Gnostic and Manichean tenets. He 
 was arraigned before a council called by the Emperor Alexis 
 Comnenus, and sentenced to the flames in 1118. 
 
 BASILUS, the name of one branch of an ancient Roman 
 family, the Minucius, the most noteworthy of whom were the 
 following : — 
 
 Basilus Minucius, a military tribune, lived about the year 
 86 B.C. He took part under Sylla in the war against Archelaus, 
 general of Mithridates. 
 
 Basilus Minucius, of whom little is known, except that he 
 became infamous by his depredations, and that his tomb has 
 been discovered in the Appian way. 
 
 Basilus Minucius, L., called also Satrius, lived about 
 54-44 B.C. He is mentioned by Ca'sar as having assisted in 
 the war against Ambiorix. He took part m the assassination of 
 Cassar ; and the following year, was put to death by his own 
 slaves, one of whom he had inhumanly scourged. — G. M. 
 
 BASIN, Thomas, bishop of Lisieur, bora 1402. When this 
 city was besieged by the French troops in order to rescue it from 
 the English, then masters of Normandy, Bishop Basin, with 
 remarkable ability, prepared the terms of a capitulation, which 
 met with the approbation of both parties, and the treaty itself 
 became the model adopted by the different episcopal sees of the 
 province placed in the like straits. The bishop's conduct raised 
 him gi-eatly in the favour of the French monarch, Charles VII. 
 As soon as the latter became master of NoiTnandy, he employed 
 Basin to draw up a memoir in vindication of the memory of 
 Joan of Arc, and it is on this work that his reputation as a 
 contributor to French history chiefly rests. The dauphin, after- 
 wards Louis XL, when intriguing against his father, endeav- 
 oured to win over the bishop to his designs ; failing in which, 
 this vindictive prince marked him out for vengeance. Obliged 
 to fly and wander from place to place, he at length yielded to the 
 prayers of his relatives to resign his bishopric, and trust to the 
 promised favour of Louis, which the latter, with his usual 
 duplicity, failed to observe. David, bisliop of Utrecht, opened 
 an asylum to the persecuted prelate, whom he appointed coad- 
 jutor of his diocese till his death on the 30th December, 1491. 
 Besides his memoirs in justification of the Maid of Orleans, he 
 left histories of Charles VII. and Louis XL, under the name 
 of Amelgard, priest of Liege, of much interest. — J. F. C. 
 
 BASINE or BAZINE, wife of Childcric I., and mother of 
 Clevis, lived about the middle of the fifth century. She had 
 been the wife of the king of the Thuringians ; but, deserting her 
 husband, had fled to Childeric, who married her. 
 
 BASING or BASINGSTOKE, John, an English divine and 
 philologist, archdeacon of Leicester in the first half of the thir- 
 teenth century. He studied at Oxford, and afterwards at Paris, 
 whence he journeyed to Athens, in order to increase Ins acquain- 
 tance with the Greek language. He translated a Greek gi-animar 
 into Latin, and wrote several theological treatises, one of which 
 is entitled "De Concordia Evangelionun." Died 1252. — J. S., G. 
 BASIKE, Claude, a member of the French convention, 
 born at Dijon in 1764; died 3d April, 1794. At the outbreak 
 of the Revolution he was at first named member of tlie direc- 
 tory for the district of Cordeliers, and afterwards deputy from 
 the COte-d'Or to the legislative assembly. He ranged .himself 
 among the Montagnards, demanded the punishment of death 
 upon eveiy one who should propose to create a hereditary and 
 individual authority, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He 
 took an active part in public afl'airs up to the 16th Januarv. 
 1794, when he was arrested on a charge of corrujjtion in the 
 office of secretary to the convention, to which he had the year 
 before been ajipointed. On the 3rd April lie was brought before 
 the revolutionary tribunal, by whom he was condemned to death. 
 The sentence was executed the same day. — G. M. 
 
 BASH5E, James, an English engraver of the eightcccnth cen- 
 tuiy, the son and pupil of Isaac Basirc, also an engraver, but 
 of less note. He earned considerable fame, especially by the 
 reproduction of subjects from the English masters. The dates 
 of this artist are dill'erently given. Some biogiiiiphers mark his 
 life as between 1740 and 1780 . others between 1730 and 1802.
 
 His son, bearing the same name, continued the paternal career 
 with success, and died in 1822, having executed many plates for 
 several learned societies of London. — R. M. 
 
 BASIEE, Isaac, an English theologian, author of "Diatribus 
 de Antiqua Ecclcsife Britannica; Libertate," and of " A Histoi-y of 
 Presbyterianism in England and Scotland," was born in the island 
 of Jersey in 1607. He held various benefices till about the year 
 1640, when he was appointed chaplain to Charles I. After the 
 smrender of Oxford, where he had taken shelter vnih the king, 
 he quitted England, travelled through the Morea, Palestine, and 
 Mesopotamia, and finally settled in Transylvania, where he was 
 made professor of theology in the university of Wcissemburg 
 by Prince George Ragotzi II. The news of the Restoration 
 caused him to return to England, and he again became king's 
 chaplain. Died in 1676. — J. S., G. 
 
 BASKERVILLE, John, the famous printer, was bom in 
 1706, at Wolverley in Worcestershu-e. We find him at the 
 age of twenty keeping a writing-school in Birmingham, and 
 afterwards, as a japanner, displaying peculiar taste and skill in 
 that branch of bu>iness, and by it acquiring considerable wealth. 
 He built a handsome house, and paraded a costly equipage. In 
 1750 he tm-ned his attention to pnnting and letter-founding. 
 Caslon had previously effected some improvements on the Dutch 
 types, but Baskerville excelled him in the form, elegance, and 
 sharpness which he gave to the letters. In 1756 appeared his 
 first book, a quarto Virgil, and others followed in rapid succes- 
 sion. By his taste and ingenuity, he brought the art of printing 
 to a degree of perfection never before attained in this country. 
 His endeavours did not, however, bring him much compensation. 
 He spent £600 before he could produce one letter to please 
 him, and he spent thousands more before he got any profitable 
 returns. He latterly wished to get quit of the printing business 
 altogether ; and after his death his types could not find a market 
 in this countiy, but were sold to a literaiy society in Paris for 
 £3700. Baskerville died without children, January 8, 1775. 
 In his will, executed two years before, he avows his disbelief of 
 Christianity, nay, his contempt for it. According to the instruc- 
 tions contained in the same curious document, he was bm-ied 
 under a windmill in his own garden. His dwelUng-house was 
 destroj-ed in the riots of 1791. Baskerville was vain and some- 
 what peevish, fond of gold lace on his dress, and of diiving a 
 beautiful carriage, each pannel of which was a separate picture 
 executed by himself as a japanner. His editions of several of 
 the classics and many English works, such as a folio Bible, 
 the Book of Common Prayer, Newton's Jlilton, and Congreve's 
 works, are still prized for their beautiful typography. — J. E. 
 
 BAS;\IAISON, PouGNET Jean de, a French lawyer, bom 
 at Riom in the sixteenth century. He enjoyed much considera- 
 tion, and was twice deputed to wait on Heniy III., relative to the 
 affairs of his province. He is the author of some legal tracts. 
 
 BASNAGE, the name of a distinguished protestant family of 
 France of high social rank, and which produced many men of 
 eminence as scholars, lawyers, and divines : — 
 
 Basnage, Benjamin, was born at Cliarenton in Normandj' 
 in 1580. His father had been a refugee in England ; had 
 preached for some years in Nonvich ; and at the time of bis 
 son's bhth was minister at Charenton. Benjamin succeeded 
 him in this charge, which he continued to fill for the long period 
 of fifty-one years ; during the whole of which time he took an 
 active part in the public business of the protestant church 
 of P'rance. He was the author of a valuable work, entitled 
 " Traite de I'Eghse." He died in 1652. 
 
 Basnage, Antoine, eldest son of Benjamin, was bom in 
 1610, and became pastor of Bayeux. He suffered imprisonment 
 for some time at Havre de Grace, after the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes, and at length escaped to Holland, where he 
 died in 1091, as pastor in Zutphen. 
 
 Basnage de Flottemanville, Samuel, son of Antoine, 
 was born at Bayeux in 1638, and was educated, as so many of 
 his ancestors had been, for the Huguenot ministiy. He accom- 
 panied his father in Ids flight to Holland, and succeeded him in 
 his charge at Zutphen, where he die 1 in 1721. He distinguished 
 himself by his learning, and by the acutencss of his critical 
 researches in the history of the church. He wrote an important 
 work, " De Rebus Sacris et Ecclesiasticis Exercitationes His- 
 torico-criticx," Traject. 1092, in which he pointed out many 
 errors in the Annales of Baronius. Another of his works was 
 entitled " Aunales Politico-ecclesiastici annorum DCXLV a 
 
 Ca3sare Augusto usque ad Phocam," Roterod., 1706, embracing 
 similar corrections of Baronius. These works were not merely 
 polemical ; they had a positive value which is still recognized. 
 He wrote, also, an ethical treatise, " Morale Thcologique et 
 Politique sur les Vertus et les Vices de I'Humme," 1703. 
 
 Basnage du Fiiaquenay, Henki, a younger son of Ben- 
 jamin, was born at St. JIare in Lower Normandy in 1615, and 
 rose to he one of the most eminent lawyers in France. He was 
 admitted an advocate of the parliament of Normandy in 1636, 
 and was engaged in almost eveiy important cause. After 
 honourably maintaining his position in the midst of the perse- 
 cution which di-ove so many of his fandly from France, he died, 
 20th October, 1695. His complete works were republished at 
 Rouen in 1709, and again in 1776. 
 
 Basnage de Beauval, Jacques, the most eminent writer 
 of his family, was the oldest son of Hemi, and was born at 
 Rouen, 8th August, 1653. Destined for the protestant minis- 
 tiy, he studied at Saumur, Geneva, and Sedan, and succeeded 
 Stephen le Moine as pastor in Rouen, in his twenty-third year. 
 He devoted his subsequent studies chiefly to ecclesiastical Ids- 
 tory. In 1685 he fled to Holland, where he became pastor of 
 the Walloon church of Rotterdam. In 1709 he accepted a 
 similar charge at the Hague, where he lived on intimate terms 
 of friendship with the grand pensionary Heinsius, Bayle, and 
 many other distinginshed statesmen and scholars. His character 
 stood so high, even with his enemies, that he was employed by 
 the French court to negotiate an alliance with Holland in 1717; 
 and for his valuable services on this occasion, he was rewarded 
 with the restoration of all his Ibrfeited property in France. He 
 died December 22, 1723. His great merits as a church historian 
 are acknowledged even by Roman catholic writers. His princi- 
 pal works were " Histoire de la Rehgion des Eglises Reformces," 
 intended as an answer to Bossaet's Histoire des Variations, 
 &c. ; " Histoire de I'Eglise depuis Jesus Christ jusqu'5, present," 
 Rotter., 1099, 2 vols, folio, including the earlier work before 
 mentioned ; " Histoire de la Religion des Juifs depuis J. X. 
 jusqu'a present pour senir de Continuatiovi a I'Histoire de 
 Joseph," Rotter., 1707 ; " Antiquites Judaiques, ou Remarques 
 Critiques sur la Republique des Hebreux," 2 vols. 8vo, 1713. 
 
 Basnage, Henui de Beauval, brother of Jacques, was 
 born at Rouen in 1056, and followed his father's profession of 
 the law. He became an advocate in the parliament of Rouen, 
 and fled in 1687 to Holland, where he died at the Hague in 
 1710. He wrote a work entitled "Tolerance des Religions," 
 which appeared in 1684. He also edited a journal which was 
 intended as a continuation of Bayle's Nouvelles de la Republique 
 des Lettres. It was entitled " Histoire des Ouvrages des Sa- 
 vants." — P. L. 
 
 BASQUE, Michael le, a celebrated captain ot buccaneers, 
 who, at the head of six hundred men, took possession of the 
 towns of Maracaibo and Gibraltar in the Gulf of Venezuela. 
 Their booty was estimated at 400,000 crowns. 
 
 BASS or BASSIUS, Henry, a Gennan physician, bora at 
 Bremen, 1690 ; died in 1754. In 1713 he went to Halle, where 
 he studied under the celebrated Hofirnan. lu 1715 he went to 
 Strasburg, and two years afterwards to Bale, where he studied 
 particularly anatomy and surgery. Takuig his degi-ee at Halle, 
 he was nominated, sometime after, extraordinary-professor of 
 anatomy and surgery, a position that he filled till bis death. He 
 has written, " Disputatio de Fistula ani feliciter Curanda," Halle, 
 1718. ]\Iacquart translated it into French ; Paris, 1759, 12mo. 
 The author compares in it the methods adopted by the ancients 
 with those in use at the present time, and seems to have found 
 great uniformity between them. " Obserwitiones Anatomico- 
 Chrurgico-MedicaB," Halle, 1731, 8vo : in this work the author 
 has given several good figures and descriptions of various instru- i , 
 ments of his own invention. " Tractatus de Jlorbis V^enereis,'' 
 Leipzig, 1764, 8vo. He has also written in German some com- i 
 mentaries on the surgery of Nuck, which was printed at Halle in 
 1728, 8vo.— E. L. 
 
 BASS, Edwakd, an American theologian, first bishop of 
 ^Massachusetts, was born at Dorchester in 1726, and died in 
 1803. He enjoyed considerable celebrity as a canonist. 
 
 BASS, Gkouge, the discoverer, whose name has been given 
 to the strait which separates Van Dicmen's land from Australia. 
 He was a surgeon in the English navy, and went to New South 
 Wales, in company with the celebrated Flinders, seven years 
 after the colony was founded. Having in the two previous years
 
 BAS 
 
 409 
 
 BAS 
 
 made several survepng voyages along the coast southward, Bass 
 was in 1797 sent out on a voyage of discover}-, in a little whale 
 boat, with only six of a crew. Though provisioned for only six 
 weeks, he persevered in his expedition for eleven, and having 
 sailed 600 miles, returned to Port Jackson with the news that 
 Van Diemen's land was not part of New HoUand, but a separate 
 island. The discovery was confirmed in 1798, when Bass and 
 Flinders made a voyage in company. — J. B. 
 
 BASSAL, Jean, born at Beziers in 1752, was early distin- 
 gnished among the revolutionists of Paris, became ciure constitu- 
 tionnel of St. Louis at Versailles in 1790, and afterwards a mem- 
 ber of the legislative assembly. In the convention he voted for 
 the death of the Mng, and was made secretary to the assembly 
 in 179-1. In the same year, having been intnisted with a com- 
 mission to suppress an insurrection in Jiu-a, he fell under the sus- 
 pidoa of the Jacobins, but justified himself before their tribunal, 
 and was elected president of the societj'. He was afterwards 
 sent into Switzerland as a spy on the proceedings of Barthelemy, 
 and on his return to Paris became secretary to General Cham- 
 pionet. Died in 1802.— J. S., G. 
 
 BASSAND, Jean Baptiste, a physician, bom in 1680 at 
 Baume-les-Dames, a little town in Franche-Comte. He died at 
 Vienna, Nov. 30, 1742. He studied medicine at Le_vden under 
 the celebrated Bcerhaave, with whom he formed a great friend- 
 ship. He was appointed military surgeon in the service of 
 Austria, and travelled over a great part of Germany, Italy, 
 Hungary, and sent to Bcerhaave — vdth whom he kept up a cor- 
 respondence — a great many minerals and plants. The con'e- 
 spondence of B(£rhaave \vith Bassand was published at Vienna 
 in 1778, 8vo, from amongst the autographs preserved in the 
 library of that city. — E. L. 
 
 BASSAXI, Giovanni Battista, a musician, was bom at 
 Bologna about 1657, and died at that city in 1705. He was 
 a pupil of Carissimi, and the master of Corelli, in whose 
 music the influence of his style is manifest. He taught this 
 famous artist the violin, on which instrument he was a celebrated 
 performer. He wrote six operas, and tliirty-one other works, 
 among which were several masses, and many pieces for his 
 instniment. He was one of the first who wrote motets for a 
 solo voice, with violin accompaniment, and many of liis composi- 
 tions of this class became extremely popular; one set in particular, 
 his Op. 8, was in great vogue in England wlien Hawkins wrote in 
 1776. He was maestro di capella of the cathedral of Bologna, 
 and held a similar appointment at Fen-ara, where he was elected 
 member of the Accademia della Morte. — G. A. M. 
 
 BASSANO, the surname of several celebrated painters of the 
 Venetian school, whose family name was Da Ponte. The first 
 •A' them was : — 
 
 Fkancesco da Ponte, bom at Vicenza in 1475, sbadied at 
 Venice, worked at Milan and at Bassano, where he ultimately 
 established himself; whence the surname. His imitation of the 
 lii.-Uinis, especially of Giovanni, dming the earliest part of his 
 ireer, induced the belief that he was one of their pupils, yet no 
 ■isitive evidence exists that this was ever the case. The "St. 
 Bartholomew" he painted for the cathedral of Bassano is the best 
 specimen of this early manner. It is impressed with much of the 
 dryness of the Germanic school, but it is admirable for design 
 and finish. His style, however, soon underwent a wholesome 
 modification, and became more and more mellow and free. Of 
 this period the frescos he executed in ]\Iilan, although faulty as 
 regards shading, are a fair example. Died at Bassano, 1530. 
 
 Jacopo da Ponte, his son and pupil, born at Bassano in 
 1510, and commonly called Bassano the Elder, was the 
 member of this gifted family that brought its fame to the highest 
 climax. After having received the first artistical education from 
 his father, he was sent to Venice to improve himself under the 
 guidance of Bonifazio Veneziano. The peculiar habit of secre- 
 tiveness of this artist, whilst at work, tried the ingenuity and 
 patience of young Bassano very hard, but did not discourage him. 
 Partly by making holes in the door of his master's studio, and 
 peeping through them ; partly having recourse to the easier and 
 freer contemplation and copying of Titian's masteri)ieces ; and 
 lastly, from the fortunateopportunity of examining, studying, and 
 copying Parmegiano's drawings, Jacopo, rich by his own nature 
 m artistical elements, succeeded in forming for himself a style, 
 which, though nearly akin to those of Titian, Bonifazio, and Tin- 
 toretto, bore always a peculiar and graceful stamp of his own 
 individuality, most easily recognizable. This became still more 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 evident when he, on the death of his father, was obliged to 
 return and establish himself in his native place. It was there, 
 at Bassano, from the beautiful spot he inhabited, overlooking the 
 picturesque valley of the Brcnta, rich in luxuriant meadows, 
 spotted with peasants and cattle, bathed in a sea of sunlight, 
 that he had full opportunity of studying nature, especially rustic 
 nature, such as he, in his idiosyncrasy, preferred to all artificial 
 display. From that time, neglecting the more pretentious 
 branches of historical and portrait painting, in which he had 
 shown himself equal to any of the best painters of the Venetian 
 school of that period, he limited himself almost entu-ely to the 
 reproduction of humble rural scenery, enlivened by figures and 
 cattle, often made to illustrate scriptural subjects. In these 
 Bassano displayed so much truth, so much graceful simplicity, 
 combined with such a mar\-ellous richness of colour and light, that 
 he must be acknowledged to stand quite unique and unparalleled 
 in it. One of the characteristics of his manner b the skilful 
 blending of the local colours, brightened up by the boldness 
 and fiveliness of the final superposed touches. The heads of liis 
 figures, although not exhibiting any classical beauty or dignity, 
 have a chai-m quite peculiar to this artist ; they were generally 
 taken fi'em his own numerous cliildren, whom he caused to sit 
 in groups, out in the open air, and amidst the scenery he wanted 
 to portray. And this, as well as all other features of his works, 
 speaks of the homely, patriarchal life that the good-humoured 
 painter used to lead. 
 
 The fame of his pictures became a household uotion far and 
 wide, and people used to flock to Bassano, as to a market, to 
 purchase the familiar subjects of the jo^■ial pauiter, who seemed 
 inexhaustible in his wondeiful productions. Amongst his histo- 
 rical masterpieces are now reckoned best the " Entombing of 
 Christ," and the "Nativity;"' amongst the portraits, that of 
 Ariosto and Tasso ; but above all, his own, surrounded by the 
 whole of his family ; but the superior specimens of the familial- 
 style defy enumeration. This country alone possesses at least 
 thirty-two of them, mostly in private collections. 
 
 Not a word of strife or envy pollutes the history of the life of 
 Jacopo. Adored by his family, he was equally dear to all his 
 friends and rivals, of whose high appreciation of him no better 
 instance can be given than that of Paul Veronese intrusting 
 hun with the artistical education of his son, Carletto. His 
 active and peaceful life was closed in 1592, while on a visit at 
 Venice, when he was eighty-two years of age. 
 
 Four of his sons followed the paternal career : — 
 
 Francesco, born in Bassano in 1548, was distinguished for 
 inventive powers, as clearly shown in his historical subjects exe- 
 cuted at Venice, in which he vied not unsuccessfully with Tinto- 
 retto and Paul Veronese. His works, like those of his father, 
 were justly sought for ; and besides a gi-eat number for churches 
 and palaces in the country, many were ordered for exportation. 
 He would have reached even a gi-eater fame had he not been 
 afflicted by a strange melancholy and monomania that made him 
 believe he was constantly followed and dogged by the archere of 
 the secret tribunal. One day that this hallucination seized him, 
 he threw himself out of a window, and was killed on the spot, 
 being only forty-three years of age. 
 
 Giovanni Battista, also bom at Bassano in 1553 ; died in the 
 same place in 1613. He hmited himself entirely to reproducing 
 the works of the father and of the younger brother, Leandro. 
 
 Leandro, the cavalier, lived almost constantly at Venice, and 
 excelled in portraits, and but for an evident tendency to manner- 
 ism, would have come nearer to his father in style and proficiency 
 than any of his brothers. Knighted by the Doge Griinani, and 
 appointed court-paiuter by Rudolph II. of Germany, he made 
 a most brilfiant career, surrounded with wealth and honours. He 
 was passionately fond of music, and given to pomp and ostenta- 
 tion in the manner of his life. Although affected by a similar 
 melancholy as his brother Francesco, by dint of activity and dis- 
 ti-actions he overcame it, so as to attain sixty-five years of age. 
 Died in 1623. 
 
 GiKOLAJio, Jacopo's youngest son, was bom 1568; died 1622; 
 followed painting with less energy, but often with more graca 
 than his brothers. His style almost always recalls that of Le- 
 andro. He frequently assisted Giovanni Battista in his copies, 
 thus promoting the extraordinary dissemination of the works of 
 the Bassanos tln-ou<;hout the world. — R. M. 
 
 BASSANO, Di-c i»e. See Maket. 
 
 BASSANTIN, Jajies, a Scotch asti-onomer of the sixteenth 
 
 3 F
 
 BAS 
 
 410 
 
 BAS 
 
 centuiy, son of the laird of Bassantin, in the !Merse, was born about 
 tlie year 1504, and died in 1508. Educated at the university 
 of Glasgow, where he particularly devoted himself to the study of 
 mathematics, he afterwards taught that science and practised 
 judicial astronomy at Paris, with a success which brought him 
 fortune as well as fame. On his return to Scotland in 15G2 he 
 had an interview with Sir Robert Melville, to whom, by the help 
 of the " high sciences," he is said to have predicted the impossi- 
 bility of reconciling Elizabeth and Mary, and other matters of 
 equal importance. His works were collected and published at 
 Geneva in 1599.— J. S., G. 
 
 BASSE, William, a poet, principally known at the present 
 time by his " Epitaph on Shakspearc," first printed in 1633 in the 
 first edition of Dr. Donne's poems. The " Sword and Buckler," 
 1G02, has been ascribed to him. A poem on the death of Prince 
 Hemy, son of James I., entitled " Great Brittaines Sunnes-set, 
 bewailed with a Shower of Teares," was printed with his name 
 at O.xford in 1613. He was also the author of a MS. collection 
 of poems, entitled " Polyhymnia." According to Anthony Wood 
 he was of i\Ioreton, near Thame in Oxfordshire, and was a re- 
 tainer of Lord Wenman of Thame Park. He was living in 1651, 
 and was then an aged man ; but neither the time of his birth 
 nor death is known. There was another poet of the same name, 
 supposed to have been his son, who was admitted a sizar of 
 Emanuel college, Cambridge, in 1629, A.B. 1632, A.M. 1636. 
 Some of his pieces are among the MSS. in the public library, 
 Cambridge. Isaac Walton speaks of William Basse, as one that 
 hath made the choice songs of " The Hunter in his Career," and 
 of " Tom of Bedlam," and many others of note. It is uncertain 
 to which of the two these are to be ascribed. — T. F. 
 
 BASSEE, BoNAVENTURE DE LA, a capuchin, better known 
 under the name of Louis le Pippre. He was born towards 
 the close of the sixteenth century. Author of a work entitled 
 " Parochianus Obediens," &c., which was the source of much 
 controversy, the details of which are necessary to the under- 
 standing of the fifteenth of Pascal's Provincial Letters. 
 
 BASSELIN, Olivier, a popular poet, born in the Val de 
 Vire in Normandy, the time of whose birth is not stated, but 
 whose death is said to have taken place about 1418. That 
 which attaches most interest to his name is its connection with 
 the origin of that peculiarly French entertainment called the 
 Vaudeville, to account for the origin of which name, has taxed 
 the ingenuity of many inquirers. Basselin, who kept a mill for 
 cloth-dressing, seems to have been a jovial genius, who composed 
 bacchanalian songs and glees for his neighbours, which got the 
 name of " Vaux de viles," subsequently transferred, as is sup- 
 posed, to those little light dramatic pieces which, interspersed 
 with pleasant melodies to popular airs, are called ''Vans de 
 vile." Basselin's songs were not collected until 1610, many 
 years after his death, and only reprinted in 1833. — J. F. C. 
 
 BASSEN, Bartholomew van, a Dutch artist, flouiished 
 about the middle of the seventeenth century in London, where he 
 enjoyed a considerable reputation. He painted portraits (of 
 which those of Charles I. and his qneen, and of the king and 
 queen of Bohemia at Kensington, are fair specimens), as well as 
 interiors and fiimiliar subjects. He also carved in ivory and 
 wood. — R. M. 
 
 BASSENGE, Jean Nicolas, a Belgian poet, born at Liege 
 in 1758; died in 1811. He took part in the revolt of the 
 people of Liege in 1789. 
 
 * BASSERMANN, Frederick Daniel, a German publicist 
 and politician, was born at Manheim in 1811. He was at first 
 engaged in commercial pursuits, but at leisure hours devoted 
 himself to the study of mathematics, physics, and history. He 
 became afterwards a student at the university of Heidelberg. 
 His first appearance in public life was in 1837, when he was 
 elected by the people of Manheim to represent that town in the 
 local administration. He justified their choice by contributing 
 to various internal ameliorations ; and having secured the con- 
 fidence of his fellow- citizens, he was soon after called to sit in 
 the elective chamber of Baden. Here he joined the party op- 
 posed to government, and by his zeal and talents became one of 
 its most influential members. In 1848 he became under-secre- 
 tary to the minister of the empire. His political career was cut 
 short in 1849 by an attack of nervous disease, which disabled 
 him from attention to public business. — G. M. 
 
 BASSETTI, THE Cavameu JIakco Antonio, an Italian 
 p.iinter, born at Verona in 1588, was first pupil of Felice Ricci 
 
 (il Brusasorci) in his native place ; then proceeded to Venice, 
 where he studied under Tintoretto and Titian ; and ultimately to 
 Rome, where he remained a long time. He thus acquired a good 
 fame, and particularly distinguished himself for breadth of style 
 and vigour of colour, almost vicing with that of his master, Tinto- 
 retto. Died in 1630, at Verona, of the plagvie, caught by hini 
 whilst attending other ^-ictims of that epidemic. — R. M. 
 
 BASSEVILLE, Nicholas John de, one of the more 
 advanced republicans of the Reign of TeiTor, was appointed secre- 
 tary of legation at Naples, and would probably have been little 
 known only for the manner of his death. Being at Rome on 
 the 13th January, 1793, he was attacked by a furious mob, v/ho 
 pelted him with stones, from the effect of which, with a razor- 
 cut, he died in a few hours. The convention ordered that full 
 satisfaction should be rendered,, and adopted the man's son in 
 the name of the Republic. Basseville has left some memoirs 
 of the Revolution. — J. F. C. 
 
 BASSEWITZ, Henry I'redekick, a Russian historian, born 
 in 1680 ; died in 1749. He was president of the privy council 
 of the duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and ambassador to the court 
 of Peter the Great. During his residence in Russia, he wrote 
 "Historical Memoirs'' of that country from 1713 to 1725. 
 
 BASSI, Ferdinand, an Italian naturalist, bom at Bologna, 
 and died 9th May, 1774. He was an extensive traveller, and 
 made collections of plants. He read several memoirs to the 
 Institute of Bologna. In one of these he gives an account of 
 the Flora of the Appenines. He established the genus Ambro- 
 sinia, and published a description of it. His name was preserved 
 by Linnffius in the genus Bassia, one of the Sapotacese. — J. H. B. 
 BASSI, Francesco, the Elder, an Italian landscape painter, 
 born at Cremona, 1642 ; died 1700. He established himself at 
 Venice, where he was nicknamed the " Cremonese of the Land- 
 scapes" (Dai Paesi). His pictures present a great variety, and 
 are remarkable for the warm hue of the skies, the firmness of 
 the touch, and the grace of the highly careful execution. — R. M. 
 * BASSI, Giovanni Battista, one of the most distinguished 
 Italian landscape painters of the day, a native of Bologna, and 
 working at Rome. — R. M. 
 
 BASSI, Giovanni Maria, a Bolognese sculptor at the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century, a pupil of Gabriele Brunelli. 
 BASSI, Lauka-Maria-Cathekine, a learned Italian lady, 
 born at Bologna in 1711 ; died in 1778. At the age of twenty- 
 one she publicly maintained a philosophic thesis before the 
 cardinals, Lambertini and Grimaldi, and received the degree of 
 doctor. She was extensively acquainted with Greek, Latin, 
 French, and Italian literature, nor was she less remarkable for 
 amiability and benevolence of character. 
 
 BASSI, Ugo, a Bamabite monk, born at Cento in the Roman 
 states m 1804, of an Itahan father and Greek mother. He 
 was much distinguished among the brethren for his extraordinary 
 learning and talents ; while the purity of his life, the goodness of 
 his heart, and his eloquence as a preacher, made him the idol of 
 the people. The liberality of his political opinions, however, and 
 the boldness of his semions rendered him obnoxious to the court 
 of Rome, and he was sent into a sort of exile in Sicily, from 
 which he only returned on the accession of Pius IX. in 1846. 
 On the breaking out of the Lombard revolution in 1848, bodies 
 of volunteers hastened from Rome to aid their fellow-countiymen 
 in the struggle against the Austrians. Ugo Bassi was among 
 the first who went to Treviso, where he greatly distinguished 
 himself by his valour in battle, and his untiring ser\dces in 
 the hospitals. On the capitulation of Treviso, Bassi went to 
 Venice, where he fought in the ranks against her Austrian be- 
 siegers. From Venice he went to Rome, and joined the legion of 
 General Garibaldi in the capacity of chaplain, but mingled in every 
 engagement, and inspired even that intrepid band with givatcr 
 ardour, by his fiery enthusiasm in battle, and the tender and 
 womanly devotion with which he tended the wounded and dying. 
 On the fall of Rome, Ugo Bassi was one of those who followed 
 General Garibaldi when he made a last attempt to fight his way 
 to Venice, which still held out against the Austrians. The little 
 band was, however, dispersed and cut up by Austrian troops, and 
 General Garibaldi himself escaped with great difficulty. Bassi 
 was taken prisoner, carried to Bologna, and condenmed to death. 
 The ecclesiastical authorities of Bologna, far from opposing the 
 sentence, merely stipulated, with refined cruelty, that previous 
 to the execution of the sentence, the crown of his head and the 
 inside of his hands, on which the oil of consecration had been
 
 BAS 
 
 411 
 
 BAS 
 
 poured on the occasion of his taking orders, should be flayed. 
 This barbarous order was accordingly executed in the chapel of 
 the prison in such a manner as to cover the victim with blood. 
 On the 18th of August, 1849, a little before dawn, Ugo Bassi 
 was taken to a deserted field adjoining the cemetery of Bologna 
 to be shot. He was pale, but firm ; and while the soldiers were 
 taking aim, he said, " I die innocent — I die for liberty, — I for- 
 give my murderers. Viva Jesu ! viva Maria! viva" — but the 
 word Italia was lost, stifled by the bullets of the Croats. The 
 mother of Ugo Bassi heard the fate of her son without a tear. 
 Three times she repeated his name, and expired. Ugo Bassi 
 was the author of a work on " The Church after the Image of 
 Christ," and an unfinished poem called " Constantine, or the 
 Triumph of the Cross." His talents were universal. He was 
 an accomplished musician and composer. He wrote his own 
 language in remarkable perfection, and was a perfect master of 
 Latin, Greek, English, and French. He was remarkable for his 
 personal beauty and his eloquence as an improvisatore ; while his 
 memory was so prodigious, that he is said to have been capable of 
 reciting the whole of the Divina Commedia of Dante. — E. A. H. 
 
 BASSIANO, Ulysses, an Italian poet, born at Bologna, lived 
 at Rome about 1549. Several of his poems are to be foimd in 
 the rare work of Ubaldini. 
 
 BASSO, Antonio, a Neapolitan lawyer and poet, acted a 
 prominent part in the revolution of 1647. He was author of 
 some poetical works. 
 
 BASSOL, John, a distinguished Scottish schoolman, author 
 of a work entitled " Commentaria seu Lecturaj in Quatnor Libiis 
 Sententiarum," was born in the reign of Alexander III. He 
 studied under the famous Duns Scotus, at Oxford, and removed 
 mth him in 1304 to Paris, where he resided some time in the 
 university. In 1313 he entered the order of the Minorites, and 
 was sent to Rheims, where he studied medicine, and for several 
 years taught philosophy. In 1322 he took up his residence in 
 Mechlin, and spent the remainder of his life there, teaching 
 theology. He died in 1347. Bassol was so famous for the order 
 and method displayed in his prelections, that he was styled 
 '' Doctor Ordinatissimus," or the most Methodical Doctor. He was 
 so much admired by his illustrious preceptor. Duns Scotus, that 
 he used to say, " If only Joannes Bassiolis be present I have a 
 sufficient auditory." — J. T. 
 
 BASSOMPIERRE, Fran(;'ois de, marshal of France, bom in 
 Lorraine, 1579. Having distinguished himself by brilliant mili- 
 tary services under Henry IV. and Louis XIII., he was thrown 
 by Cardinal Richelieu into the Bastile, where he remained a 
 ]irisoner during the twelve years that his great but vindictive 
 .iilversary lived. His lonely imprisonment was relieved by the 
 writing of his " Memoires," that ordinary solace of French public 
 characters, who, when obliged from any cause to retire from the 
 scenes of active life, turn their past career into a histoiy of 
 moving adventures, of which the author is the hero. If Bassom- 
 pierre describes himself as the most fortunate lover, the gayest 
 and most brilliant courtier, the wisest and wittiest of statesmen, 
 •md the finest general, as well as the finest man of his time, he 
 does no more than give vent to his irrepressible animal spirits, 
 in the same way that has made French memoirs of all times 
 most agreeable, and, so far as they illustrate manners, not unin- 
 structive reading. His allusions to his own high qualities are 
 in a considerable degree supported by the fact, that the coura- 
 i;eous and unscnjpulous minister, who had determined to bend 
 the factious nobility to the court, thought Bassompierre impor- 
 tant enough to be deprived of liberty. He died in 1646, having 
 survived his persecutor only three years. — J. F. C. 
 
 BASSOT, Jacques, an apocryphal author in the commence- 
 ment of the seventeenth century. The name is remarkable on 
 account of its having figured on the title-page of a jiamphlct 
 entitled " The true History of the Giant Teutobochus, King of the 
 Teutoni, defeated by Marius, and buried at the Chateau Chau- 
 mont." The real author of this history was Pierre Masuyer. 
 
 BASSUS, CNEius-AuFinius- Orestes, a Roman orator and 
 historian in the middle of the first century. He wrote a histoiy 
 of the wars of the Romans in Germany, and also a general history 
 of Rome, which was continued in thirty-one books by the elder 
 Pliny. 
 
 BASSUS, LoLLirs, a Greek poet, born at Smyrna, who lived 
 m the beginning of the first century, author of ten epigrams in 
 the Greek anthology, and a poem on the death of Germanicus. 
 
 BASSUS. Lucinus, commander of the fleets of Ravenna 
 
 and Messina under Vitellius, about the year 69. He succeeded 
 Cerealis Vitalianus in the government of Judea, and suppressed 
 the rebellion of the Jews, which continued after the taking of 
 Jerusalem. He was succeeded by Flavins Sylvius. 
 
 BASSUS, PoMroNius, a Roman consul under Severus, in the 
 year 211. He was, under a frivolous pretext, condemned to 
 death by the senate, at the instigation of the Emperor Helio- 
 gabalus, who had become enamoured of his wife, and afterwards 
 married her. — G. M. 
 
 BASSUS, Saleius, a Roman epic poet, lived in the time 
 of Vespasian, who made him a present of five himdred thousand 
 sesterces. Quintilian praises his poetic talent. 
 
 BAST, Lievin-Ajmand-Marie de, born at Ghent hi 1787 ; 
 died in 1832. He was conservator of the cabinet of medals at 
 Ghent, and secretaiy of the college of cm-ators. 
 
 BAST, Martin Jean de, a French theologian and antiqua- 
 rian ; born at Gand in 1753 ; died in 1825. He took an active 
 part in the Brabantian revolution of 1789, and subsequently 
 distinguished himself as a member of the Flemish confederation 
 by his opposition to Austria ; but after the invasion of his native 
 district by the French, he renounced politics, and devoted him- 
 self to antiquarian studies, especially numismatics. His principal 
 work is entitled '' Recueil d'Antiqnites Romaines et Gauloises trou- 
 vt es dans la Fhmdre proprement dhe," &c., 1804. Died in 1825. 
 
 BASTARD, T., or BATARD, a French botanist, who lived 
 at the beginning of the nineteenth century. He was professor 
 of botany, and director of the garden of plants at Angers, and 
 published an essay on the Flora of the departments of the Maine 
 and Loire, and a notice of the plants in the garden at Angers. 
 
 BASTARD D'ESTANG, Dojiinique Francois Marie, 
 count de, peer of France, president of the chamber to the court 
 of cassation, grand cross of the legion of honour, born at Noga- 
 rogers, 31st October, 1783; died at Paris, 23d January, 1844. 
 He adopted the legal profession, and early distinguished himself 
 at the bar by his uncommon sagacity. In 1810 he was coun- 
 sellor of the imperial court of Paris, and in 1815, after the 
 second return of Louis XVII I., was named first president of the 
 royal court of Lyons. In 1819 he was recalled to Paris, and was 
 nominated a member of the chamber of peers. He was emi- 
 nently distinguished by his prudence and sound judgment. — G. M. 
 
 BASTARO, Giuseppe del, a Roman fresco painter, flour- 
 ishing about 1610, whose works at the Minerva at Rome rank 
 him amongst the distinguished artists of that time. — R. M. 
 
 BASTE, Pierre, a French admiral, bom at Bourdeaux, 21st 
 November, 1768; died 29th January, 1814. He entered the 
 navy in 1781, as a common mariner, and rose rapidly through 
 all the superior grades. He distinguished himself at the sieges 
 of Mantua and of Malta, at the battle of Aboukir, and in the 
 expedition to San Domingo. Towards the close of his life, he 
 was employed in the land service by Napoleon. He died of a 
 wound which he received at the battle of Brienne. — G. M. 
 
 BASTER, Job, a Dutch botanist, was born in 1711, and 
 died in 1775. He devoted himself to the study of natural his- 
 tory, and particularly to botany. He graduated at Leyden as 
 physician in 1731. He published a work on some sea-plants 
 and animalcules, and several memoirs in the Transactions of the 
 Dutch academies. A genus, Basteria, is named after him. 
 
 BASTHOLM, Christian, a celebrated Danish ecclesiastic, 
 born at Copenhagen in 1740; died in 1819. He obtained a 
 prize at the university of Copenhagen for an essay, and wrote 
 several works of a religious character. 
 
 BASTIAT, Frederic, a French writer on political economy, 
 one of the leaders of the agitation for free trade, which echoed in 
 France the more energetic movement conducted by Cobden in 
 this country, was born at Bayonne in 1801, and died at Rome in 
 1850. After a visit to England in 1815, he published a transla- 
 tion of some of the speeches of the free traders, with an introduc- 
 tory account of " Cobden et la Ligue." Shortly afterwards, 
 having removed from Mugron to Paris, he became secretary of 
 the society, and editor of the journal founded for the propagation 
 of free trade doctrines. In 1848-49 he was successively member 
 of the constituent and the legislative assemblies. His principal 
 work is entitled " Harmonies Eeonomiques." — J. S., G. 
 
 BASTIDE, Jean-Baptiste de, bom at Berlin aliout 1747; 
 died in 1810. He bequeathed his manuscripts to the imperial 
 library at Paris. He was author of several grammatical and 
 philosophical dissertations. 
 
 BASTIDE, Jean Fran^-ois de, a French litterateur, born
 
 at Marseilles in 1724; died in 1798. Among his works may be 
 mentioned " Confessions of a Coxcomb," " Adventures of Vic- 
 toire I'onty;" besides comedies, and historical tracts. His 
 works have been severely criticised by Voltaire and others. 
 
 * BASTIDE, Jules, a Uving French republican of some note, 
 was bom at Paris on the 21st November, 1800. Distinguishing 
 liimself at the college Henri Quatre, and with a strong bias 
 towards the profession of arms, he would, in the natural course 
 of things, have entered the Ecole Polytcchnique. But his mother, 
 like the late General Cavaignac's, was a lady of stanch repub- 
 lican principles, and a parental veto prevented Bastide from en- 
 tering the army of the Restoration. He then qualified himself 
 for the bar; but having been compromised when a youth of 
 nineteen, in an anti-Bourbon emeute, he deserted the profession 
 of the law, and joined his friend Charles Thomas, with whom he 
 was aftenvards connected in literature and politics, as a timber 
 merchant! In the affair of 1820 he had been wounded and 
 imprisoned — calamities which but served to increase his republi- 
 can ardour, despite, too, the pacific and purely commercial nature 
 of his new pursuits. In 1821 he became a carhoiiaro ; and 
 up to the revolution of 1830 he was one of the most active 
 members of the " advanced" party, which never ceased conspir- 
 ing against the government of the Restoration. Bastide fought 
 in the streets of Paris during the " three days," and helped to 
 plant the tricolor on the Tuileries. Disgusted, like most of the 
 ardent republicans of his party, at the restoration of royalty in 
 the person of Louis Philippe, Bastide did not pause in his revolu- 
 tionary career. He was elected successively captain and chef 
 (Tesaidron of the artillery of the national guard; and in this 
 capacity he acted boldly against the " throne of the barricades." 
 He was concerned in the emeute of December, 1830. At the be- 
 ginning of 1832 he was busily engaged in fomenting the distur- 
 bances planned at Lyons and Grenoble ; and when an emeute 
 broke out at the latter place, it is on record that, with singular 
 audacity, Bastide and a solitary artilleryman took formal posses- 
 sion of its garrisoned citadel, and exercised for several days a 
 usurped authority ! Released, after ti-ial for participation in this 
 affair, he was one of the leaders in the formidable emeute which 
 broke out in Paris the following June, on the occasion of the 
 obsequies of General Lamarque, and which very nearly proved 
 fatal to the government of July. Imprisoned in consequence, he 
 escaped before trial, and sought an asylum in England, return- 
 ing to France in 1834, under shelter of a pardon. He now, 
 with his old friend Thomas, co-operated in the management 
 of the democratic National; and after the death of Ai-mand 
 Carrel in a duel with M. Emile de Girardin (July, 183G), 
 was appointed by the shareholders its editor-in-chief. Bastide's 
 style, however, wanted the nerve of Carrel's, and he was led 
 to invite the assistance of the fiery Amiand Man-ast (after- 
 wards president of the National Assembly of 1848), whose 
 violence raised the reputation of the journal, but by degi-ecs 
 estranged Bastide himself, gi-owing more moderate with years 
 and experience. In 1846, Bastide, accordingly, quitted the Na- 
 tionnl, partly, it is said, indignant at the anti-religious tone of 
 his associates ; and next year he founded, in the company of M. 
 Buchez, the Revue Kationale, in which hostility to the existing 
 regime w.as blended with a religious and humanitarian sentiment. 
 When the revolution of Feb. 1848 arrived, Bastide's old services 
 and consistent rcpubhcanism, as well as his unblemished character 
 and literar)' reputation, recommended him for employment to the 
 higher chiefs of the nev/ republic. His contributions to political 
 literature had been specially noted for the knowledge of foreign 
 affairs which they displayed. First employed imder Lamartine 
 as secretaire- general of the department, he was advanced by 
 General Cavaignac to the ministry of foreign affairs — a post, 
 under the peculiar circumstances of France at that time, re- 
 (piiring great tact and temper in its occupant. In this trying 
 position M. Bastide comported himself in a manner which has 
 drawn a high eulogium from the marquis of Normanby, our then 
 ambassador at Paris. On the fall of General Cavaignac (20th Dec, 
 1 848), Bastide, with the other members of the administration, was 
 dismissed from office, and has since lived in retirement. By his 
 more noisy colleagues in the assembly, Bastide was often reproached 
 for his " talent of silence," one very useful, however, in his peculiar 
 position, and which since his withdrawal from public affairs, he has 
 continued to display. — (Meyer: Grosses Conversations-Lexicon; 
 Louis Blanc : Ilistoire de dix ans ; the Martjuis of Normanby : A 
 Year of Revolution, London, 1857, &c. &c.) — F. E. 
 
 BASTIDE, Mauc-Antoine de la, a French diplomatist, 
 born at j\Iilhaud, in Ronergu?, about 1624; died in 1704. He 
 came when very young to Paris, where he was placed under the 
 protection of the celebrated financier, Fouquet. In 1672 he 
 went to England as secretai-y of the embassy, and resided in 
 London about seven years. He was subsequently intrusted with 
 other diplomatic missions to this country. He professed protes- 
 tant principles, and wrote on the catholic controversy. — G. M. 
 
 BASTIEN, Jean Fkan^ois, a bookseller, born in Paris, 1747; 
 died 1824. He published editions of the works of Montaigne, 
 Charron, Rabelais, Scan-on, d'Alembert, and wrote many useful 
 works on agriculture. 
 
 BASTIOU, Yves, a French educational writer, chaplain at 
 the Hotel-Dieu, and afterwards at the college of Louis le Grand, 
 died .at Paris in 1814. He wrote several grammars and ma- 
 nuals, and a work entitled " Association aux saints anges, pro- 
 posre a tons les fideles zeh's pour la Gloire de Dieu," 1780. 
 
 BASTOUL, Louis, a French general, bom at Monthouteux, 
 19th August, 1753. He entered the anny in 1773, as a soldier 
 in the regiment of Vivarais. In 1791 he was raised to the rank 
 of lieutenant ; in 1792, to that of chief of battalion ; and in 1793, 
 he was made gener.al of brigade. He was mortally wounded at 
 the battle of Hohenlinden, 8d December, 1800. His name is 
 inscribed on the bronze tablets at the palace of Versailles. 
 
 BASTU, Joseph, an Italian lawyer, died in 1819, author of 
 " Institutiones Jurium Universitatum." 
 
 BASTWICK, John, M.D., celebrated in politico-ecclesiastical 
 history, was bom in Essex in 1593, studied at Cambridge, and 
 afterwards at Padua, where he took his degree. On his return to 
 England he published a work entitled " Flagitium Pontificis et 
 Episcoporam Latialium," which led to his being cited before the 
 high commission court, where he was fined in £1000, prohibited 
 from practising his profession, and condemned to be imprisoned 
 till he recanted. He lay in the Gate-house two years ; and 
 during that time wi-ote his " Apologeticus ad Procsules Angli- 
 canos," which still more enraged the members of the high com- 
 mission. Again brought before the court, he was fined in £5000, 
 sentenced to the loss of his ears in the pillory, and thereafter to 
 perpetual imprisonment in a remote part of the kingdom. He 
 underwent his confinement first in Launceston castle, and after- 
 wards in the Scilly islands, whence he was recalled by order of 
 the Commons in 1G40. The house voted his sentence unjust, 
 remitted the fine, and ordered Bastwick to be paid £5000 out of 
 the estates of his judges. He lived several years after this, and 
 wrote with as much virulence against independency as he had 
 formerly done against episcopacy. — J. S., G. 
 
 BATANA, Antonio, an Italian physician and botanist, as 
 well as a divine, was a native of Rimini, and died in 1789. He 
 was cure of his native town, and at the same time devoted much 
 attention to botany. He published a work on Italian fungi, as 
 well as letters on natural history. — J. H. B. 
 
 B.ATE, George, an English physician and historian, bom at 
 Maid's Morton, in the county of Buckingham, in 1608; took 
 his degi-ee at Oxford in 1637. He was in practice in that town 
 during the sojourn of Charles I., in the course of which he was 
 named physician to his majesty. After the king's departure, he 
 removed to London, and was admitted a fellow of the Royal 
 College of Physicians. In 1651, Cromwell having been taken 
 ill in Scotland, the parliament sent Bate to attend him. He 
 gained the favour of the protector, and was named his chief 
 physician. Charles II. conferred on him the same dignity 
 immediately alter the Restoration, a circumstance which revived 
 suspicions formerly current of his having poisoned the protector. 
 He died in 1568. His " Elenchus motuum nuperoram in 
 Anglia, simul ac juris regii et parliamentarii brevis narratio, 
 was published in 1659 ; and his " Royal Apology, or Decla- 
 ration of the Commons in Parliament," in 1647. An apothecary 
 of the name of Shipton, who had prepared Bate's medicuies for 
 twenty years, published an alphabetical list of them, under the 
 title of Pharmacopoeia Bateana, 1688. — J. S., G. 
 
 BATE, John, an English divine of the beginning of the fif- 
 teenth century. He took the degree of D.D. at Oxford, and 
 became president of the house of Carmelite friars at York. A 
 list of his works, which range over a variety of subjects in gram- 
 mar, logic, and divinity, is given by Bayle. Died in 1429. 
 
 BATELIER, Jacques le, a lawyer, lived in the latter part of 
 the sixteenth century. He published commentaries on the 
 practice of the Nonnan com-ts.
 
 BATEMAN, James, an English botanist, who has published 
 a splendid work in elephant folio, on the orchidacea3 of i\lexico 
 and Guatemala. The plates ai'e coloured. The work was pub- 
 lished in London between the yeai-s 1837 and 1843. — J H. B. 
 
 BATEMAN, Thomas, a distinguished jihysician, was born in 
 1778, and died in 1821. He practised for many years in Lon- 
 don, and is principally known for his work on diseases of the 
 skin. This was published in 1817, with the title " Dehneations 
 of the Cutaneous Diseases comprised in the classification of the 
 late Dr. ^^'ilson." The plates in this work were uitended to 
 illustrate the letterpress of a work published in 1813, entitled 
 A Practical SjTiopsis of Cutaneous Diseases ; this work has 
 been translated into German, Italian, and French, and subsequent 
 editions have been published in the English language. Dr. 
 Bateman has also the merit of having been one of the first 
 to estimate the importance of the relation of climate and weather 
 on disease. He published a valuable set of facts, entitled " Re- 
 port on the Diseases of London, and the state of the Weather 
 from 1804 to 1816," London, 1816. He was remarkable for 
 his attention to the duties of his profession, and was gi'eatly 
 esteemed for his upright and christian character. — E. L. 
 
 BATES, JoAH, the originator of the celebrated commemora- 
 tion of Handel in 1784, was born at Halifax in Yorkshire in 
 1740, where he began his school education under the celebrated 
 Dr. Ogden. He afterwards removed to Manchester, where he im- 
 bibed his love of music, and especially of organ-playing, from the 
 skilful performances of old Wainwright, in the collegiate church. 
 After residing some time at Eton, and finishing his scholastic 
 stuilies at Cambridge, he was elected a fellow and tutor of King's 
 rnllege, which situation he resigned for the post of private secre- 
 t iry to the earl of Sandwich. This connection led him to pass 
 
 iich of his time at Hinchinbrook, Lord Sandwich's seat, where he 
 istructed in music the unfortunate Miss Ray, so well known for 
 the deep passion with which she inspired an unfortunate gentle- 
 man (the Rev. Mr. Hackman), and for her tragical death. 
 
 Few dilettanti musicians have ever acquired or deserved more 
 
 ne for their knowledge in music, judgment, and experience in 
 iS effects, and abilities in conducting a complete orchestra and 
 numerous band, than Mr. Bates, who, at the university of Cam- 
 1 1 ridge, distinguished himself as a fine performer on the harpsi- 
 iliord, as well as a zealous votary of the works of Handel ; and 
 as long as he remained at college, he performed the part of Cory- 
 phoeus at all public and private concerts. Before he quitted the 
 university an organ was built for the church of his native place, 
 Halifax ; and determining that it should be opened with eclat, he, 
 i<n- the first time that any oratorio had been perfonned north of 
 f lie Trent, attempted the Messiah. With the assistance of the Rev. 
 Mr. Allott of Birkheaton, who had trained up the country people 
 in his parish to sing chorases in a very superior style ; and with 
 the addition of !Mr. Bates' own exertions in qualifying the singers 
 'if Halifax, the choruses were performed with a precision that 
 .■i-;tonlshed everyone; and it was universally acknowledged by 
 the best judges, that the Messiah had never been so well per- 
 il irmed. The first \nolin, on this occasion, was taken by the after- 
 wards celebrated astronomer, Herschel ; and his profession being 
 tlien music, he was immediately elected organist. The success 
 111' this undertaking inspired Mr. Bates with the idea of rescuing 
 the compositions of old masters from oblivion, by having them 
 I'xecuted by a numerous and select band of vocal and instra- 
 niental perfoiTners; and after being settled in Loudon as secre- 
 tary to Lord Sandwich, he had an opportunity of communicating 
 his plan to persons of the first distinction, and the establishment 
 of the "concerts of ancient music" in Tottenham Street was the 
 consequence, being formed and executed entindy under Jlr. Bates' 
 direction ; and as many of the works of Handel, which had not 
 been performed for many years, and never so well as at this esta- 
 blishment, were revived, the number of that great and sublime 
 composer's admirers was much increased. 
 
 After remaining some years with the carl of Sandwich, Jlr. 
 Bates was appointed commissioner of the victualling-office; and 
 soon after he married his celebrated pupil. Miss Harrop, who had 
 been educated under his eye from his first arrival in Lomlon. 
 The %'ictuaHing-oflice on Tower-hill now became the rescjrt of 
 persons of the highest rank ; and at Mr. Bates' residence there 
 was planned those stupendous musical performances, the com- 
 memoration of Handel in Westminster abbey and the; Pantheon, 
 which were conducted by him in a maimer which will unite his 
 name with the renown of Handel as long as so memorable an 
 
 event shall remain in the records of the musical art. Soon after 
 the commemoration, Mr. Bates was, at the demise of the king, 
 promoted to a seat at the board of customs ; but pre^us to his 
 quitting the victualling-office, having officially experienced the 
 difficulties which the capital of the kingdom often laboured under 
 for want of flour, he projected the plan of the Albion mills; of 
 the success of which he was so sanguine, that he vested his whole 
 fortune, and even that of his wife, in the undertaking, to the 
 amount of £10,000. By the conflagration which happened to 
 this building in 1791 he was completely ruined. He submitted 
 to this event with dignity and fortitude ; but the circumstance 
 of ha\'ing involved his wife in the ruin, and sacrificed her profes- 
 sional acquirements without her approbation, preyed so conti- 
 nually on his mind as at length to produce a complaint on his 
 chest, which finally proved fatal, and brought him to the grave 
 the 8th of June, 1709. — (Rees' Cyclipedia; Cradock's Literartj 
 Memoirs ; The Ilarinonicon, &c.) — E. F. R. 
 
 BATES, William, D.D., an eminent dissenting minister and 
 writer, connected with the English presbyterians, was born in 
 November, 1625, probably in London. He was the son of Dr. 
 George Bates, a fellow of the London College of Physicians, and, 
 after the Restoration, principal physician to the king. This Dr. 
 Bates was the author of a narrative in Latin of the events of his 
 times, entitled " Elenchus Motuum Nuperonim in Angha," a 
 work of some value for its authentic details, and because it may 
 be regarded as expressing the views of the royalist presbyterians 
 concerning the principal occurrences of that memorable epoch, 
 and the men who were the chief agents in them. WOliam 
 Bates was educated at Cambridge, where he took his degi'ce of 
 B.A. in 1647, and was admitted doctor in divinity in 1660. 
 During the Commonwealth he was probably a minister in Lon- 
 don, as at the Restoration we find him in possession of the liv- 
 ing of St. Dunstan's-in-the-West. A royalist by education and 
 principle, he was one of those who, after the abdication of 
 Richard Cromwell, were zealous to bring back the exiled heir of 
 the house of Stuart to the throne ; and he laboured with Calamy, 
 Ash, Morton, and others of the London ministers, to direct the 
 petitions and the influence of the city upon Monk and the army, 
 to move them to attempt this result. After the king's return, 
 Dr. Bates was made one of his chaplains-in-ordinary, a compli- 
 ment which he shared along with several other presbyterian 
 ministers, " for the gratify-ing," says Baxter, " and engaging 
 some chief presbyterians that had brought in the king ;" and 
 which was a mere compliment and nothing more ; for, says the 
 same aiithority, " never any of them was called to preach at 
 comt, savmg Mr. Calamy, Dr. Reynolds, myself, and Dr. Spurs- 
 ton, each of us once ; and I suppose never a man of them all 
 ever received or expected a penny for the salary of their places." 
 (Life, part ii., p. 229.) Sometime afterwards, when attempts 
 were made to meet the scruples of the presb)-terians, and to 
 secure their adherence to the established church. Dr. Bates was 
 offered the deanery of Coventry and Litchfield, which, after some 
 hesitation, he declined. Had he accepted it, or had he remained 
 in connection with the establishment, it was intended that he 
 should be made a bishop ; but the act of unifonnity in 1662 
 forever cut off from him all prospects of ecclesiastical advance- 
 ment, by constraining him, in obedience to the dictates of con- 
 science, to become one of the never-to-be-forgotten two thousand 
 ministers whom that act ejected from their livings, and sent 
 forth to encounter privations and persecutions for their at- 
 tachment to what they deemed to be trath. He preached 
 his farewell sermon to his congregation on the 17th of August, 
 1662, After his ejection, he seems to have for sometime 
 preached only occasionally. He was for many years one of 
 the lecturers at Salters' hall, on the Tuesday mornings, when 
 he always had numerous audiences. In the latter part of his 
 life he resided at Hackney, and became pastor of a congi-cgation 
 there, which used to assemble " in a large and ancient but irre- 
 gular edifice in Mare Street." Though no longer a minister of 
 the national church, his society was sought by many eminent 
 persons, who respected his character, appreciated his learning 
 and abilities, ami enjoyed his polished conversation and refined 
 manners. Among the nonconfomiists he occupied a leading 
 position, and on several important occasions publicly represented 
 them. (Life, part iii., page 13.) At the Revolution he was 
 appointed to present a congratulatoiy address to King William 
 from the nonconformists of London, and on this occasion he 
 delivered two speeches, one to the king and the other to
 
 the queen. He frequently afterwards appeared at court, and 
 his writings were much esteemed and road by the queen. 
 For many years before his death, Bates suffered from bodily 
 mfirniity, his life being, to use his own expression, " like the 
 weak light of a lamp in the open air." He was spared, how- 
 ever, to see his seventy-rifth year; he died on the 14th of July, 
 1699. His funeral sermon was preached by John Howe, who 
 has delineated with much fullness, and in the favourable light 
 of personal friendship, the leading features of his character. 
 To an elegant person and dignified mien, he added mental 
 powers of no mean ordei- — an acute and \ngorous understand- 
 ing, a sound judgment, a most capacious memory, and a 
 pleasant though never frivolous wit. His knowledge of books 
 was immense ; and many who loved not his nonconformity, 
 frequented his society for the sake of the boundless information 
 which he could pour forth on whatever subject was started. 
 As a preacher he was esteemed among the best of his age. 
 With a voice of singular sweetness and power, with the gi-ace 
 and dignity of manner proper to one who, to use Howe's 
 words, was " born to stand before kings," and with a flow of 
 copious and correct language, he delivered, unimpeded by the 
 use of notes, discourses which brought the busy inhabitants of 
 London " in throng-assembly to hang upon his lips," and that 
 even on week-days and at busmess hours. Many of these dis- 
 coui-ses still remain ; and though the quiet perusal of them in 
 the closet hardly prompts to so enthusiastic an estimate of them 
 as seems to have been awakened in the minds of those who 
 heard them delivered, it may nevertheless be justly said, that 
 neither in respect of substance nor of style are they unworthy of 
 being placed by the side of any of the specimens of pulpit ora- 
 tory which remain of that age. Dr. Bates was also the author 
 of sevei-al theological treatises. His works have been col- 
 lected in one vol. foho, London, 1700. He also edited and partly 
 wrote " VitK selectorum aliquot virorum qiu doctriiia, dignitate 
 aut pietate inclaruere," 4to, London, 1G81. — W. L. A. 
 
 BATESON, Thomas, one of the gi-eat English madrigalian 
 writers of the Elizabethan period. The dates of his birth and 
 decease are unknown ; but we may infer that he was a young 
 practitioner in the art when he produced his " First set of 
 Madingals " in 1604, wherein he compares his compositions to 
 " young birds feared out of the nest before they be well fea- 
 thered," and hopes they will be " so shrouded " in the leaves of 
 his patron's good liking, so that neither any "ravenous kite nor 
 craftie fowler, any open-mouthed Jlomus or mere sly detractor, 
 may devour or harm them that cannot succour or shift for them- 
 selves." In 1599, five years prior to the date of his first publi- 
 cation, he was appointed " Organist of the Cathedral Church of 
 Christ, in the citie of Chester," in which situation he appears to 
 have continued until 1611. Shortly after this period he went 
 to reside in Ireland, and in 1618 published his "'Second set of 
 Madrigals." On the title-page of this work he styles himself 
 "Bachelor of JIusick, Organist, and Master of the Children of 
 the Cathedral Chiu'ch of the Blessed Trinity, Dublin, in the 
 realm of Ireland." In the university of the latter city he is 
 supposed to have taken his degree. — E. F. R. 
 
 BATHE, William, a learned Irishman, was born in Dublin 
 in the year 1552. He entered into the order of the Jesuits, and, 
 leaving Ireland, travelled extensively on the continent of Europe ; 
 and finall}' settled in Salamanca, being appointed professor of 
 languages in the university of that city. He published there a 
 philological work called " Janua Linguarum." Leaving Sala- 
 manca he came to London, where he published some religious 
 treatises, and also an " Introduction to the Art of Music." He 
 died in London in the year 1614. — J. F. W. 
 
 BATHEM, Gerard van, of Amsterdam, a painter of land- 
 scapes and battle-scenes, was remarkable for the excellence of 
 his design and the gener.al tone of his pictures, although not for 
 his colouring. His drawings were especially sought for. Died 
 in 1691.— R. M. 
 
 BATH OR Y, an eminent old Transylvanian family, many 
 members of which are sufficiently important to be mentioned. 
 Ladislas became known towards the ndddle of the fifteenth 
 centurjforhis translation of the Bible into Hungarian — Stephkx 
 was "Woiwode" of Transylvania, one of the heroes of the time of 
 King Matthias Corvinus; together with Paul Kinizsy, he defeated 
 the Tm-ks at the battle of Kenyermezew in 1479. After the 
 death of his king he repudiated the claims of his illegitimate son, 
 John Con-inns, and supported King ^\'ladislas Jagello. — Nearly 
 
 a century later, when the house of Szapolyay became extmct, 
 his descendant, Stephen Bathoky, was elected prince of 
 Transylvania in 1571, and had to fight the pretender, Caspar 
 Bekessy, set up against him by the court of Vienna. The pre- 
 tender was defeated, and beheaded in 1575 ; but Prince Stephen 
 left Transylvania the following year, being elected king of 
 Poland. He governed that kingdom for ten years with wisdom 
 and firmness, having to contend with the Cossacks, and with 
 the intrigues of Ivan the Ten-ible, cz.ar of Muscovy. He died 
 in 158G. — CHKisiTopHER, Stephen's brother, succeeded him as 
 elected prince in Transylvania in 1576, and died in 1581, after 
 having introduced the Jesuits into the country. — His son SiGis- 
 MUND, acting by the advice of the Jesuits, renounced his alle- 
 giance to the Turks, waged war against theni, and resigned the 
 principality to the Austrians in 1598, against the will of the diet 
 of Transylvania. The result was, that the emperor met with 
 resistance in his endeavours to occupy the countiy, and several 
 years were spent in anarchy and wars between Michel, prince 
 of Wallachia, Cardinal Andrew Bathoky, the vicegerent of 
 Sigismund, the Turks, and the Imperialists. Sigismund, re- 
 penting his abdication, returned once more to Transylvania in 
 IGOl, was defeated by the allied Austrians and Moldavians, 
 abdicated again, and died in Bohemia in 1613, living upon a 
 pension of the emperor. — The last of the Bathorj'S was Prince 
 G.VBRIEL, elected 1608, a sensual tyrant, oppressing the country, 
 which rose against him repeatedly but unsuccessfully, until he 
 was forsaken by the sultan, and mm'dered by his personal ene- 
 mies in 1613.— F. P., L. 
 
 BATHURST, Allen, Earl, an Enghsh statesman, bom at 
 Westminster in 1G84. After completing his course of study 
 at Trinity college, Oxford, he was in 1705, when just come of 
 age, returned member for Cirencester. In 1711 he was trans- 
 ferred to the house of peers, being one of twelve commoners 
 who were raised to the peerage, for the pm-pose of carrjTng a 
 particular measure. He took an active part in the debates of 
 the house, and was strongly opposed to Sir Robert Walpole and 
 the whig ministry. In 1772 he was advanced to the dignity of 
 earl. The friendship of Lord Bathurst was cultivated by Swift, 
 Pope, Addison, Prior, and most of the men of genius of his 
 time. Pope addressed to him his Epistle on the Use of Riches. 
 Stowe says of him, " This nobleman is a prodigy, for at eighty- 
 five he has all the wit and promptness of a man of thuty ; a 
 disposition to be pleased, and a power to please others, beyond 
 what I ever knew ; added to which, a man of learning, courtesy, 
 and feeling." Lord Bathm-st died 16th September, 1775, in his 
 ninety-first year. — G. M. 
 
 BATHURST, Benjamin, an English diplomatist, born ill 
 London, 14th JIarch, 1784. In 1807 he was sent to Vienna with 
 despatches from the English government, and mysteriously dis- 
 appeared near Hamburg. No trace^of him was ever discovered; 
 but some shreds of his gamients, found on the banks of the Elbe, 
 led to the supposition that he had been assassinated. — G. M. 
 
 BATHURST, Henry, son of Allen Bathurst, and second Earl 
 and Baron Bathurst, lord ch.ancellor of England, bom 2nd 
 Jlay, 1714; died in 1794. He was created Lord Apsley in 
 1770. He was called to the bar in 1735, and in the same 
 year was returned member of parliament for Cirencester, which 
 borough he coiitinued to represent until his elevation to the 
 bench. In 1754 he was appointed a judge in the court of 
 common pleas — an office which he held for seventeen years. In 
 1770 he was appointed lord high chancellor, and took his seat 
 in the upper house imder the title of Baron Apsley of Apsley, 
 Sussex. In 1778 finding himself no longer able to sustain the 
 labours of his high otfice, he resigned the great seal, and the 
 following year he was appointed ])resident of the council. At 
 the dissolution of Lord North's administration, he finally retired 
 from public life. — G. M. 
 
 BATHURST, Henry, third Earl Bathurst, eldest son of the 
 preceding, bom 22d May, 17G2 ; died 26th July, 1834. On 
 reaching majority, he entered parliament as member for Ciren- 
 cester, and was shortly afterwards appointed one of the lords 
 commissioners of the admiralty. In 1793 he was named a com- 
 missioner of the board of control, and was sworn a member of 
 the privy council. In 1807 he was appointed president of the 
 board of trade ; and in 1809 secretar}' for foreign aff"airs. The 
 last office he held oidy about two months. In 1812 he was 
 appointed secretary for the colonies — an office which he exchanged 
 in 1828 for that of president of the coimcil. In 1817 he was
 
 BAT 
 
 415 
 
 BAT 
 
 created a knight of the garter. In pohtics, Lord Bathurst was 
 of the high tor}- school. He was strongly opposed to catholic 
 emancipation, parliamentary reform, and every liberal measure 
 demanded by the whig party. — G. M. 
 
 BATHURST, Ralph, physician, poet, and theologian, bom in 
 1620 at Northampton ; died in 1704. He studied at Oxford, 
 and became a surgeon in the navy under Cromwell, and was in 
 1668 elected president of the Royal Society in London. After 
 the Restoration he abandoned medicine, and embraced the eccle- 
 siastical profession. He was successively chaplain to Charles IL, 
 president of Trinity college, Oxford, and dean of Wells. In 
 1673 he became vice-chancellor of the university of Oxford ; in 
 1691 he refused the bishopric of Bristol. He has left some 
 works; amongst others, " Frailectiones tres de Respiratione," 
 Oxford, 1654:. This is a veiy curious work; he describes respir- 
 ation as a voluntary function, which depends on the action of 
 the diaphragm and of the epigastric muscles. He supposed that 
 the air was charged with particles which penetrate into the lungs 
 at every breath. He was also a partisan of the doctrine of 
 Van Hehnont, and contended for an acid in the stomach. "News 
 from the other World," Oxford, 1651, in 4to, is the miracu- 
 lous history of one Anne Green, who was hanged at Oxford, 
 December 14, 1650, for the crime of child-murder, and recalled 
 to life by the aid of Bathurst and Willis, his friend. He published 
 some Latin poems in the Analecta JIusarum Anglic;inanmi. A 
 collection of these works has been published under the title of 
 " Literary Remains." — E. L. 
 
 BATHYCLES, a Greek toreutic sculptor, native of Magnesia, 
 flourished in the sixth century B.C., and constructed for the 
 town of Amyclce, in the Peloponnesus, the throne for the statue 
 of Diana, enriched with thirty-two reliefs, illustrating the fabu- 
 lous history of Greece. — R. il. 
 
 BATIXSCKOFF, Coxstaxtixe Nikolaevitch, a distin- 
 guished Russian poet, bom in Wologda in 1787, and educated 
 at St. Petersburg. His earlier years were spent in the army, 
 and he was sent as attache to Naples in 1818, where he re- 
 mained but a short time. His poetry, severe in style and rich 
 in thought, forms an epoch in the historj' of Russian literature, 
 from the fact that he was the first poet of note who abandoned 
 the French classical school, which had inspired the authors of 
 Russia from the time of Catherine II. The introduction of the 
 new life of romanticism into Russian literature, may be dated 
 from the appearance of the poems of BatinsckofF and Giukoffski. 
 Batinsckotf's career had a singularly unhappy close; he died in 
 Wologda in 1855, ha\-iiig been for several years in a state of 
 derangement. — 5L Q. 
 
 BATilAN, Stephex, an English di\-ine, poet, and miscel- 
 laneous writer, bom in 1537 at Bruton in Somersetshire, was 
 domestic chaplain to Archbishop Parker ; and after the death of 
 that prelate became rector of Merstham and chaplain to Henry 
 Lord Hunsdon. Of his numerous works the following are the 
 principal — " The Travayled Pilgiim," &c., 1569; " Joyful News 
 out of Helvetia from Theophrastus Paracelsus, declainng the 
 ruinate Fall of the Papal Dignity," 1575 ; " Golden Book of the 
 Leaden Gods," 1577 ; " The Doom, warning all Men to Judg- 
 ment, wherein are contained all the Strange Prodigies happened 
 in the World," &c., 1581 ; " Bartholomeus his Book de Proprie- 
 tatibus Remm," 1582. Died in 1587.— J. S., G. 
 
 BATON or BATTO, a Greek sculptor, recorded by Pliny as 
 the author of two statues of Apollo and Juno, then in Rome ; 
 and also as famed for representations of athletes, hunters, and 
 such like subjects. — R. JI. 
 
 BATON (narav), of Sinope, a Greek rhetorician and historian, 
 lived about 277 B.C. Author of Ui^rtxa. — " Commentaries on the 
 Affairs of Persia ; " a " History of Athens," and other works. 
 
 BATILDA, Saixt, wife of Clovis II., king of France, died in 
 680. She was an Anglo-Saxon by birth, and was at first a 
 slave to a Danish nobleman. She was purchased at a trifling 
 price by Archambaud, mayor of the French palace, and ulti- 
 mately became the wife of the king. Clovis having died young, 
 she was intrasted, during the minority of her son, Clothaire III., 
 with the regency of the kingdom, which she governed with much 
 wisdom and energy. In 665 she retired to the monaster)- of 
 Chelles, where she spent the remainder of her life. — G. JL 
 _ BATRACHUS and SAURUS, two Spartan architects, estab- 
 lished in Rome at the time of Augustus, erected the portico 
 round the temple of Juno, which was aftcnvards named after 
 Octavia, and upon the frieze of which they caused frogs and 
 
 lizards to be carved as symbols of their names, not having been 
 permitted to inscribe them by means of letters. — R. M. 
 
 BATSCH, Augustus Johaxx Georg Karl, a German 
 naturalist, bom at Jena, 28th October, 1761, and died 29th 
 September, 1802. He was the son of an advocate of Livonia; 
 and after studpng medicine he settled as a practitioner in Wei- 
 mar, where he prosecuted also natural history. From 1787 tUl 
 his death he was assistant professor of natiu-al history and medi- 
 cine at Jena, and director of the society for the advancement of 
 natural science. Gmelin has named a genus of Boraginaceae 
 Batschia after him. His botanical works are numerous, includ- 
 ing " Elenchus Fungorum ;" " Account of the Plants in the 
 Jena Garden ;" " Introduction to the History of Plants ;" " Bo- 
 tanical Observations and Conversations ;" " Analytical Svnopsis 
 of the Genera of Plants;" "Elements of Botany;" " Tables of 
 AiBnities of Plants." He is also the author of works on chemistry 
 and materia medica. — J. H. B. 
 
 BATT, Barthelemy, bora in Flanders, 1515; died in 1559. 
 He was persecuted by the inquisition frir having embraced 
 Lutheranism. Author of " De (Economia Christiana." 
 
 BATT, Charles, a Flemish physician of the sixteenth cen- 
 tiUT. He was physician-in-ordinary to the town of Dordrecht 
 in 1593 and 1598. He wrote " Livre de Mcdecine oil sont 
 decrites toutes les parties internes du corps humain, et leurs 
 maladies depuis la tete jusq'aux pieJs, avec la maniere de les 
 gui'rir," translated from the German by Christopher WLrtsung, 
 second edition, Dordrecht, 1593 and 1601, in folio. " Pradque 
 de la Chirurgie," translated into French by Jacques Guillatune, 
 Dordrecht, 1590, in folio; "La Chirurgie et toutes les ceuvres 
 d'Ambroise Pare," in twenty-eight parts, with plates of anatomy, 
 surgical instruments, monstrosities, &c., Amsterdam, 1615, foho. 
 The engravings are on wood and are very coarse. " Livre 
 contenant divers secrets pour les arts et pour la m^decine," 
 Amsterdam, in 18mo; "Manuel des Chirurgiens, avec le traite 
 d'Hippocrate sur les plaies de la tete ; " and that of Guillanme 
 Fabricius de Hilden, "Sur la brulure," Amsterdam, 1653. — E. L. 
 
 BATTAGLIA, the Italian architect who, at the beginning of 
 the seventeenth century, designed and erected the magnificent 
 convent of Catania in Sicily. This celebrated edifice, enriched 
 vdth. all that art can produce, was destroyed by an eruption of 
 Etna in 17G4.— R. M. 
 
 BATTAGLIA, Arox. See Pius IV. 
 
 BATTAGLIA, Cesare, an Italian writer, bom at ^lil.an in 
 1605. He was on terms of intimacy with Francis, duke of Este, 
 and preached with success through several of the towns of Italy. 
 
 BATTEL, AxDREAV, an English sailor, whose adventures are 
 related by Purchas in tlie second volume of his Collection on 
 Voyages, was bom in Essex about 1565. He sailed for the Rio 
 de la Plata about 1589 on board a merchantman, which, on 
 reaching its destination, was seized by the natives and delivered 
 over to the Portuguese. Battel and his companions were kept 
 in prison four months, and then transported to the Portuguese 
 settlements in Africa. He regained his hberty early in the 
 seventeenth century-, and returned to England. The narrative 
 of his adventures, taken from his own mouth by Purchas, is 
 extremely curious, especially that part of it relating to his cap- 
 tivity in Africa. — J. S., G. 
 
 B.VTTELY, Joiix, an English divine and antiquary, bom in 
 1647 at St. Edmundsbur)-, was chaplain to Archbishop Sancroft, 
 who gave him the living of Adesham in Kent, a prebend in the 
 church of Canterbury', and latterly made him archdeacon of the 
 diocese. He wrote a work on the antiquities of the Isle of 
 Thanet, entitled " Antiquitntcs Rutujiina;." Died in 1708. 
 
 BATTEN, Adriex, an English church composer of some emi- 
 nence in the first half of the 17th century. He was brought up 
 in the cathedral of Winchester, under John Holmes, the organist, 
 and in 1614 appointed vicar-choral of Westminster abbey. In 
 1624 he removed to St. Paul's cathedral, where he held the 
 same office, in addition to that of organist. The name of this 
 composer is even now well known in all our choirs, from his 
 short, full anthem, " Deliver us, Lord," which has continued 
 in use up to the present day. "Batten," says Bumpy, "was 
 merely a good harmonist of the old school, without adding any- 
 thing to the common stock of ideas in melody or modulation with 
 which the art was furnished long before he was born. Nor did 
 he correct anv of the errors in accent with which former times 
 abounded." This criticism is hardly just. Batten's anthem, 
 " Hear my prayer," for <ive voices, is, in point of construction
 
 and effect, equal to most of the compositions of his time. — (Bar- 
 ney's Hist, of Mm. ; MS. Accounts of St. Paul's and West- 
 minster Abhey.) — E. F. R. 
 
 BATTEUX, Charles, a French author, bom 6th May, 1713, 
 near Vouziers. Appointed to the chair of Greek and Latin 
 philosophy in the college of France, he commenced his literary 
 career by a parallel between Voltaire's Henriade and Boileau's 
 Lutren, followed by a treatise on the fine arts, which he 
 attempted to reduce to a common principle, that of strict imita- 
 tion of nature, setting what is called realism in place of 
 idealism. But as the end of the fine arts is to excite emotion 
 rather than surprise, by accurate imitation of ajjpearances, this 
 theory of Batteux has not received more than partial favour. In 
 1765 appeared his "Cours de Belles-lettres," in five volumes, in 
 which a methodical attempt was made to lay down rules for 
 composition in prose and verse. After some translations from 
 Latin authors, he in 1769 published a philosophical work, in two 
 volumes, upon " First Causes and the Principle of Existence," in 
 which he condemns the use that had been made of authority in 
 philosophical questions, and argues in favour of direct obsen'ation 
 of natm-e ; a work which led, it is said, to the suppression, after 
 his death, of the chair of philosophy in the college of France. 
 After various treatises on poetry and the fine arts, he composed 
 a couree of studies for the military school, in forty-five volumes ; 
 and at the time of his death, was engaged in making a collection 
 of memoirs upon the histoiy and manners of the Chinese, which 
 was completed afterwards by de Guignes. He died at Paris, 
 14th Julv, 1780.— J. F. C. 
 
 BATTHYA'XYI or BATHYANI, a noble family of Hungary, 
 embracing among its members, princes, counts, bans of Croatia, 
 bishops, and other high dignitaries. The first of these, Benkdict 
 B.VTTiiYANi, was, at the end of the fifteenth century, treasurer of 
 King Vladislaf IL In 1509 he was accused of treason, and 
 thrown into prison. Of this family we notice : — 
 
 Battiiyanyi, C.\simir, count de Nemeth Ujvar, Hungarian 
 minister for foreign affairs, bom June 4, 1817, at Milan in 
 Italy, belonged to one of the first families of Hungani-. He 
 distinguished himself at the diets of 1840 and 1843-44 by his 
 uncompromising opposition to the Austrian schemes of centrali- 
 zation, and to the Austrian tariff. In 1818 he was appointed 
 civil commissary in the counties bordering on Croatia, and dis- 
 played considerable administrative and militaiy talent, securing 
 the fortress of Eszek to the Hungarians, and defeating the 
 insurgent Serbs in two engagements. At the taking of the 
 fortress of Eszek by the Austrians in February, 1849, he suc- 
 ceeded in reaching Debreczen, where he was appointed minister 
 of foreign affairs in April, after the declaration of independence. 
 Sharing the fortunes of the government, he went to Turkey, was 
 confined at Kiutahia, released in 1851, and died at Paris in 
 1854. His extensive estates were confiscated. — E. P., L. 
 
 B.\TTHYAXYi, Ign.vtii'S, count de, a learned canonist, and 
 bishop of Weissemburg in Transylvania ; born 30th January, 
 1741 ; died at Carlsburg, 17th November, 1798. He studied 
 at Prague and Vienna, and in 1781 was nominated bishop. 
 In 179(5 he founded at Carlsburg an observatory, to which he 
 bequeathed his library, and a sum of 40,000 florins. — G. M. 
 
 Batthy.vnyi, Loi'is, count de Xe'incth Ujvi'ir, prime minister 
 of Hungaiy, was bom in 1809 at Presburg in Hungary. At 
 sixteen he took service in the Austrian army, but left it on 
 becoming of age, turning his restless activity to political economy 
 and sciences. Having visited Europe and the East, he took his 
 seat in the house of peers in 1839, and organized there a bold 
 opposition, directed principally against the centralizing tenden- 
 cies of the government. Though always in a minority, he con- 
 tributed much to break down the stationary spirit of the ultra- 
 consen-ative peers, assailed at that time by the house with bills 
 reforming the tenure of land of the peasants, and securing the 
 liberty of speech, violated by the anx-st of Kossuth, and the 
 indictment of a score of other jjatriots. lie contumed, success- 
 fully, in 1843-44, the battle for religious Uberty, and thus 
 established his position as leader of the opposition. When, in 
 1848, the Vienna revolution destroyed the unconstitutional 
 administration of the Austrian empire, the relations of Hungary 
 to the empire had likewise to be remodelled. The emperor 
 established a Hungarian responsible ministiy, formed by Count 
 Louis Batthy;inyi. The progi-amme of the opposition, which 
 now had come into power, contained the full emancipation of the 
 peasants; a bill was introduced making them freeholders, and 
 
 abolishing all the feudal rights of the landlords, who, on the 
 other side were compensated by the treasuiy. Next to it fol- 
 lowed the abolition of the immunity of paying taxes and tolls, 
 which was a privilege of the nobility and gentry, and the exten- 
 sion of the franchise. All these refomis were earned in the 
 regular way with the gi-eatcst enthusiasm, and Hungary seemed 
 to have a fair chance for rising high in prosperity among the 
 nations of Europe. The imperial house, however, bent upon the 
 unity and centralization of the empire, and therefore opposed to 
 any national development, incited first the Serbs to rise against 
 the Hungarians, and to claim a separate nationality, and then 
 secretly set up Ban Jellachich of Croatia, as a champion of the 
 prerogatives of the crown, alleged to have been violated by the 
 very establishment of a Hungarian ministry. Count Batthyanyi 
 made several endeavom's to come to an understanding with the 
 Ban of Croatia, who, however, declined any discussion. Under 
 such circumstances Count Battiiyanyi, with the sanction of 
 Archduke Stephen, nephew of the emperor, and palatine 
 and viceroy of Hungary, insisted upon Ban Jellachich being 
 declared a traitor by the emperor, who signed the outlawry 
 of the Ban on the 10th of June. But, in spite of this 
 declaration, the Ban continued to ann, and to threaten 
 Hungary with war, to prevent which Archduke John, uncle 
 to the emperor, brought about an inten-iew between Ban Jel- 
 lachich and Coimt Batthyanyi at Vienna in August, 1848. 
 The Ban, however, declined to entertain any proposal of the 
 Hungarian premier, and in the first days of September crossed 
 the frontiers of Hungary with an amiy of 60,000 men. The 
 emperor gave now his approval to the proceedings of the Ban, 
 and Count Batthyanyi, accordingly, resigned his office. But the 
 emperor, seeing that Hungary was not ready to yield to the 
 Croatians without a blow, reappointed Count Batthyanyi once 
 more to the premiership, in order to paralyse the resistance of 
 Hungary, since it was known t'nat the aim of the premier, as 
 well .as of the Palatine Archduke Stephen, was to avoid a conflict 
 on the battle-field. The obstinacy of Ban Jellachich, sustained 
 by the court manoeuvres, made any aiTangement impossible. 
 Accordingly, both the palatine and the premier once more 
 resigned, and left Hungary just when the two contending armies 
 came in sight. The Croatians were defeated on the 29th of Sep- 
 tember, and Vienna rose against the court on the Gth of October. 
 Count Batthyanyi returned now again to Hungary, wishing to 
 serve in the amiy as a volunteer; but, disabled by an accidental 
 fall, he came to Pesth, always recommending a peaceful settle- 
 ment of the pending difficulties. In the first days of 1849 he 
 went, at the head of a deputation sent by the diet, to the camp of 
 Prince Windishgratz, the commander-in-chief of the Austrians, 
 with proposals of an arrangement ; but he was seized by the 
 Austrians, without regard to Ids mission, thrown into prison, 
 tried by court-martial, and shot on the Gth of October, 1849. 
 Count Louis Batthyanyi died a hero and a martyr. His last 
 words were — " Long live my country!" — F. P., L. 
 
 BATTIE, William, an English physician, bom in Devon- 
 shire in 1704, and died 1776. He received his early education 
 at Eton, and afterwards proceeded to the university of Cambridge. 
 He practised medicine successively at Uxbridge and London. 
 He took so active a part in the dispute between the college of 
 physicians of London and Dr. Schomberg in 1750, that they 
 dedicated to him a satirical poem called La Battiade. He was 
 appointed physician to St. Luke's hospit.al, and founded at 
 Islington a lunatic asylum. He has left, among other works, a 
 "Treatise on Madness;" an edition of Isocrates, Cambridge, 
 1749, in 2 vols., 8vo; and two smaller works on medicine — "De 
 Principiis animalibus Exercitationes in collegium regium Medico- 
 rum," 1751 and 1752 ; " Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curan- 
 dis morbis ad principia animalis Accomodati," 1762. — E. L. 
 
 BATTIER, Samuel, a Swiss physician, bom at Bale, Janu- 
 ary 23, 1677, and died April 23, 1744. He studied medicine 
 after having perfected himself in the Greek language, philosophy, 
 and mathematics, which were taught him by the celebrated 
 Bemouilli. In 1690 he received his degree as doctor of medi- 
 cine, and came to Paris. He wrote " Dissertatio de Generatione 
 Hominis," 1690, 4to; "Specimen Philologicum, sive Obsen'a- 
 tiones in Diogenem Laertium," &c., 1695, in 4to. He pubhshed 
 also some commentaries and notes on the New Testament; on 
 the tragedies of Sojihocles and Euripides; and he revised the 
 editions of Julius Pullox (by Hemsterhuys), and of Hippocrates 
 (by Tiiller).— E. L.
 
 BAT 
 
 417 
 
 BAU 
 
 BATTIFP:RRI, Laura, bom at Urbino in 1525. A poetess 
 of some renown. She was married to tlic famous sculptor, Am- 
 manati, and wrote a work in one volume in 4to, entitled " 11 
 Prime libro delle Opere Toscane." The seven penitential psalms 
 translated by her in Italian distichs, have been reprinted several 
 times. Slic died in the year 1589. — A. C. M. 
 
 BATTISHILL, Jonathan, a musician, was the son of an 
 attornej', and born in 1738. At the age of nine he was placed in 
 the choir of St. Paul's cathedral, and received the rudiments of his 
 musical education from Mr. Savage, at that time master of the 
 children. After leaving the choir, he was engaged as composer 
 to Sadler's Wells theatre, where he produced several popular 
 ballads. He was next engaged to preside at the harpsichord at 
 Covent Garden theatre ; and not long aftei^wards was appointed 
 organist, first, of the united parishes of St. Clement, Eastcheap, 
 and St. Jlartin Orgar ; and subsequently of Christ Church, 
 Newgate Street. In conjunctii^m with Jlichael Arne, he wrote 
 the music to an opera entitled " Alcmena," the subject of which 
 was taken from the history of Pei'sia. It was performed at 
 Dmry Lane in 17G4, and, excellent as the music was, the ma- 
 nagers found it necessary, from the general insipidity of the 
 drama, to lay it aside, after it had been performed five times. 
 This piece w-as succeeded by the " Rites of Hecate," a musical 
 di'ama, in which he afforded farther proofs of his superior talents. 
 
 The glees and rounds of this composer are well known to every 
 lover of English vocal mu.sic. In 1770 he obtained the gold 
 medal given by the noljlemen's catch club, at the Thatched-house, 
 St. James' Street, for his beautiful glee, " Underneath this myrtle 
 shade." In 1776 he published, by subscription, two collections 
 of three and four part songs. 
 
 Soon after his engagement at Covent Garden theatre, Battishill 
 married Miss Dalies, one of the principal vocal performers at 
 that theatre. She died in 1775 ; and from this period he dissi- 
 pated much of his time in convi\aal parties, and so far gave way 
 to excess as gradually to undermine his constitution. He died in 
 his apartments at Islington on the 10th of December, 1801; 
 and, according to his dying request, was interred near Dr. Boyce, 
 in the vaults of St. Paul's cathedral. 
 
 Battishill's music is marked with a peculiar strength of idea 
 and clearness of construction. Four of his anthems — " Call to 
 remembrance," " How long wilt thou forget me, Lord 7 " " I 
 will magnify thee, Lord," and " Dehver us, Lord our God" — 
 are printed in Page's Harmonica Sacra ; several others exist in 
 MS. They are excellent ; particularly the full anthem for seven 
 voices, " Call to remembrance," which is a perfect model for this 
 species of composition. It is full of that touching expression for 
 which all Battishill's music of eveiy class is remarkable. — p]. F. R. 
 
 BATTISTA, of Ferrara, an Italian man of letters, lived about 
 1494. Author of a " Histoiy of Christianity ; " " Chronicles of 
 Ferrara," &c. 
 
 BATTISTA, d'Agnolo, or BATTISTA, del Moko, from 
 the surname of his master, Francesco Torbido, was a Veronese 
 painter, who, during the second half of the sixteenth centmy, 
 executed a gi'cat number of pictures for the churches of his 
 native town, and for tlie palaces of Venice and Miu-ano.^R. M. 
 
 BATTISTA, Spagnuoli, a Latin poet, surnamed tiik Man- 
 TUAN, born at Mantua about 143G; died in 1510. lie is men- 
 tioned in tenns of the higliest commendation by Erasmus in one 
 of his letters. The complete works of Battista were published 
 at Paris, in 3 folio volumes, in 1513. 
 
 BATTLEY, Richard, son of John Battley, born about 
 1770 ; educated at Wakefield grammar school, and subsequently 
 for the medical profession. In London he became acquainted 
 with John Cunningham Saunders, whom he assisted in founding 
 the London Eye Infirmary. lie afterwards entered the nav_y as 
 a.s.si.stant-Rurgeon, but soon returned to London ; and about 1812 
 commenced business as a pharmaceutical chemist in Fore Street. 
 lie died at Reigate, March 4, 1856.— T. F. 
 
 BATTONI, PoMTKO, a painter, born at Lucca in 1708, died 
 at Rome in 1786, is considered, and with great justice, as the 
 first Italian artist who attempted to free his art from the ex- 
 ccs.scs of inaimerism in which in had fallen during tii(! seven- 
 teenth century. The pupil of indifi'erent artists of bis native place, 
 it was only when in Rome that he was enabled to educate his 
 taste to the purity of form and design which he ultimately 
 adopted. His works are remarkable for a general gracefulness 
 of composition, for the variety of types and accurate rendering 
 "f the difterent expressions. His colour, though not vigorous, 
 
 VOL. I 
 
 is always brilliant, clear, and harmonious ; the touch bold and 
 steady, and, at the same time, admirably softened down ; the 
 design, if not profound, always pure. He displayed a great 
 versatility in all subjects, and excelled in portraits. His Ma- 
 donnas, in their noble gracefulness, after the distorted repre- 
 sentations of the period that preceded him, look quite refresh- 
 ing. Having been endowed with peculiar facility of execution, 
 his works are very numerous, and it is difficult to quote amongst 
 them. No important collection exists but some one of Battoni's 
 literally charming pictures is to be found in it.— R. M. 
 
 BAl'TUS. Four kings of Cyrene, of the dynasty of the 
 BattiadK, bore this name — 
 
 Battus I., born in the island of Thera. About the year 030 
 B.C. he founded the colony of Cyrene, which he goremed for 
 forty years. 
 
 Battus II., sumamcd the Happy, lived about the year 
 570 B.C. During his reign the colony was greatly increased 
 by accessions of numbers from Greece. He also extended his 
 dominions by the addition of a part of the country which he 
 conquered from the Libyans. 
 
 Battus III. lived about the year 544 B.C. He commenced 
 bis reign at a time when the Greeks had been roused to a love 
 of liberty by the abuse of monarchical power ; and seeing his 
 subjects dcsu-ous of hunting his authority, found himself, after 
 some show of resistance, compelled to restrict his prerogative. 
 
 Battus IV., suniamed the Bkautiful, lived about the 
 second half of the fifth centmy before the Christian era. No 
 details of his reign have reached our times. — G. M. 
 
 BATU-KHAN, sovereign of Kapt.schak, died in 1254 or 1255. 
 He was son of Toushi, and grandson of Jcnghiz-Khan, and suc- 
 ceeded his father, who died before Jenghiz in 1233. His do- 
 minions comprehended all the Mogul conquests to the west of 
 the Caspian Sea. After lending his assistance to the grand 
 IChan Oktai in the conquest of China, he oveiTan and subjugated 
 Russia, which remained under the dominion of the Idians oi 
 Kaptschak for 250 years. In 1241, and subsequent years, he 
 overran and wasted Poland and Hungary. He left three sons, 
 but was succeeded in his dominions by his brother Barkah. — G. M. 
 
 BATZ, Jean, bai-on de, a French general, born 2Gth De- 
 cember, 17G0 ; died 10th January, 1822. At the time of the 
 outbreak of the Revolution he was grand seneschal of the duchy 
 of Albret, and in 1789 the nobility of Nerac elected him deputy 
 to the states-general, in which ho occupied himself chiefly in 
 matters of finance. He was a faitliful adherent of Louis XVI. 
 and exposed himself to imminent danger by his endeavours to 
 save the royal family. On the 21st January, 1793, he attempted 
 to cany oft' the king as he was being conducted to the scaffold. 
 He next concocted a plan to liberate Louis XVII. , Marie-An- 
 toinette, and the princesses from the Temple, and subsequently 
 to deliver the queen from the Conciergerie. His schemes, though 
 well-concerted, all proved abortive, and although they were well 
 known to the authorities, and he never quitted Paris during the 
 whole period of the Reign of Terror, yet he managed to elude the 
 vigilance of the police. During the reign of Napoleon he remained 
 in France unmolested ; and after the Restoration, his loyalty was 
 rewarded by his being jipijointed a marechal-dc-camp, an honour 
 which he did not seem to value, as he spent the remainder of his 
 days in retirement. — G. JI. 
 
 BATZONI INTZE, Mattiuas, a learned Hungarian, died 
 1735. He was professor of theology at Clauscnburg, and author 
 of a work on Polytheism. 
 
 BAUDART, WiLHELM, a protestant theologian of Flanders, 
 who executed, in conjunction with two other divines, by request 
 of the synod of Dordrecht, a translation of the Old Testament, 
 was born at Deinse in 1561, and died at Zutphen in 1640. 
 He published also " Polcmograpbia Auraieo-Belgica," 1657. 
 
 BAUDE, Henry, an old French poet, born at Moulins about 
 14 SO. While yet a youth, ho attracted the favourable notice of 
 the king, Charles VII. The more famous Clement JIarot is 
 accused of having borrowed from Baude without acknowledg- 
 ment. Upon the advent of Charies VIII., he caused to be re- 
 presented a satirical play, called "A Morality," which gave 
 otl'cnce to the court ; reiiresenting the royal power under the 
 figure of a fountain of living water, intended to represent the 
 purity of the king's intentions, he showed how it was obstructed 
 at its .source by weeds, roots, stones, and filth. As the author 
 spoke out with cutting i)lainness, the public was delighted ; but 
 the courtiers were so enraged that they had the poet thrown into 
 
 3G
 
 BAU 
 
 418 
 
 BAU 
 
 prison, but after three months he was liberated. The best of 
 these pieces is lost; but another of like character, called " Prag- 
 matique entre gens de Court et la Salle du Palais," has been 
 preserved, and gives a perfect idea of the rude vigour of the 
 author's style. He also composed some small pieces relating to 
 tlie policy and manners of the time, with epigrams, songs, and 
 ballads. At the age of about fifty-five he had become grey and 
 broken down, according to a description left of himself. Towards 
 1493, Baude addressed to the king, then taking the reins of 
 government firmly into his own hands, a prose composition in 
 which, oftering up prayers for his prosperity, he advises him to 
 follow in the footsteps of his ancestor, Charles VII., to respect 
 the liberties of the subject. He died al)0ut 1495. — ^J. F. C. 
 
 B.VUDEH, JoiiANN FiJiEDRiCH, councillor of commerce to 
 the elector of Bavaria, born at Hersbruck on the 8th Januaiy, 
 171.3, is celebrated as the discoverer of the marbles of Altdorf. 
 For the working and polishing of these he established a factory 
 at Nuremberg, which continued in activity for many years. 
 Upon these marbles, and the fossils found in them, he published 
 two distinct works in 1771 and 1772; the latter was translated 
 into French. He also wrote two or three papers upon other 
 geological subjects. — \V. S. D. 
 
 BAUDEIION, Brice, a pliysician, bom in 1540, at Paray in 
 Charolais, and died in 1623. He studied at Montpellier, and 
 settled down at Macon, where he practised medicine till his 
 death. It is from this town that he dates the preface of a Latin 
 work printed at Paris in 1G20, in 4to, entitled "Praxis Medica 
 in duos tractatus Distincta." He distinguished himself by his 
 Pharmacopoeia, published at Lyons, 1588, 159G, 1G03, and 1628, 
 8vo ; and since, in Latin, under the title " Phannacopceia e Gal- 
 ileo in Latinum versa, a Philimone Hollando," &c. — E. L 
 
 BAUDET, Gui, bishop of Langi-es and chancellor of France 
 under Philippe of Valois, was a native of Franche-Comtfe. He 
 died in 1339. 
 
 BAUDE W\^S, Nicolas, a Flemish painter, bom at Brussels 
 in 1660; died in 1700. He exclusively treated landscapes, the 
 figures of which, without an exception, were painted by Pieter 
 Bout.— R. M. 
 
 BAUDIEIi, JIiciiAEL, a historian, bom in Languedoc in 1589. 
 He held some situation about court, as is implied by the title 
 always given him of " gentilhomme de la maison du roi, et 
 d'historiagraphe de France." His liuiited fortune was spent in 
 the purchase of manuscripts, and in making collections of medals, 
 as well as in indulging his taste for the fine arts. His voluminous 
 ^vritings were much read at the time of publication during his 
 life. They are principally historical, the most remarkable of 
 which relate to Turkey and China. His life of Cardinal Ximenes 
 is regarded as one of the most interesting of his different bio- 
 gi-aphies. He died in 1645. — J. F. C. 
 
 BAUDIN, , a celebrated Jacobin priest, was episcopal 
 
 vicar in the diocese of Paris at the commencement of the Revo- 
 lution. He was associated with Hentz and Francastel in the 
 Vendean commission, and imprisoned eight months for opposing 
 the excesses of his colleagues. His last employment was that of 
 administrator of the hos])itals of Paris. Died in 1830. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BAUDIN, DES AriDEXNES, Charles, a French vice- 
 admiral, son of Pierre-Charles-Louis, born at Sedan, 1784. 
 He entered the service in 1799, and in 1808 assisted in a naval 
 combat against the English in the Indian seas, when his right arm 
 was carried away by a bullet. He continued his career, notwith- 
 standing this casualty, and in 1814 was raised to the rank of 
 captain. On the return of the Bourbons he retired from the 
 service, and established a commercial house in Havre. This 
 undertaking was, for a time, attended with great ])rosperity; but 
 after the revolution of 1830, it became involved in pecuniaiy 
 difficulties, and was given up by Baudin, after honourably paying 
 all his creditors. He now returned to his old profession, and 
 was employed in several important ))ublic services, for which he 
 was rewarded in 1848 by being raised to the dignity of gi-and- 
 cordon of the legion of honour.— G. M. 
 
 B.VUDIN, UES Ardexxes, Pierre-Charles-Louis, one 
 of the actors in the French Revolution, born at Sedan, 18th 
 December, 1748; died 14th October, 1799. He was at first 
 destined for the bar, but the banishment of the parliament of 
 Paris in 1771, constrained him to relinquish the profession of 
 the law. He then became tutor to the cliildren of the president, 
 Gilbert de Voisins, and in 1786 he was director of posts in his 
 native town. Here he was so nnicli respected by his fellow- 
 
 townsmen, that in 1790 they elected him to the office of mayor, 
 and the following year, appointed him their representative in the 
 legislative assembly, where he formed one of the committee of 
 public instruction. He continued during the remainder of his 
 life to take an active part in public affairs. — G. M. 
 
 * BAUDISSIN, Wolf Heinkich Frieurich Karl Gkap 
 vox, was bom of an old noble family at Rantzau in Holstein, 
 30th Januaiy, 1789. After completing his academical course, 
 he was successively appointed secretary to the Danish legations 
 at Stockholm, Vienna, and Paris, from 1810-1814 ; but in 1813 
 was imprisoned during six months at the fortress of Fredericksort, 
 for his ardent Gennan sympathies. He then travelled for several 
 years in France, Italy, and Greece, and, on his return, settled at 
 Dresden, where he became intimately acquainted with L. Tieck, 
 whom he materially assisted in completing Schlegcl's translation 
 of Shakspeare. He and Tieek's accomplished daughter, Dorothy, 
 were the real translators, whilst Tieck himself only revised and 
 edited the work. He also translated the plays edited by his 
 celebrated friend, under the title " Shakspcare's Vorschule." 
 Under his own name he puhUshed " Ben Jonson und seine 
 Schule," as well as translations into modem Gennan of the two 
 middle German poems of " Iwein mit dem Lowen," by Hart- 
 mann von Aue, and " Wigalois mit dem Rade." — K. E. 
 
 BAUDIUS or BAUDIER, Domixique, a historian and 
 poet, born at Lille in 1561 ; died in 1613. He commenced his 
 studies at Leyden, and finished them at Geneva under Beza. 
 He has acquired a reputation as a Latin writer to which few of 
 his age can pretend. His jjrose is characterized by the easy 
 flow and graceful diction of Cicero. His poems, though some- 
 what tinctured with misanthropy, seem to have emanated from 
 a warm heart and philosophic spirit. — J. G. 
 
 BAUDOIN or BAUDOUIN, sumamed de Condi!;, a French 
 poet, lived in the beginning of the thirteenth centuiy. His works 
 are presen-ed in manuscript in the imperial library. 
 
 BAUDOUIN, FR.\xrois, a French theologian and writer on 
 jurisprudence, author of a " Commentary on the Institutes of 
 Justinian," was bom at Arras in 1520, and died at Paris in 
 1573. He taught law at the universities of Angers and Paris, 
 was present at the council of Trent as representative of the 
 king of Navarre, and latterly became counsellor to Henry III. 
 of France.— J. S., G. 
 
 BAUDOUIN, Gabriel, a French abbe, celebrated for his 
 benevolent exertions in establishing a foundling hospital in the 
 capital of Poland, was bom at Avesnes in Flanders in 1689, and 
 died at Warsaw in 1768. 
 
 BAUDOUIN DE NixovE, a Flemish monk, who wrote a 
 chronicle of the first thirteen centuries of our era, prcscr\"ed iii 
 JIS. in the abbey of Ninove, of wliich he was canon. 
 
 BAUDOUIN de Paderborx, also called Balduinus 
 Parochus, author of a " Universal History," was curd of 
 Paderbom about the year 1418. 
 
 BAUDOUIN D'AVESNE, Sire de Beaujioxt, a French 
 chronicler, author of the " Histoire Genealogique des Comtes dc 
 Hainault," was a descendant of that family. Died in 1289. 
 
 B.\UDRAIS, Jeax, a French writer, bom at Tom-s, August, 
 1749. His career was very singular. He celebrated the birth 
 of the dauphin in 1781 by a musical drama, and in 1783 
 the peace in a production of a similar kind. On the outbreak 
 of tlie Revolution, he, as commissioner of his district, signed 
 assignats, and, as member of the municipality, witnessed the 
 trial of the unfortunate Louis XVI. Under the Reign of Terror 
 he filled the office of censor, and subsequently was appointed to 
 a magistracy at Guadaloupe. This post he had already held 
 for three years, when be was accused of being an accomplice in 
 the attempt to destroy Buonaparte by an infemal machine. 
 Although at the time of the conspiracy he was fifteen hundred 
 leagues distant from Paris, he was transported to Cayenne. 
 There, however, he obtained employment under government, of 
 wliich he was again deprived for refusing to take the o.ath of 
 allegiance to the emperor. He retired to the United States, sup- 
 ported himself by his industiy during thirteen years, and re- 
 turned to France in 1817, when thought to be dead. He died 4th 
 May, 1832, and left several dramatic pieces, songs, &c. — J. F. C. 
 
 B.'VUDRAN, JIatiiiem, was judge in the tribunal of the 
 district of Viennc in Dauiihim', when, in 1792, he was chosen 
 deputy of the national convention, in which he voted for the 
 death of the king. Died in 1812. 
 
 B.VUDRAND, Marie-Etiexxe-Fraxcois-Hexri, Count, a
 
 French seneral, born at Besan9on, Doubs, 21st August, 1774; 
 died at Paris, lOtb September, 1848. He was at first destined 
 for the bar; but prefening a military career, he entered as a 
 soldier in the second battalion of Doiibs, and sen-ed in the army 
 of the Rhine from the month Fructidor, in the year one of the 
 Republic, until the -22nd Veutose, in the year eleven. He was 
 admitted as sub-lieutenant into the school of engineers at Metz, 
 and being afterwards called into active service, he rose through 
 all the grades of his profession, until, after the revolution of 
 1830, he was named lieutenant-general. He was elevated to 
 tHfe peerage, 11th October, 1832. — G. M. 
 
 BAUDKICOURT, Jeax de, marshal of France, died at Blois, 
 11th Mav, 1499. In 1472 Louis XI. conferred on him the 
 collar of the order of St. Michael, and in 1480 made him gover- 
 nor of Bourgogne and Besan9on. Havmg, during the feudal 
 reaction of 1488, contributed greatly to the victory of St. Aubin, 
 he was rewarded with the marshal's baton. 
 
 BAUD RILL ART, Jacques Joseph, a celebrated French 
 agricultu;-ist, born at Givron in Ardennes on 20th May, 1774, 
 and died at Paris, 24th March, 1832. He at first followed a mili- 
 tary career, and afterwards settled in Paris In 1802 he be- 
 came connected with the administration of the forests, and finally 
 became chief-inspector. He published several works on the 
 treatment of forests, and the cultivation of trees. — J. H. B. 
 
 BAUDUIX, Dominique, a French theologian, professor of 
 history at Maestricht, was bom at Liege in 1742, and died in 
 1809. He wrote '• La Religion Chretienne Justifiee au Tribunal 
 de la Pohtique et de la Philosophie." 
 
 BAUDRY D"ASSOX, Gabriel, a leader of the Vendeans 
 daring the French Revolution, bom in Poitou in 1755 ; died in 
 1793. \\lien the Revolution broke out, he was called to the 
 command of the national guard of his native district. Being 
 adverse to the proceedings of the national assembly, he was 
 afterwards placed at the head of a body of peasantry, who seized 
 on Chatillon-sur-Sfe\Te, and attacked ilortagne. They were, 
 however, defeated and dispersed by the national guard, and 
 Baudry was obliged to seek for safety in subterranean conceal- 
 ment. At the time of the great Vendean insm-rection, he again 
 placed himself at the head of the countrj-men. He took part in 
 the battle of Saint-Vincent de Lu9on, and was killed at the 
 attack on Mans. — G. M. 
 
 BAUDRY DES LOZIERES, Louis Narcisse, a French 
 traveller, bom at Paris in 1761; died in 1841. He wrote a 
 "Voyage to Louisiana and the contment of South America," 
 and some historical works. 
 
 BAUER, Aston, a distinguished writer on jurispradence, 
 was bom at Marburg, 16th August, 1772. He was successively 
 professor in the universities of Mai'burg and Gottingen. The 
 juristic department to which he principally devoted himself, was 
 that of criminal law. Amongst his works deserve to be men- 
 tioned, " Grundsatze des Criminalprocesses," 1805, (a highly 
 improved edition of which appeared under the title, " Lehrbuch 
 des Strafprozesses," 1835) ; " Grundzuge des Philosopliischen 
 Strafrechts ; " " Die Wamungstheorie nebst einer Darstellung 
 und Beurtheilung aller Strafrechtstheoricn." He died at Giit- 
 tingen, 1st June, 1843. — K. E. 
 
 • BAUER, Aurel Reinhold Eduix, was bom at Walda, 
 near Grossenhain in Saxony, 7th July, 1816. After having 
 studied theology at Leipzig, he took an active part in the Ger- 
 man cathoUc movement, and from 1845-49 acted as preacher 
 to the German catholic commimities in Saxony. He, however, 
 resigned this office, and again embraced the doctrine of the 
 protestant church. He has published numerous controversial 
 pamphlets, and popular works on theology and biography. — K. E. 
 
 * BAUER, Bruno, one of the boldest of modem German ration- 
 alists, was bom at Eisenberg in the duchy of Sachscn-Altenberg, 
 on the Cth of September, 1819. His education was pursued in 
 the seminaries and university of Berlin, and after completing his 
 curriculum he was appointed to a professorship in theology. His 
 fertile and daring spirit threw itself at once into the contests of 
 the time, and he seems to have resolved to startle the world, 
 rather than to enlighten it. Eccentric novelties have a special 
 charm for him, and he does not conceal it. It is his delight to 
 rebound as far as possil)le from ordinary forms of thought and 
 belief. He has published a great deal, apparently not because 
 it was useful, but because it was striking, and would excite sur- 
 prise and speculation. That he is adventurous everybody knows; 
 that his adventurousness is frequently useless and defiant, his 
 
 friends are all prepared to admit. He was captivated by the 
 Leben Jesu of Strauss, and though he would not admit all its 
 principles, he published a review of it in 1835. His Hegelianism 
 was then notorious, as may be seen in his " Journal of Specu- 
 lative Theology," and his entire departiu-e from Lutheran ortho- 
 doxy, may be read in his " Critical Exposition of the Religion of 
 the Old Testament ; " revelation in his nomenclature being the 
 development of the universal self-consciousness. His works on 
 the gospels are in a similar spirit ; and it is dilficult to say what 
 authority on his piinciples such documents can possess. The 
 scepticism of these productions led to the recall of his license to 
 lecture at Bonn. He has occasionally written on political sub- 
 jects, the events of 1848 affording him an ample t<?xt. In one of 
 his latest works, " Kritik der Pauliuischen Briefe," he goes 
 beyond his compeers in denpng the genuineness of the epistles, 
 even of those which had not been impugned before — endeavouring 
 by arguments, both petulant and inconsistent, to prove them to 
 be productions of the second century. The critical works of 
 Bruno Bauer want the emdition and depth of many similar 
 productions in Germany. They are smart and sprightly, but are 
 devoid of taste, research, and philological ingenuity. Even the 
 school of Tubingen, so famed at the present time for their 
 destructive criticism, can claim no affinity with him. — J. E. 
 
 BAUER, Christlvn Friedeich, a Gemian theologian, 
 author of an " Exposition of the Prophet Joel," and of " A 
 Treatise on the Accentuation of Hebrew," was bom at Hofgarten 
 in Thuringia, and died at Wittenberg in 1782. He was pro- 
 fessor of theology at Wittenberg. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BAUER, Edgar, a German political writer, was bom at 
 Charlottenburg, 7th October, 1820, and educated at the Fried- 
 rich-Wilhehns gymnasiiun and the university of Berlin. His 
 earliest pamphlets were written in defence of his elder brother, 
 Bruno, who had exercised a paramount influence on the develop- 
 ment of his theological and political opinions. In consequence 
 of a work entitled '"Der Streit der Kritiz mit Kirche und Staat," 
 he was prosecuted, found guilty of high treason, &c., and sen- 
 tenced to seven years' imprisonment in tiie fortress of ilagdeburg 
 (1845), from which, however, he was released by the amnesty 
 gi-anted March 18, 1848. In all his writings he wages war 
 against the existing forms of state, church, and society, which 
 he considers as highly detrimental to the real progress and wel- 
 fare of the human race. He now lives in Loivlon. — K. E. 
 
 BAUER, Ferdinand, an eminent botanical artist, was boni 
 in 1760 at Feldsperg in Austria. His f;\ther held the appoint- 
 ment of painter to the court of the reigning prince of Lichten- 
 stein. In early youth the son showed a decided taste for natural- 
 history painting, and made delineations of animals and plants 
 from nature. In 1784 he was engaged by Dr. John Sibthoi-p 
 of Oxford, to accompany him as artist to Greece. They visited 
 Athens, Corinth, the Grecian islands, and C}-pms. The result 
 of their travels was the publication of the splendid work, entitled 
 " Flora Gra;ca," the drawings for which were executed by Bauer. 
 The botanical delineations in that work are patterns of excel- 
 lence. In 1801 he was appointed natural-history draughtsman 
 to the expedition to Terra Australis, commanded by Captain 
 Flinders of H.M.S. Invest ic/atoi: His salary was £300 a year, 
 with rations for himself and his sen'ant. He carried on his 
 artistic labours in Australia with great vigour and success. In 
 the year 1803 he states, that between the period of his starting 
 from and his return to Sydney, he had executed five hundred 
 species of plants and ninety animals, especially birds. Captain 
 Flinders having resolved to go back to Britain, Mr. Bauer 
 awaited his return in Australia along with Mr. Robert Brown. 
 During this period they visited Xoifolk island, and collected 
 materials for its Flora. In 1813 he commenced his illustrations 
 of the Flora of New Holland. The work, however, was not en- 
 couraged, and it was accordingly suspended in 1814. He finally 
 settled in the neighbourhood of Vienna, and there continued his 
 botanical labours, paying, however, a visit to England in 1819. 
 He executed the drawings for Lanubert's large and valuable 
 work on the genus Pinus, and also aided in other botanical pub- 
 lications. He made ex':ursions also to the Alps of Austria and 
 Styria, with the view of collecting plants. He died on the 17th 
 March, 1820, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. The greater 
 part of his collections were bequeathed to his heirs-at-law. Two 
 volumes, however, of miniature paintings of Australian plants 
 and animals afterwards came into the possession of Dr. Robert 
 Brown, and his herbarium, along with the skins of animals, &c.,
 
 were piucliascd for the imperial museum at Vienna. His name 
 is commemorated in the genus Bauera, as well as in Cape Bauer, 
 a rocky headland to the south-east of Franklin's island. — J.H. B. 
 
 BAUER, Francis, fellow of the Royal Society, was a bota- 
 nical painter at Kew. He was an eminent artist. He published 
 in 1796, "Delineations of Exotic Plants cultivated at Kew," 
 "Coloured Figures of Strelitzia" in 1818 ; and " Illustrations of 
 Orchideous Plants," 1830-38; besides papers in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions. — J. H. B. 
 
 BAUER, Georg Lorenz, a Gennan theologian, was born 
 at Hilpoltstcin in Bavaria, 14th April, 1755, and died at Hei- 
 delberg, 12tli January, 180G. He studied at Altdoi-f, and in 
 1789 was appointed to the professorship of ethics and oriental 
 languages at Altdorf, from which he was translated in 1805 to 
 a chair at Heidelberg. His works are distinguished by great 
 learning and critical acumen. We mention, " Hermeneutica 
 Sacra V"et. Test.," 1797; " Hebraische Mythologie des Alten 
 und Neuen Testaments," 2 vols. ; " Dicta Classica Vet. Test. ;" 
 " Bibliscbe Theologie des Neuen Testament," 4 vols. — K. E. 
 
 * BAUERLE, Andueas Adolf, a German comic dramatist, 
 bom at Vienna, 9th April, 1781. He was for a long time 
 poet and secretary to the Leopoldstadt theatre at Vienna, for 
 which he vsrote a long series of popular and successful forces, 
 in the provincial dialect of his native town. They have been 
 collected under the title " Komisches Theater." Since 1808 he 
 was editor of the Wiener Thcater-Zekuny. — K. E. 
 
 * BAUERNFELD, Eduard, a German comic dramatist, was 
 born at Vienna m 180-1. He devoted liimself to the legal pro- 
 fession, and afterwards held several subordinate situations under 
 government. His comedies are distinguished by great sprightli- 
 ness of dialogue, effective scenes, and unpretending wit, but are 
 deficient in refinement, delineation of characters, and skilful 
 management of the plot. — K. E. 
 
 BAUFFREJIONT or BEAUFFREMONT, a very ancient 
 French family, several members of which became celebrated 
 in history. The following were the most noteworthy : — 
 
 Pierre de, lived in the first half of the fifteenth century. 
 He contributed to the influence and distinction of his house, by 
 allying himself in marriage, in 1448, with JIaria, daughter of 
 Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. 
 
 GuiLLAUJiE, brother of the preceding, was the ancestor of 
 that branch of the family which, during the fifteenth, sixteenth, 
 and seventeenth centuries, was mixed up with the principal events, 
 political, religious, and military in the history of France. 
 
 Nicolas de, gi-andson of the preceding, baron of Senescey, 
 died in 1582. Under Charles IX., he was appointed gi-and pre- 
 vot of Fi-ance. He distinguished himself by his zeal as an 
 adherent of the league ; fought in the battles of Jarnac and 
 Moncontour, and at the head of a band of assassins took an 
 active part in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. He died at 
 the age of sixty-two at his castle of Senescey. 
 
 Claude de, son of the preceding, baron of Senescey and 
 governor of Auxonne ; died in 1596. He was, like his father, 
 an ardent leaguer and a partisan of LoiTainc. 
 
 Henri de, son of the preceding, killed at the siege of Mont- 
 pellier in 1622. In 1614 he was chosen president of the 
 chamber of noblesse in the estates of Paris, and was created 
 chevalier of the order of his majesty. 
 
 Henri de, .son of the preceding, inheriting the same titles, 
 and holding the same office of governor of Auxonne, was Idlled 
 by a Gennan soldier at the battle of Sedan, Gth July, 1641, and 
 his brother Louis having on the same day been made prisoner, 
 that branch of the family became extinct. 
 
 Claude-Ciiarle.s-Roger de, belonging to the other branch 
 of the family, died in 1593. He entered ecclesiastical orders, 
 and became in 1562 bishop of Troyes. 
 
 Antoine di;, brother of the ]ireceding, died in the second 
 half of the sixteenth century. He was attached as one of the 
 gentlemen of the chamber to the household of Henry III., and 
 was chevalier of honour of the parliament of Burgundy, of 
 which, in 1561, he was a member. 
 
 Charles Louis, brother of the preceding, marquis of Jles- 
 simieux. He was a grandee, of Spain, and chevalier of the 
 golden fieeee. 
 
 PiEiii'.E, son of the preceding, died in 1685. He had the 
 title of maniuis of Listenais, and was one of the household of 
 the king of Spain. After the conquest of Franche-Comtd he 
 returned to France. 
 
 Louis B£nigne, marquis de Bauffremont, lived in the first 
 half of the eighteenth century. He was wounded at the battle 
 of Malplaquet in 1709. At first sub-lieutenant of the gendarmes 
 of Burgundy, he rose to the rank of brigadier, and was named 
 chevalier of the golden fleece. 
 
 Alexander Emmanuel Louis, prince of Bauffremont, 
 born at Paris, 27th April, 1773; died, 22nd December, 1833. 
 At the commencement of the Revolution, he took part with the 
 princes of Germany in the invasion of Champagne ; and in 1793 
 and 1794 assisted in the campaigns against the French republic. 
 He was offered a peerage by Louis XVIII., but refused it to 
 account of his age and infirmities. 
 
 Alfonse, duke of Bauffremont, eldest son of the preceding, 
 created a count by Napoleon. He was aid-de-camp to Miu-at, 
 and distinguished himself at the battle of Moskva in the cam- 
 paign of Saxony in 1813, and at Dresden. — G. M. 
 
 BAUGH, Robert, engraver of the maps of North Wales, 
 published by John Evans, and of his own great map of Shrop- 
 shire. He died near Llanymynich, Shropshire, December 27, 
 1832, aged eighty-four. — T. F. 
 
 B.4,UGIN, LuBiN, surnamed the French Guido, a painter, 
 flourishing in Paris about the middle of the seventeenth centuiy. 
 He was employed in preparing subjects for the Gobelins, besides 
 other paintings, which were afterwards engraved. Although an 
 artist of considerable talent, there is nothing in his works to 
 justify the surname given to him. — R. JI. 
 
 BAUHIN, Gaspard, a celebrated anatomist and botanist, 
 brother of John Bauhin, was born at Basle on 17th Januai-)-, 
 1560, and died in his native city on 5th December, 1624. He 
 commenced his medical and scientific studies at the university 
 of Basle, and in 1577 he repaired to Padua. He travelled in 
 Italy for some time making collections of plants. He then 
 studied at jMontpcllier, and finally at Paris. In 1581 he took 
 his degree of doctor of medicine, and gave lectures on botany 
 and anatomy. In 1582 he was appointed professor of Greek; 
 in 1588 professor of anatomy and botany in the university of 
 Basle. Subsequently he occupied the chair of practice of physic, 
 and was made rector of the university and dean of the faculty. 
 He was an acute botanist, and did good service to the science 
 by the accuracy of his nomenclature, and the elucidation of syno- 
 n}Tns. He became an authority in science, and, along with his 
 brother, did much to advance it. Plumier named a genus of 
 LeguminossB Bauhinia after him. He wrote many botanical 
 and medical works. Among the former, the most valuable is 
 his " Pinax Theatri Botaniei," or an index to the works of 
 Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, and the earlier botanists, with 
 the names, .'5ynon}Tns, and differential characters of nearly COuu 
 plants. He planned another large work, called " Theatrum Bo- 
 tanicurn," or a complete history of all known plants, to be com- 
 pleted in twelve foHo parts. He lived to complete three of these, 
 but only one was published. He published also a catalogue of 
 the plants growing near Basle ; and an enumeration of the 
 plants described from the herbaria at that time in existence. 
 The latter work was left incomplete, but it contains a short 
 description of 2700 species, beginning with grasses and ending 
 with leguminous plants. He edited the works of JIathiulus. 
 Besides these, he was the author of several anatomical and 
 medical works. — J. H. B. 
 
 B.\UHIN, John, a physician and distinguished botanist, 
 was born at Basle in 1541. He was the son of an eminent 
 physician, who quitted France on account of espousing the pro- 
 testaut religion, and settled in Ba.sle. Under his father's tuition 
 he received the elements of his medical education. During the 
 year 1560 he prosecuted his studies at the university of Tubin- 
 gen, and acquired a knowledge of botany under the celebrated 
 Fuchs. Having repaired to Zurich, he made the acquaintance 
 of Conrad Gesner, and travelled with him in Switzerland. He 
 made collections of plants in various parts of France and Italy. 
 In France he suft'ered persecution on account of being a pro- 
 te.stant. He spent some time at Geneva, and then returned to 
 Basle where he was elected professor of rhetoric in 1566. He 
 also practised as a physician, and acquired great eminence. In 
 1570 he was invited to be physician to the duke of Wirtemberg 
 at Jlontbelliard. In this situation he continued till his death in 
 1613. In the garden at Jlontbelliard he was enabled to pro- 
 secute his favourite science of botany, in which he attained great 
 celebrity. He attended also to other branches of natural his- 
 tory. He published several medical and botanical works. His
 
 BAU 
 
 421 
 
 BAU 
 
 great work on the history of plants was not completed at the 
 time of his death, and it did not appear till 1G50 and 1G51, in 
 3 vols, folio. The expense of its publication, which amounted 
 to about £3000, was defrayed by Fran9ois Louis de Grafenried, 
 a wealthy Bernese citizen. The work contains a description of 
 about 5000 plants, with 3577 figures. Haller pronounces the 
 work, notwithstanding its defects, to be without an equal. It 
 is still a work of consultation ; and the author is reckoned one 
 of the early founders of botany. An abridgment of the work 
 was ])ublished at Yverdun. — J. H. B. 
 
 BAUHIN, John Gaspard, a son of Gaspard Bauhin, was 
 bom at Basle on 12th JIarch, 1606, and died 14th July, 1685. 
 He occupied for thii-ty years tlie chair of botany in the univer- 
 sity of Basle ; and in 1659 was chosen physician-in-ordinary to 
 Louis XIV. His published works were metlical, viz., " On the 
 Causes and l^istribution of Diseases ;" " On Plague and Epi- 
 lepsy."— J. H. B. 
 
 BAUHULS (in Latin, Bauhusius), Bekxaud, a Jesuit of 
 Anvers, professor at the college of Bruges, was born in 1575, 
 and died in 1629. He was the author of five books of epigrams, 
 among which is one capable, according to Prestet, of being turned 
 three tliousand three hundred and sixty-six different ways, with- 
 out losing its rhythmical quality. It runs thus — " Tot tibi sunt 
 dotes, virgo, quot sidera cceIo." — J. S., G. 
 
 BAULACRE, Leonard, protestant librarian at Genoa, author 
 of some historical and theological dissertations, was born in 1 670, 
 and died in 1761. The must interesting of his publications are 
 those which relate to the history of his birthplace. 
 
 BAULDKI, Paul, a historian, born at Rouen in 1639; died 
 in 1706. He became professor of sacred history at Utrecht. 
 He published an edition of " Lactantius de Jlortibus Persecu- 
 t'lrum," chronological tables, and other works. 
 
 BAUMAN, Nicolas, professor of history at Rostock, bom at 
 vrismar or Emden about 1450; died in 1526. The satiric poem, 
 ' Ki'inecke the Fox," has been attributed to him, but the real 
 author appears to have been Henri d'Alkmaer. 
 
 BAUilBACH, John Balthazar, a German orientalist, died 
 in 1622. He was professor of Greek and Hebrew at Heidelberg, 
 and author of philological works on the Hebrew, Chaldee, and 
 Syriac languages. 
 
 BAUMANN, John Nicolas, a physician, who flourished 
 at the beginning of the seventeenth centiuy. He wrote a work 
 on the properties of tobacco, its use and abuse. It was pub- 
 lished at Basle in 1629. 
 
 BAUME, Antoine, a celebrated French chemist and phanna- 
 cist, son of an innkeeper at Senlis, was bom in 1728, and died 
 ill 1804. The first ditficulties of his career — those arising out 
 ■f his defective education — overcome, he was admitted into the 
 !, lenity of apothecaries in 1752, and shortly after elected to the 
 ' 'i lir of chemistry in the college of pharmacy. This appoint- 
 
 nt brought liim into notice, and enabled him to find a market 
 ii- the ingenious products of his laboratory. That, for a long 
 l"'riod, was rather a busy manufactory and head office of "che- 
 mistry applied to the arts," than a cliamber dedicated to studi- 
 ous experiment. In 1780 Baume found himself rich enough to 
 think of consecrating the remainder of his life to science; but 
 the Revolution swept away his fortune, and he had again to 
 organize his manufactoiy. He died in 1804. The most con- 
 siderable of his works is entitled " Chimie Experimcntale et 
 b'aisonnee," 1773.— J. S., G. 
 
 BAUME, NicoLAS-AuGusTE DE la, marquis of Montrcvel, 
 marshal of France, born in 1636; died, lUli October, 1716. 
 He embraced the profession of amis, distinguished himself by 
 his conduct and valour in various battles and sieges, and rose 
 through all the gradi^s, until at last in 1703 he obtained the 
 mai'shal's baton. Though so brave on the field of battle, it is 
 said that Baume died of fear. Dining at the house of the duke 
 of Biron, he hajipened to overturn the salt, and such an accident 
 being deemed an unlucky omen, he was seized with superstitious 
 terror, which brought on a fever, of which he died four days 
 afterwards.— G. Jit. 
 
 BAUME SAINT-AMOUR, Philippe dk la, marquis of 
 Yennes, died at Paris about 1670. He was governor of Franche- 
 Comte for the king of Spain, and was accused of having facili- 
 tated the conquest of that province by Louis XIV. in 1688. 
 He defended himself in a tract of sevcnty-fiv(^ P'lgcs, small 
 quarto, which he imljlislicd the same year. — G. M. 
 
 BAUME-MOisTlvEVELjCLAUDE de la, cardinal-archbishop 
 
 of Besan9on; born in 1531; died in 1584. He made himself 
 remarked among contemporary prelates by the zeal with which 
 he persecuted the Calvinists of his diocese. 
 
 BAUMEISTER, Frederick Christian, rector of Gorlitz, 
 born 1708 ; died 1785 ; belonged to the philosophical school of 
 Leibnitz and Wolf; but treated the doctrine of pre-established 
 harmony as a mere hypothesis, and discussed very impartially 
 the argument for and against it. His elementai-y works display 
 much skill in exposition ; but he fell into the error of his school, 
 the attempt to reduce everything to demonstration. — J. D. E. 
 
 BAUME R, JoHANN WiLHELM, professor of medicine at 
 Erfurt and Giessen, was born in 1719 at Rehweilen in Fran- 
 conia, and died in the vicinity of Giessen in 1788. He studied 
 at Halle and Jena, and in 1742 became pastor of Krautheini ; 
 but after a few years quitted theology for medicine. His prin- 
 cipal works are on chemistry and mineralogy. — W. S. D. 
 
 BAUMES, Jean Baptiste Timothee, a French physician, 
 born at Lunel, M-.xy 22, 1777; died at Montpellier, July 19, 
 1828. After having practised medicine at Nismes, with great 
 success, he was appointed professor at the school of medicine at 
 Montpellier, and obtained in this city, for twenty-two years of 
 his life, great reputation. Lively and witty, but with an irascible 
 disposition, he made enemies of all his colleagues, and he even 
 fell out with Chaptal, who, after having been, like him, professor 
 in the faculty of Montpellier, was, during the time he was min- 
 ister, the protector of this celebrated school. Baumes endeav- 
 oured to found a pathological theory on chemistry, which met 
 with great success. He wrote numerous articles in the Journal 
 of the Society of Practical Medicine at Montpellier. — E. L. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, Alex. Gottlieb, born at Beriin, 1714; 
 studied at Halle, afterwards lectured at the orphan institution 
 there, and was in 1740, appointed professor of philosophy at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he died in 1762. Was a disciple 
 of Leibnitz and Wolf, and a strenuous supporter of monadology 
 and pre-established harmony. His principal contribution to phi- 
 losophy was in reference to the philosophy of taste, or the science 
 of the beautiful, a subject to which his attention had been called 
 by his study of belles-lettres. He was the first to treat of it as 
 a distinct science, and he invented the term (esthetics to denote 
 it. His peculiar views are betrayed in his choice of this word, 
 (derived from a(Vfl«Kj,u.«/, to perceive.') He regarded beauty as a 
 quality addressed to the senses, and forming the olyect of an 
 obscure and confused perception. Hence it is only the lower 
 fiiculties of the mind that recognize the beautiful, and Baum- 
 garten accordingly defined genius as consistmg in a veiy high 
 development of the lower faculties. — J. D. E. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, James Sigismund, a distinguished scholar 
 and theologian of the university of Halle, in the earlier half of 
 the eighteenth century, and the connecting link between the 
 school of the pietists and the rationalists, was the son of James 
 Baumgarten, pastor of Wolhnirstadt, near Magdeburg, where he 
 was born in 1706. After studying at the pasdagogium of Halle, 
 he entered the university in 1724. He was first a teacher and 
 then inspector of the orphan-house of that city; in 1728 he 
 became colleague to Francke in the pastoral charge of one of the 
 churches; in 1730 he was made adjunct professor of theology; 
 and in 1734 professor ordinarius. From that time be lived 
 wholly for the university and the promotion of science. He 
 belonged to the celebrated school of Spener and Francke, and 
 his professional labours proved an important accession to its 
 strength and reputation. It had begun to degenerate and de- 
 cline — learning was depreciated, study neglected, and philosophy 
 discouraged as dangerous to the interests of piety. Tiie school 
 required to be invigorated by a man like Baumgarten, who com- 
 bined with his sincere piety and devotion a philosophic spirit, 
 distinctness of ideas, precision of language, strict order and 
 method of discourse, and rich stores of knowledge. He was a 
 student of the Wolfian pliilosophy, and profited much by its 
 advantages as an intellectual discipline. He was for tliirty years 
 the principal ornament of the university of Halle. His students 
 sometimes numbered as many as 400. He was particularly 
 eminent in the departments of dogmatic and moral theology 
 and church history. He was much admired by his students — 
 among many of whom be awakened a taste for thorough learn- 
 ing and original independent research. Adelung, John David 
 Michaelis, Noesselt, and Sender, were the most famous of his 
 scholars. He engaged in many literary undertakings which had 
 no connection with theology. He translated the celebrated Eng-
 
 BAU 
 
 422 
 
 BAU 
 
 lish Universal History, with notes, and four vols, of illustrative 
 additions; and he brought out German editions of the French 
 liistorical works of Niceron, De Fresnoy, Rapin, and others. 
 He died 4th July, 1757. Ilis life was written by Semler, under 
 whom the freedom of investigation inculcated by his master, 
 degenerated into a boldness and hardihood, such as Baumgarten 
 had given no example of; and the pietism of Halle gave place 
 by a suigular reaction to what is now called in Gennany the 
 vulgar rationalism. Baumgarten's published works were very 
 numerous, but they were superseded by the writings of the suc- 
 ceeding age. — P. L. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, John Christian Gottlob, a Gennan 
 botanist, was born at Lucknau in Lower Lusatia, on 7th Api'il, 
 17G5, and died about 1830. He was the author of a Flora of 
 Transylvania and of Leipzig, a dissertation on the use of elm- 
 bark, and a treatise on the decorative art.— J. H. B. 
 
 BAUJIGARTEN, Martin von, a German sculptor, born at 
 Dresden in 1640; established himself in France where he exe- 
 cuted several of his best statues for the palace of Versailles. — R. M. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN -CRUSIUS, Detlev Karl Wilhelm, 
 was born at Dresden, January 24, 1786, and educated at Grimma 
 and Leipzig, where he devoted himself to the study of theology 
 and the classics. In 1833 he was appointed head-master of 
 the Landes-scbule at Meissen, one of the oldest and most re- 
 nowned grammar-schools in Saxony, wliere, till his death on 
 the 12th May, 1845, he was incessantly and successfully engaged 
 in improving the old pedantic discipline, in propagating a sound 
 and useful knowledge, and in imparting a high moral sense and 
 trae christian spirit to the whole institution. Besides his much 
 valued editions of Suetonius and of the Odyssey, he has published 
 a number of popular German writings. — K. E. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, Ludwig F. Otto, a distin- 
 guished Gennan theologian of the first half of the present cen- 
 tury, was born 31st July, 1788, at Merseburg, where his father, 
 Gottlob August Baumgarten, author of a treatise entitled 
 " Schrift und Vernunft," held a dignified position among the 
 clergy of the town. After attending the gymnasium of his 
 native place, he studied at the university of Leipzig, where he 
 took his master's degree in 1808, and commenced teacher in 
 the philosophical faculty in 1809. In 1812 he became extra- 
 ordinaiy professor of theology at Jena, where he spent the rest 
 of his life, being appointed ordinary professor of theology in 
 1817, and rising to be primarius and senior of the theological 
 faculty in 1835. He died suddenly of apoplexy, 31st May, 
 1843. With the exception of church history, he read lectures 
 in ail the departments of theoretical theology, and he was the 
 author of several works of merit in New Testament exegesis, 
 biblical theology, dogmatics, ethics, and dogmatic history. His 
 principal writings are, " Grandziige der Biblischen Theologie," 
 Jena, 1828; " Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte," 1832; " Opus- 
 cula Academica," 1836; and "Compendium der Dogmenges- 
 chichte," Leipzig, 1840. The last-named work was left un- 
 finished, but was completed in 1846 by his colleague Hase, who 
 also prefixed a preface containing an estimate of the author's 
 character and merits. Brought up by his father in the ortho- 
 dox princijiles of the Lutheran church, he continued stedfastly 
 attached to the fundamental traths of the gospel during a 
 period of abounding rationalism, and in a university where that 
 system had many distinguished supporters. But he took no 
 prominent jiart in the controversies of the age ; he was entirely 
 devoted to the pursuits of tranquil study, and he earned the fame 
 of a divine equally free and acute in his scientific spirit. — P. L. 
 
 BAUJIGARTNER, Johann, a Gennan sculptor, born at 
 Bamberg in 1744; died in 1792; was the modeller of the horses 
 on the Potsdam gate at Berlin. — R. M. 
 
 BAUNY, Etiknxe, a celebrated French Jesuit, professor of 
 humanity and of theology, was born at Mouzon in Ardennes in 
 1564, and died at St. Pol de Leon in Bretague in 1649. His 
 works, a list of which is to be found in the Biographic Ai-dennaise 
 of Bouillot, contain one of the most complete and ingenious 
 systems of casuistry ever published. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BAUR, FiiuniNAND (hiuisTiAN, a distinguished li\iug 
 critic and divine of Gennany, was born at Schneiden, 21st July, 
 1792. The usual course of education being completed, his acute 
 mind and singidar erudition soon raised him to the professorate. 
 After occupying a chair in one of the inferior universities, he 
 was translated to Tiibingen in 1826, where he has founded a 
 new theological school, commonly named the Tubingen or Tiibin- 
 
 gensian school. The disciples of Baur have, as has often 
 liappened, outdone their master, and Schwegler and others 
 assert where Baur would hesitate, step boldly in where the 
 more erudite and cautious Coryphaeus would fear to tread. The 
 works of the Tubingen school have advocated a destructive criti- 
 cism, which would sadly mangle the scriptures, and leave us but 
 a few disjointed fragments. Yet their arguments are almost 
 wholly subjective — tlie mere expression of individual tastes 
 and predilections, are therefore varying, capricious, and baseless, 
 opposed alike to historical testimony and true scientific investi- 
 gation. Baur's works have been of various kinds. There are 
 his critical works, in which he applies his peculiar principles to 
 the documents of the New Testament, such as his " Sog. Pas- 
 toralbriefe des Paulus," in which he labours to prove that the 
 epistles to Timothy and Titus were not written by Paul, chiefly 
 because of allusions which, as he thinks, belong to the Gnostic 
 philosophy of a later period, and he holds that they were written 
 during the JIarcionite heresy ; his " Kritische Untersuchungen 
 iiber die canonischen Evang. ;" and his "Das Marcion-evange- 
 lium," &c. Another class of his works exhibit his tliorough devo- 
 tion to the Hegelian philosophy, as his " Symbolik und Mytho- 
 logie," &c. ; " Das Manichacnsche Religiois system." Another 
 and far more important section of his WTitings are those which 
 treat critically and liistorically of certain doctrines. To this 
 class belong his "Geschichte der Versobnung-lehre," &c.. History 
 of the doctrine of the Atonement and his doctrine of the Trinity 
 and Incarnation — " Lehre von der Dreieinigkert und Mensch- 
 werdung Gottes," 3 vols. These treatises are distinguished by a 
 rare subtilty and leaniiiig, and by a peculiar facility in defining 
 and developing the opinions of others who have written on the 
 subject discussed. Bam* has a special aptitude for this difficult 
 work of re-presentation, seizing on the various shades of opinion, 
 bringing out its delicate modifications, and reproducing in vivid 
 and impartial form the belief and theology of various ages of 
 the church, whether these be primitive, mediajval, or modem, or 
 are marked by scholastic refinement or metaphysical distmc- 
 tions. For example, in reference to the atonement, you have it 
 as the Apologists taught it, as Anselm viewed it, as the English 
 divines portrayed it, as Luther preached it, as Calvin delineated 
 it, and as Schleiermaeher depicted it, with multitudes of others, 
 through all the grades of opiniim which have been promul- 
 gated for eighteen centuries. The principles of criticism which 
 the Tubingen school have adopted, are veiy vague and uncer- 
 tain. In his "Paulus," &c., 1845, Baur impugns the genuine- 
 ness of all the epistles but four, and that for the merest di-eams. 
 His rejection of so many epistles, is called by Alford "the 
 insanity of hypercriticism." His argimient is often of this 
 nature, — Because the writer uses favourite phrases, he cannot 
 be Paul, but a plagiarist repeating him ; if he use uncommon 
 phrases, he cannot be Paul, but an imitator in disguise. Pauline 
 phraseology and unpauline phraseology is alike, with him, evi- 
 dence of forgeiy. The publication of the Philosophoumena of 
 Hippolytus, was a sad blow to Baur and his followers, for this 
 old writer quotes books of the New Testament as current in his 
 time, and before it — books which, as the Tubingen school had 
 chosen to demonstrate, could have had no existence till a period 
 long after the death of Hippolytus. The influence of Baur has 
 been great in Germany, and his penetration, honesty, industry, 
 and acquirements are universally acknowledged. — J. E. 
 
 BAUR, Frederick William, a German general, bom at 
 Bieber in the electorate of Hesse in 1731 ; died at St. Peters- 
 burg, 4th February, 1783. He entered when veiy young into 
 the corps of engineers, and distinguished himself under the duke 
 of Brunswick during the seven years' war. In 1769 he entered 
 the service of Russia, and was employed by the Empress Cathe- 
 rine in several important public works. — G. JI. 
 
 BAUR, Samuel, bom at Ulm, 1768; died in 1832. One of 
 the most voluminous writers of Germany ; author of a historical 
 and biogi-aphical dictionaiy, translator of the " Caracteres de la 
 Bruyere," and one of the contributors to the German Encyclo- 
 pedia of Ersch and Gruber. 
 
 BAUSA, Gregorio, a Spanish painter, bom at Majorca in 
 1590; died at Valencia in 1656; pupil of Francisco Rivalta, 
 whom he equalled in all but the correctness of design ; executed 
 a large nuudter of pictures for the churches of Valencia. — R. M. 
 
 BAUSAN, John, a celebrated naval ofhcer, born at Gaeta 
 in 1757; died in 1821. He embarked when very young on 
 board the MurlboiviKjh, and fought for three years under tlie
 
 Eno-lish flag. Between 1779 and 1820 he signalized himself 
 in a "i-eat variety of engagements, in several of which he was 
 wounded. He was nominated by Murat commander of the 
 order of the Two Sicilies.— G. M. 
 
 * BAUTAIN, Louis, a French theologian and philosopher, 
 vicar-i'enerul in the diocese of Paris, was born in 179G. He 
 taught philosophy at Strasburg from 1816 till the revolution of 
 IBlfo, when he resigned his chair. In 1838 he became deacon 
 of the Faculty of Letters at Strasburg, and in 1849 principal of 
 the college of Juilly. He holds the diplomas of doctor in medi- 
 cine, letters, and theology. His works, which turn principally on 
 the relations of theology and philosophy, brought him into con- 
 troversy with the bishop of Strasburg, who accused him, unjustly 
 it would appear, of a leaning to pantheism. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAUTER, Charles, a dramatic poet, born at Paris about 
 1580 ; died in 1630. Author of an exceedingly rare poem on the 
 marriage of Henry IV. and Mary de Medicis. 
 
 BAUTISTA, Juan, a Spanish sculptor, who in 15G9 exe- 
 cuted several statues for the grand entrance of the Toledo 
 cathedral, especially those of "Faith" and "Charity," which, 
 on account of their pre-eminent merit, were attributed by some 
 biogi'aphers to Alonso Beraguete. — R. M. 
 
 BAUX, the name of an ancient French family, who traced 
 their origin as far back as 1040. Among the members of this 
 family distinguished in history, are the following : — 
 
 Bertkand I., became prince of Orange by his man-iage with 
 Tiburge II., heiress of that principality. He died in 1181. 
 
 GuiLLAUME II., son of the preceding, obtained in 1214 
 from the emperor, Frederick II., the title of king of Aries and 
 of Vienne. 
 
 GuiLEAUJiE III., who died in 1239. He left four sons — 
 Guillaume IV., who died without issue; Bertrand I., who took 
 up his residence in Italy, where he became the ancestor of three 
 lucal houses ; Hugues, who became grand seneschal of Sicily ; 
 :iiul Raymond II., who succeeded his brother Guillaume, and 
 .ru;\ about 1282. 
 
 I'lERTRAND 11., SOU of the preceding, who lived in 1314. He 
 as succeeded by Raymond III., who was followed by Raymond 
 IV- The barony of Baux was afterwards seized by Louis III., 
 count of Provence. — G. M. 
 
 BAUX, Pierre, a French physician, born at Nismes, August 
 
 I -', 1679, and died at St. Dionisy, near Nismes, September 3, 
 
 7. '2. He studied successively at Montpellier, at Orange, and 
 
 Paris. He afterwards lived at Nismes, where he soon obtained 
 
 ureat reputation duiing the plague which infested Provence. 
 ilr wrote a "Traits de la peste," Toulouse, 1722. — E. L. 
 
 BAVA, Gaetano Emanuele, count of San Paolo, was born 
 I Fossano, April, 1737. He was brought up in the court of 
 < 'harles Emanuel III. of Sardinia, and afterwards spent some 
 yi'ars in the army. He finally devoted himself to literature, of 
 (vliich he was a liberal patron. He wrote a "Histoiy of Sciences, 
 Arts, and Customs," and several other minor works. He died 15th 
 August, 1829, having bequeathed his library of 5000 vohmies 
 to the academy of Fossano, which he had founded. — J. F. W. 
 
 BAVARIA, Dukes, Electors, Kings oe. The early his- 
 toiy of Bavaria and its rulers, extending back to the end of the 
 fifth century, is involved in much obscurity. The Boioares, a 
 confederation of paltry dukedoms, having fallen into dependence 
 on the lungs of Austrasia, became consohdated under the autho- 
 rity of Duke Garibald, of the race of the Agilofinges, a colla- 
 teral branch of the Merovingians.— The reign of Tiiassilo I. 
 (699) became remarkable for the war which broke out between 
 the Slavonian tril)es and their allies, the Avares. Odilo, son- 
 in-law of Charles Martel, assumed the title of king ; but being 
 desirous of withdrawing himself from the sovereignty of the 
 Franks, to whom he was tribiitaiy, he was attacked and van- 
 quished by his brothers-in-law, Carloman and Pepin. — Tiias- 
 silo II. was summoned by Pepin le Brcf (748) to take the oath 
 of vassalage to him at the diet of Compiegne, but he refused, 
 and formed an alliance against his suzerain, with his father-in- 
 law, Didier, king of Lombardy, and with the duke of Aquitaine. 
 In 777, having associated his son Theodore with him in the 
 government, he fonned a new alliance with the Avares against 
 Charlemagne, who was about to seize upon Lombardy. He was 
 nevertheless defeated, and in 788 was condemned to death for 
 felony by the diet of Ingelbeim. This sentence was commuted 
 by Charlemagne, who, instead, consigned him and bis whole 
 family to difi'ercnt convents, where their race became extinct. 
 
 At the diet held at Ratisbon in 788, the ducal dignity of Bavaria 
 was suppressed, but the country still preserved the rank and title 
 of duchy, and the government was intrusted to Ceroid, count of 
 Swabia, and brother-in-law of Charlemagne. Duke Gerold 
 partially introduced the feudal system of the Franks into the 
 Bavarian temtory, which about this period, however, became 
 divided. Mention is made in histoiy of a Count Guntram, 
 margrave of eastern Bavaria (Ostmark), afterwards called Aus- 
 tria. In 799 the Raab, at its confluence with the Danube, became 
 the limit of Bavaria, which comprehended the Tyrol, the country 
 of Salzburg, the gi'eater part of Austria, the upper Palatinate, 
 Neuburg, Eichstadt, Anspach, Beimth, Bamberg, Nuremberg, 
 and the districts of Weissenburg, Nordlingen, and Dunkelsbuhl. 
 At the division which Charlemagne made of his dominions, 
 Bavaria and Italy fell to the share of Pepin. They were after- 
 wards erected into a kingdom by Louis le Debonnaire, who gave 
 them to Loth A IRE, his eldest son, and he in 817 ceded them 
 to Louis le Germaniqte. At the death of Louis in 876, his 
 son Carloman became sovereign of Bavaria, which now com- 
 prehended Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, Friuli, Pannonia, Moravia, 
 and Bohemia. He was succeeded in 880 by bis brother, Louis 
 III., who was elected by the free suffrages of the people. During 
 his reign Carinthia was separated from his other dominions; and 
 after his death, which took place in 882, Bavaria was governed 
 in succession by Charles les Gros, Arnulf, and Louis IV. 
 In the reign of Charles, Bavaria was again incorporated with the 
 empire of the Franks ; and during that of Louis, it was repeat- 
 edly invaded by the Hungarians. At his death in 911, the 
 Carlovingian dynasty became extinct, and the supreme authority 
 passed into the hands of a Bavarian, under the title of Arnule 
 II., duke of Bavaria and the smTounding countries. 
 
 The territoiy afterwards fell into the hands of Oxno of Wit- 
 TLESBACii, count palatine of Bavaria. Otho, who died in 1183, 
 became the founder of the reigning house of Bavaria. He was 
 succeeded by Louis I., who consolidated the duchy, and added 
 to it the palatinate of the Rhine. Under Otho, sumamed the 
 Illustrious, palatine of the Rhine, the bishops rendered them- 
 selves independent. His two sons, Louis and Henky, had at 
 first shared the government equally between them, but their 
 dominions being afterwards split into two parts, upper Bavaria 
 fell to Louis, and lower Bavaria to Henry, whose line, two years 
 after, became extinct. In 1314 the second son of Louis was 
 crowned emperor, under the name of Louis IV. or Louis the 
 Bavarian, who, in 1329, ceded to his brother's son the upper 
 and lower Palatinate, reserving to himself only the higher Bava- 
 ria. He stipulated, however, at the same time, that the rights 
 of the electorate should be exercised alternately by the princes of 
 the two lines. In accordance with the votes of the estates, Louis 
 IV. reunited the higher and lower Bavaria, the reigning house 
 of the latter having become extinct. Bavaria owed to Louis IV. 
 many important ameliorations and useful institutions. He had 
 six sons, to whom he bequeathed his dominions, which, at the 
 time of his death, comprehended not only Bavaria, but Branden- 
 burg, the provinces of Holland and of Zealand, the Tyrol, &c. 
 In 1506 the estates of higher and lower Bavari.-i met in pro- 
 vincial assembly, when the Duke Albert II., of the line of 
 Munich, strack with the inconvenieneies of these frequent par- 
 titions of territoiy among the princes of the two houses, obtained 
 the consent of his brother Wolfgang and that of the estates, to 
 the institution of a pragmatic sanction, which established the right 
 of the eldest, and fixed the appanages of the younger princes. 
 At the death of Albert, however, this law was not respected ; 
 but, after much strife, it was agreed that William and Louis 
 should hold joint sovereignty, and this arrangement continued 
 from 1515 until the death of Louis in 1534. William died in 
 1550, and was succeeded by his son, Albert V., who died in 
 1576, leaving as his successor the eldest of his three sons, 
 WiLLiAJi v., sumamed thk Old, who in 1596 resigned in 
 favour of his son, Maximilian I., and retired into a convent. 
 During the Thirty years' war, Maximilian was raised by Fer- 
 dinand II. to the dignity of elector and seneschal of the empire, 
 and this dignity was confirmed in bis family at the peace of 
 Westphalia. RIaxiniilian died in 1651, after a reign of fifty-five 
 years. In the war of the Spanish succes.sion, his grandson, 
 Maxi:«ilian E.manukl, declared in favour of France ; ami 
 after the disastrous battle of Ilochstedt in 1704, his dominions 
 were treated by the emperor as a conquered country, and he did 
 not regain possession of his rights until the peace of Baden in
 
 BAV 
 
 424 
 
 BAX 
 
 1714. Charles Albert, his son, took in 1741 tlie title of 
 archduke; and in 1742 he was elected emperor at Frankfort, 
 under the title of Charles VII. He died in 1745, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Maximilian Joseph. 
 
 Maximilian Joseph I., applied himself with zeal and ability 
 to the cares of his govemnunt, and laboured to promote the 
 prosperity of his subjects. He patronized agriculture and mining 
 operations, reformed the schools, and introduced many important 
 amehorations into the administration of justice, of police, and of 
 the iinances. In 1759 he founded the Academy of Sciences at 
 Munich. He was also a generous protector of the fine arts. 
 He died in 1777, without leaving any posterity, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Charles Theodore. During the reign of this prince, 
 who was also childless, arose the war of the Bavarian succession, 
 which was not tenninatcd until the peace of Teschen in 1779. 
 The internal troubles of the country during this reign, led to the 
 almost total extinction of the liberty of the press, which even 
 before this period had not been without restriction. 
 
 Maximilian Joseph, succeeded in 1799. At the peace of 
 Luneville, concluded 9th Febnwry, 1801, France was guaranteed 
 in the possession of the left bank of the Kiiine, and Bavaria lost 
 all her possessions situated on that river. Bavaria also ceded 
 to the elector of Baden that part of the palatinate situated on 
 the right of the Rhine, but obtained in return a considerable ex- 
 tent of other territories, with a population of 216,000. Bavaria 
 has since become of considerable importance as a European state, 
 and the elector has obtained the title of king, with full sovereignty. 
 Maxhnilian Joseph died 13th October, 1825, and was succeeded 
 by his son Louis I. — G. M. 
 
 BAVEREL, Jean Pierre, a litterateur, born at Paris, 1744 ; 
 died 1822. He made himself remarkable by a controversy with 
 Prudent about a disease that attacked tlie vineyards of Franche 
 Comte. He also wrote a tract on the subject of mortmain. He 
 embraced the principles of the Revolution, and was confined for 
 a year in the Chateau Dijon. 
 
 BAVIA, Louis de, a Spanish historian, bora at Madrid; died 
 in 1628. Author of a " Histoiy of the Popes." 
 
 BAVIERE, Jean ue, sunumied Sans-Pitie, bishop of 
 Liege, a turbulent prelate of the commencement of the fifteenth 
 century. The inhabitants of Liege revolted against his tyranny, 
 but were defeated at the battle of Othee. He quitted his diocese 
 in 1418, to espouse the widow of Anthony, duke of Burgundy. 
 BAVILLE, Arnault, a French general, bom at Fronton, 
 Lot-et-Garonne, 11th December, 1757; died at Magdeburg, 24th 
 October, 1813. He took part in the American campaigns from 
 1^80 to 1783, and afterwards served in the armies of the Rhine 
 and Moselle until 9th Januaiy, 179G, when he was appointed 
 connnandant of the Hotel des luvalides. His death was oc- 
 casioned by a wound which he had received at the battle of 
 Liebnitz on the 27th August, 1813.— G. U. 
 
 * BAWR, Alexandrine Sophie, baronne de, a dramatic 
 and romance writer, born at Stuttgart in 1776, of French parents. 
 Her first husband, Saint Simon, the future head of the celebrated 
 sect which bears his name, discovered that not being the first of 
 her sex, she could not be the fit wife for the " gi-eatest man in 
 the world," and for this reason divorced her. Detennined to 
 prove that, if not the first woman in the world, she possessed 
 liigh talents, the repudiated lady wrote several plays and other 
 compositions of distinguished merit. She mai-ricd the baron de 
 Bawr, but was once more unfortunate, although this time the 
 blow came from the hand of Providence. Her husband was 
 accidentally killed, and she had again to resume her pen, which 
 she did with success. She holds a very respectable position 
 amongst dramatic writers. — J. F. C. 
 
 BAXTER, Andrew, author of a work on the soul, was the 
 son of a m<rchant in Olil Aberdeen, where he was born in 1686 
 or 1 687, and where he received a liberal education in the univer- 
 sity. He .seems to have been chiefly employed in the capacity 
 of a tutor, .and had among his pupils several young noblemen 
 and gentlemen of distinguished families. In 1741 he went with 
 Mr. Ilay of Drummelzier, one of his pupils, to Utrecht, where 
 he resided some years, and thence made incursions into Flanders, 
 France, and Genuany. In 1724 he had m.arried the daughter 
 of Jlr. Mebane, a minister in the county of Benvick, and, while 
 he was abroad, his wife and family seem to have resided at Ber- 
 wick-on-Tweod. In 1747 he returned to Scotland, and resided 
 in East Lothian till his death, which took place in 1750, at 
 Whittingham, where he was bm-icd in the family vault of Mr. 
 
 Hay. Dugald Stewart says, " I have not been able to discover 
 the date of the first edition of his ' Inquiry into the Nature cf 
 the Human Soul,' but the second appeared in 1737." His 
 object in this treatise is to establish the doctrine of the imma- 
 teriality of the soul, and he dwells largely on the vis inertia of 
 nuUter, and on the nature of body and force, as furnished by the 
 physics of Newton. In this work he has an Essay on Dreaming, 
 in which he maintains that the phantasms which present them- 
 selves in our sleep, are not the work of the soul itself, but are 
 prompted by separate immaterial beings. In 1750 was pub- 
 lished, " An Appendix to his Inquiry into the Nature of the 
 Human Soid," and in it he endeavours to obviate some of the 
 objections which had been started against his views of the vis 
 inertia of matter by Maclaurin, in his account of Newton's 
 discoveries. After his death the Rev. Dr. Duncan of S. Warm- 
 borough published " The Evidence of Reason in Proof of the 
 Immortality of the Soul, independent on the more abstruse 
 inquiry into the nature of matter and spirit, collected from the 
 MSS.'of Mr. Baxter," London, 1779. The Treatise on the Soul 
 was spoken of by Warburton in the Divine Legation, as contain- 
 ing the "justest and precisest notion of God and the soiil," &e. ; 
 upon which D. Stewart remarks, " to this unqualified praise, I 
 must confess I do not think Baxter's Inquiry altogether entitled, 
 though I readily acknowledge that it displays considerable inge- 
 nuity as well as learning. Some of the remarks on Berkeley's 
 argument against the existence of matter, are acute and just, 
 and, at the time when they were published, had the merit of 
 novelty." He has expounded some views in regard to space and 
 time, which show that he had risen above the doctrine of Locke. 
 — (Stewart's Dissertation.) — J. M'C. 
 
 BAXTER, Richard, an eminent nonconformist divine, was 
 born at the villnge of Rowton in Shropshire, on the 12th of 
 November, 1615. His father was a freeholder possessed of a 
 moderate estate, and to his instractions and example yomig Rich- 
 ard was indebted for his first religious convictions. The seeds of 
 piety then sown in his heart were cherished and fostered till they 
 exhibited permanent fmit in the character. In his youth he had 
 few advantages of education, having been placed under various 
 clergymen who were cither incompetent or immoral. He received 
 his classical education i'rom Mr. John Owen, master of the free 
 school at Wroxeter, who recommended, that instead of being sent 
 to the university, he should be put under the tuition of Mr. 
 Richard Wickstead, chaplain to the council at Ludlow. Here 
 he had time for reading and self-improvement. On returning 
 home from Ludlow, his views seem to have been directed to the 
 ministry; and therefore he put himself under the care of Mr. 
 Garbet, minister of Wroxeter, for farther instiiiction in theoloej' 
 In 1633, when he was in his eighteenth year, he was advised 
 by Wickstead to relinquish his design of the ministiT, and try 
 his fortune at court ; accordingly, with the concurrence of Lis 
 parents, he was introduced to Sir Henry Newport, then master 
 of the revels. But he was soon disgusted with a court life ; 
 and his mother being ill, and requesting his rctum, he left the 
 place for ever. After the death of his mother, his mind was 
 more fully intent uj)on the ministerial office. He was therefore 
 ordained by Bishop Brownrig in 1638 at Worcester, and received 
 a license to teach as master of the free school at Dudley, to which 
 situation he had just been appointed. He frequently preached 
 in the upper church of that town, and in the neighbouring villages. 
 Here he studied the question of nonconformity, and arrived at 
 the conclusion that subscription, the cross in baptism, and the 
 promiscuous giving of the Lord's supper, could not be maintained. 
 Having remained in Dudley about a year, he removed to Bridg- 
 north, where he preached with some success, and was not obliged 
 to do the things about which he scrupled. Here he was greatly 
 tried by the et cetera oath, which expressed universal approval 
 of the doctrine and discipline of the established church, and a 
 determination to alter nothing in it. He resolved not to take 
 this oath. After staying about a year and three quarters at 
 Bridgnorth, he was invited to KiddeiTiiinster, where he removed 
 in 1640, and continued, though not without intcrniption, sixteen 
 years. Here his ministiy was attended with nuich success ; the 
 rude, ignorant, immoral inhabitants being awakened by h;s ear- 
 nest preaching and the morals of the town greatly improved. 
 In about two years after his settlement, the civil wars drove him 
 away. In con.scquencc of a violent attack on his life by a mob, 
 he withdrew to Gloucester, where he found the people civil and 
 religious. Returning to Kidderminster in about a month, he sa«
 
 BAX 
 
 425 
 
 BAX 
 
 the necessity of removing again, for the rabble were excited and 
 the king's soldiers furious. No public man who took the side of 
 the parliament was safe there. After changing his residence 
 several times, he settled in Coventiy, where he preached both to 
 the soldiers of the gamson and the citizens. Subsequently to the 
 battle of Naseby he became chaplain to the regiment of Colonel 
 Whalley, and was present at several sieges. The apparently 
 accidental circumstance of a profuse bleeding at the nose, which 
 reduced hun to a state of great weakness, was the occasion of 
 his lea^ng the army in 16-17. It must be confessed, however, 
 that he was disappointed in his endeavours to refonn the soldiers 
 and obstruct the design of the leaders. During the early part 
 of his second residence at Kidderminster he opposed the solemn 
 league and covenant, though he had formerly taken it at Coven- 
 try ; he opposed the engagement, and dissuaded men from taking 
 it. Though attached to the parliamentary cause, he was ad- 
 verse to the measures pursued in opposition to Charles II. He 
 condemned the usurjiation by Cromwell boldly and openly, and 
 told the protector himself that the ancient monarchy was a bless- 
 ing and not an evil to the land. In a sermon preached before 
 the new parliament on 30th April, 1660, the day before that on 
 which they voted the king's return, he maintained that loyalty 
 to their prince was essential to all true protcstants. After the 
 Restoration, Charles appointed Baxter one of his chaplidns-in- 
 ordinary, and always treated him with respect. Nor did the latter 
 hesitate to speak freely and plainly to his majesty respecting the 
 settlement of rehgious ditferences among his subjects ; and the 
 importance of tolerating those godly men who entertained doubts 
 about the ceremonies and disciphne of the church. He assisted 
 in the conference at the Savoy as one of the commissioners, and 
 drew up a reformed Hturgy. After declining the bishopric of 
 Hereford, he endeavoured to gain possession (jf his old pulpit in 
 Kidderminster, but could not, though he offered to the vicar to 
 be his curate for nothing. Retmniing to London, he preached 
 occasionally in or about the city, till the act of unifonnity passed 
 in 1662, when he left the ministry of the church of England. 
 In this year he married Miss Margaret Charlton, daughter of 
 Francis Charlton, Esq., of the county of Salop ; she appears 
 to have been a woman of great piety, and eminently fitted to 
 nromote his comfort. From London he retired to Acton, and 
 u to Totteridge. Duiing the plague in 1665 he retired into 
 kinghamshire, but afterwards retm-ned to Acton, where he 
 tinned preaching to a very few till the act against conventicles 
 ired, when liis audience became so large that he wanted room. 
 • r tlus he was imprisoned, but was released on procming a 
 '■■xis corpus. Between 1670 and 1672 he had various 
 apes from danger, and was almost continually in some affic- 
 tion. But after the indulgence of 1672 he retunied to London, 
 and exercised his ministry amid frequent molestation. In 1682 
 he was seized for coming within live miles of a corporation. All 
 his goods were taken and sold, so that he was obliged to leave his 
 house and take secret lodgings. In 1684 he was again appre- 
 hended, and treated with great harshness, when he was so ill as 
 to be scarcely able to stand. The constables who liad been set 
 to watch him took him away to the sessions-house, where he 
 was bound in the penalty of £-100 to keep the peace ; and twice 
 afterwards he was brought up, though he kept his bed for 
 the most part. In 1685, in the reign of James II., he was 
 committed to prison, by a warrant from Judge Jeffries, for his 
 "Paraphrase on the New Testament," which was described as a 
 'scandalous' and 'seditious' book against the government. Mr. 
 Macaulay has given a grapliic sketch of the trial in the first 
 volume of his Histoiy of England. Nothing could be more 
 insolent, brutal, and unfair than- the language and conduct of 
 the chief-justice. Baxter was found guilty, fined five hundred 
 marks, condemned to lie in prison till he paid it, and bound to 
 his good behaviour for seven years. He continued in prison 
 neariy two years, but was at last discharged in 1686 by order 
 of the king, who i-emitted his fine. He was also allowed to 
 remain in London, notwithstanding the provision of the Oxford 
 act. After tliis he took no part in public affairs, but preached 
 gratuitously for his friend, Jlr. Sylvester, on the Lord's-day 
 mornings and eveiy alternate Thursday morning, as long as he 
 was able. When unable to go out, he opened his house, morning 
 and evening, to all that would join with him in worship, till he 
 was confined to his chamber and his bed. He expired on 8th 
 December, 1691, with that calm resignation, tranquillity, and 
 hope, which the miiform tenor of his Ufe would have led every 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 one that knew him to expect. He expressed great willingness 
 to die ; and during his sickness, when the question was asked, 
 " How he did .' " his reply was, " Almost well." His body was 
 inteiTed in Christ Church, where the remiuns of his wife had 
 been laid ten years before. 
 
 His person was tall and slender, and in the latter part of his 
 life he stooped much. His eye was piercing and his speech 
 articulate. " Richard Baxter," says Grainger in his biographical 
 history, " was a man famous for weakness of body and strength 
 of mind ; for ha\'ing the strongest sense of religion himself, and 
 exciting a sense of it into the thoughtless and the profligate ; for 
 preaching more senuons, engaging in more controversies, and 
 writing more books, than any other nonconformist of his age. 
 He spoke, disputed, and wrote with ease ; and discovered the 
 same intrepidity when he reproved Cromwell and expostulated 
 with Charles II., as when he preached to a congi-egation of 
 mechanics. His zeal for religion was extraordinary, but it seems 
 never to have prompted him to faction, or canied him to enthusiasm. 
 This champion of the presbyterians was the common butt of men 
 of eveiy other religion, and of those who were of no rehgion at all. 
 But this had veiy little effect upon him : his presence and his firm- 
 ness of mind on no occasion forsook him. He was just the same 
 man before he went into a prison, while he was in it, and when 
 he came out of it ; and he maintained a uniformity of character 
 to the last gasp of his life. His enemies have placed him in 
 hell ; but every man who has not ten times the bigotry that 
 Jlr. Baxter himself had, must conclude that he is in a better 
 place. This is a veiy faint and imperfect sketch of Mr. Baxter's 
 character. Men of his size are not to be orawn in miniature. 
 His portrait, in full proportion, is in his ' Narrative of his own 
 Life and Times,' which, though a rhapsody, composed in the 
 manner of a diary, contains a great variety of memorable things, 
 and is in itself, as far as it goes, a history of nonconfonnity." 
 The Narrative of his Life and Times referred to was published 
 after his death by his friend Sylvester, in a foUo volume, 1696, 
 and furnishes materials to biogi-aphers. 
 
 There has been but one opinion respecting the talents and 
 piety of Baxter among all competent to judge. Churchmen and 
 nonconformists have united in bis praise. Some of his most emi- 
 nent contemporaries highly esteemed him ; and posterity have 
 done justice to the integrity of his character and excellence of his 
 writings. He was praised by Banow, Boyle, Bishop Wilkins, 
 Archbishop Usher, and has been highly admired by the most 
 distinguished men since their day. Barrow said that " his prac- 
 tical writings were never mended, and his controversial ones 
 seldom confuted." 
 
 The subjects on which he wrote cover the entire field of theo- 
 logy. Doctrinal, practical, polemical, and casuistical topics engaged 
 his pen. His early studies in divinity consisted, for the most 
 part, of the schoolmen and metaphysicians of a fonner age, who 
 gave him a bias to subtle distinctions. But his mind seems to 
 have been of a metaphysical c;ist naturally, so that he was 
 at home in acute refinements. Yet it was not only acute, but 
 vigorous and powerful. His style is unequal and often inaccu- 
 rate, abounding in parentheses and digi-essions. But in his 
 practical writings it is generally pure, pointed, copious, pei-spi- 
 cuous, pregnant with all the characteristics of the best writing, 
 and remarkably adapted to the object in view. Passages of 
 great majesty and beauty may be easily selected from his works. 
 
 His life was exposed to obloquy and slander because he was no 
 party-man. With a noble and conscientiotis independence he 
 rose above all theological factions, agreeing exactly with none 
 of them. Hence he shared the common fate of such men ; lie 
 was more or less disliked by them all. His spirit yearned for 
 comprehension ; and many were the sacrifices he made to bring 
 religious parties into concord. It was no fault of his that he was 
 unsuccessful in hannonizing the discordant elements, in recon- 
 ciling churchmen and dissenters : the .spirit of the man is shown 
 in his saying, after the Savoy conference, " I should as willingly 
 be a martyr for charity as for faith." In doctrine, he is com- 
 monly said to have taken a middle path between Anninianism 
 and Calvinism ; and his theological system, which is peculiar, 
 has been called Baxterianism. Those who embrace his senti- 
 ments have been styled Baxterians. 
 
 Considering the verj- feeble state of his health, and the dis- 
 tracting circumstances by which he was continually surroimded, 
 one is anuized at the number of books he found time to write. 
 The extent cf them is indeed wonderful. Their number has been 
 
 3H
 
 BAX 
 
 426 
 
 BAY 
 
 variously estimated, according as some of the volumes are 
 reckoned one or more. They amomit to 168, of which four 
 ■were folios, and seventy-three quaiios. His practical works were 
 first collected in four volumes folio, and published in 1707. They 
 were .ifterwards reprinted in twenty-two volumes 8vo, London, 
 1830. His controversial and other works have never been col- 
 lected, and many of them are scarce. A complete list of them 
 is given by Onne at the end of his Life of Baxter. The first book 
 he published was "Aphorisms of Justification, with theh Expli- 
 cations: wherein is also opened the Nature of the Covenants," &c., 
 16-49, 12mo. The last published during his life was " The Cer- 
 tainty of the World of Spirits, fully evinced by unquestionable 
 Histories of Apparitions," &c., 16"J1, 12mo. He was thus an 
 author for a period of forty-two years. The principal treatises 
 written by Baxter were — " Jletliodus Thcologiae Christiana;," 
 1681, folio; "A Christian Directory, or a Sum of Practical 
 Theology and Cases of Conscience," &c., 1673, folio ; " Catholic 
 Theology," 1675, folio; "Treatise of Episcopacy," 1G81, 4to; 
 "A Treatise of Universal Redemption," 1694, 8vo; "Reasons 
 for the Christian Religion," 1667, 4to; "Universal Concord," 
 1658, 12mo; " Gildas Salvianus, or the Reformed Pastor," 
 1656, Svo. The most popular of his practical and devotional 
 works were his " Saints' Rest," 16 19, 4to ; and his " Call to the 
 Unconverted," 1657, 8vo, and "Now or Never," 1663. The 
 "Refonned Liturgy" appeared in 1661, 4to; "The Poor JIan's 
 Family Book" in 1674, Svo; "Paraphrase on the New Testa- 
 ment" in 1685, 4to; "Dying Thoughts on Philippi.ans i. 23," 
 1683, 4to. (See Orme's Life and Times of Baxter, prefixed as 
 vol. i. to the octavo edition of his practical works.) — S. D. 
 
 BAXTER, Thomas, an English p.ainter on porcelain ; bom 
 in 1782; died in 1821. His works deserved and obtained the 
 greatest estimation, especially those after West and Reynolds. 
 A portrait of Sirs. Siddons as the tragic muse, is considered his 
 masterpiece. — R. 5L 
 
 BAXTER, WiLi-iAM, nephew of Richard Baxter, an eminent 
 antiquaiy and philologist, born at Llangollen in Shropshire in 
 1650. He was educated at Han-ow school, which he entered 
 in his eighteenth year, utterly ignorant of any language but his 
 native Welsh. In the space of two years, as we learn from one 
 of his letters, he could read Latin with facility, and had made 
 some progress in antiquarian studies. Greek, the old British 
 and Irish, several Seandina\-ian and oriental dialects, occupied 
 him successively, and in aU his proficiency was ultimately consi- 
 derable. He followed the profession of a teacher first in a 
 boarding-school in Jlidillesex, and afterwards in Slercere' school, 
 London, the head mastership of which he held for upwards of 
 twenty years. His first publication, a " Latin Grannnar," was 
 followed by editions of Horace and Anacreon. Of the Horace, 
 Bentley spoke contemptuously, but Gesner preferred it to Bent- 
 ley's own edition. A few years before his death, which occurred 
 in 1723, he published "Gloss. Antiq. Britannicarum." — J. S., G. 
 
 BAY AM, Josfi PiiREiR.v, bom of a peasant family at Gon- 
 deUn in the district of Coimbra in Portugal, on May the 13th, 
 1690. He wrote a history of Portugal, and gave an account of 
 the life and deeds of the king, Don Sebastian, describing his 
 travels into Africa, his warlike exploits, his losses, and his mis- 
 fortunes. ^^'e have many popular legends collected by him, and a 
 treatise on purgaton,', entitled " Retrato do Purgatorio, e sus 
 penas." Portugal owes to this literaiy man the discovery of 
 Fernando Lopez's Life of Don Pedro, which was published by the 
 Lisbon Academy of Science, under the title of " Chronica del 
 Rey Don Pedro," in 1735 and 1760. lie was ord.ained a priest 
 at the age of 32, and died on the 8th of March, 1743. — A. C. M. 
 
 BAY.\KD, .Jeax-Baitiste-Fr.vx^ois, a lawyer, bora at 
 Paris, 1750 ; died 1800. He discharged high official duties under 
 the directory, with an ability worthy of the highest praise. He, 
 in connection with Camus, recast Denisart's Law Dictionaiy ; he 
 also wrote "Memoirs of the Revolution of 1789." 
 
 B.'VYARD, John Fkanxis Ai.fhed, a dramatic wniter, bom 
 at Charolles, 17th Jiarch, 1796. Educated for the bar, his 
 taste for hterature proved too strong for the intentions of his 
 parents. Tlie encouragement which he received to pursue dra- 
 matic writing, was, however, of no ordinary character, for it 
 came from no less a personage than JI. Scribe. After Bayard 
 produced his first vaudeville in 1821, " Promenade a Vaucluse,"' 
 M. Scribe, whose niece he I'.ad married, engaged him to become 
 his coUaborateur, and for many years the name of Bayard was 
 associated with the ceaseless productions of il. Scribe's pen. 
 
 Bayard, who died lately, has left some pieces of great popularity 
 written by himself alone. — J. F. C. 
 
 BAYARD, Pierre du Terrail, seigneur de, celebrated 
 as the " chevalier sans peur et sans reproche," was bora towards 
 the end of the year 1475, at the chateau de Bayard, six leagues 
 from Grenoble, and died April 30, 1524. By some original 
 signatures prcseiTed in the imperial libraiy of Paris, it appears 
 that the good knight ^vrote his name Bayart. He was the son 
 of Aymoud du Teirail and Helene des Allemans-Laval, and re- 
 ceived his first education from his uncle the bishop of Grenoble. 
 " Sly child," said the worthy bishop, " be noble like your ances- 
 tors — like your gi-eat-great-grandfather, who was killed at the 
 feet of King John at the battle of Poitiers — like your great- 
 grandfather and your grandfatlier, who were also slain, the one 
 at Zincourt, the other at Jlont-lhery — and like your father also, 
 who was covered with honourable wounds in the defence of the 
 kingdom." At the age of thirteen he made choice of the pro- 
 fession of aiTns, and was presented to the duke of Savoy. The 
 duke was channed with the appearance of the youth, and with 
 his dexterity Ln the management of his horse. He therefore 
 made him a page; and in that capacity young Bayard attracted 
 the attention of the king of France, Charles YIIL, whose senice 
 he soon aftei-wards entered. Amid jousts and tournaments the 
 page was initiated into the use of anns. At the age of eighteen 
 he accompanied Charles in his expedition to Naples, and at the 
 battle of Fomova was first introduced to the realities of war. 
 He made a brilliant commencement, astonishing all with his 
 gallantry, having several horses killed under him, and carr)-ing 
 otf several of the enemy's standards. He was afterwards en- 
 gaged with the French forces in Apulia, and distinguished him- 
 self by his knightly bearing. In 1505 he saved the French array, 
 by defending a bridge over the Garigliano. " He fought like a 
 tiger," says Theodore de Godefroy, " with his back to the barri- 
 cade of the bridge; and so laid about him with his sword, that 
 the enemy knew not what to make of him, and thought it was 
 the devil." This feat of arms, which he perfonned singly, won 
 him the poi-cupine for a crest, and the device " Yires agrainis 
 unus habet." Henceforth Bayai'd's life is a series of the 
 most romantic incidents of war. He served everywhere, and 
 always with the same distinction. When Heniy YIII. invaded 
 France in 1513, Bayard was taken prisoner; or, rather, seeing 
 that he must necessarily be taken, he of two evils chose the 
 least, and fell upon the following plan of giving himself up. 
 Seeing an English man-at-arms reposing himself, while the rest 
 were engaged in capturing prisoners. Bayard rode towards him, 
 and summoned him suddenly to surrender, which the man-at- 
 anns did on the spur of the moment, having laid aside his Wea- 
 pons. "Your name ?" said the Englishmau. " I am the Captain 
 Bayard," said the chevalier, " and there is my sword ; I am your 
 prisoner." Some days after, wishing to depart, he made known 
 his desire. " But your ransom?" said the English man-at-arms. 
 " Jly ransom," repUed Bayard, " your ransom ! I took you pri- 
 soner, and took your parole, before you took me." This question 
 of militan.' etiquette was refen-ed to the king of England and 
 the emperor, who decided that both prisoners were equally free 
 from obligation. Bayard soon became the hero knight of his 
 rime; and at the siege of Jlilan, Francis I. sought knighthood 
 at his hands. After much solicitation he consented, and, di"aw- 
 ing his sword, said, " I must obey, sire ; may it be as if it were 
 Roland or Oliver, Godfrey or Baldwin, his brother." He per- 
 formed the ceremony ; the Swiss were defeated ; the king 
 acquired the territory of Milan, and peace was concluded. After 
 a hfe of unblemished reputati(m, exliibiting the wtues of man 
 and soldier. Bayard was killed in an engagement with the 
 Spaniards, crossing the river Sesia, between Romagnano and 
 Gattinara. He was stmck by a ball from an arquebnse, and 
 cried aloud, " Jesus, my God, I die." He caused himself to be 
 placed at the foot of a tree, with his face to the enemy. He 
 then kissed the cross-hilt of his sword, and recited some verses 
 of the Miserere. He sunived for two hours, and died at ten 
 in the moraing, at the age of 48. In death he was the true and 
 loyal warrior. A few minutes before he departed, a portion of 
 the enemy approached, and among them the constable, Charles, 
 duke of Bourbon, who had taken service with the imperialists. 
 " Ah, Captain Bayard, greatly do I sorrow to see you in this 
 state. 1 have always loved and honoured you, and greatly pity 
 you." " My lord, I thank you," rephed the chevalier ; " but 
 pity is not for me, who die a trae man, serving my king ; pity
 
 BAY 
 
 427 
 
 BAY 
 
 is for you, who bear arms against your prince, your country, and 
 your oath." — P. E. D. 
 
 BAYEN Y JUBIAS, Don Francisco, one of the best 
 Spanish painters of the eighteenth centur}', bom in 1734 at 
 Saragoza, where he studied at first under Luxan. The academy 
 of San Fernando of Sladrid having offered an extraordinary prize 
 for painters, young Bayen sent his specimen to Don Junu do 
 Mena, a sculptor attached to tliat histitution, requesting him, if 
 he thought it good enough, to enter it for the competition. This 
 Fork having been seen by the other artists who intended com- 
 peting, they were deterred from coming forward, and tluis Bayen 
 received the prize and a pension that enabled him to go to 
 Madrid, where he studied under Velasquez and Mengs, the court 
 painters. The latter intrusted him with some works for the 
 royal palaces, and by his ad\'iccs still more improved the young 
 artist's style. Elected a member of the academy, he was after- 
 wards appointed its director by the king, who also gave him the 
 title of com't painter. His works are remarkable for correctness 
 of design, excellent disposition of the composition, nobleness and 
 expression of the figures, and especially for their harmony of 
 colour, ilany of them are in the new palace of Madrid, in those 
 at the Pardo, and at Aranjnez, and in the churches both of 
 Madrid and of his native town. Died in 1795. — E. M. 
 
 BAYEN Y JUBIAS, Don Ramon, brother of the preceding, 
 was also a distinguished painter; studied and worked under 
 Don Francisco, and assisted him especially in the pictures for 
 the cathedral of the Pilar. Died at Aranjuez in 1793. — R. M. 
 
 BAYER, FuANc'isro Perez, an antiquarian, born in Valencia 
 (Spain) in 1711; died in 179-4. He was successively professor 
 of Hebrew at the university of Salamanca, canon of Toledo, tutor 
 to the infanta, Don Gabriel, and conservator of the library of 
 Madrid. He was author of a " Catalogue of the Escurial Li- 
 braiy," and of some antiquarian essays. 
 
 BAYER, Gottlieb S., an orientalist, distinguished for his 
 acquaintance with ahiiost every eastern language, was bom at 
 Konigsberg, 1G94. After extensive travel, he went to St. 
 Petersburg in 172G, where he taught for some time, and died 
 there on 21st Feb., 1738. He has left many works of merit 
 both in history and antiquities. — J. F. W. 
 
 BAYER, JoiiANN, born at Augsburg in the latter part of the 
 sixteenth century, was a distinguished protestant preacher, and 
 so stout a defender of the church that he was called " Os Pro- 
 testantium." Under the title " Uranometria" he published an 
 atlas of astronomy (Augsbm'g, 1G03), consisthig of fifty-one 
 maps, in which he not only gave complete and accurate descrip- 
 tions of the constellations, but also introduced the denomination 
 of the stars by the letters of the Greek alphabet, by which 
 he essentially promoted the knowledge of the heavens. — K. E. 
 
 BAYER, John, bom near Eperies in Hungary, in the first 
 half of the sixteenth century, studied at Toul, and was succes- 
 sively schoolmaster and pastor in his own countiy. He was 
 strenuously opposed to the philosophy of Aiistotle, as adapted 
 only to give rise to endless discussions ; and endeavoured to con- 
 struct a physical theory of the universe, based on the Mosaic 
 records. The world, as at present existing, he traces to the 
 combination of three principles — the Jlosaic mass (or matter), 
 vital spirit, and light. The philosophy of Bayer furnishes a 
 conspicuous example of the absm-dities at which misdirected 
 subtletv can arrive. — J. D. E. 
 
 BAYER DE BOPPART, Conrad, bishop of Metz froni 1451 
 till his death hi 1459. He aided Rend of Anjou hi his wars 
 with the count of Vaudcmont, and was taken prisoner at the 
 battle of Balgneville. In the year 1438, during which Rene was 
 prosecuting his wars in Italy, Bayer governed Anjou, but being 
 cahnnniated by some of the prince's advisers, he was treacherously 
 seized, beaten with rods, and thrown into prison. The inhabit- 
 ants of Jletz paid his ransom, and furnished him with the means 
 of taking vengeance on his enemies. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAYER DE BOPPART, Thierry, bishop of Jletz, died in 
 1384. He was ambassador from Charles IV. to Rome, and took 
 part in the emperor's war against the duke of Milan. 
 
 BAYES, Thomas, a i)resbyterian minister, for some time 
 assistant to his father, Joshua Bayes, but afterwards settled as 
 jiasfor of a congregation at Tuiibridge Wells, where he died, 
 April 17, 1761. lie was F.R.S., and distinguished as a mathc- 
 niatician. He took part in the controversy on fluxions against 
 Bishop Berkeley, by publishing an anonymous j)aniphlet, entitled 
 *'An Introduction to the Doctrine of Fluxions, and Defence of 
 
 the Mathematicians against tlie Author of the Analyst," Lon- 
 don, 1736, 8vo. He is the author of two mathematical papers 
 in the Philosophical Transactions. An anonymous tract by him, 
 under the title of "Divine Benevolence," in reply to one on Divine 
 Rectitude, by John Balguy, likewise anonymous, attracted much 
 attention. — T. F. 
 
 BAYEUX, George, a French writer, born at Caen about 
 1752. The notes which he ajipcnded to a translation of Ovid 
 throw light on the civil and religious habits of the Romans. The 
 famous Neckcr gave him a post in the finance department, and 
 in 1789 Bayeux began to take notes of the Revolution, calculated 
 to sei-ve the historian of that extraordinary period. Besides a 
 translation of ^Martial and other Roman authors, he composed 
 different treatises on subjects connected with antiquity, to the 
 study of which he seemed particularly devoted. Unfortunately 
 for him he was nominated king's commissioner and procureur- 
 general for the department of Calondos, which marked him out 
 to the fury of the republicans, who threw him into prison, and 
 put him to death on the 6th September, 1792. — J. F. C. 
 
 * BAYHOFFER, Karl Theodor, was born at Marburg, 
 14th October, 1812. He devoted himself to the study of juris- 
 prudence and philosophy, and was appointed professor of philo- 
 sophy in the university of his native towTi. In his numerous 
 philosophical works he showed himself an enthusiastic and 
 talented follower of Hegel. Since 1845 he took a prominent 
 part in the German catholic movement, and published a number 
 of pamphlets in favour of the new sect, in consequence of which 
 he was soon after suspended from office. In 1848 he eagerly 
 took the radical side, and became one of the leaders of that 
 party in the Hessian diet, of which he was chosen president 
 in 1850. The diet was dissolved, and Bayhoffer, being about 
 to be prosecuted, fled to America. His principal works are — 
 " Grandprobleme der Metaphysik," 1835; "Idee des Christen- 
 shums," 1836 ; " Idee und Geschichte der Philosophic," 1838 ; 
 " Beitrage yur Naturphilosophie," &c. — K. E. 
 
 BAYLE, Antoine Laurent Jesse, a French physician, and 
 nephew to Gaspard Laurent Bayle, was born January 13, 1799, 
 at Vernet (Basses Alpes). He studied at Paris under Laenncc. 
 In 1824 he founded the Revue Medicale, in which he combated 
 the physiological doctrines of the day. In 1827 he was nomi- 
 nated a professor in the faculty of Paris. He has written 
 several works, and has been the chief editor of the Encyclopedia 
 of the Sciences, 1835-1846, 40 volumes. — E. L. 
 
 BAYLE, Gaspard Laurent, a French physician, bom at 
 Vernet iu Provence, August 18, 1774, and died at Paiis, Jlay 
 4, 1816. He was destined by his family for the church, but 
 he renounced that idea veiy soon, and studied the law. In 
 1779 he became secretary of administration in the district of 
 Digne. Having in this office to harangue the representatives 
 Barras and Freron, who were sent by the convention, he was 
 afraid of the language that he had uttered, and lied to hide 
 himself at Jlontpellier, where he studied medicine. In 1793 he 
 returned to Paris, where he received his degree as doctor of 
 medicine. In 1801 he was nominated physician to La Charite, 
 and afterwards became pliysician to the cnqieror. Among highly 
 esteemed articles inserted in the medical journals, and in the 
 Dictionnaire des Sciences Mc'dicales, he has written a treatise 
 on the malignant pustule, and another on consumption. This 
 latter book quite established the reputation of the author, and 
 has been reproduced (Paris, 1838, in 8vo), with other works 
 of Bayle, in the Encyclopcdio des Sciences Medicalcs. The 
 " Traito des Maladies Cancercuscs," a posthumous work, ot 
 which the first volume only has appeared, was edited and 
 published by the nephew of the author (Paris, 1853, in 8vo), 
 and ought to have extended to three volumes. M. Cazol was 
 appointed by Bayle himself to superintend this publication ; but 
 his numerous occupations prevented him. — E. L. 
 
 BAYLE, PiEKRic, a famous philosopher and critic, was born 
 Nov. 18, 1617, at Caria, in the department of L'Aricgo. His 
 father, a protestant minister, devoted nnudi care to his early 
 education. Like most boys brought up under the paternal roof, 
 he does not seem to have been rigidly restricted to a particular 
 course of studies; for, being left jiretty much to follow the bent 
 of his inclination, he devoured all books that came in his way. 
 The hnmcnse, but somewhat desidtoiy erudition, with the loose 
 and unsystematic principles which mark the writings and con- 
 duct of the author of the " Philosophical and Critical Dictionary," 
 may probably bo traced to the habits so acquired in his early
 
 BAY 
 
 428 
 
 BAY 
 
 training. From the pvotestant university of Puvlarens, in wliich 
 he studied for three years, he went in 1GG9 to Toulouse, where 
 he became so captivated with a Jesuit professor, as to adopt 
 his class-teaclier's religion. The remonstrances of his family, 
 and what is more likely still, a little cool reflection, served 
 to restore him to his old l>elief; but as at this time heavy 
 penalties hung over the heads of rel-.ipsed protestants, he re- 
 moved to Geneva, and from thence to Copet, where he became 
 tutor in a private family. He subsequently ventured to settle 
 at Iiouen, where he maintained himself by private tuhion ; but 
 feeling a yearning after intercourse with lofty minds, determined 
 on leaving for Paris, where he would at least find compensation 
 for the di-udgery of teaching for bread, in the society of the 
 learned. As he con-esponded on literary topics with his friend, 
 the celebrated Basnage, who was at that time a theological 
 student in the university of Sedan, the latter, in an admiring 
 spirit, showed Bayle's lettei-s to Jurieu, divinity professor, who 
 was so stnick with them, that he recommended the writer to the 
 vacant chair of pliilosophy, to which Bayle was, after a public 
 disputation, appointed, and which he filled till July, 1681. 
 That bigoted monarch, Louis XIV., distrusting the freedom of 
 inquiry encouraged at Sedan, in his own arbitrary fashion saved 
 himself the trouble of investigation by a decree of suppression; 
 and Bayle, who had for nearly six years fulfilled the duties of 
 his office, found himself without employment. It was in the 
 previous spring that he published his " Letter on Comets," wluch, 
 as it was directed against the superstitious panic excited by the 
 comet that had appeared the year before, no doubt the spirit of 
 the writer broke out sufficiently to alarm the jealousy of his 
 majesty's Jesuit advisers, for license to print and publish the 
 paper was refused. Holland, which opened a place of refuge to 
 the persecuted, and placed its printing-presses at the disposal of 
 his ' Majesty's Opposition,' was true to itself on this occasion, 
 and the ex-professor of Sedan was raised to the chair of history 
 and philosophy in a new educational estabhshment, due to the 
 pubhc spirit of the magistracy of Rotterdam. Jurieu was at the 
 same time appointed professor of theolog)'. For some cause, not 
 easily to be made clear, the friendship which had hitherto existed 
 between these companions in exile was destined to be broken ; 
 and amongst the enemies which the subsequent writings of Bayle 
 were destined to raise up, the foremost in ardour and in asperity 
 was the philosopher's friend and protector at Sedan. In 
 1682 appeared the answer to Maimbourg's libellous Histou-e du 
 Calvinism — a reply which carried the war so briskly into the 
 enemy's camp, that the French government ordered it to be 
 burned, which had the usual effect of causing it to be universally 
 read. It wiis in 168-1 that Bayle commenced his " Nouvelles 
 de la Republique des Lettres" — a monthly review, in fact, of 
 works desening of notice, but to which he did not put his name, 
 from the same disinterested avoidance of notoriety, which, imtil 
 the publication of his " Critical Dictionaiy," induced him to 
 screen himself from observation. An article in this literary re- 
 view provoked the wrath of a personage not to be lightly treated 
 — the violent, eccentric, but accomplished Christine of Sweden. 
 Fancying that she perceived an offensive allusion to herself, she 
 employed the pen of one of her ladies to assure the writer, that 
 if he did not apologize, he might gi-atify his vanity with the 
 boast, that he was the only beau who had ever insulted the 
 Queen of Sweden with impunity. The summaiy justice executed 
 a little while before upon her private secretary Monaldeschi, 
 and that in violation of the palace of her royal host at Fontaine- 
 bleau, was enough to give point to the heroine's missive; but 
 although Bayle may have had little reason to apprehend poison 
 or dagger, he wrote a reply, which not only appeased the royal 
 ire, but melted the queen into solicitation of the pleasure of 
 numbering him amongst those men of leaniing and science with 
 whom she loved to correspond. The deaths of his father and two 
 brothers happening together overwhelmed bun with sorrow, and 
 induced him to write that tract, or lay sermon, against persecu- 
 tion, on the text, Luke xiv. 23, "Compel them to come in, that 
 my house may be filled." lie himself became so ill, as for a 
 year to be unable to prosecute his literary labours. A pamphlet 
 which appeared in 1690, called Advice to Refugees, and with 
 which Bayle, it appears, had nothing to do, was nevertheless 
 seized on by his enemies, who chose to attribute it to his pen. 
 Accusing him of being in league with the French party — at that 
 moment of Dutch hatred against the persecuting king of France, 
 the most serious charge that could be made — they affected to 
 
 find proof of their assertions in the writing in question, and so 
 far succeeded in exciting the suspicions of the gi'eat William III. 
 himself, and in convincing the magistracy of Rotterdam of his 
 guilt, that the latter, with the king of England's consent, de- 
 prived him of his chair, and withheld his emoluments. It is 
 said that the English minister, Lord Shaftesbury, interfered 
 with success to save him from being banished from Holland. 
 Deprived of even liberty to teach in private, he tuiTied his mind 
 towards his gi-eat work — the " Critical and Philosophical Dic- 
 tionary" — of which the first volume ajjpeared in 1695, and was 
 followed by the second volume in 1696. This was the first 
 publication to which he openly affixed his name. Such a work 
 could not fail to aflbrd his enemies handles for attack, but the 
 public came to his side, and insisted on having restored certain 
 paragrajihs which he himself had consented to cancel. In point 
 of fact, Bayle, for a controversialist, was peculiarly free from that 
 pugnacious temper which is supposed to belong to the character. 
 He has himself given to mankind the key of his motives in these 
 simple words, that he wanted " not to inculcate scepticism, but to 
 suggest doubts." To a mind of such a temper, the sacrifice of an 
 article found to be offensive, or to sui-pass his own aim, may be 
 conceived to be easy, without attributing indifterence or pusilla- 
 nimity, or any other of those weak or vicious qualities, which 
 have been applied to the reputation of this eminent inquirer. 
 To suggest doubts in the minds of those who were, in the per- 
 verted name of truth, following up the terrible decree of revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nantes, and covering the land with desola- 
 tion and ruin, and filling other countries with the wail of the 
 exile, was, in fact, to stay the uplifted arm of persecution, by 
 invoking reflection. That Bayle may have unsettled his own 
 convictions in the process of doubt-suggesting, there is reason 
 enough to think possible. It requires no deep examination of 
 the works of the great men of the seventeenth century, to dis- 
 cover how much their minds were directed towards discovery of 
 some common groimd of reconciliation, calculated to deprive per- 
 secution of excuse. If Bayle could not bring his mind to an 
 agreement with Leibnitz, for instance, about the possibility of a 
 union between two militant churches, yet the profound respect 
 with which the great philosopher of Leipzig habitually treated 
 the reasonings of his con-espondent, would be enough to show 
 the estimation in which he was held by the greatest men of the 
 time. His, in fact, was a blameless life. From his twentieth 
 to his fortieth year, he studied fourteen hours a day. His man- 
 ners were pure and gentle, and his feelings aflectionate and 
 warm. At Toulouse, where, as we have seen, he passed a por- 
 tion of his early youth, the reputation he left after him was so 
 fair, that the local magistracy prevented his will from being 
 annulled, which, as he died a refugee, might have been done. 
 Sixteen years after his death, which took place in 1706, the 
 Academy of Toulouse proposed the name of Bayle as the sub- 
 ject of a eulogy; but the worthless successor of Louis XIV., 
 remembered the destroyer of the university of Sedan, and a 
 kttre de cachet put an extinguisher on the project. The attri- 
 buted scepticism of Bayle, taking that word in the rather 
 strained sense of disbelief, has gamed strength from a cause for 
 w^hich he is not fairly answerable ; namely, the annoury which 
 his dictionary afforded Voltaire and the encyclopedists of the 
 succeeding century. But when the latter came into the field, 
 the gi-ound of controversy had been shifted. Although persecu- 
 tion had not ceased, yet were they who abused authority no 
 longer solicited, in the calm language of expostulation, to con- 
 sider whether they were quite sure of having the argument on 
 their own side. They were placed on the defensive, and made 
 to writhe under scorn and ridicule. Still, the influence of Bayle's 
 writings on the eighteenth century is an important fact in the 
 history of the great struggle which reached its climax at the 
 Revolution. Consulted in a different spirit, they might have 
 borne other and better frait. The toleration at which he would 
 have stop{)cd short being repudiated, and the adversaries of 
 abuses gathering strength, they were only too glad to avail 
 themselves of his weapons, and to hail him as a precursor of 
 their own conquering advance. — J. F. C. 
 
 BAYLE or BAILLE, Pierre, a native of Marseilles, and a 
 member of the French convention, died about the end of 1793. 
 He sat constantly at the top of the Mountain, and voted for the 
 death of Louis XVI. Being sent into the southern districts of 
 the kingdom with a revolutionary commission, he annved at Toulon 
 just at the time when the town had been surrendered to the
 
 Eiij:;lish. He was arrcstod, and desired to cry " Vive Louis 
 XVII ," but refused, and was condemned to death. — G. M. 
 
 BAYLEY, Sir John, Bart., and baron of the exchequer, 
 called to the bar at Gray's inn in June 22, 1792 ; appointed 
 serjeant-at-law in 1799 ; made one of the justices of king's 
 bench in 1808. His " Summary of the Law of Bills of Ex- 
 change," &c., first published in 1789, is considered a standard 
 book. In November, 1830, ho was removed from the king's 
 bench to the post of baron of the exchequer. On his retire- 
 ment in 1834 he was sworn a member of the privy council, and 
 created a baronet. He died at Vine House, near Seven Oaks, 
 October 10, 1841, aged seventy-eight. — T. F. 
 
 BAYLIE, Richard, D.D., and chaplain to Archbishop Laud, 
 and afterwards president of St. John's college, Oxford. He was 
 the author of " An Answere to Jlr. Fisher's Ilelation of a Third 
 Conference between a certain B[ishop] (as he stiles him) and 
 himselfe," bv R. B. ; London, 1024, fol. 
 
 BAYLIES, William, M.D. of Edinburgh ; born in 1724. 
 He first settled as a physician at Bath, and published in 1757, 
 " Reflections on the Uses and Abuses of Bath Waters," which 
 involved him in a dispute witli Drs. Lucas and Oliver. Having 
 retired to Prassia, whore he was appointed physician to Fre- 
 derick II., he died at Berlm, March 2, 1787. 
 
 BAYLY, Anselm, LL.D., was appointed layman of St. 
 Peter's, Westminster, January 22, 1740-41, and sub-dean of 
 the chapel-royal, London, in 1764. He was the author of "A 
 practical treatise on singing and playing with just expression 
 and real elegance," 1771, 8vo ; " The alliance of music, poetry, 
 and oratory," 1789, 8vo; and " A collection of anthems used 
 in his majesty's chapel-royal, and most cathedral churches," 
 17G9, 8vo.— E. F. R. 
 
 BAYLY, Lewis, D.D., bishop of Bangor, 1G16-31 ; a native 
 of Carmarthen ; fellow of Jesus' college, Oxford ; minister of 
 Evesham, Worcestershire, in IGll. In 1613 he became D.D., 
 and was successively made rector of St. Matthew's, Friday Street, 
 London, and one of the chaplains to James I. He wrote a book 
 in high esteem, entitled " The Practice of Piety." He died 
 October 6, 1631.— T. F. 
 
 BAYLY, Dr. Thomas, youngest son of Dr. Lewis Bayly, 
 educated at Cambridge, during the civil wars passed some time 
 at Oxford, and took his degrees at that university. After a short 
 ri'sidence on the continent, whither he retired after witnessii.g 
 the siege of Ragland castle, he published bis " Certamen Reli- 
 giosum, or a Conference between King Charles I. and Henry, late 
 Marquis of Worcester, concerning Religion, in Ragland Castle," 
 1646 — a volume, the groundwork of which must be regarded as 
 exceedingly hypothetical. For his next publication, " The Royal 
 Charter granted unto Kings," &c., he was imprisoned in New- 
 gate. He efl'ected his escape in the following year, went to 
 Holland, and thence travelled over various countries, to find at 
 last an obscure grave somewhere in Italy. His other works are 
 — that in which he declared himself a convert to papacy, "The 
 Kud of Controversy," &c., Douay, 1654; and "The Golden 
 Apophthegms of King Charles I.," &c., 1660. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAYLY, Thomas Haynes, a popular lyrical poet, born in 
 1798 ; died 22nd April, 1839. He was born in good cu"cum- 
 stancHS, but his latter years were spent in great poverty. He 
 was the author of many popular songs, two or three novels, and 
 about thirty pieces for the stage. 
 
 BAYLY, William, an English astronomer. In 1709 he 
 was sent by the Royal Society to the North Cape to observe the 
 transit of Venus. He accompanied Captain Cook on his voyage 
 round the world ; was astronomer to the ships Resolution and 
 Discovery on their voyage to the Northern I'aoific Ocean, and 
 on his return to England, after each exiiedition, published the 
 results of his observations. He died in 1810, three years after 
 his retirement from the mastership of the Royal Academy at 
 Portsmouth, which he had held from 1785. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAYLY, William, D.D., bishop of Clonfert in 1644; a native 
 of Scotland, educated at Glasgow (but D.D. of Oxford), having 
 been di-iven out of his country by the covenanters, lied into Ire- 
 land, and afterwards joined Charles I. at Oxford, whore be was 
 consecrated ])y Archbishop Usher, May 2, 1644. He died at 
 Clonfert, August 11, 1664.— T. F. 
 
 BAYNE; , the captain of an English vessel, died 9th 
 
 April, 1782. He was the inventor of that well-known imple- 
 ment of destruction called a caronade, from t!ie Latin caro, a 
 chair. Three days after the naval combat between Adnnral 
 
 Rodney and the count de Grasse, Bayne, while exhibiting the 
 ettect produced by one of his caronades, was strack by a bullet 
 and killed on the spot. — G. M. 
 
 BAYNE, James, one of the earliest ministers of the Relief 
 church, was born in 1710, at Bonhill in Dumbartonshire, of 
 which his father was the parochial incumbent. He was educated 
 at the university of Glasgow, where he took the degree of A.M. 
 On receiving license as a preacher, he was presented to the church 
 of Killoarn, adjoining his birthplace, and there he laboured 
 diligently and successfully for a considerable number of years. 
 Unfortunately, for his own comfort, he was induced to under- 
 take a collegiate charge in the High Church of Paisley. Some 
 differences having aiisen between him and his colleague, the 
 celebrated Mr. Wotherspoon, respecting the election of a pre- 
 centor, the case was brought under the notice of the presbytery. 
 The decision of that reverend body was unfavourable to Jlr. 
 Bayne, who felt himself so much aggrieved by the decision, that 
 he resolved to join the new sect called the Presbytery of Relief; 
 and on the 13th of Fcbraary, 1766, he was inducted as minister 
 of a lai-ge chapel, which had been recently built in Edinburgh, in 
 connection with that body. Though Mr. Bayne, in taking this 
 step, does not appear to have contemplated a separation from the 
 established church, the general assembly so strongly disapproved 
 of his conduct, that he was formally deposed at its next meeting. 
 In 1770 Mr. Bayne preached and published a sermon upon 
 Foote's Minor, which produced so great an impression against 
 that scoffing drama, that the author found it neccssaiy to reply 
 to the attack, by publishing an apology for the Jlinor, in a 
 letter to the Rev. Jlr. Bayne, by Samuel Foote, Esq. Mr. Bayne 
 was a man of excellent abilities, and extensive acquirements, 
 and enjoyed a high reputation as a preacher. A volume of his 
 sermons was published about forty years after his death, which 
 took place on 17th January, 1790. — J. T. 
 
 BAYNHAM, James, an English lawyer, died in 1530. Being 
 accused of heresy, lie was imprisoned in the tower of London, 
 and subjected to the tortm'e. He was set at liberty, but was 
 soon after again an-ested on the charge of denying the real pre- 
 sence in the eucharist. He was condemned to the stake, and 
 suffered death with the greatest fortitude. — G. M. 
 
 BAZANCOURT, Jean-Baptiste-Marin-Axtoine Legat 
 DE, a French general, born at Val-de-Molle, Oise, 19th March, 
 1767 ; died 17th January, 1830. He was appointed captain in 
 1791, and the following year took part in the campaign of Italy. 
 In the year VIII. he joined the army of Egypt, in which he 
 obtained the rank of chef de bataillon and distinguished himself 
 at the siege of Acre, where he was wounded. In 1802 he was 
 named colonel of the fourth regiment of infantry, and in 1805 
 was engaged in the battle of Austerlitz. In 1806 he was chosen 
 commander of the legion of honour, and in 1808 made gencral- 
 of-brigade and a baron of the empire. — G. ]\L 
 
 BAZHENOV, Vassilii Ivanovitch, a celebrated Russian 
 architect, born at Moscow in 1737. While quite a boy, he 
 evinced such an ardent love for drawing and such a talent for 
 the art, that he was adnutted into the Architectural School of 
 Moscow, and afterwards transferred to the Fine Arts Academy 
 of St. Petersburg. The directors of the latter institution, in 
 1761, sent him to pursue his studies at Paris and Rome, in both 
 of which cities, particularly the latter, his talents elicited lavish 
 encomiums from distinguished artists. On his return to Russia 
 he was introduced at the court of Catherine, who took him into 
 her service as chief architect. In that character he was intrusted 
 with the preparation of plans for the entire remodelling of the 
 Kremlin, a jjrojoct which not even the mistress of all the Rus- 
 sias could possibly have carried out, but which, realized artis- 
 tically in his model, conferred an enduring celebrity on the 
 name of Bazbenov. He afterwards lost favour with the emjiress, 
 on account, it has been said, of his having corresponded with 
 foreign masonic societies; but he again became court architect 
 on the accession of Paul I., who gave him an estate with a 
 thousand serfs, the order of St. Anne, and various other digni- 
 ties. His last great work was the desipi of the magnilieont 
 Kazan church of St. Petersburg, a structure, the architectural 
 honours of which, as it was not conmienced till 1801, two years 
 after the death of Bazbenov, have been sometimes claimed for 
 the artist who superintended its erection. — J. S., G. 
 
 BAZIN, Anals 1)K Raucon, a French historian, bom at 
 Paris in 1799 ; died 1850. Bv profession an advocate, he at the 
 same time devoted himself to literature, and won several acade-
 
 mic prizes. Author of "The Court of JIaria di Medicis;" a 
 " History of France under Loui* XIII.," wliich is judiciously and 
 conscientiously wiittcn; besides several other works. 
 
 BAZIN, GiLLES AuGUSTiN, a Parisian phj-sician, who died 
 in 1754. He practised at Strasburg, and devoted his special 
 attention to botany and natural histoiy. His works are — " Ob- 
 sen^atious on Plants, and their analogy with Insects ;" a " Trea- 
 tise on the Growth of Plants;" "Letters on Pohps ;" "Natural 
 History of Bees, and of other Inset ts."' — J. II. B. 
 
 BAZIN, Jkax, a French diplomatist, born at Blois, 25th 
 September, 1538; died in 1592. He at first held the otEce of 
 procureur du rot in his native town, but in 1572 he was ap- 
 pointed to accompany the bishop of Valence to Poland, charged 
 with an important mission, which he conducted with ability and 
 success. On his return he was accused of protestantism, and 
 was obliged to go into exile. — G. M. 
 
 BAZIN, Nicolas, a French engraver, born at Troyes in 
 1636 ; died in 1706 ; engraved many plates of portraits and 
 religious subjects, all of a size (4to), which has ever since be- 
 come identified with his name. He studied under Claude ilellan. 
 
 BAZIRE or BASIKE, Claude, a French rcvolntiouist, born 
 at Dijon in 1764; died 3d April, 1794. He had been at first 
 educated for the church, but afterwards embraced the profession 
 of the law. At the outbreak of the Revolution, he was elected 
 member of the dii-ectory for the district of Dijon, and afterwards 
 deputy for the department of the Cote d'Or to the legislative 
 assembly. He at first ranked among the " montagnards," and 
 voted for the death of Louis XVI., but he was opposed to the 
 Eeign of Terror, and, bemg brought before the revolutionary 
 tribunal on a pretended charge of corruption, was condemned to 
 death, and executed the same day. — G. JI. 
 
 BAZIUS, John, a Swedish historian, bom in 1581; died 
 in 1640. He had three sons, one of whom, Benedict, was pre- 
 ceptor to Charles Gusta\Tis, afterwards Charles X. Bazius was 
 author of many moral, literary, and historical dissertations. 
 
 * BAZOT, Etienne Francois, a French writer, born at 
 Nievrc, 13th JLarch, 1782. He has published many works of 
 merit, and is the editor of the " Bi )graphie Nouvelle des Con- 
 temporains," a pubUcation of great value. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEALE, Mary, a portrait painter of the time of Charles II., 
 daughter of a clerg}'man named Cradock, and bom m Suftblk 
 in 1632. In that age of profligate ribbon-wearing men, of sneer- 
 ing atheists, and persecuted good people, this lady seems to have 
 lived an honest life, in the simple pursuit of a gentle sort of un- 
 ambitious art. She attempted to imitate her master, the Dutch- 
 man Lcly, and, as the fops behind her chair doubtless said, sui- 
 passed him. Her colour was clear and strong, good pouits in 
 colour, and her impaste, for the somewhat skimming hand of 
 woman, solid and globular. The critics recommend her for that 
 thoroughly critical merit, i. e. giving an Italian air to honest Eng- 
 lish heads, a little giddy and bewigged perhaps, but still honest 
 English. She copied the old masters too, good woman, to learn 
 how to become original. She manied an obscure painter named 
 Beale, and had by him two sons, both of whom afflicted the 
 world with inditferent paintings ; but one of them had the good 
 sense to leave art and turn physician. Amiable Mistress Beale 
 died in 1697.— W. T. 
 
 BI2ALE or BELUS, Robert, an English la\vj'er and canonist 
 of the latter half of the sixteenth century, was descended from 
 the family of Beale of Woodbridge in Suffolk. During Queen 
 Man,''s reign, being a staunch Puritan, he was in exile on the 
 continent, where, indulging his bibliomaniacal turn, he amassed a 
 library of rare and costly books, from which were drawn the 
 materials for a work, published at Frankfort in 1 579, with the title 
 •' Remm Hispanicannn Scriptores Aliquot, ex bibliutheca clarissimi 
 viri Domini Roberti Beli Angli." On his return to England he 
 married Editha St. Barbe, sister to the lady of Sir Francis 
 Walsingham. That statesman introduced him at court, and in 
 1571 attached him as secretaiy to the English embassy at Paris. 
 In 1576 he was sent as ambassador to the prince of Orange, 
 and, some years later, was employed in negotiations with the 
 court of Spain. He was a clerk of the privy council at the time 
 when Elizabeth determined on the execution of Mary Queen of 
 Scots, and, at the suggestion of Walsingham, he was appointed 
 to convey the fatal warrant to Fotheiingay. In 1600 he was 
 one of the commissioners who negotiated the peace of Boulogne. 
 Died in 1601.— J. S., G. 
 
 BEAN, John Philips, master of St. Paul's school, and 
 
 incumbent of St. Mary, Aldermanbuiy. He was of Corpus 
 Christi college, Cambridge; B.A. 1809, M.A. 1813. He pub- 
 lished an atlas of classical geography in 1835, and died in 1854. 
 
 * BEARD, John R., D.D., bom August 4, 1800, at Portsca. 
 In 1825 Dr. Beard settled in JIanchester as a christian pastor, 
 and soon attracted a large congregation. He has been a most 
 industrious contributor to the periodical literature of the day, and 
 is the author of ni:my articles in the Foreign, British, and Wesl- 
 minster Reviews, and in the Journal of Sacrtd Literature. His 
 separate publications are very numerous, and include a " Life of 
 Toussaint L'Ouverture ;" "The People's Dictionary of the Bible," 
 and several translations from the French and German. 
 
 BEAEE, G., pamted the portraits of the duke of Bedford 
 and George IV. 
 
 BEATiLLO, Antonio, an Italian, bom at Ban, near Naples, 
 in 1570; died in 1642. Author of a "Histoiy of the City of 
 Bari," and of " Lives of the Siiints." 
 
 BEATON, David, cardinal, and archbishop of St. Andrews, 
 was descended from the ancient family of the Beatons of Bal- 
 four in Fife, and was bom in 1494. He commenced his educa- 
 tion in the university of St. Andrews, and completed it in the 
 university of Paris. After finishing his studies, he remained for 
 some time at the French court in the capacity of resident Scot- 
 tish minister. During this period he received from his uncle. 
 Archbishop James Beaton, the rector)' of Campsie, near Glasgow ; 
 and in 1524 the archbishop, who had shortly before been made 
 primate, resigned the rich abbacy of Aberbrotliock, and prevailed 
 upon the regent to confer it upon his nephew, but with the 
 resenation to himself of one half of its revenues during his life. 
 David Beaton returned to Scotland in 1525, and speedUy at- 
 tained great influence with the government. He was appointed 
 by the parliament, one of the six persons to whom the charge of 
 the young king's person and education was specially committed, 
 and soon became a great favourite with the king, who, in 1528, 
 made him Lord Privy Seal. In 1533, Beaton was sent on a special 
 mission to the French comt, fir the purpose of strengthening the 
 ancient league between the two countries, and negotiating a 
 marriage between James and a piincess of the blood-royal of 
 France. The ambassador seems to have ingi-atiated himself 
 with the French king, Francis I., and to have concluded with 
 him a secret treaty for the protection of the Roman Catholic 
 faith ; but the maniage was postponed in consequence, it was 
 alleged, of the ill health of the princess. At length, in 1536, 
 James, becoming unpatient of the obstacles thus interposed to 
 the consmnmation of his wishes, set sail for France, to prosecute 
 his suit in person, and Francis, having given his consent to the 
 union of his daughter JIagdalene with the Scottish king, theii 
 nuptials were solemnized with gi'eat splendour on the 1st of 
 January, 1537. The royal pair landed in Scotland on the 19th 
 of JIa}' follo^^ing. But the young queen was ah-eady far gone 
 in consumption, and to the inexpressible giief of her hu.sband 
 and the whole nation, she expired on the 10th of July, before 
 she had completed her seventeenth year. A few months after 
 the death of Magdalene, Beaton was again dispatched to France, 
 to open negotiations for the marriage of James with Maiy of 
 Guise, widow of the duke of Longueville. During his residence 
 at tlie French court, Beaton received from Francis, the bishopric 
 of Mirepoix, and through his interest the pope, Paul III., was 
 induced, a few months later, to raise the able and aspiring 
 churchman to the dignity of a cardinal, under the title of " St. 
 Stephen de Caelio Monte." He returned to Scotland with the 
 new queen in July, 1538, and in the autumn of 1539, was ele- 
 vated to the primacy in the room of his uncle, James Beaton, 
 who had for some yeai-s, privately delegated to him almost the 
 whole authority of his office. 
 
 At this period a conflict was mipending between the partisans 
 of the Romish faith and the supporters of the Reformed doctrines 
 in Scotland — several of the latter had already suffered martyr- 
 dom — and Beaton signalized his entrance upon the primacy by 
 fanning into a fierce flame the fire of persecution against the 
 Protestants. He presided at the trial of no fewer than five 
 persons accused of heresy, who were all, without hesitation, 
 condemned to the stake, and executed on the Castle-hill of 
 Edinburgh. In the spring of 1540 he went to St. Andrews, 
 attended by a numerous train of the leading nobility and gentry, 
 the archbishop of Glasgow, and other prelates, and an immense 
 concourse of the clerg}- ; and ha\-ing convened them in a sort of 
 ecclesiastical comicil in the cathedral, he harangued them on the
 
 BEA 
 
 431 
 
 BEA 
 
 imminent dangers wliich threatened the church, and laid before 
 them the measm-es which he wished them to adopt for the sup- 
 pression of heresy. His recommendations were immediately 
 adopted, processes were instituted against several of the Refoiin- 
 ers, and Sir John Borthwick, provost of Linlithgow, son of Lord 
 Borthwick, one of the most distinguished of their number, was 
 cited to appear before the assembly, on an accusation of heresy. 
 Sir John, however, had prudently taken refuge in England, 
 where he was cordially welcomed by Henry VIII. ; and on his 
 failure to appear, he was condemned and excommunicated, his 
 goods confiscated, and his effigy burnt at the market-cross. 
 
 At this juncture Henry YIII., having thrown off the authority 
 of the Romish see, was exceedingly anxious to induce his nephew, 
 James, to follow his example ; and with this view sent Sir Ralph 
 Sadler, an able and crafty diplomatist, into Scotland, for the 
 purpose of persuading the Scottish monarch to ^-ithdraw his 
 confidence fi-om Beaton, and to renounce the papal supremacy. 
 But the attempt was completely unsuccessful. James declared 
 his conviction of the cardinal's loyalty, and refused to adopt the 
 measures which his uncle recommended. " I assure your 
 majesty," said Sadler, " he excused the cardinal in everything, 
 and seemed wondrous loath to hear of anything that should 
 sound as an untruth in him, but rather gave him great praise." 
 Henry then renewed his proposal for a personal conference with 
 James at York, and the Scottish monarch was at length induced by 
 his uncle's importunity to give a reluctant consent to the proposal. 
 Dut the cardinal and clergy, justly dreading the effect which an 
 ngreement of the two kings would have upon the interests of the 
 Scottish church, entreated James to absent himself from the 
 proposed conference, and by their urgent representations, and 
 promises of lai-ge sums of money, they succeeded in persuading 
 him to remain at home. This violation of his promise exas- 
 perated the English king against his relative, and led to a war 
 ''tween the two countries, which indirectly proved fatal to the 
 Scottish monarch (13th December, 1542). The sudden death 
 f James compelled the cardinal to change his tactics, but did 
 :!iit interfere with his ambitious projects. It is stated both by 
 John Knox and Sir David Lindsay, and confirmed by the autho- 
 rity of the governor, An-an, th.at when the king was on his 
 deathbed, Beaton succeeded in obtaining his signature to a 
 blank sheet of paper, on which he afterwards wrote a will, 
 nominating himself Regent, with three of the nobility as liis 
 assessors or assistants. On the Jlonday following the king's 
 death, he caused himself to be proclaimed Regent at the cross of 
 Edinburgh ; but the valiility of the document was at once ques- 
 tioned by the Protestant and English party, and it was soon 
 •ifter annulled by the parliament. James, earl of AiTan, pre- 
 umptive heir to the cro«Ti, was appointed sole Regent in the 
 -jiring of 1543, and the ambitious primate was stripped of all 
 authority in the government. > 
 
 Meanwhile the English king had resolved to take advantage 
 '■f the untimely death of James, and the disastrous state of 
 irt'airs in Scotland, to bring that kingdom under the dominion 
 uf England, by a marriage between his son Edward and tlie 
 infant Scottish queen. This project, however, was strenuously 
 opposed by Beaton, who saw in it the total overthrow of the 
 Romish church in Scotland. He was therefore an-ested, and 
 confined in the castle of Blackness, by the governor, at the 
 instigation of the ICnglish faction, on pretence that he was 
 engaged in a treasonable correspondence with France. The im- 
 prisonment of the primate produced a great sensation among 
 the clergy, who immediately laid the country under a religious 
 interdict. A strong reaction took place throughout the nation 
 in favour of the cardinal, and against the English alliance ; and 
 the violent and precipitate conduct of Henry contributed greatly 
 to .strengthen the dislike with which his project was regarded. 
 (See QuKKN JIary.) The governor himself began to waver, 
 and was at length persuaded to connive at the cardinal's escape 
 from confinement. 
 
 The feeble and vacillating An"an was soon after completely 
 gained over by the primate, and on the od of September, 1543, 
 abjured the Protestant faith, and delivered up liis eldest son 
 to the custody of Beaton as a hostage for his sincei-ity. The 
 popular feeling continued to nin strong against the English alli- 
 ance, and the clergy declared their readiness not only to devote their 
 private fortunes, but to melt down the church j)latc if necessary, 
 and even to take up arms in defence of the religion and inde- 
 pendence of the country. The party of the primate obtained a 
 
 complete ascendency over the English faction among the nobles, 
 and Beaton speedily became the custodier of the young queen's 
 person, and the most powerful man in the kingdom. About the 
 beginning of 1544 he was appointed the papal legate, and accom- 
 panied by Arran, Argyll, and other nobles and several prelates, 
 he undertook a progress through the country for the pm-pose of 
 suppressing the Reformed doctrines, which had already made 
 numerous converts in Scotland. At Perth he caused four men 
 to be tried and hanged ; three of them for eating a goose dur- 
 ing Lent, and the fourth for inten-upting an ecclesiastic while 
 preaching, and denying the validity of prayers to saints. The wife 
 of one of these mart\TS was di-owned, because she had refused 
 to pray to the Virgin Mary for help in childbirth. Several 
 of the citizens were banished, and Lord Ruthven was deposed 
 from the office of provost on account of his supposed leaning to 
 the Protestant faith. 
 
 lleaiiwliile Heniy, enraged at the refusal of the Scots to 
 fulfil the engagement they had entered into for the marriage 
 of their young queen to his son, sent a powerful army under 
 the earl of Hertford to mvade Scotland, with instructions to 
 lay waste the country with the most savage ferocity, and 
 especially to direct their vengeance against the cardinal and his 
 friends. " You are to bum Edinburgh," he said in his written 
 directions to Hertford, " and raze the castle, putting man, woman, 
 and cliild to tii'e and sword where any resistance shall be made 
 against you. And this done, pass over to Fifeland and extend 
 like extremities, and destraction to all tOT\-ns and villages where- 
 into you may reach conveniently, not forgetting amongst all the 
 rest, so to spoil and turn upside down the cardinal's to^vn of 
 St. Andrews, as the upper stone may be the nether, and not one 
 stock stand by another, sparing no creature alive within the 
 same, specially such as either in fi-iendship or blood be allied to 
 the cardinal." The English general was not able to penetrate 
 to St. Andrews, but he carried out the bloodthirsty instructions 
 of his master by plundering and devastating the whole of the 
 south-eastern districts of Scotland, including the capital, and 
 destrojdng life and property to a vast extent. This merciless 
 and short-sighted policy, however, served only to strengthen the 
 hands of Beaton, and to exasperate the Scottish nation against 
 the alliance with England. An attempt was then made by 
 Henry to gain his end by a pacific negotiation, conducted by the 
 earl of Cassilis, a supporter of the English faction ; but his 
 offers were rejected by a convention of the nobility, and the 
 treaties of marriage were declared to be dissolved. Henry and 
 his Scottish allies threw the blame of this course upon the pri- 
 mate, who thus became the object of their deadliest animosity. 
 A project was formed for his assassination by the earls of 
 Cassilis, GlencauTi, Angus, ^larischal, and Sir George Douglas, 
 and was communicated through Sir Ralph Sadler to Henry and 
 his privy council. This infamous proposal received the immediate 
 and cordial ap])roval of the English monarch ; but " not willing 
 to seem to have anything to do in it, though not misliking the 
 ofl:er," he instructed Sadler to stimulate the conspirators to go 
 through with their deed of blood, and to trust to the king's 
 "accustomed goodness" for their reward. They were too cim- 
 ning and cautious, however, to proceed without an explicit 
 pledge from Henry, that he would secure them indemnity and 
 recompense for the cardinal's murder. The plot was, therefore, 
 for the present laid aside. A few months later, however, the 
 project was renewed by Crichton, the laird of Briinston, who, in 
 July, 1545, opened a communication with Sadler, " touching 
 the kiUing of the cardinal," and oft'ering for a sum " to take him 
 out of the way." The English ambassador, while assuring the 
 conspirators tliat the king, " for sundry considerations would 
 not have to do with this matter touching the said cardinal," yet 
 urges them to execute this villanous design as an " acccpt.ablo 
 service to God ;" and adds, " I pr.ay you advertise me what 
 reward you do require, and if it be not unreasonable I will 
 undertake it shall be paid immediately upon the act executed." 
 Crichton, however, like his predecessors, insisted upon a distinct 
 pledge of protection and reward from the king himself; and as 
 Heniy was still unwilling to connnit himself by giving such a 
 promise, the enterprise was once more abandoned. 
 
 There is no reason to suppose that Heaton was aware of these 
 plots against liis life, and he continued to carry through with 
 unfaltering vigour the high-handed policy which he had adopted 
 for the protection of the Romish church, and the suppression of 
 the Protestant faith. One of the most eloquent and zealous
 
 preachers of the Reformed doctrines was George Wishart of Pit- 
 arrow, who had in consequence rendered himself peculiarly 
 obnoxious to the Koniish priesthood, and it was now resolved to 
 have him arrested and brought to trial on a charge of heresy. 
 He was at this time residing at Ormiston in East Lothian, and 
 Arran was induced by the primate to send a party of horse, 
 under the earl of BothwcU, to arrest him. Wishart surrendered 
 under a solemn promise from Bolhwell that his life should be 
 spared. But he was treacherously delivered up by that noble to 
 the cardinal, who immediately conveyed him to St. Andrews and 
 cast him into a dungeon in his castle. Arran refused to grant 
 a commission to a civil judge to bring Wishart to trial, and wrote 
 to Beaton to stay proceedings till he should have time to inquire 
 into the matter. But the cai-dinal paid no regard to the injunc- 
 tion, and immediately, on his own authority, brought Wishart 
 before an ecclesiastical tribunal at St. Andrews on a charge of 
 heresy. He was of course found guilty, and condemned to be 
 burnt — a sentence which was executed on the following day, 
 March 28, 1546, in front of the castle. (See George Wish- 
 art.) 
 
 Immediately after this cruel deed, Beaton proceeded to Angus 
 for the purpose of attending the marriage of Margaret, one of 
 his natural daughters, to David Lindsay, eldest son of the 
 earl of Crawford. The nuptials were celebrated at Finhaven 
 castle with unusual magnificence, the bride receiving from her 
 father the princely dowry of four thousand marks. In the 
 midst of the mamage festinties, the cardinal received infor- 
 mation that King Henry was collecting a naval force for the 
 purpose of ravaging the coast of Fife, and he immediately 
 returned to St. Andrews in order to strengthen the forti- 
 fications of his castle against the threatened attack. Mean- 
 while the murder of Wishart, which had been warmly applauded 
 by the clergy and the popish party, had excited deep and general 
 indignation throughout the country. Some of the martyr's 
 friends resolved to exact speedy vengeance for his blood, while 
 others who held the cardinal at feud, determined to avail them- 
 selves of the favouralile opportunity to revenge their own real or 
 supposed wrongs. Norman Lesley, master of Rothes, had imtil 
 lately been one of the prelate's friends, and had even granted him 
 a bond of " man-rent." But a quan-el had recently taken place 
 which had rendered them mortal enemies. It is said that 
 Beaton had resolved to take off or imprison Lesley and several 
 of his friends, while Norman, with the approbation of his uncle, 
 John Lesley, who had already threatened to revenge the murder 
 of Wishart, called into his counsels Kirkaldy of Grange, James 
 Melville, and several other associates, who both hated and feared 
 the cardinal, and after a secret consultation it was determined 
 to put their dreaded enemy to death without delay. 
 
 On the evening of Friday, 2Lst May, the conspirators, sixteen 
 in number, proceeded quietly to St. Andrews, and entered the 
 town in detachments, and at different times. Nest morning, before 
 day-break, they approached the castle in small detached groups. 
 The drawbridge had been lowered to admit the workmen who 
 were engaged in the erection of the new fortifications, and Kirk- 
 aldy, with six of his associates, passed the gates and inquired 
 if the cardinal was yet awake. While the attention of the porter 
 was thus engaged, Norman Lesley and James Melville entered 
 unnoticed. But on the appearance of John Lesley, whose 
 enmity to Beaton was well known, the porter, suspecting mis- 
 chief, rushed to the drawbridge, and unloosening its fastening, 
 was in the act of raising it, when Lesley leaped across the 
 chasm. The porter was instantly dispatched, deprived of his keys, 
 and thrown into the fosse before he could give the alarm. The 
 workmen, amounting to about a hundred, who were labouring 
 on the ramparts, were then quietly led to the gate and dismissed. 
 The household servants, fifty in number, were next roused from 
 sleep, threatened with instant death if they made any outcry, 
 and one by one tunied out of the castle ; while Kirkaldy of 
 Grange, who was well acquainted with the place, stationed him- 
 self at a private postern, through which alone the cardinal could 
 escape. The conspirators were now complete masters of the 
 castle. Up till this moment Beaton, totally unconscious of his 
 danger, had continued fast asleep ; but being now roused by the 
 noise, he raised the window of his bedroom and asked what it 
 meant. Being told that the castle had been taken by Norman 
 Lesley, he ran to the jiostern, but, finding it secured, he fled back 
 to his bedchamber, seized his sword, and with the help of his 
 page barricaded the door. John Lesley now approached and 
 
 demanded admittance. "Who calls ?" said the cardinal. "My 
 name is Lesley," was the reply. " Is that Norman ?" asked the 
 unhappy prelate. " Nay," said the conspirator, " my name is 
 John." " I will have Norman," exclaimed Beaton; " for he is 
 my friend." " Content yourself," returned Lesley, "with such 
 as are here, for otliers you shall have none." 
 
 Two others of the band, Melville and CaiTuichael, now joined 
 Lesley in attempting to force open the door, which resisted all 
 their efforts. The cardinal meanwhile earnestly entreated that they 
 would promise to spare his life. " It may be that we will," was 
 the equivocal reply of Lesley. " Nay," returned Beaton, "swear 
 unto me by God's wounds, and I will open the door unto you." 
 " It that was said is unsaid," exclaimed the assassin, infwiated 
 at the delay, and calling for tire, was about to apply it to the 
 door, when it was unlocked by the cardinal or his page, it is not 
 known which. Sitting down on a chair, Beaton exclaimed, " I 
 am a priest, I am a priest, ye will not slay me ! " Disregarding 
 his entreaties for mercy, Lesley and Cannichael struck him twice 
 with their daggers. But Jlelville, whom Knox describes as 
 a man "of a nature most gentle and most modest," rebuked 
 them for their violence, saying, " This work and judgment of God, 
 although it be secret, ought to be done with greater gravity." 
 Then admonishing the unhappy prelate to repent of his wicked 
 life, and especially of the murder of Wishart, whose blood cried 
 for vengeance upon him, he added, " I protest before God that 
 neither the hati-ed of thy person, the love of thy riches, nor the 
 fear of any trouble thou couldest have done to me in particular, 
 moveth me to strike thee, but only because thou hast been and 
 remalnest an obstinate enemy against Christ Jesus and his holy 
 Evangel." Having thus spoken, he repeatedly passed his sword 
 through the body of the cardinal, who fell down from his chair, 
 and expired, exclaiming, " I am a priest, I am a priest ; fie, fie, 
 all is gone !" 
 
 Meanwhile an alarm had been raised in the town, and several 
 hundreds of the citizens, headed by the provost, himied to the 
 side of the castle moat, crying out, " What have ye done with 
 my lord cardinal ? Let us see my lord cardinal." The assassins 
 ordered them to disperse, but without effect ; and at length 
 Norman Lesley, taunting them as unreasonable fools who wished 
 to speak with a dead man, dragged the bleeding body of the 
 cardinal to the window, and hung it by a sheet over the wall. 
 " There," said he, " is your god ; and now that ye are satisfied, 
 get you home to your houses ;" a command which the terror- 
 stricken crowd immediately obeyed. 
 
 Thus perished, in his fifty-second year, by " a deed foully 
 done," Cardinal Beaton, " the Wolsey of Scotland." He wa» 
 imdoubtedly a man of gi-eat abilities — sagacious, bold, energetic, 
 magnificent in his tastes, and liberal In his expenditure. But 
 his ambition was unbounded, and his cruelty, licentiousness, 
 and unscrupulousness, have left an indelible stain upon his 
 memorj'. His death was an irreparable loss to his party, and 
 contributed not a little to hasten the downfall of the Roman 
 Catholic church in Scotland. — (John Knox's History; Lesley; 
 Spottiswood ; Sir David Lindsay's Tragedy of the Cardinal; 
 Sadler's State Papers, vol. i.) — J. T. 
 
 BEATON, James, an eminent prelate of the Romish church, 
 and uncle of Cardinal Beaton, took a prominent part in public 
 affairs during the stormy period which followed the death of 
 James IV. He owed his first preferment, in 1503, to the pro- 
 vostship of the Collegiate church of Bothwell, to the house of 
 Douglas, who were patrons of that establishment. He passed 
 rapidly through the various grades of promotion, till he attained 
 the highest rank of ecclesiastical dignity. In 1504 he was made 
 abbot of Dunfermline, and in the following year he succeeded his 
 uncle. Sir David Beaton, in the office of high trcasiu-er of the 
 kingdom. In 1508 he was appointed bishop of Galloway, and 
 next year he was translated to the archiepiscopal see of Glasgow. 
 While he held the office of archbishop of Glasgow, he bidlt a 
 magnificent wall round the episcopal palace, augmented several 
 of the altarages in the cathedral, and repaired many of the bridges 
 within his regality which had fallen to decay. After the death of 
 James IV., Beaton was elevated by the Regent, Albany, to the 
 office of Lord Chancellor, and appointed one of the governors of the 
 kingdom during the absence of the Regent in France. The violent 
 discussions w-hich now broke out between the rival factions of 
 Arran and Angus, led to the disruption of the friendship which 
 had hitherto existed between Beaton and the Douglases, his early 
 patrons. Arran had manied the niece of the archbishop, and
 
 this probably induced the latter to attach himself to the party of 
 the Hamiltons. During the meeting of parliament in Edinburgh, 
 in April, 1520, a favourable opportunity seemed to present itself 
 to the partisans of Arran to crush their rival while the great body 
 of his supporters were at a distance ; and Beaton and other leaders 
 of the Hamilton faction held a council in the church of the Black- 
 friars, for the purpose of concerting their measures. Angus sent 
 his uncle, the celebrated Gawin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, to the 
 meeting, to remonstrate against their warlike preparations, and to 
 endeavour to compose their differences. Addressing himself to the 
 Chancellor as the othcial conservator of the lawsof the realm, Doug- 
 las entreated liim to act as a peacemaker. Beaton, however, had 
 actually prepared for the expected struggle, by putting on a coat of 
 mail under his robes, and in answer to the appeal of Douglas said, 
 "Upon my conscience, I know nothing of the matter;" at the same 
 time striking his hand upon his breast, which caused the armour to 
 return a rattling sound. " Jly lord," replied the bishop, " yoxir 
 conscience clatters" (tells tales); and leaving the meeting after 
 this pointed rebuke of Beaton's insincerity, he returned back to 
 his nephew, and told him he must defend himself with arms. 
 In the conflict which ensued — long remembered by the name 
 of " Clean the Causeway " — the Hamiltons were completely 
 worsted, and driven from the city. Arclibishop Beaton took refuge 
 behind the high altar of the church of the Blackfriars' monastery, 
 but his place of retreat was discovered by the Douglases, who 
 tore off his rochet, and would have slain him on the spot, but for 
 the interposition of the bishop of Dunkeld. For some time after 
 this defeat of his party Beaton lived in obscurity, till the return 
 of the Duke of Albany, by whose influence he was, in 1523, 
 appointed to the metropolitan see of St. Andrews. Soon after 
 tliis, however, he changed sides, and entered into a coalition with 
 Angus against the faction of the queen-mother and Arran, and 
 was in consequence, in 1524, thrown into prison at Berwick, and 
 Icprived of his Chancellorship. After an imprisonment of four 
 
 : ninths he was set at hberty, on the decline of the queen's power; 
 uid before the end of the year he was restored to his former 
 honours, and appointed one of the privy council for the education 
 'if the young king, and the government of the kingdom. Dr. 
 Magnus, the English ambassador, in a letter written at this time 
 to Cardinal Wolsey, calls Beaton "the greatest man, both of lands 
 Hid experience, within this realm." But he adds, " the said arch- 
 
 >hop is noted to be subtle and dissembling," and accuses him 
 ■■f intriguing with both the French and Enghsh factions. He 
 speaks also of the magnificence of the entertainments given by 
 the primate, and says, " I understand there hath not been such a 
 lunise kept in Scotland many days before as of late the said arch- 
 I lishop hath kept and yet keepeth ; he gave liverj' nightly to twenty- 
 one score of horses." On the revival of the power of the Douglases, 
 and the accession of Angus to supreme power in the state, Beaton 
 Joined the queen-mother and Lennox in an unsuccessful attempt 
 to rescue the young king from the ignominious thraldom in which 
 he was held by that tyrannical noble. This course of policy drew 
 down upon the archbishop the displeasure of the Douglas faction ; 
 and after the defeat and death of Lennox in the skirmish near 
 Lithlingow, in 1525, the primate was compelled to flee for his 
 life to the hills of Balgrumo in Fife, where he assumed the dis- 
 guise of a shepherd, and tended a flock of sheep for three months, 
 in order to elude the pursuit of his enemies. The Douglases, 
 meanwhile, wreaked their vengeance on his estates, and pillaged 
 the abbey of Dunfermhne and the castle of St. Andrews. The 
 primate, however, ultimately succeeded in maldng his peace with 
 the Douglases, by liberal gifts of money, and the surrender of the 
 abbey of Kilwinning. He was not slow to avail himself of the 
 power which he thus regained to promote the aggrandisement of 
 the church ; and the celebrated Patrick Hamilton, the protomartyr 
 of the Keformed church in Scotland, fell a ^•ictim to the reconci- 
 liation which now took place between Angus and Beaton. (See 
 Patrick Haiiiltox.) Several other persons suft'ered persecu- 
 tion or death about the same time for their adherence to the 
 Protestant faith. A number, including the celebrated George 
 Buchanan, Gavin Logic, rector of St. Leonard's college, and the 
 learned Dr. .Tohn Jl'l'ee, sought refuge in England or on the 
 continent. The crafty prelate, though apparently in close alliance 
 with the Douglases, contrived quietly to intrigue against their 
 power ; and was a party to the plot by which the young Icing, 
 James V., regained his liberty. On the overthrow of Angus, 
 Beaton was reinstated in all his dignities, except that of chan- 
 cellor, which was conferred on Gavin Dunbar, archbishop of 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Glasgow, the king's former preceptor. The aged primate passed 
 the remainder of his active life in comparative retirement and 
 tranquillity. The principal employment of his closing years was 
 the erection and endowment of the new college of St. Andrews. 
 But the greater part of the funds which he had destined for that 
 purpose were unfortunately misapplied by his executors. He 
 died in 1539. — J. T. 
 
 BEATOX, James, archbishop of Glasgow, was nephew of 
 Cardinal Beaton. He was educated in Paris under the eye of 
 his uncle, who was at that time ambassador from James V. On 
 his return to Scotland he was appointed chanter of Glasgow 
 cathedral, under archbishop Dunbar. In 1543 he succeeded his 
 uncle in the rich abbey of Aberbrothock, and was employed by 
 him in many important transactions. In 1552, though the mur- 
 der of his powerful relative had in the interval deprived him of 
 his patron, he was promoted to the archbishopric of Glasgow, and 
 became one of the most important personages in the kingdom. His 
 niece, Mary Beaton, was one of the "four Maries" who attended 
 on the young Queen JIai-y in France. The archbbhop enjoyed 
 the confidence both of the Regent AiTan and of the queen dowager, 
 and was the fii-st of the commissioners appointed by parliament, 
 in 1557, to be present at the marriage of Queen ^lary to the 
 dauphin of France. He was one of the confidential counsellors 
 of the queen regent, Mary of Lorraine, and strenuously co-operated 
 with her in a fruitless effort to stem the advancing tide of the 
 IJefoiTnation. In 1559 the cathedral was stripped of its images, 
 and a garrison was placed for a short time in the archbishop's pal- 
 ace, by his former friend Arran,who had now embraced the Kefonned 
 faith. On the death of the queen regent in 1560, Beaton per- 
 ceived that the Romish church could no longer maintain its ground 
 in Scotland, and that the safety of its prelates and leading sup- 
 porters was seriously endangered ; he therefore returned to France, 
 carrying with him all the valuable plate, and the records and 
 other documents belonging to the see. Among these records, 
 which were veiy valuable, were two chartularies ; one of which, 
 entitled " The Red Book of Glasgow," was WTitten in the reign 
 of Robert III. The archbishop spent the remainder of his 
 long life as ambassador from the Scottish court to the French 
 king. He was highly esteemed and trusted by Queen Maiy ; and 
 her son, James VI., in 1588, restored Beaton to the tempo- 
 ralities of his see, although the presbyterian faith was now the 
 established religion of Scotland. He died April 24th, 1603, 
 in the eighty-sixth year of his age, shortly after the acces- 
 sion of James to the English throne, having hold the office of 
 ambassador to three generations of the Scottish sovereigns. Arch- 
 bishop Spottiswood, his successor, describes him as " a man 
 honourably disposed, faithful to the queen while she lived, and to 
 the king, her son ; a lover of his country, and liberal according 
 to his means to all his countrymen." He bequeathed his large 
 fortune to the Scots college at Paris, an institution founded in 
 1325 by a bishop of Jloray, for the benefit of poor Scottish 
 scholars ; and to the monastery of the Carthusians, to be restored, 
 however, to Glasgow, as soon as its inhabitants should return to 
 the Roman Catholic church. The valuable documents which he 
 earned off from Scotland were deposited in this college, together 
 with an immense mass of diplomatic papers ; but the whole col- 
 lection was unfortunately destroyed or lost on the breaking out 
 of the first French revolution. — J. T. 
 
 BEATRICE PORTINARI, a name which recalls the first love, 
 the life-long soitow, and much of the poetry of Dante. In the 
 "Vita Nuova" we are told that the poet met Beatrice at a banquet 
 in the house of her father, Folco Portinari, when they were each 
 at the age of nine years. Their intimacy lasted till the death of 
 Beatrice, sixteen years after their first intcn'iew. She is immor- 
 talized in cantos xxx. and xxxi. of the Purgatorio. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEATRIX, daughter of Ferdinand, king of Naples and 
 Aragon, died at Ischia in 1508. In 1475 she married Mathias 
 Corvinus, king of Hungary, and subsequently became celebrated 
 in the history of that country by her politiail intrigues, by means 
 of which she sought to counteract the intention of the king to 
 leave his throne to his natural son, ,Tohn Corvinus. She has 
 been accused of poisoning her husband with a view to marry his 
 successor, but having been disappointed in her object, she passed 
 the remainder of her life in voluntary exile. — G. JI. 
 
 BEATSON, R(M!i:in-, LL.D., born at Dy.sart, Fife, in 1742; 
 died at Edinburgh, 18tli April, 1818. He wrote "A Political 
 Index to the Histoil'S of Great Britain and Ireland," "Xaval 
 and Military Mcmou's of Great Britain from 1727 to 1804. 
 
 31
 
 BEA 
 
 434 
 
 BEA 
 
 BEATTIE, James, the poet and moral philosoplier, was bom 
 25th October, 1735, in a house at the north-east end of Lau- 
 rencekirk, a callage in the heart of the IIow of the Mearns in 
 Kiiicai'iiineshire. His father kept a small retail shop, and rented 
 a small fann in the neighbourhood. He was educated at the 
 parish school, and displayed an early taste for reading, especially 
 books of poetry. In 1749 he entered Mai-ischal college, Aber- 
 deen, where he competed for, and received a bursary, where his 
 classical tastes were at once discerned by Dr. Blackwell, and 
 where, in futui'e years, he studied philosophy under Dr. Gerard. 
 In 1753 he was appointed sehoohnaster of the parish of Fordoun, 
 about six miles from Laurencekirk. He had all along a taste 
 for the beauties of natiu-e, and his poetical genius was Idndled, 
 and may have been partly guided into the direction which it took, 
 by the peculi;u- scenery of that part of Kincardineslm-e, where a 
 fine rich plain is seen stretching out, with the lofty Grampians as 
 a back ground. It is reported of him, that at this period of his 
 life he woidd saunter in the fields the livelong night, contem- 
 plating the sky, and marking the approach of day, and that he 
 was particularly fond of wandering in a deep and finely-wooded 
 glen in the neighbourhood of Fordoun. While at this place, 
 he secured friends and patrons in the parish minister, in Lord 
 Monboddo, and Lord Gardcnstone. He seems to have attended 
 dignity lectures dming several winters at Aberdeen, with a 
 view to the ministry, but he soon relinquished the pursuit. 
 In 1757 he stood a competitive examination for the office of 
 u-sher in the gi-ammar-school of Aberdeen, and was defeated ; 
 but so satisfied were the judges of his qualifications, that, on the 
 office fiilling vacant the following year, he was appointed to it 
 without any further examination. In this more pubUe position, 
 his literary abilities became known, and, through the influence 
 of some influential friends whom he had acquired, he was in- 
 stalled professor of moral philosophy and logic in JLarischal 
 college in 17G0. About this time he became a member of a 
 literary society, or club, where he associated with such eminent 
 men as Eeid, Campbell, Dr. John Gregory, and Gerard. In 
 the year of his appointment to the chair, he published a small 
 book of poems, entitled " Original Poems and Translations," 
 which at once secured him a wide reputation, as a true poet, 
 and a man of high Htcrary taste. As professor, he lectured 
 and examined two or three hours every day, from Novem- 
 ber to April, on pneumatology, embracing psychology and 
 natural theolog}-, speculative and practical ethics, economics, 
 jurisprudence, politics, rhetoric, and logic, with readings in Cicero 
 and others of the ancient philosophers. As a moral philosopher, 
 he felt himself called on to oppose the scepticism of which 
 Hume was the champion. It appears from letters of Dr. John 
 Gregoiy, published in Forbes' Life of Beattie, that atheism and 
 materiahsm were at that time in high fashion, and were spouted 
 by many who used the name of Hume, but who had never read 
 his works, and who were incapable of understanding them. Dr. 
 Reid was, meanwhile, examining the foundations of philosophy 
 which Hume had turned to a sceptical use, and published in 
 1761 his " Inquuy into the Human Mind, on the Principles of 
 Common Sense." Beattie followed in 1770 with the " Essay on 
 the Nature and Immutability of Truth, in opposition to Sophistry 
 and Scepticism." This work was his principal study for four 
 years; he wrote it three times over, and some parts of it oftener. 
 His object is — first, to trace the several kinds of evidence and 
 reasoning up to their first principles, and in this part of the 
 treatise he dwells largely on the difterence between reason (rea- 
 soning) which perceives trath in consequence of a proof, and 
 intuition, which perceives immediately ; second, to show that his 
 sentiments are in accordance with true philosophy, and the prin- 
 ciples of the most eminent philosophers ; and third, to answer 
 sceptical objections. This work is not so pn^found or original 
 as that of Reid. He eiTS in under estimating and disparag- 
 ing Hume : he thought the sceptics imworthy of any kind of 
 rescn'e or deference, and maintained that their reasonings were, 
 ni)t only false, but ridiculous, and that their talents as X)hiloso- 
 phers and logicians were absolutely contemptible. He appeals 
 with Held to common sense, or intuition, as he frequently calls 
 it ; but his language and mode of argumentation are loose, and 
 he is incapable of tlioroughly estimating and stating the nature 
 and laws of the neccssaiy convictions of the mind. But the 
 book is pointed and acute, and is very ])leasantly written, and it 
 had so rapid a sale, that in 1771 a second edition is demanded, 
 and shortly after there are proposals to translate it into French, 
 
 Dutch, and German. While engaged in these severer labours, 
 he was, at the same time, cherishing what was e\'idently to bun 
 the more congenial occupation — his taste for poetry. So early 
 as 17G6 he is labouring in the style and stanza of Spenser, at a 
 poem, in which he proposes to give an account of the birth, edu- 
 cation, and adventures of one of the old minstrels. The first 
 book of the " Minstrel" was published anonymously in 1771, and 
 the second book, with his name attached and a new edition of 
 the first,in 1774. The personal incidents worthy of being re- 
 corded in his remaining life are not numerous. In 1767 he had 
 married Miss Maiy Dunn, who was afflicted ■nnth a tendency to 
 mental disease, which broke out first in a distempei'ed mind, 
 and afterwards in open insanity, which greatly distressed the hus- 
 band, and compelled him at last to provide for her living separate 
 from him. His quiet life was varied by several visits paid to 
 L(mdon, where, as he became known by his works, he received 
 considerable attention, and was introduced to many literary men 
 of eminence. On two several occasions he had the honour of 
 an interview with George III., who had a great admiration of 
 the character and object of his works, and gi-anted him a pen- 
 sion. His defences of religion were highly prized by several of 
 the bisliops, and a number of the clergy of the church of Eng- 
 land, and he was offered a rich Uving if he would take orders in 
 tliat church. This he declined, not because he disapproved of 
 the doctrine or worship of the episcopal church, but he wa.s 
 apprehensive that by accepting preferment in the church, he 
 "might strengthen the hands of the gainsayer, and give the 
 world some ground to believe that the love of the truth was not 
 quite so ardent or so pure as he had pretended." In 1773 0.\- 
 furd university conferred a degree upon him, presbyterian though 
 he was. In the same year he was offered the chair of moral 
 philosophy in Edinburgh, but declined it, as he prefeiTcd Aber- 
 deen as his spliere, and was indisposed to go to a place where 
 he would be in the heart of those whom he had attacked. His 
 declining days were embittered by trials which sank deep into 
 his soul, such as the state of his wife, and the death, first of 
 one and then of the other of his sons. He died on October 
 5, 1802. The following are the titles with the dates of his 
 works — " Poerns," 1760; "Essay on Tnith," 1770; "Min- 
 strel," book i., 1771 ; book ii., 1774 ; " On Poetiy and Music," 
 " On Laughter and Ludicrous Composition," " On Classical 
 Learning," 1776; "Dissertations on Memory and Imagination." 
 " On Dreaming," " On the Theoiy of Language," " On Fable 
 and IJomance," " On the Attachments of Iviudred," " On Il- 
 lustrations of Sublimity," 1783; "Evidences of Clmstianity," 
 1786; " Elements of Moral Science," 1790-93. His poems will 
 ever hold a place in the classical poetiy of Great Britain. IILs 
 " Minstrel " and his " Hernnt " are exquisite poems of their 
 kind. His prose works do not show much depth of thought, but 
 are characterized by much ease and elegance. In his " Theoiy of 
 Language" he argues strongly that speech is of divine origin. 
 In his " Dissertation on the Imagination," he holds the tlieoiy 
 afterwards defended by Alison and Jeffi'ey, that the feeling of 
 beauty arises from association of ideas. In person he was of 
 the middle size, with something of a slouch in his gait, and in 
 latter years he was inclined to corpulency. He had dark eyes, 
 and a mild and somewhat pensive look. There is an account of 
 his life and wi-itings in a work of three volumes l)y Sir W. 
 Forbes. This account contains many of his letters, which are 
 full of criticisms of no great profundity, and display at once the 
 amiabilities and weaknesses of the author. — J. M'C. 
 
 * BEATTIE, William, M.D., member of the Royal College 
 of Physicians, London, the friend and biographer of Thomas 
 Campbell, and author of numerous highly-popular work.s, is a 
 native of Scotland, and was educated at the university of Edin- 
 bmgh (1813-1820), where he took his degi-ee. After prosecut- 
 ing his studies for some time in London, Dr. Beattie visited the 
 most celebrated continental schools of medicine, and made him- 
 self thoroughly conversant with their various theories and modes 
 of practice. He filled fur eight years the office of physician to 
 the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., a post of honour 
 rather than of emolument. Dr. Beattie is a voluminous and 
 successful author. The letterpress of a series of illustrated 
 works, historical and topogi'aphical, on Switzerland, Scotland, 
 the Waldenses, the Danube, &c., is from his pen ; the engravings 
 are chiefly from the drawings of his lamented friend, the late 
 W. II. Bartlett. All of these works have obtained a veiy large 
 circulation. His book on "The Courts of Germany" appeared
 
 in 1827 in 2 vols. 8vo. Dr. Beattie is also the author of several 
 poems of coniiJerable merit. "John Huss" was published in 
 1829; "The Heliotrope, or POgrim in Pursuit of Health," in 
 1833 ; and a second edition, greatly enlarged, appeared some 
 years later. The ''Heliotrope" is a descriptive poem of a ver)' 
 pleasing kind, and is written with much elegance of taste and 
 fancy. It was followed by "Polynesia," an atfecting little poem 
 on the labours of the missionaries in the South Seas. The sub- 
 ject is treated with remarkable simplicity and poetical fervour. 
 The versification is melodious, the images are chaste and highly 
 appropriate, and the pm'est taste in sentiment and diction pre- 
 vails throughout. A large number of fugitive pieces from Dr. 
 Beattie's pen, displaying fine feeling and elegant taste, are scat- 
 tered throughout the Annuals and other periodicals. His most 
 important work is his deeply interesting " Biogi-aphy of Thomas 
 Campbell," hi 3 vols. 8vo. It is impossible to speak in too high 
 terms of the affectionate care with which Dr. Beattie, with a friend- 
 ship as disinterested and delicate as it is rare, ministered to the 
 welfare of the poet ; with counsel, aid, and untiring hospitahty, 
 he watched over his last years, when afflictions of various kinds 
 were heavily pressing upon him, soothed his death-bed, and 
 protected his memoiy. It was owing to Dr. Beattie's single- 
 handed exertions that the statue of Campbell was ultimately 
 placed in Westminster abbey. Dr. Beattie commenced practice in 
 I/Ondon in 1830 ; he has now retired with a moderate indepen- 
 dence from the active exercise of his profession. His imwearied 
 kindness to the poor and unfortunate who have seen better days, 
 entitles him to a high place among that class of men who may be 
 regarded as having " a special mbsion given them to spend their 
 time, and to be spent, in alleviating human sufferings," and who 
 
 " Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame." 
 
 It was Dr. Beattie's melancholy duty to attend the bards, both of 
 " Memory" and of " Hope," in their last moments. A popular 
 American author justly terms him " the intellectual Good Sama- 
 ritan of London — Campbell's friend, and the physician to Lady 
 Blessington and Rogers, and all the literary host who need a 
 doctor and a counsellor in one — loved much for his medical wis- 
 dom, and more for his zealous friendship and hospitality." " The 
 blessings of them that were ready to perish have come upon 
 him, and he has caused the widow's heart to sing for joy." — J. T. 
 
 BEATTY, Silt William, M.D., F.R.S., physician to his ma- 
 jesty's fleet and Greenwich hospital, 1806-40. He was officially 
 present during the last moments of Lord Xelson, of which he 
 published his " Authentic Xan-ative" in 1808. He was knighted 
 in 1831 ; died in London, Mai-ch 25, 1842.— T. F. 
 
 BEAUBRUN, Hesry, a French portrait painter, was bom 
 at Amboise, 1603, and died at Paris, 1677. His brother Charles, 
 also a pei-petuator of men's vanities, was bom at Amboise, 1605, 
 and died in 1692. 
 
 BEAUCHAilP, Alphoxso de, historian, bom at Menaco, 
 1767, quitted his native state to come to Paris, having suffered 
 imprisonment for refusing to serve against republican France. 
 Appointed to a post in the committee of public safety, he never- 
 theless took part against Robespierre. Upon the establishment 
 of the directory, he obtained a situation in the police, and was 
 charged with the surveillance of the press. It was while in this 
 position that he conceived the intention of writing a history of 
 La Vendee. After several years' devotion to his work, he pub- 
 lished it in 1806. It produced on the public mind the effect 
 of a stirring romance, but when Fouche came to the direction 
 of the police administration, he dismissed the author from his 
 employment, for what he called breach of confidence in dealing 
 with secret papers. The third edition was seized at the pub- 
 lication, and at a later period, in 1809, the author was arrested, 
 and exiled to Rheims ; nor was he allowed to return to the c;ipi- 
 tal till 1811, and upon a written engagemint to publish nothing 
 more on contemporaneous pohtics. On the fruits of a small 
 pension he contrived to live, and produce various biograpliical 
 histories. He is supposed to be the real author of the "Jle- 
 mou-es of Fouche." He died 1st June, 1832, lea\-ing a large 
 number of works, chiefly historical. — J. F. C. 
 
 BEAUCHAMP, Henry de, son of Richard de Beauchamp, 
 was bom at Hanley castle in Worcestershire, ilarch 22, 1424, and 
 married at a very early age. Cicely, daughter of Richai-d Ne\-il], 
 earl of Salisbury, with whom he had a splendid dowry. Henrj- 
 VI. heaped upon him all the honours that a monarch could bestow 
 on a favourite, giving him even the title of king of the Isle of 
 
 Wight, and placing with his own hands the crown on the young 
 duke's head. This was the last title that he received, for he 
 died at Hanley, where he had been bom, June 11, 1445, and 
 was bmied at Tewkesbury, in the abbey which owed so much to 
 his mother's liberality. He left one daughter, Anne, who died 
 when only six years of age, and his sumptuous wealth and titles 
 passed to Anne, his sister, who was married to Richard NevUl, 
 earl of Salisbury, a union of two great houses, from which 
 sprang Wanvick, the king-maker. — T. J. 
 
 BEAUCHAMP, Johk de, bora in 1320, baron of Kidder- 
 minster, in the reign of Richard II., and the first baron created 
 by letters patent in this country. Having received the highest 
 honorj-s from his royal master, he was destined to sufl'er the 
 worst extremities during the reverses that befell Richard. He 
 was removed from his oifice of treasurer of the king's household, 
 sent prisoner to Dover castle, and lastly executed for high trea- 
 son on Tower hill, in the sixtv-eighth vear of his age. — T. J. 
 
 BEAUCHAMP or BEAUCILUIPS^ Joseph, a French astro- 
 nomer, member of the Institute, and one of the savants wjio 
 accompanied Napoleon into Egypt, was bom at Vesoul in 1752, 
 and died at Nice in 1801. In his fifteenth yeai- he entered the 
 order of the Bemardines; and in 1774, after dbtinguishing him- 
 self among the pupils of Lalande the astronomer, set out for 
 Babylon, where his uncle, Jlirodout, exercised the functions of 
 bishop. Setting out in 1781, he ^Tsited Aleppo, and Bagdad in 
 the following year ; was at Bassora in 1784, and in Persia in 
 1786, everywhere intent on promoting the interests of science. 
 The Journal des Savants of the years 1782-4-5-7-8 and 1790 
 contains many contributions from his pen, on astronomical, geo- 
 graphical, and antiquarian subjects. At the commencement of 
 theRevolurion he returned to France ; in 1795 was appointed to 
 a consulship in Arabia; and in 1798 invited to Egypt by Napoleon. 
 His labours in that country are recorded in the Memoires de 
 rinstitut du Cairo. In 1799 he was sent by Napoleon to 
 Constantinople ; and having fallen into the hands of the Eng- 
 lish, who delivered him over to the sultan as a spy, he narrowly 
 escaped death. A long imprisonment injured his health, and 
 he died shortly after his release, in 1801.— -J. S., G. 
 
 BEAUCBL\_MP, Richard de, earl of Warn-ick, was one of 
 the most opulent and considerable nobles of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. He was bom January 28, 1381, at Salwarpe, Worces- 
 terehire. He did good service to the crown during the rebellion 
 of Glendower, and behaved so bravely at the battle of Shrewsbury 
 against the Percies, that he was soon made a knight of the 
 garter. Having vowed a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre, he 
 «sited the principal courts of Em-ope in going and returning, 
 and exhibited his prowess in amis at several tournaments. He 
 came safe home to England, was constituted high steward at the 
 coronation of Henry V. (1413), and negotiated soon after a 
 marriage between his master and Catharine, the king of France's 
 daughter. He was an active partisan against the Lollards. In 
 1415 he was declai-ed captain of Calais, a post in those days of 
 high honour and trast. He attended Henry V. in his French 
 wars, and at his death, was appointed tutor to his son, Henry VI. 
 On the death of the duke of Bedford, he was selected to take 
 the arduous office of regent in France for the king. He held 
 that post for the last four years of his life, and died in possession 
 of it at the castle of Rohan, April 30, 1439. His remains He 
 interred in the collegiate church at Warwick, imder a stately 
 " tombe in a full feire vaulte of stone, set in the bare rocke," as 
 is recorded in the inscription. A brief notice cannot do justice 
 to the splendid and adventurous career of this great man. — T.J. 
 
 BEAUCHAMPS, Raphael de, a French historian of the 
 17th century ; author of a " Histoiy of the Mero\ingian Kings." 
 
 BEAUCHATEAU, Fkax^ois-Mathieu Chastelet de, 
 an extraordinary instance of precocity, bom at Pains in 1645 ; 
 died towards the end of the century. He wrote poetry at the 
 age of eight. He was honoured by the conversation of the queen, 
 mother of Louis XIV., of Cardinal Mazarin, the Chancellor Sii- 
 guicr, and ether distinguished personages. He also visited Eng- 
 land, and was presented to Cromwell. It is said that lie after- 
 wards visited Persia, and there we lose sight of him. — J. G. 
 
 BEAUCLAIR, P L de, a litterateur, bom in the Isle 
 
 of France in 1735 ; died in 1804. Author of a "History of Peter 
 III. of Russia," a work containing many singular anecdotes, 
 and some biographical tracts. 
 
 BEAUDIX, Mademoiselle, (nee Bourges), a portrait and 
 genre painter of Marseilles.
 
 BEAUDOUIN, Pierre Ant, a miniature painter of minia- 
 ture fame, born at Paris, 1717, and died in 1769. 
 
 BEAUFILS, EcGKXiE, a portrait and genre painter, pupil of 
 Lefevre. 
 
 BEAL'FORT, Rev. Daniel Coexelius, youngest son of John 
 de Beaufort, a French protestant refugee, was born in the year 
 1700 at Wesel in the Prussian dominions, where liis father took 
 refuge on quitting France, and wliere his eldest son, Alexander, 
 rose to be a general, whUe his thu'd son, Louis, settled at Mas- 
 tricht, where he wi-ote his two remarkable well-known works, 
 *' La Decadence de TEmpire Romaine," and " Les Incertitudes de 
 I'Histoire." Daniel was educated at the univereity of Utrecht, 
 and was a man of great ability aud learning. He came to Eng- 
 land with George IL, and having entered the established 
 church, was soon appointed to the living of Barnet near Lon- 
 don. Veiy few years after this he went to Ireland as first 
 chaplain to the duke of Devonshire, lord-lieutenant, who gave 
 hun the provostship of Tuam, which after a year he exchanged 
 for Navan in the county of Meath, where he resided, and was 
 an active and exemplary paiish minister. About the yeai' 1775 
 he was given the living of Clonenagh, in the diocese of Leighlin ; 
 with pennission to resign the parish of Navan in favour of his 
 son. He lived to the gi-eat age of eighty-eight, ui full possession 
 of his fine intellect, having in the last year of his life written 
 the clever and witty Uttle work, " The Doctrine of the Church 
 of Rome," which went through several editions. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Rev. Daniel Augustus, LL.D., only child 
 of the former, was bom at Barnet the 1st of October, 1739. 
 He was sent to school in Dublin, and at an early age entered 
 the university of Dublin, through which he passed in a highly 
 honourable manner. After lea\ing coUege he went to Holland, 
 and spent some time with his uncle, Louis de Beaufort, after 
 which he remained chiefly at Salisbury, with the bishop of that 
 diocese, by whom he was ordained about the year 1764 ; when 
 he returned to Ireland, and acted as his father's curate at 
 Navan. His father having been permitted to resign Navan to 
 him, he contumed to Uve there for some years ; but when he was 
 laying down his " Civil and Ecclesiastical Jlap of Ireland," he 
 found it necessary to reside three or four years in Dublin, during 
 which time he actively joined in the estabUshing of the Royal 
 Irish Academy in 1786; and in 1787, in union with a small 
 body of intimate firiends, founded the first Sunday school in L-e- 
 land; from which humble beginning has arisen the present 
 wide-spread establishment of Sunday schools throughout that 
 kingdom. About the year 1789 his friend the Right Hon. 
 John Foster, then speaker of the Irish House of Commons, pre- 
 sented him to the vicarage of Collon, county of Louth, where 
 he thenceforward resided. But though no longer Uring in Dub- 
 lin, he gave his hearty assistance to founding the association for 
 the encouragement of virtue in 1792, and joined actively in the 
 preparation of books for distribution among the lower classes. 
 The map of Ireland was undertaken and carried out at great 
 expense, under the encouragement of the marquis of Bucking- 
 ham, the then lord-lieutenant. He died in ilay, 1831, in his 
 eighty-third year. Dr. Beaufort was not only a philanthropist, 
 but a scholar. He possessed an extraordinary variety of mfor- 
 mation, which, while it was never suffered to he idle, was never 
 produced for parade ; and his mannere and conversation charmed 
 and instructed wherever he associated. Like his father, his 
 intellectual vigour continued to the last, and shortly before his 
 death he was occupied in preparing an improved edition of the 
 memoir accompanpng his map. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEAUFORT, E. (J., a historical portrait painter, pupil of 
 Gros, was born in 1800. She copied old masters, and painted 
 some religious pictures. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Sir Francis, K.C.B., son of Daniel Augustus, 
 was bom at Navan, in the county of Meath in Ireland in 1774. 
 His father gave him his early education at home, whence he was 
 sent to Duljlin to school, where his courage, enterprise, and good 
 temper made him a favourite. On leaving school he was placed 
 under Dr. Usher, rcgius professor of astronomy, where his pro- 
 gress in science was rapid, and at thirteen his name was entered 
 in the books of the TVe^jossy. In 1787 he joined the East India 
 Company's ser\-ice in the Vanslttart ; and such was his skill in 
 nautical knowledge, that all the ship's valuable instruments were 
 placed in his care, and he afforded important assistance in sur- 
 veying the Straits of Gaspard in the Java sea. In August, 
 1789, while thus employed, the vessel struck on a sunken coral 
 
 reef in the Banca Strait and was wrecked. The crew took to 
 
 the boats, one of which with six men was lost. Young Beaufort, 
 abandoning his own property, secured the ship's instruments, 
 and, after many days' suffering, his party was taken on board a 
 vessel bound to Canton, whence he was conveyed, and in March, 
 1790, he retuiTied to England. In 1791 he joined the Latona, 
 after wliich he was appointed to the AquUon, where his career 
 was near bemg terminated. One day he was superintending 
 some repairs of the vessel, when the carpenter di-opped his ham- 
 mer into the water ; Beaufort, forgetting that he could not swim, 
 jumped after it, and would have been di'owned but that the first- 
 lieutenant, Ohver, sprang from the chains and saved him; the 
 rescued and the rescuer, both Iiishmen, lived to be brotlnr- 
 admirals. The AquUoii was the signal-ship in the glorious fight 
 of the 1st June, 1794, when Lord Howe defeated the French 
 fleet, and Beaufort was appointed to superintend the signals. 
 His ship had the dangerous honour of towing Admiral Sir 
 Thomas Packenham's dismasted ship out of the battle. Upon 
 the promotion of Captain Stopford to the Phaeton, he took 
 Beaufort with him, who thus was present in the masterly series 
 of manoeuvres known as Cornwallis's retreat. After nine yeai-s' 
 active ser\-ice, he obtained the rank of lieutenant, and in 1800 
 he performed an exploit of gi'eat gallantry and spirit, boai'ding 
 and capturing, after an obstinate resistance, the Spanish ship 
 San Josef. He was severely wounded in the action, for which 
 he received a pension and his captain's commission. From 
 November, 1803, till June, 1804, we find him gratuitously 
 devoting his time, in conjunction with his brother-in-law, Mr. 
 Edgworth, in establishing a hne of telegraphs between Dublin 
 and Galway. In 18U5 he was again in active service as com- 
 mander of the Woolwich, in which he sailed to the East Indies, 
 the Rio de la Plata, and the Cape of Good Hope. While 
 engaged in 1812 in a survey of the coast of Karamania he 
 was desperately wounded by a fanatic Turk, and forced to 
 abandon the work and return home. For several years after- 
 wards he was busily occupied ui constructing a number of chart.s, 
 under the orders of the lords of the admualty, being appointed 
 their hydi'ographer in 1832. In 1845 Sir Francis was raised to 
 the rank of rear-admiral, ha\-ing been previously elected a fellow 
 of the Royal Society, as well as of the Astronomical and Geo- 
 graphical Societies. He died near Brighton on Dec. 16, 1857, 
 in the 84th year of his age. Sir Francis Beaufort was a bra^e 
 and skilful officer, laborious in the discharge of his duties, a man 
 of scientific attainments, and deservedly respected. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Fkan(,ois de Vendome, due de, gi-andson of 
 Heniy IV. of France, bom at Paris in January, 1616; died 2oth 
 June, 1609. "\Mien very yomig he served in the armies of hw 
 country under the ministry of Cardinal Richelieu. He distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Avein, and at the sieges of Corbie 
 (1636), of Hesdin (1639), and of Arras (1640). He appears to 
 have been a person of no great judgment, though restless and am- 
 bitious ; and more than once brought himself into trouble by bis 
 intrigues against the com-t, and exposed himself to ridicule by his 
 vanity and presumption. When Louis XIV. returned to Paris in 
 1652, Beaufort submitted to the royal authority, and for several 
 years afterwards took an active part in the civil war. He was 
 subsequently commander of the French fleet, and lost his life 
 at the taking of Candia. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Henri-Ernest-Grout, chevaUer de, a French 
 traveller, bom at Aubevoye, Eure, 25th Februaiy, 1798; died 
 3rd September, 1825. At the age of fom-feen he entered the 
 military marine, and for three years navigated in the Levant 
 Being of an obsernng turn and enterprising character, he applied 
 himself to the study of geography, as a means of quaUfjing 
 himself to undertake voyages of discovery. He soon formed the 
 vast project of an entire exploration of the African continent, 
 and with this view studied the Arabian language, together with 
 botany, zoology, natural philosophy, and chemistry. In the end 
 of January, 1824, he sailed for Gambia, which he explored, 
 together with the countries of the ilandlngoes, BakD, Bondou, 
 and Karta. In 1825 he visited the country of Kasso, which he 
 penetrated to the cataracts of Felou and Gavma, which had 
 been previously unknown to Europeans. He afterwards ex- 
 plored Bambouk, and carried away many rich specimens of the 
 gold mines of that country. In these expeditions he made many 
 valuable observations and important discoveries. In the midst, 
 however, of these noble efforts for the extension of science, his 
 career was cut short by brain-fever. — G. !M.
 
 BE A 
 
 437 
 
 BEA 
 
 BEAUFORT, Hexky, bishop of Lincoln, afterwards of Win- 
 chester, and contemporaneously cardinal of St. Eusebius, was 
 born about the year 1367, having died in 1-147, at the age of 
 eighty. He was the second son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan- 
 caster, by his mistress, Catherine Swinford, whom he aftenvarJs 
 married, and whose issue was declared legitimate by parliament, 
 20th Ric. IL, with the condition that they should not succeed to 
 the crown. Beaufort studied at Oxford, Cambridge, and Aix 
 la Chapelle, rose rapidly in the church, and at an early age, in 
 1397, became bishop of Lincoln, and was intrusted by his half- 
 brother, Henry IV., with the great seal. In 1379 he succeeded 
 William of Wyckham in the see of Winchester, to which he 
 avariciously clung throughout the remainder of his life. The first 
 occasion on which he figured in bis officio-political character, 
 was when he made a demand for supplies ; which was met by 
 the bold suggestion of the commons to seize upon the revenues 
 of the clergy, then reputed to constitute a third part of the riches 
 of the realm. This suggestion was opposed by Arundel, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbm-y, who moved the king and the lords so 
 powetfully as to produce a strong demonstration in favour of the 
 church, whereupon the archbishop defied the commons with great 
 vehemence ; but, notwithstanding this, they passed a bill, which 
 was thrown out by the lords. This unconstitutional proceeding 
 of the commons has been attributed to the absence of lawyers in 
 the commons' house at that time; Beaufort having, in issuing the 
 writs, totally excluded that fraternity, on the authority of an 
 ordinance of the lords in the reign of Edward VI., but to which 
 the commons had never assented, and which, therefore, had till 
 then been disregarded. To this the parliament of Henry IV. 
 owed its significant name of " the lack-learning parliament." In 
 1405 Beaufort, having forfeited his brother's favour, was deprived 
 of office ; but on the accession of Henry V., the great seal was 
 again conferred on him ; tliis being almost the only change which 
 the young king made in his father's ministry. Henry having 
 adjusted his afiairs at home, laid claim to the crown of France, 
 and proceeded thither, to enforce his pretensions by the sword. 
 I'uring the king's absence, the ambitious chancellor used every 
 i'\ertion to extend his own authority, regardless of all remon- 
 ■t.ance and the energetic opposition of the commons. When 
 I [i-nry returned, flushed w-ith his glorious successes at Agincourt, 
 ' uufort sought to divert the commons from their domestic 
 _ levances by inciting the people to the entire conquest of France. 
 1 hey nevertheless ceased not to urge their complaints against 
 the encroachments of the chancellor, who, however, temporized 
 with them, relying on the sovereign's favour. The war-cry so 
 
 ^erly fomented by the chancellor involved him in a dilemma. 
 
 'le king, distressed for money to cany on tliis war, made large 
 
 iiiands on the countr}' — subsidies were more easily voted than 
 
 llected. Considerable sums were raised on the security of the 
 iiukes of Clarence, Bedford, and Gloucester; but all proving 
 inadequate, the king cast a longing eye upon the treasures of the 
 avaricious chancellor, and pressed him for aid ; but despite his 
 inordinate love of power, jeopardized as it was by resistance, he 
 stoutly refused to lend on the security with which others were 
 fain to be content, until at length the king in despair profl'ercd 
 to pledge the crown itself to Beaufort ; upon wliich he advanced 
 I sufficient sum for the prosecution of the war, and took posses- 
 
 '11 of the royal diadem. 
 
 With tlic exception of about six weeks in 141C, whilst absent 
 with the king in France, he retained the great seal until 23rd 
 July, 1417, when, having disgusted Henry by his avarice, he 
 was compelled to surrender it, and never regained it during that 
 reign. He visited the council of Basil, and got himself named 
 cardinal and apostolic legate in England and Ireland, by Pope 
 Martin V., but the king forbade his acceptance of these dignities. 
 On the demise of Henry V., the crown descended to his son, 
 Henry VI., then only nine months old, and whose uncle, Hum- 
 phrey, duke of Gloucester, as regent, assumed the government. 
 Parliament set at nought the king's will, and nominated the 
 duke of Bedford protector, appointing Gloucester his brother's 
 locum ieiiens in his absence. The struggle fur pre-ennnence 
 between Gloucester and Beaufort now commenced ; the latter 
 having obtained letters patent for secm-ing out of the customs 
 revenue the 20,000 marks he had lent to tlie late king, regained 
 the chancellorship on the 24th July, 1324. In that capacity 
 he opened a new parliament ; and, to throw the protector into 
 the shade, he produced the royal infant, who, seated in his 
 mother's lap, occupied the throne. The strife between the rival 
 
 parties gi-ew serious ; civil war became imminent ; Bedford was 
 in France, having been appointed regent of that country, and 
 Gloucester assumed the exercise of the royal prerogative ; whilst 
 Beaufort asserted his supremacy as the pope's legate and the 
 king's lord-keeper of the privy seal. Having obtained possession 
 of the tower, Beaufort strengthened the garrison, whilst the 
 citizens of London closed the gates of the city against the chan- 
 cellor, whose retainers then assaulted the city gate at London 
 bridge. A tumult ensued, in which bloodshed was with difficulty 
 averted by the archbishop of Canterbury and the prince of 
 Portugal, who succeeded in procuring a cessation of hostifities 
 pending the arrival of the duke of Bedford, who, in answer to 
 their request, returned from France; but, failing to effect a 
 reconciliation, he convened the nobility at St. Alban's to discuss 
 the matters in difference. The spirit of faction, however, defied 
 all attempts at adjustment; the conclave adjourned to North- 
 ampton, where the discussion was resumed with no better suc- 
 cess, and it was resolved to appeal to a full parliament, which 
 met at Leicester on the 18th February, 1420. To avoid the 
 disastrous consequences of a collision between the partisans of 
 the protector and the chancellor, the members were interdicted 
 from bringing their swords. This prohibition was obeyed to the 
 letter ; but the adherents of the two great rivals armed them- 
 selves with bats or bludgeons, in lieu of steel, and hence arose 
 the name of " the parliament of bats." These weapons, when 
 observed, were also forbidden ; whereupon they concealed stones 
 and plummets of lead in their sleeves and bosoms. \\Tien seated 
 in the great hall of Leicester castle, the young king, then only 
 five years of age, was placed upon the throne, and the chancellor 
 declared the cause of the summons with tolerable moderation ; 
 but, when the speaker was chosen, the protector impeached the 
 chancellor, charging him with treasonable practices towards the 
 king, and \Yith compassing the death of the protector, laying 
 wait for him with armed men at London bridge, and in the 
 chambers and cellars of Southwark, to kill him if he passed that 
 way. The chancellor admitted having procm-ed anned men and 
 placed them as alleged, not for the assassination of Gloucester, 
 but for his own safety, having been informed that the duke had 
 designed to do him bodily harm. Much recrimination ensued, 
 but parliament strongly deprecated these discussions between 
 the two great rivals, and the matter was referred to a select 
 committee of peers and bishops, both parties consenting to abide 
 their award. The duke of Bedford presided, and afterwards 
 reported in open parliament Beaufort's innocence of the charge 
 of having sought to procure the murder of the late king when 
 prince, and of counsellmg the heir-apparent to depose his father, 
 Hemy IV. ; but adjudged that in respect of the incivilities which 
 had passed between Beaufort and his rival, he should ask pardon 
 of the duke of Gloucester, that the latter should freely forgive 
 the chancellor, and that they should be firm friends in future. 
 They conformed to these injunctions, exhibiting, at least exter- 
 nally, ever}' demonstration of love and concord, to the great joy 
 of the people. The event was celebrated by a magnificent feast, 
 given in the name of the king. Beaufort, however, regarded this 
 award as a galling reproof, and in dudgeon resigned the great 
 seal, and obtained leave to accompany the duke of Bedford to 
 France. On his arrival at Calais he was greeted with the intel- 
 ligence that the pope had confeiTed upon him the dignity of 
 cardinal, and appointed him legate a latere, to direct, as captain- 
 general of the English forces, a ciiisade against the Hussites in 
 Bohemia. For this purpose, on his return to England, he 
 obtained leave to raise an army of 5500 lancers and archers; but 
 his zeal in the cause of the church succumbed to his cupidity, and 
 for a bribe of 1000 marks he consented to divert his newly- 
 raised levies from the service of the cross to that of the crown, 
 and they were employed against the king's enemies in France. 
 
 The recovery of liis own influence, and the destruction of 
 Gloucester's power, were his constant aim. In 1429 lie brought 
 about the coronation of the young king, and induced parliament 
 to abolish the oflice of protector, thus depriving the duke of his 
 high position as head of the regency, and reducing him to his 
 own rank as a peer. Thenceforth he maintained his ascendency 
 to the day of his death, notwithstanding the restless opposition 
 of Gloucester and the antagonistic spirit of the people, then 
 growing daily more hostile to ecclesiastical domination. In 
 1431 it was mooted by the peers, that as it was inimical to the 
 laws of the country that two offices so incompatible with each 
 other as those of c;irdinal and bishop of an English see should
 
 BEA 
 
 438 
 
 BEA 
 
 be held by the same person, Beaufort should be doprived of his 
 bishopric, and should refund its emoluments from the date of 
 his carJinalate. Gloucester charged him with ha\-ing incurred 
 the penalties of prremunire in accepting the papal bull in 
 opposition to the injunction of the late king ; accused him of 
 amassing wealth by fraudulent practices, and of usurping the 
 functions of royalty, appomting embassies, releasing prisoners, 
 and of estranging all but his own favourites from the king, and 
 the council of tlie regency. How far the accusations urged 
 against the cardinal were justifiable, may be infeiTed from the 
 fact that he sought more than once the shield of legislative 
 indemnity. In 1432 and 1437 acts were passed pardoning all 
 the crimes committed by him to the 20th July in the latter 
 year. The cardinal sought his revenge upon Gloucester by 
 a cowardly assault upon his domestic happiness. Gloucester 
 was devotedly attached to his wife, and this was enough to 
 incite the cardinal to conspire against and procure the death of 
 the innocent wife, in order to wound the more deeply his poli- 
 tical adversary. The duchess was accused of a secret attempt 
 upon the Idng's life, attributing to her the design of wasting, 
 by insensible degrees his force and vigour, under the influence 
 of witchcraft, by the magical process of melting before a slow 
 fire a waxen image of the king, with the gradual decrease of 
 which his decay was assumed to keep pace. She fell a victim 
 to the malice of her husband's arch-enemy, being condemned to 
 public penance and perpetual incarceration. It is more than 
 probable that he was a believer in sorcery, for he was one of 
 those who sat in judgment upon, and condemned to the stake, 
 the intrepid Maid of Orleans. This atrocious cruelty only served 
 to excite public S3^npathy for the duchess and commiseration 
 for the duke, who came to be regarded as a martyr to the malice 
 of his enemies. These signs of popularity in favour of Glou- 
 cester, incited him to more deadly schemes of vengeance. He 
 conceived the desperate resolution of compassing the death of a 
 foe whose resentment, backed by public feeling, filled him \vith 
 apprehension. For the accomplishment of this design, a meet- 
 ing of parliament was convened at Bury St. Edmunds, where 
 Gloucester could calculate on little protection. On liis ajipear- 
 ance there, he was suddenly thrown into prison on a charge of 
 treason, where he was soon aftenvards, on the 28th Febmaiy, 
 1447, found a corpse. Whatever may have been the fact, the 
 prevaiUug opinion was that Gloucester fell a victim to the 
 vengeance of the cardinal ; nor could that belief be shaken by any 
 plausible attempts to ascribe his death to natural causes. The 
 cardinal himself, at the age of fom-score years, sur rived his 
 victim only six weeks. 
 
 History scarcely furnishes a parallel to the tenacity with which 
 he pursued his ambitious schemes. Indomitable energy, triumph- 
 ing over the infii-mities of age, presented the melancholy spec- 
 tacle of a man of princely rank, great attainments, and withal 
 one of the highest dignitaries of the church, carrying into exe- 
 cution, mth relentless vigour, the murder of a rival in the person 
 of his own nephew. He has had his apologists, who have 
 plausibly glossed over Ms crimes, and sought to soften the 
 aspersions which cling to his name ; but the stubborn facts for- 
 bid us to attempt the rescue of his momoiy from execration. He 
 died impenitent, though agonized by remorse. — F. J. H. 
 
 BEAUFORT, John, the eldest son of John of Gaunt, duke 
 of Lancaster, by Catherine Swinford, rose to high honours both 
 in the reign of King Richard II. and of Hemy IV. Being 
 brother to the latter by the father's side, he was by him consti- 
 tuted chamberlain of England for life, Febmary 9, 1399-1400. 
 He was the second on whom the title of marquis, then new in 
 England, was conferred. The isle of Thanet was assigned to him 
 in 1404 for his maintenance, and the garrison of Calais consisted 
 of his soldiers. lie was one of the commissioners appointed to 
 receive such sums as remained unpaid for the ransom of John, 
 king of France, taken prisoner at the battle of Poitiers. He was 
 afterwards appointed admiral of the whole fleet. He died April 
 21, 1410, and was buried in St. Michael's cliapel, on the south 
 side of Canterbury cathedral. — T. J. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Louis de, a historian, member of the Royal 
 Society of London, died at Maestricht in 1795. Author of some 
 historical works, among the rest a " History of Rome," charac- 
 terized by simplicity of style, sound criticism, and lucid arrange- 
 ment of mitcrials. 
 
 BEAUFORT, JIargaket, countess of Richmond and Derby, 
 born in 1441 ; died in 1509. She was daughter of John Beau- 
 
 fort, grandson of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, third son of 
 Edward III. She was thrice married ; first, to Edmund Tudor, 
 half-brother of Henry VI. ; next, to Sh Henry Stafford ; and 
 lastly, to Thomas, Lord Stanley, afterwards earl of Derby. By 
 her first marriage she had one son, who mounted the throne of 
 England as Henry VII. By her subsequent marriages she had 
 no children. After the death of her third husband m 1504, she 
 took a vow of chastity, though she was then sixty-three years 
 of age. She is said to have been very pious and charitable. 
 She founded and endowed Christ college, Cambridge, and pro- 
 jected that of St. John, which, however, was not chartered mitil 
 two years after her death. She also established two professor- 
 ships of divinity, in Cambridge and m Oxford. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUFORT DE THORIGXY, Jean Baptiste, a French 
 general, bora at Paris, 18th October, 1761 ; died at Corbeil, 1st 
 Febraary, 1825. He entered the army in his sLxteenth year, 
 and at the opening of the first campaign of Nord in 1792 was 
 appointed adjutant-major. He rose rapidly during a brief period 
 of active service, in which he distinguished himself, to the rank 
 of general of brigade. He took part in the campaign of Bel- 
 gium in 1792, as well as in the war of La Vendue. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUFORT D'HAUTPOUL, Edouaud, Comte, afterwards 
 marquis de, a French military engineer, bom at Paris, 16th 
 October, 1782 ; died 24th July, 1831. After finishing his 
 studies at the polytechnic school, he was admitted into the 
 corps of engineers, and served in the campaigns of Italy, from 
 1802 to 1810. He subsequently serTed in Portugal, where he 
 distinguished himself by his activity and valour. In 1821 he 
 was appointed colonel of the third regiment of engineers. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUFRANCHET D'AYAT, Louis-Charles-Ahtoine, 
 a French general, born in 1757 at Saint Hilaue d'Ayat, near 
 Riom; died in 1812. He is said to have been a sou of Louis 
 XV. He took part in the campaigns of Flanders and La Ven- 
 dee, in both of which he displayed such courage and capacity, 
 that he was promoted to the rank of mareschal-de-camp. In 
 1805 he was chosen member of the legislative body. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUGARD, Thil, a French painter, died about 1828, 
 painted "The Departm-e of Tobias," and a scene from the Incas. 
 
 BEAUGARD, jE.vjf-Si jion-Ferr£ol, a htterateur and ad- 
 vocate, bom in 1754; died in 1828. Author of "The Spanish 
 Lovers," a comedy in five acts. He left an important manu- 
 script on criminal law. 
 
 BEAUGEARD, Je.vn, a French revolutionist, and member 
 of the national convention, born at Vitre in 1764 ; died in his 
 native town in October, 1832. He belonged to the party of the 
 Mountain, and voted for the death of the king. He wss 
 banished in 1816, among others who had been unplicated in the 
 death of Louis XVI.— G. .AI. 
 
 BEAUGENCI or BEAUGENCY, the name of a noble 
 French family, of which the following were among the most 
 remarkable members : — 
 
 Lancelin or Landri I., lived about the end of the tenth 
 century. He was noted for his liherality towards churches and 
 convents. 
 
 Lancelin or L^vndri IL, son of the preceding, succeeded in 
 lOGO. He was distinguished by an amount of learning rai'c at 
 that period. 
 
 Raoul L, son of the preceding. He was renowned for his 
 valour, which he chiefly displayed in the crusade of 1096, under 
 Godfrey de Bouillon. 
 
 The brothers of Beaugency — Simon I., Lancelin III., Jean 
 I. — all distinguished by their miUtary exploits. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Alexandre, vicomte de, a French gen- 
 eral, born at Martinique in 1760; died 23rd June, 1794. He 
 distinguished himself under Rochambeau in the American wju* 
 of independence. Proceeding afterwards to Paris, he became 
 major of infantry, and married JIdlle. Josephine Tascher de la 
 Pagerie, who subsequently became empress of France. In 1789 
 he was elected to the states-general and the national conven- 
 tion, and distinguished himself by his eloquence, as well as his 
 upright sentiments. He was twice president of the convention ; 
 an ofiice which he exercised with prudence and dignity. He 
 afterwards joined the anny of the north as general, but was 
 shortly obliged to retire, in consequence of a decree of the con- 
 vention excluding noblemen from the army. Being accused of 
 treason in contributing by his inaction to the loss of Mayne, he 
 was brought before the revolutionaiy tribunal, condemned to 
 death, and guillotined. — G. M.
 
 BEA 
 
 439 
 
 BEA 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene de, duke of Leuchtenberg, prince 
 of Eichstadt, viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, born at Paris, 3d 
 Septi-mber, 1781; died 22d February', 1824. He was son of 
 Alexandre Vicomte de Beauhamais and Josephine Tascher de 
 la Pagerie, afterwards the Empress Josephine. His family hav- 
 ing fallen into pecuniaiy emban-assments, their property was 
 conBscated, and Eugene, being removed from school, was ap- 
 prenticed to a joiner. He did not, however, remain long at this 
 humble occu]>ation. By means of friends whom his mother had 
 acqidred in the directoiy, he was enabled to enter on a military 
 career under Hoche, who employed him as his etat-major. 
 About the end of 1795 he came to Paris, where he presented 
 himself before General Bonaparte to demand the sword of his 
 father, which, after the disarmament, had been deposited in the 
 magazine of the place. Bonaparte, struck wnth the noble and 
 manly bearing of the youth, not only acceded to his request, 
 but took an interest in him and his family, which exercised an 
 important influence on their subsequent fortunes. Bonaparte, 
 having been appointed to the command of the army of Italy, 
 married madame de Beauhamais, 8tli March, 1796, a few days 
 before setting out on his new destination. Eugene, whom he 
 appointed his ald-de-camp, shortly after followed him to Italy, 
 but an-ived only at the time of the preliminaries of Lcoben. After 
 the treaty of Campo-Formio, Eugene was sent on an important 
 mission to the Ionian Islands, which, m consequence of this 
 treaty, had fallen under the domination of the French republic. 
 In 1798 he followed Bonaparte in his expedition to Egypt, and 
 soon became distinguished by his zeal, activity, and valour. On 
 the 8th November, having entered Suez at the head of the 
 advanced posts, he was rewarded by the general-in-chief with the 
 rank of lieutenant. He was among the foremost, some months 
 afterwards, in the storming of Jaffa, where he received the capitu- 
 lation of the prisoners. At one of the attacks on St. Jean d'Acre 
 he was severely wounded. He accompanied Bonaparte on his 
 return from Egypt, and landing at Frejus on the 9th October, 
 1799, was, after the 18th Bramahe, nominated captam of the 
 chasseurs of the consular guard. In 1800 he accompanied 
 Hnnaparte in the campaign of Italy; was present .at the battle 
 ■ Marengo, in which he distinguished himself during that bril- 
 . int charge which decided the fortune of the day; was named 
 'rf d'escadron on the field, and returned with the victorious 
 _ ; neral to Paris. He was now rapidly promoted from rank to 
 laitk; was named general of brigade, and subsequently, in 180-1, 
 (ulonel-gcneral of chasseurs. On the establishment of the em- 
 I'ire, Napoleon created Eugene a French prince, conferred on him 
 
 le office oi archiclumcelier d'etat, and subsequently named him 
 j.and-admiral and great-officer of the legion of lumour. In 
 1>!05 Napoleon having assumed the dignity of king of Italy, 
 nominated Eugene — then only twenty-five years of age — as his 
 viceroy. In the exercise of this high office, Eugene displayed 
 extraordinaiy sagacity ; and the numerous improvements which 
 he introduced in the social and civil institutions of the country, 
 at once won him the affection and respect of the people, and 
 ccmfirmed him in the confidence of the emperor. On the 14th 
 •January, 1806, the viceroy obtained the hand of the princess 
 Augusta Amelia, daughter of the king of Bavaria; and Napoleon, 
 desirous of giving him a rank corresponding to this high alliance, 
 declared him his adopted son, under the title of Eugene Napoleon, 
 hereditary prince of Erance. He farther confeiTed on him the title 
 ' 'i' Prince of Venice, and heir-presumptive of the crown of Italy. 
 After the treaty of Presburg, Italy enjoyed three years of unin- 
 teiTupted tranqiullity; hut at the beginning of 1809 a new storm 
 threatened to burst on the countiy. Austria, alarmed at the 
 successful aiuliition of Napoleon, was about to invade Italy with 
 an anny of about 100,000 men, under the command of tlie 
 Archduke John. To these the \'iceroy could oppose only about 
 60,000. Padua fell into the hands of the Austrians, who, how- 
 ever, were defeated at Caldeiro, where Eugene had entrenched 
 his army. In the meantime, the news of the victories of the 
 emperor damped the ardour of the Austrians, while the Italian 
 army was encouraged and strengthened by the arrival of an anny 
 under Wacdonald. Eugene divided his army into three corps, at 
 the head of one of which he attacked and defeated the Austrians 
 at St. Daniel Malborghetto, and having penetrated the mountain- 
 passes of Carinthia, effected a junction with the gi-and anny, and 
 on the 27th May, 1809, met the emperor at Ebersdoif. On this 
 occasion Napiile<m reported in his bulletin, that the viceroy "had 
 exhibited during the campaign all the qualities which belong to 
 
 the greatest captains." In obedience to the order of the emperor, 
 Eugt^ne now penetrated into Hungary, where, on the 14th June, 
 he gained the battle of Eaab, in which he was opposod by an 
 anny greatly superior in numbers, under the command of the 
 Archduke John. Next, ascending the Danube, Eugene distin- 
 guished himself by the part he took in the great and important 
 battle of Wagram. Unfortunately the splendid career of Eugene 
 now began to excite the jealousy of the other members of the 
 imperial family, who saw in the young hero a dangerous rival, 
 that, in the then most probable event of the emperor's dying 
 childless, might secm-e the sufii-ages of the nation, and exclude 
 them from all power and influence. These feai-s led to those 
 insidious manoeuvres which finally brought about the dissolution 
 of the maniage with Josephine, followed by the downfall, not 
 only of Eugene, but of Napoleon himself and his intrigiuug 
 brothers. Eugene was now to be subjected to what was probably 
 the severest trial of his life. Though tenderly attached to his 
 mother, by whom his affection was ardently reciprocated, tlie 
 stem will of the emperor devolved on him the exquisitely painful 
 task of acting as mediator in accomplishing the cmel separation, 
 and besides it belonged to his office as chancelier d'etat to an- 
 nounce the detennmation of the emperor to the senate. Eugene, 
 with the utmost repugnance, obeyed a mandate, resistance to 
 which he well knew would not avert the hnpenduig catastrophe, 
 though he thereby sacrificed much of his popularity both in 
 France and Italy. He placed the act of separation before his 
 afflicted mother, and assisted with her in the marriage of the 
 emperor with her rival. In 1812 Eugene took an active part 
 in the campaign of Piussia, in which he commanded the fourth 
 coi-ps of the grand amiy, about 50,000 strong. He distm- 
 guished himself in every action, but particularly at the redoubt 
 of Borodino, where he successfully executed the most perilous 
 and most critical movement of the whole campaign. After 
 the departure of the emperor, the chief command devolved upon 
 Eugene, who, placed as he was in a desperate position, never 
 e\inced gi-eater bravery or military skill. After a retreat, 
 accomplished in the face of difficulties that none but a general 
 of the very highest order, both for courage and capacity, could 
 have faced and surmomited, he at length reunited with the once 
 more organized army of Napoleon on the banks of the Saale. 
 At the commencement of May, Eug6ne hastened once more 
 to Italy, where his presence had become indispensable to 
 presei-ve the kingdom from the inroads of Austria. He soon 
 collected an army of 50,000 men, and at once assuming the 
 offensive drove Frimont out of Villach ; but he had to submit 
 to the loss of the Ill}Tian pro^-inces, his left wing being threat- 
 ened by General Hiller, who was then in the Tyrol. Mean- 
 while the king of Naples turned his anns against Eugene, 
 who felt constrained in consequence to ask for an annistice, 
 which, however, was refused. In January, 1814, an army of 
 thirty thousand Neapohtans and ten thousand English and 
 Austrians were on their march for upper Italy. Menaced 
 behind by this new aggression, the viceroy was obliged to quit 
 his position on the Adige, and to fall back behind the Mincio. 
 Here, on the 8th February, Bellegarde was compelled to retreat 
 before the army of the viceroy, although that of Bellegarde was 
 three times their number. This victory closed the splendid 
 military career of Eugene Beauhamais, and put an end to tlie 
 kingdom of Italy. Napoleon had ceased to be victorious, and 
 France was compelled to succumb under the combined forces of 
 her enemies. The convention of the 16th April deprived 
 Eugene of his viceroyalty, and shortly after he and his wife 
 wandered as fugitives through the mountains of Tyrol, and 
 with difficulty reached Municli. They proceeded thence to 
 Paris, where they were received by Louis XVIII. in a manner 
 befitting their rank, Engine still retaining the title of prince. 
 lie withdrew entirely from public affairs dming the reign of the 
 Hundred Days, as well as after the second restoration, and 
 finally retired to Bavaria, where he obtained from the king, 
 his father-in-law, the principality of Eichstadt, with the title of 
 Duke of Leuchtenberg, and the rank of first peer of the kingdom. 
 He had six children (two sous and four daughters) by his mar- 
 riage with the princess of Bavaria. He died of apoplexy at 
 the age of forty-three. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Fanny, countess de, a French author, 
 born in Paris, 1738; died in 1813. Her father was a receiver- 
 general of finance, and her husband, the count de I5eauharnais, 
 from whom she was separated shortly after her marriage. Sho
 
 BEA 
 
 440 
 
 BEA 
 
 devoted herself to the cultivation of letters, produced many works, 
 and became the centre of a body of distinguished literary char- 
 acters. A piece which she wrote for the stage having failed, her 
 mortification was increased by the circulation of a rumour that 
 she was not the author of the various works published under her 
 name ; a report which was sanctioned by the poet Le Bnin. 
 She has left poems, plays, and romances. — J. F. C. 
 
 BE.\UnARNAIS, Fuan(;'OIS, marquis de, peer of France, 
 bom at Rochelle 12th August, 1756; died in 1823. He was 
 brother of Alexander Beauharnais, father of the preceding. In 
 1789 lie was elected deputy to the states-general and the 
 national assembly, in whicli he constantly voted with the cote 
 droit, and on the 12th and 15th September, protested against 
 all the acts of the assembly. He was warmly attached to the 
 Bourbons, assisted in an attempted escape of the king, and fol- 
 lowed the royal princes into exile. His strong royalist tendencies 
 were of course highly distasteful to Napoleon, who, however, 
 employed him as his ambassador, first to Etruria, and after- 
 wards to Spain ; but having failed to act in conformity with his 
 instructions, he was recalled from the court of Madrid, and 
 banished to Poland. In 1814 he returned to Paris, where he 
 was well received and raised to the peerage.— G. M. 
 
 BEAUJEU, the name of an ancient and noble French family, 
 the following members of which may be noticed : — 
 
 Humbert IV. de Beaujeu, constable of France, died 21st 
 Jlay, 1250. He served with his father in the armies of Philip 
 Augustus and Louis VIII., by the latter of whom he was named 
 governor of Languedoc. In 1240 he accompanied St. Louis in 
 the crusade, and is said to have displayed much valour. 
 
 GuiCHAUD VI. PE Beaujeu, suruamcd the Great, died 
 24th September, 1331. He served with distinction under 
 Philippe le Bel, Louis le Hutin, Philippe le Long, Charles le Bel, 
 and Philippe de Valois. On the 9th AugTist, 1325, he was 
 made prisoner at the battle of Saint Jean le Vieux, and remained 
 in captivity until 1327. In 1328 he accompanied Philippe VI. 
 to the war of Flanders, and commanded the third corps d'armee 
 at the battle of Cassel. 
 
 Edoltard de Beaujeu, marechal of France, son of the pre- 
 ceding, born 11th April, 1316; died in August, 1351. He 
 took part in the battle of Crecy, and in all the wai's with the 
 English until 1351, when he fell at the battle of Ardres. 
 
 Pierre II. de Bourbon, sire de Beaujeu, died in 1502. 
 He was constable of France during the life of his brother John, 
 who died in 1488. He married the daughter of Louis XI. 
 
 Christophe de Beaujeu, lord of Jeaulges. He at first 
 followed the profession of arms, and distinguished himself in the 
 wars of Spain under Henry III. and Henry IV. ; but having 
 fallen into disgrace with his prince, he was exiled for ten years, 
 which he passed in Switzerland and Italy, where he cultivated 
 the art of poetry. His verses have been collected and published 
 imder the title of " Amours, ensemble le premiere livre de la 
 Suisse," 4to, Paris, 1589.— G. U. 
 
 BEAUJOLAIS, an ancient French family originating under 
 the Carlovingian emperors. At the time of the establishment 
 of the feudal regime, the Beaujolais were included in the etat 
 of Guillaume I., count of Lyonnais and of Forez. Since the 
 middle of the seventeenth century, the Beaujolais, with the title 
 of count, has frequently been the appanage of the princes of the 
 house of Bourbon. The last count of that name is — 
 
 Beaujolais, Louis Charles d'Orleans, comte de, third 
 son of Louis-Philippe-Joseph, duke of Orleans, surnamed 
 " Egalit^," and brother of King Louis Philippe, born at Paris 
 7th October, 1779 ; died 30th May, 1808. At the commence- 
 ment of the Revolution, he was detained with the rest of his 
 family for three years and a half in the prisons of the abbey. He 
 was afterwards deported to the United States, whence, after long 
 travelling about with his two brothers, he proceeded to England 
 in 1800. Eight years afterwards, an attack of pulmonary 
 disease having induced him to seek a milder climate, he set out 
 for Sicily, accompanied by his brother, the duke of Orleans; but 
 becoming worse on the voyage, he was obliged to land at Malta, 
 where he died. — G. M. 
 
 BEAU JON, Nicolas, an eminent French banker and jthilan- 
 thropist, born at I'ounlcanx in 1718; died 2()th December, 
 1786. He was successively banker to tlie court, receiver-general 
 of finances for the geiieraUte of Rouen, treasurer and commander 
 of the order of St. Louis, and conscilfer detat a brevet. In 
 these positions he aci^uired a vast fortune, much of which he 
 
 expended in deeds and enterprises of benevolence. He founded 
 and endowed with gi-eat liberality, the hospital that bears his 
 name, situated in the faubourg du Roule at Paris. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUJOUR, Louis Felix, baron de, a French diplomatist, 
 successively employed as consul in Sweden and Greece, and as 
 consul-general in America, was bom in Provence in 1765. He 
 was latterly consul-general at Smyrna. During his residence in 
 America he composed his " Aper9U des Etats-Unis au commence- 
 ment du dix-neuvieme siecle," Paris, 1814. Died in 1836. 
 
 BEAULIEU, AuGUSTiN, a French navigator, bom at Rouen 
 in 1589 ; died at Toulon in 1637. At the age of twenty-tliree 
 he obtained the command of a vessel in the expedition to 
 Briqueville, on the coast of Africa. In 1616 he went to India, 
 and was subsequently employed in several other expeditions, which 
 he conducted with courage and ability. He afterwards took part 
 in the siege of Rochelle, and the taking of the isles of St. Mar- 
 guerite. He wrote an account of his voyage to the Indies, 
 which forms part of the great Collection des Voyages published 
 by Thevenot. — G. ]\I. 
 
 BEAULIEU, Camus de Vernet, a French comiier, and 
 favourite of Charles VII., died in 1427. He became the victim 
 of a court intrigue, and perished by the hands of assassins. 
 
 BEAULIEU, Charles Gilloton de, a French political 
 economist of the school of Quesnel and the elder Mirabeau, wrote 
 on the projects of reform which occupied public attention in the 
 two or three years immediately preceding the Revolution. 
 
 BEAULIEU, Claude Fran^-ois, a French writer, bom at 
 Rouen, 1754; died in 1827. He came to Paris in 1782, and was 
 engaged as a journalist. He was arrested in 1792 for his poli- 
 tical opinions, and was not liberated from prison till 1794, when 
 he resumed his labours as a journalist, and established the 
 Mirror, a journal opposed to the Revolution. After a life of 
 much vicissitude, he passed the evening of his days in retire- 
 ment at Harly. Beaulieu has contributed a great number of 
 articles to the Biographie Universelle. He also wrote histo- 
 rical essays on the causes and effects of the Revolution. — J. G. 
 
 BEAULIEU, Eustory, or Hector de, a poet and theo- 
 logian, born in Beaulieu (bas Limoushi) in the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century. He rivalled Juvenal's Greek in the variety of 
 his accomplishments, having been successively organist to the 
 cathedral, comedian, catholic priest, and protestant minister. 
 He left a " Manual of Christian Instruction," and " Poems." 
 
 BExVULIEU, Jean Pierre, baron de, a general in the 
 Austrian service, born in 1725; died in 1820. He was of an 
 ancient though poor family of Nanuir, and first distinguished 
 himself as an officer of artillery, in the Seven years' war. In 
 1789 he was again summoned into active service, and WuS 
 appointed, with the rank of major-general, to the command of 
 the Austrian army sent against the revolted Braban9ons. In 
 this contest he contributed by his zeal and bravery, more than 
 any one else, to bring about a speedy and successful result. In 
 1792 he was attacked near Jemappes by General Biron, whom 
 he completely defeated. He was equally fortunate in various 
 subsequent actions, but he was at last aiTcsted in his career of 
 victory by General Buonaparte, by whom he was again and again 
 totally defeated. On the 25th June, 1796, he resigned his 
 command, which was intrusted to General Wurmser, and retiring 
 to Lintz, died at the advanced age of ninety-five j'cars. — G. M. 
 
 BEAULIEU, Sebastien de Pontault, sieur de, mare- 
 schal-de-camp, and chief engineer to Louis XIV., died in 1674. 
 He was the author of a remarkable work, known by the name 
 of " Grand Beaulieu," consisting of a collection of plans and views 
 of the places besieged and taken l)y Louis up to the time of the 
 author's death, together with portraits and memoirs. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUMANOIR, an ancient French family of the province of 
 Maine. About the middle of the fifteenth centuiy, the seiguioiy 
 of Lavardin, since erected into a marquisate, came into that 
 house by a marriage alliance, and, in consequence, the members 
 of the family came to be known under the name of Lavardin. 
 Among these the two following have been noted : — 
 
 Beaumanoir, Jean Lavardin, marquis de, mareschal of 
 France, born in 1551; died at Paris, 13th November, 1614. 
 He was educated in the protestant religion, which he abjured in 
 1572, after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, in which his father 
 was killed. He then entered the service of the catholic party, 
 under mareschal de Mantignon. In 1611 he was appointed 
 under Louis XIIL, ambassador extraordinary to England, to 
 renew the ancient treaty of alfiance.
 
 Beaumanoir, marquis de, a French man of letters, born in 
 Bretagne about 1720; died about 1795. He at first embraced 
 the profession of arms, and took part in the campaigns of the 
 Seven years' war, but at a later period gave himself up to the 
 cultivation of letters. Among other pieces written by him for 
 the stage, are " Osman III. et Laodice, reine de Carthage," 
 "Les Ressources de FEsprit," "Les ^lariages," " La Justification 
 d'Enguerrand de JIarigny." These have been collected under the 
 title, "ffiu\Tes diverses," Lausanne, Pans, 1770, two vols. 8vo. 
 He projected also a translation of the Odyssey, but was deterred 
 bv the small success which had attended his translation of the 
 Iliad into French verse, Paris, 1781. — G. 51. 
 
 BEAUJIAXOIR, Jkxs de, a celebrated Breton chevaher, 
 lived about the middle of the fourteenth century. In the famous 
 civil war which at that time desolated Bretagne, he took part 
 with Charles de Cliatillon, count of Blois, against Jean de Jlont- 
 fort. He was the friend and companion-in-arms of Du Guesclin, 
 and is mentioned as the hero of many surprising exploits. He 
 was the commander of thirty Bretons, who are said to have 
 fought with thirty Englishmen in 1351. During a long career 
 he bad often been intrusted with important missions and diffi- 
 cult commands, and was ever distinguished by his loyalty and 
 courage. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUMANOIR, Phillipe de, a celebrated French magis- 
 trate, author of a curious and valuable work, " Coutnmes du 
 Beauvoisis," was bom in Picardy in the first half of the thirteenth 
 century. He is said to have been of noble family, and to have 
 followed in early life the profession of arms, and afterwards of 
 diplomacy. From a notice of a judicial proceeding in which he 
 was concerned, we learn that he was bailli of Senlis in 1273, 
 and this dignitv he seems to have retained throughout the reigns 
 of Phillipe le Hardi and PhilUpe le Bel. He is entitled to be 
 ranked among the first jiirists of the century to wliich he belonged. 
 His work is not only interesting as a record of the judicial customs 
 which prevailed in his native district at that important epoch in 
 French history, when the feudal system began to give way before 
 the combined power of the communes and the throne, but is also 
 invaluable as one of the earliest productions of a French jimst, 
 in which it was proposed to limit the power of the clergy by 
 extending that of the crovsn, and to secure justice to the commons 
 by restricting the judicial authority of the barons. The author 
 of the " Coutumes" had the wisdom to propose as a remedy for 
 the anarchy of liis times, the introduction of common law, and 
 the estabhshment of a central court of justice. He died in 1296. 
 The first printed copy of the " Coutumes" is dated 1G90. A 
 second and more accurate edition appeared in 1842. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS, Pierre-Augustin Caron de, one of 
 the most characteristic of Frenchmen, ahke in his excellencies 
 and deficiencies, was born at Paris, January 24, 1732. His 
 father was a watclimaker, only boasting the simple surname of 
 Caron, and at tlie age of thirteen Beaumarchais was taken from 
 school and inducted into the paternal business. Music was, 
 however, his passion, and he never looked with favour on watch- 
 making. Such, nevertheless, was the activity of his mind, and 
 its natural fertility of suggestion and invention, that he speedily 
 invented an important improvement in the mechanism of watches. 
 Having confided his secret to another watchmaker, Lep.ante, he 
 soon found his invention pubhcly claimed by him. Beaumar- 
 chais immediately flew to law, estabhshed his case, gained his 
 suit, was appointed watchmaker to the king, and soon after- 
 wards obtained a small office in the royal household. Thence 
 commenced one of the busiest and most varied lives on record : 
 from that period till his death, his career was one series of social 
 successes, financial speculations, trading wholesale and retail, 
 lawsuits without end, gallantries, triumphs on the stage, diplo- 
 macy, — and all conducted with a good-nature, a shrewdness, a 
 cheerfulness, and an uprightness, bordering on the marvellous ; 
 and characterized throughout by a mercurial levity and absence 
 of all the deeper emotions of human nature equally complete. 
 The comptroller of the household died, and Beaumarchais mar- 
 ried his widow and succeeded to the olRce. This ofiice brought 
 him into a nearer relationship to the three princesses: his skill 
 in music attracted their notice, and he soon became their teacher, 
 and from teacher, intimate companion and amuser. Through 
 the influence of the king's daughters in those days of comiption, 
 he was enabled to push his fortune. By this means he made 
 the acquaintance of Paris Duverney, the celebrated capitalist 
 and financier; and as the court intrigues deepened and pro- 
 
 VOL, I. 
 
 gressed, so also complicated and lucrative speculations arose. 
 In 1761 Beaumarchais' anomalous position in the court was 
 put an end to by his ceasing to be plain M. Caron, being en- 
 nobled by the king, and made lieutenant-general des chasses. 
 In 1764 his sister's affairs called him to Madrid, and here 
 occun-ed his quarrel and pursuit of Clavigo, which Goethe has 
 immortalized by his drama of that name. He spent a year in 
 Spain, busy as ever ; engi-ossed in politics, hterature, intrigues, 
 and trade ; above all, acquiring that local knowledge and spirit, 
 that resulting in " Figaro," has made him famous. In 1768 
 Beaumarchais married his second wife. In 1770 commenced his 
 seven years' contest with Goezman, concerning money due to him 
 from the estate of the late E)uvemey ; and it was the "memoires" 
 that he published from time to time during the progi-ess of his 
 suit that made him a notoriety. The varied ability they dis- 
 played ; their wit, sarcasm, keen logic, and general smartness ; 
 amused the public, conquered his enemies, and even excited the 
 envy of Voltaire : while his trenchant exposure of the abuses 
 that were fast bringing on the Revolution, not a little contri- 
 buted to hasten it. As might be expected, we next find Beau- 
 marcliais in prison. However, he was soon out, though deprived 
 of his court favour for a time. He married a third wife, and 
 produced his " Figaro," which had a run of one hundi-ed nights, 
 and was a world's wonder for a time ; and partly by its own merits, 
 and partly by Mozart's and Rossini's adoption of it, will not 
 speedily be forgotten. Beaumarchais next appears in London 
 as secret agent to Louis XVI., in giving underhand aid to the 
 American revolutionists. In this manner 1,000,000 li^Tes of 
 French money went to America; while Beaumarchais, in his 
 private capacity of speculator, sent forty ships of ammunition, 
 &c., thither in 1776. After the Republic was established, 
 Beaumarchais spent the remainder of his life in endeavours to 
 get paid. After the revolution of 1789 Beaumarchais was as 
 active a servant of the Revolution as he had been of the 
 Monarchy; but the Revolution was a more capricious master, 
 and the remainder of Beaumarchais' life is a series of sufferings 
 from imprisonment, expatriation, and poverty, borne with a 
 cheeriness half-heroic, and only broken by his ceaseless efforts 
 to obtain the enormous wealth which was still his due, but 
 which he could never get. Thus occupied, death surprised him 
 very suddenly in Paris, Jlay 19, 1799. A veiy copious and 
 entertaining life of Beaumarchais from entirely new sources, 
 chiefly autobiographical, ajipeared in the Revue, des deux Mondes 
 in 1852, by M. de Lomtnie. — J. S. S. 
 
 BEAUME, a French historical and genre painter. His sub- 
 jects are well chosen, and always interesting and imaginative. 
 In mihtary scenes of the French romantic school, that deals 
 with the glories of the empire, he came early into the field. 
 Some of his pictures are "The Departure of the Conscript;" 
 "The Death of Henry III.;" "Alain Chartier Asleep;" " Le 
 Roi Boit;" "The Slave of Velasquez ; " "The Comrade's Visit." 
 
 BEAUMELLE, Laurent Axgliviel de la, bom at Valle- 
 raugue, Gard, 28th January, 1726. The persecution which this 
 person underwent at the hands of Voltaire, forms a curious but 
 unpleasant chapter in the quarrels of authors. Having acted 
 for some time as professor of the French language and of belles- 
 lettres at Denmark, he left for Berlin in 1751, at a time when 
 Voltaire was in the zenith of favour at the court of Frederick. 
 It is not impossible that he may have contrasted with pique his 
 own position at Copenhagen, which he had probably quitted in 
 disgust with that of his illustrious countrpnan at Sans Sonci. 
 The frame of mind in which he published the verses that roused 
 the ire of the. vainest and most irritable of a proverbially touchy 
 tribe, could not have been of the best. In " Mes Pensees," he 
 wonders at the excessive recompense bestowed by the king on 
 the poet; but, adds he, German monarchs indulge in strange 
 whims ; some fancy buffoons, others dwarfs, and Frederick likes 
 the gambols of Voltaire. The king who, while he appeared to 
 honour the French philosopher, took a strange delight in seeing 
 his weaknesses practised upon, could not, however, pass over an 
 allusion not complinu'ntary to himself, and the otVender found 
 it necessary to leave Berlin for Paris. Madame de Pompadour 
 reigned su])renie at Versailles, and Voltaire was in high favour 
 witli one who could make and umnake ministers; and on the 
 24th April, 1753, Beaumelle was, by virtue ofa leltre de cachet, 
 shut up in the bastile. Deprived of writing materials, he con- 
 trived with a needle to scratch on a pewter dish a birthday 
 ode and a portion of a tragedy. When liberated in the foUow- 
 
 3 K
 
 ing October, he was banished fifty leagues from the capital. To 
 sliow tliat he was not ignorant of the real author of liis persecu- 
 tions, he wrote papers reflecting upon Voltaire ; and again in 
 1756, on the publication of his " Jlemoires of Madame de 
 ^Maintenon," he was thrown into the bastile. No doubt there 
 was some suggested contrast between the lionoured position of 
 the wife of Louis XIV., a woman of as humble origin as that of 
 the more pliant Pompadour, and of the latter, which made her a 
 ready ally with Voltaire in the work of vengeance. While in 
 prison, the persecuted author worked on a translation of Tacitus, 
 and when liberated, after a year's confinement, it was on the like 
 condition of banishment from the capital. He settled at Toulouse, 
 where, despite his resentment towards Voltaire, he engaged deeply 
 in the interests of the fiunily of that judicially-murdered Galas, 
 whose wi-ongs prevented the fomier from sleeping. He procured 
 the liberation of Madame Galas' daughters. Here he manied. 
 Voltaire once more appeared as his persecutor, denouncing him 
 to tlie governor as the author of some anon\inous letters of a 
 .seditious character ; but he must have failed in his malignant 
 efforts, for shortly after Beaumelle was not only allowed to return 
 to Paris (JIadame de Pompadour being dead), but was appointed 
 to a post in the king's library, which he did not long enjoy, 
 for he died in 1770. Had he lived he meant to have published 
 an emendated edition of the poet of Ferney, the spuit of which 
 ma_y be easily conceived.— J. F. C. 
 
 BEAUMELLE, Victor Laurent, born at Nagarede, 21st 
 September, 1772, entered the army in 1793 as a simple private 
 in a di-agoon regiment, rose to be an officer of engineers, but 
 having to quit the service owing to delicate health, became a 
 professor of chemistiy. He joined the amiy again in 1808 under 
 Joseph, king of Spain, and after the peace of 1815, entered the 
 service of Don Pedro. He has written notices of the campaigns 
 and the countries iu which he served, and translated from the 
 Spanish of Calderon and other authors. He died at Eio Janeiro 
 m 1831.— J. F. G. 
 
 BEAUMETZ, Box-Albert Brigs, chevalier de, member of 
 the constituent assembly of France, born at Arras, 24th Decem- 
 ber, 1759 ; died at Galcutta about 1809. Being elected by the 
 noblesse of Artois deputy to the states-general, he took his 
 place among the constitutional party: and on 27th ]\Lay, 1790, 
 he was elected president of the national assembly. He was the 
 author and proposer of many salutary enactments, and an able 
 and eloquent advocate of measures at once liberal and moderate. 
 After the session he was nominated member of the directorv 
 for the department of Paiis. In 1792, having been accused of 
 seeking to re-establish the old government, he left his native 
 country, never more to return. He wandered for some time in 
 Germany, then passed into England, thence to the United States, 
 and finally to the East Indies, where he died. According to 
 another account, he returned to France, and died there about 
 1800. He was author of a work, entitled "Code penal des jurt's 
 de la haute cour Nationale," Paris, 1792, in 12mo. He besides 
 contributed many articles inserted in the Bibliotheque de I'homme 
 public, and in the Choix des rapports, Paris, 1822, in 8vo. — G. JI. 
 BEAUMONT, a French architect, known chiefly as the 
 designer of the Theatre des Varietes. 
 
 BEAUMONT, the name of an ancient French family, origi- 
 nally of Dauphiny. Their genealogy has been traced back as 
 far as Humbert I., who lived in 1080. They were divided into 
 two principal branches, and these again into several minor rami- 
 fications. The first branch is that of the lords of Freyte, d'Au- 
 tichamp, des Adrets, and de Saint Quentin ; the second, that of 
 the lords of Beaumont-Montfort in Dauphiny, of Pompignan in 
 Languedoc, and of Payrar in Quercy. Among the more remark- 
 able members of the family of Beaumont are the following : — 
 
 Beaumont, A.mblard de, bom near Grenoble about the 
 close of the thirteenth ccntuiy; died in 1375. He was a learned 
 lawyer, considering the age in which he lived, and was, for 
 twenty-two years, the minister and the confidant of Humbert II., 
 daupliin of Viennois. 
 
 Beaumont, Jean de, called le Dekaim^, lord of Clichy 
 and of Courcelles-la-Garenne ; died at Saint-Omcr in July, 1318. 
 He was appointed marcschal of France in 1315, and rendered 
 important services in the wars of Philip V. in Flanders iii 1317 
 and 1318. 
 
 BEAU.MONT, Jean de Hainaut, sire de, a celebrated 
 French captain; died in 1356. He was the younger brother 
 of William I., calle<l the Good, count of Hainaut. He was a 
 
 devoted supporter of the EngUsh interest in France in the time 
 of Edward II. and Edward III., the latter of whom afterwards 
 married the niece of Beaumont. After the death of his brother 
 William, Beaumont entered into the party of Philip of Valois 
 and was distinguished by his extraordinary intrepidity in the 
 affair of Blanchetaque, and at the battle of Crecy. 
 
 Beaumont, Antoine Fran<;:ois, vicomte de, a French 
 naval ofiicer, bom at the Ghateau de la Roque in Perigord, May 
 3, 1753 ; died at Toulouse, September 15, 1805. He officiated 
 as commander of a squadron in 1781, and on the 11th Septem- 
 ber of the same year captured an English frigate called the Fox. 
 In 1789 he was elected to the states-general as deputy for the 
 S(^nechaussee of Agen. He joined the party of the C6t6 droit 
 and was one of the protesters against the decree for the abohtioii 
 of nobility. At the close of the session he withdrew to England 
 whence he proceeded to Russia. At the time of the consular 
 government he returned to France, and fixed his residence at 
 Toulouse, where he died. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUiyiONT, Basil, an English admiral, bom in 1669; 
 died in 1703. He entered the navy under the patronage of 
 Lord Dartmouth, and in 1688 was appomted lieutenant of the 
 Portsmouth. He distinguished himself between 1689 and 1694 
 by the capture and destraction of numerous privateers that at 
 that period infested the English channel. He was afterwards 
 employed in blockading the port of Dunkirk, and in various 
 engagements with the Dutch fleet. On the accession of Queen 
 Anne he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral of the blue. 
 Having received orders to quit the squadron, which lay before 
 Dunkirk, he returned to the Downs, where he perished in the 
 dreadful stomi of the 26th November, 1703. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUMONT, CiiRisTorHE de, archbishop of Paris, bom 
 at the chateau de la Roque, 26th July, 1703 ; died at Paris, 
 12th December, 1781. On account of the disputes originating 
 in the papal bull umgenitus, he was deprived of his archbishop- 
 ric, and exiled to La Trappe. He was distinguished by the 
 firmness of his character, and was a coiTespondent of Frederick 
 the Great, the emperor of Russia, and ]\Iarie Louise of France. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Claudio, surnamed the Gavalier, probably 
 from a certain dashing gallantry of manner and dress, was bom 
 at Turin in 1G94, and died in 1760. He studied at Rome, then 
 the centre of art, which was then the antagonist of nature, and 
 spent half his life in copying Raphael, Guido, and the Caracci. 
 A born imitator, he copied the colour of Trevisani ; and after 
 looking about the world for some thirty years with other people's 
 eyes, he returned to receive great eclectic honours in Sardinia, 
 where he was knighted by the benighted (as to art) king. — W. T. 
 
 * BEAUMONT, de la Bonniere, Gustave de, bora at 
 Beaumont la Chatre, department of the Sarthe, 6th Febmary, 1802. 
 The revolution of July, 1830, found him a law officer of the crown, 
 and it speaks sufficiently for the qualities of mind and personal 
 character exhibited in his official career, that he should have been 
 chosen at a moment of peculiar public watchfulness, and when 
 public opinion possessed marked sway, for an important mission 
 to the United States. It was in 1831 that he and SI. de Tocque- 
 ville went forth upon a mission of inquiry into the operation of 
 prison discipline, with a view to its application in France. Tlie 
 result was not only a report of great value, but two remarkable 
 productions, the one by M. de Tocqueville ujion democracy, and 
 the other by M. de Beaumont upon slavery. At that time 
 serious alarm was felt in France at the discovery that there 
 were 40,000 liberated convicts loose upon society. It was found 
 that punishment by imprisonment only served to harden male- 
 factors, and that goals were simple seminaries out of which 
 reclaimable felons came confirmed thieves. The United States 
 had, it was said, solved the difficult problem of making the goal 
 a refomiatory, by the adoption of the silent system, with in- 
 stnicted and rewarded labour, and moral and religious training; 
 and it was for the sake of examining into its operation that two 
 gentlemen were chosen, who, as the result showed, proved equal 
 to the confided task. While the report is decisively in favour 
 of the leading principles of the American plan, especially as carried 
 out at Philadelphia, where labour is represented to be actually 
 loved by the convict as a relief from silence and solitude; yet the 
 commissioners came to the depressing conclusion that, owing chiefly 
 to the centralization system in France being destmctive ot 
 departmental administration, and of that personal interference 
 by zealous pliilanthropic and religious indi\iduals, to whose 
 agency the American mode owes its efl[icacy, it would hardly bo
 
 possible to have introduced the penitentiary discipline of Auburn 
 or Philadelphia into their owti country. An improved method 
 in French goals took place, however, upon the suggestions in the 
 report. M. de Beaumont leaving to his more speculative friend 
 the work of analysing political institutions, and to draw conclu- 
 sions as to the future, devoted his attention to the state of 
 society and manners, which he embodied in the graceful tale of 
 " Marie ou Tesclavage," showing the fatal influence of slavery on 
 the minds and morals of the masters themselves, who with 
 shallow selfishness, fancy they profit by an institution which 
 checks industry by degrading labour, and per\'erts the whole 
 nature. This book abounds with instances of nice obseiTation, 
 forcible yet delicate deUneation and portraiture, which for 
 minute shading, shows the hand of a consummate artist. In 
 1835 M. de Beaumont visited Ireland, and was so struck with 
 the misery of the people, that he detemiined upon probing out 
 the cause. Having, on his return liome, laboured for some time 
 on the materials he had collected, he determined to pay a second 
 visit to the country to complete his observations, which resulted 
 in a work that told stern truths to all classes and pai'ties. This 
 work has happily been deprived of much of its interest by the 
 utter change since WTOught on the state of society ; and yet as 
 a historical record of what Ireland was before the famine, and 
 before the encumbered estates coiu-t had dealt with mendicancy 
 and property in a way which never entered into the heart of man 
 to conceive, M. de Beaumont's book will prove of enduring value. 
 In 1840 he was elected a member of the chamber of deputies, 
 and took his seat on the side of the constitutional opposition- 
 voting for reform. On the republic being proclaimed in 1848, 
 he, along with his friend M. de Tocqueville, joined that section 
 of moderate and firm republicans wliich was headed by General 
 Cavaignac. Returned a member of the constitutional assembly, 
 he was nominated by Cavaignac, who had become head of the 
 government, ambassador to England, where it was his duty to 
 irry out that policy of friendship, which, in the opinion of 
 iioderate republicans, became two countries taking the foremost 
 lead in political freedom and civilization. As ambassadors are 
 generally chosen amongst married men, who are expected to 
 represent the gracious hospitality of their court, it becomes the 
 more proper not to omit to state, that M. de Beaumont intro- 
 duced to English society his cousin, the gi-and-daughter of the 
 relebrated Lafayette, to whom he was united in 1830. It was 
 while on a \isit to M. de Beaumont, at the close of 1857, that 
 General Cavaignac suddenly died. Under the imperial dynasty, 
 tb.ere is, of course, no place in public life for this able and 
 honest statesman. — J. F. C. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Elie de. See Elie de Beaumont. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Felix -Bellator, comte de, a French 
 senator, born at Paris, 25th December, 1793. He was sent to 
 the military school of St. Cyr in 1811, and the following year 
 entered the service as sub-lieutenant iu a regiment of infantry, 
 with which he was engaged in the campaign of Russia. In 
 March, 1813, he was raised to the rank of lieutenant. On the 
 return of Napoleon from Elba, Beaumont rejoined his standard, 
 and assisted at the battle of Waterloo. In 1826 he retired 
 into private life, and devoted much of his leisure to agricultural 
 pursuits. In 1839 he was elected to represent the department 
 of the Somme in the chamber of deputies, where he joined the 
 ranks of the opposition. In 1841 he was nominated a member 
 of the council-general of agriculture; and in 1842 his fellow- 
 i itizens of Peronne honoured him with a double election, to the 
 chamber of deputies, and to the council-general of the depart- 
 ment. During the whole of his political career he showed him- 
 self the friend at once of order and of liberty. On the 2Gth 
 January, 1852, he was called, by a presidential decree, to occupy 
 a seat in the senate. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Francis, poet and dramatist. FLETCHER, 
 John, poet and dramatist. — We follow the example of former 
 biographers in relating what is known of the lives of these dis- 
 tinguished men in one article. 
 
 Francis Beaumont, the third son of Sir Francis Beaumont, 
 one of the justices of the common pleas, was bom at Grace- 
 dieu, Lciccster.shire, in or about 1586. In February, 1596-97, 
 he was, with two brothers, admitted a gentleman commoner of 
 Broadgate's-halt, Oxford, on tlie site of whicli Penilimke college 
 now stands. In 1600 he was entered a member of the inner 
 temple. In 1602 he published some poems. In 1607 we find 
 his name in connection with that of Ben Jonson, and some 
 
 of Jonson's dramas are heralded by commendatory verses of 
 Beaumont's. Their common love of the theatre brought him 
 and Fletcher together, and they lived in the same house tUl 
 Beaumont's marriage, the date of which is supposed to have 
 been about 1613. His wife was Ursula Isley, or, as it is some- 
 times written, L'isle. Beaumont died on the 6th of March, 
 1615-16, at about the age of tidrty. Of Beaumont's immediate 
 family, several were remarkable for poetical talents. 
 
 John Fletcher, was bom in December 1579, about fifteen 
 vears before his brother poet, whom he sundved about ten years. 
 Fletcher's father (Richard) is said by Fuller to have been a 
 native of Kent. He was for a while mcumbent of Rye in 
 Sussex. He was dean of Peterborough at the time of the exe- 
 cution of Jlary queen of Scots, and attended her to the scaffold. 
 She refused his ministrations, which he to the last obtruded on 
 her. In 1589 he was consecrated bishop of Bristol; in 1593 
 translated to Worcester, and in the next year to London. He 
 now was unfortunate enough to lose the queen's good graces by 
 manying, and manying a lady of very doubtful reputation. The 
 bishop soon after died ; it was said by some of vexation at the 
 queen's displeasure ; by others it was attributed to the immode- 
 rate use of tobacco. His death took place on the 15th of June, 
 1596. He is recorded as " a comely and courtly prelate, . . . 
 condemned for being proud — such was hisnatm-al stately gai-b — 
 by such as knew liim not, and commended for humility by those 
 acquainted with him." He left nine children, and died in dis- 
 tressed circumstances. John Fletcher entered Bennet college, 
 Cambridge, 15th October, 1591. He was resident at Cambridge 
 in 1593, but how long he remained, and whether he took any 
 degree, is uncertain. Little more seems known of him than the 
 dates of his plays. He died in 1625, a victim to the plague. 
 As Fletcher's earliest publications were before his union with 
 Beaumont, and as he worked for the theatre long after Beau- 
 mont's death, it has been often a subject of inquiry — why the 
 united works have been always called by the name of Beaumont 
 and Fletcher, thus giving precedence to the writer whose share 
 was least in the collected works. Jlr. Dyce's account of the 
 matter is this, that during Fletcher's life only three of ten plays 
 were published by him as joint productions ; that in these either 
 Beaumont had the larger share, or that natural feehngs of cour- 
 tesy made him place the name of his deceased associate before 
 his own ; and that such arrangement being made with reference 
 to a few dramas, was naturally followed by the editors who suc- 
 ceeded with the collected works. The name of the "firm," once 
 fixed in the public ear, no one thought of disturbmg. — (Dyce's 
 Beavmont and Fk-fcher.') — J A., D. 
 
 BEAUJIONT, Sir Geokce Howland, whose name now 
 stands for the type of convention in landscape painting, was 
 born in 1753. He was descended from Bohemond, the son of 
 Robert Guiscard, the crusader, who, with Godfrey de Bouillon, 
 took Jemsalem, performing the deeds of the devil in the name of 
 God. Connected by birth with the royal blood of England and 
 France, the dilettante baronet of Coleorton could also boast of 
 his descent from Fletcher's friend, and the bard of Bosworth Field. 
 Showing even at Eton a taste for drawing, he became also cele- 
 brated for his skill at private theatricals. In 1784 he married 
 the daughter of Chief-Justice Willes, who pleased him by her 
 admiration of his acting, was painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 and started for the grand tour. This made him an authority 
 and an artist. He studied nature a little, Claude a great deal, 
 and began to paint. Wilson, who was just dead, he thought 
 highly of, and prefeiTcd him, in spite of his inferior colour, to 
 Gainsborough, not caring much .about village scenes, unless they 
 were in the grand style. "Wilson," he said, "is often meagre, 
 artificial, and artless. Mr. Gainsborough has a fascinating spirit, 
 and a splendour of colour." On his return from Italy, Beau- 
 mont, too liberal and eclectic for those days, offended Reynolds 
 by his free criticisms on Titian's want of drawing, and Buona- 
 rotti's extravagance. He now became professed painter, as well 
 as professed critic, and hoped to unite Claude's level sunshine 
 with red-nosed Wilson's classic.il dullness, but he was too 
 rich to do anything. He used to lament that Reynolds had not 
 .studied landscape, .and used to tcaze Wilson by abusing Chuide's 
 chimney-piece figures. Coleorton became a home for artists to 
 sneer and brag in, and in London he associated much with Rey- 
 nolds, Gainsborough, and West. In 1790, when every Lamp- 
 post was tumed into an altar on which to offer victims to the 
 red-shod goddess of liberty, Sir George went to Paris to sec his
 
 BEA 
 
 444 
 
 BEA 
 
 classic-al friend David, and nearly got hung, from sympathizing 
 with a suspended rovalist. He now began to collect the draw- 
 ings of Wilson, Gilpin, Hearne, Girtin, and Dauce ; and after 
 some years' resistance of picture-dealers, bakings, and smokings, 
 secured one Ponssin, four Claudes, one Canaletti, one Rubens, and 
 two Rembrandts, with specimens of Wilson, Reynolds, \Vest, 
 and Wilkie. He loved to show them, prose over them, rub 
 them with a wet finger, and view them telescopically, near and 
 far off. A useful patron of art, Sir George, aided by Lord Jlel- 
 ■\nlle, and encouraged by George IV. who, with all his vices, 
 had taste, originated the idea of an exhibition of the pictures of 
 Reynolds. In 1800 this kind dilettante began to rebuild his 
 Leicestershire hall, with the aid of Dance. He never travelled 
 without his " Narcissus Claude," which followed him to and 
 from London, at this time, when Wordsworth was honoming 
 his landscape-gardening fancies with ballads and sonnets. In 
 the lull after Waterloo, Sir George went to Switzerland and 
 Italy, and bought the sketch of the Holy Family in bas relief, by 
 Michel Angelo, now in the academy ; he gave a commission to 
 Gibson, the sculptor, and bought Panini's curious picture of 
 the interior of the Colonna gallery. But now began Sir George's 
 canvassing for the one gi-eat object for which Providence destined 
 him — the erection of a national gallery for paintings. From 
 1818 to 1824, he and Lord Dover, Lord Aberdeen, and Lord 
 FaiTiborough, pressed it in vain upon Lord Liverpool, who, not 
 caring much about it, was afraid of the expense. The fear that 
 the Angerstein collection when sold, would go to Russia, as well 
 as the promise of the gift of Sir George's gallery, at last decided 
 the sluggish ministers in 1823. Lord Dover's chief supporters 
 were Lord Whamcliffe, Jlr. Alexander Baring, and Mr. W. 
 Smith of Norwich. Sir George did not long sunive ; death, in 
 1827, stopped his patronage and criticisms. His "brown tree," 
 his receipts, his Italian ruins, and English woods are, and will 
 long be, a warning. If he had been poor, he might have been 
 a second-rate artist. As the kind friend of Jackson the painter, 
 and Coleridge, he deserves respect. Sir George was afraid of 
 nature, and wanted to mix scent with the May dew. — W. T. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Jeax-Francois Albanis de, a French 
 antiquary and agriculturist, was bom at Chambery about the 
 year 1755, and died in 1812. He studied at the military semi- 
 nary of Megi^res, and afterwards established himself as an 
 engineer at Nice. During his residence in that city he made the 
 acquaintance of the duke of Gloucester, with whom he travelled 
 through Switzerland, Italy, France, and England. On his 
 return to France he resided upon his estate of Vemay, giving 
 himself up entirely to the study of science, especially in connec- 
 tion with farming. He was the first to introduce the Spanish 
 merino sheep into France. Besides numerous scattered memoirs 
 upon various subjects, Beaumont published several books of 
 travels, namely, " Voyage historique et pittoresque de la Ville et 
 du Comte de Nice," 1787; "Travels through the Ehaetian 
 Alps," London, 1792 ; "Description des Glaciers de Faucigny," 
 1793; "Travels through the Maritime Alps," London, 1795; 
 "Travels from France to Italy through the Lepantine Alps;" 
 and " Description des Alpes Grecqnes et Cottiennes," 1802 ; all 
 of which contain curious observations both of an antiquarian and 
 philosophical nature. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEAU.MONT, Jeanne le Prince de, a French authoress, 
 bom at Rouen in 1711; died in 1780. She presented in 
 person to the king of Poland her first romance, " Le Triomphe 
 de la verito." In England, where she resided for some time, 
 she published a number of works, cliiefly moral tales. They fonn 
 in all seventy volumes, distinguished rather for purity of senti- 
 ment than for brilliancy of execution. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEAU.MONT, J. T. G. Leprevot de, secretary of the 
 clergy of France, lived in the secoml half of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, noted for his discovery of the Facte de famine, the gigantic 
 monopoly by which the ministers, nobles, magistrates, and 
 capitalists enhanced the price of grain throughout France. He 
 was imprisoned in the bastile, and remained in various prisons 
 fc;r twenty-five years. In 1789 he was set at liberty, and pub- 
 lished the stoiy of his captivity; Paris, 1791. — J. B. 
 
 BEAU.MONT, Sir John, son of Francis Beaumont, one of 
 the judges of the court of common pleas it the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, and brother of the celebrated dramatic poet, was bom 
 at the family seat at Grace-dieu, in the year 1582, and admitted 
 a gentleman-commoner at Broadgate's-hall, Oxford, in 1596, 
 from whence he entered one of the inns of court. He was made 
 
 a baronet in the second year of Charles I.'s reign, 1G26. He 
 wrote a poem, called " The Cro\vn of Thorns," in eight books, 
 and several translations of considerable beauty, which were highly 
 praised, among others, by Ben Jonson. Died in 1628. — T. J. 
 BEAUMONT, Joseph, an English theologian and poet, author 
 of some commentaries, and of a stupid poem in twentv cantos 
 entitled " Psyche, or Love's Mysteries," (S:c., London, 1652 ; was 
 bom in 1615, and died in 169'9.— J. S. G. 
 
 BEAUilONT, Lewis, bishop of Durham in the reign of 
 Edward II., descended from the blood royal of France and Sicilr 
 was advanced to the see of Durham in 1317. Pope John XXII. 
 would not consent to his consecration, until he had paid so large 
 a sum to the holy see, that he was never able entirely to dis- 
 charge the debt ui which it involved him. When on the road 
 to Durham to be installed, he was attacked by a party of Scotch, 
 who plundered his baggage and carried the bishop and his brother 
 prisoners to Mitteford aistle, and compelled them to pay so large 
 a ransom, that the prior of Durham was forced to sell the plate 
 and jewels of the chmxh. He had great feuds with the arch- 
 bishops of York on the question of jurisdiction. He died at 
 Brentingham, in the diocese of York, September 24, 1333, 
 ha\'ing sat fifteen years, and lies buried near the high altar of 
 his cathedi-al. He is said to have been at once avaricious and 
 expensive ; and so illiterate, that he could not read the bull for 
 his own consecration. — T. J. 
 
 BEAUMONT DE CARRI£RE, Baron, a French officer, 
 was aid-de-camp to !Murat ; distinguished himself at the battle 
 of Wertigen ; and won his rank of brigadier-general at Auster- 
 litz. He died in 1813.— W. B. 
 
 BEAUMONT DE LA B0NNI£RE, Marc-Antoine, comte 
 de, a distinguished French officer, bom in Tom-aine in 1760. 
 After serving as page to Louis XVI., he joined the army ; and, 
 being colonel of a dragoon regiment at Lyons during the Revo- 
 lution, he would have been numbered among the victims, had not 
 the attachment of his men rescued him when on his way to execu- 
 tion. He subsequently served under ilassena and Buonaparte; 
 was at Lodi, JIarengo, Austerlitz, &c. ; received the rank of 
 general, and the cross of the legion of honovu-; and died in 1830, 
 ennobled by Louis XVIIL, to whom he had given his adhesion 
 after the fall of Napoleon. — W. B. 
 
 BEAUNE, Jacques de, baron de Samblanfay, minister of 
 finance to Francis L, incmTed the displeasure of that monarch 
 by lending to the queen-mother the funds provided for state- 
 service in Italy, and expiated his crime on the scafibld in 1527. 
 BEAUNE, Renacd de, a French prelate, bom at Tours in 
 1527 ; died in 1606. He followed for some time the profession 
 of law, and became chancellor to the duke of Alen9on. Beiirg of 
 good family, he obtained a bishopric immediately after taking 
 orders. He was successively bishop of Jlende, archbishop of 
 Bourges, and of Sens. The part he took in the dispute bet^veen 
 the pope and Henry IV., brought liim under the displeasure of 
 the former. He published " Oraison funebre de Marie Stuart." 
 BEAUNIER, a French artist, known for many pictures, par- 
 ticularly his " First Navigator," "Prodigal Son," Sac. — W. T. 
 
 BEAUNOIR, Alexander, the pseudonym of an author 
 whose real name was Robineau, is one of the many instances 
 of men abandoning name and patrimony to pursue a favourite 
 study. He was bora at Paris on the 4th of April, 1746 ; and, 
 resisting all the entreaties of his father, who desired to bring 
 him up to his own profession of a notarj-, he forfeited his inherit- 
 ance and took to Hterature, entering the church at the same 
 time. The drama was liis absorbing passion ; and he soon, 
 distinguished himself as a brilliant and sprightly \viiter. One of 
 his pieces, " L' Amour queteur," brought out in 1777, was, 
 however, too licentious for the taste of the archbishop of Paris, 
 n-ho gave him the option of disavowing the comedy or reti."ing 
 from the church. Robineau was true to his first love, and 
 doffed the sacerdotal robe, and with it his own name for the 
 anagram of Beaunoir, and continued to wiite a number of 
 successful dramas. He left Paris during the Revolution, and 
 settled, first at Belgium, and aftenvards at St. Petersburg, 
 where he became du'cctor of the theatres. Returning to his 
 native city in 1801, he employed his pen in praise of the emperor; 
 and with equal readiness celebrated the restoration of the Boiu-bons, 
 from whom he obtained a place. Died hi 1823. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEAUPERE, Jean, in Latin, Johannes PrLciiRiPAXRi.'!, 
 a French divine, who assisted at the condemnation of Joan 
 d'Arc, in 1430. His share in that famous process was little less
 
 scandalous than that of the presiding prelate, Beauvais. He was 
 successively canon of Paris, Besan9on, and Kouen. Died about 
 the middle of the fifteenth century. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEAUPRE, Plat de, a French priest, who became a 
 member of the national convention in 1792, and voted for the 
 execution of Louis XVI. 
 
 BEAUPUY, Armand Michel, bachelierde, a French general, 
 bom in 1757. He served chiefly on the Prussian frontier; and 
 was killed at the battle of Emandinghen in 1796. 
 
 BEAUPUY, Nicolas Michel, bachelier de, elder brother 
 of the preceding, after serving in the army, was placed over the 
 department of Dordogne at the Revolution, and subsequently 
 sat in the representative assembly. He died in 1802. 
 
 BEAUREGARD, Charles Victor (called Woirgard), a 
 French officer, a native of Metz, received his rank of general at 
 the Revolution; was commandant of Alexandria in 1802, and 
 fell near Badajoz, heading a brigade of dragoons, in 1810. 
 
 BEAUREPAIRE, Nicolas Girard de, a native of Poitou, 
 joined the Vendean royalists in 1793 ; and, towards the close of 
 the same year, died of the wounds which he had received lead- 
 ing a column of infantry at the second battle of Chatillon. 
 
 BEAUREPAIRE, Nicolas Joseph, resigned his lieutenant's 
 commission in the French army at the Revolution ; but was 
 recalled to the service, and made commandant of Verdun in 
 1792. He died by his own hand, rather than surrender to the 
 Prussians, who had laid siege to the fortress. — W. B. 
 
 * BEAUREPAIRE-ROHAN, Henrique de, a Brazilian 
 officer of French extraction, who has distinguished himself by 
 his geographical and meteorological researches in some of the 
 central regions of South America. His journey from Cuyaba to 
 Rio Janeiro, through Paraguay, Rio Grande, and St. Catherina, 
 was published in 1846 ; and other results of his enterprising 
 labours have found a place in the Quarterly Review of the His- 
 torical Institute of Rio Janeiro. For these and more recent 
 services, he received, in 1850, a major's commission in the 
 Brazilian engineers. — W. B. 
 
 BEAURIEU, Gaspard Guillard de, a French ■(viiter, 
 bom at Saint-Paul in Artois on the 3rd July, 1728, was more 
 remarkable for his eccentricities and the oddity of some of his 
 notions, than for the number or quality of his works. He 
 dressed in an eccentric style, attracted the attention of people 
 passing him in the street by the vivacity and spirit of his talk, 
 professed a great contempt for riches, and was exceedingly 
 fond of children. He died on the 5tli October, 1795, in the 
 Hospital de la Charite at Paris. His most celebrated work is 
 entitled "L'Eleve de la nature;" it was published in 1763, 
 and to give it a greater importance in the eyes of the public, 
 Beaurieu did not hesitate to ascribe it to J. J. Rousseau. 
 Three of his other works, "L'Heureux citoyen," " Varietcs 
 litt^raires," and " L' Accord parfait," are also regarded as pos- 
 sessing considerable merit. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, Jean Jacques de Beault, comte de, a 
 French general of the last century, whose military experience, 
 acquired in many battles and sieges, was published in 1757, in 
 notes to an ancient work on the defence of fortified places. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, Louis de, bom at Beriin, 1730, when his 
 father (an eminent protestant minister, and author of a history 
 of Manicheism) had attained his eighty-first year; died in 1783. 
 Studied at Berlin and Frankfort, and was afterwards made a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences and privy councillor to 
 Frederick the Great. His writings exhibit the sceptical and 
 sensual philosophy so common in his ago, 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, Isaac de, a distinguished protestant writer, 
 was born at Niort in 1659. He studied at the famous academy 
 of Saumur, and was ordained to the ministry at the early age of 
 twenty-two. Persecution broke out in France, and the church 
 in which he ministered was shut up by authority. In his youth- 
 ful fervour, he scorned such a prohibition, and broke the royal seal 
 which had been placed on the door of the chapel. To avoid the 
 punishment which such an act entailed, he lied first into Holland 
 and then to Dessau, where the princess of Anhalt kindly received 
 him, and where he wrote a defence of some points of Calvinism, 
 ' Defense de la doctrine des Ri'formes sur la providence, sur la 
 predestination, sur la grace, et sur reucharistie," Magdeburg, 
 1G94. In the year in which he published this clever work, he 
 went to Berlin, where he preached and laboured for forty-six 
 years. His services were not only highly useful, but were nuich 
 esteemed. He became a royal chaplain, a consistoriul counsellor, 
 
 and inspector of French schools and churches. His biblical 
 works commenced with a nev\' edition of the French psalms. 
 The "New Testament" was published in 1718, and in this work 
 Lenfant was his coadjutor. Beausobre translated the epistles of 
 Paul, and prefixed a good introduction. His incomplete "History 
 of the Reformation " appeared after his death, at Berlin, in four 
 volumes octavo, 1785. Parts of this work had already appeared 
 in separate portions, such as his " Dissertation sur les Adamites 
 de Boh^me." His principal work was his well-known " His- 
 toire Critique de Manichee et du Manichcisme," 2 vols. 4to, 
 Amsterdam, 1734-39. "These volumes," as Gibbon says, 
 " form a rich treasury of facts and opinions." They are per- 
 vaded by sound and varied learning, clear judgment, and sharp 
 polemical skill; though they are occasionally tedious from long 
 digressions and extraneous discussions. Beausobre died in 1738. 
 After his death, two volumes of his critical and philological notes 
 were published at the Hague, and his son edited four volumes of 
 his sermons. Beausobre was one of the bright lights of the 
 French reformed church, — preached, acted, and wrote with great 
 ability and spirit. In one of his letters to Voltaire, Frederick 
 the Great, then crown prince, calls hhn "the famous Beausobre, 
 a man of honour, of great genius, and of exquisite taste, ... a 
 consummate orator, .... the best writer in Beiiin, a man so 
 full of fire, that eighty years have not chilled it, and yet so con- 
 scious of his abilities as to be affected by applause." — J. E. 
 
 BE AUSSIE R, Louis Andrk, nephew of Louis Joseph de, 
 followed the same profession. He relieved Quebec in 1758, and 
 subsequently served at St. Domingo, and in America. At the 
 peace he was promoted, had a seat in the assembly of nota- 
 bles, and died in 1789. — W. B. 
 
 BEAUSSIER DE LILLE, Louis Joseph de, a naval officer 
 in the French service. He commanded the squadron which 
 earned Montcalm to his Canadian governorship in 1756. After- 
 wards taken prisoner by the English, and exchanged, he was 
 employed in other expeditions of importance, and died in 1765. 
 
 BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPR:^, Charles Francois, a celebra- 
 ted French hydi-ographer, born at Neuville-au-Pont, near Sainte 
 Menehould, in 1766, began to be employed in the public service 
 in his nineteenth year, being at that age commissioned by gov- 
 ernment to prepare some charts for an expedition to the Baltic. 
 After the completion of his "Atlas de la mer Baltique," he was 
 engaged to survey the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and the 
 northern shores of the German ocean. In 1815 he prepared 
 plans for a militaiy station on the Elbe, which met the approval 
 of the Hanoverian government, and procured him the honour of 
 being elected a member of the Royal Society of Gottingen. He 
 was latterly chief hydrographer in the marine seiTice, and in that 
 capacity superintended the preparation of a complete atlas of the 
 French maritime boundaries. The plans and maps by which the 
 first English ship directed its course round Van Diemcn's Land, 
 were taken from a French officer, to whom they had been intrusted 
 by Beautemps-Beaupre, then a prisoner at the Cape of Good 
 Hope. He had prepared them in 1791, when engaged in the 
 expedition of Admiral Entrecasteaux, employed to search for the 
 unfortunate La Perouse. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, Bertrand Paiuier de, a privy councillor 
 under Louis XVI., became a refugee at the Revolution, and 
 afterwards joined the royalists in La Vendee, where he com- 
 manded a division of artillery. He made every effort to prolong 
 the struggle, and at length took refuge in England, where lie 
 died in poverty in 1857, having published two works on the 
 Vendean war. — W. B. 
 
 BibVUVAIS, Charles-Theodore, a French general, born 
 at Orleans, 8th November, 1772 ; died at Paris about the 
 beginning of 1830. He entered the army as a common soldier, 
 and was speedily raised to the rank of adjutant-general, in 
 which capa< ity he was employed successively in the annies of 
 the north, of Italy, of the interior, and of Egypt, when, in con- 
 sequence of an ailcrcation with Buonaparte, the commander-in- 
 chief, he requested and obtained permission to quit the service. 
 On his voyage homewards he was cajjtured by the Turks, and, 
 being carried to Constantinople, was committed a prisoner to 
 the Seven Towers, where he was detained for eighteen months. 
 On reaching France, being shut out from all military emjiloy- 
 ment, ho was fain to accept of a situation which opened to him 
 in the custoin-housc of Paris. In 1809 he was recalled to the 
 service, and was sent with his former rank, first to Antwerp, 
 then to Spain, and afterwards, in 1813, to the Rhine. During
 
 the reign of the Hundred Days, he received from Napoleon the 
 command of Bayonne. On tlie return of Louis, Beauvais retired 
 into private life, and edited successively three opposition journals, 
 le Mercurei la Tribune, and le Coristitutionnel. He wrote, 
 also, nearly the whole of a vast popular compilation, entitled 
 " Victoires et conquetes des Fran9ais," Paris, 1817, and following 
 years, twenty-eight volumes in 8vo, besides editing a work still 
 more popular, " Correspondance ofHcielle et confidentielle de 
 Kapoleon Buonaparte avec les cours etrangeres," &c., 1819-20, 
 seven volumes in 8vo. He also took part with Barbier and 
 other men of letters in the " Dictionnaire historique, ou Biogra- 
 phic universelle classique," and published a French translation 
 of the Letters of Philaris. — G. JI. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, Jean Baptiste Charles Marie de, bishop 
 of Jersey, celebrated as a bold and eloquent preacher, was born 
 at Cherburg in 1731, and died in 1790. Called on one occasion 
 to preach before Louis XV., with a hardihood for which he had 
 been frequently remarked in the same presence, he chose for his 
 text, " Yet forty days, and Nmeveh shall be destroyed." Forty 
 days afterwards the monarch expired. Beauvais was one of the 
 deputies to the states-general in 1789. — J. S. G. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, Palisot de. See Palisot de Beauvais. 
 
 * BEAUVALLET, Pierre Francis, born at Pithoviers, 13th 
 October, 1801. Having studied painting under Delaroche, he 
 quitted the studio for the stage, to which he felt attracted by 
 the twofold capacity of dramatic author and actor, but not in 
 equal degree; for while Beauvallet's tragedies of " Robert Bruce" 
 and " Le Dernier Abencerrage," have enjoyed but moderate 
 success, his powers as an actor are of a distinguished kind. His 
 fine person, poetic temperament, and rich sonorous voice, well 
 fit him for those heroic declamatory parts drawn with unrivalled 
 power by Corneille. He is one of the very few still able to 
 support the old classic French drama, which is gradually losing 
 hold of public taste. — J. F. C. 
 
 BEAUVAU, the name of an ancient and noble French family, 
 originally of Anjou, and possessors of the citadel of that name 
 in the same province. The following are among the more 
 remarkable members of the house of Beauvau : — 
 
 Beauvau, Ren£ de, one of the most valiant chevaliers of 
 the thirteenth centurj', died in 1266. In 1265 he accom- 
 panied Charles of Anjou in the expedition to Naples, and con- 
 tributed so much to the gaining of the battle of Benevento, that 
 he was appointed constable of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 He did not, however, long enjoy his new dignity, as he died 
 shortly afterwards of his wounds. 
 
 Beauvau, Pierre de; died in 1435. He was seneschal 
 of Anjou, and chief counsellor of Louis II., duke of Anjou. 
 
 Beauvau, Louis de, son of the preceding, and grandson 
 of Jean III., bom about 1410 ; died in 1462. He occupied 
 successively several important offices under Rene, seneschal of 
 Anjou, and was distinguished both as a soldier and as a states- 
 man. He died at Rome, whither he had been sent as ambas- 
 sador from the king of Sicily to Pope Pius II. 
 
 Beauvau, Bertrand de, lord of Precigny, of Sille-le-Guil- 
 laume, and of Brian^on, bora about 1400 ; died about 1474. 
 He was chosen to represent Louis III. in August, 1441, when 
 that prince was man'ied by proxy to JIargaret of Savoy. He 
 was equally in favour with the son and successor of Louis, Rend 
 of Anjou, who intrusted him with several important offices. He 
 was afterwards intrusted on various occasions by Charles VII. 
 with the execution of diverse important matters of pubHc busi- 
 ness, in which he acquitted himself with great ability and success. 
 
 Beauvau, Pierre de, lord of Bessiere, of Rivau, of Bois- 
 barre', Villcbernier, and Courville, born about 1415; died in 
 1453. He entered into the service of Charles VII., and took 
 part in the expeditions directed against the English. He par- 
 ticularly distinguished himself in 1453 at the battle of Castilion, 
 where he received wounds of which he died three days afterwards. 
 
 Beauvau, Henri, baron de, general and diplomatist, hved 
 in the second half of the sixteenth and the beginning of the 
 seventeenth centuries. He served lirst under the Emperor 
 Rodolph III. in Hungary, and afterwards under the elector of 
 Bavaria. In 1590 he commanded a corps of 1000 cavalry and 
 2000 infanti-y against the Turks, and contributed to the victory 
 obtained over them, and to the conquest of Gran. lie subse- 
 quently travelled in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and, on his return, 
 wrote an account of his campaigns and travels. The best edition 
 of the work is that published at Nancy, 1019, in 4to. 
 
 Beauvau, Henri, marquis de, son of the preceding; 
 died in 1684. He was author of a work entitled ''Memoires 
 pour sei-vir a I'histoire de Charles IV., Due de LoiTaine et de 
 Bar," Metz, 1686, in 12mo, and Cologne, 1689. 
 
 Beauvau, Marc de, prince of Craon ; died in 1754. He 
 served under Leopold, duke of Lon-aine, and accompanied him 
 in 1695 to the battle of Temisvar, in which he gi-eatly distin- 
 guished himself. Charles VI. conferred on him the dignity of 
 prince, and Philip V. that of a grandee of Spain of the first 
 class. He was afterwards sent by Philip as governor to Toscara. 
 
 Beauvau, Louis Charles Antoine, marquis de, a 
 French general, born in April, 1710; died 24th June, 1744. 
 He commenced his military career as captain of the regiment of 
 Lambesc. In 1734 he distinguished himself at the siege of 
 Phihpsburg; and in 1735 at the affair of Clausen. He was 
 engaged in 1741 at the taking of Prague, and in the defence of 
 the same place in 1742. On his return to France with his 
 army in January, 1743, he was nominated mareschal-de-camp. 
 He was afterwards employed in the army of Flanders, and was 
 mortally wounded at the siege of Ypres. 
 
 Beauvau, Charles- Juste de, mareschal of France, bora 
 at Luneville, 10th September, 1720; died 2nd May, 1793. 
 He entered the army when very young, and at the age of twenty 
 was made colonel of the guards to King Stanislaus. Having 
 oftered himself as a volunteer to the French army then engaged 
 in the siege of Prague, he seiTed in the capacity of aid-de-camp 
 to the mareschal de Belle-Isle. He was now rapidly advanced, 
 having been named successively lieutenant-general of the annies 
 and captain of the guards, and throughout his whole career he 
 showed himself worthy of the promotion he had received. He 
 commanded the principal attack at the assault on Mahon, and 
 was one of the first to mount the breach. He distinguished 
 himself, also, at the battle of Corback, and greatly contributed 
 to the victory won on that occasion. Beauvau was not less dis- 
 tinguished in his political career, on which he entered in 1763, 
 when he was appointed commandant of Languedoc. In that 
 capacity he showed that his benevolence and his love of justice 
 were at least equal to his braveiy and his military skill. Having 
 learned that fourteen women had been imprisoned for a number 
 of years in the Tour de Constance, for refusing to abjure the 
 reformed religion, he proceeded to the dungeon in which they 
 were confined, and set them unconditionally at liberty. This 
 act of humanity was displeasing to the court, who ordered ten 
 of them to be recommitted to prison. Beauvau, to his honour, 
 refused, and nobly replied, that " the king might take from hira 
 his command, but could not hinder him from discharging the 
 duties of it according to the dictates of conscience and honom." 
 In 1782 he became governor of Provence, into which he intro- 
 duced many important improvements and ameliorations, some of 
 which were cut short by the outbreak of the Revolution. Beau- 
 vau was also a man of letters, and a member both of the Aea- 
 demia della Crusca and of the French Academy. 
 
 Beauvau, Marc-Etienne-Gabriel de, prince of the holy 
 empire, and grandee of Spain of the first class, born 22nd Sept., 
 1773; died in 1849. He was chamberlain to the Emperor 
 Napoleon, while his wife was one of the ladies of honour of the 
 Empress Maria-Louisa. He adhered to the fortunes of the 
 emperor duiing the reign of the Himdred Days, performed as 
 before the functions of chamberlain, and was honoured with a 
 seat in the chamber of peers. After the second restoration he 
 was set aside, but was recalled to his seat in November, 1831. 
 
 * Beauvau, Charles-Juste-FranCj'ois Victurnien, 
 prince de, son of the preceding, and a senator of France, bom at 
 Haroue (Meurthe), 29th March, 1793. Having embraced the 
 profession of arms, he became an officer of carabineers under 
 the empire, and in that capacity distinguished himself in the 
 campaign of Russia in 1812. He was severely wounded at the 
 battle of Weronowo, and had to be left on the field. He retired 
 from the service in 1814, and lived in retirement until 1852, 
 when, by a presidential decree, he was called to a seat in the 
 senate. — G. M. 
 
 BEAUVAU, RenS Fran(;'ois de, a French prelate, bom at 
 the chateau du Rivau in 16G4, was admitted doctor of the Sor- 
 bonne, and named grand vicar of the chvuxh of Sarlat in 1694. 
 Some years afterwards he was raised to the see of Bayonne, 
 where he remained till 1707 ; in which year, contrary to his 
 own inclination, and much to the regret of the inhabitants of his 
 diocese, he was transferred by Louis XIV. to the more important
 
 bishopric of Toumay. When tliat town was besieged by Prince 
 Eugene, the Inshop sold all his effects for the benefit of the 
 starving inhabitants, and, after its reduction, be boldly refused 
 to celebrate the Te Deum demanded by tlie conqueror. By the 
 cession of Toumay to the emperor, he was again subjected to the 
 pain of separating from a people among whom he was univer- 
 sally beloved. He afterwards held in succession the archbishoprics 
 of Toulouse and Narbonne, and, for twenty years, filled the office 
 of president in Languedoc. Died in 1739. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEAUVILLIEKS, Makie de, abbess of Montmartre, a 
 daughter of count de St. Aignan, was bom in 1574. Heni-y 
 IV. saw her in 1590, dm-ing the siege of Paris, and made her 
 his mistress. She did not long retain the royal favour. The 
 last fifty years of her life were spent in the convent of Mont- 
 martre, the refractory inmates of which she ruled with a stem 
 rectitude. Died in 1656. — J. S., G. 
 
 » BEAUVOIR, AiMEE Leocadu Dozii de, born 20th 
 October, 1823, at Chateau Pont Kallek, authoress of some pleas- 
 ingly written dramatic pieces, which have been successfully per- 
 formed in the minor theatres of the French capital. Her most 
 important work is a " Memoir of the famous Actress Madame 
 Mars," one of those peculiarly gifted beings whose place cannot 
 be filled up, because of an originality which leaves no like 
 behind. To this work JIadame Beauvoir has brought that 
 thorough devotedness of affection, without which no full bio- 
 graphy can be well written. — J. F. C. 
 
 BEAUVOLLIER, Pierre-Louis Valot de, a French 
 general, born in the neigbbom-hood of Loudun in 1770 ; died 
 about 1825. He was at first a page of Louis XVL, but after 
 the proclamation of the Republic, he joined the army of the 
 Vendeans at Thenars, obtained a command in the second artil- 
 lery, and became afterwards tresorier intendant-general. After 
 the defeat of the Vendeans he concealed himself, until released 
 by the amnesty of 1797. In 1799 he again joined the royalist 
 anny, but made his submission in 1801. He afterwards served 
 under Napoleon and the Bourbons ; and at the second restora- 
 tion was made mareschal-de-camp. — G. M. 
 
 BE AUZEE, Nicholas, distinguished for his works on grammar 
 and his philological knowledge, was bom at Verdun on the 9th 
 of May, 1717. Frederick the Great invited him to settle at 
 Berlin, which, however, Beauz^e declined. Upon the death of 
 Dumarsais, Beauzde took up the articles on gi-ammar for the 
 Encyclopedic, in which the fonner was engaged ; and their 
 contributions, with those of JMarmontel, were afterwards published 
 under the title of Dictionnaire de Grammaire et de Litterature. 
 His greatest work is the " Grammaire Generale," a work which 
 won the highest praise from the Abbe Barthelemy, and from 
 Maria Theresa a gold medal. Beauzee was a member of the 
 Academic Fran^aise and professor of grammar in the Ecole 
 Militaire at Paris. Besides his original works, he has left many 
 translations. He died at Paris, January 23, 1789. — J. F. W. 
 
 IjEAVER, John, in Latin, Fiber, Fiberius, Castor, and 
 Castorius, a Benedictine monk of Westminster, who flourished 
 at the beginning of the fourteenth century. He was well skilled 
 in the history of English antiquities, and wrote a "Chronicle of 
 British and English affairs, from the coming of Brutus until bis 
 own time ; " and a volume, " De Rebus Ca;nobii Westmonanas- 
 teriensis." Leland, Stow, and Bale, alike speak of him as a writer 
 of ability and credit. — T. J. 
 
 BEAVER, Phillip, an English navigator, who, after serv- 
 ing as a marine in the American war, became celebrated in 
 connection with a project for colonizing the island of Bulama on 
 the western coast of Africa, was born in 1760. On his return 
 from America after the conclusion of the war, anxious to dis- 
 tinguish himself in some honourable way, he conceived the idea 
 of attempting, with the help of some influential persons, the 
 establishment of an English colony in Africa, by means of which 
 religion and the arts might be introduced into that continent. 
 As soon as he announced the scheme it found general approval, 
 and in a short while the necessary preparations were made for 
 transporting to the island of Bulama, much lauded as a residence 
 for Europeans by some French adventurers, a body of colonists 
 (275 in number, including women and children), who had offered 
 themselves for the work of colonizing. The sanction of govern- 
 ment having been obtained for the enterprise, Beaver set sail 
 with three vessels from the Isle of Wight in April, 1792, and in 
 safety reached his destination. But the colonists, immediately 
 after landing, were attacked almost to a man by fever, and in 
 
 less than four months a third of their number had fallen victims 
 to that malady. The survivors urged on their hardy chief the 
 necessity of a return to England, and an opportunity offering for 
 embarking in a government ship, they proposed instantly to 
 quit the pestiferous island ; but his indomitable resolution pre- 
 vailed through sixteen long months to hold them to their work, 
 or rather to make them abide their sufferings, and only in No- 
 vember, 1793, when but few were left to tell the tale of misery, 
 would he consent to relinquish the settlement. After an absence 
 of two years, some months having been wasted at SieiTa Leone 
 in waiting for an English vessel, he arrived at Plymouth and 
 with but one companion. The misfortunes of the enterprise 
 were immediately communicated to the society by whose help it 
 had been originated, and notwithstanding the disappointment 
 of their hopes, so impressed were they by the noble courage and 
 disinterestedness of their agent, that they awarded him a gold 
 medal in token of their admiration. Twelve years after his 
 return, Beavei- published an account of his unfortunate residence 
 in Africa, under the title of " African Jlemoranda, relative to 
 an Attempt to Establish a British Settlement in the Island of 
 Bulama, on the Western Coast of Africa, in the year 1792, 
 with a Brief Notice of the Neighbouring Tribes, Soil, Produc- 
 tions," &c. In 1801 he was in active ser\-ice in Egypt under 
 Abcrcromby, and in 1810 was present at the capture of the Isle 
 of France. He afterwards cruised in the Indian seas in com- 
 mand of a frigate, and was employed in exploring the coast of 
 Quiloa. He died at the Cape of Good Hope in 1813. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEBEL, Baltha-SAR, professor of theology at Wittemberg, 
 was bom at Strasburg in 1632, and died in 1686. He pub- 
 lislied " Antiq. Germanise prima;," 1669, and "Antiq. Ecclesise 
 in quatuor prioribus post Christum natum seculis."- — J. S., G. 
 
 BEBEL, Heinrich, was bom at Justingen in Suabia about 
 the year 1472 ; and after being educated at Schelklengen he 
 went to Cracow, where he completed bis studies ; and between 
 this city and that of Basle he seems to have passed the period 
 of his life from 1490 to 1497, when he was appointed teacher 
 of eloquence and poetry at Tiibingen. In this post he soon 
 distinguished himself by the elegance and brilliancy of his lectiu'es, 
 which drew crowds of auditors. He applied himself to the 
 reformation of the study of classical literature, especially Latin ; 
 and though involved in many disputes with the literary men of 
 his day, did more than all of them together towards the advance- 
 ment of classical learning. He has written much ; and it is to 
 be regi'etted that some of his " Opuscula," by which he is best 
 known, are mere facetia?, and sometimes worse still. During 
 his life he was held in high estimation as a literary refomier. 
 He died about 1516.— J. F. W. 
 
 BEGAN, Jean, a Flemish physician, whose real name was 
 Van Gorp, or in Latin, Gorophius Beccanus, was bom in 
 Brabant on the 25th June, 1518, and died at Macstricht on the 
 28th June, 1572. He studied philosophy and medicine at 
 Louvain, and afterwards travelled into Italy, Spain, and France. 
 On his return to his native country, Becan established himself 
 in Antwerp, where he practised medicine for several years, but 
 becoming disgusted with his profession after a time, devoted 
 himself entirely to the study of antiquities and the belles-lettres. 
 Towards the close of his life he removed to Li^ge, and during 
 his residence in this town, maintained before the Prince Gerard 
 van Groesbeeck, that the language spoken by Adam was Ger- 
 man or Teutonic. He was not satisfied, however, with giving 
 this curious opinion a mere viva voce support, but endeavoured 
 to establish it by citing numerous absurd etymologies in his 
 " Indo-Scythica," forming one section of the work entitled 
 " Origincs Antwerpianw, sive Cimmcriorum Becceselana novem 
 libris comploxa," iJic, published in 1569. His other writings 
 were collected and published eight years after his death, under 
 the title of " Opera Joannis Gorophii Becanii hactenus in luccni 
 non edita," &c.— W. S. D. 
 
 BECAN, Martin, a Jesuit theologian, famous in his time as 
 a champion of ultramontane doctrines, was born in Brabant in 
 1550, and died in 1(;24. He was professor of theology at 
 Wurtzburg, Mentz, and N'ienna, and latterly confessor to the 
 I'hnperor Ferdinand II. His controversial talents, which, after 
 his publications in sujiport of Beliarmin, the learned antagonist 
 of .lames I., were reputed prodigious, procured him the titles of 
 " Calvinomastyx " and "Malleus Calvinistarum" — marks of 
 popular estimation which did not prevent the parliament of 
 Paris from burning most of his books, nor the holy see from pro-
 
 testing against liis flatteries. He wrote " Manuals Controversa- 
 rium," and " Summa Theologiaj." — J. S., G. 
 
 BECART, John, a Flemish monk, who, under the name of 
 Richard Brumasus, published in 1G2-1 " S. Thoma; Cantu. et 
 Henrici II. monomachia de libcrt. eccles." He died in lC3o. 
 
 BECCADELLI or BECCATELLI, Antonio, a native of 
 Palermo, whence his Latin designation of Panormns, was bom in 
 139-t. At the age of twenty-five he was sent to the university 
 of Bologna, being designed for the profession of the law. He 
 afterwards attached himself to Filippo JIaria Visconti, duke of 
 Milan, and obtained the chair of belles-lettres at Pa^-ia; still, 
 however, remaining at Milan, and enjoying a pension. Thence 
 he went to the court of Alfonso, king of Naples, with whom he 
 passed the rest of his life, receiving many favours, being ennobled 
 by that prince, and treated with equal kindness by his successor 
 Ferdinand ; and, after a long and prosperous life, he died in 
 1471. Beccadelh wi-ote a considerable number of works in 
 history, poetry, and the drama. He was remarkable for purity 
 and elegance of style ; but, in some of his writings, ao less so 
 for licentiousness and indecency. Indeed, these latter quaUties 
 drew down upon him not only the censure of the critics, but the 
 sermons of the monks, who publicly preached against him, burning 
 one of his offensive works, and himself in effigy, at Ferrara and 
 Milan. The charity of one of his enemies even counselled a 
 similar fate for the author. — J. F. W. 
 
 BECCADELLI, Lodovico, one of the most eminent literary 
 men of Italy in his own times, was bom on Januaiy 27, 150"2, 
 at Bologna, where his family held a high position. He studied 
 jmnsprudence under Carlo Ruini ; but forming a friendship with 
 a fellow-student, the celebrated Giovanni della Casa, they both 
 gave themselves up to the fascination of the belles-lettres, and 
 especially of poetry; and when the plague broke out in 1527, 
 they abandoned Bologna and their law-books, and retired to 
 pursue their favourite studies at the villa of the latter at Mugello. 
 Thence they went to the university of Padua in 1528, where 
 Beccadelli enjoyed the friendship of Pietro Bembo, Cardinal 
 Pole, and many other distinguished scholars; and in 1535 he 
 took the degi-ee of doctor of la\vs. Pole, in particular, took him 
 into his councils and companionship, and in 1539 brought him 
 to several of the courts of Europe. Subsequently he attached 
 himself to Gasparo Contarini, with whom, when legate a latere, 
 he was present at the diet of Ratisbon. Pope Paul III. com- 
 mitted to him the education of his nephew, Ranuzio Farnese, 
 whom he accompanied to Padua. His pupil was aftenvards 
 made a cardinal, and Beccadelli became private secretary to the 
 cardinal-legates Jlonte Santacroce and Pole. After receiving 
 some substantial appointments, he was made bishop of Ravelle 
 in 1549 ; but Ranuzio was unwilling that he should leave him, 
 so that he never took possession of the bishopric. On the death 
 of Paul, his successor, GiuHo III., sent Beccadelli in 1550 as 
 nuncio to Venice, where he remained five years, till he was elected 
 in 1555 to the vicar-generalship of Rome ; and in September of 
 the same year he was elevated to the archbishopric of Ragusa, 
 in which otfice he conducted himself with great pruilence. Pius 
 IV. availed himself of Beccadelli's abilities, and sent him in 1651 
 to the coimcil then being assembled at Trent, where he acquitted 
 himself with great prudence. Cosmo I., grand-dulce of Tuscanv, 
 induced Beccadelli in 1563 to give up the see of Ragus.a, and 
 undertake the education of his son Ferdinand, promising him 
 instead the archbishopric of Pisa. To the peifomiance of this 
 promise, however, obstacles were interposed at Rome ; and after 
 waiting in vain for two years, he accepted in 1565 the provostship 
 of the cathedral of Prato. He died in that city on the 17th 
 October, 1572. He was distinguished not less by the superior 
 endowments of mind than by his great learning and judgment. 
 He enjoyed throughout his life the friendship and re.^pect of his 
 most distinguished (;ontempiiraries, with whom he maintained 
 extensive correspondence. His literary works are numerous ; 
 and amongst them are biographies of his friends Bembo, Pole, 
 and Contarini, and also of Petrarch. — J. F. W. 
 
 BECCAFUMI, DoMENico, sumamed Mechf.rino, was 
 bom at Siena in 1484. Like the great Giotto, he was originally 
 a shepherd, and in this contemplative life practised drawing, &c. 
 He was placed under Capanna, and finally, as it is supposed, under 
 Perugino, the careful master of Raphael. In the prime of life 
 he went to Rome to study the works of Michel Angelo and 
 Raphael, and spent two years in copying them, and in studying 
 the antique statues and temples. He leamed to draw well 
 
 in distemper and fresco, engraved on copper and wood, and 
 even executed a work in mosaic and some sculptures for the 
 cathedral of his native town. The fifteenth-century men 
 were accustomed, like Beccafumi, to run through the whole 
 cycle of the arts. Domenico worked with Razzi, who studied 
 under Da Vinci in the oratory of San Bernardino. He 
 approaches the great master of the Sienese school in noble, simple 
 grace, in clear lasting colour, and good design. In the Sienese 
 academy, there is a grand altar-piece by him ; and in the public 
 palace, several agreeable pictures. His later works are mechani- 
 cal. His mosaic pavement in the choir of the Duomo is formed of 
 bright and dark marble, with hues of shading like niello. He 
 died in 1549. His later figures are coarse and plump, and hia 
 heads harsh. He excelled in perspective and foreshortenings, 
 but is sometimes too red in colour. — W. T. 
 
 BECCARI, Agostino, a poet whose fame rests upon being 
 the father of pastoral comedy, was bom at FeiTara about the 
 year 1510. He was a man of considerable learning, well versed 
 in the graver studies of philosophy and law, both cvrH. and canon, 
 of which he was a doctor, and, if we are to credit one of his 
 Italian biographers, equally master of the humanities, rhetoric, 
 and polite literature. In 1554 he produced his pastoral comedy, 
 entitled " II Sacrifizio," which is said by Ginguene to be the 
 most ancient model of that style in existence. Its success was 
 remarkable, and it had the advantage of having the choral parts 
 set to music by Alfonso della Viola. The piece was brought out 
 with great splendour, and twice performed in the palace of 
 Francesco D'Este, before Duke Hercolo II. and his court, as 
 well as on other occasions. Xotwithstanding the praise which 
 Mazzuchelli bestows upon this performance, we are disposed to 
 consider its principal merit is due to its being the first of its 
 kind in point of time. Beccari wrote another piece in the same 
 style, called " Dafne," and died in 1590. — J. F. W. 
 
 BECCARI, J. BARTHELEJty, an Italian i)hysician and philo- 
 sopher, bom at Bologna in 1682, and died in 1766. Early in 
 life he devoted himself to the study of the natural sciences and 
 experimental philosophy, of which he became professor. Those 
 who attended his lectures founded an association in which they 
 agreed to shake off the yoke of the ancient scholastic philosophy. 
 Amongst them were numbered Morgagni, Eustathius, and Jlan- 
 fred. This association formed the nucleus of the academy of the 
 Inquieti, which was the cradle of the institute of sciences and 
 arts, founded at Bologna in 1711 by the Count Maisigh, and in 
 which Beccari was named professor of physics. He succeeded 
 Valsalva in the presidency of the institute. He was elected a 
 fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1728. He published 
 several works on medical subjects, and left numerous manu- 
 scripts, which are in the library of the institute of Bologna. — E. L. 
 
 BECCARIA, Marchess Cesare Beccarlv Bonesana. 
 The science of penal legislation owes to this great man the first 
 decisive steps towards its deliverance from the trammels of medi- 
 eval bai-barism. Beccaria was bom at Jlilan on the 15th of 
 March, 1738, of an ancient and noble family. The habits and 
 prejudices of feudal rank presided over his early education, and 
 the Jesuits in the college of Parma were the first instructors of 
 the future author. From his earliest youth his proficiency 
 in mathematics and in natural sciences was so great, that 
 his teachers were wont to call him IL Newtoncino, the 
 little Newton. The power of obsen-ation and stringent rea- 
 soning, which he acquired by such training, was afterwards most 
 efficiently applied by him to the subject through which his 
 reputation has become universal, namely, that of penal reform. 
 The circumstances under which he was induced to turn his atten- 
 tion to this subject were the following : — On his return from 
 college he fell in at Jlilan with a select society of young noble- 
 men who had risen above the pompous dulness of their clas.s, 
 through the intellectual revolution which was then working . 
 upon and urging men's minds throughout Europe, to their 
 emancipation from the tutelnge of obsolete custom, and to 
 the assertion of the rights of reason in social, as well as in 
 natural and speculative sciences. The most prominent among 
 those youths were Pietro Verri and his brother Alessandro. 
 Surrounded by such friends, he soon took a deep interest in 
 their studies, and the penisal of the Lettres Persanes by 
 Montesquieu, opened to his mind a new field of inquiry. The 
 strong contrast between the tme principles of social welfare, 
 and the existing state of things in Lombardy, prompted those 
 men with an ardent desu'e to rekindle in then: fatherlaud the
 
 BEC 
 
 449 
 
 BEC 
 
 lights of civilization, wliicli had grown dim through two cen- 
 turies of oppression under Spanish misnile. Those provinces 
 — the wealthiest in Italy — had been laid waste by foreign 
 proconsids, and when ]\Iaria Theresa of Austria took posses- 
 sion of them, she soon felt that in order to draw some profit 
 from her newly-acquired dominions, all must be quickened into 
 life again. The government of Austria was not so exclusively 
 dependent, a century ago, on militaiy despotism, as it is now. 
 It was, so far as it went, a ci'^ilizing power, whilst the subject 
 nations on the other hand, had not }'et attained that conscious- 
 ness of their rights, which now animates them against their 
 oppressors. Although they bowed to the imperial authority in a 
 common bond of federal submission, they still preserved a certain 
 amount of self-administration. It was under such a state of 
 things that the above-named youths were growing into man- 
 hood. They were in the habit of holding private meetings, 
 where the wants of the people, the reforms needed in every 
 branch of public administration, were freely discussed. In 
 order to give utterance to their views, they published a perio- 
 dical, II Caffe, a sort of Italian Sjiectator, some of the best 
 articles in which were from the pen of Beccaria. This pub- 
 lication, in which a variety of subjects bearing on moral and 
 social improvement were treated with a manly tone, soon ac- 
 quired celebrity at home and abroad, but unhappily it did not 
 continue longer than two years (17G4-66). The existing sys- 
 tem of criminal law met, in that society of young reformers, with 
 all the abhorrence of enlightened and noble-hearted men. The 
 jurisprudence concerning trials and punishments, was then an 
 indiscriminate maze of Roman traditions, of feudal customs and 
 inquisitorial proceedings. Farinaceio, the most ruthless abettor 
 of torture, was the greatest authority with lawyers and judges. 
 Alessandro Verri, as patron of the prisoners in the municipal 
 magistracy at Milan, had often witnessed with a bleeding heart 
 the dreadful effects of the barbarity of the law. His brother 
 Pietro felt the duty of a protest — the protest of science and 
 humanity against iniquity — and his knowledge of the talents 
 of Beccaria led him to choose the latter as the champion of so 
 noble a cause. There were gi-eat obstacles to surmount. Al- 
 though the imperial government allowed its subjects a certain 
 extent of liberty in private thought, there was no freedom of the 
 press, and a work, which was intended to attack the super- 
 cilious ignorance, and the barbarous routine of the judicial 
 world, was sure to meet with persecution. Besides, Beccaria, 
 though quick in thought, was exceedingly slow and indolent, 
 when trying to give it shape and expression. Verri acted upon 
 his mind with all the interest of friendship, and the energy of 
 Ids own resolute nature. The book — " On Crimes and Punish- 
 ments" — was written in his rooms, and he used to transcribe, 
 every evening, the blotted sheets left there by the -vTOter, in order 
 to present them, the day after, in a clear form to his friend, 
 that he might be pleased ivith his own thoughts, and take cour- 
 age to persevere in his generous undertaking. Thus, in about 
 ten months the book was completed, and published at Leghorn, 
 under a fictitious date, in the year 176-1, when Beccaria was 
 iiiily 26 years old. The little anonjmious volume, which scarcely 
 exceeded in bulk a hundred pages of an octavo edition, acquired 
 a world-wide fame, being repeatedly translated into French, Ger- 
 man, Dutch, English, Spanish, and subsequently into Russian and 
 niodfrn Greek. Up to the end of the last century more than fifty 
 <'ditions of it were published. Voltaire made comments on it. 
 Lord Mansfield never mentioned the name of Beccaria with- 
 out some mark of respect ; and from many a scientific circle medals 
 and homages were tributed to the great vindicator of penal justice. 
 Catherine of Russia offered him employment, which he declined, 
 and the Encyclopedists invited him to Paris, where he was 
 received with ovations, which he soon grew weary of, and sought 
 to escape by hastening his return to his native country. Let us 
 now take a survey of the doctrines which were the cause of so 
 universal a success. — The chief merit of Beccaria is, that he 
 applied plain common sense and jiractical reasoning to a branch 
 of legislation, wliich h.ad until then been monopolized by blind 
 prejudice. Montesquieu and others had hinted at, ratlier tjian 
 fxpl.iined the sulyeet. Beccaria unfolded it into a rational sys- 
 ti'ni of observation and demonstration. He established the right 
 of punishing on the unfailing principle of social defence and pub- 
 lic morality, deducing from it, with mathematical precision, the 
 whole theory of the nature and application of punishments. 
 " Evei-y punishment," he says, " winch exceeds tlie measure 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 requu-ed by the preservation of public safety, is simply unjust." 
 (Sec. ii.) We must here note, in a cursoiy way, that when Bec- 
 caria endeavours, at the very outset, to trace the origin of penal 
 right, his judgment is influenced by the errors of his age. His 
 speculations on the principle of right, his protopolidcs, if we may 
 say so, are as false, as his practical policy is sound. The French 
 idea of a contrat social, considered as the arbitrary work of man, 
 leads him to conceive social institutions as the result of mere 
 utilitarian limitations to indi\ddual freedom. But we must also 
 acknowledge, to the honour of the Italian writer, that his feelings 
 are superior to the philosophy of his teachers. In spite of his 
 utilitarian point of view, he shows himself an earnest advocate 
 of morality and duty, whenever the two principles clash against 
 one another. Thus he condemns impunity (Sec. xiv.) and pecu- 
 niary rewards (Sec. xxii.), offered for the discoveiy of criminals, 
 as thoroughly immoral. Nor do we think the arguments, wliich 
 Bentham opposed to Beccaria's views on the matter, have any 
 weight soever, for the utility of punishing a criminal, cannot 
 counterbalance the lasting mischief of a demoralizing legislation. 
 Owing to his doctrine, that the infallibility of the penal sanction 
 is of far greater importance than its ferocity (Sec. xx.), he strongly 
 reproves, on the one side, every sort of penal immunities (^asi/i, 
 Sec. xxi.), and the power of forgiveness (gi-azia. Sec. xx.), in the 
 sovereign, whilst, on the other, he demonstrates the uselessness 
 of exaggerated severity in the legislator, and the mischievous 
 effects of a penalty sm-passing the hmits of justice. Eveiy excess 
 in the degi-ee of punishment is against the social end of penal 
 law ; it is a legal crime added to the crime which it assumes to 
 check. Thence his theory against capital punishment. As 
 regards the question of abstract right, his argument is defective, 
 for it is grounded on the assumption that social justice results 
 from the cession of a certain amount of individual rights. — Man, 
 he says, has not the right to deprive himself of his own life, 
 therefore society can have no right over it either. — We thiidc the 
 moral sanction against legal homicide is formded on far surer 
 and higher grounds ; but Beccaria felt in his heart that which 
 his mind was unable fully to bear out by reasoning ; and if his 
 abstract theory is below the standard of the subject, his practical 
 considerations on the uselessness of capital punishment have not 
 yet been sui-passed by any more con\dncing argument. He 
 eloquently maintains that in a well- organized state of society, 
 death is neither necessary, with respect to the danger which may 
 proceed from the offender's surviving his crime, or salutary in the 
 effect it may produce on others. Far from controlling evil passions, 
 it promotes ferocity in the people, as is the case with all bloody 
 spectacles ; and it encourages, through the example of tlie law, 
 those murderous tendencies which it was intended to extii-pate 
 from the heart of man. The whole experience of history is a 
 confirmation of these truths and the conscience of mankind 
 recognizes their justice. But inveterate prejudice is stronger than 
 truth and conscience, and the abolition of capital punishment will 
 yet for a long tune remain a desideratum, of moral philosophy. 
 Such are Beccaria's thoughts on this important question. (Sec. xvi.) 
 Of a more immediate efficacy, were his remarks on the rational 
 means of acquiring conviction, and pronouncing the verdiet in 
 criminal trials. All that he says in this section of his work is 
 founded on irrefutable principles, and has opened the way to all 
 modern treatises on penal jurisprudence. Wresting from the 
 judge and the executor of the law all arbitrary power, he de- 
 manded the trial by jury (Sec. iii.), and insisted upon the exclusion 
 of every magistrate, but the legislator himself, from the right of 
 interpreting the laws, or modifying them in their application. 
 (Sec. iv.) — The law must be imiversal ; no privileges are com- 
 patible with a healthy development of social happiness. — 
 Espionage, and secrecy in trials and punishments, are among 
 the principal causes of falsehood, mistiiist, and conniption. (Sec. 
 ix.) Suggestive interrogations, mental and physical tortures, 
 are to be altogether discarded as iniquitous .and absurd. " By 
 this method," he says, with cutting irony, speaking of physical 
 torture, " it were easier for a mathematician than for a juilge to 
 solve the following problem : — Given the strength of nmscle and 
 the sensibility of fibre in an innocent man, to find the degree 
 of pain that will make him plead guilty to a given crime." 
 — In the classification of crimes, many of his remarks are 
 true and forcibly expressed. He places high treason at the 
 summit of the criminal scale ; but he distinguishes an orderly 
 and free state of society, governed by its own laws, from the 
 condition of political slavery, and starting from a superior 
 
 3 L
 
 consideration of moral justice, he is far from condemning the 
 noble avenger of liberty, who rises to free his country from the 
 arbitrary will of a tyrant. (Sec. xxvi.) He points out the 
 iniquity of confiscation, as causing the penalty of the guilty to 
 weigh on the innocent (Sec. xvii.) ; and protests against every 
 penal sanction which creates, from either a pecuniary or any 
 other motive, an interest for the government and the magistracy, 
 in the condemnation of the accused. (Sec. xl.) Equally sound 
 are his ^^ews on the guarantees requii'ed in cases of arrest, on 
 the defence and treatment of the prisoner, as well as on his 
 moral amelioration. He closes liis work with an eloquent ex- 
 position of the influence of a free and rational legislation on the 
 moral character of the people, and of the power of education 
 and freedom as the best means of preventing criuunal actions. 
 AMiere the law is clear and just, equal for all, and not interfering 
 with the legitimate claims of individual and public freedom, men 
 feel themselves independent and responsible beings, society is 
 secure, and crimes become proportinnably less. 
 
 The work of Beccaria proved irrefutable. The usual attacks 
 of ignorance and fanaticism were not wanting, but they were 
 powerless, owing to the Uberal spirit of the European com-ts 
 in those days. One Father Facchinei, a monk bribed by the 
 degraded aristocracy of Venice, assailed our author with mqui- 
 sitorial rage. Pietro Verri gave a triumphant answer to the 
 ratings of the friar, and Beccaria was left unmolested. 
 
 Besides the work to which he owes his Em-opean fame, 
 Beccaria wrote on public economy, and, as a relaxation from his 
 harder labours, he composed a treatise on Style. The first thing 
 he fiublished on political economy, when still veiy young, was 
 an able essay, " On the Abuses of Coinage and their Remedies," 
 (Dei disordini e dei rimedi delle monete nello Stato di Jlilano, 
 1762,) in which he shows vrith much practical sense the in- 
 jmious effects of the debasement of coin. Another essay of 
 his on the advantages of unifomiity in measures, " Relazione 
 intorno alia riduzione delle misure di lunghezza all' uniformitii," 
 deserves special mention ; for in that paper he proposed a plan of 
 decimal division, analagous to that which has since been adopted 
 under the name of metrical system. We shall conclude with a 
 few words on his lectures on political economy, " Elementi di 
 Economia PubbHca," which were occasioned by his having been 
 appointed, in the year 17G9, to the professorship of that science 
 at Milan. It has been remarked with tnith, that in the historv 
 of poUtical economy, the Italian writers of the eighteenth century 
 represent an intermediate stage between the incomplete theory 
 of the French physiocrates, who asserted that the produce of 
 land was the sole source of the wealth of a nation, and the more 
 scientific doctrines of Adam Smith and his disciples. Serra, 
 Genovesi, Galliani, Bandini, and Verri, contributed each in his 
 turn to the store of observations and anahtical inquiiy, which 
 r;iised public economy to the rank of a science. Beccaria was 
 no indifferent member of that illustrious assembly. Though 
 professing to follow the principles of the agricultural system, he 
 often contradicts that theory in the practical results of his obser- 
 vations, and he somewhere distinctly states " that the wealth of 
 a country arises only from the labour of men." 
 
 JIany of the refonns, which Beccaria and his friends had 
 called for in their writings, were actuated by the wisdom of 
 those princes, who, in the second half of last century, aspired to 
 the glory of becoming the benefactors of then- people. Tuscanv, 
 Lombardy, and Naples, liberated, to a certain extent, from entails, 
 and feudal as well as ecclesiastical prinleges, were restored to 
 wealth and culture ; and Beccaria deseixedly holds a prominent 
 place among the educators and legislators of his comitry. It 
 was owing to the influence of his ideas, that Leopold of Loraine, 
 duke of Tuscany, refomied the penal code, and abolished capital 
 punishment in his states, as likewise through the ad\ice of 
 another Italian, Bandini, he adopted free trade. As regards the 
 private hfe of Beccaria, his biographers have recorded foibles of 
 character which bear evidence to the sad and oft-repeated fact, 
 that a man of superior intellect is but too often in contradiction 
 with the principles he professes, when his moral strength is found 
 defective. He is said to have been harsh to his inferiors, un- 
 steady in his domestic affections, and inclined to avarice ; nor 
 does he seem to have responded with adequate warmth to the 
 devoted friendship of Venn. The latter part of his life was 
 chiefly engaged in pubUc offices, and in his duties as professor. 
 lie died at Jlilan in the year 179-1, at the age of fifty-six. 
 
 The best sources of information conceniins Beccaria and his 
 
 wiitings, are Ugoni's work, Delia Letteratura Itahana nella 
 seconda meta del Secolo xxm., and the biographers in the Col- 
 lezione degli Economisti Itahani, by Custodi, and the Milanese 
 edition of 1821, Societii tipografica dei classici Italiani. — A. S., 0. 
 
 BECCARUZZI, FRA^•CEsco, bom at Comgliano in the Friuli. 
 A scholar of Pordenone, the rival of Titian (1481-1539), a great 
 flesh painter, and successful in portraiture, but wanting in ex- 
 pression and other necessary qualities. One of Beccaruzzi's 
 chief works is the story of St. Francis in a seraphic raptiu-e, 
 recei^-ing the impression of the five wounds of Christ, executed 
 for the Franciscan church of his native place. — W. T. 
 
 BECCOLD or BOCCOLD, Johx, better known as John of 
 Leydex, a fanatic of the Netherlands, whose twelvemonth's 
 royalty in the city of Munster fornis one of the strangest epi- 
 sodes in the history of the sixteenth century. He figured origin- 
 ally among the adherents of the celebrated anabaptist prophet, 
 John ilatthias, and was remarked even in that company for his 
 extraordinary eloquence and zeak In 1.533, he was one of two 
 disciples whom ]\latthias sent to ^Munster to proselytize the 
 people of that city. His success was maiwellous from the first. 
 In a short while, the frenzy which he had commimicated to a 
 select number of zealots, spread over the whole city, and nothing 
 was to be heard in the chmxhes, the streets, and the market-place, 
 but the frantic shouts of " the saints," among whom the lust of 
 spoiling the Lutherans and catholics, began to operate with 
 intoxicating effect. The magistrates were at length obliged to 
 resign their functions, and an anabaptist administration was con- 
 stituted, with ilatthias for chief, and Beccold for heutenant. 
 ilunster was now in a state of siege, the prince-bishop having 
 an-ived with numerous forces. In a sortie from the walls, 
 ilatthias perished, and John Beccold was proclaimed governor, a 
 title which, shortly afterwards, with some allusions to the raising 
 up of Saul, he exchanged for that of king. His new dignity he 
 wore without any of the embarrassment of a novice. He took to 
 himself a goodly number of wives, passed sentence of death, and 
 discharged other functions of royalty with gi-eat vivacity. MTien 
 he showed himself ui public, it was in a robe of purple and gold, 
 with a crown on his head and a sceptre in his hand. Arrayed 
 in that manner he executed justice in the market-place tliree 
 times a- week, performing the journey thither in a coach of 
 state, which, to the astonishment of the saints, who recollected 
 that their master was a prophet before he was called to be a king, 
 showed like a perambulating harem. The reign of King John 
 teiTninated ignominiously. Famine and disaffection thinned the 
 ranks of his fighting men, and at last the episcopal army 
 earned the city by stomi. He was cast into a dungeon in the 
 bishop's castle, and after a tedious confinement, executed with 
 horrible barbarities. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEC-CRESPIN, an ancient and illustrious family of Nor- 
 mandy. Gilbert, baron de Bec-Crespin, one of the founders 
 of the abbayc of Bee, lived about 1034. Guillaume V., 
 marshal of France in 1283, was one of the crusaders in 1269. 
 GuiLLAUME IX. distinguished himself under Charles VI. in the 
 English wars. Phillipe du Bec, archbishop of Rheims from 
 1594 till 1605, was present at the council of Trent. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEC-DE-LlfiVRE, an ancient family of Bretagne, whose 
 genealogy can be traced mth certainty to Pierre de Bec-de- 
 Lievre, lord of Bonexie, who hved in 1363. Among the mem- 
 bers of that family there were many remarkable personages, of 
 whom the first whose history has come down to us is Raoul, 
 lieutenant of Rennes, who was sent in 1489, by Anne of Bre- 
 tagne, as ambassador to the king of France. — G. M. 
 
 BECERRA, G.\SPAR, one of the gi-eat n-imes in Spanish art, 
 painter, sculptor, and architect, was bom at Baeza (Andalusia), 
 the birthplace of St. Ursula, in 1520. He went early to Rome, 
 and painted with Daniel de VolteiTa, Tibaldi, Vasari, and per- 
 haps Jlichel Angelo. After some anatomical studies, he returned 
 to Spain, became court sculptor and painter in ordinary to 
 Philip, and painted for him several chambers in the Madrid 
 Alcaza, in fresco. " Is this all you have done? " said the king to 
 him one day. He executed for the infanta Juana a high altar 
 of painted s.'ulptm-e, but his great work was his fissure of 
 the Virgin (Nut^tra Senora de la Soledad), for the convent of 
 the Jlinim Fathers at :Madrid. It was destroyed during the 
 French war, but Longfellow has immortalized the image by ver- 
 sifying the legend. Three times the mortified sculptor had 
 failed in his work, and the impatient Queen Isabella of the 
 1 Peace, threatened to employ two other hands. The Franciscans
 
 BEC 
 
 451 
 
 BEC 
 
 prayed for his sxiccess, and the desponding artist, one winter's 
 night that he fell asleep over his di\i^ings, heard a voice say, 
 "Awake, take the log burning before thee on the hearth, and 
 shape the wished-for image." He did so, and it grew into an 
 excellent work nnder his thoughtful chisel ; beauty, tenderness, 
 love, constancy, and resignation were on its features. He also 
 can'ed crucifixes, entombments, skeletons, and infant savioms, 
 for various churches. His finest works are a beautiful little St. 
 Sebastian at Burgos, and the high altar of the cathedral of 
 Astorga. His paintings are rare — there are none in the Escurial, 
 but one of a sibyl in the hermitage at St. Petersburg, and four 
 drawings in the LomTe. He sketched in red and black chalk, 
 and made cartoons of the full size for all he painted. Pacheco 
 and Bennudez rank him above Ben-eguete. — (See Stuing's 
 learned Annals of the Artists of Spain.) — W. T. 
 
 BECERRIL, Aloxso. his brother Francisco, and Cris- 
 tobal, the son of the latter, were celebrated silversmiths of 
 Cuenfa, who, working from 1528 to 1573 for the love of God, 
 bnilt up a gorgeous " Custodia " for the cathedral of their town. 
 It cost seventeen thousand ducats, and forty-five years' work, and 
 b a florid three-storied edifice, enriched with statues, veihng an 
 inner shrine of jewelled gold. In the war of Independence, Gen- 
 eral Caulaincourt, without respect for art or religion, broke it up 
 with a strong hand, and coined it into five-fi-anc pieces. — ^W. T. 
 
 BECHADA, Gregory, a poet, native of Limousin, author of 
 a poem entitled ''La Conquete de Jerusalem," that has not come 
 down to us. He is mentioned by Geoffry, abbe of Vigeois. 
 
 BECHAUD, Jean Pierre, a French general of brigade, 
 bom in 1770, was killed at the battle of Orthez in 1814. 
 
 BECHE, Sir Hexrt de la. See De la Beche. 
 
 BECHER, JoH.VN'x Joachim, the son of a German Lutheran 
 preacher, born at Speier in 1635, was compelled, after the early 
 death of his father, to support his family by teaching. He 
 nevertheless obtained an extraordinary knowledge of medicine, 
 chemistry, and physics ; and having gone over to the Roman 
 catholic refigion, apparently from interested motives, became 
 professor in Mayence, and afterwards physician to the prince- 
 archbishop. At a later period he removed to JIunich, where he 
 established a large laboratory at the expense of the Bavarian 
 government. Soon after this he made his appearance in Vienna, 
 vliere he seems to have been high in the favour of the minister 
 Zinsendorf, who procured for him the title of Hofrath, and a 
 ; List at the college of commerce. In this high position he drew 
 up plans for canying on manufactures on a grand scale, and 
 occupied himself with the establishment of an Austrian company 
 for trading with the East Indies. After a time, however, he 
 fell into some disgi-ace, and found it advisable to escape from 
 the imperial city under cloud of night. In 1662 he reached 
 Haarlem, where he resided for some time, and then removed to 
 England. Here he occupied himself -n-ith large mining opera- 
 tions, and died in 1682, not without some suspicions of his 
 having hastened his own end. During his successfid early 
 career, Becher appears to have had many enemies, and he was 
 accused, perhaps not without some justice, of quackery. He 
 has, however, rendered permanent service to chemisti-y, which 
 he first endeavoured to reduce to a scientific form. This is the 
 object of his most important work, entitled " Physica Subter- 
 •anea," first published at Frankfort in 1664, and of which 
 ~>-veral editions were subsequently brought out, one of them as 
 itely as 1742. He endeavoured to establish the existence of a 
 :undamental acid, of which all others are merely varieties. 
 Every metal, according to him, consists of an earthy matter 
 'ommon to all, of a combustible matter, and a peculiar mercurial 
 substance. When the metal is heated, so as to change its 
 external form, the mercurial substance is set free, and all that 
 remains is the metallic calx. This is the first germ of the 
 phlogistic theory of chemistry, which was subsequently so widely 
 disseminated by Stahl, and which was generally received until 
 the discovery of oxygen by Lavoisier. To Becher, with Boyle 
 in England and Lemery in France, is also due the praise of 
 ha^'ing cast off the mystical style and language which had been 
 adopted from the Arab writers by the alchemists. Besides the 
 one above-mentioned, Becher published numerous works upon a 
 variety of subjects ; thus we have — " Character pro notitia lin- 
 guarum Univcrsali," 1661 ; " ^Methodus didactica super Novum 
 Organum Philologicum," 1674; " ^letallurgia," 1661; " Insti- 
 tutiones Chemicce," 1662; "Parnassus Medicinalis," 1663; 
 " Experimeutum Ch)-micum Xovum," 1671 ; " Chymische 
 
 Gliickshafen," 1682; and "De nova temporis metiendi Ratione," 
 1680, published in London. A number of smaller memohs were 
 also published at Nuremberg in 1719. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BECHER, Siegfried, an Austrian statesman and political 
 economist, was bom in Bohemia in 1806. While professor of 
 geography and commercial history at Vienna, he attracted the 
 notice of Dobelhof, who appointed him secretary-general to the 
 ministry. He is the author of a number of statistical works. 
 
 BECHSTEIN, Johan-n Matthaus, a distinguished German 
 naturalist, was bom on the 11th July, 1757, at Waltershansen, 
 a small town in Saxe-Gotha, where his father exercised the 
 calling of a blacksmith and armourer. The young Bechstein 
 was brought up strictly enough in his father's house, but received 
 only an imperfect education in the school of his native town. 
 His father's love for the forest and field was soon communicated 
 to the child, and in his earliest years he knew no greater 
 pleasure than to spend his leisure hours in the forest, seeking 
 for remarkable natural objects, or shooting birds with a blowing 
 tube. In tliis way he soon became acquainted wth all the 
 treasures of natui'e which were to be met with within a circle 
 of several miles round his dwelling-place. At the gymnasium 
 at Gotha, to which he went in his fourteenth year, and at the 
 university of Jena, where he commenced his theological studies 
 in the year 1778, he still retained this love for nature, and 
 continued his devotion to field sports. In 1780 he left the 
 university, and in January, 1782, offered himself as a can- 
 didate for examination at Gotha. About the same time he 
 made the acquaintance of C. G. Salzmann, who had just esta- 
 blished his school at Schnepfenthal, an acquaintance that was 
 of the greatest importance to him. Salzmann was at the head 
 of one of the schools which had then just become popular in 
 Germany, and wliich, under the name of Philanthropins, were 
 expected to effect an entire change in the system of education. 
 Bechstein was appointed teacher of natural history and mathe- 
 matics in the new Philanthropin established by Salzmann, a 
 part of his duties consisting in teaching the elder pupils the use 
 of the gun. By Salzmann's advice, however, before entering 
 upon his duties, he made a tour to the original Philanthropin 
 which had been set np in Dessaa in 1774, and to a similar 
 institution in Leipzig, where he made himself acquainted with 
 the methods of insti-uction there pursued. On his return to his 
 native country he studied ornithology most energetically, observ- 
 ing the mode of fife, voice, flight, nests, migi-ations, and eggs of 
 birds, their food and manners, both when free and in captivity ; 
 but, neverthless, finding that the existing handboolcs were not 
 satisfactory, he prepared his o^Ti treatises on natural history 
 and mathematics for the school at Schnepfenthal, and these 
 subsequently fiirnished the foundations for several of his educa- 
 tional writings. At this time, also, he commenced his literary 
 labours, his first efforts consisting of communications to periodi- 
 cals, especially to the Boten aus Thuringen, published by Salz- 
 mann, in which he wrote all the articles on natural history and 
 agricultm-e. His first independent work was his " Geraeinniit- 
 zige Xaturgeschichte Deutschlands," of which the first volume 
 was published at Leipzig in 1789, and about the same time, in 
 conjunction with his colleague, Andi-e, he commenced the publi- 
 cation of a work under the title of " Gemeinniitzige Spaziergiinge 
 auf alle Tage im Jahre, fiir Eltem, Hofmeister, Jugendlehrer, 
 Erzieher," &c. These works were received with great favour ; 
 their author was elected a member of several scientific societies 
 in different parts of Germany, and received the most flattering 
 testimonies of appreciation from other quarters. The princess 
 of Lippe-Biickeburg, to whom he dedicated his wiitings, ap- 
 pointed him a councillor of mines. Encouraged by the high 
 estimation in which he was now held, Bechstein proceeded to 
 develope a plan which he had long cherished in his heart, that 
 of improving the sciences connected with the forest and the 
 chase, by the establishment of an independent educational insti- 
 tution. With this view he prepared a new theoretical and 
 practical plan of education, for an institute which might be 
 called a Forest Academy, and sent it in to the government at 
 Gotha. But the unsettled state of affairs at that time, together 
 with other unfavom-able circumstances, prevented any notice 
 being taken of it, and Bechstein accordingly detennined on 
 carrying out his plans with his own private resources. He 
 established his academy in a house with lands in the immediate 
 vicinity of Waltcrshausen, his native place ; the instructions 
 commenced in the sunmier of 1794, and in the spring of 1795,
 
 BEC 
 
 452 
 
 BEC 
 
 Bechstein quitted Salzmann's Philanthropin, and in May formally 
 opened his own institution. His wish to see this acquire the 
 difpiity of a regular academy of forest science was not gratified ; 
 although in 1796 the duke of Saxe-Gotha raised it into a public 
 educational institute, it never received any support from the 
 state, and in fact, so many hindrances stood in its way, that it 
 fell to the ground in 1799. Failing in this, his favourite 
 object, Bechstein established a society for the cultivation of 
 forest science, and this soon included numerous members. 
 Their memoirs were published in a journal called Diana, of 
 which the first volume appeared in 1797. Soon after the insti- 
 tution at Waltershauscn had been given up, Bechstein was 
 in\-ited to enter the service of George, duke of Saxe-Meiningcn, 
 with whom be was previously acquainted. The duke was 
 exceedingly desirous of establishing an educational institute for 
 forest science in his dominions, and for this pm^pose selected the 
 castle of Dreissigacker, where the institution was opened under 
 Bechstein's direction on the 12th May, 1801, and continued to 
 flourish until Bechstein's death on the 23rd February, 1822, 
 after which it gi*adually fell otf, and was finally extinguished in 
 1843. Bechstein's merits in the diffusion of natural history 
 were so great and so generally recognized, as to have obtained 
 for him the name of the German BufFon. His peculiar merit, 
 however, is in the foundation of the science of forestiy ; and the 
 numerous schools which have been established upon his model, 
 and the number of writers upon similar subjects who have fol- 
 lowed in his footsteps, show clearly enough how innportant a sub- 
 ject this is in Gennany. Besides his writings upon forestiy, Bech- 
 stein pubHshed various works upon different branches of natural 
 history, but principally on ornithology ; his " Natural History 
 of Cage Birds " being especially well known, from the numerous 
 editions and translations of it which have been published. He 
 also wrote a " Natural Histoiy of Insects," published at Nurem- 
 berg in 1793, and translated Latham's work on birds, and Pen- 
 nant's on quadrupeds, from the English — and Lacepede's Rep- 
 tiles, and de Vaillant's Natm'al History of African Birds, from 
 the French, into the German language. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BECHSTEIN, Ludavig, a Gennan poet and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in the duchy of Saxe-^Ieiningen, 24th Novem- 
 ber, 1801. He was bouud apprentice to a chemist, when, in 
 1829, the duke of Meiningen, whose notice he had attracted by 
 a volume of sonnets, gi-anted him the means of attending the 
 university of Leipzig. Two yeai's later he was appointed 
 librarian to the duke. Among his numerous works, his " Col- 
 lection of the Popular and Nursery Tales of Thuringia," in 4 
 vols., deserves to be first mentioned ; but his " IMarchenbuch," 
 his " Wanderings of a Musician," and a great number of his 
 poems, are not less deservedly popular. In 1831 he originated 
 the Hennebcrg Antiquarian Society. — K. E. 
 
 BECICHEMI, M.\Rixo, an Italian philologist, bom about 
 1468, at Scutari; died in 1526. He filled the chair of Latin 
 eloquence successively at Ragusa, Venice, Brescia and Padua. 
 His works are very scarce ; among them is " Castigationes ad 
 Ciceronis opus de Oratore." 
 
 BECK, Cave, an English theologian of the first half of the 
 seventeenth centur}', author of "The Universal Character by 
 which all Nations may understand one another's Conceptions, 
 reading out of one common writing theu: own tongues," 1657. 
 
 BECK, CiiniSTiAN Daniel, a German philologist and his- 
 torian, born at Leipzig, 22nd January, 1757; died there, Decem- 
 ber, 1832. In youth he exhibited great aptitude for the learned 
 languages, and at the age of sixteen, published a criticism on 
 the Hippolj'tus of Euripides. He studied in his native town, 
 and became successively professor of Greek and Latin, and direc- 
 tor of the Royal Philological GjTnnasium. In 1803, he was 
 made aulic councillor, and aftenvards received the Saxon order 
 of civil merit. His editions of Euripides, Aristophanes, Pindar, 
 Apollonius, and Calpumius, iind his admirable papers on arch- 
 aeological and historical subjects, mark him as a man of great 
 erudition, sagacity, and critical acumen. — K. E. 
 
 BECK, Jacob Christoph, a German historian and theolo- 
 gian, bom in 1711, was professor of theology in his native town 
 of Basle. He jmblished " De partibus orbis quas ante diluvium 
 Noachicum homines incoluisse vidcntur," 1739, and "Introduc- 
 tio in historiam patriam Helvetionim usque ad anmmfi 1743," 
 1744. Died in 1770. 
 
 BECK, James Sigismuxd, bora at Lissau, near Dantzic, 
 about 1761, and professor of philosophy successively at Halle 
 
 and Rostock. Distinguished as an expounder of Kant's philo- 
 sophy, which he reduces almost to absolute idealism. — J. D. E. 
 
 * BECK, Karl, a German poet, was born at Baja in 
 Hvmgar)', in 1817, whence with his father, a Jewish merchant, 
 he removed to Pesth. In 1837 he left his country, and settled 
 at Leipzig, where he commenced his literaiy career. Besides 
 several volumes of poctiy ("Niichte, Gepanzerte Lieder," 1838 ; 
 " Der Fahrende Poet ; " " Stille Lieder ;" " Lieder vom armen 
 Manne, &c."), he has published "Saul, a Tragedy," 1841, which, 
 however, proved abortive ; and " lanko der Ungarische Roo- 
 shut," 1842, a metrical romance, in which he has best developed 
 his poetical powers. His lyrics, in which he eagerly takes the 
 liberal side, are extravagant in thought and style, and therefore 
 enjoy no great popularity. — K. E. 
 
 * BECK, JoHAjjN LuDwiu Wii.HELM, a German jui-ist, 
 bom at Leipzig in 1786, was ajjpointed counsellor to the ap()eai 
 court of that city in 1835. He has published — "Corpus juris 
 Civilis," 1825-1836; "Das Executions Gesetz von 1838," &c., 
 " Bemcrkungen uber den Crlminalgerichtsstand in Sachsen." 
 
 BECKER or BAJERT-BECKER, Leonard Nicolas, 
 Comte de Mons, a French general, bom in 1770 ; died in 1840. 
 He distinguished himself in many campaigns, and in 1819 was 
 called to the chamber of peers, in which he sat until his death. 
 
 BECKER or BEKKER, Balthazar, bom at Metslawier in 
 West Friesland, a minister of the refoiTned church, was expelled 
 from that body for Cartesianism, and for denying demoniacal pos- 
 session. He also incun'cd persecution by publishing a work en- 
 titled "The World Enchanted," intended to allay the fears created 
 by the comet of 1680.— J. D. E. 
 
 BECKER, C.\rl Joh. von, a Swedish poet of the old 
 school. His best writing is in his prize poems. He died 1831. 
 
 BECKER, Ferdin.\nd, a German divine, born at Greven- 
 stein in the duchy of Westphalia, in 1740. He was cui-ate and 
 afterwards canon of a district of Paderbom. Devoting his 
 leisure to the secular education of his parishioners, he encoun- 
 tered the bigoted opposition of his bishop, by whom he was 
 suspended from his clerical functions, imprisoned, and excom- 
 municated. Besides some educational works, among which may 
 be noticed " Synchronic Tables of Histoiy from the earliest 
 times to the time of Christ," he published " History of my 
 Imprisonment in the Convent of Paderbom." — J. S., G. 
 
 * BECKER, Jon.\NN Phillip, a Gennan, born at Franken- 
 thal of an artisan family in 1809, was himself a tradesman till 
 the revolutionary year, 1830, when he became connected with a 
 joumal devoted to the advocacy of republican opinions. He has 
 since taken part in most of the revolutionaiy schemes which have 
 been agitated in Gennany during the last twenty years, distin- 
 guishing himself equally as an advocate and a soldier of liberty. 
 
 BECKER, Karl Ferdinand, a distinguished German gram- 
 marian, was bom at Liscr, in the then electorate of Treves, 
 1775, and died at Offenbach, 5th September, 1849. Having 
 been educated at Paderborn and Hildesheim, he successively 
 became a teacher, a distmguished physician, and a pedagogue 
 and keeper of a school. In his numerous works on Gennan 
 grammar he exclusively considers the -language as a logical 
 structure, and consequently his doctrines, though highly ingeni- 
 ous, are not always in accordance with the established results of 
 historical and comparative philology. For the same reason the 
 adaptation of his theory to the Greek and Latin languages, as 
 attempted by Raphael Kiihner and Hermann Weissenbom, did 
 not prove successful. His principal works are — " Aiisfiihrliche 
 Deutsche Grammatik," "Das ^\'ort in seiner Organischen Bedeu- 
 tung," and " Organismus der Deutschen Sprache." — K. E. 
 
 BECKER, Karl Friedrich, author of the celebrated "Welt- 
 geschichte fiir Kinder und Kinderlehrer," 1801-1805, 9 vols., 
 was born at Berlin, 1777, and died 15th March, 1806. His 
 work was continued by Woltmann, Iklenzel, and Loebell, and 
 stiU enjoys a great and well-deserved popularity. — K- E. 
 
 BECKER, Rudolf Zacharias, a German popular writer, 
 was bom at Erfmt, 9th April, 1752, and died at Gotha, 28th 
 March, 1822. In 1783 he settled at Gotha, where he after- 
 wards established a publishing business. More than thirty 
 years he was successfully engaged in teaching and improving 
 the people by his writings, of which the "Noth und Hiilfsbiich- 
 lein Oder lehireiche Freuden und Trauergeschichte des Dorfes 
 Mildheim," 1787-98, 2 vols.; and the " Mildheimische Lieder- 
 buch," 1799, will always be remembered with the highest 
 praise. Of the former upwards of one miUinn of C02)ies were
 
 sold in the space of twenty-five years. He also founded and 
 edited several popular periodicals, as the Deutsche Zeitung, the 
 Reichsanseiger, which, sifter the dissolution of the German empire, 
 •was continued until 1850 under the title AUgemeiner Anzciger 
 der Deutschen ; and the Xationaheitvng der Deutschen. From 
 November, 1811, till April, 1813, he was kept a prisoner by the 
 French in the fortress of Magdeburg. — K. E. 
 
 BECKER, NicoLAUS, was born at Geileuldi-chen, near 
 Aachen, 1816, and died 28th August, 1845. Linng in ob- 
 scurity as private secretary to an advocate in his native town, 
 he obtained, in 1840, a sudden celebrity by his "Rheinlied" (Sie 
 soUen ihn nicht haben, &c.), in which he happily expressed the 
 general feeling of the Gennan people, in answer to the warlike 
 preparations and hankerings of the French. Upwards of 70 
 compositions of it appeared in the short space of a few weeks ; 
 but none of them powerful enough to be universally adopted. 
 In almost every town the "Eheinlied" was sung by lai-ge crowds 
 that night after night assembled in the streets. The kings of 
 Prussia and Bavaria, perhaps more from political than literary 
 motives, Uberally rewarded and patronized the unpretending 
 young poet, and Alfred de Musset sent him a reply in his song 
 — " Nous Tavons eu votre Rhin Allemand." In the following 
 year Becker published a volume of lyrics, which, however, 
 proved their author to be possessed of a veiy indifferent poetic 
 facultv, and, Uke himself, soon sank into oblinon. — K. E. 
 
 BECKER, WiLHELM Gottlieb, a German miscellaneous 
 writer and antiquarian, was bom at Oberkallenberg in Saxony, 
 4th November, 1753, and died at Dresden, 3rd Jime, 1813. 
 In 1795 he was appointed keeper of the antiquities and coins, 
 and, in 1805, of the Grone Gewiilbe at Dresden. For twenty- 
 one years he was editor of the Taschenhuch zum GeselUgen 
 Vergniigen, and of the Erholungen, a well conducted and highly 
 popular quarterly. His principal work, however, is the "Augus- 
 tenm," in 2 vols., an excellent description of the Dresden anti- 
 quities, with 162 plates. — K. E. 
 
 BECKER, WiLHELii Adolf, son of the former, a distin- 
 guished archfeologist, was bom at Dresden in 1796, and died at 
 Meissen, 30th September, 1846. Since 1842 he filled the chair 
 of archeology in the university of Leipzig. His principal 
 works, " Gallus, oder Eomische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts," 
 " Charikles, oder Bilder griechischer Sitte," and his " Handbook 
 of Roman Antiquities" (continued after his death by Professor 
 Marquardt), have been translated into English. — K. E. 
 
 BECKERATH, Hermann de, a Prassian statesman and 
 financier, bom at Crefeld in December, 1801. In 1843 he was 
 elected to represent in the diet the province of the Rhine. At 
 the diet of 1845 he was appointed to draw up the address of the 
 states to the king, on the important subject of the general repre- 
 sentation of the countr}-. He occupied an equally prominent 
 position in the first general diet of 1847. After the events of 
 March, 1848, he was intrasted with the portfolio of finance in 
 the ministry of the empire. After the imperial election in the 
 month of April, 1849, he was sent to Berlin to ascertain the 
 opinion of the Prussian government on the position of afFmrs at 
 that juncture. He soon after separated from his political friends, 
 who were inclined to the adoption of measures which he deemed 
 revolutionary, and resigned his office as minister of finance. As 
 a statesman, he has been compared to Casmir Perier. He was, 
 what would be called in Britain, a hberal conservative. — G. !M. 
 
 BECKET, Isaac, a mezzotint engraver, born in Kent in 1653. 
 He was a calico-printer, who was taken with a passion for the 
 new art, and associated himself with a man who had learned the 
 secret, but could not make use of it. He afterwards leagued 
 himself with Lutterel, and married a woman of fortune. Lut- 
 tercl drew, and he finished. One of Becket's best prints, Walpole 
 says, is one of a Lady WilUams. He engraved likenesses of 
 Charles II., and many of his duchesses. — W. T. 
 
 BECKET, Thomas a', the gi-eat opponent of Henry II., in 
 the struggle between the civil and ecclesiastical power, so fiimous 
 in the annals of his reign. He was bom in London in the year 
 1117, and was of Sa.Kon lineage, the first, indeed, of the vanquished 
 race who rose to any position of eminence in England under the 
 Norman rulers. He received a liberal education at Oxford, and 
 at several of the continental universities, being enabled to pro- 
 secute his studies abroad, through the kindness of his patron, 
 Theobald, archbishop of Canterbuiy, who had secured to him 
 several prefennents and offices. On his return to England, he 
 was raised by the piiiuate to the archdeaconrj' of Canterbury, 
 
 and was afterwards sent to Rome on some business connected 
 with the see. The manner in which he conducted his negotia- 
 tions there, gave proof of his great ability. He was successful in 
 having the legatine power restored to Canterbury ; and the fact 
 that he procured from the pope the letters which defeated the 
 project for the crowning of Eustace, Stephen's son, recom- 
 mended him powerfully to Henrj- II., whose accession he thus 
 assisted. That prince soon raised him to the dignity of lord 
 high chancellor, and placed him in various positions, from which 
 he derived great wealth. He gave him the rich baronies of Eye 
 and Berkham, and intrasted him with the education of the 
 young prince Henry, the heir-apparent to the throne. Nor was 
 Becket's style of living unworthy of these high dignities ; he had 
 a retinue only second to that of his master, was distinguished 
 for the sumptuousness of his furniture and the luxury of his 
 table, at which the highest nobles of the land were proud to sit, 
 and at which the royal Henry himself sometimes deigned to 
 appear. Though a churchman in deacon's orders, he joined 
 freely in the gav amusements and warlike occupations of the 
 age, kept a magnificent stud for hunting, and on several occa- 
 sions, at Toulouse and on the borders of Normandy, he distin- 
 guished himself in military action. 
 
 ileanwhile Theobald died, leaving the see of Canterbury 
 vacant. It had been for a good while a principal object of 
 Henry's policy to diminish and fix within reasonable bounds the 
 power of the church, which had grown to such an alarming 
 extent, and which now, throughout the countries of Europe, 
 threatened the subversion of the royal power. As Becket had 
 shown a ^villingness to aid in that design, and as every con- 
 fidence could be placed in his high ability, the king immediately 
 took measures to insure his election to the vacant office. No 
 sooner, however, had he attained the archiepiscopal dignity, than 
 his demeanour and mode of life became changed ; the gay courtier 
 sought to win a name for pecuhar sanctity and humility. He 
 seemed detemiined to devote all his energies to his new office, 
 and at once, to the astonishment of the king, resigned his 
 chancellorship. This sudden change has, as might have been 
 expected, been variously mterpreted. The charge of hypocrisy 
 has, of course, been made, while the more charitable and not 
 impossible explanation has been given, that his mind became so 
 impressed with the sacred responsibilities of the office to which 
 he had been raised, that he sought to render himself more 
 worthy of it, and better fitted for the discharge of its duries. 
 Be this as it may, it is certain that the sagacity of no monarch 
 was ever more at fault than that of Henry, when he sought to 
 aid his schemes for diminishing ecclesiastical power by the eleva- 
 tion of Thomas Becket to the primacy of England. The arch- 
 bishop became the avowed champion of the clnurch ; nor did he 
 wait to stand only on the defensive, but sought at once to 
 overawe the king "by the boldness of his measures. It seems 
 not unlikely that the" grand motive which led to his stern oppo- 
 sition to the royal power, was his feeling as a Saxon. He 
 belonged to the conquered race. No one of that nation since 
 Harold fell, had ever before attained a dignity which mad^ 
 opposition effective. But here, at the head of the church, clad 
 in sacred vestments, with the thunders of ecclesiastical censure 
 in his hand, stood the Saxon Becket. Surely now, if ever, is 
 the time to humble the proud Norman king. His first step 
 was to order the earl of Clare to resign the barony of Tun- 
 bridge, which, though it had been the property of his house ever 
 since the Conquest, had fonnerly belonged to the see of Canter- 
 bury. He next passed sentence of excommunication on AVilliam 
 de Eyneford, because he had expelled from a living of which he 
 was patron, one Lawrence, whom Becket had placed there in 
 defiance of E^-neford's right. Eyneford complained to the king, 
 who ordered the archbishop to absolve him. He at first refused 
 to acknowledge the royal authority in such matters, and not till 
 after many remonstrances was he induced to coinjily. 
 
 Henry, though sadly disappointed in his schemes, was nothing 
 daunted, but saw in the opposition of one so gifted as his former 
 confidant, only another reason why the power of his order 
 shtiuld be curbed. Amid many minor questions, the great 
 ])oint of dispute was, whether the clergy should be subject to 
 the civil power in civil and criminal causes. Ecclesiastical 
 councils had decreed that they should not, and in consequence 
 the most flagrant crimes were committed by men in holy orders, 
 who were not subject to punishment by the magistrate, but 
 onlv to the censures of the church. Henry took his stand on
 
 the ancient laws and customs of the kingdom, and a case in 
 point having occurred, when Becket refused to deliver up to 
 punishment a clerk guilty of murder, the king summoned a 
 council of the nobility and prelates to be held at Clarendon, and 
 prevailed on them to pass the famous " Constitutions of Claren- 
 don," consisting of sixteen articles directed against the prevailing 
 abuses of ecclesiastical power. To these the primate alone 
 refused his assent, and it was only when he found himself 
 deserted even by liis own order, and saw that opposition would 
 be fniitless, that he at last took an oath to observe the Con- 
 stitutions, Pope Alexander III., however, refused to ratify the 
 articles, and Becket made this the pretext for at once with- 
 drawing his unwilling compliance. He professed to look upon 
 that oath as a grievous sin, in penance for which redoubled 
 austerities were necessary, and he even refused to exercise the 
 functions of his office till he had received the papal absolution. 
 Enraged at tliis conduct, the king instigated the mareschal of 
 the excliequer to sue Becket in the archiepiscopal court for some 
 lands, part of the manor of Pageham, and to appeal thence to 
 the king's court of justice. At this court the primate did not 
 appear, but sent four knights to plead his cause, and to give 
 sickness as an excuse for his absence. This was construed 
 into an affront, and at a council immediately summoned he was 
 condemned for contempt of the king's court, and his goods were 
 confiscated. But the king, determined ou his overthrow, fol- 
 lowed up this severe sentence with various demands for large 
 sums, which he asserted were due to him by Becket. These 
 were so ruinous and unreasonable, that the archbishop easily 
 discovered that his utter overthrow was contemplated, and so 
 refused to acknowledge the authority of the court by which he 
 was tried, appealed to the pope, and at last succeeded in escap- 
 ing from the countiy. He was welcomed by Philip of Flanders 
 and Lewis of France ; and Pope Alexander, who was then at 
 Sens, received liim with marks of distinction, at the same time 
 that he treated coldly au embassy sent by Henry to represent 
 his side of the quarrel. A retreat was provided for the exile 
 at Pontigny, were he lived in great magnificence. 
 
 Though Henry could wreak liis vengeance on the unfortunate 
 relatives and domestics of the absent prelate, by banishing them 
 from the kingdom, he found that all his ettbrts against Becket 
 himself were unavailing, so powerful was the support he received. 
 The king's own position became alarming, as the archbishop, 
 emboldened by that support, hurled the sentence of excommuni- 
 cation against his chief ministers, and all who had favoured the 
 Constitutions of Clarendon, and threatened to do the same to 
 their royal master unless he became penitent. This led the king 
 to desire a reconciliation, which, after many fruitless negotiations, 
 was at last effected, being largely in f ivom- of the churchman. 
 Everything, indeed, was conceded to him, the king receiving in 
 return only absolution for his excommunicated ministers, and the 
 averting of tlio threatened sentence from himself. The primate 
 returned to England, and re-entered Canterbury amid the accla- 
 mations of the people. But the last scene in this life-di'ama of 
 his had yet to begin. He was not content with the concession 
 he had forced the king to make ; for no sooner did he return, 
 than he proceeded to visit with ecclesiastical censure the arch- 
 bishop of York, and the bishops of London and Salisbury, who, 
 in his absence, had usurped the right which from time imme- 
 morial had belonged to the see of Canterbury, by officiating at 
 the coronation of the young prince Hemy. He also excommuni- 
 cated Robert de Broc and Nigel de Sackville, with many others 
 who had assisted at the soleuuiity. The prelates at once repaired 
 to the continent, and complained to the king of these violent 
 measures. It would appear that the news, suddenly told, and 
 entirely unexpected after the compromise so recently made, had 
 thrown the king into one of those violent fits of frenzy to which 
 the house of Plantagenet was subject, and he seems to have 
 uttered some such words as these — " Wliat sluggard wretches, 
 what cowards have I brouglit up in my court ! Not one will 
 deliver me from this low-born priest." The word once spoken can 
 never be revoked. That very hour four knights, Reginald Fitz- 
 urse, Hugh de Jloreville, William de Tracy, and Richard le Brez, 
 leave the court without tlic knowledge of the king, take different 
 routes to England, and meet within a few miles of Canterbury. 
 It was the evening of the 29th December, 1170, when the four 
 rough warriors entered the chamber of the archbishop. He was 
 but slenderly guarded, for though a warning letter had reached him 
 two days before apprising liim of danger, he scorned to appear 
 
 on the defensive. The intniders declared they had been sent 
 by the king to charge him with attempting to subvert the royal 
 power, and to demand the absolution of the bishops. He denied 
 the charge, and refused to comply with the demand. An alter- 
 cation ensued, which ended with bursts of passion on both sides. 
 The kniglits left the apartment, and raised the cry " To arms ! 
 to arms ! " " King's men ! king's men ! " All was confusion. 
 The attendants perceived the danger, and tried to persuade 
 Becket to take refuge within the sacred precincts of the chm-ch. 
 His proud spirit could not bear the appearance of fear, and it 
 was only on their representing to him that it was now the hour 
 for vespers, that he allowed himself to be led or rather dragged 
 into the cathedral. He had not yet reached the altar, but was 
 standing by a pillar in the transept, when the conspirators, 
 heedless of the sacrilege of entering the sacred building in 
 armour, rushed in, and attacked him. Among the various 
 accounts that have reached us, we find it difficult to realize the 
 scene exactly. It happened in the fast-fading light of a winter 
 evening, and amid the haze we can only see a confused struggle, 
 in which the archbishop, with these words on Iris hps, " For the 
 name of Jesus and the defence of the church I am willing to 
 die," fell dead and bleeding on the marble pavement, under the 
 blows of at least three of the conspirators. Scarcely was the 
 deed done, when, by the terrified ecclesiastics, and by the crowd 
 who flocked in, the murdered priest was named a martyr. The 
 monks who raised the body to prepare it for burial, discovered 
 that he whom they had always looked on with some jealousy as 
 scarcely one of their order, had been practising austerities to 
 which the most of them were strangers. At the sight of the 
 liaircloth which girt his body, and the lacerations caused by his 
 frequent scourgings, a shout of mingled joy and grief was raised. 
 The news spread abroad, pieces of their clothes were torn off by tlie 
 crowd, to be dipped in the blood of the saint, about wiiich stories of 
 mu-acles soon began to be told. Notwithstanding the prohibition 
 of Robert de Broc, who threatened to treat the body as that of 
 a traitor, the monks buried their master with great solemnity in 
 the crypt of the cathedral. When the news reached the king, 
 his consternation was great, for well did he know that the 
 daring deed of sacrilege caused by his rash words, would do 
 more to humble him before the church than all the talent and 
 determination of its late champion. He shut himself up, refus- 
 ing food for some days, and was only roused to action by the 
 necessity of taking steps to prevent full censure being visited on 
 him. In this he was successful ; absolution was granted, but 
 on terms that must have been humiliating in the extreme to so 
 haughty a prince. 
 
 Becket was canonized by Pope Alexander III., two years after 
 his murder. And amid the pilgrims who flocked in vast num- 
 bers to tlie shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury, he who professed 
 most humility and submitted to the most severe penance, was 
 king Heniy himself. The "Canterbury Pilgrims" have been 
 made immortal by the singer who ushered in the dawn of Eng- 
 lish poetiT- — J. B. 
 
 BECKFORD, William, born 1760; died 1844; was the 
 son of Alderman Beckford of London, to the chief part of whose 
 immense property, consisting jirincipally of estates in Jamaica, 
 and of the estate of Fontbill in Wiltsbire, he succeeded. In 1780 
 he printed a satirical essay, written a few years before, entitled 
 " Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters." It is an 
 amusing caricature of the language of connoisseurship. His 
 account of the origin of this book was, that the housekeeper at 
 Fontbill used to get a fee for exhibiting the house and pictures to 
 strangers. She knew nothing of the artists, and gave them such 
 names as she pleased, and dwelt to eveiy visitor on the excellen- 
 cies of each picture. The temptation to carry the joke further 
 was iiTesistible to a boy of seventeen or eighteen. This led to 
 Beckford's pamphlet, which, in its turn, became her text-book,, 
 and all its nonsense was devoutly believed by the squires in the 
 neighbourhood. Beckford \isited the continent in 1778, and called 
 on Voltaire at Ferney. He describes Voltau-e as a very dark-com- 
 plexioned, shrivelled, and thin man, hardly above the middle 
 height. In 1780 he again visited the continent, and spent a year 
 in rambling through Flanders, Germany, and Italy. In 1782 he 
 again visited Italy. In 1783 he manied lady Margaret Gordon, 
 daughter of Charles, earl of Aboyne. About this time he printed, 
 but did not publish, a work which is called " Dreams, W^aking 
 Thoughts, and Incidents, in a series of Letters from various parts 
 of Eiu-ope." In 1784 he sat in parliament as one of the mem-
 
 bers for Wells. In the same year lie published " Vathek," the 
 work by which he is most likely to be remembered. " Vathek " 
 is one of the few books written in French by an Englishman, in 
 which there is nothing to betray that the author is not a native of 
 France. The style seems formed from that of Voltaire and Count 
 Hamilton ; tliere are, however, passages in it of a higher order 
 of conception than we find in either. The description of the 
 Hall of Eblis is one of these. On its being said to Beckford that 
 nothing in eastern works of fiction was like it, he said that he 
 took it from the ball of old Fonthill, the largest probably in any 
 private house in England. " It was from that hall I worked, 
 magnifying and colouring it with eastern character. All the 
 female characters were portraits drawn from the domestic estab- 
 lishment of old Fonthill, their good or evil qualities ideally exag- 
 gerated to suit my purpose." " Vathek " was translated into 
 English immediately on its appearance, Beckford never knew by 
 whom, but he praised the translation. Beckford says he wrote 
 " Vathek," " as it now stands, at twenty-two years of age. It 
 took me three days and two nights of hard laboiir. I never took 
 off my clotlies the whole time." Beckford was, when a child, 
 fond of reading the Arabian Kights. In 1787 he visited Spain 
 and Portugal. In 1790 he sat in parliament for Hindon. In 
 1794 he went to reside near Cintra, where he remained for some 
 years, creating the "fairy paradise" commemorated in Childe 
 Harold. He then returned to England. In 1801 he sold, by 
 auction, the splendid fmniiture of Fonthill, and in the next year 
 the pictures. They were scarcely disposed of when he fonued a 
 new collection, and began sumptuous buildings at Fonthill, of 
 which the tower, two hundred and sixty feet high, most attracted 
 attention. In 1822 he sold Fonthill to Mr. Farquhar. The 
 tower soon after fell. Mr. Redding mentions in connection with 
 this a curious circumstance. It was supposed to have been 
 built on an arched foundation ; and Beckford said he had paid 
 the architect nearly twenty thousand pounds for his part of the 
 < irk. One of the persons employed in the building found himself 
 lying, and in a feeling of remorse, sent for Beckford to com- 
 municate the fact that there w^as no arch. " It is built on the 
 >:md, and will some day fall down." Beckford communicated 
 this to Jlr. Farquhar, who replied, that it would last his time. 
 It fell soon afterwards. After the sale of Fonthill, Beckford 
 removed to Bath, and on Lansdowne hill, to the north of the 
 ity, erected another "paradise." Here, too, was a mysterious 
 ' 'wer, but not more than a hundred feet high. It was crowned 
 ^ ith a model of the temple of Lysicrates at Athens, made of 
 ast-iron. Under this was a square room, on each side of which 
 wore three arched windows of plate-glass. In the entrance-hall 
 was a pillar-table of Sienna marble, on which were Etruscan 
 vases of the oldest class. Everpvhere were paintings and 
 sculptm-es of the great artists, and every^vhere articles of vertu, 
 whicli appeared to have no other value than that they could not 
 be brought together without a vast expenditure of money. 
 Carpeted stans led to the summit, which commanded one of the 
 iinest views in England. Through grounds, in parts of which 
 ill appearance of art was carefully concealed, and in others 
 .uixiously exhibited, you were at times in what seemed to be 
 the wilderness, at times among temples and statues, till you came 
 to the residence of the magician himself — " two large houses 
 joined together, to which was added a gallery thrown over an 
 archway, constituting the prolongation of a magnificent libraiy." 
 About eleven years before Beckford's death, Jlr. Redding, who 
 ^\'as then living in the neighbourhood, visited him, and has given 
 an amusing account of the adventure. After he had passed 
 the tower, the gardens with then- statues, an entrance in the 
 southern wall led to a road at the back of Lansdowne Crescent. 
 The enchantment seemed still to continue, for, as in romances 
 of old, a swarthy-coloured dwarf opened the door of the house. 
 The visitor looked round, but the attendants who had hitherto 
 accompanied him were gone — the dwarf, too, had vanished. A 
 servant announced his name and retired. The author of "Vathek" 
 was sitting before a table covered with books and engravings. 
 He was seventy-four, but looked much younger. He was a man 
 of slender and delicate frame, dressed in a green coat, buff- 
 coloured waistcoat, and breeches of the same colour as his coat ; 
 brown top-boots, the cotton stockings appearing just over them 
 — no outlandish magician this, as the people of Bath would 
 represent him, but " a fine old EngHsh gentleman, all of the 
 olden time." " His eyes were small, acute, and grey, but 
 expressive." His appearance spoke of health, and lill; for the 
 
 most part passed in the open air. Beckford lived much alone, 
 and kept up no society with the people of Bath, who were ready 
 to believe any story about him, however monstrously improbal)le. 
 Redding, who is more charitable, tells some which it is not easy 
 to believe. Beckford's coachman found an opportunity of diiving 
 his wife to visit a friend of hers in his master's carriage. This 
 was punished by Beckford's hiring a footman, whom he dressed 
 out in a fantastic livery, and who he insisted should attend 
 them. This went on for months, till he thought the offence 
 sufficiently punished by the ridicule it occasioned. A steward 
 complained of the upholsterer who famished Fonthill having 
 stuffed the beds with quills instead of feathers. Beckford sub- 
 jected him to the ridicule of his fellow-sen\ants by ordering a 
 down bed for him. These are like the stories which used to be 
 told of Swift. Beckford, who enjoyed good health, never left a 
 moment of his time unemployed, and never loiew what ennui 
 meant. Besides more serious studies, he read many modem 
 novels. " He bought Gibbon's library at Lausanne — above six 
 thousand volumes — to amuse himself when he passed that way. 
 He nearly read himself blind there, and never used the libraiy 
 afterwards, but gave it to his physician, Dr. Scholl." In 1834 
 Mr. Beckford was led by some references to bis manuscript in 
 the notes to Rogers's Italy, to publish an account of his \'isit to 
 Italy in 1780, and, just fifty years after "Vathek," appeared 
 " Italy, wth Sketches of Spain and Portugal," 2 vols. 8vo. In 
 1835 he printed " Recollections of a Tour in Portugal, made in 
 the year 179-1." He also reprinted his "Memoirs of Extraor- 
 dinary Painters." Mr. Redding has published in the Netn 
 Monthly Mwjazine, and more lately in his Fifty Years' Recol- 
 lections, veiy interesting accounts of his interviews v^ith him 
 when he resided in the neighbourhood of Bath. — J. A., D. 
 
 BECKHER, Daniel, a Gemian physician, bom at Dantzic 
 in 1594, became professor at Konigsberg, where he died in 
 1655. He published several medical works, of which the prin- 
 cipal, entitled " Jledicus microcosmicus, sen spargiria microcosmi," 
 &c., Rostock, 1622, passed through three editions. His other 
 writings are — " Anatome infimi ventris," Konigsberg, 1634; 
 " Historia morbi Academici Regiomontani," 1649; " Commen- 
 tarius de Theriaca," 1649; " De cidtrivoro Pnissiaco observatio 
 et curatio singularis," Konigsberg, 1636, which contains a curi- 
 ous account of a knife being swallowed by a young man, and 
 successfully extracted through an incision in the stomach ; and 
 a treatise on the power of sympathy, " De unguento armario," 
 published at Nuremberg in 1662. — W. S. D. 
 
 BECKIXGTON, Tiiojias, an English prelate, bom about 
 1385, in the parish of Bcckington in Somersetshire, was edu- 
 cated at Wykeham's school, near Winchester, and at Oxford. 
 He entered the university in 1403, became doctor of laws, and 
 held a fellowship about twelve years. In 1429, he was dean 
 of the coiu-t of arches, and m the same year was appointed to 
 draw up a formulary, according to which the Wicklitfites were 
 to be proceeded against. Henry VI., to whom he had been 
 tutor, and for whose gratification he wrote a defence of the 
 rights of the kings of England to the crown of France, mad(! 
 him secretary of state, keeper of the privy seal, and bishop of 
 Bath and Wells. He was so well reputed as a patron of inge- 
 nious and learned men, as to be called the Maecenas of his age. 
 His contributions to the church were numerous and munificent. 
 He died at his palace of Wells in 1405. The Cottonian library 
 possesses a copy of his work " On the rights of the kings of 
 England to the crown of France," and a collection of his letters 
 is preserved at Lambeth. — -J. S., G. 
 
 BECKMANN, Johann, a learned Geraian naturalist, agri- 
 culturist, and technologist, the first founder of a scientific system 
 of agriculture, was bom in 1739 at lloya in Hanover. In 1759 
 he went to study at Gottingen, left that university in 1762 to 
 make a scientific tour through the Netherlands, and in 1763 
 became teacher of mathematics, physics, and natural history at 
 St. Petersburg. On giving up this appointment, he travelled in 
 1765 and 176(» through Sweden and Denmark, and returning to 
 Germany, obtained an extraordinary professorship of philosophy at 
 Gottingen. In 1770 he was appointed professor of rural economy 
 at the same place. His lectures extended to agricultural and 
 technological niinerahjgy, agriculture, technology, manufactures, 
 commerce, policy, and finance, and from their excellence con- 
 tributed not a little to the esteem in which the schools of Got- 
 tingen were held. To sei-ve him as guides in this extensive 
 com-se of instroction, he wrote treatises upon the various sub-
 
 jects above-mentioned, which in many cases may be regarded as 
 furnishing then- first practical reduction into a scientific form. 
 After occupying the position of a professor at GiJttingen for the 
 long period of forty-five years, and becoming a member of almost 
 all the German learned societies, and of many of those in other 
 countries, Beckinann died on the 3rd FebiTiary, 1811, deeply 
 regretted by a vast number of friends and pupils. The published 
 writings of Beckmann are very numerous, and relate to almost 
 every branch of practical science. He is best known, perhaps, 
 especially in this countiy, by his " Contributions towards a His- 
 toiy of inventions," in which he has taken up the most various 
 subjects, and investigating them from the earliest periods at 
 which any record of them can be found, has traced them down 
 to his own day. His " Histoiy of the Earliest Voyages made in 
 Modem Times " is another interesting and valuable work. 
 Besides these, he published some elementary works on natural 
 histoiy, and papers on various subjects in the Transactions of 
 the Royal Society of Gottingen, and we are also indebted to his 
 literary labours for editions of the work, De mirabilibus Auscul- 
 tationibus, attributed to Aristotle, 1786; of the Wonderful His- 
 tories of Antigonus Carvstius, 1791 ; and of the Treatise on 
 Stones of Marbodius, 1799.— W. S. D. 
 
 BECKMAN, Sir Maktix. an engraver of Charles II.'s time, 
 the age that let Hollar almost stan-e. He was probably of Ger- 
 man or Dutch descent. He painted various scenes with ships, 
 and Sheemcss and Tilbury forts. — W. T. 
 
 BECKWITH, Sir George, an English general, bom in 
 1753; died at London, 20th Jlarch, 1823. He entered the 
 army in 1771, and was first employed in the American war. He 
 was successively governor of Bermuda, St. Vincent, and Barba- 
 does. In 1809 he took Jlartinique from the French, and received 
 in recompense the thanks of the House of Commons, and the 
 honour of knight of the Bath. In 1810 he captured Guada- 
 loupe, and soon after retumed to Barbadoes, where lie continued 
 to exercise the functions of governor until 181-1, when he resigned 
 in consequence of ill health. From 1816 to 1820 he had the 
 command of the troops in Ireland. He then retumed to Eng- 
 land, where lie continued to reside until his death. — G. M. 
 
 BECLARD, Pierre Augtstix, a distinguished French 
 anatomist, born at Angers in 1785, and died at Paris on tlie 17th 
 March, 1825. He was first apprenticed to an ironmonger, and 
 was aftenvards employed in the department of public conveyance. 
 At last, however, he succeeded in obtaining a position as student 
 of medicine in the secondary school of Angers. Here he studied 
 for four years, and having made great progi-ess, he went to Paris 
 in 1808. Here he attached himself to La Charite, obtained his 
 degree of doctor of surgerj', and was appointed successively 
 prosector to the faculty, and head of the anatomical depart- 
 ment. In 1818 he was appointed professor of anatomy in the 
 Ecole de Medicine. In this position he was one of the most 
 successful teachers of anatomy. His knowledge of the anatomy 
 of the body was most minute, his judgment sound, his memoiy 
 extensive, and his powers of expressing himself coiTectly very 
 gi"eat. He died of a cerebral fever, at the early age of forty. 
 He was universally lamented, and his coffin was borne to its last 
 resting-place, upon the arms of his pupils. He was a worthy 
 follower of Bichat, and published an edition of that great man's 
 work on general anatomy. In 1823 he published a work of his 
 own, entitled " Elements of General Anatomy." Although 
 favourably kno-mi before, this work gi-eatly extended his reputa- 
 tion. He wrote the articles on anatomy in the first twelve 
 volumes of the Dictlonnaire de Jledicine. — E. L. 
 
 BECCEUR, C, a historical and portrait painter, born at Paris, 
 1807 ; studied under Le Thiure. — W. T. 
 
 BECON, TiioM.vs, D.D., one of the most active restorers of 
 the church of England ; was bom, probably in Norfolk, in the 
 year 1511 or 1512. At the age of sixteen he entered St. 
 John's college, Cambridge, where he took the degi-ee of B.A. in 
 1530. The dates of his other degrees are not known. AMiile 
 at Cambridge he was a frequent hearer of Bishop Latimer, and 
 to his teaching he ascribes all his knowledge of God, and of 
 true religion. He was ordained about 1538, and became vicar 
 of Brensett, near Romney, Kent, wliere he published several 
 works under the assumed name of Theodore Basil. He did not, 
 however, escape, in those days of persecution, the name of 
 lieretic, but was compelled to retract his doctrines at Paul's 
 Cross, and to bum his books publicly. He then retired into 
 Derbyshire, and supported himself for some time by tuition. On 
 
 the accession of Edward VI. he resumed his ministry, and was 
 made one of the six preachers at Canterbury, chaplain to the 
 Lord Protector Somerset, and to Aixhbishop Cranmer ; and, on 
 March 2-1, 1547, rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, London. 
 He also lectured on divinity during this reign in the university 
 of Oxford. In August, 1553, he was committed to the tower 
 by Queen Mary, where he remained till JIarch, 1554, when he 
 was ejected from his benefice, and fled for safety to Strasburg. 
 There he continued to wTite, and to encourage his suffering 
 brethren at home. At the death of Queen Jlaiy he retumed, 
 and was restored to his various offices ; and became, in succes- 
 sion, rector of Buckland, Herts ; \icar of Christ church, Newgate 
 Street, and of St. Dionis Backchurch, London ; and canon of 
 Canterbury. He appears to have been a veiy powerful and 
 favoiuite preacher. His numerous works, remarkable for the 
 quaintness of their titles, as well as their intrinsic value, are 
 published by the Parker Society, from which edition this notice 
 is chiefly derived. Selections from them, with a Life, are pub- 
 lished by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. There 
 are also notices of him in Lupton's History of Modern Protest- 
 ant Divines, London, 1637; in Bishop Tanner's Bibliotheca; 
 and in the British Reformers, published by the Religious Tract 
 Society in 1828-31. He had iive childi-en, one of whom, Theo- 
 dore, was educated at Cambridge, and befriended by Lord Bur- 
 leigh. He died at Canterbury in 1567 or 1570. — T. S. P. 
 
 * BECQUEREL, Alexandre Ed:moxd, second son of Acto- 
 ine Cesar, was bom at Paris in 1820. After completing his 
 studies in the normal and polytechnic schools of Paris, he became 
 assistant-professor in the museum of natural historj' ; and in 
 1853 was appointed to the chair of physics in the Consen'atoire 
 des Arts et iletiers. He has principally devoted his attention 
 to electricity, magnetism, and optics. As the result of some 
 experiments on the effects of magnets on liquids and gases, he 
 discovered that oxygen gas is a magnetic body, and was led to 
 conclude that the variations observed in the earth's magnetism 
 are due to the presence of that gas in the atmosphere. He 
 discovered in 1848, among other sensitive substances, a chloride 
 of silver capable of receiving and retaining impressions from 
 light. The solar spectram, acting on a siu-face suitably prepared, 
 was found to leave an impression of all its colours, and, in lilce 
 manner, a camera obscura an impression of its shadows. M. 
 Bccquerel has treated of the properties of these substances in a 
 number of interesting memoirs, in which he produces the theory 
 that several of them are only acted on by some rays of light after 
 they have been slightly impressed by others. In other memoirs 
 he has examined the development of electricity from chemical 
 actions produced by the influence of light ; and the scientLGc 
 world is indebted to him for the constiniction of an instmment 
 which serves to measure the action of light on bodies in the same 
 way as the theiTno-electric pUe the action of heat. — (iVoMP. 
 Blog. Gen.)— J. S., G. 
 
 * BECQUEREL, Antoine Cesar, a distinguished French 
 physician, professor of natural histoiy in the museum of Paris, 
 was bom in 1788 at ChatUlon-sur-Loue in the department of 
 Loiret. He was educated at the polytechnic school of Paris, and 
 entered the army as officer of engineers in 1810. In Spain, 
 where he served till 1812, he signalised himself at several sieges, 
 especially at that of Tarragona. In 1813 he retumed to France, 
 and for two years was ou the staff' of the etat-major-general of 
 the army; but in 1815 quitted the service with the grade of 
 chef de bataUlon, and commenced those elaborate reseai'chcs 
 in experimental science which have procured him celebrity. His 
 first publications related to geology and mineralogy; but the 
 phenomena of electricity soon absorbed his attention; and it is as 
 a discoverer in that branch of science that he particularly claims 
 our notice. While engaged in the study of the properties of 
 amber, he had occasion to make some experiments on the disen- 
 gagement of electricity by pressure, and this fonned the starting 
 point of his labours in physics. He applied himself afterwards 
 to the disengagement of electricity in aU chemical actions, and 
 to gi\ing the laws of the effects produced. These researches 
 led him to contradict the theory of contact with which A'olta 
 explained the effects of his pile, and to construct the fiist pile 
 with a constant cuirent. The discoveries that M. Becquerel has 
 made in this matter are to he found detailed in the Annales de 
 Physique et de Chimie, and in the Slemoires de I'Academie des 
 Sciences. During the twenty-three years that he has been a 
 member of the Institut he has read there upwards of a hundred 
 
 I
 
 papers, among wliicli may be noticed, " La Distribution du mag- 
 netisme libra dans les fils microscopiques de platine et d'acier ;" 
 " Les actions magnetiqiies ou actions analogues produites dans 
 tons les corps par I'influence de com-ants electriques tres-ener- 
 giques ;" " L'action de la force aimantee sm' tous les coi-ps ;" 
 " Les Phenomenes thcnno-electriques. " These interesting 
 researches were the occasion of his discovering a method of 
 determining the tcmperatm-e of the interior parts of the bodies of 
 men and animals without producing sensible lesion. He made 
 numerous physiological applications of this method, and demon- 
 strated that in the contraction of a muscle there is a disengage- 
 ment of heat. M. Becquerel was elected in 1829 a member of 
 the Academie des Sciences, an honour to which, as one of the 
 founders of electro-chemistr}-, he was amply entitled. He has 
 also been named member of the Royal Society of London, 
 who in 1837 awarded to liim Copley's medal. This last honour 
 was bestowed on Mm in considei-ation of his successful applica- 
 tion of the new science of electro-chemistry to the reproduction 
 of mineral substances, such as aluminium, silicium, glucium, the 
 metaUic sulphurs, &c. The object that he has had principally 
 in view as an electro-chemist, is to establish the relations of the 
 affinities of bodies and their electric forces, and to excite the 
 first by means of the second. Among his other labours may be 
 noticed his researches on the electrical conductibility of metals, 
 on galvanometers, on atmospherical electricity, on the electro- 
 magnetic balance, and on the employment of marine salt in 
 agriculture. He has published, besides the special memoirs above- 
 mentioned, " Traite de I'electricite et du magnetisme," 7 vols., 
 1834-40; " Tnut^ d' Electro-chimie ;" "Traite de Physique 
 consideree dans ses rapports avec la chimie et les sciences 
 natnrelles;" and "Des climats, et de I'influence des sols boises 
 et debois^s." — (^Xouv. Biog. Gen.') — J. S., G. 
 
 * BECQUEEEL, Louis Alfred, eldest son of Antoine 
 Cesar, was bom at Paris in 1814. He took his degrees in mede- 
 cine in 1841, was named chevalier of the legion of honour in 
 1845, and since 1851 has occupied the post of physician to the 
 hospital of St. Perrine. His piincipal productions are " Recherches 
 cliniques sur la meningite des enfants," 1835 ; " Semeiotique des 
 urines ou Traits des sigues foumis par les urines dans les 
 maladies," 1841; and "Traite du begaiement, et des moyens de 
 :.? guerir," 1844.— (.Vo!<y. Biog. Gen.)— 3. S., G. 
 
 BECRI-5IUSTAPHA, or Mitstapha the Drunkard, a 
 favourite of the Sultan Amnrath IV., whose companion he was 
 in his drunken revelries, lived in the &st half of the seventeenth 
 century. He was not destitute either of wisdom or courage, but 
 ' ecame one of the sultan's sagest coimsellors, and was distin- 
 _nished by his bravery at the sieges of Erivan and of Bagdad. He 
 'iied some years before his master. — G. JL 
 
 BECZKOWSKI, J. F., a Bohemian historian of high reputa- 
 tion, was bom at Deutschbrod in 1658. He was a man of great 
 industry ; and, amidst other engrossing occupations, collected 
 a vast amount of original materials for the continuation of 
 Hagek's histoiy. He also wrote some biographies, and left many 
 valuable manuscripts. He died early in the eighteenth century. 
 
 BEDA, commonly called the Venerable Bede, was bom 
 at a village near Sunderland, in that part of the kingdom of 
 Bemicia which now forms the county of Durham, in the year 
 ')73. Of his parents we know nothing beyond the fact, that 
 they were of humble station, '\\1ien only seven years old, Bede 
 was placed under the care of Benedict Biscop, abbot of St. 
 Peter's monastery at Wearmouth. This, and the neighbouring 
 monastery of St. Paul's at Jan-ow, near the Tyne, had been 
 recently founded by Benedict Biscop, and endowed, among other 
 things, ^rith a large collection of books which he had brought 
 from Italy and other countries. Shortly afterwards Bede was 
 removed to .larrow, and placed under the care of Abbot Ceolfrid, 
 a man of great learning and piety. From this time till his 
 death in 735 he remained an inmate of the same monastery, 
 seldom in fact going outside its walls. Writing in 731, he says 
 (after mentioning his being committed to the care of Ceolfrid 
 at Jan-ow), " Spending all the remaining time of my life in that 
 monastery, I wholly applied myself to the meditation of Scrip- 
 ture, and amidst the observance of regular discipline" (Jarrow 
 was a Benedictine house), " and the daily care of singing in the 
 church, always took delight in either learning, or teaching, or 
 miting." He was ordained deacon in 691 and priest in 702, 
 on each occasion by St. John of Beverley. After he was 
 ordained priest he began to devote himself to literarj- pursuits ; 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 in the first place copying out manuscripts, next ti-anslatlng and 
 collecting the comments of the fathers on the holy scriptures, 
 with additions of his own, and lastly, undertaking original compo- 
 sition. His uneventful life affords little scope for the office of the 
 biogi-apher ; yet could we fomi a distinct picture in the imagi- 
 nation of the manner in which the tranquil days of the Saxon 
 monk, divided between labour, prayer, and praise, passed away, 
 the spectacle would, perhaps, rivet our gaze not less than the 
 shining but stormy course of an Athanasius or a Hildebrand. 
 Let us conceive him, then, as rising to matins with the rest of 
 the brotherhood ; as then betaking himself to his own cell for 
 prayer and meditation ; nest as singing the conventual mass 
 (whence Alfred styles him mass-priest) ; after which would pro- 
 bably come the morning meal, followed by manual labour, which 
 was incumbent ou all the monks, including even the abbot him- 
 self. Bede himself relates of Benedict Biscop, that, when abbot, 
 " he, like the rest of the brothers, used to winnow the com and 
 thrash it, to give mUk to the lambs and calves ; in the bake- 
 house, in the garden, in the kitchen, and in the other employ- 
 ments of the monastery, cheerful and obedient, delighted to 
 exercise himself." Then, perhaps, came the school, in which he 
 gave regular bstraction to his fellow-monks, 600 in number. 
 Many of his pupils became eminent for learning and sanctity. 
 The celebrated Alcuin has been sometimes reckoned among them, 
 but there is no positive testimony to assure us of the fact. And 
 when the daily duties towards his neighbour had been fully per- 
 formed, we may conceive of him, as seated in the library, or the 
 scriptorium of the convent, amidst his much-loved books, copy- 
 ing, commenting, or composing — not in any feverish haste to 
 gain fame for himself, but having the single wish and idea in all 
 his labours to glorify God by edifying his chmxh. The hterary 
 result of this pious diligence is truly man'ellous, considering the 
 limited extent, after all, of the sources of his information, and 
 the nearly total want of that stimulus which is given by the 
 emulation of cultivated minds and the comparison of ideas. 
 Besides numerous volumes of commentaries on holy scriptiu-e 
 and other theological works, Bede wrote treatises on the philo- 
 sophy of Aristotle, on natural philosophy, astronomy, arithmetic, 
 grammar, rhetoric, poetiy, ecclesiastical histoiy, and the lives of 
 the saints. Of his character as an author we shall speak pre- 
 sently. The declining years of Bede fell in a brief period of 
 sunshine amidst the storms of pei-petual war, which desolated 
 for four hundi-ed years the kingdoms of the heptarchy. Writing 
 in 731 he tells us that he finishes his " Ecclesiastical History of 
 the English Nation," which he had originally undertaken at the 
 request of Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria, in a time of profoimd 
 peace, when the Northumbrians had begun to lay aside their 
 weapons, and many were exchanging the pursuits of war for the 
 service of God in the monastic state. His death occurred, as 
 we have said, in 735. The well-known letter of the monk 
 Cuthbert to his fiiend Ciithwin, describes, in minute detail, the 
 last scenes of his pure and peaceful life, and as a genuuie monu- 
 ment of the thoughts and manner of life of religious men in the 
 eighth century, is profoundly interesting. We must confine 
 oiu'selves here to one or two brief extracts. Before Easter of 
 the year 735, Bede appears to have been much troubled with 
 asthma. " He continued," says Cuthbert, " gi^^ng thanks to 
 Almighty God every day and night, nay, every hour, till the 
 feast of the Ascension of our Lord, and daily read lessons to us, 
 his disciples, and whatever remained of the day he spent in 
 singing of psalms." He often repeated " that God scourges 
 eveiy son whom He receives." His last words were a Gloria 
 Patri : " When he had n.amed the Holy Ghost he breathed his 
 last, and so departed to the heavenly kingdom." His remains 
 were buried in St. Paul's church at JaiTow, but removed in 1020 
 to Durham cathedral, and placed, at first in the shrine of St. 
 Cuthbert, and a centuiy later in a rich shrine pro\idcd for them 
 by Bishop Hugh. No inscription is now found on his tomb, 
 but it is believed that his relics were not disturbed at the Refor- 
 mation. The extraordinary merits of Bede were early recognized. 
 The title " Venerable," according to Mabillon, began to be given 
 to him in the ninth centiu-y; he is thus designated by the second 
 council of Aix-la-Chapelle, which sat in 836. King Alfred trans- 
 lated his Ecclesiastical History into Anglo-Saxon, and Lanfranc 
 styles him " the doctor and father of the English." Among 
 Bede's works, that which is best known, and deservedly so, is 
 his Ecclesiastical History above refeiTcd to. His theological 
 works have no gi"cat claim to originaUtv, and his speculations 
 
 3 Jl
 
 DKD 
 
 458 
 
 BED 
 
 in science can have, at the most, but a relative value, contrast- 
 ing as they do with the gross ignorance and indifference to 
 learning which overspread Europe in that disturbed and unhappy 
 time. But to every christian reader, and more especially to 
 English chiistians, the Ecclesiastical History of Bede, regarded 
 as a genuine contemporary record of the manner in which our 
 Saxon ancestors received the light of faith, of the obstacles 
 which the messengers of the gospel encountered and overcame, 
 and of the marvellous metamorphosis which Christianity wrought 
 in that strong-souled, kindly-natured race ; so that, in very 
 tnith, English history, or the uninteiTupted evolution of English 
 national life, properly begins on the day that St. Augustine 
 landed in the Isle of Thanet in 596; — this histoiy, we say, must 
 for ever remain profoundly interesting and instructive. It pre- 
 sents to us the picture of a youthful nation new to history, and 
 unspoiled by the corraptions of civilization, yet teeming with an 
 immense potentiality of thought and effort, rejoicing with a 
 child-like simplicity in the good tidings of salvation which the 
 Roman missionaries had brought to their knowledge, and of 
 which the objectivity and mner consistency contrasted so forcibly 
 with the dream-like and disjointed legends about things divine, 
 which were all that their heathen forefathers had delivered to 
 them. It is cmious to contrast tliis book with such a work as 
 the Ecclesiastical History of Fleur)-. The theology of both is the 
 same, but how different the temper and manner of wiiting ! Bede 
 is so full of the positive value of Christianity, as the gift of an 
 infinitely condescending Deity to man, that he loves to dwell on 
 the virtues which it breeds, rather than on the -s-ices which 
 co-exist with it, and in spite of it ; he is so enraptm-ed with the 
 beauty of the heavenly theory, that he overlooks the miserable 
 deficiencies of the earthly practice. Hence his thoughts are 
 fixed rather on the misfortune of those who have not yet received 
 the faith, than the misdoings of those who, having received it, 
 disgrace it. Fleury, bom in a later age, writes in a far difierent 
 temper. Christianity had in his time extended itself to all the 
 nations of Europe, but the accurately-chronicled experience of 
 the thousand years that intervened between him and Bede, had 
 impressed him with the discom-aging conviction that the abuse 
 of a thing was ever treading on the heels of its use, that it is 
 not the cowl which makes the monk, and that there is nothing 
 so hopelessly and unmixedly bad as the " comiption of the best.' 
 Hence Fleury dislikes extreme views, and is partial to a system 
 of checks ; he would circumscribe the spiritual power within 
 limits imposed by the temporal ; he is jealous of the power, and 
 unfriendly to the multiplication, of religious orders. Both his- 
 torians are candid and instractive writers ; but while we consult 
 the pages of Fleury only for information, or for clear general 
 views, we trace in addition, in those of Bede, the reflection of a 
 beautiful soul, unconsciously limning itself in its work, and, in the 
 wealth of a charity that " tliinketh no e\-il," communicating to 
 the rough age and turbulent society on which it fell a portion of 
 that mdescribable charm, that heavenly attractiveness, which 
 the inspiring genius of Christianity had imparted to itself. The 
 Ecclesiastical History has been several times translated into 
 Enghsh ; there is one excellent version forming a volume of 
 Mr. Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library. — T. A. 
 
 BEDA, a monk, of whose residence, age, and condition nothing 
 is accurately known. His treatise " De ]\Iusica Quadrata sen 
 Mensurata," has, by the error of some literary gleaner, been 
 adopted into the collection of Beda Vencrabilis, a pious Anglo- 
 Saxon monk, very learned for his time, who died in his cloister, 
 A.D. 735, and amongst whose theological works there was also 
 found a curious treatise on music, so far as in those early days 
 the science was understood. But the treatise above-menrioned 
 of the former Beda, however unhke it is to that of the latter, 
 was nevertheless for a long time regarded by the credulous liter- 
 ati as a composition of the Venerable .Bede ; and as this depart- 
 ment of the history of the art has become since that period more 
 elucidated, and the spuriousness of this treatise, as a work of 
 the Venerable Bede, has been placed beyond doubt, the Beda of 
 a later age, even if this be in reahty his name, is only known by 
 the appellation of pseudo-Beda. Forkel is of opinion that he 
 lived after Franco (thirteenth century), and this he might more 
 readily assert since, in deference to the received authorities, he 
 still places Franco in the eleventh century. This Beda certainly 
 appears superior to Franco in respect to the general value of his 
 treatise, but he by no means belongs to the 14th century. — 
 (Forkel's Uist. of Music; Kiesewetter's Hist, of Music.)— E. F. R. 
 
 BEDA, Noel, a French theologian, syndic of the faculty of 
 theology at Paris; bora in Picardy; died in 16.37. His unmly 
 temper gave rise to disputes, the fame of which extended far 
 beyond the precincts of the university, and embroiled the 
 ecclesiastical with the ci\il authorities of the metropolis. He 
 was twice banished by parliament, and died in confinement at 
 the abbaye of Jlont St. llichel. His name was familiar in Eng- 
 land, as that of the " Imperious Doctor," who prevented the Sor- 
 bonne from deciding m favour of the divorce of Henry VIII. 
 He published, among other works, " Contra Comment. Fabri 
 
 in Erasmi Paraph, lib. i." a work which Erasmus, in 
 
 a singular vein of criticism, characterized as a repertory of 181 
 lies, 210 calumnies, and 47 blasphemies. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEDAFFA, Evax, a painter of portraits and history at Ant- 
 werp, born in 1787; died in 1829. He became director of the 
 Bois-le-Duc academy. — W. T. 
 
 BEDDOES, Thomas, a distinguished physician, bom in 
 April, 1760, at Shifihal in Shropshire. Through accidental 
 circumstances, and contrary to the intentions of his parents, he 
 was educated for the medical profession. In 1776 he entered 
 as a student at Pembroke college, Oxford, and soon distinguished 
 himself for his acquaintance with languages, both ancient and 
 modem. He was fond of natural science, and devoted much 
 time to the study of botany, geology, and mineralogy, but especially 
 to chemistry, which science he regarded as peculiarly adapted to 
 tlu-ow much light on the treatment of disease. In 1781 he took 
 bis bachelor's degree, and continued his medical studies in Lon- 
 don, under the direction of the celebrated Sheldon. In 1784 he 
 published an anonymous translation of Spallanzani's Disserta- 
 rions on Natural History. He spent two years in Edinburgh, 
 and became associated with Dr. Cullen in his translation of 
 Bergman's Essays on Elective Attractions. In 1786 he took his 
 degree of doctor of medicine at Oxford, and afterwards \Tsited 
 France, where he became acquainted ^vith Lavoisier and other 
 French chemists. In the same year he was appointed reader in 
 chemistry to the university of Oxford, where he gave great satis- 
 faction. In 1790 he pubUshed "Chemical Experiments and 
 Opinions." Dr. Beddoes, notwithstanding his scientific character 
 and reputation, became obnoxious to the authorities of the uni- 
 versity of Oxford, owing to his poHtical and religious opinions, 
 and he found his position there so unpleasant, that he resigned 
 his readership in 1792. He then went to reside in Shropshire 
 with a friend, where he wrote a work, entitled " The History of 
 Isaac Jenkins," the purport of which was to check drunkenness ; 
 also several medical works, in which he embodied his pecuhar 
 views on the origin and treatment of several diseases. So 
 anxious was he to demonstrate to the world the results of his 
 theories, that he estabhshed an hospital at Bristol in 1798, with 
 a view of pro\ing the efficacy of certain chemical agents in 
 disease. A favourite remedy of his was the mhalation of a 
 medicated atmosphere, but the results did not equal his expec- 
 tations. In his projects he was greatly assisted by Mr. Richard 
 Lovell Edgeworth, one of whose daughters he had married in 
 1794, and by Mr. Gregory Watt. The abiliries and talents of Sir 
 Humphrey Davy were first brought to light in connection with 
 Dr. Beddoes' institution at Bristol. He was appointed superin- 
 tendent to the chemical laboratory connected therewith, and 
 from thence emanated the first discoveries of this great chemist. 
 Dr. Beddoes WTote much on the political topics of the day, 
 always taking the liberal side of a question. His principal 
 medical publications were, " A Popular Essay on Consumption," 
 1779, advocating, of course, the author's peculiar doctrines, but 
 containing also some valuable general remarks ; " Hygeia, or 
 Essays Moral and Medical," 3 vols., 8vo, 1802; "Demonstra^ 
 five Evidence," 1792 ; "An Essay on Fever," 1807; and many 
 other treatises of less note, which he continued to publish in 
 rapid succession until December, 1808, when in consequence of 
 an affection of the heart, he died in his 48th year. — E. L. 
 
 BEDDOME, Ben.jamix, M.A., son of the Rev. J. Beddome 
 of Bristol, born at Harley, in 1717; died, after a ministry of 
 fifty-five years, at Bourton in 1795. He was educated for the 
 medical profession, but becoming deeply impressed, during his 
 apprenticeship, with the impoitance of religion, he became a 
 student of divinity, under the care of Mr. Foskett of Bristol. 
 In 1740 he settled as pastor at Bourton, and though invited 
 to other spheres of labour (among others to the pastorate of the 
 church in Goodman Fields, then one of the hirgest in London), 
 he remamed there till his death, greatly beloved and honoured
 
 BED 
 
 459 
 
 BED 
 
 in his work. He is the author of a " Catechism on Divinity," 
 (1752), based on liis catechetical teaching — a work in which he 
 greatly excelled ; and of many admirable hymns for public wor- 
 ship. His sermons, published after his death, are among the 
 most popular village sermons ever piinted. — (Rijipon's JRegister, 
 Vol. i.)— J. A. L. 
 
 BEDD03IE, John, Rev., a member of the church under the 
 pastoral care of the Eev. Benjamin Keach, in Horsley Do^vn, 
 London ; called to the ministiy, and sent as pastor to Henley 
 in Arden, in 1679. Here he labom-ed as co-pastor with Mr. 
 Wallis and Mr. Foskett till 1719. In 1724 he was m^-ited to 
 the college in Bristol, where he succeeded Andi-ew Gilford and 
 his son Emanuel, and continued till his death. — J. A. L. 
 
 BEDELL, WiLLiAJi, D.D., one of the most eminent men for 
 learning, piety, and matured powers of mind, of the seventeenth 
 century, was bom at Black Notley In Essex, in the year 1570, 
 and was descended from an ancient and respectable family of 
 that county. He received a good classical education, and was 
 entered at Emanuel college, Cambridge, where he made great 
 proficiency, and was so highly esteemed, that liis senioi's were in 
 the habit of referring to him in theii- disputes and controversies 
 upon religion and other subjects. Of this college he was elected 
 a fellow in 1593. After leaving the university, he settled in the 
 town of Bury St. Edmunds, where he fu'st regularly engaged in 
 the ministiy, having long previously practically performed its 
 duties while in college, with other pious yomig men. At Bury 
 he remained for several years, respected and loved as an active 
 and zealous minister, till he was appointed chaplain to Sir 
 Henry Wotton, the ambassador of James I. to the court of 
 Venice, ha%ing been selected as the fittest person for a situation 
 made peculiarly responsible at that critical period of the mterdict 
 placed upon Venice by Pope Paul V. Here Bedell formed a 
 close intimacy and enduring friendship with the celebrated Fra 
 Paolo Sarpi, better kno-svn as Father Paul, the official theologian 
 of the senate, and author of the " History of the Councils of 
 Trent," who took a prominent part in the Venetian stnaggle 
 against the pope. This good and enhghtened man spent much 
 of his time in religious discussions with Bedell, and candidly 
 confessed that "he had learned more of theology and practical 
 religion from Jlr. Bedell than from any other person with whom 
 he had conversed during the whole course of his life." During 
 his stay at Venice, Bedell also became acquainted with the famous 
 bishop of Spalato, Antonio de Dominis, whom he assisted in the 
 composition of his work, " De Republica Ecclesiastica," after- 
 wards printed at London. While in Venice, Bedell gave himself 
 diligently to the study of Hebrew, under an eminent Jewish 
 Rabbi, tlurough whose exertions he obtained the manuscript copy 
 of the New Testament, which he pm-chased for its weight in 
 silver, and presented to Emanuel college. After a residence of 
 eight years. Bedell left Venice for England, taking a most affec- 
 tionate leave of Father Paul, who gave him his own picture, a 
 Hebrew Psalter and Bible, and a gi-eat portion of his manuscripts. 
 On his return, he retired to Bury St. Edmunds, where he mar- 
 ried, and occupied himself in translating Father Paul's manu- 
 scripts into Latin and English. In 1615 Sir Thomas Jermyn 
 presented Bedell to the rectoiy of Homingsheath in Suffolk, 
 where he remained for twelve years in the most zealous yet 
 unostentatious discharge of his parochial duties. Indeed, so 
 strict was his retirement and humility, that though he had pub- 
 lished many works, he was little known personally, and when 
 Diodati, whom he had known in Venice, came to England from 
 Geneva, he was unable, after many eflbrts to find out his residence, 
 till at length he met with him by chance in Cheapside. Strange 
 to say, Diodati was the person who first made the great learning 
 and \-irtues of Bedell kno\TO to his counti-ymen, and to the Eng- 
 lish church. He introduced Bedell to Dr. ilorton, bishop of 
 Durham, and gave him such a full account of his friend, that 
 the bishop took particular care of his interests. Bedell now 
 became kno\VTi everywhere for his learning and piety, and the 
 provostship of Trinity college, Dublin, being vacant in 1626, the 
 feUows, acting upon the advice of Ai-chbishop Usher, invited him 
 to fill that office, and addressed the king entreating him to com- 
 mand Bedell to accept it. With this recpicst the king complied, 
 and Bedell obeyed with cheerfulness, though he would have pre- 
 ferred to remain in the quiet of his humble living of £100 a year. 
 In this impi)rtant office he continued for two years, discharging 
 his arduous duties with great ability and perseverance, revising 
 the old, and establisliing new regulations. He was then pro- 
 
 moted to the bishoprics of Kilmore and Ardagh. Bedell's 
 standard of the duty of a christian bishop was verj' exalted, and 
 he took care to hve up to it. He set himself sedulously to 
 reforming the many abuses which he found in his sees. Amongst 
 other thmgs he discountenanced all pluralities, and in order to 
 set an example in his own person, he resigned the see of Ai'dagh, 
 though the revenues of that and Kilmore were bai-ely sufficient 
 to meet his own modest requirements, and their contiguity en- 
 abled him to discharge the episcopal functions of both with 
 efficiency. As a cluistian minister, he was a bright example 
 to his clergy, of godliness, hmnility, and earnest evangelism. 
 He also apphed himself to reform the flagrant abuses of the 
 ecclesiastical court, presiding there himself, and deciding causes 
 with the assistance of his clergy, and though he was involved 
 in a suit in chanceiy, by reason of interfering with the privi- 
 leges of that com-t, he nevertheless pursued his plan to the end, 
 and overcame all opposition. Bedell now formed the deter- 
 mination to carry out one of the dearest objects of his heart, the 
 translation of the Holy Scriptures into the Irish tongue ; and for 
 this purpose he procured the assistance of ilr. King, a convert to 
 protestantism, a man of learning and genius, and the best Irish 
 scholar of his age. The good bishop himself learned the language, 
 of which he became sufficiently master to compose a grammar. 
 These two devoted part of every day to their task : in a few years 
 the translation was completed, and though subsequent events 
 prevented Bedell from printing and publishing it, the manu- 
 script was fortunately preserved after his death, and piinted 
 by the Hon. Robert Boyle. Upon the breaking out of the 
 rebellion in Ireland in 1641, the protestant population were 
 everywhere assailed and slaughtered, and yet such was the 
 veneration in which Bedell was held by the Irish insurgents, 
 that he was left unmolested, while these atrocities were com- 
 mitted around him. " There seemed," says Burnet, " to be a 
 secret guard set about his house, for though there was nothing 
 but fire, blood, and desolation about him, yet the Irish were so 
 restrained, as by some hidden power, that they did hiin no harm 
 for many weeks." AU those who were persecuted, of every age, 
 sex, and class, now fled to Bedell's house as to a sanctuaiy that 
 would not be violated, though he had no means of resisting 
 violence. He received them all, shared everj'thing he had with 
 them, and sustained them by his prayers and exhortations. Not 
 only his house, but the outhouses, the church, and even the 
 churchyard were filled with these people. Dr. S\^Tney, the 
 Roman catholic bishop of Kilmore, to his credit, offered to take 
 up his abode with Bedell, in order to protect him ; but this he 
 gi-atefully declined, adding, " For my o^vn part, I am resolved 
 to trust in the Di\ine protection. To a christian and a 
 bishop, that is now almost seventy, no death for the cause of 
 Christ can be bitter." For nearly two months from the com- 
 mencement of the rebellion. Bedell remained unmolested. At 
 last, upon the 18th of December, he received a command 
 from the insm-gents to send away those whom he was shelter- 
 ing. This he firmly refused to do. They then assured him, 
 that much as they respected and loved him, they would be 
 obliged, by the orders of the council of Kilkenny, to remove 
 him from his house. Bedell replied, " Here I am : the Lord 
 do unto me as seemeth good imto him, the -niU of the Lord be 
 done." The bishop and his two sons, with others, were seized 
 and conveyed to the castle of Loughoughter, situate on an island 
 in a state of i-uin, and almost in the water. Here he contuiued 
 suffering extreme privations vrAh. the patience and constancy ot 
 a martvr, comforting and praying -n-ith his fellow-prisoners, till 
 on the 7th of January, he and his sons, with a Mr. Clogy, were 
 released upon an exchange of prisoners, and not being permitted 
 to leave the country, he took up his abode with an Irish minister 
 of the name of Sheriden. But his feeble body had received a 
 shock from the exposure and want which he had endured, from 
 which it never recovered. He declined rapidly, though to the 
 last he persisted in discharging his clerical duties of praj-ing and 
 preaching. On the 25th of jfanuary he became alarmuigly ill, 
 and having called his sons and their wives around his bed, and 
 addressed to them, at such intervals as his strength allowed, one 
 of the most touching, K-autiful, and pious exhortations that was 
 ever uttered by uninspired lips. He then blessed them, and his 
 speech failing, he fell into a slumber wliich continued tranquil, 
 and with occasional intermissions, till his death upon the 7th of 
 February, 1642, in the seventy-first year of his age. He was 
 bm-ied beside his wife in the church vard of the cathcdi'al of Kil-
 
 more. " Thus lived and died," says Buniet, " this excellent 
 bishop, in whom so many of the greatest characters of a prunitive 
 and apostoUcal bishop did show themselves so eminently, that it 
 seemed fit that he should still speak to the world, though dead ; 
 since great patterns give the easiest notions of eminent mtues, 
 and teach in a way that has much more authority with it than 
 all speculative discourses can possibly possess." In person. 
 Bedell was tall and gi-aceful, full of a venerable yet simple granty, 
 that inspired respect in all who saw him. His deportment was 
 remai-kable for being serious and unaffected, gi-acious and meek. 
 His mind was large, elevated, and vigorous, and adorned with 
 learning and wisdom. He composed in Latin mth gi-eat ele- 
 gance, and coiTosponded with many of the eminent men of his 
 day on the continent of Europe, by whom he was held in great 
 and desen-ed estimation. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEDFORD. See Russell. 
 
 BEDFORD, Arthur, M.A., a divine, and spu-ited writer on 
 the abuses of music and the drama, in the first half of the 
 eighteenth centmy. He was bom in 1668, and educated at 
 Oxford. First appointed chaplain to the duke of Bedford, and 
 vicar of Temple in the city of Bristol, and afterwards chaplain to 
 the Haberdashers' Hospital, Hoxton, near London. He published 
 "The E\t1 and Danger of Stage Plays," 8vo, 1706; "The 
 Temple Musick," 8vo, 1706 ; " The Great Abuse of Musick," 
 8vo, 1711; "A Serious Remonstrance against the Blasphemies 
 of the Play-House," 8vo, 1719 ; " Scripture Chi-onology," folio, 
 1730; " The Excellency of Di\ine Musick," 8vo, 1733. Died 
 September 13, 1745.— E. F. R. 
 
 BEDFORD, HiLKLVH, bom in 1663, was educated at St. 
 John's coUege, Cambridge. On leaving the university, he obtained 
 a curacy in Lincolnshh-e, from which he was ejected at the Revo- 
 lution for refusing to take the oaths. In 1714 he was fined one 
 thousand marks, and condemned to three years' imprisonment, 
 for having published " The Hereditary Right of the Crown of 
 England Asserted," 1713. The real author of the work was a 
 friend of Bedford's, named George Harbin. He published also 
 "An Answer to Fontenellc's Histoiy of Oracles," and a transla- 
 tion of the Life of Dr. Barwick. Died in 1724. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEDFORD, John Plaxtagexet, Duke of, English regent 
 of France, bom in 1389; died September 13, 1435. He was 
 third son of Hem-y IV., king of England, and Jlaria de Bohun. 
 According to the usage of the times, he was made chevaher at 
 the age of sis years, at the time of the coronation of his brother, 
 Henry V., who, in the twelfth year of his reign, created him 
 duke of Bedford. He afterwards made him, successively, gover- 
 nor of Berwick-upon-Tweed, warden of the Scottish marches, 
 and his lieutenant in England dm'uig the sojom-n of the king in 
 the French territory. At the death of Heniy in 1422, he left 
 to his brother John the arduous task of maintaining liis con- 
 quests in France — a task, in the execution of which he displayed 
 great energy and sagacity, and was for a time completely suc- 
 cessful, notwithstanding many formidable difficulties. In 1429, 
 however, the arrival of Joan of Arc upon the scene changed the 
 aspect of affairs. The victories of that extraordinary woman, 
 and her infamously crael treatment by Bedford after her capti- 
 vity, need not be here related. A year after her death, Bedford, 
 having become a widower by the death of his wife, Anne of 
 Burgundy, married clandestinely Jacquette, daughter of the 
 Count de Saint Paul, a vassal of Philip the Good. This was 
 reckoned derogatoiy to the rank of his first father-in-law, the 
 duke of Burgundy, and led to a rupture between that nobleman 
 and the English regent. Negotiations followed, which were 
 terminated by the treaty of Arras, when the duke of Burgundy 
 broke asunder the last ties which bound him to the foreigner, 
 and became reconciled to his native prince. This alliance proved 
 at once a death-blow to the dulve of Bedford, and the ruin of the 
 English pretensions in France. — G. M. 
 
 BEDFORD, Thomas, son of Hilkiah Bedford, bom towards 
 the commencement of the eighteenth century. After the com- 
 pletion of his studies at the university of Cambridge, he settled 
 at Compton, near Ashbourne, ui Derbyshire, where he continued 
 to officiate to a small congregation till his death in 1773. Like 
 his father, he was a nonjurer. He pubUshed a " Historical 
 Catechism," and in 1732 an edition of " Symeonis Monachi 
 Dunhelmens libellus de exordio atque procursu Dunhehnensis 
 ecclesia>," with a continuation to 1154. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEDINGFELD, Sin Henry, knight, of Oxburgh, county of 
 Norfolk, one of the wealthiest and most powerful country gen- 
 
 tlemen iu the east of England, was one of the first who declared 
 for the Lady Maiy against Lady Jane Grey, upon the death of 
 Edward VI. He assisted in proclaiming Mary as queen in the 
 eastem counties, and came to her assistance at Framlingham 
 castle in Suflblk, with one hundred and forty men armed cap-a- 
 pie. His exertions caused a strong exliibition of feelmg in favour 
 of !Mary, and had great influence in securing to her the throne 
 without bloodshed. After Maiy's accession. Sir Henry Beding- 
 feld was appointed knight-marshal of her army, captain of the 
 queen's guai'ds, and constable of the tower of London, and was 
 sworn a member of the privy comicil. He died in 1583. His 
 great-great-grandson, the owner of Oxburgh, a zealous and 
 devoted cathoUc (to which religion the family have adhered (\ovra 
 to the present time), lost nearly £50,000 in the royalist cause 
 in the time of Charles I., and was created a baronet at the 
 Restoration. The Bedingfelds have as an honorary addition to 
 then- heraldic bearings, a fetter-lock, the badge of the house of 
 York, granted to them by Edward IV. — E. \V. 
 
 BEDOS DE CELLES, Dom Fran^ols, Benedictine of the 
 congi-cgation of St. Mam', member of the Acad^mie des Sciences 
 of Bordeaux, and correspondent of the Academie des Sciences of 
 Pai-is; born at Caux in the diocese of Beziers, in 1706, and died 
 in 1779. He was the author of the celebrated work, " I'Art du 
 Facteur d'Orgues," published by the French Academy, in 3 vols, 
 folio, 1766-1778. It has lately been reprinted at Paiis, con- 
 tinued down to the present time, and forms one of the works of 
 the Encyclop^die-Roret, par M. Hamel, 1849 ; 3 vols. 12mo 
 and folio.— E. F. R. 
 
 BEDRASCHI, Jedala.-Ben-Abraham, a learned Hebrew 
 scholar, who lived in Spam at the close of the thirteenth century. 
 He wrote many works in that language, which were held in high 
 esteem. They went through several editions, and were translated 
 uito German and French. That by which he is best known is 
 the "Bechinat-Olam."— J. F. W. 
 
 BEDR, Shirwani, a Persian poet of some repute, who lived 
 in the fifteenth centuiy at Shirwan. 
 
 BEDRIAGA, Marlv E., an authoress of some reputation, 
 bora in Toer in Russia, Febraaiy, 1794. She published several 
 clevertales, which were very popular. Diedat St. Petersburg, 1830. 
 
 BEDUSCHI, Antonio, an historical pamter, bom at musi- 
 cal Cremona, 1576. He studied under Antonio Campi, imitator 
 of Giulio Romano, the daring copier of Raphael. This Cremona 
 eclectic school was simultaneous with that destnictive one of 
 the Caracci. He died young. His best work is an altar-piece 
 of the " Stoning of Stephen," at St. Sepolcro, Piacenza. — V!. T. 
 
 BEECHAM, John, D.D., Wesleyan minister, one of the 
 secretmies of the Wesleyan Missionaiy Society from 1831 to 
 1856, and president of the conference, 1850, bora in Lmcoln- 
 shire, 1788, commenced his mmisterial career in 1815. He was 
 well qualified, by the purity of bis character, by intelligence and 
 imtiruig application, in connection with a sound judgment and 
 habits of business, for the discharge of the duties of the ordinary 
 ministry, and to meet the more complex and vaiied requirements 
 of his official position at the mission-house. The question of 
 the rights of the aborigines of om- colonies early engaged his 
 attention, and his evidence before the committee appointed by 
 parhament, 1835-6, exhibits just, benevolent, and patriotic 
 views of this important and difficult problem. In the moral 
 and intellectual progress of the Negi'o races in the West Indies 
 and in Western Africa, he took a deep interest, and had devoted 
 much time and labour to inquiries connected with the geography, 
 ethnology, and languages of Africa. The formation of the 
 mission districts in France, Australia, and British North Ame- 
 rica, into distinct and independent conferences, affiliated with 
 the original " Conference of the people called Methodists," in 
 England, was in a great degree the result of his influence and 
 exertions — a measure of no small importance in its bearing upon 
 the futm-e relationships and self-supporting character of ma- 
 tured missions to their parent churches. With reference to this 
 object he visited North America in the year 1855, and the 
 fatigues of this joumcy at his advanced period of life probably 
 hastened his death, which took place in London, April 22, 
 1856. His chief publications were — An instructive and valuable 
 " Essay on the Constitution of Wesleyan JNIethodism," 8vo ; two 
 paniphlets, in which the question of colonization in many of its 
 aspects is discussed with great ability, especially as beai-ing upon 
 the proceedings of the New Zealand Company ; " Ashantee and 
 the Gold Coast," 12mo, a useful manual of infomiation respect-
 
 BEE 
 
 461 
 
 BEE 
 
 ing that part of Africa ; " A Memoir of Thomas J. Beecham," 
 his only son, a youth of great promise, who died 1846 ; and 
 some pamphlets of minor importance. — W. B. B. 
 
 * BEECHER, Lynam, D.D., an American theologian and 
 preacher of celebrity, the father of Mrs. Beecher Stowe, (see 
 Stowe), was born in New England some years before the Ame- 
 rican revolution. He came of himable but respectable parentage, 
 and though early sensible of the inward impulse which he felt 
 for knowledge, he followed his father's craft — that of a black- 
 smith — mitil the proceeds of his daily labour enabled him to 
 commence his collegiate studies at Yale, Newhaven. Having 
 earned a name as a pulpit orator, he was appointed to a pastoral 
 charge at Litchfield, Connecticut ; and having published six. 
 sermons on temperance, which found a wide sale in England as 
 well as America, he was invited to undertake the superinten- 
 dence of the most influential presbyterian church in Boston. 
 Whilst there, he took an active part in the estabhshment of a 
 theological seminary at Cincinnati, to be conducted on industrial 
 principles. When finished, Dr. Beecher was appointed principal 
 of the institution. Whilst holding this position, he took a 
 decided shai-e in the agitation in favour of the Slavery Aboli- 
 tionist Society, and narrowly escaped having his house burnt in 
 consequence. He soon afterwards retired from his presidential 
 chair. In 1853 he published a religious work, entitled " The 
 Conflict of Ages," which attracted at the time considerable 
 attention, both in England and in his own country. — E. W. 
 
 BEECHEY, Frederick William, a distinguished naval 
 officer (holding, at the time of his death, the rank of rear- 
 admiral in the English sei-vice), was the son of Sir William 
 Beechy, R.A. He was bom in 1796, and entered the royal 
 navy at the age of ten. He obtained a lieutenant's commission 
 in 1815, was advanced to the rank of commander in 1822, to 
 that of captain in 1827, and became a rear-admiral in 1854. 
 Few oflScers have passed through a more varied career of ser- 
 vice, or earned a juster distinction. The seas that lie vrithin the 
 tropics, and those that are beneath the arctic chxle, were, by 
 turns, the scene of his active labours, and we owe to his pen the 
 record of the events in which he bore a share, and the best 
 ili^scriptions — often of high value to science — of the localities 
 which his duties led him to visit. While yet a boy, Beechey 
 liore a part in Commander Schomberg's biilliant action with a 
 French squadron off the coast of Madagascar in 1811, and in 
 IS 15 was actively engaged in the English attack upon New 
 Orleans. His first experience in arctic navigation was acquired 
 in 1818, when he sailed, under Franklin, as lieutenant in the 
 Trent., one of the two vessels placed under the command of 
 Captain Buchan, for the pm'pose of exploring the polar sea in 
 the direction of Spitzbergen. For the highly interesting nan-a- 
 tive of this expedition, of which no detailed account was pub- 
 lished until 1843, we are indebted to Admiral Beechey : " A 
 voyage of discovery towards the North Pole, performed in H.M. 
 ships Dorothea and Trent., &c." In the following year, Beechey 
 accompanied Pany in that officer's first voyage to the polar seas, 
 serving as lieutenant on board the Hecla, and shared in the 
 rewards allotted on the return of the expedition to England, 
 after passing a long winter upon the ice-bound coasts of Melville 
 Island. In 1821-22 the scene of his labours was shifted to the 
 sunny shores of the Mediten-anean, where, in the sloop Adven- 
 ture, he took part in the labours of Captain Smythe, in survey- 
 ing the coasts of northern Africa. The results of his researches, 
 during the progress of these labours, -within the region of the 
 ancient Cyrenaica, were subsequently placed before the public 
 through the medium of his own pen; "Proceedings of the expe- 
 dition to explore the northern coast of Africa, from Tripoli east- 
 ward, &c." So accomplished an explorer was not allowed to 
 remain long unemployed, and in 1825 the subject of our memoir 
 was appointed to the command of the Blossom, fitted out mainly 
 for the purpose of co-operating with the expeditions of Parry 
 and Franklin — the former then engaged in his third voyage of 
 discovery in the arctic seas, and the latter pm-suing his second 
 overland journey to the northern shores of the New World. It 
 is with this voyage of the Blossom that Atbuiral Bcechcy's 
 name is most distinctly associated. The Blossom was absent 
 from England during three and a half years, within which period, 
 and before proceeding to the main olyect of the voyage, her com- 
 mander surveyed many of the dispersed islands of the Pacific, 
 several of which he was the first to visit. At Pctropaulovski, 
 on the coast of Kamschatka, he learnt the tidings of Parry's 
 
 return to England. Passing through Behring Strait in the 
 summer of 1826, and reaching the inlet of Kotzebue Sound, on 
 the American shore, the Blossom thence proceeded to explore 
 the coast to the north-eastward. She was unable to double the 
 " Icy Cape" of Captain Cook, but a party detached in the barge, 
 under the command of Jlr. Elson, succeeded in advancing to the 
 eastward as far as Point BaiTow (lat. 71° 25', long. 156° 7' W.) 
 They were then, as it afterwards appeared, only 16U miles distant 
 from the spot which Franklin and his companions had reached, 
 by travelling along the coast to the westward of the JIackenzie 
 liver, four days previously. A detailed narrative of this voyage, 
 in the course of which the Blossom traversed 73,000 miles, was 
 published by Captain Beechey on his return to England m the 
 autumn of 1828. After being for a time engaged in surveying 
 duties upon the coast of South America, Captain Beechey's ser- 
 vices were for several years continuously employed in similar 
 labours upon the shores of the L'ish Sea. The numerous obser- 
 vations which he made in the com'se of these duties tlurew much 
 light upon the tidal phenoiTiena of the British coasts, and were 
 embodied in two valuable memoirs which appeared in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions (1848 and 1851). After the cessation of 
 his active duties afloat, Beechey was appointed supeiintendent 
 of the marine branch of the board of trade, the duties of which 
 he executed till his death. He died on November 29, 1856. 
 Admkal Beechey was a feflow of the Royal Society, and held, 
 at the time of his decease, the oflice of president of the Royal 
 Geograjjhical Society of London. — W. H. 
 
 BEECHEY, Sir William, portrait painter, much overrated, 
 born at Burford, Oxfordshu-e, in 1753. He was educated for 
 the law, which he unfortunately left, and at nineteen became a 
 Royal Academy student, and went through the usual statue- 
 copying, and foolish stippling. In 1776 he began to be known, 
 and exhibited two heads ; and in 1779, passed from mere gentle- 
 men and ladies with harps, to such fancy portraits as " Lavinia," 
 a young lady near some corn ; and " The Witch of Endor," an 
 old woman drawn from a model. In 1788 he began to paint 
 the nobility, and to have his door crowded with carriages ; and, 
 six years later, was confessed to be rich and prosperous, by 
 being made associate of the Academy. Down came the gold in 
 showers ; he was now made portrait painter to Queen Charlotte ; 
 and noble sitters besieged him, as they did Opie when he threat- 
 ened to use artillery to clear his stauxase. He now ventured 
 to rival Reynolds, and to paint a portrait of Mrs. Siddons as the 
 tragic muse, with the result we might have expected. He still 
 rose, rose, and in 1798, executed a portrait of the farmer-king 
 on horseback, reviewing the guards on the Highwaymen's Heath 
 of Hounslow. For this feat of art, Beechey was of course 
 knighted. After twenty-six years' service, the lucky painter 
 was elected royal academician, and henceforward the ball was 
 indeed under his feet. He painted all the royal family ; Lord 
 Cornwallis ; the sea-king Lord St. Vincent ; that English 
 Roman, Kemble ; Hope, the novelist ; astute-looking Wilkie ; 
 and miserly Nollekens. This, as far as money went, was all 
 well, but when we come to tallc of fame. Sir William was 
 unlucky. All his life he was oven-idden by superior rivals — 
 first Reynolds, who built up his heads so solidly ; then brilliant 
 superficial Lawrence ; later stUl, Owen, Jackson, and Phillips. 
 Beechey was a good, plain, common-sense, "beefy" English 
 painter, and nothing more. He painted broadly, and with fair 
 colom- ; but in rather a dull, ponderous, pompous manner, with- 
 out gi-ace or vigour. He had no poetry, no mind, no elegance, 
 but was tolerably true to what he saw of nature. Both in 
 morals and painting, he was eminently " a respectable man." 
 He died at Hanipstead in 1839, and was buried with academic 
 honours. — W. T. 
 
 BEECK or BEIUS, John, a Dutch protestant theologian, 
 author of " Verantwording voor de Wcrdniktc Wacrheyt," hvcd 
 towards the middle of the seventeenth century. 
 
 BEECK, JoiiANN Martin, a German protestant theologian, 
 born at Lubeck in 1665 ; died in 1727. He published "Disp. 
 de plagio divinitus prohibito, in Exod. xxi. 16," and " Expla- 
 nata prophctarum Loca Dilficiliora." 
 
 BEEK, David, born at Arnlieim in Gueldcrland, 1621, was 
 one of Vandyke's best pupils. He was so rapid at fa-presto, 
 that Charles I. once said to him, " Parbleu, Beek, why, I tliinlc 
 you could paint while riding post." He was born with a silver 
 spoon in his mouth, and never lived out of the scented atmosphere 
 of courts, the consequence of which was he grew rich and famous,
 
 BEE 
 
 4G2 
 
 BEE 
 
 but passed liis life in painting forgotten portraits. He taught the 
 prince of Wales, and the diikes of York and Gloucester drawing. 
 From England he passed to the courts of France, Denmark, and 
 Sweden. From Queen Christina he received rich presents, and 
 the appointment of first valet de chambre. He then received a 
 roving commission fi-om this mad queen of Sheba, to visit all the 
 courts of Europe, and paint the portraits of the monarchs, bag- 
 ging in his way nine gold chains and medals, and acquiring at 
 Eome, where he w;is received into the academy, the nickname of 
 " the golden sceptre." In passing through Germany, a strange 
 adventiu-e happened to him. He was taken ill at an inn, and 
 laid out as dead. His valets, to console themselves for the loss 
 of so good a master, so agreeable, handsome, pohte, liberal, and 
 rich an adventm'cr, assembled round the body, and discussing 
 his merits, like guests at an Iiish wake, began to drink. At last, 
 one of them getting confused and drunk, cried out to the com- 
 pany, holding up a full glass of the best Hockheimer, " Master 
 was very fond of wine when he was alive, why should he not have 
 some now he is dead ? " The company agreed with him ; they 
 raise the dead man's head, prize open his mouth, and pass down 
 the wine. Beek sneezes and sits up. The valets are delighted 
 with the dead man's politeness, and pour him out another glass. 
 Beek revives, kicks them out of the room, and rings for post- 
 horses. The real end of Beek, however, came at last. He got 
 tired of the tyrannical madwoman, and asked leave to go back to 
 Holland. The queen does not wish to lose her handsome painter ; 
 but when she goes to France and kills Jlonaldeschi, Beek gets 
 a few week's furlough, which he promises not to exceed. Beck 
 gets to the Hague, determines never to return, but dies soon 
 after in 1656, as some thought poisoned. No one at that time 
 disputed the right of a queen to poison a refractoiy painter. 
 Dear me ! no. — W. T. 
 
 BEEKKERK, H. L., bom at Leuwarde, 1756, and studied 
 mider John van Breght at Amsterdam, painted history, land- 
 scapes, and animals. His design is bad. Died in 179G. — W. T. 
 
 BEELDEMAKER, Hans, born at the Hague, 1636 (Charies 
 I.); died 1736. He was the earliest painter of stag and fox 
 hounds; he designed with a spirit and nature quite unnational. 
 His son Francis, a historical painter, some of whose heavy por- 
 traits are in the Hague academy, was bom in 1669. He died in 
 1736.— W. T. 
 
 BEER, Arnold, bom at Antwerp, 1490 (Henry VI.) He 
 was a good designer, but in colour repulsively hard, dry, and 
 wooden. He died, to the great benefit of art, in 1542. — W. T. 
 
 BEER, Cornelius, known in Spain about 1630. His 
 " Triumph of the Holy Sacrament " was painted for the capu- 
 chins of JIurcia. His daughter, Maria Eugenia, was a successful 
 engraver at Madrid. She executed a portrait of Prince Balthazar 
 Carlos, and plates for Salzedo's books on buU-fighting and horse- 
 manship. — \V. T. 
 
 BEER, George Joseph, a distinguished Austrian surgeon, 
 who devoted his attention to diseases of the eye. He was born 
 at Vienna on the 23rd of December, 1763, and died in 1821. 
 He was surgeon to the Clinical Institute in Vienna, and devoted 
 himself to the general practice of surgery. His writings, wliich 
 are numerous, are almost exclusively devoted to diseases of tlie 
 eye. One of his earliest works was entitled " Practical Obser- 
 vations on Cataract and Diseases of the Cornea." It was 
 accompanied with copperplates, and appeared in 1791. In the 
 following year he published a general work on the diseases of 
 the eye, in two volumes. This work contributed greatly to 
 make him known, on account of the proof it afforded of his pro- 
 found knowledge of the diseases of the structures of the eye. In 
 1797 he pubhshed in Latin a work, in which he reviewed the 
 literature generally relating to ophthalmological science. This 
 work was entitled " Bibliotlieca Ophthalmica." He also published 
 in German a history of the art of ocular surgery in 1813. He 
 has pubhshed numerous other works and papers, which have 
 given him a first position amongst those who have studied ocular 
 surgery. The practice of Beer was as extensive as his reputa- 
 tion, and he is one of the few instances of the attainment of a 
 great scientific name in connection with a special department of 
 the practice of surgery. — E. L. 
 
 BEER, Jacob Meyer. See Meyekeerr. 
 
 BEER, Joseph, bom at Utrecht in 1550 (Queen Mary), 
 studied historical painting under Floris, was patronized by the 
 bishop of Toumay, died in 1596. — W. T. 
 
 BEER, Michael, a German dramatist, was bom at Berlin 
 
 in 1800, and died at Munich, 22nd JIarch, 1833. He was a 
 brother of the celebrated composer, Meyerbeer. His best tra- 
 gedies are " Struensee " and the " Paria." His works were 
 published after his death by his friend Eduard von Schenk. — K. E. 
 
 BEER, WiLHELM, a very valuable Gemian contributor to 
 practical astronomy. See I^Iadler. 
 
 BEER-BING, Isaiah, a clever Hebrew scholar, lived in the 
 beginning of the nineteenth centuiy ; author of a Hebrew 
 translation of Iklendelsohn's Phi'don, and of a French translation 
 of Judas Levi's Elegy on the Ruins of Sion. 
 
 BEERBLOCK, John, bom at Bmges, 1736, pupil of Mat- 
 thias de Visch, was a painter of small pictures, now very rare. 
 Died in 1806.— W. T. 
 
 BEERINGS, Gregory-, bom at JIahnes about 1500. He 
 went to Italy, and is known to have been dissipated and indo- 
 lent. He hid his talent in a napkin, ;md there it lies still. He 
 died in 1544 (Edward VI.).— W. T. 
 
 BEESTEN, A. H. van, a painter of has reliefs at Amsterdam, 
 Died in 1764.— W. T. 
 
 BEETHOVEN, Lvdwig \xs, the illustrious musician, was 
 bom at Bonn, 17th December, 1770, and died at Vienna, 26th 
 March, 1827. A gromidless rumour for some time prevailed 
 that he was the natural son of the king of Prussia ; and, at con- 
 siderable pains, he proved himself to be the lawful child of 
 Johann Beethoven, a tenor singer in the chapel of the electoral 
 prince in his native to^vn, in which establishment his grand- 
 father, after whom he was named, and who was also a composer, 
 sang bass. For the memory of t'nis latter, although he died when 
 the boy was but three years old, Beethoven, in after life, had a 
 high veneration, and he treasured his portrait as a most valua- 
 ble rehc. The feeling of the grandson may be accounted for by 
 the intemperate habits of his father, who could thus ehcit no 
 respect ; and his strong sense of reverence having no present 
 stimulus, attached him to an ideal, of which he could not recol- 
 lect the original. He had an elder brother, Ludwig Maria, who 
 died in his infancy ; and two younger, Caspar Anton Carl, who 
 became a teacher of the pianoforte, and Nicolaus Johann, who 
 followed the trade of a draggist. Whatever the professional 
 ability and personal u'regulai'ities of his father, the position of 
 this choir singer was such as to give Beethoven the advantage 
 enjoyed by aU the gi-eatest musicians, of becoming famUiar in his 
 earliest infancy with music, and receinng his first impressions 
 from it : his organization had thus immediate opportunity for 
 development, and he at once gave tokens of a strong natural 
 disposition for the art he conspicuously advanced. His father, 
 hoping to improve the slender means of the family by the dis- 
 play of the child's ability, was the first to undertake his technical 
 training ; but dissipation rendered him an unfit instractor. The 
 boy's studies were, however, assisted by Pfeifter, an oboe player 
 and director of a military band, to whom in after years he made 
 the kindest acknowledgment of the obligation he owed him. He 
 evinced so remarkable a talent, as to attract the attention of the 
 reigning elector, the Archduke Maximihan, at whose charge he 
 received lessons of Van der Eder, the court organist, and, at his 
 death, of his successor, Neefe. Beethoven's restless disposition 
 rendered steady practice irksome to him ; and his father's impa- 
 tience at this increased his distaste to application. He, however, 
 progressed so rapidly, that at eight years old he was already 
 remarkable for his playing of the fugues of Sebastian Bach. His 
 three sonatas, written when he was ten years old, prove liis early 
 acquaintance with the principles of musical constraction, and 
 show a fluency of thought, which, though rendered in the idiom 
 of the time, is not vrithout indications of originahty. These 
 interesting productions, as well as some songs and some piano- 
 forte variations, were printed in 1783. Sterkel, a pianist of some 
 repute in his day, on seeing the variations, questioned the ability 
 of their author to play them ; whereupon Beethoven, not only 
 executed his printed piece, but improrised upon the same theme, 
 in imitation of the manner of his sceptical critic, proving at once 
 his agile finger and his prompt invention. This is the earliest 
 anecdote of liis mar\-ellous extemporaneous power, which after- 
 wards became one of the most remarkable manifestations of 
 his genius, and which he often exercised vvith still more pointed 
 pertinence to the occasion than in the present instance. Coin- 
 cident witli his progress on the pianoforte and in composition 
 was his practice of the viohn, which, if it led to no notable 
 proficiency, enabled him to write most cflectively for string 
 instruments throughout his career. His father's dissolute life
 
 BEE 
 
 463 
 
 BEE 
 
 seems to have excluded the best domestic influences from his 
 home ; but he found a circle of true and genial friends in the 
 family of Breuning; one of whom, Stephan, his boyhood's play- 
 mate, remained his attached friend through life, watched his 
 last moments, was appointed his executor, and died very soon 
 after him. This friendsliip had occasional ruptures — one caused 
 by rivalry in a youthful love affair ; but it was too full of the fond 
 associations of their early times to be ever permanently broken. 
 His first connection with this family was in the capacity of teacher, 
 the duties of which he always discharged wth the utmost repug- 
 nance ; the widow Von Breuning not only forgave his constant 
 dereliction, but, with parental kindness, encouraged his compa- 
 nionship of her children, amongst whom he became familiar with 
 literature, and so made up for the scanty education he had received 
 at the free school. Before the completion of his fifteenth year, 
 the elector appointed Beethoven organist of his chapel. In this 
 situation he played off one of those practic^il jokes for which, 
 to the last, he had an especial rehsh, in confusing a singer who 
 chanted the Lamentations in Passion Week, by changing the key 
 in the accompaniment during a sustained note of the voice; the 
 compromised chanter complained of this trick to the elector ; but 
 the young organist had too good a friend in his patron from 
 childiiood for hun to punish this offence, fiirther than by an offi- 
 cial reprimand, which was rather a compliment to his talent than 
 " liisgrace of his abuse of it. The genial humour, which is one 
 : the most prominent characteristics of Beethoven's writing — 
 such as we find expressed in the scherzo of his Pianoforte and 
 Violin Sonata in F ; in the last movement of his Pianoforte 
 Concerto in G, and of liis Solo Sonata in the same key, Op. 79 ; 
 in that of his Sjnnphony in F ; and in many other instances — 
 <howmg a love of fun and a cajiacity for witticism that has 
 vely been, and never so fully, embodied in music — is power- 
 illy illustrated by this personal trait of the composer, which 
 ipped not at practical jesting, but led him to indulge in even- 
 :ud of facetia that presented itself to his \-ivacious fancy. We 
 III well suppose him— whose conversation abounded with bon 
 )ts and repartee, who exulted in mock-heroic grandiloquence, 
 id who would risk a friendship rather than forego a banter — 
 Isolutely laughing aloud as he set down on paper some of the 
 : 'Vements that have been cited, and chuckling over them with 
 111 unctuous enjoyment as absorbing as the glowing raptm-e 
 in which he revealed his loftiest inspirations. He had at this 
 time another patron besides the elector, in Count Waldstein 
 — to whom he subsequently dedicated his Sonata in C, Op. 
 53 — at whose instance it was that the elector gave him the 
 appointment, which, as his talented teacher, Xeefe, was still 
 in the full exercise of his powers, and so had no need of an 
 -sistant, was but the graceful pretext for paj-ing him a 
 .1 iry, and so relieving his limited circumstances. Beethoven 
 rote the music, of which the count had the credit, for a ballet 
 represented by the nobility at the court ; but he was more than 
 repaid for this sacrifice, by being, at his patron's instigation, sent 
 in 1787 on a mission to Vienna, where he became acquainted 
 with Jlozart, and indeed received some lessons of him. The 
 gre^at musician promptly perceived the indications of extraordi- 
 nary power in his young disciple ; but be had not the opportunity 
 to benefit him further than by his illustrious example, and by 
 the emulation this induced, in consequence of Beethoven's early 
 return to Bonn, occasioned probably by the illness of his mother, 
 who died in this year. For her he had a fond affection; and 
 in the grief of the moment, which was aggravated by pecu- 
 niary embarrassment, Franz Ries, the violinist — ^who, with Bern- 
 hard Romberg, and himself, was engaged as chamber musician 
 to the elector — showed him such timely sympathy as he could 
 never forget : — " Tell yom- fiither," said Beethoven to the son of 
 his old friend, when he brought him an introduction from the 
 violinist in Vienna, " that I remember the death of my mother." 
 We may suppose that, from their vaiious character, in his inter- 
 course with his parents, he made the experience of both affection 
 and contradiction, which only could have implanted the tender- 
 ness and the fretful irritability which were afterwards as conspi- 
 cuous in his personality as in his works. At tlie end of 1790 
 Beethoven was introduced to Haydn, at a breakfast given to 
 him by the band of the elector's chapel on his first return from 
 England, when a cantata of the young composer — of which no 
 vestige remains — was performed ; and he was warmly encouraged 
 by the veteran musician. Shortly after the completion of his 
 twenty-first year, thi-ough the liberality of the elector, he miide 
 
 his second \-isit to Vienna, where he found so manv advantage- 
 ous opportunities that his return was repeatedly deferred, until 
 he decided to make the Austrian capital his permanent resi- 
 dence. His father died in this year, and he was now launched 
 in the world, with no care but for his art and for his own pro- 
 gress in it. Jlozart was no more ; but his influence was per- 
 haps stronger than when he was personally present to exert it; 
 thus the highest class of music was in general esteem, and the 
 most aspuing geniiis found ready recognition and cordial encou- 
 ragement. The Baron Von Swieten — who engaged Slozart to 
 instrument the Jlessiah, and who furnished Haydn with the text 
 of the Creation — had frequent mxisical perfonnances, in which 
 Beethoven constantly participated ; and the Prince Lichnowsky 
 was ever ready to receive him as a guest, and to create oppor- 
 tunities for the display of those brUliant abilities, which it was no 
 httle merit in him to appreciate ; fm-ther, the prince settled upon 
 him an annuity of 600 floiins, to be continued till he should 
 obtain an official appointment ; but this was only one among 
 countless services that his truly noble family rendered to the 
 artist, which Beethoven acknowledged, in his dedications to him 
 and to his brother. Count Jloritz, of several of his most important 
 works. The prince proved, indeed, a most cordial zeal for the 
 musician, in his tolerance of the countless caprices of his cUent, 
 who bore his favours so gracelessly, as often to dine at a tavern 
 rather than submit to the restraint of dressing, and of punctual 
 presence at the piince's table, and to give many other such 
 whimsical tokens of independence. 
 
 Settled at Vienna, Beethoven placed himself under the tuition 
 of Haydn ; but, on showing some pieces the master had revised 
 to Schenk, a creditable composer, who pointed out eiTors in 
 them which Hadyn had overlooked, he formed the idea, which he 
 never relinquished, that he received lessons, but not instruction 
 from him. Under this impi-ession, he refused Haydn's proposal 
 that he should style himself his pupil on the works he printed. 
 His irritable temper was further excited against the venerable 
 svmphonist, by Haydn's advising him, with worldly pradence, 
 not to pubhsh the third of his first set of trios — that in C minor 
 — which Beethoven considered, and posterity confirms the judg- 
 ment, the best of the three. He dedicated to him, however, the 
 next work he printed, and so paid him a worthy homage without 
 compromising himself Though he had previously published 
 several works, and had written many that have never appeared, 
 the trios were the first to which he affixed a number ; and we 
 may infer firom this that he chose to date his career as a com- 
 poser from them. Kow, and for some time later, all he wrote 
 bears the impress of his time ; and even when we feel it most to 
 be Beethovenish, this is but because we fad to identify in it a 
 marked characteristic of Jlozart (powerfully evinced in this 
 master's Pianoforte Sonata in C minor), which seems to have 
 especially fascmated him, and in the development of which may 
 be traced much that is generally accounted pecuHar to our author; 
 in the trio, named above as his favourite, this manner is parti- 
 cularly apparent. It may have been among his causes of dis- 
 satisfaction with Haydn, that this master thought more highly 
 of him as a player than as a composer; and so sanctioned an 
 opinion, repugnant to his self-esteem, that was then prevalent. 
 His playing may well have raised the enthusiasm of all who heard 
 it ; for though wanting in mechanical finish, and even, occasion- 
 ally, in acciu-acy, it had a charm, from its deep expression, from 
 its fiery energy, and from its highly-wrought character — from, in 
 fact, the thoroughly artistic spiiit it embodied, which has never 
 been surpassed ; and we have little to wonder that the less appre- 
 ciable talent of composition should have been at the tune par- 
 tially eclipsed by one so dazzling. Beethoven was glad to take 
 the opportunity of Hadyn's second visit to England in 1794, 
 for breaking connection with him ; and immediately placed him- 
 self under Albrechtsberger, with whom he went through a course 
 of contrapuntal study. A superficial observer of his works might 
 apply the composer's comment upon his late, also to his present 
 master; for, though it appears, from his taking even- occasion to 
 introduce it, to have been his particular ambition to excel in fugal 
 v.-riting, it is in this style that he is less successful than in any 
 other. His counterpoint has an effect of stiffness and effort, 
 singularly opposed to the spontaneous freedom that characterizes 
 eveiything else he wrote ; but this results, not fi'om unskilful train- 
 ing and insuflicient knowledge, it is rather because the nature of 
 his ideas renders them insusceptible of this kind of treatment ; 
 and cruditv is the consequence of forcing them mto uncongenial
 
 development. There are, indeed, some grand exceptions from tMs 
 generalization — the last movement of the Eroica, above all others 
 — but there still exist too many examples to justify the remark. 
 About this time Beethoven made his only artistic tour, visiting 
 Leipzig and Berlin, where he played several times at court, 
 received a handsome gift from the king, and vn-ote his first 
 two violoncello sonatas, to perform with the then popular 
 Duport. In the Prussian capital, also, he met with Prince 
 Louis Ferdinand, the patron and pupil of Dussek, whose musi- 
 cal taste he acknowledged, and who proved this by his appreci- 
 ation of the genius of Beethoven. Shortly after his return to 
 Vienna, a fashionable countess gave an entertainment, to bring 
 this famous dilletante and artist together; when she gi-eatly 
 incensed the latter by not assigning to him a place at the nobi- 
 Uty's table in the supper-room ; for which, however, the prince 
 made some amends by seating the composer on his right, and the 
 countess on his left hand, at a dinner of his own ; but Beethoven 
 had already resented the indignity put upon him and his art, and 
 thus given the first proof that is recorded of the republicanism 
 wliich was his indomitable political principle. Strange as it may 
 seem that, surrounded by the admiring aristocracy of the countrj', 
 and fostered with a traly fraternal fondness by them, he should 
 have nourished such a feeling ; his proud independence was 
 unswemng, and he would have sacrificed the highest worldly 
 advantages rather than suffer this, in the slightest degree, to be 
 compromised. 
 
 Of all the great musicians that have been, no one has shown 
 such a continual development of his genius as Beethoven, and 
 so great was this with him that critics have, not unfitly, classed 
 his works in three separate styles, corresponding with three 
 periods of his life ; but although his mind was in an incessant 
 state of progress, and the productions of each epoch are mani- 
 festly distinguished from those of the other two, this distinction 
 must be understood to refer to style and not to merit, since in 
 his latest years he ^vl■ote bagatelles and other pieces of the 
 lightest, nay of the most trivial character ; whereas in this early 
 time he produced some of his greatest, if not his most individual 
 masterpieces, such as the Sonata in E flat, Op. 7, the Quintet 
 in the same key, and the Senate Pathetique. 
 
 It was now that he took lessons, professedly in dramatic 
 composition, of Salieri, his connection ■nith whom is acknow- 
 ledged in his first three violin sonatas. Whatever he may have 
 expected, "he received lessons, but not instruction," from this 
 fashionable composer of his day ; for the grand dramatic power 
 which marks his writing was not to be taught him, and the 
 conventionalities of the lyric drama are totally absent from his 
 few theatrical works. 
 
 In 1796 he first began to suifer from that dreadful malady — 
 the worst evil to which he of all men could be subject — which 
 embittered his life, which influenced his character, which excluded 
 him from society, and which cannot have been without its 
 important effect upon his music — the loss of hearing. Space 
 will not permit the recital of the many painful incidents that 
 sprang from this calamity ; but it must be noticed that it made 
 him irritable in temper, violent in manner, and suspicious to the 
 last degree ; detesting to play or even to appear in company, and 
 distrustful of eveiy one, even of tl'.ose most zealous in his interest. 
 It is needless to trace the course of the disease through thirty 
 years, which, baffling the greatest medical .skill, and proceeding 
 by degrees, ended in almost total deafness. Nothing can be more 
 pathetic than the manner in which he speaks of his affliction in 
 his letters to Dr. Wegeler, to Bettina von Amirn, and others; 
 but it cannot require his o^vn words of complaint to make us 
 estimate the misery it occasioned him. Let it not be thought 
 profane to mention here one whimsical consequence of this 
 misfortune. It naturally led Beethoven to seek, in the light 
 periodical literature of the d.ay, the resource which others find in 
 conversation, and his love of drollery fixed his attention upon 
 the pen'erted expressions common in facetious writing, which, 
 unaware of their peculiarity, since incapable of social parlance, 
 he adopted in his ordinary speech, and thus liis language, abound- 
 ing in epithets that had no reference to the occasion, became 
 extravagant, if not imintelligible. 
 
 At this time tlie famous quartet party, of which Schuppanzigh 
 was the first violin, first met at the residence of the Russian 
 ambassador. Count Rasumowsky. For Beethoven to witness 
 their remarkable performances was for him to be incited to write 
 for them, and he accordingly now produced his Quartet in D, 
 
 which was rapidly followed by the other five published with it. 
 He was closely connected with this eminently artistic association 
 to the end of his life, and wi'ote all his works of that class with 
 a special view to their perfonnance ; his transcendant excellence 
 as a quartet writer is thus, in some sort, a consequence of the 
 excellence of this party ; for though he had been urged by Count 
 Affany to compose for string instruments, his trios and his first 
 quintet were the only result, until he became concerned in the 
 Rasumowsky meetings. 
 
 His general habit of composition was to set down every idea 
 as it occurred to him, and afterwards to amalgamate these into 
 complete movements ; he would even modify a phrase in many 
 different forms upon paper, before he was satisfied to incorporate 
 it into a work ; and thus he employed his sketcli-book, as Mozart 
 did his memoiy, making it the cmcible in which he moulded liis 
 creations into maturity. He frequently pondered in this manner 
 for very long upon a composition, and would sometimes have 
 several in progress at once ; but, on the contrary, he would 
 occasionally produce a work with the promptness of improvisa- 
 tion ; and so, when a lady at the opera lamented to him the loss 
 of some favourite variations on the air, Nel cor piu, then 
 being sung, he wi'ote his piece on this theme, and sent it to her 
 the following morning. Again, the Horn Sonata which he wrote 
 to play with the celebrated Pnnto, had not a note on paper the 
 day before the performance, and both executants had to read 
 from the authors manuscript ; the same was the case some five 
 or six years later vnih the Violin Sonata, Op. 47, composed for 
 I\Ir. Bridgetower, the English violinist, and himself to play ; for 
 he called up his pupil, Ries, at four in the moniing of the 
 concert, to copy the first movement, while he was writing the 
 andante, with variations. lu 1799 he wrote the ballet of 
 " Prometheus," of which the merit of the overture makes us 
 regret the loss of the rest of the music. 
 
 This first period of his career may be considered to close with 
 the Symphony in D, which he T\Tote in 1801, and of which he 
 made three entire scores before he was satisfied to dismiss it. 
 In regarding the productions of this epoch, we must notice the 
 strikingly original conception of the scherzo, as it appears in the 
 Septet and in the Sjmphony in C, a germ that gi-eatly expanded 
 itself in the matmity of after works ; besides this, they ])resent 
 httle that is indiWdual to our master beyond their excellence, 
 which is, however, such as to rank them with the greatest things 
 that had preceded them. This fact is a powerful illustration of 
 the truth that originality consists, not necessarily in an excep- 
 tional habit of thought, but may be progressively developed from 
 external impressions, which, in the case of Beethoven, were the 
 seeds that ultimately ripened into the most original individuality 
 that has ever appeared in music. 
 
 Beethoven was of a most inflammable nature, and is reported 
 to have entertahied as many ardent passions as he met with 
 objects to inspire them. At the beginning of the present cen- 
 tuiy, however, he found one who made a deeper and far more 
 lasting impression upon his heart than any of the others ; this 
 was the Countess Giulietta di Guicciardi, to whom he dedicated 
 the " Sonata quasi Fantasia," in C sharp minor, to whom so late 
 as the summer of 180G he wrote three letters, expressing all 
 that words can reveal of the intense feeling this wondeifal crea^ 
 tion embodies, and whom, notwithstanding their discrepancy ot 
 rank, he, four years afterwards, seriously pm^oscd to many. 
 She it was who, in 1801, lured him for a time back into socie<y, 
 from which the embarrassment of his deafness had already exiled 
 him ; who gave him renewed confidence in himself, and reliance 
 on the world around him ; who was his constant object of most 
 anxious interest, his constant source of brightest inspiration. 
 The fastidious M. Schindler, with a reserve less delicate than 
 unaccountable, suppresses the circumstances of this connection, 
 which was perhaps the most important to his artistic career of 
 any that he fonned ; and we have, therefore, little endence of 
 its efl'oct upon his art and mind, beyond what is revealed in the 
 impassioned character of his music, of which it must always be 
 regarded as the key. 
 
 In 1801 he received Ferdinand Ries as a pupil, who was his 
 constant companion for the next few years, and was devoted to 
 his interest ever aftenvards. At this time his brother Carl came 
 to reside at Vienna, and his intercourse also with his brother 
 Johann became much more frequent than it seems to have been 
 in prenous years. The closer connection with his family, to 
 whom he was unalterably attached, aided little his personal com-
 
 BEE 
 
 4G5 
 
 BEE 
 
 i'irt, less his worldly interest, and nothing his artistic progress ; 
 liut, on the contrary, always eniban-assed him with unavailable 
 advice, inconsiderate remonstrance, and other uncongenial inter- 
 tVronce, besides a continual drain upon his pecuniary resources. 
 
 In 1802 he had a severe illness, that left him in one of those 
 Iits of deep despondency to which, without such additional aggra- 
 , ition, his isolated situation rendered him subject. In this state 
 lie vnote a will, bequeathing all his possessions to his brothers, 
 and exhorting them to deal tenderly with his memory, urging 
 Ids infinnity in extenuation of the eccentricities with which they 
 habitually reproached him. 
 
 In April, 1803, he produced the " Jlount of Olives." This 
 oratorio, to be rightly estimated, must not be classed witli those 
 that have been \TOtten for England, which, embodjing a totally 
 different sentiment, are cast in as different a mould, and produce 
 their effects by as different means ; in accordance with the spirit 
 of his church — for Beetlioven, though a free-tliinker, was imbued 
 with the fomiulae in wliich he had been reai-ed and by wliich he 
 was surrounded — it represents the personal agony of the Saviour, 
 and in the truthfulness of this representation, in its dramatic 
 personality, lies its chief merit. Tlu-oughout the work we have 
 proof, as ample as in " Adelaide," and in " Ah perfido," of the 
 feeling for true vocal effect which has been denied to the com- 
 poser, and hence we must account, by other causes than the want 
 of this, for the imvocal character of some of his later writings. 
 
 Beraadotte, then ambassador at Vienna, suggested to Beethoven, 
 in the course of this year, the composition of a grand instrumental 
 work in honour of Napoleon. His republican feeling caught fire 
 at the proposal, and he entered upon the task with the deter- 
 mination to produce a masterpiece that should stand in art, as 
 its hero does in history — the sun of a system. He spent the 
 greater p.art of a year upon the composition, and wrouglit in it 
 the first great manifestation of his individuality, fulfilling to the 
 utmost the highest intention he could have fonued with regard 
 to it, and constructing in it a monmnent to his own genius that 
 can never perish. The noblest and best that belongs to music 
 characterizes this colossal effort, and if the gi-eatness of Beethoven, 
 an artist, were to be epitomised in a single work, this work 
 uld represent it all. The completed score was about to 
 be forwarded to the first consul ; the title-page was headed 
 " Buonaparte," at the bottom of the leaf was written " Luigi 
 n Beethoven;" and the author was considering the form of 
 ids that should link these extraordinary names, wlien he 
 rued that Napoleon had assumed the crown of empire; 
 iMged at this, as though at a personal grievance, so entirely 
 i he identified himself with the subject, he tore the intended 
 I '-page m pieces, threw the manuscript of his outraged imagin- 
 j-^ upon the ground, and would not for many months allow the 
 rk to be named. It was subsequently purchased by Prince 
 !'kowitz, at whose residence it was first performed, and now 
 '.vas that it received the title of " Sinfonia Eroica," with the 
 ^u])erscription " Per festegiare il sowenire d'un gran uomo." 
 
 His next great work was the opera of " Leonore," which was 
 j i-oduced in November, 1805, but seven days after the entry of 
 Napoleon's troops into Vienna. Its non-success was the natural 
 'insequence of the political excitement of the time, of the 
 ■ilisi'uce from the city of the principal lovers of music, including 
 the Lichnowsky family, and of the theatre being attended almost 
 'iitirely by French officers, who probably did not understand the 
 1 inguage, and certainly could not comprehend the music ; and it 
 <, accordingly, withdrawn after the third perfoi-mance. The 
 ra had been written under engagement to the manager of the 
 1 iieatre, who provided Beethoven with a lodging during the time 
 of its composition, which being, however, as distasteful to him as 
 three others he rented at the same time (this matter of residence 
 was one about which he was especially capricious), he wrote the 
 work at the village of Hetzendoif, and it was now produced with 
 the first overture — that published after his death as Op. 138, and 
 commonly known by the name of " Leonoi-e Fidelio." 
 
 Fortunately for art, the English theatrical custom of regard- 
 ing original non-success as total failure prevailed not in Vienna, 
 and the opera was accordingly reproduced in March, 1806, with 
 some advantageous modification of the libretto, when it was well 
 received; but in consequence of disputes between the composer 
 and' the manager and singers, it was again laid aside after three 
 representations ; in the interim, since the first production, the 
 great overture in C (known by the name of "Leonore"), as 
 well as the second overture (Op. 139), which is a sketch for this, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 had been written, and it was with this grand composition that 
 the opera was reproduced. ^V\\en Prince Lichnowsky returned 
 to Vienna, one of his first cares was for Beethoven's opera; 
 accordingly a meeting took place at his house to discuss the 
 remodelling of the work, when the composer was, with extreme 
 difficulty, persuaded to omit a duet and a trio, in which the love 
 of JIarzelline for Fidelio and the jealousy of Jaquino were 
 exhibited, probably to re'write the songs of Pizarro and Florestan, 
 to insert the march, and to compose the fourth overture (that in 
 E, kno'wn by the name of "Fidelio"); the libretto was now 
 reduced from three into two acts, the name of the opera was 
 changed to " Fidelio," and in this altered form it was again 
 reproduced in 1807, to meet with that success which has stamped 
 it a classic of the lyrical stage ; on this occasion, Mesdms. Jlilder 
 and Marconi, personated Leonore and Marzelline, and JIM. 
 Rockel and Meyer, Florestan and PizaiTO. M. Lenz assigns 
 1814 as the date of the fourth overtiu'c, but the authority 
 for the above account is more satisfactory. To describe the 
 merits of this masterpiece, would greatly surpass the present 
 limits ; the chief are its all-powerful dramatic character, and 
 the gradual growth of the intensity of its expression with the 
 progress of the action ; it is rendered difficult of comprehension 
 to a general public by the minuteness of the expression, which 
 necessitates in the hearers, not only a knowledge of the broad 
 sentiment, but of the very words of the text, each one of which 
 has its meaning illustrated in the music. This quality, which 
 induces the very perfection of " Fidelio " as a work of art, has 
 had the baneful influence upon recent productions of suggesting 
 a coniipt style, in which the principles of composition are sacri- 
 ficed to the pretence of expression, and music ceases to be music 
 to become mere declamation, \^'^loever would exalt this style, 
 by refeiTUig it to the work under consideration, must be insensible 
 to the technical beauties of that work, which transcend even the 
 beauty of its expression, and forget that means are essential to 
 an end. In 1806, while he was coiTesponding with the Coun- 
 tess Guicciardi, Beethoven -wTote the Symphony in B flat, the 
 epitome of a happy love in the many phases of its enthusiasm, 
 finding, in this indulgence of his innermost feeling, a relief from 
 the vexations occasioned by his opera, by his uncertain health, 
 and even by his deafness. In the years following the final pro- 
 duction of " Fidelio," he -wrote successively that glorious mani- 
 festation of will and power, the Symphony in C minor, and that 
 musical idyl which truthfully tells us how deep was his love of 
 nature, the " Sinfonia Pastorale." He had already, in his 
 overture to Coriolanus, and in eacli of the overtures to liis opera, 
 proved the power of music independently of words to embody a 
 definite expression, as distinct from the undefined, if not unde- 
 cided sentiment of the instnimental works of previous com- 
 posers ; and in the last-named work, where the character is 
 didactic instead of dramatic, where the expression is of his own 
 feelings, not of those of the persons of his stoi-y, this power is 
 evinced with equal success. In these two symphonies an 
 important originality of the form is to be noticed, as conducing 
 to the effect of unity in an extensive instrumental work, the 
 conjunction, namely, of several movements. 
 
 In 1809 Beethoven was oftcred the appointment at Casscl of 
 kapellmeister to Jerome Buonaparte, king of Westphalia, with a 
 salaiy of 600 ducats, and an equipage; such an engagement, with 
 the independence it was to secure, and the opportunities it was 
 to open, was most desirable to the already world-acknowledged 
 artist ; but so highly was liis merit prized, and so cordial was 
 the feehng in his interest, that the Archduke Rudolf, Prince 
 Lobkowitz, and Prince Kinsky — perpetual honour be to them 
 for their illustrious liberality — subscrihi'd togctlier to pay him 
 an annual pension of 4000 florins, with the ccmdition, which he 
 accepted, that he should not hold an office out of the Austrian 
 dominions; and the composer was thus placed in a position to 
 be indifterent to evei-y consideration in his works, but the 
 adv.ancement of his art. A circumstance connected with this 
 incident strongly exemplifies Beethoven's suspicious character, 
 liis readiness to take offence, and his generous zeal to atone for 
 it. Young Ries, to whom he had given a thousand proofs of 
 friendship, on being told that his master had refused the appoint- 
 ment at Cassel, wrote to ask his permission to apply for it for 
 himself. His repeated letters to this ellect received no reply; 
 equally in vain lie sought to s])eak to him, until an accidental 
 meeting gave him an opportunity, when Beethoven disdainfully 
 retorted — " Do you presume to think that you could fill an 
 
 3 N
 
 office that has been oftered to me ? " Stung to the quick by 
 this repulse, Ries forced him to an explanation, when he owned 
 that he had supposed his pupil to be trying against him for the 
 engagement, and that his conduct was in resentment of the 
 fancied opposition ; but being now convinced that his su])position 
 was false, he exerted himself with far more energy to obtain the 
 post for Eies than he had done to secure it for himself. The 
 exertion was, however, to no effect, for during the delay the 
 appointment had been given to Blangini. In 1810 the Mass in 
 C was brought out, its first performance being in the chapel of 
 Prince Esterhazy, of which Hummel was master ; and it was from 
 the misinterpretation of a look of that distinguished musician on 
 this occasion that the susceptible Beethoven assumed an offence 
 which separated the two for many years. Allusion has been 
 made to the freedom of the composer's religious sentiment, 
 recurrence to which is not untimely in reference to this remarkable 
 ecclesiastical work — remarkable for the poetical conception of 
 the text it embodies — equally remarkable for the infinite beauty 
 of the technical means by which this is rendered. His life-long 
 habits had fully familiarized him with everything that was 
 conventional in the subject ; but the impersonal aspect in which 
 his personal feelings led him to regard it, induced the new and 
 profound readings, which, with all their ideality, and with all 
 their impressiveness, might scarcely have proceeded from an 
 entirely orthodox thinker. What has been ventured in criticism 
 upon Beethoven's fugal writing, applies more pertinently to 
 nothing than to the examples in this composition, which are the 
 isolated passages throughout the work tliat admit a question of 
 their consummate beauty. In this year, Bettina von Arnim 
 introduced herself to Beethoven, who, always yearning for com- 
 panionship with the other sex, was enraptured to find in this 
 celebrated lady one with whom he could converse upon the 
 subject of his art, and thus unfold his deepest meditations. Her 
 description of him to Goethe is perhaps an idealism ; but if it 
 divests the artist of his mere humanities, it presents, the more 
 clearly for this, that spiritual nature, the working of which in 
 his music confirms her portraiture. In his mere humanities, 
 however, Beethoven was not an ordinary being, and whoever 
 denies a licence to his eccentricities on the grounds of his 
 gi-eatness, cannot but concede it on the score of his infirmity. 
 Certain it is, that when he went his daily walk round the city, 
 through all weathers, and in all seasons, at the extreme of speed, 
 fulfilling in his wild appearance all that can be imagined of a 
 state of inspiration, the people knew him, and the lowest of 
 them stood aside in reverence of a greatness they appreciated, 
 though they might not understand. This lady was the medium 
 of his first communication with Goethe, for whose calling as a 
 poet, and for himself, as its most worthy representative, he had 
 the highest veneration. It was almost as a tribute to the gi-eat- 
 ness of the author, and certainly as an acknowledgment of the 
 greatness of the play, that he now wrote the music for Egmont, 
 in which the world received a new and one of the greatest proofs 
 of the abstract power of musical expression. Whatever spiritual 
 affinity there may have been between the musician and the poet, 
 there was no personal congeniality; and thus, though they 
 became acquainted, they did not, as they could not, become friends. 
 In 1812 I5eethoven wrote music for Kotzebue's masque, the 
 Ruins of Athens, to inaugm-ate a new theatre in Pcsth ; but 
 how much besides the overture of this very unequal work belongs 
 to the present occasion, how much to that of its reproduction 
 with a new text in October, 1822, seems to be unknown. 
 King Stephen, a work of the same class may, from the nature 
 of its subject, and the style of its music (excepting always the 
 march, the duet, and the dcrvise choms of the fonner piece), per- 
 haps be attributed to the same date. Miilzel, the inventor of the 
 metronome, who had a scientific knovdedge of mechanics, and 
 who was an intimate friend of Beethoven, attempted the con- 
 struction of an instrument that should assist his hearing. No 
 price would liave been too gi-eat for the accomplishment of such 
 a service, which would restore the artist socially to the world, 
 and open to him anew the estenial effects of music; and the 
 sufferer deemed it but small compensation to compose a piece for 
 the display of an extensive baiTel organ of the mechanist's 
 invention, and he wrote accordingly the " Battle Symphony ;" the 
 idea of the work, the manner in which it was to be carried out, 
 and even the means to be employed, down to the minutest 
 detail, were suggested by Miilzel ; and with this account of its 
 purpose and its origin, all that is unaccountable in the emana- 
 
 tion of such a production from Beethoven is explained. Miilzel 
 aftervvai'ds persuaded him to adapt it for the orchestra ; and in 
 this shape it was first performed at a concert given in December, 
 1813, for the benefit of the Austrian soldiers who had been 
 wounded at the battle of Hanau, in which all the most distui- 
 guished musicians of the time, regardless of professional pre- 
 cedence co-operated. The instrument from which Beethoven 
 expected the revival of his happiness, proved a failure; but its 
 constructor still esteemed himself the proprietor of the " Battle 
 Symphony," and obtaining, since the author refused him one, a 
 surreptitious and imperfect copy of the score, had the work per- 
 formed in different places for his own emolument. Beethoven 
 was not more disgusted at this nefarious proceeding than at the 
 neglect, by our Prince Regent, of the same composition, of which, 
 though it was dedicated to him, though a copy was sent him, 
 and though the author used every means to urge him on the 
 subject, he never made any acknowledgment. At the same 
 benevolent concert in which the " Battle Symphony" was first 
 performed, was also produced a work which, if less attractive 
 for the moment, was far more important to the art and to the 
 reputation of the author. This was the Symphony in A, which, 
 with its wild romance, its passionate yearning, its extravagant 
 gaiety, and all its novelties of means and purpose, may be 
 regarded as one of the first products of that stage in the develop- 
 ment of Beethoven's genius, classed by critics as his third style, 
 having ample affinity with what liad preceded it, to prove it to 
 be the continuation of a course, and not a tangent into a strange 
 direction, yet having sufficient peculiarity of its own, to show that 
 this course had opened upon scenes hitherto unexjjlored; in like 
 manner the same chain of connection may be traced, linking all 
 the stations of progress through which Ids genius passed. On 
 the occasion of the meeting of the allied sovereigns at the Con- 
 gress of Vienna in 1814, he was engaged to vmte the cantata 
 " Der GloiTeiche Augenblick," in honour of the event (some time 
 after published with a different text, and known in England as 
 " The Praise of Harmony"), an inferior work, indeed, for its 
 author, but containing many points of interest. Besides a large 
 pccuniai-y payment, he received for this work the citizenship of 
 Vienna; and, being thus brought before the assembled royalty of 
 Europe as the brightest ornament of the nation, he became 
 the subject of such homage as has perhaps never been offered to an 
 artist. With all his republicanism, he was deeply touched by the 
 honours now he.aped upon him, to which, in later years, he never 
 alluded without emotion. His political creed was in the supre- 
 macy of mind over birth, and he was not 'a little proud to 
 receive this indirect acknowledgment of his axiom. 
 
 In 1815 Mr. Neate, the pianist, on behalf of the Philharmonic 
 Society of London, obtained from Beethoven, three unpublished 
 overtures, paying him seventy-five guineas for the right of per- 
 formance until they should be printed. These were the " Iving 
 Stephen," the "Ruins of Athens," and the "Op. 115." And 
 many will not marvel, that the Philharmonic Society, with an 
 equal jealousy for the composer's reputation and its own, would 
 not produce them in public. The censorship of this institution 
 has perhaps not always been so judiciously exei-cised. The 
 author's indiscrimination as to the relative mei-its of his own 
 works, is shown in the mortification he evinced at the non-perform- 
 ance of these overtures ; another instance of which, is his .sore- 
 ness at the prince's neglect of his " Battle Symphony ; " for he 
 defended these compositions with as much earnestness, and 
 spoke of their being overlooked with as much conceni, as though 
 he would have been contented to stake his reputation upon them. 
 Not to adduce his dislike in later years of all his early produc- 
 tions, the offence he took at a publisher's protest against the 
 triviality of the bagatelles he wrote in the intervals of the com- 
 position of his second Mass, may be named as another example 
 of this incapacity for self-judgment. Mr. Neate, with a true 
 reverence for the master, and a sincere desire to advance his 
 reputation and further his interest, undertook to negotiate the sale 
 and publication in England of some of his larger chamber works; 
 but, as is little to be wondered, failed to make a market for them 
 here ; and Beethoven, with the injustice into which his suspicious 
 nature continually led him, ascribed the failure of the agency as 
 a wilful fault to his zealous agent. The death of his brother 
 Carl in November, 1815, was an event of the most serious con- 
 sequence to the rest of his life. Carl left a son of about eight 
 years old, over whom he, by will, appointed Beethoven guardi.in. 
 Beethoven had, from time to time, advanced large sums for his
 
 brother's support ; but here was a constant tax that was to sur- 
 pass all that had preceded. The pecuniary respousibility thus 
 imposed upon him, was, however, matter of little consideration 
 compared with the happiness he anticipated from finding, in his 
 foster-son, a being who would devotedly love him, and so fill up 
 the blank in his heart, of which his disappoLated longing made 
 him but too conscious ; a being upon whom he might pour the 
 fulness of his power of affection, and believe it to be reciprocated. 
 The vexatious circumstances, however, in which this important 
 legacy involved him, and, still more, the unfitness of his own 
 character, matured and dbtorted as this had been by a life of 
 isoiatiou, for the duties of a parent, rendered the new relationship 
 in which he was placed, a source of ceaseless harass and auxiety. 
 The fii-st evil of his new relationship, which was Lq fact the 
 origin of all its sad conseqiiences to him, was a contention with 
 his brother's widow, who, as a mother, claimed a right over her 
 child. This was referred to a legal tribunal, and the suit was 
 not decided in confirmation of the father's wiU until Januaiy, 
 1820. In the meantime, Beethoven forbade all intercourse 
 between the mother and son; and thus taught his nephew, 
 impelled by natural feeling towards her, to deceive him. With 
 impmdent fondness, he gave the boy unbounded indulgence, by 
 which, however, instead of stimulating the affection he desired, 
 he but made opportimities for imposition upon his kindness. He 
 resented rather than punished the failings of his foster-son, -with 
 petulance, more hke a spoiled child than a guardian ; and his entire 
 course of management was one series of mistaken good intentions. 
 The lawsuit ended, the youth was placed at the university, where 
 he was pubUcly disgraced for his misconduct. Harassed by his 
 ■ ritated uncle's reproaches, he made an attempt upon his life, 
 which he was imprisoned as a criminal. The powerful friends of 
 : . cthoven enabled him to obtain his nephew's release, and to pro- 
 cure for him a commission in the army. His anxieties for this 
 unhappy young man ceased only with his own life, and the bitter 
 ::_'uish he endured at the disappointment of the doting hopes 
 had centred in him, was the greatest grief he ever had to 
 iur. His last act in discharge of the duties he had assumed 
 vards him, was to make this nephew his sole heir; though, in 
 - last moments, as throughout their entire connection, the 
 ulect he experienced was wanton, as the kindness he lavished was 
 fuse. This melancholy train of events yields abundant iUus- 
 tions of his generous, integritous, loving, suspicious, and exact- 
 , character, the faults of which were exaggerations of virtues, 
 ■juch natural results of his peculiar position as are to be traced 
 I'ctly to the external honours he received and the internal 
 v.ations he suffered. To add to the vexation of the last dozen 
 irs of his life, the pension settled upon him was reduced, first 
 an alteration in the funds, then by the death of Prince 
 .Irsky, and stUl further by the ruin of Prince Lobkowitz, so 
 it for long he received only the portion subscribed by his 
 istrious pupil and munificent friend, the Archduke Piudolf, 
 ;d that diminished in value by the change in the currency. 
 J !.e increase of his household and other expenses on his nephew's 
 account, the cost of his lawsuit, and the reduction of his income, 
 made him extremely anxious about money matters — anxious 
 to the extent, far beyond what the occasion justified, of dread- 
 ing the approach of beggaiy; so we find him in his letters 
 speaking of " writing for bread," and representing himself as 
 fallen into the greatest extremity; whereas, the price he received 
 for his works was now at least fourfold what it had been at the 
 beginning of the century. He had as many commissions as he 
 could execute, and, what is most of all satisfactory, there is no 
 evidence of hLs ever knowing anything more of want than the 
 fear of its coming. He received successive invitations from our 
 Philharmonic Society, upon the most liberal and advantageous 
 terms, to visit this coiuitry, and dh-ect the performance of some 
 of his works. These proposals were especially attractive to him, 
 as, irrespective of the emolument, he was always desirous to see 
 England, the country whose constitution, laws, and institutions, 
 made the nearest approximation to his ideal of government. The 
 latest of these invitations was in December, 1824, but this, like 
 all that had preceded it, was entertained with pleasure only to 
 be rejected with regret. His deafness was, of course, a constant 
 obstacle to his travelling, and his lawsuit, his occasional illness, 
 and his successive troubles wth his nephew, raised up, from time 
 to time, difficulties of the moment which were insuperable. De- 
 spite the cares by wliich he was sixn-ounded, imaginary and real, 
 he now concentrated himself upon his art with greater intensity 
 
 than at any previous time ; he produced his longest and most 
 elaborate compositions ; he worked at these with unremitted 
 ardour, and he suffered no consideration of popular success or 
 extrinsic effect to interfere with the gi-cat internal purpose 
 each was to embody. In 1817 he wrote the Symphony in F, 
 that type of freshness, independence, determination, gaiety, and 
 humour ; and while the annoyances of his contention with his 
 brother's widow were at their height, he produced the great Sonata 
 in B flat, Op. 106, one of the most profoundly thoughtful and 
 deeply considered of all his works. His early repugnance to teach- 
 ing naturally increased as his creative powers became acknow- 
 ledged, and he had more and more opportunity to exercise them. 
 He never had in fact but two permanent pnpUs, Ries, and the 
 Archduke Rudolf, which latter would never admit himself to 
 have completed his studies ; but indifferent to Beethoven's 
 uncom-feous manners, indifferent even to the master's disin- 
 clination, took every occasion to make his lessons a pretext 
 for having the great artist beside liim, and for heaping favom-s 
 in recompense for them. The archduke was, in 1819, 
 appointed aixhbishop of Olmntz, and Beethoven pvu-posed 
 to make a worthy acknowledgment of all the obligations he 
 owed by composing a Mass, to be performed at his inauguration. 
 He entered, accordingly, upon the task with his artistic feelings 
 stimulated to the highest by the keen sense of honour which 
 prompted hmi to exceed all his former efforts, and prove himself, 
 in the production of his greatest work, equal to what he deemed 
 the greatest occasion for the display of his powers. He was in 
 unusually robust health when he began the Mass in D, and he 
 proceeded \-igorously with his labour until he had sketched to 
 the end of the Credo; but now he became fastidious, and 
 repeatedly laying aside the work, to retm-n to it after careful 
 reflection, he protracted its progress to such an extent, that the 
 occasion for which it was designed was come and gone before the 
 composition neared its completion. The incentive to immediate 
 application thus removed, he now continued the work for its own 
 sake, and becoming ever more severe in his self-criticism upon 
 it, its conclusion seemed to grow ever more distant, and, as if by 
 lingering over it he learned to love the labour, he grew reluctant 
 to dismiss it from his hands, and so arrive at a time when he 
 would no longer be engaged upon it. In the summer of 1822, 
 after the gernunation of three years, this ceaseless subject of his 
 thoughts attained its maturity, and he regarded it always after- 
 wards with such a fondness as could only spring from the 
 peculiar circmnstances of its production. This most extraordinary 
 composition owes to those very circumstances which endeared it 
 to its author, the qualities that render it inaccessible to general 
 comprehension — its profound esthetical purpose, and its excessive 
 technical elaboration. It is perhaps the grandest piece of musi- 
 cal expression the art possesses, and it abounds in passages of 
 such lofty beauty as is nothing short of subUme — the rendering 
 of the "passus" and the "judicare" for example, and the tenor 
 and alto recitatives in the "Agnus;" but its difficulty makes it 
 almost impossible of execution, and its length makes it whoUy 
 unavailable for ecclesiastical pxu-poses. Its performance then can 
 only, under the most propitious conditions, take place in the con- 
 cert-room ; and thus, in respect of fitness for its object, it is a 
 colossal failm-e; but its gigantic merits are equal to its propor- 
 tions, and it will ever be regarded with reverence, even where it 
 cannot be accepted with faith. In the iuten'als of the composi- 
 tion of the JIass in D, he wrote the three remarkable pianoforte 
 Sonatas, namely, in E, with its infinitely beautiful melody, varied 
 for the last movement. Op. 109 ; in A flat, with its passionately 
 declamatory Adagio, Op. 110 ; and in C minor, a type of rugged 
 grandeur, Op. Ill; besides the bagatelles already named, some 
 other trifling pieces, and even some dimcc; for a public garden. 
 In the winter after the completion of the Mass, Beethoven 
 addressed a letter to each of the sovereigns of Europe, offering 
 a copy of this work for the price of fifty ducats; tlie emperor 
 of Russia and the kings of Fr.ince, Prussia, and Saxony only, 
 accepted his proposal, and Prince Radziwil and the Frankfort 
 Cecilian society subscribed for copies on the same tcnns. The 
 greater part of the year 1823 was occupied in the composition 
 of the Choral Symphony, the work which for grandeur, pathos, 
 fantastic vivacity, and the ultimate development of an idea, 
 and, in all these, for intensity and power, better represents the 
 fully-matured genius of the master, in its greatness and its 
 individuaUty, than any other. This sjonphony has been more 
 the subject of commentary than all the productions of Beethoven ;
 
 BEE 
 
 468 
 
 BEE 
 
 and we owe little thanks to his intimates, that, of a work of 
 such paramount importance as this, they failed to elicit from 
 himself a definite account of its purport, which would have 
 prevented much critical disputation, and certainly enhanced the 
 interest of the composition. In the absence of authority, we 
 may assume, first, that, feeling his admitted pre-eminence as a 
 composer of instrumental music, Beethoven resolved to give the 
 world a work of this class, which, in greatness of proportion, of 
 design and of signification, should surpass everything that had 
 gone before it, and so justify to himself the estimation in which 
 he held his own power ; and second, that, having embodied in 
 the first three movements the changeful phases of a mighty 
 grief, he chose to contrast these by the expression of joy in 
 every varying aspect, selected Schiller's Ode as a vehicle for 
 the conduct of his plan, and introduced voices as an additional 
 resource to those of the instramental orchestra, that he miglit 
 insure such vitality in the eflect of this portion of the symphony 
 as would command the magnetic sympathy of its hearers, and 
 so especially illustrate the living principle that distmgiushes 
 sublimity from the rendermg of mortal passion, however great 
 its beauty. ^lany circumstances had concurred to induce Beet- 
 hoven's very rare appearance in public dming recent years ; 
 among these we may consider his infirmity, which rendered 
 liis direction of a perfonnance he could not hear most embar- 
 rassing to all concerned, and fatal to its effect ; the greater and 
 greater complexity of his music, which rendered this ever less 
 acceptable to a general audience ; and, not less than either, 
 his querulous temper, which, if it made Mm not public enemies, 
 must have given many a one a secret disinclination to assist 
 in his aggi-andizement. He, however, esteemed himself slighted, 
 and regarded with jealousy the ephemeral fashion for Rossini 
 as the cause. Under this impression, arising from the contrast 
 between the profuse honours paid to him a few years earlier and 
 his present retii'ement, he proposed to produce his last composition 
 at Berlin, and so revenge the neglect of the Viennese. To pre- 
 vent this artistic disgrace upon their city, thirty of the most 
 distinguished musicians and lovers of music in the Austrian capital, 
 including his tmswening friends of the Liehnowsky family, signed 
 a memorial, representing their reverence for him, and entreating 
 him to give the first perfonnance of these works in Vienna. 
 The result of this correspondence was a concert at the Kiirntner- 
 thor theatre. May 7, 1824, at which the Overture in C, Op. 124, 
 the Kyrie, Credo, and Agnus from the JIass, and the Choral 
 Symphony were perfomied. Umlauf, with Beethoven by his 
 side to mdicate the tempos, conducted the orchestra, and the 
 theatre was crowded to excess. The applause at the conclusion 
 was tumultuous ; but this gave occasion to an incident perhaps 
 the most pathetic in the whole history of art. He whose renown 
 had called the multitude together, he whose genius had kindled 
 the general enthusiasm, stood in the midst insensible to the 
 sounds that stimulated the delight of all around him, insensible 
 to the vociferations that expressed it, until Sontag and Ungher, 
 who had been singing the principal parts, turned his face towards 
 the public, and proved, by the waving handlverchiefs and the uni- 
 versal motions of excitement, to his organs of sight, the genuine 
 triumph of which his ears refused him testimony. The pealing 
 cheer this spectacle drew from the very hearts of all who wit- 
 nessed it, penetrated even Beethoven's deafness, and he must 
 have quitted the scene with the consciousness of having set the 
 seal upon his immortality. 
 
 He now proposed to himself a series of grand orchestral works ; 
 but he was prevented from entering upon this design by the 
 application of Piince Nicolas Galitzin for tliree \aohn quartets, 
 of which, for the consideration of seventy-five ducats, he was to 
 have possession for a year before they were published. Beethoven 
 immediately wrote, therefore, the Quartet iu E flat ; but he was 
 delayed in the fulfilment of his commission by the illness at the 
 beginning of 1825 that obliged him to forego the last proposed 
 visit to London, on the recover)' from which he ^\Tote the Quartet 
 in A minor, containing the " Song of Thanksgiving," and then 
 the great Quartet in B flat. M. Scliindler, in most unmeasured 
 terms, viUfies the prince for the non-fulfilment of his contract 
 upon the receipt of the compositions; but he in 1854, not having 
 till then met with M. Schindler's biography, published in the 
 German, French and Enghsh musical journals, a refutation of 
 the calumny, in the documents that duly acknowledged the 
 stipulated payment. 
 
 It had been proposed to Beethoven by Haslinger, the Vien- 
 
 nese publisher, to let him print a complete edition of his works, 
 with such con-ections or modifications as he might choose to 
 make, and wth most explicit indications of the tempos and 
 other directions as to the manner in which they should be per- 
 formed. This suggestion greatly pleased him ; but it was 
 coupled with a condition that the same house should have the 
 exclusive right of pmxhasing, upon a fixed scale of terms, what- 
 ever he might write for the future. Such a restriction was 
 quite incompatible with the composer's feeling of independence, 
 and the scheme was therefore rejected. About the time at 
 which we have now arrived, Johann Beethoven (who had proved 
 himself the best man of business in the family, by retiring 
 upon a competent fortune, raised from the sum Ludwig had fur- 
 nished to start him in the world) recalled his brother's attention 
 to the complete edition, advising him to publish it on his own 
 account ; this temptation to become a speculator was very great; 
 but, though much time was spent in calculating its results, and 
 considering how to avoid mterference with assigned copyrights, 
 the project was never canied into eflect. 
 
 With the considerate design of drawing the emperor's atten- 
 tion to him, and raising him in court esteem, if not gaining for 
 him a court appointment, Beethoven's early stedfast fiiend. 
 Count Moritz Liehnowsky, procured him a commission to write 
 a JIass for the imperial chapel ; he was also besought to com- 
 pose an opera for Berlin, and, after long protracted discussion, 
 he proceeded so far as to decide upon the national tale of Melu- 
 sine (that which Mendelssohn has illustrated in his overture) for 
 the subject, and to arrange with the poet GrOlparzer, the plan 
 upon which this*was to be conducted ; further, he projected an 
 oratorio, for which the same author was to furnish the text, to 
 be called " Der Sieg des Kreuzes ;" but neither of these three 
 impoitaut intentions was earned into effect. 
 
 Another great work for a considerable time occupied his 
 thoughts, and he advanced so far with it as to make, according 
 to his wont, many sketches of the chief ideas and theu" develop- 
 ment ; this was a tenth symphony, to the composition of which 
 he had been urgently pressed by our Philharmonic Society, and 
 to which the earnest attention of his last moments was applied. 
 He left also some fragments of a violin quintet, but this can 
 scarcely have been the work respecting which he con-esponded 
 with Ries in 1819, and of which there is no evidence besides the 
 statement in his letter that it had been sent to London. His 
 latest finished composition was the last movement, as it Is 
 printed, of the great Quartet in B flat, which he wrote at the 
 request of Artaria, the publisher, m substitution for the fugue, 
 Op. 133, that originally formed the conclusion of this extensive 
 work. The very strong analog)', in the conception and the 
 development, between the movement which was the last fruit 
 of his genius and several productions of earlier stages in his 
 career, is a striking proof that, whatever of novelty may appear 
 in his so-called third style, this is but the expansion of his ori- 
 ginal nature, not, as some critics pretend, an aberration from it. 
 
 To state succinctly his estimation of other musicians, it may 
 be said that he ranked Handel pre-eminent, but loved the works 
 of ^lozart, and reverenced those he knew (probably a very 
 small proportion) of S. Bach ; he spoke slightingly of Rossini, 
 thought highly of Schubert, and greeted Weber ^vith a cor- 
 diality that proved his admiration. His letter to Cherubini, 
 soliciting his interest to obtain the French king's patronage 
 of the " ilass," has less of sincerity in its manner than any- 
 thing which has reached us, and we must therefore wait for 
 other testimony of Ids high appreciation of this composer. 
 
 His habits were, to rise early, to write till dinner-time in the 
 middle of the day, to walk for some two hours, dming which he 
 arranged his thoughts, and to extemporise on the pianoforte or 
 violin till he went to bed, which was seldom later than ten 
 o'clock. Though disorderly in his dress, he was excessively 
 cleanly in his person ; and, however ill-regulated, his household 
 was fnigal. His last illness fell upon him in the autumn 
 of 1826; it soon proved to be dropsy; he suffered immensely, 
 and was tapped tlu-ee times. His groundless fear of poverty 
 caused him during this period extreme anxiety, under which 
 he wrote, through Jloscheles, to our Philharmonic Society, 
 requesting pecuniaiy assistance ; and, to the lasting honour 
 of this institution be it recorded, the first return of post 
 carried him an order for £100 sterling. This reached him 
 but a few days before his death, but he had no occasion for 
 its use ; and on his decease there were found among his eflfecta
 
 BEF 
 
 469 
 
 BEH 
 
 bank shares to the value of ten times the amount. He died, 
 after several hours' insensibility, at six in the evening, having 
 received the last offices of the chm-ch two days before. He 
 was inteiTcd at Wiihring, a village near Vienna, with great 
 solemnity, all the musicians of the city assisting m the funeral 
 rites, which were witnessed by a concourse of many thousand 
 persons. Thus, the utmost honour was paid to his mortal 
 remains; the homage of all time is due to his immortal memory; 
 and this tribute of the generations his genius has enriched is 
 paid with ever-increasing willingness, as the extending knowledge 
 of his works enlarges the appreciation of their greatness, in the 
 heart-throbs that vibrate wth the impassioned strains of his 
 creation. — G. A. M. 
 
 BEFFARA, Louis Francois, born at Nnnancom-t on the 23rd 
 of August, 1751. Was made commissary of police in Paiis in 
 1792, in which office he continued till 1815. His position enabled 
 him to become intimately acquainted with evei-ything and eveiy- 
 body connected with the drama, and he collected a vast quantity 
 of curious and interestmg matter in relation to the theatres, both 
 in France and other countries. He published a considerable 
 number of works and dissertations on the subjects, especially in 
 relation to Moliere, but the greater portion of his writings have 
 never been printed. The manuscripts are in the Bibliotheque 
 Imperiale, and Bibliotheque de la VOle, at Paris. He died at 
 Paris on the 2nd Februaiy, 1838. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEFFROY DE BEAUVOIR, Louis-Etienne, a French 
 military officer, and a member of the old convention, bom at Laon 
 in 1754; died at Liege in 1825. He took his place among the 
 Montagnards, and voted for the death of Louis XVI., and other 
 extreme measures. In 181G, being, in common with all the 
 members of the convention who had voted for the death of the 
 king, sent into exile, he retired to Liege, where he exercised the 
 profession of an advocate until the time of his death. — G. M. 
 
 BEFFROY DE REIGNY, Louis Abel, better known by the 
 name of Cousin Jacques (under which name he published the 
 greater part of his productions), bora at Laon in 1757; died in 
 1811. He produced in 1790, at the Thtatre Fran9ais, a comic 
 «nd lyric piece, entitled "Nicodemus in the Moon," which is full 
 of poUtical allusions, and was represented four hundred times. 
 Ilis works, though full of spirit, sarcasm, and drolleiy, are now 
 completely forgotten. — ^J. G. 
 
 BEFORT, Mademoiselle, a pupil of Serangeli, painted 
 veral elaborate artificiahties of the Parisian classical school, 
 .such as the " Parting of Hector," where Homer brings in that 
 pretty fatherly thought of the child, frightened at the nodding 
 menace of the Trojan's plume, " The Second Death of Eury- 
 Jice," &c.— W. T. 
 
 BEG, Mac de, an Irishman who lived in the fifth and sixth 
 icuturies, was descended from Connac Cas, king of Munster, 
 .iiiJ wrote some poems and prophecies which are still extant. 
 His death is stated by different annalists to have occmTcd in 
 651 and 557.— J. F. W. 
 
 BEGA, Cornelius, the son of a sculptor, born at Haarlem 
 in 1620. He was Ostade's best pupil, Branwer being his com- 
 panion ; but painted in a larger style. He loved, like his 
 master, alchemists' revels, drinking-scenes, and trim Dutch 
 interiors ; smokers and fiddlers were the creatures that filled his 
 spirit-fired brain. He painted in a neat clean way, preserving 
 transparency at all cost, paying gi'cat attention to clean palette, 
 and unmuddied tints. But while his colours kept clean, his 
 mind grew polluted. He took to a noisy tavern life of dissipa- 
 tion. After many remonstrances, his father disowned him, 
 upon which he disowned his father, and altered his name from 
 Begeyn to Bega. His figures are larger than those of Ostade. 
 His end in some degree redeemed the selfishness of his \'ices. 
 He caught the plague from his mistress, whom he would nurse 
 and watch in spite of all the warnings and entreaties of friends 
 and doctors. He died in 1664.— W. T. 
 
 BEGA, Saint, a native of Ireland according to Butler, but 
 Dempster asserts that she was born in Scotland, misled probably 
 by the earlier writers on hagiolog)-, who were accustomed to call 
 Ireland Scotia. Be this as it may, she was a virgin of great 
 sanctity, and spent her life in retirement and devotion in Car- 
 lisle, where she died in the latter half of the seventh century. 
 A religious house was established in her honour, and the 7th of 
 September is observed in memoiy of her. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEGEYN, flourished about 1650; died in 1710; imitated 
 the landscapes of Bcrghem. — W. T. 
 
 BEGGHE, Saint, duchess of Brabant, married Anchises, son 
 of Arnold, bishop of Jletz. After the death of her husband she 
 entered a community of nuns, and afterwards founded a rehgious 
 house at Aiidenne. She was the mother of Pepin, sumamed 
 Heristal.— J. S., G. 
 
 BEGGI-JAN, or Shah Mourad Beg, a saint and ruler of 
 Bokhara, who assumed the sovereign power of the state in 1783, 
 and held it till his death in 1800. He refused to lay aside his 
 ascetic practices, and dm-ing his whole reign continued the habits 
 of a dervise. His administration was distinguished for its firm- 
 ness, and the strict enforcement of Moslem law. His son 
 Hyder, succeeded to his dominions, and took the title of Idng. 
 
 BEGH or LE BEGUE, Lambert, reputed the founder of 
 the Beguine order of nuns, was a priest of the diocese of Liege 
 in the latter half of the twelfth century. His bishop, who was a 
 notorious simonist, took offence at the zeal with which he 
 declaimed against the coiTuptions of the clergy, and sent him to 
 Rome to undergo pontifical censure ; but the pope, Alexander 
 III., knowing the character of his accuser, sent him back honour- 
 ably to Liege, with pemiission to continue his ministrations. 
 Shortly after his return, the fust establishment of Beguines (so 
 called from his name) was foimded through his instrumentality 
 at Nivelle in Brabant. It was imitated unmcdiately in Flanders, 
 Holland, and Germany, where the Beguines have for several 
 centuries been recognised in histoiy, in fiction, and in popular 
 opinion, as among the foremost ministers of all that relates to 
 piety and charity. The honour of founding this society has also 
 been claimed for Saint Begghe, who lived in the seventh century. 
 Begh died in 1177.— J. S., G. 
 
 BEGUE, La3Ibert le, a French heretic of the latter half of 
 the thirteenth century. He maintained a theory of human per- 
 fectability, which allowed all manner of bodily indulgence, and 
 dispensed with the forms of religion as well as the practice of 
 virtue. His partisans, called Beguards or Beguins, were con- 
 demned at the council of Vienna in 1311. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEGUIGNOT, Francois Berthelemy, Comte, a French 
 general, born near Ligny (Meuse) in 1747 ; died at Paris, 
 September 30, 1808. He pursued a successful miUtary career 
 until 1802, when he became a member of the corps legislatif. 
 In 1807 he took his seat in the senate. — G. M. 
 
 BEGUILLET, Edme, a French agiiculturist, born about 
 the commencement of the eighteenth centiu-y ; died in 1786. 
 He wrote some historical tracts ; but his works on agriculture 
 are more esteemed. He is author of " De Principiis Vegeta- 
 tionis et Agiicultura;." — J. G. 
 
 BEHADAR-SHAH, Alam-Shah-Qoutb-oud-dine, Mogul 
 emperor, born about 1642; died at Lahore in Februaiy, 1712. 
 He was the second son of Aurengzebe, sixth descendant from 
 Baber, known under the name of the Sultan Moazzem. Aureng- 
 zebe had five sons, and at his death, in 1707, he di\'ided the 
 empire equally between two of them, Aazem and ]\Ioazzem, the 
 latter of whom took the title of Qoutb-oud-dine-Bchadar-Shah. 
 The former, however, was not satisfied with this allotment, and 
 caused himself to be proclaimed emperor of Hindostan. The 
 two brothers immediately put themselves at the head of their 
 respective armies, and in a sanguinary battle, which was fought 
 near the river Tchun, Aazem was defeated and slain. Bchadar- 
 Shah, now become sole master, applied himself to the consolida- 
 tion of the empire. His reign, though not undisturbed, was 
 prosperous. He triumphed over all his enemies, and at his death 
 left his four sons to dispute possession of the throne. — G. 1\I. 
 
 BEHADER-KHAN or BEHARDUR-KHAJSI, Alaed-Dvn- 
 Abou-Sayd, a sultan of the Mongol dynasty, bom 5th July, 
 1302 ; died 30th November, 1335. \\lien engaged in an expe- 
 dition against the Uzbecs, he was seized with a malady, of which 
 he died, and with him perished the Mongol djmasty of Persia. 
 
 BEIIAEGEL, TiiEoriiiLUS, bom at Ypres, 1795, became a 
 pupil of David. He painted interiors, and engi-aved churches, 
 picture galleries, and kitchens — a poor occupation for a thuiking 
 man, being generally mere ingenious problems of perspective. 
 
 BEHAIM, Martin, a Gennan cosniographer, was bom at 
 Nuremberg in 1430 or 1436, and died at Lisbon, 29th July, 
 1507. As a merchant, he undertook great travels (as far as the 
 mouth of the river Congo, on the western coast of Africa), and for 
 a long time resided in Portugal, where he is believed to have lived 
 on terms of friendship with Columbus and other great navigators. 
 He constructed a large globe, which is still in the possession of 
 his family. — K. E.
 
 BEH 
 
 470 
 
 BEH 
 
 BEHAIM, MiCHAEii, a German troubadour, siu-named Poeta 
 Weinsbergensis, born at Sulzbadi in 1421 ; died about 1490. 
 His numerous poems all refer to the events of his day. 
 
 BEHAM, Bartiiol, a German painter, born at Nuremberg 
 about 1496. He studied at Bologna and Rome under Raimondi, 
 and became a resident at Munich, where he painted for the 
 elector. His manner was a wild grotesque imitation of Diirer ; 
 his heads are not deficient in life. He engraved several fine 
 plates, and died in 1540.— W. T. 
 
 BEHAM, Hans, was a relation of Bartholomew ; he was a 
 great engraver, and one of "the little masters." Died in 1550. 
 Some illuminations by him exist at Aschaft'enburg. He pro- 
 duced some simple prints of the prodigal son, that Kugler 
 applauds. — W. T. 
 
 BEHLEN, LuDwiG Phillip, a Germ.an canonist, author of 
 several learned dissertations, particularly of a " Disp. de causis 
 Siecularisationis illegit. et legit." Died at Mentz in 1777. 
 
 BEHLEN, Stephen, was born at Fritzlar, near Kassel, in 
 1784, and died at Aschaffcnburg, 1847. He devoted himself to 
 the study of law and administrative science, and held several 
 not very important posts in the administrative service of Bavaria. 
 He was a prolific writer on subjects connected with venery and 
 the management of forests. We mention — " Lehi-buch der 
 beschreibenden Forstbotanik ;" "Archiv der Forst-und fagdge- 
 setzgebung der dcutschen Bundesstaaten," in 29 vols., Friburg, 
 1834—40; " Real und Verballexicon der Forst-mid fagdkunde," 
 in 7 vols., Frankf., 1840-45, &c.— K. E. 
 
 BEHM, Ernst Leopold Friedrich, a German protestant 
 theologian, born at Wolfembiittel in 1700; died in 1742. He 
 published some valu.able theological works. 
 
 BEHM, JoH.VNN, a German protestant theologian, born in 
 1687; died in 1753. He pubhshed several ecclesiastico-anti- 
 quarian dissertations, of which the most important are, " De 
 Antiqua ratione compellandi episcopos per coronara," and " De 
 lotione in obeundis sacris gentihum, judaBoramet christianomm." 
 
 BEHN, Apiir^v, an English authoress, was bom in Canter- 
 bury shortly before the death of Charles I. Her father, whose 
 name was Johnson, was a man of family and influence, and 
 being appointed lieutenant-general of Surinam, left England for 
 that place early in the reign of Charles 11., taking his family 
 with him. Dying on the passage, his widow and children were 
 placed in a residence on the sea-side, which has been described 
 by Aplira as beautiful and romantic. Here she grew up, lovely 
 in appearance and quick in intellect, delicate in health, yet 
 delighting in the wild and aJventm'Ous sport of tiger-hunting, 
 and in expeditions to the native tribes. Upon the retm-n of Mrs. 
 .Johnson and her family to England, Aphra was mtroduced to the 
 king, who was charmed with her vivacity and wonderful anec- 
 dotes, especially in relation to the unfortunate Oroonoko, whose 
 history she published at the request of the monarch, imder the 
 noni deplume of Astrea, which she thenceforward assumed. The 
 effect of this novel can only be compared to that of Mrs. Stowe's 
 Uncle Tom's Cabin in our own time. The popular mind was in a 
 state of excitement upon the subject of slavciy, and Southenie 
 dramatized Aphra's novel. One so beautiful and attractive had 
 lovers in abundance. Aphra prudently chose the richest and the 
 oldest, Mr. Behn, a merchant, who soon left her a widow, in 
 freedom and competence. She now entered another sphere of 
 action. Charles despatched her in 1006 to watch in secret the 
 movements of the Dutch, with whom England was then at war. 
 Aphra had a thorough love of intrigue, and no small ability for it 
 to boot; so she went to Antwerp, and soon established relations, 
 diplomatic and amatoiy, with one of her old admirers, a merchant 
 of Utrecht, Vander Albert by name, who had great influence and 
 position in Holland. Aphra managed her lover to admiration, 
 and by holding out the prize of her hand as the reward of his 
 confidence, she contrived to wonn out the state secrets and the 
 plans of De Witte and Dc Ruyter, and conveyed to Charles the 
 intelligence of the intended expedition to destroy the English 
 shipping in the Thames. Her information was disci-edited, to 
 the great detriment of the nation. Ollended at this neglect, 
 Aphra renounced diplomacy, and devoted lierself to the pleasures 
 of society. The beautiful Englishwoman, witty, learned, tra- 
 velled, and ricli, was the rage at Antwerp. She was besieged 
 by lovers, who laid their hearts and their wealth at her feet; but 
 she surrendered her freedom to none, and never again married. 
 She returned to England, narrowly escajjing shipwreck, and con- 
 tinued to play her roles of gaiety and authorship very effectively 
 
 in both, for she was only about twenty-three years of age. 
 Poems, odes, comedies, and tragedies flowed from her ready pen, 
 and she maintained a high reputation during her life, mingling 
 in all the gallantries and amusements of that licentious time, 
 and died on the 16th April, 1089, when she could have been 
 little more than forty years of age. Mrs. Behn was one of the 
 most voluminous English writers. Besides poems and tales 
 without number, she produced nearly twenty di-amatic composi- 
 tions, all of which possessed more or less merit. As a poetess, 
 she had a name wliich posterity will not affirm, though her 
 ballads are easy and graceful, and a fine thought is now and then 
 to be found in her more pretentious effusions. As a novelist, she 
 is justly censm-able as indelicate and immoral — a fault in no small 
 degi'ee attributable to the fasliion of her times, as is manifest from 
 the fact that these works were to be found on the table of every 
 woman of taste and fashion. StUl more objectionable on this 
 score are her dramas. The whole writings of Aphra Behn, with 
 wit, and feeling, and mterest sufficient to have secured them a 
 place in om- libraries to-day, are rightly denied access to them 
 by reason of their immorality. — J. F. W. 
 
 * BEHR, John Henry Augustus, a Saxon statesman, born 
 13th November, 1793. He first took office as a minister in 1815. 
 In 1849 he was first minister of the interior at Dresden; and in 
 May of the same year was charged with the administration of 
 finance. At the diet of 1849-50 he declared himself in favour 
 of a conciliation between the people and the government. With 
 a view to this end, he labom-ed successfully in the diet of 1850-51, 
 to frame his financial measm-es on popular principles. He beare 
 the reputation of an accomplished orator as weU as an able 
 financier — G. M. 
 
 BEHOURT, Jean, a grammarian and dramatic poet, a native 
 of Normandy, lived at the close of the sixteenth and beginning 
 of the seventeenth centmy, at Rouen ; autlior of tlu'ee di-amatic 
 pieces, " Hypsicrate," " Polyrena," and " Esau," pubhshed at 
 Rouen, 1597, 1599, and 1004, 12mo.— J. G. 
 
 BEHR, Wilhelm Joseph, a distinguished writer on juris- 
 prudence and political economy, was born at Sulzheim, near 
 Schweinfurt, in 1775, and died at Bamberg, 1st August, 1851. 
 He devoted himself to the study of jurispnidence in the univer- 
 sities of Wurzburg and Gottingen, and from 1799 till 1821 filled 
 the chair of political law at Wurzburg. In 1819 he was a 
 member of the Bavarian diet, where he took his seat on the 
 benches of the opposition, and greatly contributed towards the 
 propagation of liberalism in Gcnii.any. He then was elected 
 burgomaster of Wm'zbm'g ; but the higher he rose in popularity 
 the more obnoxious he became to government. When at a great 
 festival, held at Gaibach, 27th Jlay, 1832, in honom- of the consti- 
 tution, he had rather too boldly spoken for the rights of the people : 
 he not only was dismissed from office, but also arrested; and, 
 after a trial of some years, sentenced to ask pardon of the kuig's 
 portr:ut, and to be imprisoned in a fortress dming the king's 
 pleasure. Some years after he was allowed to take private 
 lodgings, though still under the special sujierintcndence of the 
 police. He was finally released by the amnesty of the Gth March, 
 1848, and even received 10,000 florins damages. Soon after he 
 was elected a deputy to the Franldort national assembly. His 
 principal works are, " System der Staatslehre," Fraucf , 1810, 
 3 vols. ; " Verfassung und Verwaltung des Staats," in 2 vols. ; 
 " Darstellung der Wiinsche und Hoffnungen deutscher Nation," 
 1816 ; " Lehi-e von der Wirthschaft des Staats," &c. — K. E. 
 
 BEHRENS, George Henning, a GeiTnan physician, bom 
 at Goslar in 1662, was the author of a valuable work upon the 
 Hartz forest, entitled " Hercynia curiosa, oder kuriiiser Ilarz- 
 wald," &c. It was originally published at Nordhausen in 1703. 
 Behrens died at Nordhausen in 1712. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEHRENS, MicH.VEL, a German theologian, bom at Buxte- 
 hude in 1657 ; died at Wandsbcck in 1728. He wrote, "Altar 
 der Heyden, der Atheistcn, der Christen," 1692; "Die di'eifache 
 Welt der Christen der Phantasten und der Bezauberten," 1697. 
 
 BEHRING or BERING, Vitus, a navigator who acquired 
 distinction in the service of the Russian crown, was a native of 
 Denmark. He was born at Horsens in Jutland. In his youth, 
 Behring made several voyages to the East and West Indies, 
 but early attached himself to the infant navy of Russia, then 
 in course of fonnation, under the fostering care of Peter the 
 Great, at Cronstadt, and served with distinction in various 
 encounters with the Swedish fleet. In 1707 he obtained the 
 rank of lieutenant, and became captain-lieutenant in 1710.
 
 BEI 
 
 471 
 
 BEK 
 
 Peter drew up with his own hand, a few days before his death, 
 the plan of an expedition for the promotion of discovery in the 
 north-east of Asia, and more especially for the pm-pose of solving 
 the then disputed problem of the junction of the Asiatic and 
 American continents. Behring was appointed to the command 
 of this expedition. He left St. Petersburg in February 1725, 
 and travelling overland by way of Yakutsk, reached the town 
 of Okotsk, on the shore of Eastern Siberia, whence he crossed 
 over to Bolsheretsk, a small port upon the western side of the 
 peninsula of Kamschatka, and from the latter place proceeded 
 to Nijni-Kamschatka, upon the eastern coast of the same 
 territory. At Nijni-Kamschatka he built a small vessel, and 
 sailed in the summer of 1728 along the coast to the north- 
 eastward. By August he had reached the latitude of 67° 18' 
 (Cape Serdze), where the westerly trending of the land con- 
 vinced him that the supposed junction of Asiatic and American 
 coasts had no existence. Behring had, in fact, already passed 
 the eastemmost point of Asia, and had sailed through the chan- 
 nel which is now known by his name — Behring Strait. Thence 
 he returned to Nijni-Kamschatka. In the following year, he 
 again sailed from the same port, but was compelled by weather 
 to shape his course in an opposite direction ; sailing to the 
 southward, he doubled, for the first time, the extreme pomt of 
 Kamschatka (prenously supposed to be continuous with Japan), 
 and reached the port of Okotsk. Thence he returned to St. 
 Petersbm'g, and obtained his promotion to the rank of captain- 
 commander. In 1733 Behring was appointed to the command 
 of a more considerable expedition, fitted out for the purpose of 
 exploring the interior regions of eastern Siberia, as well as for 
 the prosecution of discovery in the ocean beyond. After several 
 exploratory excursions, he stationed himself at Yakutsk, whence 
 he detached various parties down the different rivers flowing 
 through the Siberian plain towards the polar sea. In 1740 
 he reached Okotsk, where vessels had already been built for 
 him, and sailing thence to Avatsha Bay on the east coast of 
 Kamschatka, founded in that locality the town of Petropaulo^'ski, 
 where he passed the winter. In the following June (1741), he 
 departed thence on his final voyage. Sailing in an easterly 
 dhection towards the shores of the New World, and reaching 
 the latitude of 4G° without seeing land, he aftenvards altered 
 his course to the north-east, and descried the American coast in 
 !:'titude 58j° — the land exhibiting high mountains covered witli 
 ;'iw. Behring's landfall must have been about the spot now 
 arked on the chart by his name (Behring Bay). Thence he 
 
 iceeded to explore the coast to the north and west, but his 
 .;ip becoming disabled from bad weather, and her crew suffering 
 from sickness, he resolved on returning to Kamschatka. On 
 November 3, in latitude 55°, Behring's vessel was cast upon a 
 desolate and uninhabited island, where it became necessaiy for 
 her crew to pass the winter. But the unfortunate commander 
 of the expedition, pre\'iously suffering from indisposition and 
 protracted anxiety, died on the 8th of the following month. He 
 may be said, indeed, to have been almost buried alive. Unable 
 to move by his o\\ti exertions, Behring had been carried ashore, 
 and placed in a sheltered hollow between two sand-hills. The 
 sand rolling down from these covered his feet and the lower 
 part of his body, but he would not suffer it to be removed, on 
 account of the warmth which it afforded, and it continued to 
 accumulate to such a degree that, after he liad expired, it was 
 necessary to dig his body out, in order to inter it properly. 
 Thirty of the crew perislied during the long winter passed in 
 this dreary spot, the only valuable produce of wliich consisted in 
 the wliite foxes and sea otters with which it abounded. The 
 sun'ivors, forty-five in numl)cr, built in the ensuing summer a 
 small vessel out of the remains of the wreck, and returned in it 
 to Kamschatka. Behring Island, as tlie spot upon which the 
 Danish navigator perished is called, is in latitude 55° N., longi- 
 tude 1CG° 25' E. An obelisk, erected by order of the Russian 
 government, at Pefropaulovslci, commemorates his name and 
 melancholy fate. — W. H. 
 
 BEIDHAWY, Abdallaii-Ben-Omar, a learned JIussuhnan, 
 bom at Beden, in Farsistan, in the tliirteenth century; author of 
 an Arabic commentaiy on the Koran, a manuscript. 
 
 BEIER, Hermann, a German protcstant theologian, author 
 of some commentaries on the Bible, and of one or two contro- 
 versial works. Studied at Witteniberg, where he joined the 
 society of the Lutherans. Born in 151G, and died in 1577. 
 
 BEIL, JoiiANX David, a German actor and dramatic writer, 
 
 was horn at Chemnitz in 1734, and died at Mannheim in 1794. 
 His best plays are — " Die Spieler" (The Gamblers — ^lie was him- 
 self addicted to gambling), and "Die Schauspielerschule" (The 
 School for Actors.) His dramatic works appeared after his 
 death, in 2 vols, Leipzig, 1794. — K. E. 
 
 BEIMIRAM, Isaac, a Jewish physician of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, contemporary of Avicenna and Constantinus Africanus. 
 His works, which are written in Arabic, and appear never to 
 have been edited, are entitled "De Definitionibus et Elementis;" 
 " De Victus ratione ; " " De Febribus;" De Urina ; " " De 
 Diaetis."— W. S. D. 
 
 BEIN, J., engraver, bom at Coxwelie on the Rhine, 1789. 
 He illustrated the passionate insane sentiment of Rousseau, as 
 well as the exulting comedy of Moliere, and did much to perpe- 
 tuate the works of David, Guerin, Vanloo, and Giroldet — works 
 that are now therefore safe from annihilation, let fire and water, 
 thief or restorer, do what they will. — W. T. 
 
 BEINGA-DELLA, the last king of Pegu, died in 1775. In 
 1752 he subjugated the kingdom of Ava, and in 1754 put to 
 death the last king of the Birmans. He afterwards, however, 
 lost his kingdom, and was made prisoner by Alompra, the chief 
 of the Birmans, who, after subjecting him to a lengthened cap- 
 tivity, put him to an ignominious death. — G. M. 
 
 BEININ, St., or BENIGNUS, an Irish bishop, the son of 
 Lecenan, a man of great power in Meath, who entertained St. 
 Patrick on his way to Tara, and was, with his whole family, 
 converted by him. Beinin received holy orders from the hands 
 of St. Patrick, who aftenvards consecrated him a bishop, and in 
 455 placed him in the episcopal chair of AiTnagh. In 465 he 
 resigned this bisliopric, and lived in retirement for three years, 
 and died on the 9th November, 468. The " Leabhar na Cce- 
 art," (Book of Rights,) is said to have been written by St. 
 Beinin, but it is probable that the work which, as it now exists, 
 is very large, has been added to by more recent authors. It is 
 a valuable book, and tlu-ows great light on the early history of 
 Ireland. It is ■('^'Titten partly in prose, and partly in verse. A 
 copy in vellum is presers'ed in the Ubraiy of Trinity college, 
 Dublin.— J. F. W. 
 
 BEIRAM, Hadji, a Turkish saint, foimder and sheik of an 
 order of dervishes called, from his name, Beirami, died about the 
 year 1471. His tomb in the village of Sal, near Angora, was 
 much resorted to by pilgrims. 
 
 BEISCH, Joachim Francis, a painter of landscapes and 
 battles, born at Ravensburg in Swabia, in 1C65. He was 
 employed at ^Munich in painting the battles of the Elector 
 Emanuel against the Turks in Hungary, (much better than 
 fighting them.) Beisch visited Italy, and was imitated by Soli- 
 mena. He had three styles, finn but dark, clear and true, and 
 clear but weak. His composition resembles Poussin. Ilis touch is 
 light and vivacious. His etchings are scarce. Died 1748. — W. T. 
 
 BEISLER, Hermann, a Bavarian statesman, bom at Ben- 
 sheim in 1790. He at first embraced the profession of arms, 
 but in 1813 became general secretary of the ministiy of justice 
 in the grand duchy of Frankfort. From this period until 1849, 
 he was employed alternately in a ci\nl and a military capacity, 
 and was successively captain of a Bavarian battalion, president 
 of the regency of Lower Bavaria, minister of justice, of public 
 instruction and of worship, member of the Gennan national 
 assembly, and minister of the interior. — G. M. 
 
 BEISSON, Etienne, an engraver, born at Aix, and died at 
 Paris, 1820. This laborious artist, self-denying as an engraver, 
 studied under Wille, and executed a large portion of that splen- 
 did work " La Galerie de Musee." — W. T. 
 
 BEIYATO, Cas, an Itahan historian, native of Milan, in 
 the second part of the sixteenth century; author of "A universal 
 histon,' from the Creation to 1569 of tlie Christian era." 
 
 BEJAR, Duke of, son to the intellectual grandee who hesi- 
 tated about accepting the dedication of Don Quixote, was a good 
 amateur artist. — W. T. 
 
 BEJOT, Francois, a learned Frenchman, member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres ; died in 1787. 
 He assisted in drawing up the catalogue of the royal library in 
 1744; and wrote on some passages of Xenophon's Cyropedia. 
 
 * BEKE, Charles Tilstone, born in 1800. The hterary 
 world is indebted to this accomplished English traveller for 
 several valuable contributions to ctlinographical and geographical 
 science, the result of travels in Abyssinia, undertaken in com- 
 pany with Major Harris. The character of his researches may
 
 BEK 
 
 472 
 
 BEL 
 
 be gathered fi'om the following list of his works : — " Essay on 
 the Nile and its Tributaries," 184:7 ; " On the Sources of the 
 NUe in the Mountains of the Moon," 1848 ; " On the Sources 
 of the Nile," 1849; "An inquiry into A. d'Abbadio's journey 
 to Kaffa," 1850 ; " On the Geographical Distribution of the 
 Languages of Abyssinia," Edinburgh, 1849. He is also the 
 author of various papers in the Journal of the Geographical 
 Society of London, and of a work entitled " Origines Biblicae, 
 or Researches in Primeval History," London 1834. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEKIESZ, Gaspard, commander of the Hungarian troops 
 in the sennce of Poland, under king Bathory, bom about 1530; 
 died in 1579. He was distinguished both by Ms diplomatic 
 and military services, under the reign of John Sigismond, prince 
 of Transylvania. On the elevation of Bathory to the throne of 
 Poland, he was intrusted, in conjunction with Gabriel, his 
 brother, with tlie command of the Hmigarian legions. — G. JI. 
 
 BEKKER, Balthazar, a Dutch theologian of great cele- 
 brity, who had the boldness to combat some of the most deeply- 
 rooted superstitions of his time, was born in Friesland in 1G34. 
 On the occasion of the appearance of the great comet in 1680, he 
 publislied a work, entitled " Researches concerning Comets," in 
 which he was the first to ridicule the superstition which assigned 
 to these bodies a malign influence over human affairs ; and the 
 odium which that publication di'ew upon him was some years 
 afterwards aggravated by the appearance of his famous work, 
 " De Betooverde Weereld." In that work he attacked the preva- 
 lent notions respecting the power and influence of e\i\ spirits, in 
 a style which offended the scrupulous and outraged the bigoted of 
 his contemporaries. The synod condemned his book, and deposed 
 him from his office. Reduced to beggary, he bore his misfortunes 
 with christian fortitude. He died in 1698. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEKKER, Elizabeth, a Dutch writer of some note, whose 
 maiden name was Wolf, was bom at Flushing, July 25, 1733. 
 Besides some poetical pieces, she wrote several works in con- 
 junction with Agatha Deken. She was a good linguist, and her 
 works have been translated into various languages. She died 
 November 5, 1804.— J. F. W. 
 
 * BEKKER, Immanuel, an eminent critical scholar, was 
 bom at Berlin, 21st May, 1785. He studied at Halle under F. 
 A. Wolf, who is said to have pronounced him his most distin- 
 guished pupil. As early as 1810 he was appointed professor- 
 extraordinary, and in 1812 professor- ordinary at the new-founded 
 university of Berlin ; in 1815 he was elected a member of the 
 Berlin academy. He was soon attracted to the study of Greek 
 MSS., and to the re\ision and emendation of the Greek authors, 
 a task in which he has spent his whole Ufe, and acquired a mastery 
 not surpa-ssed by any living philologist. From iluy, 1810, till 
 December, 1812, he was reading at the imperial library at Paris, 
 where, in 1815, he was again sent by the academy, in order to 
 compare and copy the Founnont JLSS. for the Corpus Liscript. 
 Graecar. Two years later we find liim in Italy, prepaiing for the 
 academy an edition of the " Institutiones Gaji," which had been 
 discovered at Verona by Niebuhr. Here he remained for several 
 yeai'S, searching the libraries of ilUan, Venice, Florence, Ravenna, 
 Naples, and especially Rome, where he enjoyed the assistance 
 and friendship of Niebuhr. In 1820 he visited the libraries of 
 Oxford, Cambridge, London, Leyden, and Heidelberg. The fhiits 
 of these assiduous researches were an almost incredible nmuber 
 of thorougldy revised and emendated editions. There will hardly 
 be found a classical scholar not conversant with Belvker's editions 
 of Phato, Beriin, 1814-21, 10 vols.; of the Oratorcs Attici, 
 Oxford, 1823, 7 vols. ; Aristoteles, Berlm, 1881-36, 7 vols. ; 
 Thucydides, Oxford, 1821, 3 vols.; Aristophanes, London, 1825, 
 3 vols. ; Photius, Theognis, Jloeris, Pollux, &c. His contribu- 
 tions to the Coi-pus Scriptor. Histor. Byzant., Bonnae, 1828, 599 
 alone amount to no less than 24 volmnes. As recreations, as it 
 were, from such harassing labours, lie has published in the 
 Transactions of the Royal Berlin Academy several Provon9al 
 and old- French romances. — {Fkrahras, Aapremont, Flore and 
 Blancaflor, cj-c.)— K. E. 
 
 BEL or BAAL, the chief god of the Phoenicians, Babylonians, 
 and Assyrians. The power of nature which was adored under 
 this name appears to have been the sun (see 2 Kings, xxiii. 5). 
 Ashtoreth or Astarte, the female divinity with wliich Baal is 
 often conjoined, represented the moon or queen of heaven (see 
 Jer. vii. 18). The altars of Baal were usually erected on the 
 summits of hills and the roofs of houses; his priests were a 
 numerous body ; hmuan victims were sometimes offered to him 
 
 in sacrifice ; and the rites of his worship appear to have been of 
 the most filthy and obscene character. Herodotus, who gives a 
 particular account of the pyramidal temple of Bel at Babylon, 
 says the sacrifices of this god consisted of adult cattle, of their 
 young when sucking, and of incense ; and in the apocrjrphal 
 addition to the Book of Daniel, it is stated tliat meat and drink 
 were daily offered to him. The worship of Baal seems to have 
 prevailed not only in the east, but throughout the western and 
 northem countries of Europe, and some traces of it exist even to 
 the present day in the British islands. The feast of Beltane, ,_ 
 which signifies the fire of Baal, is still observed in Ireland, and !■ 
 on that day fires are kindled on the tops of the hills, and the ^p 
 cattle are made to pass tlu'ough them. — J. T. 
 
 BEL, Jean Jacques, a French litterateur, bom at Bordeaux 
 in 1693; died in 1738; author of " Apologie de M. Hondard 
 de la Motte," Paris, 1724, 8vo, an ingenious and cutting satire 
 on a portion of Voltaire's works. 
 
 BEL, Jean le, a Belgic chronicler; died about the year 1390. 
 He wrote a chronicle of the wars of his time, which work Frois- 
 sart used in writing his histoiy. This work has been published 
 by JI. Polain, Liege, 1850 ; but it is inaccessible to the common 
 reader from the limited number of copies published. 
 
 BEL, Kara, a son of JIathias, was bom at Presburg on 
 the 13th July, 1717. He was a distinguished scholar, and was 
 appointed professor of poetry and librarian in the university of 
 Leipzig, as well as counsellor to the elector of Saxony. He has 
 left a number of works, principally on history and poetry, and 
 continued the "Acta Eraditorum." Died 1782. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEL, JIatthias, a distinguished Hungarian historian, was 
 bom at Orsova, near Neusohl, in 1684, and died at Presburg 
 in 1749. After having completed his education at the university 
 of Halle, he obtained a mastership in the theological seminary 
 at Neusohl, and after«-ards was appointed head-master of the 
 Presburg Lyceum. He wrote, " De vetere literatura Hunno- 
 Scythica," Lips., 1718; " Hungariaj antique et nova; prodromus," 
 Norimb., 1723; "Apparatus ad historiam Hungarian," Passov., 
 1735-46; " Notitia Hungariae novae Historico-Geographica," 
 Vienna, 1735-42, of which, however, only four volumes were 
 published. — K. E. 
 
 B£LA, the name of four kings of Hungary of the Arpad 
 dynasty. B6l.\ I., cousin to Saint Stephen, suspected of ha\-ing 
 been plotting against the king, fled with his elder brother Andrew 
 to Poland, where he distinguished himself in war, and got the 
 dukedom of Pomerania as liis reward. When Andrew in 1046 
 was called to the throne of Hungaiy, in opposition to the tyran- 
 nical King Peter, who tried to Germanize the country, Bela 
 promised his aid to his brother, under the condition of becoming 
 his successor. Andrew availed himself of his brother's militaiy 
 prowess ; but at the birth of a son to himself, he tried to sectu-e 
 the cro\vn to the child. The result was a war between the 
 brothers, wliich soon ended by King Andrew's death on the 
 battle-field. Bela was proclaimed king of Hungarj- in 1061 ; he 
 pacified the countiy, suppressed the last attempts of the con- 
 servatives to retm-n to the ancestral idolatry, and regularized 
 the trades, the coinage, the weights, and measures. He died 
 in 1003. BiiLA II., called the Blind, was the son of the 
 pretender Almus, cousin to King Coloman, who, infuriated by 
 the unceasing attempts of Almus to create 01%!! war, had him 
 and the infant Bela blinded, in order to incapacitate him for the 
 succession to the throne. However, after the death of Stephen 
 II., Coleman's son, who left no direct heir, Bela became king in 
 1131. His queen, Helena, a Serbian princess, and her brother 
 Uross, administered the kingdom in his name with a firm hand, 
 but his reign was stained by the cniel murder of Coloman's 
 adnsers at the diet of Arad, by the instigation of the queen. 
 He died in 1141. BthA III. was educated at Constantinople, at 
 the court of the Emperor Slanuel, who being without male issue, 
 had adopted tlie Hungarian prince as his heir and future son- 
 in-law, with the intention of incorporating Hungary with the 
 Byzantine empire. This plan was defeated by the birth of a 
 son to ]\Ianuel, by which the emperor's pledges were cancelled. 
 B^la succeeded to the throne of Hungary in 1173, after the 
 death of King Stephen III. lie introduced the Byzantine court 
 etiquette and fonns of judicial procedure to Hungary, and died 
 in 1196. His grandson, Bela IV., was one of the most remark- 
 able kings of Hungary. As heir to the crown, he put himself 
 at the head of the freemen, who, oppressed by King Andrew II., 
 and by the oligarchy of his court, rose in ai'iiis for the restoration
 
 of their rights, and for a financial refomi. The clergy joined the 
 malcontents, and Kuig Aiitkew, in order to prevent a ci\'il wai", 
 had in 1222 to sign the so called " Bulla Aurea," the charter of 
 Hungarian hberty, which bears a remarkable similarity to the 
 contemporaneous English Magna Charta. As King (from 1235- 
 1270) Bela remained faithful to the prmciples laid doi^Ti in the 
 Golden BuU; he broke the power of the magnates, restricted the 
 expenditure of the government, and protected the freemen. In the 
 midst of his struggles vfith the gi'eat aristocracy, the Mongols of 
 the Golden tribe overran Hungary in 1241, defeating the troops 
 of the khig, and carrying plunder and destruction all over tlie 
 country. Bela sought refuge with Frederic, archduke of Austria, 
 who, uistead of gi'anting liim aid, or at least an asylum, had the 
 fugitive king aiTested, and only released him imder the condition 
 of his resigning the border counties of Hungary to Austria. 
 The Mongols having devastated the country, left it the second 
 year of their conquest, called away by the internal dissensions 
 of theu: nation in Asia. Bela returned and had to rebuild the 
 emph-e. He restored the towns and castles, invited foreign 
 colonists to the country, reoccupied the border counties, and 
 made war against his faithless ueighboiu-, Frederic of Austria, 
 who fell m the battle of Neustadt. The last years of Bela's 
 reign were troubled by the insurrectionary attempts of his son 
 Stephen, and of the still turbulent oligarchy. Bela died in 
 1270.— F. P., L. 
 
 BELA, THE Chevalier de, a Basque historian, lived about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century. He was thirty years 
 engaged in writing a histoi-y of the Basque countries. The 
 manuscript was discovered in a gan'et of a Hbrary at Pan, and 
 portions of it have been pubhshed. 
 
 BELADOEI, Ahmed, an Arabic writer ; died B.C. 892. He 
 lived at the court of Alraotavakel, caliph of Bagdad, and was 
 tutor to the young prince. He wrote an account of the first 
 conquests of the Ai-abians in Spia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, &c. 
 The manuscript was found at Leyden. 
 
 BELAIR, Alexaxdke-Pierre Julienne de, a French 
 ueral, born at Paais, loth October, 1747 ; died in August, 
 ■19. In 1792 he was appointed engineer for the defence of 
 iris, and commander of the national guard. In 1793 he was 
 . I ployed in the army of the north, and contributed to the vic- 
 lies gained over the Austrians. He was author of a consider- 
 le number of works, chiefly on mihtaiy engineeiing, published 
 t Berlin and Paris between 1787 and 1796. 
 
 BELAIR, Charles, a negi-o of St. Domingo and general of 
 Ijrigade. He was one of those who took anus against General 
 Loclerc in the summer of 1802. He had at first some success, 
 but was at length defeated, taken prisoner, and condemned by a 
 viilitary commission to be hanged. In consideration, however, 
 : his grade, General Leclerc ordered him to be shot; and he 
 itFered accordingly on the 15th October, 1802. 
 
 * BELBEUF, Antoine-Louis-Piekre-Joseph Godart, 
 inarqiiis De, a French senator, descended from an illustrious 
 
 iiiiUy of Normandy, born at Rouen, 20th October, 1791. In 
 I'tober, 1837, he was created a peer of France by the govern- 
 .iient of Louis Philippe ; and from that time until the revolution 
 of 1848, he assisted in the dehberations of the upper chamber, 
 which profited largely by liis great talents and experience as a 
 jurisconsult. On the 2Gth January, 1852, he was raised to the 
 dignity of a senator. — G. il. 
 
 BELCHER, Dabridgecourt or Dapscourt, a minor dra- 
 matist of the Elizabethan age, was born about 1580. Little is 
 known of his life, except that he was educated at Oxford, m':u-ried, 
 and went abroad. He seems to have resided chiefly at Utrecht ; 
 he dedicated his comedy of " Sec me, and see me not," to Sir 
 John Ogle, governor of that town. The comedy was a transla- 
 tion from a dramatic piece called Hans Bcerpot. He wrote some 
 other translations and poems, and died in the Netherlands in 
 the year 102 1.— J. B. 
 
 * BELCHER, Sir Edward, K.C.B., captain, R.N., and 
 hydrographer, was born in 1799, and entered the navy in 1812. 
 Having served for some time on the African coast, and taken 
 part in the bombardment of Algiers, he went in 1825, with 
 Caj)taiu Bcechey, as assistant surveyor to Behring's Straits. In 
 1829 he made a sun'cy of the African coast. Between 183G 
 and 1842 he made his celebrated voyage of discovery round the 
 world in the Sulphur, and subsequently published an interesting 
 "Narrative" of that expedition. In 1841" he rendered able 
 assistance to the operations on the Chmcse coast, by sounding 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 the vaiious bays and inlets of the Canton rivei-. For his ser- 
 vices on this occasion he was made a post-captain, and received 
 the honour of knighthood in 1843. He was subsequently em- 
 ployed on a survey of the coasts of the East Indies, and was 
 severely wounded in an action against the Borneo pnates. In 
 1852 he was sent upon a fruitless expedition in search of Sir 
 John Franklin, but was obliged to abandon his ships. For this 
 offence he was tried on his retm'n to England in 1854, but was 
 honom-ably acquitted. — E. W. 
 
 BELCHIER, John, a distinguished surgeon, bom at Ivingston 
 in SmTey. After being educated at Eton, he was apprenticed 
 to Cheselden. Perseverance rendered him eminent in his pro- 
 fession, and in his thirtieth year he succeeded Craddock as sur- 
 geon to Guy's hospital. In this position he was eminently 
 successful, and treated with unwearied humanity those whom 
 disease or misfortune had placed under his care. He respected 
 the name of Guy almost to adoration, observing, that no other 
 man woidd have sacrificed one hundi'ed and fifty thousand 
 pounds for the benefit of his fellow-creatm-es. He died suddenly 
 in 1785, aged 79. — E. L. 
 
 BELDOPJ, John Peter, an Italian antiquarian, bom at 
 Rome in 1615 ; died in 1696. Chiistina, queen of Sweden, con- 
 fided to him the care of her library and museum of antiquities ; 
 and Pope Clement X. gave him the title of the " Antiquarian of 
 Rome." He is the author of avast number of works on medals, 
 inscriptions, &c. 
 
 BELESTAT, Pierre Langlois de, a French physician 
 and archa;ologist, who lived in the second half of the sixteenth 
 century. He was first physician to the duke of Anjou, after- 
 wards Heniy III. His leisure was devoted to the study of 
 Egyptian antiquities, on which he published a work under the 
 title of " Discom's des hie'roglyphes iEgyptienncs," &c., Paris, 
 1583, which contains some interesthig researches. — W. S. D. 
 
 BELFRAGE, Henry, the Rev., D.D., bom at Falkirk, 1774, 
 and succeeded his father in the ministry of one of the Secession 
 congi-egations there in 1794. He was a popular preacher, but 
 is more extensively known as an author, his publications ha\ing 
 prociu-ed for him an honourable place among the religious ^vriters 
 of Scotland. His works are numerous. The chief of them are 
 — " Discom-ses to the Young ; " " Monitor to Families ; " " Dis- 
 courses on the Duties and Consolations of the Aged; " " Counsels 
 for the Sanctuary and Civil Life." He died in 1835, in the 41st 
 vear of his ministi-v. — (/--'/e a?id Correspoiidtnce of the Rev. 
 'Henry Beljrage, D'.D., 1837.)— W. M'K. 
 
 * BELGIOJOSO, the princess Christine, a native of Lom- 
 biu'dy, and famous for her romantic heroism in the cause of 
 her country's liberty. She had been long distinguished as the 
 patron of literatiu-e and the arts, and dmiiig the revolution in 
 Italy, she wamily espoused the cause of her country. Having 
 raised a troop of 200 horse, she led them herself against the 
 Austrians. For this daring act, her property was confiscated, 
 and a decree of banishment passed against her. She retired to 
 a fai-m in Asia Jlinor, and was compelled to labom- for her sup- 
 port. The sultan of Turkey afterwards gi-anted her some land 
 on the gulf of Nicomedia, and ultimately the decree of banish- 
 ment was revoked. She has since been contributing to several 
 journals in Paris and New York. — J. B. 
 
 BELHO^IJIE, DoJi Humbert, a learned Benedicthie, born 
 at Bar-le-Duc in 1653; died in 1727: distinguished for his 
 eloquence. He was abbe of Moyen-JIontier, which he enriched 
 with a splendid library. He wrote a history of this establish- 
 ment, entitled " Historia Slediani Monasterii in Vosago." 
 
 BELIDOR, Bernard Forez de, born in Catalonia in 1697; 
 died at Pavia in 1 7 6 1 . One of the ablest engineers of these times. 
 His works, especially those on mining, are in great credit still. 
 The best of his works are "La Science des Ingeniem-s," and 
 " L'j\j-chitectm-c IIydraulii|ue." This latter work has never been 
 superseded. A new edition recently appeared, with notes, bring- 
 ing down its precepts to the present time. It is indeed an 
 mvaluable production. — J. P. N. 
 
 BELIERE, Claude ue la, a French writer, a native of 
 Charolles, in the second part of the seventeenth centuiy ; author 
 of a curious work entitled " Physionomie raisonnee." 
 
 BELIGATTI, Cassius, a capuchin of JIacerata, in the papal 
 states, who published on his return from Thibet and India, 
 where he had resided as missionaiy eighteen years, a Ilindos- 
 tanec and a Sanscrit granunar. He assisted Giorgi in decipher- 
 ing the Tartar ^ISS. brought to Europe in 1721. Died in 1791. 
 
 3
 
 BELIGH, Ismail, or Silvhin Ejiirzadeh, a Tui-ldsli poet, 
 bom at Bursa, who flouinshed in the seveuteenth century. He 
 composed many original works, and also made numerous compila- 
 tions. Amongst the former is the " Gul Sadberg," or the Rose 
 with a Hundred Leaves, being a poem of a hundred traditions 
 of Mahomet. In the latter department he has left a work 
 entitled " Wafiat Danishveran," in which he has collected the 
 histories of all the learned men, poets, and sheiks of Bursa from 
 the time of the Conquest to his o^vn day. — J. F. W. 
 
 BELIGH, McsTAPiLV, a Turldsh poet and professor, bom at 
 Constantinople, and died in 1705. 
 
 BELIN, Jeax Albert, a French Benedictine, bishop of 
 Bellay, was born in ICIO, and died in 1677. He wrote against 
 the alchemists. 
 
 BELIN DE BALLU, Jacques Nicholas, one of the best 
 Greek scholai-s of his age, was born at Paris on the 28th Feb- 
 ruary, 1753. His works soon attracted general notice, and he 
 was chosen a member of the academy of inscriptions and belles- 
 lettres in 1787. The government placed him in the dii-ection of 
 the prytanee of St. Cjt, but he had no administrative talent, and 
 tiie appointment was shortly after revoked. His talent for 
 instmction, however, was too great to be overlooked, and the 
 Emperor Alexander of Eussia offered him the post of professor of 
 Greek literature in the new university which he had just founded 
 at Charkow in the Ukraine. This he accepted, and after a few 
 years he removed to iloscow, where he remained till it was 
 burned in 1812, when he went to St. Petersburg, where he 
 remained till his death in 1815. He has left many works which 
 are stOl held in estimation, the best of which is his " Critical 
 History of Greek and Roman Eloquence." — J. F. W. 
 
 BE LING, Oswald, a German poet, bom at Schleswig in 
 1G25 ; died 1646. He translated Vii-gil's Eclogues into Gemian. 
 
 BELING, RiCHAED, an Irish writer of some distinction, was 
 the son of Sir Henry Beling, knight, and a member of an ancient 
 Roman catholic family in the county of Dublin. Richard was 
 bom at Belingstown, the family seat, in the year 1613. He 
 received an excellent classical education in Dublin, was sub- 
 sequently sent to England, and entered a student at Lincoln's Inn, 
 and after a few years of study, he returned to his native land. 
 There his military predilections, and his reUgious piinciples, in- 
 duced him to take a part in the rebellion of 1611, and in his 
 twenty-eighth year, he held high rank in the insurgent army, and 
 commanded on several occasions. He subsequently was one of the 
 most influential members of the supreme council of the Roman 
 catholics assembled at Kilkenny, and became secretary to that 
 body in 1645, by whom he was sent on an embassy to the pope 
 and other Italian princes, for the pm-pose of soliciting their 
 assistance. Upon his return, he was accompanied by Rinuccini 
 as papal mmcio, who by his intrigues increased the troubles of 
 the countiy, and impeded the establishment of peace. Beling 
 was so dissatisfied -mih the conduct of the nuncio, that he with- 
 drew from the party altogether, and attached himself to the 
 Royalists, to whom, from that period, he continued faithfully 
 attached. The duke of Omiond took him into his favour, and 
 employed him in several important negotiations, in all of which 
 he displayed both zeal and address. When the anny of the king 
 was defeated by the parliamentary forces, Beling left England 
 and resided in France during the Protectorate. There he occu- 
 pied himself with literature, and wrote some works upon the 
 events in which he had been concerned. After the Restoration, 
 he retm-ned to his native land, and through the influence of the 
 duke of Ormond, he was restored to his property there. He 
 died in Dublin in the year 1677. He added a sixth book to Sir 
 Philip Sidney's Arcadia. His other works are, " Viudiciaram 
 Catholicorum Hiberniaj Libri Duo ;" " Annotations upon the 
 Vindicia; Eversa; of Ponticus," and some of less note. His style 
 is remarkably easy and graceful. — J. F. W. 
 
 BELISARIUS, bom about 505 ; died in 565. He was bom 
 at Germania, a city of Thrace, on the confines of lUyaium. 
 Before Justinian had become emperor, Belisarius served among 
 his personal guards. In 525 we find him in command of a 
 squadron ; and in 528 he is appointed general of the East. A 
 long truce, rather than what could be called peac^, existed between 
 the Empire and Persia, wlien Cobad, the Persian king, invaded 
 Mesopotamia. He was defeated by Belisarius. In the next 
 year the Persians invaded Sj-ria \\-ith better fortune. The death 
 of Cobad now occurred ; and a peace, which lasted for about ten 
 years, was concluded. 
 
 Belisarius now married. Antonina, his wife, was the daughter 
 of iiu actress, and a pubUc charioteer; but by a former marriage 
 had passed into respectable life, and now held the office of zoste 
 or lady of the bedchamber to Theodora, the empress. Justinian 
 was now preparing for an expedition against the Vandals of 
 Africa, with the intention of recovering that important province 
 to the empire, when an insurrection at Constantinople occurred. 
 Party feeling existed in such strength as to seem like actual 
 insanity ; and that city was dinded into opposing factions of blue 
 and green, names taken from the colomrs wom by rival charioteers 
 at the circus. The ringleaders of both factions were imprisoned. 
 The factions united, released them from imprisonment, col- 
 lected vagabonds from all quarters, set fire to the public buildings, 
 declared the reign of Justinian at an end, and crowned a new 
 emperor. Jnstinian meditated flight ; and was only saved by the 
 spirit which the empress displayed, who counselled resistance. 
 The factions had already fallen out with each other, and were 
 coming to blows, when Belisarius appeared with his guard, 
 having made his way through the smoking ruins left by the con- 
 flagi-ation. The new emperor was dragged from his throne with 
 little resistance. Promiscuotis slaughter followed, which Belisarius 
 did not, or could not check. Thirty thousand were slain. 
 
 In the following year the African expedition was confided to 
 Belisarius. About a century before, the Vandals of Spain had 
 conquered the province of Africa. Their right was acknowledged 
 and confirmed by treaties with the empire. The reigning monarch 
 was HOderic ; but his advanced age and imbecility threw the 
 government into the hands of Gelimer, whom the law of the 
 country made his heir. Gelimer's impatient ambition made him 
 seize the crown in the lifetime of the old man, whom he threw 
 into prison. To assert HOderic's right was the pretence on 
 which Justinian interfered. Belisarius's army consisted of five 
 thousand cavalry and ten thousand foot soldiers. His own guards, 
 bound by an oath of fidelity to liimself personally, were sheathed 
 in complete steel, after the Persian model. His forces were 
 legionaries from Thrace and Isauria, whose chief weapon was the 
 Scythian bow ; and confederates, among whom were four hun- 
 dred Hemli, and eight hundi-ed Huns. His fleet of five hundred 
 transports, manned by two thousand mariners, was escorted by 
 ninety-two light pinnaces, with one row of oars, and a deck over 
 the rowers' heads, to protect them from the enemy's missiles. 
 In June, 533, Belisarius embarked, accompanied by his wife and 
 by Procopius, his secretary, whose narrative of the expedition is 
 the chief authority for its details. The rear was commanded 
 by Belisarius himself, who anticipated an attack — rightly, as 
 the event showed — of Gelimer from the interior of the countij. 
 The high rocks of Herma;um (the modern Cape Bonn), now 
 separated them from then- ships. The proclamations of Belisa- 
 rius representing the object of the Romans to be the restoration of 
 Hilderic, led Gelimer to have that prince at once put to death. 
 The crime was advantageous to the Romans, who now put for- 
 ward the claim of the emperor to Africa as a Roman province. 
 The Romans had advanced to within ten mUes of Carthage, when 
 they first met an enemy. Gelimer's plan of battle was this. 
 Amatus, liis brother, with such forces as he could collect at Car- 
 thage, was to attack the van; Gibamund, his nephew, with two 
 thousand horse, to fall upon the left flank ; while he himself, with 
 the main body, was to charge the rear. The place selected was a 
 defile, where it was impossible that the invaders could obtain aid 
 from their fleet. The success of the plan depended on the simul- 
 taneity of the operations ; and it was defeated by the ardour of 
 Amatus, who, impatient to engage the enemy, left Carthage with 
 a small troop three hours before the rest of his forces. He fell in 
 the conflict, and his followers fled back to Carthage. In their 
 flight they met, issuing from Carthage, the forces whom they had 
 so rashly preceded, and infected them with their fears. They 
 were pursued by the Roman van — John the Annenian's three 
 hundred — who are s;uJ to have killed on that day the scarcely 
 credible number of twenty thousand men. Gelimer's arrange- 
 ments were destined to fail in eveiything. The left was to be 
 attacked by his nephew with two thousand horse ; but the left, 
 as we have said, was protected by six hundred Huns. As the 
 Vandals advanced a champion was seen riding alone between the 
 lines. He was exercising the proud distinction inherited from his 
 ancestors, of commencing the engagement by shooting the first 
 arrow. The Vandals looked on in dumb amazement — they did 
 not know what to ftiake of the movement. AVas this a proposal 
 to decide the fate of the day by single combat ? — was it some
 
 BEL 
 
 475 
 
 BEL 
 
 strange form of incantation ? \Yh\h tlicy wondered and sought 
 from each other an explanation of the prodigy, the Huns fell 
 upon them. Of the two thousand not one survived. Of these 
 things going on at the outposts, it would appear that both 
 Gelimer and Behsarius were ignorant till a later part of the day. 
 Yet more strange, Gelimer's guides appear not to have been well 
 acquainted with the ground, as he was deceived by the windings 
 of the hills, and carried beyond the point where he had planned 
 to meet the Roman anny. Belisarius, we are told by Procopius, 
 never in the iirst instance hazarded liis whole army, but sent a 
 body of confederates in front ; then followed the main body of 
 the cavalry ; and after them he himself with his " lancers and 
 targeteers." Those in front fell in with the dead body of Ama- 
 tus, and thus learned the skmnish of the morning. Before they 
 could communicate vvith Belisaiius, they saw Gelimer's army 
 approaching. A rising spot of ground gave some advantage. 
 They and the Vandals ran to have possession of it. The Van- 
 dals gained the hill, and succeeded in putting their antagonists 
 to flight. In the performance of the funeral rites of Amatus, 
 Gelimer lost an opportiuiity that coixld not be recalled, and 
 Belisarius made his own of the moment. Gelimer fled to the 
 deserts of Numidia. On the next day, the feast of St. Cyprian, 
 the victor entered Carthage. 
 
 A second engagement, in which another brother of Gelimer, 
 and Gehmer himself, aided by some Moorish tribes, encountered 
 BeUsai-ius at Tricameron, decided the fate of Africa. The 
 brother fell in the battle, and Gelimer for a while found a retreat 
 at the village of Modcnus in the mountain district of Papua. 
 Belisarius returned to Carthage, to provide for the civil adminis- 
 tration of the provmce, leaving a squadron of Heruli, with 
 Pharas, their commander, to watch Gelimer's movements. In a 
 communication with the Herulian officer, the Vandal king entreated 
 three gifts — a lyre, a loaf of bread, and a sponge : the lyre, 
 that he might accompany with its music an ode which he had 
 mitten on his misfortunes ; the bread, that he might once more 
 taste the food of civilized man ; and the sponge, that he might 
 reUeve his eyes, sore with weeping. He at last capitulated, and 
 was brought a prisoner to his own capital, into the presence of 
 his conqueror. Lleantimc BeUsarius's success awakened jealousy 
 in the mind of Justinian, who feared that his general might seek 
 to secure for himself the coiuitiy he had subdued, or perhaps aspire 
 to the imperial purple. The fear was gi-oundless. If Belisarius 
 had any passion it was devoted loyalty, and he instantly returned 
 to Constantinople. His presence dispelled the emperor's appre- 
 hensions, who welcomed him as subject was never before wel- 
 comed. A medal, one side of which presented the effigies of 
 the emperor, the other that of Belisarius, with the inscription, 
 " Belisarius, the Glory of the Rojians," was struck to 
 commemorate the day. A triumph — the first ever celebrated at 
 Constantinople — recalled the recollections of the parent republic. 
 
 The recovery of Africa to the empire was calculated to suggest 
 the hope of regaining Italy, now a Gothic kingdom. Theodotus, 
 the reigning kmg, held the throne by a title that had been pur- 
 chased by perjury and murder. These circumstances favoured 
 Justinian's project of seizing the Idngdom ; and he determined to 
 invade it at the same moment by a naval armament, under Beli- 
 sarius's command, in the west, and on the east by an mroad on 
 Dalmatia, the conduct of which was intrusted to Mundus, gover- 
 nor of Illyrium. Belisarius undertook the expedition with an 
 army which consisted of four thousand confederates, three thou- 
 sand Isaurian mountaineers, some detachments of Hunnish and 
 Moorish cavahy, and, best of all, his own personal guards. The 
 object of the expedition was masked by the pretence of reinforc- 
 ing the troops in Africa. Belisarius possessed himself of Sicily 
 with little difficulty, and afterwards of Panormus, the modern 
 Palenno. He proposed to winter in Syracuse, and wait till 
 spring should enable him to commence the campaign in Italy. 
 An insuiTection in Africa in some degree vaiied this plan, by 
 calling him for a while to that province. On his return, a revolt 
 which arose in Sicily during his absence, was soon quelled, and 
 he then pi-oceeded to Italy. Negotiations, meanwhile, had been 
 going on between Theodotus and the Byzantine court. Theodo- 
 tus had agreed to surrender Italy to Justinian, on obtaining an 
 estate in the eastern provinces yielding annually twelve hundred 
 pounds weight of gold. Some successes of his generals in Dal- 
 matia made him recede from the bargain, and the war in Italy 
 continued. Belisarius landed in Ithegium. He met with no 
 opposition till he came to Naples, which he took after a siege of 
 
 twenty days, by introducing into the city some of his troops 
 through the channel of an intercepted aqueduct. 
 
 Theodotus's design of betraying the kmgdom into the hands 
 of Justinian was soon known and punished by deposition. 
 Vitiges, who commanded the troops in southern Italy, was raised 
 by his brother-soldiers on their shields, according to a custom 
 familiar with all the Gothic tribes, and proclaimed king. This 
 tumultuous election was confirmed by the senate, the nobles, 
 and the clergy at Rome. To aid his title to the crown, Vitiges 
 murdered Theodotus, and married a daughter of the house of 
 Theodoric. He purchased the zealous aid of three nations of 
 the Franks, by ceding to them the district between the Rhone 
 and the Alps, and by the payment of two thousand pomids' 
 weight of gold. He had no means of defending Rome, and he 
 rethed to Ravenna. Belisarius at once occupied Rome; and, 
 anticipating a siege, lost no time in putting it in a state of 
 defence. Vitiges, in Febniary, 537, took the field with 150,000 
 men. His object was to possess himself of Rome, and accident 
 seemed to favour his design. The only bridge over the Tiber, in 
 the neighbom-hood of Rome, was the Pons Milvius; and this 
 Belisarius had so fortified and garrisoned, that he regarded it as 
 secure, and calculated on the delay which maldng another bridge, 
 or moving the army over in boats would occasion, as giving him 
 at least twenty days more to improve the defences of the city. 
 The party placed to watch and defend the bridge, when they saw 
 the approach of the enemy, deserted, and the advanced guard of 
 the Gothic cavalry passed over unopposed. Belisarius, ignorant 
 of what had ocem-red, rode out from the city mth a guard of 
 about a thousand men, to observe the movements of the enemy, 
 whom he beheved to be on the opposite bank. To his amaze- 
 ment he found himself siu-rounded by the Goths. He and his 
 men fought their way bravely. The squadron which they 
 encountered retreated, while other divisions of the Goths were 
 crossing the crowded bridge. The Romans pursued. There were 
 many changes of fortime through this eventful day. The strangest, 
 perhaps, was that, when Behsarius was returning at night to 
 the city, he found it closed against hiiu, the Romans having 
 believed a report of his having been slain, and fearing that if they 
 opened their gates they might be admitting the enemy. This led 
 to a new and desperate charge from Behsarius against the Goths, 
 who could not imagine it to have proceeded from soldiers har- 
 rassed by the toils of the day ; they thought it must be a new 
 army issuing from the city, and fled. The next day the siege of 
 Rome commenced. It lasted for more than a year. In sku-mish- 
 ing, the advantage was in general with Behsarius. Sylverius, the 
 pope, was detected in a coiTcspondence proposing to admit the 
 Goths into the city. He was degraded and deposed, and another 
 took his bishopric, who, however, paid for it in gold numbered 
 and weighed. Some supplies of men from Constantinople and 
 of food from Compania now aiTived, and a truce of three months, 
 Ul observed, however, by either party, was agi-eed on. A dispute 
 arose between two officers, which, while Behsarius was investi- 
 gating, one of them drew his sword on the general. The attempt 
 at assassmation proved abortive, and the ciiminal was at the 
 moment put to death. The justice of this proceeding would 
 seem to admit little doubt ; but the precipitation of the act, and 
 the absence of any trial in the case, form one of the most serious 
 charges which his enemies bring against Belisarius. 
 
 The trace was but ill observed. Belisarius had expected it to 
 be broken by the Goths, and directed that, on its actual viola- 
 tion, the province of Picenum should be invaded. Juhn the 
 Sanguinary, an officer who deserved his name, was intnisted 
 with this duty. In executing it, he left in the power of the 
 enemy, as unworthy of his arms, several small fortresses, and 
 posted Hmself at Rimini, from which the garrison, at his 
 approach, fled to Ravenna. The wife of Vitiges, who knew 
 John to be avaricious, thought him the man for her money, 
 entered into communication with him, proposed to him the 
 murder of her husband, and offered her person and the kingdom 
 of Italy as his temptmg reward. Vitiges made unsuccessful 
 attempts to negotiate with Justinian. On the day the truce 
 expired he withdrew his forces from Rome, and retreated over 
 the Milvian bridge. Belisarius did not suffer the Gothic army to 
 retire unmolesteil. When about half of them had reached tlie 
 Tuscan bank of the riv'cr, he sallied out against the rest. He 
 pursued the forces moving to the bridge, and, as he had antici- 
 pated, the reinforcements returning to their relief created such 
 disorder, as gave him an easy victoiy. The retreating army
 
 BEL 
 
 476 
 
 BEL 
 
 naarched towards Ravenna. Before the siege of Rome was 
 raised, Milan had declared for Belisarius. It was now besieged 
 by Vitiges with a mixed army of Goths and Burgundians. The 
 relief of MOan was of the utmost moment, and Belisarius's plans 
 were intciTUpted, instead of being assisted by Narses, the general 
 who had been sent with the last reinforcements from Constanti- 
 nople. Narses was a Pers- Armenian ennuch, in the service of 
 the palace, who claimed to know all Jnstinian's secret pm-poscs ; 
 and who, as the emperor was jealous of Belisarius's power, was 
 probably sent to watch him. He affected to hold an mdependent 
 commission, and refused to obey Belisarius's orders. ^lilan was 
 taken, the gairison spared, but the city razed to the ground. 
 
 Narses was, in the spring of 539, recalled, and Behsarius left 
 in undisputed command. Vitiges had not ceased his communi- 
 cations with Justinian, and a treaty was signed at Constanti- 
 nople, lea\-ing him the title of king, the provinces beyond the Po, 
 and half the treasures of Ravenna. The Goths distrusted every 
 treaty which did not bear the signature of Belisarius ; and he, 
 determined to destroy the Gothic monarchy, and bring Vitiges a 
 captive to Constantinople, refused to give it. The Goths, not 
 understanding the conduct of Belisarius, proposed to dethrone 
 Vitiges, and make Belisarius emperor of the West. Vitiges 
 affected to abdicate in his favour. Belisarius allowed the Goths 
 to act on the supposition of his assent, and thus obtained the 
 surrender of Ravenna. As soon as this object was effected, he 
 proclaimed his loyalty to the emperor. He and they, he said, 
 were alike subjects. He returned to Constantinople, bringing 
 ■with him the captive king of Italy. He was received with 
 courtesy by the emperor, who, however, continued to regard him 
 with jealousy and distrust, and availed himself of the invasion 
 of Syria by the Persians to employ him at what he regarded as 
 a safe distance. The Persian king was successful in most of his 
 objects during the first year of the war thus commenced by him. 
 In the second he was checked by the genius of Belisarius. An 
 account, however, of those campaigns belongs more properly to 
 the biogi'aphy of Chosroes, or Nushirvan, to call him by his 
 Persian name. Belisarius, after two years, was recalled. While 
 in Persia, a report was spread of the emperor's death, and Beli- 
 sarius expressed an opinion on the succession opposed to the 
 emperor's views. Belisarius had become too powerful for Justi- 
 nian's peace of mind. His wealth, too, offered a strong tempta- 
 tion to avaiice. He had scarce returned from Persia, when his 
 treasures were seized, his personal guards taken fi-om his com- 
 mand, and he had no doubt that his death was resolved upon. 
 A communication fi-om the empress told him that his life was 
 spared at the sohcitation of Antonina. A fine of three thousand 
 pounds, weight of gold was exacted from him. What the precise 
 accusation against him was has not been recorded. Within a 
 few months he was sent to Italy, which was again in amis. 
 The emperor, no doubt, hoped some advantage there from the 
 magic of his name ; yet the mission must have seemed more like 
 exile than anything implying high trust. The latter campaigns 
 of Belisarius in Italy, though they are described as exhibiting 
 great skill on the part of the general, were on the whole unsuc- 
 cessful, as all his purposes were thwarted by the neglect of the 
 emperor to send adequate supplies. Belisarius solicits his recall, 
 and is recalled. Soon after his return, a conspiracy to murder 
 the emperor was detected. Behsarius, as his chief supporter, 
 was to have shared his fate. 
 
 Eleven years are now passed by him in private life, when the 
 emjiire is invaded by barbarian hordes, whom the earlier histo- 
 rians call Bulgarians, but whom modem inquirers class with 
 the family of Huns. They were actually within a few miles of 
 Constantuiople when Belisarius was summoned to the rescue. 
 He succeeded in dispersing the tumultuous hosts, and saved the 
 capital. Four years after this he was accused of participation 
 in a conspiracy to murder the emperor. The wild word of a 
 criminal under torture outweighed, in the estimate of his judges, 
 the evidence which a life of almost romantic loyalty afforded. 
 His life was spared, but his property confiscated. It is said 
 that his eyes were put out, and there is no improbability in the 
 narrative. Justinian always thought of him as a rival for the 
 empire, and the laws of several countries annexed to blindness, 
 liowever arising, the penalty — if it is to be so called — of incapa- 
 city to reign ; and this expedient was frequently resorted to 
 when it was wished to get rid of a competitor for the throne, 
 without depriving him of life. Gibbon disbelieves the fiict, as it 
 is not mentioned in the earher nairatives ; but it is not easy to 
 
 imagine the prevalence of the tradition except on the supposition 
 of its truth. However this be, he died in the spring of the 
 following year (565). The gi'eat authority for the biography of 
 Belisarius is the account of Justinian's Wai-s, by Procopius, 
 Behsarius's secretary, and the same writer's Secret Historj'. See 
 also Gibbon, Lord Mahon (now Earl Stanhope), and Fuilay — 
 Greece under the Romans. — J. A., D. 
 
 BELL, Andrew, whose name is so honourably associated 
 with the progress of education about the beginning of the present 
 century, was bom at St. Andrews in March, 1753. When he 
 had finished his college course, he went to America, where he 
 remained till 1781. On his return to Scotland, he detennined 
 to enter into lioly orders, and soon became the pastor of the 
 episcopal chapel at Leith, but being not altogether satisfied 
 with his position, he determined to quit his native land and 
 seek his fortune in India. Dr. Bell settled at Madras, and 
 became, in the first instance, a lecturer on natural philosophy. 
 He soon, however, obtained several offices in the way of his pro- 
 fession, and was, in 1788, appointed to be one of the com- 
 pany's chaplains at Fort St. George. About the time that Bell 
 aiTi\ed at Madras, there was a proposal on foot for establishing 
 a militaiy orphan asylum, and it was from his connection with 
 it that his fame subsequently arose. He organized the asylum, 
 and conducted it for six years without fee or reward, watching 
 over its interest with more than paternal solicitude. Amongst 
 many other new features, or, at least, which were thought new, 
 ho had recourse to the plan of making the elder boys teach 
 the younger, and in fact reduced the plan to a system. Reports 
 of the orphan military asylum at Madi-as reached England, and 
 they may possibly have fallen into the hands of Mr. Joseph 
 Lancaster, who was beginning his educational career about this 
 period. Fortunately or unfortunately — lis sub judlce est — Bell 
 and Lancaster were pitted against each other, and for many 
 years the friends of education earned on an unseemly quarrel 
 about theh respective merits. Bell was the champion of the 
 Church and the National Society, while Lancaster, mostly in the 
 cause of Dissent, called into existence the British and Foreign 
 School Society. Both societies are still in existence, and have 
 done much good; though, as far as the operations of the 
 schoolroom are concerned, the system on which they started 
 has not been able to stand the test of time. Dr. Bell looked 
 upon his system (and bishops, jiulges, and magistrates went 
 into the extraordinaiy delusion) " as an engine of simple and 
 easy constniction, fitted for common and popular use, and giving 
 that facility, expedition, and economy to the education of youth, 
 which 2)hi/sic(d machinery had given to the arts and manufac- 
 tures." It was this idea, and particularly the economy part of 
 it, that gained so ready an acceptance for the monitorial system ; 
 but time that changes all things, has gi-eatly changed it, and 
 we can now only look back with wonder at the mighty results 
 that even wise men expected to flow from such small causes. 
 It was in 1797 that Dr. Bell retumed to England, and accord- 
 ing to his biography l)y Southey, he was then worth little short 
 of £2G,000. He left India on furlough, but he had not been 
 long in England when he resolved not to retiun to the East, 
 provided he could get a pension. He accordingly apphed to 
 the court of dhectors, and obtained £200 a year. 
 
 Rich patronage in the church followed, and for many years 
 he employed himself in diffusing a knowledge of his system, and 
 in helping to establish schools in all parts of the country. As a 
 reward for his labours, he was made a prebendary of Westminster, 
 and there his ashes finally reposed. " The inscription on his 
 coffin-plate," as we are carefully infonned bv his biographers, "is 
 Rev. Dr. Andi-ew Bell, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E.; died January 27, 
 1832, aged seventy-nine years. By his own request the inscrip- 
 tion to be placed on his tombstone is to be simply — The Au'hor 
 of the Madras System of Education.'''' Dr. Bell deserved well 
 of his country and his kind. His tnie monument exists in the 
 Madras college of St. Andi'ews, and copies of it, so to speak, 
 are to be found in the schools he established in Cupar-of-Fife, 
 in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leith, Aberdeen, and Inverness. These 
 have done much for the children of the poor in those places, and 
 they will keep the name of Dr. Bell green in the memoi*y long 
 after the distinctive featm-es of " the I^Iadras system " have 
 passed away. — C. W. C. 
 
 BELL, BiCN,TAMiN, a distinguished surgeon. He was edu- 
 cated at Edmbuvgh, and studied anatomy under the celebrated 
 Mom-o. After travelling on the continent, he retumed to Edia-
 
 BEL 
 
 477 
 
 BEL 
 
 bnrgh, wliere lie was appointed surgeon to the Infirmaiy. He 
 •was the author of one of the most successful and generally used 
 works on surgery, entitled " A System of Surgery," in seven 
 volumes. It was not only used as a text-book in Edinburgh, but 
 was translated into French and Gennan, and exercised a vast 
 influence on the surgery- of the eighteenth century. It was, 
 however, destined to fall, and under the attacks and severe 
 criticisms of John Bell, it ceased to be regarded as an authority. 
 He wrote several other surgical works. In 1778 he published 
 " A Treatise on the Theoiy and JLinagement of Ulcers." In 
 1794 appeared "A Treatise on Hydi-ocele, on Sarcocele, on 
 Cancer, and other diseases of the Testes," and in 1793, "A 
 Treatise on GonoiThea Vu-ulenta, and Lues Venerea." — E. L. 
 
 BELL, Sir Charles, an eminent physiologist and surgeon, 
 bom at Edinburgh in 1774, was the youngest son of the Eev. 
 William Bell, a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of Scotland ; 
 his elder brothers having been John Bell, a distinguished surgeon 
 and anatomist of Edinburgh, and George Joseph Bell, an emi- 
 nent writer on Scottish law, who became professor of the law of 
 Scotland in the miivei-sity of Edinbm-gh. Having the misfortune 
 to lose his father whilst he was yet a child, Charles Bell did not 
 receive the same advantages of academical education as his elder 
 brothers ; but, as he himself said in after life, " my education 
 was the example set me by my brothers." He very early adopted 
 the medical profession, and, under the guidance of his brother 
 John, so zealously prosecuted his anatomical studies, as very 
 early to render himself competent to afford him important 
 assistance in the completion of his System of Anatomy, and 
 in teaching his classes. In 1799 Charles Bell was admitted a 
 member of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, and 
 soon afterwards was appointed one of the surgeons of the Royal 
 Tnfirmary of that city, where he acquired a high reputation as a 
 ilful operator. In 1806 he removed to London, and estab- 
 ^hed hunself as a lecturer on anatomy and sm-geiy, at first 
 independently, but afterwards (1811) in association with others, 
 at the celebrated anatomical school of Great Windmill Street. 
 His work on the " Anatomy of Expression," first published at 
 the time of his settlement in London, contributed to gain him a 
 general reputation. This work not only comprised an examina- 
 tion into the sources of beauty in the antique, and into the various 
 theories of beauty, natural and ideal, in the human form, but 
 also an inquiiy into the laws regulating the expression of the 
 passions hi the muscular movements of the countenance and of 
 the body generally. It was in the prosecution of this inquiiy 
 that Charles Bell was led to his subsequent discoveries in the 
 physiology of the nervous system ; and he continued to follow it 
 up even to the end of his life. In 1811 he manied Marion, 
 daughter of Charles Shaw, Esq., of Ayr, some other members 
 of whose family subsequently became intimately associated with 
 liim, as assistants in his scientific labours, and expositors of his 
 doctrines. In 1812 he was elected sm-geon to the Middlesex 
 iiospital ; and continued to hold this post until he quitted Lon- 
 don for Edinburgh in 1836. It was between 1810 and 1812, 
 that he first began to draw the attention of the scientific world 
 to those views of the physiology of the nervous system, which 
 he afterwards more fully elaborated ; his " Idea of a New 
 Anatomy of the Brain " having been printed and circulated 
 among his friends, although not published, in 1810 or 1811. 
 He continued to prosecute his iriquiries -without any further 
 announcement of then- results (save in his oral instructions) 
 until the year 1821, when he communicated to the Royal Society 
 the first of that series of memoirs on the nervous system, which 
 unquestionably laid the foundation of all our present knowledge 
 of its true stmcture and functions, and will immortalize his 
 name so long as physiological science exists. Of his labom's in 
 this field we shall presently give a more detailed account. 
 
 Wliilst prosecuting his physiological researches, Charles Bell 
 was still zealously applying himself to the improvement as well 
 as to the practice of the surgical art. He had given much 
 attention to various questions of military surgery, when om- 
 soldiers came home wounded from the peninsular war ; and 
 immediately after the battle of Waterloo, incited alike by 
 humanity and by zeal for professional improvement, he proceeded 
 to Brussels, where he tendered his assistance in the care of the 
 wouudi'd, and was incessantly engaged for three successive days 
 and nights in the operations and (hcssings required by upwards 
 of three hundred patients. 
 
 In 1824 he accepted the senior professorship of anatomy and 
 
 surgeiy in the London College of Surgeons ; and his lectures, 
 which excited much attention, formed the basis of a treatise on 
 " Animal ilechanics," which was sometime afterwards published 
 by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. In 1826 
 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. On the for- 
 mation of the London university (now University college), in 
 1827, Charles BeU accepted the appointment of professor of 
 anatomy and physiolog)', with the expectation that he was to be 
 considered as the head of the medical school ; finding hhnself 
 disappointed, however, he soon afterwards resigned the chair. 
 On the accession of William IV. he received the honour of 
 knighthood, in common with several other eminent scientific 
 men. About the same time he was selected by the president of 
 the Royal Society as the writer of one of the Bridgewater 
 Treatises, his subject being " The Mechanism and vital Endow- 
 ments of the Hand, as e\'iucing Design ;" and he also co-operated 
 with Lord Brougham in reproducing the " Natural Theology " of 
 Paley, with ample illustrations. At this tune he was practising 
 successfully as a surgeon in London, and frequently delivered 
 cUnical lectm-es on surgery at the Middlesex hospital. In 1836 
 he accepted the offer of the surgical chair in the university of 
 Edinbm-gh, to which he was invited by the unsolicited and 
 unanimous vote of its patrons ; and his first course of lectures 
 was attended by nearly all the surgical students of that metro- 
 polis. It soon appeai-ed, however, that neither as a teacher nor 
 as a practitioner of surger}', was he likely to hold that pre- 
 eminent rank in his native city to wliich he felt himself entitled ; 
 and the residts of his change of position were far from being 
 accordant with his anticipations. Though he had meditated a 
 great work on the nen-ous system, he did not find means for its 
 production ; and after the pubfication of his " Institutes of 
 Surgery," a text-book for his class, in 1838, he chiefly appHed 
 his leisure time to the preparation of a new edition of his 
 " Anatomy of Expression," which he greatly amplified by obser- 
 vations on the works of art with which Italy abounds, made 
 dming a tour in one of his college vacations. This edition was 
 not pubfished untU after his death, which occmTed rather sud- 
 denly in the summer of 18-12, at Hallow Park, Worcestershue, 
 while he was on his way to London. 
 
 The method of exposition adopted by Sir Charles Bell was, 
 unforttmately, not well calculated to place his doctrines clearly 
 before the world ; and much controversy has consequently taken 
 place as to the degree of assistance and correction which he 
 received from others. The following will, it is beheved, be 
 found to be a con-ect view of the successive steps of his disco- 
 veries : — Although various physiologists, fi-om Galen downwards, 
 had surmised that the nervous fibrils wliich ministered to sensa- 
 tion and to motion respectively, might be distmct, though bound 
 up in the same tninks ; and although the eminent anatomist 
 Willis had pointed out, a centuiy and a half pre\'iously, that 
 certain of the ner%-es of the head are exclusively sensory, and 
 others exclusively motor, yet no one seems to have thought of 
 subjectuig this idea to the test of experiment, or to have formed 
 the conception that the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal 
 nerves ministered to different functions, until Charles Bell entered 
 upon the inquiiy. To this he was especially led, as we have 
 seen, by his study of the anatomy of expression ; the problem 
 which he first set liimself to resolve being apparently this : — 
 Why the same organ, e. g. the tongue, should be supplied by 
 three different ner\-es. At the time when he commenced his 
 labours, it was the received doctrine that the cerebrum was the 
 organ of sensation and of voluntaiy motion ; and the cerebellum, 
 of the vital and involuntaiy motions ; and his original idea of 
 the relative functions of the anterior and posterior roots of the 
 spinal nerves, was that the former were in structural connection 
 with the cerebrum, through the anterior portion of the spinal 
 cord, and ministered to its functions, whiLst the latter were in 
 tlie like anatomical and physiological connection with the cere- 
 bellum. The only confirmation which experiment aftbrded to 
 this idea was that, when the anterior roots of the nerves were 
 irritated, movements were produced in the voluntaiy muscles ; 
 the function which he assigned posterior roots, however, was hi 
 h.armony with the then prevalent notion, that the ganglionic 
 enlargements which they bear were destined to " cut off sensa- 
 tion," so as to prevent impressions upon the apparatus of organic 
 life from being felt. Although this first idea has since proved 
 to be altogether eiToncous, yet the method of investigation by 
 cxpcrhncnts on the roots of the nerves, was in itself a great
 
 BEL 
 
 478 
 
 BEL 
 
 discoveiy ; and it fm-nislied Bell liimself with the means of cor- 
 recting his original \'iews, and of arriving at his great discoveiy, 
 before it was adopted by any one else. For there is ample 
 evidence that between 1812 and 1821, Bell had been led by his 
 experiments to adopt the conclusion, that the anterior roots of 
 the spinal nerves are subservient to motion, and the posterior to 
 sensation, respectively ; the motor and sensory fibrils being 
 essentially distinct, although bound up in the same trunks and 
 branches, and having different terminations, both iu the central 
 organs from wliicli they issue, and in the peripheral parts to 
 which they are distributed. This conclusion was explicitly 
 announced both by himself and by Mi'. John Shaw, in their 
 anatomical lectures at the Windmill Street school. Seeing, 
 however, that the nen'cs of the head afforded peculiar facilities 
 for working out the details of this doctrine, Bell gave his special 
 attention to them ; and having also conceived the idea that the 
 nerves of resphation and of expression proceeded from a distinct 
 tract in the medulla oblongata (the upper portion of the spinal 
 cord, which lies within the cranial cavity), the first memoir 
 communicated by him to the Royal Society did not develope 
 wliat is now estimated as his fmidamental discoveiy, but was 
 chiefly devoted to an examination of the respective functions of 
 the fifth and seventh pan-s of cranial nerves. In this memoir 
 the analogy of ihejifth pah- to the spinal nen'cs, in vuiue of its 
 two sets of roots, and of the ganglion upon the larger (sensory) 
 root, is explicitly pointed out ; and it was shown by experiment 
 to be a nerve of double function. Bell was not acquainted, 
 however, with the fact wliicli had been ascertained by previous 
 anatomists, that the fibres proceeding from the smaller (motor) 
 root are distributed only to the third of the three principal divi- 
 sions of the nerve, so that the first and second di\'isions, which 
 are distributed to the upper part of the face and head, are 
 exclusively sensory, while the third, which is alone possessed of 
 motor as well as sensory endowments, is limited in its distribu- 
 tion to the muscles of mastication. This correction was speedily 
 supplied by the experimental mquiries of JLigendie and Wayo ; 
 and it is not altogether to the credit of Su* C. Bell, that, in the 
 later reprints of this memoir, he adopted the coirection, without 
 any intimation of tlie source from wliich it had been derived. 
 With regard to the functions of the seventh pair, Bell maintained 
 (as Willis had done before), that it was essentially motor ; but 
 he considered its motor action to be limited to bringing the 
 muscles of the face into co-operation in the respiratoiy function, 
 and to exciting the movements of expression. Here, again, 
 subsequent research has proved that he was in error ; the seventh 
 pair being the ordinary motor nerve of the face, and the move- 
 ments of respiration and of expression being only particular 
 modes of its general action. Physiologists, in fact, have long 
 perceived that Su- C. Bell was in error in endcavoming to isolate 
 the movements of respiration from the other "sympathetic" or 
 (as they are now called) " reflex " actions with which they had 
 been pre\'iously associated ; and no one has any doubt that the 
 movements of expression or emotion are performed through the 
 same nen'ous channel as the movements of volition, although 
 having a different source in the central organs. It is not a little 
 remarkable that this part of Sir C. Bell's system was the one on- 
 which he especially prided himself ; and that to the end of his 
 life he continued to uphold it, professing his inability to under- 
 stand the doctrines of " reflex action," which were then being 
 pressed on the attention of physiologists by Dr. Marshall Hall 
 and his followers. 
 
 The subsequent labours of Sir C. Bell on the nervous sj'stem 
 were directed to the confirmation and extension of his doctrines, 
 both by anatomical research, by experimental inquuy, and by 
 pathological observation. He successfully demonstrated the 
 course of the sensoiy and motor tracts ascending from the spinal 
 cord to enter the brain, and showed how roots of the cranial 
 nerves are connected with one or the other, or with both, 
 according as they are exclusively sensory, or exclusively motor, 
 or of mixed endowments. He attempted also to show that the 
 anterior and posterior portions of the spinal cord have endow- 
 ments corresponding with those of their nerves ; but this conclu- 
 sion, though at first gL-nerally accepted, has been rendered more 
 than doubtful, both by the residts of experiment and by the 
 plienomena of disease. Under the title of the " Nervous Circle," 
 lie developed, more fully than had been previously done, the 
 importance of " guiding sensations " in all voluntary movement ; 
 these sensations bemg usually derived from the muscles them- 
 
 selves, but being replaced by those of some other kind (as sight) 
 when the " muscular sense " (which he considered to be a pecu- 
 liar form of sensation, different from ordinary touch) is deficient. 
 And in various parts of his memoirs, he threw out most impor- 
 tant hints as to the rational interpretation of sjTnptoms, and the 
 application of remedies, which give them a high practical value. 
 
 Notwithstanding that Sir Charles Bell's metliod of uivestiga- 
 tion did not always conduct him to the truth, and his results 
 had to be corrected by the labours of others, yet it is impossible 
 for it ever to be forgotten that by him was laid the sure founda- 
 tion of all subsequent knowledge of neiTOUS physiology, in the 
 discoveiy of the respective fimctions of the anterior and posterior 
 roots of the spinal nerves, and in the general doctiine to which 
 that discovery led, of the distinctness of function of each indiri- 
 dual fibril, in virtue alike of its central and of its peripheral 
 connections. — W. B. C. 
 
 BELL, Henry. This ingenious mechanic, the first in Europe 
 who successfully applied steam to the purposes of navigation, 
 was bom in 1767 at Toi-phichen in Linlithgowshire. He was 
 descended from a race of mechanics, some of whom enjoyed 
 more than local fame. After receiving a scanty education at 
 the parish school of Torphichen, he was apprenticed to a stone- 
 mason in 1780, but shortly after exchanged that craft for that 
 of a millwright. At the cxpiiy of his engagement he went to 
 Borrowstounness to be instnicted in ship-modelling, and in 1787, 
 for the purpose of improving himself in mechanics, engaged 
 with Mr. Inglis, engineer, at Bell's Hill. With the same pur- 
 pose in view he found his way to London, and was for some 
 time in the employment of the celebrated Rennie. Returning to 
 Scotland about the year 1790, he established himself at Glas- 
 gow, and, either from want of capital or from want of persever- 
 ance, failing in his views of becoming an undertaker of pubHc 
 works, lal)om-ed as a common house-cai-penter. The records of 
 the coi"poration of waights in Glasgow mention that he was 
 entered a member of that body, October 20, 1797. In 1808 
 he removed to Helensburgh on the fiith of Clyde, then an 
 inconsiderable village, and pursued at leisure his multifarious 
 mechanical schemes, or rather projected innumerable novelties 
 in mechanics, which, with characteristic mconstancy, were succes- 
 sively abandoned ; while his wife, who possessed in a remarkable 
 degree the steady industiy which her husband lacked, managed 
 with profit the Baths' Inn, a large and much-frequented establish- 
 ment. After engaging with infinite zest and grievous loss in a 
 variety of projects, either totally impracticable or much bey()nd 
 his means and the range of his scientific acquirements, his atten- 
 tion was directed by the experiments of Miller of Dalswinton to the 
 subject of steam narigation. ^liller's experiments, like Fultou'o 
 in America and others previously made in France, had demon- 
 strated the possibility of applying steam to the pui-pose of na\i- 
 gation, but no practical success had as yet attended any attempt 
 in Europe to introduce steam vessels. It was reserved for Henry 
 Bell to accomplish this uiiportant object. He constructed in 
 1812 a vessel forty feet in length, which propelled by paddles in 
 the way now so commonly known throughout the world, was 
 found capable of making way against a head- tide in the river at 
 the rate of seven miles an hour. This small craft for some 
 months, imtil dwindled in the public estimation by larger vessels 
 for which, without profit to the inventor, it served as a model, 
 was a wonder of the nation under the name of the Comet ; and 
 if the gigantic results which have followed its success could 
 have been instantly foreseen, it is possible that the surprise of 
 his countiymen might have been taken advantage of to recog- 
 nize, in some suitable way, the claims of Heniy Bell. As it 
 was, the public handsomely allowed him to do the best he 
 could with his invention, did him the honour of adopting it, 
 and left him until late in life, a prey to fears of stai'va- 
 tion, which were by no means unreasonable. He was latterly 
 in some measure relieved of embarrassments which weighed 
 heavily on his mind by the kindness of some friends, especially 
 in Glasgow^, who interested themselves in raisuig subscriptions 
 for his benefit. A grant of £200 by government, and an annuity 
 of £100 from the trastees of the river Clyde, were afterwai-ds 
 added to these acknowledgments of the gi-atitude which this 
 remarkable man claimed from his countiymen. He died at 
 Helensburgh in 1830. A half of the annuity was continued to 
 his widow. Attempts were made during his lifetime, and renewed 
 after his death, to discredit his claims as an inventor, and it 
 was plausibly lu-ged that Fulton's steamer haraig plied on the
 
 Hudson five years before Bell started liis on the Clyde, the 
 European was in all probability only a copy of the American 
 invention. But there is no ground for supposing that Bell had 
 learned anytliing of his rival's plans at the time he w-as proceed- 
 ing with his own, and far less that they were so accurately 
 described to him as to spare him the exercise of all ingenuity 
 but that of coiTect modelling. He indignantly denied the charge 
 of borrowing an invention to make himself a name, and the 
 researches of his detractors have not produced anything to cast 
 a doubt on liis denial. — J. S., G. 
 
 CELL, Jajles, a higlily respectable editor and compiler of 
 historical and gcogi-aphical works, was born at Jedburgh in 
 1769, where his fother was pastor of the Relief church. It is 
 chai'acteristic of the comparative simplicity of the times that 
 James Bell, the son of a clergyman, was withdra^vn from learn- 
 ing, and apprenticed to the ai-t and crafc of weaving. When 
 twenty-one years of age, he appears to have entered business 
 in Glasgow on his ovra account. In 1800 he became a private 
 teacher of the classics. Mr. Bell was the author of several 
 works on geography, more particularly of "A System of Popu- 
 lar and Scientific Geography," published in six volumes. He 
 was engaged on a Gazetteer of England and Wales, when death 
 put an end to his meritorious and long-continued labours. He 
 died on the 3rd May, 1833.— C. W. C. 
 
 BELL, John, a painter mentioned in the Harleian JiISS. as a 
 painter employed with the bullying Torreggiano on Heniy VII.'s 
 tomb.— W. T, 
 
 BELL, John, commonly called Bell of Antermont — that 
 being the name of his patei-nal estate — was born in 1691. He 
 received a classical education, and passed as a physician in the 
 twenty-third year of his age. Havmg a strong desu-e to see 
 foreign countries, as he himself tells us, he obtained recom- 
 mendator}' letters to Dr. Areskine, " a brother Scot," who then 
 acted in the double capacity of chief physician and pri\7' coun- 
 cillor to Peter the Great. Bell arrived at St. Petersburg in 
 July, 1714, and was well received by the emperor. It happened 
 .'lat Peter was then prepaiing an embassy to the court of Persia, 
 aid Bell was engaged to accompany it in his professional char- 
 acter of physician. The expedition left St. Petersburg in July, 
 1715, and we read of it at Kazan in June of the following 
 year. Kazan is not 800 miles from St. Petersburg, in a straight 
 line, and maldng full allowance for delations and deflections of 
 all sorts, it would appear that the expedition took twelve- 
 souths to travel 1000 miles. There was therefore plenty of 
 ; ime for observation and reflection, and the young Scotclunan 
 iiiade the best use of his opportunities. From Kazan, the 
 ■ mbassy proceeded by Astrakhan, the Caspian sea, and the 
 . inge of the Tamais to Ispahan ; where the " Bactrian Sophi," 
 — as Milton calls the shah of Persia, — then held his court, and 
 '.vhere Bell arrived on the (old style) 13th March, 1717. He 
 (iid not return to St. Petershm-g till December, 1718, having 
 thus been absent fi-om that capital three years and a half. 
 BeU had not been many months in St. Petersburg when he 
 was again called upon to accompany an embassy to China. 
 They left the capital in July, 1719, and, travelling through 
 Siberia and the deserts of Tartary, arrived at Pekin, " after a 
 tedious jom'ney of exactly sixteen months." Bell's description 
 of Siberia forms a very interesting part of his travels, and the 
 account of what he saw at the com-t of Pekin is still considered 
 of great value, as he is one of the few travellers from the west- 
 em world who have penetrated so far into the interior of China. 
 Bell left Pekin in March, 1721, and anived at JIoscow in Janu- 
 ary, 1722. But he had scarcely recovered from the fatigues of 
 his Chinese travels, when he was invited to accompany the czar 
 in person, on his expedition to Derbent, a celebrated pass between 
 the Caucasus and the Caspian sea. In his account of this 
 expedition, we get an insight into the country of the Circassians, 
 who have ever since given the Russians so much trouble, and 
 who are not yet subdued. Bell also gives us an estimate of the 
 character of Peter, whose habits, both public and private, he 
 had an excellent opportunity of studying during this expedition. 
 Soon after returning from Circassia, Bell visited Scotland, where 
 he remained till 1737, when, on the faihu'C of negotiations for 
 peace between Russia and Turkey, he was sent on a confidential 
 niission to Constantinople. He afterwards took up his abode in 
 that famous city, and earned on business for several years as a 
 merchant. Bell married a Russian lady, Marj' Peters, about the 
 year 1740 ; and, in the following year, he returned to his native 
 
 land, where he lived in ease and affluence for the remainder of 
 bis days. He died on the 1st of July, 1780, in the eighty- 
 ninth year of his age. His " Travels in Asia " were published 
 m two 4to volumes by the celebrated Fouhses of Glasgow, in 
 1763, and they have appeared in several foims since. The 
 work was translated into French, and in this way became 
 widely known on the continent. — C. W. C. 
 
 BELL, John, a celebrated Scotch surgeon, the elder brother 
 of Su- Charles Bell, and son of the Eev. W. Bell, a clerg}Tnan of 
 the episcopal church of Scotland. He was bom at Edinbm-gh on 
 the 12th of ]\Iay, 1703. His father ha\'ing been greatly relieved 
 by a sui-gical ojieration just before his son John was born, deter- 
 mined out of gratitude to devote liis cliild to the surgical profes- 
 sion. He was, accordingly, after recei%ing his early education 
 at the High School, Edinburgh, entered as a pupil to Mr. Alex- 
 ander Wood of that city. He became a pupil in the university, 
 and studied under Black, Cullen, and the second Monro. He soon 
 began to mark out a career for himself. He felt that, although 
 anatomy and surgeiy were well taught, they had not been 
 sufiiciently connected. He therefore built an anatomical theatre 
 and lecture-room, in Surgeon's Square, and opened it for 
 the teaching of anatomy, in connection with sm-gery. It was 
 here he attacked Monro and Benjamin BeU, and produced 
 enemies in the university, and sun-ounded himself with admiring 
 friends. In 1793 he published the first volume of his gi'eat 
 work on " The Anatomy of the Human Body." This volume 
 contained a description of the bones, the muscles, and the joints. 
 The second volume, which was published soon aftenvai-ds, con- 
 tained an account of the heart and arteries. The thu-d volume 
 was completed by his brother Charles, and was devoted to the 
 nervous system. This work was written in a clear and forcible 
 style, and, wliilst it went into the details of anatomy, discussed 
 physiological points, so as to interest the reader. Subsequently 
 engi-avings were published, illustrating the anatomy of the parts 
 described in the above work. His works on siu^geiy have deser- 
 vedly given Mr. John Bell the highest position amongst the 
 surgeons of the last century. He was the fii-st to point out the 
 important mfluence that the free anastomosis amongst the arteries 
 of the hmnan body, exercised in all those cases where the prime 
 trunk of an artery was injured. His first work in which this 
 great fact was made to bear on practical sm-gery, was entitled 
 " Discom-ses on the Natmre and Cure of Wounds." This work 
 has gone through many editions. His next great work was his 
 " Principles of Surgery," which was pubUshed in three volmiies. 
 This work is still consulted and refen-ed to as containing a 
 lai"ge body of most important facts and reasonings on the subject 
 of sm-gerj\ A new edition was edited by Sii' Charles Bell in 1820. 
 In 1810 he piiblishcd a series of letters addressed to Dr. Gre- 
 gory, entitled " Letters on Professional Character and Educa- 
 tion." Although standing so high in reputation, and throwmg 
 into the shade by his genius and industiy the men by whom he 
 was surrounded, he was nevertheless opposed in eveiy dh'cction. 
 As a member of the Edinburgh College of Surgeons, he was 
 anxious to reform that institution, but his pi'oposals were rejected, 
 and he met with great personal opposition. Since his death 
 nearly all his proposals have, however, been earned into cficct. 
 During the early part of his life, the members of the College of 
 Surgeons took it in turn to attend to the patients of the infir- 
 maiy. This gave Bell an opportunity of exhibiting his skill as an 
 operator, and of teachuig Ids pailicular views. It was, however, 
 aiTanged that pemianent surgeons should be appointed to the 
 infii-mary, and thus Bell was excluded. He brought the subject 
 before the courts of law, but was beaten. His was one of many 
 instances, in which Edinburgh has excluded from her medical 
 institutions those most qualified to cany out then- benevolent 
 and educational objects. In 1805 Mr. Bell manned a daughter 
 of Dr. Congleton. His health, however, declining, he vi^ited the 
 continent, and having travelled through Italy, he arrived at 
 Rome, where his health became rapidly worse, and be died of 
 di-opsy, April 15th, 1820. After his death, in 1825, his widow 
 ecfited a work consisting of observations made in his travels 
 through Italy, entitled " Observations on Italy." John Bell was 
 a reni;n-kable man. His works betray great original thought and 
 extensive reaiUng. He was impetuous and energetic, and in his 
 controversial writings almost violent. He had no sympathy with 
 conservatism, and was indignant with those who had not made 
 the same advances with himself. His style of writing was inter- 
 esting, and his Icctiu-es eloquent and attractive. He was one of
 
 BEL 
 
 480 
 
 BEL 
 
 those men who, without apparently achie\ing great success, leave 
 behind them an abiding impression, and stamp their character in 
 the institutions and thought of the age in which they live. — E. L. 
 
 BELL, John, of Lincoln's Inn, a lawyer of eminence, was 
 born at Kendal, Westmoreland, in 17G4. He graduated at 
 Trinity college, Cambridge, in 178G, as senior wrangler of his 
 year, and entered at Gray's Lin in 1789, where he became a 
 pupil of Romilly. He was called to the bar m 1792, and made 
 a king's counsel in 1816. In 1824-25 he gave most important 
 evidence before the chanceiy commissioners on the practice of 
 the courts of equity ; and in 1830 published a pamphlet, 
 entitled " Thoughts on Alterations in the Court of Chancery." 
 He died in 1836, leaving behind him the repvitation of an emi- 
 nent legal reformer. Among his professional pupils he numbered 
 Jlr. Bickersteth, afterwards master of the rolls, who was created 
 Lord Langdale in 1836.— E. W. 
 
 * BELL, John, a still rising and original sculptor, was born 
 in Norfolk in 18U0. One of his earliest works was a religious 
 group, exhibited at the Eoyal Academy in 1832. His latest is a 
 design for a monument to the Guards who fell in the Crimea, just 
 executed (1858). At first Mr. Bell was somewhat beset by the 
 old straight Greek nose delusion, and was afraid to imitate homely 
 work-a-day nature. By degrees, through various stages of 
 partial eclipse — " Girl at a Brook," " Psyche borne by Zephyrs," 
 " Psyche feeding a Swan," " John the Baptist," &c., — our 
 sculptor groped liis way through Vatican halls to broad clear 
 daylight. As for Psyche, she might have been St. Catherine, of 
 course, and the nymph with the swan, Leda. The name in 
 these cases is a lucky after-thought. But he rose, rose, and in 
 1837 appeared the model of his fine epical figiu'e, " The Eagle 
 Slayei'," not an archer with the divine sneer of a Byron watching 
 the result of his inevitable shaft, but a grappling passionate 
 mountaineer, full of the one destructive thought. This stalwart 
 figure appeai-ed in a complete form at that birth-place of modem 
 art, Westminster hall, in 1844, and he re-exhibited it in the 
 full bloom of mature manhood at the Ciystal Palace in 1851. 
 JIultiplied in bronze statuettes, this powerful figure, through the 
 instiTimentality of the Art-Union, was saved from the oblivion 
 and seclusion of some rich man's solitary gallery. In 1841 the 
 sculptor, who had already proved his sense of vigour, proved also 
 his sense of grace and tender beauty by his figure of " Dorothea" 
 — that pretty girl-page of Cervantes. This poetical realization 
 of a modern and well-known, but not exhausted theme, was 
 the mother of a noble army of porcelain statuettes, which 
 have made it almost injuriously connnon. jMr. Bell's other 
 works are, "The Babes in the wood;" "Andromeda," a bronze, 
 a fine Ovidian nude subject, which was a complete stoppage 
 ;:t the Great Exhibition; "The wounded Clorinda" (1841); 
 and a " Child Statue" (1845), purchased by the Queen. 
 In 1847 at Westminster hall, Mr. Bell exhibited his first 
 government recognition, a dignified and reflective statue of 
 " Lord Falkland," for the new houses of parliament, and now in 
 St. Stephen's hall; and in 1854 he exhibited his statue of 
 that not very ideal statesman, " Sir Robert Walpole." This 
 poor and rather coarse statue is also keeping its eternal watch 
 in the same entrance hall. At Westminster hall, in 1844, 
 this versatile sculptor exhibited a daring cartoon of " The Angel 
 of the Pillar," embodied in some fluent " Compositions from 
 the Liturgy," since published. The " Free Hand Drawing Book 
 for the use of Artisans," is also one of Mr. Bell's useful labours. 
 Men of the Times says, ^Ir. Bell is not only a refined and 
 fertile artist, but a man well conversant with general literature, 
 as artists should be, but are not. It adds, that in leisure 
 moments Mr. Bell amuses himself with decorative art, having 
 modelled many objects for the drawing-room table, and vari- 
 ous utilities for the Colebrookdale company. All these things 
 are valuable aids to art-civilization. Mr. Bell is mamed to the 
 only daughter of Robert Sullivan, Esq., a gentleman of fortune 
 and dramatist, novelist, poet, and artist to boot. Mr. Bell has 
 done much to relieve us from the dreadful stone-weight of the 
 old classical nightmare, the innuaculate, the hnpossible, the 
 wearisome, the straight-nosed, the expressionless, the un-Eng- 
 lish. Other men will advance fm-ther than Mr. Bell, but we 
 must still be thaid^ful to this Macadam for beginning a road 
 over this dismal swamp. WTien shall we wish a long good-night 
 to Venuses and Apollos, and see our own sinewy highland 
 youth, and the simple modes and beauty of our own lowland 
 girls done justice to ? — W. T. 
 
 * BELL, Robert, was born on the 10th Januaiy, 1800, at 
 Cork, from whence his family soon aftenvards removed to Dublin. 
 His father, who was a magistrate high in the confidence of 
 government, died while Robert was yet a boy ; and his friends 
 obtained for his son at a very early age an appointment in a 
 government department. Official routine, however, was not very 
 congenial to the taste of a youth, whose instincts had already 
 indicated his futm-e course; the passion for literary pursuits 
 having displayed itself in numerous JIS. plays, poems, and 
 essays, written befoi-e he was fourteen years of age. At six- 
 teen or seventeen he, in conjunction with two young college 
 students, founded a magazine called the Dublin Inqidsiior, and 
 he revived outside the walls of the university the Historical 
 Society of Trinity college, in which Burke, Plunkett, Curran, 
 and other distinguished men had trained their oratoiical powers. 
 His di-amatic ardoiu- was gi-atified by the successful production 
 at the Dublin theatre of two little pieces, called " The Double 
 Disguise," and " Comic Lectures." During the administration 
 of the marquis of Wellesley he was induced to undertalce the 
 editorship of the government jomnal, the Patriot ; but he soon 
 found that the sphere for literary exertion was too contracted; 
 and the approaching close of the Marquis Wellcsley's admmis- 
 tration diminished his inducement to devote himself to local 
 politics. In 1828 he removed to London, and becoming a con- 
 tributor to the principal reviews and magazines, was soon invited 
 to assume the editorship of the Atlas jom-nal, which he con- 
 tinued to conduct for many years. It was distinguished as 
 having inaugurated a new era in periodical literature, being 
 the first weekly paper that combined literary criticism with the 
 usual articles of political discussion and general intelligence — an 
 example afterwards generally followed. In 1829 a criminal 
 information was filed against him on account of an ai'ticle which 
 appeared in the Atlas, charging Lord Chancellor Lyndhm'st >rith 
 coiTuption in the bestowal of his church patronage. Mr. Bell 
 conducted his own defence, which he founded upon the fact, 
 that in writing the article in question, the authorship of which 
 he avowed, he was actuated by no personal or party motive, but 
 simply by the dictates of his public duty. This argument, 
 though no justification in law, had its due weight with the 
 jury, who acquitted Mr. Bell ; and Lord Tenterden, who tried 
 the case, complimented him on the ability and good taste of 
 his defence. In 1841 Mr. Bell retu'ed from the editorship of 
 the Atlas. Diuing his connection with that paper, and in 
 subsequent years, he contributed to Dr. Lardner's Encyclopsedia, 
 the "History of Russia," 3 vols.; the "Lives of the English 
 Poets," 2 vols.; and the last volume to the gTeatly-admhed 
 Naval History of England, which had been commenced, hut 
 left unfinished by Southey. He was also chosen to complete 
 Sir James ^Mackintosh's History of England, of which the last 
 volume is from his pen. In 1838, in conjunction with Dr. 
 Lardner and Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, he founded and lat- 
 terly echted the Monthly Chronicle. He is the author also 
 of the five act comedies, " lyjarriage," produced at the Hay- 
 market in 1842 ; " Mothers and Daughters," produced at Covent 
 Garden in the following year ; and " Temper," acted at the Hay- 
 market in 1847. Amongst his other works, which are numerous, 
 may be mentioned, " The Ladder of Gold," a novel in 3 vols., 
 published in 1850; "Heart and Alt.ars," a collection of tales 
 in 3 vols. ; a " Life of Canning ;" " Outlines of China ;" " Memo- 
 rials of the Civil War," 2 vols., consisting of the Faufax Corre- 
 spondence ; and " Wayside Pictures through France, Belgium, 
 and Holland," which has passed through three editions. In 
 1854 Mr. Bell undertook the most onerous and important labour 
 in which he had hitherto been engaged, an annotated edition of 
 the English Poets. The merit of the series was graciously 
 acknowledged by the king of the Belgians, who presented the 
 editor with a gold medal, as a token of his majesty's sense of his 
 seiTices to Hterature. Mr. Bell is known also to have been 
 many years engaged upon a work, for which his special studies 
 have peculiarly fitted him, called " The Town Life of the Resto- 
 ration." — J. F. C. 
 
 * BELL, Thojias, an eminent living naturalist. He was bom 
 at Poole m Dorsetshire, where his father was a general practi- 
 tioner of medicine, hi 1792. He received his early education in 
 his native town, and at a boys' school in Shaftesbuiy. He then 
 became a pupil with his father, and in 1814 came to London, 
 and studied at Guy's hospital. In 1815 he passed the College of 
 Surgeons, and became a fellow of the Linna3an Society, of which
 
 BEL 
 
 481 
 
 BEL 
 
 he is now the president. Having determined to devote liimself to 
 the practice of dentistiy, he commenced delivering a course of lec- 
 tures on dental surgery at Guy's hospital in 1817, which he has 
 delivered annually to the present time. He also delivered lec- 
 tures for some time on comparative anatomy in the same school. 
 Mr. Bell early evinced a taste for the study of natural history, 
 especially zoology, and this was fostered by his connection with 
 the LinnD3an Society. He was with Messrs. Vigors, Sowerl)y, 
 and others, a founder and contributor to the Zoological Journal 
 of which five volumes were published. He was also one of the 
 members of the Zoological Club of the Linnsean Society, a body 
 that afteiTvards connected itself with the Zoological Society. 
 Of the council of this latter body Mr. Bell was for many years a 
 member. In 1828 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, 
 and has several times been elected on its council. In 1840 he 
 was made secretary of the Royal Society, an office that he held 
 till 1853, when he was elected president of the Linnrean Society, 
 in the place of Mr. Robert Bro^vn, who had resigned. He took 
 an active part in establishing the Ray Society, which was 
 started in 1844, for the publication of rare and costly works on 
 natural history. He was elected the first president, and still 
 holds this position. In 1836 he was appointed professor of 
 zoology in King's college, London. The works and papers of 
 Mr. Bell on the various departments of zoology are very numer- 
 ous. In 1836 he published in Van Voorst's series of British 
 Natural History, a " History of British Quadrupeds." In 1853 
 he completed the publication in the same series of a " History of 
 the British Stalk-Eyed Crustucca." Both these works are illus- 
 trated, and are a standard authority on the subjects on whicli 
 they treat. He is also distinguished for his knowledge of the 
 class of reptiles, and in 1829 pubhshed a " History of British 
 Reptiles" in Van Voorst's series. In 1833 he commenced a 
 " Monograph of the Testudinata," and the article " Reptiles," in 
 Darwin's Zoology of the voyage of the Beagle^ was written by 
 him. His papers, published in the Philosophical Transactions, 
 the Transactions of the Linnrean and Zoological Society, in the 
 Proceedings of the Zoological Society, and in the Natiu-al History 
 Journals, are veiy numerous. A list of them is given in the 
 Bit)liogi-aphia Zoologiaj et Geologire, by Agassiz and Stricldand, 
 pubhshed by the Ray Society. — E. L. 
 
 BELL, William, was bom at Newcastle ; he carried off at 
 the Royal Academy a prize for his picture of " Venus soliciting 
 Vulcan to forge armour for jEneas," returned to his native city, 
 painted landscapes and portraits, and died 1804. — W. T. 
 
 BELL, William, D.D., an English divine, chaplain to the 
 ])rincess Ameha, aunt to George III., and aftenvards prebendaiy 
 of Westminster and treasurer of St. Paul's, was bom m 1731, and 
 died in 1816. An unexpected augmentation of his revenue from 
 the last-mentioned office, enabled hun to perfomi several munifi- 
 cent charities, particularly that of founding eight scholarships at 
 Cambridge, for the benefit of sons of indigent clergpnen. He 
 wrote " A Dissertation on the Causes which principally contri- 
 bute to render a Nation Populous, 1756," and "An Inquiiy into 
 the Missions of John the Baptist and .Jesus Christ." — J. S., G. 
 
 BELLA, GiANO DE LA, the head of the democratic party at 
 Florence, died about 1295. He was descended of a noble and 
 very ancient family. He succeeded in humbling the nobility by 
 a Idnd of martial law called Ordinamento di giustizia; but his 
 zeal for refonn procured him many enemies, and in 1294 he was 
 expelled from the city. He died in exile. 
 
 BELLA, M. S. A., a French portrait painter, bom at Paris 
 in 1674, and died in 1734. 
 
 BELLA, Stkfano della, a Florentine artist, bom 1610, 
 originally a goldsmith and engraver. Died 1664. He studied 
 under Cesare Dandini. — W. T. 
 
 BELLACATO, Luigi, an Itahan physician, born at Padua 
 in 1501 ; resided and practised in his native city, where he died 
 in 1575. His eulogist, Tommasini, asserts that he was so 
 loaded with favours by great personages, as to have no time to 
 spare for literary purposes, and his only writings were published 
 in conjunction with those of other men. Thus, his " Consulta- 
 tioncs aliqua; pro variis Aftcctibus," were printed with the Cim- 
 sultationes of J. B. Montanus in 1583, and other writings 
 under the same title with those of Victor Trincavella in 1587. 
 His "Lectiones Medicse Practica;" were only published in 1676, 
 appended to a work by G. J. Welsch. According to Tommasini, 
 he prepared an edition of the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, which 
 was never printed. — W. S. D. 
 
 VOL I. 
 
 BELLAGAJIBA, J., a painter of Douay. 
 
 BELLAGATTA, Angelo Antonio, an Italian physician, 
 the son of a printer, was born at Milan on the 9th May, 1704. 
 Being at first destined to an ecclesiastical life, he commenced his 
 education with that view ; but feeling a strong taste for medicine, 
 he abandoned his theological studies, and went to study at the 
 university of Padua, where he obtained his degree of doctor. In 
 1733 he was offered the position of pensioned physician in the 
 town of Arena, which he accepted, and retained until the end of 
 the year 1741, when he again received the ecclesiastical habit; 
 but on the 2nd Februaiy, 1742, he was suddenly earned off by 
 an attack of apoplexy. His published writings are not numerous. 
 They consist of two " Philosophical Letters" to a friend, printed 
 at Milan in 1730, in which the author speaks of the influenza 
 which prevailed in Europe during that year ; a treatise on the 
 " Misfortunes of IMcdieine," in which he attributes the falling oft" 
 of medical science to false imitations, the multiplicity of systems, 
 the prejudices of men, and the presumption of the ignorant ; an 
 account of a mhacle effected by San Francesco di Paola on the 
 28th March, 1735 ; and a description of a meteor observed on 
 the 16th December, 1737. Amongst his manuscripts was 
 found one entitled " Dialoghi de fisica, animastica moderna, 
 speculativa, mecanica, experimentale," in which he treats of the 
 production of organized bodies, of creation, the immateriality 
 of the soul, movement, sensation, &c. This appears never to 
 have been published. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BELLAGUET, Louis Francois, bom at Sens, the 9th of 
 March, 1807. He is at present the chef de bureau in the 
 department of public instruction at Paris, having been previously 
 professor at the college Rollin. M. Bellaguet is an industrious 
 writer, having, besides various contributions to the principal 
 periodicals, translated many valuable historical works. In 1852 
 the Academy des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres awarded him a 
 medal, for his translation from the Latin of the Clu-onicles of the 
 Order of Saint Denis.— J. F. W. 
 
 BELLAMONT, Richard Coote, earl of, and the son of 
 Richard Coote, first earl of Colooney in Ireland, was bom in 
 Ireland previous to the middle of the 17th century. In 1688 
 he was retm-ned member of parliament for Droitwich in Wor- 
 cestershire, but was attamted the following year in one held by 
 James II. in Dublin, in consequence of his publicly joining the 
 party of the prince of Orange. In 1095, William III., consider- 
 ing him " a man of resolution and integi'ity," induced him to 
 accept the arduous office of governor of New York, then in a 
 state of great misrule, and infested with pirates. About the 
 same time Colonel Levingston induced the government to give 
 a gi-ant to fit out a vessel as a privateer for the notorious 
 William Kidd, and a grant was made to Lord BeUamont, Kidd, 
 and others, of all the captures he should take. Kidd turned 
 pirate, and was ultimately induced to smrender himself to Lord 
 Bellamont, who succeeded in securing a largo amount of booty, 
 which he scrupulously consigned to agents for the government, 
 and transmitted Ividd to London for trial. Lord Bellamont 
 died at New York on the 5th March, 1700, having adminis- 
 tered the duties of his high office with efficiency and great 
 integrity. His death was looked upon as a public calamity, and 
 a public fast was proclaimed on the occasion. — J. F. A\\ 
 
 BELLAMY, George Anne, an actress of celebrity, and 
 a woman who attracted some attention in her day, was a 
 native of Ireland. She was born on the 23d of April, 1733, 
 being the putative child of Captain Bellamy, but in reality the 
 offspring of Lord Tyrawley. Shortly after her birth she was sent 
 to Boulogne, whence she came to England, while yet a girl, 
 and made her first appearance on the stage at Covcnt Garden, 
 when only fourteen years of age, in the cliaracter of Jlonimia. 
 Here her success was decided ; and she went to Dublin, where 
 she was well received. Her ability was such that even Gairick 
 played King John to her Constance. But though she attained 
 to a high jiosition in her profession, she was extravagant and 
 dissolute ; so that in her latter years she was exposed to much 
 distress, and died in 1788. Jlemoirs of her were published, 
 purporting to be autobiographical, but, it is believed, written by 
 Bicknell. She had a fine expressive face, an animated manner, 
 and a voice full of sweetness and eminently touching — one of 
 the many examples of noble qualities of heart and mind failing 
 to secure to their possessor either happiness or respect. — J. F. W. 
 
 BELLAIMY, Jacques, a Dutch poet, born at Flushing on 
 the 12th November, 1757. The son of a baker in that town, 
 
 3 P
 
 his early attempts in vei-se attracted attention, and some wealthy 
 citizens removed him from the balcery, and took charge of his 
 education. Bellamy repaid their liberality by his proficiency, and 
 soon became one of the most popular poets of his country. 
 Unfortunately his life was but too soon terminated for his fame, 
 as he died before he attained the age of twenty-eight, on 11th 
 llarch, 1786. He had a fine imagination, a rich vein of feeling, 
 and a spirit full of patriotic fervour. — J. F. W. 
 
 BELLAMY, Joseph, an American theologian, author of a 
 work entitled " Tme Religion Delineated," was born at New 
 Cheshire in 1719 ; died in 1790 
 
 BELLANGE, Jacques, born at Chalons, 1610, was a dis- 
 ciple of Henriet and Vonet, but, after all, an mdifterent engraver. 
 
 BELLANGER, Francois JosEPir, a noted French architect, 
 bom in Paris in 1744, became chief architect to Count d'Artois, 
 afterwards Charles X. He had just erected for that prince a 
 beautiful manor-house in the Bois dc Boulogne, and was on the 
 high road to fortune when the Revolution broke out, and spoiled 
 his prospects by sending him to prison. During the time of the 
 Empire, his neat and tasteful style of design procured him con- 
 siderable employment, his most celebrated effort being the cupola 
 in cast-iron of the com-market at Paris. Died in 1818. — J. S., G. 
 
 BELLARDI, Carlo Ludovico, an Italian botanist and 
 physician, bom at Cigliano in 1741, studied medicine at Turin, 
 and assisted Allioni in the publication of his work, the Flora 
 Pedemontana. He was appointed to the charge of the botanical 
 garden at Turin, and from his admirable management of that 
 institution, and the use he made of his position in other respects, 
 contributed greatly to the diffusion of a taste for natural history, 
 and especially botany. His published works in Italian and Latin 
 consist of " Botanical Observations, with an Appendix to the 
 Flora Pedemontana," 1788 ; " Appendix ad Floram Pedemon- 
 tanam," 1791; with other botanical writings, including a 
 " Discourse on the different species of Rhubarb cultivated in 
 Piedmont," 1806, and a description of a "Weans of Feeding 
 Silk-worms when mulberry leaves cannot be had," 1787; 
 " Observations on a Solitary Worai (Taenia) with which one of 
 his patients was troubled," 1792 ; and " Experiments on the 
 Substitution of Walnut Oil for Olive Oil in Woollen Manufac- 
 tures," 1812. He died at Tm-in in 1828.— W. S. D. 
 
 BELLARINI, Giovanni, an Italian theologian, pi-ofessor of 
 theology at Pavia and afterwards at Rome ; bom at Castel- 
 nuovo ; died at Milan in 1630. He published "Praxis ad 
 omnes veritates evangelicas cum certitudine comprobandas ;" and 
 " Speculum humanas atque divinas sapientise," &c. 
 
 BELLARMINO or BELLARMINE, Robert Francis Ro- 
 mulus, one of the greatest men of the catholic church, and the 
 greatest of her polemical divines, was bom at Montepulciano in 
 Tuscany, 4th October, 1542. In early boyhood he gave proof 
 of decided talent, and his father destined him to a political 
 career, that he might retrieve the fallen fortunes of his house. 
 But his religious convictions earned him towards the church ; 
 and after entering the university of Padua in liis seventeenth 
 year, he was the next year admitted into the order of the Jesuits, 
 then under Lainez in its youthful vigour and renown. In 1569 
 he was sent by the general of the order to teach theology at 
 Louvain, and at Ghent in 1570 he was ordained a priest by 
 Bishop Comelius Jansen. In Louvain his popularity as a preacher 
 and professor soon became so great as to attract protestants 
 from Holland and England to listen to his eloquence. Specimens 
 of his sermons are found in his " Condones Habitse Lovanii," 
 and his " Hebrew Grammar," Romas, 1578, shows his mastery 
 of that ancient tongue, and his desire to present it simply and 
 imitingly to his pupils. His command over the Latin tongue was 
 so uncommon, that few erasures appear in his MSS. ; the epithets 
 he selected were rarely exchanged or recalled in his oral addi'csscs; 
 and the sinuosities of syntax never bewildered him so as to 
 produce confusion, embarassmcnt, or repetition in the delivery 
 of his thoughts. It was at Louvain that he prosecuted those 
 studies, the rijjc fruits of which appeared in his " De Scriptoribus 
 Ecclesiasticis," &c., Roma;, 1613. On his return to Italy after 
 seven years' residence in the Low Countries, Gregory XIII. 
 appointed him to lecture on polemics in the newly-founded Col- 
 legium Romanum. The result of these labours appeared some 
 years afterwards in the far-famed " Disputationes de Controvcrsiis 
 Christianx Fidei adversus hujus temporis haereticos," the first two 
 volumes of which immense work was published at Rome in 1581— 
 82, and it was reprinted at Ingolstadt, Lyons, Venice, and Prague. 
 
 These volmnes exhaust the controversy on all points as it was 
 known in those days, and they are distinguished by their fulness, 
 candour, and lucid arrangement, — the absence of disguise and 
 evasion, and the broad and unfaltering statement of theological 
 dogmas. They present catholic doctrine in such an immoditied 
 type or fonn, that some later popish controversialists are said to 
 have surmised that their cause was damaged by Bellannine's 
 advocacy. For many years afterwards he was uniformly taken 
 by protestant advocates as the champion of the papacy, and a 
 vindication of protestantism regularly took the shape of an 
 answer to Bellarmine. No doubt he presents a truer picture 
 of cathoUc opinion in the main, and as against protestants, than 
 either Bossuet, Miihler, or Wiseman, in whose treatises the per- 
 sonal pecidiarities and mental characteristics of the authors may 
 be distinctly traced. In 1589 he was sent into France by 
 Sixtus V. — as one of an embassy to treat with the League — as 
 a polemic in the train of the legate. Clement VIII. elevated 
 him to the purple in 1599, and three years afterwards the 
 archbishopric of Capua was conferred upon him. His efforts to 
 reform his clergy, high and low, were miceasing ; and his ideal 
 of a bishop may be read in liis address to his nephew, who had 
 been raised to the episcopate — " Admonitio ad Eplscopum Thea- 
 ncnsem, nepotem suum." True to his convictions, when Paul V. 
 wished to have the cardinal constantly in Rome as a coun- 
 sellor, he resigned his bishopric. He stood by the church in its 
 conflicts with the civil powers in Venice, France, and England, 
 and sharply handled King James I. When health failed him in 
 his old age, he retired for some time to his native place, and 
 then returned to the Jesuit college of St. Andrew at Rome, 
 where he died on the 27th September, 1621. His being a 
 Jesuit, and his well-known probity, stood in the way of his elec- 
 tion to the chair of St. Peter at the elevation of Leo XI. and 
 Paul v., and his canonization for similar reasons was obstracted. 
 He trode sometimes on delicate ground, as may be seen in the 
 offence which his views on the temporal powers of the pontiff (De 
 Romano Pontifice) gave to Pope Sixtus V. on the one hand, as 
 he was not supposed to go far enough in the assertion of direct 
 papal claim, and to Bossuet, by going, as was imagined, too far 
 on the other hand in defence of ultramontanism in his reply to 
 William Barclay of Aberdeen. Bellarmine was small in stature, 
 but carried a look of independence. His character was unstained 
 by any of those vices which have so often disgraced the priest- 
 hood. Bellarmine left an autobiography which is rarely to be 
 met with, and his life has been written by Fuligati, Rome, 
 1624 ; Bartoli, Rome, 1677 ; and by Frizon, Nancy, 1708. 
 Bellarmine wrote some devotional treatises — " De Ascensione 
 Mentis ad Deum," " De Arte Boni Moriendi," " De Aetema Feli- 
 citate Sanctorum," " De Gemitu Columbaj" — all of them LuJl' 
 eating deep seriousness of thought, and showing his attachment 
 to several points of the theology of St. Augustine. The best edi- 
 tion of his works is that of Cologne, in seven volumes folio. — J. E. 
 
 BELLART, Nicolas Francois, a celebrated French barris- 
 ter, bom at Paris in 1761 ; died in 1826. In the revolutionary 
 period he conducted the defence of several famous personages, 
 and acquired a first-rate reputation as an impassioned and 
 impressive speaker. In 1814 he signalized himself among the 
 enemies of Napoleon, characterizing the emperor, whom he had 
 formerly treated to the most fulsome adulations, as the most 
 frightful tjTant that had ever oppressed the human species. The 
 Bourbons rewarded him with various honours, and the ofiBce of 
 procurator-general. — J. S., G. 
 
 BELLAVIA, SI. A., bom about 1690, a small imitator of 
 Pietro da Cortona. 
 
 BELLA Y, floiu-ished about 1817 His subjects were chiefly 
 stables and horse-markets. It is singular that our English 
 horse painters have not tried a horse fair, which might become 
 a parliament of equine portraits. — W. T. 
 
 BELLAY, Francois-Philippe, a French physician, was 
 born on the 26th August, 1762, at Lent, near Bom-g-en-Bresse. 
 Before the first French revolution he established himself in 
 Lyons, and in 1791 published a small pamphlet on the cure of 
 raptures ; but on the capture of that city by the amiy of the 
 convention, he was forced to quit his home, and taking refuge in 
 the military ser\'ice, was employed in the army of the Alps, and 
 in that of Italy. Subsequently rctuming to Lyons, Bellay 
 resumed the practice of medicine there, and in 1810 was 
 appointed first physician to the hospitals of Lyons. He con- 
 tinued to occupy this position until 1822, when, jaclding to the
 
 BEL 
 
 483 BEL 
 
 instances of liis son, a young artist, he went to live in Paris; 
 but finding tliat a residence in tlie capital did not suit liim, and 
 that he was becoming very ill, he started towards the end of 
 1824 on his return to Lyons. His strength, however, was too 
 far gone to allow of his undergoing so great an exertion ; he was 
 compelled to stop at JIaijon, where he died on the 20th Dec, 
 1824. The works of Bellay are not numerous. For a period 
 of five years (1799-1804) he published, in conjunction with 
 Dr. Brion, a medical joumal under the title of Conservateur de 
 la Sante, and at the end of each year from the establishment of 
 this journal until 1813, he always prepared a " Meteorologie 
 Medicale." Bellay and Brion also published a " Tableau his- 
 torique de la vaccine pratiquee a Lyon depuis le 13 germinal 
 de Tan IX., jusqu'au 31 December, 1809," and Bellay himself 
 translated two Italian medical works into French. — W. S. D. 
 
 BELLAY, GuiLLAUME du, lord of Langey, a celebrated 
 soldier and diplomatist, bom, 1491 ; died, 1543. He was of an 
 ancient and noble fiimily, originally of Anjou. He entered at 
 an early period of life on a militaiy career, and soon became 
 distinguished both by his conduct and braveiy. In 1587 he was 
 appointed by Francis I. \-iceroy of Piedmont, when he wrested 
 several places from the hands of the imperialists. He had the repu- 
 tation of being the first captain of his time, while he manifested 
 equal ability as a diplomatist. He was eminently successful in 
 detecting political intrigues and conspiracies, and discovering 
 what was passing at foreign courts. He left memoirs and other 
 writings. — G. ^I. 
 
 BELLAY, .Jea^ Du, cardinal and bishop of Paris, younger 
 brother of Guillaume, bom in 1492 ; died in 1560. He enjoyed 
 the favour of Francis I., who, after raising him to the see of 
 Bayonne, sent him as ambassador to England in 1527, and again 
 in 1533, on the occasion of its being nimoured that Henry VIII. 
 meditated a rupture -n-ith the com-t of Rome, on the question of 
 his divorce. In 1534 he was sent to Pome to stay proceedings 
 imtil Henry had been heard in his defence, and succeeded in 
 inducing Clement VIII. to consent to a delay; but the bishop's 
 messenger to England not having returned in the expected time, 
 the indignant pontiff fulminated his interdict. In 1536, on the 
 occasion of Charles V.'s invasion of Provence, Bellay was appointed 
 lieutenant-general of Picardy and Champagne, and in this new 
 sphere of action so earned the favom- of the king, that new hon- 
 ours continued to be showered on him until the death of Francis. 
 -Vfter that event he retired to Pome, where he lived in a style of 
 jreat magnificence, enjoying the reputation of a skilful diploma- 
 >*■, and of a mimificent patron of letters. Rabelais was at one 
 lime a member of his household. — J. S., G. 
 
 BELLAY, JoACHUi dcj, born at Lire, near Angers, about 
 the year 1524. His parents died early, and his education was 
 neglected by his elder brother, in whose guardianship, or rather 
 custody, he was left. On his brother's death, he found himself 
 involved in litigation with his family. His health sank, and 
 disease chained him to his bed for several years. At this time 
 he devoted himself to such studies as were possible for a man 
 who seemed to be d}dng, and he made himself acquainted with 
 the Greek and Latin poets, and with those of his own country ; 
 of the latter he made but small account. GuiUanme de Loris 
 and Jean de Meun are, he says, the only ones worth anything. 
 He himself wrote some poems, which were admu-ed, and secured 
 him a favourable reception at court. Francis I., Henry II., and 
 Margaret of Navan-e, admired his verses, and styled him the 
 French Ovid. Cardinal Jean du Bellay was his near relation. 
 The cardinal, on Francis the Fu-st's death, made Rome his head- 
 quarters, and thither the poet accompanied him in the character 
 of secretary and reader. The cardinal, who could not do without 
 him, does not seem to have regarded him with any kindness. 
 He Hstened to tales against him ; his most inditTerent acts were 
 misrepresented ; his poetry was intei-prcted into satire which he 
 never meant ; and the cro\\Tiing calumny impeached his religion. 
 This was the most cruel sting of all, and seems to have been a 
 most unjust accusation ; yet it blighted all his prospects. At 
 last the bishop of Paris took pity on him, and gave him in 1G55 
 a canonry in his own cathedral. His health and hojies, however, 
 had by this time wlioUy failed, and he soon after died, and was 
 buried in the church of Notre Dame. Du Bellay has claims to 
 tlie gratitude of the lovers of English poetiy. He was a favourite 
 of Spenser, who has translated his " Ruins of Rome " and his 
 " Visions," and has stvlcd liim, in the quaint language of that 
 day, 
 
 '•Bellay, first garland of free poesy 
 That France brought forth." 
 
 Bellay, in his critical essays, has said so much of " vers libres," 
 and in his practice has to such an extent sought to deliver 
 French verse from its chains of male and female rhymes, that it 
 is not improbable Spenser alludes to this when he' says "Jree 
 poesy." Among his poems is another series of sonnets, which 
 he entitled " Olive." His " Olive " w-as suggested by Petrarch's 
 Laura. The word is an anagram of " Viole," the lady whose 
 praises he celebrates. A coUecrion of Latin poems of his, 
 entitled "Xenia et alia Poemata," appeared at Paris, 15G9. 
 They are said to be very inferior to his French poems. — J. A., D. 
 
 BELLAY, Rex£ du, bishop of Mans, elder brother of cardinal 
 Bellay, died in 1546. He took gi-eat delight in horticultural 
 pursuits, his garden, according to Gesner, being the most beautiful 
 in France, Germany, or Italy. The cultm-e of tobacco is said to 
 have been first introduced into France by this learned prelate. 
 
 BELLE, Aug. Louis, a Parisian painter, born in 1757, dis- 
 tinguished in his day, which was not a long one, for history and 
 portrait, and still more for being inspector of the woven histories 
 of the Gobelins. His best-known picture was founded on the 
 stoiy of Pericles and Anaxagoras. — W. T. 
 
 BELLE, C. Z. Maria Anne, bom at Paris, 1722 ; died in 
 1806. She was the daughter of an engraver, and studied under 
 Lemoyne. A "Chiist" by her is preserved at Dijon. — W. T. 
 
 BELLE, Simon Alexis, a portrait painter, bom at Paiis 
 1674 ; died 1734. A man of some reputation in his day, but 
 that is not our day. — W. T. 
 
 BELLEAU, Rejii, bom at Nogent-le-Eotrou in Le Perche, 
 1528. Rene de Lon-aine, marquis d'Elbeuf, general of the 
 galleys of France, confided to him the education of his son. He 
 died in Paris, 1577. Belleau's pastoral poetry was much 
 admu-ed by his contemporaiies. Eonsard used to call him the 
 painter of natm'e ; and there are a vigour and life in his verses, 
 which look more like personal observation, than a reflection of 
 images from books. He was one of the seven poets to whom 
 the name of the Pleiad was given. His chief poem was one 
 entitled " Les Amours et nouveaux eschanges des pierres pre- 
 cieuses." The Metamorphoses of Ovid, and the Greek poem 
 ascribed to Orpheus, probably suggested his treatment of the 
 loves and transfonnations of precious stones ; and had Darwin 
 been likely to have looked into this book, we should think it 
 probable that it in its turn might have suggested the " Loves of 
 the Plants." Love-adventures are told, which end in the heroes 
 and heroines being — sometimes as reward, sometimes as punish- 
 ment, and now and then as the sole means which some protect- 
 ing divinity has of rescuing them from such danger as led to the 
 transformation of Daphne into the laurel — changed to jacinths, 
 cluysolites, or opals. The poem is fanciful, and contains some 
 passages of great beauty. In the complimentary dialect of his 
 own day, he was said to have built himself a tomb of precious 
 stones. He wrote what he entitled " Sacred Eclogues," a ver- 
 sification of the Song of Songs. He also translated Anacreon. 
 A pleasing poem which Spenser seems to have imitated, com- 
 mencing: — 
 
 " Avril. I'honneur des bois, et des mois," 
 
 has been happily translated by Cary. — J. A., D. 
 
 BELLEE or BELLEUS, Theodore, an Italian physician, 
 born at Racusa in Sicily about the middle of the sixteenth 
 centurj', taught medicine for several years in the university of 
 Padua with great success and reputation. A report of his 
 death having been spread abroad, and coming to the ears of his 
 wife, whom he had left behind him in Sicily, she manied again 
 without waiting for any further information. Belliie, hearing of 
 this, took a journey into Sicily to ascertain whether his wife had 
 really married, and died of grief on his return to Padua. He 
 was the author of a Latin commentaiy on the Aphorisms of 
 Hippocrates, published at PaleiTno in 1571. — W. S. D. 
 
 BELLEFOREST, Francois de, bom at Sarzan in Guienne 
 in 1530. His father died when Fran9ois was but seven years 
 of age, but his support and education were provided for by the 
 queen of NavaiTC, sister to Francis I. He was first sent to 
 Bordeaux, and aftenvards to Toulouse, where he comm.cnced 
 the study of the law ; but being unfortunately gifted with some 
 powers of versification, neglected any preparation for professional 
 life, made his way to I'aris, got introduced at court, and obtained 
 the oflice of historiogi*apher of France, which, however, he was
 
 BEL 
 
 484 
 
 BEL 
 
 not able to retain. He died in 1583, at the age of 53. Belle- 
 forest seems never to have been in any position which freed him 
 from indigence. His books were numberless and on every subject, 
 sacred and profane, history, romance, poetry, theolog}'. John- 
 son's epitaph on Goldsmith tells us that he wrote on all subjects, 
 and that he adorned all he touched — " Nullum quod tetigit non 
 oniavit." This phrase would seem to have suggested or been 
 derived from that in which a French critic, writing about the 
 same time with Johnson, describes Belleibrest : "II gata prcsque 
 tout ce qu'U toucha." Necessity made him an author; he wrote 
 because he could do nothing else. Belleforest's poems are of 
 no value. His " Histoire des neuf rois de France," or his 
 " Annales de France '' are now not often looked at. The dust 
 is more often brushed away in old libraries from his " Cent 
 histoircs tragiques," a selection of stories from his " Gesta 
 Romanorum." This work was translated into English towards 
 the close of the sixteenth century, and in it we find the story on 
 which Spenser's Phaon and Philemon, in the fourth canto of 
 the second book of the Faii-y Queen is founded. Shakspeare's 
 plot of JIuch Ado about Nothing is more likely to have been 
 taken by him from Belleforest than from Bandello, in whose 
 works the story is also found.- — J. A., D. 
 
 BELLEGARDE, Antoixe Dubois de, a member of the old 
 French national convention, bom in Angoumois about 1740; 
 died at Brussels in 1825. Having ardently embraced the cause 
 of the Revolution, he was first appomted to tlie command of the 
 national guards of Angouleme, next was nominated deputy for 
 the Cluu-ente to the legislative assembly, and afterwards deputy 
 for the same department to the national convention. Here he 
 joined the party of the Jlontagnards, and voted with them for 
 the death of the king. In Febraary, 1794, he was nominated 
 secretary to the convention, and sent on a mission to the anny of 
 the north. He afterwards became a member of the council of Five 
 Hundi-ed; and hi 1798 entered the council of The Ancients, of 
 which he became secretary. In 1817 the law passed against the 
 regicides having forced him to quit his native countiy, he retm-ned 
 to Brussels, where he remained until his death. — G. M. 
 
 BELLEGARDE, Henri, count de, an Austrian general, 
 born at Chambery in 1755; died at Verona in 1831. Having 
 entered the serrice of Austria, he took part in the campaigns of 
 1793-1795, in which he so distinguislied himself, that he was 
 nominated a member of the eoimcil of war of the Ai'chduke 
 Charles, and soon after lieutenant field-mai-shal. In July, 1805, 
 he was invested with the chief command in the Venetian states, 
 and in the following year was raised to the rank of field marshal, 
 and appointed civil and military governor of Gallicia. In this 
 capacity he gained in a liigh degree the love and confidence of 
 the people. He resigned his othce in 1825 in consequence of 
 a disease of the eyes. — G. M. 
 
 BELLEGARDE, Rogee de Saint-Lart de, marshal of 
 France, bom about the beginning of the sixteenth centur}- ; died 
 in 1579. He was at first educated for the church, but being 
 led by inclination to the profession of amis, he followed his uncle 
 the marechal de Temies into Piedmont, where he distinguished 
 himself at the head of a party of light horse. After the death 
 of his uncle, he was introduced by the count de Retz to the 
 court of Catherine de Medicis, who was so captivated by his 
 engaging manners and the beauty of his person, that she procured 
 for him from the court of Spain, the command of the oi'der of 
 Calatrava in France. He afterwards became the favouiite of the 
 due de Anjou, brother of Charles IX., who made him colonel of 
 his infantr}'. Having passed through a variety of employments, 
 Ills good fortune at last deserted liim. He became the victim 
 of court intrigues, and died, as is supposed, by poison. — G. M. 
 
 BELLEGARDE, Roger de Saixt-Lary et de Teu.mes, 
 due de, peer of France, bom about 1503; died 13th July, 1646. 
 He sen-ed Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. The first 
 confeiTcd on him the office of grand equeny ; the second gave 
 him the government of Burgundy; and in 1620 the last made 
 him duke and peer of France. He fought bravely at Arques, 
 and at Fontaine Fran(;aise, and merited the favour of Horny 
 IV. Ho also distingiiished himself at the siege of Rochelle under 
 Louis XIII. ; but falling into disgrace with Cardinal Richeheu, 
 lie was exiled to Saint Fargeau, where he remained until the 
 death of that minister, a period of eight or nine yeai's. — G. M. 
 
 BELLE-ISLE, Ciiarles-Louis-Auguste Fouqx'kt, mar- 
 shall and aftenvards due de, marshal of France, bom at \'illefran- 
 che, 22nd September, 1G84 ; died 2Gth January, 1761. He was 
 
 'i 
 
 ambitious and enterprising, and without accomplishing anything 
 great, acquired a brilliant reputation as a military commander, 
 lie was engaged in the war consequent on the Em'opean league 
 for the dismemberment of the Austrian dominions, and at the 
 head of forty thousand French troops, passed the Rhine about 
 the end of August, 1741. The combined armies of France and 
 Bavaria penetrated unopposed into Upper Austria ; but the elec- 
 tor, instead of taking Vienna, thrast himself into Bohemia, and 
 entering Prague on the 19th December, caused himself to be 
 proclaimed king of Bohemia. About a month afterwards he 
 proceeded to Frankfort, accompanied by Belle-Isle, where he was 
 elected emperor under the name of Charles VII. This was the 
 beginning of a series of dreadful disasters to the French anny. 
 Prussia and Saxony detached themselves from the league, while 
 Belle-Isle threw himself into Prague, which was now surrounded 
 by sixty thousand Austrians ; and seeing no hope of succour, he 
 formed the resolution of attempting to evacuate the city, and 
 to commence a precipitate retreat. This desperate expedient 
 succeeded. Stealing in silence from Prague on the night of the 
 16th or 17th of December, 1742, he commenced his perilous 
 and laborious march, traversing defiles covered with ice and snow 
 for ten days within sight of the enemy, by whom he was inces- 
 santly harassed. He at length reached Egi-a, but after a journey 
 of thirty-eight leagues, all but twelve hundi'ed of his men had 
 perished with cold by the way, and five hundred afterwards died 
 in the hospital. Passing from Cassel to Berlin with the count, 
 his brother, on a mission from Louis XV. and Charles VII., he 
 was aiTested and sent to England, where he and his brother 
 were detained for a year. In 1746 the Austrians and Pied- 
 montese ha\'ing invaded Dauphine and Provence, Belle-Isle was 
 sent to take the command of the troops in that quarter ; but on 
 liis anival, he found only the shattered remains of regiments 
 without supplies and without discipline. With gi'eat difficulty 
 he succeeded in boiTowing money, and having organized and 
 re-equipped his troops, he forced the enemy to fJiU back upon 
 Italy. He now advanced upon Piedmont, but paid for that rash 
 enterprise with the loss of four thousand killed, including his 
 brother and nearly all the officers of his anny. In 1 748 Belle- 
 Isle was created duke and peer of France, and in 1749 was made 
 a member of the French Academy. — G. II. 
 
 BELLE-ISLE, Louis-Charles- Akmand Fouquet, some- 
 times called the Chevalier de, brother of the preceding, bom in 
 1693 ; died in 1746. He embraced a military career, in which 
 he distinguished himself by his ability and valour. He feU in 
 endeavouring to force the passage of Col de L'Assiette. 
 
 BELLEXDEN, .Joh.v. See Ballentyxe. 
 
 BELLENDEN, William, a literaiy Scotchman, in the begin- 
 ning of the sixteenth centmy. He filled the office of professor 
 of humanity in the university of Paris, and was likewise an 
 advocate in its parliament. His most important writings were 
 published during his residence in the French capital. He also 
 held the office of master of requests (magister libelloruni snp- 
 plicum) to James VI., a honorary office in his case, if he Uved 
 principally abroad, but one by which he imiformly designated 
 himself in his publications. In 1608 he published his "Ciceronis 
 Princeps," consisting of excerpts from Cicero, reduced to order, 
 on the duties of a monarch, and dediaited to Prince Henry. 
 In 1612 appeared " Ciceronis Consul," a digest of the same 
 kind; in 1615 a third work, " De statu Prisci Orbis," an 
 account of the religion, polity, and literature of the ancient world, 
 and dedicated to Prince Charles. This treatise is skilful and 
 elaborate, and has received the merited eulogy of Dr. Parr. All 
 these three tracts Bellenden next collected into one volume, 
 " Bellendenus de statu," but the greater part of the work was 
 lost, through the wreck of the vessel conveying it to Britain. 
 The last work which Bellenden published himself, was an "Epi- 
 thalamium on the mamage of Charles I.," Paris, 1625. In 
 1633 was issued a posthumous work, " De tribus luminibus 
 Romanorum libri sexdecim." Cicero is, as might have been 
 expected the first of his lights, and Seneca and Pliny are said 
 to be the other two contemplated in the unfinished treatise. 
 Cicero's histoiy is contained in the work, and taken very 
 much from his own letters. The three treatises in one volume, 
 called " Bellendenus de statu," were republished in Engkand in 
 1787, with an extraordinary Latin preface by Dr. Parr, in which, 
 in sonorous classic style, he eulogizes Fox, Burke, and Lord 
 North, and pours the fiercest invective on the character and 
 policy of Pitt. In this preface, PaiT accuses Middlcton of hav-
 
 BEL 
 
 485 
 
 BEL 
 
 iiic burrowed, without acknowledgment, from Bellenden the 
 I materials of his life of Cicero. Wottoii, in his essay on Pope, 
 I had said so before him, and there is some ground for the charge. 
 But Parr stoutly asserts, — fidentissime confirmamus, Jliddle- 
 touem non modo ex Bellendeni opere snpellectilem sibi sublegisse 
 satis lautam atque amplam, sed libri ipsius prope foimam, qua 
 res ferret, adumbrasse. Bellenden was a person of great indus- 
 try, and had an inordinate admiration of the men and the times 
 of classical history. — J. E. 
 
 BELLEXGER, FRAX901S, a French philologist, bom at 
 Lisieux in 1688 ; died in 1749. He was well versed in ancient 
 and modem tongues, and author of a translation of Dionysius of 
 Halicamassus, 1723, 2 vols., 4to. He also wrote a critical 
 essay on the worlds of EoUin, Amsterdam, 1740-41, 12mo. 
 BELLEXGHI, Filippo Maria Albertiso, archbishop 
 f Nicosia, and apostolical visitor of the orders of regulars in 
 ^irdinia, was bom at Forlipompoli in 1758, and died in 1839. 
 He published a great number of works, scientific as well as 
 theological ; the foiTner relating chiefly to geology. 
 
 BELLE-PERCHE, Pierke de, bishop of Auxerre, and chan- 
 ilor of France, born at Lucenai in Xivernois ; died at Paiis, 
 7th Januaiy, 1307. His parentage was obscure, but he was 
 .rhly educated for his time, and became doctor and professor 
 :' civil law at Orleans. Philippe le Bel, attracted by the fame 
 : ills talents and learning, intrusted him with various important 
 lesions. In 1306 his sen-ices were rewarded with the bishopric 
 i Auserre, and the title of chancellor of France. — G. 5L 
 
 BELLER, John, a Dutch litterateur; died in 1595. He 
 followed the profession of a printer at Antwerp, and produced 
 several editions of the clr.ssics, distinguished by the beauty of 
 their typography. He is said to have been the author of a 
 French translation of the Imitation of Christ. 
 
 * BELLERJIAXX, Christian Friedrich, son of Johann 
 Cellermann, a German theologian and miscellaneous writer, bom 
 it Erfurt in 1793, became in 1835 pastor of the parish of St. 
 Paul in Berlin. He has written " Die Katakomben in Xeapel ;" 
 
 r»ie Alten Liederbiicher der Portugieseu;" and "Uber die reac- 
 naren Bestrebungen in der evangelischen Ku-che." 
 
 * BELLEEMAXX, Johaxn Friedrich, brother of Christian 
 i/drich, was bom at Erfm-t, March 8, 1795, and, like his 
 
 . jther, in 1813-14 served against Xapoleon. He then became 
 teacher, and aftem-ards professor in the Graue Kloster, to the 
 lioad-mastership of whicli he was promoted in 1847. He pub- 
 lished — " Die Hymnen des Dionysius und Jlesomedes ;" " Die 
 f onleitem und Jlusiknoten der Griechen," &c. — K. E. 
 BELLERMAXX, Johaxn Joachim, a Gei-man theologian 
 1 antiquarian, bom at Erfiu-t in 1754 ; died in 1842. Besides 
 ations of several of the Latin classics, he published a great 
 imbor of antiquarian dissertations, chiefly on biblical and 
 i issical subjects. 
 BELLET, Abb^, a French naturalist and antiquary, and 
 canon of Cadillac, lived during the first half of the ISth century. 
 Among the botanical memoirs published by him are catalogues 
 plants and trees of the neighbourhood of Cadillac, and of the 
 Ties cultivated in Languedoc and near Bourdeaux. — J. H. B. 
 BELLETESTE, B., a French linguist, who accompanied 
 Xapoleon into Egvpt, as a member of the scientific corps with 
 which the expedition was famished. On his return he was 
 ■ippointed interpreter to the minister of foreign affau-s. His 
 works are — " Les quarante vizirs," (a translation from the 
 Turkish), and a translation of an Arabic treatise on precious 
 stones. He died at Paris in 1808. — J. S., G. 
 BELLEVAL, Charles Francois Dujiai.sniel de, a French 
 'tanist, was born in 1733, and died at Abbeville in 1790. He 
 :i3 a zealous and carefid observer of nature, and in his botanical 
 t udies followed the system of Toumefort. He published " Notes 
 1 the plants of Picardv," which commenced in 1774, and were 
 'iitinued till 1789.— J. H. B. 
 
 BELLEVAL, Pierre Richer de, a French physician and 
 
 I'litanist, was bom at Chalons-sur-Mame in 1558, and died at 
 
 Montpellier in 1623. His early medical and botanical studies 
 
 "•re prosecuted in France, and he was licensed as a medical 
 
 lan at Avignon. A royal garden was founded at Montpellier 
 
 -jv Henry IV. in 1593, and Belleval was ajjpointcd to the chair 
 
 of botany in 1596. He got the degree of M D. at Mnnf].cllier, 
 
 and he lectm-ed on anatomy during winter, and on botany diu-ing 
 
 nnmer. His botanical works are — "Xames of Plants in the 
 
 ijutpcllier Garden," and "Researches into the Plants of Langue- 
 
 doc." Villars, in his Flora of Dauphiny, has named a genus of 
 Compositas Richeria after Belleval. — J. H. B. 
 
 BELLEVAUX, Jacques, a pupil of Watelet, bom at Asti in 
 Piedmont in 1803, remarkable for that restricted excellence of 
 painting landscapes on porcelain, a high branch of decorative art, 
 but no more, not even in the finest Sevres, glowing with the face 
 of a Pompadour. — W. T. 
 
 BELLEVOIS, a seascape painter, died at Hamburg in 1684. 
 He painted sea-shores, storms, indeed many aspects of ocean's 
 ban-en plains. He must have been of an amiable, tranquil mind, 
 for he excelled in calms. His vessels are well drawn : with their 
 high gilded mountains of poop, and their pleasant, gallant flutter 
 of flags and pennants, they have a pleasant buoyant grace, but his 
 figures are toys ill-balanced. His touch is light, and colour clear, 
 a quality that the living in sea-air seems to give men. — W. T. 
 
 BELLEY, THE AsBfi Augcstin, a French antiquarian, bom 
 La 1697 in the diocese of Lisieux ; died in 1771. He was librarian 
 to the duke of Orleans, and member of the Academy of In- 
 scriptions in 1744. He wrote a great number of dissertations 
 on geography, history, medals, &c. 
 
 BELLI, a religious painter of Venice — epoch uncertain. 
 
 BELLI or BELLIUS, Honorius, an Italian physician and 
 botanist, a native of Vicenza, lived in the second half of the 
 sixteenth century. He resided and practised medicine for a long 
 time in the east, principally in Crete, which then belonged to 
 the Venetians. His leisure was devoted to botany, and he was 
 one of the first who attempted the idenrification of the plants 
 referred to by the ancients, a study for which his intimate acquain- 
 tance with the Greek language, and his long residence in the native 
 cotmtries of many of these plants, peculiarly fitted him. Belli 
 was in correspondence with the most celebrated botanists of his 
 time, such as the brothers Bauhin and Clusins ; he is mentioned 
 by Ponce in his Description du Monte Baldo. His only pub- 
 lished wiitings are " Epistolae aliquot de rarioribus quibusdum 
 plantis," which were inserted by Clusius in his Historia plan- 
 tarum rarionim, printed at Antwerp in 1601. In these letters 
 he corrects some errors committed by Belon and others, who had 
 visited Crete some little time previously. — W. S. D. 
 
 BELLIARD, Augvstin-Daniel, Coxmt, a French general 
 and peer, bom at Fontenay-le-Comte, 25th May, 1769; died at 
 Bmssels, 28th January, 1832. On his first entering the amiy, 
 he received the grade of captain of the first battalion of La 
 Vendee. He served with distinction under Dumouriez, latterly 
 as adjutant-general, and after the defection of that general he 
 was an-ested and deprived of his commission. When again set 
 at liberty he re-entered the ser\-ice as a common soldier, but 
 after the lapse of some months he was reinstated in his rank, 
 under the orders of Hoche, who commanded the army of La 
 Vendee. He subsequently distinguished himself in the Italian 
 and Egyptian campaigns, and in 1805 took part in the battles 
 of Wittingen, of Langenau, and of Austerlitz. In 1807 and 
 1808 he was present at Jena, Erfm-t, Eylau, Fricdland, and 
 other engagements. He also served both in the Peninsular w.ar 
 and in the disastrous Russian campaign. In 1814 he was nomi- 
 nated colcnel-general of the cavalry of the guard, and received 
 also the grand cordon of the legion of honour. After the abdi- 
 cation of the emperor, Belliard entered into the sen-ice of Louis 
 X\^IIT., and was created a peer. On the return of Napoleon he 
 again joined the imperial army, and was intrusted with the chief 
 command of the 3rd and 4th military divisions. On the second 
 restoration of the Bourbons, Belliard was, by a royal ordinance, 
 excluded from the peerage, and a few months aftem-ards was 
 arrested and sent to the Abbaye. In June, 1816, he was set at 
 liberty, and restored to his former rank. In 1831 he was sent 
 as ambassador to Belgium, and signed the treaty of separation 
 between that countn' and Holland. — G. M. 
 
 BELLIARD, J. F., bom at Marseilles in 1798, and studied 
 under Aubert. He painted miniature portraits of Rochejacquelin 
 and Charette, the chouan leaders. Various lithographs of his 
 works were published at Paris. He also painted some flatulent 
 classical pictures of Marius, Zephyms, &c. — W. T. 
 
 BELLICARD, Jerome Chari.es, a French architect and 
 engraver, professor at the Royal Academy of Architecture in 
 Paris, and member of various foreign academics, was bom in 
 1726, and died in 1786. During his residence in Italy, where 
 he added to his accomplishments considerable skill in the ai-t of 
 engraving, he published " Obscn-ations sur les antiquites de la 
 villo d' Ilerculancum, &c." He was engaged on a ''Complete
 
 Course of Arcliitecture," a work for which he had prepared, at 
 the cost of ten years' labour, a multitude of designs, when he 
 died suddenly at Paris. His passion for gambling latterly reduced 
 him to extreme want. — J. S., G. 
 
 BELLIEVRE, Pompoxxe de, chancellor of France, was 
 born at Lyons in 1529 ; died 5th September, 1G07. After 
 studying the law at Toulouse and Padua, he was nominated 
 counsellor to the senate of the parliament of Chambery. He 
 held a respectable rank as a diplomatist, and was twice sent by 
 Charles IX. as ambassador to Switzerland. In 1586 he was 
 sent by Henry III. as ambassador to Elizabeth, queen of Eng- 
 land, to demand the liberation of the unfortunate Queen Jlary. 
 BeUievre having been suspected of unfaithfulness was sent hito 
 exile; but under Henry IV. was restored to com't favour. In 
 1599 Hemy bestowed on him the office of chancellor, a place 
 which he occupied until 1604. He was a warm patron of htera- 
 ture, and has left several pieces on the public affairs of that 
 period. — The brother of Bellievre, Jean de Bei-lievre, lord 
 of Hautefort, was first president of the parliament of Grenoble. 
 The two sons of Pomponne Bellie\Te, Albekt and Claude, 
 were archbishops of Lyons. The eldest, Albert, abbe of Jouay, 
 died in 1621. He was nominated archbishop by Henry IV. in 
 1599 ; but having about five years aftenvards fallen into a state 
 of mental imbecility, he resigned his charge in favour of his 
 brother Claude. — Nicolas Bellievre, the third brother, was 
 president of the parliament of Paris. He was born in 15S3, 
 and died at Paris, 8th July, 1650. In 1612 he was appointed 
 procureur-general, and in 161-1 president a Twor^/er. This last 
 office he resigned in 1642 in favour of his son. — G. M. 
 
 BELLINI, Giovanni, the chief founder of the Venetian 
 school of painting, was bom at Venice, 1422 (Giotto being dead 
 nearly a centmy), and died in 1512. He was the son of Jacopo 
 Bellini, a well-known painter of humble origin, who studied 
 under Gentile of Fabbriano, a town of central Italy. He was 
 the brother of Gentile Bellini, an historical painter, who was 
 probably named by his father after his master, the artist of 
 Fabbriano. The Giotto influence seems to have reached Venice 
 through Verona and Padua. Paolo, Lorenzo, Andrea de 5Iu- 
 rano, and the Vivarini were predecessors of the Bellinis. The 
 early painters used distemper, mixing their colours not with oil, 
 but size, or white of eggs. Their works were timid, hard, small 
 and Byzantine, wanting in softness, smoothness, and brilliancy. 
 At this crisis of art, John van Eyck discovered, what all the 
 world was longing for, the use of oil as a new vehicle for 
 colour. Antonelli of Messina, by a course of flattering and 
 wooing, obtained the great secret from the patient Fleming, and 
 hastened \vith it to enlighten his Italy. He twice nsited Venice, 
 the first time communicating his secret only to Domenico, who 
 was afterwards murdered by a friend to whom he had confided 
 it : but in his second visit he received a salary as a public pi-o- 
 fessor of painting, and divulged his method to many ai-tists. 
 This was about the year 1474. His fame drew many disciples 
 to the blue lagunes, among others, Roger of Bruges, Theodore of 
 Haarlem, and Quintinus Matsejs (Quintin Matses?). Perhaps 
 on his first ^-isit Antonelli was somewhat jealous of his spell, 
 for the enthusiast John Bellini is said to have got access to his 
 studio only under the disguise of a Venetian gentleman desirous 
 of having his portrait taken, and to have there learned the new 
 Flemish method that was to supersede the dull paleness of dis- 
 temper, and this stoiy, even if untrae (though we are reluctant to 
 disbelieve tradition), would at least imply that a Venetian gentle- 
 man and an artist wore distinctive and unmistakeable dresses. Do- 
 menico and our John became rivals, nor did John rise very high 
 till Domenico left Venice. It is a beautiful trait of the generous 
 nature of old Jacopo, the father, that instead of gi-owing envious 
 of his sons, he used to exult that they siu-passed him. He said 
 it was like the Tuscans for son to beat father, and he hoped, in 
 God's name, that Giovanni would outstrip him, and Gentile, the 
 elder, outstrip both. Soon after this he left them to go and 
 ])aint alone. The only extant picture of his is a portrait of 
 Petrarch and Laura in the JIanfrini galleiy. John and Gentile 
 were good sons, and we therefore may conclude that he was a 
 good father. The siroccos and salt winds have eaten up his 
 works, and he is now only known as the father of Titian's 
 master. From 1464 to 151G, th.at is to say, from the early 
 part of Edward IV.'s reign to deep into the reign of Henry 
 VIIL, this patriarch of art worked on at palace roofs, and chapel 
 altars, at virgins, saints, Bacchantes, and gorgeous illustrations 
 
 of Venetian history. His chief designs were enthronements of 
 the virgin, with a surrounding of saints, martyrs, and rejoicing 
 and musical angels. Zan and Zentile, as they were called in the 
 original dialect of Venice, were affectionate brothers, of congenial 
 dispositions, mutually encouraging and praising each other. 
 This in John was modesty, but in Gentile very truth; the 
 latter in vain attempting by diligence to compensate for the 
 niggardness of fortune, '\\niile the two brothers were adorning 
 the hall of the great council with paintings of the early victories 
 of the republic over Frederic Barbarossa, a Jewish orator came 
 from the Grand Turk Mahomet II., or Bajazet II, requesting 
 the loan of Giovanni Bellini, some of whose works he had seen W 
 and admn-ed. The Doge, not willing to tnist John on so perilous H 
 a voyage, made a scape-goat of Gentile, and set him off to ™ 
 Stamboul in the galleys of Romania, representing the younger 
 brother as too old and infirm for so long a voyage. Gentile, 
 perhaps flattered into rashness, went, and astonished a nation 
 whose creed forbids art, by painting portraits. The British 
 museum still presences a masterly pencil drawing, by the Vene- 
 tian, of the sultan, and the sultana his mother. A picture he 
 painted of John the Baptist's head in a charger, is said to have 
 led to his return home. The sultan, a keen judge of such matters, 
 grew critical, and declared that the painter had left the saint's 
 neck too long, as on such painful occasions the muscles always 
 contracted and drew back into the tnank. " See," said he, 
 and with a sweep of his jewelled scimitar, he sliced off the 
 head of an attendant; "Now! " The sultan was right, the artist 
 owned his mistake. Gentile, after this proof positive, never 
 rested till he had leave to embark ; the sultan throwing round 
 his neck a gold Turkish chain, weighing 250 scudi, and writing 
 a letter so complimentary, that it led to the Ten fixing on him a 
 pension of 200 scudi a-year, which kept him alive till eighty. His 
 brother survived, like Titian, till ninety, painting till the last. 
 In 1516, Albert Dm-er coming to Venice, rebuked the levity of 
 those who derided the brave old man : he says, vrith kindly 
 warmth, "eveiy one assures me that he is gran galantuomo, 
 for which reason I wish him well. He is already very old, but 
 notwithstanding, the best painter we have." Aiiosto also praises 
 him. The chief disciples of Giovanni were Titian, Giorgione, 
 Bandinello of Ravenna, Mocetto, Conegliano, Girolamo di San 
 Croce, Pennarchi, Bissolo, Catena, Pellegrino. He was buried in 
 the church of St. Giovanni e Paolo (Zanzenopolo). Mantegna, 
 the illustrious pupil of Squarcione, the great Paduan rival of 
 Bellini, who adopted him for his son, married a sister of Gio- 
 vanni's, but did not adopt his style, which was rather rigid, and 
 foimded on the antique. He gained favour, however, by his rela- 
 tions in Venice, and is supposed to have taught his brother iii- 
 law some of the finer subtleties of perspective, of which Man- 
 tegna was the first gi-eat teacher. The Venetian picture-restorers, 
 learned in flaying and dissecting, thus describe Bellini's mode 
 of painting : — First a ground of gesso and very thin glue, made 
 of boiled leather parings, with a little black added, the glue being 
 to prevent the former getting too absoi-ljent ; then came the out- 
 line in ink, then the chiaroscuro in a thin wash of brown, then a 
 first coat, the flesh colom-s rosy and thin, but with more yellow 
 and brown, and another painting with more white to brighten the 
 colour still thin ; this kept the flesh tones bright and clear, the 
 rose shining through the white filminess. Asphalt glazings 
 finished the process of flesh painting; the colours being kept thin, 
 the oil dried quick and hard before it could turn rancid. For 
 draperies, Bclhni used pm-e white for the lights, and pure colours 
 for the darks, glazing with transparencies of the local colours, 
 finishing with glazings of asphalt or cologne earth, mixed with 
 naptha (rock oil), or turpentine. The Venetian painters pre- 
 feiTcd the vegetable to the mineral colours. Bellini was the first 
 to thoroughly break up in Venice the dead conventions of the old 
 Greek school. He abandoned its distemper, its gildings, its 
 lank, lean figures, and all its ascetic dullnesses. From the earliest 
 times, indeed, Venice had shown a craving for colour, and had 
 excelled in portraiture. Its genius, when Bellini came on the 
 stage, was already lively and joyous, delighting in open-air effects, 
 and in a gorgeous furniture of details, such as commercial men are 
 wont to love. Bellini introduced a thousand fresh modulations 
 into the old, simple, and natural, but dull and monotonous colour 
 which, s '.auiii broken enougli, was not always in union. He gave 
 variety to the old conventions of composition. From the first, 
 the Venetian school neglected drawing and encouraged colour, 
 whether from climate or some special oriental influence, we
 
 BEL 
 
 487 
 
 BEL 
 
 cannot decide. Considering that Holland and England excel 
 Franco and Germany in colour, we should hardly say that climate 
 can have much effect ; perhaps we may rather attribute it to the 
 more sensuous and unascetlc character of the three schools. In 
 each of them a vicinity to the sea is discernible, hut this applies 
 to nearly all the continental schools. Before Bellini, the Venetian 
 artists in then- seaward-looking studios excelled in colour, archi- 
 tectiu-al perspective, the arrangement of drapery, richness of 
 detail, open-air effects, and the higher branches of portraiture. A 
 certain dignified naivete and good sense distinguished Bellini's 
 worlis. He humanized his religious pictm-es with singing boys, 
 dancing cherubs, glitteiing thrones, and dewy flowers ; at first a 
 little dry and hard, he soon learned from his pupil Giorgione to be 
 bolder, rounder, and warmer. With a little more dash and softness, 
 and a little more imagination, he would have been one of the first 
 of painters. He was, however, too little the poet, and too much the 
 mechanic. His saints have an easy, unstrained dignity about them ; 
 his men are all noble and meant to govern. He is never strained, 
 mean, or vulgai-. He knew how to invest a face with moral gi-an- 
 deur. His early pictures are dry and hard, his later pictures dark 
 and black, hut his best works have a clear jewel depth of bright- 
 ness, an internal gem-like fire, such as warms a summer twilight. 
 The shadows are intense and yet transparent, like the Adriatic 
 waves where tliey lie out of the sun under the palace bridges. 
 Compared with Perugino, Mantegna, and Ghirlandajo, Bellini 
 may be called the real founder of the Titian school ; but still, if 
 Perugino had not trained Raphael, and Ghirlandajo Buonarotti, 
 where would art have been ? His portrait of the " Doge Lorc- 
 dano," who baflied the league of Cambrai, in the National 
 Gallery, is a masterpiece of spirited care. His best exist- 
 ing works are " A Madonna and Child," at the academy, 
 Venice; "A Madonna and Saint," at St. John, Venice; "A 
 Madonna, Saint, and Virgin with a violin," at St. Zaccaria ; 
 " A Christ at Emmaus," at St. Salvatore (his finest work) ; 
 Venetian Senators and Dragoman introduced ; " Altar-Piece 
 at St. John," Crisostomo ; " A St. Jerome studyhig," in the 
 ^fanfrini Gallery; "Five Allegories (ships and genii)," at the 
 II :idemy ; " A Bacchus, with Titian landscape," a late work, at 
 KiiUie; "A Coronation of the Virgin," at St. Francisco, Vesano ; 
 A Transfigiu-ation," at Naples; "A Baptism of Christ," at 
 \ ieeiiza ; "A Virgin and Child," at the Berlin Museum ; and "A 
 large Altar-Piece," at St. S. Maria de Frari, at Venice. There 
 are also specimens of this master at Genoa, Turin, Milan, Parma, 
 Florence, and Brescia. Gentile's great work — St. Mark at Alex- 
 andria, with the camelopard — introduced among other evidences 
 uF liis Turkish journey, is in the Brera, Milan. It is interesting 
 • ven to know that John had black hair, and Gentile red. His 
 miracles of the cross (a local legend), are in the Venice academy. 
 ■> later Bellini of Bologna was a follower of Albano. There 
 IS also a Bellin Bellini of Venice, and another an imitator of 
 u-occio.— W. T. 
 
 BELLINI, Laurence, an Italian physician and anatomist, 
 i.Lirn at Florence in 1643. Under the patronage of the gi'and 
 Duke Ferdinand IL, he was enabled to go to the university of 
 Pisa, when his studies were so successful that, at the age of 
 twenty-two, he was made professor of philosophy and tlieoretical 
 medicine. His discoveries as an anatomist have made him most 
 famous. The grand duke attended his lectures, and a large 
 number of distinguished pupils speedily disseminated his prin- 
 ciples through Italy and other European countries. He is also 
 remembered as a poet and successful cultivator of letters. At 
 the age of fifty he resigned his chair and returned to Florence, 
 where he enjoyed a pension from the grand duke, and engaged 
 m the practice of medicine. He died in 1703. His works are 
 — "Exercitatio Anatomica de stractura et usu rennm," 1662; 
 ' Gustiis Organum Novissime Deprehensum," 1665 ; " Grati- 
 arum Actio ad Eti-urios Principem," 1670 ; " De Urinis, de Pul- 
 sibus, de Missione Sanguinis, de Febribus, do Morbis Capitis et 
 Pectoris," 1683 ; " Consideratio nova de natura et modo Res- 
 pirationis." His complete works appeared at Venice between 
 1708 and 1747.— J. B. 
 
 BELLINI, ViNCENZO, a musician, was born at Catania in 
 Sicily ; the date of his birth has been variously stated, but a 
 copy of his baptismal register proves it to be November 3, 
 1801 ; he died at Puteaivx, near Paris, September 23, 1835. 
 The disposition for his art he evinced at a very tender age, 
 received its first training from his grandfather, Vincenzo Bel- 
 Imi, an accomplished pupil of Jomclli, in the Con^-ci-Natorio 
 
 della Pieta. In 1819 his talent was brought under the notice 
 of the Duke de Noja, president of the musical college at Naples, 
 through whose interest he was admitted as a free student in that 
 institution. Here he was placed in the composition class of 
 Tritta, whose severe contrapuntal course was, however, extremely 
 distasteful to him, and he earnestly desu-ed to be removed to the 
 class of Zingarelli, whose system of instruction he found more 
 attractive ; the rules of the college, which would not allow of a 
 change of masters, prevented the fulfilment of his wish, until the 
 ill health of Tritta compelled this respected teacher to resign his 
 office. Under his first master he wrote several orchestral pieces, 
 besides a mass and many smaller compositions for the church, 
 which were performed in the ecclesiastical estabUshments 
 throughout the city in which the students of the college 
 formed the chou-. Zingarelli, to give him melodious fluency, 
 set him to write solfeggios, of which he produced about two 
 hundi-ed; this practice materially modified the style of his 
 sacred compositions, which he continued to wi-ite for the sake of 
 the experience he gained from hearing them executed. A can- 
 tata, called " Imene," was also a fruit of this period, as likewise 
 some unimportant instrumental pieces which were published. 
 His first opera, " Adelson e Salvini," was in 1825 privately 
 performed in the small theatre of the college of St. Sebastian, 
 entirely by the students, when Signer Marras, the talented pro- 
 fessor now settled in London, was chosen fj-om the boys of the 
 preparatoiy school to sustain the soprano part. This work was 
 never brought before the world, but several themes from it are 
 incorporated in the " Straniera " and the " Montecchi e Capu- 
 letti." In 1825, while still a student, he was, through the 
 recommendation of his patron, the Duke de Noja, allowed to 
 write for the Teatro S. Carlo the opera of " Bianca e Gemando," 
 which was produced with Mad. Lalande, and Sigs. Rubiui, 
 Berrettoni, and Lahlache, in the principal chai'acters ; it met, 
 however, with indifFerent success. He was now involved in a 
 love affjiir with a young lady, whose father, a judge, contem- 
 ning his profession, forbade his suit ; and in the mortification 
 thus induced he left the city. He proceeded direct to Milan, 
 where in 1827, with singular favour to so young an artist, he 
 was engaged to compose an opera for the Scala ; this was " II 
 Pirata," which was supported by Mad. Comelli, Sigs. Rubini 
 and Cartagenova ; and though coldly received on the first repre- 
 sentation, had a success upon its repetition, which immediately 
 carried it into every lyrical theatre in Europe, and it was pro- 
 duced in London in April 1830. Acknowledged now as one of 
 the popular composers of the day, he wrote in 1828 for the 
 same theatre, "La Straniera," the characters in which were sus- 
 tained by Mesdames Lalande and Ungher, and Sigs. Reina and 
 Tamburini. 
 
 His next work, " Zaira," was written for PaiTna ; but though 
 supported by Mad. Ungher and Sigs. David and Lablache, was 
 unsuccessful. He was more fortunate wth " I Montecchi ed i 
 Caprdetti," given at Venice with Mesd. Caradori Allen, and 
 Giuditta Grisi, and Sigs. Bonifigli and Porto. The subject of 
 this was the same as the Romeo e Giulietta of Zingarelli, which 
 he accepted with considerable diffidence out of respect to his 
 old master, and the name was changed to evade the appear- 
 ance of competition with him. A success surpassing even 
 that of his " Pirata," attended " La Sonnambula," which was 
 first performed at the Carcano theatre in Milan with Mesd. 
 Pasta and Taccani, and Sigs. Rubini and MarinL The subject of 
 this opera, already familiar on the stage as a ballet and as a 
 spealdng drama, was especially sympathetic with the genius of 
 Bellini ; and the general character of his music is at once more 
 s))ontaneous, more varied, and more dramatic in this than in any 
 of his other works. The established popularity of the com- 
 poser and of his story, cond)ined to predispose all audiences in 
 its favour, but the irresistible charm of its melodies, at once 
 penetrated where the interest of the action was unwitnessed, 
 and where even the name of Bellini had never reached. This was 
 followed by " Norma," the text of which by Romani is ranked 
 as a classic among Italian poetry ; it was produced at the Scala 
 in Milan with Mesd. Pasta and (iiulietta Grisi, and Sigs. Don- 
 zelli and Marini. Like the " Pirata," it was unsuccessful on the 
 first night, but received with enthusiasm on its repetition. Uni- 
 versal as is the esteem in which this opera is held, and eminently 
 efl'ective as are many passages in it, the grand tragic character 
 of the subject is little in accordance with the tenderly-flowing 
 style of the composer, the consequence of which is an air of
 
 BEL 
 
 488 
 
 BEL 
 
 assumption in some of the situations wliere the sentiment is 
 least natm-al to Bellini. Esteeming this his loftiest effort, he 
 dedicated it to his revered instructor, and went to Naples to 
 present it to him. The judge, who had disallowed the addresses 
 of the poor student to his daughter, now sought a connection 
 with the most popular composer of his country ; but the pride 
 of the once-rejected Bellini, prompted him in turn to refuse the 
 alliance. It is said that the consequent death of the heroine of 
 this romance made an impression upon him that he did not 
 sun-ive. He now visited his family in Sicily, returned to write 
 "Beatrice di Tenda" at Naples, and went to Venice to produce 
 it with Mad. Pasta and Sigs. Curioni and Cartagenova as its 
 representatives. Passing through Paris, he came to London in 
 1834 to direct the performance of some of his works. He 
 returned to Paris, where he vrvote " I Puritani" to the Libretto 
 of Count Pepoli, who relates many circumstances of his exact- 
 ing scrupulousness as to the constraction of the pieces and the 
 poetical rhythm ; — among others, his insisting, after the entire 
 completion of the work, upon the interpolation, in the last fin- 
 ale, of the romance " Cre da si misera." He was urgently advised 
 by J\Larliani and Donizetti, who had each an opera in prepara- 
 tion, to omit the duet, Suoni la Tromba ; and he would have 
 followed their counsel but for the obstinate refusal of the poet, 
 which was confirmed by the triumphant reception of the piece 
 at the public rehearsal. This work was produced at the Theatre 
 Italien in the winter with Mad. Giulietta Grisi, and Sigs. Eubini, 
 Tamburini, and Lablache, and it was immediately transplanted 
 to London with the same cast, to become more attractive than 
 any work of its author. In acknowledgment of the success of 
 the " Puritani," he was made a member of the legion of honour. 
 He was engaged to write an opera for the Academic Eoyale at 
 Paris, and another, on the story of Eienzi, for the S. Carlo at 
 Naples, but his premature death prevented the completion of 
 either of these. He was buried in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. 
 The florid style of Rossini was akeady exhausted, when Bellini, 
 with a form of cantilena peculiar to himself, was the first to 
 revive the earlier Italian character of melody ; the more natural 
 expression of which this is the medium, found a ready welcome 
 with the world, and its manner was at once adopted by Doni- 
 zetti, then first coming into notice, by Jlercadante and Pacini, 
 who had hitherto been imitators of Rossini, and even by this 
 great master himself, whose Guillaume Tell and Stabat iMater 
 sufficiently prove his conriction, that the exuberant ornamenta- 
 tion he had originated was no longer an available resource. 
 Bellini's music is distinguished by a tender langour, in accordance 
 with the almost femmine gentleness of his character. The want 
 of development, which is the weakness of his earlier works, was 
 gradually giving way before his ripening experience ; and in his 
 last production there is shown a power of contuuuty and con- 
 struction, that would have pelded still higher results had he not 
 been cut off wlien lie was but approaching matm-ity. — G. A. M. 
 BELLINI ANI, Vittore, a pupil of the old patriarch Bellini; 
 he flourished about 1525, and painted historical and religious 
 subjects. — W. T. 
 
 BELLMAN, Cart. Miciiakl, the Swedish Anacrcon, was 
 born at Stockholm, Feb. 4, 17-10. He studied at Upsala, and 
 was appointed by Gustavus III., secretary of the lottery office, 
 with a salary of nine thousand dollars, one half of which he 
 paid over to the clerks who did the work ; received himself the 
 title of court secretarj', and lived a joyous poet's life. He com- 
 menced his poetical career by religious poetry, translations of 
 Gellert's fables, and some dramatic pieces. His peculiar style 
 of poetic composition developed itself in his twenty-fiftli year. 
 Whatever foreigners may thmk of Bellman as a poet, the very 
 mention of his name operates upon a Swede like an electric 
 thrill of joy. The usual themes of Bellman are wine and love ; 
 and his poems often contain very free sketches, which, however, 
 are not coarsely pamted, but highly indicated by the magic 
 touch of the poet, so that they are rather felt than described. 
 He frequently improvised his poems to the music of a lute or 
 guitar, adding greatly to the effect by his wonderful ]iower of 
 mimicry. When sufficiently excited by wine, of which, however, 
 he drank very moderately, he first selected an air, imitated it 
 and the sound of various instruments, by his mouth and on his 
 fingers, and then sang in accordance what his muse inspired. 
 He would often sing to his friends the night through, till he 
 s;mk down overcome by weariness. JIany, and perliaps the best 
 of his improvisations, were never committed to paper, but have 
 
 passed away «-ith the pleisures of the moment. It is related, 
 tliat duriug his last illness, he summoned his friends together 
 " that they might hear Bellman," as he said, " once more." He 
 then sang the whole night through, under the influence of an 
 unbroken flow of inspiration, the joyous course of his existence • 
 the praise of his good king; his gratitude to Providence, which 
 had cast his lot amid a noble people and in the beautiful northern 
 land ; and finally, he bade farewell to each of the company, in 
 a difterent air and metre, according to the individual character 
 of each, and the relation of the poet to him. As day dawned, 
 his friends implored him to cease, and to spare his remaining 
 strength ; but he replied, " Let us die as we have lived — in 
 music ! " emptied the glass before him, and never sang more on 
 earth. His most remarkable compositions are contained in his 
 " Fredman's Songs," " Fredman's Epistles," and the " Select 
 Libraiy of Bacchus." He was assisted in the pubfication of his 
 poems by his friend Kellgren, and in the music by Ki-aus. His 
 works have been many times reprinted, and in their collected 
 form have been somewhat piuified. A monument was erected 
 to his memory by his numerous admirers at Stockholm in Julr, 
 1829, the royal family being present at its inaugiu'ation. — 51. U. 
 
 * BELLOC, Anne Louise, born at Rochelle on the 1st 
 October, 1796. Being the daughter of an Irish officer of the 
 name of Swanston, she was naturally as familiar with the English 
 language as with that of her native land, and possessing taste and 
 learning, she has devoted herself to giving to her own country 
 much of the fiterature of om's, through the medium of transla- 
 tion. Amongst others she has translated the poetry of Moore, 
 and the Vicar of Wakefield of Goldsmith, as well as many of the 
 tales of Miss Edgev^-orth, and the travels of the Landers ; one of 
 her latest works is a translation of ISIrs. Beecher Stowe's Uncle 
 Tom's Cabin.— J. F. W. 
 
 BELLOC, Jean Louls, a French sui'geon, was born at Saint- 
 ]\Iaurin, near Agen, in 1730, and died at Paris on the 19th 
 November, 1807. He studied at Montpellier, and at the early 
 age of fifteen maintained a thesis, entitled " Utrum ■N'irtus sine 
 timore Dei adesse queat? " In 1754 he was received as a master 
 of surgeiy at Paris, but remained at his studies in that city for 
 five years longer, when he returned to Agen and established 
 himself in practice. Some time afterwards he was called to 
 Paris, and attached to the seiwice of the king, when he assisted 
 in the establishment of an amphitheatre for teaching anatomy 
 and pathology, and acquired gi-eat celebrity as professor of me.ii- 
 cal jurisprudence. Belloc was the inventor of several surgical 
 instnaments, the best known of which, called the sonde de Belloc, 
 was mtended for the introduction of a dossil, either diy or soaked 
 with some styptic liquids, through the mouth into the posterior 
 nasal fossae ; tliis was made use of by Basdor in tying polypi 
 of the phaiynx, but, with the other inventions of Belloc, is now 
 scarcely ever heard of. Besides several papers inserted in the 
 Mdmoircs de I'Acad^mie de Chirm'gie, Belloc published a 
 " Topographic physique et medicale du departement du Lot-et- 
 Giu-onne," which is regarded as a model in its kind, and a 
 " Cours de medecine legale, judiciaire, theorique et pratique," an 
 excellent work, which passed through three editions, the first 
 published in 1802 and the last in 1819.— W. S. D. 
 
 BELLOC, J. H., a painter of histoiy and portrait, studied 
 under Eegnault. He gained a medal in 1810. He painted a 
 wndy subject from Ossian, and the portraits of the duke of 
 Beny and Boissy d'Anglas. — W. T. 
 
 BELLONI, a sculptor of Paris, celebrated for his mosaics, 
 which were miracles of ingenious patience. His cameos were 
 also famous, particularly one which was, " The Genius of the 
 Emperor Chaining Victoiy." It is a pity such ingenuity should 
 have been prostituted to court flatteiy. — W. T. 
 
 BELLORI, PiETRO, a portrait painter of Rome, better known 
 as a useful biogi-apher of artists, and a laborious writer on art 
 antiquities. — W'. T. 
 
 BELLOT, Joseph Rene, was bom in Paris, March 18, 
 1826. From the age of five years he re.sided at Eochefort, 
 where his family, who belonged to the humbler ranks of life, had 
 settled. To the ability which he early evinced he was indebted 
 for the means of pursuing his studies in the college of Eoche- 
 fort until the age of fifteen and a half, when he was admitted in 
 the naval school, where he passed the two succeeding years. At 
 seventeen and a half, Bellot entered upon active service, and 
 passed a large portion of the ensuing seven years in successive 
 emploj-ment upon the African and South American coasts. He
 
 BEL 
 
 489 
 
 BEL 
 
 was wounded in the French attack upon Tamatave (iladagas- 
 car) in June, 18-i5, and received in revrard for his gallantry the 
 cross of the legion of honour — bestowed while he was yet under 
 twenty years of age. Shortly after his return from South 
 America, Bellot's attention was directed towards the arctic 
 re^ons, to his connection with which, during the Lrief remainder 
 of his career, his place in the records of enterprise is chiefly 
 owing. The fate of Sir John Franklin was then engaging the 
 attention of the civilized world, and the heroic efforts made by 
 Lady Franklin in behalf of her long-absent husband, awakened 
 the deepest sympathy on the part of the young French oflBcer. 
 Bellot visited London in the spring of 1851, and, with the per- 
 mission of his own government, accompanied Captain Kennedy, 
 as a volunteer, in the Prince Albert, which had been fitted out 
 by Lady Franklin for the purpose of a renewed search. 'WTiile 
 engaged in the labours of this expedition (during which he tra- 
 versed, in company with Captain Kennedy, upwards of 1100 
 miles upon the ice-covered lands and seas lying on the western 
 side of Prince Regent Inlet, being absent from the ship for a 
 continuous period of ninety-sis days), Bellot was promoted to 
 the rank of lieutenant. The Prince Albert returned to England 
 in the simimer of 1852. lu the spring of the following year, 
 Bellot revisited the arctic regions in company with Captain 
 Inglefield, who sailed from Woolwich in the Pkcenix on the 10th 
 May, 1853. From this voyage Bellot never returned. It was 
 to his own noble energy and daring that his untimely fate was 
 owing. The Phcenix entered the ice in safety, Bellot sharing 
 in all the labours of the expedition, and gaining (as on his 
 previous voyage) the esteem and goodwUl of all. A main object 
 with which the Phcenix had been sent out was the conveyance 
 of the admkalty despatches to Sir Edward Belcher, then in 
 command of a squadron engaged in the Franklin search. Bellot 
 volunteered to carry forward these despatches, and on August 12 
 'ft the ship for the purpose. A few nights after, while advanc- 
 ij; to the northward along Wellington Channel, a portion of 
 iC ice became detached from the land, and BeUot himself, with 
 ■. of the seamen who were his companions in the enterprise, 
 ere diifted upon it in mid-channel. On the night of the 18th, 
 iuing a violent storm of wind, Bellot fell into a crack in the 
 :-, and was seen no more. This melancholy close, at the early 
 _e of twenty-seven, of a promising career, excited the deepest 
 xret on the part of the English and French nations alUce. 
 ^'■L-Uot's qualities, both intellectual and moral, were of a high 
 rder, and were united to a resolute courage which shrank fi'om 
 .1 ditBculty. An obelisk, erected by public subscription on 
 ::e bank of the Thames, in front of Greenwich Hospital, pre- 
 rves the memory of the gallant French sailor, and commemo- 
 tes the gratitude which his self-sacrificing conduct inspired in 
 lie mind of the English people. — W. H. 
 BELLOTTI, Bernardino, bom at Venice in 1724. He is 
 ■mpared to his uncle Caualetti, and, like him, was a traveller 
 uid a painter of mingled architecture and landscape. He \isited 
 Germany and Poland in search of money and beauty. He is 
 known to have engi-aved five of his own landscapes. — W. T. 
 BELLOTTI, PiETRO, bom at Venice in 1610, was a pupil 
 !' Michael Ferabosco. He adorned the sea Cybele with portraits 
 : the degenerated descendants of the old Jlocenigo, Dandolo, and 
 'scari, and with historical subjects, which were often but 
 larged portrait subjects. His flesh is fiery-coloured, his hair 
 varied, and his attitudes graceful. He was well received at 
 .^Innich in 1666 (six years after our Restoration), but pined for 
 the warm sea-breeze of Venice, returned there, and died in 
 1700.— W. T. 
 
 BELLOVfiSUS, a Gallic chief, nephew of King Ambigat, lived 
 about 550 b.c. He was the first Gallic leader that passed the 
 Alps and formed a settlement in Italy, aU the northern part of 
 which aftervvards took the name of Cisalpine Gaul. 
 
 BELLOY, house of, an ancient French family, one member of 
 which is known to have lived in the end of the twelfth and 
 beginning of the thirteenth century. He was one of the lords, 
 who in 1214 signed the truce between Philippe Augustus and 
 the king of England, after the battle of Bouvines. Another 
 was distinguished in the wars against the English in the reign 
 of Charles VI. Two other members of the same family held im- 
 portant commands under Charles VII. and Louis XL They 
 both fell in battle, one at Verneuil in 1424, the other at Guine- 
 gatein 1479.— G. M. 
 
 BELLOY, PiEKUE DE, a French jiuTsconsult, bom at Mon- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 tauban about 1540. He was descended from an ancient family 
 of Bretagne, but was still more distinguished by his own learn- 
 ing and talent. At the early age of twenty-one he was appointed 
 a public professor at Toulouse, where he acquired so high a 
 reputation as a jurisconsult, that he was soon after nominated 
 counsellor m the seneschal's court. In 1584 he got into trouble, 
 in consequence of the ardour with which he advocated the rights 
 of Henry IV., in a publication entitled " Apologie Catholique." 
 Having been attacked by BeUarmine, who represented him as a 
 heretic and an atheist, he was imprisoned, first in the conciergerie, 
 and afterwards in the bastile, whence he made his escape, after 
 having been confined for two years. His devotion to Henry IV. 
 was rewarded by that sovereign with the office of advocate- 
 general to the parhament of Toulouse. Belloy was author of a 
 number of polemical woi-ks of great ability. — G. il. 
 
 BELLOY, Pierre Laurent Buyrette, bora at St. Fleur, 
 in Auvergne, November 17, 1727. Entertaining an irrepressible 
 passion for the stage, he fled from France, to avoid the compulsion 
 of his uncle, who sought to force him to become a barrister, and 
 went on the stage at St. Petersburg, where he commenced 
 writing dramatic pieces. In 1758 he returned to Paris, desiring 
 to bring out there his tragedy of " Titus." The piece met its 
 deserts, and was damned ; the author fared scarcely better, for his 
 uncle procured an order for his arrest, which forced him again to flee 
 to Russia. The death of this implacable relation left him free to 
 return to Paris, to produce his " Zelmire," the success of which was 
 decided, and in no small degi-ee due to the acting of JIademoiselle 
 Clairon. But his crovsTiing celebrity was "The Siege of Calais," 
 which won for him the freedom of that town, conveyed in a gold 
 box, with the inscription, " Lauream tulit ; Civicam recepit" and 
 his picture was placed in the Hotel de ViUe there, and the play 
 received high commendation from Voltaire. His next piece was 
 also very successful ; a third followed, which was short-lived, and 
 his last, " Peter the Cmel," entirely failed upon its first appear- 
 ance. Belloy took this event so much to heart, that he fell ill, 
 and after languishing some years in sickness and poverty, relieved 
 just before death by a gift of fifty louis from Louis XVI., and 
 the proceeds of a representation of " The Siege of Calais " for his 
 benefit, he died on the 5th ISIarch, 1775. — J. F. W. 
 
 BELLUCCI, , bom at Rome, 1506, was slain in battle 
 
 in 1540. He was an engineer, and a painter of historical pano- 
 ramic subjects. — W. T. 
 
 BELLUCCI, Antonio, bom at Venice in 1654, was a portrait 
 and historical painter. His colour is pure, his invention fluent 
 and spirited, but to the "first three" he did not attain. His 
 cabinet pictures and altar-pieces were so much esteemed, that 
 he was appointed com't painter to the emperor Joseph I., whom 
 he aftei-wards left to enter the sei-vice of the elector Palatine. 
 Bellucci lived respected, and died at Tre^'iso, 1726. — W. T. 
 
 BELLUCCI, Thomas, an Italian botanist, lived about the 
 middle of the seventeenth century. He was professor of botany 
 and director of the botanic garden in the university of Pisa. He 
 pubHshed at Florence in 1662 an enumeration of the plants 
 culrivated in the Pisa garden. — J. H. B. 
 
 BELLUS or BEAU, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit, author 
 of some antiquai-ian and hagiological works, was born at Saly 
 in 1600, and died at Jlontpellier in 1670. His " Otia regia 
 Lndo\-ici XR^" was published in 1658. 
 
 BELIIAS, Louis, bishop of Cambrai, was bom at Montreal, 
 in the department of Aude, in 1757, and died in 1840. He 
 took the oath to the " constitution civile " of the clerg}-, and 
 shortly after was promoted to the bishopric of Aude. In 1802 
 he was translated to the bishopric of Cambrai, which it was 
 proposed to elevate into an aj-chiepiscopal see; but the pope, 
 whom the bishop had offended by his adherence to the " consti- 
 tution civile," having opposed the project, it was dropped. Bel- 
 mas, like his predecessor Fenelon, held the doctrine of the divine 
 right of kings in a way which enabled him to retain his bishopric 
 under all changes of govemment. — J. S., G. 
 
 BELMEIS, John, commonly called John of York, one of 
 the most eminent divines of the twelfth century. Arrived at 
 Rome, he became the friend of Adrian IV., an Engli.shman ; and 
 of liis successor, Alexander III. For twenty ye.irs he was bishop 
 of Poitou in France, and for ten more, archbishop of Lyons, and 
 primate. It is said that he returned to England in 1194, being 
 veiy old. He wrote vehemently against Bccket in the contro- 
 versies of that prelate with Henry II. When and where he died 
 is uncertain. — T. J. 
 
 3Q
 
 BELMEIS or BEAUTIES, Eichard de, bishop of London 
 in the reign of Henry I., was advanced to the see tin-ongh the 
 interest of Eoger ]\Iontgomeiy, earl of Shropshire, and conse- 
 crated July 26, 1108. He was sometimes called Eufus, to 
 distinguish him from his nephew of tlie same age. He was 
 appointed by the king, warden of the marches between England 
 and Wales, and held the office three years, during which he resided 
 at Shrewsbury. He was a most liberal benefactor to the cathe- 
 dral of St. Paul, and founded a convent at St. Osith in Essex. 
 Becoming paralysed, he intended to have resigned his bishopric, 
 but was prevented by death. He expired January 16, 1127, 
 and was buried at St. Osith. — T. J. 
 
 BELJIEIS or BEAUJIES, Eiciiard de, nephew of the 
 preceding, was bishop of London in the reign of King Stephen. 
 He was consecrated at Canterbuiy in the presence of all the 
 bishops of England, except Henry of Winchester, who, neverthe- 
 less, approved the choice. He died May 4, 1162, leaving behind 
 him a reputation for singular eloquence. It is said that the 
 latter part of his life was full of affliction, and that for several 
 years he was unable to speak. — T. J. 
 
 BELMISSEEO, Paul, an Italian physician and poet, lived 
 in the first part of the sixteenth century. He dedicated several 
 of his works to Francis I. and Pope Paul III., to the latter of 
 whom he was physician. He published a collection of Latin 
 poems, 1531, 4to. 
 
 * BELMONTET, Louis, bom at Montauban in 1799. With 
 the elevation of Napoleon III. to the imperial throne, the public 
 hailed the lam-eatc of the restored empire in the person of M. 
 Belmontet, whose muse rose to the highest Pindaric flights in 
 celebration of the new Augustan age. Letters were to attain a 
 degree of lustre, under princely patronage, which would put to 
 shame the di-ooping and sickly products of the unfriendly air of 
 constitutional liberty. Unhappily for promises made under a 
 factitious inspiration, the literary glory of the empire, so far as 
 poetiy is concerned, remains in the sole representative hands of 
 Louis Belmontet. Wliatever may be his own inherent worth, 
 he enjoys the advantage of reigning alone. Like others whose 
 minds have matured into an estimation of the value of abso- 
 lutism, M. Belmontet sowed his political wild oats amongst 
 the Carbonari; and became, in 1820, after having made his 
 native town too hot to hold himself and his father, the prison 
 director, together, compromised in an abortive attempt at insur- 
 rection in Paris. In 1827 the poet prophesied, in a Pindaric ode, 
 the downftill of royalties ; but, two years afterwards, so charmed 
 the duchess of Berry by the courtly grace with which he pre- 
 sented the MS. of a tragedy, that she offered him a pension, 
 which, it is only fair to say, he refused. Upon the advent of 
 the Orleans dynasty, M. Belmontet sought out Queen Hor- 
 tense, mother of Louis Napoleon, for the purpose of advising 
 her to lay claim to the throne, which she refused ; on which 
 the poet turned his prophetic eye in another direction, and, 
 for having promised France the blessings of a republic, was hn- 
 prisoned ; but, as the opposition journals raised a clamour, was 
 soon set free, to propose as a toast at a public banquet, " the 
 fall of kings who separate from the people." Louis Napoleon at 
 length settled his Bonaparteism by standing godfather for his 
 first-born in 1836, from which, except in the case of some flat- 
 teiing verses to the count de Paris, addi-essed to the care of his 
 mother, the duchess of Orleans, he does not appear to ha\'e 
 much wavered. The electors of Blontauban rejected his offer to 
 be their representative in the constitutional assembly of 1848 ; 
 but his son's imperial godfather having stood sponsor for his 
 candidature, he now sits in the corps legislatif for Castel-SaiTasin. 
 The reporter's gallery being suppressed, no note has appeared of 
 Belmontct's eloquence. — J. F. C. 
 
 BELOE, WiLLiAjr, a learned English divine, born at Nor- 
 wich in 1756. He received his classical education from the 
 celebrated Dr. Parr, and afterwards graduated at Corpus Christi 
 college, Cambridge. On his return to Norwich from tlie uni- 
 versity, Dr. PaiT, who was then master of the grammar school 
 of that town, invited him to become his assistant. He was 
 afterwards successively curate and vicar of Earlham, but the 
 income from that living being insufhcient for the wants of his 
 famUy, he removed to London, and engaged in periodical writing, 
 supporting with gi-eat zeal, dming the heat of the American war, 
 the views of the colonial party, and afterwards advocating with 
 like warmth the cause of the first French revolutionists. His 
 subsequent connection with the British Critic, a Eeview devoted 
 
 to the advocacy of constitutional principles in politics, was by 
 some attributed to mercenary motives, but the tiiie ground of his 
 alienation from the revolutionary party in France and their sup- 
 porters in England, we may, without much charity, suppose to 
 have been of a perfectly honourable character. In 179G he was 
 appointed rector of All Hallows, London Wall ; in the following 
 year collated to a stall in Lincoln cathedral, and in 1805 to one 
 in St. Paul's. He was also assistant-librarian in the British 
 Museum. Died in 1817. Of his numerous publications the fol- 
 lowing may be noticed — " Poems and Translations," 1788 ; 
 "The History of Herodotus, from the Greek, with Notes," vols. 
 1791; "Translation of the Attic Nights of Aulus GeUins," 
 1795 ; " Translation of the Arabian Nights, from the French ; " 
 "Anecdotes of Literature and Scarce Books," 6 vols., 1806- 
 1812; "A Biographical Dictionary," in 15 vols., written con- 
 jomtly with the Eev. W. Tooke.— J. S., G. 
 
 BELON, Peter, calledin Latin Belonius, a French naturalist, 
 was born at a hamlet in the French province of Mans about 
 1518, and died in 1564. He studied medicine at Paris; and, 
 after taking the degree of doctor, he devoted himself particularly 
 to natural history. He visited Germany with Valerius Cordus, 
 a celebrated botanist, whose lectures he had attended at the 
 university of Wittenberg. On his return he was made prisoner 
 by the Spanish under the walls of Thionville, in the duchy of 
 Luxemburg. He was afterwards freed from prison by a gen- 
 tleman named Dehamme, who paid the price demanded for his 
 ransom. He then returned to Paris and was patronised by the 
 cardinal of Toumon, who pennitted him to reside in the abbey 
 of St. Germain. Here he had an opportunity of prosecuting 
 his favourite science. He visited eastern countries at the ex- 
 pense of the cardinal, and spent the yeai's from 1546 to 1549 
 in travelling. The places which he examined during his travels 
 were Greece, Crete, Constantinople, Mount Athos, Thrace, Mace- 
 donia, Asia Minor, and various islands of the iEgean Sea. After 
 visiting Ehodes, he proceeded to Alexandria and other parts of 
 Egypt, then to Mount Sinai and Palestine, returning by Aleppo, 
 Antioch, Damascus, Tarsus, and Anatolia, to Constantmople and 
 Eome, where he met the cardinal de Toumon. During this jour- 
 ney Belon made large collections, and ascertained many important 
 particulars relative to ruined cities. He published in Paris in 
 1553 his obsen'ations on the remarkable objects he had met 
 with in Ms travels. He afterwards received a pension, and was 
 allowed a handsome residence in the Bois de Boulogne, near 
 which he was murdered by an unknovra hand when retui'ning 
 from Paris one evening. Among his other works may be men- 
 tioned his histories of Fishes and of Birds, his account of " Coni- 
 ferous Trees," and his " Eemarks on Acclimatizing." — J. H. B. 
 
 BIilLOSTE, AuGUSTiN, a French surgeon, was bom in Paris 
 in 1654, and died at Turin on the 15th July, 1730. He was 
 at first a surgeon in the French anny, but subsequently became 
 first sm-geon to the mother of the king Victor Amadia of Sar- 
 tliriia. He published a work under the title of " Le Chirurgien 
 de I'Hopital et maniere de gue'rir promptement les plaies," of 
 which the first edition appeared at Paris in 1696, followed by 
 others in various years up to 1715. In 1725 Beloste brought 
 out a continuation of this work, the " Suite du Chhurgien de 
 I'Hopital," appended to which is an important treatise on the use 
 of mercury, afterwards reprinted separately in 1738 and 1757. 
 The entire work was translated into Italian by Sancassini, under 
 the title of " Cliirone in Campo," and published at Venice in 
 1729. Several of Beloste's letters also occur in the works of 
 Sancassini, who speaks of him with praise. His great merit 
 seems to have consisted in his appreciating and adopting the 
 good methods recommended by the old surgeons, which had long 
 been neglected, and even his mercurial pills, which his son 
 endeavoured to convert into a secret remedy (pilules de Beloste), 
 were described in the Pharmacopa'ia of Eenou. — W. S. D. 
 
 BELOT, Madame Octavie, an authoress of some reputation, 
 was born at Paris, March 3rd, 1719. Her maiden name was 
 Guichard, and she mairicd, in her 19th year, an avoeat au parle- 
 ment, who, on his death in 1757 left her in very straitened 
 circumstances. She applied herself to writing, and produced 
 several works of merit, as well as translations from the English. 
 She contracted a second marriage with the president Dtu-ey de 
 Meyniiires, whom she sun'ived, and died in 1804. — J. F. W. 
 
 BELOW, James Frederick, a Swedish physician and na- 
 turalist, was born at Stockholm in 1669, and died in 1716. He 
 was professor of medicine at Upsal and Lund. In 1705 he went
 
 BEL 
 
 491 
 
 BEL 
 
 to Saxony as a physician in the army of Charles XIL He was 
 made prisoner at the battle of Pultawa, and was taken to JIos- 
 cow, where he practised medicine. He left behind him works 
 on Worms, on diseases of different kinds, on Respiration and 
 Transpiration, on Equivocal Generation, on Smell, on the Toricel- 
 lian barometer, and on the genera of Plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 BELOWSELSKY-BELOZERKI, Alexander Prixce, a 
 Russian litterateur, bom in St. Petersburg in 1757; died in 1809. 
 He was ambassador of Catheiine IL at the court of Turin, and 
 a munificent patron of literature. 
 
 BELSHAM, Thomas, mmister of Esses Street chapel, 
 London; born at Bedford, April 15, 1750, o.s. His father, the 
 Rev. James Belsham, was a man of talent and literature, though 
 not a popular preacher. Having studied at the dissenting aca- 
 demy at Daventry, Mr. Belsham, in 1778, became mmister of 
 a congregation of protestant dissenters at Worcester, and in 1781 
 became pruicipal in the Daventiy seminary. Ha^-ing adopted 
 miitarian views, and passing through a painful stmggle, he 
 resigned his tutorship in 1789. Immediately after he was 
 appointed resident tutor in the New College, Hackney. Jlr. 
 Belsham's mind had been gradually matm-ing, so that now, hav- 
 ing reached the age of forty, he was able to produce, on divmity 
 and metaphysics, courses of lectures, not only original, but ela- 
 borate, whence in after years he drew materials for learned 
 works, wliich are still valued by those who follow liis method, 
 and share his views. Though under instructors so able as Thomas 
 Belsham, Gilbert Wakefield, Dr. Abraham Rees, Dr. Kippis, and 
 Dr. Priestley, the Hackney institution came to an end at mid- 
 summer, 1796, not a little owing to defects in the governing 
 authorities, and to moral laxity on the part of some of the stu- 
 dents. In 1798, Mr. Belsham wrote a reply to Mr. Wilberforce's 
 Practical View of the prevailmg Systems of professed Christians, 
 and in consequence became acquainted with the duke of Graf- 
 ton. In 1802 he succeeded the Rev. John Kentish as afternoon 
 preacher at the Gravel Pit, Hackney; and in 1805 took the place 
 held by Dr. Disney, as minister of the unitarian congregation, 
 Essex Street, Strand. Here he entered on his chief sphere of 
 ministerial influence, while he employed the hours devoted to 
 study, to no small extent, in preparing for the press his work on 
 " The E\idences of Christianity," and his " Exposition of the 
 Epistles of St. Paul." At the same time he engaged in a revision 
 of the English translation of the Xew Testament. Taking as his 
 basis a translation made by Archbishop Newcome, he produced 
 what he designated " An improved Version of the New Testament," 
 which excited great attention, as if presenting the later Scriptures 
 in a unitarian aspect. The work made its appearance in 1808. 
 In the year 1811, Jlr. Belsham published his " Calm Inquiry 
 into the Scripture doctrine concerning the Person of Christ." 
 Employing his time and energies in the duties of the pulpit, and 
 in smaller publications expository of his opinions, Mr. Belsham 
 drew towards the tomb. At the age of seventy-seven he pub- 
 lished a volume of " Discourses Doctrinal and Practical," which, 
 being well received, was forthwith followed by another, having a 
 greater doctrinal tendency. In social life, Mr. Belsham and his 
 circle of friends possessed great and varied influence. Ha\ing 
 undergone an educational discipline of a liberalizing tendency, 
 they were warm as well as wise and efl'ectual friends of civil and 
 religions Uberty, at a time when, even in England, its advocacy 
 was perilous, and through Hobhouse, Holland, and other eminent 
 statesmen, contributed not a little to remove from the statute- 
 book restrictive and coercive laws, equally alien to the spirit of 
 the gospel, and discreditable to the character of the British peo- 
 ple.— J. R. B. 
 
 BELSHAM, William, brother of the preceding, a political 
 and historical writer, was born in 1753. He pubhshed the fol- 
 lowing works — " Political and Historical Essays," 1789 ; " Me- 
 moirs of the Kings of Great Britain, of the House of Bnmswick 
 Lunenburg," 179.3; "Memoirs of the Reign of George III. 
 to the Session of P:u:liament ending 1793," 1795-1801; and 
 " History of Great Britain from the Revolution to the Accession 
 of the House of Hanover," 1798. These historical works were, 
 in 180G, published together in twelve volumes, as a histoiy of 
 Great Britain to the peace of Amiens in 1802. Mr. Belsham 
 died at the age of seventy-five. — J. B. 
 
 BELSHAZZAR, the son or more probably the grandson of 
 Nebuchadnezzar, was the last monarch of the Babyluniau 
 empire. He was an arrogant, licentious, and cowardly king. 
 While his capital was besieged by the combined hosts of the 
 
 Modes and Persians under the leadership of Cpnis, he made a 
 great feast for his princes, rulers, and captains ; and in the 
 midst of the carousals, he impiously commanded the sacred 
 vessels which had been brought from the temple at Jerusalem, 
 to be placed upon the table as common drinking-cups, and he 
 himself, his wives, and his concubines drank out of them. But 
 suddenly their ill-timed mirth and jollity were changed into 
 alarm and horror; for there appeared upon the wall the likeness 
 of a human hand, which traced mysterious characters that 
 arrested every eye — " Mene, mene, tekel, upharsln." The 
 apparition struck Belshazzar with such ten'or that his counte- 
 nance was changed, the joints of his loins were loosed, and his 
 knees smote against each other. Immediately the wise men of 
 Babylon were summoned together to decypher the writing ; but 
 the letter, which is supposed to have been ancient Hebrew, or 
 what is now called Samaritan, was altogether unkno^vn to them, 
 and all their efforts were bafBed. At length Daniel was sent for, 
 and he at once recognized the words as a prophecy of the death 
 of the king and of the overthi'ow of his kingdom. Nor was the 
 fulfilment long delayed, for Belshazzar was slain that same 
 night, and Babylon passed into the possession of the Medes and 
 Persians. There are some considerable difficulties connected 
 with this account of Belshazzar. Berosus, as appears from 
 Josephus, Contr. Apion. i. 20, mentions that the last king ot 
 Bab3'lon was named Nabonnedus, that when Cyrus entered his 
 territories at the head of an anny, he marched out to meet him 
 and was defeated, that he then took refuge in the stronghold of 
 Borsippa, but soon afterwards smTendered to the conqueror, was 
 kmdly treated by him, and allowed to reture to Caramania, where 
 he died. Hence it has been commonly supposed that Belshaz- 
 zar, whom Daniel represents as the last king of Babylon, nmst 
 be the same person as Nabonnedus ; and, according to this view, 
 Berosus stands in direct contradiction to Daniel, and also to 
 Xenophon, who agi-ees with Daniel — Cyrop. vii. 5, 30. This 
 discordancy has been the som'ce of much pei-plexity, and 
 various solutions of it have been proposed. But some new 
 intei-preters have recently risen from the gi-ave of ages, that 
 promise to thi-ow much light upon this and other obscure points. 
 Colonel Rawlinson mentions, that among the monuments of the 
 reign of Nabonnedus dug up from the ruins of Babylon and 
 Borsippa and Southern Chaldea, he found several perfect cyhn- 
 ders, whose inscriptions bear that the eldest son of Nabonnedus 
 was named Belsharezar. Foui- of these cylinders exhibit an ac- 
 comit of the temple of the moon at Ur of the Chaldees, and the 
 architectural description concludes with a prayer for the welfai'e 
 of the king's son, Belsharezer. From this substitution of the 
 name of the king's son for that of the king himself, contrarj- to 
 all ancient usage. Colonel Rawlinson infers that the son must 
 have been assumed by the father during his own lifetime as joint 
 occupant of the thi-one. If this be a well-gi-ounded inference, 
 then the statements of Berosus are in perfect hannony vdth 
 those of Daniel. The fiUher might meet Cyrus in the field, and 
 then retii-e to Caramania; while the son, Belshazzar or Bel- 
 sharezer, might remain in the city, and meet the doom recorded 
 in holy writ. — W. L. 
 
 BELSUNCE or BELZUNCE, an ancient and illustrious 
 family of Lower NavaiTe. The first of its members of whom 
 we have any account is Roger de Belsunce, who lived in 
 the twelfth century. In 1154 he added the viscountship of 
 Macaie, in the country of Labour, to his family honours. Among 
 his descendants were Guillaume-Amauld, grand chamberlain to 
 Charles le Mauvais, king of Navarre ; Garci-Arnauld, IL, who 
 in 1384 signed with other lords the treaty of jjcace between 
 France and Spain ; Jean IV., counsellor of Jeanne de Nav:me, 
 mother of Henry IV.; and Jean V., a court favomnte in the 
 reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. The celebrated archbishop 
 of Marseilles, Hcniy- Francis -Xavier de Belsunce, was also 
 descended from a branch of the same family. — G. M. 
 
 BELSUNCE, Akmaxd, vicomte de, a French general, bom 
 Gth Febraary, 1722; died at Saint Domingo, 4th August, 17G4. 
 He entered the service in 1740, took pai-t in the campaign of 
 Bohemia from 1741 to 1743, served in Flanders in 1744, assisted 
 at the battle of Fontenoy in 1745, at that of Lawfcldt in 1747, 
 and at the siege of JIaestricht in 1748. In 1749 he was made 
 colonel of a regiment of infantry, and in 1759 major-general of 
 the amiy. During the interval he had distingiushed himself in 
 a great number of battles, in two of which, Hastcmbeck and 
 Lutzelbcrg, he was severely wounded. In 1761 he was nomi-
 
 BEL 
 
 492 
 
 BEL 
 
 nated niaroclial de camp, and in 17G2 he was appointed to the 
 command of the troops of Saint Domingo, of which he was sub- 
 sequently named governor and lieutenant-general. This office 
 he afterwards exchanged for that of governor of the town and 
 citadel of Belle-Isle.-^G. M. 
 
 BELSUNCE DE CASTEL-MORON, Henri -Fran^ois- 
 Xaviek de, a French Jesuit, born, 1671; died, 1755. Soon 
 after entering the order, he became grand \-icar of Agen ; 
 and in 1709 was made bishop of Marseilles. During the 
 continuance of the plague, by which that city was desolated in 
 1720-21, the philanthropic exertions of Belsunce wore such as 
 to draw on him the admhation of all Eui-ope. In 1723 the 
 king nominated him bishop of Laon, and in 1729 archbishop 
 of Bordeaux, both of which offices he declined to accept. His 
 excessive attachment to his order led liun into some acts of per- 
 secution, by which his fame was afterwards tarnished. — G. 5L 
 
 BELTEMAN was of German extraction, and lived at the 
 beginning of the present century. He was a writer of elegant 
 love songs, in imitation of Bougaria, whose style, however, he 
 seldom equalled. 
 
 BELVEDERE, Andrea, was bom at Naples in 1646, and 
 died in 1689. He excelled in painting flowers, fruit, and small 
 vegetables. — W. T. 
 
 BELYARD, Sision, a French poet, who made himself remark- 
 able for the active part he took in " the league," composing in 
 1592 a tragedy called "Le Guyzicn," in which he assailed Heniy 
 of Valois. He also wrote an eclogue with the same object. 
 Tliese works are read rather as " curiosities of literatiu-e," than 
 for then- merit. — J. F. W. 
 
 BELZOXI, Giovanni Battista (Anglice, John Baptist), 
 was bom at Fadua in the year 1778 ; but he resided so long in 
 England, and was so much assisted by English capital in his 
 travels and explorations, that a certain portion of the glory 
 attached to his name may be justly said to belong to this 
 country. About Padua, and far and near, in the whole plain of 
 Lombardy, he saw a splendid system of irrigation — the best, 
 perhaps, in the world — carried out ; and from an early period he 
 turned his attention to hydraulics and hydraulic machines. It 
 was with the view of erecting hydi-aulic engines for the pasha, 
 JIahomet Ali, to assist in imgating the country, that he first 
 visited Egypt, where he was destined to secm'e for himself a 
 name that wLU be long remembered among mankind. But, as 
 Sallust says, " we must begin from the beginning." 
 
 When yet a child, Belzoni set out from home, taking with him 
 a younger brother, Antonio, with no other idea in his head than 
 that they would travel " to seek their fortune." In this early 
 attempt at travelling, Belzoni had a foretaste of what he was to 
 experience in after hfe, and he had occasion to learn that human 
 natiu-e is, on the whole, a mixed quantity. After wandering 
 some miles out of Padua, a pedlar — and let it be remembered 
 that the pedlar's 
 
 " Hard service deemed debasing now, 
 Gained merited respect in simpler times;" — 
 
 overtook them on the road, and asked if they were going to 
 Ferrara. Young Belzoni had never even heard of Ferrara, but 
 he readily answered, " Yes ; " and the ituierating merchant 
 invited the boys to take a ride in his cart. He not merely 
 carried them so far on their way, but, like a good Samaritan, he 
 supplied them with food and lodging. Next morning the young 
 travellers pursued their jom-ney, their kind friend being detained 
 on business in the village where they slept ; and being overtaken 
 by an empty carriage, they were bold enough to ask the driver 
 to give them a ride to Ferrara. On amving there, the diiver 
 demanded a fare ; but the poor boys had nothing to give, and 
 the driver paid himself by stripping them of half their clothes. 
 Except for the lamentation of Antonio, it is probable that master 
 John would ha\'e wandered farther from home ; but the younger 
 brother insisted on their returning, and they began, accordingly, 
 " homeward to plod theu' weaiy way," forty miles, back to 
 Padua. Such was the first of the " mony a weary fit" that 
 Belzoni was bom to travel. 
 
 The father of Belzoni was by trade a barber, and John was 
 brought up to the same business. When eighteen years of age he 
 determined to visit Rome, to which city his family originally 
 belonged, although he was born in Padua ; and it is believed tliat 
 he carried on business as a barber and hair-dresser for some 
 time with considerable success. Indeed, he was getting on so 
 prosperously, that he had the courage to propose marringe to a 
 
 young Roman damsel ; but she flatly refused the offer, and drove 
 the yoimg barber to — a monastery ! He became a capuchin monk 
 and was busy boring an artesian well when the French army, under 
 Napoleon, entered " the eternal city," in the year 1798. The 
 monks were soon dispersed, and Belzoni had to renew the battle 
 of life, and again set out on his travels. He still flattered himself 
 that he had something worth showing in hydraulic science, and 
 he made the best of his way to Holland, expecting to find patrons 
 in the country where " the highways and bjnvays" are all canals. 
 The phlegmatic Dutch paid no attention to the offers of the 
 engineer from the valley of the Po, and Belzoni, hoping better 
 things of England, bade farewell to Holland, and cast in his lot 
 with us. Nor had he any reason to repent it. For, though 
 England did not adopt his hydraulic inventions, she gave the 
 adventm-ous Paduan a home, where he spent many happy years; 
 she gave him a wife, who was the faithful companion of all his 
 wanderings; and she gave him kind patrons, who enabled him 
 to gratify the craving instinct for travel, by which he had been 
 actuated from a child. It was in 1803 that he came to this 
 country, and he had not been long in it before he united hunself, 
 as has been already indicated, to a daughter of the land. The 
 English were slow to appreciate the merit of his machines, and 
 to procure subsistence, he was obliged to exhibit on the streets 
 feats of bodily strength and agility. It was in this way that 
 the young Paduan, the fellow-townsman of Livy, was occu- 
 pied — lifting enonnous weights, jumping from a table over the 
 heads of twelve men, &c. — when he attracted the notice of a 
 gentleman of the name of Salt, with whose fortune Belzoni's 
 was destined to be aftenvards so closely united. Mr. Salt joined 
 the gaping crowd in the streets of Edinbm-gh, to see the wonder- 
 ful mountebank; and when, at the end of the perfonnance, the 
 plate was sent round for coppers, he put a silver coin into the 
 hands of the fair collector — none other than Mrs. Belzoni. The 
 wife re])orted the circumstance to her husband, and he carae to 
 thank Mr. Salt in propi'ia persona. Mr. Salt immediately 
 recognized him as an Italian, and he spoke to Belzoni in his own 
 tongue. This opened the exile's heart at once. He soon gave 
 his benefactor the story of his life up to this pomt, nearly as we 
 have repeated it ; and it is scarcely too much to say, that they 
 " swore eternal friendship on the instant," though neither was a 
 Frenchman, ilr. Salt brought Belzoni and his wife to London, 
 and procured for them an engagement at Astley's theatre. A 
 piece entitled, the Twelve Labours of Hercules, was specially 
 prepared for the Paduan Goliath ; and Mr. Salt soon had the 
 pleasure of seeing his humble friend Belzoni appear on the stage, 
 carrying twelve men on his aiins and shoulders, while his little 
 wife, dressed out as Cupid, stood at the top of all, waving a tiuy 
 red flag. Belzoni retained this engagement for several years, 
 and as his salary was liberal, he was able to save a little money. 
 The same " extravagant and erring spirit" as had carried Belzoni 
 to Ferrara, when a child, was still strong within him ; and in 
 1812 he set out on his travels — the travels that were to form 
 the grand feature of his life, and Ijy which he was to seciu:e a 
 niche in the temple of f;une. He first landed at Lisbon, and 
 there he soon procui-ed an engagement in one of the principal 
 theatres, to enact the part of Samson, in a scriptural piece 
 prepared expressly for him. From Lisbon he went to ^Mad.rid, 
 where he sustained the same character with equal applause. 
 In this way he collected a pretty large sum of money, and he 
 determined to sail for Malta, and finally for Egypt, where his 
 old friend, Mr. Salt, was English consul ; his leading idea being, 
 as already indicated, to induce the pasha to adopt a new hydrau- 
 lic machine for raising the waters of the Nile! Mr. Salt, who 
 resided in Alexandria, gave Belzoni a letter of recommendation 
 to Mr. Baghos, interpreter to JIahomet Ali at Cairo ; and, after 
 the necessaiy diplomatic delay, the wandering Italian was com- 
 missioned to construct his grand engine in the pasha's gardens, 
 attached to the seraglio. Belzoni undertook that the new wheel 
 shoidd raise as much water with the labour of one ox, as the old 
 machine did with the laboiu" of four oxen ; and notwithstanding 
 the badness of the material supplied him, and the inferior 
 workmen, whose sendees alone he could command, he finally 
 accomplished what he had undertaken. The Ai'abs, however, 
 pretended to be greatly disappointed with the result, and they 
 sagely pronounced the machine worth nothing, because it did 
 not inundate the country in an hour. By way of practical joke, 
 the pasha ordered fifteen men to get into the place of the ox, 
 and see what they could do ; and, imfortnnntely, a young L'ish
 
 BEM 
 
 493 
 
 BE.M 
 
 lad that Belzoni had taken out witli liim, joined the company. 
 When the wheel began to move, the Arabs took fright, and ran 
 off, leaving the son of Erin to stiTiggle v>'ith the wheel, loaded 
 ■n-ith wat-er, as best he might. His leg was broken in the 
 struggle, and the accident was readily construed into an omen 
 against the innovation. Slahomet Ali paid Belzoni for this 
 wheel, but gave him no further encouragement ; and he had 
 nothing for it but to retrace his steps to Alexandiia, and place 
 himself in communication with his old patron, Mr. Salt. 
 
 Belzoni remained in Egypt for about five years, and among his 
 achievements may be named the removal of the colossal head of 
 what was called the Young Jlemnon. After a scries of difficul- 
 ties, which we cannot here recount, Belzoni succeeded in conveying 
 the head to Alexandiia, whence it was shipped to England, and 
 it may now be seen in the British JIuseum. He next effected 
 an entrance into one of the pyramids of Ghizeh. He explored 
 the tombs of the Egyptian Idngs at Beban-el-Molouk, m the 
 vicmity of the ancient city of Thebes. He discovered the 
 entrance of this celebrated temple, and found chambers richly 
 adorned with beautiful paintings and hieroglyphics. 
 
 Belzoni also penetrated into Nubia, as far as the second cataract 
 of the Nile, where he discovered and reopened the great temple 
 of Abousambul, or Ipsambul. This temple is cut in the side of 
 a mountain, and the front of it was so much encumbered by the 
 accumulated sand, that only the upper part of it was visible. 
 In 1819 he returned to Europe, and, visiting his native town, 
 he was received with great honours. He presented the Paduans 
 with two lion-headed statues, which were placed in a conspicuous 
 station m the palace of justice. To show the interest they took 
 in the fame of theu- fellow-citizen, the Paduans caused a medal 
 to be struck, bearing on one side a representation of the statues 
 in question, and on the other, an mscription recording Belzoni's 
 principal researches and discoveries. In 1820 Belzoni published 
 " A narrative of the operations and recent discoveries within 
 the pj'ramids, temples, tombs, and excavations in Egypt and 
 Nubia ; and of a joui-ney to the coast of the Red Sea, m search 
 of the ancient Berenice ; and another to the oasis of Jupiter 
 Amnion." 
 
 In 1821 Belzoni exhibited at the Egyptian hall, in Piccadilly, 
 a model of the tomb which he had explored near Thebes, 
 f-icsimilcs of the paintings on the walls of one or two of the 
 ■ pulchral apartments, and other curiosities which he had 
 'iiUected in Egypt. This exhibition attracted much public 
 attention, and it was eminently successful in a pecuniary point 
 of view. But the old spirit soon revived, and Belzoni was again 
 i'iipelled to travel. This time his destmation was Timbuctoo, 
 ■lit he never reached it. He was seized with dysentery at Gato, 
 .11 the Bight of Benin, and rested from his labours on the 3d of 
 December, 1823, aged forty-ilve. When dying, he intrusted 
 the captain of the vessel in which he came to Benin with a large 
 amethyst, to be given to his wife ; and he also wrote her a letter, 
 bidding the faithful companion of his travels an affectionate 
 farewell. A statue of him was erected at Padua on the 4th of 
 July, 1827, and while his name is more particularly treasured 
 by his immediate counti7mcn, it is held in esteem by all man- 
 kind. He exhibited a ghoul-like talent for bringing to light the 
 secrets of the gi-ave, and he was the first and not the least effi- 
 cient explorer of Egj-ptian antiquities. We now probably know 
 more of ancient Egypt than Herodotus, Anthony, or even Cleo- 
 patra ever knew ; and this superior knowledge we owe, in a 
 great measure, to the extraordmary talent and indomitable 
 perseverance of Belzoni. — C. W. C. 
 
 BEM, JosEi'it DE, Polish general, Hungarian lieutenant- 
 general, and Turkish pasha, was born in 1795 at Tarnow, in 
 Austrian Poland. He studied mathematics at the university of 
 Cracow with great success ; and, still in his teens, took part in 
 Napoleon's campaign of 1812 as lieutenant, being rewarded by 
 General Rapp with the cross of the legion of honour for his 
 braveiy during the defence of the fortress of Dantzig. In 1815 
 he entered the Polish anny, became captain in 1819, professor 
 of the school of artillery at Warsaw, and director of the chemical 
 laboratory for the manufacture of rockets. His patriotic senti- 
 ments, however, which he never concealed, soon brought him 
 mto difficulties with the Russian authorities; he was dismissed, 
 put before a court-martial, and imprisoned — at last confined to 
 live in a small provincial town under police superintendence. 
 His reputation as an author on military subjects served to smooth 
 the temuer of tl;e Grand-duke Constantine, viceroy of Poland, in 
 
 regard to Bern, and he was allowed to retire to the estates of 
 Count Potocki, where he occupied himself with literary labours, 
 and the technical superintendence of the count's husbandry. At 
 the outbreak of the Polish revolution, he hastened to Warsaw, 
 took a brilliant part in the battles of Iganie, Ostrolenka, and 
 before Warsaw, where he gained the rank of general. He held 
 with his artillery the bridge of Praga on the 7th of September 
 against fearful odds, protecting the retreat of the Polish army. 
 After the fall of Warsaw he went to Prussia, remained up to 
 1832 in Germany, and tried to form a Pohsh legion in 1833 in 
 France, for the senice of Don Pedro of Portugal. Disgusted 
 with the violent party dissensions among his fellow-refugees, 
 which prevented the formation of the legion, he henceforth kept 
 aloof from politics, interested himself in mnemonics, and tra- 
 velled extensively in Portugal, Spain, Holland, Belgium, and 
 England. In 1848 Bern retm-ned to Lemberg in Gallicia ; and 
 engaged by a Hungarian gentleman to Hungarian service, he 
 came to Vienna in October, just after the successful insurrec- 
 tion. The command of the Viennese forces was offered to, and 
 accepted by him ; but, surrounded by officers who incessantly 
 plotted how to get safely out of the danger, he could not make 
 any use of the devoted gallantly of the great bulk of the popula- 
 tion. In fact, the Vienna insuiTection was made exclusively by 
 tlie lower classes and the students; the higher and middle classes, 
 who kept aloof in the beginning, slept only in and took the 
 lead in order to deliver the town up to Prince Windishgratz. 
 Bem's surrender was one of the conditions of the capitulation of 
 Vienna ; but the general succeeded in eluding the vigilance of 
 the Austrians, and safely arrived at Presburg in the Hungarian 
 camp, preceded by other Vienna fugitives, who tried to throw 
 the blame of the failme on the gallant foreigner, whilst party 
 dissensions blinded a young Pole so much that he made an 
 attempt on Bem's Ufe, and lodged a bullet in his cheek-bone. 
 Such being the circumstances, Kossuth and the committee of 
 public safety did not ventm-e to avail themselves of Bem's ser- 
 vices at once ; but when in December the news arrived at Pestli 
 that the Transylvanian amiies were defeated, and the princi- 
 pality lost, the Polish general got the command of about ten 
 thousand ill-disciplined troops, demoralized by defeats. He 
 arrived on the 15th in the camp ; and, within ten days, defeated 
 the Austrians in three battles, and took the capital of the pro- 
 vmce. His victorious progress, however, was checked on the 21st 
 of January, 1849, by a defeat at Hermanstadt ; he had to 
 retreat towards Hungary, losing nearly all his artillery, continu- 
 ally harrassed by the Austrians. On the 7th of February he 
 was reinforced, and defeated the enemy at the bridge of Piski, 
 advanced again towards Hermanstadt, was once more beaten at 
 ]\Iediasli on the first days of March ; but whilst the Austrians 
 concentrated their forces in order to crush him completely, he 
 passed between their armies, and, boldly advancing to Herman- 
 stadt, surprised and put to flight the Russian garrison, and so 
 completely bewildered the Austrian generals, that they precipi- 
 tately evacuated the principafity. On the IStli of March, Colonel 
 Ihasz expelled the Russians from the defiles of Vorostorony, 
 and completed the reconqucst of Transylvaiiia. Bern tried now 
 to pacify the Wallachian population, who had risen in a servile 
 war against the landlords, checked the continual Austrian endea- 
 vours to penetrate into the country from Wallachia, reorganized 
 his army, recruited his health, and proposed a most daring plan 
 of campaign through Southern Hungary to Croatia and the 
 outlying provinces of Austria, which, however, was rejected by 
 the government, as it involved a greater outlay of money than 
 could be aflurdcd. In June the Russian armies advanced into 
 Trans3'lvania, and their superior numbers, tliough several times 
 checked by Bem's strateg}', overpowered the Hungarian troops 
 within six weeks. Bern went to Hungary, took the command 
 of the Southern army, was womided and defeated at Tcmesvar 
 on the 9th of August, and had, after Georgey's treason at Vilngos, 
 to cut his way to Turkey. There he embraced the faitli of Mo- 
 hammed, took the name of Amurat Pasha, and was sent to 
 Aleppo, where he died in Decembor, 1850, up to liis last breath 
 occupied with plans for the reorganization of the Turkish army. 
 His worth is attested by the unbounded popularity he enjoyed 
 in Hungary and Transylvania. Nobody found fault with him 
 but the minister of finances, who was often unable to provide for 
 the generosity with >vliich the general rewarded his army after 
 every success. Bold in victory, and still bolder after a defeat, 
 he out-generalled the Austrians ; his agreeable manners capti-
 
 BEM 
 
 494 
 
 BEN 
 
 vated his officers, and his clemency towards the prisoners and 
 the inliabitants of stormed towns raised the fame of his gallantr}-. 
 His habits were pure, simple, temperate, and industrious ; his 
 death was a great blow to the Turks, since his genius might 
 have turned the fortunes of the Asiatic campaigns during the 
 Russian war. — F. P., L. 
 
 BEMBO, PiETRO, cardinal, one of the most celebrated writers 
 of his age, bom in 1470, was the son of a Venetian senator. 
 His education was commenced at Florence, where his father 
 resided some time as ambassador, was continued at Venice and 
 Messma, and completed at Padua. An adept in all fashionable 
 accomplishments, as well as a youth of versatile talent, he was 
 early introduced to the life of a corn-tier, which, even after he had 
 taken orders in the church, he seems to have enjoyed with peculiar 
 relish. His first publication was a literary essay, entitled 
 " Gli Asolani," in which, consultmg the humour of his times, the 
 young author discussed the whole question of love, discriminating 
 in the nicest manner, and in the choicest language, every phase 
 of the passion, and particularly commending that phase without 
 passion, for his good opinion of which Plato has suffered so much 
 at the hands of the wits. In 1498 he accompanied his f;xther to 
 Ferrara, and was introduced to the reigning duke, Alfonso d'Este. 
 At the court of that prince, who married in 1502 the famous 
 Lucretia Borgia, he was always a welcome visitor. In 1506 he 
 went to Urbino, where, patronized by the duke Guidobaldo of 
 Montefeltro, and his wife, Elizabeth Gonzaga, he lived six years, 
 applying himself chiefly to poetical studies, in which he had at 
 lea.st so much success as to be reputed an excellent imitator of 
 the diction of Petrarch. After the death of his patron, which 
 was closely followed by that of the duchess, he left Urbino, but 
 not until he had paid an affectionate tribute to the memory of 
 both, in his " De Guido Ubaldo Fenetrio deque Elisabetha Gon- 
 zaga Urbini Ducibus." His next residence was at Rome, wliither 
 he accompanied, in 1512, his friend JuUan de Medici, brother of 
 Leo X. That pontiff, shortly after his election, appointed Bembo 
 his private secretaiy, with a salary of £600 a year. His friends 
 dming his stay at Rome were the noble and the famous of Italy, 
 such as Raphael, and the poets Tebaldeo and Accolti. His man- 
 ners also were those of Italian celebrities of that period, and 
 somewhat gay for a churchman. After the death of Leo he 
 retired to Padua, where he produced a work on the Italian lan- 
 guage, entitled " Prose," and laboured by command of the Council 
 of Ten on a continuation of Sabclhco's History of Venice, which 
 was published after his death with the title, " HLstoriaj Venetae 
 Libri XII." Paul III. raised him to the rank of cardinal in 
 1539, and gave him in succession the bishoprics of Gubbio and 
 Bergamo. His later years were dignified by an exhibition of the 
 virtues and munificence of a prince of the church. He died in 
 1547. His works collected into 4 vols., folio, at Venice, in 1729, 
 consist of poems, letters, polemical and critical essays, and the 
 publications above enumerated. His merits as a writer are 
 chiefly those of a pmist in style. He composed Latin in sen'ile 
 imitation of Cicero, verse in the manner of Petrarch, and prose 
 in the style of Boccaccio, all three w-ith admirable ingenuity and 
 taste ; but his claims as a thinker, and, so far as invention is con- 
 cerned, as a literary artist, cannot be rated veiy high. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEME, the assassin of Coligny (see that name), was born of 
 a Bohemian family, probably at Wirtembcrg. The pseudonym 
 under which he is notorious, was given him on account of his 
 Bohemian origin, his real name being Chaules Dianowitz. 
 He was brought up by the Duke of Guise. Shortly after the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew's day, he was taken prisoner by 
 the protestants at Saintonge, and, attempting to escape from 
 confinement, was executed on the .spot. — J. S., G. 
 
 BE.MMEL, J. Geokge, son of W. van Bemmel, a battle 
 painter, born in 16G9 ; died in 172.3. — W. T. 
 
 BEMMEL, W. VAX, a Dutch landscape painter, born at 
 Utrecht in 1G30, and died in 1703. He studied under Sachts- 
 leven, went to Rome, and travelled to Nuremberg, where he 
 tan-icd some time. His gi-eat haunt seems to have been that 
 much-tonnented place, Tivoli, which he went to invent from, 
 not to reportray. His colour was thought too livclv, fresh, and 
 green for that hard-baked age of landscape. His trees are stiff, 
 Dutch, and formal, but his skies are clear and warm, and his 
 distances finely graduated. He etched several plates, and seems 
 to have been an industrious man, as far as his light went. — W. T. 
 
 BEN, Sev, bom in Poland in 1763. Being a Jew, he 
 devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, m which he became dis- 
 
 tinguished. \Vlren only twenty-one years of age, he published a 
 commentary on the " Emunot Vedeul," and not long aftenvards 
 a Hebrew grammar and subsequently a lexicon of the same lan- 
 guage ; both these are highly esteemed. He also wrote several 
 other works. Excessive application to study shortened the life of 
 this eminent scholar, and he died at Vienna in 1811. — J. F. W. 
 
 BENABEN, Louis-Guillaume-Jacques-Maeie, a French 
 publicist, born at Toulouse in 1774 ; died in 1831. He at first held 
 several administrative posts under the government. He was after- 
 wards professor of rhetoric and philosophy at the colleges of 
 Orleans, Carcassone, and Pontivy. He subseqiiently became a 
 journalist in Paris. Author of " Letters of Phalaris, Tyrant of 
 Agrigentum," Paris, 1803. — J. G. 
 
 BENAERT, Nicas, bom 1593 , died 1663 ; imitated the 
 somew'hat coarse da.sh of Snuyders. — W. T. 
 
 BENAGLIO, GiROLAMO, a painter of Verona, in the foui- 
 teenth century, of a hard, dry, and stiff manner. — W. T. 
 
 BENAIAH, son of Jehoiada, one of the officers of Da\'id king 
 of Israel, lived in the first half of the eleventh centm-y before the 
 cln-istian era. He was remarkable for his deeds of valour, some 
 of which are recorded in the first book of Chronicles, chap, xi., 
 22 and 23. 
 
 BENALCAZAR or BELARCAZAR, Sebastiex, an enter- 
 prising Spanish adventurer, bom about the end of the fifteenth 
 century, at Benalcaz in Estramadura; died at Popayan in 1550. 
 His father was a woodcutter, and he himself was at first engaged 
 in that humble employment. When yet a youth he quitted the 
 paternal roof, and setting out without any definite object in mw, 
 arrived at Seville, where he was permitted to take part in the 
 expedition then about to proceed to the New World under Pedra- 
 rias, the newly-appointed governor of Darien. Arriving at the 
 isthmus of Panama, he soon excited the admiration and astonish- 
 ment of his companions, not only by his daring and adventurous 
 spirit, but by his generous and disinterested behaviom*. At this 
 period he had scarcely attained his twentieth year, yet he attracted 
 the notice of the followers of PizaiTO, and took a most active and 
 energetic part with them in their first conquests. After an 
 extraordinary career of victory, during wliich he underwent 
 incredible toil, and displayed astonishing corn-age and ability, he 
 took possession of the kingdom of Quito in the name of Spain. 
 The cruelties, however, wliich for some years afterwards deso- 
 lated that unhappy country, were not directly attributable to 
 Benalcazar, but rather to his lieutenant, Ampudia. Quitting 
 Quito, Benalcazar penetrated into previously unknown regions 
 stretching towards the north, where, according to report, there 
 existed a rich country, governed by a chief named Popayan. 
 Surmounting every intervening obstacle, he soon reached thut 
 country, and at the head of a deteiTnined band of Spaniards, in 
 a few weeks brought it imder subjection. Abandoning the 
 country of Popayan he returned to Peru, and again commenced 
 a career of discovery. After traversing vast forests, undergoing 
 inconceivable toil, and suffering unparalleled privations, he 
 aiTived at a beautiful and fertile country, subsequently known 
 under the name of New Granada, where he found, to the asto- 
 nishment of himself and his companions, three Spanish disco- 
 verers, who had arrived there a considerable time before them. 
 Nor were they less surprised to find among the inhabitants of 
 these regions a far higher degi-ee of ci\'ilization than they had 
 observed either in Mexico or Peru. After maldng many impor- 
 tant explorations Benalcazar returned to Popayan, when, by a 
 decree dated 1538, he was appointed governor of that province. 
 His first care was to divide the country which he had conquered 
 into fourteen sections, and to appoint over each, one of his com- 
 panions as lieutenant. He adniLiistered the affairs of his httle 
 state with rare ability and moderation ; but he was doomed to 
 experience the fate of most men who have risen to eminence 
 and power by the force of their talents. La Gasca, on his 
 arrival, submitted the conduct of Benalcazar to a severe scnitiny, 
 and compelled liiin to resign his office. Finding the fniit of 
 so many years of anxious toil thus cruelly wrested from him, 
 Benalcazar died of a broken heart, just as he was preparing to 
 return to Europe to seek redress. — G. JI. 
 
 BENAMATI, Guido Ubaldo, bom at Gubbio, of a noblo 
 f imily, at the beginning of the seventeenth century. He studied 
 at Panna, where his father held a high dignity at the court. At 
 the age of thirteen, he composed two pastorals, which gained for 
 him the protection of Duke Ranuccio Farnese, who a few years 
 afterwards made him his poet laureate. The dukes Francis and
 
 BEN 
 
 495 
 
 BEN 
 
 Frederick of Urbino honoured him with their friendship, and he 
 enjoyed the esteem and aftection of all the literary men of his 
 time. Tlie works left by this eminent man amount to twenty, 
 amongst which the most esteemed are — " L'Alvida," a pastoral 
 fable; " U Canzoniero ; " "La Vittoria Navale," an epic poem. 
 He died at Gubbio in 1663.— A. C. JI. 
 
 BENASCHI, Giovanni Battista, was bom in Piedmont 
 in 1634. He studied at Eome, where he was knighted, under 
 Pietro del Po, a pupil of Domenicheno. He either studied under 
 Lafranc, or at least copied and rivalled that pupU of the Caracci, 
 whose style, manner, and touch he imitated. He was a rapid 
 and inventive designer. He died in 1G88. — W. T. 
 
 BENAVIDES, Alfonso, a Spanish Franciscan, author of an 
 " Account of the Treasures discovered in Jlesico," lived in the 
 first half of the seventeenth centuiy. 
 
 BENAVIDES (m Latin BENAVIDIUS), SLvnco, an emi- 
 nent Italian jurist, professor in the university of Padua, was bom 
 in that city in 1489, and died in 1582. His celebrity brought 
 him tempting oiFers from Pope Paul III., and from the Academy 
 of Bologna, but nothing could induce him to leave his native city. 
 He was raised to the dignity of count palatine by Charles V. in 
 1545, and knighted by Pope Paul IV, in 1560. Besides his 
 ■ ifessional treatises, he published some literary works of con- 
 derable merit. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENAVIDES, Vicente, son of an ofBcer, was bom in 
 Barbary in 1637. He studied under Rizi, and painted house 
 frescos, and scenes for the Buenretiro theatre. Charles II., in 
 1691, appointed him to the banen honour of coiu't painter, unsal- 
 iried. He died in 1703. — W. T. 
 
 BENBOW, John, one of those illustrious men, who by their 
 ;iduct and bravery, laid the foundation of England's naval 
 premacy, was bom about 1650, of an ancient and honourable 
 .use in Shropshire. His family suffered for their loyalty to 
 tlie crown during the civil wars, and his father died when he 
 ".^as very young, so that he had no provision but his profession 
 as a seaman, in which be was so successful, that at thiiiy he 
 w:is master and part owner of a merchant ship, called the Benhow 
 Frigate, which traded to the ilediten-anean. While commanding 
 this vessel he was attacked by a Sallee rover, whose men boarded 
 las ship, but were bravely beaten out, leaving behind thirteen of 
 their number dead, whose heads Beubow ordered to be cut off, 
 and thro\vn into a tub of pork pickle. On his arrival at Cadiz, 
 I negro servant carried the heads ashore in a sack. Benbow 
 I'used to show the contents to the custom-house officers, who 
 ">k him before the magistrates. These functionaries were 
 irtled at the sight of the men's heads, and reported the cu-cum- 
 iinces to the court of Madrid. Charles ll., king of Spain, 
 quested to see the English captain who had so bravely defended 
 iuiself. Benbow was received ■s^'ith great respect at the court, 
 id a letter was written in his behalf to King James, who upon 
 s return gave him a ship, and thus he was introduced to the 
 •yal navy. After the Revolution he was constantly employed 
 1 uising in the channel, protecting the English trade, and dis- 
 'ssing that of the French. He displayed the most intrepid 
 lourage in bombarding the French forts, going in person in his 
 boat to encourage the engineers. His vigour recommended him 
 to King William, who was a good judge of men, and he was 
 ily promoted to a flag, and trusted with the blockade of 
 I lunkirk. In 1695 he was thus employed when the famous 
 Jean Bart had the good luck to escape him with nine sail of 
 ships. Rear-Admiral Benbow followed liim as well as he could, 
 and soon heard that Bart had taken a large fleet of Dutch mer- 
 chantmen, because the Dutch would not take his advice. On 
 other occa.sions a similar neglect on the part of the government 
 at home promoted the interests of the French. After the peace 
 of Ryswick, King William sent him to protect the colonies of the 
 West Indies, which were in a defenceless condition. He was 
 also desired to watch the Spanish galleons. Anived in the West 
 Indies he overawed the Spaniards by his bravery, and then went 
 in quest of Kidd, a celebrated pirate. On returning to England 
 he was much consulted by William III., and soon promoted to 
 the rank of vice-admiral of the blue. The politics of Europe 
 were complicated. It was necessary to take measures in order 
 to disappoint the French in theii" views upon the Spanish succes- 
 sion, and accordingly a squadron was sent to the West Indies. 
 Benbow was suggested as a proper person to iniilertakc the com- 
 mand, but William was reluctant to part from him. None else 
 were willing to undertake so arduous a post, upon which the 
 
 king said meiTily, alluding to the di'ess and demeanour of those 
 who shrank from it — '' Well then, I find we must spare our 
 beaus and send honest Benbow ! " The admiral's squadron, 
 consisting of two third and eight fourth rates, arrived at Bar- 
 badoes on the 3d November, 1701. Here he showed extraordinary 
 skill in attacking Admiral du Casse. In one engagement his 
 right leg was broken to pieces by a chain shot. As soon as it 
 was practicable, he caused himself to be carried up and placed 
 with his cradle on the quarter-deck, and continued the fight 
 until the next day. But one of his captains who owed him a 
 private gradge, persuaded the rest to retire from the battle, 
 though they had a fair opportunity of destroying the enemy's 
 whole squadron. The sturdy admiral brought them to a court- 
 martial, and they sufiered according to their deserts. Though 
 so far recovered from the fever induced by his broken leg, as to 
 be able to attend the trials of the captains who deserted Mm, 
 his health declined. He continued discharging his duties till 
 the last moment of his life. He died November 4, 1702. He 
 is one of the greatest favomites with our seamen, because he 
 was a sailor, rose by being a sailor, and was prouder of being a 
 sailor than of bearing an admiral's flag. He left behind him a 
 small fortune, and a gi-eat reputation. — T. J. 
 
 BENBOW, John, the son of the preceding, was very early 
 unfortunate, for he was shipwrecked on the coast of Madagascar 
 in the same year that his father died; where after many danger- 
 ous adventures, he was reduced to live among the natives for 
 many years ; and at last, when he least expected it, was rescued 
 by a Dutch captain out of respect for the memory of his father, 
 and brought safe to England, when his relations thought him 
 dead. He is said to have written a complete description of the 
 south part of the island of JIadagascar. He passed his last 
 days in privacy, and died without issue. — T. J. 
 
 BENCHAIM, Abraham, an Italian rabbi of the fifteenth 
 century. His edition of the bible, printed in the square charac- 
 ter, punctuated and accented, is considered the first complete 
 edition of the Hebrew text. It was published at Soncino in 
 1488. Four copies of the work are kno^Ti to exist, two at 
 Rome, one in the library of the grand-duke of Tuscany, and one 
 in that of the margrave of Durlach. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENCI, Francesco, an Italian Jesuit, bom at Aquapendente 
 in 1512 ; died in 1594. His orations and poems are commended 
 for their rich and elegant Latinity. 
 
 BENCIVENNI, Giuseppe, an Italian litterateur, bora in 
 1731 ; died in 1808. Author of a "Life of Dante," and other 
 works. 
 
 BENCOVICH, Federigo, a Dalmatian ; studied at Bologna 
 under Carlo Cignani, an eclectic, who tried to unite Guido's 
 colour and Albano's grace, of which he made an insipid whole. 
 His best work is the " Mart\Tdora of St. Andrew " at Bologna. 
 
 BENDA, Franz, a violinist, was bom at Altbenatka in 
 Bohemia, November 25, 1709, and died at Potsdam, March 7, 
 1786. He was the son of a weaver, who played on several 
 musical instruments, and the eldest of four brothers, who were 
 all, as well as their sister Anna Francisca, one of the most famous 
 singers of her time, distinguished in music. He had a beautiful 
 soprano voice, on account of which he was selected from the choir 
 of St. Nicholas at Prague, where his singing had attracted atten- 
 tion, to fill a place in the chapel .of the elector of Saxony at 
 Dresden. Being unhappy in his new situation, he asked per- 
 mission to return, but this was denied him, on account of the 
 value of his services ; after eighteen months, however, he ran 
 away, and had escaped to some distance, when he was recognized, 
 anested, and carried back to Dresden. From the fatigue of his 
 journey, or the anxiety of his situ.ation, he lost his voice, and, 
 being no longer useful, soon obtained the dismissal he desired. 
 Arrived in Prague, his voice returned to him, and he obtained an 
 engagement in the seminary of Jesuits, where his talent drew 
 general notice, and where he produced a " Salve Regina," his first 
 composition. On the final breaking of his voice, he visited his 
 family in his native village, whence he started with a p.arty of 
 itinerant muMcians to play at dances, or on what better occasions 
 he might find opportunity. Among these was Lowel, a Jew, 
 who gave him his first instraction on the violin. Soon tiring 
 of a vagabond life, he tried to establish himself at Prague, where 
 he took lessons on his instrument of Konyczek. He went at 
 nineteen, in hopes of more settled em])Ioynicnt, to Vienna, where 
 he met with Franciscello the violoncellist, from whom he learned 
 much in style and mechanism, lie found several patrons, espc-
 
 cially the Staroste Szaniowsky, who gave liim an honourable 
 engagement at Warsaw. From this he was prcfeiTed to the 
 seiTice of the king, Augustus II. of Poland, in which he remained 
 till the death of that sovereign. He hoped in Dresden to obtain 
 some new engagement, but remained without any worthy employ- 
 ment of his talent, till in 1732 he was summoned to Eupin by 
 the Prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the Great, to take 
 a place among the court musicians. Here the elder Graun was 
 chief of the orchestra, in whose violin-playing he found, if not a 
 model, a constant stimulus to improvement ; he now also liecame 
 acquainted with Quanz, the contrapuntist, with whom he studied 
 composition. He soon gained such distinction in his new situa- 
 tion, as to be easily able to procure engagements in the band for 
 his next and his youngest brother, Johann and Joseph. He is 
 remarkable as having originated a style of violin-playing, which 
 in his day was significantly described as " the singing school," 
 and is still known and honourably mentioned as " the school of 
 Bcnda ;" its pecuharity, which may be traced to his early excellence 
 as a vocalist, consists in drawing from the instrument effects of 
 expression essential to singing, audit attained the dignity of being 
 called a school, not only from his own merited success, but from 
 the popularity wliich, through his many pupils, it gained through- 
 out Germany. He wrote above a hundred solos for his instrument, 
 and many other pieces, few of which are printed ; but his viohn 
 studies are still esteemed as valuable exercises. On the death of 
 J. T. Graun in 1771, Bcnda succeeded to his appointment, which 
 he held imtil he died, in the serenity of respected age, from the 
 exhaustion of nature. He had two sons, Friedrich Willielm 
 Heinricli, bom in 1745, and Carl Hermann Ulric, bom in 1748, 
 who were both clever musicians. — G. A. M. 
 
 BENDA, Georg, a musician, second brother of the above, 
 was bom in 1721, and died in 1795. Upon the accession of 
 Frederick the Great in 1740, the prominent position Franz Benda 
 held among the king's musicians induced all his family to follow 
 him to Berlin, where Georg particularly distinguished himself as 
 a pianist and oboe player ; his natural talent for composition also 
 gained him favourable notice, and this led to his engagement in 
 1748 as kapellmeister at Gotha. Here he found a kind patron 
 in the reigning duke, who, after a while, sent him to study for a 
 time in Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Hasse and 
 Schweitzer. He had already written some sacred music, and 
 some instrumental pieces of merit, and he now produced two 
 Italian operas with success. The burning of the theatre at 
 Weimar, and the consequent migi-ation of the company to Gotha, 
 gave Benda the opportunity to witness the performances of the 
 celebrated actress, Madame Brande, which so impressed him that 
 he turned his thoughts to the combination of music with decla- 
 mation, and making them mutually illustrate each other ; he 
 accordingly wrote in 1774 " Ariane auf Naxos," a monodrama in 
 which the spoken declamation is interspersed and occasionally 
 accompanied with music; it was earlier than the production of 
 this work that Rousseau wrote his Pygmalion, a composition in the 
 same form ; but, besides that Benda had not heard of the French- 
 m.an's piece, the great superiority of his own, and its consequent 
 success, entitled him to all the praise of originating in Gennany 
 this kind of melodrama. To pass over the occasional eflective 
 introduction of accompanied speaking in operas, (such as in the 
 " Freischiitz " and " Fidelio,") the music of Meudlessohn to the 
 tragedies of Sophocles may be cited signally, as exemplifying to 
 modem experience the powerfully dramatic effect of this union of 
 the two ai-ts. Benda's "Ariane" was immediately translated 
 into French and Italian, and performed in other countries with the 
 same success as in his own. This induced his writing "Medea," 
 and subsequently "Almansorund Nadine," m thesameform, which 
 met with an equally warm reception. Jealousy of Schweitzer, 
 who had come to Gotha with the Weimar company, impelled 
 Benda to resign his office, after a sen-ice of twenty-eight years, 
 without a pension. He then went to Hamburg, and afterwards 
 to Vienna, but without any permanent appointment. He returned 
 to Gotha a few years before he died, where the duke and the 
 prince each settled a small annuity upon him. In 1781 he was 
 engaged at Paris to direct the performance of his " Ariane," and 
 it is upon this work, and the other two of the same class, tliat his 
 distinction as a musician entirely rests: for his several Gomian 
 operas, and his numerous instmmental productions, though 
 esteemed in tlieir day, had no influence on the art, and arc now 
 forgotten. His son, Fhikduicii Luuwig, born in 174G, acquired 
 some credit as a theatrical composer. — G. A. M. 
 
 BENDA, JonANN Wilhelm Andrea Otto, a German 
 miscellaneous writer, bora at Berlin in 1757 ; died at Oppeln in 
 1832. He studied law, and was employed in various magisterial 
 ofKces, pailicularly at Landshut and Oppeln. He translated 
 Shakspeare, and the poetical works of Sir Walter Scott. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENDAVID, Lazarus, a Jewish philosopher, bom at Berlin, 
 17G2; died 1832; began life as a glass-polisher; and having 
 laid by some small savings, went to study at the university of 
 Gottingen. He first cultivated mathematics with great success; 
 but being attracted by the rising fame of Kant's philosophy, was 
 led to transfer his attention to it, and to devote the rest of his 
 life to its diffusion. On returning to Berhn in 1790, he gave 
 public lectures on the " Critique of Pure Reason." He then went 
 to Vienna, and expounded Kant's system with much success; and 
 when the Austrian government had prohibited him from public 
 teaching, continued to lecture for four years to a select audience 
 in file house of the count dc HaiTach. Further persecution 
 obliging him to leave Vienna, he returned to Berlin, where he 
 still devoted his labours to the same object, and also assisted in 
 conducting a political journal during the French invasion. His 
 opinions remained pm^ely Kantian to the last. Among his nu- 
 merous works may be mentioned " Lessons on the Critique of Pure 
 Reason," Vienna, 1795, and Berlin, 1802 ; and " Lessons on the 
 Critique of Practical Reason," Vienna, 1796. — J. D. E. 
 
 * BENDEMANN, Eduard, a distinguished German painter, 
 was born at Berlin, 3d December, 1811. After a careful educa- 
 tion, he was entered a pupil at the Diisseldorf academy, under 
 W. Schadow, and as early as 1830, exhibited a picture, "Boas 
 and Ruth," which held out the hope of future excellence. Two 
 years later, his " Jlourning Jews," after Psalm 137, now in the 
 Cologne museum, at once established his reputation. His cele- 
 brity was still heightened by his " Jeremiah on the Ruins of 
 Jerusalem," 1837, an historical painting on a large scale, for 
 which a prize medal was awarded him, and wliich is now in the 
 possession of the king of Pnissia. In 1838 he was appointed 
 ])rofessor at the academy of Dresden, and there commissioned to 
 decorate the Stiindesaal, and the ball-room of the Royal palace, 
 with fresco paintings, which he executed in the highest style ot 
 art. Unfortunately, a protracted ophthalmia has checked his 
 activity. — K. E. 
 
 BENDER, Blaise Coi.omban, baron de, an Austrian 
 general, born, 1713; died, 1798. His father, though a simple 
 mechanic, gave his son an excellent education, and combined all 
 his little resources to secure admission for him as a cadet in an 
 Austrian regiment, and enable him to maintain this position in 
 a suitable manner. His good conduct soon gained him promo- 
 tion. Diuing the troubles which followed the death of Chark:j 
 VI. in 1740, Bender took part in the Silesian campaigns, and 
 in the Seven Years' war against the king of Prussia. He had 
 no higher rank than that of captain, when hi 17G3 he made the 
 acquaintance of a lady of the sovereign house of Isemburg, and 
 notwithstanding the difference of their rank, was united to her 
 in marriage. The count of Isemburg considering his house 
 degraded by such a union, strove to get the marriage annulled, 
 but the Empress Slaria Theresa decL'u-ed that she took Bender 
 under her protection, and with a view to place him more nearly 
 on a level with his high-bom spouse, created him a baron of the 
 holy empire, with the rank of major. He was subsequently 
 raised to the rank of lieutenant-general, and appointed gover- 
 nor of the fortress of Luxemburg. The misunderstanding wliich 
 had arisen between the Generals Beaulieu, Latour, and Corty, 
 led to the elevation of Bender to the rank of commander-hi- 
 cbief, while, to add greater weight to his authority, he was pre- 
 sented with the baton of field-marshal ; and though he had had 
 no share in the victories obtained over the patriots, he had the 
 vanity to quit Luxemburg and make a triumphal entry, first 
 into Namur, and afterwards into Brussels. He subsequently 
 received the honour, equally unmerited, of gi-and cordon of Maria 
 Theresa. In 1793 he returned to his post at Luxemburg, and 
 the following year, an attack having been made upon the place, 
 he was obliged, after a protracted blockade, to capitulate. Pro- 
 ceeding afcervvards to Vienna, he was appouited governor-general 
 of Bohemia— an office which his age and increasing infirmities 
 did not permit him long to exercise. — G. M. 
 
 BENDIR, Jacques Felix, a French dramatic writer, bom 
 at Paris, 1796; late banker, and member of the chamber of 
 deputies before 1848. He was one of those who introduced the 
 romantic drama. Author (in conjunction with M. Victor
 
 BEN 
 
 497 
 
 BEN 
 
 Ducange and M. Goubaux) of " Thirty Years, or the Life of a 
 Gambler," Paris, 1827-8." 
 
 BENDLOWES, Edward, was bom in the year 1C13. He 
 was the author of several poetical pieces not very remarkable for 
 talent, and was esteemed in his younger days, a great patron of 
 the poets, especially Quarlcs, Davcnant, and Payne. Some dedi- 
 cated books to his honour, and others wrote epigrams and poems 
 on him. Reduced through his own indiscretion to great want, 
 he died at Oxford, December 18, 1G86.— T. J. 
 
 BENDONSKY, Symon Syjionovich, known as the Polish 
 Theocritus, and by the Latin cognomen of Simonides, was born 
 in Galicia in 1557. He was an elegant writer, both in Latin 
 and Pohsh : in the fonner language he approached closely to the 
 poets of the best days of Italy, and yet he is now better known 
 by his pastorals in his own tongue. He died in 1629. — J. F. W. 
 
 BENECKE, Georg Friedrich, a distinguished philologist, 
 was bom at Monchsrode, in the then principality of Gottingen, 
 10th January, 17G2. He attended the gymnasia of Nordlingen 
 and Augsburg, studied at Gottingen, where he was patronized 
 by Heyne, and in due course obtained a professorship. In 1829 
 he was appointed keeper of the library. He principally devoted 
 himself to the study of the German language and literature in 
 their earlier stages. His principal works are his "Middle-German 
 Dictionarj-," completed by W. IMiiller, and his " Contributions to 
 the Knowledge of the Old-German Language and Literature," in 
 2 vols. He died at Gottingen, 21st August, 1844. — K. E. 
 
 BENEDEN, Van. See Van Beneden. 
 
 BEXEDETTI, Domenico de, an historical painter, bom in 
 Piedmont in IGIO, studied at Naples under Santafede, and at 
 Rome under that uncertain master, Guido. He died in 1678, 
 after having decorated many of the Neapolitan churches, and 
 became kno\vn chiefly by his " Pictorial History of the Virgin." 
 
 BENEDETTI, Domenico, an Itahan physician of the first 
 half of the eighteenth ccntur}', was professor of anatoiny at 
 Venice, and in 1748 became prior of the college of ph3'sicians in 
 that city. He wrote several books on medicine, some of them 
 in Latin and Italian verse, and also two dramatic works, of 
 which one, entitled " II Temistocle in Persia," was perfonned in 
 1732, and the other, " La Moda," in 1754.— W. S. D. 
 
 BENEDETTI, Giovanni Baptista, an Italian mathema- 
 tician, born at Venice ; died in 1590. His claims as a discoverer 
 ill mathematical science, although of the weightiest character, 
 have been singularly overlooked, even in his native country. He 
 was a pupil of Tartaglia, and at an early age gave evidence of 
 remarkable aptitude for scientific pursuits. In his twenty-third 
 year he pubhshed an ingenious work, " De resolutione omnium 
 lluclidis Problematum," which led to his being appointed mathe- 
 matician to the duke of Savoy. After an interval of thirty 
 years, devoted to studious research, he produced a volume of 
 what he called speculations (" J. B. Benedicti patritii Veneti 
 divcrsaram speculationum," Turin, 1585,) not a few of which 
 it is sm-prising to meet with in a work of the sixteenth centuiy. 
 Theoretical arithmetic, perspective, mechanics, proportion, dialec- 
 tics, and various subjects of physical science, are respectively 
 treated of in this remarkable production, with a skill offence in 
 assailing old opinions, and with an amount of courage and inge- 
 nuity in advancing new ones, which leave us to wonder at the 
 comparative obscurity in which its author's reputation has so long 
 fallen. For a full account of the work, the reader is referred to 
 Libri's History of Jlathematical Science in Italy. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENEDETTI, Giueio Cesare, an Italian physician and 
 jirofessor of medicine at Rome, was bom at Aquila in the king- 
 dom of Naples, and died in 1656. He left several works on 
 medical subjects, of which the earliest — " De Pepasmo sen Coc- 
 tione" — was published at Aquila in 1636; the second, " De 
 Ix)co in Pleuritide ;" the third, " Epistolaram Mcdicinalium 
 libri decem," at Rome in 1644 and 1049; and the fourth, 
 " Consultationum Mcdicinalium Opus," at Venice, in 1650. 
 
 BENEDETTI, Mattia, a painter of Reggio, disciple of 
 Talami, and follower of the Caracci. He lived about the year 
 1702. He painted chiefly fresco. — W. T. 
 
 BENEDETTO DA MAJANO, a Florentine architect of the 
 nfteenth century, who designed the Strozzi palace at Florence, 
 begun by him in 1450, but completed by Cronaca about 1500. 
 
 BENEDICT, Saint. This illustrious monk, the father of 
 Western monachism, was bom in 480 of a rich but plebeian 
 family, settled at Nursia, a town in the duchy of Spoleto. In- 
 debted to pious parents for the advantage of early and profound 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 instruction in the duties of religion, the exercise of these during 
 the period of his literary and juristic studies at Rome, nouiished 
 the activity, as well as formed the chief occuj)ation, of a spirit 
 for which the barren philosophy of the period had no consider- 
 able attractions. In his seventeenth year, resigning himself to 
 impulses of piety, which had been strengthened rather than 
 enfeebled by contact with the effete paganism and scandalous 
 vices of Roman society, he withdrew to a solitary cave near 
 Sublacum (Subiago). Here he passed three years in sohtudc 
 so guarded, that his existence was only known to the person 
 who brought him the scanty fare on which he subsisted. His 
 retreat was at length discovered by some herdsmen, and soon 
 became a place of pilgrimage to which many curious as well as 
 many devout people of the neighbourhood resorted. The enthu- 
 siasm of these rustic visitors drew him from a life of mere 
 penance and contemplation, as uresistibly as he had been driven 
 to it by disgust at the baseness of thought and manners m the 
 imperial city. He began to dispense to them religious instrac- 
 tiun, and the gi-eatest success following his ministrations, his 
 renown rapidly spread, and with it the veneration for his name 
 entertained by his immediate discijiles. He was chosen abbot 
 of a monastery in the neighbourhood, one of the disorderly reli- 
 gious establishments which, imperfectly following the rule of 
 Pachomius or that of Basil, were then endeavouring, but by 
 reason of their want of proper discipline endeavouring in vain, 
 to attain a popularity in the West similar to that enjoyed by 
 monastic institutions in the East ; with great reluctance, aris- 
 ing from apprehensions that his views of monastic rule would 
 prove extremely distasteful to the fratemity, he accepted the 
 offered dignity. A short time sufliced to con\'ince him that 
 these apprehensions were coiTCct, and that without being a 
 tyi-ant he could not be a reformer and an abbot. An attempt to 
 poison him, it is said, was the occasion of his withdrawal from 
 a society which had derived no profit from his government, but 
 the insubordination of which had taught lum his mission, that 
 of reforming, or rather establishing on a new basis, the monastic 
 system. About the year 520, he again drew about him by his 
 preaching numbers of devout persons, and selecting from among 
 them those most likely to second his views, formed them into a 
 community consisting of twelve houses, each having twehe 
 monks and an abbot. The prosperity of this colony aroused the 
 jealousy of a priest of the neighbourhood, who exerted himself by 
 every means to defame its chief and to thwart his laboiu'S. The 
 effect of this persecution was at length to expel Benedict and his 
 brethren from their settlement at Sublacum. They removed to 
 Mount Cassino, about seventy miles from Rome, in the year 528, 
 and founded there a monasteiy, which, as the prototype of almost 
 all the monastic establishments of Western Eui'ope, was destined 
 to rival in celebrity the noblest foundations of ancient or modem 
 times. All the biographers of St. Benedict remark, that at the 
 date of his removal to Mount Cassino a temple and a grove of 
 Apollo stood on its slope, and claimed the reverence of the sur- 
 rounding population — so long did paganism linger in the rural 
 districts of Italy after the cities had made havoc of its .shrhies. 
 The date of his death has been variously assigned to the years 
 542 and 543. The history of the order which bears his name 
 is an important jjart of the history of European civilization. 
 From the period when he impressed on monastic life that cha- 
 racter of activity in arts and letters, and that simplicity in 
 matters of devotion, which at the outset of his career contrasted 
 so forcibly with what was known of monkish manners in Italy 
 and elsewhere, monasteries became equally the refuge of learning 
 and piety. Admiring that result of his labours, men of all creeds 
 unite in reverencing the name of St. Benedict. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENEDICT, Biscor, an Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastic of the 
 seventh century, descended of a noble family. He was for some 
 years in the service of Oswy, king of Northmnbcrland ; but in 
 653 he determined to devote himself to a religious life, and set 
 out on a pilgiimago to Rome. After having made repeated 
 journeys to the continent, bringing with him on his return to 
 ]5ritain knowledge of ecclesiastical discipline, as well as many 
 books and relics, and after having been settled for two years in 
 the abbey of St. Peter's in the south, he at length fouiul his way 
 back to his native Northumbria. He was heartily welcomed by 
 Egfrid, the successor of his f)rmer master, who, delighted with 
 the treasures he had brought, granted him in 674 a tract of land 
 at the mouth of the Wear, where he founded a Benedictine 
 monastery. He adorned and fumished the chmxh at great 
 
 3R
 
 BEN 
 
 498 
 
 BEN 
 
 expense, bringing masons and glass mannfacturers from Gaul, 
 and himself joomeving to Rome to procure books, pictures, and 
 ornaments, having a desire that religion should appear clothed 
 in all its beauty in the midst of the rough inhabitants of his 
 native country. In 682, having received a farther grant of 
 land from King Egfrid, he built on the banks of the Tvne the 
 monastery of Girwy or Jarrow. His pious and active life came 
 to a close in 690, and he was buried in the monastery at Wear- 
 mouth ; but in the tenth century, such was the sanctity of his 
 name, his bones were purchased and tranferred to Thomey 
 abbey in Cambridgeshire. The knowledge he had acquired at 
 Rome was embodied in some works treating of monastic discip- 
 line and the church ritual. — J. B. 
 
 BENEDICT, of Aniane, Saixt, the reformer of monastic 
 discipline among the Franks, was of Gothic origin, being a son 
 of Aigulfe, count of JIaguelonne. He was bom in Languedoc in 
 750, and died in 821. His earlier years were passed at the 
 courts of Pepin and Charlemagne, but in 774 he abandoned the 
 life of a courtier, and retired to S;unt Seine, a convent of Bur- 
 gundy. He afterwards founded on the banks of the Aniane, in 
 his native province, a small monastery, in which he enforced 
 rigorously the rule of the Benedictines. The fame of the con- 
 vent growing, as the austerity of its founder and the admirable 
 subordination of its inmates became known, he was soon under 
 the necessity of enlarging it. Encouraged by this success, he 
 applied himself to the revival of discipline ia all the Prankish 
 monasric institutions, and so completely accomplished that toU- 
 some work, that the popularity of his order, long in abeyance 
 from the irregularities of its members, rose to its original height. 
 He died at a monastery founded by himself in the neighbourhood 
 of Aix la Chapelle, universally reputed the second father of the 
 Benedictines. His principal works are, " Codex Regularum" 
 and " Concordantia Regularum." — J. S., G. 
 
 BENEDICT, abbot of Peterborough in the twelfth century, 
 was originally a Benedictine monk in the monastery of Canter- 
 bury, and afterwards prior of that house. He was appointed by 
 King Henry II. to the abbacy of Peterborough in the year 1177, 
 in the place of William Waterville, who had been deposed by the 
 archbl-ihop of Canterbury. Benedict had studied at the univer- 
 sity of Oxford, was a doctor of divinity, and the personal friend 
 of Archbishop a Becket. After the death of that great prelate, 
 he wrote one, or as some say, two works, entitled " \lta Thomae 
 Cantuariensis," and the other, "Miracula Thomaj Jlartyris." 
 Leland, who mentions only one work, gives it the character of an 
 elegant performance. Bale treats it as a heap of forgeries ; "■ but 
 the severity of Bale's principles and temper," says Dr. Kippis, 
 " and his aversion to the monks, sometimes carried his representa- 
 tions of them to an excess." Bishop Nicholson, in his English 
 Historical Library, informs us that Benedict died in the vear 
 1200.— T. J. 
 
 BENEDICT, a learned Maronite, of a Syrian family named 
 Ambarach, bom in 1663 at Gusta In Phoenicia, was educated 
 at the Maronite college of Rome. Returning to the East, his 
 extraordinary eradition recommended him to the favour of the 
 bbhop of Antioch, who sent him back to Rome charged with 
 some weighty aflairs of the church. He was induced to remain 
 in Italy by Cosmo III., duke of Tuscany, who procured for him 
 a professorship in the university of Pisa. Clement XI. after- 
 wards called him to Rome to re\-ise the test of the Greek scrip- 
 tures. He died in 1742. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENEDICT, the name of fourteen popes. — BE>T.r>icT I , 
 sumamed Boxoscs, of Roman parentage, succeeded John III. 
 in the year 573. The invasion of Italy by the Lombards under 
 Alboin, four years before, had spread misery and desolation into 
 all quarters. Pa\-ia, almost the only city in north Italy which 
 resisted them, had fallen after a siege of three years. The Lom- 
 bards themselves were Arians, but had numerous pagan allies, 
 and the devastations and excesses recorded of the conquering 
 host, form a frightful chapter in history. Except Rome and 
 Ravenna, the seat of the exarchs, who governed It.aly for the 
 Byzantine emperors, the whole peninsula, as far as the Tiber, 
 spcedUy fell into their power. In the pontiiiciUe of Benedict, 
 Rome, we are told, would have been starved had it not been 
 for the care of the Emperor Justin, who sent com thither from 
 Egj'pt. Overwhelmed, according to some writers, by anxiety 
 and grief for the miseries of the Romans and the calamitous 
 condition of Italy, Benedict died in the year 577, in the fifth 
 year of his pontificate. 
 
 Benedict II., a Roman, a pious and charitable m.an, suc- 
 ceeded Leo II. in 684. He had served the church from his 
 infancy, was a lover of poverty, humble, gentle, patient, and 
 hberal. Soon after his election he received letters from the 
 Emperor Constanrine, permitting for the future the immediate 
 ordination of the pope elect, without waiting for the formal con- 
 sent of the emperor. He repaired the church of St. Peter, and 
 ornamented the church of St. Mary of the Jlartyrs, the former 
 pantheon of Marcus Agrippa. Benedict died, after a pontificate 
 of only ten months, and was canonized after his death. 
 
 Bexedict III., priest of the title or church of St. Callisttis 
 at Rome, was unanimously elected pope, on the demise of Leo 
 TV., by the clergy, nobles, people, and senate of Rome, in the 
 year 855. According to the contemporary narrative of Anas- 
 tasius, he was found pra%-ing in his church by the multitude who 
 came to inform him of his election, and was with great difficulty 
 induced to accept the greatness thus thrust upon him. An anti- 
 pope was presently set up in the person of the priest Anastasins, 
 who had been degraded by a cotmcil eighteen months before. 
 The Prankish deputies of the Emperor Louis, son of Louis le 
 Debonnaire, espoused the cause of Anastasius, and brought him 
 to Rome, where he caused Benedict to be violently despoiled of 
 his pontifical robes, to be insulted, beaten, and imprisoned. The 
 Franks, by rough and menacing language, sought to compel the 
 bishops who were in Rome to recognize Anastasitis. But they 
 all positively refused to do so, and their firmness at last induced 
 the deputies to give way. Benedict was restored, and his first 
 act was to pardon those who had supported Anastasius. Under 
 this pope, Ethelwulf, king of Wessex, visited Rome, and offered 
 to St. Peter, as the saving ran, a crown of gold and other rich 
 presents. There is a letter extant, addressed by Lupus, abbot of 
 Ferrieres, to this pope, which remarkably illustrates the process 
 by which the works of the great writers of antiquity were pre- 
 served to modem times. Lupus requests the pope to send him 
 some conmientaries of St. Jerome, Cicero de Oratore, Quintilian's 
 Institutions, and other works, promising to have them copied, 
 and to return them faithfully. Benedict died in 858, after a 
 pontificate of two years and a half. 
 
 Bexedict IV., a Roman, was elected in 900, and sat for 
 four years and a half. Very little is known respecting liis pon- 
 tificate. According to Platina, he lived a grave and exemplary 
 life in a corrupt and barbarous age, in which the see of Peter, 
 through the prevalence of ambition and bribery, was often occu- 
 pied rather than rightly filled. 
 
 Bexedict v., a Roman, was elected in May, 964, by the 
 faction of the infamous John XII. in opposition to Leo ATI!., 
 who had been elected by the cotmcil of E ime, after it had pro- 
 notmced sentence of deposition against John. The emperor, 
 Otho the Great, who had consented to the election of Leo, 
 hastened to lay siege to Rome. The city, tmprepared for resist- 
 ance, opened its gates after a few weeks. A council was held 
 in the Lateran church, at which Benedict confessed himself to 
 be a usurper, and was by Leo degraded from all ranks of the 
 ministry except the diaconate, Otho soon after took him with 
 him into Germany, and placed him at Hambtu^. He was ■ 
 learned and virtuous man, and edified the Saxons by liis good 
 example and instructions ; and the emperor himself conceived so 
 great an esteem for him, that he was on the point of sending 
 him back to Italy, when he died in ilay, 965. 
 
 Bexedict ^^. seems to have been elected in 972 ; but the 
 chronology of this dark period is obscure. Soon aftenvards he 
 was seized by a Roman nobleman, Cintius or Cenci, and con- 
 fined in the castle of St. Angelo, where he was either strangled 
 or starved to death. The history of the popes of the tenth cen- 
 tury forms a painful chapter in ecclesiastical annals, but in other 
 parts of Europe the same age produced men of the purest and 
 loftiest virtue. Thus, contemporary with this pope, were St. 
 Adalbert, bishop of Prague, who converted the Hungarians to 
 Christianity, and was finally martyred in Prussia ; St. Maycol, 
 the great abbot of Cluny ; St. Wolfgang, bishop of Ratisbon ; 
 and our own St. Dunstan of Canterbury. Benedict ^^. filled 
 the papal chmr about eighteen months. 
 
 Bexedict \^I., bishop of Sntri, was elected in 975. He 
 restored Amulphus to the see of Rheims. Tlie emperor, Otho 
 IL, after ha%-ing sustained a defeat in the south of Italy from 
 the Greek emperors, Basihus and Constantinus, retreated to Rome 
 and there died. The pope used all his influence, in the election 
 which followed, to procure the nomination of a wise and virtnous
 
 BEN 
 
 499 
 
 BEN 
 
 prince. Otho's sou, Otho III., was elected emperor. At this 
 time floiu'ished two celebrated hermits or solitaries, St. Romnald 
 in Lombardy, and St. Nilus in Calabria. Benedict died in July, 
 984, after a pontificate of eight years and a half. 
 
 Benedict VIII., bishop of Porto, was elected pope on the 
 death of Sergius IV. in 1012 ; but an antipope, one Gregoiy, 
 was set up by a Roman faction, and Benedict was driven out of 
 the city. Proceeding into Germany, he claimed redi-ess from 
 Henry II., then king of Italy, whom he found at Polden in 
 Saxony. Henry, a prince of rare vii'tues, warmly espoused the 
 cause of his petitioner; he took immediate steps to raise an 
 army, and meanwhile sent the pope forward, under the protec- 
 tion of a strong escort, into Italy. The antipope did not venture 
 to await the king's approach, but fled from Rome, and, on his 
 arrival, Hemy was welcomed into the city by Benedict liimself. 
 Soon after, he was crowned emperor by the pope, having first 
 solemnly promised to be the protector of the church, and to be 
 faithful to the pope and his successors. In 10 16, a large force 
 of Saracens having made a descent upon Tuscany and begun to 
 ravage the country, the pope with gi-eat energy collected an 
 army, by which the Saracens were defeated, and expelled with 
 heavy loss. About the same time Rodulfus, Raoul, or Rollo, 
 the Nonnan, with a few companions, came into Italy, and the 
 pope engaged his sernces to proceed to the succour of Bene- 
 vento, which the Greeks, acting upon the orders of the Emperor 
 Basihus, were endeavouring to take possession of. The little 
 band of Normans performed incredible feats of valour, and 
 repulsed the Greeks. This is the fii'st occasion on which the 
 Normans appear as taking an active part in the affairs of 
 Italy, and it seems to have been overlooked by Mr. Hallam 
 (Middle Ages, vol. 1.) Throughout his pontilicate there was an 
 intimate union of heart and purpose between Benedict and the 
 Emperor Henry. In 1020 the pope went into Germany, and 
 met the emperor at Bamberg, which city was then and there 
 given by Henry to the Roman church. Leo IX. afterwards 
 exchanged it with Henry III. for Benevento. On this occasion 
 it is said, that Henry confirmed all the donations of territory 
 which had been made by his predecessors to the Roman chm'ch, 
 with the reservation, however, of the rights of the imperial 
 crown. In the same year the pope presided at a council held 
 at Pavia, to repress irregularities and scandals among the clergy. 
 Seven stringent canons of discipline were promulgated by this 
 council. In 1022 Henry came into Italy for the purpose of 
 repelling the inroads of the Greeks ; after effecting this, he 
 visited with the pope the great Benedictine house of Slonte 
 Cassino. Henry died in 1023, and was numbered among the 
 saints after his de'ath. It is recorded of this pope that he invited 
 to Rome Guido Aretino, the inventor of the names of the singing- 
 notes, Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, &c., and of a new method of singing. 
 Benedict VIII. died in July, 1024, after a long and active pon- 
 tificate of twelve years. 
 
 Benedict IX., Theophylactus, nephew of Pope John 
 XIX, was made pope about the close of the year 1033, when 
 he was but twelve years old, by means of wholesale bribery. 
 During a pontificate which lasted — with intervals — more than 
 eleven years, his infamous life dishonoured the holy see, and was 
 a scandal to Christendom. After he had sat for ten years, the 
 bishop of Sabina was elected pope in his stead, and took the 
 title of Sylvester III. But three months afterwards Benedict 
 returned to Rome, and expelled Sylvester. About the same 
 time a third pretender, John, archprie.st of Rome, assumed the 
 papal insignia. However, a holy priest, named Gratian, went 
 to each of them in turn, and prevailed on them all to relinquish 
 their claims in consideration of a pecuniary indemnity. The 
 revenues derived from England, which seem to have been more 
 considerable than those from any other country, were assigned 
 to Benedict, who thereupon retired to his country seat, resigning 
 the tiiu-a to Gregory VI. This took place in the year 1045. 
 
 Benedict X., who, properly speaking, has no right to be 
 numbered among the popes, and is termed by JIuratori an " ille- 
 gittimo e Simoniaco papa," was elected by a faction among the 
 Roman magnates on the deatli of Steplien IX., in the year 1058, 
 m spite of protestations and threats of excommunication on the 
 part of all the cardinals, headed by St. Peter Damian, bishop of 
 Ostia. His name of Jlincio was on account of his extreme 
 stupidity, changi'd by the Roman pasquinaders to " minchione," 
 which means " blockhead." Peter Damian, in one of his letters, 
 says of him — " If he can fully explain one verse of a psalm or 
 
 a homily, I withdraw my opposition, I kiss his feet," &c. What 
 made the conduct of the party more flagrant, was the circum- 
 stance that, shortly before his death, Stephen IX. had exacted 
 a solemn promise from the clergy and people of Rome, to elect 
 no one until the return of Ilildebrand, cardinal sub-deacon 
 (afterwards the famous Gregory VII.), who had been sent on a 
 mission to the com-t of the Empress Agnes. At the request of 
 the cardinals, the empress convoked a council at Sienna, by 
 which Nicholas II. was nominated to the papacy. Escorted by 
 the troops of the duke of Lorraine, the pope proceeded towards 
 Rome, and Benedict, when he heard of his approach, retired to 
 his own house. Nicholas, hearing this, entered Rome unattended, 
 and was well received by the people. In the course of a few 
 days Benedict came before him, and confessing himself an usur- 
 per, was pardoned, but deposed from the episcopate and the 
 priesthood. He had occupied the chair about ten months. 
 
 Benedict XI. was elected in October, 1303, after an 
 interval of only ten days, to succeed Boniface VIII. His name 
 was Nicholas Bocasini ; he was the son of a notaiy of Tre\-iso, 
 and having entered the Dominican order, he became its ninth 
 general, and had attained to the dignity of cardinal-bishop of 
 Ostia at the time of his elevation to the papal chair. His emi- 
 nent virtues were allowed but a brief space of time for their 
 public exercise ; yet during the eight months of his pontificate 
 much was attempted and something effected towards the healing 
 of old feuds, and the adjustment of inveterate disputes. The 
 furious quarrel which had subsisted for years between Boniface 
 VIII. and Philip the Fair, king of France, was composed by 
 Benedict XI. in a few days ; the spiritual censures so lavishly 
 fulminated by his predecessor were all revoked, and the kingdom 
 of France was placed in statu quo ante with regard to the holy 
 see. But against the actual perpetrators of the outrage on the 
 person of the late pope at Anagui — William of Nogaret, Sciarra 
 of Colonna, and eleven others — Benedict denounced a fresh 
 sentence of excommunication. Early in 1304 the pope vainly 
 endeavoured, by sending a cardinal-legate to Florence, to recon- 
 cile the Guelf and Ghibeline factions in that city. Daute was 
 at that time not at Florence, having been driven into exile 
 by the Neri, or extreme Guelf party, three years before. The 
 legate, upon leaving Florence, laid the city under an interdict. 
 After publishing a constitution, enlarging the privileges of the 
 Mendicant orders, the pope died suddenly at Pei-ugia in the 
 month of July, not without suspicion of having been poisoned 
 by some of the cardinals. 
 
 Benedict XII., one of the eight popes who resided at 
 Avignon, was elected on the demise of John XXII. by the unex- 
 pected but unanimous vote of the conclave. His exclamation, 
 upon receiving the intelligence, was, " You have elected an ass." 
 He was a Frenchman, by name Jacques Fournier, his father 
 having been a baker, living in the county of Foix. As bishop, 
 first of Pamiers, afterwards of Mirepoix, he had given proofs of 
 ability and energy. In the year following his election, he was 
 implored by a deputation from the senate and people to transfer 
 the papal court to Rome. He declared himself willmg so far to 
 yield to their entreaties as to fix his residence at Bologna, if a 
 suitable reception were guaranteed to him on the part of the 
 Bolognese. But that turbulent people gave so little encourage- 
 ment to the overtures made by his nuncios, that the pojie, 
 abandoning all intention of returning to Italy, resolved to fix his 
 residence permanently at Avignon, and conmienced the erection 
 of a palace. Benedict XII. is briefly described by Gibbon (De- 
 chne and Fall, chapter Lwi.) as " a dull peasant, perplexed witli 
 scruples, and immersed in sloth and wine." For this character 
 he quotes no authority except a letter of Petrarch, who was 
 j)r()bably not an impartial judge. The ordinary historians 
 (Fleury, Natalis Alexander, and Mm'atori) have left on record a 
 widely-diftercnt estimate of tliis pope, though some of the facts 
 wliich they relate certainly tend to convict liim of indecision, 
 and an occasional preference of selfish and worldly considerations 
 to those of pure right. Such was his repeated refusal of .ibso- 
 lution to the emperor, Louis of Bavaria (who had renounced the 
 cause of the antipope whom he had set up at Rome in the 
 pontificate of John XXII., and had offered to make the most 
 ample submission, and the full'jst anu^nds for his past miscon- 
 duct), solely through fear of oflending the king of France. The 
 pope's conduct in this affair engendered a feeling of deep resent- 
 ment in the minds of the German princes, tended to keep alive 
 the hostility between the Guelf and Ghibeline factions in Italy,
 
 BEN 
 
 500 
 
 BEN 
 
 and actually led to the adoption by the German diet in 1338 of 
 several rules and resolutions, framed in a spirit of direct hostility 
 to tlie holy see. Again, the overtures made to him more than 
 once for the union of the Greek and Latin churches, met, to say 
 the least, with a chilling and evasive reception. The first of 
 these attempts was made in 1335, when the Emperor Andronicus 
 caused the pope to be informed that he was desirous to facilitate 
 the rc-union of the churches, and to this end proposed that a 
 conference of theologians should be held at Naples as the most 
 central spot that could be chosen. Tlie pope returned an ap- 
 parently favourable reply, but insisted, to save the dignity of 
 the holy see, that the conference should be held at A\'ignon. 
 This caused the negotiation to be broken off. Again, in 1339, 
 the celebrated Abbot Barlaam, the real reviver of Greek litera- 
 ture and learning in the West, came to Avignon, charged with 
 a second embassy from Andronicus. The very interesting and 
 suggestive arguments which he made use of to induce the pope 
 to favour the scheme of union, may be read in Gibbon, and at 
 greater length in Fleuiy. He skilfully showed that what kept 
 the Greek and Latin churches asunder, was in fact not so much 
 difference of doctrine, as soreness and alienation of feeling ; and 
 he argued, that if the Latins, by sending effectual aid to the 
 Greek empire against the Turks, were to efface in the minds of 
 the Greeks the memory of past injuries, the chief difficulty would 
 have been removed in the way of ecclesiastical union. The op- 
 portunity was a rare and gi-and one; and by an Innocent IIL 
 or a Pius V. would, doubtless, have been eagerly grasped, but 
 Benedict XIL saw or fancied endless difficulties; and instead of 
 earnestly endeavouring to unite Christendom against the common 
 enemy, he met the representations of Barlaam by counter pro- 
 posals, which, as a matter of course, led to further negotiations 
 and loss of time, so that nothing was done. On the other hand, 
 he seems to have administered the internal affairs of the church 
 with vigour and uprightness. At the very commencement of his 
 pontificate he took active steps to repress simony, non-residence, 
 and other clerical irregularities. He caused the state of the 
 principal religious orders to be carefully inquired into, and where 
 relaxation or abuse had crept in, he instituted reforms. In the 
 year 1339 he instituted a university at Verona. When, in 1338, 
 the great khan of Tartaiy wrote to the pope, whom he addressed 
 as " the lord of the christians in France, beyond the seven seas 
 where the sun sets ;" and after asking for his " benediction and 
 holy prayers," recommended to his good offices the christians in 
 his dominions, Benedict not only returned a warm and friendly 
 reply, commending the good dispositions of the khan, and urging 
 him to maintain the liberty of christian worship in his dominions, 
 but also took the opportunity of sending four Franciscan mis- 
 sionaries to the Alan and Tartar christians. He died at Avignon 
 in 1342, the year after Petrarch had received a laurel crown on 
 the capitol at Rome. Few characters in history have been more 
 diversely drawn than that of Benedict XII. Out of eight bio- 
 graphies preserved in Baluze, six are favourable, one, indeed, 
 almost making him out a saint; and two load his memory with 
 various degi-ees of infamy. This may be attributed partly to 
 national prejudices, which would lead French writers to extol, 
 and Italian writers to decry, a French pope who fixed the papacy 
 on the banks of the Rhone, — a banishment only comparable in 
 the eyes of the Italians to the " exile of Babylon ;" — partly to 
 the rancour of some of the monks of the religious orders, which 
 he, perhaps in a too hard and captious spirit, reformed. 
 
 Benedict XII I. , Cardinal Vincenzo Maria Orsino, arch- 
 bishop of Bcnevento, a Roman by birth, was unanimously elected 
 pope in the conclave which sat after the death of Innocent XIII. 
 in 1724. He accepted the dignity with reluctance, nor even, 
 according to JIuratori, until the general of his order, the Domi- 
 nicans, had constrained him to do so on his vow of obedience. 
 He took the name of Benedict, out of veneration for the memoiy 
 of Benedict XI. He was a man of deep humility and fervent 
 piety, simple in his manners and style of hving, and averse to 
 pomp and display. In the great Jansenist controversy, which, 
 during his pontificate, was raging in France and Holland, Bene- 
 dict took a firm and consistent part. The opposers of the bull 
 Uiiigenitus, by which the peculiar Jansenist doctrines were con- 
 demned, had been greatly encouraged by the example of Cardinal 
 de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, who had long delayed to signify 
 his acceptance of it. !Moved, however, by the letter of the pope, 
 assuring him that the doctrine contained in the bull was in no 
 respect contrary to that of St. Augustine, and by the opinion 
 
 which he had of the writer's sanctity, Noailles, in 1728, accepted 
 the bull. In the same year the pope issued a brief condemning 
 the work of Courayer, a canon of St. Genevieve at Paris, on the 
 validity of Anglican orders. A similar brief had been issued by 
 him some years before against the Adeisidwmon, one of the deis- 
 tical writings of Toland. A great number of canonizations and 
 beatifications were proceeded with by this pope. As a temporal 
 sovereign, Benedict was not called upon to play an important 
 part. In 1725 the emperor restored Comacchio to the holy see, 
 but in 1727 he resolved to gi-ant the duchies of Parma and Pia- 
 cenza, which for two hundred years had acknowledged the sove- 
 reignty of the holy see, as imperial fiefs to the Infant Don Carlos, 
 nephew of the reigning duke. The pope resisted ; and the Duke 
 Antonio Farnese, pressed by each of the contending parties to 
 take from him the investiture of the duchies, refused to take it 
 from either. The exiled son of James II. was at this time living 
 in Rome, and the pope treated him and the princess his wife with 
 marked kindness and liberality. In 1728 occm-red a serious 
 rupture with the king of Portugal, on the occasion of the recall 
 of Bichi— the apostolic nuncio, to whom the pope had refused 
 to give a cardinal's hat at the king's desire — from the court at 
 Lisbon. The Portuguese ambassador and all Portuguese subjects 
 were ordered by the king to depart from the Roman states ; the 
 nunciatura at Lisbon was closed, and the dataria compelled to 
 suspend its functions. This pope was a bad financier, and the 
 fiscal embarrassments in which he found the papal treasiuy 
 involved, were rather aggi'avated than diminished during his 
 pontificate. He is stated to have been deficient in statesmanlike 
 qualities, and particularly to have shown a want of discernment 
 in the choice of his ministers. He died in Febniary, 1730. 
 
 Benedict XIII. , antipope. See Benoit XIII. 
 
 Benedict XIV. (Cardinal Prospero Lambertini of Bologna) 
 was elected unanimously on the 16th August, 1740, at the close 
 of the protracted sitting of the conclave which followed the 
 death of Clement XII. The French and Spanish cardinals had 
 laboured to procure the election of Cardinal Aldrovandi ; other 
 names had also been proposed, and met with more or less of 
 support ; and it was not till six months had elapsed in constant 
 negotiation and intrigue, that the whole sacred college suddenly 
 agreed to the election of the able, pious, and plain-spoken arch- 
 bishop of Bologna. Sprang from an ancient and noble family 
 of Bologna, Lambertini had filled various important posts in the 
 church, had been made successively bishop of Ancona, arch- 
 bishop of Theodosia in partibus, and archbishop of Bologna, and 
 nominated cardinal by Benedict XIII. in 1728. He had already 
 become known as an author, and as a learaed canonist, by his 
 works, " De servoram Dei Beatificatione et de sanctorum Ca- 
 nonizatione," and by treatises relating to festivals and church 
 discipline. He at once applied himself vigorously to the task of 
 government, selecting as his ministers the Cardinals Gonzaga, 
 Aldi'ovandi, Querini, and Passionei, and Mgr. Livizzani. As 
 chief pastor of the catholic church, the great merit of Benedict 
 XIV. was, that, during a long pontificate of eighteen years, his 
 mingled fii-mness, moderation, wisdom, and piety, discriminating 
 between the essential and the accidental, and understanding the 
 true tendency and temper of the times, enabled him, while giving 
 up much of temporal emolument and ancient pri\'ilege that 
 former pontiffs had contended for, to heal many old divisions, to 
 presei-ve in the main the peace of the church imbroken, and to 
 retard at least, although he could not prevent, those revolutionary 
 convulsions which, in the general decline of faith and piety, were 
 already impending over the catholic nations of Europe. He 
 concluded concordats with the kings of Sardinia and Naples, as 
 his predecessors had done with those of Spain and Portugal, for 
 the settlement of various matters in dispute. Under the con- 
 cordat with Naples the number of holidays was abridged, restric- 
 tions placed on the ordination of priests, and the patronage of 
 the smaller benefices given up. But in the case of this last 
 concession, a certain number of benefices were reserved, to enable 
 the pope to promote any desei-ving ecclesiastics. Benedict was 
 firm in his support of the bull Unigenitus, and addressed a brief 
 to the bishops of France, counselling them to refuse the sacra- 
 ments to those who would not accept it. This was one of the 
 causes which led to the protracted quarrel between the clergy 
 and the French parliaments under Louis XV. In 1742 he 
 promulgated a bull against all who should disobey the former 
 decisions of the holy see respecting certain Chinese rites, the 
 observance of which by their convei-ts had been sanctioned by
 
 BEN 
 
 501 
 
 BEN 
 
 some of the Jesuit missionaries, but disallowed by the holy see. 
 In 1751 he suppressed the patriarchate of Aquileia, which had 
 long been the cause of dissension between Venice and Austria, 
 and created in its stead the archbishoprics of Udine and Goritz. 
 As a temporal sovereign he laboured strenuously and success- 
 fully to keep peace with foreign powers, to improve the condition 
 of the Roman states, and to adorn and beautify the capital. 
 With the exception of one occasion during the Austrian succes- 
 sion war, when in 1742 a part of his domhiions was in tuiTis 
 occupied by the contending armies of Spain and Austria, he was 
 in no way engaged in any of the wars which desolated Em-ope 
 during his pontificate. In fact the hante politique of Europe 
 was so completely changed, now that three of the great powers 
 — England, Prussia, and Russia — were non-catholic, that the 
 pohtical power of the holy see was about this time reduced to a 
 minimum. But in measures of internal improvement he was 
 unceasingly occupied. At his accession the debt amounted to 
 many millions of scudi ; but by retrenching the expenditure of 
 his houseliold, by reducing the number of his troops, and cutting 
 down their extravagant pay, by abolishing pensions, &c., he soon 
 placed the Roman finances on a new and sound footing. He 
 founded four academies at Rome for the education of ecclesiastics. 
 He established a congregation of five cardinals to examine into 
 the life and habits of all bishops designate within his dominions. 
 But it was in the adornment of Rome that he laboured with the 
 most brilhant success. He secured and strengthened the cupola 
 of St. Peter's, erected one -n-ing of the great hospital of St. Spirito, 
 completed the fountain of Trevi, restored and enlarged many 
 churches, established a gallery of antiquities on the Campidoglio, 
 and, finally, dug out and deposited in a safe place the celebrated 
 horary obelisk which once stood in the Campus Martius, and has 
 since been re-erected by Pius VI. in 1792. The private charac- 
 ter of this pope was most estimable and pleasing. His jo^-iality 
 and aflabDity were unfailing, and some of the bons mots, prompted 
 by his ready Bolognese wit, are still remembered by the Romans. 
 His writings, besides those abeady mentioned, consist of a 
 ''Treatise on Heroic Virtue," a "Treatise on the Mass," a 
 '• Bullarium," or collection of the briefs and bulls issued by him- 
 self, a " JIartyrology," and some minor works. He died, after 
 enduring gi-eat sutt'ering, in which his cheerfulness and serenity 
 never deserted him, in May, 1758, in the eighty-third year of 
 his age. — T. A. 
 
 BENEDICT or BENOIT of Appenzei.l, a musician of the 
 former half of the sLicteenth century, appears from the name by 
 which he is called, to have been a native of Appenzell, in Swit- 
 zerland. He was a pupil of Josquin de Prez, and wrote music 
 to a Latin monody on his famous master, which was piinted at 
 Antwei-p in 1545, together with another setting of the same 
 words by his fellow scholar, Nicholas Gombert ; Bumey reprints 
 this piece, for four voices, of Benedict, which is in the Phrygian 
 mode, and a remarkable specimen, for its age, of pure counter- 
 pomt. Some compositions of this writer are in Salbinger's Con- 
 centus, 1545, and in Ecclesiasticorum Cantionum — G. A. M. 
 
 * BENEDICT, Julius or Jules, a musician, was boni at 
 Stuttgart, November 27, 1805, in which city his father was 
 partner in a banking-house. His first musical instructor was 
 Louis Abeille, a pianist and composer. He began his public 
 career at a concert, of his own in 1819, when his pianoforte 
 playing was much applauded. He was sent to Weimar to con- 
 tinue hi: studies under Hummel, from whose care he was removed 
 in 1820 to that of C. JI. von Weber in Dresden. He accom- 
 panied this master to Berlin, where he made the acquaintance 
 of Mendelssohn, the prodigious boy, who was already giving proofs 
 of the wonderful talent which was soon to raise him to a com- 
 parison with the greatest masters of the art. lie proceeded 
 with Weber to Vienna, and was, by his recommendation, there 
 engaged as accompan}ast of the rehearsals, and musical director 
 at the Ktirntnerthor theatre in 1824. He proceeded from thence 
 to Naples, where he filled the same capacity at the San Carlo. 
 Here, in 1827, at the Fondo, he produced his Opera Bulla, 
 " Giacinta ed Ernesto." He now made the tour of Italy, and 
 visited Paris as a pianist, returning to Naples to produce an 
 opera seria at the San Carlo— "I Portoghcsi a Goa." He 
 came to London, invited by Malibran and De Beriot, and 
 appeared at the concerts of the latter in 1835. Again, re- 
 turning to Naples, he produced there a third opera, " Un Anno 
 ed un Giorno," in 1836. The same year he came back to Lon- 
 don, which has since then been his pennanent residence. He 
 
 was conductor of the Italian opera given by 5Ir. Mitchell at the 
 Lyceum, in the winters of 1837 and 1838. In 1838 his first 
 English opera, " The Gipsy's Warning," was brought out at 
 Druiy Lane, several pieces in which have over-lived its first 
 success — which was only limited by the demerit of the drama — 
 and still retain their popularity. Six years later, he produced 
 " The Brides of Venice" at the same theatre; where, also, his 
 last dramatic work, " The Crusaders," was performed in 184G. 
 These three works have been translated into German, and pro- 
 duced with success in his native country. M. Benedict con- 
 ducted the operas given with Adelaide Kemble, at Covent Gar- 
 den, in 1842 and 1843. He was in 1845 appointed conductor 
 of the Norwich musical festival, which ofiice he has held at each 
 succeeding celebration. He also was engaged to conduct part 
 of the performances at the opening of the Liverpool Philharmonic 
 Hall in 1849, where he produced a Festival Overture. In 1850 
 he accompanied Mademoiselle Lind to America, and conducted 
 her concerts there till he left her in 1852. He conducted the 
 concerts of the Harmonic Union for the first two years from 
 their commencement in 1853, at which he distinguished him - 
 self by the pains he bestowed on the new compositions confided 
 to his cai-e. A consequence of the dissolution of this society, 
 if not its decided offspring, is the Vocal Association, whose 
 extensive nimibers, practising under his careful direction, have 
 made admu-able progress in choral singing. !M. Benedict has a 
 large practice as a pianoforte teacher, he is frequently before tlie 
 public as a concert-conductor, and his own annual concert is one 
 of the most fashionable resorts of the London season. Besides 
 the operas that have been named, he has one unproduced, " The 
 ]\Iinnesinger," of which some portions have been performed at 
 concerts ; he has written music for a German version of the 
 Tempest, and Entr' Actes for Macbeth ; he has composed much 
 for the pianoforte, both in the classical form and in the lightest 
 style ; he has been very successful with many pieces for unac- 
 companied voices, and has produced a multitude of detached 
 songs. — G. A. M. 
 
 BENEDICTIS, Ben. Tetius de, sumamed Capra, an Ita- 
 lian theologian and canonist of the first half of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. He published " Volumen conclusionum regularium et com- 
 munium opinionum, et de permutatione beneficiorum." 
 
 BENEDICTIS, Giovanni Baptista de, an Italian Jesuit, 
 bom at Ostium in 1620 ; died in 1706. His piincipal work is 
 entitled " Philosophia Peripatetica," &c., 1687-92. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENEDICTIS, Jacob, a native of Umbria, who was a Minorite 
 friar, and author of some sacred poetry. The fine hymn, " Stabat 
 I^Iater," is generally attributed to him. — J. F. W. 
 
 BENEDICTUS, Levita, deacon of Mentz, who, between the 
 years 840 and 847, compiled, at the instance of Otgar, arch- 
 bishop of Jlentz, a collection of capitularies in three books. It 
 was afterwards added to the four books of Ansegisus, and pub- 
 lished along with them by Baluze as Capitularia Regum Fran- 
 corum; Paris, 1677. Some other works are also attributed to 
 Benedictus, but this is the only one of which he is certainly the 
 author. — J. B. 
 
 * BENEDIX, Julius Roderich, a Gennan comic dramatist 
 and miscellaneous writer of great popularity, was bom at Leip- 
 zig in 1811. Having completed his education at Grimma and 
 in his native town, he became a comedian, and afterwards mana- 
 ger of several German theatres. Besides his collected dramatic 
 works (6 vols.), he has published " Deutsche Volkssagen," a 
 popular histoiy of the Freiheitskriege ; " Bildcr aus dem Schaus- 
 pickler leben," &c. He lives at Cologne. — K. E. 
 
 BENEFIALI, Marco, born at Rome in 1684 ; died in 1764. 
 He painted a saloon of the Palazzo Spada, and at the academy 
 of St. Luke there is a " Christ at the Well" by him. He was 
 knighted by the pope. (The popes knighted more painters than 
 our English monarchs have.) — W. T. 
 
 BENEFIELD, Sebastian, an eminent divine of the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries, was bom August 12, 1559, at Prest- 
 bury in Gloucestershire. When seventeen years old, he was 
 admitted a scholar of Corpus Christi college, Oxford, and after- 
 wards became a fellow. Entering into holy orders, he distin- 
 guished himself as a preacher. In 1608 he took the degi-ee of 
 doctor in divinity, and five years after, w.as chosen Margaret 
 professor. He filled the chair with great reputation. He had 
 been presented several years before to the rectory of ]\Ioy.sey 
 Hampton, near Fairford, in Gloucestershire, and after holding 
 the professorship fourteen years, he retu-ed to that benefice, and
 
 BEN 
 
 502 
 
 BEN 
 
 spent there the last four years of his life. He was so well versed 
 in the fathers and schoolmen, that there was not his equal in the 
 university. Strongly attached to the predestination of Calvin, 
 he was sometimes branded with the character of a schismatic. 
 He was remarkable for strictness of life. He published several 
 works, among which were eight sermons preached in the univer- 
 sity of Oxford ; twenty-one sermons by way of commentary on 
 the first chapter of Amos ; twenty-one sennons on the second 
 chapter of Amos ; lectures on the Perseverance of the Saints, and 
 other scholarlike treatises, which have been long consigned to 
 oWivion. He died in his parsonage, August 24, 1630, and was 
 buried in the chancel of his parish church. — T. J. 
 
 BENEKE, Feederick Edward, was born at Berlin on the 
 17th of February, 1798. He received his early education at the 
 gymnasium of his native town ; and in the year 1815, nearly at 
 the conclusion of the French war, joined a volunteer corps des- 
 tined to enter into active operation for the liberties of Germany. 
 On the termination of the war in 1816, he entered the university 
 of HaUe as a student of theology, but returned the next year to 
 Berhn, where he became a pupil of Schleiermacher, and devoted 
 himself mainly to phUosophical studies. Even at this early period 
 he conceived a great admiration for the English philosophical 
 writers ; and entered upon that course of detennined opposition 
 to the more abstract system of German philosophy, which formed 
 the chief occupation of his whole futm-e life. In the year 1820 he 
 established himself as privat-docent at the university of Berlin, 
 and commenced a course of philosophical lectures, in which he 
 followed closely the psychological and inductive method of re- 
 search. Even with Hegel himself for his rival, he succeeded in 
 forming a very considerable class of auditors, and threatened so 
 formidable an opposition to the Hegelian pldlosophy, then bask- 
 ing in the sunshine of court favour, that he was silenced by the 
 prime minister, von Altenstein, and compelled to relinquish his 
 post. Two works, published in 1820, record the philosophical 
 N-iews which he then entertained and propounded — the one en- 
 titled " Erfahnings-seelen-lelu-e," the other entitled "Erkenntniss- 
 lehre nach dem Be\vusstsein der reinen Vernunft." In 1824 he 
 removed to Gottingen, where he lectured for three years succes- 
 sively, and published two volumes of " Psychologische Skizzen," 
 in which the prmcipal doctrines of his new psychology are laid 
 down in then- earlier and less mature fonn. In 1827 he 
 returned to Berhn, and received pennission to reopen his class ; 
 and in 1832, on the death of Hegel, was created professor of 
 philosophy in that university. A series of works now appeared 
 in rapid succession, in which he advocated liis philosophical prin- 
 ciples from many different points of view. In 1833 appeared 
 the " Lehrbuch der Psychologic als Naturwissenschaft," and in 
 1835 the " Erziehungs und Unterrichts-lehre," in which he 
 applied his viey>'S practicalli/ to the subject of education. During 
 the next ten years he published his " System der Metaphysik und 
 Keligions-lehre," his " System der Logik als Kunstlehre des 
 Denkens," and a number of treatises which were aftenvards 
 combined under the title of "Die Neue Psychologic." In 1850 
 he still further carried on his views by the publication of the 
 " Pragmatische Psychologic oder Seelenlehre in ihrer Anwendung 
 auf das Leben," and in 1851 he commenced a quarterly journal 
 called the "Archiv fiir die Pragmatische Psychologie." In the midst 
 of these labours his life was cut short in the most painful manner. 
 In a fit of nervous depression he suddenly disappeared (March 
 1st, 1854) from his friends and family, and was never seen again 
 alive. His body was discovered in one of the canals near the 
 city, and there is every reason to beheve that he had committed 
 suicide. 
 
 Beneke's whole philosophy, like that of Locke, rests upon the 
 analysis of ideas as presented by the phenomena of man's inward 
 experience. Our sensations, perceptions, ideas, feehngs, impulses, 
 and resolutions, present a mass oj'fact, wliich it is the business 
 of the philosopher not merely to classify, but so to investigate as 
 to find out their origin, the course of their development, their 
 mutual connections, and finally the laws of then- operation. To 
 do this, Bencke goes first of all to the more primitive phenomena 
 presented by the mind when brought into contact with external 
 nature, and shows how all our subsequent mental history is 
 evolved out of them. 1. 5Ian is an organized being, placed in 
 the midst of a world perfectly adapted to his nature and consti- 
 tution. The world affects him variously through the senses, and 
 the impulses thus produced from without are received and 
 appropriated by means of certain inwai-d powers and suscept ibilities, 
 
 which act in harmony with them. These are the two great 
 primitive facts of all mental philosophy, — impulses coming to us 
 from without, and tlie imwer of reducing such impulses to phe- 
 nomena of consciousness. All om- mental life begins with this 
 primordial process, and out of it all our fm-t her mental development 
 flows by fixed piinciples or laws of mental action. — 2. The second 
 fundamental process is the power which the soul has to retain 
 every single impression it experiences, to lay it up in a state of 
 unconsciousness, as an inward trace or substratum, which may be 
 revived by circimistances at any future period. Endless numbers 
 of such experiences are forming within us every day ; and an 
 infinite number of traces or substrata are consequently being 
 constantly treasm-ed up in the soul. It is the combination and 
 consolidation of these nmnberless processes in which our mental 
 development consists, and by means of them that the faculties 
 are created, which we term perception and memoiy. In the same 
 way the consolidation of our experiences of pleasm-e and pain give 
 rise to om- determinate desires and instmcts. — 3. The next pro- 
 cess arises out of the fact that similar impulses and impressions 
 have a tendency to unite and flow together, so as to form new 
 mental developments. Thus, by the union of hke perceptions, 
 ideas are formed, and by the combination of similar feelings and 
 impulses certain determinate mental tendencies are generated, 
 which we call aftections and passions. — Lastly, dissimilar traces, 
 which are left in the mind after the consolidation of the similar 
 ones has taken place, are combined into groups and series. Tims 
 the different attributes of an external object, though wholly dis- 
 similai', ai'e mentally combined, so as to form the complex idea 
 of that object ; and phenomena, which succeed each other in time, 
 are combined, so as to fomi the notions of cause, pui^pose, iS:c. 
 In this way, from the two original elements of outward impulse 
 and inward receptivity, the whole of our mental constitution is 
 built up, by means of the retention, consolidation, comparison, 
 and combination of our numberless experiences. 
 
 Beneke gets a still further insight into the machinery of our 
 mental development, by a comparison of the outward impulses 
 acting upon us, and our inward power of reaction upon them in 
 their varied relation to one another. Five different relations 
 between the two are possible in regai-d to their intensity. — 1. The 
 impulse is less powerful than the appropriating faculty ; in this 
 case there is a surplus of inward energy, so that dissatisfaction 
 and desire are the natural results.- — 2. If the impulse and the 
 power are exactly balanced, then we have the phenomena oi per- 
 ception. — 3. The impulse may be just superior to the inward 
 appropriating power, and no more ; in this case we have a feeling 
 of pleasiu'e. — 4. If the impulse becomes too great, it produces 
 vexation ; and, lastly, if excessive, actual pam. 
 
 From these few explanations, it will be evident that Beneke 
 proposes a far more thorough-going investigation into the origin 
 and genesis of our mental phenomena than had been instituted 
 by most, if indeed by any, of the former advocates of tlie 
 empuical system of mental philosophy. Taking his start from 
 a few simple physiological facts, he builds up an entire system, 
 in which the whole machinery of our impulses, feelings, deskes, 
 perceptions, and ideas, are most ingeniously analysed and accounted 
 for. Nor can we hesitate to aifinu that in many respects Beneke 
 has been before his age, in his insight into mental phenomena. 
 In Germany, at the present moment (185 7), philosophy, as a whole, 
 has left its former abstract and ap)ridri principles, and has turned 
 almost entirely to the inductive method of research. The onto- 
 logical method has begun to give way to the psi/chological ; and 
 the very views which Beneke advocated, even in the height of the 
 Hegelian ascendancy, have now come into general repute. Beneke 
 has been remarkable for the practical way in which he has viewed 
 all the questions of philosophy. He is far fi"om being a mere 
 psychologist, but has applied his principles to elucidate the most 
 knotty questions Of metaphysics, the laws of our moral nature, 
 and the practical work of education. It is especially as an 
 educationist that his reputation has been extended throughout 
 Gennany ; inasmuch as his \iews have found acceptance in this 
 particular point, even amongst those who take little interest in 
 them as abstract philosophical questions. And if the psycho- 
 logical system propounded by Beneke be true, its influence on 
 educational processes ought certainly to be most extensive. If 
 there is nothing original in the human mind but a primitive 
 power of receptivity, and if all our mental faculties, feelings, 
 dispositions, moral principles, and character, be but the gi-adual ;. 
 structm-e which is formed by the accimiulation and consolidation I
 
 of the traces laid up within us according to certain -(vell-defined 
 laws, then ought the educator to hold the soul of the pupil in 
 his hand, like clay in the hands of the potter, and to add brick 
 to brick to the stnicture, with the most assured certitude of the 
 result. Estimated impartially, we must admit that there is a vast 
 deal of acute analysis in Beneke's principles; and that many 
 most valuable suggestions are thrown out by him in relation to the 
 laws and methods of mental development. Like all enthusiastic 
 systematizers, however, he appears to us to be too essentially 
 one-sided to represent the whole truth of the case. The super- 
 structure of those older psychological systems, which regard the 
 human mind as consisting of an aggregation of abstract and pecu- 
 har faculties, crumbles absolutely to pieces in his hands, and the 
 truth comes to light perhaps more clearly than ever it did before, 
 that the human soul is an organic unity, which develops from stage 
 to stage, and throws out fresh and more advanced phenomena in 
 every step of its progress. But he has apparently gone quite to 
 an extreme on the other side, in denying any primordial instincts, 
 tendencies, impulses, or desires of a distinctive character, and 
 deducing them all from the greater or less intensity with which the 
 soul, by virtue of its original stnicture, apprehends or retains the 
 influences which act upon it from without. Still, as all progress 
 in human thought is ordinarily promoted by the alternate develop- 
 ment of opposing theories, we may regard Beneke as being one, 
 and one too of the most remai'kable amongst the promoters of 
 more correct views, both in psychology and pedagogy, and may 
 recommend his works as indispensable to eveiy one who wishes 
 thoroughly to understand what has been accomplished in these 
 two most intei'esting departments of human thought. — J. D. M. 
 
 BEXEKENDORF, Karl Frederic von, a writer on rural 
 and poUtical economy, whose works at one time enjoyed a high 
 popularity, was bora at Blumenfeldt in Brandenhm-g in 1720. 
 He also wTote " Jlemoirs of Frederic Wilhelm I.," a work of 
 much interest and merit. He died in 1788. — J. F. W. 
 
 BENETTI, Giovanni Domenico, an Italian physician, born 
 at Ferrara on od Februar}', 1658. He took his degree of doctor 
 of medicine at Fen-ara when only twenty-two years of age, and 
 very soon afterwards was appointed to the chair of practical 
 medicine in that university. His lectures acquired him great 
 celebrity. In 1687 he was appointed physician to the hospital 
 of Santa Anna ; a few years afterwards, the to^vn of Fano, in 
 the duchy of Urbino, gave him the appointment of stipendiary 
 physician; and about the same time the Duke of JIantua, Fer- 
 dinand-Charles, conferred upon him the post of first physician. 
 The date of his death is not known. His only work, entitled 
 " Corpus Medico-JIorale," &c., published at Mantua in 1718, 
 contains all those medical precepts wliich might have some 
 application to the ceremonies of the Eoman catholic religion, 
 and gives us but a low opinion of his title to the fame which he 
 enjoyed in his lifetime. — W. S. D. 
 
 BENEVOLI, Antonio, a celebrated Italian surgeon of the 
 first half of the eighteenth century, was born in 1685 at Cas- 
 tello deUe Preci in the duchy of Spoleto. On the death of his 
 father, which took place when he was very young, he was 
 brought up by his uncle, Geronimo Accorondoni, who sent him, 
 at the age of nine years, to study at Florence. After passing 
 through the ordinary course of instniction, he studied anatomy 
 and surger)- mider T. Pacini and A. Querci. His progress was 
 so rapid that he soon acquired a gi'eat reputation as an operator, 
 especially in two branches of surgeiy to which he particularly 
 applied himself; namely, the treatment of ruptures and of dis- 
 eases of the eyes. In 1719 Cosmo III., grand-duke of Tuscany, 
 assigned him a pension. His reputation was increased by a 
 successful operation which he performed upon the Cardinal 
 Buoncompagni, archbishop of Bologna, to relieve him from a 
 cataract with which he was afflicted. After the death of San- 
 torelli, he was appointed oculist to the hospital of Santa JIaria, 
 and in 1755 became chief surgeon in that gi-eat establishment, 
 where he aftenvards delivered public lectures, which attracted 
 numerous audiences. The principal writings of Benevoli are, 
 ' Lettere sopra due osservazioni fatte intorno al cataratta," 
 Florence, 1722, and " Tre dissertazioni dell' origine dell' emia 
 intestinale, &c.," published at Florence in 1747. The fonner of 
 these consists of letters addressed to Valsalva, who is refen-ed 
 to as a judge of the different opinions put fonvard with regard 
 to cataracts. The author himself attributed this disease to the 
 opacity of the cnstalline lens, without, however, asserting that 
 It might not sometimes be caused by a membrane lodged in the 
 
 anterior part of the aqueous chamber of the eye. He was 
 attacked by Giovanni Bianchi, under the false name of Pietro 
 Paolo Lupi, and a considerable controversy was got up between 
 them, which was certainly of little benefit to science. The 
 second of the above-menrioned works, of wliich a Dutch trans- 
 lation was published at the Hague in 1770, contains numerous 
 excellent and valuable observations, although the theoretical 
 parts are of little importance. The observations brought toge- 
 ther at the close of the volume, upon various facts in sm'gery 
 and anatomy, are also curious and interesting. — W. S. D. 
 
 BENEVOLI, Orazio, a musician, a natural son of Albert, 
 duke of LoiTaine, was bom at Rome in 1602, where he died in 
 1672. He was the pupU of Vincenzo Ugohni, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in the office of maestro di capella of the chm'ch of St. 
 Luigi de Frances!, in his native city. He left this appomtmcnt 
 for one under the archduke of Austria at Vienna, where, in 1643 
 and the two following years, he produced some motets and ofter- 
 tories. He returned to Rome in 1646, and was reinstated in his 
 original situation ; he was also appointed to the same ofiice in 
 the church of S. JIaria llaggiore, and at the close of this year, 
 was instituted likewise maestro di capella of St. Peters. His dis- 
 tinction as a composer rests upon the multipHcity of real parts 
 in his scores, he having written for two, tlu-ee, four, five, and six 
 distinct choirs, of four voices in each, as Agostino had already 
 done vnih success, this being a form of composition greatly 
 esteemed in that age of artifice and laborious complexity. M. 
 Fetis cites a JIass of his composition, written in forty-eight sepa- 
 rate parts, which, at the cost of Dominico Fonthia, a notary, was 
 perfoi-med at St. Peters, August 4, 1650, by a hundred and fifty 
 ■\-oices, as a propitiation against the pestilence then raging in 
 Rome ; but Burney speaks of this same work as in his own pos- 
 session, describing it to be in twenty-four parts, stating the 
 number of executants on this occasion to have been above two 
 hundred, and representing the sis chou-s at its performance to 
 have been ranged in as many circles romid the dome, the last 
 being stationed at the top of the cupola. His fugal writing is 
 less remarkable for the development of his subjects than for the 
 purity of his counterpoint, and the effective responses of his 
 several groups of voices. The chief of his works are preserved 
 in the library of the Vatican, and in that of the Casa Corsini. 
 Some specimens of his composition have been printed by Padre 
 ilantini and by Padre Paolucci. The most distinguished of his 
 pupils was G. Ercole Bemabei. — G. A. JI. 
 
 BENEZECH, Charles, the son of an engraver, known fur 
 his historical portraits. Painted the "Execution of Louis XVI.," 
 and died in 1794.— W. T. 
 
 BENEZET, Antoine, a man of colour, and one of the earliest 
 advocates of the emancipation of the negroes, bom at Saiut- 
 Quentin in 1713. In 1715 his family being compelled to quit 
 France on account of the revocation of the edict of Nantes, took 
 up their residence in London. In 1731 they removed to New 
 England, and established themselves in Philadelphia. Here 
 Benezet fonued the resolution of devoting himself to the instruc- 
 tion of the blacks, and the amelioration of their condition. In 
 17G2 he published a work on the subject of negro slavery, and 
 in 17C7 another work on the same subject, particularly with 
 reference to the miserable condition of the slaves in the British 
 colonies. He also founded at Philadelphia a school for the 
 instniction of people of colour. — G. ^I. 
 
 BENFATTO, Luigi, born at Verona, a nephew of the great 
 Veronese, the most epic of all mere decorative painters. " The 
 History of St. Nicholas" was his best work. Died in 1641. 
 
 * BENFEY, Theodor, a German philologist, was bom at 
 Norten, near Gtittingen, 28th Januaiy, 1809, and studied at the 
 gv-mnasium and university of this latter town, where, in 1834, he 
 was appointed professor of Sanscrit and comparative phUology. 
 Besides his " GriechischesWurzel-Lexicon," Berlin, 1839-42, 2 
 vols., to which the Volney piize was awai-ded by the Academy of 
 Sciences at Paris, he has published — " Uber das Verhiiltniss der 
 ag}-ptischen Sprache zum semitischen Sprachstamm;" " Hand- 
 buch der Sanscrit-Sprache," 1852, 2 vols., &c. — K. E. 
 
 BENGEL, Ernst Gottlieb, a grandson of Johann Albr. B., 
 was born at Favclstein (Wurteml)erg) 1769, and died at Tiibiii- 
 gen, 1826, where he had held several high oflices. He edited 
 the Arcliiv fur Theolorji und ihre neuest Literatur, and wrote 
 some theological works. — K. E. 
 
 BENGEL, John Albert, a celebrated theologian, was born 
 at Winnendcn, in the duchy of Wurtembm-g, on the 24th June,
 
 BEN 
 
 504 
 
 BEN 
 
 1C87, and on account of his extreme weakness, was baptized the 
 same day. When he was six years old, his father, who lield the 
 office of deacon, and was a pious and learned man, died ; and 
 as his mother's property was shortly afterwards consuuiedby tire 
 during an inroad of the French, his teacher, Spindler, took him 
 with him to Stuttgard, where he studied languages and matlie- 
 matics. Some years afterwards, he was sent by his stepfather, 
 Glockler, to the imiversity of Tiibingen, where he was enrolled 
 as a student of theology. While here, he spent nmch of his time 
 in reading the scriptures in the original tongues. Nor did he 
 neglect the study of philosupliy ; he was familiar in particular with 
 the writings of Spinoza, and passed through many severe con- 
 flicts before his principles acquired stability and firmness. After 
 having discharged for some time the duties of assistant preacher 
 at Metzingen, he was appointed in the twenty-sixth year of his age, 
 master of a new seminary at Denkendorf, designed for the prepar- 
 atory training of students of theology ; and while the requisite 
 buildings were in course of erection, he went over the gi-eater 
 part of Germany, visiting the different pubhc schools and insti- 
 tutions, that he might become acquainted with the best modes of 
 tcacliiug. He continued at Denkendorf for twenty-eight years, 
 and during that time, his labours as a teacher engaged him in the 
 composition of various works. Besides editions of classical works 
 and Fathers, he published a critical edition of the New Testa- 
 ment, grounded upon the printed editions akeady in use, and a 
 considerable number of additional manuscripts ; as also a work 
 upon "Chronology," and an "Exposition of the Apocalypse," 
 wliich, while it was greatly admired by multitudes, e.Nposed him 
 in the view of others to the charge of enthusiasm. He fixed the 
 commencement of the millennium in the year 1836, which will 
 hardly now be supposed entitled to such distinction. In 1741, 
 Bengel was placed at the head of the monasteiy of Herbrech- 
 tingen ; and as he now enjoyed more leisiu-e than formerly, he 
 employed himself in preparing for the press a work, of which the 
 materials had been accumulated at Denkendorf. Tliis was the 
 celebrated " Gnomon Novi Testamenti ;" so named because it was 
 designed as a finger-post, to point the reader to the trae sense 
 and meaning of scripture. Few works have enjoyed a liigher 
 or more sustained reputation. It is brief, but everywhere 
 instinct with life and power. The author tells us that, in com- 
 posing it, liis purpose was not to act as a dogmatist, or a 
 polemic, or an ascetic, or an antiquarian, or a grammarian, but 
 to make all investigations and remarks subservient to the one 
 object of exhibiting the mind of the Spirit in the word. In 
 1 749, Bengel, was appointed abbot of Alpirspach, and he held 
 tlie office during the last three years of his life. Though never 
 robust, yet he had for the most part enjoyed moderately good 
 health ; but after his sixty-fifth birth day, he began rapidly to 
 decline. Dming bis last day upon earth he observed the Lord's 
 supper, spoke for half an hour regarding the faith of the gospel, 
 prayed with great feiTour for the church, for his country, for his 
 wife and children, and for all his friends. In his last moments 
 he laid his right hand upon his breast, and intimated that, 
 living and dying, he was the Lord's ; and then calmly fell asleep 
 in Jesus, on the 2nd November, 1752, aged sixty-five years and 
 four months. — W. L. 
 
 BENGER, Elizabeth Ogila'y, authoress of " Memoii-s of 
 !Mary Queen of Scots," and other popular works, w;is the 
 daughter of a purser in the navy. She was born at Wells in 
 1778, and died in 1827. Her mother, who at her husband's 
 death was left in vei-y straitened cuxumstances, gave her what 
 education she could command, but was unable to gratify the 
 passion for boolvS which she early evinced, or to foster in ani- 
 way her literary ambition. One of the girl's resources, in tliis 
 dearth of books, was to establish herself daily before the book- 
 seller's shop in her native town, and peruse what she could of 
 the contents of the window. With her mother, slie removed to 
 London in 1802, and was fortunate enough to find an easy hitro- 
 duction into literary society. Her first publication — a poem on 
 the " Abolition of the Slave Trade," was followed by two anony- 
 mous novels, and at intervals by her " Memoh-s of Mary Queen 
 of Scots," " The Queen of Bohemia," " Jlrs. EUzabeth Hamil- 
 ton," ".lohn .lobin," and "Anne Boleyn." — J. S., G. 
 
 BEN-HADAD, the name of the three kings of Syria, viz. — 
 Ben-hadad I., king of Syria, son of Eliod, lived at Damascus 
 about the year 940 or 950 n.u. At the request of Asa, king of 
 Judah, he came to the assistance of that monarch against Basha, 
 king of Israel. — Bex-iiadad II., king of Syria, son of the pre- 
 
 ceding, lived aboixt the year 930 B.C. He defeated Ahab, king 
 of Israel in many battles, and continued the war against Joram 
 liis successor. — Ben-hadad III., king of Syria, son of Hazael, 
 lived about the year 83(5 B.C. The Syrians paid divine honours 
 both to this kmg and his father, because they had bmlt a magni- 
 ficent temple in Damascus. — G. M. 
 
 BEXI, Paolo, bom in Candia in 1552. He was a literary 
 man of great merit, and much esteemed by the Duke Giudobaldi 
 of Urbino, who appointed him his secretary ; he held afterwards 
 the professorship of philosophy at Perugia, from whence he was 
 called to Home, where he filled the chair of theologj'. Soon after 
 he was offered the more lucrative professorship of belles-lettres 
 at Padua, where he died in the year 1625. — A. C. M. 
 
 BENIGNUS, Saint, martyred at Dijon in 179, is said to 
 have been a disciple of Polycarp. 
 
 BENINCASA, Count Bartolomeo, bom in the duchy of 
 Modena about the year 1745. The life of this nobleman was 
 most eventful. He enjoyed for a long time the friendship and 
 favour of the Duke of Modena, by whom he was charged with 
 many unportant negotiations to Vienna. But calumniated, and 
 deserted by his patron, he went to Venice, where he dwelt for 
 many years, entirely devoted to literary pm-suits. Well acquainted 
 with the French language, he published a work — " Les Mor- 
 laqucs," which was translated into Italian by the Abbe Fortis, 
 under the title of " II Viaggio in Dalmazia." Having become 
 acquainted with the Comitess Rosenberg, he came with her to 
 England, and thence he went to Paris, where he remained 
 until the breaking out of the Revolution. He was after one of 
 the collaborators in the Gioi-nale Jtuiiano, then published at 
 Milan ; and established in Dalmatia, under the auspices of Dan- 
 dolo, a periodical called La Dalmuta Veneta. He filled many 
 important offices under the reign of Napoleon up to 1814, in 
 which year he retired from pubhc life. He is the author of a 
 translation from the English of Cooper Widket, entitled " Me- 
 moria Storica sulla Tragedia Italiana," and left many other works 
 of less importance. He died in the year 1825.— A. C. M. 
 
 BENINCASA, Francesco, a native of Ravenna, who lived in 
 the sixteenth centiuy. Tornani considers him one of the first 
 orators of his time. He is the author of many poetical composi- 
 tions. The date of his death is not known. — A. C. M. 
 
 BENINGA, Eggerik, a Dutch chronicler; died in 1562. 
 He was the author of a " Chronicle of East Friesland up to the 
 year 1562." 
 
 BENINI, ViNCENTO, an Italian physician and author, was 
 born at Bologna in 1713, and studied at Padua. He esta- 
 blished a printing-press in his own house, and pubfished editions 
 of eight ancient authors, of which he had corrected the text. 
 His principal writings are, " La Sifilide," a translation intt 
 Italian verse of the Latin poem by Fracastor ; notes on the poem 
 by Luigi Alamanni, entitled " La Coltivazione ;" and Latin notes 
 to the edition of Celsus, published at Padua in 1750. Beniui 
 died in 1764.— W. S. D. 
 
 BENIOWSKI, Maurice Augustus de, a Ilungai'ian tra- 
 veller, bom at Verbova in 1741 ; died 23rd May, 1786. He 
 entered as a lieutenant in the Austrian service, and took part 
 until 1758 in the Seven Years' war. Sometime aftenvards he 
 went to Hamburg, thence to Amsterdam, and subsequently to 
 Plymouth. In these seaports he studied the art of navigation. 
 He next visited Poland, and there having joined the league 
 against Russia, he became colonel-commandant of the cavalry 
 and quarter-master-genoral. In 1769 he was taken prisoner by 
 the Russians, and condemned to be banished to Kamschatka. The 
 vessel having been overtaken by a storm on the voyage thither, 
 would have been lost but for Beniowski, whose skill in naviga- 
 tion enabled Inm to devise means of saving it. This circumstance 
 led to his being received with kindness by the governor, who 
 soon after gave Mm his daughter in marriage. Beniowski, 
 however, had already, in conjunction with several other exiles, 
 formed the plan of making his escape. In this perilous attempt 
 he was joined by his wife, although she had become aware that 
 he had .another wife still alive. In May, 1771, he found means 
 of carrying his scheme into execution, and quitting Kamschatka 
 with sixty-six other persons, set sail for Formosa, and afterwards 
 proceeded towards Jlacao, where his wife died and many of his 
 companions. After this sad event he went to France, where he 
 received a commission to found a colony in Madagascar. Ar- 
 riving in that island in June, 1774, he established a colony at 
 Foulpoint ; and so completely did he succeed in acquiring the
 
 BEN 
 
 505 
 
 BEN 
 
 confidence and esteem of the natives, that they elected him 
 tlieir king. Not long after he revisited Eui'ope for the purpose 
 of seeming for the nation under his government powerful alli- 
 ances and commercial relations ; hut on his arrival in France, 
 finding himself exposed to the enmity of the French government, 
 lie entered the imperial service, and in 1778 assisted at the hattle 
 (f Habelschwerdt. In 1785 he returned to his government at 
 JIadagascar, but the native government of the island sent troops 
 against him, and in an engagement which ensued he fell mor- 
 tally wounded. Beniowski wrote in French an account of his 
 eventful life. It was published at Paiis in 1791, and has since 
 been translated into English. — G. jM. 
 
 BENIT, Anne-Francois, a French physician, born at Mire- 
 eom't in 1796, entered life as a military man, hut afterwards 
 juitted the profession of anns for that of medicine. During his 
 -tudies, however, the unfortunate issue of a duel in which he 
 was engaged, arising out of a quareel at a restam-ant, caused 
 him, although acquitted, to disappear suddenly from Paris in 
 182.3, when he passed into Spain, and joined the insurgents, in 
 whose ranks he was soon afterwards killed. He wrote a small 
 work, called " Idees d'un jeune officier sur I'ctat militaire," 
 Fans. 1820, and also published in the Annales de la Aledecine 
 Pliysiologiqite, an analysis of the system of philosophical anatomy 
 of M. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire. — W. S. D. 
 
 BENIVIENI, DoMiNico, a Florentine theologian, sumamed, 
 (.n accoimt of his subtlety, Scottino (the little Scott), was 
 professor of dialectics at Pisa, and afterwards canon of Florence. 
 He published " Trattato in defensione e probazione della doc- 
 trina e profezie predicate da frate Jeronimo Savonarola nella 
 citta di Firenze," 1496. Died in 1507. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENIVIENI, Jeronymo, bom of a noble family at Florence 
 'a 1453. He was one of the first who raised poetry from the 
 low condition into which it had fallen in the fifteenth century, 
 abandoning the path trodden by Lodovico Pulci in the Mor- 
 cante JIaggiore, and by his brother Lucio in the Griflb Gal- 
 vaneo, and boldly asserting that the standards of poetry and 
 language to be followed by the Itafians, were Dante and Petrarch. 
 A lover of Platonic philosophy, his compositions abound in moral 
 doctrines ; and his canzone, " Dell' Amore Celeste e Divino," 
 contains the loftiest thoughts a contemplative mind could be 
 inspu-ed with. His commentary-, entitled " Commento di Hiero- 
 nuno Benineni Florentine," a folio clition, now considered very 
 rare, was published in Florence in 1500. He was highly esteemed 
 for his uprightness, and was the bosom friend of the celebrated 
 Pico de la ilirandola. He died in 1542.— A. C. M. 
 
 BENJAMIN, the twelfth and youngest son of the patriarch 
 Jacob, born near Bethlehem, about the year 2297 B.C. Rachel, 
 his mother, who died in giving him birth, called him Ben-oni 
 {The son of my sorrow)^ but Jacob called him Benjamin {The 
 son of the right hand). 
 
 BENKENDOKF, Alex^vndek, a Russian general, bom at 
 Esthonia in 1784 ; died in 1844. He was a favourite at the 
 court of St. Petersburg, and, having entered the army, assisted 
 in the campaigns of Germany and France. He rendered import- 
 ant services to Nicolas during the militaiy insuiTection which 
 broke out on the accession of that emperor, to whom he had 
 previously been appointed aid-de-camp. As a member of the 
 commission appointed to investigate the origin and progress of 
 the conspiracy, he manifested so much ability, that he was raised 
 to the rank of chief of police. The title of count was also 
 bestowed on him, and made hereditaiy in liis family. He died 
 of grief, consequent on a diminution of court favoiu-. — G. 51. 
 
 BELNKENDOKF, Constantine, brother of the preceding, a 
 Russian general and diplomatist, born in 1784. At the head 
 of a body of Cossacks, he was one of the first to traverse 
 Germany in pm'suit of the French army. He afterwards dis- 
 tinguished himself in the campaign of Persia, in which he held 
 the rank of general of division. He died at Prawadi of nervous 
 fever, when about to attempt the captm-e of that town. — G. JI. 
 BENKOWITZ, Karl Fkeuerich, a German writer, whose 
 reputation in his own day was considerable. He was bom in 
 1764. His works are numerous, and though they want vigour, 
 they are written with liveliness and humour. He died by his own 
 hand at Glogau in 1807, and his popularity did not long sun-ive. 
 BEN LI, a miniature painter, bom at Verona, who studied with 
 Rubens, and was brought from Venice to Paris by a patronizing 
 French ambassador. — W. T. 
 BENN, Jajies, archdeacon of St. Andrews in the fom-tcenth 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 century. His name sometimes appears as Benedicti, Bennet, 
 Bene, or Biort. It was he who crowned King Da\'id II. in 
 1329, and was soon after made lord great chamberlain of Scot- 
 land. He died in Flanders in 1332, having fled tliither on the 
 invasion of Edward Baliol. — J. B. 
 
 BENNATI, Francesco, an Italian physician, bom at 5Ian- 
 tua in 1798, studied medicine and surgery at Padua and Pavia, 
 and afterwards travelled to Vienna, London, Edinbm-gh, and 
 Paris, at the last of wliich places he was killed on the 9th 
 ^larch, 1834, by a fall from his horse. His earliest work is a 
 Latin dissertation " On diarrhoea," published at Padua in 1826. 
 His other wiitings, wliich are all in French, relate to the mecha- 
 nism, physiology, and pathology of the human voice and its 
 organs. They were published in Paris in 1832 and 1833, and 
 were regarded worthy of one of the prizes founded by JI. de 
 Jlontyon, to be disposed of annually by the Academy of Sciences 
 of Paris.— W. S. D. 
 
 BENNET, Agnes ^Iaria, an English novelist, who died at 
 Brighton in 1805. Her works were very popular, and many of 
 them were translated into French and German. It is said that 
 2000 copies of " Vicissitudes Abroad, or the Ghost of my 
 Father," were disposed of on the day of its publication. 
 
 BENNET, Christopher, an eminent physician of the seven- 
 teenth century, and author of a treatise on consumption, en- 
 titled " Theatri Tabidoinun Vestibulum," and another, " On the 
 nature and method of preparing all sorts of Food," was bom in 
 the year 1617. Having entered Lincoln college, Oxford, when 
 fifteen years old, he took the degree of M.A., and elsewhere, at 
 a subsequent period, that of jM.D. He was a fellow of the 
 London College of Physicians, where he practised with great sac- 
 cess. He died in April, 1655. — T. J. 
 
 BENNETT, Edward Turner, one of the most distinguished 
 English zoologists of the present centuiy, was bom at Hackney, 
 near London, on the 6th January, 1797. He was educated as 
 a surgeon, and practised that profession for several years in the 
 vicinity of Portman Square. Although naturally delicate in 
 health, he devoted himself with the greatest ardoiu- to the study 
 of zoology, and his activity in this, his favourite pursuit, is 
 manifested by his mmicrous writings, by far the greater part of 
 which were published during the last ten or twelve years of his 
 life. These writings consist, for the most part, of descriptive 
 details, and from this circumstance are but little kno^vn to the 
 general pubhc ; but Jlr. Bennett has a further claim to remem- 
 brance, on account of the assistance rendered by him in the 
 organisation of one of the most efficient means now existing, of 
 begetting a popular interest in his favourite science. In 1822, 
 he was very active in the formation of an entomological society, 
 to which he acted as secretary until it ceased to have an inde- 
 pendent existence, and, merging into the Linnean Society, became 
 the nucleus of a zoological club, to which he continued his 
 serdces as secretary. This club, as is well known, constituted 
 the foundation of the Zoological Society of London, first estab- 
 lished in 1826, whose beautiful gardens and extensive menagerie 
 still, after the lapse of more than thirty years, continue to 
 attract many thousand visitors annually, and to furnish them 
 with a better opportunity of observing the appearance and 
 manners of many rare and curious animals, than is aflbrded 
 jirobably by any other menagerie in existence. Of the Zoological 
 Society Mr. Bennett was elected vice-secretary, in which capacity 
 the scientific business of the society was confided to his care : 
 and his contemporaries bear high testimony to the zeal and 
 energy which he exhibited in this position, as also in the still 
 more arduous post of secretary, to which he was elected about 
 1831, and the duties of which he continued to fulfil until his 
 early and much-regi-etted death on the 21st August, 1836. Mr. 
 Bennett's numerous scientific papers, published principally in tlie 
 Proceedings and Transactions of the Zoological Society, bear 
 witness to his activity, and to his extensive and varied acquaint- 
 ance with different departments of zoolog}' ; but according to 
 the testimony of one of his intimate friends, well able to judge 
 of sucli matters (Professor Thomas Bell), they cannot be regarded 
 as doing full justice to his scientific attainments, and his exten- 
 sive acipiaintance with zoological literature, which the kindness 
 of his personal character rendered constantly available to his 
 friends. Jlr. Bennett's only separate works, are the descriptions 
 of "The Tower Jlenagerie," published in 1829, and of the 
 " Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society," which 
 appeared in 1830 and 1831, both written in an elegant and 
 
 3S
 
 BEN 
 
 506 
 
 BEN 
 
 popular style, and containing mucli interesting information upon 
 the natural histoiy of the animals mentioned, with pleasing 
 anecdotes of their behaviour iri confinement. He also prepared 
 an edition of Wliite's Natural History of Selborne, with nume- 
 rous notes, which was published soon after his death. — W. S. D. 
 
 BENNETT or BENETT, Henry, earl of Arlington, an emi- 
 nent statesman of the reign of Charles II., was born in the year 
 1618, and distinguished himself at Chiist church in the univer- 
 sity of 0.\ford. When the civil war broke out, lie was signalized 
 in the royal cause as a wit, a soldier, and a statesman. During 
 the troubles of the rebellion, he retired to France, and afterwards 
 to Italy, while he was trasted by King Charles II., the duke of 
 York, and the royal family, as a faithful servant and able minis- 
 ter. He next managed his master's affans at the comt of 
 Madrid. Upon the restoration, he was created baron of Arling- 
 ton, in the county of Middlesex, and looked upon as an influen- 
 tial minister of state. He is generally considered the head of 
 the party against the great chancellor, Lord Clarendon ; but that 
 earl, who corrected his history when an exile at Kouen, speaks 
 respectfully of him. Lord Ai-lington had a large share in the first 
 Dutch war, and contributed not a little to the completion of what 
 was called the triple alliance. In 1672 he was made a knight 
 of the garter. He was perhaps foremost in the ministry of the 
 cabal. The limits of this work do not allow us to follow him 
 in all his offices, intrigues, and negotiations. He was never 
 popular with King James II. He died July 28, 1685, aged 67, 
 and was buried at Euston in Suffolk, in a vault under the church 
 there which he had erected. Some affirm that on his death-bed 
 he was perverted to the church of Rome ; but it is more certain 
 that he professed himself, and educated his only daughter, a pro- 
 testant. He was an excellent corn-tier and an amiable man. His 
 honom-s were many, and his oj)portunities of self-aggrandizement 
 more, but he died possessed of only a moderate fortune. — T. J. 
 
 BENNET, Sir John, grandfather of the preceding, was 
 judge of the prerogative court of Canterbuiy and chancellor to 
 the archbishop of York, under Elizabeth and her successor. 
 Havuig been accused of bribery, he was degraded and heavily 
 fined. He died in poverty in 1627. 
 
 BENNET, BENNETT, or BENET, John (for his name is 
 variously spelt), a celebrated musician of the Elizabethan era, 
 chiefly kno\^'n as a composer of madrigals. He published one set 
 of madrigals in 1599, which lie terms "his first works," dedi- 
 cated to lialph Asshcton, Esq., "one of her majestie's justices 
 of peace, &c.," whom we may mfer was his patron. He contri- 
 buted one madrigal to Thomas Morley's celebrated work, The 
 Triumphs of Oriiina, 1601 ; and five part songs to Eavenscroft's 
 Brief Discourse," &c., 1614. In the latter work the editor 
 calls him " a gentleman admirable for all kind of composures, 
 either in art or ayre, simple or mixt, of what nature soever ; in 
 whose works the very life of that passion which the ditty sounded 
 is so truly exprest, as if he had measured it alone by his own soul, 
 and invented no other harmony than his own sensible feeUng 
 did aftbrd him." Beyond this short eulogium we meet with no 
 particulars respecting this great master of vocal haiinony. The 
 dates of his bnth and death are alike unloiown. — E. F. R. 
 
 * BENNET, John Joseph, an eminent botanist connected 
 with the botanical department of the British Museum, and secre- 
 tary of the Linnean Society. He is a fellow of the Royal Society 
 of London, and a corresponding member of the Royal Botanical 
 Society of Ratisbon. He has edited Horsfield's Plantoo Javanicaj 
 Rariores, and has contributed many papers to scientific jom-nals 
 and societies. — J. H. B. 
 
 BENNET, Thomas, an English divine of considerable note 
 in his day as a controversial writer, but whoso works have, from 
 their very natm-e, been forgotten, was born at Salisbury in 1673. 
 He was successively rector of St. James', Colchester, chaplain 
 to Chelsea hospital, and vicar of St. Giles', Cripplegate. He 
 dearly loved the Church of England, and set himself to vnite 
 against all manner of heresy and schism, attacking in turn the 
 dissenters in liis " Answer to their Plea of Separation," the 
 Roman catholics in his " Confutation of Popeiy," the Friends 
 in his " Confutation of Quakerism," — a reply to Barclay's Apo- 
 logy, the nonjurors whom he "Proved to be Schismatical on their 
 own Principles," as well as the deniers of the doctrine of the 
 Trinity in his " Examination" of Clarke. He also paraphrased 
 and expounded the Prayer-book, wrote an "Essay on the Thirty- 
 nine Articles," and vindicated " The Rights of the Clergy of the 
 Christian Church." He was distinguished as a scholar, and pub- 
 
 lished in 1726 a respectable Hebrew grammar. His innumerable 
 battles came to a close in 1728, when he died of apoplexy. — J. B. 
 
 * BENNETT, the Rev. Williasi James Earley, some- 
 time incumbent of St. Paul's church, Knightsbridge, London, 
 and one of the chief leaders of the tractarian party in the Esta- 
 blished Church of England, was born about the year 1806. In 
 1823 he entered Christ Chm'ch, Oxford, of which he became a 
 student. Ha\'ing held the incumbency of Portman chapel for a 
 few years, in 1843 he was appointed to St. Paul's, Knights- 
 bridge. Whilst there he erected in his district a second church, 
 dedicated to St. Bamabas, in which the sendees, on its consecra- 
 tion m 1850, were conducted in a manner so nearly approxi- 
 mating to those of the church of Rome that a popular riot 
 ensued, and the bishop of London was glad to accept Mr. Ben- 
 nett's resignation of his benefice. He had taken a prominent 
 part in the establishment of the London " Church Union " in 
 1848, and was one of those clergymen who most vehemently 
 opposed the decision given by Lord Langdale and the privy 
 council, in the celebrated case of Gorham v. the Bishop of Exeter. 
 (See Gorham, Rev. G. C.) Within a few months, however, he 
 accepted the vicarage of Frome Selwood, Somersetshire, into 
 which he was inducted by the late Bishop Bagot — a proceeding 
 which caused some severe strictm'cs in the house of commons. 
 Mr. Bennet is known as the author of a work " On the Book 
 of Common Prayer" and another " On the Eucharist," and of 
 several controversial pamphlets. — E. W. 
 
 * BENNETT, William Sterndale, Mus. Doc, was bom at 
 Sheffield, April 13, 1816, where his father, Robert Bennett, was 
 organist. He is conspicuous in the musical history of the present 
 period, as having, by his unswerving fideUty to the loftiest prin- 
 ciples of his art, and still more by his natural and highly refined 
 ability to embody these in his works, been eftectively instrumental 
 in raising the standard of music in this country, and in gainuig 
 consideration for the earnest pretensions of English music abroad. 
 We may suppose that the occupation of his father tended to the 
 immediate development of his organization ; but, becoming an 
 orphan at three years old, he derived nothing from his parent's 
 musical pursuits, save the inestimable advantage of tliis early 
 impression. At his father's death, he was removed to tli'j 
 care of his gi-andfather at Cambridge, where in 1824 he entered 
 the choir of King's college chapel. Already he gave proof of an 
 uncommon aptitude formusic; so strong, that two years afterwards 
 he was taken from this institution to be placed in the Royal 
 academy of music in London. Passing through the classes of Mr. 
 Lucas and Dr. Crotch for composition, and of Mr. W. H. Holmes 
 for the pianoforte, he became the pupil of Mr. Potter in both 
 these departments, whose entire merit it is to have fully developed 
 the remarkable talent they had prepared for his care, — fully 
 developed, because it was while yet under his direction, that Ben- 
 nett produced some of the works wliich most honour his name, no 
 less admirable for matmity of style than freshness of invention ; 
 and while yet under his direction, he attained the excellence as a 
 pianist which won him the esteem he still maintains. Among 
 his academical productions which have not appeared in print, an 
 overture to the Tempest and two symphonies must be named as 
 possessing gi*eat interest. Prior even to these he virote his Con- 
 certo in D minor, in 1832, the rare merit of which attracted 
 general attention to the young composer. He played it at the 
 prize concert of the academy at midsummer, 1833, when Men- 
 delssohn was present, who, quick to appreciate the indications in 
 the music and its performance of approaching excellence, gave 
 Bennett such warm encouragement as true genius only can extend. 
 The academy comnuttee paid the cost of publishing this first 
 concerto for the author's advantage, and thus conferred an equal 
 benefit on their institution in the credit the scholar reflected on 
 the school. The Concerto in E flat, a production of the ensuing 
 autumn, shows no longer the immediate effect upon the com- 
 poser's mind of the classic masterpieces which, with him as with 
 every genuine artist, were the seeds of his originality ; but the 
 decided style manifest in this work shows the now indirect influ- I 
 ence of the great models, from a perfect knowledge of which alone i 
 can result a mastery of the principles of construction which have i 
 been unfolded through successive generations, and a freedom in 
 the employment of resources, which, being accumulated from all, I 
 are common to all that have the power to appropriate them. ; 
 His overture to the Meny Wives of Windsor, still unpublished, i 
 is a work of charming freshness, which preceded the composition 
 in 1834 of that to Parisina ; the depth of feeling, the flow of
 
 ideas, and tlieir sMIful arrangement that distinguished this last 
 named, associate it with the highest productions of its class. 
 The Concerto in C minor, another fruit of this fertile year, has 
 all the characteristics of classicality ; the stately hrcadth of the 
 first movement, the dreamy mystery of the andante, and the fire 
 of the finale, are throughout entirely individual to tlie author ; 
 but the merit of the whole is common to this and to the best 
 extant works of its kind. At one of the early concerts of tlie 
 then promising society of British musicians in this same year, 
 Bennett played his second concerto, and he thus gained such 
 general acknowledgment, that the Philharmonic directors engaged 
 him to repeat the performance at the first concert of then- fol- 
 lowing season, when his success was most triumphant. Tlie 
 next year was occupied with productions of less importance, 
 though, perhaps, of more extensive popularity ; but in 183G an 
 unprinted concerto in F minor, and the fanciful and graceful 
 overture, " The Naiades" (the work of his which is most 
 played in public), brought him again before the highest musical 
 tribunals. It was now at the suggestion of Mr. Attwood that the 
 munificent firm of Broadwood, who have done more for the 
 advancement of music through the encouragement of musicians 
 in this country, than any other individual or institution has 
 effected, oflered to defray Bennett's expenses for a year's resi- 
 dence in Leipzig, where, by constant intercom-se with Mendels- 
 sohn, hy constant opportunity of enlarging his experience, and by 
 constant occasion for exercising his powers, he might improve 
 himself and extend his reputation. He accordingly quitted the 
 academy of which he was still an inmate, and went to establish 
 liis and his country's character in the city which then, from 
 a combination of circumstances, possessed more advantages for 
 a musician than at this time any place in the world affords. 
 Betm-ning in the autumn of 1837, he left a name of which, per- 
 haps, the highest acknowledgment is the attempt on the part of 
 some shallow critics to traduce it. Repeated successes as a pianist, 
 and the production of some of his best chamber works, fill up 
 his history till 1840. He then wrote another concerto in F 
 minor (that which is published), and so created such a rival to 
 its predecessor in C minor, as few writers could have produced. 
 He now spent another twelvemonth in Leipzig, confirming the 
 impression of his former visit. Here he wrote his Caprice in E 
 for pianoforte and orchestra, and his overture " The Wood 
 Nymphs" which fully sustain the high character of his best pro- 
 ductions. In 1843 he gave his first series of chamber concerts, 
 which were continued annually till 1856, and brought his merit 
 as a player periodically under public notice. In 1844 he com- 
 peted for the musical professorship in the university of Edin- 
 bm'gh against several candidates, of whom Jlr. Hugh Pierson 
 was elected. In 1849 Bennett founded the Bach Society, for 
 the study and performance of the music of the master after 
 whom it is named, and is still the chairman and conductor of 
 this institution. Nothing that may be cited within the pre- 
 sent limits marks the career of this musician until 1856, when 
 he was engaged as permanent conductor of the concerts of 
 the Philharmonic Society. In this same year he was elected 
 by an overwhehning majority to the musical chair in the uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, to which locality his early associations, 
 and his fulfilment of the highest liopes that can have been 
 entertained of him, strongly endear him : subsequently to that, 
 he was created doctor of music by tliis seminary of learning. 
 As an executant, Bennett is characterized by beautiful mechan- 
 ism, exquisite grace, and that suiging style, which is the strong- 
 est hnk of sympathy between a player and his audience. As 
 a composer, it is fashionable with some to accuse him of imi- 
 tating Mendelssohn, by which they prove their utter ignorance 
 of his music. He has fancy, he has feeling, he has fire, and, 
 most of all, he has a peculiar grace which distinguislies no less 
 his phraseology than the turning of his ornamental passages, 
 and all these are manifested in a manner as individual to 
 himself, as is that of any artist possessing the traits which 
 constitute a style. This individuality is as obvious in his "Foun- 
 tain," in his " Genevieve," in his rondo " Piacevole," in his 
 song, " To Chloe in sickness," as in any of his larger works ; 
 it consists, first, in his original train of thought ; second, in his 
 command of resources, which enables him to mould his ideas at 
 will. They who appreciate him the highest blame him the 
 most, that during the last fifteen years lie has almost entirely 
 ceased to compose ; and candour must admit the scanty produc- 
 tions of this long period want the merit, when they even have 
 
 the pretensions, of those admirable earlier works, of which he 
 and his country have just reason to be proud. The lesser 
 interest of these later productions may, perhaps, be ascribed to 
 his having lost the spontaneous vigour of youthful impulse, 
 without replacing it with the fluency which results from habit 
 and the uitensity that is given by concentration ; and his defi- 
 ciency in both these is extenuatuigly referred to his excessive 
 occupation in teaching. The following are his publications : — 
 For orchestra — overtures to Parisina, the Naiades, and the 
 Wood Nymphs. For the pianoforte and orchestra — Concertos 
 in D minor, in E flat, in C minor, in F minor, and Caprice in 
 E. For pianoforte and string instruments — Sestet, pianoforte, 
 two violins, viola, violoncello, and c. basso ; Chamber Trio, 
 pianoforte, viol, and violoncello; Sonata Duo, pianoforte and 
 violincello. For pianoforte duet — Three Diversions. For piano- 
 forte solo — Six Studies ; Sonata in F minor ; Fantasia in F 
 sharp minor ; Suite de pieces ; Preludes and Lessons ; three 
 IMusical Sketches ; three Romances ; three Impromptus ; TAma- 
 bile e I'Appassionata ; Introduzione e Pastorale, and Rondino and 
 Capriccio in A minor ; Capriccio in D minor ; Allegro Grazioso ; 
 Rondo Piacevole ; Scherzo ; Tenia e Variazioni ; Geiievitive ; Pas 
 triste pas gai, Rondeau ; Minuetto Espressivo. For voice and 
 pianoforte — two sets of Six Songs ; two single Songs ; three 
 Duets.— G. A. M. 
 
 BENNINGSEN, Levin Augustus Theopiiii.us, a cele- 
 Iirated Russian general, bom at Brunswick in 1745 ; died in 
 1826. He entered the army in 1760, as lieutenant of the 
 Hanoverian guard. In 1773 he took service under the Empress 
 Catherine, in the war against the Turks. Raised to the rank 
 of major, he served under Roumantsof, first against the Turks, 
 and afterwards against the rebel Pougatchef. In 1787 he dis- 
 tinguished himself at the siege of Otchakof, and received the 
 grade of colonel. In 1791 he was selected by the Empress 
 Catherine as a fit leader to carry out her designs against Poland ; 
 and having signalized himself in numerous engagements, he was 
 nominated major-general. He was one of the principal actors 
 in the conspiracy against the Emperor Paul, though he was not 
 present at the murder of that monarch. In 1801, when Alex- 
 ander ascended the throne, he appointed Benningsen governor- 
 general of Lithuania, and in 1802 general-in-chief of the cavalry. 
 In the war against France in 1805, he had the command of the 
 army of the north. He superseded Kamenskoi as commander- 
 in-chief, and in that capacity engaged the French army in 1807, 
 in the battle of Eylau, in which both sides claimed the victoiy. 
 Shortly afterwards Benningsen gave in his demission, which, 
 however, was not accepted until after the peace of Tilsit, when 
 he retired to his estate. In 1812 he again entered into active 
 service, and commanded the centre of the Russian army at the 
 battle of Moskowa, He afterwards took the command of tlic 
 army of resei-ve in Poland, and contributed in a large measure 
 to the victory obtained by the allies at Leipzig. At Zweinaum- 
 dorf, where he was victorious, he was raised to the rank of 
 count on the field of battle, and shortly afterwards was made 
 commander-in-chief of the Russian armies. In 1818 he again 
 resigned his command, and retired to his estates in the kingdom 
 of Hanover, where he died. He left a work, entitled " Pensees 
 sur quelques Connaissances Indispensables a un Ofiicier de 
 Cavalarie," Riga, 1794 and 1803. — G. M. 
 
 BENNINI, SiGiSMOND, of Cremona, pupil of Masarotti, 
 painted both figures and landscapes. Died in 1728.- — W. T. 
 
 BENNOR or BENNO, a German cardinal and archpresbyter, 
 who lived in the second part of the eleventh century. He wrote 
 a life of Gregory VII., which has been decried as a mere satire 
 and libel on the great Hildebrand; but though written with a 
 manifest bias, its facts are generally esteemed worthy of some 
 credit. Bennorwas a partisan of Clement III., and a subscriber 
 at the council held at Rome in 1098. — J. B. 
 
 BENO or BENNO, the bishop of ]\Ieisscn, against whose 
 canonization, in the fif'tcenth century, Luther wrote his tract, 
 " The New Idol and Old Demon of Meissen." Bono flourished 
 in the eleventh century. The Germans, it is said, were wont to 
 consider him the lord of the rain and sunshine. 
 
 BENOIST, bishop of j\Iarseilles in the first half of the thir- 
 teenth century. He twice made a journey into Palestine. His 
 treatise, " De sunima Trinitate et fide Catholica in Decretali- 
 bus," was publislied by Baluzc in 1713 in vol. vi. of his Miscel- 
 lanea. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENOIST, M. (n(5e) Delaville. This lady was a portrait
 
 BEN 
 
 508 
 
 BEN 
 
 painter, born at St. Germain about 1770, studied under that 
 cold, sanguinary classicalist, David. She painted Napoleon, 
 ■whose face was the ideal of the conqueror's, and his pretty, fair 
 Austrian wife. She obtained a medal in 1801 for her " Sleep 
 of Infancy."— W. T. 
 
 BENOIST, PiERKE Vincent, born at Angers, 1758. Hav- 
 ing attracted the attention of Buonaparte by articles in a news- 
 paper opposed to the principles of the revolutionists, the former, 
 as soon as the coup d'etat of the 18th brumaire raised him to 
 the height of power, appointed Bonnist to an important post in 
 tlie home department. After the abdication of the emperor at 
 Fontainebleau, Benoist preserved his place by swearing fidelity 
 to the Bourbons, fell into disgrace during the Hundred Days, and 
 after Waterloo was restored to office. Elected a member of the 
 chamber of deputies, he supported the government with such 
 zeal, that in 1828 he was raised to the peerage. All this time 
 he carried on his contributions to the government journals, and 
 translated English works, while his wife sought distinction as a 
 painter. He died in Paris, 1834.— J. F. C. 
 
 BENOIST, Zacharie, a French admiral, lived in the second 
 half of the thirteenth century. He was descended from an 
 ancient f;vmily of Genes, and became celebrated by two victories 
 which he obtained over the Pisans in 1284 and 128G. 
 
 BENOIT, DE Sainte Maure, a troubadour at the court of 
 Henry II. He wrote in verse a chronicle of the dukes of Nor- 
 mandy, which was long held in high repute, is preserved in the 
 Ilarleian Library, and was translated into prose in the fourteenth 
 contui-y. It seems to have been written at royal command ; 
 our author being thus historically the first of the English poet 
 laureates. There is there also a life of Thomas a'Becket, which 
 has sometimes been ascribed to Benoit. 
 
 BENOIT, Ei.iE, a French protestant theologian, born at Paris 
 in 1640; died in 1728. On the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes he fled from Alen9on to Delft. He wrote " Histoire 
 de I'edit de Nantes," and " Histoire et apologie de la retraite des 
 pasteurs, h cause de la persecution." 
 
 BENOIT, Jean, surnamed Benedicti, a French monk of 
 tlie order of St. Dominic, author of " Introductiones Dialectica;," 
 was professor of theology at Paris, and afterwards abb^ du Val 
 des Ecoliers. Died in 1563. 
 
 BENOIT, Jean, a French preacher and historian, bom at 
 Carcasonne in 1632, belonged to the order of St. Dominic. He 
 published " Histoire des Albigeois et des Vaudois," 1691, wth 
 a continuation, 1693. Died in 1705. 
 
 BENOIT, Michel, a learned French Jesuit, misslonaiy of his 
 order in China from 1745 till his death in 1774. He ingi-a- 
 tiated himself with the emperor, Kien-Long, by his skill in 
 chemistry and mechanics ; under cover of a zeal for which 
 sciences, he laboured industriously as a propagandist. 
 
 BENOIT, Ren6, a French theologian, confessor to Hemy IV., 
 was born at Savenieres, near Angers, in 1521, and died in 1608. 
 While deacon of the faculty of theology, he published a transla- 
 tion of the bible with notes, which, on account of its resemblance 
 to that of Geneva, was condemned by the pope and the doctors 
 of the Sorbonne. He was afterwards named bishop of Troyes, 
 but the pope refused to ratify the nomination. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENOIT XIII., antipope, Pedro de Luna, cardinal of Aragon, 
 a Spaniard, and one of the principal actors in the great schism 
 in the papacy at the close of the fourteenth and beginning of the 
 fifteenth century, was elected by the cardinals at Avignon in 
 September, 1394, in succession to the antipope, Clement VII. 
 The schism had already lasted for sixteen years ; and de Luna, 
 who was insatiably ambitious and a consummate hypocrite, had, 
 up to the time of his election, uniformly professed the greatest 
 anxiety to terminate the dispute, and restore peace to the church. 
 But after he had once assumed the tiara, he quickly showed that 
 nothing was farther from his thoughts than to resign it. In vain 
 did a council held at Paris, whose decision was assented to by 
 the kings of France and England, urge the necessity for the 
 resignation of both pontiffs, and send an embassy to Benoit, 
 consisting of the dukes of Berri, Burgmidy, and Orleans, and 
 several prelates, to induce him to comply with their proposal. 
 Benoit rejected this plan altogether, and, as a substitute, merely 
 proposed a conference between himself and Boniface IX., the 
 true pope, a measure manifestly inadequate to meet the emer- 
 gency. It is unnecessary here to enter into the maze of negotia- 
 tions and intrigues, and the various political combinations, which 
 enabled Benoit — though his claims were more than once formally 
 
 repudiated, even by the French king and clergy and the univer- 
 sity of Paris — still to maintain for many yeai-s a precarious and 
 doubtful standing, and even at thnes to extend his " obedience," 
 not only over France and Spain, but even over Scotland and a 
 part of Italy. The scandals and perplexities occasioned by such 
 a state of things throughout Eiu-ope, and the loss of authority 
 and influence of every kind which it entailed on the papacy, may 
 be readily conceived. At length the cardinals of the Eoman 
 obedience, acting independently of the reigning pope, Gregory 
 XII., who had succeeded Boniface IX., convoked the council of 
 Pisa, in the year 1409, for the purpose of terminating the schism. 
 This council, the legality of whose convocation remains doubtful, 
 passed sentence of deposition against both Benoit and Gregory 
 XII., and raised to the papacy Peter of Candia, a Gr 'ck, who 
 took the name of Alexander V. But the I'cmedy applied by the 
 council of Pisa proved to be worse than the disease ; for neither 
 Benoit nor Gregory would acknowledge the validity of their sen- 
 tence, so that the spectacle was now seen in Christendom of 
 three pontiffs, each claiming to be the true successor of St. 
 Peter, whose clashing decrees and conflicting anathemas tended 
 to destroy all respect for the apostolic see. The restoration of 
 order was mainly owing to the exertions of the Emperor Sigis- 
 mund, who prevailed upon John XXIII. , the successor of Ale.x- 
 ander V., to summon the great council of Constance in 1415. 
 By tills council John and Benoit were formally and finally 
 deposed, while Gregory resigned, and the pious Cardinal Colonna 
 was elected pope, taking the name of Martin V. The schism 
 was thus terminated. Benoit, indeed, still maintained his pre- 
 tensions, asserting that the entire church was at Peniscola (the 
 small Spanish town to which he had retired), as formerly the 
 entire human race was with Noah in the ark ; but he retained 
 only an insignificant number of adherents. He died in the year 
 1424, having taken care, as the last act of his life, to perpetuate, 
 as far as lay in his power, the misery and mischief of which his 
 conduct had been the fruitful source for thirty years, by creating 
 fom- new cardinals. These cardinals elected the antipope, Cle- 
 ment VIII., who, however, in a short time gave in his submis- 
 sion to Martin V. — T. A. 
 
 BENOLO, Facio, a painter of the Valdanio, an imitator of 
 Lamazzo.— W. T. 
 
 BENOilONT, Pierre, a French physician and philantlu-n- 
 pist, born at Machault (Ardennes) on 4tli March, 1679, studied 
 medicine under Duverney and Sardy, and practised his profession 
 at Paris, where he acquu-ed an immense fortune. Of this he 
 made a most liberal use, freely assisting his necessitous friends, 
 the poor inhabitants, and the schools of his native place. He 
 was also a liberal benefactor to the Hospital of Incurables. He 
 died in Paris on the 27tli June, 1772, his only works being somf 
 memoirs and observations read before the old Academy of Sur- 
 gery, of which he was dean.- — W. S. D. 
 
 BENOZZO, a Florentine painter of history and portraits, 
 born in 1539 ; died in 1617. — W. T. 
 
 BENSEN, Karl Daniel Heinricii, a learned German born 
 m 1761. He filled the chair of financial science at Wiirtzburg 
 with gi-eat credit and popularity, and has left several works on 
 the subjects connected with his professorship, which are highly 
 esteemed. He died at Wiirtzburg in 1805. — J. F. W. 
 
 BENSERADE, Isaac, born at Lyons-La Forest, in Upper 
 Normandy ; of a protestant family, but educated in the religion 
 of the state. Cardinal Pachelieu, to whom he was described to 
 be a relative on very doubtful evidence, provided for him in the 
 church. Means were thus found to enable him to pursue occu- 
 pations, which, if not discreditable, can scarcely be regarded as 
 consistent with the proprieties of the ecclesiastical profession. 
 For twenty years he wrote verses for the " ballets," then the 
 fashionable amusement of the court. It was a pleasant pastime, 
 in which gods and heroes were introduced discussing the inci- 
 dents of some old mythological story with well understood allu- 
 sions to the passing topics of the day. These dialogues are now 
 dull enough when the key to their true meaning is lost. For 
 rude things rapid and lively talents were of more use than genius, 
 and these Benserade had abundantly. Benserade was popular 
 enough to have provoked a satire of Jloliere, who sought to bring 
 him into ridicule by exaggerating the peculiarities of his style. 
 Richelieu gave him a pension of one hundred crowns, which he i 
 lost by an epigram. The queen gave him a pension of a thou- i 
 sand crowns ; and in bounties of this kind he is said to have 
 recei\'ed ten thousand crowns a year. The names of tragedies i
 
 BEN 
 
 509 
 
 BEN 
 
 of liis are recorded — " Cleopatra," " The Death of Achilles," 
 and some three or four others. There are also twenty-four 
 hallets. It is amusing to think that excitement arises occasion- 
 ally from the most trifling causes. The historians of French 
 literature tell us, that in 1651 a controversy raged in Paris on the 
 relative merits of two soimets — one by Voiture on Urania, the other 
 on Job, by Benserade. Society was divided, as in political parties, 
 into " Uranians" and " Jobelins." At the head of the first was 
 Madame de Longueville — the second was led by the Prince de 
 Conti. A good many amusing epigrams were circulated on the 
 subject, one by Comeille, who dccidi's the question by saying, 
 that one is the best written, but that he prefers the other. 
 Benserade publislied some " ronileux" on the Metamorphoses 
 of Ovid. The king gave him a thousand louis-d'ors to pay for 
 engravings. Mademoiselle Scuderi wrote some good verses, 
 praising the paper, printing, gilding, all — 
 
 "Ilormis les vers, qu' il falloit laisser faire, 
 A la Fontaine." 
 
 Benserade was a member of the Academy, and a speech of his, 
 in which he described his brother savans, created some amuse- 
 ment and gave great offence. Benserade became weary of court 
 life, and retired to Chatilly — passed into devotion, and paraphrased 
 the psalms. His garden was ornamented in the style of his 
 day, with statues and inscriptions, in which he bids fortune and 
 love a formal farewell. His death at seventy-eight cannot be 
 called premature. — J. A., D. 
 
 BENSI, GiuiLio, pupil of Vaggi at Genoaabout 1668. Painted 
 liistoiy and subjects of architectural perspective, more learned 
 than inventive. His best work in the sea-terrace city is a fresco 
 of " the Coronation of the Virgin," an old traditional subject, at 
 St. Domenico.— W. T. 
 
 BENSLEY, Thomas, a celebrated English printer, who died 
 in 1833. He did much to advance typography in England, and 
 has won for himself an honoia-able place in the annals of the art. 
 
 BENSON, George, D.D., an English dissenting minister, 
 born at Great Salkeld in Cumberland in 1699. His reputation 
 for learning procured him the notice of Hoadly, Butler, and 
 Conybeare. He Latterly became an Arian. Besides a consider- 
 able number of sennons, some commentaries, and occasional 
 tracts, he published a " History of the First Planting of Chris- 
 tianity ;" " The Reasonableness of the Christian Religion," &c. ; 
 and a " Histoiy of the Life of Jesus Christ ;" the last published 
 in 1764, a year after the death of its author. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENSON, Joseph, Wesleyan minister and theological writer, 
 bom 25th Jan., 1748, at Melmerby, in the county of Cumber- 
 land, and being designed by his father for the ministry in the estab- 
 lished church, received a respectable classical and mathematical 
 education. When about si.xteen years of age, he united himself 
 to the Wesleyan Methodist Society, and was in 176C appointed 
 by the Rev. John Wesley to the classical mastership of Kings- 
 wood school. In 1770, with the concurrence of Mr. Wesley, he 
 accepted the office of head-master of the countess of Hunting- 
 don's seminary at Trevecca in South Wales, which, in nine 
 months, he resigned, in consequence of his theological opinions 
 not being acceptable to her ladyship and her coadjutors. Mean- 
 while he had been keeping terms at St. Edmund's hall, university 
 of Oxford; but as his occasional religious services proved to be 
 obstacles in the way of his receiving orders in the established 
 church, he left the university, and was, in August, 1771, received 
 into the Wesleyan ministry, and appointed to the London circuit. 
 In succession, he exercised his ministry in the principal towns of 
 England, enjoying, during the lifetime of Mr. Wesley, no small 
 share of his confidence, and after his death, taking a leading 
 part in the government of the Wesleyan connection. In 1798, 
 and again in 1810, he filled the office of president of the confer- 
 ence; and was, from 1803, editor of the Wesleyan Mwjazine. His 
 literary labours were unremitted, and were for the most part carried 
 on in connection with the duties of his public ministry. Besides 
 editing the works of the Rev. John Wesley (17 vols. 8vo), and those 
 of the Rev. John Fletcher (9 vols. 8vo), and the first 11 vols, 
 of the Christian Library, he wrote several treatises in defence of 
 the orthodox faith against Priestley and others ; tracts in defence 
 of Methodism ; a Life of Fletcher (an admirable piece of bio- 
 graphy) ; and sundry sermons : but his greatest work is his 
 " Commentary on the Holy Scriptures," in 6 vols. 4to, which 
 has been adopted by the Wesleyan conference as a standard 
 work, and has by them been characterized as marked " by solid 
 learning, soundness of theological opinion, and an edifying 
 
 attention to experimental and practical religion." He died in 
 London, February 16, 1821. After his death, two volumes of 
 sermons, and three volumes of sketches and skeletons of sennons 
 were published by his executors. It would be an injustice to 
 his memory if we were not to make especial mention of his 
 extraordinary power as a preacher. He was remarkable for 
 the scriptural character of his discourses, and for his irresistible 
 applications to the consciences of his hearers. The Rev. Robert 
 Hall of Leicester observed to a friend after hearing him — "His 
 sennon reminds me more of Demosthenes than any preaching I 
 ever heard before." — W. B. B. 
 
 BENSON, IMartix, D.D, bishop of Gloucester from 1734 to 
 1752. The life of Bishop Benson has not been written, but the 
 following facts concerning one who well deserves to be remem- 
 bered, are gathered from his monument in Gloucester cathedral, 
 and from Bishop Porteus's life of Archbishop Seeker. He was 
 the son of John Benson, prebendary, and grandson of George 
 Benson, dean, of Hereford, his grandmother being a daughter of 
 Dr. Samuel Fell, dean of Christ church, Oxford. He was born at 
 Cradley, Herefordshire, April 23, 1689 ; and educated at the 
 Charterhouse, and at Christ church. Having been ordained 
 deacon, February 21, 1713, and priest, March 13, 1715, he 
 became successively archdeacon of Berkshire, Januaiy 1720; 
 prebendary of Salisbury, August, 1720 ; prebendary of Durham, 
 Februaiy, 1723-4; chaplain to King George II, October, 1727; 
 rector of Bletchley, Bucks, January, 1727. His first patron was 
 Bishop Talbot of Durham, whose son, wlien on his death-bed, 
 recommended to his notice his three friends, Benson, Butler, 
 afterwards bishop of Durham, and Seeker, afterwards archbishop 
 of Canterbuiy. The latter of these married Benson's sister. In 
 1734-5, the sees of Bristol and Gloucester being vacant. Seeker 
 was consecrated to the former, and Benson to the latter. From 
 this post he refused to be translated, and to the close of his life 
 devoted all his energies to the faithful dischai'ge of his sacred 
 duties. He was one of the first to recognize the talents and 
 piety of George Wliitfield, afterwards so celebrated as a noncon- 
 formist preacher, whom he ordained both deacon and priest. Por- 
 teus speaks of him as " one of the most agreeable and virtuous 
 men of his time; " and one, who was well qualified to judge, say.s, 
 " he was from his youth to his latest age the delight of all who 
 knew him. Wherever he went, he carried cheerfulness and 
 improvement along with him." " He was well skilled in mathe- 
 matics, painting, architecture, and the other fine arts." His 
 worth may, in a great degree, be inferred from his most 
 intimate friends, among whom, besides Butler and Seeker, was 
 the celebrated Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, whom in con- 
 junction with him, even the satirical Pope felt bound to praise — 
 
 " Manners with candour are to Benson given. 
 To Berkeley every virtue under heaven." 
 
 The united church of England and Ireland has seldom sustained 
 a severer loss than in the year 1752, in the short space of which, 
 Benson, Berkeley, and Butler, were all called to their rest. In 
 life they were united in all holy works ; and in death, doubtless, 
 they found the same peace through the same Redeemer. — -T. S. P. 
 
 Bent, J. van de, a landscape painter, died in 1650. He 
 studied under Wouvermans, A. Vandevelde, and Berchem. He 
 must have had a large share of the Dutch commercial spirit of 
 acquisitiveness, for he died of giief at having 4000 guilders 
 stolen from him. — W. T. 
 
 BENT-AICHAH, daughter of Ahmed, an Arabian poetess 
 of Cordova ; died in 1009, equally distinguished by her vulues 
 and poetic talents. 
 
 * BENTHAM, George, F.L.S., a distinguished botanist, who 
 has made many contributions to the cause of science. Ho is the 
 author of "A Catalogue of the Plants indigenous to the Pyi-enees 
 and the Lower Languedoc ; " "A Sjmopsis of East Indian Sca- 
 phularinea3 ; " "A Description of the Genera and Species of 
 Labiata3 ;" "Commentaries on the Leguminosffi;" "Description 
 of the Plants of Hartweg, Spruce, and others ;" and " Botany 
 of the Voyage of H.M.S. Sulpliur." His valuable herbarium has 
 been presented to the Kew collection. — J. H. B. 
 
 BENTHAM, Jeremy, was born in London, in the year 1748. 
 His father, Jeremiah Bentham, was in good practice as a solicitor, 
 and he took care to give his son the noblest of all inherit- 
 ances — a sound and comprehensive education. At eight years 
 of age, Jeremy was sent to Westminster school, where he not 
 merely learned the rudiments of Latin and Greek, but got a 
 rough initiation into human life, that eaidy turned his attentior
 
 BEN 
 
 510 
 
 BEN 
 
 to speculate on the motives of men's actions. Even at this 
 early period, he was familiarly known under the soubriquet of 
 " the philosopher," and his subsequent life justified the appella- 
 tion. Whether he attained tnith or not, is a matter still unde- 
 termined and sub judice ; but that he assiduously courted the 
 fair lady for the long period of seventy years, does not admit of 
 reasonable doubt. After remaining five years at Westminster 
 school, he was entered at Queen's college, Oxford, where more 
 Latin and more Greek were crammed into him ; but where fortu- 
 nately he was allowed to wander at his own sweet will, " in the 
 shady places of philosophy." Things went smoothly enough 
 ■vnth. him till he was about to take his M.A. degree, when the 
 prelimin.uy operation of signing the Thirty -Nine Articles brought 
 iiim to a stand, as it had done many good and tme men before, 
 and as it has done many since, till in our own day the ceremony 
 has been discontinued altogether. He did sign the Articles, but 
 he never ceased to think of his act and deed ^^'ith gi'eat sore- 
 ness. At Oxford he had the opportunity of attending the course 
 of lectures on the laws of England, that were first delivered in 
 the year 1753, by Sir William Blackstone, and that aftenwards 
 attracted an unusual share of attention, when published under 
 the title of Commentaries on the Laws of England. Blackstone 
 continued to repeat the lectures for many years, and he had 
 estabhshed for himself a great name by the time that young 
 Bentham attended his prelections. The same "individuality" 
 or independence of spirit as prompted "the philosopher" to 
 examine the Thirty-Nine Articles offered for his acceptance before 
 signing them, led him to call in question some of Blackstone's 
 positions, and his first publication was accordingly directed 
 against his teacher in the law. Bentham was dissatisfied with 
 the general drift and tendency of Blackstone's speculations; but 
 he singled out one particular portion for attack, and in an 
 anonymous pamphlet, entitled "A Fragment on Government," 
 he pursued the commentator with as little remorse, as Jlr. 
 Cobbett would have shown in hunting out gi-ammatical errors in 
 a king's speech. In this work, Bentham treats, — 1. Of the for- 
 mation of government ; 2. Of the fonns of government ; and, 3. 
 Of the British constitution. Blackstone had called forth various 
 critics before Bentham appeared, and among others, the celebrated 
 Dr. Priestley, who had incidentally spoken of the " greatest happi- 
 ness of the greatest nmuber," as being the only intelligible rule of 
 government. There was nothing particul;u"ly new in the idea. 
 Indeed it may be considered a free translation of the well-known 
 maxim of the Roman law, Salus jiopuli suprema lex. The 
 principle of utility had received the express sanction of Bacon, 
 who had long ago remarked, that " the ultimate object which 
 legislators ought to have in view, and to which all their enact- 
 ments and sanctions ought to be subsendent, is, that the citizens 
 may live happily." Bishop Berkeley, too, seems to have adopted 
 the same view ; for in his Discourse addi-essed to Slagistrates 
 and men in authority, he says, '"f tiUty and truth are not to be 
 di\ided, the general good of mankind being the rule or measm'e 
 of moral tnith." Then again, it is well known that Hume 
 adopted the principle of utility, as the test by which ever}' insti- 
 tution, every law and every cotu'se of action must be tried. The 
 merit of discovery cannot, therefore, be claimed for Bentham; 
 but while it can be said only of the others, that they satu the 
 truth and pursued it to some of its consequences, our " philo- 
 sopher" inscribed it on his banner, and held it aloft in the face 
 of all creation. He took it for his motto, and challenged uni- 
 versal acceptance for it. It need not now be contended that the 
 phrase is altogether unexceptionable ; yet it is a good phrase, 
 and in its day, it answered many valuable purposes. The words 
 stick in the memory, and ai-e, so far, intelligible equally to the 
 learned and the ignorant. Statesmen, who had been accus- 
 tomed to measure all proposals for legislation by the " right of 
 the crown," " the dignity of the peers," or " the chiu'ch in 
 danger," and other cries of that sort, found themselves check- 
 mated by a cry as easily taken up, and against which, the more 
 they kicked, the less they prevailed. A somewhat analogous 
 maxim has got ciu-rency in our own day, " the right man in the 
 right place," and though not very logical in its structure, it has 
 not been altogether useless. 
 
 In 1780 Bentham published a still more elaborate exposition 
 of his principles in a work entitled an " Introduction to the 
 Piinciples of Jlorals and Legislation," and he devoted a long 
 and a quietly-busy life to the defence and difi'usion of what he 
 considered a great discover)- in the science of morals and legisla- 
 
 tion. His earlier works are written in such a style that " he 
 that runs may read," but he got at last into an involved and 
 obscure way of writing, so that if he had not met with inter- 
 preters between him and the people, he might as well not have 
 written at all. To ilons. Dumont — a refugee from Geneva — 
 he was indebted for giving shape and coherence to many of his 
 scattered speculations, and translating them into elegant French ; 
 so that the recluse of Queen Square Place, Westminster, was 
 earlier and better known on the continent than in England. 
 He had a proof of this when, on the occasion of a visit to Paris 
 in 1825, for the benefit of his health, he happened to step into 
 one of the supreme comts. The whole body of advocates rose 
 to receive him, and the judges invited him to the seat of honour. 
 At this time he had few followers at home, but those he had 
 were men of no ordinary mark. First among the band stood Mr. 
 James MOI, who did much to popularize the philosophy of 
 Bentham ; Dr. Southwood Smith and Dr. John Bowring also 
 attached themselves to Bentham, and exerted themselves to 
 spread the honour of his name. At a still earlier period Sir 
 Samuel Pomilly and Jlr. (now Lord) Brougham sat at the feet 
 of the recluse of Queen Square. In the mitigation of the criminal 
 code, in parliamentaiy and mxinicipal refonn, in the abolition of 
 oaths, in the reduction of the taxes on knowledge, and in all the 
 other measures which modem legislation has accomplished, the 
 name of Jeremy Bentham is honom'ably associated with the names 
 of the foremost men of the age. His works were edited after 
 his death by Dr. Bowring and 5Ir. John II. Burton, and they 
 occupy eleven closely-prmted octavo volumes. They wOl never 
 be easy reading, but the student of political science will often 
 turn to them for instruction and guidance. Bentham has not 
 succeeded in founding a school, but it is not therefore to be 
 infen-ed that his influence was little, or that it will be fleeting. 
 
 As to the outward incidents of Bentham's life, little need be 
 said in addition to the facts we have already recorded. He was 
 intended for the law ; but he seems to have been of too delicate 
 a conscience to practise it with all the moral abominations then 
 adhering to it, and he retired to literature and comparative 
 privacy. In 1785 he visited Paris, Italy, Constantinople, and 
 spent some time with his brother. Sir Samuel Bentham, in the 
 South of Russia ; he returned through Poland, Germany, and 
 Holland, arriving in England — we can well believe, " a sadder if 
 a wiser man" — in the spring of 1788. He continued to write 
 and talk to his disciples for the long period of half a century, 
 and it was not till 1832 — a year conspicuously fiital to great 
 men — that he was gathered, in a good old age, to his fathers. 
 Sir James Mackintosh, though no disciple of Bentham, did him 
 ample justice in his Preliminary Dissertation, and we gladly 
 enrich this notice with an extract: — "It cannot be denied, 
 without injustice and ingratitude, that Mr. Bentham has done 
 more than any other writer to rouse the spirit of juridical refor- 
 mation, which is now gradually examining every part of law, 
 and, when further progress is facilitated, by digesting the present 
 laws, wOl doubtless proceed to the improvement of all. Greater 
 praise it is given to few to earn." 
 
 No nobler epitaph than this need have been inscribed on 
 Bentham's tomb, if he had ever had one ; but as he was rather 
 peculiar in his ways, while living, so in death his oddity did 
 not depart from him. He left instnictions that his body should 
 be dissected, and that the skeleton should be put together, and, 
 after being clothed in his old vestments, should be seated in a 
 sort of glass-house on wheels. The old man, it is said, used to 
 amuse himself with the I'ision of his presiding as it were in pro- 
 jyria persona at meetings of his disciples — who were of course to 
 be numerous and poweifnl — and even being wheeled to the top 
 of the table on festive occasions. This work of art is now, we 
 believe, in the possession of his faithful and accomplished disciple, 
 Dr. Southwood Smith ; but when he is gone, we doubt if any one 
 will be ambitious to give it house-room, and yet it would be a 
 melancholy sight to seethe " mortal remains" of Jeremy con- 
 signed to the care of a marine store-dealer. The sight of Yorrick's 
 skull, the Idng's jester, knocked about by a sexton's spade, is 
 calculated to excite serious reflections; but the idea of the 
 skeleton of Bentham — clothed " as we have seen him in his 
 life" — ticketed for sale, is too painful a thought to be dwelt on. 
 If Dr. Johnson could have foreseen the thing, supposing it be 
 iii/iituro, it would have given him genuine satisfaction to convert 
 it into an instance illustrating The Vanity of Human Wishes. 
 We are not awai-e that Johnson and Bentham ever met ; but if
 
 BEN 
 
 511 
 
 BEN 
 
 tlicy had, tlie meeting would certainly liave given rise to a tre- 
 mendous explosion. Perhaps no two men of equal talent were 
 ever so differently constituted. — C. W. C. 
 
 BENTIIAM, Sir Samuel, was the youngest son of Jeremiah 
 Bentham, and the brother of the famous jurist, whose life and 
 labours we have just glanced at. He, too, was sent to West- 
 minster school, but being a day scholar, he returned every night 
 to his father's house in Queen Square Place. The stable 
 attached to the house was occupied by a carpenter, and young 
 Samuel had the opportunity of handluig the axe, the hammer, 
 and the saw. A mechanical genius rapidly developed itself, 
 snd in the fourteenth year of his age he was bound an appren- 
 tice to the master shipwright of Woolwich dockyaj-d. He at 
 once set himself to the attainment of scientific knowledge and 
 practical skill. His master being removed from Woolwich to 
 Chatham, Bentham went along with him, and not merely 
 attended to business in the dockyard, but took short trips to 
 sea, occasionally going as far as the Isle of Wight. When his 
 apprenticeship was out, he spent some time at the Royal college 
 at Portsmouth, and even then suggested many imjirovements, 
 both in shipbuilding and in the apparatus for working a ship. 
 In 17S0, Bentham visited the great naval establishments of 
 Holland and the north of Europe, acquainting himself with 
 the resources of every country he passed through : for he had 
 long perceived that the business of a naval engineer embraced 
 a wide extent of scientific knowledge, and a familiarity with a 
 vast variety of manufactm-es. Bentham made a considerable 
 stay at St. Petersburg, and so ingratiated himself with Prince 
 Potemkin, that his highness invited the English shipwright 
 to accompany liim in a journey to the Crimea. Wherever he 
 went, his practice as a handicraftsman served him in good 
 stead, and he taught the Russians the use of many machines 
 with which they were at that time unacquainted. He was 
 induced to remain some time in Russia, and he even formed a 
 tender attachment, which threatened at one time to sever him 
 for ever from his native land. Howevei-, he returned to England, 
 and was employed in various capacities under the Board of 
 Admiralty. For many years he busied himself in improving the 
 different dockyards of the kingdom ; and in the capacity of 
 inspector-general of naval works, he probably saved the country 
 many thousand pounds. In all respects he shot far ahead of 
 the times, and, of course, he did not fail to raise up nmnerous 
 detractors. To him we owe the introduction of the block 
 macliineiy at Portsmouth, which is still looked on there as a 
 miracle of art ; the introduction of breakwaters, such as we have 
 at Plymouth ; and for innumerable other improvements in the 
 details of naval dockyards and naval administration. Looked at 
 individually his reforms may seem small, but considered in the 
 aggregate, their value must be estimated at a high rate. Alto- 
 gether his genius is wonderfully like that of his more celebrated 
 brother. Like Jeremy, Sir Samuel discovered many things, and 
 suggested many improvements, the glory and the profit of which 
 have, in too many instances, been appropriated by others. Died 
 1831. — (^Abridged from a Memoir hy his Widow.') — C. W. C. 
 
 BENTHAM, Thomas, bishop of Litchfield and Coventry in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, and one of the most learned and active 
 members of the ultra-protestant party, was born about the year 
 1513 at Sherbom in Yorkshire. He was a fellow of Magdalen 
 college, Oxford, in 1533, when Bishop Gardiner, exerting his 
 authority as visitor of the college, undertook to cleanse it from 
 the audacious protestantism by which its proceedings began to 
 be characterized. It was proved against Bentham that he had 
 shaken the censer out of a priest's hand in the choir of the chapel, 
 and he was consequently ejected from his fellowship. He went 
 to Zurich, and afterwards passed some time at Basle and Frank- 
 fort ; hut, retm-ning to England before the end of Mary's reign, 
 he had the boldness to ofliciate to a small congregation in Lon- 
 don. He was elevated to the see of Litchfield shortly after the 
 accession of Elizabeth. Died hi 1578. — J. S., G. 
 
 BENTINCK, a noble family which has produced a large num- 
 ber of eminent public men. The founder of the English branch 
 of the family was William, third son of Henry de Bentinck of 
 Dipenham in Over-Issel, the head of a noble Batavian house. 
 Bentinck began public life as page of honour to William, prince of 
 Orange, to whom he was strongly attached. He showed his 
 devotion to his master by waiting on him throughout a peculiarly 
 malignant attack of the small-pox, which had previously been 
 fatal to many members of the prince's fanuly, and placed his 
 
 own life in imminent peril. The king was scarcely convales- 
 cent when Bentinck himself caught the contagion, and was in 
 great danger, but ultimately recovered. Tlu'oughout the remain- 
 der of William's life he regarded Bentinck with the warmest 
 affection, and treated him with a confidence which he extended 
 to no other person. He came over to England in the same 
 ship with the prince at the Revolution of 1G88 ; and as soon 
 as William was declared king, he made Bentinck gi-oom of the 
 stole, first lord of the bedchamber, and a member of the privy 
 council, and he soon after (9th April, 1689) created him earl 
 of Portland. He also received from his grateful sovereign liberal 
 grants from the royal demesnes, as a substantial reward for his 
 services. Bentinck, however, was not mercenary, as he has the 
 credit of refusing a bribe of £50,000 offered him, if he would 
 use his influence to obtain for the East India Company the 
 renewal of their charter. The earl was the principal person 
 employed in the negotiations for the treaty of Ryswick, and took 
 part also in the unpopular Partition treaty. He retained to 
 the last the confidence of his royal master, who died in his 
 arms. On the death of William, Bentinck ceased to take any 
 part in public affairs. He died Nov. 22, 1709, in his sixtieth 
 year, and was buried in Westminster abbey. — J. T. 
 
 BENTINCK, Henry, son and heir of the preceding, was 
 created marquis of Tichfield and duke of Portland in 1716. 
 He died in Jamaica, of which he was captain-general and gover- 
 nor, 1st July, 172G. His son William, second duke, added 
 largely to the fortunes of the family, by his inarriage with 
 Margaret Cavendish, only daughter of Edward Harley, earl of 
 Oxford, through whom lie inherited the extensive estates of John 
 HoUis, . duke of Newcastle. The duchess formed the curious 
 museum at Bulstrode, and was owner of the famous Portland 
 vase. The duke died in 1762. — J. T. 
 
 BENTINCK, William H. C, tlmd duke, bom in 1738, 
 was a distinguished statesman during the eventful reign of 
 George III. He began life as a whig, and held office under 
 Lord Rockingham in 1765, and again in 1782, when he was 
 appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland. He was prime minister of 
 tlie famous coalition cabinet composed of Fox and Lord North, 
 with their respective friends. The university of Oxford elected 
 him to the office of chancellor in 1792. On the brealdng out 
 of the French revolution, the duke, along with Burke and other 
 liberal politicians, seceded from the whig party, and gave 
 their support to the government. He was a member of Adding- 
 ton's administration in 1801. On the downfall of the whig 
 muiistry in 1807, he was appointed first lord of the treasury. 
 He died 30th November, 1809. The duke was a man of mo- 
 derate abilities, but of highly lionom'able character and of great 
 influence. — J. T. 
 
 BENTINCK, Lord George Frederick Cavendish, third 
 son of the fourth duke of Portland, was bom in Febraary, 
 1802. He was early destined for the army, but before he was 
 of age to hold a commission, the peninsular war was ended, the 
 field of Waterloo had been won, and Europe was enjoying an 
 unbroken peace. Finding no chance of employment or promo- 
 tion in that profession, he became private secretary to his uncle, 
 the late Right Hon. G. Canning, and in 1826 was chosen M.P. 
 for Lynn Regis, which he continued to represent down to the 
 period of his death. He entered parliament with strong liberal 
 opinions, and voted for catholic emancipation, and for the prin- 
 ciples of the reform bill. In 183-4 he deserted the ranks of the 
 whig party, together with his friend Lord Stanley, to whose 
 judgment he always looked up with the greatest reverence and 
 respect. From that time until 1845, he was a staunch follower 
 and supporter of Sir Robert Peel, who offered him a post in the 
 ministry which he formed in 1 841. The offer, however, was declined 
 by Lord G. Bentinck, on account of his passionate attachment to 
 the sports of the field and the race-course. When Sir Robert 
 Peel, in 1845, announced hisintentionof abandoning the principles 
 of agi-icultural protection, and adopting free-trade measures, the 
 "protectionist" party was formed, and Lord G. Bentinck became 
 their acknowledged leader. From the retirement of an ordinary 
 silent member, he suddenly sprung into light as an able and 
 effective speaker, a ready debater, and a cool and sound-judging 
 politician. His speeches in the sessions of 1845-46, were most 
 damaging to the government of Sir Robert Peel, and contributed 
 in no small degree to hasten the downfall of his administration 
 in the latter year. As he never actually held office, the qualifi- 
 cations of Lord G. Bentinck were never faWy tested, though he
 
 iras tlie author of several important propositions, and of amend- 
 ments on the measures proposed by his opponents. Among 
 others we may mention his proposal for advancing £16,000,000 
 on loan to the Irish railways, during the famine of 1846. As a 
 leader in the sporting world his character stood deservedly high, 
 on account of the zeal with which he strove to suppress the 
 dishonest practices of the "turf." He died from a sudden 
 seizure in the region of the heart, whilst walking in his father's 
 park in Nottinghamshire, September 21, 1848. — E. W. 
 
 BENTINCk, LoKD William Henry Cavendish, G.C.B., 
 uncle of the above, was second son of the tliu-d duke of Portland, 
 premier under George III. He was born in 1774, and entered 
 the Coldstream guards in 1791. He was aid-de-camp to the 
 Duke of York in Flanders, and to Lord Moira's expedition against 
 the coast of France, and subsequently served in Italy and Egypt. 
 From 1803 to 1808 he was governor of Madras, and in the 
 latter year went to Portugal on the staff of Sir H. Burrard. He 
 was present at Corunna, and held the command of a division in 
 Lord Wellington's army, and was subsequently sent as British 
 minister to the court of Naples, and commander-in-chief of the 
 British forces in that kingdom, and in that capacity was enabled 
 to prevail on King Ferdinand to grant his subjects the benefits of 
 a free constitution. He next induced Tuscany to shake off the 
 French yoke, and afterwards made a descent upon Genoa, which 
 he captured. He sat in parliament for many years, between 
 1796 and 182G, in the tory interest, as member for Camelford, 
 Nottinghamshu-e, and Ashburton. In 1827, he was sworn a 
 privy councillor, and appointed governor-general of India in 
 succession to Lord Amherst. His Indian career is remarkable 
 only for the pacific policy which lie adopted towards the native 
 states, and the large reductions effected in the pay of Em-opean 
 officials. He passed an enactment freeing from the accustomed 
 penalties such inhabitants of the Bengal presidency as seceded 
 from the Hindoo or !Mahomedan faith, and gave a great impetus 
 to the cause of education in India. Two projects of national 
 importance were also undertaken during his tenure of office, the 
 ultimate benefits of which can scarcely be overestimated — the 
 opening up of a commiuiication between British India, and the 
 countries west of the Indus as far as the Caspian Sea, and the 
 establishment of an overland communication between England 
 and India, of which we shall have more to say when we come to 
 speak of Lieutenant Waghom. On returning to England in 1835, 
 he was elected M.P. for Glasgow, which city he represented down 
 to within a few days of his death. He died at Paris, Jime 17, 
 1839, in liis C9th year.— E. W. 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO, Guido, was born at Ferrara in 1579. 
 Having completed his studies at Padua, he returned to his 
 native city in 1597, the same year in which Pope Clement 
 VIII. had taken possession of it. Guido Bentivoglio, who was 
 naturally of a supple and insinuating character, eftected the 
 reconciliation between that pontiff and Casar D'Este, who then 
 assumed the title of duke of Modena. Clement VIII., appre- 
 ciating the eminent qualities of Guido, sent him to Flanders, and 
 aftenvards to the court of Louis XIII. of France, as papal 
 nuncio. The services he rendered to his sovereign in that capa- 
 city were considered of such importance, and his ability in diplo- 
 matic relations so prominent, that Paul V. elevated him to the 
 cardinalate in 1621. His " History of the Wars of Flanders," 
 written in Italian, is considered classic, and the impartiality 
 with which he judges of men and things, has been praised even 
 by his opponents. He has left his " Memoirs," containing the 
 principal events which happened during his mmciature in Flan- 
 ders and France; and the richness of his diction, wliich is 
 always elegant and pure, combined with the most remarkable 
 simplicity in his narrative, makes them highly instructive and 
 interesting to the reader. His correspondence has been pub- 
 lished after his death, and shows how perfect he was in the 
 epistolary style. His account of the Huguenots of France is 
 considered, even by protestant writers, most veracious. As a 
 diplomatist and a literary man, he has illustrated the century in 
 which he lived, and in his numerous writings has given convinc- 
 ing proofs of his thorough knowledge of the human heart. At 
 the death of his protector and friend. Urban VIII., he would 
 have been raised to the papal throne, had he not been taken 
 suddenly from the world during the meeting of the conclave on 
 the 7th of September, 1644.— A. C. M. 
 
 BENTKOWSKI, Felix, a learned Pole, was born in 1781. 
 He settled at Warsaw, where he was appointed professor of his- 
 
 tory, and librarian to the lyceum ; and afterwards filled the chair 
 of bibliography and history in the university, during the whole 
 time of its continuance, from 1817 to 1831, when he was made 
 keeper of the archives of the kingdom of Poland, which jiost he 
 retained till his death in 1852. He was a man of gi-eat diUgence 
 and erudition, and gave the world a work by which he shall be 
 long remembered, the "Historj^a Litteratury Polskicy " (History 
 of the Literature of Poland), the standard work on the subject. 
 It was published in 1814, in two vols, large 8vo. He also pub- 
 hshed "An Introduction to General History" in 1821, and a trans- 
 lation into Polish of Guizot's History of Civihzation. — J. F. W. 
 BENTLEY, Richard, the famous critic, was bom 27th 
 January, 1661, at Oulton, near Wakefield, in Yorkshire. Hia 
 father died when Richard was only thirteen years of age, and 
 left a small estate, which he owned at Woodlesford, to a son by 
 a previous marriage. His maternal grandfather took the youth 
 in charge, while his mother had given him his earliest lessons 
 in Latin. The first school he attended was at Metliley, and 
 after some time spent in the free school at Wakefield, he entered 
 Cambridge at the age of fourteen, being admitted subsizar in St. 
 John's college, 24th May, 1676. He took the degree of B.A., 
 23rd January, 1G80, with such honours as belong to third 
 wrangler, under the present aiTangement. The next year he 
 stood for a fellowship, but was unsuccessful — either, according 
 to one account, because the statutes of St. John's college did not 
 allow of more than two fellows from the same county, and his 
 was already filled up ; or, according to another account, because he 
 was too young for priest's orders, being little more than nineteen 
 years of age. But the fellows shortly afterwards nominated him 
 to the head mastership of Spalding grammar school, and about 
 a year afterwards, his college recommended him to Dr. Stilling- 
 fleet, dean of St. Paul's, as tutor to his son. He took the 
 degree of A.M. July, 1683, and resided several years in London, 
 engaging chiefly in philological studies, and gathering some 
 acquaintance with Hebrew and its cognate tongues. He wrote 
 out with his own hand, every word of the Hebrew Bible, and 
 appended explanations in Chaldee, Syriac, Latin, and Greek, 
 taken from Walton's polyglot. Such was his literary avidity, 
 that he had sold a small family estate in order to enrich his 
 library. After the Revolution, he went to Oxford with Bishop 
 Stillingfleet's son, and was on the 4th of July, admitted to the 
 degree of A.]\I. ad eunchm; himself and his pupil becoming 
 members of Wadham college. The Bodleian libraiy opened its 
 treasures for him, and he was at once distinguished by his labo- 
 rious diligence and research. It was at Oxford, in 1691, that 
 he ijublished his first tract, &c., being a Latin epistle to Dr. 
 Mill, containing critical remarks on Malelas, an old Spian his- 
 torian, whose dull Chronicle had been printed at the Sheldoc 
 press, under Mill's editorial care, from a copy in the Bodleian, 
 the only one known to exist. This letter, which forms an 
 appendix to the volume, is remarkably acute, and not very com- 
 plimentaiy to some great names, but it exhibits that peculiar form 
 of eradition of which Bentley afterward was so distinguished a 
 master. On the 16th of March, 1689-90, Bentley had been 
 ordained a deacon, and immediately after was appointed Bishop 
 Stillingfleet's chaplain. It was at this time his good fortune to 
 be nominated the first preacher of the Boyle lecture. Those 
 sermons in which he preached a confutation of atheism, made a 
 great sensation, and he published eight of them in 1693. They 
 are somewhat hard, but powerful, — the product of a self-confi- 
 dent mind, that seeks not only to convince, but to ovei^whelm, 
 not only to conquer, but to trample its antagonists under foot. 
 One special cause of their popularity was Bentley's dexterous 
 use of the recent Newtonian philosophy in the overthrow of 
 atheism. The volume passed through numerous editions, and 
 was translated into several languages. It is somewhat remark- 
 able that this first Boyle lecture raised a dispute which has very 
 recently occupied the public journals ; Bentley asserting that the 
 moon had no rotation on her own axis, but Keill, a shrewd and 
 scientific Scotchman, replying that those phenomena on which 
 the lecturer had built his argument, led directly to an opposite 
 conclusion. In 1692, Bentley took priest's orders, and became 
 a prebend of Worcester, and in 1694, he was re-appointed Boyle 
 lecturer. The previous year he had been nominated keeper of 
 the royal libraiy at St. James, and it was while he held this 
 office, that his first gi-eat literary controversy arose. In oppo- 
 sition to the opinions of Fontenelle and Perrault, the epistles of , 
 Phalaris and some other classic works had been eulogized by I
 
 BEN 
 
 513 
 
 BEN 
 
 Sir William Temple, in his Essay on Ancient and Modem Learn- 
 ing. Of the epistles of the so-called Phalaris he said, "I think 
 he must have little skill in painting, that cannot find out this 
 to he an original." Dean Aldrich of Christ's Church, had on 
 this account selected them for puhlieation, committing thern 
 to the editorial care of the Hon. Robert Boyle, brother of the 
 earl of Orrery. A SIS. of the work was in the king's library, 
 and it was thought desirable to collate it. Bentley granted the 
 loan of it, but as the collation was tardy, he demanded it back 
 ere the process was completed. Bennet, the pubUsher, under 
 whom the collation was made, told his ovra story to Boyle, and 
 he m his preface reflected sharply on Bentley. In fact, Bentley 
 had made an experiment, and found that the collation could 
 easily have been made in four hours, so that the work might 
 have been done on the very day on which it was to be given 
 back, the librarian extending the loan till " candle-light" of the 
 23rd of May, O.S. Bentley explained, but to no pm-pose. His 
 friend Wotton had, in the meantime, pubhshed a reply to Sir 
 W. Temple, called Reflections on Ancient and Modem leam- 
 iug, and to a second edition of this work in 1697, Bentley 
 appended a diatribe, declaring the literary trashiness and spuri- 
 ousncss of the epistles, that went by the name of Phalaris. The 
 Clirist Church scholars buckled on their armour, and Atterbmy 
 and Smallridge pubhshed a reply. Other combatants came 
 into the field, and Swift's Battle of the Books was one of the 
 weapons of satire. Pope and Garth both took the same side, 
 and the latter of them coined the disparaging antithesis, — 
 " So diamonds take a lustre from their foil, 
 'Tis to a Bentley, that we owe a Boyle." 
 
 Bentley did not immediately reply, and his silence was taken by 
 many as proof of confessed discomfiture. But in 1699, he pro- 
 duced his " Dissertation on the epistles of Phalaris." This trea- 
 tise not only for ever demolished his opponents, but placed his 
 fame on an unshaken basis. He proved that the epistles were 
 fuU of anachronisms, such as the borrowing of money from the 
 city of Phintia, not built till about 300 years after the tune of 
 the Sicilian tyi-ant, and the adoption of sentiments from later 
 writers ; and shows that the style is not that of Sicilian Greek, 
 but Attic, and even that form of x4.ttic, or later Greek, which was 
 not in existence and use till after the conquests of Alexander. 
 The varied and deep learning of the " Dissertation," its acumen 
 and tact, its reasoning and sarcasm, the subtlety of its criticism, 
 and the breadth of its deductions, make it an immortal master- 
 piece. Its immediate purpose was of no great use ; the repro- 
 bation of "a fardle of common-places" was no mighty achieve- 
 ment in itself, but the mode and form of proof set an example 
 which still commands imitation, and affords an unrivalled speci- 
 men of critical investigation, either in tracing the more dehcate 
 shades of verbal usage, or in comparing the more salient fea- 
 tures of the styles and customs of different ages and authors. 
 
 In 1696, Bentley had taken the degi-ee of D.D. at Cambridge ; 
 in 1700 he was promoted, at the unanimous recommendation of 
 an episcopal commission, to the mastership of Trinity college in 
 that university. The following year he was collated archdeacon 
 of Ely, and in January of the same year, he manied Joanna, 
 daughter of Sir John Barnard of Brampton. But the master- 
 ship soon plunged him into deep and repeated troubles. Various 
 elements of temper and character unfitted him for such a situation, 
 so that the period of his mastership was a perpetual broil from 
 1709 till 1738. He spent large sums in enlargmg and beautify- 
 ing the college buildings. The libraiy and the university press 
 were greatly benefited by his reforms, and under him too the oral 
 examinations for scholarships and fellowships were superseded 
 by written questions, — the plan pursued with such success to the 
 present day. When he set his heart on any refonn, he was care- 
 less of any statute that stood hi his way. Nor did he ever stoop 
 to win his way to an end by a " smooth answer" to his oppon- 
 ents; for he chose rather to confront them with haughty argument, 
 and contemptuous epithet. On the 21st of December, 1709, a 
 lawyer named Miller came to spend his Christmas at Trinity, of 
 which college he was a fellow, and he warmly espoused the cause 
 of the fellows, who had laid their grievances before him. For 
 his insolence Bentley dispossessed him of his fellowship, the 
 vice-master and some senior fellows replaced him, and Bentley 
 again stmck his name from the list. This procedure was both 
 harsh and inopportune, and it fanned the sparks into a blaze. 
 The fellows complained that the master violated the statutes, 
 and wasted the property of the college. The charge was 
 
 VOL I. 
 
 presented to Patrick, bishop of Ely, but he did not think that 
 he had any authority in Trinity college. It was renewed and 
 tried before Dr. Moore, his successor. Bentley pubhshed a 
 reply to the charges against him. " Had I," says he, " herded 
 and sotted with them, had I suffered them to play then* cheats 
 in their several ofiices, I might have done what I would, I 
 might have devoured and destroyed the college, and yet come 
 away with their applauses for a good and a great man." But 
 this episcopal judge died before sentence was pronounced, and 
 his successor, Bishop Fleetwood, refused at first to interfere. 
 The case became a question, whether the crown or the bishop 
 of Ely had jmisdiction. The crown took to itself the preroga- 
 tive, and the cause was ultimately carried before the king in 
 council. After no little manceuvreing it came before the king's 
 bench, and the judges declared that visitatorial power lay with 
 the bishop over the master. There were years of litigation, and 
 some of Bentley's personal enemies, such as Colbatch and Mid- 
 dleton, were heavily fined for libels. But before the issue, 
 Bentley had, by a dexterous and somewhat unprincipled policy, 
 secured his election as regius professor of dignity. On occasion 
 of the king's visit to Cambridge, Bentley demanded a fee of four 
 guineas, over and above the usual givatuity, from several persons 
 created doctors by royal mandate. Some demuiTed, but paid. Dr. 
 Conyers Jliddleton paid under this protest, that the regius profes- 
 sor should refund the money if it were found to be an illegal exac- 
 tion. Dr. Jliddleton some time afterward obtained a decree for 
 the arrest of the master, but the aiTest, though the esqiure-beadle 
 went to the master's lodge, was not executed. A second decree 
 was served, and the master put in bail. But he failed to attend 
 the vice-chancellor's court, pleading a fit of gout, the beadle in the 
 meanwhile reportuig some of his words to this effect, " I will not 
 be concluded by what the \-ice-chancellor and some of his friends 
 may determine over a bottle of wine." The vice-chancellor 
 then suspended him, but granted him some days for making a 
 fonnal submission. But the intractable master allowed the pre- 
 scribed period to pass, and upon the 17th of October, 1718, a 
 gi'ace was passed by the senate stripping Bentley of all his 
 honours and degrees, and smking him to the rank of an under- 
 gi-aduate. Bentley appealed against this sweeping decision to 
 the king ; the vice-chancellor was summoned to appear before 
 the council, the case was fully heard, then referred to a com- 
 mittee, then sent to the king's bench, and after five years the 
 judges issued a mandamus to the university, ordering it to 
 restore Bentley to all the honours and privileges of which he had 
 been so summarily deprived. But the great dispute was far 
 from termination. The bishop of Ely, now Dr. Greene, resolved 
 to act as visitor, and Bentley was summoned to appear at Ely 
 on 1st Ajml, 1729. In April, 1731, he was found guilty of 
 the charges brought against him, and the bishop commanded 
 him to be deprived of the mastership of Trinity. But the vice- 
 master, who was ordered to execute the sentence, hesitated, and 
 then resigned ; and his successor, a creatm-e of Bentley's own, 
 refused, on the plea that he was not the same person on whom 
 the episcopal order had been laid. Delays occurred, legal forms 
 were resorted to, but the master remained secure. Bishop 
 Greene died in 1738, and the matter dropped. Fom- years 
 aftei-wards Bentley was seized with fever, and died in his eighty- 
 first year, on the 11th of July, 1712. In 1709 he had failed 
 in obtaining the bishopric of Chichester. In 1721 he refused 
 the see of Bristol, and in 1730 the deanery of Lincoln. 
 
 But when Bentley was fighting with college accusations and 
 episcopal censures, gairdng actions at law for Ubel, and com- 
 promising matters with some of his antagonists on principles 
 honouring to neither party, he was, during such a period of 
 intrigue and distraction, busy wth the works to which he owes 
 his fame. There were published at Amsterdam in 1710 some 
 remarks of his on the first two comedies of Aristophanes, and at 
 Rheims were published some of his criticisms on the fragments of 
 Menander and Philemon. His edition of Horace, the labour of 
 ten years, appeared in 1711, and exhibits in a marked shape the 
 excellencies and defects of its learned editor — great industrj', 
 singiilar ingenuity, and felicitous conjecture, along with inex- 
 cusable carelessness, and characteristic vanity and arrogance. 
 Besides throwing a new light on the Horatian metres, he 
 attempted to fix the chronology of the poems. His general 
 principle was, that the coarser and more wanton of the poems 
 belong to the bard's earlier years, but the truth of this observa- 
 tion camiot be fully borne out ; nor can the other portion of his 
 
 3T
 
 BEX 
 
 514 
 
 BEN 
 
 theory be assented to, that Horace wrote only one kind of poetry 
 at a time, for though the satii-es were published first, yet some 
 of the odes which Bentley places last, were written in the poet's 
 yonth. Fracs Clinton has overtlirott-u some of Bentley's chro- 
 nology, and though it has been well canvassed by such conti- 
 nental scholars as Grotefend, Walckcnacr, Weber, and Passow, 
 it is still unshaken in many of its positions. 
 
 Bcntley's next publication did him credit. It was a reply to 
 Colhns on Freethmldng. It appeared in 1713, mider the assiuncd 
 name of Philelcuthems Lipsicnsis. After scowling on the 
 sophistry, and holding up to scorn and ridicule the fallacies of the 
 infidel, he proceeds to what lay more especially within his own 
 province as a scholar and a critic. The publication of Mill's 
 New Testament had, by its gi-eat mass of various readings, 
 excited the fears of many, and Whitby had advertised a reply or 
 examen. Collins made his own of these timid and ignorant 
 lucubrations, professing that such discrepancies destroyed all 
 faith in the integrity of the di\ine word. Bentley's reply is a 
 masterpiece, showng that every ancient author has niunerous 
 varieties of readings, — that these are multiplied with the number 
 of MSS. in which such ancient writings are found, — that confi- 
 dence in a Greek or Latin classic is not shaken by such varia- 
 tions, that these documents of heathen antiquity have, for 
 their size and the number of copies of them, vastly more dif- 
 ferences than the New Testament, and that, therefore, the results 
 of critical investigation, showing the errors and emendations of 
 thoughtless or pedantic scribes, ai-e not incompatible with the 
 authenticit}' and credibility of the sacred scriptm'es. In 1716 
 Bentley addressed a letter to Archbishop Wake, proposing to 
 restore the test of the New Testament to the state in which it 
 was at the period of the coimcil of Nice. His critical principles 
 were on the whole correct, — that the age of a JIS. gives, ceteris 
 paribus, a proportionate value to its readings, and that, there- 
 fore, the older a manuscript is, its readings are of the higher 
 value. Bentley had collated with great care the Codex Alex- 
 andi'inus, now in the British museum, aud he had also a colla- 
 tion of the Vatican Codex at Rome, made for him first by an 
 Italian, and then by his ovra nephew. Wetstein, who bad seen 
 him in England, made him notes from the codex of Ephrem at 
 Paris. A specimen of the pi-oposed edition was also published ; 
 but Dr. Sliddleton and others fiercely assaulted the enterpiise, 
 poinded unsparing contempt on the plan, and traduced the editor. 
 The editor defended himself in his own style, for he was vastly 
 superior to his assailants, who did not understand the subject, 
 and had not even detected the weak points of Bentley's system. 
 The contest was pitiable ; and in squabbling about the letter of 
 inspiration, they forgot the spirit of truth and charity which it 
 inculcates. The conclusion of Bentley's reply to his anonymous 
 assailants is so characteristic that we give it: "If they will 
 attack an edition before it's begun, let them put their names to 
 the work. If they do not, they shall have no answer ; and if 
 they do, they will need none." But such contests, along with 
 his feuds with his college and wtli the luiiversity, retarded the 
 work, and the materials amassed were never used. They were 
 left to his nephew who did nothing with them, but returned 
 the money to the subscribers. In 1726 Bentley published an 
 edition of Terence, Phwdrus, and Publius Syrus, with an excellent 
 " Discursus on Latin metres." This brought him into collision 
 with Bishop Hare on the metres of Terence, and the contest 
 jirovoked the calm and utilitarian Sir Isaac Newton to observe, 
 that "two dignified clergymen, instead of minding their duty, 
 had fallen out about a play-book." At the suggestion of Queen 
 Caroline, and at the age of seventy, he next tried his powers on 
 Milton's Paradise Lost, and, as might have been expected, sig- 
 nally failed. He had no poetic taste — had not made English 
 poetry his study — knew nothing of the earlier English bards, 
 and, therefore, his criticisms are often mistakes, and his emen- 
 dations ludicrous blunders. Two years later the veteran arch- 
 critic set himself to revise the text of Homer, but his labours 
 were interrupted by a stroke of paralysis. His notes have, 
 however, been of some advantagi; to subsequent scholars. An 
 edition of ManiUus, with a preface by his nephew, was Bentley's 
 last production. 
 
 It must be on all sides admitted, that Bentley stands in the 
 foremost rank of scholars. None of his contemporaries sur- 
 passed him in varied, sldlful, and profound enidition. His 
 conjectures were often happy restorations of the text, for such 
 was liis acquaintance with idiom and usage — such his intuitive 
 
 sagacity, and so much could he identify himself with his author, 
 that he could divine with singular felicity what words he had 
 employed. His adventurous labours led the way in this field of 
 erudition, and many, especially on the continent, have followed 
 in his steps. He maintained a close connection with continental 
 scholars, and sent some learned notes to Grajvius for an edition 
 of Callimachus. Editions of the Greek lexicographers early occu- 
 pied his attention, though his designs were not cairied out. He 
 took, however, an active interest in Kuster's edition of Suidas ; 
 and, with his sage advice, he directed the studies of Hemsterhuis. 
 He commented severely on Le Clerc's blunders, in his edition of 
 the fragments of Jlenander and Philemon, and by this proce- 
 dure gratified Bunnann, and roused the enmity of Gronoxnus. 
 But with all this industry and con-espondence, and all these 
 superb qualifications, he was impetuous, arrogant, and over- 
 bearing, and his works are tainted by these miserable elements of 
 his character. His contests with the university show hun to be 
 proud and grasping, indomitable in energj-, and fuU of resom'ccs. 
 We cannot go the length of Dr. Pan- and say, in reference to 
 his disputes with his college, that " he was eminently right and 
 the college infamously wi-ong." But we have no hesitation in 
 avowing our beUef, that he was vastly superior to his anta- 
 gonists, that his aims v^•ere worthy of his high position, and 
 that if some of his methods were sweeping and imconstitutional, 
 his objects were unselfish and magnificent. Some of the re- 
 forms which he introduced stUl remain in Trinity. But he was 
 impatient of control, was very prone to self-assertion, though 
 he does not seem to have been marked by any of those jealousies 
 and errors which degraded and exasperated so many of his 
 hterary compeers. His mind, however, was coarse in its tex- 
 ture, his manners were repulsive, and he was utterly unscru- 
 pulous in gaining his ends. His gi-andson, Eichaid Cumberland, 
 acknowledges that " his ordinary style of conversation was 
 naturally lofty, and his frequent use of thee and thou canied with 
 it a kind of dictatorial tone." It is said that he refused a fel- 
 lowship to an oi-phan grandchild of his early patron. Bishop 
 StUlingfleet, and prefeiTcd a far inferior candidate. Bentley's 
 labours were often misunderstood in his own time, and the 
 "awful Aristarch" is figm'ed at length in the fourth book of 
 the Dunciad, as — 
 
 "That mighty scholiast, -whose unwearied pains 
 Made Horace dull, and humbled Milton's strains/' 
 
 and who confesses — 
 
 "For Attic phrase in Plato let them seek, 
 I poach in Suidas for unlicensed Greek." 
 
 Bentley left a son and two daughters, one of whom married 
 Denison Cumberland, bishop of Dromore, and was mother o' 
 Richard Cumberland, the well-known dramatist. Bentley's life 
 has been written by Dr. !Monk, the late bishop of Glottcester; 
 his Letters have also been collected .and edited, the last editor 
 being Dr. Wordsworth ; and his Works, in three volumes, have 
 been recently published under the care of the Rev. A. Dyce. — J.E. 
 
 BENTLEY, Richard, son of the preceding, educated at Tri- 
 nity college, Cambridge, and was reckoned an excellent scholar. 
 He was on terms of intimacy with Horace Walpole, and w.as a 
 friend of the poet Gray. But his habits were desultory, and 
 none of his dramas or miscellaneous writings were of any per- 
 manent value. Died in 1782. 
 
 BENTLEY, Thomas, nephew of the great critic, was a fellow j 
 of Trinity, and published in 1713 the Text of his imcle's work I 
 on Horace. In 1718 he published an edition of Cicero de Fini- 
 hus, and in 1741 an anom-mous edition of Callimachus. 
 
 * BENTZON, Adriex Benoxi, was bom at TiJnsberg in 
 1777. Having finished his studies at Copenhagen, he adopted 
 the profession of the law, aud has honourable place as one of the , 
 leaders in the literary movement in which his fi-iends, Zens Bag- i 
 gesen and Adam Ochlenschlajger, were so prominent. ' 
 
 BENVENISTE or BENBENASTE, is the family name of ' 
 several rabbinical ^mters. Ten of this name are mentioned by , 
 Fiirst. Their works treat almost exclusively on ritual subjects. | 
 Samuel Benvenlste seems to h.ave attended to philosophical ' 
 studies, as de' Rossi speaks of a translation made by this rabbi 
 into Hebrew, of Boethius' Consol. Phil. JIei'r Bejtveniste 
 wrote exegeses on the ancient Jlidrasliim. — T. T. 
 
 BENVENUTO, G, Bat., smmamed l'Ortolaxo, died at 
 Ferrara in 1C25. He studied at Bologna under Bagnaccavallo. 
 Pictures by him of " The Virgin and the Wise Men's Offer- 
 ing," ai'e to be found in the churches of his native place. — W. T.
 
 BEN 
 
 515 
 
 BER 
 
 BENWELL, J. H., sou of tlie steward to the dulvc of Marl- 
 borough ; he became portrait pauiter, and taught drawing at 
 Bath. He had a phui of combining crayons with water colours, 
 then all but unknown. Some of his drawings were engraved, 
 particului-ly his " Childi-en in the Wood," by Sharp. Died in 
 1785.— W. T. 
 
 BENZEL-STERNAU, Christian Ernst Graf von, was 
 born of a noble family of Swedish origin, at Mentz, 9th April, 
 17(;7, and died at his estate of Mariahalden on the lake of 
 Zurich, 18th August, 18-19. He held several high posts hi the 
 administrative services of the electorate of Mentz, 1791-1806, 
 and the grand-duchy of Baden, 1806-1812, and in 1812 was 
 appointed prime minister to the grand-duke of Frankfort. After 
 the dissolution of the latter grand-duchy, he lived in retirement 
 on his estates, embraced protestantism in 1827, and was a 
 member of the Bavarian diet in 1825 and 1828. Benzel-Sternau 
 occupies a conspicuous place among the German humorists, 
 although his works are deticient in form, and liis style is extra- 
 \ agant, full of conceits, and sometimes even of contortions. His 
 most admired novels are — " Das goldene Kalb ;" " Dcr Steinerne 
 Oast;" "Der alte Adam," &c. Among his di-amatic writings 
 we mention " Das Hoftheater zu Barataria," a series of dramatic 
 pieces which excel by sprightly wit and brilliant jeux d'esprit. 
 As a politician, he was a steady and enlightened partisan of 
 ■ institutional government, and has exercised a consequent influ- 
 . lice by his political writings, especially by his " Bayernbriefe," 
 and his periodical, Der Verfussunrjs-Freimd. — K. E. 
 
 BENZELIUS, Eric, a Sw^edish theologian, born at Benzeby 
 in 1612 ; died in 1709. Charles XII., by whose orders he 
 superintended an edition of the bible in Swedish, gave him the 
 archbishopric of Upsal. His principal works are — " De viris 
 Prophetarum" and "Brev. Hist. Eccles. Vet. et Novi Test." 
 
 BENZELIUS, Ekic, a learned Swedish writer, son of the 
 in-eceding, bom at Upsal in 1675, travelled in France, Germany, 
 rjigland, and other countries of Europe, and on his return to 
 Sweden became in succession professor of theology, bishop of 
 liothenburg, and archbishop of Upsal. Besides a work on the 
 liistoiy of his native country, and editions of various northern 
 rhroniclcs, he published " Monumenta Sueco-Gotliica," and 
 ■' Ulphilas lUustratus." He supplied an amended text, a Latin 
 version, and annotations for the Gothic Gospels, published by Lye 
 at Oxford in 1750. Died in 1743, leaving a reputation for exten- 
 sive scholarship in theology, languages, and antiquities. — J. S., G. 
 BENZELIUS, Henry, brother of Eric the younger, was one 
 of tlie learned men whom Charles XII. sent from his retreat 
 at Bender to explore the Holy Land and adjacent countries. He 
 visited the Arclnpelago, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and, on his 
 return to Europe, Italy, Germany, and Holland. The result of 
 his observations are still in MS., with the exception of slight 
 notices published in his " Syntagma Dissertationum," 1745. He 
 was advanced to the see of Lund in 1740, and became arch- 
 bishop of Upsal in 1747. Born 1G89 ; died 1758.— J. S., G. 
 
 BENZENBERG, Jean Frederic, a learned German physic- 
 ist and politician, bom in 1777 ; died in 1846. Benzenberg 
 was a trae German, and therefore a deadly enemy of the first 
 Napoleon. The events of 1815 alone defeated a conspiracy 
 organized by him, tlie object of which was a rising en masse, 
 in several of the German states. He wrote a great many flying 
 essays, alike on jihysics and public affairs. His pamphlet on 
 falling stars is still replete with interest. — J. P. N. 
 
 BENZIE, Max, a French nobleman, sent to Rome to study 
 under Ferri and Ferrati ; more ambitious than most rich men are, 
 lie executed five medals for the queen of Sweden, one for Inno- 
 cent XL, and one for Louis XIV. Flourished about 1700. 
 
 BENZON, FREinRicii-WiLiiELM-KARL, was born at Kioge 
 on tlie 7th of May, 1791, and was educated for the profession of 
 the law at Copenhagen. He devoted himself to tlie study of 
 liistoiy, and was appointed secretary to the Royal Historical 
 Society of Denmark. He has left a work on the Danish nobility. 
 BENZONI, Jei'vOME, an Italian traveller, born at IMilan 
 about the year 1519. He visited France, Spain, and Germany, 
 and afterwards resided a number of years in America. Autlior 
 of an account of the New World published at Veiiic(! in 1565. 
 
 BEORN or BIORN, a historian, native of Iceland, lived in 
 the seventeenth century; author of "Annales Groenlandirc, ab 
 A.C. 1400, usque ad sua tempera," and a work " De Novitiis 
 Grnenhuulorum Indiciis. 
 
 BEO\YULF, the hero of a very old Anglo-Saxon poem, a MS. 
 
 of which, supposed to belong to the tenth ceiitmy, is preserved 
 in the British Miiseum. It was published in London in 1833. 
 Suhm, the Danish historian, supposes that Beowidf was a real 
 person living in the fourth centm-y ; but it is more lilcely that he 
 belongs to the region of mythology. — ,1. B. 
 
 BEQUET, Stephen, born at Paris, 1800, was one of that 
 distinguished stalf of political writers, whose talents and spirit 
 sei-ved to raise the Journal des Debats to that leading place it 
 held during the reign of Charles X., whose fall it helped very 
 much to precipitate. Bequet might probably have been only 
 known as a lenient and elegant critic, had he not contributed a 
 political article destined to produce an extraordinary effect. A 
 prosecution for libel ensued, which, ending in defeat, exposed the 
 true feeling of the middle class, and the words "unhappy France, 
 unfortunate king," wdth which the acquitted libel temiinated, 
 were caught up as a watch-word, which sounded like the knell 
 of the faUing djaiasty. Bequet died in 1834.— J. F. C. 
 
 BERAB, Rabbi Jacob b. Mos. b. Isr., ended his agitated 
 life in the year 1546, at Ssefath (or Zephath) in Galilee, at the 
 age of seventy-two. His birthplace was Maqueda, near Toledo, 
 in S]3ain. After having received a careful education under 
 Rabbi J. Aboab, he left his native country, in his nineteenth 
 year ; although he was so young, his great abilities attracted 
 attention at Fez, wdiere he resided for some time. He subse- 
 quently travelled eastward, passed through Egypt, and at length 
 settled as chief of the Hebrew community in Ssefath, in the Holy 
 Land. Here he laboured with extraordinaiy energy for the revival 
 of learning among the Jews in the east ; he longed to restore to 
 theu" ancient activity the then long closed academics of Pales- 
 tine ; but he coupled with this laudable aspiration the ambitious 
 design of resuscitating, in his own person, the dignity of Nassi 
 or Patriai'ch of the Holy Land, which had been extinct for 
 upwards of a thousand years. He convoked, for the elaboration 
 of his plan, a synod which was attended by twenty-five rabbis, 
 whose concurrence he secured. Had he fully succeeded, he 
 would have raised himself to the position of universal religious 
 chief of the Jewish people. But his plan was frustrated by the 
 unwearied opposition of Rabbi Levi Chabib, at that time at the 
 head of the Hebrews at Jerusalem. Neither advantageous pro- 
 posals of confederacy, nor threatening denunciations had any 
 influence on Chabib ; he successfully overthrew Berab's central- 
 izing scheme. The interesting documents which the controversy 
 between the two rabbis called forth, have happily been pre- 
 served. — T. T. 
 
 BERAIN, Pierre-Martin, a French historian, lived in the 
 first part of the eighteenth century; author of " Historical 
 Memoirs of the three Dagoberts," Strasbm-g, 1717, 8vo. 
 
 BERANGER, Pierre Jean de, a poet, was born the 19th 
 August, 1780, in Paris. While yet a boy of twelve years of age 
 he went to live with his aunt, an innkeeper at Peronne. So 
 far from denying his humble origin, the poet in his song 
 " Le Vilain," boasts that his ancestors had never harassed poor 
 serfs, nor supported absolute power, nor committed any of those 
 crimes with which liistoiy has covered French nobility. His 
 only title was love of country; as for the rest, he was vilitin et 
 tres vilain. As we proceed in our notice of this illustrious 
 poet's life, we shall find at each step convincing proof that his 
 acknowledgment of his birth, parentage, and education was 
 simple and sincere. We have, in fact, to deal with not only an 
 original genius, but an honest, independent character, one of 
 those noblemen of nature's own making. While with his aunt, 
 chance threw in his way Teleinaclius, Racine, and Voltaire. 
 It may be presumed that the writings of the philosopher of 
 Ferney, were not those he least enjoyed, by a circumstance which 
 occurred about the period hi question. His aunt, terrified by a 
 thunder-storm, sprinkled the house with holy water ; but, as it 
 did not save her hopeful nephew from being struck down and 
 stunned by the electric fluid, the lad on recovering his .senses, 
 satirically asked her what good did tlie holy water do him? At 
 fourteen he was bound apprentice to a printer, and it is told as a 
 fact, that it was through his master's correction of his faidts of 
 grammar, that he learnt to write correctly. An educational estab- 
 lishment was formed at Peronne, called the Institut Patriotique, 
 which is described to have been something of a half camp and 
 half club, in accordance with the sjiirit of the time ; and here it 
 was the poet finished his education, in the ordinaiy sense of the 
 term. At sixteen he returned lo Paris, whore he wrote a comedy 
 not destined for success. What is more remarkable as illustrat-
 
 BER 
 
 516 
 
 BER 
 
 ing at once his sense of his own defects, his veneration for letters, 
 and tlie noble turn of his ambition, is his having conceived the 
 idea of an epic poem, of which Clovis was to be the hero, and 
 which he resolved not to begin imtil he should have reached liis 
 thirtieth year; he devoting the mtervening twelve to preparation 
 for his work. As young poets generally begin by imitation of 
 the ^Titers who manifestly influence then- 'line, so Beranger feel- 
 ing the power of Chateaubriand, then in he ascendant, WTote a 
 semi-pastoral, semi-religious poem, ''The Pilgi-image ; " but liis 
 own tiiie vein had yet to be opened. Disappointed and poor, he 
 had half resolved upon following Napoleon to Egj-jit, but was 
 dissuaded by the advice of some friends who liad retm-ned home, 
 stripped of illusions by the realities of hardships. It was during 
 the miseries of early poverty, that the poet threw off those pieces 
 abounding in animal spirits and rich melody, such as " La 
 Gaudriole ; " " Les Gueux ; " " lisette," &c. The enthusiasm 
 which tempted him to follow Buonaparte, probably induced him 
 to turn to the hero's more hterary brother, Lucien, and to him 
 he inclosed his poems. Contraiy almost to his expectations, 
 the poet received a kind encouraging letter fi-om the prince, 
 advising him against hasty composition, and pointing out the 
 necessity of pa>-ing attention to style. But as Lucien set out 
 immediately for Rome, tlie poet fancied there was an end to the 
 con-espondence. Happily he was mistaken. A letter came 
 from Rome, with an hiclosure the most satisfactorj' ever offered 
 to a sensitive child of song ; it was a transfer of Lucien's salaiy, 
 as a member of the Institut, a gift which, implying that Beran- 
 ger was worthy of sitting in his place, raised him to an equality 
 of literary rank. Soon afterwards he was employed upon the 
 Annales du Musee, and in 1809, received an under-clerkship in 
 the olBce of the secretaiy of the university, at the low salary of 
 1200 fi'ancs. Hitherto the songs of Beranger had been the 
 outpourings of a full nature; but when, about 1814, the excesses 
 of Napoleon's ambition were exhausting France, and exciting 
 the tremendous passioris of countries he had so ruthlessly vio- 
 lated, the poet chimed in his playful remonstrance, and set his 
 laughing countrymen a-wishing that their superbly extravagant 
 raler would put on the cotton niglitcap of Le Roi d'Yvetot. 
 Tliat the emperor coidd not have taken the poet's wit and humour 
 in bad part, may be considered proved, by the ofter to become 
 censor made during the Hundred Days. Of course he refused 
 it, and with the more detemiination, as his own political 
 feeUngs had undergone a serious change. Democratic as he 
 was by temper and principle, yet the anarchy occasioned by 
 the Republic had for a while reconciled him to the order 
 decorated with glory, established by Buonaparte. The emperor 
 had, in turn, abused liis power, and Beranger thought the time 
 aiTived for the experiment of a constitutional monarchy. As it 
 was the principle of national liberty he desired, he entertained 
 no illusion as to names, and his first volume of poems, published 
 in 1815, was so little flattering to those in power, that the author 
 received a warning, which he understood to be a hint that his 
 situation depended on the will of the government. ^Mien in 
 1821 he published his second volume, with the old warning in 
 his mind he resigned otKce. The new poems contained some 
 Uvely satires on the old regime reinstalled at court, and glowed 
 >vith patrioric appeals to the love of glory and patriotism of the 
 people. A prosecution followed, and the writer was condemned 
 to three months' imprisonment, and a fine of 500 francs. On 
 the day of his condemnation, 8th December, 1821, was circu- 
 lated in court his " Adieux a la Campagne," ending with a vow to 
 sing in bis prison tlie glorious hymn of liberty, and he kept his 
 word. His confinement could not have been a soiTowful one, if 
 we may judge from liis poetical acknowledgments of the presents 
 of choice ^^•incs, fniit, and game, which poured in on him from 
 his admirers ; and probably for the first time the French Ana- 
 crcon celebrated the realities of feasts which before were not 
 unfrequently dreams of the imagination. Upon his liberation, 
 Jacques Lafitte, aftenvards prime minister of the king of the 
 barricades, offered him a post in his banking-house, which the 
 poet, fearing to compromise his friend, delicately declined. The 
 ministry of ViUele, having sunk under the weight of its unpopu- 
 larity, the king, Charles X., created the quasi-liberal ministr}- 
 of M. de JIartignac, but so far from the change bringing good 
 fortune to Beranger, he was prosecuted for his new volume, 
 containing, amongst other offensive songs, his " Sacre de Charles 
 le Simple," the "Infiniment Petits,"and condemned, 10th Decem- 
 ber, 1828, to nine months' imprisonment, and to pay, for him, the 
 
 enoiTnous fine of 10,000 francs. So great was the anger of the 
 court and the priesthood, that it broke out in allusions introduced 
 into a speech fi-om the throne, and in direct references in a 
 mandement of the archbishop of Toulouse. The revolution of 
 July, 1830, which followed so soon after Beranger's liberation, 
 opened to him the freest choice of ofilce, but he would accept 
 nothing. Trae to his own genuine simplicity of tnithfulness, he 
 affected no surly independence, and put on no gi'andly-affected 
 airs. He pleaded love of ease, and indisposition to labour, but 
 yet would not accept a sinecm-e against the dictates of con- 
 science. On the declaration of the republic m 1848, the people 
 of Paris elected the national poet to a seat in the constituent 
 assembly; but finding the noise and confusion not suited to 
 the easy intercourse in which he loved to indulge, he, after a 
 few visits to that short-lived body, sent in his resignation, which 
 was at first refused, and only on his resolute persistence accepted. 
 Napoleon III., on his advent to the throne, tried to succeed 
 where Napoleon L, and Louis Philippe, and the RepubMc, had 
 successively failed. His majesty, with his usual ability, deter- 
 mined upon assailing tlie hitherto unconquered citadel of the 
 poet's independence, through the weak points of a heart suscep- 
 tible to grace and loveliness. The attack was not openly con- 
 ducted against a hero so watchful of his honour. The beautiful 
 and gi-aceful Empress Eugenie engaged Beranger's publisher to 
 pay him a clandestine pension, in the form of a pretended 
 increase of profits of sale. The respectable publisher proved as 
 jealous of the poet's character as if he felt himself a trusted 
 guardian, and the inipeiial design only elicited a beautiful 
 and characteristic letter from the unconquerable worshipper of 
 independence, ^^^len Beranger yielded at length to the infir- 
 mities of age, and his last sickness grew heavy upon him, the 
 empress was unceasing in her attentions to the dear old dying 
 poet; and when he at length died in July, 1857, the crown 
 assumed to itself the right of ordering and du'ecting a pubUc 
 funeral. Had the poet's o^ti wishes been consulted, he would 
 have been privately inteiTed, surrounded only by the few whom 
 he loved. Such was his ^^Titten request; and who, after a con- 
 sideration of his pertinacious avoidance through life of public 
 honour, can doubt of the sincerity of his will regarding the 
 cMsposal of his remains ? As each song of Beranger's might be 
 called an act of his life — for the greater number at least were 
 suggested by public or private cu-cumstances affecting his feel- 
 uigs — so have we explained the earnestness of pm-pose, which, 
 under a surface whether playful or serious, sent them home to 
 tlie hearts of his countrs'men. His songs became in this way 
 notes of his ovra life's history. His sincerity and conscientious- 
 ness appear in his very style, which is labom'cd and polished to 
 that high degree which ends in the appearance of spontaneous 
 ease. His fine taste and tnith would not allow of his putting 
 anything imperfect from his hand. The most waiTn and impas- 
 sioned is the most melodious of poets. To translate Beranger 
 into English would, perhaps, be about as easy as to render 
 Bmns into French. There are locutions in both which cannot 
 be transplanted from the racy soil of the peculiar population to 
 which tliey were given, and which depend for effect upon associa- 
 tions altogether their own. The French and Scottish national 
 poets have the like character, that with the freest use of popular 
 dialect, they are never ^•ulgar. Perhaps the advantage belongs 
 to Beranger, because of the gi'cater ditficulty of raising the 
 corrupt jargon of the lower ordere of a city, which is not always, 
 like that of the acquired tongue of the country people, a well- 
 adapted instrument to their own genuine feelings. From the 
 command exercised by Beranger over classical literatui-e, how 
 few could beUeve that his education was so scanty ; but here, 
 again, we have the same man, who owed everything to himself, 
 and would receive nothing from prince, or potentate, or power, 
 determined as he was to supply his needs by his own honest 
 exertion ; and this is the more admirable, when we consider that 
 he had to bend luxurious tastes to contentment with small 
 means, and to preserve his independence by reducing his temp- 
 tations to few wants. Beranger is thus not only the first of 
 national poets, but of great characters. — J. F. C. 
 
 BERARD, Pierre Clement. Soon after the revolution of 
 1830, a periodical appeared, which, under the title of Cancans, 
 levelled the most ferocious abuse against the king of the barri- 
 cades, his family, and government. In order to evade the control 
 exercised over periodicals, the author would vary the title by the 
 addition of an ever- changing epithet, as well as shift the day of
 
 publication. Hardly a number appeared wliich did not provoke 
 a prosecution so well-founded as to insure conviction. During 
 the two years and a half that the Cancans ran their eccentric 
 course, the writer was sentenced to imprisonment, which made 
 a sum total of fourteen years, and to fines amounting to 13,000 
 francs. Some time about 1834 he, probably to escape imprison- 
 ment, was not heard of aftenvards. — J. F. C. 
 
 * BERAKD, AuGUSTE Simon Louis, a noted French states- 
 man, receiver-general of finance in the department of Cher, was 
 born at Paris in 1783. His fiither, an eminent merchant, and 
 during the earlier years of the Revolution an enthusiastic officer 
 of the National Guard, was of an ancient Provencal family, who 
 had suffered confiscation of their estates, hi consequence of their 
 attachment to protestantism. He entered public life in 1810 
 as auditor, and in 1814 became master of requests to the council 
 of state. From the downfall of Napoleon, except during the 
 Hundred Days, he was out of office till 1817, when he was 
 recalled to the comicil of state. In 1820 he had the honoiu- of 
 being dismissed, in company with such men as Guizot and Eoyer- 
 Collard. The consequent interval in his political life was occu- 
 pied with various schemes of national importance, such as the 
 lighting of Paris by gas, and the establishment of a bank for the 
 transaction of business connected with public works. In 1827 
 he was called to the chamber of deputies, where he voted gene- 
 rally with the opposition, but without taking part in any factious 
 movements against the ministry. After the publication of the 
 ordinances of the 25th July, 1830, he exerted himself, but 
 without effect, to induce some of his colleagues to sign a protest 
 against these offensive proclamations, and to try the effect of 
 presenting it themselves to Charles X. He afterwards played a 
 conspicuous part in the elevation of Louis Philippe to the vacant 
 throne. In August, 1830, he was named du-ector-general of 
 bridges, &c., and councillor of state. After a period of retire- 
 ment from public life, he was appointed in 1839 to the office 
 which he holds at present. He has published " Souvenu-s histo- 
 riqucs sur la Revolution de 1830," and " Essai bibliogi-aphique 
 sur les editions des Elzevirs Ics plus precieuses et les plus 
 rechorchees," 1822.— J. S., G. 
 
 BERARDIER DE BATAND, FRAN^!ois-JosErH, a French 
 litterateur and historian, born at Paris in 1720 ; died in 1794. 
 He published an excellent introduction to history, entitled "Precis 
 de I'Histoire Universelle," 17G6, and other works. 
 
 BERAULD, Francis, son of Nicholas, was an admir- 
 able Greek scholar. He taught at Lausanne, when Beza went 
 thither in 1549. He was head of the college at Montargis in 
 1571, and afterwards resided at Rochelle. At the request of 
 Henry Stephens, he translated some books of Appian. The exact 
 date and place of his birth and death are uncertain. — T. J. 
 
 BERAULD, Nicholas, an eminent French lawyer and com- 
 mentator, was born in 1473, as some say, at Orleans, but, 
 according to others, at Languedoc. He was the tutor of admu'al 
 de Coligni. Erasmus speaks highly of his commentaries on 
 PUny. He also published a Greek-Latin dictionaiy. Erasmus 
 describes him as possessing a smooth and voluble tongue, a sweet 
 melodious voice, and a ready and pm'e style. But others attri- 
 bute the slow words of his pupils to the ill habit of theu" pre- 
 ceptor. He died in 1550. — T. J. 
 
 BERAULT, Claudius, regius-professor of Syriac in the uni- 
 versity of Paris after the death of M. d'Herbelot, and author of 
 the commentary on Statins, " in usum Delphini," died at Paris, 
 in March, 1705.— T. J. 
 
 BERAULT, Michael, a celebrated Huguenot minister and 
 professor of di\ inity at Montauban, flotn-ished about the end 
 of the sixteenth century, and the beginning of the seventeenth. 
 Scaliger says that he was once a monk, and commends his learning. 
 He was chosen to dispute against Du Perron in the conference of 
 Mantes. He published a work on the " Vocation of Ministers 
 of the Gospel" in 1598. He favoured the interests of the didce 
 of Rohan in the civil wars. He appears to have been hasty and 
 ambitious. The place of his death is unknown. — T. J. 
 
 BERBEGUIElv, Benoit Tkancjuille, a flutist, was born 
 at Caderousse, in the department of Vaucluse, December 21, 
 1782, and died at Paris in 1838. He was designed for the bar, 
 hut his strong inclination for music induced his parents to allow 
 him to abandon his legal studies, and devote himself to the prac- 
 tice of the flute. Besides his early mastery of this instrument, 
 he obtained facility also upon the violin and violoncello. In 1S05 
 he went to Paris, and entered the conservatoire, where he was 
 
 placed in the class of Wunderlich. In 1813, being drawn in the 
 conscription, he was compelled to quit Paris with the army, in 
 which he rose to the rank of lieutenant ; he had no taste, how- 
 ever, for militaiy life, and was glad to quit the service and 
 re-establish himself at Paris as a civilian in 1819. He married, 
 in 1823, Mademoiselle Plou, an esteemed harp-player. His 
 renown as an executant was very extensive, and his extremely 
 numerous compositions for his instrument are in the repertory of 
 every amateur of the flute. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERCII, Karl Rheinhold, a Swedish historian and anti- 
 quaiy, was bom at the commencement of the eighteenth centuiy. 
 He was also distinguished for his knowledge of political economy 
 and numismatics. He wrote several works, especially on the 
 latter subject. He died in 1777. — J. F. W. 
 
 BERCHELMANN, Johann Philipp, a German physician, 
 born at Darmstadt in 1718, practised at Giessen, and afterwards 
 became physician to the landgrave of Darmstadt, where he died 
 in 1783. He wrote a treatise " On Cancer," published at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 175G, and also a periodical work, 
 entitled Fragrnente zur Arzneikunde und Naturgeschiclde^ of 
 which two volumes appeared there in 1780 and 1781. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERCHENEY, Nicholas, a Hungarian chief, bom in 1GG4. 
 In 1700 he entered into a plot with his relative. Prince Rakotzky, 
 for the separation of Hungary from Austria. Having received a 
 subsidy from the French king, then at war with the emperor, 
 they raised an army of 60,000 men, and advanced triumphantly 
 almost to the gates of Vienna. Bercheney was made ducal 
 lieutenant of Hungary. In the end the confederates suffered 
 great reverses, and Bercheney was compelled in 1711 to flee 
 into Poland. He died in 1725 at Radorto in Turkey. — J. T. 
 
 BERCHENEY, Ladislaus, son of the preceding, was bom in 
 1689. He fought, like his father, in the cause of his country, and 
 after the establishment of Austrian supremacy in 1711, he took 
 refuge in France, and next year entered the French service. 
 He served with great distinction m various campaigns, and was 
 conspicuous for his indomitable courage. He was created a 
 marshal of France in 1758, and died in 1778. A regiment of 
 hussars went by his name until the year 1790. — J. T. 
 
 BERCHET, Peter, a French historical painter, bom in 
 1659, a pupil of that La Fosse who decorated Montague house. 
 In 1C81 he came to England, and did ignoble work for our 
 nobles. He painted the ceiling of Trinity chapel, Oxford, the 
 duke of Schomberg's staircase, and the summer house at Rane- 
 lagh. His academy drawings and small mythological works 
 were much admired till 1720, when he died. — W. T. 
 
 BERCHET, TousSAiNT, a French protestant controversialist 
 and philologist, born at Langres in 1540 ; died at Sedan in 
 1605. He translated into Latin the Greek catechism of Henri 
 Estienne, and annot.ated Clenard's Greek gi-ammar, which he 
 published with the title, "Instit. ac medit. in Gra?cam linguam." 
 
 BERCHET, Giovanni, a Lond)ard poet, born at Milan in 
 1790. Berchet was one of the noble band who commenced, in 
 1818, the then peaceful straggle for Italian emancipation, under 
 the garb of literary romanticism, in the Conciliatore, a hteraiy 
 periodical, in which ho was associated with Silvio Pellico, Con- 
 falonieri, the marquis of Brcme, Borsieri, Romagnosi, and other 
 distinguished writers, until the joumal was suppressed by the 
 Austrian government, and the contributors imprisoned or exiled. 
 Berchet was involved in the conspiracy which led to the insur- 
 rection of 1821 in Piedmont, first headed, and afterwards be- 
 trayed by Charles Albert of Savoy, then prince of Carignano ; 
 and one of Berchet's most powerful and popular poems was 
 written in denunciation of the prince's treachery on that occasion. 
 The terrible Imes — 
 
 Esccrato O Carignano: 
 
 Va 11 tuo nome In dgnl gentc; 
 
 Noil v'e cliiiia s\ lontano, 
 
 Ove il tedio, lo squallor, 
 
 La bpstemmla <i' lui' fuggcnto 
 
 Non ti annunzl Traditor! 
 
 rang throughout all Italy in 1821 and the following years; their 
 echo was prolonged by the royal betrayal of Milan in 1848, and 
 they are said to have been never forgotten by the vacillating and 
 unhappy king. Condemned to death by the Austrians, Berchet 
 fled into exile, and travelled in France, England, and Belgium. 
 While in France, he wrote the greater number of those magnifi- 
 cent patriotic songs which have gained him the name of the Tyr- 
 taius of Italy, and the love of every Italian heart. They breathe
 
 the most energetic hatred to Austria, a sacred indignation against 
 the apathy of the ItaUans of that day, and a deep distrast of 
 kings and princes, expressed with striking originality and extra- 
 ordinary ])o\ver. Though prohibited by all the Italian govcni- 
 iiients, his songs, nevertheless, penetrated in SIS. copies from one 
 end of the peninsula to the other, and greatly contributed to the 
 reawakening of that spirit of nationality in Italy which has since 
 become indomitable. To this day they are learned by heart by 
 all the youth of Italy. Berchet returned to Italy in 1848 ; but 
 his health was already shattered by exile, and, after a long and 
 liainful illness, he died in October, 1851. Besides other less 
 important works, Berchet wrote a spirited translation of the 
 ancient Spanish ballads of the Bard of Gray, and of Gold- 
 smith's Vicar of Wakefield. — E. A. H. 
 
 BERCIIEUKE or liERCHOIRE, Pierre, a learned French 
 Benedictine, author of a translation of Livy, and of a work 
 entitled " Reductorium, Eepertorium, et Dictionarium morale 
 utriusque Testamenti," was born towards the end of the thir- 
 teenth centuiy at St. PieiTe du Chemin in Poitou, and died at 
 Paris in 1362. Of the former work several copies exist in MS. 
 in the imp<'rial libraiy at Paris. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERCllOUX, Joseph, born at Lyons, 17G5. During the 
 Reign of Terror he served in the ranks of the army, not from any 
 taste for a military life, but to escape being pointed at as a 
 devoted friend of the royal family, when loyalty was a capital 
 offence. Upon his liberation from service, he published a satire 
 on the prevailing rage for imitating the costume and supposed 
 habits of the Greeks and Romans. Not only in works of art 
 and in household furniture did the fanaticism for antiquity 
 display itself, but ladies went to evening parties in costumes 
 burrowed from engravings of Dido and Venus in the Dauphin's 
 edition of Virgil. Berchoux's satire became highly popular, and 
 his reputation was further raised by another poem, " La Gastro- 
 nomic," which was translated into nearly all the living languages. 
 Other poems did not obtain equal success. As a political writer 
 lie remained faithfid to the Bourbons, being one of the origuial 
 founders of the Qnotidimne. He died in 1839. — J. F. C. 
 
 BERCIITOLD, Leopold Count von, a German philan- 
 thropist, born in 1738. He has been called the Gemian 
 Howard, and with no exaggeration of his claims to the gi'atitude 
 of mankind. Thirteen years he travelled in Em-ope, and four in 
 Asia and Africa, intent on mitigating the sufferings of humanity, 
 and in the pious labours which he undertook for that purpose, 
 sparing neither his person nor his fortune. He could speak 
 fluently the principal languages of the continent, and tmned his 
 talents as a linguist to the account of his philanthropy, by pub- 
 lishing, in various countries, tracts on the condition of their 
 criminals, &c. While in England, he wrote " An Essay to 
 direct and extend the inquiries of patriotic Travellers," and 
 exerted himself to promote the circulation of the works of native 
 philanthropists. In 1791 we find him at Vienna publishing a 
 work on the restoration of the apparently dead ; in the following 
 year at Lisbon, distributing his tract on the preservation of life 
 in different dangers; in 1795-7 studying, in the hospitals of 
 Turkey, the plague and its remedies ; and somewhat later, in his 
 own country, labouring to popularize vaccination. During the 
 famine of 1805-G, he expended an immense sum in relieving 
 the wants of the inhabitants of the Reisengebirge ; and in 1809 
 he converted his castle into an hospital for the Austrian soldiers 
 wounded at Wagram. This v^'as his last act of beneficence, and 
 fitly tcnninated a career, in which the comforts of an exalted 
 station had been constantly sacrificed to the ends of philanthropy. 
 A fever, caught among his patients, proved fatal. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERCK.M.\NN, .John, a Gennan chronicler, born probably 
 at Stralsund between 1490 and 1500 ; died in 15G0. Author of 
 " Chronicles of Stralsund," a manuscript chiefly valuable as a 
 specimen of low German. 
 
 BERE, Oswald, a German physician, born at Frankfort in 
 1472, practised medicine for many years in his native place, Init 
 died at Basle in 15G7, at the great age of ninety-five years. He 
 was a pi-otestant, ancl pul)lished several works in support, of the 
 religious views whidi he luid embraced. Amongst these are a 
 " Commentary on the Apocalypse of St. John ;" a treatise, " De 
 Veteri et Nova Fide;" and a " Catechism of Faith and Morals," 
 derived from Cicero, Quintilian, and Plutarch. — W. S. D 
 
 BEREBISTES, a celebrated Dacian chief. He routed the 
 Scythians about 50 r,.c., and possessed himself of Olbia and 
 other Greek settlements on the Euxine. Cassar, and after- 
 
 wards Octavius, attempted to subdue him, but without success. 
 He was assassinated by his subjects. 
 
 BERECO, Gonzalez de, a monk of St. Milan, bom at 
 Avila, Castile, in 1198. He is considered upon good gi-ounds 
 to be the most ancient poet of Spain. Nine of his poems have 
 been preserved, forming altogether more than 13,000 lines. 
 Having from his childhood been brought up amongst the monks 
 of St. i\Iilan, his mind was so much imbued with religious 
 thoughts, that he could not choose for his poetical strains any 
 other than sacred subjects. Hence, his two principal poems are 
 the lives of St. Domingo de Silos and St. JMilan, in which he 
 relates their actions, sufferings, death, and miracles, in a style 
 always monotonous and prolix, with a versification inhannonious 
 and often fiiulty. It is supposed, however, that these poems are 
 posterior to that of the Cid. He died in 12GG.— A. C. M. 
 
 * B£rEDINKOFF, Jakoff Ivanovich, a Russian archse- 
 ologist, was born in 1802. In conjunction with M. Stroieff he 
 went to Eastern Russia upon an arcliKological expedition, for the 
 purpose of collecting materials for the great work on the Chro- 
 nicles of Russia, which is novv in course of publication. In 
 1840 Beredinkoff midertook to edit Katochildne's work upon 
 Russia, under Czar Alexis Michaelovich ; and more recently 
 still took a principal share in the great Sclavonic dictionary, pub- 
 lished under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences of St. 
 Petersburg, of which he is a member. — J. F. W. 
 
 BERENDS, JoiiANN Bernard Jacob, a German physician, 
 born about the year 17G0, at Frankfort-on-the-]Maine, where he 
 afterwards filled the chair of anatomy. He took his doctor's 
 degi-ee in 1792, when he sustained the following thesis : — "Dis- 
 sertatio qua demonstratur cor nervis carere, addita disquisitions 
 de vi nei-vorum arterias cingentium." In this treatise, which 
 was afterwards reprinted in Ludwig's Scriptores Neurologicas, 
 Berends maintains that the filaments of the cardiac plexus are 
 not distributed to the fibres of the heart, but simply to the 
 surface of its vessels, that the heart is insensible, and that, 
 consequently, irritability is distinct from nervous action. This 
 hj-pothesis made considerable noise for a time, from its being 
 defended by Soemmering, but it soon fell to the ground. 
 Berends also contributed to Ilufeland's Journal der praktischen 
 Heilkunde. He died about 1830.— W. S. D. 
 
 BERENGARIA, queen of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, was 
 not less famous for her decision of character than for her beauty. 
 She siiccessfully defended Toledo against the Moors ; and died 
 in 1159. 
 
 BERENGARIA, the divorced queen of Alphonso IX. of Leon, 
 and sister to the celebrated Blanche of Castile, held the regency 
 of the latter kingdom for some time dm-ing the minority of her 
 brother, Hemy I., and at his death succeeded to the throne. 
 
 BERENGARIO or BERENGARIUS, Jacopo, a celebrated 
 Italian surgeon and anatomist of the first half of the sixteenth 
 century, was bom at Caiiii, near Modena, but the date of his 
 butli is unknown. From his native place he sometimes received 
 the sm-names — " II Carpi," " Carpus," and " Carpensis." His 
 father was a surgeon of some repute, and the young Berengario 
 probably acquired his taste for anatomical studies under his 
 father's roof; but a great impulse appears to have been given to 
 his mind in this direction by Alberto Pio, lord of Carpi, a dis- 
 tinguished patron of scientific men, in whose presence, we are 
 told, Berengario made the public dissection of a pig. He after- 
 wards studied at Bologna, where he took his doctor's degree. 
 After lecturing on surgery for some time at Pavia, he returned 
 to Bologna, where he occupied a chair, according to Alidosi, 
 from 1502 to 1527. In this year, Bologna passed under the 
 dominion of the duke of Ferrara, and Berengario remo\'ed to the 
 latter city, where he resided, with the exception of a visit to 
 Rome, until his death. The date of his death is unknown ; but 
 we are told by Fallopio, that he left his fortune, amoimting to 
 fifty thousand ducats, to the duke of Ferrara. The most absiu-d 
 stories are told of thi; cause of his quitting Bologna. According 
 to one generally received statement, this distinguished anato- 
 mist, having two syjjhilitic Sjianiards under his treatment, took 
 the opportunity of gratifying at once his hatred for their nation, 
 and his desire of seeing their hearts beat, by dissecting them 
 alive ; whilst another account attributes his retreat to Ferrara, 
 to his having been too free in talking of the organs of generation. 
 Berengario is to be regarded as the first restorer of anatomy, or, 
 at all events, as one of those who connnenced the vast progress 
 made by that science in the sixteenth century. Instead oi
 
 BER 
 
 519 
 
 BER 
 
 blindly following the old writers, like liis predecessors, and most 
 of liis contemporaries, he investigated the stnictm-e of the body 
 for himself, and boasts of having dissected upwards of a hundred 
 human subjects, an enormous number at that period. He was 
 the first to prove that the human utenis has a single cavity, 
 and that the network of arteries at the base of the brain in certain 
 quadnipeds, does not occur in man ; and he was also the first 
 to mention the venniform appendage of the Cfecum, the seminal 
 vesicles, and the arytenoid cartilages. His obser\"ations also 
 threw considerable light upon numerous other branches of 
 human anatomy, especially the structure of the larjTix, the 
 kidneys, and the spinal maiTOw ; and to him we are indebted 
 for the first introduction of anatomical figures. It has also 
 been asserted by Tu-aboschi and others, that Berengario was the 
 first to employ mercury in the treatment of syphilis, and that he 
 was the inventor of mercurial ointment, but these statements 
 are incorrect. The works of Berengario are written in an 
 iiielegant and incorrect style. The earliest and most important, 
 entitled " Isagogfe breves perlucidte ct uberrima; in Anatomiam 
 Corporis humani," &c., was published at Bologna in 1514, and 
 frequently reprinted both at that place and elsewhere, up to the 
 year 1530. His "De cranii fractui-a Tractatus," Bologna, 1518, 
 is but an indifierent treatise, in which he follows the Arabian 
 physicians ; it nevertheless passed through numerous editions, 
 of which one was as late as 1715. He also published a " Com- 
 mentaria, &c., super anatomia Mundini," &c., Bologna, 1521, 
 of which a translation appeared at London in 1G64. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEREXGARIUS, a reformer of the eleventh century, a native 
 of France, principal of the academy at Tours, and archbishop 
 of Anglers, in the province of x\njou. He denied the doctrine 
 of the real presence, opposed popish celibacy, and the baptism of 
 infants. A letter he vrrote to his friend, Lanfranc (then head of 
 the convent of St. Stephen's, Caen, and afterwards made by 
 William the Conqueror archbishop of Canterbury), being opened 
 in Lanfranc's absence, was sent by the convent to Leo, the 
 pope ; and that pontiff, shocked at its heretical contents, sum- 
 moned a council at Vercelli, and cited Berenger to appear. By 
 the advice of his friends he disregarded the citation, and sent two 
 friends to answer on his behalf. Lanfranc also pleaded for him ; 
 but in the end his opinions were condemned. The same year 
 the council of Paris, summoned by Henry I., gave a similar 
 decision, and Berenger was in consequence deprived of all his 
 revenues, and he and his adherents threatened with imprison- 
 ment and death if they did not recant. In the meantime his 
 sentiments had spread widely in the south of Europe, and are 
 said to have " corrupted the French, Itahan, and English 
 nations." At length, after thrice renouncing his alleged eiTors 
 on the real presence, and again avowing them, he retired from all 
 worldly concerns, and passed the rest of his days in retirement, 
 and in the unostentatious practice of piety. He bitterly regretted 
 his dissimulation, and in 1088 was withdrawn from what had 
 proved to him a world of incessant struggle, leaving behind him 
 a deep and wide-spread impression of his sanctity. A consider- 
 able sect was called from his name Berengarians. They seemed 
 to have been attached to him as much by his sufferings and piety 
 as by his doctrines, and were reckoned by Roman catholics among 
 the most dangerous heretics. — See Slosheim, ii. 379 ; Du Pin. 
 ix. G ; Jones' Ecclesiastical Ilistory. — J. A., L. 
 
 BEREXGER I., marquis of FriuH, and gi-eat-grandson of 
 Charlemagne, through Louis le Debonnaire, was elected to the 
 throne of Italy in the close of the ninth century. His reign was 
 filled \\-ith constant struggles against rival princes, and was ter- 
 minated by his assassination at Verona in 924. — W. B. 
 
 BERENGER II., marquis of Iviy, and gi-andson of the pre- 
 ceding, obtained the throne by the aid of Otho the Great, about 
 tlie middle of the tenth centuiy, but was afterwards deposed by 
 that monarch, and died in prison at Bamberg in 9GG. — W. B. 
 
 BEREXGER, de la Touk, a poet of the sixteenth centuiy, 
 bom at Aubenas. His compositions are of so light a character, 
 that it is with some surprise it is learned that he filled the gi-ave 
 office of magistrate. But at that time places in the magistracy 
 were hereditary in families by right of purchase. On the other 
 hand, levity in composition was much in vogue, and regarded 
 as an allowable relaxation from severe studies, so that the poet's 
 nitegrity in office ought not to suft'er by compositions allowed by 
 the prevailing taste of his time. He died in 15G0. — J. F. C. 
 
 BEREXGER, dk Palesol, a French troubadour, whose birth 
 is not recorded, but whose death took place in 1194. He was 
 
 a poor knight of Roussillon, who, by the grace of his manners 
 and his poetical genius, attracted the favour of Raymond, count 
 of Toulouse, when that court was the centre of not unrefined 
 pleasm'es. The fair object of his songs was named Ermesine. 
 There was another poet of the same name at the court of 
 Jeanne, queen of Naples, who wrote five tragedies illustrative 
 of the difi'erent periods of life from childhood to old age, and 
 wliich appear in former times to have been admu-ed. — J. F. C. 
 
 BEREXGER, Jeax Pierre, a Genevese miscellaneous writer, 
 born in 1740 ; author of a " Histoiy of Geneva,"' 1775 ; an 
 abridged edition of Busching's Geography, 1776 ; a Collection 
 of all the Voyages round the World, 1788-90 ; and a " History 
 of Cook's Voyages," 1795. He died in 1807. 
 
 BERENGER, Jean, Count, a French statesman, was son of 
 a protestant minister near Grenoble. He became a member of 
 the states-general and of the council of Five Hundred, took a 
 prominent part in the revolutionaiy movements in the close of the 
 last centuiy, and held high offices, not only under the republic, 
 but after the restoration. — W. B. 
 
 BEREXGER, Laurent Pierre, French writer, bom at 
 Riez, November, 1749. By some poems he gave offence to the 
 brethren of the Oratoire, by whose influence he was deprived of 
 the professorship of rhetoric at the college of Orleans. He was 
 subsequently appointed royal censor, which oifice he held until 
 the outbreak of the Revolution. His later writings in prose are 
 chiefly on moral subjects, as indicated by their titles, such as 
 " Practical Moralitv," the " People instnicted by their own 
 Virtues," &c. He died in 1822.— J. F. C. 
 
 BEREXGER, Pierre, a French theologian of the twelfth 
 centmy, bom at Poitiers. He was the pupil and apologist, and 
 afterwards the persecutor, of Abelard. Three of his letters are 
 preserved in Duchesne's edition of the works of Abelard. 
 
 BEREXGER, Raymond IV., count of Provence in the first 
 half of the thirteenth centuiy, was distinguished by his literaiy 
 tastes, and had three daughters manied, severally, to the kings 
 of France, Naples, and England. 
 
 BEREXGER, Raymond, of Dauphine, became gi-and-master 
 of the knights of St. John at Rhodes in 1365. His administra- 
 tion was signalized by the reforms which he introduced into the 
 order, and by his vigorous suppression of the Egyptian pirates, 
 in the course of which he stormed Alexandi-ia and the Syrian 
 Tripoli.— W. B. 
 
 BEREXGUER, Fr.v Ration, prior of the chartreuse of the 
 Scala Dei in Catalonia about 1630, painted a series of small 
 frescos for his cloisters, St. Bnmo being the hero. They were 
 partlv boiTowed from Carducho. — W'. T. 
 
 BEREXHORST, Georg Heinrich von, a distinguished 
 Geraian military writer, was a natural son of Prince Leopold of 
 Anhalt-Dessau. He entered the Prussian army, and for several 
 years was adjutant to Frederick the Great. Aftenvards he tra- 
 velled in France, England, and Italy, and held several high posts 
 at Dessau, where he died in 1814. His " Betrachtungen iibor 
 die Kriegskunst," Leipzig, 1797-99, 3 vols., mturk a gi-eat pro- 
 gi-ess in military science. — K. E. 
 
 BEREXICE, eldest daughter of Herod Aginppa I., and sister 
 to the younger Agiippa (Acts xxv. 13), was married to her uncle 
 Herod, king of Chalcis, and after his death to Polemon, king of 
 Cilicia. The latter she espoused in order to avoid the merited 
 suspicion of incestuous intercourse with her brother. Both Ves- 
 pasian and Titus are represented to have intrigued with this 
 beautiftil but licentious princess. Titus canned her to Rome, 
 and was only prevented from makmg her his wife by the mur- 
 murs of the populace. Her notoriety ui the Rnmaii worhl 
 brought her under the lash of Juvenal (Sat. vi.) — J. S., G. 
 
 BEREREDS, Amelia, a Hteraiy lady, bom in 1.S04, in Hun- 
 gaiy ; died 1837. She was married to one of the most remark- 
 able members of the opposition party in Hungaiy before 1848. 
 Author of novels and tales, Pesth, 1840. 
 
 * BERESFORD, Lord John George, archbishop of 
 Amiagh, son of the first marquLs of Waterford, and second earl 
 of Tyrone, was born in the year 1773. In 1805 he was conse- 
 crated bishop of Cork; in 1807 he was translated to Raphoe; in 
 1809 to Clogher; and in the same year he was promoted to the 
 archbishopric of Dublin, in which see he continued till the year 
 1822, when he was r.aised to the primacy of Ireland, being the 
 first Irishman who occupied that place within a space of one 
 hundred and twenty years. In the year 1829 he was appointed 
 vice-chancellor of tlie university of Dublin ; and upon the death
 
 of the king of Hanover, the late chancellor, in 1851, he was 
 elevated to that hifcli office. In the discharge of his duties as 
 the head of the Irish branch of the Anglican church, he is 
 distinguislied for his gentle, yet firm maintenance of its rights, 
 for the purity and impartiahty with which he administers the 
 trusts reposed in him, for liis munificence in public and private 
 cliarities, and for the piety and meekness of his deportment, 
 lie has spent vast sums of money out of his private fortune, as 
 well as liis ecclesiastical revenues, in supporting the various 
 institutions of the established church in the country — in particu- 
 lar, in restoring and beautifying the ancient cathedral of Armagh; 
 and, in the year 185-1, he gave the sum of £12,000 for the erec- 
 tion of the beautiful bell-tower of the university of Dublin, the 
 first stone of which he laid on the 1st of December in that year. 
 To him is also owing the support of the admirable observatoiy 
 of Armagh, so long under the management of Dr. Robinson, one 
 of the best practical astronomers of our time. — J. F. W. 
 
 BERESFORD, Willlvm Carr, Viscount Beresford, field- 
 marshal in the British army, was a natural son of George, first 
 marquis of Waterford. He was born October 2, 1768, and 
 entered the aiTny in 1785 as ensign in the sixth foot. Having 
 served for a shoi't time in Nova Scotia, he was sent to the 
 Mediterranean in 1793. Here he was present at the capture of 
 Toulon, at the siege of Caloi, at Bastia, and St. Fiorenza. 
 Having rapidly risen to the rank of colonel in 1795, he served 
 in the West Indies under Sir Ralph Abercromby, and com- 
 manded a brigade in Sir D. Baird's anny in Egypt in 1799. His 
 next scene of active sei-vice was the Cape of Good Hope, in the 
 reconqucst of which colony he bore a distinguislied part. From 
 thence he was sent as brigadier-general to Buenos Ajres, but 
 was taken prisoner. In 1807 he effected his escape and 
 returned to England, and in the same year assisted Admiral Hood 
 in his descent upon JIadeira, of which island he was made 
 governor and commander-in-chief. In 1808 he was called to 
 join the British army in Portugal, and, proceeding with Sir John 
 Jloore's army to Spain, was present at Corunna, where he was 
 able to cover the embarkation of the troops. Returning to 
 England, he received the rank of major-general, and was sent 
 liack to Portugal, with the local rank of lieutenant-general, to 
 take the command of the Portuguese anny. At the head of 
 12,000 men he drove back the French from the north of Portu- 
 gal, and crossing the upper Douro and joining his troops with 
 those of Sir A. Wellesley, pursued the French army tOl it was 
 entirely disorganized. When General Beresford first midertook 
 the command of tlie Portuguese army, he found it a weak and 
 disorderly rabble; he soon stamped his impress upon it and 
 made it a powerful and well-ordered army, as was proved by 
 their conduct at the battle of Busaco. For his eminent services in 
 this engagement General Beresford was made a knight of the 
 bath. He had next an opportunity of displaying his prowess on 
 the sanguinary field of Albuera, for which battle he received the 
 thanks of parliament, and the poetical congratulations of Sir 
 Walter Scott. He was subsequently present at Badajos, Sala- 
 manca (where he was severely wounded), at Vittoria, the Pyre- 
 nees, Nivelle (where he led the right of the centre), at Nive, 
 and at Orthes. It was also his good fortune to be in command 
 of the British forces which took possession of Bordeaux, and lie 
 subsequently bore a distinguished part in the battle of Toulouse. 
 During his absence in the peninsula, he was elected M.P. for the 
 county of Waterford in 1811, and again at the general election 
 of 1812, but lie never came to England to take his seat in the 
 House of Commons. In May, 1814, he was elevated to tlie 
 ])eerage, as Lord Beresford, and was advanced to the viscounty 
 in 182.3. After the close of the Peninsular war, he received the 
 orders of many foreign states, and was appointed governor of 
 Jersey. In the meantime, he liad so far gained the confidence 
 (f the Portuguese government, that he was sent by them to Rio 
 .laneiro for the purpose of suppressing a revolt, which at one 
 time appeared formidable. In 1822 he was appointed lieutenant- 
 general of the ordnance, and became a general in 1825. On the 
 accession of the duke of Wellington to office in 1828, he ap- 
 ])ointed Lord Beresford master-general of the ordnance, but this 
 office he resigned on the duke's retirement in 1830. From this 
 date lie took no interest in public affairs, but lived for the most 
 part in retirement at his seat in Kent. In 1832 he married his 
 cousin, a daughter of Arelibishop Beresford of Tuam, and widow 
 of Mr. Thomas Hope of Deepilene, Surrey, the author of Anas- 
 tasius, &c. (See Hope, Thomas.) He died at Bcdgcbuiy park, 
 
 near Goudhurst, Kent, January 8, 1854. Besides liis other 
 honours. Lord Beresford was a field-marshal in the Portuguese 
 army, duke of Elvas, and marquis of Campo ]Major in Spain, 
 count of Conde de Francesco in Portugal, and a knight of the 
 orders of the Tower and Sword, San Fernando, St. Ferdinand, 
 and Merit, and of the Hanoverian Guelphic order. — E. W. 
 
 BERG, De. The counts of this noble family in the Low 
 Countries were well known in the wars of the fifteentli and six- 
 teenth centmies. In 1486 they were raised to the dignity of 
 counts of the empire ; but in 1712 the male line being extmct, 
 the title passed, by one of the female branches, into the house of 
 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. — W. B. 
 
 BERG, Francis, born at Wurtemburg in 1753 ; died in 
 1821 ; was professor of church history at Wurtzburg, and author 
 of two philosophical works entitled " Sextus," and " Epieritique de 
 la Philosophic." In the former he maintains scepticism in opposi- 
 tion to the early \'iews of Schelling. In tlie latter lie develops 
 his views more fully, and professes to fm-nish an Organon by 
 the aid of which philosophers may arrive at absolute truth. He 
 bases his system on what he calls " logical will," or will applied 
 to tlionght. The work was not mai-ked either by originality or 
 profundity, and attracted no attention. — J. D. E. 
 
 BERG, Jens Christian, a Norwegian lawyer and anti- 
 quarian, born 23rd September, 1775, at Drontheim, where his 
 father, the actual counsellor of justice for Christiania, then 
 resided. He received his education at the cathedral school of 
 Christiania, and after 1792 at the university of Copenhagen. 
 Being unsuccessful in his wish to obtain an appointment in the 
 royal library, he devoted himself to jurisprudence, and in 1803 
 was chosen pi-esident of the court of justice in the efistrict of 
 Jarlsberg. He was member of the extraordinary stortliing in 
 the autumn of 1814, and devoted himself to the amendment of 
 the laws. Hence, in November of the same year, he became 
 justiciaiy or president of the supreme court of justice at Agger- 
 huus. Being, in July, 1835, elected by the storthing adminis- 
 trator of the Christiania branch of the Norwegian bank, he 
 resigned his official posts, which he afterwards resumed on 
 becoming states-commissioner in Christiania, where lie resided. 
 In all these posts he enjoyed the esteem of the nation, besides 
 which he enjoyed a great reputation as a northern antiquarian. 
 He was an able contributor to the periodical journals called the 
 Sa/ja and Biuhtikl-en, and still more valuable are his contribu- 
 tions to the SamUiujer till der Norsk Sprof/ ng Ilisiorie, a 
 historical magazine which he edited for some time. — M. H. 
 
 BERG, Joachim de, of Herrndorf in Silesia, a scholar and 
 statesman in tlie sixteenth century, filled the office of ambassador 
 to various countries of Em-ope, and devoted liis property at his 
 death to the education of the poor in his native land. — W. B. 
 
 BERG, JoHANN Peter, a Gei-man theologian and linguist, 
 bom at Breme in 1737 ; died at Dmsburg in 1800. He enjoyed 
 a reputation for immense scholarship, especially as an orientalist. 
 His only publication of any importance is entitled " Specimen 
 animad. philologicarum ad selecta Vet. Testamenti loca," 1761. 
 
 BERG, JIathys Vander, a portrait and historical painter, 
 bom in Ypres in 1615. He was a disciple of Rubens, and 
 thought to be of great promise ; but he proved a mere clever 
 copier of nature, and not a creator. He died poor ; his pictures 
 are scarce, but his copies of his master's are much valued. Date 
 of death uncertain — 1647 or 1687. — W. T. 
 
 BERGAMO, Jajies Philip de, or Forksti, prior of the 
 Augustine convent at Bergamo in Italy, which he repaired at a 
 groat expense — a man of good family — author of a " Chronicle (in 
 Latin) from the Creation of the World to the year 1503," shomng 
 considerable literary skill, and a " Treatise of Illustrious Women," 
 was bom in 1434, became a monk in 1451, and died in 1518. 
 
 BERGASSE, Nicolas, born at Lyons in 1750; died there 
 in 1832. Bergasse was an avocat of some celebrity, and pub- 
 lished some tracts on animal magnetism. When the states- 
 general were convoked, he was sent as deputy from Lyons ; and 
 lie presented, as a thousand others did, a memorial to the king 
 on the proper organization of the contemplated constitution. He 
 preached, at the same time, a discourse on the relations to each 
 other of the legislative and executive powers, and the fitting 
 limits to each in a monarchy. The constituent assembly disre- 
 garded his speculations ; but in some short time he was called 
 upon by the king to draw up his plan of a constitution. The 
 fate of the king involved that of Bergasse's new constitution ; 
 while it would be well for him had it passed unnoticed to that
 
 BER 
 
 521 
 
 BER 
 
 region where all things transitory and vain are gathered ; hut our 
 hero's new constitution for France fell into the hands of the 
 furious republicans ; he was persecuted and imprisoned, and was 
 fortunate in not meeting a worse termination of this perilous 
 authorship. Bergasse remained in safe obscurity till the Restor- 
 ation. In 1814 he published some political tracts — still specula- 
 tive, but now inoflensive — and he entered into a correspondence 
 with the emperor of Russia, which only ceased at Alexander's death. 
 He pubUshed also some pamphlets, in which he claimed the res- 
 toration to the emigrants of the property forfeited at the Revolu- 
 tion. This led to an abortive prosecution. In 1830 Bergasse was 
 named " conseiller d'etat." Bergasse is described as one of those 
 weak and inconsiderate men who were instrumental in creating 
 the Revolution, and who were wholly powerless to control the 
 spirit they had evoked. He left a son, Pierre Bergasse, who, 
 like his father, pursued the practice of the law. There is some 
 confusion in the accounts in bibliographical books of the works 
 of father and son, which it is not easy to disentangle. — J, A., D. 
 BERGE, Ernest Gottlieb, a German of distinguished 
 literary attainments, bom m 1649, and well known for his able 
 translation of the Paradise Lost into German in 1682. Berge 
 was well qualified for this undertaldng by his thorough knowledge 
 of the language of the original, having resided in London, 
 whither he came in 1678, and enjoyed the advantage of mixing 
 in the best literaiy circles. Berge's translation is a standard 
 work in Germany. — J. F. W. 
 
 BERGEN, Chakles August de, a German botanist and 
 anatomist, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder on 11th August, 
 1704, and died on 7th October, 1760. He pro.secuted his 
 classical studies at his native city, and then went to Leyden 
 in 1727, and attended the lectures of Boerhaave, Albinus, and 
 others. He also prosecuted his studies at the university of Stras- 
 burg. He graduated as doctor of medicine in 1730 at the uni- 
 \ersity of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and succeeded his father there 
 ;is professor of botany and anatomy. In 1744 he became pro- 
 fessor of pathology and therapeutics in the room of Goelicke. 
 A genus of plants was called Bergena by Adanson. He pub- 
 lished numerous anatomical and botanical works. Among them 
 may be noticed his dissertations " On the Intercostal Nerve ; " 
 " Ou Cellular Tissue ; " " On the Membranes of the Brain ; " 
 " On the Specific Gravity of Metals ; " his " Flora of Frankfort, 
 and Catalogue of Plants in the Botanic Garden;" "Elements of 
 Physiology;" and "Memoirs on Aloes, Alchemilla, and Pe- 
 tas'ites." — J. H. B. 
 
 BERGEN, Dirk Theodore van, bom at Haarlem, that 
 nursery of Dutch painters, in 1645. He studied under Adrian 
 Vanderoeldt, the calm-sea pamter, and excelled hmi in glow and 
 variety ; but his trees were lumpy, and his cattle and men were 
 coarsely drawn, though tolerably natural. He spent a year in 
 England, but did not attain much success, and returned to his 
 straight canals and fat pastures. Improvident and thriftless he 
 died poor, and was buried by subscription — a drea:y end — in 
 1689, a year after Orange ruled in England. Bergen painted 
 frequently on paper, perhaps owing to his poverty. His colour 
 is so so, and his shadows are baked and black. — W. T. 
 
 BERGEN, JoHANN Georg de, a German physician, a native 
 of Dessau, died on 27th April, 1738, at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
 where he was professor of botany and anatomy. He was suc- 
 ceeded in the chair by his son Charles August. He published 
 medical dissertations on Conception, the Circulation of the Blood, 
 Scrofula, Plethora, and Hajmoptysis. — J. H. B. 
 
 BERGEN, NiCHOLA.s, bom at Breda in 1670 ; died in 1699. 
 He painted historical subjects, and was a far-off imitator of that 
 prince of darkness — Rembrandt. — W. T. 
 
 BERGEN, RuDiGER de, a German poet, bom at Riga in 
 1603 ; died in 1661. He was of a benevolent disposition, and left 
 a large sum of money to help poor students. Author of " Apollo 
 acerbo dulcis," and a collection of poems. 
 
 BERGER, Joachim Ernst, a German protestant theolo- 
 gian, bom at Gramzow in 1666; died in 1734. He publislied, 
 "Yonder Spotterey mit der Siinde," 1702; "Das verdcckte 
 Evangelium ;" and " Entdeckte Jugendsiinden," 1704. 
 
 BERGER, JoHANN Gottfried Eimmanuel, a German 
 theologian and philosopher, author of several treatises on the 
 philosopliy of religion, was bora at Ruhland in Upper Alsatia in 
 1773, and died in 1803. 
 
 BERGER, John Eric de, a Danish philosopher, born in 
 1772 ; died in 1833 ; was professor of philosophy and astronomy 
 vol. r. 
 
 at Kiel, and author of two works entitled "A Philosophical Expo- 
 sition of the System of the Universe," and " A General Sketch of 
 Science." The latter treats, 1st, on the analysis of the faculty of 
 knowing ; 2nd, on the philosophical knowledge of nature ; 3rd, 
 on anthropology and psychology ; 4th, on moral philosophy. A 
 certain amount of originality characterizes these works. — J. D. E. 
 
 BERGER, Ludwig, a musician, was born at Berlin, April 
 18, 1777, where he died in 1839. His father was an architect in 
 the employ of the court, but losing his appointment, he removed 
 to the small town of Templin, whence Berger was sent to Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Oder to pursue his studies. His progress in com- 
 position and as a pianist was considerable ; and after a time he 
 returned to Berlin and took lessons of Giirrlich. In 1801 he 
 went to Dresden with the pui-pose of becoming the pupil of Nau- 
 mann, but reached there only in time to witness the death of 
 this master, his reverence for whom he testified in an elegiac can- 
 tata, which was much praised. Failing to obtain an appointment 
 in this city, he again went to Berlin and settled himself as a 
 teacher. In 1804 dementi made acquaintance with Berger's 
 talent, with which he was so pleased that he offered to take him 
 as his pupil to Russia, a proposal that was willingly accepted. 
 An-ived in St. Petersburg, Berger met with marked success, as 
 he had done in his many performances under the auspices of his 
 distinguished master upon the tour. Here he found Steibelt and 
 John Field, whose eminent talents made the standard of piano- 
 forte playing very high in the Russian capital. He profited 
 greatly from the example of the English artist in his skill as an 
 executant. The troubles of the times in 1812 made it dangerous 
 for foreigners to remain in St. Petersburg ; and it is said that 
 Berger's life was threatened, but he escaped by a stratagem and 
 reached Stockholm in safety. After a brief sojoum in Sweden 
 he came to London to meet again his friend and instructor, 
 Clementi, who published some of his music, and otherwise 
 assisted him to an honourable position. He gained consideraljle 
 esteem by the concerts he gave here, and he was held in high 
 repute as a teacher. He retumed finally to his native city at the 
 close of 1815, where soon aftei-wards he became the instractor of 
 jMendelssohn. Partial paralysis of his anu stopped his career as 
 a player, but he was still highly respected for his admirable qua- 
 lities of musicianship, proved in his excellent teaching, and still 
 more in his meritorious productions. He published several 
 sonatas and many smaller pieces for his instniiuent, as well as 
 a book of studies ; besides these, many songs for one and four 
 voices, and some compositions for a mihtary band. Domestic 
 soiTOws in his early years gi-eatly embittered his life, to which it is 
 attributed that, with remarkable talent for his art, a morbid tem- 
 perament deprived him of the energy which alone could enable 
 him to exercise this talent to advantage. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERGER, Paul, a Gcmian protestant theologian and Hebraist 
 of the first half of the eighteenth centuiy, was a native of Rosen- 
 burg. He wrote " De Montibus Sinai et Horeb," and " De 
 cabalismo Judaico-Christiano detecto." 
 
 BERGER, Theodore, a German lawyer and historian, bom 
 in 1683 ; died in 1773. He was -professor of history md law at 
 Coburg ; author of " A Universal Synchronistic History of the 
 Principal Kingdoms and States of Europe, from the time of 
 Charlemagne," Leipzig, 1729. 
 
 BERGER, Valentinp:, a learned German, born in 1620 ; died 
 at Halle in 1675. His sons, John-Henry, John-Godfrey, and 
 .lohn-William, were celebrated professors at Wittenburg. 
 
 BERGERAC, Savinien Cyrano de, bom in 1620 at the 
 chateau de Bergerac; died in Paris in 1665. Bergerac's eccen- 
 tricities were at least as remarkable as his writings. He was 
 quarrelsome and ill-conditioned, and made the persons to whom 
 he was indebted for almost eleemosynary support the objects of 
 his snarling satire. He made liis way to Paris, got into the 
 army, and became a notorious duellist. In some of 111 ■ frequent 
 rencontres he received a disfigiu-iug wound in the face, which, it 
 would appear, became the subject of many a regimental joke, 
 which Bergerac resented, and which led to duel after duel. The 
 soubriquet of the "demon des braves" was given him. Bergerac 
 was wounded at the siege of Arras, and, to his great regret, had 
 to quit the service. He was then seized with a new and unex- 
 pected passion, and philosophy became the object of his devotion. 
 Gassendi was then teaching at Chapelle — I\Ioliere, Bernier, and 
 others were among his pupils. Bergerac insisted on being ad- 
 mitted into his classes, and literally fought the professor into 
 reluctant compliance. Strong determination of purpose and a 
 
 3U
 
 BER 
 
 522 
 
 BER 
 
 powerful memory were a security for his success in whatever 
 line of study he gave himself to. His faults and wtues of char- 
 acter alike made hiui shrinli from dependence on tlie favour of the 
 great. In 15Go, however, we find him attached to the semce of 
 the Duke d'Ai'pajon. A few months after tliis arrangement was 
 entered into, he leaves the dulce's witli a broken head — how got 
 we are not told. He found slielter with anotlier fnend, but lin- 
 gered and died of the effect of the injuiy. At the close of life lie 
 exhibited religious feeling. Passages of some beauty are quoted 
 from his tragedy of " Agi-ippina." His comedy, " Le Pedant 
 Jouc," exhibited peasants speaking in their countiy patois, which 
 had not before been hazarded on the French stage. Tlie example 
 thus given was followed by Moliere. Bergerac's " Histoii'e Com- 
 ique des Etats et Empires de la Lune" is said to have suggested 
 Gulliver's Travels. There is some resemblance, as in all satires 
 of this class, but nothing that detracts from the originality of 
 Swift's immortal work. Passages in Voltaire's !Micromegas, and 
 Fontenelle's Phuality of Worlds, are foreshadowed in Bergerac's 
 book. Boileau mentions Mm with equivocal praise. — J. A., D. 
 BERGERET, John, a French physician and botanist, was 
 born at Morlas, in the Basses-P3Tenees, and died about 1814. 
 He was professor of natural history, and published at Paris a 
 work on the flora of the Pyrenees. — J. H. B. 
 
 BP]RGERET, Jean Pierke, a French physician and botanist, 
 was born at Lasseube, near Auch, on 25th Nov., 1751, and died 
 at Paris, 28th March, 1813. He pursued his medical studies at 
 Bourdeaux, and went to Paris in 1776 with the view of prose- 
 cuting natural history, and more particularly botany. He com- 
 menced a flora of the neighbom-hood of Paris. From 1785 he 
 became devoted to sm'gery, and seems to have given up natural 
 history pm'suits. He published a Universal Plant Nomencla- 
 ture and remarks on Fungi. — J. H. B. 
 
 * BERGHAUS, Heinricii, an eminent Gennan googi'apher, 
 was bom at Cleves, 3d May, 1797, and educated at ]\Iiinstcr. 
 As early as 1811 he was employed as assistant-surveyor in the 
 then French department of Lippe, and in 1815 followed the 
 Prussian army into France as far as Brittany. From 1816 he 
 took an active part in the trigonometrical survey of Prussia, till, 
 in 1824, he was appointed professor at the Bauacademic at Ber- 
 lin, and in 1838 dhector of the Geogi'aphische Kunstschide which 
 he had originated at Potsdam. He has published a great num- 
 ber of atlases and maps, which are constructed with perfect skill, 
 and have greatly contributed to place the geographical study on 
 a truly scientific basis. We mention his atlases of the Low Coun- 
 tries in forty plates, edited by Weyland, of Africa and Asia ; 
 his maps of France, of Spain, and Portugal, &c. His physical 
 atlas in ninety plates, an English edition of which has been pub- 
 lished by K. Johnston, is a work of magnificent range and com- 
 pleteness. Berghaus' writings are not less numerous than his 
 maps, but more popular than scientific. We quote his " Allge- 
 meine Lander-und Volkerkunde ;" "Ginuidriss der Geographic;" 
 " Die Volker des Erdballs ; " " Kritischer Wegweiser im Gebiete 
 der Landkartenkunde." He edited such periodicals — as Hertha, 
 Annalen der Erd Volker, &c. — K. E. 
 
 BERGIER, Nicolas Sylvestue, bom at Lorraine in 1718; 
 died in 1790; became successively cm-e of a village in Franche- 
 Conite, professor of theology, principal of the college of Besan9on, 
 canon of the cathedral of Notre-Dame, and confessor to the king. 
 He published several learned works, and a translation of Hcsiod, 
 which was much esteemed, but is best known for his opposition 
 to Rousseau and his school. His works are neat and orderly, 
 but in no way remarkable. — J. 1). E. 
 
 BERGK, John Adaji, bom at Zeitz,m Prussia, in 1769 ; died 
 at Leipzig in 1834 ; was author of a great number of miscella- 
 neous works on law, philosophy, politics, and religion. In phi- 
 losophy he was a Kantian. — J. I). E. 
 
 BERGK, JoiiANN Adole, a prolific miscellaneous writer and 
 translator, was bom at llainichen in Saxony in 1769, and died 
 at Leipzig in 1834.— K. E. 
 
 * BERGK, Theodok, son of the above, a distinguished philo- 
 logist, was born at Leipzig, 2 2d May, 1812. After having 
 studied in his native town under G. Hermann, he was succes- 
 sively teacher at several gymnasia, and professor of philology at 
 the universities of Marburg and Freiburg, until, in 1857, he was 
 called in the same capacity to the university of Halle. His 
 principal works are an edition of Anacreon, 1834; " Commenta- 
 tiones do Reliquiis Comccdia; Atticre," 1838; "Poctro Lyrici 
 Gra5ci," 1813; " Beitriige zur Griechischen Jlonatskunde," 1845, 
 
 &c. He is also the editor of the Zeiischri/l fiir Alterihnms 
 Wissenschaft, smce 1843. — K. E. 
 
 BERGIUS or BERG, Benoit, a Swedish banker and botanist, 
 was bom at Stockholm in 1723, and died m that towni in 1784. 
 He was govemor of the Stockholm bank, and employed his for- 
 tune in instituting a chair of horticulture, and in keeping up a 
 botanic garden at Stockholm. The chair was first occupied by 
 Olaus Swartz. He pubhshed a work on natiu^al history ; and 
 several memoirs by him on pasture grasses, on lycopodon 
 bovista, and on the radish, appear in the Transactions of the 
 Academy of Sciences of Stockholm. — J. H. B. 
 
 BERGIUS, Peter Jonas, a Swedish physician and botanist, 
 brother of Benoit, lived at the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tuiy, and died in 1790. He was a pupil of Linnaeus, and was 
 professor of natural history at Stockholm. He published " De- 
 scriptions of the Plants of the Cape of Good Hope," " Vegetable 
 Materia Jledica," and several botanical articles in the Transac- 
 tions of the Stockholm Academy. — J. H. B. 
 
 BERGLER, Stephen, a le;imed hellenist, was bom at Her- 
 manstadt in Transylvania, towards the end of the seventeenth 
 centmy. His origin was humble, but being a youth of genius, 
 he left his native city for Leijszig, where he attracted the atten- 
 tion of Thomas Fritsch, who employed him to coiTcct the press. 
 He did not, however, remain long here, but went to Amsterdam, 
 where he assisted Wetstein in the edition of Homer published 
 by him. Berglei-'s unsettled habits of life set him again upon 
 change, and we find him successively at Amsterdam, Hamburg, 
 and other places, still occupied in literary labom-s. After hu'^ing 
 taken a part in Fabricius' work, the Bibliotheca Gra;ca, he 
 retumed to Leipzig, where he became well known as a writer 
 and scholastic reviewer. Amongst his many translations was 
 that of Alexander Mavrocordato's work — Hi^i rm xaBtixovTuv — 
 which so pleased the author, who was then hospodar of Wal- 
 lachia, that he appointed Bergler to an office in the household 
 of his son. Bergler had now the opportunity of examining the 
 valuable Greek manuscripts in the prince's libraiy, of which he 
 made great use. After the death of the hospodar, Bergler left 
 Wallachia for Constantinople, where he taught for some years 
 in a Greek school, and died in 1746. It has been alleged, but 
 without sufficient authority, that he became a Mahomedan in the 
 latter part of his hfe. He acquhed the reputation of an exact 
 and erudite critic, and a masterly Greek scholar. — J. F. W. 
 
 BERGERON, Nicola.s, a native of Bethisey, lived in the 
 latter half of the sixteenth century ; a jurist, and a man of great 
 learning in his profession. He appears to have been the first 
 person who published s3mchronical tabular forms, exhibiting tfl 
 the eye at one view the leading events of history. He also wrote 
 a " History of the Royal House of Valois." Among his works L 
 enumerated "L'Arbre universel de la Suite et haison de tons les 
 Arts et Sciences." He was one of the executors of Ramus, 
 and assisted in the publication of his works. — J. A., D. 
 
 * BERGGREN, Jakob, clergjonan of Skiillvik in Ostgoth- 
 land, known to the public by his travels in the East, was bom 
 11th March, 1790, in the parish of Krokstad, in the Swedish 
 province of Bohus-Lrin. In his childhood he fell into a wolfs 
 den, where he remained several hours in company with a living 
 wolf, when he was foimd and taken out uninjured. He studied 
 at Upsala, and m 1819 was appointed chaplain to the embassy 
 at Constantinople. In the following year he visited Syria, 
 went up the Nile to Cairo and the pyramids, and so proceeded 
 to the Holy Land. On his return to Constantmople in 1822, 
 finding the terrible massacre of Scio had taken place, he ob- 
 tained permission for his departure, and went to Paris and 
 London, where he was in both places elected a member of the 
 Asiatic Society, and at the close of 1824 reached his native 
 land. Dming his residence in the East, he paid considerable 
 attention to the modern Arabic, and compiled a lexicon in that 
 language, the first part of which was published in St. Petersburg, 
 whither he went for that purpose in the year 1825. The work, 
 however, not succeeding, the publication was discontinued, and 
 the manuscript placed in the imiversity library of Upsala. Qii 
 his return from St. Petersburg, he brought out his travels in 
 Europe and the East (" Rcsor i Europa och ffisterlandema," 3 
 vols., Stockholm, 1826-28.) He was offered the professorship 
 of the Oriental languages at Lund, at Cherson, and at Char- 
 kow ; also the directorship of the missionary society at Jlada- 
 gascar : but he declined all, and accepted instead the pastorate 
 of Skiillvik in 1830.— IM. H.
 
 BER 
 
 523 
 
 BER 
 
 BERGHEM, Nicholas, was born at Haarlem — a city of 
 painters — in 1624. His family name was Van Haarlem; but 
 one day bis angry father, pursuing him into school, the master 
 called out to the boys — " I5crg hem, berg hem, Hide him, hide 
 him ;" and by this nickname he was afterwards known. From 
 his father, a mere painter of silver plate and cod-fish, he passed 
 to study art under Grebber, van Goyen, Mqjaart, Wils, and 
 especially Weeninx. From the last painter he learned some bad 
 drawing and colour, but much lightness and playful looseness of 
 handling. It is supposed Berchem — as he sometimes called 
 hiniself — also studied in Italy. He foolishly married the 
 daughter of Jan Wils, his own landscape master. She turned 
 out both " a screw and a nipper," kept him short of money, and 
 took care to manage the sale of all his pictures for him. He 
 seems to have been a quiet, easily-managed, cheerful worker, 
 always singing at his easel, and comforting himself after a scold 
 by tiu-ning over his rich collection of prints of the old masters. 
 If he stopped singing for a moment, the dreadful manager used 
 to tap at the wainscot or ceiling, to see if he was idle or asleep ; 
 knocking, the teixible woman, till the good man meekly 
 answered her. To his pupils, Begjm, Sibrecht, Vischero, and 
 Carre, the worthy henpecked man is said to have been quite a 
 father, but not in the Squeers' sense. When Bcrghem had to try 
 to boiTow money of his pupils to buy coveted prints, he used to 
 say, that he loved work, and did not value money ; and when he 
 wanted money, he could earn it by agreeably amusing himself. 
 Another of his kindly sajdngs was, " that genius required 
 encouragement, as well as cultivation." A rich amateur, named 
 Vander Hulk, bespoke a picture of Berghem and one of Both, at 
 the same time, for 800 florins each. For the best picture there 
 was also to be a present in addition. Berghem painted a moun- 
 tainous landscape — Both a glowing sunset. Vander Hulk, 
 unable to decide which was the best, gave each a present. On 
 one occasion, Berghem foolishly let himself out to paint for a 
 Dutch merchant at ten florins a-day. The painter, quick in 
 productions of paint, was outwitted by the l)usiness-man, and 
 lost by the bargain. Kind and amiable, Berghem seems to have 
 been, as epitaphs say, " universally beloved." He painted cattle 
 and figures for the landscapes of Ruysdael, Hoffman, Wils, 
 Beauclerc, and Bertram, and ceased to paint in 1G83, when he 
 was bm'ied in the West Kirk at Haarlem. Berghem is said to 
 have painted, the greater part of his life, from four in the morn- 
 ing to sunset. He passed part of his life in the castle of Ben- 
 theim, the vicinity of which fiu-nished him with pictm-es. There 
 are forty-eight prints engraved by bun, and a hundred and 
 thirty-three after him. His merits were variety and facility. 
 His leafing is neat — free, but false. His clouds are light and 
 unreal. He was renowned for the breadth of his light, his good 
 perspective, and easy, natural figures. He has three styles. 
 His early works, in the Weeninx manner, aljound in red and 
 ochres. He painted a few careless and portly portraits, and 
 attempted history and poetiy unsuccessfully. His di-awings — 
 generally from nature, in chalks, washed with bistre or Indian 
 ink — are deservedly esteemed. His fault was, that, without 
 imagination, he tried to paint whatever was not before him. He 
 turned Dutch peasants into Italians; he invented aqueducts, foun- 
 tains, cascades, temples, and mountains. A skilful, dexterous, 
 common-place, is his characteristic. Hoffman painted fields and 
 woods, and R\iysdael Norwegian waterfalls ; but Berghem painted 
 scenic mountains, pleasant, but unreal. He could fish no beauty 
 from the swamps and fat flats of Haarlem. Yet though tame 
 and mannered, his spirit and finish, bis brilliancy and atmospheric 
 effect, will always have a market value, in spite of his thousands 
 of imitators, who glut the picture-shops. His subjects are 
 \aried. Sometimes we have a frozen canal — sometimes pea- 
 sants playing the flageolet, as they drive cattle along a river 
 i>ank ; now cattle feeding beside a mined temple — now dancing 
 herdsmen, or a scarlet-clothed falconer, bound for the hawking. 
 The ford, the bridge, the seaport, the bird-catcher's hut, the 
 Alpine pass, the ferry-boat, the lobstei'-fishery, the farrier's stall, 
 tlie washing-pool, the meny-making b.arn, and the gispsy's booth, 
 were his studies. Berghem, in fact, was one conventional mass 
 of contradictions — an in-door painter of out-door life — a Dutcli 
 painter of Italian views. He invented, when he should have 
 copied; he copied, when be should have invented. After all, he 
 IS but a clever painter of di-cams. His landscape i)oetry was 
 such poetry as that of Berghem's age — ^from Charles I. to the 
 expulsion of James II. — W. T. 
 
 BERGHES, Joshua van dkn, a Portuguese navigator, 
 born at Bruges in tlie fifteenth century. He discovered or re- 
 discovered in 1445 a part of the archipelago of the Azores. 
 
 BERGIER, Nicholas, was born at Rheims in 1557. He 
 studied and taught in the new university which the cardinal de 
 Lorraine had just established in that city. He aftei-wards became 
 a distinguished advocate and syndic of Rheims. He wrote a 
 work on the " Histoiy of the Great Roads ; " an account of the 
 coronation of Lewis XIII. ; a " Traite du Point du Jour," which 
 be had issued before imder the title of " Archemeron," and several 
 others. Having been for some time royal historiographer, he 
 died at the castle of Grignon, September 15, 1G23. — T. J. 
 
 * BERGMAN, C. J., a Swedish poet, author of " Stud, i 
 Upsala" and " Brolloppet pa Ai-olsen," 1839. 
 
 BERGMANN, Gustavus, a German Mstorian, bom in 1744 ; 
 died in 1814. Author of a manuscript lexicon of the Levonian 
 tongue, and several works on the history of Livonia. 
 
 BERGMANN, Joseph, a German physicist, naturahst, and 
 theologian, bom at Aschaffenburg in 1736. He entered early 
 into the order of the Jesuits, and being devoted to the study of 
 physics and natural history, obtained permission from his supe- 
 riors to visit Vienna, in order to perfect himself in those sciences. 
 After his visit to Austria, he travelled through the whole of 
 Hungary. On the suppression of the order of the Jesuits in 
 1773, he returned into bis native country, and obtained a pro- 
 fessorship in the gymnasium of Mayence, which he soon after- 
 wards exchanged for the chau' of physics and natural histoiy in 
 the university of that city. He died on the 20th September, 
 1803, at bis native town of Aschaffenburg, to which the univer- 
 sity of Mayence had been removed, during the union of that city 
 with France. His writings are not of much value, and consist 
 principally of elementary works. He pubhshed at Mayence, 
 " Elements of Natural History," in 3 vols., in the years 1782 
 and 1783 ; " Brief Instructions in Natural History for Childi-en," 
 in 1783 ; " Wliat animals certainly are not, and what they most 
 probably are," in 1784; and " Principles and Applications of 
 Experimental Physics," in 1784. He also translated into Ger- 
 man the Institntiones Physicaj of A. Bruchhausen. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERGERON, Pierre, a French litterateur and poet, bom 
 at Paris in 1787. He left his native country, and became pro- 
 fessor at the university of Brussels. Author of translations of 
 the Odes of Anacreon, Terence's Comedies, &c. 
 
 BERGESTROM, Hans, a Swedish poet and clergyman. 
 Besides many translations from Voltaire, Thomson, and Young, 
 he wrote odes and satii-es, and two larger poems — "Dygden," 
 a heroic poem in sLi songs, and " Konsten att Kyssa." These 
 poems are of a dry allegorical character, and deficient in the 
 higher qualities of poetry. He wrote also a volume called 
 " Indianiska Bref," in imitation of Montesquieu's Lettres Per- 
 sonnes. He died in 1782. — M. H. 
 
 BERGKLINT, Alof, a Swedish poet and pastor of Westeras. 
 His collected works were published in 1837. As a poet he had 
 more intellect than fancy. He died in 1805. — M. H. 
 
 BERGMAN, Toukern Olof, naturalist and chemist, was 
 bom 9th March, 1735, at Katharinbm-g, in the Swedish pro- 
 vince of Wcstgothland. With much difficulty he prevailed 
 upon his family to allow him to devote himself to the study of 
 the sciences. As the scholar of Linnajus at Upsala, in 1752, 
 he attracted the attention of that great man, and became in 
 after years himself the professor of physics in the same univer- 
 sity. In order to convince such as doubted of his fitness to 
 become professor of chemistry and mineralogy, for which he 
 was candidate, he wrote his treatise "On the manufacture of 
 Alum," which work still remains the authority on that subject ; 
 and obtained the professorship in 1767. Besides other chemical 
 discoveries, was that of the existence of sulphuretted hydrogen 
 gas in mineral waters ; he also prepared the same artificially. 
 He died in 1784 at Medevi, whore he had gone for the use of the 
 baths. Among his works may be mentioned " Opuscula Physica, 
 Chemica, et Mincralogica," 6 vols., pubhshed 1779-81. — M. II. 
 
 BERGMULLER, John George, painter and engi-avcr, was 
 born in Bavaria, and was a pupil of Wolff. He lived at Augs- 
 burg. His engi-avings arc well known. Born in 1687; died in 
 1762.— W. T. 
 
 BERGMULLER, Nicholas van, a Dutch painter, born at 
 Breda in 1670. Painted after the manner of Rembrandt, but 
 died young in 1699. — W. T. 
 
 BERGONZONI, Lorenzo, a native of Bologn.i, the disciplo
 
 BER 
 
 524 
 
 BER 
 
 of Bolognini and Guercino. He at first painted history, but lat- 
 terly confiued himself to portraits. He died about 1700, aged 
 fiftv-four.— W. T. 
 
 BERGSTEASSER, Johaxn Andreas Bexigxus, a dis- 
 tinguished German entomologist, was bora at Idstein in Nassau, 
 on the 21st December, 1732, and received his early education 
 at the gymnasium of that tovra. In his eighteenth year, he 
 left his native place, and went to study at Jena and Halle. He 
 afterwards resided for about a year in Holland, and having 
 returned to Germany, became rector of the Evangelical Lutheran 
 Lyceum in Hanau, in the year 1760. In 1775 he obtained the 
 position of professor of philosophy; in 178-i he was also 
 appointed a consistorial councillor; and died at Hanau in 1812. 
 Bergstriisser was a most learned scholar, and possessed such a 
 vast amount of information on most branches of knowledge, 
 that he seems to have been regarded by his contemporaries 
 almost as a universal genius. His small scholastic works — 
 "Vorschliige zur lateuiischen Erziehung;" "Vorschlage zu 
 einer allgemeinen Schulreformation ; " " Beispiel einer Phrase- 
 ologie, wie sie vielleicht in Schulen nicht nur zu dnlden, sondem 
 einzufiilu-en wJire," and others, published at Hanau in 1775, 
 1777, 1789, &c., contain excellent practical hints as to the 
 mode of instruction and management to be pursued in gymnasia. 
 Bergstriisser was one of the first to ^^ndicate the title of 
 natural history and mathematics to a place Ln the course of 
 instruction communicated at the public schools of his coimtiy ; 
 and he himself wrote several valuable text-books for use in the 
 schools, such as his " Elementary Algebra," and " Elementaiy 
 Geometry," published at Frankfort-on-the-M.aine in 1779 and 
 1 789 ; and his " Decimal fractions and Logarithms " at Hanau 
 in the latter year. Some of his scholars tamed out first-rate 
 mathematicians ; amongst others, Langsdorff and Kopp. One 
 of his principal literary undertakings was a great " Dictionary 
 of the classical Greek and Roman writers, both sacred and pro- 
 fane, with illustrations of the arts and sciences relating to them;" 
 of which the first volume appeared at Halle in 1772. Tliis 
 tmdertaking was, however, as might have been expected, too 
 vast for the powers of any one man ; and after the pubUcation 
 of the seventh volmne (extending to the word Eqmis') in 1781, 
 it was discontinued. It is, however, chiefly as an entomologist, 
 that Bergstriisser's reputation has extended beyond the limits of 
 his own country. His works, in this department of natural 
 history, certainly entitle him to an honourable place amongst the 
 entomologists of his time. His earliest entomological work is 
 entitled " Nomenclature and descriptions of the insects of Hanau- 
 Miinzenberg," and the neighbouring districts, published at 
 Hanau, in 3 volumes ito, illustrated with 72 coloured plates, 
 in the years 1777-79. A second work, written like the pre- 
 ceding in German, and called " Figures and descriptions of all 
 the European Butterflies," appeared in three pai-ts, at the same 
 I place, in 1779 and 1782; of this a Latin translation was pub- 
 lished in the latter year, under the title of " Icones Papilionum 
 dimnorum." Bergstriisser also communicated several memoirs 
 on insects, chiefly lepidoptera, to the GeseUschaft Naturfors- 
 ckender Frennde of Berlin, of which he was an honorarj- 
 member, and to the Hanauischen 31agazin. Bergstriisser 
 appears to have continued his classical labours, even at the time 
 when these large entomological works were in preparation ; and 
 about the year 1781, he became editor of the new translations 
 of the Roman classic authoi-s, the publication of which com- 
 menced at that period, at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. In this 
 task, however, he sliowed but little taste ; and his own transla- 
 tion of "Cornelius Nepos," published in 1782, was not considered 
 as at all satisfacton,', until the appearance of its third edition, 
 thoroughly re\-ised by N. G. Eichhoff in 1815. The notes 
 appended by Bergstriisser to the various translations, are, how- 
 ever, regarded as of considerable value. Besides these scientific 
 and classical investigations, Bergstriisser found time to pay 
 considerable attention to the subject of telegraphs, and even 
 went so far as to invent a new system of signals, to which he 
 gave the name of " Synthematogi'aphie," explaining this term 
 as " the art of writing by preconcerted signals, just as well as 
 the articulate sounds of a language may be committed to paper." 
 Upon this subject he wrote several memoirs, of which the most 
 important was published at Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 1795 ; 
 but his method, although it was considered by many to be to a 
 certain extent preferable to those previously in use, did not 
 altogether answer the expectations which Bergstriisser had 
 
 excited with regard to it, and from this or some other cause, met 
 with an unfavourable reception. — W. S. D. 
 
 B£RIGARD or BEAUREGARD, Claude Guillermet, 
 seigneur de, was born at Moulins, some say in 1578, and others 
 in 1591, became professor of philosophy and medecme first 
 at Pisa and then at Padua. His most famous work, entitled 
 " Circulus Pisanus," is a dialogue upon cosmogony between an 
 adherent of the atomic theory of Anaximander and an Aristotehan, 
 the latter maintaining, the fonner denpng that the power of God 
 was necessary to the formation of the world. — J. D. E. 
 
 BERING, Vitus, a Swedish poet and historian, bom at 
 Wiburg, Jutland, in 1617; died in 1675. He wrote on Danish 
 history. In poetry he succeeded in elegy and epigram, but his 
 epics are cold and languid. 
 
 BERINGER, Joachim, a German protestant theologian of 
 the seventeenth century, kno^^-n also by the names of Joachim 
 Ursixus and Salmuth. He wrote against the Jesuits, and Ln 
 defence of the reformed faith. 
 
 BERINGER, Michael, a leamed German, born at Uhlbach in 
 1566; died in 1625. He was professor of Hebrew at Tubingen. 
 His principal works are grammars of the Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew tongues. 
 
 BERINGHEN, Jacques Louis, marquis de, chief equerry of 
 Louis XIV., and a distinguished cavalry ofiicer, bom in 1651 ; 
 died ui 1723. About the year 1708, a party of French pro- 
 testants, in the service of Holland, undertook to caiTy off the 
 dauphin from SevTCS ; but falling in with the chief equerry, who 
 quartered the royal arms on his carriage, they mistook that 
 functionary for the prince, and were on the point of transport- 
 ing hun to Holland, when he was rescued by some troops of the 
 royal household. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERINGTON, Joseph, an ecclesiastic of the Roman cathoUc 
 church, conspicuous for his moderate views and his extensive 
 Hterary attainments, was bom in Shropshire of cathoUc parents 
 in the year 1748, and was sent at an early age to the college of 
 St. Omer. Having fulfilled the ordinaiy course of studies there, 
 he was ordained, and exercised the functions of the priesthood 
 for some years in France. Retunung to his native country, he 
 pursued with great industry the career of letters, on which he 
 had ah-eady entered in France, by his pubhcation, in 1776, of a 
 " Letter on ^Materialism and on Hartley's Theory of the Human 
 Mind." Three years after the above date, he published " Im- 
 materialism Delineated, or a View of the First Principles of 
 Things." In the same year he gave to the world his " Letter 
 to Fordycc on his Semion on the Delusive and Persecuting 
 Spirit of Popery." In the next year appeared his " State anil 
 Behaviour of the English Catholics from the Reformation down 
 to 1780." In 1786 he came forward with " An Address to thr 
 Protestant Dissenters who had lately Petitioned for a Repeal of 
 the Test and Corporation Acts." In the following year he pub- 
 fished the " History of Abelard and Heloise, with their genuine 
 Letters," which reached a second edition in 1789. In 1787 
 Jlr. Berington published his " Reflections, with an Exposition 
 of Roman Catholic Principles in reference to God and the Coun- 
 try," followed closely by other controversial tracts of a similar 
 character. In 1790 he again appeared as an author, publishing 
 in quarto a " History of Henry II. and his Two Sons, with a 
 Vindication of the Character of a Becket from Lord Lyttelton's 
 Attacks." In 1793 he gave to the world a more important work, 
 entitled " Memoirs of Gregorio Panzani," giving an account of 
 his conduct in England as agent of the pope of Rome in 1634- 
 36, translated from the Italian original. Panzani's object was 
 the reconcilement of differences between the secular and regular 
 clergj' of the Roman catholic bodj', and to obtain permission for 
 the establishment of a cathohc bishop in England ; and it appears 
 that he was favourable to some middle course such as would 
 satisfy the existing government. Some remarks on this work, 
 calling in question the authenticity of Panzani's memoirs, were 
 published from the pen of the Rev. C. Plowden. In 1812, 
 in conjunction with his friend, the late Rev. J. Kirk of Lich- 
 field, lilr. Berington brought out his celebrated work on " The 
 Faith of Catholics proved from Scripture, and the Testimony of 
 the Fathers of the First Five Centuries," a treatise which has 
 been frequently reprinted, and has become the standard text- 
 book of the subject among the Roman catholic body. In 1814 
 appeared the publication by which Jlr. Berington's name is most 1 
 widely known — his " Literary Histor)- of the Middle Ages" — a : 
 work (according to no less an authority than W. Hazhtt) ad-
 
 BER 
 
 525 
 
 BER 
 
 mitted on all Lands to be the best extant account of the impor- 
 tant subject to which it refers, and which has been reprinted 
 in Bogue's Standard Library, with a preface by Hazlitt himself. 
 In 1814 Mr. Berington settled as pastor of the Roman catholic 
 congregation at Buckland, near Fan-mgdon, Berkshire, where he 
 died in 1827.— E. W. 
 
 * BERIOT, Charles Auguste de, a violinist, was bom at 
 Louvain, Feb. 20, 1802. He was of a noble and opulent family, 
 and it was as an indulgence of his fondness for music that he 
 was placed under the instruction of Robrex, a distinguished 
 pupil of Viotti. His nest master was Tiby, professor of music 
 in the college of his native town. His early progress was so 
 rapid, that at eight years old he played a concerto of Viotti at a 
 public concert. In 1821 he went to Paris, where he at once 
 sought the acquaintance of Viotti, then leader of the Itali;m 
 opera, who warmly commended his already well-developed talent. 
 Eager for improvement, he entered the conservatoire, to be 
 placed in the class of Baillot. He received also some few lessons 
 of Lafont, but, having already established a style of his own, he 
 found the tuition of both these artists tend rather to embarrass 
 bis independence than increase his resources ; and he accordingly 
 remained but for a short time under either of them. His 
 appearance as a solo player at Paris immediately secured him a 
 foremost rank in general esteem, and the publication of his 
 " Airs Varies" served gi'eatly to extend bis popularity. About 
 the year 1826 he first ^^sited London, where the charm of his 
 exquisite finish and graceful manner gained him a brilliant suc- 
 cess. On revisiting his native country, he was appointed solo 
 violinist to the king, with a pension of 2000 florins, which was 
 continued until the revolution in the Netherlands of 1830 over- 
 turned the monarchy. It was about this time that he became 
 united to Madame IMalibran, between whom and himself there 
 had long existed the wannest attachment ; but their legal mar- 
 riage could not take place mitil the death of M. Malibran, in 
 1836, released his wife from his unfortunate claims upon her. 
 With this renowned and gifted songstress he passed through 
 Italy, ehciting admiration wherever he displayed his talent ; and 
 i'.i Naples, especially, he was eminently successful. He was the 
 only violinist of the day who suffered nothing from a comparison 
 «-ith Paganini, but was as cordially welcomed wherever he 
 reappeared, as he had been before this extraordinary meteor shone 
 upon the artistic world, which was because his speciality always 
 distinguished hmi. He was at the Manchester festival with his 
 wife at the time of her sudden death in October, 1836, and was 
 so violently shocked at this calamity, that he fled precipitately 
 from the place, unable to discharge the last oflices of affection to 
 her remains. For a year he abandoned himself entirely to giief 
 for her loss, after which it was with extreme difficulty that he 
 was persuaded to resume the exercise of his art. He accompa- 
 nied his wife's sister, Madame Viardot, in an extensive musical 
 tour, which included a sojourn in Russia. He purposed a visit 
 to England in 1851, but was diverted from the fulfilment of this 
 intention. He has since then lived in retirement with his son, 
 near Brussels, and his sight, which had been for some time fail- 
 ing, has for the last few years entirely left him. His composi- 
 tions are an index of his style as an executant ; his original ahs 
 are remarkable for elegance ; his Concerto in D minor — a first 
 movement only — is a string of novel and eflective bravura pas- 
 sages ; and his Concerto Russe possesses more decided charac- 
 ter, and consequently musical interest, than anything he has 
 produced. — G. A. JI. 
 
 BERKELAER, John, a Dutch lexicogi-apher, bom at Bois-le- 
 Duc; lived in the second part of the sbvteenth century. Author 
 of " Dictionarium Gennanico-Latinum," Antwerp, 1556. 
 
 BERKELEY — this family was possessed of great wealth and 
 power in the west of England in the feudal times, and held the 
 castle of Berkeley, Gloucestershire, as tenants in chief under the 
 crown. Its most celebrated members are the following : — 
 
 Berkeley, Robert de, owner of Berkeley castle under 
 Richard I. and John. He espoused the cause of the barons 
 against the crown, and thus fell under the displeasure of King 
 John, but wa.s restored to the royal favour. Falling, however, 
 from his allegiance, his estates and lands were seized by the 
 king, and their profits assigned to the maintenance of the royal 
 castle of Bristol. He died in 1219. 
 
 Berkeley, Maurice de, nephew of Robert de Berkeley, 
 and lord of Berkeley castle, had militai-y summonses to march 
 against the Welsh under Henry III. Having distinguished him- 
 
 self in Wales, he subsequently was commanded to attend the 
 king in person at Westminster, wdth horses and anus, to take 
 part against the barons wlio were in open hostility. He appears, 
 however, to have adopted an opposite course, and to have joined 
 the insmTCCtionist lords, for which his lands were seized, and 
 forfeited to the cro^vn. He died in 1281. 
 
 Berkeley, Thosias de, son of Maimce de Berkeley, lord 
 of Berkeley, served under Edward in the Welsh wars, and after- 
 wards assisted the king in his invasion of Scotland, and took part 
 in the battle of Falkirk. 
 
 Berkeley, Maurice de, son and successor of the pre- 
 ceding, was successively governor of the castles of Gloucester and 
 Berwick-on-Tweed, and justice of South Wales ; but joining the 
 standard of Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, he was com- 
 mitted a prisoner to WalHngford castle, where he died in 1321. 
 
 Berkeley, Thomas de, son of the preceding, was the 
 lord of Berkeley castle when the unfortunate Edward 11. was 
 committed a prisoner there, and afcei-wards barbarously murdered. 
 (See Edward II.) Owing to his humane refusal to take part 
 in the deed, he was forced to give up his castle to the Lord 
 Maltravers. He was subsequently arraigned as a coadjutor in 
 the bloody act, but was honourably acquitted. He died in 1361. 
 
 Berkeley, Augustus, fourth earl of, bom in 1715, eldest 
 son of the third earl, was a distinguished officer in the army, in 
 which he rose to the rank of general. He obtained the command 
 of one of the regiments embodied to march against the Scottish 
 rebels in 1745. He died in 1755. 
 
 Berkeley-, Admiral the Hon. Sir George Cran- 
 field, G.C.B., second son of the fom-th earl of Berkeley, was 
 born in 1753. He entered the navy at an early age, and scr\-cd 
 under Admirals Keppel and BiuTington. While captain of H.M.S. 
 Marlborouffh, 74, he captured two French ships in the action of 
 June 1, 1794. He was subsequently commander-in-chief on the 
 Halifax station, and sometime lord high admhal of Portugal. 
 He represented the county of Gloucester in parliament from 1781 
 to 1812, and supported Mr. Pitt. He died in London in 1818. 
 
 Berkeley, General Sir George Henry Frederick, 
 K.C.B., son of the preceding, was born in 1785. He entered 
 the army as comet in the horse guards in 1802, served in Sicily 
 and Egj'pt, and throughout the Peninsular campaigns, and at 
 Waterloo. He was appointed sun-eyor-general of the ordnance 
 m 1852, and represented Devonport fi-om that date till April, 
 1857. He died at Richmond, Sm-rey, in the following Septem- 
 ber, aged 72. — E. W. 
 
 BERKELEY, George, D.D., bishop of Cloyne, one of the 
 most distinguished philosophers and scholai'S of his age, was bom 
 at Pelerin, near Thomastown in the county of Kilkenny, Ireland, 
 on the 12th of March, 1684. He received the prmcipal part of 
 his education at the college of Kilkenny, and in his fifteenth 
 year he entered Trinity college, Dublin, of which he became a 
 "fellow in 1707. The same year he pubUshed his first work, 
 "An Attempt to Demonstrate Arithmetic without the aid of 
 Algebra or Geometry." Whatever question there may be with 
 regard to the value of this treatise, it unquestionably exhibits 
 great mathematical knowledge, subtlety of mind in investigation, 
 and that tendency for adopting novel and eccentric viev.-s, 
 unswayed by the settled opinions of others, which was so distin- 
 guishing a characteristic of Ins life. In the year 1709 he published 
 his work on " The Theoiy of Vision," a treatise of gi-eat ability, 
 being the first attempt made to distinguish perceptions solely 
 visual from those in which the sight is aided by other senses. This 
 was followed the next year by two treatises on " The Principles 
 of Hmnan Knowledge," which gave full expression to his peculiar 
 philosoplucal views, which are since known as the Berkleian 
 philosophy. It woidd be impossible in a short space to give an 
 adequate statement of these principles. They may be briefly, 
 though imperfectly described, as a denial of the reality of matter 
 according to the commonly-received notion, and that sensible 
 objects are nothing more than impressions made internally upon 
 the mind, according to certain rales which are termed laws of 
 nature. These doctrines at once attracted attention and opposi- 
 tion amongst philosophers and metaphysicians, among whom 
 were Whiston and Dr. Clarke. It must be confessed, however, 
 that this opposition was shown more by denial of the theoij, than 
 by refutation of it. Upon one occasion a conference took place 
 between Berkeley and Clarke for the pui-pose of discussing these 
 speculative pomts; but the parties separated without coming to 
 any agi-eement, and Berkeley complained of the want of candour
 
 BER 
 
 52G 
 
 BER 
 
 in Clarke, who would not own himself to be convinced where he 
 was unable to answer. At this time of day, when the ideal theorj' 
 of Berkeley is thoroughly in disrepute, if it be not exploded, one 
 does not wonder at the result of the discussion, or the inabiUty of 
 Dr. Clarke to answer his opponent ; the system being one, the false- 
 hood of which is from its very nature as impossible to demonstrate 
 as its truth. It is not a little remarkable, that while Berkeley 
 vrrote these treatises for the purpose of detecting and exposing 
 the fallacies of those who deny di\ine revelation, the efiect of 
 them has been to encourage scepticism, and afford weapons of 
 argumentation to doubters and disbelievers. Berkeley was not, 
 however, entirely absorbed in the pursuit of metaphysics. In 
 1712 he published three sennons in favour of passive obedience 
 and non-resistance. These subsequently caused him some incon- 
 venience vnth George I., to whom he was represented as holding 
 Jacobite opinions ; but jMolyneaus, who was his pupil, coiTected 
 this eiTor, and vouched for his loyalty to the house of Hanover. 
 The writings of Berkeley had by this time established for him a 
 high reputation amongst men of letters in England, who courted 
 his acquaintance. S«-ift, Arbuthnot, Addison, and Steele, were 
 his friends. For Steele he wrote several papers in the Guardian, 
 and introduced him to Pope, ^ith whom he foi-med a strong and 
 lasting friendship. Swift, who was then on tenns of intimacy 
 with the earl of Peterborough, introduced Berkeley to that noble- 
 man, who, upon his appointment as ambassador to the Itahan 
 states shortly after, took Berkeley with him as his secretary and 
 chaplain. In 1714 he retmnicd to England with Lord Peter- 
 borough, and shortly after he accepted the proposal of Dr. Ashe, 
 bishop of Clogher, to accompany his son upon a tour through 
 Europe. It was while upon tliis tour that he made the acquaint- 
 ance of llalebranchc in Paris. Berkeley paid tlie great French 
 metaphysician a visit while the latter was labouring under an 
 inflammation of the lungs, and a discussion took place between 
 them which appears to have been cairied on with a heat and 
 violence that probably hastened the death of the Frenchman, 
 who survived it only a few days. His travels in Italy and Sicily 
 were extensive, and from the few portions that he published 
 (the greater part having been lost in passing from Naples), 
 especially a description of an eruption of Vesuvius, there is great 
 reason to regi-et that he did not turn his genius to historical and 
 descriptive writing, for which his acute and observant mind, and 
 lively and poetic imagination, eminently fitted him. He would, 
 as has been observed by one of his biographers, have been the 
 Humboldt of his age. Wiile at Lyons upon his return, he com- 
 posed an essay upon a subject proposed by the Royal Academy 
 of Pai-is, upon the "Principle and Cause of ^Motion." The 
 tract is in Latin, and was published in London in 1721. Shortly 
 after his return to Engl.and, Pope introduced him to the earl of 
 Burlington ; a congenial taste for architecture commended him 
 strongly to the friendship of that nobleman, who recommended 
 him to the duke of Grafton, then appointed lord-heutenant of 
 Ireland, and with him Berkeley returned as chaplain to his native 
 country, having during his absence become senior fellow of the 
 college, and immediately on his ai'rival took his degree of D.D. 
 Through Swift he had made the acquaintance of the celebrated 
 Vanessa, Mrs. Hester Van Homreigh, who, upon discovering 
 Swift's marriage with Jlrs. Johnson, bequeathed to Berkeley and 
 Mr. Marshall her fortune, consisting of £8000 equally, which 
 they received upon her death. The duke of Grafton con- 
 feiTed the deanerj- of Deny upon Berkeley in 1724, when he 
 resigned his fellowship. But church-prefemicnt or worldly 
 aggrandizement could not fill the noble and philanthropic heart 
 of Berkeley, and he willingly relinquished home, with its ease and 
 affluence, to organize and promote the great missionar}' work 
 originated by him for the conversion of the American Indians to 
 Christianity, by means of a college to be established at Bermuda. 
 To raise funds for this project, in which he was joined by many 
 young clergymen, including three junior fellows of his college, 
 Berkeley proposed that the proceeds of certain lands in St. 
 Christopher's, then about to be sold by the govemment, should 
 be applied for the founding of the college. The proposal was 
 approved of, a charter granted, and £20,000 promised. Berkeley 
 accordingly set sail hi September, 1728, for Rhode island, 
 accompanied by his wife (the daughter of the speaker of the 
 Irish house of commons), whom he had recently manned. This 
 noble and philanthropic scheme of one of the most single-minded 
 and sclf-denpng of men was doomed to fiiilure, owing principally 
 to the total breach of faith of the minister, Sir R. Walpole, who 
 
 apphed the money to other pui-poses ; and eventually, after 
 spending all the funds he could raise from his deanery and other 
 private sources, Berkeley was forced to abandon his project and 
 return to England. Almost immediately after his return, Berkeley 
 published the most useful of his works, " The Minute Philoso- 
 pher," in which he adopted the ancient method of Socratic and 
 Platonic dialogue, and with rare felicity follows all the windings 
 of scepticism through the different fields of fallacy in which it 
 has from time to time taken refuge. Of this work Dr. Clarke 
 speaks in terms of high pi'aise, and Dr. Sherlock took it to the 
 queen, wth whom Berkeley soon became a gi'eat favomite. 
 Through her influence he was appointed to the deanery of Down, 
 and in 1736 promoted to the see of Cloyne. From this period 
 the life of Berkeley was one of retirement, devoted to the discharge 
 of his duties as a christian prelate, the regulation of his household, 
 the pursuits of literature and science, and the exercise of the 
 charities of life in their largest sense. And it may be observed, 
 that so little worldly ambition had this good man, that he resisted 
 all the solicitations of his friends to put forward a claun for the 
 vacant primacy, a claim which could scarcely have been disre- 
 garded, and he refused in 1745 the see of Clogher, which would 
 have doubled his income. In addition to his con-es})ondence with 
 the learned and eminent men of the day, Berkeley continued 
 from time to time to publish pamphlets and treatises on various 
 subjects, includhig his celebrated treatise " On the Virtues of 
 Tar-water." At length his health beginning to fail, and beuig 
 deeply impressed with the responsibilities of his station as a 
 bishop, he retired to Oxford, and, solicited pennlssion to resign 
 his see, and obtained a canonry in that city. The king, however, 
 dechncd to accept his resignation, and declared " That Berkeley 
 should die a bishop in spite of himself," but gave him permission 
 to reside wherever he pleased. His last act at Cloyne was to 
 make over £200 a year rents, arising out of see lands, to poor 
 housekeepers in his diocese. On Sunday the 14th January, 
 1753, when in his 69th ye.ar, death came to this great and good 
 man, almost robbed of its ten'ors. He was seated amongst his 
 family, listening to a senuon, and expu-ed so quietly that his 
 decease was not known till his daughter taking to him a cup of 
 tea, found him stiff and cold. He was interred in Christ chm-ch, 
 Oxford. In person, Berkeley is described as " a handsome man 
 with a countenance full of meaning and benignity, remarkable 
 for _gi-eat strength of limbs ; and, till his sedentaiy life impaired 
 it, of a veiy robust constitution." In his life and conversation 
 he was a bright example. Pious, simple-hearted, and benevolent, 
 humble, imambitious, and honourable — he was adorned with all 
 Christian graces and noble quahties. — J. F. W. 
 
 [One word more about Berkeley's peculiar metaphysics :— 
 Berkeley's unmatcrialism, bizaire though it is apt to afipear, 
 was nevertheless an essential and ine\-itabie step in the history 
 of English philosophy, after the period of Lord Bacon. It has 
 been stated under our notice of that illustrious thuiker, that 
 although the charge of materialism so often m-ged against him- 
 self is a false charge, the principles estabUshed and illustrated 
 throughout the Instaiiratio, might, and assuredly would — if 
 applied without restriction or limit — lead to a psychology 
 pm-ely empirical, and ultimately to a scheme of thought purely 
 materialistic. The logical but hard intellect of Hobbes indeed, 
 pushed at once, and without stop or misgiving, to the term in 
 question. Locke went backward a step or two in thcoiy, and a 
 long way in practical belief; but tlie cardinal error remained in 
 his rejection of the tnie idea of Substance, and generally of every 
 notion not traceable directly or mediately to the action of exter- 
 nal impressions on a comparatively passive or purely receptive 
 thinking faculty. The certain consequences of such a funda- 
 mental position will surprise no one conversant with the history 
 of philosophy at any one of its critical epochs : — deny the ex- 
 istence of a F.aculty in the Jlind itself to construct universal ideas 
 from the facts offered by experience, and the whole hst of con- 
 ceptions related to the idea of Substance dwindle into mere 
 names; nor can objective or absolute reality of any sort be logic- 
 ally predicated concerning them. Bei-keley discerned these con- 
 sequences, and recoiled from them. But he did not discern the 
 cause of the disaster. On the contrary, he merely contended 
 for one downward consequence of the prevailing philosophy, and 
 imagined very vainly that he had thereby saved much that 
 seemed to him very precious. Urged in this direction, also, by 
 several truths that appeared demonstrated by his new Theory 
 of Vision, he reached the conclusion, that there are no qualities
 
 BER 
 
 527 
 
 BER 
 
 of JIatter, known to ns, except what Locke calls secondary 
 qualities ; in other words, that we know nothing and can know 
 nothing of matter in itself ; that reality belongs only to sensa- 
 tions produced (somehoiv) in the luiderstaniling ; in one word, 
 that we can know nothing save the phenomena of Jlind — repre- 
 sentations, or ideas. It is easy to see how Berkeley might per- 
 suade himself, that he had thus destroyed eveiy germ of the 
 JIaterialism he dreaded by taking away its substratum — the 
 reality of Hatter itself: certainly, however, the present very 
 acute historian of philosophy — Erdmann — has made a most sad 
 mistake in classing the good bishop as a spiritualist, and claim- 
 ing for him the honour of association with Leibnitz. Berkeley 
 made no change whatever in the fandainental position of the 
 prevailing philosophy ; nor did he attempt any such task. Pur- 
 suing this very course, and canying out the logic La which 
 Berkeley trusted, Hume, the arch-destroyer, quickly appeared ; 
 and, along with the idea of Cause and Effect, demolished totally 
 all reality, except what belongs to sensation or feelhigs or states 
 of mind as they momentarily exist. He withdi-ew substratum 
 from Mind also, and so installed scepticism into absolute empire. 
 Like multitudes of others occupying a middle position, the excel- 
 lent bishop only hastened the advent of utter night. Men's 
 common-sense quickly rebelled indeed ; but for a clear scientific 
 detection of the som-ces of eiTor, and the final exposm-e of that 
 error, modern philosophy is indebted to Kant of Koni^s- 
 berg.—J. P. N.] 
 
 BERKELEY, George, an English divine, son of Bishop 
 Berkeley, bom in London in 1733, was educated at Oxford. He 
 was prebendary of Canterbury, rector of St. Clement's Danes, 
 London, and chancellor of Brecknock. A sennon, " On the Dan- 
 ^'er of violent Innovations in the State, exemplified from the 
 reigns of the two first Stuarts," which he published in 1785, 
 drew on him pubhc attention for a short period. He inherited 
 the virtues and some of the intellectual qualities of his father. 
 Died in 1795. A volume of his sermons was published by his 
 widow in 1799. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BERKELEY, the Hon. George Charles Grantley 
 Fitz-Hardinge, a younger son of the late earl of Berkeley, 
 and next brother of the present earl, was bom at Berkeley castle, 
 Febmary 10, 1800. He was chosen M.P. for the western 
 division of Gloucestershne in December, 1832, and continued to 
 represent that constituency down to the general election of 1852, 
 when he was an unsuccessful candidate. He is well known as 
 a frequent contributor to periodical literature, and as the author 
 of a novel called " Berkeley Castle." He is manied to a 
 daughter of the late Paul Benfield, Esq., and is heu' presump- 
 tive to the earldom, wliich of right belongs to his brother, but 
 which has never been assumed by him. — E. W. 
 
 BERKELEY, John, an officer in the semce of Charles I., 
 who clung to the fortunes of his exiled family, and was raised to 
 the peerage at the Restoration. He wrote " ]\IemoLrs of the Nego- 
 tiations with Cromwell and the ParUamentary Army," which 
 have been recently published by Guizot, in his collection of the 
 Records of the English Revolution. — W. B. 
 
 * BERKELEY, the Right Hex. Sir Maurice Fre- 
 derick Fitz-Hardixge, K.C.B., second son of the fifth earl 
 of Berkeley, was bom in 1788. He entered the na\'y in 1802, 
 and commanded the gim-boats which were sent to support the 
 troops in the lines at Torres Vedras on the Portuguese coast. 
 He commanded the Thunderer, 84, at the capture of Acre. 
 He was for many years ]\I.P. for Gloucester city, and one of the 
 lords of the admiralty, in which capacity he introduced some very 
 valuable reforms in the administration of naval affairs. — E. W. 
 
 * BERKELEY, Miles Joseph, a clergyman of the chiu-ch of 
 England at King's Cliffe, Kent, is the most eminent British myco- 
 logist of the day. He has published numerous papers on fungi, 
 and on the diseases of plants, in various periodicals, and he is 
 tlie author of an " Introduction to the Study of Ciyptogamic 
 Botany." He has published " Gleanings in Alga?," has described 
 the fungi in the fifth volume of English Botany, and has issued 
 " FascicuH of Dried Fungi."— J. H. B. 
 
 BERKELEY, Sir "William, governor of Virginia in the 
 seventeenth century, published a description of that country, and 
 a compendium of its laws. — W. B. 
 
 BERKELSZOON or BCEKELSZOON, a learned Dutchman 
 bom at Bien-liet in Zealand; died in 1397. He is reputed to 
 have commenced the traffic in salt hen-ings, which has become 
 so important a branch of the commerce of the Low Countries. 
 
 BERKEN or BERQUEN, a lapidary of Brages, lived about 
 the middle of the fifteenth centuiy. He employed the method 
 of cutting one diamond by means of another, and of polishing 
 surfaces with the dust which resulted from the process. His 
 ingenuity was also exhibited in the invention of some mecha- 
 nical appliances, afterwards commonly used in his art. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERKENHEAD or BIRKENHEAD, Sir Johx, a witty 
 writer of the seventeenth century, the son of Randal Berkenhead, 
 saddler, of Northwjxh in Cheslm-e, was born in or near the year 
 1615. He was educated at Oriel college, Oxford, where he took 
 the degree of B.A., and was soon appointed amanuensis to Arch- 
 bishop Laud, who created hhn M.A., by diploma, and caused 
 him to be elected fellow of All Souls college. During the ciril 
 war, when King Charles I. was at Oxford, he was the chief con- 
 tributor to a broad-sheet called Mercurius AuUcus, which com- 
 mmiicated the intelligence of the court to the rest of the kingdom. 
 His witticisms in this jomiial became very popular. Thus useful 
 to the royalists, he was appointed reader in moral philosophy, but 
 lost that office and his fellowship, being ejected by the parlia- 
 mentary ^-isitors. At the Restoration, he received the degree of 
 D.C.L., was knighted, and in 1C61 was elected member of par- 
 liament for Wilton. He held several lucrative appointments 
 imtU his death in Westminster, December 4, 1679. There was 
 a di^-ine, of both his names, who, in 1644, published a sermon 
 on Rom. xiii. 5. Our author deserves mention as one of the 
 earliest newspaper wits in English historj'. — T. J. 
 
 BERKENHOUT, John, an English physician, son of a Dutch 
 merchant, was born at Leeds about the year 1730, and died m 
 1791. He at first entered on a mUltary career, and then studied 
 medicine at Edinburgh. He graduated at Leyden in 1765, and 
 finally settled as a practitioner at Isleworth. He was the author 
 of a " Botanical Lexicon ;" " Outlines of the Natural History of 
 Britain;" "Elements of Chemistry ; " "Essay on the Bite of a 
 Mad Dog ; " " Symptomatology," &c.— J. H. B. 
 
 BERKHEY, John le Francq van, a Dutch naturalist and 
 poet, was bom at Leyden on 3rd January, 1729, and died on 
 loth March, 1812. He fotmded a museum of comparative 
 anatomy and natural history. His leism-e moments were de- 
 voted to poetiy. He resided successively at Amsterdam, Leer- 
 vliet, and Leyden, where he was professor. He went to the 
 Hague In 1807, and finally retired to the cotmtry. His works 
 are — " A Description of Composite Flowers ;" " Natural Histoiy 
 of Holland;" and "Account of the Reproduction of Testa- 
 ceans," besides various poetical pieces. — J. H. B. 
 
 BERKHEYDEN or BRECHBERG, Job, bom at Haerlem 
 in 1637. He studied on the vine slopes of the Rhine, and what 
 he could not paint he sketched. His portfolios were laden with 
 duplicates of vine-dressing, half-dressed boors, stm'dy husband- 
 men behind their oxen, knavish inn-keepers, and patient stolid 
 fishermen feasting, dancing, drinking, or conversing. His 
 handling was as good as his colour. Ha\ing heard much of the 
 munificence of the elector palatine, he set out for that golden 
 but lU-fated court, in company wth his brother Gerard. Unable 
 to obtain an audience, he hit upon a painter's trick. He watched 
 the elector and his nobles sweep out to the chase, instantly 
 went home and began a picture which contained portraits of 
 the prince and all his attendants, drawn of course from memory. 
 ^\^^en it was finished, the cunning man of Haerlem got a friendly 
 steward to place it, still wet and bright, in a gallery, through 
 which the prince on his retm-n, slow and tired, had to pass. 
 The prince came, saw, and was conquered ; he expressed his 
 surprise and gratification ; more than that, rewarded them 
 with money, and gave them two medals. Job died in 1693. — 
 Gerard, his brother, who was born in 1645, painted with Job's 
 brushes, and on the same canvass. His dehght were churches, 
 convents, and noblemen's houses, with a garnishing of small 
 figures. His reputation, by help of his brothers name, was rising 
 when he was imfortunately drowned in a canal as he was return- 
 ing home from a party. There is a historical doubt, however, 
 whether it was Job or Gerard who was drowned, and this great 
 question we must still leave imscttled. — W. T. 
 
 BERKJIANS, Henery, a Dutch historical pauiter, bom in 
 Holland, in 1629. He was the pujiil of Wouvermaus, and Jor- 
 daens, but eventually retired to portrait, in which humble mode 
 of art he obtained success. He died about 1679. His finest 
 work represented a company of archers at Middlcburg. — W. T. 
 
 BERLICHINGEN, Goetz or Gottfried vox, one of the 
 last representatives of Gennan chivalry, was born at the castle
 
 BER 
 
 528 
 
 BER 
 
 of Jaxthausen, kingdom of Wurtembcrg, about 1480, and died 
 32d July, 1562. He took a prominent part in the civil wars 
 and fi'iuls of his time, and was generally esteemed for his valorous 
 and truly chivalrous conduct. After having lost his right hand 
 ill the siege of Landshut, he wore an iron one, which is still 
 shown at Jaxthansen. In 1525 he was one of the chiefs of the 
 rebeUious peasants, and after their defeat by the Suabian league, 
 was kept a prisoner in his own castle for eleven years. He left a 
 highly mteresting autobiography, edited by Pistorius, Nurnberg, 
 1713, and by Gessert, 1843, and is the subject of Goethe's cele- 
 brated drama, which has been translated into English by Sir 
 Walter Scott. — (See Meckel Die eiserne Hand des tapftrn Ritters 
 Gotz von Berlic/nngen, Berlin, 1815.) — K. E. 
 
 BERLICHINGEN, Joseph Frederick Anthony, of Tyr- 
 nau in Hungary, was adjutant to Prince George of ilechlenberg 
 in 1784 ; afterwards served under the banner of Austria against 
 the Turks, rose to distinction at the court of the king of Wu'tem- 
 berg. He published a translation of Goethe's Hermann and 
 Dorothea in Latin verse. — W. B. 
 
 BERLIXGHTP]RI, Camillo, an Italian historical painter, 
 sumamed N Ferraresino. He studied under Bononi, and 
 died at Ferrara in 1625. The FeiTara churches are stored with 
 his art.— W. T. 
 
 BEKLINGHIERI, Andrea Vacca, a celebrated Italian 
 surgeon, bom at Pisa in 1772. At the age of seventeen he went 
 to Paris, where he studied anatomy under Dessault, whom he 
 also accompanied on a tour through Holland. He aftenvards 
 came to London, to attend the lectures of John Hunter and of 
 Benjamin Bell, and on his return to Pisa in 1791, was admitted 
 doctor of medicine. Shortly afterwards he published bis " Ob- 
 servations on the Treatise on Surgery of Benjamin Bell." The 
 imcertainty of the practice of physic having disgusted him, he 
 resolved to devote himself entirely to surgeiy ; and the work just 
 mentioned, with some courses of lectures which he delivered at 
 the same time, laid the foundation of a reputation, which his 
 great skill as an operator rapidly increased. In 1799 Berlin- 
 ghieri again visited Paris, and resumed his studies with the same 
 ardour that he had manifested ten years before, obtaining, accord- 
 ing to his own avowal, great advantages in regard to practice, 
 without adding much to his theoretical knowledge. He was nomi- 
 nated a member of the Medical Society of Emulation, at which 
 he rend two interesting memoirs — one on fractures of the ribs, 
 the other on the structure of the peritoneum. At the end of 
 1799 he returned to Pisa, when he was first appointed to assist 
 his father in the course of lectures on surgery delivered by the 
 latter in that university, and three years afterwards was placed 
 at the head of the newly-formed clinical school of Pisa, which 
 has ever since attracted so many pupils from all parts of Italy. 
 In consequence of the death of his father, his brothers, and some 
 of his children, Berlinghieri removed to a place in the neighbour- 
 hood of Pisa, where he was exposed to an unhealthy atmosphere, 
 which, acting upon a frame already shaken by grief, gave rise to 
 a malady which earned him off on the 7th September, 1826, 
 after an illness of only a few days. Operative surgery is indebted 
 to Berlinghieri for many useful instruments, and for improvements 
 in some surgical processes. Amongst the foiTner are his machine 
 for the compressionof aneurismsof the popliteal artery, and instru- 
 ments for trichiasis, for lithotomy in the male, and for oesophago- 
 tomy. He also improved the bistouri for trichiasis, and that of 
 Thomas for lithotomy in the female — modified Dessault's processes 
 for the treatment of fistula lacrymalis, and of fracture of the neck 
 of the femur, and that of Sanson for recto-vcsical incision, of which 
 he was a waiTn partisan. A new method of treating trichiasis is 
 also to be attributed to him. The writings of Berlinghieri are 
 rather numerous. Besides the memoirs above mentioned, as 
 having been read before the Society of Emulation in Paris, and 
 his " Riflessioni" on the surgery of Benjamin Bell, he published 
 at Pisa, in 1803, the " Histoiy of an Aneurism of the Popliteal 
 Arteiy," which was treated unsuccessfully according to the 
 method of Hunter; in 1819, a " Jlemoir on the Ligature of 
 Arteries;" in 1820, a treatise on " ffisophagotomy," explaining 
 the use of an instrument which he introduced into the oesophagus, 
 so as to distend that canal, force it outwards to the left, and 
 facilitate its being opened; in 1823, a " History of a ligature of 
 the exterior iliac artery, and reflections on the temporary ligature 
 of the large arteries;" in 1821, a " Jlemoir on the extraction of 
 stone from the bladder by way of the intestinum rechim" fol- 
 lowed, in 1822 and 1823, by a second and third memoir on the 
 
 same subject ; and in 1825 by a fourth, " On Lithotomy in the 
 two sexes." In 1825 he also published a paper on a " New 
 method of curing Trichiasis," which was inserted m the Annali 
 Universali di Medicina di Omodei. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BERLIOZ, Hector, a musical composer and critic, was 
 bom at Cote Saint Andr6, a small town in the department of 
 risere, December 11, 1803. His father, who was a surgeon, 
 designed Hector for his own profession, to prepare him for which, 
 he was at the age of nineteen, sent to Paris. He had never till 
 then been able to indulge his predilection for music, but, away 
 from parental supervision, he deserted the schools of medicine for 
 the Conservatoire. He entered the class of Reicha for composi- 
 tion, and was also assisted by the advice of Lesueur. Anxious 
 to assert his creative power, Berlioz veiy soon wrote an opera, 
 " Estelle et Nemorin," which, however, was not produced. He 
 had better fortune with a mass, which was publicly perfomied at 
 the church of St. Roch, when he was greatly encouraged by the 
 praises of the wife of the composer, le Brun, whose opinion had 
 considerable authority. He then paid a visit to his father, who 
 was so disgusted at the neglect of his clinical studies, that he 
 discontinued the allowance for his maintenance, and Berlioz 
 retumed to Paris with no resoui-ce but the art to which he had 
 disobediently devoted himself. He gave lessons on the flute 
 and the guitar, which, as he had little practical facility, yielded 
 him a scanty harvest. To improve this, he took an engagement 
 as chorus singer at one of the minor theatres, and so supplied 
 his slender necessities. In 1827 his highly romantic character 
 experienced an influence which, if it induced not the peculiar 
 tenor of his artistic career, may well be supposed to have found 
 expression in his productions. An English dramatic company 
 was engaged at one of the Parisian theatres, amongst whom 
 iliss Sniithson — a lady whose graceful person had been her only 
 qualification for the stage in London, and who, with this advan- 
 tage, had here only filled the most trifling parts — held a prominent 
 position. Berlioz witnessed her performance of Ophelia, imme- 
 diately mvested the actress with all the idealism of the poet's 
 creation, and was seized with a passion for her as ardent as it was 
 enduring. He embodied the long train of feelings of which this 
 connection was the source, in some of his most important works; 
 in speaking of these, occasional reference must again be made to 
 it ; let sufiice for the present, that, in 1834, he married the lady, 
 who, after a long period of mental aberration, died a few years 
 since. It was about the time when Berlioz first saw Miss Smith- 
 son, that his artistic aspiration received a most genial stimulus in 
 the kindness of some friends, by whose exertions he was enabled 
 to give a concert at the theatre Italien, and so to bring the 
 first of his remarkable productions before the world. At thi* 
 were performed the overtm-e " Les Francs Juges," the scene 
 " Heroique Grecque," the " Mort d'Oi-phee," and the " Overture 
 to Waverley." 
 
 The next event of importance that has to be recorded, is his 
 gaining a prize for composition at the Conservatoire, by his can- 
 tata of " Sardanapale." This work was subsequently given at 
 one of the concerts of the Conservatoire (a series of performances 
 analogous with our Philharmonic, which have no connection with 
 the music school), but it has not been printed ; on the same 
 occasion was produced the " Episode de la vie d'un Artiste, 
 Symphonie Fantastique," which is the first acknowledged out- 
 pouring of his romantic passion. Berlioz spent the year 1830 in 
 Italy, where he composed the sequel to the "Symphonie Fantas- 
 tique," in which the same poetical purpose is continued ; this 
 portion of the work is called "Lelio ou le Retour a la vie;" it is 
 a mono-drama interspersed with chonises, and comprises the 
 following divisions: — "La Ballade du Pccheur;" "Le Choeur des 
 Ombres;" "La Chansor des Brigands;" "La Harpe jj^olienne;" 
 " Le Chant de bonheur ;" " Fantaisie dramatique sur la Temp6te 
 de Shakspere." It was in Italy that Berlioz first met Mendels- 
 sohn, and where he professes to have made this wonderful 
 musician first sensible of the genius of Gluck, his own idol ot 
 especial adoration. Paganini had suggested to Berlioz the com- 
 position of a work with an important part for the viola, and he 
 can-ied out this proposition in his " Harold en Italic," which he 
 wrote on his return to Paris, embodying in it the imprtssions of 
 his Italian sojourn. Immediately after the first pcrfonnance 
 of this extraordinary symphony, Paganini, who was little less 
 remarkable as a miser than reno\\Tied as a violinist, wrote the 
 composer a letter of eulogy, inclosing him a di-aft for 20,000 
 francs, in acknowledgment of his admiration of the work. In
 
 BER 
 
 520 
 
 BER 
 
 1835, Berlioz was engaged to succeed M. Castil-Blaze, as musical 
 critic in the Journal de Debuts, whifli office lie still holds, and 
 his spirited writing in this publication distinguislies him scarcely 
 less than does his individuality as an artist. After the siege 
 and taking of Constantine, Count Gasparin, minister of the 
 interior, engaged Berlioz to write his " ]\Iesse des I\Iorts," to be 
 performed at the obsequies of General Danrcmont, and the officers 
 and soldiers killed in that event, which solenmity was celebrated 
 at the church of the Invalides, December 5, 1837. His next 
 iniportant production was the opera of " Benvenuto Cellini," 
 which was given at the Academie Royale with such opposition as 
 to compel its immediate withdrawal, and it was reproduced after 
 a few months with no better fortune. This work has had more 
 success in some of the principal towns of Germany ; but, when it 
 was performed in 1853, under the comj)oser's direction, at the 
 Royal Italian opera in London, it was so ill received that it could 
 not be repeated. The " Carnaval Romain," one of the most 
 admired instrumental compositions of Berlioz, is the overture to 
 the second act of this opera, and it has often been played m Paris 
 with applause as great as the disfavour that greeted the entire 
 work from which it is extracted. The grand ceremony of the 
 inaugiu-ation of the Colonne de Juillet in 1839, gave occasion 
 for a series of most extensive musical performances under 
 Berlioz's direction, at which he produced his " Apotheose," and 
 his " Symphonic Funebre," composed in honour of the victims of 
 the Revolution of 1830. These concerts were attended by an 
 audience of ten thousand, and the excitement of the moment 
 enhanced not a little the interest of the music, which, aided by the 
 multitudinous scale of its execution, created an enthusiasm that 
 has not been forgotten. On the 24th of November in the same 
 year, the symphony of " Romeo et Julliette" (a composition for 
 orchestra, solo voices, and chorus) was first performed. This 
 remarkable work is a fmiher expression of the train of feelings 
 depicted in the "Symjihonie Fantastique" and its sequel, it 
 having been originally suggested by a representation of Shak- 
 speare's tragedy, the heroine of which had now become the wife of 
 the composer. In this year also he published his treatise on 
 instrumentation, a work to which his speciality as a composer 
 — mainly consisting as this does in his care for orchestral colour- 
 ing — gives particular interest. In 1841 Berlioz made a tour in 
 the north of Germany, giving concerts of his music in all the 
 important cities. At Leipzig he again met with Mendelssohn, 
 then conductor of the Gewandhaus concerts, who treated him 
 with the courteous cordiality with which he received eveiy one 
 of artistic pretensions ; on this occasion, at the request of Ber- 
 lioz, the two conductors exchanged batons, each promising to 
 preseri'e the other's gift as a pledge of friendship and esteem. 
 He then visited the principal towns of the south of France, and 
 afterwards proceeded to Vienna, and was everywhere received 
 with consideration, if not dismissed with profit. In Austria 
 he composed the "Damnation de Faust," a di-amatic cantata 
 founded on the national Gennan legend, which he subsequently 
 produced at the Opera Comique. 
 
 Berlioz had, after his return to Paris, given a series of con- 
 certs monstres at the cirque in the Champs Elyse'es, by which 
 he had been a pecuniaiy loser, and the two performances of his 
 new cantata scarcely yielded the amount of their expenses. Hav- 
 ing thus little interest to retain him in Paris, he now undertook 
 a tour in Russia, the success of which was more lucrative than 
 anything he had yet experienced. He was much honoured both at 
 St. Petersburg and JNIoscow ; at the latter he received an invita- 
 tion from the king of Prussia to visit Berlin, and produce his 
 'Faust" thete. This work had already been performed in 
 Germany, where it had excited much interest, which was still 
 increased by the presence of the author, and the honours paid to 
 him at court equalled the acknowledgments he received from 
 the artistic world. When M. Jullion opened Drm-y Lane theatre 
 at Christmas, 1847, for the performance of English operas, Ber- 
 hoz was engaged as conductor ; his reputation in this capacity 
 was very great, but it was founded on his practice in the concert- 
 room, where he had chiefly directed the performance of his own 
 compositions, and rarely that of solo singers ; his want of experi- 
 ence hi the theatre and of sympathy with the style of music, added 
 to his ignorance of the language, were the natural causes of his 
 unfitness for an office which a person of more discretion would 
 scarcely have undertaken. During this his first visit to London, 
 his "Harold" and some portions of his " Faust" were performed 
 at one of the Philharmonic concerts under his own superinten- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 dence, and they were better understood than the overture to his 
 opera had been, when, seven years earlier, it was given by the same 
 society, being the first of his works heard in England. On his 
 retiu'n to Paris, Berlioz wrote the " Fuite en Egyjite," which he 
 produced as a composition of Pierre Ducre, a pretended composer 
 of the 17th centiuy. It is said that many critics perceived 
 beauties in this work of supposed antiquity, which they would 
 never have admitted in a production of the living Berlioz ; and 
 full of admiration, busied themselves with researches for other 
 emanations from the same unheard of genius. The success of the 
 work being decided, the author ilropped his pseudonyme, and 
 declared himself to be the only Pierre Ducre when the eulogies 
 that had been pronounced could not be retracted. His second 
 visit to London was in 1851, when he was engaged to conduct 
 the New Philharmonic concerts; he came again the year followmg, 
 invited by the Philhannonic Society to direct some of his works, 
 and in 1853 once more visited London. The last expression of 
 his romantic love is rendered in "Meditations Religieuses," a work 
 which Berlioz wrote on the death of his wife ; it consists of three 
 parts, which are thus entitled, " Trestia," for six voices, with 
 accompaniment of violin, violoncello, and pianoforte ; " La Mort 
 d'Ophelie ballade ; " and " Marche Funebre. " 
 
 He now extended the " Fuite en Egypte," into the trilogy, 
 "L'enfance du Christ," preceding the original portion by the 
 " Songe d'Herode," and concluding the work with " L'arrive a 
 Sais ; " thus completed, it was first performed at the Salle Herz, 
 December 12, 1854. His next production was the "Te Demn," 
 for three choruses and orchestra, which was first performed at 
 the church of St. Eustache by a band of 150, and a choras of 
 800, April 30, 1855. On the 15th of November following, 
 on the occasion of the distribution of prizes at the Palais de 
 rindustrie Universelle, Berlioz paid his homage to the reigning 
 sovereign by the production of his cantata " L'Imperiale," which 
 was executed by 1200 performers. On the death of Adolphe 
 Adam in 1856, Berlioz was chosen to fill the place thus rendered 
 vacant in the membership of the institut, the extremely wide 
 range of the honom'able distinction being peculiarly exempUfied 
 in the remotely opposite artistic character of these two men. 
 Besides the works already mentioned, Berlioz has produced the 
 following — overtures, " Le Roi Lear" and " Le Corsaire"; "Le 
 Cinq Mai," a cantata on the death of Napoleon ; "Vox Populi" 
 two choruses, " La Menace des France " and " L'Hymne k la 
 France; " " Reverie et Caprice," for the violin, written for Aa-tot ; 
 "Irlande," "Feuillets d'album," "Die Sommemachte ; " "Sara 
 la Baigneuses," "La Captive," and " Fleurs des Landcs," each a 
 collection of vocal pieces. In addition to his contributions to the 
 Debuts, he is also the author of two literary works — " Voyages 
 en Allemagne et en Italic;" and " Les Soirees de I'orchestre, — 
 which are replete with artistic enthusiasm and sprightly satire. 
 He is now engaged upon a five-act opera for the academie, of 
 which, as of the trilogy, he writes both the text and the music. 
 Berlioz regards music in the highest artistic sense, and thus a 
 deep earnestness of purpose ilistingiiishes all he has produced. He 
 appears to consider it as necessarily the medium of a defined 
 expression ; but it is, perhaps, less to this view of the appropri- 
 ation of the art, that the peculiarity may be attributed of what 
 he writes, than to a natural incapacity of melodic invention, the 
 late commencement of his technical studies and their probable 
 incompleteness, and, in some degree, to his inability to play his 
 compositions upon any instrument. Contemporary criticism of 
 what is so entirely new, is equally liable to be blinded by intoler- 
 ance or by enthusiasm ; they who examine it with implicit faith 
 in the validity of established principles, are not more likely to do 
 injustice to its merits, than are they liable to render to its fail- 
 ings whose mania for originality (as they misname rejection of 
 precedent), leads them to esteem every infraction of the revered 
 rules of art, as an excellence. It is posterity alone that can 
 truly determine how far and in what rank this very remarkable 
 man is to be classed as a musician. — G. A. !M. 
 
 BERJIUDO. This name was borne by three kings of Astu- 
 rias and Leon, in the line of the renowned Pelayo : — Bekmuuo 
 I., called to the throne A.d. 788 instead of Alphonso II., to whom, 
 as the rightful heir, he afterwards resigned it ; Bkkimudo II., 
 who, in alliance with Navarre and Castile, compicred Almanzor 
 on the plains of Osma in 998; and Bermudo III., grandson 
 of the preceding, who fell in battle against the combined forces 
 of Castile and Navarre in 1037, leaving the sceptre of Pelayo to 
 the ascendant house of Sancho El Jlayor. — W. B. 
 
 3X
 
 BERMUDEZ, J. A. Cean de, was bom in 1749, in the 
 
 Asturias, and educated in the Jesuits' college. Befriended by 
 the statesman, Jovellanos, he followed him to Seville, Murillo's 
 citv, and there studied art. He then went to Madrid, and worked 
 under Jlengs. His patron obtained for him a situation in a bank, 
 and in 1790 he was employed by government in arranging papers 
 in the office of Indian aSairs at Seville. In 1797 Jovellanos 
 made him secretary of the Indian department, but on that states- 
 man's exile he returned to Seville, to prepare his " Dictionary of 
 the Fine Arts," which came out in 1800. In 1808, when Fer- 
 dinand VII. ascended the throne, Bermudez was restored to office. 
 He died of apoplexy in 1829. His works are — his "Dictionary;" 
 " A Summary of the Roman Antiquities in Spain ;" a " Life of 
 Jovellanos," &c. The learned Sterling gives his Dictionary great 
 praise ; its chief faults are his undue admiration for his contem- 
 poraries of the academy of St. Ferdinand. — W. T. 
 
 BERMUDEZ, Jerom, a native of Gallicia, supposed to have 
 been bom in 1530. He belonged to the order of St. Augustine, 
 and was veiy remarkable for his knowledge of sacred and profane 
 literature. He wrote a Latin poem, " Hesperoida," in praise of 
 the duke of Alva, and translated it into Spanish. He wrote, 
 also, two dramas in five acts, which he boldly calls " the fii-st 
 Spanish tragedies," both on the same subject — Inez de Castro. 
 Ticknor observes, that these two dramas contain many passages 
 of no little poetical beauty. He died towards the end of the 
 sixteenth century. — A. C. M. 
 
 BERMUDEZ, John (called by Alvarez Mestre Joam), 
 accompanied the first Portuguese embassy to Abyssinia as phy- 
 sician in 1520, and subsequently became patriarch of Ethiopia. 
 He returned to Portugal in 1565, and published an account of 
 his residence in Abyssuiia, now exceedingly rare. — W. B. 
 
 BERN, :\IicHAEL, a learned German, lived at Wandsbeck, 
 near Hamburg, in the first part of the eighteenth centurj- ; 
 author of a work entitled " The Age of Atheists, Heathens, and 
 Christians," and other works of a similar character. 
 
 BERNABEI, Giuseppe Ercole, a musician, was bom at 
 Caprarola about 1G20 ; died at Munich in 1690. He was a 
 pupil of Benevoli, and followed his example and the practice of 
 his age ui writing for a combination of several choirs of four 
 voices each. He held the office of maestro di capella in the 
 church of St. Giovanni di Lateran from 1662 till 1667, when 
 he received the same appointment in that of St. Luigi di Fran- 
 ces! ; and on the death of his instractor in 1672, succeeded him 
 in the pontifical chapel. He filled this last post but for one 
 year, when he was engaged by Ferdmand Miuia, elector of 
 Bavaria, to take the direction of his chapel on the death of 
 Johann Caspar Kerl, and he remained at jMunich till his death. 
 Here, besides much ecclesiastical music, he wrote two Italian 
 operas. He published a set of madrigals, and a collection of his 
 motets was issued the year after he died. His most distinguished 
 pupils were liis eldest son and Steffani. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERNABEI, Giuseppe Antonio, a musician, the son of the 
 above, was bom at Rome in 1643, and died at Munich in 1732, 
 according to some authorities, who remark upon his reaching the 
 advanced age of eighty-nine ; but others, who give the same date 
 of his death, state him to have been born hi 1659. In 1690 
 he succeeded his father, whose pupil he was, in the office of 
 kapell meister to the elector at Munich. He had also the dis- 
 tinction of Hofrath, which indicates his general attainments, and 
 the consideration in which he must have been held. He wi-ote 
 prior to this five Itahan operas, and in 1698 published a large 
 collection of sacred music, under the title of " Orpheus Ecclesi- 
 asticus." Martini and Paolucci each prints a specimen of his 
 composition. His younger brother, Vincenzo, bom in 1666, 
 was also a composer, but of less distinction. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERNABEI, Pier Antonio, bom at Parma, died in 1666, 
 a disciple of Paremegiano, but an imitator of Corregio, his 
 master's great model. He filled half the churches of flat Lom- 
 bardy with grand frescos. One of his finest pictures is a " Beati- 
 fication."— W. T. 
 
 ^ BERNADOTTE, Jean Baptist Jules, Karl Joiiann 
 XIV. of Sweden, the son of a lawyer, was bom at Pau, 26th 
 January, 1764. He was educated at home till seventeen, 
 when he entered the army as a volunteer, and was sent to 
 Corsica, where he served two years as a grenadier. On account 
 of his health he obtained his discharge, and returned home ; but 
 veiy soon afterwards, m spite of the entreaties of his family, again 
 enlisted into the French service as a private soldier. On the 
 
 outbreak of the Revolution he was sergeant-major, and had the 
 good fortvme to save his colonel, the Marquis d'Ambert, from an 
 infuriated populace. Bemadotte soon showing himself an able 
 soldier, rose rapidly from rank to rank. He fought as a colonel 
 and chief of brigade under General Cusine, and distinguished him- 
 self greatly at Speirs and JIaintz. In 1794 he was made chief 
 of brigade, and shortly afterwards general of division. In 1795 
 he essentially aided the French in their passage of the Rhine at 
 Neuvied, and in 1796 fought under Jourdan's command. The 
 advantage which he obtained on the Lahn, the blockade of 
 Maintz, the battle of NeuhofF, the passage of the Rednitz, the 
 taking of Altdorf, the conquest of Neumark, and the advan- 
 tages he obtained over Kray, from whom he took his mihtary 
 stores on the Main, established his reputation as a general. 
 After this he was ordered by the Directory to march with 
 reinforcements to the anny in Italy, and was commissioned bv 
 Buonaparte to lay siege to the fortress of Gradisca, on which 
 occasion he exhibited the utmost coolness and intrepiditv. 
 Shortly before the 18th Fractidor, he was chosen by Buona- 
 parte to convey the ensigns taken at the battle of Rivoli to the 
 Directory, and was mentioned in the accompanying letter "as one 
 of the stanchest friends of the republic — as one whose principles 
 would as little allow him to capitulate with the enemies of 
 freedom as with honom- itself." About the same time, Bema- 
 dotte being asked by some of his friends his opinion of Buona- 
 parte, replied — " I have seen a young man of six or seven and 
 twenty, who assimnes the tone of a man of fifty, and this in my 
 opinion bodes no good for the republic." Although he was in 
 Paris on the 18th Fractidor, yet he took no part in the occur- 
 rences of the day, and retumed to Italy. WTien Buonaparte, 
 after signing the treaty of Campofomiio, retmned to Paris, he 
 withdrew half the forces from the connnand of Bemadotte, 
 which he had brought with him from the Rhine, because he 
 distrusted him. On this Bemadotte, seriously offended, de- 
 manded from the Directory either that another command should 
 be given him, or that his resignation should be accepted; and 
 the Directory sent him as ambassador to Vienna. But in con- 
 sequence of the display of the tri-coloured flag over the entrance 
 to his hotel, and which had been done by order of the Directory 
 contrary to his o^nti wishes, a tumult ensued, and Bemadotte 
 leaving Vienna went to Rastadt, and fonvard to Paris. 
 
 On the 16th of August, 1798, Bemadotte manied Eugenie 
 Bemhadine Desiree, bom 8th of November, 1781, the daughter 
 of a merch-mt named Clar}', of Marseilles, and sister to the wife 
 of Joseph Buonaparte. In the campaign of 1799 he served 
 under Juurdan, and was ordered as commander-in-chief of the 
 army of observation to cross the Rhine and invest Philipsburg. 
 But when the demands of the Archduke Charles, Jourdan's 
 retreat across the Rhine, the dissolution of the congress ot 
 Rastadt, and the advance of the allied forces in Italy, called for 
 extraordinary measures, Bemadotte was appointed minister of 
 war. His energy and popularity were needed at this time, 
 when the French army was dejected by reverses, and the 
 enthusiasm of war had cooled throughout the nation. For 
 three months he laboured assiduously to re-establish confidence 
 and discipline, and was beginning to see the first fruits of his 
 labours, when finding himself overreached by the intrigues of 
 the Abbe Sieyes, he threw up his appointment. Bemadotte 
 had retired to his country residence, when the 18th Bmmaire 
 made another change in his circumstances. He was, through 
 Buonaparte, appointed minister of state, in which capacity 
 he opposed the establishment of the order of the legion of 
 honour. The uncompromising spu^t evinced by the new mini- 
 ster of state, again made Buonaparte desirous of removing him, 
 and accordingly he proposed to place him at the head of the 
 expedition to St. Domingo. The breach between the two was 
 thus growing wider and wder, when Bemadotte's brother-in- 
 law, Joseph Buonaparte, effected a kind of political reconciliation 
 between them. In 1800, Buonaparte, then first consul, gave 
 him the command of the army of the west, that he might 
 pacify La Vendee and other disturbed districts. At the peace 
 of Luneville he was nominated plenipotentiary to the United 
 States ; but the renewed outbreak of war rendering it desir- 
 able to keep so able a soldier at home, he was sent, in 1804, as 
 stadtholder to Hanover, where he made himself greatly beloved 
 by his pradence and clemency. The same year, Buonaparte 
 having assumed the imperial dignity, Bemadotte was made 
 marshal, and soon after received the decoration of the legion
 
 BER 
 
 531 
 
 BER 
 
 of honour. On the renewal of hostilities with Austria, he left 
 Hanover with his forces, joined the Bavarian araiy at Wurz- 
 burg, and marched to the siege of Ulm. At the battle of 
 Austerhtz, his corps broke through the centre of the Russian 
 army, and on the 5th June, 180G, Napoleon appomted hhn 
 prince of Ponte-Cor\o. In the war against Prussia, he com- 
 manded the first corps and greatly distinguished himself. On 
 the 14th October, following up his advantages against the 
 Pmssian army, he pursued General Bliicher to Liibeck, where he 
 compelled him to capitulate. He was the only French com- 
 mander who earnestly endeavoured to prevent the fate of this 
 unfortunate town. He also behaved with gi-eat kindness 
 towards 1500 Swedish prisoners, which excited the greatest 
 esteem for him in Sweden, and was probably the foundation of 
 that national regard which afterwards raised him to the throne. 
 After this he advanced towards Poland, and on 25th January, 
 1807, was present at the bloody battle of Jloningen. Fighting 
 afterwards against the Russians, he was wounded at Spanden 
 on June 5, and was thus unable to take part in the battle of 
 Friedland. After the peace of Tilsit, he was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the aiTny stationed in North Germany, and 
 made stadtholder of the Hanseatic towns, with command to 
 march into Denmark, and take possession of Sweden and Fin- 
 land. Pomerania was already in his hands when King Gustavus 
 IV. was dethroned by the revolution of 1809, and various causes 
 prevented the earning out of this scheme. In April, 1809, 
 Bemadotte was ordered to the Danube ; here he took com- 
 mand, in the war against Austria, of the allied troops, princi- 
 pally Saxons, and led them to the battle of Wagram, where 
 they fought %\-ith the most unexampled bravery. The Saxons 
 took Wagram, and kept their ground for two hours in the 
 biuTiing viHage. As they had lost great numbers of their 
 body, Bemadotte ordered General Dupas, whose di\'ision be- 
 longed to the 9th coi-ps, to support the Saxons. But Dupas 
 hesitated ; he had, he said, received superior orders to remain 
 where he was. Astonished at tliis Bemadotte determined to 
 save the remnant of his brave Saxons, and hastened to head- 
 quarters to remonstrate. " If they wanted his death," he said, 
 there were other less hateful means of accomplishing it, than 
 by mm-dering ^-ith him such numbers of brave men." The 
 emperor was again displeased, because he had issued in his owtj 
 name a proclamation after the battle, in which he called the 
 Saxon troops " the gi-anite column." Nevertheless he endea- 
 voured to explain away the cause of dissatisfaction which Ber- 
 nadotte felt on being left unaided, by saj-ing that such misun- 
 derstandings were unavoidable in great actions ; but Bemadotte, 
 on an anuistice being concluded, returned to Paris. 
 
 Bemadotte, however, could not remain mactive, and on tlie 
 landing of the English at Walcheren, the minister of the in- 
 terior and the minister of war urged upon him the command of 
 the troops. He accordingly called out the national guard, and 
 by a series of marches and counter-marches, compelled the 
 enemy to evacuate the island. Spite of all this the emperor, 
 still continumg to be distrustful of him, superseded him in his 
 ciimvnand, and ordered liim to return to his principality ; but 
 instead of doing so, Bemadotte demanded his discharge. Sent 
 back to Austria by the minister of war, he had an interview 
 with the emperor at Vienna, when an apparent reconciliation 
 took place. StUl, however, the emperor considered him dan- 
 giTous to his power, and in order to remove him from his sphere 
 iif influence, offered him the office of govemor-general of the 
 Roman states, which after some hesitation he accepted. 
 
 Bemadotte was in Paris making preparation for his departure 
 to Rome, when events were taking place in the north which 
 entirely altered the whole future of his life. But before we 
 proceed with the incidents of his life, it is necessaiy to take a 
 liasty glance at the state of affairs in Sweden. Gustavus IV., 
 king of Sweden, had in consequence of incapacity been com- 
 pelled to abdicate liis cro^wi in March, 1809, and the states of 
 Sweden had declared him and his descendants excluded from 
 the throne for ever. His uncle, the duke of Sudermania, 
 assumed tlie government under the title of Karl XIII. ; but, 
 being childless, the brother of the reigning duke of Augusten- 
 burg was chosen as his heir and successor. This young man, 
 however, suddenly dying 2Gth May, 1810, not without suspicion 
 of poison, it was necessary to choose another heir to the crown. 
 Many candidates offered themselves ; but none seemed to have 
 the requirements needful, where a man of firmness, experience, 
 
 and military abilities was so requisite. It was not extraordi- 
 nary, perhaps, that Bemadotte, already so favourably known by 
 his kind behaWour to the Swedish prisoners, and by his modera- 
 tion and wisdom in his government of the Hanseatic towns, 
 should suggest himself to the minds of the Swedish nation ; 
 and it is unquestionable that, as soon as his name was publicly 
 proposed, it was imiversally accepted. The immediate means 
 in which, however, this extraordinary event was brought about, 
 lias been only made known of late years. It was revealed by 
 M. A. Geoffray in the Revue des Deux Mondes from memoirs 
 compiled and arranged by M. Bergman, son-in-law of Colonel 
 Schinkel, aid-de-camp to the late king of Sweden, from 
 private papers left in the hands of that officer by his majesty 
 himself, to assist in drawing up a memoir of his life. The cir- 
 cumstances as thus related are shortly these. A lieutenant of 
 the Swedish amiy, M. Mdmer, arrived in Paris in June, 1810, 
 with despatches for Herr von LagerbjeIke, the Swedish ambas- 
 sador. Young and enthusiastic, he was an ardent admirer of 
 Napoleon, and could imagine no one so fitted to rule over 
 Sweden as one of his generals ; therefore no sooner had he 
 delivered his despatches, than he hastened to M. Lapie the 
 geogi-apher, one of his Parisian friends, and broached the sub- 
 ject to him. Lapie, on his side young also and enthusiastic, 
 was flattered by this compliment to his emperor, and seized the 
 idea with a\-idity. The subject was discussed, and the merits 
 of the various generals weighed. None had equal merits or 
 equal recommendations to the mind of the Swede with Bema- 
 dotte. Lapie was quite acquiescent, and the aflau' being so far 
 agi-eed, Lapie sounded General Guilleminot as to the probable 
 sentiments of the emperor, whilst Moraer consulted Signeul, 
 the consul-general of Sweden in Paris. Signeul, imagining 
 that Momer spoke only the known wishes of his countrymen, 
 ad^ised him to go at once to Bemadotte, without mentioning 
 the subject to the Swedish ambassador. Morner accordingly 
 saw Bemadotte, and representing to him that he spoke as the 
 organ of a large and influential party in Sweden, and expressed 
 the wishes of the diet, of which he himself was a member, 
 assured him also that he could vouch for the acquiescence of 
 Karl XIII. Bemadotte was siu-prised, heard all attentively, 
 but in no way committed himself, leaving his mitor uncertain of 
 ■\villingness on his part to accede to the proposal. Momer, 
 nothing daunted, next opened his views to General Wrede, 
 to whom Karl XIII. had intrasted his communications with 
 Napoleon. Wrede, who knew perfectly well the state of public 
 feeling in Sweden, was not sui-prised by this proposal, and 
 imagining that Jlomer was empowered by an influential party 
 in his own country, spoke to Bemadotte on the subject, and 
 Bemadotte, assiu-ed by this second overture, agreed that the 
 proposal should be laid before the emperor. Napoloon having 
 read the document, replied that he should not interfere witli 
 the wishes of Sweden, on which Bemadotte accepted the 
 offered dignity. The business having been brought to this 
 decisive and favourable issue, ^lomer without a moment's delay 
 set off for Sweden, without so much as informing JI. Lager- 
 bjeIke, the ambassador, of the affair, with the intelligence that 
 Napoleon wished to propose his able marshal and relative, the 
 prince of Ponte Con'o, as successor to the Swedish throne. 
 Immediately afterwards arrived General Wrede wth the same 
 intelligence. Every party in Sweden was thrown into the 
 utmost excitement. The king himself was not less astonished 
 than the rest. But time for deliberation was not allowed ; for, 
 while a committee of the diet was voting for the duke of 
 Augustenburg, a message arrived from the Swedish consul- 
 general in Paris, with the fonnal acceptance by Bemadotte of 
 the proposal. Again, without allowing time for hesitation, 
 Jlorner and Wrede ordered copies of the consul-general's letter 
 to be struck oft' and circulated among the members of the diet. 
 The next day the fact was abroad among all classes ; songs 
 and addresses were improvised on the moment ; and so com- 
 pletely did this choice meet the feelings and wants of tho 
 nation, that the diet on the 21st August, 1810, elected the 
 prince of Ponte Corv'o crown-prince of Sweden and heir- 
 presumptive to the throne, on condition of his adopting the 
 faith as laid down in the Confession of Augsbm-g. Bernadotto 
 accepted the condition. After having acknowledged tho 
 Lutheran faith in the house of the consul at Elsinor, in presence 
 of the bishop of Ujisala and other Swedish dignitaries, ho landed 
 20th of October at llclsingborg, and on the 31st was formally
 
 presented to the assemljly of the states, in which the Idng pre- 
 sided. Ab-eady acknowledged as generahssimo of the reahn, 
 and by an act dated 5th November, 1810, adopted by Karl 
 XIII., he assumed the name of Karl Johann, and took the oath 
 at the foot of the throne as crown-prince and heir of the throne, 
 on which he received the homage of the states. The following 
 year, Karl XIII. having fallen" into ill-health, he resigned the 
 government on the 17th March, under certain conditions, to 
 the crown-prince, who directed it with energy and ability until 
 the 7th of January, 1812. During this period, he paid parti- 
 cular attention to the state of agi-iculture and trade, as well as 
 to that of the army. Napoleon, in consenting to Bemadotte's 
 elevation, expected him to subseiTC all his views ; accordingly, 
 very soon after his election, he requned tliat Sweden should 
 declare war against England, and though Karl XIII. so far 
 acquiesced as to declare war, yet when Napoleon demanded 2000 
 Swedish sailors for his fleet at Brest, not the slightest intention 
 was e\'inced of compliance ; besides which, it was soon evident 
 that Sweden only apparently acceded to the continental system, 
 and still continued to cany on an active trade with England at 
 Gothenburg. This enraged Napoleon so far, that in Januarj', 
 1812, his troops entered Swedish Pomerania, and he assumed 
 the position of an open enemy. The utmost teiTor, anxiety, and 
 indignation prevailed throughout Sweden. Wlien Karl XIII. 
 resumed the reins of govennncnt, the crown-prince had to ren- 
 der an extraordinary report of his regency, and the state of the 
 kingdom. It was with him that the decree of the 29th July, 
 1812, originated, by which the Swedish harbours were thrown 
 open to all nations ; he wrote to Napoleon, willing to explain 
 and justify this measure, but the emperor would receive no justi- 
 fication. In the French war with IJussia in 1812, Sweden break- 
 ing the old alliance with France, concluded, after an intei-view 
 between the crown-prince and the Emperor Alexander, at Abo 
 in Finland, a secret alliance with Russia. It was at this 
 interview that the final nun of Napoleon was sketched by the 
 able mind of his fonner general, who knew so well where lay 
 the strength and weakness of the European conqueror. Argu- 
 ing from this knowledge, he represented to Alexander that the 
 present war was but the forerunner and engine of his destruc- 
 tion ; that rushing into the desert-regions of the north, so fur 
 removed from his ovm frontiers, was in fact hurrv'ing on his own 
 fate ; that all which was necessary on the part of Russia was to 
 lay waste the country, to destroy its resources, and meet liim 
 everywhere by famine and desolation. This was to compel him 
 to retreat, and retreat was his inevitable ruin. The advice was 
 acted upon, and the world knows the result. In July, 1813, 
 the crown-prince had a second meeting with the Emperor 
 Alexander, and with Frederick WUliam of Pni.ssia, at their 
 head-quarters, at Trachenburg in Silesia, after which a formal 
 declaration of war was made against France by Sweden. The 
 crown-prince, in so doing, had no intention of overthrowing 
 Napoleon, but merely of limiting his conquests. He had repeat- 
 edly demanded peace from him, and with the same desire wrote 
 to Ney, after the battle of Dennewitz, to prevent, if possible, the 
 passage of the Rhine by the allied forces. After the conference 
 at Trachenburg, the crown-prince was made generalissimo of 
 the united army of north Germany, which comprised the Rus- 
 sian corps of Winzingcrade, Woronzow, and Czernitzow, of the 
 English under Walmoden, the Prussian under Billow, and the 
 Swedish under Field-marshal Stedingk. He was successful at 
 Grosbeeren, August 23, over Marshal Oudinot, thus protecting 
 Berlin from the advance of the French ; a second time he saved 
 Berlin on the (ith of September, when the French were defeated 
 and driven back to the left bank of the Elbe. On the 4th 
 October, he crossed the Elbe; and his march to Taucha, on the 
 17th, contributed greatly to the success of the eventful battle of 
 Leipzig on the following day. And so well were the plans of 
 this able soldier accomplished, that, according to theii- arrange- 
 ment at Trachenburg, he met the emperor Alexander and the 
 king of Prussia, conquerors, in the great square at Leipzig. 
 After this, whilst the allied armies pursued the enemy to the 
 frontiers of Germany, the crown-prince drew off towards the 
 north, in order to attack Davoust, and his alUes the Danes. 
 Liibeck was soon taken, and the Danes were separated from the 
 French army, which threw itself into Hamburg. Leaving there- 
 fore a blockading force before this important town, he turned with 
 his main body into Holstein. After three months, he had 
 extended his outposts to Ripen and Fredericia, so that Frederick 
 
 VI. of Denmark found himself compelled to make peace. A 
 treaty was accordingly concluded between them, 14th January, 
 1814, at Keil, by which, however, Frederick was compelled to 
 give up Norway to Sweden. Having thus far, satisfactorily for 
 Sweden, accomplished his undertaking, the crown-prince with- 
 drew the greater part of his army through Hanover to the French 
 frontiers, but before he reached these, the allies had already 
 entered Paris. FebniaiT 5, 1818, the crown-prince, strong in 
 the esteem and affections of the nation, ascended the throne of 
 Sweden, as Karl XIV. Johann. An abler and wiser king never 
 occupied the Swedish throne, and all his acts justified the choice 
 of the people. Bold and energetic in war, he showed himself no 
 less endowed with the qualifications and capacity of a wise 
 monarch in peace. He zealously promoted the well-being of his 
 people in all respects. He established many important institu- 
 tions at his own cost ; he laboiired for the improvement of every 
 branch of the administration, for the advancement of knowledge 
 ;ind instruction, for the improvement of the ai-my and navy, the 
 improvement of agriculture, and the extension of commerce. 
 He made roads and canals, built the great central fortress of 
 Karlsburg, and completed the great Gotha canal, which unites 
 the Northern sea with the Baltic. He organized the collection 
 of the taxes, and so wisely ordered his financial affairs as gi'eatly 
 to reduce the public debt. In January, 1844, on the very day 
 he entered his eightieth year, Karl XIV. was taken ill, and on 
 the 8th March following he died, being succeeded by his son, 
 Oscar I. Oscar accompanied his father, at fourteen years of 
 age, to Sweden, and was carefully educated by him as a Swede 
 in eveiy respect. The wife of the crown-prince came to Stock- 
 holm in 1811, but soon returned to Paris, where she lived as the 
 countess of Gothland till 1829, when she again went to Stock- 
 holm, and was crowned queen, 21st August, 1830. — M. H. 
 
 BERNAERST, Nicasius, died in 16G3, aged 70. He was a 
 pupil of Snyders, who was a pupil of Reubens. He rivalled his 
 master in spirit, vivacity, and colour. — W. T. 
 
 BERNAERTS, John (in Latin, Bernartius), a lawyer, man 
 of letters and philosopher, born at Mechlin in 1568 ; died in 1601. 
 Author of a " Life of ]\Iary Queen of Scots," a " Commentary 
 on Boetius' De Consolatione Philosophia," &c. 
 
 BERXAL, Abraham Nunez de B., was burnt alive, 
 " sanctifying the name of his creator," at Cordova, on 3rd May, 
 1655. In the course of the same year. Is. de Almayda B. suf- 
 fered the same fate at San Yago de Compostella, in Spain. 
 These facts are recorded in a volume of Elogios in the Spanish 
 and Portuguese languages, which Rabbi Is. Aboab and Rabbi J. 
 Abendana, at Amsterdam, devoted to the niemoiy of theu* mar- 
 tjTed brethren. — T. T. 
 
 BERNALDES, Andres, called El Cura de los Pai.a- 
 Cios, ranks with the best chroniclers of Spain. He wrote the 
 annals from 1488 to 1513, and his relations are considered honest 
 and sincere. A personal friend of Christopher Columbus, he was 
 intrusted by that celebrated navigator with manuscripts, from 
 which he drew most important information relating both to Spain 
 and America. This work is considered second to none as a record 
 of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. He died aboat 
 the year 1513.— A. C. M. 
 
 BERNARD, a grandson of Charlemagne, was king of Italy 
 under that emperor and his successor Louis. Having rebelled 
 agauist the latter, he was defeated, taken prisoner, and con- 
 demned to death. The capital punishment was not inflicted, 
 but he was deprived of his eyes, and died from the effects of the 
 injury about 818.— W. B. 
 
 BERNARD, abbot of Abcrbrothock, and chancellor of Scot- 
 land under King Robert Bruce. He is believed to have been the 
 writer of that spirited memorial, dated 6th April, 1320, addressed 
 to the pope by the barons, freeholders and whole community of 
 Scotland, in which they declare their determination to vindicate 
 the independence of their countiy and the rights of their sove- 
 reign in opposition to the aggi-essions of the English. The 
 manly, independent spirit of tliis celebrated letter is worthy of 
 the heroes of Bannockbum, and ought to preserve the name of 
 its author from obhvion. Bernard, whose surname is said to 
 have been Linton, held the gi-eat seal of Scotland till his death 
 in 1327.— J. T. 
 
 BERNARD, Andrew, a native of Toulouse, who was poet 
 laureate to Henry VII. of t^ngland, and wrote a histoiy of that 
 monarch down to the capture of Perkin Warbeck. He survived 
 his patron, and was in favour- with Henry VIII.
 
 BER 
 
 533 
 
 CER 
 
 BERXARD OF Brussels, a painter, who died in 1540. 
 His portraits were copied by Jordaens. He painted whirlwinds 
 of boar-himters, and storms of spotted hounds. Margaret of tlie 
 Netherlands made him design tapestries for her. He also painted 
 in some of his field pieces, portraits of Charles V. and his attend- 
 ants. His portraits of the Nassau family were thought excel- 
 lent. In a picture of " The Last Judgment," he lii-st covered 
 the panel with leaf gold to add lustre to his colours, and prevent 
 them changing. Sandeart praises the effect, particularly in the 
 sky.—W. T. 
 
 * BERNARD, Carl, the pseudonym of a Danish romance 
 writer. (See Saint Aubais, A. de.) 
 
 BERNARD, Cathehixe, a literary lady, bom at Rouen in 
 lo62 ; died at Paris in 1712. She was related to Comeille, and 
 it was probably this circumstance that first led her to a literary 
 career. She composed two tragedies, " Li'odamee," in 1690, 
 which had but moderate success; and "Bratus" in 1691, wliich 
 latter was better received, and it is said to have induced Voltaire 
 to handle the same subject. She also wrote several romances, 
 remarkable for keen observation and knowledge of the human 
 heart, at a time when psychology, as an element of romance, was 
 in its infancy. Fontenelle was her admirer, and it has been 
 alleged that he assisted her in her literary labours. — J. G. 
 
 BERNARD, a monk of Champagne, who visited Eg}'pt and 
 the Holy Land about the middle of the ninth centiuy. He wrote 
 an interesting account of his jom-ney, which lay among the 
 MSS. m the hbraiy of Rheims till 1672, when it was published 
 by Mabillon in the Acta Sanct. ord. Bened. — W. B. 
 
 BERNARD, Charles, histoiiographer of France in the reign 
 of Louis XIIL, and king's counsellor; died in 16-40. His prin- 
 cipal work is entitled " Histoire des guerres de Louis XIII. 
 centre les religionnaires rebelles." 
 
 BERNARD of Chartkes, sumamed Sylvestris, taught 
 in the schools of Chartres in the twelfth century, and was the 
 most distinguished Platonist of his time. Two of his works, 
 entitled "Megacosmus" and "Microcosmus,"have been presented. 
 In the former he recognizes two elements, matter and ideas. 
 Matter in itself is devoid of foi-m, but capable of receiving impres- 
 sions from ideas, whicli reside in the divine intelligence. These 
 ideas are perfect models of that which ought to be, and all things 
 resiUt from their union with matter. The sensible world has all 
 the perfection of its model ; it is complete, beautiful, and eternal, 
 because these qualities belong to the divine nature. These views 
 are manifestly borrowed fromPlato. The " Microcosmus " contains 
 a theory of man, asserting the pre-cxistence of the soul, and 
 seeming to adopt the hypothesis of reminiscence. Great part of 
 the work is occupied with physiological details. Two other works, 
 which have perished, are attributed to Bernard ; one an attempt 
 to reconcile Plato and Aristotle, the other treating of the eternity 
 of ideas, and the destructibilitv of mateiial things. — J. D. E. 
 
 BERNARD or BERNHARD, abbot of Clau-vaux, and the 
 most noted ecclesiastic of his time, was bom of a knightly family 
 in 1091 at Fontaines in Burgimdy. His earliest youth was 
 marked by deep religious feeling, fostered by the affectionate 
 culture of his mother Aleth. At the age of twenty-two he 
 entered, with thirty companions, the monastery of Citeaux (Cis- 
 tertiura), near Dijon. The Cistercian order of monks was famed 
 at this period for its austerities, and Bernard's strictness was so 
 eminent that he was selected to be the head of a new house or 
 abbey at Clain-aux in Champagne. The valley of Clair\-aux 
 had been a notorious haunt of robbers, and was called Vallis 
 absinthialis, but when it was cleared of them, it received the 
 commemorative name of Clara vallis — Clair\'aux. Bernard's 
 fame as saint, writer, and orator, soon spread far and wide, and 
 his monastery at once became a seminar}- renowned for its pupils 
 — one pope, six cardinals, and thirty bishops, were educated in it 
 during its founder's lifetime. But his ecclesiastical influence 
 was yet more conspicuous, for he ruled the church with a pow-er 
 that few of the popes have possessed. His sanctity and his rhe- 
 toric gave him a loftier authority than the triple crown, and his 
 utterances, whether counsels or fulminations, were regarded as 
 those of an oracle. In 1128 he was chosen to draw up statutes 
 for the famous order of the Templars, and he gave them a body 
 of wise counsels — Exhortatlo ad milites templi. He settled the 
 dispute between the rival popes, Iimoccnt II. and Anaclete, and 
 secured the chair for the fomier by gaining Louis VI. of France 
 and Henry I. of England to his .side. He was at the same time 
 an indomitable defender of orthodoxy. He condemned the oj)i- 
 
 nions of Abelard, who, therefore, challenged him to a public 
 discussion, but appealed to the pope ere the debate was nearly 
 concluded. The combatants were not well matched. Bernard 
 was profound in feeling; Abelard, subtle in thought — emotion 
 was the sphere of the one, dialectics the province of the other. 
 (See Abelard.) Abelard was the superior in intellectual power, 
 but inclined to a critical rationalism, while Bernard excelled him 
 in soundness of view, and thought his opponent a supporter of 
 Pelagianism. When Raoul preached the extermination of the 
 Jews, Bernard keenly opposed the fanatic ; the followers of 
 Arnold of Brescia were stoutly reprobated by him ; and at the 
 council of Rheims he secured the condemnation of the bishojis of 
 Poitiers and Eonde I'Etoile, for he judged them fallen aside from 
 the pure faith of the church. At the council of Vezelai in 1146, 
 Bernard's eloquence impelled the king and nobility of France to 
 commence a new crusade. He was so far carried away by his 
 warmth as to claim something like inspiration, and he threw 
 abroad many bright and flattering predictions. Miracles and 
 visions were supposed to signalize his progress as he went about 
 rousing peers and peasantry to the great enterprise. The chris- 
 tian host under Louis VII. did no mighty achievement, were 
 soon disorganized, and after no httle folly and suffering a miser- 
 able remnant returned. Bernard's predictions were falsified, but 
 he attempted to save his credit by ascribing the crusaders' 
 faihure to their sins ; and he was right, if he meant by sins the 
 absence of unity and warlike concert — the relaxation of discipline, 
 and the loose and wanton misconduct of those European bands 
 in an enemy's countiy, and under an Eastern sim. The morti- 
 fication which this defeat occasioned seems to have preyed upon 
 his mind, and he died at Clauwaux in 1153, in the sixty-third 
 year of his age, and was canonized by Alexander III. in 1174. 
 His last act was to mediate between the people of Jlentz and 
 some princes in their vicinity. 
 
 Bernard was a man of sincerity, and in his sincerity lay one 
 main element of his strength. Conscientious and straightfor- 
 ward, he despised those little arts of finesse and intrigue by 
 which so many churchmen have risen to eminence. His 
 appeals to the religious passions of the people sprung from 
 his own inmost persuasions, and were poured forth in letters, 
 sermons, and harangues, with thiilling fer\"our and mighty 
 result. He knew how to move the heart of his age, and he 
 succeeded the better that no tiara adorned his fiuTowed brow, 
 but that as a humble, self-denied abbot, reduced to a skeleton 
 by his constant austerities, he spoke from his cell with equal 
 dignity to pope, prince, and popvdace. 'Wliile he strove hard to 
 realize the ideal of a monastic life, and cherished a profound 
 religious experience, he displayed at the same time a restless 
 activity, and took a prime part in all the gi'eat questions of his 
 time. He would not leave his retreat, though Milan, Rheims, 
 Genoa, Langi-es, and other towns, sought him for their bishop. 
 The free spirit of Bernard led him to rebuke such monks as 
 contended about ceremonial, tonsure, dress, and order of senice. 
 His owm soul longed to enjoy more of that seraphic love which 
 his Lord enjoined, and which inner fellowship with Him fosters 
 and developes. It would seem from some brief hints in his 
 epistles that he believed in his own power to work miracles, 
 though certainly, like many other enthusiasts, he was very im- 
 fortunate when he intruded into the field of prophecy. A so-called 
 vision may dazzle into belief — a wondrous coincidence may be 
 credulously constructed mto a miracle, but a prophecy is patent 
 to all, and all can judge of its failure or fulfilment. Bernard 
 rose above the hard scholastic style of his period, and is both 
 copious and vivacious in his diction. His works relate princi- 
 pally to experimental religion, such as his "^leditations," and 
 his " Discourses on the Song of Solomon." Many of the Latin 
 hymns usually ascribed to him, have great beauty and depth of 
 feeling. The best edition of his works is that by JIabillon; and 
 there is a full-length portrait of him as monk, abbot, counsellor, 
 agitator, and saint, in Neander's Der Ileil. Bernard, and Sein 
 Zeitdlter; Beriin, 1830.— J. E. 
 
 BERNARD, Clatide, commonly called Le Pai-vre Pre- 
 Tixi, a celebrated French ecclesiastic, bom of a noble family at 
 Dijon in 1588 ; died in 1640. A leg.acy of 400,000f. which 
 came to him iinexpcctcdly was consecrated to charitable pur- 
 poses, and he steadily refused the ofl'ers of Richelieu to confer 
 on him a benefice suitable to his birth and talents. He preached 
 several times a week, and laboured incessantly among the poor. 
 
 BERNARD de la Barthe, a troubadour of the 13th
 
 BER 
 
 534 
 
 BER 
 
 century. He was archbishop of Auch ; but a poem that he pub- 
 lished during the war of the Albigenses, inculcating a spuit of 
 toleration uncommon for his age, caused him to he deprived of 
 his office. — J. G. 
 
 BERNARD de Bologna, an Italian theologian and bio- 
 gi-apher, lived towards the middle of the eighteenth century. He 
 published " Bibloth. script, ord. Minonim Francisci Capucin." 
 
 BERNARD del Carpio, a Spanish kiiight of the ninth 
 century, celebrated for his prowess by the romancists of that 
 country. His efforts on behalf of his father, who had incurred 
 the kmg's displeasure, brought Bernard also into trouble ; and 
 his later days were spent as a refugee and knight-errant in 
 France.— W. B. 
 
 BERNARD de Morlaix, a Benedictine monk, supposed 
 to have been bom in England, lived about the year 1140. He 
 dedicated to Pien-e Maiunce, abbe of Cluny, a poem in three 
 books, " De Contemptu Mundi," printed at Breme in 1597. 
 
 BERNARD de Vakennks, a French historian ; died in 
 1730. Author of "The Life of Saint Guitan," Paris, 1698; 
 and " History of Constantine the Great." 
 
 BERNARD de Ventadour, a troubadour of the twelfth 
 century. His father was a domestic servant, whose employment 
 was that of baking bread in the chateau of Ebles II. de Venta- 
 dour. Here young Bernard learned the "gay s9avoir," then 
 the delight of every noble and gentle heart. Bernard's talents 
 and the beauty of his person rendered him dangerously attractive, 
 and his poems record the progress of a passion at tirst timid, 
 then more adventurous, at length daring to name the object of 
 his love, and at last to express exulting gratitude for favours 
 "secret, sweet, and precious." He speaks of a kiss which she 
 gave him, and says it inflicted a wound which, like those from 
 the lance of Achilles, could only be healed by the weapon which 
 inflicted it. The lady of his songs was no other tlian the countess 
 of Ventadour, the fair Agnes of Montluyon. The lord of Ebles 
 soon awoke to suspicion. Suspicion became certainty. The poet 
 in vain endeavoured to show that his raptures were, if not alto- 
 gether fictitious, to be regarded as allegorical, and that the object 
 of his love was an allegorical vision. The lady was unprisoned, 
 and the minstrel dismissed to unwilling freedom. Bernard's 
 chansons are preserved, and for a while they speak of disgrace 
 and despair, but there is something recuperative in the elastic 
 spirit of a poet, and he soon had another theme for song, and 
 tells of other triumphs. Eleanor of Guienne, who had been 
 queen of France — Louis VII.'s queen — past with undiminished 
 beauty, though somewhat tarnished character, to the hands of 
 Henry, duke of Normandy. She was Bernard's new flame. It 
 did not last, for she had to go to England in 1154 with Henry, 
 who now succeeded to that crown. The troubadour proposed 
 to continue in that country his instnictions in the gay science to 
 the indulgent queen, but Henry forbade the continuance of the 
 acquaintance. Bernard found a home with Raymond, count 
 of Toulouse, and with him he remained till that prince's death. 
 lie now wrote poems on other subjects than youthful passion. 
 At Raymond's death, he sought the retu-ement of the abbey of 
 Dolon in Limousin, where he became a monk. Petrarch mentions 
 Bernard with praise. About fifty of his chansons stUl remain, 
 and several tensous. — J. A., D. 
 
 BERNARD du Grail, Charles, novel writer, born at 
 Besan9()n, 1805. The works of this writer are numerous, and 
 when they first appeared, enjoyed much favour, especially 
 amongst the fashionable circles of society. Latterly they have 
 become more extensively popular. In dealing with the follies 
 and vices of the upper classes, who generally relish satire at 
 their own exjjense, when executed by an initiated hand, Charles 
 du Bernard did not always keep wtliin the bounds of propriety. 
 Descriptions are not in fine taste, however well founded, when 
 they cannot be relished by others than those whom it is too late 
 to reform by warnings which hang feebly by the side of exciting 
 appeals to the imagination. Sometimes, reminding the reader 
 of the impassioned voluptuovisness of George Sand, and again of 
 the penetrating observation of Balzac, and occasionally of the dex- 
 terity of Scribe, Charles du Bernard shows that, instead of pos- 
 sessing original genius, he is a quick imitator who falls uncon- 
 sciously into the style of the author who sways his fancy and 
 feelings for the moment. With clevemess to take the highest 
 place amongst writers of the second order, he wants that origi- 
 nality of invention and peculiar power of style which mark those 
 of the first. Of his numerous works, " L'Homme serieux ; " 
 
 " Anneau d' Argent," .and "Gerfaut" are considered the best. He 
 died at Neuilly, 6th March, 1850.— J. F. C. 
 
 BERNARD, Edward, an English scientific man, bom in 
 1638; died in 1697. He was a very good mathematician and 
 chronologist. He wrote a book on weights and measures, and a 
 considerable number of separate essays, many of which are in the 
 Transactions of the Royal Society of London. — J. P. N. 
 
 BERNARD, Sir Francis, EngUsh governor of New Jersey 
 and afterwards of Massachusetts. He passed to this latter pro- 
 vince in 1760, when his severe measm-es to repress the disaffec- 
 tion of the people, lost him the popularity with which his more 
 moderate administration in New Jersey had been repaid. The 
 home government, while it showed its approbation of his con- 
 duct by creating liim a baronet, was compelled to recall him in 
 1769. He died in England in 1779. Sir Francis Bernard was 
 famous as a patron of literature, and was himself the author of 
 some works. His select letters on the trade and government of 
 America appeared in London in 1774. — J. B. 
 
 BERNARD, Francis, physician to King James XL; a man 
 of learning, and well versed in literary history. He had the 
 best collection of scarce books that had been seen in England, 
 and was a good judge of their value. He died February 9, 
 1697, aged 70. He was brother to Charles Bemard, sergeant- 
 surgeon to Queen Anne, of whom there is an original portrait at 
 Barber's hall, which has not been copied or engraved. — E. L. 
 
 BERNARD, Jacques, son of a protestant minister, was bom 
 at Nions in Dauphiny in 1658, and died in 1718. After com- 
 pleting his education at Geneva he returned to France, and, in 
 contravention of the laws against conventicles, preached publicly 
 the doctrines of the refomied faith. His labours soon attracted 
 the attention of the authorities, and he was obliged to seek 
 refuge in Switzerland. He afterwards removed to the Hague, 
 where he devoted himself to teaching and to hterary labours. He 
 pubhshed " Actes et memoires de la negociation de la Paix de 
 Ryswick," 1725 ; " Lettres historiques contenant ce qui s'est 
 pass^ de plus important en Europe," 1692-1728, and some 
 religious essays. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERNARD, Jean, a French physician, bom at Nantes on 
 the 14th May, 1702 ; died in 1781. He was educated at 
 ]\Iontpellier, and commenced practice at the age of twenty. He 
 was appointed some time after professor of classics, at Saumur. 
 He did not keep this position long, but went to RocheUe, and 
 afterwards to Paris, where he acquired a taste for anatomy, and 
 became dresser to the celebrated Fen-ein. He returned to 
 Nantes, but not being able to attach himself to the College of 
 Physicians, he came again to Paris and resumed his anatomical 
 studies. He afterwards became professor of anatomy to the 
 faculty of Douay, where he commenced his course in 1744. 
 After having taught for several years he became corresponding 
 member of the Royal Society of London, and of the Society of 
 Medicine at Paris. He died from the effects of strangulated 
 hernia. His philosophical ideas have been developed in a series 
 of short dissertations, which are not known beyond the school Ln 
 which he taught. — E. L. 
 
 BERNARD, Jean Baptiste, a French writer, canon regular 
 of Sainte-Gene\'ieve, was born at Paris in 1710, and died in 
 1772. He published some poems, orations, and panegyrics, the 
 merit of which is to be sought in the elevated and fastidious 
 style which their author afl'ected in all his compositions. 
 
 BERNARD, .John Frederick, a learned Dutch bookseller; 
 died in 1752. His principal works are " A Collection of Northern 
 Voyages;" "Religious Customs and Ceremonies of all the Nations 
 in the World ;" and " Critical and Philosophical Dialogues." 
 
 BERNARD, Louis-Si5ION-Joseph de, a French miscella- 
 neous writer, bom in 1768; died in 1832. Author of letters on 
 botany, physics, and natural history. He also wrote on " The 
 Maritime and Commercial preponderance of Great Britain." 
 
 BERNARD of Luxemburg, a Flemish Dominican monk, 
 died at Cologne in 1535. He published " Sermones de diabolica 
 colluctatione VII vitiorum capitalium et virtutmn spiritualium," 
 1525, and " De Ord. Militaribus et arm. militarium Myst." 
 
 BERNARD of Menthon, Saint, who founded the two 
 monasteries, called the Great and Little St. Bernard, in the passes 
 of the Alps, was bom near Annecy in 923. He was descended 
 from a noble family of Savoy, and it was against the wishes of 
 his parents that he became an ecclesiastic. Ha\dng become 
 archdeacon of the little church of Aosta at the foot of the Alps, 
 he devoted himself to missionaiy labours among the pagan tribes
 
 BER 
 
 535 
 
 BER 
 
 who inhabited the movmtain regions. On Mountjoy, the site 
 of a temple of Jupiter, he erected one of his monasteries, and on 
 the site of a column dedicated to the same divinity, in one of 
 the passes of the mountains, he placed the other. They were 
 intended not only as houses for religious seclusion, but as hos- 
 pitals for the entertainment of pilgrims on the way to Rome. 
 The monks have ever since been fulfilling the pious intention of 
 the founder, not only hospitably receiving strangers who come 
 to their gate, but with the assistance of the famous St. Bernard 
 dogs, tracing out and relie\dng those who wander among the 
 snow. St. Bernard continued his missionary laboui's till his 
 death in 1008.— J. B. 
 
 BERNARD, Nicholas, the disciple and biographer of Arch- 
 bishop Usher, was educated at Cambridge, and incorporated 
 M.A. of Oxford in 1628. He had been two years before ordained 
 by Usher at Drogheda, where he was chaplain and hbrarian to the 
 primate, and he was soon promoted to the deanery of Ardagh. 
 While here he assisted his patron in the preparation of materials 
 for his work on the antiquities of the British churches. In 1642, 
 on account of the troubles in Ireland, he was compelled to take 
 refuge in England, taking with him the valuable library under 
 his care. He was presented to the rectory of Whitchurch in 
 Shropshire, where he remained till his death in 1661. His 
 principal works are — " The whole Proceedings of the Siege of 
 Drogheda," 1642 ; " The Life and Death of Dr. James Usher, 
 in a sermon preached at his funeral," 1656; "The Judgment 
 of the late Archbishop of Armagh," &c., 1657; " Clavi Tra- 
 bales," a collection of pieces by Usher, Hooker, &c., 1661. — J. B. 
 
 BERNARD, Pierre, a French litterateur, known by the 
 name of Bernard d'H^ry, born near Suxerre in 1756 ; died 
 in 1833. At the time of the Revolution, he became member of 
 the administration of the department of Youne ; he afterwards 
 was sent by the same department to the legislative assembly, 
 and drew up several reports relative to the organization of the 
 public service, and on the repression of mendicity. He published 
 an abridgment of BufFon's Natural History, &c. — J. G. 
 
 BERNARD, Pierre, a French annalist, born at Calais, 1640; 
 died in 1720. Author of " Les Annales de Calais," Saint Omer, 
 1715 ; a very rare work, containing an account of the sieges of 
 Calais. 
 
 BERNARD, Pierre Joseph, born at Grenoble in 1710; died 
 1775. Voltaire's praise of Bernard gave him reputation, if not 
 popularity, and led to his being generally spoken of with the 
 kindly epithet of " gentU." Bernard was always fond of letters, 
 but was discouraged by his patrons from exercising his talent of 
 verse. He passed into the service, as secretary, of the marshal 
 de Coigny. He was present at the battles of Parma and 
 Guaestalla. It was only in secret he could exercise his poeti- 
 cal talents during the marshal's life, but after his death he 
 was more free, having obtained some office which left him a 
 great deal of time to himself. His verses were admired, and 
 secured him the favour and support of Madame Pompadour. He 
 read and recited his poems to circles gathered to hear them ; they 
 were praised. The charm was lessened or destroyed when they 
 were printed, but the poet was unconscious of his failm-e. Dis- 
 sipation and disease had destroyed his mental powers, and he 
 languished some years in entire fatuity. His poems were col- 
 lected in 1803 by M. Fayolle. Their character is feeble ele- 
 gance. — J. A., D. 
 
 BERNARD, Pont Joseph, a French mathematician and 
 engineer, born in 1748; died in 1816. His chief work is his 
 " Nouveaux principes d'hydraulique," a work the more valuable 
 as it is the summiu-y of important engineeiing practice — the result 
 of the works undertaken by him to confine and deepen the bed 
 of the Durance, and to improve the navigation of the Rhone from 
 Aries to its embouchure. — J. P. N. 
 
 BERNARD, Richard, a puritan divine, who first translated 
 Terence into English, was bom in Lincolnshire probably about 
 the year 1566. He was educated, it would appear, by the 
 charity of two ladies, daughters of the Lord Chief Justice Wray, 
 who sent him to Cambridge with the view of his taking orders 
 in the church of England. In IGOl he was installed vicar of 
 Worksop in Nottinghamshire, and in 1612 rector of Batcombe 
 in Somersetshire. He died at the latter place in 1641. He 
 wrote "The Faithful Shepherd;" " Look beyond Luther; or, an 
 Answer to the question, Where this our Religion was before 
 Luther's time ? " " The Isle of Man, or the Legal Proceedings 
 in Man-shire against Sin ;" "Thesaurus Biblicus." — J. S., G. 
 
 BERNARD, Saint- Affrique Louis, member of the French 
 national convention, born at Valerangue, Gard, in 1745. He 
 was educated at Nimes for the protestant ministry ; but the 
 persecutions to which the professors of the reformed religion 
 were subjected induced him to demit the charge to which he 
 had been appointed at Saint-AfTrique, Aveyron, and to enter 
 on a political career. In 1792 he presided at the electoral 
 assembly, whose office it was to appoint deputies to the conven- 
 tion. In October of the same year, he was nominated a mem- 
 ber of the committee of accusation, but in the process against 
 Louis XVI. he declhied to vote with the majority for the pun- 
 ishment of death. He was afterwards chosen a member of the 
 council of the ancients, to which he was elected secretary in 
 1796 and president in 1797. Quitting the council the follow- 
 ing year, he retired to Belmont, in the neighbom'hood of Saint- 
 Affrique, and recommenced the exercise of his ministerial func- 
 tions. He died at the advanced age of eighty years. — G. M. 
 
 * BERNARD, Saint-Affriqije, le baron Louis, brother 
 of the preceding, bom at Valerangue, 15th August, 1771. 
 Arriving in Paris while his brother sat in the convention, he 
 became attached to the bureau for the administration of military 
 affairs, and was afterwards nominated, by the first consul, 
 inspector of reviews. In 1807 he entered into the service of 
 Joseph, who took him to Naples, where he made him intendant 
 of his guard, and conferred on him the title of baron. In 1814 
 he hastened to give his allegiance to the new regime, and was 
 named by Louis XVIII. inspector of reviews, and chevalier of 
 Saint Louis. — G. M. 
 
 BERNARD, Samuel, bom at Paris, 1618 ; died 1687. He 
 studied under Vonet, and executed large oil Ir-escos, and cabinet 
 pictures of history and landscape. He also engraved in mezzo- 
 tint. His son, the banker, was the milHonaire whom Louis 
 XIV. showed over Marly, in order to induce him to consent to 
 a loan.— W. T. 
 
 BERNARD, duke of Septiraania and Toulouse, held a high 
 station at the court of Louis le Debonnaire through the favoiu" 
 of the empress, but was subsequently degraded and banished 
 under charge of gross immoralities. He recovered rank and 
 influence by assisting Louis against his rebellious sons, but was 
 put to death by Charles the Bald. — W. B. 
 
 BERNARD, Simon, a French general, bom at Dole, 28th 
 April, 1779; died 5th November, 1839. At the age of fifteen 
 years, he was admitted into the Polytechnic school, where his 
 mind was formed under the teaching of Lagrange, Laplace, &c. 
 He first entered the army of the Rhine, in which he soon obtained 
 the rank of captain ; and in 1805, ha\Tng been intrusted by the 
 emperor -with an important mission, he was appointed his 
 aid-de-camp. He was in the service of Napoleon during the 
 Hundred Days, and fought at Waterloo. After the Restoration, 
 he went to the United States, where he was employed for many 
 years by the government on various important public services. 
 On his return to France, he became aid-de-camp to the king, 
 soon afterwards lieutenant-general of engineers, and finally, in 
 1836, minister of war. — G. M. 
 
 BERNARD, Sydney, a young surgeon of a ship which sailed 
 between England and the coast of Africa. On the voyage his 
 ship met with another vessel, the Eclair, whose crew were suf- 
 fering from the ravages of the yellow fever. They had no 
 surgeon on board ; many had already died, and others were 
 sickening. Bemard volunteered his services, went on board the 
 infected vessel, and sailed in it to England. AVlien the ship 
 arrived, the noble philanthropist did not quit the post of duty ; 
 but resolving that no other life should be risked in ministering 
 to the diseased and helpless crew, he remained in the vessel, 
 caught the infection, and died in 1845. Sydney Bemard left 
 a poor widow, but to the disgi-ace of those who were acquainted 
 with his heroic conduct, no acknowledgment was ever made of 
 his services in the shape of gift or pension to her. — J. T. 
 
 BERNARD Sylvestre, probably a Belgian by birth, 
 taught theology and philosophy at Utrecht towards the com- 
 mencement of the twelfth century. He wrote a commentary on 
 the Eclogaj of Tlieodulus, which exists in MS. in the Biblothoque 
 Imperiale of Paris. His " Epistola ad Raymundum Castri 
 Ambosii, de modo rei familiaris utilius gubernanda;," is also 
 extant. Two works, "Megacosmus" and "Microcosmus," gener- 
 ally attributed to Bemard de Chartres, are by some ascribed to 
 this .author. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERNARD, Thomas, an English philanthropist, bom at
 
 Lincoln, 27th April, 1750 ; died at Leamington Spa, 1st July, 
 1818. He studied for the profession of the law, and commenced 
 practising at the bar in 1780 ; but having, two years afterwards, 
 married a rich heiress, he quitted his forensic pursuits, and gave 
 himself up to the charitable employment of devising and execut- 
 ing schemes for ameliorating the condition of the poor and 
 suffering classes of society. He first turned his attention to the 
 state of the Foundhng hospital in London, in which he effected 
 many valuable improvements. In 1792 a society for the relief 
 of the poor was constituted on a plan which he had sketched. 
 He was among the first to direct public attention to tlie condi- 
 tion of children employed in chimney-sweeping and in cotton- 
 spinning. He took also an active interest in promoting the 
 spread of vaccination. In 1799 he entered warmly into the 
 views of Thomson, a patriotic Englishman, who had conceived 
 the design of establishing in his own country a corporation of 
 learned men simihir to the Institute of France ; and two years 
 aftenvards, mainly through their joint labours, the Royal Insti- 
 tution of Albemarle Street, in London, was founded. He after- 
 wards formed two other establishments — the British Gallery for 
 the exhibition of pictures by the old masters of Great Britain, 
 and the Alfred Club for the advancement of literature. Between 
 1793 and 1817, he published a variety of works, mostly on sub- 
 jects relating to the welfare of the industrial classes, and the 
 relief of the indigent. — G. M. 
 
 BERNARD, , a German theologian and chronicler 
 
 of the last half of the seventeenth century. He published at 
 Augsburg in 1G53, " Exegesis rerum Augustanarum quae suo 
 tempore ab 1616 in urbe Augustana contigenmt." 
 
 BERNARD, , born at Naples, 1680 (temp. Charies 
 
 IL), a pupil of Solimena ; all we know of him is that he was an 
 eclectic painter of the volcanic city. — W. T. 
 
 * BERNARD, a very acute French physicist of Toulouse. 
 Bernard's researches are connected mainly with the more delicate 
 inquiries in optics. He has invented several instniments of 
 astonishing nicety ; one of these, the refractometer, was exhibited 
 at the recent meeting of the British Association at Livei-pool, and 
 was greatly admired. It is to be regi'etted that none of Ber- 
 nard's instruments are yet on sale. — J. P. N. 
 
 BERNARDES, Diego, bom at Ponte-de-Barca, in 1540. 
 His very hannonious versification, and the purity of his language, 
 have caused him to be desei-vedly styled the " Guarrini of Lusi- 
 tania," and he has left many idyls highly esteemed. His collec- 
 tion entitled " Flores de Lyma," and his •' Rimas devotas," rank 
 hun with the best poets of Portugal. He died in 1596. — A. C. M. 
 
 BERNARDI, Angelo, a musician, was born at St. Agata, 
 near Bologna, in the middle of the seventeenth century. He 
 was a pupil of Marco Seaechi, whom he held in great esteem. 
 In 1C81 he was maestro ili capclla of the cathedral of Spoleto, 
 hanng previously filled the same office at the cathedi-al church 
 of St. Angelo de Viterbo. In 1687 he was canon of this latter 
 establishment, and in 1G93 he was maestro di capella at the 
 church of Santa Maria Trastevere at Rome. His writings on 
 music contain nothing original, but they were important to the 
 art, as presenting the first systematic an-angement of the prin- 
 ciples of double counterpoint, which had been for some time in 
 practice, and as defining the rules of the tonal fugue, in which 
 the answer is a modification of the subject, opposed to the real 
 fugue, where the subject and answer are identical, which alone 
 had been treated of before his time; these consist of — "Ragion- 
 amenti nmsicali ;" " Document! musicali ;" " Miscellanea musi- 
 calc ;" " Arcani musicali," twice printed ; and " II Perche musi- 
 cale." He also had some credit as a composer, having produced 
 motets, psalms, offertories, and a mass, the majority of which 
 appeared prior to his first tract. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERNARDI, Ahnald, a French theologian, born at Cahors ; 
 died in 1331. He belonged to the order of Dominicans. His 
 ])rincipal works are—" Postilla super Apocalypsin," and " Lec- 
 tura; et Sermones super VII Psalmos pocnitentiales." 
 
 BERNARDI, Augustus Ferdinand, a German lingiust, 
 bom at Beriin in 1769 ; died in 1820. He was pupil of Wolf 
 and Zieck, and author of works on languages, the organization of 
 schools, &c. 
 
 BERNARDI, Franci.s, a historical painter of Brescia. 
 
 BERNARDI, .loiix, a faithful follower of the exiled James 
 IL, was bom at Evesham in 1657. He was descended from an 
 old Italian family, his grandfather having come to England as 
 resident from Genoa, and his father having held the same office 
 
 till displeased with the senate of Genoa, he resigned all connec- 
 tion with it, and retired to Evesham. When only thirteen years 
 of age, the subject of our notice ran away from his father's 
 house, and having been for a time supported by the kindness of 
 some friends, he soon enlisted as a private soldier in one of the 
 English companies employed by the prince of Orange. He was 
 distinguished in the States for his soldierly qualities, speedily 
 rose in his profession, and married a Dutch lady of good family 
 and fortune. When the English regiments were recalled by 
 James II. from the service of the States, Beraardi was one of 
 the few officers who obeyed the summons. He thus secured the 
 favour of James, but, of course, forfeited that of the prince of 
 Orange, and when that monarch landed in England, Bernardi had 
 to seek his safety in following the abdicated king. He served King 
 James till his cause became hopeless, and then sought retire- 
 ment in Holland. Having ventvu'ed to visit London, he was, in 
 1G96, taken into custody on suspicion of being party to a plot 
 for assassinating William. Though nothing was established 
 against him, he was sent to Newgate prison, where, for forty 
 dreary years, he was confined, his sentence ha\'ing been pro- 
 longed by acts of six successive parliaments under four successive 
 sovereigns. Wlien in prison he man'ied a second time, and 
 became the father of ten childi-en, who were left in destitution 
 at his death in 1736. — J. B. 
 
 BERNARDI, Philippe, professor of rhetoric at the lyceiim 
 of Poitiers, and of French literature to the faculty of letters in 
 the same town; born at Monieuxin 1759 ; the date of his death 
 is unknown. He devoted his life to public instraction. Among 
 his works may be mentioned " Critical Obsen'ations on the Plan 
 of National Education of Mirabeau the Elder;" "Observations on 
 Fenelon, as a morahst and man of letters ;" a translation of the 
 Elegies of Tibullus, falsely attributed to Mirabeau ; an edition of 
 the ]\Iorale Universelle of the Baron Holbach. — -J. G. 
 
 BERNARDI, Steffano, a musician, was bom towards the 
 close of the sixteenth century, probably at Verona, where he 
 was a professor in the philharmonic academy. In 1611, the 
 date of his first publication, he was maestro di capella in the 
 cathedi'al of that city; and in 1634, the date of his latest work, 
 he was a canon in the metropolitan church of Salzburg. He was 
 a very voluminous composer of ecclesiastical music, and madrigals 
 for three, four, five, six, seven, and eight voices ; and he -VNTote a 
 brief elementaiy tract on music, " Porta Musicale," which is 
 praised for its clearness. The preface promises a second part of 
 this treatise, which, however, never appeared, though the first 
 was reprinted, and Bumey mistakes the second edition for a 
 continuation. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERNARDIN de Pequigny, a French theologian of the 
 Capuchin order of monks, was bom in Picardy in 1633 ; died 
 in 1709. He wrote "Triplex Expos, in Epistolas D. Pauli." 
 
 BERNARDIN De Saint Pierre. See Saint Pierre, 
 Bernardin De. 
 
 BERNARDIN of Sienna, Saint, an Italian theologian and 
 preacher, canonized by Nicolas V. in 1450, was bom at Massa- 
 CaiTara in 1380, and died at Aquila in Abrazzo in 1444. His 
 noble lineage and his extraordinary eloquence brought within 
 his reach several rich bishoprics ; but, having taken the habit of 
 St. Francis, he would accept no higher dignity than that of 
 vicar-general of his order. His influence in his native country 
 was such, that, in the disputes of the Guelj)hs and Ghibelines, 
 no one was more frequently appealed to as mediator than Ber- 
 nardin of Sienna. Before and after his return from the Holy 
 Land, whither he was twice sent by his superiors, his preaching 
 attracted great crowds, whom he roused to fanaticism by an 
 eloquence which was the more popular that it was not perfectly 
 Ciceronian. His works were printed at Venice in 1591 by the 
 care of Rodulfi, bishop of Sinigaglia. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERNARDINI, Marcello, sometimes called Macello di 
 Capua, a musician, was bom at Capua about 1752. He wrote 
 nineteen operas and a large number of intermezzos, the majority 
 of which had a gi-eat though ephemeral success. His merit was 
 entirely in the buffo style, a class of writing little understood 
 out of Italy, and his only serious opera, " Pizarro," was a decided 
 failure. In 1793 he produced an opera in Vienna, and in 1801 
 another in Paris, but neither of these met with the favour his 
 works received in his own country. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERNARDO DA CRUZ, Fkey, a Portuguese historian, 
 lived in the sixteenth century. He accompanied Don Sebastian 
 ia his second expedition, and was present at the battle of Alca9ar-
 
 Kebir. On liis return to Lisbon he wrote a concise but excellent 
 history of the reign of Don Sebastian, not published till 1837. 
 
 BEENARDO da Siena, flourished about 1370 (temp. Henry 
 v.), painted saints, angels, and was also an animal painter of 
 celebrity. He peculiarly excelled in the subtle drawing of the 
 hands and feet. — W. T. 
 
 BERNARDO il Trevisano, so called from his title of count 
 of Tre\-isano, an Italian alchemist, bom at Padua in 1406 ; died 
 in 1490. He details in one of his books, " De Philosophia 
 Hermetica Liber," 1567, his labom's, expense, and perseverance 
 as an alchemist ; and deplores in a most pathetic manner his 
 uniform ill luck. In his travels in search of the philosopher's 
 stone he was equally unfortunate, a clerk and a monk having 
 the wit to take his money in exchange for what they knew of 
 the object of his search. Besides the work above mentioned, he 
 wrote "Tractatus de secretissimo philosophomm opere chemico," 
 &c., 1600 ; " Opuscula chemica de Lapide philosophomm," 
 1567, and some other alchemical works, now rarely to be met 
 with.— J. S., G. 
 
 BERNARDONI, Pieteo Axtoxio, an Italian poet, bom at 
 Vignole, 1672, in the duchy of Modena ; died in 1714. At 
 nineteen years of age he became a member of the Arcadian 
 Academy, and held the post of imperial poet at Vienna. 
 
 BERNASCONI, Andrea, a musician, was bom at Marseilles 
 in 1712, and died at Munich, January 24, 1784. His father 
 had been an officer in the French army, in which there was a 
 law that no one retired from the service who should engage in 
 commerce in the French dominions was entitled to a pension for 
 his mihtary sernces. He had accordingly established himself at 
 Parma in the capacity of a merchant ; and probably here his 
 family name underwent some modification to give it its Italian 
 termination. He was on a sojourn at Marseilles when his son 
 was born, but the family returned shortly afterwards to their 
 '■ -sidence in PaiTna ; and Andi-ea, though his parentage and 
 irthplace were French, had every other circumstance around 
 him that could give him the feelings and character of an Itahan. 
 Young Bernasconi studied music as an accomphshment, but 
 without any piu-pose of turning his natural talent for it to pro- 
 I'.table account, until, when he had already attained to manhood, 
 his father made some unfortunate speculations, in consequence 
 of which, being thrown unexpectedly upon his own resources, he 
 was obliged to adopt the art as a means of subsistence, which 
 he had hitherto cultivated only as a matter of amusement. His 
 first opera, " Alessandro Severo," was produced in Venice at 
 the commencement of 1741, and its decided success immediately 
 stamped its composer's reputation. It was followed by many 
 similar works in rapid succession, which were WTitten for the 
 principal theatres throughout Italy, until the year 1752, when 
 Bernasconi made a tour in Germany, and wrote his opera of 
 '' Sallustia," which was given at Munich in 1753. The success 
 of this led to his engagement by Maximilian III., elector of 
 Bavaria, as kapell-meister, in discharge of the duties of which 
 office he remained at Munich till the close of his career. The 
 first labours of his new appointment were the oratorio of " La 
 I>etuUa Liberata," and the opera of " Bajazet," both produced in 
 the year of Ids instalment. He wrote several other operas — in 
 many cases the words as well as the music — the latest of which 
 appears to have been " Demetrio" in 1772, and many pieces of 
 cliurch music that were much admired. In 1747 he married 
 the widow of one of the household of the prince of Wurtemburg, 
 named Wagele, who had a daughter Antonia, bom of her first 
 marriage in 1741 ; Bemasconi taxight his step-child singing, 
 Mid brought her so advantageously forward, that in gratitude 
 ■!ie assumed his name. She did not appear in public until 1767 
 ■ i Vienna. She was subsequently engaged at the chief theatres 
 "t" Italy. She married an oboe player, and visited this country in 
 1778. Bemasconi had a daughter by a second marriage, but, 
 though she had talent for singing, he would never allow her to 
 come before the public. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERNASCONI, Lauro, bora at Rome, 1622 (Charies I.) 
 He painted flowers with elegance and accuracy. After a happy 
 life spent in such trifling, he died 1675 (Charles II.) — W. T. 
 
 BERNATOWICZ, Felix, a Polish romance writer, born in 
 1785. He published several works which were popular, though 
 in point of ability he does not hold the highest place in literature. 
 He was secretary to the prince Adam Czartorj-ski. He was 
 attacked with a mental malady, of which he died on the 5th of 
 September, 1836.— J. F. W. 
 
 BERNAY, Cajiille, bom at Malmaison, March, 1813. 
 Taken by his father, who was in the sen-ice of the Empress 
 Marie Louise, to Italy, he was bound apprentice to an engraver 
 at Parma, and being involved in the insun-ection of 1831, 
 which obliged him to retum to France, he became connected 
 with the law in the office of an avoue, or attorney. Finding 
 law little to his taste, he essayed the literary life, and produced 
 a volume, chiefly of comedies, which, although they made little 
 noise, find an esteemed place in the libraries of those who love 
 letters. He died at an early age in 1842. — J. F. C. 
 
 BERNAZZANO, , a painter of Milan, who flourished 
 
 about 1536, and excelled in landscapes and flower pieces. The 
 colour and handling of this pupil of Da Vhici, attracted the 
 generous praise of the unenvious Raphael. — W. T. 
 
 BERND, Adam, a German protestant theologian, author of 
 " Einfluss der gottlichen Wahrlieiten auf den Willen und das 
 Leben der Menschen," bom at Breslau in 1676; died in 1748. 
 
 BERND, Christian Samuel Theodor, a celebrated Ger- 
 man writer on heraldr}^ was bom at j\Ieseritz, gi-and-duchy of 
 Posen, 12th April, 1775, and died at Bonn in 1854. After 
 having completed his education at the gymnasia of Guben and 
 Gotha, and the university of Jena, he became teacher at various 
 gj'mnasia, and in 1822, was appointed professor of diplomatics, 
 sphragistics, and heraldry, at the university of Bonn. Besides 
 several works on the German language and gi-animar, he pnb- 
 Hshed — -" Allgemeine Schriftenkunde der gesammten \Vappen- 
 wissenchaft," in 4 vols ; " Wappenbuch der Preussischen Rheing 
 provinz ; " " Die Hauptstiicke der Wappen-Wissenchaft," 2 vols., 
 and other valuable works on heraldry. — K. E. 
 
 * BERNECK, Karl Gustav von, better known under his 
 nom de plume Bernd von Guseck, a German novelist, was 
 bom at Kirchhayn in the Lausitz, 28th October, 1803. At an 
 early age he entered the Prussian army, in which he now holds 
 the rank of major, and at the same tune performs the duties of 
 professor of mathematics at the Berlin cadettenhaus. Besides 
 novels and tales of no great merit, he has written some operas, 
 and translated the Divina Commedia. — K. E. 
 
 BERNEGGER, Matiiias, born at Hallstadt in Austria, 
 1582; died 1640; was professor of histoiy at Strasburg, and 
 wrote a great number of works. 
 
 BERNE R, Friedrich Wilhelm, a musician, was bom at 
 Breslau in 1780, where he died in May, 1827, his father, Johann 
 Georg, having been chief organist in that city. His public perfor- 
 mances while a child, and his appointment as deputy to his father 
 at tliirteen, prove his natural aptitude for music. He was distin- 
 guished both as a pianist and an organist, and he played also 
 several orchestral instraments ; further, he was versed in the 
 principles of composition, though his numerous works give small 
 token of genius — of these the most praised is his setting of the 
 150th Psalm for voices and orchestra, and the most popular are 
 many of his Lieder. In 1811 he, together vrith Schnabel, was 
 selected by Zelter of Berlin, who was commissioned for that 
 purpose, to organize a system of musical education throughout 
 Silesia; and after a course of preparation in Zelter's academy 
 during 1812, retumed to Breslau to discharge this duty with 
 the utmost zeal and with admirable effect. The high esteem 
 in which he was held was evinced in the extraordinaiy honours 
 paid to him at his funeral. His name is interesting in this 
 countiy on account of his having been a friend of Weber, whose 
 acquaintance he made when this graphic composer was kapell- 
 meister at Breslau in 1804, who is said to have discussed with 
 him the plan of the overture to the Ruler of the Spirits, and 
 even to have profited by his suggestions on this brilliant com- 
 position. Besides his connections with Zelter, Bemer became 
 intimate with this master's illustrious pupil, Mendelssohn, and he 
 was also a friend of Meyerbeer. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERNER, Gottlieb Ephraim, a Gemian physician of the 
 first half of the eighteenth century, extraordinaiy professor of 
 medicine at Halle, and afterwards professor of medicine at Duis- 
 burg. His principal writings are — " De applicatione mcchanismi 
 ad medicinam, cui annectitur, dissertatio medico-practica de 
 apoplexia cum catarrho sufl'ocativo, cum observatione de araneas 
 punctura et ejus medela," published at Amsterdam in 1720 ; 
 and " De efficacia a;ris in corpore humano et usu mechanico," 
 published at the same place in 1723 and 1728. The fonner of 
 these works contains some curious observations on apoplexy, and 
 the second consists of remarks upon fevers, and the use and 
 abuse of Pemvian bark. — W. S. D. 
 
 3 y
 
 BER 
 
 538 
 
 BER 
 
 BERNER, JoHAivM Bexjamin, a German protestant theolo- 
 gian, bom at Greitz in 1727; died in 1772. Besides some 
 sermons, he publislied " Der glaubige Pauhis in Tnibsal und in 
 Aengsten," and " Lebenslauf des Sclig. D. Luthers, in Versen." 
 
 BERNERS or BARNES, Juliana, a lady distinguished as 
 one of the earliest female writers of England, but about whose 
 personal history there is some obscurity, was, it is generally 
 believed, the daughter of Sir James Berners of Berners Roding. 
 If this be true, she must have been born not later than the 
 close of the fourtcentli centmy, for Sir James was, in 1388, 
 beheaded with other comipt ministers of Richard II. Juliana 
 became prioress of Sopewell nunnery, near St. Albans, where, 
 however, she seems to have devoted herself to quite other occu- 
 pations than those of a religious recluse. AVarton tells us that 
 she " resembled an abbot in respect of exercising an extensive 
 manorial jurisdiction, and hawked and hunted in common with 
 other ladies of distinction." It is in connection with these 
 manly sports that her name has been remembered. Famous 
 treatises concerning hawking, hunting, and heraldry, have been 
 ascribed to this lady. It is most likely, however, that she was 
 the author of those only which refer to hawking and hunting. 
 The earliest edition of the work appeared at St. Albans in 1481, 
 and another edition of it in 1486. In 1496 it was again issued 
 by Wynkyn de Worde at Westminster. The work, last of all, 
 appeared at London in 1595, bearing the title of " The Gentle- 
 man's Academic, or the Book of St. Albans, containing three 
 most exact and excellent books, the first of Hawking, the second 
 of all the Tenns of Hunting, and the last of Armory ; all compiled 
 by Juliana Berners in the year from the incarnation of Christ, 
 1486, and now reduced into better method by G. M." The 
 part treating of annoiy was probably the production of a later 
 hand, and this may account for the late date which this editor 
 assigns to the production of Dame Berners, who must, if her 
 parentage be that generally supposed, have either been dead in 
 1486, or at least beyond the age for compiling " excellent books 
 of hawking and hunting." — J, B. 
 
 BERXEVILLE, Gilibert de, a trouvere of the thu-teenth 
 century, bom at Bemeville near Arras. Gilibert seems to have 
 been a man of high rank. He flomished about 1240, and is 
 mentioned in the chronicles of that period. Some of the extracts 
 which we find from his chansons, are cast in the manner of 
 Beranger, and have a mixture of seriousness and levity, which, 
 till one becomes familiaiized with it, is often offensive. We have 
 several of Bemeville's tensons and twenty-five of his chansons 
 remaining. — J. A., D. 
 
 BERXI, Francesco, an Italian poet; he was bom towards 
 the close of the fifteenth centuiy at Lamporecchio m Tuscany. 
 The family is said to have been noble, and is known to have been 
 poor. He went to Florence in the character and garb of a 
 divinity student, where he remained till he was nineteen, and 
 thence passed to Rome, and lived successively in the household of 
 cardinal Bibbiena, and after his death in that of Ghiberte, bishop 
 of Verona, and datario to Pope Clement. It is hard to ascertain 
 the precise position of a man of letters in an Italian family, but 
 something not much more dignified than the rank of a copying 
 clerk in some public office seems indicated rather than expressly 
 revealed under the sounding titles of secretaries and notaries, 
 which we find given to him. However, in some such way he 
 earned his bread for seven years, and then he obtained a canoniy 
 at Florence. Berai was at all times indolent and dissolute, and 
 his disregard of the decencies of fife led to his being supposed 
 capable of becoming a convenient instrament of the worst crimes. 
 Stories are told of his being solicited by each of the illustrious 
 cousins, Duke Alexander and Cardinal Ippolite de lledici, to poison 
 the other, and of his being himself poisoned by one of them., for 
 his non-compliance. The characters of ali parties in this 
 romance of Italian life are well preserved in these narratives, of 
 which, whether they have any foundation or not in fact, the 
 details are supposed to be disproved by the date of Bemi's death, 
 which by most of his biographers is stated to have occmTcd 
 in 1543 ; but a chronological register of the canons of the cathe- 
 dral of Florence fixes it in Jlay, 1536. Bemi had given his 
 name to a peculiar description of humorous poetry, in which he 
 excelled. It is called the " Poesia Bernesca." The ludicrous 
 effect produced by the contrast of serious and comic imagery and 
 expression brought together in immediate juxtaposition, which 
 marks his poetry and that of Pulci, is now familiar to the English 
 reader, by the admirable imitations of those Italian masters in 
 
 Frere's Whistlecraft, Byron's Beppo, and Tennant's Anster Fair. 
 Frere reminds us of Berni's manner, more than Byron. The 
 Latin classics are even more familiar to every educated ItaUan 
 than the modem poets of his country, and a part of Berni's 
 humour consists in the introduction of passages, the words of 
 which are remembered and the subhmity felt by every one, and 
 then parodying them in a spirit of playfid fun. The solemn 
 chants and prayers of the Roman catholic worship are dealt 
 with in the same light and irreverent way by this witty ecclesi- 
 astic. In England — perhaps even in Italy at present — Bemi is 
 most known by his " Refaciamento " of Boiardo's Orlando Inna- 
 morato, though there seems a gi-eat deal of original humour in 
 some of his satires. His praises of a season of plague may 
 be mentioned in proof of this. Pubhc places cease to be incon- 
 veniently crowded ; one has elbow-room enough in church and 
 market-place; one does not meet his creditors in the street; 
 the most clamorous duns have already gone " whither the dead 
 attomies go," or, at worst, they are afraid to stir out : in short 
 a distressed man — and our poet, like all his brethren, sympa- 
 thizing with the poor — had in the sickly season the enjoyment 
 of freedom of body and peace of mind. 
 
 The " Refaciamento " of the Innamorato is a work of which 
 there is no example, as far as we are aware, in the Uterature of 
 any other country. Dryden's imitations of Chaucer more nearly 
 approach it than anything we know ; but Dr}-den's tone is at 
 least as serious as that of Chaucer. His Palremon and Arcite, 
 for instance, is cast in the same moidd as Chaticer's ; if there be 
 any distinction in this respect, it is that Dryden assumes some- 
 what of a loftier tone than his master. Both he and Chaucer, 
 in the poems which he has imitated, are fond of arch allusions ; 
 sometimes both are unpardonably coarse. But Dr}'den does not 
 find in Chaucer the same stately patrician tone which Bemi did 
 in Boiardo ; and thus there is no real or seeming contrast 
 between the ancient and the modern English poet. Between 
 Diyden and Chaucer, however, it must be remembered three 
 centmies inteiTcned ; between Boiardo and Bemi about half a 
 centuiy. 
 
 The "Refaciamento," is a very curious work. There does p.ot 
 appear to be a single stanza, nay, there is scaixely a single line, 
 in which Berai does not seem to have gone over the original 
 poem, infusing everywhere a new strange spirit. We agree 
 with the general feehng of his countn,-men, though we know 
 there is high authority against it, in thinldngthe "Refaciamento" 
 ahnost infinitely superior to the original poem. The story of 
 Boiardo is faithfully followed throughout ; each canto is intro- 
 duced like those of Ariosto and Spenser, with a stanza or two 
 of moral reflections, suggested by the narrative. OccasionnUy 
 an interlude, as it may be called, of some length occurs, in one 
 of which we are told a good deal of Bemi's own domestic history 
 and habits. We are told by him that his person was " thin and 
 diy ;" that his legs were " spare and lean ;" that Us visage wa,s 
 broad and his nose high ; that liis eye-brows were shai^p, and 
 the space between them naiTOw; that his eye was blue and 
 hollow ; and that he kept himself close shaved, being at daily 
 war with beard and moustache. He describes himself as the 
 idlest wretch under the sun ; from the sun itself at all hours 
 he hid himself as much as he could, passing most of his time in 
 bed. Pen, ink, and paper, he descrites himself as holding in 
 utter abhorrence, remembering how they wearied him when for 
 so many a long year Ids daily labour with them bought his bad 
 and bitter bread. 
 
 Bemi, like most of the scholars of his day, amused himself 
 by writing Latin verse. His Latin poems were published in 
 a collected foi-m with those of Segui, Varcbi, and others, 
 at Florence, 1562. — Rose's Orlando Innamorato ; Panizzi's 
 Boiardo. — J. A., D. 
 
 BERXHARD, count of Anhalt and duke of Saxony, bom 
 in 1140 ; died in 1212. At his death the govemment of Anhalt 
 passed to his son Henn.-, and the duchy of Saxony to Albert. 
 
 BERXHARD, one of the generals famous in the annals of the 
 Thirty Years' war, was the son of Duke .John of Weimar, and 
 was bom in 1604. He died in July, 1639. 
 
 BERXHARD, Martix, a Polish botanist and medical man 
 of the seventeenth century, was physician to the king of Poland. 
 He published a catalogue of the plants near Warsaw, besides 
 botanical memoirs in the Nova Acta. — J. H. B. 
 
 BERXHARDI, Atgust Feiidinaxd, a Gei-man writer, was 
 born at Berlin, 1768, and studied philology at Halle, under
 
 F. A. Wolf. He then became teacher at, and afterwards head- 
 master of, the ^^'erdersche g}Tnnasium at Berlin, where he foiTned 
 a friendship with L. Tieck, with whom he WTote the " Bambozzi- 
 nden," 1797-1800, a celebrated series of comic tales and dramatic 
 scenes. Bernhardi was manied to Tieck's sister, whom, however, 
 lie afterwards divorced. Besides a number of reviews and essays 
 written for the Deutsche Monatsschrift, he published some learned 
 works — " Sprachlehre ; " and " Anfangsgi-unde der Sprachwis- 
 senschaft." He died 2d June, 1820.— K. E. 
 
 BERNHARDI, JoH ANN Jakob, aGennan botanist and medi- 
 Cil man, was born at Erfurt on 7th September, 1774, and died 
 libout the year 1840. He was a professor in the university of 
 Erfurt, and published several medical and botanical works ; 
 among others, a " Systematic Catalogue of Plants ; " " A Bo- 
 tanical Introduction and Manual;" " Treatises on Lichens and 
 Ferns;" " Observations on Structm-al Botany;" besides numerous 
 articles in foreign journals. — J. H. B. 
 
 •BERNHARDI, Ivarl Christian Sigismund, was bom at 
 Ottrau in the electorate of Hassia, 5th October, 1799. After 
 ha\-ing studied theology and philology at JIarburg, he accompanied 
 some young noblemen to the university of Louvain. Here he 
 took his degree as Ph. Dr. and jNI.A., and became librarian to the 
 university. In 1829 he was appointed keeper of the library 
 at Kassel, where bis manly character, and liberal political 
 opinions, gained him so much popularity that he was chosen 
 mayor, and in 1848 a member of the Frankfort national assembly, 
 in which he joined the constitutional party under H. von Gagem. 
 He wTote — " De excidio regni Judaici," Louvain, 1824 ; " K. 
 Schomburg's Nachlass und Briefwechsel mit biographischen 
 Andeutungen ;" " Spraclikarte von Deutschland," Kassel, 1844, 
 &c., and edited a weekly periodical entitled Der Kirchenfrtund, 
 Kassel, 1845-46.— K. E. 
 
 * BERNHARDY, Gottfried, a distinguished Gennan phi- 
 lologist, bom at Landsberg in the Neumark, 20th JIarch, 1800; 
 completed his education at the university of Berlin, where, as 
 soon as 1825, he was appointed professor-extraordinaiT. Since 
 1829 he holds the chair of classical philology at Halle. His 
 principal works are — " Eratosthenica ; " " Suidas ; " " Wissen- 
 !-chaftliche Syntax der Griechischen Sprache ; " " Grundriss der 
 Griechischen Literatiu';" "Gnandriss der Romischen Literatur ;" 
 and " Grundlinien zur Encycloptedie der Philologie," &c. — K. E. 
 BERNHOLD, Joiiann Balthasar, a German theologian, 
 linguist, and poet, born at Burg-Sulanch in 1687, was professor 
 of theology at Altdorf. He w^as profomidly skilled in the Greek 
 language, and wrote unexceptionable Latin verse. Died 1796. 
 BERNHOLD, Johx Godfry, a Gennan di-amatic writer, 
 bora at Pfedelbach, 1721 ; died 1755. His principal works are 
 — " Sophonisba," translated from English into German verse, 
 Altdoif, 1750, 4to. ; and " Irene," a tragedy on Joan of Arc. 
 
 BERNIEE, Adhelm, a French historian, born at Senlis, 
 died within the last few years. Among his works may be men- 
 tioned — "Etudes sur I'economie pohtique," Paris, 1834, 8vo. ; 
 •"Monuments inedits de Thistoire de France," Paris, 1834, 8vo. 
 BERNIER, Francois, a celebrated French physician and 
 ti'aveller, a native of Angers, distinguished himself under Louis 
 XIV. in the latter part of the seventeenth century. At that 
 brilliant period, liis merits as a philosopher and traveller would 
 of themselves have sufficed to give him distinction, but his good 
 qualities were still further heightened by a handsome person and 
 a graceful wit. Of this celebrity, a certain portion has sun-ived 
 him. His travels fmiiish descriptions of countries that no 
 European had, perhaps, ever visited before him, and throw great 
 light upon the revolutions of India at the period of Aurungzebe, 
 tor which reason they may still be studied with profit. His 
 acquaintance was sought by the most illustrious and distin- 
 guislied personages of his time. He assisted Boileau in the 
 composition of that AiTet Burlesque, which prevented the 
 grave president, De Lamoignon, from causing the parliament 
 of Paris to issue a serious decree against the philosophy of 
 Descartes, which, if published, would have l)een laughed at by 
 everybody. The date of Bernier's birth is not known. He studied 
 medicine, and obtained his doctor's degree at Montpollier before 
 the year 1654, when, impelled by his taste for travelling, he 
 went to Syria, and afterwards to Egypt. After residing for 
 more than a year in Cairo, where he was attacked by the plague, 
 he embarked at Suez for India, in which country he remained 
 for twelve years, during eight of which he was physician to the 
 emperor, Am-ungzebe. The emir Danichmend, the favourite of 
 
 Aurungzebe, who was a patron of science and letters, took Ber- 
 nier with him to Cashmir. On his retm'n to France, Bemier 
 published his travels and philosophical works, of wliich the prin- 
 cipal are — " Histoire de la derniere revolution des etats du 
 Grand Mogol," published at Paris in 2 vols., in 1670; and 
 followed in 1671 by " Suite des memoires du Sieur Bemier sur 
 I'empire du Grand Mogol," also in 2 vols. ; an " Abreg^ de la 
 philosophie de Gassendi," published at Lyons in 8 vols., in 1678, 
 and augmented in 1684 by " Doutes de M. Bemier sur quelques- 
 uns des principaux chapitres de son abrege de la philosophie de 
 Gassendi," 7 vols. ; the appearance of which fmTiished Boileau 
 with the subject for an epigi-am. The subject of Bernier's prin- 
 cipal writings caused the wits of Paris to give him the nickname 
 of the Mogul. He died at Paris in 1688.— W. S. D. 
 
 BERNIERES-LOUVIGNY, Jean de, a French theologian, 
 born at Caen in 1602 ; died in 1659. He belonged to the order 
 of St. Francis, and enjoyed a great reputation for piety. His 
 works are — " L'Interiem- Chretien," 1659, and " Les CEuvres 
 spirituelles de M. de Bernieres de Loungny, par sa sosur Jour- 
 daine de Bernieres." — J. S., G. 
 
 BERNET, Jacques, archbishop of Aix, of Ai-les, and Embran, 
 created a cardinal by Gregory XVI. in 1846, was born at Saint 
 Flour in 1770. He was ordained secretly at Paris in 1795 by 
 a nonjuring bishop, became vicar of a parish of Orleans in 
 1802, and, after the Restoration, of the parish of Saint Vincent 
 de Paul. In 1827 he was consecrated bishop of EocheUe, and 
 in 1835 archbishop of Aix. Died in 1846. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, called the Chevaher Bernini 
 in France, and in Italy the modern Michel Angelo, was the son 
 of a Tuscan sculptor who removed to Naples. He was born in 
 1598, and died in 1680, after acquiring gi-eat but evanescent 
 fame as a painter, architect, and sculptor. Bemini was a 
 phenomenon, who carved a marble group when he was only 
 eight years old; it proved his best work, "Apollo and Daphne." 
 His father, nursmg him as a mangel, brought him to Rome to 
 study the old masters; there he astonished the pope by his 
 rapidity of design, and expressed liis hope to A. Caracci ot 
 some day adding to the splendour of St. Peter's. His earliest 
 works were busts of the pope and cardinals, a St. Lam'ence, 
 a gi'oup of jEneas and Anchises, and a Da\'id, with a sHng 
 (Dadd is biting his under lip). Paul V., Gregory XVI., but 
 still more. Urban VIII. (Barberini), were his patrons. He 
 was created knight, received a pension of 800 crov^-ns per 
 month, designed the confessional of St. Peter, and the fountain 
 Barcaccia. Floating on the full tide of court patronage, he 
 designed the Barberini palace, the campanile of St. Peter's (after- 
 w;u-ds taken down as unsafe), the tomb of Urban VIII., and 
 that of the Countess Matilda. Our Charles I., hearing of his 
 fame, sent him three portraits of himself by Vandyke, by which 
 to execute a bust. With a singular foreboding of the fote of 
 Charles, Bernini made a likeness that so pleased Charles that 
 he sent him a diamond ring, worth 6000 crowns, from his own 
 hand. Cardinal Mazarin now in vain ofi'ered him 12,000 crowns 
 a-year to come to France, his enemies having unseated Bernini 
 in the favour of Innocent X. He was, however, soon restored, 
 and executed for the pontiff the fountain in the Piazza Navona, 
 the j\Ionte Citorio palace also, and the gi-oup of St. Theresa 
 and the angel for the chm-ch of St. ]Mary. For Alexander VII. 
 he designed the cuxular colonnade for St. Peter's, and the great 
 pulpit, supported by the four doctors of the church — a clumsy 
 busmess. His contemporaneous works were the Odeschalchi 
 palace, and the rotunda of St. Rlccio. Unable to resist the im- 
 portunities of Colbert, who was then restoring the Louvre for 
 Louis XIV., Bernini, in 1665, set out with sis pupils and 
 retinue for France, where he was feted and feasted like a 
 monarch, though, after all, his designs for the colonnade were 
 superseded by those of Perrault. He, however, executed a bust 
 of Louis XIV. ; praised him for sitting quiet while he did it ; 
 set a fashion of wearing the hair; obtained presents and a pen- 
 sion, and trooped back mortified to Rome, a medal being struck 
 in his honour, and all his expenses being paid. He also exe- 
 cuted a colossal equestrian statue of the king for Versailles. At 
 Rome he was welcomed with fresh dignities. For Clement IX. he 
 embellished the bridge of St. Angelo ; and before his death, old 
 as he now was, designed the tomb of Alexander VII., and a bas- 
 relief of our Saviour for Christina of Sweden. The restoration 
 of the old palace of the Chanceiy fretted him to death in the 
 eighty-second year of his age. He was inteired with pomp in
 
 BER 
 
 540 
 
 BER 
 
 the church of St. Maria Maggiore. Bemini was of a dark com- 
 plexion, with a lively, expressive eye. He was a kind critic of 
 other men, severe only upon himself. He felt too late that 
 he had, in pursuing originality, acquired an affected, fluttering 
 mannerism. He was a rhetorician in art, a too florid strainer 
 for fantastic novelties. He did great hami to ai-t, more even 
 than the mere imitators of the Greeks' dead mythology and 
 mitranslatable ideal. — W. T. 
 
 BERXINI, Giuseppe JIaria, an Italian capuchin, mis- 
 sionary of his order in the East Indies, was born at Carigiian in 
 Piedmont, and died in 1753. His works are — " Notizie laeo- 
 niche di alcuni usi, sacrifi2y ed idoli nel regno di Neipal, raccolte 
 nel anno 1747," a translation of which appeared in vol. ii. of the 
 Asiatic Researches ; a translation of the Adhiatma Ramayana, 
 and of the Djana Sagara. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERNIS, Francois- Joachim de Pierre de, a celebrated 
 French cardinal and man of letters, bom at St. Marcel de I'Ar- 
 deche in 1715 ; died at Rome in 1794. He was of an ancient 
 family of Languedoc, and being a younger son was destined to 
 the church. Accordingly, after finisliing his education at the 
 seminary of Saint Sulpice, he took orders, but neither his tastes 
 nor his fortunes inviting him to any ecclesiastical preferment, he 
 depended on his talents and agreeable manners for a good recep- 
 tion at comt, and established himself at Paris. He was speedily 
 known as one of the most expert of the innumerable epigram- 
 matists who infested the metropoUs, and although his verses 
 savoured more of the gaiety of a man of fashion than of the 
 decency of an abbe, they were not the less agi-eeable to Madame 
 Pompadour, who obtained for the needy churchman a lodging in 
 the Tuileries, and a pension of 1500 francs. A more respectable 
 sphere of action than that to which he was thus introduced, was 
 opened to him in being appointed ambassador to Venice. He 
 displayed so much address as mediator between that republic 
 and the pope, Benedict XIV., that on his return to France he 
 was admitted into the councU of state. Shortly after this he 
 was named secretary of state for foreign affairs, and in 1758 
 received from Clement XIII. the cardinal's hat. During his 
 ministry the Seven Years' war, so disastrous to France, occun-ed ; 
 and notwithstanding his exertions to counteract the mischievous 
 policy of Pompadour and her minions, he was loaded with oblo- 
 quy, and obliged to retire from PaiTS. After the death of Pom- 
 padour, he was again offered the seals of office, but declined to 
 accept them, and was named archbishop of Albi. In 1769 he 
 was sent as ambassador to Rome, and there the remainder of his 
 life was passed in a style of princely magnificence which all but 
 rivalled that of the Vatican, and rendered his house the general 
 resort of distinguished foreigners. It was Bemis who received 
 at Rome, in 1791, the exiled aimts of Louis XVI.; but these 
 were among the last noble personages on whom his hospitality 
 was exercised, for the Revolution swept away the sources of his 
 revenue, and reduced him to distress. The court of Spain came 
 to his relief with a handsome pension. He died in 1794. His 
 only poetical performance which can be decently mentioned, is 
 entitled " La Religion Vengee." It was published after his 
 death. His prose works, although frequently reprinted, ai-e of no 
 great merit, and are only interesting to the historian. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERXITZ, Martin Bernhardt von, a Polish surgeon, and 
 surgeon to the kmg of Poland in the latter half of the seven- 
 teenth century. His writings are principally on botany, the 
 chief of them being a catalogue of the plants, both exotic and 
 indigenous, cultivated in the year 1651 in the royal gardens at 
 Warsaw, and of those growing around that city, which was 
 published at Danzig in 1652, and with the addition of the Viri- 
 darium of Simon Pauli at Copenhagen in 1653. In 1676 and 
 1677 he published at Leipzig, " Fasciculi duo remediarum," in 
 4to, of which the first volume contained a list of the antiarthritic 
 remedies made use of by the king of Poland ; and the second a 
 collection of various medicines described by other authors as 
 specifics. Bernitz also inserted several memoirs on botanical 
 subjects in the Acta Acad. Naiurm Curios. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERNO, Giuseppe, an Italian physician, bom at Moncio- 
 vello in 1788; died in 1818. He was the son of a surgeon, and 
 studied first at Ivrea, and afterwards at Turin, at the latter of 
 which places he obtained his degree of doctor in 1809. The 
 only work published by Bemo is "On the efficacy of the Springs 
 of Courmaieur and Saint Didier," which appeared at Turin in 
 1817, the year before his death. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERNOULLI, Christoph, a German naturalist and tech- 
 
 nologist, was bom on the 15th May, 1782, at Basle, studied 
 natm-al history in Gottmgen in 1801, and in 1802 went to Halle 
 as a teacher in the high school of that city. After occupying 
 this post for two years, he quitted Halle, and travelled to Berhn 
 and Paris. On his return to his native town in 1806 he 
 opened a private school; and in 1817 obtained the professor- 
 ship of natural history in the university of Basle. After his 
 appointment to this post, he turned his private studies princi- 
 pally to technology and statistics, and published numerous 
 works upon subjects connected with these sciences. His best 
 writings are his earlier ones — " On the Luminosity of the Sea," 
 Gottingen, 1802; " Physical Anthropologj-," Halle, 1804; and 
 " Introduction to Physics and Mineralogy," Halle, 1807. Of 
 his later writings the principal are — "On the theoiy of the 
 steam-engine," 1824 ; " Considerations on the Cotton Manu- 
 facture," 1825 ; " On Jlechanical cotton-spinning," 1829 ; 
 " Manuals of Technolog)-," 1833-34, and 2nd edition, 1840 ; 
 " Of the steam-engine," 1833 ; " Of industrial Physics, Me- 
 chanics, and Hydi-aulics," 1834-35 ; a Gennan edition of Barnes' 
 History of the British cotton manufacture, 1836 ; and a 
 " ilanual of the statistics of Population," 1840-41.— W. S. D. 
 
 BERNOULLI, James, the head of a respectable family of 
 Antwerp, who, having been driven into exUe during the tyranny 
 of the duke of Alva in the Netherlands, migi'ated with his eight 
 children to Frankfort in 1583. A grandson of James Bernoulli 
 migrated to Bale, and there became the progenitor of a race of 
 philosophers, who for three generations, extending from the latter 
 part of the seventeenth to the beginning of the nineteenth 
 century, made themselves illustrious by their labours for the 
 advancement of mathematical, mechanical, and physical science. 
 In the ensuing articles, fourteen members of that family will 
 be spoken of, viz. :— 1, Nicholas; 2, 3, 4, 5, his sons Nicho- 
 las, James, John, and a fourth son whose name has not been 
 ascertained ; 6, Nicholas, son of the second Nicholas ; 7, 8, a 
 son and daughter of James ; 9, 10, 11, Nicholas, Daniel, and 
 John, sons of John ; 12, 13, John and James, sons of the 
 second John ; 14, Jerome, probably a descendant of the fourth 
 son of the first Nicholas. The most distinguished of the 
 family were James and John, sons of the first Nicholas, and 
 Daniel, who are ranked among the first mathematicians and 
 physicists of the world. A reputation of a sunilar kind, though 
 of a less high order, was attained by the third and fourth 
 Nicholas, the second John, and his sons John and James. 
 Jerome was noted as a mineralogist. — ( Vita Jacobi Bernoullii, 
 a J. J. Battierio.) 
 
 Bernoulli, Nicholas, was bom at Bale about the year 
 1625. He was much respected by his fellow-citizens, and rose 
 to the position of assessor of their principal com-t of justice. 
 He married JIargaret Schonauer, by whom he had four sons, 
 Nicholas, James, John, and a fourth whose name is unknown. 
 He lived upwards of eighty years, and sm-\'ived his most dis- 
 tinguished son, James. — (^Vita J. Bern., a Batt.) 
 
 Bernoulli, Nicholas, son of the foregoing, was president 
 of the senate of Bale, and father to the third Nicholas Ber- 
 noulli. — ( Vita J. Bern., a Batt.) 
 
 Bernoulli, James, the earliest mathematician and philo- 
 sopher of the family, son of Nicholas Bernoulli and JIargaret 
 Schonauer his wife, was bom at Bale on the 27th Decem- 
 ber, 1654, and educated first at the school, and aftenvards at 
 the university of that city, where he had the benefit of the 
 instraction of an eminent scholar, John James Hoffinann. In 
 1671 he took the degree of master of arts, and in 1676 became 
 a licentiate of divinity. Against the wish of his father, who 
 intended him for the clerical profession, he devoted himself at an 
 early age to the study of mathematics and astronomy. Amongst 
 the fmits of those studies was an essay on comets, " Cona- 
 men novi Systematis Cometarum," in wliich he maintained the 
 doctrine afterwards demonstrated by Newton and Halley, that 
 those bodies are not meteoi-s, but stars baring regular orbits and 
 periods of revolution. He was in consequence taxed wth im- 
 piety, on the gi'ound of the inconsistency of his opinions with 
 the then general belief, that comets were special warnings of the 
 divine wrath. Bernoulli denied that inconsistency, on the 
 ground that the tails of comets, whose presence or absence is 
 independent of their orbits and periods, might be received as 
 warnings of the kind supposed, notwithstanding the regularity 
 of the motions of the nuclei ; and this explanation appears to 
 have satisfied the objectors. According to the custom of gentle-
 
 men and scholars of the period, he passed some years in travelling 
 through various parts of Europe, ha^'ing in the course of the six 
 years from 1676 to 1682 visited in succession Geneva, France, 
 England, Germany, and Holland, and become acquainted with 
 many of the learned and scientific men of those regions ; 
 amongst others with Stillingfleet, Boyle, Hooke, Voss, and 
 Baxter. At Geneva he successfully put in practice, for the 
 instruction of a young lady (Elizabeth von WakUcirch), a method 
 which he had invented of teaching the blind by the sense of 
 touch. In France he acted for about a year as chaplain and 
 tutor in the family of the marquis de I'Estrange. On his return 
 to Basle in 1682, he opened a college for instraction in experi- 
 mental physics and mechanics. In 1684 he married Judith 
 Stupan, a lady belonging to an eminent medical fimiily of Bale, 
 by whom he left a son and a daughter. The son became an 
 artist in painting ; but little is known of his career. The 
 daughter mamed Nicholas Rydimer, a merchant. In 1687 
 James Bernoulli was appointed professor of mathematics in 
 the university of Bale, in which office he continued till his 
 death. After his marriage he devoted himself more assidu- 
 ously than ever to the study of mathematics, and especially of 
 the differential and integral calculus as set forth in the then 
 recent publications of Leibnitz, its inventor, contemporaneously 
 with Newton. That instrument of mathematical research 
 Bernoulli enlarged and improved in many respects. He was 
 the first to solve what is called a differential equation. He 
 applied the calcidus to the solution of many important problems, 
 amongst which may be mentioned the following ; — 1, the curve 
 of isochronous oscillation, that is, the cycloid, m which a pen- 
 dulum savings in equal times, how great or how small soever 
 may be the arc ; 2, the catenary, or curve in which a chain of 
 uniform cross section hangs, being also the curve of equilibrium 
 of an arc of imiform cross section loaded with its weight only, 
 nnd the key to the knowledge of a class of curves of equihbrium ; 
 
 3, the elastic curve, formed by a bent spring or bow of uniform 
 section, and identical with the curve of a sheet containing water ; 
 
 4, many important properties of the logarithmic spii'al, being 
 that whose inchnation to its radius-vector is uniform, and the 
 loxodromic spiral, being the cm've formed on the surface of a 
 sphere by a line whose inclination to each meridian which it 
 crosses is uniform ; 5, the great Isoperimetkical Pkoblem, 
 in which it is proposed amongst all the curves of a given length 
 which can be drawn between two fixed points, to find that 
 which shall have a given function of its figure a maximum or a 
 minimum. This last problem may be regarded as being next 
 to the discovery of the difterential and integral calculus, the 
 most important contribution to pure mathematics made at the 
 period when Bernoulli flomished, for it led in after times to 
 the invention of the calculus of variations. A posthumously 
 published work of Bernoulli, entitled, " De Arte Conjectandi " 
 (On the Art of Conjectm-e), is believed to be the first treatise 
 in which the science of probabilities was applied to beneficial 
 purposes. In 1699 he received along with his brother Jolm the 
 honour of being elected Foreign Associate of the Institute of 
 France, an order then newly established, which is limited to 
 eight members, and which, from the fewness and the eminence 
 of those who have filled it, continues to be regarded as the 
 highest mark of distinction attainable by a man of science. 
 In 1700 he held the office of Lord Rector of the university of 
 Bale. James Bernoulli died on the 17th of August, 1705, at 
 the early age of fifty-one. He is said to have been an accom- 
 plished orator and a pleasing poet, as well as a profound mathe- 
 matician, and of an amiable and just character, as indeed his 
 writings evince, especially those relative to a dispute with his 
 brother John. His works are thus entitled — " Jacobi Bernoullii 
 BasiUensis Opera," Geneva, 1744, 2 vols., 4to ; " De Arte Con- 
 jectandi," Bale, 1713, to which is appended an essay " De 
 Seriebus Infinitis;" Detached Papers in the Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Sciences from 1702 to 1705, the Journal des Savans 
 and the Acta Eruditorum. His life, by Doctor John James 
 Battier, professor of rhetoric in the university of Bale, is pre- 
 fixed to his works, and is the authority chiefly relied on in the 
 present article. 
 
 Bernoulli, John, brother of the preceding, was born at 
 Bale on the 7th of August, 1667. Having studied humane 
 letters in his native city, he went to Neufcliatel to learn the 
 French language, and the business of a merchant ; but prefer- 
 ring science to commerce, he returned to Bale, where he entered 
 
 the university, studied mathematics under his brother, and took 
 the degi-ee of bachelor of arts in 1684, aiid that of master of 
 arts in 1685. Chemistry, physiology, and medicine, as well as 
 mathematics and physics, engaged his attention. In 1690, or 
 soon afterwards, he set out to travel, and visited Geneva and 
 Paris, becoming personally acquainted with Malebranche, Cas- 
 sini, De la Hire, Varignon, the marquis de I'Hopital, and other 
 distinguished men of the time. His labours for the advance- 
 ment of mathematics, especially the difterential and integral 
 calculus, and of analytical mechanics, were incessant, and most 
 important in their results. Amongst those results may be men- 
 tioned the discovery of the exponential calculus, of the method of 
 integi-ating rational fractions, of the universality of the principle 
 of vii'tual velocities, and of the property which a cycloid posses- 
 ses of being the hue of quickest descent between two points. He 
 engaged with great ardour in the practice then common amongst 
 mathematicians, of proposing to each other problems for solu- 
 tion, and was sometimes thereby involved in controversies, which 
 he conducted with vigour. Amongst others he assailed his elder 
 brother with a succession of problems, which James solved with 
 much industry and patience ; at length James turned the tables 
 upon John, by proposing to him a problem that baffled his skill, 
 — that of isoperimetric tigm-es, already mentioned. John, having 
 offered a solution which James showed to be erroneous, persisted 
 in maintaining its accuracy, and conceived a lasting resentment 
 against his brother. Having completed his medical studies at Bale, 
 he obtained in 1794 the degree of doctor of medicine, and read 
 an inaugural thesis "on Muscular Motion," in which sound views 
 of the mechanical action of the muscles are mingled with doubt- 
 ful physiological hypotheses. He married a young lady of Bale, 
 and was soon afterwards, in 1695, appointed professor of mathe- 
 matics at Groningen. In 1094 commenced that celebrated cor- 
 respondence between Leibnitz and John Bernoulli, which con- 
 tinued until 1716, and was afterwards collected and published 
 by Mark Michael Bousquet & Company, in two quarto volumes, 
 under the title of " Gotofridi Gulielmi Leibnitii et Johannis 
 Bernoullii Commercium Philosophicum et Mathematicum." In 
 this collection of letters, unparalleled of its kind, there are dis- 
 cussed with consummate ability nearly all the mathematical and 
 philosophical questions which arose during that period; in which 
 the knowledge of the first principles of mechanics and mathe- 
 matics made more rapid progress than it has ever done before or 
 since. The letters of Bernoulli and Leibnitz have reference 
 chiefly to the difterential calculus, with its geometrical and 
 mechanical applications ; and occasionally to controversies such 
 as that respecting the mode of stating the force (so called) of 
 bodies in motion, and that which arose between the injudicious 
 admirers of Newton and Leibnitz respecting the priority of 
 invention of the method of fluxions or difterential calculus, and 
 the comparative merits of the two forms in which those two 
 philosophers respectively set forth that branch of mathematics. 
 In later times, mathematicians have recognized Newton and 
 Leibnitz as independent discoverers, and have assigned to the 
 special methods of each their peculiar merits, adopting Newton's 
 demonstration of tlie fundamental principle of the calculus as 
 the more philosophical, and Leibnitz's notation and forms of 
 expression as the more convenient of application, and fertile in 
 results. Bernoulli's letters betray in many cases a perver- 
 sity of temper which constituted a serious blemish in his char- 
 acter, and led him to entertain an unworthy jealousy of the 
 eminence, not only of his brother and instructor James, but even 
 of his son Daniel. Such feelings, how high soever the intellec- 
 tual powers with which they are combined, are the certain mark 
 of a mind of the second order, and they seldom fail more or less 
 to obscure the understanding itself, and to a certain extent to 
 disqualify it for the discovery of ti-utli. In the case of John 
 Bernoulli there can be little doubt, that an obstinate and jealous 
 temper led him to reject, to the end of his life, Newton's dis- 
 covery of the law of gravitation, and to maintain the Carte- 
 sian hypothesis of celestial vortices. He continued from time to 
 time to pursue his physiological studies. In an essay on nutri- 
 tion, published at Groningen in 1669, he pointed out that the 
 continual waste and rejiair of the particles of the human body 
 must lead to an entire renewal of its substance in a period of a 
 few years. This opinion was assailed as heretical, on the ground 
 of its alleged inconsistency with the doctrine of the resurrection. 
 Bernoulli refuted that objection in a paper which he afterwards 
 refused to publish. In 1699 he was lord-rector of the university
 
 BEZ 
 
 542 
 
 BER 
 
 of Groningen. In 1705, on the death of James Bernoulli, John 
 was appointed his successor in the chair of mathematics in the 
 university of Bale, ^yhich oiSce he held till his death, at the age 
 of eighty, on the 1st of January, 1748. For forty-nine 3-ears 
 he was a foreign associate of the French Academy of Sciences, 
 which hody conferred prizes on several of his memoirs. He was 
 a fellow of the Royal Society of London, of the Academies of 
 St. Petersbiu-g and BerUn, and of other learned bodies. His 
 works were collected and edited, under his own supervision, 
 by Cramer, professor of mathematics at Geneva, and published 
 in four volumes quarto. The best authorities on the events of 
 his life are his befoiementioned coirespondence with Leibnitz, 
 his ^uge by d'Alembcrt, and a notice of his life and discoveries 
 by Lacroix. 
 
 Bernoulli, , fourth son of the first-mentioned Nicholas, 
 
 was an eminent physician at Biile. 
 
 Bernoulli, Nicholas, son of the second-mentioned Nicho- 
 las, and nephew of James and John, was bom at Bale on the 
 10th of October, 1687. His mathematical attainments and 
 labours, at an early age, are mentioned with much praise by 
 Leibnitz, in his correspondence ■with John Bernoulli. From 
 1710 to 1713 he travelled in France, Holland, and England, 
 and was treated with much kindness and distinction by men of 
 science, especially by Newton, who proposed and obtained his 
 election into the Royal Society of London. Soon aftem'ards he 
 was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. Chiefly 
 through the friendly exertions of Leibnitz, continued for several 
 years, he obtained in 1716 the professorship of mathematics in 
 the university of Padua, which he afterwards resigned for that 
 of logic in the university of Bale. In the latter miiversity he 
 held latterly the chair of law. He died at Basle on the 29th of 
 November, 1759. He edited the posthumous work of his uncle 
 James, De Ai-te Conjectandi, already mentioned. His origi- 
 nal writings consist of an essay " On the Application of the 
 Science of Probabihties to Legal Questions" (De Usu Artis 
 Conjectandi in Jure), and of a great number of separate mathe- 
 matical papers, published in Transactions and periodicals, espe- 
 cially the Acta Eruditorum, and the Glornale del Letterati 
 d'Jtalia. Slany of his solutions of mathematical problems are 
 mentioned in the coiTCspondence of Leibnitz and John Bernoulli ; 
 and Lacroix considers that one of those solutions contained the 
 germ of the theory of the conditions of integi-ahility of differen- 
 tial equations. 
 
 Bernoulli, Nicholas, eldest and favourite son of John 
 Bernoulh, was born at Bale on the 27th of January, 1695. He 
 is said, at the age of eight, to have spoken four languages cor- 
 rectly — Gennan, Dutch, French, and Latin ; and at sixteen to 
 have obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy of the univer- 
 sity of Bale. From that time he began to assist his father in 
 his correspondence with foreign mathematicians. He studied 
 jurisprudence, and in 1715 took the degree of doctor of laws. 
 He then spent about three years in travelhng in France and 
 Italy. About 1722 he was elected professor of jm-ispi-udence at 
 Berne. In 1725 he was appointed, along with his brother 
 Daniel, professor of mathematics at St. Petersburg, where he 
 died of fever in his thirty-second year, on the 26th of July, 
 1726. The Empress Catherine gave his remains the honour of 
 a public funeral. His writings are to be found in the Acta 
 Erudiiorum, in the Transactions of the Academy of St. Peters- 
 burg, vol. i., and amongst the works of his father, John Ber- 
 noulli. A memoir of his life appeared in the second volume of 
 the Transactions of the Academy of St. Petersburg. 
 
 Bernoulli, Daniel, the second son of John Bernoulli, and 
 the most distinguished member of the family, was born at Gro- 
 ningen on the 9th of February, 1700, and educated at Bale. 
 His fother intended him to become a merchant ; but his own 
 preference led him to the study of medicine and of mathematics, 
 in which latter branch of science he was instructed by his elder 
 brother Nicholas. Having in 1721 taken the degree of doctor 
 of medicine (on which occasion he read a thesis on respiration), 
 he travelled to Italy to increase his knowledge of that art. He 
 studied under !Michelotti and Jlorgagni. Having meanwhile dis- 
 tinguished himself by some mathematical investigations (pub- 
 lished in 1724 at Venice), he received an in\-itation, which he 
 declined, to become president of a scientific academy at Genoa ; 
 and his reputation, as well as that of his brother Nicholas, hav- 
 ing reached Peter the Great, tliat sovereign appointed them, in 
 1725, joint- professors of mathematics at St. Petersburg. Here 
 
 Daniel composed his celebrated treatise on hydrodynamics, in 
 which the principle of conservation of the vis-viva (or energy) is 
 applied to the phenomena of the motion of fluids, and which was 
 published at Strasbourg in 1738. In this work it was first 
 proposed to propel ships by the reaction of a stream of water 
 thrown backwards ; an invention which dift'ers in detail only from 
 the paddle and the screw. On the death, in 1726, of his brother, 
 instnictor, and colleague, Nicholas, to whom he was warmly 
 attached, Daniel Bernoulli wished at first to return to the comitry 
 of his forefathers, but was induced by the kind and generous 
 conduct of the Empress Catherine to remain at St. Petersburg. 
 At length, however, finding the chmate of Russia too severe for 
 his health, he resigned his chair in 1733, and returned to Bale, 
 where he obtained at first the appointment of professor of ana- 
 tomy and botany, and afterwards that of professor of physics 
 and speculative philosophy. Continuing his labours for the 
 advancement of science, he endeavoured to find more satisfactory 
 demonstrations for the first principles of mechanics, especially of 
 the law of the composition of forces, than had previously been 
 known. In applying himself to the solution of special problems, 
 he chose, by preference, those which were capable of useful 
 apjjlication ; and, in the opinion of Lacroix, his mathematical 
 methods were characterized by a similar love of utility ; for instead 
 of investigating, as others had done, mechanical questions merely 
 as means of exercising mathematical knowledge, he carefully 
 Hmited the intricacy of his mathematical processes to that which 
 was necessary for the solution of the problem, and showed 
 remarkable skill in adopting such approximations as simplify 
 calculation without sensibly affecting the accuracy of the result. 
 He applied the theory of probabilities to questions of vital and 
 social statistics. No fewer than ten of his memoirs were cro'mied 
 by the French Academy of Sciences, of which he was a foreign 
 associate. In some of these cases he shared the prizes with 
 other competitors ; his father amongst the number. The morti- 
 fication of John Bernoulli on such occasions as this has been 
 already referred to ; it was possibly to a certain extent caused 
 by the fact, that the son had adopted the doctrines of Newton 
 as to the cause of the planetary motions, while the father adhered 
 to those of Descartes. One of the most celebrated of Daniel 
 Bernoulli's memoirs is that in which he wrote in French on the 
 tides, " Sur le Flux et Reflux de la Mer," and which shared the 
 prize offered by the Academy of Sciences for essays on that sub- 
 ject with three others, composed respectively by Euler, Mac- 
 lamin, and the Jesuit, Father Cavallieri. The essay of CavaUieri 
 was founded on the then expiring Cartesian hypothesis of vor- 
 tices ; those of Bernoulli, Euler, and Maclaurin, on the law of 
 gi'a\'itation. (The last three are reprinted in the second voluuie 
 of the Glasgow edition of Newton's Principia.) The memoir of 
 BemouUi, though not so profound or general in its mathematical 
 reasoning as the other two, is considerably more clear and simple. 
 The whole three memou-s, however, have the radical defect, 
 first made e\-ident by Laplace's more sound investigations, and 
 afterwards clearly set forth in Mr. Airy's treatise on Tides and 
 Waves, that they ti'eat the rotation of the earth as having a 
 merely secondaiy influence on the motions of the tides, capable 
 of being allowed for by approximation, after the completion of 
 the investigation of the effect of the attractions of the sun and 
 moon ; whereas the influence of that rotation is of primaiy im- 
 portance, and the true effects of the attraction of the sun and moon 
 cannot be detemiined except by taking the earth's rotation into 
 account at the same time. Besides the Academy of Sciences, 
 Daniel Bernoulli was a fellow of the Academies of St. Petersburg 
 and Berlin, and of the Royal Society of London. He continued 
 to perform his academical duties at Bale with unabated vigour 
 until he attained his seventy-seventh year, when increasing infir- 
 mity obliged him to have recourse to the assistance of his nephew 
 James, son of his younger brother John. Owing, it is said, to 
 an early disappointment in love, he never married ; but in his 
 old age, the want of the affection of a wife and childi-en was 
 supplied (as far as it is possible to supply that want) by the 
 almost filial veneration with which the simple and benevolent 
 character of a man so famous, inspired his fellow-townsmen 
 and all who knew him. Out of his moderate emolunients he 
 found means to practise much hospitality and more beneficence, 
 and to bequeath an endowment for poor students. He died 
 soon after the commencement of his eighty-third year, on the 
 17th March, 1782. His separate treatises have already been 
 mentioned ; his papers on various subjects may be found in the
 
 Acta rdropolitana, the Transactions of the Royal Academy of 
 Berlin, the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, and other 
 Transactions and periodicals. Some of them have been reprinted 
 in a separate fonn. His Eloge for the Academy of Sciences 
 was written by Condorcet, and a notice of his life by Lacroix. 
 
 Bernoulli, John, third and youngest son of John Bernoulli, 
 was bom at Bale on the 18th of May, 1710. Having studied 
 law and mathematics, and travelled for a short time in France, 
 he was appointed professor of rhetoric at Bale in 1743. In 
 1748 he succeeded his father as professor of mathematics, and 
 held that chair until his death, in his eighty-first year, on the 
 17th of July, 1790. He was a foreign associate of the French 
 Academy of Sciences ; and it has been remarked, that from the 
 election of his father and uncle into that body in 1699 to his 
 own death, the name of Bernoulli continued in the list of their 
 members for ninety-one years. He was a member also of the 
 Academy of Berlin. Three of his memoirs were crowned by the 
 French Academy of Sciences. He left two sons, John and 
 James. 
 
 Bernoulli, John, elder son of the foregoing, was born at 
 Bale on the 4th of December (or, according to some authorities, 
 the 4 th of November), 1744. Having studied at Bale and at 
 Neufchatel, he obtained, in 1757, at the age of thirteen, from the 
 university of Bale, the degree of doctor of philosophy, reading an 
 inaugural thesis " On the Histoiy of Inoculation with the Small- 
 pox" (De Historia Variolarum Insitionis), which subject he 
 illustrated by his own case. In 17G3, at the age of nineteen, 
 he was appointed astronomer-royal at Berlin. Having obtained 
 permission to travel, he made a series of journeys through most 
 of the principal countries of Europe, which he described in very 
 voluminous works. From 1779 till his death, which occurred 
 in his sixty-third year, on the 10th of July, 1807, he resided at 
 Berlin, in the capacity of director of the mathematical depart- 
 ment of the academy. He was a member of the Academies of 
 St. Petersburg and Stockholm, and of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don. His writings abound in the Memoirs of the Academy of 
 Berlin, and in mathematical and astronomical periodicals. His 
 travels in Germany, Switzerland, France, Italy, Prussia, Russia, 
 and Poland, were published independently. 
 
 Bernoulli, James, brother of the preceding, second son of 
 the second, and grandson of the first John Bernoulli, was born 
 at Bale on the 17th October, 1759. He was educated there 
 and at Neufchatel, and at the university of Bale he took the 
 degree of bachelor of laws, reading a thesis, " De Sublimi." He 
 acted, as has been already stated, as the substitute of his uncle 
 Daniel in the chair of physics for a few years previously to the 
 death of the latter, and was one of the candidates for the vacant 
 professorship ; but the lot (by which such appointments were 
 decided) proving unfavourable, he travelled for a time in Ger- 
 many and Italy as secretary to the count de Brenner. In 1788 
 he obtained the appointment of professor of mathematics at St. 
 Petersburg, where, in 1789, he married the daughter of Albert 
 Euler, son of the celebrated Leonard Euler. A few months after- 
 wards, on July 30, 1789, in his thirtieth year, he died suddenly 
 while swimming in the Neva. He was a member of the Im- 
 perial Academy of St. Petersburg, of the Physical Society of 
 Bale, and of the Royal Society of Turin. His writings may be 
 found in the Nova Acta Petropolifcma, the Acta Helvetica, and 
 the Memoirs of the Academies of Berlin and Turin. — W. J. M R. 
 
 BERNOULLI, Jerome, son of an eminent pharmacopolist 
 of Bale, was born in 1745. Having studied with credit at the 
 gymnasium and the university of Bale, he became his father's 
 partner. His leisure was employed in the study of natural his- 
 tory, and especially of mineralogy. He was at one time elected 
 president of the council of Bale. He died in 1829, at the age 
 of eighty-four, bequeathing a very valuable and extensive collec- 
 tion of minerals to the museum of his native city. — (Weiss, in 
 Blou. Umv.)—W. J. M. R. 
 
 * BERNSTEIN, Geoiig Heinrich, a German orientalist, 
 was bom at Kospoda near Jena, r2th Januaiy, 1787. After 
 having completed his studies at the university of Jena, he began 
 lecturing ; was appointed professor-extraordinary of oriental 
 languages at Berlin; joined the Prussian army in 1813-14; and 
 afterwards received a chair at Breslau. He has published several 
 works and dissertations on the Sanscrit, Arabic, and Syriac lan- 
 guages — " Szafi-Eddin," Leipzig, 181G; " De initiis et origini- 
 bus Religionum in Oriente Dispcrsarum," &c. — K. E. 
 
 BERNSTEIN, Johann Gottlod, a German surgeon, and 
 
 writer on surgery, born at Berlin in 1748, was first surgeon at 
 Ilmenau; then, in 179G, assistant at the hospital at Jena; and 
 went in 1806 with Loder to Halle, as an assistant in the 
 clinical institute. On his return to Berhn m 1810, he became 
 a member of the medical college, and professor of medicine ; but 
 in 1821 went to live with his son at Neuwied, and died in 
 1835. His principal writings are his "New Surgical Lexicon," 
 published at Leipzig in 1783 and 1786, and at Gotha in 1787; 
 "Practical Manual for Surgeons," 3 vols., at Leipzig in 1790, 
 with additions in 1792, of which the 5th edition, in fom- volumes, 
 appeared at the same place in 1818-20. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERNSTORFF, Andr. Peter, count von, cousin of J. H. 
 Ernst, and who was in many respects still more serviceable 
 to Denmark, was born 28th August, 1735, at Gartow, in the 
 duchy of Brunswick Liineberg, where his father, who was Hano- 
 verian provincial councillor, possessed an estate. Having com- 
 pleted his university education at Leipzig and Gottingen, and 
 made an extensive toiu* through Switzerland, France, and Italy, 
 he entei-ed the service of the Danish government as chamberlain. 
 In 1767 he was, together with his cousin, elevated to the rank of 
 count, and in 1769 elected privy councillor, andalso, on Struensee's 
 entrance into the ministry, received his dismissal. On Struensee's 
 disgrace he was likewise recalled, and shortly afterwards became 
 minister of state. He it was, in 1773, who brought about the 
 exchange of the Guttorp portion of Holstein for Oldenbui-g and 
 Delmenhorst, and also the renewal of the friendly relationship 
 between England and Denmark, besides, in October, 1778, making 
 the first proposal to Sweden of an armed neutrality. When, how- 
 ever, in 1780, he could not bring his views into accordance with 
 those of the dowager Queen Juliana and the minister Guld- 
 berg, he resigned his office only to be replaced in his fonner 
 position four years afterwards. He supported the introduction 
 of a new system of finance, and made preparations for the abo- 
 lition of vassalage in Schleswig and Holstein which took place 
 after his death. He was also a stedfiist supporter of civil liberty, 
 and expressed himself unreservedy against every infringement ot 
 the liberty of the press. On this subject he said, " The liberty 
 of the press is a great good ; the advantages resulting from it far 
 outweigh any disadvantages of its abuse. It is the inalienable 
 right of every civilized nation, and a government which limits 
 its freedom depreciates itself." Hence the press during his 
 influence in the government was perfectly free, and Denmark 
 became at the same time an asylum for freedom of thought 
 throughout Germany. Always a zealous supporter of the internal 
 advantages of his countiy, as well in her military operations, her 
 manufactures, her shipbuilding, or agriculture, his death, which 
 took place 21st June, 1797, caused a universal soitow. Fre- 
 derick VI., then crown prince, visited him on his deathbed daily 
 during his illness, aud formed one of the procession, with his 
 sons, at his interment. — M. H. 
 
 BERNSTORFF, Christian Gunther, count von, son of 
 the preceding, privy councillor, minister of state, and minister of 
 foreign affairs, was born 3rd April, 1769, at Copenhagen, and 
 received a very careful education under the paternal roof. On 
 the completion of his studies, he was sent to Berlin as Danish 
 plenipotentiary ; later he went in the same capacity to Stock- 
 holm. After the death of his father in 1797, he was appointed 
 minister of foreign affairs, in which capacity he did not, however, 
 maintain the reputation of his father. It was in consequence of 
 his obstinacy in arming the neutral merchant-ships of Denmark 
 that his country was placed in the most painful position with 
 respect to England. In 1810, having resigned his office of 
 prime minister, he was sent as ambassador to the court of Vienna, 
 where, in 1814, he was present at the congress as Danish pleni- 
 potentiary. After this he went to Berlin in the same cajiacity, 
 whilst his brother succeeded him in Vienna. In 1818 he entered 
 the Prussian ministry as head of the department for foreign 
 affairs. He attended the congresses of Aix-la-ChapcUc, Karls- 
 bad, Vienna, Trappeau, Laibach, and Verona. As a member of 
 the Prussian ministry, he still more fimily attached himself to 
 the reactionary system of the German monarchs, and freely 
 declared that there should be no admission in south Germany of 
 a constitutional government. He i-etired from public life in the 
 year 1831, and died 28th March, 1835.— M. II. 
 
 BERNSTORFF, Joh. ILvrtvig Ernst, count von, a Danish 
 minister and privy councillor, " the oracle of Denmarlc," as 
 Frederick the Great called liim, was born at Hanover, 13tli May, 
 1712. He received through his cousin, Andr. Gottleb von
 
 BemstorfF, the Hanoverian minister, a very excellent education. 
 A\Tiilst still young, he entered the service of the Danish govern- 
 ment, and in ] 737 was sent as ambassador to the imperial diet 
 at Ratisbon, and in 1744 to Paris. In the year 1750 lie became 
 secretary of state, and in the following ye:ir a member of the 
 privy council. In the Seven Years' war the neutrality of Den- 
 mark was preser\'cd by his means, and it was by his intervention 
 that, iu 1761, on the death of the last duke of Holstein-Plon, 
 that country became attached to the cro'mi of Denmark. It is 
 true that the duke of Holstein-Gottoi-p, afterwards Czar Peter 
 III., made preparations to support his pretensions, not only to 
 Holstein-PliJn but to Schleswig, which, however, his death in 
 1762 prevented him from canyiiig out, whereupon his successor, 
 Catherine II., agreed to an adjustment of the dispute, and in 
 1773 Oldenburg and Delmenhorst were exchanged for Holstein. 
 Bernstoi-fT enjoyed the favour of Christian VII., as he had done 
 that of Frederick V., and by the former monarch he was elevated 
 to the rank of count in 17G7. He fell, however, into disfavour 
 with the king when Straensee acquired power, and in 1770 was 
 compelled to resign his place, on which he retii'ed to Hamburg, 
 where he resided until, on the fall of the favourite, he was recalled 
 with lionour. lie did not, however, reach his native land, for, in 
 the very act to retiun, he was seized with mortal sickness, and 
 died 19th Februar}', 1772. BemstorfF laboured for the well- 
 being and happiness of his country in every possible way. Trade 
 and manufactures of all kinds acquired under him new life. 
 Until his time the Danish flag was hardly known in the Medi- 
 terranean sea, whilst at the time of Frederick V.'s reign no less 
 than two hundi-ed Danish ships traded on this sea. He was also 
 a patron of art and science. He established a considerable fund 
 for the Society of the Fine Arts, and was the founder of the 
 society for the improvement of country houses, and whilst he 
 supported and sent into the East a number of learned men, the 
 result of whose travels appear in Kiebuhr's writings, he oftered 
 inducements to the literati of Germany to become residents in 
 Denmark. Among the men thus attracted was Klopstock, who 
 was hospitably received by Bernstorff himself. He was indefa- 
 tigable for the amelioration of the condition of the poor. 
 The erection of nursing-houses in Copenhagen was in pursuance 
 of his plans ; he himself laid the foundation-stone of the general 
 liospital of the city in 1766, and the first lying-in hospital of 
 Denmark has to thank him for its establishment. He distributed 
 annually a fourth part of his income among the poor, and even 
 when obliged to leave Denmark, he settled three thousand florins 
 annually for the use of the poor of his native land. His highest 
 renown, however, is that he was the first in Denmark to remove 
 the fetters of vassalage and feudal serfdom from the peasantry, 
 in consequence of which the emancipated peasants on his own 
 estates in Denmark erected in 1783 a beautiful monument in his 
 honour. — M. H. 
 
 BERNT, Joseph, professor of medical jurisprudence and 
 police in the university of Vienna, and up to 1813 professor in 
 that of Prague, died at Vienna on the 27th April, 1842, at the 
 age of 73 years. He is principally known as a writer on sani- 
 tary questions and medical jurispiiidence. His earhest work is 
 entitled "Monngraphia Chorea; Sancti Viti," Prague, 1810. In 
 1813 he pubhshed at Vienna his " Systematic Manual of Medical 
 •lurisprudence," of which the fourth edition was pubhshed in 
 1834; in 1816 a "Systematic Manual of State Jledicine," in 
 two volumes; in 1818 a "Systematic Manual of Public Health;" 
 and in 1818-23, six volumes of "Contributions to INIcdical 
 Jurisprudence." Besides these, he published numerous smaller 
 works on the same and nearly allied subjects. — \V. S. D. 
 
 BERNULF or BEORNWULPH, king of Mercia. He usivc^ei 
 the throne on the death of Ceowulf in 823, and held the sove- 
 reignty for a year, iu the course of which he was assailed by 
 Egbert of Wcssex, and at last slain by the East Anglians, in 
 their attempt to throw off the yoke of Mercia. 
 
 BERNAVARI), Saint, bishop of Hildcsheim, bom in Lower 
 Saxony about the year 950, was a nephew, by the mother's side, 
 of Adalberon, count palatine. His education was intnisted to 
 one of his relatives, Tangmar, canon of Hildesbeim, who in- 
 structed his pupil not only in classical and scriptural lore, but 
 also in painting, sculpture, architecture, and various other arts. 
 He was appointed tutor to Otho III. by the empress-mother, 
 Thcophania, from the time of whose death he exercised almost 
 unlimited authority in the state. In 993 he was consecrated 
 to the see of Hildcsheim, the church of which he proceeded to 
 
 decorate in the most costly manner, superintending all the details 
 of painting, gilding, &c., with a skiU acquu'ed in the practice of 
 these arts. He died in 1023. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEROALDE de Verville, Frax(;ois, a philosopher and 
 mathematician, born at Paris, 1558 ; died about 1612. His 
 studies ranged over the principal departments of human know- 
 ledge — poetry, gi-ammar, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, 
 chemistry, alchemy, and architecture — all of whidi studies he 
 cultivated, if not with equal success, at least -with equal ardour. 
 He wrote a great number of works, but that by which he is best 
 known is " Moyen de parvenir," a book frequently reprinted, but 
 full of levity and hcentiousness. — J. G. 
 
 BEROALDO, Filipo, born at Bologna in 1453. He is 
 considered one of the greatest literary characters of his age. 
 Being of a noble and opulent family, no expense was spared to 
 procure him the best education, and the celebrated Mariano and 
 Puteolano were his teachers. Feehng a great inclination to 
 educate youth, he taught in Bologna, Parma, and Milan, and 
 finally, anxious to visit the then famous university of Paris, he 
 repau-ed thither, and delivered lectures on literature to a great 
 concourse of pupils. Shortly after he was recalled to Bologna, 
 by a public decree, which conferred on him the professorship of 
 belles-lettres in that university, where his fame as a scholar 
 attracted a great number of students. He was also honoured 
 with the highest dignities, and was ambassador to Alexander III., 
 secretary to the republic of Bologna, orator, &c. He wrote many 
 commentaries, orations, dissertations, elegies, and odes in classic 
 Latin, forming forty opuscles. He died in 1505. — A. C. M. 
 
 BEROALDO, Philippe, a Latin poet, bom at Bologna, 
 1472; died 1518. He was professor of belles-lettres at Rome, 
 and aftei-wards librarian at the Vatican. He left three books of 
 odes, and some epigrams. 
 
 BEROLDINGEN, Fkakz Coi.estin vox, bora at St. Gallea 
 on the 8th October, 1740, a member of an old Swiss family, was 
 canon at Hildcsheim and Osnaburg, and afterwards at Walter- 
 shausen, where he died on the 8th March, 1798. He was well 
 known to his contemporaries as a good mineralogist. Besides 
 several memoirs in Crell's Annalen, Beroldingen published some 
 independent works, in all of which he exhibits a tendency to 
 hypotheses and bold assumptions, although these generally dis- 
 play great ingenuity. His earliest work is entitled " Obser- 
 vations, Questions, and Doubts relating to Mineralogy," in '2 
 volumes, published at Hanover in 1778 (2nd edition in 1792- 
 94) ; in 1783, he brought out at Hildcsheim, a " Description of 
 the mineral springs at Driburg;" in 1788, "Observations upon 
 a Joiuncy through the quicl^silver mines of the Pflalz and 
 Zweibriick," published at Berlin; and in 1791, a treatise ou 
 " Ancient and modern Volcanoes." In all his works he warmly 
 supports the views of the vulcanists. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEROXICUS, an extraordinary poet of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury ; his origin and even his countiy is unknown. He published 
 in 1672, in heroic Latin verse, an account of the battle between 
 the peasants and magistrates at the taking of Middleburg, under 
 the title of " Georgarchontomachia." This work was reprinted 
 in 1716, and also translated into Dutch prose. Besides the 
 above-mentioned poem, the volume contains eight odes and a 
 satire ; two congratulatoiy odes on the arrival of the prince of 
 Orange in Vlissingen in 1668 ; another ode on the death of 
 J. Michielx, M.D., 1671 ; another on the polyglott bible; an epi- 
 thalamium on the nuptials of Professor J. de Raay ; a compli- 
 mentary ode to William III., prince of Nassau ; an ode on the 
 election of a burgomaster; and a satire upon one of the philo- 
 sophers of his day. Besides this volimie, no other works of 
 Beronicus are known to be extant. It appears that he never 
 committed his verses to writing, but recited them extempore, and 
 with such rapidity that the quickest writers could scarcely keep 
 pace with him. He is said to have been able to translate the 
 weekly journals or gazettes into Greek or Latin verse, and to 
 have added 800 words to the dictionary of Calepini. He knew 
 all the classical writers of antiquity by heart, including Cicero 
 and the elder and yoimger Pliny. He wandered about England, 
 France, the Netherlands, and other countries, frequenting fairs 
 and acting as a mountebank, and carrying his whole property 
 with him. He wovdd never tell the secret of his birth. He died 
 in a state of intoxication about the year 1676. He is slightly 
 mentioned in Le Nouveau Dictionnaire Historique, but entirely 
 omitted by Bayle. Moreri also has slightly noticed him. — E. W. 
 
 BEROSUS^ a famous Babylonian astrologer and historian,
 
 BER 
 
 545 
 
 BER 
 
 who Tvas a priest in the temple of Behis, and lived in the davs 
 of Alexander the Great. AVhen the Jlacedonian conqueror be- 
 came master of Babylon, Berosus ha%"ing learned Greek from his 
 f Jlowers, seems to have gone to Cos in the yEgean, where he 
 opened a school for astronomy and astrology. He aftens-ards 
 removed to Athens, where his soothsaying was so famous, that a 
 statue with a golden tongue was erected in honour of him. But 
 it is as the author of a history of the Chaldean kings that he 
 has been remembered. It was written in three books, we are 
 informed by Tatian, but unfortunately none of it is preserved, 
 s.ive some extracts in the works of Josephus and Eusebius. 
 These have, however, been found invaluable in tracing the series 
 of Babylonian kings. — J. B. 
 
 BERQUIN, Arxaud, a French writer — known by the honour- 
 able title of " L'Ami des Enfants" — was bom at Bordeaux in 
 1749. At the age of twenty-five he made his first appearance 
 as an author by the publication of a volume of idyls, which 
 dbplayed both elegance and feeling, and were well received. 
 His next attempt was not so successful, being a versification of 
 Rousseau's episode of Pygmalion ; but Berquin failed in trans- 
 fusing into his paraphrase the vigour and warmth of the original, 
 though his language was aided by a series of illustrations, repre- 
 senting the movements of the statue : — 
 
 " The mortal and the marble still at strife, 
 And timidly expanding into life." 
 
 The " Tableaux Anglais" — a well-chosen selection of various 
 philosophical essays from current English literature — came next, 
 followed by some well-written romances. The reputation, how- 
 ever, of Berquin, is enduringly founded on his writings for 
 children, original and translated. Of the former he published 
 six volumes in monthly parts, in 1784, entitled " I'Ami des 
 Enfants," which received the liigh praise from the Academic 
 Francaise of being the most useful publication of that year. Of 
 the latter, he rendered into his own language Sandford and 
 Merton, and other books. He was one of the editors of the 
 Moniteur, and conducted the Feuille Villageoise, in conjunction 
 with Ginguen^ and GrouviUe. He died at Paris on the 21st 
 December, 1791. Berquin was of an amiable and gentle dispo- 
 sition, not -n-ithout a vein of quiet humour. These qualities are 
 conspicuous in his writings, but the grace and sweetness of his 
 style scarcely compensate for his want of \'igour ; and it must be 
 confessed that he is often prolix. — J. F. W. 
 
 BERQUIN, Du Vai.lon N., a nephew of Arnaud Berquin, 
 was bom in St. Domingo towards the end of the last centmy. 
 The success of his uncle induced him to become an author. In 
 1803 he published a work on Louisiana and Florida, which insm-ed 
 him the indignation of the people of the latter state. He wrote, 
 too, a book on St. Domingo. In the belles-lettres he tried his 
 hand at an ode on " The Return of the Bourbons," and " Aspa- 
 tia," a tragedy in five acts, which are little read. '\Mthout 
 either the elegance or facility of his uncle, he was more feeble 
 and prolix, ftudts for which he could not, like his relative, ofier 
 the excuse that he ■^TOte for children. — J. F. W. 
 
 BERQUIN, Louis de, a gentleman of Artois in France, 
 Imraed for heresy at Paris in 1529. He was a friend of Eras- 
 mus, and corresponded with that illustrious philosopher. The 
 opinions for which he suffered were denounced as Lutheran by 
 the Sorbonne, but if they were so he was ■willing to deny their 
 "rigin. Like the German refoi-mer, however, he condemned 
 unsparingly saint-worship, and the lazy and immoral habits of 
 monks. Francis I., who was interested in his favour, saved hun 
 iiore than once from the hands of the Sorbonne, but at last 
 . rew weary of resisting his desire for martjTdom. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERR, Fkederic, a musician, was born at Manheim in 1794, 
 iiid died in 1838. His father, Jacob, taught him to play the 
 violin as soon as he could hold one. He next learned the bas- 
 soon, the instrament of his preference, and aftenvards applied 
 himself to the clarionet, on which he gained remarkable distinc- 
 tion. When he was sixteen he entered the band of a French 
 regiment, of which six months afterwards he was appointed 
 master. From this time he was always attached to the French 
 service, till he became professor of the clarionet in the consen'a- 
 toire at Paris. In 1835 he was made a member of the legion 
 of honour. He wrote above five hundred original pieces for a 
 military band, besides many effective arrangements, several solo 
 pieces for the bassoon, and still more for the clarionet, which 
 are among the most esteemed in the whole range of music for 
 this instrument. — G. A. Jf. 
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 BERRE or BERRIL, Hughes, a French satiric poet, lived 
 in the first part of the thuleenth century. He witnessed the 
 taking of Constantinople by the Latins. Author of " la Bible 
 au signor de Berre," a satu-e on the vices of the age. 
 
 BERREDO, Bernardo Pereira da. This writer was bom 
 at Villa de Sergra, towards the end of the seventeenth centuiy. 
 He embraced the military career, in which many of his ancestors 
 had distinguished themselves, and took a prominent part in many 
 engagements. His bravery at the battle of Saragossa in 1710, 
 in which he was severely womided, raised him to the dignity of 
 governor of JIaranham. He was afterwards appointed captain- 
 general of JIazagan, where he spent his many leisure hours in 
 studying and writing. He is the author of the annals of that 
 state, " Annaes historicos do estado do Maranhao," so often men- 
 tioned by Baena. He died at Lisbon in 1748. — ^A. C. M. 
 
 BERRES, Christian Joseph von, one of the greatest sur- 
 geons and anatomists of Vienna, and first professor of the faculty 
 of medicine in that city, was bom in 1797 at Goding in Moravia, 
 where his father practised as a surgeon. He was descended 
 firom a Spanish soldier named Perez, who settled himself in Ger- 
 many at the close of the Thirty Years' war. In 1817, when 
 only twenty-one, he was already professor of anatomy at the 
 high school of Lemberg, and came in 1830 in the same position 
 to the university of Vienna, where he acquired great credit and 
 fame. His greatest work, and that upon which his reputation 
 with the scientific world mamly rests, is his " Anthropotomy," a 
 treatise on the stractiu-e of the human body, of which the second 
 edition especially, pubUshed in 1835, gave him a Eiu-opean 
 reputation, as in it he enriched the science of embryology with 
 most ingenious discoveries. His favomite study was that of 
 microscopic anatomy, on which he published several important 
 and valuable papers, and a large work in folio, entitled " Ana- 
 tomy of the Microscopic Stracture of the Human Body," of which 
 twelve parts, illustrated with plates fi-om his own di-awings, 
 appeared at Vienna in the years 1836-42. It is remarkable 
 that Berres was almost entirely self-instructed, and that he never 
 took his academical degree ; his title of doctor was confeired upon 
 him as a distinction after he had attained the height of his fame. 
 It will perhaps be interesting to the numerous photogi-aphers of 
 the present day to know, that this distinguished anatomist was 
 one of the first practitioners of their art ; and that when Daguerre's 
 discoveries first astonished all Europe, Berres made numerous 
 and costly experiments with the view of bringing it to perfection. 
 Berres died at Vienna on the 24th December, 1844, at the age 
 of forty-eight.— W. S. D. 
 
 BERRETIXI. See Pietko da Cortona. 
 
 BERRETOXI, Nicolo, an Italian historical painter, bom at 
 1627, at Montefeltro. He studied under Carlo Maratti, who 
 grew jealous of him. After lea^ing Carlo, he imitated (this was 
 a weak vine that must have a prop) Guido, and died in 1682. 
 
 BERRIAT, Jacques Sant Prix, born at Grenoble, 23rd 
 September, 1769, became professor of political economy at Iscre 
 in 1796 — a science which, although it attracted the attention of 
 many very enlightened philosophers in France during the 18th 
 centuT}', never found much favour vntli any classes of the people. 
 M. Ben-iat lectured and wTote on criminal and other branches 
 of law. He died at Paris, 4th October, 1849.— J. F. C. 
 
 BERRIER, Jean-Fran^ois-Constant, a French litterateur, 
 born at Sire in Sitois, 1766; died 1824. During the Reign of 
 Terror he took refuge in the army, where he served as principal 
 agent in the commissariat department of Kellerman's army. He 
 was denounced as participating in royalist intrigues, and passed 
 some time in prison. His works consist principally of congratu- 
 latory odes, and some di-amatic vaudevilles. — J. G. 
 
 BERRIERE, Thomas, of French extraction, bom in England 
 in 16G3; died in 1693. He executed busts for two guineas, 
 and produced an anatomical figure that had a run in apothecaries' 
 shops. — W. T. 
 
 BERRIMAN, William, an English divine, born in London 
 in 1688. He studied at Oriel college, Oxford, and there acquired 
 a full and critical knowledge of Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, 
 and Syriac, which he applied with great skill to the inteq)reta- 
 tion of Scripture. His first work was written in connection with 
 the Trinitarian controversy, and appeared in 1719. It was 
 named " A Seasonable Review of Mr. Winston's account of 
 Piimitive Doxologies," and recommended him to Dr. Robinson, 
 bishop of London, who made him his domestic chaplain, and in 
 1722 gave him the living of St. Anikew, Undershaft. His fiune 
 
 3Z
 
 BER 
 
 546 
 
 BER 
 
 as a controversinlist also procured him, after his patron's death, 
 Lady Meyer's lectureship, in connection with which he delivered, 
 and afterwards published, eight sermons, under the title of " An 
 Historical Account of the Trinitarian controversy." The merit 
 of his work was recognized by the provost of Eton, who gave 
 him a fellowship in that college. In 1730 he was appointed 
 to the Boyle lectureship, and published his sermons in 1733. 
 They state the evidence of the Christian religion from the Old 
 Testament, and vindicate the Christian interpretation of ancient 
 prophecy. Dr. Berriman died in 1750. His son, the Rev. John 
 Bekkiman, who was bom in 1689 also held Lady l\Ioyer's lec- 
 tureship, and publislied in 1741 "Eight Sennons," in which he 
 gave an account of above a hundred Greek MSS. of St. Paul's 
 epistles, many of which had not been before collected. He also 
 published his father's sermons, under the title of " Christian 
 Doctrines and Duties explained and recommended.'' — J. B. 
 
 BERRUGUETTE, Aloxso, painter, sculptor, and architect, 
 was born at Paredes de Nava in Old Castile about 1480. His 
 father and brother-in-law were both painters. He was trained 
 up to become an escribano in a government office at Valladolid, 
 but, on his father's death, went to Florence to study imder Michel 
 Angelo. There he competed with Da Vinci in copying the battle 
 of Pisa, and with Sansovino in modelling the Laocoon for Bra- 
 mante, completing for the nims of St. Jerome one of Lippi's 
 imfinished altar-pieces. He was also an intimate friend of Ban- 
 dinelli and Andi-ea del Sarto. In 1520 he returned to Spain, 
 working at chm-ches in Huesca and Zaragoza, and honoiu^ed by 
 Charles V., who gave him a chamberlain's key. He also spent 
 six years on the high altar of the church of St. Benedict at 
 Valladolid. His rarest works were the choir at Toledo, and a 
 tomb at Valencia, ^\^:en nearly dead he planned a monument 
 of the archbishop Tavera, one of his finest achievements. He 
 died rich and famous in 15G1. His architecture is rather florid 
 and plateresque, his sculpture a little overdone, but he brought 
 oil painting to a perfection before unknown. — W. T. 
 
 BERRUYER, Joseph-Isaac, born at Rouen, 1681 ; died 
 1758. He was professor of humanity for a long time among 
 the Jesuits. In 1728 he published a work entitled " Une His- 
 toire du peuple de Dieu," which owed its celebrity to the dis- 
 cussion it gave rise to between the Jesuits and secular clergy. 
 
 BERRY, John, an English admiral, bom in 1635; died 14th 
 February, 1691. He entered first into the merchant service, 
 but during one of his voyages was taken prisoner, and con- 
 veyed to Spain. In 1661 he embarked on board the Swalloiv, 
 bound for the West Indies, in company with two frigates which 
 were lost in a storm in the Gulf of Florida. Having fallen 
 in with a corsair near the coast of Saint Domingo, the captain 
 of the Swallow hesitated to attack it, because it was better 
 manned, and carried a superior number of guns ; but Berrj-, 
 who acted as lieutenant, shut up the captain in his cabin, 
 and assuming the command of the vessel, captured the corsair 
 and carried it to Jamaica. For this breach of discipline he was 
 tried by a court-martial, but was acquitted, and soon after 
 returned to England, at the time when the war between that 
 country and Holland had broken out afresh. Berry was now 
 intrusted with the command of a vessel ordered for the East 
 Indies , but touching at Barbadoes, he was directed to take the 
 command of a squadron sent to protect Ne\'is, which was then 
 threatened by the French, who had already seized on St. 
 Christopher's, Antigua, and Montserrat. From the Antilles 
 Berry sailed for the MediteiTanean. At the engagement of 
 Souzwold bay he did signal sendee, by extricating the duke of 
 York from the vessels of the enemy, which had nearly sur- 
 rounded him. For his courage and conduct on this occasion, 
 he was rewarded with the title of baronet. He afterwards 
 saved the life of the royal duke a second time, while he was 
 conveying him to Scotland on board the Gloucester, which 
 through the negligence of a pilot had run aground at the mouth 
 of the Humber. In 1683 he was intrusted by Lord Dartmouth 
 with the command of a squadron sent to bombard Tangier. 
 His death, which occurred shortly after, is supposed to have been 
 occasioned by poison. — G. M. 
 
 BERRY, Mary, an amiable and accomplished lady, who ovves 
 her celebrity chiefly to the friendship which she formed with 
 Horace Walpole in the latter years of his life, born in 1762; 
 died in 1852. Walpole, in his letters to the countess of Ossor}% 
 speaks of JIary and her sister in teiins of lavish admiration, and 
 indeed entertained for the former as much tenderness as the 
 
 heart of a veteran gallant was capable of feeling. He even pro- 
 posed that she should assume the title of Lady Orford. She 
 published in 1810 a collection of letters, chiefly those addressed 
 to Walpole by Madame du Defiand ; a volume of miscellanies, 
 1830 ; and Walpole's letters to her sister and herself. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERRY, William, an ingenious Scotch artist, bom in 1730, 
 was apprenticed to a seal-engraver in Edinburgh, and acquired 
 an unrivalled skill in t! execution of intaglios. A head of Sir 
 Isaac Newton, which was the first of his performances in this 
 line, attracted great attention, and some others, to the number 
 of ten or twelve, were equally meritorious ; but the demand for 
 them was so hmited, that the artist prudently restricted himself 
 to the less ai-tistic, but more lucrative branches of his art. He 
 died poor in 1783. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERRY or BERRI, the name of a province in France, borne 
 by many princes of the royal family. Of these the following 
 are among the most remarkable : — 
 
 Berky, Jean de France, due de, count of Poitou, of 
 Macon, of Etampes, of Auvergne, and of Boulogne, peer of 
 France, &c., bom 30th November, 1340 ; died 15th June, 
 1416. He was third du of Jean II., king of France, and of 
 Bonne of Luxemburg, He made his first essay in arms at the 
 age of sixteen, at the battle of Poitiers, in which he distinguished 
 himself by his bravery. In 1359 he was appointed lieutenant 
 of the king for Languedoc, where he rendered himself infamous 
 by his oppressions and misgovemment. He was one of the 
 hostages delivered to England by the treaty of Bretigny, in 
 1360 ; but in the following year, being pennitted to return on 
 parole to his domains, he mairied Jeanne, daughter of the count 
 d'Armagnac. In 1364 he returned to London ; he recovered his 
 liberty in 1367, and, entering into the sen-ice of Charles V., 
 fought with success against the English. In 1384 his extortions 
 and craelty drove the peasants of Auvergne, Poitou, and Aqui- 
 taine into open rebelhon ; but these undisciplined hordes were 
 soon crushed by the army sent against them by the duke. In the 
 meantime Charles VI., on learning the enormities that had been 
 committed in his name, ordered Bethisac, the principal agent of 
 the royal lieutenant, to be bumed, and stripped the duke of his 
 authority, in which, however, he reinstated him two years after- 
 wards. In 1405 the due de Beny, then governor of the 
 capital, became involved in the troubles arising out of the 
 murder of the Rue Barbette ; and, having taken part with the 
 faction of Armagnac against that of Burgundy, he quitted Paris 
 and shut himself up in the town of Bourges. Here he was 
 besieged by the king's troops ; and, being forced to capitulate, 
 he retired to Paris, where, at the Hotel de Nesle, he terminated 
 his inglorious career in indigence and neglect. His charactorj 
 notwithstanding the vices and irregiUarities of his hfe, has been 
 partly redeemed in the estimation of posterity, by the unpuLsf 
 which he gave to literature and the fine arts. To his taste ami 
 munificence we are indebted for the grand portal of the cathedi'al 
 of Bourges, the palace la Sainte Chapelle, the chateaux de 
 concressaut of Mehun-sur-Yevre, and many sumptuous edifices 
 with which he adorned Poitiers. In his celebrated hotels de 
 Bicetre and de Nesle were accumulated treasures of art such as 
 France had never before seen. He left also a valuable collection 
 of manuscripts, which have ever been esteemed an inexhaustible 
 mine for the researches of the learned antiquarian. A superb 
 statue of white marble, taken from his collection, stUl adorns his 
 last resting-place in the crypt of the cathedral of Bourges. 
 
 Berky, Charles, due de, of Normandy and Guienne, bom 
 28th December, 1446 ; died 24th or 28th May, 1472. He was 
 the second son of Charles VII., and the youngest of twelve 
 cliildren of that sovereign by his mairiage with JIarie of Anjou. 
 The dissatisfaction of Charles with his eldest son led him at last 
 to adopt, and even openly to announce his resolution to disin- 
 herit the dauphin, and transfer the succession and the crown 
 to the younger brother. The sudden death of the king, which 
 took place 22nd July, 1461, prevented this measure from being 
 earned into eflect, and the dauphin accordingly mounted the 
 throne under the title of Louis XL The young pruice seeing 
 himself thus shut out from an inheritance which he had been 
 accustomed to regard .'is his in reversion, passed his whole life 
 in bitter though fruitless hostility against his brother, who, 
 nevertheless, by one of the first acts of his reign, conferred on 
 him the duchy of Berry, and allowed him a pension adequate to 
 the maintenance of his rank. ChiU'les, however, would be satis- 
 fied with nothing less than the crown, and with a view to wrest-
 
 BER 
 
 547 
 
 BER 
 
 ing it from Louis, allied himself with the comte de Charolais, 
 sumamed Charles le Tcmeraire, and others, from whose intrigues 
 sprung the famous " Ligue des bien public," by which the tran- 
 quiiUty of the kingdom was long disturbed. Charles was at 
 first apparently successful in his ambitious schemes. By the aid 
 of able auxiUaries, and particularly of Thomas Basin, he suc- 
 ceeded in getting himself recognized as duke of Normandy, where 
 he for a time maintained himself in opposition to the royal 
 authority. At length, however (January, 1466), he was driven 
 from Normandy by the royal troops, and was, by a decree of the 
 king, deprived of his title. Louis, however, who seems to have 
 acted -n-ith moderation and even generosity, in April, 1469, in- 
 vested his brother with the duchy of Guienne, whither he sent 
 him into a sort of honourable exile. Li the government of that 
 province he was under the control of liis mistress, a young woman 
 named Colette de Chambes Jlontsoreau. This woman was 
 slowly poisoned by his almoner, Jean Favre, abbe of Saint- 
 Jean d'Angely, who shortly afterwards put an end to Charles 
 himself by the same means. Louis himself was regarded as the 
 instigator of these crimes, and the presv ptive evidence against 
 him is so strong as to leave a pennanent blot on his memory. 
 
 Berry, Charles, duo de, third son of Louis, dauphin of 
 France, and Marie Christina of Bavaiia, bom 31st August, 1686, 
 died at Marly, 4th May, 1714. He was a prince of amiable 
 quahties, but so ignorant in consequence of his aversion to study 
 that he became timid and awkward m the society of persons 
 of his own rank. In 1710 he married the eldest daughter of 
 Philippe of Orleans, afterwards regent of France. He was so 
 passionately fond of this princess, that, for a time, he remained 
 bUnd to her scandalous intrigues, which were well known to all 
 who frequented the court. Having at last, however, surprised 
 her at EambomUet, he was so overcome with rage, that he gave 
 her a blow with his foot, and threatei. -i to shut her up in a 
 convent for life. He then hastened to lay his complaint before 
 the king, but his career was cut short by a fall from Ids horse, 
 which he concealed, until the injury was past remedy. 
 
 Berry, Charles Ferdinand d'Aktois, due de, second 
 son of the comte d'Artois, afterwards Charles X, born at Ver- 
 sailles, 24th January, 1778 ; died at Paris, 13th Februaiy, 1820. 
 He was one of the numerous emigrants at the tune of the Revolu- 
 tion, and ha\'ing joined the army of Co..ie, assisted in 1792 at 
 the siege of ThionviUe. That army ha\ang been disbanded in 
 1801, the duke repau-ed to London, where he mairied Miss 
 Brown, a young Englishwoman, by whom he had two children, 
 but whom he afterwards abandoned under the pretence that Louis 
 XVIIL disapproved of their union. In 1814 and 1815 he 
 entered France -n^th the allied armies. In 1816 he married the 
 princess Carohne of Naples, sister of the queen of Spain. Four 
 years after this event he perished by the hand of an assassin, as 
 he was retuing from the opera. 
 
 Berry, Marie Louise Elisabeth d'Orleans, duchesse 
 de, bom 20th August, 1695, died 21st July, 1719. She was 
 the eldest daughter of Philippe, due d'Orleans, afterwards regent 
 of France, and Fran9oise JIarie (mademoiselle de Blois), daughter 
 of Louis XIV by madame de Montespan. Reared dui-ing 
 childhood between a severe mother and an indulgent father, the 
 training she received was none of the best. Her principal com- 
 panions during infancy were femmes de chambre, and it is not 
 surprising, therefore, that unaccustomed to restraint, she should 
 have acquired the wilful disposition she evinced in after life. 
 She does not appear to have been destitute of accomplishments, 
 however, and although the ravages of the small-pox had deprived 
 her countenance of all pretensions to beauty, her graceful figure, 
 amiable and refined manners, and natural eloquence of address, 
 combined to render her peculiarly attractive. On the 6th July, 
 1710, she married the grandson of Louis XIV., to whose hand 
 she had long aspired, and, after this event, she seems to have 
 shown, without any restraint, all the natural perversity of her 
 character. She contrived to embroil her husband with the duke 
 of Burgundy, her intention being to secure the lead at court, 
 through the influence of her father-in-law, the dauphin. But the 
 latter dying suddenly, she tmmed all the fury of her disappomted 
 ambition against his -n-idow, whom she treated with msolent and 
 contemptuous ingratitude. At the same time she commenced 
 that series of scandalous intrigues which terminated only with 
 her death. The duchess of Burgundy died suddenly, not without 
 strong suspicions of poison, which fell on the duchess de Beriy, and 
 the premature death of the duke, her husband, which took place 
 
 shortly afterwards, seemed to give coloiu- to these reports, on 
 which, however, the chronicles of the day are too indefinite to 
 warrant a satisfactory verdict. The duke of Orleans being 
 called to the regency on the death of the king, the pride and 
 pretensions of the duchess increased beyond all boimds. Her 
 extravagant pomp and arrogance, however, did not prevent her 
 from giving the rein to all the irregularities of a licentious life, 
 and she and her father, if we may credit contemporary memoirs, 
 revelled in depths of debauchery almost imparalleled. 
 
 * Berry, Caroline Ferdinande Louise de Bourbon, 
 duchesse de, daughter of Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies, 
 bom at Naples, oth November, 1798. On the 17th June, 1816, 
 she married the due de Berry. Two sons were the fiiiit of this, 
 both of whom died in infancy. The due de Berry was assassi- 
 nated at the opera, on the night of the 13th Febraary, 1820. 
 Seven months after this tragic event, the duchess gave birth to 
 another son, who received the name of the due de Bordeaux. 
 During the memorable Three Days of July, 1830, the duchess 
 nearly succeeded in di-iading the insurgent populace by boldly 
 rushing into the midst of them, and presenting this child to them 
 as their sovereign. This attempt proving abortive, she followed 
 the fallen king, Charles X., mto exile, but, contrary to the ■ndsh 
 of the royal family, in less than two years afterwards, she 
 returned to France in expectation of being able to excite a 
 movement in favour of her son. On the night of the 28th 
 April, 1832, she landed on the French coast, some leagues from 
 JlarseUles, but her attempt proving unsuccessful, she fled to 
 La Vendee. Proscribed by the government, she nevertheless 
 found friends in Bretagne, willing to risk their lives and fortunes 
 in the cause of the young prince. For five months she con- 
 cealed herself in the house of mademoiselle du Guigni, but 
 through the treachery of a Jew who had pretended to enter 
 warmly into her schemes, her retreat was pointed out to the 
 emissaries of the government. She was found, along with three 
 other persons, concealed behind a cliimney, where they had been 
 shut up for six hours in a space only three feet and a half in 
 length, and eighteen inches in breadth. 'When dragged from 
 this wretched retreat, their hands and part of their clothing were 
 found to be bmTied. The duchess was immediately transfeiTed 
 to the chateau de Blaye, and while there in confinement, a letter 
 bearing her signature appeared in the Moniteur, announcing that 
 she had sometime before contracted a second marriage, and was 
 now on the eve of her accouchement. Her new husband was 
 the son of a Neapolitan nobleman, prince of Lucchesi-Palli. 
 Being at length set at liberty, she embarked at Blaye on the 
 8th June, 1833, and set saU for Sicily, where she arrived after a 
 voyage of twenty-four days, and where she still remains in pri- 
 vacy with her family. — G. ]\I. 
 
 * BERRYER, Antoine Pierre, a celebrated French bar- 
 rister and political orator, son of Pierre Nicolas, bom in Paris 
 in 1790, was educated at the college of Juilly. His fer^-ent 
 piety would have constrained him to enter the church, had 
 not his father insisted on his following the profession of 
 law. In 1811, at the age of twenty-one, he commenced 
 that career in which his triumphs have been so numerous and 
 biilliant. His first appearances at the bar, were hardly worthy 
 of his powers, and commanded little attention. It was in 
 1815, after having been associated with his father in the 
 defence of ]\Iarshal Ney, that he first exerted himself with 
 the triumphant eifect which has so often atte.ided his plead- 
 ings. The trial of Generals Debelle and Cambronne fol- 
 lowed that of Ney, and young Beriyer alone was retained for 
 the defence. Eloquence could not save the former, but Cam- 
 bronne, thanks to the impassioned oratory of his advocate, was 
 acquitted. Tliis was his first triumph, but others followed in 
 rapid succession, and heightened as well as diffused his fame. 
 His success was equally decided in civil and in political cases, and 
 he had only to wait till he attained the requisite age to be hitro- 
 duced into parliament under the best auspices, the fame of being 
 one of the first of popular orators. In 1830 he was elected to 
 the chamber of deputies, and immediately assumed that com- 
 manding position in the house to which his extraordinsuy talents 
 entitled him. He appeared in the tribune for the first time on 
 JIarch 9, 1830, and it was to assail with all the fen-our of his 
 eloquence the remonstrance of the 221 members, who demurred 
 to the royal address. His speech recalled, in its overwhelming 
 force and passion, the best of Mirabeau's ; but its argument was 
 imcoustitutional, and shocked the majority of the chamber.
 
 BER 
 
 548 
 
 BER 
 
 After the revolntion of July, Berryer, acting independently of 
 aU pai-ties in the chamber, argued frequently, and always with 
 increasing reputation as an orator in favour of popular govern- 
 ment, thus laj-ing himself open to suspicions of insincerity, which 
 in the case of a less eminent man would have been fatal to political 
 influence. Events connected with the duchess de Beriys attempt 
 to assert by force the rights of her son to tlie throne of France, 
 interrupted for a while his parliamentary career. Although 
 properly reputed the cliief of the legitimist party in Paris, he 
 protested in presence of the duchess against all insurrectionaiy 
 measures, and to be rid of the suspicion of having been implicated 
 in those which had already been tiiken by her advisers, he deter- 
 mined to leave France, and was on his way to Switzerland when 
 he was arrested by order of the government. Triumphantly 
 acquitted on his trial, he resumed his seat in the chamber, and 
 boldly availed himself of his pri\Tleges to demand pardon for the 
 duchess. In 183-1, called to the defence of two of his colleagues, 
 he argued in favour of the right of deputies to connect them- 
 selves with secret societies : an instance, it was thought, of his 
 readiness to sacrifice his credit as an upright and consistent 
 politician to the vanity of making a successful speech. The 
 following year the legitmiist party, to testify their admiration 
 of the brilliant orator whose talents alone gave them political 
 significance, purchased for him by subscription the estate of 
 Angerville. Always in opposition, he has since been confederate 
 with Thiers and Guizot, and leader of the opposition when Thiers 
 and Guizot were ministers. His steady adherence to a party 
 has frequently brought him into trouble, and once conducted 
 him to the verge of unpopularity ; but as his talents have been 
 freely exercised for the public good, he is liable to no reproach 
 as a political bigot. As a member of the constituent assembly 
 during the short period of the last republic, his talents were 
 powerfully exerted on the side of order and regular government. 
 Since the elevation of Louis Napoleon, he has occasionally taken 
 part in public affairs, uniformly in opposition to government. 
 He was admitted a member of the Academy in 1852. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERRYER, Nicholas Rex£, a French magistrate, who, 
 according to Duclos, transacted much better the affaii-s of iladame 
 Pompadour than those of the state, bom in 1703, became, in 
 1747, lieutenant of police in Paris, and in that character busied 
 himself in detecting intrigues against the king's mistress, and in 
 ruining the authors of libels against her character. A rising of 
 the populace caused his dismissal from the post of lieutenant, 
 but he was immediately after named councOlor of state. He was 
 latterly keeper of the seals. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERRYER, Pierre Nicolas, a French banister, bom at 
 Saint e-Menehould in 1757; died in 1841. An admirable jmist, 
 and an eloquent pleader, his celebrity rests chiefly on his defence 
 of Marshal Ney before the chamber of peers. In that famous 
 case he was assisted by Dupin, and his son Antoine. Hb 
 ' Traite complet du Droit Commercial de terre et de mer, tel 
 qu'U est observe en France, et dans les pays etrangers," is the 
 work of a consummate jurist, skilled in commercial law. 
 
 BERSALA, Axx, so Latinized by Erasmus, who speaks of 
 her in terms of the highest eulogy, the daughter and heiress of 
 WoUard de BorseUe, and of Charlotte de Bourbon-Montpensier, 
 was wife of Philip of Burgimdy, the grandson of Duke Pliilip the 
 Good. Her father's first wife was the daughter of James I. of 
 Scotland. Her family was wealthy and conspicuous. She was 
 a generous patron of pious and learned men. The exact dates 
 of her birth and death are not known. — T. J. 
 
 BERTANA, Lucia, an Italian poetess, died in 1567. She 
 cultivated letters, and was in correspondence with several poets, 
 especially Vincent Jklartelli and Annibal Caro. Her poems are 
 in the collections indicated by MazzucheUi, Scrittor d'ltalia. 
 
 BERTANI, Lelio, a musician, was bom at Brescia in 1520, 
 and died in 1600. His first appointment was that of ma?stro 
 di capella in his native town; after\N-ards he held the sameofiice 
 under Alfonso, duke of Ferrara. He was then offered an engage- 
 ment by the Emperor Rudolf, but preferred an honourable post 
 at Padua, where he was much fiivoured by the archbishop. He 
 was a fertile composer both for the church and chamber, though 
 comparatively little of his music was printed ; of this a set of 
 sonnets for five voices, published at Venice in 1584 is most 
 praised , besides which, there are extant some sets of madrigals 
 and some of his pieces in miscellaneous collections. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERTANO, John Bai>tista, an Italian poet, bom at Venice 
 in the 17th century ; author of some tragedies and pastorals. 
 
 BERTAUT, Eloi, a French litterateur, bom at Vesonl, 1782; 
 died 1834. He was a man of brilliant talent, and at the age of 
 eighteen filled the chair of mathematics in the college of Besan- 
 9on. His work entitled " Le Vrai considere comme source du 
 bien," is valuable for its remarks on style. 
 
 BERTAUT, Fkax^ois, a French litterateur, bom at Paris, 
 1021 ; died in the beginning of the eighteenth century. He was 
 younger brother of madam de MottevLUe, through whose influence 
 he procured an appointment at the court of Louis XIII. In 
 1669 he published an account of a journey to Spain, a work 
 curious for its remarks on Spanish antiquities. — J. G. 
 
 BERTAUT, Jean, bom in 1552 at Caen in Normandy. 
 He was principal abnoner of Queen Catherine de iledici. He 
 was made private secretary and reader to Henry III., and was 
 councUlor of state. He was with Henrj' III. when that prince 
 was assassinated. He was one of the di^dnes engaged in recon- 
 cDing Henry IV. to the established religion of France, and he 
 had his reward, first in the abbacy of Aulnai, and afterwards in 
 the bishopric of Sees in Nonnandy. He died in 1611. The 
 bishop wrote a good many professional books, the names of 
 which are stUl sometimes mentioned ; a translation of parts of 
 St. Ambrose's Tracts on the controversies of his day ; sermons on 
 the fasts and festivals of the church, and funeral orations on 
 dead potentates — among others on his patron, Henri Quatre. 
 These things are now forgotten, while some of his verses may 
 be said still to Uve. The bishop, on his promotion, abandoned 
 all lighter subjects, as unsuitable to his dignified position, and 
 occupied himself, when the poetic spirit was raging, with versi- 
 fying the psalms. He, however, collected and published the 
 poems of his youth, and among them are some singularly grace- 
 ful. He also translated the second book of the ^neid. His lines, 
 known by the stanza commencing " Felicite passee," were so 
 much admu-ed, that the Port-Royal fathers printed them in their 
 commentary on Job. They have the more valuable fame of 
 being still popular with many who do not know the name of 
 the author, or that he was a bishop. In a poem on the death 
 of Ronsard are some pleasing passages, in which Bertaut describes 
 his first impulses to poetry. He teUs us that at the age of 
 sixteen he was first inspired by his admiration of Ronsard, with 
 the desire of imitating him — that the attempt was too ambitious, 
 and the lighter vein of Des Portes seemed for a while a some- 
 thing more attainable. He soon, however, returned to his first 
 love — and the image of the poet whom he adored, but whom he 
 had not yet seen, was for ever present to his mind. At last 
 they met, and the encouragement given by Ronsard to the young 
 poet influenced him through life. Of his " (Euvres Poetiqnes," 
 there are two volumes; the second contains his love-poems. 
 Bertaut has been fortunate in a translator. Extracts from his 
 works, with English translations, were published by Cary, the 
 translator of Dante, in the London Magazine, between the years 
 1821 and 1825, and they were reprinted by his son in 1848. 
 Bertaut was uncle to Francaise, countess de Motteville, to 
 whom we owe the Memoires pour servir a I'histoire d'Anne 
 d'Autriche. — .1. A. D. 
 
 BERTAUT, Leonard, a French historian, bom at Aatun, at 
 the commencement of the seventeenth centmy; died 1682. He 
 entered the religious order of Jlinorites at an early age, and 
 devoted all his leisure to collecting materials for the history of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 BERTEL or BERTELS, John, a Flemish Benedictine, abbot 
 of Echtemach, was bom in Louvain in 1559, and died in 1607. 
 He wrote " Historia Luxembm'gensis," &c. 
 
 BERTHA, wife of Robert, king of Paris, lived in the last 
 half of the tenth century. She was a daughter of Conrad, king 
 of Burgundy. Her marriage with Robert was dissolved in 998 by 
 a bull of Pope Gregory V., which declared the union incestuous, 
 the parties being related in the fourth degree. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERTHAULT, Pierre, a French monk, professor of rhetoric 
 at Marseilles, and afterwards deacon of the chapter of Chartres, 
 lived about the beginning of the seventeenth century. He wrote 
 " Florus Gallicus, sive rerum a veteribus Gallis hello gestarum 
 Epitome," 1032, and "Floras Francicus," &c., 1630. 
 
 * BERTHEGENE, Pierre, baron, a distinguished French 
 general, was bom in 1775. He entered the army in 1793, and 
 after passing through the various inferior grades, was made 
 colonel by Napoleon in 1807. He was rewarded for his behaviour 
 at Wagram by being created general of brigade. He acted as 
 adjutant-general of the grenadiers of the guard throughout the
 
 BER 
 
 549 
 
 BER 
 
 Russian campaign. After the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen he 
 was made general of division. Berthegene was taken prisoner 
 at Dresden, and was not released tUl after Xapoleon's abdication. 
 Dming tlie Hundi'ed Days he distinguished himself at Fleunis, 
 Bfeerge, and Namur. Charles X. appointed him to the com- 
 mand of the first division of the army intended for Algeria, and 
 the conquest of that province was mainly due to him. He was 
 made a grand cross of the legion of honour in 1830, and in 
 1831 was appointed governor of Algeria. Duruig the short 
 time he held that oflSce, his administration was marked by pro- 
 bity, pniilence, and economy. — J. T. 
 
 BERTHELOT, Gregoire, a French Benedictine, librarian 
 of the abbaye of Nancy, died in 1754. He wrote " Traite 
 historique et moral de I'abstinence des viandes, et des revolutions 
 qu'elle a cues d'^puis le commencement du monde jusqu'aujourd' 
 liui," Rouen, 1731. 
 
 BERTHELOT, K, a French satuic poet, lived in the first 
 part of the seventeenth century. He was the friend of Reynier, 
 and hke him distinguished by his facihty and comic power. His 
 works are to be found chiefly in "Le Cabinet satyrique," 1660. 
 
 * BERTHELOT, Sabix, a French naturalist and traveller, 
 bom at JiLarseUles in 1794. His principal work is a " Natural 
 History of the Canary Islands," prepared in conjunction with 
 M. P. Bai-ker-Webb, and published at Paris in 3 vols. 4to, with 
 a large foUo atlas of fine plates. JL Berthelot is also the author 
 of numerous memoirs on natm-al history, piincipally botany and 
 physical geogi-aphy, inserted in the AJinales du Museum, the 
 Bibliothfeque de Geneve," &e., and of a treatise " On the Fishery 
 on the west coast of Africa," pubhshed at Paris in 1840. He 
 has lately translated some portions of the Natural History of 
 Cuba, by M. Ramon de la Sagra. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERTHEREAU, George Francois, a learned French 
 ecclesiastic, who devoted himself for tliirty years to collecting 
 out of Arabic authors materials for a history of the crusades, 
 was bom at Belesme in 1732. His labom-s were intemipted by 
 the outbreak of the Revolution, and none of his papers have as 
 yet been published. He died in 1794. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BERTHET, Elie, bom at Limoges, 8th Jime, 1815, was 
 the inventor of the Boman-feuillefon, adopted by the Siecle 
 newspaper, and the plan of publishing romances and novels in 
 newspapers, became the favourite mode with authors in France, 
 who at once found the ear of a vast number of readers. Under 
 the withering restrictions of the imperial regime, the feuilleton 
 has suffered as much as the political leader, which means some- 
 thing very near extinction, and Elie Berthet's occupation is gone. 
 As a novel writer, he was rather lively and ingenious than origi- 
 nal, and is missed by the readers of the Siecle. Amongst his 
 best works may be named " Le Colporteur;" "Le Fils de 
 Tusiorier;" and "La Croix de I'afFut," &c. — J. F. C. 
 
 BERTHET, Jean, a French theologian, professor of huma- 
 nity, philosophy, and theology, in various Jesuit colleges, and 
 afterwards a member of the Benedictine order, was bom at 
 Tarascon in 1622, and died at Oulx in 1692. He wrote " Traite 
 sur la presence re'elle," and " Traite Historique de la charge de 
 grand aumoiiier de France." — J. S., G. 
 
 BERTHIER, Guillaume Francois, a distinguished French 
 theologian and critic, professor of belles-lettres at Blois and 
 of theology at Paris, bom at Issoudixn in 1704, belonged to 
 the order of Jesuits. He continued, in six volumes, Brumoy's 
 " Histohe del'Eglise Gallicane," and having resigned his chair 
 in 1745, undertook the editorship of the Journal de Trevoux, 
 \vliich in his hands came to be recognized as one of the most 
 powerful organs of the church, and a fonnidable antagonist of 
 the encyclopedistes. In 1762 he was appointed tutor to the 
 sous of the dauphin ; but two years aftenvards, on the suppres- 
 sion of his order, retired to Germany. He retm-ned to France 
 in 1776, and settled at Bourges, where, in the year of his death, 
 1782, he learned that the clergy of France had settled on him a 
 pension of 1000 francs. He published a "Commentaire sur les 
 Psaumes et Isaie" and " (Euvres Spirituelles." — J. S., G. 
 
 BERTHIER, Louis Alex^vxder, piince of Wagi-am and 
 Neufchatel, one of the French revolutionary marshals, was bom 
 November 20, 1753. He was the son of an officer of engineers, 
 by whom he was educated for the military profession. He 
 served m the American war with Lafayette and Rochambeau. 
 In 1789 he was nominated major-general of the national guard 
 at Versailles ; and when the Revolution broke out he favoured 
 the escape of the aunts of Louis XVI. He served with distinc- 
 
 tion under Lukner during the war in La Vendee, and in 1796 
 was appointed chief of the staff in the army of Italy commanded 
 by General Buonaparte, to whom he attached himself, and who 
 made him his chief confidant. On the 18th BiTunaire (Novem- 
 ber, 1799) Berthier rendered important aid in overthrowing the 
 government of the Directory, and was rewarded with the post of 
 secretary of war. When Buonaparte assmned the ijnperial 
 power, Berthier shared his good fortune, and was nominated a 
 marshal of the empire, grand hmitsman, chief of the first cohort 
 of the legion of honour, prince of Neufchatel, and was married 
 to a Bavarian piincess. He was present at the battle of Aus- 
 terlitz (December 2, 1805), and took part in the subsequent 
 campaigns against Prussia, Austria, and Russia. His distm- 
 guished services at the battle of Wagram gained for him the addi- 
 tional honour of piince of Wagram. After the downfall of his 
 imperial master in 1814, Berthier made his peace with Louis 
 XVIII., and was created a peer of France, and captain of the 
 royal body guard. Buonaparte, who could not believe that his old 
 fiiend and follower would prove ungi-ateful for all the honom-s 
 he had heaped upon him, wrote to him from Ell»a annoimcing 
 his plans, but Berthier retm'ned him no answer, though he did 
 not show the letter to Louis XVIII. During the Himdred 
 Days he resolved to remain neutral, and retired to Bemberg in 
 Bavaria, where he met his death. According to one account, six 
 men in masks entered his chamber and threw hun out of the 
 window ; according to another, he threw himself out when he 
 saw some Russian troops marching to invade his native country. 
 AU that is certainly known is, that he was found lying on the 
 pavement dying. Berthier was the author of " An accoimt of 
 the battle of Marengo," and of a " Narrative of the Campaigns 
 of General Buonaparte in Eg}-pt and Syria." He possessed rare 
 qualifications for the offices of quartermaster-general and chief 
 of the stafl", which he held under the Emphe, but he was unfit 
 for a supreme command. — J. T. 
 
 BERTHOLD, a christian missionary of the twelfth century, 
 who laboured very unsuccessfully among the Livonians, resort- 
 ing to arms when persuasion faOed, but always being worsted. 
 He perished in 1198 in an encomiter with the pagans. 
 
 BERTHOLD, a celebrated German preacher of the latter half 
 of the thirteenth centmy, who upwards of twenty yeai-s labom-ed 
 indefatigably as a missionary m Austria, Moravia, and Thmingia, 
 attracting, it is said, crowds of sixty and a hundred thousand 
 people. An edition of his sermons appeared at Berlin in 1824, 
 under the title of " Berthold des Franziskaners deutsche Pre- 
 digten, aus der zweyten Halfte des 13ten Jahrhundert." 
 
 * BERTHOLD, Arnold Adolf, a Gemian physician and 
 natm-alist, born at Soest in 1803, studied at Gottingen, Berhn, 
 and Paris, and in 1825 estabhshed himself as a private tutor in 
 Gottingen. In 1836 he became ordinary professor of medicine, 
 and inspector of the zoological section of the museum of that 
 university; in 1837, member of the Royal Society of Sciences; 
 and in 1838 foimded the Society of Natural Histoiy and Medi- 
 cine of Gottingen. Besides nimierous papers on different 
 branches of natm-al historj', communicated to the Acta Acad. 
 Nat. Curios., to Oken's Isis, to Jliiller's Archiv fiir Anatomie, 
 and other periodicals, Berthold is the author of several inde- 
 pendent works, amongst which we may mention an " Outline of 
 human and animal Physiology," published at Gottingen in 1826 ; 
 a "Manual" of the same science in 1829 and 1837 ; a transla- 
 tion of Latreille's Families Naturelles, Weimar, 1827 ; memoirs 
 " On various New or Rare Amphibia," and " On various New 
 Reptiles from New Granada," published at Gottingen in 1842 
 and 1846; "On the Stracture of Gordius Aquaticus," in 1842 ; 
 and a "Handbook of Zoology," m 1845. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEKTHOLDUS, BERNALDUS, BERTOUL, BERNOUL, 
 or BERTHOLD, a German theologian and historian of the latter 
 half of the eleventh century, was a churchman of Constance. 
 He continued the chronicle of Herman Contractus by a history 
 of his own times, beginning with the ye;u- 1054, entitled " Ber- 
 tholdi Historia reram suo tempore per singulos annos gestarum." 
 
 BERTHOLET, Jean, a French Jesuit, born at Salm in 
 Ardennes about the end of the seventeenth centmy ; died at 
 Liege in 1755. He published a valuable work on the histoiy of 
 the duchy of Luxemburg, under the title of " L'Histoire eccle- 
 siastique et civile du Duche de Luxembourg et du Compte de 
 Chini," the materials for which he was at great pams to collect 
 from numerous monastic and other libraries. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERTHOLLET, Claude Louis, an eminent Italian chemist,
 
 BER 
 
 550 
 
 BER 
 
 was bom in 1748 at Annecy in Savoy. He studied medicine at 
 Turin, and having taken his degree, repaired to Paris where he 
 rapidily attained distinction as a chemist, and, through tlie 
 influence of the dul;e of Orleans, was appointed director of the 
 government dye-works. He was the first to detect Lavoisier's 
 error in pronouncing oxygen tlie sole acidifying agent. The 
 Revolution soon called him to a more conspicuous field of action. 
 France, attacked on all sides by powerful enemies, and deprived 
 of all suppHes of saltpetre, iron, and steel, was in the utmost 
 peril. Berthollet's talent was equal to the emergency. He 
 rapidly pointed out the means of extracting saltpetre from the 
 soil, and of forming artificial nitre beds. He also succeeded in 
 establishing iron and steel works, and thus supphed the patriotic 
 armies with the requisites of war. Soon after he incuiTcd the 
 displeasure of Robespierre, by refusing to pronounce that certain 
 brandy supplied to the troops had been poisoned, and naiTowly 
 escaped with his life. In 1795 we find him engaged in reorgan- 
 izing the Institute. Soon afterwards he made the acquaintance 
 of Napoleon, who became for a short time his pupil, and em- 
 ployed him to select the scientific men who were to accompany 
 the expedition to Egypt. In that country he shared with cheer- 
 fulness all the dangers and privations of the army, and was one 
 of the few who returned along with Napoleon. Honours were 
 showered upon him, and he was raised to the peerage with the 
 title of count. He generally resided at Arcueil near Paris, where 
 he formed a small but most important scientific society. His 
 fellow-members were La Place, Biot, Gay Lussac, Thenard, 
 Decandolle, Humboldt, Collet-Descotils, and his son A. B. Ber- 
 thollet. This society had published three volumes of its Trans- 
 actions, when it was broken up by the mental derangement and 
 suicide of the younger Berthollet. This misfortune was followed 
 by others. His patron, Napoleon, was no longer in power, his 
 pension was suspended, and his health began to decline. After 
 prolonged sufterings, endm-ed with exemplaiy fortitude, he died 
 on November 6, 1822. Amongst his chemical labours the dis- 
 covery of the bleaching properties of chlorine must not be 
 forgotten. His " Elements of the Art of Dyeing" remained for 
 a long time a standard work, untU gradually superseded by more 
 recent investigations. His "Chemical Statics" (Statique Chi- 
 mique) will always remain invaluable from the traly philosophic 
 spirit which it displaj's, even though some of its positions are no 
 longer tenable. In this work he combats the doctrine of Berg- 
 mann, that " afiinity" could be calculated by observing the order 
 of decompositions, and proves that the entire theory of fixed 
 elective atfinities is in fact chimerical. — J. W. S. 
 
 BERTHOLON, Pierre, a French medical man, was born at 
 Lyons in 17'12, and died on 21st April, 1800. He was profes- 
 sor of physics at Montpellier, and afterwards professor of history 
 at Lyons. He devoted his attention specially to electricity, and 
 published numerous works on the subject. He wrote upon the 
 electricity of the human body in health and disease, the electri- 
 city of plants and of meteors, on lightning conductors, and on 
 fermentation in wine-making. — J. H. B. 
 
 BERTHOT or BERTHAUD, Claude, a French theologian 
 of the first half of the sixteenth century, professor at Dijon, and 
 afterwards principal of the college of Navan-e, published " Judi- 
 cium Pauperum" and " Dialectica Progj'mnasmata," &c. 
 
 BERTHOT, CLtMENT-Louis-CHARLES, a French writer, 
 born at Vaixs-sous Tobigny, 1758; died 1832. A friend to the 
 Revolution, but an enemy to its excesses, he experienced the 
 persecution of the ultra party. Author of a " Histoiy of the 
 Revolution," Paris, 1792-1803, 18 vols., 18mo. 
 
 BERTHOUD, Ferdinand, an ingenious mechanician, born 
 at Neufchatel in Switzerland in 1725. He came to Paris in 
 1745, and acquired celebrity as a watch and clock maker. Ten 
 years previous to the invention of marine chronometers by Har- 
 rison, he constructed several which were found to answer the 
 purpose almost perfectly. He was a member of the Institute 
 and of the Royal Society of London. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BERTHOUD, Samuel Hknuv, born at Cambray in 
 .January, 1804, son of a printer; he early attracted attention 
 by his jjoetical talents, obtaining a prize from the college of his 
 native city. Repairing in due time to the capital, he became 
 connected with some leading literary periodicals, to which he 
 supplied tales of fiction, under the quasi-English nom de 2>lume 
 of Sir Ilenrj'. The reason for so quaint a title is to be found in 
 the splenetic and misanthropic character of his first stories, a 
 chai-actcr suited of course, according to French traditions, to the 
 
 suicidally disposed John Bull. Happily his better nature was 
 drawn out by a weekly publication, Le Musee des Families^ 
 which demanded a healthier description of writing ; and in set- 
 ting aside the English knight of the rueful countenance, M. 
 Berthoud approximated nearer to the tme English nature than 
 he suspectedi Taking the authentic histories of famous painters 
 and sculptors, he presented them in the midst of their families, 
 illustrating some anecdote of their home way of life, combining 
 fact with consistent fiction in a very charming manner. He has 
 also written anecdotes of animals in a tone so agreeably senti- 
 mental as to prove, that the assumed misanthropic Sir Henry 
 fitted him as little as the supposed English prototype. — J. F. C. 
 
 BERTI, Alexander Pompeo, a learned Italian theologian 
 and miscellaneous writer, born at Lucca, 1G86; died 1752. After 
 entering the church, he devoted himself to histoiy, belles-lettres, 
 and particularly poetry. He taught rhetoric at Naples for three 
 years ; he afterwards was librarian to the marquis del Vasto. 
 He filled several important functions in his order; and wrote a 
 great number of historical tracts and commentaries. — J. G. 
 
 BERTI, John Laurence, an Italian theologian, bom at 
 Serravezza in Tuscany in 1696 ; died at Pisa in 1766. He was 
 successively assistant to the general of the Augustine order at 
 Rome, librarian at Florence, and professor of ecclesiastical his- 
 tory at Pisa. His piincipal works are — " De Theologicis Dis- 
 ciplinis;" " De Reb. Ges. St. Aug," &c. ; and " Historia Eccles." 
 
 BERTI, PiETEO, an Italian litterateur, bom at Venice, 1741 ; 
 died 1813. He was professor of rhetoric at Pai-ma. Author of 
 "Esopo volgarizzato per uno da Siena," Panna, 1811. 
 
 BERTIE, Richard, an English gentleman, who manied 
 during Queen Mary's reign Catherine, Baroness Willoughby of 
 Eresby and duchess dowager of Suffolk, and with her was 
 obliged to" take refuge on the continent from the persecution 
 with which they were threatened as influential protestants. 
 After endming many hardships at Santon, a town of Cleves, 
 where they first resided, and subsequently at Wesel and at 
 Weinheim, they received a generous hivitation from the king of 
 Poland to settle m his dominions. On their aiTival at Frank- 
 fort they were nobly received by the king, and to their great 
 content established in the earldom of Kroze in Samogitia, the 
 revenues of which they enjoyed till the death of JIary. A citri- 
 ous old ballad, published in the reign of Elizabeth, reprinted in 
 1738 and again in 1806, commemorates then- misfortunes. It 
 is entitled, " The most rare and excellent Histoiy of the Duchess 
 of Suft'olk and her Husband's, Richard Bertie's Calamities, to 
 the tune of Queen Dido." 
 
 Bektie, Peregrine, so called from his birth having taken 
 place abroad, son of Richard Bertie, succeeded his mother in the 
 barony of Willoughby of Eresby in 1580. Among other em- 
 ployments which he owed to the favour of Elizabeth, was the 
 command of the auxiliary force in the Low Countries, vacant by 
 the recall of Leicester. Bom in 1555 ; died in 1601. 
 
 Bertie, Robert, eldest son of Peregrine, godson of Queen 
 Elizabeth, bom in 1582, was a distinguished naval olficer in the 
 latter years of Elizabeth's reign, and a devoted cavalier in the 
 parliamentaiy struggle with Charles I. He succeeded in the 
 barony of Willoughby of Eresby in 1601, and as a descendant 
 by his mother's side of the De Veres, earls of Oxford, inherited 
 the office of lord high chamberlain. In 1628, after having been 
 created earl of Lindsey, he was made admiral, and despatched 
 with a fleet to the relief of Rochelle. Some years later he was 
 raised to the dignity of lord liigh admiral. At the battle of 
 Edgehill, 1642, he was woimded, and died from loss of blood. 
 
 Bertie, Montague, son of Robert, and his successor to the 
 earldom of Lindsey, was, like his father, a zealous cavalier. 
 Taken prisoner at the battle of Edgehill in an attempt to rescue 
 his father, and afterwards wounded at Naseby, he was held in 
 deserved estimation by his unfortunate sovereign. At the Resto- 
 ration he was made a knight of the garter, and appointed one of 
 the judges for the trial of the regicides. Died in 1666. 
 
 Bertie, Willoughby, fourth earl of Abingdon, a descen- 
 dant of Montague Bertie. This eccentric nobleman, who excited 
 the disgust of his brother peers by hiterminable and intemperate 
 harangues in favour of democracy, and by the same means 
 merited the commendation of patriot Wilkes, was educated at 
 Geneva, and probably contracted there the peculiar bias which 
 characterized his political life. He was the author of " Thoughts 
 on the Letter of Edmund Bmke, Esq., to the Sheriffs of Bristol." 
 He died in 1799.— J. S., G.
 
 BER 
 
 551 
 
 BER 
 
 BERTIE, Thomas Hoar, an English admiral, bom in 1758, 
 and died in 1825. The name Bertie was assumed by him after 
 his marriage. He entered the navj in 1773, and served on 
 board the Sea Horse with Nelson and Trowbridge. He distin- 
 guished himself in the battle between Keppel and d'Orvilliers 
 (27th July, 1778), and in December, 1779, destroyed two 
 French vessels on the shore of Martinique, without the loss of a 
 single man. In 1782 he commanded the sloop the Duke of 
 Esiissac, and gained numerous victories on the coast of America. 
 He took part in the conquest of St. Domingo in 1795. On his 
 return to England he was appointed to the Ardent, and effected 
 numerous improvements in the construction of ships of war. 
 His last service was with Nelson at the bombardment of Copen- 
 hagen, where his conduct was warmly eulogized. — J. T. 
 
 BERTIN, Antoine the Chevaliek, a French amatory 
 poet, bom in the isle of Bourbon, 1752 ; died at Saint Domingo in 
 1790. What established his reputation as a verse-'\vi-iter, was his 
 "Amours," published in London, 1780. This work, of which, 
 strange to say. La Harpe makes no mention, breathes a good 
 deal of the spirit of Propertius ; but it has been censured for the 
 inequaUty of its style, and occasionally feeble and prosaic versi- 
 fication. He also wrote " Un Voyage en Bourgogne." — J. G. 
 
 BERTIN, d'Antilly, Louis Auguste, a French htterateur, 
 bom at Paris about 1760 ; died 1804 at St. Petersburg. He 
 incuiTed the displeasure of the directory, and took refuge in 
 Hamburgh in 1799. He was on the point of being delivered up 
 to Buonaparte, when Paul I. of Russia, whom he had celebrated 
 in a poem, interfered, and attached him to the theatre at Peters- 
 bui'g. He wrote several dramatic pieces. — J. G. 
 
 BERTIN DE Veaux, Louis Francois, a French politician 
 and journalist, born at Paris in 1771 ; died in the same city 
 23rd April, 1842. His first essay as a public writer was in a 
 journal called VEclair, but he was afterwards better known, in 
 conjunction with his brother, Louis-Fran9ois Bertin, as one of 
 the founders and a most active manager of the well-known 
 Journal des Dehats. Harassed with prosecutions under the 
 imperial regime, he for a time ceased to appear as a public 
 writer, and in 1801 founded a banking-house, and became suc- 
 cessively a magistrate and vice-president of the tribunal of com- 
 merce. At the Restoration he showed himself a warm supporter 
 of the new government, and in 1815 was appointed first deputy, 
 and soon after general secretary of the minister of police. In 
 1820 he was again elected deputy, and in 1824 and 1827 he sat 
 as representative of Versailles. In 1829 he was one of the 221 
 deputies who voted the famous address, which ultimately led to 
 the overthrow of Charles X. After the revolution of 1830, he 
 became an active partisan of the new regime, and was sent by 
 the government in a mission, first to Holland, and then to Eng- 
 land. In 1832 he was called to the chamber of peers. — G. M. 
 
 BERTIN, ExupfiRE Joseph, a distinguished French surgeon 
 and anatomist of the last century, was born at Tremblay, near 
 Rennes, on the 21st September, 1712. He practised as a sm-- 
 geon, first at Rheims, and afterwards in Paris, from which place 
 he went in 1741 to Moldavia as body surgeon to the hospodar. 
 On his return to France in 1744, he became a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences of Paris, and died in Febraary, 1781, at 
 Gohard, near his native town of Rennes. Bertin was an excel- 
 lent anatomist, as is clearly shown by his " Traits d'Osteologie," 
 published at Paris in 1754, and in German, at Copenhagen in 
 1777. He also published at the Hague, in 1748, " Lettres sur 
 le nouveau systtjme de la VoLx, et sur les arteres lymphatiques,'' 
 in the former of which he supports Dodart's theory of the voice. 
 The Memoirs of the French academy contaui valuable papers 
 from his pen. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERTIN, Louis Francois, a French journalist, brother of 
 Bertin de Veaux, born at Paris, 14th December, 1766 ; died 13th 
 September, 1841. He was at first destined for the church, but, 
 after the outbreak of the Revolution, he devoted himself to the 
 labours of a public journalist, and was successively editor of the 
 Journal Frangais, and of VEclair. After the 18th Brumaire, 
 when many of the journals were suppressed by order of tlie 
 consuls, and amongst others that of Bertin, he founded, in con- 
 junction with his brother, a new periodical, called the Journal 
 des Debats, which was at first chiefly dedicated to the discussion 
 of literary and artistic subjects, politics being rigorously pro- 
 scribed. Bertin, though he retained to the last an important 
 pecuniaiy interest in this journal, soon after ceased to be its 
 ostensible editor ; and some articles having appeared in it oll'cn- 
 
 sive to the government, the whole property, which had become 
 exceedingly valuable, was in 1811 confiscated to the state. 
 Bertin, however, was reimbm'sed in 1814; and in 1815, having 
 followed Louis XVIII. into exile, he commenced a publication, 
 entited Le Moniteur de Gand. After the second restoration, 
 he stedfastly adhered to the politics of the government, and the 
 Journal des Debats, which was again revived, became a constant 
 and able apologist of the new dynasty. Bertin was not only an 
 ardent lover of literature and of learned men, but a passionate 
 admirer of the beautiful in the arts, and numbered among his most 
 cherished friends many of the first artists of his time. — G. !M. 
 
 * BERTIN, Louis Marie Armand, son of the preceding, 
 bom at Paris, 1801. He accompanied M. de Chateaubriand to 
 London as his private secretary. Since the death of his father 
 in 1841, he has conducted the Journal des Debats. 
 
 BERTIN, Nicholas, an eminent French painter, was bom 
 at Paris in 1667. His father was a sculptor; but dying when 
 Bertin was young, left him to study under Jouvenet and Bon 
 Boullonge. At eighteen, the prodigy gained the gi-eat prize at 
 the academy, and was sent to Rome as the king's pensioner. 
 At Rome he was offered an appointment, but a reckless intrigue 
 with a young princess compelled him to fly. In 1703, he was 
 elected a member of the academy ; and Louis XIV. and several 
 foreign princes gave him commissions. His diploma pictui-e 
 was " Hercules delivering Prometheus ; " for the king he painted 
 " Vertumnus and Pomona ; " and for the abbey of St. Gennain des 
 Pres his grandest work — " Philip baptizing the Eunuch " — a good 
 Veronese subject. In 1716 he was made professor, and soon 
 after director of the Roman Academy, through the kindness of 
 the duke d'Antin. This favour, however, he refused, remem- 
 bering the unlucky princess ; nor would he attend even to the 
 solicitations of the electors of Bavaria and Mayence ; he died in 
 1736. His drawing and expression were both feeble; but his 
 small pieces are better, and his landscape backgrounds pleasantly 
 treated.— W. T. 
 
 BERTIN, Theodore Pierre, a litterateur, born at Done- 
 marie, 1751; died 1819. His works amount to more than one 
 hundred volumes. None of them present anything I'emarkable 
 except his " System of Stenography." 
 
 BERTIN, Ren:6 Joseph Hyacinth, the son of Exupere 
 Joseph, born at Gohard in 1767, was long on active service with 
 the French amiies, but finally settled down as principal surgeon 
 to the Hopital Cochin in Paris. Besides some good memoirs ui 
 the Journal des Medecins, Rene Bertin published an independent 
 treatise " On the Venereal Disease in new-born infants, pregnant 
 women, and nurses," Paris, 1810 ; and some other works, one 
 of which relates to the French and English prisoners during the 
 wars of the Republic. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERTINI, Antonio Francesco, an Italian physician, bom 
 at Castel-Fiorentino on the 28th December, 1658, studied at 
 Sienna and Pisa, where he acquired a knowledge of medicine, 
 astronomy, mathematics, languages, and literature, and took his 
 degree of doctor of philosophy and medicine in 1678, when only 
 twenty years of age. He then took up his abode in Florence, 
 where he became acquainted with the most celebrated philoso- 
 phers of his age and country, such as L. Bellini, Redi, Cinelli, 
 Magliabecchi, &c., and was shortly afterwards appointed to the 
 professorship of the practice of medicine at the hospital of Santa 
 Maria Nuova. His reputation soon extended all over Italy, and 
 in 1722 he was called to Tmin, to a consultation upon the illness 
 of the duchess of Savoy. Bertini lived but a short time after 
 his return to Florence from this expedition to Turin. He died 
 in Florence on the 10th December, 1726. The reputation of 
 Bertini does not appear to have extended much beyond the con- 
 fines of Italy, and the works that he left behind him are entirely 
 of a controversial nature, dictated rather by a wounded self-love, 
 than by any desire for the advancement of science. The earliest 
 in point of date is a " Defence of medicine against the calumnies 
 of the vulgar, and from the oppositions of the learned, in two 
 dialogues," published at Lucca in 1699. In this work he 
 sounded the trumpet of praise in favour of all his colleagues but 
 one (Moneglia), who, feeling himself aggrieved by such a pro- 
 ceeding, attacked the offendmg pamphlet in no measured terms. 
 Bertini rejilied in the same style, in a jiamphlet entitled, " Reply 
 to the familiar discourse of Tei-filo Saniio, against the author of 
 the Defence of Medicine," which was published at Lucca in 1700. 
 He wrote several other works of a similar nature, to which it is 
 unnecessaiy to refer in detail. — W. S. D.
 
 BER 
 
 552 
 
 BER 
 
 BERTINI, Giuseppe Makia Saverio, the son of the pre- 
 ceding, was bom at Florence on the 10th March, 1694. Like 
 his father, he finished his studies at Pisa, and took his degi-ee 
 in 1714, when only twenty years of age. He then immediately 
 returned to Florence, where he practised medicine with such 
 fp-eat success, that his fellow-citizens struck a medal in his 
 lionour, and he was made a member of the learned society, 
 Colombaria. He died on the 12th April, 1756, of the conse- 
 quences of an accident wliich happened to him in the previous 
 year, and caused him to pass several months in gi-eat misery. 
 Unlike his father, Giuseppe Bertini seems to have devoted him- 
 self to the advancement of medical science with his whole soul. 
 He constantly studied the best books published in all parts of 
 Europe, and was indefatigable in making observations and 
 experuiients. His principal works are the following — A treatise 
 " On the internal and external use of Mercury," published 
 at Florence in 1744, and reprinted at Vienna in 1746, in a 
 collection of memoirs on " ^lalignant and Contagious Fevers." 
 The memoir on the use of mercury, in which Bertmi maintained 
 that that metal is a sovereign specific in malignant and con- 
 tagious fevers, and even preferable to Peruvian bark, was read 
 before the botanical society of Florence, where it created a great 
 sensation, and brought do-wn numerous and severe criticisms 
 upon the head of its author. He, however, maintained both his 
 point and his temper, without allowing himself to be drawn into 
 the violent controversies which appear to have been common 
 amongst his contemporaries. His treatise, translated into Latin, 
 was published at Venice in 1756, in the work of Giovanni 
 Astruc, De Morbis Venereis. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BERTINI, Henri, a pianist, and composer for his instru- 
 ment, was bom in London in 1798. His father, who was bom 
 at Tours in 1750, was an accomplished musician, and directed 
 the early studies both of Henri and his elder brother, Benoit 
 Auguste. This last, who was born at Lyons in 1780, became a 
 pupil of Clementi, has published several pianoforte composi- 
 tions, and resided much in London. The family removed to 
 Paris when Henri was but six months old. In 1810 his father 
 commenced a tour, for the display of the boy's already notable 
 talent as an executant, through the Rhenish provinces and 
 Belgium. After this Bertini spent some time in England and 
 Scotland, and finally settled in Paris in 1821. He is much 
 esteemed as a player, and still better known by his writings. 
 Some trios and a sestet for pianoforte and string instruments 
 are his most important composirions ; but great praise is due to 
 his studies, which are as well fitted to form the taste as to train 
 the finger. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERTINORO, Rabbi Obadiah. This learned rabbi, bom 
 at Bertinoro, in the Romagna, quitted his native land in 1488, 
 and obtained the appointment as chief rabbi of Jerusalem, in 
 which city he died in the year 1530. His principal work is an 
 excellent commentary on the " Mishna," (Traditional Law,) 
 which Surenhusius has translated into Latin, and pubhshed 
 along with the text of the Mishna. — T. T. 
 
 BERTIUS, Peter, geographer and historiographer to Louis 
 XIII,, bom at Flanders, 1565 ; died 1629. He studied at Leyden, 
 and travelled through several parts of Europe. He is principally 
 known by his geographical works, the most celebrated of which 
 is, " Theatrum Geographic veteris," 2 vols, fol., 1618; a com- 
 pilation from the works of Ptolemy and others. But the most 
 learned is one composed in 1629, on the occasion of constracting 
 the dike by which Richelieu blocked up Rochelle, reprinted in 
 the Thesaurus of Rom. antiq., vol. ii., p. 916. — J. G. 
 
 BERTLEF, ]\Iartin, a learned Geraian, bora in Transylvania, 
 lived in the second part of the seventeenth century. Author of 
 '• Solennes et civiles condones," Dorpat, 1695 ; and an account 
 of the siege of Riga by the grand-duke of Jiloscow. 
 
 BERTOLACCI, Anthony, an English political writer, of 
 Corsican origin ; died in 1833. He filled for a number of years 
 the post of comptroller-general in the island of Ceylon ; and, on 
 his return to England, published " A View of the Agricultural, 
 Commercial, and Financial Interests of Ceylon, with an Appen- 
 dix, containing some of the Principal Laws and Customs of the 
 Indians," London, 1817. In the same year he produced "An 
 Inquiry into several questions of Political Economy, applicable 
 to the present state of Great Britain." He afterwards took up 
 his residence in France, and continued to interest himself in 
 political questions, especially those affecting the welfare of 
 England and France. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERTOLI, AuRELio Giorgio, bom at Rimini in 1753. He 
 was placed by his parents, who destined him for the church, in 
 the seminary of his native city. He was afterivards received into 
 the order of St. Benedict, Olivetans, whose strict disdpUne soon 
 persuaded hun that he had no vocation for monastic life. Having 
 clandestinely left that convent, he fled to Hungaiy, where, forced 
 by want and privations, he enlisted in an Austrian regiment. 
 However, military life was no more suitable to his disposition 
 than the seclusion of a cloister ; and therefore, having obtained 
 his discharge, he returned to Italy, and sought to be re-admitted 
 into the order he had previously deserted. His demand being 
 granted, he immediately resumed his studies, and obtained a 
 prufessorship in the college of Sienna. There he composed his 
 reno'mied work, " Le notti Clementine," an epic poem on the 
 death of Clement XIV. From thence he was called to Naples 
 to fill the chair of histoiy and geography in the royal college for 
 the na\'y, and the course of lectures he delivered there was so 
 much admired, that, at the request of the authorities of that 
 university, he published it, and it met with the same approbation 
 which the public bestowed on his former work. Deeply versed 
 in German literature, he \'isited Vienna in 1783, for the purpose 
 of becoming personally acquainted mth the literary men with 
 whom he had coiTesponded ; and his profound learning, com- 
 bined with the suavity of his manners, won for him the esteem 
 and favours of the emperor, who elected him professor of belles- 
 lettres in the university of Pavia. On his way to Italy, he passed 
 through Switzerland, where he visited Gesner, whose idyls he 
 had translated, and charmed by the sublime beauties of the 
 Rhone, he ^Tote a very graphic description of its banks. His 
 works on philosophy and history, as well as his translation of 
 Horace, went through three editions. His criticism on Metas- 
 tasio is highly esteemed. He also wrote two essays " On the 
 Literature and Language of Gemiany," besides many other works, 
 and a collection of sonnets. He died in 1798. — A. C. M. 
 
 BERTOLI, Giovanni Domenico, an Italian Htterateur and 
 antiquarian, bom 1676 ; died 1750. He has done much for the 
 preservation and explanation of the antiquities of Italy. Author 
 of a vast number of memoirs and letters. 
 
 * BERTOLONI, Antonio, a celebrated Italian botanist, pro- 
 fessor at Bologna. He has published a vast number of botanical 
 works, including " Flora Itahca ;" " Accoimt of the Plants 
 cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Bologna ;" monographs of 
 various Plants ; Account of Botanical Excm'sions to the Appen- 
 nines and other parts of Italy ; a Flora of Guatemala. — J. H. B. 
 
 BERTOLOTTO, John Laurence, a historical painter, bom 
 1640, studied under CastigUone, and died 1721 (George I.) 
 Excelled in composition and colom\ — W. T. 
 
 BERTON, Jean-Baptiste, a French general of brigade, 
 bom at Francheval, near Sedan (Ardennes), 15th June, 1769; 
 beheaded at Poitiers, 5th October, 1822. Having finished his 
 studies at Brienne, and Chalons, he entered in 1792 as sub- 
 lieutenant in the legion of Ardennes. After the battle of Spi- 
 nosa, Napoleon created him chef d'etat major. After serving in 
 several brilliant campaigns, he was raised to the rank of general. 
 In common with nearly all the soldiers who had fought under 
 Napoleon, he was warmly opposed to the restoration of the 
 Bom-bons, and continued to manifest this opposition even after 
 the fall of the Empire. In February, 1822, he raised the stand- 
 ard of revolt at Thouars, and, proclaiming a provisional govern- 
 ment, marched upon Saumur at the head of twenty-five horse- 
 men, and a hundred armed pedestrians. He was arrested, how- 
 ever, on his way, and his troop was disbanded. He was brought 
 to trial with several of his accomplices, before the court of assizes 
 of Poitiers, and condemned to death. The punishment of death 
 for political offences had, indeed, been preriously aboUshed ; but 
 such was the alarm of the government at the disaffection which 
 had begun to manifest itself in the army, and the recent machin- 
 ations of the society of the Carbonaii, of which Berton was an 
 active member, that the king ordered the sentence against Berton 
 and his accomplices to be caiTied into immediate execution. — G. M. 
 
 BERTON. Three musicians who successively distinguished 
 themselves in Paris : — 
 
 Pierre Moxtan Berton was bom in 1727 at Paris, 
 where his father was an opulent merchant. His disposition 
 for music was conspicuous in his infancy, and whUe yet a 
 schoolboy at Senlis, he distinguished himself in singing and 
 playing, and even composition. AMien his voice broke, he, m 
 dii-ect opposition to the will of his parents, appeared as a singer
 
 BER 
 
 553 
 
 BER 
 
 ;it the opera at Paris. His extreme nervousness, prevented Us 
 success in this capacity ; he went therefore to Marseilles, in hopes 
 to gain confiJence by removal from the urgency of his friends' 
 objections, but met there witli no better fortune. He now aban- 
 doned the stage, and went to Bordeaux to be engaged as organist 
 at two churclies, and accompanyist at the theatre. He there 
 ^^Tote an opera called " Erosiue," which he sent his father, whom 
 he thus conciliated. In 1753 he returned to Paris, and two years 
 later was appointed to succeed Boyer as director of the orchestra 
 at the grand opera. It was in this situation that he attained 
 his eminence as an artist. The conscientious care with which he 
 produced eveiy work confided to him, raised the standard of 
 l\Tical performance in Paiis to that elevation, which stUl causes 
 the French opera to be cited as the model of executive perfec- 
 tion. For thirty-three years he discharged the duties of his 
 office with imflinchLng zeal. He then retired on a pension of his 
 full salary, and he resumed the directorship in 1799 ; but his 
 strength being unequal to the fiitigues of the situation, he was 
 compelled after a few months to resign it. 
 
 Henri jMonta^j Bertox, his son, was bom at Paris, Sep- 
 ■_ iuber 17, 1767, where he died in 184-4. He had the great advan- 
 tage of his fiither's instruction in music, and obtained an early 
 proficiency. He was but fifteen when he was engaged as violinist 
 in the orchestra of the opera, and rose rapidly in his profession. 
 He had some lessons in composition of Rev, but pursued this study 
 to more advantage under Sacchini. His first productions in public 
 were some oratorios and cantatas at the concerts spuituels ; but his 
 extensive popularity was derived from his very nmnerous operas, 
 which, although they lasted but for their day, in that day were 
 extremely successful. The first of these was " Les Promesses de 
 Mariage," written in 1787; and the most meritorious were 
 " Montano et Stephanie ; " " Le Delire ; " and " Aline." On the 
 establishment of the conservatoire in 1795, Berton was appointed 
 [■rofessor of composition. From 1807 to 1809 he was director 
 of the orchestra of the Italian opera, in which capacity he 
 brought out ilozart's Figaro for the first time in Paris. After 
 the dissolution of the conservatoire in 1815, he was appointed 
 by the king's commissioners to reorganize that institution. On 
 the extension of the musical department of the Institut des 
 Beaux Arts from three to six members, Berton was chosen with 
 ' 'artel and Cherabini to fill these new places of distinction. He 
 ^vas also created a chevalier of the legion of honour. He was the 
 author of a new, but not very sound system of hannony, and he 
 wrote several pamphlets and ;u'ticles in the periodicals upon music. 
 
 Francois Bertox, the son of Henri and JlademoiseUe MaU- 
 lard, a singer, was born at Paris in 1784, where he died of 
 cholera in 1832. He had some ephemeral success as a dramatic 
 omposer ; but, with neither the vivacity of his father, nor the 
 - 'lidity of his grandfather, he showed no character in his music 
 of sufficient decision to make a lasting impression. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERTON, William, chancellor of the university of Oxford 
 in the days of John Wicklitf. By vu-tue of his office, he 
 appointed the twelve censors who examined the refonner's 
 opinions, and pronounced him a heretic. Berton's works are 
 only noteworthy, because they refer to Wickliff. They are, 
 '• Determinationes contra Wiclevum ;" " Sententia super justa 
 ejus condemnatione ;" and " Contra ejus Articulos." — J. B. 
 
 BERTONI, Ferdin.\ndo, a musician, was bom in 1727, on 
 the island of Salo in the Adriatic, and died at Venice in 1801. 
 His instractor was Padre ^Martini. He was appointed professor 
 at the Conservatorio dcgli Incm-abili in 1750 ; and twenty years 
 later, at the Conservatorio de Mendicanti, both at Venice. In 
 1750, also, he was engaged as organist at the ducal chapel of 
 ^r. JIark. He produced thirty-three operas and oratorios, the 
 rst of which, " Orazio e Curiazio," appeared in 1746. He made 
 iio remarkable success until 1776, when his " Orfeo" gained 
 him the highest admiration. His " Quinto Fabio," was produced 
 at Padua with singular applause, which was, however, in some 
 part attributable to the extraordinary merit of Pacchierotti, who 
 personated the principal character. In company with this artist 
 Bertoni came to London in 1779, and gave here the same opera, 
 which was so well received that it was performed twelve times 
 during the season. Although thus successful, the composer found 
 a powerful rival in Sacchini, and quitted therefore this country 
 on the close of the theatre. " Annida" and "Tancredi," were 
 the two of his works best considered after those which have been 
 named. On the death of Galuppi in 1785, Bertoni was appointed 
 maestro di capella at the cathedral of St. Mark in Venice. In 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 his later years he wrote some sonatas and violin quartets of merit. 
 He avowedly founded his style upon that of Gluck, and, with 
 some modesty, ascribed to the excellence of his model the great 
 success he experienced. Comparatively little of his music was 
 published. Besides the many works he brought out, he left several 
 that have never been produced. — G. A. M. 
 
 BERTRAM, Charles, an English antiquary, who pubHshed 
 about 1757 the treatise De Situ Britannia. It pui-ported to be 
 by a monk of the fifteenth century, and to contain a map of 
 Roman Britain which belonged to the Roman period. The 
 discovery was hailed with delight by the most eminent anti- 
 quarians, but considerable doubt has since been cast on the 
 genuineness of the production. Bertram spent the greater part 
 of his life in Copenhagen, and died there. — J. B. 
 
 BERTR,\iI, Christian Augustus, a German htterateur, 
 bom at Berlin, 1751 ; died 1830. He held several important 
 financial situations, and contributed to the public journals. 
 Author of a " Biography of the Artists and Learned Men of 
 Gei-many," BerUn, 1780; "Plan for the improvement of the 
 German theatre." — J. G. 
 
 BERTRAM, Cornelius Bonaventure, famous in the 
 sixteenth century for his oriental learning, was born at Thonars 
 in Poictou in 1531. An exile for the sake of the protestant 
 religion, he was appointed Hebrew professor at Geneva, and 
 while there published several works. Among them were — 
 " Comparaison de THebreu et de TAramee," and a treatise " De 
 Politia Judaica." He revised the Geneva version of the holy 
 scriptures. Having resided sometime in the Palatinate, and 
 other places, he took a professorship at Lausanne, where he died 
 in 1594. He manied the niece of Beza's first wife. Casau- 
 bon, and many other gi-eat scholars, speak of Bertram's critical 
 powers in tenns of high admiration. — T. J. 
 
 BERTRAM, Joiiann Friedrich, a German protestant 
 theologian, celebrated as a linguist and as a controversial v^-riter, 
 was bom in 1699, and died in 1741. He ■«Tote " Commen- 
 tatio de singularibus Anglonmi in eruditionem orientalem meri- 
 tis," and an " Introduction to the study of belles-lettres." 
 
 BERTRA;\I, Joiiann Georg, a Gemian theologian, was for 
 some time almoner to a regiment, and afterwards, in succession, 
 pastor at GifFhom and at Brans-wick. His principal work is 
 entitled " Das Evangelische Liineburg, oder Refomiations-und 
 Khchen-historie der Stadt-Liineburg," 1719. He was bom at 
 Liineburg in 1670, and died in 1728. 
 
 BERTKAJI, the Priest. See Ratrajinus. 
 
 BERTRAXD, Abbe, bora in 1735 ; died in 1792, a French 
 astronomer of consideraltle merit. He was a gi-eat friend of 
 Lalande's. He accompanied d'Entrecasteaux in his voyage in 
 search of La Perouse. His death was hastened by a fall over a 
 precipice at Table Mountain, Cape of Good Hope, which he bad 
 ascended with the aim of meteorological research. — J. P. N. 
 
 BERTR AND, Antoine Marie, mayor of Lyons in the years 
 1792-93, was originally a merchant. On the defeat of his 
 party in the mayoralty by the royalists, he fled to Paris and 
 joined the CordeHers. He was arrested after the fall of Robe- 
 spierre, but escaped -with a short imprisonment. Afterwards 
 concemed in the insurrection of Grenelle, he was executed in 
 October, 1796.— J. S., G. 
 
 BERTRAND, £lie, a French protestant preacher, bom at 
 Arbe, in the Pays de Vaud, in 1712, was distinguished as a 
 physicist and geologist. After preaching for several years in 
 various parts of Switzerland, and especially in the French church 
 at Beme (from 1744), he went to Poland on the invitation of 
 the king in 1765 or 1766, and in 1768 was created a nobleman 
 and received his naturalisation ; but, nevertheless, soon retumed 
 to his native countiy, and settled himself in a private condition 
 at Yverdun, where he surrounded himself with a good collection 
 of antiquities and fossils. Bertrand was a member of several of 
 the principal academies in France, Switzerland, and Gennany, 
 and was the author of nmnerous works on a great variety of 
 subjects. Of his moral and religious writings we may notice 
 " Le Philanthrope," published in 1738; the "Confession de foi 
 dcs dglises reformees en Suisse," 1760 ; a translation of Bullin- 
 ger's Confcssio Fidei ; " Jlorale de I'Evangile," in seven volumes, 
 published at Neufchatel in 1775; and " Elemens de la Jlorale 
 Universelle," at the same place in 1776. In 1754, Bertrand 
 published "Essais sur les usages des Montagues," &c. ; and in 
 1756, "^lemoires pour servir a s'instniire des tremblements do 
 terre de la Suisse, principalement poiu- I'annee 1755 ;" accom- 
 
 4 A
 
 BER 
 
 554 
 
 BER 
 
 panied by four sermons which were delivered upon the occasion. 
 Of more scientific works we have " Memoircs sur la structure 
 intcrieure de la Terre," published at Zurich in 1752, and again 
 in 17G0 ; " Dictionnaire universel des Fossiles propres et des 
 Fossiles accidentfls," at tlie Hague in 1763, and at Avignon in 
 1764, followed in 1766 by a " Recueil de divers traites sur 
 I'Histoire Naturelle de la Terre ct des Fossiles." Bertrand also 
 published several books of a lighter character upon the physical 
 phenomena of the Alps, and one on the languages of Switzer- 
 land, especially of the Canton de Vaud. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERTRAND, Hknri-Gratien, Comte, a French general, 
 bom 1773, died 1844. He served first in the national guard, 
 but afterwards joining the corps of engineers, he accompanied 
 Napoleon into Egypt. He subsequently distinguished himself at 
 AusterUtz, Spandau, Friedland, and Wagram, and in the Russian 
 campaign. He rendered also important sei-vice after the battle 
 of Hanau. After the final abdication of Napoleon, Bertrand 
 was permitted to follow him to St. Helena, and did not return 
 to France until after the emperor's deatli. Bertrand had been 
 condemned to death for contumacy in 1816, and at his return in 
 1821 his sentence remained unrevoked. It was now, however, 
 annulled by a royal ordinance, and he was reinstated in his civil 
 rights and military rank. After 1830 he was elected deputy of 
 his department, and was distinguished in the chambers by his 
 liberal sentiments and his love of justice. — G. M. 
 
 BERTRAND, Jean Elie, a Swiss preacher, bom at Neuf- 
 chatel in 1737, was chief pastor of the French church at Berae, 
 and afterwards professor of belles-lettres in the academy of his 
 native town. He superintended the publications of the Typo- 
 gi-aphical Society of Neufchatel, of which he was one of the 
 founders. He wrote " Sennons sur les difterents textes de 
 I'Ecriture Sainte," 1773. Died in 1779. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERTRAND, Louis, a mathematician and geologist, bom at 
 Geneva in 1731 ; died in 1812. He was a friend of the illus- 
 trious Euler, and a man of much merit. He is best known by 
 his " Developpements nouveaux de la partie elevataire des ma- 
 thematiques, prise dans toute son etendue," two vols. 4to. Like 
 many others, Bertrand attempted to solve the difficulty connected 
 with parallel fines ; and he failed also. This solution demanded 
 the introduction of the idea of infinites, and that we should speak 
 of infinites as being equal and unequal — a proposal at utter 
 variance with the spirit and methods of pure geometry. — J. P. N. 
 
 BERTRAND, Louis- Jacques -Napoleox-Aloisius, a 
 French poet, born 1807; died 1841. He was a journalist, and 
 left one work published after his death, " Fantasies a la 
 manifere de Rembrandt et Callot," Angers, 1842. 
 
 BERTRAND, PiiiLiprE, a French geologist and engineer, 
 born at the castle of Launoy, near Sens, in 1730, was employed, 
 whilst still very young, in the corps of ci%'il engineers, in 
 Auvergne, the Alps, and Pyrenees. He availed himself of the 
 journeys which he was compelled to make professionally to 
 improve himself in natural history, but especially in geolog}'. 
 In 1769 he was appointed chief engineer of Franche-Comt^. 
 About this time an officer of engineers, named Labiche, proposed 
 to make a canal from the Rhone to the Rhine, by the Saone and 
 the Doubs ; and his plans were submitted to Bertrand, who, by 
 exaggerating the difficulties of the undertaking, caused it to be 
 given up, but in 1777 brought fonvard a plan, which was nearly, 
 if not exactly, identical with part of that of Lal>iche. The pro- 
 posed can.d was authorized by a decree of council of Sept. 25, 
 1783, and although Labiche put in his claim to the merit of the 
 proposal, Bertrand was appointed to direct it. He did not, 
 however, complete this undertaking, but in 1787 obtained the 
 post of inspector-general of bridges and roads. In 1790 he 
 brought before the national assembly a plan for the junction of 
 tlie Rhone and the Rhine by the river of Doubs, which was also 
 a plagiarism from Labiche, who on this, as on the former occa- 
 sion, asserted his right to be considered as the originator of the 
 proposition, and as the proper person to whom its execution 
 should be confided. In this, however, he was defeated by 
 InTtrand, whose proposals were accepted. Bertrand did not, 
 however, see the completion of this gi-eat engineering enterprise, 
 which was not finished until 1832, wliilst his own death took 
 ])lace at Paris in 1811. He became a member of the Academy 
 of Besan9on in 1786, and in 1800 a corresponding member of 
 the agi-icultural society of the department of Doubs. His 
 writings are tolerably numerous, the principal being as follow : — 
 " Projet d'un canal de navigation pour joindre Ic Doubs a la 
 
 Saone," Besan9on, 1777— a plagiarism from Labiche, as already 
 stated ; a " Critical and new Essay upon the general Theory of 
 the Earth," in tlic fonn of a letter to Buftbn, published at 
 Besanyon and Paris in 1780, of which a second edition, with a 
 supplement, appeared at the former place in 1782; "New 
 system of the Granites, Schists," &c., published at Paris in 
 1794 ; and " New Principles of Geology," Paris, 1798, of which 
 a new edition appeared in 1804. Besides these, he wrote several 
 works upon dift'erent subjects of inland navigation, including a 
 " Syst^me de navigation fluviale," Paris, 1793, and memoirs 
 upon his proposed canals between the Rhone and the Rhine, and 
 upon the canal d'Omxq at Paris. — W. S. D. 
 
 BERTRAND de RIolleville, Antoine Francois, mar- 
 quis de, minister of Louis XVI., bom at Toulouse in 1744, 
 was successively master of requests under JIaupeou, and inten- 
 dant of the province of Bretagne. He became minister of mai-ine 
 in 1791 ; but in the same year was denoimced by the assembly, 
 and in consequence deprived of office. Aftenvards employed as 
 chief of the secret police, he incurred the wrath of the Jacobins, 
 and was again denounced in the assembly. To escape prosecu- 
 tion he passed over to England in 1792. Besides a "History 
 of the Revolution" and some other interesting works, he pub- 
 lished " Histoire d'Angleten-e depuis la premiere invasion des 
 Rom.iins jusqu'a la paix de 1763," Paris, 1815. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERTRANDI, John Ambrose Maria, a celebrated Italian 
 anatomist and surgeon, was bom at Turin in 1723. His parents 
 were poor, and his earlier education was effected in the face 
 of gi-eat difficulty. Through the kindness of Klingher, surgeon 
 to the king, he was enabled to study surgery, and made rapid 
 progress. In 1747 he was admitted an associate of the College 
 of Surgeons, and published a " Dissertation on the Liver." Hav- 
 ing visited London and Paris by request, and at the expense 
 of Charles Emmanuel, he was, on his return, appointed to a 
 chair of practical surgeiy and anatomy m Turin, which the king 
 had founded for his sake. He took great interest in a society 
 then formed, named the Royal Academy of Sciences, and con- 
 tributed valuable papers to its memoirs. Bertrandi's principal 
 work was the "Trattato delle Operazioni di Chirurgia," Nice, 
 1763 ; but his wiitings are comprised in thirteen octavo volumes. 
 He died of dropsy in 1765. — J. B. 
 
 BERTRANDON de la Brocqui^re, a chronicler, bora in 
 the duchy of Guienne, at the close of the fourteenth century. 
 Author of a " Voyage to and fi'om Jenisalem, during the years 
 1432-1433." This work has been translated into English, 
 London, 1807, 8vo. 
 
 BERTRANS, Clerc, a poet of the thirteenth century. AJI 
 that is known of him is that he wrote a romance entitled, 
 " Gerard de Veane or de Vienne." 
 
 BERTRIC, king of Wessex, came to the thi-one about 784. 
 His claims had been disputed by Alkmund, vassal king of Kent, 
 and he ever afterwards showed himself jealous of Alkmund's son, 
 Egbert, whose claims to Wessex were greater than his own, 
 and who was yet destined to unite the heptarchy into one king- 
 dom. Egbert took refuge at the court of Offa, king of Mercia; 
 but to deprive him of that asylum, Bertric souglit an alliance 
 with Edburga, Offa's daughter. His suit was successful, and 
 his marriage was solemnized in 787. Egbert fled to the con- 
 tinent, and found protection at the court of Charlemagne. 
 Bertric's wife, ever jealous of her husband's favourites, had sought 
 in vain to diminish his esteem for Worr, an alderaian or earl, 
 among his adherents. She planned to remove him by violence, 
 but the poison cup which she intended him to drink, was also 
 tasted by the king, and proved fatal, about the year 800. Eg- 
 bert's way being thus cleared, he returned to England, and 
 became king of Wessex. It was in Bertric's reign that the first 
 Danish invasion of England took place. — J. B. 
 
 BERTUCCIO, , an Italian sculptor and goldsmith, who 
 
 cast in bronze doors for the basiUc of St. Mark at Venice. He 
 lived in the first half of the fourteenth century. 
 
 BERTUCH, Friedrich Justin, a German miseollaneous 
 ^mter, was bom at Weimar, 30th September, 1747, and died 3d 
 April, 1822. He was a minor star of that brilliant constellation 
 which clustered around Goethe, and promoted literature in various 
 ways. He wrote some tr.igedies and operas, published a Mar/azin 
 cler SpuJiischen unci Fortuf/iesischen Literatur, and the highly- 
 popular Bilderbuch fiir Kinder ; translated Cervantes' Don 
 Quixote ; edited the Blaue Bibliothek aller Nationen (a collec- 
 tion of fairy tales in 12 vols.), the Journal des Jaixus und der
 
 Moden, the Geographlsche Ephemeriden, &c. He was also the 
 originator of the Jenaische Literutur Zeiiuiig, of the Industrie- 
 Comptoir (a publishing establishment at WeuTiar), aud of the 
 Geographische Institut. — K. E. 
 
 BERTULF, king of jMercia, came to the throne in 839, but 
 was dethroned by the Danes in 851. 
 
 BERURIAH or PHRURIAH, a Hebrew matron, honourably 
 mentioned in the Talmud for her learning, her sincere piety, and 
 her gentleness of character. The resignation -with wliich she 
 bore the sudden and simultaneous death of her two sons, has 
 furnished materials for a beautiful apologue, which has found its 
 way into several modem languages. (H. Hurwitz's Hebrew 
 Tales. The original som'ce is the Jlidrash on Proverbs xxxi. 
 10, where, however, her husband's name only is mentioned.) 
 Beruriah was the daughter of Rabbi Chanina ben Teradiou, who 
 was put to death during the persecution subsequent to the revolt 
 of Bar Cochba, in the second century ; her husband was the 
 still more renowned teacher of the law, Ral)bi Heir. The 
 feminine gentleness of Beruriah's disposition is illustrated by the 
 remonstrance which, according to the Talmud, she addressed to 
 her husband when he once uttered an imprecation against some 
 wicked persons who had sorely annoyed him. The psalmist, 
 Beruriah reminded him, did not pray " for the destruction of the 
 sinners (choteun), but for the end of all sins (chattaim)," 
 Psalm civ. 35. — T. T. 
 
 BERTUSIO, GiovAXNi Battista, a pupil of Denis Calvart's, 
 at Bologna, and a fellow student of Guido, Albano, and the two 
 Caraccis. He tried to rival Guido (a dangerous model in grace 
 and colour), but his figures, though well drawn, are dull, and his 
 colour is weak and mealy. — W. T. 
 
 BERTUZZI, Ercole Gaetano, was bom at Bologna in 
 1669 (Charles II.), and died 1722 (George I.), he attained some 
 excellence in portraits. — W. T. 
 
 BERULLE, Pierre, Cardinal, an illustrious French contro- 
 versialist, born of an ancient family of Champagne, at the 
 manor-house of Scrilly, near Troyes, in 1575. In youth he was 
 remarked for piety and love of study, and early gave e\4dence 
 of remarkable talents in controversies with the Huguenots. He 
 took part in the famous conference held at Fontainebleau be- 
 tween Cardinal du Perron and Plessis-ilomay, the pope of the 
 Huguenots as he was called, and on that occasion, as on many 
 similar ones subsequently, conciliated the protestants as much 
 by his candour and courtesy, as he dehghted the papists by his 
 zeal. The reputation which he acquired in controversy enabled 
 him to caiTy out, in the face of numerous obstacles, a project 
 for the introduction into France of a body of Spanish Carmelites, 
 by means of which he hoped to revive the declining popularity 
 of monachism. With the same ^"iew he combated the opposition 
 of the Jesuits to the foundation of a congregation of priests of the 
 Oratory, and with the help of a bull from Paul V., also suc- 
 ceeded in establishing that order in France. Urban VIII., for 
 these ser\dces, sent him in 1627 the cardinal's hat. To sus- 
 tain that dignity he accepted the revenues of two abbeys, but, 
 in conformity with a vow which he had taken in youth, reso- 
 lutely declined the rich benefices offered him by Henry IV. and 
 Louis XIII. Among other important matters of state in which 
 he was concerned, was that of procuring from Rome a dispensa- 
 tion for the marriage of Henrietta Maria with Charles I. He 
 accompanied the princess into England, and shortly after his 
 return, to the disgust of Richelieu, who could not forgive a states- 
 man the reputation of a saint, was raised to the dignity of 
 minister of state. After a short term of office, in which he was 
 the object of Richelieu's manifold machinations, he retired mto 
 a convent. He died while celebrating mass, October 12, 1629. 
 His works, which are chiefly controversial, were collected into 
 two volumes, folio, in 164-1. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERWICK, Rev. Edward, sometime rector of Lexlip, Ire- 
 land, a scholar, divine, and literary celebrity, at the beginning of 
 the nineteenth century. He was the author of a Translation of 
 Apollonius Tyaneus, and of other works of merit. — E. W. 
 _ BERWICK, James Fitz-James, duke of, and marshal, ille- 
 gitimate son of King James II. of England when duke of 
 York, by Arabella Churchill, sister of the celebrated duke of 
 Marlborough, bom August 21, 1670. He was educated in 
 France, and on his father's accession to the throne in 1685 he 
 entered the imperial army, and saw a good deal of sen-ice in 
 Hungaiy under the famous duke of Lorraine. He was created 
 duke of Berwick in 1GS7. On the expulsion of the Stew;u-t 
 
 djnasty he accompanied his father into exile. He was present 
 with that wrong-headed and unfortunate prince at the battle of 
 the Boyne, and in 1690 was made commander-in-chief of the 
 Irish army which fought for James. After the ruin of his 
 father's cause by the decisive naval battle of La Hogue, of wliich 
 he was an eye-witness, Berwick entered the service of France. 
 He fought in Flanders under I\Iarshal Lusembm-g, and was taken 
 prisoner at the battle of Linden in 1693, but was speedily 
 exchanged for the duke of Ormond. In 1696 he visited Eng- 
 land for the purpose of endeavouring to excite a general insm-- 
 rection against the government, in which he faOed, and was fully 
 cognisant of Barclay's plot, which was at the same time formed 
 against the hfe of Wilham. " To such a degree had his sense 
 of right and wrong been perverted by his zeal for the interests 
 of his family, and by his respect for the lessons of Ms priests, 
 that he did not, as he has lumself ingenuously confessed, think 
 that he lay under any obhgation to dissuade the assassins from 
 the execution of their pm-pose." Berwick rendered important 
 sen-ice to his adopted country by the suppression of the religious 
 wars in the south of France, but he is accused of great cruelty 
 in the execution of his orders. He acquu-ed a high reputation 
 for courage and skill in the Spanish War of Succession; and 
 in 1706 defeated the allied forces under General Stanhope in the 
 decisive battle of Almanza, which established Philip V. on the 
 throne of Spain. In recompense for his great sen-ices he was 
 created a Spanish grandee and duke of Liria and Xerica. He 
 subsequently held various important commands in Spain and 
 Flanders, and was ultimately killed by a cannon ball, June 12, 
 1734, at the siege of Philipsburg on the Rhine. Marshal Ber- 
 wick was a man of cold and ungracious manners, but he was 
 distinguished for his courage and prudence, and was univei-sally 
 esteemed one of the most skilful captains of his age. The dukes 
 of Liria in Spain, and the dukes of Fitz-James in France, are 
 descended from him. (^Memoirs of Marshal Berwicl:) — J. T. 
 
 *BERWINSKI, Ryszard, a Polish publisher and poet, bom 
 at Posen in Prussia in 1819. He studied philology in the 
 universities of Breslau and Berlm. After this time Berwinski 
 busied himself in the study of the narrations, history, and htera- 
 ture of Poland, and became a member of all its scientific 
 societies. In 1840 he published at Breslau, " Powiesci Wiekko- 
 polskie" (the History of Poland); in 1844 he published at 
 Posen a poem, called "Ksiega Swiattai Ztudzen" (The Book of 
 Light and Imagination); and in 1849 he published at Posen 
 the Polish jom-nal, Dzieimik Polski. His most celebrated work 
 is " Studia nad literaturaz ludowaz" (The Study of the people's 
 literature), in 2 vols. In all his writmgs, Berwinski exliibits a 
 fine genius and mtimate knowledge of the character and the 
 customs of the Polish people. — S. de G. 
 
 BERYLLUS, bishop of Bostra in Arabia in the first half of 
 the third centui-)'. He maintained, untU convmced of his error 
 by Origen, at a council held at Bostra, that our Saviour had no 
 existence previous to the incarnation, and that he was no more 
 than a prophet. None of his writings are extant. — J. S., G. 
 
 BERZELIUS or BERZEL, Joiiax Jacob, an illustrious 
 chemical philosopher, was bom in 1779 at Viifersunda, ne:u- 
 Linkoping, in Sweden. He studied medicine and chemistry at 
 Upsala. Wien very young he published an analysis of the 
 waters of ^ledevi, and a dissertation on the influence of electric 
 currents upon organic bodies. His first public appomtment \v;is 
 that of junior professor of phai-macy and chemistry at Upsala. 
 Here he introduced the method of teaching chemisti-y practically, 
 whilst his predecessors had required then- pupils to listen to 
 lectm-es unillustrated by experiment. In 1806 he estabUshed, 
 in conjunction with Hisinger, his well-known "Annals of 
 Physics, Chemistrj', and jiineralogy" (Afhandlinger i FysLk, 
 Keim och Mineralogi), which have for many years afforded a 
 most valuable repertoiy of the progress of physical science. In 
 1807 he aided in foiinding the Swedish I\lcdical Society. The 
 following year he was elected a member of the Royal Academy 
 of Sweden. In 1815 he was made a knight of the order of 
 Vasa, and in 1818 he became perpetual secretary to the Academy 
 of Sciences, an office which he retained till his death. In 1821 
 he received the grand cross of the order of Vasa, and in 1835 
 he was called to the peerage with the title of baron. In the 
 summer of 1848 he was attacked with paralysis, and in the 
 month of August he breathed out his mighty spirit. His intellect 
 was not in the least imjiaired by the approach of death, and 
 up to the last we find him dictating his chemical ideas, and
 
 BER 
 
 556 
 
 BES 
 
 suggesting important experiments. His discoveries — the result of 
 half a century of unintemipted and successful labour — are too 
 many to be here enumerated. He it was who first gave modem 
 analytical chemistiy that exactness on which its value depends. 
 He co-operated with Dalton in establishing the atomic theoiy, 
 and determined the equivalents of the elements with an exact- 
 ness which his successors have rarely surpassed. His electro- 
 chemical theoiy, though now generally abandoned, was in its 
 time highly serviceable, and manifestly proves the genius of its 
 author. The blow-pipe, first introduced by Bergmann and Gahn, 
 became in his hands an instrument of almost magic power. He 
 discovered and examined more bodies, simple and compound, 
 than any other chemist, and veiy rarely indeed have his results 
 been found erroneous. Acciu-acy being his first and last consi- 
 deration, he examined the pretensions of every new theory witli 
 severe inflexibility. Some have even hinted that he played the 
 part of a scientific conservative, and opposed the views of others 
 merely on the score of their novelty. But even if some such 
 feeling existed in his mind, it was surely no disadvantage to 
 science if the hj-potheses, which emanated in such abundance 
 from France and Germany, were narrowly scrutinized before 
 recei-ving recognition. He supported the view of duahstic com- 
 bination, and the doctrine of organic copulaj, but was strenu- 
 ously opposed to the theoiy of types and substitution. His 
 gi'eat " Manual of Chemistry," extending in the last edition to 
 14 vols., is a splendid monument of industry and research, having 
 been rewritten more than ten times, to keep pace with the pro- 
 gress of the science. His private memoirs, containing among 
 other things his opinions on his contemporaries (especially, it is 
 believed, a rather sarcastic critique on Sir H. Da\y), are pre- 
 vented from publication by an absurd Swedish law. — J. W. S. 
 
 BERZSENYI, Daniel, Hungarian poet, was bom in 1776. 
 He was the son of a country gentleman, and lived almost unin- 
 terruptedly on his country-seat, Heteny, in the county of Vas, 
 occupied with superintending the management of his property, 
 and writing poetry in his leisure hom^s, without attaching any 
 gi'eat value to it. A collection of his verses, circulated in manu- 
 script among his friends, was published without his knowledge 
 by Helmeczy in 1813, exciting at once the greatest admira- 
 tion for the poet, who, unexpectedly, found himself a great man 
 in his country. His odes, mostly in classical metre, made him 
 extremely popular, inspired as they are by lofty patriotism, and 
 the keenest feelings of right and justice. Their moral effect on 
 the Himgarian nation can scarcely be oven-ated. He died in 
 183G.— F. P., L. 
 
 BESANCON, Etienne Modeste, born at Lavotte, near 
 Beaune, in 1730 ; died at FessiviUiers, near ^lontbolhard, in 
 1816. He was educated at the seminary of Besan^on for the 
 ecclesiastical profession, and in due time had his share in the 
 fruits of the vineyard. Our young abbe, however, amused him- 
 self and others by vxiting verse. A poet has less chance of being 
 regularly paid than another man ; it is not, however, less neces- 
 sary for him to live, and Etienne, the modest, found himself 
 forced to use, in vindicating his rights of property, the only 
 weapon he could command. The canons of St. Hyppolite were 
 his adversaries at law, and found themselves the sad burthen of 
 many a merry song. The canons complained to the archbishop, 
 and the poet was inhibited from writing verse. The " iixitable 
 race" is not easily prevented from the exercise of such gifts as 
 indignation is said to supply — still less will a good-humoured 
 rhymer give up a joke, felt by its effects to be successful ; and 
 so our abbd continued rhyming on in spite of arciibishop and 
 canons, ay, and the muses themselves. The Revolution came 
 to quiet the disputants, and Besani;on hid among the mountains 
 of Jura while "the Terror" was dealing with the church. In 
 1802 a benefice was found for him at FessiviUiers, where he 
 died at the age of eighty-sLs. His works are " Le Vieux Bourg," 
 1779; " Blanc-blanc on le Chat de Mademoiselle Clitan," 1780; 
 " Le Cure Savoyard," 1782 ; and " Dictionnaire I'ortatif de la 
 Campagne," 1786.— J. A., D. 
 
 BESANTIN (Jiy,(ravrivo;')^ a Greek writer, kno'WTi solely by 
 two epigrams attributed to hma by the JISS. of the Greek 
 Anthology in the Vatican. 
 
 BESARD, Jean-Baptiste, a French phvsician, born at 
 BcsanCjOn about the year 1576, apjiears to have practised his 
 profession at Cologne. He published several works, of which 
 the best known is entitled, " Antmm IMiilosophicum, in quo 
 pleraque physica qua; ad vulgariores humani corporis affectus 
 
 attinent, sine multo verborum apparatu," Augsburg, 1617 — a 
 rare book, consisting of two parts ; the first containing a popular 
 system of medicine, which is very good for the time of its pub- 
 lication, whilst the second is filled with insignificant matters or 
 absurd nonsense, including a description of a machine, by which 
 the author asserted that the perpetual motion would be attained. 
 Besard is also the author of a " Thesaurus Harmonious," pub- 
 lished at Cologne in 1615, and of some of the volumes of the 
 Mercurius Gallo-Belgicus, especially the fifth, which bears his 
 name, and appeared at Cologne in 1601. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BESCHERELLE, Louis Nicolas, a distinguished lexico- 
 grapher, was bom at Paris on the 10th of June, 1802, where he 
 completed his stu<lies, and has since continued to hve. A man 
 of letters and study, his life affords few incidents for the bio- 
 grapher, and has its manifestation only m his works. These 
 are numerous, and are principally on grammar ; m some of which 
 he was aided by his son. Amongst them we may mention the 
 " Grammaire de I'Academie," brought out in conjunction with 
 Lamotte, and the " Dictionnaire National," in two vols., 4to. 
 Sir W. P. Wood, V.C., pronounced a deserved eulogy on this 
 work. M. Bescherelle is at present engaged in an important 
 work on gi-ammar. He has also for many years been a contri- 
 butor to the periodical La France Litteraire, and to the Reime 
 Enc>/do2Kdique. He was appointed Ubrarian to the Louvre in 
 the year 1828.— J. F. W. 
 
 BESCHI, Constantino Giuseppe, an Italian Jesuit, who, 
 after acquiring a singular mastery over several Eastern dialects, 
 established himself m the town of Goa about the year 1700, 
 and, adopting the dress of a Hindoo doctor, wrought art- 
 fully and successfully in the interest of his order. Founding a 
 chm-ch in honour of the Virgin at Konangouppan and another 
 at Vadougapit, he celebrated both occasions in thousands of 
 verses. His principal work is entitled " Grammatica Latino- 
 Tamuhca, ubi de vulgari Tamulicaj linguas idiomate Kotum- 
 Tamil dicto," &e., a revised edition of which was translated 
 into English by B. G. Babington, under the title, " A Grammar 
 of the high dialect of the Tamil language, termed Sheu-Tamil ; 
 with an introduction to Tamil poetry," &c. — J. S., G. 
 
 BESECKE, J. Melciiior Gottlieb, bom at Mittau in 
 1746, was distinguished alike for his philanthropy and his learn- 
 ing. The poor-house at Mittau is a monument of the former 
 quality. The latter is evidenced by many works on a variety of 
 subjects, — natural history, chemistry, pohtical jurispmdence, 
 and philosophy. He filled the chair of law in his native town, 
 and died in 1802.— J. F. W. 
 
 * BESELER, Karl Georg Christian, brother of Wilhelin 
 Hart\\ig, a Geraian political character, and distinguished writer 
 on jurispmdence, was born at Riidenitz, near Husum, 2nd No- 
 vember, 1809. Not being admitted either to the bar, or as a 
 lecturer in Holstein, he settled at Gottingen, where he enjoyed 
 the friendship of the brothers Giimm, of Dahlmann, and other 
 distinguished members of the so-called German historical school. 
 He then became })rofessor at various universities, until he was 
 called to a chair at Greifswald, 1842. In 1848 he was elected 
 a member of the Frankfort national assembly, from which he 
 seceded 20th May, 1849. In the same year he was chosen 
 deputy to the Prussian diet, where he sided with the Left or 
 constitutional party. His chief productions are : — " Lehre von 
 den Erbvertragen," 1835-38, 3 vols.; " Volksrecht und Juris- 
 tenrecht," 1843; "System des gemeinen deutschen Privat- 
 rechts ; " " Commentar iiber die Strafgesetzgebung fiir die 
 Preussischen Staaten," &c. — K. E. 
 
 * BESELER, WiLiiKLM Hartwig, a Gei-man political 
 character, was born at the castle of Marienhausen, near Jever, 
 March 3, 1806. He completed his education at the cathedral 
 school of Schleswg, and the universities of Kiel and Heidelberg, 
 where he devoted himself to the study of law. He then settled 
 at Schleswig, and soon became one of the leading advocates of 
 the CDuntiy, in the political affairs of which he was to take so 
 prominent a part. He was elected a member, and afterwards 
 president, of the Schleswig diet, and as such, firmly withstood 
 all the attempts of the Danish government to incorporate the 
 duchies into the Danish monarchy ; the only means of perma- 
 nently settling all dissensions and feuds, in his opinion, being the 
 annexation of the German portion of Schleswig to the German 
 confederation, without infringing, however, in any way upon the 
 rights of the Danish crown. In 1848 he was chosen a member 
 of the provisional government, and aftei-wards of the regency of
 
 BES 
 
 557 
 
 BES 
 
 the ducUes. At the same time he was a member of the Frank- 
 fort national assembly, where he acted as one of its vice-presi- 
 dents. \\Tien, in January, 1851, Austrian and Pnissian com- 
 missaries for the regulation of the existing disorders were sent 
 into the duchies, Beseler resigned his office, and retired to 
 Brunswick. — K. E. 
 
 BESEXVAL, Pierre Victor, baron de, was bom at 
 Solenfe in 172'2, and at nine years of age entered the Swiss 
 guards, of which corps his father was colonel. Possessed of a 
 handsome person, an excellent addi-ess, and considerable talent, 
 as well as military influence from his parentage, his rise in the 
 French army was rapid ; and when the Revolution broke out he 
 was a lieutenant-general, and commandant of all the nulitary in 
 and around Paris. In this post his vacillating and temporizing 
 conduct brought severe blame on Besenval, though it is almost 
 certain that the fault really lay with the king and his advisers. 
 However, certain it is, that immediately after the taking of the 
 Bastile, Besenval decamped, was arrested, tried, and acquitted 
 with great difficulty ; after which event he lived quite forgotten 
 in Palis tUl his death in 1794. His " Memou-es," first published 
 iu 1805-1807, are entertaining, and of considerable historical 
 value. — J. S. S. 
 
 BESEXZI, Paolo Emilio, was bom at Eeggio, 1624; 
 (Charles I.), and died in 1666. He was an imitator of Albano. 
 
 BESHITZI, or BESHIETZI, Rabbi Elitahc bex Moshe, 
 BEX JlEX.iCHEJi, a learned Caraite, at Constantinople, whence 
 he is sometimes called Stambuli. His work "Adereth Eliyahu" 
 (The mantle of Elijah), treats, in six sections, of the doctrines and 
 ceremonies of the Caraite sect of Jews. Quotations from it 
 occur in E. Cudworth's De Vera Notione Sacrse Ccenae, and, 
 frequently, in John Selden's De Uxore Hebrcea, and De Sy- 
 nedriis. Beshitzi, who died in 1490, left his work incomplete : 
 it was continued by his learned disciple and relative, Caleb Affan- 
 dopulo.— T. T. 
 
 BESHITZI, R.VBBi Moshe, great-grandson of the last-named. 
 If we may credit the account given of him in Dod llardochai, 
 jr. B. was a prodigy of learning and energy. At sixteen years 
 of age, adorned with every accomplishment, he set out on his 
 travels to the East in quest of wisdom, and although he died at 
 the age of eighteen, he had given to the world 245 books, of 
 which, unfortunately, nothing has reached us but a fragment of 
 one, quoted by his panegviist, chap. 9. — T. T. 
 
 BESIERS, Michel, a French chronicler, bom at Bayeux, 
 1719 ; died 1782. Author of some topographical works relating 
 to Caen and Bayeux. — J. G. 
 
 * BESKOW, Beuxard vox, the son of a wealthy mer- 
 chant and iron-founder, bom at Stockholm, 19th April, 1796. 
 Exhibiting in youth gi-eat talents for music and painting, 
 he received instruction in these arts, especially the fonner. 
 Later in life he distinguished himself as a poet. In 1814 he 
 received a government appointment, and afterwards became 
 private secretary to the crown prince. In 1826 he was elevated 
 to the rank of the nobility. The following year he became 
 chamberlain, and in 1833 steward, of the royal household. Two 
 years earlier he assumed the direction of the royal theatre, to 
 which he had famished several excellent pieces, but this office he 
 resigned in consequence of his other duties. He was one of the 
 eighteen who composed the Swedish Academy, of which, in 1834, 
 he was appointed secretary. He spent fom- ye.ars between 1824 
 and 1828 in ^•isiting the principal European countries, and 
 making himself acquainted with their most distinguished men. 
 In 1818 Beskow published a collection of his poems in 2 vols., 
 of which in the following year a second edition appeared, and 
 these were succeeded at different times by the tragedies of '' Erik 
 XIV." of " Hildegarde," " Torkel Knutson" (which has been 
 pronounced the best acting drama of Sweden), " King Birgen 
 and his race," and " Gusta^-us Adolphus in Germany." Some of 
 these tragedies were translated into German by Oehlenschlager, 
 and the music to his opera, "The Troubadoiu^," was composed 
 by the cro\\-n-prince, now king of Sweden. It is as a dramatic 
 wnter, and especially as a writer of the historic-drama, that Von 
 Beskow takes his highest place in the literature of his countiy. 
 In 1832 he published " Recollections of his Wanderings," in 2 
 vols., and he has been an active contributor to most of the peri- 
 odicals of his native land. In 1842 he received the title of 
 doctor of philosophy. A liberal and patriotic spirit characterizes 
 the writings of Von Beskow. — JI. H. 
 
 BESLER, B.\siL, a German pharmaceutist, was bora at 
 
 Nuremberg in 1561, and died in 1629. He practised as an 
 apothecary at Nuremberg, and established a private botanic 
 garden, in wliich he cultivated many interesting medicinal plants. 
 He formed also a collection of curiosities. He pubhshed " Hor- 
 ttis Eystettensis" in 4 volumes folio, containing 356 copperplates, 
 and 1086 figures of plants from various parts of the world. The 
 expense of the work was defrayed by the bishop of Eichstadt. 
 Plumier has called a genus of plants Beslera. — J. H. B. 
 
 BESLER, JIiCHEL Robert, a German medical man, and 
 nephew of Basil, was bom at Nirremberg on 5th July, 1607, 
 and died on 8tli Febmary, 1661. He studied at HeUbronn, 
 Altdorf, and Padua. In 1631 he took the degree of doctor of 
 medicine at Altdorf, and afterwards became a fellow of the 
 college of physicians of Nuremberg. He was a zealous student 
 of natural liiston,-, and has published works on the vegetable 
 kingdom, on the plants of Eichstadt, besides medical disserta- 
 tions. — J. H. B. 
 
 BESLY, Je.ax, bom in 1572, and died in 1644; stndied law 
 at the universities of Bordeaux and Toulouse, and practised at 
 Paris for two years. He, in 1597, settled at Fontenay as avocat 
 and jurisconsult, and opposed strenuously the reception of the 
 decrees of the council of Trent. Besly was a diligent student of 
 the antiquities of France. He had collected a library, which is 
 mentioned as of great value by Louis Jacob in his Traite des plus 
 Belles Bibliothequos du Monde. In 1620 we find Besly maire 
 et capitaine of Fontenay. In that year he wrote to Dupuy, 
 expressing great terror at the civil disturbances which were every 
 day increasing. " He lived," he said, " in a cut-throat place," 
 and he expressed strong fears for the security of his books and 
 manuscripts, which he finally sent for safety to Poitiers. In 
 1629 he was appointed avocat and conseilkr d'etat. In 1631 
 he retired from public fife, giving up his business and his appoint- 
 ments to his son. His son did not inherit his literary and 
 antiquarian tastes ; and had it not been for Dupuy and the 
 bishop of Poitiers, his manuscripts would have perished ; as it 
 was, many were lost. HLs library was dispersed. Poems of 
 his are scattered over several publications, for the most part 
 laudatory of the Uterary works of his friends, and as bad as such 
 things generally are ; several Tracts on local antiquities were 
 published after his death, and " Lives of Counts and Bishops 
 of Poitiers." He assisted Duchesne in the " Histoire de la 
 Maison de Chasteignier," and a commentary by him on Ronsard's 
 poems is printed with the early editions of Ronsard. — J. A., D. 
 
 BESNARD, Franz Joseph, a German physician, bom at 
 Bnschwieler in Alsace, on the 20th May, 1748, received his 
 early education at Hagenau from the priests, and was afterwards 
 sent to Strasburg, where he studied medicine. After taking 
 his dcgi'ee, he was soon appointed first physician to the count 
 palatine Maximilian; but in 1783 he ^•isited Paris, with the 
 view of submitting to the Academy of Sciences, his opinions upon 
 the nature of venereal diseases, and upon the e\-ils of the mercurial 
 treatment, which he wished to see given up. Some patients 
 were intnisted to him, under the inspection of a committee of 
 the Society of ^Medicine, to be treated according to his new 
 method ; but the experiments were stopped by the outbreak of 
 the first Revolution. Besnard returned in 1790 to the palati- 
 nate, practised for a time at JLinnheim, and was afterwards 
 placed at the head of the hospital of Munich. It was by the 
 exertions and influence of Besnard, that the benefits of vaccina- 
 tion were extended to Bavaria. He died on the 16th June, 
 1814. His ^ratings are not numerous; the most important of 
 them are written in German, namely, a treatise on the " Organi- 
 zation of the Military Hospit;ils of the Palatinate," published at 
 Munich in 1801 ; " Serious advice, founded on experience, to 
 the friends of humanity against the use of mercury," ^Munich, 
 1808 ; and a treatise on the venereal disease, published at the 
 same place in 1811. — W. S. D. 
 
 BESNIER, Henri, a French botanist, was bom during the 
 first half of the 18th century. He has pubhshed works on gar- 
 dening, one being entitled " Le Jardinier-Botaniste." — J. H. B. 
 
 BESNIER, Pierre, a Jesuit, bom at Tours, 1648 ; died at 
 Constantinople, 1705. He devoted himself to jdiilological studies, 
 and wrote a work to prove the possibility of learning all languages 
 by means of one. He also assisted P. P. Bouhours and Lctellier 
 in translating the New Testament into French. — J. G. 
 
 BESOLD or BESOLDE, Christoi'iier, a Germ.an I:nvj-er, 
 born at Tiibingen, 1577; died 1638. He had a great reputation, 
 and the duke of Wurtcmberg confided to him the most important
 
 affairs. He afterwards became professor of law at Ingoldstadt, 
 and was author of a good many historical works. — J. G. 
 
 BESOZZI, Ambkogio, born at Milan, 16-18 (Charles I.); 
 died 1706 ; studied under Giuseppe Gaudini, and Cii-o Fern. 
 He was also an engraver. — W. T. 
 
 BESSARABA or BASSARABA, an ancient and powerful 
 family which has given the name of Bessarabia to the coimtry 
 lying between the Dneister and the Prath. The following 
 members of that fiimily were remarkable : — 
 
 Bessaraba, Radu Negku (The Black), founder of the 
 X)rincipality of Wallachia, died in 1265. About 1240 he reigned 
 over Fogarash, a colony founded by the Daco-Romainians, who 
 had been forced by tlie incursions of the barbarians to take 
 refuge among the Cai-pathian moimtains. Some time after- 
 wards Pope Gregory IX. pressed Bela, king of Hungaiy, to give 
 up the Wallacliian schismatics to the catholic church ; and about 
 the same peiiod Batten Khan, grandson of Genghiz Khan, after 
 having overrun Russia, Poland, and Cumania, came to lay 
 waste Hungary, and to diive the terrified inhabitants back 
 towards the Cai-pathians. Menaced at once with barbarian 
 N-iolence and religious persecution, Radu withdrew with a part 
 of liis people to the country which stretches from the Car- 
 patliians to the Danube, and from the Oltu to Shiret. That 
 territory, with the exception of the Banat of Craiova, had been 
 all but deserted ; but towards the end of the seventh centmy it 
 had been repeopled from the Aurelian Dacia, the inhabitants of 
 which had established themselves there, and had become civilized 
 through the Templars who had fixed there their principal 
 residence. Radu compelled the Ban of Craiova to acknowledge 
 himself his vassal, and built the towns of Argissu and Tergo- 
 visti. He gave to his people a code of laws in many respects 
 very remarkable, but strongly imbued with the aristocratic 
 spirit peculiar to that age. Though the supreme dignity had 
 been declared elective, it continued after the death of Rodolph 
 in the family of Bessaraba. 
 
 Bessaraba, Mirce I., son of Rodolphus II., was elected 
 to the supreme dignity (vaivode) in 1382. He first made war 
 against the Bulgarians, and afterwards against the Turks. 
 These being joined by the Hungarians levied war against him ; 
 but finding liimself unable to cope with two such powerful 
 enemies at the same time, he submitted to the Turks and 
 engaged to pay them tribute, on condition that they should 
 leave bun in all other respects independent. Mirce, liowever, 
 sought an early opportunity of breaking this compact. He 
 formed an alliance with Sigismund, who, alarmed at the pro- 
 gi'ess of the Tiu-ks, most wUlingly joined him, and being reinforced 
 with troops from all Christendom, but particularly irom France, 
 they took the field against the common enemy. The campaign 
 terminated in tlie disastrous battle of Nicopolis, 28th September, 
 1396. Seeing liis French auxiliaries about to be defeated, he 
 left them to their fate, and went over to the side of the sultan, 
 who suffered him to return with his aiTny to Wallachia. The 
 Turks, however, under Bajasid their sultan, again in 1398 
 invaded the principality of Mirce, but were repidsed, and forced 
 to commence a retreat in which they nearly all perished. This 
 campaign freed the Wallachians for eighteen years from the 
 tribute due to Baja.sid. Before his death Mirce had the morti- 
 fication to see his country again become tributary to the Turks ; 
 and after that event, which occurred in 1418, the principality 
 fell into a state of anarchy, in consequence of the succession 
 being disputed among Mirce's numerous natural children. 
 
 Bessaraba, Michael II., surnamed the Brave, was 
 elected vaivode in 1592. He found the country cruelly wasted 
 and groaning under intolerable burdens, while his trouble- 
 some neighbours, the Turks, in defiance of express treaties, 
 began to build mosques in the Wallachian territory. Jlichael 
 formed an alliance with Sigismond Bathory, vaivode of Tran- 
 sylvania, and Rodolph II., emperor of Germany and king of 
 Hungary, and with the assistance of the former fell upon the 
 Turks whom lie found in Wallachia, slew great numbers of them, 
 deprived them of the fortresses they possessed on the left of the 
 Danube, and even proceeded to attack them in Bulgaria. A 
 fierce contest ensued, i. 'hough the forces of the Wallacliian 
 prince were not equal in number to those of his enemy. Jlichael, 
 however, in order to make sure of the protection of Sigismond, 
 acknowledged himself vassal to that prince, and uniting their 
 forces, they succeeded in driving from the other side of the 
 Danube the grand vizier, Senan Pacha, who had come to invade 
 
 Wallachia. Sigismond soon after abdicated in favour of the 
 emperor of Gemiany, having exchanged his dignity of vaivode 
 for that of cardinal, and a pension of 50,000 crowns, with the 
 possession of the towns of Oppeln, and of Ratibor in Silesia. 
 He soon, however, repented of his bargain, and returned to 
 reclaim his crown, which he shortly afterwards resigned in 
 favour of his cousin the cardinal, Andrew Bathory. Tlie 
 elevation of this ecclesiastic to the dignity of a sovereign, 
 afforded Michael a favourable opportunity of setting about the 
 accomplishment of an object he had long ardently desired, viz. 
 to bring all the provinces of ancient Dacia under his own 
 dominion. With this view be came to an understanding with 
 Rodolph, made peace with the Turks, and, having penetrated 
 into Transylvania, attacked Andrew at Hermanstadt, and com- 
 pletely defeated him. Andrew fled from the field, but was 
 overtaken and Idlled, and Michael now became master of the 
 whole principality. Sigismond Batliory made a feeble attempt, 
 in conjunction with Jeremiah Moghila, prince of Moldavia, to 
 wrest the territory from Michael ; but by the signal defeat of 
 both, Michael at last secured possession of the great object of 
 his ambition. He united the three crowns of Dacia (1600), 
 and assumed the title of Michael, vaivode of Wallachia and Mol- 
 davia, counsellor of his imperial and royal majesty, governor of 
 Transylvania. Michael did not long enjoy his good fortune. 
 His power became a source of vmeasiness to Rodol])h, the Poles 
 began to fonn projects against him, and his subjects consisting 
 of tribes formerly hostile to one another, resumed their ancient 
 feuds, which all his authority was unable to suppress. Nor 
 was he more fortunate in an expedition against the Poles in 
 Moldavia. He was twice beaten, and was at last reduced to 
 the necessity of taking refuge in Vienna. He was assassinated 
 the following year (1601) at the instigation of Basta. He 
 was forty-three years of age, and had reigned nine years, during 
 the whole of which he had been engaged in war. 
 
 Bessaraba, Matthew Brancovan, vaivode of Wallachia, 
 after a series of sanguinary contests with the Turks, who in 
 defiance of treaties had constituted themselves princes of 
 Wallachia, succeeded in gaining the crown in 1654, and for half 
 a century prolonged the dominion of the native princes. 
 
 Bessaraba, Constantine II. Brancovan. Constantine 
 II. Brancovan belonged to the Bessaraba dynasty through his 
 mother, who was the grandniece of Matthew Bessaraba Bran- 
 covan. On the demise of his uncle, Serban II. Cantacuzene, in 
 the j'ear 1688, Constantine became vaivode. At this period 
 the Turks were at war with Austria, and Constantine, being a 
 vassal of the former, was necessitated to lend them his assist- 
 ance in reinstating Emeric of Tokoli on the throne of Transyl- 
 vania. Tokoli, however, did not long enjoy his dignity, and, 
 pursued by the imperialists, he took refuge in Wallachia. Here 
 his quasi-ally, Constantine, treacherously destroyed all that 
 remained of his army, and obliged Tokoli himself to flee to 
 Belgrade. 1'his sei-vice to the Austrian cause, Constantine 
 turned to good account. He speedily strengthened his relations 
 with the Emperor Leopold, and consented to become his active, 
 though secret agent ; for which alliance he was rewarded with 
 the dignity of " prince of the holy empue." Notwithstanding 
 his close relations with Leopold, Brancovan was compelled, for 
 the sake of appearances, to aid Turkey in her wars with the 
 imperialists, until the peace concluded at Carlowitz in 1699 
 relieved him from a situation so equivocal. He then turned his 
 attention to the internal affairs of liis country, and attempted 
 such financial refoiTns as were possible considering the clamorous 
 necessities of the Tm'ks, who, constantly excited against him by 
 Alexander Mavrocordato, the dragoman of the Porte, were only 
 to be satisfied by the power of money. Constantine only 
 waited a favourable opportunity to rid himself of a yoke which 
 daily became more oppressive ; and on the death of Leopold in 
 1705, perceiving that Austria now regarded the Wallachian 
 alliance with indifference, he made overtures to Peter the Great 
 of Russia, with whom he concluded a treaty, engaging himself 
 to furnish botli men and provisions. The divan becoming aware 
 of this treaty through the trcacher}' of Constantine's own minis- 
 ters, the ruin of Brancovan was decided upon ; and for this 
 end it was resolved to employ his rival, Demetrius Cantiniir, 
 the prince of Moldavia. But Cantimir detested the Turks even 
 more than lie hated Bessaraba, and before engaging in the 
 destruction of the latter, he also made a treaty with the czar. 
 Brancovan was not to be overreached in this way ; but after a
 
 BES 
 
 559 
 
 BES 
 
 variety of mancpuyres, he ended by denouncing Cantimir to the 
 divan, without, however, renouncing his own relations with Peter 
 the Great. At one and. the same time, he engaged the czar to 
 invade Wallachia, and the grand vizier to cross the Danube. 
 For some reason the airival of the Russian troops was delayed, 
 and the pro\'isions intended for their nse fell into the hands of 
 the Turks. Perishing with hunger and thhst, the troops of the 
 czar only escaped total destruction by the treaty of 21st July, 
 1711, which completely subverted the independence of Moldavia 
 and 'Wallachia, and dehvered up these principaHties to the 
 dominion of the Porte. Brancovan now imagined that his last 
 act of treachery would atone for his former sins ; and indeed at 
 first he was not molested. The divan, however, was perfectly 
 cognisant of aU his treaties with Austria and Russia, and in 
 April, 1714, he was suddenly deposed, aiTested without opposi- 
 tion, and conveyed to Constantinople. The vast treasures found 
 in his palace, induced the sultan to put Constantine and his 
 eldest son to tortm-e, supposing that they might have concealed 
 a portion of their wealth. Having heroically endured these 
 tortures for five days, the unhappy piince was executed on the 
 26th August, 1714, along with his four sons. From his gi'and- 
 son, who alone was spared, springs the family of Brancovan still 
 extant in the principalities. — G. il. 
 
 BESSARION, JoHX, born at Trebizonde about the year 
 1390 ; died in 1472 ; first studied in a monastery at Peloponne- 
 sus, under the famous Gemistus Pletho, from whom he imbibed his 
 ardent admiration of Plato. In 1438 he accompanied the Emperor 
 Paljeologns to the council of Ferrara, called for the pm-pose of 
 unitmg the Greek and Latin churches, and did his utmost to bring 
 about the union. His semces to the Latin church on this occasion 
 were rewarded by the pope, Eugene IV., nominating him to the 
 Tlignity of cardinal-priest ; and by subsequent promotions he 
 became archbishop of Siponto, cardinal-bishop of Sabina, and 
 patriarch of Constantinople. He discharged several important 
 diplomatic missions, and twice narrowly escaped being elected 
 pope. The controversy between the admirers of Aristotle and 
 of Plato was earned on with much warmth m this age, and 
 Bessarion, after a vain attempt to conciliate the two parties, 
 threw all his weight into the scale of Plato ; his most famous 
 work on this subject being a reply to George of Trebizonde, 
 entitled " In calumniatorem Platonis." In defending Plato, he 
 goes to the extreme of maintaining that his theology and morals 
 are perfectly in accordance with revealed religion. His translations 
 of the Jlemorabiha of Xenophon, and of the Jletaphysics of Aris- 
 totle, were also celebrated. — J. D. E. 
 
 BESSE, Joseph de, a French physician, bom at Peyrusse, 
 Aveyron, about the year 1670, studied at Montpellier and 
 Toulouse, and afterwards went to Paris, where his scientific 
 knowledge caused him to be mixed up ^\-ith the discussions of 
 the learned world. Besse died in Paris at an advanced age, but 
 the precise date of his death is not known. His numerous 
 writings furnish a faithful summary of the progress of medicine 
 during the fii-st half of the eighteenth century. His earliest 
 works, published at Toulouse in 1699 and 1701, are a treatise 
 ■' On the Passions of JIan," and " Anal}'tical researches on the 
 structure of the parts of the human body." These works possess 
 considerable interest, and the reputation which he gained from 
 them may have been one of the causes of his taking up his abode 
 in Paris soon after their publication. In the second of them he 
 developes the doctrine of his master, Chirac — maintains the 
 existence of ferments in the organs of secretion, and the presence 
 of compounds of acids and alkalies in all parts of the body, 
 causing the exercise of the fimctions. Setting aside tliis absurd 
 theory, his work contains numerous interesting anatomical and 
 physiological observations. Besse's first work, published in Paris 
 after the second edition of his " Researches," was a " Dissertatio 
 Anah-tica de Febribus," in 1712, followed in the next year by 
 another Latin treatise, entitled " Ergo partus a fluxu men- 
 struoso." For ten yeai-s after this Besse seems to have published 
 nothing; but in 1723 he attacked Helvetius in a rather violent 
 manner, in a " Letter to the author of the new book upon the 
 Animal Economy," &c., accusing him of boiTOwing the idea, that 
 inflammation is caused by the passage of the blood into the 
 lymphatic vessels, from Boerhaave, without acknowledgment ; 
 but at the same time opposing this notion, and ascribing infiam- 
 ination to the obstruction of the capillary vessels. Helvetius 
 replied with considerable asperity to this criticism, and Besse 
 answered him in a " RcpUque aux lettrcs de JI. Helvetius," &c.. 
 
 published at Amsterdam and Paris in 1726. Besides these 
 works, Bessd published some learned dissertations " On Venesec- 
 tion in intennittent fevers," 1730 ; " On Amputation in cases of 
 Gangrene," 1738; "On the Ca?sarean section," 1744; and "On 
 Aneurism_ of the cniral arterj-," 1752. — W. S. D. 
 
 BESSE, PiEKRE, a French preacher of some celebrity, bom 
 at Rosiers in Limousin towards the middle of the sisteentli cen- 
 tury; died in 1639. He was a member of the Sorbonne, prin- 
 cipal of the college of Pompadour, and preacher to Louis XIII. 
 His sermons were frequently reprinted. 
 
 BESSEL, Chkisti.\j^ George, a German morahst and theo- 
 logian, bom at ilinden, Uved in the second part of the seven- 
 teenth centmy. Author of a rare and curious work entitled 
 " Faber fortimje political." 
 
 BESSEL, Friedeich WiLHEur, bom at Jlinden, July 
 22nd, 1784 ; died in the sixty-second year of his age, at the 
 observatory of Konigsberg, on 7th March, 1846. A practical 
 astronomer, of whom it may be said most justly that he united 
 the best qualities of an Hipparchus, a Tycho, and a Bradley, — 
 superadding riches of his own. No man in recent times, among 
 cultivators of astronomy, has achieved a surer immortahty than 
 Bessel's ; not a step can be taken henceforth in advance, unless 
 it departs from some point that has been fixed by this most 
 remarkable person. Bessel's peculiar natm'e, in so far as it can 
 be pourtrayed in this brief sketch, wiU be best gathered from a 
 rapid survey of his main achievements. These may be divided 
 into three classes. — I. An observation in astronomy, i. e., the 
 apparent place of a celestial body, as given by the first indica- 
 tion of an instmment, is of the rudest kind. First, the apparent 
 place is not the true place, because of the varying position of 
 the earth and of the absolute direction of its pole. Correctious 
 of a laborious and most dehcate description must be applied, so 
 that apparent places may, in so far as discrepancies are depen- 
 dent on tills cause, be reduced to true places. The discovery of 
 the nature and general causes of the more evanescent of these 
 discrepancies, is due to our o^-n Bradley ; but for their true 
 practical values, and the formnlje by which correction can be 
 most easUy appHed, the world of science is indebted solely to 
 Bessel. His earher work, the " Fundamenta Astronomia?," is 
 one of the finest and most appropriate compliments that one 
 great man ever paid to another. Founding on the observa- 
 tions of the incomparable Bradley, he reduced them all into 
 order, carefully determined the errors of Bradley's comparatively 
 imperfect instruments, and eliminated from the works of our 
 astronomer those fundamental and universal constants, the 
 appUcation of which to any crude obseiwation, enables us to 
 state exactly what the place of the obser%-ed object would be, 
 had we seen it from an invariable point in the centre of om- 
 planetary system. The work begun with "Fundamenta Astro- 
 nomic," was completed in the " Tabulas Regiomontana\" But 
 corrections, arising from variations in the position of the earth, 
 were not, in Bessel's opinion, all that perfectly accm-ate observa- 
 tion requires. It is now necessai-y to observe by aid of very 
 complex instruments. Those instruments, although made by 
 the best artists of this or any time — are they con-ect ? Bessel 
 first reduced the conception to practice, that no instnmient — be 
 it the finest and best — ought to be taken by the obsen-er as 
 correct, in any part. An apparently discouraging proposition; 
 but a most tme one. ModeiTi practice is based on this idea. 
 An instmment, from the hands of the best maker, is presumed 
 by the astronomer to be incorrect in every movement. E^•ery 
 movement is tested, accordingly, by the unening regularity of 
 the diurnal motion of the stars. The existence and character 
 of its errors are hence deduced, and fomiula? are constructed 
 thereupon, the application of which to individual obsen-ations, 
 suffices to eliminate from them all errors depending on infini- 
 tesimal imperfections of the mechanism. To actual workers in 
 astronomy at the present day, it is needless to state how much 
 of this memorable rcfonn is due to Bessel : no better exercise 
 can be recommended to the student than the thorough perasal 
 of his memorable papers on the Konigsberg Heliometcr. — II. 
 Bessel's practical and sagacious nature is farther manifested by 
 all his positive works. There is scarcely a definite and difficult 
 problem presented by our modem astronomy, that could be 
 resolved by exact and scientific obser\-ations, which he did not 
 advance. To him unquestionably belongs the honour of having, 
 by aid of his great Heliometer, first detcmuned the parallax of 
 a fixed star — 61 Cygni ; (our own Henderson had about the
 
 same time done as much in regard to a, Centauri.) He showed 
 us the time mode of determining the length of the penduhim ; he 
 proposed as the best of all modes of fixing the latitude, observa- 
 tion by a telescope sweeping an arc at right angles to the meridian ; 
 lie has given a survey of a small space, indeed, but which will be a 
 model for all future surveys — the triangulation of a comparatively 
 inconsiderable part of Pnissia ; he founded to a large extent — 
 prosecuted and completed, that system of zone observations 
 which has laid the ground of all future speculation as to the 
 movements of the fixed stars ; he determined the mass of 
 Saturn's rings, through theh distm-bing eftect on the satellite 
 Titan ; and he crowned his earliest, his favourite and prolonged 
 labours on comets by some remarkable papers on the meteor 
 that bears Halley's name, in which he seems to have demon- 
 strated the existence of a polar or magnetic action on the part 
 of the sun. Eumneration of his separate papers were impossible. 
 They constitute at least a fifth part of the vast and valuable 
 collection so long published by Schumacher, under the title 
 Astronomical News. — III. The peculiarity of Bessel's mind 
 was its extreme distinctness. To an industry that never slept, 
 he added an unvarying dcfiniteness of purpose. He never 
 wrought without a clear and attainable aim ; and until his 
 chosen object was accomplished, he bent his whole faculties 
 to the task. Hence the perfection even of his smaller essays ; 
 and hence his abiding influence. Inferior foculties, applied with 
 concentration, have never failed to produce eftect on the world. 
 No marvel that a man so richly gifted, should arise into a gi'cat 
 and lasting power. It manifests a noble confidence on the part 
 of the late king of Prussia, that even when his dominions were 
 under the hoof of the first Napoleon, he sustained the university 
 of Konigsberg, established its Observatory, and placed Bessel at 
 its head. Konigsberg, in the annals of astronomy, will ever be 
 as famous as Uraniburg. — Bessel gave to the world few syste- 
 matic works. The two aheady named, viz., " The Fmidamenta 
 Astronomiffi" and " Tabulis Eegiomontanaj" are, and ever will 
 be classical. He also published two vols, of " Astronomical 
 Researches ; " but for what he did and wrote the student must 
 look mainly to Schumacher's collections, and to the essays pre- 
 fixed to bis volumes of observations. — J. P. N. 
 
 BESSEL, Godfrey de, a learned German chronicler, bom 
 at Bucheim, 1672 ; died 1749. In 1714 he became abbot of the 
 monastery of Gottwich. Author of a work entitled " Chronicon 
 Gottwicerse," a description of Austria in ancient and medineval 
 times, of which but one folio volume appears, Tegensee, 1732. 
 
 BESSENYI, GyOKGY, a distinguished Hungarian poet, was 
 born at Berczelcn in 1740, and died in 1811 at his estate of 
 Berettyo-Kovacsi, south of Debreczin. He entered the Hungarian 
 body-guard at Vienna ; but, ha\'ing embraced the Roman catholic 
 faith in 1779, became assistant-librarian at the imperial libraiy. 
 He is the founder of tlie French school in Hungarian poetiy, and 
 wrote tragedies, " Hunyadi Laszlo," " Agis," " Buda ;" comedies, 
 "The Philosopher," 177G; philosophical and didactic poems, 
 " Esterhazi Vigassagok," i. e. Tlie Amenities of Esterhaz ; and 
 miscellaneous essays, " Holmi," Vienna, 1779.— K. E. 
 
 BESSER, JoHAXN VON, a German poet, born at Frauenburg 
 in Kurland, 8th May, 1G54, was originally intended for the 
 church, but relinquished this career m order to devote himself to 
 the profession of law. From 1680 he filled various situations of 
 trust and honour at the court of Berlin, and in 1684 was 
 appointed representative of the elector at the court of St. James. 
 But after the death of his patron, Iving Frederick I., he was dis- 
 missed from office, and reduced to pemrrj', till he was called to 
 Dresden as master of ceremonies to King Augustus II. He died 
 10th February, 1729. His poems, mostly written in honour of 
 court festivals and princely birth -days, were edited by Konig, 
 Leipzig, 1732. — (See Varnhageu van Fuse's BiographUche 
 Denkmale, vol. iv.) — K. E. 
 
 BESSKR, WiLHEi.M S. J. G., a German botanist, has 
 published a flora of Galicia, a catalogue of plants collected in 
 Volhynia and Podolia, as well as some botanical monographs. 
 His writings extend from 1809 to 1833.— J. H. B. 
 
 BESSIKRKS, John Battist, didvc of Istria, and marshal of 
 France, bom in 1768 of an obscure family. He was bred a wig- 
 maker, but in 1792 he entered as a private in the constitutional 
 guards of Louis XVI. He rose rapidly through the various 
 gradations of military rank till he attained the dignity of a 
 marshal of France in 1804. He attracted the attention of 
 Buonaparte in the Italian campaign, and particularly distinguished 
 
 himself at Roveredo and Rivoli. He was in consequence selected 
 to present the captured colours of the Austrians to the Direc- 
 tory. He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, and took a prominent 
 part in the siege of St. Jean d'Acre and in the battle of Aboukir. 
 On liis return to France he rendered important service to Napo- 
 leon, and led the charge which decided the battle of Marengo. 
 He was made general of di\'ision in 1802, and marshal of the 
 empire in 1804. He distinguished himself at Jena, Friedland, 
 and Eylau ; and when the iniquitous occupation of Spain was 
 decided upon by Napoleon, Bessitjres was appointed to the com- 
 mand of the division which held the pro\'ince of Salamanca. 
 The Spanish general Cuesta having advanced upon Valladolid 
 and Burgos, with the intention of cutting oft' the communication 
 between Madrid and France, Bessieres immediately attacked 
 him on the heights of Medina-del Rio-Secco, and completely 
 defeated him with the loss of his camp-baggage and artillery, 
 and nine hundred men, with six thousand prisoners. This vic- 
 tory was of such importance to the plans of Napoleon, that 
 when he received the intelligence he exclaimed, " Bessieres has 
 placed my brother upon the Spanish throne." The victorious 
 marshal was rewarded with the title of duke of Istria, 28th 
 May, 1809. He commanded the imperial guard at Landshut, 
 Elsberg, and Wagi'am, and was present throughout the disastrous 
 Russian campaign. After a career of remarkable brilliancy, he 
 was killed. May 1, 1813, the evening before the battle of Lutzen 
 while reconnoitermg the enemy's position. — J. T. 
 
 BESSON, THE AnBfi, a French historian, bom at Flumet ; 
 died 1780. He became dhector of the convent of the Visitation, 
 where he found a MS. entitled, Ilistor du dloceze de Geneve. He 
 comjileted this work, the only one on the subject. 
 
 BESSON, Joseph, a French Jesuit, missionary in Syria, was 
 born at Carpentras in 1607, and died at Aleppo in 1691. He 
 published "La Syrie sainte ou des missions des Peres de la com- 
 pagnie de Jesus en Syrie," 1660. 
 
 BESSUS, satrap of Bactria in the time of Alexander the 
 Great. When that monarch mvaded Persia, Bcssus brought a 
 powerful force to the assistance of Darius. After his defeat at 
 Gangamela, Bessus accompanied that unfortunate prince in his 
 flight ; but becoming satisfied that his cause was desperate, he put 
 him to death, and assumed the title of king. Two yeai's after, 
 he fell into the hands of Alexander, by whom he was delivered 
 up to Oxathres, and immediately put to a cruel death. — J. T. 
 
 * BEST, William Thomas, a musician, was born at Car- 
 lisle August 13, 1826, where his father was a solicitor. His 
 predilection for music, in which he received early instruction, 
 induced his friends to relinquish their purpose of educating him 
 as a civU enguieer, and to allow him to follow his favourite nrt 
 as a profession. In 1841 he removed to Liverpool, where he 
 received some further tuition. It is within the last quarter of 
 a centmy that the compositions for the organ of S. Bach have 
 first become practically known in this countiy ; and the style of 
 playing, and even the construction of the instmment, have been 
 essentially modified in consequence of the demands of this high- 
 est class of music. The independent pedal part throughout the 
 vsrritmgs of that great master, presents a difficulty scarcely con- 
 ceived by organists in England of the last generation, the class 
 of teachers from whom only Sir. Best had to leam. Finding 
 the music of the noblest composer for the instmment unpracti- 
 cable, according to the prevailing system of execution, he applied 
 himself to the study of the pedals with zealous assiduity, and 
 attained a great mastery over this portion of the mechanism. 
 He o\\'es to his ovra sedulous practice, also, a power of manipu- 
 lation that has rarely been surpassed, and thus, in the capacity 
 of execution, his rank as an organist is very high. In 1851 he 
 came to London, and brought himself into honourable notice by 
 his performance on the organs in the Great Exliibition. In 
 1855 he was elected organist of St. George's hall, Liverpool, 
 where his constant public playing excites general admiration. 
 He has pubhshed several original compositions and arrangements 
 for the organ, admirably suited to display the best effects of the 
 instnmient ; and some pieces for the pianoforte. — G. A. M. 
 
 BESTON or BESODUNUS, John, prior of the Cannelite 
 monastery at Lynn in Norfolk, distinguished for his learning 
 and varied accomplishments. In 1424 he attended a council 
 held at Sienna under Martin V. He died at Lynn in 1428. 
 His principal works are " Compendium Tlieologise INIoralis," 
 "Lecturte Sacras Scriptura;," "Rudimenta Logices," "De Trini- 
 tate," &c.
 
 BESTOUJEFF-RU.MIXE, a family said to be of English 
 origin, but naturalized in Russia since the fifteenth centuiy. 
 The original family name was Best. Several celebrated Russian 
 statesmen have sprung from this family. Among these the fol- 
 lowing were among the most remarkable : — 
 
 Bestoujeff, Michael Petrovitcii, Count, privy coun- 
 cillor and chevalier of Saint Andrew, died in 17G0. He became 
 grand-marshal of the court of Peter the Great, and from 1756 
 to 1760 was Russian ambassador at Paris. 
 
 Bestocjeff-Rumixe, Michael, captain in the Russian 
 ir.iperial guard, born towards the end of the last century, and one 
 of the leaders of the conspiracy of 1825. (SeePESTEL.) He was 
 a. man of extraorJinaiy energy, and the revolt of his regiment at 
 Mosca may be attributed to his influence alone. Mortally 
 wounded in this revolt, he was yet condemned to death, and was 
 hung, together with Pestel, Rilejeif, MurawiefF, and Kakhouskoi, 
 on the 26tli December, 1825. This conspiracy is very note- 
 worthy from the fact, that it was the first undertaking in Russia 
 irith a political revolution in view. The numerous conspiracies 
 ly which the Russian emperors had been overthro^vn, from the 
 days of Peter I., may all be regarded as plots of the palace. 
 The conspiracy of Pestel was constitutional in its aim. 
 
 Bestoujeff, Alexander, a distinguished Russian writer, 
 bom in the year 1795, celebrated for ha'\'ing, together with 
 Rilejeff, founded and conducted the Polar Star, a literaiy and 
 )iolitical review, which, even under Alexander I. of Russia, ven- 
 tured to treat of countiT, liberty, and religion. The Pvlar Star 
 had, however, but a brief existence. The editors belonged to 
 that nucleus of Russian patriots who, in 1825, attempted to 
 establish a constitutional government in Russia. On the failure 
 cf the conspiracy in which he was involved (see Pestel), Bes- 
 tiujeff was condemned to hard labour for life in the mines of 
 Siberia. In 1830 his sentence was commuted to compulsory 
 c nhstment as a common soldier in the army of the Caucasus. 
 He was killed in an engagement with the Circassians in 1837. 
 Bestoujeif was a distinguished writer of romances. His works 
 are remarkable for imaginative power and grasp of thought. 
 Perhaps, however, in his eagerness to avoid the formality of the 
 classical school, he has fallen somewhat into the other extreme. 
 His best works are " JIulla Kiehr " and " Aunnalath Bey," 
 both taken from the traditions of Circassia. 
 
 Bestoujeff-Rumine, Count Alexis, vice-chancelior and 
 marshal of the Russian empire; bom at Mosca in 1693. Bes- 
 tusceff was a perfect master of the courtier's art ; he wit- 
 nessed the rise and fall of seven goveiTiments ; yet such were his 
 subtlety and talent that though he mingled in all the consph-acies 
 by which they were overthrown, he contrived ever to retain 
 the favour of each as it arose. Privy councillor of the Em- 
 press Anna, chancellor under Elizabeth, and marshal of the 
 empire under Catherine II., Bestoujeff is chiefly noted as hanng 
 been the promoter of the alliance between Austria and Russia. 
 He died at St. Petersburg in 1766.— ]\I. Q. 
 
 BESUCHET, Jean-Claude, a French physician, bora at 
 Boulogne, near Paris, on the 13th October, 1790, entered the 
 militaiy semce as a surgeon in 1806, after his friends had, with 
 some difficulty, induced him to suppress his ardent desire to join 
 the fighting portion of the army. He went through all the 
 campaigns of the imperial wars from that year until 1815, was 
 twice wounded, and twice placed on the lists of promotion in 
 the legion of honour. His second wound, received in Spain, 
 compelled him ultimately to quit the service, and in 1816 he 
 commenced the practice of medicine in Paris. The principal 
 works of Besuchet are a " Domestic Jledicine," published at 
 Paris in 1818; " The Anti-Charlatan, or rational treatment of 
 the venereal disease," Paris, 1819 (and in Spanish, 1828); and 
 a " Treatise on Gastritis, and affections of the organs of Diges- 
 tion," Paris, 1837, of which an edition appeared in 1810, under 
 the title of " Gastritis, the nenous and chronic affections of the 
 ^ iscera," &c. Besuchet is also the author of numerous articles 
 upon medicine and natural history in the Encyclopedic Jloderne 
 "f Didot, and of a large work " On Freemasonry," containing a 
 history of the order, with a biogi-aphy of its most celebrated 
 members, which was published at Paris in 1829.— W. S. D. 
 
 BETANCOS, Dojiixfio de, a celebrated Spanish missionary, 
 bom at Leon towards the end of the fifteenth century. After 
 studying law at Salamanca he repaired to Rome, and assumed 
 the habit of St. Benedict ; but finding human society, even in a 
 convent, uncongenial, he withdrew to Ponia, a little island four 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 or five leagues distant from Naples, and established huBself in a 
 solitaiy cave where, for five years, he practised the most rigid 
 austerities, ruining his health, and shunning the face of man- 
 kind with equal zeal. One tie bound him to his species, his 
 affection for a certain Pedro de Arconeda, and that feeling pre- 
 vailed so far with the hennit of Poma as to make him under- 
 take a journey into Spain for the purpose of seeing his friend. 
 This was the commencement of his career as a philanthropist, 
 which, illustrated rather than maiTed by the asceticism which 
 still clung to him, drew the attention of Christendom. He was 
 persuaded to take priest's orders, and embark for Hispaniola as 
 a missionary to the Indians. From San Domingo, where he was 
 an indignant witness of the craelties which horrified Las Casas, 
 he passed into Mexico where he founded two convents, for which, 
 although a Spaniard and a monk, he refused all endowment, and 
 only claimed the benevolence of his countiymen and his catechu- 
 mens. In 1535 he was elected provincial, an honour as much 
 merited as it was little coveted. His reiterated appeals on behalf 
 of the Indians procured from Pope Paul III. in 1537, the famous 
 bull by which, to their great astonishment, the conquerors of the 
 new world were infomied that Indians and Spaniards were of 
 one blood, and that the extermination of the heathen was by no 
 means necessaiy for the honour and glory of Santiago. After 
 the publication of this bull, the enthusiastic Benedictine pro- 
 posed to repair to China, but to this his superiors demuiTed, 
 urging that his labom-s were already apostolical in measure. He 
 was seized with a desire to revisit Europe, sailed for Spain, and 
 reached San Lucar in July, 1549. A month afterwards he 
 expired at Valladolid. — J. S., G. 
 
 BETHA^I, Edward, an English di\ine, noted especially for 
 his charity, was educated at Eton, and passed to Cambridge in 
 1728. He was presented with the liraig of Greenford in Jliddle- 
 sex, and became one of the ^Miitehall preachers. He presented 
 £2000 to the botanical garden at Cambridge, and in 1780 
 founded a charity-school in his own parish, pro^^ding in all time 
 coming for the education and clothing of poor children, and also 
 for the clothing of the aged. He left by his will a sum of 
 money for the erection of a statue to Henry VI., the founder of 
 Eton, which stands in that institution, and bears Betham's 
 name. He died in 1783. — J. B. 
 
 BETH AM, Sir William, a distinguished antiquary and 
 genealogist, was bom at Stradbroke, in Suffolk, on the 22d 
 May, 1779, and descended from the ancient family of De 
 Betham, which took their name from the locahty of Betham, in 
 Westmoreland, where they were settled at the time of the Con- 
 quest. Sir William's father, the Rev. William Betham, was 
 himself a genealogist, and author of the genealogical tables of 
 the sovereigns of the world, and of a baronetage of England. 
 In 1805 William went to Ireland, where he became acquainted 
 with Sir Chichester Fortescue, then Ulster king of aims, who, 
 in the month of November, 1807, appointed him his deputy, as 
 also Athlone pursuivant. In 1812 he was appointed genealo- 
 gist to the order of St. Patrick, and on the 15th of July, in 
 that year, he was knighted, and on the 18th April of the follow- 
 ing year, he succeeded Sir Chichester Fortescue as Ulster king 
 of arms. Meanwhile Sir William Betham had abundant time to 
 pursue his favourite studies, for which his office of deputy-keeper 
 of the records of the Birmingham tower, and keeper of the par- 
 hamentary records in Ireland, afforded favourable opportunities ; 
 and he applied himself with gi-eat industry to collect and com- 
 pile records and documents, which laboiu* he continued up to the 
 time of his death ; so that he fomied a valuable collection of 
 several hundred volumes of genealogical, topograpliical, and 
 legal subjects, all methodized, and furnished with indexes. In 
 addition to these. Sir William abstracted the inquisitions in tho 
 rolls in the chief remembrancer's office ; and finally, the whole 
 of the wills, administrations, and marriage-licences, in the prero- 
 gative court, from the earliest period to the year 1800. This 
 work occupied him from 1807 till 1828, and consists of forty 
 large folio volumes. Sir William was also a sedulous collector 
 of manuscripts. He purchased the genealogical collection of 
 Lodge, the collection of records of Jlr. Lynch, and many others, 
 while he procured copies of numerous records and historical 
 manuscripts existing throughout Ireland, thus centralizing a 
 body of information which few men could have the facilities or 
 the encrg}' to amass. Sir William was a vice-president and 
 active member of the Roy.al Dublin Society, and in 1825 was 
 admitted a member of the Royal Irish Academv, filling the office 
 
 4 B
 
 BET 
 
 562 
 
 BET 
 
 of secretary of foreign correspondence for many years, and con- 
 tributing many valuable papers to its Transactions. In 182-4 
 he became a member of the Society of Antiquaries, and subse- 
 quently a member of the British Archxological Association ; in 
 the Transactions of both many papers of his are to be found. In 
 addition to these various communications. Sir W. Betham pub- 
 lished several distinct works, the earliest being '" Irish Antiqua- 
 i-ian Researches," 1826-27. In 1834 appeared the first volume 
 of the " Origin and History of the Constitution of England, and 
 of the early ParUaments of Ireland," a ivork of much merit, 
 which, it is to be regi-etted, he has left incomplete. The same 
 year he published "The Gael and Cymbri," and in 1842 the 
 "Etruria Celtica," in which he contended for the identity of 
 the Etruscan language with that of the Iberno-Celtic, and both 
 of these with the Phoenician. In the midst of these active 
 labours, Sir William died suddenly, from an affection of the 
 heart, to which he was subject, on the 2Gth of October, 1853, 
 at his residence near Dublin. As an antiquarian and a philolo- 
 gist, he was laborious, diligent, and enthusiastic ; and though 
 some of his speculations and theories have been questioned — not 
 without reason; yet in a field of inquiry, where so much is 
 debatable, we may make large allowances, and yet find much 
 to respect and approve ; while the solid and permanent services 
 which he has rendered by his vast collections of important docu- 
 ments and records, should never be forgotten. — J. F. W. 
 
 BETHEXCOURT, Jeax, seigneur de, conqueror of the 
 Canary islands. He was chamberlain of Charles VI., and his 
 estates being in Normandy he suffered much dming that king's 
 wars with the English. Driven at length, like so many Norman 
 lords of that period, to seek his fortunes in strange countries, he 
 obtained from Henry III. of Spain the title of lord of the Canary 
 islands, and some forces to make good his patent. With these 
 and a companion, named Gadifier, he succeeded about the year 
 1404 in obtaining the mastery of the islands ; but more anxious 
 to convert the natives to Christianity than to rule over them, 
 after bajitizing the king and many of his subjects, and establish- 
 ing a bishopric to which an ecclesiastic was consecrated by the 
 pope, he left the government in the hands of his nephew and 
 returned to Xomiandy, where he died in 1425. — J. S., G. 
 
 BETHISY DE MEZIERES, Henry Benedict Julius de, 
 a French prelate, famous during and after the Revolution for his 
 defence of the rights of the church, was bom at ilezieres in the 
 diocese of Amiens in 1744. He was made bishop of Uzes in 
 Languedoc in 1780. His continued opposition to all the mea- 
 sm'es which assailed the church, compelled him to seek refuge in 
 England, where he died in 1817. — J. B. 
 
 BETHLEN, Gabriel, prince of Transylvania, and elected 
 king of Hungary, one of the greatest men of his time, was bom 
 in 1580. Elected prince of Translpania in 1613, he devoted 
 his life to the maintenance of political and religious Uberty in 
 Hungary. He struggled for toleration, not for protestantism ; 
 for he supported Romanist churches in his principality, and did 
 not even expel the Jesuits, although he took the field against their 
 intrigues in Hungary. When the Emperor Ferdinand II. began 
 to oppress the protestants all over his dominions, Prince Bethlen 
 put himself at the head of the Hungarian protestants, defeated 
 the emperor; was elected king of Hungary in 1620, but refused 
 to be crowned, satisfied with forcing Ferdinand in 1621 to con- 
 clude a peace at Nickolsburg, by which rehgious hberty was 
 secured to Hungary. As the emperor, taking advantage of the 
 fortune of war in Germany, neglected to observe the articles of 
 peace, Bethlen rose a second and a third time ; and by his skilful 
 conduct of the war, won, in Gyarmath and Presburg, additional 
 conditions of peace. In all these wars he never lost a battle ; 
 he seldom resorted to the assistance of the Turks, and ha\'ing 
 concluded a peace with the emperor, employed his good offices for 
 mediating the same between Ferdinand and the Turks. He died 
 in 1629, leaving Transylvania, his principahty, in a flourishing 
 condition. — F. P., L. 
 
 BETHLEN, Wolfgang, count and chancellor of Transylvania, 
 bom in 1648, and died in 1679. He wrote m Latin a valuable 
 history of his country, from 1526 to 1600, which he concealed 
 in a vault in his chateau when attacked by the Tartars. He 
 was taken prisoner by those ruthless savages, who put him 
 to death. JIany years after, one of the descendants of the 
 mm'dered count, in making some excavations in the chateau, 
 discovered the scattered and dilapidated leaves of the history, 
 wliich were carefully collected and published under the title of 
 
 " Historiarum Pannonico-Daciainim Libri x." Count Wolfgang 
 must not be confounded with another count of Bethlen named 
 John, who was bora in 1613, and died in 1670, also chancellor of 
 Transylvania, and author of a short histoiy of his country, from 
 1629 to 1663, entitled "Rerum Transvlvaniae Libri iv."— J. T. 
 
 BETHLEN-BETHLEN, Nicolas', count de, a German 
 chronicler, bom 1642; died at Vienna 1716; author of an auto- 
 biography, and of a work entitled " Sudores et Cmores Vieolai 
 Bethlen." These two works have never been edited. — J. G. 
 
 BETHUNE, Alexander and John. It is impossible to 
 separate the Bethunes : their lives were nearly the same : they 
 were little divided in death, and their memory remains, not as 
 the memory of either, but of the Bethunes. Alexander was 
 bom in the parish of ^lonimail, Fifeshli-e, in 1804; John in the 
 same parish six years later. John died in his thirtieth year; 
 Alexander survived until 1843. In a small cottage, rude in 
 structure, the work of their own hands, the two brothers spent 
 theii- lives, in hardest struggle with poverty. Neither enjoyed 
 the advantages of early formal education : they educated them- 
 selves, being of the temper which can draw best wisdom firom 
 the world, whether under sunshine or when its sky shows nothing 
 but clouds. The existence of gi-eat peasants is not indeed the 
 honour of any one special country. Such persons have sprung 
 up in various lands, and sometimes, as in the case of Jeanne 
 d'Arc, they have saved empires. And of these, Scotland, rugged 
 though she is, has had her full share : — she may say with fullest 
 justice, as she does also with no vain or improper pride, that 
 amid her rural districts there have been, and still are, hearts and 
 voices capable to inspire and command. Humble though these 
 Bethunes were, and little skilled in mere lore, they possessed the 
 truest culture : their hands were rough, but they were gentle- 
 men. Poverty itself being, as they bore it, the medium through 
 which they wrought out and possessed their moral independence, 
 endowed them with a dignity, the impression of which exists still 
 among their compeere. They wrote through no ambition, or any 
 craving for the repute of authorship, but generally when too 
 feeble for work, and to beguile weary time. Their joint volume, 
 " Tales and Sketches of the Scottish Peasantry," is real as life. 
 They knew the persons of whom they wTote, — they knew them- 
 selves. Some of their descriptions of our bleak Scottish moors 
 are not imworthy the master pen of Scott himself. The work 
 on " Practical Economy " should be a household book. It re- 
 veals the secret of their final victory — narrating how a peasant 
 may be honest and stand upright ; how wthout boastfulness, or 
 other sense than that duty has been unobtrusively performed, 
 he may feel what it is to say, that " he owes no man a penny." 
 The Bethunes had no patrons, or rather they never sought any ; 
 nor are they to be pitied for the want of one. Patronage did 
 little good to poor Bums. Let them rest as they were, with 
 the simplest epitaph ; — that, however, rising from their graves 
 which sounds like a trumpet. Their works in poetry and prose 
 have appeared in two small volumes ; and the minutest incidents 
 of their lives have been collected and published by Mr. William 
 M'Combie. — A. J. N. 
 
 BETHUNE, a seignorial family originally of Artois, com- 
 prising several branches — Bethune d'Orval, Bcthune de Selles 
 et de Chabris, and Bethune de Charrost. Its foimder was Ro- 
 bert, seignexir de Richebourg, who lived about the commencement 
 of the eleventh century. Wu notice its principal members : — 
 
 Bethune, Armand Joseph de, due de Charrost, bom at 
 Versailles in 1738. His virtues and munificence would have 
 won him national honours in any age or country, and rendere<l 
 him singular in that corrapt period of French history in which 
 he lived. While a soldier he gave pensions to his comrades, 
 insinuating that he acted in obedience to the instructions of 
 government ; and when the German contingent in which he 
 ser\-ed was decimated by an epidemic, he sold his effects to pro- 
 vide comforts for the sick, saying, " Since I owe my life to my 
 country, I may well give her my plate." With like generosity 
 he, throughout his career, denied himself the exercise of most of 
 his seignorial rights ; and when the first sj-mptoms of revolution 
 appeared, he hailed them with patriotic fen-om-. He was impri- 
 soned during the Reign of Terror, but recovered his hberty after 
 the fall of RobespieiTC. His works treat of subjects of pohtical 
 economy. He died at Paris in 1800. — G. M. 
 
 Bethune, HirroLVTE de, a French prelate, bom in 1647, 
 became bishop of Verdun. He established in that town a semi- 
 nary, for which he composed manuals of devotion and prayer,
 
 and also founded a liospital, to -wliich lie left at his death the 
 whole of his property. Died in 1720. 
 
 BETHUXE, QijESNES or Coesxks de, a French poet, lived 
 in the second pai-t of the twelfth ccntuiy. He accompanied 
 Baldwin, and was the first to plant the Latin flag on the walls 
 of Constantinople. Anthor of nine remarkable songs, inserted 
 in the Bo/uanccrs, Paris, 1833. 
 
 BETIS or BABEMESSIS, governor of Gaza, which he held 
 for Darius, the king of Persia, and defended against Alexander 
 with the most undaunted courage. As this place was the key of 
 Egypt it was strongly fortified, and for two months resisted evei-y 
 attack of the Macedonian monarch, who was severely wounded 
 in the course of the siege. When it was at last canied by assault, 
 the gallant governor is said by Quintus Curtius to have been 
 brought mortally wounded before Alexander, who caused him to 
 be fastened by the heels to his chariot and dragged round the 
 walls, in iinitation of the bnital treatment which the dead body 
 of Hector received from Achilles. Tliere is reason, however, to 
 suspect that this story is a fable, and that Bet is was in reality 
 slain along with the gi'eater part of the inhabitants of Gaza, 
 when that town was captured by the Macedonians. — J. T. 
 
 BETOURNE, Ajibkoise, a French poet, born at Caen, 1795; 
 died 1835. He was a baker's son. He served for some time in 
 the anny, and quitted it to be apprenticed to a manual trade. 
 His pieces have been translated into different languages. 
 
 BETTE D'ETIENVILLE, Jean Charles, a rogue, and a 
 writer, of some notoriety in both professions, was bom at St. 
 Omers in 1759, and was brought up to the profession of surgeiy 
 at the military hospital of Lille. His Ufe presents a series of 
 discreditable intrigues and dishonest conduct. AMien only 
 twenty-two years old, he induced a girl of sixteen to marry him, 
 and by his irregularities drove her, in a few months, to the refuge 
 of a convent. Leaving Lille, he sought his fortune at Paris, and 
 became notorious as one of the agents in a scandalous marriage- 
 intrigue, in conjunction with madame de la Motte-Valois. The 
 affair was discovered, and Bette fled to Dunkirk, where he was 
 arrested, and being brought back to Paris, stood his trial, and 
 was fortunate enough to escape well-merited punishment. 
 Ruined in character, he took to journalism, and edited the 
 Philanthrope in 1789, on revolutionary principles. He next 
 came out as director of an agiicultural bank in 1797, which he 
 so conducted as to become an object of special attention to the 
 police, by whom he was prosecuted for swindling. His luck did 
 not desert him. He conducted his own defence, was acquitted, 
 and lived to write and publish several books and brochures, and 
 died a natural death in Paris in 1830. — J. F. W. 
 
 BETTERTON, Thomas, an English tragedian, bom in Tot- 
 hill Street, Westminster, in 1635. He was the son of an 
 under-cook in the household of Charles L, but seems to have 
 received a good education. Having shown a taste for reading, 
 and his father being unable to educate him for any of the learned 
 professions, he was apprenticed to a bookseller named Rhodes, 
 who had been keeper of the wardi'obe to the comedians in the 
 Black Friars. Betterton was thus brought into connection with 
 the stage, and became an actor, probably about 1656 or 1657, 
 in the company employed by Sir William Davenant. When the 
 Restoration gave full license to the player's art, patents were 
 granted for two companies, the one named " The King's," and 
 the other " The Duke's," the former acting in Drury Lane, and 
 the latter at Lincoln's-Inn -Fields. It was to the company "bound 
 to serve his royal highness the duke of York," that Betterton 
 belonged, and he acted so well that he was sent to Paris by the 
 king, that he might study the stage sceneiy there, and introduce 
 improvements into England. In 1670 he married a ]\Irs. 
 Saunderson, belonging to the same company. About twelve 
 years later, the two companies were amalgamated, and Betterton 
 was speedily recognized as the best actor of his day. He was 
 chiefly famed for his rendering of Shakspeare, and if we are 
 to believe the rather inflated sentences of Cibber, his genius 
 displayed in representing the characters of Othello, Hamlel, 
 Hotspur, Macbeth, and Brutus, w-as little short of that of the great 
 poet who conceived them. There can be little doubt of his 
 power, though it has been said that his acting owed its 
 excellence more to imitation of some of the giTat actors he 
 had seen in earlier days, and who had learned their art in the 
 heyday of the English drama, than to any original concep- 
 tion of the characters he portrayed. Though jiopular with 
 the public, Betterton was badly treated by the patentees of 
 
 his theatre, who, with a determination to turn everj-thing to 
 their own advantage, subjected the actors to many hardships. 
 Having attached some of the best players to his company, 
 he opened a new theatre in 1695, in Lineoln's-Inn -Fields. 
 Congreve was attached to bis company, and they opened with 
 his " Love for Love." But Betterton's glorj- was over, and the 
 speculation was attended with but indifferent success, as was 
 another which was entered into for his behoof — the building of a 
 theatre in the Haymarket. The old man's health was broken ; 
 he had reached his seventieth year, and had lost all his fortune, 
 yet he maintained serenity of mind, and as often as he could 
 appeared on the scene of his former gloiy. It was determined 
 to give huTi a benefit, at which he acted Valentine in " Love for 
 Love," supported by some of his old associates, who had ere this 
 retired from the stage, but returned to do him honour. £500 
 were realized, and a promise was given that the benefit would 
 be repeated annually. Ere the next season came round, the 
 gout, which had long afflicted him, became so severe that he 
 was obliged to submit to severe appliances to make it at all 
 possible for him to appear ; he played his part, but the means 
 which had been employed proved too much for his constitution, 
 and he died 28th April, 1710. He left some dramatic works — 
 " The Woman made a Justice," a comedy ; an adaptation of 
 Webster's tragedy of " The Unjust Judge, or Appius and Vir- 
 ginia," and " The Amorous Widow, or the Wanton Wife." He 
 was interred in Westminster Abbey, and Sir Richard Steele paid 
 a beautiful tribute to his memory in the Tatler, No. 167. He 
 tells us in the paper that he went to Westminster to " see," he 
 says, " the last office done to a man whom I had always very 
 much admired, and from whose acting I had received more 
 impressions of what is great and noble in human nature, than 
 from the arguments of the most solid philosophers, or the 
 descriptions of the most charming poets I had ever read."- — J. B. 
 
 BETTES, John and Thomas, two miniature painters, 
 (brothers in England about 1596). They painted Queen Ehza- 
 beth's portrait, much to the queen's satisfaction. — W. T. 
 
 BETTI, BiAGio, bom at Pistoia, 1545, was a pupil of Daniel 
 da VolteiTa, and on bis death, entered the order of the Theatines, 
 renouncing fame, to think of heaven. Died in 1615.— W. T. 
 
 BETTI, Zachary, an Italian poet, born at Verona in 1732, 
 and died in 1788. He is known as the author of an original 
 poem on a subject popular with the Italian poets — the silk-wonn. 
 
 BETTINELLI, Saveiuo, not Giuseppe Maeia, as some- 
 times called. This distingmshed writer was bom at ^lantua 
 in 1718. He was educated at the Jesuits' college, and became 
 a member of that society. His poetical compositions attracted 
 the attention of his superiors, who appointed him professor of 
 belles-letters in the city of Brescia, where he remained for five 
 years. Having been sent to Bologna to complete his theological 
 studies, he wrote there several tragedies, which won for him the 
 esteem of the literati of that learned city. From thence he went 
 to Venice, as professor of rhetoric, and soon after was elected 
 rector of the royal college of Parma, a post which he occupied 
 with distinction for eight years. In 1773 he was filling the 
 chair of eloquence at Jlodena, when his order was suppressed. 
 Compelled to leave that city, he resided for some time in Parma, 
 then in Verona, always occupied in literary pursuits. Finally, 
 anxious to revisit his native place, he repaired to JIantua, where 
 he would have remained had he not been hindered by the French, 
 who besieged that fortress in 1796. He therefore fled to Verona, 
 where he resumed his studies without any apprehension. Vol- 
 taire was his friend, and the celebrated Pindemonte calls him 
 the reviver of sound literature in Italy. His works have been 
 published in 24 volumes, 8vo. " Le Lcttcre Virgiliane," and 
 " L'Entusiasmo," are elegantly written. His tragedy of "Xerxes," 
 in which he eiuleavom's to imitate jEschylus, and a small poem, 
 "Le Rauolfe," are considered his best poetical productions. Ho 
 died in 1808.— fj/rj/^t/, Gioherti, riiulenw„te.)—A. C. M. 
 
 BETTINI, Antonio, an Italian Jesuit, bom at Sienna in 1396, 
 was elevated to the bishopric of Foligno in his sixty-fifth year. 
 At an advanced age he resigned his see and retired to a convent 
 of his native town, where he died in 1487. He is the author of 
 a mystical work, " 11 Monte di Dio," of no particular merit 
 theologically considered, but inestimably valuable in a biblio- 
 gi-aphical point of view, as being the oldest book extant with 
 copperplate cngi-avings. Itwas printed at Florence in 1477. A 
 second edition appeared at the same place in 1491. but with 
 woodcuts instead of engi-avings. — J. S., G.
 
 BET 
 
 56-i 
 
 BEU 
 
 BETTINI, DoJiKXico, a Florentine artist, born in lG-44, first 
 instmcted by Jacopo-Viguli, then at Eome by Jlario Kuzzi 
 (what a flavour tliese old names have), and, lastly, by nature. 
 His subjects were fniit, flowers, insects, animals, and still life, 
 truly painted and skilfully grouped. Died in 1705. — W. T. 
 
 BETTONI, X1COLA.S, an Italian litterateur and printer, of the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century. He is best kno\yn by an 
 edition of Alceste, a posthumous tragedy of Alfieri's ; and a com- 
 plete edition of Euripides. 
 
 BETTS, JouK, an English physician of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, was born at Winchester. He entered Corpus Christi, 
 O.xford, in 1G42, and became B.A. in 1G46. Being suspected 
 of loyalty to the exiled family, he was ejected by the parlia- 
 mentary visitors in 1G18. He applied himself to the study of 
 physic, and found an extensive practice in London, especially 
 among the Roman catholics. After tlie Restoration, he was 
 made physician in ordinarj- to Charles II. He wrote two works, 
 " De Ortu et Xatura Sanguinis," 1GG9 ; and " Anatomia 
 Thoma: Parri," the "Old Parr" of long-life celebrity. — J. B. 
 
 BETULE.JUS, SiXTUs or Xystcs, the Latinized name of a 
 German philologist and poet, bom at Memmingen in Suabia in 
 1500 ; died in 1554. He was principal of the coUcge of 
 Augsburg. Besides commentaries on Lactantius and on several 
 of Cicero's philosophical dissertations, he wrote dramas in Latin 
 and in German : in the former, " Judith," " Susanna," and 
 "Sapientia Salomonis ;" and in the latter, "Zorobabel," "Eva," 
 " Joseph," " Bel and Herodes." His family name was Birk. 
 
 BELX'HELAER, JoAciii.-vr, a Flemish artist, bom at Ant- 
 werp in 1550 ; died in IGIO. He painted kitchen-game, fruit, 
 and fish.— W. T. 
 
 BEUCHET or BEHUCHET, Nicolas, seigneur de Muzy, 
 &c , a French admiral, who in 1339 effected a descent on the 
 English coast, and ravaged Portsmouth, caiTying oft" gi-eat booty. 
 He was taken by the English in the following year, and, fur his 
 exploits against Portsmouth, hanged by order of King Edward. 
 BEUCHOT, Adrien Jean Quektix, bom at Paris in 1773, 
 and died in 1851. His early education was among the orato- 
 riens of Lyons ; he was next apprenticed to a notarj-, and 
 afterwards he became a student of medicine; in 1794 he was 
 chirurgien-major to the nhith battalion of the Isere. Still un- 
 settled, he left the army in 1801, and sought to support him- 
 self by literature. He wrote several papers in the Bioyrcqj/iie 
 Universelle. He superintended the octavo edition of Bayle's 
 Dictionary, and also the edition of Voltaire in seventy volumes, 
 1827-1833. An amusing pamphlet was published by him in 
 1814, entitled "Funeral Oration on Napoleon Buonaparte," a 
 collection of adulatory addresses offered in the days of his power 
 to Buonaparte by persons, who, on the Restoration, were seeking 
 place fnjm the Bourbons. He has left, in manuscript, " Le 
 Catalogue de la Bibliotheque Yoltairienne," in which he describes 
 all the original editions, and many of the subsequent impressions 
 of each particular work of Voltaire ; the satires published against 
 him, the apologies, &c. ; in short, the whole literature connected 
 with the name. — J. A., D. 
 
 BEUDANT, Fran^ois-Sulpice, a distinguished French 
 mineralogist and physicist, bom at Paris the 5th September, 
 1787. Bcudant was a student at the Polytechnic and Nomial 
 schools of Paris, and on leaving the latter in 1811, was appointed 
 professor of mathem.atics in the lyceum of Avignon, and in 1813 
 professor of physics at the college of Marseilles. In 1814, at 
 the first restoration of the Bourbons, Beudant was commissioned 
 by Louis XVIII. to bring over from England the royal mine- 
 ralogical collection, of which he was appointed subdu'cctor; and 
 from this period imtil liis death, which took place in 1852, 
 he devoted himself to the study of mineralog)- with a zeal which 
 speedily gained him a wide-spread reputation. In 1818 he 
 made a mineralogical journey, at the public expense, through 
 Hungary, and on his return was made professor of mineralogy in 
 the Faculty of Sciences of Paris ; in 1824 he became a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences. The most important of Beudant's 
 mineralogical works are the follo^ving — " Researches to deter- 
 mine the relative importance of ci-ystalline form and chemical 
 composition in the determination of minerals," which was read 
 before the Academy of Sciences on the 17th February, 1817, 
 and published in that year in the Annales des Ji/ines; a " Let- 
 ter to M. Arago concerning the obser\-ations of Wollaston " upon 
 the preceding memoir, printed in the Annales de C'/ihnie for 
 1817; "Investigation of the causes which detennine the varia- 
 
 tions in the crystalline fonn of the same mineral substance," a 
 memoir of nearly 100 pages, and containing the results of more than 
 600 experiments., published in the Annales des Mines in 1818; 
 a " Letter to 5i. Gay Lussac upon a memoir by Jlitscherlich," 
 on the relation between crystalline form and chemical composi- 
 tion {Annales de Chimie, 1820); " Jlineralogical and Geological 
 Travels in Hungaiy m the year 1818," published at Paris in 
 1818 and 1822, a most important work on one of the countries 
 most distinguished by their mineral riches; " Elementary Trea- 
 tise on Mineralog}'," published at Paris in 1824, and a second 
 edition in 1830 ; and " Elementary Course of Mineralogy and 
 Geologj'," Paris, 1841, fomiing part of the "Corn's Elementaire 
 d'Histoire Naturelle," for the use of colleges and schools, of 
 which the zoological and botanical portions were written by 
 Milne Edwards and A. de Jussieu. Besides these and some 
 smaller memoirs upon mineralogical sulyects, Beudant published 
 several papers upon zoology, a science to which he had been 
 inclined to devote his attention, before his appointment as con- 
 servator of the royal mineralogical collection gave his mind a 
 decisive turn in a different direction. The Annales du Museum 
 contain memoirs from his pen on " Three New Species of Gas- 
 teropod Mollusea ; " "On the Structure of the Solid Parts of the 
 Mollusca, Radiaria, and Zoophyta ; " and " On Belemnites," all 
 in the year 1810. On the 13th Jlay, 1816, he read at the In.sti- 
 tute a " Memoir on the possibility of causing Fluviatile Mollusca 
 to live in salt water, and JIarine Jlollusca in fresh water," which 
 was printed in the Journal de Physique in 182G. The experi- 
 ments recorded in this paper were made with the view of 
 explaining the remarkable pateontological fact of the mixture of 
 marine and fluviatile shells in the same stratum. His position 
 of inspector-general of the university of Paris induced him to 
 prepare a French grammar, published at Paris in 1841, in which 
 he introduced numerous improvements suggested by the advance 
 of philological science. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEUGHEM, Charles Axthony Francis de Pacle 
 VAN, a Flemish miscellaneous writer, successively dh-ector of the 
 college of Com-trai, and jjrincipal of that of Gand, and afterwar.ls 
 secretary to cardinal van Frankenberg, was bom at Brassels in 
 1744, and died in 1820. When the French invaded Belgium in 
 1792, he was carried away a prisoner for refusing to take the oath 
 of Ilaine a la royaute. He was not allowed to retiun to Flan- 
 ders till after the fall of Napoleon. His principal work is entitled 
 " Fractus suppressa Cortraci mendicitate exorti," 1776. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEUGXOT, Arthur -AuGUSTE, Count, son of Jacquc-; 
 Claude, was born Maixh, 1797, at Bar-sur-Aube. After he \\:i~ 
 received at the bar, he distinguished himself by his pleadinga 
 for pohtical off"enders before the chamber of peers. M. Beugnot 
 was, with Montalembert and others, a constant defender of 
 the cause of freedom of education, clamoured for after 1830, 
 promised by the Charte, but never given. In 1849, as a member 
 of the legislative assembly, M. Beugnot brought all his former 
 studies to bear upon this question of educational liberty, and 
 mainly contributed to the passing of the bilL M. Beugnot at 
 his father's demise became a peer of France by right of succes- 
 sion. He is a very learned man, and his love of letters has 
 prevented him from pursuing his legal career as a banister. He 
 has several times received prizes from the academies of Paris, 
 of Strasburg, and Ghent ; besides which, as a man of science, he 
 merited his election to a scat at the Institute of Paris in 1832. 
 For all that concerns history, jurispnidence, and modem archae- 
 ology, he is one of the most distinguished members of the Academy 
 of Inscriptions and belles-lettres. His principal work is entitled 
 " History of the Destruction of Paganism in the East." The 
 work is a very important one, but has been the occasion of much 
 controversy, and has at last been condemned by the papal see. 
 M. Beugnot's works are — " Essay on the Institutions of St. 
 Louis ;" " The Jews of the West," 1821 ; " On Banking Houses 
 and Public Money Lending," 1824; "A Report to the Minister 
 of Public Instruction on the publication of the Registers of the 
 Paris Parliament ; " " The Chronology of the States-General ;" 
 " Lcs Olim, being registers of the decrees passed by the court- 
 royal under the reigns of St. Louis, Philippe le Ilardi, Philippe 
 le Bel, Louis le Hutin, and Philippe le Long;" and the "Assize 
 sittings of Jerusalem, being a collection of jurispnidential docu- 
 ments of the thirteenth century in the kingdoms of Jerusalem 
 and Cyprus." M. Beugnot has also, from time to time, contri- 
 buted to certain periodical works, such as the Correspondanl^ 
 Ami de la ReVf/ion, &c. Less a political man than his father,
 
 BEU 
 
 565 
 
 BEU 
 
 Arthur Bengnot lias more of the qualities that would befit a poli- 
 tical career. He has more firmness of conviction. Instead of, 
 like Beugnot the elder, passing from one regime to the other, 
 Bengnot the younger, when liberty was definitively overthrown 
 in France in 1851, prefeired, to any honom-s, a life of retu-ement 
 and study. — B. de B. 
 
 BEUGXOT, Jacques-Claude, Count, was bom in 1761 at 
 Bar-sm--Aube in France, and died in June, 1835. He began his 
 career as lieutenant-general of the presidial of Bar. In 1790 he 
 became procurator-general of his depailment, and the next year 
 he was elected one of the legislative assembly, where he sat as a 
 member of the constitutional party. A very short time before 
 the movement of 1789, I\i. Beugnot made the acquaintance of 
 the famous madame de la JIutte, the worthless heroine of the 
 disastrous affair of the Eohan necklace. Some of his contem- 
 poraries have even gone so far as to attribute to this and other 
 intimacies of the same colour, 51. Beugnot's liberal opinions. 
 Be that as it may, the young magistrate never went beyond a 
 certain limit in his ideas of political freedom. A partisan of 
 the reforms of 1789, he was from early life a modere, and in 
 the beginning he was so, courageously. Upon liis entrance 
 into the legislative assembly, and in the face of the rising 
 Revolution, he remained with Eamond, Jaucourt, Dumas, Bec- 
 quey, and a few others, a fimi and intelligent champion of 
 the then still-existing remnant of the royal prerogative. He 
 straggled against all that savoured of violence, resisted anarchy 
 to the utmost, and did his best against the tide that was setting 
 in towards war, cle:uiy discerumg in the war that was contem- 
 plated, the ruin of monarchy iu France, and the establishment 
 of a despotic government in the interior. JI. Beugnot persevered 
 in the line of conduct he had adopted till the fatal day of the 
 10th of August, when he retu-ed from the assembly, sought 
 vainly for a refuge, and unable to find one, was imprisoned by 
 the convention. The 9th Thermidor set him, with so many 
 others, free. To 51. Beugnot ai-e to be ascribed the following 
 measures : — the explanations given by the court of Vienna of 
 the treaty of Pilnitz, the decree of accusation against Marat for 
 having caused, by his writings, the assassination of General 
 Dillon, and the proceedings against the mimicipahty of Paris, on 
 account of the publication of the newspaper, I'Ami du Peuple. 
 All these acts of moderation made him hateful to the tyrants 
 of the horn-, and he passed in retirement the remaining years 
 of the Eepublic. After the 18th Brumaire, he was attached 
 to Lucien Buonaparte, who had become minister of the interior. 
 He was prefet of Rouen tUl 1806, when the emperor made 
 him a councillor of state. In 1807 he was finance minister 
 to Jerome, king of Vvestphalia. In 1808 he was made a count, 
 and an officer of the legion d'honneur, for his administration of 
 the grand duchy of Berg and Cleves. M. Beugnot returned 
 to France in 1813, after the disaster of Leipzig, and was named 
 to the prefecture of the Nord. When in 1814 the senate deposed 
 the emperor. Count Beugnot was made by the pro^isional govern- 
 ment, minister of the interior. Upon the return of Louis XVIII. 
 he had confided to him the general direction of the police ; but this 
 post went well nigh to cost him the friends he had made in the 
 earUer period of his career. Amongst other things, the liberal 
 party reproached him with having enforced the keeping holy of 
 the Sabbath-day, and having permitted religious processions out 
 of doors. In 1815 he became minister of marine, and during 
 the Hundred Days followed Louis XVIII. to Ghent. After the 
 second Restoration he occupied for a certain time the general 
 direction of the post-office, but soon the small favour he enjoyed 
 with the reigning party cost him all his appointments, and he was 
 left without even a distinction, save that of the ministr}' of state 
 — an empty title. Elected a deputy, he was one of the minority 
 of 1815 ; and, re-elected at the end of the year, he still con- 
 tmned to sit on the opposition benches, but with a somewhat 
 nearer leaning towards the ministiy. In 1819 he was one of the 
 foremost defenders of the liberty of the press, and as reporter of a 
 special committee, was the chief cause of the throwing out of tlie 
 bUl upon the electoral law, known as the " proposition Barthe- 
 lemy." This bill, however, defeated at first by a great majority, 
 was, through the perseverance of the ministers, passed in 1820. 
 In 1824 Count Beugnot resigned his seat, and was said to be 
 about to be made a peer of France, but the letters of nomination 
 to this dignity were not forthcoming even at the end of six years. 
 M. Beugnot was not made a pair de France till after the 25th 
 July, 1830, in the act.« entitled technically les pdites ordoii- 
 
 naiices; being at the same time named director-general of manu- 
 factures and trade. He wrote his " Jlemoirs," three fragments 
 whereof only have as yet ever been published. 51. Beugnot, who 
 was courageous in 1791, was simply docile under the Empire, 
 and mixed perhaps too much zeal with his docility ; his natural 
 moderation grew into mere scepticism, and yielded to self-interest. 
 After the Empire, this scepticism uicreased, and expressed itself 
 in undisguised raillery. 51. Beugnot, who mainly helped to frame 
 the Charte of 1814, no longer believed in the principles of fi'ee- 
 doni that had been those of his youth, and defended them only 
 out of a species of deairum, but without any patriotic ardom*. 
 Count Beugnot, who was decidedly a clever man, was too entirely 
 devoid of resolution to be ever entitled to be called a statesman ; 
 and passing from imperialism to monarchy, from constitutional 
 government to emigration, exchanging liberal ideas for a Jacobite 
 policy, with the utmost ease, he was never anything beyond 
 the witty adviser and agreeable servant of unstable powers, and 
 the creature cf circumstance.— B. de B. 
 
 BEUIL, Jeax IV. DE, a noted French commander, of noble 
 birth, who combated with distuiction the English forces in 
 Guyenne and Languedoc, of which provinces he was lieutenant ; 
 killed at the battle of Agincourt, 1415. Duguesclin besought 
 from this doughty wamor the honour of fighting under his 
 banner. He was grand-master of the arbeletiers of France. 
 The duke of Anjou, whom he accompanied in his expedition 
 against Naples, appointed BeuU his executor. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEUIL, Jeax V. SiUE DE, son of the preceding, a French 
 warrior, who by a series of exploits extending over the period 
 between the battle of Agincomt and the accession of Louis XL, 
 merited the title of Fleau des Anglais. That monarch, with a 
 gratitude which he rarely showed to a senant of his father, con- 
 ferred on him the order of St. 5Iichel. Died in 1470. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEULAXIUS, the name of two British writers, father and 
 son, the former of whom wrote about the year 600, "De Genea- 
 logiis Gentium." He was the instructor of Xennius. S.\muel, 
 the son, was bom in Xorthumberland, but appears to have 
 resided in the Isle of Wight, of which, adding his own observa- 
 tions to those of Ptolemy and Pliny, he left a description. He 
 also wrote " Annotationes in Xennium ;" a " Historical Itinerary;" 
 and a work " De Gestis Regis Arthuri." — J. S., G. 
 
 BEU5ILER, 5Iarc, a learned Swi:<s, bom at Volketswyl, in 
 the canton of Zurich, 1555; died 1611. He acquired consider- 
 able reputation as a philologist and rhetorician. He translated 
 several of the works of Demosthenes, Plutarch, and Cicero. 
 
 BEURXOXVILLE, Pierre de Ruel, marquis de, mar- 
 shal of France, bom 1752 ; died 1821. In January, 1774, he 
 entered as a simple volunteer in the regiment of the Isle of 
 France, and gradually rose in the ser^nce till, as a reward of his 
 services in the east, he was promoted to the rank of colonel in 
 1789. From this period he was employed under each succes- 
 sive govemment of France, and was advanced from one rank to 
 another, until May, 1816, when he was named commander of the 
 order of St. Louis and marshal of France. In 1817 he was 
 created a marquis. — G. 51. 
 
 BEURRIER, Paul, a French theologian and hagiologist, 
 abbe of Saint Genevieve; bom in 1610; died in 1696. His 
 principal work is entitled " Homelies, Prunes ou 5Icditations sur 
 les evangiles des dimanches et principalcs fetes," 1668. 
 
 BEURS, , was a pupil of Bloemart, who rivalled 
 
 Both, in truth of design. — W. T. 
 
 BEURS, WiELiAM, was bom at Dort, 1656, and died 1690. 
 He studied under Drillenbm-g, and made rapid progress ; even as 
 a youth, becoming known for his quick free hand and clear 
 colour, but he was careless in his design. He tried to forget his 
 bad drawing in bad taverns, but only forgot himself, and became 
 poor and neglected. He at last set sail for Italy, but died as 
 the vessel reached port. — W. T. 
 
 BEUTIIER, 5I1CHAEL, a Gei-man philosopher and theologian; 
 born at Carlstadt in 1522 ; studied tlicolog)- under Luther and 
 5Ielancthon. He held various offices in the seniee of the elector 
 John Frederick, and in that of the elector palatine Otlio Henrv-, 
 and latterly established himself at Strasburg, where he held 
 a professorship of histoiy till his death in 1587. He wrote 
 " Continuatio Historiw Joannis Sleidani," and a great number of 
 commentaries on classical authors. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEUTLEK, Hax.s Heinricii Ciiristi.vn, bom at Suhl, in 
 the canton of Henncberg in Franconia, on the 10th October, 
 1759. lie became professor of the school of Salzmann at
 
 Schnepfcnthal, and afterwards rector and principal professor of 
 the college of Waltershausen in Gotha. He was a man of ex- 
 tensive learning, and published a gi'eat many works in German, 
 which enjoyed a high reputation. Died in 1835. — J. F. W. 
 
 BEUVALLET, '^P. N., a sculptor, born at Paris ; died in 
 1816 ; pupil of Pajou, was administrator of public works under 
 the convention ; his portrait busts have preserved traits of many 
 of the extraordinary men, good and bad, of that ago of earth- 
 quakes and tempests of blood. I\Iarat and Bamave sat to him, 
 and he left an unfinished bust of Moreau. He also attempted 
 several classical subjects. Narcissus for example. — W. T. 
 
 BEVER, Thomas, an erudite priest, bom at Stratfield 
 Mortimer, in Berkshire, in 1725. He was fellow, and after- 
 wards LL.D. of All Soul's college, Oxford, where, during an 
 illness of the regius professor, he gave a course of lectures on 
 civil law, the introduction to which was published in 176G, with 
 the title " A Discourse on the Study of Jurisprudence and the 
 Civil Law." In 1781 he produced a work on "The Histoi-y of 
 the Legal Polity of the Roman State," much commended for 
 depth of research, but slovenly in style, and in consequence of 
 the death of its author in 1781, unfinished. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEVERIDGE, William, bishop of St. Asaph's, was bom at 
 Barrow in Leicestershire in 1636-37. During his education at St. 
 John's college, Cambridge, he applied hunself with such ardour 
 to the study of the oriental tongues, that ere he was little more 
 than twenty years of age, he published a treatise in Latin, " On 
 the Excellency and Use of the Oriental Languages " — (Ue Lin- 
 guamm Orient. Pra?stantia et Usu, London, 1658). A very short 
 time afterwards he published a Syriac grammar in three books. 
 These publications do not display any original or profound phi- 
 lological acutcncss or research, but they prove the diligence, 
 earnestness, general talent, and predilections of their author. It 
 was his desire to master these languages himself, and to induce 
 others to obtain such proficiency in them as to be able to read 
 with profit and delight the original Jewish scriptures. He was 
 ordained deacon in the church of St. Botolph, Aldersgate, by the 
 bishop of Lincoln, January 3, 1660-61, and priest in the same 
 place on the 30th of the same month. Soon after his ordination, 
 Sheldon, bishop of London, collated him to the vicarage of Ealing 
 in Jliddlesex, and on the 22d of November, 1672, the corpora- 
 tion of London presented him to the rectoiy of St. Peter's, 
 Comhill. His labours in this populous district of the metropolis 
 were devoted and untiring. His preaching was eamest, simple, 
 and evangelical ; his various plans of usefulness were in keeping 
 with his gentle and benignant nature ; his more private minis- 
 trations were cordial, homely, faithful, and free ; and all the 
 functions of his pastoral office were performed with such zeal 
 and uniformity, such fervour and success, that he was greeted as 
 "the great restorer and reviver of primitive piety." In 1674 he 
 became a prebend of St. Paul's, in 1681 archdeacon of Col- 
 chester, and in 1084 he was installed a prebend of Canterbury, 
 becoming at the same time royal chaplain to William and ]\Lan,'. 
 The duties which these wider spheres of labour devolved upon 
 him were gone through with as exemplary devotedncss as had 
 been his parochial labours. He visited the parishes of his arch- 
 deaconry, and from personal inspection learned many things that 
 churchwardens and other office-bearers had not thought fit to lay 
 before him. Dr. Thomas Kenii ha\'ing been deprived as a non- 
 juror in 1091, his vacant see of Bath and Wells was offered to 
 Beveridge, who conscientiously and decidedly refused it. In 
 1704, however, he was consecrated bishop of St. Asaph's. In 
 this elevated situation he at once exhibited all his former assiduity 
 and affectionate vigilance, exhorted his clergy to greater diligence 
 and usefulness, and published for parochial instniction his excel- 
 lent " Exposition upon the Church Catechism." Bishop Beve- 
 ridge enjoyed his episcopal honours only about three years and a 
 half; he died March 5, 1707-08, in the seventy-first year of his 
 age, and was buried in St. Paul's. As might have been antici- 
 pated from one of his benevolent temperament, he left the greater 
 portion of his fortune for the promotion of christian enterprises 
 — not forgetting the poor families of Barrow, his native place. 
 
 Bishop Beveridge was a somewhat voluminous author. Be- 
 sides the works already mentioned, he published a treatise on 
 chronology — "Institutionum Chronologicaiinn,libriduo," 1069 — 
 a work on the canon law of the Greek church ; " ^vtihxov, sive 
 Pandecta; Canonum St. Apostolomm," &c., two volumes folio, 
 O.xford, 1672 ; " Codex Canonum Ecclesiae Primitive," London, 
 1079. His posthumous works, published by lib executors, are 
 
 also numerous, but not of the same laborious and antiquarian 
 character as those published during his life. His " Thesaurus 
 Theologicus " was edited in four vols. 8vo, London, 1711. It is 
 a system of divinity of a somewhat peculiar structure, consisting 
 of brief notes upon arranged and selected places of scripture, — 
 sometimes ingenious and occasionally far-fetched, but usually 
 lucid and instructive. " The great advantage and necessity of 
 public Prayer and frequent Communion"' appeared, London, 1710; 
 and his " Private Thoughts," often reprinted, breathe his own 
 devotional spirit. A hundred and fifty sermons were also given 
 to the world in 1708, and two years afterwards, an " Exposition 
 of the Thirty-nine Articles," and a " Defence of the Book of 
 Psalms," that is, of the older version of Stemhold and Hopkins. 
 
 Bishop Beveridge was a man of great and varied attainment, 
 " mighty in the scriptures," noble in spirit, upright in heart, set 
 upon doing good, — a successor of the apostles by a higher claim 
 than the imposition of hands, and a traer token of lineage than 
 the wearing of a mitre, for he inherited their spirit and walked 
 in their steps. His Calvinism exposed him to obloquy, both 
 during his life, and particularly after his death. His form of 
 belief was, however, admitted to be in alliance with a loving 
 heart, whose integiity and devotedness never were questioned. 
 The system of truth which he held amidst growing latitudi- 
 narianism, — a system infinitely superior, even as a compact and 
 logical whole, to the hazy and incongraous opinions abroad in our 
 time, which flit from analysis and dissolve under inspection, was 
 commended by his fervent and vigorous piety, — another and 
 magnificent proof that the lamp of the spiritual life has seldom 
 so intense a brilliance as when the features of Augustine and 
 Calvin are among its outer emblems and omaments. — J. E. 
 
 BEVERINI, Bartolomeo, bom at Lucca in 1629. He is 
 the author of a Latin work, entitled " De Ponderibus et Men- 
 suris." He also translated, in ottava rima, the jEneid; and 
 dedicated to the queen of Sweden, Maria Christina, various odes 
 and sonnets. He died in 1086. — A. C. M. 
 
 BEVERLAND, Adeiex, bora at Middleburg in 1653, and 
 died in 1712 ; educated for the bar, which he soon abandoned. 
 He published some indecent poems, which led to a prosecution 
 in the court of the university of Leyden. He submitted and 
 apologized, then repented of his apolog}', and wrote a pamphlet, 
 which he printed at Utrecht, where he now took up his resi- 
 dence. From Utrecht he was banished by the magistrates, as 
 the indecency and profaneness of his writings were regarded as 
 injurious to pubfic morals. He was a man of some classical 
 learning, and Isaac Vossius contrived to get him a pension in 
 England, charged upon some ecclesiastical fimd. He now affected 
 deconim of conduct, and published a tract against libertuii.sm. 
 He soon fell again into dissolute habits ; bodily and mental 
 disease followed, and death did not long linger. The names of 
 his works are not worth recording. The veiy titles of most of 
 them are offensive to ordinary feelings of modesty. — J. A., D. 
 
 BEVERLY, John of, a famous Enghsh prelate of the 
 eighth century, canonized in the fourteenth by decree of a synod 
 holden in London, was born of noble parentage at Harpham, a 
 village in Northumbria. He was educated under the celebrated 
 Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury, and became in 
 his turn the instmctor of the more celebrated Bede. In the 
 monastery of Whitby, and later in his hermitage on the Tyne, he 
 enjoyed a saintly reputation, which was afterwards exaggerated 
 by Bede, and others of his disciples, into that of a worker of 
 miracles. In 685 he was raised to the see of Hagiilstad, the 
 modem Hexham, and in 687 removed to that of York, which he 
 filled with great credit for thirty years, imitating the patronage 
 of letters for which his master Theodore was renowned, and still 
 extending his fame as a zealous and upright churchman. Four 
 years before his death, which occurred in 721, he retired from 
 the episcopate to a monastery of secular priests, which he had 
 founded in 704 at Beverley in Yorkshire. In the twelfth cen- 
 tui-y his body was exhumed by one of his successors in the see 
 of York, and placed in a costly shrine. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEVERLY, Robert B., clerk of the council of Virginia 
 and author of a history of that province, still interesting fi'om 
 its notices of natural productions. Died in 1716. 
 
 BEVERNINGK, Jeuom, an able dijdomatist of the seven- 
 teenth century, of a Prussian family, bom at Gouda in Hol- 
 land, April 25, 1614, was burgomaster of that city in 1668. 
 There were few state negotiations in which Holland was con- 
 cerned during his long lifetime that he did not personally super-
 
 BEY 
 
 5G7 
 
 BEY 
 
 intend ; among these he settled the terms of the peace between 
 Oliver Cromwell and the Dutch in the year 1654. In 1673 he 
 was made curator of the university of Leyden, an office seldom 
 given to any but those who have served their country in con- 
 spicuous employments. He weut to see the JISS. of Isaac 
 Vossius, then recently purchased for the Leyden library, was 
 seized with a fever while entering his caniage, and died October 
 30, 1690, aged 76. He presents the example of a man full of 
 public business, yet making leisure to administer with vigilance 
 and success the affairs of an important univei-sity. — T. J. 
 
 BEVERWYCK, John van, or Bevekovicius, a Dutch 
 phvsician, born at Dordrecht in 1594 ; who, after studying at 
 Levden, and afterwards at the principal schools of France and 
 Italy, and taking his degree at Padua, returned to Dordrecht, 
 and became first physician to the town, and professor of medi- 
 cine. He died in 1647, his fellow-townsmen ha^nng conferred 
 upon him many positions of tmst and honour. Of his works, 
 we notice " Epistolica, quwstio de termino vitaj fatali an mobili, 
 cum doctornm responsis," in which he discusses the possibility 
 of prolonging the tenn of human life ; " Montanus O-i'/x'/^^'^^" 
 &c. — a refutation of Jlontaigne's arguments against the neces- 
 sity for the medical art ; " Idea Jledicinae Vetenim ;" and 
 " Epistolicfe Questiones cum doctorum Eesponsis." — J. B. 
 
 BEVILAGNA. See Salimbexe. 
 
 BEVILLE, C, born at Paris, 1651 ; died 1716. He was a 
 painter, known for his landscapes and portraits. — W. T. 
 
 BEVIN, Elway, a musician, eminently skilled in the know- 
 ledge of practical composition, flourished towards the end of Eliza- 
 beth's reign. He was of Welsh extraction, and had been educated 
 under Tallis, upon whose recommendation, in 1589, he was 
 appointed gentleman extraordinary of the royal chapel, from 
 whence he was expelled in 1637, it being discovered that he 
 adhered to the Romish communion. He was also organist of 
 Bristol cathedral, but forfeited that employment at the same 
 time with liis place in the chapel. In 1631 Bevin communicated 
 to the world, for the benefit of students, the result of his study 
 and experience in the art of canon. This book was printed in 
 quarto, and dedicated to Goodman, bishop of Gloucester, with 
 the following title : " A Brief and Short Instruction of the Art 
 of ilusicke, to teach how to make discant of all proportions that 
 are in use ; very necessary for all such as are desu-ous to attain 
 to knowledge in the art ; and may, by practice, if they sing, 
 soon be able to compose three, four, and five parts, and also to 
 compose all sorts of canons, that are ustiall, by these dnections, 
 of two or three parts in one upon the Phdn Song." Bevin also 
 wrote many services and anthems, some of which are contained 
 in Barnard's collection. — E. F. R. 
 
 BEVY, Charles Joseph, historian, bom in 1738, near 
 Orleans. HaNing entered the Benedictine congregation of St. 
 JIaur, he applied himself, with the patient zeal characteristic of 
 that erudite body, to the studj' of history, selecting the genealogy 
 of royal houses, and of European nobility. He was appointed 
 king's liistoriographer for Flanders and Hainault. As one who 
 had passed his life in labours tending to celebrate the glor\- of kings 
 and nobles could not expect mercy at the hands of the terrorists 
 of the Revolution, he fled to England, where he learned that his 
 works had been burned by the hands of the executioner in Paris. 
 The Royal Society opened their friendly doors to the persecuted 
 author, and, with delicate consideration, engaged him to classify 
 their papers. Returning to France in 1802, he did not find the 
 consular regime so favourable to one of his opinions as he had 
 been led to expect , but after being ordered to quit, he was 
 allowed to dwell in peace. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. 
 he received the appointment of librarian to the minister of war, 
 which he held to the time of his death in 1830.— J. F. C. 
 
 BEWICK, Thomas, born at Cheiry Burn, in the parish of 
 Onngham, Northumberland, 1753. He was the reviver of the 
 still healthy and growing art of wood-engraving. Although 
 known in Euroi)e before printing, and in fact the precursor and 
 suggester of that art, it had sunk to neglect and contempt. In 
 old ballads and squibs little is attempted, but a coarse black 
 outline and cross hatchings (in the larger blocks), such as 
 might have been delicately executed with a hatchet. In 
 Bewick's time, the old art was applied chiefly by enterprising 
 characters, to the adorning the heads of flimsy ballads witli 
 rude, rambling representations of wanton lovers, reckless high- 
 waymen, and obdurate fathers. Bewick, with a fine, rough, 
 clear-headed English sense, with humour and sagacity, with 
 
 industry and love of nature, took the beggar chOd from the 
 moor and from the ditch, trained it, and fitted it for palaces. 
 He introduced finished and refined effects, threw in colour 
 and the gradation of tints, improved the drawing and per- 
 spective, and invented a plan of lowering the surface of the 
 block, when the distance or fighter tones were to come out. 
 But to his history : showing as a boy a taste for di-aT\-ing, and 
 proving that he had the eye that saw what was in nature, out- 
 line, or colour, he was apprenticed to an engraver at Newcastle. 
 He became known by illustrating Dr. Hutton's work on mensu- 
 ration, vrith woodcuts. He succeeded admirably, and eyes began 
 to turn upon him. About this time he came to London to 
 study, but a deep love of the country drew him back to the 
 north, and he returned to Newcastle to become his master's 
 partner. From these head-quarters he strolled into the roads 
 and fields, to bring home scraps of fife, naive and true, as they 
 were ^sopian. He watched gipsies by their fires, blind beggars 
 going over bridges, dogs fighting, boys playing. He had a 
 kindly heart, and a wise, far-seeing, selecting eye. In 1790 his 
 gi-eat work, the woodcuts to the " History of Quadrupeds," 
 appeared, and these were followed by many others, all admirably 
 simple, thoughtful, and naive. He died at his house, on Wind- 
 mill Hill, Gateshead, 1828. His brother Johx, some yeai-s 
 younger than himself, and his apprentice, became a clever wood- 
 engraver, but died of consumption in 1785. — W. T. 
 
 BEXFIELD, William Richard, Mus. Doc, was bom in 
 Norfolk, April, 1824, and at the age of seven admitted into the 
 choir of Norwich cathedral. Here he early displaved such 
 uncommon abilities for music, that he was articled to Dr. Buck, 
 the organist, whose assistant he afterwards became. In 1845 he 
 was elected organist of Boston in Lincolnshire, and shortly after- 
 wards he graduated 5Ius. Bac. in the university of Oxford. In 
 1847 he resigned liis provincial engagements and came to Lon- 
 don, when he obtained the appointment of organist of St. Helen's, 
 Bishopsgate, and in the following year took his doctor's degree. 
 His published works consist of anthems, chorals, organ fugues, 
 and glees, one of which latter, '' The Death of Hector," gained 
 the prize at the Huddersfield Glee Club in 1850. But the work 
 upon which his reputation chiefly rests, is his oratorio of " Israel 
 Restored," which was first performed by the Norwich Choral 
 Society, October, 1851, and subsequently at the Norwich Fes- 
 tival of 1853. Dr. Besfield died in November, 1854, deeply 
 lamented by his professional brethren. — E. F. R. 
 
 BEXON, Gabriel Leopold Charles Axie, historian and 
 naturalist, bom in 1748 in the neighbourhood of the Vosges 
 mountains. Being of a delicate constitution and contemplative 
 turn of mind, the aspect of his native mountains awakened a love 
 of natural histoiy, which not having strength of frame to pur- 
 sue, he resolved on entering the ecclesiastical state. He became 
 a priest at Nancy, dividing his leisiure hours between historical 
 researches and agricultural studies. His first volume of the 
 history of the house of LoiTaine, which he did not live to finish, 
 appeared in 1777, with a dedication to the unfortunate Marie 
 Antoinette, who was spnmg from the Lorraine stock. The work 
 gave such pleasure that he was appointed to the royal chapel. 
 The most notable feature in his life, however, is his close intimacy 
 with the illustrious Buffon, whom he aided with valuable contri- 
 butions to his natural history on the subjects of birds, minerals, 
 and precious stones. He had even collected materials for a history 
 of fishes, when his life was closed in 1786. — J. F. 0. 
 
 BEYER, Adolph, a mineralogist and mining commissioner 
 of Saxony, the author of several works on the mines and mineral 
 treasures of Saxony. He died in 1768. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEYERLINCK, Laurence, a divine and general writer, 
 born at Antwerp in 1578, where he died in 1G27. He wrote 
 " Apophthegmata Christianiorum ;" " Biblia Sacra variarum 
 Translationum ; " " Magnum Theatmm vita Humanx." a most 
 voluminous work, embracing theolog)-, history, politics, and 
 philosophy. The materials were first collected by Lycosthcnes, 
 improved or arranged and partly published by Swinger, and 
 completed by Beyerlinck. — J. B. 
 
 BEYGTACH, founder of an order of der\-ishes, called from 
 his name Bertachys, famous as the prophet and miracle-worker 
 who, when called upon by Amurath I. to bless the standards of 
 his new militia, gave them the name of Yeny Chery (new 
 soldiei's), whence tlie word Janissaiy. The caps of tlie janis- 
 saries, to commemorate his action in pronouncing the name, 
 took the form of the saint's sleeve. He died in 1368. His
 
 BEY 
 
 508 
 
 BEY 
 
 tomb, in the village of Beygtach, near Galata, is still a place of 
 pilgrimage for devout Mussulmans. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEYLE, Marie Henri, bom in 1783, at Grenoble, died at 
 Paris in 1842. Beyle's father was an avoccit practising at Gre- 
 noble. His mother, the daughter of an eminent physician, M. 
 Gagnon, died when Beyle was but seven years old. On her 
 death, Beyle and two sisters of his resided in her father's house, 
 where Beyle's father, also, occupied apartments without being in 
 the same way a member of the family. His practice in the court 
 of parliament at Grenoble, and the care of a demesne which he 
 had near the town, and wliere his liljraiy was, separated him for 
 the most part of his time from his children. The future novelist, 
 however, at times made his escape from town, and amused him- 
 self with his father's books, among which he found Grandison 
 and La Nouvelle Eloise. Beyle's grandfather, a man of consi- 
 derable learning, is described as himself endeavouring to direct 
 the education of the boy in his earlier years. He lived so 
 entirely with his family, that at thirteen, he had scarcely any 
 acquaintances of his own age. His teachers were a few poor 
 priests, who sought to make out a shifting existence by educat- 
 ing children, and who were often compelled to discontinue their 
 occupation to avoid the persecution with which everything bear- 
 hig the name of religion was then visited. In this irregular way 
 Beyle learned some Latin. The boy gi-ew up with ardent feel- 
 ings, self-willed, self-dependent, at war with society and its 
 usages. His gi-andfather and his aunt sought to reduce this proud 
 spirit to subjection ; the result was, that resistance to this course 
 of treatment created in the boy's mind a temper of habitual defi- 
 ance, which accompanied him through life, which he himself 
 admitted, and sought to refer, not to the peculiarities of his edu- 
 cation, but to his Italian blood, and to something in the character 
 of the inhabitants of Dauphiny, which he fiincifidly traced to 
 incidents in the early political history of that province. Release 
 from what he felt as domestic tyranny came unexpectedly to 
 Beyle. Among the changes which the Revolution brought, one 
 was the establishment — in the year 1795 — of central schools for 
 each department, and Beyle found himself free to choose his 
 companions from the four hundred students who attended that 
 of Grenoble. He could also buy a few books for himself. His 
 friend Monsieur Colonib, who gives an interesting accoimt of 
 this period of his life, mentions that " one of his first acts of 
 independence was the purchase of the works of Florian." He 
 continued to reside at his grandfather's house, but passed his 
 days at the school. This continued from 1795 till 1799. His 
 two last years at the central school were given to mathematics. 
 Besides the public lessons, private instruction was obtained for 
 him at the expense of his grandfather's sister, and his tutor was 
 M. Gros. Beyle was successful in obtaining prizes in all his 
 classes, and he went to Paris to present himself for examina- 
 tion at the Polytechnic school. Among the letters of introduc- 
 tion which he took to Paris, one was to M. Darn, a relation of 
 his grandfiither's family. Daru was secretaiy at war, and he 
 found immediate employment for young Beyle in his office. He 
 soon after sent him to Italy. He was for a short while in 
 the army. We find him mentioning his having been at the 
 battle of JIarengo. He seems to have had no military tastes, 
 and he availed himself of the peace of Amiens to leave the 
 army. He returned to Grenoble, where he passed a year or two 
 in study, and then again sought Paris, with the purpose of pur- 
 suing literature as a profession. His absence from home, though 
 but of two or three years, was at a dangerous age. It was 
 passed in Paris, in Italy, in the army — an irregular life of strong 
 excitement ; he had seen the gi-eat hero whom all men that he 
 had met in the interval adored. He more than shared the 
 enthusiasm which he witnessed ; he had left home a boy, of 
 confined views; he returned a man, in everything chan^vd; he 
 returned to a family who felt no sympathy with the existing 
 government of the countiy, and who regarded Beyle's liberalism 
 as abscjlute apostacy. His father was glad to enable him to try 
 his fortunes in Paris, and engaged to give him 150 francs 
 a month for the purpose. 
 
 Beyle's first literary efforts were not successful, and we soon 
 find him engaged in merchandise ; this is said to have been a ruse 
 to carry on and conceal some love adventure. He next appeaiS 
 as a land agent on a veiy extensive scale. Then we have liim 
 employed in one capacity or other connected with the civil 
 administration of France, and in a position which implied inti- 
 mate and confidential relations with Napoleon. We have him 
 
 again attached to the army, and active in the Russian campaign ; 
 then in the civil service of the state in 1814. Still, however, 
 his is a hard straggle for bread — the difficulty increased by the 
 unsettled governments of France — and he has to throw himself 
 on literature for support. He shrinks, however, from giving his 
 name with his works, and practises every trick of mystification. 
 His works appear under dozens of pseudonyms, and he assumes 
 many a strange mask — he is now an ironmonger, now a custom- 
 house officer. Here we have him as the marquis de Stendlial — 
 a favourite name of his — and now comes a transformation. 
 The marquis becomes a lady, and lo ! we have a new romance 
 by the marquise de Stendhal. We have works of his under the 
 names of Lizio, Visconti, Sahdati, Darlincourt, &c., &c. If 
 concealment was his object, he failed, for when his style was 
 fonned, he was recognized through every disguise. To his horror 
 of being regarded as an enthusiast, we are disposed to refer his 
 constant levity and occasional petulance ; to his fear of ridicule, 
 we attribute his never-ceasing irony. Beyle's strongest desire 
 was to have his acts wholly unrestrained, and he felt that every 
 communication with others was calculated to give them some 
 power over liis conduct. Hence almost all his eccentricities. 
 He defines vanity as " I'idi'e de voisin," and if ever a man was 
 under the dominion of this spell it was Beyle. He always 
 sought entirely to master the subject on which he wrote, but 
 trusted to the moment to supply fitting language. As man's 
 mental and intellectual being is affected by his physical organiza- 
 tion, he studied, wlien about to write on ethical subjects, Bichat 
 and Cabanis. Compiler as he was, he made little use of com- 
 pilations. In one of his books he says, " The author has run all 
 over Europe, from Naples to Morocco, with a hundred authors, 
 tons orif/inaux, in his carriage." In 1814 he published the lives 
 of Haydn, Mozart, and I\Ietastasio. He also published letters 
 on Haydn. Tiiese lives professed to be translations, but a gre.it 
 deal properly his own was introduced. They were, however, 
 task-work, into which his mind was not thrown. In 1817 he 
 published his " History of Painting in Italy," a work of great 
 power and of enduring interest. It gives the best account we 
 know of ]\Iichel Angelo and of Da Vinci. It was the only one 
 of his works execTited laboriously. It was transcribed by the 
 author seventeen times before being committed to the press. 
 When first published, he tells us, no one read it, while another 
 work of his, produced about the same time — "Naples, Florence, 
 and Rome" — carelessly thrown together, attracted great attention. 
 The Ed'mhiirgh Review praised the book, and quoted some pas- 
 sages to justify then- commendations. It tumed out that Beyle 
 had cribbed the passages from an article of their own. In the 
 year 1822, Beyle published the " I'Amour," and also some sacred 
 poems. His bookseller lost, but consoled himself by repeat- 
 ing a joke long before uttered with respect to Perpignan's 
 Pseaulmes, " sacres ils sont car personne n'y touche." In 
 1823 he published pamphlets on the subject of Shakspeare and 
 Racine, in which he taught what Englishmen regard as the true 
 faith with respect to Shakspeare. In his treatment of the sub- 
 ject, he discussed also the class of questions that in England 
 occupied Byron and Bowles. In 1829 he published his " Pro- 
 menades en Rome," and in the next year his " Rouge et Noir." 
 He wrote a number of the dij)loniatic documents of the French 
 government on the election of the pope, with such effect, that 
 the candidate whom France fiivoured lost the election but 
 by a single vote. The dates of these publications we give from 
 his own statement. In 1814 we find him at Grenoble as 
 " commissaii'e extraordinaire." In 1815 he is employed in 
 commercial piu-snits at Marseilles, but his fortunes soon remove 
 him to Milan, where he remained about seven years, till at last 
 hunted out by the Austrian police. From 1821 to 1830 he 
 lived in Paris as a litterateur, to use a French word which 
 seems passing into our language. In 1830 Beyle became 
 French consul at Civita'Vecchia. He died of apoplexy in 1842. 
 We have mentioned several of his works — to enumerate all 
 would exceed our limits. The best is, we are inclined to think, 
 his " Life of Rossini." The most amusing is the " Chartreuse 
 de Parma." Besides writing a good deal in the French journals, 
 Beyle contributed articles to the New Monthly iMaf/aziiie when 
 under the management of the poet Campbell. In Beyle's style 
 there is always liveliness, often considerable felicity. Those who 
 were wounded by his satire, called it, with reference to his 
 early military life, " brusquerie subalteiTie." What they so called 
 seems to us to have often been wit of a high order. In all
 
 BEY 
 
 569 
 
 BEZ 
 
 Bevle's novels — and their name is legion — he reproduces him- 
 self. Consciously or unconsciously, he is the hero. In the last 
 page of many of his works he inscribes the words, " to the 
 happy few." In one of them we find the mystery explained. 
 The happy few are those who have more than 100 louis a-year, 
 and less than 20,000 francs. 
 
 Our chief authority for Beyle's life is his own naiTative, and 
 his hfe by his friend and literary executor, Colomb. De 
 Bnssi^re's account of his works in the Revue des deux mondes, 
 (1843), is worth referring to. The Xovvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale, by mistake refers this article to ^lerimee. — ^J. A., D. 
 
 ♦ BEYRICH, Heixkich Eksst, a distinguished living 
 German geologist, bom at Berlin on the 31st August, 1815. 
 He is now a professor in the university of Berlin. His writings 
 consist principally of numerous papers on paljeontological sub- 
 jects published in Leonhard and Bronn's Jahrhuch fiir Jliner- 
 alogie, &e., in Karsten's J/r^/r, and other periodicals. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEYS, Charles de, a French poet, bom in Paris, 1610; 
 died 1659. He passed his life in diinking and writing poetry. 
 He was imprisoned in the Bastile as the presumed author of 
 La Jliliade, a satire on Cardinal Richelieu, but was released, 
 his innocence being proven. Author of several comedies. 
 
 BEYSCHLAY, Frederick James, a German Utterateur, 
 l)om at Thulle in Suabia, 1700 ; died in 1738. Author of " Syl- 
 loge Varioram Opusculorum," and a few other works on history. 
 
 BEZA, Theodore de, was bom at Vezelay, of one of the 
 noble families of Burgundy, on the 24th of .June, 1519. He 
 was one of thirteen children, whom his father had by two wives. 
 Theodore was the youngest of the first family. When he was 
 still in comparative infancy, a paternal uncle, Nicholas de Beza, 
 a member of the parliament of Paris, paid a visit to the family, 
 and became so fond of his little nephew, that he insisted on 
 taking him to Paris, and rearing him as his own child. The 
 mother, who seems to have been an affectionate and sensible 
 woman, was at first averse to this proposal, but at length con- 
 sented, and herself accompanied her son to his new home. He 
 bad been in infancy a delicate child, and when under his uncle's 
 roof, though treated with the utmost kindness and regard, he 
 caught a disease in his head (scaldhead), which hung about him 
 for a considerable time, and, from the severe remedies applied to 
 it, caused hun indescribable agony and distress. He was even 
 on the point one day of throwing himself into the river, to put 
 an end to his tortures, when the timely appearance of his imcle 
 arrested him in the execution of his purpose. At the age of nine 
 he was sent to Orleans, and placed under the charge of ilelchior 
 Wolmar, a native of Germany, who had been educated under the 
 most distinguished masters in Paris, and had gone to Orleans to 
 study law. Beza continued \rith Wolmar from 1528 to 1535, 
 and enjoyed the gi-eatest advantages, as well in a religious as in 
 a literary respect. Wolmar was not only one of the most learned 
 men of his time, but he had also imbibed the doctrines of the 
 Reformation, which he instilled into his pupil, and Beza himself 
 speaks of having from his sixteenth year, that is, while still a 
 puj)il of Wolmar, come to the true knowledge of God out of tlie 
 scriptures. So attached was he to Wolmar, and so ready to 
 follow at that early period of his life the profession of the refomied 
 faith, that when his master was obliged to leave Bourges, whither 
 he had gone, taking Beza along with him, on the invitation of 
 Margaret, queen of Navarre, he would fain have accompanied 
 him, and shared his fortunes in Germany. But this his father 
 peremptorily forbade, and leaving Wolmar with a heavy heart, 
 he returned to Orleans to enter on the study of law, in con- 
 formity with the wishes of his father. His uncle Nicholas had 
 died about three years before. 
 
 At Orleans, Beza did not prosecute with much zeal the study 
 of law, which he found less adapted to his genius than classi- 
 cal literature. Under Wolmar he had become an accomplished 
 scholar, and being a man also of imagination and taste, his 
 favourite pursuits natm-allylay in the direction of philosophy and 
 the belles-lettres. It was during this period of his life that, 
 according to his own testimony, he composed his " Juvenilia," a 
 collection of poems, which were not published till he settled in 
 Paris, and when published brought not a little reproach upon 
 liim, on account of the frolicsome and lascivious tendency tliat 
 appeared in some of them. In his twentieth year, 1539, he 
 became a licentiate of law, and went to reside in Paris. He had 
 meanwhile been provided, through the influence of his friends 
 and even without his own knowledge, with two benefices, which 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 yielded annually seven hundred crowns. This, with what his 
 talents and learning soon enabled ham to make as an advocate, 
 put him in possession of ample resoiu-ces — too ample, indeed, for 
 a young man of good family, engaging appearance, and a lively 
 spirit, when sun-oimded by the atmosphere of Parisian society. 
 The consequence was that he plunged into the gaieties of the 
 place, and to some extent also partook in its excesses. These 
 he afterwards confessed and deplored, though they never pro- 
 ceeded to the length charged upon him by some cathohc writers; 
 he even called upon all who knew him during his residence in 
 Paris to come forward, if they could, and witness against him 
 crimes, of which he had declared himself free. The most blam- 
 able part of his conduct appears to have consisted in his private 
 betrothal to a person, Claude Desnoz, much beneath him in station, 
 whom, however, he aftenvards publicly man-ied, and with whom 
 he lived happily for forty years. That she was the wife of a 
 tailor, as affirmed by some of his opponents, is a gi-oundless 
 calumny. But whOe in Paris, Beza was far from being satisfied 
 either with his course of life, or with his professional prospects. 
 The path marked out for him by his father, in concert with his 
 uncle Claudius, abbot of the Cistercian order at Froimart, and an 
 elder brother, a canon of Lyons, was that he shoidd devote him- 
 self to the study and practice of the canon law, and rise, under 
 the patronage of one of the cardinals, to some of the more lucra- 
 tive ecclesiastical preferments. In a letter to his friend Pom- 
 ponius, respecting this plan, he speaks of himself " as a lost, a 
 ruined man," and expresses his hope that God would yet open 
 the way of escape for him. He still kept up his correspondence 
 with ^^'olmaJ•, and cherished the deshe and expectation of one 
 day rejoining him, and sacrificing all his worldly prospects for 
 conscience. A severe sickness at length brought matters to a 
 crisis. Of this he himself writes, " 'Wliat was the result? After 
 numberless tortures of body and soul, the Lord again commise- 
 rated his perislmig sen-ant, and consoled me, so that I no longer 
 doubted of his pardoning grace. In the midst of a thousand 
 tears I implored his forgiveness, renewed my vows to devote 
 myself openly to his true church and honoiu-; in brief, I gave 
 myself up entirely to him. Thus it happened that the image of 
 death awakened in me a slumbering and concealed longing after 
 the trae life, and that sickness was the beginning of my recovery, 
 and of real soundness. Accordingly, as soon as I could leave 
 my bed, I biu-st all bonds which had previously held me captive, 
 gathered together my few goods, and left my native land, parents, 
 and friends, in order to follow Christ, and with my wife went into 
 voluntarj' exile to Geneva." 
 
 It was in October, 1518, that Beza made his resort to Geneva, 
 and his first appearance in the sanctu;iry there was for the 
 solemnization of his maniage. He then went to considt his old 
 fi-iend Wolmar, whose counsel, however, was undecided, and on 
 his way back to Geneva, at Lausanne, he was invited through 
 Viret, to take the office of teacher of Greek in the academy. In 
 accepting of this ofiice, he gave his colleagues an assurance of 
 his regi-et at having published the "Juvenilia." He remained 
 ten years at Lausanne, from 1549 to 1559, and proved of great 
 sen-ice in the cause of the reformation. Besides teaching Greek 
 in the academy, he gave prelections on some of the epistles of 
 the New Testament. Several of his best poems were also written 
 during this period, among others his "Abraham's Sacrifice," 
 which gained a wide popularity. But he was less happy in the 
 part he took as a controversialist on the subject of Sen-etus' 
 capital punishment in Geneva. The execution of this man for 
 blasphemy and heresy in 1553, though approved of by Jlelanc- 
 thon and the Swiss chm'ches, gave rise to considerable dissatis- 
 faction, and in jiarticular was attacked in a publication addressed 
 to the duke of Wurtemberg by Castellio, Socinus, and S. Curio. 
 Beza replied in a separate treatise, and defended the conduct of 
 Calvin and the authorities of Geneva, on the common though 
 untenable ground, that defections from the faith and from good 
 morals are injurious to the state, and ought in consequence to 
 be punished by the civil magistrate. They no doubt are so, but 
 civil pains and penalties are not the projjcr remedy for the evil ; 
 which introduce greater dangers than those they are applied to 
 coiTcct. On this point Beza proved, in common with the leading 
 minds around him, not above the infiuences of the time. 
 
 Before Beza quitted Lausanne, he was engaged in various 
 negotiations of a public kind, touching the freedom and pros- 
 perity both of the Swiss and Waldensian churches. In the course 
 of these he was led to make several tours through the Swiss can- 
 
 4 C
 
 tons. He had even to travel into France, and from the anxiety ;ind 
 fiitigue brought upon him, especially by his attempts to reconcile 
 Lutherans and Reformed, he was again thrown into a severe 
 illness. He recovered, however, but in consequence of the oppo- 
 sition made by the government of Benie to the Genevan fonn of 
 church order, he resigned his situation at Lausanne, and joined 
 Calvin at Geneva. From this period, 1558, he became the most 
 active and influential associate of Calvin, and contributed greatly 
 by his talents and learning to consolidate the reformation in 
 Geneva. In addition to the regular duty of a pastor, he taught 
 G/eek in the gymnasium, and expounded the New Testament 
 scriptures, of which his Translation and Connnentary are the 
 permanent fruit. This is undoubtedly his gi-eatest work, and 
 the one by which he is best known to posterity. It was first 
 published as early as 1557, but in a comparatively raw and im- 
 perfect form, and only in 1598 did it assume the mature character 
 in wliich it has descended to later times. Though wanting the 
 profound insight and comprehensive gi'asp of Calvin, he yet dis- 
 plays a fine critical talent, and in scholarship occupies a higher 
 place than his more distinguished coadjutor. His " History of 
 the Protestant Chiu'ch of France," though an incomplete work, 
 is also one of gi-eat importance, and has furnished sources of 
 information to which subsequent writers have been largely 
 indebted. Beza's services in behalf of that clnu-ch were not con- 
 fined to literary labours ; in the life-struggles which the French 
 protestants had to maintain against popery, he was always ready 
 to aid them with his counsel ; once and again he gave them the 
 benefit of his personal presence, and for a considerable period he 
 was the real head of their movements. On the death of Calvin 
 in 1564, the chief charge at Geneva devolved on him, and though 
 he refused to be nominated perpetual president of the consistory, 
 yet such was the weight of his talents and character, that he was 
 annually elected to the office till 1580, when he was allowed to 
 retire. The voice of misrepresentation followed him to the 
 close of life, for he was reported, and has even been commonly 
 understood, to have justified Henry IV. 's abjuration of the pro- 
 testant faith as a matter of political necessity, while, in a letter 
 written by him in 1593, recently discovered, he exhorts Henry 
 to remain faithful. The Jesuits also, about the year 1597, 
 on Francis de Sales, bishop of Geneva, getting from Beza the 
 confession that persons might be saved in the church of Rome, 
 circulated the report that he had abandoned protestantism. 
 Fortunately he was still able to refute the story. He died in 
 1605, having been twice married, but leaving no issue. — P. F. 
 
 BEZBORODKO, Prince Alexander, born in Little Russia 
 in 1742. He commenced a brilliant diplomatic career as secre- 
 tary to Marshal Rumianoff' during the Turkish campaign. His 
 extraordinaiy facility and lucidity of expression, and generally 
 great ability in the management of diplomatic affairs, gained hun 
 the confidence of Catherine II., who named him minister of 
 foreign affairs in 1780, and loaded him with fiivours. A seci'et 
 enemy to Potemkin, who had caused war to be declared against 
 Turkey, Bezborodko hastened to Tassy, and succeeded in bring- 
 ing about the peace of 1783. The first partition of Poland may, 
 in a gi-eat degree, be ascribed to his influence. Paul I. raised 
 him to the rank of prince, and confided to him the mission of 
 concluding the English alliance. He died in 1799, leaving the 
 greater part of a valualde collection of pictures, of which he was 
 a gi'cat amateur, to the public institutions of his country. — M. Q. 
 
 BEZOUT, Etiesne, a French mathematician, born at Ne- 
 mours in 1730 ; died in 1783. Bezout rendered excellent ser- 
 vice to France by the publication, at the request of JL de Choiseul, 
 of a great number of comparatively elementary works, mainly 
 destined for the instruction of cadets in the departments of artil- 
 lery and marine. We owe him besides, a valuable practical work, 
 "Theorie generale des basationes algebraiques." He was a gentle, 
 and modest — even a equhful man. Coudorcet said that there 
 were two Bezouts — the Bezout as known to his friends, and 
 Bezout as he appeared to strangers. — J. P. N. 
 
 BIIAGODAS, a pupil of Kabirs, author of the " Little Vid- 
 jak," the most popular of the books on the sect of the Kabir- 
 panthis. It is written in harmonious verse (fifteenth century). 
 
 BIIAGOURI, an Indian grammarian, author of a vocabulary 
 prior to Shara Sinna. 
 
 BHAIEI), EoGiiAM, an Irish poet who flourished in the end 
 of the 16th and commencement of the 17th centuries. He was 
 a commissioner for ascertaining the mears and bounds of Tir- 
 connel m 1602. Nine of his poems are still extant. — J. F. W. 
 
 BHAIRD, Feargal, an Irish poet of the 17th centwy. Ten of 
 his compositions, chiefly on political and religious subjects, remain. 
 
 BHAIRD, ]\LvoLJiuiRE, an Irish poet who flourished towards 
 the end of the sixteenth century, and wrote many fine poems, 
 several of which are still existing. — J. F. W. 
 
 BHAIRD, Owen Rae, chief poet of Tircomiel in Ireland. 
 He wrote many poems, some of which are extant. Died 1510. 
 
 BHANOU-DATTA, an Indian poet, author of a poem called 
 " Rasa Mandjari," on the art of making verses. 
 
 BHARATU-MULLA, an Indian grammarian of the 18th 
 centuiy, author of a vocabulary entitled " Dwiroiipa Cocha." 
 
 BHARATU-WOUNI, regarded among the Indians as the in- 
 ventor of the drama. He wrote a work on the di'amatic art, 
 often cited in the commentators. 
 
 BHARAVI, an Indian poet, author of a great poem entitled 
 " Kh-iitardjouniya." Colebrook has given an analysis of this 
 poem, published at Calcutta, and translated by Schulz. 
 
 BHARTIR-HAVI, son of Dhara Swami, author of a gram- 
 matical poem entitled " Bhatticarya," the subject of which is the 
 history of Rama, edited at Calcutta in 1828. To be distin- 
 guished from another of the same name, to whom Colebrook 
 attributes a gi-ammar in verse, called Cauca. 
 
 BHATTA NARAYANA, a Hindu di-amatist. Tradition 
 asserts that he was a Brahman of Kanouj, and was invited into 
 Bengal by Adi Sura, who seems to have flourished in the eighth 
 or ninth centuiy. But from internal evidence in the one play 
 of Narayana wliich has come down to us, viz., the " Veni San- 
 hara, or the Binding of the Widow's braid" (alluding to the 
 absence of the heroine Draupadi's husband), we should place 
 its author in the tenth or eleventh century. — C. T. 
 
 BHATTGD.JI-DIKCHITA, an Indian grammailan, author of 
 a work called "Siddhanta Comondi." He lived in 1600. 
 
 BHAVABHU'TE, called also Shriicantha or Bhutigar- 
 BHA, a celebrated Hindu dramatist in the eighth centuiy. He 
 was the son of a Brahman of high family in Berar, southern 
 India. He removed to Ujjayini (Oujein), where his plays were 
 probably composed, and acted under the auspices of the reigning 
 emperor. He is also stated to have been patronized by Yasho- 
 vaiTna, king of Kanouj. In the Bhoja-prabandha he is men- 
 tioned among the poets at the court of Bhoja, emperor of Malwa; 
 but little reliance can be placed on this account. Three of his 
 plays are still extant. The " Loves of Malati and Madhava" is 
 considered one of the best Sanscrit dramas, and is the only 
 Hindu play in which the hero is an unmanied youth. The 
 other two are heroic, viz., the " Mahfinra Charitra" and the 
 " Uttara Rama Charitra," and are founded on adventures of 
 Rama, the hero of Indian epic, Ramayana. — C. T. 
 
 BHEILOL-LODI, a famous sultan of Delhi in the fifteenth 
 centuiy, and founder there of the Lodi dynasty. He belonged 
 to an Afi'ghan family which had settled in the Punjab, about Sir- 
 hind and Lahore, and which gained strength and territory by the 
 futile efforts of the sultan of Delhi to expel them. When Delhi 
 was attacked in 1440 by the sultan of Malwa, the aid of 
 Bheilol was sought and obtained. He repulsed the Malwa army, 
 but himself aspired to the crown, which he at length obtained in 
 1450. By subjugating the neighbouring sovereignties, and 
 especially the kingdom of Joonpoor, he re-established the power 
 of Delhi, which, under the previous dynasty, had been greatly 
 weakened. He died in 1488, having won the reputation of a 
 great wanior and a wise ruler. — J. B. 
 
 BHODJA-DEVA, king of Dhurn in India, lived about the 
 close of the tenth or beginning of the eleventh century. Reputed 
 author of a " Commentary on the Philosophy of Patandjale," a 
 book of geography, and a treatise on rhetoric, called " Saraswatl 
 Cantabliarana." 
 
 BIACCA, Francesco Maria, bom at Parma in 1678. 
 Having entered the chtu-ch, he became the tutor of Count Sanvi- 
 tali's children in 1702. His whole time was devoted to study, 
 and particularly to history, chronology, and archa?ology. Having 
 written a pam{)hlet in refutation of a work published by Cesare 
 Calino, a Jesuit, and having incurred the displeasure of his patron, 
 who was an adept of the order, Biacca was dismissed from his 
 functions, and went to IMilan, where he was received by Count 
 Antonio Simonctta, the Maecenas of literary men in that city, 
 where he remained four years. From thence he went to Parma, 
 befriended by Count Ottavio Bondani, in whose house he died on 
 the 15th of September, 1735. His works are very numerous, 
 and the most part in Italian verse. His translations of Statins'
 
 SilviB, Horace's Epistles, CatulUis' works, Plautus' Comedies, 
 and some of the minor poems attributed to Virgil, entitle Biacca 
 to his countr}''s gratitude. — A. C. M. 
 
 BIAGI, Clement, an Italian archaeologist, bom at Cremona 
 in 1740; died at JMilan, 1804. He at first entered a religious 
 order, but afterwards obtained bis secularization. Author of 
 several important archaeological works, and translation of Beyer's 
 Theological Dictionar}% 
 
 BLVGI, Jean Marie, bom at Roveredo in 1724; died in 
 1777. He was one of the original members of the society of the 
 Agiati, in the archives of which are preserved several pieces of 
 liis verse, and specimens of liis eloquence. He wrote a preface 
 for an edition of Saint John Chrysostom : Roveredo, 1753. 
 
 BIAGIOLI, Nicola Giosafatte. This eminent gram- 
 marian was bom at Vezgano, in the state of Genoa, in 1768. 
 He completed his studies at Rome, and at the age of seventeen 
 years was appointed to the professorship of classics in the univer- 
 sity of Urbino. A liberal in his opinions, he joined the popular 
 party, and assisted at the proclamation of the repubUc, under 
 which he was intrasted wth the government of a province. The 
 French having been compelled to evacuate Italy in 1799, he fled 
 to Palis, where he devoted his time to the teaching of the Italian 
 language, and in making researches on Dante, Petrarch, and 
 Boccaccio. Although Jlonti wrote a terrible criticism on Biagioli's 
 comments on Dante, blaming him, in very unmeasured words, 
 for ha\ing undertaken a labour not equal to his strength ; and 
 dthough Gioberti lavishes on him the unennable epithet of 
 '■ pedant;" yet his comments on Petrarch and Boccaccio, illus- 
 trated by grammatical obsei-vations, have merited the praises of 
 Mafl'ei and JIanso, both judges of high standing in literary 
 matters, Biagioli is the author of a grammar and dictionary, 
 Ahich are still deservedly appreciated. He published also an 
 f'dition of Davanzati's translation of Tacitus — the coiTCspondence 
 of Cardinal Bentivoglio — and has left many manuscripts, both 
 in poetry and prose, which he was about publishing, when he 
 died suddenly at Paiis in 1830. — A. C. M. 
 
 BIALOBOCKI, John, a Polish poet, lived in the seventeenth 
 century ; author of several poems connected with Polish hbtory. 
 
 BIA^IOilTI, THE ABBi Joseph Louis, an Italian poet and 
 })liilosopher, bom 1730 ; died at MOan, 1824 ; professor of elo- 
 quence at the university of Bologna, and afterwards in that of 
 i'urln ; author of a grammar of the Italian language ; a trans- 
 lation in prose of some passages of jEschylus, all the works of 
 Sophocles, Aristotle's Poetics, the Iliad of Homer, Odes of Pin- 
 dar, &e., &C-— J. G. 
 
 BIANCHI, Antonio, an Italian poet, lived in the latter part 
 of the eighteenth century. He was a gondolier boy at Venice, 
 and author of two epic poems, that, notwithstanding their incor- 
 rectness, manifest singular spirit and imaginative power. One 
 of them is on the subject of David, king of Israel. 
 
 BIANCHI, Baldassare, a Bolognese painter, born in 1614 ; 
 died in 1679. He was a decorative historical upholstery painter 
 to the dukes of Modena and Mantua, and was assisted by his 
 daughter Lucretia. — W. T. 
 
 BIANCHI, Brigida, lived in the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. She wrote several comedies, and was known to the 
 I'arisian theatres under the name of Aurelia. 
 
 BIANCHI, Francesco, surnamed El Fraki, was bom at 
 Modena in 1447, and died in 1510. He was the master of that 
 "^t. Francis of art, the seraphic Correggio. His style has traces, 
 Kugler says, of Francia. His colour is fine, his attitudes grace- 
 1 ul ; but his compositions are dull and dry, and his figures badly 
 irawn, especially in the eyes, which are too much of the nar- 
 rowly oriental and Greek style. — W. T. 
 
 BIANCHI, Federigo, a painter of Milan, who studied under 
 Procaccini, a facile eclectic, and a rival of the Caracci about 
 1670. So precocious was he, that he executed three frescos for 
 I monastery at the age of seventeen. The duke of Savoy gave 
 liim a gold chain and medal, and employed him largely. — W. T. 
 
 BIANCHI, Francesco, a musician, is interesting to an Eng- 
 lish reader as having resided for some years, written some of 
 lis best W'Orks, and attained great popularity in this country, — 
 IS having married an Englishwoman, as havmg composed the first 
 "riginal opera for each of our famous songstresses, Storace and 
 l>Ulington, and as having been the teacher of Sir Hcnrj' Bishop. 
 His French and German biographers make strange confusion as 
 to the time and place of his birth and death ; the former occuired 
 at Cremona in 1752, and he committed suicide at Hammer- 
 
 smith, November 27, 1810. Another inaccuracy respecting 
 Bianchi has arisen from confounding him with Ferdinando Ber- 
 toni, in statmg that he was appointed organist at the cathedral 
 in Venice in the year in which this composer succeeded Galuppi 
 in that ofiice. His first engagement appears to have been at 
 Paris in 1775, as pianist at the Italian theatre under Piccini, 
 where also he produced his first opera, " La Reduction de Paris." 
 In 1780 he returned to Italy, and wrote " Castore e PoUuce " 
 for Florence, in which Storace appeared. This was followed by 
 a great number of successful operas, produced with extraordi- 
 nary rapidity, in some cases three, and even four, having been 
 written in one year. In 1784 he was appointed \-ice maestro di 
 capella at the church of St. Auibrogio in Milan, and, at the 
 same time, to an important post at the Scala. Like Bertoni, 
 with whom he has been confounded, he owed much of his success 
 to the singing of Pacehierotti, who sustained the chief character 
 in several of his operas. This artist personated the hero in his 
 " Desertore Francesi," when it was brought out at Venice in 
 1785, and when the public thought the dignity of their great 
 lyric theatre so compromised by the appearance on the stage of 
 a hero in the costume of common life, that they would not suffer 
 the opera to proceed to its conclusion : fortunately for Bianchi, 
 the duchess of Courlande came to Venice at this time, and com- 
 manded a performance of the banished " Desertore," in deference 
 to whom the audience now listened to the work, and the merit 
 of the music triumphing over their conventional prejudice, the 
 opera made a brilliant success. Some years later, the German 
 emperor, having been charmed with one of Bianchi's composi- 
 tions, had the composer presented to him, and offered him a 
 valuable appointment at Vienna. This was gladly accepted ; 
 but the same post that brought Bianchi Ms official engagement, 
 brought him also tidings of his patron's death, which rendered 
 this invalid. According to the inscription upon his tombstone, 
 Bianchi first came to London in 1793, to fulfil an engagement 
 at the King's theatre, where he had the famous Banti for his 
 prima donna, Haydn, in a diary of his residence in London 
 during 1794, speaks approvingly of "Acige e Galatea," an opera 
 of Bianchi, but complains that the orchestration in it over- 
 powered the voices. Bianchi made one, if not more, occasional 
 visits to Italy during the recess of the London season, and in 
 August, 1794, wrote " Inez di Castro," at Naples, for Mrs. Billing- 
 ton's debut upon the Italian stage. His engagement at the King's 
 theatre continued until 1800. In this year he married Miss 
 Jackson, who, as Blad. Bianchi, and still more, after her second 
 marriage, as Mad. Bianchi Lacy, was esteemed as a vocalist. 
 Bianchi spent the remainder of his fife in London and Hammer- 
 smith, chiefly occupied in teaching ; he continued, however, to 
 compose and produce many detached pieces with success, as, 
 for instance, the duet for Mara and Billington, sung at the last 
 appearance of the fonner in 1802. The monmnent in Kensing- 
 ton churchyard before quoted, imputes his "premature" deat'a 
 to grief for the loss of an infant daughter, who had died three 
 and a half years prior to the demise of her fijther. Bianchi 
 wrote a treatise on the theory of music, which, during the peace 
 in 1802, he sent to Paris with a -view to its publication, an 
 an'angement that was fnistrated by the renewal of the war : 
 some selections from this work were furnished by his widow to 
 Bacon's Musical Quarltrly Review. He produced in all about 
 fifty operas and two oratorios, besides some instrumental pieces, 
 but only a few of his works were published entne. Now that his 
 once popular music is no longer known, we may look at the 
 result of his teaching, in the purity of Bishop's writings, as an 
 indication of his musicianship. — G. A. SI. 
 
 BIANCHI, Giovanni, an Italian physician and natm-alist, 
 better known as Janus Plancus, mider which name lie 
 published most of his w'orks, was bom at Rimini on the 3d 
 January, 1693. In 1715 he was appointed secretary to the 
 academy of the Ljmcei, but towards the clo.se of the year 1717, 
 determining to take up the study of medicine, he went with that 
 purpose to Bologna, and attended the lectures of Bazzani, 
 afterwards president of the institute of that city. He also 
 studied botany, natural history, mathematics, and philosophy, 
 under the distinguished professors of those sciences at the uni- 
 versity of Bologna. In 1741 he was appointed professor of 
 anatomy at Sienna, but soon returned to his native place, where 
 he resuscitated the academy of the LjTicei, and wrote a notice 
 of the history of that society. The members, in acknowledgment 
 of the trouble which he had taken with this object, strack
 
 BIA 
 
 672 
 
 BIA 
 
 a medal in his honour, bearing on one side the figui-e of a 
 lynx, with the motto " Lynceis restitutis," and on the other a 
 portrait of Bianchi, surrounded by his academic title, "Janus 
 Plancus Ariminensis." Bianchi died on the 3d December, 1775, 
 leaving behind him a considerable number of published works, 
 many of them of a controversial nature, some of which are 
 brought out under the assumed names of P. F. Lapi, Marco 
 Chillenio, P. Ghisi, and Crisitro Stillita. Amongst his principal 
 writings are the follo\ving : " Letters on Cataract," published at 
 Rimini in 1720 ; " Letters to a Friend, regarding the Arsenical 
 Magnesia," Pesaro, 1722, written under the name of M. Chil- 
 lenio against a quack, whose name Bianclii does not mention ; 
 "Epistola Anatomica ad Josephum Putoum," Bologna, 1726, 
 and also printed with Morgagni's Epistolas Anatomic^, at Ley- 
 den in 1728; a "Dissertation on Vesicatorios," pubhshed at 
 Venice in 1746, in wliich he opposes the use of these remedies; 
 " De Jlonstris ac Jlonstrosis Quibusdam," an interesting collec- 
 tion of cases of monstrosity, pubhshed at Venice in 1749 ; 
 " Jledical Histoiy of an Aposteme in the right lobe of the Cere- 
 bellum," Kimini, 1751 ; and " Epistola de Urina cum sedi- 
 mento cceraleo." Venice, 1756. — W. S. D. 
 
 BIAXCHI, Giovanni Antonio, a Franciscan monk, bom at 
 Lucca in 1686. He studied at Home, and became lecturer in 
 philosophy and theology, in wliich sciences he obtained the degree 
 of doctor. He successively was provincial, visitor, and general 
 of his order. His theological knowledge raised him to the dignity 
 of examiner of the Roman clergy, and councillor of the Inquisition, 
 and he was enrolled a member of the academy of the Arcadi, under 
 the name of Laiunso Traginese. Deeply read in sacred histor*-, 
 he wrote many tragedies, wliich were pubhshed under the ana- 
 grammatic name of " Famabio Gioachino Annutini." He wrote 
 also some tragedies in verse on profane subjects, such as " II 
 Ruggiero," " Vu'ginia," " Marlanna," " Don Alfonso," " La 
 Talda," besides many excellent plays, amongst which " L'Anti- 
 quario " is particularly noticed by Quadi-io. His numerous Itahan 
 and Latin works are mentioned in extenso by Mazzuchelh, his 
 contemporary. A fine Latin inscription in the church of St. 
 Bartholomew of the island, in Rome, records liis death at an 
 advanced age, Januarj- 18, 1758. — A. C. M. 
 
 BIANCHI, Giovanni Battista, a celebrated Italian anato- 
 mist, was born at Tuiin on the 12th September, 1681, of a 
 good Milanese family, and displayed such extraordinary talents 
 whilst young, that he received his doctor's degree wlien only 
 seventeen years old. Young as he was, however, his qualifica- 
 tions were considered to be of so high an order, that shortly 
 aftenvards the direction of the hospitals of Turin was confided 
 to him, and he filled this difiicult and arduous post with the 
 greatest credit to himself. Seeing clearly that opening the 
 bodies of those patients who died in the hospitals, would furnish 
 the surgeon with a great insight into the seats and causes of 
 disease, he let slip no opportunity of pm-suing such investiga- 
 tions, and was naturally led on from these purely practical 
 points to study the general structm-e of the limnan body. The 
 fame of his dexterity in dissection, and of his discoveries, soon 
 became so great in Turin, that the physicians and surgeons of 
 that city engaged him to deliver thirteen pubhc courses of 
 anatomical lectures ; and in 1715 the king of Sardinia built a 
 convenient amphitheatre for his accommodation. From the 
 year 1718, he not only continued his public anatomical demon- 
 strations, but also gave lectures successively on philosophy, 
 pharmacy, chemistry, and the practice of medicine. From the 
 extent of his talents, he was received a member of the academies 
 degl' Innominati, degl' Intrepidi, and Naturae Curiosorum. The 
 university of Bologna invited him in 1720 to occupy its chair of 
 theoretical medicine ; but the king (Victor- Amadeo II.), who 
 was desirous of re-establishing the imiversity of Turin in its 
 former lustre, neutralized the effect of these solicitations upon 
 Bianchi, by appointing him to the first chair of anatomy. He 
 continued to occupy this position, and to contribute greatly by 
 his talent to the progress of the university, until his death, 
 which took place on the 20th January, 1761. Bianchi was the 
 author of numerous works, principally on human anatomy and 
 physiology, some of which were rather roughly handled by 
 Morgagni in his Adversaria Anatomica. Amongst them we 
 may notice the following as the most important — " Historia 
 Hepatica, sen de hcpatis structura, usibus, et morbis," published 
 at Turin in 1710 and 1716, and at Geneva in 1725; "Ductus 
 lacrymales Novi," &c., Turin, 1715. His work " De naturali in 
 
 humano corpore, vitiosa, morbosaque generatione Historia," also 
 published at Tmin in 1741, contains a history, illustrated with 
 figures, of the development of the human subject, from the 
 unimpregnated ovum, up to the middle period of pregnancy. 
 Bianchi supports the theory of the ovarists, supposing the germ 
 to exist in the ovum before fecundation. This work also con- 
 tains some obsei-vations on the parasitic worms of the human 
 subject. Besides these we have a treatise in Latin — " De 
 lacteoi-um vasorum Positionibus et Fabrica," Turin, 1743; and in 
 Italian, "A histoiy of a monster with two bodies," 1749 ; and 
 " Letter upon Insensibility," 1755, in opposition to the views of 
 Haller, which caused that anatomist to attack Bianchi with 
 considerable energy and effect. Besides these works, Bianchi 
 left many smaller memoirs, some of which were printed during 
 his life, and others only in manuscript; and in 1757 a collec- 
 tion of fifty-fom- plates, containing two hmidred and seventy 
 fine anatomical figures, executed under the superintendence and 
 at the cost of Bianchi, was published in Turin.- — W. S. D. 
 
 BIANCHI, Horace, a lawyer, philologist and Itahan trans- 
 lator, bom at Rome; died at Milan in 1756. He assisted his 
 friend Argellati in editing the Scriptores reram Italicarum, and 
 translated several works. 
 
 BIANCHI, IsiDOEO, bom at Cremona in 1733. He studied 
 for the church and entered the order of the Benedictines at Classc. 
 Soon after his profession he taught rhetoric and philosophy, 
 until he was sent to Avellana, where he inhabited the same cell 
 in which it is said Dante wrote his Inferno. It was in that 
 solitude he gathered materials for his " Jleditazioni," a collection 
 of biographical researches on sacred histoi-y. From thence he 
 went to Cremona, and wrote a valuable work on the antiquities 
 of that ancient city. Being invited to Montersale in Sicily, 
 to fill the chau" of philosophy, he acquired a great renown, and 
 revived the taste for Hterature and science, publishing many 
 valuable articles in a periodical of which he was the editor. His 
 love for archfeology made him accept the honourable position of 
 secretary to the Danish prince, Raffadele, with whom he travelled 
 through France, Spain, and Germany; and, whilst in Denmark, 
 he wrote the history of that countiy, in which he made so many 
 archajological discoveries. Anxious to see his native place, he 
 obtained the professorship of philosophy, which he held tiU the 
 year 1775. His order having been su])pressed, and having no 
 other occupation to interfere with his studies, he spent all his time 
 in revising his numerous works, amongst which, " La morale del 
 sentimento," and " Jleditazioni su varii puntidi felicita pubblica," 
 are considered the best. He died in 1807. — A. C. M. 
 
 BIANCHI, IsiDOK, a pupil of Morazzone, a Milanese pain- 
 ter, who imitated the Venetians; born in 1626. He painted 
 in frescos and oil, and completed an unfinished work of his mas- 
 ter, who had fled the country, for the duke of Savoy's residence 
 at Rivoli, for which he was knighted. Died about 1670. — W. T. 
 
 BIANCHI, Okazio, a Roman historical painter. The best 
 work of this almost-unknown man, is the marriage of the Virgin 
 at the church of St. Joseph in Rome. — W. T. 
 
 BIANCHI, PiETRO, born at Rome m 1694. He gave pro- 
 mise as a historical painter, but was cut oif by consmuption ui 
 his prime about 1740. He was probably of Milanese descent. 
 
 BIANCHI, , an Austrian general, who served against 
 
 France in 1814. During the Hundred Days he was opposed iu 
 Italy to Murat. The king of Naples having imprudently ex- 
 tended his line, Bianchi profited by the opportunity, and attacked 
 him at the bridge of OcchiobeUo near Ferrara, w^hich was occu- 
 pied by the Neapolitan troops. Murat's forces were routed, and 
 compelled to retreat. At Tolentino and at Macerata they were 
 again attacked by Bianchi, who drove them towards Naples. 
 These operations were immediately followed by the flight of 
 Murat and the submission of Naples. 
 
 BIANCHI or BLANCUS, Andrea, an Italian theologian, 
 author of " Pii mores et sancti amores epigi-ammatis expressi ;" 
 born at Genoa in 1587 ; died in 1657. He was a Jesuit. 
 
 BIANCHINI, Francesco, born at Verona, December 13, 
 1662. He studied at Panna, particularly applying himself to 
 mathematics, under the celebrated professor Montanari. His 
 fondness of abstract sciences did not, however, estrange him from 
 literary pursuits; and having taken out his degrees, he went to 
 Rome, where Cardinal Ottoboni appointed him his hbrarian. 
 There he conceived the idea of a universal history, grounded on 
 written and monumental authorities of former times scattered over 
 the surface of the earth. Cardinal Ottoboni having been raised
 
 BIA 
 
 573 
 
 BIA 
 
 to the pontifical chair, under the name of Alexander VIII., 
 Bianchini obt;dned various pensions and dignities, which enabled 
 him to devote mo.st of his time to his universal liistoiy, of wliich 
 he published the first part at liome in 1697. The vast erudition 
 displayed therein causes the regi'et that, on accomit of his many 
 occupations, he was unable to complete that extremely important 
 publication. Clement'XI., a patron of learning, anxious to reward 
 Bianchuii's Hterary labours, bestowed on him many honom's. He 
 was sent as nmicio to Philip V. of Spain, when he took possession 
 cf the kingdom of Naples ; and on his return he was created 
 a prelate and a patrician. He travelled through France, Scotland, 
 and England, where he met with the most flattering reception. 
 Bianchiid wrote many voluminous works on astronomy and 
 aix'hajology, and began a museum of antiquities, which he 
 intended to illustrate by monuments, as he had already done 
 with regard to profjme history, had not pecuniary means failed 
 him. He died at Rome m 1729.— A. C. M. 
 
 * BIANCHINI, SiGNOK, minister of state for the home 
 department and the police at Naples, and the most confidential 
 friend and minister of King Ferdinand, is a man of extensive 
 research and European celebrity, and has deeply studied the prin- 
 ciples of political economy. He has recently published at Naples 
 a very able work on the above science, with disquisitions on the 
 social state of the Neapolitan dominions, which is about to be 
 translated into English, for the purpose of correcting the false 
 impressions which prevail in this country as to the internal con- 
 dition of that country (1858).— E. W. 
 
 BLINCHO or BIANCO, Andrea, an Italian geographer, 
 born at Venice, who lived at the beginning of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. He consti^ucted a series of maps and charts previous to 
 the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and of America. These 
 maps give a tolerably accurate outline of the Jlediterranean and 
 Black Sea, with the coasts of Europe and Africa, from Cape 
 Finistere to Cape Bojador, and include the Canaries and Azores. 
 
 * BIANCONI, Charles, was born on the 26th of September, 
 1788, at Tregolo, a small village La the duchy of Mdan, where 
 his fiither had a silk factory. At an early age he was removed 
 to the care of his paternal grandmother, at Caglio, near Asso, 
 of which place his mother's brother. Dr. JIazza, was the provost. 
 The doctor was a literary man, and all the savans of the neigh- 
 bourhood were in the habit of assembling at his house, and dis- 
 cussing various questions of literature and plulosophy. Some of 
 the Bianconi family were persons of note at Asso, Vitali Bian- 
 coni being the podesta of that place, and afterwards of Como ; 
 and another uncle, Joshua, with whom the young lad and his 
 grandmother hved, was rector, first of Caglio, aud afterwards 
 of Guanzate. Charles was at an early age sent to the school 
 of the Abbe Raddaioli, who had the reputation of having made 
 many distinguished scholars. Amongst them, however, young 
 Bianconi was not destined to be nmubered, as the only reputation 
 he acqiured there was that of bemg the gi'eatest dunce aud the 
 boldest boy. His master and associates failed to see that the 
 qualities which earned him this character were but the indications 
 of a mmd eminently practical, and a spirit of adventure and 
 daring. AVlien he had reached his fifteenth year, his father, 
 wishing to place him beyond the reach of a persecution then car- 
 ried on against many of the families in that part of Italy, entered 
 into an engagement with a person of the name of Andi-ea Faroni, 
 by which the lad was to be taken to England, and instructed in 
 the trade of selling prints, barometers, and looking-glasses ; and 
 in the event of his not liking that occupation, he was to be placed 
 under the care of Colnaghi of London, the eminent printseller, 
 who was a friend of his father, and a native of the same part of 
 Italy. A liberal sum of money was placed in Faroni's hands, to 
 defray the boy's expenses for eighteen months. Previous to his 
 departui-e, he visited his mother, who was so overcome that she 
 fainted. Her last words to her son have never left his memory 
 — " Whenever you think of me, and arc at a loss to know what 
 I am doing, I shall be at that window from which I shall soon 
 witness your departure, watching for your return." Faroni, 
 instead of proceeding to London, went direct to Ireland ; and 
 reaching Dublin, he took up his al)ode, with his young appren- 
 tices, in Temple Bar, in 1802. The plan adopted by Faroni 
 was to despatch his boys upon Monday morning through the 
 nciglibom-ing countiy, furnished with two pounds worth of 
 prints, set in leaden frames ; these they were expected to sell 
 during the week, and to return on Saturday night with the pro- 
 ceeds. It can be readily imagined that a life of this kind was 
 
 not without its charm to a lad of Biancoui's disposition, and 
 well calculated to sharpen his natural aptitude for observation. 
 After some time, the sphere of these tours was enlarged, and he 
 visited the seaport towns on the eastern coast, making his way as 
 far as Wexford and Waterford. During tliis rambling life the 
 youth met many adventures, and made many friends, most of 
 whom remained stedfastly attached to him throughout life. On 
 one occasion, when at Passage, near Waterford, he was arrested 
 by a magistrate, under whose suspicion he fell m consequence of 
 haviijg for sale some likenesses of Buonaparte. It was in vain 
 that the boy asserted his innocence ; he was thi-ust into a dark 
 and cold guard- room, where he was left all night; and next 
 morning, when the fears of rural Shallow had abated, he was set 
 at large. 
 
 The period of his apprenticeship having expu-ed, Faroni dechu-cd 
 his readiness, in fulfilment of the terms of his arrangement with 
 his father, to take the young man back to Italy. The latter, 
 however, decUned the offer. He had determined not to re- 
 tm-n to his own country, but to push his fortune in Ireland. 
 Faroni, thereupon, retm-ned him his purse, with a sum of less 
 than fifty loius-d'ors, and left him to shift for himself. With this 
 sum yoimg Bianconi commenced on his own account, and he 
 settled as a printseller, first at Camck-on-Suir, in the county 
 of Tipperary, in 1806, and from thence he removed in 1808 
 to the town of Waterford, and the followng year he went to 
 Clonmel, where he opened an establishment as carver and gilder. 
 His business now steadily increased, so that by the year 1815 he 
 had amassed a considerable amoimt of property. In the mean- 
 time the experience of the past was not lost upon him. In the 
 prosecution of his busmess, he had been in the habit of travelling 
 a great deal between the different couuti-y towns, and thus was 
 led to reflect on the total want of accommodation for travellers of 
 the middle and poorer classes, the only mode of conveyance being 
 a few mail and day coaches on the main lines of road. His prac- 
 tical mind at once saw that a field was presented for a speculation 
 that would not only be most profitable to the proprietor, but highl\- 
 beneficial to the public. Accordingly, in 1815, he established a 
 stage-car, di-awu by one horse, between Clonmel aud Cahir. 
 capable of holduig six persons. At this time, in consequence ol 
 the peace, he was able to prociu-e first-class horses, intended for 
 the troops, at a very low piice ; and the first experiment being 
 successful, he extended his plans, and before the end of the year 
 had cars plpng between Clonmel, Cashel, Thurles, Camck, and 
 Waterford ; thus establishing that system which has since become 
 so wide-spread, and well known as " Biancoui's cars." Ere long 
 the system developed itself with extraordinaiy success; so that 
 at length, m the year 18-13, the whole of the south and west, and 
 a great portion of the north of Ireland were traversed through the 
 cross roads from market town to market town, by one hundi'cd 
 well-appointed two and four wheeled vehicles, drawn by two, 
 three, and fom- horses, carrying from four to twenty persons each, 
 travelling eight or nuie miles an hour, at an average of one penny 
 farthing per mile for each passenger, and performing daily 3,800 
 miles. Dm-mg all this time no car, except when connected with 
 postal communication, was permitted to travel on Simday ; and 
 it is satisfactory to find that the result was actually beneficial, 
 even in point of economy, on Mr. Biancoui's own testiiuony. " I 
 can work a horse eight miles per day, six days in the week, much 
 better than I can sis miles for seven days." The growth and 
 extent of raUway communication necessarily affected the car 
 establishment; but the diminution was inconsiderable, owing to 
 the activity with which Mr. Bianconi directed his labours into new 
 districts, when the old were invaded by the steam enguie and tlie 
 rail ; and the remoter districts are now, by means of these con- 
 veyances, connected with the provincial stations of all the gi'eat 
 railways. In the present year, 1858, the establishment consists 
 of sixty-seven conveyances (ten of which are coaches), performing 
 daily 4,211 miles, and traversing twenty-two counties. The 
 benefits which the system has conferred upon Ireland can scarcely 
 be overstated. It raised the social and moral condition of the 
 humbler farming and trading classes ; it gave a stimulus to 
 industry, and enabled the less wealthy to economize their tiHU\ 
 We may be permitted to quote a statement of Jlr. Biancoui's that 
 reflects great credit on the Irish people. " ^ly convej'ances, many 
 of them caiTying very important mails, have been travelling during 
 all hours of the day and night, often in lonely and unfrequented 
 places; and during the long period of forty-two years that my 
 estaljlishmeut is now iu existence, the slightest injury has never
 
 BIA 
 
 374 
 
 BIA 
 
 been done by the people to my property, or that intrusted to my 
 care." Dming this period Sir. Bianconi reaped abundantly the 
 fruits of his enterprise and energy. He amassed a large fortune, 
 and while he ser\'ed thousands, he made firm friends in every grade 
 of life, from the lowest to the highest in the land ; commanding 
 universal respect for his probity, and good-will for his liberal 
 dealings with those whom he employed. In August, 1831, he 
 obtained letters of naturalization, and subsequently filled the office 
 of mayor of Clonmel. Charles Bianconi is one of those remark- 
 able men who, from time to time, are to be found in every 
 counti-y — men whom Providence sends forth from their own 
 land, in a spirit of adventure, to invigorate with new blood, and 
 enlighten with new views, the country of their adoption — to be 
 at once the founders of then- ow n prosperity, and the benefactors 
 of society. — J. F. W. 
 
 BIANCONI, John Baptiste, an Italian philologist, bora 
 at Bologna in 1698 ; died in 1781. He was a pupil of Facciolati's, 
 and became professor of Greek and Hebrew at the university of 
 Bologna. He discovered in the Ambrosian library, and pub- 
 lished MSS. written by Julius Pollux. 
 
 BIANCONI, GiovANNi-LoDovico, a distmguished Italian 
 physician and philosopher, born at Bologna on the 30th Sep- 
 tember, 1717. He studied in the celebrated schools of his native 
 city, and displayed such remarkable talents that, when only 
 nineteen years of age, he was considered capable of fulfilling the 
 duties of assistant-physician in the hospital della Vita in Bologna, 
 where, for the four following years, he improved himself greatly 
 in the practice of medicine. In 1742 he took his degree as 
 doctor of medicine and philosophy, and in the following year the 
 Academy of Sciences at Bologna received him as one of its 
 members. In 174-4, his reputation haraig already passed the 
 confines of Italy, he was in\ated to the com-t of the landgrave of 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, to whom he was appointed physician. In 
 1750 Bianconi passed from Darmstadt into Poland, where he 
 became physician to the king, was made a councillor of state, 
 and afterwards created a count. On returning into Germany 
 with the king (Augustus HI.), who was also elector of Saxony, 
 he took up his abode at Dresden; and in 17C0 was intrusted 
 with a delicate mission to the court of France, which he ful- 
 filled with great discretion; soon aftei-wards (in 1764), on his 
 indicating a desire to return to his native country, he was ap- 
 pointed resident-minister of the court of Dresden at Kome. 
 Arrived in this city, however, he relinquished diplomacy to give 
 himself up entirely to his taste for literature and science, and 
 l>ublished several works which added greatly to his reputation. 
 He continued his labours up to the time of his death, which took 
 place at Perugia on the 1st January, 1781. Amongst the works 
 uf Bianconi we may notice the following : " Two Letters on 
 Physics, to the Marquis Scipio MafFei," published at Venice in 
 1746; "Letters upon some Peculiaiities of Bavaria and other 
 Countries of Germany," which appeared at Lucca in 1763, and 
 were afterwards translated into German ; a " Dissertation on 
 Electricity," m French, at Amsterdam in 1748, and, m Gemian, 
 at Basle in 1749; and "Letters upon A. Cornelius Celsus," 
 puljlished at Rome in 1779. Bianconi proposed to bring out an 
 edition of Celsus. In the letters here referred to, he considers 
 that author to belong to the Augustan age, contraiy to the 
 general opinion, and the Abbe Tiraboschi, to whom the letters 
 were addressed, stated that Bianconi had resolved all the doubts 
 and difficulties that could be opposed to his opiinon. Besides 
 these works, Bianconi published in French a " Journal of the 
 Literary Novelties of Italy;" two Letters relating to Pisa and 
 Florence, and a Memou' on the Circus of Caracalla, were pub- 
 lished after his death, the former at Lucca in 1781, and the 
 latter at Rome in 1790. He also translated Winslow's Anatomy 
 into Italian, and wrote numerous articles in the FJ/hiieridi 
 Leiterarie di Roma, a jom-nal to the establishment of which he 
 had given the first impulse. — W. S. D. 
 
 BIANUCCI, Paolo, a native of Lucca, and a disciple of 
 Guido, died in 1653, aged seventy. His best picture is one of 
 PurgatoiT, in his native town. — W. T. 
 
 BIAQUAZZONI or ABBIAQUAZONI, Antonio, an Italian 
 poet, lived in the first part of the seventeenth century. His 
 principal work is " I'Agnese Martirizzata" in ottava rima, 1607. 
 * BlARD, F. A., bom at Lyons in 1800, a versatile, but 
 rather coarse French artist, still Uving. He has visited Spain, 
 Greece, Syria, Egj-pt, and Greenland, the last in 1839. He 
 excels in the grotesque and marme picturesque. His best 
 
 pictures are — "The Arab overtaken by the Simoom;" "The 
 Odalisque of Smyrna;" " Skirmish of Maskers with the Police;" 
 " The Family Concert ; " " African Slave Market ; " " Combat 
 with Polar Bears." He produces with newspaper taste, and is 
 sometimes hopelessly vulgar. — W. T. 
 
 BIARD, Paul, a French Jesuit, professor of theology at 
 Lyons, and afterwards missionary of his order in Canada ; was 
 born at Grenoble m 1580, and died at A\'ignon Ln 1622. He was 
 taken prisoner by the English in 1613, but recovered his liberty 
 at the instance of the French ambassador in London, and returned 
 to France. He had been well received by the savages of Canada. 
 His principal works are, " Relation de la Nouvelle-France et du 
 voyage des Peres Jesuites dans cette contree," and " Eelatio 
 expedit. Angl. in Canad., sua;que ab illis comprehensionis." 
 
 BIAS, a native of Priene, was one of the seven wise men of 
 Greece. Ancient writers vary in their statement of the num- 
 ber of wise men, and in the particular individuals who ought to 
 have the designation. Dicsearchus, according to Diogenes Laer- 
 tius, affinned that there were four whose claims were never 
 doubted. One of these was Bias, the other three being Thales, 
 Pittacus, and Solon. The term was applied to men who gave 
 expression to shrewd practical ideas in short pithy sentences. 
 Diogenes Laertlus, on the authority of Phanodicus, tells us that 
 Bias was in the habit of ransoming captive Messenian maidens, 
 bringing them up as his daughters, and then sending them back 
 with portions to their fathers. On one occasion, the story goes, 
 some fishei-men found a tripod inscribed " To the Wise Man." 
 There was doubt as to the person to whom it should be given, 
 ixntil the Messenian maidens, or, as another account had it, the 
 father of some of them stood forward in the assembly, and, 
 narrating the kind conduct of Bias, called him the wise man. 
 Bias did not take the tripod, but gave it to a god. We have 
 the authority of the satiric poet Hipponax for believing him to 
 have been a skilful lawyer. The circumstances of his death are 
 related by Diogenes Laertius. He was pleading the cause of a 
 client, and just as he had finished the peroration, leaned his 
 head on the bosom of his grandson. His opponent went on 
 with his speech, and then the court having decided in favour 
 of the protege of Bias, was dismissed, when Bias was found to be 
 dead. The city buried him with honours. Diogenes Laertius 
 records several of his maxims. He seems to have had an 
 exceedmgly low opinion of human nature. The inscription on a 
 shrine said to be dedicated to him was — " He said : Most men 
 are bad." He thought that we should love men as if they might 
 one day hate us. Being asked what thing was difficult, he said, 
 " to bear a change to the worse." He reckoned it a disease to 
 desire what could not be obtained, and to be forgetful of the 
 evils of others. One time, while sailing with impious men, who 
 began to pray on a stonn coming on, he said, " Be silent, lest 
 the gods perceive you are sailhig here." He liked to arbitrate 
 between two of his enemies better than between two friends, for 
 one of the friends would be sure to become an enemy in the one 
 case, while Ln the other one of his enemies was sure to become 
 his friend. The following are a few more of his maxims : — 
 " Do not praise an unworthy man on account of his riches." 
 " Take wisdom as your supplies for travelling from youth to old 
 age, for it is the most secure of all possessions." " Be slow in 
 resolving to do a thing, but when once you resolve, stick to it to 
 the last." Bias wrote a poem of 2000 lines on the best means 
 of advancing the prosperity of Ionia. One of his sayings has 
 also come down in verse, but the versification is probably the 
 work a of later period. — (Schneidewin, Delect. Poes. Grcec, p. 
 260.) It is difficult to determine the exact date of Bias. 
 Clinton places the wise men as flourishing in 582 B.C., and 
 he leaves us to infer from a hint in Herodotus I. 27, that Bias 
 may have been h\'ing in 569 b.c. — (Fasti Hellen.,vol. i., p. 237.) 
 The chief authority for the facts of the life of Bias is Diogenes 
 Laertius, Lib. I., p. 216.— J. D. 
 
 BIAUZAT, Gauthier de, a French magistrate, who died in 
 1815. He represented the town of Clermont in the States- 
 general, and supported the motion of Mirabeau that the troops 
 should be sent out of Paris. At a later period he was one of 
 the jury of the high court of the nation appointed to try the 
 Babeuf conspirators ; and from his moderation in that office, 
 attracted no small enmity to himself. In 1799 he was appointed 
 to the court of " cassation," and under the empire was one of the 
 councillors in the court of appeal. He was the author of some 
 pohtical pamphlets.
 
 BIB 
 
 575 
 
 BIB 
 
 BIBACULUS, M. FuRius, a satiric writer, a native of Cre- 
 mona, lived about 30 years b. c. Some have placed him in the 
 same rank as Catullus and Horace, but they must be veiy acute 
 critics indeed, to raise such a splendid edifice on so frail a foun- 
 dation. We have absolutely nothing of his but a few hearsay 
 fragments, consisting of a passage cited by Suetonius, two miser- 
 able epigrams, and one hexameter quoted by the scholiast on 
 Juvenal. If to these we add Horace's well-lcnown line, "Furius 
 pingui tentas omaso," attributed by some to this same Furius, we 
 huve all that is known of him. He is said not to have been on 
 good terms with Horace. — J. G. 
 
 BIBAGO, Eabbi Abraham, ben Shem Tob, a writer on 
 philosophy, flourished in Aragon in the fifteenth centiuy. — T. T. 
 
 BIBARS, fourth sultan of the dynasty of the Mamekdte 
 Baharytes, lived in the thirteenth century. He rose by his 
 courage and ability to the highest dignity of the empire, but 
 revolted on the accession of Aibek. He was, by his o-\vn con- 
 fession, one of the murderers of the sultan Kothonz. He was a 
 successful warrior, and had many struggles with the Tartars, 
 whom he eventually overcame. He subsequently penetrated with 
 his armies as far as Nubia. An eclipse of the moon, which 
 occun-ed when he was in Egypt, was the occasion of his death. 
 It had been predicted by the astrologers that some great person 
 should die at the time of that phenomenon, and Bibars thinking 
 to turn aside that prediction from himself, administered poison 
 to a prince of the house of Saladin, but with a view to obviate 
 all suspicion, he di'ank himself what remained in the fatal cup, 
 under the mistaken idea that there was not enough left to cause 
 his death. Bibars has been surnamed Aboul Foutouh or 
 Father of Victories. He was remarkable for his charity to 
 the poor, and made an annual distribution among them of a 
 hundi'ed measures of wheat. He also took under his care the 
 widows and children of soldiers who had fallen in battle. He 
 erected a college in Cairo, and constructed a magnificent bridge 
 over the Nile.— G. M. 
 
 BIBARS, twelfth sultan of the dynasty of the Mameluke 
 Baharytes, died in 1310. He was of Circassian origin, and was 
 at first the slave of Kalaou, but was raised by that prince, and 
 by his son, Khalyl-el-Mohammed, to the highest dignities of the 
 state. In 1309 he was forced by the Mameluke Bordjytes to 
 accept the crown, but having offended his army by his lenity to 
 Salar, governor of Egypt, who had espoused the cause of the 
 fallen prince, the officers abandoned him, and the troops deserted. 
 He then took to flight with seven hundred Mamelukes, nearly 
 all of whom also deserted. He was at length an-ested near 
 Ghaza, by the partisans of Mohammed, and being taken to 
 Cairo, was brought into the presence of his competitors, who 
 ordered him to be strangled. — G. M. 
 
 BIBBIENA, Angelo Dovizio, nephew of Cardinal Bibbiena, 
 apostolical prothonotary, and afterwards secretary of Cosmo I., 
 diike of Florence, lived in the second half of the sixteentli cen- 
 tury. He wrote " Sommario delle cose degne di memoria, 
 successe nella guerra di Algieri dall'anno 1541 fino, al giugno 
 del 1553," and a canto entitled " Trionfo della dea Minerva." 
 
 BIBBIENA, Bernard, called also Bernard di Tari.atti 
 and Dovizi or Dovizio, an Italian cardinal, author, and diplo- 
 matist, boiTi at Bibbiena, August 4, 1470 ; died November 9, 
 1520. He was placed by his family in the service of John di 
 Medici, secretaiy to Lorenzo the Magnificent, and shared the 
 fortunes of that illustrious house. With the cardinal, John, he 
 went to Rome after the death of Alexander VI., and succeeded 
 in gaining the favour of Julius II., by whom he was employed 
 in negotiations. On the death of Julius in 1513, John di Medici 
 ascended the pontifical throne under tlie name of Leo X., and 
 in the same year bestowed a cardinal's hat on Bibbiena, ap- 
 pointing him legate and commander-in-chief of the pontifical 
 army in the war with the duke of Urbino. In 1518 the car- 
 dinal was sent to France for the purpose of engaging Francis I. 
 in a war against the Turks, but returned to Rome the following 
 year without effecting the purpose of his mission — -probably on 
 account of the distrust of the pope himself, who was jealous of 
 French influence. He died in November, 1520, not altogether 
 without suspicion of having been poisoned by his old friend and 
 master the pope, although the historian of Leo rejects the insinua- 
 tion. It would appear that Bibbiena made so favourable an 
 nnpression on Francis, that the free-hearted monarch promised 
 his support for the next occasion on which the tiara should be 
 vacant, and that Leo was highly enraged at the circumstance. 
 
 Whether Leo was or was not implicated in a transaction, which 
 for the period and the peisonages would excite no great surprise, 
 it is impossible now to determine ; but it must be confessed that 
 Bibbiena disappeared at an inconvenient time for Leo's reputa- 
 tion. Bibbiena was not only an able diplomatist and negotiator, 
 but a friend of art and literature, and especially the drama. He 
 wrote comedies full of pleasantly, and induced the young men 
 of good family to play tliem in the Vatican. His comedy, " La 
 Calandina," obtained considerable renown. It was printed at 
 Sienna in 1521, at Rome in 1524, and at Venice in 1522 and 
 1562, and was also represented before Henry II. and Catherine 
 de Medicis. It resembles the plays of Plautus, and is written 
 in prose, because, as the author justly observes in the prologue, 
 men speak in prose and not in verse. Licentious in design, it 
 is not without merit of form, and by some has been considered 
 the earliest comedy of modem times. — P. E. D. 
 
 BIBBIENA, Jean Gallie, a French romancist, bom at 
 Nancy about 1709 ; died about 1779 ; author of " La Nou- 
 velle Italic," a heroic comedy, in which one portion of the actors 
 spoke French and another Itahan, produced with success at the 
 Italian theatre in 1762. 
 
 BIBIENA, Ferdinando Galli, was bom at Bologna in 
 1657. His father was a pupil of Albano. He studied under 
 Cignani, painted architectural and eclectic subjects for the 
 duke of Parma, the Duke Francesco Farnese, and received a 
 chain and medal from the emperor, as a mark of honour. His 
 tone was fine, and his perspective artful. He had a brother, 
 Francesco, who died 1743. Ferdinando left two sons, Giu- 
 seppe and Antonio ; the first painted at Dresden and Berlin, 
 and died 1756 ; the latter at Mantua, between 1770 and 1780. 
 Giuseppe left a son. Carlo, a theatrical painter; he became 
 i-enowned for the painting of triumphal arches, and trophies for 
 fetes after victories ; either side, whichever it was, French or 
 GeiTnans, — so the money came, his genius was ready. The elder 
 Bibiena's works adorn half the chmxhes in Bologna. — W. T. 
 
 BIBLIANDER, Theodok, one of the most learned divines 
 and Hebraists of the Reformation, and a distinguished ornament 
 of the Helvetic church, was bom at Bischoffzell in Thurgau, in 
 Switzerland, early in the sixteenth centmy ; his original name 
 was Buchmann. After the completion of his university course, 
 he became an assistant in the school of Oswald Myconius, at 
 Zm-ich ; and in 1532 his rare attainments in learning procured 
 him the honour of succeeding to the theological chair vacated 
 by the death of Zwingle. In this office he continued till 1560, 
 when he retired as Emeritus ; he survived till 1564, when he 
 died of the pest. His Hebrew and other Oriental learning 
 gave peculiar weight and value to his expositions of the Old 
 Testament, which were attended not only by the young students 
 of Zm-ich, but also by Bullinger, Pellican, and other learned 
 ministers and professors of that city. He was a proficient in the 
 Arabic tongue, and published in 1553 an edition, in folio, of the 
 Koran, in which he corrected the text by a collation of Arabic 
 and Latin JISS — adding a life of Mahomet and his successors 
 and marginal notes, in which he pointed out and refuted the 
 absurdities taught in the text. His other piiblications were 
 numerous, but many of his writings remained in MS., and are 
 still preserved in that form in the public library of Zurich. 
 One of the most useful ajjplications of his learning was the part 
 he took in completing the translation of the scriptures left 
 unfinished by Leo Juda. Bibliander translated the last forty- 
 eight Psalms, the last eight chapters of Ezekiel, and the whole of 
 Daniel, Job, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles. The translation was 
 published in 1543, and goes by the name of the Zurich Bible. 
 Bibliander was the only Zurich theologian who did not receive 
 the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination ; on that sidiject he 
 continued all his life to hold the views of Erasmus. It was not, 
 however, till Peter Martyr succeeded to the chair of Pellican in 
 Zurich, in 1556, and began to expound the Genevan doctrine in 
 its strictest form, that he publicly opposed himself to it ; and it 
 was no doubt the warmtii with which he expressed himself on 
 the disputed doctrine, which led to his retirement in 1560. He 
 became subject in his later life to fits of excitement and temper, 
 which compromised his comfortable relations with his colleagues ; 
 and several years before his final retirement, Bullinger had great 
 difficulty in persuading him to give up a resolution which, in a 
 moment of irritation, he had suddenly formed, to throw up his 
 chair, and start upon a mission to the Orientals. — P. L. 
 
 BIBULUS, Calpurnius, the name of two of the sons of
 
 BIB 
 
 576 
 
 BIG 
 
 Lucius Calpurnius Bibulus, who were assassinated in Egypt by 
 the soldiers of Gabinius in the year 50 B.C. Their first names 
 have not been recorded. 
 
 BIBULUS, D. Calpurxius, an eminent Roman citizen, 
 lived in the first half of the first century before the christian 
 era. In the year 65 he held the office of edile, in 62 that of 
 praetor, and in 59 that of consiil. 
 
 BIBULUS, L. Calpcrsius, youngest son of Lucius Calpur- 
 nius Bibulus, and brother of the two preceding, bom about 31 
 B.C. In 45 he left Rome, where he had liitherto resided under 
 the protection of Brutiis, who had married his mother, Porcia, 
 and went to Athens to pursue his studies. After the death of 
 Caesar in 44, he followed the fortunes of his father-in-law, and 
 took part in the battle of Philippi in 42. After the death of 
 Brutus, Bibulus became reconciled to Antony, who committed to 
 him the command of a fleet, and employed him in negotiations 
 with Augustus. He was aftern-ards appointed governor of Syria, 
 where he died. He wrote a biography of Brutus, fi'om whicli 
 Plutarch has chiefly drawn the materials of his life. — G. JI. 
 
 BIBULUS, Marcus Calpurnius, a Roman consul, lived in 
 the first century before the christian era. In 59 he was raised 
 to the consular dignity, with Julius Csesar as his colleague, and 
 held at the same time the government of Sma. In the civil war 
 which afterwards broke out between Ca;sar and Pompey, Bibulus 
 took part with the latter, and had the chief command of his 
 naval forces. — G. M. 
 
 BICCI, Lorenzo di, bom at Florence in 1400, and studied 
 under Spinello, a vehement, grand, but too sketchy painter, 
 who helped to adorn the Pisan Campo Santo, and who died 
 from fright at a dream in which the devil appeared to him. 
 Bicci was the last inheritor of the Giotto spirit. Simple and 
 mild in expression, he is occasionally somewhat like his contem- 
 porary the monk of Fiesole. One picture of his on wood and 
 several frescos are preserved. He died in 1460. — W. T. 
 
 BICCIUS, Zacharie, a German poet and Greek scholar, 
 lived in the first part of the seventeenth century ; author of a 
 treatise " On Greek Accents." 
 
 BICH.\T, JIarie Francois Xayier, an eminent French 
 anatomist and physiologist, was bom November 11, 1771, at 
 Poissey, department de I'Ain. He commenced his professional 
 studies under his father, Jean Baptiste Bichat, who was hunself 
 a physician ; and was sent by him to p'lrsue them at Lyons, 
 under the celebrated Petit, who hestowed on him particular 
 attention. The master and pupU being separated by the revolu- 
 tionary troubles in 1793, young Bichat proceeded to Paris, 
 where, without a single acquaintance or introduction, he entered 
 the school of Dessault, who then held the highest rank as a 
 surgeon. His talents having become known to his teacher 
 through an accidental circumstance which he ably turned to 
 account, he was invited by Dessault to take up his abode with 
 him, and was treated by him as his adopted son and destined 
 successor. This intimacy was early severed, however, by Des- 
 sault's sudden death in 1795, and Bichat then devoted himself 
 with filial zeal to preparing for publication the writings of his 
 master, whose widow and son continued to be the objects of his 
 particular regard. Whilst thus occupied he opened a school for 
 teaching anatomy, physiology, and surgery, and commenced 
 that series of original researches in the first two of these subjects, 
 by which he speedily acquired, not merely a high contemporary 
 reputation, but lasting renown. These researches, laboriously 
 prosecuted in the dissecting-room, the physiological laboratoiy, 
 and the hospital, were frequently interrupted by the failure of 
 his health ; but even when he was confined to his sick chamber, 
 his mind was actively occupied in maturing and systematizing 
 his views, and in thus preparing for the publication of his great 
 works ; and he could not be prevented from returning to his 
 laborious and tr}-ing occupations when quite unfit for engaging 
 in them. It was in his " Traite des Membranes," in 1800, 
 that he first laid that broad foundation for the science of general 
 anatomy or histology which, in the succeeding year, he raised by 
 the publication of his " Anatomic Generale appliqu^e a la Pliy- 
 siologie et h la Medecine," — a fabric whose completeness must 
 apj)ear extraordinary to every one who looks at it as the work 
 performed within no more than five or six years by a single 
 man, a large part of whose time and strength were absorbed by 
 the laborious duties of a public teacher. In the year 1800 he 
 also published an important work entitled " Recherches Physio- 
 logiques sur la Vie et la Mort." And at the time of his death, 
 
 which occijrred July 22, 1802, from fever that. seems to have 
 originated in exposure to putrescent emanations, of which his 
 want of bodily vigour rendered hun peculiarly susceptible, he 
 was engaged on a large and complete treatise on Descriptive 
 Anatomy, which was aftenvards finished by his pupils. — Al- 
 though the importance of studying the elementary tissues of the 
 animal body, and their respective properties, had been recognized 
 by more than one preceding anatomist, yet there was in their 
 observations, as has been well remarked by Mr. Buckle, " that 
 want of harmony and that general incompleteness always char- 
 acteristic of the labours of men who do not rise to a com- 
 manding view of the subject with which they deal." This 
 " commanding view" was unquestionably first taken by Bichat. 
 He saw that in order to gam any clear idea of the actions of 
 the li\'ing body, it was necessary to become acquainted with the 
 structure and properties not merely of its organs, but of the 
 tissues of which these organs are made up ; thus decomposing, 
 as it were, the complex fabric into its simplest elements, and 
 isolating each for separate examination. He made use of all the 
 means which observation and experiment were at that time 
 able to furnish for the attainment of the fullest knowledge of 
 the characters of every tissue ; and had he not been prevented, 
 on the one hand, by the imperfection of the microscope of tlirit 
 day, from making advantageous use of this instrament in th.' 
 investigation of minute stnictm-es, and been kept b.ack on tlie 
 other by the want of the means of conducting organic analysis, 
 from determining the ti^ne composition of the substances under 
 examination, there can be little doubt that he would have anti- 
 cipated the discoveries which have revolutionized histology, or 
 the science of the tissues, within our o^ti time. On the basis 
 of general anatomy, Bichat built up the framework of a scheme 
 of physiology and pathology which his followers in every school 
 have labom-ed to comi)lete. He looked not only at the stmc- 
 ture, but at the properties of the elementarj' tissues ; and not 
 merely at their properties in the state of health, but at their 
 altered conditions in disease. He saw that many of these pro- 
 perties were peculiar to living tissues, and hence distinguished 
 them as vital ; and he regarded life in the aggi-egate as the sum 
 of all the actions which are perfonned by the separate, and to a 
 certain extent independent, exercise of these properties. Thus 
 he completed the overthrow of the iatro-mathematical school, 
 which had fixed its attention exclusively on the physical pheno- 
 mena of the living body ; whilst he also exposed the fallacy of 
 the then prevalent doctrine of Stahl, that there is in every 
 living body an archmus or "%ntal principle," which governs and 
 directs all its actions. As health depends upon the due working 
 of all the elementaiT parts of the organism, so does disease 
 result from the per^-ersion of the vital properties of some of 
 these ; and it is the object of therapeutics to correct such per- 
 versions, by the application of remedies specially fitted to bring 
 back the ^ital forces to the natural type from which they had 
 departed. There can be little doubt that in dwelling so con- 
 stantly on the vital properties of the primary tissues, Bichat 
 took too little account of their physical and chemical actions ; 
 and that in fixing the attention too exclusively on the properties 
 of the solids, he somewhat underrated those of the fluids. Still 
 he is by no means chargeable vrAlx the exclusive solidism of his 
 successors in tlie French school of pathology ; and it can scarcely 
 be doubted that he would have recognized the full value of those 
 considerations which have led of late to the renval, in a modified 
 form, of the " humoral pathology," which had sunk under the 
 influence of their teachings into undeseiwed disrepute. Among 
 many other important. doctrines propounded for the first time in 
 his work, " Sm- la Vie et la Mort," is that classification of the 
 functions into organic and animal, which is now universally 
 adojjted by physiologists, and which has greatly aided in that 
 systematic arrangement of the phenomena of life which lies at 
 tlie basis of all sound generalization of them. Altogether it 
 may be traly said, that Bichat left an impress upon the science 
 of life, the depth of which can scarcely be overrated; and this not 
 so much by the f;icts which he collected and generahzed, as 
 by the method of inquiry wliich he developed, and by the sys- 
 tematic form which he gave to the study of general anatomy in 
 its relations both to physiology and to pathology. — W. B. C. 
 
 BICHENO, James Ebenezer, was bom at Newbury, in 
 Berkshire, where his father was a Baptist clerg}Tnnn. He seems 
 to have devoted his attention at first to matters connected with 
 the philosophy of legislation, the administration of the poor
 
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 laws, and the punislmient of crime, on which sulyects he pub- 
 lished works in 1817 and 1819. In 18-22 he was called to the 
 bar, after studying at the middle temple. He became a fellow 
 of the Linnean Society in 1812, and was elected secretary in 
 1824. He showed a great taste for natural science in various 
 departments. After the death of his father in 1831, he quitted 
 London, and retired to Tyniaen, near Pyle, in Glamorganshire, 
 where he had become a partner in iron-works, which turned out 
 an unsuccessful speculation. In 1829 he visited Ireland, and 
 published a work on "Ireland and its Economy." In 1836 the 
 marquis of Lansdowne appointed him one of the commissioners 
 for inquiiy into the expediency of introducing poor laws into 
 Ireland, and in 1842 he was appointed by Lord Stiinlcy colonial 
 secretary of Van Diemen's Land. He died at Hobart Town on 
 28th Febniary, 1851, after a short illness. Botany was his 
 favomite pursuit, and several of his papers on this department 
 of science appear in the Linnean Society's Transactions, such as 
 " Observations on the Orchis militaris of Linna;us," " On the 
 linnean Genus Juncus," and " On Systems and Methods in 
 Natural History." — J. H. B. 
 
 EICKERSTAFF, Isaac, a very successful dramatic writer, 
 was bom in Ireland, probably about the year 1735, and we find 
 him appointed to be one of the pages to Lord Ghesterfield, when 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 174G. He produced " Love in a 
 Village," " The Maid of the Mill," and " Lionel and Glarissa," 
 three genuine English comic operas, which will continue to be 
 popular as long as the language in which they are written lasts, 
 and would still hold their ground as most amusing comedies, even 
 if the incidental songs, beautiful, simple, and national, as many 
 of them are, were omitted. The first of these operas in particu- 
 lar, though borrowing largely from .Johnson's Village Opera and 
 other sources, was so favourably received in London during its 
 first season, 1762-63, that it was played nearly as often as the 
 Beggars' Opera had been at an earlier period, and established 
 a permanent reputation equally brilliant. "The Maid of the 
 Mill " was first produced at Govent Garden, on the 31st of 
 January, 1765, and had a run of thirty-five nights during the 
 season. " Lionel and Glarissa " was also very successful, and 
 still holds its place in popular favour. In addition to these, 
 Bickerstaff wrote " The Padlock," " The Sultan," and " The 
 Spoiled Ghild," all farces still upon the acting list. It is right 
 to mention that the authorship of the last is attributed to Mrs. 
 Jordan, W. Forde, and others, but the weight of authority and 
 evidence is all in favoiu- of Bickerstaff. He also wrote some 
 comedies, and altered several pieces of other authors, and he com- 
 posed an oratorio called " .Judith," which was set to music by 
 Dr. Ame, and performed at the Lock Hospital chapel on the 6th 
 of February, 1764. Upon the whole Bickerstaff may be pro- 
 nounced one of the most successful writers for the stage during his 
 time. His dramas, original and adapted, amount to the number 
 of twenty-two, though it must be admitted he availed himself 
 very freely of the plots of other writers. Bickerstaff served for 
 some time as an officer of marines, and died abroad in extreme 
 old age and reduced circumstances; but the place and date of his 
 decease have not been ascertained. — J. F. W. 
 
 BICKERSTETH, Edwakd, a clerg}'man of the church of 
 England, and for many years secretary to the Ghiu-ch Mission- 
 ary Society, was bom in 1784 at Kirkljy-Lonsdale, Westmore- 
 land. His father was Henry Bickcrsteth, Esq., a surgeon of 
 the place. At the -age of fourteen he entered a situation in the 
 post-office, London ; but at the close of his nineteenth year, 
 desirous of more congenial employment, he entered a lawyer's 
 office as an articled pupil, and such were his ability and integrity 
 that in less than three years he was appointed the managing 
 clerk of an extensive law establishment. In 1812 he removed 
 to Norwich in connection with his profession, and there married 
 his partner's sister. It was while there that he wrote his 
 " Scripture Help," and that he established the Norwich Ghristian 
 Missionary Association. It had long been his desire to engage 
 in ministerial labour, and to eiitcr the missionary field. At the 
 end of his third year of residence at Norwich, and in the twenty- 
 ninth year of his age, he was appointed to visit the West African 
 mission of the Church Missionaiy Society; and having obtained, 
 in December, 1815, both deacon's and priest's orders at the 
 hands of the bishop of Norwich and Gloucester, he sailed for 
 Africa on the 3rd of the following month. In his actings during 
 his stay of three months in that country, he fully realized all 
 the expectations of those who sent him forth. He returned to 
 vol,. I. 
 
 England on the 17th of August, 1816. The personal knowledge 
 which he now brought witli him of the character, circumstances, 
 and feelings of the missionaries, of the degradation of long- 
 neglected and injured Africa, and of the actual success already 
 vouchsafed, peculiarly qualified him for the position which 
 awaited him here at home, and the important duties which he 
 discharged for the space of fifteen years. Such was the force of 
 his appeals, and the interest he excited, that new associations 
 sprang up in various parts of the united kingdom, and the 
 annual income of the society was largely increased. Nor was he 
 inactive with his pen ; he sent from the press, in the years 1819 
 and 1821, his admirable treatises on Prayer and the Lord's 
 Supper ; whilst, moreover, for several years he ably directed the 
 theological pursuits of the missionary students who resided 
 under his own roof, as well as conducted mainly the wide- 
 spread correspondence of the society, both for home and foreign 
 parts. Mr. Bickersteth latterly began to wish for some more 
 quiet post, in which, whilst he could throw the weight of his 
 mellowed experience into the interests of Christianity generally, 
 he might give more personal attention to the teaching of his own 
 children. In the year 1830, a gentleman was led to put him in 
 possession of the living of Watton, Herts, where he found the 
 very quiet which he needed for study and writing ; and in whose 
 population he had the joy to fonn^ that sweet connection which 
 subsists between a fidthful pastor and a grateful flock. It would 
 be grateful to the feelings of the writer to give here, in mimite 
 and chronological detail, our author's proceedings during the 
 period of twenty years in which ho was the rector of this parish; 
 to do this, however, must require a volume instead of our limited 
 space. After a lingering dissolution of some weeks' length, our 
 valued friend departed at Watton, on the 24th Febraary, 
 1850. "May my last end be like his!" We here affix a 
 list of his published works ; and in doing so may just add, 
 that few men, since the days of the apostles, have more com- 
 pletely left the impress of their own great character upon their 
 generation than the subject of our sketch. The following are the 
 principal works published by Mr. Bickersteth, and now in print 
 — " A Scriptiu-e Help, designed to assist in reading the liible 
 profitably ; " "A Treatise on Prayer, designed to promote the 
 .spirit of devotion ; " "A Treatise on the Lord's Supper." Of this 
 one portion has been printed separately, entitled "A Companion 
 to the Holy Gommunion ;" "The Ghristian Student, designed to 
 assist in acquiring religious knowledge;" " Christian Truth, a 
 Family Guide to th5 Chief Truths of the Gospel ; " " The Chiet 
 Concerns of Man for Time and Eternity;" "Family Prayers, 
 a course for eight weeks, with occasional prayers ; " "A Prac- 
 tical Guide to the Prophecies;" "The Signs of the Times in 
 the East, a Warning to tlie West ; " " The Promised Gloiy of 
 the. Church of Christ ; " " The Restoration of the Jews to their 
 own Land;" " A Treatise on Baptism;" "Family Exposition 
 of the Epistles of St. .John and St. .Jude ; " " The Divine Warn- 
 ing to the Church." " The Ghristian IJearer" is not at present 
 in print ; and the following works were adopted or compiled by 
 him from older writers — "The Testimony of the Reformers, 
 from Granmer, .Jewell, Bradford, and others ; " " The Book of 
 Private Devotions, chiefly compiled from the works of the 
 Reformers;" "Practical Reflections on the Four Gospels, an-anged 
 as a Warning ; " " The Ghristian Fathers of the First and Second 
 Cen-turies;" "A Manual of Prayers for the Young;" " Chris- 
 tian Psalmody, a collection of psalms and hymns for public wor- 
 ship." Besides the above, Mr. Bickersteth published many 
 single sermons, ad<lresses, &c., which were afterwards collected 
 into a volume, entitled " Occasional Works." — .1. W. D. 
 
 BICKERSTETH, Hknhy, Baron Langdalc of Langdale, bro- 
 ther of the preceding, was born on the 18th of .June, 1783, at Kirk- 
 by-Lonsdale, Westmoreland. After being educated at the gram- 
 mar school of his native place, he was apprenticed to his father, 
 and became medical attendant to the earl of Oxford, by whom he 
 was encouraged and enabled to enter Gains college, Cambridge, 
 where in 1808 he graduated as senior wrangler. He was called 
 to the bar on the 22d November, 1811, became a king's counsel 
 and a bencher of the inner temple in 1827, and filled the office 
 of treasurer in 1836. He rose to great eminence in the equity 
 courts, to which he confined his practice, and, in spite of his 
 liberal opinions, was offered by Sir Robert Peel in 1835 a seat 
 on the bench, which, however, he gratefully declined. In 183G 
 he was appointed to succeed Lord Cottcnham as master of 
 the rolls, was called to the house of peers and sworn a privy 
 
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 conncil'.or — a conil.'in:ition of honours rarely gained at the 
 same time, and more remarkable as his lordship had taken 
 no active part in politics, and had neither sat in the house of 
 commons, nor held the office of legal adviser to the crown. In 
 1850, on the resignation of Lord Cottenham, the great seal was 
 more than once otfered to Lord Langdale, but he declined the 
 honour, his intense application for many years to the reform of 
 the court of chancery rendering repose indispensable. A month 
 before his death, he took farewell of the court and the bar, with 
 the esteem of the whole legal profession, and the character of an 
 able and high-minded judge He died at Tunbridge Wells, on 
 the 18th of April, 1851, in the 68th vear of his age. — W. M. H. 
 
 BICKKRTON, Sir Rich.\rd Hlssey, an Enghsh admii-al, 
 bom in 1759, entered the na\y in 1771. He served with 
 great distinction imder Lord Keith, who made special mention 
 of his services in a letter to the admiralty. Sir Richard was 
 appointed vice-admiral in 1805, one of the commissioners of the 
 admiralty in 1807, governor of Portsmouth in 1812, and general 
 of the royal marines in 1819. Died in 1832.— J. T. 
 
 BICLARA, JoAS DK, a Portuguese historian, who lived in 
 the sixth century. For the purpose of studying the Greek and 
 Latin classics he went to Constantinople, and vied in fame with 
 tlie renowned Isidore of Seville. He was bishop of Girone about 
 the year 589. His chronicle of the events which happened in 
 the Roman empire and Spain, from Justin to Reccaredes, is 
 interesting and precise. His death is not recorded. — A. C. M. 
 
 BIDDLE, John, called "the Father of English Unitari- 
 anism," because he, in modem times, set up the form of worship 
 so designated, was bom at Wotton-under-Edge in Gloucester- 
 shire in the year 1615. Ha^-ing received a classical education 
 at the grammar school of his native place, he was, in 1632, 
 admitted of Magdalene hall, Oxford, where he continued his 
 studies wth increasing success and reputation. After well dis- 
 charging for a few years the duties of college tutor, he accepted, 
 1641, an appointment as master of the free school of St. Maiy 
 of Crypt, in the city of Gloucester. Having adopted antitrini- 
 tarian opinions, he was summoned before the magistrates to 
 answer to a charge of heresy. In self-defence he drew up a 
 paper, entitled " Twelve Arguments," &c., m which he assailed 
 the established doctrine touching the Deity of the Holy Spirit. 
 A copy of this falling into the hands of the parliamentary com- 
 mittee, then sitting at Gloucester, the author was, by theii- 
 authority, committed to gaol while labouring iinder a dangerous 
 fever. From this confinement he was relieved on giving security 
 for his appearance when it should please the p.arliament to send 
 for hini. During the inter\-al, which lasted about six months, 
 he was visited by the celebrated Archbishop Usher, who, passing 
 through Gloucester, heard of his case, and endeavoured, but in 
 vain, to convince him of his errors. Shortly afterwards Mr. 
 Biddle was summoned to appear at Westminster, and examined 
 before a committee of the house of commons, appointed for the 
 purpose. Avowing that he did not hold the common view of 
 the Deity of the Holy Spirit, he was detained in prison for six- 
 teen months without any issue. At length he addressed himself 
 to Sir. H. Vane, who was a member of the committee, beseech- 
 ing him either to procure his discharge or bring the matter to a 
 crisis. Vane laid his case before the house. The only conse- 
 quence was, that the offender was committed to the custody of 
 one of its officers, under the restraint of which he remained for 
 five years. The question in debate having been discussed in the 
 assembly of di\-ines, then sitting in Westminster, Biddle, in self- 
 defence, published his " Twelve Arguments." By order of the 
 house of commons the piece was called in, and ordered to be 
 bnrnt by the common hangman. Not deterred by the penalty, 
 Mr. Biddle published, in 1G48, two tracts intended to justify his 
 opinions. Suppressed by the civQ power, these essays were 
 reprinted in 1691 in the first volume of the Old Socinian Tracts. 
 On its first publication it excited indignation, and the death of its 
 author was demanded confoiTnably to the then existing law. 
 The demand was made nugatoiy by the spirit of the age. Crom- 
 well adopted a milder policy towards religious dissentients. 
 Though still in custody, Mr. Biddle was, on security being given, 
 pemiitted to visit a friend in St.iffbrdshire. Ere long he was 
 recalled, and placed in more rigorous confinement. At length, 
 in 1651, the p.arliament ha\-ing passed a general act of oblivion, 
 he was restored to full liberty. Repauing to London, he formed 
 a small religious society who met in private every Lord's-day for 
 worship, and the study of the scriptures. For about three years 
 
 the congregation pursued their course in quiet, except that they 
 received a visit from Dr. Gunning, aftenvards regius professor 
 of di%'inity at Cambridge, who entered with its minister into a 
 warm and lengthened disputation. Near this time Mr. Biddle 
 published several small pieces, chiefly translations from the 
 writings of the Polish unitarians. Another piece translated by 
 him was Przipcovius' Life of F. Socinus He also put forth 
 two tracts in the catechetical form, explanatory of his views of 
 Christian doctrince — one entitled "A Scripture Catechism," the 
 other " A Brief Scriptxu-e Catechism for Children." The appear- 
 ance of these tracts occasioned alarm. A series of propositions 
 was selected and condemned by a vote of the house of commons. 
 The author, called to its bar, was committed close prisoner to 
 the Gate-house. Again set at liberty he resinned his eflbrts. 
 The result was a fresh incarceration ; and now death seemed 
 inevitable. The protector, however, interposed, and sent the 
 obnoxious free-thinker into banishment in the Scilly islands, 
 October 5, 1655. There for nearly three years he employed his 
 leisure in biblical studies. In the year 1658 he was, by Cfom- 
 well's favour, set free, and restored to his friends. Resuming 
 his instmctions, he fell into fresh trouble. Five months after 
 his return the protector died. Having avoided the dangers 
 which immediately ensued under Richard Cromwell, Biddle 
 suffered at the hands of the government of Charles II. On1;he 
 1st of June, 1662, when he and some of his friends were met 
 for divine worship at his own lodgings, they were seized and 
 carried before Sir Richard Brown, by whom they were com- 
 mitted to prison. After some delays, each of the hearers was 
 fined in twenty pounds, and Mr. Biddle himself in one hundred, 
 with the additional penalty of imprisonment until the fine was 
 paid. His release soon came. In five weeks, through the 
 noisomeness of the place, he contracted a disease of which he 
 died on the 22nd of September, 1662.— J. R. B. 
 
 BIDDLE, Nicholas, an American man of letters, though 
 better known as an able but unlucky financier, was bom at 
 Philadelphia, January 8, 1786. Having studied law, he was 
 admitted to practise at the bar in 1804. But his tastes were 
 literary and diplomatic, rather than professional ; and he, there- 
 fore, gladly accepted an offer made to him at this time by General 
 Armstrong, then just appointed American minister to France, 
 to accompany him to Paris as his private secretary. After per- 
 forming the duties of this office for a year or two, and spending 
 some time in travel upon the continent, he visited England, and 
 became for a while secretary to Jlr. Monroe, then American 
 minister at London. In 1807, Mr. Biddle returned to America, 
 and nominally resumed practice at the bar, but really gave most 
 of his time to the more attractive pursuits of letters and politics. 
 He took part in editing the Portfolio, then the only literary peri- 
 odical of much note in the L'nited States, and one which exer- 
 cised a happy influence upon the growth of American literature. 
 He also prepared for publication the nan-ative of Lewis and 
 Clarke's exploration of the country between the ^Mississippi and 
 the Pacific ocean. His literary training was thorough, and his 
 taste was pure. The controversial letters respecting the currency 
 and the banks, which he had occasion to vrnte in the later part 
 of his life, were prepared with singular vigour, neatness, and 
 elegance of style. At the request of Mr. Monroe, he compiled a 
 volume, pubUshed by the authority of congi-e.ss, and called the 
 '"Commercial Digest," beuig an abstract of the commercial regu- 
 lations of foreign countries. About 1819 Mr. Biddle was appointed 
 one of the directors of the United States bank, Mr. Langdon 
 Cheves at the same time succeeding to the presidency of that 
 institution. The affairs of the bank, through prerious misma- 
 n.agement, were then in a disordered and even perilous condition ; 
 but the rigour and financial ability of its new president restored its 
 prosperit}', and enlarged its credit and its influence over the course 
 of trade and exchange throughout the countn-. AMien Mr. Cheves 
 resigned in 1823, Jlr. Biddle was chosen his successor. General 
 Jackson, then in the height of his power and popularity as presi- 
 dent of the United States, became prejudiced against the insti- 
 tution, thuiking that its directors meddled with politics, and 
 obstructed the course of his administration. With chai-acteristic 
 tenacity of purpose and fimmess of will, he labom-ed for its over- 
 throw, and carried the democratic party along \rith him in the 
 midertaking. With equal resolution and energy, and wielding a 
 great financial power, which could make itself felt in every comer 
 of the Union, Mr. Biddle strove to sustain it ; and, in the unequal 
 stmggle, he certainly impaired the resources of the institution,
 
 even if he did not make an unscrupulous use of them. A bill, 
 renewing the charter of the bank, which had passed both houses 
 of congress, was negatived by President Jackson in 1832. The 
 public deposits were removed from the bank the following year; 
 and in 1S34, the lower house of congress resolved, by a consi- 
 derable majority, that the bank ought not to be rechartered, and 
 the public deposits shoidd not be restored. It thus became 
 apparent that its affairs, as a national institution, must be wound 
 up. But Jlr. Biddle was not yet foiled ; with characteristic 
 pertinacity, he succeeded, by the payment of a very large bonus, 
 ill inducmg the state of Pennsylvania to recharter the bank, 
 with an increased capital, under the name of the United States 
 Bank of Pennsylvania. This step was an injudicious one ; 
 lieing now a mere state bank, without the power of establishing 
 branches in the other states, it could no longer use its immense 
 capital with advantage, or control the domestic exchanges. It 
 was thus tempted to incm* extraordinary risks, and to engage in 
 enterprises not of a legitimate banking character. It embarked 
 in cotton speculations and stock -jobbing. The consequences were 
 inevitable; its capital was wasted, and in 1841, it sunk into hope- 
 less insolvency. Mr. Biddle had retired from its management 
 two yeai-s before ; but the calamity was generally unputed to 
 his rash councils and injudicious proceedings, and he felt keenly 
 the consequent loss of reputation. He died at his country scat 
 near Philadelphia, February 27, 1844. Though his career was 
 an unfortunate one, in private life he was nuich esteemed, and 
 his public spirit and commanding talents might have earned for 
 hun an enviable name, if circumstances had not made him a 
 leader in a deplorable controversy. — F. B. 
 
 BIDET, Nicolas, a French agTicuIturist, was born in 1709, 
 and died at Rheinis on 15th February, 1782. He wrote a work 
 on the " Natm-e and the Culture of the Vine." 
 
 * BIDING, MosKS Israel, a French Hebraist, professor of 
 oriental languages at Metz, was born in 1775. He studied at 
 the university of Frankfort-on-the- Maine. His principal work, 
 an exposition of the principles of Hebrew reading, with remarks 
 on pronunciation, pimctuation, &c., was published at Metz in 
 1816, under the title of " Seplier ini Lamikra." 
 
 BIDLOO, GoDEFROY, a celebrated Dutch anatomist, was 
 bom at Amsterdam on the 12th ^larch, 1G49, and died at 
 Leyden in April, 1713. He early showed a great taste for 
 literature, but was prevailed upon by his parents to follow 
 the profession of medicine. After serving for some time as 
 a surgeon in the army, he obtained a chair of anatomy at 
 the Hague in 1G88, and six years afterwai-ds was invited to 
 I.eyden, where he became professor of anatomy and surgery. 
 About this period he was also appointed physician to William 
 III. of England. Bidloo appears to have enjoyed a much higher 
 reputation than he deserved. His surgical works are of little 
 value, but he has the merit of having combated the celebrated 
 hypothesis of the existence of a nervous fluid, in which he 
 exhibited much talent ; proving that the nerves are not hollow, 
 as was supposed, but that they consist of a gi-eat number of 
 minute filaments. His most important work, entitled " Ana- 
 tomia corporis humani," &c., which was jmblished at Amsterdam 
 in 1585, contains one hundred and five folio plates, executed by 
 G. de Lairesse, and these, although by no means perfect, con- 
 stitute the principal merit of the work, which was long prized 
 on their account. These plates are also remarkable for another 
 reason. Cowper, the celebrated English anatomist, is said to 
 have obtained three hundred copies of them from a Dutch 
 printer, and having altered the name, and attached ditlerent 
 explanations to them, published them in his own name. Bidloo, 
 justly resenting this conduct, laid claim to the plates in a tract 
 entitled, " Guliehnus Cowper citatus coram tribunali societatis 
 Anglia;," published at Leyden in 1700. He was also the 
 author of several other works upon various subjects of anatcuny 
 and surgery, and a volume of his opuscula appeared in 1715, 
 two years after his death. — W. S. D. 
 
 BIDLOO, Lambert, a Dutch botanist, brother of the preced- 
 ing, practised as an apothecary at Amsterdam. He published 
 a catalogue of medicinal plants cultivated in the Amsterdam 
 garden, and a treatise " De Re Herbaria." 
 ^ BIDOU, Fran(j(>is Simon, a French physician, born at 
 I'xos, Eure, on the 9th August, 17G9. After purstnng his 
 studies for some time in his native country, he visited Edin- 
 Urgh and Dublin in 1790, and on his return to France attended 
 the medical courses in the university of Paris, where he took his 
 
 doctor's degi-ee in 1805. He died in Paris on the 8th August, 
 1824. His only works are, " Dissertatio Medica de febro 
 generatim," 1805, and " Reflexions Pratiques sur les Maladies 
 de la peau appelees dartres," Paris 1821. — W. S. D. 
 
 BIDWILL, John Carne, a successful botanist, was the son 
 of James G. Bidwill, a merchant of Exeter. He examined 
 particularly the botany of New Zealand and Australia, and con- 
 tributed many important plants to the gardens and herbaria of 
 Britain. He was appointed commissioner of crown lands at the 
 Wide-bay district ; there he continued to prosecute his botanical 
 pursuits. His name is commemorated in Sir William Hooker's 
 Araucaria Bidwifli, the bmiya-bunya tree of north-cast Aus- 
 tralia, the seeds of which are used as food by the natives. He 
 died in 1853, at Tinana, in the 38th year of his age, of a disease 
 brought on by his exploring exertions. — J. H. B. 
 
 BIE, Adrian de, born in 1594, pupil of Wouter Abts, and 
 Schoof, painter to Louis XIII. , master of Abts. He was bom 
 at Lierre, and studied six years at Rome. He died about 1G40, 
 leavmg a son who wrote a poem on the painters. His colour 
 was so delicate, that he frequently painted on jasper, agate, 
 porphyiy, and gold plate, as Abts had done before hun. He 
 painted miniatures and figures for cardinals, &c. His best work 
 is the pictm-e of St. Eloy, the patron of goldsmiths at St. Gomer, 
 Lierre.— W. T. 
 
 * BIEDENFELD, Ferdinand Leopold ICael Freiheer 
 VON, a German novelist and miscellaneous writer, was bom at 
 Karlsruhe in 1788. From 1811-14 he held an oflice in the 
 administrative service of Baden, and afterwards was manager of 
 various theatres. His writings are very numerous. — K. E. 
 
 * BIEDERMANN, Friedrich Karl, a distinguished Ger- 
 man writer, was bom at Leipzig, September 25, 1812. After 
 having studied philosophy in his native town and at Heidelberg, 
 he began lecturing at Leipzig, and was appointed professor 
 extraordinary in 1838. The liberal opinions, however, which he 
 professed, both in his lectures and writings, soon involved hun in 
 a contest with government. In 1845 legal proceedings were 
 instituted agamst him, and though he was acquitted, yet he was 
 no longer allowed to lecture on political subjects. In 1848 
 he was elected a member of the Frankfort national assembly, 
 where he acted as one of the secretaries, and afterwards was 
 chosen one of the vice-presidents : he seceded from the assembly 
 on May 26, 1849. He then became a deputy to the Saxon diet, 
 and resumed his lectures until 1853, when he was again prose- 
 cuted and dismissed from oiSce. He now removed to Weimar, 
 where he undertook the management of the Weimarische Zeitung. 
 His principal works are — " Fundamental philosophic;" " Wisscn- 
 schaft und Universitat," 1838 ; " Die Deutsche Philosophic von 
 Kant bis auf unsere Zeit," 2 vols. ; " Vorlesungen iiber Socialis- 
 mus und sociale Fragen ;" " Erumerungen aus der Paulsldrche," 
 &c. Among the periodicals which he originated and edited de- 
 serve to be noticed, the Deutsche Monatschrift fiir Literatur 
 und offentllches Leben, started in 1842, and afterwards trans- 
 formed into a quarterly in 1846, under the title Unsere Gegenwart 
 und ZuJcunft; the Ilerold, a weekly paper, 1844-47. — K. E. 
 
 BIEDERMANN, Jacob, a German Jesuit, professor of philo- 
 sophy at Dillingen, and afterwards of theology at Rome, was a 
 native of Suabia. He wrote " Comico-Tragedia; Sacrai X.," 
 and a number of other works equally dull. Died in 1639. 
 
 BIEDERMANN, Joh.vn Gottlieb, a le:u-ned German, bom 
 at Naumbm-g in Saxony, in 1705. He was appointed rector of 
 the academy of his native town in 1741, where he applied him- 
 self diligently to the duties of his office, deliverhig many learned 
 discourses, several of which, especially those on the Hebrew lan- 
 guage, were afterwards collected, and published in Leipzig in 
 1751, under the title of " Otia Literaria." He was transferred 
 from the rectorship of his own town to that of Freiberg, where 
 ho continued till his death in 1772. He also wrote several works 
 on numismatology, and on other subjects. — J. F. W. 
 
 BIEDERMANN, John Godfrey, a German, author of "A 
 Genealogy of the Counts of Franconia," Erlangen, 1746. 
 
 BIEIIL, Charlotte Dorothea, a Danish authoress of 
 considerable reputation, born 2nd June, 1731, at Copenhagen, 
 where her father was secretary of the Society of Arts. Her 
 works are very numerous, principally designed for the stage, and 
 consist of comedies, tragedies, operas, oratorios, &c. She wrote 
 also four volumes of nioral tales, " Moralske Fortadlinger," and 
 three volumes of letters ; besides which, she translated Don 
 Quixote from the Spanish into her native tongue, and various
 
 other works from the Italian, French, and German. She died 
 unmamed in 1788. — M. H. 
 
 BIEL, Gabkiel, a German philosopher and theologian, born 
 at Spires in the middle of the fifteenth centur}'; died 1495 ; was 
 first celebrated as a preacher at JIayence, then became professor 
 of theology at Tubingen, and finished his days as a monk. He 
 was an able defender of nominalism in the form in which it had 
 been propounded by Occam. — J. D. E. 
 
 BIEL, JoiiANN CiiuisTiAN, a German theologian, bom at 
 Brunswick in 1G87 ; died in 1745. He published a great num- 
 ber of dissertations in the " Thesaurus Antiq. Sac." of Ugolin, 
 and a Lexicon for the Septuagint, 3 vols., 1779-80. 
 
 BIELEFELD, Jacob Fkikdrich Frkhierr von, was 
 bom at Hamburg in 1711, and died at Altenburg in 1770. He 
 was superintendent-general of the Prussian universities under 
 Frederick II., and left several valuable works (written in French) 
 on politics and literature. We mention : " Progi-es des Alle- 
 mands dans les sciences, les belles-lettres et les arts," Berlin, 
 1752 ; " Institutions Politiques ; " " Les premiers traits de 
 I'erudition universelle," Leyden, 17G7. — K. E. 
 
 BIELER, Bexjamin, a German theologian and antiquarian, 
 born in Saxony, 1693; died 1772 ; author of several antiquarian 
 dissertations. He also wrote " Historische Nachricht von allerley 
 geheimen Dingcn der alten und neuen Juden," &c., 1743 — a 
 curious account of certain Jewish mysteries. 
 
 BIELINSKI, Franciscus, a Polish nobleman of large pro- 
 perty, whose love of science, and especially of natural history, 
 induced him to show great kindness to those who were engaged 
 in scientific studies. He published two works by Lucas Gor- 
 nicki, at his own expense, and collected a large library in his 
 residence at Warsaw. In 1710 he became staroste of Marien- 
 burg, and in 1732 was made a knight of the order of the white 
 eagle, vaivode of Culm, and marslial of the crown. In 1733 he 
 accompanied King Stanislas to Danzig, but after the capitulation of 
 that city, submitted to Augustus III., who afterwards made him 
 grand marshal of the crown. He died about 1766. He trans- 
 lated into Polish, a dissertation by Rousset on the claims of the 
 Polish crown to Livonia and Courland. — W. S. D. 
 
 BIELKE, RoDOLPii de, sometime Danish minister at the 
 court of Berlin, was descended from an ancient and noble family 
 in Denmark, and early entered the diplomatic service of bis 
 country. In due course of time he became secretary of legation 
 to the Danish mission in England. He filled this post in cir- 
 cumstances peculiarly trying. In the year 1848 all Germany 
 was revolutionized, and the dominions of the king of Denmark 
 were invaded. Denmark was poor and weak; Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein was powerful, with all Germany at its back. While the 
 Danes prepared to repel the invaders at home, the ingenuity of 
 their diplomatic agents abroad was taxed to the uttermost to 
 combat the subtleties of the Schleswig-Holstein emissaries. None 
 rendered his country more signal sei"vice than Rodolph de Bielke. 
 It is to his indefatigable efforts that Denmark owes the formation 
 of a proper judgment in England on the merits of the Schleswig- 
 Holstein quarrel, the intricacies of which at one time threatened 
 to weary the patience of Europe. On the death of Count Revent- 
 low, M. de Bielke was appointed charg^-d'affaires in England, 
 and shortly afterwards was appointed Danish minister at Berlin. 
 Bielke was injured by an imprudent use of some German baths, 
 and while travelling in Italy to recruit bis health, was seized by 
 cholera, and died at Padua, July 26, 1855. — (^GentlemarCs 
 Mar/azine; Hardwicke's Annuftl Biography for 1856.) — E. W. 
 
 BIELKE, Stenon Charles, a Swedish botanist and chemist, 
 was born at Stockholm in 1709, and died on 13th July, 1754. 
 He travelled much in Sweden, Russia, and other countries, and 
 was instrumental in advancing the sciences and arts in Sweden. 
 He devoted much attention to grasses, and was instramental in 
 publishing Floras of the Wolga, Tartaiy, and ^[oscow. — J. H. B. 
 
 * BIELOWSKI, A., born in Galicia in 1806, a poet of con- 
 siderable reputation, and cultivator of the national literature 
 of Poland. He has also published some translations and biogra- 
 phies, and is a contributor to several periodicals. 
 
 BIELSKI, JIaktix, a Polish historian, born in 1495, who 
 wrote several works, chiefly on histoiy, which are held in esti- 
 mation. His principal work is the '"Kronica Polska," which 
 contains the histoiy of Poland from the earliest period down to 
 the year 1576. It is valued for its authenticity. It would have 
 been continued, but that he died the same year. He was con- 
 sidered an elegant and accurate writer. 
 
 BIELSKI, Joachim, followed in the steps of his father, Mar- 
 tin, and continued the "Kronica Polska" down to the year 1597, 
 when he published the whole in folio. He also wrote some poetical 
 pieces. The historical chronicles of the two Bielskis are still 
 the standard authority on Polish history. — J. F. W. 
 
 BIENAISE, Jeam, a French surgeon, born at Mag^res in 
 1601, was received as master in surgery at the college of Saint- 
 Come, and soon acquired much celebrity as a bold and successful 
 operator. He was the inventor of some valuable iiistmments. 
 He accompanied Louis XIV. in two of his campaigns in 
 Flanders. Bienaise died in 1681, leaving behind him a noble 
 fortune, of which be bequeathed one portion to the poor, and 
 another to the college of Saint-Come, for the estabhshment of 
 two professorships, one of anatomy, and one of sui'gery. His 
 only work, which was not published until seven years after 
 his death, is entitled " Les operations de Chirurgie, par une 
 m^thode courte et facile ;" in it he not only gives excellent 
 du'ections for the performance of many surgical operations, but 
 condemns the numerous absurdities which prevailed in his time 
 in the treatment of such cases. — W. S. D. 
 
 BIENNE, John, in Latm Benenatus, a French printer, bom 
 at Paris; died 1588. He continued the impression of Demos- 
 thenes commenced by his predecessor, Worel, and published it 
 in 1570, folio. He also pubhshed the New Testament in Syriac 
 and Greek, with a Latbi interlinear translation. 
 
 BIENVILLE, Lemoyne de, the second royal French gover- 
 nor of Louisiana, and the founder of New Orleans, was bom at 
 Quebec about 1680. He was the tenth of the eleven sons of 
 Charles Lcmoyne, Baron Longucil, of Canada, all of whom held 
 commissions in the royal service, and acquired distinction. 
 DTberville, the thu-d son, is best known as the leader of the 
 expedition which rediscovered the opening of the Mississippi 
 into the Gulf, and founded the French colony of Louisiana. 
 Bienville took the name of an older brother, who was killed by 
 the Iroquois Indians. In 1699 he accompanied DTberville and 
 Sauvolle, another of the brothers, in the expedition which carried 
 out from France about two hundred emigrants, to establish a 
 new French colony near the mouth of the IMississippi. Serigny 
 and Chateaugue, two other brothers from this remarkable family, 
 joined them not long afterwards. Young as he was, Bienville 
 was much trasted by his brother, and his talents and bravery 
 often rescued the feeble colony when it seemed on the verge of 
 extinction. The settlement was begun at Biloxi, but was soon 
 removed to the west side of Mobile river, near where the city of 
 Mobile now stands. The death of Sauvolle left Bienville, when 
 he was but twenty years old, in temporai-y connnand of the 
 colony ; and he continued to be its ruling spii'it, often its actual 
 governor, for more than forty years. The story of his life would 
 be the history of Louisiana for that period. In 1716 he led an 
 expedition against the Natchez Indians, and finished the fort, 
 Rosalie, which DTberville bad begun sixteen years before : upon 
 the site of this fort is the present city of Natchez. He founded 
 the city of New Orleans in 1718, and moved his head-quarters 
 thither four years afterwards. His last military achievement 
 was to lead an expedition against the Cliickasaw Indians in 1739, 
 in which he was successful, and concluded a treaty with theni. 
 Then he retumed to France under unmerited censure from the 
 government, which he had faithfully and admirably seiTcd for a 
 long tune. He died in Paris, March 7, 1767, and was buried 
 with military honours at Montmartre. — F. B. 
 
 BIEREY, GoTTi.oB Benedict, a musician, was born at Dres- 
 den in 1772, and died in Breslau in 1840. He studied compo- 
 sition and the pianoforte under Weinlig, in the canton of his 
 native town, till he was seventeen years of age, by which time 
 he had also acquired some skill on the violin and oboe. He was 
 then engaged for five years in various itinerant companies, but 
 had no settled appointment till 1794, when he became a mem- 
 ber of a permanent operatic establishment, which gave perfor- 
 mances in rotation at three or four of the secondaiy German 
 cities. He retained this situation till 1806, having in the course 
 of these twelve years produced with success his first two operas, 
 " Der Schlaftrunk" and " Rosette." He now went to Vienna, 
 where in 1807 he brought out " Wladimir," a serious opera, 
 which gained for him such distinction that he was offered the 
 advantageous post of music director at Breslau, upon which he 
 entered the following year. He had the moral and technical 
 qualifications for a good conductor, and he fulfilled his office 
 with singular honour to himself, and great advantage to the art.
 
 BIE 
 
 581 
 
 DIG 
 
 In 1812 Bierey founded the Singing Institute at Breslau, 
 which continued in operation till 1816. He was appointed 
 director of the opera in this city in 1824, but resigned the 
 office in 1828, together with that which lie had first filled 
 in Breslau, and which he had discharged for twenty years 
 with always increasing esteem. The personal vexations which 
 induced him to give up his engagements, induced hun also 
 to quit the city, and it was not till after he had spent several 
 years in Leipzig and other places that he returned to Breslau. 
 He wrote manv operas and operettas, which obtained univer- 
 sal popularity throughout Gemiany. They are distinguished 
 by facility and comic power, are praised likewise for marked 
 character, especially shown in the concerted pieces, and are 
 admii'ed for their spirited instrumentation. He composed also 
 some sacred music for Prince Nicolas Esterhazy in Vienna, and 
 for the funeral of Weiss in Leipzig, which is of a higher order ; 
 besides several pieces for orchestra and military hands, and a 
 great number of songs for one and for several voices. A book 
 on thorough bass by Bierey is well considered. — G. A. SI. 
 
 BIERKANDER, Claud, a Swedish agriculturist, was bom 
 in 1735, and died in 1795. While he devoted attention to the 
 cultivation of plants, he officiated as a clergyman at Gref back. 
 He was a member of the Stockholm Academy, and wrote on the 
 transpiration of plants, on their diseases, on generation, on the 
 opening of flowers, and on the stations of plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 BIERLING, CoxHAD Friedkicii Eknst, a German theolo- 
 gian, was born in 1709, and died in 1755. He was professor 
 of logic, metaphysics, and theology at Rinteln. His principal 
 work is entitled "Fasciculus Dissertationum Logicarum." 
 
 BIERNACKI, Alois Prosper, a Polish agriculturist, was 
 bom at Kalisch in 1778. He studied at the imiversity of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder. After acquiring a knowledge of agricul- 
 ture by travelling, he retm'ncd to Kalisch, and established a 
 model fai-m. During the Polish revolution in 1831, he occupied 
 the important office of minister of finance, and on the fall of 
 Warsaw he emigi-ated to France. — J. H. B. 
 
 BIERNATZKI, Joseph Ciiristoph, a Gennan author, was 
 born at Elmshom in Holstein, 17th October, 1795, and died at 
 Friediichstadt, 2d 5Liy, 18-10. He was a poor miinster of a 
 still poorer parish on the small island of Nordstrandishmoor, one 
 of the so-called Halligen on the western coast of Holstein, of 
 which he has given a graphic description in his novel " Die Hal- 
 lig, oder die Schiffbriichigen auf dem Eilande in der Xordsee." 
 His collected works, consisting of sermons, tales, and poetr)', were 
 published at Altona, 1844, in 8 vols. — K. E. 
 
 BIESilANN, Gaspaud, a German Jesuit, professor of rheto- 
 ric and moral philosopliy at Dusseldorf, and author of " Lux 
 Oratoria, seu brevis et clai-a totius Ehetoricae Compositio," was 
 bom in 1639. 
 
 BIESTER, JoHANX Erich, bom at Liibcck, 17th Novem- 
 ber, 1749 ; died at Berlin, 20th Februaiy, 1816, was one of the 
 originators and editors of the BerUnlsche Monatsschrift, and 
 keeper of the royal library at Berlin. — K. E. 
 
 BIET, Antoixe, a French missionary, bom in the diocese of 
 Senlis in 1620, accompanied to Cayenne a body of colonists sent 
 to occupy that island in 1652 by a company who had obtained 
 the cession of it from government. The expedition was unsuc- 
 cessful, hunger and disease having cut oft' the greater part of the 
 colonists; and Biet returned to Paris, where he published an 
 interesting account of Cayenne in 1664. — J. S., G. 
 
 BIET, Ren£, abbe of Saint Leger de Soissons, was bom at 
 the close of the seventeenth centuiy. He gained a high reputa- 
 tion as an antiquary, and his dissertation, " Pour la veritable 
 epoque de I'etablissement fixe des Francs dans les Gaules," was 
 awarded the prize by the Academy of Soissons, and was pub- 
 lished in 1736. It is to be regretted that Biet did not continue 
 his researches on this subject, which have, however, been taken 
 up and completed bv Frerel and Augustin Thien-y. Biet died 
 on the 29th of October, 1767.— J. F. W. 
 
 BIETT, Laurent, a French physician of Swiss extraction, 
 was bom at Scamf in the canton des Grisons, in the year 1784, 
 but when four years of age, removed with his father into France, 
 and resided at Clemiont-Ferrand. He studied for a time at 
 the hospital of Clemiont, and aftenvards went to Paris, where 
 he attached himself to Alibert. He took his doctor's degree at 
 Paris in 1814, and in 1815 was appointed visiting physician at 
 Jhe hospital Saint-Louis, at that time filled with soldiers suffer- 
 ing from typhus ; in this dangerous position he boldly did his 
 
 duty, althaugh no fewer than eleven of his pupils were struck 
 down by the ten-ible disease with which they were thus brouglit 
 in contact. In 1819, being appointed phj'sician to the abovo 
 hosiiital, liiett made a journey to England, where he attended the 
 hospitals of London, and on his retmn, organized the treatment 
 of out-patients at the hospital Saint-Louis, by which he was 
 enabled to succour no less than six thousand patients annually. 
 Under his directions, the baths of the hospital became a model 
 establishment, and he also gave clinical lectures upon the diseases 
 of the skin, which furnished at all events the foundation of 
 the Traitti des Maladies de la peau, published by his pupils, 
 Cazenave and Schedel. Biett himself wrote little, except some 
 articles in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Jledicales, and in the 
 Dictionnaires de Jledecine, and some papers in various medical 
 journals. He died in Paris on the 3rd JIarch, 1840. — W. S. D. 
 
 BIEVRE, N. Mar£chal, marquis de, born at Paris, 1747 ; 
 died at Spa, 1789, grandson of Georges Marechal, first surgeon 
 of Loins XIV. In 1783 he puWished the comedy of the " Se- 
 ducteur :" it was thought to be above his powers, particularly 
 as another of his theatrical pieces, " Les Reputations," was 
 whoUy unsuccessful. The scandal of the day ascribed the latter 
 play to one of the royal family, who thought it beneath his dig- 
 nity to write poeti-y in his own name, and from this cause was 
 led to use Bievre's. After Bievre's death, a tragedy of his, 
 " Vercingetorixe," was published, and also " Les amours de 
 I'ange Lure et de la fee Lure." Bievre's "Vers de Societe" are 
 very lively and spirited. — J. A., D. 
 
 BIEZELINGEN, Christian Jans van, was bom at Delft 
 in 1558, and died in 1600. He was a portrait painter. When 
 the gi-eat liberator of the Low Countries from the Spaniard, 
 William the Silent, prince of Orange, was assassinated, he was 
 employed to take the portrait from the coi-pse, which he did with 
 gi-eat truth.— W. T. 
 
 BIFFI, Giuseppe, a musician, was bom at Cesano in Lom- 
 bardy towards the middle of the sixteenth century. He was 
 engaged as maestro di capella to Cardinal Andrea Battori, and 
 relinquished this appointment for that of court composer to the 
 duke of Wurtemburg, but returned to Italy in 1580. He was 
 a very voluminous composer of madrigals, of which he printed 
 many sets in Gemiany and Italy. — G. A. M. 
 
 BIFFI, John, an Italian poet, born at Milan in 1464. He 
 opened a school at Milan for the children of the nobility, and 
 devoted himself principally to the study of poetiT. 
 
 BIGARI, ViTTORio, a historical painter of Bologna. His 
 works are still seen on palace and church walls. Date un- 
 known. There w\as also a Serafino Bigari equally obscure. 
 
 * BIGELOW, .Jacob, an American botanist residing in Boston. 
 He has published "American Medical Botany," and a Flora of 
 Boston ; the dates of publication extend from 1817 to 1840. 
 
 BIGEON, Louis-Francois, a French physician, born on 
 the 14th September, 1773, at La Villee, Cotes du Nord, 
 studied at Rennes and Paris, at the latter of which places he 
 received his doctor's degi-ee in 1799. In 1805 he estabUshed 
 himself at Dinan, where he continued to reside, and practised 
 his profession until his death, which took place on the 26th 
 April, 1848. His writings are rather numerous, but many of 
 them relate principally to epidemics which visited the district of 
 Dinan at various times. His inaugural dissertation is entitled, 
 "Essai sur I'hemoptysie essentiellc," and was partially reproduced 
 in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Jledicales. In 1812 he 
 published " Observations qui prou\ent que Tabus des rem^des 
 
 . . . est la cause la plus puissante de notre destraction 
 prematur^e," in which he opposes the too frequent use of blood- 
 letting and aperients. A second edition of this work ajipeared 
 in 1845, under the title of " Medecine Physiologique," &e., 
 containing an analysis of nearly all the writings of the author, 
 most of which have a similar tendency. In 1812 Bigeon also 
 published " Recherches sur les proprietes Physiques chimiques et • 
 medicinales des eaux de Dinan," of which waters he was inspec- 
 tor, and a second work on the same subject in 1 824. — W. S. D. 
 
 I5IGGE, Arthur, a horticulturist, died in 1848. He was 
 curator of the Cambridge botanic garden, became a fellow of the 
 Linnean Society in 1815, and contributed jiapers to the Trans- 
 actions of the Horticultural Society of London. 
 
 BIGI, Angelo, a Florentine painter, scholar of his brother, 
 Francis, whom he survived. He flourished about 1530. 
 
 BIGI, Felix, generally called " Felix of the Flowers," flour- 
 ished in Verona about 1780. Ho was born at Rome ; but a
 
 BIG 
 
 5S2 
 
 BIG 
 
 homicide drove the man of the fierce heart, but gentle trade, to 
 Verona, where he worked for the nobles and for half the rich 
 men of Europe, who could not appreciate a flower till it was 
 painted. — W. T. 
 
 BIGIO, Fkaxcia, born at Florence in 1445. Painted archi- 
 tecture, animals, and landscapes. Died in 1525. 
 
 BIGLAND, Joiix, an English miscclhineous writer, born at 
 Skirlaugh, in the county of York, followed the profession of a 
 schoolmaster until his fiftieth year, when the success of his first 
 work, " Reflections on the Kesurrection and Ascension of Christ," 
 detemiined liis adoption of a literary career. He published a scries 
 of popular works on subjects of history, geogi-aphy, and natural 
 history; particularly "Letters on the Study and Use of Ancient 
 and Modem History," and an account of his native county, York- 
 shii-e, fonning the IGth volume of the Beauties of England and 
 Wales. Died at Finningley, near Doncaster, in 1832. — J. S.,G. 
 
 BIGLAND, Ralph, garter king-at-anns, born at Kendal in 
 Westmoreland, 1711; died in London, 1784. He collected, in 
 the course of his antiquarian researches, materials for a history 
 of Gloucestershu-e, which have been in part published by his son. 
 
 BIGLIA, AxDKEA, an Italian historian, died at Sienna in 
 1435. He was distinguished for his profound knowledge of 
 Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; author of "Historia rei-um Medio- 
 lanehsium," inserted by Jlm-atori in the 19 th volume of Scrip- 
 tores rerum Italicarum. 
 
 * BIGNAX, AxNE, a masculine poet, notwithstanding his 
 christian name; bom at Lyons in 1795. Although the French 
 Academy have at four different times crowned his muse with their 
 authoritative approbation, yet he is best kiiown by his translations 
 of Greek poets. As one of the classic school, against which that 
 called the romantic wages implacable war, M. Bignan only enjoys 
 favour in the rather fiistidious circle which eschews innovation as 
 a sort of sacrilege against the gods of Greece, dressed up in the 
 flowing wigs of the artificial period of the old monarchy. A 
 volume of evangelical poems from his pen has been much admii-ed 
 for purity and elevation of sentunent. — J. F. C. 
 
 BIGNE, Makguerix de la, a French theologian, doctor of 
 the Sorbonne, and successively canon of Bayeux, and deacon of 
 the church of Mans, was bom at Bemieres-le-Patiy in 154G, 
 and died at Paris in 1590. He resigned his canonry in 1581, 
 in consequence of a dispute which arose between him and his 
 bishop at the council of Kouen. His principal work is a collec- 
 tion of the Fathers, under the title of " Bibliotlieca vet. Patrum 
 et antiq. script, ecclesiasticorum Latine." — J. S., G. 
 
 BIGNES, Gaces de la, bom about 1428 in the diocese of 
 Bayeux in Normandy. Brought up by the Cardinal Desprez, he 
 took orders, was chaplain to Philippe de Valois, John II., and 
 Charles V. Falconry was the gi-eat amusement of Philippe de 
 Valois and John, which led to Bignes' " Roman des Oyseaulx." 
 The poem is an essay on fiilconry, in which he describes mi- 
 nutelv the modes of rearing and training the falcon. — J. A., D. 
 
 BIGNICOURT, Suiox de, bom at Rheims, 1709; died at 
 Paris in 1775; held some judicial office at Rheims; wrote 
 poems, " Poesies Latines et Fran^-aises." His French poems 
 possess the chami of ease and simplicity. 
 
 BIGNON, Jeax Paul, grandson of Jerome, bom at Paris, 
 16C2 ; died 1743 ; preacher and Ubrarian to the Idng, member 
 of the French Academy, &c., author of some memoirs. He was 
 one of the most zealous patrons of Touraefort, who gave the 
 name Bignonia to a newly-discovered American plant. 
 
 BIGN(_)N, Jekome, bom at Paris in 1590, was early distin- 
 guished by the variety of his acquirements. When only ten 
 years of age, he pubUshed " Chorogi-aphie ou Description de la 
 Terre Sainte ; " and three years afterwards two other works ; one 
 a treatise concerning the antiquities and curiosities of Rome, and 
 another on the election of the popes. These publications intro- 
 duced him to the acquaintance of the most considerable persons 
 ' in France. Hemy IV. heard of his reputation, desired to see him, 
 and appointed him page of honour to the dauphin, afterwards 
 Lewis XIII. His advancement was rapid. lie had prodigious 
 success at the bar. He was made in 1G20 advocate-general of 
 the gi'and council, councillor of state, and advocate-general in 
 the parliament. Cardinal Richelieu did not like him ; yet, such 
 was the lionour in which Bignon was held, that in 1042 the 
 former appointed him chief librarian of the royal libraiy. He 
 was amiable and devout. He died April 7, 1656, a rare example 
 of precocious learning not out-li\-ing its reputation. — T. J. 
 
 BIGNON, Louis Pieuke Euouakd, a celebrated French 
 
 statesman, diplomatist, and political writer, bom at Meilleraye in 
 1771 ; died in Paris, 1841. In 1797 he entered the public ser- 
 vice as secretary of legation in Switzerland; in 1799 held the 
 same rank in the Cisalpine republic; in 1800 was transfeiTcd to 
 Berlin, where, in 1802, he was promoted to the rank of charge 
 d'affaires. As minister plenipotentiary he resided at Cassel in the 
 years 1804-6, and was mainly instnimental in organizing the 
 Confederation of the Rhine. After Napoleon's entrance into 
 Berlin, he was appointed administrator-general of Prussia, and 
 in this difficult situation he eamed, by his perfect integrity and 
 popular manners, the affectionate respect of the people, as well 
 as the confidence of his master. In 1809 he was named to the 
 still more difficult post of administrator-general of Austria, and 
 in Vienna rendered himself as popular as he had been in Berlin. 
 He was afterwards transfeiTed to Warsaw, where, with a short 
 interval, occasioned by his being summoned to Wilna by the em- 
 peror, he managed the affairs of Poland during the last three 
 years of French domination in that countiy. During the Hun- 
 dred Days he was under- secretaiy for foreign affairs, and towards 
 the end of that eventful epoch, foreign mmister. In 1817 he 
 was elected to the chamber of deputies, and in 1837 raised to 
 the peerage. Among his works are two which he undertook in 
 obedience to a testamentaiy request of Napoleon — " Histoii'e de 
 France depuis le 18 bramaire jusqu'a la paix de TUsitt," and 
 " Histou-e de France sous Napoleon depuis la paix de Tilsitt 
 jusqu'en 1812." — J. S., G. 
 
 BIGNONI, Mario de, an Italian capuchin, born at Venice, 
 published in 1649-1651, three volumes of sermons, which pro- 
 cured him considerable celebrity, and entitled him to a place in 
 the Index Expui'gatorius. They were translated into Latin by 
 Bruno Neusser. Died in 1660. 
 
 BIGNOTTI, VixcEXZo, an Italian theologian, canon of the 
 cathedral of his native town, Vercelli, and author of a collection 
 of miscellaneous poems, was bom in 1764, and died in 1831. 
 
 BIGOT, Emery, a leamed Frenchman, born at Rouen in 
 1626 ; died in 1689. He inherited a considerable fortune and 
 a valuable hbrary, to which he made ample additions. He 
 discovered at Florence the Greek text of the Life of Saint 
 Chiysostom, by Palladius. This work he published at Paris 
 in 1680, with some other Greek pieces. He inserted in it 
 Chrysostom's famous letter to Casarius, but was obliged by the 
 censors to suppress it, from the ai'guments that might be deduced 
 from it against the doctrine of transubstantiation. His pub- 
 lished coiTespondence contains a mass of valuable information 
 and curious literar}' details. — J. G. 
 
 BIGOT, Guillal'jie, born at Laval, 1502. He was the 
 son of Jean Bigot. It would appear that he was bom with teeth, 
 an inconvenience that was near ending in his death, the result 
 of some local superstition on the subject. His nm-se, with thirteen 
 other persons resident in the house with her, died of the plague, 
 and all fled with fear from the strange infant, who sm'vived the 
 calamity. He was exposed on the highway, and rescued from 
 death by the accident of his father passing m that direction. 
 The life which was thus saved was, when the boy came to adult 
 years, near having a more sad temnination. His morals and his 
 education were neglected, and he fell into vice and crime. With 
 ditficulty he escaped the officers of justice, for some offence aris- 
 ing out of a drunken frofic. Disease and distress awoke him to 
 a sense of his degradation, and he now gave himself to unremit- 
 ting study. He may be described as self-taught, as from school 
 he brought little more than the rudiments of Latin, and he now 
 acquired, without a master, the knowledge of Greek, of the phi- 
 losophy of the period, its medicine, its astronomy, astrology, &c 
 Some mischief was done him with the king of France, to whom 
 he was represented as an Aristotelian. " What is that ?" said 
 Francis ; and the reply was given, that Aristotle preferred aris- 
 tocracy as a fonu of government to monarchy. This and some 
 other reasons made Bigot think GeiTnany a better countiy hi 
 which to push his fortunes than France ; and straightway he 
 went to Tiibingen to teach philosophy. He and his brother pro- 
 fessors quaiTelled on the class of theological topics, on which men 
 have been quarrelling ever since, and our hero's chair at Tiibingen 
 became no easy chair. He went to Bale in 1530 ; he did not 
 linger there long. Padua sent him an invitation to hold a 
 professorship, but the " maladie du pays" now assailed him, 
 and he returned to France to estabhsh a school of philosophy at 
 Nismes ; but at this time a domestic affliction occmTcd which 
 embittered the rest of his days. Bigot was man-ied — had two
 
 clau"'liters, and liad some private property in tlie district, where 
 h'? hoped to pass the evening of his hfe in tranquillity: he 
 i.ited his birthplace for the last time, in order to make some 
 iirann'ements for this purpose, but on his return had to hear a 
 sad story of his wife's infidelity. Her paramour was a music- 
 master. Bigot's servants were so indignant at the injury and 
 insult, that the wretched man sutfered at their hands the fate of 
 Abelard. This incident was the subject not only of vexatious 
 litif'ation, which harassed Bigot for many a long year in the 
 civU courts, but was also the subject of criminal proceedings, 
 which might have terminated in his conviction and execution. 
 His fears, even after tlie danger was over, still for ever brought 
 the scaffold before his imagination. In his " Christianna Philo- 
 sophiaj Pnclndium " he repeatedly adverts to his calamities. In 
 one passage he speaks of the ingi-atitude of his country, which he 
 is determined to leave for ever: — " The stars," he says, " promise 
 that I shall die in a distant land, and they point distinctly to 
 the north." He removed to Jletz, and regarded himself as by 
 this movement aiding to fulfil the prediction. Some Latin and 
 some French verses of his are preserved. The date of his death 
 is unknown ; the place is also unrecorded ; we are therefore 
 iuTiorant how far the event verified his astrological calculations. 
 — Lnnrelot Bmjle. — J. A., D. 
 
 BIGOT, Vincent, a French Jesuit missionary among the 
 Penobscot Indians towards the close of the seventeenth century. 
 He had great influence over the Abenaki tribe, and was employed 
 by Denonville to retain the savages as allies of France against 
 the English. He was domesticated among them, gave them 
 religious instruction, accompanied them in their warlijce expedi- 
 tions, and was a leader of their councils. Some of his adven- 
 tures, sufficiently marvellous, were related by him personally to 
 Charlevoix, from whom we learn them. — B. C. 
 
 BIGOTIER, in Latin Bigotherius, Claude, a French poet, 
 born at Treffort, lived in the sixteenth century. He wrote in 
 Latin, and was professor of rhetoiic at Lyons. 
 
 BIHAPJ LOL, contemporary with Kabir, one of the most 
 ''istinguished Hindoo writers. He has been called the Thomson 
 f India. Author of a poem entitled " Fat-Sui." 
 BILDERBECK, L.-Fe, baron, a French romancist and 
 <li-amatic writer, bom at Wissembourg, Alsace, lived about the 
 end of the eighteenth and the commencement of the nineteenth 
 ( ontury. Author of " Achmet, or Blaternal Ajnbition," several 
 iiulodramas, comedies, vaudevilles, &c. 
 
 BILDERDYK, William, was born in Amsterdam in 1756, 
 and would have the world to believe that he was descended from 
 the ancient counts of Taysterband, but the world only laughed 
 at his pretensions. He turned out, however, to be something 
 better — an accomplished scholar, and a poet of considerable 
 merit. While a youth at the university of Leyden, he was 
 remarkable for ardour in his studies and the extent of his 
 knowledge, especially in languages, and for his love of poetry. 
 Ill his twentieth year he won the prize of the Literary Society of 
 Leyden, for the best poem on the subject of the influence of 
 poetry upon government, and the following year he obtained two 
 other prizes. The "Romance of Elius," published in 1778, 
 ' tablishod his reputation, and was desei-vedly admired, both for 
 ' ^ style and imagery. This was followed by a translation of the 
 ' I'.ilipus Tyrannus of Sophocles, and some fugitive pieces in rhyme 
 •ind l)lank verse. The society proposed in 1780 a question upon 
 the relations of poetry and pliilosophy, and the advantages of the 
 "oe to the other. On this, too, Bilderdyk won the first prize, 
 ind subsequently enlarged and published his essay. He now 
 went to the Hague, and commenced the profession of avocat, but 
 his devotion to the house of Orange forced him to leave his native 
 land when Pichegru entered it, and so he retired to Germany, 
 whence, after two years, he came in 1800 to London, where he 
 delivered lectures on poetry, and translated into Dutch some of 
 the poems of Ossian, and published several poems. When Louis 
 Bonaparte ascended the throne of Holland, Bilderdyk having 
 come to Amsterdam, was favourably received by the king, wlio 
 made him a member of the institute he was then foundiiig, with 
 a pension. This for a wliile alleviated the trials of tlu! poet, who, 
 despite his industry and reputation, was scarcely ai)le to prociu'c 
 a livelihood. But his good fortune was but short, for on the 
 abdication of Louis he lost his pension, and falling under the 
 suspicion of the government he fled from Amsterdam, and after 
 passing from place to place finally settled in Haarlem, where he 
 died on the 18th Dec, 1831. As a poet Bilderdyk holds a high 
 
 place in Dutch literature. His learning was extensive, and there 
 is no description of poetry which he has not attempted. If his 
 genius was not of the highest order, he has the merit of hainng 
 written carefully and elegantly. The purity of his style, and the 
 harmony of his compositions, are the more to be valued for the 
 difficulty of the language in which he wrote. Bilderdyk was 
 twice married; his second wife, Catherine Wilhelmine, was herself 
 no mean poetess, and wrote several pieces, in conjunction with 
 her husband, and two tragedies. She died at Haarlem, April 
 16th, 1832.— J. F. W. 
 
 BILFINGER or BULFINGER, George Bernard, l.orn in 
 1G93 at Canstadt in Wurtemberg ; died in 1750; a distinguished 
 follower of Leibnitz. His attention was diverted from the study 
 of theology, to which he had at first devoted himself, by reading 
 the writings of Wolf; and after publishing a work of some note, 
 in which he attempted to reconcile theology with the Leibnitzian 
 philosophy, he repaired to the university of Halle, to receive the 
 benefit of Wolf's oral instruction. He was afterwards, through 
 the interest of Wolf, appointed professor of logic and metaphysics 
 at St. Petersburg, and obtained the prize offered by the Academy 
 of Sciences at Paris for the best essay on the cause of weight in 
 bodies. The duke of Wurtemburg, attracted by his fame, recalled 
 him to his native state, and conferred upon him a high office in 
 the government, whose duties he discharged with much ability. 
 His works are not marked by originality, but they are good as 
 expositions of the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolf — J D. E. 
 
 BILGNER, JoiiANN Ulrich, a celebrated German surgeon, 
 was born in 1720, at Chur in Switzerland. In 1711 he was 
 appointed surgeon-in-chief to a new regiment of cavalry in the 
 service of Wurtemberg. He afterwards passed, with his regiment, 
 into the Prussian service, in which he took part in the second 
 Silesian war, and after the peace of Dresden, was left in charge 
 of the wounded at Kesselsdorf. In 1757, having changed his 
 regiment, he was engaged in a campaign in Bohemia, Saxony, 
 and Silesia, and had the care of the wounded after the battles 
 of Prague, Rossbach, and Leuthen, in which arduous duty he 
 acquitted himself with so much distinction, that he was ap- 
 pointed royal surgeon-general in the Prussian army. On the 
 21st March, 1761, he received the degree of doctor of medicine 
 and surgery at Halle, when he sustained a thesis entitled " De 
 membrorum amputatione rarissime administranda aut quasi abro- 
 ganda," in which he insisted upon the possibility and importance 
 of curing wounds without amputation. In his views upon this 
 subject, in which he had been to a certain extent forestalled by 
 some French surgeons, Bilgner met with much opposition ; but his 
 inaugiu'al dissertation, which is regarded as marking an epoch in 
 military surgeiy, was translated into various European languages. 
 Soon after its publication, Bilgner was elected a member of 
 various German scientific societies, and of the Royal Society of 
 London. In 17G2 he received the degree of doctor of philo- 
 sophy at Wittenberg, and was afterwards appointeJ body surgeon 
 to the queen. In 1794 the emperor granted him a patent of 
 nobility, of which, however, he made no use during the short 
 remainder of his life, which ended in 1796. Besides the disser- 
 tation above referred to, Bilgner published several works upon 
 militaiy surgeiy, some of which attracted much attention. Of 
 these the most important are — -"Instructions in Surgery in Field 
 Hospitals," Leipzig, 1773, and " Surgical operations in the Pms- 
 sian Field Hospitals from 1756-1763," Berlin, 1763. — W. S. D. 
 BILHUBER, Joseph Fuiedric ii, a German physician, born 
 at Aurach in 1758, studied at Tubingen, where he took liis 
 degree in 1779. He was at first pliysician to the town of 
 Vayhingen in Wurtemberg, but removed in 1791 to Ludwigs- 
 burg, where lie died in April, 1793. His writings consist of 
 " Dissertatio inauguralis de magnesia cnula et calciiiata," pub- 
 lished at Tubingen in 1779, and a "Collection of obsen'ations 
 upon the Rot of cattle and sheep," Tiibingen, 1791. — W. S. D. 
 BILINTANI, PoMi-EY, a Venetian theologian and poet of 
 the first half of the 16th centuiy. He acconi]ianiod Charies V. 
 in several of his campaigns, and celebrated his triuni]ihs in a 
 poem often cantos, entitled "Carlo Cesare V. Africano," tScc. 
 
 BILIVERT, Giovanni, a Florentine painter between 1576 
 and 1614. He was a pupil of Cardi (called LigotiJ, and in his 
 eclectic manner ])atcbed on to his merit the grand upholsteiy 
 colour of Paul Vernnese and the free grace of Santo da Titi. 
 He painted some large church pieces in fresco and oil ; but his 
 greatest work was the " Chastity of Joseph," in the gallery at 
 Florence. — W. T.
 
 BILL, Robert, a noted English mechanician, who devoted, 
 considerable talent and an independent fortune to the furtherance 
 of the mechanical arts; born in 1754; died in 1827. On liis 
 recommendation the admiralty were induced to substitute iron for 
 wooden casks in ships destined for long voyages, and by his 
 advice, also, an attempt was made to introduce iron masts, but 
 not with like success. He exerted himself greatly to overcome 
 the prejudices which at first existed against lighting by gas. One 
 of his latest projects was to render, by a process which he was 
 conducting with success in one of the government dockyards 
 when he died, the most common wood as hard and durable as 
 mahogany and other rare timbers. — J. S., G. 
 
 BILLARD, Chaki.es-Miciiel, a French physician, born at 
 Pelonaille, near Angers, 1800. The taste for the observation 
 of nature which he manifested during his youth, induced his 
 aunt, under whose care he was brought up, to enter him, in 
 1819, as a student of medicine at the school of Angers, from 
 which he went to complete his studies at Paris. In 1825, 
 whilst a house pupil hi one of the hospitals of Paris, he 
 published a valuable work, entitled "Traite de la membrane 
 mnqueuse intestinale dans I'e'tat sain et dans I'etat morbide," con- 
 taining researches upon the pathological anatomy of the stomach 
 and intestines. In the same year he brought out a French trans- 
 lation of Thompson's Elements of Chemistry. In 1826 he pub- 
 lished a new edition of Chevreul's Precis de I'art des accouche- 
 ments, to which he added a " Histoire des Vices de conforma- 
 tion du fcetus." In 1828, on his return from a journey through 
 England and Scotland, BiUard published his most important 
 work, entitled " Traite des Maladies des Enfants nouveau nes et 
 ii la mamelle," &c., of which a second edition appeared in 1833. 
 In the same year, 1828, he received his doctor's degree, and 
 returned to Angers, where he translated Lawrence's Lectures on 
 the Diseases of the Eyes, published in Paris in 1830, and was 
 continuing his active and laborious career, when he was carried 
 off by pulmonary consumption in 1832. — W. S. D. 
 
 BILLARD, Etienne, born at Nancy ; died in 1785. An 
 unsuccessful dramatic writer, remembered for his eccentricities, 
 which are amusingly described by Grimm. — (Grimm's '■^Corres- 
 pondence" 2 partie, torn. 2.) 
 
 BILLARD (de Courgenay), Claude, a native of the Bour- 
 bonnais, died in 1618, aged about sixty. Billard was brought 
 up in the household of the duchess du Retz, introduced at 
 court, and became private secretary of Queen Marguerite de 
 Valois. He wrote several tragedies, and an epic poem entitled 
 " L'Eglise Triomphant." The poem, in 13,000 verses, is still 
 in manuscript. His " Catalogue of Bibliotheque Richelieu" is 
 of more interest than his poems. — J. A., D. 
 
 BILLARD, Pierre, a French theologian, priest of the ora- 
 tory, and author of a celebrated blast against the Jesuits, entitled 
 "La Bete a sept tetes," 1693, was born at Ernee in Maine, in 
 1653, and died in 1726. 
 
 BILLAUD-VARENNES, Jean Nicholas, one of the most 
 utterly repulsive of the French revolutionists, was born in 1762 
 at Rochelle, became an advocate, and settled in Paris as a 
 man-ied man shortly before the Revolution. He was an active 
 member of the commune for some time, but first starts out into 
 a fearful fame by his share in the September massacres. He 
 did much to get them up ; and while the wholesale murder was 
 going on, Billaud stood among the corpses thanking the assassins 
 in the name of liberty, promising them rewards, and urging 
 them to continued atrocities. Shortly after, when a member 
 of the national convention, he voted for the death of the king 
 with the majority, and was of the few who disgraced them- 
 selves by voting against the king's having legal assistance. 
 Afterwards Billaud was made one of the committee of public 
 safety, and distinguished himself among the most terrible of the 
 terrorists. At Robespierre's fall he tried to save himself by 
 turning against him, but in vain. He was tried and banished 
 to Cayenne. Thence he escaped to Mexico, became a Domhiican 
 monk, relapsed into a revolutionist there, was again banished, 
 and found an asylum in Haite, where Petion, the governor, 
 made him his secretary. On Pction's death, his successor 
 turned Billaud adrift, upon which he wandered to Philadelphia, 
 where he died in 1819. He published from time to time many 
 writings now forgotten. — -J. S. S. 
 
 BILLAULT, Auguste-Adolphe-Marie, a French juris- 
 consult, born at Vannes, Movbihan, 12th November, 1805. 
 After studying the law at Rennes, he practised as an advocate 
 
 before the tribunal of Nantes. Having devoted much attention 
 to questions connected with the internal communications of the 
 comitry, he was in 1838 admitted a member, and appointed 
 secretary of the grand commission of railways. He subsequently 
 entered on a political career ; and after the revolution of 1848 
 was elected member of the constituent assembly. After the 
 2nd December, 1851, having become a partisan of the imperial 
 dynasty, he was elected to the corps legislatif, and became presi- 
 dent of that body.— G. M. 
 
 BILLAUT, Adam, better known as jMaster Adam, born at 
 Nevers, where he died in 1662. His parents, Pierre Billaut and 
 Jeanne More, were natives of the village of St. Benin-des-Bois 
 in Nivernols. He obtained some local reputation for his verses. 
 In 1637 he went to Paris, brought by a law-suit, and was given 
 a pension by the duke of Orleans. Billaut was a cai-penter. 
 " He was," says Voltaire, " wholly ignorant of literature, but 
 worked in his shop at making verses." Some of his verses ai-e 
 still popular. He was called " Virgil ail rabot." Richelieu gave 
 him a pension, a fact of which the proof given is his earnest 
 solicitation for its payment, for his wants could not wait the 
 irregularities of the treasury. Corneille praised him. He pub- 
 lished three collections of poems, calling them respectively his 
 "Nail," his " Wimble," and his " Plane." The prefoces to these 
 volumes are the chief sources of his biogi-aphy. — J. A., D. 
 
 BILLE, Steen Andersen, a Danish admiral and statesman, 
 bom at Assens in Fionie, 22nd August, 1751 ; died at Copen- 
 hagen, 15th April, 1833. He entered as a midsliipman in 1768, 
 took part in numerous expeditions, and in several naval engage- 
 ments, particularly in the battle of Copenhagen in April, 1801. 
 He advanced steadily through the various grades of his profes- 
 sion, and was appointed admiral in 1829. — G. M. 
 
 * BILLE, Steen Andersen, son of the preceding, a Danish 
 rear-admiral and minister of marine, born at Copenhagen, 5th 
 December, 1797. In 1816 he commenced his career, like his 
 father, as a midshipman on board a Danish vessel, but three 
 years afterwards he entei-ed the service of France, and was 
 engaged in sevei'al important expeditions, particularly to Brazil, 
 to the western coast of America, and to the Antilles. Returning 
 to the service of the king of Denmark, he in 1 845 was placed at 
 the head of a commercial and scientific expedition round the 
 world, which he accomplished in little more than two years, and 
 which was attended with very important results. In 1852 he 
 was appointed by that sovereign, rear-admiral, minister of marine, 
 and member of the council of state. He wrote an account of 
 liis voyages of circumnavigation, and various other articles, which 
 were inserted in the Archiv for Sovcesen. — G. M. 
 
 BILLECOCQ, Jean Baptiste Louis Joseph, born at Par's, 
 1765; died 1829; educated at the college of Plessis ; first prac- 
 tised at the bar ; next employed in the public service, in the 
 minist6re des affaires etrangeres ; lost his place in some of the 
 political changes of the day. He outlived the dangers of the 
 Revolution, though connected more or less with a good many of 
 the more violent movements, and with the men most remarkable 
 in the Jacobin clubs. To some of these clubs he had at one time 
 belonged, but retired from them disgusted with their frenzied 
 excesses. In the -worst days he found occupation in literature. 
 One of his works is a translation of Sallust. It would have been 
 difficult for a man to have been so occupied, without seeing in 
 the descriptions of the historian an almost perfect picture of 
 the scenes which were then being acted in Paris. In 1797 he 
 returned to the bar, and was engaged in some very important 
 cases. He defended some of the persons mixed up in the 
 Cadoudal conspiracy. Billecocq, perhaps from old republican 
 feelings, looked with distrust on the imperial government, and 
 kept away from public life. His whole time was given to his 
 professional pursuits and to literature, some attention to which 
 is more easily reconcilable with the duties of a lawyer fully 
 employed in France than in England. On the return of the 
 Bourbons, he declined any higher office than that of maitre des 
 requetes an conseil d'etat. In 1821 and 1822 he was appointed 
 batonnier of the order of avocats. — J. A., D. 
 
 BILLJIREY, Claude-Nicolas, a French physician, born at 
 Besan9on, about the year 1677, became professor of medicine in 
 his native town, where he died in 1759. Billcrey was a learned 
 mathematician and astronomer, and a gi-eat linguist; we are 
 told that he could express himself with remarkable facility in 
 Greek, Latin, Spanish, German, Italian, and English. His only 
 printed works are a "Traits sur la maladie pestilentielle qui
 
 depeuplait la Franclie-Comt^ en 1707," and a "Traite du Re- 
 gime," published at Besan9on respectively in 1721 and 1718; 
 but the public library of his native place contains a manuscript 
 treatise on materia medica from his hand. — W. S. D. 
 
 BILLET, John, of Utrecht, lived at Antwerp in 1662. He 
 painted small figures neatly and delicately. His portrait has 
 been engi'aved by Peter Balten. — W. T. 
 
 BILLI, Jacques de, born at Guise in 1535 ; died at Paris in 
 1581. He was educated in the study of the law, but soon left 
 the pursuit and occupied himself wtli classical literature. He 
 was an abbe, and had large benefices, the revenues of which 
 were, however, but ill paid, owing to the civil wars of the coun- 
 try. He translated Gregory Nazianzen. This work is highly 
 praised ; but Bayle takes some pains to show undeservedly. He 
 published a poem on oiu- Lord's second advent, and " Sonnets 
 Spirituels," which make his name to be still remembered among 
 a host of the French poets. — J. A., D. 
 
 BILLICAN, Theobald, called also sometimes Pillicanus, 
 one of Luther's earliest disciples, and a distinguished German 
 refonner, was born in Billiglieim, in the lower palatinate, near 
 the end of the fifteenth century. His family name was Gerlach. 
 He studied at Heidelberg, and was still residing there when 
 Luther visited the city and university in 1518. Like John 
 Brenz and Erhard Schnepf, his fellow-students, he was deeply 
 impressed by Luther's teaching on that occasion, and from that 
 time was gained to the infant cause of the Reformation. The 
 violent opposition of the university to Lutheranism compelled 
 liim to relinquish his office as an academic teacher in 1522, and 
 he repaned first to Weil, and then to the free city of Nordlingen. 
 In both these localities, he preached with great freedom and 
 power against the coiTuptions of the church, and in the latter 
 city Ms labours were attended with permanent effects. When 
 the sacramentarian controversy broke out, he was at first inclined 
 to side with Bucer and the Strasburg divines, but afterwards 
 attached himself with decision to the party of Luther. In 1535 
 he left Nordlingen, and returned to Heidelberg, where he was 
 allowed for some time to occupy a chair of law, and gave lectures 
 on the Decretals and the Jus Feudale. But on the death of 
 Elector Ludwig V., 1514, he was again driven from his favomite 
 university, and repaired to Marbm'g, where he was appointed to a 
 chair of rhetoric and histoiy ; he died in 1551. His published 
 writings were neither numerous nor important, his principal dis- 
 tinction being that he was the refonner of Nordlingen, one of the 
 imperial cities of Germany. — P. L. 
 
 BILLINGS, Joseph, a navigator of some note, who accom- 
 panied Cook in his last voyage, in which he was engaged in mak- 
 ing astronomical observations. In 1785 he entered the sei-vice 
 of the Empress Catherine II. of Russia, by whom he was intrusted 
 with the command of an expedition fitted out for making dis- 
 coveries in the Northern Ocean, between Siberia and the continent 
 of America. He discovered a number of islands in these mifre- 
 quented seas, and determined the latitudes and longitudes of many 
 places that had been visited, though very imperfectly described, 
 by former navigators. His discoveries were more of geographical 
 than commercial importance, but were highly esteemed by the 
 empress, as contributing to the glory of her reign. — G. M. 
 
 BILLINGSLEY, Sik Henry, a mathematician, born at 
 Canterbmy about the middle of the sixteenth century. After 
 residing three years at the university of Oxford, he was bound 
 apprentice to a haberdasher in London. He acquired a large 
 fortune in business, and became successively alderman and lord 
 mayor of London. His love of science induced him to take into 
 his house an Augustine friar of the name of Whitehead, who, 
 although a man of learning and talent, had been in necessitous 
 circumstances since the suppression of monastic orders by Henry 
 VIII. This friar instructed Billingsley in mathematics, and at 
 his death bequeathed to the luiight his manuscript notes on 
 Euclid. The work which carries Billingsley's name, " The Ele- 
 ments of Geometry of the most Ancient Philosopher, Euclid of 
 Megara, faithfully translated into the English tongue," &c., 1570, 
 embodies these notes, and a prefatory dissertation by Dr. John 
 Dee. Billingsley died in 1606.— J. S., G. 
 
 BILLINGTON, Elizabeth, a singer, was born in London 
 m 1769, and died at her estate, near Traviso in the Venetian 
 temtory, in August, 1818. Her father, Weichsel, a native of 
 Freiberg in Saxony, was for many years principal clarionet at 
 the King's theatre, and her mother was, from 17G5 to 1775, a 
 favomite singer at Vauxhall gardens. She and her brother 
 vol. I. 
 
 Charles (who afterwards gained an honourable position as a 
 violinist) were devoted to the study of music in their earliest 
 years, and both performed, she on the pianoforte and he on the 
 violin, when she was but six years old, on the occasion of their 
 mother's benefit at the Haymarket theatre. Miss Weichsel's 
 master for the pianoforte was Schroter, an esteemed teacher, but 
 her father superintended her practice, and this with a tyrannical 
 severity. She became very distinguished as a player, and showed 
 some ability for composition ; but her natm-al endowment of a 
 fine soprano voice was too great a treasure to be left unculti- 
 vated, and she was placed under the tuition of Thomas Billing- 
 ton, a double-bass player, a singing-master, and a composer of 
 many glees and other vocal pieces, besides some sonatas of 
 merit. When she was but fomteen she made her fii-st appear- 
 ance as a vocalist at Oxford, and only two years later than this 
 her instructor eloped with and married her. Billington obtained 
 an engagement for his young wife at the Dublin theatre, where, 
 to her extreme mortification, a Miss Wheeler, who sang in the 
 same opera with her, was received with more applause than she. 
 In 1786 Mrs. Billington followed her rival to London, in conse- 
 quence of whose previous engagement at Covent Garden theatre 
 she had some ditficulty to make terms for a probationaiy series 
 of performances of twelve nights. She was to have appeared on 
 a Wednesday, but the king, recollectmg her celebrity as a pianist, 
 anticipated the commencement of her engagement by command- 
 ing her performance of Rosetta in Love in a Village two nights 
 earlier. Her success was prodigious, and the management, 
 which had scrupled to affbrd her £12 per week, unhesitatingly 
 agreed to pay her £1000 for the remainder of the season, and 
 to give her a free benefit at its tennination, which hberal terms 
 were increased by a second benefit in consequence of her unex- 
 pected attraction. During this season she studied singing assi- 
 duously with MorelH, and, at its close, went to Paris to take 
 lessons of Sacchini ; returning from which, she reappeared in 
 1787 with increased success. The excellence of Mad. Mara was 
 her constant object of emulation, and she esteemed it the greatest 
 compliment she received, that, when she appeared at the Ancient 
 concerts together with this famous artist, the latter showed 
 some jealousy of her rising rival. A scandalous Life of Mrs. 
 Billington, which caused her great vexation, was published in 
 1791. She retired from pubfic in 1793, and went to Italy to 
 live in seclusion. At Naples, the English ambassador, Sk W. 
 Hamilton, persuaded her to resume the exercise of her profes- 
 sion ; and having sung with gi-eat admiration before the com-t, 
 she appeared in 1794 at the San Carlo in the opera of Inez di 
 Castro, composed for her by Bianchi. The death of her husband 
 by apoplexy, as he was handing her into her carriage to go to 
 the theatre, checked the successful course of her performances ; 
 and, added to this, an eruption of Vesuvius made the Neapohtans 
 believe that the saints were incensed at then- allowing a heretic 
 to sing on their stage. She, however, appeared again, when her 
 remarkable talent triumphed over the popular superstition, and 
 her success was greater than ever. She now fulfilled a succes- 
 sion of brilliant engagements at Venice, Rome, and Milan. In 
 1799 she married Felisini, a handsome Italian adventurer (better 
 known in England by the name of Felisent), who not only squan- 
 dered her extensive earnings, but so grossly ill-treated her that, 
 in 1801, she secretly fled from him in company with her brother, 
 and returned to London. The managers of Drury Lane and 
 Covent Garden theati'cs were now both so desirous to obtain her 
 services, that, after great contention, it was ai-ranged by arbitra- 
 tion for her to sing alternately at the two establishments. She 
 appeared in the old English operas, but introduced in these some 
 of the arias that had been written for her in Italy, and she even 
 exceeded her former attraction. In 1802 she sang with Banti 
 and Mara at the King's theatre, and gained new laurels in the 
 competition, especially from the performance of a duet which 
 Bianchi wrote for a trial of skill between her and Mara. Felisini, 
 taking advantage of the peace, followed her this ye;u- to Eng- 
 land ; but some influential patrons of his wife freed her from his 
 persecution, by obliging him, on the authority of the alien act, to 
 quit the kingdom ; she, however, remitted him a liberal allow- 
 ance during the whole time of then- separation. The three fol- 
 lowing seasons Mrs. Billington was engaged with Grassuai and 
 Bi-aham, and was the original prima donna in the Italian operas 
 Winter composed for this country. In 1806 she produced for 
 her benefit La Clemenza di Tito, in which she sustained the 
 part of Vitellia, this being the first performance of an opera of
 
 Mozart in England. She now left tlie stage, but continued for 
 three years a must successful career as a concert singer. In 
 1809, ha\Tng amassed a competent fortune, and suffering fi-om 
 delicate health, she finally quitted her profession, and never sang 
 again but on one occasion, at a concert of her brother in the 
 King's theatre in 1811. Some years later, however, she reap- 
 peared at a concert of J. B. Cramer, to play a pianoforte duet 
 with him which he wrote on purpose. Her infatuation for 
 Felisini was so strong that, in 1817, she invited him to retm-n 
 to her, when she retii-ed with him to an estate she had purchased 
 while in Italy. Her brutal husband resumed his ill usage of 
 her, and she died of an illness occasioned by a violent blow she 
 received fi'om him. She lost her only child in its infancy, after 
 which, in 1793, she adopted a gu-1 of a year old, who was always 
 considered as her daughter. Haydn, in his diary of 1791, 
 speaks of Mrs. Billington as a singer of genius. Her excellence 
 consisted in the sweetness and extreme height of her voice, and 
 in the brilliancy of her execution ; but notwithstanding her skill 
 as a pianist — from which we might infer a degi'ce of musician- 
 ship rare among singers — .she studied her songs, and especially 
 the florid passages for which she was famous, with the utmost 
 difficulty, and could never sing anything that she had not labo- 
 riously prepared. The chann of personal appearance, if it did 
 not assist in her success, compensated for her want of expression 
 as an actress and as a vocalist. — G. A. M. 
 
 BILLOUET, PuiLirPE, a French Hebraist, a member of the 
 congi'cgation of Saint Maur, and professor of Hebrew in the 
 abbaye of St. Etienne of Caen, was born at Eouen in 1684. His 
 excessive labours in arranging the library of a monasteiy at 
 Orleans, and in preparing the catalogue for that of Guill. Prous- 
 teau, president of the academy of that town, hastened his death, 
 which took place in 1720. 
 
 BILLROTH, JonAXN Gustav Friedrich, a Gennan theo- 
 logian, was born at Liibeck, 2d February, 1808, and died at 
 Halle, 28th ^Slarch, 1836. He wrote — " Beitriige zm- wissen- 
 schaftlichen Kritik der heiTschenden Theologie ;" "Commentar zu 
 den Briefen au die Korinthien ;" " Vorlesungen uber Religionsphi- 
 losophie " (edited by Erdmann), &c. — K. E. 
 
 BILLUAET, Charles Ken£, a French theologian and 
 preacher of some celebrity, born at Revin, Ardennes, in 1685, 
 was professor at the college of Douai, and latterly provincial of 
 the order of Dominicans. Besides some dissertations and Polemi- 
 cal lettere, he pubhshed an immense work on theology, which, 
 recommended probably by the scholastic subtleties in which it 
 abounds, has been much used in Romish colleges, and several 
 times reprinted. The latest edition of the work caixies the title 
 of " Cursus Theologia; Universalis, cum supplemento," Paris, 
 1828. It was originally published at Liege, 1746-51, in 19 
 vols. Billuart died in 1757. — J. S., G. 
 
 BILLY, GoDEFROY or Geoffroy de, bishop of Laon, died 
 in 1612. He pubhshed a number of translations from the 
 Spanish, especially the Prayers and Spiritual Exercises of Luiz 
 of Grenada, 1579. 
 
 BILLY, Jean de, a French theologian, brother of the 
 preceding, bom in Guise in 1530, held in succession several 
 abbacies, but latterly entered the order of the Chartreuse, and 
 became prior of Mont Dieu, and aftei-wards of Bourbon-lez- 
 Gaillon. Besides some translations, he pubhshed " Exhortation 
 au peuple fran9ois pour exercer les oeuvres de misericorde envers 
 les pauvres," 1572. Died in 1580. 
 
 BILLY, Nicolas Aktoine, I'abb^ de, a noted French 
 preacher, priest of the congregation of St. Roch, bom at Vesoul in 
 1753; died at Besan9on, 1825. He took part in the first revo- 
 lutionary movements of 1789, but refused to take the oath 
 exacted of the clergy, and underwent decree of banishment. 
 Besides a volume of sermons, he pubhshed " Le9ons physico-geo- 
 graphiques," &c., 1779. 
 
 BILLY, Ren'£ Tocstain de, a French historian, died in 
 1709. lie transcribed two works, the original manuscripts of 
 which are now in the imperial library, viz., " Recherches pom- 
 I'Histoire de la ville de Sainte Lo ; " " Memoires pour THistoire 
 du Contenin." 
 
 BILOX or PILON, an Armenian historian, bora at Dirag in 
 Armenia in 643 ; died in 711. He was distinguished among the 
 savants of his country, and wrote an abridged liistory of the 
 patriarchs of Armenia. 
 
 BILS, LuDwiG DE, a Dutch nobleman of the latter half of 
 the seventeenth century, who lived principally at Rotterdam, but 
 
 also at Lowen and Hertozenbasch. He studied anatomy with 
 great zeal, and fi-om 1660-16G8, attracted considerable atten- 
 tion from a method which he professed to have discovered, of 
 presen-ing bodies for dissection for a long period, and preventing 
 decomposition. The first notice of this pretended discovei-y 
 appeared m 1658, when Bils offered to communicate his secret for 
 the simi of 120,000 florins, which he had expended in the prepara- 
 tion of forty l)odies. To prevent the discovery of his secret he would 
 not permit any one to enter his dissecting room ; when offered 240 
 florins for this permission, he refused to give it untU he had the 
 cash in his hands. Of his forty prepared subjects, five w-ere pur- 
 chased by the state of Brabant for 2000 florins, and placed in the 
 museum of the university of Lowen. In the course of a few weeks, 
 however, these treasm-es began to decompose, and de Bils could only 
 shake off the imputation of quackery, w-liich then threatened to 
 fasten upon him, by accusing the professors of the university of 
 having placed the preparations purposely in a damp room. He 
 also professed another secret, that of vi\'isection without spilhng a 
 single di-op of blood; this he denominated Anatomia Incruenta. 
 Although undoubtedly a charlatan, L. de Bils appears to have 
 been most dexterous in the dissection of the human body ; in- 
 deed this is admitted even by his most violent opponents. The 
 results at which he arrived were, however, of a singular nature, 
 and liis \iews upon the lacteal system, were in direct opposition 
 to all the opinions entertained by sound anatomists, either before 
 or since his time. According to him the chyle is taken up by 
 the veins of the mesentery, and conveyed by them to the liver, 
 which is the organ in w-hich the blood is prepared. With this 
 he combined some curious notions upon the lymphatic vessels 
 and thoracic duct, and the natm-e of the fluid cont;uned in them; 
 but all these views were overthrown by Thomas Bartholinus, who 
 clearly demonstrated their erroneous nature. De Bils wrote httle 
 or nothing ; the only work bearing his name, " Bilsii inveuta 
 anatomica antiquo-nova," being ascribed to Nicolaus Zas, a sur- 
 geon in Rotterdam, who appears to have acted as a sort of assist- 
 ant to him.— W. S. D. 
 
 BILSON, Thomas, bishop of Worcester, and aftenvards of 
 Winchester, bom in 1536; died in 1616. He was successively 
 fellow of New college, Oxford, master of Winchester school, pre- 
 bendary of the cathedi-al, and warden of the college in that city. 
 A work which he dedicated to Queen EUzabeth, entitled " The 
 True Difference between Christian Subjection and Unchristian 
 Rebellion," was followed, in 1593, by " The Pei-petual Govern- 
 ment of Christ's Church," two treatises which exhibited him in 
 the light of a formidable enemy of the Romish party, and a 
 powerful advocate of episcopacy. In 1596 he was raised to 
 episcopal rank at Worcester, and next year translated to Win- 
 chester. He was one of the managers of the conference at 
 Hampton court, and was co-labom-er w-ith Dr. Smith in rcvisuig 
 the new edition of the Bible.— J. S., G. 
 
 BILSTEIN, JoHX, a learned Jesuit of Belgium, bom at Ver- 
 viers in 1592 ; died in 1663. Besides some pieces in verse, and 
 some translations, he pubhshed " Septem Petitiones Dominica; et 
 Salutatio Angelica," &c. 
 
 BILTIUS, flourished about 1650. He painted game and 
 still life, nets, hunting pouches, and powder-horns on white 
 grounds, as if hvmg up against a wall. — W. T. 
 
 BIMBI, Bartholemew, was a Florentine painter, a pupil 
 of Lorenzo Lippi. He was born 1648, and spent his hfe in 
 copying the dusty velvet of the peach, and the Uving crimson 
 of the rose. — W. T. 
 
 BIMET, Claude, a native of Lyons. He was a surgeon, 
 who pubhshed in 1664 a treatise on osteology in French verse, 
 or rather prose rimce. 
 
 BIMET, Pierre, a French litterateur, bom at A%-ignon, 1687; 
 died in 1760. He first made himself known m the literary 
 w-orld by a Latin poem on physiognomy. He w-as professor of 
 phUosophy at Besan9on, and subsequently at Dole. Author of 
 a learned dissertation " On the Weeks of Daniel." 
 
 BINASCO or BINASCHI, Philip, an Italian poet, bom at 
 Binasco in the duchy of Milan ; died at Pavia'in 1576. He 
 has left a volume of verse, a posthumous w-ork, and some mis- 
 cellaneous pieces. 
 
 BIXCHOIS, GiLLES, or Egide, a musician of the end of the 
 foiu-teeuth centui-y. He is spoken of by Gaffori, Franchmus, 
 Finck, and Tinctor, which last quotes one of his compositions, 
 as a contemporary of Dufay ; and Baini proves this latter to have 
 been a singer of the pontifical chapel in 1380. A commission
 
 was granted in 1347 to Jehan Bincliois of Chaulny, appointing 
 him di'ummer to the town of Amiens. This person may have 
 been a relative of Gilles, who may therefore possibly have been 
 a native of Picardy, especially as this department produced 
 several musicians of distinction at the first dawning of the art. 
 JIartin la Franc, in his poem Le Champion des Dames, written 
 about 1430, eulogizes Binchois and his music, which, taken with 
 other allusions in the same work, and considering the age of the 
 poet when he wrote, suggests that this composer may have lived 
 till 1420 or later, and may have then been in the service of the 
 duke of Burgundy at Dijon. The importance of Binchois rests 
 upon his having been one of the earliest of the race of musicians 
 to whom we owe the first development of the art of counter- 
 point ; for, though there exist compositions for several voices 
 by Adam de la Hale, of the thirteenth century, and though the 
 English canon, Sommor is y commen in, is supposed to have 
 preceded these, no systematic principles appear to have been 
 I'stablished until the period when Binchois wrote.— G. A. M. 
 
 * BINDER, WiLHELM Christian, a distinguished German 
 witer, was bom at Weinsberg, 16th April, 1810. He devoted 
 himself to the study of theology and history at Tiibingen, and 
 was for some time professor of German literature and history at 
 the gymnasium of Biel. He is not less known for liis conversion 
 to the Roman Catholic church in 1845, than for his multifarious 
 literaiy labom's. We quote — " Der Deutsche Horatius," 3rd. ed. 
 1841 ; " Fiii-st Metternich und sein Zeitalter, " 3rd ed. 1845 ; 
 " Der Untergang des Polnischen Nationalstaats," 2 vols. ; " AUe- 
 mannische Volkssagen ;" " Der Protestantismus in seiner Selbst- 
 auflosimg ; " " JMeine Rechtfertigmig und mein Glaube," &c. 
 Since 1846 he edited the Real-Encyclopadie fiir das Katho- 
 lische Deutschland, 12 vols. — K. E. 
 
 * BINEAU, Aknaud, a distinguished living French chemist, 
 was bom on the 18th January, 1812, at Douay-la-Fontaine, in 
 the department of Maine-et-Loire. He is now professor of 
 chemistiy in the Faculty of Sciences, and in the Ecole de la 
 Martiniere at Lyons, and secretary of the class of sciences in the 
 academy of that city. His writings consist entirely of memoirs 
 un various chemical subjects, published principally in the Annales 
 de Chimie et de Physi(iue ; many of them, especially those on 
 ammonia, are of great value. — W. S. D. 
 
 BINEAU, Monsieur, was born in 1805 in the department 
 of Slmne and Loii-e. He was educated at the Ecole Pol}i;ech- 
 nique, on quitting which he was associated to the body of mining 
 engineers, and rose from rank to rank, untU in 1840 he became 
 engineer-in- chief. His published treatise on English railways 
 brought him uito notice, and contributed to his election in 1841 
 as a member of the chamber of deputies for Maine and Loh-e. 
 In his new legislative capacity he took a leading part in all 
 debates relating to concessions of railways and railway manage- 
 ment and finance. In 1848 he was chosen by his native depart- 
 ment a member of the constitutional assembly. He was one of 
 the first who attached himself to the prince-president, who in 
 1849 appointed him first minister of public works. In 1852 
 lie became minister of finance. The principal and characteristic 
 events of his administration were the conversion of the rente in 
 1852, and the loan of 1854. He died Sept. 14, 1855.— E. W. 
 
 BINET, Benjamin. Little is known of him, but that he 
 lived m the latter half of the seventeenth century. He wrote 
 " rilistoire des Dieux et des Demons du Paganisme," Delft, 
 1696. This work is a reply to the Monde Enchantee of Bal- 
 thazar Belcker, and is often attached to copies of that work. 
 
 BINET, Claude, born in Le Beauvoisis, who sought to unite 
 the irreconcilable characters of avocat and poet. The periods 
 of his blith and death are not recorded ; he flourished, as it is 
 called, in 1500, and is described by French biographers as less 
 favoured by Themis than the muses. His verses are as little 
 known now as his pleadings. He published an edition of Ron- 
 sard's works, and translated from the Latin of Dorat, a book, to 
 which he gave the title of " Les Oracles des douze Sibylles," 
 witli portraits of the sibyls, done to the life by Jean Babel ; 
 Paris, 1586.— J. A., D. 
 
 BINET, Etienne, a French Jesuit, successively rector of 
 several important houses of his order, and author of a curious 
 book, "Essai sm- les merveilles de la nature," which in the space 
 of a centmy ran through twenty editions, was born at Dijon, in 
 15G9, and died at Paris in 1639. The "Essai " was published 
 at Rouen in 1621, under the name of Rene Francois. 
 
 BINET, Etienne, a French sm-geon of the early part of the 
 
 seventeenth century, born at Saint Quentin in Picardy. He 
 received his education at the college of Saint Come, in Paris, and 
 afterwards practised for some time in that city. Subsequently 
 he entered the anny, and became sm'geon-major of the military 
 hospitals, in wliich capacity he was present at the siege of 
 Rochelle, where he was killed in 1627 or 1628. His only 
 published work is a collection of the anatomical and surgical 
 writings of Germain Courtain, translated into French, published 
 at Paris in 1612.— W. S. D. 
 
 BINET, Jacques Philippe Marie, born in 1786 ; died in 
 1856, during which year he was president of the Academy of 
 Sciences. Binet was one of the best mathematicians in France; 
 but, like our own Ivoiy, he never wrote any large substantive 
 work. He had an active share in the publication of the !Meca- 
 nique Celeste, and wrote many illustrative memou-s. His know- 
 ledge was greater, however, than his works. Few ever knew so 
 thoroughly, or could appreciate so well, the labour and services 
 of the great geometers of all ages and nations. This faculty 
 has of com-se perished with him. After the Restoration he was 
 director of the Polytechnic school ; but, his politics not suit- 
 ing Louis Philippe, he was dismissed in 1830 and succeeded 
 by Dulong. Binet, we suspect, was an absolutist, and clung 
 through public, as well as personal considerations to the older 
 Bom'bons. We subjoin a list of the most miportant of his sepa- 
 rate memou-s — Memoire sm' la Theorie des axes conjugues, et 
 des moments d'inertie des corps (Journ. de I'Ecole Polytechnic, 
 t. ix., 1813). Memoire sm* une Systeme de formules analy- 
 tiques, et leur application a des considerations geometriques 
 (ibid.) ; Sur la determination analytique d'une sphere tangente 
 a quatre autres spheres (ibid., t. x., 1815) ; Memoii-e sm- la 
 composition des forces et sur la composition des moments (ibid) : 
 Memoire sur I'expression analytique de Telasticite et de la 
 roideur des cordes a doubles courbm-es (ibid.) ; Memoire sm* 
 les piincipes gt5n(5reaux de djmamique (ibid., t. xii.) ; Memoire 
 sur la determination des orbites des plan^tes et des com^tes 
 (ibid., t. xiii.) ; Me'moire sm* la dctermmation des equati(ms 
 indeterminees du premier degi'C des nombres entiers (ibid.) ; 
 Mi'moire sm- les Integrales dcfinies euleriennes, et sur leur 
 application a la thfeorie des suites, ainsi qu'a revaluation des 
 fonctions de grands nombres; Paris, 1840, in 4to ; Memoire 
 sur la Variation des constantes arbitraires dans les Equations de 
 la dyuamique et dans les foi-mules plus etendues (Journ. de 
 I'Ecole Polytechnic, t. xvii.) ; Memoire siu- le developpement 
 de la fonction dont depend le calcul des perturbations des pla- 
 nfetes, presente a I'Academie en 1813; JMt'mou-e sur les Ine- 
 qualit^s seculaires des orbites des planetes (Journ. de Mathe- 
 matiques, t. v.) ; Memoire sur la thdorie des nombres. — J. P. N. 
 
 BINET, Renj!;, a French litterateur, born in 1729 ; died in 
 1812 ; author of translations of Vngil, Horace, and Cicero. 
 
 BING, Isaiah Beer, a French Hebraist, bora of a Jewish 
 family at Metz in 1759, acqidi-ed considerable reputation in early 
 life by translating into Hebrew the Phwdo of Mendelsohn, and 
 afterwards coming to Paris in search of a livelihood, he procured, 
 by some other publications, the friendship of many celebrated 
 men, among others of Mirabeau and Lafayette. He died in 1805. 
 
 BINGHAM, Caleb, a bookseller in Boston, Mass., a teacher 
 of youth, and the compiler of several school-books, which were 
 the principal manuals of instruction in New England schools for 
 many years, was born in Salisbury, Conn., in 1757, and graduated 
 at Dartmouth college in 1782. l<]xcept Dr. Webster's famous 
 spelling-book, of which it is estimated that many millions of 
 copies have been published and sold, no school-books have been 
 more popular in New England than Bingham's "American 
 Preceptor," " Columbian Orator," " Young Lady's Accidence," 
 " Geographical Catechism," &c. Bingham also translated and 
 publislied Chateauln-iand's Atala, and wrote a now-forgotten tale 
 called "The Hunters." He died at Boston in 1817.— F. B. 
 
 BINGHAM, George, an English divine, bom at Melcomb- 
 Bingham in the county of Dorset, in 1715, rector of Pimpern, 
 and of More Cretchel in that county, is the author of the " Ilis- 
 toi-y and Antiqtiities of Dorset." He was a man of a lil)eral turn 
 of mind, amial)le, and exceedingly beloved by his parishioners. 
 His other works are not of nnich importance. He died in 1800. 
 
 BINGHAM.— See Lucan. 
 
 BINGHAM, Sir John, sometime governor and representa- 
 tive of the county Mayo in the Irish parliament, was an officer 
 of high rank on the side of James II. at the decisive battle of 
 Aughrim, and contributed much to the issueof thedaybyexehang-
 
 iiig his colours in the very brunt of the battle. He married a 
 grandniece of Patrick Sarsfield (general in the Irish aiTny of 
 James), and great-granddaughter of Charles II., through his 
 illegitimate daugliter, the sister of Monmouth. ^E. W. 
 
 BINGHAM, Joseph, was bom at Wakefield in Yorkshire, 
 September, 16G8, and entered at University college, Oxford, 1G83, 
 of which college he was elected fellow in 1689. He had a great 
 reputation at the univereity for patristic learning, to which he 
 had devoted himself with great zeal, and on which his reputation 
 IS based. During his residence at Oxford, however, he was 
 accused of unsound teaching as to the theological sense of the 
 word " Person," for which he was censured by the authorities, 
 and party spirit ran so high, that he was forced to resign his 
 fellowship and leave the miiversity. He was then presented by 
 Dr. Radclifte to the rectory of Headbourn Worthy, near Win- 
 chester, where he began his celebrated " Origines Ecclesiastica;, 
 or Antiquities of the Christian Church." His first volume was 
 pubhshed in 1708, and the tenth and last in 1722, a year before 
 he died. In 1712 Bishop Trelawney presented Bingham to the 
 living of Havant, near Portsmouth, which had the eft'ect of im- 
 proving his circumstances ; but all Ids gains and savings were 
 lost in the great South Sea bubble of 1720. Besides his gi-eat 
 work, he wrote " The French Church's Apology for the Chmch 
 of England ;" " A History of Lay Baptism ;" and " A Discourse 
 concerning the Mercy of God." His fame, however, rests upon 
 his " Origines," a masterly synopsis of the discipline, rites, and 
 ceremonies of ancient Christianity. Bingham experienced the 
 fate of many who have done good service, having received but 
 little acknowledgment of his labours from the authorities of his 
 own communion. He died in 1723, leaving a widow and two 
 sons and four daughters. — J. B., 0. 
 
 BINGHAM, Sir Kiciiard, great-granduncle of Sir John, 
 a younger son of Robert Bingham, Esq. of Jlelcombe, county 
 Dorset, was bom in the reign of Hemy VIII. Adopting the 
 military profession, he became not only the most eminent mem- 
 ber of his family, but one of the most distinguished captains of 
 the age in which he hved. At the time of the invasion of the 
 Spanish araiada, he w-as one of Queen Elizabeth's military 
 council. He was instrumental in putting down the insmTcctions 
 in Ireland in 158(5, 1590, and 1593, and was eventually con- 
 stituted by her majesty marshal of tliat kingdom and general of 
 Leinster. He died at Dublin soon after attauiing these honours. 
 His family is now represented by the earl of Lucan. — E. W. 
 
 BINGHAM, William, a wealthy American merchant, and a 
 senator of the United States, was bom in 1752, and graduated 
 at the college in Philadelphia in 1768. He engaged in trade, in 
 which he was very successful. Among his other mercantile 
 speculations he bought in 1793 about two millions of acres of 
 land, in what is now the state of Maine; but though the price 
 was very low, this did not turn out a profitable transaction. His 
 wife was a Miss Willing of Philadelphia, whom he manied in 
 1780. One of his daughters was married to Alexander Biuing, 
 aftenvards Lord Ashburton. He pubhshed two or three pam- 
 phlets, one of which contained some strictures on Lord Shel- 
 bume's commercial policy, and another gave an account of the 
 great tract of land which he had bought in Mame. He died 
 in Bath, England, February 6, 1804, in his fifty-second year, 
 leaving an immense property to his heirs. — F. B. 
 
 BINGLEY, William, an English naturahst, a native of 
 Yorkshire, died at Bloomsbury in 1823. Contrary to the wishes 
 of his friends, who urged him to adopt the profession of law, he 
 took orders after graduating at Cambridge. His principal works 
 are — " Animal Biography, or Anecdotes of the Lives, Manners, 
 and Economy of the Animal Creation," 1802; " Memou-s of 
 British Quadrupeds ;" and " Biograplucal Dictionaiy of Musical 
 Composers," 1813.— J. S., G. 
 
 BINI, Carlo, a Tuscan writer, bom at Leghorn in 1806. 
 His parents were very poor, and Bini was obliged to w-ork hard 
 for his own and their support ; but under every possible disad- 
 vantage he succeeded in educating himself and becoming an 
 esteemed and elegant writer. He was well acquainted with the 
 best English classics, and he had commenced a spirited transla- 
 tion of the writings of Sterne, of whom he was a great admirer, 
 and whose style his own prose much resembles. Like all the 
 intellectual youth of Italy at that day, however, Bini was an 
 enthusiastic patriot, and literature was regarded by him only as 
 a means of furthering the great work of Itahan emancipation. 
 In 1829 Bini, together with Mazzini and Guerazzi, founded a 
 
 journal called the Indicatore, which was suppressed by the go- 
 vernment on account of its liberal tendencies. In 1830 Bmi 
 was already known in the ranks of Italian conspiracy. He was 
 a wwm personal friend and enthusiastic admirer of Joseph Maz- 
 zini, and an active member of the National Association founded 
 by him, called La Giovine Italia (Young Italy). His extreme 
 popularity among all classes ui his native town, enabled him to 
 enrol large numbers of his fellow-citizens as members of that 
 association. In 1833 Bini was arrested as a conspirator, and 
 imprisoned for many months; but on being set free, he continued 
 the work of propagandism with unabated ardour and courage. 
 He died of apoplexy in 1842. A single volume of his prose and 
 poetical writings was collected after his death and published at 
 Leghorn, with a preface addressed to the yoiith of Italy, by 
 Joseph Mazzini. The book is full of beauty and promise, but 
 Bini's incessant political activity and early death prevented him 
 from doing full justice to his great powers. — E. A. H. 
 
 * BINNEY, Thomas, a popidar nonconfonnist minister of 
 London. The date of Mr. Binney's birth we have been unable 
 to ascertain, but he was bom at Newcastle-upon-Tjme, educated 
 at Coward college, and became minister of St. James' Street 
 chape], Newport, Isle of Wight. In 1829 he removed to 
 London, and preached in a hall over the Weigh-house in Little 
 Eastcheap. In 1833 the Weigh-house chapel near London 
 Bridge was built for him, and his first address there attracted 
 considerable attention, as he expressed a rather strong opinion 
 that the influence of the church of England was calculated to 
 be rather prejudicial to the future prospects of its members. 
 I^Ir. Binney is the author of " How to make the best of both 
 Worlds." As a preacher Mr. Binney is unquestionably a man 
 of rare endowment, and in his most favourable times rises to 
 a pitch of chastened energy that may be considered the perfec- 
 tion of pulpit oration. At other times he appears rather care- 
 less and unimpressive. Jlr. Binney proceeded to Australia in 
 1858. 
 
 BINNING, Hugh, a Scotch presbyterian minister, bom in 
 Ayi-shire in 1G27. Two events of his life are worthy of note: 
 he was appointed professor of moral philosophy in the university 
 of Glasgow, when he had only attained his nineteenth year, and 
 was one of the presbyterian ministers who were admitted to dis- 
 pute with the independents in presence of Cromwell. On that 
 occasion he had the honour of seriously disturbing, by soiin' 
 skilful thrusts, the equanimity of the great protector. He was 
 latterly minister of Govan, wiiere he died of consumption, hi- 
 duced by over-exertion In his calUng, in 1G54, at the age of 
 twenty-seven years. His Commentaries on the Epistle to the 
 Romans and his theological tracts were collected and published 
 m 4to, Edinbm-gh, 1735.— J. S., G. 
 
 BINS, Anne de, a Flemish poetess, born at Antwei-p ; died 
 1540. She wrote a poem against heretics that has been trans- 
 lated into Latin; Antwerp, 1C29. 
 
 BINTERIM, Anton Joseph, a Roman catholic priest and 
 writer, was bom at Diisseldorf, 19th September, 1779, and died 
 in 1855. He was educated by the Jesuits, studied at Durcn 
 and Aachen, entered the Franciscan order, and in 1805 was 
 appointed pastor at Bilk, a suburb of Diisseldorf. His principal 
 works are — " Pragmatische Geschichte der Deutschen National- 
 Provinzial-tmd Diiicesansynoden," 7 vols. ; " Sammlimg der 
 wichtigsten Schriften iiber Ehescheidung;" " Denkwiirdigkeiten 
 der Christlichen Kirche," 7 vols.; " Die alte und neue Erzdiocesc 
 Koln," 4 vols. ; " Zeugnisse fiir die Echtheit des h. Rockes zu 
 Trier," 1845, i&c— K. E. 
 
 BICERNER, Eric Jules, a Swedish antiquarian, bom in 
 1G96 ; died 1750. He ti-avelled through the northem provinces 
 of Sweden, and collected historical traditiuns previously little 
 known. He devoted himself particularly to the study of Runic 
 monuments, and has left several valuable works. 
 
 BION, a tragic poet, lived probably in the first century 
 before the christian era. Nothing more is knov\Ti of him. 
 
 BION OF Abdera, a Greek mathematician of the fourth or 
 third centiuy B.C. Diogenes Laertius tells us that, first of all, 
 Bion maintained that in certain regions of the earth the year is 
 divided into one day and one night, each of six months' duration. 
 
 BION. There were two Greek rhetoricians of this name: 
 the one, a native of SvTacuse, vvTote a treatise on rhetoric ; the , 
 other, author of a histoiy named after the nine muses. 
 
 BION was born in Phlossa, which was most probably a farm 
 or small village in the neighbourhood of Smyma, whence he is i
 
 BIO 
 
 589 
 
 BIO 
 
 often called the Smyrneax. He spent tlie best part of his life 
 ill SicOy, and died there by poison. The persons who poisoned 
 hira were punished for their crime. There is considerable diffi- 
 culty in determining the exact period at which he flourished. 
 In the epitaph of Bion written by Moschus, Jloschus describes 
 himself as his scholar. Suidas, on the other hand, calls Moschus 
 the friend of Aristarchus. Bion would thus be about eighty 
 or a hundi'ed yeai-s younger than Theocritus. Manso, how- 
 ever, regards this as improbable ; he supposes Suidas to have 
 confounded two Moschuses, and he places reliance on a few 
 doubtful lines in the epitaph of Bion, which make him contem- 
 poraiT with Asclcpiades, Lycidas, and PhUetas, the second of 
 whom was the friend, and the third the teacher of Theocritus. 
 Bion was styled a bucolic poet. The exact meaning of this 
 term it is not easy to discover, as we find all kinds of poems, 
 i.-scriptive, nan-ative, amator}^, and lyric, arranged under tlie 
 ■ itle Bucolics ; most probably the term was applied to a peculiar 
 -ryle of poetr}', wiitten generally in bucolic hexameters. There 
 i.-^ only one of the poems of Bion now extant which relates to 
 rural life, and one might hesitate to assign even it to what we 
 should regard as pastoral poetry proper. The rest of them are 
 devoted to love — sometimes describing an adventure of Cupid, 
 md sometimes expressing the feelings to which love gives rise. 
 The most famous of them is the " Epitaph of Adonis," in which 
 the poet bewails the death of the darling of Venus. It was 
 probably composed for some festival of Adonis, and seems to 
 . ictnre an Adonis-di\ima. The poems are characterized by great 
 ■L-auty and delicacy of expression, the play of a refined fancy, 
 and the flow of gentle, rather artificial, emotion. The "Epitaph 
 of Adonis" has generally been admired for its exquisite melody, 
 its touching expression of grief, its beautiful imager)^, and its 
 descriptive powers. It is likely that we have lost most of the 
 poems of Bion. They are generally printed along with those of 
 Theocritus. The first to separate them was Adolph Jlekerch, in 
 1565. They are given in the editions of Theocritus by Valcke- 
 naer, Brunck, Gaisford, Schaefer, and Alu-ens. The poems of 
 Bion and Moschus were edited by J. C. F. Manso, Leipzig, 1807, 
 along with a German translation, and various notes and disser- 
 tations. The Greek pastoral poets, Theocritus, Bion, and Mos- 
 chus, were done into English by JI. J. Chapman, M.A., of Trinity 
 college, Cambridge; London, 183G. — J. D. 
 
 BION, Joux, bom at Dijon in 1668. He was for some time 
 incumbent of Ursy in Burgundy, but resigned that charge to 
 undertake the duties of ahnoner to the Superb, a vessel in which 
 protestants were imprisoned. His duty was to attempt the con- 
 version of the prisoners, but their patience imder sufferings 
 touched his heart so effectually that he became negligent of his 
 work, and finally avowed himself a protestant. He went to 
 Geneva, and afterwards resided in England, supporting himself by 
 teaching, until appointed pastor of an English church in Holland. 
 He is the author of a number of works, the most important of 
 which are " Gelation des tourments que Ton fait souffiir aux pro- 
 testants qui sont sur les galores de France," 1708, and a 
 '' Relation exacte et sincere du sujet qui a excite le funeste 
 turanlte de la ville dd Thorn."— J. S., G. 
 
 BION, Nicolas, a French engraver, bom in 1652. We are 
 indebted to liim for an extensive treatise on the construction and 
 uses of mathematical and astronomical instnunents. It has a 
 considerable antiquarian and mathematical interest. 
 
 BIONDI, John Fraxcis, an Italian man of letters, bom in 
 Dahnatia, 1572 ; died at Aubonne in Switzerland, 1644. He 
 was at first in the sendee of the republic of Venice, but after- 
 wards was presented by Sir Henry Wotton, the English ambas- 
 sador, to James I., who gave him a pension, and employed him 
 n several important missions. He wrote a history of the Houses 
 of York and Lancaster. — J. G. 
 
 BIONI, AxToxio, a musician, was bom at Venice in 1698. 
 He was a pupQ of Giovanni Porta, and produced his first opera, 
 'Climene," in 1721. Having composed other works in the 
 interim, he wrote " L'Orlando Furioso" for Baden in 1724 ; he 
 then joined the commonwealth of an Italian opera company, and 
 went to Breslau, where this last work was reproduced in 1725. 
 His office in the company was to play the principal clavecin — 
 there were at that time two employed in the orchestra — at the 
 pcrfomiances ; in addition to the discharge of which he applied 
 himself to composition with singular industry, and produced no 
 less than twenty-one operas in the course of nine years. In 
 1730 Bioni undertook the entire direction of the company; but 
 
 this increased responsibility did not lessen his activity as a 
 composer. On the occasion of a visit to Breslau of the elector 
 of M.ayence in 1731, Bioni wrote a serenade for instruments 
 intennixed with choruses, in acknowledgment of which he was 
 appointed chamber composer to the elector. The company was 
 dissolved at the end of 1733, when he returned to Italy, from 
 which time nothing is known of him, save that he produced the 
 opera of " Gireta" at Vienna in 1738. Bioni's most esteemed 
 opera was " Endimione," written for Breslau in 1727. — G. A. M. 
 
 BIOT, Edouard, son of the celebr.ated physicist, born July, 
 1803; died in March, 1850. Young Biot devoted himself very 
 early to oriental studies ; in the knowledge of the Chinese lan- 
 guage he greatly excelled. We owe him a remarkable work on 
 comets as obsen-ed in China — the most authentic list of the 
 ancient appearances of those bodies that has reached us from any 
 nation. He had a keen interest also in social themes. He 
 left a most interesting critical essay on the abolition of slavery 
 in Europe. The Journal Asiatique contains a large number 
 of excellent memons by him. He was elected an academician 
 in 1847. 
 
 * BIOT, Jean Baptists, a distinguished mathematician and 
 natural philosopher, was bom at Paris in 1774. After studjnng 
 at the college of Louis le Grand, he entered the ai-tillerj- ; but 
 ha's-ing evinced a higher taste for scientific than for military pm- 
 suits, he was sent to the Polytechnic school, where he made 
 such progress in the various branches of knowledge taught in 
 that institution, that he was appointed professor of mathematics 
 in the central school of Beauvais, the principal town in the de- 
 partment of the Oise. There he devoted himself to the study 
 of mathematics ; but finding it difficult to procure the works of 
 the most distinguished authors, he applied to Laplace for per- 
 mission to read the proof sheets of the first volmne of the 
 Mecanique Celeste, which was then publisliing. Laplace gi-anted 
 the request of the young astronomer, who ever afterwards was 
 one of his warmest friends. 
 
 In the year 1800 M. Biot returned to Paris, in consequence 
 of being nominated to the chair of natm-al pliilosophy in the 
 college of France. In 1801 he pubhshed his ''Analysis of the 
 Mecanique Celeste of Laplace;" and, m 1802, his "Analytical 
 Treatise on the Curves of Surfaces of the Second Degree," a 
 work which has gone through many editions. Although meteoric 
 stones had fallen recently in France, at Villefranche, in the de- 
 partment of the Rhone, on the 12th March, 1798, and previously 
 at Barbotan, near Bourdeaux, on the 24th July, 1790, yet the 
 shower of them which fell at Aigle in Normandy, on the 26th 
 April, 1803, caused the most intense interest. M. Biot was 
 deputed by government to inquire into the circumstances of their 
 fall ; and having collected aU the facts, he commimicated them 
 to the muiister of the interior, in an able letter, which was 
 afterwards published in 1803 in the fomi of a memoir, entitled 
 "Account of a Journey into the Department of the Ome, to 
 confirm the fact of a Jletcor observed at Aigle." 
 
 ^^Tien M. Delambre was elected one of the perpetual secre- 
 taries to the Academy of Sciences in 1803, Biot, on the recom- 
 mendation of Laplace, was appointed his successor in the section 
 of geometry ; and since that time he has been one of the ablest 
 and most active members of that distinguished body, of which 
 he has for some years been the dean, or oldest member. Having 
 made the acquaintance of Arago, who had been appointed secretarj' 
 to the obsen-atory, the two philosophers undertook a joint mquiiy 
 into the affinity of bodies for light, and the refractive power of 
 the gases ; and their valuable memou* on tliis subject was pub- 
 lished in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1806. On the 27th 
 August, 1804, M. Biot accompanied Gay Lussac in his celebrated 
 balloon ascent to a height of 13,000 feet, in which they carried 
 with them a variety of apparatus for the purposes of obsen'ation ; 
 but he declined the honour of assisting the distinguished chemist 
 in liis second ascent on the 6th of September, in which he 
 reached the extraordinary height of 23,100 feet. 
 
 While engaged with Arago in their experimental researches, 
 the two astronomers were led to propose to Laplace the resump- 
 tion of the measurement of a degree of the meridian in Spain, 
 which had been interrupted by the death of Mechain. Their 
 plan was sanctioned by the government ; and in the beginning 
 of 1806, the two astronomers, accompanied by the Spanish 
 commissaries, MM. Chaiz and Rodiiguez, left Paris in the 
 beginning of 1806, Spain supplying them with a vessel, and 
 England with a safe passport. M. Ai-ago, hanng established
 
 BIO 
 
 590 
 
 BIO 
 
 his instrument on the mountain Desierto de las Pahnas, Biot 
 accompanied Rodriguez to the island of Y\ica, in the hope of 
 finding a mountain from which the signal on the Desierto could 
 be seen. After leaving Rodriguez at Canipvey, Biot returned 
 to Spain to join his colleagues on the Pyrenees; but he was 
 seized with fever, and obliged to repair to Tarragona for the 
 recovery of his health. In April, 18u7, all the triangles in the 
 island were finished, and the whole chain of triangulation about 
 the end of autumn. Biot went to Paris in April to have a new 
 circle constructed, and afterwards joined his friends in Spain at 
 Valence. After spending the winter in the island of Formen- 
 tara, our astronomer embarked for Spain in a small Algerine 
 ship, leaving with Arago the Spanish vessel and the English 
 safe passport. He was, however, captured by the pirates of 
 Ragusa, from whom he purchased his liberty, and aftenvards 
 landed at Denia, where he performed a sliort quarantine in a 
 ruined chateau that had once been the residence of the dukes of 
 Jledina Coeli. Leaving Arago to complete his labours, Biot 
 returned to Paris and submitted his observations to the board 
 of longitude. — (See Arago's Biography of Distinguished Men ; 
 Autobiog. of Arago, pp. 12-24, for some anecdotes of Biot. 
 London, 1827. See also Biot's notice — " Sur les operations 
 faites en Espagne pour prolonger la Meridienne de France 
 jusqu'aux Isles Pythiuses," which though read to the Academy 
 in 1810, was not published till 1820, in the Memoirs of the 
 Academy for 1818, torn. iii. p. 73.) 
 
 After the publication of Dr. Young's papers on the Huygeni.in 
 theory of light (the undulatory theoiy, as it is now called), and 
 of Dr. Wollaston's experimental confirmation of Huygens' expla- 
 nation of the double refraction of Iceland spar, the attention of 
 continental philosophers was di-awn to the subject of double 
 refraction. In 1808 the Institute of France proposed it as the 
 subject of a prize, to be adjudged in 1810. The prize was gained 
 by il. Mains, colonel of the imperial corf)S of engineers, who, in 
 the course of his researches, made the important discovery of the 
 polarization of light by reflection from the surfaces of transparent 
 bodies, a property of light wliich Huygens had discovered in 
 doubly refracting crj'Stals more than a hundred years before the 
 attention of the members of the Institute was drawn to this 
 remarkable discovery. In 1811 M. Arago communicated to 
 the Academy of Sciences his important discoveiy of the colours 
 of thin plates of ciystallized bodies when examined in polarized 
 light, a discovery made independently by Sir David Brewster. 
 M. Biot saw the extent and importance of this new branch of 
 optics, and devoted to it all the energies of his powerful mind. In 
 1812 he communicated to the Academy a memoir of one hundred 
 and forty- five pages, '' On the new relations which exist between 
 the reflection and the polarization of hght by ci-ystalHzed bodies," 
 in which he made many important experiments on the colour of 
 thin plates of sulphate of lime and quartz, by means of a divided 
 apparatus and a spherometer, for measuring the thickness of the 
 thinnest plates; and from these experiments he concludes, that 
 the polarization of light ui these two minerals follows exactly the 
 same laws ;md the same periods as ordinaiy reflection in thin 
 plates of au' or glass, with this difference oidy, that the two 
 classes of phenomena take place at different thicknesses. In a 
 second memoir, read in the same year, he annoimces that he has 
 found in the polarization of light a law analogous to that of the 
 consen-ation of Unng forces in mechanics, which he derives from 
 the fact that the same tint is produced by any number of lamina; 
 combined, whatever be the order of their combination, provided 
 only that their axes are parallel. 
 
 In order to explain the remarkable phenomena of coloured 
 polarization, our author devised what he has called the theory of 
 moveable polarization, which he communicated to the Academy of 
 Sciences m November, 1812, with the title of "A new kind of 
 oscillation which the molecules of light experience in traversing 
 certain crystals." In this profound and ingenious memoir, whicli 
 forms a quarto volume of three hundred and seventy-one pages, 
 he supposes liglit to consist of separate particles, which oscillate 
 roimd their centres of gravity in virtue of attractive and repulsive 
 forces, and that after these oscillations have gone on to a certain 
 depth in the cn-stal, the particles acquire a fixed polarization, by 
 which their axes are arranged in two rectangular directions. 
 
 In two memoirs read to the Academy of Sciences in 1814, Biot 
 Las given an account of his important discovery of two kinds of 
 polarization, which he cnWs polarization quartzeuse, from its being 
 found in quartz, and the other polarization berilkuse, from its 
 
 being found in beryl. In the former the extraordinary ray is 
 supposed to be produced by an attractive force drawing it to the 
 axis of the cnstal, and in the latter by a repulsive force, which 
 drives it from the axis. In quartz the phenomena are represented 
 by the variable radii of a prolate spheroid, and in berj-1 by those 
 of an oblate spheroid. In his early experiments il. Arago had 
 observed a particular kind of polarized tints along the axes of 
 quartz, but did not study them with attention, il. Biot, how- 
 ever, undertook the examination of them, under the name of suc- 
 cessive polarization, and ascribed the phenomena to the continual 
 rotation of the luminous pai-ticles round their axes. In the end 
 of 1815 and the beginning of 181C, he and M. Seebeck of 
 Berhn discovered about the same time an analogous property, 
 now called circular polarization, in a number of essential oils, 
 vegetable juices, and other fluids — in oil of turpentine, oil of 
 laurel, and various saccharine solutions — some of which turned 
 tlie planes of polarization from left to right, and others from 
 right to left. In the unciystallizable syrup called dextrine, from 
 its tm-ning the planes of polarization from right to left, M. Biot 
 found circular polarization so strong, that it sm-passed, in this 
 respect, all other substances excepting rock crystal. 
 
 With the view of proving that this property of certain sohds 
 and fluids resided in the indi\-idual molecules of which the bodies 
 were composed, and not to their mode of aggregation (Sir D. 
 Brewster found that quartz lost the rotatory property after 
 fusion), our author resolved to mal<e the experiment with the 
 vapour of turpentine. A suitable apparatus for this purpose was 
 accordingly erected in an old church, which had become the 
 orangerie of the chamber of peers. It consisted of a furnace and 
 boiler to produce the vapour, of a double tube about one hundred 
 feet long to hold it, of a plate of glass at one end of the tube to 
 polarize the light of a lamp, and of a divided circle and an achro- 
 matised prism at the other end to show and measure the rotation. 
 With the help of two assistants, Biot obseiTcd that the image of 
 the Iceland spar, which had disappeared when the tube was filled 
 with air, assumed a slightly bluish-green tint, while the other 
 unage changed into a reddish yellow, a result which indicated 
 the existence of a fuU rotation, produced by one hundred feet of 
 the vapour of turpentine. Our author then proceeded to tiun the 
 analysing prism from right to left, in order to see if the rotation 
 was in the same direction as in the fluid essence of turpentine, 
 when a tremendous explosion took place. The cover of the boiler 
 was blown into the air, the vapom- of the fluid tm-pentine was 
 set on fire, and the column of fire was so alarmhig that the dis- 
 tracted philosopher was obhged to call in the nearest fire-engine 
 to extinguish the flames. The escape of the two assistants was 
 most providential, for if Biot had not called them to the end of 
 the tube most distant from the boiler, in order to see the result 
 of the experiment, they would both have been kUled. The°» 
 experiments are described in a bulky memoir of nearly one hun- 
 dred pages, entitled " On the Rotations wliich certain substances 
 impress on the axes of polarization of the luminous rays." — (Jlem. 
 de I'Academie de Sciences, 1818, torn. ii. p. 41.) 
 
 In the year 1818 il. Biot communicated to the Academy of 
 Sciences a long but interesting memoir " On the utility of the 
 Laws of the Polarization of Light for recognizing the state of 
 crystalhzation and combination in a great number of cases where 
 the crystalline system is not immediately observable." In this 
 memoir he shows, from the analyses of Vauquelin, that in micas 
 with two axes of different inclinations, or with one axis of dif- 
 ferent characters, the chemical composition is different. In the 
 uniaxal crystals Vauquelin found a considerable quantity of 
 magnesia, of which there was no trace in those which were 
 biaxal, while in the biaxal crj-stals with different angles between 
 the optic axes there was a great difference in the silica, alu- 
 mina, and oxide of u-on which they contained. In the same 
 year he pubUshed a long and valuable memoir "On the rota- 
 tions which certain substances impress on the axes of polari- 
 zation of the luminous rays" (Mem. Acad. Paris, 1818, torn. ii. 
 pp. 41-137), a subject which he resumed at various times, both 
 in sepai'ate memoirs, and in reports on the discoveries of M. 
 Pasteur. 
 
 In order to execute a map of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 General Roy and Colonel Sludge had measured an arc of the 
 meridian from the south of England to the north of Scotland. 
 The French board of longitude were desirous of joining to this 
 arc the one measured in France and Spain, and to take mea- 
 sures of the length of the pendulum along the arc in Britain.
 
 AVith this view M. Biot carried with him the instniments used 
 in Spain, and ohtained ever>' facility for his work from the Eng- 
 hsh govemment. On his arrival in London in ilay, 1817, he 
 was kindly received by Sir Joseph Banks, and when he reached 
 l^dinburgh with Captain Mudge, he made Leith fort the first 
 i^tation for his pendulum experiments, and was hospitably received 
 by Sir Howard Elphinstone, who commanded the engineers, and 
 then Uved iu the neighbourhood of the fort. After finishing his 
 work at Leith, Biot went to Aberdeen, where, after a hospitable 
 reception, he embarked on the 9th July on board the Investigator, 
 and readied Shetland on the 10th. The little island of I5atta, 
 at the entrance to the principal bay of the island of Unst, was 
 chosen as the place best fitted ibr his observations, and he 
 resided during his stay under the hospitable roof of Mr. Edmon- 
 stone. After two months' residence in the island, M. Biot 
 returned to Edinburgh, and paid a visit to Sir Howard Elphin- 
 stone, then li^-ing at Harkness cottage, near Peebles, where 
 he met Sir David Brewster, then residing at Yenlaw, in the 
 immediate neighbourhood of that town. Sir Da%-id showed him 
 his various unpublished experiments on the double refraction 
 and polarization of light, and particularly those which led him 
 to the discoveiy of biaxal cryst.ils, and the law of double 
 refraction in various classes of minerals (Phil. Trans., 1818); 
 but though 5L Biot has noticed various persons whom he met 
 in Scotland, he has omitted, in his long and diffuse narrative, 
 even the name of the only Scotchman who was engaged in the 
 same researches as himself — in researches, too, on which the 
 high reputation of M. Biot, as an original discoverer, must ulti- 
 mately rest. 
 
 From Scotland our author visited the great manufactiunng 
 stablishments in the centre of England, and after seeing Cam- 
 niidge and Oxford, he met JL Arago at Greenwich, where they 
 continued their observations, assisted by Mr. Pond, the astro- 
 nomer-royal, and JL Hmnboldt, who was then in England. 
 fSee !Mem. Acad. Paris, 1818, vol. iii. pp. 73-133.) After his 
 I turn to Paris, he communicated to the Institute his memoir 
 ■ On the General Laws of Double Refraction," as founded on 
 the discoveries of Sir David Brewster, and wiitten in a spirit 
 which posterity will estimate more correctly than his contempo- 
 raries. 
 
 In 1814 M. Biot was named a chevalier of the legion of 
 honour, of which he is now a commander. In 18-10 the Royal 
 Society awarded to him the Rumford medals for his researches 
 in and connected with the circular polarization of light. He 
 has now the honour of being a member of three of the aca- 
 demies of the Institute, having, in 1841, been chosen an aca- 
 ileuiicien libre of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, 
 and in 1856 a member of the French Academy. He is a 
 foreign member of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, 
 and of almost all the learned academies in the old and new world. 
 
 Besides his memoirs, a few of which only we have mentioned, 
 he pubhshed his "Traite de Physique" in 1816, in four large 
 volumes, and his " Traite Elementaire d' Astronomic Physique," 
 wliich has passed through several editions. To the Biographic 
 Universelle he communicated the lives of Descartes, Franklin, 
 Galileo, Leibnitz, and Newton, in the last of which he has given 
 deep offence to the friends of the great philosopher, by main- 
 taining and persisting in the opinion, after it had been com- 
 pletely refuted, that Newton was long under the influence of 
 mental derangement, and that all liis theological writings were 
 composed during its existence, and in his old age. 
 
 Biot manned, in 1 79G, the accomplished daughter of M. Bris- 
 ^'in, professor of natural philosophy in the college of NavaiTC, by 
 •■ liom he had one son and one daughter. (See Biot, Eikhiard.) 
 M. Biot has just (Jlay 31, 1858) intimated to the Academy 
 "f Sciences the immediate publication, in 3 vols. 8vo, of a col- 
 ii'ction of his writings, under the title of " Melanges Scienti- 
 liiUK's et Litteraires," the two first volumes of whicli will appear 
 instantly. 
 
 The following estimate of M. Biot's optical discoveries is 
 given by a competent judge, Professor Forbes, in his disser- 
 tation on mathematical and jihysical science, recently published : 
 — ' His subject by predilection was optics, and here he made 
 his most considerable discovery, and that which he has fol- 
 lowed out with most minute industry, namely, the rotatory 
 action of fluids, in which he had Seebeck for a co-discoverer. 
 He studied the colours of crystallized plates with exemplary 
 patience, and by his accurate observations on the law of the 
 
 tints, prepared the way for the theory of transverse vibra- 
 tions ; but his ovNm doctrine of moveable polarization, which he 
 imagined to explain them, made no impression on the progi-ess 
 of science. He was the first who divided doubly refracting 
 crystals into positive (as quartz) and negative (as calcareous 
 
 spar) He also discovered (very approximatively) 
 
 the law regulathig the plane of polarization of the rays in biaxal 
 cr}stals His researches, always marked by preci- 
 sion, are perhaps deficient in bold conjecture and happy generaliza- 
 tion. They are conducted with a mathematical stiffness which 
 allows httle play to the fancy, and in hypothetical reasoning he 
 rarely indulges. His style is fonnal yet diffuse, and consequently 
 somewhat repulsive to the student. His works are consequently 
 not easily read, and have contributed less to the progress of 
 knowledge than the scrupulous care often evinced in their com- 
 pilation might seem to warrant. Yet the name of Biot will be 
 ever associated with devotion to science, and especially with the 
 progress of optics in our own day." — (Encyclopedia Britannica, 
 8th edition.)— D. 
 
 BIRAGO, Francesco, bom at Milan of a patrician family 
 in 1562. The chivalrous times in which he lived compelled men 
 of high rank to study the art of warfare which then formed the 
 most important branch of a nobleman's education. Being the 
 eldest son of Jacopo JIarcello Birago, the lord of Metono and 
 Siciano, both feuds belonging to that family in the territory of 
 Pavia, he inherited those large estates and honorable titles at 
 the death of his father. His immense wealth allowed him to 
 devote the whole of his time to collect documents and write 
 many volumes on the science of chivahy,in a style, says Pietro 
 de Crescenzj, his contemporary, as lofty and pure as the author's 
 mind was. Birago was, according to the said historian, the 
 arbiter all through Lombardy on all matters connected vnXh 
 chivalry, and no one ever disputed his decisions. It is, however, 
 to be regi'etted, that whilst many writers have spoken of Birago's 
 consummate knowledge of chivahy, no account has been left of 
 his life. We only know that he wrote pastoral poetry, and that 
 he was an accomplished scholar. His apology for Torquato 
 Tasso's Jeiaisalcm Delivered, in which he nobly and successfully 
 defends the poet against the attacks of Olevano, who asserts 
 that Tasso was ignorant of the laws of chivalrj', met with the 
 approbation of the literaiy world. These and many other works 
 have been recorded by Mazzuchelli. Birago died at an ad- 
 vanced age in 1640. — A. C. M. 
 
 BIRAGO, Lampugnino or Lampo. This writer was bom 
 in the duchy of Milan, and flourished about the middle of the 
 loth centuiy. His deep knowledge of Greek and Latin classics 
 brought him in contact with Pietro Candido Decembrio; and the 
 celebrated Filelfo, who very often in his Epistolaj alludes to 
 Birago's literary attainments in the most flattering teniis, in- 
 forms us that Birago was the bosom friend of Nicholas V., and 
 that in 1459 he dedicated to Pius II. many translations from 
 Xenophon and Plutarch; that he translated also Dionysius Hali- 
 carnasseus, and wrote an original work entitled, "Strategicon 
 adversus Turcas ad Nicholaum V. It has been remarked that 
 this distinguished Greek scholar began to apply himself to the 
 study of that language at an advanced age, and he attained 
 such a knowledge of it that he was considered second to none. 
 He died at the beginning of the 1 6th century. — A. C. M. 
 
 BIRAGUE, Flaminio, lived in the reign of Charles IX. of 
 France. His verses are now and then quoted to exemplify faults 
 of stvle. He w.as a friend and imitator of Ronsard. 
 
 BIRAN. See MAixfi uk Biuax. 
 
 BIRCH, John Gilokok, a Danish author, bom 1750 ; died 
 1795 ; wrote a " Biography of Frederick II. of Prussia," Copen- 
 hagen, 1789 ; and translated Sterne's Sentimental Jcmrncy. 
 
 BIRCH, Thomas, one of the most industrious writers of the 
 latter half of the eighteenth century, was bom in London in 
 1705. His parents were quakers, and the father was, by trade, 
 a maker of coffee-mills. Thomas was originally destined to 
 follow this occupation ; but as he approached the period of man- 
 hood, he began to feel a tendency towards litenuy studies, that 
 .soon carried him out of the circle of his father's trade. After 
 a very little preliminary instruction, he became an usher in a 
 school, and so assiduous was he in the work of self-culture, that 
 he soon obtained sucji .an aeciuaiutance with the learned langu.ages 
 that he was admitted into the church " as a literate person," 
 though he had never studied at a university. He had long left 
 the sect of the quakers, and in 1728 he married the daughter
 
 BIR 
 
 592 
 
 BIR 
 
 of a clerf^man, but before the anniversary of his wedding, he 
 was a widower. In 1732 ilr. Birch was presented with a living 
 in Essex, and he sliortly afterwards entered on the career in 
 wliich he was destined to gain his literary laurels. He united 
 with several other writers, the most famous being Mr. George 
 Sale, the translator of the Koran, m bringing out a new edition 
 of Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionaiy. The work was 
 begun m 1734, and it was completed in 1741. This publication 
 gave Birch a very respectable standing in the Hterary world, and 
 various preferments in the church soon fell to his share, mostly 
 through the kindness of his early and steady patron, the lord 
 chancellor Hardwicke. In 1752 Birch was elected one of the 
 secretaries of the Koyal Society; he had been a member for 
 several ye:u-s, both of the Royal Society and of the Society of 
 Antiquaries. In the followhig yeai- Marischal college, Aberdeen, 
 sent him the honorary degree of D.D., and Dr. Herring, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbuiy, almost simultaneously promoted him to 
 the same degi'ee. Dr. Bh-ch now devoted much attention to the 
 business of the secrctar)-ship, to which he had been elected, and 
 in 1756-57 he published " A Histoiy of the Koyal Society of 
 London," which is still considered a standard work on the subject. 
 He was soon nominated one of the trustees of the British 
 filuseum, and to that noble institution he finally bequeathed his 
 extensive and valuable library, as well as the interest of £500, 
 to increase the salaries of the assistant librarians. He edited 
 the prose works of Milton, and wrote a new life of the gi-eat 
 poet. Dr. Birch's labours as an editor were long-continued, and 
 of the most varied order. He gave to the world a splendid 
 edition of the works of the Hon. Robert Boyle, accompanied by 
 a full and accurate memoir. Some idea of the labour of this 
 latter task may be formed, when it is stated that Boyle's works 
 — treating on the most various subjects — extend to six 4to 
 volumes, averaging 800 pages each. In 1744 he commenced 
 a series of biographical memoirs, and the work was not com- 
 pleted till the year 1752. These are a mere specimen of the 
 works that Dr. Birch gave to the world, and if they have not 
 sufficed to raise him to the first dignity in the republic of 
 letters, they at least entitle liim to the praise of useful diligence. 
 The great Dr. Johnson did not disdain occasionally to ask infor- 
 mation and to take advice from this useful pioneer in literature. 
 In the preface to the Hon. Robert Boyle's works. Dr. Birch says 
 of himself, very modestly, " the only qualities I engage for are 
 industry and fidelity." These it is universally allowed that he 
 possessed, and used to good purposes. Towards the end of the 
 year 1764 Dr. Birch's health began to decUue, and he was recom- 
 mended to take exercise on horseback. It was in one of his 
 rides, in January 2, 1765, that he was thrown from his horse 
 on the road between Hampstead and London, and almost imme- 
 diately expired. — C. W. C. 
 
 * BIRCH-PFEIFFER, Charlotte, a celebrated German 
 actress and dramatic writer, was born at Stuttgard in 1800, 
 where her father (Pfeifler) held an office under government. 
 She began her theatrical career, when only thirteen years old, at 
 Munich, travelled for several years in Germany, and in 1825 was 
 married to Mr. Christ. Birch of Copenhagen. In 1838 she un- 
 dertook the management of the Zurich theatre, and in 1849 was 
 jiennanently engaged at the Royal Theatre of Berlin. Besides 
 a number of novels and tales, she has written upwards of sixty 
 dramatic pieces, which, although of no great merit, yet are highly 
 popular. She is particularly famous for her skill in dnimatizing 
 novels. The best known of her di-amas are: "Pfetfer-Rosel;" 
 "Hinko;" "DerGlockner von Notre Dame;" ''Dorf imd Stadt;" 
 *' Die Waisc von Lowood;" " Die Grille," &c. — K. E. 
 
 BIRCKNER, MiciiAici. Gottlieb, born at Copenhagen in 
 1756, was a philosophic writer of the Kantian school. His 
 works, collected after his death, and published at Copenhagen 
 in 1798-1800, occupy four volumes. The most remiu^kable of 
 these is an able advocacy of the freedom of the press, under 
 the title, " Om Toi-ykke friheden og dens Love," published at 
 Copenhagen in 1797-98, excited great applause, and passed 
 rapidly through three editions. Birckner died in 1798 at Kor- 
 siier, where he was minister. — M. H. 
 
 BIRD, Edwaki), was bom at Wolverhampton, that cyclo- 
 pian town, in 1772, and died at Bristol in 1819. This remark- 
 able colour painter, who anticipated Wilkie in subjects of domestic 
 humour, began with that low branch of art, tea-trays, but soon 
 rose into higher and purer air. Unhappily for himself, he came 
 too soon on the stage, and died before national art was patro- 
 
 nized. His first success was a pictm-e called " Good News," 
 founded on a scene he had witnessed in an ale-house, a spot 
 where Hogarth also used to study in. The " Blacksmith's 
 Shop" and the "Country Auction" quickly followed. "Meg 
 Merrilecs," " Game of Put," and the " Gipsy Boy," gi-ew under 
 his creative bnish, fresh and original enough for those early 
 times, but never approaching the consmnmate ait and graceful 
 touch of Wilkie, compared with whom Bird is dull, dry, and 
 mannered, though his colour is cool, mellow, and harmonious. 
 The tradition of Bird's age being that greatness and bigness are 
 synonjanous, ho foohshly took to painting enormous historical 
 pictui'es : the " Suirender of Calais," the " Death of Elizabeth," 
 and " Chevy Chase." This last picture was considered pecu- 
 liarly pathetic, natural, reflective, and chivalrous, but of course 
 defied all rules of costume and local truth. Turning from this 
 ill-assumed gi-andeur, Bird once more returned to his ragged 
 gipsies, wind-blown travellers, picturesque waggoners, heavy- 
 armed blacksmiths, and young recruits. In an evil hour, how- 
 ever, he began a large portrait picture to meet a nine-days' 
 wonder, of the " Embarkation of Louis XVIII. after the defeat 
 of Napoleon." This picture killed him ; for the French noble- 
 men, with the usual unselfish politeness of the nation, at once 
 sat to him; the English noblemen gave hun theh promises, 
 but after all would not sit. The poor and depressed painter, 
 already HI, died of a broken heart at King's Parade, Bristol, 
 in 1819. He was buried m state in the dark-vaulted cloisters 
 of the cathedral : thi-ee hundred merchants followed his corpse 
 to its rest. Bud was very rapid in his mode of painting. He 
 once painted the portrait of his friend, Cumberland, in fifteen 
 minutes during breakfast. He used to begin his pictures without 
 any pre%'ious sketch, and in several places at the same time. 
 His earliest patron was the mai'quis of Staiford. The Princess 
 Charlotte called him her painter. For the prince regent he 
 painted the " Psalm-Singers in a Country Church ;" for Lord 
 Bridgewater, the " Debarkation of the French King." Mr. 
 WiUhouse and Mr. Baugh were also liberal patrons of his art. 
 He was elected a member of the Royal Academy svithout solici- 
 tation. Bird was a simple-hearted, true man, thoughtlessly 
 hberal, and a bad economist. He was social in his habits, but 
 no runner into excess. The last five years of his life were 
 darkened by disease. Though often a dupe from his good 
 nature. Bird was kind to young aiiists, and delighted to direct 
 their efforts.— W. T. 
 
 * BIRD, Edward Joseph, entered the royal navy of Britain 
 in 1812, and was present at the bombardment of Algiers, by 
 Lord Exmouth, in 1816. He sailed with P.ariy in two of that 
 officer's voyages in search of the north-west passage — firet ri 
 1821, as midshipman on board the Hecla, and again in 1824. 
 in a similar capacity in the Fnn/. In 1827 he accompanied 
 PaiTy, for the third time, in the fraitless endeavour to reach the 
 pole by passing over the ice to the northward of Spitzbcrgen, 
 and was promoted on his return to the rank of lieuten.ant. After 
 various intervening ser\-ices at home and abroad. Lieutenant 
 Bud accompanied Sir James Ross, during the years 1839-1843, 
 on his well-known voyage of antarctic discovery. Five years 
 later (having ui the interim been advanced to the rank of cap- 
 tain), he was the companion of Ross in the first of the searching 
 expeditions after Franklin, whose prolonged absence from Eng- 
 land was then beginning to excite anxiety among his countrymen. 
 The Eiita'prise and Investir/ator — the former commanded by Sir 
 James Ross, and the latter by Captain Bu-d — were the vessels 
 employed on this occasion, but without the accomplishment of 
 any important result. The ships left England in the summer of 
 1848, and passed the succeeiiing winter in the harbour of Port- 
 Leopold, near the junction of Prince Regent Inlet with Barrow 
 Strait (lat. 73° 50', long. 90° 20' W.), returning to England 
 late in the autumn of 1849. — W. H. 
 
 BIRD, GoLDiNG, a distinguished physician. He was edu- 
 cated in London for the medical profession, and was a student 
 of Guy's Hospital. He was distinguished for his application to 
 his profession ; and, after having received hLs license as a general 
 practitioner, he took his degree of M.D. at the university of St. 
 Andrews, and became a licentiate, and was afterwards made a 
 fellow, of the London College of Physicians. He first lectured 
 in connection with the Guy's Hospital medical school on natural 
 philosophy, and afterwards on materia medica and botany in 
 the same school. He was also appointed one of the physicians 
 of Guy's Hospital, having pre\-iously held a similar appointment
 
 BIR 
 
 593 
 
 BIR 
 
 in the Finsbury aud Islington dispensaries. One of his earliest 
 works was intended as an introduction to the physical sciences 
 for medical students, and was entitled " Elements of Natural 
 Philosophy." Tliis work has gone through several editions. In 
 1844 he published a work on " Urinary Deposits, their Diag- 
 nosis and Treatment." This work brought him into considerable 
 notice as a practitioner of medicine, aud contained a large amount 
 of original research. He was a very constant continbutor to the 
 medical periodicals, and wrote several papers in the Guy's Hos- 
 '/ital Reports, the most important of which are the following 
 — " On Cystic Oxide," 1836 ; " On the Chemical Nature of 
 Mucous and Purulent Secretions," 1838 ; " On Poisoning by 
 Charcoal Vapour," 1849; "On Kiestine," 1840; "Report of 
 Cases treated by Electricity," 1841 ; " On Urinary Deposits 
 and Calculi," 1842 ; " Report of Cases of Diseases of ChUdren," 
 1845. His various labours and large practice at last told upon 
 a feeble constitution, and he sunk from disease of the Iddney 
 at the early age of thirty-nine. He died at his residence at 
 Tunbridge Wells, where he retired for the benefit of his health, 
 Oct. 27th, 1854. The medical profession affords few instances 
 of so great success at so eai-h' a period of life as afforded by Dr. 
 Bird ; at the same time his success was acquired by an industry 
 which overtaxed his frame, and undoubtedly led to his prema- 
 ture decease. Dr. Bu'd's labours were not entirely confined to 
 professional subjects. He cultivated observation with the micro- 
 scope, and contributed obsen-ations to our scientific literature, 
 both on zoological and botanical subjects. He improved the 
 structure of the galvanic machines in use in his time. He was 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and served the office of 
 president of the "Westminster Jledical Society, and was a member 
 of many foreign learned societies. — E. L. 
 
 BIRD, JoHX, died in London in 1776, aged sixty-seven. Bird 
 was the precursor of our Ramages and Troughtons, although 
 originally a cloth weaver in the county of Durham. We owe 
 him our first scientific mode of dividing astronomical instruments. 
 His eight-feet Green^rich mural quadrant is still reverently 
 preserved there. He wrote two treatises, — one on the method 
 of dinding astronomical instruments, and the other on the 
 construction of mural quadrants. It is impossible to miss 
 observing, that in all his works and writings Jlr. Bird possessed 
 high mechanical capacity ; but the scheme or theory of his 
 instruments was essentially erroneous. — J. P. N. 
 
 BIRD, Robert Montgomery, an American novehst, bom 
 at Newcastle, Delaware, in 1803, and educated in Philadelphia, 
 where he became a physician. But his tastes were literary, and 
 he soon began to write for the magazines and the stage. In 
 1834 he published his first novel, " Calavar, or the Knight of 
 the Conquest, a Romance of Mexico," wluch was deservedly 
 praised at the time for the truthfulness and \'ivacity of its sketches 
 of Mexican manners, scenerv', and history. The same character- 
 istics marked his second essay in fiction, " The Infidel, or the 
 Fall of Mexico," a continuation of the former storj', which ap- 
 peared in 1835. Then followed in rapid succession "The 
 Hawks of Hawks Hollow;" "Nick of the Woods;" "Peter 
 Pilgrim;" and " The Adventures of Robin Day." " Sheppard 
 Lee," another novel, was published anonymously, but came 
 unquestionably from the same pen. After the publication of 
 the last of these novels in 1839, Dr. Bird ceased to wTite for 
 the press, and devoted himself to the cultivation of a large farm. 
 Then he returned to Philadelphia, and began to edit the Noith 
 American Gazette, which he in part owned. He died in that 
 dty of brain fever, January 23, 1854. — F. B. 
 
 BIRD, William.— See' Byrd. 
 
 BIREN or BUREN, John Ernest, duke of Courland, born 
 1690, was the son of a captain, and, as was sometimes reproached 
 to him in the course of his adventurous life, grandson of a groom. 
 Coming to St. Petersburg in 1714, with an ambitious hope of 
 being received into the imperial household, he found an obstacle 
 to its realization in his humble birth, but eventually fell upon 
 a better scheme of improving his fortunes, by having himself 
 introduced at the court of Anne, duchess of Courland, with w^hom 
 he became such a favourite that on her accession to the tlirone 
 of Russia, 1730, notwithstanding the sullen opposition of the 
 nobles, this grandson of a groom became absolute master of the 
 empire. To his title of grand-chamberlain was added that of 
 count of the empire, and to both in 1737, by election of the 
 nobility, who at an earlier period had refused even on the solicita- 
 tion of his mistress to let Mm be ranked with the aristocracy of 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 the province, the illustrious title of duke of Com-land. Till the 
 death of Anne, 1740, no effectual opposition was offered to the 
 cruel, although not inglorious tjTanny of the favourite ; but as 
 before that event various unsuccessful attempts had been made 
 upon his Ufe, so its occun-ence offered an opportunity, which was 
 not neglected by his enemies, of demolishing his authority. It was 
 with difficulty he succeeded in maintaining himself for a time in 
 the post assigned to him by Catherine of regent of the kingdom, 
 dmiug the minority of Ivan, and on his entering into an intrigue 
 to many his son to the princess Elizabeth, the influence of 
 Marshal Munich was sufficient to an-est his ambition and even- 
 tually to have him banished to Siberia. Elizabeth on her acces- 
 sion recalled him from exile, but not to the seat of government ; 
 he was ordered to Yaroslaw, where he passed, still in disgi'ace 
 or at least under confiscation of his estates, the reign of Peter 
 III. Catherine II., in whose interests he had been active pre- 
 vious to her accession, reinstated him in his dukedom, which he 
 afterwards goveraed with singular prudence and moderation. 
 His death occuired in 1772. His son Peter succeeding him in 
 the duchy, retained it only till 1798, and died in 1800.— J. S., G. 
 
 BIRGER DE BiELBO, a Swedish general, regent of the king- 
 dom during his son's minority ; bom about the year 1210 ; died 
 in 1206. The reigning prince, Eric, whose sister Ingeborg he 
 had married, being childless, he acquired pretensions to the 
 throne ; which, on the death of Eric, were set aside in favour of 
 those of his son Valdemar. He had just completed the subju- 
 gation of Finland when that event occun-ed, and was deeply 
 mortified at the haste with which, neglecting his senices to the 
 state, the magnates of the kingdom had raised Valdemar, then 
 only thirteen yeare of age, to the tlu-one of his uncle. The 
 honours of the regency, however, so far satisfied his ambition, that 
 he applied himself to the business of government in the spirit of 
 a patriot, as well as with the skill of a veteran statesman. He 
 exerted himself to improve the laws and refonn the institutions 
 of his covmtry, abolished slaveiy, founded the city of Stockholm 
 and the cathedral of Upsal, and by a wise and beneficent admi- 
 nistration earned the gratitude of the Swedish people. The last 
 act of his life was the only one of his measm-es which issued 
 unfortunately for his country ; he divided the kingdom among his 
 four sons — the cro^NTi and its appendages to one, and duchies to 
 the others — and by that act prepared the way for years of 
 anarchy and bloodshed. — J. S., G. 
 
 BIRGER, king of Sweden, grandson of Birger de Bielbo, bom 
 in 1281 ; died in 1321. In 1304 his brothers Eric and Valde- 
 mar attempted to dethrone him, and after a tedious struggle 
 succeeded in making him prisoner and forcing him to share the 
 kingdom ^^th them. In 1317, however, he liad them seized 
 while in a state of inebriety, and shut up in the keep of Nyk- 
 jiipping, where they were allowed to die of starvation. This 
 cmelty enraged the inhabitants of Stockholm, who revolted, 
 banished the king, executed his son, and raised Magnus, the 
 son of Eric, to the tlu'one. Birger died in Denmark. — J. S., G. 
 
 BIRKBECK, George, M.D., whose name will be long remem- 
 bered as the foimder of the first mechanics' institution, was the 
 son of a merchant and banker in Settle, Yorkshire, where he was 
 born, 10th January, 1776. He received the rudiments of edu- 
 cation at a village school, and being deteraiined to enter the 
 medical profession, he began his studies at Leeds, thence went to 
 Edinbiu-gh where he remained for one session. He then repaired 
 to London where he studied under Dr. Baillie during one winter, 
 at the close of which he went back to Edinburgh. During his 
 course there he was a most distuiguished student, aud had the 
 friendship of such men as Homer, Smith, Brougham, and Jeffrey. 
 Ha\nng taken his diploma, and when only twenty-three years of 
 age, he was elected professor of natvu-al philosophy in the Ander- 
 s )nian University of Glasgow. It was while discharging the 
 duties there that his attention was first turned to the subjects in 
 which he ever after took so deep an interest. Requiring some 
 philosophical instniments, and finding, at that period, no one 
 in Glasgow qualified to make them, he had to emjiloy common 
 mechanics who executed the several parts under his immediate 
 direction. While suiTounded by a number of the workmen, to whom 
 he was endeavouring to explain the construction of an instn.iment 
 they were making for him, it occuiTed to him, that it would be well 
 to deliver a coiu-se of lectures on science to the men who, in their 
 every-day labours, were applying mechanical principles of which 
 they were ignorant. At tlie close of the year 1800, he advertised 
 a class, " solely," as he saiil in the prospectus, "for persons engaged 
 
 4F
 
 in the exercise of the mechanical arts, men whose education in early 
 life has precluded even the possibility of acquiring the smallest 
 portion of scientific knowledge." His plan was most successful ; 
 as the course proceeded the attendance increased, till the lecture- 
 room was filled to overflowing, and he was compelled to limit 
 the number of tickets. He continued tlie lectures till he resigned 
 his professorship in 180-1. His grateful students presented him 
 with a silver cup at the close of his first course ; nor did they 
 speedily forget their benefactor. In February, 1823, nearly 
 twenty years after he had left them, Dr. Birkbeck was asked by 
 the Glasgow mechanics for leave to have his portrait taken, and 
 in July of the same ye.ir, they resolved to form the " Glasgow 
 Slecha'nics' Institution." :Meanwhile, Dr. Birkbeck had settled 
 as a pliysician in London, and had acquired an extensive prac- 
 tice; but he found leisure to develope his plans for the benefit of 
 the artisans. He was preparing an essay on the scientific edu- 
 cation of the working classes, when a paper appeared in the 
 Mec/ia7itcs' Marjazine for 11th October, 1823, entitled "Propo- 
 sals for a London Mechanics' Institution." Dr. Birkbeck wrote 
 offering all the assistance in his power, and in less than a month 
 the plan was so far matured that a public meeting was held, at 
 which he presided, and which was attended by Bentham, Wilkie, 
 and Cobbett, Lord Brougham having taken an active part in the 
 preliminary arrangements, when it was resolved to found the 
 London Jlechanics' Institution. Dr. Birkbeck generously lent 
 £3700 for the building of a lecture-room, and ha\nng been elected 
 president, he delivered the opening address on the 2Uth February, 
 1824. lie continued to preside over, and to take a deep interest 
 in this institution till his death, on 1st December, 1841. Dr. 
 Birkbeck was highly esteemed by the most distinguished men of 
 his day for his scientific attainments and disinterested pliilan- 
 thropy, and his funeral was attended by large numbers of 
 mechanics, and also by many of the Polish refugees, in whose 
 cause he had ever taken a deep interest. — J. B. 
 
 BIRKENSHAW, Joiix, a musician, was probably a native of 
 Ireland ; at least it is certain that he resided at Dublin in the 
 family of the earl of Kildare, till the rebellion in 1641 drove 
 nim from thence to England. He lived in London many years 
 after the Restoration, and taught the viol. He was Pepys' 
 music-master. Under the date February 24, 16G1-62, he 
 records — " Along with Mr. Birkenshaw in the morning at my 
 musique practice, finishing my song of Gaze not on Swans, in 
 two parts, which pleases me well ; and I did give him £b for 
 this month or five weeks that he hath taught me, which is a 
 gi'eat deal of money, and troubled me to part with it." He was 
 celebrated by Shadwell, who, in his comedy of the Humorists, 
 1671, makes one of the characters exclaim, " Birkenshaw is a 
 rare fellow, give him his due, for he can teach men to compose 
 that are deaf, dumb, and blind." In the Philosophical Transac- 
 tions for 1672, there is a pompous advertisement of Birkenshaw's, 
 containing proposals for publishing by subscription a work on the 
 theory and practice of music, entitled " S}'ntagma JIusica," 
 which, according to his own account of it, was to be a book 
 unequalled either in ancient or modem literature. It does not, 
 however, appear to have been published. He was the author of 
 " Templum Musicum, or the Musical Synopsis of Johannes 
 Henricus Alstedius," 12mo, 1664, a work resembling more a 
 logical than a musical treatise ; and a small tract in one sheet, 
 entitled " Rules and Directions for Composing in Parts." He 
 also ushered into the world, and wrote the preface to Thomas 
 Salmon's Essay on the Advancement of Music, by casting away 
 the perplexity of the different Cleffs, 1676. The dates of his 
 birth and decease are unknown. — E. F. R. 
 
 *BIRNBAUM, JoHANN Michael Fraxz, was born at 
 Bamberg, 19th September, 1792, and devoted himself to the 
 study of jurispnidence at P^rlangen, Landshut, and Wiirzburg. 
 He became successively professor at the universities of Louvain, 
 Utrecht, and Giessen, where he still continues to discharge the 
 duties of his office. He is the author of .some works on juris- 
 prudence, as also of some dramas, among which " Alberada" 
 and " Adalbert von Babenberg" obtained some reputation. When 
 at Louvain be started a periodical, BiUiotheqite du Jiiriscon- 
 suhe, which was afterwards amalgamated with the Themis, 
 published at Paris. — K. E. 
 
 BIRNEY, James G., was bom in Kentucky, U.S., in the 
 town of Dannlle, in 1793. He graduated at the college of 
 Nassau Hall, in New Jersey, and studied law with Jlr. Dallas 
 in Philadelphia. At the age of twenty-five he became a planter 
 
 in Alabama, and the owner of thiity-five slaves, but soon after- 
 ward entered upon the practice of liis profession at Huntsville, 
 Kentucky. Early in life Jilr. Biraey became interested in the 
 antislavery movement, and at the age of forty, or thereabouts, 
 not only freed his own slaves, but induced his father to make 
 such a disposition of his estate, as to leave him his twenty-one 
 slaves, when he set them free at once. In 1834 he attempted 
 to start an antislavery newspaper in Kentucky, but finding it 
 impossible to induce persons to risk their lives in a slave-state 
 for such a purpose, he commenced its publication in the neigh- 
 bouring state of Ohio, whei-e it excited the most ^^olent hostility. 
 Leaving the west, he came to New York, and became a member 
 and the corresponding secretary of the American Antislavery 
 Society. In 1840 he was in England, and there published his 
 celebrated tract, entitled " The American Churches the Bulwarks 
 of American Slavery." He was at this time a member of the 
 presbyterian church. By an array of facts, and an ample exhibi- 
 tion of the actions of the different religious denominations in 
 America, he demonstrated the truth of the title of his pamphlet. 
 In 1844, while living in Jlichigan, he was nominated by the politi- 
 cal abolitionists as their candidate for the presidency of the United 
 States. But political antislavery has never prospered. It is not 
 easy, if possible, to promote a moral and rehgious reform by the 
 machineiy of a political party. Since that time Mr. Bimey lived a 
 strictly private life, sufiering much from ill-health. His charac- 
 ter was singularly pure ; his mind became greatly liberalized on 
 theological subjects in the latter part of his life, and he mani- 
 fested a growing sympathy with those abolitionists who refuse 
 all participation in the United States government, and who aim 
 at a separation of the free from the slaveholding states. He 
 died at Eagleswood, near Perth Amboy, N. J., Nov. 25, 1857, 
 at the age of sixty-five. — S. M. 
 
 BIRNIE, Sir Richard, a London magistrate who attained 
 to some notoriety in the reign of George IV. He was bora at 
 Banff in 1760 ; and died April 29, 1832. In early life he was 
 employed as a workman in the establishment of the saddler to 
 the royal family, and by his intelligence attracted the attention 
 of the prince of Wales. He became first foreman, and then 
 partner of his employers ; made a wealthy maniage, and was 
 promoted to the rank of captain of the Westminster volunteers. 
 By the interest of the didce of Northumberland he obtained a 
 commission of the peace, and was afterwards appointed police 
 magistrate at Bow Street. In this capacity he arrested the Cato 
 Street conspirators; and on the occasion of the disturbances 
 caused by the appearance of Queen Caroline in London, he had 
 the courage to read the riot act in the face of the mob, when 
 Sir Robert Burke was unwilling to encounter the hazard. He 
 was knighted by George IV. 
 
 BIROLI, John, an Italian botanist, was bom at Novare in 
 1772, and died there 1st Januar}-, 1825. He prosecuted his 
 medical studies at Padua, and became devoted to botanical 
 science. He became director of the horticultural society's garden 
 at Novare. In 1814 he was elected professor of agriculture at 
 Padua, and he afterwards filled the chair of botany and materia 
 medica at Turin. He wrote a Flora of Novare, treatises on 
 agriculture, on rural economy, and on the culture of Arachis 
 h}-pog£ea, and of Cj-perus esculentus. He also published a cata- 
 logue of the plants in the Turin botanic garden. — J. H. B. 
 
 BIRON, an ancient and illustrious French family, of which 
 we notice the following members : — 
 
 BiKO>f, Armand de Gontaut, baron and afterwards due de, 
 bom in 1524, was brought up a page at the court of Margaret 
 of Navarre. At an early age he served with distinction in Pied- 
 mont, and on the breaking out of the religious wars, although 
 more than suspected of a leaning to the Huguenots, he was 
 raised to high command on the royal side. On the night of St. 
 Bartholomew he joined the Huguenots in the arsenal, and 
 conducted the defence of that stronghold. He was created a 
 marshal of France in 1577. On the death of Henry III., he was 
 one of the first to declare for the party of Henry IV. — a politic 
 act, which won from the grateful monarch more honours than 
 would ever have been awarded to his military talents. He wa.s 
 killed at the siege of Epernay in 1592. The tablets that he 
 carried about with him, for the purpose of noting the incidents 
 of his military life, have become proverbial among his countrymen. 
 
 BiRON, Charles ue Gostaut, due de, son of Annand, the 
 favourite of Henry IV., was born in 1562. His military talents 
 and enthusiasm were remarked in his earliest years, and he was 
 
 fc
 
 yet in his boyhood when an affair of honour, in which he was un- 
 happUy concerned, obliged him to withdraw from court for a short 
 period. Colonel at fourteen veai-s of age, he was rapidly raised 
 to the rank of lieutenant-general, and on the death of his father 
 in 1592, the king gave him the title of admiral. This title he 
 exchanged in 1594 for that of marshal ; in 1595 he was named 
 governor of Burgundy, and in 1598 raised to the peerage. With 
 an ingratitude, however, which is commonly found in the history 
 of court favourites, he had hardly received the highest honours 
 •of the state, when he entered into treasonable practices with an 
 sgent of Spain. His intrigues were immediately discovered, and 
 generously forgiven, but being renewed in 1601, and carried on 
 perseveringly for some months, the patience of his benefactor was 
 exhausted, and in July, 1C02, Biron was executed in the Bastile. 
 
 BiROX, Charles Ap.m^vxd, due de, bom 1663 ; died 1756. 
 In the reign of Louis XIV. he attained, by distinguished services, 
 the rank of lieutenant-general, was wounded at the siege of 
 Landau, and under Louis XV. was created a marshal of France. 
 
 BiROX, Louis Antolse de Goxtaut, due de, fourth son 
 of Charles Armand, bom 1700 ; died 1788. He sen-ed with 
 distinction in Italy, Bohemia, and Flanders, and latterly became 
 a marshal of France and governor-general of Languedoe. 
 
 Biron, Armaxd Loiis de Goxtaut, due de Lanzun, and 
 afterwards due de, nephew of Louis Antoine, bom in 1747, was 
 employed in 1779 to head an expedition agamst Senegal, Gam- 
 bia, and other British settlements in Western Africa, to which 
 he had directed the attention of government in his "L"Etat 
 de defense de I'Angleterre et de toutes les possessions dans les 
 qnatre parties du monde." This entei-prise being successfully con- 
 cluded in that year, he went to America, and took part in the 
 war of independence, distinguishing himself in several important 
 actions. On his retm-n to France the constituent assembly, of 
 which he was a member, gave him a command in the department 
 of the Xord. In July, 1792, he was named general of the army 
 of the Rhine, and in 1793 appointed to command the army 
 encamped at Roclielle. Here the insubordination of his troops, 
 Mid other ditficulties of his position, caused him to demand from 
 the revolutionary chiefs leave to resign, but this demand was 
 refused, and on being repeated was held to be evidence of treason. 
 He was accordingly consigned to the abbaye, and in December, 
 1793, adjudged to the scaffold. — ^J. S., G. 
 
 BISACCIOXI, CoLXT JIajolixo. This illustrious man was 
 bom at Ferrara in 1582. Ha\iiig received a very' liberal educa- 
 tion under the assiduous care of his father, a poet, and professor 
 of rhetoric in the college of Jesi, he went to the university of 
 Bologna, and took out his degree of LL.D. The times in which 
 he lived being veiy boisterous, and war raging with fury from 
 one end to the other of Italy, he was compelled at first to enter 
 the military career, and took senice whilst only sixteen years of 
 
 e under the Venetian republic. Having had an affair of 
 honour with Alexander Gonzaga, his superior officer, he was 
 forced to leave the States of the Church, and went to Modena, 
 where he practised as a barrister. His reputation as an orator 
 drew the attention of the reigning duke, who appointed him 
 j;overaor of Baiso. Accused of having fired at some one, he 
 underwent imprisonment, and his innocence having been well 
 established, he was raised to a higher post, which he filled 
 until the prince of Con-egio intmsted him yath. the civil and 
 militaiy direction of his principality. His enemies succeeded 
 anew in having him arrested ; but he was again set at liberty, 
 and received farther proofs of affection from that prince. He 
 was afterwards induced to accept the rank of lieutenant-general 
 in the troops of the cardinal bishop of Trent, and at the siege of 
 Vienna in 1618, being then in the sen-ice of the prince of JIol- 
 davia, he bravely defended, with Count Buquoy, the commander- 
 in-chief, and five other oflicers, the bridge of that city, attacked 
 by a Bohemian regiment, until the Austrians came to their 
 rescue. He was several times at Rome as minister plenipoten- 
 tiary from the court of Savoy, whilst he was ser\-ing in the 
 Piedmontese army under the name of Count St. Giorgio. 
 Being rather advanced in years, and wearied of military life, he 
 retired to Venice, where he wrote the best part of his works, 
 principallj- historical. He also wrote for the stage, and has left 
 many plays and novels, forming altogether twenty-nine volumes, 
 besides many manuscripts on political and miHtary subjects yet 
 unedited. Whilst he resided in ^'enice, apparently retired from 
 the political world, he forw;u-ded the interests of the French 
 court so much, that Louis XIV. appointed him one of the gentle- 
 
 men of the bedchamber, raised him to the rank of a marquis, 
 and created him a knight of the order of St. Jlichael. All these 
 honours and titles did not, however, hinder him from d\-ing in 
 the greatest miser)- on the 8th of June, 1663. — A. C. M. 
 
 BISCAIXO, Baktolomeo, a Genoese historical painter, 
 bom 1632. He le;imt drawing from his father, a landscape 
 painter, and coloming from Valerio Cartelli. A good designer 
 and an excellent engraver. There is a Biscaino at Devonshire 
 house, and several at the gallery in Dresden. — W. T. 
 
 * BISCHOF, Carl Gustav Christoph, a German chemist, 
 mineralogist, and geologist, professor of chemistiy and technology 
 in the university of Bonn, was bom at Nuremberg in 1792. 
 After completing liis studies he became a private tutor at Erlan- 
 gen, and obtained the above-mentioned chair at Bonn in 1819. 
 His principal writings are — a " Stoichiometiical Text-book;" a 
 " Text-book of Chemistry," Bonn, 1824 ; " Researches on the 
 Intemal Heat of the Globe," published at Leipzig, in Gennan, in 
 1837, and in Enghsh, greatly improved, at London, in 1841; 
 and a " Text-book of Physical and Chemical Geology," in two 
 volumes, Bonn, 1847-55. The latter work is one of vast impor- 
 tance to the progress of geology. Besides these and socnn other 
 independent works, Bischof is the author of numerous memoirs, 
 published in various scientific journals, and relating to a great 
 diversity of chemical, physical, geological, mineralogical, and 
 mining subjects. — W. S. D. 
 
 BISCHOFF, Gottlieb Wilhelm, a German botanist, was 
 bom at Diurckheira in 1797. He studied botany under Koch 
 and Jlartius, and became professor of botany at Heidelberg. 
 He is the author of works " On Cryptogamic Botany ; " " On 
 Medicinal Plants;" "On the Liimean system;" on '"The Elements 
 of Botany;" and on " Botanical Temiinology." 
 
 BISCHOFF, Theodoke Ludwig Wilhelm, a German 
 botanist, published at Rouen in 1829 a treatise on "The True 
 Nature of the Spiral Vessels of Plants." 
 
 BISCHOFF VON ALTENSTERN, Igxaz Rudolf, a dis- 
 tinguished German military sm-geon, and professor of thera- 
 peutics and clinical medicine at Vienna, was bom on the 15th 
 August, 1784, at Kremsmiinster, where his father was a profes- 
 sor of modem languages. He received his education first in his 
 native town, and proposed risiting Vienna for the study of the 
 law, when his taste for natural history led him to turn his atten- 
 tion to medicine. In 1808 he took his degree as doctor of medi- 
 cine at Vienna, where he had acquii-ed a considerable practice., when, 
 in 1812, he obtained the professorship of clinical medicine and 
 therapeutics in the university of Prague. To these he added the 
 post of chief siu-geon to the general hospital in the year 1816. 
 In 1825 he was appointed an imperial councillor, and professor of 
 clinical medicine, pathology, and therapeutics at Vienna, where he 
 was aftenvards raised into the ranks of the nobility. He died 
 on the 15th July, 1850. Bischoff Von Altenstern, is regarded 
 as one of the first of Gennan surgeons and mc'lical teachers, and 
 he is especially noted for his treatment of nervous fever, in 
 which he has done good service to the progress of medicme. 
 Of his writings, the earliest, entitled " Obser\-ations on T\-phus 
 and Nen'ous F'ever," was published at Prague in 1815, and was 
 followed by several other works of a similar natiu-e, ijicluding one 
 on the " Recognition and Treatment of Fevers and Inflamma- 
 tions," pubUshed at Vienna in 1823. He also wrote on " Chronic 
 Diseases," and a work on the " Practice of Medicine, Illustrated 
 by Cases," which appeared at Vienna in 1823-25. — W. S. D. 
 
 BISCHOFSBERGER, Barthelemy, a Swiss historian, born 
 in 1622 ; died in 1678 ; author of a history of Appen^-ille. 
 
 BISCHOP, CoRXELius, born in 1630, and a disciple of Fer- 
 dinand Bol ; a pupil and imitator of the weird lights of Rem- 
 brandt. Bischop imitated the imitator in colour, style, and 
 maimer, and by his (Bischop's) imitators, a veiy low class 
 indeed, was considered not much inferior to Bol. Louis XIV. 
 purchased a candle-light picture by him, and the king of Den- 
 mark was also his admii-er. The French critics praise him 
 highly, but he is generally jironounced heavy in composition, and 
 lumpy in expression. — W. T. 
 
 BISCHOP, Jonx de, a painter of landscapes and history, 
 bom at the Hague in 1646 ; died in 1686. By profession an 
 advocate, delighting in the rich yellow tone that old gold alone 
 possesses, he was an amateur of singtdar talent, imitating the 
 pencil drawings of the old masters with the unerring fidelity of 
 a forger. Bassano, Tintoretto, the Caracci, Veronese, Rubens, 
 Vandyck, were all under his thumb. In Pilkington's day, his
 
 BIS 
 
 596 
 
 BIS 
 
 ingenious imitations were highly prized, on account of theh- cor- 
 rectness and taste. — W. T. 
 
 BISCIONI, Antonio Maria, bom at Florence in 1674. 
 This literary man struggled for many years against poverty and 
 privations, and contrived to pursue his studies at the universit_y, 
 maintaining himself by teaching belles-lettres to many young 
 students, who in after life highly distinguished themselves. 
 Giovanni Bottari, an eminent writer in mathematics, philosophy, 
 and theology, had been his pupil. Cosimo III., grand-duke of 
 Tuscany, presented him with two or three independent livings, 
 which afforded him the means of taking out his degrees in theo- 
 logy, and of entering on the ecclesiastical career. For many years 
 he preached in the church of St. Lawrence, where liis eloquence 
 brought always a great concourse of the higher classes of 
 Florence, and in the year 1698, as a reward due to his talents 
 and zeal, he was appointed prebendary of that wealthy parish. 
 He was also well versed in Greek and Latin classics, and knew 
 Hebrew and many oriental languages. His consummate know- 
 ledge of his native tongue, combined with a natural flow of 
 eloquence, gained for him the reputation of being the most 
 accomplished orator of his time. In 1711 his patron, Cosimo 
 de Jledici appointed him his librarian, and soon after created 
 him a canon. His writings are not numerous, and for the most 
 part still imedited. He published the memoirs of his own 
 family, and two very satirical essays against those who opposed 
 his election to the important office of librarian. He edited also 
 many editions of the classics, illustrated with notes and com- 
 ments of great literai-y merit. Large sums of money were 
 spent by him in collecting the rarest books and most valuable 
 manuscripts, which the grand-duke purchased after Biscioni's 
 death, which occurred in 1756. — A. C. JI. 
 
 BISET, Chari.es E:«anuel, was bom at Mechlin in 1633, 
 and was regarded, even as a boy, as a phenomenon of a versatile 
 and quick, though limited invention. He anticipated Watteau 
 in ball-room, concert, assembly, and conversation scenes, though 
 generally confining himself to in-door subjects. He excelled in 
 the multitude of his figures, and the rarities and contrasts of 
 natural dress. His pictures look bold at a distance, and neatly 
 finished when closer viewed. His touch and expression were 
 both good. His faults are a cold grey colom-, neither lively nor 
 agreeable, and an occasional indelicacy unbefitting a painter of 
 good society. One of his best pictures is William Tell shooting 
 the apple off his son's head, painted for the Society of Archers 
 at Antwei-p. — W. T. 
 
 BISHOP, Sir Henrt Rowley, Mus. Doc, was bom in 
 London, November 18, 1786, where he died, April 30, 1855. 
 Hfa is conspicuous in the musical history of this countiy, as 
 having produced compositions of very high merit at the period 
 when the art was less cultivated here, in comparison with the 
 rest of Europe, than at any other time, and when his music, con- 
 sequently, alone gave consideration to the English name. He 
 is notable, also, as being the only musician that ever received the 
 distinction of knighthood, in acknowledgment of his artistic 
 merit, from an English sovereign. He was a pupil of Francesco 
 Bianchi, to whose recommendation he probably owed the oppor- 
 tunity to make his first public essay in composition, " Tamerlan 
 et Bajazet," a ballet, for which he wrote the greater part of the 
 music, and which was brought out at the King's theatre early 
 in 1806. The merit of this led to his writing, in the same year, 
 the entii'e music for the ballets of "Narcisse et les Graces" for the 
 Opera, and "Caractacus" and "Love in a Tub," for Drury Lane. 
 His single production of the next two years was some incidental 
 music in the drama of " The Mj-sterious Bride," given at Druiy 
 Lane in 1808 ; but the season anived for him to win distinction 
 in a higher field, when his opera, " The Circassian Bride," was 
 in preparation at the same establishment. His merited lam-els 
 were, however, untimely seared ; for, after the first performance 
 of this, his earliest opera, on the 23rd of Febraary, 1809, the 
 theatre was burned to the ground, and while the favourable 
 expectation of the work was scarcely confirmed, its desti-uction 
 in the flames deprived the composer of the renown its success 
 would have brought him. In this year he wrote the music of a 
 ballet, " Mora's Love," for the King's theatre, and of a romance, 
 " The Vintagers," for the Haymarket. His reputation as a drama- 
 tic composer was greatly raised by the opera of " The Maniac," 
 brought out at the Lyceum in 1810, the music of which has sur- 
 vived the ephemeral drama, and is still sufficiently known, to need 
 no comment on its excellence. Bishop, having established his 
 
 character as a musician, now reaped the best reward of his talent, 
 in an engagement as composer of Covent Garden theatre, which 
 gave him constant occasion to exercise it. The engagement was 
 the beginning of a series, which continued from the autumn of 
 this year till the simmier of 1821 and which combined with its 
 artistic oportunities the temporal advantage of a lucrative 
 salary ; and, added to this, a very liberal annual contract for the 
 copyright of all his produi'tions, made it that our composei- 
 received, during an extended course of years, a larger amount of 
 payment for his music than has been realized by any other in 
 England. The opera of the "Knight of Snowdoun" (in which 
 the popular tramp choras is a favom-able specimen of its dramatic 
 character), was the first labour of his new office, and it was 
 given with great success in February, 1811. " The Virgin of 
 the Sun," remembered for its admirable scene of the earthquake, 
 and two other operas which were less successful, " The Ethiop" 
 and "The Renegade" were all produced in 1812. The repro- 
 duction, with alterations, of " The Ethiop," under the name of 
 " Haroun Alraschid," in the following January, did not give it 
 a more permanent standing, and the comparatively unimportant 
 pieces of " The Brazen Bust," " Harry le Roy," and " For 
 England, ho ! " have equally passed out of memoiy ; but the 
 still very popular "Miller and his Men" (first played in 
 October of the same year, 1813), shows that the comj^oser's 
 genius was at this time in its fullest vigour. It was now that 
 the Philharmonic Society, for many years the most important 
 musical institution in England, was first established. Bishop 
 was one of the original members, was often in the direction, and 
 took his turn with others as conductor of the concerts, until, in 
 1842, this office was made permanent on the engagement of 
 Mendelssohn. The year 1814 gave birth to the opera of "Th'j 
 Farmer's Wife," one act of the spectacle of " Sadak and Kalas- 
 rade,"the melodramas of "The Wandering Boys" and "The Forest 
 of Bondy," the ballet of " Doctor Sangi'ado," some additional 
 music for the old opera, " The Maid of the Mill," and a spectacle 
 in celebration of the peace called " The Grand Alliance." In 
 this busy year, too. Bishop made the first of those mongi'il 
 ad.aptations of foreign operas, which may be supposed, if not to 
 have vitiated, certainly to have retarded the progress of public 
 taste ; for, it was his mangled versions of "Jean de Paris," "Don 
 Giovanni, Figaro," "II Barbiere," and "Guiliaume Tell" (under 
 the nameof "Hofer"), that indisposed English audiences to listen 
 to complete musical works, and thus induced the long delay in the 
 manifestation of the loftiest dramatic pretensions by English 
 composers. The entertainment of " Brother and Sister," the 
 operas of the "Noble Outlaw" and " Telemachus," and the 
 melodramas of "The Magpie" and "John du Bart" were pro- 
 duced in 1815, as also additional music for Michael Arne's "Cy- 
 mon," and for "Comus." Two of his most familiar works, "Guy 
 Mannering" (of which Whittaker wrote a portion), and " The 
 Slave," gave interest to the following year, in which also Bi.'ihop 
 wrote the musical intei-polations in A Midsummer Kight's 
 Dream, the first of the series of Shakspearean spoliations that 
 even the beauty of some of his introduced pieces has hapjiily not 
 preseiTcd upon the stage. The melodrama of " Who wants a 
 Wife?" and the interlude, in celebration of the marriage of the 
 Princess Charlotte, " The Royal Nuptials," were likewise given 
 in 1816. The operas of "The Hmnorous Lieutenant," "The 
 Heir of Verona," and " The Duke of Savoy," and the melo- 
 drama of " The Father and his Children," were Bishop's pro- 
 ductions in 1817. He wrote a portion of the opera of " Zuma," 
 the melodrama of " The Illustrious Traveller," and the opera 
 of " December and May," in the year following. In 1819 he 
 brought out the operas of the "Heart of 51id- Lothian" and 
 "The Gnome King," the musical interpolations in A Comedy 
 of Errors, and the smaller pieces of Fortunatus, Swedish 
 Patriotism, and A Roland for an Oliver. Bishop had this 
 year, in partnership with the proprietor of the theatre, the direc- 
 tion of the heterogeneous performances miscalled oratorios ; and, 
 the following season, undertook the speculation on his own 
 account, which he relinquished, however, before the commence- 
 ment of another year. " The Antiquaiy," " The Battle of 
 Bothwell Brig," " Henri Quatre," and the interpolations in The 
 Twelfth Night, were produced in 1820. On visiting Dublin 
 during the recess of his theatrical duties, our composer was pub- 
 licly presented with the freedom of the city, and received every 
 mark of honour that could be paid to his talent. In the next 
 year Bishop only wrote the interpolations in The Two Gentle-
 
 BIS 
 
 597 
 
 BIS 
 
 men of Verona, and a portion of the opera of "Don John-," 
 1822 was more prolific and more successful, for in it were given 
 "Montrose," " The Law of Java," with its universally- popular 
 "Mynheer Vandunck," and "Maid Marian," which contains 
 some of its author's desen-edly most esteemed music. " Clari," 
 with the air of " Home, Sweet Home," " The Beacon of 
 Liberty" and " Cortez" were first given in 1823. In the ensu- 
 ing February the opera of " Native Land" was produced for the 
 reappearance of Sinclair, the tenor, after his absence in Italy. 
 The comedy of " Charles II." was the last work that Bishop 
 wrote, until after several years, for Covent Garden. His third 
 engagement closed with the present season, and Llliston, who 
 had undertaken the management of Drury Lane in a spirit of 
 active opposition, unlike the independent rivahy which had 
 hitherto characterized the conduct of the two theatres, tempted 
 him, by increased terms, to quit the scene of all his successes, 
 and become a member of the adverse establishment. His change 
 of locality made a most important change in the course of his 
 career, so much so that one might almost assume he left his 
 personal identity in Covent Garden theatre ; certainly, he left 
 there his indindnality — that character in his music so decidedly 
 English, yet so decidedly his own, which gives perennial interest 
 to his previous productions and permanent standing to his name 
 — and became alternately inoculated with the manner of Rossini, 
 and Weber, and Eossini again, according as either was, for the 
 time, paramount in popular esteem. He gave up also from this 
 period his habit of extreme rapi'iity in composition, and thus 
 lost the power; spending in future life as many weeks or months 
 over inferior works as he had bestowed single nights upon the 
 creation of his happiest efforts. The opera of " The Fall of 
 Algiers " was the first fruit of his new appointment ; it was 
 succeeded by Sheridan Knowles' William TeU, " Angelina," 
 " Edward the Black Prince," and " The Coronation of Charles 
 X.," given in the summer of 1825. About this time "Faustus" 
 was produced with better fortune than the pieces which had pre- 
 ceded it, in consequence, doubtless, of the taste for diablerie, that 
 the success of " Der Freischiitz " had rendered prevalent. The 
 lengagement of Weber to -write Oberon for Covent Garden induced 
 the rival management to set Bishop to work upon an opera that 
 should oppose it ; and impressed with the magnitude of the 
 competition, he occupied more than a year in the extremely 
 careful composition of " Aladdin," which was produced in June, 
 1826, some weeks after Weber's opera had appeared. This had 
 the misfortime of being alhed to an even worse constructed drama 
 than " Oberon," without the advantage of the elegant writing 
 which characterizes that libretto ; and, lacking the individuality 
 of Bishop, without having the merit of Weber, though all the 
 resources of the theatre were brought to bear upon it, it met 
 with no success. At the end of the season Bishop wrote the 
 music for " The Knights of the Cross," which is, however, omitted 
 whenever that drama is now represented, and the same is the 
 case with what he composed for "Englishmen in India" the 
 following year. A great effort was made, about this time, to 
 restore VauxhaU Gardens to the fashionable esteem in which 
 that now despised place of entertainment was originally held; and, 
 besides the engagement of the principal ItaUan singers, and, 
 various other attractive celebrities, the appointment of Bishop 
 in 1830, as music-director, was intended to give an elevated 
 character to the arrangements. In this capacity he wrote many 
 songs, of which "My pretty Jane'' is one of the best known of all 
 his solo pieces. Respecting his first marriage there is nothing to 
 notice, except his notorious infidehty ; his second marriage, with 
 Miss Anne Rinere, who had been a student in the Academy, took 
 place about 1831, and the lady may have been, in some degree, 
 indebted to the influence of his high standing for her introduc- 
 tion to the prominent position she quickly attained as a vocalist, 
 which nothing but her own talent could enable her to hold. 
 Mrs. Bishop sang at Vauxhall, and at the so-called oratorios 
 daring Lent at the theatres, of which her husband again imder- 
 took the speculation for some successive seasons ; and she was, 
 before long, engaged at all the most important concerts in and 
 out of London. During the next years, Bishop wrote for Covent 
 Garden the operatic pieces of " Home, Sweet Home," the " Ro- 
 mance of a Day," and " Yelva ; " for Drury Lane " The Tyrolese 
 Peasant," and for the Haj-market "The Rencontre" and "Rural 
 Felicity," the last in 1834. Of more pretension than eitlier of 
 these was the opera of " The Doom Kiss," produced at Drury 
 Lane in 1832, and the music for Byron's " Manfred," given at 
 
 Covent Garden iii the autumn of 1834, which were both more 
 remarkable for care than for genius. Our composer, as were 
 several other resident musicians, was commissioned by the 
 Philharmonic Society in 1833 to write a work for their con- 
 certs, and the sacred cantata of "The Seventh Day" was what 
 he produced ; but this too, instead of ha^•ing been a labour of 
 love, is rather a proof of the love of labour. 
 
 Bishop was engaged as conductor at Drury Lane in the 
 season 1838-39, when the opera on the English stage had 
 already assumed a totally different character from that which it 
 bore at the time of his successes ; no longer was it a speaking 
 drama with episodical songs, glees, and choruses, but a continu- 
 ous lyrical work in which the entire action was illustrated by 
 music, and his quiet minute manner ill-fitted him to direct per- 
 formances of such magnitude and complexity. His extravagant 
 habits which, throughout his most fortunate days, caused him 
 ceaseless embarrassment notwithstanding his very large income, 
 made now a constant drain upon the earnings of his wife ; and, 
 as she had other causes of unhappiness in her home, it is matter 
 of small wonder that she left him in July, 1839, to pursue her 
 professional career in the chief cities of Europe, America, and 
 Australia, from which places she has always remitted funds for 
 the maintenance of her cluldren. In 1839 a committee of 
 gentlemen at Manchester gave a concert in the Theatre Royal, 
 consisting entirely of Bishop's music, those admirable pieces 
 from his early works that will always be counted among the 
 riches of the art, though the dramas for wliich they were 
 written have passed into oblivion ; this performance the com- 
 poser was in^-ited to conduct, and its very large proceeds were 
 presented to him as a substantial token of the artistic esteem in 
 which he was held, and of which the concert was a most gi-ace- 
 ful expression. In this year, too, he received the degree of 
 bachelor of music at Oxford, and his exercise was performed at 
 the triennial commemoration, of which he was conductor. In 
 the season of 1840-41, Bishop was engaged by Madame Vestris, 
 as director at Covent Garden, when he wrote the " Fortunate 
 Isles,"' to celebrate the queen's wedding ; but could not produce 
 the work untU some weeks after the event. This was his last 
 dramatic composition. In November, 1841, he was elected to 
 the musical professorship, founded by General Eeid, in the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, which he resigned in December, 1843, 
 without having delivered a single lecture, or fulfilled any of its 
 functions beyond the periodical residence in the city, and the 
 receipt of the salary. On the retirement of ilr. W. Knwett in 
 1840, Bishop was, for three years occasionally, and in 1843, per- 
 manently, appointed conductor of the Ancient concerts, which 
 office he held until the discontinuance of these performances in 
 1848. The distinction of knighthood was conferred upon him 
 in 1842, and on the occasion, singularly significant to music, 
 the military bands in attendance at the levee played only pieces 
 selected from his works. On the death of Dr. Crotch in 1848, 
 Bishop was appointed to the musical chair of Oxford, and, as 
 ■mth his predecessor during his latter years of administration, 
 this office was with him ahnost a sinecure ; he did nothing in his 
 quality of professor, but examined the exercises for degrees, and 
 write the ode for the earl of Derby's installation as chancellor in 
 1853, which was his last composition. On this occasion he 
 received the degree of doctor of music, the ode being considered 
 as his probational exercise. He officiated as chairman, at the 
 Great Exhibition in 1851, of the musical jury, whose just reward 
 of a first prize for Broadwood's pianofortes was, on account of 
 private pique, set aside by a higher board of non-musicians, and 
 he headed the jury's protest against this arbitrary decision. 
 For many years Sir Henry gave frequent musical lectiuvs at dif- 
 ferent institutions about the countn,-, which, being of the most 
 tri\'ial character, should scarcely have proceeded from one who 
 had been knighted by the queen's hand, who was the represen- 
 tative of the art in a learned university, and, most of all, 
 whose own career had given the world the right to expect every 
 thing from him to be in an artistic spirit. Besides the works 
 that have been named, he wrote an oratorio, " The Fallen 
 Angel," which has not been produced, and many detached 
 pieces ; he arranged several series of the national melodies to 
 which Moore wrote poems, and also a number with Dr. Mac- 
 kav's verses, to which his accompaniments are laboured, old- 
 fasliioned, cumbrous, and ineffective ; he edited a collection of 
 Handel's songs which extends to seven volumes, displaying great 
 care throughout ; and be collected the concerted pieces from his
 
 own works, and republished them together. His pecuniary dif- 
 ficulties were, shortly before his death, so great, that some of his 
 professional friends were endeavouring to compound with his 
 creditors, and to raise money for his relief, when that event 
 superseded the necessity for their exertions. When he died, a 
 subscription was opened for a monument *o him, which has 
 been erected over his grave in Finchley cemetery. Sir Henry's 
 name will be transmitted to posterity by his dramatic glees, in 
 which the decided and original character of the natural melody, 
 and the pure hannony, have a freshness that can never wither, 
 and their orchestration, which is clear, smooth, and resonant, is 
 quite pecuUar to the composer. In his early days he led the 
 public taste by liis writings, but afterwards, when inspiration 
 seems to have left him, he vainly tried to follow it. — G. A. M. 
 
 BISHOP, Joiix, a cathedral musician of much eminence, was 
 bom in 1G65. He was origin.illy a lay-singer in King's college 
 chapel, Cambridge, and in 1C95 was appointed organist of Win- 
 chester college. In 1729 he succeeded Vaughan Richardson as 
 organist of the cathedral. He wrote many excellent serrices and 
 anthems, and published two works, " Hannonia Lenis," and " A 
 Set of Kew Psalm Tunes, in four parts." He died in 1737 ; a 
 monument on the western wall of the college cloister at Win- 
 chester records both his virtues and his abilities. — (^Archives of 
 Winchester, and original sources.^ — E. F. R. 
 
 * BISHOP, JI., a private gentleman in London, who, having 
 amassed a considerable fortune, has not lost sight of the best 
 mode of expending it. He established the Observatory in 
 Regent's Park, which Mr. Hind has made so famous. A judi- 
 cious selection of instruments, and the absence of all distracting 
 employments, has enabled this acute and judicious obsei-ver to 
 contribute more to our knowledge of the Asteroids than any 
 other hving man. — (See Art. Hind.) Mr. Bishop, we feel assiu-ed, 
 esteems himself abundantly repaid. He has further defrayed 
 the expense, with his customary munificence, of the recent pub- 
 lication of Hind's Ecliptic Charts.— .J. P. N. 
 
 BISHOP, Sa:miiel, an English divine and poet, reputed the 
 author of the well-known farce, " High Life below Stairs," which 
 Garrick brought out as his own, bora in London in 1731. After 
 holding for some years the mastership of Merchant Tailors' 
 School, he was presented to the living of St. Martin Outwich, 
 and to the rectory of Ditton in Kent. Died in 1795. 
 
 BISHOP, WiLLiAJi, first Romish bishop in England after the 
 Reformation, born at Brayles, Warwickshire, in 1553, was edu- 
 cated at Oxford. He left the university in 1573 or 1574, and 
 after a short residence at Rheims, rcpau-ed to Rome, whence he 
 ■was despatched as missionaiy to England. On landing at Dover 
 he was imprisoned, but recovering his liberty in 1581 he went 
 to Paris, took his degree of licentiate, and returned to England. 
 In 1623 he was declared bishop-elect of Chalcedon, and em- 
 ]iowered to exercise episcopal jurisdiction over the Romanists of 
 ]']ngland and Scotland. His character was universally admu-ed, 
 notwithstanding the unpopularity of his office. — J. S., G. 
 
 BISI, BoNAVf:N"TURA Francis, who died in 16G2 at 
 Bologna, was a pupil of Massari. He painted miniatures and 
 minute decorative works for the duke of Modcna. He attempted 
 to imitate the gi-ace of Guido and the colour of Titian. — W. T. 
 
 BISSET, Charles, a Scotch physician, bora at Dunkeld in 
 Perthshire in 1717 ; after completing his studies at the univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh, entered the marine sen'ice, visited America 
 and the West Indies, and on his return to England pmxhased 
 an cnsigncy in the forty-second regiment, with which he ser\'ed 
 in France, Ireland, and in Dutch Flanders, distinguishing himself 
 particularly in matters of militjry engineering. He died at 
 Knayton, near Thirsk in Yorkshire, where he had practised for 
 a number of years, in 1791. His acquirements included a con- 
 siderable acquaintance with mathematics and engineering. " An 
 Essay on the Theory and Construction of Fortifications," 1751 ; 
 "A Treatise on the Scui-vy," 1755 ; " Medical Essays and Ob- 
 servations," 1766, are his principal works. — J. S., G. 
 
 BISSET, James, a miscellaneous writer, born at Perth in 
 1752 ; died at Leamington in 1832. Among his works are — "A 
 Guide to Leamington," 1814; and "A Poetical Tom'in the En- 
 virons of Birmingham," 1800. He was an industrious antiqua- 
 rian and curiosity-hunter, and left a valuable museum. 
 
 BISSET, Robert, LL.D., author of " .\ History of George 
 III.," and "A Life of Edmund Burke," was a native of Scotland. 
 Before adopting literature as a profession, he was for some tune 
 a schoolmaster at Chelsea. He died in 1805. 
 
 BISSO, Francesco, a Sicilian physician, born at Palcnnn, 
 and obtamed a reputation which extended over the whole of 
 Italy. In 1580 he was appointed by the king, Philip II., chief 
 physician of the kingdom of Sicily. He died in Palermo, 1598. 
 His principal medical work is an " Epistola Medica de Erysi- 
 pelato," Messina, 1589.— W. S. D. 
 
 BISSOLO, Peter Francis, flourished at Venice about 1520; 
 he was an imitator of Titian's master, Belhni, and attained a 
 certain gentle, good-natured softness of manner, but his motives 
 were not powerful. His heads are sometimes beautiful, and 
 always show a certain facility and sentiment. His best work is 
 a " Christ exchanging Saint Catherine's crown of thorns for one 
 of gold." Ancona possesses one of his masterpieces. He worked 
 with the JIurani. — W. T. 
 
 BISSONI, Giov. Battista, a Paduan painter, who lived 
 about 1576. He was first a scholar of Appolodoro, smTiamed II 
 Porcia, an eminent portrait painter, and then of Dario Varotari. 
 He studied at Rome, and was much employed at learned Padua. 
 Ravenna and his own Paduan chm-ches store up his works. He 
 died in 1636.— W. T. 
 
 BITHYAS, a Numidian general, who deserted the sen'ice of 
 Gulussa, son of Masinissa, an ally of the Romans in the Punic 
 wars, and went over to the Carthaginians. He was taken pri- 
 soner by Scipio and conducted to Rome. By special favom- he 
 was allowed to reside at large in one of the towns of Italy. 
 
 BITON (B/to.*), a Greek author, known solely by a work 
 
 entitled VLarairxiva.) ^oXiuixHv i^ydvuy zxi xxTKirO.TiXuv a CUn- 
 
 ous treatise on engines of war. The titles of some of the parts 
 are expressive of then* subjects ; as, XIit^o^oXom (the Stone- 
 thrower) ; 'Exiirc).!! (the City-taker). He also wrote a work on 
 optics that has not reached us. 
 
 BITZIUS, Aluekt, generally known under his nom de plume 
 Jeremias Gotthelf, an eminent popular writer, was bom at 
 Jlurten, 4th October, 1797, and died at Liitzelfliih in the cant'n 
 of Berne, 22d October, 1854. He led the usual uneventful litr 
 of a clergj-man, and, besides the discharge of his clerical duties, 
 published an astonishing number of tales and miscellaneous 
 writings, all of which are pen-aded by an earnest and traly pioiis 
 spirit, and tend to improve and christianize the common peojilr. 
 ^lost of them were originally written in the Swiss dialect and 
 afterwards translated into High-German. Perhaps the nio.-t 
 popular of them were " Kathi die Grossmutter," 1847 ; " Uli di-r 
 Knecht ;" and its continuation " UU der Pachter." — K. E. 
 
 BIUMI, Paolo Geronimo, an Italian physician, horn at 
 Milan. He went to Pavia to study medicine, took his degree 
 there in 1685, and afterwards practised in that town for some 
 years. From Pavia, Biumi returned to Milan, where he became 
 physician to the hospital, and in 1699 demonstrator of anatomy. 
 He died at Milan in 1731. His writings relating to anatomical 
 subjects were the soiuce of most of his celebrity.— W. S. D. 
 
 * BIXIO, Jacques Alexandres, an eminent French jour- 
 nalist, born in 1808 at Chiavari. He studied medicine at the 
 college of St. Barbe, but after taking his doctor's degi'ee, diverted 
 his attention to journalism ; estabhshed the Heme des Deux 
 Mondes ; published Maison Rusiique du dix neuvieme sieck, 
 and directed from its first issue in 1837 till 1848, the Journal 
 d'Ar/ricuhure pratiqtie. In 1848 he was for a short period a 
 member of the provisional government, and subsequently repre- 
 sentative of France at Turin. Returning to Paris, shortly befbre 
 the memorable 24th June, he was wounded while attempting to 
 rally the soldier}' after the fall of General Bedean. Having been 
 deputed to the assembly by the department of Doubs, he was 
 severally elected to the vice-president's chair. After the nomi- 
 nation of Louis Napoleon to the presidency, he was for a very 
 short period minister of agriculture and commerce, but since 
 June, 1851, has retired altogether from pubhc life.— J. S., G. 
 
 BIZZARI, Pietro. This distinguished historian, born at 
 Sassoferrato about the year 1530, began his hterary career in 
 Venice, where, it is said, he taught belles-lettres to a great con- 
 co'irse of students. In the expectation that Queen Elizabeth, 
 whom he had celebrated in some of his canzones, might gi-ant 
 him her patronage, he came to London in 1565 ; hut having 
 met with disappointment, he retumed to Italy, and remrjned 
 for a few months at Genoa. From thence he went to Holland, 
 befriended by the celebrated reforiner Hubert Languet, whose 
 religious principles, it is supposed, Bizzari adopted. Through 
 the influence of his patron he obtained an appointment in the 
 court of the elector of Saxonv, and in 1573 he went to Basle^
 
 where he published his Latin translation of the history of Hun- 
 gary. From Holland he crossed over to Antwerp, where he 
 met with the most flatteiing reception, and became acquainted 
 with all the literary celebrities of Belgium. Justus Lipsius 
 informs us that Bizzari visited Leyden in 1581, for the purpose 
 of disposing of the manuscript of his universal histoiy ; and 
 having retired into Germany, he devoted the rest of his life to 
 the revising of his works, principally written in the Latin lan- 
 _nwge. He has left many volumes on histoiy, and some poetical 
 ' .npositions, which have been published in the Delicia Poet- 
 ium Italorum, and in the Carmina Illustrium Poetarum Italia?. 
 He was still li%'ing in the year 1581 ; but the precise time of his 
 death is not known. — A. C. M. 
 
 BIZZELLI, Giovanni, a Florentine painter, bom in 1556. 
 
 He was a disciple of Allori, called Bronzino. He then went to 
 
 Riirae to copy, which some call studpng. Hsj was much 
 
 iployed in portrait, decorative, and historical painting, and on 
 
 s return home worked for the government of the domed city, 
 
 !id died, as he thought, crowned with fame, in 1612. — W. T. 
 
 BJACEO, Beknardixo, a Venetian artist who lived about 
 'a year 1560 ; bom at Udine in the FriuU. His convent frescos 
 '•■re fashionable among the monks. One of his best perform- 
 aices is a "Madonna and Child" in St. Luke's at Udine. — W. T. 
 BJELKE, Jexs, a member of the Norwegian government, 
 Korn 1st February, 1580, at Osteraad, in the district of Fosen 
 1 Xonvay. He wrote a summai-y of the Bible, and rendered the 
 ~:i]ms of David into verse ; he also versified the laws of Den- 
 mark and Norway. Died in 1659. — M. H. 
 
 B.JERING, Christian Gormsen, a Danish author, born 
 
 1 731, at Hjallese in Fmien. He was educated at the gyirmasium 
 
 r Odense. In 1761 he became the bookkeeper at the advertis- 
 
 g oifice in Copenhagen, where he published some of his works, 
 
 :id various newspapers. In 1771 he removed to Odense, where 
 
 e established an advertising and printing office. Here also he 
 
 j.blished various works and newspapers. He was the prin- 
 
 -ilial supporter of the Ladies' Newspaper (^Fi-ueniumneriiJemlen), 
 
 iblished in Copenhagen, and the Odense Advertiser and Intel- 
 
 L;encer (^Odense Addrefecontoirs Eflerretninger), which news- 
 
 , iper, carried on afterwards by his widow, is still in existence. 
 
 He died in 1776.— M. H. 
 
 BJERING, Christian Henrik, also a Danish writer and 
 
 lOet, bom at Korap in Funen, where his father was parish 
 
 ^erk. He studied at the gymnasium of Odense, and in 1760 
 
 ecame the pastor of Aastrup, where he died in 1801. His 
 
 orks are numerous; some few are written in Latin, one of 
 
 vhich, " Oliva pacis anno seculi undevigesuni primo Europai 
 
 j L-roptato porrecta," obtained for him a letter from Napoleon 
 
 lionaparte, with a gold snuff-box set with his portrait. — M. H. 
 
 BJERKEN, Peter von, one of the most celebrated Swedish 
 
 irgeons of the present centun,', was bom at Stockholm in 1765. 
 
 i:i 1781 he commenced his studies at Upsal, and in 1793 visited 
 
 London, where he became a pupil of the great English surgeon, 
 
 < -line, and practised in St. Thomas' and Guy's hospitals. In 1796 
 
 ■ •i returned to Stockholm, where he was appointed surgeon to 
 
 le venereal hospital. In 1802 he became surgeon to the king; 
 
 in 1808 surgeon-in-chief to the Swedish anny ; and in 1812 
 
 issessor of the medical college. He afterwards received the 
 
 ■rder of the polar star, and died at Stockholm on the 2nd Feb- 
 
 lary, 1818.— W. S. D. 
 
 BJORK, IsAK, a Swedish writer of ballets after the French 
 tyle. His " Lycko-pris," in honour of Charles XL's birthday, 
 '■■■ which all the gods and goddesses of the Greek mythology 
 .,aired, was gi-eatly admired at that time. Died 1669. — il. H. 
 BJORNSTAHL, Jakob Jonas, was bom 23rd Januaiy, 
 ' 731, at Nitarbo, in the Swedish pro\nnce of Sudemianland. He 
 tudied at Upsala, and afterwards became tutor in the family of 
 liiiron Budbeck, with whose son he travelled through France, 
 Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Holland, and England. During his 
 residence in Paris he studied the oriental languages, and on his 
 return received from Gustav III. a command to visit Greece, 
 Syria, and Eg}'pt, with the title of professor of the university of 
 Lund. At the cost of the king he travelled from London to 
 Smyrna and Constantinople, at which latter place he resided two 
 years in order to acquire the Turkish language. On his home- 
 ward journey he caught the plague at Salonichi, where he died 
 in 1779. The account of his journey, published in letters, was 
 printed at Stockholm in 1783, and contains much information 
 on coins, manuscripts, and ancient books, together with many 
 
 interesting anecdotes relative to Voltaire, whom he visited at 
 Feniey ; otherwise it does not rank very high. — JI. H. 
 
 * BJORNSEN, Bjorxstjerne, a young Norwegian author 
 of great promise. After having been for some time a writer on 
 the Morgenhlad at Christiania, he applied himself to the study 
 of aesthetics. His storj' called " Svnnove Solbakken," a tale of 
 Norwegian peasant life, remarkable for the fidelity of its pic- 
 tures, and the careful elaboration of its simple dramatis persons, 
 appeared first as a feuilleton. Bjomson's latest work is a drama, 
 '■ Mellem Slagene," which has been produced at Christiania, and 
 the author is at the present time director of the theatre at Ber- 
 gen. " Svnnove Solbakken," which has rapidly passed through 
 several editions, both in Denmark and Norway, where it is 
 deservedly popular, is translated into English by ilaiy Howitt, 
 in one vol. ; Hurst & Blackett, London. — JI. H. 
 
 BLACAS, Pierre Louis Jean Casimir, due de, an eminent 
 French statesrnan and diplomatist, devoted to the cause of royalty 
 in the troublous times of Louis XVIII. and Charles X., and ho- 
 noured with the particular friendship of both these monarchs ; bom 
 of an ancient Proveufal family at Aulps in 1770 ; died at Gijritz 
 in 1839. Entering France with the king, whose exile he had 
 shared, in 1814 on Napoleon's return from Elba, he endeavoured 
 to direct the royal counsels to immediate resistance, and failing 
 in that, exerted himself to prevent the king from carrpng out 
 his design of escaping to England, urging in the language of a 
 favourite of Henry IV., that to defend a kingdom, it is necessary 
 not to quit it. After the second restoration, the king, on account 
 of the unpopularity of his seiTant, was obliged to send him into 
 honourable exile at Rome, where he negotiated the concordat of 
 1817. Towards the latter end of the reign of Louis XVIII. , he 
 withdrew from public affairs. The revolution of 1830 di-ew him 
 from his retirement to share in the exile of Charles X., whom, 
 with rare devotion, he offered all his fortune. He was inteiTed 
 by his own request beside his master in the Franciscan church 
 at Goritz. Bhicas was a man of taste, a member of the Insti- 
 tute, and a munificent patron of art. He contributed largely to 
 the fonnation of the Musee Egyptienne, and left a fine collection 
 of antiquities, a description of which was published by M. Rei- 
 naud, Paris, 1828, 2 vols.— J. S., G. 
 
 BLACEO, Bernardino, lived about 1560, at Venice. 
 Ridolphi mentions works of his in the churches at Udine in the 
 Friuli. His large religious frescos still exist at St. Lucia, at 
 Udine, and Porta Nuova. 
 
 BLACK, John, was bom in 1783 near Dunse in Berwick- 
 shire. In his eighteenth year he went to Edinburgh, where he 
 was employed in a stationer's shop, and afterwards became a 
 clerk in a lawj-er's office. At twenty-seven years of age he set 
 off on foot to London, and obtained employment as a reporter for 
 the Morning Chronicle. He became editor of that paper shortly 
 before the death of Mr. PeiTy in 1821, and continued to discharge 
 its duties until 184-1. During that period his position as editor 
 of the recognized organ of hbei'al politics brought him into con- 
 nection with all the leading members of the whig party. J.'r, 
 Black's name desen^es mention in these pages as having been 
 among the first to discover and foster the abilities of Mr. Charles 
 Dickens, when he first commenced life as an unlalo^^'n reporter 
 in the employ of the Jforning Chronicle. Jlr. Black spent the 
 last few yeai-s of his life in retirement at Birling, Kent. During 
 his early stniggles in London, he translated from the French 
 A. de Humboldt's Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, 
 and Jlemoirs of Goldoni; also Travels through Norway and 
 Lapland from the German of Leopold, and Lectures on the 
 Drama and Dramatic literature from that of Schlegel. He died 
 June 15, 1855.— E. W. 
 
 BLACK, Joseph, an eminent Scottish chemist and natural 
 philosopher, was bom in 1728 in the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, 
 where his parents then resided. In 1746 he entered the univer- 
 sity of Glasgow, where he studied the natural sciences under 
 Drs. Dick and Cullen. Whilst completing his studies at Edin- 
 burgh, he was led to investigate the nature of the caustic alkalies; 
 and succeeded in estabUshing the important fact that their caus- 
 ticity was owing to the removal of carbonic acid. Burnt lime, 
 it was formerly supposed, imbibed some principle from the fire, 
 but Black showed that the heat merely expelled the carbonic 
 acid of the limestone. The same conclusion was of course applied 
 to magnesia. In 1756 he became lecturer on chcmistiy at the 
 university of Glasgow, where he was eminently successful. He 
 was stmck about this time with the loss of heat manifested
 
 during the melting of solid bodies and the evaporation of liquids; 
 and after carefully investigating these facts, he succeeded in 
 establishing the doctrine of latent heat, as generally admitted 
 in the scientific world. He also examined the specific heats of 
 certain bodies ; and with a view to test the accuracy of the ordi- 
 nary mercurial thermometer, he tried whether equal increments 
 of heat in difi'erent parts of the scale were always followed by 
 equal expansion. In 17GG he left Glasgow, having been appointed 
 professor of chemistry at Edinburgh. Here, though generally 
 admired for the perspicuity of his lectures, and the neatness of 
 his experiments, he does not seem to have entered upon any 
 original research of moment. Indeed his delicate health soon 
 rendered him incapable of severe exertion. He is said to have 
 been the first who applied hydrogen gas to the elevation of bal- 
 loons. But in this, as in other cases, he took no pains to estab- 
 lish a claim to the discovery. He died in November, 1799, 
 universally beloved and respected by his contemporaries.— J. W. S. 
 
 BLACKBOURNE, John, a nonjuring divine, born in 1683, 
 graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge. At the Revolution he 
 refused to take the oath of allegiance, and renouncing thus his 
 hopes of preferment in the chm'ch, became, in order to gain a 
 livelihood, corrector of the press to the celebrated Bowyer. In 
 this obscure position his merits were not overlooked by the chiefs 
 of his party, who prevailed on the exiled king to create him a 
 bishop. Nichols, who visited him at his house in Little Britain, 
 where he lived in the style of a recluse, was permitted to see the 
 commission for his consecration, and received the old man's 
 blessing, as it was given, devoutly. He edited Bales' Chronycle 
 conceniynge Syr Johan Oldecastell, 1729 ; Holinshed's Chro- 
 nicle; and the works of Bacon, 1740. Died in 1741. His epitaph 
 in Islington churchyard makes no reference to his episcopal rank, 
 but expresses his hatred of papists and low-churchmen, calling 
 him " Pontificiorum icque ac Novatorum IMalleus." — J. S., G. 
 
 * BLACKBURNE, Right Honourable Francis, LL.D., 
 lord justice of appeal in Ireland, was born in the year 1782 at 
 Footstown, m the county of Meath in Ireland, where his family 
 had been long established, and by his mother. Miss Hopkins, 
 is descended lineally from the celebrated Dr. Ezekiel Hopkins, 
 who was bishop of LondondeiTy during the memorable siege 
 of that city in 1688. The disturbed state of the countiy 
 compelled his family to take refuge in the metropolis, and 
 Francis was placed in the school of the Rev. William ^Vhite, 
 then the most eminent in Dublin. From this he entered as a 
 student of Trinity college, DubUn, in the year 1798. His college 
 course was a distinguished one; he obtained in 1801 a special 
 classical premium and the first scholarship, and took his degree 
 of A.B. in the spring of 1803, upon which occasion he obtained 
 the gold medal. At this period the historical society of Trinity 
 college was in its palmiest state. Young Blackbume was a 
 constant and distinguished debater there, and obtained its medals 
 both in oratory and history. He commenced the study of the 
 law during the continuance of his scholarship ; and, before its 
 expiration, he was called to the Irish bar in 1805, and went the 
 home circuit. From the first year Mr. Blackburne got into 
 practice, he was soon known as a sound and accomplished law- 
 yer, and his professional business went on increasing steadily till 
 in 1822, when he was deservedly called within the bar. During 
 the agrarian distm-bances in 1823, Mr. Blackbunie was selected 
 by Lord Wellesley to administer the insurrection act, as judge, 
 in the counties of Limerick and Clare ; and he continued till the 
 year 1825 to discharge the onerous and not very popular duties 
 connected with this position in a manner so impartial, so firm, 
 and so efficacious, that he gave entire satisfaction to all parties. 
 In 1826 he was appointed his majesty's third serjeant-at-law, 
 and was promoted to be second Serjeant in 1830 ; and such was 
 the confidence of the government in his judgment and knowledge, 
 and of the Roman catholic leaders in his integrity and modera- 
 tion, that his appointment upon a special commission of inquiry 
 by Lord Wellesley was accepted on all hands as a proof of the 
 eqvutable and humane intentions of the government. Upon the 
 formation of the ministry of Earl Grey in 1830, Jlr. Blackbume 
 was promoted to the vacant office of attorney-general for Ire- 
 land. For four years he continued to fill this office ; and it 
 may be safely affirmed that at no period during the present cen- 
 tury has any one filling this high place in Ireland been called 
 upon for the exhibition of higher qualities. In these perilous 
 times, Mr. Blackburne, as public prosecutor, displayed an amount 
 of vigour, finnness, temper, and moderation that enabled him to 
 
 suppress every attempt to break through the laws which the 
 state of the country rendered it necessary to unpose and strictly 
 enforce, and to be the chief instrument in maintaining British 
 supremacy in Ireland. After serving successively under Lord 
 Grey and Sir Robert Peel, upon the retirement of the latter in 
 1835 Mr. Blackburne went out of office. When Sir Robert 
 Peel returned to power in 1841, of course Mr. Blackburne resumed 
 the office which he had previously held under him, and continued , 
 attorney-general till November in the following year, when he 
 was promoted to the office of master of the rolls, upon the death 
 of Sir Michael O'Loghlen. He presided over tliis court till 
 January, 1846, when he was promoted by Sir Robert Peel to 
 the chief justiceship of the court of queen's bench, vacant by the 
 death of Mr. Pennefather. In his new office Mr. Blackbume 
 was eminently distinguished as an able and fearless administrator 
 of the high functions which devolve upon the chief of that court, 
 as well as for a profound knowledge of constitutional law. From 
 that period, and dmnng the entire of Lord John Russell's adminis- 
 tration, he continued to fill the office of chief justice, during a 
 crisis of great difficulty in Ireland, and was appointed vice-chan- 
 cellor of the university of Dublin in December, 1851. Upon the 
 accession of the earl of Derby to the premiership in Febmaiy, 
 1852, that nobleman committed the great seal of Ireland to Mr. 
 Blackbume. Lord Derby's administration terminated before the 
 expiration of the year, when Mr. Blackbume tendered his resig- 
 nation as chancellor of Ireland, which was at once accepted, and 
 he held office only till the appointment of his successor in the 
 beginning of the year 1853. From that time Mr. Blackburne 
 remained in retirement with the exception of occasionally sitting 
 as a member of the privy council. Upon the passing of the Irish 
 chancery appeal act in the session of 1856, the office of lord 
 justice of appeal was for the first time created. Dm-ing the 
 debates upon the bill m parliament, it was generally felt that 
 ]\Ir. Blackbume was pre-eminently the fittest perscm to fill that 
 office, and somewhat tantamount to a pledge was given that he 
 should be appointed. In consequence, in the month of Novem- 
 ber, 1856, Mr. Blackbmne was sworn in as lord justice of appeal. 
 As a lawyer while at the bar, and as a judge while on the bench, 
 Mr. Blackbume held the highest place. In the fomier position, 
 whether as an advocate or a prosecutor, no one of his day 
 surpassed him. His statements were masterpieces of forensic 
 eloquence, singularly lucid, simple, and brief; he placed every fact 
 before the court in the clearest light, and drew his conclusions 
 with a force that was irresistible ; while the power of his calm, 
 self-possessed, and solemn eloquence was deeply impressive. But 
 in his judicial position all these faculties attained their perfection. 
 His calmness rose to imperturbable deliberation, his self-posses- 
 sion to dignity, and the quiet, melodious tones of his voice gave 
 force to the dispassionate and impartial judgments which he 
 delivered. The high estimation in which Mr. Blackbume it, j 
 held in Ireland is affirmed by the best judges in England, and • 
 Lord Brougham and others have home testimony in parliament 
 to the gi-eat judicial qualities of Mr. Blackbume. — J. F. W. 
 
 BLACKBURNE, Francis, an English divine, celebrated as 
 the author of "The Confessional, or a full and fi-ee Inquiry into 
 the Right, Utility, Edification, and Success of estabhshing Syste- 
 matical Confessions of Faith and Doctrine," a work which occa- 
 sioned no end of controversy, was born at Richmond, in Yorkshire, 
 in 1705. His father was aldemian of that town, and his mother 
 was a descendant of the learned Dr. Comber, dean of Durham. 
 He was educated at Catherine hall, Cambridge, of which college 
 he expected to become fellow, but his principles, which were those 
 of Locke and Hoadly, opposed such obstacles to the realization 
 of that hope, that he retired from the university without taking 
 his degree. In 1739, however, having shortly before passed 
 M.A., he was appointed to the rectory of Richmond, and in 1750 
 to the archdeaconry of Cleveland, and later in the same year 
 to the prebend of Bilton. Many of his opinions on important 
 subjects were supposed to be so much at variance with those 
 generally received among the dignitaries of the church, that he was 
 frequently accused of a mercenary inconsistency in retaining his 
 preferaients ; but it would appear that, although on terms of 
 friendship with Priestley and Lindsey, and confessedly heterodox 
 on certain questions of church policy and government, he adhered 
 righteously in the main to the creed of the episcopal chmch, and 
 was more anxious to unite its members against papacy than to 
 divide them by the introduction of new dogmas. Besides " The 
 Confessional," he published in 1749 " An Apology for the Free
 
 and Candid Disquisitions relating to the CLurcli of England," 
 and a number of occasional pieces, chiefly of a controversial cha- 
 racter. Blackhiime died in 1787. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BLACKIE, John Stuart, professor of Greek in the univer- 
 sity of Eeiinburgh, was bom at Glasgow in 1809. At an early 
 age he was taken from that city to Aberdeen, where, in a private 
 school, he commenced his education. At the age of twelve he 
 was sent as a student to Marischal college, Aberdeen, and was a 
 student of arts for five years in Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He 
 tben attended theological classes for three years. In 1829 he 
 went to the continent ; first to Gottingen and Berlin, in Ger- 
 many, and then to Rome, where he spent fifteen months. His 
 linit publication was written in Italian. It was styled " Osser- 
 Aazioni sopra un antico Sarcophago," and was publislied in the 
 Annali del Instituto Archa;ologico, Eoma, 1831. On his return 
 to Scotland he studied law, having given up the idea of entering 
 the church, and passed advocate in 183-1. About this time his 
 translation of Faust appeared, which Lewes, in his life of Goethe, 
 quotes as bemg on the whole the best poetical translation. For 
 some time aftei-wards, he was principally engaged in contributing 
 10 the Foreign Quarterly Heview, Tait, Blackicood, and the 
 \restminster Beview, tlie study of literature pro\"ing more con- 
 crenial to him than that of law. In IS-ll Mr. Blackie was 
 appointed professor of humanity in Marischal college, Aberdeen, 
 m ofilce in which he remained for eleven years. At this time 
 began his labours in the cause of educational reform, which he 
 endeavoured to advance by public lectures, and by pamphlets 
 and newspaper articles. His pamphlets were entitled — -"An 
 Appeal to the Scottish People on the improvement of their 
 "scholastic and Academical Institutions ; " "A Plea for the 
 Libeities of the Scottish Universities;" " University Reform ; 
 nth a Letter to Professor PiUans." He also published two 
 ■ctures, one in English, and the other in Latin, " On the 
 "studying and Teaching of Languages." At this time he con- 
 tributed largely to the Classical Museum, and pubhshed sepa- 
 rately one of his articles " On the Rhythmical Declamation of 
 the Ancients." In 1850 appeared his translation of .Eschylus, 
 which was at once recognized as the most faithful and most 
 spirited, and therefore the best translation of the complete works 
 'f ^schylus in EngUsh. In 1852 he was elected to the profes- 
 sorship of Greek in Edinburgh university. His first publication 
 after his election was '' The Pronunciation of Greek ; Accent 
 and Quantity; a Philological Inquiry," 1852. In 1853 he 
 travelled in Greece, living in Athens for two months and a half, 
 md acqiiiring a fluent use of the li\-ing Greek language. He 
 i;ave some of the results of his studies there in an introductory 
 lecture " On the Living Language of Greece." In 1857 appeared 
 his " Lays and Legends of Ancient Greece, with other Poems." 
 During the whole period of his Greek professorship, he has been 
 actively employed in helping forward the cause of education. 
 'Jn this subject he addressed a letter to the town council of 
 Edinbtu-gh " On the Advancement of Learning in Scotland." He 
 lias also contributed occasionally to Blackwood, the North 
 British Review, the Westminster, and the Cambridge Philological 
 Journal, and an essay of his on Plato has appeared in the Edin- 
 burgh Essays, and articles on jEschylus and Homer in the 
 Encycloptedia Britannica. His latest work is "On Beauty; 
 f hree Discourses delivered in the University of Edinburgh, with 
 an Exposirion of the Doctrine of the Beautiful according to 
 Plato," 1858.— .1. D. 
 
 BLACKLOCK, Rev. Thomas, D.D., a person whose history 
 ■ las created considerable interest, because of the talents which 
 he displayed, and acquirements at which he anived, under the 
 most disadvantageous circumstances both of birth and accident. 
 He was the son of a Cumberland bricklayer, who settled in 
 Annan, Dumfriesshire, and was wholly dependent for his subsist- 
 nce and that of his fiimily on his personal labour. Thomas, 
 is son, was bom in 1721, and lost his sight by small-pox when 
 Illy six months old. His father, an intelligent as well as indus- 
 tnous man, spent much of his leisure in reading to and convers- 
 iig with his son, and in this way he became acquainted wth the 
 vorks of many of the best authors in the Enghsh language, and 
 i'articularly with those of some of the poets, for which he had a 
 -Teat relish. In his twelfth year he produced verses indicating 
 considerable talent, and continued courting the muses ever after. 
 He was also rapturously fond of music, in which he became a 
 great proficient. While he was in his nineteenth year, his 
 tather was accidentally killed, lea\-ing him in a state of help- 
 
 VOL I. 
 
 lessness and poverty. Nevertheless he expressed himself with 
 great piety and resignation in a soliloquy he wrote upon the 
 occasion. Some of his attempts at verse had been seen by 
 Dr. Stevenson, a physician in Edinburgh, who had him brought 
 to the metropolis m 1 741, and educated there at his own expense. 
 His studies were uitermpted by the rebelHon in 1745, and he 
 retm-ned for a time to his native place. Before doing so, he 
 published a volume of his poems, which the pubhc received with 
 approbation, more paiticularly on account of the special cir- 
 cumstances in which they were produced. On retummg to 
 Edinburgh he resumed his studies, and after passing throui^h 
 the Uterary classes, entered the divinity hall, with the view of 
 becoming a minister in connection with the established church 
 of Scotland. In 1754 he repubUshed his poems \N-ith additions ; 
 and in 1756 a quarto edition was published in London by sub- 
 scription, Hume the historian, and Spence, professor of poetiy at 
 Oxford, exerting themselves to promote the sale for the benefit 
 of the author. Having finished his theological course, he was 
 hcensed as a preacher of the gospel in 1759; and, throngh the 
 influence of the earl of Selku-k, obtained a crown presentation 
 to the parish of Kirkcudbright, over which he was ordained 
 minister in 1762. Tliis is the first known instance in which a 
 person deprived of sight was held competent to discharge the 
 functions of the ministry in connection with the established 
 church, and is likely to be the last, for the general assembly has 
 recently refused hcense to an individual similarly situated. The 
 parishioners among whom the poet was settled, were opposed 
 to church patronage in the abstract, and more especially to the 
 exercise of it in favour of a blind man. His style of preachmg, 
 which was phOosophieal and abstrase, was also disliked ; and 
 these facts coming to his knowledge, induced him, after two 
 years' retention of it, to relinquish his appointment, and accept 
 a very moderate anniuty in lieu of it. He removed to Edinburgh, 
 and sustained himself respectably by receiving young gentle- 
 men into his house as boarders, whose studies he assisted, while 
 preparing for the classes in the high school and college. The 
 university of Aberdeen confeiTed the degree of D.D. upon him 
 in 1766. He died 7th Jidy, 1791, in the 70th year of his age. 
 His principal poetical works are — "A PanegT,ric on Great Bri- 
 tain," 8vo, 1773, and "The Grahame," a heroic poem in four 
 cantos, 4to, 1774. Henry Mackenzie, author of the ilan of Feel- 
 ing, who published a posthumous volume of Blacklock's poetrv, 
 commends his " Ode to Aurora on ilelissa's birthday" as a compli- 
 ment and tribute of affection to the tender assiduity of an excellent 
 wile, which he had not anwhere seen more happUy conceived 
 or more elegantly expressed. But his poetry is regarded gene- 
 rally as tame, lanpiid, and commonplace. The marvel respecting 
 it is, that it should abound with accm'ate descriptions of nature, 
 which the author was incapable of contemplating. His prose 
 works, which display energy of thought and accuracy of expres- 
 sion, consist, besides two sennons, of " An Essay towards Uni- 
 versal Etymology, or the Analysis of a Sentence," 8vo, 1756, 
 and two dissertations, entitled " Paraclesis, or Consolations 
 deduced from Natural and Revealed Religion," one original, the 
 other a translation from a work ascribed to Cicero. Dr. Black- 
 lock has had a number of biographers, the later and more full 
 are Dr. Anderson and Mr. Gordon. — "\V. il'K. 
 
 BLACKLOE, Thomas, first professor of theology in the col- 
 lege of Douay, and afterwards canon of the London chapter 
 founded by Bishop. He opposed in the chapter the authority, 
 derived only from Rome, of Bishop's successors, Richard Smith 
 and Gage, and succeeded in driving the former from the kingdom, 
 and in causing the latter to resign his ofBce. He published some 
 pieces which were condemned by the inquisition, and having 
 attacked the Jesuits in his " Institutiones EthicK," he was also 
 censured by the faculty of theology at Douay. His " De Medio 
 Animarum Statu " had the fate of its predecessor, and his " De 
 Obedientiae et Gubemationis Fundamentis," was condemned by 
 the pariiament of 1661.— J. S., G. 
 
 BLACKMORE, John, an Enghsh mezzotinto engraver, 
 bom in the great foggj- city of London about 1740. Some well- 
 scraped plates by his son are stUl preserved. He chiefly engraved 
 Reynolds, his gross impudent Sam Foote, and his caricaturist 
 Bunbury, for example. — W. T. 
 
 BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, a very voluminous writer of 
 poetiy, medicine, historj-, and philosophy, whose works are more 
 remarkable for their size and good purpose than for their genius, 
 was phvsician to King William III. and Queen Anne. He was 
 
 4 G
 
 the son of Robert Blackmore of Corsham in Wiltsliire, an attor- 
 ney at law, and was in 1668 entered at Edmund Hall, Oxford. 
 He took his nuister's degree in 1676, and seems to have resided 
 at the university for thirteen years ; after which he travelled on 
 the continent, studied medicine, and was made doctor of physic at 
 Padua. He settled in Cheapside, London, and obtained an exten- 
 sive practice in the city, becoming fellow of the College of Phy- 
 sicians in 1G87. In 16'Jo his tirst work appeared. It was a 
 Jieroic poem in ten books, named " Pnncc Arthur," which found 
 many readers, and in two years passed through three editions. 
 It was, however, severely attacked and ridiculed by the critics, 
 but has been praised by Locke and Molincux, the latter of whom 
 was especially pleased with the song of " Jlopas," which cer- 
 tainly is not destitute of poetic merit. Two years later he pub- 
 lished his " King Arthur," in twelve books, which provoked still 
 more attacks than its predecessor. But its author was still 
 attended by professional success, was ajipointed one of the 
 physicians to King William, and received the honour of knight- 
 hood. In 1700 he published a " Paraphrase of the Book of 
 Job," and other parts of scripture, and now ranked Dryden 
 among his bitterest assailants, who, in allusion to the author's 
 confession that his " Prince Arthur" was composed " for the 
 greater part in coffee-houses, or in passing up and down the 
 streets," says that his poetry seems attuned " to the rumbling of 
 chariot wheels." He did not seek to conciliate the wits ; but 
 assailed them in a poem, published in 1700, named a " Satu-e on 
 Wit," in which he accuses Diyden of impurity, and the apfiear- 
 ance of which was the signal for the publication of upwards of 
 twenty satirical pieces, directed against him by the different writers 
 of the day. But Blackmore, nothing daunted, pursued the tenor 
 of his way, and gave to the world in 1705 another heroic poem, 
 in ten books, named " Eliza," which, however, fell stillborn from 
 the press. " It is never mentioned," says Johnson, in his Lives 
 of tlie Poets, " and was never seen by me, till I borrowed it for 
 the present occasion." A like fate awaited his other "heroic" 
 effort, in which he sought to enshrine " King Alfred" in twelve 
 books (1723); "for," says Johnson, "Alfred took his place by 
 Eliza in silence and darkness ; Benevolence was ashamed to 
 favour, and Malice was weary of insulting." His only work of 
 lasting merit appeared in 1712, under the title of " Creation, a 
 Philosophical Poem, demonstrating the existence and provi- 
 dence of God, in seven books." Addison concludes one of his 
 admirable essays on the poetry of ISIilton, by noticing Black- 
 more's " Creation" (Spectator, No. 339) : " The work," he says, 
 " was undertaken with so good an intention, and is executed 
 with so gi'eat a masteiy, that it desei-ves to be looked upon as one 
 of the most useful and noble productions in our English verse." 
 It would have been well for Blackmore had he been content with 
 this successful effort, for all his subsequent works were veiy 
 unpopular, and the neglect with which he was treated as a 
 writer, soon affected his practice as a physician. His prose works 
 we can only name. The subjects are strangely varied, they are 
 the " Lay Monastery," a series of papers in imitation, and 
 intended as a continuation of the Spectator ; " Essays upon 
 several subjects ; " a " History of the Conspiracy against King 
 William the Third ; " "A Discourse on the Plague," &c. ; " A 
 Treatise on the Small-Pox," in which he assails the practice of 
 inoculation ; " "A Treatise on Consumption," &c. ; on the 
 " Spleen and Vapours ; " " Gout, Rheumatics, King's Evil, 
 Dropsy, Jaundice," &c. ; " Just Prejudices against the Arian 
 Hypothesis ; " " Jlodem Arians Unmasked ; " " Natural Theo- 
 log}'," &c. ; " The Accomjjlished Preacher ; " which last work 
 apiieare.l after the author's death, in 1729. Blackmore exhibits 
 in his ntmicn.us works (our space has not pennitted us to name 
 them all) little genius ; but he was ever distinguished for a high 
 and noble purpose ; and in all the assaults of which he was the 
 object, there is not a word castiug doubt on the integrity of his 
 character. — (Johnson's Lives of the foe/s.) — J. 15. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, John, an apothecary in London, lived at 
 the beginning of the eighteenth centuiy. In 1737 he published 
 a fasciculus of 527 indigenous plants, found in the neighbourhood 
 of Ilarefield ; also a work on some rare English plants, as an 
 addition to Ray's Synopsis. He died in 1753. Hudson gave 
 the name of Blackstonia to the genus afterwards called Chlora 
 by Linna;us. — J. H. 15. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, Wii.ijaim, author of "Commentaries on 
 the Laws of England:" born in London in 1723. His parents 
 died while he was yet an infant. At seven years of age he was 
 
 sent by an uncle to the charter-house, and at twelve placed on 
 the foundation. At sixteen he entered Pembroke college, Oxford. 
 In 1743 he was elected fellow of All-Souls college, and in three 
 years after was called to the bar. He seems to have failed in 
 obtaining practice, and he retired to Oxford. His connection 
 with the duties and studies of his profession still continued. In 
 1749 his uncle resigned the recordership of Wallingford, Berks, 
 in his favour. The professorship of civil law in the university of 
 Oxford being vacant, Lord Mansfield, then Mr. Murray, recom- 
 mended Blackstone to the duke of Newcastle to fill it. His 
 right to the office, if superior fitness constitutes right, could not be 
 denied ; however a political adherent of the government, utterly 
 ignorant of law, civil, canon, and common, but considered the best 
 electioneering agent in the whole university, was appointed to 
 expound the pandects vi-hich he had never read and could not 
 construe. (Lord Campbell's Lives of C. Justices, vol. ii., p. 379.) 
 The miiversity of Oxford had made no aiTangement for instruc- 
 tion in the principles of English law. This led Blackstone to 
 think of suplying the want, and he delivered a course of lectures 
 in Michaelmas term, 1753. The lectures were so successful 
 that the importance of appointing a professor permanently was 
 very generally felt, and funds were supplied, by means of which 
 the Vinerian professorship was founded. Blackstone was now 
 invited to read his lectm-es to the prince of Wales. His engage- 
 ment with Oxford made him decline this honour. The reputa- 
 tion of his lectures, and of an edition of the Great Charter, 
 which he published, led to his being employed in the law courts, 
 and his practice soon became veiy considerable. In 1761 he 
 sat in parliament for Hindon. In 1762 he obtained a patent of 
 precedence, and in 1763 was appointed solicitor-general to the 
 queen. He was offered the chief-justiceship of the common 
 pleas in Ireland, which he declined. About this time he married 
 Sarah, eldest daughter of James Clitheroe, Esq., of Boston house, 
 Middlesex, by whom he had nine children, seven of whom sur- 
 vived him. He was soon after his marriage appointed principal 
 of New Inn hall. This appointment, as well as the Vinerian 
 professorship, he resigned in the following year. In 1765 the 
 first volume of his " Commentaries on the Laws" was published, 
 and three others soon followed. It was impossible that the 
 book, admired as it was, and deserved to be, should not awaken 
 adverse criticism; and three formidable antagonists were soon 
 in the field — Bentham, Priestley, and the formidable shadow to 
 which men have not yet been able to give a more fixed name 
 than that under which his letters appeared in the newspapers of 
 the day- — the mysterious Junius. Bentham was one of Black- 
 stone's law class in Oxford. In his lectures, Blackstone had to 
 state not only the rules and maxims of law, but the reason.", 
 assigned by the old jmists for these rules and maxims. The 
 reasons assigned by the old jurists are often merely fanciful, and 
 have no real connection with the rules and maxims themselves. 
 A rule existed because some rule or practice should be adopted ; 
 and the reason assigned for it was seldom more than a crotchet, 
 invented originally, most probably, to aid the memory. It woidd 
 perhaps have assisted Bentham's main argument to have honestly 
 slated this, instead of trying to work his readers into the belief 
 that what are called the maxims of the law are supposed by 
 professional lawyers in reality to rest on such grounds. Priestley 
 was displeased at what was said of the dissenters, and there can 
 be no doubt that Blackstone habitually states the existing law, 
 as if any modification or alteration of it could not be contem- 
 plated without danger to the whole structure. The attacks of 
 these writers, and yet more the way in which he was dealt with 
 by Junius, aided him with Lord North's ministiy. In 1770 he 
 was offered the solicitor-generalship, which he declined. He 
 was then made one of the justices of the common pleas, but to 
 convenience ]\Ir. Justice Yates, who wished to retire from the 
 king's bench to the common pleas, a different arrangement was 
 adopted. On Yates' death, which soon afterwards occurred, he 
 went to the common pleas, where he sat till his death in Februaiy, 
 1780. Blackstone is one of the many eminent English lawyers 
 of high reputation, whom professional occupation did not wholly 
 detach from the studies of polite literature. Eveiy now and 
 then we find some instructive note of his in the variorum editions 
 of Shakspeare, and the " Lawyer's farewell to his Muse," first 
 published in Southey's Specimens of English Poctiy, is a very 
 graceful poem. In All-Souls college, Oxford, there is a statue of 
 Blackstone by Bacon, and in one of the chapel windows are his 
 arms. His portrait is in the pictm-e gallerj^ of the university.
 
 The family of Blackstone are publishing an elementary trea- 
 tise on architecture, written by him in early life, and illustrated 
 by drainnfjs from his own pen. — J. A., D. 
 
 BLACKSTONE or BLAXTON, AVilliam, a puritan clergy- 
 man, the tirst European occupant of the ground which is now 
 the city of Boston in New England. The lime and place of liis 
 birth are not known ; but he was educated at Emmanuel college, 
 Cambridge, where he became A.B. in 1G17, and A.M. in 1621. 
 How he came to America is not ascertained. He may have been 
 one of the company brought over by Gorges for his unsuccessful 
 settlement at Wessagusset in 1G23. When John Winthrop 
 airived, seven years afterwards, leading the company which 
 founded the colony of Massachusetts, Blackstone was dwelling 
 alone in a cottage, on a peninsula called by the Indians, Shaw- 
 mut, a name soon changed to Boston. The sort of hermit life 
 which he led there, without a wife or any other companion, and 
 the mystery which covered his earlier years, caused some fables 
 to be invented concerning him, which were handed down by 
 tradition. One was, that he had tamed a bull, on which he 
 used to ride round the peninsula, and even into the adjoining 
 country. He was certainly a learned person, as he had a good 
 stock of books, among which were eleven quarto or folio volumes 
 in Latin. He was probably an eccentric recluse, who at an early 
 age had conceived some disgust with the world. This conjecture 
 is supported by his subsequent liistory, which proves that he 
 sought entire seclusion from his fellows. At first he claimed 
 the whole peninsula, on the ground that he was the first white 
 man who had slept upon it. This the company, who claimed 
 all the tenitoiy under their charter, would not allow ; but at a 
 court held April 1, 1633, it was agreed that Mr. William Black- 
 stone shall have fifty acres of ground set out for him near to his 
 house in Boston. This was at least a fourteenth part of the 
 whole peninsula. The next year he sold back the greater part 
 of this reservation to the other inhabitants for £30 ; and having 
 purchased some cows with the money, he removed with them 
 farther into the country, then a wilderness, in order that he 
 might be alone once more. He established his new residence in 
 what is now the town of Cumberland, Rhode Island, on the 
 banks of the beautiful river which now bears his name. Here 
 he lived a quiet life, cultivatmg his garden and orchard, and 
 studying his books. His passion for solitude seems to have 
 gradually abated, as we find that he was married, July 4, 1659, 
 wheu he must have been over sixty years old, to Mrs. Sarah 
 Stevenson of Boston. She bore him one son, who survived him. 
 The old man died in May, 1675, just before the breaking out of 
 Philip's war, and was buried on his own farm, where a large 
 white stone still marks his grave. A passion for independence 
 must have mingled with his love of solitude, for he is reported 
 to have said, on quitting Boston, " I came from England because 
 I did not like the lord-bishops ; but I can't join with you, because 
 I would not be under the lord-brethren." — F. B. 
 
 BLACKWALL, Anthony, a biblical critic of considerable note, 
 born in Derbyshire in 1674. He was admitted sizar of Emmanuel 
 college, Cambridge, 1690, and after taking his degree of M.A., 
 1G98, became head-master of the free school of Derby, and lec- 
 turer of All-Hallows in that town. In 1722 he was appointed 
 head-master of the free school of Market Bosvvorth ; and in 1726 
 was presented by Sir H. Atkins, who had formerly been his 
 pupil, to the rectoiy of Clapham, Surrey. This living he resigned 
 in 1729, and returned to Bosworth, where he died in the follow- 
 ing year. He is the author of a well known work, " The Sacred 
 Classics Defended and Illustrated," the first volume of which 
 appeared in 1725, and the second shortly after his death. His 
 object in that scholarly and interesting treatise was to vindicate 
 the sacred penmen from the charge of inelegance in respect of 
 style, and to show that certain passages adduced as barbarisms, 
 may be defended on classical authority. — J. S., G. 
 
 BLACKWELL, Alexander. See Blackwei,l,Elizabetii. 
 
 BLACKWELL, Elizabeth, was the wife of Dr. Blackwell, 
 who was condemned for crimes of state, and suffered death on 
 the scaffold in Sweden in 1717. Her husband was a native of 
 Aberdeen, where he received the elements of his education. He 
 seems to have taken the title of doctor of medicine at Leyden, 
 and after attempting practice in Scotland, and subsequently 
 leaving a practice in London, to have settled in Sweden. His 
 wife was fond of botany, and had a genius for drawing and 
 painting. During his difficulties she contrived to supi>ort herself 
 by these accomplishments, and was enabled to liberate her hus- 
 
 band from jail on one occasion, by paying his debts from the 
 profits of her drawings. She was enabled to get fresh specimens 
 of plants for delineation by the kindness of Mr. Rand, demon- 
 strator in the Chelsea garden. After she had completed her 
 drawings she engraved them on copper, and coloured the prints 
 with her own hands. She published a work in 2 volumes, folio, 
 entitled " Curious Herbal, containing 500 cuts of the most useful 
 plants which are now used in the practice of physic, engraved 
 on folio copperplates, after drawings taken from the life ; to 
 which is added, a short description of the plants, and their com- 
 mon uses in physic," 1737-1739. Her work was recommended 
 by Dr. Mead, Dr. Sherard, and others, and was approved by 
 the College of Physicians. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLACKWELL, George, an English Romanist, born in Mid- 
 dlesex in 1545, was educated at Oxford. He was M.A., and for 
 some time fellow of Trinity college, but having embraced catholic- 
 ism he resigned his fellowship, and retired to a Romish seminary 
 on the continent. During a residence of some years at Rome, 
 he became acquainted with Cardinal Bellarmine, and the cele- 
 brated Jesuit, Robert Persons, by whose interest, when it had 
 been determined at the Vatican to attempt a revival of the 
 Romish hierarchy in England, he was appointed archpriest over 
 the secular clergy, with power to settle, in conjunction with 
 Garnet, provincial of the Jesuits, the disputes which had arisen 
 between that order and the seculars. His appointment, of which 
 Cardinal Cajetan, recognized at Rome as protector of the English 
 nation, was the instrument, embittered rather than quelled the 
 dissensions of English Romanism. The seculars pronounced him 
 a mere creature of the Jesuits, and treated his pretensions, 
 which, they said, were allowed by an individual cardinal, but not 
 sanctioned by the pope, with the utmost contempt. They even 
 appealed to Clement VIII., delegating two of their number to 
 sue at Rome the deprivation of the archpriest, or, at least, 
 the restriction of his powers. Persons received the deputies, 
 treated them to the comforts of a prison mitil a bull had been 
 prepared confirmatory of the archpriest's appointment, and then 
 dismissed them. An appeal to the faculty of divines at Paris 
 was the next i-esom-ce of the seculars, and to this they betook 
 themselves. The university of Paris'decreed that the archpriest's 
 conduct in charging the secular clergy with schism and sin was 
 indefensible, but this ordinance was of no value in presence of 
 the bull of April 6th, 1599. As soon as the latter was received 
 in England, the refractory regulars duly submitted, but submis- 
 sion was too late for the irritable archpriest, who persisted in 
 treating them as schismatics and sinners. A second appeal to 
 the pope in 1600 resulted in a letter of admonition to the arch- 
 priest, in which he was recommended to milder courses, and a 
 third, in 1602, was so far successful as to draw down on him the 
 censure of the holy see for occasional excess in the exercise of 
 his authority. This satisfied the seculars, and restored peace to 
 the chiirch. Blackwell's conduct during the agitated period of 
 the Powder Plot was more honourable and independent than 
 could have been augured from his former career. In a circular 
 dated November 28, 1605, he denounced that conspiracy as 
 " detestable and damnable, a most grievous offence to God, scan- 
 dalous to the world, utterly unlawful in itself, and against God's 
 express commandments." He took the oath of allegiance, 
 enacted in consequence of the plot, and had the boldness to issue 
 a pastoral letter maintaining its lawfulness. On this point, how- 
 ever, the archpriest found himself in opposition to the head of the 
 church, Paul V., who, in successive briefs, condemned the oath 
 as flat treason to the holy see, the deposing power of the pon- 
 tifFs being stigmatized therein as impious and heretical. In 1607 
 Blackwell was apprehended for corresponding with his old friend 
 Cardinal Bellarmine, and examined before a board of commission- 
 ers at Lambeth. An account of the trial was published shortly 
 after, from which it would appear that his English feeling with 
 respect to papal supremacy in matters temporal completely dis- 
 armed his judges. His last public act was to issue another letter 
 recommendatory of the oath. He was superseded in 1608, and 
 died suddenly in 1612. — J. S., G. 
 
 BLACKWELL, TiiosiAS, brother of Alexander, principal of 
 Marischal college, Aberdeen, born in that city in 1701, took his 
 degree of M.A. in 1718 ; and in 1723, being then only 22 years 
 of age, was appointed professor of (Jreek. His enthusiasm fur 
 the language and literature of Greece he was successful in com- 
 municating to several pupils, who aftenvards became eminent ; 
 among others, Principal George Campbell, anil Dr. James Beattie ;
 
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 and what exhibits his merits as a professor to still greater advan- 
 tage, he was successful in giwng an impetus to the study of both 
 throughout the northern part of the kingdom, where very little 
 had been heard of either for several generations. In 1748 he 
 was appointed principal of the college. This position, which had 
 not been filled by a layman since the patronage of the college 
 came to the crown by the forfeiture of the JIarischal family iu 
 1716, he occupied with gi-eat credit, and with no little advantage 
 to the institution; many abuses, which had crept into it through 
 laxity of discipline, having been reformed under his somewhat 
 rigorous nde. In 1752 he took the degree of LL.D. His health 
 having been seriously unpaired by his multifarious labours, he 
 resolved, about the beginning of 1757, to spend some time abroad; 
 but had only reached Edinburgh when his disease assumed a 
 fatal aspect. He died in that city in March, 1757. To his 
 best-known work, " An Inquiry into the Life and Writings of 
 Homer," is generally conceded the merit of considerable research, 
 and, as generally excepted, the faults of affectation in style, and 
 occasional irrelevance in matter, the learned author having chosen, 
 unfortunately for bis fiune, to mimic the style of his idol, Lord 
 Shaftesbuiy, and to display somewhat too prodigally bis extensive 
 acquaintance with polite as well as classical literatm-e. His other 
 works are — " Proofs of the Inqniiy into Homer's Life and Writings," 
 1746; '• Letters concerning Mythology," 1748 ; and " Memohs 
 of the Court of Augustus." The first volume of the last-men- 
 tioned work appeared in 1752, the second in 1755, and the third, 
 which, having been left unfinished by the author, was prepared 
 for the press by John Mill, Esq., in 1764.— J. S., G. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, Adam, a Scottish writer, born at Dunferm- 
 line in 1539. As his fiither was killed in battle before he had 
 reached his tenth year, and his mother died soon after of grief, 
 his granduncle Robert Eeid, bishop of Orkney, and president of 
 the court of session, sent him to the university of Paris, where 
 he made considerable progress in classical studies. On the death 
 of his uncle he revisited his native country, but speedily returned 
 to Fi-ance, where, by the liberality of liis youthful sovereign, 
 Queen JLir}', he was enabled to complete his studies in philosophy 
 and mathematics at the university of Toulouse. On the recom- 
 mendation of Ai'chbishop James Beaton, Queen Mary appointed 
 Blackwood councillor or judge of the parliament of Poitiers. In 
 1572 he published a poem on the death of the infamous Charles 
 IX., and in the following year the first two books of a work, 
 " De Vinculo seu Conjunctione Religionis et Imperii," &c. A 
 third was added in 1615 ; the object ot this treatise is to show 
 the duty of rulers to preserve the tnie religion from the innova- 
 tions of heretics. In 1581 appeared his reply, entitled "Apolo- 
 gia pro Rcgibus," to Buchanan's dialogue De Jure Regni. 
 This treatise, though slavishly advocating the divine right of 
 kings, displays no inconsiderable amount of talent and learning. 
 On the death of his benefactress. Queen Maiy, Blackwood pub- 
 lished in French in 1588, under the title of "Martyr de Maria 
 Stuart Reyne d'Escosse," a long account of her death, and a zeal- 
 ous vindication of her character. It abounds in the most unblush- 
 ing falsehoods, and heaps the most scurrilous charges upon Mary's 
 enemies, especially upon Queen Elizabeth and John Knox. In 
 spite of Blackwood's notorious mendacity, his statements are 
 quoted by the authoress of the Queens of Scotland, as if they 
 were entitled to imphcit cretUt. Besides these his best-known 
 works, Blackwood is the author of a small volume of Latin 
 poems, and a collection of pious meditations in prose and verse, 
 entitled " Sanctarum Precationum Proemia." A complete edition 
 of his works in prose and verse was published in 1644, by the 
 learned Naudeus, in one volume, 4to. Blackwood died in 1613, 
 at the age of seventy-four. — J. T. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, Henky, elder brother of the preceding, was 
 dean of the faculty of medicine in the university of Paiis, and 
 author of various treatises both on medicine and phOosophy. 
 He is believed to have been one of the earliest modern physicians 
 who followed the practice of letting blood. His zealous and 
 disinterested efforts for the welfare of his patients while the 
 plague raged in Paris gained him great applause. His son 
 Henry, a person of great talents, but of a fickle and intriguing 
 character, was professor of medicine and surgery at Rouen, and 
 published several works, among which was a Latin translation 
 of the Prognostics of Hippocrates. Died in 1634. — J. T. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, Sir Hknuy, Bart., a distinguished British 
 admiral, seventh son of Sir John Blackwood of Ballyleidy, in 
 the county of Dovm. His mother, Dorcas, eldest daughter of 
 
 James Stevenson, Esq., was created in 1800 Baroness DufFerin 
 and Claneboye. Heniy entered the navy in 1781, and was 
 present with Admiral Parker in the engagement off Doggerbank. 
 He was senior-lieutenant of the Invincible in the memorable 
 battle in which Lord Howe defeated the French fleet. In 1797 
 he was made captain of the Brilliant of 28 guns; and next 
 year maintained for several hours a running fight with two 
 powerful French frigates mounting 44 guns, and after inflicting 
 great damage on his opponents, made his escape. He was next 
 removed into the Pendope (36), a frigate celebrated alike for 
 fighting and for speed. It was owing to bis combined vigilance 
 and valom' while in this ship, that the Guillaume Tell, the flag- 
 ship of Admiral Decres, which after the battle of the Nile had 
 found refuge in the port of Valetta at Malta, was pursued and 
 captured in an attempt to escape In 1803 Blackwood obtained 
 from Lord St. Vincent the command of the Euryalus, a frigate 
 of 36 guns. In this vessel he rendered signal service to Nelson 
 at the crowning victory of Trafalgar, by his vigilance, and by 
 conducting the British fleet to the locaUty where the enemy's 
 ships were to be found. The great admiral, who highly appre- 
 ciated the sen'ices of this meritorious oflicer, took leave of him 
 as he was going into battle with these prophetic words, " God 
 bless you, Blackwood, I shall never speak to you again ; " and 
 tov^rards the close of the fight he reached the cockpit of the 
 Victory just as Nelson was breathing his last. Blackwood was 
 next year promoted to the command of the Ajax of SO guns, 
 and accompanied Admiral Duckworth in the expedition against 
 Constantinople. But on the night of the 14th July, 1807, his 
 fine vessel unfortunately caught fire at the entry of the Darda- 
 nelles, and was completely destroyed, with the loss of many of 
 the crew. The captain, who throughout was remarkably cool 
 and collected, was picked up by one of the boats of the Canopus, 
 after struggling in the water for half an hour. After serving 
 successively and with great distinction in the Baltic and the 
 Mediten-anean, and at the blockades of Toulon, of Brest, and 
 of Rochefort, Blackwood was in 1814 appointed captain of the 
 fleet assembled at Spithead under the duke of Clarence, on the 
 occasion of the ^asit of the allied sovereigns to England. He 
 was shortly after advanced to the rank of rear-admiral, and 
 created a baronet. In 1819 he was nominated a K.C.B., and 
 appointed commander-in-chief on the East India station. He 
 died at Ballyleidy, December 17, 1832.— J. T. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, Williaji, the well-known publisher of 
 Blackwood's Magazine, was born at Edinburgh, 20th November, 
 1776. He early showed a love of literature, and to gratify his 
 taste for books he was, when only fourteen years of age, appren- 
 ticed to Bell and Bradfute, booksellers in his native city. He 
 found leisure to make himself acquainted with the contents cf 
 many of the works which passed through his hands, acquiring a 
 special knowledge of Scottish history and antiquities. After 
 remaining six years in the employment of this house, he removed 
 to Glasgow, where he was intrusted with the whole management 
 of the bookselling department of the business of Mr. Mundell, 
 bookseller and university printer. He next returned to Edin- 
 burgh, to his former employers, and in 1799 began business in 
 partnership with a Mr. Ross. He did not long continue in this 
 connection, but went to London, where, in the shop of IMr. Cutbell, 
 he acquired an extensive knowledge of old and rare books. On 
 his return to Edinbm-gh in 1804 he opened a shop on the South 
 Bridge, where he devoted his attention principally to the anti- 
 quarian branch of liis business ; indeed his knowledge of old 
 books has rarely been equalled. In 1812 he published his famous 
 catalogue of above 15,000 books, in various languages, carefully 
 and judiciously classified. Wlien in 1816 he removed to the new 
 town of Edinburgh, Mr. Blackwood disposed of his old stock, and 
 devoted himself to the business of a general publisher. By his 
 liberality and enterprise he did much to advance the interests of 
 literature, and won for himself the friendship of veiy many dis- 
 tinguished men, with whom he had business relations. In 1817 
 appeared the first number of the famous Blachvood's Marjazine, 
 which, in the hands of Christopher North and other able editors, 
 has for forty years maintained the position of one of our leading 
 literaiy journals. The magazine was started on tory principles, 
 to oppose the whig party who conducted the Edinburgh Review, 
 and it has ever since remained true to the original intention of 
 the founder. Jlr. Blackwood was known as a singulaily upright, 
 kind-hearted man, and received many civic honours in his native 
 city. He died 16th September, 1834.— J. B.
 
 
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 BLAES or BLASIUS, Geehardt, a Dutch physician of the 
 seventeenth centuiy, studied at Copenhagen and Leyden, and 
 took his degi-ee as doctor of medicine at the hitter university in 
 1646. He then practised for some time in Amsterdam, became 
 professor in the gymnasium tliere in IGGO, and soon afterwards 
 physician to the hospital and librarian. In 1682 he was elected 
 into the Acadeniia Nature Curiosonmi, under the title of 
 Podahrius II., but he did not long enjoy this honour, as he died 
 at an advanced age in the coiu'se of the same year. He was an 
 industrious writer, and gave to the world editions of the works 
 of numerous authors on medicine and anatomy. The latter science 
 was his own favourite study, and his reputation for anatomical 
 knowledge was very gi'cat among his contemporaries. His know- 
 ledge of anatomy appears to have been gained more by the 
 dissection of animals than by that of the human subject, and his 
 principal work is entitled " Zootomire, sen Anatomes variorum 
 animalium pars piima," which was published at Amsterdam in 
 1676, in 12ino, and again in 1G81 in quarto, under the title of 
 "Anatome Compilatitia Animalium," <!ic. — W. S. D. 
 
 BLAGDEN, Sir Charles, an eminent English physician 
 and chemist, born in 1748. He took his doctor's degree at Edin- 
 burgh in 17G8 ; his thesis on the occasion, which was afterwards 
 printed, being " De Causis Apoplexiffi." Entering the anny as 
 a phj'sician, he rose to eminence, and acquired a considerable 
 fortune, to which on the death of Cavendish was added a 
 sum of £16,000, the gift of that celebrated chemist to his friend. 
 For nearly half a century he lived on terms of intimacy with 
 Sir Joseph Banks, and many other famous men of science both in 
 his own country and in France, and was for a number of years 
 one of the secretaries of the Koyal Society. At Paris, where he 
 usually resided some months of the year, his reputation, for- 
 tune, and courteous manner, enabled him to foster the intercourse 
 of learned men of this countiy and of France, and by that means 
 to promote the interests of science. An account of his experi- 
 ments m a heated room, in company with his friends. Dr. George 
 Fordyce and Sir Joseph Banks, and a number of other papers on 
 subjects of considerable interest, are to be foixnd in various volumes 
 of the Philosophical Transactions. He died suddenly from an 
 effusion in the brain in 1820, at Arcueil, in the residence of the 
 celebrated chemist, Count Berthollet. — J. S., G. 
 
 BLAGIiAVE, John, an eminent mathematician of the seven- 
 teenth century, and author of several works, was born at Bul- 
 marsli Court, near Sunning, Berks ; lived at Reading, Berks, 
 and died there August 9, 1611. He wrote on the astrolabe, 
 the art of dialling, &c. — T. J. 
 
 BLAGRAVE, Joseph, an English medical man and astro- 
 loger, was born in 1610, and died in 1679. He published a 
 supplement to Culpcjiper's English Physician, containing an 
 account of medicinal plants, and of the virtues of herbs. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLAGRAVE, Thomas, a musician, and a gentleman of the 
 royal chapel in the reign of Charles I. and II. He was de- 
 scended from the family of that name in Berkshire. A few of 
 his songs are printed in Playford's Select Ayres and Dialogues, 
 1659, folio ; and his portrait is preserved in the music-school at 
 Oxford. He died in 1G88.— E. F. R. 
 
 * BLAGROVE, Henry Gamble, a violinist, was born at 
 Nottingham in October, 1811. He was first taught by his father, 
 and subsequently by Spagnoletti. Being one of the original 
 students of the Royal Academy of Music at its opening in 1823, 
 he was there placed under F. Cramer, and finally in 1833 he 
 spent eight months with Spohr, receiving his constant lessons. 
 He first played in public when five years old, and while yet a 
 child was daily exhibited as a prodig}'. He was appointed solo 
 violinist to Queen Adelaide in 1830, "and held that office (with 
 leave of absence during his sojourn in Germany), till the 
 private band was dismembered on the death of the king in 
 1837. From this year till 1842 he gave an annual series of quartet 
 concerts, in conjunction with ]\[essrs. Gattie, Dando, and Lucas, 
 which had much influence in extending the appreciation of this 
 class of music. In 1831 he became a professor in the academy. 
 He has published some pieces for his instniment. He plays witli 
 purity of tone and certainty of intonation. — G. A. M. 
 
 BLAIN, Jean Baptiste, bom at Caen in 1654, went to 
 Paris and studied under Jlonnoyer, the flower painter, at a time 
 when the age prefen-ed artificial to real flowers. He was suc- 
 cessful, and became renowned for flies, peaches, and tulips, 
 pamted with what wigged amateurs called " a sweet delicate 
 brush and an elegant colour." He finished highly. Died 1715. 
 
 BLAINVILLE, Henri Marie Ducrotay de, a distin- 
 guished French naturalist. He was bom at Arqnes, near Dieppe, 
 on the 12th of September, 1778. He received his early educa- 
 tion under the care of a cur^ in a neighbouinng village, and was 
 afterwards sent to the militaiy school at Beaumont-en-Auge, 
 founded by the aristocratic families of Normandy and Brittany 
 for the purpose of preparing their sons for the military pro- 
 fession. This establishment was, however, broken up during the 
 Revolution, and young de Blainville returned home to his mother. 
 In 1794 or 1795 he entered the school of design at Rouen, and 
 studied under Deschamps, son of the author of the Vie des 
 peintres Flamands. In 179G he came to Paris with the view 
 of hnproving himself in the art of painting, and entered the 
 atelier of the well-known historical painter Vincent. In 1798 
 he was drawn for the conscription, but was excused service on 
 account of a stitthess of the right arm, arising from an accident 
 in his early youth. He continued for several years to pixrsue 
 the art of painting, in which he attained considerable excellence ; 
 and in the hours of leism'c, from this his most serious pursuit, 
 he attended the lectures on natiu'al science in the museum and 
 the college of France with his friend, W. Constant Prevost. It 
 was during this casual attendance upon lectures that he Hstened 
 to the discourses of Baron Cuvier on comparative anatomy. 
 Charmed by the eloquence of the great teacher, he was in-e- 
 sistibl}' di-awn to the study of the animal kingdom ; and, at the 
 age of twenty-seven, fonned the resolution to devote his life to 
 the study of zoology and comparative anatomy. He now entered 
 himself as a student of medicine, and in 1808 took the degree 
 of doctor of medicine in the university of Paris. The subject of 
 his thesis, on the occasion of his taking his degree, was the 
 influence of the eighth pair of nen-es on the function of respira- 
 tion. This essay, although it did not solve the great problem 
 of the relation of the eighth pair of nen"es to respiration, was, 
 nevertheless, accompanied by original experiments and observa- 
 tions, and was a valuable contribution to this department of 
 physiological inqiiiry. De Blainville now devoted himself to the 
 study of comparative anatomy ; and his great skill as an artist 
 enabled him to delineate with accuracy and success the numerous 
 dissections which he made. This quality led to an introduction 
 to Cuvier himself, who employed him as a practical anatomist 
 and artist, with a salaiy of 2000 francs a year. He now made 
 gi'eat progi'ess in his anatomical and zoological studies, and he 
 was occasionally requested by Cuvier to dehver portions of his 
 own com'ses at the college of France, and in the Athenee. In 
 1812 he obtained the vacant chair of anatomy and physiology 
 in the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, after a concourse in which 
 he maintained a thesis on the pecuHarities of the stractm-e, and 
 on the natural affinities, of the Ornithorhijnchus paradoxtts. On 
 the restoration of the Bom-bons, de Blainville was earnestly 
 pressed to undertake a public political position, but his pursuits 
 in life were now fixed, his path was clear, and he resisted the 
 allurements of a more conspicuous place before the world, for 
 the more enduring and honourable name of a cultivator of science. 
 In 1816 he visited England, and spent the principal part of his 
 time in the British museum, and in the Hunterian museum of 
 the Royal College of Surgeons. His subsequent writings on 
 natural history show what extensive use he made of his short 
 stay in England, and his powers of accurate observation. 
 Although de Blainville owed the development of his taste for 
 natural history, and " his position " as a teacher to Cuvier, a 
 jealousy gi'ew up between the master and pupil that increased 
 with years, and was painfully apparent in all their writings and 
 teachings. As far as de Blainville was concerned, science did 
 not suffer from this, as it was apparently one of the incentives 
 to his work, and contributed in no small degree to the multipli- 
 city of his writings. On the death of Olivier in 1814, de Blain- 
 ville was nominated to supply his place in the Academy of 
 Sciences, but the choice fell on Latreille. Subsequently, Dumeril 
 was elected; and on the death of Lacepede in 1825, de Blain- 
 ville succeeded to this gi-eat national scientific honour. On the 
 death of Lamarck, on the 18th of December, 1829, a chair in 
 the museum of natural histoiy became vacant, which compre- 
 hended the whole of the invertebrate animals. By an ordinance 
 of the sovereign this chair was now divided, and to de Blainville 
 was assigned the chair of mollusca, zoophytes, and worms. 
 Strange contrast between the intellectual development of France 
 and Great Britain ! In this country no single chair of zoology 
 exists in any of our universities, whilst in Paris this noble
 
 science occupies the attention of several distinguished professors. 
 De Blainville, by this appointment, was treading closely on the 
 heels of his great master; and when Cuvier died in 1832, he 
 was placed in the chair of comparative anatomy, and at the head 
 of the museum. Thus, in twenty-eight years, he had worked 
 his way from the condition of an artist, without fame or promise, 
 to that of the highest scientific position in France. Whilst 
 working his way to this high position, he contributed above two 
 hundred works and papers to the literature of zoology and com- 
 parative anatomy. In 1816 he published a prodromus of a new 
 methodical arrangement of the animal kingdom, in which he 
 indicated many of those changes in classification wliich he subse- 
 quently adopted, and which now constitute a part of the systematic 
 arrangements of modem writers on zoology. He was a contri- 
 butor to the Dictionnau-e d'Histoire Naturelle; and in the articles 
 which he has written in that work, he has put forth much new 
 matter, and many of his peculiar views. He also contributed 
 papers to the Bulletin de la Societe Pliilomatique, the Annales 
 and Memoires du j\Iuseum ; the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 
 the Revue Zoologique, and other scientific periodicals. In 1822 
 he produced his '' Principles of Comparative Anatomy," in two 
 volumes, and in 1833 his " Course of General and Comparative 
 Physiology," in three volumes, appeared. In 1836 he published 
 a " Manual of Actinology and Zoophytology." His greatest 
 work, and that to which he devoted the largest amount of labour, 
 is his " Osteographie." Tliis work, of wliich twenty-four parts 
 had been published on the death of its author, was devoted to a 
 description, with illustrations, of the skeletons and teeth of the 
 five classes of vertebrate animals, both recent and fossil. The 
 success of this work was not like that of Cuvier's Ossemeus 
 Fossiles, as, although it contained an account of recent as well 
 as fossil skeletons, it wanted the novelty of a large number of 
 new forms, and the enunciation of a great principle or dis- 
 covery, which gave so much eclat to the celebrated work of 
 Cuvier. De Blainville died on the 1st of May, 1850. He had 
 lectured as usual the day before his death, and gone to see a 
 sick niece at Rotien, and was returning by rail to deliver his usual 
 lecture, when, on the carriage door being opened, he was found 
 in a state of apoplectic insensibility. All attempts at restoring 
 him were in vain, and he died a few moments after his removal 
 from the railway train. He was buried publicly at Pere la 
 Chaise, and orations were pronounced over his gi-ave by Prevost, 
 Chevreul, and Milne-Edwards. De Blainville was a laborious 
 and painstaking zoologist, and has left the impress of his labour 
 upon the science of zoology. He was, however, educated at a 
 time when the sciences of anatomy and physiology had not 
 received the aid of microscopic investigation ; and in his clas- 
 sification we miss the recognition of the profounder views of 
 organization which influence modern systematists. — E. L. 
 
 BLAIR, HuciH, D.D., an eminent Scottish divine, bom in 
 1718 at Edinburgh, where his father was a merchant, and 
 latterly an officer of excise. Considerations respecting his delicate 
 constitution, together with the impressions created by his precocious 
 talents, determined his parents to educate him for the church, 
 and accordingly, at the early age of twelve, he was entered at the 
 university of his native city. In 1739 he took the degree of 
 M.A. ; his thesis on the occasion, which was afterwards printed, 
 being " De Fundamentis et Obligatione Legis Naturaj." In that 
 production he exhibited the fondness and something of the talent 
 for moral disquisition which afterwards attracted admiration in his 
 sermons, much in the same manner as four years previously, on 
 the occasion of being complimented by his professor on an 
 essay written for the logic class, he anticipated the enco- 
 miums which, after he began to lecture on belles-lettres, were 
 bestowed on his talents for criticism. The powers of such a 
 mind as that of Dr. Blair soon reach maturity, being dependent 
 for a stimulus to action principally on a certain sensibility to 
 agreeable impressions from art and life, such as may be experienced 
 in comparatively early youth, rather than on any conflict of pas- 
 sions, or ardour of devotion to a particular pursuit, such as com- 
 monly awaits the dawn of manhood. Accordingly his fame, as 
 it began early, spread rapidly. A year after obtaining license, 
 1741, the impression produced by his first sermons in his native 
 city found him a patron in the earl of Leven, who presented him 
 to the parish of Colessie in Fife. Here he was only allowed to 
 remain a few months ; the interest awakened in his behalf in 
 Edinburgh by his first essays in preaching having successfully 
 carried him through a competition with Mr Robert Walker, 
 
 another popular clergyman, for the second charge of the church i 
 of Canongate, to which he was inducted in July, 1743. During 
 the eleven years he spent in this cluu-ch, almost a metropolitan 
 one, if its vicinity to the city and the crowds of Edinburgh 
 people who resorted to it in his time be considered, his popu- 
 larity continued steadily to increase ; the care with which, as 
 a "moderate" divine, he avoided the inflated declamation of the 
 " high-flying" party, and the no less anxious care with which, as 
 an accomplished cultivator of polite literature, he eschewed the dry- 
 metaphysical discussions of his own party, ha\ing rallied round 
 him a host of admirers, who did not remark, or perhaps were 
 pleased to discover, that in the latter character he also avoided 
 too frequent reference to the more peculiar doctrines of Christianity. 
 In 17.54 he was translated to Lady Tester's church, Edinburgli, 
 and four years afterwards to one of the charges of the High 
 Church, the highest attainable position for a Scottish clerg}Tnan. 
 Next year he contributed to the Edinhurgh Review, — a periodical 
 complete in two numbers, although supported by the talents of 
 Hume, Robertson, and others, — an article on Hutcheson's System 
 of Moral Philosophy, which, with the exception of two sermons, 
 and some translations of passages of scripture for the psalmody 
 of the church, was his only publication up till the year 1763, 
 when there appeared his celebrated preface to the Poems of 
 Ossian. In another line than that of authorship, however, he 
 was gradually in the interval extending his literary fame. In 
 1759, following the example of Dr. Adam Smith, he commenced, 
 under the patronage of the university and of the elite of Edin- 
 burgh, a course of lectures on rhetoric and belles-lettres, which 
 was so successful as to induce the town council to establish a 
 chair of rhetoric in the university. Of this chau- he was the first 
 occupant, having been inducted to it in 1762, with a salary, fur- 
 nished by the crown, of £70 a year. His lectures, after being 
 subjected to constant revision during a period of twenty-one years, 
 in wliich they were regularly delivered to the students of the 
 university, were given to the world in 1783 ; and although pre- 
 tending to none of the profound criticism of later treatises on the 
 same subject, still retain a certain measm'e of popularity, as a 
 clear and sometimes an ingenious exposition of the laws of rhetoric. 
 It was in 1777, however, that having been induced to pubhsh a 
 volume of liis semions, the reputation of this accomplished scholar 
 and divine reached its culminating point. The lapse of eighty 
 years has considerably modified the opinion of his countrymen 
 with respect to these celebrated productions ; for whereas they 
 were certainly the first sermons of a Scotch divine on which the 
 learned but not impartial Johnson bestowed his approbation, and 
 probably the first to be received throughout England with rap- 
 turous commendation, now they are rarely penised on either bide 
 of the Tweed, and never with enthusiasm. 
 
 With the approbation of both kingdoms, George III. conferred 
 on the author a pension of £200 a year. His sermons, of which 
 during his lifetime other three volumes were published, and a fifth 
 after his death, were translated into almost eveiy language of 
 Em-ope, and l)y common consent the Scottish preacher was ranked 
 among the classics of his countiy. His title to this last dis- 
 tinction, however, is now regarded as more than questionable; 
 for however the elaborate polish of his style may occasionally 
 remind us of the Spectator, the absence of a creative intellect 
 apparent in all that came from his pen, forbids that we should 
 name together Addison and Blair. 
 
 He was married in 1748 to his cousin, Katherine Bannatyne, 
 and by her had a son and daughter, the former of whom died 
 in infancy, and the latter when she had reached her twenty-first 
 year. His health continued comparatively vigorous almost til! 
 within a few davs of his death, which occurred on December 
 27th, 1799.— J.'S., G. 
 
 BLAIR, Jajies, the founder and first president of William 
 and Maiy's college at Williamsburg, Virginia, was bora in 
 Scotland about 1C56, and took orders in the Scottish episcopal 
 church. Leaving his native land on account of the unsettled 
 state of religion there, he went to London just before the acces- 
 sion of James II., and was persuaded by the bishop of London 
 to go out to Virginia as a missionaiy about 1685. The want 
 of additional means of education, and especially of a body of 
 educated clergy, had long been felt in the new settlement, and 
 attempts had previously been made to found a college in Virginia, 
 but without success. Dr. Blair took up the plan with great 
 energy and determination, and chiefly by his means a subscrip- 
 tion of £2500 was raised for the purpose; and he was sent by
 
 BLA 
 
 607 
 
 BLA 
 
 the general assembly as its agent to England, in 1692, to solicit 
 a charter. He was successful, and the college was established 
 at Williamsburg, and named after the sovereigns who had char- 
 tered it. Dr. Blair was appointed to the presidency of the 
 college, a station which he honourably filled for over fifty years. 
 He seems to have united fimmess of pui-pose and much executive 
 ability with considerable culture and literary taste. He published 
 in London, three volumes of discourses on " Our Lord's Sermon 
 upon the Jlount," highly prized by Waterland and Doddridge. 
 He died August 1, 1743"— F. B. 
 
 BLAIR, Joiix, a Scotch chronologer, bom towards the com- 
 mencement of the eighteenth centuiy, was educated at Edin- 
 burgh, whence he removed to London, and became usher in a 
 school. He published in 1745, with a dedication to the lord 
 chancellor Hardwicke, a worlj entitled "The Chronology and 
 History of the AVorld, from the Creation to the year of Christ, 
 1753," which procured him the honour of being elected a member 
 of the Koyal Society. Li 1757 he was appointed chaplain to the 
 dowager princess of Wales, and mathematical tutor to the duke 
 of York. He accompanied bis royal pupil on a continental tour 
 in 1763. His death, which occurred in 1782, was hastened by 
 his grief at the loss of his brother, who perished in a naval 
 engagement in June of that year. His lectures " On the Canon 
 of the Old Testament " were published posthumously. — J. S., G. 
 
 BLAIR, JoHX, a Scottish poet who flourished in the thir- 
 teenth century. He studied theologj' in Paris, and became a 
 monk of the order of St. Benedict. ^Mien the Scottish patriot, 
 Sir William Wallace, was appointed governor of the kingdom in 
 1291, Blair became his chaplain. He wrote an account of the 
 exploits of Wallace in Latin verse. A fragment only of this 
 work has been preserved in the Cottonian Ubrary. It was pub- 
 lished by Sir Robert Sibbald, and is translated in Hume of 
 Goodcroft's History of the Douglases. — J. T. 
 
 BLAIR, Patrick, a Scottish botanist, was bom in Scotland 
 towards the end of the seventeenth centuiy. He practised medi- 
 cine in Dundee, and was distinguished as an anatomist. He 
 was a nonjuror, and was imprisoned in 1715. He subsequently 
 went to London, and became known to the Royal Society by 
 dissertations on the sexes of flowers. He aftemards settled at 
 Boston in Lincolnshire as a medical man, and seems to have died 
 about 1729. He pubhshed " Obsen-ations on Physic, Anatomy, 
 Surgery, and Botany," in 1718; Botanic Essays" in 1720; 
 and his " Pharmaco-Botanologia " in 1723-28. He also read 
 many papers to the Royal Society on anatomical and botanical 
 subjects. Houston called a genus of plants Blairia, but it was 
 afterwards included by Linnseus in Verbena. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLAIR, Robert, a clergyman of the chm-cb of Scotland, and 
 a religious poet of decided genius, was born in Edinburgli in 
 1699. He was the eldest son of the Rev. David Blair, minister of 
 the old church in that city, and one of the royal chaplains. His 
 grandfather was Robert Blair, minister of St. Andrews in the 
 time of Charles 11. ; and he was cousin to Hugh Blair, D.D., 
 author of Sermons and Lectm-es on Rhetoric. The poet lost 
 his father in very early life, and was indebted to his mother for 
 his careful upbringing. She was a daughter of Alexander Nisbet 
 of Carfin, and seems to have been a woman of solid judgment 
 and considerable accomplishments. From mateiTial consecra- 
 tion, and early choice, yoimg Blair gave himself to the study of 
 di^nnity, vrith the view of becoming a minister of the gospel, and 
 was entered as a student of the university of Edinburgh. As 
 was customary with theological students at that period, he 
 went to Holland to complete his studies ; and on his return to 
 Scotland he obtained his presbyterial certificate of license to 
 preach the gospel. For some time he failed to secure a church 
 or parish wherein to labour, and therefore devoted the interval of 
 leisure to private studies in botany, natural histon,^, and poetry. 
 It was dining this period, while the ardour of youth was fresh 
 on his brow, that he mapped out the external features of " The 
 Grave,'' the poem by which his name was to become immortal. 
 The theme was tmsung, and he set it to music. He prepared the 
 materi.ils which he was afterwards to elaborate into a monument 
 to his own name. In Januan,', 1731, he was ordained minister 
 of Athelstanefurd in Haddingtonshire, a parish in every way 
 congenial to his fine taste, studious habits, and his eminently 
 religious character. In this place he remained till the close of 
 his life. His biography as a minister is a brief one. Through- 
 out the week he was occupied in writing seraions and in domi- 
 cihary visitation, and on Sabbath he faithfully and forcibly 
 
 preached to his parishioners. The fact that he kept close terms 
 with Dr. Doddridge of Northampton, and Isaac Watts, lets us 
 see into the temper of the man, as well as indicates the evange- 
 lical spiiit of the minister. He was married in 1738 to a daughter 
 of Professor Law of Edinburgh. By this union he had a family 
 of five sons and one daughter. One of his sons, Robert, rose 
 from the Scottish bar to the highest seat on the bench, as presi- 
 dent of the court of session. It was about the year 1742 that 
 Blair tried the perilous path of authorship. His MS. of "The 
 Grave " was, through the kindness of Isaac Watts, ofl'ered to two 
 different London houses, but rejected. He sent the MS. after- 
 wards to Doddridge, with the same unsuccess. Nest year, how- 
 ever, the poem was published in London, and was well received. 
 It was not printed in Edinburgh till 1747, after the author was 
 beyond the reach of praise or censure. His death happened in 
 consequence of a fever, on the 4th Febmary, 1746 ; and his 
 remains were laid in the kirkyard of Athelstaneford, with no 
 rude rhyme, nor fulsome epitaph, to mar the solemnity of the 
 spot, but simply a moss-grey stone, with the two letters R. B. 
 carved thereon, to tell the traveller where the poet lies. His poem 
 is his monument. An obelisk in memoiy of the poet was erected 
 in Athelstaneford in 1857. "The Grave" is the only poem 
 Blair ever penned. It consists of 767 lines, not quite so lengthy 
 as some of the books of Paradise Lost or the Coiu-se of Time. 
 It has no definite plot, is amenable to no imities. It is a galleiy 
 of pictures illustrative of the darksome land that lies around the 
 black river of death. On a gi-een knoll is seen the church with 
 the churchyard behind it, the cloud of night giving impressive- 
 ness to the scene. Then follows a photograph of the young 
 widow at the grave of her husband : then sketches of Death as 
 the destroyer of friendships, of joy and happiness, as the leveller 
 of rank and nobility, strength and beauty, wisdom and folly, 
 doctor and patient, minister and people. The miser, the suicide, 
 and others, next pass in review ; and the poem closes with the 
 Son of God bringing life and immortality to fight. You cannot 
 say of it, that it is a copy of any other poem either in style or 
 manner, though many of its quoteable sentiments are often mis- 
 taken for those of Shakspeare. Campbell says of Blair, " He 
 may be a homely and even a gloomy poet in the eye of fastidious 
 criticism ; but there is a masculine and pronounced character 
 even in his gloom and homefiness, that keeps it most distinctly 
 apart from either dulness or A-ulgarity." " He excels," says Gil- 
 fiUan, "in describing the darkest and most terrible ideas suggested 
 by the subject." His originality is most marked ; his imagery 
 bold and daring. The poem has been often printed, and is 
 widely spread. — W. B., D. 
 
 BLAKE, Joachim, a Spanish general, died at Valladolid in 
 1827. He belonged to an Irish family that had settled at 
 JIalaga. He entered the army as a cadet in 1773. It was 
 not until twenty years afterwards that he attained the rank of 
 captain, and in that capacity sen-ed among the volunteers of 
 Castile, in the war agamst the French repubfic. In this cam- 
 paign he was promoted to the rank of brigadier. He afterwards 
 distinguished himself in the insuiTcctionary war against Napoleon, 
 and was appointed to the chief command of the army of Gahcia. 
 In 1812 he was made prisoner of war, and conveyed to the for- 
 tress of Vincennes, near Paris, where he remained until the fall 
 of Napoleon. He then returned to his native country, and 
 obtained the command of the corps of military engineers. After 
 the destruction of the constitutional government, which had been 
 estabUshed in 1820, he suft'ered much from the persecutions of 
 the absolutists, on account of his having been a member of the 
 old council of regency. — G. M. 
 
 BLAKE, John Bradley, an Enghsh natm-alist, was bom 
 in London on 4th November, 1745, and died at Canton on 16th 
 November, 1773. He studied at Westminster school, and de- 
 voted his attention to mathematics, chemistiy, and particularly 
 to botany. Having been sent as one of the East India Company's 
 supercargoes to Canton in 1766, he made a large collection 
 of Chinese grasses and seeds, useful in medicine, the arts, and 
 domestic economy, along with dried specimens of the plants 
 which furnished them. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLAKE, Joseph, one of the early governors, and one of the 
 propnetaries, of the province of Carolina, before the teiritory 
 passing tmder that name was divided into the two colonies of 
 North and South Carolina. His father, a brother of the fiunous 
 Admiral Blake, had brought him and a colony of dissenters over 
 to Carolina about 1685. Blake himself, though a dissenter, was
 
 made governor in 1696, and remained in office four years. His 
 appointment was a concession to popular feeling, made in the 
 hope of reconciling the embittered feelings and jarring interests 
 of churchmen and dissenters, proprietaries and colonists ; and it 
 was a successful measure, Carolina seeming at length to enjoy 
 some internal peace. Blake showed his liberal and tolerant 
 spiiit by procuring an act from the assembly enfranchising the 
 Huguenots, and consenting to another, which endowed the epis- 
 copal church at Charleston with a parsonage and an annual 
 stipend. — F. B. 
 
 BLAKE, Robert, one of the most celebrated of England's 
 admirals, and the genuine founder of England's naval supre- 
 macy, was born at Bridgewatcr in Somersetshire about August 
 or September, 1599. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but 
 he was baptized on the 27th of September, 1599. Assuming 
 that the ceremony of baptism was performed at the usual period, 
 Blake W'ould be four months younger than Oliver Cromwell, who 
 was bom on the 25th of ApiTl of the same year. His father was 
 Humphrey Blake of Plainsfield, and his grandfather was Roljert 
 Blake of Tuxwell, who was mayor of Bridgewater. Humphrey, 
 the admiral's father, besides being a landed proprietor, was an 
 adventurous merchant — a seafaring trader, who embarked in his 
 own ship, and traded with his own cargoes to Spain. He may 
 thus have implanted hi the mind of the young Robert, those seeds 
 of naval heroism which were only to germinate in after years. 
 
 Blake's life may be conveniently divided into four periods — 
 his university career — his civil career at Bridgewater — his mih- 
 tary career, and his naval career. 
 
 Blake went to Oxford in 1615, when he was sixteen years 
 of age, with the intention of devoting himself pennanently to 
 letters, as his taste was bent in that direction. He is said to 
 have been a diligent student, .ind also to have been much given 
 to field sports. He had matriculated as a member of St. Alban's 
 ludl, but afterwards removed to Wadham college at the request 
 of his father's friend, Nicholas Wadham, a Somersetshire man, 
 who had then recently founded the edifice which bears his name. 
 There he completed his education, and his portrait is still seen 
 in the dining-hall of Wadham. As Blake intended to devote 
 himself to learning as a profession, he competed for a fellowship 
 at Merton college, but was unsuccessful — Sir Henry Savile, 
 the warden of Jlerton, having a distaste for men of low stature. 
 He took his degree, however, as master of arts, and remained 
 altogether at Oxford nine years. He was then twenty-five years 
 of age. Humplirey Blake appears to have been too adventurous 
 in his speculations, and he had not prospered. His health was 
 failing, and Robert was called home to attend to the family 
 affairs ; and, as it soon proved, to attend his father to the tomb. 
 Robert, as the eldest son, now found himself in a position of no 
 ordinarj' responsibility. His widowed mother was left with a 
 numerous family, for whose education and support it was 
 Robert's duty to provide. Well and manfully did Blake perform 
 these duties. He proved himself a man of unflinching nature, 
 and at once took the family affairs into his o^^^l hands. After 
 paying the whole of his fiither's debts, he found that he inherited 
 £200 a year, and the house at Bridgewater. With this income 
 he constituted himself the father of the family — took care 
 of his mother — reared and educated his brothers and sisters — 
 planted them all out in life, and had the satisfaction of seeing 
 them all attain to positions of independence — some of them to 
 wealth and consideration. The man had begun well ; in fact, 
 during the whole of Blake's career, we may describe his conduct 
 in a single sentence — "This man was faithful to his trust." 
 While at Bridgewater, Blake was the moving spirit of the liberal 
 party, and one of those who signed a remonstrance praying the 
 king to put an end to religious persecution, and to what the 
 puritans called the popish rites and ceremonies of Laud. He was 
 a thorough puritan and a thorough republican. In the short par- 
 liament which met in April, 1640, and was dismissed three 
 weeks after, Blake sat as member for Bridgewater, and there he 
 first met the great leaders of the refoi-ming party. In November, 
 16 40, Charles was obliged by his difficulties to summon a new 
 parliament — the Long Parliament — which dragged out its 
 existence for many years. Blake became a member of the Long 
 Pariiament in 1645, and sat in it for Taunton. 
 
 In 1642 the civil war broke out, not unexpectedly to Blake it 
 would seem, as he appears to have been organizing a party in 
 the west — collecting arms — devising watch words^procuring 
 horses — and, in general, getting ready for the fray. His was 
 
 one of the first troops in the field, and he appears to have played 
 his part more or less in almost every action fought in the west 
 country. His first prominent appearance was at the siege of 
 Bristol in July, 1643. Bristol, at that period, was a town of 
 much more relative importance than at present — a sort of capital 
 of the west. It was commanded by Colonel Fiennes — was well 
 pronsioned — had plenty of arms and ammunition — perhaps 
 2000 regular troops, and was capable of making a stout defence. 
 Its lines were strengthened by small forts, and one of these, 
 called Prior's hill, was commanded by Captain Blake. Prince 
 Ru])ert and his bi"othcr, Maurice, appeared before the town, and 
 made immediate preparations for stoiTning it. The first day's 
 action was indecisive. On the second day Rupert again advanced 
 his troops. His design was to pass the curtain between Prior's 
 hill and the next position. No sooner did his troops advance, 
 however, than they were taken in flank by the steady fire of 
 Blake's men, so that Prior's hOl became the key of the dav's 
 operations. Detachment after detachment advanced, and still 
 they found the pestiferous little fort firing away with steady 
 resolution. Lord Grandison, who commanded this portion of the 
 attack, was at last convinced that nothing could be done so long 
 as Blake held Prior's hill, and he summoned his whole force to 
 storm it. On they went, gallantly enough, up to the very wall, 
 but in vain. Blake knew the value of good marksmen in sucli 
 cases, and the officers went down one after another. At last the 
 men ran away, and to the utter astonishment of the royalists, 
 out rushed Blake and pursued them. Grandison was now despe- 
 rate, and shouting to his men to follow him, he led a thu'd attack. 
 He also went down. His next colonel — Colonel Owen — took his 
 place, and he also went down. Blake would not be beaten, and 
 so, by sheer hard fighting, he drove back the whole attack — 
 swept the line — cleared the hill — and withdrew to his Httle fort, 
 ready to fight them again. Colonel Fiennes, however, parleyed 
 with Rupei-t, and agreed to surrender the city — for which he 
 was afterwards tried by court-martial, and condemned to be 
 shot, but was pardoned by the lord-general Essex. 
 
 After this Blake was appointed lieutenant-colonel of Popham's 
 regiment — a picked body of 1500 men, well-equipped and 
 strong roundheads. With a portion of this force he endeavoured 
 to surprise Bridgewater, and while there he lost his brother 
 Samuel, who was killed in a foolish expedition after a royiJist 
 officer. On being informed of his brother's .death, Blake only 
 remarked, " Sam had no business there ; " but Sam had left two 
 children, and to these children Blake was ever afterwards a 
 father. He took charge of them as his own — made one of thera 
 a seaman, and at his death, left him the great gold chain which 
 parliament had voted for his sernces. 
 
 After the fall of Bristol, Rupert went northward with the king, 
 while Prince Maurice remained in the west to subdue the few 
 towTis that remained faithful to the parliament. Dorchester, 
 Weymouth, Barnstaple, Dartmouth, and Exeter, soon fell into 
 the hands of the cavaliers. Plymouth, Lyme, and Poole, were 
 almost the only places that remained. The first was too 
 strong to be taken, and JIaurice, leavmg a portion of his forces 
 to blockade the town, marched onward to chastise the gairisons 
 of LjTne and Poole. Lyme was a small seaport town with 
 scarcely a thousand inhabitants — with very insufficient defences 
 — overlooked by the liigh ground on the land side ; and, in fact, 
 as indefensible a place as can be conceived. Blake occupied it, 
 however, with about 500 men of his own, and some volunteers, 
 and determined to defend it. Maurice advanced with a large 
 force, and summoned the place to surrender. Blake returned a 
 haughty answer, and a general charge was sounded, as if the 
 captm'e was a matter of course. Cavalry and infantry advance 
 upon the town, but soon retu-e in confusion. !Mam-ice must sit 
 down to a siege, and there he remained for two months, losing his 
 men and losing his time, but making no impression on the "little 
 vile fishing town." Essex was approaching with an army from 
 London, and Maurice was obliged to break up his quarters, and 
 retu-e to Exeter. This was in the early summer of 1644, the 
 time when the afliiirs of the parliament — had it not been for the 
 assistance of the Scottish army — were in a very critical position. 
 Dugdale says, that at the beginning of the year all the north of 
 England beyond Trent, excepting Hull in Yorkshu-e and some 
 few inconsiderable places, being by the marquis of Newcastle 
 reduced to the king's obedience, as also the west by Prince 
 Rupert and Prince JIaurice, excepting Poole and Lyme in Dor- 
 setshu-e, and Plymouth in Devonshire, the members sitting at
 
 BLA 
 
 G09 
 
 BLA 
 
 Westminster became so startled, that some of the leading men 
 prepared for quitting the realm. This was the turning point of 
 the war. The self-denying ordinance was passed, which pro- 
 \ided that no member of either house could enjoy any office or 
 command, military or civil. Essex, who had lost his amiy in 
 Cornwall, was compelled to retire, and Sir Thomas Fairfax 
 became commander-in-chief. Sir Thomas found that no man 
 would suit him for a lieutenant-general so well as Oliver Crom- 
 well, and 01i\er consequently escaped the ordinance by a special 
 dispensation of parliament. The winter of 1644-45 was the 
 time when the new model army was to be formed — the army 
 which, under Fairfax and Cromwell, in about a year extinguished 
 the power of the king, and put an end to the first civil war. It 
 was at the very lowest ebb of the parliamentary fortunes that 
 Blake exercised the greatest influence, and to him must be attri- 
 buted in great measure the after course of success. We must, 
 therefore, to understand the importance of his operations, con- 
 sider not only the military incidents, but the extraordinaiy tact 
 and resolution with which he engaged in a scheme that took up 
 the attention of the royal troops. After the sureender of Essex's 
 anny, the king might possibly have felt himself in a position to 
 concentrate his troops, and to stiike a heavy blow at the dechning 
 cause of the roundheads. With the whole of the west country 
 behind him entirely at his command, he might have swept on 
 towai'ds London : for there cannot be a doubt, that at this 
 period, the parliamentarians were speculating on the probability 
 of being hanged in case the king should apprehend them with 
 arms in their hands. Though ilarston moor had been fought, 
 it is more than likely that a single battle in the open field, won 
 by the king, would have produced a general panic, and perhaps 
 have led to the flight of the parliamentary leaders. 
 
 Blake then resolved to do his best to hamper the royalist 
 movements ; and for this purpose occupied the town of Taunton 
 in the summer of 1644. Taunton lay on the great higlu'oad to 
 Exeter, and the supplies for the king's army in the west must 
 either go through the tomi, or take to cross roads eminently 
 unfavourable for passage. In gomg westward the royal army 
 had prudently let Taunton alone. On their return the royalists 
 determined to capture the town, an achievement which seemed 
 to present no great difficulty, as Blake was completely isolated, 
 and could expect no succour. Charles, too much elated with 
 his success over Essex, did not remain in the west, but passed on 
 towards London, changed his mind at Salisbury, and retired 
 to Oxford for the winter. The capture of Taunton was in the 
 first place confided to a detachment at Bridgewater ; no one 
 supposing that Blake had serious thoughts of defending a town 
 that had always changed hands according to the predominance 
 of the forces in the field. First they summoned him with threats 
 of fire and sword. " Last drop of our blood," replied Blake. 
 Then they tried to storm him out, and were knocked on the 
 head for their pains. Then they tried to starve him out. " Eat 
 my boots first," said Blake. Then more troops aixived, quar- 
 relled among themselves, and Taunton became a bone of conten- 
 tion at the royalist councils. "Why don't you storm him out? " 
 said the west-countiy gentlemen. "Batter him out," said 
 Goring, who was there with his crew. And thus they stormed 
 and battered, but out of Taunton they could not get him. 
 " I'll have him out," said Sir Richard GrenvUle, and vowed he 
 would never leave the place till he was out — a rash vow, as all 
 this time the new model anny had been getting under weigh, 
 with various matters in store of an entii-ely new model. So 
 long as Blake could hold Taunton, the royalist anny was of no 
 manner of use, and therefore the cavaliers at last resolved to 
 concentrate their forces for the pui-pose of taking the town, and 
 then they would march eastward and perform wonders. Before 
 that time arrived, however, a certain Oliver Cromwell had fairly 
 taken the field with certain troops, which " truly never were 
 beaten," as Oliver said. It was too late — month after month 
 had passed away, and Blake could not be got out. They had 
 stormed him, and starved hun, and blockaded him, and battered 
 him, but out he would not come. 
 
 In the beginning of May, 1645, Fairfax was on his march 
 westward to the relief of Taunton. A counter order, however, 
 reached him at Blandford, and he despatched Colonel Welden 
 with four regiments to the aid of Blake, and on the 11th May 
 Taunton was so far relieved. This, however, was only the first 
 part of Blake's troubles. The king appears to have been infa- 
 tuated, or not to have suspected the character of the new model 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 army. He despatched Goring to make a new attack on Taunton, 
 thinking, perhaps, that the war would go on in the quiet fashion 
 of the previous year. On the 12th June, Oliver Cromwell joined 
 Fairfax, and on the 14th was fought the battle of Naseby, in 
 Northamptonshire, which for the most part destroyed the king's 
 army, and ruined his power in the midland counties. 
 
 Now was seen the immense importance of Blake's defence of 
 Taunton. Had there been no Blake and no Taunton, the whole 
 of the west would still have been at the command of the royal- 
 ists, who would not only have had free passage, but would have 
 been able to concentrate their troops, and perhaps to fight 
 another battle that woidd have gone far to redeem the revei-se 
 of Naseby. Ever}- operation in the west, however, was defeated 
 by Blake's obstinacy ; in fact, his defence of Taunton broke the 
 neck of the royal jiower in the west, and enabled Fairfax to take 
 the western forces in detail. Immediately after Naseby, Fairfax 
 set out for Taunton, which was then hotly besieged by Goring. 
 On his approach. Goring \\-ithdrew to Langport, and there, on 
 the 10th July, was fought the battle of Langport, where Goring 
 was routed ; " after which," says Dugdale, " nothing but loss 
 and ruin every day ensued." " This engagement," says the 
 Weekly IriteUigencei\ " happened the more opportunely in regard 
 that if it had been deferred three days longer. Colonel Goring 
 expected a recruit of about 6000 horse and foot from Grenville." 
 [Mr. Carlyle, with a little slip of inaccuracy most unusual for 
 him, seems to place the battle of Langport and the taking of 
 Bridgewater subsequent to the storming of Bristol. These 
 events, however, took place in July, whereas the stonning of 
 Bristol did not take place till September.] The battle of Lang- 
 port finally relieved Blake. He had done his duty, steadily and 
 well. He had held Tamiton altogether for a year, and had 
 stood two regular sieges occupying about three months. He 
 was master of a ruined town, suiTounded by a devastated country 
 — but he was master, and that was much. In defending the 
 town against Goring and the rabble which that cavalier officer 
 seemed to have a peculiar talent for attracting to his standard, 
 Blake was defending something even more sacred than any 
 political cause — the honour of the hearth and home. Blake 
 fought not merely for himself, but for eveiy woman and every 
 child that Providence had committed to his care ; his triumph 
 was over the rapine, plunder, and licentiousness that would 
 inevitably have followed his defeat. Indeed, of all the honours 
 to which the parliamentarians are entitled, not the least is that 
 in their hands, and especially in the hands of Cromwell and 
 Blake, war was less immoral and less wicked than in the hands 
 of any other men who have ever handled a sword. 
 
 In the defence of Taunton Blake exhibited the first peculiarity 
 of his genius — his genius for defence. Cromwell's genius was 
 for attack — swift, heavy, and irresistible. But the genius of 
 defence is perhaps of as high an order as the highest capacity 
 for attack. Where all dash bravely on, he must be a craven 
 indeed who would remain behind from the petty fear of injury 
 to himself. But to be shut up day after day and night after 
 night ; hope sometimes taking wing, and hopelessness, not fear, 
 shadowing coldly round the soul and quenching its native forti- 
 tude ; when suffering stares wildly out from the hollow eye of 
 hunger, and grim fainme, like a demon before the time, sits 
 scornfully in the portal of expectation, mocking at soitow and 
 hindering the entrance of faith ; when the bugle call of the 
 morning summons the eye to the spectacle of smouldering ruin, 
 and the sound that breaks on the ear of the midnight sentinel 
 is the wail of a famishing child ; when even the Providence above 
 seems to disregard the agony of desire, and the dark image of 
 despair begins to loom fearfully in the vista of the future ; when 
 the brave are silent, and treacheiy begins to lurk in the fm'tive 
 eye of the coward : it is the soul of the hero alone that remains 
 unmoved — not unmoved in sympathy, but in resolution — with 
 the bright star of honour still resplendent to the eye of faith, 
 still beaming in its full effulgence, and beckoning onward in the 
 path of duty, fail who list or come what may. 
 
 Such then was Blake — a man who had been tried in the fur- 
 nace and came out shining like gold; and such was the man 
 who in after years, in the sear and yellow autumn of his life, 
 was to face the battle and the breeze, and to sweep from the 
 ocean with the same unselfish heroism eveiy antagonist of the 
 commonwealth of England. 
 
 We now turn to Blake as a seaman. Before Blake's time the 
 English navy was comparatively of little importance. True, 
 
 4H
 
 BLA 
 
 610 
 
 BLA 
 
 there had been the invasion of the Spanish armada, and it had 
 been defeated more by the elements of nature than by anything 
 the Enghsh ships had done. But at that time the navy was a 
 scrambling collection of vessels, many of -which were only tem- 
 porarily turned to the purposes of war ; while the men who 
 manned them were a miscellaneous gathering of soldiers, seamen, 
 and adventurers. There was nothing afloat that could make 
 the power of England felt farther than her own shores. Dis- 
 coverei-s there might be, buccaneers there might be, but properly 
 speaking there was no naval power. This, then, was Blake's 
 task, not to create the na\')- of England, for that already existed 
 in indifterent form, but to create the naval power of England ; 
 to make the world feel that there was a tight little island which 
 meant to assert its place in the pohtical arena, and to make its 
 name respected in regions where hitherto that name was scarcely 
 known. Robert Blake, in fixct, was the founder of the naval 
 supremacy of England. 
 
 [The following comparison between the eight largest English 
 ships in the year 1646, and eight of the ships of the Baltic 
 fleet in the recent wai- with Russia, will enable the reader to 
 form some idea of the strength of the Commonwealth navy : — 
 
 COMMOXWEALTH KAVT, 1646. 
 
 No. 1, 875 tons, 
 
 " 2, 600 .' 
 
 " 3, 575 " 
 
 " 4, 557 II 
 
 •• 5, 520 " 
 
 " 6 559 " 
 
 " 7, 550 " 
 
 " 8, 512 n 
 
 BALTIC FLEET, 1854. 
 
 Duke of Wellington, 
 
 Itoyal George, 
 
 St. Jean d'Acre, 
 
 Princess Royal, 
 
 Blenheim, 
 
 Hogue, 
 
 Ajax 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Men. 
 
 Guns 
 
 1100 
 
 131 
 
 990 
 
 1-21 
 
 900 
 
 101 
 
 8.50 
 
 91 
 
 660 
 
 60 
 
 660 
 
 60 
 
 630 
 
 58 
 
 630 
 
 58 
 
 780 
 400 
 650 
 400 
 450 
 450 
 450 
 450 
 
 The remainder of tlie Commonwealth navy consisted of seventeen 
 or eighteen smaller ships, canying from 110 men down to 45 
 men each.] 
 
 Blake's naval emploiiTnent appears to have originated in this 
 way. During the civil war the navy was only a spectator of the 
 strife. It did not actively interfere, and in general was less ^io- 
 lently republican than the aiTny. It was not prepared to destroy 
 the monarchical authority, and probably would have taken the 
 king's side when the parhament showed s}'mptoms of absorbing the 
 whole power of the state. In the summer of 1648 the king 
 was a prisoner at Carisbrook in the Isle of Wight, and various 
 risings of the royalists took place throughout the country. In the 
 spring the Welsh had risen, and had been settled by Cromwell ; 
 in July the Scots entered I^ngland, and were also settled by 
 Oliver at Preston. A spirit of loyalty was evidently making 
 rapid progress, and the fleet shared in the general reactionary 
 movement. On the 12th July, 1648, while lying in the Dowms, 
 the fleet mutinied, declared for king, parliament, and covenant ; 
 sent for its old admiral, the earl of Warwick, who had given up 
 his command under the self-denying ordinance ; and though 
 Warwick succeeded in restoring order, eleven ships under Ad- 
 mii'al Batten declared resolutely for the king, and sailed over to 
 Holland to Prince Charles. These revolted ships were the 
 origin of the sea-life both of Prince Rupert and Robert Blake. 
 Young Prince Charles, thinking that the whole of the navy 
 would join the royal cause, placed himself on board, sailed over 
 to Yarmouth, thence to the Downs, and the two squadrons 
 fooled away their time to no purpose. Wanvick was incapable, 
 and the royal squadron had no head, until Prince Rupert took 
 command, and can-ied into his naval career the same impetuous 
 courage that he had exhibited as a soldier. The parliament 
 was soon convinced that a man of equal enterprise must be 
 found to cope with him. That man was Blake, who was taken 
 from the governorship of Taunton, and with Colonels Deane and 
 Popham, invested with the command of the I>ng]ish navy. 
 
 Blake imdertook his command when he was about 50 years 
 of age, in April, 1649. He was styled sea-general. The 
 term admiral, derived from the French amiral, seems to have 
 originated in the crusades, when the Saracen emirs were 
 styled amiraux, as we find in Joinville. But dowTi to Blake's 
 time there had been no projier distinction between the land 
 service and the sea ser^'ice, and the distinctive titles had not 
 been required. The fleet was divided into several squadrons — 
 one under Deane was stationed in the Downs ; another under 
 
 Popham was stationed at Plymouth ; another under Su- George 
 Ascue was stationed in Dublin bay ; and Blake himself under- 
 took to encounter Prince Rupert, who had taken up his quarters 
 at Kinsale in Ireland, from which port he appears to have carried 
 on an indiscriminate system of marauding. Here Blake blockaded 
 Rupert, until the latter escaped with seven ships, October, 
 1649, to Portugal. In the beginning of 1650 Blake was 
 appointed to pursue him, and reached the Tagus. King John, 
 however, declared for Rupert and Maurice, whereupon Blake 
 seized the Brazil fleet which was coming out of the river. In the 
 autumn he also caught the South American fleet coming home, 
 richly laden, and captured several ships. These losses appear to 
 have exhausted the patience of the Portuguese court, and Rupert 
 slipped from the Tagus, and repaired to the Mediterranean. 
 Blake followed him, and at Carthagena in Spain he fell in with 
 some of the revolted ships, and destroyed them. Rupert and 
 ]Maurice he pursued to Toulon ; but the princes once more escaped, 
 passed the Strait of Gibraltar, and sailed to the West Indies. In 
 this expedition into the Mediterranean, Blake was the first 
 English admiral who had appeared on that sea since the crusades. 
 After an absence of twenty months, Blake returned home, ha\ing 
 carried the red cross with unsullied honour in the face of Portu- 
 gal, Spain, and France. He was made warden of the cinque 
 ports, and received the thanks of parliament, and a donation of 
 £1000. Blake's next occupation was to subdue the Scilly Islands, 
 which had been occupied and strongly fortified by the royahsts. 
 This was his work of 1651; and here he first discovered the 
 notable fact that wooden ships could be made to attack stone 
 walls with success. His next sen-ice was the conquest of the 
 channel islands, Jersey and Guernsey. Here Sir George Car- 
 teret still held out for the king and the right of piracy. In 
 October, 1051, Blake was at Jersey, and after a short conflict 
 was master of the island, with the exception of Mont Orgueil and 
 Elizabeth castle. These, however, were soon compelled to sur- 
 render, and the English seas were thus cleared of the enemies of 
 the commonwealth. 
 
 Blake's proceedings hitherto may be considered as his petty 
 warfare, at least in a nautical sense. He had now to encounter 
 the experienced admirals of Holland. The Dutch at this period 
 were formidable antagonists ; they had thriven and prospered 
 under their repubhcan institutions, had a very considerable navy, 
 a large carrying trade, and enterprising mariners, who were quite 
 capable of directing their naval armaments — Van Tromp, De 
 Ruyter, De Witte, and many other able seamen. In December, 
 1651, the parliament passed the navigation act, which pro- 
 hibited the importation of goods except in English bottoms — a 
 blow levelled at the carnj-ing trade of the Dutch. This was ope 
 cause of the war. Another cause was the right of herring fishing 
 on the coasts of England and Scotland. England claimed the 
 whole, and insisted that the Dutch should pay a lordship. Another 
 cause was the assertion on the part of England of her majesty 
 of the narrow seas. She compelled all ships to lower their flags 
 or a topsail, in acknowledgment of her superiority. The war 
 began in the summer of 1652, with sea fights in the English 
 Channel. There was little decided success till November, when 
 Van Tromp fell upon Blake in the Downs, and gave him a salu- 
 tary beating, compelling him to take refuge on the Thames. 
 That beating was the foimdation of England's naval glorj'; the 
 best thing that could possibly have happened to Blake or to 
 England. He bent all his energies to reform the navy. True, he 
 offered to resign his command, but the council of state had confi- 
 dence in him, and left him to do what he conceived best. In the 
 late engagement he had not been sujiported by his captains, and 
 for this there was a reason. Merchant ships were habitually 
 hired by the government, and converted into men of war, for a 
 longer or shorter period, and these ships were still navigated by 
 the merchant captains. Blake reformed this anomaly, and thence- 
 forth the sea captain was obliged to have a commission from the 
 state. Blake soon had his new fleet under weigh ; and in Feb- 
 ruary, 1653, set out in pursuit of Van Tromp, who had gone 
 down the channel with a broom at his mast-head, in token of his 
 intention to sweep the seas — a piece of nautical puppyism that 
 was rather premature. Little did he think what our little admiral 
 — only five feet six — had in store for him. Tromp had gone to 
 the Isle de Rhd, opposite Rochelle, to convoy home a large fleet 
 of merchantmen; and on the 18th February Blake fell in with 
 him, and instantly went to work, his own ship, the Triumph, 
 being the first to engage. This battle of Portland was the great
 
 BLA 
 
 611 
 
 BLA 
 
 battle of the English commonwealth; fought, as every battle 
 ought to be fought, with the most desperate resolution on both 
 sides. Blake, Deane, Penn, Monk, and Lawson commanded the 
 English ; Van Tromp, De Euyter, Evertz, Swers, and Floritz 
 commanded the Dutch. Both nations had done their best, and 
 the best men of both were there. It was a gi-and fight— far 
 more deadly than even the battle of Trafixlgar. The first day 
 the English clearly had the best of it, taking or destroymg eight 
 ships. The second day was a running fight up channel. The 
 third day Blake di'ove Van Tromp into Calais roads ; and in the 
 eight the Dutch admiral slipped away with the remains of his 
 deet into shallow water on the coast of Holland. Altogether the 
 English took some forty or fifty ships, and proved to the world 
 that the parliamentary commonwealth could face all comers on 
 the blue water. We need not follow Blake through his other 
 actions with the Dutch. They fitted out new fleets, but with no 
 better success. They had found their master at sea, even by their 
 own acknowledgment. The red cross of England was triumphant ; 
 and in the seventh and last battle that was fought between the 
 commonwealths. Van Tromp, perhaps as gallant and as good a sea- 
 man as ever stepped, was shot through the heart. This was in 
 July, 1653, after which there were negotiations and a peace, 
 and the Dutch did consent to strike their flag. 
 
 At the end of 1653 Blake again sailed up the Mediterranean, 
 where he had various matters to settle with the powers that had 
 allowed Rupert to dispose of his prizes. His fame was now 
 estabhshed, and all men treated him with respect. He first sent 
 to the duke of Tuscany for £60,000, being the price of the vessels 
 that had been sold in his ports. The duke hesitated ; but Blake 
 told him that pay he must. The pope also was compelled to 
 refund 20,000 pistoles. Blake then went to Tunis, to demand 
 reparation of the piracies of the Barbary corsairs. He found 
 Tunis a strong port, with every preparation for his reception. 
 The dey treated him with haughty insolence ; and Blake, seeing 
 the danger of an attack so long as the dey was on the alert, 
 pretended to sail away, as if he was afraid to encounter the two 
 fortresses that defended the harbour. He remained away about 
 a week, and allowed the caution of the barbarian to relax. On 
 the 3d April, 1G55, however, the Tunisian pirates, to their 
 amazement, saw the English fleet enter the port and anchor 
 close to the forts. A heavy cannonade was at once commenced, 
 and in the cover of the smoke Blake sent his boats to fire nine 
 large ships which formed the pkatical fleet. In four hours from 
 the firing of the first shot, the whole of the vessels which had 
 been the terror of the seas were completely destroyed. From 
 Tunis Blake went to Tripoli, where he was no longer under the 
 necessity of fighting ; thence to Algiers, where the terror of his 
 name made the dey of Algiers consent to a treaty, and to the 
 deliverance of all English captives at a small fixed price. He 
 also delivered a number of Dutch captives, by private subscrip- 
 tion, and every sailor in the English fleet subscribed a dollar to 
 relieve the Hollanders. In the I^Iediterranean, the power of Eng- 
 land had made itself felt in a manner that astonished the world. 
 
 Blake now returned to England, and prepared for his expedi- 
 tion against the Spaniards. Before sailing he made his wOl, 
 dated on board the Xasebi/, March 13, 1655-56. The task of 
 humbling Spain, and crippling her commerce, was performed 
 \vith the most unprecedented success. Blake discovered new 
 capabilities in ships, and did with them what no man had done 
 before. In September, 1656, a squadron he had left to guard 
 Cadiz fell in wth four galleons and two other ships coming 
 home, laden with silver, and the other valuables which the 
 Spaniards at that time brought so extensively from their colo- 
 nies. These Captain Stayner for the most part destroyed, but 
 succeeded in capturing the most valuable, a royal galleon, which 
 contained so much silver that, when it was landed at Portsmouth, 
 thirty-eight waggons were required to convey it to London. 
 
 Blake's great performance, however, in this war, was his 
 attack on Santa Cruz, in the island of Tenerifte— a performance 
 that has, perhaps, never been equalled, certainly never surjiassed, 
 in the annals of naval warfare. The second silver fleet, consisting 
 of six galleons, and sixteen other ships, was on its way to 
 Europe ; but hearing of the fate of the former fleet, it ran into 
 the Canaries, and took up a position in the harbour of Santa 
 Cruz, which was esteemed one of the strongest and safest in the 
 world. The harbour, shaped hke a horse-shoe, was defended 
 by powerful forts and a castle ; and inside, the ships were drawn 
 np with their broadsides to the sea. The Spanish admiral 
 
 naturally thought his position impregnable, as no seamen in the 
 world, save the English, would ever have di-eamed of attacking 
 such an array. A Dutch captain, however, who was there with 
 his vessel, and who had seen something of Blake in the former 
 war, went to the Spanish admiral, and requested leave to retire 
 from the harbom-. The Spaniard laughed at him, but let him 
 go, while the Dutchman assured the Don that Blake would soon 
 show him something remarkable. 
 
 On the 20th April, 1657, Blake fought this wonderful battle, 
 equal to anything that has ever been done on land or sea. He 
 was sick— his health was breaking — he had worn out the 
 sheath of the spirit, but the blade was as bright as ever. From 
 his sickbed he rose to survey his work — arrived at a brief con- 
 clusion — called a council of war, and proposed at once to go in to 
 the attack. It was agreed to, hopelessly by some. The men 
 were called to prayers, then to breakfast, then to action. Stay- 
 ner, now vice-admiral, was appointed to lead the van, and 
 attack the ships. Blake reser\'ed the castle and the land bat- 
 teries to himself. On they went, amid a hurricane of shot. By 
 two o'clock of the day it was all over -n-ith the Spaniards ; and 
 at evening, when the sun went do\\Ti, not a mast, nor a sail, nor 
 a spar, nor a single pennon was seen of aU the array on which 
 the sun had risen. All were given to one universal conflagra- 
 tion. Sunk, burnt, and destroyed — as the naval orders run — 
 not a floating thing was there, save masses of blackened wreck. 
 Blake, like Oliver, had given his enemies to darkness. Blake's 
 care was now to get his fleet out of the harbour, and the story 
 runs that a sudden change of wind, which had not been known 
 for years, enabled him to sail out without the loss of a ship. 
 
 Blake had thus accomphshed every duty that a seaman can 
 be called upon to perform. He was master of the seas, and 
 none dared hoist a hostile flag in the presence of the Common- 
 wealth. But his health was failing — he was going away fast to 
 another world, and the last act of his hfe was one of peaceful 
 glory. After resolutely demolishing the Spaniards, and putting 
 down the Dutch traders, who would have carried on the Spanish 
 trade under the Dutch flag, he tiu-ned his last efforts to the 
 release of the christian captives who were in the hands of the 
 Salee rovers. Not a shot did he now require to fire. The whole 
 maritime world now knew that Blake was master of the ocean, 
 and the terror of his vengeance was sufficient to make even the 
 corsairs listen to his just demands. Blake had finished his 
 career. In his old flag-ship, the St. George, he set out for 
 England, a worn-out and dying man. Often he asks if England 
 is yet at hand, and when at last the Lizard is sighted, it is too 
 late. Blake is dying, and he expires as the St. George 
 approaches Plvmouth. He died on the 17th August, 1657, and 
 on the 4th September he was bmied, at Cromwell's expense, in 
 Westminster abbey. After the Restoration, Charles II. com- 
 mitted the wretched atrocity of disinterring his body, and it was 
 thrown into a pit in the yard of Westminster abbey. For the 
 more minute facts in the Hfe of Blake the public is indebted to 
 the researches of Mr. Hepworth Dixon. — P. E. D. 
 
 BLAKE, WiLLLVM, a painter, and what is rarer, a genius, if 
 ever one lived, was the son of a hosier in Carnaby Market, and 
 bom 1757. He was educated by the quiet man, his father, for 
 the counter; but he soon leaped over this, and broke his way into 
 the Eden of art — an Eden not guarded by flaming angels, it is 
 true, but by the more horrid and deterring forms of hunger, 
 consumption, scorn, despair, poverty, and death. The father 
 wondered how the boy could throw aside stockings to waste his 
 time over cheap prints of Raphael and Reynolds ; but his mother 
 knowing (so wise is love) that the angels had whispered to her 
 child, secretly encouraged him in the straight and narrow way. 
 At ten he became an artist ; at twelve a poet ; — what milhons 
 would great kings have given to have insured the talents of the 
 poor hosier's son for their brainless bantlings ! The father moved by 
 the sight of drawings on the back of shop bills, and innumerable 
 sketches on the counter, tried to place his son with an " eminent 
 artist ;" but the eminent artist was too imaginative in his charges. 
 Blake, afraid of being chained beyond escape, prayed his 
 father to bind him to an engraver, and at fourteen years old 
 he was bound to an engraver in Green Street, Lincoln's Inn 
 Fields. Here he worked hard for his master, studied at odd 
 times and evenings under Flaxman and Fuseli, and when he 
 could run to his room, locked himself in, and made drawings, 
 illustrated with verses, to hang up in his mother's room. He 
 was always at work — called amusement, idleness, and money-
 
 making folly. At six-and-twenty he fell in love with Kathe- 
 rine Burtcher, a servant — a poor man's daughter who lived near 
 his father's house. He was describing to her some disappoint- 
 ment he had experienced in love. Dark-eyed Kate said, with a 
 sigh, "I pity you from my heart." " Do you pity me ? " said 
 Blake, " then I love you for that." " And I love you," said the 
 good girl ; and so they married. This marriage offended his 
 father ; so Blake left his home, and went to live in Green Street. 
 On his father's death, Blake and Parker, a fellow-apprentice, 
 commenced business as printsellers, taking Robert, a favourite 
 brother, as pupil. Genius cannot keep a shop •, — the pet Ben- 
 jamin died; Parker quarrelled; the shop was shut up; and 
 Blake went to live in Poland Street. Here he began to design, 
 engrave, compose music, and write songs — his wife and family 
 beside him to cheer and encourage. Now came out his sixty- 
 eight "Songs of Innocence and Experience," simple and touching 
 as Wordsworth's inspirations. Ho began to be a confinned 
 mystic, hearing voices and seeing spirits. His books did not 
 sell, and he had to live by the graver. The spirit of his dead 
 brother, he believed, had taught him a new mode of engraving. 
 He was so poor indeed now, that he could only buy copper plates 
 about four inches by three. The " Gates of Paradise," with 
 sixteen illustrations, was his nest work, and after these came a 
 quite unintelligible dream— Urizen, with twenty-seven designs 
 - — quite nightmares of hell, and founded on visions seen with 
 his own dreamy eyes. Even his dear wife could not under- 
 stand these, but was sure, with right heavenly faith, that 
 they had " a meaning and a fine one." He was now h\-ing 
 in Lambeth. Blake's name getting a little dimly known, 
 he was employed to illustrate Young's Night Thoughts, 
 which he did, rather astonishing the quiet meeting-house pub- 
 lic. Flaxman, delighted with this work, introduced Blake to 
 Hayley, the twaddling poet, who asked him down to Felpham 
 in Sussex, to illustrate his life of his friend Cowper. Down 
 he went ; there he lived happily, wandering at evening by 
 the sea, believing he met Moses and Dante, " gray, luminous, 
 majestic, colossal shadows," as he called them ; seeing fairies' 
 funerals, and drawing the demon of a flea. After three 
 years of this tranquil happiness he removed to London, 
 and took a house, 17 South Molton Street, where he lived 
 seventeen years. He now produced his " Jerusalem," with one 
 hundred tinted engravings, for which he charged twenty-five 
 guineas. The preface modestl}' began by saying, that " after 
 my three years' slumber on the banks of the ocean, I again 
 display my giant forms to the public." The giant forms were 
 unreadable, and did not sell. For twelve inventions to illustrate 
 Blair's Grave, Cromck, the publisher, paid him but twenty gumeas, 
 and, to his extreme vexation, gave them to Schiavonetti to 
 engi'ave. Blake's style was not fashionable enough for the 
 general public. Some of these designs are tame and dull enough, 
 others grand, and a few ludicrous. The angel who blows the 
 last trumpet stands on his head in the air ; the death of the 
 strong, wicked man is sublime ; the old man at death's door 
 is meagre, but fine. An unpleasant quairel with the amiable 
 Stothard followed up the vexation of this Schiavonetti business. 
 Both artists began a Canterbury pilgrimage at the same time. 
 Holland declared that Blake had seen bun beginning his picture. 
 Blake declared that Cromek, the publisher, had actually com- 
 missioned the picture before Stothard took up his pencil. Cromek 
 said the thing was one of Blake's dreams; but in 1809 the rival 
 pictures, with sixteen others, appeared at an exhibition of Blake's 
 works in Broad Street, at the house of his brother, accompanied 
 by a catalogue full of mad fancies and crazy, clever argu- 
 ment, railing against oil painting, " the demon Correggio," and 
 indeed every painter who disregarded the purity of outline for 
 mere sensual colour. His pictures of " the Spiritual Form of 
 Nelson guiding Leviathan," and " the Spiritual Form of Pitt 
 guiding Behemoth," sent people away stunned and puzzled, but 
 still they excited interest. Charles Lamb sent Blake's chimney- 
 sweep song to the poet Montgomery, and Bernard Barton seeing 
 it was delighted. After painting Lot's portrait, and seeing the 
 devil glaring at him through the grate of his staircase window, 
 this enthusiast, happy with one room for study, kitchen, and bed- 
 chamber, and eighteen shillings a week, would sit down and 
 illustrate Job, whose patience he rivalled. For these tame, 
 timid, and quaint illustrations we have no great admiration, 
 though there is a fine religious enthusiasm about a few of them, 
 particularly No. 14 — " The Mornuig Stars singing together." 
 
 The night was coming ; Blake's small fame had been gra- 
 dually going down since the time of his exhibition ; people 
 grew satiated and wearied of his originality and obscurity. 
 He was poor and in a garret, yet independent, cheerful, vigorous, 
 and free from debt. A kind friend, Mr. Linnel, employed him 
 to engrave his book of Job illustrations, and at these he worked 
 with ardour and enthusiastic skill, dreaming and brooding only 
 when he had earned the time to do so. His next works were 
 prophecies of the destinies of America and Europe, with 
 eighteen and seventeen plates respectively. His visions grew 
 more and more incoherent ; his verse (a bad sign) rhymeless ; 
 there were all sorts of demigorgons ; the nightmare, and all her 
 ninefold ; enonnous fishes prejnng on dead bodies ; the great 
 sea serpent ; angels pouring out spotted plagues ; furies in the 
 sun, &c. 
 
 In 1823 the poor sick genius retired to Fountain Court in the 
 Strand, and with noble unabated vigour set to work illustrating 
 Dante — engraving 7, and planning 102 designs. Kind friends 
 aided him by buying his poems, and he wrought incessantly at 
 "Jerusalem," tinting and tricking it with patenial love; but no 
 one would give 25 guineas for a thing not to be imderstood, and 
 it remained on his hands. He was now 71, and his strength 
 began to fail. " I glory," he said to his wife, " I glory in dying ; 
 I have no grief but in leaving you, Kate." Three days before 
 his death he sat bolstered up in bed tinting " The Ancient of 
 Days," his favourite work. "It is done," he said; "I cannot 
 mend it." He lay singing extemporaneous songs, and died on 
 the 12th of August, 1828, without his wife, who watched him, 
 knowing the moment of his de.ath. Blake's mode of colour was 
 a secret, revealed to him, he said, in a vision. The ground of 
 his panel was a mixture of whiting and glue ; his colours he 
 mixed with diluted size ; he used to varnish with glue water, 
 and paint into that. In engi-aving he had also secrets, which 
 perished with him and his brave wife. Blake was short and thin, 
 with high pale forehead, and large dark eyes. His temper was 
 in-itable — his voice low and musical — his manners gentle and 
 unassuming. He believed himself a martyr for poetic art, and 
 pitied those who sold themselves for gain. He left 100 volumes 
 of verse prepared for the press. Would we could recover some 
 of these ! A selection of his poems would certainly become 
 classical, so burning are his words, and so tender is sometimes ) 
 their harmony. Of uneducated men's unknown poetry they ' 
 stand all but highest. Could Shelly or Byron surpass these 
 "On the Tiger," published about 1788? — 
 
 Tiger, tiger, burning bright. 
 In the forest of the night ; 
 WhHt immortal hand or eye 
 Framed thy fearful symmetry? 
 
 In what distant deeps or skies 
 Burned the fervour of thine eyes? 
 On what wings dare he aspire, 
 What the hand dare seize the fire? 
 
 And what shoulder and what art 
 Could twist the sinews of thy heart? 
 When thy heart began to beat. 
 What dread hand formed thy dread feet? 
 
 When the stars threw down their spheres, 
 And sprinkled heaven with shining tears; 
 Did He smile his work to see? 
 Did lie vtho made the lamb make thee f 
 
 The play of " Edward V." reads like a rather misshaped scrap 
 of Marlow's. "Innocence" is the sweetest of idyls. "The 
 Chimney-sweeper" is trae, and even better than the Wood Street 
 blackbird song of Wordsworth — and has, in its way, never been 
 surpassed. His "Laughing Song" nms over vidth innocent joy. 
 His " Gwinn King of Norway" is as fine as Chatterton's Sir Bald- 
 win, and turns the miserable sickly verses of the fashionable 
 poets of his own day — Danvin and Hayley— into street rhym- 
 sters. Mr. Rosetti, the eminent leader of the pre-Raphaelites has 
 in his possession much of Blake's MS. poetry. We must remem- 
 ber that Blake led the way for the Lake school ; for Scott did 
 not publish Gotz till 1799, and Coleridge and Wordsworth the 
 Lyrical Ballads till 1798.— W. T. 
 
 BLAKENEY, Lord, a distinguished mihtary officer, bom 
 in 1672, descended from an English family long seated at Mount 
 Blakeney in the county of Limerick. He entered the army 
 early in Queen Anne's reign, and soon showed that he possessed 
 talents of no common order for militaiy service. It was not to his 
 professional merits, however, that he owed his advancement, but
 
 BLA 
 
 613 
 
 BLA 
 
 to the inflaence of the duke of Richmond, who obtained for him 
 the command of a regiment. He served as a brigadier- general 
 at Carthagena, and led the assault at the storming of Bocha- 
 chica. During the rebellion of 1745 he was governor of Stir- 
 ling castle, and his conduct in defending that important fortress 
 against the Highlanders was warmly applauded. His only 
 reward, however, for his services was the lieutenant-governorship 
 of the island of Minorca. He held this post when the French 
 government in 1756 sent an army against it under Marshal 
 Sichelien. General Blakeney had in vain sent urgent notice 
 to the British ministry of the intentions of the French, and 
 warned them of the defenceless state of the island. No measures 
 whatever were taken to ward oft" the threatened danger until it 
 was too late. (See Admiral Byxg.) A force of 15,000 men 
 was landed on the island, and imdertook the siege of fort Le 
 Philip. After a determined resistance, which lasted for twenty 
 days, and drew down the encomiums even of the enemy, the 
 garrison was forced to capitulate. Marshal Richelieu declared 
 that he was induced by the bravery of the governor and garrison, 
 to " grant them such generous terms as would entitle them to 
 march out vdlh all the honours of war, and to be conveyed by 
 aea to Gibraltar." On his return home the veteran governor, now 
 in his 82nd year, received the approbation of George II. for his 
 gallant defence of Le Philip, and was raised to the Irish peerage 
 nnder the title of Baron Blakeney. — J. T. 
 
 BLA^IIRE, Miss Scsaxxa, a poetess, whose pieces were 
 welcomed with approbation as they appeared ; but being written 
 in provincial dialects, and published in difierent fonns at distant 
 intervals, they were in danger of being entirely forgotten till 
 1842, when Mr. Patrick Jilaxwell snatched them from obliWon 
 by collecting them into a volume, which he published with a 
 preface, memoir, and notes. Still they are likely to be overlooked 
 or forgotten, in consequence of the language in which they are 
 written becoming eveiy day more and more unintelligible, by 
 the refinement in speech now pervading all classes. Several of 
 them, however, deserve a better fate, particularly the beautiful 
 lyrics entitled "The Nabob" and "The Siller Croim." The 
 gifted authoress was descended from a Cumberland family of 
 high respectability, resident at Cardew hall, near Carlisle, where 
 she was bom in 1747. She remained with her parents till she 
 reached her twentieth year, when she removed with her sister, 
 who had married Colonel Grahame, to his estate of Duchray, 
 Perthshire. While there she acquired a taste for Scotch melody, 
 and acquainted herself with the language in which much of it 
 is expressed. She wrote verses in the broad Doric of the district 
 into which she had been introduced, with all the ease and grace 
 of a native, so much so that it would be supposed she had never 
 known any other. Some of her pieces are written in the Cum- 
 berland dialect, which of course was more natural to her, but 
 which are still not more intelligible to general readers than the 
 others. The only poem she wrote of any length is a descriptive 
 one entitled " Stocklewath, or the Cumbrian Village," which, 
 like most other mere descriptive pieces, fails to excite interest, 
 save in the minds of persons belonging to the locaUty. Jliss 
 Blamire returned to Cumberland, and died unmarried at Carlisle 
 in 1794, in her 47th year. — W. M'K. 
 
 BLAMONT, Fran(j-ois Colin df, a musician, was bom at 
 Versailles in 1690, where he died m 1760. He received his first 
 lessons from his father, a chamber musician to the king, and in 
 1707 was engaged as violinist by the duchesse da Maine, in whose 
 service he composed a cantata, called " Circe." Lalande was so 
 charmed with this production, that he took the young author as 
 » pupil in counterpoint, and became his stedfast friend. Bla- 
 mont succeeded the son of the famous LuUi as superintendent of 
 the music of the court in 1719. and was subsequently appointed 
 master of the chamber music of the king. In 1723 he produced 
 the opera of " Les Fetes Grecques et Romaines," which won hun 
 general esteem, and for which he was created a chevalier of the 
 order of St. Michel. He wrote several other operas and a large 
 amount of chamber vocal music ; he composed also some ballets 
 for performance at court, which were not produced in pubUc. 
 In his latter years, when he had ceased to write and his music 
 had already grown old-fashioned, he pubUshed in defence of this 
 and its style, against the attacks of Rousseau, an " Kssai sur lai 
 gouts anciens et modemes de la musique Fran9aise." — G. A. M. 
 
 BLAMPIN, Thomas, a French Benedictine, bom at Xoyon 
 in 1640, author of an admirable edition of the works of St. 
 Augustine (in eleven vols., Paris, 1679-1700), was successively 
 
 prior of St. Nicaise and St. Remy at Reims, and of St. Ouen at 
 Rouen. Died 1710. 
 
 BLAMPOIX, Jean Baptiste, constitutional bishop of Troyes, 
 and a member of the national council of 1801, was bom at 
 Macon in 1740, and died in 1820. He resigned his bishopric 
 on the publication of the concordat. 
 
 BLANC, Jean Bernard le, bom at Dijon in 1707 ; died 
 at Paris in 1781, an abbe. His tragedy of " Abensaid" was suc- 
 cessful, in spite of its very rugged versification. He published 
 elegies and other poems. 
 
 * BLANC, Lovis, a well-knoi^-n political WTiter, one of the 
 members of the French provisional government after the revo- 
 lution of 1848, was born at Madiid, 28th October, 1813. His 
 father was inspector- general of the finances in Spain under 
 Joseph Buonaparte ; his mother, a Corsican lady, Estella Pozzo 
 di Borgo ; nearly related to the able and somewhat notorious 
 ambassador of Russia, and greatly distinguished by her strength 
 of intellect, and the force of her emotions. Louis spent his 
 earliest youth in Corsica; but in 1830 he repaired to Paris to 
 join his father, who was rained by the revolution, and could no 
 longer support his family. At the age of seventeen Louis was 
 therefore compelled to struggle for his own support, and com- 
 menced his career by giving lessons in mathematics. In 1832 
 he went to Arras as tutor to the family of M. Hallet, a cele- 
 brated machine maker. In that town he made his first appear- 
 ance as a political writer, and contributed various articles to the 
 Progres du Pas de Calais. In 1834 he went once more to Paris 
 and joined the staff of the Bon Sens — became principal editor of 
 that journal in 1837, and remained in that office about a year, 
 when a dispute arose between the proprietors and the editorial 
 staS" regarding the construction of the French railroads. Louis 
 Blanc asserted that the railways should be constructed by the 
 state ; the proprietors, on the contrar}-, maintaining that they 
 should be left entirely to private enterprise. This led to his 
 resignation ; and in 1839 he established the Revue de Pro- 
 ffres, which was intended to advocate the views of the ultra 
 democratic party. In 1840 he published his famous treatise, 
 the " Organisation du Travail," and developed his doctrines of 
 social and political reform. Poverty, said he, comes only from 
 individualism, therefore the individual ought to be absorbed in 
 a vast solidarite, where each shall have what he wants, and con- 
 tribute what he can. These political speculations are certainly 
 far from having obtained general acceptance ; nay, they have 
 been so mixed up with the passions and struggles of the 
 revolution, that they can scarcely be said to have obtained a fair 
 hearing ; nevertheless, the student will do great injustice to 
 himself, if he pennits the unpopulaiity of these to blind him to 
 the rare merits of the "Histoire de Dix Ans," 1830—1840, or 
 of the history of the French revolution. Louis Blanc's popu- 
 larity gained for him a place in the provisional government of 
 1848 ; and it is alleged that the punishment of death for poli- 
 tical causes was aboUshed in the new republic at his suggestion. 
 He was desirous of creating a Jlinistry of Progress. The pro- 
 position was not entertained by his colleagues, and he sent in 
 his resignation ; but was prevailed on to recall it, as a civil war 
 would probably have resulted from his secession. He then 
 became president of the commission of the Luxembourg, the 
 intention of which was to elaborate some new scheme of political 
 economy : the plan, however, led to no definite result. He was 
 named a representative of the people, but did not long remain 
 a member of the constituent assembly, as proceedings were insti- 
 tuted against him on account of pretended treasons. It is im- 
 possible at a period so near to that in which one has been called 
 on to contend in the political arena, to expect an impartial esti- 
 mate either of character or motives. Louis Blanc has suffered 
 mure than most. The provisional government was composed 
 of very discordant elements, although fused for the moment ; nor 
 need the fact be a man-el to those who recollect the apparent 
 harmony of the famous ministry of our own E;u-1 Grey, notwith- 
 standing the latent feuds, or rather seeds of irreconcilable feuds 
 that existed within it. Its two great parties were those of the 
 liefomie and the National. The liej'onne stood by tiie masses ; 
 the National cared only for the bourgeoisie. No tie could bind 
 these long ; and in course of the rupture, the stronger sacrificed 
 the weaker, pretty much as unceremoniously as has been the 
 way with more recent deportements to Cayenne. This Cyclopae- 
 dia cannot command space for the detail even of such parts of 
 the historj- of that tumultuous period as are needful to elucidate
 
 the conduct of Louis Blanc; but it may be permitted the writer 
 of this brief notice to say, that after much scrutiny, he cannot 
 escape the conclusion that this victim of the assembly acted 
 throuo-hout as an honourable and high-spirited man, and that, 
 wholly irrespective of the truth or falsehood of his speculative 
 views, he will in all probability long outlive the calumnies that 
 overwhelmed him. — We can do no more now than briefly refer to 
 his recent work, " Historical Revelations." It is a manly and most 
 thorough refutation of gossip, which Lord Normandy ought cer- 
 tainly never to have repeated, and for which one form of amende 
 alone is open. The book is farther curious, because of its plain 
 account of the relations between its author and the present 
 emperor of the French. 
 
 * BLAXC, LuDNViG Gottfried, was bom at Berlin, 19th 
 September, 1781. He studied theology, became in 1814 one of 
 the chaplains to the Prussian forces, which he followed into 
 France, and in 1822 was appointed professor of the Romance 
 languages in the university of Halle. He has published some 
 valuable works on Dante " Die beiden ersten Gesiinge der Gott- 
 lichen Komodie ;" " Vocabolario Dantesco," &c. ; an Italian 
 grammar, &c. His " Handbuch des Wissenswiirdigsten aus der 
 Natur und Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Bewohner " is exten- 
 sively popular. — K. E. 
 
 BLAXC HA, JuAX, first consul of Perpignan, and governor 
 of that town under the Spaniards when it was besieged by the 
 French in 1474. His son was taken prisoner in a sortie, and 
 the besiegers, in order to intimidate Blancha, threatened to put 
 the youth to death, unless he consented to surrender the place. 
 The heroic governor returned a peremptory refusal, which cost 
 him his only son, but so animated the coiirage of the besieged, 
 that he was enabled to prolong the defence of the town for eight 
 months, until John II. of Aragon gave him permission to capi- 
 tulate, after the citizens were reduced to the last extremity. To 
 perpetuate the memory of his heroism, a marble tablet was 
 erected before his house, with the inscription — " Hujus domus 
 dominus fidelitate cunctos superavit Romanos." — J. T. 
 
 BLAXCHARD, Fr.a>J90IS, sometimes called Jean Pierre, 
 the celebrated French aeronaut, born at Andelys, 1738 ; died at 
 Paris, 1809. From his youth, although unlettered even in the 
 rudiments of physical science, he was an adept in all the mechanical 
 arts, and before completing his sixteenth year, had constructed a 
 sort of self-propelling machine, with which he accomphshed a 
 jomTiey of twenty- one leagues. This invention recommended 
 him to the notice of Louis XVI., who, after the aeronaut's suc- 
 cessful attempt in 1785, to cross the Straits of Dover in his 
 improved balloon, gave him a present of 12,000 francs, and an 
 annuity of 1200 livres. In the same year the intrepid aeronaut 
 astonished the pubhc of London by one of his parachute descents, 
 the instrument employed being of his own invention, or at least 
 of his own manufacture. It is asserted by some that the brothers 
 Montgolfier were the inventors of the pai'achute, as they 
 certainly were the improvers of the balloon. In the course of 
 his adventurous life, Blanchard visited the New World, making 
 his forty-sixth ascent at New-York in 1793 or 1794. His death 
 resulted from apoplexy, mth which he was struck while making 
 bis sixtv-sixth ascent at the Hague, 1808. — J. S., G. 
 
 BLAXCHARD DE LA HUSSE, Fran^ois-Gabriel- 
 Ursin, a French litterateur, bom at Xantes, 1752; died in 
 1837. He was councillor in the parliament of Rennes ; was 
 thrown into prison during the Reign of Terror, and led a life of 
 much vicissitude. Author of some essays and a great number 
 of poetical pieces in the Almanach des Muses : Nantes. 
 
 BLANCHE, queen of Xavan-e, died 3rd April, 1441. She 
 was daughter of Charles III., called the Noble, to whom she 
 succeeded in 1425, having pre\-iously been twice married — first 
 in 1402, to Martin of Aragon, king of Sicily ; and secondly in 
 1420, to John of Aragon, son of Ferdinand I. At her death 
 she bequeathed her crown to her son, Don Carlos. 
 
 BLANCHE d'Artois, queen of Navarre, died about 1300. 
 She was daughter of Robert de France, comte d'Artois, brother 
 of Saint Louis, and was twice married — first to Henry I., king 
 of Navarre, and secondly to Edward, count of Lancaster, and 
 brother of the king of England. 
 
 BLANCHE DE BouRBOX, queen of Castile, and daughter of 
 Pierre, duke of Bourbon, bom about 1338 ; died in 1361. At 
 the age of fifteen she married Peter the Cmel, king of Castile ; 
 but having been suspected of a criminal amour with the king's 
 natural brother, Don Frederick, who had been sent to Narbonne 
 
 to receive her, she was from the day after her marriage deserted' 
 by her husband. Having, in consequence of this conduct on the | 
 part of Pierre, leagued herself with the king's brothers, she was ' 
 arrested and sent a prisoner to Toledo. She succeeded, however, ' 
 in making her escape, and took refuge in the cathedral ; but a , 
 popular insurrection having taken place in her favour, Toledo 
 was taken by assault, and Blanche was transferred to the castle 
 of ^ledina Sidonia, where she was, by the orders of Pierre, put 
 to death by poison. — G. M. 
 
 BLANCHE DE Castile, queen of France, bom in 1169; 
 died in 1243. She was daughter of Alphouso IX., king of Cas- 
 tile, and niece of the king of England, and married Prince Louis, 
 eldest son of Philip Augustus. In 1223 she ascended the throne 
 ■with her husband, then become Louis VIII. , who, dying three 
 years afterwards, left her by his will regent of the kingdom, and 
 guardian of his eldest son, Louis IX. She had scarcely assumed 
 the regency when a powerful coahtion was formed against her, 
 consisting of the principal vassals of the crown and many of the 
 nobility. Unalarmed by the dangers which threatened her, she 
 marched against the rebels, and succeeded, though not without 
 difficulty, in reducing them to obedience. Shortly after tlie 
 young king had come of age, and assimied the reins of power, 
 he formed the resolution of joining the crusades, and on his 
 departure for the East, left his mother a second time regent of 
 the kingdom. During this renewed exercise of sovereign power, 
 she had greater and more nimierous difficulties to contend -n-ith 
 than during her first regency, all of which she surmounted by 
 her rare ability, courage, and acti\ity. She has been celebrated 
 in French history for her personal beauty, her high intelligence, 
 and her capacity for government. — G. M. 
 
 * BLAXCHET, Alexandke-Paul-Louis, a French phy- 
 sician, bom at Saint L6 in 1817, who has devoted his attention 
 particularly to the treatment of the deaf and dumb. Besides 
 several memoirs on difi"erent subjects connected with congenital 
 deafness, he has published " La Surdi-Mutite," 4 vols. 
 
 BLAXCHET, Fraxcois, bom at Angerrille, near de Chartres, 
 in 1707 ; died at St. Germain- en-Lave in 1784. Several fugi- 
 tive poems of his are very graceful, and attracted great attention. 
 He published oriental tales, which were greatly admired. His 
 fugitive poems, circulated in manuscript, were ascribed to several 
 distinguished men of the day. He is reported to have said " Je 
 suis charme que les riches adoptent mes enfans." — J. A., D. 
 
 BLAXCHET, Pierre, bom at Poitiers in 1452, where he 
 died in 1519. The pleasant comedy of "I'Avocat Patelin" is 
 usually ascribed to him; but Slonsieur Genin, writing in the 
 Nouvelle Biographic Universelle, proves that he could not have 
 been the author. He is described by his friend, Jean Bouchet. as 
 
 " En son vivant poete satirique, 
 Hardi sans lettre, et fort joyeux comique." 
 
 * BLANCHET, Rodolphe, a Swiss botanist, has devoted his 
 attention particularly to the physiology of plants. He has pub- 
 hshed works on the influence of ammonia on vegetation, on the 
 potato disease, and on the art of praning. He has also drawn 
 up a catalogue of the indigenous vascular plants of the Canton 
 de Vaud. His writings extend from 1836 to 1845. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLANCHET, Thomas, a French historical painter, born at 
 Pai-is in 1617; died at Lyons m 1689. He first studied sculp- 
 ture under Sarazin ; but the stone dust hurting his lungs, he 
 took to painting, and visiting Rome studied with Poussm and 
 Andi-ea Sacchi, who gave him advice, and taught him what not 
 to do. He returned to Paris a ripe and already-known artist, 
 his design and perspective good, and his colouring natural. He 
 excelled in drawing children, and was thought a master of com- 
 position. His eiTors arose chiefly from a quick and overleaping 
 imagination and the taste of a false age. He painted several 
 pictm-es for the Hotel de Ville at Lyons, and drew subjects for 
 Notre Dame — " the Ethiopian Eunuch's Baptism," and " the 
 Vision of St. Philip." When he was made R.A. in 1676, his 
 diploma picture was " Cadmus killing the Dragon." — W. T. 
 
 BL.\NCHETON, Marc-Axtolse, a French physician, bom 
 at Ven-aison, Puy-de-D6me, on the 3rd August, 1784 ; died on 
 the 15th August, 1830. In 1809 he was appointed to the first 
 class in the medical service of the army, and in this capacity went 
 through the Austrian campaign. The experience gained during 
 this mihtaiy senice was of great advantage to him in fulfilling 
 the duties of phvsician of epidemics, a post to which he was 
 aftenvards appointed by the prefect of the department of the
 
 Seine, His principal work is an '" Essai sur I'Homme, considere 
 dans ses rapports geographiques," publislied at Paris in 1808, 
 written in opposition to tlie opinions of Cabanis ; it is only the 
 outline of a larger work, upon which Blancheton laboured till the 
 end of his life, but which was never published. — W. S. D. 
 
 BLAXCHON, Joachim, born at Limoges; the precise pei-iods 
 of his birth and death are not known, but he was living in 1580. 
 A collection of his poems, entitled ''Premieres (Euvres Poe- 
 tiques," was pubUshed at Paris in 1583. 
 
 BLANCO, Maxoel, a Spanish botanist of the present cen- 
 tory. He has published a " Flora of the Philippine Islands," 
 which was printed at Manilla in 1837. 
 
 BLANDRATA, Giorgio, an Italian physician, celebrated 
 for his frequent changes of religion, was born in the vicinity 
 of Saluzzo, and received his education at Montpellier, where 
 he came in the year 1530, and in 1533 received his degree 
 of doctor. Carried away by the new religious doctrines which 
 were at that time agitating the minds of men, Blandrata succes- 
 sively embraced Lutheranism, Calvinism, Socinianism, and Arian- 
 ism ; indeed he appears to have attached himself, at one time 
 or another, to almost every sect existing in his time. The state 
 of his rehgious opinions, coupled with the desire of success in his 
 profession, led him to visit Poland, where he became physician 
 to the wife of Sigismund Augustus. On returning to Italy he 
 was seized by the inquisition as a heretic, and thrown into prison 
 at Pavia, but escaped, and sought safety at Geneva. Here, how- 
 ever, his peculiiu- views were not regarded with favour ; Cah-in 
 handed him over to the officers of justice as a partisan of Servetus, 
 and he only saved his head by making a public profession of faith 
 perfectly in accordance with the Calvinistic tenets. Calvin him- 
 self, however, does not appear to have been satisfied with the sin- 
 cerity of his convert, for we find that on Blandrata's return to 
 Poland in 1658, the influence of the great Swiss reformer caused 
 him to be deprived of all his dignities; and in 1563 he betook 
 himself to the court of John Sigismund, prince of Transylvania, 
 to whom he was appointed physician, and in this position, and a 
 similar one under the succeeding prince, Stephen Bathori, whom 
 he accompanied to Poland, Blandrata remained until his death. 
 During the earlier part of his residence in Transylvania, Blandrata 
 was zealous in disseminating the unitarian opinions which he had 
 adopted, to which he converted the prince, Johanu Sigismund, 
 and for which he obtained complete toleration ; but subsequently, 
 as old age and the desire of riches grew upon him, his religious 
 ardour appears to have cooled, and in his later years he is de- 
 scribed as favouring the Jesuits, who had obtained the coun- 
 tenance of his prince. The date of his death is not known, but 
 he is said to have been strangled in his bed by a nephew, whom 
 he had threatened to disinherit, on account of his attachment to 
 the catholic religion. This motive, however, seems scarcely com- 
 patible with the change of opinion experienced by this timeserving 
 sectarian in his old age. Many people attributed his sudden 
 death to a visitation of Providence. — W. S. D. 
 
 BLANE, Sir Gilbert, baronet, fellow of the Royal Societies 
 of London, Edinburgh, and Gottingen ; of the' Imperial Academy 
 of Sciences of St. Petersburg; and of the Royal Academy of 
 Sciences of Paris ; physician to the fleet in the West Indies, 
 and North America, during the American war ; one of the com- 
 missioners of sick and wounded seamen ; and physician to their 
 majesties King George IV. and King William IV. A distin- 
 guished physician who held high and responsible offices in the 
 medical department of the royal navy, as well as in civil life, 
 and was professionally employed in several important missions 
 during a most eventful period in the history of this country ; 
 descended of an ancient Scottish family, was born at Blanefield, 
 Ayrshire, August 29, 1749. After devoting ten years to the 
 study of the various branches of literature and science, as well 
 as of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, and two years in 
 London under the celebrated Hunters, he obtained the degree of 
 M.D. at Glasgow in 1778. On the recommendation of Dr. 
 William Hunter, and of his friend and patron, Robertson the 
 historian, he became shortly afterwards physician and companion 
 to the earl of Holdemesse, a most accomplished nobleman, who, 
 besides haxing filled several important posts in the state, had 
 been governor to the prince of Wales. On the death of Lord 
 Holdemesse, Dr. Blane embarked as a volunteer in the fleet 
 •which left England to relieve Gibraltar at the end of 1779, 
 under the command of Su- George, afterwards Lord Rodney, who 
 appointed him physician to the fleet on his arrival at Gibraltar, 
 
 immediately after his first victory. The relief of Gibraltar having 
 been eflected, the fleet proceeded to the West Indies, and there 
 Dr. Blane was soon afforded ample scope for the exercise of his 
 high professional attainments. During the four years in which 
 he conducted the medical duties of the fleet on that station, he 
 was present in several general engagements with the enemy, 
 including that of April 12, 1782, in which Lord Rodney 
 achieved a signal victor)^ over the French fleet, commanded by 
 the comte de Grasse. The reduction of the naval armament, 
 consequent upon the peace of 1783, rendering a medical oflicer 
 of Dr. Blane's rank no longer necessar}' in the West Indies, he 
 returned to England with Sir Francis Drake, who commanded 
 the first division of the fleet sent home. That Dr. Blane zea- 
 lously and ably carried out his resolution on receiving his appoint- 
 ment to avail himself to the utmost of the advantages which 
 so rich a field of observation presented, is abundantly proved by 
 his well-kno^Ti work, " On the Diseases of Seamen." In this 
 valuable book, which may be read with advantage at the present 
 day, we fijid the sickness and mortality of the fleet during four 
 years, clearly and intelligibly stated, and illustrated by regular 
 and methodical tabular forms. Sir John Pringle in the army, 
 Dr. Lind in the navy, and other minds of kindred capacity and 
 \'igour, had already recorded the varj-ing proportions of sick in 
 fleets and armies, at different seasons, and in different localities ; 
 but Blane may be considered among the very first who system- 
 atically applied statistical science to the investigation of medical 
 facts and phenomena. The causes of sickness in fleets in hot 
 cUmates ; the means of prevention, treatment, and cure ; and the 
 hygienic views embodied in memorials to the commander-in- 
 chief and to the admiralty, suggesting improvements in the 
 condition of the seamen ; are severally treated in an enlightened 
 and philosophical spuit, indicating everywhere a mind capable 
 of anticipating much that was not fully adopted until of late 
 years. To Lord Rodney's honour, be it recorded, he ever took 
 occasion to acknowledge with pride, the gi'eat services rendered 
 by the physician to his fleet, and both in writing and conversa- 
 tion, ascribed part of his success to those medical regulations to 
 which the healthy state of the seamen was owing. It was on 
 the strong recommendation of his lordship, and of the other flag- 
 officers and captains of the fleet, that his majesty granted a 
 pension to Dr. Blane, there being at this time no haif-pay 
 allowance to physicians of fleets. 
 
 There being no prospect of public employment. Dr. Blane, on 
 his return from the West Indies, became desirous of attaching 
 himself to St. Thomas' hospital, as one of its physicians ; and 
 on this, as on former occasions. Lord Rodney bore wiUing testi- 
 mony to his great merits. Writing to one of the governors of 
 the hospital, his lordship says : — "The gratitude the nation owes 
 Dr. Blane, for his care, attention, and assiduity in preserving the 
 lives of thousands of the fleet I commanded, prove that care and 
 attention were only wanting, and a physician of great abilities, 
 to make that climate (the West Indies) as healthy as the climate 
 of Europe. Britain owes this proof to Dr. Blane ; for to his 
 knowledge and attention it was owing, that the English fleet 
 were, notwithstanding their excessive fatigue and constant ser- 
 vice, in condition always to attack arid defeat the public enemy." 
 Plainly in consequence of this strong recommendation, from one 
 who, although always just, was never prodigal of praise. Dr. 
 Blane was elected a physician to St. Thomas' hospital — a post 
 which he held until 1795, when he was called by Lord Spencer, 
 then at the head of the admiralty, to fill the appointment of a 
 commissioner of sick and wounded seamen, with a ^•iew to 
 introduce some new regulations and improvements into that 
 department of the public service. At the peace of Amiens, a 
 great reduction was made in all naval establishments, and Dr. 
 Blane at this time retired from the board of commissioners. In 
 1805, in consequence of the sen-ices he had rendered to the state, 
 in improving the health of the na\'y, his majesty was pleased to 
 double his pension. 
 
 In the autumn of 1809, Dr. Blane, on the nomination of the 
 cabinet council, was charged with a special mission to Wal- 
 cheren, in order to ascertain the nature and causes of the great 
 sickness and mortality prevailing in the British army in Zealand. 
 He performed this mission to the entire satisfaction of the com- 
 mander-in-chief ; and his report on the condition of the anny 
 concludes in these words : — " What an incalculable saving would 
 there have been of human life, treasure, and the whole material 
 of war, had any of the members of the British government,
 
 whether statesmen or waniors, been conversant enough in history 
 and medicine, to have dissuaded them from undertaking tlie 
 expeditions to St. Domingo and Walcheren." Besides these 
 more prominent employments, of which we have given but an 
 imperfect account. Dr. Bhme, while in London, was frequently 
 consulted by various other departments of government, as well 
 as by pubUc bodies. He was a member of committee for drawing 
 up quarantine regulations ; he was engaged in an inquiry into 
 the state of the hulks at Woolwich ; he drew up directions for 
 the transportation of the army from Egj'pt ; he was the author 
 of a scheme for the better conducting of the medical ser\-ice of 
 India ; and conjointly with Count Rumford and Justice Graham, 
 was on a commission for improving the condition of ships em- 
 ployed in conveying convicts to Botany Bay. He was also 
 consulted by foreign nations on the like subjects, and was pre- 
 sented with gold medals and other tokens of approbation, by 
 the sovereigns of Russia and Pruswia, and by Mr. Adams, the 
 president of the United States. In 1812, in consideration of 
 his faithful and valuable services, he was created a bai-onet by 
 the Prince Regent. 
 
 Su- Gilbert Blane's pnncipal works are — " The Diseases of 
 Seamen ; " " Select Dissertations on several subjects of Medical 
 Science ; " and " Elements of Medical Logic." All of these indi- 
 cate, on the part of the author, the scholar, the highly cultivated 
 physician, the philosopher, and the philanthropist. The engross- 
 ing subject of liis mind throughout life, whether while afloat or 
 on shore, seems to have been the welfare of British seamen — 
 that class of men whom he felt had contributed so much to om- 
 national greatness, and of whose glories and \nctories he had been 
 a witness and participator. In a pamphlet published so late as 
 1830, he traces with the spirit and enthusiasm of one whose soul 
 was devoted to the subject, the progressive improvement in the 
 health of the navy during the past tifty years. In this remark- 
 able document he well observes, " It would be of little avail that 
 the depths of mathematical science, the elaborate researches of 
 mechanical, optical, and chemical philosophy, should be called 
 to the aid of navigation, so as to co-operate so admirably in 
 carrying it to its present exalted state of perfection, unless 
 the means of preserving health kept pace with these mighty 
 improvements." 
 
 The last public act of this excellent man worthily crowned 
 his long, honourable, and useful career. In his eighty- first year, 
 he founded, with the approbation of the lords of the admiralty, 
 gold medals, to be conferred "once in two years, on two medical 
 officers of ships of war in commission, who shall have delivered 
 into office journals enncing the most distinguished proof of skill, 
 diligence, and humanity, in the exercise of their professional 
 duty." The veteran lived to make the first award of the medals 
 himself. In 1832 he made selection of two journals as best 
 entitled to the honour, the first of which fell to Dr. Liddell (now 
 Sir ,Iohn Liddell, director-general of the medical department), for 
 his journal describing the cockpit and other arrangements on board 
 the flag-ship Asia, of which he was surgeon at the battle of Na- 
 varino. He thus concludes his comments on the various jour- 
 nals submitted to him for the adjudication of the medals: — 
 " Having arrived at the eighty-third year of my age, and labour- 
 ing under a variety of serious infirmities, with little hope of again 
 performing the like duty, I now will, with the warmest sentiments 
 of unfeigned regard, and best wishes for the continuation of the 
 respectability and welfare of the medical officers of the Br;>tish 
 naN^y, only say, valefe vixi." Since his death, which took place 
 in London, on the 26th June, 1834, the medals have, in accord- 
 ance with the conditions of the founder, been adjudicated by 
 the director-general of the medical department of the navy, the 
 president of the Royal College of Physicians, and the president 
 of the Royal College of Surgeons of London. — J. 0. M'W. 
 
 BLAXGINI, Giuseppe Makco JL\ria Felice, a musician, 
 was born at Turin in 1781, and died at Paris in 1842. His 
 family was opulent, but his precocious talent and ardent love for 
 music induced them to allow him to adopt this art as a profes- 
 sion. His master was the Abbe Ottani, maestro di capella to 
 the cathedral of his native town, for whom, when but twelve 
 years old, he officiated as deputy. At fourteen Blangini com- 
 posed a mass with orchestral accompaniments, that was performed 
 at the cathedral. In 1799 he went to Paris, where he gained 
 rapid esteem as a teacher of singing and composer of romances. 
 He was soon commissioned to complete the opera of La Fausse 
 Duegue, which Delia Jlaria had lei't unfinished. In this he was 
 
 so successful, that he was immediately employed upon other works, 
 by means of which he quickly established a wide reputation. He 
 gained considerable celebrity by his singing of his own composi- 
 tions at a series of private concerts which he gave, and which 
 were the resort of all the fashion of Paris. In 1805 the young 
 musician was appointed kapellmeister to the elector palatine 
 of Bavaria, in which capacity he wrote the opera of Der Kali- 
 phenstreich for Munich. The piincess Borghese, sister of Napo- 
 leon, appointed Blangini master of her concerts, and in 1809 
 he succeeded Reich art as kapellmeister at Cassel to Jerome 
 Buonaparte, then king of Westphalia, when Beethoven refused 
 this office. In 1814 Blangini returned to Paris, and on the 
 restoration of Louis XVIII. received the title of honorary super- 
 intendent of music and special composer to the king, and was 
 engaged as professor of singing in the royal school of music and 
 declamation, but was subsequently deprived of this last appoint- 
 ment by the Viscount Laroehefoucault. During the next fifteen 
 years he produced several more dramatic works, both at the 
 Opera Comique and at the Academie, and in 1817 revisited 
 Munich to bring out an Italian opera, Trajano in Dacia. He 
 is best known by his veiy numerous romances, and noctunies tor 
 one and two voices, w"hich possess a charming fluency of melody. 
 The fact that of all his compositions for the theatre, his masses 
 and his instrumental pieces, none have survived him, suggests 
 that he owed the opportunity for their production less to their 
 merit than to the opulence of his family, and the interest this 
 procured him. — G. A. M. 
 
 BLANKAARD, BLANKAERT, or BLANCARD, Stephan, 
 a Dutch physician of the latter part of the seventeenth century, 
 was born at ]\Iiddelburg, studied at Breda and Amsterdam, and 
 took his degree at the university of Franeke. He afterwards 
 returned to Amsterdam, in which city he continued to reside 
 until his death, at the commencement of the eighteenth centurj'. 
 Besides practising medicine with considerable success, Blankaard 
 published a great number of works upon medical and anatomical 
 subjects, many of them in the vulgar tongue ; a cii-cumstance 
 which brought upon him a violent attack from Goehlicke, who 
 accuses him of opening the door of the sanctuary of medicine to 
 quacks and ignorant pretenders, who could only abuse the little 
 knowledge they might thus acquire. Of his numerous witings 
 the best is his "Anatomia Practica Rationalis," published at Ley- 
 den in 1(588, in which he describes the results of the anatomical 
 exammation of two hundi-ed human subjects, with short state- 
 ments of the diseases from which they had suffered. This work 
 is remarkable from its precision and clearness, and may still be 
 studied with advantage. His " Lexicon Medicum Grasco-lati- 
 nuni," of which a gi-eat number of editions and translations 
 appeared in various countries, is also a ViUuable work. Blankaar.l 
 was one of the first to prove by uijections, that there is an anas- 
 tomosis of the finest arteries and veins. See his treatise " De 
 Circulatione Sanguinis per fibras," Amsterdam, 1G76. — W. S. D. 
 
 BLANKENBURG, Christlvn Friedeich von, a German 
 writer, was bom in the neighbourhood of Kolberg, 24th January, 
 1744, and died at -Leipzig, 4th May, 1796. He is well known 
 by his "Zusatze zu Sulzer's Theorie der schonen Kiinste," 1796- 
 1798, in 3 vols.— K. E. 
 
 BLANKHOr, John Teunisz, a Dutch sea painter, was 
 born at Alkmaaz in 1628. He studied under Tierling, Schcyen- 
 berg, and Everdingen. His touch was neat, light, and free, his 
 seas were (juiet and true. His best scenes were Italian sea-ports, 
 with vessels rocking at their moorings. — W T. 
 
 * BLANQUI, Jerome Adolphe, an eminent French poli- 
 tical economist, born at Nice in 1798. In 1825 his lectures on the 
 History of Industrial Civilization among the Nations of Europe, 
 attracted much attention, and after filling for a short period the 
 office of director of the School of Commerce at Paris, he was 
 appointed in 1833 to succeed Professor J. B. Say iu the Conser- 
 vatoire des Arts et Metiers. In 1851 he was charged by the 
 institute of which he was a member to draw up an account of 
 the exhibition of that year ; and this task he accomplished in a 
 series of articles in the Presse, remarkable for perspicuity and 
 liveliness of style. He has written "Histoire de rEconomie 
 Politique en Europe, depuis les anciens jusqu'a nos jours, 
 Paris, 1837 ; some other works on subjects of pohtical science, 
 and a great number of articles in various journals. — J. S., G. 
 
 BLANSERI, SiTTORio, a Venetian painter who studied under 
 the Cavalier Beaumont, succeeding him as court painter at 
 Turin, being indeed considered his best pupil. He pamtcd in
 
 BLA 
 
 617 
 
 BLE 
 
 church and palace. Some of his pictures are in the chiu-ches of 
 Turin. S. Pelagio had his best work — a swooning St. Luke, 
 supported by an angel. He died in 1775. — W. T. 
 
 BLARRU, Pierre de, born at Paris, in the valley of Orbay, 
 between Alsace and Lorraine, in 1437; died at St. Diez in 1505. 
 lie was one of the canons of the collegiate church of St. Diez. 
 He was a bird-fancier ; collected numbers of these captives, and 
 when they died wrote elegiac verses commiserating their fate. 
 The birds are made say in a line, sometimes quoted as beautiful ; 
 which, we hope, however, esp'-esses but a puerile fancy — 
 
 "Forsitan et gemimus dam nos cantare putatis." 
 
 Blarru is remembered by his posthumous Latin poem of the 
 ''Nanceis." The subject is the defeat and death of Charles the 
 Rash, at the siege of Xancy ; his hero is Rene, duke of Lorraine. 
 Blarru was blind, and so far like the Homer of tradition. The 
 poem, when first published, was praised as equal to the Iliad or 
 Jlneid. It is not as entirely forgotten at present as such things 
 ordinarily are. In 1840 it was reprinted, and there are French 
 and German translations of it. There is some evidence that 
 BlaiTU wrote from his own feelings and observations, rather than 
 from the traditional forms of the writers of heroic verse, in the 
 fact that the habits of birds supplied him with his favomnte 
 similes. BlaiTu wrote French verse, which was never admired, 
 and is now forgotten. — J. A., D. 
 
 BLASCO, Niccoi.o, bom at Chiusa in Sicily and flourished 
 towards the end of the IGth century. Mongitore, a very clever 
 biographer infoiTns us, that Blasco taught belles-lettres and 
 philosophy for more than thirty-five years in Naples, Rome, 
 and Palermo, and that he was still living in the last -mentioned 
 city in 1605. He wrote jocular poetry in the Sicilian dialect, 
 and many of his letters, still 'inedited, are highly praised by the 
 said biographer. — A. C. M. 
 
 * BLASIUS, JoHAXX Heineich, a distinguished German 
 naturalist, bom at Nymbrecht, in the district of Cologne, on the 
 7th October, 1809, became teacher of natural history and mathe- 
 matics at the high school of Crefeld in 1831, and in 1836 pro- 
 fessor of natural history and director of the museum and botanic 
 gardens in Bninswick. Professor Blasius is the author of several 
 papers on zoological subjects, published in Wiegman's Archiv, 
 and in the Memoirs of the Academies of St. Petersburg and 
 Munich. His principal works are " The Natui-al History of the 
 European Vertebrata," prepared in conjunction with Count 
 Keyserling, and " Travels in European Russia," pulilished at 
 Brunswick in 1844, of which he was joint author with Meyendorff, 
 Keyserling, Sir Roderick Murchison, and de Yerneuil. — W. S. D. 
 BLAU, Felix Anthox, a German theologian, professor of 
 theology in his native city, ilentz, was bom in 1714, and died 
 in 1798. He was among the enthusiasts who flocked into 
 France on the outbreak of the Revolution, anxious to witness the 
 final triumph of liberty ; but having been taken prisoner by the 
 Prussians in 1793, his dream of optimism cost him a lengthy 
 imprisonment in a dungeon at Konigstein. He was liberated by 
 the French, and appointed a judge of the criminal court in his 
 native city. Died in 1798. His principal works are a "History 
 of Ecclesiastical Infallibility," 1791 — a most violent polemic 
 against the church of Rome — and a critical essay respecting the 
 religious ordinances which had been passed in France since the 
 Revolution, 1798.— J. S., G. 
 
 BLAZE, Elzeur, a French litterateur, bom at Cavaillon 
 about 1786 ; died in 1848. He was pupil of the military 
 school of Fontaineblean, and served in the imperial aiTny in 
 Germany, Poland, and Spain. Author of " La Vie Militalre 
 sons TEmpire," Paris, 1837, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 * BLAZE, Francois Henri Joseph Castil, known as 
 Castil-Blaze, a musical critic, was bora at Cavaillon, in the 
 department of Baucleuse, in 1784. His father, Henri Sebastian 
 Blaze, bom in 1763, and died in 1833, who, though a notary 
 by profession, was an accomplished musician, and produced 
 several works of importance and merit, at first taught him music. 
 M. Castil Blaze went to Paris to study for the law, but, like his 
 father, he preferred music to jurisprudence, and became accord- 
 mgly a student of the conseiTatoire. He was compelled for a 
 time to abandon the pursuit of his predilection, obtained some 
 distinction as an advocate, and returned to his native town with 
 an official appointment. This, after some years, he resigned, and 
 settled himself in Paris, with the detennination to attach himself 
 for the future to music and its interests. In 1820 he published 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 " L'Opera en France," a critical view of the state of dramatic 
 music, and in the following year he undertook the musical de- 
 partment of the Journal des Dehats, which he conducted for 
 ten years. He was the first person of his period who wrote upon 
 music in France with any competent knowledge of the subject, 
 and his articles had consequently a most beneficial influence upon 
 the general character of musical criticism. On quitting the 
 Dehats he was engaged upon the Constilutionnel, and has since 
 contributed musical articles to other journals. In 1821 he 
 printed a " Dictionnaire de ilusiaue ^lodeme," and subsequently 
 two other works, " Chapelle !Musique des Rois de France," and 
 " La danse et les ballets depuis Bacchus jusqu'a JIademoiselle 
 Taglioni." He adapted French texts for several of the operas of 
 Jlozart, Rossini, and Weber, and his versions are in general 
 acceptance. He published some instrumental quartettes and 
 other pieces of pretension, besides some chansons, which have had 
 popularity. —G. A. M. 
 
 BLE, Nicolas du, marquis d'Uxelles, marshal of France, 
 born 1652 ; died 1730. He was at first destined for the church, 
 but afterwards entered the army, in which he sers'ed for thirty- 
 two years, and attained the highest military honours. He was 
 created a marshal in 1703. In 1710 he was nominated minis- 
 ter-plenipotentiarj' along with Cardin;d Poliguac, to attend the 
 conferences of Gertruydemberg. Three years later he took part 
 in the conferences at Utrecht, which temiinated the war between 
 France and the allies. — J. T. 
 
 BLEDU, Jacques, a Spanish historian, bom about 1550 in 
 the kingdom of Valence. He took an active part in the expul- 
 sion of the descendants of the Moors from Spain. Author of 
 " Tractatus de justa Jloriscorum ab Hispania expulsione," Va- 
 lence, 1610, 4to; and other works. 
 
 * BLEEK, Friedrich, a German theologian, was bom at 
 Arensbok in Holstein, July 4, 1793, and studied theology at 
 Kiel and Berlin under De Wette, Schleiermacher, and Neander. 
 In 1823 he became professor extraordinary at Berlin, and in 
 1829 was translated to a chau- at Bonn. His principal works 
 are — "Der Brief an die Heliriier, tlbersetzung und Commentar;" 
 and " Beitriige zur Evangelienkritik," 1846, &c. — K. E. 
 
 BLEGBOROUGH, Ralph, an English physician, born on the 
 5th April, 1769, at Richmond in Yorkshire; received the mdi- 
 ments of his medical education fi-om his father, an apothecai-y in 
 large practice. He afterwards went to Edinburgh for two years, 
 and thence to London, where he studied under Sir- Astley Cooper 
 and J. W. Chne at Guy's and St. Thomas' hospitals. In 1793 Mr. 
 Blegboroiigh commenced practising in London as a surgeon, and 
 continued thus engaged for ten years, when, having fulfilled the 
 necessary term of study at a university, he took his degree, and 
 became a member of the Royal College of Physicians. Soon after 
 this he joined Dr. 'Walshman, a celebrated accoucheur, and con- 
 tinued in the active exercise of this branch of the medical pro- 
 fession until his death, which took place in January, 1827. His 
 writings are confined to a few papers in the medical periodicals, 
 but in the practice of midwifer}' he held a high position, and 
 he was also a warm advocate of vaccination. — W. S. D. 
 
 BLEGNY, Nicolas de, a French surgeon, who enjoyed a 
 considerable reputation in Paris during the latter part of the 
 seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, was born 
 in Paris in 1652, and died at Avignon in 1722. His history is 
 a curious one. For some years he was clerk to the company of 
 St. Come, in which position, hearing surgery constantly spoken 
 of, he soon thought himself sutficiently learned to make a figure 
 in the medical profession. To connect himself more immediately 
 with the profession, he is said to have mamed a midwife, and 
 his first essay in his new mode of life consisted in the constmc- 
 tion of bandages for hernia. He is then said to have taken upon 
 himself the deliver)' of lectures upon surgciy, pharmacy, &c., and 
 these measm-es were attended with such success, that in 1678 
 we find him appointed surgeon-in-ordinaiy to the queen. In 1679, 
 in imitation of Bourdelot, he placed himself at the head of a 
 new medical academy which published its memoirs in monthly 
 parts, under the title of " Zodiacus Medico-Gallicus," of which 
 several volumes appeared, until in 1682, from the outrageous 
 manner in which authors of the highest distinction were handled 
 in it By Blegnv, its publication was interdicted by the council of 
 state. Even after the issue of tliis prohibition, the publication 
 was continued for a year, when it was discontinued, and Blegny 
 made an-angements for the publication of his memoirs at Am- 
 sterdam, where they appeai'ed under the title of the " Mercure 
 
 41
 
 Savant." la the moantime his incessant activitv was rewarded 
 in 1683 with the post of surgeon-in-ordinaiy to the duke of 
 Orleans, and in 1687 he even succeeded by his intrigues in 
 pushing himself into the position of physician-in-ordinary to the 
 king, to the great astonishment of all his contemporaries. But 
 this state of prosperity was not destined to be of long duration. 
 His elevation appears to have turned his head. His fii-st folly 
 consisted in his attempts to revive the ancient order of the Saint- 
 Esprit, which was formerly established at Jlontpellier, and of 
 wliich he called himself a knight commander, bringmg actions 
 against those whom he considered to have usurped the revenues 
 of the order. He then resolved to establish a hospital at Pin- 
 court ; but the king, being informed that this pretended hospital 
 was only a place of debauchery, had him an-ested on the 4th 
 June, 1693, and conveyed to Fort I'Eveque. He was afterwards 
 removed to the Chateau d" Angers, where he was confined no less 
 than eight years, and on his discharge established him self in A%-ig- 
 non, and practised medicine there with some reputation until his 
 death. The published works of Blegny are of little importance, 
 and for the most part only prove the ignorance of their author. 
 The most important of "them relate to the cure of venereal 
 diseases and hernia ; but that which does most credit to the 
 author's talents is entitled " La Doctrine des Rapports, Fondees 
 sur les ilaximes d'Usage, et sur les Disposition des Xouvelles 
 Ordonnances," was published at Paris in 1684, and contams 
 some sagacious remarks on medical jurisprudence. — W. S. D. 
 
 BLEIN, Fraxcois-A^jge Alexandre, Baron, a French 
 general of engineers, bora in 1767. He took an active part in the 
 various revolutionary wars from 1794 to 1815, and was present 
 at the sieges of Maestricht, Breslau, and Schweidnitz, as well 
 as at the battles of Austerlitz, Jena, &c. He was severely 
 wounded by the explosion of Fiesehi's infernal machine in 1835, 
 and was compensated by a pension of 3000 francs from the 
 chamber of deputies. Baron Blein is the author of numerous 
 works on militaiy, scientific, and political subjects. — J. T. 
 
 BLEKERS, N., a Dutch historical landscape painter, bom at 
 Haerlem in 1635. He was pati-onized by the prince of Orange. 
 The figure of Venus in his " Triumphs of Beauty," was much 
 gloated over by burgomasters, as was his " Danae." Vondel 
 smgs of him as Pope does of Jer\-as. — W. T. 
 
 BLEXXERH.\SSET, Herjlvx, chiefly known from his con- 
 nection with Aaron Bun-'s mysterious enterprise against the 
 Spanish dominions bordering on the United States, was the heir 
 of a wealthy Irish family, but was bom in Hampshire, England, 
 in 1767, and educated at Trinity college, Dublm. Having 
 emigrated to America, he selected for his home an island in the 
 Ohio river, fourteen miles below Maiietta, the countiy around 
 being then ahnost an unbroken wilderness. Here he erected, at 
 gi-eat expense, a spacious mansion, with a garden, and riclily- 
 omamented grounds ; and having purchased a fine library, and 
 considerable apparatus for philosophical expeiiments, he pre- 
 pai-ed to live the life of an English country gentleman, on a spot 
 singularly chosen for such a purpose. He appears to have been 
 an anuable person, of cultivated taste, but strangely deficient in 
 judgment and good sense. Aaron Burr accidentally made his 
 acquaintance in 1805, and easily persuaded him, then tired of 
 inaction and solitude, to enter into the wild and crinunal enter- 
 prise which he was then projecting. The govemment became 
 alamied, and a body of militia that had been called out to an-est 
 Burr's expedition, visited the island in Blcnnerhasset's absence, 
 and committed great outrages there, bm-ning the furniture, 
 devastating the grounds, and insulting his wife. She, with her 
 children, escaped down the river in a miserable flat-boat, and 
 rejoined her husband in the ilississippi territoiy. He was soon 
 an-ested, together with Burr, but, when the latter was acquitted 
 from lack of evidence, Blennerhasset was discharged without a 
 trial He then collected the remains of his fortune, and became 
 a cotton planter in Mississippi. But he was again unfortunate, 
 and having become veiy poor, he returned to England, and spent 
 many years in prosecuting, without success, an old claim upon 
 the government. He finally withdrew to the island of Guernsey, 
 where he died in poverty in 1 831. His name has become famous 
 chiefly through an eloquent passage in the speech made by Mr. 
 Wirt, one of the counsel upon the trial of Aaron Burr; and 
 " Blcnnerhasset's island " is still pointed out upon the Ohio river 
 as the scene of a sad and romantic story. — F. B. 
 
 BLESS, Henry de, a Flemish painter of landscape andhistory. 
 He was bom at Bovines, neai- Din.int, in 1480. He imitated 
 
 the dry hard style of Joachim Patenier, and crowded his land- 
 scapes with small neatly-finished scriptm-al figures. In one 
 picture he put many different scenes, after the old somewhat 
 ludicrous and unreasonable convention. He annihilates time by 
 showing us binocnlarly " the Disciples at Emmaus " and " the 
 Passion of Christ," an}-thing but contemporaneous scenes. His 
 works, however, for delicate careful variety are esteemed even 
 in Italy, and were known by his humorous symbol of an owl 
 painted in the comer. Died in 1550. — W. T. 
 
 BLESSEBOIS, Pierre Corneille. The date of birth and 
 the personal history of the author of a nmnber of books published 
 under this name, is uncertain. Xodier thought the name alto- 
 gether fictitious, and that we might as reasonably inquire into the 
 particulars of the life of Cid Hamet Ben Engeli. Corneille 
 Blessebois ! why, the very name betrays its unreality ; the words 
 themselves tell you of the crow enacting the part of the wood- 
 pecker. However plausibly this may be stated it seems disproved 
 by the language of the royal license to print the books, and we have 
 to look for our author in one of an actual family of the name. 
 A French refugee, of the name of Blessebois, whose protestantism 
 prevented his being suffered to live in his native country, is foimd, 
 after a youth of adventure at sea, in Holland, striving to make 
 out life by manufacturing books and pamphlets for the Dutch 
 publishers. It does not appear probable that this was our 
 author ; but he was probably a crow of the same feather. Nor- 
 mandy appears to have been their original nest, as in some sati- 
 rical poems, persons and localities are mentioned not likely to be 
 introduced into verse by the native of any other province. 
 Among his poems, published at ChatiUon sur Seine, 1615, are 
 " Legends of Ste. Genevieve," and also several imitations of old 
 mysteries and moralities, as dull as if they were genuine. His 
 " (Euvres Satiriques," 1676, is a book of gi-eat rarity, and dili- 
 gently sought after by book-fanciers. There seems no object in 
 gi\ing a catalogue of his other works ; most of them are indecent, 
 and all are high-priced. — J. A., D. 
 
 BLESSENDORF, Samuel, a Prassian enamel painter and 
 engraver, bom at Berlin in 1670. He executed some portraits 
 of Charles XII. and the electors of Brandenburg for Puffendorfs 
 Histoiy of Sweden. His brother Const^vstixe also worked for 
 the booksellers. — W. T. 
 
 BLESSIXGTON, Margceeite, countess of, second daughter 
 of Edmond Power of Knockbirt, in the county of Tipperarj' in 
 Ireland, a gentleman of ancient family originally settled in the 
 neighbouring county of Waterford. Marguerite was bom at her 
 father's house on the 1st September, 1789, and not 1790, as 
 sometimes stated. Through her mother she was descended 
 from the celebrated but unfortunate ftimily of the Sheehys. lu 
 her earher years M.arguerite's health was extremely delicate, but 
 she exhibited that remarkable precocity of intellect and sensi- 
 tiveness of perception so often the concomitant of physical 
 weakness, and her imaginative powers were early developed. 
 When about sis years old the family removed to Clonmel, and 
 the change operated beneficially upon the health and spirits of 
 the gu-1. Ere she attained her fifteenth year she had proposals 
 of maniage from Captain ilurr.iy and Captain Farmer, and 
 tliough she entertained a strong indisposition towai-ds the latter, 
 she yielded to the sohcitations of her family, and united herself 
 to a man whose violent temper and cruelty forced her to leave 
 him forever within three months after their maniage. After 
 Hving for a time ■with her parents, and subsequently in Dublin 
 and Hampshu-e, JIarguerite settled in 1816 in Manchester 
 Square, London. The following year her husband died, and in 
 1818 she became the wife of the earl of Blessington. Lady 
 Blessington and her husband spent the intenals between 1823 
 and 1829 in an extensive tovur through the continent of Europe; 
 and she seems to have studied largely, and improved her taste 
 and judgment by intercoiu-se with the celebrities of her d.ay, and 
 the gi-eat works of art to which she had access. The result of 
 her observations are given in two works subsequently published 
 by her, " The Idler in Italy " and " The Idler in France." By 
 the death of the earl in 1829, Lady Blessington was again 
 thi-own upon her own resources. She accordingly returned to 
 London in the end of the following year, and took up lier resi- 
 dence in 1831 in Leamore Place, May Fair. At this period the 
 coteries of London, following the example of Paris, were mainly 
 guided by the genius of woman. Of these, three were especially 
 remarkable, and divided the empire of fasliion, and shared 
 amongst themselves, as subjects, all the intellectual celebrities of
 
 the metropolis. Two of these were the countess of Charleville 
 and Lady Holland. The third was Lady Blessiiigton, whose 
 salons became the centre of all tliat was brilUant, witty, and 
 learned throughout the kingdom. From Leamore Place, Lady 
 Blcssington removed in 1836 to Gore House, Kensington, pre- 
 viously the abode of Wilbeiforce, where she continued till 1S49, 
 and here her soirees were even more attractive and brilliant than 
 at Leamore Place. The expense in which this mode of life 
 involved Lady Blessington — to -wliicli Count D'Orsay, the hus- 
 band of her step-daughter, from whom he was separated, and 
 the inmate of Gore House, not a little contributed — was beyond 
 her means, and she was forced to break up lier establishment 
 and retire to Paris in 1849. Here she took up her ab(jdc in 
 the Rue de Cirque, near the Champs Elysees, upon the 3rd of 
 June. The following day she was suddenly attacked with an 
 apoplectic malady and disease of the heart, of which she expii-ed. 
 She was buried in a mausoleum designed by Count D'Orsay, 
 put above the vallage cemetery of Chambom-g, in which the 
 remains of tlie count were placed three years afterwaa-ds. Two 
 inscriptions to her memory, one by Bariy Cornwall, the other by 
 W. S. Landor, are placed on the wall near her sarcophagus. 
 
 As a writer. Lady Blessington cannot be assigned a high 
 I>]ace in literature. Without much originality or power, she 
 nevertheless wrote with liveliness, spirit, and occasionally with 
 elegance. She had a vein of quiet liumour which now and then 
 rims through a descriptive passage, and a knowledge of life and 
 character which, if not deep, was enough to enable her to catch 
 and pourtray the more salient and superficial traits of society. 
 Such qualifications united to the most charming manners, good 
 taste, the best nature, the happiest flow of conversation, and a 
 high social position, gave her literary productions a success that 
 without them they would not have achieved. We may well 
 doubt, that of all she has written, more than one or two works 
 have the matei-ials of vitality in them. Lady Blessington did not 
 commence her authorship at an early age. She was thirty-two 
 when her first work, " The Magic Lantern," was published. It 
 is, perhaps, her best production, and reached a second edition. 
 " Sketches and Fragments " followed in the same year, 1822. 
 The " Journal of Conversations with Lord Byron " appeai'ed in 
 the New Monthly Magazine in 1832, and was republished in a 
 collected form. This was the period in which she occupied 
 herself most assiduously in literary labour as a means of support 
 in aid of her expensive establishment, and between that period 
 and 1840 she wrote about twelve novels, most of them in three 
 volumes, besides various contributions to periodical literatm-e. 
 She also wrote verses occasionally, of which the best that can 
 be said is, that they were the production of a beautiful, witty, 
 and fashionable peeress. Now that the grave has closed on the 
 merits and the faults of Marguerite, countess of Blessington, we 
 can remember with pleasure that the adulation of the learned and 
 the fulsome praises of the pretenders to learning, never spoiled 
 her nature. They left her heart warm, her aftections true, and 
 secured her friends to her through all clianges. — J. F. W. 
 
 BLEULAND, James or Jax, a Dutch physician, bom at 
 Utrecht, took his degree at Leyden in 1780, practised at first at 
 Gouda, became professor of anatomy, physiology, surgery, and 
 midwifery at Harderwyk in 1792, and in 1795 obtained a similar 
 professorship at Lej'den. He is the author of numerous works 
 on medical and anatomical subjects, principally relating to the 
 organs of digestion. — W. S. D. 
 
 BLICHER, Steen Steensen, one of the most distinguished 
 of the m^odern Danish lyric poets and novelists, was born in Octo- 
 ber, 1782, at Vium in the diocese of Viborg, the veiy centre of 
 Jutland, where the wild heath-country borders on the cultivated 
 land. His father and forefathers had all been clergymen for four 
 generations. In his childhood and youth he was extremely deli- 
 cate, and when about nineteen fell into what was considered a 
 hopeless consumption, from which, however, he cured himself by 
 an extraordinary mode of treatment. He took to dancing and 
 playing on the flute. Beyond this he engaged himself as tutor 
 in a family on the island of Falster, where he indulged in hunt- 
 ing, shooting, and other country sports. This mode of treatment, 
 strange as it may seem, completely renovated his health, and in 
 three years he returned home, no longer an invalid. After having 
 accomplished his academical studies, during which time he served 
 with great bravery in the corps of students at the bombardment 
 of the city, he became teacher in the gi-ammar-school at Randers, 
 and the same year mamcd. Like many of the young spirits of 
 
 the age, both in England and tlie north, he had imliibed the 
 new doctrines of poetry, in course of which he learned English 
 and translated Ossian. His salary, however, was very small, 
 and his family increasing, he gave up teaching and removed to 
 his father's, where for eight years he managed his parsonage 
 farm and qualified himself for a clergyman. Here he gained 
 such practical knowledge of rural economy, as enabled him to 
 write several valuable works on various branches of this science. 
 Amongst other benefits to his native country, he was the cause 
 of extensive planting over its naked and dreary districts. Fi- 
 nally, he himself took orders, and entered upon his sacred duties 
 in 1819. His first living, however, produced so small an income 
 that in 1825 he removed to that of Spentrup and Gas,sum in 
 the diocese of Aarhus, where he spent the remainder of his days. 
 Living apart from the capital, and attached to no poetical school 
 or literary coterie, Blicher was known only for some time as the 
 successful translator of Ossian and the Vicar of Wakefield. He 
 published two volumes of poems in 1814 and 1817, but they, 
 though evincing deep poetical feeling, excited but little attention 
 in comparison with his "Judske Ronianzer" (Tales of Jutland), 
 which at once seized on the public mind, and made a lasting 
 impression. It is upon these tales, which paint the life and 
 manners of the Jutland peasantry, and depict with photographic 
 fidelity the peculiarly wUd, desolate, and stern character of the 
 landscape, that his fame will rest. Blicher's tales are contained 
 in five, and his poems in two volumes. — M. H. 
 
 BLIGH, SiH Richard Rodney, G.C.B., a British admu-al, 
 born in 1737. He was descended fi-om an old family in Cora- 
 wall, and was the stepson of the famous Admiral Rodney, under 
 whose protection he was early sent to sea. He was made post- 
 captain in 1777, and saw a good deal of active service. His 
 most celebrated exploit was his encounter, when in command of 
 the Alexander^ 74, with a French squadron, consisting of five 
 line-of-battle ships, three frigates, and a large corvette. For 
 several hours the Alexander carried on an unequal contest with 
 three of the French ships in succession, inflicting on them great 
 damage before she struck her colours. The Alexander's loss 
 amounted to about 40 men killed and wounded, while two of the 
 French vessels lost about 450 officers and men. Sir Richard, 
 before his death, attained the rank of admiral of the red. He 
 died in 1821.— J. T. 
 
 BLIGH, William, Admiral, was distinguished for his 
 severe sufferings, his indomitable perseverance, his active ser- 
 vices, and the tumultuous scenes in which his lot was 
 cast. It appears by the register of St. Andrews, Plymouth, 
 that William, son of Francis and Jane Bligh, was baptized in 
 that chmxh, October 4, 1754. Francis, the admiral's father, 
 was the son of Richard Bligh of Tinten, a duchy estate in St. 
 Tudy, a few miles from Bodmin, Cornwall. The first public 
 mention which occm's of the subject of this memoir is found in 
 Captain Cook's voyages ; Bligh having, as sailing-master, during 
 a period of four years, accompanied that great navigator in the 
 ship Resolution. In August, 1787, when Bligh was about thirty- 
 three years of age, he was appointed commander of H.M. ship 
 Bounty, a vessel of 215 tons burthen, fitted out by the English 
 government, under the auspices of King George III., for the pm- 
 pose of conveying from the South Sea Islands, to the West Indies, 
 plants of the bread fi-uit-tree, in order that their gi-owth might bo 
 attempted in Jamaica and other West India islands, for the 
 support of the slave population. Bligh landed with his men at 
 Tahiti (then called Otaheite), and, after a stay of twenty-three 
 most agi'eeable weeks, qiutted the island with an abundance of 
 well-chosen and carefully-stowed plants. Whilst passing Tofoa, 
 one of the Friendly Isles, on the 28th April, 1789, a mutiny 
 broke out among some of the ship's company, with Fletcher 
 Christian, the master's mate, at their head. Bligh was suddenly 
 awoke at break of day, rudely hm'ricd fi-om his cabin, in his 
 shirt, and tied to the mainmast. In a few minutes afterwards 
 he was forced, with eighteen men, into the ship's launch, which 
 was cut adrift ; and the Bounty, with twenty-five men on board, 
 was taken under the connnand of Christian. 
 
 Whatever may have been said of the tyranny of Bligh, of 
 which no credible or uncoloured evidence has ever been given, it 
 seems pretty clear that other causes led to this atrocious act, 
 unsurpassed as it was in treachery, disloyalty, and cruelty. Inde- 
 pendently of Bligh's own testimony, and the afiidavits made by 
 him and his companions, as to facts connected with the mutiny, 
 the following remarkable circumstances arc to be considered.
 
 The mutineers returned to Tahiti. Most of tliem remained tliere 
 for some time. They had funned tender attachments on their 
 first visit to that fascinating spot ; and they had, in the tattooing 
 process, to which they had submitted, been variously marked, 
 several of them bearing the significant devices of " hearts and 
 darts ; " as appeared from Bligh's own printed description of the 
 persons of the mutineers, which had been prepared by him, and 
 written out at Batavia iu October, 1789. 
 
 The privations undergone by Bligh and his companions in the 
 open boat were most severe. The small quantity of pork, bread, 
 water, rum, and wine, which had been flung to them from the 
 Bounty, were doled out, from meal to meal, with the most jea- 
 lous care ; and the poor voyagers had to encounter heavy stonns 
 and cold, as well as the pains of hunger and thirst. The con- 
 duct of Bligh, in this tenible ordeal, afforded a wonderful instance 
 of high spuit, courage, and perseverance. He calculated his 
 poor quantum of provisions, and obtained a general consent to a 
 certain small portion of bread and water per day for each, him- 
 self being strictly included in the plan. The very gourd out of 
 wliich he ate his miserable allowance ; the little horn-cup for 
 serving a quarter of a pint of water to each person ; the bullet 
 which weighed the rations of bread ; and though last, not least, 
 the ilS. book wliich contains his notes, and a prayer which he 
 composed for their joint devorion, are all in existence ; and 
 affecting relics they are. For forty-eight days, in an open boat 
 only twenty-tiiree feet long, without any awning, they weathered 
 the dangerous seas between Tofoa and Coupang, a Dutch settle- 
 ment on the island of Timor, in the East Indies, a distance of 
 3618 miles. They landed at Coupang, to their mfinite joy, on 
 June 14, 1789; and Bligh, full of gi-atitude, reached Ports- 
 mouth on the 14th ilarch, 1790. From written memoranda, 
 made in the weather-staLued MS. book above mentioned, he 
 produced his interesting narrative and journal in quarto, in 
 which a thoughtful reader will pei'ceive many valuable traits of 
 the commander's character ; his trust in providence ; his cheer- 
 fulness in trouble ; his considerate care of his men ; and his 
 unyielding tinnness. On one occasion in the boat, a quaiTel- 
 some member of the crew "not knowing what to be at," said he 
 was as good a man as Bligh ; when the commander seizing two 
 cutlasses, gave the man one, and told him to defend himself, for 
 he would try which was the better man. The malcontent imme- 
 diately cried out for mercy and put down the weapon. 
 
 Bhgh was soon made a commander, and then a post-captain, 
 and was shortly afterwards appointed to the ship Providence, for 
 the same purpose as before — that of conveying bread-fi-uit to 
 the West Indies. In this he was most successful, leaving choice 
 plants at St. Helena, St. Vincent, Jamaica, &c. On his return 
 he received a large gold medal from the Society of Ai-ts. But 
 during his absence on honourable duty, the friends of the miss- 
 ing mutineers, and the enemies of the gallant and single-minded 
 commander, were busy in endeavouring to tarnish his good 
 name ; and the accusations of tyranny and overbearing conduct 
 to his men were scattered so freely about, that he deemed it 
 necessaiT to publish an answer to the allegations made against 
 him. In a quarto pamphlet, which is now scarce, he replied, 
 with much calmness, to the remarks wliich had been printed in 
 favour of Fletcher Christian, by his brother, E. Christian, a bar- 
 rister of eminence, and the editor of Blackstone's Commentaries. 
 
 After this event Bligh was much engaged in active sendee, 
 both in war and peace. In 1797, on the breaking cut of the 
 mutiny at the Nore, the admiralty employed him to go among 
 the men, and do what he could to recall them to obedience and 
 order. On that occasion he behaved with great heroism and 
 determination. On the 11th October, 1797, he commanded the 
 Director in the brave Admiral Duncan's fleet at the battle of 
 Camperdown ; and he led the Glutton at the battle of Copenhagen 
 in 1801, under Lord Nelson, who, having sent for him after the 
 action, said, in the presence of several officers, " Bligh, I sent 
 for you to thank you ; you have supported me nobly." 
 
 In 180G Captain Bligh was appointed governor of New South 
 Wales. The same fixed determination to fulfil his commission 
 to the best of his power, in spite of any offence which might be 
 taken, accompanied him to Sydney. He had been instnicted by 
 bis majesty's government, in a letter from Lord Castlereagh, to 
 take measm'es against the unrestrained importation of ardent 
 spirits into the settlement ; and in the governor's \ngorous and 
 energetic efforts to abolish this prevalent evil, he caused such 
 annoyance among certain colonists, that, in January, 1808, he 
 
 was deposed, and put under arrest by the New South Wales 
 corps, headed by Lieut. -Colonel G. Johnston. In May, 1811, 
 the colonel was tried by court-martial at Chelsea Hospital, found 
 guilty of an act of mutiny, and sentenced to be cashiered. The 
 present chief baron of the exchequer, who was then Mr. Frederick 
 Pollock, was one of Bligh's counsel at this remarkable trial. 
 
 Captain Bligh afterwards became a vice-admiral of the Blue. 
 In advancing years he found gi-eat happiness m the midst of 
 his family, to whom he was much endeared. A serious internal 
 complaint obliged him to seek medical advice in London, whither 
 he went from his residence at Famingham, Kent. He died 
 shortly afterwards in Bond Street, London. December 7, 1817, 
 in his sixty-fourth year, and was buried in a family vault in the 
 churchyard of St Man', Lambeth, where his tomb may be seen. 
 He left several daughters, but no son. His two survi\-ing twin- 
 daughters remember him with the tenderest affection. — T. B. M. 
 
 BLIN DE SAINMORE, Adrien Michel Hyaciktiie, born 
 at Paris, 1733 ; died iri 1807. Any property which his parents 
 had was lost in Law's disastrous banking speculations. He was 
 obliged to earn his bread by what is called literature. He pub- 
 lished a great deal of forgotten matter in the journals of the dav, 
 and lived with the usual hopelessness of a day-labourer, when 
 some accident drew the attention of the court to him, and he 
 obtained in 1776 a pension from the crown. Louis XVI. after- 
 wards named him keeper of the archives, secretary and historio- 
 gi-ipher ; he was also given the orders of St. ilichel and Le 
 Saint Esprit. The Revolution came and swept away place and 
 pension, and a worse calamity than that which followed the 
 universal bankruptcy of Law's day would have befallen our 
 hero, were it not that the grand-duchess of Russia came to his 
 aid. He was appointed " consen'ateur de la bibliotheque de 
 I'arsenal." He has not left any work of moment. Of his poems, 
 the "Heroides" is still sometimes looked at. Of his prose 
 works, the " History of Russia" is probably the best. — J. A., D. 
 
 BLISS, James C, M.D., an eminent physician of New York, 
 the originator, <md for a long period of years the chief director 
 of the American Religious Tract Society ; bom in Bennington, 
 Vennont, in 1791 ; died in 1855. As a practitioner he was no 
 less humane and generous than skilful and laborious, and as a 
 citizen he was venerated for untuing exertions on behalf of 
 charitable institutions. * 
 
 BLITHEilAN, Williaji, a musician, was gentleman and 
 organist of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and the first great English 
 organ player on record. Some of his music, wliich is presen-ed 
 in MS., bears evidence of high attainments in the art of writing 
 for keyed stringed instinments at this early period. He was the 
 master of the celebrated Dr. John Bull. In ilunday's edition of 
 Stow's SmTey of London, it is recorded that he died in 1591, 
 and was buried in the church of St. Nicholas, Cole-Abbey, 
 London. — E. F. R. 
 
 BLIZARD, Sir William, a distinguished English surgeon. 
 He was born in 1748 at Barnes Elms, where his father was an 
 auctioneer. He was apprenticed to a siu'geon and apothecaiy 
 at ilortlake, and subsequently became a pupil at the London 
 hospital, and attended the lectures of William and John Hunter 
 and Mr. Potts. In 1780 he was elected assistant-surgeon to 
 the London hospital, and, in conjunction with Dr. Maclaurin, 
 opened a school of anatomy in Thames Street. They aftenvards 
 removed to JIark Lane, and then to the London hospital. This 
 was one of the first schools established in connection with a 
 hospital in the metropolis. In 1787 Mr. Blizard was made 
 professor of anatomy to the old corporation of surgeons. He 
 was afterwards made an examiner. He took an active interest 
 in obtaining for the corporation or company with which he was 
 connected a charter, by which they were called the Royal College 
 of Surgeons of London. By a subsequent charter in 1844 this 
 body is Ciilled the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In 
 conjunction with Sir Everai'd Home he was made professor of 
 anatomy to the new college. In 1803 he was appointed to pre- 
 sent an address to the king from the College of Surgeons, and 
 received the honour of knighthood. During his life he was 
 twice chosen president and three times Hunterian orator. He 
 lived to a great age, having died on the 28th of August, 1835. 
 He retained, however, his faculties to the last, and attended a 
 meeting of the court of examiners of the college the Friday before 
 his death. The year before his death he was operated on by 
 Mr. Lawrence for cataract with complete success. Considering 
 the great opportunities enjoyed by Sir ^\'illiam Blizard, his con-
 
 tributions to the literature of his professsion are few and unim- 
 portant. The following is a list of the more important of them 
 — " Observations on the Uses of Electricity in Deafness," 1790 ; 
 " Hunterian Orations," 1815, 1823, 1828 ; "An Address to the 
 Chainnan and Members of tlie House Committee to the London 
 Hospital on the Subject of Cholera," 1831 ; " Desultory Ileflec- 
 tions on Police, with an Essay on the Means of Preventing 
 Crimes and Amending Criminals," 1788. He also wrote several 
 papers in the Philosophical Transactions. — E. L. 
 
 * J3L0CH (in Hungarian BALLAGI), Moritz, a Hunga- 
 rian writer, was born of Jewish parents at Ternova in Hungary 
 in 1815. In order to complete his studies he went to Paris and 
 afterwards to Germany, where he embraced protestantism. In 
 1845 he became professor at, and some years later headmaster 
 of, the gymnasium at Szarvas. During the revolution of 1848 
 he acted as secretary to the Hungarian minister at war. He has 
 published a Hungarian translation of the Pentateuch and of 
 Joshua, a Hungarian grammar and dictionary, a collection of 
 Hungarian proverbs, and other valuable works. — K. E. 
 
 BLOCH, George Castaneus, a Danish botanist, bishop of 
 Ripen in Denmark, was born in 1717, and died in 1773. He 
 devoted his special attention to botany, and endeavoured to elu- 
 cidate the plants of scripture. He published at Copenhagen, in 
 1767, a dissertation on the palm-tree of the Bible. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLOCH, John Erasmus, a Danish gardener, published at 
 Copenhagen in 1647 a treatise on Danish horticulture. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLOCH, Marccts Eliezer, a celebrated naturalist, practised 
 medicine at Berhn, where he died in 1799, at the age of seventy- 
 six. He was a native of Anspach, and professed the Jewish 
 religion. His " Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Fische" (Natu- 
 ral History of Fishes), described by Dr. Whewell as " the magni- 
 ficent work," and his "Systema Ichthyologia3 iconibus CX illus- 
 tratum," edited, after the author's death, by Schneider, have 
 acquired the highest authority in the scientific world. His valu- 
 able collection of specimens w'as purchased by the late king of 
 Prussia, Frederick-William III., and presented to the Berlin 
 Academy of Sciences. — T. T. 
 
 BLOCIIMANN, Karl Justus, a distinguished German edu- 
 cator, was born at Reichstfidt in Saxony, 19th Febi-uary, 1786, 
 and died at Chateau Lano}', near Geneva, 21st May, 1855. He 
 studied theology at Leipzig, and from 1809-1816 was teacher 
 at the famous school of Pestalozzi at Yverdun. He is widely 
 known as the founder of the celebrated Blochmann' sche Institut 
 at Dresden. See " Blochmann, tJber die Grimdsiitze, Zwecke 
 and Mittel meiner Erziehungsanstalt," Dresden, 1826. — K. E. 
 
 BLOCHWITZ, Martin, a German medical man and botanist, 
 was born at Oschatz in Saxony, and lived at the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century. He published a work " On the Anatomy of 
 the Elder," which was printed at Leipzig in 1631, and was re- 
 printed in English in London in 1650. He was also the author 
 of an essay on palsy. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLOCK, Daniel, a Pomeranian portrait painter, born in 
 1580. He studied under Jacob Scherer, and soon surpassed his 
 master. He became court painter at the courts of Denmark, 
 Sweden, and Mecklenberg, and perpetuated the mortal aspects 
 of Clnistian IV. and the great warrior Gustavus, whom our old 
 friend Dalgetty served under. He sat forty-four years in happy 
 brooding obsei-vation over the Mecklenberg court easel, and 
 during that time perpetuated the full length likenesses of all the 
 ducal family, robing them in antique dresses. His agreeable 
 colour, and easy gi-aceful posing soon made him fashionable, and 
 as he now ministered to a fashionable vanity he grew rich. A 
 sudden swoop of Gennan black riders, however, stripped him of 
 all but life, and he died poor in 1661, cursing war and its results. 
 His son, Benjamin, was born at Lubeck in 1631, and his first 
 success was a pen-and-ink likeness of the duke of Mecklenberg, 
 fine as an engraving. The duke sent him to Rome to study, 
 and he also visited Venice and Florence, where he spent some 
 years copying — procuring access to the most curious cabinets. 
 He became also known as a portrait painter at the Saxon court, 
 the noljles all turning in flocks to where the elector came. — 
 He also painted altarpieces for many German and Hungarian 
 chu vhes, where they still hang and gather dust. His chef d'osuvre 
 was .1 portrait of Kircher, the learned .Jesuit. — W. T. 
 
 BLOCK, Jacob Roger, an architectm-al painter, born at 
 Gduda in 1580. He learned the mysteries of perspective in 
 Rome, where he became renowned for a grand and elegant style. 
 Rubens, always generous in judgment, came to see him, and de- 
 
 clared that in his walk he had no superiors. Plis architectural 
 subjects recommended him to the archduke Leopold, who gave 
 him a pension, and kept him on his staff as military architect and 
 engineer, his spare time being devoted to working up his sketches 
 of Roman ruins, for he was essentially a painting builder, just 
 as Martin was a painting arithmetician, Veronese a painting de- 
 corator, and Angelico a painting religionist. In 1632, as he was 
 riding to reconnoitre the works of St. Vinox in Flanders, and 
 crossing a plank-bridge. Block was drowned. — W. T. 
 
 BLOCKLAND, Anthony de Montfort, born of a noble 
 family at Montfort in 1532, and a pupil and hnitator of Francis 
 Floris. His outline has been compared to that of Parmegiano, 
 who died when Blockland was young. He died at Utrecht, which 
 he adorned with so many pictures, in 1583. His best works 
 are a "Venus," and a "Joseph and his Brethren" — almost of 
 the grand Florentine school. Delft and Utrecht have many of 
 his treasures. The " Birth of the Virgin," the " Annunciation " 
 and " Assumption " were at Utrecht, the " Dedication of St. 
 John" at Gouda (where our Dutch cheeses come from), and his 
 " Scenes of the Passion at Utrecht." Hubert Goltzius engraved 
 some of his works. His colour and composition were both good, 
 his nude drawing con-ect, and he excelled in portrait. — W. T. 
 
 BLOEMAERT, Abraham, a Dutch painter and engraver, 
 born at Gorcum in 1564 or 1567, and died at Utrecht in 1647. 
 He was the son of an architect (a good stock for an artist), and 
 studied under De Bier and Floris. His pictures, though fanciful, 
 are good, bis touch is free and bold, his draperies simple and 
 unaffected, his chiaro-scuro unimpeachable. He excelled in 
 cattle, landscapes, histoiy, and religious subjects — a wide margin 
 for any one. His great work was a " Destruction of Niobe," 
 the figures as large as life, painted for the emperor Rodolph ; 
 for the count de la Lippe he painted a " Feast of the Gods." 
 His other works were the " Wise Men's Offering " for the Jesuit 
 church at Bnissels, the "Glory of the Virgin" for the Mechlin 
 cathedral, and a "Nativity" for Leliendale. His etchings are 
 bold and free, and often imitations of pen drawings. His chiaro- 
 scuro prints are clever. The outlines are not in wood, but are 
 etched in copper. His son, Hemy, was a heavy portrait painter. 
 His second son, Adi'ian, travelled to Italy, went to Vienna, be- 
 came known, and was killed in a duel at Salzburg. The third 
 son, Frederick, was an engraver of his father's works. His 
 youngest son, Cornelius, studied mider De Passe, and became 
 a first-rate engraver, living at Rome. He died in 1680. In 
 1630 he went to Paris, and worked for the Temple of the 
 Muses. He introduced a softer middle tint and less spotty 
 light than had been before known, together with much more 
 variety and gradation of colour. — W. T. 
 
 BLOEMEN, John Francis van, a Flemish painter, born 
 at Antwerp in 1656, but who studied and resided his life long 
 in Rome. The jovial Bentrogel Society gave him the name of 
 " Orizonte," from his Tumerian power of conveying a sense of 
 distance and recession. Almost his first work, after the toil of 
 copying to get a taste had passed over, made him known and 
 hailed as a man of promise. The pope and the red-hatted flock 
 of cardinals began to buy his works, whether he imitated Vander 
 Cabel, Poussin, or nature relieved from vulgarity by alteration. 
 The ruined, wasted region he visited, and brought home his 
 sketches to work out here a mountain and there a waterfall. 
 The tints in water, and the opacity of collective air, he excelled 
 in representing. He died in 1740. His pictures are in all the 
 hill palaces of Rome. He etched, Bryan says, five views of 
 Rome in a (old) masterly manner. Conca sometimes painted 
 his figm-es. — W. T. 
 
 BLOEJMEN, Peter van, sumamed the Standard— a 
 dashing military sobriquet he earned by his pictures of sweeping 
 storms of cavalry. He was the brother of Orizonte, and like him 
 was born at Antwerp and educated in Rome. A master of colour, 
 composition, and drawing, the noble exile returned to his Spanish 
 city in 1699 to become director of the Academy. Peter painted 
 feather-dancing trains of cavaliers, noisy encampments, wdiirl- 
 wind battles, Italian fairs and festas, torch scenes, broken 
 statues, basso relievos, and other Pousinnish side dishes, taken 
 from museums to be placed where they never were, in iTjincd 
 Arcadias. Ernest Pilkington, the eclectic all over, calls his 
 compositions rich and filled with figures, his horses graceful and 
 spirited, his ruins " in a noble taste, his colour of a good tone, 
 and his figures excellent, though sometimes laboured, stiff, and 
 smelling of the palette." Nokbert van, the younger brother,
 
 — m 
 
 was born at Antwerp in 1C72, and was wiled to Eome by the 
 success of his seniors. In Italy he confined himself to conversa- 
 tion pieces and portrait. His colouring was generally raw, 
 glaring, feeble, and untrae. — W. T. 
 
 BLOM, Charles Magnus, a Swedish physician and bota- 
 nist, was born at Kafswik in Smoland on 1st ]\Iarch, 1737, and 
 died 4th April, 1815. He was destined for the church, but he 
 gave a preference to medicine and natural history, the latter of 
 which he studied under Linnt^us. He made many exciirsions in 
 Sweden for the advance of natm'al science. His thesis was on 
 quassia. He is said to have introduced vaccination into Sweden. 
 His published works are — " An Account of various remedies used 
 in Diseases," and on " The Insects of Sweden ;" besides many 
 memoirs in the Transactions of societies. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLOM, KuNiiOLD IsAK, a Swedish writer and councillor of jus- 
 tice, born in 1702. His collected writings were published in 1827. 
 
 BLOJIE, John, a learned German, bora at Hambm-g about 
 1020; died in 1G72. Author of "Diss, de Navigatione Solo- 
 monis in Ophir," and other dissertations. 
 
 BLOJIE, Richard, an Enghsh historical writer of the latter 
 half of the seventeenth century, author of a nobiliary of the Bri- 
 tish islands, and of a work entitled " The Present State of his 
 Majesty's Isles and Territories in America," 1678. 
 
 BLOMFIELD, Charles James, an eminent prelate of the 
 chinch of England, was born at Bmy St. Edmund's, JMay 29, 
 1786, where his father kept a school, in which he received the 
 inidiments of his education. At eight years old he was entered 
 at the gi'ammar school of his native town, of which the Rev. 
 Michael Thomas Becher, fellow of King's college, Cambridge, 
 was head master, under whose able tuition he continued ten 
 years, and laid the gi'omidwork of that solid scholarship which 
 secured to him early academical distinctions, and enabled him to 
 acquire subsequently high rank in the learned world. In Octo- 
 ber, 1804, he left the grammar school for Trinity college, Cam- 
 bridge, where, in the next year he was elected scholar of his 
 college, and also gained Sir WOham Browne's medal for the 
 Latin ode on the death of the duke of Enghien. The year after 
 he gained the same prize for the Greek ode on the death of 
 Nelson, and the Craven scholarship. In 1808 he took his B.A. 
 degree as third wrangler and first chancellor's medallist ; and in 
 1809 he was elected fellow of liis college. He was member's 
 prizeman in 1812. His subsequent degrees were M.A. in 1811, 
 B.D. in 1818, and D.D., per literas regias, in 1820. He was 
 ordained deacon 1809, priest 1810 — both by Mansel, bishop of 
 Bristol — and served the cm'acy of Chesterford in the diocese of 
 London. In October, 1810, he was presented by the earl, now 
 marquis of Bristol, to the rectory of Quarrmgton, Lincolnshire. 
 In December of the next year Earl Spencer presented him to 
 the rectory of Dunton, which he held for five yeai's. He was 
 presented, July, 1817, to the \icarage and rectory of Great and 
 Little Chesterford, where he had begun his clerical life. In 
 1813, Dr. Howley, bishop of London, appointed him his domestic 
 chaplain ; and in l^Iay, 1820, presented him to the richest Uving 
 in his gift — the rectoiy of St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate, London. 
 In 1821 he was appointed archdeacon of Colchester; in 1824 
 he was consecrated bishop of Chester; and in 1828 translated 
 to the see of London, over which he presided until some months 
 before liis death, which took place, August 5, 1857, at the palace, 
 Fulham, Jliddlesex, in his 72d year. 
 
 It is impossible within the limits of this sketch to convey an 
 adequate idea of his incessant, strenuous activity, and diversified 
 undertaldngs and occupations while bishop of London. His 
 tmsurpassed exertions, however, reacting upon his excitable tem- 
 perament brought on him an attack of illness in 1836, of an 
 inflammatory nature, from the effects of which, it is believed, 
 that he never entirely recovered. In 1842 he delivered and 
 published what is generally called his "celebrated charge" to 
 his clerg}', in which he pronoimced upon the questions which had 
 for some years divided the church. That charge produced a 
 violent commotion, whose effects upon himself were manifested 
 during the succeeding year in his impaired digestion and nen-ous 
 debility. In the year 1854 he was seized with hemiplagia; but 
 intimations of his liability to paralysis had appeared as early as 
 1847, when on a visit to the queen at Osborne, notwithstanding 
 that his foot seemed only to slip, and that the sight of one eye 
 was supposed to have suffered from the concussion only he then 
 received. In 1854, however, he went to consult a celebrated 
 oculist in Genuany, made a tour up the Rhine, ^•isited Switzer- 
 
 land, and returned improved in sight and general health. On 
 October 22, 1854, he was seized with a more severe attack of 
 paralysis. After some months, and partly through his own 
 solicitation and that of the invalided bishop of Durham, Dr. 
 Maltby, an act was passed (in the fourth session of Parliament, 
 19 and 20 Vict.) enabhng them both, in consequence of illness 
 and infirmity, to resign their bishoprics, and acceding to Dr. 
 Blomfield's request for himself of a retiring pension of £6000 
 per annum and Fulham palace as a residence. It has been 
 asserted by an authority which cannot be questioned, that after 
 his retirement into private life, there were no sentiments flowing 
 more frequently from his lips than those which expressed the 
 conviction of his own inadequate fulfilment of his public duties ; 
 while the enjoyment of his mental faculties was presented to hiui 
 nearly to the close of his existence, and his last act of conscious- 
 ness was an act of prayer. His stature, when in the prime of 
 Ufe, was above the middle height, and his personal appearance 
 was strongly expressive of the scholar and the man of business. 
 The aspect of his brow and head impressed a sense of his per- 
 ceptivity and mental power on even the most cursory beholder, 
 and was considered by phrenologists as affording a splendid 
 verification of theu science. His manner seemed to strangers to 
 be abrupt, and his demeanour haughty ; but those who knew 
 him best believe that his heart was kind, and his disposition 
 cheerful, though occasionally beclouded in private l)y physical 
 causes. He entertained the social cucle with the fund of his 
 anecdotes, the stores of his readmg, and the versatility of his 
 wit. He was a very early riser ; and, by sldlful management, 
 found time for an amazuig multitude of most efficient labours, 
 and even for literary pursuits. As a debater in parliament, 
 whenever his official position required him to share in its discus- 
 sions, he was ^•igorous and lucid. As a preacher, he combmcd 
 the clearest statements of doctrinal truth, with the most forcible 
 and persuasive inferences fi-om them of practical obligation. He 
 retained, indeed, the large revenues of his see, whose net annual 
 value was recently returned by himself at £16,513, even after 
 other prelates had consented to a limitation of theirs; but he 
 distributed out of his abundance with an unsparing hand to 
 church-building, the funds of schools, and the rehef of the poorer 
 clergy; and chiefly by fife insm'ance provided for his six sons and 
 five daughters. His " infirmities," of which, in his first charge 
 to the clergy of London, he professed himself, with a falling tear, 
 to be " deeply conscious," were perhaps mamly attributable to 
 his constitution of body, and the peculiar and increasing difficul- 
 ties of the course he had to steer, from the time he became 
 bishop of London until his resignation. As might reasonably 
 be expected, he left the world di\nded into two opposite partita 
 in their opuiions of liis principles and conduct ; and, as the Times 
 (August 7, 1857) remarked, when noticing his death, "The day 
 may yet be far distant when the boundary line will be finally 
 adjusted between the opposite classes of those who indiscrimi- 
 nately admu-e hmi on the one hand, and criticise him unkhidly 
 on the other." Whoever would see an ample and accurate 
 chronicle of his labours should read Dr. Biber's work entitled 
 Bishop Blomfield and his Times, London, 1857. The follow- 
 ing is a classification of Dr. Blomfield's works as an author, 
 dti'ived from a list of them corrected by his own hand, and 
 inserted in the Clerical Journal Directory^ page 48. In addi- 
 tion to the odes ah-eady mentioned, " ^Eschyli Prometheus," 8vo, 
 1810, seventh edition, 1840; "Sept. aThebas, Pers»," 8vo, 1814, 
 fifth edition, 1840; " Choephora?, " 8vo, 1824, third edition, 
 1834; " Callimachi qufe supersunt;" "Sophronis Fragmenta," 
 in the Classical Jotirnnl ; "Sapphonis Fragmenta," in the 
 Mitsevm Criticum ; " Alcaji Fragmenta," do. ; " jEschyli Aga- 
 memnon," fifth edition, 1839 ; the articles on Socrates, and the 
 clioras in ancient tragedy, in the Encyclopcedia MetropuUtana; 
 anonymous contributions in AiJcin^s Athenceum, in the Edinburgh 
 and Quarterly Reviews, the Museum Criticum, Classical Museum; 
 Semions, single and in volumes, Lecture's, Pamphlets, Pastoral 
 and other Letters, Speeches ; " Dissertation on the Traditional 
 Knowledge of a promised Redeemer, which subsisted before the 
 Advent of oiur Saviom- ; " " ^lannal of Private and Family 
 Prayers," &c.— J. F. I). 
 
 * BLO:\IMAERT, Philippe, a Flemish litterateur, bom 
 about 1809. He has made himself known by the pu'..lication 
 of old Flemish poems, of the twelfth, thuteenth, and fourteenth 
 centuries, and by a translation of the Nibelungen Lied, in iambic 
 verse. His piineipal work is a history of the Belgians.
 
 BLO 
 
 623 
 
 BLO 
 
 BLOND, Christopher Le, born at Frankfort in 1670, and 
 said to have studied in Italy under Carlo Maratti. In 1716 lie 
 went to Rome in the suite of Count Martinctz, the French ambas- 
 sador. At the invitation of Overbeke he went to Amsterdam, 
 and painted small water colour portraits for jewellers' bracelets, 
 rings, and snuff-boxes (one of the earliest allusions to modern 
 water colours.) Finding this required dragon flies' eyes (which 
 are lumps of lenses), he abandoned it, and took successfully to 
 large portraits. He then came to England, and attempted to 
 rc\ive Lastman's plan of copying pictures in colours (the germ of 
 chromos) with co))perp]ates, but ruinously failed, and is said to 
 have died an old miserable man in a French hospital. He was 
 author of a book called " II Colorito (in French and English), 
 or the Harmony of Colour reduced to Mechanical Practice." He 
 also attempted to organize a plan for copying the cartoons of 
 Raphael in tapestry, which they were originally intended for. 
 The coloured copies of this unfortunate Lmiardi of a projector, 
 are said to be good as copies, and of harmonious colours. They 
 were disposed of by a lottery in 1730. They were after Maratti, 
 Cipriani, Titian, and Vandyck. — W. T. 
 
 BLONDEL or BLONDELj:US, a troubadour, born at Nesle 
 in Picardy; lived in the second half of the twelfth century. 
 Celebrated as the favourite attendant of Richard Cocur-de-Lion, 
 the place of whose imprisonment in Austria he is said to have 
 discovered by singing before the castle one of the king's favourite 
 poems. He owes his popularity to Sedaine's Opera of Richard 
 Coeur-de-Lion. Several of the songs attributed to him belong 
 to Robert Blondel. — J. G. 
 
 BLONDEL, David, a French protestant theologian, born at 
 Chalons-siu--Marne in 1591. After the publication of his 
 " Modeste Declaration de la sinceritc et verite des Eglises refor- 
 mees," 1G19, he was named historiographer to the king, and 
 instructed to answer the phihppics of Chifilet against France. In 
 1650 he succeeded Vossius in the chair of history at Amsterdam, 
 an appointment to which he did ample honour by his talents and 
 eniditiou. His principal works are a dissertation concerning 
 Pope Joan, whom he pronounces a myth, " Pseudo-Isidorus et 
 Turrianus Vapulantes," and " De formula regnante Christo, in 
 veterum monumentis usu." Died in 1655. — J. S., G. 
 
 BLONDEL, Francis, an eminent professor of mathematics 
 and architecture at Paris, in the seventeenth century, wrote a 
 "Comparison between Pindar and Horace," a "Course of Archi- 
 tecture," in three vols., folio ; a " Course of Mathematics," the 
 "Art of Throwing Bombs," the "History of the Roman Calen- 
 dar," a " New Manner of Fortifying Forts," &c. He was director 
 of the Academy of Architecture, and a member of the Academy 
 of Science. He died February 1st, 1686. — T. J. 
 
 BLONDEL, Francois, a French physician of the seventeenth 
 century, took his degree at Paris in 1632, became dean of the 
 Faculty of Medicine in 1658 and 1659, and died on the 5th 
 September, 1682. He is principally noted for the violent hos- 
 tility shown by him towards the chemical sect which established 
 itself in his day upon the ruins of the Galenic chemistry, and for 
 the fury with which he opposed the introduction of antimony 
 into medicine. He was regarded by his contemporaries as a 
 very learned man, but tricky and contentious, and the Mercure 
 Galant in announcing his death, remarks that the Faculty of 
 Medicine had cause for rejoicing, as it might hope to enjoy a 
 little repose. The published writings of F. Blondel are of but 
 httle importance. — W. S. D. 
 
 BLONDEL, James Augustus, an English physician of 
 French extraction, appears to have gi-aduated at Leyden, where 
 his " Dissertatio de crisibus" was published in 1692, but after- 
 wards became a member of the College of Physicians in 
 London, in which city he died in 1734. His principal work, 
 entitled " The Strength of the Imagination of Pregnant Women 
 Examined, and the opinion that marks and deformities are 
 from them, demonstrated to be a vulgar error," was published in 
 London in 1727, and passed through several editions, whilst 
 translations of it appeared in Gennany and Holland. It is 
 regarded as an able refutation of a well-kno-ivn and still pre- 
 valent opinion. Having been attacked by Dr. Daniel Turner in 
 his treatise on Diseases of the Skin, Blondel supported his own 
 views in a .second work published in 1729, under the title of 
 "The Power of the Mother's Imagination on the Foetus Ex- 
 amined."— \V. S. D. 
 
 BLONDEL, Laurent, a French hagiologist, author of " Vies 
 des Samts pour chaque jour de I'annee threes des auteurs origi- 
 
 naux," was celebrated for his bibliographical knowledge. He 
 followed the profession of teacher at Chaillot, and afterwards 
 superintended a printing establishment. Died in 1740. 
 
 BLONDEL, Pierre Jacques, a French litterateur, born in 
 Paris in 1674 ; died in 1730. He is principally known by an 
 interestmg precis of the proceedings of the Academies of Inscrip- 
 tions and Belles-Lettres, published m les Memoires de Trevoux, 
 1702 and 1710. 
 
 BLONDEL, Robert, bom about 1390 ; died 1461, a native 
 of Nomiandy. In 1415 his family was displaced by the con- 
 quests of Henry V. of England. He wrote Latin poems, which 
 were at once translated and had some i-eputation ; also law 
 tracts in defence of Charles VII. of France against the claims of 
 our Henry V. He was restored by the king of France to his pater- 
 nal lands in Normandy. Blondel was chaplain to Queen ]\Iarie 
 d'Anjou, and preceptor to the dauphin. An allegorical work of 
 his, called the " Twelve Perils of Hell," is now and then looked 
 at. It is referred to 1454 or 1455. — J. A., D. 
 
 BLONDIN, Peter, a French botanist, was born at Vaudri- 
 court in Picardy in 1682, and died at Paris in 1713. He became 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1712. He was a 
 pujiil of Tournefort, and was appointed by him demonstrator 
 in the royal gardens. He made large collections of plants, and 
 wrote several botanical memoirs. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLONDUS or BIONDO, Flavius, the historian, was bom 
 at Forli in Italy, in 1388. He composed a histoiy of the world, 
 from A.D. 400 till a.d. 1400. He was one of the pioneers in 
 this kind of research ; and his diligence and accuracy in describing 
 Roman antiquities deserve endm-ing record. The exact date of 
 his death is uncertain. — T. J. 
 
 BLOOD, Thomas, better known as Coeonel Blood, one 
 of those men whom villany has made famous, and the biographer 
 may not omit to notice. He was born in Ireland about the 
 year 1628, and entered the parliamentary army, and was subse- 
 quently made a justice of the peace by Richard Cromwell. 
 Being a man of desperate and dissolute habits, he was always hi 
 needy circumstances, and did not hesitate to joui the royalists 
 on the Restoration. In 1663 he concocted a plot to surprise 
 the castle of Dublin and seize the duke of Ormond, the lord- 
 lieutenant. His restless and evil spirit was ever plotting ; and 
 going to England, he assumed the name of Ayliff, where he 
 again formed the design of seizing Ormond, which he effected 
 by waylaying him on a dark night in December, 1670. The 
 duke narrowly escaped assassination ; and though a reward of 
 £1000 was offered. Blood was not made amenable to justice. 
 But the crowning feat of his villany was his attempt to steal 
 the crown jewels, which very nearly proved successful. He 
 gained entrance into the tower in the dress of a clergyman, and 
 had actually got the crown concealed under his cassock. Blood 
 was seized and examined before the king, when he boldly avowed 
 and even justified his crimes, and contrived to impress the king 
 with the belief that he was a brave and an injured man. The 
 result was not only pardon, but a pension of £500 a year, in 
 lieu of the estates in Ireland of which he insisted he had been 
 deprived. He had considerable interest at court till the break- 
 ing-up of the cabal ministry. He then again took to his old 
 coui-ses of plotting, and being convicted of a conspiracy, he was 
 committed to the King's bench. While in prison he was charged 
 upon an action of scandalum magnatum at the suit of the duke 
 of Buckingham, and having given bail, was removed to his own 
 house. His health was, however, completely broken down by 
 the effects of his desperate life and the confinement of prison, 
 and he died before the time for his trial, upon the 24tli August, 
 1680. The public would not credit the fact till it was estab- 
 lished by an inquest. The qualities of boldness, ingenuity, and 
 courage cannot be denied to Blood ; but these quaUties, instead 
 of redeeming, greatly aggravated his vices. They made the 
 difference between an obscure ruffian who would have periiaps 
 occupied a line in the Newgate calendar, and a notorious scoun- 
 drel who has won a whole page from history, and a stanza from 
 the witty Rochester : — 
 
 " Ulood, tliat wears treason in liis face, 
 Villain complete in parson's gown; 
 How much is he at court in grace 
 
 For stealing Omiond and the crown. 
 Since loyalty does no man good, 
 Let's steal the king and outdo Blood." 
 
 — J. F. W. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD, Robert, author of "The Farmer's Boy,"
 
 and other pastoral poems, bom in 1766, was the son of a poor 
 tailor of Honington in Suffolk, and was brought up in that 
 village by his wdowed mother, who supported herself and six 
 childi'en, of whom he was the youngest, by keeping a school. 
 In liis eleventh year he was hired by a farmer, and employed in 
 field labom- ; but that pro\'ing too heavy for his delicate frame, 
 he was sent in 1781 to London, to be apprenticed to one of his 
 brothers, a shoemaker. While in this employment his attention 
 was tm-ned to poetiy, and, as was to be anticipated from his 
 previous history, esj)ecially to pastoi'al poetry, the reading of 
 Thomson's Seasons being his favourite recreation. The gaiTct 
 in which he lodged was inhabited by six or seven other young men, 
 who hke himself enjoyed attic accommodation at the moderate 
 rate of one shilling a week ; but, notwithstanding the disadvan- 
 tage of too much society, and others not less serious, Bloomfield 
 made such progress in his poetical studies, that before the 
 tcnnination of his apprenticeship, two of his pieces had been 
 foimd worthy of a place in the London Magazine. It was in 
 178G, however, that, during a short residence in the country, he 
 first conceived the idea of embodying his experiences of rustic 
 life in a lengthy poem; and not till 1798, at least so far as the 
 literary world was informed, that this idea was carried out in his 
 " Fanner's Boy." In the latter year a copy of that poem having 
 been shown to Capel Lofft, he was so pleased with it, and so 
 interested in the story of its author, now a jom-ne^Tuan shoe- 
 maker, that he had it printed in 1800. Its success was remark- 
 able : in three years 26,000 copies were sold, an edition was 
 published at Leipzig ; a French translation, entitled Le Valet 
 du Fennier, at Paris; an It.alian at Milan; and in 1805 a 
 clever Latin version by Jlr. W. Club, under the title of Agricolte 
 Puer. Little more than fame accrued to him, however, from its 
 publication, for after giving to the world in succession some other 
 pieces equally meritorious, particularly " Good Tidings, or News 
 of the Forest ;" " Wild Flowers;" and "Banks of the Wye," the 
 only piece of patronage he could boast of was an appointment to 
 the otfice of under-sealer in the seal office, which he owed to the 
 duke of Grafton, his only considerable benefactor m a pecmiiary 
 way, as Capel Lofft was in respect of literaiy help. From that 
 situation he was forced to retire on account of ill health ; betook 
 himself again to his trade, di^-iding his leisure houi's between 
 the employments of turning verses and making jEolian hai-ps ; 
 became involved in difficulties which, after an ineffectual attempt 
 to establish himself in business as a bookseller, he carried with 
 him, to his distraction, into Shefford, a town of Bedfordshire, 
 and there calamity, in the shape of mental disorder, being added 
 to misfortune, he died miserably, August, 1823. His poems are 
 remarkable for smooth and easy versification, and for a faithful 
 as well as animated rendering of the scenes and incidents of pas- 
 toral life.— J. S., G. 
 
 BLOOT, Peter, a Flemish painter, died in 1667, whose 
 pictures are now scarce. His figm-es are gross and ungraceful, 
 but his colour was mellow, transparent, and pleasing- — W. T. 
 
 BLOOTELIXG, Abraham, an eminent Dutch designer and 
 engraver, probably brought up by the Visschers, and bom at 
 Amsterdam in 1634. On the inundation of the Dutch into the 
 canal countiy in 1672, he came to England, but soon returned. 
 He produced a great number of etchings and mezzotints, and in 
 1681 published the gems of Leonardo Augostini. Portraits of 
 those gi-eat sea thunderers, Van Tromp and De Ruyter, were 
 executed by him. — W. T. 
 
 BLOT, Baron de Cjioxoigny, a French litterateur, died in 
 165.5. He was gentleman to Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother 
 of Louis XIII., and contributed to the elevation of Cardinal 
 JIazarin, by recommending him to the notice of Richelieu. 
 JIazarin neglected his friend, who, in return, ovenvhelmed him 
 with the most poignant epigi-ams and ridicule. 
 
 BLOUET, Jeax-Frax^ois Nicolas, a French litterateui-, 
 born at Metz in 1745; died in 1830. At the period of the 
 Revolution he was proprietor of the Journal cle la Mozelle. He 
 was incarcerated in 1793, but on the fall of Robespien-e, recov- 
 ered possession of his journal, which, owing to his neglect, fell 
 into discredit. His writings embrace a large range of subjects, 
 inland navigation, commerce, agi'iculture, government, &c. 
 
 BLOUNT, Ciiari.es, Lord Mountjoy and earl of Devonshire, 
 was the second son of .James Blount, sixth Lord ^lountjoy, by 
 Catherine, daughter of Thomas Leigh, Esq., of St. Oswald in the 
 county of Devon. He was bom in the year 1563, and, being the 
 younger son of a decayed house, for his father and gi-andfather 
 
 liad greatly wasted the family inheritance, was intended for the 
 law. After being educated at Oxford he was entered at the 
 mner temple, but another destiny awaited him. When he was 
 about twenty years of age he was introduced at court, and being 
 tall and well-looking, he immediately attracted Elizabeth's notice, 
 and quickly gained her favour. In the year 1585 we find he 
 was retm-ned as one of the bm-gesses in parliament for the 
 borough of St. Ives in Cornwall, being not then above twenty- 
 two years of age ; and in the following year he was returned 
 for Beeralston in Devon. In the same year he became an aspir- 
 ant for martial glory, and accompanied the earl of Leicester 
 to the Low Countries. He was present, and severely wounded, 
 at the battle of Zutphen, where Sir Philip Sidney was killed. 
 In this year, also, he received the honour of knighthood. Like 
 others of Queen Elizabeth's favourites he was constantly making 
 his escape from her and going off to the wars. On one occasion 
 he joined the army in Bretagny under Sir John Noiiis, who gave 
 him the command of a company, but as soon as the queen heard 
 where he was she sent orders for him to return immediately. 
 On his an-i\'al she rebuked him very severely for absconding 
 without leave. " Serve me so once more," said she, " and I will 
 lay you fast enough. You will never leave until you get knocked 
 on the head as that poor fellow Sidney was." She then com- 
 manded that he should lodge in the court, and there for the 
 present study the art of war in books. Being thus established 
 as a royal favourite he soon advanced in honours and distinction. 
 On the alann of the Spanish invasion in 1588, like many other 
 of the young noblemen and gentlemen, he entered himself as a 
 volunteer at his own cost, for the defence of the coast. In this 
 year he was gi'anted the office of keeper of the New Forest, and 
 in 1589 he was made master of ai'ts at Oxford. The queen's 
 marked partiality had by this time aroused the jealousy of his 
 powerful rival, the earl of Essex. A quan-el ensued between 
 them, followed by a duel, in which Essex was wounded in the 
 knee. From this date Essex and Blount became fast friends. In 
 1592-93 he was again chosen one of the burgesses for Beeralston, 
 and in 1594 was made governor of the castle, town, and isle of 
 Portsmouth, and, in the same year, upon the death of his elder 
 brother, WilMam, he succeeded to the title of Lord Jlountjoy, 
 and an inheritance of about 1000 marks a-year, upon which, 
 together with his official income, the aggi-egate of which latter 
 was below £100 a-year, we are told "he hved plentifullj' and 
 in a fine way and garb." On the 24th April, 1597, the Lord 
 Mountjoy was elected knight of the garter, and in the same year 
 he accompanied the earl of Essex on his fiimous " Island Voy- 
 age," in which he was commissioned as lieutenant-general of 
 the land forces and commander of the ship Defiance. In the 
 following year the queen pui-posed sending him as lord-deputy 
 to Ireland, but this being objected to by the earl of Essex that 
 unfortunate nobleman was himself sent. On his sudden retiring, 
 however, in 1599, the queen intimated her pleasiure that Lord 
 Jlountjoy should undertake the difficult and dangerous office. 
 
 Mountjoy used every possible effort to avoid the office, 
 pointing out to her majesty, both by word and in writing, that 
 while he would cheerfully lay down his life to fulfil her will, 
 the state of that kingdom was so desperate, and the means at 
 his disposal were so small, as to cause him to despair of suc- 
 cess, and that he feared that any failure, enhanced as it would 
 be by his enemies, would cause her to w ithdraw her favour, and, 
 consequently, prove his ruin. His remonstrances, however, were 
 all in vain. The queen had too high an opinion of his abilities 
 to be moved from her purpose. She declai-ed that " it would be 
 his fortune and his honour to cut the thread of the fatal Irish 
 rebellion and bring her in peace to the grave." The result showed 
 that she was not mistaken. The English power was scarcely 
 more than nominal at this time in any part of Ireland — the 
 rebels had full possession of the island. They oveiTan the whole 
 countiy, blowing their tnimpets up even to the gates of Dublin. 
 Tyrone affected to desjiise Mountjoy, mistaking the refinement 
 of his manners for effeminacy, and exulted in the choice made 
 of a commander " who would lose the season of action whilst 
 liis breakfast was prepared." Never was man more deceived. 
 The lord-deputy landed in Ireland on the 26th Februarv', ICOO, 
 and immediately took active measures against the rebels. By 
 the skill and energy of his operations, he soon reduced the 
 country to a state of comparative peace, and a gi'eat number of 
 the Irish leaders applied to him and to his officers for jjardon 
 and protection. For these successes he received several flatter-
 
 BLO 
 
 625 
 
 RLO 
 
 ing letters from tile queen, ■wliich greatly cheered and encouraged 
 liiin. The satisfaction of feeling assured of his sovereign's favour 
 was, however, quickly extinguished. In February, 1601, he 
 received intelligence that his friend, the earl of Essex, was 
 committed to tlie tower on a charge of high treason. There 
 can be no doubt that Mountjoy was, to some extent privy to, 
 and implicated in, the intrigues of tliat impetuous and infatuated 
 young nobleman, and he consequently became gi'eatly alarmed at 
 his position. He made application to the queen and council for 
 leave to return to England ; yet Jloryson, his secretary, says, "he 
 meant nothing less, but rather (if he had been sent for) was 
 purposed with his friends to sail into France, they having pri- 
 vately fitted themselves with money and necessaries thereunto." 
 To whatever extent he was concerned in the earl's design, if, 
 indeed, that unfortunate nobleman had any definite design at all, 
 all was known to the queen and her ministers; but whether too 
 many persons of distinction were implicated to be dealt with 
 severely, or whether his services in Ireland vi'ere too valuable to 
 be dispensed with, it is evident her majesty considered it prudent 
 to dissemble her knowledge of his share in the business. Accord- 
 ingly the cloud soon cleared away. Her majesty wrote to him 
 a very gracious letter communicating the earl's death, and assuring 
 liim that his approved fidelity and love was some alleviation of 
 her grief. In the autumn of 1601 a body of 6000 Spaniards, 
 under the command of Don John D'Aguilla, landed at Kinsale, 
 and took possession of that place. These were succeeded by 
 another band of 2000 men, which arrived at Castlehaven with 
 additional supplies, and promises of fmiher assistance. These 
 reinforcements, together with the presence in Munster of Tyrone 
 and his followers, who immediately joined the invaders in that 
 province, infused new life into the disaffected septs. They now 
 began to believe that the time of their deliverance from the hated 
 English yoke was at hand, and on all sides they arose and 
 declared for the invaders. 
 
 In consequence of the incessant activity of the English forces, 
 and the penurious manner in which supplies of men and muni- 
 tions had been granted by the English government, the lord- 
 deputy found himself but ill able to cope with this new difii- 
 ctilty. A council of war was, however, held at Kilkenny on the 
 same day that Mountjoy received intelligence that the Spaniards 
 had landed, and, notwithstanding that the army was destitute 
 of tools, powder, artillery, and provisions, it was determined to 
 invest Kinsale. 
 
 The little ai-my suffered extremities during the winter siege 
 equalled only by the privations of the English forces before 
 Sebastopol. Incessant working, day and night, in the trenches, 
 without food, without clothing, in most tempestuous weather, 
 having to sustain also most vigorous sorties from the besieged, 
 which they always repelled with unexampled bravery, the heroic 
 little band became greatly reduced in numbers and strength. 
 Tyrone and O'Donnel raised all the forces they could muster, 
 and joining with the Spaniards of Castlehaven, marched to 
 the relief of Kinsale. The beleaguered party urged Tyrone to 
 attack the English in the rear, but he, knowing their necessities, 
 hesitated to do so, feeling assured that by cutting off their sup- 
 plies they must soon, through fiimine, be constrained to lay down 
 their arms. Don John, however, so strongly urged this point, 
 that Tyrone gave way, and advanced to give battle. The lord- 
 deputy was apprised of the design, and determined not to await 
 an attack from the rebel forces, but to act on the offensive. 
 Accordingly, on the 24th of December, he marched against 
 Tyrone at the head of not more than 1200 foot and 400 horse, 
 and attacked them so vigorously, that the Irish were put to 
 flight, with gi-eat slaughter, leaving 1200 men dead on the field. 
 This victory completely crushed the rising spirit of rc^volt. 
 Tyrone, the chief leader of the rebellion, fled into Ulster ; 
 O'Donnel made his escape into Spain ; and the whole of the 
 rebel army was utterly broken and dispersed. Soon afterwards, 
 Don John D'Agidla offered terms of capitulation, and with his 
 followers quitted the kingdom. Tyrone himself, in the month of 
 January, made overtures of submission. 
 
 In the beginning of 1002 we find Mountjoy making active 
 preparations for another expedition against Tyrone in Ulster, 
 riiis expedition soon started, and the unfortunate Irish were 
 reduced to such miseries, as to be even afflicting to the huma- 
 nity of their conquerors. Thousands perished by famine; every 
 road was encumbered by their unburied bodies ; and the most 
 hideous means were resorted to for allaying the pangs of hunger. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 The rebellion was now at an end. Tyrone was only anxious to 
 be received to the queen's mercy, whilst she obstinately refused 
 to listen to any overtures for his pardon ; but about the month 
 of March, 1603, Tjrone had become most importunate, and 
 Elizabeth, being at the point of death, was prevailed upon by 
 her secretary to give way, and refer the whole matter to the 
 wisdom of the lord-deputy. Mountjoy now proceeded north- 
 wards for the gi-eater convenience of arranging the matter, where, 
 on the 27th ^larch, he received private intelligence of the queen's 
 death, which made him doubly anxious to secure Tyrone's sub- 
 mission, which that chieftain finally made at Melifont on the 
 28th March ; and on the 4th April he proceeded with the lord- 
 deputy to Dublin. Thus, after a continual contest for 400 years, 
 was the English authority completely established in Ireland, and 
 the pi-ediction of Queen Elizabeth fulfilled. 
 
 On the 5th April, Jlountjoy received official notification of the 
 queen's decease, and the accession of James I. He took immediate 
 steps to proclaim the new monarch, to whom Tyrone made his 
 formal submission on the following day. The lord-deputy also 
 sent Sir Henry Davers to England formally to offer his congratu- 
 lations to the new king, assm-e him of his loyalty and devoted- 
 ness to his service, and to solicit permission to come over in 
 person to kiss his hand. He was at this time like all other of 
 Queen EHzabeth's courtiers, extremely anxious respecting his 
 condition in the new reign. He, however, had no reason for 
 apprehensions. To no class of his English subjects did King 
 James extend his favour in the same degree as to the friends of 
 the late earl of Essex, and especially to those who had mani- 
 fested an interest in the king's cause before the death of 
 Elizabeth ; and Mountjoy, although at this time unknown to 
 himself, was destined to participate largely in the bounty of the 
 new monarch. After having quelled some serious disturbances 
 in the north of Ireland, he received the gratifying intelligence, 
 that he had been constituted lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and 
 appointed, moreover, one of his majesty's privy council. Leave 
 was also given him to return to England. He accordingly quitted 
 Dublin about the end of May, having in his train the earl of 
 Tyrone, and some other Irish chieftains ; and, after narrowly 
 escaping shipwreck on the Skerry rocks, safely arrived at court, 
 where he was received with the highest marks of honour and 
 favour, and immediately sworn of the privy council. In 
 further reward of his distinguished sen'ices, on the 21st July he 
 was, with great state, created earl of Devonshire ; and on the 
 3rd September following, was made master of the ordnance for 
 life; and at the same time granted an annuity of £200 a- year 
 out of the exchequer, and as much more out of the duchy, with 
 extensive lands in Ireland, including the county of Lecale. 
 
 Mountjoy was now in high favour with his sovereign, and was 
 employed in many offices of tnist. We find him appointed one 
 of the commissioners for the trial of Cobham, Raleigh, and others 
 said to be connected with the main and bye plots in November, 
 1603. The following year he was selected as the commissioner 
 on behalf of Great Britain to negotiate a peace between the 
 kings oft England and Spain and the Archduke Albert. Upon 
 the discovery of the gimpowder plot, it appears from a letter of 
 the earl of Salisbury to Sir Charles Cornwallis, that he was to 
 receive a commission to proceed with forces to suppress the con- 
 spirators ; but whether or not such commission was actually 
 issued is uncertain. Probably it was not, as the overthrow of 
 the traitors in Worcestershire rendered it unnecessary. He acted, 
 however, as one of the commissioners on their trial. This, how- 
 ever, was his last public act. At the end of this year an event 
 occurred which instantly hurled him from the highest pinnacle of 
 reputation and honour, to the lowest depth of infamy and dis- 
 grace, entailing upon him the indignation and wrath of that 
 sovereign who had previously treated him with distinguished 
 favour and esteem. Soon after Mountjoy 's duel with the earl 
 of Sussex, we find that an attachment had arisen between the 
 former and the young Lady Rich, the earl's sister, a young lady 
 of rare beauty and great sweetness of temper, but, like her 
 brother, possessing greater ardency than discretion. Her fate 
 was, however, an unliapjiy one. Her beauty and amiable qua- 
 lities rendered her the mistress of all eyes and hearts. Sir 
 Philip Sidney has immortalized her as the Stella of his Astrophel. 
 Negotiations for a marriage between them existed at the time of 
 her father's death ; but from some cause this never took place, 
 and she afterwards became the wife of Robert Lord Rich, the 
 grandson of the infamous Lord Chancellor Rich, and himself a 
 
 4 K
 
 coai-se, austere, unpolished man. Against this union every feel- 
 ing of the Lady Penelope's young heart revolted, insomuch that 
 she openly protested at the altar and ever afterwards. As early 
 as 1595 Mountjoy and the Lady Eich had begun to take a pecu- 
 liar interest in each other, and in 1600 their connection had 
 assumed a criminal form, for Camden says that the lady " had 
 lost the queen's favom- for abusing her husband's bed." On 
 Mountjoy's return from Ireland he found her in the highest 
 favour at court, -where she shone as one of the brightest stai-s in 
 that brilliant hemisphere — the gayest in that radiant circle. She 
 immediately left her husband's house and went to live with him 
 at Wanstead, but this does not seem to have aftected her position. 
 By common consent all seem to have regarded her case as excep- 
 tional, and agreed not to see in her conduct the violation of all 
 decency and propriety ; but a step was now taken which sud- 
 denly altered all. By an amicable arrangement between all the 
 parties concerned, and, as is alleged, upon the sole confession of 
 the lady herself, of an act of incontinency with a person not 
 named, a sentence of divorce, a mensa et toro, was obtained in 
 the ecclesiastical court, and a marriage was celebrated between 
 her and Lord Devonshire. The king was greatly incensed at 
 this act ; and, to appease his wi-ath, Devonshire wrote a long 
 apology, which is preserved in ^IS. in the British museum. The 
 king, however, was not to be moved, and told him to his face 
 that he had got a " fair woman with a black soul." The earl's 
 proud heart could not brook the state of degradation and con- 
 tempt into which he had fallen. He was suddenly seized with 
 a severe illness, of which he died on the 3rd April, 1G05, and 
 was buried with great solemnity in St. Paul's chapel in West- 
 minster abbey. He left five illegitimate children by Lady Eich, 
 for the eldest of whom see Blouxt Mouxtjoy. — Cottonian, 
 Harl., and additional 3ISS. ; British Museum ; State Papers ; 
 Lamb MSS. ; Moryson's Itinerary ; Birch's Letters ; Sydney 
 Papers. — ]\I. 
 
 BLOUXT, Charles, fifth Lord llountjoy, succeeded his 
 father in 1535. In 154-4 he held a command in the expedition 
 to France, which was conducted with gi-eat magnificence by 
 King Heniy VIII. in person, who crossed the channel in a ship, 
 the saUs of which were made of cloth of gold. Lord ^Mountjoy's 
 lansh expenditm-e in this expedition, together with his general 
 extravagance as a courtier, greatly imj>aired his estate. Like 
 his father, he was a scholar, and a patron of learned men. Died 
 in 1545. — (Croke's Genealogy of the Croke Family, and State 
 Papers.^ — M. 
 
 BLOUXT, Charles, younger son of Sir Henry Blount, was 
 bom in 1G54. He wrote a pamphlet, in which he based the 
 claim of WilUam III. upon the right of conquest. This gave 
 great offence, and was burnt by the common hangman. He 
 published another pamphlet on the life of Apollonius Tyaneus, 
 in which he made a \-iolent attack on Christianity. He com- 
 mitted suicide in 1698.— (fi/o^-. Brit.)—'M. 
 
 BLOUXT, Sir Hexrt, was bom in Hertfordshue in 1602, 
 and after being educated at Tiinity college, Oxford, he removed 
 to Gray's Inn. In 1634 he set out upon his travek, during 
 which he visited Grand Cairo, and on his return he published, in 
 1636, his voyage into the Levant, which passed through several 
 editions. King Charles I. conferred upon him the honour of 
 knighthood, but he finally deserted the royal cause, and went over 
 to the parliamentary party, by whom he was made a commis- 
 sioner of trade. Died in 1682. — {Biog. Brit.) — M. 
 
 BLOUXT, James, sixth Lord Mountjoy, succeeded his father 
 in 1545. He was one of the peers who sat on the trial of the 
 duke of Norfolk. To repair the dilapidated family estates, he 
 resorted to the study and practice of alchemy, in which he 
 expended large sums, and still fm-ther reduced the Datrimony of 
 his house. Died in 1593. — JL 
 
 BLOUXT, Thomas, an English author bom in 1619. He 
 wrote " Boscobel, or the History of the King's Escape after the 
 Battle of Worcester," 1681, 8vo ; " Fragmenta Antiquitatis, or 
 Ancient Tenures of Lands ; " and " Jocular Customs of some 
 Manors," &c. He died in lG79.—(^Biog. Brit.) — M. 
 
 BLOUXT, Sir Thomas Pope, eldest son of Sir Henry 
 Blount mentioned above, was bom in 1649, and created a 
 baronet in 1679. He sen-ed in several parliaments, and at the 
 Revolution was made commissioner of accounts. He was the 
 author of " Censiu-a Celebriorum Authorum," &c., 1690, folio; 
 "Essays on different Subjects," 8vo; "A Natural History," 
 1693, 12mo; and "Eemarks upon Poetry " — {Biog. Brif.) — M. 
 
 BLOUXT, WiLLL\M, fourth Lord Jlountjoy, succeeded to 
 the title in 1485, and in the following year was appointed a 
 privy councillor to King Henry VII. In 1497 he was appointed 
 one of the commanders of the army sent to suppress the insur- 
 rection in Cornwall. In 1499 he had special grant of all the 
 dignities and pre-eminences which his father enjoyed. In 1509 
 he was appointed master of the mint. In 1512 he was made 
 govemor of Hamme ; and in the following year, upon the 
 capture of Toumay by King Heniy VIII. in person, he was 
 appointed lord-lieutenant. In 1515 he was appointed chamber- 
 lain to Queen Catherine of Aragon, which oflice he continued to 
 hold after her divorce. In 1623 he accompanied the duke of 
 Suffolk in his expedition into France, and in 1526 was elected 
 K.G. He died in 1535. The name of William Lord Mountjoy 
 is connected with the literatuie of the age in which he lived. He 
 was a great encourager of learning, and was the pupil, friend, 
 patron, and correspondent of the celebrated Erasmus, who, 
 throughout his life, frequently benefited by his bounty. — (Croke's 
 Genealogy of the Crole Fainily, and State Papers.) — M. 
 
 BLOUXT, William, appointed govemor of the "tenitory 
 south of the Ohio" in 1790, and elected senator of the United 
 States in 1796, when that territory was erected into the present 
 State of Tennessee. The following year he became engaged in a 
 plot for wresting New Orleans and the outlet of the Mississippi 
 from Spain, and transferring them to England, by means of a 
 joint expedition, the British being expected to furnish a naval 
 force, and Blomit engaging to raise a coi-ps of backwoodsmen 
 and Indians. But the intrigue was divulged by the British 
 minister to the United States, and by an intercepted letter, and 
 the house of representatives having voted to impeach Blount, the 
 senate expelled him from their body, and held him for trial on 
 the impeachment. The trial was protracted for a long time, and 
 Blount finally escaped conviction, on the two technical pleas that 
 senators were not "officers" liable to be impeached under the 
 constitution, and that, having already been expelled from the 
 senate, he was no longer liable to be brought to its bar. He 
 died at Knoxville, March 26, 1800, aged fifty-six. — B. C. 
 
 BLOUNT MOUNTJOY, ninth Lord Mountjoy, earl of New- 
 port, was the eldest natural son of Charles Bloimt, eai-1 of Devon- 
 shii-e, by Lady Eich. He was bora about 1598, and received from 
 his father considerable property in the counties of Northampton, 
 Leicester, and Devon, besides extensive lands in Ireland. In 
 May, 1615, he obtained a license to travel beyond the seas for 
 three years, to acquii-e a knowledge of foreign languages. He 
 returned, however, before the expiration of that time, and on the 
 2nd January, 1618, was created Baron Mountjoy of Mountjoy 
 fort in the county of Tyrone in Ireland. On the 2nd Jimc, in 
 the same year, he received another license to travel for a fiuthe^ 
 period of three years. In 1625 he raised, equipped, and trained 
 a troop of a hundred horse, with which he was pennitted to enter 
 into the sen-ice of the united states of the Low Countries. He 
 also commanded the troop of horse which accompanied the duke 
 of Buckingham in his ill-fated expedition to the Isle of Bhe. On 
 his retum in 1627, he was advanced to the English peerage 
 under the title of Baron Jlountjoy of Thurseston in Derbyshire, 
 and in 1628 was created earl of Newport in the Isle of Wight. 
 On the 2nd September, 1634, he was gi-anted the office of 
 master of the ordnance for life; and in the year 1641 was made 
 constable of the tower. Having been accused, however, of 
 suggesting, during the king's absence in Scotland, the seizure of 
 the queen and the prince of Wales, he lost the king's confidence, 
 and his majesty's suspicions were further increased when he 
 foimd that Lord Newport possessed that of the parliament ; for 
 when Sir Thomas Lunsford was appointed lieutenant of the 
 tower, such appointment being unsatisfactory to the house of 
 commons, that body forwarded a request to Lord Newport that 
 he would sleep constantly within the fortress. The king being 
 annoyed, and distrusting Lord Newport's fidelity, he was removed 
 from his office as constable on the 26th December, 1641. Not- 
 withstanding this, we find him with the king at York in the 
 following June, where he was one of the noblemen who signed 
 the declaration, testifying their belief that the king had no inten- 
 tion of making war. The parliament, however, commenced the 
 le\-y of troops, and the king consequent!}' raised his standard at 
 Nottingham on the 25th August. Lord Newport still adhered to 
 the royal party, but appears not to have taken any very active 
 part in the war, devoting himself to the duties of an office 
 which he held in the bedchamber of the prince of Wales. He
 
 BLO 
 
 627 
 
 BLU 
 
 Iiappened accidentally to be at Leicester in 1642, when Prince 
 Kupert approached that town. The prince sent into the town 
 threatening, that unless an assessment of £2000 was raised 
 within twenty-four hours, he would give the town up to plunder. 
 Lord Newport posted at once to the Iving, and by his influence 
 obtained a relief from the payment of the fine. His loyalty, 
 liowever, appears not to have been very firm. Having accom- 
 panied the prince of Wales into the west, he, by his own confes- 
 sion, did all he could to hinder the escape of his royal highness 
 into France, but without success. The prince sailed from 
 Dartmouth, and he had scarcely left when the town was 
 .'tonned, in January, 1645, by the rebel anuy under Fairfax; 
 ;:nd Lord Newport, after having delivered up Kingsworth Fori, 
 llie strongest fortress in the place, to the enemy, was made, as 
 iie himself said, a not unwilling prisoner. His estates were 
 .sequestered, and he continued a prisoner upon bail until Novem- 
 ber, 1646, when he was peniiitted to compound for his lands 
 :;nd liberty upon the payment of a fine equal to one-tenth of the 
 value of his property. His fine was fixed at £4579. 
 
 On the death of Ohver Cromwell, and the abdication of Kich- 
 ard his son. Lord Newport took part in the measm-es which 
 wert adopted for the restoration of the royal family. His zeal, 
 however, was not so marked as to secure his ofHce of master of 
 the ordnance. Indeed, his life patent appears to have been over- 
 looked, for Charles IL, immediately upon his restoration, conferred 
 the office upon Sir William Compton, who had been his constant 
 companion in his exile, and it was not until the IGth August, 
 1661, that Lord Newport surrendered his patent in favour of 
 that gentleman'. His career was, however, now nearly closed, for 
 lie died in 1665, leaving sumving issue two sons and two daugh- 
 ters. Both his sons succeeded to the title, which finally became 
 extinct upon the death of the younger in 1681. — {Privy Council 
 Ilefjisters; MSS. State Paper Office; Ord. MSS. Rushworih 
 Collection ; Clarendon.~) — M. 
 
 BLOW, John, Mus. Doc, a native of North Collingham, Not- 
 tinghamshire, bom in 1648, was one of the first set of children 
 uf the Royal chapels, after the Restoration, being educated under 
 Captain Hemy Cook. He was afterwards a pupil of John Hing- 
 ston, and of Dr. Christopher Gibbons. In 1669, at the age 
 of twenty-one, he was appointed organist of Westminster abbey, 
 which situation he resigned in 1680, in favour of the celebrated 
 Henry Purcell. In 1673 he was appomted one of the gentlemen 
 of the chapel, and in 1674, on the decease of Pelham Humphries, 
 v/as chosen master of the children of the chapel. In 1685 he 
 was made one of the king's private musicians, and also composer 
 to his majesty, a title which Matthew Lock had enjoyed before 
 liim. He was also almoner and master of the choristers of St. 
 Paul's cathedral, being appointed to these places on the death 
 of Michael Wise ; he resigned them in 1693, in favour of his 
 ])upil, Jeremiah Clark. Blow was not a graduate of any uni- 
 \ersity, but Archbishop Sancroft, by virtue of his authority as 
 iirclibishop of Canterbury, confen-ed on him the degi-ce of doctor 
 in music. On the decease of Henry Purcell in 1695, he was 
 appointed composer to the royal chapel, at a yearly salary of 
 forty pounds. He also resumed his post as organist of the abbey. 
 Blow was early distinguished as a composer. In Clifford's " Col- 
 lection of the Words of Anthems," 1664, are several subscribed, 
 " John Blow, one of the children of his majesty's chapel," and, 
 on account of his gi'eat merit, he was eminently patronized by 
 Charles II. The king admired very much a little duet of Carsi- 
 simi, " Dite, o cieli," and asked Blow if he could imitate it. The 
 musician modestly answered he would try, and composed in the 
 s.ime key and measure the fine duet, " Go, perjured man." This 
 was first published singly, afterwards in the Theatre of Music, 
 1687, and then, with the addition of instrumental parts, in the 
 '' Ampliion Anglicus." The " Orpheus Britannicus" of Purcell had 
 been puWished by his widow soon after his decease, and com- 
 prised some of his finest songs. The favourable reception this 
 met with was Blow's motive for publishing a similar collection, 
 which he entitled " Amphion Anglicus, containing compositions 
 for one, two, three, and four voices, with accompaniments of 
 mstrumental music, and a thorough-bass figured for the organ, 
 harpsichord, or theorbo-lute," 1700, folio. The work was dedi- 
 cated to the princess Anne of Denmark. In the preface the 
 author says that he is preparing to publish his church services 
 and divine compositions : but he lived not to carry his design into 
 clfect. Blow's other compositions, printed in his lifetime, are as 
 follows— "An Ode for St. Cecilia's Day," 1684; "Lessons for 
 
 the Harpsichord or Spinnet;" "Psalm Tunes for the Oi-gan;" 
 and an " Ode on the Death of Pm-cell," written by Diydcn. Also 
 several hymns in the " Harmonia Sacra," a number of catches 
 in the latter editions of the " Musical Companion," and many 
 detached songs hi Playford's various publications. This great mu- 
 sician died October 1, 1708, and was buried in the north aisle of 
 Westminster abbey. In the inscription on his monument he is 
 called "Master to the famous Mr. H. Purcell." Dr. Blow's chief 
 reputation must rest upon the merit of his cluu-ch music, of which 
 he was a voluminous writer. These compositions consist, as far as 
 at present ascertained, of ten services, and seventy-nine anthems, 
 a few onlj^jOf which have been printed in the collections of Boyce, 
 Page, and Stevens. Dr. Bumey had a very mean opinion of 
 Blow's abilities, and fills four quarto pages with examples of 
 what he tei-ms his "crudities." But the historian lived at a 
 period when it was the fashion to cry down what was not under- 
 stood. A critic of the present age would see in these so-called 
 crudities only indications of superior genius, and a foreshadowing 
 of those wondrous harmonic combinations which a later age has 
 brought to pei-fection. — (Burney; Hawkins; Records of West- 
 minster Abbey ; Cheque Book of the Chapel Royal.) — E. F. E. 
 
 * BLOXAM, A., an English clerg}'man, who has devoted atten- 
 tion to botany, more particularly to the flora of Britain. He 
 has examined carefully the species of Rubus, and has done service 
 to the student of British plants, by the publication of sets of 
 thuiy species and varieties. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLUCHER, Gebbeual Lebrecht von, field-marshal of 
 the Prussian army and prince of Wohlstadt, was boni at Rostock 
 in Mecklenburg-Schwerin on the 16th December, 1742. At 
 the beginning of the Seven Years' war he was sent by his father, 
 who was a captain of horse in the service of Hesse Cassel, to 
 Bergen, when his love for the military life was excited by the 
 Swedish hussars, and he enlisted, contrary to the advice of his 
 friends, at the early age of fourteen. He made his first cam- 
 paign against the Pmssians, and was taken prisoner by the 
 hussar regiment in which he afterwards so disthiguishcd him- 
 self. He was persuaded to enter the Prussian service, and 
 having been exchanged for a Swedish officer, remained with 
 his regiment till the close of the war, during which he rose 
 from a lieutenant to senior captain. Conceivmg, however, that 
 his merits had been overlooked by the promotion to the rank of 
 major of an individual of higher station than himself, he resigned 
 his commission and retired to Silesia, where he engaged in farm- 
 ing for fifteen years, and succeeded in gainuig an honom-able 
 independence. On the death of Frederick the Great and the 
 accession of William II. he retm-ncd to his old regiment with 
 the rank of major, and led it with great gallantly and distinction 
 during the campaign of 1793-4. After the battle of Leystudt, 
 September 18, 1794, he received as major-general a command 
 in the anny of observation on the Lower Rhine. In 1802 he 
 took possession for Prussia of Erfmt and Muhlhausen. In 
 1805-6 he was again in active service. At the close of the 
 battle of Jena, so disastrous to Prussia, he retreated with 20,000 
 men, forming Prince Hohenlohe's rear, and after a series of 
 bloody but unsuccessful, engagements with the French generals 
 who hung on his march, he threv,r himself into Lubeck, in the 
 streets of which he lost, after an obstinate engagement, 5000 
 men. On the following moniing he was forced to capitulate at 
 the village of Ratkau, but only, as the terms of surrender bore, 
 " through want of ammunition and provisions." On his exchange 
 soon after for the French marshal, Victor, he was sent by tlie 
 king of Prussia with a small detachment to Swedish Pomerania, 
 but after a brief occupation he evacuated on the peace at Tilsit. 
 He was employed subsequently in the war department, and was 
 appointed general in Pomerania; but the hostile influence of 
 Napoleon was successful in deprivhig him of his command, and 
 driving him into retirement. On the resumption of hostilities 
 between Piiissia and France in 1813, he was suddenly recalled 
 to the field, and though in the seventy-first year of his age, he 
 obeyed with his wonted promptitude and energy. In the inde- 
 cisive battle of Lutzen, fought on the 1st of May, he gained by 
 his conduct the order of St. George from the Emperor Alexander; 
 and on the 20th of the same month, in the sanguinary conflict 
 at Bautzen, he maintained with heroic bravery for four hours the 
 wooded heights where he commanded, and retired at last, leaving 
 neither prisoner nor gun with the enemy. In the battle of Katz- 
 bach, near Leigiiitz in Silesia, which was fought on the 26t]i of 
 August, he inaugurated a series of brilliant victories, by defeating
 
 the French iinder JMarshal Macdonald \dt\\ great slaughter, and 
 capturing 18,000 prisoners, 103 cannon, 250 ammunition wag- 
 gons, two eagles, besides many other tropliies. The moral effect ot" 
 this victory was even greater than its material consequences, and 
 he hastened to improve it by marching boldly through Lusatia 
 along the Elbe, and crossing that river at Wartburg he advanced 
 on Mockem, where, on the 16th October, he engaged and defeated 
 the enemy, capturing at the same time some thousands of pri- 
 soners, and fifty-four pieces of artillery. In the battle of Leipzig, 
 two days after, he contributed mainly to the decisive victory, 
 and was rewarded, amid the shouts of the Silesian army, by 
 having conveyed to him in most flattering terms, through Prince 
 William of Prussia, his ap))ointment by the king as field-marshal. 
 On the 1st of Januaiy, 1814, ho crossed the Khine with the 
 Silesian aiTny, and occupied Nancy in the French territory. 
 Continuing his advance, he was attacked by Napoleon at Brienne 
 with no result to cither party; but at La Rothiere, on the 1st 
 of Febniaiy, he attacked and defeated the French, capturing 
 3000 prisoners and many pieces of artillery. In the engage- 
 ments of Vaucliamp and Croanne he was less successful ; but in 
 the battle of Laon, on the 9th of JIarch, he overthrew the right 
 wing of the French army under Marmont, and l)y isolating Napo- 
 leon who led the left and contemplated a union with the beaten 
 division, he compelled him to retreat, and thus virtually termi- 
 nated the war. The way being now open to Paris, he entered 
 it on the 31st May, along with the other conquerors after the 
 battle of Montmartre. After the taking of Paris he laid down 
 his command, having, by his constancy and the almost unpa- 
 ralleled activity of his army, chiefly determined the great result. 
 At JMcry his resolution had saved the aUied armies from a ruin- 
 ous retreat, and the loss of the entire campaign ; at Laon he had 
 broken Napoleon's power physically and morally, and permitted 
 the sovereigns to ibrm the grand resolution to march upon Paris, 
 by which the campaign was ended, and the fortune of Europe 
 decided. After the peace of Paris, in company with the emperor 
 of Russia and the king of Prussia, he visited England, where he 
 was enthusiastically received, his fearless com'age and ardent 
 love of freedom liaving made him long a favourite with the 
 nation. On his return to his own country he retired amid the 
 gratitude and honours which were heaped on him, to his estate, 
 but was speedily summoned to the field by the return of Napo- 
 leon from Elba, and the renewal of the deadly struggle which it 
 was believed had terminated. He assumed the command of the 
 Prassian troops in Belgium, made airangements with Colonel 
 Hardinge, who had been dispatched to his head-quarters by the 
 duke of Wellington to secure unity of action in the coming cam- 
 paign ; and on the approach of Napoleon formed, with the Eng- 
 lish commander-in-chief at Biy, a plan of mutual assistance in 
 the event of then- being attacked. In the battle of Ligny, which 
 was fought on the ICth of June, he was defeated by his own 
 rashness and the superior tactics of hie enemy ; but though the 
 French cavalry, in pursuit of his troops, rode over him as he lay 
 on the gi'ound under his horse, which had been shot dead in the 
 conflict, he rallied his division and appeared on the field of 
 Waterloo, to deteiTnine, by his decisive charge, the fate of the 
 day, and complete by a merciless pursuit the ruin of the foe. 
 With the same rapidity as he had conquered, he followed up his 
 victory, and obtained peace at Paris. His hatred to Napoleon, 
 which partook of the fierceness of private revenge, displayed 
 itself during the march to Paris, when he informed the duke of 
 Wellington that as the congi-ess of Vienna had declared Napoleon 
 outlawed, it was his intention to have him shot whenever he 
 caught him ; and only by the strong exhortations of the English 
 commander could he be induced to abandon his purpose. Honours 
 fell thick on the head of the successful veteran. He received 
 the military orders of all the great powers of Europe, and the 
 university of O.sford complimented him with the honorary degree 
 of D.C.L. His own sovereign named him, in memory of the first 
 of his victories, prince of Wohlstadt, witli a suitable dotation, 
 and created for his exclusive wearing a decoration, consisting of 
 an iron cross surrounded with golden rays, accompanying the 
 gift with the declaration that, " he knew very well that no 
 golden rays could heighten the splendour of his services, but 
 that it gave him pleasure to make his sense of them evident by 
 a suitable mark of distinction." After remaining for some 
 months in Paris, and assisting in consolidating the government 
 of the restored Bourbons, his health began to give way from the 
 effects of age and military service, and he retired to his chateau 
 
 of Kriblowitz in Silesia. Towards the close of 1819 it became I 
 evident that his death was near. On the 5th of September the ' 
 king of Prussia sent his aid-de-camp, Major-General Von 
 Witzleben, to him with kindly inquiries. He returned thanks 
 for his majesty's favours, recommended his wife to the royal 
 kindness, and requested that he might be buried without osten- 
 tation in the open country, in a field between Kriblowitz and 
 Kunst, on a spot which he described under three lime trees; 
 and intimated that he had no reluctance to die, as he was now 
 of no further use. On the following day he was visited by the 
 king and Prince Charles, who soothed him by expressions of 
 regard and admnation of his gi'cat public services. He died on 
 the 12th September, aged seventy-seven, havmg been forty-five 
 years in the army, and achieved the most brilliant of his victo- 
 ries after the seventieth year of his age. On receiving the news 
 of his death, the king gave orders that the army should be put 
 hi mouming for eight days, while he sent Count Blucher of 
 Wohlstadt, the veteran's grandson, with a letter of condolence 
 to his widow. On the merits of Blucher as a commander, the 
 most conflicting opinions have been expressed. That he pos- 
 sessed many of the quahties of an able general even his ene- 
 mies have admitted. Fearless com'age, inflexible determination, 
 thorough confidence in his friends and army, and the gift ot 
 exciting among those whom he led unbounded ti'ust in himself, 
 a constitutional obtuseness to defeat, and an amazing celerity in 
 recovering from it, and charging the enemy as if he were the 
 victor instead of the vanquished, won for him the love of his own 
 soldiers, who called him " Marshal Forwards," and even of the 
 rude Cossacks who named him the " Little Suwarrow," and 
 believed that he had been born on the banks of the Don. On 
 the other hand, in the science of war he was admitted to be 
 deficient ; and Baron von Mivftling, who, during the campaigns 
 of 1813-14-15, acted as quarter-master-general to the division 
 of the army which he commanded, while he records his many 
 heroic qualities, declares that he " understood nothing whatever 
 of the conduct of a war, so little, indeed, that when a plan was 
 submitted to him for approval he could not form any clear idea ot 
 it, or judge whether it were good or bad. This circumstance made 
 it necessary that some one should be placed by his side in whom 
 he had confidence, and who possessed inclmation and skill to 
 employ it in the general weal." Such a person was General 
 Greisenau, who, it is added, " really commanded the army in 
 1813-14, while Blucher merely acted as an example of the 
 bravest in battle, and the most indefatigable in exertion." The 
 epithet of " General of Hussars," applied to him in contempt by 
 his great enemy. Napoleon, is nearer the truth than the exag- 
 gerated encomiums of those who estimated him by the importance 
 of the events in which he was, from circumstances, so prominent 
 an actor. — W. M. H. 
 
 BLUFF, Matuias Joseph, a celebrated German botanist of 
 the present centmy. Along with Fingerhuth, Wallroth, Nees 
 von Esenbeck, and Schauer, he has published works on the flora 
 of Germany. He is distinguished especially as a cryptoganiic 
 botanist. The publication of his " Compendium Florse Gernia- 
 nicae" commenced at Nuremberg in 1821. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLUM, Joachim Christian, a poet of considerable reputa- 
 tion in the last century, was born at Rathenau in Brandenbm'g, 
 on the 17th November, 1739. He received an excellent educa- 
 tion at Brandenburg, Berlin, and Frankfort, and was the friend 
 of Ramler and Baumgarten. Blum's health prevented his doing 
 as much in literature as his abilities promised, and he settled 
 quietly down in his native town, devoting himself principally to 
 the study of languages. His lyrical poems, though now little 
 read, were highly thought of, though it must be admitted their 
 merit lies rather in grace, simplicity, and coiTectness of style, 
 than in originality or vigour. He wrote a historical drama on 
 the conquest of Rathenau by the elector, which was of course 
 favourably received, and is now forgotten. He also left some 
 moral essays. He died at Rathenau in 1790. — J. F. W. 
 
 * BLUM, JoHANN Reinhakd, a German mineralogist, 
 professor, and director of the mineralogical collection in the 
 university of Heidelberg, born on the 28th October, 1802, at 
 Hanau. His principal writings are — "A Text-book of Oryctog- 
 nosy," published at Stuttgard in 1833 (2nd edit. 1847), and 
 " Lithurgics, or Jlinerals and Rocks in their Technical Applica- 
 tions," published at Stuttgard in 1840. He is also the author 
 of numerous memoirs in Leonhard and Bronn's Juhrbuch, and 
 in Poggendorffs Annalen. — W. S. D.
 
 BLUM, Karl Ludwig, a German actor, composer, and dra- 
 matic writer, was born at Berlin about 1786, and died 2d July, 
 
 1844. Many of his operas — " Claudine von Villabella," " Ro- 
 senbiitchen," &c., and comedies, " Ich bleibe ledig ;" " Der Ball 
 zu Ellerbrunn;" " Schwarmerei nach der Mode;" "Barund 
 Bassa," &c. — still enjoy a great popularity. — K. E. 
 
 BLUM, Robert, a German political character, was born of 
 poor parents at Cologne, November 10, 1807. He was originally 
 bred a beltmaker, but by his energetic zeal and assiduity supplied 
 the want of a regular education, became clerk in a manufactory of 
 lanterns at Cologne, and in 1831 was appointed secretary and 
 cashier to the Leipzig theatre. Here he entered upon a literary 
 career. Together with Herlosssohn and ^larggraft' he published 
 the " Theaterlexicon " 1839-47, 7 vols., and with Steger, a 
 political almanac " Vorwarts," 1843-47, 5 vols., &c. He was 
 one of the originators of the SchUlerverein, 1840, of the Lite- 
 ralen-Verein, and the German CaihoUc Comtumnty^ at Leipzig, 
 
 1845. During the bloody scenes which took place at Leipzig 
 in August, 1845, he stood at the head of the people, and 
 by his energy and eloquence prevented an outbreak. Some 
 years after he resigned his situation and started a publishing 
 business. When the revolution of 1848 broke out, Blum at 
 once became, as it were, the centre of all the revolutionary feel- 
 ings and movements in Saxony. He was elected a member of 
 the Frankfort National Assembly, where he distinguished him- 
 self as one of the leaders of the left or democratic side. In order 
 to rouse the people and quicken the flagging revolution, he has- 
 tened to Vienna in October, 1848, and himself took anns against 
 the besieging army. After the surrender of the city, he was 
 arrested by the troops at his hotel, sentenced to death by a comt- 
 martial, and shot in the Brigittenau on the 9th November. The 
 whole democratic party was roused and dismayed by this arbi- 
 trary proceeding, as, according to a law given a few weeks before, 
 no member of the national assembly was to be prosecuted 
 without the concurrence of the central government. Funeral 
 ceremonies in his honour were solemnized in almost every town, 
 and a fund was collected for the support of his family. — K. E. 
 
 BLUJIAUER, Aloys, a German poet, was born at Steier in 
 Austria, December 21, 1755. In 1772 he became a member of 
 the Society of Jesus, and after its dissolution was appointed 
 censor at Vienna, where he died, 16th March, 1798. His poems 
 are humorous and satirical, but often licentious and indecent : 
 liis chief production is his travesty of the ^Eneis, Vienna, 1784, 
 3 vols., in which he applies his lash to his own church and even 
 to the Society of Jesus itself. His complete works were re- 
 peatedly published ; the last tune at Stuttgart, 1840. — K. E. 
 
 BLUJIBERG, Christian Gotthelf, a German Lutheran 
 divine, bom at Ophausen in 1664, was present at the siege of 
 -Mentz as almoner of a regiment, and afterwards filled in suc- 
 cession several village cures in Saxony. He left " Fundamenta 
 linguK Copticae," 1716, and some other philological works. 
 
 BLUME, Charles Ludwig, an eminent Dutch botanist. 
 He has illustrated the flora of the island of Java. His " Flora 
 Javse " is a standard work of reference. He is also the author 
 of " Rumphia," a work containing descriptions and drawmgs of 
 Indian plants; and of dissertations on tropical plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 BLUMENBACH, Johann Friederich, a celebrated Ger- 
 man physiologist and naturalist, was born at Gotha on the 11th 
 of May, 1752. He early exhibited a taste for the study of 
 anatomy ; and an anecdote is related of him, that, at the age of 
 ten years, having seen a human skeleton, he was seized with a 
 desire to make one himself, and for this purpose stole nightly to 
 a neighbouring cemeteiy for the purpose of obtaining materials 
 for his purpose. The collection thus made he concealed in his 
 bedroom, but it was at la,st discovered by a domestic, who was 
 terrified at the sacrilegious tendencies of the child. On its com- 
 ing to the knowledge of his mother, she provided a proper place 
 for the collection, and, small as it was, it became the nucleus of 
 the museum that has made the name of Blumenbach famous all 
 over the world. He received his early education in the gymna- 
 sium at Gotha, and at the age of seventeen he commenced his 
 studies at the university of Jena. Here he formed a friend- 
 ship with the celebrated anatomist, Scimmering. From Jena he 
 went to Gottingen, where he passed three years in study ; and 
 m 1775 took his degree of doctor of medicine, having adopted 
 for the subject of his thesis the Varieties of tiic Human Race. 
 This thesis, much extended, has often been reprinted, and trans- 
 lated into many languages, and contains the germs of his 
 
 labours on the subject of Ethnology. In 1776 Blumenbach was 
 appointed cm-ator of the museum of natural history at Gottingen. 
 In 1778 he was appointed to the chair of physiology and anatomy 
 in the university. As a teacher on this subject he became cele- 
 brated throughout Europe, and at an early age attracted students 
 around him from a distance. One of his earliest and most dis- 
 tinguished pupils was Alexander von Humboldt. He was amongst 
 the first to recognize the necessity of studying zoology in connec- 
 tion with comparative anatomy ; hence the popularity of his lec- 
 tures, and the influence he exerted upon the study of organization 
 in Europe. Blumenbach left Gottingen only during the intervals 
 between his lectures, for the pui-pose of visiting the museums of 
 Europe, and obtaining specimens for his own collection, which, 
 at his death, was in many respects unique. He published several 
 important works on anatomy and physiology. In 1781 he pub- 
 lished a work on embryology, and was the first after Harvey 
 who treated this subject in a scientific manner. In 1786 his 
 work entitled " The History and Description of the Bones of the 
 Human Body " appeared. In the same year he also published, 
 hi Latin, an introduction to medical literature. In 1787 he 
 produced his " Institutiones Physiologicse." This work was 
 written in Latin, and was one of the first attempts at giving an 
 account of the functions of the human body, independent of 
 minute anatomical descriptions. It soon became the text-book 
 in all places where physiology was taught, and was quickly 
 translated into most of the languages of Europe. An English 
 translation of this work was pubHshed by Dr. Elliottson. The 
 later editions are entitled " Human Physiology, with which is 
 incorporated much of the Elementary Parts of the Institutiones 
 Physiologica3 of J. F. Blumenbach." In 1805 Blumenbach 
 published " A Manual of Comparative Anatomy." Two trans- 
 lations of this work appeared in English, besides others in the 
 French, Dutch, and other Em-opean languages. The first Eng- 
 hsh translation was made by Wx. Lawrence, the celebrated sur- 
 geon, in 1809, and the second by Mr. Coulson in 1827. Like 
 his physiology, this work led the way to more detailed treatises, 
 which have since taken its place as a text-book in our medical 
 schools. During the whole of his life, Blumenbach never lost 
 sight of the subject of the anatomical stnacture of the varieties of 
 men. He was the first to point out the necessity of studying the 
 structure of eveiy part of the skull, in order to obtain anything 
 like distinguishing characters between the varieties of mankind. 
 In prosecuting this subject, lie collected a large number of skulls 
 belonging to the various races of men. In 1791 he commenced 
 the publication of a work in parts, devoted to the description 
 and illustration of this collection of skulls. It was entitled 
 " Decas Collectiones suse Craniorum diversarum Gentium Illus- 
 trata." This work extended to several volumes, and was finished 
 in 1808. From 1780 to 1794 he edited a medical periodical, 
 entitled Medicinische Bibliotheh which contains many of his 
 own contributions to science. Thus, in 1783, he visited Switzer- 
 land, and made notes on the medical topography of the districts 
 through which he passed, and which were afterwards published 
 in this periodical. He contributed also a large number of papers 
 to other journals. In 1812 he was made secretary to the Royal 
 Society of Sciences at Gottingen. In 1816 he was appointed 
 physician to the king of Great Britain and Hanover, and in 1821, 
 was made a knight-commander of the Guelpliic order. In 1831 
 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris. 
 A public celebration of the jubilee of his graduation took place 
 in Gottingen in 1825, and a second of his professorship in the 
 following year. At his death on the 22d of January, 1840, his 
 collections were disposed of to various purchasers, the university 
 of Gottingen having jjurchased the greater part. — E. L. 
 
 BLUiiEXlIACiEN, PiiiLirr Wilhelm Georg August, a 
 prolific German novelist, was born at Hanover in 1781, and died 
 in 1839. His collected writings were published at Stuttgart, 
 1836-40, in 25 vols., and 1843-44, in 16 vols.— K. E. 
 
 * BLUMRffiDER, August Friedricii von, a German mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was born at Gehren in the principality of 
 Schwarzburg-Sonder.shausen, 1776. He studied theology, but in 
 1798 entered the army, and served against Napoleon, after which 
 he was appointed governor of the heir-apparent of Schwarzburg- 
 Sondershausen. He now lives in retirement. — K. E. 
 
 BLUNT, Edmund, an American geographer, author of "The 
 American Pilot ; a Description of the Eastern coasts of North 
 America, from the river St. Lawrence to the Mississippi; fol- 
 lowed by a notice of the Gulf stream."
 
 :blu 
 
 630 
 
 I 
 
 BOB 
 
 BLUTEAU, D. Eaphael, a Portuguese lexicographer, born 
 in London of French parents, 1638; died at Lisbon, 1734. 
 Author of a Portuguese-Latin Dictionary, Lisbon, 1721, 8 vols. 
 BLYENBURG, Damase van, a Dutch poet, bom at Dor- 
 drecht, 1558. He succeeded his father as master of the mint ; 
 afterwards became councillor to the viceroy of Vu-ginia. Having 
 started on his travels for Bohemia, he was never more heard of. 
 His poems are written in the Latin language. — J. G. 
 
 * BLYTT, M. N., a Swedish botanist, now professor of 
 l)otany at Christiania. He has done much to illustrate the flora 
 of Sweden, and has published an account of the indigenous plants 
 of the vicinity of Christiania. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOABDIL, properly called ABU ABDALLA, was surnamed 
 EL Chico (the Younger), to distinguish him from his uncle, Abu 
 Abdalla el Zagal, with whom he had a long struggle for the throne 
 of the Moorisli kingdom of Granada. He was the son of Abul 
 Hassan, the reigning monarch, against whom, however, he con- 
 spu-ed ; and the troops of the rival relatives were on the field to 
 decide the issue, when some of the nobles procured the rejection 
 of both, and the elevation of Abdalla el Zagal to the sovereignty. 
 The latter was willing to divide the rule with his nephew ; but 
 this Boabdil refused, and called in the assistance of Ferdinand, 
 king of Aragon and Castile. This prince, under the pretext 
 thus furnished, made himself master of a number of important 
 places in Granada; and when at length the alarmed people 
 compelled Boabdil and his uncle to unite against the invader, it 
 was too late to retrieve the sinking fortunes of the Alhambra. 
 Abdalla el Zagal was driven to submission in 1489, and in little 
 more than two years Boabdil surrendered his capital to the 
 christian conqueror, and retired into Africa, where he died in 
 the wars of Lis kinsman, the king of Fez. — W. B. 
 
 BOADICEA, sometimes called Boudicea, Boxdicea, or 
 Bonduca, " The British Warrior Queen," whose wrongs and 
 bravery are still read of with emotion, in the early dawn of our 
 country's history. She lived in the iirst century, and was the 
 wife of Prasutagus, king of the Iceni, a tribe inhabiting the dis- 
 tricts of Norfolk and Suftblk. To insure the favoiu- of the 
 Romans, Prasutagus named the emperor and his wife and two 
 daughters, co-heirs of his wealth and government. His purpose 
 proved vain, for after his death the princesses were treated with 
 every indignity. Suetonius Paulinus, who then commanded 
 the Roman forces in Britain, was absent on an expedition against 
 the druids in Anglesey or Mona. Catus, the procurator, who 
 commanded in his stead, was guilty of great cruelty to Boadicea, 
 causing her to be scourged, and her daughters to be violated. 
 The news of these atrocities spread over the whole country, and 
 a revolt was planned by the queen, in which she was joined by 
 the Trinobantes (the inhabitants of Essex and Middlesex). The 
 insurgents destroyed the colony of Camalodunum (Colchester), 
 and defeated the ninth legion under Petilius Cerialis, which was 
 marching to its relief. They also massacred the Romans at St. 
 Alban's and London ; and altogether, 70,000 persons, as Tacitus 
 informs us, perished under their resentment. 
 
 Meanwhile, Suetonius, victorious in Anglesey, and hearing of 
 the insurrection which threatened the Roman power, returned to 
 the mainland, and marched with 10,000 men against the army 
 of the queen. He was at first afraid to venture with his small 
 band against the vastly superior forces of the enemy. There were 
 at least 100,000 under Boadicea, but Dio Cassius reckons her 
 ibrces at 230,000. Suetonius therefore took refuge in London, 
 but abandoning that stronghold, he resolved to try the contest 
 in the open field. He pitched on a narrow tract of ground, guarded 
 in the rear by a forest, and facing the open plain where 
 the Britons were encamped, in strange confusion, with their 
 wives and childi-en brought to witness the victor)'. Boadicea was 
 mounted on her chariot with her daughters by her side, and 
 riding up and down among her warriors, she cheered them to the 
 contest in burning words of anger and of hope, which Tacitus 
 has preserved. She tells them she comes not to fight, as one of 
 royal blood, but to avenge the loss of their common liberty, the 
 wrong of her scourging, and the violation of her daughters. She 
 prophesies that the Roman power is doomed ; tells them it is 
 better to die bravely than to submit to outrage ; that so at least 
 it has been determined by a woman ; the men might live and be 
 slaves if they choose. " Id mulieri destinatum ; \-iverent vui 
 et servirent." Xiphilinus tells us, that after this heroic speech 
 .she let loose a hare as an omen of victory. 
 
 Suetonius in his turn exhorts his men to despise the " bowl- 
 
 ings and vain threats of barbarians," and marching in steady 
 order against the British army, their unmoved bearing soon 
 disconcerted the wild followers of the queen ; they fell into dis- 
 order, and became an easy prey to their well-disciplined oppo- 
 nents. About 80,000 are said to have fallen under the swords 
 of the Roman soldiers. The queen escaped, but unable to sur- 
 xive a defeat so terrible, she is said to have taken poison and 
 died. This decisive battle took place in the year 61.— (Tacitus, 
 AnnaUum Lib. xiv. ; Aijricolm Vita, cap. 16.) — J. B. 
 
 BOARETTI, Francesco, a literary man bom near Padua in 
 1748. Having completed his studies in the seminaiy of that 
 city, so gi-eat was his success at his final examination, that he 
 was intrusted with a lectureship in the same institution. Hb 
 fame as a scholar soon made his name known all through Italy ; 
 and the Venetian republic offered him the chair of professor of 
 sacred eloquence, which he filled with distinction for the space of 
 ten years. His professorsh'.p ha\-ing been suppressed in 1795, 
 and his position in life having become much altered, he fell ill 
 and never recovered, although the senate, out of esteem for the 
 learned man, gi'anted him a retiring pension equal ^o his emolu- 
 ments. Boaretti was considered an eminent philologist, a profound 
 theologian, and well versed in abstract sciences, and his numerous 
 works reveal a mind of the first order. He has translated the 
 psalms of David into blank verse, many of Euripides' tragedies, 
 Homer's Iliad, highly praised by Bettinelli, and many opuscule!^, 
 both in Latiu and Italian, enumerated at length in Moschini's 
 Vita3 viroram illustrium Seminam Patavini. He died at Venice 
 on the 15th of May, 1799.— A. C. M. 
 
 BOAS, Edward, a Gennan novelist, was bom at Landsbcrg 
 on the Warthe, 18th January, 1815, and died in 1853. He is 
 better known by his Supplements to the works of Schiller, 1838 
 -1840, 3 vols., and Gothe, 1841, 3 vols., than by his own 
 writings. He published also, SchiUer and Gothe im Xenien- 
 kampf, 1851, &c. Collected writings, 1847-49, in 5 vols. — K. E. 
 BOATON, Pierre-Francois de, a Swiss writer, born at 
 Longiraud, in the Pays de Vaud, 1734 ; died in 1794. He 
 was member of the Academy of Berlm. Among his works may 
 be mentioned the Idyls and Daphnis of Gesner, translated into 
 French verse, Berlin, 1775, 8vo; a translation of Wieland's 
 Oberon ; a translation of Gesner's Death of Abel, Berhn, 1785. 
 BOBADILLA, Francesco de, an oflicer of the household 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella, who was sent out by them to inves- 
 tigate the conduct of Columbus and his brothers, and, if neces- 
 sary, to supersede them in the government of Hispaniola. He 
 was a needy, passionate, and ambitious person, and his treat- 
 ment of the gi-eat discoverer of the New World has stamped his 
 memory with indelible infamy — a portion of which, however, 
 must be home by Ferdinand. BobadUla anived at St. Domingo 
 on the 23d of August, 1500, and immediately proceeded to 
 deprive Columbus of his authority, without even going through 
 the form of an investigation into his conduct. He seized upon 
 the money and property of Columbus, of which he gave no 
 account, and even his letters and most secret papers. Not 
 contented with these outrages, he caused Columbus and his three 
 brothers to be arrested, put in nons, and confined in a fortress 
 until the month of November, when he sent them home to Spain 
 under the charge of Alonzo de Villejo, with instractions on arriv- 
 ing at Cadiz to dehver his prisoners into the hands either of 
 Bishop Fonseca or his imcle, in order to gratify that malignant 
 prelate, who was the bitter enemy of Columbus, and was believed 
 to have secretly instigated and encom'aged Bobadilla in all his 
 violent measures. Bobadilla, however, overshot the mark by 
 the gross injustice and tyranny of his conduct, and the arrival 
 of Columbus in chains from the world he had discovered, exeited 
 such strong and general indignation throughout Spain that the 
 government were constrained to disown the proceedings of their 
 miserable agent, and to set Columbus and his brothers at libeity. 
 (See ColUjMBUS.) Bobadilla was speedily superseded in his 
 command, and in 1502 he embarked, along with a number of 
 the most inveterate enemies of Columbus, in the vessel which 
 brought out the new governor, intending to return to Europe, 
 but the vessel was overtaken by a tempest, and was swallowed 
 up with all its crew and passengers, together with the ill-gotten 
 treasure which Bobadilla had wrang from the Indians. — J. T. 
 
 BOBART, Jacob, a German botanist, was bom at Brunswick, 
 and died at Oxford on 4th Februarj', 1679, aged 81. He was 
 the first superintendent of the botanic garden at Oxford, which 
 had been estabhshed in 1632 by the earl of Derby. He pubhshed
 
 BOB 
 
 631 
 
 BOC 
 
 a catalogue of the medicinal plants cultivated in the Oxford 
 garden. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOBAKT, Jacob, an English botanist, but of German ex- 
 traction, was the son of the preceding. He lived during the 
 latter half of the seventeenth century. He succeeded his father 
 as superiutendent of the Oxford botanic garden, and he was 
 associated with his father. Dr. Stephens, and Mr. Browne, in the 
 publication of the second edition of the " Catalogus plantarum 
 horti medici Oxoniensis." He also edited the second volume 
 of Morison's Historia Plantarum in 1698. Linna?us named a 
 ^fnus of cyperaceous plants Bobartia, in honour of the two 
 Bobarts.— J. H. B. 
 
 BOBLAYE, Emil le Puillon de, a French military 
 engineer, born at Pontivy in the department of Morbihan, 1792 ; 
 died at Paris, 1843. He was long employed in surveys of France, 
 accompanied the French scientific expedition to the Morea, and 
 was latterly engaged in the survey of Algeria. Boblaye pub- 
 lished several memoirs on geological and geognostic subjects in 
 the Memoires du Museum, Annales des Sciences Naiurelles, and 
 Comptes rendus de VAcad. des Sciences, and was also the author, 
 in conjunction with Virlet, of the " Geognostic Description of 
 the Morea," Paris, 1833, forming the first portion of the report 
 upon the French exploration of that peninsula. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BOCANDE, Bertrand, a distinguished French naturalist 
 and traveller, was born at Nantes at the beginning of the present 
 century. M. Bocande has travelled in tropical Africa, where he 
 resided for seventeen or eighteen years, devoting his attention 
 to the collection of facts connected with the topography and 
 natural history of the region of the Senegambia, and tlie docu- 
 ments furnished by him have materially advanced our knowledge 
 of the topography of that interesting country. By an intimate 
 acquaintance with the Mandingo language, M. Bocande has 
 also been able to obtain an insight into the religious views of the 
 people amongst whom be has resided so long, thus furnishing a 
 key to the explanation of their institutions, which could never 
 have been obtained by travellers merely passing through the dis- 
 trict. The collections of objects of natural histoiy made by 
 him have also been very extensive. Of insects alone he has 
 collected no fewer than forty-five thousand specimens. His 
 writings consist of some memoirs in the Bulletins de la Socicte 
 de Geo(/7'opkie, and a work entitled " Notes sur la Guinee Portu- 
 gaise, ou Senegambie Meridionale." — W. S. D. 
 
 BOCANEGRA, Pedro Atanasio, was born at Granada, and 
 died in 1G88. He was a pupil of the canon Cano, and an exact 
 imitator of Moya and Vandyck. In 1676 he became one of 
 the king's painters, and this tiuned his head, and provoked the 
 rivalry of Matias de Toitcs and Ardemans. Juan de Sevilla 
 being the victor in competition for painting the Corpus Christi 
 banners, Ardemans challenged him to a painting duel, and with- 
 out any outline took his likeness in less than an hour. The brag, 
 unable to bear his defeat, is said to have died of sheer vexation. 
 The Granada cathedral possesses many of his works, among 
 which the learned Cean Bermudez praises an altarpiece, repre- 
 senting San Pedro, Nolasco finding the choir of his convent 
 occupied by the Virgin and a company of angels, and a Cruci- 
 fixion, which he says might pass for a Vandyck. — W. T. 
 
 BOCARRO, Antonio. This Portuguese writer lived in the 
 seventeenth century, and succeeded Diego de Conto in the dis- 
 tinguished post of royal historiographer of India. He WTote the 
 tliird decade of Portuguese Asia, a work commenced already by 
 the celebrated Jaen BaiTOs, and still preserved in manuscript. 
 The style of this writer is considered very agreeable and simple, 
 although somewhat prolix. Joclier has a great opinion of Bo- 
 caiTo's ability and talents as a historian. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOCARRO FRANCEZ, Mangel, a Portuguese physician 
 and astronomer, born at Lisbon in 1588, studied in France, and 
 lived in intimacy with the most eminent men of the seventeenth 
 century. He is best laiown as an astronomer, and wrote some 
 observations on a comet which appeared in 1619. He was also 
 the author of some highly esteemed verses in his mother tongvie, 
 and of a short history of Portugal in Latin, and several otlier 
 works are attributed to him. Died at Florence, 1662.— W. S. D. 
 
 BOCCACCINO, Boccaccio, born at Cremona in 1460, and 
 said to have been a pupil of Penigino, and one of the instnictors 
 of Garofalo. His principal works are a "Marriage of the Virgin," 
 a "Madonna," a " St. Vincent," a " St. Antonio," and a beautiful 
 figure in a dome of the " Birth of the JIadonna," all at Cremona, 
 where he dipd in 1.518. Lanzi says he was inferior to Perumno 
 
 in the air of his heads, in composition, light and shadow ; but 
 richer in his drapery, more varied in his colour, more spirited 
 and less archaic in his attitudes, and not less harmonious in 
 architecture and landscape. — Camillo, his son, surnamed "II 
 Boccalini," sm-passed his father, and abandoned his diy colour, 
 following a style much more pleasing and grand, as great at 
 Cremona as the luckless Correggio, his contemporary, was at 
 Parma — -ungrateful, blind Panna. He studied hard and im- 
 proved fast. At the early age of twenty-six he painted a " St. 
 John" and the three companion saints, in the cupola of the 
 church of St. Sigismund at Cremona, that in gusto and daring 
 foreshortening approached Correggio. His best works after 
 this are a "Raising of Lazaras" and the "Adulteress before 
 Christ," suiTOunded by friezes of angels, " finely composed and 
 designed in the greatest style." This genius of Cremona 
 died in his prime (0 envious death ! with thy perpetual black 
 extinguisher) in 1546, aged only thirty-five. After the lapse 
 and sleep of more than a hundred years, this painter's fannly gave 
 birth to Francesco Boccaccino, bom at Cremona in 1680. 
 He studied at Rome under Brandi and Marotti, and painted " in 
 a good style" historical easel pictures and church scenes, chiefly 
 small, imitating sometimes Albano's mvthological subjects. He 
 died in 1750.— W. T. 
 
 BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, "One of the most illustrious 
 writers in the prose of the vulgar tongue that has ever appeared 
 in Italy, and whose very name is alone equal to a thousand 
 eulogies." Such is the estimate, perhaps not exaggerated, which 
 Mazzuchelli gives of one whose fame stands as high to-day as it 
 did in his own times. One of that distinguished triad who made 
 the tercento glorious in Italy — the great reformer, if not creator, 
 of Italian prose, as Dante and Petrarch were of Italian poetrv. 
 Of the time and place of his birth we cannot venture to speak 
 with accuracy. " The cradle of Boccaccio," says another of 
 his countrymen, " is surrounded with darkness," and he accounts 
 for that fiict on the supposition, that being an illegitimate child, 
 neither he nor his father had any wish to dissipate the obscurity. 
 His father was the descendant of a family who at one period 
 (as Boccaccio himself tells us) possessed an estate and castle at 
 Certaldo, on the banks of the Elza, in the valley of that name, 
 some ten miles from Florence, whither they had emigrated, and 
 became Florentine citizens. Michaele, or, as he was called, 
 Michellino, shortened to Chellino, was the father of a merchant, 
 who went, for distinction, by the name of Boccaccio de Chellino, 
 and this latter, dm-ing a protracted visit to Paris, became intinuite 
 with a Frenchwoman, who was destined to be the mother of 
 Giovanni. Who she was no one can tell, but it is asserted by 
 Villani, without any evidence to support the assertion, that she 
 was nobly born. Some allege, too, that the merchant manied 
 her, but this is inconsistent with the fact of the poet's having 
 obtained a bull of legitimization from the pope to enable him to 
 take holy orders, unless, indeed, the marriage was after Giovanni's 
 birth. Nay, it is even doubted who his mother really was, as 
 the merchant seems to have been a thorough contrahandista in 
 the affairs of love, so that it would be a very idle task to investi- 
 gate his maternity. Whoever she was, she died soon after the 
 birth of her son, and thus, says Baldelli, she lost the glory of 
 being called the mother of such a son, and the world the know- 
 ledge of her name. The important fact for the world, however, 
 is that Giovanni came into it somewhere, and somehow, and 
 sometime in the year 1313, as we learn inferentially from a letter 
 of Petrarch, who, himself born in 1304, tells Boccaccio that he 
 was his senior by nine years. To Florence we find him brought 
 in his childhood, and, even in his seventh year, giving indications 
 of his genius by the composition of tales in verse, which procured 
 him the title of poet amongst his acquaintances. His father had 
 put him under the best master in Florence, Giovanni da Strado, 
 but determined that he too should be a merchant, and so, when 
 he found the boy taking to poetry, he at once turned him from 
 figures of rhetoric to figures of arithmetic, and Strado gave place 
 to a brother merchant, with whom the boy made many jom-neys, 
 travelling as far as Naples and Paris. Six years were so passed, 
 and Giovanni returned to Florence only to convince his father 
 that he was more suited for literature than for trade. But 
 literature without a j)rofession was not in the comprehension of 
 the man of business, and so he set the youth to learn the canon law. 
 This was as distasteful as the counting-house, and after many 
 ineffectual struggles to subdue a taste that would not be con- 
 trolled, the father at length left his son to pursue his ovvn devices.
 
 His passion, indeed, for a literary life was in^^ncible, and he has 
 himself declared that a visit to the tomb of Virgil when in his 
 twentieth year fixed his determination for ever. Thenceforth he 
 prosecuted letters with the unwavering ardour of one who has 
 made it the object of his life. Virgil and Horace were his 
 masters in the Latin, and Dante his guide, and, as he calls him, 
 the torch that lit him on his way in the study of his native 
 tongue. He seems to have made great progress in letters and 
 science ; he made acquaintance with the Greek language, then 
 scarcely known in the northern portion of Italy ; he formed 
 intimacies with several of the learned men of his day, and acquired 
 a knowledge of mathematics and of astronomy. The court of 
 Robert of Naples was then the most distinguished in Italy. A 
 liberal patron of men of letters, lie drew around him all the genius 
 and learning of the land, and thither Boccaccio went, and fixed 
 his abode for some years. There he first made the acquahitance 
 of Petrarch in 1341, who had come to be examined by Robert, 
 liimself no mean scliolar, previous to his obtaining the laurel 
 crown at Rome. An oration in praise of poetiy delivered by 
 Petrarch at once won the admiration of the king and the respect 
 of Boccaccio, who thenceforward set the poet before him as his 
 great exemplar- — a guide who, in nine years after, was united to 
 him in the bonds of a friendship so tender and enduring that 
 death alone dissolved it. 
 
 It was while in Naples that Boccaccio formed the attachment 
 which occupied a large portion of his life, and seems to have 
 influenced in no small degree his writings. To one of his dispo- 
 sition it would have been no easy thing to live in a city at once 
 the most dissolute and the most seductive, where the corruption 
 of morals was all the greater that it was veiled by the elegancies 
 of the court and the chivaliy of the age, without falling. Besides 
 he was now in the full flush of youth, and possessed the attrac- 
 tions both of person and intellect which are sure to make a lover 
 successful. The descriptions as well as the portraits which have 
 come down to us declare that he was a man of fine and com- 
 manding person, tall and rather full, with an air and countenance 
 of grace and sprightliness. His face was oval, his lips full — 
 rather too much so — yet rich and well formed, and his chin so 
 shaped that, as Manni says, it gave a peculiar beauty to his 
 smile. Add to this the charm of conversation, in which he 
 excelled, and a gallant devotion to the sex, and we have the por- 
 traiture of one fit to shine in the coxxrt of Naples. Nearly every 
 Italian lover first sees his mistress in church. It was so with 
 Petrarch in Avignon; it was so with Boccaccio at Naples. Upon 
 Easter eve, in the year 1341, he entered the church of San 
 Lorenzo, and saw a girl of admirable loveliness ; and so, indeed, 
 she must have been if the lover's description of her have no more 
 than the amount of exaggeration usual in such cases. He follows 
 her from the church, sees her enter a house, and learas that she 
 is a natural daughter of the king, and the wife of a gentleman of 
 distinction. This is the Fiammetta of his novels, which name has 
 gained a celebrity when her own of Maria is well-nigh forgotten. 
 It has, however, long been gravely questioned whether this amour 
 is not altogether a poetic fiction. Tiraboschi doubts the reality 
 of it, and insists that the narrative is inconsistent in itself; and 
 indeed it must be admitted that the lady Slary, known as the 
 natural daughter of Robert, survived the poet, who states that his 
 Fiammetta died before him. Baldelli, on the other hand, perhaps 
 the best biographer of Boccaccio, combats these doubts with great 
 ability. At this distance of time the clouds are all the denser 
 for the attempts to dissipate them, and we must be content to 
 leave the amour of Boccaccio as apocryphal as that of Petrarch. 
 The truth may be in each case that the poet fonned an object of 
 adoration, as a necessary dramatis persona of his intellectual life 
 as Don Quixote did of his hallucinations, and that all beyond 
 this is fiction. Real or simulated, to this passion he ascribes the 
 ardour with which he pursued the course of literature which 
 eventually elevated him to the highest place amongst the authors 
 of Italy. To please the object of his passion, his earliest com- 
 positions were written. In prose and in rhyme he celebrates her. 
 To lier he dedicated the " Filocopo," a romance, the subject of 
 which is the adventures of Florio and Biancafiore, their early 
 attachment, crael separation, perils, wanderings, and final happy 
 r°union and marriage. It is little in the taste of our own 
 times, though quite in accordance with the tales of his day, 
 uhen the crasades and the wars with the Saracens in Spain 
 flooded Europe with marvellous tales of chivalry and love, and it 
 was from one of those which, still unwritten, passed from mouth 
 
 to mouth, that Boccaccio took the incidents of his romance. It is 
 a long story, consisting of nine books, full of episodes that weaiy, I 
 and possessing little sustained interest. In style it is inflated 
 and declamatory, and there is a perpetual mingling of the com- 
 mon place and the marvellous, the ancient and the modem, ; 
 Christianity and paganism, which, despite of the bursts of natm-al \ 
 feeling, .and the fine descriptive passages to be found through it, ' 
 make it, as a whole, heavy reading. The "Teseide" was his i 
 next production, a poem written, as appears by its dedication to 
 Fiammetta, in 1341, a subject which Chaucer has made known 
 to EngUsh readers as the Knight's Tale, and which Dryden has 
 reproduced in his Palamon and Arcite. It has the merit of being 
 the first modem poem that abandoned the prevalent poetic ma- 
 chineiy of visions and dreams, and, following the example of 
 Homer and Virgil, constructed a fable complete in its action, fol- 
 lowing it out through all its adventures, and bringing it to a 
 sidtable close. It has the higher honom* of being the first poem 
 written in that measure, which afterwards became so universal 
 in Italy, the ottava rima. Boccaccio is hence commonly con- 
 sidered the inventor of the eight-lined stanza; but he was in truth 
 not so, for it existed in France before the time of Boccaccio, and 
 perhaps also in Sicily, though in a different fonn ; but he was 
 assuredly the first to see its vast capabilities, to make it thoroughly 
 available, to shape it into the peculiar conformation of rhymes 
 known as the ottava rima, and to confer upon it an enduring 
 popularity. 
 
 But he was now forced to abandon the pleasures and the 
 society of Naples. His father, who had lost all his other chil- 
 dren, recalled Boccaccio to his home. Florence was then in a 
 state of political agitation, and Boccaccio took refuge from these 
 troubles in the occupation of literature, and composed several of 
 his less important pieces, and no doubt improved himself in the 
 Tuscan dialect. A second maniage contracted by his father 
 soon released him from a house but little agreeable to him ; and 
 after an absence of two years he returned to' Naples, to enjoy, 
 under the patronage of Queen Joanna, the same pleasures, both 
 of society and literary companionship, that distinguished that 
 city during the reign of her father. It was at this period that 
 he composed the "■ Filostrato," a poem in ottava rima, which both 
 Zeno and Sah-ini praised highly ; the " Amorosa Fiammetta," 
 and the " Amorosa Visione." The latter of them is composed in 
 terza rima, and adopts the Provencal conceit of being throughout 
 acrostic ; the first letters of all the tercets forming the names — 
 Madonna Maria and Giovanni di Boccaccio da Certaldo. A trifling 
 only pardonable in a young man and a lover. 
 
 But this was not to last : family troubles, and the death of his 
 father, once m.ore compelled his return to Florence, where he set- 
 tled, to fulfil the duties of a citizen, and to take a part in the pub- 
 lic affairs, as well as to assume his place amongst the distinguished 
 men which then rendered that republic glorious. Amongst these 
 he was fortunate enough again to meet with Petrarch, who j)assed 
 through Florence on his way to the jubilee at Rome ; whence 
 may be dated their more intimate friendship. Boccaccio addressed 
 him in a Latin poem, and received him in his own house ; and to 
 this intercourse may be traced much of the progress visible in the 
 compositions of Boccaccio henceforward. The high position which 
 Boccaccio at once took in the republic, caused him to be sent on 
 many honourable embassies ; but none of these was so congenial 
 to him as that mission on which his country sent him to Padua, 
 in 1351, to convey to Petrarch the decree which restored to him 
 his rights and his property, and invited him to honour with his 
 presence and lectures the university then recently established. 
 The friendship of Petrarch and Boccaccio was productive of one 
 advantage to the latter, to which is mainly owing his subsequent 
 pre-eminence in literature. Heretofore he had believed that the 
 true bent of his genius was poetry, and he thought that as a poet 
 in his native tongue he would stand next D.ante. A pemsal of 
 the writings of his friend at once convinced him that the true 
 successor of Dante was Petrarch ; and so great was his dissatisfac- 
 tion with what he had done himself, that hecomniitted to the flames 
 the greater part of what he had written in Italian verse. Copies 
 of the principal ones must, however, have been preserved, as we 
 do not hear of any considerable composition which is not still 
 extant. And now he turned the whole energ)- of his mind to the 
 composition of that in which he was destined to take the highest 
 place — Italian prose. This he studied laboriously and critically. 
 He saw what his own tongue, heretofore so inatiequately culti- ; 
 vated, was capable of being wrought to ; he sought to give it a '
 
 B0( 
 
 C33 
 
 BOC 
 
 regularity, an accuracy, a grace, a polish, and a rhythm, which 
 till attained, the prose of no nation can be called perfect. With 
 such views it was that he wrought at the work which was soon 
 to be the foiuidation of his imperishable fame. While yet in 
 Naples during the year 1348 — that of tlie great plague — whether 
 at the command of the queen, or for the reasons which he has 
 himself given in his preface — to afford to others in love the relief 
 vhich he derived from the conversation of friends — Boccaccio 
 commenced his " Decamerone," which he finished and published 
 at Florence three years after his return there. The plot of the 
 work is known to every reader. Seven yotuig ladies, wse, noble, 
 beautiful, accomplished, and graceful, meet in the church of Santa 
 Maria Novella, now left desolate from the plague. One proposes 
 to the rest to leave the city, and sojoiun in a neighboming 
 Tilla : the suggestion is approved of, and they are accompanied 
 by three youths, who are related to some one or other of the 
 ladies. One of the ten is the president, successively, for the 
 ten days of their retirement, and each tells a tale d;dly, thus 
 fumisMng the himdred tales which compose the work. No sooner 
 had the "Decamerone" made its appearance, than aU Italy was 
 moved by it. There was but one sentiment, that of admu-ation. 
 Even the critics found nothing to fault : the defects in point of mo- 
 rality seemed to have troubled some of the religious only, and the 
 work placed Boccaccio at once in the highest place of prose ^vriters. 
 It seemed till now as if the Tuscan tongue had never spoken 
 with a clear articulation ; that it had only b'sped and stammered. 
 Now, indeed, the language was fixed and finished ; the true model 
 of Itahan eloquence was formed, and estabUshed for ever. 
 
 But wliile Boccaccio thus improved his native tongue, he applied 
 himself with equal assiduity to the revival of the Greek, and the 
 collection and preser\-ation of the ancient classics. In tliis he 
 spared neither money, time, nor labour. He sought out literary 
 men everywhere to aid him; he bought whatever he found 
 valuable, as long as his means enabled him, and when they failed 
 he made copies with his own hand, to an extent that may well 
 surprise those who live in the days of printing. JIany of these 
 he bestowed upon his friends, and upon Petrarch he conferred 
 the great poem of Dante. This beautiful MS. is said to be still 
 extant. In 1359 Boccaccio went to Jlilan, to visit Petrarch, 
 and it was here that the latter mentioned his having met at 
 Padua, Leonzio Pilato, a Calabrian, who had passed most of his 
 life in Greece, and was thoroughly familiar with its language. 
 Boccaccio at once returned to Florence, proposed to the senate to 
 erect a chair of Greek literature, overcame all obstacles to his wishes, 
 and, furnished with the decree, he set out for Venice, and at last 
 brought back with him Pilato, whom he lodged in his own house. 
 With this man, repulsive in his manners and imamiable in his 
 disposition, Boccaccio continued to work, endming patiently all 
 his caprices and habits, for three long years, and was paid for all 
 by accomphshing a translation of Homer into Latin, a work of 
 incredible labour, ft-om the total want of lexicons and grammars. 
 Other works followed ; and he sought out in distant places every 
 precious manuscript which he heard of, and purchased it. Such 
 indeed was his zeal and munificence, that ilanetti states, in the 
 following century, that nearly e^'ery Greek manuscript which the 
 repubhc possessed was due to Boccaccio. This may be considered 
 the real re\ival in Italy of Greek literature, almost unknown 
 there since the f;ill of the Greek empire. Now the example of 
 Boccaccio animated other men of learning, and ere long the 
 language was taught at the university and the schools. The life 
 and writings of Boccaccio were still those of the gallant of Naples 
 rather than the student of Florence, or the companion of the 
 philosophic Petrarch. This last remonstrated with him in a 
 manner though gentle yet authoritative, and the remonstrance 
 was always received with respect, though often disregarded. 
 What reason and the admonition of friendship could not effect, 
 the terrors and superstition of religion accomplished. 
 
 There was at Siena a holy monk, whose great object through 
 life was the conversion of sinners. On his deathbed he enjoined 
 upon a brother religions, Giovacchino Ciani, to visit Boccaccio, 
 and convey to him his dying words. Ciani accordingly obtained 
 an interview with Boccaccio, and in the name of the dead Pietro 
 conveyed the message, exhorting him to change his manner 
 of life, admonishing and rebuking him for all the occasion of sin 
 he had afforded to others by his writings. He set before him the 
 sin of being the open foe to modesty, and the apologist for licen- 
 tiousness ; warned him that if he persisted in his present com-se 
 a woeful and wretched death would speedily overtake him. All 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 this the monk enforced by revealing to Boccaccio a secret which 
 he believed was known only to himself, and then left him, con- 
 founded and conscience-stricken, to execute, as he said, similar 
 missions in Naples, France, and England. The effect was imme- 
 diate and complete. He thoroughly resolved an entire change of 
 life : he renounced gallantly, and all light compositions, and even 
 formed the idea of selling his library. Petrarch, however, to 
 whom he had written an account of the whole matter, viewed it 
 with more calmness and judgment. AVTiile commending his good 
 resolutions, he neither approved of the abandonment of literature 
 or the sale of his Ubrary ; offering, at the same time, should he 
 persist in his resolution, to purchase his books, that they might 
 not be dispersed through the world. The advice of Petrarch was 
 not without its effect. Boccaccio resumed his literary pursuits, 
 whOe, at the same time, the reformation of his life was permanent, 
 and henceforth he dressed as an ecclesiastic, though he abandoned 
 the hastily-formed determination of studying theology alone. 
 
 It was about the year 1363 that he again visited Naples, led 
 thither by the solicitations of the grand seneschal Nicholas Accia- 
 juoU. Boccaccio was poor, for the little patrimony he possessed 
 originally he had sacrificed to the purchase of books, and the 
 patronage and support of a wealthy and powerful man was not 
 to be hghtly rejected, and the seneschal pretended to the repu- 
 tation of being a munificent patron. But the treatment Boccaccio 
 received from this mean, unfeeling, and arrogant man, comme- 
 morated to his infamy by every biographer, soon compelled 
 him to remove from the squalid room and filthy truckle assigned 
 to liim, to the house of his fiiend Mainardo di Cavalcanti. Again 
 the vanity of the seneschal made him seek to have Boccaccio a 
 resident under his roof, and the friends of the latter persuaded 
 him to a second trial. But the result was the same, and he 
 finally left Naples for Venice, associating there with Petrarch, 
 PUato, and other learned men ; whence, after three months, he 
 retm-ned to Florence ; and ultimately retiring to his house at 
 Certaldo, he gave himself up entirely to the prosecution of litera- 
 tiu-e. Unfortunately he devoted himself principally to composi- 
 tions in Latin, mistaking the trae bent and power of his genius; 
 and the " Genealogia Decorum," and the treatise " De Casibus 
 Vironim et Feminamm Illustrium," which were the fruits of his 
 study, however they may attest his learning, research, and moral- 
 ity, and though they gained hmi the respect of the learned of his 
 day, are now read as Uttle as the epistles or the epic of Petrarch, 
 in the same language. Jleantime he was not mihonom-ed by 
 the republic as a citizen, and he was twice sent on embassies 
 to Urban V., taking occasion to visit Venice, where he failed 
 to meet Petrarch ; and going to Naples, where he was received 
 with great consideration by Queen Joanna, refusing all offers of 
 patronage, and returning again to the sanctuary of his house at 
 Certaldo. A severe and loathsome disease seized upon him in 
 the midst of his studies, and reduced him to the last extremity ; 
 but he recovered after some months of suffering, and the first 
 use he made of his renewed strength was to cairy out a long- 
 cherished project of establishing a professorship for the elucida- 
 tion of the " Divina Commedia." This the republic endowed, and 
 Boccaccio was himself the first to fill the chair, and his lectures 
 form the valuable and elegant commentary on the first seventeen 
 cantos which he has left. Boccaccio was now past 69, and be- 
 ginning to feel the infirmities of age ; and the death of Petrarch 
 gave him a shock which accelerated his own end. He sunived 
 his fiiend and master little more than a year, dying at Certaldo 
 on the 2 1st December, 1375, in the 73rd year of his age, mourned 
 and honoured by the republic and all Italy. 
 
 It is a difficult tiling for the readers of our times, especially if 
 they are not Itahans, to appreciate the position which Boccaccio 
 occupied in his own ; or to understand how, after so long a period, 
 he still retains it. Assuredly it is not his poetry that perpetuates 
 his reno^vn, nor yet his Latin compositions. As a poet, be never 
 took a hold of the public mind ; and his vei-ses, but little read in 
 his own day, are now only f;iniiliar in name to the student, and 
 not even known to exist by the ordinarj- reader. Indeed he is 
 in this respect one of the numerous instances of men totally mis- 
 taking their own powers, and labouring from first to last under 
 a delusion. " Studium fuit alma poesis," was the sentiment of 
 his deathbed, and the epitaph which he wrote for his tomb ; but 
 the poet Boccaccio is as unknown as is the philosopher. It is 
 the novelist whose reputation has survived, and spread over the 
 world. We may well pause to ask how it is that tales written 
 for the amusement of the gay and the idle have wrought such a 
 
 4L
 
 BOG 
 
 634 
 
 BOG 
 
 result. Neither in their plot nor their intrinsic interest do they 
 take bold of the mind, and their licentiousness and occasional 
 coarseness are calculated to repel and even disgust, and formed a 
 subject of bitter regret to himself. The answer is found in the 
 chai-m of the composition. He found a tongue rude and neg- 
 lected, yet, as his instinct told him, capable of being wrought 
 into beauty. And as the lapidary detects the jewel in the rough 
 stone, and works it into the gem to be set in the coronet of a 
 sovereign, so Boccaccio laboured at the \Tilgar tongue, till he 
 pohshed, and shaped, and pmnfied it, making it as harmonious, 
 and ornate, and felicitous a vehicle of prose, as his great contem- 
 poraries had made it in the domains of poetry. Besides this, too, 
 and equal to it, is Boccaccio's marvellous sprightliness of descrip- 
 tion and power of naiTative. A country scene glows and ripens 
 beneath his pen as it would beneath the pencil of Claude or 
 Poussin. His personages are instinct with life ; and his account 
 of the great plague, prefacing the " Decamerone," is a master- 
 piece, fit to place beside Thucydides or Defoe. But Boccaccio has 
 other claims than that of the novelist, the father of Italian prose, 
 and the inventor of the stanza which Ariosto and Tasso have 
 made vocal through the world. He was more than any man of 
 his age the restorer of the ancient classical learning, especially 
 the Greek. How entirely this last had passed away from Italy 
 may be learned from the fact that Petrarch neither possessed a 
 copy of Homer, nor could read it if he had. What privations he 
 endured, what sacrifices he made in reviving that language, we 
 have seen ; and Manetti justly observes, that Italy owes all its 
 Greek to Boccaccio. We have not recounted all the works of 
 Boccaccio ; they will be found enumerated in JIazzuchelli, Gin- 
 guene, and other authorities ; but the work by which he is now 
 best knoivn after the "Decamerone," is the "Life of Dante," one 
 of the purest and most elegant of Ids compositions. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOCCA-DI-FERRO, Lodovico, called also BUCCA-FERRI 
 and BUCCA-FERRA by different WTiters, an Italian physician, 
 bom in 1482 at Bologna, where he died, 154.5. He studied 
 and obtained his degrees in the university of his native place, 
 where he also occupied a chair of logic, and counted among his 
 disciples, Scaliger, Francesco PiccolomLni, and Benedetto Varchi. 
 The Cardinal Gonzague, who was also one of his pupils, per- 
 suaded him to visit Rome, where he resided for five years teaching 
 the Aristotelian philo-^uphy \vith as much success as had attended 
 him in Bologna. On the sacking of Rome by the imperial ti'oops, 
 Bocca-di-Ferro returned to Bologna, resumed his chair of philo- 
 sophy, and entered into orders. He subsequently received the 
 title of Count Palatine from the emperor, Chai'les V. Amongst 
 his contemporaries he had the reputation of being one of the first 
 philosophers of his age and country; but he appears to have 
 adhered servilely to the Aristotelian maxims, and his principal 
 writings consist of commentaries upon difl'erent parts of the works 
 of the great Stagyrite. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOCCAGE, SLvuuEL Maria Barbosa del. This cele- 
 brated Portuguese poet was bom of a noble family at Setuval in 
 1771. Having finished his classic studies, he entered the na\'}', 
 from which he was expelled by order of the minister of state, 
 Count St. Vincent, whom he had grossly offended. Being sent 
 by government to Goa, he was well received by the Portuguese 
 colonists, whom his poetical versatility attached to him wherever 
 he went. His satirical humoiu' having stirred up the anger of 
 many who became his eneniies, he was compelled to fly from 
 Macao, to avoid the persecution of the chief magistrate of that 
 place, whom he had ridiculed in some epigrams. He returned to 
 Goa, where he met with a Mecenas in the person of Joachim 
 Pereira Almeira, a very wealthy merchant, who brought him to 
 Lisbon, and whose liberality afforded Boccage ample means of 
 living in plenty and happiness. Endowed with the gi-eatest 
 memory, and thoroughly acquainted with the Latin, French, 
 Italian, and Spani.sh classics, he could compose and recite extem- 
 pore exquisite sonnets, odes, and even idyls, in the most elegant 
 language. He has translated Ovid's Metamoi-phoses ; and Mirra 
 is considered a masterpiece of elegance and precision. By order 
 of the Inquisition Boccage was imprisoned for having circulated a 
 letter written in the style of Voltaire, in which he denied the 
 immortality of the soul ; he was, however, mildly treated, and 
 through the protection of Scabra, then secretary of state, he 
 recovered his liljerty. Nevertheless the horrors of his prison 
 preyed so much on his mind, that his health being impaired, his 
 constitution gave way, and after a long and painful illness, he 
 departed this life towards the end of the year 1806. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOCCAGE, ^Ls.RiE Axxe, x£e le Page, bom at Rouen in 
 1710 ; died in 1802. Married Fiquet du Boccage, who held 
 a lucrative fiscal office — receveur de failles de Dieppe. He 
 died early — de bonne heure, as the French courteously say. Her 
 talents for versification, which were very considerable, appear to 
 have been cultivated in secret, and her first work, produced at 
 the mature age of thirty-six, came as a sm-prise on her friends. 
 We have a distnist of the decisions of academies on such sub- 
 jects. It is not the less our duty to record such augury for 
 good or enl, that the academy of Rouen decreed her a prize 
 inl746, for what was believed to be her first poem. Thus 
 encoiu-aged, she no longer shrunk from publicity; nay, rather 
 courted it, and the world of Paris was delighted with her " Para- 
 dise Lost," pleasanter reading, they said, than Milton's, and her 
 " Death of Abel." In 1749 she published her " Columbiade," an 
 epic poem in ten cantos. A tragedy of hers, the " Amazons," 
 was acted about the same time. She wrote for the taste of the day 
 in which her lot was cast ; and she had her reward. Her praise 
 was in all the academies. She was successively admitted to the 
 bosom — such are the affectionate words which the fonns of the 
 language in which he writes suggest to the French biogi-apher 
 who records the fact (admise au sein) — of the academies of 
 Rome, of Boulogne, of Padua, and, last not least, of her native 
 Rouen. To her "salon" the " spirituelle " widow brought all 
 that France contained of distinguished men ; Voltaire was there 
 enjoying and coufen-ing fame ; and there, too, Fontenelle was to 
 be met, who loved to call her his daughter. This was no doubt 
 a happy life, and she enjoyed it long. The academy of the 
 Arcades at Rome wrote verses in her praise ; nay, printed them 
 in a voltmie as " thick as all this cheese." JIany of her works 
 were translated into English, Spanish, German, and Italian — 
 all forgotten ! not one to be had for love or money, and no love 
 or money to be had for them should one by rare accident turn 
 up at book-sale or book-stall. A volume of letters, addressed to 
 her sister, madame du Perron, describing her travels in Italy, 
 England, and Holland, is the only one of her books now looked 
 at — such is fame ! — J. A., D. 
 
 BOCCALINI, Tkaj.vxo. This satuical writer was bom at 
 Loretto in 1556 ; his versatility of genius, and his facility in 
 versification, make him to be considered one of the wittiest writers 
 of Italy. The limited means of his father did not allow hun to 
 commence his studies until he had reached a matm-e age. The 
 rapid progress he made, particularly in poetical compositions, 
 gave immediately the greatest hopes of his future literary renown, 
 and soon he became the life and centre of a large circle of friends 
 and admirers, who loved and esteemed him for his amenity of 
 character and benevolent disposition. Had his pohtical condvrt 
 been consistent with his written doctiines, no doubt he would 
 have attained to the highest distinctions and dignities in the 
 state ; but having given offence, and alienated from him many of his 
 patrons, fearing for his safety he was compelled to repair to Venice, 
 where he pubhshed " I Raguagli di Parnasso," which met with 
 the gi-eatest success. In this work he imagines that Apollo has 
 become the sovereign judge of Parnassus, and cites before his 
 high tribunal kings, authors, and warriors, examines their faults 
 and crimes, and pronounces judgment on them. He left also a 
 commentary on the Annals cf Tacitus, and on the first book of 
 the Histories of Agricola. "La pietra del Paragone" is considered 
 his best satire, and in a Horatian style he vents his wrath against 
 the Spanish misrule in Italy. Many of his contemporaiy bio- 
 graphers state, although contradicted by Mm-atori, that on 
 accovmt of this last work he met with a violent death on the 16th 
 November, 1613.— A. C. M. 
 
 BOCCANERA, Julius or Gilles, brother of Simon, by 
 whom, in recompense for numerous sen'ices, he was raised to the 
 command of the Genoese fleet. In 1340 he went to the succour 
 of Alfonso XL of Castile against the Moors of Andalusia and 
 Africa ; and having commended himself to the Spanish monarch 
 by his share in the victory of Tarifta and the taking of Algczn-as, 
 was raised to the office of admu-al of the Spanish fleet, and pre- 
 sented with the earldom of Palma. On the accession of Henry 
 II., whose part he seems to have taken in the ci\'il wars which 
 resulted from the rivalry between him and his natural brother, 
 he was confirmed in his office and rank. In 1372, on the occa- 
 sion of the earl of Pembroke's attempting to land at RocheUe to 
 claim the crown of Castile for John of Ghent, an engagement 
 ensued between the English and Spanish fleets, in wliich Pem- 
 broke was taken prisoner.— J. S., G.
 
 BOCCANERA, Simon, grandson of William, born at Genoa 
 about the commencement of the fourteenth century. The tradi- 
 tionary popularity which belonged to his family, not less than his 
 personal talents, pointed him out for the leader of the democratic 
 party, when the opportunity was presented for wresting the 
 :'ivernment of the city from that section of the nobility who had 
 
 :;iin usurped it on the fall of his grandfather. He was first 
 
 losen abate del popolo, but that office, which corresponded to 
 that of the tribunes of ancient Rome, for reasons connected with 
 his noble birth, he declined. The people then proclaimed him 
 doge for life, and accordingly, entering on the government in 
 1339, for several years he maintained his popularity with the 
 masses ; but this, notwithstanding the reno^-n which accnied to 
 him from his victories over the Turks, the Tartars, and the Jluors, 
 beginning to decline, his enemies of the ancient nobility were 
 inspirited to attack him more and more openly, and after a despe- 
 rate struggle, in which he made free with his powers of confisca- 
 tion and banishment, he was obliged in 1334 to resign his dignity, 
 and retire to Pisa. William, marquis of Palla\ncini, to whom, 
 by the arts of John Visconti, aixhbishop of Jlilan, the govern- 
 ment of Genoa had been committed in 1353, having been 
 expelled from the city in 1356, Boccanera was anew raised to 
 the ducal dignity. Seven years afterwards, his enemies fearing 
 that he had grown invulnerable to sedition, took the opportunity 
 of a feast which he gave to the king of Cyprus, to remove him 
 by poison. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOCCHERINI, LuiGi, a musician, was bom at Lucca, 
 January 14, 1740, and died at Jlackid in 1806; other ac- 
 counts give 1730 and 1735 as the date of his birth, and 1805 
 as the date of his death, and he is stated to have reached the 
 age of seventy, but the dates iirst stated appear to be the more 
 authentic. His father was a double bass player, who, perceinng 
 his natural talent for music, spared no pains in its cultivation. 
 Boccherini received instructions in composition and on the violon- 
 cello of the Abb6 Yannucci in his native town, and then went 
 to Rome to complete his studies. He used to attribute, in 
 after-life, much importance to the impressions he received from 
 the ecclesiastical music, then already divided into the modern 
 style and the style of Palestrina, in the papal city, and while 
 there he laid the foundation of his reputation as an insti-u- 
 mcntal composer. Returning to Lucca, he met ]\Ianfredi the 
 violinist, a pupil of Nardini, with whom he formed an intimate 
 fiiendship and a professional alliance, which lasted tUl JIanfredi's 
 death. These two artists visited together the prLacipal towns 
 of Lombardy, Piedmont, and the south of France, with great 
 success ; and tlie music of Boccherini was so much admired, that, 
 being yet unpublished, a high value was set upon manuscript 
 copies of his works. The friends arrived at Paris in 1771, where, 
 ill the following year, the first six trios for two ^iohns and 
 violoncello of Boccherini were printed ; these were immediately 
 followed by sis quartettes, under the name of " Divertissements;" 
 and they obtained so gi-eat and so speedy a popularity, that in 
 the course of five years the fertile author published no less than 
 eighty compositions of the same class. Boccherini and Manfredi 
 next went to Spain. The music of the former had preceded 
 them, and the esteem in which it was held msured to the com- 
 poser and his companion a ready welcome. The two were 
 engaged as chamber musicians to the prince of the Astmias ; and 
 Boccherini had a further engagement fi-om Carlos IV. to supply 
 nine new pieces every year for a fixed pension. 
 
 Honoured as an artist, and prized as a friend, his happiness 
 was still augmented by his marriage to a Spanish lady, to 
 whom he was passionately attached. The death of Manfredi, 
 however, was a severe afliiction to him, and it was, moreover, the 
 beginning of a series of misfortunes from which he never reco- 
 vered. Commissioned to find a ^^olinist to supply the place of 
 his friend, Boccherini engaged Bmnetti for this purpose, to whom 
 also he afforded great advantages in respect of addce and 
 instruction, but who, being of an intriguing character, very quickly 
 imdermined our composer's position at court, and ceased not to 
 plot against him till he was obliged to resign both his appoint- 
 ments. Boccherini now wrote some vocal pieces for different 
 religious establishments. The marquis de Beneventi settled on 
 him a small pension, with the condition that he should supply a 
 certain number of compositions annually. Frederick William IT. 
 of Prussia is said to have made a like engagement with hun ; 
 and the same is related of Lucien Buonaparte, when ambassador 
 at Madrid. These several resources were, however, inadequate 
 
 to support him with his wife and family in decent competency, 
 for in 1803 he was n\-ing in Madrid in a single room, with a 
 scanty provision of the positive necessaries of life. In the midst 
 of his privations, the amiable disposition by which he was always 
 distinguished never forsook him, and, with his childi-en playing 
 around him, and amidst all the distractions of his limited house- 
 hold, he continued to compose and to impart a spirit of cheerful- 
 ness to his affectionate circle. He had a most scrapulous sense 
 of probity — a striking example of which is, that he refused the 
 offer of 100 louis d"or for his " Stabat Mater," because he had 
 promised the work to another pm-chaser for sixty piastres. The 
 latter part of his life was so obscure, that, when his death was 
 annomiced, the lovers of music in Sladiid, who had especially 
 admu-ed his works, were surprised to learn that he had been 
 residing amongst them. 
 
 The extraordinaiy number of Boccherini's productions would 
 entitle him to distinction independently of then* merit, but, 
 although they have now passed out of favour, tliis is not incon- 
 siderable. He is best known by his very numerous quintets, in 
 which the prominence of the part for the principal violoncello 
 denotes his excellence as a player on this instniment. Great 
 melodious fluency, perfect appropriateness for the several instru- 
 ments, and extreme simplicity of construction, characterize his 
 writing ; and, when his phraseology was fresh, and his forms were 
 new, these qualities may well be supposed to have had an UTe- 
 sistible chann. He has been not inaptly called " the wife of 
 Haydn," which name defines the relationship of his music to 
 that of the great instnimental master. — G. A. M. 
 
 BOCCHI, AcHiLLE, bom at Bologna in 1488, of a veiynoble 
 family; from his early youth he devoted his time to the culture of 
 literature, and contributed many valuable compositions at the age 
 of twenty. His high position in life, and his renown as a classic 
 scholar, soon made liim acquainted with the literati of his time, 
 and many princes charged him with important missions. We 
 see him at the court of the prince of Carpi as his first consul, 
 then imperial orator to the Roman comi, where he was created 
 count palatine, which title gave him the right of conferring the 
 order of knighthood and university degrees. He was particulai'ly 
 honom-ed by the friendship of Henry, king of France ; and his 
 name was recorded on the rolls of various academies, whUe he 
 filled in liis native city the professorships of Greek, poetr}', and 
 belles-lettres. He founded also an academy called after his name, 
 " Bocchiale." Well versed in the Hebrew language, he made many 
 researches in ancient manuscripts, which led to the discovery of 
 many archffiological treasures, alluded to in his history of Bologna. 
 Such was the estimation in which he was held by his cotemporary 
 writers, that two medals were struck in his honour, which are 
 stiU preserved in the museum of Bologna, with these inscriptions: 
 on the one, "Acliilles Bocchius Bonon. An. iE. LXVII. ;" and on 
 the other, " Ach. Bocchius Bononiensis Historia; Conditor." His 
 works, all wiitten in Latin, treat of poetry, philosophy, history, 
 and classic literature. It is worth remarking that of so many 
 eminent writers who have spoken of this distinguished scholar, 
 Ciacconio alone records his death, which happened at Bologna in 
 his 74th yem-, on the 6th of November, 1562. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOCCHUS L, a king of Mauritania, the father-in-law of 
 Jugurtha, who lived in the latter half of the second centmy 
 before the christian era. He at first miited with Jugurtha in 
 making war upon the Romans, on the promise of his obtaining 
 the thu-d part of Numidia. But after the defeat of Jugurtha by 
 Marius, Bocchus was induced by the persuasions and promises 
 of Sylla to betray his son-in-law into the hands of the Romans. 
 He obtained as the reward of his treachery a gi'ant of the king- 
 dom subsequently called Mauritania Ca'sariensis, of which Fez 
 now fomis a part. — (Sallust's Btllum Jwjurthinum.') — J. T. 
 
 BOCCHUS, a JLamitanian chief, supposed to be the son of the 
 above. He and his brother Bogud reigned jointly over jMam-itania, 
 and were confirmed in their sovereignty by Ca?sar. Bocchus ren- 
 dered good service to Caesar in the capture of Cirta, the capital 
 of Juba, king of Numidia, and was rewarded with the grant of 
 a portion of the kingdom of JMasinissa, the ally of Juba. Accord- 
 ing to Suetonius, Caesar lavished no little money upon Eunoe, 
 the wife of the Mauritanian king. After the death of the great 
 Roman dictator, Bocchus and his brother (pian-elled, and took 
 opposite sides in the great civil wai\ The former joined Octavius, 
 while Bogud espoused the cause of Antony. Bocchus was ulti- 
 mately confirmed in the government of Jlauritania by Octavius. 
 He died about 33 is.c— J. T.
 
 BOC 
 
 636 
 
 BOC 
 
 BOCCIARDO, sm-named, fi-om his gross size, Clementone, 
 was a pupil of Beniardo Strozzi. He acconipanied Castiglione to 
 Rome, the magnet city that stUl draws artists strongly southward. 
 After a large course of study of old sculptors and old painters, 
 he went to Florence and painted his own portrait for the grand- 
 duke's gallery. Genoa has some of his works, and Pisa boasts 
 the "Martyrdom of St. Sebastian" in the Carthusians' church. 
 He was taught to blend the then modem and antique styles 
 with a graceful strength. He excelled Strozzi in ingenuity and 
 correctness of composition, but failed in reaching his truth and 
 purity of colour. He died in 105 8, still young, without reach- 
 ing Strozzi.— W. T. 
 
 BOCCIARDO, DoMENico, a mediocre painter of the same 
 name, was born at Genoa in 1686, and died in 1785. He 
 studied under Morandi, and painted histoiy indifferently well. 
 
 BOCCONE, Paolo, or Paulo, afterwards Silvio, a cele- 
 brated Sicilian naturalist, was born at Palermo, 24th April, 
 1G.33, and died, 22d December, 1704. He belonged to a wealthy 
 family, onginally from Savona in the states of Genoa. His 
 attention was particularly directed to botany, and in the prose- 
 cution of this science he visited various parts of Italy, France, 
 Holland, Germany, and Britain. He afterwards kept up a cor- 
 respondence with Sherard, Morison, Hatton, BaiTclier, and other 
 celebrated naturalists. He took the degree of doctor of medicine 
 at Padua, and was admitted a member of the Academia Naturas 
 Cimosorum. He was afterwards appointed botanical preceptor to 
 Ferdinand II., grand-duke of Tuscany, and finally professor at 
 Padua. In 1G82 he entered the order of Cistercian monks at 
 Florence, and there took the name of Silvio. He returned to 
 Sicily, and entered one of the Cistercian convents of Sta. Maria 
 d'Altifonte, near Palermo, where he died. His tomb is shown in 
 the small village of Palco, about three leagues from Palermo. 
 His works were very numerous, including " Description of Sici- 
 lian plants, as well as of those of Malta, France, and Italy ;" 
 " Remarks and Observations on Natm-al History ;" " Botanical 
 Letters ;" and " Descriptions of Marine Plants." — J. H. B. 
 
 BOCERUS, the Latinized form of John Boedeker or 
 BocKER, a German poet and historian, born at Hausberg, 
 1525 ; died in 15G5. He eraiced remarkable poetic talent, 
 and, in the midst of adversity, won an academic prize, which 
 enabled him to take his degi'ee in college. He rather improvised 
 than composed. His works are not of much general interest. 
 
 BOCH or BOCHIUS, John, sometimes termed " the Virgil 
 of the Low Countries," on account of the elegance of his Latin 
 poems, was bom at Brassels, .July 27th, 1555. He studied at 
 Rome under Cardinal Bellarmine, and travelled through Poland 
 and Russia. He composed a panegyric poem, which pleased 
 the duke of Parma so well, that he was presented by that prince 
 with the secretaryship of Antwerp. He wrote "Physical, Ethical, 
 Political, and Historical Observations on the Book of Psalms," 
 and a " Life of Da\'id ; " but died January 23rd, 1609, before he 
 had completed the publication of his work on the Psalms. — T.J. 
 
 BOCHART, Samuel, one of the most illustrious biblical scho- 
 lars of France, was bom at Rouen in 1599. His earlier youth 
 gave abundant token of his tastes, for at the age of thirteen he 
 composed Greek vei-ses, which his preceptor prefixed to a Corpus 
 Romanonim Antiquitatum, published in 1612. These verses tell 
 us that he was a cherished pupil of Thomas Dempster, a Scotch- 
 man of great erudition, and famous in his day ; and the verses of 
 Bochart, so honoured by him as to be placed in front of one of 
 his most elaborate productions, must have been of more than 
 ordinary merit. Bochart must have resided at Paris when under 
 Dempster's tuition. The young man then removed to Sedan, 
 and there, in 1615, maintained with great credit his public theses 
 in philosojjhy. There, too, he was in the habit of composing 
 complimentary Latin poems, while he was studying theology 
 under Jac. Capellus. About 1619 Bochart went to Saimiur, 
 and studied under another famous Scotchman, John Cameron, 
 who had succeeded to the chair of Gomar during the pre\'ious 
 year. Civil commotions obliged Cameron to leave in 1621, and 
 Bochart accompanied him to London. After spending some few 
 months in the English metropolis, Bochart repaired to Leyden, 
 and pursued the study of Hebrew under the great Arabic scholar 
 . Erpenius ; and of theology, under his uncle, the orthodox Andrew 
 Rivet. He seems to have visited England a second time, for, 
 according to Woods, Fasti Oxon., he was in 1622 admitted a 
 public student in the library of the university of Oxford. A 
 short time aftei-wards he was unanimously chosen pastor of the 
 
 protestant or reformed church at Caen. His popularity as a 
 preacher was great, and his attention to all the duties of the 
 pastoral ofKce exact and faithful. The protestant minister was 
 occasionally assaulted by his popish enemies, and on one occasion 
 he held a public disputation for nine days, with a Jesuit named 
 Veron, on the principal points in dispute between papists and 
 protestants. At tliis period he was laying the foundation of his 
 erudition and fame. During his preparation of a course of 
 " Semions on the Book of Genesis," he had occasion to examine 
 many points relating to antiquities, geogi'aphy, natural histoiy, 
 and ethnology ; and these researches gave rise to his great pro- 
 ductions, which eighteen years afterwards were given to the 
 world. In 1640 he published the first part of his sacred geo- 
 gi'aphy, called " Phaleg," and so named after him in whose days 
 " the earth was divided ; " and the second part was published in 
 the following year, under the title of " Canaan." The work at 
 once brought the author into prodigious reputation, and he took 
 his place by the side of such men as Scaliger, Vossius, and Sal- 
 masius. The eccentric and self-willed queen of Sweden had at 
 this time, and at the instigation of Des Cartes and Vossius, 
 shown her royal approbation of Bochart's labours, and even 
 invited him to her com-t. In 1652 the French scholar accepted 
 the invitation, and along with Huet, afterwards the well-known 
 bishop of Avranches, set out for the Swedish capital, visiting, on 
 their journey, the most remarkable persons and places in Holland 
 and Denmark. Any good end to be attained by the visit was 
 frustrated through the queen's caprice and the craft of Bourdelot, 
 her physician. Bochart had, indeed, the free use of the royal 
 library, and profited by the privilege. He had also several inter- 
 views with her majesty, at one of which, in one of her freaks, 
 she compelled the gi-ave divuie to play a game at battledore and 
 shuttlecock with her. During his absence at Stockholm, Bochai't 
 was elected into a new literary society or academy, then fomiing 
 at Caen, and he continued till his death an influential and useful 
 member of it. On his return he commenced to labour on liis 
 " Hierozoicon, or Zoology of Scriptm-e;" but ecclesiastical busi- 
 ness of various kinds, necessitated by the troublous nature of 
 the times, often interrupted him, and additional duties devolved 
 upon him by the death of one colleague, and the exile of another. 
 At length the great tome was published in London in 1664, the 
 oriental types employed on it being those which had been cast 
 for Walton's Polyglott. But continuous and hard study had 
 impaired his constitution, and rendered irregular the action of 
 the heart. On the 16th of May, 1067, after attending the 
 college, and hearing his gi-andson maintain his theses, he went 
 to a sitting of the academy ; and as he was expatiating upon a 
 coin, the origin or country of which was the subject of dispute, 
 he was seized with a sudden spasm, and instantly expn-ed, 
 exclaiming as he fell, " Mon Dieu, ayez misericorde de moi." 
 
 Bochart's learning was profoimd and multifarious, and it was 
 poured out, on all occasions, with unsparing profusion. On 
 every subject handled by him, he tells all that could be told, and 
 indulges in many curious, learned, and superfuous digressions. 
 In fact, the trath is sometimes bmied amidst loads of eradition — 
 Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Syriac — and what is fabulous receives 
 equal fullness of erudite illustration, with what is tme. The lore 
 of all lands was in his possession, and he was not niggardly in his 
 disposal of it. The wealth of his polyglot allusions and quota- 
 tions is really astounding, and one wonders, first, how he acqviired 
 it, and secondly, how he could use it with such masteiy. His 
 books are a rare monument of studious industry, and are still of 
 great value as a storehouse of miscellaneous information. They 
 are not even superseded by the adjusted results of later travel, 
 and more accurate zoological investigation, for they give all that 
 can be gathered on their subjects from all ancient literature; 
 and this is their merit. Some other and minor publications of 
 Bochart relate to ecclesiastical matters, such as his " Letters to 
 Morley," royal chaplain of King Charles ; and three volumes of 
 Sennons were published at Amsterdam after his death. Bochart's 
 life was written by Morinus, a junior colleague, and will be found 
 prefixed to the first volume of his works, as edited by Leusdcn 
 and Villemand. — J. E. 
 
 BOCHART DE SARRON, Jean Baptiste Gasparu, of the 
 same family as the distinguished divine, born at Paris in 1730, 
 became first president of the parliament of that city. He retained 
 that office till the outbreak of the Revolution, when he retired into 
 privacy. His fondness for mathematics, and his expertness in some 
 branches of the science, particularly those employed in astrono-
 
 BOC 
 
 637 
 
 BOC 
 
 mical calculations, were more advantageous to the fame of otliers 
 than to his own ; but, as appeared also by the facility with wliicli 
 he could be induced to lend his astronomical instruments, of 
 whicli, being a man of ample means, he had great store, it was 
 his delight to further the interests of science, and be helpful to 
 learned men whether his reputation kept company with theu's or 
 not. Herschel's newly-discovered heavenly body, he was the 
 iirst to suppose a planet, and not, as was believed for a time, a 
 comet. One of the most dastardly acts of the revohitionary 
 chiefs was that which deprived France of this amiable and 
 accomplished scholar. He was executed in 1794. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOCHAT, CnAKLES-GuiLi,AU5iE-LoYS DE, a Swiss his- 
 torian, born at Lausanne in 1G95 ; died in 1753. In 1710 he 
 succeeded Barbeyrac as professor of natural law. He was 
 appointed assessor in 1725, and in 1740 became controller- 
 ^I'lieral of Lausanne. He designed a work on the origin of the 
 llelvetii, but death prevented its execution. Among his works 
 we may mention " Critical Jlemou's intended to clear up some 
 points in the ancient history of Switzerland," Lausanne, 1747- 
 1749, 3 vols. 4to ; "Two Dissertations on the Antiquities of 
 Switzerland," in the Museum Helveticum ; " Essay on Luther's 
 Reformation." — J. G. 
 
 BOCHSA, Robert Nicolas Charles, a musician, was born 
 at Montraedi in the department of the Meuse, August 9, 1789, 
 and died at Sydney in Australia in 1855. His father, Charles, 
 was oboist at the theatre of Lyons ; subsequently went to Bour- 
 deaux, settled at Paris about 180G, WTote many instrumental 
 compositions in an extensive form and of some merit, and died 
 in 1821. The son's natural aptitude for music was quickly 
 developed. In his early childhood he played publicly on the 
 pianoforte and on the flute with applause, and composed aus de 
 ballet and other pieces of suthcient merit to be available at the 
 theatre ; and, before sixteen years of age, set to music the opera 
 of Trajan, at which time also he applied hunself successfully to 
 the practice of the harp, which afterwards became his special 
 instrument. When he went to Bourdeaux with his family, he 
 studied composition with Franz Beck, a German musician of 
 considerable attainments, who was born m 1731, wrote some 
 sacred works, symphonies and quartettes, of merit, and died in 
 1809. While under him, young Bochsa wrote the music of a 
 ballet and the oratorio of Le Deluge Universel. When he 
 went to Paris he entered the conservatoire, where he continued 
 the study of composition, first under Catel, and finally under 
 •Mehul. Here he received lessons on the harp of Nadermann and 
 JIarian ; but, soon surpassing his instractors, the originality of 
 his style and the brilliancy of his execution gained him a wide 
 celebrity. He wrote very voluminously for this instrument, and 
 illustrated in his compositions the many "new eflects" of his own 
 discovery, which, from time to time, his successive instruction- 
 books explained. In 1813 he was appointed harpist to the Empe- 
 ror Napoleon. In this year he wrote L'Heritier de Paimpal for 
 tlie Opera Comique, and- in 1814 Les Heritiers Micheux, to 
 be represented before the allied sovereigns, and afterwards three 
 other works for the same theatre — one of which. La Lettre de 
 Change, was, in 182G, reproduced in London. He composed a 
 Itequiem for Louis XVI., which was performed with great solem- 
 nity in January, 18 IG, and about this time he was appointed 
 liarpist to Louis XVIII. and to the duke de Berri. He led at 
 this time a life of great dissipation, the extravagant expense of 
 which could not be met even by the large proceeds of his suc- 
 cesses as an artist ; lie was thus tempted to commit a series of pri- 
 vate and commercial forgeries, extending from September, 18 IG, 
 ti> March, 1817, and he absconded from Paris to escape appre- 
 hension. By the French law, a criminal case may be tried even in 
 the absence of the accused, and, accordingly, Bochsa was tried 
 at the court of assize in Paris, February 17, 1818, was convicted 
 " par contumace " on seven distinct charges, and condemned to 
 forced labour for twelve years, to be branded \vith the letters 
 T F, and fined 4000 francs. The trial was fidly reported in 
 the Moniteur of two days after, from which these particulars are 
 taken. The clever harpist arrived in London in the height of the 
 season, and produced here such effect by his playing as to bring 
 his instrument into very general esteem, and he, consequently, 
 received more applications for lessons from the circles of aristo- 
 cracy and fashion than he had time to answer; and there was an 
 extensive demand for his compositions and arrangements, which 
 even his prolific pen could not more than satisfy. In speaking 
 of him as a teacher of the harp, mention must not be omitted of 
 
 his pupil, Eli Parish, who, under the name of Parish Alvars, 
 obtained a just celebrity throughout Europe, surpassing in his 
 performance every one that lias handled the instrainent. l^Ir. J. 
 B. Chatterton, who was also taught by Bochsa, is the best living 
 representative of his master's style. Of an enterprising and 
 active disposition, Bochsa could never be content with the station 
 of a fashionable music-master and an admued virtuoso; so in 1822 
 he midertook, jointly with Sir George Smart, the management 
 of the so-called oratorios in the lenten season at Drury Lane, 
 and in the following year, alternately at this theatre and Covent 
 Garden, entirely on his own account. In the com'se of these 
 performances he produced, with some additions, the Deluge, 
 which he had written at Bourdeaux, two oratorios by Su J. Ste- 
 venson and J. A. Wade, and Stadler's Jerusalem. With all this 
 industry he met with no better success than former speculators in 
 the same class of entei-tainments, and the failure of the oratorios 
 served him as a pretext for bankruptcy, with a dividend of seven- 
 pence in the pound. On the organization of the Royal Academy 
 of Elusic, Bochsa, who was in constant intercourse with the nobility, 
 was engaged, on the grounds of his experience of the conservatoire, 
 to arrange the plan of its management. This he did with such 
 skill, and he superintended its working with such activity, that the 
 good effects of his administration are still spoken of with enthusi- 
 asm by the original students. His rare facility in writing, of which 
 there are countless anecdotes, enabled him to adapt music with 
 the utmost promptitude to the pupil's capacity, and thus to 
 institute orchestral practice long before the beginners were able 
 to execute any existing orchestral works. In 182G Mr. Ayrton 
 made the most ruthless attack, in the Ilarmonicon, upon Bochsa's 
 character, supported by other journals, which he threatened to 
 punish by an action at law. The Academy committee were 
 compelled, by the flagi-ancy of the libel, to suspend his serx-ices, 
 until it should be refuted by the result of the action ; but they 
 gave him at the same time so honourable a testimonial, that one 
 cannot but suppose theii- own justification to have been the chief 
 object in inditing it. In December, ten months after the first 
 publication of the charge, Bochsa brought an indictment for libel 
 against the proprietors of two newspapers — a legal process in which 
 the plaintift' is not required to disprove that of which he has been 
 accused; and in April, 1827, as his character remained unvin- 
 dicated, he was formally dismissed from the Academy. Bochsa's 
 marriage with the sister of the notorious Harriet Wilson added 
 no little to the scandal against him, and, a memorial to this effect 
 of the parents of some of the lady pupils, doubtless influenced his 
 dismissal. In 1826 he commenced a series of oratorios at the King's 
 Theatre, which were broken oft' on account of their non-success. 
 Thus opened his connection with that establishment, which led to 
 his appointment, on the retirement of Coccia, as musical director, 
 which office he held from December, 182G, till the close of the 
 theatre in 183G, when he was succeeded by Mr. Costa. The chief 
 events of his jurisdiction were, the production of Rossini's Comte 
 Ory, and the disgusting of the chief members of the orchestra, 
 on whose consequent resignation some eminent foreign instru- 
 mentalists (among whom were Barret the oboist, and the late 
 Baumanu the fagottist) were engaged to replace them. During 
 his direction, Bochsa wrote the music of a ballet. La Siege de 
 Cytherce, and, some years afterwards, that of two others, Le 
 Corsaire, and Beniowsky, which was excellently well fitted for 
 its purpose. His annual concerts, and the oratorios he gave 
 in 1834 at Drary Lane, were always remarkable for some inge- 
 nious device to render them interesting : thus at one he gave 
 Beethoven's Symphonia Pastorale, illustrated with action, — at 
 another, an epitome of the history of music from the time of the 
 Greeks to the date of the performance, — at a third, his famous 
 and veiy clever Voyage Musicale, with specimens of the music 
 of all countries. His tours for many years, with a Jiarty, to give 
 concerts throughout England, in which Mori the violinist was 
 his equally active opponent, were admirably satirized in Egerton 
 Webbe's series of papers, called Doing the Provinces. 
 
 In July, 1839, Bochsa gave his last concert in London, shoi-tly 
 after which he quitted England to direct the performances of 
 Madame Anna Bishop, and, with that lady, visited every country 
 in Europe (France excepted), returning to London in 1847, 
 whence they proceeded to America to make the tour of the States, 
 visited California, and crossed to Australia, where this remarkable 
 man died of dropsy a few days after landing. — G. A. M. 
 
 BOCK, FuiKDRicii Samuel, a distinguished German theo- 
 logian and naturalist, born at Kiiuigsberg in 1716, became chap-
 
 Iain to a Prussian regiment of dragoons In 1748, and in 1753 
 professor of theology and Greek in the university of Konigsberg, 
 where he also filled the office of chief librarian. He died in 178G. 
 His writings are numerous, and some of them highly esteemed. 
 The most remarkable of them bears the title of " Historia Anti- 
 trinitarionim, maximfe Socinianismi et Socinianonim," &c., and 
 was published at Leipzig in two volumes in 1774-1784. Of his 
 writings on natiu'al history, some containing descriptions of the 
 birds of Piiissia appeared in the Naturjvrsclier. His " Natural 
 Histoiy of Prussian Amber "was published in 1767; his "Natural 
 Histoiy of East and West Prussia," in 1782 ; his " Natural 
 and Commercial History of the Hemng," in 17G9. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOCK, Jean-Nicolas-Etienne, baron de, born at Thion- 
 ville in 1747 ; died at Nelon in 1809. Bock emigrated at the time 
 of the Revolution, settled at Anspacb, where he supported himself 
 by tuition, and by translating German books into French. Afterten 
 years of exile his name was er;ised from the list of emigrants. He 
 was afterwards appointed conseiller de prefecture at Luxemburg, 
 where he found leisure to pursue the study of literature. He has 
 left several works on subjects connected with history and archaeo- 
 logy, and tracts of his, many of them in German, are printed in 
 the transactions of learned societies. Among these the most inter- 
 esting are those on Persian antiquities and literature. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOCK, Jerome, m Latin Tragus, was a GeiTnan botanist of 
 the seventeenth centmy, who published at Strasbui"g, a Krau- 
 terbuch, or description of indigenous Gennan plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOCK, Karl August, a distinguished German physician 
 and anatomist, bom at Magdeburg in 1782. He studied medi- 
 cine at Leipzig, and occupied the position of prosector in the 
 university of that city up to the time of his death in 1833. His 
 principal works are — a "Description of the Fifth Pair of Nerves;" 
 a " JIanual of the Practical Anatomy of the Human Body;" a 
 treatise (m the "Nerves of the Medulla Spinalis;" and "Ana- 
 tomico-Chirurgical Tables," a work which was completed by his 
 son.— W. S. D. 
 
 * BOCK, Karl Erxst, son of the preceding, bom in 1809, 
 professor in the Faculty of Medicine at Leipzig, and author of 
 several anatomical works, of which the principal is a "Manual of 
 Pathological Anatomy." — W. S. D. 
 
 BOCKENBEKG, Pierre van, better known under the 
 name of Petrus Cornelissonius Buckenbergius, a Dutch 
 chronicler, born in 1548 ; died in 1617. Author of " Prisci 
 Batavioj et Frisii Reges," 1589, 12mo, and other works on the 
 liistory of the Low Countries. 
 
 BOCKHORST, John van, sumamed Long John, was born 
 at Munster in 1610, and studied under the robust Jordaens, 
 under whom he became a distinguished portrait and historical 
 painter, sometimes imitating Vandyck. His pictiu-es are to be 
 found in Flemish churches, and stand high there. His colour is 
 sometimes of the mellowed apple, Rubens' style ; he drew women 
 gracefully ; his pictm-es have force and harmony, and his manage- 
 ment of the chiaro-scuro produces an agreeable effect. Pilk- 
 ington mentions good works by lanky John at the church of St. 
 James in Ghent — a "Martyrdom ;" and another Ghent church 
 rejoices in an "Annunciation," Inscribed 1664. — W. T. 
 
 BOCKHORST, John van, perhaps a descendant, was bom 
 at Deutekom in Holland in 1661 ; studied imder fluttering 
 Kneller, went to Germany, returned, and died in 1724. He 
 painted history well, but excelled in portraits and battles. — W. T. 
 
 BUGLER, JoHANN Heinrich, an eradite German historian, 
 born at Cronheim in Franconia in 1611; died in 1692. In 
 his twentieth year he was appointed to the chair of eloquence at 
 Strasburg; in 1648, on the im-itation of Queen Christina, he 
 removed to Upsal, where he was appointed professor of eloquence 
 and royal historiogi-ajjher ; and afterwards filled a chair of history 
 in the foraier university, the state of his health having obliged 
 him to leave Sweden. His extraordinary reputation for scholar- 
 ship procured him the honour of being created count palatine by 
 the emperor, Ferdinand IIL, who, to compensate him for declining 
 a fiension of 2000 livres offered him by the court of France, made 
 him an annual allowance of 600 rix-dollars. He was not only 
 admirably skilled in classical literature and in Hebrew, but 
 boasted a profjund acquaintance with history^, politics, and law. 
 Besides editions of a nmnber of Greek and Latin authors, poets 
 as well as historians, he published an immense number of histo- 
 rical dissertations, which, together with his miscellanies, were 
 collected into four volumes, quarto, at Strasburg in 1712. His 
 " Bibliogi-aphia Critica" appeared at Leipzig in 1715. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOCOUS or BOCCUCT, Jos£. This dramatist was bom at 
 Barcelona in 1775. He studied at Murcia and Bologna, in 
 which last city he lectured on ancient history. Having taken 
 out his degree of A.j\L, he went to Milan and studied Italian 
 literature ; from thence he proceeded to Padova and edited two 
 periodicals, the Enci/cIojJedia and the Literary Gazette. His 
 poetical compositions procured him the admission into many 
 academies. Being anxious to enter on the military career he 
 returned to Spain, and was devoting his time to the study of 
 mathematics when France declared war against Spain. Bocous 
 got immediately his commission, and under the generals Ricardos, 
 La-Union, and Unitia, he made the campaigns of 1793 and 
 1794, in which he was wounded several times. At the termi- 
 nation of the war Bocous went to ]\Iadrid and wrote several 
 plays, which were successfully represented on the stage. He 
 travelled afterwards through the south of France and Italy, and 
 collected many infoiTnations and documents connected with the 
 history of those countries, which, it is to be regretted, have not 
 yet been published. Bocous was in Florence when war broke 
 out anew against Spain. By order of the French government, 
 which then ruled over that duchy, he, together with other Spanish 
 subjects residing in Florence, was arrested and sent to Dijon, in 
 which city he was obliged to give lessons in modem languages 
 to provide for his subsistence. Bocous asked and obtained the 
 pennission of going to Paris, where he fixed his residence, and 
 spent all his time writing on literary subjects, either in Spanish, 
 Italian, French, or Portuguese, being quite famUiar with all these 
 languages, in which he has left many valuable works, of which 
 the princijial are — " Raccolte di varie poesie," " Los Genios 
 opuestos," and " Amelie et Clotilde," a novel written in classic 
 French. He also furnished many articles on Spanish and Por- 
 tuguese writers to the Biographie Universelle, and continued the 
 Historical Dictionaiy of Zeller, as also the Historical Account of 
 the French revolution, which stands as the prologue to the sup- 
 plement of Zeller's Dictionary. It is to be regretted that nothing 
 is known about this polyglot author's death. We are only cer- 
 tain that he was alive in 1821, the year in which was published 
 the Biographie Nouvelle des Contemporains. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOCTHOR, Ellious or Elie, bom at Siout in Upper 
 Egypt in 1784; died in 1821. In the French expedition to 
 Egypt he joined the army in the capacity of interpreter. In 
 1819 he was named professor of Ai-abic, succeeding in this office 
 Raphael, a Syrian priest, connected with the Bibliotheque du RoL 
 Bocthor died within two years of his appointment. He pub- 
 lished some grammatical works connected with the duties of his 
 professorship, and left in manuscript a French Arabic dictionary, 
 which has passed through two editions, 1829, 1848, under the 
 care of Caussin de Perce Val. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOCZKAI, Stephen, a patriotic noble of Transylvania, the 
 leader of the revolt of the protestants of his native country in 
 1604 against the intolerable yoke of Austria. A prior attempt 
 in 1603 to regain their independence had been unsuccessful, but 
 Boczkai utterly routed the imperial general Belgiojoso, and drove 
 him from the country. The \ictorious leader was immediately 
 elected to the throne by the assembled states of the principality. 
 In the following year he oveiTan Upper Hungary, and having 
 entered into a league with the Turks, received a firman from the 
 sultan creating him king of that countiy, to be held as a fief of 
 the Tm'kish empire. He was accordingly crowned on the plains 
 of Rakosch, near Buda, in the presence of the vizier and the 
 pashas of Buda and Temesvar. His avowed intention was to 
 establish the independence of Himgaiy and the security of the 
 protestant religion, and he contemptuously refused to listen to 
 the overtures made to him by the court of Vienna. But peace 
 ha\'ing been concluded between the Porte and Austria, Boczkai 
 was obliged to lay aside these lofty projects and to conclude a 
 separate peace with the emperor, by which he consented to re- 
 main satisfied with the rank of hereditaiy prince of Transylvania, 
 with the reversion to Austria in failure of his male line. The 
 liberties of Hungary, however, and the free exercise of the pro- 
 testant religion, were solemnly guaranteed by the emperor. 
 Boczkai died without issue December 30, 1606, in the fifty-first 
 year of his age, about six months after the conclusion of this 
 treaty, not without suspicion of poison. " He died," says old 
 Knolles, " to the gi-eat sorrow and grief of all the people in 
 generall, who had him in great honor and regard. He was 
 honorably descended, and a man of gi'eat spirit, ambitious, wise, 
 and politicke; a great lover of his country, but an extreme
 
 BOD 
 
 639 
 
 BOD 
 
 rnemie unto the Germans and their government in Himgarie." 
 (^Knolles' Hist, of the Turls ; Rose.) — J. T. 
 
 BOD, Peter, an eminent Hungarian scholar, was bom at 
 Felscho-Czematow in Transylvania, in 1712. He was pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew, and a profound theologian. He died in 1768, 
 having left learned works in Ids native tongue. Amongst them 
 are the " History of the Bible," and a Hungarian dictionary. 
 He also wrote some treatises in Latin. — J. F. W. 
 
 BODAED DE TEZAY, Xicolas-Marie Felix, bom at 
 Bayeus in 1757 ; died at Paris in 1823. His early years were 
 cccnpicd altogether with poetry ; in other words, he was what 
 the world calls an idler. In 1792 he was employed in one of 
 the public departments, and continued in subordinate govern- 
 ment situations for many years, ^^'hen il. Laumond was sent 
 is consul to Smyrna, Bodard acted as \-ice-consul there. In 
 - 'me negotiations with the police, he is said to have conducted 
 the affairs intrusted to him with intelhgence and skill. Duiing 
 the French occupation of Naples he was what they called com- 
 missaire, or civil administrator ; he was aftem-ards consul- 
 ireneral at Genoa — this terminated his official or diplomatic 
 .areer. A number of works, chiefly dramatic, the names of 
 which we need not give, were published by him between the 
 years 1783 and 1790 ; and poems, one of which is an ode on 
 electricity crowned at Caen, appear with his name, scattered 
 through the French journals of the day. — J. A., D. 
 
 BODDAERT, Peter, a Dutch physician and naturalist of 
 the last century, was bom in Zealand about the year 1730; and 
 died toward the end of the century. He studied and took his 
 degree at Leyden, and then established himself at Flushing. On 
 the death of his intimate friend, Albert Schlosser of Amsterdam, 
 in 1769, Boddaert continued the description of the most remark- 
 .'ile objects in his collection of natural history. Boddaert pub- 
 lished translations of the " Elenchus-Zoophy torum " and " Jlis- 
 tdlanea Zoologies" of Pallas into Dutch; and of the Natural 
 History of the Teeth by John Hunter, into Latin and DutcJh. 
 He was also the author or translator of several other memoirs 
 on various subjects in medicine and natural histoiT. — Vr. S. D. 
 
 BOD.EUS A STAPEL, Jonx, a Dutch botanist, died in 
 1636. He studied medicine at Leyden, and had Vorstius as his 
 botanical instructor. After his death, his "Commentaries on 
 Theophrastus " were pubhshed bj- his father. — J. H. B. 
 
 BODARD, Peter Hexrt Hippoltte, a French medical 
 man and botanist, lived at the beginning of the present century. 
 He took his degree at the university of Pisa, and afterwards 
 practised as physician in the department of the Seine. Besides 
 some medical memoirs, he wrote a " Coui-se of Comparative 
 Medical Botany;" "A View of Exotic Medicinal Plants;" "Mono- 
 .Taphs on Veronica Cvmbalaria ; " on " Chamomile ;" on " Tus- 
 ilago Petasites ;" and on " Hypocarpogean Plants." — J. H. B. 
 
 BODE, Christoph August, a German orientalist, bom at 
 Wemigerode in 1722, and died in 1796. He was a pupil of 
 Steinmez at Ivloster-Bergen, and of Hebenstreit at Leipzig, par- 
 ;icularly distinguishing liimself as a linguist imder both these 
 'lebrated masters. In 1747 he began a course of lectures on 
 the text of Scripture and on Hebrew grammar at Halle, whence 
 he removed in 1754 to Hejmstaedt, where he occupied the chair 
 of oriental languages till his death in 1796. He published 
 "Nov. Test, ex versione ^Ethiopici interjjretis," 1752-55. 
 
 BODE, JoHAx Elert, a celebrated German astronomer, 
 bora at Hamburg m 1747 ; died at Berlin m 1826. Until his 
 seventeenth year he shared with his father the management of 
 I commercial academy in his native town, devoting his leisvu-e 
 •'■ ith great ardour to the study of mathematics and astronomy. 
 His first observations of astronomical phenomena were made 
 with the help of a telescope of his own constraction ; and 
 although until, in his nineteenth year, chance brought him 
 cquainted with Professor Busch, who lent him his books and 
 ■nstruments, he possessed few advantages for the cultivation of 
 his favourite science, at that age he could calculate with precision 
 the courses and eclipses of the planets. In 1768 he published 
 sn elementary treatise, entitled " Anleitung zur Kenntniss des 
 -f'Stimten Himmels," which had great success ; and in the same 
 ;• ear drew the attention of the scientific world by his dissertation 
 on the expected transit of Venus, June 3, 1769. In August of 
 that year he discovered, in the constellation Taurus, a comet, the 
 ri'tarn of which he calculated for the following October, thus 
 :naking known the first example of a comet ■with a short period. 
 6oon afterwiuds Frederick II. called him to Berlin, where he 
 
 became a member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1724 
 appeared his Ephemerides of Berlin (Astronomische jahrbu- 
 cher), the atlas of which, as it appeared in the second edition 
 of the work, published in 1828, consisted of twenty sheets, on 
 which were indicated the positions of no fewer than 17,240 stars. 
 A very remarkable law of the plauetaiy system, which, although 
 it had previously engaged the attention of Kepler, is generally 
 known under the name of this discoverer, may be thus stated : 
 Taking as 4 the radius of the orbit of Mercury, we have for 
 the radii of the other planetarv orbits 4 -|- 3 (Venus), i -\- 2 
 X 3 (the Earth), 4 -|- 4 X 3 (Mars). 4 -}- 8 X 3 (Ceres), 
 4 -f 16 X 3 (Jupiter), 4 -)- 32 X 3 (Saturn), 4 -f- 64 X 3 
 (Uranus) ; that is to say, as we recede from the sun in the 
 planetary system, we find the intervals between the orbits 
 double, or nearly double, — the interval, for example, between 
 the orbits of the Earth and Mars nearly double of that which 
 separates the orbits of Venus and the Earth, and the interval 
 between the orbits of Saturn and Uranns nearly double of that 
 obsen-ed between Jupiter and Satmrn. The anomaly, which, on 
 the first publication of Bode's law, presented itself in the enor- 
 mous interval between Jupiter and Saturn, the discovery of the 
 telescopic planets in the course of the present century has com- 
 pletely accounted for ; and there now remains only one exception 
 to be noted against the law of double inten^als, namely, that the 
 distance of Mercury fi-om the orbit of Venus is almost equal to 
 the whole of the two orbits of Venus and the Earth, while, by 
 the theory under consideration, it ought to be no more than a 
 half. In view of this difficulty, it has been proposed to give the 
 law a slightly altered form ; but to sacrifice its simplicity for the 
 purpose of getting rid of a seeming anomaly, which, to say the 
 most of it, is no more formidable than that which recent disco- 
 veries have reduced under rule, would seem to be wholly imne- 
 cessary. Bode for half a century was at the head of Em-opean 
 astronomers. In honour of his patron, Frederic the Great, he 
 gave the name of Friedrich's Ehre (Frederic's Glory) to a group 
 of stars in the neighbourhood of Cepheus and Cassiopeia. Be- 
 sides the works above mentioned, he published " Uranographia, 
 or Great Celestial Atlas" (in Latin), Berlin, 1801, and "The 
 Solar Planetary System," 1788. By the former work, an addi- 
 tion of upwards of 12,000 stars was made to older catalogues. 
 — (Xouv. Biog. Univ.') — J. S., G. 
 
 BODE, JoHAXN Joachim Christoph, a distinguished 
 German translator, was bom at Brunswick, January 16, 1730; 
 and died at Weimar, December 13, 1793. His translations of 
 the Sentimental Journey, 1763 ; Tristram Shandy, 1774; Tom 
 Jones ; the Vicar of Wakefield, &c., are indeed classical per- 
 formances, and stiU enjoy a weU-eamed fame. — (See K. A. 
 Biittiger, Bodu's Literarisches Leben. Berlin, 1796.) — K. E. 
 
 BODEGA Y QUADRA, Dox Juak Fraxcisco, a Spanish 
 navigator, whose name conjoined with that of Vancouver, has 
 been attached to one of the largest islands on the American 
 coast. Quadra and Vancouver's island, was bom towards the 
 middle of the eighteenth century. From an account of his 
 voyages preserved in ilS. in the Hbr.ary of the French marine, it 
 appears that he had taken possession of the coast opposite the 
 island about the year 1775, and in 1790 had founded Nootka. 
 His death occurred at San Bias in 1794. — J. S., G. 
 
 BODENSCHATZ, Joha^jn Christoph Georg, a German 
 orientalist, bom at Rof in 1717; died in 1797. His know- 
 ledge of Jewish antiquities was remarkable, and he appUed it 
 ingeniously to the elucidation of the scriptures. He wrote 
 " Kirchhche Verfassung der heutigen, sonderlich der Deutschen 
 Juden," 1748-9, and a work in which he applied his knowledge 
 of Jewish antiquities to the interpretation of the New Testament. 
 
 * BODENSTEDT, Friedrich Martix, a Gemian poet, 
 bom at Peine, kingdom of Hanover, April 22, 1819; was bred 
 to the mercantile profession, but relinquished it in order to follow 
 the poetical and literary bent of his mind. In 1840 he became 
 domestic tutor to the family of Prince Galitzin at JIoscow ; and 
 in 1844 undertook the management of an academy at Titlis. 
 He then visited Asia Jlinor, the Ciimea, &c., and went home in 
 1846, where he became editor of the Austrian Lloyd at Trieste, 
 and afterwards of the ]V(jser-Ziitimg at Bremen. He now lives 
 at Munich. His poetical works are — " Gedichte ; " " Die Liedcr 
 des Mirza-Schaffy,"5thed. ; "Ada, die Lesghierin ; " "Demetrius, 
 a historical tragedy," &c. Among liis prose works rank first : 
 " 1001 Tag im Orient" (translated into English by Waddington, 
 London, 1851), and " Die Viilker des Kaukasus." He has also
 
 BOD 
 
 640 
 
 BOD 
 
 translated the poetical works of Alexander Pusclikin, 3 vols., 
 and has just now begun the publication of a comprehensive 
 work on Shakspeare's contemporaries and their works. — K. !•]. 
 
 BODENSTEIN, Adam von, a German physician and alche- 
 mist of the sixteenth century, was bora in ly28. He was a 
 zealous disciple of Paracelsus, whose alchemical works he trans- 
 lated into Latin, and whose theories he developed with great 
 ardour at Basle, where he was professor of medicine. After 
 living an intemperate and vagabond life, he died of the plague 
 at Basle in 1577, notwithstanding his employment of the pre- 
 servative recommended by Paracelsus. His attention was 
 strongly directed to the discovciy of the philosopher's stone, in 
 behalf of which he addressed an epistle to the celebrated bankers, 
 Fugger of Augsburg. His writings were collected and pubUshcd 
 at Basle in 1581, in one folio volume. — W. S. D. 
 
 BODEKKER, John Fuanx'is, a portrait painter, born at 
 Cleves in 16G0. He was the son of a musician, and studied 
 under John de Baan. He received gi-eat encouragement at Bois 
 le Due, Breda, Amsterdam, and the Hague, and died in 1727. 
 
 BODEL, Joiix, a troubadour, a native of Artois, lived in the 
 latter half of the thu-teenth centm-y. He took part in the fii'st 
 crusade of St. Louis, and in 1269 was about to accompany this 
 king on his second expedition, when he was attacked by leprosy, 
 and took a most affecting farewell of his fellow-countrjnnen. 
 He composed a dramatic piece on the life of St. Nicolas, bishop 
 of Wyse. This piece is one of the oldest specimens of the 
 language in wliich it is written ; unfortunately the most obscure 
 and barbarous of the romance dialects. — J. G. 
 
 BODEWYNS, Nicolas, and BOUT, Francis, friends who 
 worked together. The latter was born at Brussels in 1660, and 
 died in 1700. Bodewyns painted landscapes, and Bout figures. 
 Bnut sometimes painted alone — winter pieces and sea-shores, 
 with statues, and fish-markets, and weddings, the figures small 
 and neat. The Beaumont friend of this Dutch Fletcher took to 
 himself the Flemish manor-houses, to which Bout added fetes and 
 feastings. Bout sometimes etched in a light pleasant manner. 
 Their colouring is generally agreeable, and their touch light and 
 neat, the figures handled with some of the freedom of Velvet 
 Brenghel. Sometimes they are slight, careless, and hasty. The 
 smallest are the most valuable ; the deer and cattle are well drawn 
 and disposed. — W. T. 
 
 BODIX, Jean, bom at Angers, 1530 ; died at Laon, 1596. 
 He was educated at Toulouse, where he first thought of estab- 
 lishing himself as a teacher of jurisprudence. He then went to 
 Paris intending to practise at the bar, but did not succeed in 
 obtaining business. He published in 1555 a ti'anslation of 
 Oppian into Latin verse, with a commentary, in which he was 
 said to have made more use of Tumebus' notes than he ought. 
 In 1576 he published in French the " Republique," the work by 
 which he is most favourably known. It is a book of considerable 
 value. Montesquieu is said to have been indebted to it and to 
 Bodin's work " On the Study of History," for some of his specu- 
 lations with respect to the effect of climate on political institu- 
 tions. The book, though calculated to deter the indolent modern 
 reader, every now and then reappears, and seems to have some 
 influence on students. At the close of the last century, Condorcet 
 and Peysonel published an interesting account of it. In our own 
 days it has been referred to with praise by Dugald Stewart, and 
 been carefully analysed by Hallam and Lerminier. The author, a 
 man of great and sound, if not very various learning, is in his work 
 much more than a compiler of authorities ; he thinks out his 
 subject thoroughly, and d<jes not, like Grotius and his followers, 
 seem oppressed by the rusty armour in which the literary war- 
 riors of that day were clad. Lerminier's analysis gives probably 
 the best modern account of the book, as he gives large extracts, 
 in all of which there is great generosity of sentiment and just- 
 ness of thinking. The passages in which he reprobates slaveiy, 
 would seem to be cast in the mould of the thinkers of our own 
 day. The relation of subjects to their sovereign is also examined 
 in a spirit the most remote possible from faction, — in the spirit of 
 one who feels what freedom essentially is, and who has but Uttle 
 sympathy with those of whom Jlilton speaks — 
 
 " License they mean when they cry liberty, 
 For who love that must first be wise and good." 
 
 Bodin is described by JI. Baudrillart as borrowing from Aris- 
 totle without confessing his obligation. This accusation is made 
 too broadly. The works of Aristotle were known so familiarly 
 
 in Bodin's day, as to preclude the necessity of fomial reference, 
 and Bodin's theory of government differs essentially from 
 Aristotle's. Bodin's " Jlethodus ad facilem Historianim Cog- 
 nitionem " was an eai'lier work ; it does not enjoy the same 
 reputation as his " Republique," but it is not without its value, 
 and is one of the books which D'Agnesseau advised his son to 
 study. The "Republique" was followed by a law book, "Juris 
 Universi Distributio," and, within a year or two, by his 
 " Demonomanie des Sorciers," a book more suited to the popular 
 feeling, and in which Bodin advocated the burning of witches and 
 wizards with such zeal as to malce us feel surprised at his general 
 orthodoxy being a matter on which grave doubts were enter- 
 tained. Perhaps, however, his mention in this book of having been 
 attended from the 37th year of Ids age by a famiUar spirit may 
 account for the suspicion. The ixicndly demon touched his right 
 ear whenever he was about doing anything wliich conscience did 
 not approve, and made hunself felt on the left ear when Bodin 
 meditated anything good. Passages from Job and Isaiah and 
 from the I'salms, are quoted by him to prove that spirits indicate 
 their presence not alone by vocal utterance, but by their touching, 
 and at times pulling men by the ear. The gift, however, of an 
 attendaiit spuit making himself thus palpable, is one very 
 unusual, and was vouchsafed to Bodin only after long periods 
 past in prayer and meditation, and in the constant study of the 
 bible, with the earnest desire of discovering which of the many 
 rehgions of mankind was the true one. He was able to distin- 
 guish dreams in which his attendant spirit communicated to him 
 the commands or the warnings of heaven, from the mere fumes 
 of ordinaiy sleep, by the fact, that awaked, as he believed, by his 
 angel at about three o'clock in the morning, he used to lie awake, 
 chanting the psalms, most of which he had by heart. When 
 after this he slept, he felt that Ids dreams were from heaven. 
 
 Bodin was conseiller to the due d'Alen9on, and from him had 
 some valuable appointments. He past into the service of Henry 
 III. of France, but royal favour is capricious, and we find Bodin 
 again with the duke on more than one visit to England, when 
 some matrimonial speculations of his or Elizabeth's brought that 
 piince in the character of what would seem a fiivoured suitor to the 
 court of the matm-e virgin queen. Bodin ^^sited Cambridge, and 
 found that his book, " De Eepublica," had been translated into 
 Latm by some Englishman, and that it was referred to in their 
 lectures by some tutors at Cambridge. This led liim, on his return 
 to France, to translate it into Latin, the form in which it is most 
 pleasant to consult it. We have read the book, and think it 
 merits all the praise bestowed on it. The book is altered and 
 enlarged in the Latin translation. A chapter or two of the ori- 
 ginal is omitted in the translation, and there are some impor- 
 tant additions, particularly in the fifth book, on the varieties ^f 
 government as adapted to different nations. In the fourth book 
 is a curious chapter, in which he enters into astrological inquiries 
 with the view of ascertaining whether the fate of kingdoms car. 
 be foreseen, by examining the horoscope under which then- 
 capital cities were built. Of Bodin's works, one, which remained 
 in manuscript till IS-ll, " Heptajdomeres, sive Colloquium de 
 abditis reiiim sublimium arcanis," was extensively cumulated in 
 manuscript. Grotius obtained a copy for the ptu-pose of answer- 
 ing it ; the reputation of its being an infidel tract suggesting 
 the fitness of its being placed in his hands. It is a dialogue be- 
 tween believers of different creeds, each ^^ndicating his own, and 
 a sceptic, who resists all. The sceptic represents pure theism. 
 Bodin was sent from his department deputy from the tiers etat 
 to the parUament of Blois. He was what would be called in 
 the language of modern politics a hberal. He resisted soms 
 objects of the crown, and was in consequence deprived of a 
 lucrative office which he held during the royal pleasure. He 
 died of the plague at Laon in 1596, directing in his will that 
 he shoidd be biuned in the church of the Carmelites. Bodin 
 lived at a period when we are to regard little the accounts which 
 learned men give of each other's religion. In spite of his zeal 
 against witches and all famihar spiiits except his own, Bodin, 
 in his greater works, preaches toleration to prince and people ; 
 and it would seem that he requii-ed the indulgence which he was 
 disposed to give. He is said by Jlercier to have been a Carme- 
 lite in his boyhood, by De Thou to have been for a while a Cal- 
 vinist, and a correspondent of Scaliger enters into serious details 
 with the object of proving him a Jew. He died in poverty, 
 leaving a daughter who became insane, and who is mentioned as 
 having lived to a great age. — J. A., D.
 
 BOD 
 
 641 
 
 BOE 
 
 BODLEY, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian Library. 
 Few names demand more respectful mention in a work so much 
 occupied as the present with bibliographical references, than the 
 name of the generous and accomplished Englishman, whose un- 
 tiring labom-s in collecting and arranging the literary treasures 
 of his country are attested by so magnificent a monument as the 
 great Ubrary of Oxford. Sir Thomas Bodlcy was born in 1545 
 at Exeter, where his father, John Boadlcy, or as he spelled the 
 name, Boadleigh, the descendant of an opulent Devonshire family, 
 was then residing. John Boadley being a known enemy to 
 popery, shortly after the commencement of the reign of Queen 
 Mary, found it convenient to exchange his residence at Exeter 
 for a safer one at Geneva, and accordingly arrived in the latter 
 town with his family in 1557. Here Thomas, who had pre- 
 viously learned grammar, attended lectures on Hebrew and 
 Greek, and those of Calvin and Beza on divinity, manifesting 
 for these studies remarkable talents and enthusiasm. The family 
 having returned to England on the death of Queen Mary, he was 
 entered at Magdalen college, Oxford, in 1559 ; shortly after was 
 received B.A. ; and in 1563 was elected fellow of Merton college. 
 In 156G, after earning considerable reputation by reading lec- 
 tiu-es to his college on the Greek language, he proceeded M.A. ; 
 next year read natural philosophy in the public schools ; and in 
 1569 served the office of junior proctor. In 1583 we find him 
 employed on a mission to the king of Denmark, the duke of 
 Brunswick, and other German princes; some time aftervifards 
 iiiti-usted with an embassy of great secrecy and importance, which 
 suited, as a state communication from the gi-eat protestant 
 rineess to Hemy III. could not fail to do, hi advantage to the 
 rutestant party in France; and still later, in charge of English 
 ■ terests at the Hague, which he did not finally quit till 1597. 
 »ii his return to England, Burghley recommended him for secre- 
 - iiy of state ; but his claims to that high distinction having also 
 In^en m'ged by Essex, the former withdrew his patronage, and 
 Uodley, disappointed of a reward to which his diplomatic services 
 had fali-ly entitled him, retired altogether from the arena of 
 jiolitics, canying with him, however, a determination to make 
 himself useful to his country in a private station. That deter- 
 mination, as he says himself, at last took the shape of setting up 
 his staff at the library door of Oxon, and of endeavouring to 
 reduce that place, which then in every part lay i-uined and waste, 
 to the public use of students. When in 1598 he set about 
 the accomplishment of this toilsome work, in consequence of the 
 ih'solation which attended the wars of the Roses, still more of 
 the Vandalism which marked the period of the Reformation, and 
 yet more of the worse Vandalism of thef'tuous visitors, all that 
 remained of the ancient libraiy of Oxford was so msignificant a 
 part of the riches bequeathed to it by Roger Lisle, Humphrey of 
 (iloucester, and others, as to be at once an insult to their memory 
 and a reproach to the nation. In 1602 the task which Bodlcy 
 had assigned himself, and which, as Camden says, " would have 
 suited the character of a crowned head," was so far advanced, 
 that 2000 volumes having been deposited in the library and 
 duly catalogued, a solemn procession of members of the univer- 
 sity was ordered, to mark so important an epoch in its history. 
 After this period the literary stores of Oxford increased so rapidly, 
 that a larger building was required for their accommodation, and 
 of this BotUey, who had shortly before been knighted, had the 
 satisfaction of laying the foundation-stone. Before its comple- 
 tion, however, his honourable and useful life closed at his house 
 in London, January, 1617. — J. S., G. 
 
 BODMER, JoiiANN Jacob, a celebrated German critic and 
 poet, was bom at Greifensee, near Zurich, July 19, 1698. At 
 an early age he became conversant not only with the ancients, 
 but also with the classical poets of Franco, England, and Italy, 
 and thus was awakened to a sense of the low state of Ger- 
 man literature, and of its want of sound criticism. Both by 
 his critical writings — " Discurse derMalcr;" "Kritische Bride," 
 &c., — and his able editions of old Gennau poetiy^the " Nibe- 
 lungen," and the "Manesse Collection of flic Minnesingers," — he 
 greatly improved the prevalent taste of his countrymen, and 
 rendered such important services to German literature, that he is 
 justly reckoned one of the forerunners of its golden age. He 
 and his friends, Bretinger, &c., are distinguished by the name 
 of the Swiss school, and are particularly famous for their con- 
 troversy with Gottsched, the head of the Saxon school. His 
 own poetical writings, of which only the "Noachide," an epic 
 poem, is worth mentioning, are deficient in elevation and imagi- 
 voi.. I. 
 
 nation. He died at Zurich in 1783, where he had been pro- 
 fessor of history and member of the great council. — K. E. 
 
 BOECE or BOYCE, Hector, a Scotrish historian, born at 
 Dundee about the year 1465. He received the first rudiments 
 of learning in his native town, and completed his education in 
 Montague college, Paris, where he took the degi-ee of A.IM. in 
 1494. Three years later he was appointed professor of philo- 
 sophy in the same college. Here he gained the fiiendship of a 
 number of learned men, among others of the celebrated Erasmus, 
 who kept up a correspondence with him, and as a mark of his 
 regard, dedicated to him a catalogue of his works ; he calls Boece 
 " vir singularis ingenii felicitatis et facundioris." On the establish- 
 ment of King's college, Aberdeen, by Bishop Elphinstone, Boece 
 was induced to resign his professorshiii, and to accept the office 
 of principal of the new seminary. His zealous efforts, combined 
 with those of his coadjutor William Hay, his fellow-student both 
 in Scotland and France, contributed greatly to promote the cause 
 of learning and education in tiie northern districts of the country. 
 In 1522, Boece published his first work, the " Lives of the 
 Bishops of Mortlach and Aberdeen, from 1015 down to 1518." 
 One-third of the work is occupied with the biography of his friend, 
 the excellent Bishop Elphinstone. Five years later appeared 
 Boece's most famous work, "The History of the Scots." The publi- 
 cation of Major's history in 1521, is supposed to have led Boece 
 to undertake a similar work. He professes to have found in the 
 monastery of Icolmkill, the writings of certain Scottish historians, 
 among others, of Veremundus, archdeacon of St. Andrews, and 
 CorneUus Campbell, and to have made these the groundwork of 
 his history. Bishop Stillingfleet, however, alleges that these 
 authors and their writings never existed, save in Boece's fertile 
 imagination, and it is at least certain that not a single vestige of 
 their works is now to be found. Boece's object seems to have 
 been to clothe the rude chronicles of his native land in a classical 
 dress, and to embelhsh the meagre lists of its fictitious kings with 
 what he considered suitable characters and actions, without the 
 slightest regard to fiicts. According to Bishop Lloyd, he put 
 Fordun's tales " into the form of a history, and pieced them out 
 with a very good invention — that part in which he chiefly ex- 
 celled." His work, indeed, which once enjoyed a high rej)utation, 
 and undoubtedly displays great command of the Latin language, is 
 now remembered only as a receptacle for the wildest of the fables 
 which used to be authoritatively received as a faithful record of 
 the early history of Scotland. In justice to Boece, however, we 
 must not pass unnoticed the ardent patriotism and love of free- 
 dom, which his work displays throughout. It has been well 
 remarked by Maitland, that, " m forming a final estimate of the 
 literary character of I5oece we must bear in mind that when 
 scholarcraft — in this countiy at least — was rare, he was a scholar, 
 and contributed by reviving ancient learning to dispel the gloom 
 of the middle ages ; and that while the history of his countiy 
 existed only in the rude pages of the chroniclers who preceded 
 him, or in the fading records of oral tradition, he embodied it in 
 narrative so interesting, and language so beautiful, as to be 
 worthy of a more refined age." In 1527, the year of the publi- 
 cation of his history, James V. bestowed upon Boece a pension of 
 fifty pounds, which apparently was doubled two years later. 
 He was also appointed a canon of Aberdeen, and subsequently 
 rector of Fyvie in the same county, which preferment he held 
 till his death in 1536, when he must have attained the age of 
 threescore and ten. Bellenden's trai-islation of Boece's history 
 was published in the same year. The leai-ning and abihty of 
 Boece seem to have been highly appreciated by the citizens of 
 Aberdeen, for in 1528 the magistrates voted him a present of a 
 tun of wine when the new wines should anive, or, according to 
 his option, the sum of twenty pounds Scots, "to help to buy 
 him bonnets." His brother Arthur, a doctor of canon law, and 
 a licentiate in civil law, held the office of professor of canon law 
 in King's college, while Hector was principal. He was the author 
 of a book of excerpts from the canon law. — (Irving's Literary 
 Scotchmen of the lust four centuries, vol. i. ; IMaitland's Biorj. 
 Introduction to Bellcnden.') — J. T. 
 
 * BOECKII, AuGi'ST, one of the greatest living philologists, 
 was born at Karlsruhe, November 24, 1785, and studied at 
 Ilalle under F. A. Wolf. As early as 1807 he was appointed 
 professor extraordinary, and two years later professor ordinarius, 
 at Heidelberg. In 1811 he was called to a chair at Berlin. 
 The results which for more than half a century have been flowing 
 from his lectures, his writings, and his example, have been most 
 
 4 M
 
 extensive and most beneficial. Tlie several branches of antiquarian 
 lore which formerly had laid claim to the name of pbiloloEj^-, 
 have been united by Boeckh into one organic stracture. Pliilo- 
 logy, according to him, is the systematic knowledge of eveiy- 
 tliing that has been laiown ; it is the learned revival of a nation's 
 life in all its bearings upon public and domestic affairs, upon 
 history and politics, upon religion, literature, science, and arts. 
 Tliis definition, of which Boeckli has given an outline in the 
 Transactions of the Gemian Association of Philologists, Berlin, 
 1850, engaged him in a protracted controversy with the Saxon 
 school of philologists, and particularly vrith the celebrated G. 
 Hermann, who pertinaciously stuck to what is now generally 
 considered a misconception, that the true aim and office of philo- 
 logy was the art of elucidating and coiTecting the tests of the 
 ancients. Boeckh has given ample proofs of the import of his 
 theory in his own works. In his edition of Pindar he has not 
 only admirably corrected the text of this author, but at the 
 same time laid do^Ti a new theory of ancient versification. His 
 " PoHtical Economy of the Athenians," translated into English 
 by Lewis, London, 1828, and his " Corpus Inscriptionum 
 Graecanun," which he edited together with Joh. Franz for the 
 Berlin Academy, are works of vast erudition and admirable 
 critical acumen. Among the other productions of his pen, 
 deserve to be mentioned — " ]\Ietrologische Untersuchungen ; " 
 "Urkundee iiber das Attische Senwesen ; " "Manetho imd die 
 Hundstemperiode ; " his edition of the Antigona of Sophocles ; 
 and his academical speeches. — K. E. 
 
 BOECKH, CuRisTiAX Gottfried, a German educational 
 writer, bom in 1732 at a village near Nordlingen, became deacon 
 of the principal church in that town. By the publication of a 
 weekly journal, devoted to a discussion of questions connected 
 with popular instruction, and by such ^yorks as his " Journal for 
 Children," 14 volumes, 1780-83, and his " Chronicle for Youth," 
 4 volumes, 1785-88, he materially influenced the progress of 
 education in Germany. Died in 1792. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOECLER, JoHX, a French medical man and botanist, was 
 bom in 1681, and died in 1733. He was professor of medicine 
 at Strasburg, and in 1719 he exchanged this office for the chair 
 of chemistry and botany. He was the author of numerous 
 memoirs on medical, chemical, and botanical subjects. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOECLER, John Philip, son of the preceding, was born at 
 Strasburg, 21st September, 1710, and died 19th Hay, 1759. 
 He took the degreee of doctor of medicine in 1733. In 1734 he 
 became professor of physics, and in 1736 he succeeded Salzmann 
 as professor of chemistry, botany, and materia mcdica. He 
 visited France, and secui-ed the friendship of many of the leamed 
 men of that country. He is the author of works on physics, 
 memoirs on various remedies, as fennel, coriander, &c. — J. H. B. 
 
 BCEHM, Jacob, commonly called Beiimex, the celebrated 
 German mystic, was born of poor parents, near Gorlitz, in Upper 
 Lusatia. At the age of ten years sent forth from home to earn 
 his daily bread, as a shepherd boy, among the hills and forests of 
 his native district ; although utterly uninstructed, it was with a 
 character for pious and imaginative susceptibility already fomied 
 that he followed his very humble destiny into the desert and 
 along the mountain ridge, every voice and feature of which was 
 fitted to awaken in such a nature as his emotions that would 
 appear to be more spoken of than felt in the histoiy of mysticism. 
 At a later period, when he had exchanged his pastoral occupation 
 for the respectable but not verj' romantic trade of a shoemaker, 
 the visionaiy voices that beset him in the desert did not forsake 
 him in the shop ; but still increasing in volubility, occupied his 
 imagination to the point of maldng him appear to his fellow- work- 
 men an idiot, or at the least a fool. At Gorlitz, where he settled 
 after making the customary tour of a journeyman mechanic, he 
 mamed in 1594, and continuing to labour in the way of his 
 calhng, at the same time that he pursued the thcologico-mystical 
 reseai-ches into which his early familiarity with the spirits of the air 
 had conducted him, lived unknown for the long period of sixteen 
 years. In 1012, however, emerging from obscurity, not so much 
 by means of his " Aurora," then published, as by the help of 
 some clergymen of the- neighbourhood, who made their com- 
 plaints of its dangerous tendencies heard throughout Gennany, he 
 was thenceforth to give to the world innumerable visions, to be 
 reputed the head of a sect, and to occupy a distinguished, if not 
 an enviable place iu the histoiy of mysticism. In all he pub- 
 lished no fewer than thirty pieces ; each of which, abounding in 
 the eiTors of Paracelsus and the English mystic, Robert Fludd, 
 
 and what was no less a channing feature of each, in the vagaries 
 of an imagination which it is impossible to characterize except 
 as the imagination of Jacob Bochm, was eagerly bought by a 
 host of enthusiasts, declaimed with great energy in every Ger- 
 man hamlet, and then all but forgotten. He died at Gorlitz in 
 1623. His works were collected and printed at Amsterdam in 
 1730, under the title of " Theosophia Revelata." — J. S., G. 
 
 BOEHMER, George Ralph, a German phyisician and bota- 
 nist, was born at Liegnitz in 1723, and died in 1803. He 
 studied at Leipzig under Platner and Ludwig, and became doc- 
 tor of medicine in 1720. In 1752 he was appointed to the chair 
 of anatomy and botany in the university of Wittemberg. He 
 kept up the botanic garden, and founded an anatomical and 
 surgical museum. In 1783 he was chosen professor of thera- 
 peutics, and he finally became dean of the medical faculty of the 
 university. Jacquin has named a genus of Urticacea? Boehmeria 
 after him. He published a large nimiber of treatises, chiefly on 
 botany. Among them may be noticed, " Flora of Leipzig ; " ''An 
 Account of writers on Natural History ; " " Account of Econo- 
 mical Plants;" a "Botanical Lexicon;" "Dissertations on 
 Meloeactus, Nectaries of Flowers, Colom-s of Flowers, Deciduous 
 Leaves," &c.— J. H. B. 
 
 BOEL, Cornelius, a Flemish engi-aver, born at Antwerp 
 about 1580. He worked with that neat, clear graver, in the 
 style of the Sadelers, of whose school he was. He worked in 
 England ; but his chef-d'ceuvres were plates of Charles I., and 
 battles after Tempesta. — W. T. 
 
 BOEL, Peter, a painter of birds, animals, flowers, and fruit, 
 bom at Antwerp in 1625, and a pupil of the robust Snyders and 
 his uncle, Comelius de Waal, whom he followed to Genoa. On 
 his retm-n to Flanders he was much patronized. He finally 
 went to Paris, and became successor to Nicasius, another pupil 
 of Snyders, as court painter. He died in 1680. His best pic- 
 tures are the "Fom* Elements;" and he etched some muscular 
 birds of prey and animals. He drew from nature; his pencil 
 was bold, free, and fluent, and his colour — " tint of colour," 
 as Pilkington calls it — was much admired. — Querin Boel, his 
 relation, was bom at Antwerp in 1622. He engraved several 
 menymakings from Teniers for a book called the Teniers' 
 GalleiT, published by the Ai'chduke Leopold, who had a collec- 
 tion of D. T.S.— W. T. 
 
 BOEL, WiLLiASi, a botanist of the seventeenth century, was 
 a native of the Netherlands. He travelled in various parts of 
 Germany and Spain, and he also visited Tunis. He published a 
 Herbal during his residence at Lisbon. He was a correspondent 
 of Clusins.— J. H. B. 
 
 BOENNIXGHAUSEN, C. M. F. vox, a German botanist uf 
 the present century. He published in 1821 a " Nomenclator 
 Botanicus," containing an account of Westphalian plants, and in 
 1824 a work entitled " Prodromus Florje Mouasteriensis West- 
 phaloram Phanerogamife." — J. H. B. 
 
 BOERHAAVE, Hermann, one of the most celebrated phy- 
 sicians of the eighteenth centuiy, was born at Voorhout, about 
 two miles from Leyden, on 31st December, 1608, and died on 
 23d September, 1738. He was carefully educated by his father, 
 who intended him for the clerical profession. He made rapid 
 progi-ess in his studies, and by the time he was eleven years old 
 he had become acquainted with Greek and Latin. His studies 
 were inteniipted for some time by ill health. In 1082 he went 
 to school at Leyden. About a year and a half afterwards his 
 father died, leaving a family of nine children, who were by no 
 means well pro\'ided for. Hemiann, the eldest, was only sixteen 
 years old. He was enabled, however, to enter the university of 
 Leyden, where he prosecuted his classical and philosopliical stu- 
 dies. By means of mathematical teaching, he secured funds 
 sufficient for continuing his studies. In 1689, under the presi- 
 dency of Gronovius, he delivered an oration pro^•^ng that the 
 doctrine of Epicums concerning the chief good was well under- 
 stood by Cicero. In this he gained a gold medal as a reward. 
 In 1690 he obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy, and 
 produced an inaugural dissertation on the distinction between 
 mind and body, in wliich he attacked the doctrine of Epicuius, 
 Hobljes, and Spinoza. He now entered on theological studies by 
 attending the classes of Hebrew and church histoiy under Trig- 
 land and Spanheim. By the advice, and with the aid of John 
 Vandenburg, burgomaster of Leyden, he entered upon the study 
 of medicine, while he continued his mathematical and theological 
 classes. He finally, however, devoted himself entirely to medical
 
 BOE 
 
 643 
 
 BOE 
 
 science. In his anatomical pursuits, he was assisted by the 
 works of Vesalius, Fallopius, and Bartholin. He studied espe- 
 cially the fathers of physic, and took as his models Hippocrates 
 ;ind Sydenham. Chemistry and botany also claimed a large 
 share of his attention. In July, 1G93, he took the degree of 
 iloctor of medicine at the miiversity of Harderwyck in Guelder- 
 land, his thesis being on the advantages which result fi-om an 
 examination of the excretions in diseases. In 1701 he was chosen 
 lecturer on the institutes of medicine in Leyden, in room of 
 Drelincomt, and he commenced his duties by a discom-se m 
 favour of the study of Hippocrates. In 1709 he became pro- 
 fessor of medicine and botany in place of Hotton, and inangu- 
 • ited his work by a lectiu-e on the necessity of returning to the 
 1 imitive simplicity of medicine. His zeal for botany was gi-eat. 
 I [e extended the botanic garden at Leyden, and pubhshed many 
 otanical memoirs. He gave descriptions of new plants, and 
 1. limed many new genera. In 1714 he became rector of the 
 university, and succeeded Bidloo in the chair of practice in 
 physic. He may be said to be the founder of clinical instruction 
 in medicine, for he not only gave lectiu'cs on medicine, but 
 also explained cases in the hospital to his pupils. He published 
 at this time two standard medical works — " Aphorismi de 
 cognoscendis et cm'andis hominum morbis," and " lustitutiones 
 Medicte." He attained a high reputation in Em-ope as a medi- 
 al man, and acquhed a large fortune by practice. His fame 
 ittracted pupils from all quarters. In 1718 he succeeded Le Jlort 
 in the professorship of chemistiy, and delivered an inaugural 
 discom"se, which is the basis of his famous " Elements of Che- 
 ndstry." He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Palis in 1728, and of the Royal Society of London in 1730. 
 His health began to fail about the year 1722, and he finally 
 resigned the chair of botany and chemistry in 1729. In his 
 final address to his pupils, he reverted to the doctiines of Hippo- 
 crates, and declared that man to be the first physician who knew 
 how to wait for and second the efforts of nature. Although he 
 had rehnquished his public duties, he still continued his private 
 labours until the year 1738, when he expired at the age of sixty- 
 nine. At the age of sixty-seven he had an interview with Linna3us. 
 The town of Leyden erected a monument to him in the church 
 of St. Peter's. His funeral oration was delivered by his friend, 
 the Rev. M. Schultens. Few medical men have attamed such 
 celebrity as Boerhaave. With all his learning he seems to have 
 t>cen a humble christian. Haller speaks of his venerable sim- 
 ;ilicity and his power of persuasion, and he states that he had 
 ■ Aen heard him say, when speaking of the gospel precepts, that 
 the Divme Teacher had shown in the Bible far more knowledge 
 of the human heart than Socrates with all his wisdom. The 
 -,vorks of Boerhaave are multiplied, and embrace the whole range 
 if medical science. Among them may be noticed his various 
 iiiatigiual orations, on enteiing on different chahs — " lustitu- 
 tiones Medicaj ;" " ^ledical Aphorisms ;" " Catalogue of Plants in 
 the Leyden Gai-den ;" " Histoiy of Plants ;" " i\Iateria Medica ;" 
 " Elements of Chemistry;" treatises on lues venerea, on plague, 
 on mercury, on diseases of the eyes, on cluiical practice, besides 
 numerous works edited by him. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOERNE, LuDwiG, one of the most eminent humorous and 
 pohtical writers of Gemiany, was bom at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Maine, Jlay 22, 1786. His father, Jacob Baruch, was a Jewish 
 banker in easy circumstances, who is said to have been a school- 
 fellow of Prmce Metternich, and who enjoyed so high an autho- 
 rity with the members of his community, that afterwards he 
 was chosen their representative at the congress of Vienna, His 
 grandfather, a fine old gentleman, had been financial agent to 
 the electoral see of Cologne ; and by his efforts the election of 
 the Ai-chduke Maximihan, son to ilaria Theresa, had been 
 brought about in 1780, a sen-ice which for a long time was 
 gratefully remembered at the court of Vienna. Young Lob 
 I'aruch, when yet a child, already keenly felt the hateful oppres- 
 sion under w^hich the Jews were labom-ing in his native town ; 
 shut up in their " Judengasse," they were subject to the most 
 humiliating insults from theu- christian fellow-citizens ; and 
 even some twenty years later Barach was described in his pass- 
 port as a " Juif de Frankfort." Having taken his degree as 
 Ph.D. at Giessen, he became secretary of police in his native 
 town, a remarkable circumstance in the life of such a radical 
 and indeed revolutionai-y writer. When, however, instead of the 
 Napoleonic gi-and-duchy the free town of Frankfort was re-estab- 
 lished, Dr. Baracli, as a Jew, was dismissed from office with a 
 
 pension of 700 florins. In 1818 he in secret became a convert 
 to the protestant church, and adopted the name Ludwig Borne, 
 of which he has given a ludicrous etymology in his " Letters 
 from Paris." Free from all official and rehgious restraint, he now 
 entered upon his literai-y career. From 1818-22 he published 
 the " Waage, eine Zeitschrift fur Burgerleben, Wissenschaft und 
 Kunst " (The Balance, a Joiu-nal for Ci\-ic Life, Science, and 
 the Arts), which at its very outset won him the esteem of the 
 German literary world; and in 1819, "Die Zeitschwingen " 
 (The Wings of Time). He then led a sickly and unsettled 
 life until 1830, when, attracted by the French revolution, he 
 fixed his residence at Paris, where he died February 13, 1837, 
 and was buried in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. • Borne's 
 political writings, especially his " Letters from Paris," which 
 roused the Gennan people to all but action, are dictated by a 
 violent revolutionary spirit, which, however, had its only source 
 in his fervent patriotism. There were in Germany no freedom of 
 conscience, no liberty of the press, no juries, no imiformity of law ; 
 and aU legal means of obtaining redi-ess of such an unnatural and 
 unworthy state had been exhausted in vain. The liberal party, 
 therefore, at last could not bar themselves from the melancholy 
 con-\action, that only a passage through the Red Sea of revolu- 
 tion could lead Germany to the land of promise of national and 
 pohtical independence. By the eloquent display of such prin- 
 ciples. Borne, of course, gave great offence, not only to the 
 powers that be, but also to a great number of well-meaning men, 
 and even members of his own political creed, who meekly endea- 
 voured to attain the same ends by means of pohtical reform. 
 No one, however, of all his enemies dared to doubt the disinter- 
 estedness and integrity of his motives and character. Borne's 
 hterary fame chiefly rests upon his non-political writings. His 
 style has all the beauties of Jean Paul's, without its blemishes : it 
 is distinguished by deep thought and tender feeling, blended with 
 sparkling wit and sprightly plaj-fulness ; by purity, clearness, and 
 easy elegance. His humorous essays are unrivalled masterpieces ; 
 his dramatic critiques take rank with those of Lessing. The last 
 production of his pen, his pohtical and hterary will, as it were 
 - — for it was written only a few months before his death, — was 
 " Menzel der Franzosenfresser " (Jlenzel the Gallophagus), an 
 annihilating reply to Wolfgang Jlenzel, the well-known critic and 
 historian, who had taxed him with his revolutionaiy pmeiples 
 and his love of the French. Bome indeed loved France, not as 
 his own, but as his adopted country, and had gi-adually become a 
 great admirer of the French ; his great pohtical ideal bemg an 
 independent alliance of the French and Gei-man nations, between 
 whom, to speak with Hamlet, 
 
 " Freedom, like the palm, might flourish, 
 Aud peace her wheaten garland wear." 
 
 It therefore was an object of the highest importance to lum to 
 make himself understood also by the French, w-ith whom he 
 hoped for a speedier success than with his dull and tardy 
 countrymen. At his own expense he started two French perio- 
 dicals, Le Ri^furmateur and La Balance^ to which he contributed 
 a number of eminent articles in French, which after his death 
 were collected and edited by jM. de Connenin — " Fragments 
 Pohtiques et Litterahes par L. B.," Paris, 1842. His collected 
 writings appeared in 16 vols. ; his posthumous writings in 6 vols. 
 — {Life, by K. Gutzkow; Hamburg, 1840.)— K. E. 
 
 BOERNER, Christi.\:^ Friedrich, a noted German divine, 
 born at Dresden in 1683. After travelling through Holland and 
 England, he became professor of theology at Leipzig, where he 
 died in 1753. An ancient JIS. of a part of the New Testament 
 is called, from haraig been in his possession. Codex Boerneria- 
 nus. It contams, with the exception of the Hebrews, the epistles 
 of St. Paul, and is supposed to have been w-ritteh in the West 
 between the eighth and twelfth centm-ies. Boemer is the author 
 of a number oi works, which amply sustain his fiune for prodi- 
 gious erudition. These are editions of Luther's works and Le 
 Long's Bibliotheca Sacra ; " De Exulibus Grrecis iisdemque Lit- 
 termaim in Italia Instauratoribus," 1750 ; " De Socrate ;" " De 
 Ortu atque Progressu Philosophise Jloralis," 1707 ; and " Dis- 
 sertationes Sacrae," 1752. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOESCHENSTEIN, Johakn, professor of Hebrew at Wit- 
 temberg, noted as one of the restorers of that language in 
 Germany, was born toward the close of the fifteenth centiuy. 
 His Hebrew grammar was pubhshed m 1514 under the care of 
 liis pupil Blelancthon. — J. S., G.
 
 BOE 
 
 G44 
 
 BOE 
 
 BOETHIUS, Axicius Maxlius Severinus, a philosopher, 
 was the son of Flavius Llaulius Boetliius, who held the consul- 
 ship in 487. The fancy of Bertius, one of his editors, has 
 prefixed the prsenomen of Flavius to the philosophers name, 
 and the earlier editions inserted Torquatns into it on worthless 
 authority. The exact date of his birth has been disputed, some 
 assigning it to about 455, and others to about 475. The 
 latter is the true one. For he tells us himself (De Consol. Phil. 
 I. carm. 1, 9), that his exile brought on him premature grey 
 hairs, and, as he was beheaded about the year 524, the statement 
 would be absurd of a man of seventy. At an early period he lost 
 his father, but some of the chief men in Rome took charge of 
 the youtli, and thus he had the benefit of a thorough education. 
 He was a gi-cat student of mathematics and music, but his time 
 was principally devoted to the study of Greek philosophy. 
 Some authors indeed state that he went to Athens to prosecute 
 his studies, but this is a mistake, arising from a misinterpreta- 
 tion, or rather an incorrect reading of a passage in Cassiodorus 
 (Var. Ep. I., 45), which, coiTectly read, states exactly the 
 reverse. He tells us himself that he had civil honours heaped 
 upon him, that he was blessed with a chaste wife, and that he had 
 the rare felicity of seeing his two sons proceed from his house as 
 consuls amid a concourse of senators, of acting as public orator 
 of the king's praises, while they occupied their cui-ule chairs, and 
 of showering down on the multitude a triumphal largess, as he 
 sat in the circus between the two consuls. (De Consol. Phil. II. 3.) 
 The name of his wife was Rusticiana. She was his only wife, 
 though later traditions speak of Elpis, the authoress of a hymn 
 (Daniel. Thes. Hymn. I., p. 156), as having been manned to him. 
 His two sons were called Anicius Slanlius Severinus Boethius 
 and Q. Am-elius !Memmius Symmachus. Boethius was not 
 destined to enjoy uninteriiipted prosperity. His veiy goodness 
 seems to have brought upon him earthly misfortunes — we cannot 
 say miseiy, for he was as happy in his disgi-ace as when fortune 
 lavished her smiles iipon him. Before he had been created con- 
 sul, he had gained the friendship of Theodoric, king of the Goths, 
 and through his assistance he had perfonned many important 
 sen-ices to the state, especially in reforming the coinage, and 
 preventing the people of Campania from being exposed to famine. 
 He showed himself also a friend of the oppressed, and was often 
 the means of liberating men who were accused for base purposes 
 by informers of the court, though perfectly innocent. His active 
 benevolence brought upon him the hatred of the courtiers, and 
 so on the first opportunity that presented itself, he fell a victim 
 to tlielr malice. The inforaiere against him were three scoun- 
 drels, one of whom, Basilius, had been discharged the royal 
 sers-ice, and now thought to clear off some debt by informing 
 against Boethius; while the other two, Opilio and Gaudentius, 
 had been sentenced to banishment on account of innumerable 
 frauds, but on the vei-y day on which they were to have left, 
 conceived the project of prolonging theu: stay by discovering a 
 plot against the king. Boethius was accused of wshing to restore 
 liberty to the Romans and their old rights to the senate, and he 
 was said for this purpose to have sent a letter to the Emperor 
 Justinus. Boethius expressly affirms that this letter was a 
 forgerj'. (De Cons. Phil. I., 4.) Theodoric confined Boethius 
 and his son Symmachus in the prison at Ticinum without grant- 
 ing them a hearing. It was in this prison tliat Boethius wrote 
 his famous work, " De Consolatione Philosophiaa." His property 
 was confiscated, and several years after he and his son were 
 beheaded. His noble wife, Rusticiana, was reduced to such 
 straits that she had to beg her daily bread. (Procop. Goth. III., 
 20.) The Roman catholic church subsequently canonized Boe- 
 thius, and the story was current that the philosopher had been 
 beheaded in consequence of his opposition to Arianism, and had 
 given a decided proof of liis Roman cathoUc saintship by holding 
 up with both his hands his head, after it had been torn oft' by a 
 royal javelin-thrower. 
 
 Boethius translated very many Greek works, and commented 
 on them. He tells us himself that it was his wish to translate 
 the whole of Aristotle's works, and to attempt the reconciliation 
 of jVristotlc's philosophy with that of Plato. He did not accom- 
 plish his design. He translated only Aristotle's Analytica priora 
 et posteriora, and Aristotle's Topica and Elencha Sophistica ; 
 and wrote commentaries on the Isagoge of Porphyrins, on Aris- 
 totle's Categoriai, on Aiistotle's book ^ifi £«ii-/;«£,'aj, on the Topica 
 of Cicero, and also a commentary on the Topica of Aristotle, 
 though this last has not come down to us. Besides this, he 
 
 wrote " Introductio ad Categoricos Syllogismos," in one book; 
 " De Syllogismis Hypotheticis," in two books; " De Definitione," 
 in one book; " De Divisione," in one book; "De Dlfi'erentiis 
 Topicis," in fom- books; " De Arithmetica," in two books; " De 
 Musica," in five books ; " De Consolatione Philosophia?," in five 
 books. He also translated Nicomachus on Arithmetic, Pytha- 
 goras on Music, Euclid on Geometry, Ptolemy on Astronomy, 
 and the Mechanics of Archimedes. Even this is not a complete 
 list of the works ascribed to him by his contemporaries. The 
 writers of the middle ages ascribed to him a vast number in 
 addition to these. The works De Unitate et Uno and De Hebdo- 
 madibus have been generally assigned to him, though most 
 probably they are not his. Four theological works have also 
 been attributed to him — De Sancta Trinitate ; Utrum Pater et 
 Filius et Spiritus Sanctus substantialiter prajdicantur; De Duabus 
 Naturis in Christo contra Eutychen et Nestorimn ; Complexio 
 brevis Christiana? fidei. 
 
 His work " On the Consolation of Philosophy" is by far the 
 most remarkable of his productions. It consists of five books. 
 He sets out with lamenting the wretched fortiuie that sent him 
 into exile, when a woman of dignified aspect, Mith clear and 
 bmiiing eyes and fresh colour, appears to him and holds conver- 
 sations with him. This woman is Philosophy. She discusses 
 the nature of his grief; shows that there is no real cause for it, 
 by exhibiting the fleeting natm'e of earthly possessions and joys; 
 and then points him to the source' of tnie happiness. Finding 
 in God the highest good, she proves that only the wicked are 
 really unhappy ; and she answers the doubts and difficulties 
 which suggest themselves to him by discussing the trae nature 
 of pro^■idence and fate ; and she ends with unfolding to him 
 what is implied by the word chance and by freedom of the will. 
 The book is written with gi-eat clearness and beauty, and the 
 interest of it rises, like that of a great poem, till m the fifth 
 book, the solution of the questions connected v>ith free-will draws 
 out the highest powers of the author, and charms, if it does not 
 satisify, the student of metaphysics. The structm-e of the book 
 is peculiar, being half poetiy half prose, the poetry generally 
 being the poetical expression of what has been discussed in prose. 
 
 [His work on music is the most complete account extant of the 
 ancient musical system. It contains extracts from several authors 
 of important authority, whose writings are wholly lost, and, 
 besides valuable deductions from these, extensive original views 
 of Boethius himself. It maintains the principles of Pythagoras 
 in opposition to those of Aristoxenus, refen-ing the determuiation 
 of ratios entirely to calculation, the effort of reason, which is 
 infalhble, rather than to hearing, the ettbrt of sense, which may 
 fail. It demonstrates, in the beautiful spirit of the old philoso- 
 phy, the moral influence of music, which modem experience fully 
 verifies. The most perfect MS. of this interesting treatise, is 
 said to be in the Bodleian library, by which the edition of 
 Meibomius was corrected. So gi'eat was the esteem in which, 
 until a little more than a century since, the opinions of Boe- 
 thius upon music were held, that the granting of degi'ees in this 
 facidty at Oxford and Cambridge, depended upon the candidate's 
 acquaintance with them ; and, at the latter, an essay on his 
 WTitings was the only necessaiy exercise for a doctor's diploma ; 
 he is, on this account, justly supposed to have retarded the 
 progress of the art, his influence having occasioned it to be 
 estimated solely by mathematical principles, long after its liberal 
 exercise as an embodiment of passionate impulse had changed its 
 character from an abstract theory to a living art. — G. A. JI.] 
 
 The best edition of the complete works of Boethius is said to 
 be that published at Basel, 1570. The " Consolation of 
 Philosophy " was very frequently edited in the middle ages ; 
 indeed its influence was most powerful, and it was a favourite 
 with almost all the great minds of those days. Dante praises 
 Boetliius ; Asser wrote commentaries on the work. Alfred the 
 Great translated it into Anglo-Saxon, and interpolated it with 
 reflections of his own. It was also translated into Greek, and 
 into the French and German of the middle ages. It was also 
 frequently imitated, the imitation most worthy of note being 
 that of Chaucer in his Testament of Love. ' The recent 
 editions ai-e that of Valpy in his Delphin Classics, London, 
 1823, Nos. 54 and 55 of the series; and that of Theodorras 
 Obbarius, Jena, 1843. The latter is the only edition suppUed 
 with a critical apparatus. Prefixed are Prolegomena, consisting 
 of three admirable chapters — one on the life of Boethius, another 
 on his religion and philosophy, and the third on the editions and
 
 manuscripts of the " Consolation." The notes, unfortunately, 
 are meagi-e and unsatisfactory, and the text is occasionally dis- 
 figiu'ed by awkward misprints, yet it is by far the best edition. 
 
 The sources for the lil'e of Boethius are his own " Consolation 
 of Pliilosophy," the Letters of Ennodius and Cassiodorus, and 
 the History of Procopius. A hst of the editions of Boethius is 
 given at the end of Valpy's edition. — J. D. 
 
 BOETHIUS, Daniel, a Swedish philosopher, professor at the 
 univei-sity of Ujisal at the commencement of the present centuiy. 
 He was of the Kantian school, and wrote several works on the 
 liir.tory of philosophy.— ^J. D. E. 
 
 BOETHIUS, Jacob, a Swedish divine, successively professor 
 of theology at Upsal and pastor of Mora in Dalccarlia, was born 
 in 1G47 and died in 1718. On the accession of Charles XII. 
 in 1G97, he was condemned to pei-petual imprisonment, for having 
 vented some unsavouiy political opinions in his sermons. After 
 a short release in 1702, for which he was indebted to the Rus- 
 sians, he was again imprisoned, but was finally set at liberty in 
 1710. Rewrote " De Orthographia Linguai Suecana; Tracta- 
 tus ;" " Mercurius Bihnguis ;" and some theological dissertations. 
 
 BOETHUS. The tradition of the Jews traces to Sadok, in 
 conjunction with Boethus, the origin of the sect of the Sadducecs. 
 ' >f the life of Boethus nothing is known. It is probable that, as 
 the Sadducees were the religioiis opponents of the Pharisees, so 
 the followers of Boethus werg the jwlUical adversaries of the 
 dominant party. With the fall of the Jewish polity, political 
 antagonism naturally lost its object, and thus it was, that the 
 Boethusans merged into the sect of the Sadducees, and disap- 
 peared from history. — (Griitz, Gtschichfe der JudeiiJ) — T. T. 
 
 BOETIE, Etienne de la, bom at Sarlat in Perigord in 
 1.530; died in 1563 at Germignan, near Bordeaux. He was 
 educated at the college of Bordeaux under the care of tutors 
 who directed the studies of Montaigne. At the age of twenty- 
 tT\-o he was admitted a conseiller of the parliament of Bordeaux. 
 '■ ii-'tie married a widow, a daughter of whom by her first marriage 
 : j;irried Thomas, brother of Montaigne, the author of the essays. 
 A son of hers married a sister of Montaigne's wife — hence the 
 intimacy with Michael de ^Montaigne, owing to which, more than 
 any other cause, Boetie is now remembered. Boetie published 
 some Latin and French verses at a very early age, and a tract 
 of his, entitled " Voluntary Slaveiy," written by him at the age 
 of sixteen, was for many years circulated in manuscript. This 
 tract is written in a generous spirit, and refers the servitude 
 ■\\\\\d\ men undergo to their own servility of mind. Like most 
 |i<ilitical tracts written without party views, it was attacked 
 •verely by parties opposed to each other. The proposition that 
 
 " War is a game which, were their people wise, 
 Kings should not play at," 
 
 is one not unlikely to give offence both to prince and people. 
 The book was translated into English and into Italian. It was 
 edited by Lamennais in 1835 ; and there is more than one ver- 
 sion of it into modern French. Some poems of Boetie are 
 annexed to many of the editions of Montaigne's Essays. Boetie 
 died of fever. Disregarding the danger of infection, Montaigne 
 attended his deathbed. After his friend's death he published 
 several of his works. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOETTGHER, BOETTGER, or BOETTIGER, Joiiann 
 i'ltiKDRiciT, a celebrated German alchemist, born at Schleiz in 
 the district of Reuss, about the year 1681. At the age of 
 fifteen he was apprenticed to a druggist in Berlin named Zorn. 
 Here he devoted liimself with great zeal to the study of chemistry, 
 and having been excited to search after the secret of the trans- 
 mutation of metals by a manuscript lent to him by another 
 apothccaiy, he passed whole nights in his master's laboratory, 
 making experitnents with a view to this great discovery. Zorn 
 finding that these experiments were made at his expense, whilst, 
 at the same time, his apprentice neglected his proper duties, 
 dismissed him to his own home, but received him again into his 
 service with a promise of better conduct. This, however, was 
 soon broken. Boettcher again returned to his alchemical experi- 
 ments, and soon showed his companions some gold which he took 
 out of a crucible. He was then in danger of arrest, but escaped 
 into Saxony, where he was received by the elector at Dresden 
 with distinction, and furnished with large sums of money to enable 
 him to continue his experiments. The patience of the Elector 
 Augustus lasted for about three years, when Boettcher, probably 
 seeing that a discovery of his trickery was becoming inevitable, 
 
 took his departure from Dresden in the night. He was, however, 
 arrested, and carried back to Dresden, where he gave in a long 
 report upon his secret to the elector, who was by no means 
 satisfied with it. Count von Tschirnhausen now recommended 
 the elector to make use of the great knowledge of chemistry pos- 
 sessed by Boettcher, with the object of developing the resources 
 of the state; and about the end of the year 17U5 he succeeded in 
 making a porcelain nearly equal to that of China in beauty, 
 from a reddish clay found in the neighbom-hood of ilcissen. The 
 value of this discovery was fidly appreciated ; Boettcher was 
 loaded with presents, but was not .set at liberty ; and on the 
 occuiTencc of the Swedish invasion in 1706, his laboratoiy was 
 transfeiTcd in the middle of the night into the fortress of Kiinig- 
 stein. In 1710 this porcelain manufactoiy was removed from 
 Dresden to the Albrechtsbourg at Jleissen, and from that time 
 tliis branch of industry has gradually increased in value. Boett- 
 cher himself was appointed the first director, a position for which 
 his irregular mode of life rendered him by no means fitted. He 
 even attempted to sell his secret to the people of Berlin ; and 
 there was every prospect of his falling mto disgrace, when he died 
 on the 3rd March, 1719.— W. S. D. 
 
 BCETTGER or BGiTTICHER, Christopher Henry, a 
 German medical man, was born at Cassel on 12th June, 1737, 
 and died in that town on 3rd September, 1781. He practised 
 medicine, and was professor of botany at Cassel. His works 
 are — "Account of the Botanic Garden of Cassel;" "The Trees 
 and Shrubs in the Park at Weissenstcin ; " " Inaugural Disputa- 
 tion on Uterine Inflammation ; " and " Description of the 
 Mineral Waters of Hofgeissmar." — J. H. B. 
 
 BCETTICHER, Andrew Julius, a German physician, was 
 born at Wolfenbiittel on 7th July, 1672, and died on 26th July, 
 1719. He was successively professor of anatomy, surgeiy, and 
 botany at Giessen, and of pathology and semeiotics at Helm- 
 stadt. He published works on the voice, on the bones, on 
 respiration of the foetus, on diabetes, and on the plague.— J.H.B. 
 
 * BCETTIGER, Caul Wilhei^m, a German historian, born .at 
 Bautzen, 1790, studied at Weimar, Gotha, and Leipzig; in 
 1819 was inducted to a chair in the latter university; and in 
 1822 became one of the librarians of the university of Erlangen. 
 He has published "Allgemeine Geschichte," 18-19 ; "Deutsche 
 Geschichte," 1838 ; " Geschichte des Deutschen Volks und des 
 Deutschen Landes;" and "Weltgeschichte in Biographiin." 
 
 BOETTO, Giovanile, died at Turin in 1683. He painted 
 allegorical subjects in fresco with knowledge, power, and ele- 
 gance. He was also an engraver. — W. T. 
 
 BOGAN, Zachary, a learned English puritan, celebrated as 
 a linguist, was born at Little Hempston, Devonshire, in 1625. 
 He graduated at Oxford, and, excepting the period of the king's 
 residence in that city, passed his life at the university in devoted 
 application to the study of languages and theology. He wrote, 
 besides his additions to the Archajologia; Atticx of Francis 
 Rous, " Meditations on the Mu-tli of a Christian's Life ;" and "An 
 Alphabetical View of Scripture Threats and Punishments." Died 
 in 1659.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOGATZKY, Karl Heinkich von, author of the book 
 known as " Bogatzky's Golden Treasur}'," a German religious 
 poet of note, was born at Jankowa in Silesia, September 7, 
 1690, and died at Halle, June 15, 1771. He belonged to the 
 school of Spener and Franke. — K. E. 
 
 BOGDANE, James, son of a Hungarian deputy, .and a self- 
 taught painter. Died in 1720. He rejoiced chiefly in fruit, 
 flowers, game, and fowls, which he painted in a graceful, but 
 thin and timid manner, without any bold impaste, or loving 
 minute finish. He was a careful cojiier, and yet often erred in 
 making his heads too large and in false perspective. He came 
 to England and was employed by Queen Anne ; some of his 
 paintings, inferior in strength to Hondekoeter, lumber about 
 the royal palaces. His foliage and foregrounds are false, and 
 supematurally dark in tone. He collected a reasonable fortune, 
 but imprudently assigned it over to his son, who had been snared 
 into a marriage with an adventuress. Bogdane died of vexation 
 at the discovery of the cheat. — W, T. 
 
 BOGDANOWICII, Hippolytus Federowicii, one of the 
 most esteemed lyric poets of Russia, born at Prewolochno, in 
 Little Russia. His father, ha\ing powerful interest in the ma- 
 thematical institute of JIoscow, .sent his son there, intending him 
 to devote himself to the study of the exact sciences. The youth's 
 own inclinations, however, pointed in a different direction ; a
 
 volume of Lomonsoffs poems, and a visit to the tlieatre at Moscow, 
 sufficed to decide bim to abandon mathematics. He addressed 
 himself to Kheraskoff, the director of tlie theatre, and begged to 
 be admitted a member of his company. His personal appearance 
 and remarkable talents so interested Kheraskoff in his favour, 
 that he took him into his own house, and gave him the means 
 of entering the university, where he applied himself specially to 
 the study of modern languages and the fine arts. He was then 
 appointed dragoman to the minister of foreign affairs, and in 
 17(30 secretary of the embassy at Dresden. The lovely scenery 
 round Dresden, and the noble works of art in the Dresden gal- 
 lery, appear to have first revealed to him his poetical vocation. 
 It was at Dresden tliat he commenced his first and best poem, 
 '• Dushenka," published in 1775. Though nommally a mere 
 translation of the Psyches of La Fontaine, Bogdanowich has 
 introduced so many new beauties, and so great a charm of style, 
 that the work has a character of its own, and appears more like 
 an original than a translation. Russian critics are agi-eed in con- 
 sidering it far superior to the poem of La Fontaine, and it is 
 remarkable that, in an age when the so-called original Russian 
 writers were mere imitators of the French classicist school, 
 Bogdanowich, in a work assuming to be a simple translation, 
 has shown himself eminently romantic. He retmned to St. 
 Petersburg in 1768, and published a translation of the Abbe 
 Vertot's Histoiy of the Revolutions of the Roman Republic. He 
 gained the favour of the empress, Catherine II., by adapting to 
 her honour a canzone of Giannetti. In 1778 and 1779 he was 
 concerned in a journal called the Indicator, published at St. 
 Petersburg, and in 1785 he wrote several dramas at the com- 
 mand of Catherine, and published a collection of Russian proverbs. 
 In 1788 he was appointed president of the imperial ai-chives. 
 In 1795 he retired first into Little Russia, and thence to Kursh, 
 where he died in January, 1803. The high position to which he 
 rose in no way altered the natural modesty and gentleness of his 
 nature, nor the original simplicit}' of his habits. A complete 
 edition of liis works, in six volumes, appeared in 1809, and 
 another, in four vulmnes, in 1818. — M. Q. 
 
 BOGLE, Joux, a Glasgow miniature painter, much distin- 
 guished in his day. His portraits are beautiful, says the judicious 
 I'illdngton. " One of Lady Eglinton, to whom Allan Ramsay 
 dedicated his Gentle Shepherd, in the possession of Mr. C. Kirk- 
 patrick Sharpe, is in the highest finish." He died in the gi-eat- 
 est poverty. — W. T. 
 
 BOGORIS, prince of Bulgaria, died in 896. He succeeded 
 to Baldimu- or Valdimir, having usurped the throne to which 
 the son of that prince was the lawful heu\ Ha\ing embraced 
 Christianity, he was baptized in 853. This occasioned a revolu- 
 tion among his subjects, which, however, was qmckly suppressed, 
 and Bogoris succeeded in introducing among them the new reli- 
 gion which he had embraced. After the schism between the 
 eastern and western churches, the Bulgarians, after some hesi- 
 tation, submitted to Constantinople, and Bogoris remained ftiith- 
 ful to that church, notwithstanding the sentence of excommuni- 
 cation fulminated against him by Pope John VIII. A consider- 
 able time before liis death he resigned his crown in favour of his 
 eldest son, and retu-ed into a monastery ; but, ha\ang learned 
 that his son had been attempting to reintroduce idolatry, he 
 issued from his seclusion, and, putting himself at the head of an 
 insurrectionary movement, seized on the person of his son, put 
 out his eyes, and condemned him to perpetual imprisonment. 
 He then summoned a general assembly, and, having in their 
 presence nominated his second son as his successor, once more 
 retired to his monastery, where he ended his days. — G. M. 
 
 BOGSCH, .John, a Gei-man agricultiu-al writer, was bom in 
 1745 at Deutschendorf, and died at Presbm-g on 18th January, 
 1821. His works are on the art of cultivating fruit-trees and 
 other economical plants, and on the care of bees. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOGUE, David, D.I)., an eminent dissenting mhiister, was 
 bom in the parish of Coldingham, Berwickshire, February 28, 
 1750. He was the fourth son of John Bogue, Esq. of Halydon, 
 one of the justices of the peace for that county. He was one of 
 the founders, and continued through life one of the main dii-ectors 
 and advocates of the London Missionary Society; and when that 
 body resolved to establish a college for the education of persons 
 whom they had elected to go out as missionaries, it was to Dr. 
 Bogue that they intrusted the conducting of that institution. 
 For such a task he was eminently fitted, not only by natural 
 endowments, but by large and valuable acqidi-ements in theolo- 
 
 gical and biblical science, the fruit of protracted and well-directed 
 study for many years. Constantly engaged in his ministerial or 
 tutorial duties, he had little time for authorship ; the only works, 
 besides occasional sermons which he published, were an essay 
 " On the Divine Authority of the Xew Testament," mtended as 
 an introduction to an edition of the christian scriptures in French, 
 and which has been translated into French, Italian, Spanish, and 
 German, and a volume of discourses on the ilillennium. He also 
 produced in conjmiction with Dr. Bennett, a " History of Dissen- 
 ters " in two vols., octavo. In all his writings the marks of a clear 
 vigorous intellect, a solid judgment, and a manly candour pre- 
 dominate. He died at Brighton, whither he had gone to attend 
 a missionary meeting, on the 25th of October, 1825, in his 
 seventy-sixth vear. — W. L. A. 
 
 BOGUPHAL, a Pohsh chronicler, died in 1253. Author of 
 " Chronicon Poloniaj," printed in the Scriptores reram Silesiai of 
 F. G. Sommerberg, Leipzig, 1729.^J. G. 
 
 BOGUSLA\\'SKI, Adeleeut, an admii-ed dramatic author 
 of the time of the i-enaissnnce of Polish literature in the reign of 
 Poniatowski, last king of Poland. Boguslawski was of an 
 ancient Polish ftimily, but he fell into poverty in early youth, 
 and was obliged to earn his own livelihood as a comic actor. 
 The exact date of his birth is uncertain, from his having always 
 shown great imwilhngness to speak of his past, but it must have 
 been in or near the year 1750. He was not naturally inclined 
 to the stage, but gifted with gi-eat determination of character 
 and energy of mind, he applied himself with great earnestness to 
 his profession, and became distmguished not only for his talent 
 as an actor, but as a di'amatic waiter. In 1780 the theatre of 
 Varso-\da, where he had introduced an Italian opera, was closed, 
 and for three years he devoted himself to writing and translating 
 for the stage. From 1784 to 1789 he travelled with his dra- 
 matic company to the cities of Wilna, Grodno, Dubno, and Lem- 
 berg. The king then appointed him dii-ector of the national 
 theatre of Varsovia, and by his excellent selection of the plays 
 performed, and intelligent direction of the representations, he 
 greatly elevated the taste and tone of the Polish stage. His 
 undertaking, however, was repeatedly interrupted by the con- 
 tinual wars in which Poland was engaged. In 1812 he retu-ed 
 from the theatre, and occupied himself in literature untU his 
 death in 1829. Although he cannot be classed among writers 
 of the first rank, Polish literatm-e is under great obligations to 
 Boguslawski. He did much to improve the public taste, to 
 purify the language from the various Latinisms, Gemianisms, 
 and Gallicisms with which it had become cornipted, and to 
 restore its national origuiality and \'igour. — M. Q. 
 
 BOHADSCH, JoHX Baptist, a Gemian physician and 
 naturahst, died at Prague in 1772. He was professor of 
 botany and natural history at Prague, and published descrip- 
 tions of Bohemian plants, and of theii- uses and advantages ; on 
 the use of wood m domestic economy ; besides dissertations on 
 electricity, on fevers, &c. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOHA-EDDIN, Abul Hassen Yousef, a distinguished 
 Arabic historian, was bora at Moussul in 1145. He fixed his 
 abode at Bagdad, where he soon acquired a high reputation as a 
 scholar, and especially m theolog}- and jurisprudence. He sub- 
 sequently visited Jemsalem, after it had fallen into the hands of 
 Saladin, and that monarch made him cadi of the city, and 
 employed him upon several important missions. Boha-eddin 
 remained in the sen-ice of Saladin tiU the death of the latter, 
 when he attached himself to his tlm-d son, under whose auspices 
 he founded a college. Boha-eddin is known by two works of 
 great historical interest — the one a histoi-y of the wars of the 
 sultans in the propagation of Islamism, which he calls " The 
 Holy Wars ; " the other the " History of the Life of the Sultan 
 Saladin," containing all that we know of that sovereign. This 
 historj- has been translated hito Latin. Died 1232. — J. F. W.. 
 
 BO'HAIRE-DUTHEIL, a di-amatic and satuic author, bom 
 at Reuil about 1750 ; died m 1825. Author of "La Nouvelle 
 Heloise," a tragedy. — J. G. 
 
 BOIIE.MOXD, the crusader, son of Robert Guiscard, first 
 Nonnan duke of Calabria. He was of age to bear ai-ms when 
 his father entered on his ambitious strife with the Greek empire. 
 At the famous battle of Durazzo, where the magnificent design 
 of overwhelming in one campaign the dynasty of the Eastern 
 empire, with w-hich Robert Guiscard entered the dominions of 
 Alexius, -was all but consummated, Bohemond gained liis first 
 laurels as a slulful captain. On his father's retm-n to Calabria
 
 BOH 
 
 647 
 
 BOH 
 
 he was left in command of the victorious army ; but its strength 
 had been exhausted in the battle, and, after ravaging Thessaly, 
 he was obliged to follow his father into Italy. Four years after- 
 wards he shai-ed in the honours of the naval victory gained by 
 liis father off Corfu over the Greeks and Venetians. In 1085 
 Kobcrt Guiscard died, leaving to his younger son Eoger his 
 duchies of Apulia and Calabria, and to Bohcmond only the prin- 
 cipality of Tareiitum. With this unequal division of the family 
 estates commenced a war between the brothers, which promised 
 to be long and bloody. But the mighty passion to which the 
 preaching of the hermit of Picardy had stiiTed the chivaliy of 
 Europe, was to sweep the wily Bohemond, who surrendered to 
 no enthusiasm, but was always in the way of an adventiu-ous 
 movement, out of the sphere of a paltry strife into one where his 
 ambition had ample scope. He heard of realms to be won for 
 the honour of the cross, and discerning that an invasion of the 
 East might be for the profit of christian princes, he j"oined with 
 his illustrious cousin, Tancrcd, the host of the first crasaders. 
 At the head of twenty thousand infantiy and ten thousand 
 cavalry he advanced on Constantinople. In vain he had urged 
 Godfrey of Bouillon to make the reduction of that city the 
 first object of the holy war. He could not besiege the capi- 
 tal of the empire ; he, therefore, made a conquest of Alexius. 
 The son of Robert Guiscard was lodged in royal style, loaded 
 ■vith presents, and, it is said, promised an independent prin- 
 ;iality by the feeble monarch from whom the Norman duke 
 iiad all but wrested an empire at Durazzo. At the battle 
 of DorylKum, and throughout the fearful campaigns of Asia 
 ilinor and Syria, he approved himself the bravest of Nor- 
 lu knights. His reputation with the motley host who 
 ;med the siege of Antioch, might have been the envy of 
 I incred; but as soon as the city fell into the hands of the 
 usaders, it was discovered that the prince of Tarentum had 
 her piu-poses in view than those of punishing the infidels of 
 nisalem, and recovering the holy sepulchre. The count of 
 1 julouse claimed a shai-e of the conquest ; the leaders of the 
 aiTuy urged Bohemond to advance with them to Jerusalem ; but 
 here was a city and a principality exactly suitable to his ambi- 
 m, and so taking possession of both, he took leave of the army 
 :;d the count of Toidouse. In 1101 he was defeated by the 
 i irks and taken prisoner. His ransom, after two years' cap- 
 ity, was 130,000 byzants. Shortly after his release he recom- 
 ■nced his wars with Alexius, who claimed, according to treaty, 
 '■ smrender of Antioch and its tenitoiy. He went to France, 
 id by his marriage with the daughter of Philip I. acquired the 
 iiiiht to levy an army, with which he invaded the empire in 
 11 U7. Repidsed before Durazzo, he was obliged to sue for 
 peace. A treaty was concluded the following year, which he 
 ^^•as on the point of breaking when he died at Canosa in Ajjulia 
 in 1111. Gibbon fairly enough describes liim as "an adversary 
 whom neither oaths could bind, nor dangers could appal, nor 
 prosperity could satiate." 
 
 Bohe:viond II., at his father's death was only four years of 
 -0. He went to Palestine in 1126, and received from Baldwin 
 1. investiture in the sovereignty of Antioch, which, since the 
 ■ath of his father, had been united to the kingdom of Jeni- 
 ilem. His reign was short and troublous. He was Idlled in 
 ail encounter with the Tm-ks at Aleppo in 1130. 
 
 Bohemond III. reigned at Antioch in 1163-1201. He was 
 Fifty, treacherous, and unwarlike, and made himself infamous 
 ■■ refusing to shelter the fugitives from Jerusalem after its 
 ipture by Saladin. 
 
 Bohemond IV., after a long struggle with his nephew, Ray- 
 :uond Rupin, son of his elder brother, became by the death of 
 his rival, master of Antioch and Tripoli in 1222. Died in 1223. 
 Bohemond V., son and successor of the preceding, died in 
 1253. He was long and unsuccessfully at war with the Kliariz- 
 mians and Armenians. 
 
 Bohemond VI. sun-endered Antioch to the ^Mameluke sultan, 
 Bibars, in 1268, and retired to Tripoli, where he died in 1274. 
 Bohemond VII., count of Tripoli, son of the preceding, died 
 m 1287. A year after his father's deatli his estates were taken 
 possession of by Calaoun, sultan of Egypt and Syria.— J. S., G. 
 BOHLE, Samuel, a Gennan protestant theologian and He- 
 braist, author of various commentaries on the Old Testament 
 and of a Hebrew grammar, bom at Greiffenbcrg in Pomerania in 
 ICU ; died in 1689.— ,J. S., G. 
 
 * BOHJI, Joseph, a violinist, was born in Pesth in 1798. 
 
 He received his first instruction in singing and on his instrument 
 from his father. In 1806 his family removed to Poland, and 
 there, when in 1810 the war with France obliged Rode to leave 
 Russia, this distinguished artist saw him, perceived his promis- 
 ing talent, and aided its development no less by his encour- 
 agement than by his counsel. In 1815 Bohm went to Vienna, 
 where he played before the emperor with success. After spend- 
 ing three years in the Austrian capital, he made an artistic tour 
 in Italy, and gained honours in eveiy city he visited. In 1819 
 he returned to Vienna, where he was appointed professor in the 
 consen'atory. In 1821 he was engaged as solo violinist in the 
 imperial chapel. Two years after this he made a tour through 
 Gemiany and France, and appeared in Paris with the same 
 success he experienced in all the smaller cities. Since this time 
 he has resided constantly at Vienna, and has for veiy many 
 years ceased to appear in public ; a habit of nervousness which 
 has gl•o^vn upon him, having in a great measiu-e unfitted him 
 for playing. He has, however, eminently distinguished himself 
 as a teacher, in which capacity he ^vill always be remembei-ed with 
 interest, since it is his instruction which has developed the trans- 
 cendent talent of Ernst and of Joachim. He has published some 
 light pieces for his instrument. — G. A. M. 
 
 * BOHM, Theobald, the improver of the flute, was born 
 at JIunich, where his father was a goldsmith and jeweller, about 
 the year 1802. Though he learned and practised his father's 
 trade, he applied himself early to the study of the flute, on which 
 instrument he obtained such proficiency that in 1818 he was 
 appointed principal flutist in the royal chapel of the king of 
 Bavaria. Dissatisfied with the imperfect constraction of his 
 instrument, he constantly considered how he might improve it, 
 and, after many experiments, sketched and completed his system 
 of ringed keys in 1831. The deficiency of the old flute consists 
 in the irregular position of the holes (necessitated to bring them 
 in reach of the fingers) and the various sizes of these, which 
 occasions inequality in tlie tone of the different notes, but is the 
 only means by which an approximation to coiTcct intonation can 
 be obtained. Bohm's improvement is, the arrangement of the 
 holes so as to certify the intonation and equalize the tone, and 
 the employment of keys to render the fingering practicable. His 
 knowledge of mechanics, acquu-ed in his father's workshop, was 
 of no less value to him in his experiments than was his executive 
 sldll. Some years after he had made his first flute, he further 
 improved upon this by changing the forni of the bore, making 
 that of the head joint a parabolical cone, and of the body joint a 
 cylinder, with advantage to both the quality and the intonation, 
 in the constraction of the second flute. He was gi-eatly assisted 
 throughout his labours by the scientific investigations of Dr. 
 Schafhautl who verified, upon acoustical principles, the results of 
 his friend's practical experiments. The new flute was first made 
 and sold in 1832. From 1833 to 1836 Bohm was much in 
 England, where his speculations in iron-works chiefly occupied 
 him. Here he was most successful as a player, but found the 
 greatest opposition to his invention. Tliis opposition arose from 
 his flute requiiing entirely different fingering from that of the 
 old one, and the natural disinclination of accomplished players 
 to cast aside their accustomed method. In May, 1837, he read 
 a paper upon his improvement before the French Academy of 
 Sciences, after which his flute was adopted in the conservatoii'e 
 of Paris. JMr. Cart and My. Clinton, about the year 1843, pub- 
 licly adopted Bohm's flute, in consequence of which a most 
 vehement discussion on its merits was maintained for many 
 months in the London musical journals. At the Great Exhibi- 
 tion in 1851, Bohm received the council medal for his invention. 
 The flute is now veiy generally approved, and the principles of 
 its construction have been successively applied to all the other 
 wood wind instruments. Besides being a distinguished perf'omier 
 and an extensive manufacturer, Bohm has had considerable 
 success as a composer for his instrument. He still holds Jiis 
 court appointment at JIunich, where he is greatly sought as a 
 teacher. — G. A. M. 
 
 * BOHN, Henhv George, bookseller and publisher, eldest 
 son of the late Jlr. John Bohn, of an ancient German family, 
 was born in London in 1796. After receiving a liberal education, 
 he travelled extensively on the continent, and gradually formed, 
 and for many years conducted, his father's business, as a foreign 
 and classical bookseller. In 1830 he mamod the only daugliter of 
 the late William Simpkin, Esq., head of the firm of Siinpkin & 
 Marshall, and then commenced business on his own account in
 
 BOH 
 
 648 
 
 BOI 
 
 York Street, Covent Garden ; dealing principally in the higher 
 walks of literature, especially Greek and Latin classics, and 
 works on the fine arts. By degrees he extended his grasp to 
 every branch of literature (as may be seen in his memorable 
 guinea catalogue of 1841), and then, after having earned retail 
 bookselling to a higher pitch perhaps tlian it had ever reached 
 before, embarked with great energy' as a publisher. His first 
 project in this depai-tiiient was a comprehensive series of ster- 
 ling English literatm-e, in compact but elegantly-printed volumes, 
 in the old hbrary foiin of demy 8vo ; and his editions of Roscoe's 
 Lorenzo de Jledici and Leo X., which compress six quartos into 
 three octavos, are as perfect examples as paper, print, and gi-a- 
 phic illustrations can make them. But half-guinea volumes, how- 
 ever cheap in proportion to anything that had been pre^-iously 
 produced, failed to enlist the sjTnpathies of the multitude, and 
 the speculation was necessai'ily abandoned. Lnmediately after 
 this, quickened by some encroachments on his copyrights, he 
 commenced, and followed out in rapid succession, his various 
 well-known " Libraries," remarkable as being among the first 
 examples in this country of high-class literature in an extremely 
 cheap and attractive form. Under the vsuious titles of the 
 "Standard, Classical, Scientific, Antiquarian, Illustrated, His- 
 torical," and other " Libraiies," these serials extend to nearly 
 five hundred volumes, and entitle him to the warmest thanks of 
 the reading multitude. Jlr. Bohn is himself not unknown as an 
 author. So far back as 1813 he translated fi'om the Gennan 
 a two-volume novel called " FeiTandino ; " and he has co-operated 
 largely in his libraries. Schiller's Robbers, and several otl)er of 
 his dramatic pieces, as well as considerable portions of Goethe 
 and Humboldt are translated by him ; and he has edited Ockley's 
 History of the Saracens, Grammont's Jlemoirs (adding a Life of 
 Choi-les II.), Addison's works, the Handbook of Proverbs, Poly- 
 glot of Foreign Proverbs, and Fosteriana. He also wrote an 
 appendix to his edition of Walton's Angler, and contributed the 
 essays which form in f;ict the text of the useful treatise on 
 Pottery and Porcelain, published in his Illustrated Libraiy. Jlr. 
 Bohn is a fellow of the Eoyal Geographical Society ; of the 
 Society of Arts ; of the Eoyal Society of Literature ; of the 
 Archffiological Institute and Association ; one of the council of 
 the Horticultural Society of London, in whose proceedings he 
 has taken an active part ; foreign secretary to Lord Brougham's 
 National Association for the promotion of Social Science ; and 
 honorary member of several foreign insritutes. In 1851 he was 
 elected chairman of the book department of the Great Exhibi- 
 tion, and in 185G -vice-president of the Brussels Congress of 
 Free Trade. — E. AV. 
 
 BOHX, JoiiAXN, or in Latin Bonxius;, a German physician, 
 bom at Leipzig in 1G40. In 1663 he travelled through Den- 
 mark, Holland, England, France, and Switzerland, to visit the 
 principal universities; and in the year following that of his 
 return, 1GG6, took his degree as doctor of medicine in his 
 native place. In 1668, Bohn was appointed professor of ana- 
 tomy in the university, and In 1691 stipendiary physician to the 
 city of Leipzig ; in 1G70 he became dean of the faculty of medi- 
 cine, and died in 1718. Bohn merits a high place in the history 
 of medicine, from his having been the first to attack successfully 
 the chemical system of physiology, inaugurated by Fran9ois de 
 Ic Boe. He proved by experiment that the bUe contains no true 
 alkali, and that the pancreatic jvuce is not acid, and denied the 
 existence of a nen-ous fluid. In physiology he was a follower 
 of Borelli, but without any servile imitation. He was aware 
 that all the muscles are not under the influence of the " animal 
 spirits ; " in other words, he distinguished the voluntaiy and 
 involuntar>- nmscles, placing the heart in the first rank of the 
 latter. Like Francois de le Boe, from whom he differed in so 
 many other points, Bohn was most zealous in the propagation of 
 the doctrine of the ci)xulation of the blood, which he demon- 
 strated by means of Boyle's machine at Pa\-ia. Upon medical 
 jtuisprudence he was also a great authority ; he was frequently 
 consulted by various Gennan tribunals, and has left several 
 works upon this branch of medicine which are still regarded as 
 valuable. Of these we may mention his treatise " De Renuncia- 
 lione Vulnenim," &c., published at Leipzig in 1689, 1711, and 
 1755, and at Amsterdam in 1710 ; and liis " Medicinaj forensis 
 Specimina Tria," Leipzig, 1G90, 1691, and 1692, in which he 
 displays profound knowledge and great sagacity. Of his other 
 writings the chief are " Exercitationes Physiologicsc xxvi.," pub- 
 lished at Leipzig in 1668-1677; and "Cu-culus Anatomico- 
 
 physiologicns," which contains all his ideas upon anatomy and 
 physiology, and was published at Leipzig in 1680, and repub- 
 lished in 1686, 1697, and 1710. Bohn also published an 
 edition of the works of Fabricius of Aquapendente, and of 
 Bellini's Treatise De Urinis et Pulsibus. Before his death he is 
 said to have caused all his papers, including the materials for a 
 great work on medical jurisprudence, to be burned. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOHOMOLEC, Francis, a Polish author of the last centmy, 
 who has left several dramatic and biogi'aphical works. He also 
 translated La Harpe's Histcii-e Generale des Voyages. He died 
 in 1790.— J. F. W. 
 
 BOHSE, Augustus, better known by the name of Talander, 
 was one of the most distinguished authors and teachers of his 
 day in Germany. He was bom at Halle in 16G1 ; and after 
 studying law at Leipzig, he commenced teaching at Hamburg, 
 and subsequently at Dresden and Leipzig. His reputation was 
 now such as to attract the notice of the duke of Saxe Weissenfels, 
 who gave him the direction of his theatre. He became professor 
 at the university of Jena, and afterwards at Lignitz, where he 
 continued till his death about 1735. He has left a considerable 
 number of dramatic works, principally operettas. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOHTORI, AxvALLDE, one of the most distuiguished Arabiao 
 poets of his age, was born at Hierapolis about the year 821. 
 He left his native city, and settled in Bagdad, where his reputa- 
 tion soon brought him into favour with the Caliph 5Iotavakkel. 
 He has left many poetical works, the principal being a collection 
 called the " Divan." His verses were considered so harmonious 
 that they were called " Chains of Gold." He died towards the 
 end of the ninth century. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOHUN, Edjiund, a voluminous political writer, bom at 
 Ringsfield in Suffolk. His father, Baxter Bohun, was lord of the 
 manor of Westhall in that cotmty. He was entered a fellow- 
 commoner of Queen's college, Cambridge, in 1663, and resided 
 there till 1666. In 1675 he was put into the commission of the 
 peace for his native county, and, except dm'ing a part of the 
 reign of James II., exercised the functions of a justice till about 
 the commencement of the eighteenth century. Of his political 
 pamphlets, which are very numerous, we may mention, " A De- 
 fence of the Declaration of King Charles, against a pamphlet 
 entitled ' A Just and I»Iodest Vindication of the Proceedings of 
 the two last Parhaments,' " and "A Defence of Sir Robert Filmer 
 against the ilistakes and Representations of Algernon Sydney, 
 Esq.," &c His other works are, " A Geographical Dictionary," 
 London, 1688, and " The Great Historic^il, Geographical, and 
 Poetical Dictionary," London, 1694. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOHL^SZ, Xaverius, a Polish historian, born in 1746 in 
 Lithuania. From ANilna, where he settled after making the 
 tour of Europe, he was carried away to Siberia by the Russians, 
 and returned to his country only after a long exile. His fame, 
 which is considerable, rests on a work entitled, '' Researches into 
 the Antiqiuties, History, and Language of the Lithuanians," 
 1808. Died in 1825.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOIARDO, JIatteo JIaiua, coimt of Scandiano, was bom 
 at the castle of Scandiano about the year 1434. His birthplace 
 is about seven miles from Keggio at the foot of the Apennines. 
 His father was the second count ; his mother was of the Strozzi 
 famUy of Ferrara. We are most concerned with B<jiardo as a 
 poet. In his own day his pohtical character was not undis- 
 tinguished. In 1469 he was one of the noblemen who, in the 
 suite of the duke of Este, went to meet the emperor, Frederick 
 III., on his way to Ferrara. In 1471 he accompanied Borso, 
 mai-quis of Ferrara, to Rome, where he went to receive the title 
 of duke. In 1472 Boiardo married a daughter of the house of 
 Gonzaga. In 1473 he appeared among the noblemen who were 
 deputed to escort to Feirara, Eleanora, daughter of the king of 
 Naples, who had manied the duke. In 1478 he is said to have 
 been governor of Reggio, and in 1481 capitano of Jlodena. In 
 1487 he returned to Reggio, of which he resumed the govern- 
 ment, and died in 1494. Some Latin verses are preserved of a 
 friend of Boiardo's, in which the poet is depicted in his character 
 of magistrate. He is described as looking little at law-books, as 
 indisposed to punish love offences, as fond of the fair sex, and as a 
 great equestrian. One of the lawyers, writing about half a cen- 
 turj' after Boiardo's death, describes him as " plus componendis 
 versibus, quam vindicandis fachioribns aptus." He is s;iid to 
 have had a fixed opinion that no crime ought to be punished with 
 death. In Panizzi's edition of Boiardo's "Inamorato" we find 
 large extracts from his smaller poems in Latin and Italian —
 
 many passages of whicli are very graceful. At Ferrara a comedy 
 111' liis, " II Timone " (Lucian's Timon), was acted, and is said to 
 have been the first comedy in modem Italian. Boiardo's repu- 
 tation for scholarship was high. He translated Herodotus and 
 Xenophon, and wrote some historical works himself, which are 
 praised by Muratori ; but his best title to fame is the " Ina- 
 morato." The feats of Charlemagne's peers and paladins had 
 already been the subject of romance. The prowess of Orlando — 
 his adventurous life and his death at Roncesvalles, were recorded 
 in the chronicle of Tui-pin, the great authority to which on all 
 occasions the Italian poets of chivalry refer; but on the subject of 
 his love for Angelica, and the adventures which spring from this 
 source, the archbishop is discreetly silent. The proprieties of eccle- 
 siastical decorum might have rendered such topics unfit for him to 
 dwell upon, as the human infinnity of the universal passion was 
 not to be alluded to in the case of so great a hero as Orlando ; it 
 was a secret to be whispered in the confessional, not confided to 
 the public ; and even if the archbishop knew or suspected it, the 
 thing was not to be revealed. The poet has no such difficulties 
 arising from professional delicacy to contend with, and Boiardo, 
 even without any authority from the old chronicler, looks into 
 the hero's heart, and gives us the legendary story of Angelica's 
 witchcraft and its eftects. The result is a poem of veiy consi- 
 derable interest, and unluckily too of very considerable length. 
 It occupied its author for many years, and was left unfinished at 
 his death. A very dull writer, Agostini, added a weary supple- 
 ment to it, and another, to whom we cannot give higher praise, 
 Domenichi, printed the "Inamorato" with patchwork alterations. 
 How it survived all this would be a matter of surprise ; but life 
 and original power it must have had, for it inspired Ariosto, 
 whose Furioso is a continuation of the story commenced in the 
 " Inamorato." (See Ariosto and Berni.) Boiardo is said to 
 have taken the names of his heroes from the vassals on his 
 estates, and of the imaginary localities of his romance from those 
 of the district round Reggio. If there be any foundation in fact 
 for this statement, it must be just the reverse, and something in 
 tlie character of an individual may have easily led to his being 
 called by one of the names in the romance, as we believe has 
 often happened in the cases of Scott's novels. Of Benii's Rifa- 
 cimento we have spoken in our article on Berni. It has so 
 superseded the original, that though the necessity of rendering 
 .Vi'iosto's story intelligible would have naturally led to the reprint 
 nf the earlier poem, Bemi's is always substituted for it. We owe 
 i this, and to Mr. Panizzi's desire to supply the want, his veiy 
 liuautiful and valuable edition of the "Inamorato." — J. A., D. 
 BOIELDIEU, Francois Adrian, a musician, was born at 
 uen, December 15, 1775, and died at Jarcy, near Grosbois, 
 Ltober 8, 1834. His father was a secretary to the archbishop 
 i his native city. He was placed as a boy in the choir of the 
 ithedral, and showmg more talent than his companions, he 
 irceived more particular attention from Broche, the organist, 
 whose lessons on the pianoforte and in harmony were the only 
 i-.'gular instruction Boicldieu ever had. His master treated him 
 with such tyrannical severity, that he once ran away to Paris to 
 c;scape the effects of his anger. He was soon brought back by 
 his friends, and after the resmnption of his studies, Broche 
 assumed a more successful manner towards him. Until sixteen 
 years of age he remained under the care of this teacher. He 
 had at this time a devoted fondness for music, but it was not 
 the austerity of the church style which fascinated him ; on the 
 contrary, he delighted in the perfonnances of the theatre, and 
 would sometimes secrete himself in the buikling during the day, 
 when he had not money to pay for admission at night, in order 
 to enjoy them. The pleasure he felt in hearing the operas of 
 Gretry, Daleyrac, and Maliul, stimulated in him a desire to pro- 
 duce one of his own, and this desire soon led to its own fulfilment. 
 The good reception of his opera at the Rouen theatre further 
 stimulated him to wish for distinction in Paris, and his want of 
 means to carry him thither was not a sufficient obstacle to 
 hinder his visiting the capital. He accordingly set out on foot, 
 with thirty francs in his pocket ; and, strengthened by the ardour 
 of his expectations, he accomplished the entire distance in two 
 days. Arrived in the metropolis before the completion of his 
 nineteenth year, Boieldieu was sorely disappointed to find that 
 success among his friends in a provincial town was insufficient 
 recommendation to secure the acceptance of his opera by the 
 Societe des Acteurs, then directing the Opera Comique. He 
 would have consoled himself by teaching the pianoforte, and so 
 
 at least obtaining the means of subsistence ; but having no con- 
 nection, he could get no pupils. Since he could not teach, he 
 had no resource but to tune, and in this capacity he was engaged 
 at Erard's factory, where he made the acquaintance, which 
 quickly ripened into friendship, of the chief musicians of the 
 day. He now wrote some romances, several of which became 
 extremely popular ; but, for the best of them he could not obtain 
 more than twelve francs apiece from a publisher. Pleased with 
 the talent of the young composer, Fiev6e, the author of the Dot 
 de Suzette, adapted this favourite tale into an opera for Boieldieu, 
 and his interest was sufficient to insure the perfonuance of the 
 work. Thus, before the completion of his twentieth year, was 
 Boieldieu brought before the Parisian public ; and the success of 
 his first attempt was such, that he obtained a ready hearing for 
 a similar work in each of the two following years; and in 1798 
 fully established his reputation by the thi-ee-act opera of Zo- 
 raime et Zulnare, which surpassed in merit, as much as in 
 importance, all his previous productions. On the opening of 
 the conservatoire he was appointed professor of the pianoforte, 
 though he had no distinction as an executant ; his intelligent 
 ffisthetical remarks, however, fully made up to his pupils for his 
 want of mechanical excellence. At this time he wrote some 
 concertos and sonatas for the ])ianoforte and for the harp, which 
 were admired in their day. He continued to produce an opera 
 in evei-y year; that of "La Prisoniere," given in 1799, was 
 written in conjunction with Cherubini ; and it was probably in 
 consequence of this connection, and because of the greater purity 
 of his subsequent compositions, that it has been falsely stated 
 he took lessons of that master. In 1800 he brought out 
 " Beniousky," which, though then unsuccessful, was revived in 
 1825 with better fortune. In 1800, also, he produced " Le 
 Calife de Bagdad," the immediate popularity of which not only 
 attracted all Paris, but carried the composer's reputation to every 
 city in Em-ope. From this time forward Boieldieu acquired the 
 habit of rigid self-criticism, which he exercised to such an extent, 
 that he would sometimes set the same words no less than ten 
 times before he could satisfy himself with a composition. This 
 habit increased as he gi-ew older, and was so strong in its influ- 
 ence as greatly to counteract his natural facihty, protracting 
 the time of writing one opera to what would before have sufficed 
 for several ; but it induced, also, the greater purity of style 
 which distinguishes all his subsequent works from those written 
 prior to this period. "Ma Sante Aurore," given in 1802, first 
 exempHfies the scrapulous care, to which, doubtless, is due the 
 survival of many of the composer's works over the operas of 
 contemporary writers. In the March of this year Boieldieu 
 married lildlle. Clotilde Augustine Mafleuroy — popular by the 
 first name as a dancer — an event most inauspicious for his 
 future happiness. To escape from the ill eftects of this con- 
 nection he detennined to quit Paris ; and, accordingly, on April 
 3, went with his friends Rode and Lamare to Russia. He anivcd 
 in St. Petersburg at a fortunate moment. Sarti was just dead ; 
 and the office of imperial chapelmaster, thus rendered vacant, 
 was at once given to Boieldieu. The condition of his appoint- 
 ment was the production of three new operas every year, in ful- 
 filment of which he wrote many meritorious works ; but, as he 
 employed for these some librettos that had already been success- 
 fully set by Berton, Lesueur, and others, he could never repro- 
 duce them in Paris. " Calypso " (most esteemed by himself ) 
 and "Aline" are the best operas he wi'ote in Russia; but a work 
 that is extolled above these, as being perhaps the most earnest 
 of all his productions, is the choruses in Racine's Athalie, and 
 yet this has not been brought out upon the Parisian stage. The 
 breaking out of the war with France in 1810 obliged Boieldieu 
 to leave Russia, and he again arrived in Paris in January, 1811. 
 Here he had to oppose Nicolo Isouard, a composer in great popu- 
 larity. The contest was one of a hare and a tortoise ; for 
 though his rival, wanting his conscientiousness, produced three 
 or four operas while he wrote one, the greater pains he bestowed 
 upon his works insured for them a more penuancnt esteem. 
 " Jean de Paris," given in 1812, introduced him anew to the 
 French public, who warmly acknowledged the great advance in 
 his style since the last work of his they had heard. This very 
 favourite opera was followed by several written in conjunction 
 with other composers, which are now forgotten ; while " Le 
 Nouveau Seigneur" and "La Fete du Village," of which the nuisic 
 was entirely by Boieldieu, continue in esteem. On the death 
 of Mchul in 1817, the membership of the Institut thus 
 
 4N
 
 vacated was conferred upon Boieldiea. Particularly gratified by 
 this distinction, he considered his next work as a necessary test 
 of his worthhiess of the honour, and, witli this feeling, he 
 bestowed even more than his usual pains upon it. "Le Petit 
 Chaperon Eouge " was the opera which thus occupied him ; and 
 its reception, when it was brought out in July, 1818, was such 
 as to satisfy him that he had not toiled in vain. He now expe- 
 rienced a long and trying illness, induced, it is said, by the care- 
 ful pains he bestowed on this production. About this time he 
 was appointed professor of composition in the conservatoire, 
 with the rare provision, in consideration of his delicate health, 
 that he should be allowed to receive his class at his country 
 residence. For several years he rested almost entirely from 
 composition, his only eft'oi'ts being tlie revision of " La Voiture 
 Versce," one of his early successful operas, and the contribution 
 of some unimportant pieces to works chiefly written by other 
 composers. In May, 1821, he was created a member of the 
 legion of honour ; when, with a modest conviction that Catel 
 merited this distinction better than himself, he used every exer- 
 tion till he procured the same honom- for his friend. He at 
 length amply made up to the world for his long repose, by 
 the production, in December, 1825, of "La Dame Blanche," the 
 opera in which above all others his fluency of melody, his purity 
 of harmony, his simplicity of modulation, his clearness of con- 
 struction, his brightness of instramentation, and his truthfulness 
 of di\amatic effect, are proved, and by which, more than any of his 
 works, these admirable qualities are kept familiar to the world. 
 The long delay in bringing this work forward was greatly occa- 
 sioned by the composer's dread of competition with his former 
 productions. Success, which too often weans a writer from careful- 
 ness in composition, and care for the result, alike increased these 
 qualities with him to an extent amounting to nervous initabiUty, 
 and when even he could find nothing to improve in his score, it was 
 still with difficulty that he could be prevailed upon to give his 
 work to the public. In 1826 he was relieved from the restraint 
 of his unfortunate marriage by the death of his wife, from whom, 
 though never legally divorced, he had been parted since the first 
 year of their union ; and shortly after this he contracted a new 
 alliance with MdUe. Philis (whose sister had sustained the prin- 
 cipal characters of his operas in Russia), by whom he had an 
 only son. The same reasons that had pi-ocrastinated first the 
 completion and then the production of " La Dame Blanche," 
 had a similar operation on " Les Deux Nuits," the next and the 
 last opera of Boieldieu. This was produced in May, 1829, and 
 mainly in consequence of the weakness of its libretto, met with 
 less success than any previous work of equal importance the 
 composer has given us. The efi'ect of this failure upon Boieldieu 
 was so great, that his health gave way under the vexation ; and 
 he in consequence resigned his professorship, as feeling no longer 
 equal to the discharge of its duties. On the dissolution of the 
 Societe des Actem-s, some years earlier, the annual pension of 
 1200 francs, which they had settled upon Boieldieu, was discon- 
 tinued by the new management of the Opera Comique, as not 
 being bound by the engagements of its predecessors. The pension 
 of the conservatoire, however, added to a private pension from 
 the king, promised him a competency for the rest of his days ; 
 but the revolution in 1830 deprived liim at once of both these 
 dejiendencies, as well as some comt offices he had long held, and 
 reduced him to a state of serious apprehension as to the means 
 of subsistence. In extreme anxiety he proposed to resume his 
 professorship ; this brought his situation under public notice, in 
 consequence of which the minister of tlie interior granted liun a 
 pension of 3000 francs from the Fondes des Beaux Arts. He 
 did not long enjoy this new acknowledgment of his many 
 successes ; his constitution was broken, and he sought relief in 
 vain from the baths of the south of France. A short time before 
 his death he was with difficulty removed to a place which was 
 endeared to him by the memory of many hours of recreation he 
 had spent there, where he expired without pain. His funeral 
 obsequies were celebrated m the church of the Invalides, and the 
 government confen-ed a pension of 1200 francs upon his son. 
 Boieldicu's name is more conspicuous in the musical history of 
 France than those of some more profound musicians, who had 
 neither his temporaiy popularity nor his lasting influence. His 
 " Dame Blanche," if none of his other operas, must for long re- 
 main a standard work in every lyric theatre ; but we trace the 
 effiict of his genius in what is most national and most natural in 
 the existing French school ; for neither Herold, Adam, Thomas, 
 
 nor even Auber would have been what they are to us, had he not 
 written before them. — G. A. M. 
 
 BOIGXE, Bknoit le Borgne, comte de, an Indian general, 
 born at Chambery, March 8, 1741; died in the same town, Jime 
 21, 1830. He was the son of a fmiier, and was originaUy des- 
 tined to the profession of the law ; but, prefening a military 
 career, he joined an Irish regiment, which he accompanied to 
 the Isle of France. We find him afterwards captain of a Greek 
 regiment in the service of Catherine II. After a series of 
 adventures, he resolved to seek his fortune in India, which he 
 reached by way of Suez. He was for many years engaged in 
 the service of several native princes successively ; and, by his 
 militaiy skill, and the introduction of Em-opean disciphne among 
 the native troops, won many a victory for his patrons. Having 
 amassed an immense fortune, he returned to Europe with the 
 rank of general. He first visited England, where he married, 
 and soon after retired to his native town, where he employed a 
 large portion of his vast wealth in deeds of private charity and 
 public munificence. — G. M. 
 
 BOILEAU, GiLLES, elder brother of Despreaux, bom at 
 Crone, nesu- Paris, 1631 ; died in 1669. Between Gilles Boileau 
 and Despreaux there was continued jealousy, supposed to have 
 arisen from poetical rivalry. Gilles unlucldly wrote verses, and 
 did not understand why his younger brother refused his admir- 
 ation. The courtesies of life led Gilles to pay some compliments 
 to poets who were the subjects of his brother's satire, Gilles 
 Boileau was member of the Academy. The contests on the 
 subject of his admission created a kind of civil war, which is 
 adverted to in several works of the period. He was at the time 
 of his death " controlleur de I'argenterie du roi." — J. A., D. 
 
 BOILEAU, Jacques, a French theologian, brother of Gilles 
 and of Nicolas, bom 1635; died 1716. He was grand-vicar of 
 the diocese of Sens, doctor of the Sorbonne, and canon of the 
 church of Sainte-Chapelle at Paris. He was so much of a 
 humourist in his talk and in his writings, that it was said of 
 him by his brother Despreaux, if he had not been a doctor of 
 the Sorbonne he would have filled the part of the doctor in the 
 Itali,an comedy. In his works, the extensive emdition proper 
 for the one, and the vivacity requisite for the other, are both 
 conspicuous. The principal of these are — " Historia FlageUan- 
 tium, sive de perverso flagelloram usu apud Christianos," Paris, 
 1700 — a work which made a great noise at the time, and 
 brought its author rather more fame than he wanted, certain 
 passages, which were not adapted for indiscriminate perusal, 
 having been submitted to that process by means of a French 
 translation; " Historica Disquisitio de re vestiaria hominis sacri," 
 1704 ; " Disquisitio theologica de Sangiiine coi-poris Christi post 
 resurrectionem, ad epistolam 146 Augustini," 1681. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOILEAU, Nicolas Despreaux, was bom in 1636, and 
 died in 1711. His father was one of the registrars of the par- 
 liament of Paris. The family claimed descent from Etienne 
 Boileaux, who held high judicial office at Paris in the days of St. 
 Louis, and the pedigree which seemed to prove this was, at the 
 instance of the poet, authenticated as far as the seals and signa- 
 tures of heralds' offices can authenticate such a narrative of family 
 mythology. While no difficulties of evidence seem to have em- 
 barassed the inquiry as to remoter periods of the narrative, the 
 p,art which more immediately relates to the poet himself presents 
 some. The precise place of his birth is unknown ; most of his 
 biographers fix it at Paris, and in the very chamber which had 
 been occupied, about half a centmy before, by Gillot, one of the 
 authors of the Satire Menippee ; while Racine, with somewhat 
 more probability, msdces his birthplace to have been Crone — a 
 little \'illage near Paris, the meadows in the neighbom'hood of 
 which suggested the aristocratic affix of Despreaux. On the 
 precise year, too, of his birth (wb.ich, however, seems fixed to 
 the date we have given) doubt has been thrown. The king, it 
 seems, on some occasion, asked Boileau his age, — "Sire," said 
 the poet, " I was sent into the world a year before your majesty, 
 my destiny being to proclaim the mu-aculous glories of your 
 reign." It is said that he mistook the year, but could not spoil 
 the compliment, such as it was, by correcting the mistake. 
 
 We are, however, anticipating. Boileau was one of four bro- 
 thers, all carefully educated, and all distinguished in their respec- 
 ti\e professions. He was educated at the college of d'Harcourt — 
 afterwards called the College Royal de Saint Louis. While there 
 he underwent a painful and not perfectly successful operation for 
 the stone. To some mistake originatmg most probably in this
 
 BOI 
 
 651 
 
 BOI 
 
 lircunistance, a story to which, as it is often mentioned, we 
 annot but alkide, is to be referred. It is said, that Boilean when 
 :. child, being left in a garden alone by a negligent old nurse, was 
 (ttacked and thrown down by a turkey-cock, and before he was 
 ■ escued received some serious injuries in the groin. Helvetius 
 iscribes to tliis Boileau's detestation of turkey-cocks — of jesiuts 
 who had brought them into France — of his nurse who did not 
 ome sooner to the rescue — and of womankind, all of whom, old 
 •ud Toung alike, he associated in imagination with the nurse and 
 ri.e accident. The whole course of Boileau's life, says the phi- 
 ! isopher, but for this would have been different. 
 
 Boileau early showed talents for verse, which his family in 
 •very way they could discouraged. For awhile he studied law, 
 '.nd was actually admitted an avocat. He nest pursued the 
 -:udy of theology, and was appointed to a benefice — the priory 
 f Saint Paterne. This gave him about forty pounds a-year, 
 ■vhich he enjoyed for eight or nine years. He, however, gave 
 ip the thought of an ecclesiastical life, and found some means 
 'i' repaying the sum which he had so received. The death of 
 Boileau's father gave him some independent means, and enabled 
 :im to indulge his genius for poetry, unfettered by the claims of 
 i profession. Of his friendships, that with Racine gave him 
 nost pleasure, and it lasted through Racine's hfe. Each encou- 
 nged the other. Racine despaired of the success of Athalie. 
 •■ It must succeed," said his friend, " disregard present appear- 
 mces — le public y reviendra ;" and when Boileau was almost 
 overwhelmed by the storm which his satire against women evoked, 
 Racine was near him with the comforting words — I'orage pas- 
 sera. In 1666 Boileau published his first satires. Boileau's 
 poems have in the successive editions undergone so many changes, 
 that any minute criticism on them as they first appeared would 
 'e difficult under any circumstances, and, within our limits, im- 
 [lossible. It is enough to say, that like those of Pope and 
 Byron, the earlier satires seem cast in the mould of Juvenal, 
 and that the subjects are for the most part suggested by Juvenal 
 — to such an extent as in many parts to exhibit a brilliant 
 translation of some of his most striking passages. In the case 
 of Gifford, whose Baviad and Mce^^ad completely annihilated the 
 writers whom he attacked, the satirist himself has wholly perished 
 with the reputations he dragged down — the ruin alike over- 
 whelming him and them. Boileau has been more fortunate, 
 partly from the accident of the Chapelains, Quinaults, and Cotins 
 whom he satirized, being not without some just claims to be 
 remembered in the literatm'e of their country. Boileau's " Art 
 of Poetry " seems to us of more value, as exhibiting a far 
 higher range of thought, than his earlier satires. In this poem 
 ;ie followed the example of Vida, and was emulated by Pope in 
 the artificial ornament of imitative haiTnony — seeking, in Pope's 
 language, " to make the sound an echo to the sense." In 1674 
 the " Lutrin" appeared, to om- apprehension Boileau's best work. 
 The general admiration of Boileau's poems led to his introduction 
 at court. He was commanded to read some cantos of the " Lu- 
 trin " to Louis XIY. He also read to him the epistle (epitre au 
 roi), in which the French monarch is compared to Titus. " How 
 admirable," said the king, " Tres beau ! how I would praise you 
 if it were not me but some other that you were praising. I give 
 you a pension of 2000 li%Tes, and the royal privilege to print 
 vour works" — the 2000 li\Tes was about £100 a-year — the pri- 
 \ilege conferred a valuable copyright. He was at the same time 
 appointed joint historiographer with Racine. This office gave 
 iiim frequent access to the court. His admission to the academy 
 was in consequence of the expressed wish of the king, yet was 
 not obtained without some difficulty. BoDeau attended with 
 more pleasure the meetings of the Academic des Inscriptions. 
 It would appear that at court Boileau spoke with what— if the 
 narratives preserved be true — would seem almost rudeness, but 
 without, however, giving offence. Of Scarron, though patro- 
 nized by the queen, he courted occasions to speak contemptuously 
 in her presence. Racine trembled, and said, " I cannot again go 
 to court in company with you." It tells better for Boileau that 
 when the king showed him some of his own verses — right royal 
 lines — the poet felt compelled to tell him — " Su-e, nothing is 
 impossible to your majesty ; it was your pleasure to make poor 
 verses, and the success has been perfect." The king, on another 
 occasion, praised bad verses — not his own — and cited the opinion 
 of the dauphiness as confirming his view. " The king," said 
 Boileau, " is successful in every campaign — he can storm forts 
 and take cities ; the dauphiness is an accomplished princess, but 
 
 this is a subject I understand and they do not." " How inso- 
 lent," said the courtiers. "He is right," said the king. Madame 
 Maintenon, in comparing him and Racine, said — " I love Racine, 
 he has all the simplicity of a child ; — as to Boileau, the most I 
 can do is to read him. I cannot endure his conversation — il est 
 trop poete." After Racine's death, Boileau ceased to go to court, 
 though encouraged by the king, who told him he had alwavs an 
 hour in the week for him. 
 
 Boileau, in addition to the talents which after ages have equal 
 opportunities with his own to estimate, possessed others more 
 likely to render his appearance at court an agreeable thing, 
 he excelled in mimicry ; he had the power of imitating any 
 one whom he once saw — the gait — the gestures — even the very 
 tones of the voice, he could represent to perfection. The stories 
 told in proof of this are scarcely credible. One is mentioned by 
 the younger Racine in his ilemoirs. Having iindertaken to 
 imitate in any gesture a person in the company, that person got 
 up and executed a very difficult dance. Boileau succeeded in 
 giving a perfect imitation of it, though, says Racine, he had 
 never learned to dance. He imitated aU the leading actors, on 
 one occasion, to amuse the king. The king asked Jloliere, who 
 was present, and who was one of those whom Boileau imitated, 
 what he thought of the imitation of himself. " Of that," said 
 Jlolifere, " I have no way of judging but from his imitation of 
 others ; that is perfect, and I have no doubt so is the imitation 
 of me." On all questions of poetical criticism, Boileau was 
 regarded as a judge from whose decision there was no appeal. 
 On questions of general literature his views were not so quietly 
 assented to. In the controversy concerning tlie relative merits 
 of the ancients and modems, which agitated Paris more deeply 
 than in BoDeau's day, it would have been possible to stir the 
 waters by any subject connected with political fiberty. BoUeau 
 declared for the ancients, and wrote essays on Longinus in sup- 
 port of his opinion. In religious matters Boileau shrunk from 
 ostentatious formalities of devorion, but he regularly attended 
 the observances of his church. A story is told of his going 
 to confession to a priest who did not know his person. After 
 listening for awhOe the priest asked him what was his occupation, 
 and was surprised at beuig told that it was making verses. 
 " Bad work," said the cure. — " Verses, and pray of what kind?" 
 " Satires," said the penitent. " Worse and worse," said the 
 priest. " And pray who are the objects of these satires." " Bad 
 poets," said Boileau, — " bad men — bad women — playhouses — 
 operas." " Call you this confessing your sins ?" said the priest ; 
 and he dismissed the penitent to prepare another catalogue of 
 offences. In the ecclesiasrical disputes of his day, Boileau sided 
 with the Jansenists. Of his satires by far the feeblest is that 
 entitled " Sur I'Equivoque," which is chiefly directed against the 
 Jesuits. His latter years were passed in retirement. He refused 
 to hsten to those who would praise his verses. " I prefer," he 
 said, " being read to being praised."' 
 
 Boileau was a man of real benevolence. Hearing that a friend 
 was in such distress as to be obliged to sell his library, he pur- 
 chased the books, adding a tliird to the price at which they were 
 valued, and gi^^ng the life-use of them to the former owner, who 
 was not allowed to know to whom he owed this obligation. A 
 conversation is recorded, in which an abbe of his acquaintance, 
 who had several benefices, said to him, " Cela est bien bon 
 pour vivre." "Ay," said the poet, "mais pour mourir, monsieiu- 
 i'Abbe, pour mourir." Hearing that Comeille's pension was 
 withdrawn, he instantly tendered the resignation of his own, 
 saying that were Corneille's cancelled he could not receive one 
 without a feeling of shame. He was fond, it is said, of quoting 
 any passage of merit in the writers whom he had most ridiculed 
 in his satu-es. It seems strange that he saw nothing to admire 
 in Scarron, whom he seems to have felt an almost insane hatred 
 to ; still more strange, that he was insensible to the graces of La 
 Fontaine, if, indeed, this assertion repeatedly made be true. We 
 doubt it. La Fontaine is mentioned by him together with Moliere, 
 whom he admired more than any other man of the period. That 
 he is not mentioned in the "Art Poctique" is the great offence as 
 charged in the indictment of the French critics. The publication 
 of the Fables and of his Art of Poetr}- were, it should be remem- 
 bered, almost contemporaneous, and though the Fables were 
 published some shoi-t time before Boileau's poem, it is not impro- 
 bable that his poem was the fii-st written. In the pai-ts of 
 Boileau's works where La Fontaine is mentioned, the praise is 
 earnest and cordial.
 
 BOI 
 
 652 
 
 BOI 
 
 Boileaii died of dropsy in the chest. A large number of per- 
 sons attended his funeral. " What a number of friends he had," 
 said a woman in the crowd to Louis Racine, as he moved in the 
 procession, " and yet this is the man said to have spoken ill of all 
 the world ! " He was buried at the Chapclle de Paris, under the 
 spot occupied once by the reading-desk, which his poem of the 
 " Lutrin " had rendered famous. His resting-place, in the days 
 of the Eevolution, which left neither the living nor the dead at 
 peace, was disturbed, and the body removed. In July, 1819, 
 the mortal remains of Boileau were again removed from the 
 Musee des Monument Fran9ois to the parish church of St. Ger- 
 main-des-pres, and placed in the chapel of St. Paul. The place 
 is marked by a tablet of black marble, recording the dates of 
 Boileau's birth and death, the fact of the reintennent, and the 
 regard in which bis memory is held by his conntry. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOINDIN, Nicolas, bom at Paris in 1676 ; died in 1751. 
 At the age of twenty he went into the army, which, how- 
 ever, he soon left from delicacy of constitution. In 1706 he 
 became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions ; Cardinal 
 Fleury interfered to prevent his admission into the French 
 Academy, saying that he was an atheist. He published three 
 tracts on Roman antiquities in the Transactions of the Aca- 
 demy of Inscriptions ; on the " Roman Tribes," on the " Forms 
 and Architecture of the Theatres of the Ancients," and on the 
 " Theatrical Dresses of the Ancients." These papers still possess 
 some interest. Boindin produced some dramatic pieces, one of 
 which was, after a few representations, not permitted to be acted. 
 It is probable that Boindin's reputation as an atheist made 
 phrases which, from another would be disregarded, be looked 
 upon with suspicion. The matter was of some importance in the 
 history of the French stage, as the incident led to the establish- 
 ment of the censorship. Boindin was not allowed to die at peace, 
 and the name of atheist robbed him of the ordinary decencies 
 which humanity owes to the dead. The rites of sepulture were 
 refused, and he was secretly interred by night. Boindin's works 
 have been collected, Paris, 1752. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOINVaLLIERS-DESJARDINS, Jean-Etienne-Judith 
 FoKESTiER, a French gi-ammarian, bom at Marseilles in 1764 ; 
 died in 1830. At the time of the creation of central schools, 
 he obtained the chaii" of belles-lettres at Beauvois. He was a 
 veiy voluminous writer ; and besides several other works, too 
 numerous to specify, published editions of Phaedras, Terence, 
 &c. He was member of a gi'eat number of literary societies in 
 the departments, and correspondent of the Institute since 1800. 
 
 * BOISDUVAL, Jean Alphonse, a French naturalist, was 
 bom at Ticheville, 17th June, 1801. He prosecuted his studies 
 at Vimouliers, and he subsequently gave attention to pharmacy 
 at Falaise, Rouen, and Paris. In 1824 he gained a botanical 
 prize, and one for medical natural histoiy at the school of phar- 
 macy in Paris. He graduated as doctor of medicine in 1828. 
 His chief works are his " French Flora ; " his " Arrangement of 
 European Lepidoptera ; " and his "Account of the Lepidoptera 
 of Madagascar, Bourbon, and Oceana." — J. H. B. 
 
 BOISGELIN DE KERDU, Pierre-Marie-Louis de, a 
 French historian, brother of the Cardinal and Count Louis-Bnmo, 
 bom at Plelo in the diocese of Saint Brieno in 1758 ; died in 
 1816. He pursued the military career, became knight of Malta, 
 in which island we find him in 179.3 ; from this place he started 
 for Toulon, then occupied by the English for Louis XVII. When 
 the republicans made themselves masters of this place, he retired 
 with his regiment into Corsica. He afterwards went to England, 
 and did not return to France till the restoration of the Bourbons. 
 Author of " Ancient and Jlodern Malta," London, 1803, 3 vols. 
 8vo ; " Travels through Denmark and Sweden," ibid., 2 vols. 
 4to ; a continuation of the Abbe Vertot's History of the Revolu- 
 tions of Portugal, ibid., 1809, 12mo, &c.— J. G. 
 
 BOISJOLIN, Jacques Francois Marie de, bom at Alen- 
 9on, 1761, was one of that rather large class of writers, who, 
 during the latter part of the eighteenth centur}', in France, 
 devoted attention to English literature. He had written a poem 
 in imitation of Thomson, and had translated Pope's Windsor 
 Forest, when the Revolution breaking out turned his thoughts in 
 a ditfercnt direction. Under the directory he obtained a situa- 
 tion in the foreign office, and when Bonaparte became first 
 consul, BoisjoHn obtained a seat in the tribunat, but his poetical 
 vein never retm-ned. He died in JIarch, 1843. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOISMONT, Nicolas Tiiyrel de, a French preacher of 
 considerable celebrity, born at a village of Normandy in 1715 ; 
 
 died at Paris in 1786. In his youth he was indolent and some- 
 what dissipated; but latterly did justice to his talents by indulg- 
 ing an ambition to be the first of preachers in the metropolis. 
 He was admitted into the academy in 1744, and afterwards 
 became preacher in ordinary to the king. He is the author of 
 two sets of letters on the morals of the clergy in France, and of 
 a volume of " Oraisons Funebres, Panegyriques et Sermons." 
 
 BOISMORAND, Claude Joseph,' born at Quimper, 1680. 
 This singular man, who, wthout knowing a word of English, 
 turned a poor literal translation of the Paradise Lost into a 
 stiiking and spirited copy of the great original, was a priest, and 
 although a priest, a habitual swearer and gambler. When pressed 
 for money he would write attacks on the Jesuits, to whom he 
 originally belonged, bring them to Father Toumemine, and 
 obtain from the chief of the order, promises of reward, with pre- 
 sent eamest, for demolishing the foe. As he possessed great 
 talents, he always succeeded in inflicting satisfactory chastise- 
 ment upon the imaginary enemy, then gambled away the profit, 
 and solaced himself with swearing. He wrote some works, chiefly 
 of an anecdotical character, and, before his death, submitted to the 
 severest penance for the iiTCgularities of his life. He died in 
 1740.— J. F. C. 
 
 BOISOT, Jean Baptiste, bom at Besan9on in 1638, and 
 died in 1694. The family to which he belonged was one of 
 high distinction. He studied at Besan9on in the classes of 
 philosophy and law till his eighteenth year, graduated at Dole 
 in civil and canon law, then went to Paris, where he was 
 favourably received in the best society. He next passed three 
 years in Italy. At Rome he attracted the attention of Cardinal 
 Azzolini and Christina, queen of Sweden, and found interest 
 enough to obtain from the pope the gift of two priories in Franche 
 Comte. He then visited Gennany ; and was one of the deputies 
 of the clergy to the dtats of Franche Comte. He was after- 
 wards employed by the crown in several negotiations in Italy 
 and Sjiain, in all of which he acquitted himself satisfactoiily. 
 He passed two years in Spain, principally in the library of the 
 Escurial, in which, however, he said he found nothing of the 
 same value as the books and manuscripts he himself possessed. 
 He purchased from St. Amour the library of cardinal de Gran- 
 velle. He arranged, classified, and secured the preservation of 
 the memoirs of the cardinal and his father, one of whom had 
 been prime minister of the Emperor Charles V., and the other 
 of Philip II. Among the documents thus secured by his dili- 
 gence, were most of the treaties concluded in the reigns of 
 Charles V. and Philip II., and numberless letters in all the lan- 
 guages of Europe — several in cypher, and these he decyphered 
 — from popes and kings and emperors : more important service 
 to history could not have been performed. Leibnitz made great 
 use of his collection in his Codex Diplomaticus, and Flechier, 
 bishop of Nismes, in his history of Cardinal Ximenes. In 1678 
 Franche Comte was united to the crown, and Boisot was given 
 the abbey of St. Vincent de Besan9on : 1694 being a year of 
 fiimine in his district, Boisot gave among the poor a sum of 
 12,500 livres, and had to boiTow money for the daily expenses 
 of his house. He died of a malignant fever, caught during bis 
 exertions for the poor. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOISROBI^RT, Francois le Metel de, born at Caen in 
 1592, and died in 1662 ; son of a procureur des aides de 
 Rouen, was first an avocat, but was too fond of sooiety to con- 
 tinue long in t'nis occupation. His company was sought every- 
 where ; his memory was good, and he is said to have had by 
 heart all the best stories of Boccacio and Beroald. He travelled 
 in Italy, and Pope Urban VIII. gave him a priory in Bretagne. 
 Boisrobert, who had not before thought of the church as a profes- 
 sion, now took orders, and soon obtained a good canonry at Rouen. 
 Citois, Richelieu's physician, when the cardinal was ill, told him 
 that an hour of Boisrobert's witty conversation woidd do more 
 for him than all the drugs in the pharmacopoeia. The remedy 
 was tried, and succeeded. Boisrobert, however, got out of 
 favour. The physician insisted on his being recalled. " Recipe 
 Boisrobert" was the language of his prescription. The prescrip- 
 tion was tried, and is said to have effected a cure, but the 
 cardinal died within tlie year. Boisrobert's influence with Riclie- 
 lieu led to the incorporation of the French Academy. It is said 
 that he ofiended Richeheu on one occasion, by uitroducing to 
 a private representation of the tragedy of Merame, some acts of 
 which were supposed to be of the cardinal's own composition, 
 two females of doubtfid chai-acter ; and that at another time he
 
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 BOI 
 
 was banished for awhile from Paris for the indecency of cursing 
 and swearing at a fashionable gaming-table, when there was a 
 run of luck against him. He was more often spoken of by the 
 name of a favourite actor than by his own — the Abb^ ^lonclori 
 was what he was generally called. He seems to have been an 
 idle, good-humoured, and good-natured fellow — a sort of small 
 Sir John Falstaff. The list of his works, most of them dramatic 
 pieces, would occupy more room than we can spare. The first 
 published was " Poems," printed in 1626 ; his last, " Epistles in 
 Verse," &c., 1659. Two volumes of tales in imitation of Fon- 
 taine's, pubUshed under the name of his brother, Antoine Ouville 
 le Metel, are said to be by Boisrobert. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOISSARD, Jeax Jacques, bom at Besan9on in 1528; 
 died at Jletz in 1602. He commenced his studies at the uni- 
 versity of Louvain, then went to Germany and Italy. Here he 
 entered into the service — we are not told in what capacity — of 
 Cardinal Carafla. Antiquarian tastes were soon formed among 
 the wonder-works of Rome. Our young student culrivated liis 
 talents for design, and made drawings of the most remarkable 
 objects in Rome and the islands of the Archipelago. He was pro- 
 ceeding to Greece when ill health compelled his return. He was 
 now assisted and encouraged by Cardinal Carpi. Boissard's eai-liest 
 studies were directed by his uncle, a distinguished Greek scholar. 
 On the continent, as in England — (see the article on Roger 
 AscHAJi) — the study of Greek was, in the sixteenth century, 
 regarded as connected with protestantism. However tliis may 
 be. before leaving Rome, Boissard professed the reformed doc- 
 trines. When he retiu-ned to Franche Comte he found that 
 protestantism, in any form, was not tolerated there. He left at 
 ilonbeillard a valuable collection of antiquities, wliich he had 
 found in Italy, with a friend for safe keeping, and he fixed his 
 tent at Metz. His antiquarian treasures were plundered or 
 destroyed in the miserable religious wars which convulsed France. 
 Of Boissard's works there are none without some interest. They 
 are chiefly, we might almost say exclusively, on subjects of ;u-t 
 and arch Ecology — volumes of poems, valuable for their engraved 
 illustrations ; books of emblems, often very fanciful ; folios of 
 topography, and of history and biography ; in which faithful 
 portraits of the features of each person whose life is given, are 
 held out as the great temptation to pm'chase. These, could we 
 believe the promise fulfilled, would be valuable. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOISSAT, PiERKE DE, born at Vienne in Dauphine in the 
 latter part of the sixteenth century; died in 1613. He was 
 vice-bailli of Vienne. He wrote several historical and genealo- 
 gical works, the most important of which is a " History of the 
 Knights of Slalta," edited by his son, the best edition of which 
 is that of Paris, 1659.— J. A., D. 
 
 BOISSAT, PiERKE DE, born at Vienne in Dauphine in 1603 ; 
 died in 1662. He appears to have had a quick eai" for verse, 
 and wrote Latin in metrical forms with facility. This talent 
 was exhibited while he was yet a child, and from it he was called 
 " Boissat TEsprit." He w:is fii-st intended for ecclesiastical life, 
 then the bar was thought of ; whUe thus irresolute, accident or 
 idleness threw him into a di-agoon saddle. Om- young officer 
 visited Malta, where the recollection of his father's History of 
 the Knights of Malta secured him a hospitable and kindly recep- 
 tion. Boissat had the reputation of a brave man, and what 
 served him even better, that of a skilful duellist. Society, in 
 its various grades, seemed determined to show him such honours 
 as it eould. He was named by the court, gentleman of the 
 chamber to Gustav d'Orleans, was received as a member of the 
 French Academy, and by Gaspar Lascaris, nce-legate of Angnon, 
 he was given the title and dignity of count palatine. Less dis- 
 tinctions than these woidd have made him a dangerous visitor 
 to ladies with or mthont hearts ; and we have a strange stoiy 
 of his having been found at a ball in female costume with JIadame 
 Sault, whose husband was lieutenant du roi in Dauphine. The 
 story is not veiy intelligibly told ; perhaps there was more to 
 tell than the lady communicated — perhaps less than her sen-ants 
 suspected. The sen-ants fell upon him \nth sticks and beat 
 him unmercifully. Six years' litigation followed — pleadings and 
 counter-pleadings, oral and written. The affair, somehow or 
 other, not taking the natural course of a duel — the lieutenant 
 du roi perhaps not being gentleman enough for the comte pala- 
 tine — but getting into the law-courts at last, the noblesse of 
 Dauphin^ thought that too much had been made of the matter 
 by the public, and too much also by the la\\7ei-s. The result of 
 their movement was, that the coimt had to quit Grenoble and 
 
 trudge back to Vienne. Whether a condition to that effect was 
 insisted on by the friends of the lieutenant to give him the 
 opportunity of retaliation, or whether he was led only by his 
 own fi-ee fancy, the count soon reappeared as a married man. 
 Years past on, and we find him again alone — his wife dead or 
 forgotten. He is now a devotee, a worshipper, seen of all men 
 in streets and marketplaces ; a long white beard, hau- streaming 
 in negligent strings, clothes ragged and filthy. He called him- 
 self a pilgrim, and wished to teach childi-en their catechism ; but 
 though they gathered round him, it was only to laugh at the 
 fantastic figm-e of the poor man, who yet could not be treated as 
 if actually insane. Queen Christina of Sweden passed through 
 Vienne, and Boissat presented himself before her. She did not 
 or would not believe that it was the same person whom she had 
 seen under other circumstances, and said that some frantic fanatic 
 had assumed his name. He published in 1631, under the name 
 of Baudon, a romance, entitled " The Kegropontine Stoi-y, or the 
 Loves of Alexander and 01_%Tnpia." Under the same name he 
 published, in 1633, Fables from .Slsop, and was in the habit of 
 printing poems on flying sheets, or broadsides as they are called. 
 Some of these were bound together, and issued as his " Pieces 
 en prose et en vers." One hundred and fifty copies thus entitled 
 are said to have been in the hands of his family, and issued for 
 sale so late as the year 1720. It is probably the same collec- 
 tion which we find mentioned with the title " Petri de Boissat 
 Opera et operum fragmenta Historica et Poetica." He published 
 " Relation des miracles de notre dame de I'Ozier." This book also 
 contained " Des vers a la louange de la Sainte Vierge," in five 
 languages — Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, and French; 1659. 
 He published also " Morale Chretienne." These were with his 
 own name. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOISSEAU, Fr.ajxcois-Gabriel, a French physician and 
 medical writer, was born at Brest in 1791. He served in the 
 French peninsular ;irmy as a junior assistant-surgeon, and con- 
 tinued attached to the imperial army until the battle of Waterloo. 
 He then entered the noilitary hospital of the Val-de-grace, where 
 he continued his medical studies, and took his degree as doctor 
 of medicine in Api-0, 1817. From this year to 1829, Boisseau 
 was the principal editor of the Journal universel des Sciences 
 Medicales, and also assisted in the preparation of the Bioffraphie 
 Medicale, pubhshed dm-ing the same period by Panckoucke. 
 After the revolution of 1830 he was appointed professor of the 
 hospital at Metz ; but excessive Uterary labour had undermmed 
 his health, and he died in Jletz on the 2nd Januai-y, 1836. Of 
 his numerous writings the principal are — "Considerations gener- 
 ales sur les classifications en ^ledecLne," Paris, 1826; "Noso- 
 graphie Organique," Paris, 1828-1830; and "P}Tetologie Phy- 
 siologique ou Traite des fievres," &c., Paris, 1823. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOISSEREE, SuLPiCE, a noted Gemian architect and 
 archaeologist, borne at Cologne in 1783. A journey w-hich he 
 made to Paris in 1803, and another along the com-se of the Rhine, 
 in company with his brother Jlelchior, and his friend, J. B. 
 Bertram, were the occasions of his resoh-ing to make a collection 
 of Gennan art- antiquities. This resolution he can-ied out in his 
 native city, by amassing upwards of two hundi-ed pictures, wliich, 
 as representative of various schools of painting that, predomi- 
 nating in one century, were almost entirely lost sight of in the 
 next, were considered of such value that, after being removed 
 to Stuttgart, the price of 120,000 thalers was offered for them 
 by Louis of Bavaria. This collection is now at Munich. In 
 1835 Sulpice Boisser^e was named curator-general of plastic 
 antiquities m Bavaria, and shortly aftenvards a member of the 
 French Academy of Fine Arts. He had an important share 
 in the composition of the folloiving work — " Sammlung alt- 
 nieder-und oberdeutscher Gemaelde der Briider, S. und M. 
 Boiseree und Bertram," &c. 1822-1839.— J. S., G. 
 
 * BOISSIER, Edward, a Swiss botanist of the present cen- 
 tury, member of the Society of Natural History of Geneva. He 
 has travelled much in Spain, and has published an account of a 
 botanical trip in the south of Spain during the year 1837, and 
 a description of the new plants collected during the journey ; also 
 a Flora Orientalis, which is still mcomplete. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOISSIEU, Jean Jacque.*, a French portrait and landscape 
 painter, bom at Lyons in 1725. His manner was a little after 
 Ostade. His engi-avings after Bcrchem, Ruysdael, and Asseh-n, 
 are numerous; and Bryan tells us "his point is remarkably 
 pleasing and picturesque, yet spirited and masterly." — W. T. 
 
 *BOISSONADE, Jean Fran-<;-ois, a distinguished Greek
 
 BOI 
 
 654 
 
 BOJ 
 
 scholar and critic, bom in Paris, 1774. It was in the early part 
 of the present century, that after hanng filled some important 
 situations under the government of Napoleon, Boissonade aban- 
 doned politics for the sake of giving himself up exclusively to the 
 study of Grecian literature, of which, in 1809, he was nominated 
 professor at the French academy. In 1813 he was elected 
 member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1828 was raised 
 to the chair of Greek literatm-e in the college of France. His 
 philological works, all bearing on his favourite pursuits, are very 
 numerous, and connected with his lectures in the college of 
 France, have given a remarkable impetus to the study of that 
 branch of classical literatm-e with which his name is so honour- 
 ably connected. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOISSY, Charles Desprez de, a French barrister, author 
 of " Lettres sur les Spectacles," in 2 vols. The second volume 
 contains an account of works for and against plays. — -J. T. 
 
 BOISSY, Jean - Baptiste Thi^sa'dere de, a French 
 archaeologist, born at Paris in 1666 ; died in 1729. He was 
 member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and left two disserta- 
 tions, "Sur les Sacrifices de Victimes Humaines dans Tantiquite," 
 and " Sur les Expiations en usage chez les Anciens." — J. G. 
 
 BOISSY, Louis de, born at Vic in 1694; died in 1758. 
 He wrote several comedies, the best of which is " I'Homme de 
 Jour." Boissy was an impro\ident man, and always in distress. 
 He found a strange resom-ce in expressing in verse, for writers 
 who were ambitious of literary distinction, but who had not 
 acquired this accomplishment, their conceptions, and thus satis- 
 fying the requirements of the French theatre. He married ; and 
 he and his family were reduced to entire destitution, when, 
 through the interest of JIadame Pompadour, he was appointed 
 editor of the Mercure. During his editorship, ]\Ianuontel, from 
 whom we learn the fact, was led to write, for the purpose of serv- 
 ing Boissv, his ]\Ioral Tales. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOISSY D'AXGLAS, Francis Anthony, Count, a French 
 statesman and author, boni 1756 ; died 1826. He was origi- 
 nally bred to the bar, but obtained an appointment in the house- 
 hold of Monsiem-, afterwards Louis XVIII. Like the famous 
 vicar of Bray, he seems ever to have had a strong inclination to 
 swim with the current, and was usually a partisan of the domi- 
 nant party for the time being. He took part in the overthrow 
 of the monrachy, then of the republic, and finally of the empire. 
 In consequence of the aid he gave in promoting the downfall 
 of Buonaparte, he was nominated a peer in 1814. But, true to 
 his principles, he joined the emperor on his return from Elba, 
 and obtained a place in the chamber of peers. On the final 
 downfall of Napoleon he was at first excluded from the upper 
 house, but was restored to his place in the course of a few weeks. 
 Count Boissy must have possessed some sterling qualities, which 
 caused his failings to be thus overlooked. He is the author of 
 an essay on the life, writings, and opinions of Malesherbes ; of 
 some political pieces ; and of the " Etudes Litteraii'es et Poe- 
 tiques d'un Viellard," in 6 vols., 12mo. — {Biog. Univ.)— J. T. 
 
 BOISTE, Pierre Claude Victoire, a French lexicogra- 
 pher, born at Paris in 1765 ; died at Ivry-sur-Seine in 1824. 
 He first applied himself to the law, but aftenvards turned his 
 attention entirely to literature. He published a universal 
 dictionary of the French language — a gigantic work that has 
 placed him in the same rank that Johnson has attained among 
 us. He also wrote an epic poem entitled " I'Univers Dehvre," 
 Paris, 1805, which though frequently brilliant in its language 
 and execution, is now entirely forgotten. — J. G. 
 _ BOISTUAU DE LAUNAI, Pierre, a French historian, 
 lived in the first half of the sixteenth century. Author of 
 " Theatre du Jlonde," a work that has been printed more than 
 twenty times at Paris, Lyons, Rouen, Antwei-p, &c. A trans- 
 lation of St. Augustine's City of God has been attributed to him. 
 
 BOISY, Artus df Gouffier, seigneur de, also comte 
 d'Etampes, was intrusted by Charles VIII. with the education 
 of his son, afterwards Francis I., on whose accession Boisy was 
 placed at the head of affairs, with the rank of grand-master of 
 the household. He was subsequently employed in negotiating 
 with Chie\Tes, the envoy of Charles V., for tlie adjustment of 
 the disputes between the two sovereigns, but died of fever in 
 1519, before aciiieving the result for which he and Chie\Tes 
 laboured with a zeal augmented by the strength of their personal 
 friendship. — W. B. 
 
 BOIT, Charles, a Swedish enamel painter, who practised 
 in France and England with success, and died in 1726.- — \V. T. 
 
 BOITARD, Peter, a French naturalist and agricultural 
 writer, born at Ma9on in 1789. He at first followed a mili- 
 tarj- life, and afterwards devoted himself to Hterature and natural 
 science. Among his wiitings are — " The Cabinet of Natural 
 History;" " llanual and Elementary Course of Natm-al His- 
 tory;" "Manual of Entomology;" "Botany for Ladies;" 
 " j\Ianual of Botany and Physiology ; " " Gardening and Forest- 
 ing Manuals ; " and " Description of Mammifers in the Garden 
 of Plants at Paris."— J. H. B. 
 
 BOIVIN, DE ViLLENEUVE, Jean, bom in 1663, and died in 
 1726, a younger brother of Louis Boivin, by whom he was sup- 
 ported and educated. An appointment was given him in the 
 Bibhoth^que du Roi. A manuscript of part of the Bible in 
 uncial letters, and believed to be of the eleventh or twelfth cen- 
 tury, over which, on the same parchment, were written homilies 
 of one of the Greek fathers, was discovered and decyphered by 
 him. In 1705 he became a member of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions, and soon after was appointed professor of Greek in the 
 college de France. In 1712 he edited some volumes of the 
 Byzantine Historians. On Huet's death he succeeded him as 
 one of the forty of the academy. He published several tracts 
 on classical subjects, and some translations in French verse, 
 among them one of Homer's Frogs and Mice. Several papers 
 of his on antiquarian subjects are printed in the Memou-s of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOIVIN, Francois de, baron de Villars, a French chronicler, 
 died in 1618. He was councillor and maitre d'hotel to the 
 dowager queens, Elizabeth and Louise. From 1550 to 1559, he 
 accompanied the marechal Cosse-Brissac, commander of the 
 French army in Piedmont, as private secretary, and has left 
 memoirs of the campaigns in Piedmont, Montferrat, and the 
 duchy of Milan. — J. G. 
 
 BOIVIN, Louis, bom in 1649 at Montreuil d'Argile, a small 
 town in Upper Normandy, and died in 1724. Boi\'in's father was 
 the avocat of the highest reputation in the district, and his ma- 
 teiTial imcle, Pierre Vatier, was royal professor of Arabic. Young 
 Boivin was educated in the Jesuit establishment at Rouen. He 
 afterwards attended at Paris lectures on theolog}', jurisprudence, 
 and medicine. He was fond of waiting verse ; but Chapelain, 
 who had then the character of being the best poet and critic in 
 France, seeing some of his verses, dissuaded him from the exer- 
 cise of the unprofitable art. In 1701 he became member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions. His manners are described as savage. 
 He was irritable and impracticable. He pmxhased land in Nor- 
 mandy, and found the acquisition a plague. He is said to have 
 expended a large siun of money, and to have wasted twelve 
 years of time in disputing through every fomi of litigation, with 
 the abbey of La Trappe, a demand of a shilhng a year, which 
 he had finally to submit to. He had ready for publication, when 
 death inteiTupted his purpose, a " Narrative of Joseph's Life," 
 framed from the scripture account, in French verse, at which he 
 had been working for thirty years. Several pajjcrs of his on 
 Greek and Roman antiquities are published in the Jlemoirs of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions. He was in the habit of making 
 so many alterations m what he wrote, that the printers ceased 
 to send him proof sheets, and these essays had not the advantage 
 of his superintending the press. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOJE, Caspar J. See Bote. 
 
 BOJE or BOIE, Heinrich Christian, a Gemian poet, 
 was bom at Meldorf in Holstein, March 9, 1744, where he 
 died, March 3, 1806. He was a conspicuous member of the 
 Gottinger Hambund, and editor of the first German Jlusenalma- 
 nach, 1770. He also edited the Deutsche Museum, 1776-91. 
 — (See Prutz Ber Gottinger Dichterbund, 1841.) — K. E. 
 
 BOJER, Wenceslaus, a distinguished botanist, was bom 
 at Prague in Bohemia, on 1st January, 1800. His love of 
 botany and natm'al history brought him under the notice of the 
 late emperor of Austria, who paid for his education, with the 
 view of preparing Hm for missions of scientific discoveiy. In 
 1820 he went to the Jlamitius. After \isiting various parts of 
 Bladagascar, making extensive collections, he sent to Vienna a 
 large number of valuable specimens. He was rewarded by the 
 emperor with a pension, and the decoration of the order of merit. 
 He made a second voyage to JIadagascar, and crossed over to 
 the eastern coast of Africa, in search of new plants. He then 
 \-isited the Comoro islands, &c. In these different places 
 he resided for six years, maldng Madagascar, however, his 
 head-quarters. In 1837 he pubUshed his " Hortus JLiuri-
 
 BOK 
 
 655 
 
 BOL 
 
 tianus," which contains an enumeration of the exotic and indi- 
 genous plants growing in the island, arranged according to their 
 natural orders. Besides being a botanist, Bojer was also a 
 chemist and geologist. He founded in the Mauritius the Society 
 of Natural Histoiy, afterwards denominated " The Royal Society 
 of Arts and Sciences, Mauritius." He was appointed in 1855 
 professor of natural histoiy and chemistry at the royal college 
 uf Port-Louis. His last work was an account of the borer 
 insect, which had committed gi'eat ravages in the island. At 
 tlie time of his death, he was engaged in drawing up an 
 i'lustrated monograph of the genus Mangifera. He died on 4th 
 June, 1856, in the 56th year of his age. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOKHARI, Imam Abu-Abdallah Mohamjeed Ebn 
 IsJDViL Al- Jaafi Al-Boichari, a Moslem doctor of gi-eat cele- 
 brity, whose collection of traditions concerning the prophet, his 
 companions, and successors, entitled " Ssahih" (the Undoubted), 
 enjoys an authority among the Soonite or orthodox sect of the 
 Moslems, second only to that of the Koran. He was bom in 
 Arabia, of the tribe of Jaafa, about the year 810. In his 
 eighteenth year he repau-ed to Mecca, and began the compilation 
 of his great work, which occupied him no less than sixteen years. 
 Each separate tradition was committed to writing only after 
 the pious scribe had observed the ceremony of purification by 
 prayer and ablution at the well of Zerazem ; and when the work 
 was to be divided into sections and chapters, he chose for his 
 residence Medinah, where, with daily prayers for the success of 
 bis undertaking, he laid each section and chapter as it was com- 
 pleted on a tablet between the tomb and the pulpit of the pro- 
 phet. Many copies of the work exist in European libraries. Its 
 author, after confounding by his skill in tradition some legists of 
 Bagdad, who challenged him to a public discussion, took up his 
 residence in Bokhara. He died in 870. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOL, CoKNELius, a Dutch painter, living in England dm-ing 
 the Great Fire, out of which gi-eat misery he made money by 
 painting scarlet views. He also etched some \'iews of seaports 
 and public bvdldings. — W. T. 
 
 BOL, Ferdinand, bom at Dort in 1611, and a pupil of 
 Rembrandt at Amsterdam. He painted religious and historical 
 pictures, but excelled chiefly in portrait and engraving, although 
 not equal in playful and daring freedom of hand to the givat 
 magician his master. He painted faces in a bold, dashing, free 
 manner, but muddled his carnations too much with brown. Though 
 often, in his historical scenes, defective in drawing and clumsy in 
 attitude and proportions, he often rises to high merit, composing 
 well, and throwing ease and nature in expression into his canvas 
 creatm-es. His gi-eatest work, celebrated by the poet Vondel, 
 was in the admu-alty at Amsterdam. The court of justice in 
 the town-house had other works of his ; and the council-cham- 
 ber at Dort had, and perhaps still has, some of his chef-d'ceuvres, 
 such as " Moses breaking the Tables," the " Appointment of 
 the Seventy Elders," and " Fabricius in the Camp of Pyrrhus." 
 He died in 1681. His etchings are numerous, and remarkable 
 for a certaui bold spirit. They consist of a motley tribe of 
 astrologers, philosophers, oflBcers, learned persons, and brave 
 young women in caps and feathers. — W. T. 
 
 BOL, Hans, a landscape painter and engraver, bom at 
 Mechlin in 1534. He studied at Heidelberg, where he learned 
 to copy the old masters, and afterwards studied at Amster- 
 dam, where his works were esteemed, and died there in 1593 or 
 1583, for Sandart and Deschamps differ'. His best works were a 
 " Crucifixion," and the '• Ston' of Daedalus and Icaras," in dis- 
 temper. He etched cleverly his own works, and was renowned 
 m the Dutch world for his harmony and unity of colour, his 
 broad and free pencilling, and his general pleasing invention and 
 composition. His landscapes were chiefly views of Low Countiy 
 cities and scenes outside Amsterdam, for he excelled in repre- 
 senting the wa\-ing spectral reflections of vessels in the canal 
 water. The great Dutch city where he lived, with its quaint 
 mingling of red roofs, gi-een trees, and pennoned masts, was his 
 special delight.— W. T. 
 
 BOLANGER, John, bom in 1606. He became an eminent 
 pupU of Guide, whose composition and colour he so carefully ind- 
 tated, as to become court painter to the duke of Modena. Like 
 most of the eclectics, aiming low, he reached nothing higher than 
 exceedingly pleasing design, an elegant taste of composition, 
 and a delicate colour," attempting sacred and profane histoiy in 
 the manner of his pale and efifemiaate school. He died in 
 1660.— W. T. 
 
 BOLDINI NICCOLO, Vicentiso, an early engi-aver on 
 wood, bom at Vincenza about 1510. His prints are chiefly after 
 Titian, under whom it is supposed he studied. They ai-e in a 
 bold, free style, and scarce. — W. T. 
 
 BOLESLAS. This name was borne by five of the early 
 sovereigns of Poland, whose original title was dulce (dux ; miU- 
 taiy leader) : — 
 
 Boleslas I., sumamed the Vallvnt, succeeded his father, 
 Miecislas I., in 999, and married a niece of the emperor, Otho 
 III., who conferred upon him the title of king, which the pope 
 ratified. Meditating the invasion of Russia, be was attacked by 
 the duke of Bohemia, whom he speedily conquered, made prisoner, 
 and deprived of his eyesight. Having taken possession of that 
 duchy, and of Jloravia, he resumed his designs against Russia, 
 then distracted by the ci\-il wars which followed the death of the 
 grand duke Vladimu-. A considerable portion of the country 
 submitted to him, and he aftenvards extended his conquests into 
 Prassia and Pomerania. But these acquisitions were lost under 
 his immediate successors, Miecislas II. and Casimir. 
 
 Boleslas XL, great-grandson of Boleslas I., was also an enter- 
 prising and warlike monarch. Thi'ee distinguished refugees 
 having thrown themselves on his protection — Jaromir, brother of 
 the duke of Bohemia ; Bela, brother of the king of Hungary ; and 
 Zaslaf, his o-\vn cousin, eldest son of the duke of Russia — he first 
 invaded Bohemia, and restored Jaromu- ; then he entered Hun- 
 gary, and placed Bela on the throne. But his designs against 
 Russia, though in part successful, were interiTipted by dissensions 
 requiring his presence at home. A subsequent quarrel with the 
 pope, Gregory VII., proved fatal to his sovereignty, and he died 
 in exile and wretchedness about 1090. 
 
 Boleslas III., nephew of the preceding, came to the ducal 
 dignity in 1103, the regal title having been abolished by the 
 pope. The early part of his reign was distm-bed by contests 
 with an illegitimate brother, Sbigniew, with whom he had kindly 
 shared his dominions. A wax- with the emperor, Henry V., fol- 
 lowed, and was conducted by Boleslas with so much spirit and 
 success, that the emperor was glad to ratify a peace by giving his 
 sister in maniage to the conqueror. A subsequent disastrous 
 defeat by the Russians before Halitz shortened his life ; he 
 reigned, however, thirty-six years. 
 
 Boleslas IV., second son of Boleslas III., fell heir at his 
 death to a portion of his dominions, from which his elder brother, 
 Uladislas, attempted to drive him. In the contest that ensued, 
 the aggressor was compelled to take refuge in Germany, and 
 Boleslas 'NA'as invested ^vith the dukedom of Poland in his stead. 
 Attacked by the imperial power in the interest of Uladislas, he 
 resisted Conrad, and conciliated Barbarossa. But his subsequent 
 attempt to conquer Pmssia issued in a humiliating defeat, and 
 the claims of the children of Uladislas threatened to disturb liis 
 later years. By a temperate and wise policy, however, he averted 
 this danger, and having set himself to improve the condition of 
 his subjects, he held the dukedom in peace and honour till his 
 death in 1174. 
 
 Boleslas V., sumamed the Chaste, inherited the ducal 
 throne at the age of seven, and his minority was disturbed by 
 the ambitious designs of his xincle Conrad ; but on attaining his 
 majority in 1237 he took possession of his sovereign rights, with 
 the help of the duke of Silesia, whose daughter, Cunegonda, he 
 maiTied. The Tartars, who had established themselves on the 
 frontiers of Hungary, made repeated incursions into Poland at 
 this period, and Boleslas proved inadequate to the task of heading 
 his people in a brave and vigorous resistance. It was not till near 
 the close of his reign that his passionless and indolent temper 
 was roused to an energetic effort, which resulted in a ■\'ictoiy over 
 the invaders. He was subsequently defeated in an expedition 
 against the Russians, and died in 1279. 
 
 This name was also home by three dukes of Bohemia : — Bo- 
 leslas I., surnamed the Cruel, who acquired the sovereignty 
 in 932, by the murder of his brother, Wenceslas II., and was put 
 to tribute by the Emperor Otho; his son, Boleslas II., who 
 succeeded in 967, and received the surname of the Pious, as the 
 founder of the bishopric of Prague, and many churches in other 
 parts of his dominions; and Boleslas III., son of Boleslas II., 
 who inherited the throne at the close of the century, during a 
 war with Poland, which he conducted feebly, and wliich issued 
 in his abdication m 1012, after he had been deprived of his eye- 
 sight by the Polish monarch. — W. B. 
 
 BOLEYN or BULLEN, Anne, the second wife of Henry
 
 VIII. of England, was the eldest daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn 
 and the lady Elizabeth his wife, and was bom probably about 
 1501. Her father represented an ancient and noble family in 
 Norfolk. She was carried to France in September, 1514, by 
 IMary Tudor, the youngest sister of Henry VIII., when she went 
 to many Louis XII. After the death of Louis, Mary returned 
 to England, but Anne remained in France, in the service first of 
 Claude, the queen of Francis I., and after her death, in the house- 
 hold of the duchess of Alenfon, where her beauty and varied 
 accomplishments attracted universal admiration. She danced 
 and played the flute and rebec to perfection, and dressed with 
 marvellous taste. When, in due time, she returned home, 
 Henry VIII. saw her in her father's garden at Hever, and was 
 charmed with her wit ; and, through the interest of Wolsey, she 
 was appointed maid of lionoiu- to Queen Katharine of Ai-agon. 
 Here she was receiving the addresses of Lord Percy, the eldest 
 son of the duke of Northumberland, when Henry formed the 
 project of malviiig her his bride. For this purpose he divorced 
 Katharine ; and when the pope would not consent to so arbitrary 
 a measure, he disowned the papal authority, and threw off the 
 sacerdotal yoke of Rome. Anne Boleyn was privately married 
 to King Henry, some say at Dover, the same day that the king 
 returned from his celebrated visit to Francis I. ; some say in the 
 chapel of Sopewell Nunnery; and others at Blickhng Hall in 
 Norfolk. The probability is that the nuptials took place at 
 Whitehall on the 25th of January, 1533. They were openly 
 solemnized again at Easter-eve of the same year, April 12th ; 
 and she was crowned queen on Whit-Sunday, June 1st, " of all 
 days the most lovely in England." On the 7th of the following 
 September, to the great disappointment of her husband, she gave 
 birth to a daughter, afterwards the renowned sovereign Elizabeth. 
 Anne continued mistress of Henry's affections until the year 
 1536. Then her ill-disguised vanity having somewhat alienated 
 liis esteem, she discovered him one day caressing Jane Seymour, 
 one of her attendants. Deeply wounded by this spectacle, she 
 fell into transports of grief; and after some hours of intense 
 agony, brought forth a dead son, January 29th. Henry was 
 now thoroughly alienated from her. He caused her, on very 
 slight groiuids, to be indicted for high treason. He accused her 
 of having allowed several persons to invade his conjugal rights. 
 She was tried and condemned by a jury of peers, of whom her uncle, 
 the duke of Norfolk, her inveterate enemy, was president. She 
 defended herself before them with admirable presence of mind, 
 convincing all of her innocence. Commending her little daughter 
 Elizabeth to the care of Henry, and renewing her protestations 
 of fidelity, she prepared for death, not only with serenity but 
 cheerfulness. The executioner of Calais was sent for, as expert 
 in his vocation. She was beheaded in the tower on the 
 19th of May, 1536. Her body was thrown into a common 
 elm chest, made to hold arrows, and then interred. Henry mar- 
 ried Jane Seymour the very day after her execution, and thus 
 explained the secret reasons of his suspicions against her. Her 
 private copy of Tindal's translation of the Bible is still in 
 existence. She was not less accomplished than beautiful ; and 
 the verses which she composed shortly before her execution prove 
 that she had considerable poetical powers. — T. J. 
 
 BOLIGENI, Giovanni Vin<;enzo, an Italian Jesuit, who, 
 after the suppression of his order, was summoned by Pope Pius 
 VI. to Rome, where he published a number of works, which so 
 abounded in commendations of the suppressed order, that even 
 his friends joined in the remonstrance which was addressed to 
 him by the sacred college. He was born at Bergamo in 1733, 
 and died at Rome in 1811. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, Viscount, filled so 
 long as he was on the stage as large a space in the public eye as 
 any of his contemporaries, although he has no place in the Bio- 
 graphia Britannica. His family was of old standing ; his father 
 was a baronet, his mother the Lady Mary Rich, a daughter of 
 the earl of Warwick. He was born at his father's scat of Batter- 
 sea, near London, on the 1st of October, 1678. To impress this 
 date, it may be remarked that Henry Lord Bolingbroke came 
 into the world exactly a centmy, almost to the day, before 
 one of the most remarkable men of our time — Henry Lord 
 Brougham. Th(;n his public life coincides almost exactly with 
 the first half of the eighteenth century. He entered parliament 
 in February, 1701 ; and he died at Battersea, where he first 
 drew breath, on the 15th of December, 1751. He and that half 
 centuiy — which, however, extends its penumbra back to the 
 
 Revolution, and onward to the death of George II. — had a good 
 deal in common. It may be said that " he and it did in each 
 other live ; nor could he it, nor could it him survive." There is 
 no thinking of that time without the image of Bolingbroke rising 
 to the mind. We see him in it as in a glass. His political 
 career is soon sketched. When he first appeared in the house 
 of commons, William of Orange was still on the throne; but 
 the coming reign was already casting its shadows before, and 
 toi-yism was everywhere in the ascendant. St. John from the 
 first attached himself to Harley ; and so important had he very 
 soon made himself that in 1704, when Harley became secretary 
 of state, he was also brought into the ministry as secretary at 
 war. They both remained in office until the whigs came in, 
 under Marlborough and Godolphin, in 1708. Then again, when 
 Harley returned to power in 1710, and became head of the 
 government, with the office of chancellor of the exchequer, St. 
 John was made one of the secretaries of state. Harley veas soon 
 after promoted to be lord high treasurer and earl of Oxford; 
 and in July, 1712, St. John was also called to the house of 
 lords by the title of Viscount Bolingbroke. Up to this time 
 they had been to all appearance the fastest of friends ; they now 
 suddenly became — even wliile sitting in the same cabinet — rivals 
 and enemies. At length in the end of July, 1714, Bolingbroke, 
 chiefly through the aid of the bedchamber-woman. Lady Masham, 
 succeeded m ousting the ti'easurer ; but in less than a week the 
 death of the queen snatched his victory from his hands. The 
 lords justices, acting for the new king, turned liim adrift at once. 
 Neither he nor Harley ever held office again. Both were imme- 
 diately impeached, and the late lord treasm'er, after lying for 
 some time in the tower, was brought to trial and acquitted ; Ms 
 rival had in the end of March, 1715, made his escape to France. 
 
 Bolingbroke was thus twice in power, each time for four years, 
 between 1704 and 1714, the middle two years of the ten being 
 the interval ; and this was all over before he had reached the 
 age of thirty-six — not quite half his term of life. The fonner 
 of the two periods in which he was minister is famous for the 
 most splendid of the campaigns of Marlborough ; the latter, 
 familiar both in our political history and in our literature as the 
 four last years of the queen, for the peace of Utrecht, which was 
 concluded in April, 1713, and which Bolingbroke was mainly 
 instrumental in negotiating. There was little doubt at the time, 
 and there can be none now, that the scheme of the desperate 
 politician for the perpetuation of his power, after the death of 
 Queen Anne, went the length of bringing in the Pretender. 
 Apparently, indeed, that was his only chance. 
 
 As soon as he reached France, he went and offered his services 
 to that personage ; but by him too he was veiy soon dismissed. 
 He then tried to make his peace wth the English government, 
 but without success. It was not till he had lived in exile for 
 seven years that he obtained pennission to retuni home. The 
 matter is imderstood to have been managed through the good 
 offices of the duchess of Kendal, the king's mistress, whose ser- 
 vices are said to have been pm'chased at a cost of eleven thousand 
 pounds. But even now he was not allowed to return to the 
 house of lords : nor could he ever obtain that full restoration 
 — a very unwelcome compliment to his power in debate. Thus 
 tongue-tied, he set to work with his pen, and for some years 
 attracted great attention by his attacks on the ministry in the 
 Craftsman, and by other papers in the same publication, two 
 series of which were afterwards published separately under the 
 titles of " Letters upon the History of England, by Humphrey 
 Oldcastle," and " A Dissertation upon Parties." 
 
 In the beginning of the year 1735 he again suddenly left 
 England ; and he remained mostly abroad for a second period of 
 seven years. But he finally returned to England in 1742, on 
 the death of his father, who in 1716 had been raised to the 
 peerage by the title of Viscount St. John, with remainder to liis 
 sons by his second wife, who was not the mother of Lord Boling- 
 broke. In this same year, also, his great enemy Walpole, who 
 had been in office, with the exception of a short interval, ever 
 since his own expulsion, fell from power ; but even that change, 
 he soon found, was not likely to open to him the door of the 
 house of lords. Hariey and St. John, in their early days of 
 brotherhood, besides being the chiefs of a political party, had 
 formed together a centre of attraction for the literaiy luminaries 
 of which Pope and Swift were the most remai-kable, and seem 
 both to have been sincerely loved as well as admu-cd by the wits 
 and poets with whom they thus lived in the freest association.
 
 BOL 
 
 657 
 
 BOL 
 
 But all this, with so much more, was now past and gone ; Pope 
 was the only one of his old friends whom Bolingbroke found still 
 remaining to receive him on his return home from his second 
 exile ; and he survived for only about two years ; and in that 
 short space they quarrelled and became bitter enemies. 
 
 [The follomng statement has recently been made on the 
 authority of the Court Journal: — "A most extraordinary dis- 
 covery, which, for obvious reasons, is soitght to be kept a pro- 
 found secret, has taken place in an old ruined house at Triel, 
 near Versailles. An immense chest, full of gold and silver 
 coins of English stamp, has been found concealed in one of the 
 cellars, where it had been carefully walled up. From the 
 papers and documents contained likewise in the chest, it has 
 become evident that the house was once inhabited by Boling- 
 broke, who must have lain concealed here during the period 
 wherein his whereabouts has always remained a puzzle to bio- 
 graphers and historians. In one of his letters he mentions that 
 'his retreat is convenient to the Seine,' and the house in ques- 
 tion is found to possess a subterranean passage leading down to 
 the water's edge. The money is evidently the result of the sub- 
 scription raised by the party of the Pretender, for want of which 
 the latter was prevented from striking a decisive blow. At 
 present papers and coin remain in the hands of the owners of 
 the house."] 
 
 Besides a few pamphlets and other political papers which he 
 published in his lifetime, Bolingbroke left a mass of manuscript 
 behind him, most or all of which has been given to the world 
 since his death. His printed works make 5 vols. 4to. ; besides 
 which there are two collections of his letters, one in 2 vols. 4to., 
 or 4 vols. 8vo., the other, consisting of French letters, in 3 vols. 
 8vo. The most remarkable of his writings are, a long and ela- 
 borate letter to Sir William Windham, written apparently about 
 1716, being a vindication of his political life down to that date, 
 which was first published the year after his death ; his short 
 tract, entitled " Eeflections upon ExUe " (partly a translation 
 from Seneca), and his " Letters on the Study and Use of His- 
 tory," also published together in 1752; and his "Idea of a 
 Patriot King," which was published in his lifetime, with a 
 prefatory notice signed by David Mallet, the poet, speaking -(vith 
 great asperity of Pope, then lately dead, who, in his admiration 
 of the piece, had a short time before sent the manuscript, which 
 had been lent to him, to the press without the knowledge of the 
 author. The reason why he reserved nearly all that he had 
 written to be published only after his death, was no doubt the 
 infidel character of his whole system of philosophy, and his aver- 
 sion to expose himself to what penalty or inconvenience the 
 avowal of such sentiments might draw upon him. " Having 
 loaded a blunderbuss, and pointed it against Christianity," Samuel 
 Johnson remarked," he had not the courage to discharge it him- 
 self, but left half-a-cro\vn to a hungr}- Scotchman to pull the 
 trigger after his death." The merit of whatever BoUngbroke 
 has written hes much more in the style than in the thought. 
 He is frequently ingenious, but seldom or never profoimd ; nor 
 is his rhetoric of a brilliant or imposmg character. There is no 
 richness of imagery, nor even much peculiar feUcity of expression ; 
 yet it always pleases by its clear and easy flow, and it rises at 
 times to considerable animation, and even dignity. 
 
 He was twice married, the second time to a French lady, a 
 niece of madame de JIaintenon, with whom he lived in great 
 affection till he lost her only the year before his own death; but 
 he had no family by either wife. His peerage was inherited by 
 his nephew, Lord St. John, the son of his half-brother; and 
 from him is descended the present viscoimt, who thus enjoys 
 both titles.— G. L. C. 
 
 BOLIVAR, Geegoky de, a Spanish Observantme friar of 
 the first half of the seventeenth century, who laboured with 
 success as a missionary in Mexico and Peru, and prepared a 
 work on the geography and history of those countries, which, 
 however, has never been published. Another work of his, 
 " Memorial de Arbitrios para la reparacion de Espana," was 
 published at JIadrid in 1626. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOLIVAR, Simon, was bom in 1783 at Caraccas, of a noble 
 family of Venezuela. He recei^■ed his education principally in 
 Europe, ^nsited Paris during the Revolution, and travelled in the 
 United States also, where he probably imbibed that love for free 
 institutions which, on his return home, prompted him to join the 
 ranks of the Venezuelan patriots. They declared their indepen- 
 dence in 1811, and Bolivar, holding a colonel's commission under 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 General Jliranda, was intrusted with the defence of Puerto 
 Cabello, an important position, which, however, he was unable to 
 retam, and ere long the successes of the royahst leader, Jlonte- 
 verde, compelled him to seek refuge in Ciu-a9oa. Thence he 
 repaired to New Granada, joined the patriots of that province in 
 their straggle, and rendered great sers-ice to their cause by taking 
 in succession Tenerifte, Monipox, Ocana, and Cucuta, with other 
 Spanish posts on the Magdalena. His heart, however, was set 
 upon the Uberation of Venezuela, and the next year found him 
 entering that country with a force that scarcely exceeded five 
 hmidred men. The people rallied to his standard ; he drove the 
 royalists from the western pro\'inces, and pressed on towards the 
 capital, proclaiming war to the death against the Spaniards, in 
 retaliation for the cruelties practised by Monteverde. Similar 
 successes of Marino having liberated the eastern provinces also, 
 that general was forced to shut himself up in Puerto Cabello, and 
 a convention of the patriots at Caraccas invested Bolivar with 
 the power of dictator. But the struggle was not ended. A new 
 and formidable opponent appeared in the person of Boves, who, 
 after a series of sanguinaiy battles, re-estabUshed the authority of 
 Spain, and Bolivar was again compelled to seek safety in New 
 Granada, where he distinguished himself by the capture of Santa 
 Fe de Bogota. On the appearance of Morillo with an over- 
 whelming force, he retii-ed to Jamaica, and thence to Hayti, 
 where he organized a new expedition, whOe Arismendi raised 
 again the standard of independence in Margarita, In the 
 campaign that followed, the Spaniards sustained a series of 
 disastrous defeats, and Bolivar, in conjunction with Santander, 
 re-estabhshed the cause of freedom in Xew Granada. Strength- 
 ened by these %'ictories, the dictator speedily resumed operations 
 in Venezuela, at the head of a powerful army, to which England 
 contributed supplies of men and military stores. Complete suc- 
 cess now crowned his efforts. The battle of Carabola, fought in 
 June, 1821, decided the independence of his native countrj', and 
 in August of the same year, Venezuela and New Granada united 
 to form the republic of Colombia, Bolivar being elected president. 
 He subsequently commanded the patriot forces in Peru, and there 
 also, notwithstanding the factions which impeded his progress for 
 a time, he was ultimately successfal. The republic of Boli\ia, 
 formed imder his auspices, and called after his name, proclaimed 
 him its perpetual protector, and mtrusted him with the prepara- 
 tion of its constitution, continuing him for another year in the 
 dictatorship with which he had been invested during the straggle. 
 His conduct in this office has been suspected, but if we except 
 the fact that he showed no desu-e to lay down his authority and 
 return home, there is little evidence that he sought to add Bolivia 
 to his Colombian presidency. A congress was summoned, his 
 proposed constitution was laid before it; on its declining to give 
 a decision, and requesting that the matter should be sent down 
 to the provinces, Bolivar did so, and it was by the unanimous 
 voice of the provincial assemblies, that he was nominated presi- 
 dent for life. Meanwhile difficulties had arisen in Colombia. 
 Paez, who held command in Venezuela, being accused of oppres- 
 sive measures, refused the control of the general government, and 
 actual hostilities were only prevented by the willingness of both 
 parties to await the decision of Bolivar. His retm-n had the 
 eflfect of restoring quiet, but mistrast of his designs was now pre- 
 valent. Accordingly, in the beginning of 1827, he resigned his 
 presidency, and declared his intention of retiring into private life. 
 This step being opposed by Santander, and a majority of the 
 congress, he resumed office, and summoned a national convention 
 at Ocana to decide what measures should be adopted for the res- 
 toration of harmony. Serious differences, however, disturbed its 
 deliberations, and it was ultimately dissolved, by the secession of 
 the deputies friendly to Bolivar. In the course of the same year, 
 1828, he issued a decree by which he assumed the supreme 
 power, and, as the people were generally favourable to him, he 
 continued to hold the reins of government till his death in 
 December, 1830. His character will be in some points variously 
 estimated, but no one can deny him the credit of eminent abili- 
 ties, militaiy and administrative. He fought the battle of South 
 American independence with a constancy and a disinterestedness 
 not often equalled ; and it was proI)ably the suspicions of others, 
 as much as his own faults, that required him to pen, a few days 
 before his death, an address to his country, in which he asserted 
 his integiity, complained of the aspersions cast upon him, and 
 declared that he would die happy if his death sliould promote the 
 peace and gloiy of Colombia. — W. B. 
 
 40
 
 BOLLA, Baethelejiy, an Italian poet, born at Bergamo in 
 tlie sixteenth centmy. His compositions are of the class called 
 macaronic, a species of burlesque consisting of a melange of 
 words of different languages, with the common words Latinized. 
 His work, entitled " Nova novonmi novissuna," though the title- 
 page promises a most alarming amoimt of cachinnation, may 
 stm be read without any veiy great peril. The book, however, 
 has become very rare, and still rarer is another work by the same 
 author, " Thesaurus proverbiorum italo-bergemascorum," which 
 has hitherto eluded the search of the most active collectors. 
 His burlesqixe eulogium on cheese is to be found in the cmious 
 collection of Dornarius, Amphitheatmm Supilutiae Socraticae: 
 Hanau, 1619 or 1670.— J. G. 
 
 BOLLANDUS, Johannes, bom at Tillemont in the Low 
 Countries in 1596 ; died in 166.5. Bollandus was a Jesuit, 
 and is known as being the first to whom was intrusted the exe- 
 cution of Rosweide's plan of publishing, from manuscripts in 
 the Dutch Hbraries, the Lives of the Saints. Rosweide had 
 scarcely announced the project when he died in 1629. Bol- 
 landus then undertook the task, and in concert \vith Hen- 
 schen set to work in earnest. In 1643 the "Lives of the 
 Saints," whose festivals occur in January, appeared in two 
 folio volumes; in 1658 those of February followed in three 
 volumes. Bollandus had commenced JIarch, when he died in 
 1665. The work was intennpted by the abolition of the order 
 of Jesuits ; was resumed and again intemipted by the French 
 invasion of 1794, and again resumed. The last volume was 
 published so lately as 1853, and it may give some notion of the 
 gi-eat scale on which the work is executed, when the reader is 
 told that this volume — an enormous folio — is the eighth of the 
 saints, whose festivals fall in October, and only goes to the 
 middle of that month. Besides his portion of the " Acta Sanc- 
 torum," he published some poems and sermons, translated some 
 French and Italian books, and, in connection with Tollemar and 
 Henschen, published the work entitled " Imago primi saeculi So- 
 cietatis Jesu." — J. A., D. 
 
 BOLLANDUS or V.VN BOLLANDT, Sebastian, a Fran- 
 ciscan ft-iar, born at Maestricht, edited the Historica, Theolo- 
 gica et Moralis Terras Sanctae Elucidatio of Quaresmius, and 
 the Golden Sermons of PieiTe Aux-Bcjeufs. Died in 1645. 
 
 * BOLLEY, Pompejus, a distinguished living Swiss chemist, 
 bom at Zindelberg on the 7th of May, 1812. He was first 
 professor of chemistry at the school of Aarau, and at present 
 occupies the same position in the polytechnic school of Zurich. 
 Bolley has devoted himself piincipally to technological chemistry, 
 especially the chemistry of colours, on which he is one of the 
 first authorities in Europe. He has also proposed a new areo- 
 meter scale, which is considered by many to be far preferable to 
 that of Baume, generally in use. His writings are not nmner- 
 ous, but for the most part of great value. The most important 
 is his " JIanual of Technical Analysis," of which an improved 
 English translation has been published by H. G. Bohn. Dr. 
 BoUey has edited the Schweizerisches Geiverhehlatt ; and since 
 1856 he has pubhshed the Scktceiz. Pohjtecknisches Zeitschrift, 
 in conjunction with J. H. Kronauer. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOLLMAN, Erich, bora at Hoya in Hanover in 1770 ; 
 educated at Gottingen, where he received his medical degree, 
 and settled at Paris in 1792 as a physician. Immediately after 
 the outbreak of August lOtli in that year, he was engaged by 
 madame de Stael to effect the escape of Count Narbonne, which 
 he accomplished with skill and addi-ess. Two years afterwards, 
 he imdertook to release Lafayette from his imprisonment in 
 Austria, being employed for that purpose by Lafayette's friends 
 in London. He first ascertained, with much difficulty, that the 
 place of imprisonment was the fortress of Olmiitz in Moravia. 
 He then engaged the help of young Francis K. Huger of South 
 Carolina, whom he accidentally met in Vienna, to effect the 
 rescue, hadng opened a communication T\-ith the prisoner through 
 his physician, and learned that he was every day taken out for 
 an airing with a small escort. On the day agreed upon. Boll- 
 man and Huger met the riding party, deceived and drove off the 
 guard, and set Lafayette free ; but through an unfortunate mis- 
 take in their airangements, the three were immediately separated 
 from each other. Lafiiyette was recaptm-ed three days after- 
 wards, and the two friends also were taken into custody. But 
 they were liberated after an imprisonment of eight months, and 
 Bollman then went to America, where ten years afterwards, he 
 was engaged in the wild enterprise of Aaion Burr. He pub- 
 
 lished some tracts on subjects connected with the currency and 
 the theories of political economy, and died at Kingston, Jamaica, 
 in 1821. He was a man of great hardihood and love of adven- 
 ture, but of a iloble spuit. — F. B. 
 
 BOLOGNA, Antonio. This nobleman, from Palenno, or as 
 some pretend, from Bologna, flomished at the beginning of the loth 
 century. He was presented with the citizenship of Naples by 
 Alphonsos I. of Aragon, who in 1449 made him one of his privy 
 council, president of the royal chamber, and poet laureate. He 
 was sent by that magnificent patron of literature to the republic 
 of Venice, for the purpose of obtaining an aim of Titus Livius. 
 Bologna left five books of lectures, poetry, and discourses, which 
 were published at Venice in the year 1554. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOLOGNA, Giovanni Battista, a Latin poet, bom in 
 ililan, lived in the first half of the seventeenth century. He 
 at first studied law, but afterwards abandoned every serious pur- 
 suit, and attempted the fife of his father. Author of " Corona 
 Poetarum," Milan, 1616; and "Ratio de attentato ut diceba- 
 tur, parricidio, ac de somniata dementia," ibid., 1619, 4to. — J. G. 
 
 BOLOGNA, Lattanzio de, a pupil of the ener\-atin^ 
 Caracci, went to Rome where he was employed by Sistus V. to 
 work at a celling In the palace of St. John Lateran. He painted 
 an "Angelical Choir" in St. Slaria Maggiore, and a " Scourging 
 of our Sa\'iour" in the St. Maria di Monti. Died young in 
 1597.— W. T. 
 
 BOLOGNE, Pierre de, a French Ivric poet, bom at Mar- 
 tinique about 1706 ; died at Angouleme about 1789. His 
 poetry is distinguished by its purity, elegance, and harmony, and 
 the natural easy flow of its vei-sification. Author of " Amuse- 
 ments d'un Septuagenaire," odes, and miscellaneous poems. 
 
 BOLOGNESE. See Grimaldi. 
 
 BOLOGNI, GiROL.oio, born at Treviso on the 26th of 
 March, 1454. This celebrated Latin poet, who in his eariy 
 youth practised as a baixister, took his degree of LL.D., and was 
 admitted a member of the college of jurists in 1475. Although 
 married, and the father of many cliildren, he entered the church, 
 and took the first orders in 1479. His life was embittered by 
 many misfortunes, and Valeriano numbers him amongst the most 
 unhappy literary men of Italy. For many years he supervised 
 the editions of the classics published at Tre\-iso by Jlichele Slan- 
 zolo, and wTotc all the prefaces, some of which are in verse. 
 Ha\ang dedicated to Frederick III., emperor of Austria, a poem 
 entitled " ilediolanum, sive Itinerarium Hieronymi Bononii senioris 
 poetseTarvisini cannen epicum," he was crowned by that sovereign 
 poet laureate. He wrote also a Latin dissertation " On the territory 
 and illustrious men of Treviso," and left a collection of poetical 
 compositions in twenty books, of which, however, nothing is 
 published but the poem of " Antenor." His death took place at 
 Treviso on the 23rd of September, 1517. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOLOGNINI, Angelo, an eminent Italian surgeon of the 
 early part of the sixteenth century, was bora, according to some 
 wiiters, in the neighbourhood of Padua, and according to others 
 in Bologna. All are agreed that he was for some years professor 
 of surgeiy at Bologna ; according to Afidori, this was from 1508 
 to 1517, and in the latter year he is said to have retu'ed to 
 Padua, and to have devoted the rest of his life to private practice. 
 He has left a surgical treatise entitled "De Cura Ulceram Exteri- 
 orum," &c., published at Bologna in 1514, repubhshed there in 
 1516, at Basle in 1536, and at Zurich in 1555. It contains far 
 sounder views upon the treatment of woimds and ulcers than are 
 to be met with in the writings of Bolognini's contemporaries. 
 He is said to have been the first to adopt the practice of friction 
 with mercmnal ointment. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOLOGNINI, Giovanni Battista, a Bolognese painter 
 and engi'aver, boiTi in 1611. He became one of Guidos best 
 pupils. His best church pictures in his native town were 
 a " Virgin and Child with Saints," at St. JIaria Nuova ; a 
 "Dead Christ" in the church of the Ser\-i, and an "Immaculate 
 Conception" in the St. Lucia. He also etched some plates after 
 Guido in a vivacious, flimsy way (his impressions not being of 
 the strongest). He died in 1688. Bolognini, Giacomo, his 
 nephew, bora in 1664, became a reasonable, religious, and lus- 
 torical painter. Bolognini, Carlo, a painter of the same 
 period, perhaps of the same family, born at Bologna in 1678; 
 died in 1718. He studied under Aldrovandini and Paradosso. 
 He excelled in fresco, arcliitecture, and perspective, and was 
 much employed in Vienna, where he died. — W. T. 
 
 BOLSWERT, BoETius Adasi, the great mascuUne engraver,
 
 born at Bolswert in Friesland about 1580. In conjunction 
 witli his younger brother, Scheltius, he settled at Antwei-p as 
 printseller and engraver. He worked entirely with the graver, 
 in the free open manner of Cornelius Bloemaert. His engravings, 
 however, after Rubens, that raging gladiator of art, are more 
 finished, and fuller of colour. His chief works are — seventy- 
 seven plates of the Life of Christ ; fifty of the Hermits ; twenty 
 Landscapes ; some wild beast hunts ; and Rubens' grand Eesiu-- 
 rection of Lazarus, Judgment of Solomon, and Last Supper. 
 Scheltius A., bom 1586, worked entirely without the point, 
 reproducing almost the very colour and expression of Vandyck 
 and Rubens, whether portraits, huntings, landscapes, or histoiT. 
 Rubens frequently retouched his proofs with chalk, so that he 
 literally worked in harness with that robust Fleming. He also 
 engraved the works of Seghers, Jordaens, Quelinus, Diepenbech, 
 and Rombouts. One of his most beautiful engravings is the 
 Crucifixion of Vandyck ; in the best impressions the hand of 
 St. John is not seen on the Virgin's shoulder. In all the pomp 
 of satyrs drowned in flowers ; of bleeding and raging lions ; of 
 torch-waving furies ; of blazing armour ; of fruit, strewn over 
 golden roads, and trod under foot by triumphant Cassars, saints, 
 and martyrs ; — wherever Rubens went followed Bolswert with 
 his potent and enduring steel. — W. T. 
 
 BOLTIN, Ivan, a Russian historical writer, bom at St. 
 Petersburg in 1735. He entered the amiy, and latterly attained 
 the grade of major-generaL His first publication, a " Chorogra- 
 phical Description of the Waters of Sarepta," appeared in 1782, 
 in Russ, and was followed in 1787 by his critical remarks on 
 the French physician Leclerc's History of Russia. In this latter 
 work, as well as in one subsequently published on the same sub- 
 ject, in answer to Prince Stcherbatow, to whom Leclerc had been 
 iidebted for much of his information, Boltin exliibited some of 
 ihe higher qualities of a historian and a critic. Died in 1792. 
 
 BOLTON, James, an English botanist, lived at the end of 
 the eighteenth centuiy. His works are, " Filices Britannicse, or 
 a History of the British Fems," the 1st part published at Leeds 
 in 1785, the 2nd at Huddersfield in 1790; also a "History of 
 Fungi growing about Halifax," published in Huddersfield from 
 1788-1791.— J. H. B. 
 
 BOLTON, Robert, a puritan divine, bom in 1572 at Black- 
 burn in Lancashire, educated in the free-school of that place, 
 and at Oxford. His scholarship, particularly in Greek, was so 
 well reputed, that he was chosen to dispute before James I. on 
 his majesty's ^-isit to Oxford in 1605. He was latterly rector 
 of Broughton in Northamptonshire, where he died in 1631, 
 lea\ing a faner name for clerical vntues than could have been 
 anticipated from the early part of his career. He wrote — 
 "Sermons;" "A Discourse on Happiness;" and "The four last 
 things. Death, Judgment, Hell, and Heaven." — J. S., G. 
 
 BOLTON or BOULTON, Edmund, an English historian and 
 antiquarian of the reign of James I., appears to have had a place 
 in the household of that monarch's favourite, VUliers, duke of 
 Buckingham. He wrote a life of Hemy II. for Speed's Chro- 
 /iic/e, which, being found too favourable to Archbisliop Becket, 
 was not inserted in that work; "The Elements of Armories," 
 1620 ; a poem on the removal of the remains of ]\Iary Queen 
 of Scots from Peterborough to Westminster ; and " Nero Caesar, 
 or Jlonarchie Depraved," 1624. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOLTRAFFIO, Giovanni Antonio, a native of Milan, and 
 a pupil of Da Vinci, under whom he became a great liistorical 
 fresco painter. His best picture, an altar-piece of " Virgin and 
 Saints," was painted in 1506. — W. T. 
 
 BOM, Peter, bom at Antwerp in 1530 ; he excelled in dis- 
 temper landscape, and died in 1572. — W. T. 
 
 BOMBACI, Gaspard, an Italian historian, bom at Bologna 
 in 1607. Author of a history of Bologna. — J. G. 
 
 BOMARE, Valmont de. See Valmont de Bomare. 
 
 BOMBASIO, Gabriele, also caUed BOMBARIO. The dates 
 of his bii-fh and death have not been recorded by any of his 
 biographers ; it appears, however, from one of his letters, that he 
 assisted at the perfomiance of II Pastor Fido, by Guarrini, 
 whose intimate friend he was. He also enjoyed the friendship of 
 Ariosto, and although he did not succeed in becoming equal in 
 merit with the author of Orlando Fmioso, yet he has been often 
 compared with him. Two of his tragedies, " Lucrezia " and 
 " Alidoro," have been noticed by many ^vl^ters, and the second 
 was perfomied at Reggio, in the presence of Queen Barbara of 
 Austria and the duchess of Fen-ara. The only work published by 
 
 him is a funeral oration in Latin, which he pronounced at the death 
 of the Dvd-ce Ottavio Famese, and we find also some of his let- 
 ters scattered through various collections. He was often employed 
 by the Duke Famese on many important negotiations ; and the 
 education of Odoardo, aftei-wards Cai-dinal Famese, was intrusted 
 to his care. His long residence in Parma led some of his bio- 
 graphers to consider him a native of that city, but this notion is 
 quite en-oneous, and contradicted by himself in a letter in which 
 he calls Paraia his adopted country. — A. C. !M. 
 
 BOJIBELLI, Rafaele, a celebrated Italian writer on 
 algebra, of whose life almost nothing is known, except, as we 
 are informed in the prefixce to his work on algebra, published 
 1572, that he was a native of Bologna, and was patronized by a 
 bishop of Jlelfi. A notice of the histoiy of algebra is prefixed 
 to that work, in which the author, following older winters, attri- 
 butes the invention to the Indians. It is di%'ided into three books, 
 the last of which is occupied with a set of problems. Bombelli 
 had the honour of being the first to investigate satisfactorily the 
 nature of the in-educible case in quadratic equations. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOMBELLI, Sebastiano, born at Udina or Bologna, in 
 1635. He was a successful scholar, therefore imitator of 
 Guercino, but born to imitate. He went to Venice, and, allured 
 by the snen, colour, he became an admirer and copier of the 
 compositions of Veronese and Tintoretto. Unable to settle 
 whether to invent or to copy, or whether to confine himself to 
 portrait or histoiy, he eventually was allm-ed by mammon to 
 mere portrait painting, into which gulf for so many ducats he 
 threw all his past study and present talent. His colour was 
 mellow and sweet ; his camations were fi-esh ; his likenesses 
 good ; and he gained imiversal applause through his ideaL He 
 died in 1685.— W. T. 
 
 BOMBERG, Daniel, a celebrated printer, bom at Antwerp; 
 died at Venice in 1549. He printed several Hebrew bibles, all 
 esteemed for the beauty of their type, and purity of text. The 
 first appeared in Venice, 1518, 4 vols, folio. He also printed 
 the first impression of the Hebrew concordance of Isaac Nathan, 
 1521, folio. Bomberg brought his art to perfection, but 
 expended enormous sums, and ruined himself. — J. G. 
 
 BOMILCAR, a Carthagenian admiral, lived about 209 B.C. 
 Having obtained reinforcements for Hannibal after the battle of 
 Cannse, he was sent with a fleet of fifty-five galleys to support 
 the Carthagenian army, who were then defending Syracuse 
 against the Romans ; but finding them nearly cut off by the 
 plague, he returned to Carthage. Here he succeeded in re\'iving 
 the drooping spirits of his fellow-citizens, by whom he was sent 
 hack with a greatly increased force ; but at sight of the Roman 
 fleet under the command of Marcellus, he lost courage, and fled 
 without striking a blow. — G. M. 
 
 BOillLCAR, a Carthagenian general, lived about 310 B.C. 
 Not satisfied with enjojing the highest dignity the republic of 
 Carthage could bestow, he aspired to sovereign power; and, 
 taking advantage of the public alarm occasioned by the invasion 
 of Agathocles, he entered Carthage at the head of a thousand 
 mercenaries about 308 B.C. After being proclaimed king, his 
 hireling troops turned against him, made him prisoner, and put 
 him to death by crucifixion. — G. M. 
 
 BOMILCAR, a Numidian adventm-er, died about 107 B.C. 
 He was a favourite of Jugurtha, and the instrament of many of 
 his cmelties. Haxing by order of Jugm-tha miu-dered Jlassina, 
 gi-andson of Jlasinissa, he fled to Africa. Here he had an inter- 
 view with Jletellus, who promised him impunity for his crime if 
 he would either kill or betray Jugurtha. To this condition 
 Bomilcar consented, but the plot ha^Tug been discovered by 
 Jugurtha, he caused Bomilcar and the greater part of his accom- 
 plices to be put to death. — G. JI. 
 
 BOMJIEL (in Latin Bommelus), Henry van, a Dutch 
 historian, bom at Guelders ; died in 1542. His principal work 
 is " Belliim Ultrajectinum inter Gueldiise ducem Carolum et 
 Henricum Bavarum episcopum ultrajectinum," 1542, 8vo. 
 
 * BOMPARD, Alexis, a French physician and medical 
 writer, now physician to the prison of Doullens, was bom at 
 Conflans on the 3rd August, 1782. He is the author of several 
 works, most of them of small size, of which the most important 
 are — "Considerations sur quelques maladies de I'Encephalc," 
 &c., published at Paris in 1827, and a second edition in 1828 ; 
 and " Traite des maladies des voies digestives, et leiirs annexes, 
 sui^•i de tableaux de substances ven^neuses," published at Paris 
 in 1829. Bompard has also translated Garibaldi's treatise on
 
 BOM 
 
 6G0 
 
 BON 
 
 Physical Education into Frencli ; of tliis two editions appeared 
 in Paris in 1818 and 1830.— W. S. D. 
 
 BOilPIANO, Ignatius, an Italian litterateur, a Jesuit, 
 bom in 1612 ; died in 1675. Author of " A History of Gre- 
 gory XIII.," Rome, 1655 ; a work on Latin style ; a " History 
 of Christianity," &c. — J. G. 
 
 BOxMTEMPO or BONTEIMPO, J. D., a pianist and com- 
 poser, was born at Lisbon in 1781 ; the date of his death is 
 uncertain. In 1806 he went to Paris, where he was well 
 esteemed as a player and as a teacher. He spent some years in 
 England, revisited Paris in 1818, and finally returned to his 
 native city in 1820, where he organized a philharmonic society. 
 He wrote a requiem which is much praised, and some concertos, 
 sonatas, and lighter pieces for his instrument. — G. A. M. 
 
 CON DE SAINT HILAIRE, Fkan90is-Xavier, a learned 
 Frenchman, bom at ]\Iontpellier, 1678; died in 1761. He was 
 member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, and 
 of the Royal Society of London. He ranged tlirough almost 
 every branch of human knowledge, jmisprndence, the fine arts, 
 physics, natural history, &c. His memoirs on different subjects 
 are to be found in the collections of various societies. His work 
 on the spider, with reference to the manufacture of silk, has been 
 translated into all the European languages, but is of very Uttle 
 pi-actical value. — J. G. 
 
 BONACOSSI, the name of four sovereigns of Mantua : — 
 
 BoNACossi, PiNAJioNTE, Successively prefect, captain, and 
 sovereign of Mantua, and by turns a leader of the Guelfs and 
 the Ghibellines; died in 1293. While prefect he assassinated 
 his colleague, OttoneUo Zanicalli ; and after the murder, con- 
 ducted himself so artfully that the people intrasted him \vith the 
 duty of avenging it. During his reign of eighteen years, he was 
 generally successful in his encounters with the captains of Brescia, 
 Padua, and Vicenza. 
 
 BoNACossi, Bardellone, son and successor of the preced- 
 ing, a cmel and avaricious prince, who wrested the sovereignty 
 from his brother, Taino, persecuted the Ghibelline party that his 
 father had left m power, and was expelled from the city in 1299 
 by his nephew and successor, BotteseUa. He survived three 
 years at Padua in extreme poverty. 
 
 BoN.vcossi, BoTTESELLA, ncphcw and successor of the pre- 
 ceding. Until the arrival of Henry VII. in Italy he was at the 
 head of the Ghibelline party. He died in 1310. 
 
 BoNACossi, Passerino, brother of the preceding, obtained 
 from Henry VII. the title of imperial \-icar, and bemg one of the 
 most skilful politicians, as well as one of the greatest captains of 
 his age, under that title contrived to conduct himself as an abso- 
 lute sovereign. He perished in defending his palace against the 
 retainers of Phillipino de Gonzaga, a prince whom his worthless 
 son, Francesco, had outraged in the grossest manner. Francesco 
 was killed in the tower of Castellero m 1319.— J. S., G. 
 
 BONAFOUS, Mathieu, a celebrated Piedmontese agricul- 
 turist, director of the Agricultural Institution of Turin, was 
 bom at Turin in 1794, and died in 1852. He was descended 
 from a French fiimily that took refuge in Piedmont during the 
 religious wars of the continent. In 1814 he introduced the 
 Bell and Lancasterian systems of teaching into Piedmont. He 
 did much to encourage agriculture, by giving prizes, and by 
 aiding institutions which had for their object the advancement 
 of that art. His works are — "On the Cultivation of the Mul- 
 berry, and the Care of Silk-Wonns ; " " Monogi-aphs on Cus- 
 cuta. Maize, Polygonum Tinctorium, and Chloride of Calcium ; " 
 " Account of Swiss Agriculture ; " besides various articles in the 
 Revue Encydopedique, and m the Annahs de VAgriculture 
 Franqaise. — J. H. B. 
 
 BONALD, Louis-Gabriel-Ambroise, vicomte de ; bom in 
 the department of Aveyron in 1753 ; died, after a life of some 
 trouble (for he was an emigre^, at the place of his birth on 23d 
 November, 1840. Bonald belonged to that reactionary school 
 which, under his guidance and that of d'Eckstein and Count 
 Joseph de Maistre, attempted, after the Restoration of the 
 Bourbons, to establish absolutism in government, and imity or 
 intolerance in religion, on what they considered the sure basis of 
 speculative first principles. One of the leading intellectual 
 characteristics of French writers, and of the French people in 
 general, is an excessive fondness for logic, and a tendency to 
 bUnd trust in the results of any formal process, no matter how 
 absurd these results may bo or how inconsistent with every 
 sound Imman intuition. In this comitry we have had, in the 
 
 course of its history, many practical advocates of absolutism, but 
 exceedingly few Sir Robeil Filmers ; nor did these few ever 
 make much impression on our philosojihy. Bonald is a good 
 specimen of a large and popular class of writers in France. 
 Acute, distinct, and highly accomplished, the merits and apparent 
 precision of his style, as well as his undoubted genius and good 
 faith, gave him repute and an influential following, — notwith- 
 standing that his first principles were untenable, and his conclu- 
 sions impracticable and bizaiTe. To ordinary minds, social and 
 religious doctrines might seem sufficiently remote from an ab- 
 stract theory of language ; such, nevertheless, is the point in which 
 Bonald's long series of deductions find their origin. His doctrine 
 as to language is what we would tenn in this countiy, the lowest 
 possible ; it is, that words contain all conceivable thought, or, 
 rather, that they are the masters of thought. The consequences 
 of this postulate are evident enough, and assuredly they suffi- 
 ciently subserve his main social dogmas ; for if man has nothhig 
 in his thought or intellect beyond what his speech reveals to 
 him, it is very clear that he is shut up within the conditions or 
 the power of the language he uses ; and that neither religious, 
 political, nor social maxims or forms, except such as are trans- 
 mitted to liim and in action aromid him., can be rightly conceived 
 by any one. Bonald avoids the unmitigated materiaUsm conse- 
 quent on this doctrine — (with materialism in any form he could 
 have no sympathy) — by asserting that language is of miraculous 
 origin, or the immediate, as contradistinguished from the mediate, 
 gift of God. Hence, all speculation and practice in this world — 
 everything must be governed by a pure and absolute theocracy ; 
 man has no spontaneity, his reason no sphere of freedom ; he has 
 simply to act and think as controlled. To this first principle as 
 to language, the author adds another, which he asserts to be the 
 necessary fonn of ever)- logical result : — everything, whether fact 
 or thought, belongs to one of the three essential categories — 
 cause J means, effect. In religion we therefore must have the 
 tlu-ee terms, God, Mediator, and Man, and we can have no other; 
 in physical science we have correspondingly, prime mover, 
 movement, effect or matter ; in social or poHtical science, these 
 terms become, power or government, ministers or ike executive, 
 the people as subjects. It is not difficult to discern whither this 
 new refinement inevitably leads. — We cannot foUow De Bonald 
 farther ; but we may be permitted to repeat our surprise that, 
 at this period of the world, abstractions so aitificial and far- 
 fetched as these, could have obtained credit as a rational basis of 
 action. But France is altogether a puzzle. She now bends the 
 knee before theories not so defensible as even Bonald's. She 
 claims a high place in ci\ilization, and yet her practical life and 
 European action are shaped by transparent sophisms like these! 
 Few are now sanguine enough to think of the futm'e of that 
 country with cheeifulness or exceeduig hope. — De Bonald's 
 chief treatise, the " Theorie du Pouvoir Social," occupies three 
 volumes ; his entire works fill up a much larger space. — J. P. N. 
 
 * BONALD, Louis Jacques Maurice de, cardinal, arch- 
 bishop of Lyons, born at Milhau, in the department of Aveyron 
 in 1787. After completing his studies at the semmary of Saint 
 Sulpice, he became secretary to the archbishop of Besan9on, 
 whom he accompanied on a secret embassy to Rome, and on his 
 return was appointed grand-vicar and archdeacon of the cathedral 
 of Chartres. In 1823 he was raised to the see of Puy, which 
 he occupied tOI 1839, when he was promoted to the archbishop- 
 ric of Lyons. Two years afterwards he was created cardinal 
 As a zealous churchman, he has frequently been embroiled m the 
 politico-ecclesiastical troubles of the last thnty years of French 
 history, but always in a manner honom-able to his uprightness 
 and consistency. — J. S., G. 
 
 BONAMY, Pierre-Nicolas, a French historian, bom in 
 1694 ; died at Paris in 1770. Author of a great number of 
 curious memoirs relative to the antiquities of Paris, published in 
 the collections of the Academy of Inscriptions. — J. G. 
 
 BONANNI, FiLiPPO, a Jesuit bom at Rome, January 16, 
 1638; died March 30, 1725. He was the author of several 
 antiquarian works, the most important of which is the " Gabi- 
 netto Armonico," a singular collection of 136 engi'avings of 
 musical instruments, with letterpress descriptions, pubfished at 
 Rome in 1722, 4to. The Biog. Univ. mentions an edition in 
 1716, but it is evidently an error. The Ahh6 Ceratti edited a 
 second edition of the "Gabinetto Armonico" in 1776. Bonanni 
 also wrote " Numismata pontificum Romanorum," from Martin 
 X. to Innocent XII., foUo, 1699.— E. F. R.
 
 BON 
 
 661 
 
 BOX 
 
 BONAPARTE, originally BUONAPARTE, the patronymic 
 of the most remarkable Family or House of modem times. Al- 
 though this is a dictionar}- not oihistori/, but simply ofbioffrapht/, 
 we have thought it right to constnict a ch:irt of the relations 
 of this memorable House ; nor is that chart UTelevant even to 
 what is rightly expected of biographers, inasmuch as a glance 
 over it will enable our readers to spare ns tedious explanation 
 and inevitable repetition. We have sought to penetrate no 
 further into the past, than to the times of Carlo Bonaparte 
 and Letizia Ramolino — the parents of the family which 
 Napoleon made so conspicuous. It is averred, indeed, that a 
 long and superb pedigree would reveal itself to minute reseaixh, 
 and that Carlo Bonaparte could have linked himself with noble 
 families of the party of the Ghibellines ; but we prefer sympathiz- 
 ing with the proud words of the great soldier himself, when Francis 
 of Austria inquired concerning his emblazonments — " Tell the 
 emperor of Austria, that I am the Rudolf of Hapshvrg of my 
 Family." But it is not nccessaiy to peer tlu'ough antiquity, to 
 secure for Napoleon and his brothers a most honourable origin. 
 Carlo Buonaparte (he was the last who employed the 
 orthography Buonaparte) was a Corsican lawyer of moderate 
 but adequate means ; and in the gallant contest under Paoli, he 
 showed that he understood and could answer the call of patriot- 
 ism. Letizia Ramolino was reputed the most beautiful young 
 woman in Corsica of her time. Reflecting on the chiselled and 
 stately symmetry of the countenance of Napoleon, and on the 
 soft and exquisite loveliness of the Piincess Borghese, one is little 
 inclined to question the rightfulness of Letizia's fame ; but — jiass- 
 ing from beauty of mere feature — we are assured by the facts of 
 history, that she was a woman excelled in nobility of mind by 
 few, that she possessed an integrity W'hich nothing could shake, 
 a firmness which never wavered, and that temperance amid 
 unlooked for prosperity, which cannot exist apart fi-om greatness 
 of soul. As with Goethe and other men like him. Napoleon was 
 fond to trace whatever quality he considered good in himself or 
 permanently great, to his having some resemblance to his mother ; 
 nor is the honour given to Madame Mere, or the fine traditions 
 connected with her, yet wholly forgotten at the Parisian court. 
 Alas ! that her equanimity, her justice, her proud stainlessness, 
 should have ever failed to find in these spacious palaces fitting 
 representatives ! — The chart we have spoken of is printed on the 
 following page. 
 
 This Chart indicates not obscurely, the course that should be 
 taken regarding the biographies which belong to it. Concerning 
 the right hand portion of it, we need offer no special or elaborate 
 memorials. Maria Anna, or Eliz.\, grand duchess of Tuscany, 
 lived unobtnisively, without accomplishing anything that requires 
 to be recorded. Of the Princess Bokgiiese we have mdeed 
 stirring reminiscences. That could have been no ordinary beauty, 
 wMch moved a Canova from his composure ; but it is best per- 
 haps, that, surrounded by the halo of so fine a myth, the exqui- 
 site Princess should be permitted to sleep in peace. Caroline 
 had higher attributes ; she bore misfortune as a heroine. Nor 
 has her family passed out of the sphere of instant European 
 mterests : the name of her son is one of the few sounds that 
 appear to move the present king of Naples. — Another gi-oup may 
 at present also be dismissed : the dynasty of the Napoleons 
 rightly falls to be portrayed under the name of its founder; 
 and the events of the life of the mother of the present Emperor 
 may best be narrated under Hortense. It remains, therefore, 
 that in this place, we present short biographies of Joseph, 
 LuciEN, and Jerome : — the comparatively quiet life of Louis 
 — apart from Hortense — being chai-acterized in a very fevv^ 
 sentences. — One general remark is of some importance. Joseph 
 d)ing without male offspring, Lucien and his family were 
 heirs of the Empure by right of primogeniture ; but the elder 
 Napoleon disinherited Lucien by a formal act of absolute power 
 — named rather humorously, as some might think, a plebiscite 
 — bequeathing the State to Joseph and Louis ; so that — Joseph's 
 claim having lapsed — the Imperial heritage lies with the existing 
 wearer of the pm-ple. Should the Prince Imperial not attain to 
 manhood, the heredite, we presixme, falls to Napoleon, son of 
 Jerome. But it were worse than useless to speculate concerning 
 the heritage of dominion in France! — We shall now take these 
 sons of Carlo and Letizia, in the order of then- birth. 
 
 I. BONAPARTE, Joseph, the eldest of the Bonaparte 
 family : for the bare outlines of his life our chart will suffice. As 
 a private citizen, Joseph must have been distinguished. In per- 
 
 son he resembled Napoleon, only he was taller ; and he preserved 
 a graciousness to which, in his latter years, the Emperor was a 
 stranger. Joseph himself tells us, that once on a tmie while 
 the leaf was green, that stern soldier was gracious also, nor 
 do those early letters to the "frere bien-aime" belie the aver- 
 ment ; but afiection, love, and fmth withered in the end under 
 the cares of government and the lust of power. Previous to 
 the consulate, Joseph was employed on dehcate missions by the 
 Directory ; nor was the administration ever slow to avail itself 
 of the effect of his conciliatory manners, his devotion to the 
 honour of his country, and his skill in diplomacy. It was he 
 who virtually delivered Rome to General Berthier; he con- 
 cluded treaties with the United States and Germany in 1800 
 and 1801; and he was chosen as representative of the French 
 government dming the negotiations that led to the so-called 
 peace of Amiens. Joseph afterwards wore two crowns, — that 
 of Naples, and that of Spain. On the shipwreck of his fimiily 
 he retired to the United States, where, as Count de Siu-villiers, 
 he dispensed kindly and sumptuous hospitality on the banks 
 of the Delaware. On the occurrence of the revolution of 1830 
 he repaired to England and thence to Italy, where he died at 
 Florence in 1844. — The two important incidents of Joseph's 
 fife are those which, while reveafing most concerning his per- 
 sonal qualities, throw the greatest light on the character and 
 policy of Napoleon, and help us to the origin of those grand 
 crimes that issued in his destruction. The incidents referred 
 to are also very definite, nor can the illustration they afford 
 be questioned. The ardour of French pubhcists has led them 
 sometimes to impugn the fealty or at least the firmness of 
 Joseph, during the sad events that ushered in the abdication at 
 Fontainebleau and subsequently Napoleon's surrender at Roch- 
 fort. Impartial investigation is alone needed to establish his 
 loyalty to his Brother, and to France. But it seems as if the 
 history of his two Reigns were beyond reach of doubt ; and if it 
 is so, how strange a history ! After declining the honour of a 
 new kingdom of Upper Italy, Joseph was sent to Naples at the 
 head of an army in 1806. The conquest of that misgoverned 
 state was easy, nor does it appear that any order of persons 
 belonging to it — nobles, clergy, or people — had a thought of 
 regret because of the expulsion of Carofine and that wretched 
 Sicilian branch of the Bourbons. Joseph entered on the functions 
 of royalty, indeed, under conditions the reverse of unfavourable ; 
 and it has to be recorded, that the most favourable of all these con- 
 ditions was his own resolve to govern well, to secure the safety of 
 property, the stability of commerce, and that equity should cha- 
 racterize aU public relations and transactions among the people he 
 had undertaken to rule. In minor details connected with this 
 enterprise he may sometimes have been injudicious, and some- 
 times have failed ; but the obstacle of which his sagacity appears 
 not to have warned him — the obstacle that neither wisdom nor 
 philanthropy could remove — lay in the mind and objects of Napo- 
 leon. The letters pubUshed m Joseph's posthumous memoirs are 
 among the most remarkable that have seen the light in any age. 
 The activity of the Emperor — unless perhaps in the case of 
 Cassar — is unpi\ralleled in history. In the midst of the morasses 
 in the north of Europe, and requiring to deal every hour with 
 pressing cu-cumstances that bore directly on the destinies of the 
 old world, he yet could think on the smallest details connected with 
 the government of Naples, and felt disposed to issue regarding 
 them very absolute decrees. If Joseph was uneasy under the eye 
 of such an omniscience, he was giieved the more when he fully 
 comprehended its object. Joseph desired to organize and govern 
 Naples well. Napoleon held at the cheapest rate both Naples 
 and the NeapoUtan people. He had no idea save one — " The 
 wealth, the power of every subjected state, must subsen'e the 
 purposes of France ; and all kings and governors are my lieu- 
 tenants." Let us record a few characteristic extracts from these 
 extraordinary letters : — " Mon frere, je vols que vous promettez 
 de n'imposer aucune contribution de guerre... A mon avis, vous 
 prenez des mesures trop etroites. Mettez trente millions des 
 contributions sur le royaume de Naples ; payez bien votre armce. 
 ...Vos proclamations aux peuples de Naples ne sentent pas 
 assez le maitrc.Vous vous fiez bcaucoup trop aux demonstrations 
 qu'ils vous font. ..Quel amour voulez-vous qu'ait pour vous un 
 peuple, pour qui vous n'avez rien fait?...Ces gens la s'enorgueil- 
 leront, et croiront n'etre pas conquis. Tout peuple etranger qui 
 ji cette idee n'est pas conquis... Si vous gouvcrnez votre pays 
 avec vigueur, et que vous en retiriez cent quarante a cent
 
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 cinquante millions de contributions, vons aurez six vaisseaux de 
 guerre, et autant de fregates, qui joints a ma marine de Toulon, 
 rendront plus difficile et plus chanceuse aux Anglais leur domi- 
 nation sur la Moditerranee. N'emplovez pas trop les troupes 
 Xapolitaines, qui vous abondonneraient si j'etais battu en Italic. 
 II taut calculer ainsi. Employez des troupes qui ne vous aban- 
 donneront pas. Souvenez-vous de ce que je vous dis : le destin 
 de votre regne depend de votre conduite a votre retour de Cala- 
 bre. Ne pardonnez point ; faites passer par les annes au moins 
 sis cents revokes : lis m'ont egorge un plus grand nombre de 
 soldats. Faites biniler les maisons de trente des principaux 
 chefs de \allages, et distribuez leur proprie'tes a I'ai-mee. 
 De'sarmez tons les habitans, et faites piller cinq ou six gros 
 
 villages de ceux qui se sont le plus mal comportes Ee- 
 
 commandez aux soldats de bien trailer les villes qui sont 
 restees fideles. Privez de leur biens communaux les villages 
 revokes, et donnez-les a I'armee ; siu-tout desarmez avec vig- 
 ueur." These are not extracts selected for a purpose. They 
 illustrate very pertinently the naive words of the present occu- 
 pant of Napoleon's throne, — " L'Empire a tombe pour avoir 
 etendu trop loin son action civilisatrice. II n'etait donne, ni a la 
 plus grande nation, ni au plus grand genie, de combattre a la 
 fois I'ancien regime sur les bords du Tage et sur ceirx de la Mos- 
 cawa, et de regenerer TEurope en dix ans !" The regeneration 
 spoken of, had roots very different from that whose proposal 
 has immortalized the Macedonian. Few will marvel, and still 
 fewer lament, that the artificial fabric all fell with the statue of 
 Napoleon. — -On the 9th of July, 1808, Joseph left Bayonne on his 
 entry into Spain, of which country he had been proclaimed king on 
 the 6th of June previous. We presume that few persons ever 
 required to leave such a history as he has bequeathed in his 
 memoirs of that extraordinary crime of Napoleon I. He had 
 scarcely entered on Spanish soil before making the discoveiy 
 that ever}' one of the cu-cumstances which rendered a beneficent 
 reign possible in Naples, had there its opposite. Although exas- 
 perated with Godoy, the Spanish people looked with affection on 
 young Ferdinand, and theu' long monarcliical traditions. It was 
 a people proud in its nationality ; and the influence of muni- 
 cipalities that had sun-ived for so many ages, rendered French 
 centralization utterly hateful, as indeed was the whole spirit of 
 the French people. Spain and France can never harmonize. The 
 descendants of the Goth and the ]Moor cannot meet in fraternity 
 any branch of the family of the Celt. The good sense, the tact, 
 and the humanity of Joseph speedily discerned the amount of his 
 brothers fatal eiTor ; but he failed to dissipate illusions, which 
 were already pointing to Fontainebleau and the rock of St. 
 Helena. For instance, he writes very early : — " Sire ! Personne 
 n'a dit jusqu'ici toute la verite a votre majeste. Le fait est qu'il 
 n'y a pas un Espagnol qui se montre pour moi excepte le petit 
 nombre de personnes qui out assiste a la junte et qui voyagent 
 avec moi." And again, " Je ne suis point epouvante de ma posi- 
 tion, mais elle est unique dans I'histoii-e ; je n'ai pas ici un seul 
 partisan ! " And in August, after he had fully acquainted him- 
 self T\-ith the position of affairs, he writes, " Votre gloire, Sire ! 
 echouera en Espagne ! " Had not Napoleon been blinded by 
 good fortune, the incursion he afterwards made personally into 
 Spain, would have satisfied him of the fidelity of his brother's 
 judgment ; as it was, he subjected two hundred leagues of ter- 
 ritory, but did not gain one adherent ; his triumphal entry into 
 Madrid did not confinn Joseph's throne, it merely opened a 
 retreat as far as the Pyrennees. We wish wa could pass over 
 and forget the personal relations between the brothers during 
 these disastrous years. Unable to silence the remonstrances 
 which duty constrained the brother — once " bien-aime " — to 
 make, Napoleon trampled alike on them and their author. His 
 marauding generals felt little of Joseph's responsibihties — cer- 
 tainly they had not a touch of his sense of justice. Napoleon 
 accordingly sent orders to these men directly ; and his brother 
 had the mortification of finding himself a king with no people 
 to follow him, and nominally at the head of an army which he 
 had no power to direct in the most trifling point of strategy. 
 The issue belongs t-o histoi-y : we shall not dwell on its disas- 
 ters. But in final vindication of the character and wisdom of 
 Joseph, we subjoin an extract from another letter addressed to 
 Napoleon from Naples, bearing date 29th JIarch, 1807. " Sire, 
 je suis dans cette situation d' esprit que votre majeste connait 
 en moi, et dans laquelle j'aime a dire, tout ce que je crois 
 Ell bien ! Votre majeste doit faire la pais a tout prix. 
 
 bon. 
 
 Votre majeste est victorieuse, triomphante partont ; elle doit 
 reculer devant le sang de ses peuples ; c'est au prince a retenir 
 le heros. Quelque etendue de pays de plus ou de moins ne doit 
 pas vous retenir ; toutes les concessions que vous ferez seront 
 glorieuses parce qu'elles soront utiles a vos peuples dont le plus 
 pm" sang s'ecoule, et que victorieux et invincible comme vous 
 etes, de I'accord de tons, niflle condition ne peut vous etre sup- 
 posee prescrite par un ennemi que vous avez vamcu. Su-e, c'est 
 I'amour que je porte a un fr^re qui est devenu un pere pour 
 moi, c'est ce que je dois a la France et aux peuples que vous 
 m'avez donnes qui me dictent ce discours de verite. Quant a 
 moi, sire, pour atteindre ce but salutaire, tout ce que vous ferez 
 me conriendra ; je m'estimerai heureux des dispositions qui me 
 regarderont, quelles qu'elles puissent etre. Sire, vous ne devez 
 plus exposer au hasard d'une rencontre, le plus beau monument 
 eleve a la grandeur de la race himiaine, je veux dire la masse 
 de gloire et la grandeur inouie qui compose votre vie depuis 
 dix ans." 
 
 II. BONAPARTE, Napoleon. 
 
 See Napoleon I. 
 
 N.^POLEON II. 
 
 Napoleon III. 
 See also Josephine and Marla. Louisa. 
 The relations and history of the descendants of Josephine are 
 described and narrated under the name of the Empress ; and in 
 some principal cases under Beauharnais and Hortense. 
 See also Murat. 
 
 III. (a) BONAPARTE, Lucien, Napoleon's brother, younger 
 by six years; the ablest of all the family with the exception of 
 the Emperor ; equal to him in resolution ; greatly his superior 
 in worth and wsdom, for he never sacrificed a principle to his 
 own self. Emigrating to France in 1793, Lucien soon made 
 himself kno^vn as a republican, and received offices of trust. But 
 he did not hesitate to put his head in peril, by withstanding — as 
 member of the municipality of St. Maximin in the south of 
 France — the sanguinary decrees of the terrorist commissioners. 
 About this time he married an interesting but obscure young 
 girl of Provence, who, dying early, left him two daughters — the 
 first, the Princess Gabrielli ; the second, when widow of a Swed- 
 ish count, became the wife of an esteemed and lamented En- 
 glishman, Lord Dudley Stuart. As atfairs in Paris grew more 
 and more complicated, Lucien's sternness and ability obtained 
 for him higher and higher place. He was one of the council of 
 Five Hundred ; even then, his house was resorted to by the best 
 Mterary men ; and he belonged to the only political section which 
 pretended to principle or philosophy — that, viz., of the Abbe 
 Sieyes. But the exigencies of the times could not be met by 
 doctrine, or the problem of the safety of France solved by the 
 followers of Rousseau. A crisis of such requirements goes beyond 
 all philosophy ; nor can a revolution be otherwise than marred by 
 popular assemblies. Cromwell was required to make the English 
 revolution ; Washington was nearly shipwrecked in America ; 
 France has faUen because the crises of her fates neither produced 
 nor were guided by a Washington or a Cromwell. The dissolution 
 and dispersion of the fabric of the executive Directory had become 
 inevitable ; and Lucien, in this case, was the Cromwell. The 
 occasion referred to was one of the few in which the emperor's 
 resolution threatened to fail him : Lucien was really the author 
 and great actor of the 19th Brumaire. As Napoleon's star 
 ascended, the station and fortunes of Lucien ascended also ; nor 
 might there have been a limit to his influence over the destinies 
 of Europe but for two causes. In 1803 Lucien married a second 
 time, viz., the beautiful and wealthy M""^- Jouberteau, and so 
 deliberately fnistrated Napoleon's designs concerning princely 
 and royal alliances. Nor could he profess complete allegiance 
 to his brother's policy. A republican by con\'iction, he refused 
 to resign his doctrines simply through impatience ; and he did 
 not conceal his disappointment at Napoleon's reckless disregard 
 of all rights save his own, whether personal or national. After 
 various efforts at assimilation, the brothers finally parted ; 
 Lucien refusing'a sovereignty in the north of Italy, because he 
 would not, at the same time, wear fetters and a crown ; Napo- 
 leon paying him this great compliment, — " Then you must quit 
 the continent of Europe ; my safety cannot consist with your 
 silent opposition." — After various changes of residence, Lucien 
 purch,ased the estate of Canino, on the borders of Tuscany. 
 Pursued by an odious surveillance , he resolved to emigrate to 
 America ; but, intercepted by the British cruisers, he resided for
 
 BON 
 
 664 
 
 BOX 
 
 some time at Ludlow castle on parole. Every sincere effort to 
 save Napoleon after 1814 failing, he returned to Italy and spent 
 the remainder of his life in lettered leisure. Lucien might have 
 averred with justice at the close of his prolonged political career, 
 that he had fought throughout for his convictions. His prin- 
 ciples, indeed, have stood as yet ; Napoleon's have undergone 
 utter shipwreck : nor would Lucien's natural eloquence have 
 been listened to with unconcern, at any period when bulletins 
 and pretences fell powerless on the ear of Europe. The autumn 
 of his life was spent at Canino. The Pope adorned him with a 
 princedom ; and he repaid the gift by a generous reception of 
 strangers, and efforts for promotion of the arts. He Avrote an 
 epic on Chai'lemagne in two quarto volumes, which few persons 
 have read ; — another instance of orators not being poets. His 
 estate being in old Etruria, he had the satisfaction to disinter 
 valuable Etruscan antiquities ; and he formed a museum supe- 
 rior to any other existing. It was an object visited by eveiy 
 classical traveller in Italy. At some assemblies in Rome the 
 princess of Canino — equally skilled in antiquities with Lucien — 
 created a gi-eat sensation by her magnificent parure of jewels, 
 obtained from old tombs on her husband's estate. Lucien died at 
 his residence in 1810, having reached the age of sixty-five. It 
 were useless, although curious, to speculate as to the probable 
 present condition of Europe, had the arbiter of its fates partaken 
 more of the integrity, the self-abandonment, the human affec- 
 tions, as well as of the promptitude, courage, and perseverance 
 of Lucien. Lucien left many descendants ; among his sons we 
 find PieiTe Bonaparte, somewhat known in French politics. 
 Ljetitia, wife of Mr. Wyse, is his grandchild. 
 
 (b.) BONAPARTE, Charles Luciex, prince of Canino 
 and Musignano, the eldest son of Lucien, born in Paris in 1803. 
 This prince has special claims to notice. Inheriting the literaiy 
 tastes of his father, although following them out according to 
 his own predilections, he became one of the best ornithologists 
 and naturalists of our time. During his residence in the United 
 States he followed the track of our own Wilson, not, as men 
 often do, seeking for a scientific position by picking up crumbs 
 left by predecessors, but really and in good faith with a new 
 to complete Wilson's great work. Among the three, Audubon, 
 Wilson, and Charles Lucien, it were difficult to award the pre- 
 eminence. They had different and special faculties, and each of 
 them did his part so well that the union of their works forms 
 the most gorgeous and complete ornithologj' ever yet completed 
 regarding any great region of the earth. It falls, we think, 
 as an important duty, to the government of the United States 
 — already rich in desert with regard to such achievements — 
 to reproduce these gi-eat works in a style befitting them. The 
 Prince on his return to Italy did not lay aside his tastes. He 
 produced, of course at great expense to himself, the " Iconografia 
 della Fauna Italica," in three superb volumes folio, — a work yet 
 unrivalled in illustration of the animal kingdoms of Italy. To 
 Charles Lucien the honour is unquestionably due of originating 
 those scientific congresses within Italy, which may establish a 
 communion founded on considerations more general than poli- 
 tical ones ; and he was a favourite guest at the meetings of the 
 British Association in England, to which people sometimes 
 crowded, to see in a living face^e almost exact efiigi.' of the 
 superb Napoleon. — It was impossible for a prince of this fiimily, 
 and of so much intelligence, to abide inactive and obscure amidst 
 the events that stirred and shook Italy during 1848, 1849, and 
 1850. With other leading Italian noblemen, he hastened to sus- 
 tain the reforming Pope ; but his associations were too broad to 
 pei-mit his desertion of refonn, at the nod of the pontiff. He 
 abode by the national govei-nment at Rome, and was president 
 of the house of deputies, while Mazzini was triumvu-. His pru- 
 dence taught him that resistance to the arms of France ought not 
 to be carried out after success had become impossible : in our 
 modem age, a Curtius would be a rash and imprudent man, 
 simply because no Curtius could be of the slightest use. The 
 Prince did not abandon his opinions ; he took again to science, 
 but he never " tunied his back on himself." Desirous to reach 
 England, he solicited liberty to pass through France. His cousin, 
 the present emperor, granted his request, but on the condition 
 that Prince Lucien should travel under sur\-eillance of the police. 
 It must have seemed pregnant with humour to the true head of 
 the House of Bonaparte, that, in the centre of France, he dared 
 not dine except in presence of a gendamie ! — The prince died 
 in 1857. 
 
 IV. BONAPARTE, Louis, fourth son of Cario; bom in 
 1778 ; died in 1846. Louis was a quiet unobtmsive man, given 
 somewhat to sentiment, and as keen an admirer of Rousseau as 
 his great brother once was; he was an author likewise, his 
 works being " :Marie ou les peines de I'amour," by no means a 
 work worthy of immortaUty; and a thoroughly good and candid 
 account of his own government, " Documens Historiques et 
 Reflexions sur le gouvernement de la HoUande." After having 
 been obliged, by the fiat of Napoleon, to surrender an early and 
 sincere attachment, he married unwillingly Hoetense, daugh- 
 ter of Josephine. They separated soon, and were finally 
 divorced ; it is certain that thtir life together was not a happy 
 one ; nor are authorities yet agi-eed that a full certificate is due 
 to the brilliant Hortense, on the point of fidelity to her spouse. 
 Three children were born by Hortense in wedlock, viz., Napoleon, 
 who died in 1807, after having been designated by the Emperor 
 as his successor; Napoleon-Louis, who died in 1831; and 
 Charles-Louis-Napoleon, the present possessor of supreme power 
 in France. In 180(5, Louis was oflfered by the States-General 
 the title of king of Holland. The offer was made under dicta- 
 tion ; but, had Louis been free, the people of that country would 
 never have regretted their choice. He was not inferior in his 
 sense of duty to Joseph ; and he felt, after accepting its crown, 
 that Holland was his country — not France. Nothing could well 
 be in gi-eater disaccord with the notions and policy of his brother, 
 who accounted him only as a lieutenant, whose first duty was 
 submission: — at that very time Napoleon was instracting 
 Joseph how, by sufficient confiscations, and the dotation of 
 French soldiers out of these, Naples might be changed into a 
 French military colony ! On Louis' resignation, the Emperor 
 named his son as his successor, addi-essing him in words which 
 men in those days thought not too shameful for publication in the 
 Moniteur, " Never forget that whatever position you may be 
 required to occupy — in order to conform to my line of politics 
 and the interest of my empire, — your firet duty must always 
 regard sie, your second must have reference to France. All 
 your other duties, even those towards the coiintries which I com- 
 mit to your charge, are secondaiy to these primary obligations." 
 Is it astonishing that Napoleon fell ? This world below is not 
 yet quite ripe for a Kehama ! Minor disagi-eements on matters 
 which touched the honour of Louis, were fast consolidating 
 into a permanent coolness, when an event occurred that left the 
 king of Holland no choice or alternative. The wealth and 
 importance of that country have ever come from its commerce ; 
 and, of all successful or lucrative commerce, freedom of exchange 
 is a prime and indispensable condition. Urged by his bhnd, 
 or rather insane hatred of Great Britain, and utterly miscalcu- 
 lating his forces, the Emperor established what was termed tb' 
 "Continental System," or a virtual blockade on paper, of every 
 British commercial port. The states of Holland could not, con- 
 sistently with their own preservation, give assent to the destruc- 
 tion of intercourse with Great Britain ; and Louis protested as 
 their representative. He obtained at first some concessions ; 
 }ielded, however, only that they might be recalled. The integrity 
 and clear insight of his character as derived from his mother, 
 prevailed without a straggle ; and he abdicated a sovereignty 
 which — carrv"ing with it no opportunity for the use of wisdom 
 or the practice of beneficence — could have, for an honourable 
 man, no chamis. The eft'ort to make the son of Louis a vice- 
 roy failed, and Holland was absorbed in France : — in the words 
 of his tool Champagny, whom Napoleon had put forward as a 
 responsible minister, ^' HijUand being in a manner an emanation 
 from the territory of France, and 7iecessary to the full comple- 
 ment of the empire !" Surely the time will come when trans- 
 actions like these, shall be rightly estimated by history. Louis 
 Bonaparte will at that time receive the high reward which 
 belongs to simple honesty manifested in high places. This 
 prince lived until 1846 in comparative retirement, assuming the 
 title of Count of .'^t. Leu. 
 
 * V. (a.) BONAPARTE, Jerome, the youngest of the Bona- 
 parte family, and now the only sur^-ivor of the original stock. He 
 was born at Montpellier in 1784. We have not to record in the 
 case of Jerome any of those straggles and sacrifices that con- 
 sumed the happiness and thwarted the energies of Joseph, Louis, 
 and Lucien. He is a man of considerable abiUty, but it may be 
 doubted whether considerations would ever have weighed with 
 him, which assuredly would have been held imperative by Madame 
 Mere, but which, all the world knows, were lightly esteemed ,
 
 BON 
 
 665 
 
 BON 
 
 Xapoleon. Jerome certainly qnaiTeled with the emperor also, 
 It he composed the quarrel, not quite without damat^e to his 
 '11 honour. This prince was destined for the sea, and became 
 :iced in the service ; but his predilections were with the army, 
 which he subsequently distinguished himself, and rose to dig- 
 V and command. His courage was imquestionable ; nor did 
 t!;e emperor hold lightly by his judgment — witness the impor- 
 tant duties assigned him on the day of Waterloo. At the begin- 
 ■ -rig of his career, after a fruitless cruise round by Martinique, 
 put into New York ; and here, the serious complication of his 
 .■.ate life began. Visiting Philadelphia, he was smitten by the 
 I :ns and worth of Elizabeth Paterson, daughter of a rich mer- 
 uit of Baltimore ; and he married her in 1803. They had one 
 . who settled in America, and became a respected and rich citi- 
 i of the Eepublic. This plebeian connection roused the anger of 
 vime's gi'eat relative, whose affections were being fast dissipated, 
 i his equanimity yielding before the rude shocks of success and 
 i'itrary power. Napoleon's conduct to the American lady be- 
 trayed meanness as well as tvTanny : he refused her pennission to 
 touch the soil of France. Failing to procure a bull from the Pope 
 ictioning divorce or separation, he earned out his resolve with 
 usual high hand ; and — submissive to his menace — Jerome 
 :ii inied Frederika Caroline, princess of Wirtemberg. Two chil- 
 dren of this maiTiage survive, Mathilde, princess of Demidotf so 
 recently in charge of the honours of the Tnilleries, and Xapoleon 
 Jcscph Charles, of whose character we have briefly spoken below. 
 — .AJone of his ftimily, Jerome has lived to witness the striking tem- 
 : im' reversal of the effects of its calamities. On the occurrence 
 the revolution of 1848, he hurried to Paris at the head of 
 i'ls of his house, who had been living and well nigh lost amid 
 i; lu-e haunts over the world ; and he found himself received by 
 nee with open arms. In the first National Assembly he 
 _!it read the names as representatives, of Pierre, second son 
 Lucien, of his own son Napoleon, of Napoleon Charles Lucien 
 jiurat, formerly a lawyer in New York, and lastly of Louis 
 Xapoleon himself, then apparently for the first time in the 
 "■light road to power. He has seen since, the gift of the pui-ple 
 ■lis nephew Napoleon III., and the most strange rehabilitation 
 many Napoleonic ideas. Jerome himself is governor of the 
 Livalides, President of the Senate, Marshal and Prince of France. 
 * (b.) BONAPARTE, Napoleon Joseph Charles, son of 
 : 'me and the princess of Wirtemberg ; born at Trieste in 1823. 
 til the recent recall of the Bonaparte family, this young prince 
 -od his time at Vienna, Trieste, Florence, Rome, Brussels, 
 ; at diverse places in Switzerland and America. On his return 
 I'aris in 1848, on the reversal of the decree of exile against 
 the Bonaparte family, he was elected to the Constituent Assem- 
 bly; and — not-vvithstanding the stirring and absorbing nature of 
 sabsequent events — it cannot be yet forgotten, with how profound 
 an interest and amazement, the body of Deputies found seated in 
 their midst, a young man — previously unluiown to them — whose 
 countenance was an exact reproduction of the features of the grand 
 Napoleon. — The son of Jerome adopted a peculiar although not 
 an inexplicable course in that Assembly. After some hesita- 
 tion he was installed leader of the new Mountain ; and, acting as 
 ^li. he manifested both corn-age and ability. There has ever 
 n a well-pronounced inclination towards socialism and mob- 
 "■.>isliip among the Napoleons. The question is, as to its origin, 
 or whether that origin is simple. It might spring from s_\Tnpathy 
 with the sufierings and respect for the rights of the masses ; it 
 might spring from that peculiar mysticism which envelopes every 
 exposition we have yet met with of Napoleonic ideas concerning 
 government; or Despots — in possession or expectation — may 
 know now, as they have done from Cfesar downwards, that des- 
 potism signifies the subjection of the educated and the honourable; 
 and that the arm to effect this, is the arm of the mob. — It L* said 
 that Ledru-Rollin owed his escape to Napoleon Joseph ; but 
 withal the advanced guard of the Mountain did not trust him. 
 They felt it safest to remain masters of their most important 
 secrets, and to mature their designs apart. — Failing issue on the 
 part of the present Emperor, Napoleon is heir to the crown ; a 
 position which at all times, and in all circumstances, has been 
 an unpleasant and uneasy one. Louis Napoleon sought in vain 
 for de\-ices to induce his kinsman to absent himself from Paris. 
 He induced him to join the expedition to the Crimea ; but 
 he returned early and unexpectedly, and seriously damaged the 
 credit of that ill-planned and most fruitless expedition, by 
 disclosures revealed in a pamphlet published with his concur- 
 
 VOL. t. 
 
 rence. He was subsequently appointed minister of the colonies 
 and viceroy of Algeria; a position in which, as the event proved, 
 he was certain to claim an independence of action quite incom- 
 patible with the views of an autocratic sovereign. Napoleon 
 was president of the council of the Parisian Art E.\hibition. 
 In Januan,', 1859, he sued and obtained the hand of Clotilde, 
 daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of Sai-dinia. He held the 
 command of a division of the French army, which, in conjunc- 
 tion with the forces of Sardinia, attempted in that eventful year, 
 the expulsion of the Austrians from Italv. — J. P. N. 
 
 BONAHELLI DELLA ROVERE, Guido Ubaldo, born at 
 tlrbino in 1563, of a patrician family. He commenced his studies 
 at an early age, in his native city, and was afterwards sent by his 
 father to the university of Paris. Scarcely had he entered on his 
 nineteenth year Avhen his extraordinary talents drew on him the 
 attention of the authorities of the Sorbonne, and having publicly 
 sustained a theological thesis, he was elected professor of philo- 
 sophy in that college. From thence he went to Jlilan, where he 
 was befriended by the celebrated Cardinal Frederigo Borromeo. 
 His father ha^-ing died at Modena, he repau'ed thither, and met 
 ■with the most flattering reception at the court of Alfonso, duke 
 of Ferrara, who appointed him gentleman of the bedchamber, and 
 for five years his negotiator and adviser on many important politi- 
 cal questions. At the death of Alfonso, which happened in 1596, 
 Bonarelli accepted the same office at the court of Caesar d'Este, 
 duke of Modena, by whom he was employed as ambassador on 
 three different occasions — first, to Clement VIII.; second, to Queen 
 Margaret of Austria ; and thirdly, to Henry IV. of France. Having 
 succeeded in all his negotiations to the full satisfaction of his 
 sovereign, he retired to his native place, where his private affairs 
 strongly required his presence. After a short stay at Urbiuo, he 
 resumed his travels, and came to Rome, where ever}- literary man 
 of repute sought his acquaintance and courted his friendship. He 
 was amongst the first founders of the Academy of GlTntrepidi 
 at Ferrara, and took the name of Aggiunto. ^^'hiIst in this city 
 he wrote his famous pastoral poem entitled " Filli di Sciro," 
 which met with such universal approbation that it was trans- 
 lated many times into English, French, Spanish, and German ; 
 and although by far inferior to the Pastor Fido of Guarrini, and 
 to Tasso's Aminta, yet it ranks immediately after them, and has 
 been highly praised by Marini. His biographer, Guarrini, who was 
 continually corresponding with our author, most earnestly urged 
 him not to deprive the literary world of such a beautifiil produc- 
 tion. He left also many academical discourses, some sonnets, 
 two madrigals, and an eclogue, which were published by Scajoli 
 in his Pai-nasso di Poetici Ingegni. Having been invited to Rome 
 by Cardinal d'Este, to assume the functions of major domo, he 
 was attacked by a violent fever at Fano ; and after sixty days of 
 excmciating sufferings, he died at the age of 45, on the 8th of 
 January, l'608.— A. C. M. 
 
 BONASONE, GiCLio, a historical painter and engraver, 
 born at Bologna in 1498. He studied under Sabbatini, Marc 
 Antonio, Raphael's engraver, teaching him his art. His best 
 work was one representing the souls in purgatory, painted for 
 one of the many churches he decorated — St. Stefano at Bologna. 
 GiuUo engraved many of the works of Michel Angelo, Eafl'aelle, 
 Giulio Romano, Parmegiano, and even some of his own works. 
 Many loving Nativities, and weeping Passions, and pallid, dead 
 Christs, and triumphant St. Georges, and operatic St. Cecilias, 
 the careftil eyes of this Bolognese rested on. JIany galloping 
 Clelias, robust Alexanders, and wounded Scipios, slowly grew under 
 his biting and potent steel. His style is not so clear, firm, and 
 masterly as ilarc .Antonio's, nor his outline so pure ; but still his 
 wc)rks have a facile elegance about them. He is especially mas- 
 terly in the management of his masses. He worked his prints 
 entirely with the graver. He executed portraits of Pliilip II., 
 Cardinal Bembo, and Floris the Flemish painter. — W. T. 
 
 BONATI, Giovanni, a historical painter, born at Ferrara in 
 1635, and a pupil of Guercino and Jlola; being patronized, 
 when quite a boy, by the childless Cardinal Carlo Pio. He died 
 in 1681, after having ornamented many churches and the gallery 
 of the capitol. He flew at all game — Tasso or the Book of 
 .ludges ; it was alwavs all one to the eclectic, who treated the 
 iiible as a mere playground for fancy; so he painted Einaldo 
 and Armida, and Sisera and Jack — W. T. 
 
 BONATO, Giuseppe Antonio, an Italian botanist, lived at 
 the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury. His works were published at Padua, and consisted of a 
 
 4P
 
 BON 
 
 666 
 
 BON 
 
 " Catalogue of the Plants in the Medical Garden at Padua ; " 
 " Treatises on Fungi," &c. — J. H. B. 
 
 BONAVENTURA, Frederigo, an Italian philosopher, bom 
 at Aucona in 1555 ; died in 1602. Author of several essays on 
 the tides, weather, winds, and other physical subjects. — J. G. 
 
 BONAVENTUIIE, Giovanni de Fidenza, Saint, desig- 
 nated by the schoolmen and by his order, the Seraphic Doctor, 
 and by the Greeks styled Eustachius and Eutychius. The name 
 under which he is canonized was given him, according to the 
 monkish chroniclers, from the circumstance that, during an 
 illness which befel him in his infancy, the prayers of Francis of 
 Assisi having been invoked on his behalf, the aged monk ex- 
 claimed as he saw the child recover, "0 buona ventura" (What 
 good fortune) ! He was born at Bagnarea in Tuscany, 1221 ; 
 entered the order of St. Francis, 1213; studied at Paris, it is 
 said, under the English schoolman, Alexander Hales, famous as 
 the Irrefragable Doctor ; and after having taken his doctor's 
 degree, in company with Aquinas, in 1255, was chosen public 
 lecturer on the Sentences. The following year, on the demission 
 of John of Parma from the dignity of general of the Francis- 
 cans, Bonaventure succeeded him in that office, and avoiding 
 the error of ovei'-rigour into which his predecessor had fallen, 
 not only restored peace among the brethren of St. Francis, but 
 insinuated some reforms into their establishments, at the same 
 time that his erudition and eloquence were employed in the 
 defence of their privileges. For reasons which, if they do not, 
 as Wikes has said, exhibit advantageously his disinterested char- 
 acter, yet do honour to his pnidence, he refused in 1265 a 
 nomination of Clement IV. to the see of York; in 1273 was 
 raised to the bishopric of Albano by Gregory X., of whom it is 
 said, had he been so disposed, he might have taken precedence 
 in claiming the honours of the pontificate ; and ha\ang been 
 decorated with the Roman purple, was sent as legate to the 
 council of Lyons in 1274. In that city, while the council was 
 still sitting, he died in July, 1274. His relics were preserved by 
 the inhabitants until the sixteenth centuiy, when the Huguenots, 
 indignant at the honours which were jiaid to them, cast them 
 into the Saone. Sixtus IV. canonized him in 1482, and Sixtus 
 v., by a decree of 1587, assigned him the rank of fifth doctor of 
 the church. To both distinctions he was amply entitled, as the 
 greatest of the Franciscans ; as the rival in scholastic reputation 
 of the Dominican Aquinas ; as the great apologist of celibacy, 
 transubstantiation, and the worship of the Virgin ; and still more, 
 as the author of numerous treatises in practical theology, and of 
 many more of an ascetic character, which, abounding in the 
 freaks of an imagination that resorted to mystical lore with the 
 keenest relish, and to mystical invention with a power over the 
 art almost unequalled, are also characterized by a devotional 
 spirit of so much fervour and pathos, that that was felt to be 
 their ruling feature even by the fathers of the Reformation. His 
 collected works were published at Rome, 1588-1596. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BONCOMPAGNI, Baltasare, a descendant of the princes 
 of Piombino, and related to Pope Gregory XIII., born at Rome 
 on the 10th of May, 1821. He was privately instructed by the 
 celebrated _ poet and writer, Santucci ; and so rapidly did he 
 advance in his studies, that he was soon known all through Italy 
 as a literary man of great expectation. His works on various 
 branches of literature and science are very numerous. Boncom- 
 pagni was elected by the present pope to the important and 
 responsible post of librarian and treasurer to the pontifical academy 
 of I Nuovi Lincei, the acts and transactions of which he published 
 in 1851. His great wealth, which he most liberally distributes 
 in charitable and noble deeds, affords him the means of under- 
 taking costly literary works, which have already ranked him 
 amongst the most eminent literati of the present time. — A. C. M. 
 
 BONCUORE, Giovanni Battista, an Italian historical 
 painter, born at Abruzzo in 1645. He became a pupil of 
 Albano, and learned to draw well and spiritedly, though his 
 colour was as heavy as his manner. He upliolsteried many of the 
 Roman churches, and ceased to disfigure them in 1699. — W. T. 
 
 * BOND, William Ckanch, director of the astronomical 
 obser\'atory of Han-ard college, Cambridge, Massachusetts, was 
 born at Portland, Maine, 9th September, 1790. He was edu- 
 cated as a watchmaker, and continued in that business for half a 
 century. But he had a taste for the science of astronomy, and 
 established at his residence in Dorsetshire one of the earliest 
 private observatories in America. In 1815 he visited Europe, 
 on a commission from the government of Harvard college, to 
 
 examine and make plans of the obsen-atories in England, and 
 to collect infoiTnation respecting the appointment and furniture 
 of an observatory, which it was then intended to erect at Cam- 
 bridge. He performed this mission successfully, but, owbg to 
 the want of funds, nothing more w'as done towards carrying out 
 the intention for nearly a quarter of a century. In 1838 Mr. 
 Bond was employed by the government of the United States to 
 conduct a series of astronomical and meteorological obsei-vations 
 in connection with Wilkes' exploring expedition. The next 
 year the college engaged him to transfer his whole apparatus to 
 Cambridge, where he was appointed astronomical observer. A 
 mansion-house was fitted up temporarily for tlie location of the 
 instmments, and measures were taken to obtain the funds requi- 
 site for establishing a peiTnanent obseiTatoiy. In this place a 
 "Gauss" magnetometer was mounted, and a complete series of 
 magnetic observations, according to the system recommended by 
 the Royal Society of London, was commenced in l^Iarch, 1840, 
 and continued for three years. Then a suitable site near tlie 
 college being obtained, and the requisite funds procured by sub- 
 scription, the erection of the building w'as begun, and a contract 
 was made with Merz and Mahler of Munich, to construct a 
 Fraunhofer equatorial telescope, with an object-glass 15 inches 
 in diameter, and having a focal distance of 22 feet 6 inches, 
 equal in quality to that which the same makers had recently 
 constructed for the imperial obsei-vatory at Poulkova. This 
 instnunent was received and mounted in June, 1847 ; and its 
 excellence has been attested by the remarkable series of astrono- 
 mical discoveries which it has enabled Mr. Bond to make, he 
 being aided in most of them by his son, Mr. George P. Bond, 
 who is attached to the establishment as assistant observer. 
 Immediately after it was erected, it was mounted upon the great 
 nebula of Orion, and that designated as 27 Messier, commonly 
 known as the Dumb-bell Nebula, both of which it clein-ly 
 resolved, though they had hitherto resisted the highest power of 
 the best instruments ; and the former especially, even when 
 viewed in Lord Rosse's magnificent six-foot reflector, had afforded 
 only probable evidence of resolvability. Interesting discoveries 
 were also made by this instrument in the gi-eat nebula of Andro- 
 meda. A record of the other discoveries and improvements 
 which have been made by the Messrs. Bond at this observatory, 
 would fm-nish a large portion of the history of the progress of 
 astronomical science for the last ten years. Among them may 
 be specially mentioned the results of the obsen ations made upon 
 the planet Saturn, such as " the discoveiy of the new inner ring; 
 the singiTlar fact of its transparency ; the abnormal divisions and 
 shadings of the rings ; the demonstration of their fluid nature, 
 and of the conditions of their equiUbrium ; the investigation oi 
 the unexplained phenomena of the shadows projected upon the 
 ring, and of the curious appearances presented at the time of its 
 disappearance ; and lastly, the discoveiy of the eighth satellite." 
 To these must be added the discovery of the satellite of Neptune, 
 and the consequent detennination of the mass of that planet. 
 Seventeen new comets have also been obsen^ed by the Messrs. 
 Bond, either for the first time, or independently of the obser- 
 vation in Europe. Under their direction, also, photography has 
 been first successfully applied to observations of the sun, moon, 
 and fixed stars. They have also prepared and published a cata- 
 logue of nine thousand stars, forming a complete zone of all stars 
 to the eleventh magnitude inclusive, from the equator to forty 
 minutes of north declination ; and they have first accurately 
 detennined the distances and angles of position of the stars in 
 the cluster in Hercules, in order to decide satisfactorily the 
 question as to relative change of their position. They have also 
 perfected and brought into very general notice and use "the ; 
 American method" of recording astronomical obseiTations by the 
 aid of the electric current, by means of an apparatus invented 
 by Mr. Bond, consisting of the electric clock and " the spring- 
 goveiTior," to which a council medal was awarded by the British 
 Association for the Advancement of Science. Mr. Bond is a 
 corresponding member of the Institute of France, a foreign t. 
 associate of the Royal Astronomical Society of London, and a || 
 member of many other scientific bodies in Europe and America. I 
 He is now in feeble health, but is still able to superintend, with i| 
 much energy and minuteness, the operations of the obseiTatory, || 
 with which his name is so closely connected. — F. B. J 
 
 BONDE, GusTAvus, count of, a learned Swede, was bom at ' 
 Stockholm in 1682, and died m 1764. He was the descendant 
 of a noble family, and was a senator of Sweden, and for a long
 
 BON 
 
 6G7 
 
 BON 
 
 time chcancellor of the university of Upsal. He lias written 
 various works on theology, physics, and science. Among them 
 is a " Monograph on Fraxinus excelsior." — J. H. B. 
 
 BONDI, Clemente, bom of a respectable family at Mezzano, 
 a village in the duchy of Parma, in 1742. At the age of eighteen, 
 having completed his studies, he entered the order of the Jesuits, 
 and studied belles-lettres under the celebrated Berlendis. He 
 was afterwards sent to Padua as professor of Italian literature in 
 the college belonging to that company, and there he won the 
 reputation of being an elegant poet and an accomplished orator. 
 His order being suppressed, Bondi wrote an ode on that subject, 
 which is still considered a very fine composition. His poverty 
 compelled him to accept the ])osition of tutor in a nobleman's 
 family, until Count Zinardi of Mantua appointed him his libra- 
 rian. His fame having reached the ears of Archduke Maximilian 
 of Austria, and the Duchess Beatrice d'Este, he was appointed 
 their librarian, in which capacity he went to Brunn, and finally 
 to Vienna, where he was highly esteemed by the imperial family. 
 Bondi has been often compared with Metastasio, but certainly he 
 does not possess that versatility of genius and that easy versifi- 
 cation which are so peculiar to the great dramatic writer, although 
 his language is undovibtedly more correct, and his style more 
 refined and elevated. His translation of the ^l^neid comes next 
 in merit to that of Annibal Caro, and by some is even prefeired ; 
 but his Georgics and Bucolics are scarcely worth any notice. 
 His translation in blank verse of Ovid's Metamorphoses has 
 been often reprinted ; and he has left many original compositions, 
 such as sonnets, epigrams, odes, and idyls. His funeral oration 
 for Leopold II. is considered by Lorenzi, his biographer, a master- 
 piece of eloquence. He died at Vienna in 1821. — A. C. M. 
 
 BONDI, Simon ben Wolf, died at Dresden in 1816. He 
 lift a learned work, "Or Esther" (the Light of Esther), on the 
 foreign words to be met with in the Talmud, the Targumim 
 (the Chaldee paraphrases), and the Midrashim (the homiletic 
 •■^positions of scripture) of the Jews, with a valuable introduc- 
 1.— T. T. 
 
 150NDI0LI, PiETRO Antonio, an Italian physician, born in 
 < orfu in the year 1765. He studied at Padua, and before he 
 had completed his course, he had already presented three 
 M'lnoirs to the academy, " On the use of Friction in Medicine ; " 
 I )n Electricity as a Remedy in certain Maladies ; " and " On 
 oijund," with a new theory founded on the structure of the 
 brain. He took his degree on the 1st July, 1781, and then 
 practised medicine, first in Venice, and afterwards in Constanti- 
 nople, to which city he accompanied the Venetian ambassador. 
 On liis return from the East, Bondioli visited Paris, and after- 
 \\:irds became attached to the army of Italy, until in 1803 he 
 "lis appointed professor of materia medica in the university of 
 r.ologna, to which he added in 1806 that of clinical medicine at 
 I'adua. He died at Bologna in 1808.— W. S. D. 
 
 BONDT, Nicolas, a Dutch naturalist of the eighteenth 
 century, has written works on the value of botanical labour, and 
 on the bark of Geoffrya Surinamensis. These works were pub- 
 lished at Leyden and Amsterdam from 1788 to 1794. — J. H.B. 
 BONDT, Nicolas, a Dutch litterateur and philologist, bom 
 at Voorburg in 1732 ; died in 1792. Aiithor of a " History of 
 the United Provinces," Utrecht, 1756 ; a veiy careful edition of 
 the Lectiones Variaj of Vincent Contai-ini, ibid., 1754. — J. G. 
 
 BONE, Henuy, the first and foremost of the English ena- 
 iiioUists, was born at Truro, 1755. The fact of his being a 
 (lornish man led a mind with a natural tendency to design, to 
 ii sort of mineral art, such as the men of Limoges since prac- 
 tised. Elsewhere he might have grown up merely a miniature 
 liainter; here, surrounded by china and clay, he began to think 
 of porcelain, and, unable to become a more andiitious artist, 
 entered into the employment of a manufacturer of china at Ply- 
 mouth ; and from the sea-washed town removed to Bristol, acquir- 
 ing there a reputation for his delicate skill in drawing land- 
 scapes and groups, guelder roses and ripe apples, lilac bloom 
 and snowdrops, and all those pleasant floral chains and gar- 
 landings that ring round our ewers or trim our fruit ])lates, 
 and delight us by their brilliant durability. He also studied the 
 chemistiy of his art, and learned to bake these brittle treasures 
 and render them imperishable by heat, turning the destroyer 
 fire into the preserver of art. In 1778 he removed to the 
 larger field of London, and began to paint ladies' lockets, patch- 
 boxes, and water-colour miniatures. But amidst all these 
 mere bread-and-cheese labours to keep the caitift' wolf from 
 
 the door, he did not neglect his new art of enamelling, but 
 arrived at softer, deeper, and more lustrous colours, and at 
 more certain and reliable firing. In 1796 he began to get 
 famous ; his very first picture, enamelled after the Sleeping 
 Girl of Reynolds, was a great success, and his portrait of the 
 earl of Eglinton was purchased by tlie prince of Wales. But 
 while these eftbrts were rewarded, his real masterpieces remained 
 neglected and unsold. These were a brilliant set of enamels of 
 the great poets, warriors, and statesmen, from Queen Elizabeth 
 to Cliarles I. — taken and reduced from often unique pictures lent 
 from royal and noble galleries. There was the pure brave Sid- 
 ney ; the unhappy platonic Spenser ; the demigod Shakspeare ; 
 the chivalrous Raleigh ; the noble gemini Beaumont and 
 Fletcher; "rare Ben Jonson;" the quarrelsome Inigo Jones. 
 All these treasm-es the guarded fire of Bone's studio had ren- 
 dered enchanted, and all but imperishable. The soul's caskets 
 of these men could not be lost to us, as those of Homer and 
 David and Mahomet had been. This great collection, valued at 
 ten thousand pounds, the niggard nation would not buy even at 
 four thousand (they had been better to it than crown jewels) ; 
 and at the artist's death in 1834 they were scattered over Eng- 
 land, realizing the poor sum of two thousand guineas — (will the 
 Finlayes' collection be disjiersed and regretted in the same 
 way ?) Bone was admitted to the empty honour of member- 
 ship in the Royal Academy, where merit is not always very 
 rapturously received ; and he was chosen enamel painter to 
 George IV., a monarch whose idea of painting was drawn chiefly 
 from the colouring applied to the cheeks of brazen and infamous 
 women, with heads of wood and hearts of stone. Ho filled 
 the same position to George III. and Wilham IV. He died in 
 1831. His first success was an enamel portrait of his wife, 
 exhibited in 1780, with an original picture of a Muse and 
 a Cupid. The Elizabethan collection consisted of eighty-five 
 portraits.— W. T. 
 
 BONELLI, Benedetto, an Italian Franciscan, bom at Cava- 
 lese, nearTrento, in 1704; author of some polemical publications, 
 and of a work, interesting for its notices of historical matters 
 connected with his native district, entitled " Dissertazione intorno 
 alia santita e martjTio del B. Adalpreto o Albreto, vescovo di 
 Trento," 1755.— J. S., G. 
 
 BONELLI, Francesco Andrea, an Italian zoologist of 
 the present century, bom at Cuneo in Piedmont in the year 
 1784. His taste for natural history was early developed, and 
 when only twenty he had already formed an extensive collection 
 of the mammalia, birds, and insects of Sardinia. In 1809, 
 when only twenty-five, he replaced Professor Giomo in the 
 Academy of Sciences of Turin, and was appointed professor of 
 natural history in the university of that city. To these offices 
 he added that of director of the museum, and retained this 
 honourable position until his death, which took place at Turin 
 on the 19th November, 1830. Of his writings, which are not 
 numerous, the most important are his " Specimen Fauna2 Subal- 
 pina3," published in 1807, and his " Observations Entomologiques 
 sur le genre carabus," which appeared in 1809 in the Memoirs 
 of the Academy of Turin. — W. S. D. 
 
 BONELLI, George, an Italian physician and botanist, lived 
 during the second half of the eighteenth century. He was 
 professor of medicine at Rome, and cultivated botany more 
 particularly. His works are — "Hortus Romanus juxta systema 
 Tournefortianum paulo strictius distributus," 1772-1784 ; and 
 a " Treatise on Castor Oil."— J. II. B. 
 
 BONER, Ulrich, a German poet of the fourteenth centui-y, 
 was a Dominican friar at Berne. He is the author of a col- 
 lection of fables entitled " Dcr Edelstein," which was first 
 published at Bamberg, 1461. Of this edition only one copy 
 is known to exist (in the library of Wolfenbiittel). The best 
 editions are by Eschenburg, Berlin, 1810, and by G. F. Benccke, 
 Beriin, 1816.— K. E. 
 
 BONFADIO, Jacopo, born at Gazzano, a small village in 
 the diocese of Brescia, at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 He studied first at Verona, then at Padua. His ambitious views 
 brought him to Rome, where he became pri\ate secretary to 
 Cardinal Jlerinos, then archbishop of Bari. At the death of his 
 patron, which happened in 1535, Bonfadio was obliged to accept 
 the ofixTS of Cardinal (ihinucci, who appointed him his secretary; 
 but finding his new master's temper and disposition quite incom- 
 j)atible with his own, he quitted Rome and travelled through 
 Italy, visiting Naples, Florence, Ferrara, and Padua, in which
 
 BON 
 
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 BOX 
 
 city he resided for four years. In the year lo-io the republic 
 of Genoa offered him the professorship of pliilosophy, and 
 intrusted him, at the same time, with the task of coutinuing 
 the history by Uberto Foglietta. Accused of a horrible crime, 
 and tried before the com-ts of Genoa, he was found guilty, 
 and condemned to be bamed alive; but his sentence was com- 
 muted, and he was beheaded, and his body consumed by fire. 
 Slazzuchelli, who wrote his life, and Boccalini, are of opinion 
 that he was innocent, and that his death was a private vengeance 
 for ha\ing too sai-castically spoken against some very powerful 
 Genoese families. However, JIanuzio, his contemporarj', and 
 Tiraboschi, seem disposed to believe that he was really guilty of 
 the imputed crime, and that his condemnation was but too well 
 deserved. His works, both in verse and in prose, are remarkable 
 for their elegant simplicity and pmity of language. It is to be 
 regretted that such a man, in the prime of life, should have met 
 with such an untimely and mihappy fate. His lyric poetiy is 
 •highly praised by Crescimbeni, and his letters are cited as models 
 of the epistolary style. He has left a classic translation of 
 Cicero's Oratio pro !Milone, and the Annales Genovenses, from 
 1528 to 1550, in which year, on the 19th of July, he so tragically 
 terminated his mortal career. — A. C. M. 
 
 BONF.^NTE, AsGELO JIatteo, an Italian poet, philosopher, 
 and botanist, born at Palermo ; died in 1676. Author of " Vo- 
 cabularium Botanicmn," Italian sjiionyras, &c. — J. G. 
 
 BOXFAXTI, sm-named il Torricella. He was bom at 
 Ferrara (uncertain date), and spent his life chiefly in painting 
 frescos in the churches and monasteries, with some taste and 
 pains, and no doubt much quiet self-satisfying enjoyment. His 
 best pictures were a " Pm-ification," a " Holy Faimly," and a 
 " Christ disputing with the Doctors." — W. T. 
 
 BONFIGLIO, Benedetto, bora at Perugia, where he flou- 
 rished as a painter about 1505, surpassed only by his gi-eat 
 contemporary Perugiuo. His "Adoration of the Magi" and 
 •' Annunciation " are still preserved. He never reached the 
 purity and repose of Raphael's master, his fine drawing, nor his 
 saintly quietude and purity of colour. — W. T. 
 
 BONFIXI, AxToxio, an Italian historian, translator, and 
 philologist, bom at Ascoli in 1-127 ; died in 1502.- Author of 
 a work on Hungarian history, distinguished by its lucid an-ange- 
 ment of matter, and elegance of stvle. — J. G. 
 
 BOXFOS or BOXAFOS, Rabbi Menachem hex Abra- 
 ham, of Perpignan, wrote " ilichlal Yophi " (the Perfection of 
 Beauty), an explanation in Hebrew of the scientific teitns em- 
 ployed in logic, ethics, physics, and in the versions of Aiistotle's 
 philosophical writings. It v.-as printed at Saloniki in 1567, and 
 at Berlin in 1798, with a Hebrew commentar}'. — T. T. 
 
 BOXFRERE (in Latin Boxfrerius), Jacques, a Flemish 
 Jesuit, celebrated as a Hebraist, was born in 1573 at Diuant in 
 the territory of Liege. He left some valuable commentaries on 
 the Old Testament, and an Onomasticon, or account of places 
 in Palestine, from Eusebius and Jerome. A complete edition 
 of his works appeared in 1736. Died at Toumay in 1643. 
 
 BOXGARD, H. Gustav, a Russian botanist of the present 
 century. He has given a sketch of the botanical works under- 
 taken in Russia, from the time of Peter the Great to the pre- 
 sent epoch ; also descriptions of new plants. Along wth Karl 
 Auton ileyer, he has pubUshed a supplement to the Flora Altaica. 
 These works have been published at St. Petersburg from 1834 
 to 1841.— J. H. B. 
 
 BOXGARS, Jacques, a learned Cal\-inistic critic, bom at 
 Orleans in 1546 ; died at Paris in 1612. He was employed by 
 Heniy IV., duiing a period of thirty years, in several important 
 negotiations. Bongars is celebrated for the spirited reply he 
 made to the bull of Sixtus V. in 1585, fulminated against the 
 king of Xavarre, and the prince of Conde. Author of a com- 
 pUation of Hungarian histor}-. — J. G. 
 
 BOXGIOVAXXI (in Latin Boxjohan'xes), Antoxio, a 
 learned Itahan, bom at PeiTarolo in 1712. He drew up a 
 catalogue of the Ubraiy of St. ilarc at Venice, published a Greek 
 scholia on Homer,&c. Died towards the end of the century. — J.G. 
 
 BOXGO or BOXGES, Pietro, a learned Italian, bom at 
 Bergamo; died in 1601. Celebrated for his acquaintance witli 
 the ancient languages, mathematics, music, and the occult 
 sciences. Author of " De mystica uumerorum significatione," 
 Bergamo, 1583, 8vo, &c. — J.'g. 
 
 BOXI, Giacoxio, born at Bologna in 1688, and finally a 
 pupil and assistant of ilarc Antonio Franceschini and Carlo 
 
 Gignani ; the latter he specially imitated in his frescos in the 
 saloon of the Salazzo Pallavicini. He died in 1766, leaving 
 behind him an infant Jupiter and a wonderful ceiluig at St. 
 Remo.— W. T. 
 
 BOXI, Mauro, an Italian archasologist and bibliographer, 
 born in 1746 ; died in 1817. He commenced his studies with 
 the Jesuits at Cremona ; afterwards studied theologj' at Rome ; 
 then became professor of rhetoric in a college in Germany ; 
 afterwards professor of literature at Cremona, and subsequently 
 vice-rector of the college of Bergamo. He corresponded with 
 JlorceUi, Lauzi, Andres, Tu-aboschi, &c. While tutor to Prince 
 Giustiniani at Venice, he collected several precious documents 
 relating to Venetian history. He wrote several learned critical 
 works. — J. G. 
 
 BOXICHI, BixDO, an Italian poet ; died in 1337. He was 
 of a noble family of Sienna, where he filled high official functions. 
 He is quoted as one of the poets contemporaiy with Petrarch, 
 whose poetry he seems to have imitated. Sighs, tears, &c., 
 offered up at the shrine of some unknowTi fair one, constitute 
 the staple of his poetic effusions.— J. G. 
 
 BOXIFACCIO, Francesco, a painter born at Viterbo m 
 1C37. He was a scholar of Pietro da Cortona with Ciro Fern 
 and RomaneUi. He was a painter of history and religion, and 
 died in 1700, leading in the Palazzo Braschi (perhaps there still, 
 just where he hung it) a fine picture of the adulteress before 
 Christ.— W. T. 
 
 BOXIFACE, the apostle of Gennany. His original name 
 was Winfred, and he was born at Credeantun (now Crediton) in 
 Devonshire, of a noble family, about the year 680. His educa- 
 tion commenced in the monastery of Eseanceastre or Exeter, 
 under Abbot Wolfhard, and was continued in that of Xutscellc, 
 neai- Southampton, under Abbot Wiuberct. It had been his earli- 
 est wish to dedicate himself to the sen-ice of God, and he soon 
 distinguished himself by the zeal with which he prosecuted his 
 studies, and by his sincere and earnest piety. When thu-ty years 
 of age he took priest's orders ; his reputation rose as a preacher ; 
 and the extent of his influence was proved, by his being chosen 
 by the bishops of the kingdom of the West Saxons to explain to 
 Berctwald, archbishop of Canterbur}', the cii'cumstances under 
 which a synod had been held by them. Gradually, however, he 
 formed a resolution, to the earning out of which he devoted the 
 rest of his life. He had heai'd of the miserable condition of some 
 of the German tribes, and of the paganism which stUl prevailed 
 amongst them ; and he determined at all hazards to go and 
 preach the gospel among them. In the year 716 he proceeded, 
 with two or three companions, to Lundenwie (now London), and 
 embarking thence, he landed at Dorstadt, in the Frisian territory. 
 A war which he found raging there, fnistrated his plans for the 
 time, and he returned to England. But his purpose remainetl 
 unshaken ; the abbacy of Xutseelle, which was now offered to 
 him, was declined by him ; and two years later he again set out, 
 going this time by way of France and Rome. He took with him 
 letters commendatory from the bishop of Winchester to the pope, 
 to whom he thenceforward became entu'ely subservient. Gregory 
 IL, who at that time occupied the papal chair, gave him a com- 
 mission to examine into the state of Germany, and after some 
 stay at the Lombard court, he entered upon his missionar)' 
 labours in Thuringia and Friesland. His boldness in denouncing 
 the idolatries he encountered won him great fame. He fearlessly 
 cut down everv'where the sacred trees ; tradition tells how at a 
 place called Eichsfeldt (Oakfield), a local god named Stulfo fled 
 at his exorcism into a cave, which stiU bears the name of Stuf- 
 fensloch or Stuffo's hole ; other places witnessed the same daiing 
 zeal ; the pagans were overawed ; and thousands received chris- 
 tian baptism. He became marked out as the apostle of tho 
 Gemians ; numbers of missionaries came over from England to 
 assist him ; and while on another \isit to Rome to give an account 
 of his success, in 723, he was consecrated bishop by Pope Gre- 
 goiy, who gave him (or, as some say, confinned to him) the 
 name Boniface (Doer of good), by which posterity has known 
 bun. He then returned to fresh efforts and fresh successes in 
 his self-denying work. In 742 he presided as apostolic legate ; 
 at a council of twelve bishops, which was held at Augsburg; and 
 four yeai's later he succeeded his foiTner superior, Willibrord, as 
 archbishop of Jlentz (Mayence). In 752 he crowned Pepin king j 
 of France at Soissons, Pepin having desired that the prelate of \ 
 the greatest sanctity that could be found might perform the 
 ceremony. — (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap, xlix.) The death j
 
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 BON 
 
 of Boniface was worthy of so devoted a life. He had once more 
 visited Frisia, and having again baptized many converts to the 
 christian faith, had appointed a day for their confirmation. 
 When tlie day came, however, the heathen suiToundcd his en- 
 campment on the banivs of the river Bordue, witli the evident 
 purpose of attacking it. His attendants wislied to defi'nd them- 
 selves, but this he would not allow. " Let them not," he said, 
 " fear those who may kill the body, but cannot touch the soul. 
 Let them pass with boldness the narrow strait of death, that 
 they might reign with Christ for ever." As the pagans di'ew 
 near, he fell upon his knees, and placed a copy of the holy gos- 
 pels on his head. He then commended his soul to God, and in 
 this attitude awaited the blows of his murderers, who quickly 
 dispatched him. Thus nobly died this great missionary, on the 
 5th of June, 755. He was afterwards canonized at Rome, and 
 the day of his martyrdom is still marked in the English calendar, 
 though not observed as a saint's day by the English church. 
 His life was written by several of his contemporaries, especially 
 by his nephew Willibald, bishop of Aichstadt. — (See also Cave, 
 Dupin, Fleury, and a Life of S. Boniface, by the Rev. George 
 W. Cox, London, 1853.) His epistles were published at Mentz 
 in 1G05, by Ferarius, and again reprinted in 1629. Two of them 
 are quoted by William of Malmesbury, in his Histoiy of the 
 Kingdom of the Mercians — one addressed to King Ethelbald, and 
 the other to Cutlibert, archbishop of Canterbury. They refer to 
 candals both among the laity and clergy, and were not, the 
 historian intimates, without efiect. — R. S. 0. 
 
 BONIFACE, a Roman general of the fifth century, by birth 
 :i Thracian, was governor of Africa under Honorius, and became 
 tiie chief councillor of the Empress Flacidia. Driven from the 
 i-imrt by intrigues, he sought to avenge himself by inviting the 
 Vandals into Spain. Subsequently recovering the favom' and 
 confidence of the empress, he was employed against ^tius, by 
 whom he was killed in single combat. — \V. B. 
 
 BONIFACE. The name borne by several popes : — 
 
 Boniface I., a Roman, was canonically elected, after the 
 death of Zosimus, in December, 418. But the archdeacon, 
 Eulalius, was set up by a faction among the clergy and people, 
 and took possession of the Lateran church. Symmachus, the 
 prefect of Rome, favoured Eulalius, and the emperor, Honorius, 
 was at first induced by his letters to do the same ; but having 
 afterwards received a petition from those who had participated 
 ill the election of Boniface, he summoned a council to Ravenna 
 lo decide the matter, and meantime ordered that neither party 
 should enter Rome. Eulalius, however, disobeyed this order; 
 upon which he was expelled by order of the emperor, and the 
 election of Boniface was confirmed. The Pelagian controversy 
 was raging at this time, and Boniface sent a request to St. 
 Augustine, through his friend, Alypius, that he would write 
 against the Pelagians. St. Augustine did so, and addressed his 
 work to Boniface. This pope strenuously maintained and 
 extended the authority of the Roman see both in GaiJ and in the 
 East. He died at a great age in the year 422. 
 
 Boniface IL, a Roman by birth, but of Gothic parentage, 
 succeeded Felix III. in 529. An antipope was set up in tlie 
 person of Dioscorus, who, however, died at the end of a month ; 
 in spite of which, Boniface anathematized his memory. St. 
 Benedict, the patriarch of the western monks, founded at this 
 time the great monastery of Monte Cassino. By an illegal stretch 
 of power, Boniface named his own successor, Vigilius a deacon ; 
 but the act ha\ang been condemned by a council, he appears to 
 have seen his eiTor, and to have cancelled the nomination, which 
 certainly was not acted upon. He died in December, 531. 
 
 Boniface III., a Roman, was elected in February, GOC, 
 and occupied the papal chair only nine months. Having been 
 sent as nuncio to Constantinople, he ingratiated himself while 
 there with the Emperor Phocas, from whom, after his election, 
 lie obtained a formal acknowledgment of the primacy of the 
 Roman see, in opposition to the pretensions of the patriarch of 
 Constantinople. He assembled a council in St. Peter's, by which 
 It was enacted — that in the lifetime of the pope, or any other 
 bishop, it should not be lawful even to speak of a successor. He 
 died in November, C06. 
 
 Boniface IV. was elected in September, 607, after the 
 see had been vacant for ten months. He was a native of Vale- 
 ria, in the country of the IMarsi. Having obtained permission 
 from the Emperor Phocas to convert the Pantheon into a chris- 
 tian church, he dedicated it in honour of the Blessed Virgin and 
 
 all the martyrs, the title it still bears. This dedication gave 
 rise to the festival of All-saints on the first of November. In 
 610 Mellitus, archbishop of Canterbury, came to Rome, and 
 assisted at a council held by the pope, the decrees of which he 
 took back with him to England, together with letters from Boni- 
 face to the clergy, and to King Ethelbert. The pope turned his 
 house into a monastery, which he richly endowed. He died in 
 May, 614, and was canonized after his death. 
 
 Boniface V., a Neapolitan, succeeded Deusdedit m Decem- 
 ber, 617. Hearing of the inclination of Edwin, king of North- 
 umbria, to embrace Christianity, he wrote earnestly exhorting 
 him to embrace the true religion, and pointing out for his imita- 
 tion the example of all the other princes. He wrote also to 
 Edwui's queen, Ethelburga, who was already a christian, m'ging 
 her to pray and labour for the conversion of her husband. He 
 died in October, 625. 
 
 Boniface VI., a Roman, was elected after the death of 
 Formosus, in April, 896, but died fifteen days afterwards. 
 
 Boniface VII. Benedict VI. having been imprisoned in 
 the castle of St. Angelo, Franconi, a Roman, deacon of the 
 Roman church, was elected in his place in 974, and took the 
 name of Boniface VII. Shortly afterwards, Benedict having in 
 the meantime been put to death in prison, Franconi was expelled 
 from Rome, and fled to Constantinople. He died in 985. 
 
 Boniface VIII. (Cardinal Benedict Gaetani), a native of 
 Anagni, was elected in December, 1294, on the resignation of 
 Celestine V. He was well versed in the civil and canon law, 
 and had been employed many years in conducting the political 
 and diplomatic aftiiirs of the holy see. Fearing that the party 
 which did not recognize the legality of the abdication of his pre- 
 decessor, might, if they got him into their hands, use him as an 
 instrument for creating a distm-bance, he caused Celestine to be 
 confined in the fortress of Fumona, where, being ill treated by 
 his guards, he died in 1296. Boniface possessed the qualities 
 rather of a temporal sovereign than of a prince of the church. 
 His pride and ambition led him to aim at the extension of the 
 papal power in temporal matters, to a point far beyond what 
 even Gregory VII. or Innocent III. had attempted ; and, when 
 he met with opposition, he recklessly employed against his adver- 
 saries the whole armory of ecclesiastical censures, in such a 
 manner as to bring both himself and them into contempt. He 
 is made the siibject of a withering invective in the nineteenth 
 canto of Dante's Inferno, although there seems reason to believe, 
 that the particular crime, simony, there ascribed to him, cannot 
 justly be laid to his charge. He attempted, but vainly, to weaken 
 the hold of the house of Aragon upon Sicily. In 1297 a rup- 
 ture occurred between him and the powerful family of the 
 Colonnas. He excommunicated the whole family, including two 
 cardinals, and having taken Palestrina, one of their strongholds, 
 he caused the town to be demolished, and another to be built in 
 its stead on a different site. But his pontificate is rendered 
 chiefly remarkable by the long struggle between him and Philip 
 the Fair, king of France. There were grave faults on both sides. 
 Philip, by his unjust exactions and illegal exercises of power in 
 the affaii-s of the French church, had furnished the pope, to 
 whom many of the French clergy appealed, with a reasonable 
 ground for interference. By the bull, Clericis laicos, published 
 in 1296, Boniface attempted to put a stop to these exactions, 
 and again by the bull, AiiscuHa Jill, published in 1298. But 
 as Philip refused or delayed to make reparation, the pope sum- 
 moned all the heads of the French clergy to a council, to be held 
 in Italy, to consult on the aftairs of the French church. Philip 
 forbade any of his subjects to leave the kingdom without his per- 
 mission. The council was, nevertheless, opened in 1302, and 
 well attended by the French prelates, and one result of its deli- 
 berations, was the celebrated bull, Unam sanctam, in which 
 the absolute superiority of the spiritual over the temporal power 
 is asserted in the strongest terms. Boniface, however, in the 
 course of the quarrel, put forward pretensions which were evi- 
 dently extravagant. He interfered in the civil administration of 
 France to such a degi'ee, that nearly the whole nation turned 
 against him. At an assembly of prelates and barons held at 
 Paris in 1303, Boniface was declared to be guilty of heresy and 
 simony, and an appeal was made from his judgment to that of a 
 future general council. The pope, in return, prepared to ful- 
 minate an excomniunication against Philip and his adherents, 
 and to lay France under an interdict. But before these bulls 
 could be expedited, Boniface was seized at Anagni by a party of
 
 BON 
 
 670 
 
 BON 
 
 Ghibellines, headed by William of Nogaret, an agent of the king 
 of France, and Sciaira Colonna. The aged pope behaved with 
 great intrepidity, and was subjected to gross indignities during 
 three days by his captors, especially Colonna. At length the 
 people of Anagni rose in a body and rescued him. Boniface went 
 up to Home, but his proud spirit could not recover the shock 
 which the outrages and insults lieaped upon him had occasioned, 
 and he died at Rome soon afterwards in October, 1303. 
 
 Boniface IX. (Cardinal Pietro Tomacelli of Naples), was 
 elected during the schism by the cardinals of the Roman obedi- 
 ence on the death of Urban VI. in 1389. He openly testified 
 the exultation which he felt at his election. He was the youngest 
 on the list of cardinals, and though a fluent speaker, could 
 neither write nor chant, and was wholly ignorant of the mode of 
 conducting ecclesiastical aifairs. During the whole term of his 
 pontificate, which extended over fifteen years, his eiforts were 
 unceasinglj' directed to the task of extending, by fair means or 
 foul, the Roman obedience, and reducing the power of the French 
 antipopes, his rivals, to the naiTowest limits. In the first year 
 of his pontificate, he resorted to the most terrible ecclesiastical 
 censm-es against the antipope ; but Clement retaliated with equal 
 vigour, and the combatants thenceforward seem to have laid 
 aside these ineffectual weapons. Boniface in vain endeavoured 
 to induce the king of France to withdraw his support from the 
 antipope, and transfer it to himself. In 1392, and again in 1394, 
 he sent envoys to Charles VI. for this purpose, but without suc- 
 cess. In the last-named year, Benoit XIII. was elected in 
 succession to Clement by the cardin.als at Avignon. Dis- 
 gusted by his duplicity, the French prelates and doctors, at a 
 council held at Paris in 1398, solemnly renounced his obedience, 
 but without recognizing the claims of Boniface. Castile also, in 
 the snme year, withdrew its obedience from Benoit. It seems 
 probable, that had the conduct of Boniface been different, the 
 schism might now have been terminated. But his open practice 
 of simony, in its most gross and shameless forms, must have 
 indisposed those princes who had not previously acknowledged 
 him, to admit his claims now for the first time. He is said to 
 have sold the same benefice to several persons on the same day, 
 offering it to each as vacant. This may perhaps explain why 
 the king of France in 1403 restored his obedience to Benoit. 
 England, however, steadily adhered to Boniface, whose claims 
 were ably vindicated in 1399 by the university of Oxford. Ger- 
 many, also, after the deposition of the Emperor Wenceslaus, and 
 the election of Robert of Bavaria, remained in the Roman obe- 
 dience. Naples, imder King Ladislaus, did the same. Boniface 
 first instituted, in 1399, the annates, or first fruits, by which the 
 first year's revenue of every benefice to which a new incumbent 
 had been appointed, was reserved to the Roman see. In 1404 
 Benoit sent envoys to Boniface to propose a compromise. The 
 pope gave them a hearing, but insisted that he was the true pope, 
 and his rival an antipope. The envoys retorted that Benoit was 
 at least not simoniacal The excitement produced by this inter- 
 view aggravated a dangerous malady fmni which the pope was 
 suffering, and he took to his bed and died shortlv after, in Octo- 
 ber, 1404.— T. A. 
 
 BONIFACIO, Baldassare, nephew of Giovanni, was bora 
 at Crema about the year 1584. He studied at Pavia, and 
 obtained the degree of doctor of laws in his 1 9th year. Soon 
 after he went to Gcmiany as secretary to the papal nuncio, John 
 Porzio, and was intrasted with many diplomatic negotiations. 
 Having returned to Italy, he went to Rome, where he entered 
 the church, and was raised to the dignity of archpriest at Rovigo. 
 The tmiversity of Padua offered him the professorship of belles- 
 lettres, which he refused, prefening to devote the whole of his time 
 to the cultivation of his own mind. On the following year, how- 
 e\-er, he yielded to the intreaties of the senate of Venice, which 
 had elected him professor of civil law in the college of the nobles. 
 Pope Urban VIII. had appointed him bishop in the island of 
 Candia, which dignity he did not fill, on account of his unsur- 
 mountable aversion to sea voyages, and therefore he preferred the 
 archdeaconry of Treviso, in which city he was the vicar-general 
 under four successive bishops. In lGo7 he was called upon by 
 the senate to take the supreme direction of a new college founded 
 at Padua, of which he was the first rector; and finally in 1653 
 he was created bishop of Capo dTstria, which see he administered 
 for six years. His works are numerous, but of little interest, 
 except in a historical point of view, being good specimens of the 
 wretched style which prevailed in his time. He published a 
 
 tragedy, "Amata," which Crescimbeni considers the best of that 
 age ; and has left many other historical, juridical, and poetical pro- 
 ductions, the most part in Latin, enumerated at length by Dand 
 Clement in his Bibliothfeque Curieuse. Died in 1659. — A. C. M. 
 
 BONIFACIO, Giovanni, born of a noble family at Rovigo 
 on the 6th of September, 1547. Having completed his university 
 career at Padua, he studied law for five years, at the end of which 
 period he obtained the degree of LL.D. He continued, however, 
 to cultivate beUes-lettres, and particularly poetry. Having mar- 
 ried a lady from Treviso, he fixed his residence in that city, and 
 wrote its history. He was appointed to the dignity of assessor 
 in many cities in the Venetian tenitory; and finally, in 1624, 
 his health requiring some rest, he gave up all his occupations, 
 and retired to his native place. He has left many works, both 
 in Latin and Italian, some very good fables, lectures, orations, 
 and a treatise on jurisdiction, entitled " De Furtis." His most 
 remarkable production is the " Histoiy of Treviso," in twelve 
 books. He died on the 23rd of June, 1635.— A. C. M. 
 
 BONIFACIO, sumamed II Veneziano, was bom at Venice 
 in 1491, and was a pupil of the elder Palma, and perhaps a 
 student of Titian. His style partook of both manners. His 
 colour is " suave," says Pilkington, using one of his rarest sub- 
 tleties of phrase, and his compositions abundant and ingenious. 
 " Christ driving the Cheating Tradesmen out of the Temple," 
 was one of his best works ; but most of the Venetian churches 
 and sea-girt palaces were adorned by his grand pencil. His 
 " Baptism of Christ," " Sacrifice of Abraham," and " Michael 
 driving out the Evil Spirit," were his choicest marvels. He died 
 in 1553.— W. T. 
 
 BONINGTON, Richard Parkes, a landscape painter, son 
 of a drawingmaster, and born at Arnold, near Nottingham, in 
 1801. Bom thus under canvass, he precociously began to sketch 
 almost before he could speak ; while still a child he even began 
 to design, which is to drawing what writing is to leaming spell- 
 ing. At seven he drew and sketched with accuracy and taste, 
 guided by his delighted father, who turned him into the fields, as 
 other children are turned into a school-room. Of what is usually 
 called education, and which is often no more fitting to genius 
 than train oil to a canary bird, Bonington had his reasonable modi- 
 cum. In his thirteenth year a strange Danish thirst for the sea 
 came on the boy, and the green trees of Nottingham grew as 
 hateful to him as London's grey pavements would be to an Arab. 
 He painted the sea before he knew it ; he longed to paint it 
 with the fresh salt spray blowing in his face. At home he had 
 no thwarting, no extra stiles put up to make life's road rougher 
 than it need be. At fifteen his father took his son to Paris, and 
 at the Louvre he astonished the quick Gauls by his landscape 
 copies from Poussin and Berghem. At sixteen his works wcic 
 the admiration of the school, but he would not obey rules. He 
 left the academy as soon as he could draw the li\'ing model. The 
 rapid sale of his works kept him too long in Paris. He became 
 a student of the Institute, and drew sometimes in Gros' atelier, 
 poor, wind-bag manufactory that it was. Bonington loved river 
 banks and bold sea-shores, where land and sky, cloud and water 
 met. The motion of ships moved liim. He portrays fish- 
 markets, and fish with white bellies and green backs quivering 
 on brown and yellow sand. He liked to see the net drawn, and 
 the fish laid in lines on the pebbly water-mark. His second 
 drawing of a marine subject obtained for the clever, imsettled, 
 striving boy a gold medal, at the same time that Sir Thomas 
 got his red ribbon, and Constable and Fielding their golden 
 honours. Then he rose and went to Italy, setting up his ea.sel 
 at Venice, taking short-hand sketches of a city, which he said 
 naively, " seems just going off to sea." His " Ducal Palace" was 
 exhibited at the British gallery, and surprised eveiybody. " It 
 is," said a connoisseur, " a grand Canaletto-sort of thing, and is 
 as beautiful as sunshine, and as real as Whitehall." Allan Cun- 
 ningham thought it too much like a suneyor's literalism ; but 
 the "Ducal Palace" picture, he says, was true, yet more poeti- 
 cal than Canaletto. Bonington's great fault was imitation, and 
 borrowing other people's spectacles. Like Gainsborough, he 
 was fond of figures, and judicious in their use. In his gardens 
 he had ladies playing on the lute, or listening to night winds, 
 pleasanter than the song of all the birds of day. He had fisher- 
 men in barges, and pinnaces full of Fiammettas ; but imitate or 
 not, rough English shore or shaven Italian garden, trae to his 
 nation, his colouring was always beautiful and poetical. His 
 gi'eat ideal was an eclectic one — to combme Dutch fidelity, Roman
 
 BON 
 
 671 
 
 BON 
 
 science, English sense, and Venetian vigour. Much to Fuseli's 
 horror, he had even selected a series of medieval subjects, on 
 which to make the exjieriment. He tried the manner of every 
 school, but his "Henry the Third of France" the academy 
 hung out of sight, much to the disgust of all but a clique. 
 This pictiu-e was con-ect, skilful, and harmonious ; but to be 
 young and successful is always a sin in the eyes of our privileged 
 body of worn-out old men. His mind teemed with projects ; his 
 conception was rapid, his execution rapid ; but death took the 
 brash out of his hand, and pointed to the inevitable grave. 
 Every one saw he was branded for death ; but still he rose early 
 and studied late, and fame went on increasing hke the school- 
 boy's snow globe. The French watched his progress with pride, 
 for he was their adopted son, and they are quick and generous 
 of feeling. Gros, who for some unknown reason had shut his 
 studio against him, now declared it a prouil honour to have 
 such a pupil. In ]827 he went to Paris, having, with his 
 usual shyness, refused an introduction to Lawrence till he was 
 better known. The almost numberless orders he received excited 
 an overwrought brain ; he fell away, and a quick and overmas- 
 tering consumption swept him into the grave. He had just 
 strength to reach London, where he died in his twenty-seventh 
 year. Lawrence was at his funeral — a sad introduction. The 
 artist was tall and well-made. " His face," says a French 
 writer, " was truly Enghsh, and we loved him for his melancholy 
 air, which became him more than smiles." Carpenter engi'aved 
 twenty-six of his paintings, which are now scarce. His works 
 ire distinguished by great picturesque beauty, good colour, and 
 1 singular gi'ace of execution. His handling was delicate and 
 true; his tone of colour, clear and harmonious. " He wants," 
 says Cunningham, " vigour and breadth ; his copies are some- 
 times too bold and literal ; his poetic scenes, too slight and 
 flimsy. He had not the strength of Gainsborough, but much- of 
 his grace and art." It was his dream to have gained a com- 
 (iftency by painting commissions, and then to have dedicated 
 lis time to an epical series of historical compositions. Who can 
 say whether this wonderful boy might not have grown up a 
 worn-out reproducer of dead shadows, a conventional Blaster 
 Betty of art, a phenomenon nm to seed, a colt run too early, and 
 broken -kneed before its full strength had come? Taking him 
 to France while still a suckhng, to be overpowered by the visions 
 of past greatness, was a cruel mistake ; but then poor Boning- 
 ton never had stamina enough for an original genius ; he was a 
 precocious, consumptive lad. Had God willed him to have im- 
 proved English art, he would have lived. — W. T. 
 
 BONIXI, GiROLAMO, a native of Ancona, lived about 1600, 
 pupil of the weak but graceful Albano, whom he assisted in 
 the Sala Farnese, and in many of the Bolognese palaces. — W. T. 
 
 BONISOLI, Agostino, a historical painter of Cremona, and 
 pupil of Tortiroli. DiHgent study of Veronese's works made him 
 a reasonable painter. Died in 1700. — W. T. 
 
 BONITO, Giuseppe, a Neapolitan portrait and historical 
 l):iinter, born in 1705, and died in 1789. He was a pupil of 
 Solimena, and became painter to the king of Naples. — W. T. 
 
 BON JOUR, Casimir, bom in 1795 at Clermont. Some 
 thirty years have elapsed since the amiable librarian of the 
 Bibliotheque St. Genevieve, gave the last of that agreeable 
 series of comedies which will insure for his name a respectable 
 place in the brilliant list of French dramatic writers. His works 
 fiossess the distinguishing merit of high moral aims, treated with 
 ■ asy and pleasant familiarity. — J. F. C. 
 
 BONNAIRE, Louis de, a voluminous French theological 
 ■• liter, a priest of the congi-egation of the Oratoiy, bom at Ram- 
 nip-sur-Aube about 1680; died at Paris in 1752. He wrote 
 ■' Parallele de la morale des jesuites et de celle des pa'iens," 
 1726; " L'esprit des lois quintessencie," 1751; "Religion 
 ''lu-etienne meditee dans le veritable esprit de ses maximes," 
 1745-1763; and " Les Le9ons de la sagesse," 1737-1744. 
 
 BONNAL, Fran(^'ois de, a French prelate, bom at the 
 manor-house of Bonnal, near Agen, in 1734. In 1758 he was 
 raised to the see of Clermont, and in that year was present at 
 the general assembly of the clergy of France. In 1789 he was 
 deputed to the states-general, and protested against the limita- 
 tions of the power of the clergy proposed by the popular leaders. 
 In 1791 he refused to sign the constitution civile, and exerted 
 himself so zealously to increase the number of recusants that 
 he was denounced to the assembly, and obliged to retire to 
 Holland. He died in 1800.— J. S., G. 
 
 BONNAR, William, R.S.A., a portrait and historical painter 
 of moderate calibre, born at Edinburgh; died in 1853. He was 
 the son of a house-painter, and was, when young, apprenticed 
 to the rose-garland decorati\e branch of art. His picture of 
 " the Tinkers," exhibited m Waterloo Place in 1824, established 
 his fame ; and on the foraiation of the Royal Scottish Academy 
 he was elected an academician. Slany of his pictm-es have 
 been engraved. — W. T. 
 
 BONNARD, Bernard de, a poet, born at Semar in 1744; 
 died in 1784. He first went to the bar, wliich he subsequently 
 renounced for the profession of arms. In 1770 he was appointed 
 tutor to the son of the didiie of Orleans, in which oifice he was 
 succeeded by madame de Genlis. His poems, with a biographical 
 notice, have been published at Paris, 1791, 8vo. — J. G. 
 
 BONNARD, Jean Louis, a French missionary and martyr, 
 bom at Saint-Christophe in Jarret in 1824; executed in Cochin- 
 China in 1852. He arrived in that country in 1850, set him- 
 self to acquire the Annamite language, and had made some 
 progress in his missionary labours, when he was denounced to 
 one of the mandaiins, and condemned to death. — J. S., G. 
 
 BONNARD, Robert Alexandre de, a French geologist, 
 the son of the poet, Bernard de Bonnard, was born in Paiis on 
 the 8th October, 1781, and became inspector of mines. He 
 has devoted himself especially to the investigation of the geog- 
 nostic questions connected with mining, as is shown by the 
 titles of his principal writings — namely, "Aper9u des tcn-ains 
 houilliers du nord de la France," and " Essai Geognostiques sur 
 r Erzgebirge." He has also written several memoirs on mining 
 and metallurgical processes. — W. S. D. 
 
 BONNATERRE, Joseph P., a French abbe and naturalist, 
 born at Saint-Seniez in 1747 or 1752, was one of the authors 
 of the zoological portion of the great Encyclopedic M^'thodique. 
 The portions written by Bonnaterre include the " Natural 
 History of Fishes and Cetacca," and the Tableau Encyclope- 
 dique et Methodique of the " Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, and 
 Cetacea." His other writings consist of a " Flora of Aveyron," 
 a notice of a wild boy found in that district, and a " Recueil 
 de Medecine Veterinaire," piddishcd at Toulouse in 1805. At 
 the outbreak of the French revolution the abbe Bonnaterre 
 retired to his native district ; he died at Rhodez on the 26th 
 September, 1804.— W. S. D. 
 
 BONNAUD, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit, gi-and war of 
 Lyons, born in America in 1740. He published during the ten 
 years preceding the Revolution, several works on politico-ecclesi- 
 astical questions, which brought him into celebrity as a vigorous 
 writer and zealous churchman. His last publication, however, 
 — " A Defence of the Rights of the Chm'ch against the Spolia- 
 tory Measures of the National Assembly" — attracted to him the 
 undesirable notice of the revolutionary party, by whom he was shut 
 up in one of the Carmelite convents of Paris, and in September, 
 1792, massacred along with other prisoners. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BONNECHOSE, Francois Paul Emile, born at Leyer- 
 dorp in Holland in 1801, of French parents. He first entered the 
 army, which he quitted in 1830 for the sake of devoting himself 
 to hteraiy pursuits. Having written a tragedy, " Rosemonde," 
 which succeeded, and a poem which was crowned by the French 
 Academy, he turned his attention to history, and has given to the 
 world a history of France, a sacred historj-, and a history of 
 " The Four Conquests of England," in which he fairly and 
 impartially renders justice to the great characceristic quahties 
 of the British people. — J. F. C. 
 
 BONNECORSE, Balthazar de, bora at JIarseilles, and 
 died in 1706. Wrote poems, the name of one of which, "La 
 Montre d'Amour," was found jingling in a passage of Boileau's 
 Lutrin. Balthazar's wrath was roused, and he wrote the " Lutri- 
 got," a parody of the Lutrin, in ten cantos. Bonnecorse also 
 published Latin verses. — J. A., D. 
 
 BONNEFONS, Ainiable, a French Jesuit, born at Riom in 
 Auvergne in 1600 ; died at Paris in 1653. lie devoted himself 
 to charitable instraction, and left a number of devotional treatises, 
 particularly " Les Douze Poites de la bicnhem'euse eternito, et 
 les clefs qui les omTent," 1644. 
 
 BONNEFONS or BONEFONS, Jean, an amatoiy poet, 
 bora at Clermont in Auvergne in 1554 ; died in 1G14. He 
 studied law, and followed the profession of an advocate at 
 Paris. Opposite judgments have been passed on his poetry. 
 Some have compared him to Catullus. Others have alleged 
 that he imitated rather modem Italian poets than those of the
 
 BON 
 
 672 
 
 BON 
 
 Augustine age, and point out grave eiTors in grammar and 
 prosody. His poems wore published at Paris, 1587, 8vo, under 
 the title of " Pancharis," the uame of an imaginary mistress. 
 They are also to be found with the Juvenilia of Th. de Beze in the 
 Anijpnitates Poetica>, Paris, 1754, 12mo. — J. G. 
 
 BONXEFOY, Francois Lambert, a French theologian, 
 bom in 1749 in the diocese of Vaison ; died in 1830. He 
 refused to take the oath exacted of the clergy by the constituent 
 assembly, and in consequence was obliged to emigrate. On his 
 return to France, he engaged in the composition of a history of 
 the Revolution, devoting all his time to the work, and had pre- 
 pared it for the press, when he died suddenly of apoplexy. 
 
 BONNER, Edmund, bishop of London, was born of poor but 
 respectable parentage at Stanley in Worcestershire, and was 
 educated by an ancestor of Nicholas Lechmere, a baron of the 
 exchequer in the reign of King William. He was entered a 
 student of Broadgnte hall (now Pembroke college), Oxford, in 
 1512, became bachelor of the canon, and took orders in 1519, and 
 in 1525 received the degi'ee of doctor of canon law. Except as 
 a canonist his learning was not remarkable, but his dexterity in 
 the management of aftairs was sufficient to gain him preferment. 
 He became commissaiy for the faculties to Cardinal Wolsey, and 
 was in attendance on that prelate when he was aiTcsted at 
 Cawood. After the death of his patron he insinuated liimself 
 into the favour of Henry VIII., who made him one of his chap- 
 lains. This promotion converted him into a Lutheran, and a 
 zealous advocate of the king's divorce. Cromwell recognizing 
 his talents for diplomacy, also took him under his particular 
 patronage. In 1532, after having been envoy at several courts, 
 he was sent along with Sir Edward Kame to excuse at Rome 
 Henry's refusal to answer the pope's citation. Next year he 
 was despatched to Clement VII. at JIarseilles, charged to deliver 
 Heniy's appeal from the papal court to a general councU. The 
 message was not conciliatory, and the messenger was a furious 
 priest. Clement proposed to toss him into a caldron of melted 
 lead. In 1538 Bonner was nominated to the bishopric of Here- 
 ford, but before consecration was translated to London. At the 
 time of the king's death in 1547, he was ambassador at the court 
 of the Emperor Charles V. A few months after that event he 
 began to have scraples about his conduct under the late reign — 
 he would no longer renounce and deny the bishop of Rome, nor 
 would he swear obedience to the king'wliile a minor. He even 
 protested against the royal injunction and homilies. This refrac- 
 tory behaviom- cost him an im])risonment in the Fleet, where- 
 upon he recalled his protest, submitted to the king's grace, and 
 promised to help on to the utmost of his power the work of the 
 Reformation. I3ut although after this he conformed outwardly 
 to recent changes in ecclesiastical nde, his convictions were with 
 the party who had suffered from them, and hence he continued 
 to be an object of suspicion to the ministry. In August, 1549, 
 he was summoned before the pri\-y council, and after being sub- 
 jected to a reproof for negligence in the discharge of his duties, 
 enjoined to preach a sermon at St. Paul's cross, deprecating 
 rebellion, Romish ceremonialism, and enforcing the right of a 
 king, even while a minor, to make law.s. On September 1st the 
 prescribed sermon was delivered. It turned altogether upon 
 rebellion and ceremonies, and ignored the question of obedience 
 to sovereigns under age. Bonner was again brought before the 
 council, and this time deprived of his bishopric. He was in 
 prison when Maiy entered London, August, 1553. A month 
 afterwards, the sentence deposing him from his see was reversed 
 by a commission called, it may be said, for that purpose. In 
 
 1554 he was made vicegerent and president of the convocation 
 in room of Cranmer, who was committed to the tower. Armed 
 with unlimited authority, he proceeded to reform the church 
 after its reformation ; to revive the ceremony of the mass, and 
 burn all who professed abhorrence of it ; to turn out the refomied 
 bishops and supply their places with his own minions; to vindi- 
 cate Romanism by fire and fagot till every heart should quail 
 at the mention of dissent ; and to indulge the bintal cruelty of 
 his disposition by whipping prisoners with his own hand. In 
 
 1555 and the three followng years, two hundred innocent per- 
 sons were burned at the stake by order of this mitred Nero. 
 The brutality of his conduct when executing the commission to 
 degrade Cranmer reminds us of Judge Jefferies, and of him alone. 
 On Elizabeth's accession, Bonner and other prelates repaired to 
 Highgate to congratulate the new sovereign. He read his fate 
 in the reception they met with. Each was allowed to kiss her 
 
 hand, except Bonner. In May, 1559, he was called before the 
 pnvj council, and asked to take the oath of allegiance and 
 supremacy. He refused, was deposed from his see, and com- 
 mitted to the Jlarshalsea, where he died in 1569. — J. S., G. 
 
 BONNET, Antoine, a French Jesuit, bom at Limoges in 
 1634-, died at Lunel in 1700. He left a Latin panegyric on 
 Louis XIV., and a work entitled " Pax Lud. XIV. et Maria; 
 TheresifP Austriacfe conjugio sancita," 16G0. 
 
 * BONNET, AcGUSTE, a French siu-geon, who has devoted 
 much attention to the management of prisons. His earliest 
 work is a " Treatise on Diseases of the Liver, " published at 
 Paris in 1828. In 1844 he produced three works — "On the 
 Modifications to be introduced into the Prisons of France ; " 
 " On the Penitential Systems ;" and " On Solitary Confinement." 
 
 BONNET, Charles, a naturalist and philosopher, was bom 
 at Geneva on 13th March, 1720, and died in the same tovi-n of 
 water in the chest, on 17th June, 1793. His family were 
 originally French, and were expatriated in 1572, after the 
 dreadful slaughter of St Bartholomew's day. He devoted much 
 attention to natural histoiy, and in 1745 published a treatise 
 on insects, in which he gives interesting views of the stmcture 
 and reproduction of these animals. He took his degree of doctor 
 of laws in 1743, and afterwards was admitted a fellow of the 
 Royal Society of London. In 1752 he was made a member of 
 the gi-and council in the republic of Geneva. To vegetable 
 physiology he has also devoted his attention, and in 1754 pub- 
 lished a valuable woi-k on the use of the leaves of plants, in 
 which he detailed numerous experiments in vegetable absorption 
 and respiration. He subsequently published essays on psy- 
 chology, and on the mental powers, as well as a work on the 
 origin and reproduction of organized bodies. In 1764-65 his 
 work on the contemplation of nature appeared; and in 1773 
 his philosophical researches into the trath of Christianity. In 
 1783 he was elected honorary member of the Academies of 
 Sciences of Paris and of Berlin. A genus of plants was called 
 by Wahl, Bonnetia, in honour of Bonnet. — J. H. B. 
 
 BONNET or BOXET, B. de Lattes, rabbi, a native of 
 Lattes, near Montpellier, was a profoimd mathematician, astrono- 
 mer, and physician. When obliged to leave his country through 
 his adherence to his faith, he found a protector in Pope Leo X., 
 to whom he dedicated an astronomical work, in which the rabbi 
 explains the use of a curious astronomical instnunent invented 
 by him, and by means of which the hour could be ascertained at 
 any time of the day or of the night. Bonnet came to Rome in 
 1498.— (E. Carmoly, TliMoire des Mkleclns Juifs.)—T. T. 
 
 BONNET or BONET, Jean, a Swiss physician, born at 
 Geneva in the year 1615, took his degree at the early age of 
 nineteen, and soon acquired such a reputation that patients 
 came to consult him from foreign countries. He visited France ir. 
 1668, and stayed for some tune in Paris, where his attainments 
 appear to have aroused some little envy. Jean Bonnet died at 
 Geneva on the 25th December, 1688. The only work ascribed 
 to his pen is a " Traite de la Circulation des Esprits Animaux," 
 published at Paris in 1 682 ; but this is said to have been written 
 by another person. — W. S. D. 
 
 BONNET, Simon, a French Benedictine, prior of St. GeiTner 
 de Flee, bom in 1653. In 1696 he began a work, "Bibha 
 maxima Patrum," a collection of patriotic commentaries, on 
 which he laboured till his death in 1705. 
 
 BONNET or BONET, TiiEoriiinis, a Swiss physician, was 
 born at Geneva on the 5th March, 1620, took his degree as 
 doctor of medicine in 1643, and afterwards practised with gi'eat 
 reputation in his native city, where he died on the 29th March, 
 1689. He was the author of numerous treatises on medicine 
 and surgery, but he is most celebrated as having, to a certain 
 extent, originated the science of pathological anatomy. The 
 most important of his works were «Titten during the last ten 
 years of his life, when, being afflicted with deafness, he was 
 compelled to relinquish his practice. His chief work, entitled 
 " Sepulchretum Anatomicum, sen Anatome Practica," &c., was 
 published in 1679, and a new edition, with corrections and 
 additions by Jlauget, appeared in 1700.— W. S. D. 
 
 * I50NNETTY, Augistin, a distinguished French theological 
 writer, bom at Entrevaux in 1798. He has conducted since 1830 
 the monthly journal, Annales de Ph'dosophie C/irelienne, and since 
 1836, V Universite Catliolique, both periodicals of extensive popu- I 
 larity. In 1845 Pope Gregory XVI. conferred on him the order 
 of St. Gregory the Great.
 
 BOXXEVAL, an ancient illustrious house in the Limousin, 
 f iunded by Giraud de Bonneval, who lived in 1055. Xot a few 
 luads of this house held important offices at the French court. 
 I )ne of them, Antoine, was councillor and chamberlain to three 
 kinrjs, Louis XL, Charles VIIL, and Louis XIL Another, 
 (nnnaiu, was killed at the battle of Pavia. A tliird, Ctesar- 
 riioebus, acquired great distinction in the wars of Louis XIV. 
 The best known member of the family was : — 
 
 Claudius Alexander, third son of the marquis de Bonneval, 
 a military adventurer, bom in 1G75. He entered the nnvy in 
 1 ii>6, but quitted it in 1698, in consequence of a duel with the 
 liiit de Beaumont. He then entered the array, and served with 
 -tinction in the Italian wars under Catenat, Villeroi, and Ven- 
 ule. His fiery temper, however, led him into several duels, 
 1 involved him in a quarrel with the minister of war, which 
 rhnately caused him to quit the French service and to accept a 
 iimission in the Austrian army. He served under Prince Eugene 
 : '.inst his native country, and afterwards against tlie Turks, and 
 ued great distinction at the battles of Peterwarden and Bel- 
 le, at the first of which he was severely wounded. As a reward 
 ■ his services an important command in Sardinia and Sicily was 
 -towed upon him in 1719. His quarrelsome disposition, how- 
 ■r, once more brought him into disgrace, and he was stripped 
 all his honours and expelled from the countiy. He then took 
 iiige in Turkey in 173tl and embraced the Mussulman faith. 
 He was appointed to a liigh office in the army under the name 
 t Achmet Pacha, and instmcted the Tm-ldsh troops in European 
 tics and the management of artilleiy. His militaiy reforms, 
 .vever, excited the enmity of the janissaries, and his political 
 ;ects were regarded with dislike by the divan, and he was 
 :l''d into Asia in 1738-39. His last years were passed in 
 rigues and v;un regi'ets. The pope offered him an asylum in 
 ine, and the king of the Two Sicihes a pension, but he died 
 the moment he was about to return to Christendom. A 
 moir of Bonneval was published by the prince de Ligny, 
 ijI., 8vo, Paris, 1817. A work, purporting to be the autobio- 
 LTiaphy of this remarkable adventurer was published in 1755, 
 hut its genuineness is doubtful. — J. T. 
 
 BOXXEVILLE, Xiciiolas de, bom at Evreux in 1760, is 
 looked upon as one of tlie founders of the French school of com- 
 munists. It seems not unlikely that his doctrines may have 
 "I'igiuated in those sufferings to which he, like many other 
 irdent aspirants for Uterary fame and fortune, became exposed 
 ill that brilliant capital to which all youths of real or imaginarj- 
 ,'enius repair from the pro\"inces. He has left on record, in a 
 preface to a volume of early poems, a description of the miseries 
 he underwent, and which worked upon his ardent imagination 
 and susceptible temper, so as to excite anger against society at 
 hirge. Yet he was, although a di-eamer, a hard student, and 
 mastered the German, English, and Italian languages and lite- 
 rature. He aided Le Toimier in his translation of Shakspeare, 
 and WTote imitations of German stories with a success which 
 procured him the patronage of Jlarie Antoinette. When the 
 Revolution broke out, the excitable feelings of Bonneville caught 
 the general enthusiasm, and he promulgated plans for insuring 
 the pennanent good of mankind, more benevolent in intention 
 tlian practical or wise. Yet was he openly denoimced by Marat 
 IS an aristocrat, for articles in his jormial, the Bouche de Fer, 
 I'.cnouncing all cruelties and excesses. Thrown into prison, he 
 irirrowly escaped the guillotine by the timely fate of Kobespierre. 
 When Bonaparte had risen to the imperial throne, Bonneville 
 liad the simplicity to write an article in his new journal, the 
 '■in fiifirme, comparing the emperor with Cromwell, and was 
 :Mn thrown into prison, and when let out, subjected to close 
 irveillance as long as the empire lasted. In liis latter days 
 " opened a bookshop in the Quartier Latin, which became the 
 •^ort of the students and professors, who loved to hear Bonne- 
 He's animated and learned conversation. He was simjde, 
 ii'ilulous, enthusiastic, and imaginative, and withal remarkably 
 '11 read. His death took place'sth Xovembcr, 1828.— J. F. C. 
 BOXXIVAKI), Francis de, celebrated in the annals of 
 "iieva for his labours and sufferings in the cause of liberty, was 
 ni in 1496 of an influential Savoyard family. In 1510 his 
 Miicle resigned to liim the priorj' of St. Victor, near Geneva, 
 which had been previously held by several of his ancestors. A 
 dispute was at that time raging between the Genevese and 
 liishop John, who attempted to cede his territory to the duke 
 'A Savoy. Bonnivard incurred the enmity both of the bishop 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 and the duke, by his interference in behalf of a citizen whom the 
 former had imprisoned and tortured, and in 1519 was betrayed 
 into the hands of the duke, who imprisoned him for two years in 
 the castle of Grolee. On his liberation he took a deep interest 
 in the cause of the Reformation, which was now making pro- 
 gi'ess, and showed himself a decided, yet pnident friend of 
 protestant principles. He in consequence became peculiarly 
 obnoxious to the enemies of liberty, and in 1530 he was taken 
 prisoner and plundered by a band of robbers, who again deUvered 
 him up to the duke of Savoy. He was confined for six years in 
 the castle of Cliillon, and during the gi-eater part of that time 
 he occupied a dungeon hewn out of the rock below the surface of 
 the neighboming lake. He was liberated by the Genevese when 
 they conquered the Waatland in 1536, and returned to Geneva, 
 where he died in 1570. He was held in high honour by the 
 citizens of that republic, and had a house assigned him and a 
 liberal pension. He WTote a histoiy of Geneva down to 1530, 
 in compliance with a wish of the magistrates, as weU as several 
 other historical works, which are still preserved in manuscript in 
 the hbrary of that city. His own books, many of which were 
 rare and valuable, he presented to the city in 1551. He was a 
 man of gi-eat intellect and learning, combined with true nobility 
 of character and singleness of purpose. The captivity of this 
 upright patriot is the subject of Byron's celebrated poem, the 
 Prisoner of Chillon. — J. T. 
 
 BOXXYCASTLE, John, a veiy meritorious mathematician, 
 the author of valuable elementary mathematical works. He died 
 at Woolwich, where he was professor, in 1821. His most useful 
 works are, the " Algebra," in two volumes, and his larger trea- 
 tise on " Trigonometiy." The progress of science has rendered 
 these books somewhat antiquated; but it would be fortunate if 
 all modem treatises were equally luminous.— J. P. X. 
 
 BOXO, Giovanni Battista Agostino, an Italian canonist, 
 professor in the university of Tmin, and aftenvards a noted 
 partisan of the French directory, born at Verzuolo in 1738 ; 
 died in 1799. He retired from his chair in 1792, after endea- 
 vouring to draw over his colleagues to the side of the French 
 who had just occupied Savoy and the county of Xice. In 1798 
 he became, by the nomination of the French general, Joubert, 
 president of the provisional government of Piedmont. In that 
 capacity he urged strenuously on the directory the propriety of 
 annexing Piedmont to the empire, but did not live to see his 
 ■\-iews carried out. His works treat of the line of separation 
 between the civil and the ecclesiastical power. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOXOMI, Giovanni Fr.vncesco, born of a patrician family 
 at Cremona on the 6th of October, 1536. He studied at the 
 university of his native place, and appHed himself to the law in 
 the universities of Bologna and Pavia, where he took his degree 
 of LL.D. He was particularly befriended by the celebrated Saint 
 Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, and was employed by 
 him in many important negotiations. As a reward for his ser- 
 vices, he was raised to the dignity of abbot of Xonantula; and 
 having resigned his abbey, he was created bishop of Vercelli 
 in 1572, and consecrated by his illustrious patron in the cathedi'al 
 of ililan in 1573. Such was the esteem in which Bonomi was 
 held by Carlo Borromeo, that at his death he bequeathed all his 
 manuscripts to him. The popes, Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V., 
 sent him as nuncio to Switzerland and Germany, and having 
 been successful in all his missions, he was sent as an altei' ego to 
 Liege in Flanders, where he died on the 26th of Febraary, 1587, 
 leaving all his property to the poor of that city. This zealous 
 prelate was well versed in histoiy and Latin poetrj'. Besides 
 many Latin works and pastorals connected with his sacred 
 functions, he has left a life of Saint Carlo Bon-omco, and an 
 epic poem in four books, entitled " Borromaeidos," published at 
 Milan in 1589.— A. C. >AI. 
 
 BOXOXCIXI or BUOXOXCIXI, Giovanni B.\ttista, a 
 celebrated musician, the son of Giovanni Maria, and brother to 
 Marc Antonio, two eminent composers of the same name, was 
 born at Modena about 1G72, and educated under his father. 
 After his musical studies were finished, he went to Vienna, where, 
 being an excellent performer on the violoncello, he was admitted 
 into the band of the Emperor Leopold. Alessandro Scarlatti had 
 gained gi-eat reputation by his operas, and Bononcini, desirous to 
 emidate him, though at that time but eighteen years of age. 
 composed one entitled " Camilla," which was performed at 
 Vienna with greater applause than had before been given to any 
 work of the kind. Xicolo Haym, one of the early conductors of 
 ' 4Q
 
 BON 
 
 G74 
 
 BON 
 
 the Italian opera in England, adapted it to English words, and 
 produced it at the theatre in the Haymarket, London, in the 
 vear 1706. So deep was the impression which the music made 
 on the minds of the English public, that, for three or four years 
 afterwards, the managers were under the necessity of introducing 
 into every opera they exhibited some of the melodies of the 
 same composer. One of the airs in " Camilla " has lately been 
 revived, and attributed, upon the authority of Mr. Hogarth's 
 ^Memoirs of the Opera, to Marc Antonio Bononcini — an in- 
 justice which w-e hope to see corrected. In IGO-i Bononcini 
 visited Rome and produced his operas of " TuUio Ostilio " and 
 " Xerse." From this period down to 1716 he composed a number 
 of operas, which were performed with success at Home, Berlin, 
 and Vienna. In the latter year, upon the foundation of the Royal 
 Academy of Music in London, Bononcini (then at Rome) was 
 sent for to assist in composing for it ; and in consequence of his 
 engagement with the directors, he wrote, dmnng a period of 
 about seven years, the operas of " Astartus," " Crispus," " Gri- 
 selda," " Phamaces," " Enninia," " Calphurnia," and " Asty- 
 anax." A great degree of rivah-y soon took place betwixt 
 Bononcini and Handel (the latter was at the head of the 
 academy), and two parties were formed amongst the nobility, 
 each professing to patronize their favourite. Handel was 
 honoured with the immediate notice and protection of the elec- 
 toral family, and Bononcini by that of the duke of I\Iarlborough. 
 So strange and capricious are sometimes the motives of party 
 opposition, that the former was patronized by the tories, and the 
 latter by the whigs. The contest betwixt the friends of the two 
 composers was brought to a crisis b}- the perfonnance of the opera 
 of '' Muzio ScaBvola," of which Handel, Bononcini, and Attilio 
 Ariosti, each contributed an act. The judgment of the public 
 was given in fiivour of Handel, which put an end to the compe- 
 tition, and left the giant without a rival. On the death of the 
 duke of JIarlborough, Bononcini was employed to compose the 
 anthem performed at his interment in Westminster abbey, which 
 was afterwards printed in score. The countess of Godolphin 
 (who, on the decease of her father, by a peculiar limitation of 
 the title, became duchess of Marlborough) took Bononciiu into 
 her family, and settled upon him a pension of £500 per annum. 
 She had concerts twice a week at her house, which chiefly con- 
 sisted of the music of this her favourite master. But, being a 
 man of haughty and imperious disposition, he at length rendered 
 himself unworthy of the patronage which he had so long enjoyed. 
 He was convicted of the paltry dishonesty of pretending to be 
 the composer of an Italian madrigal, which had been written 
 many years before by Lotti, organist of St. Mark's at Venice, 
 who proved his claim. The siuges of party feeling, which had 
 been powerfully excited, continued to heave and murmur, and 
 Bononcini was compelled to leave the kingdom. He did not 
 quit it alone, but became a sharer in the fortunes of a man who, 
 under the assimied name of Count Ughi, was a common swindler, 
 and a pretender to the secret of making gold. Their connection, 
 however, did not last long, and Bononcini was again compelled 
 to have recourse to his profession in order to procure a suste- 
 nance. He visited Paris, and composed for the royal chapel 
 there a motet with an obligato accompaniment for the violon- 
 cello, which he himself performed before the king. This compo- 
 sition was afterwards printed at Paris. At the conclusion of the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, he was sent for to Vienna by the 
 emperor of Gennany, in order to compose the music for that 
 celebration, and was rewarded with a present of eight hundred 
 ducats. He next \-isited Venice, in company with ^lonticelli (a 
 singer who had appeared at the opera in London), the one as 
 composer, the other as principal .'linger. In this city he is sup- 
 posed to have died about 1750. The merits of Bononcini were 
 very great, and it can scarcely be considered any diminution from 
 his talents as an operatic composer, to say that he had no 
 superior but Handel. His melodies are peculiarly tender and 
 pathetic, and his harmonies are original and at the same time 
 natural. A list of his works will be found in Fetis' Biographic 
 Universelle des Miisiciens. — E. F. R. 
 
 BONOXE, Caulo, born at Ferrara in 1569. He studied 
 till twenty under Bastaruoli, and became the stripling rival of 
 Scarzellino, falling below him in tenderness of tint and beauty of 
 expression, but excelling him in the opposite pole of bold design 
 and vigorous colouring. But Bonone was bom not to circum- 
 navigate unknown seas, but to hug the well-known shore, and 
 ply the ferry between the narrow eclectic wastes. He first went 
 
 to Bologna and studied the Caracci ; then Rome, and fed on the 
 antique; then back to Bologna; then to Paul Veronese's great 
 tapestries at Venice ; then to the skirts of heaven, tliat roof, 
 Con-eggio's dome, at Paraia, always boiTowing, always imitating. 
 In his smaller works he was called the Caracci of Ferrara. In 
 his machinal pageantries he looks more like Veronese grown 
 doting. I'eiTara is full of his works, and his academy jjeopled 
 the city with painters. His best spectacle works are the " Feast 
 of Ahasuerus," the "Feast of Herod," and the "Miracle at 
 Cana," He ceased to imitate in 1632. His nephew, Lio- 
 NELi.o, promised excellency, but fell away. — W. T. 
 
 BOXPLAXD, AiME, a celebrated tr.avellcr and naturaUst, 
 was bom on 22d August, 1773, at Kochelle, where his father prac- 
 tised medicine. His medical studies were interruj)ted by political 
 disturbances in France, and for a time he eritered the naval ser- 
 vice as an assistant-surgeon. After the rcvolutionaiy period had 
 passed, he went to Paris, for the pui-pose of continuing his studies, 
 and there he was introduced to many medical men of eminence. 
 Among others he became acquainted with Corvisart, whose pupil 
 he became. At his house he met Alexander von Hmnboldt, who 
 was then studying in Paris. These two young naturalists became 
 intimate friends, and canied on then' scientific studies toge- 
 ther with zeal and enthusiasm. Bonpland turned his attention 
 in a special manner to botany and anatomy. Soon afterwards 
 Humboldt began to make preparations for his great scientific 
 journey, and he requested Bonpland to accompany him. The two 
 travellers visited the equinoctial regions of America, and made 
 varied and extensive obsei-vations in all departments of science. 
 Bonpland was intrusted chiefly with the botanical part of the 
 expedition, and he collected and dried more than 6000 hitherto 
 unknown species of plants. On his return to France, after five 
 years' travel, Bonpland handed over his extensive collection to the 
 Museum of Xatnral History at Paris. He became director of the 
 gardens at Malmaison, and he devoted himself assiduously to the 
 publication of his travels. He became the friend of Gay Lussac, 
 Arago, Thenard, and other celebrated men of that day. After 
 Kapoleon's reverses he resolved to retuni' to America, and at the 
 end of 1816 he sailed from Ha\Te for Buenos Ajtcs, carrying 
 with him a large collection' of useful European plants and 
 fruit-trees. He was elected there professor of natural history, 
 but he held fins office only for a short period. His desire 
 of enterprise led him to take a journey across the Pampas, 
 the pro\-inces of Santa-Fe, Great Chaco and Bolivia, to the foot 
 of the Andes, which he wished to explore a second time. He 
 located himself at Parana. The wars which prevailed in the 
 Argentine confederation under Dr. Francis, rendered his residence 
 here unsafe, and in December, 1821, he was seized by the sol- 
 diers of Francis, and was sent to Santa ]\Iaria, where for tvo 
 years he supported himself by his medical and phamiaceutical 
 practice, and did much good by his attention to the poor. He 
 was Hberated in 1858, and he then proceeded to Brazil, and took 
 up his residence in the little village of San Borgia. There he 
 continued to devote his attention to botany and horticulture, and 
 died in 1858, at the advanced age of more than eighty, retain- 
 ing to the last his vigour of mind and body. He published 
 rarioiis works, among which may be noticed, " Plantes Equi- 
 noxiales, collected in Jlexico, the island of Cuba, the provinces 
 of Caracas, Cumana, the Andes of Quito, and the banks of the 
 Orinoco and the Amazon ;" a " ^Monograph of Melastomacea; ;" 
 and a " Description of the Rare Plants of Navarre and of Mai- i 
 maison." He was associated with Himiboldt in the publication ' 
 of his " Voyages aux Regions Eqiunoxiales du Nouveau Conti- i 
 nent," and in his " Vues des Cordilleres ; " and along wth 
 Humboldt and Kuntli he published "Mimosces et autres plantes ; 
 Legimiineuses du Nouveau Continent," and " Nova Genera et I 
 Species Plantarum." All these works are standard books of ; 
 reference. — J. H. B, 
 
 BONSENIOR. R.VBBi Ihn Yaciiia, lived in Provence. He 
 composed in Hebrew an elegantly written poem on the game 
 of chess, which T. Hyde published in a Latin translation, with a 
 preface on the Hstory of that game, at Oxford in 1694, under 
 the title " De Ludo Scacchico." The Hebrew poem had been 
 previously printed at Mantua in 1557. Several editions of it 
 have appeared since. — T. T. 
 
 BONSTETTIN, Ciiaules Victor de, bom in 1745 at 
 Berne; died in 1832. A moralist and philosopher of the Leib- 
 nitzian school, and an ardent admirer of the writings of Bonnet. 
 His studies were prosecuted successively at Berne, Iverdun, and
 
 BON 
 
 675 
 
 BOO 
 
 Geneva (where he made the acquaintance of Bonnet and Voltaire), 
 Leyden, Cambridge, and Paris; he also travelled over great part 
 of Italy. On returninc; to Switzerland he was made a member 
 of the sovereign council at Berne, and received other political 
 nppointments. At this time he became very intimate with 
 Matthison the poet, and Bluller the historian. The troubles of 
 liis country obliging liim to flee, he repaired first to Italy, then 
 to Copenhagen, and finally to Geneva, where he remained till 
 his death. Those of Bonstettin's works which are devoted to 
 social science, display extensive knowledge of mankind, a keen 
 insight into human nature, and considerable originality of view ; 
 but his psychological writings are very deficient in analytical 
 power, and are neither accurate nor profound. The titles of his 
 principal works are — " Researches into the Nature and Laws of 
 Imagination ;" " Studies of Man, or researches into the faculties 
 of feeling and thought;" "On National Education;" "Thoughts 
 on various objects of Public Good;" and " The Man of the South 
 and the Man of tlie North." — J. D. E. 
 
 BONTEKOE, Cornelius van, a Dutch surgeon, born at 
 Alkmaer in 1647. His principal works are a " Short Treatise 
 on Human Life," published at the Hague in 1684, of which a 
 (iernian translation passed through four editions; and a "Trea- 
 tise on that most excellent herb. Tea," also published at the 
 Hague in 1G72. A complete edition of his writings appeared 
 at Amsterdam in 1G89, in two volumes quarto. — W. S. D. 
 
 BONTEMPI, Giovanni Andrea Angelini, a musician, 
 was born at Perugia about 1630, and educated under Mazzochi, 
 the eminent chapelmaster of St. Peter's at Rome. After filling 
 \arious offices as choirmaster at Rome and Venice, he passed 
 into the service of the margrave of Brandenburg, whom he left 
 for the post of director of the music at the court of the elector 
 of Saxony. He wrote several operas, but is chiefly known by 
 his two treatises — " Nova Quatuor Vocibus Componendi Metho- 
 ilus," Dresden, 1660, 4to, and " Istoria Musica nella quale si 
 ia plena cognizione della teoria e della Prattica Antica della 
 Musica Armonicn," Perugia, 1695, folio. — E. F. R. 
 
 BONTIUS, Jacques, a distinguished Dutch physician and 
 naturalist of the seventeenth centuiy, was born at Leyden about 
 the year 1590. In 1627 he quitted his native country for the 
 East Indies, and resided for many years in the island of Java, 
 where he held the appointment of first physician to the governor 
 of Batavia and to the Dutch East India Company. The period 
 of his death is not known, but it nuxst have occm-red before 
 lCo8. During his residence in the East, he laboured with 
 nuich assiduity in investigatmg the diseases prevailing there, 
 and the qualities of the native plants ; upon which subjects he 
 published a remarkable and valuable work, entitled " De Medi- 
 cina Indorum libri IV.," which originally appeared at Leyden 
 in 1642, and aftenvards passed through numerous editions, and 
 was translated into French and Enghsh. His "Historia natur- 
 alis et medica Indige Orientalis," an improved edition of the 
 preceding work, was putjlished at Amsterdam in 1658, in folio, 
 \vith Piso's treatise on the plants of Brazil. The writings of 
 Ijontius contain the earliest information accessible to Europeans 
 on the natural history of Java. — W. S. D. 
 
 BONVICINO, Alessandro, called il Moketto di Bres- 
 cia, born in 1514, and studied under Titian, being indeed the 
 liest pupil that great old man produced, painting at the stripling 
 age of skteen a painting of St. Nicholas, in the chiu'ch of the 
 Madonna de Miracoh. But the accidental sight of some of 
 Raphael's angelic designs set Bonvicino on the road to Rome 
 ill full cry after quite a new ideal. He began to learn how to 
 unite colour and design, gave a graceful turn to his heads, devo- 
 tion and inward burning fervour to his religion, something of 
 Titian's purity and depth of coloiu-, and somewhat of Raphael's 
 ilevation of design. This Dutch Venetio-Roman excelled also 
 in portraits, and finished his draperies to the utmost refinement 
 of texture. His colour is colder than his master's, his frescos 
 inferior to his oils. Lanzi, eulogizing this not-sufficiently known 
 master, pi-aises his simple dignity, tranquil grace, purity of 
 motive, noble sentiment, and quiet, self-resigned, contemplative 
 religion. His altai-pieces are his best works, as we might expect 
 from such a Fra Angelico as Moretto, who, when painting a pic- 
 ture of the Holy Virgin, is said to have always prepared himself 
 by prayer and fasting. His choices and pictures are a "St. 
 Lucia and Catherine" at Brescia; a "Virgin and Infant with 
 Saints;" a "Conversion of St. Paul;" an "Adoration of the 
 Shepherds" at Berlin; a "St. Justina;" a "Coronation of the 
 
 Virgin ;" and an "Assumption." The celebrated portrait painter 
 Moroni was Moretto's pupil. — W. T. 
 
 BONZI, Paolo, called indifterently il Gobbo Cortona 
 or IL GoBBO Caracci, born in 1580. He painted a few his- 
 tories and landscapes, but was best known for his baskets of 
 fruit and festoons of flowers. Died in 1640.— W. T. 
 
 BOOKER, John, a haberdasher of London, who figured as 
 an astrologer in the early part of the seventeenth century. He 
 was for some time writing-master at Hadley, Middlesex, and 
 afterwards licenser of mathematical books (under which title 
 were ranked all publications relating to the celestial sciences). 
 " He had a curious fimcy of judging of thefts," says Lilly, " and 
 was as successful in resolving love questions." A work of his, 
 " Bloody Irish Almanac," contains some interesting matter. 
 Died in 1667.— J. S., G. 
 
 * BOOLE, George, LL.D., professor of mathematics at 
 Queen's college, Cork. Professor Boole is one of the most 
 accomplished mathematicians of our time, and he has found for 
 himself a novel and remarkable course. His peculiar inclina- 
 tions first appeared in a comparatively short treatise, entitled 
 " Mathematical Analysis of Logic ;" but his conception was not 
 adequately developed until the publication of a veiy elaborate 
 volume, entitled " An Investigation of the Laws of Thought, on 
 which are founded the Matliematical Theories of Logic and Pro- 
 babifities." The design of that treatise is — to use the author's 
 own words — "to investigate the fundamental laws of those 
 operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed ; to give 
 expression to them in the symbolical kmguage of a calculus, and 
 upon this foundation to establish the science of logic and con- 
 struct its method; to make that method itself the basis of a 
 general method for the application of the mathematical doctrine 
 of probabilities ; and, finally, to collect from the various elements 
 of truth, brought to view in the course of such inquiries, some 
 probable intimations concerning the nature and constitution of 
 the human mind." Mr. Boole establishes, in the first place, 
 that the fundamental jirincijiles of logic are as indubitable and 
 absolute as the fundamental truths of geometiy, and that its 
 pj'ocesses are fixed and determinate. Hence the applicability of 
 symbols to express the relations of these principles, and of sym- 
 bolic processes to carry out their development and detect their 
 issues. The laws of such processes must be deduced of com-se 
 from the nature of the subject itself; but they are found to 
 be almost identical with the laws of the general symbols of 
 algebra. If, indeed, we can conceive an algebra in which the 
 symbols x, y, s, &c., admit indifferently of the values of o and i, 
 and of these values alone, the laws, the axioms, and the pro- 
 cesses of such an algebra, are identical with the laws, the axioms, 
 and the processes of an algebra of logic. It will be discerned 
 on a moment's reflection, how powerful and fertile is such a 
 principle ; nor indeed do we know any modem work, on this 
 class of subjects, so suggestive and full of promise as Professor 
 Boole's. In every separate portion of it, inquiries that were 
 deemed exhausted and familiar, come up under new and enlarged 
 forms, and the knot of difiiculties that never before was loosed, 
 simply and almost without parting word, disappears. No recent 
 volume has thrown on the puzzling philosophy of probabilities, 
 in its widest relations, a tithe of tlie light that is here brought 
 to bear on it. The author is understood to abide by his subject, 
 and to have in preparation a still more important essay. — Pro- 
 fessor Boole is distingiushed otherwise. He has recently com- 
 municated to the Royal Society a profound and highly inter- 
 esting memoir on the comparison of transcendents, with certain 
 applications to the theory of definite integrals. Fortunately for 
 science, he has not yet reached the meridian of life. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOON, Daniel, a buftbon Dutch painter, who established 
 himself in England in Charles II. 's reign, when everything, good 
 and bad, was turned into joke. He painted drunken, sickening 
 revels (nor always without a certain gross humour, large or 
 small), grimacing deformed boors, and street characters. This 
 Boon died in 1698.— W. T. 
 
 BOONE, Daniei>, a celebrated American explorer and back- 
 woodsman, was born of English parents in Bucks county, 
 Pennsylvania, in February, 1735. While he was still veiy young, 
 the family removed to Berks county, Pennsylvania, near Read- 
 ing. Tins was then a frontier settlement, the country abounding 
 in game, and the settlers constantly liable to attacks from the 
 Indians. And here began the training as a hunter and back- 
 woodsman, which made Boone so celebrated in after life. In
 
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 1753 the family again changed their place of residence, and 
 settled upon the river Yadkin in North Carolina. Here Boone 
 was married, and employed himself in farming for several years. 
 About this time explorations began to be made into the wild 
 country to the westward of Virginia, and glowing accounts were 
 given of the abundance of the game, and the fertility of the soil. 
 Boone's desire for the life of a hunter and explorer could no longer 
 be resisted, and in 1767 he set out for Kentucky, in company 
 with six others. For two years his life was one of constant 
 excitement, privation, and danger. The party divided; and Boone, 
 with a single companion, tirst a man named Stewart, and after- 
 wards his younger brother, Squire Boone, devoted himself to a 
 hunter's life. They were constantly engaged in hostilities with 
 the Indians, by whom Stewart was shot and scalped ; and for 
 the two years of their absence, Boone never tasted bread or salt. 
 Finally convinced of the fertility of the soil, and the practicability 
 of a settlement in the country, Boone retmiied to the Yadkin for 
 his fiimily. After two years spent in preparation, he set out 
 with five other families ; but being attacked by the Indians, and 
 several of the party killed, they returned to the settlement on 
 Clinch river. During the next year a company was formed in 
 North Carolina for the purchase of lands from the Cherokees. 
 After considerable difficulty, their claim to a certain tract of land 
 was established, and Boone was sent out at the head of a small 
 party to begin a settlement. They built a fort upon the Ken- 
 tucky river, and called it Boonesborough ; and to this place 
 Boone removed his family. 
 
 The revolutionary war had now begun, and the attacks of the 
 Indians threatened destruction to Boonesborough and the other 
 new settlements which had been formed. The title of captain 
 had been conferred upon Boone some years before, and under his 
 command the little gan-ison at Boonesborough maintained a 
 successful defence. Finally, however, in 1778, while he was 
 engaged with about thirty others in making salt at the Blue 
 Licks, he was surprised by the Indians, and compelled to sur- 
 render with all his men. They promised to treat him with 
 kindness, however, and this promise was literally fulfilled. He 
 was taken to Detroit, and then to an Indian town in Ohio, where 
 he was formally adopted as a son of the tribe, and where he 
 remained several months. But his fears for the gamson left 
 behind were soon aroused by the discoveiy, that a large number of 
 warriors were preparing to march against Boonesborough. With 
 great difficulty, and only by the aid of his unparalleled sagacity 
 and skill, he contrived to make his escape, and reach home in 
 time to give the alarm, and prepare the gan-ison for defence. 
 The Indians, together with a number of Canadians commanded 
 by Captaui Duquesne, soon made theu' appearance before the 
 fort. They proposed a capitulation on the most liberal teiTns, 
 and requested a number of the gamson to meet the besiegers 
 without the fort, where an ancient custom should be revived, 
 and, as a sign of amity, two Indians should shake hands with 
 each white man. Boone perceived the treachery concealed under 
 this proposal, and a number of men with loaded lifles were 
 placed in a position to command the place of meeting. The 
 Indians endeavoured to secm-e their antagonists, but they were 
 knocked down or tripped up, and the Kentuckians fled to the 
 fort, imder cover of their friends' fire. A violent attack was 
 then made, but it was successfully repulsed, and the siege was 
 soon afterwards raised. Some blame had attached to Boone in 
 consequence of the surrender of his men at the Blue Licks, and 
 his friendly conduct to the Indians while a prisoner. He was 
 summoned before a court-martial, but was honourably acquitted, 
 and soon afterwards promoted to the rank of major. During his 
 capti\-ity, his family had returned to North Carolina, whither 
 Boone now went, and again removed them to Bo(mesborougli. 
 In this journey he was robbed of a large sum of money, partly 
 belonging to himself, partly to a number of friends. Some 
 suspicions, if not of dishonesty, at least of carelessness, seem to 
 have rested on him in consequence of this transaction ; but his 
 nearest friends never doubted his tnith and honour. 
 
 Wliile the Indian hostilities continued, numerous attacks were 
 made on the various settlements, which generally resulted in the 
 defeat of the Indians. In the summer of 1778 an unsuccessful 
 attack was made on Bryan's Station, near Boonesborough. The 
 Indian force, which was large, having retreated, a number of the 
 militia were called out to pursue them, and Boone commanded 
 the party from Boonesborough. Colonel Logan, with a large 
 detachment, did not reach the rendezvous in time, and Boone, 
 
 with several others, strongly advised the party to await his arri- 
 val. But they were oveiTuled by the impetuosity of the other 
 officers, and the little anny proceeded to the banks of the Lick- 
 ing, where deep ravines and thick woods fomied a covert for the 
 enemy. Boone again advised a halt, but in vain. They crossed 
 the river, and after advancing a short distance, found themselves 
 in the midst of the Indians, who were lying in ambush. A ann- 
 plete rout followed. Many were killed, and among them Boone's 
 eldest son. After this defeat, several successful expeditions in 
 which Boone joined, generally as a volunteer, were fitted out, 
 and finally, in 1783, the peace with Great Britam put an end to 
 hostihties. The settlement of Kentucky now proceeded with 
 great riipidity. Towns sprang up in the wilderness, and agri- 
 culture and trade flourished. Boone had applied hhnself to 
 farming; but, ignorant of the law, he had not taken proper mea- 
 sures for securing his title to the land which he had cleared and 
 defended. In his old age, he found himself without an acre of 
 land, and indignant at the treatment which he had received, he 
 resolved to leave Kentucky. One of his sons had emigrated to 
 L^pper Louisiana, now Missouri, and thither Boone resolved to 
 follow him. Accordingly, in 1795, he removed to the Femnij 
 Osage settlement, forty-five miles west of St. Louis. Louisiana 
 then belonged to Spain, and Boone's life and misfortunes being 
 known to the Spanish governor, he confen-ed upon him the office 
 of syndic or commandant, together with a large tract of land. 
 Here Boone spent the rest of his life, residing with his son and a 
 son-in-law by turns. His duties occupied but a small portion of 
 his time, and his leisure hours were passed in hunting. In 1803, 
 Louisiana was ceded to the United States, and when the claims 
 for land were brought before the government, Boone's was not 
 confii-med. Under these circumstances he sent in a petition to 
 the general assembly of Kentucky. This was successful. Ap- 
 pUcation was then made to congress, and the land in the Femme 
 Osage district, where he first settled, was confirmed to him. He 
 passed the rest of his life among his descendants, imiversally 
 loved and respected, and died in 1820, in the 8tJth year of his 
 age.— F. A. B. 
 
 BOONEN, Arnold, a portrait painter, bom at Dort in 1669. 
 He studied under Verbuis and Schalcken. At the end of six 
 years the blunt candle-light painter drove him out into natm-e, 
 sapng he could teach him nothing more (how much better had 
 he sent him to nature sooner), as he was already thought a 
 great painter of a small age. He was quick, faithful, sweet in 
 colour, neat in touch, and, above all, he drew well, and caught 
 the likeness flying as it shot across the face. As for his candle- 
 light pieces, " delicate and natm'al," he had more applications 
 for them than he could supply. He painted all the triflers 
 and lions of the day — Peter the Great (the tamed savage), the 
 elector of Jlentz, the landgi-ave of Hesse Darmstadt, Frederick 
 of Prussia, the duke of Marlborough, the prince and princess of 
 Orange, besides large pictures for the halls of companies at Dort ■ 
 and Amsterdam. He died in 1729, killed partly by overwork. 
 His son, Gaspard, became a portrait painter, and A. Pilkington 
 mentions also Arnold's brother. — W. T. 
 
 BOORHAN, Nizam Shah L, king of Ahmednugger in the t 
 Deccan, at the beginning of the sixteenth century. His reign of 
 forty-five years was full of contests with the neighbouring princes, 
 in the course of which he was tributaiy for five or six years to 
 Bahadoor, shah of Guzerat. In his later years he embraced the 
 heresy of the Sheahs, which embittered the hostilities between 
 him and the other rulers of the Deccan. He died of cholera in 
 1553.— W. B. 
 
 BOORHAN, Nizam Shah II., grandson of the former, was 
 for many years a refugee at Delhi, and had reached an advanced 
 age before he obtained, in 1589, the throne of Ahmednugger, 
 to which his son Ishmael had been raised by the nobility. His 
 reign contained no events of importance, but was followed by ciril 
 wars, which prepared the way for the conquest of the kingdom 
 by the emperors of Delhi. — W. B. 
 
 BOOT, Arnold a'AN, a Flemish physician who practised for 
 some time in I^ondon, and aftenvards in Dublin, where he was 
 attached to the court of the earl of Leicester, was born at 
 Gorcum in 1606. He was a scholar of considerable mark, and 
 besides a number of professional treatises, published some works 
 on subjects of philology, criticism, and histoiy. His brother, 
 Gerard Boot or Boate, is the author of a work on the natural 
 histoiy of Ireland, in wldch he was assisted by Arnold. Died 
 in 1650.— J. S., G.
 
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 677 
 
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 BOOTH, Abrahaii, a well-kno^-n baptist author, was bom 
 at Blackwell, Derbyshire, in May, 173-1, and died on the 27th of 
 January, 1806. He was the eldest son of a large family, and 
 received the scantiest education. By indomitable perseverance 
 he perfected himself in arithmetic and writing, and, when still 
 quite young, became a preacher among the General Baptists. 
 I'or some years he laboured in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, 
 with much success. His doctrinal sentiments on the points of 
 diifcrence between General and Particular Baptists undergoing a 
 change, he published his " Reign of Grace," being the substance 
 of discourses preached at Sutton Ashfield. In 1768 he was 
 called to the pastoral office of the church in Prescot Street, 
 Goodmans Fields, London. He now studied intensely, and soon 
 became eminent as a theologian and a scholar. In 1770 he 
 published a tract on " The Death of Legal Hope," and in 1778 
 "An Apology for the Baptists." In 178-1, in consequence of a 
 posthumous publication from the pen of ]\Litthew Henry, Mr. 
 ilooth gave to the world his " Pa?dobaptism Examined, or the 
 Principles, Concessions, and Reasonuigs of the most learned Pwdo- 
 baptists." This work elicited a reply from Dr. E. Williams of 
 Rotherham, and this again a reply from ilr. Booth, under the 
 title of " A Defence of Padobaptism Examined," 1792. Both 
 works display great learning and research. Among ilr. Booth's 
 minor productions may be mentioned his " Essay on the Kingdom 
 iif Christ," his " Pastor.al Cautions," and his " Amen to Social 
 Prayer." His "Glad Tidings to Perishing Sinners, or the genu- 
 ine Gospel a complete warrant for the ungodly to believe in Jesus 
 Ciirist," 1796; and his last publication, "Divine Justice essential 
 to the Divine Character," are both happy illustrations of an 
 "'^lightened mind, and of powerful reasoning. Mr. Booth was a 
 nan of unbending integi-ity, great holiness, and exhibited to all 
 1 pattern of the christian minister. In 1758 he married Miss 
 E. Baniam, by whom he had a large family. — See Jones' Chris- 
 tian Biography. — ,J. A., L. 
 
 BOOTH, Sir Felix, an English merchant, born in 1775 ; died 
 in 1850. This gentleman, who, until he had passed middle life, 
 was only known as a successful and opulent London merchant, 
 has achieved an midying reputation by his extraordinaiy libe- 
 rality in fitting out, at his own expense, and without any hope 
 iir desire of pecuniary remuneration, the second expedition under 
 Sir John Ross for the discovery of the North-West Passage. 
 JIany similar expeditions have from time to time been fitted out 
 at a vast expense by the English government ; and at first with 
 such hopes of success, that a statutoiy grant of £20,000 was 
 procured from parliament to be bestowed on the fortunate dis- 
 coverer. In consequence, however, of the uniform failure of all 
 attempts made to accomplish this object, both the government 
 and the nation at length ceased to take much interest in the 
 subject; and in 1827, when Captain Ross proposed to the duke 
 of Welhngton, then prime minister, to engage a second time in 
 this perilous enterprise, his ofier was coldly declined. Sir John 
 then apphed to Mr. Booth, with whose zeal in the cause of geo- 
 graphical discovery he was previously well acquainted, expecting 
 tliat that gentleman wouM be incfined to aid him in fitting out an 
 I'xpedition, in the hope of being more than reimbursed by the 
 promised grant of £20,000, in the event of its proving successful. 
 Mr. Booth, however, refused to advance anything towards it as 
 a mercantile speculation, and the project seemed on the eve of 
 being finally abandoned. In the course of the same year the 
 parUamentary grant was revoked ; but this circiunstance, which 
 the enteqjrising navigator at first considered as the death-blow 
 of his long-cherished hopes, was, in fact, the removal of the only 
 obstacle to their fulfilment. Mr. Booth now entered warmly 
 into the project, and, with rare munificence, expended nearly 
 £18,0U0 in equipping the expedition. He gave unlimited 
 jiowers to Captain Ross to furnish at his expense whatever he 
 iinght judge necessary, imposing on him only one condition, 
 that his name should not be mentioned in connection with the 
 "xpedition. The results of Captain Ross's voyage have been 
 |"ng before the world. He failed in the primary object of his 
 -'■arch ; but the discoveries he made have been valuable contri- 
 liutions to science, and he had the happiness to immortalize his 
 friend by inscribing his name, in the designation of Bouthia 
 Felix, on a portion of the American continent. After Captain 
 Ross's return to England the king conferred on Jlr. Booth the 
 title of baronet. — G. JI. 
 
 BOOTH, George, Baron Delamere, son of William Booth, 
 1-sq, and gi-andson of Sir George Booth, remarkable as the 
 
 leader of a royalist insurrection in Cheshire about a year after 
 the death of Oliver Cromwell. Having received a commission 
 from Charles II., constituting him commander-in-chief of all 
 forces to be raised for his majesty's serrice in Cheshire, Lanca- 
 shire, and North Wales, he assembled about four thousand men, 
 and declaring that his object was to deliver his country from a 
 tyrannous soldiery and a usurping government, took possession 
 of Chester, where he was joined by various leaders of the pres- 
 byterian party, particularly the earl of Derby, Sir Thomas Mid- 
 dleton, and ilajor Brook. Although he had carefully abstained 
 from intimating the ulterior aim of the rising, so far from its being 
 a secret, rumour gave out that Charles II. had actually been 
 proclaimed by the insurgents at Wrexham and other places, 
 near Chester. The parliamentary forces under Lambert were 
 soon on the spot, and having defeated Sir George in a smart 
 engagement, August, 1659, compelled him to evacuate Chester, 
 and seek safety in flight. On his way to London, in the dis- 
 guise of a female, he was arrested August 22. The house of 
 commons immediately committed him prisoner to the Tower; 
 but in February following, on the intercession of some powerful ! 
 friends, and on his giving bail for £5000, voted his release. He 
 was afterwards member of parliament for Chester, and was the 
 first of twelve members sent to Charles by the house of com- 
 mons in May, 1660, with a tender of the crown. In July 
 following, the house, in consideration of his eminent public 
 sen'ices, awarded him a sum of £10,000 ; and the king, in 
 whose interests he had sacrificed his fortune, raised him to the 
 peerage. The remainder of his life was passed in privacy. He 
 died in 168-1.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOOTH, Hexry, earl of Warrington and Baron Delamere, 
 son of George Booth, born in 1651. He succeeded his father in 
 1673 in the office of custos rotulorum of Cheshire, and shortly 
 afterwards entered parliament. His politics, fi-om the com- 
 mencement of his public fife, were obnoxious to the court. As 
 a zealous protestant and an unflinching advocate of constitutional 
 government, he warmly supported the bill for excluding the 
 duke of York from the throne ; inveighed against the tyranny 
 of the royal favourites, and the corruption of his fellow-senators 
 and the judges, and allowed no opportunity to escape of damag- 
 ing popery. In 1C84, after the death of his father, on some 
 pretence of his having been concerned in treasonable practices, 
 he was committed to the tower of London. He recovered his 
 Hberty at the end of a few months, but was again incarcerated 
 on the accession of James II. This time he underwent a trial 
 before a select number of the peers — Jefteries presiding as lord 
 high steward. The chancellor had an ancient grudge against 
 Lord Delamere, which he did not forget to show on this occa- 
 sion ; but the only witness against the prisoner was a notorious 
 scoundrel who, in the course of the trial, was con^-icted of per- 
 jury, and the charge thus failing for want of evidence, Jefferies 
 and the papists missed their revenge ; a unanimous verdict of 
 acquittal being returned by the twenty-seven peers who con- 
 stituted the judicial bench. After his release. Lord Delamere 
 retired to his seat at Dunham-Massey, and was lost to public 
 life till the commencement of the Revolution. After the landing 
 of the prince of Orange he assembled a body of men in Cheshire 
 and Lancashhe, with whom he joined William at London. He 
 was one of the three commissioners sent to Whitehall, December 
 17, to desire James instantly to evacuate the palace. In the 
 execution of this commission he conducted himself with so much 
 urbanity, that James afterwards declared himself to have been 
 far better used by that one of the three to whom he had behaved 
 ill, than by the other two who had received kindnesses from 
 him. With the settlement of the new government he began to 
 reap the honours of his patriotic career. He was appointed 
 chancellor of the exchequer in 1689,. and the following year 
 created earl of Warrington, and decreed a pension of £2000. 
 He was too little of a courtier, hovi-ever, to remain long in office. 
 His connection with the government lasted only a year. He 
 died in London in 1 694. A vindication of his friend, William, 
 Lord Russell, and a volume of parliamentary speeches, &c., 1G94, 
 are from the jien of the first earl of Warrington.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOOTH, James, an eminent English property lawyer of 
 the last century. Mr. Booth was a Roman catholic, and per- 
 sons of that communion, who took the law for their profession, 
 directed their views to the conveyancing branch, for the practice 
 of which the test of the oath of supremacy and declaration 
 against transubstantiation (imposed by St. 7 and 8, W. III., and
 
 modified in tlie oath of abjuration a century after, by St. 31, 
 G. III., c. 32, s. 6) was not required. Booth was admitted 
 of the inner temple in 1721, and at first practised in the 
 country. But, from the circumstance that tlie Roman catholic 
 nobihty and gentry themselves owned a considerable portion of 
 the landed estates of the country, and always patronized their 
 coreligionists, the metropolis was the proper field for a ]iracti- 
 tioner looking to their resort. At the time Booth thought of 
 pursuing business in London, N. Pigot was there in possession 
 of the conveyancing goodwill of the Roman catholic connection. 
 His probable want of success under these circumstances at first 
 disheartened Booth. But he enjoyed the friendship of the soli- 
 citor-general, Slurray, afterwards I>ord Mansfield, who, in a 
 letter given in most memoirs of his life, encouraged Booth in a 
 way which does credit to the writer's discernment of character, 
 and proffered personal and material assistance with the warmth 
 and delicacy of generous friendship, Mr. Booth became a mem- 
 ber of Lincoln's Inn in the year 1740, with Robert Harley 
 and W. Jlnrray for his mancupators or sureties, and he continued 
 in great practice for thirty years. Booth possessed a profound 
 knowledge of the law of uses, powers, and trusts — the most 
 important agents in effecting modern property arrangements. 
 His style of drafting instruments was prolix and verbose. 
 Indeed, Booth and his contemporary, Ralph Bradley, established, 
 if not founded, that school of conveyancers whicli flourished in 
 the latter half of the eighteenth, and first quarter of the nine- 
 teenth centuries, and cumbered property dealings with the heavy 
 forms devised for the disposal of great estates. — S. H. G. 
 
 * BOOTT, Francis, M.D., an eminent English botanist and 
 medical man, has gained distinction by his researches on the 
 natm-al order Cyperacea3. He has paid much attention to the 
 genus Carex, and has published a standard illustrated mono- 
 graph of that genus. Papers by him on the species of this genus 
 have appeared in the Transactions of the Linnean Society. — J.H.B. 
 
 * BOPP, Franz, an eminent Sanscrit scholar, was born at 
 Mentis, September 1-1, 1791, where his father held an office in 
 the electoral court. He followed his parents to Aschaft'enburg : 
 and at an early age became imbued with a bias towards the 
 study of Eastern languages, to which he devoted himself at the 
 universities of Paris, London, and Gottingen with unremitting 
 assiduity. In 1821 he was called to the Oriental chair at Ber- 
 lin, and since that time has been an ornament to that metropolis 
 of learning and literature. By his " Comparative Grammar of 
 the Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, &c.. Languages," Berlin, 
 1833-49, he has added comparative philology to the domain of 
 learning. His other works arc — " Uber das Conjugations — 
 System der Sanskrit-Sprache," 1816; " Ausfiihrliches Lehr- 
 gebiiude der Sanskrit-Sprache," 1827 ; " Grammatica critica 
 lingufe Sanscritaa ; " " Kritische Grammatik der Sanskrit- 
 Sprache ; " " Glossarium Sanscritum," 2nd ed. 1840-47 ; 
 "Nalus, Mahabarati episodium," London, 1819; "Die Celtischen 
 Sprachen in ihrem Verhalten zum Sanskrit, Zend," &c. — K. E. 
 
 BOR, Peter Christian, a Dutch historian, born at Utrecht 
 in 1559 ; died in 1635. Author of a history of the Low 
 Countries, to which the most learned men of Holland have 
 accorded the praise of exactitude and impartiality. — J. G. 
 
 BORA, Katiiarina von, the wife of Luther, was born of 
 noble parentage at Lijben, near Schweinitz, Saxony, Januai-y 
 29, 1499. She was entered of the Cistercian convent of 
 Nimptschen, near Grimma, and here became acquainted with 
 the doctrine of Luther. Having in vain intreated her family to 
 take her home, she asked Luther for his assistance. Luther 
 directed a respectable citizen of Torgau, Leonhard Koppe, to set 
 her free, along with eight other nuns, in the night from Maundy 
 Thursday to Good Friday, 1523, and bring her to Wittenberg, 
 where she was received into the family of the mayor, Mr. Reich- 
 enbach. Slie declined to become the wife of Dr. Kaspar Glaz, 
 but declared her willingness to be married either to Nicolaus von 
 Amsdorf or Luther himself. Luther accepted this offer, June 
 13, 1525, and had three sons and three daughters by her. 
 After her husband's death she fled to Magdeburg and Bruns- 
 wick, and died at Torgau, December 20, 1552. Her life has 
 been written by Walcb, Halle, 1752-54, 2 vols.; by Beste, 
 1843 ; and Weidinger, Greiz, 1854.— K. E. 
 
 BORADILLA, Gkronimo de, a Spanish painter, born near 
 Seville in 1620. He was a pupil of Zusburan, whom he imi- 
 tated. He painted small historical pictures and perspective 
 views, and died in 1G80.— W. T. 
 
 BORASTUS, Gregory Lawrence, a Swedish publicist and 
 poet, born at Norkoping about 1584. He left his country and 
 became secretary to the king of Poland. He is not to be con- 
 founded with another Swede, Stephen Borastus, who was car- 
 dinal, and played an important part at the court of Rome. 
 
 BORCH. See Bokrich. 
 
 BORCH, M. J. Count von, a Polish naturalist, bom of 
 illustrious parentage in the province of Witepsk ; died in 1810. 
 His principal works relate to the natural history of Sicily, where 
 he resided a number of years. They are still read with interest. 
 He was governor of his native province. Among his works was 
 one on the mineralogy of Sicily. — J. S., G. 
 
 BORCHT, Henry van der, a painter and engraver. This 
 double-handed man was a pupil of Giles Valkenburgh, and 
 studied in Italy. He painted fruit and flowers, especially for 
 Charles I., in a pleasant enough way ; but on that narro^v- 
 minded Stuart losing his reason, and subsequently losing his 
 head, he returned to Antwerp, and died there in 16C0 — the 
 year of that worst of all revolutions, a Restoration. Borcht 
 was also a well-known virtuoso, and was employed as a col- 
 lecting agent by that judicious amasser to whom we all owe so 
 much — tlie earl of Anindel. The prince of Wales also em- 
 ployed him in the same capacity. The few etchings of this 
 artist are after Parmegiano and the Caraccis, and are religious 
 subjects. There was a Jajies Borciit who flourished at Ant- 
 werp in 1C28, and executed fleets for Thibault's Academie de 
 I'Espt'e. Borcht, Peter van der, was a Flemish painter 
 and engraver (for in these robust ages such double-barrelled 
 men were not rare), born at Brussels in 1540. His works as 
 a painter are poor ; his etchings are rough, careless, and show 
 a prodigal invention, though indifferent in drawing and compo- 
 sition. They include 178 illustrations of Ovid. — W. T. 
 
 BORDA, Jean Charles, born at Dax in 1733; died in 
 1799. A very eminent mathematician and civil and naval 
 engineer of France. The services he rendered to the depart- 
 ment of practical science which engi'ossed him, were invaluable. 
 We owe to Borda the introduction of the reflecting circle, as the 
 chief instnunent for stellar observations at sea ; the descrip- 
 tion and analysis he has left of it — " Description et Usage du 
 Cercle de Reflexion" — is still as good as any extant. He invented 
 the repeating circle, so long a favourite in conductmg geodetic 
 surveys, although for good reasons it is now much more rarely 
 employed. He found the length of the seconds pendulum (pro- 
 posed as the invariable basis of the new system of measures) by 
 methods so well chosen and exact, that his name has been 
 coupled with Coulomb's as one of the fathers of jirecise experi- 
 ment in France. He contributed greatly to the improvement of 
 ship chronometers ; and laid before the Academy of Sciences 
 numerous memoirs on hydrostatics, ship-building, and nariga- 
 tion. And he obtained, at his own expense, the calculating and 
 printing of that extensive table of logarithmic sines, &c., still 
 bearing his name, adapted to the decimal division of the circum- 
 ference of the circle. Services like these have worthily scciu-ed 
 the gratitude of his country, or rather of European practical 
 science. — Borda undertook several voyages with a view to im- 
 portant results. He visited and surveyed the Canary islands ; 
 he seiTed as a naval officer under D'Estaing in 1777 and 1778 ; 
 and he afterwards joined the squadron of De Grasse as com- 
 mander of the frigate Solitaire. It is suspected that Borda 
 was not quite so accurate when narrating naval exploits, as 
 while measuring the pendulum. He avers, that having separ- 
 ated by accident from his squadron, he found himself, on a 
 mist clearing aw-ay, in the very heart of the English fleet. The 
 Solitaire must have been a favourite with her commander, for his 
 narrative of her obsequies bears, that she singly stood a com- 
 bined attack for three hours, and then surrendered only because 
 she was a complete wreck. The despatch of the English admiral 
 does not quite coincide with Borda's. It seems the French ship 
 was surprised, and that, on endeavouring to escape, she was pur- 
 sued by the Bubt/ of 60 guns. The Fuby being the best sailer, 
 an engagement ensued, and after a fight of forty-one minutes 
 tlie Solitaire felt it necessaiy to surrender, on account of her dis- 
 abled state. The Admiral claims no honour, the force of the 
 Ruby being the superior ; nor does he more than allude to the 
 incident. Alas ! for the uncertainties of history ! But, in this 
 instance, the laws of probability pronounce strongly, and with 
 small courtesy, against our excellent Borda ! — J. P. N. 
 
 BORDA, SiKO, an Italian physician, and professor of materia
 
 BOR 
 
 679 
 
 BOK 
 
 nicdica at Pavia; bom in that town in 1761; died in 1824. 
 Ilis reputation as a practitionor brought liim crowds of patients 
 even from Lombardy and Piedmont, lie mmntained the doctrine 
 uf Rasori witli respect to the division of medicines into stimulant 
 and depressing; but shoitly before his deatli ordered his disserta- 
 tions on that subject to be burned, as inconclusive if not erro- 
 neous. — J. 8., G. 
 
 BORDAZAR DE ARTARU, Antonio, a learned Spanish 
 pnnter, bom at Valencia in 1671 ; died in 1744. Author of 
 works on Spanish orthography, &c. — J. G. 
 
 BORDE, Andrew, a native of Pevensey, Sussex, was edu- 
 ■ited at Oxford, and became a Carthusian monk in the convent 
 ; that order in London, but quitted the monastic life, and 
 iilopted the study of medicine. To gratify his " rambling head 
 ,'id inconstant mind," says Anthony A'Wood, he travelled 
 hrough Christendom, and even penetrated into Africa, an 
 rduous undertaking in the sixteenth centmy. In 1532 we find 
 'im settled at the university of Montpellier in France, where he 
 ii'k the degree of doctor of physic. Returning to England, 
 \v settled first at Pevensey, and aftenvards at Winchester, where 
 :? practised with such success as to be appointed one of the 
 lurt physicians. He also enjoyed the favom- of the king's vicar- 
 _''neral, Cromwell. His " inconstant " mind, however, involved 
 ;m in pecuniary difficulties, and he died a prisoner in the Fleet 
 II 1549. To a considerable share of learning, prufessional and 
 _.>neral. Dr. Borde added the austerities of a monk, and the ^vit 
 ..id humour of a buffoon. He was a voluminous author, consider- 
 iig the age in which he Hved. Amongst his works of a medical 
 liuracter, may be named his " Breviarie of Helthe," " Compen- 
 (ivouse Regimente, or Dietary of Helthe," and a treatise on 
 '■ Urines ;" whilst those of a non-professional kind include " The 
 Principles of Astronomicall Prognosticatyons," " The Boke of 
 lie introduction of Knowledge," " The Mylner of Abingdon" — 
 irobably based upon one of Chaucer's tales — and " The Blen-ye 
 Tales of the wise men of Gotham." The " Boke of Knowledge" 
 has been reprinted in modern times as a literary curiosity. It 
 is in black letter, adorned with nide but spirited cuts. It is 
 dedicated to the Princess (afterwards Queen) Mary, and professes 
 " to teache a man to speake parte of all maner of languages, 
 and to knowe the usage and fashion of all maner of coimtreys, 
 and to knowe for the most parte all maner of coynes of money," 
 &e. By perambulating the country, and attending at the fairs 
 and popular revels, he gained the soubriquet of " merry-andrew" 
 — a name which has since become a " household word" in the 
 English langviage. The " Jlerry Tales of the Wise Men of 
 Gotham" are said to have been written to ridicule the proceed- 
 ings of Lord Dacre, the abbot of Lewes, and another ecclesiastic, 
 at a meeting held at Gotham, one of that nobleman's manor- 
 houses near Pevensey. The " Tales" have been appropriated, 
 in recent times, to the village of Gotham in Nottinghamshire ; 
 and no less an authority than Jlr. J. 0. Halliwell has given 
 countenance to that supposition, which is proved to be erroneous 
 by the internal evidence of the stories — which point to a mari- 
 time, and not an inland village, as their bhthplace — and also by 
 the local traditions of Pevensey. — E. W. 
 
 BORDE, Charles, a French poet and liiterateur, bom at 
 L)'ons in 1711 ; died in 1781. On coming to Paris he became 
 intimate with Rousseau, whose paradoxes he afterwards ridicvded. 
 It is no doubt to his connection with Voltaire that we are to 
 attribute tlie infidel productions that he subsequently regretted 
 ha\dng written. 
 
 BORDE, .Jean Benjamin, sometimes ^-ritten De la Borde, 
 :i mnsical essayist and composer, was born at Paris in 1734, 
 where he was guillotined, July 22, 1794. He was a pupil of 
 Hameau for composition, and of Dauvergne for the violin. He was 
 linrn of a rich family, to which circumstance, and to his bound- 
 li'ss self-confidence, he owed opportunities and preferments that 
 lie would never have gained by his talent. He was appointed 
 tirst valet to Louis XV., which office he lost on the death of the 
 king. He was a great speculator, and almost as great a loser; but 
 it was his boast, that whatever embarrassments threatened him 
 at night, his wit would help him to means to meet them before 
 morning. On the breaking out of the Revolution he retired 
 to Normandy ; but, imprudently returning to Paris, he was seized 
 as a royalist and suffered accordingly. He produced several 
 comic operas, more remarkable for their success than for their 
 merit, the first of which, " Gilles Garfon Peintre," was written 
 in 1758. He is still better known by his " Essai sur la Musique 
 
 ancienne et modeme," and some other didactic works, cited by 
 Burney, which are, however, little to be commended. — G. A. M. 
 
 BORDENAVE, Toussaint, a French surgeon, bom at Paris 
 in 1728. In 1746 he passed through a campaign in Flanders; 
 and on his return became professor of physiology in the college of 
 surgery, and member of several learned societies ; he was also 
 appomted director of the Royal Academy of Surgery, and sheriff 
 of the city of Paris. He died in 1782. Of his writings, the 
 principal is his '' Essai sm- la Physiologic," Paris, 1756, of which 
 new editions appeared in 17G4 and 1787. Bordenave also pub- 
 lished a translation of Haller's Elements of Physiologj', and 
 communicated numerous memoirs to the Royal Academy of 
 Surgery, among which those relating to the diseases of the 
 maxillary sinus are especially deserving of notice. — W. S. D. 
 
 BORDER. See Petitot. 
 
 BORDESSOULLE, Etienne Takdif, comte de, a French 
 general, bom at Luzeret (Indre) 4th April, 1771; died 4th 
 October, 1837. He commenced a military career of extraordi- 
 narj brilliancy at the age of eighteen in the second regiment of 
 chasseurs a cheval, served under the most renowned French 
 generals, and took part in innumerable battles and sieges, in all 
 of which he distinguished himself by his energy, courage, and 
 conduct. After the restoration he became as devoted to the new- 
 regime as he had been to that of Napoleon. He attained gra- 
 dually to the highest military rank, and was elevated to the 
 peerage, 9th October, 1823. He died of diseases occasioned by 
 the numerous wounds he had received on various occasions on 
 the field of battle.— G. J\I. 
 
 BORDE U, Tn£:oPHiLE de, a distinguished French physician 
 of the eighteenth centmy, the eldest son of Antoine de Borden, 
 who also practised medicine with some reputation, was born at 
 Iseste in Beam, on the 22d February, 1722. He studied 
 medicine at Montpellier, where he took his degi-ee as doctor 
 in 1743. In 1744 he became demonstrator of anatomy at Pau, 
 but retumed to Montpellier within a year, and there taught 
 anatomy and midwifery. In 1746 he visited Paris, where he 
 attended the lectures of the most celebrated men of his day, 
 and studied the practice of medicine in the hospitals. Dimng 
 his stay in Paris he published some letters, which obtained him 
 the title of intendant of the mineral waters of Aquitaine, and 
 in this capacity he left Paris for Pau in 1749. In 1752 we 
 find him again in Paris, where he published his " Reclierches 
 Anatomiques sur les differentes positions des glandes et sur leur 
 action," in this year. In this remarkable work Bordeu first 
 showed his power ; and as he not only attacked the principles 
 held by the faculty of Paris, but displayed a gi-eat command of 
 raillery it is not astonishing that he made both friends and 
 enemies by its publication. In 1754 Bordeu was appointed jjhy- 
 sician to the Hopital de la Charite, and advanced rapidly towards 
 the high position due to his assiduity and talents. In 1786 he pub- 
 lished his " Recherches sur le Pouls," a work which placed him in 
 the first rank of French physicians, liut at the same time gave a 
 great impetus to the intrigues which were set on foot for his 
 injury. These were of a most scandalous nature, consisting of 
 attacks upon his private character, wholly unsupported by any 
 reliable evidence, and continued with disgraceful mahgnity, espe- 
 cially by Bouvart, for three or four years. The question was 
 then put an end to by a decree of the parliament, acquitting 
 him of all charges, and suppressing all the memoirs written 
 against him. A second decree of the 6th August, 1764, rein- 
 stated him in his rights and prerogatives, of which the faculty 
 of Paris had deprived him. During all this period, notwith- 
 standing the war of words that was incessantly raging round 
 him, and the disgi-aceful means adopted to bring about his rnin, 
 Bordeu was constantly engaged in study, and even published 
 some valuable memoirs in the Jozirnal de Medccine. In 1767, 
 he pubhshed his " Recherches sur le tissu muqueux et I'orgaue 
 cellulaire," which is said to have given Bicliat the idea of his 
 Anatomic Generale ; and in 1775 he brouglit out the first 
 volume of his " Recherches sur les maladies Chroniques," a fine 
 and valuable work, of which the second volume was published, 
 with a life of the author, by Roussel, in the year 1801 (vii.), 
 Bordeu having died in 1776. The services rendered by Bordeu to 
 the progress of medical science were very gi-eat. Shaldng off the 
 trammels of the systems at that tune almost universally adoi)ted 
 by medical men, most of which were of an absurd nature, he gives 
 us in his various works the results of numerous obseiwations, col- 
 lected with rare assiduity, during a constant attendance alike upon
 
 the rich and the poor. His physiological views were also far in 
 advance of his age, and his writings upon the structure and 
 functions of the glands contain ideas which have since been 
 developed by other authors for the advantage of their own 
 reputation. — W. S. D. 
 
 BORDING, Andeks, a Danish poet, son of Christian Hording, 
 physician to I'rince Christian V., was born at Ribe, 21st Januaiy, 
 1619. He took his degree at the academy of Sorij in 1653, and 
 in 1664 became lector thcologia3 at Ribe. Resigning this post 
 in 1666 he removed to Copenhagen, where, under the royal com- 
 mand, he published the Danish Mercury^ a monthly news])aper, 
 which he continued till his death in 1677. His poems contained 
 in the Mercury, together Avith his other poetical works, were 
 collected and published by Rostgaard, with an introduction by 
 Gram, at Copi-nhagen in 1733. — M. H. 
 
 * BORDOGNI, JklARCo, a teacher of singing, was born at 
 Bergamo, about 1788, and now resides at Paris. He was a pupil 
 of S. Mayer and appeared as a tenor singer at Milan in 1813. 
 In 1819 he was engaged at the Italian opera in Paris, where his 
 admirable vocalization compensated for his weak voice and want 
 of dramatic energy. In 1820 he was appointed professor of 
 singing in the conservatoire, which office he still holds, though 
 in 1823 he retired from it for a short time, in consequence of 
 the fatigues of the theatre. He quitted the stage shortly after 
 this, since when he has exclusively applied himself to tuition. 
 His celebrated solfeggios are some of the best vocal exercises 
 extant.— G. A. M. 
 
 BORDONE, Paris, an eminent Venetian painter, bom at 
 Trevigi in 1.513. He was of a noble family, and at eight years 
 of age was led to Venice to be carefully educated in the art for 
 which he showed strong predilections. While still quite a boy he 
 was placed in the school of Titian, under whom he did not long 
 continue, as he found that his master was jealous of his pupils, 
 and kept his secrets even from them. However, in spite of tliese 
 checks, the young noble of Trevigi gi-ew so fast, that, at eighteen, 
 he painted a gi-and wall picture in the church of St. Nicliolas ; 
 and, before he was twenty, a " Jleleager" and " Holy Family" 
 for the Tiretta palace. He imitated the grand simplicity of 
 Giorgione, his fellow-pupil, and adopted a certain rosy colour, 
 which he carried sometimes to etfeminacy and affectation. His 
 portraits, too, are excellent, and not inferior to Titian's. His 
 female portraits (we have seen a delicious one of Mary Stuart) 
 arc sweet, peachy, and graceful, but not veiy intellectual. His 
 "Venus" was the lower and earth Venus, as might be expected 
 fi-om a court painter at the Louvre of that long-nosed satyr, 
 Francis I., who lost his honour at Paris and his freedom at 
 Pavia. Bordone's most ambitious work was tlie dome of the 
 chm-ch of St. Vicenza at Trevigi. He also adorned Venice, 
 Milan, Genoa, and Florence with his wonders, laying indeed, as 
 we may say, his talents at Christ's altar by the consecration of 
 his art and genius. But the crowning glory of his life was a 
 successful competition with his old master. A galleiy at Vicenza 
 had been frescoed by Titian, who chose the judgment of Solomon 
 for his subject, but the work had fallen into decay. Bordone 
 being called in, chose for his display the " History of Noah and 
 his Sons." Kugler, always curt and judicious, thus sums up the 
 merits of Bordone — " Like Pordenone he is unimportant in 
 large compositions ; his altarpieces, chiefly madonnas with samts, 
 have something of the spuited excitement of Correggio, only 
 without his naivete ; his heads are excellent." Two pictures of 
 this description are in the Berlin museum. His most celebrated 
 picture is in the academy of Venice, and alludes to the Tempest 
 by Giorgione. Here the fisherman, who was present when the 
 saint stilled the tempest, presents a ring to the doge which he 
 had received from St. Mark as a pledge of the patron saint's 
 gracious disposition towards Venice. The picture is rich in 
 figures, simple, but of no great power. The splendid execution, 
 however, gives it the aid of truth, to which the view of the giand 
 Venetian buildings much contributes. The most magnificent 
 picture of Bordone is perhaps his " Sibyl." An altar is still 
 burning on which Augustus offered up his fruitless sacrifices, 
 while the sibyl, a female of the most beautiful Titian type, 
 stands before him and his followers, pointing in the distance to 
 the new-bom Saviour. In colouring also, this picture is one of 
 the master's chef-d'a'uvres. His celebrated " Paradise," also in 
 the academy, formerly in the church of Ognissanti at Trcviso, is 
 very feeble. His small pictures in the Manfrini palace, and a 
 ■■'Riposo" during the flight into Egv-pt, in the Pitti palace, are 
 
 more pleasing. Another representation of this subject is in the 
 Bridgewater gallery. Bordone died at Venice in 1588. — (Kug- 
 ler's Handbook of Painting, vol. ii., p. 459.) — W. T. 
 
 * BOREAU, Victor, contemporaiy French author. He be- 
 gan his literan' career by the publication of a volume of poems 
 in 1829, since which time he seems to have devoted his attention 
 to works of history, having given to the world histories of France 
 and England, and of ancient and modem times, testifying to no 
 ordinary industry. — J. F. C. 
 
 * BOREL, Pierre, a French journalist and litterateur, 
 bora at Lyons in 1809. An ardent admirer of the romantic 
 school, his writings are characterized by a mixture of the happiest 
 inspiration and extravagant bizarrcrie. 
 
 BORELLI, Giovanni Alfonso, an eminent physician, 
 anatomist, and mathematician, and founder of the theory of the 
 mechanical action of the limbs, was born at Naples on the 28th 
 of .Januarv', 1608. He occupied at one period of his life a 
 professorship of mathematics at Pisa, and afterwards one of 
 medicine at Florence. About 1670 he lived for a short time at 
 ]\Iessina. In his old age he retired to a religious house at Rome, 
 where he died on the 31st December, 1679. Borelli published 
 many and voluminous works on anatomy, physiology, medicine, 
 astronomy, mathematics, and mechanics. Those which have 
 most contributed to his reputation in the present age are two 
 — " Theorice MedicKarum Planetamm," Florence, 1661, an 
 essay on the movements of Jupiter's satellites, wliich contains 
 some foreshadowings of the law of gi-avitation. This is a charac- 
 teristic of the works of many of Newton's predecessors and 
 contemporaries, above whom Newton distinguished himself by 
 discovering the exact law, of which they had only vague antici- 
 pation. " De Jlotu Animalium," a posthumous work, first 
 pubhshed at Rome in 1680 and 1681, and aftei-wards repub- 
 lished at different times, and in many places. The first part of 
 this treatise is deservedly celebrated as the earliest work in which 
 the true principles of the mechanical action of the limbs of 
 animals — now famihar to every student of mechanics — were 
 demonstrated and applied. The second part, in which the 
 author attempts to establish a mechanical theorj' of the actions 
 of internal organs, is hvpothetical, and destitute of useful results. 
 — W. J. M. R. 
 
 BORELLI, Jeax-Alexis, a French litterateur, bom at 
 Salernes in 1738; died in 1810 at Berlin. After having studied 
 in his native country he went to Prussia, where he was patronized 
 by Frederick II., and became intimate with the learned men at 
 his court. Author of several works on legislation, the fine arts, 
 philology, &c., and editor of two works by Frederick II. 
 
 BORGANI, Francesco, a JIantuan painter, taught by 
 Domenico Feti, whose style he abandoned for that of Pannegiano. 
 His clever works adorn the churches of his native city. — W. T. 
 
 BORGHESE, Giovanni Ventura, a painter, bom at Citta 
 da Castello, and disciple and assistant of Pietro da Cortona, 
 some of whose works at Rome he afterwards put the postscripts 
 to and finished. Some fine altarpieces wrought by him, single- 
 handed, exist in the eternal city. — W. T. 
 
 * BORGHESI, Bartol<jmeo, a contemporary Italian anti- 
 quarian of great celebrity, to whose learning in nimiismatics and 
 inscriptions the literary world is indebted for many an important 
 discovery concerning Roman archaiology and history. He was 
 born in the year 1781 at Savignano, a small town in the Ro- 
 magna, near Ravenna; and was early led to the study of antiquity 
 by the example and care of his father, who also enjoyed a well- 
 deserved reputation as a man of learning, and was in posscfsion 
 of a rich collection of ancient coins. Through the imj)ulse which 
 had been given in those days to the illustration of mediaival 
 antiquity by men like Muratori, Fumagalli, Fantuzzi, &c., the 
 young Borghesi felt himself called at first to follow in their track. 
 Having finished his studies in the Collegio dei Nobili at Bologna, 
 he retumcd home, and commenced his antiquarian investigations 
 about medieval monuments and records in the archives of 
 Romagna ; but owing to the weakness of his eyes, he was obliged 
 to desist from the task of deciphering mediasval manuscripts, and 
 in 1802 he went to Rome, and turned all his attention to ancient 
 archaeology, under the guidance of the illustrious Marini. He 
 soon became possessed of an extensive knowledge of Greek i 
 and Latin literature, and was enabled both by his learning and j 
 by his natural acuteness and sound criticism, to explain with 
 admirable success the most obscure and dithcult points in ancient i 
 coins and inscriptions. His " Osservazioni Numismatiche, ;
 
 BOB 
 
 G81 
 
 BOR 
 
 which were published at first in a sones of articles in the 
 Ciornale Arcadico, and afterwards in a separate vokime at 
 Komc in 1821, are full of accurate remarks on the private and 
 imtilic history of the Roman families. To the same class of 
 writings belongs a very learned disertazione bearing the title — 
 " Delia Gente Arria Romana e di un nuovo denaro di Marco 
 Arrlo Secondo," edited at Milan in 1817 by his friend, the dis- 
 tinguished antiquarian Giovanni Labus. But the monumental 
 work by which the name of Rorghesi is chiefly recommended, is 
 the illustration of the "Fasti Consolari Capitolini," to which, 
 ever since the discovery of the new fragments of the consular 
 tables in the Foro Romano in 181G-17, he has constantly 
 ili'\'oted his attention, and all the resources of his learning. He 
 himself narrates in the introduction to the " Fasti Consolari," 
 how, as soon as the tirst news of the discovery reached him in 
 his native place, he felt himself irresistibly attracted again to 
 Rome ; how he assisted there with feverish expectation at the 
 progress of the excavations ; how he welcomed with enthusiasm 
 every new fragment of marble, every broken name or inscrip- 
 tion digged out of the ground. — (V. Nuovi fram. del Fasti Cons. 
 Capit., Milano, 1818: Parte Prima.) 
 
 Borghesi has proved throughout his life as good a citizen as he 
 has shown himself a superior man in science. In the intervals 
 of his residence in his native province, he unceasingly promoted 
 public instruction and education. He founded the Acade- 
 inia Savignanese, and the small town which gave him birth 
 became for a time a noble centre of literature. Monti, Perticari, 
 and other like men, used to meet there with Borghesi, and 
 til adorn the place with all the graces of intellectual and 
 domestic refinement. After the revolution of 1821, and 
 the fall of Italian hopes in those days, Borghesi sought for 
 a tranquil abode in the republic of San Marino, and has ever 
 since resided there, daily enriching with his liberal contributions 
 the patrimony of antiquarian knowledge. Though famous 
 throughout Europe, and often invited to fill chairs and other 
 ] Mists of distinction in Italy and abroad, he never allowed him- 
 srlf to be removed from his modest station in the small republic ; 
 and he has served it as a magistrate with the same devotion which 
 lie bestowed on the pursuits of learning. Many of his writings 
 are to be found, besides the above-quoted publications, in the 
 records of the scientific Academy of Turin, in the aimals of the 
 Iiistitut Archffiologique, in those of the Roman Academy of 
 Archeology, and in the Neapolitan Bulletin. The military, 
 r.ligious, municipal, and political institutions of the Romans, 
 ^vere, through these labours, cleared from many obscurities, and 
 the science of archxology brought to bear on the improvement 
 iif historical truth. In his conversation, as well as in his writ- 
 ings, he often excited the greatest admiration by his display of 
 accurate and vivid knowledge concerning every detail of ancient 
 life. A man of exquisite virtue and modesty, faithful in his 
 friendships, generous towards all, and born to be a great citizen, 
 had heaven granted him the blessing of a free country, still, in 
 spite of his private and humble condition, a living testimony of 
 what genius and goodness, happily combined together, may do 
 even in adverse times for the improvement of the noblest gifts 
 of mankind. — A. S., O. 
 
 BORGHESI, DioMEDE, bom of a patrician family at Siena, 
 fiiwards the middle of the fifteenth century. His buoyant 
 spirits and restless disposition drew on him the animadversion 
 "f powerful enemies, who succeeded in having him expelled 
 fi'nm his native place. For more than twenty years, as appears 
 liom his familiar letters, he wandered about from place to place 
 thriiugh Lombardy. Whilst he was in Mantua he studied 
 |ihil(is(iphy under Scipione, afterwards Cardinal Gonzaga. Many 
 iif his works have been published at Padua, in which city he 
 lived for many years. It seems, however, that in 1573, through 
 the intercession of Elena Boccali, a lady with whom he cor- 
 responded on literary and scientific matters, he obtained leave 
 to return to Siena, where he was inscribed on the rolls of 
 the academy of GlTntronati under the name of "Lo Svegliato." 
 Soon after lie left Siena, and revisited many cities of Lombardy 
 and Rome. The grand duke of Tuscany appointed him to a 
 newly-erected professorship of Italian language and literature 
 m the city of Siena, where he published the third part of his 
 " Lettere Discorsive," in which he gives sound instructions on 
 style and language, showing a consummate knowledge of philo- 
 logy, and dis[)laying a wonderful classic enulition. He pub- 
 lished also five volumes of rliymes, many orations, and a treatise 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 on the Tuscan language. He was considered a very elegant 
 orator, and, according to Girolamo Gigli, he contributed many 
 articles to the first edition of the celebrated dictionary of La 
 Crusca, published many years after Borghesi's death, which 
 happened at Siena in 1598. — A. C. M. 
 
 BORGHESI, Ippolito, a Neapolitan painter, and scholar 
 of Francesco Curia. His most considerable work was an " As- 
 sumption of the Virgin " for an altarpiece at Perngia. — W. T. 
 
 BORGHINI, Raifaello, a dramatic author who flourished 
 towards the middle of the sixteenth century. Having resolved 
 to abandon the muses, he was dissuaded from that determination 
 Ijy Baccio Valois, a literary man of great merit, and he therefore 
 continued his literary pursuits, applying himself particulariy to 
 the dramatic art. He is the author of many sonnets and can- 
 zones, and of plays, both in verse and prose ; amongst which 
 " La Diana Pietosa," a pastoral play in verse, is highly appre- 
 ciated. The date of his death is not recorded by any of his 
 numerous biographers. — A. C. M. 
 
 BORGHINI, ViNCENZO, was bom of a noble family at 
 Florence in 1515. He entered the Benedictine convent of 
 Santa Maria in the year 1531, and was instracted in philosophy 
 by the celebrated Francesco Varini the elder. He also applied 
 himself to the study of Greek and Latin, and in 1538 was 
 appointed professor of grammar. In a very short time he 
 reached the highest digidties of his order, and was honoured 
 with many distinctions by the duke of Tuscany, Cosimo de 
 Medici, wlio elected him prior of the hospital of Santa Maria 
 degl' Innocenti in Florence. Unwilling to abandon the care of 
 the poor, whom he daily visited and relieved in the hospital, he 
 refused the archbishoprics of Florence and Pisa, offered him by 
 Cosimo and Alexander de Medici. His reputation for learning 
 was so universally admitted, that by order of Alexander de 
 Medici his likeness was painted in one of the galleries of the 
 ducal palace, amongst the most conspicuous men of Florence. 
 He has left two volumes of dissertations on the ancient history 
 of Tuscany and its antiquities, so much esteemed that Tu-a- 
 boschi says, that "Florence got more information about its 
 antiquities and history from Borghini than from any other of 
 its numerous historiogi-aphers." A skilful architect and draughts- 
 man, he was appointed by Cosimo director of the Florentine 
 drawing academy, and furnished many designs, still preseiTcd 
 in the ducal library. He refused the highest dignities of the 
 church, and devoted most of his time to works of charity. He 
 died on the 15th of August, 1580.— A. C. M. 
 
 BORGIA, CAESAR, an Italian prelate and warrior, died 12th 
 March, 1507. He was the second of five children, whom 
 Cardinal Rodrigo, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., had by his 
 mistress Vanozza. He was at first destined for the chm-ch, 
 and, while yet a child, was nominated archbishop of Pampe- 
 luna. He was then sent to Pisa to pursue those studies which 
 were thought necessary to qualify him for his future career. 
 He laboured diligently for a time, and manifested great energy 
 in the pursuit of knowledge, and a rare ability and taste in the 
 composition of the theological theses which were assigned to 
 him. His father having soon after been called to the papal 
 chair under the title of Alexander VI., Ca'sar was made arch- 
 bishop of Valencia, and subsequently, in 1493, was advanced 
 to the rank of cardinal. The ambition of C»sar, however, lay 
 in another direction, and was not to be satisfied with ecclesias- 
 tical pi'efennents and dignified inactivity. He envied the secuhu* 
 honours bestowed on his elder brother, the duke of Gandia, 
 whom he now resolved to put to death, in order to open up to 
 himself the much-coveted succession. Another motive for this 
 horrible crime has been attributed to him by historians. It is 
 said that the duke was his rival in an incestuous amour with 
 their sister Lucrczia ; and one evening, on retiring together 
 from her house, the duke was assassinated, and his dead body 
 thrown into the Tiber, where it was found next morning. Public 
 opinion, which persistently attriluited this murder to Cwsar, was 
 corroborated by the suspicious interference of the pope to pre- 
 vent investigation. Casar now hastened to divest himself of 
 the purple; and his father entering into his views, agreed to 
 his being secularized, and conferred on him the duchies uf 
 Candia and Bcnevento, and the counties of Terracina and Ponte- 
 Corvo. His ambitious views continuing to expand, he contem- 
 plated the erection of these territories into a kingdom, and for 
 this purpose sought the hand of one of the daughters of the 
 king of Naples. Her father, however, refused to sanction this 
 
 4R
 
 alliance, the object of which he had the sagacity to discover; 
 and Alexander and his son thus baffled, sought to promote their 
 designs through the influence of Louis XII., king of France. 
 An opportunity soon occurred. Louis, desirous of espousing 
 Anne of Brittany, applied to the pope for a deed of dispensation, 
 authorizing him to separate from his wife Jeanne de France, 
 sister of Charles VIII., and to marry the object of his new 
 attachment. This was readily obtained, and Ca?sar was artfully 
 chosen as the bearer of the pontifical dispensation. In return 
 for this gratification Louis created him duke of Valcntinois, 
 conferred on him a large pension, married him to the daughter 
 of Jean d'Albret, king of Navarre, and promised him effectual 
 assistance in his contemplated invasion of Italy. The pope, 
 who entered warmly into the ambitious projects of his son, now 
 formed the design of founding a principality for him in Romagna, 
 and in consequence Caisar, in 1499, entered Italy at the head 
 of 8000 men, and laid siege to Imola and Forli, which sur- 
 rendered. He subsequently subjugated Pesaro, Rimini, and 
 Faenza ; and in 1501. was created duke of Romagna. From 
 that period he connnenced a career of conquest and nsui-pation, 
 attended by deeds of treachery and cruelty, that have stamped 
 Ins name with undying infamy. At length a confederacy was 
 formed against him among the Italian states, but he had the 
 address to bring about its dissolution. Contrivdng under pre- 
 text of holding a conference to allure three of the leaders to 
 Senigaglia, he caused them to be strangled, and Cardinal Ursini, 
 another of the confederates, even after he had signed an order 
 for delivering up to Cxsar all the places held by his famih', 
 was treacherously poisoned. But the hour of retribution, both 
 for him and his father, who co-operated with him in all these 
 atrocities, was now at hand. They had fonned the design of 
 poisoning Cardinal Corneto at a banquet, but through some 
 mistake had themselves swallowed the poison that had been 
 prepared for their intended victim. Alexander was immediately 
 taken ill and died, and Cassar narrowly escaped sharing the 
 same well-merited fate. Quitting the French party he now 
 joined himself to that of Spain, by whom he was less powerfully 
 supported. The Venetians recovered many of the towns of 
 Romagna, and Cajsar was imprisoned by Julius II. to compel 
 him to give up the remainder. He, howe\'er, escaped to Naples, 
 whence he was, by order of King Ferdinand, sent to Spain, where 
 he was condemned to imprisonment for life. He contrived a 
 second time to make his escape, but soon after accompanying 
 his brother-in-law Jean d'Albret, king of Navarre, in an expe- 
 dition against some of his revolted subjects, the stroke of a 
 lance under the walls of Pampeluna did good service to the 
 world by ridding it of a monster who had long been a disgrace 
 to human nature. — G. M. 
 
 BORGIA, Geronimo, an Italian poet of Spanish extraction, 
 died about 1549. He went to Rome in the time of Alexander 
 VI. ; became bishop of Massa, and was patronized by Lucrezia 
 Borgia for his poetic talent. He wrote a history of his times, in 
 20 volumes. 
 
 BORGIA, LucEEZiA, daughter of Pope Alexander VI., and 
 sister of Cxsar Borgia, infamous as the paramour of both. She 
 was married in 1493 to Giovanni Sforza, lord of Pesaro, but was 
 divorced from him in 1497, and next year united to a natm-al son 
 of Charles II. of Naples, Alfonso, duke of Beseglia, who, becom- 
 ing obnoxious to Caisar Borgia, was shortly afterwards assassi- 
 nated. She was next received into the noble family of Este, being 
 espoused in 1501 by Alfonso, son of Hercules, duke of Ferrara. 
 Her conduct subsequently was such as to justify the suspicions with 
 whicli, on other gi-ounds, Roscoe and other historians are disposed 
 to treat the hideous imputation on her memory; that imputation 
 which, in spite of the honour and respect that her patronage of 
 letters, her talents, and her beauty received among such contem- 
 [loraries as Bembo, has rendered her name a symbol of infamy 
 hardly less black and fearful than that of Ca;sar Borgia. — J. S., G. ! 
 
 BORGIA, Stekaxo, cardinal, born at Veletri in 1731. At | 
 an early age he exhibited a singidar enthusiasm for antiquarian i 
 stndii;s, and before leaving the residence of his uncle, in whose ! 
 family he was educated, had collected a number of rare medals, 
 maimscripts, and other curiosities, with the design — which in 
 the midst of various distractions, and with serious detriment to 
 his fortunes, was afterwards realized — of forming an extensive 
 museum. After filling with remarkable credit the post of 
 governor of Benevcnto, and that of secretary to the congregation 
 De Propaganda, he was created a cardinal by Pius VI. ; and Rome 
 
 being threatened in 1797 by the French army, along with two 
 other cardinals he was appointed by the pontiff to manage the 
 defence of the city. On the proclamation of the republic in the 
 following year he was arrested, but recovered his liberty after the 
 lapse of a month, and repaired to Vali'ucia to organize in pre- 
 sence of the exiled pope a new Propaganda. In 1800 Pius VII. 
 called him to the head of his council, and the following year 
 appointed him rector of the college of Rome. His death occuiTed 
 in 1804 at Lyons, whither he had followed the pontiff journey- 
 ing to Paris to crown Napoleon. — J. S., G. 
 
 BORGIA or BORJA, Fr.vncisco, a Spanish poet, died in 
 1C58. He was great-grandson of the famous Pope Alexander 
 VI., descended by his mother's side from Ferdinand, prince of 
 Squillace. He was fomierly considered the prince of Spanish 
 poets; but posterity has not endorsed this judgment. He wrote, 
 however, with elegance, taste, and facility. 
 
 BORGIANNI, Orazio, a painter and engraver, bom at Rome 
 in 1580. He was taught by his brother, surnamed Scalzo. 
 The invitation of a nobleman, and the patronage bestowed on 
 the arts by Philip II., led him to Spain, where he worked in the 
 Escurial, and painted many pictures for the principal grandees, 
 his works being held in great estimation. On the death of his 
 wife, having no longer a tie to the parched land of the cork-tree 
 and the orange, he returned to Rome, and painted some colossal 
 historical subjects with indilferent success, the figures being 
 splay, ill-drawn, and all abroad. The Spanish ambassador, 
 however, employed him, and he clambered about altar scaffolds 
 in various churches and convents, acquiring honour and living 
 in affluence. He died at last in 1G30 of vain vexation at the 
 malice of a rival much his inferior, one Celio. Borgianni etched 
 some prints, and fifty-two Bible histories, called Raphael's Bible, 
 in a bold, free, and, for an amateur, finished way. — W. T. 
 
 BORGO or BORGUS, Pietro Battista, an Italian his- 
 torian, lived at Genoa in the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 He entered the service of Sweden, and distinguished himself by 
 his valour in the Thirty Years' war, of which he has written a 
 history entitled, " Conimentarii de Bello Suecico." 
 
 BORGOGNONE. See Cortese. 
 
 BORJESON, Johan, a Swedish poet and clergyman, born in 
 1790, author of " Skapelsen i Sanger," published at Upsala in 
 1820.— M. H. 
 
 BORKHAUSEN, Moritz Balthasar, a German naturalist, 
 was born at Giessen in 1760, and died at Dannstadt in 1806. 
 He was employed as director of forests and waters, was a ducal 
 counsellor, and in his domain of Arheiligen devoted himself to 
 the study of zoology and botany. He wrote several works in 
 both these departments of science. Among others, a " History of 
 the Butterflies of Europe ;" " Zoological Teniiinology ;" " De- 
 scription of Forest Trees ;" " An Arrangenwnt of German 
 Plants ;" " A Botanical Dictionarv ;" and a " German Fauna." 
 —J. H. B. 
 
 BORLASE, Edmond, a physician who practised with great 
 reputation at Chester, son of Sir John Borlase; died in 1682. 
 He left the following works — " The Reduction of Ireland to the 
 Crown of England, with the Governors since the Conquest by 
 Heniy II. in 1172, and some passages in their government;" 
 " A Brief Account of the Rebellion of 1641 ;" " The Origin of 
 the University of Dublin and the College of Physicians," London, 
 1675 ; and " The History of the Execrable Irish Rebellion, traced 
 from many preceding acts to the grand eraption, October 23rd, 
 1641, and thence pursued to the Act of Settlement in 1661," 
 London, 1680.— J. S., G. 
 
 BORLASE or BORLACE, William, a distinguished Eng- 
 lish antiquary and naturalist, was bom at Pendeen in Cornwall in 
 1696, and educated at Exeter college, Oxford, where he took his 
 degi'ee as master of arts in 1719, and took orders in the same 
 year. In 1722 he obtained the living of Ludgvan in Cornwall, 
 and in 1732 the chancellor presented him to the living of Saint 
 Just, his native parish. While residing at Ludgvan lie commenced 
 the study of the natural history of his native county, by collecting 
 specimens of the minerals and fossils brought to light by the 
 neighbouring copper works, belonging to the earl of Godolphin. 
 From these he advanced to other kindred subjects, until at last, 
 he engaged zealously in the investigation of the natural history ■ 
 and antiquities of Coniwall. The first results of his labours 
 (with the exception of one or two essays, read before the Royal 
 Society) appeared in 1754, under the title of "The History and 
 Antiquities of Cornwall." In 1758 ajipearcd the well-known
 
 BOR 
 
 683 
 
 BOR 
 
 "Natural History of Cornwall," a valuable and still interesting 
 work; and in 17G6, having presented his collections to the Ash- 
 inolean museum at Oxford, Borlase received the honorary degree 
 of doctor of laws. He died in 1772. Besides the works above 
 referred to, Borlase published several papers in the " Philoso- 
 jihical Transactions," and also prepared paraphrases of Job and 
 the books of Solomon, but rather for his own amusement than 
 with a view to publication. He also maintained an extensive 
 correspondence with many of the scientific and literary men of 
 his time, including the poet Pope, whom he furnished with the 
 greater part of the materials for his celebrated gi-otto at Twick- 
 enham. — W. S. D. 
 
 BORN, Bertram or Bertrand de, bom at the chateau of 
 Hantefort in Perigord. The precise date of his birth is not 
 known ; but he appears as an important actor in the political 
 history of France and England towards the close of the twelfth 
 century. In 1185, when Henry, the youngest son of Henry II. 
 of England, was contending with Richard Coeiir de Lion for 
 the duchy of Aquitaine, Bertran supported the claims of Henry, 
 and a spirited sirvenfe of his remains, in which he seeks to ani- 
 mate to action Henry's supporters. Richard is victorions in the 
 contest, and Bertran is the last to yield. Hautefort is besieged 
 and taken, but the same power of song which led 
 
 " The great Emathian conqueror to spare 
 The house of Fiiidarus, when temple and tower 
 Went to the ground," 
 
 now saved the troubadour, and requited Richard. A sirvenfe 
 records his generosity. Prince Henry dies, and we have another 
 aid a veiy beautiful poem from Bertran. Immediately after his 
 - in's funeral. King Henry II. visited with his vengeance the 
 ople of Aquitaine. He besieged Hautefort, Bertran's chateau, 
 hich he took, and thought to have razed to the ground. The 
 ■ itlier remembered Bertran's love for his son, and relented. The 
 crusades were now the subject of every man's thoughts, and sucli 
 txcitement as Bertran's strains could supply was not wanting, 
 ' ut in a tone which seems slightly satirical. The poet says he 
 annot think of going to the wars himself, as he sees that counts, 
 ■likes, and kings, have always something to interfere with their 
 L'ling. The poet, too, has his excuses for delay, one of the best of 
 'hich is a lady, " belle et blonde," whom he cannot leave. The 
 • ars in France between Philip Auguste and Cceur de Lion were a 
 r lurce of deUght to Bertran, who loved war, and especially war 
 when kings were the parties engaged. Till Richard's death he had 
 this enjovment, and his sirventes were regarded as among the 
 tilings which rendered peace impossible. On Richard's death, 
 uid the accession of John to tlie throne of England, we lose 
 •ght of Bertran. He is said to have become a Cistercian monk. 
 When or where he died is not recorded ; but there is a record of 
 liis son having perfonued homage for his castle of Hautefort to 
 :he king of France in the year 1212. This has been regarded, 
 , Thaps too hastily, as a proof of the father's natural death 
 before the time of such ceremony. If the fate of Bertran de 
 liom on earth be doubtful, we have the indisputable authority 
 of a poet for his fortunes in the other world. Dante, we ai-e 
 :<\d in the twenty-eighth canto of the Inferno, passing into the 
 _ulf where the authors of heresies and the sowers of discord are 
 jjunished, sees a headless trunk pacing sadly onward — one of a 
 group, of which ^lahomet was the chief. The trunk held in his 
 hand his severed head, which served as a lantern to light his 
 ^teps as he came towards Dante. He thi-ust the head near 
 i-nough for the poet to be told by it, that this was his (Bertran's) 
 punishment for seeking to disunite the children of Henry II. from 
 their father. It was just retribution, the poet tells us, that head 
 ;ind trunk should, in his oyra person, be dissevered. — J. A., D. 
 
 BORN, Ferdix.\.nd Gotti.ob, bom in 1785 at Leipzig, 
 where he afterwards became professor of philosophy, author of 
 several philosophical treatises, but best known by his Latin 
 translation of Kant's works, 3 vols. 8vo ; Leipzig, 1796-98. 
 
 BORN, Ignaz von, one of the greatest mineralogists of any 
 age, a contemporary of Werner, was bom at Karlsburg in Sie- 
 benbiirgen, on the 26th December, 1742, and received his 
 early education in Hemiannstadt and Vienna. For sixteen 
 months he was attached to the Jesuits ; but the spirit of the 
 order soon becoming obnoxious to him, he quitted the society 
 and studied law in Prague. He then ti'avelled througli 
 Gennany, Holland, the Netherlands, and France, and on his 
 return to his native country devoted the whole powers of his 
 
 mind to the study of mineralogy, natural history, and the science 
 of mining. In June 1770 having become an assessor in the 
 mining council at Prague, he undertook a mineralogical journey 
 through Hungary and Siebenbiirgen, in which he was nearly 
 becoming a sacrifice to his desire of knowledge. By remaining 
 too long in the lead mines of Banijo he contracted a chronic 
 complaint which troubled him for the rest of his life. The 
 results of this journey were given in a letter to the celebrated 
 mineralogist, J. J. Ferber, and published by him in 1774. Soon 
 after his return he received the post of mining comicUlor ; but 
 this his illness compelled him to relinquish, and he passed the 
 next four years of his life in pain on his hereditary estate of 
 Alt Jedlitsch. Even during this period, however, the activity of 
 his mind was by no means impaired. His works prepared at 
 this time placed him in the first rank of European mineralogists. 
 We may mention especially his " Lithophylacinm Bomianum, 
 sen index fossilium, quae collegit, in classes et ordines digessit 
 Ign. de Bom," Pragre, 1772-75, in two volumes, containing a 
 description of his mineralogical cabinet, with many new species, 
 arranged in accordance with Cronstedt's method. On the pub- 
 licarion of this work von Bom was elected a member of several 
 foreign academies. On his return to Prague, after his partial 
 recoveiy, he became one of the founders of the society for the 
 advancement of mathematics, and national and natural histoiy, 
 and in 1776 was called to Vienna by the command of the Em- 
 press Maiia Theresa to arrange the unperial cabinets of natm'al 
 hbtory. The result of his labours in the imperial museum 
 was his great work, entitled " Index rerum naturalium JIusei 
 Ca3s. Mndobonas," P. I. published at Vienna in 1778, and 
 reprinted in 1780, under the title of "Testacea Musei Ca?s. 
 \'indob., quae jussu JIariae Theresia; disposuit et descripsit Ign. 
 a Bom." This fine work obtained for its author the appoint- 
 ment of councillor of state in Vienna ; and as he had now his 
 permanent residence in that city, he was soon smTOunded by 
 a society of men of the highest qualifications. His hereditary 
 property gradually melted away in the expenses of scien- 
 tific investigations, or in assisting others in their endeavours, 
 and at his death on the 24th July, 1791, his family were left 
 with nothing. Of the improvements introduced by Bom in 
 mining operations, the most important was his new method of 
 amalgamation, which was immediately introduced into all the 
 Austrian states, by the command of the Emperor Joseph II. 
 Of his scientific writings, we may mention, besides those already 
 referred to, a treatise, " Ueber das anquicken der gold und sil- 
 berhaltigen Erze," &c., published at Vieima in 1786; his 
 " Bergbaukunde," Leipzig, 1789, edited in conjunction with von 
 Trebra ; and " Catalogue methodique et raisonne de la collec- 
 tion de Fossiles de Iklademoiselle Eleonare de Raab," published 
 at Vienna in 1790. Ignaz vou Bom was also celebrated for 
 his wit, and some of his humorous writings have enjoyed a gi-eat 
 reputation. Amongst these is a satirical tale, called the '• Staats- 
 Periicke," published at Vienna in 1772 without his name or 
 sanction ; and he was also one of the authors of the celebrated 
 " ]\Ionachologia, or natural historj' of monks," originally pub- 
 lished at Vienna in Latin in 1783, and subsequently translated 
 into many languages. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOROWSKI, LuDwiG Ernst von, a Gennan divine, was 
 born at Kouigsberg, June 17, 1740, and died November 10, 
 1831. He attained to the highest honours that were ever con- 
 ferred upon a German protestant divine. In 1816 he was nomi- 
 nated evangelical bishop, and in 1829 archbishop of Prussia 
 Proper. He even received the highest Prussian order, that of 
 the black eagle. His writings were few, and of slight import- 
 ance. — K. E. 
 
 * BORRER, "William, F.R.S., F.L.S., of Henfield, Sussex, 
 a celebrated English botanist, has devoted much attention to 
 lichens and other ciyptogamic plants. Along with Dawson 
 Turner, he printed a work on British hchens, and he has con- 
 tributed many botanical papers to the Linna?an Society. — J. U. B. 
 
 BORRI, in Latm BURHUS, Guseppe Fk.ancesco, an 
 Italian chemist, quack, and heretic, bora at Jlilan in 1627. He 
 was educated at Rome in a seminary of the Jesuits, and while 
 holding some office in the Vatican was a diligent student of 
 medicine and chemistry; but his debaucheries having brought 
 him into trouble with the authorities of the city, he was obliged 
 to retire into an ecclesiasticiil establishment, where he exchanged 
 his proiiigate habits, and began to disseminate new views touch- 
 ing the mysteiy of the Trinity, &c., for those of a devotee. Not-
 
 withstanding that one of his tenets was that the time was at 
 hand when there should be hut one shecpfold on the earth, 
 whereof the pope should be the only shepherd, his general doc- 
 trine was considered so dangerous by the inquisition at Rome, 
 that proceedings were taken against him, which obliged him 
 to retreat to j\Iilan. Here he organized a formidable confe- 
 deracy, which might have even served his purpose of usurping 
 the government of the city, if its existence had not been pre- 
 maturely betrayed to tlie authorities. On the failure of this 
 audacious scheme, of which the Roman inquisition exhibited its 
 detestation by biu-ning hmi in effigy, Borri declaring, it is said, 
 that he never felt so cold as on the occasion of his being burnt, 
 fled to Strasburg, afterwards to Amsterdam, and then to Ham- 
 burg. His subsequent career was partly that of a vulgar thief, 
 and partly that of an alchemist of the Cagliostro school. He 
 was at length delivered to the Austrian emperor, who made a 
 gift of him to the pope. He was sentenced to perpetual confine- 
 ment. His death occurred in the castle of St. Angelo in 1695. 
 Some letters aud medical tracts are attributed to his pen. 
 
 BOKIUCH or BORCH, Olaf, more generally known under the 
 Latin name of Olaus Borkichius, the founder of the college of 
 medicine in Copenhagen wliich bears his name, was bom at Borch, 
 in Jutland, 7th April, 1G26. He was professor of chemistry 
 and botany at Copenhagen, where he also acquired for himself 
 great celebrity as a physician. From 1G61 to 16G7 he spent in 
 travelUng through Italy, France, Holland, and England, and thus 
 became acquainted with the most distinguished men, to whom 
 his great learning made him welcome. In 1G81 he was elected 
 royal physician and librarian of the imiversity, besides wliich, 
 other public offices of trust and honour were held by him. He 
 died in 1G96. According to the custom of the age, he also 
 occupied himself with alchemy, and as he became, from a poor 
 student, a very rich man, many believed he had solved the 
 mystery of the philosopher's stone. According to another stoiy, 
 he cured a princess of the house of Jledici, whilst in Italy, of a 
 dangerous sickness, and hence obtained wealth ; nay, even, it was 
 said that the princess would have married him, could he have 
 been induced to join the cathofic church. He left his great 
 wealth for the founding of the college which bears his name. 
 His works are very numerous, but antiquated. — il. H. 
 
 BORROilEO, Antonio M.\ria. — This nobleman was born 
 at Padua in 1724. Having studied under the direction of the 
 most eminent men of the time, such as Lazzarini, Somaschi, 
 Colza, and Volpi, he began early to appreciate the classic writers 
 of Italy, and successfully imitated them. He was considered 
 both a good poet and an excellent prose writer, although, per- 
 haps, his language to an impartial critic might appear at once 
 redmidant and too fastidious Tuscan. He is the author of many 
 novels still unedited, except some which he published with notes 
 in his " Novellieri." This publication met with such general 
 approbation, that eleven years after he republished it, with a 
 large addition of novels and biogi-aphical notices, under the title 
 of " Catalogo de' Novellieri." After a life spent in continual 
 literaiy pmsuits, this veteran writer died on the 23d of Januaiy, 
 1813.— A. C. M. 
 
 BORROilEO, Carlo, saint and cardinal, one of the most 
 illus>trious names in the history of the Romish church. The 
 father of this distinguished ecclesiastic, Count Gilbert BoiTomeo, 
 possessed the castle of Arena in the Milanese. There Carlo was 
 bom in 1538. His mother was a sister of Pope Pius IV., who, 
 on his accession to the pontificate m 1559, called his nephew to 
 Rome, and invested him with the dignities of cardinal, archbishop 
 of Jlilan, grand penitentiary, legate of Bologna, Romagna, and 
 the March of Ancona, and protector of three crowns and several 
 religious orders. In return for these honours, Carlo supplied the 
 vigour which the distracted circumstances of the church demanded 
 from the pa]xil throne, and which its occupant was too old to 
 exhibit. To his hands were committed the most important affairs, 
 both ecclesiastical and civil. At the age of twenty-two he was 
 virtually pope. His zeal for the interests of the church, his dis- 
 cretion in the management of affairs, his generosity, piety, and 
 learning, were the qualities of a good pope, and he was esteemed 
 accordingly. As at Milan and Pavia, where he passed the period 
 of his studies, he exhibited in the Vatican a magnificence in his 
 tastes which, in the eye of the Romans, contrasted admirably 
 with the hunfility and courtesy of his demeanour. His dress was 
 costly, and his retinue that of a prince. But a general council 
 was demanded, to settle the affau-s of the chuixh ; the council of 
 
 Trent, after vexatious delays, met, and pronounced the rich dresses 
 of the dignitaries of the church a reproach and a scandal. On 
 this point Carlo was the first to defer to the authority of the 
 council; he discarded his habiliments of silk, and with these his 
 retinue. By talent and scholarly renown, no less than by birth 
 and station, he was a patron of letters. He assembled frequently 
 at the Vatican the leamed men of Rome, laymen as well as eccle- 
 siastics. Their intercourse he directed to profitable ends, by 
 engaging them in literai-y discussion. In 1565, after the death 
 of his uncle, he retired to Jlilan. The affairs of this diocese, in 
 consequence of the neglect of his predecessors and of his own 
 absence, had fallen into the utmost confusion. His clergy, for 
 the most part, were ignorant and dissolute. The diocese boasted 
 but few schools — teachers and catechists had been degraded or 
 starved out. Discipline was a thing unknown in the churches. 
 Carlo began the laborious work of reformation by providing for 
 the education of the clergy, and the enforcement of discipline. 
 He converted his palace into a seminary for bishops. In every 
 district he founded a school and an hospital ; he remodelled the 
 monasteries ; and, by the operation of provincial councils, every- 
 where restored decency and order. During the ravages of the 
 plague he dispensed his charities with his own hand in the 
 houses of the sick. Like his predecessor, Ambrose, he preached 
 constantly to the people, and visited every comer of his diocese. 
 Worn out by labours and austerities, he died at the age of forty- 
 seven, in 1584. Pope Paul V. canonized him in 1610. His 
 works were printed at Milan in 1747, in 5 vols., folio. — J. S., G. 
 
 BORRON, BOIRON, BOURON, BERON, BOSRON, or 
 BURONS, Robert and Helis, two English writers of the 
 twelfth century, probably brothers, who were employed by Hemy 
 II. to execute prose versions of several of the romances known 
 as the Collection of the Round Table. Their works no longer 
 exist, except in a modernized shape ; hardly a word of the Saint 
 Graal, the Lancelot, and the Histoire de Jlerlin, as they appear 
 in the editions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, being in 
 use in the times of these two writers. — J. S., G. 
 
 BORRONI, Giovanni Angelo, a painter, bom at Cre- 
 mona in 1684. He was a pupil of Massarotti and Le Longe, and 
 then became painter to the Crivelli family, painting occasionally 
 in the Milan and Cremona churches. The duke of Milan laiighted 
 him. He died in 1772. His best picture is that of " St. Bene- 
 dict interceding for Milan." — W. T. 
 
 * BORROW, George, whose works and adventures are unique 
 in the British literature and biography of the nineteenth centmy, 
 was born about 1804 at East Dereham in Norfolk, the burial- 
 town of the poet Cowper. His father, a cadet of a Cornish fiimily, 
 was a militia officer, of note enough to attract the attention of 
 the duke of York ; his mother was a Norwich lady of Frenci. 
 ])rotestant extraction. The young Borrow's earlier years, like 
 many of his later, were years of constant migration. Captain 
 Borrow's circumstances did not admit of two establishments, so 
 his wife and their two sons, of whom George was the younger, 
 accompanied him as he marched with his regiment from town to 
 town. The perpetual change of residence was not favourable to 
 a solid education, and the only systematic teacliing which the 
 young BoiTow received was during his parents' stay in or near 
 Edinburgh, where he became for a brief period an alunmus of its 
 celebrated High School. But the very change of scene contri- 
 buted to the variety of his information : thus, w-hen quite a child, 
 and when his father was stationed at Clonmel, he ai'quired, at 
 the school to which he was sent, a colloquial knowledge of Irish, 
 the first-fruits of his native turn for philology. He has described 
 himself as a shy boy, of rather tardy intellectual development, 
 first roused by the perusal of Robinson Crusoe, and delighting iu 
 lonely rambles. Shyness among equals is very frequently ac- 
 companied by forwardness with inferiors ; and his parents did 
 not suspect that, dming his frequent absences from home, their 
 bashful little recluse of a son was consorting familiarly with 
 gipsies, and other social nomads, picking up the jargon, and 
 curiously eyeing the ways of the singular vagrants, of whom he 
 was afterwards to be the interpreter to the civilized world. , 
 These tendencies were fostered when, at the peace, his father ; 
 settled down in Nonvich, where the elder Borrow is still remem- i 
 bered as a man of cultivated mind and social habits. The neigh- I 
 bourhood of Norwich abounded in gipsies, and Borrow was their ! 
 frequent and familiar visitor. He did not neglect, however, more i 
 useful, or at least more intellectual pursuits. Articled to the I 
 leading attorney of Nonvich, the remarkably tall young man was i
 
 noted, not only for his pedestrian feats and athletic strength, 
 but for his extensive knowledge of languages. On his desk, 
 Ab Gwylyyon lay among his lawbooks ; his early knowledge of 
 spoken Irish had developed into an accurate acquaintance with 
 the rarely-studied Celtic languages. In 1821 William Taylor 
 wrote to his friend Southey : " A Norwich young man is con- 
 struing with me Schiller's William Tell, with the view of trans- 
 lating it for the press. His name is George Henry Borrow, and 
 he has learned German with extraordinary rapidity. Indeed, he 
 has the gift of tongues, and though not yet eighteen understands 
 twelve languages — English, Welsh, Erse, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 German, Danish, French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. 
 He would like to get into the othce for foreign aft'airs, but does 
 not know how ; " for in those days the " competitive system " 
 had not come into force. \Mlliam Taylor liked to be surrounded 
 by young men, and to instil into them his own peculiar opinions. 
 No doubt he endeavoured to teach his young protege other things 
 than German. It is not difHcult to discern the traces of his 
 influence in Mr. Borrow's earliest book, published anonymously, 
 and not included by himself in any list of his acknowledged 
 works — " Faustus, his Life, Death, and Descent into Hell," 
 London, 1828, and professing to be translated from the Ger- 
 man. Admirers of ilr. Borrow's writings will not linger over 
 this wild crude work, which was succeeded in the following year 
 by another much more creditable to its author — " Romantic Bal- 
 lads, translated from the Danish," &c., Norwich, 1826. These 
 have been highly praised by competent critics for their veracity 
 as translations, not sacrificing the rude strength and harmony 
 of the Norse originals to the modern demand for polish of expres- 
 sion and smoothness of rhythm. 
 
 The death of Captain Borrow seems to have occuiTed about this 
 period, when his son's term of indenture, too, was on the point 
 of expiring. With a knowledge of languages for his chief capital, 
 Mr. Borrow, bidding adieu to Norwich and the law, rep;ured to 
 the gi-eat metropolis to become an author by profession. He took 
 with him an introduction from William Taylor to the once cele- 
 brated, but now almost forgotten. Sir Richard Philips, undoubtedly 
 the original of the vegetarian publisher, sketched at the opening 
 of the second volume of " Lavengro." Of Mr. Borrow's literary 
 trials, sutierings, and achievements, of his desertion of London and 
 literature, of his subsequent wanderings in England as tinker, 
 •_'lpsy, postillion, ostler, a half-authentic, half-fanciful account 
 will be found in " Lavengro," and its continuation, " Rommany 
 Kye." After the series of events recorded in the latter, began 
 Mr. Borrow's continental wanderings. Mostly on foot, he tra- 
 versed some of the chief countries of the continent — France, 
 Italy, Austria, Russia. He was in Paris during "the three days," 
 watching in the streets the overturn of the Bourbon dynasty. 
 Two or three years later he is at St. Petersburg, presiding over 
 the translation of the bible into Mandschu-Tartar, and dating 
 his departure from the Russian capital by the publication of 
 a little-known work — " Targum, or metrical translations from 
 tliuty languages and dialects," St. Petersburg, ] 835. Scarcely 
 returned from Russia to England, he accepted from the Bible 
 Society a mission to the Iberian peninsula, which occupied him 
 for five years, and is admirably described in his well-known w^ork. 
 On his return to England once more, he withdrew into a rural 
 solitude, which was fruitful to him of f:ime. There he prepared, 
 ■ind thence in 1841 he launched "The Zincali, or an account of 
 tlie Gipsies of Spain, with an original collection of their songs 
 and poetry, and a copious dictionary of their language," which 
 was followed two years later by the publication of " The Bible 
 in Spain." " The Zincali," by its unique information respecting 
 the language, habits, and origin of a race, which is to other races 
 what Japan is to other countries of the earth; "The Bible in 
 Spain," by its graphic pictures of life, high, middle, and low, in 
 the byways as well as the highways of the land of Gil Bias ; and 
 both books, by their exhibition of the original and adventurous 
 character of their author, — took the reading world by storm. 
 They passed rapidly through several editions, and the raciness 
 of their style, added to the interest of their contents, at once 
 placed Mr. Borrow in the foremost rank among the popular 
 writers of the age. Public expectation, wound up to a high 
 pitch by repeated announcements, was, however, rather disap- 
 pointed on the publication, in 1851, of " Lavengro, an autobio- 
 graphy," written principally in 1843, and comjih'tcd so early as 
 1846. In this work, and in its sequel, " Ronnnany Rye," 
 Loudon, 1857, Mr. Borrow has intenvoven, with a small portion 
 
 of his own early biography, too large a mass of disquisition and 
 dialogue for the popular taste. More adventure and autobio- 
 graphy were anticipated, and a certain disappointment has been 
 the result. Mr. Borrow's published works give but an imperfect 
 notion of his literary activity. Apart from autobiography, he 
 has at least seventeen volumes in readiness for the press, inclu- 
 ding treatises on Celtic poetry, the people and language oi 
 Wales and Cornwall, the hterature of the Isle of Man, transla- 
 tions from the Cambrian British, from the old Norse, from the 
 popular tales of Russia, and the jest-books of Turkey. Mr. 
 Borrow is maiTied to a Norfolk lady, and lives in studious retire- 
 ment at Great Yarmouth in his native county; his tall form, 
 crowned for many years with hair prematurely white, being 
 occasionally seen in the metropolitan thoroughfares, and specially 
 in the library of the British Museum. — (Works passim ; Eob- 
 berd's Memoirs of Wil/ium Taylor of Norwich, London, 1843; 
 Onginal hformalion.') — F. E. 
 
 BORSUM, Adam van, a Dutch painter, who painted animals 
 with landscapes in the manner of Vanderneer and Paul Potter. 
 " His colouring is natural," says Pilkington, " his touch firm 
 and open." He lived about 1666.— W. T. 
 
 BORU, Brian, one of the most distinguished of the native 
 monarchs of Ireland, was born in the year 926. He was a 
 younger son of Kennedy, king of Munster, at whose death the 
 sovereignty of that territory devolved upon Mahon, his eldest 
 son. At this time Brian was thirty-four years of age ; but he 
 had long since attained a high reputation for valour and judg- 
 ment, having signalized himself by his active and enterprising 
 spirit, and by bold and adventurous exploits. He soon found 
 himself at the head of the bravest youths of his native province, 
 and with his little band of followers rendered many important 
 sen'ices to his brother, especially against the hordes of plunder- 
 ers that infested the forest retreats and mountain passes of 
 j\Iunster. The annals of the period do not always afford veiy 
 clear or very reliable information ; but some well-authenticated 
 facts exist in proof of the valour and ability of Brian at this 
 time. On one occasion, with his body of brave Dalcassians, 
 he charged a strong detachment of Danes of Limerick with such 
 rapid impetuosity that they were routed with the loss of half 
 their number, a success which resulted in the total overthrow of 
 the Danes, who lost 3000 men upon the field of battle, and fled 
 to Limerick. Thither the victors followed them, and despoiled 
 the city. Upon the death of Mahon, who was perfidiously 
 decoyed and murdered by Maolmua, a neighbouring chief, Brian, 
 who had been for some time chief of Thomond, ascended the 
 throne of Munster. His first step was to revenge his brother ; 
 and, accordingly, collecting a large force, he followed Maolmua 
 into the recesses of the mountain district, where he had with- 
 drawn in the belief that his position was impregnable. But the 
 caution, skill, and daring of Brian were superior to all obstacles. 
 He first inteixepted and defeated a strong body of Danes who 
 were marching to the aid of his enemy, and then, rapidly turn- 
 ing his steps, he came unexpectedly on Maolmua, whom he 
 surprised close to the spot where Mahon had been murdered ; 
 and there Morough, the son of Brian, avenged his uncle and 
 won his first fame by slaying with his own hand the perfidious 
 Maolmua. The enemy were totally routed with gi-eat slaughter. 
 Brian's next achievement was against the Danes, who had taken 
 possession of the island of Iniscathy in the Shannon. Landing 
 with twelve hundred Dalcassians, he succeeded, after a fierce 
 struggle, in clearhig the island of the enemy, though assisted by 
 a strong detachment of their countrymen from Limerick, and 
 followed up his victory by expelling the Danes from their strong- 
 holds in the neighbouring islands. About the year 980 a 
 strong confederacy was formed by the Danes of Decies, Cork, 
 and Waterford, with the chief of Ossory, for the purpose of 
 resisting a tribute which had been for some time levied by the 
 kings of Munster. Brian, with his usual prouiptutss and daring, 
 anticipated their measures, and invaded Leiuster with an over- 
 whelming force; he utterly routed the combined armies, devas- 
 tated their territories, and carried away a large amount of spoil, 
 and compelled them to give hostages for their future submission. 
 Brian now indulged in a higher ambition than that of being a 
 mere toparch. He entertained views of becoming the supreme 
 sovereign of the kingdom. The throne of Ireland was at the 
 time occupied by Malachy, who in the year 978 had distin- 
 guished himself by the splendid victory of Tara. This prince 
 had invaded the Dalcassian territory on more than one occasion.
 
 BOR 
 
 686 
 
 BOK 
 
 Brian calmly waited his opportunity, which was afforded by 
 Malachy, who in 988 led a large body of troops against the 
 Danes of Dublin. Brian invaded Leinster, which he laid waste 
 and plundered, returning to his j dace of Kinkora laden with 
 the spoils of two provinces. Invasions and reprisals followed 
 each other on both sides, only internipted when they joined 
 their forces against their common foe, the Danes. In the wars 
 with these latter, Brian obtained additional strength and in- 
 creased reputation. It was now plain that these two great 
 rivals were committed to a struggle, whose issue should be the 
 total defeat of either. Again Malachy made a predatory excur- 
 sion into Leinster, whose prince had yielded allegiance to the 
 kings of Munster. To avenge this, Brian collected a numerous 
 force, and marclied upon the royal seat of Tara. Malachy sub- 
 mitted to his rival and gave hostages. But the next year, a.d. 
 1001, Brian again descended upon Tara at the head of a large 
 army, and it was evident the long contest was at an end. 
 Malachy struck not a blow to retrieve the honour of his house, 
 and Brian, " then in the palace of Ireland's ancient monarclis, 
 received the homage of their last legitimate successor, the 
 descendant of a series of fifty Hy-Xial kings, and was by 
 him acknowledged supreme sovereign of all Ireland." Malachy 
 accompanied Brian in his regal progress through his new 
 dominions, which with a wise policy he made for some years. 
 In these the wisdom, prudence, and vigour of the new king was 
 conspicuously displayed. He scrutinized everything with the eye 
 of a politician. His firmness controlled disaffection, his mode- 
 ration conciliated submission, his wisdom prescribed wholesome 
 laws, his power enforced obedience to them. The result was that 
 his reign was the most prosperous and peaceful for Ireland that 
 her annals record. Wise in council, able in administration, the 
 invincible wan'ior became the beneficent ruler. He controlled 
 the dissensions of the petty chiefs by a policy alert, vigilant, and 
 pervading. He restored the ecclesiastical buildings and endowed 
 their institutions ; he repaired the highways, strengthened the 
 fortifications, biult bridges, and carried on other works of public 
 utility ; so that after making all allowance for the exaggerated 
 accounts of historians, enough remains of well-authenticated truth 
 to estabhsh for Brian Boru a high reputation. But with all his 
 vigour and valour Brian was not able to subdue the power of 
 the Danes in L'eland. Possessed of the strongest fortifications 
 in the island, superior in their naval and commercial resources, 
 prudent, active, and indefatigable, and constantly recruited from 
 the mother country, the Danes, though often defeated, were 
 ever ready to renew the contest, and from their stronghold in 
 Dublin to devastate the countiy. Combining with the natives 
 of Leinster, the Danes made an incursion into Meath in 1013. 
 Emboldened by a partial success, they made preparation for a 
 great effort. In this they were joined by Maelmorda, who had 
 usurped the kingdom of Leinster by their aid. We shall not 
 here consider the truth of the different stories that are extant to 
 account for the disaffection of the people of Leinster, but come 
 to the result that brought the contending forces upon the plain 
 of Clontarfnear Dublin in the year 1014. 
 
 It was Good Friday, the 23d of April. Brian addressed his 
 troops in a speech, which is still preserved, of singular power, 
 concluding it with these words : " May the Almighty God, 
 through his gi-eat mercy, give you strength and corn-age this 
 day to put an end for ever to the Lochlunian tyranny in Ire- 
 land, and to revenge upon them their many perfidies, and their 
 profanation of the sacred edifices dedicated to his worship — 
 this day on which Jesus Christ himself suffered death for yom- 
 redemption." So saying he raised the cmcifix in his left hand, 
 and his golden-hilted sword in his right, declaring he was will- 
 ing to lose his life in such a cause. Being about to lead on his 
 troops, the chiefs with one voice entreated the aged king, now 
 near ninety years old, to retire from the field and leave it to 
 his brave son Moragh. At simrise the signal for battle was 
 given, and the fight raged without intennission till dusk. But 
 the valour of the Irish at length prevailed, and the Danes were 
 utterly routed. In the flight, the Danish admiral Bniadair, with 
 some of his people reached the tent where Brian was then en- 
 gaged in prayer. The aged king, though totally unarmed, sprang 
 up, and seizing his sword, awaited the approach of the Danes, 
 who were clothed in armour from head to foot. As Bi-uadair 
 rushed upon the king, the latter smote him with his sword, and 
 cut off his left leg from the knee and the right from the ankle. 
 but Bruadaii-'s axe met the head of Brian and fractured it. 
 
 Brian, however, with all the fury of a dying warrior, beheaded 
 Bruadair and killed a second Dane, and then expired. It 
 is right to observe, that the Niala Saga, as given in John- 
 stone's Celto-Scandinavian Antiquities, has a different account 
 of this transaction, namely, that the Danish admiral escaped 
 after killing Brian, but being recaptured, he was disembowelled 
 with horribly ingenious cruelty. The loss of the Irish in 
 this battle, which, as a modern historian remarks, may fairly 
 be reckoned amongst the decisive battles of the world, was 
 considerable. Moragh and his two brothers, and many other 
 chiefs, fell. The enemy's loss is computed to have exceeded 
 six thousand, of whom four thousand were Danes. The 
 body of Brian was conveyed according to his will to the cathe- 
 dral of Armagh. On its progi-ess it was received in state 
 successively at the monasteries of Swords, St. Kieran's, and 
 Louth, where it was met by the primate with his suffragans and 
 clergy. For twelve days and nights it was watched by the 
 clergj' with continual prayer, and then interred with great 
 pomp on the northern side of the altar of the great church. 
 Thus ended the reign of tliis remarkable man. " Tradition and 
 romance," says a modern writer, " have vied with one another 
 in describing the glories of this reign. . . . But the historic 
 tact remains, that by his just and vigorous policy he kept down 
 the whole tribe of petty kings and toparchs, at once tyrants 
 and rebels, whose barbarous conflicts kept the blood of the 
 people flowing incessantly, and trampled on law and religion. 
 He also awed into submission the Danish communities, who for 
 several years made no attempt to disturb the general peace. 
 For the first time in the history of Ireland there was a strong 
 and upright central government." 
 
 On the whole, we are justified in placing this monarch, both 
 as a general and a ruler, amongst those who are entitled to 
 occupy the highest places in the world's history. Tune, it is 
 time, has thr^jwn him far back in the annals of history, and the 
 page that he fills is one wliich neither the classical reader ot 
 Greek and Roman story, nor the student of mediaival times 
 desires to dn-ell upon, nay, scarcely cares to open. Yet the page 
 is there notwithstanding, indehble, indestructible ; and he who 
 will peruse it, will see how great a waiTior and how wise a 
 statesman was Brian Boru. The old annalists represent Brian 
 as " a man of fine figure, of large stature, of great strength of 
 body, and of undaunted valour." — J. F. Vi. 
 
 BORY DE Saint Vincent, Jean Baptiste George Makie, 
 a celebrated French natiu-alist, was bom at Agen in 1 780, and 
 died on 23d September, 1846. At the early age of fifteen 
 he attracted the attention of natiu-alists, by his memoir on the 
 genera Confei'va and Byssus. He exhibited a desire to travel in 
 the cause of science. He visited the isle of France and the isle ol 
 Bourbon, and drew up a beautiful topographical map of the lat- 
 ter. He afterwards proceeded to St. Helena, and he prepared 
 an excellent map of the island. In 1804 he published an 
 account of his visit to the African islands. After this he was 
 employed in the anny, and followed the camp dming the wars 
 of Napoleon. He attained the rank of colonel. After the estab- 
 lishment of peace he resumed his literary and scientific studies. 
 In 1823 he published an account of the cavern in the mountain 
 near Maestricht, under the title of " Voyage Souterrain." After 
 residing for some time in Belgium, be returned to France in 
 1820 and was charged in 1829 with the command of a scientific 
 expedition to the Morea. He published numerous papers in 
 French natural histoiy periodicals, and in the Dictionnaire Clas- 
 sique d'Histoire Naturelle. He also published a guide to the 
 traveller in Spain, and an account of the physical geography of 
 that country. — J. H. B. 
 
 BORZONE, LucL\No, a Genoese painter, bom in 1590, and 
 a scholar of his uncle, Filippo Bertolotti. He painted liistory 
 tolerably, and portraits well, and was not vain enough to be 
 ashamed of doing the inferior thing, if it is inferior, best. His 
 " Baptism of Christ " and " Presentation in the Temple " were 
 lions that people, more curious than religious, visited Genoese 
 churches to see. Borzone seems to have been a sociable, dille- 
 tante-sort of man, persons of taste, talent, and good-nature, 
 gravitating to his house, which, like Rogers' and Dr. Johnson's, 
 was the centre of a small solar system of wit, genius, and good- 
 ness. While he was rising, however, he fell — that is to say, 
 from an ill-starred scaffolding in the church of Delia Nunziata, 
 in his owm city. He left three painter sons, — Giovanni Battista, 
 Francesco Mai'ia, and Carlo. The last of these became a land-
 
 BOS 
 
 687 
 
 BOS 
 
 scape imitator of Claude and Gaspar Poussin. Borzone etched 
 some plates from his own pictures ; i.e. a portrait of Giustiniani, 
 St. Peter delivered from prison, Prometheus devoured by the 
 vulture, children playing, and a set of devout subjects. — W. T. 
 
 BOS, CoRNELiu.s. See Bus. 
 
 BOS, Gaspar van den, a Dutch sea painter, born at Hoorn 
 in 1G.34. His pictures of storms, and calms, and brown sails 
 furled and set, are liighly finished and of a pleasant colour. He 
 died in liis prime, or, as he was a sea-painter, shall we say — 
 "wont down?" in 1G06. — W. T. 
 
 BOS, Lambert, a Dutch philologist, born in Friesland in 
 1670; died in 1717. He gave himself up exclusively to the 
 study of the Greek language, in which he made rapid progi-ess, 
 and succeeded Nicolas Blancard in the chair of Greek literature 
 at Franeker. He is known chiefly by his work on Greek ellipses. 
 
 BOS, Lewis Jannsex, born at Bois-le-Duc in 1450. He 
 painted enamel-finished flowers and fruits alive with bees and 
 flies ; also some insect-sized portraits. His snowdrops were 
 perfect. Died in 1507.— W. T. 
 
 BOS or BOSCHE, Jekojie, an eccentric Dutch painter 
 and engraver, born at Bois-le-Duc about 1470. Stunned by the 
 sight of some of Raphael's pictures at the Escurial, and certain 
 of never equalling them, Bos determined to throw the reins on 
 the neck of his own crotchety and errant genius, and go wliither 
 it took him. Therefore, after painting the " Flight into Egypt," 
 and " Christ bearing his Cros.s," for some Bois-le-Duc churches, 
 he plunged into the jungle of his own odd fancy, followed by an 
 army of glaring spectres, goblin devils, and conglomerate bird 
 and beast monsters. He designed incantation scenes, witches' 
 meetings, Judas attempting to escape with the ancient patri- 
 archs liberated by Christ from hell, and hung by devils (from the 
 beam out of his own eye) in the air. He loved to depict St. 
 Anthony almost got the better of by devils, and St. Christopher 
 fording through night rivers with the child Christ. His stiff 
 gothic engravings are now scarce. He represents Christ girt by 
 the eternal circles of light and glory. Seven of these are the 
 capital sins, seven the sacraments. In one great allegorical 
 picture. Bos is, indeed grotesquely sublime. He has mounted 
 the carnal pleasures on a gi'eat chariot, which is dragged hell- 
 ward by seven monsters, intended to represent the seven deadly 
 sins ; a lying blatant demon, disguised as Fame, precedes it with 
 a herald's trumpet ; a tumultuous rabble of monsters hurry after; 
 .uid last of all comes Death, the mower of men, with his scythe 
 wide as the world, shouting from a ghastly label the words of 
 Isaiah — " Omnis caro fa3num." Sometimes Bos's morbid ima- 
 gination revels in terrible visions of martyrs torn by lions, or 
 men lying murdered in wildernesses — the howling crowd of 
 purgatory's lowest den — suicides rejoicing in death and self- 
 iuflictcd torture. Although ranked in Germany and Spain as a 
 man of singidar virtue. Bos may be called " the first morbid 
 painter" — the king of the Hell Breughel and Fuseli school. 
 Of his strained, sickly, and extravagant fancies Kugler writes, 
 vol. i, p. 96, " They are complete dreams, to the colouring of 
 which, however, he imparts a remarkable glow." There is a 
 representation of hell by him in the Berlin museum, in which 
 the poor souls are toiTnented by horrible serpent-like monsters. 
 It is a true laboratory of hell. With all its frantic horrors, one 
 cannot but feel astonished at the invention displayed by the 
 artist in the creation of these fabulous creatures — of humour, 
 indeed, there is scarcely a trace. Like many of his contempo- 
 raries, Bos appears to have spent the greatest part of his life in 
 Spain, where his pictures were much sought and imitated. It 
 ^ asserted from tradition, that some of his pictures of infernal 
 I'lrrors placed in Basle, in which Philip II. of Spain died, 
 : xceived the last looks of the tyrant. Kugler goes on to say, 
 that a great many of Bos's works were or are in Spain. — -W. T. 
 
 BOSC, Claude de, a French engraver, known in England 
 'lout 1712. He quarrelled with Dorigny about Raphael's car- 
 lon.s, and illustrated Picart's religious ceremonies and Marl- 
 borough's battles. His drawing was bad, and his manner coarse 
 and lumi)ish. — W. T. 
 
 BOSC, Louis Augustus Guillaume, a celebrated French 
 naturalist, was born at Paris on 2'Jth January, 175'J, and died 
 lOtli July, 1828. He prosecuted his classical studies at the 
 college of Dijon, and devoted himself early to the study of botany 
 under Durande. He subsequently went to Paris, and became 
 connected with the administration of the post-ofKce, and after- 
 wards with that of the prisons. At the time of the French 
 
 revolution he had to flee from Paris, and was long in conceal- 
 ment, subjected to groat hardships and privations. After the 
 death of Robespierre he returned to Paris. Some time afterwards 
 he went to America, and spent two years in making natural 
 history collections. On his return he placed the collections of 
 animals and plants at the disposal of various natvu-alists, and thus 
 contributed much to the advancement of science. He became 
 administrator of prisons and hospitals, but he docs not appear to 
 have been able to make a livelihood, for in 1799 he was in great 
 destitution. He then commenced a series of literary works, which 
 have procured for him a high reputation. He published a dic- 
 tionary of natural history, and one of agi-iculture, besides a 
 complete theoretical and practical course of agriculture. He was 
 one of the editors of the Annals of French Agriculture, and he 
 was one of the editors of the last volumes of the Encyclopedic 
 Me'thodique. He became connected with various societies which 
 had for their object the advancement of agriculture and horti- 
 culture, and he contributed papers to their Transactions. He 
 published works on the culture of the vine, on the oaks of France, 
 on the culture of trees, and the management of fruits. He made 
 various excursions to difterent parts of France, as well as to Italy, 
 in the prosecution of his natural history studies. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOSC, Pierre Thojiines du, a French protestant divine, 
 famous as a preacher, bom at Bayeux in 1623 ; died at Rotter- 
 dam in 1692. On the subject of one of Louis XIV. 's edicts 
 against the Calvinists, he had a long interview with the king, 
 at the conclusion of which Louis is said to have exclaimed 
 to his courtiers, " I have just been listening to the finest speaker 
 in my kingdom." — J. S., G. 
 
 BOSC D'ANTIC, Paul, a learned Frenchman, born at Pien-e- 
 Segade in Languedoc, in 1726 ; died in 1784. Author of a 
 memoir on the manufacture of glass, that was crowned in 1760 
 by the Academy of Sciences at Paris. His works, in 2 vols. 
 12mo, are full of curious details connected with mineralogy, 
 glass, and fictile manufacture. 
 
 BOSCAN, Juan, a patrician of Barcelona, bom towards the 
 latter end of the fourteenth century, and well known as a poet 
 in the language of Castile. Having become acquainted in 
 1524 with Navagiero, the Venetian ambassador to Charles V., 
 he was induced by him to imitate in Spanish the sonnets, 
 and other forms of verse used by good Italian authors. Boscan 
 set himself to work, and having submitted a specimen of his 
 composition to Garcilaso, he was encouraged by that celebrated 
 writer to persevere in the new path opened to the Castilian 
 Parnassus, and thus he became the founder of a new school. 
 He was, for a short time, intrusted with the education of the 
 duke of Alva, but he preferred retirement and study to the 
 courtly honours he might have obtained under so powerful a 
 patron. His knowledge of Greek and Latin transpires all 
 through his works, his style and language always appearing 
 robed in classic attire. He is the author of several good trans- 
 lations, such' as of Euripides' tragedies and the Courtier of Bal- 
 thasar Castiglione. His tale on the basis of the Hero and Leander 
 of Mus£eus, written in blank verse after the example of Bernardo 
 Tasso, contains many gentle and sweet passages, which even 
 now can be read with plea.sure. Nothing certain is known about 
 his birth and death ; but his widovv having published his works 
 in 1543, he may have died in that year. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOSCAWEN, Edward, admiral, second son of Hugh, Vis- 
 count Falmouth, born in 1711. His first connnand was that of 
 the Shoreham, 20 guns, with which in 1740 he highly distin- 
 guished himself under Admiral Vemon at the taking of Porto 
 Bcllo. In the following year he took a prominent part in the 
 siege of Carthagena, and after the attack of Bochachica, in 
 which Lord Aubrey Bcauclcrk was killed, succeeded that gallant 
 officer as commander of the Prince Frederic of 70 gims. In 
 1744, while in command of the Dreadnoii;//it of 60 guns, he 
 took the Medea, a French man-of-war of 26 guns, commanded 
 by M. Iloquart, an officer whom, strange to say, Boscawen on 
 two subsequent occasions encountered and made prisoner. In 
 1746, being then captain of the Namur, 74 guns, he chased into 
 Admiral Anson's fleet a French ship-of-war, the Mercury, 58 
 guns. The following year he distinguished himself in an engage- 
 ment with the French fleet off Cape Finisterre, and was wounded 
 in the shoulder by a nuisket ball. Having been named rear- 
 admiral of the blue, and appointed commander-in-chief of an 
 expedition to the East Indies, he set sail from St. Helen's, 
 November 4, with six ships of the line, fi\'c frigates, and two
 
 BOS 
 
 688 
 
 BOS 
 
 thousand soldiers. After reconnoitcring the ^lauritius, and find- 
 in" the landing-place impracticable for an attack, he proceeded 
 to Fort St. David's. By order of a council of war held at 
 this place he assumed the eonnnand of the army, and marched 
 against the French at Pondicherry, the siege of which, after two 
 months of suffering and privation rather than of action, was 
 raised October 6. In 1749 he lost his own ship the Namur and 
 two more, but was himself providentially cast on shore. On his 
 return home in the following year, he found that his services in 
 the east had been recognized by his being named rear-admiral 
 of the white. In 1751 he was appointed one of the lords com- 
 missioners of the admiralty. In 1755, having been appointed 
 vice-admiral of the blue, he sailed from Spithead with a power- 
 ful fleet to intercept the French North American squadron. On 
 his return he brought with him as prizes two ships of 6-1 guns 
 each, and fifteen hundred prisoners. After some unimportant 
 services as commander of the squadron in the Bay, he was named 
 admiral of the blue, and appointed to head an expedition to Cape 
 Breton. The important fortress of Louisburgh, the islands of 
 Cape Breton and St. John, fell into his hands in July, 1758. 
 On his return he received the thanks of the house of commons. 
 In 1759 he was appointed to the command of a squadron, con- 
 sisting of fourteen sail of the line and two frigates, ordered to 
 cruise in the Mediterranean. With this force, surprising the 
 French fleet commanded by De la Clue, who tliought to elude 
 the vigilance of the British admiral by departing from the port 
 of Toidon while Boscawen was refitting his squadron at Gibral- 
 tar, he captured three sail of the line, and burned two in Lagos 
 Bay. His prisoners amounted to two thousand. Later in the 
 same year he was in command of the squadron in the Bay of 
 Biscay. The " Brave Boscawen," as he was usually called, died 
 at his seat at Hatchland, near Guildford, in 17G1. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOSCH, B.VLTHASAR VAN DEX, a Flemish painter, bom at 
 Antwerp in 1675. He was taught by an unknown man named 
 Thomas, whom he soon surpassed. The specialty of this Ant- 
 werpian was, like Poussin, the interior of saloons and rich 
 renaissance saloons, filled with pictures, statues, and figures 
 dressed in proper costume, but otherwise being mere doll furni- 
 ture and characterless. Sometimes he would paint more for his 
 own amusement a sculptor's or artist friend's studio, which were 
 equally popular and in demand. His small portraits were so 
 celebrated, that the duke of Marlborough (probably at somebody 
 else's expense) sat to him on horseback — Peter Van Bloemen 
 undertaldng the horse, for Bosch would have made an ass of it. 
 Bosch drew and coloured well, and his composition Biyan calls 
 ingenious. Bosch died in 1715. — -W. T. 
 
 BOSCH, Bernard, born at Deventer in 1746, and died in 
 1803. He pubhshed political and patriotic tracts, in prose 
 and verse, 3 vols, octavo. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOSCHAERT, Nicholas, a flower painter, whose reputation 
 has faded like one of last year's roses. He was born at Antwerp 
 in 1G96. He was a scholar of Crepu's. He had a light airy 
 touch, and shook his blossoms into a pretty enough confusion. 
 He was frequently employed by his contemporaries. — W. T. 
 
 BOSCHI, Fabrizio, a Florentine painter, bom in 1576, and 
 a disciple of Passignani. At the early age of nineteen, so soon 
 he blossomed, he executed a fresco of the life of St. Bonaventure, 
 which astonished and puzzled everybody. An " Assumption," 
 and "Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul," were good deeds of 
 his. He died in 1642, after sixty years of painting, and having 
 used canvass enough to sen'e a fleet. — W. T. 
 
 BOSCOLI, Andrea, a Florentine painter, who flourished 
 about 1580. He was a pupil of Santo de Titi, and acquired some 
 reputation for history and portraits- He engraved nineteen 
 plates, and then some unknown artist engraved the coffin-plate 
 for Andrea Boscoli. — W. T. 
 
 BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, mathematician, physicist, 
 philosopher, and poet; born at Ragusa in 1711, died in 1787. 
 Boscovich was a member of the Society of Jesus ; his life was 
 spent in study, in ease and honour ; he appears to have received 
 any office that he might covet; he was respected and pensioned; 
 nor did he ever experience coldness or reverse except at the 
 hands of D'Alembert and the encyclopedists, who were by no 
 means disposed to hold a Jesuit in unmerited or inordinate 
 esteem. But his deserts were too gi'eat and too ob\aous to be 
 affected by any slight ; nor has posterity vindicated the singular 
 hostility of Condorcet and D'Alembert. Boscovich had the good 
 fortune to point out, first of all, the importance of the solar 
 
 spots as an index to the period of the sun's rotation ; and 
 amongst other services to science, he engaged with success in 
 the earliest geodetical enterprise of merit, undertaken within 
 the papal states. Not only was he a keen and intelligent sup- 
 porter and expounder of the Newtonian doctrine of gravitation, 
 but his enduring fame maiidy rests on a daring extension of 
 Newton's conception to the ultimate condition or constitution of 
 Matter, — an extension which eveiy subsequent and advancing 
 step realized by physical speculation, has tended to elucidate and 
 confirm. The theory alkuled to, is laid down with greatest detail 
 in the treatises, " De Continuitatis Lege," " Dissertationes de 
 viribus viris," "Theoria pliilosophi;B naturalis reducta ad unicam 
 legem virium in natura existentium." In the main it is this — 
 the idtimate elements of matter are indivisible points without 
 extension, which are surrounded by spheres of force, alternating 
 according to the distance from these points, up to a certain degree 
 of remoteness : for instance, the sphere nearest to a point is one of 
 repulsion, the intensity of which increases infinitely as the point 
 is approached ; beyond that distance, repulsion slides into attrac- 
 tion, and there is a sphere within which this influence exists and 
 energizes ; a sphere of repulsion again follows, and so on, until 
 perceptible distances are reached, within which, in so far as at 
 present known, attraction, or Newton's gi'avitation, alone prevails. 
 The repulsive force in the neighbourhood of the point increasing 
 ad infinitum, the quality of impenetrability is easily explained. 
 If a body is so constituted that all its elements exist towards 
 each other in the relation of attraction, the body will be compact 
 or solid ; if, on the other hand, its points or atoms are repellent, 
 it must be gaseous ; while if the distance between them is such 
 that they neither attract nor repel, the body will be liquid. AH 
 ordinaiy phenomena are equally susceptible of explanation, on 
 the ground of the conception of Boscovich: but it has a still larger 
 amplitude, one that cannot be unwelcome to modem chemistry: 
 — it shows the possibility of transformation, without change of 
 composition. If, as explained above, the atoms of a body exist 
 towards each other in the relation of attraction, the body is solid ; 
 but there are or may be many different degrees of distance equally 
 compatible with such a relation, inasmuch as various spheres 
 of attraction as well as rcpidsion may be supposed to exist. 
 Change one sphere of attraction for another, and although the 
 body continue solid, it will, to all intents and purposes, appear 
 a new and distinct body, although no alteration of what is com- 
 monly called its chemical constitution, has been impressed upon it. 
 Judging a priori, it seems far from unlikely that the relations 
 between what (chemically speaking) are really simple and inde- 
 composable elements, may receive elucidation from this idea of 
 the accomplished Jesuit. — Should Italy ever attain to peace and 
 regain prosperity and repose, we shall expect, as one of the least 
 of her achievements, a uniform and perfect edition of the works 
 of Boscovich. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOSE, Ernst Gottlieb, a German physician and naturalist, 
 was born at Leipzig on 30th April, 1723, and died there on 22d 
 September, 1788. He distinguished himself in botany, and wrote 
 treatises on the nodes of plants, the origin and direction of their 
 roots, their secretions, and their circulation, besides several 
 medical and surgical works. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOSELLI, Antonio, a Bergmno painter (circa 1500). He 
 was a sculptor as well. — ^W. T. 
 
 BOSIO or BOSIUS, Giacomo, an Italian historian, born 
 either at Jlilan or at Chivas in Piedmont, lived in the second 
 half of the sixteenth century. He was secretary and agent to 
 the Maltese order, in the pontificate of Gregory XIII. 
 
 BOSON, a monk of Normandy, abbot of the monastery of 
 Bee, born at Montevilliers in 1065; died in 1136. Before being 
 appointed to that abbacy he had been in England with Anselm, 
 and hadrepresented that prelate at the council of Clermont, 1095. 
 
 » BOSQUET, General, was born in 1810 at Pau, in the 
 Pyrenees, and was educated at the college of that town. He 
 entered the £cole Polytechnique in his nineteenth year, and in 
 1833 became a sub-lieutenant of artillery. In the following 
 year his regiment was ordered to Algeria, where he distinguished 
 liimself by his activity and enterprise. The following anecdote 
 will show his military skill : — In an expedition undertaken by a 
 small column of infantry, to which he was attached, with three 
 or four guns, the little force was suddenly surrounded by a swarm 
 of Arabs. The situation was critical, and the plan of operations 
 was not calculated to meet and overcome such an unexpected 
 dantrer. On recei\'ing instructions from his commander as to
 
 the use to be made of his guns, he ventured respectfully to oppose 
 the plan, and to suggest a manoeuvre by which the column could 
 be extricated with very httle loss. The plan was adopted, and 
 the young lieutenant was charged with the movement. The 
 result justified his calculations, and did honour to his militaiy 
 talent and judgment. The enemy was repulsed, and Bosquet 
 thus laid the foundation of the high reputation which he now 
 enjoys. Intended for the decoration of the legion of honour, his 
 name was erased from the list proposed to the minister, and he 
 did not receive the decoration. This flagrant act of injustice 
 excited the generous indignation of his brother officers, who 
 presented themselves in a body to the governor of Algeria, and 
 demanded reparation. This energetic remonstrance succeeded, 
 :.nd Bosquet was decorated with the ribbon and star of the order 
 V a special decision. Ha\-ing attained the rank of a first lieu- 
 tenant in 1836, and that of captain in 1839, he was apipointed 
 to the battalion of pontooners. Re-entering the artillery in 
 1811, he was soon afterwards promoted to the rank of chief of 
 'lattalion of the native sharpshooters of Oran. In 1845 he 
 attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed to 
 the loth fight infantry. After some further changes, in 18-48 
 we find him in command of the 16th regiment of the fine ; and 
 lia\-ing given his adhesion to the republican government then 
 inaugurated, he was named general of brigade, and placed at the 
 disposal of the governor of Algeria. He was present in most of 
 the engagements which took place in Algeria during the last 
 twenty years of the French occupation of that country. He was 
 wounded in the battle of Sidi-Zackhdar in 1841, and again on 
 the 11th of April, 1851, in forcing the pass of Jlenagel, at the 
 head of his brigade. By this brilfiant achievement he inaugu- 
 rated the war against the Kabyles, in a manner which at once 
 _'ave earnest of success. Of all the French generals. Bosquet is 
 the best acquainted with Algeria, and the wild hordes which so 
 long occupied the French arms. Intimately acquainted v.-ith 
 Arabic, he has made the manners of the people and the physical 
 constitution of the country the subjects of profound study. His 
 lim was to insure the continued submission of the fierce spirits 
 ipposed to him by moderation and justice, when he had subdued 
 them by his energy and coiu-age in the field. When he left 
 Algeria, one of the native tribes which had submitted to French 
 domination presented him with a pair of richly-damascened spurs, 
 made in the European style, as a mark of their friendship and 
 esteem. No greater proof can be desired of his moderation and 
 uprightness in power. He is scarcely less deserving of notice, 
 in fact, for his courage and capacity as a military commander, 
 than for the inflexible rectitude and elevated sentiment of bis 
 character. Algeria has been to France a vast military school for 
 the practical training of the men who are to uphold her ancient 
 and well-acquired renown, and to add new glories to the long 
 roll on which fame has inscribed Lodi, Areola, Wagram, Esling, 
 Jena, Friedland, Austerlitz, Borodina, Smolensko, and Moscow. 
 In 1853 he became a general of division, and was sent by Mar- 
 shal St. Arnaud in the following year, in command of the second 
 division of the expeditionary army on the banks of the Danube, 
 in spite of his well-kno\vn repul)fican sentiments ; for he was one 
 of those who most strongly opposed the establishment of the 
 imperial regime in France. He shared with St. Arnaud, Can- 
 robert, and Pelissier, the dangers and trials of the Crimean 
 campaign of 1854-55. He was foremost in forcing the passage 
 of the Alma, and was one of the two generals (the other being 
 General JIacmahon) whose successful assault on the JIalakotf 
 forced the Russians to evacuate Sebastopol. — E. W. 
 
 BOSQUILLOX, Edouard Fraxcois Marie, bom at Mont- 
 didier in 1744, and died in 1816. Educated first by his father, 
 and afterwards at a Jesuit establishment in Paris, he took a 
 degree in medicine. In 1774 he was appointed professor of 
 Greek at the college of France. Bosquillon possessed one of 
 the most valuable medical fibraries in tlie world, the catalogue 
 of which fills four hundred closely-printed octavo pages. His 
 translations, chiefly from Engfish medical and surgical books, 
 are highly prized. His notes often exceed the text in extent, 
 and are said to render his translations of more value to a student 
 than the originals. Bosquillon's benevolence makes his name 
 remembered among the poor. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOSSCHA, Herman, bom in 1775; died in 1819; con- 
 ducted a Latin school for several years ; and in this capacity 
 moved from time to time from one Dutch city to another, finally 
 occupying a chair as professor at Amsterdam. He published 
 
 VOL, I. 
 
 some occasional poems in Dutch and in Latin. He translated 
 into Dutch Blair's Lectures, and Plutarch's Lives. He wrote 
 a histon,- of the revolution of Holland in 1813, which is still 
 referred to occasionallv. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOSSCHAERT, Thomas Willerorts, a Dutch painter, 
 bom at Bergen-op-Zoom in 1613. He studied at Rome, and 
 under Segers. His style much resembles Vandyck. In 1646 
 he was made director of the Antwerp academy, and died in 1656. 
 
 BOSSE, Abraham, a French engraver, bom at Tours about 
 1610. He imitated Callot in his more careless and ragged 
 manner, worked chiefly from his own designs, and published a 
 work on engraving, aftera'ards repubfished with additions by M. 
 Cochin. He executed portraits of Cardinal RicheUeu and Callot, 
 and a scene of the marriage of Louis XIV. — W. T. 
 
 BOSSECK, Heixkich Otto, a German physician, was bora 
 at Leipzig on 27th October, 1726, and died 30th January, 1776. 
 He prosecuted his medical studies in his native town, and then 
 travelled in France. Besides some medical works, he has written 
 dissertations on the stems of plants, the nodes of plants, and the 
 anthers. — J. H. B. 
 
 * BOSSELET, HippoLTTE, a political writer, bom at Paris 
 in 1824. Although esteemed for his talents, he has not written 
 any work by which to be fairly judged. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOSSI, Gii'SEPPE. This celebrated writer and artist was 
 bom at Busto Arsizio, near Jlilan, on the 11th of August, 1777. 
 Ha\-ing completed his classical education at the college of Monza, 
 in which he highly distinguished himself, and unable to resist 
 any longer his love for the fine arts, he went to the academy of 
 Brera, and under the direction of Appiani and Traballesi he 
 studied drawing and painting. So rapid was the progress made 
 in those arts, that his masters urged on him the necessity of 
 going to Rome, and studying there the chef-d"oeuvres of the old 
 masters. It was in Rome he met Canova, who took the pro- 
 mising youth by the hand, directed him in his studies, and soon 
 conceived for him the wamiest friendship, which was never 
 inten-upted dming Bossi's life, unfortunately but too short. 
 Bossi, Canova, and two or three other artists, represented then 
 with honour, and even with eclat, the Italian school in the fine 
 arts. On Bossi returning to Jlilan he was appointed secretary 
 of the Academy of Painting, and his talents both as a painter 
 and a poet won the admiration of Xapoleon I., who created 
 him a knight of the iron crown, and president of the aca- 
 demies of Milan, Venice, and Bologna. His fame as a writer 
 commenced in 1810, when he published his great work in four 
 books, entitled " 11 Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci." This 
 work has been eulogized by Giuseppe Maffei, who considers 
 Bossi one of the greatest prose writers of Italy ; and Goethe 
 proclaimed it a masterpiece of erudition and taste. Bossi was 
 also one of the collaborators to the biogi-aphy of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, to which more than sixty literary men from all parts of 
 Italy contributed their share of information. 'When resting 
 from his artistic occupations, Bossi devoted many leisirre hours 
 to poetrv", and some hymns, canzones, and sonnets from his 
 muse, fertile in lyric beauties, have been pubUshed in various 
 collections. His poem, written in the ililanese dialect on the 
 maniage of Prince Eugene Beauharnais, has enhanced Bossi's 
 fame as a poet. A marble bust by Canova, and a magnificent 
 sarcophagus, have been erected in Milan by the numerous pupils 
 and admirers of this eminent artist and distinguished writer. 
 He died on the 15th of December, 1815. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOSSI, GusEPPE Carlo Aurelio, baron de. This cele- 
 brated diplomatist was born at Turin on the 15th of November, 
 1758. Having finished his collegiate education, he devoted 
 himself to the study of the law, a.4 attended for five years the 
 lectures on jurisprudence delivered in the university of Tuiin by 
 the celebrated historian, Carlo Denina, who became afterwards 
 his warmest friend. Bossi was scarcely fifteen years of age 
 when he published two tragedies, "Rea Silvia" and "I Circassi," 
 both of which met with general approbation. When Joseph 
 II., emperor of Austria, published in 1781 his famous edict 
 of forgiveness, Bossi composed for the occasion an ode full of 
 philosophical ideas and liberal suggestions, quite at variance with 
 the spirit of the subalpine government. Its author was requested 
 to leave Turin, and Bossi chose Genoa as his retreat during his 
 undesen-ed ostracism. After a residence of six months in that 
 city, the portfolio of the home secretary being vacant, Bossi was 
 appointed first secretary of legation, and then minister ad interim. 
 It was during his summer vacations he composed the greater 
 
 48
 
 BOS 
 
 690 
 
 BOS 
 
 part of his Ijric poL'try, and an epic poem on the unfortunate 
 death of the prince of Brunsw-ick, who was drowned on the 27th 
 of April, 1785, whilst endeavouring to save several labourers 
 who were in imminent danger. This poem, entitled " Elliot e 
 L'OlIanda Pacificata," is a faithful account of all the historical 
 facts and personages connected with Holland. 'When the French 
 revolution broke out, Bossi was sent by his govei-nnient to the 
 camp of the king of Pi-ussia, to constilt with that sovereign on 
 the perilous position of Piedmont, and to find out the conditions 
 on which rested the Austro-Russian alliance. From thence he 
 went to Russia as envoy extraordinary, and remained there for 
 two years. The king of Sardinia having signed a treaty of 
 alliance with France, Bossi was ordered by Paul I. to quit his 
 doniinions ; and on his return to Turin he received as a reward 
 for his ability and coiu-age the embassy to Venice. That aristo- 
 cratic republic having fallen in 1797, Bossi returned to Turin, 
 whence he was deputed as an " alter ego" from the king of Sardinia 
 to the general-in-chief of the French armies. From that moment 
 Bossi always followed Napoleon, and rendered most important 
 ser\ices to his king. After the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, 
 Bossi was sent as ambassador to Holland, where he became 
 acquainted with General Joubert, whose friendship he enjoyed, 
 and who gave him the most indisputable proofs of his unlimited 
 confidence. Joubert having deprived King Emmanuel of his 
 crown, requested Bossi to repair to Turin and assist him in 
 la^-ing the foundations for a new government more suitable to the 
 wants of the time. Bossi had also the confidence of Talleyrand, 
 who more than once profited by the consummate knowledge in 
 politics that the Italian diplomatist had acquired in his travels, 
 and during his long residence in Russia, Prussia, and Venice. 
 It was in his daily intercourse with the French minister that 
 Bossi discovered the real intentions of France towards Piedmont, 
 and endeavoured by all means to avert from his countiy the 
 impending catastrophe, by effecting a reconciliation between the 
 two republics. The French ai-my having been beaten by the Aus- 
 trians and compelled to retreat, leaving Piedmont in the hands 
 of the enemy, Bossi fled from Italy and came to Paris, where 
 he devoted his time to literature. After the \ictory of Marengo 
 and the dispersion of the Austro-Russian army, he returned to 
 Italy, and was appointed by General Berthier minister plenipo- 
 tentiary to the I.igurian republic. That appointment did not 
 meet with the approbation of the first consul, who instituted 
 a government commission, well known in Italy by the name of 
 tlie government of the three Charieses, for its members were — 
 Carlo Bossi, Carlo Giuiio, and Carlo Botta. It was Bossi who 
 advised Napoleon to join Piedmont to France, that territory 
 being indispensable as a military station, of an immense strate- 
 gical importance, and as a magazine for the French armies in 
 Lombardy and Germany. Napoleon understood the purj^ort of 
 such a counsel and executed it, to the detriment of the nation- 
 ality and independence of Italy. Bossi was accused of treason 
 by his countrymen, and endeavoured to explain his conduct in a 
 pamphlet, which was translated into French by the order of 
 government, and circulated throughout the empire. From that 
 time to 1805 Bossi lived in complete retirement from puldic 
 affairs, and reappeared on the political stage at the request of 
 Louis Napoleon, then king of Holland, who induced Bossi to 
 accept the governorship of the department of Ain. In 1810 
 Bossi was created a baron of the empire, and sent with the 
 same rank to the di'partmrnt of La Manche, where he remained 
 till the year 1814. In 1815 he was made a knight of the legion 
 of honour, and was presented with letters of natiu-alization by 
 Louis XVIII. , but soon after being suspected of leaning towards 
 Napoleon, he was deprived of his governorship, although the 
 most influential inhabitants memorialized the king in favour of 
 their governor, and entreated that he should be left unmolested. 
 This demonstration of affection and esteem uetennined Baron de 
 Bossi to fix his residence in France ; and it was only after 
 thirty-five years of high diplomatic and political functions that 
 he revisited his native countiy. Whilst he was governor of Ain 
 he wrote a poem, entitled " Oromasia," the subject of which is 
 tlie French revolution. His versification is noble and faultless, 
 and under the assumed name of Albo Crisso, we can easily dis- 
 cover a scholar well acipiainted with the prince of epic poets 
 whom he successfully imitates. Tliis extraordinary man, the 
 principal events of whose life have been briefly registered here, 
 died in Paris, regi-etted by a numerous circle of friends and 
 admirers, on the 20th of January, 1823. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOS.SO, Matteo, bom of a noble family at Verona in 
 1428. He was sent early by his parents to Milan, under the 
 direction of Pietro Perleoni, an emuient rhetorician, whose school 
 was then frequented by many foreigners. Having completed his 
 studies, he obtained the direction of the chapter of canons at 
 Fiesole — a dignity which introduced him to Lorenzo de Medici, 
 through whose powerful recommendation he was elected a mem- 
 ber of the Platonic Academy. Poliziano and Pico della Mirandola 
 became his friends ; and such was the esteem in which he was 
 held by Lorenzo de Medici, that he was chosen as the fittest 
 person to present the cardinal's hat and purple to his son 
 Giovanni, afterwards Pope Leo X., an honour which is generally 
 reserved for the most intimate friend of the family. Sixtus IV. 
 many times wished to confer on him the episcopal dignity, which 
 he always refused through christian humility. He was con- 
 sidered an accomplished orator and a sound philosopher, and 
 has left many Latin works, which are considered by Poliziano 
 of great literary merit. His collection of letters, under the title 
 of " Epistolae Familiares ct Sccunda?," are full of moral and 
 philosophical doctrines, and his orations are cited by Rosini and 
 Bayle as models of sacred oratory. His work in eight books, 
 " De Vero Sapiential Cultu," was adopted by many Italian and 
 foreign universities. His translation, with notes, of five of 
 Cicero's orations, was interrupted by his death, which took place 
 at Padua in 1502.— A. C. M. 
 
 BOSSUET, J.\CQUES Benigne, bishop of Meaux, the glory 
 of the church of France in these later ages, was bom at Dijon on 
 the 27th September, 1G27. His father, Benigne Bossuet, was 
 descended from an ancient and honourable family in Burgundy, 
 and was himself a councillor in the parliament of Metz. The 
 duties of this function obliged him in lGo3 to transfer his resi- 
 dence to Metz, leaving the young Bossuet imder the care of his 
 uncle Claude, a man in every respect worthy of the charge. The 
 boy was designed from the first for the ecclesiastical state, and 
 received the tonsure in his eighth year. At the age of thirteen 
 he was nominated to a canonry in the cathedral of Metz. Soon 
 after his father's removal to Metz, he was placed at the college 
 of the Jesuits at Dijon, where he remained about eight years. 
 His punctual and faithful mode of working even then procured 
 for him from his schoolfellows (punning on his name) the title 
 of "bos suetus aratro." For a similar reason St. Thomas Aquinas, 
 when studying at a college in Paris, was called by his companions 
 " the great dumb ox," or " the Sicilian ox." The earliest trait 
 recorded of him, which shows in a marked way the bent of his 
 genius, is the impression made upon him at a very early age by 
 reading some pages of a bible which he found one day on his 
 father's desk, and obtained leave to take away with him. From 
 that time he read and pondered on it incessantly, and with extra- 
 ordinary devotion; and in his mortal illness, seventy years later, 
 we shall find that the same book was still his darling resource, 
 and his unfailing consolation. The Jesuits, soon discovering the 
 great abilities of their pupil, evinced a desire to attach him per- 
 manently to their society ; but as this did not meet the wishes 
 of the family, his uncle in 1642 sent him up to Paris, where he 
 entered in the college of NavaiTC as a theological student. He 
 remained at the college, with inten'als, for ten years. On the 
 day he entered Paris he saw Cardinal Richelieu, then sinking 
 under a mortal disease, being carried in a litter into the city, and 
 a few days after, he followed his body to the tomb. It was while 
 at the college of Navarre that that extraordinary eloquence which 
 afterwards spread his fame through Europe, found the first 
 occasion to display itself. One evening at the hotel Rambouillet, 
 the conversation turned on preaching, and M. de Feuquieres, who 
 had known Bossuet at Dijon, remarked to JIme. de Rambouillet (a 
 member of the royal family), that he knew of a young student at 
 the college of NavaiTc, who, if he was sent for at that moment, and 
 if a text were given to him, and a few minutes allowed for pre- 
 paration in a room by himself, would preach to them an eloquent 
 discourse an hour long. This strange sort of wager was at once 
 taken up ; Bossuet was sent for, and after a short meditation, 
 came forward and preached a sermon, the force and eloquence 
 of which astonislied all his hearers. The good bishop of Lisieux 
 hearing this, and knowing already sometliing of Bossuet, sent 
 for him, and had the experiment repeated in the presence of 
 himself and two other bishops. But when it was over, seeing 
 all the danger to which such a talent in one so yoimg (Bossuet 
 was at the time only sixteen) exposed its possessor, M. de Lisieux, 
 in a kind and paternal admonition, entreated the young prodigy
 
 BOS 
 
 691 
 
 BOS 
 
 not to suflFer himself to be withdrawn by the love of praise, or 
 the persuasions of others, from that studious, humble, and 
 retired life which was fitting for his age. Bossuet heard and 
 heeded, and we hear of no more such displays of oratory. 
 
 In 1648 he took his bachelor's degree ; after which he resided 
 at Metz for two years, to be near his family, while studying for 
 tRe theological hcense. In 1650 he commenced his license at 
 the college of Navarre. Duiing the Lent of 1652 he took priest's 
 orders, having previously made a retreat at the college of St. 
 Lazare, under the direction of St. Vincent de Paul. He con- 
 ceived an earnest and aflFeetionate admiration for his director, and 
 nearly fifty years later, in 1700, took an active part in promoting 
 his canonization at Rome. In May he obtained the license of 
 doctor in theology, coming second on the hst, the abbe de Ranee 
 being the first. The founder of the austere order of La Trappe 
 was at this time plunged in the vanities and dissipations of the 
 world, and no tie of sympathy seemed possible between liim and 
 the serious studious Bossuet. But events were so strangely 
 ruled, that the grave student came to be the trusted and familiar 
 inmate of the most magnificent court of Europe, while the bril- 
 liant de Ranee, flying from his remorse to a frightful solitude, 
 expiated for long years in penitential austerities the errors and 
 follies of his youth. Under these altered circumstances, the two 
 men met again, as we shall see. 
 
 At this period, when the formal preparation for life was com- 
 pleted, Bossuet had to decide what course to take. He was 
 urged to stay in Paris ; he had powerful friends and patrons at 
 court ; and such powers as his must insure a successful career. 
 On the other hand. Comet, the grand-master of the college of 
 Navarre, wished to resign in his fa^•our, and pressed Bossuet to 
 consent to be nominated. But lastly, he was a canon, and now 
 archdeacon, of the cathedral of Metz ; and here a plain path of 
 duty presented itself. Bossuet did not hesitate ; he went to 
 Metz, and resided there for six years. During this period he 
 added largely to those stores of learning which he afterwards so 
 ably employed. Among the fathers, St. Augustine was his great 
 oracle ; he read and re-read him, and completely penetrated 
 himself with the modes of thought of the fervid African. But 
 more than all he studied the New Testament, a copy of which 
 he had always about him. He Uved on friendly terms -mth the 
 minister of the Calvinists at Metz, M. Paul Ferri, and it was 
 with him that he commenced the long series of his controversial 
 writings, by publishing, in 165-1, a refutation of the catechism 
 of Paul Ferri. The fame of his preaching gi-adually spread, and 
 he was so often invited to preach in Paris, that at the end of 
 1658 he transferred his residence to the metropolis, taking up 
 his abode at the deanery of St. Thomas du Lou\Te. For the 
 next ten years he lived at Paris, preacliing constantly, gaining 
 the friendship of good men by his purity of life and uprightness 
 of character, and causing the ascendancy of his genius to be 
 daily more felt. In 1661 he preached for the first time before 
 Louis XIV. In 1667 the great Turenne made to him his abjura- 
 tion of protestantism, after reading the manuscript of his "Ex- 
 position de la foi Catholique." His recognized moderation and 
 fairness of mind caused him to be employed by M. Perefixe, 
 archbishop of Paris, with much success as a mediator between 
 Amauld and the party of Pcjrt Royal, and their assailants. A 
 great number of the sermoiis which he preached at this time are 
 to be found in the collective editions of his works. In lucidity 
 of arrangement and correctness he is said to yield to Boiu-daloue, 
 and in the musical flow of his periods to Massillon; the rugged- 
 ness as well as the fervour of St. Augustine hangs about his 
 style ; but for comprehensiveness of view, for grandeur of con- 
 ception, for that enthusiastic eloquence which springs from deep 
 personal conviction, Bossuet's sermons have perhaps never been 
 equalled in modern times. 
 
 In September, 1669, he was nominated to the bishopric of 
 Condom ; and in the following year, the king, whose admiration 
 and regard for him had gone on augmenting, appointed him 
 preceptor to the dauphin. During tlie next ten years, therefore, 
 Bossuet hved at court, for he resigned the bishopric of Condom 
 a few months after receinng the above appointment. His labours 
 during this period, whether in the field of controversy, or in that 
 of bibli&d commentary, or of tutorial instruction, were unceasing. 
 His fiunous conference with the minister Claude in 1678 we 
 shall speak of presently. His commentaries on the Psalms were 
 the result of a long series of conversational promenades in the 
 Allee des Philosophes in the park at Versailles, where Bossuet 
 
 was of course the presiding genius, but which the greatest intel- 
 lects of France — Fenclon, Fleury, Pelisson, La Bruyere, &c., 
 delighted to attend, for theological, philosophical, and Hterary 
 discussion. The MS. of the chief part of the commentaries pro- 
 duced at this time was never printed, and has luifortunately been 
 lost. Those who were present at these meetings used always to 
 dine with Bossuet, who gave, according to the abbe de Longue- 
 Tuejjbrt maucaise chire. His pupil, the dauphin, was a youth 
 of very ordinary abilities, and but httle sympathy seems ever to 
 have been established between liLm and Bossuet. It was for the 
 instruction of this prince, nominally at least, that the celebrated 
 delphin editions of the classics were composed, and that Bossuet 
 wrote his " Discours siur I'Histoire Universelle," than which 
 none of his works bears a clearer impress of his lofty mind. But 
 we should do scanty justice to Bossuet's unmense activity, did 
 we suppose that his life at comt was engrossed by literary pur- 
 suits, however varied. By him, ui 1674, the weak purpose of 
 ^Ime. de la Valliere, long stmggling between her awakened 
 conscience and her splen^lid temptations, was strengthened and 
 sustained ; and in the following year he preached one of his most 
 celebrated sermons at her solemn profession in a Carmehte 
 monasteiy. By him, in a gi-eat measm-e, in the same year, the 
 guilty connection of Louis XIV. with madame de Montespan 
 was for a time broken through. Tm-enne in 1675, and the 
 due de Rochefoucauld, author of the ]\I:iximes, in 1680, dying 
 in his anns, received from him the last succours of religion. He 
 «Tote also at this period several letters to the king, while with 
 the army in Flanders, in one of which he strongly urges him to 
 exert himself to reUeve the distress among the people. Bossuet's 
 eagle eye detected the weak spot in the apparent greatness and 
 magnificence of France; and had his adrice been honestly 
 followed, perhaps the revolutionary ruin of the succeeding cen- 
 tuiy might have been averted. In 1680 the education of the 
 dauphin being over, Bossuet was made first almoner to the 
 dauphiness. For the space of a year he had no other definite 
 employment, tmtil in May, 1681, he was nominated by the king 
 to the vacant see of Meaux. He was about to prepare himself 
 for his new duties by a retreat at La Trappe, when his design 
 was frustrated by the pressme of weighty business connected 
 with the approaching assembly of the French clergy at Paris, to 
 consider the question of the regale. Our limits will not permit 
 us to attempt anytliing like a regular narrative of the proceed- 
 mgs of this celebrated assembly. Suffice it to say, that Bossuet 
 was the life and soul of a body which contained all the most 
 distinguished ornaments of the church of France — a church 
 never at any time more richly adorned by the virtues and talents 
 of her clergy than then. He was chosen to preach the opening 
 sermon on the 9th November, 1681 ; and the fine of conduct 
 which he traced out in this iliscourse, was exactly that which by 
 incredible labour and patience, and by the fuU exertion of all his 
 matchless powers, he finally induced the entire assembly to 
 pursue. After the aftair of the rifjule was settled, the assembly 
 proceeded to deliberate on the general questions of the relation 
 of the spiritual to the temporal power, and of the papacy to the 
 church. The result was the declaration of the Gallican church, 
 dated March 19th, 1682, contained in four articles composed by 
 Bossuet. The most hnportant points of this declaration ;ire, first, 
 the assertion of the radical distinction between the spiritual and 
 temporal powers, and of the independence of the latter on the 
 former ; secondly, the declaration, in conformity with the council 
 of Constance, that the decision of a pope, even in questions of 
 faith, is not inefonnable, " nisi ecclesiic consensus accesserit." 
 
 After the breaking up of the assembly in June, 1682, Bossuet 
 immediately proceeded to Meaux, the see of which he adminis- 
 tered for the remaining twenty-two years of liis Ufe; and at 
 this point we shall collect together such notices as our space 
 will permit us to record concerning his manner of life in his 
 diocese, and in his own household. He now can-ied out his 
 suspended project of visiting the monastery of La Trappe, the 
 superior and founder of which, the abbot de Ranee, he cordially 
 loved and admired. During this retreat, he editied the monks 
 of that ascetic order by the strict fidelity with which he con- 
 formed to all the obsenances prescribed by the rule. He visited 
 La Trappe eight ditVerent times ill the course of his episcopate, 
 and used to say that he was never happier than when there. 
 Upon his return to Jlcaux, he zealously applied liimself to the 
 discharge of the duties of the episcopate, bringing to bear upon 
 the guidance of the souls counnittcd to hun all the immense
 
 BOS 
 
 G92 
 
 BOS 
 
 eiiersy and extraordinary powers of body and mind with which 
 God had endowed him. With unremitting toil he thus devoted 
 himself for more than twenty years to the pastoral charge, until, 
 in the last year of his life, incessant pain and weakness disabled 
 him from its continuance. He paid great attention to the proper 
 regulation of the seminary in his diocese, especially urging upon 
 the students who were in training for the priesthood, the impor- 
 tance of perfecting themselves in the art of speaking in public, 
 so as to be able to preach constantly to their congregations. In 
 conducting the controversy with protestants, he deemed this 
 qualification to be one of paramount necessity. In all his rela- 
 tions with his clergy there was that blending of simplicity with 
 dignity, and of frankness with firmness, which is distinctive of 
 true moral greatness. In the clerical conferences which he held 
 frequently in ditferent parts of his diocese, it was his delight to 
 discuss and resolve questions of practical difficulty bearing on 
 the duties of pastors ; and nothing was more remarkable than 
 the way in which he knew how to adapt the level of his conver- 
 sation, and even his manners, to that of the less refined and 
 educated members of the priesthood whom he found in remote 
 districts. He held a diocesan synod once a year ; and these 
 were the occasions which he always chose for delivering " can- 
 onical admonitions " to such of his clergy as might be liable to 
 censure. This was a favourite plan with him, and succeeded 
 admirably. He used to say, " A bishop should instruct, rather 
 than institute proceedings. Men do not appeal from the word 
 of God." He preached regularly on Sundays and holidays in his 
 cathedral, but after he came to Jleaux he never wrote his ser- 
 mons. Shortly before mass one Sunday, Fleury and the Abbe 
 Ledieu, his secretary, entering his study unannounced, saw him 
 on his knees, with head bare and the gospel in his hand, 
 absorbed in meditation ; such was usually his sole preparation 
 for preaching. In another department of pastoral duty, his 
 astonishing labom-s must not be wholly passed over. There are 
 extant more than seven hundred letters of advice and direction 
 on religious matters addressed by him to nuns, especially to the 
 widow Cornuan. In giving ad\'ic« on such subjects, he took St. 
 Francis de Sales for his model. They fill the eleventh and 
 twelfth volumes of the Benedictine edition of his works. As a 
 proof of his firmness and ability as a ruler, we may quote the 
 celebrated case of the exemption of Jouarre. This monastery, 
 which under the tenris of an ancient papal brief, claimed exemp- 
 tion from the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese, had fallen 
 into a state of great relaxation. The abbess, a princess of the 
 house of Lorraine, resided for a few weeks in the year at Jouarre, 
 and passed the rest of her time in the gay world of Paris. WTien 
 all entreaty and admonition had failed, Bossuet, undeterred by 
 the influence at court of the powerful relatives of the abbess, 
 instituted a process in the grand chamber of the parliament of 
 Paris, and obtained a decree annulling the exemption. But the 
 inmates of the abbey still made a contumacious I'esistance to the 
 actual exercise of the episcopal jiu-isdiction, and the narrative of 
 the skill, patience, and firmness, with which Bossuet at last 
 succeeded in overcoming this resistance, forms the best illustra- 
 tive comment on his character. 
 
 Into the regulation of his domestic life Bossuet carried the 
 same conscientiousness and resolution which distinguished him 
 in his public career. The mass of work which he contrived to 
 get through is something confounding to ordinary conceptions. 
 " But," as his secretary, quoted by de Bausset, well observes, 
 " a man accustomed to lose not a single moment, has time for 
 all his duties ; a man all whose pleasures, and even his veiy 
 .sleep, are a study, has years more extended, and a longer life 
 than ordinary mortals." The one point on which he seems to 
 have failed was household economy ; he trusted his pecuniary 
 affairs entirely to a steward, and they consequently became 
 somewhat involved in the last years of his life. His country- 
 house at Germigny, near Meaux, was the favourite resort of 
 princes, nobles, and ecclesiastics — of all that was highest and 
 best in France, and all the illustrious foreigners that visited 
 Paris. The great Cond^, Fleiuy the historian, the Abbe Ren- 
 audot, d'Herbelot the celebrated orientalist, and la Bruye're, 
 author of the Caracteres, were among his intimate friends. 
 Boileau relates that he submitted to him in 1695 the MS. of 
 his epistle Sur I'amour de Dieu, an attack upon the false casuists ; 
 and that Bossuet, after reading it twice or three times, honoured 
 it with his hearty approbation. Similarly the Athalie of Racine 
 was shown to and approved by him before publication. But to 
 
 give even a summary of the varied relations, all interesting and 
 worthy of himself, in which this great man stood to the savans, 
 the poets, and the general society of his age, would require a 
 volume rather than an article. Before entering upon the closing 
 scenes of Bossuet's life, it is necessary to say a few words, first, 
 on his controversy with protestants ; secondly, on his dispute 
 with Fenelon ; thirdly, on such of his works as will not have 
 been mentioned in connection with the two previous heads. No 
 notice of the life of Bossuet could be considered complete which 
 did not give some historical account of the controversy which he 
 waged for fifty years against protestantism ; for a subject which 
 took up so much of the time and thoughts of so great a man, 
 and his writings on which created so great a sensation in Europe, 
 could not fairly be left out of sight by an impartial biographer. 
 In 1654, when Bossuet published at Metz his first controver- 
 sial work, the " Refutation du Catechisme de M. Paul Feni," 
 protestantism was still numeroixsly and powerfully supported in 
 France. At Metz, in particular, the Huguenots mustered very 
 strong, and it was here that their annual synod of ministers 
 was held. Thinking, as he became more deeply engaged in the 
 controversy, that one principal cause of estrangement was the 
 distorted view which many protestants had of the catholic doc- 
 trines, Bossuet conceived the idea of composing a short and 
 clear exposition, showing both what these doctrines were and 
 what they were not, to which he could refer an inquirer or an 
 opponent. This was the origin of the " Exposition de la foi 
 Catholique," the perusal of which is said to have converted 
 Turenne. The work remahied for many years in manuscript, 
 and was published, at the lu-gent entreaty of Turenne liimself, in 
 1671. In 1678, while Bossuet was at court, occurred his famous 
 conference with Claude. It was brought aljout by JIdlle. Diu-as, 
 a niece of Turenne, who had been educated as a protestant, but 
 was now leaning to Catholicism. Each of the disjiutants pub- 
 lished a version of the conference, but with many discrepancies. 
 When Bossuet went to Sleaux in 1682, he found the protestants 
 very numeroiis in the diocese. He oiganized a regular system 
 of missions for their conversion, which was attended with con- 
 siderable success. Like St. Augustine, he set his face agauist 
 the employment of any other means for the attainment of reli- 
 gious uniformity but those of instniction and persuasion. He 
 never once called for the interference of the civil power against 
 the protestants ; but, on the contrary, in the case of M. Seguicr 
 and others, succeeded, by appealing to the court, in checking 
 the persecuting exercise of authority sanctioned by the marquis 
 de Louvois. It is an ascertained fact that he was not consulted, 
 and had no concern whatever, in the fatal measure of the revo- 
 cation of the edict of Nantes. His fairness, kindness, aud 
 straightforwardness, were acknowledged by the protestants them- 
 selves, who never taxed one of his episcopal acts with injustice 
 or severity. In 1688 appeared the famous work, announced 
 many years before, known as the " Histoire des Variations des 
 Eglises Protestantes." Burnet, who was roughly handled in it, 
 and Jurieu, wrote replies, to which Bossuet responded in his 
 " Defence de I'Histoire," &c., and his " Avertissemens aux Pro- 
 te.stans," published in 1691 and 1689 respectively. From 1691 
 to 1701 an interesting correspondence was carried on between 
 Bossuet and Leibnitz on the subject of a reunion between the 
 catholic and Lutheran churches. Bossuet, who had the project 
 much at heart, would have gone so far as to concede the cup to 
 the laity of the Lutheran commimion, if they desired it, and to 
 relax the law of celibacy in favour of the existing Lutheran 
 ministers, upon their becoming catholic priests. Leibnitz at 
 first entered warmlj' into the scheme, but political considerations 
 induced him after a time to moderate his zeal, and at last, in 
 1701, to break off the correspondence altogether. In that year, 
 by the death of the duke of Gloucester, the princess Anne's only 
 surviving child, the succession of the house of Hanover to the 
 British throne liecame almost a certainty, and it would not do for 
 a confidential servant of that house to continue a correspondence 
 which might bring upon his patrons a suspicion of Rome-ward 
 tendencies, and thus imperil their acceptability to protestant 
 England. Writing to Fabricius in 1708, Leibnitz says — "All 
 our rights over England are founded upon the exclusion and 
 hatred of the Roman religion ; therefore whatever acts might 
 bring upon us the appearance of being lukewarm opponents of 
 Rome, are desen'edly to be avoided." It is possible, however, 
 that this correspondence had a real effect upon the secret con- 
 victions of Leibnitz; for in his posthumous work, the Systema
 
 Theologicnm, Ms leaning towards the entire catholic system is 
 manifest. 
 
 The celebrated controversy between Bossuet and Fenelon, on 
 tlie subject of quietism — tlie one only transaction in the life of 
 Bossuet which his biographer approaches witli regret — extended 
 over a period of five years, from 1694 to 1699. Some years 
 before, Jlolinos, a Spanish monk, had publislied a work on the 
 nature of true spiritual perfection, so redolent of delusion and false 
 mysticism, as to have incurred the formal condemnation of the 
 Hcly See. Sladame Guyon, about the year 1694, revived, both 
 in her writings and in the conferences at which she enlightened 
 her disciples, the principles of Jlolinos, though in a somewhat 
 modified form. Fenelon, who was at that time preceptor of 
 'he dauphin, but was nominated in 1695 archbishop of Cam- 
 rai, was inclined, from a similarity of mental structure, to view 
 with favoiur the rhapsodies of iladame Guyon ; but others, 
 particularly the bishop of Chartres, strongly disapproved of her 
 Tiroceedings, and at length prevailed upon Bossuet to take notice 
 I them. He in^-ited JIadame Guyon to visit Meaux, where she 
 sided for sLs months in a convent. During this period Bos- 
 - let examined all her writings, which she freely confided to him, 
 .nd in frequent conversations vnih her explained the nature of 
 the errors into which she had fallen, and counselled her respect- 
 ing her future conduct. She was apparently all docility and 
 submission, and Bossuet, on her leaving Jleaux, gave her a 
 certificate stating his belief in the perfect rectitude of her inten- 
 tions. In the meantime took place the conferences at Issy 
 February, 1695), at which some important articles on the 
 -interested love of God were drawn up, and signed by Fenelon 
 imself, to which we shall presently have occasion to refer. Mme. 
 • uyon upon leaving Jleaux, instead of remaining quietly in the 
 antry as she had promised, went up to Paris, and there circu- 
 ited among her followers copies of Bossuet's certificate, as if it 
 nounted to a complete justification of her conduct. An order 
 was thereupon issued from the court, which Bossuet seems to 
 liave approved or obtained, that she should be aiTested and 
 placed in confinement. This measure was the commencement 
 of the estrangement between Bossuet and Fenelon, which was 
 widened shortly after by Fenelon's refusal of his approbation to 
 a work which Bossuet had got ready for the press, entitled 
 " Instructions on States of Prayer." Fenelon meantime was 
 preparing his Maximes des Saints, which appeared in January, 
 1697. In this work, although approved by several censors, and 
 although Fenelon prefixed to it a declaration of his entire 
 adherence to the articles of Issy, the traces of a false mysticism 
 and a spurious spirituality are indubitably present. It contains 
 this assertion, that " a habitual state of love to God is possible, 
 which excludes both the fear of punishment, and the desire of 
 reward ; " and it admits an hypothetical case, in which, so long 
 as it retained the love of God, " a soul could consent to the 
 absolute sacrifice of its salvation."' Both these propositions were 
 clearly inconsbtent with the articles of Issy. Bossuet's work 
 on states of prayer appeared six weeks after that of Fenelon. 
 The feeling at court (see St. Simon's memoirs) set at first 
 strongly against the work of the archbishop of Canibrai. Bossuet 
 immediately set to work to examine the Maximes des Saints, and 
 soon extracted from it a number of propositions which he judged 
 to be deserving of condemnation. After many conferences he 
 prevailed on the archbishop of Paris, and the bishop of Chartres, 
 to join with him in a declaration which appeared in August, 
 1697, condemnatory of these propositions. But Fenelon had 
 already sent his book to Rome, and submitted it to the judgment 
 of the pope. Rome proceeded in the matter with her usual 
 deliberation ; and during the eighteen montlis which elapsed 
 before her decision was promulgated, an incessant war of pamph- 
 lets was carried on between the two disputants. Each put forth 
 hb utmost powers ; and while the brilliancy and force of the one 
 never appeared to greater advantage, the calm argumentative 
 dignity of the other caused him to have certainly not the worst 
 in the strife. But it is painful to see, as the dispute proceeds, 
 a gradual increase of bittemess on both sides, but particularly 
 on that of Bossuet, and at last a recourse even to personalities. 
 It must have been only in a moment of extreme irritation that 
 Bossuet could commit to j)aper the comparison of Fenelon and 
 Mme. Guyon to Montanus and Priscilla. At last, in March, 
 1699, arrived the brief of Innocent XII., condemning the 
 Maximes des Saints, with twenty-three propositions extracted 
 from it. Fenelon's prompt and edifjnng submission is well 
 
 known. It is consoling to know that Bossuet took steps before 
 his death to bring about a reconciliation with Fenelon, which 
 were baffled by a series of unfortunate contre-tems. 
 
 We can only devote a very few words to Bossuet's remaining 
 works. His funeral orations— a kind of composition which, 
 greatly as he excelled in it, he disliked — are a mine of profoimd 
 and consoling thoughts— of \\\\A. images — of inspiring exhorta- 
 tions. Among his devotional works are the " Meditations .sur 
 TEvangile," and the " Elevations sur les Jlyst^res." The 
 " Paraphrase du Pseaume XXI." was written only two months 
 before his death. But we cannot undertake to give even all the 
 titles of his many works, but must refer the reader either to the 
 Benedictine edition of them, or, for a general view of their con- 
 tents, to the Life by de Bausset. 
 
 The time now drew near when this gi-eat man, who had been 
 for fifty years the soul of France and the admiration of the 
 catholic world, was to pay himself that last debt of nature which 
 he had taught so many to contemplate with holj-hope. In 1701 
 another assembly of the French clergy was held, in which, as in 
 that of 1682, Bossuet's was still the master spirit, guiding aU 
 deliberations, and shaping all decisions. He obtained a formal 
 censure by this assembly of a number of propositions involving a 
 lax and pernicious casuistry, and especially of the monstrous 
 doctrine of probabilism. In December of the same year he was 
 visited by the first premonitory symptoms of the disease of which 
 he died. The physicians upon examination declared it to be the 
 stone. Lithotomy was at that time imperfectly understood, and 
 as Bossuet himself shrank from the operation, the medical men 
 confined themselves to administering such palliatives as their art 
 could supply. He was at Jleaux for three months in the spring 
 of 1702, and preached for one horn- in the cathedral with all his 
 wonted fluency and power on the subject of frequent communion. 
 The last words of this, his last sermon in that place, were as 
 follows : — " I wish that you should remember that a certain 
 bishop, your pastor, who professed to preach the truth and to 
 uphold it without disguise, collected together in this one discom"se 
 the capit.al tmths of your salvation." He returned to Paris to 
 be near the physicians, but spent the end of the year 1702 at 
 Meaux, leaving it for the last time early in 1703. The remainder 
 of that year was spent in Paris or ^'ersailles, the physicians not 
 alloiving him to return to Jleaux. Prolonged and racking pains 
 gradually attenuated and enfeebled his powerful frame; but 
 except when at rare intervals physical agony caused a temporary 
 suspension of the mental powers, his intellect retained its full 
 strength, and his wonderful memoiy was as clear as ever. In 
 the midst of his sufferings the slightest sign of impatience never 
 escaped him ; but he was often heard to munnm-, " Lord, I am 
 cast down, but not confounded ; for I know on whom I have 
 behoved ; Thy will be done." His chief consolation was in hear- 
 ing the New Testament read to him, particularly the Gospel of 
 St. John, which was thus read over to liim more than sixty times 
 during his illness. In ilarch, 1704, he was constantly attended 
 by his confessor, the abb6 de St. Andre. Upon the abbe's 
 expressing some surprise that Bossuet, so profound and experi- 
 enced a theologian, should consult him so minutely upon questions 
 of conscience, he repUed — " Undeceive yourself; God only gives 
 us light for the guidance of others ; he often leaves ixs in dark- 
 ness with respect to our own conduct." On tlie 8th April he 
 received the last sacraments, making all the necessary responses 
 with the humility and docility of a child. On the night of the 
 10th, when he was evidently sinking, the Abbe Ledieu, his 
 secretaiy, entreated that he would sometimes think on those 
 whom he had left behind him, who had been ever so devoted to 
 his person and to his glory. At these words the dying bishop half 
 raising himself up, said with a holy indignation — " Cessez ces 
 discours. Priez pour moi pardon ;i Dieu de mes jieche's." After a 
 day of great suffering, he quietly expired in the night between the 
 11th and 12th of April, without agony or convulsion. ANTien the 
 body came to be opened, a stone was found as large as an egg. 
 
 Bossuet was tall and of a commanding presence ; there was 
 something remarkably noble about the expression of his head 
 and face, and the effect was heightened in his old age by his long 
 white hair. By a fortunate mistake his tomb escaped the 
 iconoclastic fury of the Jacobins during the French revolution, 
 and his relics still rest in the cathedral of Meaux. The above 
 sketch has been chiefly compiled from the admirable Life by M, 
 de Bausset (P.aris, 1814), fomierly bishop of Alais. — T. A. 
 BOSSUT, Charles, Abbe, a distuiguished French matlie-
 
 BOS 
 
 694 
 
 BOS 
 
 matician and writer on hj'drostatics and hydrodynamics, was bom 
 at Tartaras, near St. Etienne, on the 11th of August, 1730, and 
 was educated in the Jesuits' college at Lyons. On the comple- 
 tion of his education, he addressed himself for advice as to his 
 future course in life to Fontenelle, by whom he was introduced 
 to Clairant and d'Alembert ; and those philosophers, appreciating 
 his talent for mathematics, encouraged him to persevere in culti- 
 vating that science, and assisted in obtaining him advancement. 
 In 1752 he was elected a con-espondent of the Academy of 
 Sciences, to v.-hich body he continued during life to contribute 
 many unportant memoirs. In the same year, by the recommen- 
 dation of the eminent architect, Le Camus de Mezieres, he 
 obtained a professorship at the school of engineering at Jlezieres. 
 In 17C8, on the retirement of Le Camus from the office of 
 examiner of students of engineering, tlie Abbe Bossut succeeded 
 him, and became remarkable for the strictness and impartiality 
 with which lie conducted his examinations. In the same year 
 lie was elected a meiiiber of the Academy of Sciences. The 
 Revolution deprived him for a time of his places, with their 
 emoluments, and reduced him to temporary jioverty ; but on the 
 establishment of the institute, he was chosen one of its members, 
 and afterwards was appointed one of the examiners of the poly- 
 technic school. From this situation, age and infirmity obliged 
 him to retire with a pension in 1808. He died on the 14th of 
 January, 1814, in his eighty-fourth year, as higlily respected 
 for his moral character, as he w;is admired for his scientific 
 abilities. The sciences to the advancement of which Bossut 
 contributed most were those relating to the equilibrium and 
 motion of hquids ; and in particular, the theory of the stability 
 of ships may be said to have been founded by him — a theory 
 whose practical application has been attended with most bene- 
 ficial results to the art of ship-building. These advantages 
 naturally fell, in the first instance, to the lot of the French navy, 
 the superior sailing qualities of which, at the end of the last and 
 beginning of the present century, are a matter of history. Sub- 
 sequent authors have added to our knowledge of the theoiy of 
 the stability of sliips, but the greater part of it is still due to 
 Bossut. His memoirs on this and on other mathematical sub- 
 jects, which gained prizes offered by the Academy of Sciences, 
 were collected in one volume, and published in 1812. He was 
 the author, besides, of several other works, amongst which the 
 most important were, a course of mathematics, very valuable 
 in its time as a book of instruction and reference, but now 
 superseded by more recent works, and a " History of Jlathe- 
 matics," pubhshed in 1810, a popular rather than a profound 
 work, but excellent of its kind. — W. J. M. R. 
 
 BOSSULUS, Ma'ithew, an eminent rhetorician of Paris, 
 who in 1583 gave lessons in the college of Boncour in that city. 
 He was a great master of his art, which he taught for some time 
 at Valencia in Spain, where his reputation stood so liigh, that 
 he was chosen tutor to Don Carlos, the son of Philip II. On one 
 occasion he delivered an oration on oratory and orators, which 
 made so deep an impression on one of his hearers, that although 
 the discourse lasted for an hour and a half, he remembered and 
 could repeat every word of it. — T. J. 
 
 BOSTANAI or BOSTANI, was Resh Gelutha (Prince of the 
 Captivity), i. e. temporal head of the Jewish colony in Baby- 
 lonia, at the time of the conquest of Persia by the Moslems in 
 1641. He was in favour, it is said, with the Caliph Ali, from 
 whose hands he received the daughter of the last native king 
 of Persia, Jezdegcrd III. She was converted to Judaism and 
 became Bostanai's wife. His life, which fell in an eventful time, 
 became the theme of a legendary story, published in Venice, 
 1585, and elsewhere.— T. f. 
 
 BOSTOCK, John, an English physician, bom at Liverpool 
 in 1774, practised first in his native to\vn, where he also lec- 
 tured on physiology. In 1817 he removed to London, and was 
 appointed in 1822 chemical lecturer in the medical school 
 attached to Guy's hospital. This position he continued to hold 
 for many years. He died in 1846. Dr. Bostock's most import- 
 ant work is his " Elementary System of Physiolog}*,'' London, 
 1827; of this a second edition appeared in 1837. He was the 
 author of several articles in Brewster's Edinburgh Cyclopaedia, in 
 Nicholson's Journal, the Annals of Philosophy, &c., and also 
 of an essay on respiration, ])ublished in 1804. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOSTON, Thk Ri:v. Thomas, a Scotch pre>byterian divine of 
 the establislied church, bom at Dunsc, Berwickshire, 17th JIarcli, 
 1676. HLs father, who belonged to the humbler ranks of life, 
 
 was a man of high respectabiUty of character — a decided cove- 
 nanter, and a sufferer in the cause. While in prison, whither he 
 had been sent because unable or unwilling to pay the fines imposed 
 upon him, his son Tlionias, the youngest of seven children, then 
 only entering on boyhood, was his constant companion — a cir- 
 cumstance which continued to live in his recollection, and exert 
 an influence upon his character. After receiving some initiatory 
 training at home, he was sent in his ninth year to the gi-ammar 
 school of his native parish, where, dming the four years of his 
 attendance, he made rapid progress in learning. While yet 
 a youth he was brought to serious reflection by incidentally 
 hearing two discourses preached by the Rev. Henry Erskine, 
 father of the Erskines, founders of the secession church, while 
 on a ministerial visit to Dunse. It was his design on leaving 
 school to study for the ministry, but the death of his father 
 about that time prevented him then, and for two years after, 
 from carrying his purpose into execution. In the interim he wag 
 occasionally employed in the office of a public notary in the town, 
 where he doubtlessly benefited by the knowledge of business and 
 character which he acquu'ed, but without receiving any salary, 
 on which account he considered himself unjustly used. He 
 entered the university of Edinburgh in 1691, and soon injured 
 his health by the eager dihgence with which he applied himself 
 to study. This however, gained him the exhibition in the gift of 
 the presbj"tery of Dunse, a trifle in its way, but very acceptable 
 to the needy student. Having entered upon the study of theo- 
 log}', he endeavoured to increase his finances, between sessions, 
 by teaching a school at Glencaim, where he resided with the 
 minister of the parish, in whose family he found himself very 
 uncomfortable in consequence of frequent dissensions amongst 
 its members. After lea\-ing this situation he obtained that of 
 tutor to Mr. Andrew Fletcher of Aberlady, whose mother had 
 then married Lieutenant Bruce of Kennet as her second hus- 
 band, and taken her son with her to her new residence. Here he 
 remained till entering upon his trials for license as a preacher, 
 which he obtained in 1697. Mr. Boston began his probationary 
 career as a ten-orist — a style of preaching which he subsequently 
 modified to some extent, but without approaching to that which 
 has been described as " prophesying smooth things." This cir- 
 cumstance, together ■sritli his conscientious objection to patron- 
 age, hindered his obtaining a settlement till three years after 
 license. The one he then obtained was in Simprin, a small barren 
 parish in the lower merse of Berwickshire, containing at that 
 time only ninety adult inhabitants, and subsequently united, on 
 account of its insignificance, with the adjoining parish of Swinton. 
 Here he was ordained in 1699, and remained till 1707, when 
 he was translated to Ettrick, a parish in the south-west of Sel- 
 kirkshire, where he found himself little better off in point of 
 emolument, and in other respects a loser from change of place. 
 The day on which he entered upon his new sphere of labour was 
 that on which the union between England and Scotland legally 
 took effect — 1st May, 1707 — an event which excited political 
 animosities in that remote, as in more central places, from which 
 it was impossible the minister, however temperate and discreet, 
 could escape. The government had shortly before imposed the 
 oath of abjuration on all persons holding public and official sta- 
 tions, whether in church or state. The refusal to take tliis oath 
 exposed the nonjurors to the penalty of £500, besides loss of 
 office. Jlost of the Scotch clergj- took the oath. The minority, 
 among whom was ilr. Boston, refused on various grounds. Those 
 on wliich he demun-ed were conscientious scruples respecting the 
 lawfulness of swearing at all. He was decidedly opposed to the 
 Pretender, against whose adherents the oath was cliiefiy if not 
 solely aimed, and as decidedly attached to the existing govern- 
 ment. Even this discriminate loyalty towards the ruUng powers 
 was construed into sycophancy and time-serving, and a number 
 of persons withdrew from his ministry. 
 
 Several favourable opportunities oft'ered themselves for remov- 
 ing from Ettrick to more ehgible places ; but in despite of the 
 treatment he received, he continued there till his death, which 
 took place on the 20th JIarch, 1732, in the fil'ty-seventh year of 
 his age, and thirty-third of his ministry. Had he sunived till 
 the end of the following year, he no doubt would have taken 
 part with the seceders who then withdrew from the estabhshed 
 church, and with whom he had co-operated in most of their 
 preliminary doings. A simple stone raised to his memory in the 
 burial-ground of Ettrick has been superseded of late years by a 
 more handsome one raised by pubUc subscription.
 
 Mr. Boston's published writings are very numerous, and to 
 tliem much of tlie intelligence and theological acquirements 
 which distinguished the Scottish peasantry at the end of the last 
 and beginning of the present century are to be ascribed. Those 
 now best known are his "Body of Divinity;" his " Crook in the 
 Lot;" and his "Fourfold State of Man." A copy of this last 
 book was at one time to be found in almost every cottage in 
 Scotland, and it is now impossible to specify the number of 
 editions through which it has passed. All his works are 
 intensely Calvinistic, with nothing in their style to commend 
 them save their perspicuity and terseness. They are never- 
 theless highly judicious, contain just exhibitions of divine truth, 
 close and pungent appeals to the conscience, and will be read 
 by Calvinists with ph^asure and profit. The best edition is that 
 edited by the Rev. Samuel M'Millan, Aberdeen, in 12 vols. 8vo, 
 and published by T. Tegg, London, 1853.— W. M'K. 
 
 BOSWELL, Sir Alkxandek, Bart., eldest son of James 
 Boswell, the biographer of Samuel Johnson, was bom October 
 9, 1775, and succeeded to the paternal estate of Auchinleck, 
 Ayrshire, on the death of his father in 1795. He was possessed 
 
 i excellent abilities, and attained considerable success in the 
 inposition of humorous and satirical scmgs. He published 
 anonymously in 1803 a small volume, entitled " Songs, chiefly 
 ill the Scottish Dialect." This was followed by "The Spirit of 
 I'intoc, or Johnnie Bell and the Kelpie ;" " Edinburgh, or the 
 Ancient Royalty," which contains some curious reminiscences of 
 the manners of the citizens of Edinburgh during the eighteenth 
 I I'litury ; " Sir Allan ;" " Skeldon Haughs, or the Sow is Flitted ;" 
 
 "The Woo Creel, or the Bull of Bashan;" "The Tyrant's 
 Fall," a poem on the battle of Waterloo ; and " Clan Alpine's 
 Vow," founded on the horrible murder of Dnimmond-Emich by 
 the Macgregors, referred to in Sir Walter Scott's Legend of 
 Montrose. The greater part of these poems have fallen into 
 oblivion ; but some of Sir Alexander's humorous songs, such as 
 " Auld Gudeman, ye're a drucken carle," " Jenny's Bawbee," 
 and " Jenny dang the Weaver," have secured a permanent place 
 in the lyrical poetry of Scotland. Boswell had a decided taste 
 for antiquarian pursuits, which was fostered by his possession of 
 a valuable family collection of old manuscripts and books, among 
 which was the celebrated romance of Sir Tristram, published 
 by Sir Walter Scott in 1804. Sir Alexander established a 
 private printing-press at Auchinleck, from which issued a black- 
 letter facsimile of the very rare disputation between John Knox 
 and Quinten Kennedy, the abbot of Crossraguel, at Maybole in 
 1562, the original of which was found in the Auchinleck library. 
 In 1821 Sir Alexander was created a baronet, an honour which 
 had long been the chief object of his ambition. Political strife 
 ran high at this period, and as member for the county of Ayr, 
 and a writer of pungent satirical verses, he took a prominent 
 part in supporting the government and assailing its opponents. 
 He contributed several jeux d'esprit to a notorious Edinburgh 
 newspaper, called the Beacon, and, after its suppression, to 
 another journal ot the same character which appeared in Glas- 
 gow, under the name of the Sentinel. Some of these poetical 
 contributions, containing coarse and virulent attacks upon James 
 Stuart, Esq. of Dunearn, were traced to their author, and led to 
 a duel between him and Mr. Stuart, March 2G, 1822, near the 
 village of Auchtertool in Fife. Sir Alexander was mortally 
 wounded in this unhappy affair, and died next day at Balmuto, 
 the ancient seat of the family of Boswell. Mr. Stuart was tried 
 for this offence before the high court of justiciary, but unani- 
 mously acquitted. " Boswell was able and literary," says Lord 
 Cockbum, " and when in the humour of being quiet, he was 
 agreeable and kind ; but in general he was boisterous and over- 
 bearing, and addicted to coarse personal ridicule. With many 
 respectable friends his natural place was at the head of a jovial 
 board, when every one laughed at his exhaustless spirits, but 
 each trembled lest he should he the subject of the next story or 
 song. It is curio\is that it was he who introduced, or at least 
 took charge of, and carried the act which abolished our two old 
 Scotch statutes against fighting a duel or sending a challenge ; 
 by the former of which the mere fighting without any result was 
 punishable with death. This was his solitary piece of legisla- 
 tion."— J. T. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, was born at Edinburgh in 1740, and 
 was the only son of Alexander Boswell, Esq., advocate, who, 
 upon being made a lord of session in 1754, assumed the title of 
 
 Lord Auchinleck (or Affleck), from his family estate in Ayrshire. 
 
 The Boswells, or Bosvilles, are said to have been originally an 
 English family established in the West Riding of Yorkshire. 
 They first settled in Scotland in the fifteenth century, on the 
 estate of Balmuto in Fife, which one of them obtained by mar- 
 riage with the daughter of a Sir John Glen. Afileck, forfeited by 
 the Afflecks of that Ilk, was acquired not long after. Boswell's 
 mother was a Miss Erskine, a descendant of the earls of JIar. 
 
 The young man was intended by his father for his own pro- 
 fession, but he was himself in no haste to enter upon the serious 
 business of life. After studying both at Edinburgh and Glasgow, 
 he made in 1760 his first visit to London ; in 1762 appeared as 
 one of the contributors to a collection of original poems by 
 Scottish gentlemen, published that year at Edinburgh; in 
 1763 astonished the world by a singular volume which he sent 
 to the press, consisting of a con-espondence upon all sorts of 
 subjects, public and private, which had passed between himself 
 and his friend, the Hon. Andrew Erskine (brother of Thomas, 
 the musical earl of Kellie) ; and in 1763, after making the 
 acquaintance of Dr. Johnson as he passed through London, set 
 out on a continental tour, in the course of whicli, after passing 
 a winter at Utrecht, where he attended the law classes, he 
 travelled over great part of the Netherlands, Germany, Switzer- 
 land, Italy, and France, and having sought out, and introduced 
 himself to many of the chief celebrities of the time — among 
 others to both Voltaire and Rousseau— finished by attaching 
 himself with extraordinary ardour to the famous chief of the 
 Corsican insurgents, General Paoli, whom he had gone to Cor- 
 sica to make acquaintance with. He did not return home till 
 1766, and he passed as advocate in July of that year. At this 
 date, and for some time after, he was commonly known by the 
 name of Paoli Boswell. He seems to have at first proposed to 
 follow his profession, and he made a fair commencement by the 
 publication of a pamphlet, entitled " The Essence of the Douglas 
 Cause," in defence of the claimant who called himself the son 
 ot Lady Jane Douglas, and who was ultimately recognized as 
 such by the decision of the house of lords. But his heart was 
 still in quite another subject. His next publication was " An 
 Account of Corsica, with memoirs of General Paoli," which 
 appeared in Glasgow in 1768, and that was followed the next 
 year by a volume, printed at London, of " British Essays in 
 favour of the brave Corsicans, by several hands." In this year, 
 1769, also, he married. 
 
 His only other professional publication was a report, in 1774, 
 of the speeches of the lords of session in a cause in which he 
 had been engaged as counsel — the well-known one, involving 
 the question of literary property, in which Donaldson and other 
 Edinburgh printers and publishers were defendants. Nothing 
 else is stated to have been produced by him about this period, 
 except a series of papers, entitled " The Hypochondriac," which 
 he contributed to the London Magazine from 1777 to 1782. 
 He had already lost all taste for Scottish law, and for everything 
 Scottish; and in 1782, on succeeding to the family estate by 
 the death of his father, he transferred himself to London, and 
 made preparations for being called to the English bar. Not, 
 however, probably, that he had any serious intention of having 
 much more to do with the law of either country. For a time he 
 appears to have looked to politics as a field that would suit him 
 better. In 1784 and 1785 he published two political letters 
 to the people of Scotland ; the first in support of the new 
 minister, Pitt; the second against the proposition for diminishing 
 the number of the lords of session. This ambition led him also 
 to make various attempts to get into parliament, and was not 
 finally quenched till his defeat at the general election in 1790, 
 after an expensive contest, when he stood for the comity of Ayr. 
 
 But what has immortalized Boswell is his connection with 
 Samuel Johnson. They first met, as has been stated, in 1763. 
 In 1773 they made their tour together to the Western Islands. 
 Johnson died in 1781, and the next year Boswell gave to 
 the world his journal of their tour to the Hebrides, in an 
 octavo volume published in Edinburgh. It is the riclu'st and 
 most reckless portion of his Johnsonian revelations, and is the 
 more remarkable as having been in great part read in the manu- 
 script by the sage himself. His great work, "The Life of 
 Johnson," followed in 1790, in two volumes, 4to., published at 
 Loudon. He died on the 19tli of May, 1795, leaving, besides 
 three daughters, two sons, of whom the eldest was Sir Alexander 
 Boswell, who fell in the memorable duel fought with the late 
 Jlr. James Stuart of Dunearn, Fifeshire, in 1822 ; the younger,
 
 BOS 
 
 696 
 
 BOX 
 
 the late Mr. James Boswell, Malone's coadjutor in preparing 
 his last edition of Shakspeare. Ever since his life of Johnson 
 appeared, Boswell's name has been a ho>isehold-word with all 
 English readers. As a mere biography, his work stands alone in 
 our literature, and probably in the literature of the world. In 
 what other have we anything like such a complete and living 
 picture of a man and an age ? It is more like a visible, moving 
 representation, than a mere narrative. This excellence of the 
 work, and the author's complete achievement of his purpose, are 
 universally acknowledged; but there has been some uncertainty 
 or difference of opinion as to what it is to which he mainly owes 
 his success. It is assuredly not the mere literal accuracy of his 
 reporting, as has been sometimes said. Perhaps it has not been 
 in general sufficiently adverted to or perceived, that Boswell is a 
 true artist, and as such necessarily puts into whatever he gives 
 us something of his own mind and pecuhar nature, as well as 
 his subject — the only way of breathing a liviug soul either into 
 writing or any other kind of representation. He was a most 
 extraordinary compound of strongly contrasted qualities and 
 tendencies ; with all his absurdity, which it would not be easy 
 to exaggerate, he was not only unmistakeably a man of genius, but 
 even of eminent shrewdness, sagacity, and practical talent in a 
 Ihnited way ; and, in like manner, with all his moral bluntncss or 
 worse, there were in him, as Mr. Carlyle has well pointed out, 
 some high and noble elements, such as are rarely to be met with. 
 
 A new interest has recently been excited about Boswell by 
 some letters which have been recovered by a singular chance, 
 and given to the world — " Letters of James Boswell to the 
 Rev. W. J Temple, now first published from the original MSS., 
 with an Introduction and Notes," Nov. 1857. From the pre- 
 face to this volume, and from subsequent statements which have 
 appeared elsewhere, we learn that the letters were obtained some 
 years ago at Boulogne by a Major Stone of the East India 
 Company's service, in the shop of a Madame Noel, who had 
 purchased them from a hawker accustomed to pass through 
 Boulogne once or twice a year, to supply the shops with waste 
 paper. Of their authenticity there can be no doulit. They are 
 very curious as additional illustrations of Boswell's remarkable 
 character ; but they only bring out into stronger light what 
 was known before. The Rev. William Johnson Temple, to 
 whom most of the letters are addressed, was an early friend of 
 his, and a person not unknown in the literature of his day. 
 There has also been lately printed for the Photobiblion Society, 
 under the editorship of Mr. Monckton Milnes, a curious tract 
 relating to Boswell, with the title of Boswelliana. An account of 
 both the Letters and the Boswelliana, is given in an article in 
 the Edinburgh Review for April, 1857. — G. L. C. 
 
 BOSWELL, Jamks, the younger son of the biographer of 
 Johnson, was a fellow of Brazenose college, and a person of 
 superior talents, and of eminent classical scholarship. As liter- 
 ary executor of Malone, he took charge of the publication of his 
 enlarged edition of Shakspeare, to which he contributed a memoir 
 of JIalone, and an essay on the metre and jihraseology of Shak- 
 speare. Mr. Boswell was remarkable for his conversational 
 powers and the warmth of his friendship. Like his fiither, he 
 had an intense fondness for the society of the metropolis, and 
 spent his life almost entirely in the Middle Temple. He died 
 Febniary 24, 1822, in his forty-third year, only a few weeks 
 before his brother. — J. T. 
 
 BOTAREL, Rabbi JIosiik, a native of Spain, lived in the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century. He was deeply versed in the 
 Cabbala, the theosophy of the Jews. In the year 1409, he wrote 
 for the use of Maestro .Tuan, a Christian scliolar, a copious com- 
 mentary on the cabbalistical book Yezirah, in which, he quotes 
 many works no longer extant. Dr. Julius Fiirst (Bibl. Hebr., 
 part i., p. 128) attributes to Botarel a translation from Latin into 
 Hebrew, of an astrological work by the famous Nostradamus; but 
 as Michel Nostradamus was born, according to the best authori- 
 ties, in 150.3, it is not easy to admit Fiirst's statement. — T. T. 
 
 BOTH, John and Andrkw, Dutch painters, brothers by 
 birth, and in reality. John was born at Utrecht in IGIO, the 
 son of a glass painter, and was a pupil of Blocmaert, in whose 
 studio Andrew was also a patient leamer. Together, hand in 
 hand, they went to Rome, and resided there many years. John 
 took to landscape, making Claude, the wonderful pastiy-eook, 
 his model. Andrew followed Bamboccio, and learned with kind 
 humility to adoni his brother's landscapes with figures, in exqui- 
 site taste, and with imagination all compact. Descamps and 
 
 Sandrart differ as to the death of the two brothers ; but from 
 other evidence it would appear, that in the very full summer of 
 their mutual amity, fame, and happiness, John was drowned in 
 a canal at Venice. Andrew, though loaded with employment, 
 was so aft'ected by this sudden blow, that he only survived a 
 few years, and died in 1656. There is, however, still a slight 
 mystery and doubt as to whether it was not Andrew who 
 was drowned, and John who returned to Utrecht to moodily 
 paint, employing Polemburg to paint his figures, instead of his 
 drowned brother. Andrew painted some independent pictm-es 
 of noisy merry-makings and bustling fairs ; and John the quack 
 doctors. The brothers executed some etchings of landscapes, 
 praying saints, beggars, and revellers. John Both's pictures 
 are remarkable for their warm, glowing, Italian sunsets, too 
 often for their tawny or saffron atmosphere, mannered colour, 
 and laborious and finical execution. In his time he was con- 
 sidered a rival of Claude, with his warm deep skies, " fine 
 receding sweet distances," sunny mornings breaking out from 
 behind woods and hills, or sundowns with a rose-tinged evening 
 cloud still growing fainter, less and less. He was named " The 
 Both of Italy " for what the old amateurs that stubborn Hogarth 
 laughed at, called " his admirable gi'acious handling, his free, 
 light, sweet pencil, and his extraordinary readiness of hand." 
 His pictures were generally between two and five feet long, the 
 smaller notes of exquisite neat finish, but Houbraken mentions 
 a " Mercury and Argus," a masterpiece, six feet high. Andrew's 
 card parties and open air feasts had their day. The imitators 
 of John Both, Italian Both, were clever and numerous : — 1. His 
 pupil William de Hensch : his skies are faint, and his touch deli- 
 cate, but not so sharp, true, and angular. 2. Jacob de Hensch, 
 nephew of No. 1. 3. John Wils, an imitator of Berghem and 
 Both. 4. WilUam van Swanenburg. 5. Frederich Moncheron, 
 fond of olive colour. 6. Isaac Moncheron. 7. Henry Fer- 
 schuring. We subjoin a list of some of John Both's more 
 favourite subjects, by which the reader can make a good guess 
 at the bent and aim of his genius: — artist studying from 
 nature near a mountain cataract ; travellers with ox waggons 
 and loaded mules ; a ferry-boat at sunset ; traveller reposing 
 at noonday ; the judgment of Paris ; cavalcade and muleteers ; 
 mule with casks ; nymphs bathing ; the flight into Egypt ; 
 travellers halting under trees ; mountain pass, with muleteer 
 and guitar ; a cascade ; watering beasts at a fountain ; banditti 
 with prisoners near the lake of Bolseno ; boys bathing ; sketch- 
 ing from nature ; cavalcade at a ford ; herdsman piping ; Philip 
 and the eunuch ; peasants pla)ing at racket on a summer even- 
 ing ; nuns of a convent ; gentlemen on horseback saluting, 
 (said to be the two brothers parting) ; Abraham and Hagai ; 
 hermits ; river scene ; wood waggons ; fishermen with nets ; 
 halberdier with prisoners ; Mercury and Bacchus ; travellers 
 attacked by robbers ; people talking on a bridge Such were 
 the varied scenes, generally with Italian sunrise and sunset, 
 woods, rivers, and hills, that John Both loved to deal in. — W. T. 
 
 BOTHWELL, Francis, Eari of. See Stewart. 
 
 BOTHWELL, James, Earl of. See Hepburn. 
 
 BOTHWIDI, John, a Swedish theo'ogian, died in 163-5. 
 He was attached as preacher to the court of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 and followed that prince through all his campaigns. He became 
 bishop of Linkoping in 1630, was recalled to Germany the fol- 
 lowing year, and charged by the king with the direction of eccle- 
 siastical affairs. He left among other works " Utrum Moscovitas 
 sint Christiani," 1620. 
 
 BOTIN, Andrea, a Swedish historian, was bom in 1724, 
 and died in 1790. His principal work is his " Utkast til Svenska 
 Folkets Historia," or Sketch of the History of the Swedish 
 Nation. A new edition of this work published at Stockholm, 
 1789-92, contains many additions, but extends only to the 
 thirteenth century. He wrote also " Om Svenska Hemman," 
 being a historical description ol the temtorial domain of Sweden, 
 Stockholm, 1757; a " Life of Biirger ; " and " Observations on 
 the Swedish Language." Botin received, in consequence of his 
 works, many honorary titles : he was counsellor of the king, 
 chevalier of the order of the polish star, a member of the Swe- 
 dish Academy at Stockholm, and of the academies of sciences 
 and belles-k'ttrcs, as well as of various foreign societies. — M. H. 
 
 BOTON, Ar.UAHAJi di, rabbi, lived at Saloniki, and died in 
 1625. His valuable commentary on the Yad Hachezakah, by 
 Maimonides, and 230 dissertations on Tahnudical subjects, have 
 gained Boton a high name in Jewish literature. — T. T.
 
 BOTSCHILD, Samuel, a painter and engraver, born at 
 Sangcrhausen in Saxony, 1640. He was a respectable common- 
 place man, who, not being ambitious, got on and escaped envy. 
 He became court painter of history to a court that had no history, 
 and keeper of the Dresden electoral galleiy. He established an 
 academy — that supposed hotbed of genius, where, indeed, genius 
 is too often overlaid. He died in 1707. — W. T. 
 
 BOTT, Thomas, an English divine, born at Derby in 1688, 
 was educated among the dissenters, and for some time held a 
 presbyterian charge at Spalding, but latterly joined the church 
 of England, and obtained three benefices in Norfolk. He was a 
 noted contro\ersialist, and, among other works of theological 
 criticism, published " Remarks on Bishop Butler's Doctrine of 
 Necessity," and " An Answer to the first volume of Warburton's 
 Divine Legation." Died at Norwich in 1754. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOTTA, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, born at San 
 Giorgio in Piedmont in the year 1768, is reputed one of the 
 first historiographers of this century. At the breaking out of 
 the French revolution he Avas practising as a physician in Turin. 
 Having dared to express publicly his sympathy for the French 
 nation struggling against despotism, he was, by order of the 
 king of Sardinia, arrested in 1792, and thrown into a dungeon, 
 where he was kept for two years. Recovering his liberty, he 
 crossed over to France, entered the army as a physician, and 
 went all through the Italian campaign. Having been employed 
 on a scientific expedition to the Ionian islands, and to the 
 east, he wrote an elaborate account of it, which was publislied 
 in Paris by order of the government. His zeal and devoted- 
 iiess to the French interests in Italy won for him the friend- 
 ship of General Joubert, who appointed him a member of 
 the provisional government of Piedmont, in which capacity he 
 contributed to the fusion of that country with France. After 
 the battle of Marengo, Botta was appointed one of the privy 
 council, and attached to the general administration of the 17th 
 division of the army. In the year 1803 he came to Paris, 
 where he was elected a member of the legislative body, and 
 became its president in the year 1808. Had he not been dis- 
 liked by Napoleon on account of his well-known republican 
 principles, he would have reached the highest dignities in the 
 state. During the hundred days of the first restoration, he was 
 appointed president of the college of Nancy, and soon after he 
 was transfeiTed to that of Rouen, which appointment he lost at 
 the second restoration. Wearied of public life, he fixed his 
 residence in Paris, li\'ing on a moderate income, although he 
 might have accumulated a large fortune. There he wrote tiie 
 " History of the War and Independence of the United States of 
 America," and continued the history of Italy from where Guicci- 
 ardini had left it up to the year 1814. His style is considered 
 terse, thoroughly Italian, and at times lofty. Gioberti considers 
 this writer one of the reformers of the Italian language. Being 
 an eminent French scholar, he has also left many works written 
 in French, amongst which the following are the principal — 
 "Souvenirs d'un voyage en Dalmatie ;" " Precis hlstorique de la 
 Maison de Savoie ;" " Memoire sur la nature des sous, ct dcs 
 tons." In his youth Botta was a suitor of the muses, and his 
 sonnets and odes have eminently contributed to increase the fame 
 which, as a historian, he has won for himself. This celebrated 
 champion of liberty died at Paris in 1837. — A. C. M. 
 
 BOTTA, Paul Emile, son of the eminent historian, was born 
 in 1800. Being appointed French consul at Mosul, he, in 1843, 
 began those remarkable excavations which led to the discovery 
 of Assyrian anticpiities, since followed up by Mr. Layard, and of 
 which the Paris Louvre and the British Museum afford such 
 remarkable specimens. M. Botta had dwelt long in the East 
 li:iving previously been consul at Alexandria, and journeyed 
 iliiDUgh Egypt and Arabia. His attention was first drawn to a 
 mound on the opposite bank of the Tigris, which, according to tra- 
 dition, marked a portion of the site of ancient Nineveh. While 
 excavating in this direction, his notice was called to a village 
 named Kliorsabad, about fourteen miles distant, where pieces 
 of sculpture such as he had already turned up, were said to have 
 also been found. His labours at Kliorsabad proved more fiuitfnl 
 than he could have expected, for he found that a wall which he 
 had reached opened into a part of an Assyrian palace, containing 
 those bulls with human heads, and those statues and sculptured 
 slabs, and crucifonn inscriptions with which the collection in the 
 British Museum has made visitors to that institution familiar. 
 The French government, with laudable zeal, not only aided M. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Botta with money, but sent that admirable artist, Eugene Flau- 
 din, to make illustrations on the spot, and the result is a splendid 
 work, their joint production, upon the monuments of Nineveh. 
 We must add, however, that the assertion as to the actual site 
 of Nineveh having been discovered, and that the monuments in 
 question are remains of the Assyrian capital, is not generally 
 accepted. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOTTALA, Giovanni Makia, a painter, born at Savara, 
 near Genoa, in 1613. He came to Rome, studied under Pietro 
 da Coi-ton.a, and was patronized by Cardinal Sachetti, for whom 
 he painted pictures — enduring the foolish criticism of an igno- 
 rantly wise patron, just knowing enough to be more troublesome 
 than one who knew nothing. He remained always an imitator, 
 but was called " Raffaellino." " The meeting of Jacob and 
 Esau" was one of liis great tableaux. The other shreds of his 
 life are in the churches of Genoa and Naples. He died at Milan, 
 1644.— W. T. 
 
 BOTTANI, Giuseppe, a painter, bora at Cremona in 1717. 
 He studied at Rome under Agostino Masucci. He settled at 
 Mantua, paintmg (0 noble sliopmanship I) Poussin landscapes 
 and Maratti figures. He was made director of the Academy at 
 Mantua — a sure proof of incompetence — and died 1784. — W. T. 
 
 BOTTAZZI, Francesco, an Italian poet, born about the 
 year 1770. His prodigious memory enabled him to leam by 
 heart the whole of Virgil ; but although he is considered an 
 eminent Latin poet, yet he has left nothing original, his ideas 
 and conceptions being for the most part taken from Virgil. His 
 translation in Latin hexameters of Monti's celebrated poem — - 
 II Bardo della selva nera — is reputed very superior, and shows 
 classic learning and a consummate knowledge of the Latin lan- 
 guage and versification. This translation was so highly appre- 
 ciated by Prince Eugene, then viceroy of Italy, that he ordered 
 that a costly edition should be brought out at the expense of 
 government, and presented Bottazzi with the professorship of 
 logic in the college of Brera, the first seat of learning in the 
 kingdom of Lombardy. The duties, hovi^ever, of his office inter- 
 fering with his favourite studies, he sent in his resignation, 
 and accepted a clerkship in the financial department of tlie 
 state. On the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, Bottazzi lost his 
 situation, and retired to his native city. His death has not 
 been recorded. — A. C. M. 
 
 * BOTTGER, Adolf, a voluminous German poet and trans- 
 lator, was born at Leipzig, May 21, 1815, and devoted himself 
 to the study of philology and modem literatme in his native 
 town. He wrote — " Gedichte," 1846, 6th ed., 1850; "Agnes 
 Bernauer," a tragedy, 3d ed., 1850 ; " Die Pilgerfahrt dcr Blu- 
 mengeister," an epic poem; "Habana, epischlyrische Dichtung;" 
 " Gedichte, neue Sammlung," 1854, &c. He translated the 
 poetical works of Byron, Pope, Milton, Ossian, &c. — K. E. 
 
 BOTTICELLI, Sandro, surnamed Filipepi, a Florentine 
 painter, born in 1447, a disciple and imitator of Filippo Lippi. 
 He painted mythology at Rome and Florence, under pontifical 
 patronage. He filled his works with figures and det.iils ; 
 a type of his prodigal drift of mind, for he lived extrava- 
 gantly, and died poor in 1515. Baldini engraved nineteen 
 plates for Dante's Inferno from Botticelli's designs. He also 
 engraved a set of twelve Sibyls and seven Planets. This was a 
 long time thought to be the first book in wliich metal plates for 
 engraving were used. Botticelli had much of Filipjx) Lippi's 
 rough ardour and impetuous energy, modified by a fanciful con- 
 ception and a more ideal mind. His \'irgin's heads arc from 
 the same beautiful type. In one of his Nativities all is ardour. 
 The angels kneel on the roof of the cow-shed — others crown 
 the approaching shepherds or vehemently embrace them. In 
 his myths and allegories, Botticelli runs wilder, in spite of the 
 late flaming outbreak of Savanarola. Besides S(piarcione, our 
 friend was the only painter who treated such pretty vagtienesses 
 with feeling. In one of liis works there is a naked Venus float- 
 ing on a shell, driven in a shower of roses towards the sliore, 
 where, under a laurel bush, a richly-dressed attendant holds a 
 red mantle to receive her beautiful fonn. lie is often, however, 
 mannered : his naked Vemis at Berlin is indeed, Kugler .says, 
 ugly and insipid. These small allegorical pictures are often 
 neatly finished. The miracles of St. Zendid and the allegory of 
 Calumny (after Ajielles) are of this kind. About 1474 Sanilro 
 was chosen, with Ghirlandajo, Pietro I'crugino, and Rosselli, to 
 paint frescos in the Vatican chapel, built by Baccio Pintelli for 
 Pope Sixtus IV. Those of Perugino over the altar were after- 
 
 4 T
 
 BOT 
 
 698 
 
 BOU 
 
 wards destroyed, to make room for the conquering Last Judg- 
 ment of ^lichel Angelo. On one side were the deeds of Moses ; 
 on the other those of Christ. Sandro painted twenty- eiglit fig- 
 ures of popes, to set between the windows, " Moses killing the 
 EgT,-ptian," " the Rebellion of Korah," and " the Temptation of 
 Christ." Rosselli covered his \rith gold, and the pope, like a child, 
 fancied them the best. Lippi's son was Sandro's pupil. — W. T. 
 
 BUTTIGKK, Karl August, a distinguished German anti- 
 quarian and miscellaneous writer, was born at Reichenbach in 
 Saxony, Jime 8, 17 GO. Having completed his education at the 
 imiversity of Leipzig, he became teacher at various schools 
 until 1791, when he was appointed head-master of the g}-mna- 
 sinin at Weimar. Here he lived in friendly intercourse with 
 Herder, Schiller, Gothe, and Wieland, and largely contributed to 
 the periodical ])ress of the day. In 1804 he was appointed to a 
 head-mastership at Dresden, where in 1814 he became keeper 
 of the museum ot antiquities. He died November 17, 1835. 
 Among his numerous works dcsei-ve to be mentioned — " Sabina, 
 Oder Morgenscenen eincr reichen ROmerin; " " Die Aldobrandin- 
 ische Hochzeit ; " " VortrJige iiber die Dresdener Antikengalerie ; " 
 " Amalthea, oder Museimi der Kunstmythologie und Bildenden 
 Alterthumskunde ; " " Ideen zur Kunstmythologie;" " Litera- 
 rische Zustande und Zeitgenossen," 2 vols., &c. — (See K. W. 
 Bdttiger, K. Aug. Bottiger, eine Biocjrnphische Skizze, Leipzig, 
 1837.)-K. E. 
 
 * BOTTIGER, Karl 'WiLHET.sr, son of the preceding, a 
 German historian, was bom at Bautzen, Aug. 15, 1790. He 
 studied at Leipzig and Gcittingen under Heeren, and successively 
 became professor at the universities of Leipzig and Erlangen. His 
 principal works are — " Allgemeine Geschichte," l'2th ed., 1856 ; 
 "Deutsche Geschichte," 5th ed., 1855 ; "Geschichte Baiems;" 
 "Geschichte des Kurstaats und Konigreichs Sachsen;" " Welt- 
 geschichte in Biographieen," &c. — K. E. 
 
 * BOTTISER, Karl Wilhelm, one of the most admired of 
 the modem school of Swedish poets, was bom at Westeros on 
 15th Jlay, 1807. On the completion of his studies in 1833, he 
 received at Upsala the degree of doctor of philosophy. Li 1835 
 he made a journey through Germany, Italy, France, and Holland, 
 but being seized with asthma was compelled to return the fol- 
 lowing year. In order to ameliorate his complaint, he went 
 again to Italy, at the expense of government, in the summer of 
 1838. He twice received the prize at the Swedish academy for 
 poetiy. In 1830 Bottiger published at Upsala a collection of 
 poems under the title of " Ungdoms Jlinne fran Sangens Stun- 
 der," which has passed through many editions. A second 
 collection of his poems, containing his admirable translation of 
 Uhland's ballads, was also published; in 1837 a third collection, 
 and in 1847 an "Almanack of the Muses." He has published also 
 a translation of Tasso's Gerusalemma Liberata. He is a profes- 
 sor of the university of Upsala, and son-in-law to the gi-eatest of 
 the Swedish poets, Tegner, whose life he has written.— JI. H. 
 
 * BOTTISINI, Giovanni, the most distinguished contra- 
 bassist that has yet lived, was bom at Crema in Lombardy in 
 December, 1821. His adoption of the insti-ument by which he 
 has gained his world-wide celebrity was the result of a mere 
 accident. The conservatorio of Milan gives gratuitous instruction 
 to a certain number of students in each department. Bottisini 
 applied, in 1835, for admission as a singer, but finding no 
 vacancy in the vocal class, he sought successively to be received 
 in each of the others, and was, at last, allowed to enter that for 
 the double bass, which was the only one unfilled at the time. 
 His talent for singing was amply proved during the early days of 
 his pupilage, when the students gave a pcrfonnance of Rossini's 
 Italiana in Algieri, in which he (still a boy) represented the 
 heroine with gi-eat applause. Bottisini's master for the double 
 bass was Luigi Rossi. He no sooner entered upon the study to 
 which destiny had devoted him, than he began to manifest his 
 jierfectly individual talent for it, and in two years acquired 
 nearly all his present unprecedented facility upon his most 
 unwieldy instmment. Vaccaj, the principal of the conservatorio, 
 was his master for composition. After leaving the conservatorio 
 Bottisini visited the principal towns of Italy, giving concerts with 
 his fellow-student Arditi, a violinist, recently conductor of Her 
 ^lajesty's theatre, London. With him he went, at the close of 
 1816, to Ilavannah, where both were engaged at the Italian 
 opera, Bottisini in the capacity of conductor. In the summers 
 of 1847 and 1848, during the recess of the Havannah season, 
 these two visited New York. In 1849 Bottisini first came to 
 
 London, where his extraordinary powers were at once duly 
 appreciated. Here his solo performances were an attraction at 
 eveiy class or concert, and for one season he played in the Phil- 
 harmonic and Royal Italian opera orchestras, together with 
 Piatti, the violoncellist, who had been his companion in the con- 
 sen'atorio. When M. Jullien visited America in 1853, Bottisini 
 accompanied him. He reappeared in London in 1855. In the 
 season of 1856-57, he conducted the Italian opera at Paris, where 
 he produced with considerable success his opera of " Nerone." 
 He had previously written another work of the same class 
 — " L'Assedio di Firenze," which, if ever performed, must have 
 been given in Havannah. He again visited London, has since 
 appeared at Berlin, and is at present in Naples, where his con- 
 certs have been singularly lucrative, and where he is engaged as 
 conductor to the teatro di S. Carlo. 
 
 His compositions are characterized by fluency and melodious 
 grace, and those for his instnmient especially, prove a fertility 
 of invention without which he could not have produced his great 
 effects as an executant. Bottisini, as a player, is conspicuous for 
 the extraordinary compass he gives to the double bass, by his 
 perfect command of the tenor and higher notes, which were 
 unemployed by his predecessors, and by means of which he makes 
 it agi'eeable for the first time as a solo instrument — for the rich 
 sweetness of his tone, particularly in the tenor register — for the 
 rapidity and lightness of his execution — and for his exquisite 
 cantabile style : thus much is due to him as a soloist, while, as 
 an orchestra player, he is not less to be praised for his precision, 
 point, and power. — G. A. M. 
 
 BOTTRIGARI, Chevalier Ercole, was bom at Bologna 
 in 1531. He was a man of rank, fortune, and eradition, who 
 seems to have spent the gi-eater part of his life in the study of 
 music, and in nuisical controversy. His prejudices seem to have 
 been in favour of ancient nmsic, biit in his attempts to bring the 
 chromatic genus into practice, he succeeded no better than Vin- 
 centino, and others on the same side of the question. His Italian 
 version of " Ba'thius de Musica " received great praise. He 
 died September 30, 1612, leaving a large and valuable hbrary of 
 music, and a rich cabinet of curiosities. The latter excited the 
 admiration of the Emperor Ferdinand II. A complete hst of 
 Bottrigari's publications is given by Fetis. — E. F. R. 
 
 BUTZARIS, the name of a Grecian family long celebrated 
 among the Suliotes. Among its members the two following were 
 the most remarkable :— - 
 
 Botz.\ris, George, a mihtaiy leader, held the chief com- 
 mand of the difterent tribes when they first appeared in arms 
 against Ali Pacha. His successes were equal to his great ability 
 and courage ; but his ambition having led him to aim at supreme 
 power, tlie country was, in consequence, long disturbed by in- 
 ternal dissensions. 
 
 Botzaris, !Mark, son of the preceding, born about 1790, 
 died in 1823. He acted a conspicuous part in the Greek war 
 of independence, and throughout the whole of his career was 
 distinguished by his military skill, his heroic daring, and hLs 
 disinterested patriotism. At the early age of sixteen he took 
 ])art in an insurrection in favour of Russia, which was then at 
 war with the Porte ; but after the treaty of Tilsit, which put 
 an end to all hope of the immediate liberation of Greece, he 
 entered into the service of France as a subordinate officer in a 
 regiment of Albanians. In 1815 he retired to the Ionian 
 islands, where he remained imtil 1820, when the disturbed 
 condition of the Ottoman cmpu'c once more revived the hopes of 
 the Greeks. JLark, now issuing from his retirement, hastened 
 to join his countiTmen in a fresh insun-ection, which speedily 
 became general, and from that period UTitil his death was actively 
 engaged in hostilities against the Turks, by whom his country 
 had been long oppressed. He fell mortally wounded almost in 
 the moment of a signal victor)-, which his brother avenged his 
 death by completing. The Turks fled in confusion from the 
 field, leaving behind them their standards and an immense 
 quantity of miscellaneous booty. — G. M. 
 
 * BOUBEE, Ner£e, a living professor of geology in Paris, 
 bom at Toulouse in 1806. His writings consist principally of 
 numerous memoirs in the Bulletin de Societc Geol. de la 
 France, and some elementary works, of which the principal are 
 his " Elemens de Gcologie," Paris, 1837, and " Cours complet 
 d'etudes Geologiques," of which the second edition appeared in 
 1839.— W. S. D. 
 
 BOUCHARD, Alain, bom some time in the fifteenth cen-
 
 BOU 
 
 699 
 
 BOU 
 
 tury. The dates of his birth and death are not known, but he 
 was living in 1513. He was a native of Bretagne, and practised 
 as an avocat there. We find him afterwards consciller and 
 maitre des requetes a Textraordinaire under Duke Francis II. 
 He assisted in preparing the boolc called " La tr^s Ancienne 
 Coutume do Bretagne," 1485. Bretagne was not yet united 
 with the kingdom, and a brother of Bouchard's, associated with 
 him in preparing the book we have mentioned, is described as 
 lia\'ing taken an active part in resisting a French invasion. 
 Alain Buchard published in 1514 his " Grandes Chroniques de 
 Bretagne." He is accused of having mixed up with what is 
 called true history the legends of the district. We regard the 
 work as rendered by this circumstance more valuable. The style 
 is said to be animated and picturesque. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOUCHAUD, Mathieu Antoixe, born at Paris in 1719, 
 and died in 1804. In 1747 he became a member of the faculty 
 of law at Paris, and published in the Enci/clopcclie several articles 
 on juridical subjects. Whatever reputation he acquired by being 
 associated with Diderot and D'Alembert, was more than counter- 
 balanced by its eflect on his fortunes, as it lost him an appoint- 
 ment to a professorship for which he was singularly well qualified. 
 He published in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions 
 several papers, chiefly on Roman law and antiquities. In 1774 
 he was given a professorship of law at the college de France, and 
 in 1785 was named conseiller d'etat. A treatise by him on the 
 law of the twelve tables, is regarded as of some value. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOUCHER, Francis, a French effeminate and wanton artist, 
 was born at Paris in 1704. He studied under Le Moine, and 
 then hastened to Rome. On his return he became court painter 
 to the king, and was loaded with the intoxicating sweets of 
 patronage. The brilliant, the pretty, the meretricious, were his 
 strong points. He painted luxurious opera figures of coquettes, 
 cupids, dancers, and nymphs. Reynolds, sturdy and conscien- 
 tious, found him at work on a large picture without any drawings 
 or models. When he painted carefully, there was grace, beaut}'', 
 and skill in his compositions, but always misguided by bad taste, 
 and followed by miserable imitators. Kugler calls him pre- 
 eminently the fit painter of Dubarrydom. Gault, the German, 
 laughs at the French for admiring a painter without truth, 
 modesty, or delicacy, and for giving 9800 livres for his " Rising 
 and Setting of the Sun" at madame de Pompadour's sale. 
 Boucher, with bis glib pencil at nineteen, carried off the first 
 prize for painting. He died in 1768. Even Diderot, the shame- 
 less, says, that his debasement of morals was followed by a 
 debasement of taste, colour, composition, character, expression, 
 and drawing. His goddesses were strumpets, his shepherdesses 
 ballet girls. He paints for young profligates, and is not gi-aceful, 
 but affected. Even if his figures are naked, you see tbe rouge 
 and patches, and all the gewgaw and tinsel of the toilette. 
 Delicacy, purity, innocence, and simplicity were unknown to 
 him. His best pupils were Bandonin, Juliard, Leprince, De- 
 shayes, and Fragonard. Bandonin and Deshayes mairied his 
 daughters. The latter was a promising painter, who died young. 
 His '■ Infant Jesus" is a bit of flimsy religion ; his " Shepherd 
 sleeping on the knees of his Shepherdess" has merit ; his land- 
 scapes are false, but playful. The best works of this French 
 Anacreon were the " Muses," the " Four Seasons," a " Hunt of 
 Tigers," and some pastoral designs for tapesty. Boucher left a 
 few slight etchings. His brother John was also a painter and 
 engraver, but not above mediocrity. " Never," says M. Watelet, 
 "was there an artist that so misused a brilliant disposition, an 
 extreme facility." — W. T. 
 
 BOUCHER, Jean, a French divine, famous, according to the 
 expression of Bayle, as a trumpet of sedition in the n^igns of 
 Henry III. and Henry IV., born in Paris in 1548 ; died at 
 Tournay in 1G44. He was successively professor of philoso- 
 phy at Rheims, doctor of the Sorbonne, and curci of the church 
 of St. Benedict in Paris. 
 
 BOUCHP^R, Rev. Jonathan. This eminent scholar and 
 divine was born on the 1st March, 1737-38, at Blencogo in the 
 parish of Bromfield and county of Cumberland, and was educated 
 at a little free school in his native parish. At the early age of 
 sixteen, he had connnenced a small school of thirty-two boys, at 
 10s. per annum each, and out of this scanty sum he was enabled 
 to spare one-fourth for his parents. He was shortly after engaged 
 by the Rev. Dr. James, the head of St. Bees' school, to assist in 
 the duties of that establishment, and there he continued two 
 years. At the close of that period he was recommended as a 
 
 private tutor in a gentleman's family in Virginia, and accord- 
 ingly in 1759 he proceeded to America. In 1762 he came to 
 England for the purpose of procuring holy orders, and again 
 returned to his adoj)ted country, where he obtained considerable 
 preferment, whicli he continued to hold till the unhappy dis- 
 turbances in that country once more drove him back to England. 
 We wish that our limits would pennit the insertion of Mr. Bou- 
 cher's own naiTative of those stin-ing days. His influential 
 position, his intimate acquaintance with General Washington, 
 and his own personal adventures, give a peculiar and graphic 
 vividness to the recoi'd he has left of that period. In 1775, Mr. 
 Boucher finally quitted America, compelled to leave behind him 
 the accumulated savings and property of many years. Shortly 
 after his return to this countiy, he was appointed to the curacy 
 of Paddington, and was nominated assistant-secretary of the 
 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel; and in 1785 was 
 presented to the vicarage of Epsom in the county of Surrey, 
 where, on the 27th of April, 1804, he closed his eventful life. 
 ]Mr. Boucher published "A View of the Causes and Conse- 
 quences of the American Revolution," in one vol., 8vo, and was 
 an ample contributor to Hutchinson's History of Cumberland. 
 But his gi-eat and chief work, the preparations for whiidi occu- 
 pied the last fourteen years of his life, was "An Archaeological 
 and Provincial Dictionary," intended to be completed in 2 vols., 
 4to. His researches were continued with an activity and per- 
 severance that promised a speedy termination, and be had 
 reached the letter T when death arrested his labours — thus 
 almost on the very threshold of completion. The introductory 
 " Essay on the Origin and History of the English Language," 
 and two numbers of the work — reaching, however, only to BLA 
 — have been published, and fully justify the expectations that the 
 literaiy world bad anticipated from the known learning, deep 
 research, and patient investigation of their author, and the regret 
 so widely felt that the labours of so many years were prema- 
 turely brought to an end. — B. B. 
 
 BOUCHER, Nicolas, a French prelate, bishop of Verdun, 
 born of poor parents at Cernai in 1528, was professor of philo- 
 sophy at Rheims, and afterwards rector of the univei sity. After 
 his elevation to the episcopate he joined the party of the League 
 He left " Caroli Lothaiingii cardinalis et Francisci ducis Guisii 
 Litterse et Arma," 1577. 
 
 BOUCHER DE LA RICHARDERIE, Gilles, bom at St. 
 Gemiain -en-Laye in 1733, and died at Paris in 1810 ; received 
 as avocat in the parliament of Paris in 1759, in which profession 
 he continued to practise, in one capacity or other, for the greater 
 part of his life. He was the principal editor of the Journal 
 General de la Literature de France. lie published several 
 tracts on the Roman law, but is most known by his " Bib- 
 liotheque Universelle des Voyages," Paris, 1808 ; 6 tomes, 8vo. 
 
 * BOUCHERIE, A., a French medical man, has devoted much 
 attention to the presen'ation of timber, and has patented a 
 process by which wood is made to absorb various solutions, such 
 as pyrolignite of iron, sulphate of copper, and other salts, which 
 preserve it from decay. Railway sleepers are prepared by this 
 process by the Permanent Way Company in London. — J. H. B. 
 
 BOUCHET, Claudk-Antoine, a French surgeon, was 
 born in 1785 at Lyons, where his father, Pierre Bouehet, had 
 attained some distinction as a surgeon. C. A. Bonchet studied 
 at Paris ; and while still vei-y young was appointed to the post of 
 surgeon-in-chicf to the Hotel-Dieu at Lyons. He was the first 
 to introduce into surgery the method of healing by first intention 
 after amputation. He died at Lyons in 1839. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOUCHET, Guii.LAUME, a French litterateiu- and bookseller, 
 bom at Poitiers in 1526 ; died in 1606. Little is known of his 
 life, which was passed entirely among men of business. He is 
 best known by his " Serccs," a work intended for after-dinner 
 amusement, and which the .author praises as some of the best 
 stuff in his shop. ^liscrable stuff, indeed, though perhaps a 
 faithful picture of the manners of his age; full of the most inde- 
 cent pleasantries and revolting obscenity, for which its curious 
 and erudite details but poorly compensate. — J. G. 
 
 BOUCHET, Jean, born at Poitiers in 1476, and died in 1 550. 
 He practised in some department of the law at Poitiers, and pub- 
 lished a number of poems, chiefly allegorical. He al.so ]iulili.>^hcd 
 "Aimals of A(|uitaine," still referred to occasionally. — J. A., D. 
 
 • BOUCHITTl'j, Louis Fikmin Herv^, professor of history 
 at Versailles, born at Paris in 1795. The once gorgeous town of 
 Versailles, which is now as quiet as a monastery, can yet boast
 
 BOU 
 
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 BOU 
 
 the presence of some highly cultivated men, chiefly connected 
 ■VN'ith the college. The erudite works of M. Bouchitte are such 
 as might be expected from the Benedictines of the place. They 
 are all philosophical, and connected with the profound problem 
 as to the existence of God. In one work — " Ilistoire des preuves 
 de I'existence de Dieu depuis les temps les plus recul^s jusqu'au 
 Monologium d'Anselme de Cantorbery," 1841 — he has carefully 
 reduced to their first principles all demonstrations of this miglity 
 truth offered previous to the time of Anselm ; and in another — 
 " Le Kationalisme chretieu a la fin du Xle siecle, ou Monologium 
 et Proslogium de Saint Anselme, traduits et precedes d'une 
 Introduction," 1842- — he analyses the Monologium, and treats 
 generally of christian rationalism. He has also published " Me- 
 moire sur la notion de Dieu dans ses rapports avec I'imagination 
 et la sensibilite et de la Persistance de la personnalit^ apres la 
 mort." — (Mernoires de VAcademie des Sciences^ torn, ii.) The 
 student of the highest metaphysics will find much to instruct and 
 guide him in these very interesting works. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOUCHON DUBOURNIEL, Henri, born at Toul in 1749. 
 While incarcerated during the Reign of Terror, a time when 
 impnsonment and death vvere almost synonymous, this singular 
 man began a translation of Don Quixote, which he lived to 
 finish. It was while in Spain, to whicli he had been invited as 
 an engineer, that he discovered at Cadiz the remains of the 
 Roman canal for conveying the waters of the Tempal through 
 twenty leagues of mountainous country to the town. The 
 country of Don Quixote turned his brain, for he ruined himself 
 by Quixotic projects. In order at length to obtain cash, he 
 induced some young men to accept employment at his hands, 
 they lodging security-money, which, as he could not return, 
 charges of swindling were brought against him. At his trial, he 
 being eighty years old, and very deaf, was attended by a young 
 girl, supposed to be his daughter, whose touching endeavours to 
 let him know what was said, so wrought on the judges, that they 
 acquitted him. He died in 1828 in great distress. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOUCHOTTE, Jean Baptiste Noel, minister of war 
 under the republican government of France, born at Metz 25tli 
 December, 1754; died in his native town in June, 1840. At the 
 age of sixteen he entered on a military career, and had attained 
 the rank of captain of cavalry at the time of the outbreak of the 
 Revolution. He was shortly after promoted to the grade of 
 colonel, and in 1793 was named minister of war by a unanimous 
 vote of the convention. He held this office during a most try- 
 ing and difficult, though brief period, and exercised its functions 
 with firmness and ability. — G. M. 
 
 BOUCQUET, Victor, a historical and portrait painter, bom 
 at Furnes in Flanders in 1619. He studied under his father, a 
 poor artist, and afterwards went to Rome. The churches of 
 Flanders abound with his well-coloured, well-composed works. 
 At Nieuport there is a "Judgment of Cambyses" and " Death 
 of St. Francis" by him, and at Ostend a "Descent from the 
 Cross." He died about 16G0.— W. T. 
 
 BOUDET, Jean, Comte, a French general, bom at Bordeaux 
 19th Febraary, 17C9, died 14th September, 1809. At an early 
 age he entered the anny as a sub-lieutenant, but retired in 
 1788. No sooner had the Revolution broken out than he again 
 entered the service, in which he was destined to act a most dis- 
 tinguished part during many years of the troubled and eventful 
 period which followed. He rose gradually to the highest rank 
 in the army, and was named by Napoleon on the field of battle 
 grand officer of the legion of honour. — G. M. 
 
 * BOUE, Ami, a distinguished French physician and geo- 
 logist, formerly president of the Geological Society of France, 
 now residing at Vienna, was bom at Hamburg in 1794. His 
 geological writings include an "Essai Geologique sur I'ficosse," 
 Paris, 1820; " Geognostischc Gemiilde von Deutschland," &c., 
 Frankfort, 1829 ; and a treatise entitled " Der ganze Zweck und 
 die hohe Nutzen der Gcologie," &c., Vienna, 18ol. Besides these, 
 and several other independent works, and numerous memoirs on 
 geological subjects, published in different periodicals, Bond is the 
 author of an account of " La Turquie en Europe, ou Observations 
 sur la geographic, la gcologie, I'histoire naturelle, &c., de cet 
 empire," published at Paris in four volumes in the year 1840. 
 The geological portion of this work was published separately in 
 the .same year. — -W. S. D. 
 
 BOUELLES or BOUILLES, in Latin BOVILLUS, Charles 
 DE, a French philologist, born at Sancour in Picardy about 1470; 
 died about 1553. Among his works we may mention his 
 
 "Geometry," the first work on the subject written in French; and 
 " Proverbiorum Vulgarium libri tres." This is the most interest- 
 ing of the writings of Bouelles, an explanation in Latin of several 
 proverbs in use in France in the sixteenth centuiy. It is not 
 to be confounded with another volume entitled, " Proverbes et 
 Diets sententieux, avec I'interpretation de ceux, par Charles de 
 Bouelles," Paris, 1557. 
 
 BOUFLERS, the name of an ancient and influential family 
 of Picardy, which came into notice early in the twelfth century, 
 and continued to occupy a more or less prominent position in 
 France till the beginning of the seventeenth. William de 
 BouFLERS attauK'd considerable distinction in the war vphich led 
 to the conquest of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily by Charles of 
 Anjou in 1266 ; his son, Aleamne de Bouflers, fought in 
 the army of Philip the Fair ; and his two grandsons, John and 
 William de Bouflers, rendered themselves celebrated in the 
 wars between England and France, the one supporting the claims 
 of the king of England, and the other those of the French monarch. 
 In 1415 we find one of the family t;iken prisoner at Agincourt, 
 and another, Adrian de Bouflers, was engaged in the battle of 
 Pavia in 1525. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 a son of the last mentioned, bearing the same name, rose to emi- 
 nence in the world of letters, as the author of two works which 
 obtained a considerable amount of popularity. — W. M. 
 
 BOUFLERS, Louis-Francis, marquis, and afterwards duke 
 of, a French general of celebrity, was bom on the 10th Januaiy, 
 1644, and entered the army in 1662, as a cadet in the regiment 
 of guards. After serving under the duke of Beaufort in Flanders, 
 and under Marshal Crequi in Lorraine, he was sent to Holland, 
 under Turenne, in 1672. During the campaigns in Holland, he 
 distinguished himself on several occasions, and very high opinions 
 were formed of his courage and capacity. In 1675, when a 
 retreat was detemiined upon by the French, Bouflers was 
 intrusted with the command of the rear-guard, and the success 
 with which his operations were attended, greatly increased his 
 reputation as a military commander. Step by step he rose in 
 his profession, till in 1681 he was promoted to the rank of 
 lieutenant-general. In 1690 he commanded the French forces 
 on the Moselle, and took part, under the duke of Luxemburg, 
 in the battle of Fleurus. In the following year he was present at 
 the siege of Jlons. In 1692 he held a high command at the siege 
 of Namur, and it was in a great measure to his promptitude and 
 sagacity that the French owed their victory at Steinkirk. He 
 was now appointed marshal of France, and in the course of a 
 few years he was elevated from the rank of marquis to that of 
 duke. In 1695, when Namur was besieged by the allies, Bouflers 
 succeeded in throwing into the town a large body of troops, and 
 held out for a time against all the attacks of the besiegers. When 
 he was at last forced to capitulate, he was arrested and detained 
 as a prisoner of war, on account of the violation by the French 
 of an agreement which had been entered into relative to the 
 exchange of prisoners. He soon, however, regained his liberty, 
 and resumed his military duties. In 1697 a series of conferences 
 took place between Bouflers and the earl of Portland, and th« 
 principal points of the treaty of Ryswick were then agreed on. 
 A few years afterwards he fought against Opdam at Eckeren, 
 and in 1707 he defended the tovra of Lisle against the allies 
 under Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough. The siege 
 was obstinately contested, and lasted upwards of four months, 
 but it terminated in January, 1708, in favour of the allies. In 
 that year Bouflers was created a peer of France, and in 1709 he 
 volunteered fa- sen-e under Marshal Villars, and commanded the 
 right wing of the French at the battle of Malplaquet. This was 
 his last battle. The remainder of his life was spent at Fon- 
 tainebleau, where he died on the 22d of August, 1711, in the 
 si.xty-eighth year of his age. — W. M. 
 
 BOUFLERS, Marie-Fran^oise-Catherine de Beau- 
 vau-Craow, marchioness de, was one of the greatest orna- 
 ments of the court of Stanislas at Luneville, after his formal 
 abdication of the throne of Poland, and was regarded as one of 
 the most accomplished women of the age in which she lived. 
 
 BOUFLERS-ROUVREL, Marie Charlotte Hippolyte, 
 countess de, a lady of high repute in the literaiy circles of 
 Paris in the latter part of the eighteenth cenfuiy. She was bom 
 in Paris in 1724, and during the early part of her Ufe she was 
 attached to the household of the duchess d'Orleans in the capa- 
 city of demoiselle de compagnie. Her duties in this situation 
 were of a literary nature, consisting chiefly in reading aloud for
 
 BOU 
 
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 BOU 
 
 tlie amusement of the duchess and her friends, when engaged in 
 the then fashionable occupation of embroidery. After her mar- 
 riage with the count de Bouflers-Rouvrel, she spent her life in 
 intercourse with the most celebrated literary characters of the 
 time, by whom she was highly esteemed for the refinement of her 
 taste, the elegance of her manners, and the amiability of her 
 disposition. She lived on terms of intimacy with Rousseau, who 
 makes frequent allusion to her in more than one of his writings ; 
 and she carried on a correspondence for a time with David Hume. 
 She died in 1800.— W. M. 
 
 BOUGAINVILLE, Louis Antoine de, was celebrated both 
 as a military commander and as a navigator. He was bom in 
 Paris in 1729, and was destined by his parents for the bar; but 
 finding a military life more congenial to his taste, he entered the 
 army in 175-1. He served throughout the war in America, and 
 took an active part under Jlontcalm in the defence of Quebec. 
 He remained in the army till 1763, and it was in that year that 
 he first turned his attention to navigation. After making a 
 \oyage to the Falkland Islands, in order to plant a French 
 colony among them, he was intrusted with the command of an 
 expedition fitted out by the government at Paris for the purpose 
 of circumnangating the globe. On his return he published, under 
 the title of " Voyage autour du Monde," a full account of his 
 voyage, and of the discoveries made in it. During the war of 
 independence in America, Bougainville commanded a divTsion of 
 the French navy. On the re-estabhshment of peace, he returned 
 to Paris, when he was elected an associate of the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1796. His death took place in 1811. — W. M. 
 
 BOUGEANT, Guillaume-Hyacinthe, a French historian, 
 born at Quimper in 1690 ; died in 1743. He entered the Jesuit 
 order, and became professor of humanity at Caen and Nevers. 
 He afterwards came to the college of Louis-le-Grand, Paris, and 
 left it only for a short temporary exile in Fleche, occasioned by 
 liis work entitled " Amusement philosophique sur le langage des 
 betes." This work, addressed to a lady, and interspersed with 
 madrigals, gave offence to the religious world, and proved that 
 the author was versed as well in the language of gallantry as in 
 that of beasts. He published a great number of historical and 
 other works. — J. G. 
 
 BOUGUER, Pierre, a distinguished French physicist, born 
 in Lower Brittany in leg-l; died in 1758. Bouguer devoted 
 himself to perfecting the practical portions of science, especially 
 of astronomy. He wrote much on the application of that science 
 to the purposes of navigation ; and he took part in the famous 
 expedition sent by the French government to Peru, with a \iew 
 t<j aid, by the measurement of a degi'ee in these regions, in deter- 
 inuiing the figure of the Earth. His account of that expedition 
 is interesting, although inferior to La Condamine's. — Bouguer 
 also assisted to advance our knowledge of optics. He determined 
 much more accurately than had ever been done before, the rela- 
 tions between light incident and light reflected., in so far as these 
 are dependent on the angle of incidence. We owe likewise to 
 this physicist the first conception of the HeUometer. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOUHIER, Jean, a French lawyer and litterateur, president 
 an mortier to the parliament of Dijon, member of the French 
 Academy, born at Dijon in 1673; died in 1746. In his youth 
 he acquired, besides the classical languages, an acquaintance 
 with several modem tongues. Such was his reputation for 
 science and erudition, that in 1727 he was called to the office of 
 president of the academy, left vacant by the death of Malezieu. 
 He has been eulogized by Voltaire, his successor, and the Abbe 
 Olivet ; nor have their praises been unmerited. Jurispnidence, 
 philology, criticism, ancient and modern history, literaiy history, 
 translations, eloquence, poetry, all were within the grasp of his 
 Capacious intellect, and have, most of them, been illustrated by 
 his own writings, which are voluminous and important. — J. G. 
 
 BOUHOURS, Dosiinique, born at Paris in 1628, and died 
 
 in 1702. At sixteen he entered into the order of Jesuits. He 
 
 tauglit Latin at Paris and rlietoric at Tours. He became tutor 
 
 t the young princes of Longueville. He published several 
 
 irks on the French language, one of which led to a contro- 
 versy with Menage When Bouliours was on his deathbed, he 
 is reported to have said — " Jc vuis ou je vas mourier, car I'un 
 ct I'autre se disent." He published several professional works, 
 and translated the New Testament from the Vulgate into French. 
 
 * BOUILLAUD, Jean Baptistk, clinical professor to the 
 faculty of Paris, and a distinguished medical writer, born at 
 Angouleme in 179G. His principal works are — "Traite clinique 
 
 et physiologique de I'encephalite et de ses suites," 1825 j 
 " Traite clinique et experimental des fievres pretendues essen- 
 tielles," 1826 ; " Dissertation sur les generahtes de la clinique 
 medicale, et sur le plan et la methode a suivre dans I'enseigne- 
 ment de cette science," 1831; "Nouvelles recherehes sur le 
 rhumatisme articulaire aigu en general," 1835; and "Traite 
 clinique du rhumatisme articulaire, et de la loi de coincidence des 
 inflammations du coeur avec cette maladie," 1840. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOUILLAUD, IsMAEL, born in London in 1605 ; died in 
 Paris in 1694 ; a very laborious and useful writer on astrono- 
 mical and mathematical subjects. He was a learned man, 
 skilled in ancient science, and therefore well fitted to promote 
 the reception of the Copernican system. He is the author also 
 of a few historical and topographical treatises that are now for- 
 gotten. His scientific works are stUl useful to the student of 
 the annals of Astronomy, and of the phenomena attending the 
 reception by mankind of the cardinal truths proclaimed at the 
 epoch of its reformation. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOUILLE, Francois Claude Amour, marquis de, a 
 French general, was bom in 1739. He is well known for his 
 connection with the massacre of the garrison of Nancy at the 
 commencement of the Revolution, and for the exertions he made 
 at a later date on behalf of the royal cause. He was privy to 
 the king's unsuccessfiil attempt at flight ; and one of the charges 
 brought against the king at his trial was, that he remitted money 
 to Bouille and others to be used in order to bring about the 
 restoration of the old state of affairs. Bouille died in England 
 in 1800.— W. M. 
 
 BOUILLET, Jean, a French physician, bom at Serbian, 
 near Be'ziers, on the 14th May, 1690, became surgeon to the 
 hospital, and permanent secretary to the Academy of Beziers, 
 where he died on the 13th August, 1777. His principal 
 work is a " Memoire sur I'huile de petrole et les eaux minerales 
 de Gabian," published at Beziers in 1752 ; and he was also the 
 author of some scattered papers, principally connected with 
 physics. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BOUILLET, Jean Baptiste, a living French geologist, 
 bom at Cluny in 1799. He is now a banker at Clermont- 
 Fen-and, where he has formed an extensive collection of the 
 minerals and terrestrial and fluviatile shells of the Auvergne. 
 He has pubhshed numerous important memoirs and independent 
 svorks upon the geology of his district, and especially upon the 
 interesting volcanic gi-oup of the Puy-de-Dome. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOUILLON, E>lanuel-Thi5odose de la Touk d'Au- 
 VERGNE, cardinal de, was born in 1644. He was the son of 
 Frederic-JIaurice, duke of Bouillon. He was at first a great 
 favourite at the court of Louis XII., who secured his nomination 
 to the rank of cardinal in 1669 ; but he appears gi-adually to 
 have forfeited the regard of that king. Cardinal Bouillon was 
 French ambassador at the court of Rome at the time of the 
 celebrated controversy between Fenelon and Bossuet ; and not- 
 withstanding the instructions he received to do all in his power 
 to secm-e the condemnation of Fenelon, he favoured his cause 
 rather than that of Bossuet. In 1710 he was obliged to leave 
 France on account of the disclosure of his correspondence with 
 the duke of JIarlborough and others. He died at Rome in 
 1715.— W. M. 
 
 BOUILLON, Fkedeuic-Maurice de la Tour d'Att- 
 VERGNE, due de, son of Henri by his marri.age with Elizabeth 
 of Orange, was bom at Sedan in 1605. In 1629 he joined 
 the army of the prince of Orange in Holland, and fought 
 with success against the Spaniards on more than one occasion. 
 He afterwards entered tlie French service, and in 1642 he com- 
 manded tlie French troops in Italy. He was aiTestcd at the time 
 of the Cinq-Mars conspiracy on a charge of being privy to it, 
 but the exertions of the duchess of Bouillon speedily procured 
 his restoration to liberty. In the civil war of the Fronde, he was 
 one of the leaders of the rebel party ; and a jiroclamation was 
 issued, declaring him a traitor, and confiscating all his property 
 in France. In 1651 he entered into an agreement with the 
 French govemment, by which the principality of Sedan and 
 Raucourt was ceded to France, and several duchies were given 
 up to him in excliange. He died in 1652. — W. j\L 
 
 BOUILLON, Henri de la Touk d'Auvergne, due de, 
 marshal of France, was bom towards the end of the year 1555. 
 After serving for some time under the duke of Anjou, he em- 
 braced the reformed faith, and became one of the most distin- 
 guished of the protestant leaders. In this capacity he is better
 
 BOU 
 
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 BOU 
 
 knovm as viscount de Turenne, his title of duke of Bouillon not 
 ha^ang been assumed till his marriage with the heiress of the 
 estates of Bouillon in 1591. During the war of the League he 
 was lieutenant-general of the armies of Henry of Navaire, during 
 whose reign in France he might have attained great influence, 
 had he not, by his restlessness and ambition, lost the favour of 
 the king. The latter part of his life was spent m a series of 
 intrigues, entered upon with a view to self-aggi'andisement, by 
 which the whole of France was frequently thrown into distur- 
 bance. He died in 1G23.— W. M. 
 
 BOUILLON, RoBEKT de i^ Marck, due de, was born in 
 1492, and became a marshal of France in 15-17. He served for 
 a time under Charles V., but considering himself injured by a 
 decree of the Aulic council, he afterwards entered into friendly 
 relations with France, and declared war against the emperor. 
 Notwithstanding the indirect assistance which Bouillon received 
 from France, Charles invaded his territories with a large division 
 of his army, and possessedhimself of every position of importance, 
 with the single exception of Sedan. Bouillon did not recover 
 possession of his duchy till 1532. In the following year he 
 defended Hesdin against the imperialists, commanded by Ema- 
 nuel- Philibert, duke of Savoy ; and in the assault by which the 
 city was taken, he fell into the hands of the besiegers. He was 
 kept prisoner till 1556. In that year he obtained his release, 
 but before he could return to France his death took place. — W. M. 
 
 BOUILLON-LAGEANGE, Edme-Jean-Baptiste, a dis- 
 tinguished French physician and chemist, was born on the 12 th 
 July, 1767, at Paris, where he early commenced the study of 
 chemistry and pharmacy ; and after passing several years at 
 the head of one of the principal pharmaceutical establishments 
 in that capital, was appointed apothecary to the household of 
 the Emperor Napoleon. In this position he made the cam- 
 paigns of Austria and Prussia. After his return to Paris he 
 devoted himself with gi-eat zeal to the improvement of the pro- 
 cess for the manufactiu-e of sugar from the beet root, and in 
 1813 published a report upon this subject, under the auspices 
 of the minister of the interior. Subsequently he became pro- 
 fessor of chemistry at the school of phai-macy in Paris, and 
 died in that city on the 24th August, 1844. His works, which 
 are rather numerous, relate for the most part to pharmaceutical 
 chemistry ; they are of considerable value. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOUILLOT, Jean Baptiste Joseph, bom at Philippeville, 
 3d March, 1750, author of " Biogi-aphical accounts of Eminent 
 Persons born in that province of the Ardennes," the name of 
 which sounds musical in the ears of all those who have followed 
 the melancholy Jacques into its old romantic forest. As an 
 enthusiast regarding the same locality, the name of Bouillot 
 merits favour. He was one of those priests who accompanied 
 Gobel, archbishop of Paris, to the bar of the national conven- 
 tion, and joined the frightened apostate in his renunciation of 
 Christianity. Upon the return of more tranquil times, Bouillot 
 repented of his criminal weakness, and was received back into 
 the church. He still followed his literaiy taste by contributions 
 to biographical publications, in which he was still engaged at the 
 time of his death in 1833.— J. F. C. 
 
 BOUILLY, Jean Nicolas, bom at Tours in 1763 ; originally 
 a member of the bar, he, when the Revolution broke out, joined 
 the party of Jlirabeau, of Bamave, and of tliose who, while 
 ardent friends of liberty, wished well to the king. Appointed 
 public prosecutor in his own native department, he executed his 
 difficult and dangerous duties with all possible moderation. A 
 few years afterwards he quitted his profession for the drama, 
 and wrote a number of plays which, although well received at 
 the time, are not sufficiently stin-ing and vivacious for the taste 
 of the present day. Bouilly was emphatically a man of senti- 
 ment. He found his trae vein when he began those studies of 
 the female heart, to which he declares that he devoted many 
 years of his life. His writings upon female education, embracing 
 the four stages of e.xistence, according to his own classification, 
 raised him to a sort of authority, for he tells with evident satis- 
 faction of the numerous applications tliat were made to him for 
 advice. lie became a sort of lay director, whose infallible coun- 
 sels would be trustingly sought in nice cases of conduct. His 
 successful treatment of " pains of the heart," and his delicate 
 guidance through critical positions had, as he boasts in the ful- 
 ness of his satisfaction, made him feel young at seventy. His 
 ideal of a happy close of existence would be to find his steps 
 giiided by a " fair young girl lending her ear to the old story 
 
 teller." This amiable being lived to a good round age. He 
 died in April, 1842.— J. F. C. 
 
 BOUJAS, Don Juan Antonio, a Spanish painter, bom at 
 Santiago in 1672. He studied under Giordano at Madrid, but 
 was driven home by the wars of succession. — W. T. 
 
 BOUJAS, Juan Antonio, a Spanish historical painter, bom 
 at Santiago about 1G72. lie was a pupil, at Madrid, of Luca 
 Jordano, and died about 1726. — W. T. 
 
 BOULAINVILLIEPtS, Henri de, born at Saint-Saire in 
 Normandy in 1058, and died in 1722; son of Francis, comte 
 de Boulainvilliers. He first thouglit of a military life, and made 
 a campaign or two with distinguished success. His father died 
 and left his affairs in so rainous a condition that the young officer 
 was obliged to retire from the army, and occupied himself with 
 the study of French history. It is not easy to study earnestly 
 without seeking to bring facts into a sort of unity by theory of 
 one kind or other, and Boulainvilliers persuaded himself that the 
 feudal system was the chef-d'oeuvre of the human intellect. His 
 theory yielded to one of Montesquieu's, and that in its turn has 
 lost ground. Boulainvilliers wrote a great many books on French 
 history, several of which were printed after his death. Some are 
 said to remain still in manuscript. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOULANGER, Jean, a French painter, bom at Troyes in 
 1606. He went young to Bologna, and entered Guido's school. 
 He afterwards became court painter to the duke of Modena, and 
 established an academy. Died in 1660. — W. T. 
 
 BOULARD, Antoine Marie Henri, bom 5th September, 
 1754, in Champagne, a man whose name deserves to be held in 
 remembrance by all who love literature. His own contribu- 
 tions to letters consisted chiefly of translations from the English. 
 During the Reign of Terror he concealed in his house La Hai-pe 
 and some other persecuted writers, at great risk to his own 
 safety. His benevolence, ever of the highest kind, assumed a 
 peculiar turn. It became fixed upon the venders of old second- 
 hand books. Many a time has he purchased the whole stock- 
 in-trade of a poor bookseller, and a hawker of odd volumes was 
 sure to open his easily accessible heart. He was, in fact, the 
 Jlaecenas of the book stalls. Successively a member of the corps 
 legislatif and of the senate, he availed himself of his position to 
 mark his veneration for great literary reputations. He it was 
 who caused to be restored the tombs of Boileau, of Descaiies, 
 of Montfavein, and of JIabillon. His library, at his death, which 
 took place on 6th of May, 1820, numbered half a million of 
 volumes, the greater part of which had been pm-chased at stalls 
 for the sake of helping humble traders in a business which was, 
 to him, a sign of liberal mind. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOULARD, Michel, a Parisian upholsterer, famous for his 
 extensive charities. He was brought up at the hospital of La 
 Pitie, his father ha\dng died when he was only four years of 
 age. Apprenticed to an upholsterer, he became a skilful work- 
 man ; received from Marie Antoinette an appointment to super- 
 intend the furniture of the palace ; was afterwards similarly 
 employed by the emperor, and notwithstanding the inroads which 
 his liberality to workmen and persons in distress made on the 
 yearly returns of his business, amassed a large fortune, the whole 
 of which, with the exception of small rums to his relatives, he 
 bequeathed to charitable institutions. Died in 1825.— J. S., G. 
 
 * BOULAY-PATY, Evareste Felix Cyprien, born at 
 Donges in 1804. His poems, crowned by the French Academy at 
 a time when the opposition of that body to what they denounced 
 as the ideas and fancies of the romantic school attached peculiar 
 significance to their approbation, drew marked attention to M. 
 Boulay-Paty. The duke of Orleans made him his private secre- 
 tary. His works are not immerous, though esteemed. — J. F. C. 
 
 * BOULE, a loose dramatic writer, only known for his parti- 
 cipation in compositions for the stage. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOULE, Anur£ Charles, a celebrated French cabinet- 
 maker, specimens of whose elegant designs and surpassing work- 
 manship were to be found in every court in Europe in the seven- 
 teenth century, was bom at Paris in 1642, and died in 1732. 
 He was engraver in ordinary to Louis XIV., and held a patent 
 for that office, in which he was designated architect, painter, 
 and sculptor in mosaic. His style of work was highly ornate. 
 
 BOULGARIN. See Buluarin. 
 
 BOULLANGER, Andre, celebrated as a preacher under the 
 title o{ petit pere Andre, an Augustine monk, born at Paris in 
 1578 ; died in 1657. In his sermons, according to the manner 
 of the age, he mmgled an occasional pleasantry with his doctrine.
 
 BOU 
 
 703 
 
 BOU 
 
 His works reinaiii in ilS., with the exception of " Oraison fune- 
 lire de Jlarie de Lorraine, abbesse de Chelles," published at Paris 
 in 1627.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOULLEillER, Charles, a French historian, bom at Dijon 
 in 1725; died in 1803. After having for some tune pui-sucd 
 I military career, he entered the church. He \VT0te a great 
 number of works connected with the history of Burgundy, some 
 i.f wliich have been inserted in the collections of the Academy 
 of Dijon.— J. G. 
 
 BOULLIER, David Rexaud, a Dutch protestant theo- 
 I i_'ian of French extraction, successively pastor at Amsterdam 
 and in London, born at Utrecht in 1699 ; died in London in 
 1759. His principal works are — " Essai Philosophique sur 
 I'Ame des betes," 1727 ; " Apologie de la metaphysique, a 
 Inccasion du Discours prehmhaaire de I'Encyclopedie," 1753; 
 :iiid " Lettres critiques sur les Lettres philo.sophiques de Vol- 
 taiie," 1754.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOULLOXGXE, Louis, a French religious painter, and foun- 
 der of a family of reasonably good artists. He became senior 
 lainter to the king, professor of the Royal Academy at Paris, 
 : 1 a celebrated copyist, so skilful as to deceive the best judges. 
 
 is most celebrated imitation was the Parnassus of Perino del 
 
 v'aja, for the banker Jabach. No picture of Louis' is in the 
 
 T.iiuvre. He left three or four etcliings, and three great rehgious 
 
 '■tures in Notre Dame — "St. Paul at Ephesus," "St. Paul's 
 
 '. atyrdom," and the " Presentation in the Temple." His eldest 
 
 a, Box, was born in 1619, and was also a great copyist. He 
 
 nt to Rome, staj-ed five years, and returned to Paris to enter 
 
 • academy of which he became professor. He drew and 
 c iloured well, but was often mannered and inflated. He exe- 
 cuted frescos for the chapel of the Invalides, some church 
 pictures, and some etchings. At Versailles, under Lebrun, he 
 painted nine of the chapel panels. He also painted a " Holy 
 Family," and " Christ at the Pool of Bethesda," and died in 
 1717. His younger brother, Louis, was bom for the good 
 cause in 1654. At eighteen, lilie his brother, he carried off the 
 prize in the academy, and went to Rome to copy Raphael with 
 such success that some of his drawings were afterwards used for 
 the Gobelin tapestries. In 1680 he became an academician, and 
 by meritorious work in the Invalides and Notre Dame obtained 
 a pension and the order of St. Michael, so that aftei-wards he 
 was generally called the Chevalier. After the death of Coj'pel, 
 the king loaded him with honom-s. He became the comi pain- 
 ter, and received an indelible patent of nobility. He was chosen 
 designer of medals to the Academy of Inscriptions, and, lastly, 
 (Ihector of the Painting Academy. His two sisters, Magde- 
 LAiNE and Genevieve, painted flowers and fiiiits. — W. T. 
 
 BOULOGNE, Etienxe Axtoixe de, a French prelate, bom 
 at Avignon in 1747; died in 1825. In 1771, when he had 
 hardly attained canonical age, he was ordained priest, and com- 
 menced his ministrations at A^•ignon, with a reputation derived 
 from considerable talent and academical success. He removed 
 to Paris in 1774, and three years afterwards had the honour of 
 being selected to preach before the aunts of Louis XVI. A mis- 
 understanrling which arose between him and the archbishop of 
 the city, resulted in his being subjected to an interdict, which 
 suspended him from his functions for a considerable period. 
 After having filled the office of vicar-general under the bishop 
 of Chalons-sur-Mame, he returned to Paris, and in 1783 
 preached before the royal fiimily. In 1784 he was again at 
 Chalons, in quality of archdeacon and canon; in 1788 was 
 named by Talleyrand to the abbaye of Tonnay-Charente, and 
 I 1789 deputed to one of the pubhc courts of Paris. During 
 1' Revolution, having declared himself a nonjuror, he was three 
 tunes arrested, but contrived to escape banishment, with wliich 
 he was threatened. Under the empire he was successively bishop 
 of Acqui and of Troycs ; but from the latter see he was deposed by 
 Napoleon, and despatched to Vinrenncs, for having opposed the 
 imperial will in the coimcil of 1811. He was restored in 1814, 
 and in 1817 promoted to the archbishopric of Vienne. His works 
 were collected at Paris shortly after his death.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOULTER, Hugh, a laborious and philanthropic prolate, 
 appointed by George I. to the primacy of Ireland, born in or 
 near London in 1671, was educated at Jlerchant Taylors' school 
 and at Christ church, Oxford. He was a contemporaiy of 
 Addison at Magdalen college, of which they were both elected 
 demy shortly after the Revolution. Hax-ing attained a fellow- 
 ship, he resided at that college till 1700, when he became 
 
 chaplain to Sir Charles Hedges, secretary of state, from whose 
 household he subsequently removed to that of Archbishop Teni- 
 son. In 1719, having previously been named by Tenison to the 
 rectory of St. Olave's, Southwark, and to the archdeaconry of 
 SuiTey, he accompanied George I. to Hanover, as king's chap- 
 lain, and tutor to Prince Frederic, for whom he drew up a set 
 of instmctions which so pleased the king that he made him dean 
 of Christ church, and bishop of Bristol. After presiding in this 
 latter see with great credit for four years and a half, he was 
 nominated to the primacy of Ireland, and anived in that countiy 
 in 1724. To the duties of this responsible position he brought 
 such energy, intelligence, and philanthropy, as practically 
 brought the direction of the government within his power ; while 
 his extensive charities, and laborious endeavours to foster native 
 industry, commanded for him the respect of all classes of the 
 people. He died in London in 1742. Besides his occasional 
 sermons, and a few of his charges to the clergj' of Ireland, two 
 volumes of his " Letters to Ministers of State," illustrative of 
 Irish history from 1724 to 1738, have been published. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOULTON, Matthew, an Enghsh engineer, famous as the 
 partner of the more celebrated James Watt, was born at Bir- 
 mingham on 3d September, 1728. He early showed an aptitude 
 for mechanical work, and when only seventeen, designed and 
 executed improvements on some of tlie smaller articles of Bir- 
 mingham manufacture. Succeeding to some property on the 
 death of his father, and findmg his premises inadequate for his 
 experiments and improvements, he purchased in 1762 a lease of 
 the Soho, a barren heath about two miles from BuTningham, 
 where he proceeded to establish the works afterwards so famous. 
 He showed great taste in the manner in which the buildings 
 were designed and the gi'ound laid out, and spared no expense 
 in seeking to bring the cUftersnt departments of his business to 
 greater perfection than had ever been attained before. The 
 ornaments which were made at the Soho from the designs of 
 artists employed on the works soon became famous over Em'ope, 
 and the demands of a rapidly-increasing business made Mr. 
 Boulton feel that the mills which supphed the motive power 
 were quite madequate. He had therefore recourse to the newly- 
 discovered power of steam. Mr. James Watt obtained in 1769 
 a patent for improvements on the steam-engine. In that year 
 Mr. Boulton entered mto negotiations with the great engineer, 
 and induced him to remove to Soho and become his partner. 
 An extension of the patent for twenty-five years was procured 
 in 1775, and the partners entered on an extensive manufactory 
 of the improved engines, which were soon carried to all parts of 
 the countiy. But Jlr. Boukon did not forget his original pur- 
 pose in securing the co-operation of Mr. Watt. He proceeded 
 to apply the engine, and NNnth very great success, to the various 
 departments of labour in the works. So perfect were the arrange- 
 ments of the coining machine, that the power of one engine 
 could turn off from 30,000 to 40,000 coins in an hour. Mr. 
 Boulton died 17th August, 1809, in his eighty-first year. 
 Though not possessed of such genius as his partner, he held no 
 mean place as a mechanician, and as long as Mr. Watt's achieve- 
 ments are recorded, the sympathy and friendly aid of Mr. Boulton 
 will be remembered. He hberally expended £47,000 in the 
 experiments of the steam-engine before the improvements were 
 effected, or could secure any return. It is no slight praise that 
 Watt sliould thus speak of him — " To his friendly encourage- 
 ment, to his partiality for scientitic improvements, to his intimate 
 knowledge of business and manufactures, and to his extended 
 views and liberal sphit, may in a great mu;isure be ascribed what- 
 ever success may have attended my exertions." — J. B. 
 
 BOUQUET, DOM Martin, a celebrated Benedictine, bom nt 
 Amiens in 1685 ; died in 1754. He undertook a history of the 
 Gauls and Franks, the idea of which work had been conceived by 
 Colbert in 1676. Of this work he lived to complete the eighth 
 volume in 1752, and had commenced the ninth when death 
 closed his labours. This important work has been continued by 
 several learned Benedictines, under the title of " Rcrum Galli- 
 camm ct Francicarum Scriptores," or " Rccueil des historiens 
 des Gaules et de la France." Bouquet was associated with the 
 learned j\rontfan9on in several of his works. — J. G. 
 
 BOUQUIER, Gaukiel, a French litterateur, bom in 
 Perigord about 1750; died in 1811. He was member of the 
 convention for the department of Dordogne, and was a man of 
 strong revolutionary opinions. He voted for the death of Louis 
 XVI., but took no part in the stmggle between the Montag-
 
 BOU 
 
 704 
 
 BOU 
 
 nards and tlie Girondists ; was member of the committee of 
 public instruction, president of the Society of Jacobins, and in 
 179i was elected secretary to the convention. At the close of 
 the convention he retired to his property, and divided his time 
 between music and painting. He wrote, in conjunction with 
 Mohne, a five-act piece, entitled " Inauguration de la republique 
 franfaise, sans cullotide," that was frequently rejiresented. — J. G. 
 BOUKBON. The first six dukes of this house we notice 
 together; the other distinguished persons who bore the name 
 follow in alphabetical order : — Louis I., count of Clermont, and 
 duke of Bourbon, son of Robert of Clermont, and grandson of 
 St. Louis, bom in 1279, succeeded his mother Beatrix, 1310, in 
 the lordship of Bourbon. He bore arms in the Flemish wars of 
 Phillipe le Bel, particularly distinguishing himself on the fatal 
 field of Courtray in 1302. In 1308 he was appointed grand 
 chamberlain to the king — a dignity which was enjoyed by his 
 descendants till the revolt of the constable of Bourbon. In 1312 
 he purchased for an enormous price from Eudes, duke of Bur- 
 gundy, the title of prince of Thessalonica, consoling himself with 
 an eastern signiory for tlie ill success of his attempt to organize 
 a cnisade. For his exploits in the English wars of the reign of 
 Charles le Bel, his signiory of Bourbon was erected into a duchy. 
 He took part with Phillip of Valois in his straggle for the throne, 
 and was sent by that prince to Edward III., whom he persuaded 
 to do homage to the king of France. In the three years pre- 
 ceding his death in 13-11, he was again engaged in the French 
 wars in Flanders. — Pierre I., son of the preceding, born in 
 1310, a brave soldier and prodigal prince, distinguished in the 
 English wars, and also in the records of the chancery of Rome, 
 where he figured as an excommunicated bankrupt. He was 
 wounded at Cressy, and killed at Poitiers in 1356. One of his 
 daughters was married to Charles V., and another to Peter the 
 Cruel. — -Louis II., son of the preceding, born 1337, honourably 
 distinguished for his efforts to arrest the discord which prevailed 
 among the members of the family of Charles V., a id to quell 
 the popular tumults of that reign. Until the peace of 1374 he 
 fought valorously against the English, whom, as the son of one 
 of the proud princes who fell at Poitiers, he excelled in hating. 
 In 1380, after the death of the king, he was appointed guardian 
 of the young duke of Orleans, brother of Charles VI. In 1398 
 he undertook a crasade against the pirates of Tunis. This was 
 one of the most brilliant as well as one of the most honourable 
 exploits of the age. He not only forced the king of Tunis to 
 liberate all his christian captives, but obliged hhn to become 
 tributary to Genoa. Died in 1410. — Jean I., son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1381. About the time of the mm'der of the 
 diike of Orleans he was a leader of the Armagnac party, and an 
 active enemy of the Burgundian. He repulsed Jean Sans Peur 
 from before Bourges, and in 1414 took from him the town of 
 Compiegne. The year preceding, with the aid of some troops 
 from Paris, he repressed brigandage in the provinces of Touraine, 
 Anjou, &c. In 1415 he and sixteen other persons, knights or 
 squires, published a cartel in which it was set forth, that each 
 would wear in honour of his lady, and in defiance of all the 
 world, a fetter of gold or silver for the space of two years. 
 Having been made prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, he was 
 carried to London, where, although his ransom was paid no fewer 
 than three times, he was kejit in confinement till his death, 1434. 
 — Charles I., son of the preceding, born in 1401, bore, during 
 his father's lifetime, the title of count of Clermont. In 1418 
 he was seized in Paris by Jean Sans Peur, duke of Burgundy, 
 and compelled to renounce his marriage with Catherine of France. 
 This was preliminary to his being required to espouse the duke's 
 daughter, whom, after the nmnler of her father, he dismissed 
 into Burgundy. He bore arms for the dauphin, afterwards 
 Charles VII., and in reward for numerous important services, 
 was raised to the command of two provinces, Languedoc and 
 Guyenne. In 1428 he was engaged in the defence of Orleans, 
 against the English, and the year following, took part in the 
 liattle of the Herrings. On the marriage of his sister to Phillip 
 tlie Good of Burgundy, hostilities ceased between the two houses, 
 and it was Jean I. wlio negotiated the treaty of peace between 
 Phillip and Charles VII., which, to the great joy of the king, 
 was ratified in 1435. He died in 145(j. — Jean II., constable 
 of France, son of the preceding, born about 1426, distinguished 
 under the title of count of Clermont for his exploits against the 
 English in Guyenne. He was a prominent leader of the party 
 who in the time of Louis XL, formed, with such poor success. 
 
 the league called du Bien Public. After the treaty of Con- 
 flans, where Louis and his rebellious barons were once more 
 reconciled, he was taken into favour by the crafty monarch, 
 and finally raised to the post of constable. He died in 1488. 
 
 The seventh duke of Bourbon was Charles II., Cardinal d^ 
 Bourbon, noticed below ; the eighth was Pierre II., Sire de Beau- 
 jeu, noticed under that title. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURBON, Alexandre de, natm-al son of Jean I., duke of 
 Bom'bon, at first distinguished as a brave officer under Charles 
 VII., then as a brigand, and afterwards as one of the leaders of 
 the Praguerie. He was taken at Bar-sur-Aube in 1440, sown 
 in a sack, on which were inscribed the words — " laissez passer 
 le justice du roi," and thrown into the river. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURBON, Antoine de, king of Navarre. See An- 
 toine. 
 
 BOURBON, Charles, cardinal de, second son of Charles I , 
 fifth duke of Bourbon, was created archbishop of Lyons in 1446, 
 and raised to the pui-ple in 1477. He was one of the chiefs of 
 the Ligue du Bien Public, but latterly figured at the court of 
 Louis XL, who frequently employed him both in war and diplo- 
 macy. When the cunning Louis invited Edward III. to Paris 
 to see the dames of the French court, he recommended to the 
 English monarch the Cardinal de Bourbon as an amiable and 
 not too austere confessor. On the death of his father, the title, 
 but not the estates of the family, came into his hands, the latter 
 being claimed by his elder brother, the Sire de Beaujeu, sou-in- 
 law to the king. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURBON, Charles, cardinal de, of the Vendome branch 
 of the family, brother of Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre, 
 born in 1520. His revenues from the church were enormous — 
 he was archbishop, bishop, and abbot of ten rich houses. Under 
 Charles IX. and Henry III. he was chief of the privy council. 
 His interests, however, were with the party of the League, and 
 he became their chief, afterwards their king. In order to fore- 
 stall his nephew, the king of Navarre, aftenvards Henry IV., he 
 had himself crowned under the title of Charles X. His principal 
 supporters were the duke and cardinal of Guise, whose mother 
 he had married. After the assassination of these two princes he 
 was taken prisoner, and shut up in the castle of Fontenay-le- 
 Comte. From that place, two months before his death, 1590, 
 he wrote to his nephew, Henry IV. recognizing him as his 
 sovereign. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURBON, Charles, cardinal de, grandnephew of the 
 preceding, and the fourth son of Louis I., prince of Conde, bom 
 in 1560, inherited from his granduncle the archbishopric of 
 Rouen, and several abbeys. He renewed the pretensions of his 
 branch of the family to the throne of France, and was not cured 
 of the folly, bequeathed to him by his granduncle, without caus- 
 ing considerable trouble to Henry IV. He died in 1594. 
 
 BOURBON, Charles, due de, the famous constable, count of 
 Montpensier and la Marche, and dauphin of Auvergne, bom 1490, 
 was the second son of Gilbert de Bourbon, count of Jlontpen- 
 sier, viceroy of the kingdom of Naples. By the death of his 
 elder brother, and his marriage with Suzanne de Bourbon, heiress 
 of Pierre II., duke of Bourbon, the honours of the two great 
 branches of the family fell to him at an age when his natural 
 love of magnificent display, and his ambition of warlike fame, 
 fostered almost into vices by the retainers of his father and his 
 uncle, were in the full bloom of youthful passions. His skill in 
 militaiy science, and his prowess in the field and the tourna- 
 ment, had answered all the expectations of the veteran warriors 
 to whom the task of fitting him for his high station had been 
 intmsted. No less austere in his personal habits than magnifi- 
 cent in the character of a prince, while his presence at court 
 commanded more deference than love, he was the idol of the 
 soldiery, and the boast of his titled compeers. Louis XII. and 
 his successor, Francis I., were jealous of a subject who rivalled 
 the sovereign in wealth, if not in power. He never travelled 
 without a retinue, which, comprising most of the nobles of his 
 duchies of Bourbon and Auvergne, and of his various counties, 
 was more like an emperor's than a duke's. When on the death 
 of Gaston de Foix, the anny of Italy, with which he had served 
 by the side of Bayard in the last campaign of Louis XII., 
 demanded Bourbon for chief, the king refused to comply with its 
 wishes, saying of the duke, " I would like to see in him a little 
 more gaiety and less reserve — nothing is worse than water that 
 sleeps." Francis, indeed, immediately after his accession, 
 appointed Bourbon constable in 1515, and the following year
 
 BOU 
 
 705 
 
 BOU 
 
 1 .'warded the skill and valour which had gained the victory of 
 .Marignano, by leaving him in command of Lombardy ; but as 
 was to be shown not long after, he too disliked the taciturnity of 
 liis redoubtable lieutenant. While in Lombardy, Bourbon pro- 
 jiiised to the court to undertake the conquest of Naples, and so 
 rliVctive had been his measures for disciplining the army under his 
 command, that the subjugation of that kingdom would have 
 ( ost Francis but little exertion, if he had been at all disposed to 
 add to the power of a lieutenant whose designs he feared as 
 much as he respected his talents. Bourbon was still engaged in 
 , parations for an invasion of the Neapolitan territories, when 
 ^ attention was directed to another quarter of Italy by the 
 iimvements of the Emperor Maximilian, who had entered the 
 Milanese with a large army. This iiTuption promised to be as 
 disastrous as it was unexpected, but the mutinous conduct of the 
 Swiss mercenaries, who formed the staple of each army, brought 
 it to a sudden termination ; not, however, before the constable 
 had drawn on his personal credit for supplies which should have 
 been furnished by the king. In 1521 the constable's wife, 
 Suzanne de Bourbon, died, and now began the open hostility 
 between Francis and Bourbon which was to end so fatally for 
 both. Louise of Savoy, the mother of Francis, had long enter- 
 tained a violent passion for Bourbon, which, not being nice in 
 her morality, she hardly concealed in the lifetime of his wife, 
 and now avowed in such a manner, that the constable was irri- 
 tated into expressing his contempt for the princess, and his scorn of 
 the woman. This Francis resented by refusing to pay the sums 
 which Bourbon had borrowed in order to save the Milanese, and 
 the breach between them daily widened. To satisfy the king, 
 who wanted money, and his mother, who thirsted for revenge, 
 thecourtsof law proceeded to despoil the constable of his estates, 
 the greater part of which they declared belonged to the queen- 
 mother, as the next of kin to Suzanne de Bourbon. In this way 
 tlie constable lost first his county of La Marche, which was 
 -iven to Louise, then another and another county, and, finally, 
 liis duchies. By a still more summary process, he was deprived 
 i>f the emoluments of his office. Sternly refusing to make his 
 peace with the court by accepting the hand of a profligate 
 woman, he determined to accept the proffered amity of the 
 inemies of his country, Charles V. and Henry VIII. With these 
 princes he concluded a league of friendship, the terms of which 
 were, that he should have Dauphiny and Provence, in addition 
 to his duchies, and his allies the rest of France. Francis I. was 
 on his way to Italy, when, in conformity with this treaty, Bour- 
 bon prepared to join the imperialists in Lombardy. He was 
 snon aware of the treason of the constable, but fear, which as 
 innch as hatred had all along guided his policy towards his for- 
 midable subject, kept him for awhile from attempting to lay 
 violent hands on a traitor, who, in the event of a battle, ran a 
 good chance of changing places with his master. At length, 
 however, Bourbon had to depart the kingdom, and without an 
 army. The fugitive, somewhat to conceal his plight from his 
 imperial ally, surrounded himself in Germany with 6000 lans- 
 quenets, whom his reputation, and the expectations of plunder 
 ti'iuided thereon, rather than regular pay, attracted to his stand- 
 iid. His first service in the ranks of the imperialist army was 
 tliat pursuit of the French across the Sesia in 1524, in which 
 tlie illustrious companion of his campaigns in Italy, Bayard, fell 
 liy a ball from a Spanish arquebuss. — (Sec Bayaud.) Charles 
 V. was chary of his confidence to a prince who had promised to 
 come to him with a powerful army, and had with difficulty 
 escaped hanging in the attempt to leave his country ; and, 
 although assured by the constable that he had only to enter 
 France to be received with open arms in all the great cities of 
 tlie kingdom, he would only consent to a slight demonstration in 
 I'rovence, which proving unsuccessful, he ordered his forces 
 ' yond the Alps. The battle of Pavia, where, with the title of 
 iitenant-general, he commanded a body of about 19,000 Ger- 
 mans, certainly afforded him ample revenge for the wrongs he 
 bad received from Francis I., but after that great victory, mainly 
 owing, be it said, to his skill and valour, ho was as little trusted 
 — his interests were as little regarded — by the emperor as before. 
 In the temper of mind induced by this neglect, he resolved on a 
 'laring scheme to settle his accounts with fortune, the attempt 
 'i' execute which ranks him with the boldest, as he was certainly 
 ' 'le of the most respectable, of brigands. Allured by the 
 immense wealth of the city of the Cesars, he proposed to the 
 turbulent mercenaries under his command, an immediate advance 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 on Rome, which, under the false security of a truce with Charles 
 v., little expected another invasion of the northern barbarians. 
 In vain the Romans appciiled to the soldiery of Charles V. to 
 respect the treaty of peace their master had entered into with the 
 Holy See — their pay was in arrears — their chief had prepared a 
 chain of gold in which to hang the pope — and nothing would 
 arrest their march. On the Gth May, 1527, the assault began — 
 Bourbon was the first to mount the walls, and the first who fell. 
 A priest, it was said, fired the fatal shot. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURBON, Hector de, natural son of Louis II., duke of 
 Bourijon, killed while rallying the Annagnacs at the siege of 
 Soissons in 1414; a doughty warrior whose deeds were affection- 
 ately rehearsed long after the termination of his short but brilliant 
 career. He perished at the age of twenty-three. 
 
 BOURBON, Jean de, archbishop of Lyons, and natural son 
 of Jean I., duke of Bourbon, distinguished as one of the most 
 munificent prelates of his age. He was lieutenant of several 
 provinces. Died in 1485. 
 
 BOURBON, Jean de, natural son of Pierre I., duke of Bour- 
 bon, chamberlain of John of France, and lieutenant of Langue- 
 doc, was wounded and made prisoner at the battle of Poitiers. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis, count of Rousillon and Ligny, admiral of 
 France, a natural son of Charles I., dulce of Bourbon, married 
 Jeanne de France, natural daughter of Louis XL He was 
 marshal and seneschal of his brother's estates, and was legiti- 
 matized in 1463. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis, cardinal de, archbishop of Sens and 
 legate of Savoy, fourth son of Fran9ois de Bourbon, count of 
 Vendome; born in 1493 ; took part in the Milanese campaign of 
 Francis I.; in 1527 was commissioned to offer that prince, in 
 the name of the clergy of France, a gift of 1,300,000 livres ; 
 and in 1552 was appointed governor of Paais by Henry II. 
 Died in 1556. 
 
 BOURBON, Luis Antonio .Tacobo de, infanta of Spain, 
 born 1727, son of Phillip V., and brother of Charles III. Com- 
 pelled by his father to enter the church, he was made a cardinal, 
 and appointed archbishop of Toledo, but as ^oon as the death of 
 Phillip V. left him at liberty to engage in the more congenial 
 duties of his secular rank, he threw down his pastoral staff, 
 returned his cardinal's hat, and to mark his contempt for the 
 dignities he quitted, exchanged the scanty cape of his clerical 
 habiliments for one of ovitrageous dimensions. His marriage 
 with Maria Theresa de Valabriga Bosas, gave such offence to 
 Charles III., that he was forbidden to approach the court except 
 when specially invited. He died in 1785. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis Henki, duke of, and of Enghien, son of 
 Louis, duke of Bourbon- Conde, born in 1692. After the death of 
 Louis XIV., he was appointed president of a council of regency. 
 The spirit of the next reign, which was plunder, he entered into 
 with all his heart ; as first minister of the king, scheming away 
 immense sums ; but as duke of Bourbon, always increasing his 
 treasures. He was supplanted in 1726 by the cardinal de Floury, 
 who neglected no opportunity of harassing his predecessor. Died 
 in 1740. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis Henri Joseph, duke of, and prince de 
 Conde, father of the dulce d'P.nghien, so wantonly nmrdered by 
 Napoleon, was boni in 1750. After the Revolution, he established 
 himself in the territory of Liege, where, his fellow-emigrants 
 being in great numbers, he was able to organize a considerable 
 force, which, under his command, earned distinction in various 
 encounters with the armies of the republic. He was in England 
 when he learned the atrocious crime which deprived him of his 
 son. During the Hundred Days he was active on behalf of 
 Louis XVIII. in La Vendee, but without effect. The govern- 
 ment of the Restoration rewarded his fidelity to the chief of his 
 house, by appointing him grand-master of the royal household. 
 His death, which occurred in 1830, was not without some cii-- 
 cumstances fitted to awaken sus])icions of foul play. He was 
 found suspended by a handkerchief in his chamber at the castle 
 of Saint Leu. The duke d'Ainnale, fourth son of Loiiis Phi- 
 lippe, inherited his property. — His wile, Louise Makie Tiie- 
 KESE Bathilde D'Oui.EANS,was a daughter of Louis Pliilii)pe, 
 duke of Orleans, grandson of tho regent. After the birth of 
 their son, the duke d'Engliien, the spouses separated ; Madame, 
 after sufiering a two years' iniprisonnuMit during the revolutionary 
 period, being ordered to retire into Sjjain, where, in the enjoy- 
 ment of an ample pension, she devoted herself to converse and 
 correspondence with a number of mystical pietists, and what was 
 
 4U
 
 of more sei-vice to lier reputation, to works of charity. In spite 
 of her continual entreaties, she was not allowed to return to 
 France till 1814. She died in 1822. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis de, bishop of Liege, brother of Charles 
 cardinal and duke de Bourbon, a prelate of loose and violent 
 habits, assassinated in 1482. His son, Pierre, was the founder 
 of the family of Bourbon-Busset. 
 
 BOUKBON, Luis JIaria dk. Prince, son of Luis Antonio, 
 infimta of Spain, born at Cad;ihalso in 1777, became cardinal and 
 primate. In 1808 he wrote to Napoleon in a strain of fervent 
 loyalty, and the following year took the oath of fidelity to King 
 Josepli, but this subserviency to the French lasted only till the 
 outbreak of the insurrection, when he assumed the responsibilities 
 of president of the regency of Cadiz. On the restoration of Fer- 
 dinand VII., he was commissioned to exact from the king the 
 oath of fidelity to the constitution of 1S12. This commission 
 lost him the favour of his cousin, who took from him the arch- 
 bishopric of Seville. The revolution of 1820 again placed him 
 at the head of atl'airs. He died in 1823. 
 
 BOUKBON, Matthieu, known as le Grand Batard de, son 
 of John II., duke of Bourbon, distinguished in the wars of Louis 
 XI. against Maximilian of Austria. Charles VIII., to whom he 
 was counsellor and chamberlain, lavished on him the highest 
 honours of the court and the camp ; among others, that of attend- 
 ing him into Italy as the first of the nine knights of renown, 
 whom, in imitation of Charlemagne, he chose for his companions 
 in arms. He was made prisoner at the battle of Fomovo in 
 1495; died in 1505.— .L S., G. 
 
 BOURBON, NicoL.vs, a Latin poet, bom at Vandeuvre in 
 1503 ; died in 1550. He was tutor to the mother of Henry 
 IV. His poetry has been ridiculed by Scaliger, but has been 
 highly commended by Erasmus and others scholars of note. His 
 collection of poems, entitled " Nugas," has drawn on him the 
 following epigram of Joachim de Bellay : — 
 
 "Paule, tuum iuscribis Nuganira nomine librum: 
 In toto libro nil melius titulo." 
 
 —J. G. 
 BOURBON-CONt)E, Louis, duke de, son of Henri Jules, 
 prince of Conde, and of Aime of Bavaria, bom in l(i68, a brave 
 and sagacious soldier, but most unamiable prince. He distin- 
 guished himself at the siege of lions and Namur. His character 
 has been depicted by Saint Simon in colours which might have 
 gone to a portrait of the adversary of mankind. Died in 1710. 
 BOURCET, Pierre-Joseph, a learned tactician, born at 
 Yseaux in 1700 ; died in 1780 ; author of " Historical Memoirs 
 of the War in Germany, from 1757 to 1762 ;" "Carte Topo- 
 graphique du haut Dauphine;" " Memoires Militaires sm- les 
 Frontiferes de la France, du Piemont, de la Savoie, depuis 
 I'embouchure du Var jusqu'au lac de Geneve." 
 
 BOURCHENU, Jean-Pierre JIoret de, marquis de Val- 
 bonnais, a French historian, born at Grenoble in 1G51 ; died in 
 1730. After spending a youth of adventure, he became suc- 
 cessively counsellor to the parliament of Grenoble and councUlor 
 of state. His works bear chiefly on the history of Dauphine. 
 
 BOURCHIER, John, Lord Berners, grandson of Sir John 
 Bourchier, fourth son of William, earl of Eux, in Normandy, was 
 born in 1469 ; died at Calais in 1532. He was educated at 
 Baliol college, Oxford, and after quitting the university travelled 
 abroad for the purpose of completing his education. His suc- 
 cess in suppressing an insurrection which broke out in Devonshire 
 and Cornwall about the year 1495, gained him the favour of 
 Henry VIL He seiTcd at the siege of Therouanne under Himry 
 VIII. , in the capacity of captain of the pioneers, and obtained 
 from that monarch the government of Calais, and the post of 
 chancellor of the exchequer for life. He conducted the Princess 
 Mary, the king's sister, to France, on the occasion of her mar- 
 riage with Louis XII. Lord Berners was the author of a tract, 
 " On the Duties of the Inhabitants of Calais," and a comedy 
 called " Ite in Vineam Meam ;" but his fame rests mainly on 
 his translations of " The History of the most Noble and Vaylant 
 Knight, Arthur of Lytell Brytagne ;" " The Famous Exploits of 
 Hugh of Bourdeaux ;" " The Castle of Love," a romance from 
 the Spanish ; " The Golden Boke of Marcus Aurelius ;" and 
 especially his translation of Froissart, published in London in 
 1523.— J. T. 
 
 BOURCHIER, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, son of 
 Sir William Bourchier, earl of Eux, was educated at Neville's 
 Inn, Oxford. His first ecclesiastical preferment was to the 
 
 deanery of St. Martin's, London. In 1433 he was advanced to 
 the see of Worcester. In the same year he was appointed 
 chancellor of the university of Oxford, an office which he held 
 for four years. He was chosen bishop of Ely in 1434, but it 
 was not until 1443 that the consent of the king was given to 
 his translation. In 1454 he was elected archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, and in the year following was made lord-chancellor, an 
 office which he retained only for a few months. He held the 
 primacy of the English church during thuty-two years, from 
 the thirty-second year of Henry VI. to the second year of Henry 
 VIL, and was a good deal mixed up with the political events of 
 that stormy period. He died at Knowle, then an archiepiscopal 
 residence, in 1486. Archbishop Bourchier was undoubtedly a 
 man of ability and learning, but he deserves to be remembered 
 mainly for the service he did this countiy in promoting the 
 introduction of printing. It was he who persuaded Henry VI. 
 to send Tumour and Caxton to tlie continent in the guise of 
 merchants, with the view of acquiring a knowledge of this art, 
 which was then practised with the greatest secrecy. With great 
 difficulty they accomjilished their purpose, and persuaded one of 
 the compositors to carry off a set of types and accompany them 
 to England.— J. T. 
 
 BOURCIER, Jean Leonard, baron de Monti;reux, celebrated 
 as the principal author of the code of laws known as that of 
 Prince Leopold, which, till lately, regulated the administration 
 of justice in Loiraine, was bom at Verchse in 1649, and died in 
 1726. After its submission to Louis XIV., he became procura- 
 tor-general of the pro^'ince of Luxembourg, and in the cour.se of 
 the ten or twelve years he held that dignity, accomplished for 
 Luxembourg a triumph of legal skill and industry similar to that 
 which afterwards shed lustre on the government of LoiTaine. 
 The peace of Ryswick having restored Duke Leopold to his 
 estates, Bourcier was immediately invested with the same dignity 
 in his native pro\'ince, which he had worn with such advantage 
 to the new subjects of France in Luxembourg. As was inevit- 
 able, in a province which for more than half a centuiy had been 
 the prey of successive conquerors, the administration of justice 
 in Lorraine, at the time of Leopold's restoration in 1698, was in 
 the utmost confusion. To remedy this Bourcier prepared, in the 
 space of three years, a complete system of jmispnidence, civil and 
 criminal, which had the rare fortune to meet with general 
 approval in the duchy. It touched, however, on some nice 
 points of pisblic morality, which at least one prelate of Lorraine 
 was determined should not be too distinctly guarded, and in 
 consequence of the representations to the papal chair of this offi- 
 cious churchman, a part of Bourcier's code was subjected to pon- 
 tifical censure. Bourcier published a reply to the bishop, which 
 was also condemned at Rome. The com-ts of law decided the 
 dispute by adopting the whole code. In 1711 Bourcier received 
 the commands of Leopold to repair to the congi-ess of Utrecht. 
 On his retum, the duke compelled him to accept the title of 
 baron, a dignity to which, at his advanced age, he would have 
 preferred an honom'able dismission from the cares of office. This 
 accomplished and laborious jurist published a number of histori- 
 cal works, chiefly relating to Lorraine. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURCIER, Jean Louis, count de Montureux, son of the 
 preceding, born in 1687, succeeded his father as procurator- 
 general of Lorraine in 1724. He was employed by Leopold in 
 one or two missions of importance, and under the successor of 
 that prince, Francis afterwards emperor, he was admitted to an 
 important share in the management of pubUc affairs. Francis, 
 on his marriage with the Archduchess Maria Theresa, summoned 
 him to Vienna, where he conducted the opposition of his master 
 to the treaty (called of Vienna), which deprived the prince of 
 his duchy of LoiTaine. He published a work of considerable inter- 
 est both to the legislator and the historian — " Recueil des edits, 
 &c., du regne de Leopold." Died in 1737. — ^J. S., G. 
 
 BOURDALOUE, Louis, the celebrated French preacher, one 
 of the greatest of orators, and one of the most exemplary of 
 christian teachers, was bom at Bourges in 1632. He entered 
 the Society of Jesuits in 1648, and after a brilliant career as 
 student and professor in the seminaries of that order, was sent 
 forth as a preacher. In the provinces, where his first sermons 
 were delivered, as afterwards in the metropolis, crowds attended 
 him wherever he went. In 1669 his superiors called him to 
 Paris to occupy for a year the pulpit of St. Louis. His success 
 speedily ranked him in popular talk with Comeille, Racine, and 
 the other glories of the most brilliant period of the French
 
 BOU 
 
 707 
 
 BOU 
 
 monarchy. He became the idol of the court and of the masses. 
 The former tolerated, ^Yhile the latter applauded his uncompro- 
 mising reprobation of vice, whether courtly or nilgar ; and all 
 paid homage to his imrivalled eloquence, his piety, and zeal. He 
 found the pulpit in Pai-is, as has been said, a place for bufloons 
 and pedants ; by the influence of a saintly character and splendid 
 talents, he commanded for it all proper respect in his own life- 
 time, and left it a goodly reversion to men who resembled him 
 both in piety and in genius. Louis XIV. wished him to preach 
 ten successive Lents in the royal chapel, remarking, that an old 
 sermon of his was better than a new one of anybody else. On 
 the revocation of the edict of Nantes, the king sent him into 
 Languedoc to confinn the new converts from the protestant 
 faith ; and in this mission he had extraordinary success. Until 
 the infirmities of age rendered him unequal to the extraordinary 
 eflforts by which he had achieved unparalleled fame as a preacher, 
 he continued to minister from the pulpit, and then with undi- 
 minished zeal turned to the more private duties of his calling, 
 often, it is said, sitting five or six hours in the confessional after 
 he had accomplished his daily task of \-isiting all the sick, and 
 they were many, who requested his attentions. For good works 
 the last days of this admirable man were as remarkable as were 
 his earlier years for the triumphs of genius. He died at Paris in 
 1704. Two editions of his sermons were published by his friend. 
 Father Bretonneau, the first in 16 vols. 8vo, 1706, and the 
 second in 18 vols. 12 mo. The most recent edition of his works 
 b that of Firmin Didot, 3 vols., 1840.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOURDELOT, Pierre, the author of a work entitled 
 " L'Histoire de la Musique et de ses Effets, depuis son origine 
 jusqu'a present," was born at Sens in 1610. He devoted him- 
 self first to the study of medicine, being created doctor in 1642, 
 and afterwards to the service of the church. In 1651 he visited 
 Stockholm, to attend Christina of Sweden in a dangerous illness ; 
 
 d, returning to France, was rewarded with an abbacy. He 
 ied in 1685, lea-i'ing his MSS. on music to his nephews, MM. 
 I'ierre and Jacques Bonnet. The " Histoire de la ]\Iusique" 
 was first printed in 1715, and aften^-ards, with considerable 
 additions by the editors, in 1725 and 1743. The fij-st edition 
 is in one small volume. The editorial appendices are in four 
 volmnes 12mo. — E. F. R. 
 
 BOURDIC-VIOT, Marie Anne Henriette de, bom at 
 Dresden in 1746, a poetess whose works show great cultivation 
 of mind, and are the results of calm reflection rather than of 
 inventive imagination. Jlanied at 13, a widow at 16, she agam 
 married baron de Bourdic, like her first husband, a Frenchman ; 
 and although of ordinary appearance she was married a third 
 time to M. Viot. She used pleasantly to say of herself that the 
 Architect had neglected the exterior of the building, and in 
 saving so implied that, like some Arabian biuldings, the mar\-el- 
 lous decorations of the interior compensated for the sobriety of 
 the outside. Her acquaintance with living languages' was exten- 
 sive, and in philosophy she followed the easy elastic scepticism 
 of the tolerant Jlontaigne. Voltaire and La Harpe have each 
 borne testimony to the remarkable qualities of this accomplished 
 woman. She died in 1802.— J. F. C. 
 
 BOURDIN, GiLLES, a learned Frenchman, bom at Paris in 
 1515 ; died in 1570. He became advocate-general to the par- 
 liament of Paris in 1555, and procureur-general in 1558. His 
 best work is entitled " Egidii Bordini Paraphrasis in Constitu- 
 tiones Regias anno 1539 editas." This work was translated iuto 
 French by Fontanou in 1606. — J. G. 
 
 BOURDIN, Jacques, lord of Vilaines, a statesman of the 
 reign of Henri II., Fran9ois II., and Charies IX., died in 1567. 
 He drew up for the council of Trent an elaborate defence of the 
 rights of the Galilean chm-ch, parts of which are preserved in 
 I 'upuy's collection. He figured in the most important negotia- 
 !ons of his time, particularly those with England in 1553, and 
 'vith Germany in 1553-66. He was suspected of inclining to 
 the opinions of the Geiman reformers. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURDOIS DE LA iMOTHE, Edme Joachim, successively 
 I'liysician to the king of Rome, Louis XVIII., and Charies X., 
 '"irn at Joigny in 1754, is the author of a " Dissertation sur les 
 Ltl'ets de I'extrait de ratanhia dans les hemorragies," 1808. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 BOURDOISE, Adrien, a French eccle.siastic, contemporary 
 with St. Vincent de Paul and the abbe Oilier, bom in the dio- 
 cese of Chartres in 1584 ; died in 1655. He was a zealous cate- 
 chist and missionary, and besides instituting the community of 
 
 priests of the order of St. Kicolas du Chardonnet, is said to have 
 drawn up the code of rules observed by the Miramiones, or 
 nuns of St. Geneneve. He left a work entitled "Idee d'lm bon 
 Ecclesiastique." 
 
 * BOURDON, Isidore, a distinguished French physician, 
 bom at Merry in 1796. His works, which are numerous, rank 
 among the most valuable contributions to medical science of the 
 present century. They are equally admirable in style and 
 matter. Besides a host of dissertations in various journals he 
 has published " Principes de Physiologie Medicale," Paris, 1828; 
 " Piincipes de Physiologie comparee, ou Histoire des phenomenes 
 de la vie dans tons les etres qui en sont dou^s, depuis les plantes 
 jusqu'aux animaux les plus complexes," 1830; and "La Phy- 
 sionomie et la Phrenologie, . . . examen critique du sys- 
 teme d'Aristote, de Porta, de Camper," &c., 1842.— J. S., G. 
 
 BOURDON M., a modem French mathematician, author of 
 several veiy useful works. The " Algebre " and " Mecanique " 
 of Bourdon rank among the foremost class of treatises intended 
 for the advanced student. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOURDON, Sebastian, a French painter, bom at Slont- 
 pellier in 1616. His father was a glass-painter, and the son 
 grew up a sort of restless artisan, almost self-educated. At the 
 age of fourteen he painted a ceiling in a nobleman's house near 
 Bourdeaux, a sufficient proof of his being an ambitious and pre- 
 cocious workman. Then in a fit of impatience at such mean 
 employment, we may suppose, he went to Toulouse and enlisted. 
 His captain finding a genius canying a pike when he should have 
 been holding a brash, gave him his discharge, and sent him to 
 study, where he met and imitated Claude LoiTaine. — W. T. 
 
 BOURDON DE LA CROSNIERE, Leonard Jean 
 Joseph, deputy to the convention from the department of Loiret, 
 bom in 1758, a furious Jacobin. He was t\\'ice despatched by 
 the assembly to Orleans, with power to chastise the royalists. 
 On the second occasion he narrowly escaped death at the hands 
 of the populace. He became secretary of the convention, and 
 president of the Jacobins. His share in the aiTest of Robespierre 
 should almost have spared him the reproaches which till the 
 close of his life continued to be showered upon him as one of the 
 bloodiest of the Jacobins. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURDON DE VATRY, Marc Axtoixe, baron, minister 
 of marine under the directory and the consulate, bora in 1761 ; 
 died in 1828. He served with the French forces in America 
 until the close of the war of independence. '\\Tiile minister of 
 marine under the directory, one of his numerous projects was a 
 descent on the English coast. Napoleon, to whom it was com- 
 municated in detail on his election to the consulate, treated it 
 with ridicule, and two years aftera-ards made it his own. Bour- 
 don's subsequent projects were more worthy of his intelligence. 
 In the various prefectures which he held after his secession from 
 the ministry, he undertook many public works, — bridges, and 
 the like— the execution of which, in the midst of the most seri- 
 ous difficulties, drew iipon him universal esteem. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURDOT DE RICHEBOURG, Charles Axtolne, a 
 French jurist, born at Pai-is in 1685, famous as the editor of the 
 following work — "Nouveau Coutumier general, ou Corps des 
 Coutumes generales et particulieres de France et de ses provinces 
 connues sous le nom des Gaules, verifiesur les originaux," &c., 
 Paris, 1724, 4 vols., 4to. This elaborate collection of legal 
 forms is enriched with notes which entitle the author to the 
 pr.aise of minute as well as extensive eradition. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURETTE, Charlotte, born in 1714; died in 1784; 
 sumamed la JIuse Limonadiere. She was for thirty-sis 
 years mistress of a cafe in the Rue Croix-des-Petits-Champs. 
 A number of distinguished literary men were in the habit of 
 frequenting this house, and their conversation, no doubt, tended 
 to develope the gemis of poetiy that were implanted by nature 
 in her heart. Literary discussions were relieved by theatrical 
 representations, in which the most illustrious personages took 
 part. JIadame Bourctte published a collection of her works in 
 verse and prose. Her comedy, " Tiic Coquette Punished," played 
 at the Theatre Fraufais in 1779, had considerable success. 
 
 BOURG, Anne du, nephew of a chancellor of France, bom 
 in Auvergne, 1521 ; executed as a heretic at Paris in 1559. 
 After taking orders, he abandoned his intention of folloiving the 
 clerical profession, and adopted that of law. In 1559, when 
 Henry II. commanded the parliament of Paris to take measures 
 for the suppression of the protestant religion, Du Bourg, then 
 an officer of the legislature, defended in presence of the king the
 
 BOU 
 
 708 
 
 BOU 
 
 doctrines and conduct of the reformers, boldly declaring that 
 treason and murder went unpunished, and that the vrhole terrors 
 of the state were reserved for a religious sect whose members 
 were the most orderly and loyal of all the subjects of the crown. 
 For this courageous defence of his coreligionists, he was brought 
 before the metropolitan court, and after some delay, caused by 
 the demise of Henry II., condemned to the scaffold. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BOURGADE, Francois, a French missionaiy who, since his 
 return from Algeria, where he spent a number of years in bene- 
 volent entei-prises, has given to the world a number of interesting 
 works, of which the following are the most important — " Soirees 
 de Carthage, ou Dialogues entre un pretre catholique, un muphti 
 et un cadi," 1852 ; and " Memoires sur trois tombeaux trouves 
 a Tunis," 1852. 
 
 BOURGEAT, Louis- Alexander-Marguerite, a French 
 litterateur, born at Grenoble in 1747 ; died in 1814. The 
 feebleness of his health compelled him to renounce the bar, and 
 he devoted himself to literature and science. After travelling 
 some time in Dauphinc he came to Paris, where he was employed 
 in periodical works and other Uteraiy labours, and obtained in 
 1813 the prize of the Academy of Grenoble for a history of the 
 Allobroges. After all his labours, he died, it is said, in misery 
 and despair. — J. G. 
 
 * BOURGEAU, A., a French botanical collector, who has 
 visited Spain and other parts of the continent of Europe, as well 
 as Teneritfe, and has made valuable contributions to the Her- 
 baria of Europe. He is now engaged in an expedition to Korth 
 America, under Mr. Palliser and Dr. Hector. — J. H. B. 
 
 * BOURGEOIS, A^'iCET, a dramatic writer, known to the 
 present age as the author of various farces, melodramas, and 
 fairy pieces, all ver)' clever; but he has not, as yet, attached his 
 name to any regular play of a high order. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOURGEOIS, Francis, a second-rate landscape painter, 
 remembered by his charitable heroisms, but not by his good 
 works. He was bom in London of Swiss parents in 1756. 
 He was intended for the army under his father's patron, the 
 brave defender of Gibraltar that Reynolds painted, Lord Heath- 
 field, who, in the Vernon galler)', with perennial vigour, is still 
 seen amid the Spanish fire and flame grasping his keys. Evinc- 
 ing a taste for art, he was placed under Loutherbourg, the pupil 
 of Van Loo, the first mventor of the diorama. Bourgeois adopted 
 his style in land and sea pieces. In 1776 he went to Italy, and 
 returned to shine at the academy. He was bom, like most 
 mediocre, courteous, dull men, for honours. In 1791 the king 
 of Poland knighted him, and made him his painter. In 1794 
 George III. selected him as court landscape painter, and he 
 became a royal academician. Some time before his death Sir 
 Francis did the best thing he ever did ; he left a noble collection 
 of pictm-es, bequeathed to him by Jlr. Noel Desenfans, to the 
 Duhvich college, where they still remain, perpetual educators, 
 Warners, and guides. He gave £10,000 to keep them in preser- 
 vation, £2000 for the repairs of the gallery, and £1000 to the 
 masters and fellows of St. Martin's charity. He died in 1811, 
 and was buried beside Desenfans in Dulwich college. He was a 
 mannered, feeble artist. — W. T. 
 
 BOURGEOIS, N., a French historian, bom at Rochelle in 
 1710; died in 1776. His historical researches, which were 
 numerous and minute, were devoted chiefly to the history of 
 Poitou. He resided for a long time in America, during which 
 he composed his poem of " Christopher Columbus." It would 
 appear that his manuscripts have been unfortunately long since 
 lost.— .1. G. 
 
 BOURGOING, Fr.vncois, a French ecclesiastic, contempo- 
 rarj' of St. Vincent de Paul, to whom he resigned his first cure, 
 that of Clichy, and friend of Berulle, whom he assisted in found- 
 ing the congregation of the orator}', bom in 1585 ; died in 1662. 
 In 1641, after the death of Berulle and of his successor Condren, 
 he became superior-general of the congregation. That oflice he 
 held twenty years, in great repute for learning and piety; but in 
 ill odour with some of his inferiors on account of a too zealous 
 concern about his own dignity and authority. A year before his 
 death be resigned it, partly in disgust and partly on account of 
 increasing infirmities. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURMOXT, Louis Auguste Victor, count de Ghaisne, 
 marshal of France, born 2nd September, 1773 ; died 27th Octo- 
 ber, 1846. At the age of sixteen he became an officer of the 
 French guards, which were disbanded at the Revolution. He 
 then joined the count of Aj-tois at Coblentz about the close of 
 
 1791, and fought on the side of the royalists against the revolu- 
 tionary party. He took a prominent part in the civil war in La 
 Vendee, and was for a time one of the chiefs of the Vendean 
 peasantry. After the final pacification of that province in 1799 
 he visited Paris, and was solicited by the first consul to accept 
 the rank of general of brigade. The refusal provoked Bonaparte, 
 who, after the attempt upon his life by the infernal machine, 
 caused Boumiont to be cast into the Temple prison, and after- 
 wards transferred to Besan^on. About the end of 1804 he 
 contrived to escape from prison, and took refuge in Portugal. 
 When the French army, which seized on that country in flagrant 
 violation of justice and liberty, was reduced to great straits bv 
 the British forces under Wellington, Bourmont quitted his retreat 
 and offered his ser\ices to .Junot, which were gratefully accepted. 
 After the convention of Cintra he embarked for France with his 
 family, but on his arrival he was thrown into prison at Nantes. 
 Junot obtained his release, but in order to avoid exUe he was 
 compelled to accept a commission in the amiy of Italy. He 
 acquired great distinction in the Russian campaign, and in the 
 campaign of 1813 in Germany he contributed greatly to the 
 \-ictory of Lutzen. Before Leipzig, and throughout the subse- 
 quent retreat of the French army, General Bourmont displayed 
 both great military skill and bravery ; and when the allies 
 entered France he distinguished himself by his heroic defence 
 of Nogent. On the abdication of Napoleon, Bourmont was 
 appointed commander of the sixth military division. During 
 the Hundred Days he at first joined Napoleon, though evi- 
 dently by no means hearty in his cause ; but on the opening 
 of the campaign he went over to the enemy before Charleroi. 
 After the final overthrow of Bonaparte, General Bourmont 
 was appointed commander of the second dirision of the royal 
 guard. He took an active part in the invasion of Spain by the 
 French under the didce d'Angouleme, and on his return was 
 created a peer. In 1829 he was appointed minister-of-war, and 
 in the following year he was made commander-in-chief of the 
 army sent to invade Algeria, and was created a marshal of 
 France; but on the breaking out of the revolution in 1830 he 
 was superseded by General Clausel. In consequence of his 
 refusal to take the oath of allegiance to Louis Philippe, he was 
 deprived of his employments. He accompanied the duchess de 
 Berri to La Vendee, and afterwards repaired to Portugal for the 
 purpose of supporting the cause of Don Miguel. He availed 
 himself of the amnesty proclaimed in 1840 to return to France, 
 but survived only three months. — J. T. 
 
 BOURGUET, Louis, a French mineralogist of the first half 
 of the eighteenth century, was bom at Nismes on the 23d April, 
 1678. On the promulgation of the edict of Nantes his fathe; 
 emigrated to Zurich, where he became a merchant, and in this 
 profession was followed by his son. After travelling frequently 
 into Italy, Bourguet was appointed professor of philosophy and 
 mathematics in Neufchatel, where he died on the 31st December, 
 1742. Of his writings the principal are — "Lettres Philoso- 
 phiques sxu* la fomiation des sels et des cristaux," &c., pub- 
 lished at Amsterdam m 1729; and "Traite des Pe'trificatioDS," 
 published at Paris and the Hague In 1742. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOURLIER, Jeax Baptiste, a French prelate, bom at 
 Dijon in 1731. In 1789 he lost several benefices which he had 
 enjoyed previous to the outbreak of the Revolution, and in the 
 following two or three years was several times subjected to 
 prosecution. In 1802 he was created bishop of E\Teux, and 
 subsequently baron and count of the empire. After her divorce 
 Josephine retired to the diocese of this prelate, who became her 
 almoner. Hanng enjoyed the rank of senator under the empire, 
 and made submission in proper time to the Bourbons, he was - 
 raised to the peerage in 1814. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOURNE, Hugh, founder of the primitive methodist con- 
 nection in England, was born near Stoke-upon-Trent, Stafibrd- 
 shire. In 1772. He became a zealous preacher in connection 
 with the Wesleyan communion, in which he remained till about ' 
 his thirtieth year. He then associated himself with William 
 Clowes, and some other Wesleyan preachers, in a movement to 
 revive a custom which had been common in the time of the 
 Wesleys, but which had fallen into disuse hi England, though 
 carried out to a great extent in America — this, namely, of holding 
 large open air or camp meetings for worship and preaching. 
 The subject came before the Wesleyan conference, and a deUver- 
 ance was given, pronouncing such meetings to be improper, and 
 likely to be productive of mischief. This led to the secession of
 
 BOU 
 
 709 
 
 BOU 
 
 Bourne and Clowes, ■who formed themselves into a new sect, 
 called the Primitive Methodist Connection, which was organized 
 at Standley in Staffordshire in 1810. This sect, though thus 
 small in its beginning, has very largely increased in numbers 
 and influence. The principal distinction between the Primitive 
 Methodists and the Wesleyans now is, that laymen are freely 
 admitted to the conference of the former body. Mr. Bourne tra- 
 velled into Scotland and Ireland, and formed a number of religious 
 societies in connection with the new denomination, and in 184-1 
 \-isited America, where his preaching attracted great crowds. He 
 died at Bemmersley in Statfordshire in 1852. — J. B. 
 
 BOURNE, Vincent, a scholar and poet who lived in the 
 early part of last century. He was fellow of Trinity college, 
 Cambridge, and afterwards usher of Westminster school, an 
 office which he held till his death in 1747. His works consist 
 of a number of small pieces on light and serious themes, in Latin 
 verse, which are among the most perfect specimens we possess 
 of that sort of composition. They were collected and published 
 under the title of "Poematia" in 1734. Another edition 
 appeared in 1750, and one in 4to in 1772. Bourne's transla- 
 tions — mainly from EngHsh verses of inferior consequence — 
 render the sense with remarkable iidelity, and generally surpass 
 the originals in grace and poetic feeling. His verse has that 
 simplicity and ease never attained except by those who write in 
 a language they have made their own, and which most rarely 
 belongs to modern imitations of ancient poetry. Bourne has 
 been justly complimented as the "most classical and at the same 
 time most English of the Latinists." The poet Cowper, who 
 translated some of his lighter pieces, says in one of his letters, 
 that he prefers him to TibuUus. The "Epitaphium in Canem" 
 is familiar to most readers through the praises of Elia. — J. N. 
 
 BOURNE, William Sturges, Right Hon., son of the Rev. 
 Dr. Sturges, chancellor of Winchester, was born in 1769. Hav- 
 ing been educated at Winchester and at Christ Church, O.xford, 
 he was called to the bar, and practised at the king's bench and 
 on the western circuit, but retired from his profession, and took 
 the name of Bourne, on inheriting the property of a relative on 
 his mother's side. In 1798 he was elected M.P. for Hastings, 
 and continued to represent that borough, or Christ Church, 
 Bandon, Ashburton, and ]\Iilbome Port, in various parliaments, 
 down to the dissolution in December, 1832, when he retired from 
 pubHc life, in disgust at the passing of the reform bill. He was 
 joint secretary to the treasury from 1804 till 1806, and a lord 
 of the treasury from 1807 till 1809 ; in 1814 was sworn a privy 
 councillor, and appointed one of the commissioners on Indian 
 affairs, and continued to have a seat at the board of control do^Ti 
 to 1821. In 1827 he was secretary of state for the home 
 department, under ilr. Cannmg, and succeeded Lord Carlisle as 
 first commissioner of woods and forests under the short-lived 
 administration of Lord Goderich, now earl of Ripon. He con- 
 tinued to hold a seat in the cabinet of the duke of Wellington, 
 with a nominal and honorary ofhce. His name is best remem- 
 bered as the author and introducer of the well-known statute 
 regulating parochial vestries, which is called " Sturges Bonnie's 
 Act." Having spent the last twenty-two years of his life in 
 retirement at his seat in Hampshire, he died there Feb. 1, 1845, 
 in his seventy-seventh year.— E. W. 
 
 BOUENON, Jacques-Louis de, a French mineralogist, 
 bom at !Metz on the 21st Januar}', 1751, early exhibited a 
 strong tendency to the study of mineralogy, probably induced 
 by the large collection possessed by his father. At the Revolu- 
 tion Bournon emigrated with his family, and joined the royalist 
 army under Conde ; on the dissolution of which he -Nisited 
 England, and appears to have supported himself by forming and 
 aiTanging collections of minerals for several Englishmen of 
 rank and fortune. He was elected a fellow of the Royal and 
 Geological Societies; and in 1808 Cuvier spoke of his attain- 
 ments in high tenns, in a report presented to the P^mperor 
 Napoleon. At the restoration of the Bourbons, Bournon re- 
 turned to France, when his loyalty was rewarded by Louis 
 XVIII. with the post of general director of his caliinet of 
 mineralogical specimens. This position he continued to hold 
 until his death, which took place at Versailles on the 24th 
 August, 1825. The writings of Bournon are numerous, and 
 most of them of considerable value. The most important is his 
 " Traite complet de la chaux carbonatee," published in 1808 at 
 London, in three quarto volumes, one of which consists entirely 
 of plates. The number of crystalline forms assumed by car- 
 
 bonate of lime, described in this book, was four times that 
 prenously known to exist, and M. Bendaut states (Qu^rard, 
 La France Litferaire) that Bournon had prepared a new edi- 
 tion, in which the number of distinct fonns amounted to more 
 than 1200.— W. S. D. 
 
 * BOURNONVILLE, Ant. Aug., a Danish composer of 
 ballets, and author of various theatrical works, was born in 
 1805 at Copenhagen, where his fiither was ballet-master at the 
 theatre royal. His education, commenced by his father, was 
 completed by the celebrated Vestris. He made his debut at 
 Paris in 1826, where he took rank as premier sujet of the Royal 
 Academy of Music. In 1830 he retiu-ned to Copenhagen, and 
 was appointed director of the Dancing Academy, and, in 1836, 
 ballet-master. Amongst the ballets composed by him may be 
 mentioned "Waldemar," "Eric Meuved," "Faust," "La Fete 
 d'Albano," " Le Toreador," "Napoli," "Raphael," "LeKermisse 
 de Bruges," " La Consen-atore," " Les Noces," " Hardanger en 
 Norwege." He also published " Nytaarsgave for Dandse-Yn- 
 dere" (A New-Yeai-'s Gift for Lovers of Dancing), Copenhagen, 
 1829; "Mit Theateriiv " (My Dramatic Life), Copenhagen, 
 1848; "Det Konglege Theater" (The Theatre Royal), Copen- 
 hagen, 1849 ; "V^ort Theatervasen " (Our Theatrical Character), 
 Copenhagen, 1850 ; " Et Nyt Skuespilhuus" (A New Theatre), 
 1851.— M. H. 
 
 BOURNOUF, Eugene, bom in Paris, August, 1801, a dis- 
 tinguished orientalist, who devoted his not very long life to 
 researches into the ancient language and literature of the Indian 
 peninsula. His first work, published when he was only twenty- 
 five years of age, was an " Essay upon the sacred language in 
 use amongst the dwellers beyond the Ganges," which work was 
 a mere preliminary indication of the direction taken by a mind 
 preparing itself for greater efforts. It was afterwards, when 
 Bomiiouf held up the key of the Zende language, that a great 
 discoverer was recognized and acknowledged. The translator of 
 the Zend. Avesta, M. Augiietel Duperron, had not worked upon 
 the original and sacred language, of which the key had been lost, 
 but upon the popular idioms into which the sacred book of the 
 Persians had passed. Duperron had, however, obtained posses- 
 sion of the original sheets which he deposited in the Royal Library 
 of Paris. Bournouf, after much patient labour, guided by genius, 
 succeeded in deciphering the three books of Zoroaster, the Ven- 
 didad, Zechae, and Vispered. As a reward for his services to 
 oriental literature, the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres 
 elected him to the place vacant by the death of the younger 
 Champollion, thus associating his name with one that had 
 become illustrious in the same walk. The same year he was 
 appointed professor of Sanscrit in the college of France. In 
 1834 he published his first volume of " Commentaries on the 
 Ya9ua," one of the books which contains the dogma of Zoroaster, 
 and in the language of the founder of the religion of the Persians. 
 His next translation was that of the " Bhagavata Purana, or 
 Poetic History of Krichna, with Sanscrit text," followed by an 
 " Essay on Cuneiform Inscriptions." Hearing that the British 
 Museum contained a number of Indian manuscripts, collected 
 by Mr. Brian Broughton Hodgson during a long residence at 
 Nepaul, Bournouf examined them, and the result was an 
 " Introduction to the History of Buddhism," in 2 vols., published 
 in 1845. He was engaged in the publication of a translation of 
 one of the canonical books of the Buddhists, when the hand of 
 death arrested his labours. He died May, 1852. — J. F. C. 
 
 BOURRIENNE, L. A. Fauvelet de, a French diplomatist 
 and biographer of Napoleon, bom in 1769 ; died in 1834. He was 
 educated along with Napoleon at Brienne, where they were upon 
 terms of peculiar intimacy. They quitted this school together 
 in 1785, and two years later Bourrienne removed to Vienna, 
 and afterwards entered one of the universities to study public 
 law and foreign languages. The breaking out of the French 
 revolution caused him to return to Paris in 1792, where he 
 renewed his intimacy with his former comrade. When Bona- 
 parte was appointed commander-in-chief of the army of Italy, 
 after the defeat of General Schercr, Boumenne was employed 
 by him to revise the treaty of Campo-Formio along with General 
 Clarke. Bourrienne accompanied his old friend to Egypt as his 
 private secretary, an office which he retained during the consul- 
 ship. On his election to the imperial throne. Napoleon appointed 
 Boumenne in 1804 his ambassador to Hamburg. He returned 
 to France in the end of 1813 and received the office of post- 
 master, and in the following year was made prefect of police.
 
 BOU 
 
 710 
 
 BOU 
 
 He did not, however, follow the fortunes of Xapoleon in his 
 adversity, for during the Hundred Days he accompanied Louis 
 XVIII. to Ghent. On the final overthrow of the empire, Boiu:- 
 rienne accepted office under Louis XVIII. He was elected a 
 deputy in 1815, and retained his seat till 1830. The revolution 
 of that year, and the consequent loss of his fortune, impaired his 
 reason, and he spent the two last years of his life in a lunatic 
 asylum at Caen. The " Jlemoirs of Bourrienne," written by 
 himself, and published in 1829-1831 in 10 vols., contain many 
 interesting particulars respecting the private life of Napoleon, 
 and have had a wide circulation in this country as well as in 
 France, though the accuracy of many of the author's statements 
 has been called in question by the partisans of Bonaparte. The 
 mistakes of the "Memou-s" were exposed in a work, entitled 
 " Bourrienne et ses erreurs volontairs et involontah-s," Paris, 1830, 
 2 vols. 8vo. Bourrienne was also the author of a drama, entitled 
 " The Unknown," and of some political pamphlets. — J. T. 
 
 BOUIilUT, M.\RC Theodore, a Swiss naturalist, was bom 
 at Geneva in 1739, and died at a country house in the vicinity 
 of that city on the 7th October, 1819. He was early distin- 
 guished as a painter in enamel ; but feeling an irresistible desire 
 to explore the Alps, he obtained a place as chorister in the 
 cathedral of Geneva, and afterwards divided his time between 
 the duties of this position and numerous excursions in all 
 parts of the mountains. In 1774 he pubhshed his " Descrip- 
 tion des glaciers de Savoie," which was dedicated to Victor- 
 Amadeo, king of Sardinia. In 1781, hanng visited Paris, 
 and been presented by BuiRm to Louis XVI., he dedicated his 
 " Description des Alpes Pennines et Rhetiennes" to that king, 
 for which he was rewarded by a pension. In 1783 and 1785 
 Bourrit and Saussure attempted in vain to reach the summit of 
 Mont Blanc, in which they only succeeded in 1787. On the 
 breaking out of the French revolution Bourrit of course lost his 
 pension. He is described as having exliibited much kindness 
 to the royalist emigrants who passed through Geneva. For 
 this he was rewarded, on the restoration of the Bourbons, by 
 the continuance of his pension by Louis XVIII. The writings 
 of Bourrit consist almost entirely of descriptions of the Alps and 
 their glaciers. Of the second work mentioned above a new 
 and greatly enlarged edition was published in 1787 in three 
 volumes octavo. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOUKRU, Edjie Claude, a French physician, librarian 
 and lecturer on pharmacy to the faculty of Paris, and latterly 
 ■x-ice-president of the Academy of Jledicine, born at Pmns in 
 1737; died in 1823. He published, besides a number of trans- 
 lations from the Engli.sh, "Des Moyens les plus propres a eteindre 
 les mala(Ues veneriennes ; " and " Eloge funebre de Giiillotin." 
 
 BOURSAULT, Edme, born at Musei-l'Evfeque in Burgundy 
 in 1G38, and died in 1701. He came to Paris in 1G51, and at 
 this time he could only speak the patois of his native district. 
 He, however, wrote a tract which flattered and pleased Louis 
 XIV., and he would have been appointed tutor to the dauphin 
 if he had known any Latin. As it was, he was given a pension 
 for conducting a gazette, written in humorous verse. This went 
 on very well till he began to satirize the Franciscans and the 
 capuchins, and found how dangerous it was to quiz the clergy. 
 He was silencid, the gazette was suppressed, his pension with- 
 drawn, and our poor hero threatened with the BastUe. He was 
 author of several successful theatrical pieces, of some romances, 
 and of fables, which the French critics hesitate to dispraise, but 
 in a tone of courtesy say have not the naivete of La Fontaine or 
 the precision of Pha;drus. — J. A., D. 
 
 BOUnSIER, Laurent-Fkaxcois, born in 1679, died in 
 1749, was a doctor of the Sorbonne, .and, as one of the chiefs of 
 the Jansenist party, took an active part in the religious contro- 
 versies of the time. — J. D. E. 
 
 BOURSIER, Louise Bourgeols, a French matron who 
 attended Marj' of Medicis, wife of Henry IV., in her accouch- 
 ments, and pubhshed '' Recit veritable de la naissance de 
 messeigneurs et dames les enfants de France," 1625. Her 
 " Observations sur la Sterilite " were translated into Latin, 
 German, and Dutch. 
 
 BOUSSIXGAULT, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Dieudon-n^, 
 an acute and enterprising physicist and chemist, bom in Paris in 
 1802. Boussingault had the advantage of a residence of several 
 years in the equatorial parts of America, whither he had pro- 
 ceeded under the auspices of an EngUsh mining company. Many 
 of the grander telluric phenomena bemg especially manifested 
 
 in those regions, he was enabled to survey them with unusual 
 care ; and he has given us accordingly, excellent notices and 
 ingenious speculations on the causes of earthquakes, on matter 
 ejected by volcanoes, &c. We farther owe him important con- 
 tributions to meteorology, some of which consist of obsen-ations, 
 others are speculative, and a few practical, such as his method 
 of determining the mean temperature. As a chemist he w rought 
 along with Dumas. His papers determine accurately the propor- 
 tions of the constituent elements of our atmosphere ; and he has 
 written much that is valuable on the relations between the organic 
 and inorganic worlds — a subject of which, his favourite one, niral 
 economy, forms a minor although an essential part. See the An- 
 nales de Cliimie and the Comptes Jiendus, passim. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOUSYRY, Cheref-Eddin-Abou-Abdallaii-jMohamed, 
 an Arabian poet, born in Upper Eg^-pt in 1211 ; died in 1294 
 or 1296. He composed several poems in honour of ilahomet, 
 of which the most celebrated is entitled " Bordah." Manuscript 
 copies of this poem are preser\-ed in the libraries of Paris, Leyden, 
 and Oxford. 
 
 BOUTARD, Francois, a French litterateur, horn at Troyes 
 in 1664; died in 1729. Horace was the model he set up for 
 himself in his Latin verses ; and he flattered himself that he 
 resembled the Latin poet not only in his WTitings, but in his 
 stature, face, and personal appe;irance. But whatever may have 
 been the degi'ee of personal or intellectual similarity between 
 him and the Venusian bai'd, it is certain that Bossuet was the 
 Ma-cenas to whom he owed Ms elevation.-^J. G. 
 
 BOUTATS, Frederick, a Flemish engraver, bom at Ant- 
 werp about 1620. He produced great portraits of OHver Crom- 
 well and Christina of Sweden. Caspar, his younger brother, 
 worked for the booksellers, and produced some antipapal mas- 
 sacres of St. Bartholomew. Gerard was another brother, and 
 Phieibert, Frederick's son, also fjllowed the old trade. — W. T. 
 
 BOUTERWEK, Friedrich, author of an elaborate "History 
 of Poetry and Eloquence from the close of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury," was born at Okr, near Goslar, in Lower Saxony, April 15, 
 1766. In eiu-ly life he devoted himself almost entirely to the 
 reading of poetry and works of imagination; and it was not 
 until he had passed through a course of study at the CaroUnum 
 in Brunswick, that his mind took a direction towards more soUd 
 and serious pursuits. He first turned his attention to jurispru- 
 dence, but in the second year of his academic career he relin- 
 quished that study, at the suggestion of some friends, who 
 recommended him to cultivate his taste for poetr\- and poetical 
 composition. He now wrote some poems, and a romance 
 entitled " Graf Donemar." The latter was pubhshed at Got- 
 tingen in 1791. He had already quitted Gottingen, but neither 
 in Hanover nor in Berlin, whither he went with a recommenda- 
 tion from Gleim, did he meet with the success which he antici- 
 pated. Returning to his old place of residence, and having 
 become convinced of the misdirection of his efforts up to this 
 time, he turned his thoughts to philosophy and the historic study 
 of Uterature — subjects which he prosecuted thenceforward with 
 untiring zeal. His .active mind led him to take an interest in 
 all questions of a philosophic cast, and he became an enthusiastic 
 disciple of Kant, on whose system he lectured at Gottingen in 
 1791. In 1802 he was appointed ordinary professor of philo- 
 sophy in the university of that city, and four years later obtained 
 the title of court counsellor. Bouterwek's philosophical specu- 
 lations may be said to have commenced with Kant, and ended 
 with Jacobi. His work, entitled " Ideen zu einen aUgemeinen 
 apodiktik," was superseded by his " Lehrbueh der Philosophischen 
 Wisscnschaften," and his " Religion der Vemunft." These 
 works, together with his " Asthetik," raised against him a host 
 of fonnidable adversaries. The work, however, by which he is 
 best known is his " Gescliichte des neueren Poesie und Bered- 
 samkrit," or Literary History of Poetry and Eloquence from the 
 close of the thirteenth century, in which he takes a historical 
 and critical sun'ey of the literature of the principal nations of 
 Europe. The work consists of twelve volumes, pubhshed at 
 Gottingen at different times. The first volume appeared in 
 1805, and the last, which cont;dns an elaborate index to the 
 whole, in 1819. Sismondi, in his Litterature du Midi de 
 I'Europe, implicitly adopts the opinions of Bouterwek on 
 Spanish and Portuguese literature ; and, indeed, on that subject 
 he says Uttle of importance that is not borrowed directly from 
 the German critic. Bouterwek's work, as a whole, is marked 
 by great perspicuity and precision, and a most indefatigable zeal
 
 BOU 
 
 711 
 
 BOU 
 
 in the work of research, and seeks the causes of the events 
 which he has to describe in the structure of society, the habits 
 of the vaiious peoples, and the influence of events. That portion 
 of the work which rehites to Spain has been translated into 
 English by Jliss Thomasina Eoss. It is perhaps ri^ht to state 
 here that Bouterwek's history, extensive as is its scope, forms 
 only a part of a more extended work, namely, a historj^ of arts 
 and learning from then- restoration do^^-n to the end of the 
 eighteenth centvury, by different learned foreigners, fonning a 
 complete encvclopjedia of the subject. Bouterwek died in Ger- 
 many, August 9th, 1828.— E. W. 
 
 BOUTEUX, Pierre le, an indifferent French painter, bom 
 at Paris in 1692. He professed history, and died professing it, 
 in 1750, having wasted much paint. — W. T. 
 
 BOUTEVILLE, Frax^ois de JIoxtmorexct, seigneur de, 
 sovereign count of Suxe in Xavarre, the famous duellist, bom in 
 1600. He was the son of Vice- Admiral Louis de Montmorency, 
 distinguished for valour in the wars of the League. In these 
 wars the younger Bouteville was also creditably known. At the 
 siege of ilontauban he narrowly escaped death from the explo- 
 sion of a mine, being with difficulty extricated from the ruins. 
 His love of adventure aftei"R-ards carried him to Holland, where 
 he assisted a prince of Nassau in defending Breda against the 
 Spaniards. On his retm-n to France, he took part in the expe- 
 dition of his cousin, the duke de Montmorency, against Rochelle. 
 His passion for fighting, however, was not to be satisfied with 
 the excitement of a campaign. He betook himself to the duel 
 with a gusto which has rendered his name proverbial. It was 
 his kingdom, and within it he would brook no rival. For any 
 one to have a reputation for courage was enough provocation for 
 this desperate swordsman. In defiance of arrests and decrees of 
 banishment, he was incessantly at work ivith his sword and 
 poniard. From Brussels, where he had taken refuge from the 
 vengeance of parliament after dispatching two of his friends, 
 the count de Thorigny, and the marquis de la Fiette, he went 
 back to Paris to meet the marquis de Beuvron in the Place- 
 Royale. On this occasion fortune deserted him — he could make 
 nothing of his opponent. The by-play of their seconds, however, 
 was not without result — one of the four was killed, and another 
 dangerously hurt. Bouteville and his friend, the count des Cha- 
 pelles, attempting to escape into Lorraine, were seized at Vitry, 
 and brought back to Paris. In vain the pathetic voices of the 
 dames of the court. Pompadour among the number, were raised on 
 his behalf. The king's conscience would not allow him to listen. 
 He was beheaded with des Chapelles, in June, 1G27. — J. S., G 
 
 BOUTILLIER, Maximiliex-.Jeax, a French dramatic 
 author, bom at Paris in 1745; died in 1811. Employed, as 
 his father was, as doorkeeper at the opera, he manifested at an 
 early period a lively taste for dramatic poetr}-, and in 1766 suc- 
 ceeded in bringing his own works before the public. He wrote 
 a great number of comedies, Ivric dramas, &c., but appears to 
 have passed his latter days in indigence. — J. G. 
 
 BOUVARD, Charles, first physician to Louis XIII., bom 
 at Montoire in 1572 ; died in 1G58. He indulged his somewhat 
 shrewish temper at the expense of the faculty of Paris, who had 
 occasionally to resent his interference with their privileges ; and 
 also, it would almost appear, at the expense of his master, whom 
 he is said to have bled forty-seven times, and dosed with upwards 
 of two hundred potions in the space of a year. It is a question 
 of some interest whether Richelieu entertained a favourable 
 opinion of so severe a regimen. — .J. S., G. 
 
 BOUVART, Alexis, born in 1767 ; died in June, 1843; one 
 of the assistants at the Obsers-atory of Paris; member of the 
 French Board of Longitude and of the Academy of Sciences. 
 Bouvart's labours were various and most important, although 
 mainly confined within the sphere of calculating or practical 
 -tronomy. Laplace abandoned to him all researches of detail 
 
 unected with his immortal work, the Mi5canique Celeste. 
 n\ e owe him the detemiination of the parabolic orbits of eight 
 comets, discovered by himself. He published in 1821 a quarto 
 volume of astronomical tables, containing his tal)lcs of Jupiter, 
 Saturn, and Uraims. His labours on this last planet will ever 
 be memorable. Uranus was discovered by Sir William Herscliel 
 '''■ 1781. Upon the gi'ound of forty years' obser\'ations, which 
 - ive the places of the planet for nearly the half of one of its 
 revolutions, Bouvart succeeded hi constracting a nomial elliptic 
 orbit, apparently adequate to the phenomena; and he subse- 
 quently ascertained, at first with great satisfaction, that Uranus 
 
 had been seen several times previous to 1781, and its places 
 determined, although it was mistaken for a fixed star. In the 
 hope that these previous observations would confirm his %-iews as 
 to the normal orbit, Bouvart applied his elements ; but to his 
 astonishment and vexation these proved wholly incompatible — 
 the orbit satisfying the modern obsen-ations seemed to have no 
 relation whatsoever with the ancient ones ; nor could any orbit, 
 capable of comprehending the ancient observations, be forced into 
 conformity with the places determined since 1781. With the 
 most conscientious care, he tested every hypothesis likely to solve 
 the enigma; but he was compelled to the conclusion, that under 
 the knowledge then existing of the solar system, it was inexpli- 
 cable. Too sound an obsen^er to indulge in new chimeras, he 
 nevertheless ventured to suggest that we might not know the 
 entire system, or that some other planet, yet nmliscovered, might 
 exist, the disturbing influence of which would explain the irre- 
 gularities apparently attending the motions of Uranus. The 
 instructed reader need not be reminded of that very brilliant 
 recent achievement, by Adams and Leverrier, which has con- 
 fimied the guess of Bouvart. But Bouvart did more to for- 
 ward the discovery of Xeptune. The processes of the eminent 
 geometers who determined Neptune's place, and so guided the 
 telescope to that planet's retreat, required as their ground the 
 elaborate calculations and tables of our Astronomer ; and although 
 LeveiTier undertook the trouble of verifying these, it is no over- 
 statement to allege, that Bouvart was his necessary precursor. 
 His name, indeed, can never be dissociated from the labours 
 that issued in a triumph so signal and rare. — Bouvart was long 
 a collaborateur in editing the Annuaire du Bureau des Longi- 
 tudes, in which he inserted valuable tables ; and we owe him 
 besides very instractive notes to the translation by Caussin, of 
 the work of the Arabian astronomer, Ibn-Junis. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOUVART, JIiCHEL Phillifpe, a celebrated French phy- 
 sician, bom at Chartres in 1717 ; died in 1787. Coming to 
 Paris in 1736, he was appointed professor of physiology by the 
 Faculty in 1747 ; and in the same year succeeded Burette in the 
 chair of medicine in the college of France. In 1756 he resigned 
 this last appointment, and declining the post of first physician to 
 the king, which was offered him on the death of Senac, sought 
 to di\-ide his time between the demands of an extensive practice, 
 and the education of his children. His manners were rough, 
 and some of his colleagues in the faculty, who had occasionally 
 suffered from his talent for sarcasm, accused him of professional 
 spleen, and even maUce ; but the popular idea of his character 
 was more flattering, and probably more correct. It was founded 
 on such anecdotes of him as the following : — Being somewhat 
 puzzled with the case of a banker, he was led to inquire if the 
 ailments of his patient could be traced to any emotional cause, 
 and discovering that they dated from some pecuniary embarrass- 
 ments, he deposited a note for thirty thousand francs on the 
 mantelpiece of the sick man's chamber, remarking — " This time 
 I am sure of my remedy." His principal works are — " Consul- 
 tations centre la legitimite des naissances pretendues tardives," 
 1764; " De dignitate Medicina? ; " " De Experientia; et Studii 
 Necessitate in iledicina ; " and an abridgment of his lectures at 
 the college of France, entitled " De Recondita febriura intermit- 
 tentium, turn remittentium Natui'a." — J. S., G. 
 
 BOUVENOT, Louis Pierre, a French theologian and 
 physician, born at Arbois in 1756. Renouncing the mihtary 
 profession for the ecclesiastical, he became one of the grand- 
 vicars of the bishopric of Est, where he resided until deprived of 
 his functions under the reign of ten'or. He then, on the advice 
 of his friend, Corvisart, turned his attention to medicine, in 
 which science he made rapid progress, and obtained the degree 
 of doctor. His death occurred in 1830, at Sens, where he had 
 practised as a physician for a number of years. 
 
 BOUVET DE CRESSli, Auguste Jean Baitiste, bom 
 at Provins in 1772 ; died at Paris in 1839 ; first served in the 
 amiy, then in the navy, where he distinguished himself, particu- 
 larly in the engagement of the 1st Jmie, 1794. between the 
 French fleet commanded by Villaret Joycuse and Howe's English 
 squadron. On the ])eace of Amiens he fixed in Paris, where he 
 set up a school. He published a good many books, mostly 
 adapted for educational purposes, the names of which there is no 
 object in recording. Among them was ii Latin poem on the 
 birth of the king of Rome (Napoleon II.) — J. A., D. 
 
 BOUVET, Joachim, a French Jesuit, one of the six mission- 
 ai-ies whom Louvois, successor of Colbert, sent to Chuia in
 
 BOU 
 
 712 
 
 BOW 
 
 1687 for the pm-pose of forming commercial relations with that 
 emfiire, as well as of satisfying the curiosity of the learned 
 academicians of France with respect to its geography and pro- 
 ductions; bom at Mans in 1C82; died at Pekin in 1732. After 
 a comfortable term of residence in the cajiital of the empire, 
 during which, along with another missionary, he fulfilled the 
 duties of mathematical master at court, Bouvet returned to 
 Europe in 1G77, bringing with him as a present to Louis XIV. 
 forty-nine Chinese volumes. Louis acknowledged the gratifica- 
 tion he derived from this courtesy by sending back the missionary 
 with a magniticently-bound volume of engra\'ings which he was 
 charged to deliver to the emperor. " An Account of China," 
 Paris, 1697 ; " A Historical Portrait of the Emperor," translated 
 into Latin by Leibnitz, 1699 ; and some notices of the empire, 
 inserted in various collections of letters, are the piincipal per- 
 formances of Bouvet. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOUVIP]R, Andue Marie Joseph, a French physician, 
 bora at Dole in 1746 ; died in 1827. L'nder the empire he was 
 physician to the empress-mother. At the restoration he obtained 
 some appointments, which he retained till an advanced age. He 
 was at one time an enthusiastic musician, and latterly an 
 agriculturist. He wrote " Experiences et Observations sur la 
 Culture et TLTsage de la Spergale," 1798 ; and " Extrait d'un 
 Memoire sur I'Hydropisie aigue des Ventricules du Cerveau." 
 
 BOUYS, AxuKEW, a French artist, born in Provence in 1681. 
 He studied under Francis de Troy, and became a well-known 
 portrait painter in Paris. He engraved in mezzotint portraits 
 of the marquis de Bellav, his old master, and Massillon, and 
 died about 1730.— W. f. 
 
 BOUZONNET, Antony, a second-rate French painter, bom 
 at Lyons in 1694. He studied under his uncle, Stella, and died 
 unsuccessful in 1682. — W. T. 
 
 BOVADILLA. See Bob.\dilla. 
 
 BOVET, Francois de, a French prelate, bora in 1745; 
 died at Paris in 1838. He was consecrated bishop of Sisteron 
 in 1789, but the troubles of the Revolution prevented him from 
 occupying that see, and on his retmTi to France, after an exile 
 of some years, he was named archbishop of Toulouse. He took 
 possession of that see in 1819, but on account of ill health 
 was obliged to resign it in the following year. His works — 
 " Des Dynasties Egyptiennes," and " L'Histoire des demiers 
 Pharaohs et des premiers rois de Perse, tirees des livres pro- 
 phetiques et du li\Te d'J^sther," are valuable and interesting. 
 
 BOVINI, Francesco, a Ferrara artist, who painted the 
 well-known altarpieces in Andrew's city — "The Wise Men's offer- 
 ing," and "The Immaculate Conception'" — and ha\-ing made 
 those two marks, died otherwise unknown. — W. T. 
 
 BOWDICH, Thomas Edward, a celebrated English travel- 
 ler on the west coast of Africa, was bora at Bristol in 1793. 
 After he had completed liis studies at Oxford, his father, who 
 was a manufacturer in an extensive way of business, took him 
 into his factory ; but the young man having a great desire for 
 travelling, soon entered the service of the African company, who 
 sent him to Cape Coast Castle. From Cape Coast Castle 
 lie undertook an embassy to the king of Ashantee ; after 
 which, in 1818, he returned to England, where he published 
 the account of his mission to Ashantee in 1819. This ex- 
 ceedingly interesting book raised him powerful enemies. He 
 had freely exposed in it the misdeeds of the African com- 
 pany, and the latter in revenge refused to pay him the stipulated 
 jirice for his services. His application to the government for 
 the means of making a new voyage of discovery into the interior 
 of Africa, was also defeated by the same influence ; and thus, 
 thrown upon his own rescjurces, he visited Paris, where he 
 studied tlie natural sciences, and devoted himself to literature 
 with so much zeal, that, as early as 1822, he had got together 
 a sufficient sum to carry out his plan. He accordingly em- 
 barked at Havre with his wife and two children; but his great 
 exertions had so weakened his constitution that he fell ill just 
 as he wiis on the point of ascending the Niger, and died in his 
 thirty-first year, as a martyr to iiis zeal for science, in January, 
 1824. Mrs. Sarah Bowdich (afterwards married to a Mr. Lee) 
 accompanied her husband on both his voyages, and assisted him 
 in his natural history studies by her ready pencil ; she is well 
 known as the author of numerous books for tlie young, principally 
 on subjects connected with zoology. — W. S. D. 
 
 BOWDITCH, Nathaniel, an eminent American mathema- 
 tician and man of science, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, 
 
 March 26, 1773; died at Boston, March 16, 1833. The 
 poverty of his parents obliged him to leave school when he was 
 but twelve years old ; and he was then placed in a ship-chandler's 
 shop, where he continued nine years. But he was an eager 
 student during his leisure hours ; and he made himself a good 
 mathematician, performing all the calculations for an almanac 
 complete, when he was but fifteen years of age. He aftersvards 
 studied Latin by himself, so as to be able to read Newton's 
 Principia in the original ; and he subsequently acquired Spanish, 
 Gennan, and Italian enough to read scientific books in those 
 languages, all without an instioictor. His zeal and success in 
 the pursuit of knowledge attracting notice, private libraries were 
 opened to him ; and a fortunate accident brought within his 
 reach a good collection of works on science. At the age of twenty- 
 one he began a seafaring life, which he continued for nine years — 
 first as captain's clerk, then as supercargo, and lastly as master. 
 He made several voyages to the East Indies, in which his gi'eat 
 delight was to obtain the ship's place from lunar observations; 
 instructing the other officers, and many e\en of the crew, to do 
 the same, and effecting many improvements in the processes of 
 computation. In 18U0 he published his " Practical Navigator," 
 based on .T. H. Moore's work on the same subject, which he 
 issued at first only in a revised edition ; but made so many cor- 
 rections and improvements in it, that it was finally deemed proper 
 that it should appear under his own name. All the tables were 
 calculated anew, and were nearly doubled in number. The new 
 work came immediately into universal use in the American 
 marine, was republished in London, and was largely used in the 
 English and French service. Quitting nautical life in 1803, 
 Bowditch became president of an insurance company in Salem, 
 a post which he held for twenty years, when he removed to 
 Boston, to become the actuary of the Hospital Life Insurance 
 Company, the largest institution of the kind in the United States. 
 In this office he continued for the rest of his fife, though he was 
 successively offered a professorship of mathematics in Harvard 
 college, in the university of Virginia, and in the national military 
 academy at West Point. He was long a member of the American 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences, was its president for some years, 
 and contributed many mathematical and astronomical papers to its 
 Transactions, while he also wTote on similar topics for other 
 journals. But the great work of his life was the translation, 
 with a commentary, of Laplace's Me'canique Celeste, in four 
 quarto volumes of over a thousand pages each, the annotations 
 occupying even more space than the test. He commenced the 
 work in 1815; the first volume appeared in 1829 : the second 
 in 1832 ; the third in 1834 ; and death interrupted him when 
 he was correcting the proof-sheet of the 1000th page of the 
 fourth. This work met with the most flattering reception both 
 in P^urope and America : it presents many important corrections 
 and improvements of the original, which, without Bowditch's com- 
 mentary, would be a sealed book to all but a few highly-gifted 
 mathematicians. Dr. Bowditch was a member of the Royal 
 Societies of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, and of many other 
 scientific associations. He was a fellow of Harvard college during 
 the last twelve years of his life, and thus had a decisive voice in 
 the control of its affairs. Many other literary and scientific bodies 
 in New England are indebted to him either for their organization 
 or for great improvements in their means of usefulness. The 
 closing scenes of his life were happy, as his mind remained 
 unclouded to the last, though his bodily frame was wasted by 
 protracted disease. He achieved an honourable reputation by 
 his scientific labours, and his fife and character appear, even to 
 the severest scrutiny, without a stain. 
 
 BOWDOIN, James, LL.D., F.R.S., was bom at Boston, 
 Massachusetts, on the 7th of August, 1726. His fiither was a 
 wealthy merchant of that town, and a member of the colonial 
 council of Massachusetts. He was the younger of two brothers, 
 and had just attained to his majority when his father died. He 
 entered at first into mercantile business, but soon found more 
 congenial employment in philosophical and political pursuits. 
 Two or three years after he left college, he made the acquain- 
 tance of the celebrated Benjamin Franklin, then in the maturity 
 of his powers, and immediately occupied with his great electrical 
 discoveries. Franklin, though twenty years older than Bowdoin, 
 seems to have been impressed with a peculiar regard and respect 
 for him, sent him all his papers on electricity to examine, and 
 invited his opinion on them. A correspondence between P'ranklin 
 at Philadelphia, and Bowdoin at Boston, was thus established.
 
 on purely philosophical subjects, which sccui-ed no little distinction 
 for Bowdoin at home and abroad. Their letters were transmitted 
 to London, and read together at the Royal Society, of which 
 Franklin was soon made a fellow. The correspondence was after- 
 wards published ; and at a later day Bowdoin himself was elected 
 a fellow of the society. But it was as a politician and statesman 
 that Bowdoin was most distinguished in his own day, and will be 
 longest remembered in American historj'. He entered political 
 life in the year 1753, as a representative of Boston in the ])ro- 
 vincial legislature ; and was a leading advocate of that gi'eat plan 
 of a " union of the colonies" against the encroachments of France, 
 and for the regulation of trade, which Franklin proposed at the 
 Albany convention in 1754. In 1757 Bowdoin was transferred 
 to the higher branch of the provincial legislature, historically 
 known as the council ; and there he served with signal ability 
 and zeal for sixteen years. Thomas Pownall was the provincial 
 governor when Bowdoin entered the council ; and with hun Bow- 
 doin maintained the most amicable and even aftectiouate relations. 
 But Sir Francis Bernard, his successor, was another sort of per- 
 son ; and from his accession in 1760, dovvn to the very last day on 
 which British rule was exercised in America, there was a continued 
 conflict between the legislative and executive authorities. Bow- 
 doia was, by all acknowledgment, the leader of the Massachusetts 
 council, in their opposition to that ill-advised and arbitraiy policy 
 of Governors Bernard and Hutchinson, which ultimately led to 
 the American revolution ; and he finally had the distinction of 
 being negatived by Governor Gage, and set aside from the list of 
 councillors in 1774, " by express orders from his majesty." He 
 was thereupon elected to head the delegates to the congress 
 which declared the independence of the colonies ; but cii'cum- 
 stances compelled him to decline a journey to Philadelphia. John 
 Hancock was chosen in his jjlace, and became the president of 
 that memorable assembly. Bowdoin remained at home, however, 
 render most important services to his country as president of 
 !'■ council elected to exercise the supreme executive authority 
 ;■ the colony after hostilities with the mother country had broken 
 nut. In this capacity he was brought into immediate relations 
 \\ itli General Washington, who had just assumed the command of 
 the American army encamped around Boston; and an intimate 
 'lid enduring friendship was formed between them. 
 Ill 1780 Bowdoin presided over the convention which framed 
 ■ constitution of Massachusetts, and took an active part in the 
 parations of an instrument which was justly regarded as a 
 ■del of free government. Under that constitution Bowdoin 
 "lame governor of the commonwealth in 1785, and held the 
 "ilice for two years. The second of these years was the most 
 iiinuientous year in the liistory of Massachusetts. Heavy taxes 
 liad been necessarily laid to sustain the public credit. An insur- 
 rtction broke out against the legal processes of collection. Had 
 '■Shay's Eebellion" (as it is called from the name of Daniel 
 Shay, its leader), been successful, the whole American repubhcan 
 systems would have been in danger, and the British colonies in 
 Ninth America might have vied with the Spanish colonies in 
 ■"'iiith America, in their proverbial liability to political convul- 
 •iis and revolutions. But by the vigilant and vigorous exei'cise 
 ' tlie whole civil and military power of the state, Governor Bow- 
 iluiii succeeded in arresting and extinguislung the insurrection, 
 and he -will go down to posterity, in co.nipany with his distin- 
 lished military friend. General Lincoln (to whom he assigned 
 !■ chief command in the field), as having accomplished the 
 >t great vindication of law and order within the limits of the 
 iiiirican republic. Governor Bowdoin was aniong the very 
 iliest proposers and advocates of the constitution of the 
 lited States, and was a leading member of the convention of 
 1 issachusetts which ratified that constitution. He lived to .see 
 the government organized under it, and to welcome, benc^ath his 
 own roof, his illustrious friend, Washington, on his visit to I'os- 
 ton in 1789, as the first president of tlie United States. With 
 ]*'ranklin, too, his correspondence continued, both on ])olitical and 
 philosophical subjects, to the last year of their lives ; and their 
 last letters contained a playful, but, as it proved, a prophetic 
 proposition for an excursion together among the stars. Both 
 died in 1790; Franklin on the 17th of April, at the age of 
 eighty-four; Bowdoin on the 6th of November, at the age of 
 sixty-four. 
 
 In private life he was no less estimable than in public. He 
 has left it upon record, that Butler's Analogy was of the greatest 
 service to him in satisfying his mind as to the truths of cliristianity. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 " From the time of my reading that book," said he, " I have 
 been a humble follower of the blessed Jesus." Governor Bow- 
 doin was early married to Elizabeth Erving (of the same old 
 stock of the Irvines of Drum), a lady of most estimable qualities. 
 By her he had two children. 
 
 * BOWEN, Francis, born in 1811 in Charlestown, Massachu- 
 setts; graduated at Hai-vard college in 1833. F'rom 1835 to 
 1839 he was an instructor in this college, in the department of 
 mental philosopliy and pohtical economy. Since 1841 he has 
 resided in Cambridge, Mass., engaged in literaiy and academical 
 pursuits. In 1842 he published a volume of " Critical Essays 
 on the History and Present Condition of Speculative Philosophy;" 
 and in the same year an octavo edition of " Virgil, with Eng- 
 lish Notes, prepared for the use of Schools and Colleges." In 
 January, 1843, he became the editor and proprietor of the 
 North American Revieu\ and it continued under his exclusive 
 management till January, 1854; nearly one-fourth part of the 
 contents of this work during these eleven years being written by 
 him. In 1849 he published an octavo volume of " Lowell Lec- 
 tures on the Application of Metaphysical and Ethical Science 
 to the Evidences of Religion, delivered before the Lowell Insti- 
 tute in Boston in the winters of 1848-49." This work passed 
 to a second edition in 1855, when it was re\'ised and enlarged, 
 with notes. In 185G he published an octavo volume, entitled 
 the " Principles of Political Economy applied to the Condition, 
 the Resources, and the Institutions of the American People." 
 These last two works have been in use ever since their publica- 
 tion, as text-books of instruction at Han-ard and some other 
 American colleges. In 1854 he abridged and edited, with 
 critical and explanatory notes, Dugald Stewart's Elements of 
 the Philosophy of the Human Mind ; and in the same year he 
 pubhshed " Documents of the Constitution of England and 
 America, from Magna Charta to the Federal Constitution of 
 1789, compiled and edited with Notes." In 1853 he was 
 appointed to the chair he now holds in the same institution, the 
 Alford professorship of natural religion, moral philosophy, and 
 civil polity, and was confirmed by the overseers by a nearly 
 unanimous vote. 
 
 BOWER, Archibald, was bom at or near Dundee in 1686. 
 He was sent to the Scotch college at Douay, whence in 1706 he 
 proceeded to Rome, and entered as a novice in the order of the 
 Jesuits. After completing his novitiate, he held various employ- 
 ments, having been, according to his own accomit, public pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric, history, and philosophy, in the universities of 
 Rome and Fermo, until in 1723 he was appomted to a professor- 
 ship in the university of Macerata. At the end of three years, 
 something happened which caused his removal from JLicerata. 
 His own statement is, that his feelings were harrowed to such a 
 degree by witnessing the cruelties practised by the inquisition, to 
 which he was counsellor, that he could no longer remain at his 
 post. His enemies assert that he was removed on the gi'ound 
 of incontinence. He went to Penigia, whence he escaped secretly 
 soon after, and after various adventures, reached England. Intro- 
 duced to Dr. Clarke and Bishop Berkeley, he became convinced 
 that the Ronnm church was in error, and accordingly abandoned 
 its communion. After six years of doubt or scepticism, he con- 
 formed to the church of England, as being, in liis judgment, the 
 farthest removed of all the protestant bodies from the errors of 
 jjopciy, and the one least tinged, on the otlier hand, with enthu- 
 siasm or fanaticism. He was warmly patronized by Lord 
 Aylmer and Lord Lyttleton ; the former of whom intrusted liim 
 with the educ;ition of his two sons. He supported himself partly 
 by tuition, partly by writing for the booksellers, by whom he was 
 employed in compiling, jointly with Psalmanazar, the Universal 
 History. Having thus amassed a considerable sum of money, 
 he entered into a secret negotiation with a Mr. Hill, a Jesuit, by 
 which it was arranged that he should place his money in the 
 hands of the society, receiving interest for it at the rate of seven 
 per cent., and be readmitted into the order. lie was accordingly 
 readmitted in the year 1744. But he broke with the society 
 again before long, and withdrew his money. In 1747, and fol- 
 lowing years, he published his " History of the Popes," a work 
 conceived and written in a sjiirit of extreme hostility to the 
 papacy and the hierarchy. It naturally called forth rejoinders 
 from the catholic body, and now the wliole story of his corre- 
 spondence with the Jesuits came out. He defended himself 
 vigorously, but did not succeed in clearing his character in the 
 eyes of the public. All his former friends abandoned him with 
 
 4X
 
 the exception of Lord Ljttleton. The reputation of his history 
 declined with his own, and he seems to have become weary of 
 the task himself, for the period between the years 1600 and 
 1758 is compressed into twenty-six pages. Pre\ioiisly to this, 
 he had married a niece of Bishop Nicholson, a widow with a 
 handsome fortune. He died in 1766 at the age of eighty. His 
 style has a certain «gour, but is destitute of elevation either of 
 thought or hmguage. — T. A. 
 
 BOWER, Edward, an English portmit p.iinter in the great 
 Vandyck age of Charles I. He painted likenesses of Pj-m and 
 Fail-fax, w'lich were engraved by Hollar. — W. T. 
 
 BOWER, Walter, a Scottish historian, was bom at Had- 
 dington in 1385. Ke assumed a religious habit at the age of 
 eighteen, and subsequently prosecuted his studies at Paris. After 
 his return to his native country he was elected abbot of St. Colm 
 in the year 1418. Furdun, the author of the Scotichronicon, 
 had left that work imtinisbed at his death, and Bower agreed at 
 the request of Sii" Daxid Stewart of Rosyth to undertake the 
 completion of the narrative. His continuation w;is composed 
 partly from the notes which Fordun had collected, and which 
 he committed to Bower when he found himself too infirm to 
 carry on his work, partly from the papers communicated to 
 Bower by Su- Da%-id Stewart, and partly from the additional 
 information which his own researches had discovered. From 
 these various sources Bower brought down the narrative from 
 the death of Baxid I. in 1153, to the murder of James I. in 
 1-137. The style, both of Fordun and his continuator, is scho- 
 lastic and barbarous, but their joint production is exceedingly 
 valuable. — (See Fokdun.) — J. T. 
 
 BOWLES, Carolixe Axxe, the second wife of the laureate 
 Southey, ivill not be forgotten amid the cluster of female poets 
 that adorned the early port of this centui-)-. Her first production, 
 " Ellen Fitzarthm-," appeared in 1820 ; it was followed by 
 " The Widow's Tale," '" Solitary Hours," and a series of ballads, 
 domestic tales, and lyi-ics, which are marked by genuine pathos 
 and simplicity of thought, with an unusual grace and harmony 
 of versification. The poems of iliss Bowles are free from any 
 tauit of atfectation ; their defect is occasionally a want of strength. 
 Many of her tales, as that of "The Young Grey Head," and songs, 
 such as " The Dying Jlother to her Infant," have secured a 
 lasting and desers-ed popularity. She was bom in 1786 ; married 
 Southey in 1839 ; died in 1854.— J. N. 
 
 BO\\T.ES, George, of Chisselhurst in Kent, distinguished 
 himself by his examinations of plants. He spent some time in 
 Wales, and appears to have advanced the knowledge of British 
 plants.— J. H. B. 
 
 BOWLES, WiLLiA3i, an Ii-ish mineralogist, who became a 
 mining councillor iu Spain, and died in that comitry in 1780. 
 His " Introduction to the Natural History and Physical Geo- 
 graphy of Spain," published in Spanish at Madi-id m 1775 
 (third edition, 1781), and subsequently translated into several 
 languages, with his smaller memoirs upon German and Spanish 
 mines, were of considerable value. He also prepared a "Mono- 
 graph of the Locusts," published at Madrid in 1781. Ruiz 
 and Pavon called a genus of Peruvian plants Bowksia in his 
 honour.— W. S. D. 
 
 BOWLES, WiLLLV>r Lisle, born at Iving's Sutton, North- 
 amptonsliire, in 17G-2, was a distinguished pupU of Winchester 
 school, and aftenvai-ds became a scholar of Trinity college, 
 Oxford. He obtained the prize for a Latin poem at that uni- 
 versity m 1783, and took his degree in 1792. Pre\-ious to this, 
 in 1789, he had made his first appearance as an author, by the 
 pubUcation of fourteen miscellaneous sonnets, many of which 
 were suggested by his early travels. Their unexpected success 
 encouraged the author to obey his poetic impulse, and twenty- 
 one were issued in a second edition. This fell into the hands of 
 Coleridge, then a youth of seventeen, and called forth from him, 
 both in prose and verse, expressions of the wannest admiration. 
 In 1798 Mr. Bowles published "Coombe- Ellen," and from that 
 year till 1850, when he died, continued to produce, with remark- 
 able fecundity, poems of various length and merit. Among the 
 latest of those were "St. John in Patmos," 1833, and a collec- 
 tion of hvmns and mmor pieces, entitled " The Village Verse- 
 Book." His outward career was a smooth one. Shortly after 
 lea\-ing the university he took orders, and became curate of 
 Donhead, Wilts. In 1804 he was promoted to the rectory of 
 Brcmhill in the same county, where he resided in amiable 
 seclusion till the close of his life. In 1797 he married a 
 
 daughter of the Rev. C. Wake, who died a few years before her 
 husband. They left no family. Favourable critics of Bowles 
 have thought it necessary to defend his position as a classic in 
 our poetic literatm-e — a position which must be assigned him with 
 a certain reserve ; for none of his poetry is of the highest order. 
 But in the paths which fit liis genius he moves most gracefully. 
 Although others have transcended him even there, he was the 
 first in a new field, and shares with Cowper the honour of 
 having led the reaction against the formalism which pervaded 
 English poetry tliroughout the greater part of last centurv. 
 Coleridge read his verses, and traced to then- influence pai-t of 
 his own inspiration, when Wordsworth was unknown, and 
 Southey had only wi-itten a single epic. It is unfuu- to estimate 
 an author who sti-ikes on a fresh vein of thought by comparison 
 with his successors who have wrought it more perfectly, and 
 Bowles is entitled to precedence in order of time among the 
 more recent poets of nature in England. There are some of 
 his sonnets, as "St. Michael's Mount," "Dover Clift's," " Netley 
 Abbey," " The Bells, Ostend," to which we still recur with plea- 
 sure. " The Monody at Matlock," " Coombe-Ellen," " Hope," 
 and " The ilessiah," are excellent specimens of meditative verse. 
 Still higher, perhaps, ai-e the lines addressed to " Chantrey's 
 Sleeping Cliildi-en." He equally wants passion and power ; his 
 dramatic attempts are unsuccessful, and his long poems, as the 
 " Spu-it of Discovery " and the " ilissionary," are only redeemed 
 from tediousness by passages of fine description. His verse has 
 that smooth flow and cadence which is best suited to convey 
 pensive thought and the unpressions of the picturesque. A\Tiere 
 he tries to " awake a louder and loftier strain," he fails ; but 
 he is a master of gentle music. Bowles is kno\\-n among 
 antiquarians by his "Parochial History of Bremhill," 1828; 
 " Hermes Britannicus," and the " Life of Bishop Ken." Among 
 critics, by the famous controversy ai-ising out of his edition of 
 Pope, published in 1807, when the severity of his strictm-es on 
 the great satirist brought upon their author the animadversion 
 of BjTon, Campbell, and the Quarterly Review. " Impar con- 
 gressus," Bowles conducted the warfiire with considerable sphit, 
 and with the more show of success fi-om the foct, that many of 
 the arguments of his opponents were unconsciously directed 
 against the main conditions of their own celebrity. — J. N. 
 
 BOWMAN. Jons Eddo'W'ek, an English naturahst, was bom 
 at Nantwich in Cheshire on 30th October, 1785, and died on 
 4th December, 1841. In early life he was confined to business, 
 but he contrived to gratify a taste for botany. He became a 
 manager of a bank at Welch Pool, and in 18-24 became partner 
 in a banking estabUshment at Wrexliam. From this he retired 
 in 1830, and did not agam return to business. He had acquiret' 
 a moderate competence, and he was enabled to devote himself 
 to his natural history pursuits, particularly botany and geoloL'v. 
 In 1837 he went to reside in ^Manchester, and there passed the 
 remainder of his life. He endeavoured to diffuse a taste for scieme 
 among those aroimd hun. He became a fellow of the Linnean 
 Society in 1828. To that society's Transactions he contributi J 
 papers on a new Fungus, and on the parasitic nature of Lathraa 
 squamaiia. He has also written " On the longevity of the Yew," 
 " On the Silurian rocks of North Wales," "On the origin of Coal," 
 " On fossil trees discovered on the line of the Bolton Railway," 
 " On the natural terraces on the Eildon Hills," and on the ques- 
 tion of the existence of glaciers in North Wales. — J. H. B. 
 
 * BOWRING, Sir John, LL.D., chief Bi-itish commissioner 
 or governor of Hong Kong. Distinguished for very considerable 
 cleverness, sui-prising activity, and various knowledge: unfor- 
 tunately it cannot be said that his reflecting faculties are of 
 corresponding \-igour, or that inii)Ucit trust is due to his judg- 
 ments. BowTing was born at Exeter in 1792. An unquench- 
 able thirst for travel has clung to him through his whole life, 
 which, indeed, has been eminently a life of mirest. In his 
 earlier years he ■Nasited nearly evei-y country^ in Europe ; and 
 his rare facility in attaining acquaintance with foreign tongues, 
 enabled him to offer his countrymen, in their own language, very 
 pleasing specimens of the popular songs, poems, &c., of the 
 Russians, Servians, Poles, Magyars, Danes, Swedes, Sicilians, 
 Dutch, Esthonians, Spaniards, and Icelanders. It is not of 
 course to be imagined, that a gentleman who had done so many 
 things besides, could have thoroughly mastert^d these various 
 tongues and dialects ; but Bowring is of the class of men who i 
 possess the enviable faculty of making the most and best of , 
 what they know and have. The books now referred to are
 
 BOW 
 
 715 
 
 BOY 
 
 really agreeable ones. But the most important position occu- 
 pied by this ^mter in literature, Ls that which belongs to hiin as 
 editor of the works and papers of ilr. Bentham. Tlie tnist 
 bequeathed to him in Bentham's will, was executed with consi- 
 derable care, and an edition of all the writings (except those on 
 religion) of that remarkable person, was issued by Mr. T;ut of 
 Ediubiugh. Unfortunately, Bowiing attempted something more. 
 Attracted by Bentham's very incomplete theoiy of morals, and 
 incapable apparently of separating its weakness from its truth, he 
 pr.bUshed from scraps of ]\ISS. a work called the Deontology, 
 i id subjoined a sort of commentary of his own, under the name 
 f " JIuior Jlorals." It would have been fortunate for tlie 
 L-Jitor, and certainly no calamity to the philosoplier, had neither 
 the original work itself, nor the incompetent commentary, ever 
 found its way to the interior of a pri'.iting-office. — Bowring, how- 
 vcr, is most generally known as a politician ; and here his ser- 
 \ iees are also of a mixed nature. The man to whom we owe the 
 unhappy character attached to the origin of our scarcely settled 
 embroilment with China, may rejoice that it can be said of hun 
 that, for some time, he was an assiduous and intelligent member 
 i' the house of commons ; that he spoke and acted always in 
 ;iJvancement of the liberty of conscience ; that within the house 
 as without it, he fought m.anfully and ably on behalf of free- 
 dom of trade ; and that he produced several highly instructive 
 reports on our commercial relations with France and other coun- 
 tries. Assuredly it was an evU hour that recorded Sir John 
 ll.jwiing's appointment to China ; for, responsibilities then fell to 
 :in which the constitution of his mind unfitted him to bear. 
 i: is with no factious object, infinitely less through personal or 
 pohtical enmity, that we refer to the immediate causes and com- 
 mencements of this Chinese quaiTel. But there is an important 
 moral suggested by the whole transaction that mvist in no wise 
 be overlooked. We are most willing to give Sir John Bowring 
 *';e advantage due to his %-indication by his son, Jlr. Edgar 
 ; I wring, in reference to the foid charge of untruth. The com- 
 ;..ittal of a crime so deep and disgraceful, by any Enghshman 
 liolding in charge the honour of his cotuitry, is so nearly impos- 
 :^ible, that the most improbable explanation will ever be greedily 
 accepted : stUl, oiu: commissioner did not so guard his actions 
 that a suspicion of guUt might not be fairly attached to him 
 by the Cliinese ; nor do we find that his com'se was altered in 
 the slightest, after his discovery of the fatal mistake. The 
 question, however, as to the propriety of his conduct, depends 
 vi'iy httle on a pi int so disagreeable as this. On being taxed 
 with breach of treaty, Yeh not only declared his belief, at the 
 time of the visit of his poHce to the Arrou\ that it was a 
 (.'hinese and not a British vessel ; but he persisted in denying 
 that it ever could be called a British vessel. The question 
 was thus one of fact and law, not of aggression or breach of 
 treaty ; nor ought the word aggi'ession to have been used until 
 that question was decided. Unfortunately fur us, Yeh was 
 right. Leaving the inferior point as to the expiry of the 
 Hcense quite out of view, it is indubitable that those hcensed 
 vessels were not British vessels in the sense understood by 
 loth contracting parties to the treaty of 1843. The Clunese 
 had never acknowledged the new practice; and indeed Yeh 
 '•niphatically asks — " Since when has the national flag been 
 •emed of such small account as to be sold to all apphcants 
 ■ 'T money?" Nor was the practice confinned by om- owni Impe- 
 rial law : the Board of Trade, indeed, had seriously questioned 
 its propriety. It is most painful to requure to recal tliese facts. 
 Mter aggression on our part had occtirred, and serious hostilities 
 I'n entered on with a haste so reckless and headlong, it may 
 I ive been difficidt for any P^nghsh Jlinistr}' to arrest the progress 
 ! an evil which it could not avert. Nor if the feehng, long pre- 
 liling at Hong-Kong, be con-ect, was it likely that a Chinese 
 • ar, in some form, could have been long postponed : but 
 -suredly if the absolute conduct and control of affairs, involv- 
 uig issues so gigantic; if the honour and fair name of Eng- 
 land must (because of distance) be placed in the hands of the 
 governors of our remote settlements and dependencies ; the man 
 who soUcits an appointment so beset with hazard, ought to weigh 
 well his own capacities; and a responsibility — unfortunately never 
 hitherto appreciated — must ever rest with those who dispense 
 the Imperial Patronage. — J. P. N. 
 
 BOWYER, William, a celebrated English printer greatly 
 distinguished for scholarship, was born 10th December, 1C99, 
 in ^\hite^riars, London. His father was an eminent ])riuter, and 
 
 after WilUam had completed his education at Cambridge, he 
 entered into partnership with him in 1721, and took the super- 
 intendence of the literary and critical department of the business. 
 He soon won distinction for the Bowyer press, by the accuracy 
 and erudition he displayed when correcting for the press the 
 numerous learned works wliich passed through his hands. He 
 did not content himself with typogi-aphical accuracy, but took 
 advantage of his extensive scholarship to supply criticid notes, 
 emendations, prefaces, and indices, which greatly enhanced the 
 value of many of the works which he published. In piinting 
 Lyttleton's Latin Dictionary, the Greek Lexicon of Schrevellius, 
 the Hebrew Lexicon of Buxtorf, and Barclay's English Dictionary, 
 he supplied numerous corrections, and added many words which 
 he had met with in the course of his own reading. A collection 
 of his numerous papers, written in connection with the pubUca- 
 tions he superintended, and displaying great research, especially 
 in classical archaeology, was published in 1785 by his biographer, 
 Mr. Nichols, under the title of " Miscellaneous Tracts, by the 
 late William Bowyer." But the works in connection with which 
 he is best remembered are — " The Origin of Printing," consistmg 
 of — 1st, Dr. Middleton's dissertation on its origin in England ; 
 and 2nd, Meennan's account of its invention at Haarlem, with 
 numerous notes and corrections, published by Bowyer in 1766 ; 
 and his " Critical Conjectures and Observations on the New 
 Testament," prepared in connection with an excellent edition of 
 the Greek text, which he issued in 17G.3. This work received 
 the highest commendations from the most eminent Greek scho- 
 lars, and was translated into German by Dr. Schulz, professor 
 of theology and of oriental languages at Leipzig. The fourth and 
 best edition appeared in 1812. Mr. Bowyer held several lucra- 
 tive appointments, such as official printer of parhameutary 
 papers, and printer to several learned societies. He died 18th 
 November, 1777, in his 78th year, greatly beloved and revered 
 by a large number of men eminent in literature, •svith whom he 
 had long been on terms of intimate friendship. A complete list 
 of the valuable works which issued from the Bowyer press, and 
 were enriched by the emendations and additions made by this 
 " last of the learned printers," ^\ill be found in a work entitled 
 Literary Anecdotes ot the Eighteenth Century, comprising 
 Jlemoirs of WUham Bowy-er, printer, F.S.A., and many of his 
 learned friends, by John Nichols, F.S.A., in 9 vols. 8vo. — J. B. 
 
 BOXER, Ebwaed, C.B., a rear-admiral in the navj', was a 
 native of Dover, and was bom in 1784. He entered the navy in 
 1798, and served under Lord CoUingwood on the Mediterranean 
 station, and commanded a detachment of seamen, who were 
 landed to co-operate with the army in Egypt in 1801. In 1809 
 he captured three French frigates, a store ship, and seven 
 merchantmen, in the bay of Rosas. He after\vards served on 
 the HaUfax and other stations, and in 1840 was employed in 
 taking the soundings off the coast of Syria, previous to the 
 bombardment of the fortress of St. Jean d'Acre. He went out 
 with the Black Sea fleet in 1854, and was appointed by Lord 
 Raglan and Sh E. (now Lord) Lyons to superintend the harbour 
 of Balaklava. JIany severe criticisms were made in the news- 
 papers at the time, as to the way in which he discharged the 
 duties of this post ; but Lord Raglan, in the despatch announcing 
 his death, bears testimony to the essential services which he 
 rendered the anny by improving the landing-places and wharfs 
 at that port. He died of cholera on boai'd H.M.S. Jason, in the 
 harbour of Balaklava, Jime 4, 1855, leaving a widow and eleven 
 children. — (Hardwicke's Annual Biography for 1856.) — E. W. 
 
 BOXHORN, Marcus Zukkius, a Dutch critic, bom at 
 Bergen-op-Zoom in 1612; died in 1653. He was professor of 
 eloquence at Lejden before bis twentieth year ; and, after the 
 death of Daniel Heinsius, succeeded to the chair of liistory and 
 politics. He i)ublished a univeral history, and editions of several 
 of the Latin classics. — J. G. 
 
 BOYCE, William, Mus. Doc, the son of a respectable citizen 
 of London, was bom in the year 1710. A fine voice, and an 
 early propensity to the study of music, induced his father to 
 j)lace lihn under the tuition of Charles King, master of the 
 children of St. Paul's cathedral, into the choir of which, when 
 prepared by the routine of the music-school, he was admitted. 
 At the usual age he quitted the station of a singing-boy, and 
 became an articled pupil of Dr. Greene, then organist of that 
 church. Endowed with genius, and fortunate in the quahfications 
 of his tutor, ho made rapid progress both in tliejiy and prac- 
 tice ; and at the expiration of his pupilage was unanimously
 
 elected organist of Vera Street cliapel, Caveiulish Square, and 
 commenced Ms profession, as a teacher of music. Anxious to 
 extend tlie theoretical knowledge which he had acquired under 
 Dr. Greene, he became a constant attendant at the scientific lec- 
 tures of the leanied Dr. Pepusch ; studying with deep attention 
 the philosophical principles of music, and at the same time becom- 
 ing intimately acquainted with the works of the early J"lemish 
 and Italian composers, as well as those of our own country. 
 In 1736 he relinquished his situation at Vere Street chapel, 
 on being chosen organist of St. Michael's, Cornhill — a place 
 vacated by Kelway, who was chosen to fill a similar situation at 
 St. JIartin's-in-the-Fields ; and upon the decease of John Weldon 
 hi the same year, he was appointed one of the composers to his 
 majesty's chapels royal. In 17-40, upon the erection of an organ 
 in the church of the united parishes of AUhallows, the great and 
 the less, in one of which he was bom, he was so earnestly 
 entreated by the parishioners to become their organist, that he 
 yielded to their solicitations, notwithstanding his other various 
 engagements. In 1749, at the installation of the duke of New- 
 castle as chancellor of the university of Cambridge, he set to 
 music an ode written for the occasion by JIason, the poet — like- 
 wise an anthem — both of which were publicly performed. As 
 an acknowled.gment of the merits of these compositions, the 
 university conferred upon liim, unsolicited, the degree of doctor 
 in his faculty. On the death ot Dr. Greene in 1755, he was 
 nominated to the office of master of the royal band of musicians, 
 and in 1758, upon Travcrs' death, one of the organists of the 
 chapels royal. He died February 7, 1779, and was bmied in the 
 ciypt of St. Paul's cathedi-al. Besides numerous odes, songs, 
 concertos, sonatas, and trios. Dr. Boyce was the author of the 
 music to Lord Lansdowne's " Peleus and Thetis," a masque ; 
 " Da\id's Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan," an oratorio ; 
 " Solomon," a serenata ; " The Chaplet," and " The Shepherd's 
 Lotteiy," two dramatic productions, &c. — all of which works 
 possess various degrees of excellence. But his chief merit lies in 
 his compositions for the chui-ch. For instance, his noble anthems 
 — "By the waters of Babylon ;" "If we believe that Jesus died ;" 
 " where shall wisdom be found ?" and a host of others that 
 could be named, which fully entitle him to rank amongst the 
 inspired musicians. Dr. Boyce is entitled to the lasting gratitude 
 of the church and nation for the publication of the splendid 
 collection of cathedral music, in three large foho volumes, 1760, 
 in which are preseiTed the finest productions of our best church 
 composers, from the Reformation to the middle of the eighteenth 
 century. — E. F. E. 
 
 BOYD, the name of a Scottish noble family, at one time 
 possessed of great power and wealth. The first of the house 
 conspicuous in the histoiy of Scotland was Robert, who was 
 called to parliament as Baron Boyd of Kilmarnock. He was an 
 able and ambitious man, and gained the favour of James II. by 
 his great quahfications for business. In 1459 he was employed 
 with other distinguished persons in negotiating the prolongation 
 of a truce with England. Upon the death of James in the fol- 
 lowing year, Lord Boyd was made high justiciary of the kingdom. 
 Aided by the address of his brother. Sir Alexander Boyd of 
 Duchal, he acquired great influence over the young James III. ; 
 and on the death of good Bishop Kennedy in 1466, he violently 
 seized the person of the sovereign while presiding in a session of 
 the exchequer court at Linlithgow, and carried him off to Edin- 
 burgh. At the next meeting of parUament he obtained indem- 
 nity for this treasonable act, and a foi-mal pardon was made out 
 under the gi'eat seal. He was also appointed by the parliament 
 governor of the king and his two brothers. Shortly after he 
 was invested with the office of lord chamberhiin, and put the 
 copestone on his family honours by mariying his eldest son and 
 heir, who was created earl of AiTan, to the Princess Mary, the 
 king's eldest sister. Such a sudden acquisition of rank and 
 power of course excited the jealousy of the other nobles, and the 
 ambition and arrogance of the Boyds contributed gi-eatly to 
 increase their unpopularity. Theh- fall was as rapid as their 
 rise. In 1469 tlie earl of AiTan was sent with other commis- 
 sioners to Denmark, to negotiate a marriage between James and 
 the king of Denmark's daughter, and during his absence a com- 
 bination was formed amongst the nobles against the overgrown 
 power of the Boyds. On the .arrival of the earl in the Frith of 
 Forth with the royal bride, he did not venture to land, but warned 
 by his wife, the Princess Mary, he escaped with her to the conti- 
 nent. His aged father, after an unsuccessful attempt to maintain 
 
 his ground by arms, took refuge in England, where he died in 
 1470. Sir Alexander Boyd, brother of the justiciar, was brought 
 to trial for his shai'e in the seizure of the king's person at Linlith- 
 gow, and beheaded. The earl of Arran seems to have acquired 
 considerable distinction in the service of the duke of Burgundy ; 
 but he died at Antwerp in 1474, of grief, it is said, for the loss 
 of his wife, who was recalled by her brother from the continent, 
 compelled to submit to a divorce, and remarried to Lord Hamil- 
 ton, whose descendants became by this alliance the nearest heirs 
 to the Scottish throne. The Boyds never completely recovered 
 from this blow, but a branch of this family was aftei-wards 
 ennobled under the title of earls of Kilmarnock. William, the 
 fourth earl, was involved in the Jacobite rebellion of 1745. 
 After the battle of CuUoden he fell into the hands of the duke 
 of Cumberland, and was brought to trial upon a charge of high 
 treason, condemned, and beheaded on Towerhill, August 18, 
 1746, in his forty-second year. His eldest son James, Lord 
 Boyd, who fought for King George at Culloden, afterwards suc- 
 ceeded to the earldom of EitoI, which his descendants still 
 enjoy. — J. T. 
 
 BOYD, Rev. Henry, A.M., a native of Ireland, who wrote 
 several poetical pieces, chiefly dramatic. He is better known 
 as the translator of the Inferno of Dante, and of Vmcenzo 
 Monti's poem on the death of Hugo Basseville, the envoy from 
 the French republic. He also translated the Trionfi of Petrarch. 
 Boyd's works were published in Dublin, 1793. He died in 
 1832.— J. F. W. 
 
 BOYD, Hugh, a political writer of the eighteenth centur)*, 
 was born in the county of Antrim in Ireland, and intended by 
 his father for the bar, for which pui-pose he received a good 
 education and graduated in Trinity college, Dublin. He did 
 not, however, foUow the profession, but addicted himself to poli- 
 tical subjects. It was insisted by some persons that he was the 
 author of the celebrated letters of Junius, but the attempt was 
 unsuccessful, and the idea has been long since exploded. Boyd 
 made an advantageous maniage and went to the East, having 
 procm-ed a post there under Lord Macartney. He died in 1791. 
 His writings were collected and published in 1798. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYD, JIark Alex^^xder, a Scottish scholar and writer 
 of Latin poetry, was bom 13th January, 1562. He was the son 
 of Robert Boyd of Puikhill in Ayrshire, and nephew of James 
 Boyd, the unpopular archbishop of Glasgow, imder whose care 
 lie was educated, having been early left an orphan. He cared 
 Uttle in his early years for academical pursuits; and having tried 
 unsuccessfully to push his fortune at court, he was induced to 
 follow the military profession, aud betook himself to France. At 
 Paris he was attracted to the studies he had despised at home, 
 and having attended the academical lectures there, he passed to 
 the university of Orleans, to study civil law. Thence he went 
 in succession to Bourges, Lyons, and Toulouse, famed everywhere 
 for his elegant scholarship. He seems to have done httle ser- 
 %'ice as a soldier, though we find him in 1587 attached to a body 
 of troops sent from Auvergne to support Henry III. In this 
 expedition he was sHghtly wounded. When resident at Toulouse 
 he was a sufferer for his adherence to the royal cause, being cast 
 into prison by the insurrectionists, who had taken possession of 
 the town in name of the League. After obtaining his release he 
 settled near Poictou, where he devoted himself to study. At 
 length he returned to Scotland, and died in April, 1601, at the 
 paternal seat of Pinldiill. Of his nmiierous productions in prose 
 and verse, displaying a. very perfect acquaintance with both 
 Latin and Greek, only his " Epistolte Hervidum " and " Hynini" 
 are now known. They are published in the Delicia; Poetarum 
 Scotoniin, 1627. — J. T. 
 
 BOYD, John P., brigadier-general in the American ai-my in 
 the war of 1812. His early militaiy career was in India, wliere 
 he commanded an iiTegular mercenary corps, which he raised, 
 paid, and equipped hmiself, and with which he served any of the 
 native princes who would pay him best. Once he was in the 
 pay of Halkar, and afterwards in the Peshwa's service. Finding 
 at length no lucrative employment, he sold out his force to a 
 Neapolitan partisan, and came to Paris in 1808, whence he 
 returned to America. Receiving a commission in the army, he 
 served under General Wilkinson in the abortive attempt of that 
 officer in 1813 to advance against Montreal. On coming to the 
 gi-eat rapid in the St. Lawrence river, just below Ogdensburgh, 
 Boyd, with the rear-guard, consisting of 2000 men, was ordered 
 to cross to the Canada side and attack the British force who
 
 were hanging on the rear. A confused action, known as the 
 battle of Clu-vstlers Farm, resulted in the loss ot General Cov- 
 ington and old men, killed or womided. The British, though 
 decidedly inferior in numbers, after yielding a httle, maintained 
 their cTOund ; but meanwhile the passage of the rapid w^as safely 
 accompUshed. The main expedition was soon abandoned, how- 
 ever, owing to a want of co-operation by another body of troops, 
 and much dispute and reciimination resulted from the failm-e. 
 Boyd was subsequently appointed naval officer for the port of 
 Bc.ston; and in 1816 pubhshed a book containing facts and 
 , >cuments relative to the conduct of the war. He died at 
 r.oston, October 4, 1830, aged sixty-two. 
 
 BOYD, RoBEKT, of Trochrig, a Scotch di-\-ine, bom in 
 1578. His father, James Boyd, was the "tidchan" archbishop 
 of Glasgow. He prosecuted his studies for some time at the 
 university of Edinburgh, and afterwards in France. In 1604 
 he was ordiuned pastor of the protestant church at Verteuil; 
 and, two years later, was appointed one of the professors at 
 the university of Saimiur. He also discharged the duties of 
 the ministerial office in the same town ; and, ha\-ing married a 
 French lady, seemed to have abandoned all intention of return- 
 ing to his native country. But his reputation for ability and learn- 
 ing attracted the attention of James VI., who confeiTed on him 
 the prmcipalship uf the imiversity of Glasgow. He discharged 
 hi? duties of this office with gi'eat assiduity ; and, besides teach- 
 ..ig theolog\', Hebrew, and SjTiac alternately, he preached in the 
 church of Govan, the temporalities of the recton,- and %acarage 
 of this parish having been annexed to the prlncipalship on this 
 condition. Jlr. Boyd, however, refused to countenance King 
 James' attempts to introduce episcopacy into Scotland, and was 
 therefore obhged to resign his office, and retire to his estate in 
 Vvrshhe. He was soon after appointed principal of the univer- 
 sity of Edinbm'gh, and one of the ministers of that city. But 
 owing to his refusal to comply with the five articles of Perth, he 
 was compelled to leave the capital, and was ordered by the king 
 to confine hunself within the bounds of Camck in AjTsliire. 
 This restriction was ultimately removed, and Mr. Boyd was 
 appointed minister of Paisley, but his situation there was ren- 
 dered uncomfortable, through the opposition of the earl of 
 Aberconi's widow, who had lately joined the Romish church. 
 Mr. Bovd died soon after at Edinburgh, 5th January, 1627, in 
 the forty-ninth year of his age. His largest and best known work 
 is his Latin " Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians," 
 wliich has been highly commended for the elegance of its style. 
 It was not printed until 1652. Another treatise, entitled 
 ■• Monita de FilU Sui Primogeniti Institutione," was published 
 in 1701. Two of Mr. Boyd"s Latin poems appeared in the 
 Dehcioe Poetarum Scotorum; and a laudatory ode on King 
 James was printed in Adamson's JIuses' Welcome. His life has 
 been written by Wodrow. — J. T. 
 
 BOYD, Zachary, a Scottish divine and writer of verse, 
 who was born towards the close of the sixteenth century. He 
 was descended from the Boyds of Pinkhill, in Ayrshire, and 
 received his education in the university of Glasgow. He subse- 
 quently prosecuted his studies at Samnur in France, and in 1611 
 was appointed a regent in this college. After spending sixteen 
 years in Frauce, he was compelled to leave it in consequence of 
 the persecution of the protestants. On his return to his native 
 land he was domestic chaplain successively to Sir William Scott 
 of Elie and to the marquis of Hamilton. In 1623 he was 
 appointed minister of the Barony parish, Glasgow, and passed 
 the remainder of liis life in this charge. The congregation to 
 which he ministered at that time worshipped in the cr}-pts beneath 
 the cathedral church, so strikingly described by Sir Walter Scott 
 ill his novel of Pvob Roy. In 1629 was published Jlr. Boyd's 
 I'rincipal prose work, " The Last Battell of the Soull in Death," 
 a treatise cast in the fonn of a dialogue, in which Pastour, Sicke 
 Man, Spiritual Friend, Satan, Jlichacl, &c., express theu' opinions 
 with considerable spirit and dramatic etfect. Zachary appears 
 to have been a statmch loyalist at this period, for the first 
 volume of his work is dedicated to Charles I. and his qiieen ; 
 and when that unfortunate monarch visited Scotland in 1633 for 
 the purpose of being crowned, Zacharj' waited on him the day 
 after the ceremony, and addressed him in a highly eulogistic 
 Latin oration. When the ill-judged attempt of Charles and 
 Laud to impose episcopacy upon the Scotch, led to the formation 
 of a national league in support of the religious rights of the 
 pi'ople, ilr. Boyd and the other professors of Glasgow college at 
 
 first refused to subscribe the covenant, but were afterwards 
 obliged to confonn. He continued a faithful adherent of the 
 covenanting party throughout all the changes of that stormy 
 period. When Cromwell visited Glasgow, after the battle of 
 Dunbai", September 3, 1650, the magistrates and ministers 
 quitted the city in a body, but the undaunted Zachary remained 
 at his post, and, according to BaUlie, railed on the English sec- 
 taries to their very face in the High Church. The passage which 
 he expounded on this occasion was the eighth chapter of Daniel, 
 and it is said that one of Cromwell's officers was so indignant at 
 the statements of the plain-spoken preacher, that he whispered 
 into the ear of the general a request for permission " to pistol 
 the scoimdrel." CromweU replied, " Xo, no ; we will manage 
 him in another way." At the close of the sermon he asked ]SIr. 
 Boyd to dine -svith him, and their religious conversation and 
 devotional exercises were protracted tUl a late hour. Zach;u^- died 
 about the end of the year 1653 or the beginning of 1654, leaving 
 behind him the reputation of a pious, learned man, of strong sense, 
 mingled with considerable humoiu- and of gi'eat shrewdness and 
 sagacity, but withal very eccentric. He published during his 
 lifetime no less than nineteen works, chiefly devotional and reli- 
 gious, and left a veiT large nmnber of treatises m manuscript, 
 apparently prepared for the press. The most celebrated of these 
 are two volumes, entitled " Zion's Flowers, or Christian Poems, 
 for Spiritual Edification," which are usually designated Zachai-y 
 Boyd's bible. They consist of a collection of poems on Jephtha, 
 David, Gohath, Jonah, and other persons menrioned m scriptm'e 
 history, cast in a dramatic fonn, and bearing a considerable 
 resemblance to the ancient " mysteries," or sacred dramas of the 
 thirteenth and foiu-teenth centuries. They form a strange mis- 
 tm'e of passages conceived in a fine strain of devotional feehng, 
 with descriptions of the most grotesque and ludicrous character, 
 in the homeUest style of versification. Jlr. Boyd also prepared 
 a poetical version of the Book of Psalms for the use of the 
 church, but the version of Rous was prefened by the General 
 Assembly. Mr. Boyd was a liberal benefactor to the university 
 of Glasgow, and to his munificence it is indebted for the present 
 college buildings. In gratitude for the legacy which he bequeathed 
 to his Alma !JIater, a bust of Zachaiy was erected on the gate- 
 way within the court of the college, with an appropriate inscrip- 
 tion. It is a vulgar error that he made any stipulation as to 
 the publication of any portion of his writings. — J. T. 
 
 BOYDELL, John, a pubhc-spirited engraver, born at Dor- 
 rington in 1719, and who became lord mayor of London. He 
 was the son of a land surveyor, and followed the ch;un till the 
 age of twenty, when the sight of Baddeley's Views of English 
 Countiy Seats set him to learn engraving. He came to Lon- 
 don, and was apprenticed to a iMr. Toms, and at the end of six 
 years produced a book of views near London, and afterwards 
 some other topographical works. He now threw his whole 
 energies into re\-ivmg the neglected art of engraving, and pre- 
 venting the necessity of our importing our prints from the conti- 
 nent. To encourage pamting he started his illustrated Shakspeare 
 and Shakspeare gallery. The latter he woidd have left to the 
 nation, but his losses from the French revolution compelled him 
 to obtain an act of parliament to allow him to dispose of it by 
 lottery. In 1774 Boy dell became alderman of his ward, and in 
 1791 lord mayor. He died anold man m 1804, respected and 
 revered by every one. — W. T. 
 
 BOYDELL, JosiAH, the nephew and successor of the enthu- 
 siastic dilettante alderman, John Boydell, who founded the 
 Shakspeare gallery. He was born at Stanton in Shropshire, in 
 1750. When Boydell was bribing avaricious Re}-nolds with a 
 retainer of 500 guineas to paint for him Robin Goodfellow, Mac- 
 beth and the Witches, and the Death of Cardinal Beaufort, and 
 was projecting a grand illustrated edition of his favourite poet, 
 the young Shropshire artist was sent for to London to learn 
 engraving, and Fuscli, West, Roniney, and Hayley joined in the 
 work. While Fuseli executed eight works, of which Hamlet 
 and the Ghost were the most wonderful, Boydell tiu-ned out a 
 blank, painted some feeble pictures, became alderman of Cheap, 
 resigned the gown in 1807, and died at Halliford in 1817. — W. T. 
 
 * BOYE or BOJE, Caspak Jihianxes, a Danish poet, bom 
 on 27th December, 1791, at Konigsberg, where his father was 
 pastor. ^Miilst a child he removed with his family to Trond- 
 jem. As a youth he was for two years a tutor in Norway, after 
 which, until"l810, he studied at the university of Copenhagen. 
 He also gave lessons in Copenhagen, whilst he studied first law,
 
 then theology, daring which time he also wrote and published 
 many poems. In 1818 he and some others established the semi- 
 nary for teachers at Jonstrup, where he found sufficient leisure 
 for his literary pursuits, principally dramatic works, which were 
 acted with considerable applause. Being soon after called to 
 assume the duties of parish priest, he laboured assiduously at 
 a new and improved version of the psalms for the use of the 
 Danish church. In 1835 he vi'as appointed pastor of St. Olafs 
 in Elsinore ; in 1S40 he was made knight of Dannebrog, and is 
 now minister of the Garrison chiu-ch, Copenhagen. In 1818 he 
 married the daughter of Michael Gottlob BLrckner. His tragedies 
 are " Svend Grethe ;" " Kong Sigurd ;" " Dronning Juta of 
 Danmark ;" and " Erik den Syvende." He published a number 
 of the psalms translated from the Hebrew, under the title of 
 "The Ilarp of David," in 1827; and "Spiritual I'oems and 
 Songs," 1833-o6 ; and a new collection in 1840. The hymns 
 of Boje are found in every collection, and are remarkable for their 
 spirit of simple, genuine piety. He is well known as the trans- 
 lator of the principal of Sir Walter Scott's romances, and as the 
 editor of Baggessin's Danish works. — IM. H. 
 
 BOYEE, Abel, a French lexicographer and historian, bom 
 at Castres in 1G64 ; died at Chelsea in England in 1729. He 
 was obliged to quit liis country in consequence of the revocation 
 of the edict of Nantes. His principal works are his grammar 
 and dictionary, the latter of which long enjoyed an extensive 
 popularity. — J. G. 
 
 BOYER, Alexis. This celebrated surgeon, the son of a jioor 
 tailor of Uzerches, a small to^vn in Limoiusin, was bom in 1737. 
 He was taken from school as soon as he had learned to read and 
 write, and placed in the office of a notary. While in this uncon- 
 genial employment he made the acquaintance of a barber-surgeon, 
 who indulged his curiosity in physiological matters, and then of 
 a surgeon, who .advised him to go to Paris and study medicine. 
 That advice it would have been easy to follow, if the young Boyer 
 had known whence to derive the means for a prolonged residence 
 in Paris ; and as it was, with seventy francs in his pocket, he 
 set out for the great metropolis. By good luck he came into 
 the hands of a barber, who, on the recommendation of his ha\'ing 
 formerly acquainted himself with the duties of an apprentice, 
 took him into his employment ; and not only kept him from 
 staning, but with a rare spirit of generosity, allowed him to 
 indulge his medical tastes by frequenting the halls of dissection 
 and anatomical museums which abounded in the neighboiu-hood. 
 In these places Boyer made himself useful in various ways to the 
 students with whom his daily ^'isits brought him into contact, and 
 by and by acquired so much skill as an operator, that his yoinig 
 friends were glad to pay him for an occasional lesson in surgery. 
 He now entered into an arrangement with his employer by which 
 he was required to handle the razor only on Sundays and holi- 
 days, and the rest of his time allowed to busy himself with his 
 scalpel. At his lodgings in the house of the honest washer- 
 woman, whose daughter he afterwards manned, he began to 
 entertain his friends, who, hearing of his success, flocked to him 
 from all quarters ; and, what with his gains at the hospitals, 
 and his prizes at the practical schools, seemed at length to have 
 gained the road to fortune. In 1787, after a competitive ex- 
 amination, he was appointed gm/nani inahrise at the hospital of 
 la Charite — an institution which was to derive advantage and 
 bistre from his labours almost until the close of his life. The 
 Revolution advanced the fortunes of Boyer beyond expectation — 
 that event deprived him of a prize which the Royal Academy, 
 then abolished, was about to award liim ; but rewarded him lor 
 his disappointment by bringing about his elevation to the post of 
 second siu-geon in the hospital. Previously to the year 1793, 
 when in virtue of his having been gafjnant maitrise for a period 
 of six yeai-s he became master in surgery, he had commenced 
 at la Charite a course of lectures on anatomy, the descriptive 
 parts of which, for clearness and exactitude, were unmatched in 
 tiie lectures of any other Parisian prr)fessor. From this period 
 his reputation and his emoluments increased at a rate which, 
 even his great talents considered, must be thought extraordinary. 
 He was named professor of the practice of medicine, and second 
 surgeon at the Hotel Dieu. In 1797-99, after commencing a 
 course of lectures on external pathology, he published his "Traitc 
 d' Anatomic," 4 vols., a resume of his coiu-se on that branch of 
 science derived in great pai-t from the note-books of his students. 
 In 1803 Napoleon named him his first surgeon, and after the 
 campaign of 18UG-7, in which Boyer attended him, the emperor 
 
 gave him the cross of the legion of honour, the title of baron of 
 the empire, and a dotation of 26,000 francs. In 1814 appeared 
 the results of the extensive researches he had undertaken for his 
 course of external pathology in the first volumes of his " Trait(5 
 des I\Ialadies Chirurgicales." The last volumes of tliat work 
 were given to the world in 1826. The downfall of his imperial 
 patron in 1814 he bore with the equanimity of a man who 
 needed no patron. In 1817 the new government had taken him 
 into confidence; in 1823 he was named consulting surgeon to 
 Louis XVIII. Two more sovereigns of France were to enjoy the 
 benefit of his professional counsel — Charles X. and Louis Philippe. 
 In 1825, on the death of Deschamps, he reached the highest 
 attainable eminence in his profession, by being named surgeon- 
 in-chief at la Charite, and member of the Institute. The death 
 of his wife in 1832 threw him into a profound melancholy, 
 which, more than his still arduous labours, hastened his end : he 
 survived her only a year, dying November 25, 1833. In his 
 lectm'es he was methodical, pains-taking, almost mechanical, 
 singularly clear and exact ; in his works, which are but his lec- 
 tures revised, we find the same qu;dities. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOYER, Claude, a French poet and preacher, bom at 
 Alby in 1(318; died in 1G98. Boursaiilt and Chapelain have 
 eulogized his di-amatic works ; indeed, the latter considers him 
 inferior only to Comeille ; but Boileau, Racine, and others, have 
 overwhelmed him with ridicule. Nor was he more happy in 
 his senmons, for, according to Furetifere, those compositions 
 had not even attained the fame of being good soporifics for 
 want of patients on whom to try their narcotic influence. He 
 WTote a number of tragedies, pastorals, tragi-comedics, operas, 
 sermons, &c. — J. G. 
 
 BOYER, Jean Baptiste Nicolas, a French surgeon, who 
 devoted himself to the treatment of epidemics and epizootics, 
 and left a number of works on that class of diseases, the prin- 
 cipal of which are — " Relation Historique de la Peste de Mar- 
 seilles," 1721, and " Methode a suivre dans le traitement des 
 differentes maladies epidemiques qui regnent le plus ordinaire- 
 ment dans la generalite de Paris," 1761. He was born at 
 Marseilles in 1G93. His labours in that city, whither he was 
 sent by the regent from Paris in 1720, during tlie prevalence of 
 the pest, were rewarded with the title of physician-in-ordinary 
 to the king. Died in 1768.— J. S , G. 
 
 BOY'ER, Jean Pierre, a mulatto, president of the republic 
 of Hayti (St. Domingo), bom at Port-au-Prince in 1776. He 
 bore arms in the revolution of the French part- of St. Domingo 
 in 1792 ; distinguished himself in the follov\'ing year in the 
 struggles of the negroes to rid themselves of the tyranny of the 
 planters ; and after a short residence in France, whither he wa'3 
 obliged to fly with Petion and others, on their party succumbing 
 to that of the negroes, held a command in the expedition of 
 Leclerc in 1801. The French forces landed at the Cape, Febru- 
 ary, 1802 ; in May, Toussaint Louverture was made prisoner, 
 and the party of the negroes dispersed. In 1804 another 
 insurrection against the French resulted in a declaration of inde- 
 pendence ; Dessalines was elected chief of the repubUc of Hayti, 
 and somewhat later, emperor. In 180G, Potion, to whom Boyer 
 was attached, on the death of Dessalines, declared a republic at 
 Port-au-Prince, and commenced war on Cristophe, the successor 
 of Dessalines. Against the emperor of the north Boyer defended 
 successfully the capital of the republic of the south. In 1818, 
 on the death of Petion, he was elected president, and Cristophe 
 being disposed of by violence m 1820, became master both of 
 the empire and the republic. St. Domingo, the capital of the 
 Spanish part of the island, having declared itself an independent 
 republic in 1821, Boyer attacked it next year, and reduced it 
 without difficulty. These successes alarmed the French govern- 
 ment, and an effort was made in 1822 to recover St. Domingo, 
 the queen of the Antilles, as it was called at Paris, but without 
 success. Boyer, however, began to undermine his own authority 
 by indulging in occasional acts of tyranny and bloodshed, and 
 by persevering in the ruinous policy of excluding European 
 enterprise from the temtories of the republic. In 1825 Charles 
 X. succeeded in compelling the senate of Hayti, secretly sum- 
 moned for that purpose by the president of the republic, to 
 acknowledge the suzerain rights of the French crown, and to 
 vote an indemnity of 150 millions of francs for losses of the 
 French jiarty since 1792. But when the question of payment 
 came before the Dominican legislature, it was unanimously 
 resolved that as there was no sur2)lus revenue in the hands of the
 
 r^vernmenl, the French must delay making theii* demands 
 
 .;i a period that could not, in the circimistances, be exactly 
 
 ; (.cified. Boyer after this made desperate efforts to increase 
 
 Lis resotirces, and by his measures for that purpose precipitated 
 
 his ruin. An insmTection, originating in the south of the island, 
 
 '•■liged him to take refuge in Jamaica in 1842, whence in 184:8 
 
 e passed to France. He died at Paris in 1850. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOYER, John Baptist, marquis d'Aiguilles, a French 
 
 noble patron of art, procurator-general of the pai'liament of Aix. 
 
 A love of art led him to Italy ^vith the sculptor Puget. He 
 
 - rmed a great collection of paintings and sculptures, and pnb- 
 
 ■lied the prints in two volumes ; some of them were by his own 
 
 :iud. He also painted and scraped mezzotints. With nothing 
 
 . year he might have proved a genius — this marquis. — W. T. 
 
 BOYER, Pierre Denis, a French prelate, eminent as a 
 
 ■ntroversialist, born at Caissac in 1766; died in 1842. After 
 
 mj)leting his curriculum at the college of Eodez, where he was 
 
 ;•? friend and companion of Frayssinous, he took priest's orders 
 
 ; 1790, and about the commencement of the Reign of Terror 
 
 i'an preaching in a small church in the mountainous district 
 
 r Rouergue. There his reputation with the better classes, as 
 
 ■11 as with the common people, whom he addressed in the 
 
 tois of the district, procured him the unenviable notice of the 
 
 rrorists, and he was conducted to prison, but by a stratagem 
 
 :' one of his friends soon after released. He went to Paris in 
 
 ?00 ; in 1802 attracted the favoixrable notice of the first 
 
 jiisul by his publication entitled " Duel juge au tribunal de la 
 
 iison et de Thonneur," and, shortly afterwards, Frayssinous 
 
 inng vacated the chair of dogmatic theology in the seminary of 
 
 :. Sulpice, was appointed his successor. From 1818, when he 
 
 .blished his " Examen du pouvoir legislatif de I'Eglise sur le 
 
 .triage," during the twenty years in which he was employed in 
 
 iisionary labour, he continued also to busy himself in matters 
 
 : controversy, maintaining the doctrines of the chiu-ch or her 
 
 -.'hts, as either chanced to be made the subject of attack, with 
 
 iisiderable vigour and no little warmth. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOYER DE XICE, William, an Italian troubadour, bom 
 
 t Nice ; lived in the fourteenth centm-y. The only one of his 
 
 •ces that has come down to us, is that which he composed for 
 
 larie, the viife of Charles, duke of Calabria; but it gives us 
 
 1 high opinion of his powers. He was, however, much esteemed 
 
 y contemporaries, who published many of their pieces under his 
 
 Aiine. — J. G. 
 
 BOYERil.AN'S, Theodore, a Flemish painter, bom at 
 -Antwerp, and pupil and imitator of the robust Rubens. He 
 was a good medium man, a fair designer, and excellent colourist. 
 He tilled a good many chm-ches with his good works, and then 
 went, we hope, to heaven to learn to do better. One of his 
 best was a picture of the good St. Xavier, the Jesuit, converting 
 the ancestors of our Sepoy friends, executed for the church of 
 St. Xavier's order at Ypres. — W. T. 
 
 BOYLE, David, an eminent Scottish judge, was bom at 
 Irvine on 2Gth July, 1772. His father, the hon. Patrick 
 Buyle, was the third son of John, second earl of Glasgow. In 
 1793 he was called to the Scottish bar, and in 1807 was made 
 solicitor-general, and was returned as member of parU;uneut for 
 the county of Ayr. He remained in parliament, taking, however, 
 almost no part in its proceedings, tUI 1811. He was then raised to 
 be a judge in the court of session. At the close of the same year 
 lie was promoted to the office of lord-justice-clerk. Although 
 possessed neither of brilliant talent nor of extensive learning, 
 he had many of the qualities of an excellent judge. He had strong 
 good sense, unwearied ze;il in the dischjirge of his duty, and 
 the requisite patience, courage, honesty, and self-dependence, to 
 enable him to discharge it with thorough impartiaUty. A com- 
 manding figure, good voice, and an earnest, impressive, though 
 not eloquent mode of speaking, lent dignity to his office. His 
 decisions remain of the highest authority in nearly every depart- 
 ment of Scottish law, as careful and sensible applications of 
 existing principles. He was made a privy councillor in 1820. 
 In 1841, upon the resignation of the right hon. Charles Hope, 
 be was appointed lord-president of the court of session. This 
 office he contmued to fill with almost unabated energy and 
 ability till 1852, when he retired. He died soon after, at his 
 country seat of Stewarton in Ayrshire, on the 4tb of February, 
 1853. A statue of him in white marble has been executed by 
 Steele, and is intended to be placed in the parliament house of 
 Edinburgh.— J. D. W. 
 
 BOYLE, Richard, first earl of Cork, and kno^vn as " the 
 great earl of Cork," was bom in the city of Canterbury on the 
 3d October, 1566. He was descended from a family of great 
 antiquity and distinction, the earHest records tracing it to the 
 time of Henry III. In the reign of Henry VI. Ludovic Boyle 
 of Bidney in Herefordshu-e left two sons, the second of whom, 
 Roger, left four sons, one of whom, Slichael, was afterwards 
 bishop of Waterford, and another, Roger, was father to the sub- 
 ject of this memoir. Having received his academical education 
 at St. Bennet's college, Cambridge, and studied law in the 
 middle temple, Richard Boyle, upon the death of his father, 
 resolved to travel, and accordingly went to Ireland, arriving in 
 Dublin on the 23d of June, 1588, all his wealth being, as he 
 states in his memoirs, twenty-seven pounds three shillings. 
 Young Boyle's address and learning procured him the hand ot 
 a rich heiress in Limerick, who died shortly after their marriage, 
 leaving him the possession of £500 a year. He soon purchased 
 largely in Ireland, and incurred the suspicion and jealousy, as 
 well for his rising importance as for his abihties, of Sir Henry 
 Wallop, the treasurer, as of other leading men in Ireland, who 
 misrepresented him to the queen. He immediately prepared to 
 go over to England to refute their accusations, when the rebel- 
 lion broke out in Munster, and he lost all his property. He 
 escaped, however, and anived in London. Through the machi- 
 nations of Wallop he was committed to prison ; but having at 
 last obtained an audience of the queen, he defended himself with 
 so much ability before the council, that the queen exclaimed, 
 with characteristic impetuosity, " By God's death! all these are 
 but inventions agidnst this young man, and all his sufferings 
 are for being able to do us service, and those complaints urged 
 to forestall him therein ; but we find him to be a man fit to be 
 employed by ourselves, and will employ him in our service." 
 Boyle was accordingly set free, and appointed clerk of the 
 council of Munster, and returned to Ireland. Here he was 
 present with Sir George Carey, the lord-president, at the siege 
 of Kinsale, and was sent by him to London with the tidings of 
 the victory obtained over the Spaniards and Tyrone. He accom- 
 plished the joiurney ^\-ith great expedition, and was received by 
 Elizabeth ■svith great marks of condescension. On his return 
 to Ireland he found the lord-president about to besiege Beer- 
 haven, which being taken, Boyle was again despatched to Eng- 
 land, and his steady friend Lord Carey recommended him to Sir 
 Walter Raleigh as a purchaser for the lands that the latter 
 possessed in Munster and was then about to sell. These Boyle 
 pm'chased, and their income, which at the time was very incon- 
 siderable, became soon so large, that when the Irish war was 
 ended, they were " a very noble estate." Once more retuming 
 to Ireland, he married Catheiine, the daughter of Sir Jeffery 
 Fenton, piuncipal secretary of state and privy councillor in that 
 kingdom, and was knighted by the lord-deputy. The origin 
 of Boyle's attachment to his wife, as stated by Budgell, is some- 
 what romantic, being said to have occurred when she was but 
 two years old, when he first jestingly and then seriously told 
 her father he would wiiit tUI she should attain a proper age, 
 and would marry her if Sir Jeffery would give his consent, 
 which being promised, both parties fulfilled the engagement. 
 The story is told on hearsay ; and though tiie main statements 
 may be trae, yet the girl could not be so young at the time of 
 the arrangement, as Boyle's first wife did not die till 1599, and 
 his second marriage took place in 1603. That the marriage was 
 a happy one, we learn on the authority of Boyle himself, who 
 says — " I never demanded any marriage-portion, neither had 
 promise of any, it not being in my consideration ; yet her 
 father after my marriage gave me one thousand pounds ui gold 
 with her, but the gift of his daughter unto me I must ever 
 thankfully acknowledge as the crown of all his blessings ; for 
 she was a most religious, virtuous, loving, and obedient wife 
 unto me all the days of her life, and the happy mother of all 
 my hopeful children whom, with their posterity, I beseech God 
 to bless." The countess died in 1629. The reputation of Boyle 
 as a man of ability and wisdom was daily increasing, so that he 
 was sworn a pri\-y-councillor in 1606, first for the province of 
 Munster and afterwards for the whole kingdom; and after other 
 additions to his honour and fortune, he w;is on 6th September, 
 1616, created Lord Boyle, baron of Youghal, in consideration 
 not only of his militarj- services, but " for the judicious erection 
 of forts and castles, and the establishment of colonies at his own 
 cost." Witliin four years after he was advanced to the dignities
 
 of Viscount Dungarvan and earl of Cork. In 1629 he was sworn 
 in lord-justice, with Lord Loftus his son-in-law, and in 1631 he 
 was appointed lord high-treasurer of Ireland, and continued in 
 the government till the anival of Lord Stratibrd. Though the 
 principles of Lord Strafford's policy in Ireland were in the main 
 just and comprehensive, it cannot be denied that he was often 
 harsh and unjust towards individuals. To the earl of Cork his 
 conduct was insolent, oppressive, and illegal. Strafford ordered 
 liim to call in his writs in a suit which the latter had instituted, 
 adding, " If you wiU not, I vnW clap you in the castle, for I tell 
 you I will not have my orders disputed by law nor lawyers ;" 
 bat it is remarkable that this act of tyranny was brought for- 
 ward against Strafford when tried for his life, and the earl of 
 Cork was summoned over to England to give his testimony. 
 When the rebellion broke out in 1641, the care and skill of the 
 earl of Cork and the liberal and wise spirit shown by him in his 
 extensive plantations, retarded for awhile the miseries of war, 
 and ultimately tended to its suppression. He fortified his castle 
 of Lismore and garrisoned it with one hundred foot and as 
 many horse, under the command of his son, Lord Broghill. He 
 placed the same number of troops under his son, Lord Kinal- 
 meaky, in Bandon Bridge, a town built by himself and fortified 
 at the cost of fourteen thousand pounds, while at the earnest 
 request of the \iceroy he took upon himself the defence of 
 Youghal, aided by his son, Lord Dungar\on, a troop of cavalry, 
 and two hundred of his own tenants. The hardships and straits 
 which the earl of Cork and his loyal sons sustained are stated 
 in various correspondences of the times, and especially in the 
 letters of these nobles ; and ere the rebellion was crushed Lord 
 Kinalmeaky was slain at the head of liis troops in the battle of 
 Liscarrol. In 16-12 the earl was commissioned to try 'the 
 rebels for high treason. The earl had, in the course of these 
 two years, exhausted his means and reduced himself to the low- 
 est condition of distress by his liberal contributions towards the 
 expenses of the war. His estates were nevertheless the most 
 thriving in the kingdom ; his improvements were the most exten- 
 sive, costly, judicious, and useful, consisting of churches, h(jspi- 
 tals, schools, bridges, castles, and towers. So surprised was 
 Cromwell on seeing what he had done that he remarked, " If 
 there had been an earl of Cork in every province, it would have 
 been impossible for the Irish to have raised a rebellion." 
 
 The earl did not long sm-vive these troubles, or live to see the 
 end of this long and disastrous war. He died at Youghal in 
 September, 1643, having nearly attained the age of seventy- 
 seven years, and was interred in the parish church. 
 
 Richard Boyle may fairly be pronounced to have been an able 
 and a good man, and the cognomen bestowed upon him of " the 
 great earl of Cork " was not unmerited. Borlace, in his Reduc- 
 tion of Ireland, writes of him, " He was a person, for his abi- 
 lities and knowledge m the affairs of the world, eminently 
 observable, inasmuch as (though he was no peer of England) 
 yet he was permitted to sit upon the woolsack as ConsiUarius. 
 And for all the estate he arrived at (which was the gi-eatest in 
 the memory of the last age), none ever taxed him with exorbi- 
 tancies, but such as thought piinces had too little, and rehgious 
 men not enough." — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLE, Richard, son of the first earl of Cork, succeeded 
 to the title on the death of his father in 1643. He was bom 
 at Youghal in Ireland on the 28th October, 1612. He was 
 remarkable for his loyalty to Charles I., whom he assisted 
 and supplied with money. In consideration of his services, he 
 was created Lord Clifford of Lanesborough, and aftei-wards earl 
 of Burlington. He was also appointed lord-lieutenant of the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire and custos rotulomm of the city of 
 York, which posts he held till the time of James II., when he 
 resigned them rather than accommodate himself to the designs 
 of that monarch. He died on the loth January, 1697-98, in his 
 eighty-sixth year. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLE, Roger, fifth son of the first earl of Cork, was bom on 
 the 26th of April, 1621. When in his fifth year he was created 
 Baron Broghill, and at fifteen he was sent to Trinity college, 
 Dublin, where he soon acquired the reputation of being a good 
 scholar. After leaving the university he went to travel through 
 France and Italy, and upon his return he went to London, where 
 he attracted the notice of the earl of Northumberland, who gave 
 him the command of his own troop of horse. Having married 
 Lady Margaret Howard, sister to the earl of Suffolk, Lord 
 BrogluU went to Ireland, where he arrived on the day the rebel- 
 
 lion broke out, and proceeded to Lismore, the residence of hia 
 father. Lord Broghill at once took the command of a troop of 
 horse raised by his father, and proceeded to join the lord-pre- 
 sident, St. Leger, displaying dming the rebellion great zeal and 
 loyalty. Upon the death of Charles I. Broghill left Ireland, 
 looking upon it and his estates there as utterly lost, and retired 
 to his seat in Somersetshire, where he lived in retirement till 
 1 649. Here he fonned the design of going secretly to Charles 
 II., for the purpose of obtaining a commission to raise troops in 
 Ireland, and attempt the restoration of that monarch and the 
 recovery of his own estates. His object was, however, discovered 
 by the committee of state, and before he could leave the king- 
 dom he received a message fi-om Cromwell, whose sagacity 
 enabled him to see in the loyalist noble one whose talents and 
 knowledge of Ireland would be of gi-eat use to him in that coun- 
 try, desiring that he would wait upon him. While Broghill was 
 pondering over this strange mandate, Cromwell entered his room, 
 and told hun that his designs were discovered, and that the 
 committee were determined to make an example of him, if he 
 himself had not diverted them from that resolution. On Brog- 
 hill's denying the charge, Cromwell produced documents that 
 left the former no course but to confess ; whereupon Cromwell 
 offered him the command of a general officer if he would serve 
 in the war in Ireland, adding that he should have no oaths or 
 engagements imposed upon him, nor be obliged to draw his 
 sword against any but the Irish rebels. Finding that a refdsal 
 would but endanger his life, and that the terms offered were 
 such as he could accept with honour, Broghill acquiesced, and 
 at once repaired to Ireland where liis personal influence soon 
 placed him at the head of a regiment of 1500 men, and a troop 
 of horse, consisting of gentlemen, who gladly repaired to him. 
 With these he joined Cromwell at Wexford, who had speedUy 
 followed Broghill from England with an army of 12,000 men. 
 The valour and ability of Lord Broghill were frequently put to 
 the proof dming the Irish war, and he entirely justified the 
 estimate Cromwell had fomied of him. ^^^lile Broghill was sub- 
 duing the rebels in the west, Cromwell, having taken Drogheda 
 by storm, proceeded, though in the depth of winter, to invest 
 Clonmel. Disease and some partial defeats thinned the ranks 
 of Cromwell, so that he wrote to Broghill conjuring him by all 
 the ties of friendship and duty to come to his aid without delay, 
 as he should othemise be obliged to raise the siege. To this 
 Broghill replied — " That by the blessing of God he had just 
 defeated the enemy, and would not fail to be with him in five 
 days." He was as good as his word ; and when he appeared at 
 the camp the whole aniiy, by Cromwell's command, welcomed 
 him with the cry of — "A Broghill! a BroghDl!" and Cromwell 
 himself ran foi-ward and embraced him. \\'ith this remforcement 
 the parliamentary troops took Clonmel in a few days after. 
 Upon the return of Cromwell he left Ireton his deputy, intrust- 
 ing to Lord Broghill a fljing camp in Jlunster, and his gallantry, 
 success, and great popularity, me said to have even excited the 
 jealousy of Ireton. When this last was besieging Limerick, 
 he ordered Lord BroghDl to intercept the earl of Muskerry who 
 was coming to its relief with 1000 horse and 2000 foot. Though 
 the force of Broghill amounted but to 600 foot and 400 horse, 
 he did not hesitate a moment, but, coming up with great expe- 
 dition, he fell upon JIuskerry, and after a desperate contest, in 
 which he behaved wth great personal gallantry, and narrowly 
 escaped bemg slain, he completely routed the enemy. On the 
 termination of the war in Ireland, Cromwell beu)g now protector, 
 made Broghill a privy-councillor, and shortly after sent him over 
 to preside in Scotland, a task which he accepted unwillingly, 
 and on the terms of being recalled after a year. After the death 
 of Cromwell, his son Richard chose Lord Broghill as one of his 
 cabinet council, being also a member of his parliament. Iti 
 both positions Lord Broghill showed as much adch-ess and politi- 
 cal abilitv as he had heretofore exhibited military talents ; and 
 he succeeded on more than one occasion in supporting Richard, 
 and extricating him from serious difficulties. But Richard 
 Cromwell was not made to sway the republican leaders of those 
 stirring times, and so he laid do^-n, to use his own words, " that 
 greatness which was but a burthen " to him. Thus Broghill being 
 absolved from all duty to the family of the gi-eat captain under 
 whom he had fought, looked anxiously to the restoration of the 
 king as the surest means of saving the nation. For tliis pur- 
 pose he repaired to Ireland, not without incuning the suspicions 
 of the commissioners sent thither, who were instructed " to have
 
 BOY 
 
 721 
 
 BOY 
 
 a particular eye on Lord Broghill, and if possible to take some 
 iiccasion to confine him." But the wariness and discretion of 
 lirogliill saved him from a trap laid by the commissioners, and 
 he at length secured all Munstcr in favour of Charles. Next he 
 induced Sir Charles Coote, who had great influence in the north, 
 ti) enter into his designs ; and, all being ripe, he despatched his 
 l>rothcr. Lord Shainion, with letters to the king, inviting him to 
 Ireland, and also communicated with Monk. Shortly after this 
 l>roghill and Su' Charles declared openly for the kmg, and 
 secured Ireland for his majesty. Notwithstanding an attempt 
 of Coote's to injure Broghill in the estimation of the king, 
 the latter was convinced of his loyalty and good services, 
 and raised him to the dignity of earl of Orrery, maldng him 
 a cabinet councillor, one of the lords-justices of Ireland, and 
 liird-president of ilunster. Lord Orrery now devoted him- 
 
 'If to literature and politics. In the former he seems not 
 !li have attained to a high position. He wrote plays which 
 are long since forgotten, and poems which, though they are 
 not without some merit, will not take much hold of those 
 who are familiar with his contemporaries, Dryden, Cowley, and 
 Waller. He was, liov/ever, something better than a writer of 
 mediocrity — a liberal patron of merit, and the friend of the 
 most eminent men of learning of his day. As a politician 
 he took an active part in opposing the petition of the Irish 
 Roman catholics for a restoration of their estates forfeited in 
 the rebellion, and was mainly instrumental in having it dis- 
 missed. He also drew up the act of settlement, not only pro- 
 viding for the protestant interest, but also for the restoration to 
 their estates of such Roman catholics, as by their good conduct 
 seemed to merit that grace. Upon the appointment of the duke 
 of Ormond as lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Lord OiTcry retired to 
 his presidency in Munster, and his administration of justice 
 there was so able and satisfactory that, it is said, he was offered 
 the seals both by the king and duke of York after the fall of 
 the earl of Clarendon, but declined the honour by reason of 
 his failing health. At length, after suff'ering from repeated 
 attacks of gout, he died on the 16th October, 1679, in his fifty- 
 ninth year. As a soldier he was brave, active, prompt, and 
 skilful ; as a politician he was sagacious, prudent, and possessed 
 of address and quickness ; and, as a man of letters, he had good 
 parts, well cultivated, and he was not deficient either in wit or 
 taste. Upon the whole he must be looked upon as one of the 
 leading men of his times. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLE, Robert, the Honourable, was the seventh and 
 youngest son of the great earl of Cork, and was born at Lismore 
 ill Ireland on the 25th of January, 1626. From the very dawn 
 of reason his life seems to have been eventful, and his mind 
 reflective. At three years of age he lost his mother, and the 
 active and various pursuits in which his father was engaged 
 deprived him almost entirely of the presence of this remaining 
 parent, and left him exposed to many casualties and dangers ; so 
 that ere he had reached his seventh year he had twice narrowly 
 I'scaped being Idlled — first, from being drowned by the fall of the 
 horse on which he was carried across a brook swollen with rains ; 
 and secondly, by the fall of the ceiling of the chamber in which 
 he slept. Sir Henry Wotton, his father's friend, being provost of 
 Eton, thither the child was sent when only three years old, having 
 tlie good fortune to be placed under the care of a Mr. Harrison, 
 who seems to have watched him with great assiduity and care, 
 and to have discovered, even then, the singular capacity of his 
 pupil's mind, and to have directed and developed it with great 
 judgment. Here he made much progress in classical learning, 
 and attained a considerable intimacy with the best writers of 
 'iitiquity. Being attacked by ague, he was obliged to intermit 
 a- a considerable time the application to study, and was allowed 
 ^ti occupy his mind with the perusal of romances and works of 
 fiction. The eft'ect of this upon an organization such as the boy 
 possessed was to make him a castle-builder and a dreamer ; and he 
 iias himself remarked, in his autobiography, upon the misfortune 
 of allowing a mind of an active habit to be without fitting employ- 
 ment for its energies. But even at this early age, for he was not 
 yet nine, the intellect of the boy could appreciate and even resist 
 this intoxicating evil. He had the strength and resolution to shake 
 off this disease of the spirit, by applying himself to the study of 
 mathematics, no doubt at the suggestion of his instructors; and 
 such was his industry that he soon mastered all the elementary 
 parts of algebra, in which he became a fonvard student. Thus, 
 even at this age, did Boyle give evidence of that ciniuently jn-ac- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 tical and earnest nature, and conscientious sense of duty, which 
 so remarkably distinguished him throughout life. Leaving 
 Eaton, he came to his father's seat at Stalbridge, and was 
 transferred to the care of a native of Geneva, a M. Marcombe, 
 under whom he prosecuted his studies diligently. Of this gentle- 
 man he speaks in terms of high consideration, and attributes mucli 
 of his moral miprovement to the care and influence of the pre- 
 ceptor. When he had attained his eleventh year he set out on 
 his travels through the continent, under the charge of M. ]\Iar- 
 combe, in company with his brother Francis. Visiting Paris and 
 Lyons, they proceeded to Geneva, and resided there for three 
 years, during which time Boyle acquired such a knowledge of the 
 French language that he was afterwards able to pass as a French- 
 man in Rome. In 1641 he went to Italy, staying a short time 
 in Venice, and spending the winter m Florence. Here he occupied 
 himself with the sciences and the study of the Italian language, 
 and became acquainted with the New Paradoxes of Galileo, who 
 died the same winter ; thence he went to Rome, where he con- 
 trived to evade the vigilance of the law prohibiting protestants to 
 remain in the city. Leaving Rome, on his route homevs'ards, he 
 retm-ned to Florence, and visited Pisa, Leghorn, Genoa, and Mar- 
 seilles. Here being disappointed in the expectation of receiving 
 funds from England, he was forced to retm-n to Geneva ; and 
 after encountering many difficulties and embarrassments from 
 want of money, he finally reached England in 1614. 
 
 The earl of Cork had died the previous year, leaving by his will 
 the manor of Stalbridge, and considerable estates in Ireland, to 
 his son Robert ; but the disturbed state of that kingdom prevented 
 his going there, and he took up liis abode for a short time with his 
 sister, Lady Ranelagli. The influence of this most accomplished 
 and pious woman upon the young man was most salutaiy. 
 Though Boyle was hmiself seriously impressed with religious 
 feelings, and deeply attached to philosophic studies, yet his views 
 were unsettled, and his temper and disposition — warm, excitable, 
 imaginative, and romantic — exposed him to the temptations and 
 tendencies wliich sun-ound the young, especially if they are wealthy 
 and highly-born ; and he had formed the intention of entering the 
 army. But his intercourse with this noble and good woman fixed 
 his mind, and confirmed him in the right ; thenceforth there was 
 no wavering, and the rest of Boyle's life was spent in the culti- 
 vation and diffusion of knowledge, and the exercise of virtue and 
 piety. Some time was unavoidably spent in the arrangement of 
 his aflau-s, and obtaining the protection of parliament for his 
 estates ; after which Boyle retired to his house at Stalbridge in 
 his eighteenth year, and spent the following four years in close 
 and studious application. The range of his investigations was 
 most extensive ; ethics, mechanics, every department of natural 
 philosophy, and chemistiy were all investigated with an intensity 
 and ardom* that enabled him to accumulate that extraordinary 
 amount of knowledge which distinguished him in afterlife. His 
 seclusion was, however, not unbroken, nor his mind without the 
 relaxation of occasional visits to London, Oxford, Paris, and 
 Holland, and in correspondence with most of the distingiushed 
 men of the times, whose esteem and friendship he engaged even 
 then. It will be remembered that it was just at this time that 
 the nucleus of the Royal Society was formed, by the meeting of a 
 few of the most eminent men of genius and learning, at first in 
 London, and afterwards in Oxford. Amongst these men, mature 
 in age and wisdom — the followers of Bacon and the precursors of 
 Newton — Robert Boyle, ere he had attained the years of manhood, 
 was included ; and this connection no doubt conduced to increase 
 his assiduity and mature his knowledge. He even added anatomy 
 to his other studies, and obtained a competent knowledge of the 
 construction and physiology of the human frame. " I satisfied 
 myself," he writes, "of the circulation of the blood, and have 
 seen more of the variety and contrivances of miture, and the 
 majesty and wisdom of her Author, than all the books I ever read 
 in my life could give me notions of." In quoting this remark of 
 Boyle, one of his biographers makes the following just reflections: 
 — " It is delightful to trace, as we proceed, the genuine character 
 of the philosophic mind, seizing in its expansion those compre- 
 hensive truths which the sciolist, entangled in the first elements, 
 so often rejects, because his sagacity fails to reach them. With 
 ])recipitate quickness of parts, shrewd and acute, but limited, he 
 mistakes operations for essential powers, and rashly idolizes 
 nature, though he will hardly admit of (iod. It is equally pleasing 
 to watch the peculiar impressibility of Jlr. lioyle in all things, 
 modifying the growth of his mhid and, while it helped to excite 
 
 4 Y
 
 BOY 
 
 722 
 
 BOY 
 
 his powers, casting at the same time an elevated moral beauty 
 over his character." 
 
 The health of Boyle was never robust, and the intensity of his 
 study greatly impaired it, and he was forced to adopt at an early 
 age, and throughout life to adliere to, a strict regimen in diet, 
 which alone enabled him to persevere in his arduous laboui-s. 
 Upon his return from Ireland in 1G5-1 he retued to Oxford, 
 carrpng out an intention long previously fonned of fixing his 
 abode amongst those learned men whom the troubled times had 
 driven to this seat of learning. It was their custom to meet at 
 each other's apartments, for the discussion of philosophical sub- 
 jects. Amongst them Boyle took a prominent and efficient part ; 
 and when Wilkins, a leading member, was made provost of Tiinity 
 college, Cambridge, the sittings were held at Jlr. Boyle's cham- 
 bers. He was early impressed with the importance of the views 
 and discoveries of the Florentine academicians, and appUed him- 
 self to follow out and confirm their investigations. The result 
 was a considerable improvement effected by him in the air-pump, 
 shortly before this invented by Otto de Guericke, a burgomaster 
 of Magdeburg, and publicly exhibited by him to the emperor at 
 the imperial diet at Eatisbon in 1654. Boyle suggested and 
 instituted a variety of experiments upon air, and discovered its 
 elasticity and other important properties. In these he was 
 assisted in the mechanical arrangements by the celebrated Dr. 
 Robert Hooke. 
 
 But while ardently prosecuting these investigations in natural 
 philosophy, the conscientious, earnest, and enUghtened spirit of 
 Boyle did not neglect the more momentous inquiiies into sacred 
 things. For this the docile and cautious habits of his mind well 
 fitted him. He had, while yet a boy, expressed himself determined 
 " to be seriously inquisitive of the very fundamentals of Chris- 
 tianity, and to hear what both Jews and Greeks, and the chief 
 sects of cluistians, could allege for their opinions ; that so, though 
 he believed more than he could comprehend, he might not believe 
 more than he could prove, and not owe the steadfastness of his 
 faith to so poor an excuse as ignorance of what might be said 
 against it." He now accordingly applied himself to the acquisition 
 of the oriental tongues, and to a critical study of the sacred 
 writings, and his proficiency was such that he composed an 
 "Essay on the Scriptures," which was published in 1652, and 
 pronounced by the best judges to be a work of great learning and 
 critical merit. So zealous was Boyle in religion that he appro- 
 priated the entire revenues of certain lands granted to him by the 
 crown in 1662 to the purposes of the maintenance and extension 
 of Christianity ; and he accepted the presidentship of the Society 
 for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England. The esti- 
 mation in which he was held at this time for piety, wUl be under- 
 stood from the fiict that Clarendon, then lord chancellor, urged 
 him to enter into holy orders, which Boyle declined, alleging that 
 his support of divine truth would be more efficacious coming from 
 a lajTuan, who could have no personal interest in its maintenance. 
 The provostship of Eton college was shortly after offered to him 
 by the king; but Boyle had no ambition for rank or station, and 
 he had the moderation and good sense to refuse a gift which would 
 ■withdraw him from his favourite pursuits. Still devoting himself 
 to science, he published in 1664, in the Transactions of the Royal 
 Society, many important experiments. Not to speak of several 
 on the phenomena of heat and cold, and also on hydi-ostatics, his 
 essay containing " Considerations and Experiments concerning 
 CoIoiub" is well known as probably not without their share in lead- 
 ing Newton, then about twenty years of age, to his more decisive 
 discoveries in relation to the composition of Ught. AVe shall but 
 allude to a circumstance here as showing the public esthnation in 
 which Boyle was held as a philosopher. A Waterford gentleman 
 of the name of Greatrakes was said to possess miraculous powers 
 of healing, somewhat simihu* to those put forward by the animal 
 magnetizers of our own day. Boyle was publicly called upon to 
 investigate the subject, in which he was aided by the Royal 
 Society, and all parties looked to him as the arbiter. The result 
 of his investigation is given in a letter which is remarkable for 
 Jhe wide compass of its learning, as well as for the cautious and 
 sagacious spirit of inquir}' which, while seeking for the causes of 
 phenomena, does not reject as untrue all that we cannot mider- 
 stand. In 1667 Boyle took a prominent part in the memorable 
 attack upon the Royal Society. It was in reality the era of a 
 great revolution in the intellectual world — the conflict between 
 the darkness of the scholastic age and the fight of the New- 
 tonian day now dawning upon the world. The nominal advocates, 
 
 but not the tnie followers of the Aristotefian philosophy, assailed 
 the new school and its supporters with the charge of impiety. 
 The same thing has happened often, and will happen again and 
 again, as in the case of chemistry and astronomy, and more 
 recently of geology. It will happen as often as men, mistaking 
 the language and spirit of holy writ, appeal to it as an accurate 
 philosophical declaration of physical science or natural philosophy, 
 and not, what it in reality is, a medium of conveying, in the 
 ordinary language of mankind, and adapted to the knowledge of 
 the time in which it was written, a popular statement of the 
 phenomena of nature. In this controversy, accordingly, where 
 reason failed, the sacred writings were called in to aid, for the 
 great fact was not yet fully recognized " that the tmths of God 
 need no veil of consecrated en-or, and that his word stands aloof 
 and undetiled by the rashness of theories or the fanaticism of 
 schools." Throughout this controversy the character of Boyle 
 was respected by his antagonists ; and to his philosopliical labours 
 and pure fife the most honourable testimony was borne, A 
 leading writer in the controversy admits " that in his writings 
 are to be found the greatest strength and the sweetest modesty, 
 the noblest discoveries and the most generous self-denial, the 
 profoundest insight into philosophy and natm-e, and the most 
 devout and affectionate sense of God and rehgion." 
 
 Boyle left Oxford in the year 1668, and settled in London 
 with his sister. Lady Eanelagh, continuing his studies with 
 unabated ardour, and pubUshing the results from time to time, 
 notwithstanding a severe shock of paralysis which he sufiered in 
 1671. Amongst his papers we must not omit to notice one read 
 before the Royal Society in 1674, " On Quicksilver gi'owuig hot 
 with Gold." It would seem that Boyle had not altogether aban- 
 doned some of the notions of the alchemists, and the paper drew 
 from Newton a letter cautioning him against any premature 
 disclosure on a fact apparently so favom'able to that science. 
 But this life of incessant labour and study began so seriously to 
 afi'ect his health, notwithstanding the great caution and tem- 
 perance with which he fived, that he was obliged to resign some 
 of his public emplovTnents, and to restrict himself exclusively to 
 science. In furtherance of this object, and for the economization 
 of his time, which he ever looked upon as a most precious thing, 
 he pubficly declined the numerous visits to which his great 
 celebrity exposed him, and dedicated two mornings and two 
 evenings in each week to the reception of those whom he could 
 not refuse to see. And so this gi-eat man persevered till the 
 summer of 1691, when his physical powers began rapidly to fail. 
 In July he executed his will, conraced that the end of life was 
 not far distant. On the 23rd of December, 1691, she who had 
 been the dearest companion of his latter years preceded him to 
 the grave, and on the 30th he followed this beloved sister. They 
 were buried side by side at the upper end of the south side of the 
 chancel of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, Westminster, and their 
 funeral sermon was preached by Dr. Burnet. 
 
 Boyle was m person tall and sfight, his face was pale and thin, 
 but strongly expressive of the character of his mind; penetrating 
 and sfighlly ascetic in its cast, but calm, mild, and solemn. He 
 was remarkable for the pecufiai- grace of his manner, and for the 
 uiterest and variety of his conversation. By the wits he was 
 admired as a wit ; but his pure taste and elevated morality 
 rejected the free and ficentious tone of the period, and it was 
 cliiefly in female society that the whole charms of his rich and 
 graceful mind were sufiered to appear. Too gifted and too humble 
 for affectation, and too open-heaited for resei-ve, on these occasions 
 his conversation was so singularly effective and brilUant, that 
 Cowley, whose infimuty was too much wit, thought him superior 
 to the first pretenders of this witty age. His liberaUty was large; 
 and to every christian institution he was bountiful. He gave 
 £300 for the propagation of the gospel in America, and £700 for 
 the translation of the bible into IrisJi ; and in his will he left a 
 sum of £50 for ever, to found a lectureship in London for the 
 defence of revealed religion. Boyle's christian spirit was the 
 most beautiful feature of a moral character eminently lovely. To 
 a mind simple, earnest, and conscientious, religion was an intense 
 reality. The name of the Deity brought with it a host of solemn 
 and affecthig truths, and, as Bumet testifies, '' his veneration for 
 the name of God was so profound that he never pronoimced it 
 without a discernible pause ; " and the high importance to which 
 this feeling elevated, in his estimation, things that to the thought- 
 less were but commonplace, exposed him to the raiUery and satire 
 of the wits of the day. A thorough indifierence to worldly
 
 1 nnniirs was another trait that harmonized finely with the 
 i. T\TiUe princes sought to he numbered amongst his 
 'idents, and his own sovereign more than once pressed 
 iipuii him the dignity of the peerage, confeiTed so liberally on all 
 the other members of Ids family, Robert Boyle, with a wise 
 iiumilit}', ever refused such distinctions. He did well ! The name 
 of Kcjbert Boyle would shine the less brightly were its lustre 
 lacquered over with a title. 
 
 It is not an easy task to arrive at a just estimate of Boyle 
 ns a philosopher. To do so we must endeavour to place our- 
 ves in juxtaposition with the age in which he lived, and 
 inline his claims by the light which the knowledge of that 
 _:■' emits. To a forgetfulness of this may be attributed the 
 t that some modern writers have imder^-alued him quite 
 .,,■. much as his own contemporaries overrated him. Let us 
 remember that his time was that of a transition from the scho- 
 ;:t^tic to the experimental schools — of emergence from the old 
 jilosophy, and the following of a new school under the illustrious 
 - icon. Of this great man, Robert Boyle is justly entitled to be 
 nsidered the first follower, while he is the predecessor of many 
 vat men in the same path — Priestley, Newton, and others ; and 
 is not too much to say that Boyle's discoveries and conjectures 
 ve some light to guide them in the obscure track which 
 . 'V were destined to illuminate with the full effulgence of their 
 idus. The extent, variety, and sovmdness of Boyle's investi- 
 itions ranked him amongst the foremost experimental philoso- 
 j'liers of Ms day, and placed natural philosophy on a finn and 
 iiroad foundation, whereon aftercommg labourers have raised so 
 noble a superstnicture. Budgell, the biographer of liis family, 
 though often too partial to be taken as a safe guide, says of Robert 
 lioyle, that " he animated philosophy, and put into action what 
 'vas before little better than speculative science. He lays before 
 vi> the operations of nature herself, shows the productions of 
 reign countries, the -s-irtues of plants, ores, and minerals, and all 
 .:>■ changes produced in them by different climates. His obser- 
 tions and discoveries in the animal world are no less cmious. 
 !• has rescued chemistry from the censures it has long lain 
 iiider, and has shown of what infinite use it is to philosophy 
 when kept within due bounds. He has destroyed several errors 
 in philosophy, and banished the notion of substantial forms by 
 showing the trae origin of quahties in bodies." The language of 
 Cumet is not less eulogistic of Boyle as a philosopher, while it 
 places him in a high position as a christian and a scholar. While 
 such may be deemed as expressing the estimate formed of Boyle 
 by his contemporaries, modem philosophers, both at home and 
 abroad, accord to him high praise. Of these we shall name but 
 two : Jlr. Sikes, who in his History of the Progress of Physics 
 justly says — " that it is impossible to follow Boyle through his 
 labours without being astonished at the immensity of his re- 
 somxes for wresting her secrets from natm-e." Tins testimony to 
 the physicist may be placed beside Dugald Stuart's obsen-ations 
 on the metaphysician and theologian, in speaking of two of Boyle's 
 works— the " Inquiry into the vulgar notion of Human Error," 
 and "Whether and how a Naturalist should consider first Causes." 
 " Both those tracts," he says, " display powers which might have 
 placed tlieir author on a level with Descartes and Locke, had not 
 his taste and inclination determined him more strongly to other 
 pursuits. I am inclined to think that neither of them is so well 
 known as were to be wished. I do not even recollect to have seen 
 it anywhere noticed, that some of the most striking and beautiful 
 instances in the order of the material world which occur in the 
 ■rmons preached at Boyle's lecture, are borrowed from the works 
 ! the founder." The works which Boyle has left after him are 
 very numerous, though many others were lost in various ways, 
 and amongst them, as he himself states, by the surreptitious 
 depredations committed on his manuscripts by visitors. A full 
 list of them will be found in Moreri. An abridged edition 
 was published by Dr. Shaw in 3 vols. 4to. In 1077 an imper- 
 fect edition was published in Geneva; but in 1744 Dr. Birch 
 superintended the first complete edition in 5 vols, folio, London, 
 to which he prefixed a Life of Boyle. A second edition appeared 
 in 1772.— J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLE, Charles, second surviving son of the second earl 
 f Orrerj' and the Lady JIary Sackville, and grandson of the first 
 irl, was born at Chelsea in 1676. He received his early edu- 
 cation in English schools, after which he was entered a student 
 in Christ Church, Oxford, at the age of fifteen, ha\'ing for his 
 tutors the celebrated Dr. Atterbury and the Rev. Dr. Friend, 
 
 afterwards master of Westminster school. Notwithstanding his 
 rank, young Boyle applied himself with extraordinary diligence 
 to his studies, so that he attracted the notice and gained the 
 esteem of Dr. Aldrich, the head of the college, who is said to 
 have drawn up his Compendium of Logic for the lad's use, and 
 in his dedication of it to Boyle, he calls him " magnum sedis 
 nostrse ornamentum" — a compliment which, we suspect, was paid 
 to his buth as well as to his talents. While yet a student, his 
 ambition for literary authorship displayed itself in a translation 
 of Plutarch's Life of Lysander, which he published. This was 
 probably tmdertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Aldrich. In his 
 nineteenth year he edited the Letters of Phalaris, under the patro- 
 nage of Christ Church, and at the suggestion of Aldrich. The 
 work was undertaken m consequence of Sir William Temple, in 
 his Essay on Ancient Learning, published shortly before, ha\-ing 
 pronounced them to be superior to any other production of the 
 kind, ancient or modern. There was much reason to believe 
 that these epistles were forgeries, and at all events they are quite 
 unworthy of the extravagant commendation bestowed upon them 
 by Temple, who, it must be confessed, was ill qualified to pro- 
 nounce upon their genuineness, and dogmatized upon subjects he 
 did not understand. The epistles themselves, and Boyle's edition 
 of them, would probably be long since forgotten, but for the 
 celebrated controversy to winch they gave rise, known in Uterary 
 annals as " Boyle against Bentley." In preparing liis work for the 
 press, Boyle was desirous of collating his text with a manuscript 
 in the king's librar}- in London, of which the celebrated Bentley 
 was librarian. As Boyle alleged in the preface to his work, 
 and indeed he is corroborated by the testimony of three others, 
 Bentley refused to leave the manuscript sufficiently long in the 
 hands of the printer for the purposes of collation, and of this 
 Boyle complained somewhat sharply. This brought a contradic- 
 tion from Bentley, and a rejoinder fi-om Boyle. The question 
 at issue, though itself of little importance, gave rise to one more 
 serious. Bentley quietly waited till the proper time for his 
 revenge arrived. He examined, with all the ability and critical 
 acumen for which he is so deservedly celebrated, these epistles; 
 and ha^'ing satisfied himself that they were forgeries, he exposed 
 them in a dissertation which he prefixed to the second edition of 
 his friend Dr. Watson's Reflections, published in 1697. Not 
 content with demolishing their authenticity, he assailed the com- 
 positions in terms of undeserved depreciation, asserting " that 
 they were nothing more than a fardle of common places, and 
 such a heap of insipid lifeless stufii", that no man of sense and 
 learning would have troubled the world with a new edition of 
 them," and he did not fail to repeat his denial with regard to the 
 manuscript, adding that the edition published by Boyle was 
 a faulty and a foolish one. Bentley's dissertation convinced all 
 impartial readers, but amongst those, of com-se, Boyle and his 
 friends were not to be found. A rejoinder was pubhshed in the 
 name of Boyle, but which was in a great measure the work of 
 Atterbury, Smalridge, the two Friends, and other Oxford men. 
 If this dissertation was deficient in argument, it did not want 
 smartness, sarcasm, and spirit. All the weak points of Bentley are 
 attacked vigorously. Quotations from the epistles are adduced 
 to prove that they are not such stuff' as the great Cambridge 
 critic pronounced them to be , but it must be admitted, that 
 in the vei-y outset Boyle betrays his own apprehensions of the 
 untenableness of his position. " I have not, " he says in his 
 preface, "anjTvhere in my book asserted that the epistles which 
 cany Phalaris's name, are genuine ; so neither have I, with a 
 decisive and assuming air, pronounced 'em spurious. I expressed 
 myself with caution and reserve in this matter, which I thought 
 became a young writer, who was sensible that the best and ablest 
 judges were divided in their opinions about it, and I thought it 
 would be a very indecent part in me to make myself a judge 
 between 'em." Dr. Garth, too, came to the aid of Boyle, and in 
 his Dispensary paid him a compliment, which is as ludicrous m 
 its gross adulation of Boyle as it is unjust to Bentley : — 
 " So (liamnnils take a lustre from their foil, 
 And to a Ucntley 'tis wc owe a liciyle." 
 
 And, in fine, the bitter and keen genius of Swift lent his aid 
 in " The Battle of tlie Books." All this wit and satire and 
 smartness did not fail in its effiects, and the mass of readers, who 
 could better appreciate brilliant repartees than sound arguments, 
 extolled tliis production, and thus the current of popular opinion 
 ran in favour of the Oxonians and against Cambridge and Bent- 
 ley, and the former indulged in a triumph which must have
 
 BOY 
 
 724 
 
 BOY 
 
 added to their subsequent mortification. In the following year, 
 1699, Bentley came out with his final reply, which for ever 
 silenced his opponents, and placed him at the height of his fame 
 as a scholastic critic. 
 
 On leaving Christ Church, Boyle was returned for Huntingdon, 
 not however without opposition, and a duel, in which he had a 
 nan-ow escape with his life. In 1703 he succeeded his eldest 
 brother, Lionel, in the earldom of Orrery, of whom nothing more 
 worthy of note can be recorded by the family biographer, than 
 that " he was a pleasant companion, drank hard, and died with- 
 out issue." He shortly after married the daughter of the earl of 
 Exeter, and in the same year he was appointed to a colonelcy in 
 a regiment of foot, and two years after was elected a knight of 
 the order of the thistle. Having been made a general, he went 
 out as envoy to Flanders, and in 1712 served there under the 
 duke of Onnond. On his return he was made a privy councillor 
 and a British peer, as Baron Boyle of JIarston. Lord Orreiy 
 maintained for a time his position under George I., but though 
 clever and dexterous, he was neither sagacious nor profound ; 
 and while endeavouring to stand well with all parties, he lost 
 favour at court, and either lost, or was obliged to resign, several 
 of his posts, and retired into a comparatively private sphere. In 
 1720 he was implicated in the conspiracy in favour of the Pre- 
 tender, in conjunction with the earl of Arran, Atterburj-, and 
 others ; and this being discovered. Orrery and the duke of Nor- 
 folk were sent to the tower in 1722, from which be was released 
 on bail in consequence of the state of his health. From this 
 period he took no veiy active part in public aff'au-s, though he 
 attended in his place in the house of lords, and after a short 
 illness he died on the 2Sth August, 1731, in the fifty-seventh 
 year of his age. Lord On-eiy was a man of no small genius and 
 considerable accomplishments, though both were overrated in his 
 own times. Mechanics were a favourite study, and he has given 
 his name to a piece of mechanism representing the revolution of the 
 planets, though the invention of a person of the name of Graham. 
 He also wrote a comedy and some verses. He bequeathed his 
 fine library to Christ Church college, Oxford. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLE, Richard, third earl of Bm-lington and fourth earl 
 of Cork, was bom on the 25th April, 1695. After receiving his 
 early education in England, he prosecuted an extensive course of 
 travel on the continent of Europe, especially m Italy, where he 
 indulged his taste for architectm-e, and subsequently became one 
 of the most distinguished amateur architects of his day. He 
 erected a mansion at Chiswick after the design of the Villa 
 Capra of Palladio, which, though inconveniently small, was 
 nevertheless admii-ed for its beauty. He also designed the front 
 of Burhngton house in Piccadilly, as well as the house of the 
 duke of liichmond at "Whitevale. His best work is said to be 
 the assembly-room at York. Lord Bm-lington was a generous 
 patron of the arts, and was the friend of Pope and Berkeley, and 
 pubHshed at his own expense one of Palladio's works. In 1721 
 he married one of the daughters of the marquis of HaUfax, and 
 in 1730 the honour of the garter was confeiTed on him. Having 
 retired from public life, he occupied himself piincipally in 
 improving his seat at Chiswick, and died in 1753, when the title 
 of Burlington became extinct. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLE, John, earl of Cork and Orrery, son of Charles, earl 
 of OiTery, was bom in 1707. He received his early education 
 from Elijah Fenton, and after spending some time at Westmin- 
 ster he entered Christ Church, Oxford. On the death of his 
 father in 1731 he succeeded to the earldom of On-ery, and on 
 the death of Lord Burlington to that of Cork. Though he took 
 some part in politics, he was chiefly devoted to literary pursuits. 
 and was an intimate acquaintance of Swift. He edited the 
 dramas and state papers of his ancestor, Roger, earl of Orreiy, 
 and wrote some essavs and translations himself. He died in 
 17G2, aged fifty-sLx.-^J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLE, Hon. Hkxry, son of Charles Lord Clifford, and 
 nephew of Robert Boyle, devoted himself from an early age to 
 politics, in which he took an active part during the reigns of 
 William III., Anne, and George I. He was a member of the 
 house of commons, where he distinguished himself so nmch, 
 that he was made chancellor of the exchequer by King WOliam, 
 with whom he was much in favour. This post he occupied till 
 1707-8, when he was made one of the principal secretaries of 
 state by Queen Anne. Upon the accession of George I., Boyle 
 was created Lord Carleton, and was shortly after made lord- 
 president of the council. He died on the 11th JIarch, 1724-25. 
 
 Boyle was a man of respectable abOity, of great judgment, and 
 well versed in business. Though not an eloquent speaker, he 
 was remarkable for his prudence and address ; and it is said of 
 him, that he was never known to say an impradent thing in a 
 public debate, or to hurt the cause he engaged in. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLE, Right Hon. Henry, speaker of the Irish house 
 of commons, was son of Colonel Henry Boyle, and grand- 
 son of Roger Lord Broghill. He was bom at Castle J^Iartyr in 
 the county of Cork. He was retm-ned to parliament for his 
 native county, and soon became a leading and influential mem- 
 ber, so that upon the death of the speaker, Sir Ralph Gore, in 
 1732, he was elected as his successor. In his new ofiice Boyle 
 conducted himself with ability and integrity. He appears to 
 have possessed great influence in the house, and was called by 
 Sir Robert Walpole, " the king of the Irish Commons." He 
 was subsequently made a pri\-y councillor. When the struggle 
 took place between the Irish commons and the British cabinet 
 in 1753, relative to the assent of the crown to the appropriations 
 by the house of surplus revenues — a right which the commons 
 denied — Boyle's influence was exerted against the ministers. 
 The dispute continued till 1756, when the government found it 
 necessary to put Boyle out of their way. He was accordingly 
 raised to the peerage as earl of Shannon, with a pension ot 
 i.'2000 a-year. He died in 1764. Plowden describes him as 
 a deep politician. The smiplicity and unaffected ease of his 
 address, and a natural poUteness of manner, rendered him amiable 
 even to his opponents. In appearance he was most open, in 
 reality most reserved. He had the art of extracting the secrets 
 of others, and of preserving his o^\-n, without any show of art or 
 constraint. He had been raised to the chair and supported in 
 it by the people, at least without the assistance of, if not in 
 opposition to, the government. He had shown much fimine.'^s 
 in resisting attacks upon him while caiTying measures througli 
 the house, and had the uncommon address of preserving his 
 popularitv even in supporting unpopular acts. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYLEAU,BOYLEAUX, or BOILESVE,EsTiENNE, provost 
 of Paris under St. Louis, f;imous as the author of a collection 
 of statutes relating to the military, administrative, and judicial 
 affairs then under the cognizance of the first magistrate ft' 
 Palis; born probably about the year 1200. He was of noblt- 
 parentage, and accompanied St. Louis in the cmsade of 124>. 
 His Statutes, an excellent edition of which was published at 
 Paris in 1837, fonn a curious monument of the state of trades, 
 manners, and legislation in Paris, in the thirteenth century. 
 He appears to have been superseded in 1270, about which dat« 
 it was remarked, to the credit of his judicial labours, that vaga- 
 bondism had less scope in the city than in any preceding period 
 of its history. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOYLSTOX, Zabdiel, a physician of much eminence in New 
 England, who introduced the practice of inoculation for the 
 small-pox into America, was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, 
 in 1680. After receiving a thorough education, he began the 
 practice of physic in Boston, where he was very successful, and 
 accumulated a large fortune. The small-pox appeared there in 
 1721, and caused great teiTor, as on two previous occasions it 
 had destroyed many lives. Dr. Cotton Mather, a clergyman, 
 who had read in the Philosophical Transactions an account of 
 the successful practice of inoculation at Smyrna and Constanti- 
 nople, called the attention of the medical faculty to the subject, 
 but could make no convert amongst them except Dr. Boylston. 
 He was a man of great resolution as well as sagacity and skill; 
 and having satisfied his own mind upon the subject, he proceeded, 
 in spite of a vehement outcry from his brethren of the faculty, 
 to inoculate his own son, six years old, and two of his servants. 
 The experiment was successful, and before the end of the year he 
 inoculated 247 persons, of whom less than three per cent, died; 
 while out of 5759 who, during the same time, took the disease 
 the natural way, it was fatal to over fourteen per cent. Dr. 
 Boylston visited England in 1725, where he was received with 
 great attention, and made a member of the Royal Society, being 
 the second American upon whom that honom- had been conferred. 
 He died at Boston in 17G6, at the age of eighty-six. 
 
 BO'i'NE, GusTAVis Hamilton, Viscount, bom in 1639, 
 was the youngest son of Sir Frederick Hamilton, a descendant of 
 the Scottish Hamiltons, and a distinguished soldier under Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, after whom his son was named. He settled in 
 Ireland, and Gusta\-us held a commission in the Irish army under 
 Charles II., and was a privy councillor in the following reign.
 
 A\Tien James II. attempted to overthrow the constitution, Gus- 
 tiUTis Hamilton transferred his allegiance to the house of Orange. 
 He was made governor of Enniskillen, and commanded and 
 organized those brave troops ^Yhich afterwai'ds took so con- 
 spicuous a part in the civil war in Ireland. After exhibiting 
 high proofs of braveiy and skill in the defence of Coleraine, he 
 commanded a regiment at the battle of the Bo}Tie, where he 
 distinguished himself by his usual valom-, having his horse killed 
 under him, and narrowly escaping death. At the stonning of 
 Athlone, shortly after, he waded the Shannon at the head of his 
 :■ •ginient, and took the town, of which he was made governor. 
 He was present and took a prominent part at all the principal 
 ■attles fought by De Ginkle. On the reduction of the countrj' 
 ho was made one of the privy council, promoted to the rank of 
 ' 'rigadier-general, and received grants of forfeited lands. In the 
 reign of Queen Anne he was farther raised to the rank of major- 
 ^'oneral, and represented the county of Donegal in parliament tOl 
 created a peer. At the siege of Vigo he commanded a regiment, 
 and made himself so useful on the occasion that he was presented 
 with a service of plate by the queen. In 1714 George I. advanced 
 him to the dignity of Baron Hamilton of Stackaller. The same 
 king gi-anted him a military pension, and promoted him to the 
 title of Viscount Boyne by patent dated 1717. He died in Sep- 
 tember, 1723, in the 84th year of his age. — J. F. W. 
 
 BOYSE, BOYS or BOIS, Johx, an English divine, one of 
 the translators of the bible, and a member of the committee 
 intrusted with the revision of the work, born at Nettlestead, 
 Siiftblk, in loGO ; died in 1643. He succeeded his father-in-law 
 in the curacy of Boxworth in 1596, and in 1615 was presented 
 to a prebend in the cathedral of Ely. He left an immense 
 quantity of MSS., and a work entitled " Johannis Boisii veteris 
 interpretis cum Beza aliisque recentioribus Collatio, in IV. 
 Evangeliis et Actis Apostolorum," 1655. — J. S., G. 
 
 BOYSEN, Friedrich Eberiiakd, a Gemian historian, bom 
 at Halberstadt in 1720 ; died in 1800 ; author of a translation 
 of the Koran, with notes ; "A Universal History;" "Theolo- 
 gical Letters,'' in German, and other works. — J. G. 
 
 BOYSSlfiRES, .Jean de, bom at Clermont-Ferrand in 1555. 
 The date of his death is unknown. He was educated for the 
 bar, but abandoned all regular occupations for the purpose of 
 giving himself exclusively to literary pm-siuts. In 1573 he 
 published his " Premieres CEuvres Amoureuses," consisting of 
 odes, chansons, plaints, tears, despairs, &c., amatory, allegorical, 
 devotional, intermixed with some which could scarcely be read 
 aloud, and which seem to refuse the veil of allegory. We have 
 " Des Humeurs de la Femme," in which the ladies are attacked 
 with malignant pleasantry ; and we have " Les Perfections 
 Celestes de la Femme," in which idealised woman is almost a 
 subject of worship. He published in 1584 a poem which he 
 calls " La Croisade," which he seems to have intended for an epic 
 poem. It was never completed. Moreri, who probably did not 
 see any essential distinction between French poetry and prose, 
 took it for a historical account of the cmsades, and another 
 biographer calls it a translation of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. 
 This mistake probably arose from De Boyssi^res having trans- 
 lated some cantos of Ariosto. — J. A., I). 
 
 BOZE, Claude Gros de, a French antiquary, bora in 1680 ; 
 died in 1753. In 1705 he was nominated a scholar of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions, and, in spite of his youth, he was in 
 the following year elected secretary. In 1715 he was offered 
 and declined the office of subpreceptor to Louis XV., and was 
 admitted a member of the French Academy as the successor of 
 Fenelon. In 1719 he was appointed keeper of the cabinet of 
 antiquities, which in 1741 was transferred from Versailles to 
 Paris. De Boze rendered important services to those branches 
 of science with which he was conversant. He edited the first 
 fifteen volumes of the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, 
 and wrote all the eloges to be found in them except the first six. 
 He also published a second edition, with a continuation, of the 
 Medallic Histoiy of Louis XIV., a treatise on the Jewish jubilee, 
 a dissertation on the Janus of the ancients, and some other 
 works of less importance. — J. T. 
 
 BOZZOLI, Gii;seppe, born at IMantua in 1724 ; died towards 
 the close of the eighteenth century; successively professor of 
 physics and of canon law and ecclesiastical history at Rome, 
 and subsequently professor of oriental languages at the university 
 of Mantua; author of a translation of Homer and Virgil, in 
 Italian verse. — J. G. 
 
 BRABANT, Dukes of. The following are the more distm- 
 guished of these princes — they boasted descent from Charle- 
 magne : — Henri le Guerroyeur, the first duke of Brabant 
 (his predecessor bore the title of count), died in 1235. — Henri 
 II. LE Magnanijie, an amiable and virtuous prince, died 
 in 1248. — Henri III. le Debonnaire, beloved for his 
 mild government, and renowned for his French songs, died in 
 1261. — Jean I. le Victorieux, married in 1269 Marguerite 
 de France, daughter of St. Louis. When his sister, Marie de 
 Brabant, queen of France, was accused of having poisoned her 
 stepson. Prince Louis, he disguised himself as a cordelier, and 
 went to Paris to inteiTOgate her. Convinced of her innocence 
 he challenged to the combat all her accusers. In 1292 the 
 Emperor Adolphus constituted hhn supreme judge of the pro- 
 vinces between the sea and the Moselle. He was killed in a 
 tournament in 1294. — Je.vn II. le Pacifique, granted to his 
 subjects a bill of rights ; and by a charter, called the charter of 
 Cortemberg, instituted a supreme council in his duchy. He 
 died in 13i2. Jean III. le Triompiiant, maintained success- 
 fully various wars with the princes of Germany. Died iu 1355. 
 — Jeanne, duchess of Brabant, succeeding Jean III. in 1356, 
 married Wenceslas of Luxemburg, who, in a war with the duke 
 of Juliers, was made prisoner, aud only released on condition of 
 ceding a portion of his estates. He died in 1306. — Antoine, 
 killed in the service of France at the battle of Agincourt in 
 1415, was the son of Phillip the Hardy, duke of Burgundy, 
 and inherited the duchy through his mother, who was heiress 
 to the preceding. — Jean IV., the last who wore the title of duke 
 of Brabant, married in 1418 his cousin Jacqueline, countess of 
 Holland and HaLnault. This princess, having been divorced 
 from her husband by the antipope, Benedict XIII. , manied Duke 
 Himiphrey of Gloucester, who, after defeating the Flemings and 
 Burgundians, whom the duke of Brabant had called to his 
 assistance, left her at Mons to retum to England. The inhabi- 
 tants of that town delivered her into the hands of Phillip the 
 Good, by whom she was conducted to Ghent. From that place 
 she escaped in disguise into Holland. In 1425 Jean IV. was 
 proclaimed count of Holland. He died childless in 1427. His 
 successor was the Coimt St. Pol, who also left no posterity. The 
 estates of Brabant now constitute a province of Belgium. — J. S., G. 
 BRABAZON, Sir Williaji, eminent for his steadiness, 
 br.avery, and the important sen-ices which he rendered the Eng- 
 lish government in Ireland. In 1534 he was appointed treasurer 
 and receiver-general of that kingdom ; and in 1535 distingvnshed 
 himself by his resistance to Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, and the 
 following year by his defeating 0"Conor Faly in Kildare. In 
 1539 he was appointed commissioner for receiving the sun-ender 
 of abbeys. On the accession of Edward VI. he was made a 
 pri\'y councillor, and suggested and carried out important im- 
 provements in the defence of the country. He attacked and 
 defeated Charles Kavanagh M'Art in 1549, compelling him to 
 submit to the English government. He died at Carrickfergus 
 in 1552, and his body was buried in St. Catherine's church, 
 Dublin, his heart having been conveyed to England. — J. F. W. 
 BRACCAN, Saint, an Irish ecclesiastic who lived in the 
 seventh centur}'. His prophecies, chiefly in verse, were, accord- 
 ing to Ware, collected and pubUshed by Walter de Ishp in the 
 year 1317.— J. F. W. 
 
 BRACCIOLINI, better known by his christian name Poggio, 
 was born at TeiTa Nuova, a small town near Florence, in the 
 year 1380. Very few literary men have met with so many 
 changes of fortune as Poggio did. Having been the pupil of 
 the two greatest classic scholars of that age, John of Ravenna, 
 and Emanuel Crisolora, he was enabled, at the age of twenty- 
 one, to partake of the reputation of his preceptors, and was 
 considered an eminent classic scholar. Boniface IX. created him 
 his apostoMc secretary, an office which he filled under seven 
 successive popes. Leonardo Bruni d'Arrezzo, and Nicolo Nicoli 
 were his most intimate friends, and partook of his literary 
 renown, by encouraging and helping him in his literary researches. 
 Although approaching the throne, he did not hesitate often to 
 state the truth, even when against his own interest, and he 
 loudly disa])proved of the judgment and execution of Jerome of 
 Prague and John Huss. It was about that time, 1416, Poggio 
 acquired indisputable claims to the gratitude of his country, by 
 the discovery of a great number of precious manuscripts. We 
 owe to him the twelve plays of Plautns, several discourses of 
 Cicero, Ascanius Pedianus, Silus Italicus, Valerius Flaccus,
 
 BRA 
 
 726 
 
 BRA 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, the three gi-ammarians, Capro, Eutichius, 
 and Probus, and, according to Ginguene, Lucretius, JIanilius, 
 Frontinus, and Quintilian. During the disputes which distracted 
 Italy and catholicity, respecting the succession of the popes, 
 Poggio lost and recovered his lucrative office, and finally, under 
 JIartin V., fearing the resentment of that pontiff, against whose 
 election he had spoken at the council of Constsnce, he fled to 
 France, and from thence to Winchester, putting himself under 
 the protection of Beaufort, the bishop of that diocese, who 
 received him with the utmost courtesy. On his return to Italy, 
 he spent his time in writing satires against the monks and 
 preachers of that epoch, whether they were bishops or members of 
 the sacred college. In 1434: Poggio resolved to revisit Tuscany, 
 and after many vicissitudes, lie fixed his residence in Florence, 
 expecting the patronage of Cosimo de Jledicis. This sovereign 
 having been expelled from the Tuscan territory by his fellow- 
 citizens, Poggio undertook to defend him against the attacks of 
 Fileltio, the greatest Hellenist of that time. The dispute soon 
 degenerated into mutual abuse, and the correspondence of these 
 two illustrious scholars remains only to show how far Italy was 
 in their day from possessing that spirit of politeness which dis- 
 tinguished the wise and sober criticism of the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries. Cosimo having been reinstated, Filelfio 
 fled to Sienna, whither a satire from the pen of Poggio, the 
 severest ever dictated by hatred and vengeance, followed the 
 fugitive. This unfortunate and unmanly war lasted for several 
 years, and engaged both Poggio and Filelfio in many dis- 
 putes, by which, however, literature gained some exquisite 
 poetical satires from two of the greatest classics of that age. 
 Poggio having disposed of a copy of Titus Livius at a very high 
 price, he bought with the proceeds a very handsome villa, near 
 Florence, ornamented it with the rarest archaeological antiquities, 
 and wearied of a bachelor's life, he married at the age of fifty- 
 five a veiy young lady called Selvaggia Buondelmonti, by whom 
 he had a veiy numerous family. It is supposed that to this 
 circumstance the literary world owes his work, entitled " An 
 senio sit uxor ducenda," which he wrote in answer to many 
 attacks from his numerous enemies. In 1437 Poggio published 
 a collection of letters, by which his reputation as a writer was 
 vastly increased. This collection was dedicated to his friend 
 Nicolo Nicoli, who died soon after, and whose death induced 
 Poggio to write a funeral oration, which has been handed down 
 to posterity as a model of elegance and eloquence. This eminent 
 man wrote many funeral orations in praise of one Lorenzo de 
 Medicis, of Cardinal Albergato di Santa Croce, of Leonardo 
 Bnini Aretino. These compositions, and the .answers to the 
 severe and often unjust criticism of the implacable Filelfio, kept 
 him busy from 1440 to 1447, the year in which his friend 
 Tomaso di Sarzana, a literary man of great merit, was elected 
 pope under the name of Nicholas V. This pontifi' recalled 
 Poggio to Rome, and restored him to his former rank and office 
 of apostolic secretary, a favour which he felt so deeply that he 
 wrote and dedicated to that sovereign, in token of gratitude, his 
 treatise on the "Misfortunes of Princes." He wrote also three 
 books on the vicissitudes of fortune. At the suggestion of this 
 pope, Poggio translated into Latin the first five books of Diodorus 
 Siculus, and Xenophon's CjTopjedia. In 1450 the plague having 
 desolated the Roman estates, and Rome itself being threatened, 
 Poggio left the eternal city and retired to Terra Nuova, where, 
 in imitation of Boccacio, he wrote many jocose, and very often 
 most obscene talcs, taken from ancient manuscripts, and after- 
 w.ords reproduced by La Fontaine. A more useful work issued 
 from his pen, the fniit of his many conversations with eminent 
 personages, entitled "Ilistoria Disceptativa Convivalis," perhaps 
 a parody of Dante's Convito. His reputation, now at its zenith, 
 and the favour and friendship of the Medicis family, incontest- 
 ably proclaimed him the worthy successor of Carlo Aretino, the 
 chancellor of Tuscany. His irascilde nature, however, hurried 
 him into an imworthy warfare with that eminent latinist, Lorenzo 
 Valla, and curious to say, Filelfio, who had been lately recon- 
 ciled with Poggio, smoothed the path to a friendly meeting 
 between these two personages, and succeeded in removing all 
 obstacles to their final reconciliation. To this circumstance we 
 owe the publication of Poggio's philosophical dissertation, entitled 
 "De Miseria Humansc Conditionis;" soonfollowed by a translation 
 in Latin of Lueian's S.o\ix.ioi r, ovof (Lucius sive asinus). Finally, 
 profiting by the free access he had to all the archives of the 
 state, and having in his long public career acquired a thorough 
 
 knowledge of things and men, he wrote in Latin the "History of 
 Florence." This work, which the author intended to review and 
 enlarge, has remained very imperiect, on account of his death, 
 which carried him off at the age of seventy-nine, on the 30th of 
 October, 1450. All biographers agi-ee that Poggio's sincerity 
 was very remarkable, and that he contributed more than any 
 other writer to the literary progress of the fifteenth century. 
 Florence put an imperishable seal on his fame, by erecting a 
 splendid tomb to his memory in the church of Santa Croce, tlic 
 pantheon of Italy. — A. C. M. 
 
 BRACCIOLI, Giovanni Francesco, bom at Ferrara in 
 1698. He studied under Parolini and Crespi. He painted fur 
 churches. His best works are a " Flagellation," and " Christ 
 Crowned with Thorns." He died in 1762. — W. T. 
 
 BRACCIOLINI, Francesco, a celebrated Italian poet, was 
 born of a noble family at Pistoja in 1566. While yet in his 
 youth, he was admitted a member of the Academy of Florence, 
 where his talents gained him a great number of friends, although 
 his sordid avarice annihilated almost all his better qualities. Car- 
 dinal Barberini, afterwards Urban VIII. , appointed him secretary 
 to his brother, Ciirdinal Antonio Barberini, who brought him to 
 France, where he was admitted a member of various literary 
 academies. Anxious to surpass Tasso and Tassoni, he wrote 
 two poems — a heroic one, entitled "La Croce Racquistata," 
 in thirty-five books, and the other in imitation of La Secchia 
 Rapita, entitled "Lo Schemo degli Dei." Tiraboschi admits that 
 although both these productions are by far inferior to the two 
 inimitable models, yet they are until now the next in merit. He 
 wTote also many other poems, such as one at the election of 
 Pope Urban VIII. , in twenty-three cantos, so much thought of 
 by that sovereign, that he allowed Bracciolini to add to his 
 family escutcheon the arms of Barberini's family, and to style 
 himself henceforth, Bracciolini dalle Api. " L'Assedio della 
 Rocella," an heroic poem in twenty canto.s, was written by Brac- 
 ciolini whilst sojourning in France with Cardinal Antonio B;u-- 
 berini, and many passages are cited by Dell' Ongaro as models 
 of poetry. The versatility of his genius is exhibited in some 
 fables and tragedies, but these are not his best compositions. 
 On the death of Urban VIII. he retired to his native place, 
 where he died in 1645. — A. C. M. 
 
 BRACELLI, GiACOMO, was bom towards the end of the 
 fourteenth century at Sarzana in Tuscany, then under the 
 dominion of Genoa. Nicholas V., his countryman, called him 
 to Rome, and offered him many honours ; but he prefeixed the 
 protection of the Ligurian republic, of which he became chan- 
 cellor. He wrote the history of Genoa from 1412 to 1444. A 
 classic reader will easily perceive in that history, written in 
 Latin, a studied and not unsuccessful imitation of the style of 
 Cffisar's Commentaries. It has gone through many editions. 
 He is also the author of " De Clavis Genuensibus Libellus;" 
 " Descriptio Ligurias;" " De Prajcipuis Genuensis Urbis Fami- 
 liis," &c. The date of this illustrious man's death is not certain, 
 although Monnoye, a French author, has fixed that event in 
 1447.— A. C. M. 
 
 BRACELLI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian painter and 
 engraver, bom at Genoa. He was a pupil of Paggi, and painted 
 histoiy in his manner. He engraved plates for Borozzio's archi- 
 tectural work in a neat stiff style, and died in 1609. — W. T. 
 
 BRACTON, Henry de, the eariiest -ivriter on English law, 
 lived in the thnteenth centuiy. He was most probably a native 
 of Devonshire. He studied at Oxford, and took the degree of 
 doctor of laws. He rose to great eminence as a lawyer, and in 
 1244 Henry III. appointed him one of the judges itinerant. His 
 great work, " De legil)us et consuetudinibus Anglia>," was first 
 printed in 1569. A veiy carefully prepared eilition, collated 
 from various MSS., was issued in 1640. The treatise is dinded 
 into four parts. The author displays a very full acquaintance 
 with the Roman lawyers and canonists. So manifestly, indeed, 
 is his style influenced by these writers, that he has been accused 
 of a want of fidelity a.s an exponent of the English code. But, 
 notwithstanding the attempts that have been made to detract 
 from his merit, there can be no doubt that, as far down as the 
 days of Coke, Bracton was justly looked on as the chief source 
 of legal knowledge. — J. B. 
 
 BRADE, William, an English musician, resident at Ham- 
 burg at the commencement of the seventeenth centuiy. He was 
 a proficient on the viol, and published " Paduanen, Galliarden, 
 Canzonetten," &c., Hamburg, 1609, in4to; "Neue Paduanen
 
 und Gagliarden met stiiamen," Hamburg, 1614, in 4to; "Neue 
 lustige Volten, Couranten, Balletin, &c., met 5 stimmen," Frank- 
 fort, 1G21, in 4to. These publications are highly interesting, 
 as containing many once popular English airs. Brade died at 
 Frankfort in 1647.— E. F. E. 
 
 BRADE L, John Baptist, a neat-handed French engraver, 
 bora about 1750. He executed portraits of Paoli, Crebillon, 
 John Bart, two popes, and the chevalier d'Eon. — W. T. 
 
 BRADFORD, Alden, an American historian, was bom at 
 Iiuxbury, Massachusetts, in 1760 ; died at Boston in 1843 ; 
 graduated at Harvard college in 1786, studied for the ministr)-, 
 and for eight years was pastor of a church at Wiscasset, JIaine. 
 HI health obliged him to leave the profession, and he came 
 to Boston, first to be a bookseller, and afterwards a politician 
 and an author. He was secretary of state in Massachusetts 
 from 1812 to 1824. He was an active member of the Massa- 
 chusetts Historical Society, ^vi'ote frequently for periodicals, 
 and published several works on historj- and biography. The 
 lost considerable of his works were a ''Historj' of Massa- 
 ' husetts from 1764 to 1820," 3 vols. 8vo, being a continuation 
 (if Hutchinson's History ; " American Biography ; " " Jlemoir of 
 Dr. Jonathan Mayhew ; " " Evangelical History, or the Books 
 of the New Testament, with a General Introduction and Notes;" 
 and a " Biography of Caleb Strong." 
 
 BEADF(3RD, Joiix, an eminent English martyr, born shortly 
 after the accession of Henr}- VIII., was a native of ilanchester 
 Being of a highly respectable family he received a hberal educa- 
 tion, but with a -N-iew to his following commercial or political, 
 rather than professional pursuits. At an early age he was 
 ippointed clerk or secretary to Sir John Harrington, paymaster 
 t the English forces in France. This situation offered peculiar 
 temptations to what was then the very common sin of peculation, 
 lid to these he unfortunately succumbed, acting a principal or 
 a secondary part (it is not clearly ascertained which) in the 
 abstraction of a sum of £500 from the exchequer of his office. 
 The money was restored, and Bradford appears to have been in 
 y.o danger of losing his place ; but his conscience troubled him 
 sidly, especially, it is said, after hearing a sermon of Latimer's, 
 ind he detennined on dismissing himself the service of the state. 
 In 1547 he began to study law in the temple, but finding his 
 iiichnation to the church always on the increase, he removed 
 fxt year to Clare hall, Cambridge, where after a residence of 
 ittle more than twelve months, he was admitted to the degree 
 iif M.A. Ordained deacon in 1550, he rapidly acquired celebrity 
 as a preacher; was presented to a stall in St. Paul's by his 
 '.atron, Bishop Ridley, and shortly after appointed one of the 
 'lyal chaplains. From the accession of JIary his doom was 
 -••aled. Bold and zealous, as well as eloquent, in the defence of 
 .irotestant doctrine, he could not be overlooked by the conclave 
 ■i bishops who directed the councils of the sovereign. He was 
 one of the first victims of her bloody reign. Gilbert Bourn 
 preached a sermon at St. Paul's cross, which had the effect of 
 aspiring his hearers with a ^dolent desire to tear him in pieces, 
 llradford, who was passing, interfered to save the Romish orator 
 iom his infuriated audience, and for this service to a champion 
 '•( the church, the story being properly perverted, he was con- 
 'ii-'inned to imprisonment in the tower. In 1554, when he had 
 lieen eighteen months in confinement, it was thought proper to 
 i.xamine him again, touching his heresies, and accordingly he 
 vas removed to Southwark, and placed at the bar of a court 
 ver which presided Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, and Bonner, 
 ' ishop of London. Sentence of death was immediately passed 
 ■n him ; but in order to give him leisure to consider well the 
 'lifers of place and power with which he was assailed by the 
 iiinions of his judges, execution was delayed till 1st July, 1555, 
 \vhen this incorrigible heretic and illustrious martyr, in company 
 ^^"ith a youth, named John Lyefe, was brought to the stake at 
 •Smithfield. His writings consist chiefly of sermons, tracts, letters, 
 meditations, and prayers. They have recently been printed in 
 12mo by the i;i'liu:ious Tract Society. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRADFORD, William, the first printer in Pennsylvania, 
 was born hi Leicester, England, in 1659. He became the 
 son-in-law of Andrew Sowles, a wealthy printer in London, and 
 a friend of William Penn, by whose invitation, and in company 
 with whom, Bradford went to America in 1682, and landed 
 where Philadelphia was afterwards built. The first book he 
 printed " near Philadelphia," was Leed's Almanac for 1687. In 
 1689, some dissensions having aiisen as to the rights of the 
 
 settlers, Bradford piinted the Charter, or Frame of Government 
 of the Prorince, with some remarks by Joseph Growden ; but 
 anticipating trouble, put no imprint upon the tract. But as it 
 was known to have come from his press, he was arrested and 
 brought before the council ; and we learn from the records, both 
 of his examination and that of Growden, that the proprietor, 
 William Penn, had given " particular order for the suppressing 
 of printing" in his province. (See the Forum by David Paul 
 Brown, Philadelphia, 1856, vol. i. p. 275.) But Bradford stood 
 up manfully for the freedom of the press on this, and on a sub- 
 sequent occasion in 1692, when, ha^•ing printed a pamphlet by 
 George Keith, on a question partly civil and partly religious, 
 between the magistrates and the people, his press was seized, 
 and he was brought before the justices, charged with having 
 pubHshed a seditious Ubel. When the jury were told that they 
 were only to try whether he printed it or not, Bradford inter- 
 posed, saying, " they ai'e to find also whether this be a seditious 
 paper or not," " for the jmy are judges in the law, as well as hi 
 the matter of fact." (Ibid. p. 280.) In asserting this prin- 
 ciple, he anticipated, by neai-ly a century, Lord Camden and 
 Mr. Erskine. Bradford removed the next year to New York, 
 printed the laws of that colony, and in 1725 started the Keio 
 York Gazette, the first newspaper in that city. He also estab- 
 lished a mill for the manufacture of paper, said to be the first 
 in America, as early as 1687. He became rich, and died in 
 New York, May 23, 1752, aged 93. His son and grandson 
 were Philadelphia printers after him. 
 
 BRADFORD, Williaji, great-grandson of the preceding, 
 second attorney-general of the United States under President 
 Washington, was bora at Pliiladelphia, September 14, 1755. 
 In August, 1780, he was made attorney-general of Pennsylvania. 
 Eleven years aftcnvards, he was promoted to the bench of the 
 supreme court of that state. In 1793, at the request of the 
 governor, he drew up a very able report to the legislature, 
 showing that the punishment of death might safely be abolished 
 in all cases, except murder and high treason ; and an act was 
 immediately passed in conformity with his suggestions. The 
 next year Washington appointed him attorney-general of the 
 United States, in wliich capacity he was sent to confer with the 
 agitators and leaders of the western insurrection of 1794. He 
 reported that the laws could not be enforced by the ordinary 
 processes of the civO authorities, and an adequate military force 
 was therefore called out, which soon quelled the rebellion. 
 
 BRADFORD, William, governor of Plymouth in New Eng- 
 land, was born in 1589 at Austerfield, Nottinghamshire. At 
 the death of his parents, while he was yet a child, Bradford in- 
 herited a small property. His religious opinions and course were 
 determined when he became an attendant on the preaching of 
 Richard Chfton and John Robinson, pastor and teacher of the 
 separatist congregation at Scrooby. Archbishop Bancroft's ofii- 
 cers found out the humble flock, and as there was no hope of 
 continuance there, it was resolved to go into the Low Countries. 
 After several unsuccessful attempts the scattered flock was, in 
 the autumn of 1608, collected at Amsterdam, where were already 
 two congregations of English separatists. After a year they 
 resolved to remove to Leyden, but the experiment of a few years 
 there, disposed them to think of another removal ; and the con- 
 gregation, after consideiing various plans, detennined to attempt 
 a separate plantation in what was then called Virginia in America, 
 and resolved to send out a portion of their number at once as 
 pioneers. In order to obtain" the means requisite, an agreement 
 was made with some merchants in London, by which, in consider- 
 ation of supplies, those who should emigrate bound themselves 
 to work, trade, and fish for a term of seven years, for the bene- 
 fit of a partnership, to consist of themselves and the merchants, 
 the profits to be then divided in proportions, which were agreed 
 upon. These matters being understood, the emigr.ants, after an 
 affectionate parting with their friends, accompanied by religious 
 services, went on board a little vessel, the Speedwell, which lay 
 awaiting them at Delfthaven. At Southampton, whither they 
 were conveyed, they found the Mai^flmcer, which had come round 
 from London, with some persons who were to join their company. 
 The two vessels sailed for America with about a hundred and 
 twenty passengers, but twice were compelled to return by the 
 unseaworthy condition of the Speedwell. After the second at- 
 tempt she was left in port, and the Mayflowei' proceeded with a 
 hundred and two passengers. After a passage of nine weeks, she 
 came to anchor off Cape Cod on the 9th of November. John
 
 BRA 
 
 723 
 
 BRA 
 
 Carver was chosen governor. On the 11th of December (old 
 stvle), the place since called Plymouth, was fixed on for the site 
 of a town. Twenty huts were erected and occupied. A fatal 
 sickness soon set in, the consequence of bad food and exposure 
 to the weather. Of the hundred and two persons who composed 
 the company, forty-four died before the first of April. At one 
 time during the winter, only six or seven had strength left to 
 nurse the dring and buiy the dead. The first week in April 
 Carver died, and Bradford was chosen governor in his place. 
 From that time his history, more than any other man's, is the 
 history of the colony of Plymouth, the oldest English colony, after 
 that of Virginia, on the American continent. Till the third har- 
 vest there was at times gi'eat distress for want of food, and this 
 exigency divided the governor's attention with the cares of guard- 
 ing the colony against plots of the Indians, and struggles to meet 
 the approbation of the London partners. The scheme of a com- 
 munity of property was found to work ill for both parties ; and 
 at the beginning of the third year, the governor had ventured so 
 far to deviate from it, as to assign to each family the cultivation 
 and profit of a small separate parcel of land ; an an-angement 
 which, on observing its favourable operation, he extended in the 
 following year. As the prospect brightened, the emigi'ants began 
 to hope to be soon joined by their beloved pastor, and their other 
 friends who had remained at Leyden. But there were persons 
 among the London partners who had no sympathy with them in 
 this wish, and who in various ways took care to obstruct its 
 accomplishment. As the inconveniences of the partnership to all 
 concerned were made manifest by trial, negotiations were prose- 
 cuted to effect its dissolution. In 1G26, Isaac Atherton, one of 
 the principal emigrants, who had been sent to England for the 
 purpose, succeeded in purchasing for the colonists the whole pro- 
 perty of the partnership for £1800, payable in nine equal annual 
 instalments — an arrangement speedily followed by another, by 
 which Bradford and four associates, on consideration of conducting 
 the whole trade of the colony for six years and recei\-ing its profits, 
 agreed to pay the debt of the London partners, and perform cer- 
 tain other obligations. This settlement of their affaks enabled 
 them to execute a long-cherished design. Many of their former 
 associates were brought from Holland and settled with them at 
 their expense. Their affliirs were assuming a most prosperous 
 shape, and now the larger emigration to Massachusetts com- 
 menced. In 1G29, Robinson, their spiritual guide, having died 
 shortly before, Bradford went to Salem to assist in the formation 
 of a church, of principles and constitution like those of the church 
 in Plymouth. Governor Winthrop cultivated the same good 
 understanding with his neighbours; and in 1632, the second year 
 after his arrival, made a jom-ney through the woods from Boston 
 to visit Bradford at the older settlement. Notwithstanding 
 Bradford's wish repeatedly expressed to be released froin public 
 office, he was chosen governor by annual election for thirty-one 
 years out of the thirty-six years between his arrival and his 
 death ; the last twelve years without a single inteinnission. He 
 died May 9th, 1657, having lengthened out a wise, religiou.s, 
 and heroic Ufe nearly to the limit of threescore years and ten. 
 Though without early advantages for study, and always leading 
 a busy life, he loved learning and found time for study. He 
 spoke French and Dutch, and read Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. 
 He wrote a full history of " Ph-mouth Plantation from the begin- 
 ning of the proceedings which led to that enterprise, down to 
 the end of the year 1G46." This volume, which, remaining in 
 manuscript, had been used and referred to by historians of Ply- 
 mouth at different times down to the year 1767, had since that 
 period disappeared. In 1816, Bishop Wilberforce, in his History 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America, made references 
 in foot-notes to a manuscript history of the plantation of Ply- 
 mouth in the Fulham library'. The language of these references 
 was found to coincide with that of passages which had been 
 published by old historians of New England, as extracts from 
 Bradford's history. An application being made to the late bishop 
 of London, his lordship promptly allowed an examination to be 
 made of the manuscript. By marks which had been described 
 in detail by the writers who had formerly used it, it was incon- 
 trovertibly proved to be the long-lost autograph of Bradford. 
 It was known to have belonged in 1758 to the New J^ngland 
 librar}', kept in the tower of the Old South church in Boston. 
 In 1755 that church was converted into a riding-school for a 
 force of British cavalry ; and there can be little doubt, that at 
 that time the manuscript was abstracted, to find its way event- 
 
 ually, by means not now to be traced, to the library of the bishop 
 of London. Dr. Bloomfield permitted a copy of it to be taken, 
 and the Massachusetts Historical Society published it in 1856, 
 with valuable notes from the hand of Mr. Charles Deane of 
 Cambridge. 
 
 BRADLEY, James, bom at Sherbom in Gloucestershire in 
 1692; died at Chalford in 1762: the most exact obsen'er of 
 former times in England, the man who, through the rare com- 
 bination of scientific knowledge and generalizing power, with 
 that fineness of sense and delicacy of touch which are indis- 
 pensable to a practical astronomer, is entitled to have his name 
 inscribed thu-d on the roll, that, reckoning in the order of time, 
 begins with Hijiparchus, and presents us next with Tycho. 
 Newton veiy early designated Bradley as the " first astronomer 
 of Europe ;'' nor can his estimate be charged with exaggeration. 
 If we except La-Caille, the lamented Bessel, and two or three 
 others whose names we may not mention, because, happily for 
 science, the men who wear them still survive, Bradley up to this 
 day has had no rival. — The position in Astronomy occupied by 
 this remarkable person is very peculiar. To his general exactness 
 and sagacity no greater tribute could be paid than that in which 
 Bessel has been sustained by the concurrence of the whole scien- 
 tific world. Desirous to fix with every attainable accuracy the 
 most important constants of Astronomy, the greaX observer of 
 Koningsberg fixed upon the catalogue of Bradley ; and he has 
 emphatically recorded the degi-ee of esteem in which he held 
 him, by the labour so willingly bestowed on the reduction of that 
 catalogue, and which resulted in his invaluable Fundamenta 
 Astronomice. But we have said Bradley's position is altogether 
 pecufiar, and his fame does not rest merely on his general exact- 
 ness. It has long been known that the crude observation of 
 the apparent place of a star, in no ways suffices to indicate its 
 true place in the heavens. The apparent place differs from the 
 true place, because of the circumstances in which the observer 
 is placed — circumstances which cause him to see an object 
 external to the eai'th's atmosphere, as if it were in a position 
 different from the one it really occupies. Until these disarrang- 
 ing influences are understood, and their amoimt made subject of 
 calculation, there can be no accurate observation ; and what is 
 temied Stellar Astronomy could never reach the character of reli- 
 ability. One of these influences is atmospherical Refraction. 
 Any distant body viewed through the earth's atmosphere appears 
 higher than it really is in the sky ; and the amoimt of displace- 
 ment varies with the apparent height of the object. This effect 
 of refraction was known before, and Tycho rudely and errone- 
 ously allowed for its value. The nature of the true fonnula 
 was one of the conquests of Bradley. In so far as its stracture 
 is concerned, this fonnula has never been altered. New terms 
 have been added, and the constants Bradley employed somewhat 
 modified ; but the correction due to these recent refinements 
 does not exceed half a second of space. — But, besides Refraction, 
 there are other causes of disturbance, the existence as well as 
 the amount of which was discovered by the English astrono- 
 mer. The Jirst is technically named Aberration. Bradley 
 had been puzzled by the existence of small irregularities in 
 the annual position of the fixed stars, of which no previous 
 obsers'ation had taken any account. Stars in the plane of the 
 ecliptic seemed to oscillate backwards and forwards by a small 
 quantity in the course of the year ; and in every other place in 
 the sky they appeared to describe small ellipses. Dr. Robison of 
 Edinburgh has recorded in his article Seamanship, a curious 
 anecdote as to the mode in which Bradley reached the secret of 
 the phenomenon, and we find it given as follows by Dr. Thomson 
 in his History of the Royal Society : — " When he despaired of 
 being able to account for the phenomena which he had obsen'ed, 
 a satisfactory explanation of it occurred to him all at once when 
 he was not in search of it. He accompanied a pleasure party 
 in a sail upon the river Thames. The boat in which they were 
 was provi(led with a mast, which had a vane upon the top of it. 
 It blew a moderate wind, and the party sailed up and down the 
 river for a considerable time. Dr. Bradley remarked that every 
 time the boat put about, the vane at the top of the boat's mast 
 shifted a little, as if there had been a slight change in the direc- 
 tion of the wind. He observed this three or four times without 
 speaking ; at last he mentioned it to the sailors, and expressed 
 his surprise that the wind should shift so regularly every time 
 they put about. The sailors told him that the wind had not 
 shifted, but that the apparent change was owing to the change in
 
 the direction of the boat, and assured him that the same thing 
 invariably happened in all cases." No great or cardinal dis- 
 covery ever results from an accident. Accident is a simple 
 indication of law, as indeed the whole world is : it is the Intellect 
 tvipablc of generalizing, that alone can extract the secret. Pre- 
 vious to this time RiJmer had discovered that light has a definite 
 although a marvellous velocity, the velocity, viz., of nearly 
 '200,000 miles in a second of time. But the Earth moves in 
 's orbit at a rate of about eighteen miles in a second ; and just 
 < the motion of the boat afl'ected the apparent direction of 
 the wind, so must this motion of our globe necessarily affect the 
 ajjparent direction of the rays of light entering the eye. Every 
 star must therefore undergo an amount of displacement, inas- 
 much as Ave infer the place of objects from the apparent direction 
 of the ray emanating from them. The amount of this displace- 
 ment could be theoretically determined, — depending on the 
 proportion of those two velocities : and Bradley found that the 
 irregularities wliich so puzzled him, received here tlieir complete 
 solution. It is farther of importance to remark, that this 
 disci.veiy constitutes our earliest physical demonstration of the 
 realitij of the orbital motion of the Earth. — Secondly^ There are 
 other displacements caused by the instability of the pole or axis 
 around which our globe rotates. We refer all stars to the pole 
 of the heavens, that is, to the point opposite the pole of the 
 earth. Were that point steadfast, determinations of polar distance 
 made at one epoch would be the same for every epoch. But if 
 that point varies, determinations made at different times would 
 not be comparable. So long ago as Hipparchus, that great 
 motion of the pole, manifested by its describing a circle in the 
 lieavens eveiy 25,000 years — a motion that is termed Precession 
 — was known and estimated. But the pole does not describe a 
 regular circle ; on the contrary, it moves through a wanng line, 
 thus originating other and important although minor irregulari- 
 ties, which Bradley was the first to comprehend. The iiTegu- 
 larity we now speak of is termed Nutaiion. Bradley detected 
 tlie connection of the period of Nutation with the revolution of 
 the Moon's Nodes; and subsequent researches, partly theore- 
 tical, partly by observation, have traced the physical cause of 
 the change to its remotest consequences, and finally removed 
 this last ground of uncertainty from among the obstacles to the 
 conquests of Astronomy. — Concerning the private life of a man 
 tu whom the most imposing of the sciences owes so much, it is 
 not unnatural that a certain curiosity should be felt. But Brad- 
 ley's existence was a very quiet one. He married a niece of the 
 astronomer Pound, to whom he was earnestly recommended 
 by Halley. After a brief excursion into the fields of Theology 
 he resigned his ecelesiastical appointments, and became Savilian 
 professor of astronomy at Oxford. He observed chiefly at Kew 
 and Wanstead, until he was selected to the office of Astronomer 
 Iioyal by Sir Robert Walpole, on the eve of his retirement. Brad- 
 ley's nomination was probably the last official act of patronage 
 liy that great, but in many respects somewhat unsatisfactoiy 
 Minister. — Bradley's observations were published in three volumes 
 iulio (superseded in great measure by the Fundamenta Astro- 
 mmiuE) by the university he adorned ; and to whose well-known 
 and considerate munificence we have recently been indebted for 
 "1 account of his life and a collection of liis papers, in a quarto 
 -ilmne. edited by Professor Rigaud. — J. P. N. 
 
 BRADLEY, Ralph, an English conveyancing lawyer, was 
 "m in 1717 at Greatham in the county of Durham, and died 
 lid was there buried in 1788. His parentage was humble, and 
 ills education self-acquired. His name is not associated with 
 that of any patron or friend ; and the attainment of provincial 
 eminence almost unrivalled as a property counsel was due to his 
 own judgment and exertions. He was called to the bar at 
 firay's inn, but his place of business was Stockton-upon-Tees, the 
 " ighbour town to Greatham; and his practice ruled over near 
 lalf a century. Among his pupils were Ritson, an eccentric 
 ''■nhis, and Holliday, C. Butler's master. His style of expressing 
 'I'inioMS and drawing instruments was chargeable with the vices 
 I tautology and diffusiveness. Bradley was never married. 
 1 li' possessed social qualities to a gi-eat degree ; and the ultimate 
 lisposition of his property denotes the benevolence of his heart, 
 altliongh its frustration by the chancellor, Thurlow, proved the 
 fallibility of its author's legal judgment. Having no near 
 relations, he by his will directed that the income (except 
 ■£500 a year for twenty .years, and £1000 a year afterwards) of 
 the bulk of his property should accumulate for seventy years. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 The income of the principal and its accumulations was then, and 
 the £500 a year and the £1000 a year were in the meantime, to 
 be from time to time for ever applied in the purchasing of such 
 books as might have a tendency to promote the interests of vir- 
 tue and religion and the happiness of mankind. This charitable 
 purpose to be carried out by the court of chancery. When 
 application was made to establish this charity. Lord Thurlow, 
 ignoring the existence of the Society for Promoting Christian 
 Knowledge, said he did not know what books had a tendency to 
 promote the happiness of mankind, and set aside the bequest in 
 favom- of the next of kin. In 7 ves. 50 n. the charitable trusts 
 are set forth at length. They are characteristic of the style of 
 their author. If he had described more fully the main purpose 
 and elaborated less the details of the scheme, a different result 
 might have been expected. To commemorate his bounty, a 
 suitable inscription had, on the occasion of his burial, been put 
 upon his tomb in Greatham churchyard, and after the decree his 
 relations annexed to this inscription a few words to show how 
 his intentions had miscarried. — S. H. G. 
 
 BRADLEY, Richard, a popular writer on gardening and 
 agricultm-e, lived in the early part of the 18th century. He 
 made hiniself known at first by papers on the nature of the sap in 
 vegetables, and on the quick growth of Mouldiness on Jlelons, 
 which were published in the Philosophical Transactions. He 
 became a fellow of the Royal Society, and was chosen professor 
 of botany at Cambridge in 172-1, but he does not appear to have 
 conducted himself well, and Dr. Martyn was appointed to lecture 
 for him. He published a treatise on husbandry and gardening, 
 a gardener's calendar, a philosophical account of the works of 
 nature, a " Botanical Dictionaiy," and a liistory of succulent 
 plants. He lectmed on materia medica in London in 1729. 
 This course of lectures was pubhshed. Died in 1732. — J. H. B. 
 
 BRADSHAW, John, an English barrister, better known as 
 President Bradshaw, because he presided in the comi; which 
 condemned Charles I. He was born in 1586 of an old Lanca- 
 shu-e family, and became a student at Gray's inn. He was 
 warmly attached to the parliamentary party, and obtained among 
 them a considerable amount of chamber practice. He was one 
 of the commissioners to whom the custody of the gi-eat seal was 
 intrusted by the house of commons in 1646, and in the following 
 year he was appointed chief justice of Chester by a vote of both 
 houses. In 1648 he was raised to the rank of serjeant. AMien 
 the republican party had resolved to put King Charles to death 
 under colour of judicial forms, Bradshaw's name was inserted in 
 the record or revised list of commissioners for trying the king, 
 and was by them chosen president of the court. He displayed 
 considerable self-possession throughout that memorable trial ; 
 but treated the unfortunate monarch in an exceedingly insolent 
 and iTufeeling manner. His party seem to have been satisfied 
 with his behaviour, for they rewarded him with a gratuity of 
 £5000, a town house, and country seat, the gift of Lord Cot- 
 tington's estate in Wiltshire, and other landed property, yielding 
 in all a rental of £1000 a year, and made him chancellor of the 
 duchy of Lancaster. Bradshaw was a sincere republican, and, 
 therefore, opposed the ambitious designs of Cromwell, who 
 deprived him of the ofiice of chief justice of Chester. After tlic 
 death of the protector, Bradshaw was elected president of the 
 council. He died November 22, 1659, and was buried with 
 gi-eat pomp in Westminster abbey ; but after the Restoration 
 his body was disinterred, and exposed on a gibbet along with 
 the bodies of Cromwell and Ireton. Clarendon describes him 
 with apparent truth as a man of some ability, but insolent and 
 ambitious. — J. T. 
 
 BRADSHAW, William, an English puritan, bom at Market 
 Bosworth, Leicestershire, in 1571. He was educated at Ema- 
 nuel college, Cambridge, after leaving which, through (he 
 influence of Dr. Laurence Chasterton, he became in succession 
 tutor to the family of Sir Thomas Leighton, and fellow of Sidney 
 Sussex college. Having obtained orders in a way which indulged 
 his scruples on the subject of ordination, he was for some time 
 employed as lecturer in the cluu-elies of Abington and Steeple 
 Morden, near Cambridge, and afterwards at Chatham in Kent. 
 From Chatham, on occasion of a dispute with his ordinary, 
 he removed to London, and was appointed lecturer of Christ 
 Church, Newgate Street. A treatise of his on some litigated 
 points of ecclesiastical rule caused his demission from this office, 
 and he retued to his native county, where he died in 1618. He 
 is chiefly remarkable as the author of a small treatise, entitled 
 
 4Z
 
 " Englisli Puritanism," 1G05, an abstract of wliicli is to be found 
 in Neal's Histoiy of the Puritans. Besides that work he wrote a 
 "Treatise on Justification," and "A Plaine and Pithy Exposi- 
 sition of the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians." — J. S., G. 
 
 BRADSTREET, Simon, one of the early governors of the 
 colony of Massachusetts, was born at Hoi-bling, a small village 
 near Folkingham, Lincolnshii-e, England, in Iilarch, 1603. His 
 father, a nonconformist minister, was a feUow of Emanuel 
 college, and much esteemed for bis piety and learning. In 
 several positions which he occupied, the son was thrown much 
 into the company of those who were then proposing to emigrate 
 to New England, and, after manying Anne Dudley in 1628, he 
 decided to join them. He arrived at Salem, in Winthrop's com- 
 pany, in June, 1630, was present at the first general court held 
 at Chai'leston, in August of the same year, and was there elected 
 an assistant and secretary of the colony, which office he held for 
 fom-teen years. 'WTien the New England colonies formed their 
 memorable confederation for mutual defence in 1643, Mr. Brad- 
 street was appointed one of the two commissioners on the ])art 
 of JIassachusetts, and took an active part in all thier proceed- 
 ings. After the Restoration, when the colony were in a fever of 
 apprehension lest Charles II. should take away then- charter and 
 then- privileges, he drew up tlie addi-ess and report defending 
 both, and was sent to England, with Jlr. Norton, to make the 
 best terms they could with the monarch. He showed much 
 prudence and address in this delicate office, and brought back a 
 letter from the king, which he maintained was really favourable 
 to Massachusetts, though the more resolute puritans were dis- 
 satisfied with it, and censured his conduct as compromising the 
 honour and rights of the colony. Also, when the royal commis- 
 sioners arrived m 16G5, he advised a quiet compliance -n-ith their 
 demands, instead of the stiff-necked course actually adopted. In 
 1678 he was chosen deputy-governor, and was re-elected for sis 
 successive years. Then, in 1679, at the age of seventy-sis he 
 was first chosen governor, haNing previously served as an assist- 
 ant for fifty successive years. To this high office he was 
 aimually re-elected till May, 1686, when the charter was dis- 
 solved ; and then, though nominated first of the seventeen coun- 
 cillors who were to act under Dudley, the first royal president, 
 he nobly refused to serve. The t\Tanny of Audros followed, 
 grievous but short; and when, on the news arri\-ing of the 
 revolution of 1688, the people of Boston and the vicinity, with- 
 out waiting for authority from England, rose in anns, and 
 required Audros immediately to give up the government and the 
 fortifications ; the venerable Bradstreet was at their head, and 
 Massachusetts once more coming together in general coml, 
 chose him governor again. And " the Nestor of New Eng- 
 land," as he was fitly termed, was annually re-elected to this 
 office till ^lay, 1692, when Sir William Phips arrived with a 
 new charter, which no longer allowed the people to choose their 
 own chief magistrate. Still he was nominated as senior coun- 
 ciUor under the new government ; but he refused to serve, and 
 retired to Salem to await the long-deferred summons to meet 
 the IMaster whom he had so long served on earth. He died at 
 Salem, Slarch 27, 1697, in the irinetv-fifth year of his age. 
 
 BRADWARDIN or BREDWARDINE, Thomas, surnamed 
 the Profound Doctok, an eminent English schoolman, bora 
 in the diocese of Chichester of an ancient family, dei-iving its 
 name from Bredwardine, a tillage or camp on the river Wye. 
 The date of his birth is uncertain, but as he was proctor in the 
 university of Oxford in 1325, it could not have been later than 
 the middle of the reign of Edward I. At ilerton college where 
 he gi'aduated, he became professor of divinity, holding in con- 
 junction with that office the chancellorship of the univei'slty. 
 Resigning both these dignities, he was ap])ointed chaplain to the 
 famous bishop of Durham, Richard de Buiy, and subsequently 
 became chancellor of the diocese of London, jjrebendaiy of Lin- 
 coln, and chaplain and confessor to Edward III. This victorious 
 monarch he attended in his French wars, infiuencing his councils 
 to a remarkable degree by the candid exercise of the functions 
 which belonged to a confessor in the times of chivalry, if not, 
 as is pretended by contemporary writers, directly influencing his 
 fortunes by virtues and piety, which could not belong to tlie 
 chaplain without prospering the king. On the death of Strat- 
 ford, archbishop of Canterl)ury, he was elevated to that see ; but 
 the king refused to ratify the election, observing that " he could 
 very ill spare so worthy a man to be from him, and he never 
 could perceive that he himself wished to be spared." The .'^ee 
 
 being again vacant ^vithin the year, however, Bradwardin was 
 consecrated at A\-ignon in 1349. Shortly after his return to 
 England he fell a victun to the plague. The work which prociu-ed 
 for him from the reigning pope the appellation of the Profound 
 Doctor, is his " De Causa Dei," a digest of his lectures at 
 Oxford, edited by Su- Henry Savile in 1618. It is directed 
 agauist the Pelagians. His other published works are — " Geo- 
 metria Speculativa," &c., Paris, 1495 ; " De Proportionibus," 
 Paris, 1495 ; " De Quadratura Circuli," Paris, 1495.— J. S., G. 
 
 BRADY, Nicholas, D.D., an Irish dinne, who, in connec- 
 tion with bis fellow-countryman, Nahum Tate, composed the 
 metrical version of the psalms now in use in the church of Eng- 
 land. He was the son of Major Nicholas Brady, a descendant 
 of Hugh Brady, first protestant bishop of Meath, and was boni 
 at Bandon, in the county of Cork, on the 28th October, 1659. 
 He received his early education in England, but obtained his 
 degrees in Trinity college, Dublin. He obtained preferments in 
 Ireland, and being a firm adherent of the Orange party, he was 
 sent with an address to William III. on his accession to the 
 throne. Remaining in London, he obtained some good livings, 
 and became successively chaplain to the king and queen. Queen 
 Anne, and the prince of Wales ; and though he was in receipt of 
 a large income, he contrived to spend it, and was obhged to keep 
 school at Richmond to eke out his means. He died on the 20th 
 May, 1726. He translated the jEneid of Virgil, a performance 
 now neither read nor known ; published some volumes of heavy 
 seiTQons, of which the same may be said ; and wrote some di'amas 
 and a tragedy which were not devoid of merit, and had reason- 
 able success, though the subject and its treatment were rather 
 strange for a divine. Brady and his works w-ould have long 
 passed from the memory of mankind, but for the happy chances 
 that have floated them down the stream of time in the poor 
 composition to be foiuid appended to the book of Common 
 Prayer.— J. F. W. 
 
 BRADY, Rev. Philip, a clergyman of the county Cavan in 
 Ireland. He lived in the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
 and was a man of great wit, a good scholar, and particularly 
 versed in the language of liis country. He composed several 
 poems, and translated some English works into the Irish lan- 
 guage. — J. F. W. 
 
 BRAGANZA, the dukes of, took then- title from Braganza, 
 the chief town of the Portuguese province of Traz-os-Montes. 
 The following are the more remarkable of these piinces: — 
 Alfonso, illegitimate son of John I., king of Portugal, created 
 duke of Braganza in 1442 dming the minority of Alfonso V. 
 His brother, Peter, duke of Coimbra, regent of the kingdom, led 
 by his arts into a quaiTel with the young king, fell by the hand 
 of his sovereign in 1449. Died in 1461. — Ferdinand II., 
 third duke, decapitated as a traitor in 1483 by his brother-in- 
 law. King John II. — James, fourth duke, eldest son of the 
 preceding, was restored to the dukedom by King Emmanuel; 
 and, as a further proof of his sovereign's favour, in 1489 nomi- 
 nated his successor. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRAGANZA, John I. and John IV. of. See John. 
 
 BRAHAJI, John, the celebrated singer, was bora in London 
 of Jewish parents in 1774. He was left an orphan at an early 
 age, and in such humble circumstances that it is said he sold 
 pencils about the streets. However, he was still very young 
 when he became the pupil of Leoni, an Italian singer of celebrity; 
 and his first appearance on the public stage was at the Theatre 
 Royal, Covent Garden, April 21, 1787, for the benefit of his 
 master. In the bill it is announced — " At the end of Act i., 
 ' The Soldier Tired of War's Alarms,' by Master Braham, being 
 his first appearance on any stage." When the well-known John 
 Palmer opened the Royalty theatre, at the close of the same 
 year. Master Braham fomied part of his corps, and performed 
 in a burktta composed by John Carter, the author of "Oh, 
 Nanny!" "Stand to your Guns," &t., and entitled "the Birth- 
 day, or the Ai-cadian Conquest." The locale of his debut was not 
 the most favourable to rising musical talent : neither the titled 
 patron nor the accomplished ^-irtuoso frequented the ultima Tkule 
 of Wellclose Square. Nevertheless the fame of the wonderful 
 boy who was singing at the Royalty, the astonishing pupil of 
 Leoni, spread itself even into the western regions, and drew 
 many gentle auditors from their usual routine to the humbler 
 scenes of his surprising efforts. About the period when young 
 Braham's voice broke, his master Leoni was compelled, through 
 pecuniary emban-assment, to quit England, and leave the young
 
 BRA 
 
 731 
 
 BRA 
 
 orphan entirely dependent upon Ms own resources, at a moment 
 when the most valuable of those resources had, for a time at 
 least, failed him. Fortune, however, soon raised him up patrons 
 in the powerful and wealthy family of the Goldsmids, under 
 whose protection and auspices he acquired considerable practice 
 as a teacher of the pianoforte. But although the pianoforte 
 beciune for an interval his immediate profession, the cultivation 
 of the retm-ning powers of his voice formed the great object of 
 bis hopes and his ambition. It was akeady settling into a tenor, 
 lemarkable alike for tone, flexibility, and compass ; and he 
 omitted no opportunity of polishing it by study, or strengthening 
 it by practice. In one of the many musical societies which he 
 frequented, Braham became acquainted with Ashe, the celebrated 
 tlute-player, who, struck with the beauty of his voice, proposed to 
 1dm an engagement for the following season at Bath, which was 
 immediately and gladly accepted; and in 1794 he made his first 
 appearance as a tenor singer at the concerts in that city. In 
 the conductor of these concerts. Signer Ranzziui, the debutant 
 found all that was wanting to give high finish to a voice which 
 nature had formed in one of her most prodigal moulds; an 
 instructor to whom all the rules of art were familiar, and in whom 
 all the dehcacies of the highest refinement of that art were per- 
 sonified. In Braham, Signer Ranzzini recognized a pupil on 
 whom it was a pleasure to la\dsh all the resources of which time 
 and study, learning and taste, had rendered him master. To 
 the last hour of his life he boasted of his famous pupU, and 
 Braham never failed to acknowledge his obhgations to his 
 talented instructor. The fame of the new singer soon extended 
 to London, where it was first canied by J. P. Salomon, who, 
 fi'om the moment he heard Braham at Bath, pronounced him to 
 be the finest tenor singer m Europe. In the spring of 1796, an 
 ingagement for a limited number of nights was oflered to him 
 -•y the managers of Drury Lane, and the genius of Storace 
 'xpended its last efforts in the composition of the songs which 
 were to exhibit the extent and variety of his powers. The early 
 and lamented death of the composer delayed, for a short time, 
 the production of liis last opera, but the difficulties were iit length 
 overcome ; the parts left unfinished were completed by Kelly, 
 and on the 3Uth of April, 1796, "Mahmoud" was performed 
 tor the benefit of his widow and iamily; and Braham, then 
 only twenty-two years old, at once took the rank in which, for 
 upwai-ds of a quarter of a century, he had no competitor. Before 
 the year of his debut had closed, Braham achieved another pro- 
 fessional triumph of the highest class, in being engaged as a princi- 
 pal tenor at the Itahan opera; and here again it is impossible to 
 repress a feehng of wonder at the talent and industry which 
 qualified so young a man to burst tbrth at once as leader in 
 styles so different, and perform not only in his native, but in a 
 !'ireign language. His first appearance on the opera stage was on 
 'he 26th November, 1796, in the character of Azor, in Gretiy's 
 iipera, " Zemira e Azore." He was highly applauded, and one 
 |)f his airs encored ; afterwards he performed with Banti in Sac- 
 oliini's serious opera, " Evelina," and continued to sing until 
 the end of the season. In the same year he was engaged at the 
 'iratorios, and established his reputation as a singer of sacred 
 music by his delivery of some of Handel's chef-d'auvres. Braham 
 now determined to increase his knowledge of the mechanical 
 ri'soiu-ces of his art, by studying the best models which Italy 
 atforded. He accordingly embarked for the continent in the 
 autumn of 1797, and proceeded in the first instance to Paris, not 
 contemplating a stay of more than a week in that city ; but some 
 concerts which he gave (at the first of which Bonaparte and 
 Josepliine were present) turned out so successful, and so lucra- 
 tive, that he remained there eiglit months. A plan was orga- 
 nized for the performance of Italian operas, and a pennanent 
 engagement offered to Braham. Italy, liowever, was his object, 
 and declining all overtures for remaining in Paris, he continued 
 his journey southward, and in the autumn of 1798, appeared as 
 pruno tenore at the Teatro Pergola in Florence, as Ulysses, in 
 an opera of that name composed by Basili ; and as Orestes in 
 "Le Furie d'Oreste" of JMoneta. He was next engaged for the 
 succeeding caniival— an unheard of honour for an Englishman — 
 and appeared at the Scala (Milan), witli his gifted countryman, 
 Billington. The opera in which they performed was composed 
 by Nasolini, and entitled " II Trionfo di Clelia." Rome and 
 Naples now contended for the English tenor; but Braham's 
 success at ]\Iilan led to a renewed engagement there for the follow- 
 ing year; and when he left the capital of northern Italy he 
 
 proceeded to Genoa, where he devoted much time to the study 
 of composition, under the able instructions of the msestro Isola, 
 and had an opportunity of singing with the celebrated musico, 
 Jlarchesi. From Genoa he retm-ned to Jlilan, and went thence, 
 in 1799, to Venice. Here he assisted at the funeral obsequies 
 of Cimarosa, and performed in the serious opera of "Artemisia." 
 His next engagement was at Trieste, where he performed in Jlar- 
 tin's opera, " La Cosa Rara," a work from which Storace took 
 a great part of the music of his " Siege of Belgrade," and which 
 Braham, five or sis years afterwards, introduced with such suc- 
 cess at the opera-house in London. Whilst remaining at Trieste, 
 om- great tenor received invitations from Lisbon, Naples, Jlilan, 
 Vienna, and England. That from Vienna he accepted, reserving 
 to liimself the liberty of singing one year in England, previous 
 to making his debut in the Austrian capital. Following this 
 plan, he proceeded across Germany, via Hamburg, to his native 
 country, where the unanunous and enthusiastic applause he met 
 with, made him forget or forego his German engagements. On 
 the 9th of December, 1801, Braham made his reappearance 
 before an Enghsh audience at Covent Garden theatre, m an 
 opera called " Chams of the Heart " — the joint composition of 
 Mazzinghi and Reeve. The music, however, was so feeble in 
 the serious, and so commonplace and vulgar in the comic parts, 
 that, notwdthstanding it was supported by such talents as Bra- 
 ham's and Madame Storace's, it lived only a short time, and was 
 succeeded in February following by " the Cabinet." In this 
 opera Braham was the composer of all the music of his owni part, 
 a custom to which he continued for several years pretty closely to 
 adhere, and seldom has any music been more universally popular. 
 Among these operas we name "Family Quarrels," 1802; "the 
 English Fleet," 1802; "Thirty Thousand," ISOi; "Out of 
 Place," 1805; "False Alarms," 1807; " Kais, or Love in a 
 Desert," 1808 ; and the "De^nl's Bridge," 1812. To follow Bra- 
 bam tlu-ough aU his engagements would exceed the limits of this 
 notice ; it is sufficient to say, that in the theatre, the concert- 
 room, or the chiu'ch, he had scarcely a rival. Non ce in Italia 
 tenore come Braham^ was the frequent exclamation of foreigners 
 who heard him. Dming the seasons of 1804-6, he was engaged 
 as principal tenor at the Itahan opera, singing with Mrs. BUhng- 
 ton in "II Trionfo dell' amor fraterno;" " Gl'Orazi e Curiazi;" 
 and La Clemenza di Tito." In 1816 he again appeared at the 
 opera, as Guglielmo, in the "Cosi fan Tutte" of Mozart ; and m 
 1826 acquired fresh laurels in the arduous pail of Su- Huon, 
 in Weber's wondrous opera of " Oberon, or the Elf King's 
 Oath." Down to the present time everything which Braham 
 undertook prospered; but in 1831 the tide of fortune changed. 
 In this year he pmxhased, jointly with Yates, the buildmg 
 known as the Colosseum, in the Regent's Park, for which the lai-ge 
 smn of £40,000 was paid. Five years afterwards he opened 
 the St. James' theatre, which he had erected at a cost of 
 £26,000. The large fortune which his genius and energy had 
 once gained him was lost by these unfortunate speculations ; but 
 his declining years were passed in the most cheerful comfort, 
 secm-ed to him by the affectionate care of his daughter. He 
 died in February 17, 1856, at the advanced age of eighty-two. 
 In energy and pathos of style, Braham stood unrivalled as a 
 public singer, and his powers in this respect were especially con- 
 spicuous in accompanied recitative, which generally expresses 
 strong passion ; thus " Deeper and deeper still," of Handel, was 
 the chej'-d' ceuvre of his declamatory and pathetic manner, describ- 
 ing, as it docs, Jephthah hi the agony of his rash vow. As a 
 composer, Braham completely attained the object he aimed at, in 
 his numerous songs, duets, &c., many of which attained the high- 
 est degree of popularity. As a national song, his " Death of 
 Nelson " has pleased, and continues to please, a vast majority of 
 the inhabitants of the British isles ; it has therefore accomplislied 
 its purpose. Braham's private character was marked by kind- 
 ness and urbanity, and he was never known to treat the public, 
 in a single instance, with levity or ca])rice. In matters of business 
 he was remarkably lionomable ; and it was the common remark 
 of those who knew him long and well, that ho was never known 
 to speak disrespectfully of any public singer — declining to censm-e 
 where he could not in justice applaud, but cheerfully bestowing 
 praise whenever truth permitted. The only spot upon Braham's 
 character was liis liaison with Sigiiora Storace, but this, we 
 believe, has been much misrepresented. He left five sons and 
 one daughter. The eldest son (by Signora Storace) is now a 
 clergj'man of the church of England. The other members of
 
 BRA 
 
 732 
 
 BRA 
 
 his family are the fruits of his marriage with Miss Bolton of 
 Ardwick, near Manchester, in 1816. One son is, we believe, in 
 the anny. The other three, Hamilton, Charles, and Augustus, 
 are rising members of their f;ither's profession. His daughter 
 maiTied, tirst, John James Henry Waldegrave, Esq. ; secondly, 
 in 1840, George Edward, seventh earl of Waldegrave ; and, 
 thirdly, in 1847, George Granville Vernon liarcourt, Esq., 
 eldest son of the late archbishoj) of York. — E. F. R. 
 
 BRAKE TYCHO. See Tycho. 
 
 BRAIXERD, David, a celebrated American missionary to 
 the Indians, was born at Haddam in Connecticut, April 20, 1718. 
 His parents died when he was quite young, and until the age of 
 nineteen, he expected to spend his life as a fanner. But he 
 possessed by nature a thoughtful, conscientious disposition, and 
 the strong religious cast of his mind made him ver}' desirous to 
 prepare himself for the clerical profession. In 1738 he went to 
 reside with Mr. Fisher, the minister of his native town, and in 
 1739 he entered Yale college. About this tune, Whitfield came 
 to New England, and most of the students were greatly excited 
 by his preaching. Brainerd's feelings were strongly roused, and 
 in his zeal he made use of some rash expressions against one of 
 the college officers, wliich caused his expulsion. This, however, 
 did not interfere with his prepai-ation for the ministiT', and in 
 1742 he was ordained, and immediately commenced liis labours 
 as a missionary among the Indians. His services were engaged 
 by an association in New York, and he was first sent to the 
 settlement of Kanaumeek, between Stockbridge and Albany, and 
 here he laboured most conscientiously in the midst of privations 
 and sufferings. His health had never been good, and amid the 
 sufferings of his Indian life, it often gave way altogether. He 
 was a rigid Calvinist, and subject to the most distressing fits of 
 religious depression ; but notwithstanding this distress of body and 
 mind, he pm-sued his work indefatigably, until he found that he 
 might be more useful elsewhere; and in 1774 he left Kanau- 
 meek, and removed to Crossweeksung, at the Forks of the 
 Delaware. His duties were now of the most arduous description. 
 Notwithstanding his ill health, he spent a life of unremitting 
 activity, making frequent journeys from one place to another, 
 and devoting all his energies to the advancement of civilization 
 and religion. For a long time his labours seemed almost entirely 
 without success ; he had no time to leam the Indian language, 
 and his preaching lost much of its effect when commmiicated to 
 his hearers through an interpreter, who himself only partially 
 understood the true import of what was said. Finally, however, 
 he acliieved a great success. The Indians listened with atten- 
 tion, and many were not only converted to Christianity, but 
 made considerable progi'ess in civilization ; he baptized seventy- 
 eight savages in one year. Meantime his health suti'ered feaifully. 
 He was obliged to sleep in smoky cabins, or else in the open air, 
 protected only by a few boughs ; the symptoms of consumption 
 increased, and it was with the greatest difficulty that he con- 
 tinued his duties. He struggled on, however, for several months, 
 when it became endent that he must abandon his labours for a 
 time, if not for ever. In April, 1747, he set out for New 
 England, and was received at Northampton into the family of 
 Dr. Jonathan Edwards, where he was told by the physicians 
 that his case was hopeless ; he lingered a few months, a daughter 
 of Dr. Edwards attending him devotedly as his nurse. His 
 death took place at Northampton, October 9, 1747, in the 
 thirtieth year of his age. Dr. Edwards published a memoir of hmi, 
 composed chiefly of extracts from a diary which he kept with 
 great minuteness throughout his career. It is a deeply affecting 
 record of spiritual experience, of the hardships of his Ufe, 
 increased by the morbid tenderness of his con.science, and the 
 enthusiastic zeal with which he pursued his Master's work in 
 sickness and solitude. John Wesley abridged the work, and 
 pubUshed it in England. In 1822 the original, with additional 
 extracts from Brainerd's diaiy, was published at New Haven by 
 Sereno E. Dwight. 
 
 BRAITHWAITE, John, a member of the British embassy 
 at Jlorocco at the period of the Emperor Mulcy Ishmael's d(.'ath. 
 He wrote an account of the political movements of 1727 and 
 1728, following that event. The work was published in London 
 in 1729, and was translated into several continental languages, 
 and is interesting for its details concerning the history and con- 
 dition of Morocco. — J. B. 
 
 BRAITHWAITE, William, one of the forty-seven divines 
 appointed by James I. to prepare the version of the Bible at 
 
 present in use, born about the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 was fellow of Emanuel college, Cambridge, and afterwards 
 master of Gonville and C;uus college. 
 
 * BRAKEL, G. A., a Swedish poet, born in 1782, author of 
 " Oden i Svithiod," a tragedy, published in 182G, and " Waine- 
 mciinen," a lyrical drama, 1829. — M. H. 
 
 BRAKEL, Jan vax, a Dutch naval officer, bom in 1G18, 
 began his gallant career under the famous De Ruyter. For dis- 
 tinguished service in the engagement between the Dutch and 
 English fleets, August 4, 1GG6, he was raised to the command 
 of a ship in the squadron despatched by the states of Holland 
 against Chatham. In this expedition, having forced his way up 
 the river in the face of a tremendous fire, he succeeded in 
 destroying a part of the English fleet. His most gallant exploit, 
 however, was his boarding the leading ship of the enemy in an 
 action between the Dutch and the combined fleets of Great 
 Britain and France in 1672. The earl of Sandwich, his oppo- 
 nent, fought with the most determined braverj', and having the 
 advantage of a lai-ger ship, would have smik that of Brakel, but 
 the encoimter, one of the most desperate in the annals of naval 
 history, unexpectedly terminated in favour of the Dutch, through 
 the accident of the English flag-ship taking fire. Brakel was 
 killed in an engagement with the French in 1690. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRAKENBERG, Renter, a Dutch painter, bom at Haerlem 
 in 1649. He first studied under Mommers, and then under 
 Schendel, whom he imitated with all Brouwer's dissolute riot 
 and coarse repulsive fun. Sometimes the drinking-bout merry- 
 makings of Ostade were his models. His figiures are mannered 
 and badly drawn, and he painted with a careless facility which 
 only simulated finish. His chiaro-scuro is cleverly balanced, 
 neither light nor dark having too much their own way. His 
 later pictures betray negligence in the drawing of himds and 
 feet. His earlier pictures are ingeniously varied in subject, the 
 colouring strong and natm-al, the touch vigorous and firm. He 
 died at Haerlem in 1702. — W. T. 
 
 BRAMAH, Joseph, whose name Is known in connection 
 with numerous mechanical improvements, was bom at Stain- 
 borough, Yorkshire, in 1749. He was apprenticed to a carpenter 
 in his native place, and having sen'ed his apprenticeship, he 
 removed to London, and ere long began business as a cabinet- 
 maker. Having shown great aptitude for mechanical invention, 
 by some improvements which he effected in the construction of 
 water-closets, he devoted himself to that branch of labour. His 
 next invention, which he patented in 1784, w;is an improvement 
 on the construction of the lock, rendering it more inviolable. 
 Perhaps his most important achievement was the constraction 
 of a hydraulic press, acting on the principle of the hydrostatic 
 paradox, which produced gi-eat force, and could be conveniently 
 applied to many useful purposes. Its power was tested in Holt 
 Forest, Hampshire, where 300 of the largest trees were raised 
 from the ground by its means, managed by only two men. 
 Bramah erected at Woolwich arsenal a machine for planing 
 timber, moved by this power, which acted with gi-eat rapidity 
 and exactness. In 1807 he invented, for the bank of England, 
 a machine for numbering and datmg their notes, wliich effected 
 a great saving of time and labour. He died in 1814, in conse- 
 quence of cold caught ui Holt Forest, while superintending his 
 experiments there. I\Ir. Bramah left " A Dissertation on the 
 Construction of Locks," and " A Letter on the subject of an 
 alleged Violation of Patents." — J. B. 
 
 BRAMANTE. So httle is recorded of the origin of this great 
 Italian arcliitect, that his name and biithplace are equally un- 
 known. He is called Doxato Brajiaxte, and Bkajlvnte Laz- 
 ZAia — the foraier is probably the correct name — and he was, 
 according toVas;ui, bom at Castel Durante, or, according to another 
 account, Monte Asdmaldo, both ui the duchy of L^rbino, in 
 1444. He was brought up as a painter, and studied from the 
 works of Fra Bartolommeo of Urbino, called Fra Camovale, a 
 painter of reputation in his time ; but Bramante's real disposi- 
 tion was for architectm-e, and from 1474 he travelled throughout 
 the north of Italy in search of occupation accordingly, until he 
 settled, about 1480, in Milan, where he found patrons in Gian 
 Galeazzo Visconti, and in Lodo\ico il Moro. He was finally 
 appointed, in 1491, engineer of the cathedi-al. He had already far- 
 nished plans for the cathedrals of Foligno and Faenza. Bramante 
 was also the architect of the new cathedi-al of Pavia, of wliich the 
 first stone was laid by Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, .June 29, 1488; 
 and he superintended the works wliile he resided in Milan.
 
 About 1499, or more probably a few years earlier, he left Milan, 
 and established himself in Rome. Though Bramante was now 
 advanced in life, his great influence on modem art conmienced 
 in Rome ; he followed the steps of Bmnelleschi, who died within 
 a year of the time that Bramante was bom. The classic revival 
 had conunenced, the Gothic and Byzantine were superseded, and 
 the round arch in its turn supplanted the pointed. Bramante 
 took advantage of the opportunities afforded by the ancient ruins 
 of Rome, of perfecting his knowledge of classical art, and quali- 
 fied himself for the high position as an architect which he shortly 
 attained. The art of Bramante, however, was not classical, but 
 the classical applied to the uses of modem societj- — it was the 
 Italian renaissance in a gi-and and simple form. One of the 
 noblest examples of Bramante's style, is the Cancellaria Aposto- 
 lica, fonnerly known as the Palazzo San Giorgio, a magnificent 
 and spacious palace built as the private residence of Raphael 
 Biario, cardinal of San Giorgio, in the pontificate of Alexander 
 VI. It bears the date 1495, and besides being one of the 
 earliest, is one of the most important monuments of the 
 renaissance in Rome. The principal front on the Campo Fiore, 
 presenting above a basement, a double row of Corinthian pilas- 
 ters, comprising three upper stories, extends to about 275 feet in 
 length; but the great feature of the building is the inner court, 
 surrounded on all four sides by a double colonnade. This palace 
 was confiscated to the papal government in the time of Leo X., 
 in consequence of the participation of the Cardinal Riario 
 in the conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci against that pope. 
 Bramante executed many works in the pontificate of Alexander 
 VL, but Julius II. was his principal patron, and the Vatican 
 was the great arena of his glories. Here he carried out 
 vast works for that pope. He first joined the Belvedere 
 villa to the old palace of the Vatican, and enlarged and 
 embelUshed the palace by the addition of the court of San 
 Damaso, and the famous Loggie, containing the celebrated ara- 
 besques of Raphael, with many other improvements. Raphael 
 himself", the fellow-townsman of this architect, was invited to 
 Borne through the representations of Bramante. In 1506 he 
 commenced his immense undertaking — the rebuilding of the 
 Basilica of St. Peter. Julius II. laid the first stone on the 18th 
 of April of that year; but Bramante, though the maestro arehi- 
 tetto for eight years, did not carry the building much beyond the 
 four great piers of the dome; but these were the key to the 
 whole, and the work was necessarily continued mth correspond- 
 ing magnificence of proportions by his successors, but upwards 
 of a century elapsed before its completion. 
 
 Bramante died on the 11th March, 1515, and was buried 
 beneath the church of St. Peter, in the so-called Grotte Vaticane. 
 He was fratc del piombo, or keeper of the leaden seals. The 
 duty of this officer is to attach the leaden seals to the papal bulls. 
 After Bramante's death, Raphael was, by the express desire of 
 the architect, appointed his successor by Leo X. He had for 
 assistants, Giuliano da San Ga'.lo and Fra Giocondo da Verona, 
 who had been also the assistants of Bramante. After Raphael's 
 death in 1520, the work was carried on by Baldassare Peruzzi. 
 In 1536 Antonio da San Gallo, the nephew of Giuliano, succeeded 
 Peruzzi and considerably altered the original plan. Michel- 
 angelo succeeded San Gallo in 1546, and superintended the 
 work to the completion of the dome in 1564. The continuation 
 was then undertaken by Vignola, ;dded by Pirro Ligorio, under 
 the express condition that they were to adhere to the plan of 
 Michelangelo ; and as Ligorio wished to change the design, Pius 
 V. removed him. After the death of V^ignola hi 157o, (Jiaconio 
 della Porta assumed the direction of the works, and with the 
 assistance of Uomenico Fontana, completed the cupola, and fixed 
 the cross above it in 1590 in the pontificate of Gregory XIV. 
 Giacomo dell Porta died in 1604, and the work was finally 
 carried to completion by Carlo Maderno and Giovanni Fontana, 
 and consecrated by Urban VIIL in the year 1626, one hundred 
 and twenty years after the laying of the first stone by Bramante 
 and Julius II. — (Pungilconi, Afemoria intorno alhi vita cd alle 
 opere di Donate Bramante, 1836; Vasari, Vite dd Pittori, &c., 
 Kd. Le Monnier; Platner and Bunsen, Beschreiburg der Stadt 
 Rom., &c.)— R. N. W. 
 
 BRA5IBILLA, Giovanni Battista, a Piedinontese arti.st, 
 who studied under Delfino. He became renowned at Turin, and 
 executed there his best work, " The Death of St. Dalmatius."' 
 He flourished about 1772. — W. T. 
 
 BRAJIER, Leonard, a Dutch painter, bom at Delft in 1596. 
 
 He learned in Rembrandt's school, and tried to imitate him in 
 little. He went to Italy at eighteen, and resided chiefly at 
 Florence and Venice, where his works were much esteemed. 
 He seems to have devoted his life to the impossible and foolish 
 attempt of forgetting Flemish art, in which he would have been 
 original, and imitating Italian art, in wliich he was compelled to 
 be a poor mean copyist. He excelled in painting towns on fire 
 at night, and caverns with light pouring in from above, the 
 poetry in fact of firelit rooms and grating-lit cellars turned into 
 flaming Sodoms and dungeons of Ugolino. His mannerism was 
 the introduction of gold and silver vases into his pictures ; these 
 he painted bright, lustrous, and bold, with a fine rich relievo. 
 He drew his shadows verj' thin and transparent. PUkington 
 says he had a good taste in design, noble and commendable 
 expression, a delicate pencil, and a bright fuU tone. His best 
 pictures were a small "Pyramus and Thisbe" on copper; a 
 " Denial of St. Peter ; " and a " Raising of Lazarus." The palace 
 at Ryswick had or has some of Bramer's pictures. He died at 
 Delft, year unknown. — W. T. 
 
 BRAMPTON, Williaji de, one of the four justiciars of 
 England in the reign of Edward I., 1274-1307. In 1288 he 
 was accused and found guilty of breach of tnist and of peculation, 
 and, along with three accomplices, was condemned to pay the 
 enormous fine of forty thousand marks, and to be confined in 
 the Fleet prison. The celebrated Latin treatise on the entire 
 body of the English law, called Fleta, from the place where it 
 was written, is supposed by some to have been compiled by de 
 Brampton, or by one of his colleagues, Thomas de Weyland, J. de 
 Lovetot, and Adam de Strutton. This excellent work was first 
 published by Seldon in 1635. — J. T. 
 
 BRAND, .John, celebrated for his research as an antiquary, 
 was bom at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1743. He was apprenticed 
 to a shoemaker, but found means to prosecute his studies, and 
 at last to reach Oxford, where he took his bachelors degree, and 
 where he published a poem named " Illicit Love ; -nTitten among 
 the ruins of Godstow nunnery," his mind having been attracted 
 by the memories of the fair Rosamond and her royal lover. In 
 1774 he was presented to the curacy of Cramlington, Newcastle, 
 and ten years later to the church of St. Slary-hill, London. On 
 his removal to London he was chosen secretai-y to the Society of 
 Antiquaries, having become distinguished by the publication of 
 a work called " Observations on Popular Antiquities," including 
 Bourne's Antiquitates Vulgares, with addenda to every chapter. 
 In 1789 he published "The History and Antiquities" of his 
 native town and county. He died in 1806. — J. B. 
 
 BRAND, John Christian, a German artist, bom at Vienna 
 in 1723. He became a celebrated Lrndscape painter, and pro- 
 fessor in the Imperial Academy. He studied under Schmutzer, 
 engraved several plates, and died in 1793. His brother, Fke- 
 DEKicK Augustus, became also a landscape painter and 
 engraver. — W. T. 
 
 * BRANDE, William Thomas, who for nearly half a centurj- 
 has occupied a distinguished position among British ciiemists, 
 was bom in 1788, in Arlington Street, St. James', London. He 
 was educated first at a private school at Kensington, and after- 
 wards at the Westminster school, which he left in 1802. In 
 1803 he was sent to Hanover, but Bonaparte's threatened inva- 
 sion obliged him to escape to Hamburg, and thence he returned 
 home, having, however, during his residence abroad, perfected 
 his knowledge of the French and German languages. On his 
 return he was entered as a pupil at St. George's hospital, where 
 he attended the medical lectmcs, and worked hard in the dissect- 
 ing room. He connnunicated occasional papers to NichoUon's 
 Journal, and in 1805 lie drew up a short account of some experi- 
 ments on guaiacum, which were read before the Royal Society, 
 and published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1806. In 
 
 1808 he made a chemical examination of the calculi in the Hun- 
 terian museum, and in the winter of the same year he delivered 
 a Course of lectures on jilumnaceutical chemistry at Dr. Hooper's 
 medical theatre in Cork Street. He afterwards joined the newly- 
 established medical school in Windmill Street, and thus became 
 fairly embarked as a teacher and demonstrator of chemistry. In 
 
 1809 he was elected a follow of the Royal Society, and in 1813 
 he received the Copley medal ; three years afterwards, on the 
 resignation of Dr. \Vollaston, he was elected senior secretaiy of 
 the Royal Society, an office which he held till 1826. In 1812 
 Sir H. Davy reconnuended liim as his successor to the professor- 
 ship of chemistry in the Royal Institution, to which office, after
 
 a probationary course, he was elected in June, 1813. The 
 chemical classes of St. George's hospital and of the Windmill 
 Street medical school were soon afterwards transferred to the 
 Royal Institution, so that, in addition to the weeldy lectures in 
 the theatre of the institution, Mr. Brande gave an extended 
 course of lectures and demonstrations in the laboratoiy of that 
 establishment. In 1820 Mr. Faraday became associated with 
 Jlr. Brande in this course of lectures, which for many years were 
 justly regarded as the best on the subject in London. Mr. 
 Brande now devoted himself entirely to lecturing and chemical 
 pursuits. Having, in 1812, been requested to report upon the 
 laboratories belonging to the Society of Apothecaries in London, 
 he was shortly afterwards appointed professor of chemistry and 
 materia medica to that corporation; and in 1851 he became 
 master of the company. He edited, conjointly with Mr. Fara- 
 day, the Quarterly Journal of Science and Arts, from its com- 
 mencement in 1816 till 1836. In 1825 he was appointed to 
 the office of superintendent of the die department in the Royal 
 Mint, and was also intrusted with the supervision of the machinery 
 of that establishment. In 1836 he was named one of the original 
 fellows of the university of London, and a member of the senate 
 of that body ; and in 1846 he became one of their examiners, an 
 office which he resigned in 1858. On the installation of Lord 
 Derby as chancellor of the university of Oxford, Mr. Brande 
 received the honorary degree of doctor of civil laws in that uni- 
 versity. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinbm-gh, and 
 a member of several other British and foreign societies. He is 
 the author of a dictionary of pharmacy and materia medica, and 
 in 1842 he undertook the editorship of the Dictionaiy of Science, 
 Literature, and Art. But the most important work he has pub- 
 lished is his " Manual of Chemistry," which contains a faithful 
 digest of the focts and discoveries of the science up to the date 
 of pubhcation, and an explicit exposition of its fundamental 
 principles and laws. It lias passed through six editions, and 
 b(?en translated into French, German, and Italian, and deservedly 
 ranks as one of the best treatises on chemistry in the English 
 language. As a lucid expositor of science Mr. Brande has been 
 eminently distinguished. Few scientific men have enjoyed so 
 prolonged and so successful a career. He may be regarded as 
 a connecting link between the brilliant period of Davy, Wol- 
 laston, and Hope, when inorganic chemistry was most zealously 
 cultivated, and that of Faraday and Graham, when the physical 
 department was most fertile in discoveiy ; whUe his vigorous 
 intellect still keeps pace with those extensive researches in the 
 domain of orgaiuc chemistiy, which have recently changed the 
 asj)ect of the science, and yielded a rich harvest of results from 
 the products of animal and vegetable life. — F. P. 
 
 BKANDAO, Alexander, a Portuguese historian of the 
 second half of the seventeenth centmy ; wrote " Istoria delle 
 guerre di Portogallo," &c., 1089. 
 
 BKANDAO, Antonio, a celebrated historian, was born in 
 Portugal on the 25th of April, 1584. He entered the order of 
 St. Bernard, and was appointed to teach sacred history at Coim- 
 bra, where he became abbot of Alcobafa. He continued the 
 History of Portugal by Bernardo di Brito, and was appointed 
 royal historiographer. Died in 1037. — A. C. M. 
 
 BRANDENBURG, Electors of. The margraviate of 
 Brandruburg in the time of Cajsar was inhabited by the Suevi, 
 one of the most warlike of the German races. They claimed 
 the whole tenitory between the Baltic and the Rhine and 
 Danube. Somewhat later, the two Marks, the Old and the 
 Middle Mark, into which this extensive region was divided, were 
 known to the Romans as respectively peopled by the Langobardi 
 and the Suevi. Both nations subsequently following the stream 
 of northern rapacity into Italy, their deserted homes were talfen 
 possession of by the Vandals or Slavonians, who, with an inter- 
 val of a hundred years or more, in which they were under sub- 
 jection to the Franks, held the Middle Mark till 789, when they 
 i'ell under the sway of Charlemagne. They were not completely 
 subdued, however, till the reign of Henry I., who in 931 finally 
 established the authority of the counts whom he had appointed 
 to guard the Saxon borders. These were the margraves of 
 Lower Saxony, called also from their patrimony margraves of 
 Stade. On the extinction of the line of Stade, Lotharius gave 
 the North Mark and the Salzwedel Mark to Albert the Bear 
 (sec that name), who was the first to assume the title of mar- 
 grave of Brandenburg. His successors increased their patrimony 
 by the addition of the New Mark, Lower Lusatia, and other 
 
 districts ; but their line terminating in the Blargrave Henry, 
 who died in 1320, Brandenburg passed, as a lapsed fief of the 
 empire, into the hands of Lewis of Bavaria, who confirmed it on 
 his eldest son, Lewis. Lewis was succeeded by his brother 
 Otho, who in 1373 was superseded, in what had then become 
 the electorate of Brandenl)m-g, by Wenzel, eldest son of Charles 
 IV. From Sigismund, Wenzel's successor, the electoral l\Iark 
 passed to his cousins, Jobst and Procophis, piinces of Moravia, 
 and in 1417 to Frederic, margi-ave of Nm'nberg. This illus- 
 trious prince was succeeded in 1440 by Frederic II., who 
 redeemed from the hands of the Teutonic knights the New Mark, 
 which they had held in pawn for sums advanced to Sigismund, 
 and otherwise greatly extended the electoral territory. He was 
 succeeded m 1471 by his brother, Albert Achilles (see that 
 name), who resigned the electoral dignity in 1486 to his son, 
 John Cicero. Joachim I., the persecutor of the Jews, son of 
 John Cicero, succeeded in 1499, and was followed by that patron 
 of learnuig and the reformed religion, Joachim II., who became 
 lord-paramount over the duchy of Prussia. In 1571 John 
 (jeorge, who inherited the New Mark and the principality of 
 Crossen from his imcle, succeeded to the electoral dignity. His 
 son, Joachim Frederic, succeeded in 1598, and reigned till 1608, 
 when, together with the electoral possessions, there fell to his 
 son, John Sigismund, the domains of Juliers, Cleves, and Berg, 
 and the duchy of Prussia. His son, George William, who suc- 
 ceeded in 1619, bequeathed his immense patrimony to his son, the 
 " great elector," Frederic- William. (See Frederic- Willl\m 
 of Pnissia.) The son of this illustrious prince became king of 
 Prussia under the title of Frederic I. in 1701. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRANDES, Joiiann Christian, a German actor and dra- 
 matic writer, was born at Stettin in 1735, and died in 1799. He 
 led an adventurous life as apprentice, shopkeeper, quack, serving- 
 man, secretary, actor, and manager. His dramas were for a long 
 time highly popular. He pubhshed an interesting autobiography. 
 
 BRANDI, Giacinto, a scholar of Lanfranco, born at Poli, 
 near Rome, in 1623. He also studied under Sementi of Bologna. 
 He acquired much reputation in the churches and palaces of 
 Rome ; but getting fond of pleasure, extravagant, and needy, 
 he painted too fast and roughly, and lost both fame and credit. 
 Brandi died in 1691. He was head of the St. Luke academy, 
 and knight of the order of Christ. — W. T. 
 
 * BRANDIS, Christian August, a Gennan philosopher, 
 son of Joachim Dietrich, born m 1790, author of commentaries on 
 Aristotle; " Rheinisches Museum fiirPhilologie,"&c.; and "Hand- 
 buch der Geschichte der griechisch-roemischen Philosopliie." 
 
 BRANDIS, JoACiiiisi Dietrich, conference-raad, and physi- 
 cian to the king of Denmark, was born in 1762. He received 
 his doctor's degi'ee at Kiel, where afterwards, m 1786, he became 
 professor of medicine, and whence he was summoned to Copen- 
 hagen as royal jihy;jician. As a practical physician he attained 
 to the highest celebrity in Denmark. — M. H. 
 
 BRiVNDilULLER, Gregory, a Swiss artist, bom at Basle 
 in 1661. His father's collection of prints led him to art, and he 
 studied under Caspar Meyer. At seventeen he went to Le BniD, 
 at Paris, and worked with him at Versailles, The hardy Swiss 
 carried off the Royal Academy prize, and was at last (biven home 
 by the envy of his fellow-students. On his return to Switzer- 
 land, Brandnuiller was invited to the courts of Wutemberg and 
 Baden Dourlach. His best work is a " Descent from the Cross," 
 at the Capuchin chiu'ch in the latter place. He excelled in his- 
 tory and portraits, the latter always like, and enriched with 
 analogous and historical attributes. He had nobility of feeling, 
 spirit, and fire for an eclectic. His designs and expression iVK 
 true and animated ; his sentiment grand and elewated. He laid 
 on his colom-s pure, and did not torture or blend them. He 
 would have been a great painter, but death stepped in just as he 
 was thirty, broke his palette, and pushed him into the gi-ave he 
 had not observed at the foot of his easel.— W. T. 
 
 BRANDOLINI, Aurelio, one of the best orators and poets 
 of the fifteenth century, and an eminent theologian, philosopher, 
 and musician. JIatliias Corvinus, king of Hungary, induced 
 him to accept the professorship of oratory in the university of 
 Buda. The suavity of his manners and his profound erudition 
 won for him the aftection of both the king and queen, who con- 
 sulted him in all important matters, and bestowed on him riches 
 and honours. His celebrated works, " De humanai vitic condi- 
 tione, et toleranda corjioris ai-gritudine," and " De comparatione 
 reipublicsc et regni," were dedicated to that sovereign, on whose
 
 death he returned to Flcjrence, and entered the order of St. 
 Augtistine. He aftenvards journeyed through Italy, where he 
 ■was universally acknowledged the first of sacred orators. He 
 also translated into Latin verse Pliny's Natural History, and was 
 the tutor of Pope Julius III. He died of the plague at Rome 
 in 1497.— A. C. M. 
 
 BRANDOLINI, Raffaele, a brother or cousin of Aurelio, 
 born at Florence towards the middle of the fifteenth century, a 
 nobleman of singular talents, who, although deprived of sight 
 whilst yet an infant, could compose impromptu the most elabo- 
 rate Latin poems on any given subject. Mazzucchelli relates 
 of him, that having recited an oration before King Ferdinand, 
 and being desired by that monarch to turn it into verse, he did 
 so witliout the least hesitation ; whereupon the king exclaimed — 
 " Magnus orator, summus poeta !" After the death of Aurelio, 
 his near relation, he went to Rome, where he contracted the 
 closest friendship with the famous Marone and Pontano. With 
 their assistance he published many of Aurelio's posthumous 
 works, which he dedicated to Cardinal Giovanni de Medicis, who, 
 when on the papal throne, under the name of Leo X., assigned 
 to his protego splendid apartments in the Vatican. Altliough 
 blind, every one considered and called him " Oculus pontificis." 
 I )nly tlu-ee of his splendid orations, some treatises, and a few 
 letters written in classic Latin, have been preserved. Brandolini 
 died at the beginning of the sixteenth centui-y. — A. C. M. 
 
 BRANDT (in Latin, Titio), Sebastian, a celebrated Ger- 
 man poet, was born at Strasburg in 1458, and died May 10, 
 1520. He studied law at Basle, where he became professor in 
 the university, and afterwards was appointed by the Emperor 
 Maximilian to high civic ofBces in his native town. He is the 
 author of the renovmed satirical poem, "Das Narrenschiff" (the 
 Fools' Ship, or the New Ship of Narragonia), in which he satirizes 
 the vices and follies of his age, and sends all fools by shiploads 
 into their own coimtry, called Narragonia. Less for its poetical 
 merit, than for its high moral tendency, this poem enjoyed so 
 universal a popularity, that it was translated into almost all 
 Em'opean languages (into English by Alexander Barklay, 1509), 
 and that the well-known Geiler von Kaisersberg even selected 
 the texts for his sermons from its pages. He also published a 
 volume of Latin poetry and other works. The best editions of 
 the "Narrenschiff" are by A. W. Strobel, Quedlinburg, 1838, 
 and by Fr. Zarncke, 1854.— K. E. 
 
 BKANKER, Tiiojias, an English mathematician of the 
 middle of the seventeenth century, author of a translation of the 
 Algebra of Rhonius, and of a treatise on the doctrine of the 
 Sphere. 
 
 BRANT, Joseph, a celebrated Indian chieftain of the 
 Mohawk tribe, the head of the Iroquois Confederacy, or " Six 
 Nations," as they were called, in the state of New York. Thay- 
 endanegea was his Indian name ; whether he was of pure or 
 mixed blood is a disputed point. He was born on the banks of 
 the Ohio river about 1742, and when only fourteen years old, 
 was sent by Sir William Johnson to Dr. Wlieelock's Indian 
 charity school in Connecticut, where he received a good educa- 
 tion. In 17G2 he was employed as an interpreter I'y the Rev. 
 Charles .J. Smith, a missionary to the Mohawks ; he appears to 
 have befriended the missionaries, and to have exerted himself 
 for the religious instruction of his Indian brethren. He ])ublished 
 the Book of Common Prayer and the Gospel of St. Mark, trans- 
 lated by himself into the Mohawk language, in London in 1787; 
 and he proposed to write a history of the Six Nations, but never 
 fulfilled this intention. When the Revolution broke out, the 
 influence of the Johnsons, the agents of government with the 
 Six Nations, inclined him to adopt the royalist side ; and this 
 inclination was strengthened during a visit which he made to 
 England in the winter and spring of 1776. He was received in 
 London witli flattering attentions ; the earl of Warwick engaged 
 Romncy to paint his portrait, and James Boswell in a charac- 
 teristic manner gloried in forming an intimacy with him. He 
 returned to America in April, 1776, having previously pledged 
 himself to take the field in the royal cause, with 3000 warriors 
 of his race. He fulfilled his promise as far as he could, not 
 bringing so many of his tribe with him as he had expected, l)ut 
 still affording essential aid to the king's arms. After the peace, 
 he visited England again, to adjust the claims of the loyal 
 Mohawks upon the crown, for indemnification of their losses 
 and sacrifices during the war. He was received even with 
 greater attention than before, being quite a lion in fashionable 
 
 society; all his claims were satisfied, and he returned to his 
 native land in high good humom-. A tract of land for the 
 residence of his tribe was assigned to them upon Grand River, 
 on the north side of Lake Erie. The remainder of Brant's life 
 was spent at the handsome seat which he owned in Upper 
 Canada, at the head of Lake Ontario, where he died November 
 24th, 1807, aged 65. Two of his sons were educated at Moor's 
 Indian school, connected with Dartmouth college. His daughter 
 married WiUiam J. Kerr, Esq., of Niagara, in 1824. 
 
 BRANTOME, Piekke de Boukdeilees, born about 1540 ; 
 died in 1614. He was the third son of Francis, vicomte de 
 Bourdeilles, and of Anne de Vivonne de la Chataigneaue — by 
 both his parents of the best blood of Bretagne. He lived in a 
 day when the distinction of birth was evei-ything in France. His 
 early years were past at the court of l^Iargaret de Valois, sister 
 of Francois I., and queen of Navarre, to whom the mother of 
 Pierre was dame de cwps. The romance of real life which he 
 witnessed here impressed the boy more than his royal mistress's 
 lively novels, amusing as they are. On the death of " la reine 
 spirituelle" in 1549, he commenced his studies at Paris, and 
 completed them — to use the language of his day — at Poitiers, 
 1555. Bourdeilles, from which the family took one of its 
 titles, as well as the name by which Pierre is often styled, is 
 about three leagues from Perigueux, the ancient capital of the 
 province of Perigord. But they were also the owners of the 
 district round Brantome in the same province. At Brantnme 
 there was an abbaye, the gift of which it would appear was in 
 the crown, and this in 1556 was given to Pierre by Henry II., 
 in recompense of some services rendered by his brother. Seig- 
 neur d'Ardelay. The abbaye was held by Pierre sometimes in 
 his own name, sometimes in that of others but for his use, for the 
 rest of his life ; and, from this circumstance, he was more often 
 known by the name of the abbaye than his own. The character 
 and pursuits of the abbe, which we chiefly know through his 
 own writings, are not calculated to suggest the notion of u 
 churchman ; nor does his receinng the means of support from 
 church pi-operty seem to have had annexed to it any inconvenient 
 condition. It certainly imposed no restriction on his courting 
 pleasure in any of the courses which suggest themselves to the 
 mere layman. It did not interfere with his pursuing niilitaiy 
 life as a profession ; and we have him everywhere, like a knight- 
 errant in search of adventures, running over Europe wherever he 
 found employment for his long sword, saddle, and bridle. We 
 cannot speak much for the modesty of his pretensions ; still 
 nothing very great is claimed for him by hunself or others on the 
 score of his martial achievements. They are not performed " en 
 capitaine, capable de se faire un nom parmi les grands guerriers 
 contemporains mais en vaillant soldat, en homme qui s.av.oit 
 manier avec addresse une longue (?pee ou une dague." lirantome 
 was obsei-vant, and was active — very much of a gossip — very 
 shrewd — veiy credulous — never seeing more than the surface of 
 things — and seeming never to suspect that much of what great 
 men say and do in public, is for the purpose of misleading inqui- 
 sitive spirits like his. Of his strange credulity it is scarce pos- 
 sible to imagine a stronger proof than what he says of the 
 Emperor Charles V. He tells us that he made efforts to be 
 elected pope ; that failing in this, he still indulged the ecclesias- 
 tical passion which suggested his strange ambition of becoming 
 a monk. Brantome made his way wherever a battle was to be 
 fought, and he behaved in the field gallantly. In the festivities 
 after victory, in the camp, or during truces, he was sure to be as 
 far as possible with " captains and colonels, and knights in amis," 
 learning all he could of what led to the fortvuie of the day ; and 
 even when little else could be had in such connnunications, 
 learning that for which he is now chiefly consulted, and for 
 which he is indeed an indispensable authority to students of 
 Fi'ench history — the characters of the persons with whom he 
 was thus brought in contact. 
 
 Brantome, though always holding some apiioinlnicnt at court, 
 or with the duke of Aleni^on, whose chamberlain he was for some 
 time, complains of the neglect of the great — tells of disappoint- 
 ments with respect to oftices which he wished for, and which 
 others obtained. On the death of Charics IX. he finally retired 
 from public life, and employed himself in the management of a 
 sister-in-law's property, and the education of a brother's children, 
 whom he adopted. It was impossible that such occupations should 
 be sufficient to satisfy Brantome's restless and discontented spirit. 
 His imasrination still carried him back to the scenes which he had
 
 quitted with rejrret, and it peopled tlie solitude in which he lived 
 with the brilliant phantoms of the stirring life in which he had so 
 long mingled. The earnestness with which he reacts some of the 
 old scenes of his life ; the desire he has to set tilings right which 
 he thinks the world has misapprehended, and to substitute his 
 own view for another — one often too much more probably true — 
 which he thinks it his interest to disprove ; remind us more of 
 the character of some of Napoleon's conversations at St. Helena, 
 than of anything else with which they can be compared. The 
 books, however, of Napoleon's secretaries are as dull compared 
 with Brantome's as Napoleon himself was superior to most of 
 the worthies of whom Brantome writes. Brantome's " Dames 
 Gallantes," if great allowances are not made for the period in 
 which he wrote, is a book which leaves a sad stain on his 
 memory. It is as bad, and that is saying a good deal, as any- 
 thing written by his old mistress, ilargaret of Navaire. Bran- 
 tome's books are in some respects very curious. He seems not 
 to have thought of writing till his retirement, and he writes veiy 
 much from recollections of his own, not confirmed or aided by 
 notes taken at the time of the occurrences ; though he does not 
 reject from his nan-atives anything that he heard at a later 
 period fi-om good authority. The books are gossiping books, yet 
 the gossip is one who seems talking only to himself, and writing 
 with no other view than to amuse and occupy himself. Yet he 
 anticipated the reputation which his writings would acquire, and 
 had some fear lest his boolcs should be ascribed to some other 
 than the true author. He orders his representatives to print 
 his works after his death. He describes the manuscript volumes 
 — " Lesquels on trouvera couverts de veloiu-s tant noir que verd 
 et bleu, et un grand volume, qui est celui des dames, convert 
 de velours verd, curieusement gardes et tres bien corriges." 
 Brantome complains, with but little justice, of the caprices of 
 fortune and the neglect of courts. He appears at all times to 
 have been received with favour and attention. Charles IX. 
 gave him a pension of 10,000 livres. He had, besides, the abbaye 
 of Brantome. — J. A. D. 
 
 BKARD, Cypuien-Pkospek, a French mineralogist, born at 
 I'Aigle in 1786, became director of the mines of Savoy in Saxony, 
 engineer-in-chief of the mines of Alais, and engineer of the school 
 of mines in Paris, and died at Lardin on the 2Sth of November, 
 1838. Brard was the author of several valuable elementary 
 works on mineralogy and mining, the most important of whicli 
 are his " Nouveaux elements de mineralogie, ou manuel du 
 mincralogiste voyageur," published at Paris in 1838 (tlus is the 
 third edition of a work which appeared under its second title 
 in 1803); and his "Elements pratiques d'exploitation," &c., 
 published at Strasburg in 1829. He also published a " Miner- 
 alogie populau'e," Paris, 1826, which was frequently reprinted, 
 and some other popular works on mineralogy, chemistry, physics, 
 and natural histor}-. — \V. S. D. 
 
 BRASK, Samuel P., a Swedish poet of the seventeenth 
 centuiy, and pastor of Clara. He v>Tote a " Comcedia om den 
 foriorade Son," 16-15. He died in 1668.— M. H. 
 
 BKASSAC, Je.vn GallaPvD de Beakn, comte de, a states- 
 man and ambassador of the reign of Louis XIII., superintendent 
 of the queen's household, bom of noble parentage in the pro^'ince 
 of Saintonge in 1579 ; died at Paris in 1645. He began 
 public life as king's lieutenant at Saint Jean d'Angely, where, 
 although professing to be of their party, he made him.self hated 
 as an oppressor of the protestants. The better to make his way 
 in the world, he latterly recanted the heresies of the reformers, 
 and under the pontificate of Urban VIII. was ambassador at 
 Home. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRASSICANUS, Johann Alexander, a poet and philo- 
 logist, bom at Wirtemberg in 1500 ; died at Vienna in 1539. 
 
 BRATHWAITE or BKAITHWAYTE, Richard, a pa.storal 
 ))oet of the reign of James I., bom of a respectable family in 
 Westmoreland in 1588. After spending a number of years at 
 Oxford and Cambridge, where, according to Wood, "he avoided 
 as much as he could the rough paths of logic and philosophy, 
 and traced those smooth ones of poetry and Roman history, in 
 which at length he did excel, he settled in his native county, on 
 an estate given him by his father." He latterly resided at Apple- 
 ton in Yorkshire, and' died there in 1673. A list of his produc- 
 tions, the best of which are his pastoral pieces, is given by Wood. 
 
 • BRAUN, Alex.vxdkr, a famous German botanist, who 
 has done much to advance physiology. He has written mono- 
 graphs of the North American species of Equisetum, Isoetes, and 
 
 Marsilea, and notices of Charae. He has published valuable 
 papers on "The Plant Individual," and on the "Rejuvenescence 
 of Plants."— J. H. B. 
 
 BRAUN, August Emil, a German archaeologist, was bom 
 at Gotha in 1809, studied at Giittingen and Munich, and after- 
 wards was appointed librarian and secretary to the Archaeological 
 Institute at Rome. He published many valuable works and 
 tre;itises on archseological subjects, some of which have been 
 translated into English. We mention his "Antike Marmor- 
 werke;" " Grieclii.sche Jlythologie ;" " Vorschule zur Kunstmy- 
 thologie," &c. He first employed the galvano-plastic process for 
 multiplpng works of art, and died at Rome in 1856. — K. E. 
 
 * BRAUN, Wilhelm von, a Swedish lieutenant and poet. 
 His poems, which ai-e descriptive of every-day life, are witty but 
 coarse. Two volumes were published in 1827-28. — M. H. 
 
 * BRAVAIS, AuGUSTE, bom in 1811 ; an exceedingly inge- 
 nious and industrious French physician, from whom science 
 expects many farther and valuable contributions. Bravais was 
 a leading member of the great scientific expedition to Scandinavia. 
 In the report of the voyage, his memoirs on the aurora borealis, 
 and on various magnetical and meteorolo^cal points, arc veiy 
 valuable. He is the author of many separate memoirs in the 
 Annaks de Physique et Chimie, and we owe chiefly to him and 
 M. Charles Jlartins, those four volumes of the Annuaire Meteo- 
 rolofjique. — J. P. N. 
 
 BRAVAIS, Louis F., a French naturalist, has written valu- 
 able memoirs on the geometrical arrangement of the leaves and 
 inflorescence of plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 * BRAVO, Nicholas, a Mexican general, one of the leaders 
 in the war of independence, bora about the year 1780. From 
 the commencement of the insurrection which separated Mexico 
 from Spain, tUl the forced abdication of Iturbide in 1823, he 
 was constantly in arms, contributing greatly to the success of the 
 movement by various brilliant exploits, particularly his victory 
 over the Spanish general ilusitra. After the downfall of Itur- 
 bide, along with Vittoria and Negrette, he came into power ; and 
 notwithstanding that the monarchical party, of which he was 
 the chief, was at the moment the weaker of the two which 
 di\'ided the republic, he was named vice-president in 1824. 
 This post he retained till 1827, when his party having deter- 
 mined to oust the government of Vittoria, which was pledged to 
 republican principles, he joined the rebel Manuel Montano, and 
 being defeated by Guerreiro was taken prisoner, and sentenced 
 to six years' banishment. Before the ex])iry of his sentence he 
 was recalled in 1829, on the election of Buhtamente to the pre- 
 sidency. He has since been revenged on his adversary, Guerreiro, 
 who was shot as a rebel in 1831, and had been once more 
 defeated in the field by Vittoria in 1833. He is said to be 
 living in retirement in a village of the United States. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRAWE, JoACHiJi Wilhelm Fkeiherr von, a young 
 German poet of great promise, was bom at Weissenfels, Febmary 
 4, 1738, and died at Dresden, April 7, 1758. He wrote two 
 tragedies, "Der Freigeist" and "Brutus" — the first German 
 di-ama in blank verse — which were edited after his death by 
 Lessing, Berlin, 1768.— K. E. 
 
 BRAXFIELD, Robert JIacQi;een, Lord, a Scottish judge 
 of eminence; bom on the 4th of May, 1722. His father was 
 jiroprietor of the estate of Braxfield in Lanai-kshire. Lord 
 Braxfield was educated partly at the grammar school of the 
 county town, and partly at the university of Edinburgh. After 
 this he completed an apprenticeship with the view of becoming 
 a writer to the signet, but finally devoted himself to the more 
 ambitious career ol' the bar. He passed advocate in 1744. He 
 made himself well acquainted with the intricacies of feudal law, 
 and was employed by the crown in the numerous disputes which 
 arose in regard to the estates forfeited in the rebellion of 1745. 
 This gave him an opportunity of making his talents known, and 
 he speedily became possessed of very extensive practice. His 
 position at the bar, and his social qualities, which were of a kind 
 suited to the rimes, brought him into intimacy with Dundas, the 
 president of the court, and with his brother, the then lord- advo- 
 cate, aftenvards Lord Melville. His intimacy with them is said 
 to have continued throughout life. Although at a gi-eat sacrifice 
 of professional income, they prevailed upon him to accept, in 
 1766, a seat upon the bench, when, in the way customary in 
 Scotland, he assumed the title of Lord Braxfield, from the estate 
 which he had inherited from his father. In 1780 he obtained 
 a judgeship m the criminal court also. Seven years 3fter\vard3
 
 BEA 
 
 737 
 
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 he was elevated to the office of lord-justice-clerk iu Scotland, 
 which gave him the second position in the supreme ci^il court, 
 and made him the ordinary president of the supreme criminal 
 court. In this capacity he is best remembered as having pre- 
 sided at the trials of Muir, Palmer, and others, for sedition, 
 in 1793 and 1794. He died on the 30th of May, 1799.— 
 It is difficult now to foi-m an accurate estimate of Braxfield's 
 character. His political friends represent him as able and 
 honest; his political opponents, as coarse and unprincipled. 
 That he possessed great intellectual energj-, and was clear, \ngor- 
 ons, and logical, within his own domain of feudal and ci\"il law, 
 is admitted by all. That he was honest, there seems no reason 
 to call in question, though he appears to have adopted his poli- 
 tical opinions without examination, and to have adhered to them 
 with but little knowledge of their bearing. The late Lord- 
 President Hope describes him in private as "a kind-hearted 
 man, and a warm and steady friend." With these qualities, and 
 with a fearless discharge of what he believed to be his duty, 
 his virtues end. The rough humour of the times degenerated 
 with him into excessive coarseness. His boldness and strength 
 of muid, unchecked by serious opposition either from his brother 
 judges or from the bar, or by public opinion, rendered him on 
 the bench too often insolent and overbearing. Strongly built, 
 with heavy overhanging eyebrows, clear piercing eyes, and large 
 firmly-marked features, his aspect made him appear more violent 
 than he was. It is in relation to his conduct in the sedition 
 trials already mentioned, that the severest charges against his 
 memoiy rest. The numerous anecdotes are not to be trusted, 
 but in the trials, as reported by HoweU — State Trials, vol. xsiii. 
 — there is much to justify severe condemnation. — J. D. W. 
 
 BRAY, Ann.v Eliza, born Kempe, an eminent English 
 novelist, was bom in the county of Siu-rey towards the end of 
 last century. Her early passion for the stage being happily 
 converted into an enthusiasm for art, she received lessons in 
 painting from Thomas Stothard, and in. 1818 married the son 
 of that artist, Charles Alfred, famous for his illuminations, and 
 for his di'awings of antiquities. In company with her husband, 
 she made a tour through Normandy and Brittany, and published 
 on her return in 1820, a series of descriptive letters, illustrated 
 by designs from her own pencil and her husband's. The melan- 
 choly death of Charles Stothard iu the following year, threw on 
 her the task, the artist's last and fatal task, of illustrating the 
 account of Derbyshire in Lyson's Magna Britannia. At this 
 period she recovered from one overwhelming giief only to be 
 subjected to another. She lost in succession her father and 
 her only child, and, to crown her sorrows, she was seized with 
 temporary blindness. In 1823 she published the " Jlemoirs of 
 Charles Stothard." Two years later she manied Mr. E. A. 
 Bray, curate of Tavistock, London, and author of several theo- 
 logical works. Mr. Bray died in 18.57. Mrs. Bray's novels are 
 of two classes, historical and legendary. She has been thought 
 to excel chiefly iu the former; but both are characterized by 
 considerable vigom- and by healthy moral sentiment, and have 
 been extensively popular. We mention—" Courtenay of Wal- 
 reddon;" "Gaston de Foix;" "Protestant;" "Talba;" "Trials 
 of Domestic Life;" and " Wliite Hoods." 
 
 BRAY, Thojias, an eminent English divine, memorable in 
 connection with various missionary enterprises of the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century, was bom at JIarton, Shropshire, in 
 165G, and received his eaii}' education at the school of Oswestry. 
 After graduating at H:u-t hall, Oxford, he obtained, through the 
 influence of Lord Digby, the vicarage of Over-Whitacre and the 
 rectory of Sheldon. His catechetical lectures, which were pub- 
 lished while he held these preferments, having attracted the 
 favourable notice of Bishop Compton, that learned prelate selected 
 him as his commissary to JIaiyland. In this responsible posi- 
 tion liis talents and missionary zeal were so usefully exercised 
 as to command for him general favour in the church. The 
 missionaries he employed were selected with the greatest care, 
 and instmcted thoroughly in their duties. To aid them in their 
 labours, he took pains to provide for them parochial libraries, 
 giving thus the first hint of an institution, which, under the 
 authority of parliament, was afterwards adopted throughout 
 England and Wales. He saUed from England in December, 1 G99, 
 and remained in Maryiand two years, pursuing with untiring 
 energy his .schemes for the settlement of the church in that 
 province. On his retum in 1701 he published his " Circular 
 Letters to the Clerg)- of Maryland," for which he received the 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 thanks of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, an 
 association which he had been mainly instramental in forming, 
 and was publicly eulogized by the most eminent churclunen, 
 p.articularly the bishop of London and the archbishop of Canter- 
 biuT. Having been appointed to the living of St. Botolph, 
 Aldgate, in 1706, he continued in that prefemient till his death 
 m 1730. The impulse which he communicated to missionary 
 enterprise in this countiy deserved, as it attracted, the notice of 
 his sovereign and of parliament, and the reputation for piety 
 which he left behind him was justified by the records of a long 
 and laborious life devoted to the ends of christian philanthropy. 
 Besides the publication above mentioned, Dr. Bray gave to the 
 world, "Proposals for the Encouragement and Promoting of 
 Eehgion and Learnmg in the Foreign Plantations," and " An 
 Account of the Present State of Maryland." — J. S., G. 
 
 BRAY, WiLLiAsi, F.S.A., a noted antiquarian, was bom in 
 1736, and received his early education at Rugby. He was 
 articled to a solicitor at Guildford, but subsequently became a 
 clerk in the board of green cloth, through the mterest of the 
 Evelyn family. He was the author of a " Tour in Derbyshire 
 and Yorkshire," completed Manning's History of Surrey, and 
 was a frequent contributor to the Ardueologia, &c. He cata- 
 logi;ed and edited the MSS. of John Evelyn (Sylva), and 
 published his Jlemoirs when already eighty years of age. He 
 died in December, 1832, aged ninety-six. — E. W. 
 
 BREA, LoDovioo, an old Italian painter, bom at Nizza. 
 He flomished from 1483 to 1513. He was the founder of the 
 Ligurian school, and Genoa has many of his works. His heads 
 are fine, his drapery graceful, his grouping good. He painted 
 small, and among his best works were a " Massacre of the 
 Infants," and a " St. John." — W^. T. 
 
 BREBEUF, GuiLLAUME de, bom at Thorigny in Lower 
 Xormandy in 1618, and died at Venoix, near Caen, in 1661. 
 He enjoyed considerable reputation for poetiy and poetical trans- 
 lations. His first publications were of the character which is 
 described by the name of burlesque, and travesties of parts of 
 Lucan and Virgil attracted attention, and afforded amusement to 
 idle readers. Topics of the day were the subject of these extra- 
 vaganzas, and scandals of Brebeuf 's ovra. time were daily related 
 pleasantly under the disguise of ancient names and manners. 
 Brebeuf was fitted for something better than this, and he pub- 
 lished a translation of Lucan, which had many of the faults 
 which are ascribed to Lucan himself. It woidd seem almost as 
 if Brebeuf 's own taste was adulterated by that of his author ; for 
 in his earlier days Horace is said to have been the only classical 
 author he admu-cd, and it would not be easy to imagine a stronger 
 contrast than between Horace and Lucan. The style of Lucan 
 is tumid, and his translator in this outdid his author ; still the 
 work is conceived m the spirit of one worthy the task in which 
 he engaged, and one who vras certainly possessed of nnich 
 poetical fei-vom\ In the preface to his work, which is deserving 
 of penisal by persons who may not care to look farther, he tells 
 us that his object being to render his author easily intelligible, 
 he has at times abridged, at times expanded the language, seek- 
 ing thus to express the thought more truly than if he servilely 
 pursued the mere words. We have read parts of this transla- 
 tion with gi-eat pleasure. Brebeuf had expectations from Car- 
 dinal Mazarin, which were disappointed by Mazarin's death. 
 Soon after this he went to reside at Caen. His health was at 
 all times feeble, and he describes himself as suffering from what 
 he calls a long and oljstinate fever of twenty years, in the more 
 acute attacks of which, he says, his verses were chiefly com- 
 posed. He published some religious poetry, under the title of 
 " Entreticns Solitaires," dedicated to Cardinal Mazarin. After 
 Brebeuf 's death, a collection of what were called his " (Euvres 
 Diverses" appeared, in which are a series of 150 epigram.s, 
 written for a wager against a lady who wore rouge, of which a 
 few are very amusing. — J. A.,iD. 
 
 BRl<:COURr, GuiLLAU.viE JlAr.couuEAu. Tlie date of 
 Brecourt's birth has not been recorded. He died in 1685. The 
 family is said to have come from Holland. He was an actor, 
 and he wrote pieces for the theatre. His first appearance on the 
 stage was as one of Moliere's company. He aftenvards passed 
 into that of tlie Hotel de Bourgoyne, and when these companies 
 were united he remained in the "joint troupe." At a boar- 
 hunt he killed the annual, and Louis XIV. praised his dexterity. 
 This is recounted as though the roy.al compliment was more 
 than a patent of immortality. — J. A., D. 
 
 5 A
 
 BRE 
 
 738 
 
 BRE 
 
 BREBIETTE, Pii:kre, a French artist, whose works are 
 forgotten, bom at Marne on the Seine in 159G. He engraved 
 many reli£cious and classical pictures. — W. T. 
 
 BREDA, Joiix VAN, a Flemish landscape painter, bom at 
 Antwerp in 1683. He was instmcted by his father, Alexander, 
 who painted Italian views, fairs, and cattle markets. Breda 
 studied Breughel in the gi-eat De Witt galler}'. He became 
 celebrated for his exact copies, forgeries, almost twins and undis- 
 tinguishable. He ^^sitcd London with Rysbrack the sculptor, who 
 executed the monuments of Prior, Sir Isaac Newton, and the 
 duke of Marlborough, and was patronized by the rich and taste- 
 ful, particularly the unfortunate jacobite earl of Derwentwater. 
 On his retum to Antwerp, Louis XV. visited his studio, and 
 purchased two landscapes and two scriptm-al pieces. Breda 
 was a mixture of Wouvennans and Breughel. His skies and 
 distances were thought too blue and gaudy, but his touch was 
 clear, firm, and good, and his colour pure. Some think him 
 equal in fire to Breughel, but Bryan calls him a poor undisguised 
 imitator of Wouvcrmans. His pictures were generally conversa- 
 tions, fairs, and skirmishes. He died in 1750. — AV. T. 
 
 BKEDAEL, Peter vax, a Flemish artist, bom at Antwerp 
 in 1630. His landscapes were from natm-e, and his figures were 
 correctly drawn, his trees and water clearly painted, and well 
 handled. He decorated views, and made up scenes vdih Roman 
 fountains, has reliefs, and monuments. His style resembles 
 John Breughel, but is inferior. He went to Spain, and was 
 there much patronized. He died in 1681, director of the Ant- 
 werp academy, a sm'e proof he had not too much talent. — W. T. 
 
 BREDAL, Niels Krog, a Danish poet, was bom at Trond- 
 hjem in 1733. His father, also a poet, was the son of Bishop 
 Gr. Bredal, and his mother the niece of Bishop Niels Krog. 
 Breda commenced his studies in 17-19. In 1761 he was borge- 
 mester of Trondhjem, and ten years later rector of the theatre of 
 Copenhagen. He died in 1778. He was the author of various 
 theatrical works, the most noted of which was " The Royal Suc- 
 cession of Sidon " (Tronfdlgen i Sidon), wluch, brought on the 
 stage soon after Nordahl Brun's Zarine, led to a theatrical w;u-, 
 whence resulted a sounder literary taste in the nation. — M. H, 
 
 BREDOW, Gabriel Gottfried, a German historian, was 
 born at Berlin, December 14, 1773, and died at Breslau, Sep- 
 tember 5, 1811. He was successively professor at the uni ■ 
 versities of Helmstedt, Frankfort, and Breslau, and wrote a 
 number of valuable popular and educational works on history 
 and geography. We quote — " Handbuch der alten Geschichte, 
 Geographic und Chronologic," and " Merkwiirdige Begebenheiten 
 aus der allgemeinen Weltgeschichte," 21st ed., 1838. — (^Kunisch 
 Bredow's Leben und Scluiften, Berlin, 1816.) — K. E. 
 
 BREDSDORFF, Jacob Hoexemann, a Danish philobsrist 
 and naturalist, bom at Skjeminge in Zealand in 1790. In 1818 
 and 1819 he travelled, at the expense of the Danish govemment, 
 through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and France ; and after 
 assisting in the societies for the advancement of physical science 
 and of rmvil economy, he became in 1823 lecturer on mineralogy 
 in the university of Copenhagen, and in 1828 professor of botany 
 and mineralogy in the academy of Soroe. He died in 1841. Of 
 his works we notice his "Elements of Geognosy," 1827, and 
 " Handbook for Botanical Excursions," 1834. To his memoir 
 " On the European Mountain-Systems " the prize was awarded 
 by the Geograjjliical Society of Paris in 1825. — W. S. D. 
 
 BREEMBHRG, Bartiiolemevv, a Flemish landscape painter, 
 born at Utrecht in 1G20. He studied at Rome, where the 
 Bentvogels named him " Bartolomeo." He studied nature at the 
 old pumped-diy sources of Tivoli and Fra.scati, and stuffed his 
 landscapes with composite ruins — with what good old Pilking- 
 ton calls " an elegant and charming taste." His animals were 
 spirited, his figures well composed. His smaller pictures are his 
 best. His first manner is black, his second abounds in ultra- 
 marine. In expression Hs figures are sensible and lively. He 
 died in 1660. There are extant some forty of his etchings of 
 Roman antiquities. — W. T. 
 
 BREGUET, ABr.AiiAM Louis, bora in 1747 at Neufchatel ; 
 died in 1823. Breguet was one of the nicest, the most exact, 
 and most ingenious mechanicians that France ever produced. After 
 serving some time with his father-in-law, a watchmaker at Neuf- 
 chatel, young Breguet removed to Paris, and entered on a career 
 of success only interrujited for a' time l)y the troubles of the Re- 
 volution. His workmanship lias never been sui-passed, and his 
 genius, aided by a store of sound mathematical and physical 
 
 knowledge, enabled him to introduce unprovements and invent 
 instraments, of value so great, that his name became renowned 
 through Em'ope. The French government did not overlook the 
 services of Breguet : he became chronometer-maker to the marine, 
 member of the Bureau des Longitudes, and subsequently member 
 of the Academy of Sciences. Certainly reward has rarely been 
 better merited, for his laboiu-s achieved for navigation, for astro- 
 nomy, for physics, mstraments the most accurate, ingenious, and 
 durable ; and his taste as an artist was such, that the richness 
 and beauty of his ornamentation was a fit accompaniment of that 
 more permanent and essential excellence which chai'acterized 
 even-thing issuing from his hands. His specific inventions and 
 improvements are so numerous, that one would almost -svi-ite a 
 treatise on horology in attempting to enumerate them and to 
 render them appreciated. Bcrguet early eifected what was never 
 done before — the construction of repeaters hermetically sealed, 
 and therefore protected from all dust. He vastly improved the 
 escapement ; invented the sympathetic pendulum, the military 
 reckoner or timepiece, the astronomical reckoner, &c. &.c. Need 
 we refer to those exquisite watches of so small a diameter, and 
 yet with a double box, that became the envy and ambition of 
 fashionable ladies? — One contribution of Breguet's to physics 
 demands especial mention, viz., the metallic theiTnometer. This 
 ex<]uisite instrament acts through the enlarguig or contracting of 
 a spiral, composed of two or three strips of metals of different 
 moduli of expansion. Its expense prevents its use for ordinaiy pur- 
 poses ; but in delicacy it immeasurably surpasses all other modes 
 of measuring heat, with the exception of the thermo-multiplier. — 
 Breguet and our horologist Arnold were fast friends. — J. P. N. 
 
 BREHM, Christiax Ludwig, a distinguished Gennan 
 ornithologist, was born at SchiJnau in 1787. He made a large 
 collection of European birds, of wliich he is said to have had more 
 than 5000 specimens. Wrote " Text-Book of the Natural His- 
 tory of the Bu-ds of Europe," Jena, 1823 and 1824.— W. S. D. 
 
 IjREISLAK, Scipioxe, a celebrated geologist, born at Rome 
 in 1748 of German parents. He obtamed the professorship of 
 physics and mathematics in Ragusa, and aftenvards a professor- 
 ship at the Collegio Nazareno in Rome. He travelled to Naple.s 
 and Paris, and made the acquaintance of many eminent French 
 naturalists. Wiile director of an alum factoiy, near Naples, he 
 had the opportunity of making numerous geological investigations, 
 and in 1811 he pubHshed at Milan his " Introduzione alia geo- 
 logia." He became teacher of physics in the military school at 
 Naples, and afterwards resided in Rome, until the political 
 troubles of liis countiy distm-bing him in his studies, he rcmov«>d 
 to Paris, where he remained imtil Napoleon appointed him in- 
 spector of the manufactm-e of saltpetre and gunpowder throughout 
 Italy. From tiiis time he resided principally at Milan. He Jiini 
 at Turin in 1826, when his celebrated cabinet of minerals passe J 
 to the Borromeo family. His system of geology maintains the 
 singular view that the globe of our earth was originally a fluid 
 mass, which has cooled from within outwards. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BREITHAUPT, Joiiaxx Friedric^h August, one of the 
 greatest German mineralogists of the present centuiy, was bom 
 at Probstzelle, near Saalfield, in 1791. At Freiberg he studied 
 geology under the celebrated Werner, who obtained him in 1813 
 tlie position of inspector of the collections of the academy at 
 Freiberg, and assistant teacher; and m 1827 that of professor of 
 oiyctognosy. In his greatest work, " Vollstiindigs Handbuch 
 der Miiieralogie," of which the first volume appeared at Dresden 
 in 1836, he proposes a new system, founded indifferently ujwn 
 extemal chemical characters. He wrote several other works on 
 mineralogy and the topogi-aphy of Freiberg. — W. S. D. 
 
 BREITHAUPT, Joachim Justus, one of the most distin- 
 guished theologians of the school of Spener and Francke, was 
 boiTi in 1658 at Nordheim in Hanover, where his father was 
 pastor and superintendent. He studied for the ministry of the 
 Lutheran chm-ch, at Helmstadt, and early manifested an 
 earnest and devout spiiit. After being for some time co-rector 
 in Wolfenbiittel, and professor of theology in Kiel, he removed 
 to a chair in the university of Ei-furt, where in 1690 he became 
 intimately associated with Francke, who in that year was ap- 
 pointed pastor of the Augustinian church in Eifurt. In 1691 
 lie was appointed, on the recommendation of Spener, professor 
 of theology in the newly founded college of Halle, in which oflSce 
 he became the first representative of that peculiar religious and 
 theological tendency which gave to the school of Halle, in its 
 earlier period, so unportant and beneficial an influence upon the
 
 whole protestant church of Germany. Along with his professor- 
 ship, Breithaupt held other important ecclesiastical offices in 
 Halle and Jlagdoburg, between which two places his time and 
 labom-s were divided. He was never married. He died at 
 Kloster-bergen, near llagdeburg, 16th llarch, 1732. His pub- 
 Ushed sermons, disputations, programmes, and polemical pieces 
 were numerous. His principal work was the "Institutiones 
 Theologicse," Halle, 1694, 2 vols. ; to which was added in 1732, 
 '■ Institutiones Theologite il oralis," in which the doctrine of the 
 Lutheran confession was orthodoxly expounded, but in a biblical 
 form and a practical spuit, without uniiiiitful speculations, and 
 with constant appUcation of the tnith to the heart and life. He 
 was a man of deep devotion and humility, and of great simplicity 
 > f life and maimers. " Let him alone," exclaimed the elector 
 •1 Maintz on one occasion when loud complaints were made 
 u^rainst Mm by his opponents ; " he may be a very good man after 
 :J1: he prays for us.'" — P. L. 
 
 BREITIXGER, John Jajies, a Swiss protestant divine and 
 ecclesiastical liistorian, bom at Zurich in 1575 ; died in 1645. 
 In 1618 he headed the Swiss deputation to the synod of Dort, 
 und in that assembly maintained powerfully the tenets of Zwingle. 
 An account of the proceeduigs of the synod, and a translation 
 vt the New Testament into GeriBan, are the performances by 
 wliich he is best knoii^Ti. The rest of his writings remain in 
 MS. in the hbrary of Zmich. — J. S., G. 
 
 BEEITIXGER, Johaxx Jacob, a German scholar, was 
 born at Zmich in 1701, and died in 1776. He was professor 
 of Greek and Hebrew in his native town, and by his critical 
 writings, greatly contributed towards the improvement of Ger- 
 man Uterature. Besides his " Kritische Dichtkunst," 1740, 
 J vols., he published also a valuable edition of the Septuagint, 
 1731-32, 4 vols., and other works. — K. E. 
 
 BREITKOPF, JoHAxx Gottlob IsniANUEL, an eminent 
 German printer and pubhsher, was born at Leipzig, November 
 -3, 1719, and died Januaiy 28, 1794. After having completed 
 : is education at the university of his native town, he entered the 
 iiinring and pubUshing business of his father, which he gradually 
 nlarged, and brought to a highly flomishing state. He intro- 
 iuced numerous unprovements mto the art of printing; he gave 
 ;,ii letters a clearness and elegance never before attained in Ger- 
 :iiany ; printed notes and maps wth movable types; and greatly 
 improved the construction of the press. He also WTOte some 
 valuable works on the origin of printing, but was unable to com- 
 plete his " Histoiy of the Ait of Printing," for which he had 
 been collecting materials during the greater p;irt of his life. — 
 His son, Christoph Gottlob, bom 1763, died 1800, continued 
 his father's business in company with Gottfried Christoph Hiirtel, 
 and originated the first musical gazette in Germany. — K. E. 
 
 BREKELEXKA3IP, a Dutch painter and disciple of the 
 microscope-eyed Gerard Douw. He followed Rembrandt's man- 
 iii-r, and painted spirited cottage scenes and conversations. He 
 :;ourished, hoped, and despau-ed about 1650. — W. T. 
 
 BREilBATI, IsoTTA, a celebrated poetess of the latter half 
 of the sixteenth century. She was considered one of the greatest 
 linguists of the time, and MazzuccheUi asserts that her attempts 
 in Spanish verse were much superior to those of the best Spanish 
 poets. Her writings are — a collection of letters, some of which 
 have been inserted by Sansovino in his Secrctaiio, and a great 
 number of sonnets and canzones. She died in 1586. — A. C. M. 
 
 * BREMER, Fredriica, the well-laiown Swedish novelist, 
 whose works have created tliroughout the civilized world an 
 interest for her native North, was bom in 1802 at or near Abo, 
 in Finland. At that time Finland fomied part of the lungdom 
 of Sweden, but on its cession to Russia her father sold his estates 
 there, and removed with Ms family to Stockholm. In the sUght 
 iiograpMcal sketch furnished by Miss Bremer to the German 
 ■ ranslation of her works published at Leipzig, she says — " I was 
 1 "ira on the banks of the Aura, a river wliicli flows through Abo, 
 and several of the learned men of that imiversity.were my god- 
 iathers. Whilst very young I was removed with my family from 
 iiiy native Finland. Of this part of my Ufe I have retained but 
 one single memory. This memory is a word, a mighty name, 
 which in the depths of paganism was pronounced by the Finnish 
 people with fear and love, and is still so pronounced, though in 
 these days perfected by Christianity. I still fancy that I hear this 
 ^vord spoken aloud over the trembling earth by the thunder 
 of Thor, or by the gentle winds which bring to it refreshment 
 and consolation. That word is Juinala, the Finnish name for 
 
 God, both in pagan and christian times." According to the same 
 account, her fathers family passed their winters in Stockholm, 
 where the daughters received instruction, played on the piano, 
 sung ballads, read novels, drew in black ch;dk, and looked for- 
 ward to the future, "when they hoped to see and do wonderful 
 things." In the summer they removed to their country residence, 
 where German was studied, and the German poets read, especially 
 Schiller, whose Don Carlos made a deep impression on the sus- 
 ceptible mind of the young authoress, who even now occupied 
 herself with literary composition. Nay, indeed, according to her 
 own account, this had long been the case, for she says — '' I began 
 to write in my eighth year; " and continues — "I wrote dvu'ing the 
 greater part of my youth under the impulse of restless youthful 
 feelings ; afterwards under that of another emotion, I wrote that 
 which I had read." At what period in Miss Bremer's life she 
 hved with the Countess Sonnethjelm iu Norway, and also as a 
 teacher in a ladies' school at Stockholm, does not appear ; but 
 be it when it niight, she obtained there, like the authoress of 
 Jane Eyre, much useful experience from a hard and painful life 
 wherewith to enrich her after writings. Nor does Jliss Bremer's 
 earher hfe appear by any means to have been happy. " A dark 
 cloud," to use her own words, " came over the splendour of her 
 youthful dreams " — for she writes of herself in the third person. 
 — '• Like early evening it came over the path of the young pilgrim 
 of life, and eiuTiestly, but in vain, she endeavoured to escape it; 
 The air was dimmed as by a heavy fall of snow ; darkness increased, 
 and it became night. And in the depth of that endless winter's 
 night she heard lamenting voices from the east and from the 
 west, from plant and aninial, from dying nature and despairing 
 humanity ; she saw life ^^ith all its beauty, its love, its throbbing 
 heart, bmied alive beneath a chill covering of ice. . . . All 
 was dead, all was dying, except pain." . . . Looking at 
 her a few years later, it will be seen that a great change has 
 taken place. " Her eyes have long been filled with tears of 
 unspeakable joy ; she is like one who has arisen fi-om the grave 
 to a new life. AMiat has caused this change ? . . . The illu- 
 sions of youth are past, the season of youth is over, and yet she 
 is again young, for there is freedom in the depth of her soul, and, 
 ' Let there be light ! ' has been spoken above its dark chaos." 
 
 Arsta, the residence of the Bremer family, is described as being 
 remarkable in a historical pomt of view. The house, which is 
 of stone, was built during the TMrty Years' wai-, with large 
 and lofty apartments, overlooking the meadow where Gustavus 
 Adolphus reviewed the army at the head of wMch he marched 
 into protestant Germany as its deUverer. It is suiTOimded with 
 magnificent trees, commanding a fine view of the Baltic. Here, 
 when the spring and summer of life were over, a happy season 
 dawned upon our authoress. "Here," she says, "standing on the 
 verge of the autumn of my hfe, I still see the same objects wMch 
 smrounded me in the e.orly days of my spring, and I am so happy 
 as out of many dear ones still to possess a beloved mother and 
 sister." At Arsta Miss Bremer wi'ote many of her most cele- 
 brated works ; and here, in companionship with her mother and 
 sister, she lived till the time of lea\ing Europe for America, whence 
 she returned, after two years, to find that death had removed her 
 best-beloved friend and sister, and that Arsta had ceased to be 
 that home of the heart wMch it had been for years. 
 
 In 1828, when in her twenty-sixth year, iliss Bremer published 
 in Stockholm her " Teckningar m- Hvardagslifort" (Sketches of 
 Ever)-day Life). These consisted of Axel and Anna, the Twins, 
 and other stories and sketches, which, though greatly inferior to 
 her after works, attracted immediate attention, and awoke a lively 
 interest. It was not, however, until the publication of the '' H. 
 Family," a work which still retains a great share of pubhc favour 
 in Sweden, though decidedly one of the less pleasing of her novels, 
 that the public recognized an author of unquestionably original 
 talents ; and the decision thus airived at was fidly confirmed by 
 her after works, which followed in rapid succession. These were — 
 "The President's Daughters;" "Nina;" "The Neighbours;" "The 
 Home;'' " Strife and Peace," the scenery of which is laid in Nor- 
 way. Of these " The Neighbours " is the work which, more 
 immediately than any of the others, gained her a popularity out 
 of her own country. In 1841 these works were translated into 
 Geraian, and published by Brockhous of Leipzig, and spread from 
 one end of that vast intelligent country to the other, finding 
 everj'vvhcre a response in the national heart. In 1842, AVilUam 
 and Mary Howitt, then residing in Gennany, and students of 
 Scandina\-ian literature, recognizing the domestic element of
 
 these works as a sentiment natiye to tbe English heart, resolved 
 also upon introducing them, by translation, to the British public. 
 At that time veiy little, comparatively speaking, was known of 
 northern hteratm-e, and the works of Miss Bremer therefore were 
 not only warmly welcomed from their own intrinsic qualities, but 
 because they led, as it were, into other reahns of mind. A 
 translation of " The Neighbours " was first published, by the 
 Slessrs. Longman, which was quickly followed by " The Home," 
 " The President's Daughters," and the remainder of the " Sketches 
 of Everyday Life," by the same translators ; nor was the recep- 
 tion of these works in England less enthusiastic than it had been 
 in Germany. From England the Howitts' translati(jns instantly 
 passed oyer to America, where from one end of the Union to the 
 other they soon became household property. They were also 
 translated about the same time into French ; but being naturally 
 less kindred to the domestic heart there than among the Teu- 
 tonic races, they were less generally read. It is hardly necessary 
 to particularize the characteristics of these excellent works. It 
 is sufficient to say that all are remarkable, whatever may be then- 
 various degi-ees of literary merit, for the same attractive pecu- 
 liarities, great womanly purity, clearness of judgment, the most 
 thorough good temper, with a not unfrequent touch of humour 
 (which, however, never degenerates into jest), a keen perception 
 of the truth in life, great knowledge of human nature, a lucid and 
 often eloquent style, and great powers of description. With all 
 these quaUties of the successfid novelist, the stories themselves 
 are often of the simplest construction, dependent rather upon 
 their fidelity to nature and the soundness of their principles, than 
 on the intricacy of their plot, for attracting the universal reader. 
 The eagerness with which these works were received, and the 
 place which they at once established for themselves in the affec- 
 tions of the public, are a cheering proof of sound moral life in the 
 heart of the age. The peculiar sphere in which Fredrika Bremer 
 exercises her gi'eatest power, and where she is most valuable as 
 a writer, is that of domestic life. Home, and alls its joys and 
 sorrows, its repose and its anxiety, its light and its shadow, its 
 fair daughters and its hopeful sons, its drawing-room festivities, 
 its active duties of the kitchen, its servants, its very animals — 
 all have then- place in her pages, and are interpreted by her. 
 
 After Frediika Bremer had attained to this vride celebrity, 
 she published "The Diary;" "Life in Dalecarha;" "Brothers and 
 Sisters;" and "The Midnight Sun." Another little work also, 
 though bearing an earlier date of authorship, was translated about 
 the same time by the Howitts, " The ]Morning Watch, or a 
 Confession of Faith," intended to counteract the writings of 
 Strauss, and in which the authoress, as may be expected, avows 
 her entire faith in Jesus as the Savioiu". 
 
 In the autumn of ISiO Miss Bremer, induced by the solicita- 
 tions of her numerous friends in America, and also by her own 
 desire to study life under what appeared to her its most favour- 
 able chcumstances, as exhibited in the New World, paid a visit, 
 entirely alone, to America, where she remained for two years, 
 studpng the social, moral, and religious life of that great repubUc, 
 from the north to the south. The result of these two years' 
 observation and study was afterwards given to the pubUc in 1853 
 in 3 vols., translated by Mary Howitt, under the title of " The 
 Homes of the New World." A severe blow, as has been aheady 
 stated, met Miss Bremer on her return home, in the death of her 
 beloved sister, which she then learned for the first time. To this 
 sister, an Invalid for many years, and to whom frequent aflection- 
 ate reference is made in many of Miss Bremer's works, her letters 
 from America had been addressed. Two years afterwards she also 
 lost her mother; after which she removed from the old family 
 home at Arsta to Stockholm, whence she gave the world, in 1856, 
 her last-published romance, called " Hertha," perhaps the least 
 popular of her works, but the one probably of which the purport 
 was the most deeply studied, and which aimed at the highest 
 results — the alteration of the laws of Sweden as regards the pro- 
 perty of women. These laws are extremely oppressive and unjust, 
 and the effect of them is represented by no strained or unnatural 
 means as operating upon Hertha, no merely imaginary character, 
 as we are assured ; there being many living Herthas in Sweden. 
 But the subjeok was painful, and the picture presented by the story 
 disheartening ; and the ordinary reading public, which had loved its 
 home more, and cherished its home afiections more proudly in 
 consequence of Fredrika Bremer's former works, was disappointed 
 that she could still show another side to the picture. Still her 
 labour, we ai-e assured, has not been in vain, for the sad and 
 
 unpleasing story of Hertha has, together with other causes, led 
 thinking men, and even the Swedish king himself, to a deliberate 
 consideration of these antique but oppressive laws, vrith a view 
 to their amendment. 
 
 Jliss Bremer, like her coimtrywoman, Jenny Lind, is actively 
 benevolent, and spends a considerable portion of her income in 
 benevolent purposes. In times also of extraordinaiy distress, as 
 in the cholera at Stockholm, and after the Danish war in Hol- 
 stein, she was active at Copenhagen for the establishment of 
 refuges and schools for destitute orphans. During a remarkable 
 season, also, when the poor of Stockliolm suffered more than 
 usual from cold and lumger, hundreds, it is said, who would 
 otherwise have perished, owed then lives to her active means in 
 their behalf. The complete English editions of Sliss Bremer's 
 works, translated by William and Jlaiy Howitt, are pubUshed as 
 follows — " Sketches of Everyday Life," including all her most 
 popidar works, in 4 \ols., by H. G. Bohn ; her " Brothers and 
 Sisters," and " The Midnight Sun," by Colbum, 4 vols. ; and her 
 " Homes of the New World," 3 vols. ; and " Hertha," 1 vol., bv 
 Hall and Vh-tue.— ]\L H. 
 
 * BREMIKER, Karl, of Berlin, one of the many able astro- 
 nomical calculators of the contment. He has recently prodneeil 
 our best modem tables of logarithms of numbers and trigonome- 
 trical fractions to every tenth second; Berhn, 1852. — J. P. N. 
 
 BREMOND. The name of several noble families of France, 
 the most distinguished of whom were the lords of Ars in Peri- 
 gord. — Pierre de Bremoxd d'Ars, knighted by Charles VII. 
 in 1442 for his sendees in expelling the EngUsh from the dis- 
 trict of Saintonge and the Angoumois, died in 1456. — Charles 
 DE Bremond d'Aks, known under the name of Baron des 
 Chateliers, a brave and loyal soldier of the reign of Henry III. 
 He played a prominent part as lieutenant of Saintonge, &c., in 
 the religious wars of the period. — JosiAs Bke:mond d'Ars, 
 son of the preceding, also distinguished in the religious wars of 
 the reign of Henry III., but more particularly in those of the 
 reign of Louis XIII., died in 1G51, leaving a reputation for 
 bravery earned by military service extending over a period of 
 seventy-five years, in the course of which he had seen twenty 
 battles and eighteen sieges. — Pierre-Rene-Auguste, comte 
 de Bremond d'Ars, bom at Saintes in 1759, deputy to the 
 states-general in 1789, voted in that assembly against revolu- 
 tionaiy measiu-es, took refuge in Holland after the death of the 
 king, and returning to France in 1800, lived retired and undis- 
 tinguished near his bii-thplace. Died in 1842. — Charles de 
 Buemond, marquis d'Ai's, a French naval commander, killed in 
 an engagement with the English in 1771. In 1760, while in 
 command of the frigate L'Opaik, he captured from the English 
 a ship of the line, and a frigate of twenty-fom- guns. — Louis 
 Bresiond d'Arses or Ars, a French commander of the first 
 half of the sixteenth century, bom in the district of Saintonge. 
 As heutenant of Louis of Luxembm-g, count of Ligny, he fought 
 with distinction at Fornovo, the Chevalier Bayard being of his 
 company. Under Louis XII. his exploits were numerous and 
 brilliant. At the battle of Novara he encountered hand to hand 
 the famous Ludovico Sforza. He took part in the reduction of 
 Naples and the siege of Canosa, was wounded at Cerignole in 
 1503, and after the death of the comit of Ligny, succeeded him 
 in the command of the district of Apulia. In 1511, with Bay- 
 ard for one of his lieutenants, he fought at the battle of Ravenna. 
 
 BREMOND, Gabriel de. Of the precise dates of the 
 birth and death of Gabriel de Bremond, little or nothing is 
 known. He is first known as, towards the close of the seven- 
 teenth century, supporting himself by writing novels for the 
 Dutch booksellers, and is spoken of as a French refugee, whom 
 religious or political causes drove from his countiy. In lus 
 new country he again gave cause for suspicion, and was thrown 
 into prison for some political intrigue. While in prison, he 
 recast and abridged Chapelain's translation of Guzman d'Alfa- 
 rache, and not only did this, but sought to make a French 
 scoundrel of the Spanish rogue. This mode of deahng with 
 works of foreign literatm'e is never veiy successful, but the 
 insertion of some stories having the interest of local and tem- 
 porary scandal did something for the book. Bremond's own 
 adventures led him to dwell with some severity on all persons 
 engaged in the administration of the law. His book is by no 
 means unamusing. It was printed first at Amsterdam in 1695, 
 and in the same year at Paris. Le Sage's book has, of course, 
 had the effect of throwing the older book out of chculation, but
 
 BEE 
 
 741 
 
 BEE 
 
 it is wortli looking at. ^Vhen Bremond got out of prison, he 
 made his way to the Levant, and no more is heard of him. 
 
 The publication of memoires imder the name of remarkable 
 vei-sons, has been at all times the disgrace of French literatm-e, 
 ,:id we find our poor bookmaker in the way of his trade thus 
 .. niployed. Some Guzman d'Alfarache of the press had published 
 what he called the Jklemoires of Madame llancLni, an impudent 
 forgeiT, but which sold, or seemed likely to sell ; and straight- 
 way Gabriel de Bremond is in the field with the " Veritubles 
 .Memoires de JIadame Mancini, connetable de Colonna, ecrits par 
 ■lle-meme." Our hero's was the more popular book, probably 
 because it was the more skilful forgery. The scandal of Charles 
 II.'s court supplied him with the subject of a novel which told — 
 under feigned names, to which, however, a key was soon supplied 
 — the loves of the English king and Lady Castlemain. He pub- 
 "ished several other novels, but there seems no object in recording 
 : .e names, though some of them are stUl in request with the 
 collectors of rare books. — J. A. D. 
 
 BEEMSEB, JoHAXx Gottfried, a distinguished German 
 jihysician and naturalist, bom at Wcrtheim-on-the-ilaine in 
 1767. In 1801 he exerted himself greatly to promote the mtro- 
 duction of vaccination into Austria, and published an essay on 
 the subject, followed in 1806 by a memoir entitled "Vaccination 
 LMUsidered in its relation to the interests of the State." From 1806 
 ! Jremser devoted himself principally to the study of the entozoa or 
 testinal worms, and his reputation rests principally upon the 
 orks pubhshed by him on this curious and interesting branch of 
 zoology. Of these the most unpoitant is his " Zoological and 
 Physiological Treatise on the Intestinal Worms of Man," Vienna, 
 1819. This work is stUl of considerable value, both to the 
 physician and naturahst; but it wUl probably soon become only 
 historically important, as great advances have lately been made 
 in our kiiowledge of the natural history of the entozoa. In 1824 
 Kremser also published " Icones hUminthum, systema Eudolfi 
 entozoologicum illustrantes." Died in 1827. — W. S. D. 
 
 BEEXDAX, Saixt, of Clonfert, patron of Kerry. There are 
 few names connected with the ancient ecclesiastical liistory of 
 Ireland more celebrated throughout Europe than that of Saint 
 Brendan — the legend of whose mai-vellous seven years' voyage Lq 
 the Atlantic, for a long period superseded the more classical 
 wanderings of Ulysses, and was the wonder and delight of many 
 _'enerations of men. If another, perhaps still more celebrated 
 Irish legend — that of St. Patrick's purgatory — has been made 
 memorable by the magnificent and immortal transformation it 
 imderwent in the first and greatest of chiistian epics — the Pur- 
 _■ atorio of Dante, as well as the more direct use made of it by 
 'alderon in his El Purgatorio de San Patricio — the Legend 
 f St. Brendan may boast of a more endining interest, and a 
 :iore unfailing behef ; smce we read in Spanish historj' of an 
 xpedition being fitted out so late as the year 1721, and des- 
 patched from the Canaries in search of the island supposed to 
 have been discovered by the Irish saint in the iirst half of the 
 -ixth century. Indeed, so strong was the behef in the actual 
 >dstence of this shadowy region entertained ahke by Spaniai-ds 
 and Portuguese, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, that 
 the treaty by which the crown of Portugal ceded to that of Cas- 
 tile its right to the conquest of the Canaries, included among 
 'Ue number, the island of St. Brendan, to which it gives the veiy 
 [ipropriate name of the Unreached. Each country, in its adop- 
 ■ ;'jn of the legend, added, as might be expected, something of 
 .:s own peculiar traditions to the story. The Spaniards beheving 
 ; >r a long period that the island of San Borondon, as they called 
 T, was the place whither Don Eoderic retired after the fatal 
 'attle of the Guadalete; the Portuguese assigning it as the 
 i>^.vlum of their king, Don Sebastian, and on then- first discovery 
 I'f the Indies, believing that region to be the island of St. Bren- 
 lan they had so long sought for m vain. 
 
 The ^\■ide diffusion of this legend, and the important influence 
 't has had in keeping aUve the spirit of adventure and inquiry 
 11 the maritime countries of Western Europe, entitle it to men- 
 tion in a work like this. A farther investigation of its details 
 vould be out of place, as possessing an interest peculiarly anti- 
 'Huirian and ecclesiastical. The main facts of the legend are 
 considered by many cautious writers to have some historical 
 foundation. It is supposed that, whetlier from the tradition pre- 
 saged from the earliest period thoughout Europe of the existence 
 of a great western region — an Atlantis, as Plato calls it — or 
 from some other and more mysterious cause, St. Brendan pro- 
 
 vided for a longer voyage than was usual at that remote period 
 with sea- faring people of the west and south of Ireland — that he 
 journeyed thus several days, perhaps weeks, until falling in with 
 the golf-stream, his little b;irk was wafted to the coast of the 
 Xew England states, thus anticipating by about five centuries 
 the supposed discovery of America by the Welsh prince, iladoc, 
 in 1169. St. Brendan, after his return from his wonderful 
 voyage, founded various monastic and educational establish- 
 ments, particularly his great monastery of Clonfert. He also 
 founded the nunnery of Annadown, over which he placed his 
 sister Briga, It was in this establishment he died, in the ninety- 
 fourth year of Ms age, on the 16th of ilay, 577 — the day on 
 which his festival is stUl observed by the dioceses of Kerry and 
 of Clonfert. 
 
 In Ireland, at least in modem times, the island of St. Bren- 
 dan is better known under its poetical name of Hy-Brasail, than 
 under the venerable name of its supposed discoverer. It is under 
 this latter aspect it is alluded to in the poems of iloore, Grifian, 
 and others. A li\-ing wTiter has endeavoured to re%'ive an 
 interest in the more ancient and authentic legend, by his poem 
 enritled the Voyage of St. Brendan, which is based upon this 
 story. MS. copies of the original Latin legend are to be found 
 in the principal British and continental Hbraries — the Imperial 
 Ubrary of Paris alone possessing eleven or twelve of them, each 
 differing in some shght degree from the other. One of these 
 with a prose, as well as a metrical translation in the Eomance 
 language, has been published in Paiis, as mentioned below. A 
 pictm'esque version, in old English, is given in Caxton's Golden 
 Legende, London, 1483. There are also versions in Irish, 
 Spanish, Portuguese, German, and most of the continental lan- 
 guages. To those who take an interest in the subject, the fol- 
 lo^ving list of books, &c., may be useful — " La Legende Latine 
 de S. Brandaines, avec ime traduction en prose, et en poesie 
 Eomanes," pubhee par AchiUe Jubinal, Paris, 1836; "The 
 Lyfe of Sapit Brandon," in Caxton's Golden Legende, London, 
 1483, a copy of which is in the British museum. A transcript 
 of this life of Saint Brendan was made by Mr. Jl'Carthy (the 
 author of the poem above mentioned), and pubhshed by him in 
 the Dublin University Magazine for Slay, 1852. The Codex 
 Kilkeniensis (so c;dled) in Mai-sh's library, Dublin, contains a 
 curious but imperfect version of the Latin legend. The Voyage 
 of St. Brendan, iu JPCarthy's poems, Dublin, 1850 ; London, 
 1857 ; Dublin, 1858. Some interesting remarks on the 
 legend will be fomid in the late Eev. Ca;sar Otway's Sketches 
 in Erris and Tyrawley, published in Dublin. — D. F. M. 
 
 BEEXNAN, JoHX, M.D., was bom at Ballahide in the 
 county of Cai-low, of a respectable fiimily, but impaired fortune. 
 He was educated to the medical profession, in which he acquired 
 a reputation not only in England but abroad, as the first person 
 who brought into practice the use of turpentine in puerperal 
 disorders. Previously to 1812 he was a continbutor to the Irish 
 Magazine, conducted by the notorious Walter Cox, with whom 
 he then quaiTelled, and set up a rival periodical vmder the title 
 of the Milesian Magazine, which hved under the auspices of the 
 government till 1825. He stmck out for himself a new line in 
 satire and censoriousness — a waif;ure of ridicule on the Eoman 
 catholic leaders of the day, and a ludicrous scun-ility on the 
 membere of his own profession. Dr. Brennan was an excellent 
 classical scholar, a man of considerable talents and much caustic 
 humour, and his bon-mots were long cmrent in society. It is to 
 be regretted that he turned these powers, natural and acquired, 
 to verj' unworthy uses. He died in DubUn on the 29th July, 
 1830, in the sixty-second year of his age. — J. F. W. 
 
 BRENNEE, Elias, a Swedish antiquary, bom in 1614; 
 died in 1617; author of "Thes. numm. Sueco-Gothicorum." 
 
 BRENXEE, Hknky, a Swedish historian, who fomicd part 
 of the embassy which Charles XL sent into Persia ; author of 
 an "Account of the Pei-sian Expedition of Peter the Great." 
 
 BEEXXEE, Sofia Elizabeth, bora at Weber in 1659, the 
 earliest Swedish authoress, and a greatly-admued poetess of her 
 time. She miu-ricd Assessor Elias Brenner, and was the mother 
 of fifteen children. Her works were published in 2 vob., 1713-32. 
 She died in 1730.— :M. H. 
 
 BEEXNUS, a celebrated chief of the Senonian Gauls, settled 
 
 in the north of Italy, who is said to have flourished about 389 
 
 B.C. On the invitation of Arans, a citizen of Clusium, who 
 
 had some private feud to avenge, he wasted the country around 
 
 i Clusiiun, and laid siege to the city itself. The inhabitants
 
 BRE 
 
 742 
 
 BRE 
 
 implored succour from the Romans, and the senate sent an 
 embassy to Brennns to remonstrate with him on liis unprovoked 
 attack upon the allies of the Roman state. When asked what 
 business the Gauls had in Etmria, the haughty chief replied 
 that " might is right," and that " everything belongs to the 
 brave." The Roman deputies took part in the conflict which 
 followed, and the Gauls, indignant at this violation of inter- 
 national law, marched against Rome sixty thousand strong. 
 They encountered a Roman army of forty thousand men near 
 the confluence of the Allia with the Tiber, who fled without 
 striking a blow. On reaching the city, the Gaids found it 
 deserted and the gates standing open. After some hesitation 
 they entered, and perceived a number of aged senators seated 
 each at his own door, arrayed in then- robes of office, and cahnly 
 awaiting theu' fate. The ferocious invaders massacred the 
 whole, and then set fire to the city. They next endeavoured, 
 but mthout success, to storm the capitol, into which a hand- 
 ful of the Romans had thrown themselves, with the deter- 
 mination to defend it to the last extremity. An attempt to 
 surprise it by night was equally unsuccessful. Some geese that 
 were kept in the temple of Juno gave the alarm, while the 
 Gauls were silently scrambling up an unguarded part of the 
 rock on whicli the capitol stood, and aroused the ganison, who 
 killed a gi-eat number of the assailants, and put the rest to 
 flight. After a siege of seven months, the defenders were 
 reduced to such extremities by famine that they were obliged to 
 capitulate, and to pay to Brennus, by way of ransom, the enor- 
 mous sum of one thousand poimds' weight of gold. The tribune 
 Sulpicius complained that the weights used by the Gauls were 
 not correct, on which Brennus threw his sword into the scale, 
 and exclauned, in words which have become proverbial — "Alas 
 for the vanquished." On thek return homewai'ds, the victorious 
 Gauls, according to Diodoms, were waylaid by the people of 
 Cjere, and cut off to a man. Livy, however, states that CaniUlus, 
 the dictator, refused to ratify the capitulation made with Brennus 
 by the garrison of the capitol, and attacked and destroyed 
 nearly the whole army of the Gauls; but this is generally regarded 
 as a fiction, invented by the Romans to conceal their defeat. — 
 (Titus Livius, lib. v., cap. 34-49.) 
 
 There was another Gallic leader Oi this name who invaded 
 JIacedonia and Greece about 280 B.C., and plundered and laid 
 waste the country, inflicting every species of outrage upon the 
 inhabitants. He met with a severe defeat at Delphi, and ulti- 
 mately destroyed himself by diinking, to drown his feelings of 
 shame at the ruin of his enterprise. — J. T. 
 
 BRENT, Nathaniel, the translator into English and Latin 
 of the ItaUan history of the council of Trent by Paul Sarpi, 
 was bora at Little Woolford, Warwickslui-e, in 1573. He studied 
 at Merton college, Oxford, took his master's degi-ee in 1598, 
 and entered on the study of law. He mai-ried the niece of Dr. 
 Abbott, archbishop of Canterbury, by whom he was sent to 
 Venice to procure a copy of the history which he afterwards 
 translated, and to whom he owed his preferments as a lawyer. 
 He was at first an adlierent of Charles I., by whom he was 
 laiighted in 1629, but he afterwards sided wth Abbott and the 
 puritans against Laud and liis party. He died in 1G52. — J. B. 
 
 BRENTANA, Simone, a Venetian historical painter, born 
 about 1G56. He resided chiefly at the gi'eat amphitheatred city 
 Verona. He imitated the fire and whii-lwind of Tintoretto, 
 mixing it with a little of the sobering dignity of the more tran- 
 quil Roman school. His pictm'es are scaixe, being painted 
 chiefly for palaces and churches. His finest work was a " St. 
 Sebastian being crowned bv an Angel." — W. T. 
 
 BRENTIUS, BRENTZEN, or BRENTZ, a German reformer 
 of the age of Luther, bom at Weil in Suabia in 1499 ; died at 
 Stuttgart in 1570. Adopting the refonned doctrines after a 
 perusal of some of Luther's writings, he took Ids doctor's 
 degree in his eighteenth year, and five years afterwards became 
 pastor at Halle. In 1530 he took part in the proceedings 
 of the diet of Augsburg, and four years later, on the in\-ita- 
 tion of Ulric, prince of Wirtemberg, undertook, conjointly with 
 Camerarius, the direction of the university of Tubingen. In 
 1547 Charles V. threatened to destroy the town of Halle if the 
 refonner were not given up to him ; but he effected his escape 
 in disguise, and wandering about as a fugitive from place to 
 place, derived, as he aftei-wards related, a consolation from the 
 psalms, which only one in his circumstances could have expe- 
 rienced. In 1553 the successor of Ulric gave him au asylum at 
 
 Stuttgart, where he drew up the " Confession of Wirtemberg.'' 
 He attended the diet of WoiTns in 1557. His works, the do&- 
 trinal system of which nearly coincides with that of Luther, 
 were published at Tubingen in 1576-90, in 8 vols. fol. — J. S.,G. 
 
 BREQUIGNY, Louis-Geoege Oudard-Feudrix de, a 
 French historian and antiquary, bom at Granville in 1716, and 
 died at Paris in 1795. As the result of tlu-ee years' labour in 
 deciphering and aiTanging the documents relative to the history 
 of France in the tower of London, and of the toil of a quarter 
 of a century in intei-preting and illustrating them, he published 
 in 1791, " Diplomats, Chartse, Epistola, et alia Monumenta 
 ad res Francicas spectantia." He continued also, in conjunction 
 with Villevaut, the " Collection des lois et ordonnances des rois 
 de la troisieme race," and, in conjunction with Jlouchet, published 
 in three voliuncs a " Table Chronique," of public titles, charters, 
 and other documents refeiTed to by historians, but not previously 
 printed. In conjunction with the same !Mouchet, he added to 
 these enormous labours that of continuing the " Memoires sur 
 les Chinois" of Amiot, Bourgeois, &c. 1776-89. — J. S., G. 
 
 ERERA, Valekiano Luigi, a celebrated Italian surgeon 
 and writer, bom at Pa\-ia on the 15th December, 1772. His 
 medical wiitiugs are very numerous, and many of them of great 
 importance. Amongst them we may mention his " Sylloge 
 opusculoruni select, ad praxin, pra?cipue medicam, spectantium," 
 Pa%-ia, 1797-1811; his " Annotagioni medico-pratiche sulle 
 diverse malattie, trattate nella clinica med. dell'univ. di Pavia 
 dell'anno 1796-98," Pa\-ia, 1798; "Legioni med. prat, sopra i 
 principali vermi del carpo umano," published at Cremona in 
 1802, and since translated into several languages; and '"Memo- 
 rie fisico-med.," on the same subject, at Cremona in 1811; 
 Giornale di Mediclna, of which twelve volumes appeared at 
 Padua in the years 1812-17, and which has since been con- 
 tinued by Brera in conjimction with Caldimi and Bniggieri, under 
 the title of "Nuo\-i comment, di medic, e di chimrg.," and 
 " Commcntarie CUnico per la cm-a della idrofobia." — W. S. D. 
 
 BREREWOOD, Edward, a mathematician and antiquary, 
 bom at Chester in 1565. Having been educated at Oxford, he 
 was in 1596 chosen first professor of astronomy in Gresham 
 college, wliich office he held till his death in 1613. His works 
 w^ere pubhshed after his death. Of these we mention — "De 
 ponderibus et pretiis vetenim nummoram, eoramque cum 
 recentioribus collatione ; " " Enquuies touching the Diversity of 
 Languages and Religious Thoughts in the chief parts of the 
 World ; " " Tractatus duo, quuram primus est de meteoris, 
 secundus de oculo ;" " Commentarii in Ethica Aristotelis," writ- 
 ten when the author was only twenty-one years of age. — J. B. 
 
 BRES, Jean Pierre, the name of two French physicians, 
 uncle and nephew, who enjoyed some little literary celebrity in 
 the fu-st half of the cun-ent century — the first a novelist, whose 
 pretentious works have passed into total obli^-ion, and the second 
 a miscellaneous writer, whose style stOl finds admirers. The 
 uucle died in 1816, and the nephew in 1832. 
 
 BRESCIA, Giovanni Maria da, a painter, bom at Brescia 
 about 1460. He was originally a goldsmith, and then a painter 
 and engraver. Alter thus running the whole cycle of the arts, 
 he became a Carmelite, and painted under the quiet shadow of 
 his monasteiy, where he slept in 1510. His frescos were stories 
 of Elias and Elisha ; his plates frail compounds of Marc Antonio 
 and Andrea JIantegna. His brother, Giovanni Antonio, stu- 
 died engi'aving in Mantegna's school, finished well, but drew 
 badly. Leonardo, of a different family, flourished at Ferrara 
 about 1530.— W\ T. 
 
 BRESSANI, Gregorio, bom at Treviso in 1703, was 
 educated among the fathers of the congi-egation, and afterwards 
 at Padova, where he took the degree of LL.D. The bent of his 
 mind was towards metaphysical rather than theological studies. 
 He preferred the pliilosophical systems of Plato and Aristotle to 
 that of modem philosophers, Galileo not excepted. In defence 
 of this preference he wrote a treatise, in which he compares 
 Galileo's doctrines with those of the two ancient philosophers. 
 Bressani's principal works are, " II modo di filosofare introdotto 
 dal Galileo," and ''Discor.si sopra le obiezioni fixtte dal Galileo alia 
 dottrina d'Aristotile." He died at Padova in 1771. — A. C. M. 
 
 BRETAGNE, kings and dukes of. A few of the more ancient 
 and less-known sovereigns of Bretagne are here noticed. The 
 rest will be found under then- respective names of Jean, Arthur, 
 &c. — Audren or AuDRAN, fourth king of Bretagne, son of 
 Salomon I., succeeded to the throne in 445, and died in 464 ; a
 
 BEE 
 
 743 
 
 BRE 
 
 doughty warrior, who repulsed the Romans under Littorius 
 Celcus, and extended his conquests as far as Orleans. — Ai.ain 
 I., born in 5G0 ; died in 594 ; son of Hoel II. — Alain II., born 
 in 630, the last of eleven Idngs of Bretagne from 383 till 690, 
 succeeded his father, Judicael, in his eighth year. — Arastagnus, 
 proclaimed king by the Britons in the hitter half of the eighth 
 century, followed Chai'lemagne in his expedition into Spain, and 
 was killed in the famous battle of Roncesvalles in 778. — Alaix 
 III., dulte of Bretagne, called "the Great," famous for his 
 encounters with the Normans, sixteen thousand of whom he all 
 but annihilated in one engagement in the neighbourhood of 
 Vannes; died in 907. — Alaix IV., called " Barbe-torte," duke, 
 grandson of Alain le Grand, came from England about the year 
 936 with a host of his countrjmien, and expelling the Normans 
 from Bretagne, was proclaimed duke. — Alaix V., duke, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Geoffrey I., in 1008. He resisted success- 
 fully the seignorial pretensions of Robert II. of Normandy, father 
 of William the Conqueror, and latterly was on terms of cordial 
 friendship with the Noniian duke, who, in his last illness at Nice 
 in Bithynia, appointed him guardian of his son. He was 
 poisoned while engaged in subduing a rebellion in Normandy. — 
 Alain VI., called " Fergent," son of Duke Hoel, accompanied 
 WUliam the Conqueror into England at the head of 5000 
 Bretons, and for his services Ln the subjugation of the kingdom, 
 obtained the county of Richmond. When the Norman duke 
 attempted afterwards to put Bretagne under tribute, Alain 
 stoutly maintained the independence of his duchy, and by one 
 decisive battle compelled the Conqueror to sue for peace. He 
 took part in the first crusade, and in 1106 played an important 
 part on the side of Henrv I. of England in the victory of Tiuche- 
 bray. Died in 1119.— J. S., G. 
 
 BRETAGNE, Anne de. See Anne. 
 
 BRETAGNE, Arthur de. See Arthur. 
 
 BRETEUIL, Louis Augcste le Tonnelier, baron de, 
 was born in 1733 at Preuilly in Touraine, of a noble fiimily. 
 Distinguished during the reign of Louis XV. by his diplomatic 
 skill, he was sent successively as ambassador to the elector of 
 Cologne, to Russia, Sweden, Holland, Naples, and the court of 
 Vienna. On his return to France he became minister of state 
 to Louis XVI. ; and next to Colbert, the French acknowledge 
 that he was most conspicuous among his countr3'men in patron- 
 izing art and science, and in improving the capital. In the 
 celebrated affair of the diamond necklace, he exhibited more 
 vindictiveness than truth. When the French revolution broke 
 out, he reth'ed first to Solem'e, and aferwards to the neighbour- 
 hood of Hamburg. Died at Paris in 1807. — T. J. 
 
 * BRETON, Francois Pierre Hippolyte, born in Paris, 
 October, 1812. At once a pamter and a writer, Breton belongs 
 to a school which must necessarily be circumscribed, for art is 
 too absorbing a pursuit to allow much attention to be given to 
 authorship. When both pursuits are combined, they cannot be 
 80 in equal degi-ees. Either art must sink into simple illustra- 
 tion, or literature wait on art as a gi-aceful exponent of fine 
 principles, and an attendant teacher and critic, according to the 
 examples afforded by Hogarth and Sir Joshua Reynolds, and 
 others of our o-nni day. Breton, after he had exhibited some land- 
 scapes of merit, adopted the line of writing in art periodicals 
 with accompanpng illustrations, which is as much in vogue in 
 Prance as in this country. By way of proof how such a mode 
 of production may be raised and dignified, we may mention the 
 work which, undertaken in 1838 with M. Jouffi-oy, called "llo- 
 rinmens de tous les peuples," constitutes a brief but complete 
 historj' of the architectural monuments of all countries. — J. F. C. 
 
 BRETON, Guillaume (Gulieljius Breto-Arjioricus), 
 bom about the middle of the twelfth centuiy at St. Pol-de-Leon 
 m Bretagne, and died in 1226. He was educated at Nantes 
 and at Paris, was chaplain at the court of Philip Augustus, and 
 sent to Rome on negotiations by this monarch frequently between 
 the years 1193 and 1201. He left two historical works relating 
 to the period in which he lived, both published in Duchesne's 
 Scriptorcs Rerum Francicarum. One, the " Philippiad," a sort 
 of epic poem in Latin hexameters, divided into the j)ropcr num- 
 jicr of twelve books. The " Philippiad" has been translated 
 nito prose, and forms part of the eleventh volume of j\L Guizot's 
 Memoires relatifs a I'liistoire de France. The other is a prose 
 narrative, which is also published by Duchesne and by Guizot. 
 Gujiehnus is a lively writer, and was an eye-witness of many of 
 the scenes which lie records. — J. A., D. 
 
 BRETON, Nicholas, a sonneteer and pastoral poet of the 
 reign of Elizabeth, born, it is supposed, in Staffordshire. He 
 published an interlude entitled " An Old Man's Lesson and a 
 Young I\Ian's Love," noticed by Dr. Percy, and a variety of little 
 pieces in prose and verse, all remarkable for elegant simplicity. 
 Percy has reprinted a charming little ballad by this author — 
 Phillida and Corydon. 
 
 BRETONNAYAU, Ren£, a French surgeon, who turned his 
 talents for verse to the account of his art by the publication of a 
 poem, or rather extracts from a poem, in which, almost without 
 offence to the dignity of the muses, he enters into the most 
 cm'ious details of physiology and pathology. It appeared at 
 Paris in 1583, under the title of " La generation de I'homme," &c. 
 
 BRETONNIERE, FRAN901S de la, a French Benedictme 
 of the seventeenth centmy, who is said, but on very doubtful 
 authority, to have been the author of the famous libel " Le Cochon 
 Mitre," and to have expiated his offence by a tlm-ty yeai-s' con- 
 finement in the iron cage of the Mont St. Michel. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRETSCHNEIDER', Charles Gottlieb, an eminent Ger- 
 man theologian of the present century, was born at Gersdorf in 
 the territory of Schonbnrg, 11th Feb., 1776. After the death 
 of his father, a learned Lutheran divine, he was sent to the 
 Lyceum at Chemnitz, and in 1794 he entered the university of 
 Leipzig as a student of theology. He settled at Wittemberg 
 in 1804 as an academic teacher, and delivered lectm-es as a 
 Privat Doce7it, in pliilosophy and theology. But the war of 
 1806 oblighig him to leave Wittemberg, he accepted in 1807 a 
 ministerial charge in Sclmeeberg, and in 1808 was appointed 
 superintendent in Annaberg. In 1816 he was chosen general- 
 superintendent in Gotha, and in that office he continued till 
 his death on the 22nd of February, 1848. His autobiogi-aphy 
 pubhshed by his son in 1851, reveals the fact that it was from 
 no inward impulse of religious feeling that he made choice of 
 the theological calling in the first instance, and that the influence 
 of personal sphitual life had little to do afterwards with the 
 fonnation of his theological system. He had unbibed at the 
 university of Leipzig much of the rationahstic spirit which then 
 predominated in its theological faculty. StUl he was not an 
 extreme rationalist. He was the principal representative of the 
 so-called " rational supematuralism," which endeavoured to hold 
 a middle position between church orthodoxy and free-thinldng. 
 His Uterary activity was indefatigable, and his published writings 
 in various departments of scientific theology are very numerous. 
 In philology his principal work was one of great value, the 
 " Lexicon Manuale Gra?co-Latinum in libros No\'i Testamenti," 
 Leipzig, 1824-29-40. In dogmatic theologj', his "Handbuch der 
 DogmatOv der Evangelisch Lutherischen Kuxhe," Leipzig, 1814, 
 reached a fourth edition in 1838 ; and his " Systematische Ent- 
 wickelung aller in der Dogmatik Vorkommenden Begi-iffe," &c., 
 Leipzig, 1805-19-25-41, is particularly rich in the exhibition 
 of the literature of the subject, and is still considered in Ger- 
 many an indispensable help to the scientific student. But of 
 all his works the most valuable and important is the " Corpus 
 Reforaiatorum," bearing also the title '' Philippi Melancthonis 
 Opera quaj supersunt omnia, vol. i.-xv. 4to, Hal. Sax. 1834-48. 
 Of this laborious work he edited the first fifteen volumes, and 
 the undertaking is still in progress under the editorship of 
 Professor Bindseil of Halle The first eleven volumes, containing 
 Melancthon's Epistote, Pra'fationes, Consilia, Judicia, &c., are 
 of inestimable value, and furnish the most authentic and ample 
 materials for the life of Melancthon, and the history of the Ger- 
 man Reformation. — P. L. 
 
 BREUGHEL. The name of several Flemish painters, of 
 whom the most distinguislicd ai-e Pieter, and his two sons, 
 PiETER and Jan Breughel. 
 
 BuETiGHEL, Pieter, called Old Breughel, was bom at 
 Breughel, near Breda, about 1525, and became the scholar of 
 Pieter Koek, whose daughter he afterwards married. Having 
 studied some years in Italy, he settled about 1555 in Antwerp, 
 but removed after his marriage to Brussels. He was in Rome 
 in 1553 ; he had, however, been already admitted a member of 
 the Academy of Antwerp in 1551. The date of his death is 
 unknown ; some accounts fix it as late as 1590. He painted 
 landscapes with figm-es, chiefly village feasts and meny-makings, 
 but occasionally also more serious subjects. There are a few 
 etchings by him. 
 
 Breughel, Pieter, the yoimger, called also Hell 
 Breughel, from his love of painting diabolical monsters and
 
 BRE 
 
 744 
 
 BRE 
 
 other fantastic de\ices i-epresenting the hoiTors of hell, was 
 bom at Brussels about 1568, and was the pupil of Giles Van 
 Koningsloo. He became a member of the academy in 1G09. 
 There is a remarkable specimen of his painting in the gallery 
 at the Hague. 
 
 Breughel, Jax, called also Velvet Breughel, from his 
 %yinter dress of that material, was born at Brassels about 1569, 
 and was taught painting by Pieter Goeldndt, an amateur. Jan 
 tirst painted fruit and flowers ; he then visited Italy, and devoted 
 himself chiefly to landscapes with figures, which he finished with 
 great delicacy and extraordinar}' minuteness of detail, but with 
 an unpleasant prevalence of blue in his colouring, especially in 
 tile distance. He became a member of the Antwerp Academy 
 of St. Luke, of which he was one of the deans in 1602. Ac- 
 cording to some accounts he died young, leaving two daughters, 
 whom Rubens took under his charge. He painted several pic- 
 tures in which Rubens painted the figures ; " Adam and Eve in 
 Paradise" is the most celebrated of these joint productions. 
 Many fine examples of his work are in the Pinacothek at 
 Munich. Jan is said to have died January 13, 1625 ; other 
 accounts prolong his life to 1642, but this is incompatible with 
 the stoiy of Rubens having taken charge of the education of his 
 daughters after their father's death. There seems to be no 
 accurate record of the dates of the bu-th or death of any of this 
 family of painters. — ( Van Mander ; Immerzeel.') — R. N. W. 
 
 BREVINT, Daniel, bom at Jersey in 1616. He studied 
 logic and philosophy among the protestants at Saumur in France, 
 and on the foundation of three fellowships in the colleges of Pem- 
 broke, Exeter, and Jesus at Oxford, by Charles I., for natives 
 of Jersey and Guernsey altemately, was elected to the latter 
 college, and incorporated M.A. as he had stood at Saumur. 
 Being ejected from his fellowship by the parliament visitors for 
 refusing to take the covenant, he retired to Jersey and after- 
 wards to Normandy, where he became pastor to a protestant 
 congi'cgation. During his residence on the continent he gained 
 the notice of tlie \iscount de Turenne, who made him his chap- 
 lain, and of Charles II., who, after the Restoration, gave him a 
 prebend in the cathedral of Lincoln. In 1G81 he was promoted 
 to the deanery of that town. Died in 1695. His works, Latin 
 and English, principally turn on points of controversy. — J. S., G. 
 
 BREWER, Anthony, a di-amatic writer of the reign of 
 James I., only known as a favourite with the wits of that time, 
 and as the author of a play entitled " Lingua," in a repi'esen- 
 tation of which, it is said, Oliver Cromwell played the part of 
 one ambitious for a crown, and thus for the first time became 
 conscious of his destiny. The story, as Chalmers obseives, is 
 doubtful on two gi-ounds — that Brewer wrote "Lingua" is doubt- 
 ful, and that Cromwell played in it is veiy doubtful. — J. S., G. 
 
 BREWER, Samuel, a botanist, bom at the end of the seven- 
 teenth centmy, was a native of Trowbridge in Wiltshire, where 
 he had a small estate. He was at first engaged in the woollen 
 manufactory of that place, but subsequently devoted his atten- 
 tion to science. He assisted Dillenius, professor of botany at 
 Cambridge. In 1726 he accompanied the professor into Wales, 
 Anglesea, and the Isle of Man. He afterwards examined the 
 botany of Wales, making excursions to Snowdon and other places, 
 with the Rev. Mr. Green and Mr. William Jones. He was fond 
 of cryptogamic botany, and assisted Dillenius in his History of 
 Mosses. In 1728 he went to Yorkshire, and took up his resi- 
 dence at Bradford. He died in 1743. — J. H. B. 
 
 BREWER, Thomas, a musician, educated at Christ's hos- 
 pital, London, and brought up to the practice of the viol. He 
 flourished in the time of Charles I., the Protectorate, and part 
 of the reign of Charles II. He composed several excellent fanta- 
 sias for the viol, and was the author of many rounds and catches 
 inserted in Hilton's "Catch that Catch Can,' 1652. He was also 
 the composer of the pretty three-part song, "Turn, Amaiyllis, to 
 thy Swain," printed in Playford's "Musical Companion." In the 
 Harleian MS., No. 6395, entitled " Merry Passages and Jests," 
 compiled by Sir Nicholas Lestrange, is the following anecdote : — 
 " Thorn. Brewer, my musical servant, through his proncness to 
 good fellowshippe, having attained to a veiy rich and mbicund 
 nose, being reprov'd by a friend for his too frequent use of strong 
 drinkes and sacke, as very pernicious to that distemper and 
 inflammation in his nose — ' Nay, faith,' says he, ' if it wOl not 
 endure sacke, it is no nose for me.' " — E. F. R. 
 
 * BREWSTER, Sir David, D.C.L., LL.D., knight of the 
 Guelphic order, and of the United Kingdom ; principal of St. 
 
 Leonards college, university of St. Andrews : one of the most 
 distinguished physical inquirers now living : there have been few 
 men in Scotland, of whom their countiy has more reason to be 
 proud. The life of Sir David Brewster has been one of untiring 
 industry, issuing in signal success. Ever occupied by trains ot 
 thought leading to capital discovery, he has also, in no ordinaiy 
 degree, benefitted the practical arts ; and his literary enterprises 
 have been so various and important, that they might have filled 
 up the lives of several ordinary men. In many things he may 
 have worthy rivals, but we believe it can be said of Brewster alone, 
 that without patrimony, and, untU recently, without aid from 
 public institutions or scientific endowments, he succeeded through 
 effect of integrity, of pi-udence, and of labour that never flagged, 
 in achieving and maintaining during long years, a position of 
 distinguished ease, and personal and social independence. — We 
 shall glance rapidly at the incidents of Sir David's life, the 
 character of his leading discoveries, and the extent of his literary 
 labours. 
 
 I. The subject of our memoir was born at Jedburgh in Rox- 
 burghshire, on 11th December, 1781. His father, the esteemed 
 rector of the grammar school of that town — himself zealously 
 attached to the church of Scotland — intended his four sons for 
 the clerical profession. Sir David's three brothers entered the 
 church, and obtained livings in it. Two of them. Dr. Brew- 
 ster of Craig, and Dr. Brewster of Scoonie died comparatively 
 recently, distinguished for piety, superior intelligence, and fidelity 
 to their important charge. The third brother still lives, occu- 
 pying the respectable and responsible position of minister of 
 the abbey church of Paisley. Of this very able fiimily. Sir 
 Da\-id was the second in order of birth, but he abandoned what 
 may be termed the family profession, avowedly through consider- 
 ations of health, although, as we cannot doubt, also because of 
 inclinations di-awing him in-esistibly towards the cultivation of 
 science. He began his career of experiment so early as 1799 and 
 1800, while still considerably under twenty yeai-s of age; and 
 these early investigations on the inflection of light, were a worthy 
 first-fruit of liis ser^-ices to a branch of science to which he has 
 attached himself through Ufe, and wherein he has earned so wide 
 and permanent a renown. In 1806 Sir David projected and 
 began that most laborious work, the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, 
 of which he continued editor until its completion in 1830. In 
 1813 he published his " Treatise on New Philosophical Instra- 
 ments ;" and essays and memoirs were continually issuing from 
 his pen, advancing our knowledge of Light, along those new and 
 strange directions, which, unknown to him (intercourse being 
 prevented by the unhappy French war) were also absorbing the 
 attention of the great physicists of the Continent. It was most 
 pleasing to find — when the commerce and blessings of peace 
 returned — that no one of these distinguished men had left Brew- 
 ster behind him. In 1819 Sir David started the Edinhurgh 
 rhilosopMcal Journal, in conjunction with Professor Jameson; 
 and he aftei-wards earned it on alone, under the title of the 
 Edinhurgh Journal of Science. He had thus the merit of 
 establishing our first regular Scottish scientific re\"iew — a review 
 which still exists. Among other sendees in this du'ection, the 
 merit cannot be withheld from him of pressing towards realization, 
 if not of suggesting the idea of those annual scientific con- 
 gresses, now so well known and everywhere so warmly welcomed, 
 under the name of the "British Association." — It is gi-ateful 
 to record that to activity thus marked, and desert thus unques- 
 tionable, social as well as scientific honoiu-s were not slow in 
 being awarded. Brewster has obtained from the learned socie- 
 ties more medals and prizes, we believe, than any other linng 
 Inquirer. He received an important prize from the French Insti- 
 tute ; the Copley and Rumford medal from the Royal Society ; 
 also. Royal medals ; and twice the Keith medals from the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh ;-:-all, for distinctive discoveries. These 
 and many similar associations hastened to enrol him among their 
 members. For several years he has been vice-president of the 
 Edinburgh Society. The Institute of France elected liim corre- 
 sponding member in 1825, and in 1849 he had the honour to 
 succeed the illustrious Berzelius .as its Associate. Nor were his 
 services Overlooked by the Bi-itish State. In 1830 he received 
 the decoiation of the Guelphic order, and, on visiting London in 
 1832, he had the honour of being knighted by his Majesty, King 
 William IV. He has spent his more recent years in St. Andrews, 
 as principal of the united college of St. Salvador and St. Leon- 
 ards, to which he was nominated bv the frovemment in 1838.
 
 BRE 
 
 745 
 
 BBE 
 
 II. But the true life of a man of science or literature is not 
 constituted by its outward incidents ; it is made up of the deeds 
 he has done ; i.e., of the powers of thousht he has manifested, and 
 the results they have evolved. Sir David Brewster's acts are of 
 two descriptions. To the first, which have offered in so many 
 directions benefit to the arts, and which may be termed liis 
 '■ Inventions '" — we have no space to allude except in the most 
 cursory manner. JIany now living must recollect the sensation 
 onginally produced by the ingenious and beautiful kaleidoscope ; 
 :id many of these must have joined in the then universal 
 ■ ogret, that through defects of our miserable and incongruous 
 law of Patents, that benefit was withheld from the discoverer, 
 which is due to every one whose genius augments through 
 material forms, the comforts or pleasures of society. Jlulti- 
 tudes innumerable of these kaleidoscopes were made and run 
 after in Great Britain and through Europe ; but the ingenuity of 
 •^ir David Brewster received little or no pecuniary reward. Next 
 1 order we might refer to the lenticular stereoscope. The 
 i-covery of the principle of the stereoscope is due to \Mieat- 
 ■;oue; but Sir David has fullest right to the claim, that in his 
 hands — chiefly through the skilful application of semi-lenses — it 
 started into an applicable instniment. Higher than these in 
 rare scientific merit, are his improvements of microscopes and 
 ■lescopes ; his initiation of the Bude fight ; and highest of all, 
 J at early proposal of the use of dioptric lenses, and of zones 
 1 Hghtbouses. Fresnel subsequently appropriated this dis- 
 iivery without knowing that he did our countryman a wrong; 
 but the verdict of the scientific world has been just. — We 
 hasten, however, from details whose very superabundance 
 oppresses one, to those discoveries of loftier reach, and of 
 primary theoretic beaiing, with which Sir David has enriched 
 •optical science. Here, too, one might easily lose oneself as in 
 wUdemess. No one had ever a quicker eye towards the 
 '■-W, than this acute Inquirer. It is an attribute belonging 
 only to a rare class of exercised minds, which detects and 
 separates novelty from amidst the common, and discerns at 
 once the presence of something unexplained. Eminently pos- 
 sessed of this peculiar gift, Brewster has, tlrroughout his whole 
 life, followed memoir by memoir, deman'iing attention to facts 
 as yet unexplained by theor}' ; and in this way he has been the 
 instrument of obtaining the correction of too general conclu- 
 -i 'ns, and so of aiding the progress even of theories he had not 
 ■^n reason to accept, to an extent which, amid our scientific 
 contests, has failed to be recognized and adequately acknow- 
 If'l^'eJ. An impartial history of science — written when our 
 times can be calmly surveyed — will not overlook such benefits; 
 but no history, wherever and whenever written, can fail to record 
 and appreciate the achievements to which we shall now advert. 
 — Previous to the beginning of this century, Newton's Optics 
 intained nearly all we knew concerning light, with the excep- 
 
 ■ m of those signal discoveries of Huyghens. But new and 
 ■mparatively evanescent qualities of the energy producing that 
 •nsation, came to be discerned. We shall not speak of inflection 
 
 — that subject which, not having escaped Newton, was yet of 
 -J fresh an interest, that it provoked the attention of Brougham, 
 and the early eftbrts of Brewster. More subtle and strange 
 than that, light was found to be affected by modifications, 
 - arcely recognized, and never investigated until after the first 
 1 'oade of this century. Nor were these modifications acci- 
 I'-ntal. On the contrary, they are found to enter as prime 
 -sentials among the elements of any theoiy of light. These 
 modifications are chiefly two: flrst, a ray of light is variously 
 and apparently fantastically turned out of its path, by some 
 action on the part of a class of diaphanous bodies into which 
 ' enters; and, secnncUy, the ray so distm-bed, as ahso when 
 fleeted in a certain manner, acquires peculiar characteristics. 
 ^\ ith regard to the flrst order of subjects^ we claim for Sir 
 I 'avid Brewster the merit of having completely sm-vcycd all 
 lie great phenomena, and laid down their general laws. The 
 ■act of ordinary refniction had indeed long been known; and 
 >nell gave the formula tliat uidicatcs the new course of the ray. 
 \s to double refraction, as produced by a ccrtaiu class of crys- 
 
 ■ lis, Huyghens had announced a formula giving the direction of 
 ">>\.\\ rays : but in neither case had any connection been estab- 
 lished between the phenomena and the nature of the body 
 producmg them. Althongli not earliest in order of time, we 
 mention first in the course of our narrative. Sir David's dis- 
 cover}- of the effects of pressure, traction, &c., in producing 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 the double-refracting power. This series of facts, now no 
 longer isolated, distinctly points, as the cause of such iiTCgularity 
 in refraction, to internal molecular irregularities in the body 
 producing it ; and our comitryman completed the theory of 
 the subject in several masterly memoirs, in which he connects 
 all these phenomena with the mathematical form of crystals: 
 their refracting qualities depending on the question, whether, like 
 the cube, they have three mathematical axes; one, as in the case 
 of the rhomboheth-al and pyramidal systems; or, two, as with 
 all prismatic systems. The paper Ln which he unfolds the law 
 of double refraction in the latter class of ciwstals, is as fine a 
 specimen of generalization as modem inquiry has brought forth. 
 — The triumphs of our countryman, in reference to the second 
 great class of new optical phenomena, have been quite as great. 
 The phenomena in question are the aspects and conditions of what 
 is called Polarized fight. We do not and cannot refer here to the 
 multitude of unlooked-for facts detected by Brewster, in illustra- 
 tion of this most brilhant portion of modern experimental science. 
 They are so numerous, and they came upon him and on the world 
 so rapidly, that, as already stated, their real importance was 
 often overlooked, because of the feeling of distraction occasioned 
 by their variety. But it is necessary to remark that here, too, 
 we owe to Sir David our first statement of fundamental laws. 
 When Mains discovered the phenomenon of polarization, he 
 deemed it isolated, or unconnected with known properties of 
 the substances occasioning it. This isolation disappeared in 
 Brewster's hands ; and his first achievement was the statement 
 of the formal laws of polarization, alike by reflection and refrac- 
 tion. No sooner had the undulatory theoiy of fight begun to 
 peld consequences, than these formal laws were explained by 
 it ; and the fortunate deduction went very far to place that 
 theory in credit. But still more ; these laws after all were 
 only general approximations, — something akin to the theorem of 
 the eUiptical orbits of the planets. They, too, were found sub- 
 ject to minute ^''perturbations,^'' which did not long escape the 
 keen eye of Brewster; and he did much to track out the 
 inquiry recently perfected by Jamin — an inquir}- productive of 
 results demanding those serious morhfications in the old formulse 
 and processes of Theoiy, which were obtained from the subtle 
 analysis of Cauchy. — It were needless to pursue our narra- 
 tive, for, in the best fonn in which we can put it, it must be 
 incomplete. One general remark, however, must be made. The 
 speciality of Brewster's genius, viewing him as a Philosopher 
 and not as a mere Observer, consists in his power to detect and 
 deal with that class of laws which are termed Empirical, — 
 laws which express the general and formal relations of multi- 
 tudes of determinate facts. More than any other man perhaps 
 of our day, he is entitled to be held the Kepler of physical 
 optics. The achievements we have been illustrating, and others 
 akin to them, stand towards an ultimate and absolute theory of 
 Light, precisely as the three laws of the great Gennan are 
 related to the final discovery of Newton. Has the Newton of 
 physical optics yet arrived? Does a theory already exist in that 
 science worthy of a place analogous to that of Gravitation ? 
 Sir David doubts it : nor need it be concealed, that his successes 
 in his own direction, and the special aptitude of his faculties for 
 the accomplishment of his peculiar task, may have rendered him 
 at times hisensible to the actual and surprising gi-asp of the 
 doctrine of Undulations. But on such remote matters, and the 
 speculations connected with them, we have neither time nor dis- 
 position to dwell. Our distinguished physicist may well be per- 
 mitted to pursue his chosen and independent course. 
 
 III. On glancing over what we have written, we feel keenly 
 its utter inadequacy. Of some of Brewster's brilliant discoveries 
 even in Optics we have said nothing; — e.g., those elaborate 
 investigations concerning absorption, &c. Nor have we been 
 able to refer to his serx'ices to practical meteorology, or to his 
 contributions towards the cosmical theory of the Temperature of 
 the globe. Space equally fails us as we touch the literaiy labours 
 of this most active spirit. His writings would fill a multitude of 
 volumes. Witness that arduous work the Encyclopaedia, and 
 the dissertations in it that proceeded from his own pen. Witness 
 those editorial labours concerned with our Scottish scientific 
 journal, — the edition of Fergusson, — the treatises on " New 
 Philosophical Instruments,'! on Optics, on the K.aleidoscope, the 
 Stereoscope, &c. &c. Witness the most interesting " Life of 
 Newton ;" the " Martps of Science ;"' the " Treatise on Natural 
 Magic;" and that "Jlore Worlds than One" — the latter touching 
 
 5B
 
 BRE 
 
 746 
 
 BRI 
 
 on a subject which, we must be allowed to say, could not, even by 
 Sir David Brewster's ingenuity, be brought within the sjihere of 
 logic or absolute science. In expressing, in conclusion, the wish 
 that he would mature and publish, a selection, at least, of those 
 eloquent papers on a great variety of subjects which through 
 many years he has been in the habit of contributing to our 
 Reviews, we only give utterance to a desire veiy widely felt. 
 May health continue with him adequate to such a work — one, 
 we liope, which may worthily and fittingly be accomplished amid 
 the serenities of quiet St. Andrews. 
 
 BREWSTER, William, one of the founders of the colony of 
 Plymouth in North America, was bom probably at Scrooby in 
 Nottinghamshire, about 1563. He was for some years in the 
 service of Davison, secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth, and 
 visited the Low Countries in the train of his patron when he 
 went as royal ambassador. We afterwards hear of him as 
 postmaster at Scrooby, where he was connected with the 
 separatist congregation to which Governor Bradford belonged. 
 (See BuAni'ORD, William.) Brewster accompanied the little 
 flock in their wanderings to Amsterdam, Leyden, and at last to 
 their new settlement of Plymouth in North America. He was, 
 during the severe trials to which the settlers were exposed, one 
 of those whose patience and energy bore up the most steadily 
 against discouragement. In the distribution of functions, the 
 office of religious instruction fell to him, and he never filled any 
 place in the magistracy; but his counsel was sought on all 
 occasions with an earnestness prompted by implicit confidence 
 in his rectitude and wisdom. Having never been formally 
 inducted into the sacred office, he had scraples about adminis- 
 tering the ordinances, and from time to time during his life 
 other ministers were brought from England. But the experi- 
 ments were not successful, while his ministrations never failed 
 to edify. " He would labour with his hands in the fields as 
 long as he was able, yet, when the church had no other minis- 
 ter, he taught twice every Sabbath, and that both powerfully 
 and profitably, to the great contentment of the hearers, and 
 many were brought to God by his ministry." He loved books' 
 and found time to enjoy them. He left at his death a libraiy 
 consisting of 275 volumes, 60 or 70 of them being in the 
 learned languages. " He was near fourscore years of age, if 
 not all out, when he died," which was on the 16th April, 164.?. 
 Brewster's history of the time previous to his emigration with 
 the Scrooby congregation has but recently been recovered, 
 through some researches of that learned antiquary, the Rev. 
 Joseph Hunter, of her majesty's record office. — Y. G. P. 
 
 BREYDEL, Charles, a landscape painter, bom at Antwerp 
 in 1677. He was a pupil of Rysbrack, and then travelled, and 
 with his brother, Francis, entered the service of the court of 
 Hesse-Cassel. He next went to Amsterdam, and studied the 
 Rhenish views of Grifficr, afterwards comparing them with natiu'e. 
 He then settled at Ghent, earning money like a miser, and spend- 
 ing it like the prodigal son, painting flimsy, hasty pictures to meet 
 his wants. Latterly gout fell on him, scom'ging him for the sins 
 of his youth, and he painted with less spirit, finish, and firmness. 
 He died in 1744. His early Griffier pictures of Rhenish boats, 
 fishermen, and vine-dressers, are well designed, and neatly 
 wrought out, and neatly executed; but his second or Velvet 
 Breughel pictures of battles, sieges, and encampments, are not 
 so good, though they earned him the name of the " Chevaher." 
 From Vandermculen he also took figures as well as whole 
 designs, and aftervvards got into a habit of inventing after his 
 manner. His style was either careless and laboured, or full of 
 harmony. Fkancis, his brother, was bom at Antwerp in 1678. 
 He was, it is supposed, a scholar of Rysbrack, and painted con- 
 versations, feasts, assemblies, and carnivals, particularly the last. 
 Leaving these he came to England, and stayed there several 
 years with his iriend, Vandcrmyn. His pictures have nature, 
 truth, spirit, and variety. He died in 1750. — W. T. 
 
 BHEYN, .lAKon, a Gemian botanist, was born at Dantzig, 
 1637, and died there, 1697. He acquired his first lessons on 
 botany from Mentzel, and afterwards prosecuted his studies at 
 Leyden. He has published various botanical works. Among 
 them are descriptions of exotic plants, and of rarer species culti- 
 vated in the Dutch gardens. — J. H. B. 
 
 BREYN, .ToHANN Philip, a Gennan physician and botanist, 
 was bom at Dantzig in 1690, and died in 1764. He published 
 various .scientific papers in the Transactions of the Societas 
 Naturae Curiosorum, as well as of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 He also wrote on the ginsing root, on officinal fungi, on aspi- 
 dium barometz, on species of coccus, on echini, and on various 
 testaceous animals. — J. H. B. 
 
 BREZ, Jacques, a Piedmontese botanist and historian, was 
 born in the vallies of Piedmont in 1771, and died at Middle- 
 burg in 1798 He published a work on the plants upon which 
 insects feed, and on the study of insects, as well as a histoiy of 
 the Waldensc^s.— J. H. B. 
 
 BREZIN, Michel, a French mechanic and capitalist, famous 
 as the founder of the Hospice de la Reconnaisance in Paris, was 
 bom 1758, and died 1828. In the course of along and honoiu-- 
 able career, first as a mechanic, and latterly as an ironmaster, 
 he amassed a large fortune, which by his will was consecrated 
 to the erection of the hospital above named. The charity is 
 limited to aged members of the four trades successively pursued 
 by its founder, namely, to locksmiths, mechanics, foundrymen, 
 and the employes of iron masters. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRIAL, DoM Miciiel-Jean-Joseph, a French Benedictine, 
 bom at Perpignan in 1743; died at Paris in 1828. From 
 1771 till the commencement of the Revolution he was occupied 
 with Dom Clement in continuing the " Recueil des historiens de 
 France," the twelfth and thirteenth volumes of which were pub- 
 lished under their conjoint superintendence. Brial afterwards 
 added to the collection five volumes. In 1805 he was admitted 
 into the Academy of Inscriptions, and charged with three of his 
 colleagues to continue Rivet's Hist. Litt. de la France. 
 
 BRIDAINE or BRYDAINE, Jacques, the celebrated French 
 preacher, born at Chuslan in 1701 ; died at Roquemaure near 
 A\'ignon, in 1767. Unfortunately for his fame, his splendid talents 
 were too early enlisted in the work to which his life was conse- 
 crated ; and after the fame of his labours as a missionary had 
 spread far beyond the limits of his native country, Massillon, 
 himself a man nobly endowed as well as a miracle of accomplish- 
 ments, had to say of him that he was not the first of orators only 
 because a fortunate culture had not developed to the full his 
 natural powers. More qualified, but still magnificent eulogies, 
 his wonderful gifts drew from La Hai-pe, Madame Necker, and 
 Mauiy. The chapter of Chartres struck a medal in his honour. 
 Pope Benedict XIII., with a munificence which would have made 
 the recipient ridiculous if he had not been all but the first of 
 orators, gave him the whole of Christendom as a field for his 
 missionary labom-s ; and, what was at once the best evidence of 
 his powers and the amplest reward of his indefatigable zeal, where- 
 ever he went (and he journeyed with apostolic diligence), crowds 
 attended him with an enthusiasm which justified the almost 
 incredible accounts current in the church of the number o^" 
 conversions effected by his preaching. 
 
 BRIDEL-BRIDERI, Samuel Elis^e, a Swiss poet and 
 botanist, was born at Grassier in the Canton de Vaud in 1761, 
 and died near Gotha on 7th January, 1828. He was the son of 
 a protestant minister; and after completing his studies he became 
 tutor to the two princes, Augustus and Frederick of Saxe Gotha. 
 He afterwards became private secretary and librarian of the 
 hereditary prince. He devoted much attention to botany, and 
 published several important works on mosses. He also gave 
 attention to literatm-e, to antiquities, and to various departments 
 of science, contributing papers to several journals. — J. H. B. 
 • BRIDGE, RicHAKD, a celebrated organ-builder of the last 
 century. It is to be regretted that nothing is known of his bio- 
 graphy. According to an advertisement in the General Adver- 
 tiser for Febraaiy 20, 1 748, " Bridges, organ-builder," probably the 
 same person, then resided in Hand Court, Holborn. We learn 
 incidentally, from a note in Burncy's History of Jlusic, that he 
 died before 1776. His principal organs are the following — St. 
 Bartholomew the Great, 1729 ; Christ Church, Spitalfields, 1730; 
 St. Paul's, Deptford, 1730; St. Georgc's-in-thc-East, 1733; St. 
 Anne's, Limehouse, 1741 ; St. Leonard's, Shoreditch, 1757 ; En- 
 field church, Middlesex, 1758; Eltham church, Kent; Spa Fields' 
 chapel ; St. James', Clerkenwell ; Paddington Parish church. — 
 (Rimbault and Hopkins' Uistury of the Onjan.') — E. F. R. 
 
 BRIDGEMAN, Oklando, a lord-keeper of the gi-eat seal in 
 the reign of Charles II. His father was bishop of Chester; he 
 was educated at Cambridge, entered of the iimer temple, and 
 in 1632 called to the bar. Of high prerogative principles, he 
 served the king's (Charles I.) cause in the house of commons, 
 and at the seat of his father's see, which he by anns defended 
 against the puritans. That assembly retahated by expelling him 
 from the house. On the decline of the royal cause, and during
 
 BRI 
 
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 BEI 
 
 the Commonwealth, he lived in retirement, practising only as 
 chamber counsel and conveyancer. It is to the meditations of 
 him and other lawyers under Like conditions, that the composition 
 of the forces of common law (seizin and terms of years), statute 
 law (uses), and chancery law (trasts), pressed into a family settle- 
 ment, by which so intractable a subject as land is subdivided 
 into a variety of interests without destroying its integrity, was 
 matured. — (See Booth, Jajies.) His fonns long continued in 
 repute, and were printed in a collection still found in law-book 
 catalogues. At the Restoration he was rewarded with the office 
 of lord chief-baron of the exchequer. He presided at the trial 
 of the regicides, the shedding of wliose blood he, with the acri- 
 mony of the times, urged on the jury as a proper expiatoiy 
 sacrrSce. Next he was made a baronet, and chief-justice of the 
 common pleas, where he showed himself a good lawyer. He had 
 acted as deputy or occasional speaker of the house of lords ; and 
 in 1667, on the great seal being taken from Lord Clarendon, it 
 was given to him. This was intended to be a mere temporary 
 arrangement, but he held the office five years. In this post, 
 according to a contemporary witness (R. North), alike narrow in 
 his obsen'ations and mind, he did not increase his fame. He 
 was inapt, timid, trimmmg to suitors and counsel, and not 
 sufficiently seriile to the king. Upon that illegal act of the 
 cabal ministry, the shutting up the exchequer, he could not be 
 persuaded to grant injunctions to restrain suits against the 
 bankers who had tlieir customers' money locked up there ; and 
 whilst he " boggled," a successoi deemed less scrupulous. Lord 
 Shaftesbury, slipped in. He died in IGT'i. The eai-ldom of 
 Bradford is held by his descendants. — S. H. G. 
 
 BRIDGET, St., of Sweden, otherwise called Bikgit or Bir- 
 GiTTA, was bom in the year 1302. She was of royal blood, 
 being the daughter of Bnger, legislator of Upland, and Inge- 
 burgis, a lady descended from the Gothic kings. When veiy 
 young, she was given in maniage to Ulpho, prince of Nericia, 
 by whom she had eight cluldi'en. From her earhest yeai-s, 
 Bridget had striven to walk in the paths of christian perfection, 
 and she found in her husband a willing partner, both in her 
 fi"equent prayers and meditations, and in her unceasing works 
 of charity. About the year 1343 they both went on a pilgrimage 
 to the tomb of St. James, at Compostella, and shortly after 
 their return Ulpho died. Bridget di\"ided her husband's estates 
 among her children, and devoted herself, for the rest of her life, 
 to labours connected with religion. She founded, soon after her 
 husband's death, the double monasteiy of Wastein in the diocese 
 of Linkopen in Sweden, under the rule of St. Augustine, with 
 certain particular constitutions. The nuns were called Brigit- 
 tuies, and many monasteries of them still subsist in different 
 parts of Europe. After spending two years at Wastein, Bridget 
 repaired to Rome, according to a practice common in that age, 
 to vioit the tombs of the apostles. Like a more celebrated 
 Swedish princess of a later age— Clrristina, daughter of Gusta\'us 
 Adolphus — Bridget seems to have been so powerfully attracted 
 by the Eternal City, as to be induced to make it her permanent 
 dwelUng-place for the chief part of her aftcrhfe. She employed 
 herself in ascetical practices of devotion, and in various works of 
 mercy among the sick and poor. We read in Fleuiy of a 
 remai-kable prediction made by her to Pope Urban V., wliom 
 she visited at Montefiascone in 1370, to obtain the confirmation 
 of the rule she had given to her new order. The pope w;is about 
 to return to A\ignon, and St. Bridget, after in vain endeavour- 
 ing to shake his resolution, predicted to Alfonso, bishop of Jacn, 
 that if the pope returned to Avignon he would die immediately, 
 and would have to give account to (iod for his conduct. Flenry 
 proceeds to say, that nevertheless the pope left Italy, reached 
 Avignon about the end of September, and died on the 'Jth 
 December following. After obtaining the confirmation of her 
 rule, Bridget visited Naples and Sieil)', and soon after went on 
 a pilgrimage to the holy places in Palestine. Being returned to 
 Rome, she lived there one year longer, during which she was 
 a martyr to disease. Feeling her death-hour ai'proacli, she 
 summoned to her side her son, Birgcr, and her daughter, St. 
 Catharine of Sweden, and after giving them her last counsels 
 and instructions, being laid on sackcloth, she breathed her last 
 on the 23d July, 1373. Her body was buried in a convent of 
 Poor Clares at Rome, but was translated to her monastery of 
 Wastein in the following year. She was canonized by Boniface 
 IX. in 1391. during the time of the great schism in the papacy. 
 At the comicil of Constance in February, 1415, the ambassadors 
 
 of the kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, fearing lest 
 a process carried on during the schism should upon any pretext 
 be set aside, appeared before the assembled fathers, and demanded 
 that St. Bridget should be enrolled among the saints. Her 
 canonization was then solemnly recognized and confirmed. The 
 works of St. Bridget consist of — Prayers on the sufferings and 
 love of Christ, several of which still retain a place in manuals 
 of devotion ; her Rule ; her Revelations (approved as profitable 
 for instruction, but no fmlher, by the council of Basle) ; and a 
 treatise " On the Excellencies of the Blessed Vii'gin." — (Butler ; 
 Fleurv'.) — T. A. 
 
 BR'IDGET or BRIDGID, Saint, an Irish vu-gin, eminent for 
 her piety, was born at Feughart, near Dundalk, m the county of 
 Louth, about the year 453, according to the Lusher Colgan and 
 Lanigan, while others place her bu-th as far back as 439. Her 
 father, Dubhthach, was a man of ranli. Colgan says he was a 
 prince of the Hermonians of Leinster ; Bale calls him a noble- 
 man ; and the Book of Howth says he was a captain of Lein- 
 ster. It is possible each statement is correct. While yet an 
 iufimt, she was committed to the care of a bard, who watched 
 over her with paternal cai-e, instructing her in all the knowledge 
 of the age. She soon became distinguished for her extraordinary 
 learning, wisdom, and piety ; and, embracing a life of celibacy, 
 she received the veil from Macaille, bishop of Usneach in West- 
 meath, in the sixteenth or seventeenth year of her age. About 
 the year 480, according to Ware, or 487, as Lanigan asserts, 
 she founded the famous monastery of Kildure, for nuns, and the 
 institution was largely endowed by the kings of Leinster. Col- 
 gan says the place was called Kile Dara, or the Chm-ch of the 
 Oak, from having been erected near a great oak-tree. St. 
 Bridget travelled all over Ireland, and founded numerous estab- 
 lishments of the order of Brigidine nuns, which were celebrated 
 through the countiy for many ages. The various acts of her 
 life are collected by her numerous -biographers, and though there 
 is much of what is true, yet the truth is so interwoven with 
 palpable fiction, that it woidd be a hopeless task to attempt to 
 separate the one from the other. But it is beyond doubt that 
 she was a very wise as well as a very holy person, and so highly 
 was she esteemed by the bishops and clergy, not only of Ireland, 
 but of Britain, that they frequently consulted her on the regula- 
 tion of religious matters ; and it is said, that on one occasion 
 her advice was held to have been authoritative in a syaod of 
 Dublin. After a life of piety and charity (and the performance, 
 as it is said, of many miracles), she died February 1, 525, being 
 about seventy years of age. She was buried at Kildare, near 
 the gi-eat altar, and her monument was ornamented with gold, 
 silver, and precious stones, but when the Danes devastated that 
 district in the ninth centmy, the remains of the saint, and the 
 rich shruie in which they were contained, were removed to Down- 
 patrick, and interred there in the same sepulclu'c as Saint 
 Patrick and Saint Columkille. The memory of the saint has 
 ever been held in veneration, especially in Ireland and Scotland, 
 and numerous churches were dedicated to her. Several biogiM- 
 phies of Saint Bridget were collected by Colgan, and published 
 in his great work, "Trias than Mathurga." — J. F. W. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, Fkancis Egkkton, third and last duke 
 of, left, it has been well said, his biography engraved in intaglio 
 on the face of the country he helped to civilize and enrich. 
 Pity that, in comparison with his great services, the materials 
 for his written life should be so swinty and insufficient. He 
 was born on the 21st May, 1736 (the birthyear of James 
 Watt), the eighth child of Scroop, fomlh earl and first duke of 
 Bridgowater. In his twelfth year he succeeded to the duke- 
 dom, on the death of his elder brother, John (who died immar- 
 ried), having, three yeais before, been left an oqdian by the 
 death of his father, the first duke. In less than a twelvemonth 
 after the deatli of her husband, the widowed duchess of Bridge- 
 water was married again, to Sir Richard Lyttelton, a brother of 
 the well-known literary lord of that name. Francis was a 
 sickly boy, and it seemed unlikely that he would survive the 
 four brothers who, at his father's death, stood between him and 
 the dukedom. Happy hi her second marriage, the duchess, it 
 is hinted, ill-treated her youngest child. So far as she was 
 concerned his education was neglected ; and, according to family 
 tradition, it was even contemplated to have him set aside at one 
 time, on the score of mental deficiency. Little prepared to 
 enjoy the classical associations and artistic trea.surcs of the 
 continent, he was sent in his eighteenth year by his guardians,
 
 BRI 
 
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 BRI 
 
 the diike of Bedford and Lord Trentham, to make the grand 
 tour under the tutorship of Robert Wood, the Irish schoLar and 
 archaeologist, who had just returned from the East with the 
 materials for his well-known works on Palmyra and Balbeck. 
 The pair were ill-suited as companions, and it was with difficulty 
 that Wood was persuaded to continue the connection. The 
 marbles and tables of Egyptian granite which, under this 
 arclucological control, were purchased at Rome by the young 
 duke, remained in the original packing-cases till after their 
 owner's death ! But it is just possible that this continental tour 
 exerted a most important, and at the time, little suspected, 
 influence on the mind and career of the duke of Bridgewater. 
 He may have inspected the Milan canal, or the much grander 
 works of the same kind executed in the south of France, under 
 the auspices of Louis XIV. ; and, during this tour, the idea of 
 his future enterprises may have occm-red to him. Of dii'ect 
 evidence to this effect, however, there is not a tittle. On his 
 retmTi to England, he bought race-horses, and sometimes rode 
 them himself, for the bulky man of after years was " a feather 
 weight" when young. On attaining his majority, he took his 
 seat in the house of peers, but neither then nor afterwards did 
 he play any conspicuous part in politics. Had it not been for 
 an accident, he might very possiljly have passed through life as 
 undistinguished as the majority of his contemporary fellow-peers 
 whom oblivion has overtaken. Several versions are extant of 
 the circumstances which drove the duke of Bridgewater from the 
 dissipation of London and the sports of Newmarket, to the 
 comparative solitude of his old manor-house at Worsley. The 
 most authentic version is the following: — Wlien the duke 
 attained his majority, of the two celebrated English belles of 
 the middle of the eighteenth century, the beautiful sisters 
 Gunning, one was man-ied to Lord Coventiy, the other was the 
 widow of the duke of Hamilton. To the lovely widow the 
 enamoured duke offered another ducal coronet, and the oflier was 
 accepted. The preliminaries of the maniage were being adjusted, 
 when the duke himself interposed an obstacle. Rumour had 
 been busy with the fiiir fame of Lady Coventry, and the duke of 
 Bridgewater insisted on a discontinuance of the natural intimacy 
 between his intended bride and her sister. The duchess of 
 Hamilton refused ; the duke of Bridgewater broke off the match; 
 and soon afterwards the rejected fail- one married the heir to the 
 dukedom of Argyle, and became, in due time, its duchess. The 
 uneducated, horse-racing duke, felt like the poetic and sensitive 
 hero of a modern novel. The result of his disappointment, how- 
 ever, was peculiar. He not only aljandoned society, forswore 
 the company of the fair sex, and betook himself to his Lanca- 
 shire estates, but he devoted himself for life to the most useful, 
 but most unsentimental occupation of canal-making. Just 
 when the duchess of Hamilton was manned to Colonel CampbeU, 
 the duke of Bridgewater s first canal act received the royal 
 assent, March, 1759. It is an epoch in the histoiy of the 
 gi-eat expansion of British industrialism in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. It preceded by ten years the grant of Arkwright's first 
 patent, and by more than a year Watt's earliest experiments on 
 the force of steam. The canal system of Great Britain, the 
 precursor of its railway system, owes its prime development to 
 the pride or sisterly affection of a beautiful duchess. 
 
 The engineering peculiarities and difficulties connected with 
 the duke of Bridgewater's parent canal, will fall more properly 
 to be considered in the biography of his gi-eat assistant. — (See 
 Brindley.) But no estimate, however high, of the genius, 
 energy, and perseverance of Brindley, can detract from the 
 merits of the duke of Bridgewater, as the planner of the first 
 English canal, and upholder of the novel enteqirise amid the 
 most tr)'ing diliiculties. An attempt has been made to deprive 
 the duke of the credit of originating the first English canal, on 
 the strength of an act of parliament, obtained by his father and 
 others in 1737, for rendering Wersley brook navigable, and on 
 the ground that the Sankey navigation act was obtained in 
 17.55, and carried out by 17G0. The conversion of an unnavi- 
 gable into a navigable .stream is not the constioiction of a canal, 
 and the claim put forth on behalf of the first duke of Bridge- 
 water is clearly untenable. In the case of the Sankey navigation, 
 the so-called canal ran parallel with the bed of the stream .vhich 
 fed it, and as closely as possible to which it was constructed. 
 Very different was the duke of Bridgewater's first canal from 
 Worsley to JLanchester, cut not only through the dry land, and 
 not parallel to the course of any stream, but actually carried 
 
 over the navigable Irwoll by the famous Barton aqueduct. The 
 duke's sole coadjutors were his steward, John Gilbert (brother 
 to the founder of the Gilbert unions), and Brindley, who, in all 
 probability, was introduced by Gilbert to the duke. The act was 
 obtained in 1759; the Barton aqueduct was opened in 1761 — 
 a seemingly short interval of two years, but one of trying diffi- 
 culty to the projector. Lancashire looked with incredulity on 
 the whole enterprise, and at one time the duke's credit was so 
 low that he could not get his bill for £500 cashed in Liverpool; 
 — Gilbert had to ride about in the neighbouring districts and 
 borrow from the farmers such small sums as they would lend. 
 The duke's estates were extensive but enctunbered, and his 
 Worsley establishment was reduced to the very lowest scale. 
 He lived to reap his reward even in a pecuniary sense. He 
 constnicted thirty-six miles of successful and lucrative canals. 
 The despised projector of the Liverpool financiers could after- 
 wards subscribe £100,000 to the loyalty loan, and return his 
 income to the property-tax commissioners at £110,000 per 
 annum. Nor must it be supposed that his share in the great 
 enterprise was confined to the supply of capital and to the 
 encom-agement of others. In some curious pieces printed by 
 Francis, last carl of Bridgewater (the testator of the Bridge- 
 water Treatises), there are related several authentic anecdotes, 
 which prove that the duke, even in matters of detail, occasionally 
 over-ruled Brindley, and that his suggested alterations were 
 successful. More than twenty years after Brindlcy's death, 
 between 1796 and 1799, and in his own latest years, the duke 
 is represented as indefatigable in improving, or trying to improve, 
 a system with the actual results of which he might well have 
 been content. During the period referred to, and before Bell 
 and Fulton had applied the steam paddle-wheel to navigation, 
 the duke of Bridgewater, at considerable expense of time, trouble, 
 and money, tried (but unsuccessfully) the experiment of the 
 steam-tug on the Worsley canal. He died of a cold, which had 
 deepened into influenza, on the 8th of March, 1803, in his sixty- 
 eighth year, at his mansion in London, on the site of which now 
 stands the magnificent Bridgewater house, built by the late earl 
 of Ellesmere, the duke's principal heir. In person the duke of 
 Bridgewater was, latterly, large and unwieldy, indifferent to his 
 dress, which was uniformly a suit of brown, somewhat similar to 
 that of Dr. Johnson. In his habits he was simple and econo- 
 mical, smoking much but drinking little. His talk was chiefly 
 of canals, and he had a marked aversion to the uss of the pen. 
 By his dependents, in spite of his rough exterior and abnipt 
 manners, he was much liked for his familiarity of intercourse 
 and generosity of conduct. It is somewhat singular, that though 
 he displayed a marked aversion to the ornamental when divorced 
 from the useful, and once reproved a labourer who, during his 
 absence from Worsley, had planted some flowers, which he rooted 
 up with his stick, yet he amassed the splendid collection of pic- 
 tures now presen'ed in Bridgewater house, and valued, when he 
 died, at £150,000.— (Q?/aWer/y Review for March, 1844 : Art., 
 " Aqueducts and Canals," reprinted in " Essays by the late 
 Earl of Ellesmere," London, 1858 ; Letters of the Hon. Francis 
 Egerton, afterwards Earl of Bridgewater, Paris, 1819 ; Gentle- 
 man's Mar/azine and Annual Register for 1803, &c.) — F. E. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, John. See Aquapontanus. 
 
 BRIE, Jeiian de, a shepherd of Brie in France, who com- 
 posed, by order of Charles V., a work entitled " Le vray regime 
 et gouvernement des bergers et berg^res," &c., 1542. 
 
 BRIENNE, the name of an ancient and illustrious French 
 family, the following members of which deserve mention : — Jean, 
 count of Brienne, married in 1209, Marie, daughter of Conrad 
 of Jlontferrat, and was crowned king of Jenisalim. For awhile 
 he made war successfully against the Saracens, but was at 
 length obliged to place himself for protection in the hands of the 
 Emperor Frederic II., to whom he gave his daughter in marriage. 
 In the quaiTels of the emperor with the pope, he took part with 
 the latter. In 1229 the French barons conferred on him the 
 crown of Constantinople, which, in spite of repeated invasions of 
 Greeks and Bulgarians, he wore till his death in 1237. — Raoul 
 DE Brienne, count of Eu, constable of France, and a distin- 
 guished warrior under Phillip or Valois, killed at a tournament 
 at Paris in 1344. In 1340 he successfully defended Toumay 
 against an army of 20,000 English. — Raoul II. de Brienne, 
 count of Eu, succeeded to the post of constable on the death of 
 his father. He served in the English wars, especially in Nor- 
 mandv, where, having allowed himself to be drawn into an
 
 BRl 
 
 749 
 
 BRI 
 
 engagement with superior numbers, he was taken prisoner. He 
 was executed as a traitor in 1350. — Gacthier de Brienxe, 
 duke of Athenes, constable'of France under John II., killed at 
 the battle of Poitiers in 1356. He was brought up at the court 
 of Robert, king of Naples, who in 1326 sent him to Florence 
 under the title of vicar of the duke of Calabria. Here he so 
 ingratiated himself with the people, that, on the breaking out of 
 the war with the Pisans in 13-12, they raised him to the com- 
 mand of the city. But his popularity was of short duration ; 
 an insurrection of the populace in 1343 obliged him to take 
 refuge in France. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRIERE DE BOISilONT, A., a French physician, was 
 bom at Rouen about the year 1796, and took his degree of 
 doctor at Paris in 1825. He devoted much attention to mental 
 diseases and the nerves, and wrote an elementary work on botany, 
 in which he particularly considers plants in their relation to 
 medicine and m their economical uses. He was aided in this 
 work by Pottier of Rouen. — J. H. B. 
 
 BRIELE, Rabbi Ychudah bex Eliezer, presided over 
 the Jewish congregation of llantua, in the early part of the 
 eighteenth century. The fame of his talmudical " Responses " 
 spread all over Italy, says Azulai (Vaad, part 2) : he has 
 also written on grammar, and he took an active part in the 
 controversy against Xehemiah Chayiln, the propagator of 
 Shabbatai-Zebi's cabbalistical doctrines OVolf, v. 3, No. 702). 
 Rossi possessed several 5ISS. by Briele on the Jewish-Christian 
 controversy — an evidence of the extensive range of Rabbi 
 Briele's studies. — T. T. 
 
 BRIFAUT, Charles, bom at Dijon in 1781. Brifaut was 
 one of those writers whose works, hanng at one time enjoyed 
 popularity, occasioned by chiming in with a fleeting taste, or 
 because of particular circumstances, are only referred to by after- 
 generations as historically Ulustrative of the incidents of former 
 days. Because the jealous censors of Napoleon interfered in 
 1807 with the representation of Brifaut's tragedy of "Lady Jane 
 Grey," the pubhc hastened to applaud it, when produced upon the 
 return of the Bourbons in 1814, and gave a triumph at the same 
 time to the sonorous versification of another tragedy, " Ninus." 
 Elected a member of the academy in 1826, his position kept his 
 name alive, while his agreeable manners insured him a welcome 
 place in society. He died at Paris in 1857. — J. F. C. 
 
 BRIGANTI, VrscESZO, an ItaUan botanist, wrote a work on 
 the sexual system of Linnaeus, which was published at Naples in 
 1804 ; also treatises on a new species of pimpineUa, on the fungi, 
 and the rarer plants of the kingdom of Naples, and on the use 
 of the bark of Loranthus enropjeus. — J. H. B. 
 
 BRIGGS, Henry, one of the greatest mathematicians of the 
 seventeenth century, was bom at Warley Wood, near Halifax, 
 Yoikshire, about the year 1560. He studied at St. John's col- 
 lege, Cambridge, became il.A. in 1585, and in 1596 was chosen 
 the first reader in geometiy at Gresham college, London. In 
 1609 he attracted the notice of Dr. James Usher, afterwards 
 archbishop of Armagh, and they became intimate friends. The 
 tjaestion of a northwest passage through the straits of North 
 America, began now to excite attention, and he wrote upon it 
 with much skill and discrimination. Havuig lectured at Gresham 
 college with success for twenty-three years, he was invited 
 by Sir Henry Sa^'ile to accept his lecture on geometry at Oxford, 
 with a better stipend. He removed to Oxford in 1619, and 
 was incoi-porated as M.A., Oxon., in the same year. In 1620 
 he published in London the six first books of Euclid, restored 
 according to the old 5ISS., with Fred. Commandine's version 
 corrected. He did not give his name in this edition. In 1624 
 he issued his " Arithmetica Logarithmica," London, fol. He 
 died at Merton college, Jan. 26, 1630-31.— T. J. 
 
 BRIGGS, William, a celebrated English physician, was born 
 at Nonvich about 1650 . He studied at Cambridge, and after- 
 wards travelled into France, where he attended the lectures of 
 Vienssens at Montpellier, and on his return to England in 1676, 
 pnbUshed a work on ophthalmic surgerj', entitled "Ophthahno" 
 graphia," &c. In the following year, 1677, he Utok his doctor's 
 degree, was admitted into the College of Physicians, and elected 
 a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1683 he became one of the 
 physicians of St. Thomas' hospital, and after the revolution of 
 1688 was appointed physician-in-ordinary to William III. He 
 died at Town-Mailing in Kent in 1704. The stmcture of the 
 eye, and the diseases to which that delicate organ is subject, 
 constituted his principal study. He inserted a paper on the 
 
 theory of vision in the Philosophical Transactions, and Sb Isaac 
 Newton corresponded with him, and esteemed him an authority 
 in all matters connected with the ^-isual organs. Besides the 
 above, Briggs had a second paper in the Philosophical Transac- 
 tions, and before his death he had announced other works on the 
 eye, never pubUshed. — W. S. D. 
 
 * BRIGHT, John, a democratic politician of note, was bom 
 on the 16th of November, 1811, at Greenbank, in the immediate 
 vicinity of Rochdale, still the seat of the manufacturing opera- 
 tions of the fu-m in which he is a partner. His father, who 
 died at an advanced age, and in possession of considerable wealth, 
 six or seven years ago, had raised himself from the ranks to the 
 position of an opulent master cotton-spuiner, and enjoyed, in his 
 own locahty, a well-earned reputation for shrewdness and energy. 
 Mr. Bright was the second of ten children, the eldest of whom 
 died young, and in earlier years his own feeble health was a 
 source of constant anxiety to his parents. He received his first 
 education at a school in Rochdale, whence he was removed to 
 one at Ackworth in Yorkshire, supported by the Society of 
 Friends, to which his parents belonged, and of which ilr. Bright 
 himself is still ostensibly a member. After a further removal to 
 York, his health being still found unsatisfactory, he was placed 
 under the charge of a tutor at Newton in BoUand, and, invigo- 
 rated by rambles upon its breezy uplands, he returned home to 
 take a part in his father's manufacturing industry, and to be 
 initiated into the mysteries of buying cotton, and selling cotton- 
 yam on Manchester 'Change, operations which, in later years, 
 he has allowed to devolve on younger brothers. Mr. Bright's 
 first appearance as a politician, dates from the local agitation 
 which preceded and accompanied the reform bill of 1831-32. 
 Rochdale was one of the populous boroughs, until then unrepre- 
 sented, to which the reform bill proposed to assign the right to 
 return a member to parliament. Mr. Bright's voice was of 
 course heard on the popular side, but he was then only a youth 
 of twenty, and beyond the fact that he did address his towns- 
 men in favour ot the reform biU, no infomaation has been pre- 
 served of his first appearance in the political arena. It is 
 recorded, however, that when, two years later, he and some other 
 young townsmen resolved to hold a meeting for the discussion 
 of the temperance question (Mr. Bright has been for many years 
 a teetotaller), they selected, for the scene of the discussion, a 
 hamlet some miles from Rochdale, so modest was then- estimate 
 of their o\vn powers, so unpopular the theme of debate, and so 
 great their fear of ridicule ! 
 
 The tune was, however, at hand, when Mr. Bright was to 
 become first locally, and then nationally prominent. In 1835 
 he made a tour on the continent and to Palestine. It was the 
 year of Jlr. Cobden's continental travels, which resulted in 
 the pamphlets by a Manchester Manufacturer, and the first 
 acquaintance fonned by Islr. Cobden with the name of his future 
 fellow-laboiu-er — personally they did not then meet — was at 
 Athens, which Jlr. Bright had quitted before the arrival of Mr. 
 Cobden. On his return home, ilr. Bright began to lecture at a 
 literary institution in Rochdale, which he had helped to found. 
 His first subjects were his recent experiences of travel, and 
 thence, bv an easy transition, he passed to lectures on subjects 
 connected with industrialism and political economy. It was 
 about this time, too, that he threw himself into one of those 
 violent church-rate contests, for which Rochdale h.ad long been 
 celebrated, and replaced the usual passive resistance of his sect 
 by an active and energetic opposition. The name of "John 
 Bright" was now well-known as that of a sturdy and combative 
 Rochdale radical, when, suddenly, a question arose which led to 
 his exchanging a local for a general notoriety. The Jlanchester 
 Anti-coni-law association was formed in the .lutumn of 1838, 
 and Jlr. Bright's name appears in the list of its first committee. 
 Early in 1839 this purely local association became the famous 
 Anti-com-law league; and in the course of the same year 
 Mr. Cobden paid a missionary visit to Rochdale. It was on 
 this occasion that the two fi-ce-trade leaders first made each 
 other's personal acquaintance, and Mr. Cobden was so struck 
 by the force and fire of Mr. Bright's oratory, that he insisted on 
 pressing him nito the ser%-ice of the league, of which Mr. Bright 
 became, before long, a most successful and an indispensable 
 champion. Mr. Cobden's lucid and logical advocacy of free- 
 trade was supplemented by the much more vigorous and impas- 
 sioned rhetoric of Mr. Bright. The calmer friends of the cause 
 might be startled, and its enemies be shocked by the personal!-
 
 BRI 
 
 750 
 
 BRI 
 
 ties and all but revolutionary declamation of Mr. Bright. But 
 the fieiT tone of his addi-esses was well-suited to public and mis- 
 cellaneous meetings. Mr. Bright was soon recognized as onlv 
 second to Mr. Cobden in the effective advocacy of the objects of 
 the league, while the more ardent spirits of the party predicted his 
 eventual supremacy. The history of Mr. Bright's connection with 
 the Anti-com-law league, involves the histoiy of the league itself, 
 which does not fall to be wiitten here. Suffice it to indicate, as 
 prominent events of this section of Mr. Bright's career, his metro- 
 politan exertions in 18-13 to secure the return of Mr. Patterson, 
 the free-trade candidate, for the city of London, and his appear- 
 ance at a great meeting of the Anti-Slaverj' Society ui Exeter hall, 
 during the course of 1844, when he advocated the application of 
 free trade even to the sugar question, and opposed the imposition 
 of a prohibitory or protective duty on slave-grown sugar. As 
 a proof of his unremitting perseverance, it may be mentioned, 
 that when he accompanied to Leamington liis first and dying 
 wife (Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Jonathan Priestman, Esq., 
 of Newcastle-on-Tyne, whom he mamed in 1839, and whom 
 he lost in 1841), he delivered anti-com-law lectures in the 
 neighbourhood, and endeavoured to wiu over the Warwickshire 
 fai-mers to a conviction of the agricultural benefits of free trade. 
 
 Mr. Bright first entered parliament in 1843, two years after 
 the return of Mr. Cobden for Stockport. In tlie sprmg of that 
 year a vacancy occuiTed in the representation of Dm-ham, and 
 Lord Dungannon was selected as the conser\-ative candidate. In 
 accordance with the tactics of the league, to offer a free-trade 
 candidate whenever there was a vacancy, and whether success 
 was probable or improbable. Colonel (now ^Major-general) 
 Thompson was put forward as the free-trade candidate, and j\Ir. 
 Bright was despatched to Durham to advocate his claims and to 
 forward his canvass. From some cause or other Colonel Thomp- 
 son withdrew from the contest at the eleventh hour. There was 
 no time to lose: Mr. Bright was on the spot; and the day 
 before the election he issued his address as a candidate. He 
 was defeated by a majority of 101. The return of Lord Dim- 
 gannon, however, was petitioned against, and he was unseated 
 for bribeiy. The contest was renewed, and in July, 1843, Mr. 
 Bright was returned for Dm-ham by a majority of 78. The 
 spectacle of a radical quaker sitting for the cathedral and con- 
 seiTative city of Durham was a strange one, and would seem 
 man-ellous even now, were it not understood that the then 
 marquis of Londonderry refused to throw his overwhelming 
 influence into the scale of his natm-al ally, the conservative can- 
 didate. Mr. Bright's tii-st speech in the house of commons was 
 made towards the end of a session, and in a thin house, on the 
 7th of August, 1843. It was in support of a motion of Mr. 
 Ewart's for the reduction of import duties, and its delivery 
 betrayed a certain nervousness which often characterizes Mr. 
 Briglit's parliamentaiy oratory, and which must surprise those 
 who have only heard him speak to miscellaneous, excited, and 
 altogether friendly audiences. From this period onward to the 
 repe:U of the corn laws, Mr. Bright was active in and out of 
 parliament ; but both with the public as a whole, and with the 
 house of commons, Mr. Cobden was still the favourite. In his 
 celebrated peroration, when proposing the repeal of the com 
 laws, the late Sir Robert Peel ascribed the whole glory of the 
 free-trade triumph to Mr. Cobden. The Bright testimonial, 
 subscribed for after the dissolution of the Anti-cora-law league, 
 was veiy much inferior in amount to that raised for Mr. Cobden, 
 although it furnished the recipient with an excellent libraiy. 
 Unconnected directly with the free-trade movement, two items 
 of Mr. Bright's house of commons activity in the parliament of 
 1841—47, deserve to be noticed. One is the appointment pro- 
 cured by him in 1845, of a game law committfc, which ])rinted 
 its evidence without a report, in 184G; and an abridgment 
 of the evidence, with an address by Mr. Bright to the Tenant 
 Fanners of Great Britain, was published, at his expense, the 
 same year. The other was the appointment, also at his instance, 
 of a select committee on the cotton cultivation of India : its 
 labours issued in a huge blue book, frequently referred to in 
 discussions on this interesting question. 
 
 The general election of 1847, which followed the repeal of the 
 com laws, and the overthrow of the Peel ministry', placed Mr. 
 Bright in a higher position than any he had yet a.spired to. Mr. 
 Mark Philips retired from the representation of ilanchester, and 
 the friends of Mr. Bright wished to see him the colleague of Jlr. 
 Milner (Jibson in the representation of that important consti- 
 
 tuency. The liberal party of Manchester was di\-ided. The old 
 whigs disliked Mr. Bright's radicalism, and wished to throw off 
 the thraldom of the league, the local leaders of which were 
 favourable to the claims of Mr. Bright. Mr. Cobden was invited 
 to stand, but he refused. Lord Lincoln (now duke of Newcastle) 
 was then persuaded to become a candidate, but dissatisfied with 
 his chances of success, he withdrew, after his committee had 
 been formed, and Mr. Bright was returned without opposition. 
 The ensuing six years of Jlr. Bright's life, pubhc and pai-liamen- 
 taiy, were active and busy. " Out of doors," he co-operated 
 no longer as a subordinate, but as an equal with Mr. Cobden, in 
 various agitations for financial and parliamentary reform, but 
 not with the marked success which had attended the free-trade 
 movement. In parliament, Mr. Bright spoke with increasing fre- 
 quency, and succeeded gradually in the difficult enterprise, which 
 is termed " gaining the ear of the house." It was remarked that, 
 if still narrow in his tone, his scope was wider. Besides m-ging 
 the ordinaiy views of a radical politician, he produced a marked 
 effect by his treatment of the Irish and Indian questions in 1848 
 and 1850. After the formation of the first Derby ministry, and 
 the consequent dissolution of parfiament, his retm'n for JIanchester 
 was opposed, but the cause of free-trade was thought to be once 
 more in danger, and moderate Hberals themselves, though disa- 
 greeing with many of his views, refused to countenance the 
 attempt to oust him from the representation of JIanchester at 
 such a crisis. After a contest, he was again retm-ned by a large 
 majority. His ^^olent opjiosition to the Russian war, however, 
 united against him a majority of his constituents, many of 
 whom, moreover, were perhaps still influenced by a jealousy 
 of the local power of the Anti-corn- law league, which, though 
 nominally dissolved, still kept up in Manchester a considerable 
 organization. Soon after the formation of Lord Palmerston's 
 ministry, Mr. Bright was compelled, by ill-health, to withdraw 
 from attendance in parliament, and to seek repose and change 
 of scene on the continent. The general election of 1857 found 
 him abroad, and in his absence, ^Manchester rejected him as its 
 representative. On the death of Mr. Miuitz, he was elected iii 
 August, 1857, one of the members for Birmingham, and has 
 since resumed his parliamentary duties. In 1847 Mr. Bright 
 married a second time, a daugh.ter of Mr. Leatham of Wake- 
 field, by whom he has several children, in addition to one by his 
 first marriage. — (Alexander Somerville, Free-Trade and the 
 League, Manchester, 1853, &c.) — F. E. 
 
 BRIGHT, Richard, JI.D., an eminent physician, was bom 
 in Biistol in the year 1789. He matriculated as a student at 
 the university of Edinburgh in the year 1808, and graduated in 
 medicine in 1812. After spending some time at Cambridge, he 
 proceeded to the continent, and was one of the many physicians 
 and surgeons who thronged to Bnissels after the battle of Waterloo, 
 with the double object of acquiring professional knowledge and of 
 assisting the overtasked military surgeons in the care and treat- 
 ment of the sick and wounded. Dr. Bright afterwards com- 
 menced the practice of his profession in London, and in 1820 was 
 appointed assistant-physician to Guy's hospital — the high repu- 
 tation of which, as a medical school, he did much to establish and 
 maintain. -As an author. Dr. Bright occupies the foremost 
 position in English medical literature. His "Original researches 
 into the Pathology of Diseases of the Kidney " have been univer- 
 sally acknowledged as among the most valuable discoveries in 
 pathology; and over the whole world " Bright's disease " is recog- 
 nized and described. It may be sufficient to indicate here that 
 his discovery lay in the identification of the coexistence of an 
 albuminous state of the urine with certain morbid changes in 
 the structure of the kidney. On other subjects connected with 
 pathology and practical medicine, Dr. Bright has been a copious 
 and able writer. As a practitioner he attained great celebrity, 
 more especially in dropsical cases, and he was one of the physi- 
 cians extraordinary to the queen. Dr. Bright died in December, 
 1858, in the 70th year of his age. — J. B. C. 
 
 BRIGHT, Timothy, an eminent English physician and divine, 
 took his degree of doctor of medicine at Cambridge, and in 1591 
 became rector of Jlethley in Yorkshire. His most celebrated pro- 
 duction is his "Treatise of Melancholy." His medical works 
 exhibit a remarkable acquaintance with the doctrines of the early 
 Greek writers. He died in 1G15. 
 
 BRILL, Paul, one of the eariiest of the Flemish landscape 
 painters, was born at Antwerp about 1556. After receiving' 
 some instruction from an obscm-e painter of the name of Oortel-
 
 man, lie executed small pictures for the cabinetmakers ; but 
 lindinj; little business in Ms own country, he tried his fortunes 
 iu France, especially at Lyons. From Lyons he went to Italy, 
 and joined his elder brother Matthew at Rome, who was then 
 much employed in decorating the walls of the Vatican with pro- 
 cessions and landscapes in fresco for Pope Gregory XIIL Afrer 
 the death of Matthew (in his thirty- fifth year) in 1584, Paid 
 completed his brother's works, and continued the same class of 
 d(;corations in various churches and palaces for Sixtus V., Cle- 
 ment VIIL, and Paul V., turning his attention more especially 
 to landscape painting ; representing scenes from the lives of the 
 martyrs, and views of the gi-and monastic institutions of the 
 Kouiau states. These large wall paintings were executed in 
 fresco ; but Paul Brill also became distinguished for his small 
 easel pictm'es in oil, which, though essentially landscapes, are 
 generally enhvened by some figure subject. He imitated the style 
 nf Titian in his backgrounds, and also the landscapes of Anuibale 
 Caracci, but his colouring is generally considered too green. His 
 success was great, his lowest price for a landscape being one 
 hundred scudi, about twenty guineas ; many of these being 
 purchased by Flemish merchants and sold in the Low Countries. 
 Several good examples are now in the Louvre. He occasionally 
 liad recourse to the assistance of other painters for the figures in 
 Ills landscapes. Engi-avings after his works are numerous, and 
 he etched a few plates himself. He died at Rome, October 7th, 
 1626, and was buried in the church of the Madonna dell' Anima. 
 There is a portrait of him by Vandyck. — (JBacjUone; Le Vite 
 del Pittori, &c.)— R. N. W. 
 
 BRILLON, PiERKE Jacques, born at Paris in 1671, and 
 died at Paris in 1736. His father was a wealthy silk merchant, 
 and hoped to see his son a prosperous avocat ; but the demon of 
 rhyme seized him early, and Peter James gave himself to what 
 is called literature. He wrote imitations of La Bniyere, who 
 felt flattered, and said they were not bad — no one said that they 
 were good — and our poet and moralist, after some interlunary 
 periods of verse-writing, reappeared as jurist and jmisconsult. 
 
 BRINDLEY, James, a celebrated engineer, who shares with 
 Francis Egerton, duke of Bridgewater, the honour of having 
 founded the system of canals in England, was bom at Tunstead 
 in Derbyshire in 1716, of poor parents, by whom his education 
 \vas so neglected as to give rise to the allegation, that he con- 
 tinued all his life without the knowledge of reading, or of writing 
 beyond the signing of his name ; but there is reason to believe 
 that this statement is exaggerated. At the age of seventeen he 
 was bound apprentice to a millwright of Macclesfield, of the 
 name of Bennet, and in due time began to practise that business 
 on his own account. His ingenuity and skill in practical 
 mechanics were so great that he soon acquired a high reputation 
 throughout the kingdom, and was employed to make some of 
 the most important pieces of machinery which were executed at 
 that period in England. It was about 1754 that he first became 
 connected with those works of inland navigation which have 
 made his name famous. At that time the duke of Bridgewater, 
 possessing at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester, a rich and 
 extensive coal-field, the advantages of which were withheld from 
 him by the want of means of conveyance to a suitable market, 
 formed the project of connecting it with Manchester by means of 
 a canal — a kind of conveyance which, although it had existed 
 in France for upwards of a century, in Italy and Holland for 
 five centuries, and in China from time immemorial, was at that 
 time new to England. On this project the duke of Bridgewater 
 consulted Brindley, who ap])roved of it, and planned the works 
 by which it was to be carried into eifect. An act of parliament 
 authorizing the execution of this project was obtained, but not 
 without much difficulty ; for, like most new entei-prises, it had 
 ill encounter a storm of opposition and ridicule from those who 
 considered its novelty as implying impracticability, and who 
 regarded as non-existent all previous works of the same kind 
 out of England. In overcoming obstacles of this kind, Brindley 
 laboured under peculiar disadvantages from his want of educa- 
 tion, which disabled him from clearly exjilaining to others, and 
 especially to the ignorant and prejudiced, his ideas, however 
 sound ; and it is nuich to the honour of the projector of the 
 canal that he possessed a mind capabli! of discerning the genius 
 of the engineer through his ro\igh exterior, and of ])lacing im- 
 plicit confidence in the genius so discerned. The duke of Bridge- 
 water, limiting his personal expenses to £400 a year, placed tlie 
 rest of his income at the disposal of Brindley for the execution 
 
 of his canal, which was successfully carried forward, and com- 
 pleted in 1761. Great additional expense in earthwork and 
 masomy was incurred by the determination to make this canal 
 without locks, which are always a serious impediment to naviga- 
 tion ; and amongst other works so rendered necessary, was an 
 aqueduct over the river Irwell, thirty-nine feet high above the 
 level of the stream, which was then considered a gigantic under- 
 taking, and, until its completion, denounced as the most visionary 
 part of the scheme. Between 17G1 and 1766, Brindley planned 
 and executed, for the dulie of Bridgewater, a branch or exten- 
 sion of his canal twenty-nine miles in length, terminating by a 
 junction with the estuary of the Mersey. The whole undertak- 
 ing soon became profitable, and continues to the present time to 
 be one of the most useful and successful of the British canals, 
 of which it was the first. The success of the duke of Bridge- 
 water's canal induced various other capitalists to project works 
 of the same class, most of which were intrusted to Brindley 
 while he lived ; one of the most important being the Trent and 
 Mersey or Grand Trunk canal, which effects a connection between 
 the Irish sea and tlie German ocean, and comprises a formid- 
 able work, the Harecastle-hill tunnel. Exhausted by excessive 
 labom-, Brindley died on the 27th of September, 1772, at the early 
 age of fifty-six ; but he had already lived to see the commence- 
 ment of that British system of inland na-ingation which, com- 
 mencing with the canal that he planned and made, has since 
 extended itself in one connected notwork over England from 
 Kendal to Portsmouth, with the addition of detached works, 
 some of which, Hke the Forth and Clyde and Caledonian canals, 
 exceed the rest in magnitude. Amongst the anecdotes which 
 are related of Brindley, it is said, that being obliged to supply 
 the want of education by intense thought, he was in the habit, 
 when he had any important work to design, of going to bed, 
 where he woiild remain for days together until his plans were 
 matured in his mind ; and that his zeal for his favourite mode 
 of conveyance was such, that having been asked before a parha- 
 mentary committee, for what purpose he thought rivers were 
 created, he answered, " to feed canals." — W. J. M. R. 
 
 BRINK, Hans Jen, bom at Amsterdam ; and educated by 
 Riche'e van Ommeren, he acquired a taste for classical litera- 
 ture. He passed from van Ommeren's care to the university 
 of Leyden, and devoted part of his time to the study of theology, 
 a condition enforced upon him to enable him to hold an exhibi- 
 tion or " bourse," as it is tliere called, which nearly defrayed the 
 expenses of his education. He was for a while a patriot, and 
 made political speeches which it is easier to praise than to read. 
 He grew older, sadder, and wiser, and began to teach Greek and 
 Latin at the academy of Harderwyk ; afterwards set up a school 
 of his own, and in 1814, or soon after, was appointed professor 
 of ancient literature at the academy of Groningen. He published 
 Dutch translations of Sallust and parts of Cicero, also of Xeno- 
 phon's Cyropffidia, and of the Medea of Euripides In 1815 he 
 printed a political pamphlet, ridiculing the allies for refusing to 
 treat with Bonaparte. — J. A. D. 
 
 BRINKLEY, John, LL.D., bishop of Cloyne, professor of 
 astronomy in Trinity college, Dublin ; bom in 1703, died in 
 1835 ; an eminent mathematician and obsen'er. Brinkley's 
 career at Trinity college was so remarkable, that the chair of 
 astronomy was easily secm^ed for him in 1792 ; and this involved 
 his being in charge of the observatoiy at Dunsink. He had the 
 good fortune to obtain possession of one of Ramsden's great 
 circles, similar to the instrument made by the same mechanician 
 for Piazzi at Palermo. This circle is not of the construction 
 now usually employed ; it resembles rather the great circle of 
 Ertel of Munich. It has a motion in azimuth, and may be 
 reversed by that motion ; while, at present, the favourite con- 
 struction rests on the opinion that all such circles ought to be 
 fixed in the meridian. Brinkley's instrument, however, was 
 ])erhaps the best existing in his time, and he employed it well. 
 Many excellent results were obtained by him, and he had a 
 strong impression that he had obtained the parallax of « Lyrw. 
 This was vigorously contested by Pond ; and a debate on the deli- 
 cate point was kept up by the two observers for several years. In 
 the end it became rather hot ; so that no one regretted its 
 termination. The decision has g(mc against Brinkley ; professor 
 Airy being judge. It is quite certain that he was not in a position 
 to determine so small a quantity ; ami more recent investigations, 
 conducted chiefly by Struvt^, show that the parallax of that star 
 (should any parallax be sensible) is much smaller than the Irish
 
 BRI 
 
 752 
 
 BRI 
 
 observer imagined. Brinkley wrote a text-book, entitled " Ele- 
 ments of Astronomy." This work is still extensively used, 
 although it cannot bo doubted that better ones exist. His chief 
 writings, however, and those that show his powers, appeared as 
 memoirs in the Transactions of onr learned societies. The subject 
 of parallax seems to have engaged him much. He wrote fre- 
 quently also on refraction, and we owe him improvements in our 
 tables. He published an interesting and instractive essay on the 
 solutions of Kepler's problem ; and he sent to the Transactions of 
 the Eoyal Academy of Ireland, a curious memoir on the shape of 
 the orbits that would be assumed by bodies revolving around a 
 centre, in obedience to an attractive energy, decreasing according, 
 not to the square, but to any power wliatsoever of the distance. 
 This last essay has not had, and probably never will have, any 
 practical relations; but its execution is veiy creditable to Brinkley. 
 The life of this inquirer seems to have been an undisturbed one, 
 and marked by no accident apart from his scientific labours. It 
 has been said that he wrought with Paley while the latter was 
 producing his interesting treatises on Natural Theology. His 
 episcopal duties were, no doubt, fairly performed ; and as a man, 
 he bore himself with honour, and was thereupon held by those 
 who knew him, in corresponding esteem. His successor in the 
 chair of astronomy, is a well-known geometer, of whom we shall 
 speak again — Su- William Hamilton. — J. P. N. 
 
 BRINKMAN, Karl Gustavus, baron von, a Swedish 
 statesman and poet, born 24th February, 176-i, at his patenial 
 estate in the parish of Brannkyrka and district of Stockholm. 
 He studied at Upsala, and afterwards at the universities of Halle, 
 Leipzig, and .lena, at the first of which he formed a strong 
 friendship with Schleiermacher. In 1790 he returned to 
 Sweden, and devoted himself to diplomatic life. In 1792 he was 
 apjiointed secretary to the Swedish legation in Dresden, and six 
 years afterwards consul at Paris, which place he vt'as obliged to 
 leave, inconsequence of the 18 Brumaire. In 1801 he was sent 
 to Berlin in the same capacity, where, with a slight interruption 
 in his office, he remained till 1806, when he fled from the capital 
 with the Prassian coml. In 1807 he came as ambassador to 
 London, whence he was recalled in 1810, and afterwards remained 
 at home for many years, an active member of the administrative 
 government. In 1829 he was nominated a member of the Swe- 
 dish Academy, and in 1835 he made over to the university of 
 Upsala his large library of 10,000 volumes, which he was daily 
 increasing, and wliich was especially rich in Greek and modem 
 literature, as well as in hiitorical records of his own country. 
 Four years afterwards he received the honorary degree of doctor 
 of philosophy from this university, and was elevated by the king 
 to the rank of the nobility. Brinkman was remarkable for his 
 great learning and knowledge of languages ; he was also a poet 
 of some reputation. He published two volumes of poems while 
 at Leipzig in 1789, which appeared under the name of Selmar ; 
 also a small volume for private circulation at Paris ; and his 
 " Philosophical Views and Poems," at Berlin in 1801, which also 
 was published anonymously. His poem, "The World of Genius," 
 received the first prize at the Royal Academy of Sweden in 1821. 
 He published in 1828 liis "Tankbilder" (Thought-Pictures), in 
 the fourteenth volume of Svea, a Swedish periodical ; and for a 
 considerable time he was supposed to be the author of the 
 
 ^Memoirs of Herr von S a, which, liowever, were written by 
 
 Woltmann. He kept up for many years a lively con'espwidence 
 with madame de Stael.— AL H. 
 
 BRINSLEY, John, M.A., of Emanuel college, Cambridge, 
 was born at Ashby-de-la-Zouch in Leicestershire in 1600. His 
 father, who was master of the grammar school at Ashby, was a 
 man of considerable learning, and was eminent as a teacher ; he 
 was the author of a curious and now very rare book, entitled 
 " Ludus Literarius, or the Grammar School ; showing how to 
 proceed from the first entrance into learning to the highest 
 ])erfection required in the grannnar schools, with ease, certainty, 
 and delight," &c., London, 1612; a book which unfolds con- 
 ceptions of the true end and the best methods of education, 
 marvellously in advance of what were common in that age. By 
 this enlightened teacher and excellent luan, liis son was carefully 
 trained in letters and religion, and so profited by his opportuni- 
 ties that, while only in his seventeenth year, he accompanied 
 his maternal uncle. Dr. Hall, afterwards the famous Bishop Hall, 
 as his amanuensis to the aymxl of Dort. After finishing his 
 studies at Cambridge, he officiated for some time as a preacher 
 at Preston, near Chelmsford, and subsequently sustained the 
 
 ministerial office successively at Somerleyton and Yarmouth. 
 At the latter town he spent the greater part of his life, first as 
 minister of the parish, and subsequently as a private inhabitant, 
 after his ejection on "the fatal Bartholomew-," when so many pious 
 and useful pastors were cast out of their places for conscience' 
 sake. During his later years he occupied himself chiefly ia 
 study, and in preparing for the press occasional sermons and 
 treatises of a practical and, in one or two instances, of a con- 
 troversial character. He was a steadfast presbyterian, but not 
 so wedded to his peculiar views that he could not hold fellow- 
 ship with christians of other opinions on such points. " Were 
 I there," says he, speaking of New England and the independent 
 churches in that country, " rather than make a schism in the 
 body, I would quietly submit to the way of independency, bless- 
 ing God that I might sit down in it and enjoy the comforts of 
 it." Indeed, his great desire seems to have been to prevent 
 divisions among christians, and everywhere to recommend chiurch 
 unity and uniformity, so far as these could be secured salvd con- 
 scieniia. He died on the 22nd January, 1605. "He was a 
 man," says Calamy, " of even temper, rarely ruffled with 
 passion, and seldom warm, unless the cause of God and good- 
 ness requii'ed it." His writings show him to have been a sound 
 scholar, a vigorous reasoner, and an earnest preacher. — W. L. A. 
 
 BRINVILLIERS, Marie-Margiierite d'Aubray, mar 
 quise de, the notorious poisoner, daughter of Dreux d'Aubray, 
 a municipal lieutenant of Paris. She nuinied the marquis de 
 Brinvilliers in 1651 ; separated from him to live with her para- 
 mom- Sainte Croix ; and learning from that accomplished villain 
 the use of a poison, which is now supposed to have been com- 
 mon arsenic, began a career of crime which is almost without 
 parallel. To seciue for herself and her lover the property of her 
 family, she poisoned her father and her two brothers, having 
 previously proved the efficacy of the drag with which she accom- 
 plished these atrocities by destroying a number of poor people in 
 the public hospitals. These crimes and others of the heartless 
 pair were brought to light .at the death of Sainte Croix, who fell 
 a victim to his abominable trade, having let fall, while preparing 
 a deadly volatile poison, the mask which protected his face. She 
 fled to a convent of Liege, but by the arts of an ofiicer of police, 
 who made her acquaintance in the guise of an abbd, was brought 
 back to Paris, and after being subjected to various tortures, exe- 
 cuted with all possible indignities in 1676. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRIQUANT, Jacques le, bom at Pontrieux in 1720, and 
 died at Trequier in 1804. He was educated as a lawyer, but 
 misled from professional studies and pursuits by some delusive 
 phantom of philology or etymology. In ever)' language he caugLt 
 the lineaments of the Celtic, and insisted with wearisome zeal 
 upon inflicting his theory on all his friends. On his seal he 
 had the words engraved " Celtica negata, negatur orbis." He 
 addressed memoirs to all the academies and scientific bodies likely 
 to have secretaries employed in correspondence on such topics, 
 and printed a good many books all illustrative of what he called 
 " la langue des Celtes Gomerites on Bretons." A good many 
 Tracts of his on these subjects are still in manuscript. Briquant 
 was a mineralogist as well as a linguist, and did something to 
 bring the marble of Bretagne into use. The prolific Celt was 
 twice married, and was the father of twenty-two children. His 
 daughters were scattered abroad in marriage. Five sons died in 
 the armies of France — one, who proposed to remain with his 
 father, was cl.aimed by the conscription. It is related of Latone 
 d'Auvergne, that he sen-ed in the young man's stead to enable 
 him to take care of the old man, whose intellect had become 
 impaired. — J. A. I). 
 
 * BRISBANE, Sir Thomas Makdougall, Bart., G.C.B; 
 G.C.H. ; D.C.L. ; LL.D. ; corresponding member of the Institute 
 of France, &c. &c. ; bom at Bishopton in 1770 ; son of Admir^ 
 Brisbane. The life of this now venerable gentleman has been 
 one continued, wise, and practical offering in the service of his 
 countrj', and of astronomical science. Entering the na\-y at the 
 early age of ten, he rose through inferior grades, and as soon as 
 the practice of the service would permit, attained a captaincy. 
 Marked out by his promptitude and courage, exhibited on 
 critical occasions, he was selected by the British Ministry as 
 governor, first of Jamaica, neSt of the island of St. Vincent, and 
 finally of New South ■\\'ales. Through his career, which ter- 
 minated in this distinction, Sir Thomas had unceasingly mani- 
 fested his interest in the promotion of practical astronomy, 
 especially in its relations to navigation, and his own ability to
 
 BRI 
 
 153 
 
 BRI 
 
 advance it by personal labours ; of his deserts, in this respect, he 
 h.is given e\ident and permanent proofs. The memoirs due to 
 is pen which are inserted in the Transactions of the Royal 
 ■society of Edinburgh, are distinguished by clearness of concep- 
 ; in and expression, and the directness with which they bear on 
 ■iiiportant practical points. But these memoirs, however inter- 
 >ting, are but a poor representation of what astronomers and 
 ther cognate inquirers owe to him. WTien governor of Xew 
 ^outh Wales, Sir Thomas established an observatory at Para- 
 atta at his own expense, associating with himself Mr. Eumker 
 :id Mr. Dunlop. The catalogue of southern stars furnished by 
 it is well known, and is the more valuable as being one of the 
 veiy few records yet attainable of the condition of the Southern 
 skies. The observatory of Paramatta, was, with a liberality as 
 rare as estimable, presented by its founder to the British govern- 
 ment. On Sir Thomas's return to this comitry, he built another 
 observatory at his seat, ilakerstoun on the banks of the Tweed; 
 and with due regard to the wants of the moment, he fur- 
 :shed it with special reference to the pursuit of magnetical 
 :.d meteorological research. Ably seconded by his assistant 
 Mr. Broun, he produced several volumes of most valuable 
 bserv'ations, by means of which (although the circumstance 
 : as been overlooked) the existence of a magnetic irregularity 
 pendent on the periods of the moon, was established unques- 
 ionably for the first time. The acts we have referred to, are but 
 Jications of the character of Sir Thomas Brisbane. His interest 
 1 the progress of knowledge has never wavered or diminished; 
 I'pealed to on behalf of any good and attainable object, he is 
 XT ready to aid by his purse and by his influence. He long 
 Lupied the chair of the Eoyal Society of Edinburgh ; and is 
 jrthily fulfilling a varied life, whose long and honourable course 
 as never approached by the shadow of a stain. — J. P. N. 
 BRISSAC, Louis-Hercule-Timoleon de Cosse, due de, 
 er of France, governor of Paris; bom Feb. 14, 1734; was 
 niinated in 1791 commandant-general of the king's constitu- 
 I'tial guard, and massacred at Versailles during the revolutionary 
 'iTors of September, 1792. He defended himself bravely 
 _'ainst his assassins. He was a loyal and devoted sen"ant of 
 ,. luis XVI. Delille has celebrated his virtues and his death in 
 ::ie Poeme de la Pitie. 
 BRISSEAU, Pierre, a French physician of the seventeenth 
 ■ntury, bom at Paris in 1631; died in 1717. His most 
 p.portant work is a " Trait e de la cataracte et du glaucoma," 
 i' urn ay, 1704 and 1708; Paris, 1709; in which he proves 
 .at the seat of cataract is in the crystalline lens. It was pub- 
 -hed a year before the work of Antoine ilaitre-Jean, who is 
 . nerally stated to be the discoverer of the cause of this disease. 
 BRISSON, Barxabe, a French magistrate and jurist, reputed 
 ne of the most leamed men of his time, born in 1531 ; was 
 lecessively advocate- general and president a mortier of the 
 parhament of Paris in the reign of Henry III. He was latterly 
 raised to the dignity of pri\y councillor, and intrusted with 
 -■■veral important embassies, particularly to the English court. 
 'n the institution of the commission called the Chamber Royal, 
 r the hearing of cases of treason so common in the reign of 
 llenrj' III., he was named president by the king, who took occa- 
 sion to say of him, that no prince in Europe could boast of so 
 learned a subject as Brisson. After the famous day of the 
 Barricades, Brisson fell into the power of the party of the League, 
 nd either deliberately, or of necessity, turned traitor to tlie king. 
 le shortly afterwards, however, became suspected by the 
 ■ rannical club called the Sixteen, who arrested him one morning 
 t nine o'clock, as he was going to the palace, had him confessed 
 t ten, and hung at eleven (1591). Brisson is the author of 
 ■le collection of statutes called the Code of Henr}- III., of 
 De Regio Persarum Principatu," and of " Observationum 
 Jlvini et humani juris liber." — -J. S., G. 
 
 BRISSON, JIatturix Jacques, a distinguished French 
 naturalist and physicist, was bom in 1723 at Fontenay le 
 Peuple in Poitou. He was a pupil of Reaumur, whom he assisted 
 in his investigations, and his connection with that great philoso- 
 plier soon obtained him the position of professor of physics at 
 the college of Navarre in Paris, where he was instramental in 
 introducing the use of the lightning-conductor, then a new inven- 
 tion. In 1795 he was appointed professor of physics in the 
 central schools, and at the Bonaparte lyceum. He died in 180G 
 at Broissi, neai- Versailles. Of the writings of Brisson, those on 
 physics, although of gi-eat importance in his day, are now but 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 little valued. His reputation rests principally on his natural 
 history writings, especially his " Ornithologia, sive synopsis 
 methodicH sistens avium divisionem in ordincs," &c., Paris, 1760, 
 in six volumes, illustrated with 26 coloured plates. In this 
 work Brisson describes about 1500 species of birds, arranged 
 according to a modification of the system of Linnaeus. His 
 " Regne animal di%"ise en neuf classes," 1756, contains only the 
 quadrupeds and cetacea, so that the " Ornithologia '' may be 
 regarded as a continuation of it. Brisson's arrangement of 
 animals into nine classes, is in many repects far in advance of 
 the sixth edition of the Systema Naturaj of Linnasus; and it 
 is not improbable that, in his later editions, the great Swedish 
 natm-alist bon-owed some ideas of classification from the French 
 writer. Biisson's nine classes are — I. Quadrupeds ; II. Ceta- 
 cea (of these animals, since more correctly placed in the same 
 order with the quadrupeds, Brisson appears to have been the 
 first to perceive the tnie nature); III. Birds; IV. Reptiles; V. 
 Cartilaginous Fishes ; VI. Tme (or bony) Fishes ; VII. Cras- 
 tacea ; VIII. Insects ; and IX. Worms. The character of his 
 orders of quadrupeds, eighteen in all, is determined princi- 
 pally bv the number and arraneeraent of the teeth. — W. S. D. 
 
 BRISSOT DE WARVILLE, Je.^- Pierre, the celebrated 
 Girondist politician during the French revolution, was bom at 
 Ouar^'ille, near Chartres, January 1, 1764. His father was a 
 wealthy mn-keeper. He manifested early a taste for hterature, 
 and with a view to intellectual improvement, travelled in many 
 foreign countries. He became one of the editors of the Courier 
 de I'Europe, printed at Boulogne, the publication of which having 
 been summarily stopped by the government, he removed to 
 England. In 1780 he published '"Theorie des Lois Criminelles," 
 2 vols. 8vo; and in 1782-86, ten volumes of the " Bibliotheque 
 phOosophique du legislateur, du politique, du jurisconsulte, sur 
 les lois criminelles ;" while he took a prominent part in various 
 discussions, ha%-ing for their object the amelioration of the 
 criminal law. About the same time he issued a work on meta- 
 physics, entitled " De la Verity, ou meditations sur les moyens 
 de parvenu- a la verite dans toutes les connaissances humaines," 
 8vo, 1782, in which he adopts the opinions of Locke and Con- 
 dUlac. This, and a work on India, and on the state of art and 
 science in England, he prepared while residing in London. 
 Returning to France, his numerous writhigs, and his indefatigable 
 zeal in the cause of liberalism, made him odious to the govern- 
 ment. Some anonymous pamphlets, of which he wcs not the 
 author, were attributed to his pen, and he was committed to the 
 bastile. His innocence being demonstrated, he was set at liberty. 
 This imprisonment did not conciHate his temper. His " Lettres 
 a Joseph II. sur le droit d'emigration, et sur le loi d'insurrec- 
 tion," published in 1785, maintained the right of insurrection 
 against governments, where the mere good pleasure of the 
 sovereign constitutes the law of the subject. In 1786 appeared 
 his " Lettres Philosophiques sur I'histoire d'Angleterre," 2 vols. 
 8vo. At this time he was the partisan of a Hinited monarchy, 
 to which he had become attached in his admiration for the 
 EngHsh constitution. But he soon became an equally ardent 
 republican, when America presented to him the spectacle of a 
 democratic and federal government. In 1787 he wrote a book, 
 entitled " De la France et des Etats-Unis, ou de I'importance 
 de la Revolution de I'Amerique pom* le bonheur de la France," 
 1 vol. 8vo. A new anonymous work, attributed to him, now 
 exposed him to a lettre de cachet. He was wamed in time, 
 and sought an asylum in England, from which he speedily 
 removed to the United States. The French revolution recalled 
 him to Europe, and he addressed to the members of the states- 
 general a " Plan of policy for the Deputies of the People ;" while 
 he conducted a fierce journal, entitled Le Patriote Frangais. 
 As a reward for his zeal in the cause of democracy, he was 
 nominated one of the first mimicipal coimcil of Paris ; and it was 
 as a member of this body that he received from the destroyers 
 of the bastile, on the memorable 14th of July, the keys of the 
 prison in which he had been formerly confined. Meanwhile, his 
 short sojourn in America had increased his republican fanaticism. 
 Sent to the legislative assembly by the electors of Paris, he 
 became the determined foe of royalty and the court. He was 
 the acknowledged head, counsellor, and guide of that deputation 
 from the Gironde, which the eloquence of Vcrgniaud, the beauty 
 of JIadame Roland, and the calculations of Condorcet, first made 
 famous, and aftenvards its crimes and its misfortunes. In the 
 question of the loyalist emigi-ation, Brissot drew a distinction 
 
 5 C
 
 BRI 
 
 754 
 
 BRI 
 
 between the men who quietly left their countiy, and those who 
 marched out that they might augment the ranks of its enemies. 
 On his suggestion, the latter were denounced with strong penal- 
 ties. It is inconsistent with the limits of this article, to narrate 
 the adventures of the Gmmdists through the stormy period 
 which preceded and followed the death of Louis XVI. — a 
 crime which they opposed in vain. Brissot was evidently 
 shocked at the frighti'ul excesses of a democracy coarser than 
 his own, and began to oppose a force of resistance to the 
 Jacobite factions equal to the impulse which he had formerly 
 given to the republican opinions. As the natural consequence, 
 a breach arose between the Jacobins and Girondists, which 
 daily gi-ew wider and wider. On the 10th of April, 1793, 
 Robespierre accused Vergniaud, Gensonne, Gaudet, Brissot, &c., 
 of conspiring against the unity and indivisibility of the republic, 
 and being the accomplices of the enemies of their country. This 
 charge was the prelude of what occurred on the 31st of May. 
 On this day the commissaries of thirty-five sections of Paris 
 demanded of the convention the expulsion of twenty-two depu- 
 ties, at the head of which was placed the name of Brissot. Two 
 days afterwards, a majority of the convention handed them over 
 to the vengeance of their opponents. Brissot fled to Chartres, 
 his birthplace, which he soon left alone on foot, and in disguise. 
 He was recognized and arrested at Moulins, brought back to 
 Paris, and, in company with his friends, thrown into prison. On 
 the '22d October their " acte d'accusation" was read to them, 
 and their trial began on the 2Gth. Brissot entered the " salle 
 d'audience" last but one of the party — a man of middle age, 
 small stature, and wan features, lighted up by intelligence, and 
 full of intrepidity. Clad with affected simplicity, his threadbare 
 black coat was but a piece of cloth cut matliematically to cover 
 the limbs of a man. The trial lasted a week. All the accused 
 were declared guilty. Brissot inclined his head on his breast 
 when he heard the fatal sentence, and remained silent. His 
 memory sun'ived the calumnies heaped upon it, and his widow, 
 soon after his death, received from the nation a pension of 2000 
 livres. His writings, not enumerated in this memoir, were very 
 numerous. He died as poor after three years of prominence as 
 when he began his public career. He dwelt in an apartment on 
 the fourth stoi-y, which was almost unfurnished, surrounded by 
 his books and the cradles of his children. Destitute of the 
 outside power of eloquence, he made speeches in his writhigs, 
 and his burning words contributed not a little to influence the 
 ideas and progress of the Revolution. — T. J. 
 
 BRISSOT, PiEKKE, a celebrated French surgeon of the six- 
 teenth century, was born at Fontenay-le-Comte in 1478, took 
 his doctor's degree at Paris in 1514, and died at Evarain 1522. 
 He is particularly distinguished from his having, by reviving the 
 method of plentiful bloodletting in pleurisy recommended by 
 Hippocrates, given rise to a most rancorous dispute on this sub- 
 ject ; the practice up to his time, dei'ived from Arabian physicians 
 and their followers, being to bleed in very small quantity, and at 
 the greatest possible distance from the part affected. The trea- 
 tises and pamphlets published in connection with this dispute 
 fill si.\ty-three thick volumes, of which about half are folios. 
 Brissot was compelled to leave Paris, and take refuge at first in 
 Spain, and afterwards in Portugal ; in both which countries he 
 contmued to operate with success, and to meet with obstinate 
 opponents. In Spain the government attempted to root out this 
 new heresy by force, and in Portugal, Dionys, the royal surgeon, 
 endeavoured to crush it under a thick folio. In answer to the 
 latter, Brissot wrote his excellent " Apologetica disceptatio de 
 vena secanda in pleuritide," which was published at Paris in 
 1525, three vears after the death of its author. — W. S. D. 
 
 BRITANXICUS, son of the Emperor Claudius, and of his 
 third wife, Messalina, born A.d. 42, a few days after his father's 
 accession. The name by which he was first known, Tiberius 
 Claudius Gennanicus, was changed in honour of the Roman con- 
 quests in Britain, the son of Messalina, until her death, being 
 regarded as the heir-presumptive to the tliroiu' of the Ca-sars. 
 On the marriage of Claudius with his niece, Agrippina, Octavia, 
 sister of Britannicus, was given in marriage to Lucius Domitius, 
 son of Agrippina by a former marriage, and afterwards emperor, 
 under the title of Nero. After the death of Claudiu.s, Britanni- 
 cus, by the arts of his stepmother, who had taken all proper 
 precautions for that purpose, was sot aside, and Nero elected to 
 the imperial dignity. His popularity, and still more, the fre- 
 quent and threatening references which Agrippina, in her quanx'ls 
 
 with her son, made to his being of the true stock of the Caesars, 
 rendered him an object of suspicion to the emperor, and ere long 
 it was resolved to put him to death. At a banquet in presence 
 of Agrijipina, Octavia, and the future emperor, Titus, he was 
 poisoned by conjmand of Nero a.d. 55. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRITO or BRITTO, Bernardo de, a Portuguese historian, 
 bom at Almeida in 15G9. He was scuxely of age when he 
 entered the order of the Cistercians at Alcoba9a. His singular 
 accomplishments as a linguist enabled him to travel through 
 various countries of Europe, preaching in then- several tongues. 
 Whilst so occupied, he conceived the plan of writing the general 
 history of Lusitania, from the earliest times to his own days. 
 Portugal was yet without a history when Brito published his, 
 and it was, therefore, received with universal approbation. 
 Philip III. appointed him royal historiographer. His other 
 works are, " Monarquia Lusitana " and " La Geografia Lusi- 
 tania." Many valuable manuscripts of his, such as " Tratado 
 da antiga republica da Lusitania," are still unpublished. He 
 died at Almeida hi 1G17.— A. C. M. 
 
 BRITO FREIRE, Fr.\xcisco de, was bom at the beginning 
 of the seventeenth century, at Villa de Coruche in Portugal. At 
 an early age he entered the army, and obtained a captainship in 
 a cavalry regiment. Having been sent to Brazil as admiral of 
 the Portuguese fleet, he compelled the Dutch garrison to 
 relinquish their establishment at Arnumbuco in 1G54. His 
 biographers are unanimous in claiming for him the honours of a 
 ])atriot. Brito was man-ied to a daughter of Pedro Alvarez 
 Cabral, and had a son who died governor-general of Rio Janeiro. 
 A lengthened relation of his voyage to Brazil with his fleet in 
 1655, and a book on the wars of Holland, are his best works. 
 This intrepid navigator and trastworthy writer died at Lisbon 
 in 1692.— A. C. M. 
 
 BRITTON, John, the well-known writer on topography and 
 architecture, was bora of humble parentage at the village of 
 Kington in Wiltshire in 1771, and received a scanty education 
 at the neighbouring town of Chippenham. In his sixteenth year 
 he was apprenticed to a wine-merchant in London, in whose 
 employment he continued for four years and a half, lightening 
 as he best could the dismal routine of his life by voracions 
 reading, mostly of antiquated w-orks which, with a forecast of 
 his future taste for the "antiquarian trade," he had picked up at 
 old bookstalls. Towards the termination of his apprenticeship, 
 he made the acquaintance of Mr. Brayley, also famous as an 
 arch^ologist, and took part with him in the publication of a sati- 
 rical ballad, entitled " The Guinea-Pig," which had an immense 
 popularity. Britton afterwards was employed as cellarman at 
 the London Tavern and at a spirit store in Smithfield, and then 
 as clerk to an attorney in Grays' Inn, in whose service he 
 remained three years. His evenings during this period he passed 
 in the clubs and taverns, where he fomied many interesting 
 friendships, the recollections of which famish several amusing 
 chapters to an autobiography, rich in amusement as well as 
 instruction. He thought of the stage for a profession, and at 
 one time indeed turned his dramatic talents to account in 
 various ways ; but literature finally became his vocation, and in 
 this he was destined soon to achieve eminent success. His first 
 production in the department of letters, with which his name is 
 so honourably connected, was the result of a tour in Wiltshire, 
 undertaken in 1798 ; it was entitled " Beauties of Wiltshire," 
 and appeared in 1801 in two volumes. A third volume of this 
 work wa.s published after an interval of twenty-four years. In 
 1814 Britton wrote an admirable account of his native county for 
 the fifteenth volume of the "Beauties of England and Wales," 
 —a work projected by him and Brayley. His subsequent 
 contributions to topography and the literature of archite-^ture, 
 surprise us by their number and research, more than the labours 
 of almost any recent English author. A descriptive account of 
 them has been published by his professional assistant, Mr. T. E. 
 Jones, and to that document we must refer the reader for^ the 
 long and wonderful chapter in bibliography which he might 
 expect to find in this place, but which our limits forbid us to 
 present. We will mention only, in addition to the autobio- 
 graphy above alluded to (it was published by subscrij)tion), the 
 
 vo great national works, "The Architectural Antiquities of 
 reat Britain," and " The Cathedral Antiquities of England." 
 Mr. Britton died on January 1, 1857.— (6'e«^'A' Maff., 1857.) 
 BRPITON, Thomas, commonly called the " musical small- 
 coal man," was born at or near Higham-FeiTers in Northamp-
 
 BRI 
 
 755 
 
 BRO 
 
 tonsliire about the year 1G51; from whence he came to London, 
 and was bound apprentice to a dealer in small-coal, in St. John 
 Street, Clerkenwell. After he had served his time of seven 
 years, his master gave him a sum of money not to oppose him in 
 his calling. On this he returned into Kortliamptoushire ; but 
 after spending the money, he revisited London, and, forgetting 
 his agreement, set up in business. He hired a stable in Ayles- 
 bury Street, Clerkenwell, which he converted into a dweUing- 
 house. Some time after he had been settled here, he became 
 acquainted with his neighbour, Dr. Garenciers, through whose 
 instructions and assistance he obtained an extensive knowledge 
 of chemistry. He likewise attained a great degree of skill, both 
 in the theoretical and practical parts of music, which obtained 
 for him the name of the " musical small-coal man." He was 
 also a gi-eat admirer and collector of old books, chiefly on the 
 occult sciences, which he sold during his lifetime for a consider- 
 able sum ; and he claims to have been the first person who 
 established weekly concerts in London, an account of which 
 has been left us by his facetious neighbour Ned Ward, the 
 author of the London Spy. At their first institution, Britton's 
 concerts were held in his own house. "On the ground flour 
 there was a repositoiy for small-coal, and over that was the 
 concert room, which was very long and narrow, and had a ceiling 
 so low that a tall man could but just stand upright in it. The 
 stairs to this room were from the outside of the house, and could 
 scarcely be ascended without crawling. The house itself was 
 very old and low-built, and in every respect so mean as to be a 
 fit habitation for only a very poor man." Notwithstanding all 
 these disagreeable circumstances, this mansion had such attrac- 
 tion as occasionally to draw together even the genteelest admirers. 
 The principal performers at these concerts were Handel (who 
 presided at the hai-psichord), Dr. Pepusch, John Banister, Henry 
 Needier of the excise office, John Hughes, author of the Siege of 
 Damascus, Woolaston the painter, Philip Hart, Henry Symonds, 
 Abel Whichello, Obadiah Shuttleworth, and many other artists 
 and amateurs of eminence. The singularity of his conduct, the 
 course of his studies, and the collections he made, induced sus- 
 picions that Britton was not the character he seemed to be. 
 Some persons fancied his musical assembly was only a cover for 
 seditious meetings, others for purposes of magic ; and he was 
 himself taken, by different persons, for an atheist, apresbyterian. 
 and a Jesuit. These, however, were all ill-grounded conjectures; 
 for Britton was a plain, simple, honest man, perfectly inoffensive, 
 and highly esteemed by all who knew him. The circumstances 
 of Britton's death are not less remarkable than those of his life. 
 A person named Honeyman, a blacksmith by trade, was cele- 
 brated at the beginning of the eighteenth century for his powers in 
 ventriloquism. This man was secretly introduced into Britton's 
 apartment for the purpose of terrifying him, and he succeeded 
 but too seriously. Honeyman, without moving his lips or seem- 
 ing to speak, announced, from a distant part of the room, the 
 death of poor Britton within a few hours, unless, to avert the 
 doom, he would f;dl on his knees immediately and repeat the 
 Lord's prayer. The poor man did as he was told, but it did not 
 answer the purpose. His nerves were so much shaken that he 
 died within a few days afterwards. This event took place in 
 September, 1714. He was inten-ed in the churchyard of Clerken- 
 well, attended by a great concourse of people, particularly of the 
 attendants of his musical club. His wife sun'ived him, but he 
 left veiy little property besides his books, his collection of manu- 
 scripts and printed music, and his musical instruments, all of 
 which were afterwards sold by auction. — (Ward's London Spy; 
 Hawkins' Ilistortj of Music; Heame's Ihmingi Chartularii Ec- 
 clesicB W;/(/o'rniensis, appendix.) — E. F. R. 
 
 BRIZE, Cornelius, a Dutch artist, who excelled in repre- 
 senting ivory-bellied kites, yellow rooks, mirror shields, and 
 bas-reliefs, highly-finished and elegantly grouped. In a picture 
 by Gettes, at the old man's hospital at Amsterdam — the subject. 
 Old Ago persecuted by Poverty — the still life, which is even in 
 Dutchmen's eyes wonderful, is by Brize. He died in 1679. 
 
 * BRIZEUX, JuLiKX AuciUSTE Pjclagk, born at Lorient, 
 September, 1806. The Bretons are looked upon by the French 
 of other provinces as a peculiar people, and Brizeux is essentially 
 a Breton. Like other families of the purely Celtic race, they arc 
 fondly attached to time-honoured traditions, loving story, poetry, 
 and song. It has been remarked of the soldiers drawn by the 
 conscri|)tion from Brittany, that many of them pine away in 
 regret for home, and not a few fall victims to nostalgia. It is 
 
 necessary to bear these peculiarities in mind to understand and 
 appreciate Brizeux. Shortly after the revolution of 1830, in the 
 height of the combat between the fresh young giants of the 
 romantic school, and the sturdy adherents of the classic, a sensa- 
 tion was created by the ai)pearance in literary saloons of a Breton 
 peasant wth a poem in his hands, the style and subject of which 
 contrasted strangely with the author's behaviour and manner. 
 As much as the man looked rustic and uncivilized, his poem, 
 simply called " Marie," was polished and refined, almost to 
 effeminacy — sentiments pure, gentle, and true, breathed through 
 versification imusually soft and harmonious. The romanticists 
 were enchanted. However eccentric some of their own forms 
 were of presenting nature, in opposition to cold artificiality, yet 
 had they inscribed " Nature " on then- banners ; and here was 
 Brizeux, with his wood notes wild — here was an unspoUed 
 peasant, who had, he knew not how, sung out of the fullness of 
 an inspired heart. When " Marie " was published it became 
 popular at once. Brizeux was, of course, turned into a lion. 
 He was made put off' his sabots and put on kid gloves, and turn 
 gentleman. He was even sent to Italy to finish his education. 
 Of course he translated Dante. After making all necessaiy 
 sacrifices to the exigencies of his patrons, and becoming, as a 
 matter of course, spoiled, Brizeux, happily yielding to the old 
 native impulse, gave up Italian translation, and returned to the 
 poetic traditions of his own land, which it was his mission to 
 mtei-pret. His poem, entitled "The Bretons," was in 1846 
 crowned by the French Academy. Since then he has been 
 engaged in writing poems in his native dialect, with all good 
 wishes for success in a path he need fear no rival. — J. F. C. 
 
 BRIZIO, Francesco, an Italian painter and engraver, bom 
 at Bologna in 1574. He studied first under Passerotti, then in 
 the Caracci school, excelling in architecture and perspective. 
 His prints are badly drawii. His son, Filirpo, was a scholar 
 of Guide's, and painted several Bologna altarpieces. — W. T. 
 
 BROADWOOD, Joim, the founder of the celebrated house 
 of Broadwood & Sons, the wide-world pianoforte makers, was 
 born in Scotland in the year 1731; and when about twenty 
 years of age, travelled up on foot from that country in search of 
 employment in the great metropolis. He was a carpenter or 
 joiner by trade, and entered the house of Tschudi, an eminent 
 harpsichord-maker. Here he ingi-atiated himself so completely 
 with his master, that he became in time his son-in-law, partner, 
 and successor. The earliest notice of a pianoforte of the square 
 form in Messrs. Broadwood's books is dated 1771 ; the earliest 
 of the grand form is 1781. In 1783 the books of the great 
 seal patent office contains an entiy of a grant (July 18th), 
 " To John Broadwood, of Great Pulteney Street, Golden Square, 
 pianoforte maker, for his new-constructed pianoforte, which is 
 far superior to any instrument of the kind hitherto made." This 
 ingenious artist and worthy man died in 1812, at the advanced 
 age of eighty-one. There is an excellent folio mezzotint cngi-av- 
 ing of him by Messrs. Harrison & Say. Between 1771 and 1851 
 the eminent firm of Broadwood & Sons made no fewer than 
 103,750 pianofortes. All the really important improvements in 
 the pianoforte, dining this period, have emanated from their 
 house. — E. F. R. 
 
 BROCCHI, Giovanni Battista, a celebrated Italian natu- 
 ralist, was born at Bassano in 1772. Sent to Pisa to study 
 law, he acquired a taste for natural history, and having aban- 
 doned the uncongenial pursuit, he betook himself to Rome, where 
 he resolved to devote his time to his favourite study. From 
 Rome he visited Venice, where he made his first ap{)earance in 
 the literary world, by the publication of treatises on ecclesiastical 
 sculpture in 171)2, and on garden plants in 1796; and of "Let- 
 ters to a lady on Dante" in 1797. In 1801 Brocchi became 
 lecturer on natural history in Brescia. In 1808 the attention 
 of the French government, then ruling Italy, was called to his 
 qualifications by the publication of "Trattato mincralogico e chi- 
 mico sulle miniere di ferro del dipartimento del Mella," &c., he was 
 appointed a councillor of mines, and connnissioned to investigate 
 the mineral treasures of tlii^ country. In 1811 he published 
 his " Memoria sulla valle di Fassa," and in the same year carried 
 out his plan of investigating the fossil shells of the Apennines by 
 travelling from Modena by way of Satt'ualo, Barigazzo, &c., to 
 Rome, where he arrived in September, went to Naples in Novem- 
 ber, observed the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius on the 1st 
 January, 1812, and ivturned to Mi)ilena at the end of Slay in the 
 same yeai-. A second jom-ney with the saiue object was made
 
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 in 1813, and tlie results of the two were published at Milan in 
 181-1 in two quarto volumes, under the title of "Trattato di 
 Conchiliolog;ia fossile Subupennina." This is Brocchi's chief 
 work, and the one on which his reputation must rest. With the 
 fall of the French empire, Brocchi's ofBcial position in Milan also 
 came to an end, and his tendencies were too much in favour of 
 democratic forms of government to lead him to expect anything 
 from the Austrians ; he accordingly lived in a private station for 
 several years, occupying himself principally witli mineralogical 
 investigations in various parts of Italy, and occasionally pub- 
 lishing his results in the Bibliot/ieca lialicma, and other jom-nals. 
 One of his most important works published at this period is his 
 memoir " Dello stato fisico del suolo di Roma," 1820. In 1821 
 he was recommended to the viceroy of Egypt as diiTctor of 
 mines, and after obtaining the requisite practical knowledge by 
 a journey through Carinthia, he sailed for Alexandria in Sep- 
 tember, 1822. He arrived in Cairo on the 1st December in this 
 year, and left it again on the 30th of that month, with a large 
 caravan, to make an exploration of the southern parts of the 
 kingdom, from which he only returned to Cairo in May, 1824:. 
 In 1825 he made a second expedition into Abyssinia, travelling 
 through the most fearful heat, and returned in June, 1826, but 
 only as far as Chartum, where he and several others of his party 
 were carried off by fever and dysentery. His papers and valuable 
 collections of minerals, &c., were left by him to the library of 
 his native town of Bassano ; but they were lost when already 
 \vithin the harbour of Trieste, and thus the results of his labo- 
 rious African expeditions, from which, considering the quality of 
 his precious works, much valuable information might have been 
 expected, have been almost totally lost to science. — W. S. D. 
 
 BROCHANT DE VILLIERS, Axdr^-Jean-Marie, a dis- 
 tinguished French mineralogist, born at Villiers, near Nantes, in 
 1774. He studied mineralogy under Werner at Freiberg in 1797 
 and 1798. In 1804 he became professor of mineralogy in 
 Pegai, and in 1815 in Paris. He died in the latter city in 1840. 
 His best work is his " Traits ^lementaire de mineralogie sui- 
 vant les principes de Werner," Paris, 1801 and 1802. — W. S. D. 
 
 BROCK, Daniel de Lisle, chief magistrate of Guernsey, 
 born in 1762, deserves honourable mention for the intelligence 
 and zeal with which, in the long period of his public life, he 
 promoted all measures calculated to develope the industry and 
 resources of the island. He was successful in obtaining from 
 government redress of commercial grievances weighing lieavily 
 on local enterprise, and in maintaining against an arbitrary 
 decision of Lord-Chief-Justice Tenterden the right of his country- 
 men to be tried in the local courts. He died in 1842. 
 
 BROOKES, Barthold Heinrich, a German poet, was 
 born at Hamburg in 1680, and died in 1747. He studied law 
 at Halle, travelled in Switzerland, Italy, and Holland, and after- 
 wards held several important offices in his native town. By his 
 celebrated work, " Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott, " Hamburg, 
 1721-48, 9 vols., he gave a religious turn to German poetry, 
 and may be considered as a forerunner of Klopstock and Kleist. 
 He also wrote the text of a highly-successful oratorio, and pub- 
 lished a classical translation of Thomson's Seasons. — K. E. 
 
 BROCKMANN, Joiiann Franz Hieronymus, an eminent 
 German actor, was born at Gratz, Styria, in 1745, and died at 
 Vienna in 1812. His father was unable to give him an educa- 
 tion, but bound him apprentice to a barber. The boy, however, 
 ran away, and joined a band of rope-dancers, and afterwards 
 another of strolling players, till 1771, when he was engaged at 
 the Hamburg theatre by the celebrated Schroder. Under 
 Schroder's guidance he gradually became a favourite of the 
 public, and so accomplished a tragedian, that he was compared 
 to Lekain and Gaixick. Perhaps his most brilliant part was 
 Hamlet, which in 1778 he performed during twelve successive 
 nights at Berlin, with such an unparalleled success, that a 
 medal was struck in his honour. (See " Scldnk tjber Brock- 
 mann's Hamlet," Berlin, 1778.) In the same year he was 
 permanently engaged at the Vienna Burgtheater, of which he 
 afterwards was apjxnnted manager. He has also written several 
 dramatic pieces. — K. E. 
 
 * BRODHEAD, John Romeyn, an American historian, 
 bom at Philadelphia, January 2, 1814. In 1839 the legisla- 
 ture of New York authorized the appointment of an agent to 
 procure and transcribe documents in Europe relating to the 
 history of the state ; and Mr. Brodhead was appointed to this 
 agency. He employed three years in searching the government 
 
 archives of Holland, France, and England, and brought home 
 the fruits of his researches in 1844. The valuable papers have 
 been printed, under the authority of the New York legislature, 
 in ten large quarto volumes. From 1846 to 1849 I\lr. Brod- 
 head was secretary of legation under ]\Ir. Bancroft, tlien American 
 minister to England. On his return to America, he began the 
 work which had long occupied his thoughts, " A History of the 
 State of New York," the first volume of which, embracing the 
 Dutch period from 1609 to 1664, was published in 1853. It 
 is intended to bring down the history to the present day. 
 
 * BRODIE, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart., F.R.S. and 
 D.C.L., serjeant-surgeon to the queen, was born in Wiltshire in 
 1783. Having devoted himself earnestly to the study of practical 
 surgery, he was at a comparatively early period appointed 
 surgeon to St. George's hospital : and since the death of Sir 
 Astley Cooper, who was his friend as well as rival, he has occu- 
 pied the first position as a consulting surgeon in London. His 
 practice for many years past has been extremely lucrative. Sir 
 B. Brodie's reputation does not rest so much upon his operative 
 skill as upon his powers of diagnosis, and upon his knowledge 
 of the advantageous effects of constitutional treatment in surgical 
 affections. He has been a prolific writer. Early in his career 
 he made a series of most interesting and valuable observations 
 on the action of poisons, and he has published various works on 
 surgical science, all of which are of high authority. Prominent 
 among them stands his " Treatise on Diseases of the Joints," 
 which will in all time coming be a standard authority. More 
 recently he has turned his attention to psychological science, 
 and his essays on that subject display the workings of a powerful 
 mind. Sir Benjamin has had the rare honour of being serjeant- 
 surgeon to three British monarchs. — J. B. C. 
 
 BRODIE, George, advocate, the author of " A History of 
 the British Empu-e, from the accession of Charles I. to the 
 Revolution," including a particular examination of Hume's state- 
 ment relative to the English government. This work, pub- 
 lished in Edinburgh in the year 1822, was written professedly 
 to expose grave faults hi Hume's brilliant histoiy of the Stuart 
 dynasty. The charges preferred against the historian range 
 themselves under three categories — malversation and misprision 
 of facts ; laxity of habit in research ; and servility to royalistic 
 prejudices. Mr. Brodie has adduced voluminous evidence, 
 obtained upon personal examination of records in the Advocates' 
 library, Edinburgh, in the Lambeth and Bodleian libraries, and 
 in the British museum. The work contains a mass of historical 
 information collated with scrupulous care and some judgment 
 from reliable sources. — P. 
 
 BRODIE, Peter Bellinger, born m Wiltshu-e in 1778; 
 died in 1854 ; the elder brother of Sir B. Brodie, Bart. This 
 learned and accurate conveyancer was a pupil of C. Butler, 
 and was called to the bar at the inner temple in 1815, having 
 begun practice, as was usual at that period, under the bar, some 
 years before. He was one of the real property commissioners of 
 1828, in which capacity he prepared the bill for abolishing fines 
 and recoveries, the ancient expedients of the courts to get rid of 
 entails on landed property, and to pass the freehold interests 
 therein of married women. A fine was the accommodation of a 
 suit concerning land brought on an imaginaiy title anterior to the 
 interest to be displaced. The compromise was recognized by the 
 court, and the sanctity of its records precluded challenge of their 
 tmth. A recovery was in like manner a fictions suit originally 
 brought on a supposed disposition with wan-anty of title, by the 
 tenant in tail, who in his turn alleged warranty to himself by 
 another (the crier of the court), who, when called to prove title, 
 undertook, but failed to do so. Upon this, judgment veas given 
 against the tenant in tail, and for him over against the crier; 
 and for the nominal recompense thus obtained the estate in tail 
 was done away, and a new fee-simple asserted. The scheme of 
 assurances substituted for these solemn mockeries, was in case 
 of a fine, to have a deed executed by the husband and wife. As 
 in the case of a fine, there was a form of private examination of 
 the latter by the court or courts to ascertain her freedom of 
 action in the transaction ; so the substitute is required to be 
 acknowledged by her before commissioners after a like examina- 
 tion. For the recovery was substituted a deed of disposition by 
 the tenant in tail enrolled in chancery. And as a tenant in tail, 
 whose enjoyment in possession of his estate was suspended by 
 a prior estate for life in another, could not alone have suffered 
 a recovery ; so to insure the like duration to the entail, the
 
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 tenant for life, as " protector of the settlement," was invested 
 with a discretion to give or withhold his consent to the proposed 
 bar of the entail. Opinions are di\ided as to the merits of the 
 scheme, some considering the innovation too great, and others 
 that too close an analogy to the ancient fables was presen-ed. 
 Unquestionably, if the measm'e had been divided into two acts, 
 the one for the abolition of the old forms and other matter merely 
 transitory, and the other for establishing the new asstirances 
 T'hich are calculated long to endure, the reform would have been 
 characterized by more breadth and foresight. The technical 
 execution of so difficult a scheme has, however, received great 
 and general commendation. — S. H. G. 
 
 BROECK, Crispin Vandex, an artist, bom at Antwerp 
 about 1530. He studied under Floris, painted history, and was 
 an architect and engi-aver in wood and copper. He engraved 
 sixteen plates of the Creation, and nineteen of the Virgin's life. 
 His daughter, Barbara, bom 1516, turned engraver, imitating 
 Rota's style, and working from her father's designs. Elias, a 
 scion of the same family, was bom in 1657, and studied under 
 Stuven and Mignon, painting fruit, flowers, frogs, and snakes in 
 a loose, careless, natural, enjoyable way, something in De Heem's 
 manner of handling. He grew and fed his models in his own 
 garden, so that he might be always observing them. He died 
 in 1711 at Amsterdam. — W. T. 
 
 BROERS, , a Dutch artist, who excelled in living, 
 
 natural scenes of low humour. He deUghted in the unclean, 
 tipsy, revelling boor, and was clever in his grouping and back- 
 grounds. — W. T. 
 
 BROEKHUISEX, .Jan Van, better known as Janus Brouk- 
 husius, a Dutch poet, bom at Amsterdam in 1649 ; died in 
 1707. Although an adventurous soldier for the greater part of 
 his Ufe, he found leisure to write abundance of Latin verses, and 
 to edit the works of a number of his classic models. 
 
 * BROFFERIO, Axgelo, advocate, a distinguished Italian 
 historical and dramatic writer, and the present leader of the 
 opposition in the Piedmontese chamber, bom on the 24th De- 
 cember, 1802, at Castelnuovo Calcea, a little village in the 
 province of Asti, Piedmont. Brofferio studied philosophy and 
 law in the university of Turin, where he took his degree as 
 doctor of laws ; but his tastes were literary, and he devoted 
 himself for many years to dramatic composition, and was for 
 some time a member of a dramatic company. His plays and 
 comedies, though well written and much admired, appear to have 
 brought him less pecuniary profit than applause, and he at length 
 abandoned the drama, and devoting himself earnestly to his legal 
 duties, became the most distinguished advocate in Turin. Im- 
 prisoned in 1831 on suspicion of being concerned in political 
 conspiracies, he was only released on the accession of Charles 
 Albert to the throne of Piedmont. BroflFerio took an active part 
 in the agitations which wrung from the king the constitution 
 of 1848, and was immediately elected deputy by the electoral 
 college of Caraglio. The unwearied opponent of the wavering 
 policy of Charles Albert, and the minister Gioberti, Brofferio was 
 soon acknowledged to be the most eloquent orator in the Pied- 
 montese chamber — a reputation he still retains. In 1853 he 
 was returned for the city of Genoa, and has maintained with 
 eqnal zeal and talent his career as leader of the left during the 
 ministry of Count Cavour. On the last election in 1857, he 
 was chosen to represent the seventh electoral college of Turin. 
 The election of so well-known a republican as Brofferio in the 
 stronghold of the Piedmontese aristocracy was considered a great 
 triumph of the democratic party in Italy, marking the progress 
 of the idea of national unity even in the capital of Piedmont 
 itself. Brofferio's principal dramatic writings are — " Salmor ;" 
 " The Forest of Phantoms ; " " The Corsair ; " " The Two Pro- 
 vincials at Turin ; " " Kenilworth Castle ; " "The Retum of the 
 Proscrit ; " " The Druids of Sigisfeld ; " " Endosin ; " " Jly 
 Cousin ; " " All for the Best ; " " Salvator Rosa," &c. Besides 
 other works of minor importance, he has lately published an 
 excellent history of Piedmont, verj' remarkable for the boldness 
 ^vith which he has narrated the faults and errors of the late king 
 during the reign of his son. He has also written a volume of 
 popular songs in the Piedmontese dialect. — E. A. H. 
 
 BROGLIE, House of. The founder of the three branches of 
 this family known in histor}-, was Simon de Broglia, who died 
 towards the end of the fourteenth century. It was originally of 
 Quiers in Piefimont. 
 
 BROGLIE, Francois Marie de, count of Revel in Pied- 
 
 mont, distinguished for a long period in the service of JIaurice 
 of Savoy, and afterwards lieutenant-general under Louis XIII. ; 
 bom about 1600. Killed at Valenz on the Po, 1656. The name 
 of this gallant soldier is inscribed on the bronze tablets of the 
 palace of Versailles. 
 
 BROGLIE, Victor Maurice, comte de, marquis of Bre- 
 zoUes and Sennhes and marshal of France, eldest son of the 
 preceding, bom 1647 ; died 1727. He was especially distin- 
 guished in the French wars of Louis XIV. 
 
 BROGLIE, Francois Marie, due de, third son of the pre- 
 ceding, also a distinguished soldier of the reign of Louis XIV. 
 He was ambassador to England in 1724, was created marshal 
 1734, and duke 1742. Died 1745. 
 
 BROGLIE, Victor Francois, due de, bom 19th October, 
 1718, first distinguished himself under the marshal de Coigny, 
 who, to mark his sense of the young officer's gallantrj- at the 
 battle of Guastalla, sent him with news of the victory to the 
 king, Louis XV., who gave him the Luxemburg regiment of 
 infantry. He was in 1742 raised to the rank of general-of-bri- 
 gade, in reward for the share he took in the attacks on Prague. 
 After further distinguished services, he was promoted in 1748 
 to a lieutenant-generalship, and in 1757 assisted at the battle 
 of Hastenbech under ilarshal d'Estrees. It was his misfortune 
 to have shared in the famous defeat of Rosbach. Fortune turned 
 in his favour at Sonderhausen, where he defeated the Prussians ; 
 and he shared in the victory of Lutzelberg. Succeeding to Marshal 
 Contade after the loss of the battle of ilinden, he was raised to 
 the rank of marshal, in reward for the skill he displayed in 
 covering the retreat of the army. In 1760 he won Corbach, 
 but being present with Soubise at the battle of ViUinghausen, 
 he incurred a full share of the odium cast upon his colleague for 
 that great defeat. The two nnlucky marshals charging the 
 blame one upon the other, the council of state instituted an 
 inquiry, and De Broglie was exiled. His merits proved sufficient 
 to re-establish his reputation, and in 1764 he was recalled and 
 placed at the head of the army of Metz, and in the memorable 
 year 1789 was made minister of war. His next appearance in 
 the field was at the head of a body of Emigres, who, in alliance 
 with his old antagonists, the Prussians, attempted an invasion 
 of France in support of Louis XVIIL, and how fruitlessly need 
 not be said. Died in 1804.— J. F. C. 
 
 BROGLIE, Maurice Jean Madeleine de, bishop of 
 Acqui in Piedmont, and afterwards of Ghent, bom at the Chateau 
 de Broglie 1766; died 1821. Returning to France from his 
 asylum in Poland, after the Revolution, he became almoner to the 
 emperor, but his opposition to the imperial will in the council of 
 1811, caused his degradation from that post, and finally led to 
 his incarceration. 
 
 BROGLIE, Claude Victor, prince de, son of Victor Fran- 
 cois, bom 1757, deputy to the states-general, an active mem- 
 ber, and for a short period president, of the national assembly ; 
 was guillotined for anti- revolutionary reclamations, 1794. 
 
 BROGLIE, Albertine Ida Gustavine, duchess de, bom 
 in Paris, 1797. A d.aughter of madame de Stael must make no 
 ordinary claims upon public attention. There is no inquiry more 
 eagerly entered into than that concerning the influence exer- 
 cised by a woman of genius upon her own offspring. Hath she, 
 while aiming at instructing mankind, neglected the imperative 
 claims of her children upon her first duties to them ? Happily, 
 in the case of madame de Stael, perhaps the greatest genius of 
 her time, such inquiries can only tend to enhance her reputation, 
 by showing that her moral and intellectual qualities sustained 
 and illustrated each other. In 1816 the virtuous and accom- 
 plished mademoiselle de Stael was married to the due de Broglie, 
 a man destined to fill the highest offices in the state, even that 
 of prime minister. The religious principles of her mother and 
 grandfather, the famous Necker, had strack deep root in her 
 con%-ictions, and she remained through life a zealous protestant. 
 To her is due an association of ladies for spreading a knowledge 
 of the scriptures. It was the duchess of Broglie who drew up 
 the rules and regulations of the society, and for some years wrote 
 the annual reports, which having been lately collected, along with 
 essays of a religious nature, offer some means for appreciating 
 her talents and character. The duchess de Broglie gave great 
 attention to the education of her son and daughter. The former 
 has already figured with marked success as a historian. His 
 history of the house of Lorraine is considered a standard work. 
 The daughter is married to the count d'Haussouville, and he is a
 
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 distinf;uls1ied writer. After an honoured life, the duchess de 
 Brojjlie died in 1838, and her remains were borne to Coppet, to 
 be laid l)eside tiiose of her illustrious mother.^J. F. C. 
 
 * BROGLIK, AcHiLLE Lkonce Victor Chaules, due de, 
 son of Prince Claude Victor de Broglie, who, for having, while 
 serving as marechal-de-camp on the Rhine, refused to recognize 
 the decree depriving the king of his rights, was guillotined in 
 1794. The present duke was burn '28th November, 1785, and 
 consequently only nine years of age when his father perished on 
 the scaffold. His mother was at the same time a prisoner at 
 Vesoul, but having providentially escaped the fate of her hus- 
 band, she married the marquis d'.-Vrgenson, who took charge of 
 his stepson's education. Upon the return of the Bourbons, the 
 due de Broglie, raised to the peerage, made his entry into public 
 life, one of liis first acts being to vote for the acquittal of Mar- 
 shal Ney. In 1816 he man-ied the daughter of the illustrious 
 madame de Stael. Throughout the government of the elder 
 branch of the Bourbons, his conduct in the chamber of peers was 
 marked by constant advocacy of generous principles and decided 
 opposition to the unpopular course of the court. He combated 
 a pretended act of amnestv, which, under cover of promised par- 
 don, preserved, and as it were ratitied, a long list of proscriptions; 
 and when the slave trade question was brought forward in 1822 
 he took a foremost part in the cause of emancipation. With such 
 antecedents his place in the government of July, 18.30, seemed 
 marked. Louis Philippe named him minister of public instrac- 
 tion, which he held not more than three months. In October, 
 1832, he was nominated to the post of foreign minister, which 
 he held until the 4th April, 1834, when terminated the public 
 and official life, but not the political influence, of this distinguished 
 personage. As the animating principle of Louis Philippe's foreign 
 policy was to preserve the status quo, and to keep out of differ- 
 ences with foreign powers, he made repeated attempts to induce 
 the due de Broglie to return to a post in which he had proved how 
 perfectly he could fiU it to the king's satisfaction. His majesty 
 wanted a minister who, while little inclined for hardy adven- 
 tures, could yet impose, by the hauteur of his manners, upon the 
 representatives of powers disposed to take prudence for weakness. 
 To all appeals from the monarch this unambitious duke would 
 plead the resolution he had formed, to devote his whole attention 
 to the education of his children. He himself loved the cultiva- 
 tion of letters, and to him turned for advice in all questions of 
 difficulty, that semi-political, semi-philosophical sect called the 
 Doctrinaires. Whatever opinions may be entertained of the poli- 
 tical conduct of M. Guizot, must apply to the due de Broglie, 
 who, although avoiding the responsibilities of office, secretly sup- 
 ported the views of his friend. After the revolution of 1848, 
 and as soon as the republican government had made apparent 
 its equitable intentions not to molest the old servants of the 
 monarchy, so long as they conformed to the new state of things, 
 the due de Broglie, like many others, presented himself as a 
 candidate for popular suffrages, and was elected member for the 
 department of the Eure, and as such took his seat in the legis- 
 lative assembly. His voice was never heard in any debate, but 
 he voted invariably with that party of order, which, divided 
 amongst themselves on some gi-ave questions of principle, yet 
 agreed in hostility to the republican form of government. The 
 duke, consulted occasionally, along with Count Jlole and other 
 notabilities, by the prince-president Louis Napoleon, gave his 
 support to a ruler, believed capable only of removing difficulties 
 out of the way of a monarchical restoration. Discovering his 
 mistake too late, he, with admirable fidelity to his old friend, M. 
 Guizot, allowed the latter to lead him into that curious combina- 
 tion called the fusion — a party whose object is to reconcile the 
 house of Bourbon and that of Orleans, at the price of the hitter's 
 surrender of prior right to future hypothetical succession. In the 
 meantime, that ^^gour of attack which is so necessary for party 
 success, being restrained by the emperor, is kept fresh by being 
 directed against England, through the columns of the fusionist 
 press. The duke's former secret advice has unhappily degene- 
 rated into underhand intrigue. That resolution to keep from 
 public life for the sake of his children's education has, it must be 
 acknowledged, been deservedly rewarded. His son, Prince Al- 
 bert de Broglie, has already distinguished himself as a thoughtfid 
 philosophical historian. The due de Broglie is a member of the 
 French Academy. — J. F. C. 
 
 BKOME, Al'e.xaxdek, bom in 1620 ; died in 1666. Brome 
 was an attorney. He was faithful to the royal cause through the 
 
 civil wars and the protectorate. His songs, almost numberless, 
 were in the highest degree popular with his party. Walton, the 
 author of the Complete Angler and the Lives of Donne, George 
 Herbert, &c., speaks of them as 
 
 " Those cheerful songs which we 
 Have sung with mirth and merrj- glee, 
 As we have marched to tiglit the cause 
 Of God's anointed and his laws." 
 
 Of the " Songs and other Poems" there have been several edi- 
 tions — the earliest is that of 1660. Alexander Chalmers has 
 reprinted them in the English Poets, vexatiously omitting " a 
 few of" what he calls " his inferior pieces." This kind of dis- 
 cretion cannot be too severely condemned, and goes far to render 
 any collection where it is exercised worthless for the purpose of 
 a student. He wrote a comedy called " The Cunning Lovers," 
 and published in the last year of his life a translation of Horace, 
 by himself and others. Brome's love of wine and song gave bim 
 among the cavaliers the name of the English Anacreon. We 
 have a j)oem addressed to him by Cotton, in which he is called 
 upon to join in the festivities for the king's return : — 
 
 " Anacreon come, and touch thy jolly lyre, 
 And bring in Horace to the choir." 
 
 He edited the plays of Richard Brome, whom Ellis calls his 
 brother, but who is said by other biographers not to have been 
 related to him. — J. A., D. 
 
 BROME, Jajies, an English traveller of the eighteenth 
 century, author of " Travels in England, Scotland, and Wales," 
 London, 1700; and "Travels through Portugal, Spain, and 
 Italy," London, 1712. 
 
 BROME, Richard. The date of his birth is unknown. In 
 the title of a copy of verses addressed to him by Ben Jonson, the 
 old poet speaks of him as " my faithful servant, and by his con- 
 tinued virtue my lonng friend;" and in the poem describes 
 him as having learned the art of dramatic writing in an appren- 
 ticeship of many years From this poem it is inferred, perhaps 
 rightly, that Brome was Jonson's menial scn'ant ; yet we should 
 think it more probable that clerk or amanuensis was meant. 
 Brome ■s\Tote several comedies, fifteen of which remain. His 
 plots are said to be well conceived, and his own. Most of his 
 plays were successful on their first appearance. One of them, 
 " The Jovial Crew," printed in Dodsley's Collection, was revived 
 in 1731, and, aided by Ame's music, then and in succeeding 
 seasons brought crowded houses. The comedy of ''The Northern 
 Lass, or a Nest of Fools," is one of his best pieces. When it was 
 first published (1632), it was accompanied, according to the 
 fashion of the period, with commendatory poems, among whic'u 
 the most remarkable is that of his old m.aster. Ben ascribes the 
 success of the new aspirant to the long apprenticeship which he 
 had served under him. He speaks of Brome's 
 
 " Observation of those comic laws, 
 Which I, your master, first did teach the stage." 
 
 Fifteen comedies of Richard Brome's remain, ten of which were 
 published by Alexander Brome in two volumes. Some of them 
 are amusmg, but have the fault of grossness, from which few 
 of the dramatic pieces of the age in which Brome lived are 
 free. Brome assisted Heywood in his comedies of the Lancashire 
 Witches ; the Life and Death of Sir Martyn Skink, with the warres 
 of the Low Countries ; and the Apprentice's Prize. — J. A., D. 
 
 BROMEL, Oi.AF, a Swedish physician and botanist, was bom 
 in 1639 in the province of Nericia, and practised in Stockholm, 
 where he died in 1705. He was much attached to the study of 
 botany, but published nothing upon that science with the excep- 
 tion of a small work entitled " Chloris Gothica," Gothemburg, 
 1694. Nevertheless, Plumicr applied his name to a gena.s of 
 plants — Bromeha — which includes the pine-apple. — His son, 
 Bko.mkl, Magni's von — bom 1678; (Ued 1751 — was distin- 
 guished as a physician. — W. S. D. 
 
 BROMFIELD, William Aknold, a physician and botanist, 
 was the son of a clergyman, formerly fellow of new college, 
 Oxford, and was bom at Boldre in the New Forest, Hants, in 
 the year 1801. He attended school at Tunbridge and Ealing, 
 and subsequently prosecuted his studies at the imiversity of 
 Gla.'igow. He showed at that time a great taste for botany. 
 He graduated at the university of Glasgow in 1826. He then 
 %isited the continent, and after travelling through France, Ger- 
 many, and Italy, returned to England in 1830. He resided 
 first at Hastings, then at Southampton, and finally took up his
 
 residence at Eyde, in the Isle of Wight. His circumstances 
 were such as to render him independent of medical practice, and 
 he devoted his attention to natural science, more especially to 
 botany. In 1830 he became a fellow of tlie Linn;ean Society. 
 He examined tlie flora of Hampshire, and especially that of the 
 Isle of Winlit, and he contributed many papers on the subject to 
 the Phytvlogist. His researches into the flora of the Isle of 
 Wight were carried on with assiduity and vigour. In 1842 he 
 botanized in the south and west of Ireland, and in 1844 he 
 went to the West Indies, and passed six months in Trinidad and 
 Jamaica. In 1846 he spent a year in Canada and the United 
 States. In September, 1850, he left England for Egypt, and 
 ascended the Nile as far as Kliartoum, returning to Cairo after 
 an absence of seven months. He then proceeded to Syria, and 
 visited Jerusalem and other parts of Palestine. On his arrival 
 at Damascus, he was seized with typhus fever, and he died on 
 the 9th October, 1851, at the age of fifcy-one. Since his death 
 Sir William Hooker and Dr. Bell Salter have edited his " Flora 
 Vectensis, or Botany of the Isle of Wight," which is accompanied 
 by a botanico-typographical map of the island. His letters from 
 Syria have also been printed.- — J. H. B. 
 
 BROJIHEAD, Sir Edward Thomas French, the second 
 baronet of the family, was born in Dublin on 26th March, 
 1789, and succeeded to the title on the death of his father in 
 1822. He was a member of GonvUle and Caius college, and 
 was called to the bar in 1813. He has published various 
 sketches of natural classification, both botanical and zoological. 
 He devoted attention to ecclesiastical architecture. He was a 
 master of arts, and a fellow of the Royal Societies of London 
 and Edinburgh, and of the Turin Society. For some years he 
 was afflicted with blindness. He died at Thurlby Hall, Newark, 
 in Lincolnshire, on 14th JIarch, 1855, at the age of sixty-six. 
 Within a few weeks of his death he distributed a corrected 
 edition of his views of classification. — J. H. B. 
 
 BROMLEY, Sir Thomas, was born in 1530 at Bromley, 
 Shropshire, where his ancestors, bearing the same name, had 
 resided through many generations. He became a student of the 
 inner temple, where he was distinguished for good conduct and 
 assiduity. His rise to eminence at the bar was rapid. In 1566 
 he was appointed recorder of London and in 1570, solicitor- 
 general, through the aid of Sir Nicholas Bacon, then lord-keeper 
 of the privy seal, on whose demise in 1579, he succeeded to 
 that high office, with the title of lord chancellor. His pliant 
 disposition and versatile talent rendered him a fitting instrument 
 in the hands of a despotic queen, for working out her vindictive 
 designs against the hapless Mary queen of Scots, and her warm 
 adherent the duke of Norfolk, and others who incurred Eliza- 
 beth's displeasure. But for this, there would probably have 
 been little in the career of Bromley to save from oblivion his 
 somewhat unhallowed memory. In his cliaracter of solicitor- 
 general, he made his first official appearance on the trial of Nor- 
 folk for high treason, displaying unmitigated zeal to procure the 
 duke's conviction. Norfolk fell a victim to the charge chiefly 
 on account of the warmth with which he had espoused the 
 cause of Mary. After his death, Bromley was deputed, with 
 several others, to obtain an audience and negotiate with her, but 
 his eloquence proved unavailing. Mary firmly refused to acqui- 
 esce in anything which could peril the independence of Scotland, 
 tarnish the honour of her race, or compromise the interests of iier 
 religion. Doubt and hesitation marked the counsels of Elizabeth's 
 advisers. Whilst the earl of Leicester recommended poison as 
 the safer mode of disposing of the object of royal jealousy, 
 Burghley, supported by the lord chancellor, Bromley, thought it 
 better to proceed by parliamentary sanction, and a mock court of 
 justice. In the parliament, summoned in November, 1585, 
 Bromley broached the subject in his opening speech, and a bill 
 was brought in and carried for the trial of Mary. The lord 
 chancellor and forty-five others, consisting of peers, privy coun- 
 cillors, and judges, were constituted a court for the purpose, and 
 Bromley, at the head of these commissioners, proceeded to 
 Fotheringay, to take command of the castle in which the royal 
 captive was incarcerated. The base stratagems by wliich she 
 Was at last inveigled into an acknowledgnu-ut of their jurisdic- 
 tion, need not here be detailed. After the execution of her 
 rival, although chiefly of Bromley's devising, Elizabeth, true to 
 the hypocritical part she liad resolved to play, assumed an air 
 of indignant resentment against the veiy tools who had fur- 
 thered her views, and so well did she dissemble that soon 
 
 Bromley himself, apprehensive of consequences, suffered so much 
 from alarm and agitation that he fell suddenly ill, took to his 
 bed, and within six weeks after Maiy's death, Bromley was no 
 more. He died on the 12th of April, 1587, and w;is buried 
 with much pomp at Westminster abbey, where a splendid monu- 
 ment was raised to his memoiy. As a lawyer he was far above 
 mediocrity. As an equity judge he gave such general satisfac- 
 tion that no unfavourable comparisons appear to have been drawn 
 between him and his distinguished predecessor, Sir Nicholas 
 Bacon ; whilst his loss was long deplored in the legal arena of 
 Westminster hall. — F. J. H. 
 
 BROMPTON, John, a Cistercian monk, abbot of Jorevall 
 or Jerevall in Richmondshire. The " Chronicon," which goes 
 under his name, appears to have been procured for his monastery 
 by the abbot, but not, as is sometimes asserted, written by him. 
 It is an account of the years 588-1198, beginning with the 
 arrival of Augustine the monk, and ending with the death of 
 Richard I., and will be found in the Decern Script. Hist. AngHse, 
 London, 1652, fol.— J. S., G. 
 
 BROMPTON, Robert, an English artist, a pupil of poor, 
 classical, red-nosed Wilson. In Italy he studied under Jlengs. 
 He accompanied Lord Northampton, the English ambassador, to 
 Venice, and painted the portraits of the duke of York and many 
 of our nobility. In 1767 he returned and exhibited his pictures 
 at rooms in Spring Gardens. Finding no encouragement, he 
 went to St. Petersburg, and there died in 1790 — a bitter life and 
 a Sony end.— W. T. 
 
 BROMS, Olof, a Swedish poet and domestic chaplain. Bom 
 in 1673 ; died in 1722.— M. H. 
 
 BRONCHORST, John, an early water-colour painter, born 
 at Leyden in 1648. He seems to have been self-instructed and 
 a discoverer. He painted birds and animals of all kinds, wild 
 and free, after nature, with force and expression. He became a 
 piece of still life in 1723.— W. T. 
 
 * BRONGNIART, Adolphe Theophile, a distinguished 
 French botanist, son of Alexander Brongniart, an eminent 
 chemist and geologist, was born at Paris on 14th January, 1801. 
 He became doctor of medicine in 1826, and devoted his special 
 attention to botany. His name is celebrated in connection with 
 fossil botany, and he has published one of the ablest works on 
 this subject. In 1834 he became a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences in Paris, and he succeeded Desfontaines as professor of 
 botany in the Jardin des Plantes. He has published many 
 valuable botanical works, and has contributed important articles 
 to scientific journals, and to the Transactions of societies. Among 
 his other works may be noticed a " Histoiy and Classification of 
 Fossil Plants ;" " Classification of Fungi ;'' " Memoir on the 
 Rhamnea; ;" " Remarks on the Development of the Embryo, and 
 on the Structure and Functions of Leaves ;" " Enumeration of 
 Plants cultivated in the Botanic Garden at Paris ;" " Description 
 of the Phanerogamous Plants of Captain Duperrey's Voyage 
 round the Worid."— J. H. B. 
 
 BRONGNIART, Alexander Theodore, son of a Paris 
 physician, born February 15, 1739; died June 7, 1813. His 
 family wished him to cultivate the science of medicine, but he 
 soon abandoned it for that of architecture. In 1773 he began 
 to construct the edifices which have placed him in the first rank 
 of his countrvmen. The military school, the hotel of the minister 
 of foreign afl'airs, and a vast number of public buildings, avenues, 
 &c., in the French capital, attest his skill. His last and greatest 
 work was the beautiful Bourse, which was not completed until 
 after his death. — T. J. 
 
 BRONIKOWSKL Alexander Aioust Ferdinand von 
 Opeln, a German novelist, born in 1783 ; died in 1834; author 
 of a history of Poland, " Poland in the Eleventh Century," and 
 " Poland in tlie Seventeenth Century." — .1. S., G. 
 
 BROXKIIORST, John van, a Utrecht painter, bom in 1603. 
 He was apprenticed to John Verburg, a glass jiainter, and after- 
 wards studied in Brabant under Peter Mattys. He returned 
 home, though mucli emjdoyed, still disgusted with his own 
 results. Meeting at this juncture with Poelemberg, he devoted 
 himself bravely but foolishly, at the thirty-sixth year of his age, 
 to the imitation of a second-rate man — a very miserable ambition. 
 Forgetting his flower-leaf windows in Amsterdam chmvlies, he 
 became renowned for neatness and high finish, and he also etched 
 some of his own and his master's landscapes. The new church 
 at Amsterdam, in whose choir are Bronkhorst's windows, dis- 
 plays also on the folding doors of its organ an " Anointing of
 
 BKO 
 
 7G0 
 
 BRO 
 
 Saul;" a "Triumpli of David over Goliath;" and the "Attempt 
 of Saul to slay David" — all " fetislv vwrought." — \V. T. 
 
 BRONKHORST, Peter van, a Delft artist, born in 1588. 
 He excelled in painting church interiors, which he filled with 
 small historical subjects. The town-house at Delft has two 
 pictures by him — " Solomon pronouncing judgment in the 
 Temple," and " Our Saviour driving out the discounting money- 
 changers." He died in IGGl.— W. T. 
 
 BRONNER, Fh.vnz X.va'er, a German author, was born of 
 poor parents at Hochstadt, Suabia, December 23, 1758, and 
 after a troublesome and eventful life, died at Aargnu, August 17, 
 1850. After the model of Gesner, he wrote pastorals in prose, 
 in which lie describes the tranquil and happy life of fishermen — 
 " Fischergedichte und Erziihlungen," Zurich, 1787-97, 4 vols.; 
 " Fahrten ins Idyllenland," 1833, 2 vols. He also published an 
 autobiography, a description of the district of Aargau, 1844, 
 2 vols., Beme, &c. — K. E, 
 
 BRONSTED, Pktkr Oluf, a distinguished Danish archa?o- 
 logical and philulogical scholar, was born 17th November, 1781, 
 at Horsens in Jutland, where his father was pastor. He studied 
 at Copenhagen. In 180G he went with his friend Koes to Pari.s, 
 whence, after two years' residence, he proceeded to Italy. Here, 
 associating himself with the architect Haller von Hallerstein of 
 Nuremberg, Linckli from Wurtemberg, and von Stackberg from 
 Estland, he proceeded to Greece, where, by digging uji the buried 
 treasures of art. they gi-eatly aided the study of classical anti- 
 quity. In 1813 he returned to Copenhagen, and received the 
 a[)j)ointment of professor of Greek philology in the university of 
 that city. In order to enable him to bring out the great work 
 which his researches required, and which he beheved could not 
 be satisfactorily produced in Denmark, he was appointed by 
 his own government their agent at the papal court, whither he 
 went in 1818. He spent the years 1820 and 1821 in visiting the 
 Ionian Isles and Sicily, after which, by pennission of the Danish 
 government, he removed to Paris, to superintend the printing and 
 illustration of his works. From Paris, in 1826, he made a 
 journey to England, and the following year paid a visit to his 
 native land, where he was appointed privy councillor of legation. 
 In the year 1832 he finally returned to Denmark, where he found 
 occupation as director of the royal cabinet of antiquities, and pro- 
 fe.ssor of classical philology and archaeology in the university. 
 He died in June, 1842, in consequence of a fall from his horse, 
 being at that time rector of the university. His principal work 
 is " Travels and researches in Greece, together with descriptions 
 and explanations of many newly-discovered monuments of Grecian 
 art," 2 vols. 4vo., Paris, 1826-30, which appeared simultaneously 
 in French. The publication of this work led to an attack of the 
 author in the thirty-second volume of Hermes, charging him with 
 having unwarrantably made use of Villoison's manuscripts in the 
 royal library of Paris, especially as referred to the island of Ceos, 
 without acknowledgment. Briinsted defended himself by a reply 
 published at Paris in 1830, whilst Hage had already done the 
 same the year before in Copenhagen. Besides other lesser archae- 
 ological works, as for example, " An Account of some Greek 
 Vases found near Vulci," London, 1832 ; and "The Bronzes of 
 Siris," Copeidiagen, 1837, Briinsted published valuable contri- 
 butions to tin; Histoiy of Denmark, from the manu.scripts of 
 North France, 2 vols., Copenhagen, 1817-18; also "Memorable 
 Events in Greece during the years 1827-28," derived from the 
 papers of the late Major Frederick MUller of Altdorf, Paris, 
 1833.— M. H. 
 
 BRONTE, Charlotte, born at Thornton, near Bradford, in 
 April, 1816; died at Haworth parsonage, JIarch, 1855. Wiien 
 Charlotte Bronte was four years of age, her father, the Rev. 
 Patrick Bronte, removed to Haworth, a small village not far from 
 Keighley, situated in the heart of one of the bleakest regions in 
 Yorkshire. Mrs. Bronte died after a year's residence at Haworth, 
 and an aunt took charge of her six children. In Julv, 1825, 
 Charlotte and Emily went to Cowan Bridge (the Lowood of 
 Jane Eyre), where two elder sisters had already been boarded. 
 When, twelve months after her sisters' deaths, Charlotte left 
 this establishment, she spent two years at Roeliead, under the 
 more favourable auspices of Jliss Wooler. In consequence 
 of the unfcirtunate irregularities of their brother, the Misses 
 Bronte were mucli tin-own upon their own resources in prejiar- 
 ing for the struggle of life. After some futile attempts to 
 open a school at the parsonage, Anne and Charlotte obtained 
 situations as governesses. Neither were fortunate in this capacity, 
 
 and Anne's health gave way; when, therefore, in 1841 an oppor- 
 tunity presented itself for two of the girls to obtain teaching 
 abroad, she remained at home, while Emily and Charlotte went 
 to Brussels. They were recalled at the close of the year to 
 attend their aunt, and after her death. Miss Bronte returned 
 to Brussels alone for other six months. Early in 1846 the 
 sisters published jointly a small vohnne of poems, under the 
 assumed names of Ellis, Acton, and Currer Bell. It met 
 with little success, but they resolved to venture with a prose 
 tale. " Wuthering Heights," " Agnes Grey," and " The Pro- 
 fessor," sought acceptance from various firms in London. Char- 
 lotte's unsuccessfully; but she received encouragement to attempt 
 a more elaborate work. In the midst of harassing domestic cir- 
 cumstances she began " Jane Eyre," and its publication was 
 followed by a success beyond her hopes. "Wuthering Heights" 
 and "Agnes Grey" stole out in December, 1847, but at first 
 attracted little notice. The following winter was a dark one at 
 Haworth. Branwell and Emily Bronte died within a few weeks 
 of each other. Cliarlotte was prostrate with a fever; and Anne, 
 always delicate, grew rapidly worse. Tlie two went together to 
 Scarborough in the succeeding spring. There the younger sister 
 died, and the other returned to her desolate home. " Shirley," 
 which had been in progress before Emily's death, was now 
 resumed, and continued as steadily as Charlotte's own health 
 would permit. It was published in October, 1849, and its 
 frequent references to Yorkshire people and sceneiy, led to the 
 discovery of tlie authoress. During this winter she visited 
 London, and fomied the acquaintance of several literary men. 
 In the autumn of 1850 she commenced " Villette," and brought it 
 to a conclusion in the November of the succeeding year. In .June, 
 1854, she became the wife of Mr. Nicholls, one of her father's 
 curates. Nine months followed of calm happiness — months of 
 respite and of rest. It was the sunshine of sunset. During the 
 next winter she was confined to a sickbed, from which she never 
 rose. She died, after a long and weaiy illness, bravely as she 
 had lived. The career of Cliarlotte Bronte is one of the most 
 beautiful and one of the saddest on record. In little things, 
 as in great, we recognize her stem submission to the law of duty. 
 Constitutionally delicate, her nervous temperament rendered her 
 unusually sensitive to criticism. Yet she never shrunk from 
 it, and showed a wise discretion in the selection of advice. She 
 had none of the selfishness of genius. During the heiglit of 
 her renown as an authoress, she was the same obedient daughter 
 as when a girl at school. Her life from first to last is an 
 example of courage, patience, and devotion. Miss Bronte's writ- 
 ings have indubitably placed her in the highest rank of lady 
 novelists. She has attained very closely to the ideal of a work 
 of fiction. Her plots possess the merit of rare interest ; her 
 characters, however eccentric, stand out as unmistakable reali- 
 ties. Even in "Jane Eyre" there is little that is either impos- 
 sible or unnatural. "Shirley" and "Villette" are still more 
 remarkable for simjdicity of outline. "Jane Eyre " is perhaps the 
 most dramatic, and therefore the most interesting of her works; 
 but, in artistic beauty, " Villette" must take pre-eminence; nor 
 has the authoress elsewhere equalled the eloquence and graphic 
 description which mark the closing scenes of that wonderful tale. 
 Her heroes and heroines may sometimes be weak or morbid — her 
 books are all vigorous and healthy. If we except " Shirley," 
 perhaps the greatest defect is a want of humour. Miss Bronte's 
 style is powerful and concise. She is peculiarly felicitous in her 
 choice of words, and we seldom desire either to contract or 
 expand a single sentence. A df^tailed life has been written by Mrs. 
 Gaskell. It is a work of much interest, and partakes of merit; 
 but has the fault of mixing up with Miss Bronte's history pri- 
 vate incidents which had been better forgotten. — A. J. N. 
 
 BRONTE, Emii.y, bom in 1819; died in 1848: Anne,, 
 born in 1822; died in 1849— sisters of Chariotte. They 
 shiu'ed the vicissitudes of her life, became companions of her 
 authorship, and exhibited opposite phases of her character. We 
 have few distinctive memorials of Anne's life. She leant on those 
 around her for guidance, and in turn fulfilled the offices of 
 kindness. Emily seems to have lived somewhat apart, even in 
 the narrow circle of her isolated family. If the iiici(h>nts in her 
 career are few, they are empliatic, and impress us witli a sort of 
 wciiider that such a stern s])irit could be found in one of the 
 softer sex. Anne's deatli was in accordance with her whole 
 life ; her spirit ])assed in a bright morning in ]\Iay, quietly as the 
 breath of an infant. Emily, too, died as she had Uvcd — proudly,
 
 BRO 
 
 761 
 
 BRO 
 
 almost selfishly, refusing the aid and comfort of those nearest 
 and dearest — sternly in the hleak December, in the bleak par- 
 sonage she would never leave. Anne's claim to memory rests 
 on a novel, '• Wildfell Hall," a short tale, and a few verses. 
 The fonner cannot be called successful. The subject was alien to her 
 genius, and the grace of its style does not remove a feeling of the 
 distaste the authoress herself must have had in the composition. 
 "Agnes Grey" is a quiet romance of her own experience. Emily 
 has left behind her "Wuthering Heights," which with all its 
 imperfections is one of the most wonderful creations of female 
 genius. It is a rude, but colossal monument of power ; a ter- 
 rible transcript of some of the strangest of the strange scenes 
 which the manners and traditions of that wild country had 
 made familiar to her mind. The tale itself is of thrilling inter- 
 est ; if it has a too pervading power, it is full also of touches 
 of exquisite simplicity. The characters are vivid, and if we may 
 hope they are singular, we also feel that they are real. The style 
 is abrupt but vigorous, and it has words that cling to our memor}-. 
 Some one has well said — "' Let the critic lay down the book in 
 what mood he will, there are some things in it he can lay down 
 no more." It impresses us with a remembrance of grandeur, like 
 a " granite block on a solitary moor." The poems written by 
 Ellis Bell display more gi-ace and melody than her sister's verses. 
 Some of them ought not to be forgotten. That entitled " Re- 
 membrance" is perhaps the finest, and may well be associated 
 with the whole tragedy of the Brontes. — A. J. N. 
 
 BROXZINO,Agxolo, a Florentine painter, bom in 1511. 
 He studied under Pontonno, and learned to imitate his brush 
 with apish exactness, although Caracci was morose and kept 
 his finishing tricks a secret. The industry and good-nature of 
 Bronzino, however, softened the millstone, and made him beloved 
 by his master. He imitated Michel Angelo in his draperies, 
 though certainly that great prophet's mantle did not tall on 
 Bronzino's shoulders, for he painted leaden and chalk flesh, and 
 nsed rouge instead of the life-blood of Titian's carnations. Kugler 
 praises his " Descent of Christ into Hell," which, though cold, 
 is carefully painted and not over-mannered. He is known too 
 as a friend of earnest, chatty Vasari, the pleasantest of all 
 art chroniclers. On the death of Pontomio, Bronzino was 
 employed to finish the chapel of St. Lorenzo in Florence. He 
 also painted lor Francis I. a Venus embracing Cupid, sur- 
 rounded by jealousy, fraud, and other allegorical nonentities. 
 A Nativity of his was also much praised. He excelled greatly 
 m portraits. His pencil was neat and free, but his figures are 
 stalky and stilted.— W. T. 
 
 BROOKE, Charlotte, was the first; to collate the scattered 
 poems in the Celtic language, and translating them into English 
 verse, in the year 1787 published them, together with the 
 originals, in a volume entitled " Reliques of Irish Poetrj'." 
 She was the last suniving child of Henry Brooke, the poet, and 
 was bom at his house of Rantavan, in the county of Cavan. 
 She had much of her father's turn in poetry — some brightness 
 and pathos, side by side with the inflation of the day. At one 
 time she was enthusiastically attached to the drama — a heredi- 
 tary inconsistency — and wrote " Belisarius," a tragedy, the MS. 
 of which her friends accuse John Kemble of having pirated. 
 Died in Dublin in 1793.— R. S. B. 
 
 BROOKE, Henuy, poet, politician, dramatist, novelist, and 
 divine, was bom in 170G, at his father's house of Rantavan, 
 in the county of Cavan. His family came from Cheshire, where 
 the name is still found among the oldest gentrj', and settled in 
 Ulster in the time of Elizabeth. His father, the Rev. William 
 Brooke, was a scholar of Trinity college, Dublin, and rector of 
 the large union of Killinkere, &c., in Cavan. Ilis mother was 
 Lettice, daughter to Simon Digby, bishop of Elphin. From his 
 fiither he inherited his love of study ; from his mother — one 
 of the handsome Digbys, whose features are immortalized by 
 Vandyck — he had a royal descent, and probably his good looks ; 
 and no doubt he derived a strain of talent from the Sheridans, 
 who were his near cousins. While yet a boy. Swift had in his 
 father's house prophesied his future eminence, while deprecating 
 < predilection for poetry, which the dean designated " a bcg- 
 'ily calling." He was educated by Dr. Sheridan, and at the age 
 of eighteen we find him in London at the temple ; and noticed 
 and caressed by Lord Lyttleton and Pope, he seems to have won 
 his own way into society by the engaging sweetness of his man- 
 ner, his \nvacity, his truthfulness, and his genius. We have this 
 record of him : — "Mr. Brooke was yoimg, fresh-looking, slenderly 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 formed, and exceedingly graceful. He had an oval face, raddy 
 complexion, and large soft eyes, full of fire. He was of great 
 personal courage, yet never known to offend any man. He wa.s 
 an excellent swordsman, and could dance with much grace." 
 With these attractions, and at the imprudent age of twenty, 
 Brooke wooed and wed his first cousin, Catherine Meares, before 
 she had left school, or attained her fifteenth year ; and the result 
 of these precocious hymeneals was fifty years of unbroken ha{<J)i- 
 ness, and a family of twenty-two children, all of whom died 
 yoimg, except Charlotte the poetess, and Arthur a captain in 
 the amiy. From 1728 to 1740 Brooke spent much time in 
 London literary life. He had been called to the bar, and prac- 
 tised as a chamber counsel, but loved rhyme better than law, 
 and in 1735 published bis " Universal Beauty," under the 
 auspices of Pope ; and being introduced by Lord Chatham to 
 Frederick, prince of Wales, he became warmly attached to the 
 company as well as to the cause of his royal patron, who repaid 
 his devotion by " caressing him with great familiarity." When 
 '■ Gustavus Vasa" was forbidden to be acted in 1739, because 
 of its reflections upon the prime minister, Walpole, Brooke pub- 
 lished it by subscription. Lord Chesterfield had 40 copies, the 
 prince took 400 ; and so popular was the play between its own 
 merit and the political heat of the times, that Brooke netted 
 1000 guineas from its sale, and Dr. Samuel Johnson honoured 
 him by publishing his " Complete Vindication" — a sarcastic bro- 
 chure, which, while it eulogized his tragedy, keenly satirized the 
 government, which had prohibited its representation. In 1740 
 Brooke, through ill health, retired to his property at Rantavan, 
 ■whence he coiresponded with his kind patron and prince. A 
 letter from Jlr. Pope to him is to be found in the second volume 
 of Brookiana — a little work full of gossip and sparkle, pubUshed 
 in London in 1804, author unknown. Here, in rural leisure, he 
 flurig from his pen poetical tales, translations fi-om the Italian, 
 tragedies, comedies, and tracts, political and agricultural. In 
 1745 appeared his " Farmer's Letters," which drew from 
 Garrick the well-known Addj-ess to Mr. Brooke, beginning " Oh 
 thou, whose artless, free-boni genius charms." In 1766 he 
 pubhshed " The Fool of Quality," which in one year ran tlirough 
 three editions in the London press. With many faults, it has 
 rare beauties of style and incident. It is thoroughly original, 
 and written in the purest English. In these latter days, John 
 Wesley published an edition of it, and spoiled it. Southey 
 styled its author " a man of undoubted genius." Charlotte 
 Bronte made it the study of her youth, and the Rev. Charles 
 Kingsley, in his Two Years Ago, pronounces the mind of the 
 man who wrote it as a hundred years in advance of his time in 
 political and religious questions. Brooke died in 1783, full of 
 piety and years. His judgment was below his genius, and thus 
 he made mistakes in Ufe ; but his walk was so pure and so noble, 
 and his temper so engaging, that the love of his friends amounted 
 almost to a vain idolatiy. His works were published in 4 vols, 
 octavo, in 1792, by his daughter. — R. S. B. 
 
 * BROOKE, Sir. James, rajah of Sarawak and governor of 
 Labuan, was bom in 1803. His father held an appointment in 
 the Indian civil sers-ice, and was thus enabled to proctire for his 
 son a cadetship. At the age of sixteen he went to India, and had 
 obtained considerable distinction in the first Burmese war, when 
 he received a wound in the lungs of so serious a nature as to 
 necessitate his return home. He spent the subsequent ten years 
 in travelling, which so far restored his strength as to permit 
 him to re-embark for India in 1829. The vessel in which he 
 sailed was wrecked on the Isle of Wight, and, in consequence of 
 the delay, his furlough had expired ere he reached his destination. 
 It was on the homeward voyage that he first saw Bomeo ; its 
 fertility and beauty impressed him deeply ; he read and inquired, 
 and became more and more convinced of the practicability of 
 the suppression of piracy and the overthrow of the slave trade. 
 Looking back on his career, on the great work he has begun, 
 and the conquests he has achieved, can we regard that ship- 
 wreck as nothing more than a chance detention? His fatln"- 
 does not appear to have believed in his adaptation for the mighty 
 enterprise ; but in a mother's sympathy he found that support 
 which has so often been the foundation of a son's greatness. 
 After his father's death had left him possessed of a considerable 
 fortune, finding his appeals to government for aid fmitless, he 
 resolved to try what one man could do. In a spirit of adven- 
 ture, worthy of the old discoverers, he pui'chased and manned 
 the yacht JRoyalUt, and set sail with a picked crew from Devon- 
 
 5 D
 
 BRO 
 
 762 
 
 BRO 
 
 ^ 
 
 sliire in December, 1838. Arriving at Singapore sis months 
 afterwards, he rested there some time in order to procure minute 
 information before proceeding to Borneo. Previous to liis leav- 
 ing England he had written out a statement of his views of the 
 present condition of the Malayan arcliipelago, and its probable 
 future value ; an abstract of this appeared in the journal of the 
 Geological Society, but it was first published as a whole among 
 his "Private Letters" in 1853. He speaks of the degrading effects 
 of Dutch rule in Java and Sumatra ; deplores the timidity and 
 ignorance of government in refusing to support Sir Stamford 
 Raffles in his energetic and successful sway, and urges his coun- 
 tr)'men not to reject a fresh opportunity of restoring civilization 
 and peace. "Java," he says, " exhausted and rebellious, sub- 
 mits, but remembers the period of British possession. The w^ild 
 Battas of Sumatra successfully repel the etforts of the Dutch 
 to reduce them. The Chinese of the southern part of Borneo 
 are eager to cast off the yoke of masters who debar them eveiy 
 advantage. The Dutch are strong enough to defy any native 
 power directed against them ; but their doubtful tenure would 
 render the downfall of their rule in the archipelago certain and 
 easy before the establishment of a liberal government and con- 
 ciliatory policy." Mr. Brooke did not advocate conquest, or any 
 imperfect mere missionaiy scheme. He wished that Britain 
 should use and extend her possessions by influencing — not subdu- 
 ing the natives — by leading them gradually to order and freedom, 
 and teaching the benefits of industry and education, by making 
 them sharers in them. Remaining but a short time at Singa- 
 pore he proceeded to Borneo, and anchored in the Sarawak 
 river. The Rajah Muda Hassim, imcle to the sultan of Borneo, 
 and governor of Sarawak, received the strangers kindly, and 
 granted them permission to go into the interior of the island. 
 A rebellion among the natives prevented Mr. Brooke from pene- 
 trating far, and he found the countrj' distracted by internal 
 warfare, earned on by rhe Sarebas and SakaiTan dyaks, piratical 
 and fierce tribes, speaking a different dialect, and having no 
 resemblance to those peaceful dyaks whom they treated as 
 slaves. The report of his expedition preceded bis return to 
 Singapore; the merchants presented him with congratulatory 
 addresses, but the goven^.or received him coldly. " He," says 
 Brooke, in writing to his friend Templar, " would fain have me 
 lay aside all politics ; but whilst I see such treacheiy and base- 
 ness on one part, and such weakness, imbecility, and indifference 
 on the other, I will continue to upraise my voice at fitting 
 seasons — I will not leave my native friends to be betrayed by 
 either white nation, and I will speak bold truths to native ears, 
 convinced that it is the best means of preserving the indepen- 
 dence of the Malay states. Don't think, however, that I would 
 intrude, or force opinion or advice. Until asked, I am silent." 
 He had not long to wait this invitation. At his next visit 
 Muda Hassim was still struggling to repress the rebellion ; he 
 urged Mr. Brooke to remain and assist him in quelling it. He 
 consented, and in three months accomplished what the rajah had 
 failed to do in four years. He also succeeded in gaining the 
 lives of the rebels who surrendered — a task rendered difficult by 
 Muda Hassim's conviction that they had forfeited all title to 
 mercy. Feeling that without this opportune assistance his 
 coimtry had been lost, and, despairing of governing it alone, he 
 besought Mr. Brooke to accept it under him, on payment of a 
 stipulated sum to be given yearly to the sultan. Jlr. Brooke 
 consented, on condition that the rajah should give him " his 
 sincere support and assistance in saving the lower classes from 
 oppression and pillage." From the s[iring of this year, 1841, 
 we may therefore date the connnencement of Mr. Brooke's 
 beneficent rule ; but he had much to contend with before coming 
 to a final and satisfactory arrangement with the rajah. There 
 were debates about the taxes, abolition of forced labour, and war- 
 fare against piracy. Muda Hassim promised fairly, but acted 
 treacherously, allowing pirates to invade his own country, and 
 withholding the promised right of working the antimony ore. 
 
 During JIuda Hassim's absence from Borneo jiroper, Pangeran 
 Usop — another uncle of the sultan's — a clever and designing 
 man, had striven to undennine his authority. The sultan, a 
 weak prince, too readily gave ear to Usop's crafty designs ; and 
 but for Mr. Brooke's exertions, Muda Hassim's power would 
 have been limited to the province of Sarawak. Some time after, 
 Jlr. Brooke accompanied him to Borneo, re-established his 
 hifluence there, and, by so doing, gained both his goodwill and 
 that of the people. Sluda's friendship with the English remained 
 
 henceforth unbroken ; and fidelity to his promise of assisting in 
 the destraction of pirates, was too surely the cause of his violent 
 death. — In a paper written during this winter, the new rajah's 
 plan of government is clearly unfolded. " I wish it therefore to 
 be understood," he says, " that it is on public gi-ounds I request 
 the support of govennnent, or the assistance of the commercial 
 conununity ; that my objects are to call into existence the 
 resources of one of the richest and most extensive islands of the 
 globe ; to relieve an industrious people from oppression, and to 
 check — if possible to suppress — piracy and the slave trade, 
 which are openly carried on within a short distance of three 
 European settlements, on a scale and system revolting to 
 humanity." Acting on these principles, he began his reign, 
 unaided and alone, devoting his whole energy to the elevation of 
 his people. A small duty on rice was the only one imposed ; 
 but, as he could not carry on government without means, having 
 already expended £10,000 of his private fortune, and received 
 no encouragement from home, he was forced to retain a mono- 
 poly of the antimony ore. The pirates continued most fonnidable 
 enemies ; but in a few years he was so far successful in repelling 
 their attacks, that the labouring dyaks began to come down from 
 the interior, and settle near Sarawak, happy and industrious under 
 the protection of theu- "Tuan Besar," or "Great Man." In 1843 
 he writes : — " You must not fancy that I say little about the 
 country, for the truth is I have nothing to say, as we are living 
 in a state of profound quiet. When the stores of the Samaran/j 
 lay exposed in eveiy direction — and they were tempting — there 
 was not a case of complaint against a native. The dyaks, the 
 poor oppressed dyaks, are really quite fat and happy-looking, 
 and yearly improving." A short extract from a letter of Jlrs. 
 Dougal's, the missionar)''s wife, shows the love and admiration 
 Brooke's devotion inspired : — " The rajah was in England in 
 1848, but Pa Jenna, a reclaimed pirate, coming into my room, 
 spied his pictm-e hanging against the wall. I was much struck 
 with the expression of involuntary respect which both the face 
 and attitude of this mitutored savage assumed. He raised the 
 handkerchief from his head, and saluting the picture with a 
 bow, such as a Roman catholic would make at his patron saint' 
 altar, he whispered to himself — " Our great rajah." During 
 the seven years between his settlement at Saraw-ak, and his visit 
 to England in 1847, several of her majesty's ships had from 
 time to time visited the island ; the Samaramj, with the especial 
 pui-pose of investigating the island of Labuan, where Mr. Brooke 
 was desirous of an English station being established. Mean- 
 while — for want of a single war-ship — he had been forced to 
 allow poor Muda Hassim to fall a victim to the jealousy of Lis 
 own kindred. His adherence to his compact against piracy 
 excited their hatred to such a pitch, that he and all his family, 
 except one son, were cruelly miu'dered by their nearest relatives. 
 Captain Keppel, who had assisted Mr. Brooke in fighting the 
 pirates in 1844, returned to England, and published a diary of 
 Brooke's, by means of which the public were made acquainted 
 with the principal events of his career. When he came to 
 London, he found himself famous ; he had really become a hero 
 and was feted and lionized. The knighthood of the bath was 
 conferred on him ; he was created governor of Labuan, and 
 commissioner and consul to the native states of Borneo. After 
 a short stay, he set sail for the scene of his new government in 
 February, 1848. — With no slight humiliation and surprise, we 
 turn from this brief sun'ey of his actual accomplishments, to the 
 histoi-y of the persecution which followed. It is a history which 
 places the name of Sir James Brooke in illustrious, though 
 unfortunate similitudes ; but never were calumny and injustice 
 more bravely met, false charges more clearly exposed, and truth 
 and equity more faithfully maintained. Mr. Hume had the 
 unenviable distinction of leading the persecution ; but the 
 inquiry seems to have arisen at the instigation of Mr. Henry 
 Wise, Sir James' agent, and long his confidiint and friend. A 
 complete detail of the charges brought against him, along with 
 their able refutation, may be found in three interesting volumes 
 of the " Rajah's Private Correspondence," edited by Templar, and 
 which were published in 1853. In a letter addressed to Henry 
 Drummond, M.P., Sir James thus recapitulates his presumed 
 offences: — "The first grave charge which Mr. Hume advanced 
 was to the eftect that I had massacred innocent people, falsely 
 asserting them to be jJirates. Next he endeavoured to prove 
 that I was a merchant whilst engaged in the public service. 
 He asserted that an unnecessary loss of life had been inflicted m
 
 BRO 
 
 763 
 
 BRO 
 
 the action of July, 1849 ; he cavilled at the title by which I 
 hold Sarawak ; he has accused me of cold-blooded murders ; 
 he has denounced me for neglect of public duty, for abuse of 
 official power ; for impeding the progi'ess of commercial enter- 
 prise ; and for establishing a trading monopoly." This frightful 
 list of oiTences was privately printed and privately circulated, with 
 letters of approval from Jlr. Hume, after the evidence upon 
 which they were foimded had been twice weighed by parliament, 
 and twice found insufficient. The piratical character of the Jla- 
 lays of the archipelago had never been disputed ; it was regard- 
 ing the Sarcbas and Sakarran dyaks that the question was raised. 
 To disprove tlie first charge, it was only necessaiy to show 
 that these tribes were not prosecuting mere intertribal feuds, 
 when they burst upon their peaceable neighbours, burnt their 
 dwelhngs, stole their goods, and carried "women and children into 
 captivity, with the heads of their decapitated husbands and 
 fathers." Su* James produced a list of twenty-one names, in 
 support of his averment, among which were — Jlonsieur Comet 
 de Groot, 1839, secretaiy-general to the Netherland colonial 
 minister; Captain Keppel, 1813-44; the Rajah Muda Hassim ; 
 Mr. Church, resident-councillor of Singapore ; Colonel Butter- 
 worth, governor of Singapore ; Admiral Sir Thomas Cochrane ; 
 and lastly, the decision of the court of admiralty in Singapore. 
 As he most justly remarks — " A fact cannot be more than 
 proved ; " if this an-ay of endence is insufficient, fmiher argu- 
 ment were hopeless. On the next charge he says — "If by a 
 merchant b« meant a person who buys and sells for his own 
 profit, then I have never been a merchant at all. In the year 
 1845 I was the unpaid agent of the English goverament ; in 
 
 1847 I was appointed commissioner and consul-general ; and in 
 
 1848 became governor of Labuan." Durmg the first years of 
 his residence at Sarawak, Sir James states that he "was 
 obliged to resort to trade to obtain the means of earning on 
 government ; " but no personal benefit accrued to him, as even 
 "so late as 1851 there was an excess of expenditure over 
 receipts, which I willingly made good from my private fortune." 
 The anxiety occasioned by business was distasteful to Su- James; 
 and anxious to place the revenue on a more permanent basis, he, 
 in 1846, leased the antimony ore and opium farm for five years 
 to the Eastern Archipelago Company. Then began Jlr. Wise's 
 endeavours to induce Brooke to enter into speculations which 
 would have made him one of the richest commoners in England. 
 His refusal to " risk the welfare of this people for any motives, 
 whether of cupidity or ambition," seems to have excited a feeling 
 of jealousy on Jlr. Wise's part towards the man whose dis- 
 interestedness he could not understand, and which a subsequent 
 mistake about some letters only served to increase. But Mr. 
 Wise's transactions have been sufficiently exposed. The dealings 
 of the Eastern Archipelago Company have also been laid bare, 
 and the publication of their forgeries and slanders casts an 
 irredeemable blot on the man, who, with every means of investi- 
 gation in his power, raised the hue and cry against his great 
 countryman on no surer foundation. We have already given the 
 detail of the events by which Sir James was installed as governor 
 at Sarawak. We do not envy any one who, after reading the 
 correspondence with his mother and Mr. Templar on that sub- 
 ject, can accuse him of mean or unworthy motives. The simpli- 
 city and beautiful confidence running through all those " private " 
 letters ought to disarm suspicion. Muda Hassim's concession 
 was afterwards officially confirmed by the sultan. It is unneces- 
 sary to enter here into a detailed refutation of the remaining 
 charges ; but if we have succeeded in gi\'ing any idea of his devo- 
 ted and philanthropic character, and of the love and veneration in 
 which he was held at Sarawak, the designations of " murderer " 
 and " thief," as applied to him, will not receive an imprimatur 
 trom our readers. Yet these charges were repeated year after 
 year, dnring bis absence, and again while in London during 
 1852, with undiminished acrimony. Even then, however, the 
 'great heart of the world was just;" in April, 18o2, a public 
 
 dinner was given him by a large and influential body of men, 
 who were proud to call Sir James Brooke " countryman." More 
 'iitly, fullest justice has been appropriately done him at Man- 
 tster, by an assembly of its greatest and most enlightened mer- 
 'liants. — We conclude this notice by an extract from a critic not 
 usually given to over-praise. Had the extract stated that Sir 
 James eminently possesses a share of the qualities distinguishing 
 the illustrious persons with whom he is compared, we should 
 have fully agreed with it. As it stands, it manifests the enthu- 
 
 siastic regard in which he is held by those who have taken the 
 trouble to study his whole career, and have the power to judge 
 a great man impartially. " Contemplating and judging the 
 work and the man with entire impartiality — without the slightest 
 bias one way or another in his case — being utter strangers to 
 him and all his connections, his friends and his enemies — being 
 in possession of the entire material for a study of his life and 
 acts — and having really and truly studied both — our final con- 
 viction is, that James Brooke is one of nature's princes — a man 
 of genius to begin with, and of that high order of genius which 
 can act in any direction ; that he has the devout pertinacity of 
 a Columbus, grounded upon a similar sagacity ; the gay magna- 
 nimity of a Raleigh ; the adventmousness of a Cortez ; the 
 administrative ability of a Penn ; the joyful devotedness of a 
 P^re d'Estevan ; the moral corn-age and good sense of a Wel- 
 lington ; the domestic affections of a Collingwood ; the robust 
 purity of a hero whose energies are occupied with adequate 
 aims ; and the simphcity which is always supposed, when genius 
 is described, because simplicity is its most prominent and inse- 
 parable attribute." — It may be added, without presumption, that 
 on the success of Brooke's present mission, or on the resolution 
 of our government as to the formal acceptance of Borneo as a 
 British possession, depends much of the security and extension 
 of our power in the East. — A. J. N. 
 
 BROOKES, Joshua, an English anatomist and physiologist, 
 was bom 24th November, 1761. Having received his diploma, 
 he visited Paris, where he practised for some tune at the Hutel 
 Dieu. On his retm-n to London, he began to study anatomy, 
 and to form a museum. He was well known as a dissector, and 
 succeeded in making a preparation for presei-ving his subjects 
 from decay, the composition of which he commmiicated to the 
 Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow. He taught 
 anatomy and physiology dming forty years, to more than 5000 
 pupils in all. He published some small papers on subjects con- 
 nected with his favomite science, and died in 1833. — J. B. 
 
 BROOKES, RiCHAKD, an English physician, lived about the 
 middle of the eighteenth century, and published works on choco- 
 late, on the natural history of vegetables, on systems of natural 
 history, also an " Introduction to Physic and Surgeiy," and a 
 " History of China and Tartaiy." — J. H. B. 
 
 BROOKING, an ingenious but unhappy artist, bora about 
 1720. He had a situation m Deptford dock}-ard, and, suiting 
 his art to Ids opportunities, " he rose," Pilkingtou says, " to an 
 eminence Httle inferior to Vaudervelve or Backhuysen." He 
 hved forgotten, and died unknown in 1759 — W. T. 
 
 BROOKS, CoLON'EL John, LL.D., a distinguished American 
 officer in the revolutionary army, afterwards governor of Massa- 
 chussets, was born at Medford, JIassachussets, June 6, 1752. 
 He served throughout the war with a high reputation as a brave, 
 discreet, and patriotic officer ; and when peace was at hand and 
 disafi'ection pen-aded the army, as manifested in the celebrated 
 Newburgh Letters, he was one of those who most actively 
 seconded the exertions of Washington in preventuig the officers 
 and troops from taking the redress of theii- grievances into their 
 own hands. Then he went back to private life, and resumed 
 the medical profession, for which he had been educated. In 
 1816, on the withdrawal of Governor Strong, he was chosen 
 governor of Massachussetts, and held that office by successive 
 re-elections for seven years, when his advanced age induced him 
 to refuse any longer service. He died, March 1, 1825, leavuig 
 a highly-honoured name, untarnished by a single spot either in 
 his public or private career. He published a few orations and 
 discourses, and one medical tract. 
 
 BROOKS, Mauia, an American poetess of minor fame, bom 
 at Medford, Massachussetts, about 1795 ; died in Cuba, No- 
 vember 11, 1845. Her maiden name was Gowan or Gowen, 
 her nnm de plume " Jlaria dell' Occidente." She wrote " Judith, 
 Esther, and other poems," 1820; " Zophiel, or the Bride of 
 Seven," a poem of six cantos ; and a ])ure romance, telling the 
 story of her own life, and named " Idomen, or the Vale of 
 Yumuri." In 1830 she accompanied a brother to Paris, and 
 spent the spring of 1831 at Keswick with Southey, who pre- 
 pared an edition of " Zophiel " for the press. The Doctor 
 pronounced her " the most impassioned and most imaginative 
 of all poetesses;" and Longfellow, in Kavanagh, quotes some 
 " tender, melancholy lines," from her poem on " Marriage." 
 
 BROOME, Wii.i.iAM, born in Cheshire; died at Bath in 1745; 
 the date of his birth is not known ; educated on the foundation
 
 BRO 
 
 7C4 
 
 BRO 
 
 at Eton, and afterwards at St. John's, Cambridge. Broome 
 translated some books of tlie Iliad into prose, which were 
 printed in the book called Ozell's Homer. He was soon after- 
 wards employed by Pope in making extracts from Eustathius 
 for the notes to his translation of the Iliad ; and when he under- 
 took the Odyssey, he abridged his labom-s by getting Broome 
 and Fenton to translate a considerable part of it. Broome 
 translated the second, sixth, eighth, eleventh, twelfth, sixteenth, 
 eighteenth, and twenty-third books: he wrote all the notes. 
 Pope came off clean with Homer, but tliey say — 
 Broom went before, and kindly swept tlie way. 
 The alliance produced no cordiality. In the Art of Sinking, 
 Broome is reckoned as one of " the parrots who repeat another's 
 words in such a hoarse odd tone as makes them seem their 
 own;" and in the Dunciad we have the couplet — 
 " Hibernian politics, O Swift, thy doom ; 
 And mine, translating ten whole yeai's with Brooma" 
 
 Broome was rector of Starston in Suflblk, where he married a 
 wealthy widow. In 1728 he became doctor of laws. He after- 
 wards obtained some crown livings. In 1739 he published a 
 collection of jioems, among which was a part of the eleventh 
 book of the Iliad in what he calls the style of Milton. It is 
 curious that both he and Fenton, Pope's other assistant in the 
 Odyssey, should both have left specimens of translations of the 
 Iliad into blank verse, as if they had proposed to themselves the 
 task reserved for Cowper. — J. A., D. 
 
 BROSAMER, John or Hans, an old German engraver, one 
 of the "little masters;'' born at Fulda about 1506. He worked 
 on wood and cojiper in the style of Aldegrever. He executed 
 portraits of Luther and Paracelsus, and seven sheets of a great 
 procession by christian and pagan heroes on horseback. — W. T. 
 
 * BRORSEN, an astronomical observer of much merit at 
 Kiel. We owe him the discovery of several comets, especially 
 the periodical one whose period round the sun is 5581 years. 
 
 BK').S('HI, Carlo. — See Farinelli. 
 
 BROSSES, Charles de, bom at Dijon in 1709, and died 
 at Paris in 1777. He was a magistrate at Dijon, and, in addi- 
 tion to the performance of his public duties, cultivated letters 
 with great zeal. He became president of the parliament of 
 Dijoi), and in 17-16 was nominated a member of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions. He was the first person to write a description of 
 the ruins of Herculaneum. He published in 17C0 a dissertation, 
 in which he sought to identify the modern African fetichism 
 with the old Egyptian religions. He had before this, at the 
 suggestion of Butfbn, published " L'Histoire des Navigations 
 aux ten-es Australes," and he has the honour of being the first 
 to use the names of Australasia and Polynesia. He wrote a 
 treatise " On the Mechanism of Language," a work of some cha- 
 racter. A work on which he expended considerable time, was 
 the " Histoire du Septieme Si^cle de la Rdpublique Romaine," 
 in three volumes. It is a piece of skilful mosaic, in which such 
 fragments as he found useful to his purpose are worked mto a 
 consistent whole. De Brosses died before he had completed his 
 work ; and a fourth volume which he had left in manuscript, 
 containing the texts of Sallust and other writers whom he relied 
 on as authorities, has never been printed. He printed a good 
 many memoires in the Academy of Inscriptions and in the Dic- 
 tionnau-e Encyclopedique. " Letters from Italy, Historical and 
 Critical," have been published under his name. The book is of 
 doubtful authenticity. — J. A., D. 
 
 BROSSETTE, Claude, lord of 'Varennes-Rappetour, a learned 
 Frenchman, born at Lyons in 1G71; died in 1743. He pub- 
 lished, with historical illustrations, the works of Regnier and 
 Boileau, with the latter of whom he maintained a long corre- 
 spondence. 
 
 BROTERO, Felix de Avellar, a celebrated Portuguese 
 botanist, was born at Santo-Antao de Tqjah, near Lisbon, on 
 25th November, 1744, and died on 4th August, 1828. He was 
 deprived in early life of his parents, and his education was 
 intrusted to a paternal uncle, and his maternal grandfather. 
 He studied in a college founded by the monks of JIafra. He 
 appears to have been in ver)' poor circumstances, and in 1763 
 we find him engaged as a singer in the cathedral at Lisbon. 
 He devoted himself, however, with ardour to his studies, and 
 acquired a good knowledge of Latin and Greek. He was offered 
 the chair of Greek at Baliia in Brazil, but he decUned it. He 
 went to Paris, and remained there for twelve years. There he 
 took the name of Brotero, derived from the Greek words mean- 
 
 ing mortal love. In Paris he became acquainted with Daubenton, 
 Vicq d'AzjT, Brisson, Laurent de Jussieu, Condorcet, Cuvier, and 
 Lamarck. He prosecuted natural history studies, and particu- 
 larly gave his attention to botany — a science in which he after- 
 wards attained great celebrity. At the time of the French 
 revolution he had to leave Paris, and in 1790 he returned to 
 Portugal. In 1791 he was appointed to the chair of botany and 
 agriculture at Coimbra. Subsequently he became director of the 
 royal museum and the botanic garden at Lisbon. Brotero's scien- 
 tific studies were interrijpted by the French invasion, and he had 
 to take refuge in a faubourg of Lisbon, where he might have died 
 from want had it not been for the kind intervention of Geoffrey 
 St. Hilaire, who got the French government to give assistance. 
 In 1811 he became professor in the university of Lisbon, and 
 he continued to give regular courses of lectm-es on botany and 
 natural histoiy for more than twenty years. In 1821 he was 
 elected a member of cortes for the province of Estramadura, but 
 he did not long retain this appointment. He retired finally from 
 active life, and quietly pursued his natural history studies. He 
 died at Acolenade-Belem, at the age of eighty-four. Among his 
 published works are the following — "Account of the rare 
 plants of Spain, as well as a Flora Lusitanica;" "A Botanical 
 Compendium ; " and Principles of Philosophical Agriculture." 
 He also contributed papers to the Linna?an Society, and to the 
 Academy of Sciences of Lisbon. — J. H. B. 
 
 BROTIER, Andre Charles, the nephew of Gabriel, born 
 at Taunay in 1751. Before the French revolution he took 
 orders ; but like many ecclesiastics of that age, he chiefly applied 
 his mind to mathematics, botany, and literature. In 1791 he 
 was one of the principal conductors of the Journal General de 
 France. A royalist by conviction, he plotted against the republic, 
 and after many adventures was transported to Cayenne, where 
 he died a victim to the climate in his sixty-ninth year. He 
 published a new edition of the Theatre of the Greeks in 1783, 
 which contains his own translation of Aristophanes. — T. J. 
 
 * BROUGHAM, Henry, Lord, was bom in Edinburgh on 
 the 19th September, 1778. He was the eldest son of Henry 
 Brougham, Esq., of Brougham Hall, and Eleanor Syme, only 
 child of the Rev. James Syme, by Jlaiy, sister of Dr. Robertson 
 the historian. He was educated at the High school of Edin- 
 burgh along with Sir Walter Scott and Lord Jeflrey, and in 
 1793 he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, where he pur- 
 sued his studies under Dugald Stewart, Professor Robison, Dr. 
 Black, and Professor Playfair, then professors of moral philo- 
 sophy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and mathematics, in that 
 institution. Although he took a high place in all the classes 
 which he attended, yet mathematics and natural philosophy 
 particularly fixed his attention. In the year 1795, when he 
 was only seventeen years of age, he devoted himself to the study 
 of the inflexion, reflexion, and colom^s of hght, and communicated 
 the results which he obtained to the Royal Society of London, 
 in a paper entitled " Experiments and Obsen'ations on the 
 Inflexion, Reflexion, and Colours of Light" (Phil. Trans., 1796, 
 pp. 227-277). In the following year he communicated another 
 jiaper to the society, entitled " Farther Experiments and Obser- 
 vations on the Affections and Properties of Light" (Phil. Trans., 
 1797, pp. 352-385); and in 1798 he transmitted to the same 
 body a mathematical paper, entitled " General Theorems, chiefly 
 Porisms " (Phil. Trans., 1798, pp. 378-397). The two papers 
 on light evince mucli ingenuity and knowledge of optics, and 
 were sufficiently important to call forth a discussion of some of 
 the more important points bv Professor Prevost of Geneva 
 (Phil. Trans., 1798, pp. 311-332); but the key which Dr. 
 Thomas Young subsequently discovered to the class of piieno- 
 mena discussed by Mr. Brougham and Professor Prevost, was 
 required to deteruiine the laws that regulate the influence which 
 bodies exercise upon the hght which passes by them. In the 
 year 1800 Mr. Brougham was admitted to the Scottish bar, and 
 was then one of the members of the Speculative Society, where 
 so many distinguished Scotsmen acquired the habit of public 
 speaking. When the Edinburgh Review was established in 1802, 
 Mr. Brougham became one of its most active contributors, and 
 exhibited a variety and extent of knowledge, seldom possessed 
 by the same indindual. These qualities were equally conspicuous 
 in his " Inquiry into the Colonial Pohcy of the European Powers," 
 a work which appeared in Edinbiu-gh in 1803, and made him 
 favourably known in the political worid. In 1807, when he was 
 pleading a case of appeal in the house of lords, he resolved to qua-
 
 BEO 
 
 7G5 
 
 BRO 
 
 lify himself for the English bar, and in 1808 he began to practise 
 in the court of queen's bench and on the northern circuit. The 
 eloquence and talent which he exhibited at the Scottish bar, 
 found in the metropolis a nobler field for their development, and 
 a year had hardly elapsed before he was returned to the house 
 of commons for the burgh of Camelford. His maiden speech on 
 the 5th March, 1810, when Jlr. Whitbread brought forward his 
 motion against the earl of Chatham, though able and eloquent, 
 did not call forth his gigantic powers of debate ; but they gra- 
 dually unfolded themselves, and he soon became the rival of 
 George Canning, and his most powerful opponent in the great 
 political questions which then agitated the country. On the dis- 
 solution of parhament in 1812, Mr. Brougham failed in contesting 
 with Mr. Canning the representation of Liverpool, and he was 
 thus excluded from the house of commons during the long period 
 of five years. In 1816, however, he was returned for Winchelsea, 
 a borough which he represented till 1830, when he resigned it 
 on account of some difference of opinion with its patron, the earl 
 of Darlington. He was, however, immediately returned for 
 Knaresborough ; and on the death of George IV. he successfully 
 contested the county of York, and thus occupied a position which 
 added the influence of a great constituency to that which he 
 already possessed in parliament. Jlr. Brougham now stood 
 forth the champion of parliamentarj- reform, and the house of 
 commons had no sooner met than he announced, for the 16th 
 November, his intention to bring in a bill embracing a compre- 
 hensive measure of reform — the enfranchisement of lai'ge towns 
 — the reduction of rotten boroughs — the curtailment of the 
 EngUsh and Irish representation — and the grant of the franchise 
 to copyholders, leaseholders, and all householders whatever. A 
 ministerial crisis, however, supers-ened. The duke of Welhngton 
 hanng been defeated on a government measure, resigned, and the 
 formation of a new government under Earl Grey, including Lord 
 Brougham and Vaux as lord chancellor of England, who had not 
 previously tilled any of the subordinate law offices of the crown, 
 placed in the hands of the ministiy the great question of parha- 
 mentary reform. But though no longer a representative of the 
 people, and personally relieved from the charge of the reform 
 bill, his best powers were called forth in support of it ; and his 
 speech on the 7th October, 1831, when the bill was read a 
 second time in the house of lords, was a display of eloquence of 
 the highest order. While Lord Brougham occupied the wool- 
 sack, from 1830 to 1834, he availed himself of his high position 
 to perform services to his country which posterity alone can 
 duly appreciate. As the only British minister who devoted his 
 powers and used his influence in the promotion of national and 
 general education — in the instruction of the working classes — in 
 the establishment of mifettered universities — in the diffusion of 
 useful knowledge by popular publications — in the improvement 
 of the patent laws — and in obtaining for the higher classes of 
 literary and scientific men the honours and emoluments so long 
 and so unjustly withheld from them, his name will shine in the 
 future history of learning with a brighter lustre than that of the 
 Richelieus and Colberts of former days. [" In my opinion, the 
 teachers of the age of George III. covered it with still greater glory 
 than it drew from the statesmen and warriors that ruled its affairs." 
 — Works, vol. i.] Nor did these various duties, when perfonned 
 during his occu})ation of the woolsack, interfere with the onerous 
 functions of his office. His activity as a judge was unexampled. 
 In the course of a few months he decided 120 cases of appeal; 
 and upon quitting office in 1 836, he " did not leave a single case 
 unheard or a single letter unanswered." As one of the most 
 successful reformers and improvers of our laws, both civil and 
 criminal. Lord Brougham has earned the gratitude of his coun- 
 try. His bill for the establishment of law courts, and his 
 exertions in abolishing imprisonment for debt, amending the 
 criminal code, putting an end to capital punishment for various 
 >^.classes of crimes, and thus humanizing the bloody laws of his 
 'I jcountry, have already endeared his name to the philanthropists 
 jof every clime. Wherever oppression, under the form of English 
 Jaw, struck at an individual, or crushed a race, the heart and 
 head of Mr. Brougham were combined to defend and relieve 
 them. His defence in 1821 of Mr. Smith, a Wesleyan missionary, 
 against the slaveholders of Demerara, and in 1825 of another 
 niissionar}' expelled from Barbadoes, had a salutary influence far 
 beyond the lociilities of the oppression. His exertion, too, in 
 the abolition of colonial slavery, and in suppressing the slave 
 trade, which the rapacity of civilized nations still permits to 
 
 exist, will ever be one of the brightest leaves in his chaplet. The 
 same indomitable hatred of illegal power, whether exercised 
 against the high or the low, was exhibited in 1820 and 1821 
 in his defence of Queen Caroline, when she laid claim to the 
 honours of queen-consort on the accession of George IV. to the 
 throne. As her attorney-general he pled her cause in the house 
 of lords in the trial for her divorce, and before the privy council 
 for her right to coronation, and by these two remarkable displays 
 of forensic eloquence, his reputation and popularity were greatly 
 extended. The labours of Mr. Brougham in promoting the 
 various social and political reforms which have illustrated the 
 first-half of the present centurj', can hardly be enumerated in 
 the brief space allotted in our pages — his inquiry, through a 
 commission, into the 19,000 charitable trusts in Great Britain; 
 his labours in procuring cathohc emancipation ; in unproving 
 our nmnicipal jurisprudence ; in the complete reforms of the 
 Scottish municipal coi-porations ; in the settlement of the bank 
 charter ; in the radical refonn of the poor-laws ; in the partial 
 refonu of the Irish church by the suppression of ten bishoprics ; 
 and in the removal of the monopoly of the East India company 
 and the opening of the East India trade. 
 
 In the year 1834, the refonn government, under which Lord 
 Brougham had done so much for his country, quitted office, and 
 was succeeded by the short-Uved ministry of Sir Robert Peel. 
 In 1835 the whigs again returned to power, with Lord Mel- 
 bomme as premier, and Lord John Russell as home secretary ; 
 but, from causes yet to be explained, and much to be deplored. 
 Lord Brougham was excluded from the cabinet. The ties which 
 bound him to the whigs as a party being now dissolved, he was 
 at liberty to take an independent course in parliament, when 
 he criticised the acts of both parties, and sometimes brought 
 forward measures of his own. His conduct, in this respect, has 
 been \'ery unjustly blamed, and he has been charged with aban- 
 doning the whig principles which he maintained while in office. 
 In political life, a member of a party, whether in or out of 
 power, is sometimes obliged to support measures which he does 
 not wholly approve ; but when he has assumed an independent 
 position, and thrown himself loose from all party ties, he may 
 honestly oppose measures to which he formerly consented, and 
 originate others to which he could not previously obtain the 
 assent of his friends. When the conduct of pubUc men shall be 
 judged calmly, and uninfluenced by personal and party feeling, 
 we have no doubt that Lord Brougham will be regarded as a 
 consistent statesman, who occasionally modified his opinions 
 when he was called to express them imder altered circumstances 
 and new conditions. 
 
 As a relief from his severe parliamentary duties, Lord Brougham 
 pm'chased an estate about a mile to the east of Cannes, in Pro- 
 vence, where he built the beautiful chateau of Eleonore Louise, 
 commanding a channing view of the JlediteiTanean, the Lerin 
 isles of St. Jlarguerite and St. Honorat, and the grand range of 
 the Esterel mountains, which terminate on the coast between 
 Cannes and Frejus. In this delightfid retreat, beloved by the 
 French and Enghsh residents in his neighbourhood. Lord 
 Brougham spends a portion of every year, pursuing undisturbed 
 his literary and scientific studies, and adding to his high reputa- 
 tion as an orator and a statesman the more European fame of 
 an author and a philosopher. Under the clear sky of Provence, 
 and with a fine apparatus constructed by the late M. Soleil of 
 Paris, he resumed his early researches on the inflexion and 
 difiVaction of light, and made some important discoveries which 
 he communicated to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and to the 
 Royal Society of London, in whose memoirs and transactions 
 they are published. (A brief notice of them will be found in Sir 
 David Brewster's Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Dis- 
 coveries of Sir Isaac Newton, vol. i., pp. 208-210.) 
 
 Lord Brougham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of 
 London on the 3d JIarch, 1803. In 1825 he was appointed 
 lord rector of the university of Glasgow. In 1833 he was 
 chosen one of the five foreign associates of the Academy of Moral 
 and Political Sciences in the Institute of France, and more 
 recently a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Naples. 
 His lordship is also president, and may be regarded as the 
 founder, of University college, London. In 1819 Lord Brougham 
 married Mary Anne, eldest daughter of Thomas, fourth son of Sir 
 John Eden, bart., of Windleston, by whom he had two daughters, 
 one of whom died in 1820, and the other in 1839. 
 
 Besides his work on the " Colonial Policy of the European
 
 Powers," already mentioned, Lord Brougham published, in 1839, 
 in connection with Sir Charles Bell, an edition in 2 vols, of 
 I'uley's Natural Theology, with dissertations on subjects of 
 Science connected with Natural Theology, a work which has gone 
 through many editions. 
 
 In 1838, " a collected edition of his speeches," up to that 
 date, was published in four volumes. In 1839-1843, appeared 
 his " lli.storic Sketches of Statesmen who flourished in the time 
 of George III." In 1845 he published his "Lives of Men of Art 
 and Science who flom'ished in the time of George III." In 1849 
 hi? published a letter to the marquis of Lansdowne on " The late 
 Uevulution in France," which went through five or six editions. 
 In 1855 he published, conjointly with E. J. Routh, an "Ana- 
 lytical view of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia," which is now used 
 in Cambridge. (This work was first published in 1839, omitting 
 the second and part of the third books, defects which have been 
 supphed in the new edition.) In 1857 he collected and pub- 
 lished his contributions to tlie Edinburgh Iteoieio in 3 vols., 8vo. 
 An edition of Lord Brougham's writings, entitled " The Critical, 
 Historical, and Miscellaneous Works of Henry Lord Brougham, 
 F.R.S., Member of the National Institute of France, and of the 
 Royal Academy of Naples," has just been published by Messrs. 
 Richard GritHn & Co., in 10 vols., 1855-1858. So recently as 
 the 17th and 31st of Jlay, 1858, Lord Brougham read to the 
 Academy of Science a very interesting paper on the structure of 
 the cells of bees, in a zoological and mathematical point of view. 
 It is published in the Comptes Rendus, &c., 31st May, tom. xlvi., 
 p. 1024, under the title of " Recherches analytiques et experi- 
 mentales sur les alveoles des Abeilles." — D. B. 
 
 BROUGHTON, Akthur, an English botanist who lived 
 towards the end of the 18th centuiy. He resided in Jamaica, 
 and published in 1794 a catalogue of the more valuable and 
 rare plants growing in the public botanic garden in the moun- 
 tains of Lignauea, in the island of Jamaica; also of medicinal 
 and other plants growing in North and South America, and hi 
 the East Indies, the introduction of which might be attempted 
 in Jamaica. He also published m 1782, in London, an account 
 of British plants.— J. H. B. 
 
 BROUGHTON, Hugh, an eminent Hebrew and rabbinical 
 scholar, was born in 1549 at Oldbury in Shropshire. Being the 
 child of poor parents, he received his education at the school 
 which had been founded, and was sustained, by tlie excellent 
 Bernard Gilpin at Houghton in the county of Duriiam. By the 
 same benevolent man he was supported at Cambridge, where he 
 Ijccame a student, and afterwards a fellow of Christ's college. 
 From an early period he devoted himself to Hebrew literature, 
 and being a close student, he acquired unusual proficiency not 
 only in the biblical, but also in the later Hebrew, as well as in 
 some of the cognate tongues. Unfortunately, he conceived at 
 the same time such an inordinate sense of his own superiority, 
 that he was constantly afterwards involving himself in disputes 
 and difficulties. In London, where he first appeared after leav- 
 ing Cambridge, he sought notoriety by attacking others both in 
 the pulpit and from the press. Having published a book on 
 scripture chronology and genealogy, he was allowed to deliver 
 lectures in defence of his system in St. Paul's cathedral. At this 
 time he ranked with the puritans, but having quarrelled with 
 them he set up a conventicle for himself. In 1589 he left Eng- 
 land in disgust, and travelled for some time in Germany, where 
 his great scholarship procured him the favour of several eminent 
 persons, but where his arrogance and pugnacity exposed him to 
 the same disagreeable eonseipiences as had caused iiim to leave 
 England. He officiated for some time as pastor of the English 
 church at Middlebnrg in Zealand, and v.'hilst here he came into 
 coUision with Henry Ainsworth, and had that violent dispute 
 with him, to which reference is made in the life of the latter. 
 (See AiNSWOKTH, H.) He retumed to p]ngland in 1611, and 
 died at Tottenham High Cross in the following year. His 
 principal works were collected and published by the learned Dr. 
 Lightfoot, with the following title — " The Works of the Great 
 Albonian Divine, renowned in many nations for rare skill in 
 Salem's and Athens' tongues, and familiar acquaintance with all 
 Rabbinical learning, Mr. Hugh Broughton," folio, 1662. Some 
 of these writings are in Hebrew, and all of them indicate large 
 acquaintance with Jewish learning. The style, however, is very 
 bad, " curt, harsh, and obscure," as his editor admits, and they 
 are disfigured by constant outbursts of petulance and dogmatism. 
 Broughton is frequently referred to by Ben Jonson. — W. L. A. 
 
 BROUGHTON, Richahd, an ecclesiastical historian, born at 
 Great Stukely in Huntingdonshu-e, was educated at the English 
 college of Rheims. After taking priest's orders in 1593, he 
 returned to England and began his labours as a missionary, 
 which he pursued quietly but zealously for the space of forty- 
 two years. Died in 1634. His principal works are — "An 
 Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the Nativity to the 
 Conversion of the Saxons," Douay, 1633 ; "A True Memorial 
 of the Ancient, most Holy, and Religious State of Great Britain, 
 &c., in the Time of the Britons and Primitive Church of the 
 Saxons," 1650; and "ilonasticon Britannicum,'' 1655. — J.S.,G. 
 
 BROUGHTON, Thomas, a learned divine and miscellaneous 
 writer, one of the original authors of the Biographia Britannica, 
 born in London in 1704, was educated at Eton and at Gonvillo 
 and Caius college, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. in 1728. 
 After taking priest's orders he became curate of Offley in Hert- 
 fordshire, and in 1739, on the presentation of John, duke of 
 Bedford, was instituted to the rectory of Stepington or Stibing- 
 ton, Huntingdonshire. Ha%'ing been chosen reader to the Temple 
 he became known to Bishop Sherlock, then master, who gave 
 him the vicarage of Bedminster, near Bristol, and a prebend of 
 Salisbuiy. Died at Bristol in 1774. His enthusiasm for ancient 
 nmsic led to his making the acquaintance of Handel, whom he 
 furnished with words for many of his compositions. Shortly 
 after his death a volume of his sermons was given to the world 
 by his son. His principal works are the following — " Chris- 
 tianity distinct from the Religion of Nature, in three parts, in 
 Answer to Christianity as Old as the Creation ; " part of the 
 New Edition of Bayle's Dictionary, in English, corrected, with 
 a Translation of the Latin and other quotations ; " Original 
 Poems and Translations, by John Dryden, Esq., now first col- 
 lected and published together," 2 vols. ; " A Translation of some 
 of the Orations of Demosthenes;" " Hercules," a musical drama ; 
 and " Bibliotheca Historico-Sacra, an Historical Dictionary of 
 all Religions from the Creation of the World to the Present 
 Time," 1756, 2 vols, fob— J. S., G. 
 
 BROUGHTON, William Gkant, D.D., first bishop of 
 Austraha, 1835-53, was born at Canterbury in 1789. While 
 a curate at Hartley Westpall, in Hampshire, he became known 
 to the great duke of Wellington, who, when it was determined 
 in 1829 to send an archdeacon to preside over the church in 
 Australia, selected Mr. Broughton for the office. There was 
 much need for an energetic and judicious man ; the colony was 
 full of convicts, but neither for them nor for the settlers had 
 any care been taken to provide the means of religious instruction. 
 The archdeacon laboured diligently, and not without success, 
 till 1835, when he came to England to plead the cause of his 
 people ; and the result was that the see of Australia was founded, 
 and he returned, with a large increase of clergy, to be the first 
 bishop. He soon afterwards offered to resign half his income, 
 that the diocese miglre be divided, " and, when this might not 
 be, made over a fourth part." That which was then the 
 diocese of Australia, now comprises the sees of Sydney, Melbourne, 
 Adelaide, Newcastle, Perth, Tasmania, New Zealand, Christ 
 Church, Wellington, Nelson, and Waiapu. For seventeen years 
 Bishop Broughton never quitted his post. In the autumn of 1852 
 he came home to make arrangements with others of the home and 
 colonial bishops, for the more eff'ective government of tiiu church. 
 The vessel in which he returned to England was the La Plata, 
 on board which the yellow fever broke out with great virulence, 
 and, in the words of Archdeacon Harrison in his funeral sermon, 
 " his christian pastoral zeal impelled him to supply with assidu- 
 ous care to the sick and dying the sacred ministrations of reli- 
 gion ; and when now, on the shores of England, leave was given 
 to those who had escaped the pestilence, to quit the ship and go 
 on shore, the bishop, faithful to his sense of duty, would not leave. 
 The effects of these trying scenes he never recovered ; he died in 
 1853, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral. — T. S. P. 
 
 BROUNCKER or BROUNKER, William, viscount of 
 Castle-Lyons in Ireland, first president of the Royal Society, 
 born about 1620. He studied at the university of Oxford, where 
 he took the degree of doctor of physic in 1646. From its incor- 
 poration in the reign of Charles II., he was president of the Royal 
 Society during the long period of fifteen years, his lease of the 
 dignity being renewed annually. A few scientific papers are 
 extant under his name. He also held some offices about court. 
 He died in 1684.— J. S., G. 
 
 BROUSSAIS, Fkan(^ois Victor Joseph, a celebrated
 
 BRO 
 
 767 
 
 BRO 
 
 French physician, who enjoyed an almost romantic but very brief 
 popularity as the founder of the so-called physiological school of 
 medical theorists, was born at St. Malo, 1772, and died 1838. 
 
 BROUSSIER, Jean Baptiste, Count, a French general, 
 born in 1766; died in 1814. In 1798, after some brilliant 
 services as a volunteer, he was sent to Italy in command of a 
 small force, with which, having drawn a body of Austrians, 
 10,000 strong, into an ambuscade near Benevento, he cut them 
 in pieces almost without the loss of a man. For his sh:u-e in the 
 taking of Naples, and his exploits in the province of Apulia, 
 where, with a handful of men, he annihilated the su-my of Car- 
 dinal Ruifo, he was. re warded by the directory with a sword of 
 honour. In 1804 he was commandant in Paris ; in 1805 named 
 general of division ; in 180G again sent to Italy, where he 
 revived the ineniory of his former successes, by manoeuvring his 
 division with equal skill and intrepidity, in the face of three 
 armies, for the period of a month, and in spite of fearful odds 
 occasionally giving battle ; "one against ten" was inscribed on 
 the colours of one of his regiments by order of Napoleon, who 
 wished to perpetuate the remembrance of his general's audacity. 
 At Wagram, according to Napoleon, he covered himself with 
 glory. He was created count of the empire for his services in 
 that engagement. After subduing the Tyrol, he took part in 
 the march to Moscow, increased his reputation, and returned 
 broken in health to witness the ruin of the empire. — J. S., G. 
 
 BROUWER or BRAUWER, Adkian. This dissolute rollick- 
 ing boor, and the best painter of boors perhaps that ever lived, was 
 born at Haerlcm in 1608, the flat country folk receiving him at his 
 birth without, as we have ever heard, any very peculiar honours. 
 His parents were very poor, miserably poor, and his mother lived 
 by selling to tlie peasants bonnets and handkerchiefs and simple 
 lace work, on which her child Adrian painted rude flowers and 
 birds. Tlie great Franc Hals, Vandyck's friend, on passing the 
 cabin one day, saw the boy at work, watched him, and was sur- 
 prised at the facility and taste with which he drew. More from 
 greediness than kindness, old Hunx Hals otfered to take him as 
 apprentice, and ofiF, delighted, goes Adrian. Soon he beats all his 
 companions, and is declared a genius. Hunx hking such a milch- 
 cow, locks him up in a garret to paint all day, like a slave, small 
 pictures, which Hals sold for large prices. He flogs, he starves 
 the milch-cow, and milch-cow not having got her full horns, does 
 not gore him, but moans bitterly, and wishes for the butcher, 
 death. One day a head peeps into the garret — it is Ostade's, his 
 old friend, who tells him, with kindling eye, how cruel and unjust 
 Hunx is — lets him out, and sets him off, God speeding, on the 
 Amsterdam road, much to Hunx's dismay when he comes up for 
 his next pail of milk. Horses and after him ; he is found in a 
 church and dragged back again, when the old craelty returns ; 
 he escapes, and getting to Amsterdam, to his astonishment 
 finds himself in a sort of Dutch paradise — his pictures in the 
 windows — his name up. He paints some boors fighting; the 
 innkeeper or printseller where he lodges brings him back for it a 
 hundred ducatoons — more money than he had ever seen. Now 
 the old swine's blood breaks out ; he spends it all in ten days, 
 and thanks God he is free of it, and once more able to work. 
 Brouwer should have lived at Portsmouth, and painted and 
 drank with sailors. This Brouwer was the Dutch Morland. 
 He went on — now drinking, and working, and burning pictures 
 for which he could not get his price ; then longing for new 
 bDuour, and knowing that Rubens admired ids works, he set 
 out for Antwerp, at a time when the states-general are at war 
 with Spain. Careless, and taking no passport, ho is arrested as 
 a spy and thrown into the citadel prison, where the duke 
 d'Aremberg was then confined. The prisoner laughs at Brou- 
 wer ; the duke gets interested, and sends to Rubens for brushes 
 and paints, to try the supposed cheat or madman. The jirisoner 
 sets calmly and confidently to work, and paints some soldiers 
 playing at cards under the window. Rubens' eyes sparkle when 
 he sees it : he cries out — " This is Brouwer." He offers the duke 
 600 guilders for it ; the duke will not part with it, but rewards 
 Brouwer largely. Rubens obtains his release, and talics him to 
 his own house ; but the rules and dignity of thi\t great mansion 
 do not please the pothouse man. He leaves Rul)i'ns, wandei-s 
 about France, returns a vagabond, is struck witli i'cver, and dies 
 in 1640 in the hospital. Again the princely Flenung steps in, 
 and the body of the poor swinish genius is buried with kingly 
 ceremonies in the church of the Carmelites, and a superb monu- 
 ment erected to the son of the Haerlem bounetmakcr. For 
 
 finish, transparence, and colour, Brouwer is inestimable ; several 
 of his designs were etched by himself. In humorous expression 
 he anticipated Hogarth. His subjects were— droll conversations; 
 tavern rows ; drunken frays ; boor card-players ; surgeons dress- 
 ing wounds ; monkeys smoking ; peasants dancing ; flageolet- 
 playing ; women making cakes ; in fact, " what he saw not, 
 what he did not see," as Keyler says of him. He never falls 
 into the mannerism of Teniers, nor the common-place want of 
 meaning which may sometimes be observed in Ostade. When 
 he caricatures, which he olten does, it is always without effort, 
 and the exaggeration only consists in a higher degree of mer- 
 riment or animation, or of suffering under the hands of the 
 village barber. In one picture we see the most delightful expres- 
 sion of stupid gravity in the face of a boor, who is lighting his 
 pipe ; in another, it is a singer, who cannot forbear to chant 
 ins accustomed strain in all the smoke of the alehouse ; or a 
 fellovf who endeavours, in the most ridiculous manner, to conceal 
 his pain, whilst the doctor takes the plaster from his arm. 
 Brouwer's native country possesses few of liis pictures, but in 
 the German galleries they are not rare — that of Munich, in par- 
 ticular, contains a gi-eat number of them. Joseph Craesbecke, a 
 baker, is said to have been the companion of Brouwer in his 
 dissolute courses, and to have received instruction from him in 
 painting. The pictures ascribed to him in the Schleissheim 
 gallery resemble Brouwer's, but are less spirited. In the Im- 
 perial galleiy of the Belvedere, and the Lichtenstien gallery of 
 Vienna, there are some pictures under his name of less vulgar 
 subjects, treated in the manner of Rembrandt's school. — W. T. 
 
 BROWALL or BROWALLIUS, Jean, a Swedish theologian 
 and naturalist, was born at Westras on 30th August, 1707, and 
 died 25th July, 1755. He studied theology at Upsal, and in 
 1737 was elected professor of natural history at Abo. He finally 
 became bishop of Abo, and a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Stockholm. He wrote many works on natural history and 
 botany. Among others, an examination and defence of the 
 Linnasan system, remarks on the transmutation of species, and 
 on the fructification of plants as compared with animal genera- 
 tion. Linnseus dedicated the genus Browallia to him. — J. H. B. 
 
 BROWN, Charles Bkockden, an American novelist and 
 man of letters, bom at Philadelphia, January 17, 1771 ; died 
 Febraary 22, 1810. He was of a highly respectable family, of 
 Quaker descent. Soon after he was sixteen, he devoted himself 
 to the composition of three unpublished epic poems on the dis- 
 coveiy of America, and the conquests of Peru and Mexico. He 
 studied law with gi-eat ardour, but took a disgust to the practice 
 of the profession, and abandoned it for literature. His first 
 publication was " Alcuin, a Dialogue on the Rights of Women," 
 which appeared in 1797 ; followed in 1798 by " Wieland, or the 
 Transformation," a novel ; and in 1799 by " Ormond, or the 
 Secret Witness." In 1798 he established himself in the city of 
 New York ; and when the yellow fever broke out there. Brown 
 refused to forsake his friends and neighbours ; aiul after per- 
 forming the last oftices of affection for one of them, a young 
 physician, was himself attacked by the pestilence. His concep- 
 tions of the disease he embodied in his next work, "Arthur 
 Mervyn, or Jlemoirs of the Year 1793." Soon after he became 
 editor of the Monthli/ Magazine and American Review, a period- 
 ical which came to an end in the course of the ensuing twelve- 
 month. Tlie publication of " Arthur Mervyn " was quickly 
 succeeded by that of " Edgar Huutly, or tlie Adventures of 
 a Sleep Walker." The second part of " Arthur Mervyn " 
 appeared in 1800 ; and " Clara Howard" in 1801 ; and in 180 I 
 the series of his romances was closed with " Jane Talbot," first 
 printed in England. In 1801 he returned to PhilMilclpbia, and 
 soon undertook the management of the Literari/ Magazine and 
 American Register. In 181)1 he married Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Dr. William Linn, a presbyterian divine of New York. Ho 
 projected the plan of an Annual Register, the first work of the 
 kind in the United States, and edited the first volume of it in 
 1806. To the pages of the two last-named periodicals, as well 
 as to those of the Portfolio, his C(mtributions were large and 
 various. Between 180:5 and 1809 he p>d)lislied three political 
 pamphlets, which excited general attention. His health gavi! 
 way, and a voyage to Europe was reconnnended ; but he could 
 not make up his mind to leave his fannly for any length of time, 
 and tried only a short excursion into New Jersey and New York 
 in the summer of 1809. Finding this was of no effect, ho 
 agreed to go abroad in the following spring, which he did not
 
 BRO 
 
 7G8 
 
 BRO 
 
 live to see. Brown's life was blameless, and his disposition full 
 of benevolence; his manners were gentle and unaft'ected; and 
 his conversational resources considerable, though he was some- 
 what silent in large or mixed companies. His reading, though 
 desultory, was very extensive ; and his facility in writing only 
 too great, as it induced him to compose story after story, trust- 
 ing apparently to luck for the disentanglement of his plots. He 
 threw otF three romances in one year, " with the printer's de\-il 
 literally at liis elbows." His style was often deficient in ease 
 and simplicity ; and he was apt to stop short in the midst of his 
 most exciting narrations to pliilosophize ujion them ; but his 
 romances were much admired in his time, and are still read with 
 interest. He had a powerful but somewhat morbid imagination, 
 considerable descriptive power, and much intensity of conception. 
 
 BROWN, David, formerly provost of Fort-William college, 
 Calcutta, and senior chaplain of the Bengal presidency, was 
 born in the year 17C3. His father was a respectable farmer in 
 the East Riding of Yorkshire ; but through the kindness of a 
 clergyman, who took an interest in the boy, he was able to give 
 his son a good education. From the grammar-school of Hull 
 he passed, about the age of twenty-one, to the university of 
 Cambridge, and was entered at Magdalene college. Here, 
 though much interrupted by illness, he prosecuted the usual 
 studies ; but from which he was called off by an miforeseen and 
 remarkable offer of a position in India — ^^z.. that of chaplain to 
 an orphan asylum near Calcutta. Having obtained full orders 
 from the then bisliop of Llandaff, Dr. Watson— ilr. Bro^vn, 
 together with his newly-married wife, sailed in November, 1785, 
 and reached Calcutta in June of the following year. Soon after 
 his arrival, he was appointed to the chaplaincy of the sixth 
 battalion, resiiling at Calcutta. This post be held in conjunction 
 with his duties as head of the asylum, till, about a year and a 
 half after, he resigned the latter establishment, in order that he 
 might be able to take under his ministerial charge the " old 
 mission"' church, which belonged to the Society for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge, but was just then vacated by its mission- 
 aries, and must have been shut up, had not Mr. Brown taken it 
 under his care. For the space of more than twenty years lie 
 never ceased to minister to the large and influential congregation 
 attending this place of worship, till death put a period to all his 
 labours. From the year 1799 he enjoyed the benefit of the 
 able help and counsel of liis friend Dr. C. Buchanan, alike as 
 presidency chaplain and minister of the mission church. On 
 the college of Fort-William being founded in 1800, by the 
 marquis of Wellesley, then governor-general of India, such was 
 the high estimation in which that distinguished nobleman held 
 ilr. Brown, that he appointed him its first provost ; and for the 
 six years that he occupied this useful position, it may be seen, 
 from various accredited reports, with what fidelity, ability, 
 and usefulness, he laboured here also. Freod, however, by an 
 order of the court of directors, fi'om this engagement, he was 
 able to give the more personal attention to the education of his 
 own large family ; and also to an object which, if possible, was 
 still dearer to his heart — viz., the translation of the inspired 
 volume into India's various languages. In 1806, therefore, he 
 became corresponding secretary to the then newly-formed British 
 and Foreign Bible Society ; and with all tlie help which it could 
 supply, together with the aid of native translators and tran- 
 .scribers, he laboured for the last years of his life, to aid the 
 accomplishment of this great design. It was, as he himself 
 expresses it, his " dreaming thought in the night, and his 
 waking idea in the day." Whether Mr. Brown is viewed in 
 his endeavours to diffuse the charm of his own personal piety, 
 and sound christian principles, amongst the young civilians in 
 the college of Fort- William — his able preaching in the church of 
 Calcutta, of which for twenty-four years he w;is the head chap- 
 hiin — the esteem and affection entertained for him by all classes 
 of the community, from successive governor-generals downwards 
 — it must be confessed tliat few persons have rendered more 
 benefit to the native and European population of British India 
 tlian the lamented subject of this brief sketch. He died at the 
 age of forty-nine, and was buried in Calcutta, wthin the church 
 in which he had so long officiated, and over which is inscribed a 
 just tribute of affection and esteem. See his Life, with a selec- 
 tion of his sermons; London, 1816. — J. W. D. 
 
 * BROWN, Sin George, G.C.B., General, the third son of 
 Provost George Brown of Liiikwood, near Elgin, N.B., was bom 
 in Scotland in 1790. He was educated at the Royal Military 
 
 college at Great Marlow and High Wycombe, and entered the 
 army in 1806, as ensign in a foot regiment. In the following 
 year he was present at the siege of Copenhagen, and subse- 
 quently served with distinction through the gi-eater part of the 
 Peninsular campaigns. He was severely wounded at Talavera. 
 From 1824: to 1842 he commanded a battahon of the rifle 
 brigade. In the latter year he was appointed deputy-adjutant- 
 general, and subsequently adjutant-general of the forces. On 
 the outbreak of the Russian war in 1854, he was appointed to 
 the command of the light diNision in the East, and took part in 
 the Crimean campaign ; he was in the thickest of the fight at 
 the passage of the Alma, and was severely wounded at the 
 battle of Inkermann. In 1855 he was nominated a knight 
 grand cross of the bath, and colonel of a battalion of the rifle 
 brigade, and made full general in the army in reward of his ser- 
 \ices in the Crimea, for which also he subsequently received the 
 order of the Medjidie of the first class from the sultan of Turkey, 
 and the gi-and cross of the legion of honour from the emperor of 
 the French in 1856. — E. W. 
 
 BROWN, Jajies, an eminent American publisher and book- 
 seller — the "John JIurray," as he was called, of the United 
 States — died at his seat in Watertown, near Boston, March 10, 
 1855, aged fifty-five. The son of a fanner in very humble cir- 
 cumstances, in Acton, Mass., he raised himself by his shrewdness, 
 sagacity, and enterprise to be the head of one of the largest and 
 most successful firms in the book-trade in America. Their 
 publications were standard works of a high character ; and Mr. 
 Brown's fine taste and patriotic pride were gratified by so far 
 improving the mechanical execution of them — the paper, print, 
 and binding — that they rivalled the handsomest productions of 
 the English and Scotch press. Mr. Brown also made large pur- 
 chases of English and Scotch publications, often importing a 
 whole edition of a standard work, and fearlessly putting it into 
 the market to contend against a cheap and inferior American 
 reprint. Very rarely were his excellent judgment and instinc- 
 tive anticipation of the public taste deceived in these gigantic 
 speculations. He was himself well acquainted with bibliography, 
 his shop was a favourite resort of all the literati of New Eng- 
 land, and he never forgot the name of a book once inquired for, 
 or the well-considered judgment of a competent person upon its 
 merits. The fortune which he had fairly won was munificently 
 used in numerous hberal benefactions. — F. B. 
 
 BROWN, John, a weak-stamina'd Scotch artist, the son of 
 an Edinburgh watchmaker, and bom in 1752. In 1771 he 
 went to Italy and stopped there ten years, which was his ruin, 
 cop}'ing Michel Angelo, and trying to think other men's thoughts. 
 The result of this tany in Capua was that he drew well, but was 
 afraid to colour. Titian and JIurillo made him tremble and 
 despair. Still hitnting about, he accompanied Jlr. Townlcy 
 (marble Townley) and Sir William Young to Sicily, and made 
 some beautiful drawings. On his return home he went to him 
 in Edinburgh, where the eccentric Lord Monboddo showed him 
 kindness. In 1786 the magnetism of the south drew him to the 
 black Babylon, and, compelled to stow away his gi-eat ideals and 
 hopes as unsaleable lumber, he took to painting sm.all gi'aceful 
 black-lead portraits with very indiflerent success. Soon death 
 brought him the best and only real balm for breaking hearts, 
 and he died of consumption in Scotland in 1787. Mr. Bromi 
 was a mild, clever man, too general in his tastes and too varied 
 in his occupations. He was acquainted with painting, sculpture, 
 and music, and left a posthumous work, called " Letters on the 
 Poetry and Music of the Italian Opera," 1789. — W. T. 
 
 BROWN, Colonel Johx, an otiicer in the American army 
 during the Revolution, was born in Sandisfield, Mass., in 1744, 
 graduated at Yale college in 1771, and commenced the practice 
 of law at Caghnawaga, New York, where he was appointed 
 king's attorney. But he soon rettimed to Pittsfield, in his native 
 state, and took an active share in the patriot movements at the 
 opening of the Revolution. He was sent on a secret mission to 
 Canada in 1774, to ascertain if the inhabitants of that province 
 were disposed to unite with the people of New England in their 
 measures of opposition to the British ministry. He made two 
 of these hazardous visits, and returned safely, but without 
 encouraging inteUigence. In May, 1775, he served under Allen 
 and Arnold in their successful expedition against Ticonderoga 
 and Crown Point, and was sent as special messenger to the con- 
 gress at Philadelphia with the news of their success. When 
 Ethan Allen, in September of the same year, made his wild
 
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 769 
 
 BRO 
 
 attempt to surprise lyiontreal, Brown co-operated with him, but 
 was fortunate enough to escape, while his leader was captured. 
 The next December, JIajor Brown joined Arnold and ilontgo- 
 mery before Quebec. \Vhile leading a party of them up the 
 Mohawk to the reUef of General Schuyler in 1780, he fell into an 
 ambuscade of loyalists and Indians, was defeated and slain. — F. B. 
 
 BROWN, Rev. John, a Scotch divine, compUer of several 
 works of a highly useful kind, was born at Carpow in the parish 
 of Abeniethy, Perthshire, in 1720. He lost both his parents 
 while young, and with the exception of one month at Larin, he 
 never received instruction in the learned languages from any 
 master ; yet, besides becoming a proficient in that tongue, he 
 acquhed^ a critical knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, could read 
 and translate French, Italian, Dutch, and Gennan, and under- 
 stood Arabic, Persic, Syriac, and Ethiopic. His reading was 
 most extensive, particularly in history and divinity. He joined 
 the Secession church, which had then recently come into exist- 
 ence ; and after a brief attendance at the di\inity hall of that 
 denomination, obtained license as a preacher. The year following 
 he accepted an invitation from a congregation in Haddington to 
 become their pastor, and in 1768 became professor of di^-inity to 
 the Secession church. He continued to hold conjointly the offices 
 of minister and professor till his death, which took place in 1787, 
 in the sixty-fifth year of his age. The works by which he is 
 best known are his " Dictionary of the Bible," and his " Self- 
 Interpreting Bible." This last has had a most extensive sale, 
 and is still in great demand both in this countiy and in America. 
 He left an autobiography, from which most of the notices of him 
 which have appeared have been compiled. An enlarged and well- 
 written memoir of him by his son, William Brown, M.D., was 
 published by Ohphant & Sons, Edinburgh, 1857. — W. M'K. 
 
 BRO^T^, John, M.D., the founder of the "Brunonian" 
 system, was bom at Dunse in Berwickshire in 1737. His repu- 
 tation, such as it was, belongs to the past. He divided, in his 
 famous system, all diseases into sthenic and asthenic ; in the first 
 of these, the excitability, which he considered the source of life, 
 was increased, while in the second, it was diminished. The 
 treatment to be adopted for the cure of all, except the simple 
 sthenic affections, was to stimulate. Accordingly he prescribed 
 rich diet, wine, and spirits in large quantities ; and, as the phy- 
 sicians of that day probably en-ed in the opposite direction, it is 
 not strange that, for a while, Brown obtained with the public, 
 always too credulous in medical matters, a high reputation. 
 Although decried by the profession, there can be no doubt 
 that at one period the Brunonian system was popular in Scot- 
 land. Towards the end of last centur}-, it had extended its 
 influence over the whole continent of p]urope, and in Germany 
 its author was designated the " Jledlcal Luther." A close 
 examination of its claims to confidence, only shows how utterly 
 baseless the fabric was on which a man like Brown succeeded 
 for a whUe in building up a spurious fame. His private life was 
 most unhappy. Indebted to the celebrated CuUen for rescue from 
 starvation, he abused and vilified his best friend, and it seems 
 certain that he was finally compelled to leave Edinburgh under 
 circumstances which present his moral perceptions in a very 
 unfavourable point of view. He removed to London, where he 
 died in 1788. No one who attentively studies the Brunonian 
 system can come to any other conclusion than that it was an 
 Ingeniously-contrived scheme of quackery, and the meihcal bio- 
 grapher of the present day is compelled to class its author with 
 Paracelsus and Hahnemann. At the same time it cannot be 
 denied that Brown possessed talents, which, if properly directed, 
 might have raised him to an honourable position in his profes- 
 sion. It need hardly be added, that the system which bears his 
 name has long been without a follower. — J. B. C. 
 
 BRCWN, John, D.D., an eminent Scottish preacher and 
 biblical expositor, grandson of John Brown of Haddington, was 
 bom in 1785 at Longridge, near Whitburn, where his father was 
 minister of a congregation belonging to one of the dissenting 
 communions, which subsequently associated to form the United 
 Presbyterian church of Scotland. Having studied at Glasgow 
 university, and afterwards at the divinity hall at Selkirk, he was 
 settled minister at Biggar, whence, after labouring for twenty 
 years, he was transfeiTod to Edinburgh, where he officiated for 
 more than thirty years as minister, first of Rose Street, and after- 
 wards of Broughton Place church. During that long period he 
 was known as a peculiarly gifted preacher. His clearness as an 
 expositor, his feiTour as a speaker, and his eaniestness as a 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 minister, combined ^"ith a peculiarly noble personal appearance, 
 made him universally popular. But his fame must rest on his 
 labours in connection wth the science of scriptural exegesis. In 
 1835 he was appointed one of the professors in the theological 
 seminary of the denomination to which he belonged, and in that 
 position he did much to influence Scottish preaching, by intro- 
 ducing a taste for the study of biblical criticism. He has enriched 
 the literature of exposition by many valuable works; but the 
 influence he exerted on younger men, which is already to be traced 
 in the increasing fame of some of our latest commentators, is of 
 more account than anything he has written. Dr. Brown died on 
 the 13th October, 1858, lea%-ing behind him no common reputa- 
 tion for widely-extended benevolence, immense erudition, and 
 rare diligence in that peculiar walk of literatvu-e which he adorned. 
 His works are verj- numerous. We notice the following — " The 
 Law of Christ respecting Civil Obedience, especially in the Pay- 
 ment of Tribute ;" " Discourses and Sayings of our Lord Illus- 
 trated;" "Exposition of our Lord's Intercessory Prayer ; " "The 
 Resurrection of Life ;" " Expositoiy Discourses on the Epistles of 
 Peter, and on the Epistles to the Galatlans and Romans ; " and 
 a very large number of separate sermons and pamphlets. — J. B. 
 
 * BROUN, John Allan, an industrious and very suc- 
 cessful meteorological and magnetic observer. He conducted 
 for several years, the work at the observatory of Sir Thomas 
 JIakdoiigall Brisbane at Makerstoun, detecting there clear 
 traces of the connection between lunar periods and magnetic 
 variations. The results are published in several quarto volumes 
 issued from the press of Neill & Company, Edinburgh. Jlr. 
 Broun has recently been placed at the head of the observatory 
 at Travancore. — J. P. N. 
 
 BROWN, Nicholas, an eminent American merchant, was 
 bom in Pro^-idence, Api-il 4, 1769. His character was one of 
 singular excellence, and his great services in the cause of human- 
 ity entitle him to the highest honour. His most munificent 
 pecuniary gifts were bestowed on the college of his native state, 
 which his fether and uncles had aided in founduig, and which, 
 in memory of his munificence, received the name of Brown 
 University. The whole amount of his benefactions to this 
 university is not less than 160,000 doUai-s, or ^32,000. He 
 died in 1841.— W. G. 
 
 BROWN, Peter, bishop of Cork and Ross, contemporaiy 
 with Locke, whom he opposed in three works, published at 
 London, 1728-33. It was against one of these, entitled " The 
 Procedm-e, Extent, and Limits of Human L'nderstanding," that 
 Berkeley's Alclphron was directed. — J. D. E. 
 
 BRONM^, Robert, one of the most distinguished botanists 
 that Britain ever produced, was the son of a Scottish episco- 
 palian clergyman, and was bora at I\Iontrose in 1773. He was 
 educated at Marlschal college, Aberdeen, and afterwards prose- 
 cuted his medical studies at Edinburgh, attending the lectures 
 of Dr. Rutherford, at that time professor of botany in the 
 university. He passed his examination at the College of Sur- 
 geons, and was appointed assistant-surgeon and ensign to a 
 regiment of Scotch fencibles stationed in the north of Ireland, 
 where he remained till the end of 1800, prosecuting his botanical 
 studies %yith gi-eat zeal and success. About this time he became 
 known to that great patron of science. Sir Josepli Banks, by 
 whom Brown was recommended as natm-alist to the expedition 
 sent out by the admirallty to explore the coast of Austraha. 
 Accompanjing Captain ]\Iatthew Flinders in the ship Investigator, 
 he proceeded to New Holland in 1801. In the same ship Mr. 
 Ferdinand Bauer was sent as botanical draughtsman, and Sir. 
 Good as gardener; and among the parties in the expedition were 
 the eminent painter, William Westall, and Sir John Franklin, 
 who was a midshipman at the time. The vessel reached King 
 George's Sound, on the south-west of Australia, in 1802. Dming 
 a residence of three weeks at this place, Bro\\"n collected 500 
 species of plants belonging to a peculiar local flora. He after- 
 wards visited Port-Jackson, and botanized there for some time. 
 In July, 1802, the survey of other parts of New Holland was 
 commenced, more particularly the northern and north-eastern 
 shores, the gulf of Carpentaria, and the Pelew, Wclleslcy, and 
 Wessel's islands. The state of the .ship, and the ill health of 
 the crew, compelled the captain to proceed to Timor for provi- 
 sions. The party then proceeded along the west) and south 
 coasts of Australia, and reached Port -Jackson on June 9, 1803, 
 when the ship was condemned as not being sea-worthy. There 
 had been a considerable mortality amongst the crew. While Cap- 
 
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 BRO 
 
 tain Flinders departed on his return to Britain, Brown, Bauer, 
 and others remained in Australia, and examined the botany of 
 the Blue ilountains and other parts of New South Wales, as 
 well as Tasmania and the islands in Bass' Strmts. Captain 
 Flinders had intended to return and carry on the survey, but in 
 consequence of being wrecked, and subsequently made prisoner 
 by the French governor of the Mauritius, he was unable to 
 accomplish his design. In consequence of his non-arrival, Brown 
 and his companions returned to Britain in 1805. BrowTi brought 
 with him a collection of 4000 species of plants. Soon after this 
 he succeeded Dr. Dryander as librarian to Sir Joseph Banks, 
 and was subsequently appointed librarian of the Linnsean Society. 
 He was now enabled to enter on the examination of his collec- 
 tions, and he elaborated those views wliich finally placed him 
 in the highest rank as a botanist. He gave the results of his 
 reseai-ches in 1810, in his "Prodromus Floi-a; Novae Hollandise," 
 a truly philosophical work, which showed the author's thorough 
 knowledge of the principles of natural classification, and was 
 the first British work on botany which treated of plant-arrange- 
 ment in a tnUy philosophical spirit. This work only extended 
 to one volume, although it appears that a second was contem- 
 plated by Brown. Part of his researches was also given in the 
 appenflix to the narrative of Captain Fhnders' voyage, published 
 in 1814, under the title, " General Remarks, Geogi-aphical and 
 Systematical, on the Botany of Terra Australis." He con- 
 tinued to read a number of most profound and original botanical 
 papers before the Lmna?an Society, which have appeared in their 
 Transactions. One of his earliest papers was published in the 
 Transactions of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, on the 
 plants called by him asclepiadacea?, and which formed the basis 
 of the elaborate papers on that interesting order of plants which 
 he afterwards contributed to the Linnfean Society. In 1823 
 Brown became possessed of the library and herbarium of Sir 
 Joseph Banks, who bequeathed them to him for his life. The col- 
 lection of plants was offe-red by Brown to the British musetun, and 
 he was appointed, in 1827, keeper of the botanical department, 
 an office which he continued to fill till his death. In 1811 he 
 became a fellow of the Royal Society ; in 1832 he received the 
 degree of D.C.L. from the tmiversity of Oxford ; and in 1833 he 
 was elected one of the foreign associates of the French Academy 
 of Sciences. In 1839 the Copley medal was awarded to him by 
 the Royal Society for his researches on vegetable unpregnation. 
 In 1849 he was elected president of the Linnsean Society, and 
 this office he resigned in 1853. He received from Sir Robert 
 Peel a pension of .£200 a year for his scientific merits. He died 
 in London in June, 1858. 
 
 Bro^vn was a botanist of the highest stamp. He possessed 
 singular acumen, and was denominated by Humbcildt " botani- 
 comm facile princcps." He made great and important contri- 
 butions to oin- knowledge of botany, structural and physiological, 
 and contributed most valuable papere to the Transactions of the 
 Linn»an and other societies. He described the plants of many 
 collections, such as Horsfield's Java plants. Salt's Abyssinian 
 species, the African collections of Oudney, Clapperton, and Cap- 
 tain Tuckey, and the arctic collections of Ross, Parry, Richard- 
 son, and othei-s. Among his other works may be noticed his 
 remarks on the natural order proteaceae, on asclepiadaccEe, on 
 woodsia, on compositas, on orchideas, on rafflesia, on Mngia, on 
 cephalotus ; on the organs and modes of fecundation in orchideae 
 and asclepiadaceae, a paper of the highest merit, as giving 
 important new ^-iews on the subject of vegetable reproduction ; 
 on cyrtandraceae, on the embiyos and seeds of coniferae, &c. All 
 his writings display a wonderful power of botanical analysis, and 
 an enlarged view of vegetable affinities. His name is known wher- 
 ever botany is cultivated as a science, and his researches have 
 promoted the advancement of botany during the long period 
 of nearly half a centurj'. As a private friend he was loved and 
 respected. He was admired by a large circle of attached friends 
 for the soundness of his judgment, the simplicity of his habits, 
 and the kindness of his disposition. — J. H. B. 
 
 BROWN, Samuel, JLD., bom at Haddington on 23d Feb- 
 nnn,', 1817; died in Edinburgh in 1856. This young and 
 singularly able man was the fourth son of Dr. Samuel Brown of 
 Haddington — the founder of itinerating libraries, and grandson of 
 Dr. John Brown, author of the universally known Self-interpret- 
 ing Bible and the Dictionary of the Bible. Few persons living 
 in Edinburgh of recent years gave such promise of highest 
 eminence as the subject of this brief notice, or bound around 
 
 them so many affectionate friends. K the promise was not fully 
 realized, it is because his life was so short, and its later years 
 were consumed in hopeless contest with a most painful malady. 
 Samuel Brown's peculiar position in reference to abstract science 
 was defined by his extension of Boscovich's theory, and his 
 assertion that chemical elements, usually known as simple, could 
 be transmuted into each other. Of his thoughts and labours in 
 this direction, the only authentic account is in the " Critical 
 Lectures" deUvered by him in Edinburgh in 1843. These have 
 appeared since his death at the head of two volumes of his 
 collected essays. Dr. Brown's speculations, however, were not 
 confined within the sphere of abstract science. A s}Tnpathetic 
 student of the development of thought in every main direction 
 — interested especially in literature and art — multitudes of occa- 
 sional essays flowed from his pen, adorning our best reviews and 
 other periodicals. A selection from these was published in 
 Edinburgh in 1858, in two handsome volumes. Very few more 
 interesting ones have recently issued from the press. — J. P. N. 
 
 BROWN, Thosias, or more.properly (for the vulgar diminu- 
 tive suits liis genius) To>i Brovvx, poet, was the son of a 
 Shropshire farmer, li\ing near Shifihal. He entered Christ 
 Church, Oxford, and soon became notorious for his wit and his 
 uregularities. Being obUged to leave the university, he went to 
 Kingston in Surrey, and commenced teaching, but speedily grow- 
 ing tired of this monotonous occupation, he betook himself to 
 London, where his audacious lampoons, his wit, and his conver- 
 sational powers, gained him abundance of notoriety. He died in 
 1704. His writings have been collected into 4 volmnes, 12mo. 
 
 BROWN, Thomas, the celebrated Scotch metaphysician, was 
 the son of the Rev. Samuel Brown, minister of Kn-kmabreck in 
 the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, at which place he was bom, Jan. 
 9, 1778. The father died soon after the birth of his son, and 
 the family removed to Edinburgh, where he received the radi- 
 ments of liis education from his mother. In his seventh year he 
 was sent to London, under the protection of his maternal uncle, 
 Captain Smith, and attended, successively, schools at Camber- 
 well, Chiswick, and Kensington. Shortly after the death of his 
 uncle in 1792, he retumed to Edinburgh, and resided with his 
 mother and sisters. For several years Brown attended the usual 
 classes, literary and scientific, in Edinburgh. As he read Dar- 
 win's Zoonomia, a plausible but superficial work, which was 
 at that time exciting a great degree of interest in the Uterary 
 world, he began to write notes and observations on the views 
 advocated, and this ripened into his " Obserrations on Darwin's 
 Zoonomia," which was written before he was nineteen years of 
 age, and published in 1798, when he was twenty. In this work, 
 which is an extraordinary instance of precocity of intelleciual 
 power, almust all the favourite ideas which he developed in his 
 future philosophical works are to be found. \Miile attending 
 college, he took an active part in the proceedings of the Aca- 
 demy of Physics, which nmnbered among its members Erskine, 
 Brougham, Reddie, Birkbeck, Leyden, Homer, Jeffrey, Smith, 
 and others, who rose to distinction ; and which discussed aU sorts 
 of subjects, literary and philosophical. Out of this society rose the 
 Edinburgh Review, to which Bro^Ti contributed several articles 
 — in particular, an article on Kant, in the second number. In 
 1796 he began the study of law, which, however, he abandoned for 
 medicine, which he studied from 1798 tiU 1803. A short time 
 after receiving his degree, he published two volumes of poems. 
 His next publication was his "Essay on Cause and Effect," occa- 
 sioned by the controversy which arose about the appointment of 
 LesHe to the chair of mathematics. According to Brown, the 
 relation of cause and effect is an irresistible intuitive belief, a doc- 
 tiine by wluch he attached hunself to the Scottish school, and 
 saved himself from the scepticism of Hume. In 1806 he was 
 iissociated in partnership with the famous Dr. Gregory in the 
 medical profession. Dugald Stewart being in a declhiing state 
 of health, Bro\vn lectiired for him during a part of the sessions 
 1808-9 and 1809-10 ; and m the summer of 1810 Mr. Stewart 
 ha\-ing signified a desue to this effect. Brown was chosen his 
 colleague, and from that time discharged the whole duties of the 
 office. Wlien the college opened, he had only the few lectures 
 which he delivered the previous sessions ; but such was tlie fer- 
 vour of his genius, and the readiness of his pen, that he was 
 able to deUver, continuously, one of the most brilliant, and per- 
 haps the most effective courses of lectm-es ever heard in the 
 university of Edinburgh. He generally commenced the com- 
 position of the lectm-e ;ifter tea, and had it ready for deUveiy
 
 BRO 
 
 771 
 
 BRO 
 
 next day at twelve o'clock. The ingenuity of his speculations, 
 the subtlety of bis analysis, and the poetical glow of his senti- 
 ments and language, together with his fine recitation, threw the 
 young men who hung on his lips into raptures ; they declared 
 that he had for ever superseded Reid and Stewart, and that he 
 ■was the greatest philosopher that ever lived. For some years 
 after his appointment to the chair, he had little leisure for engag- 
 ing in any literary undertaking. In 1814 he published the 
 "Paradise of Coquettes" anonymously; and in succeeding years 
 there appeared the "Wanderer in Norway," 1815 ; "The War- 
 Fiend," 1816; "Bower of Spring," 1817; "Agnes," 1818; and 
 " Emily," 1819. His poetiy has never been generally relished ; 
 it is beautifully and artistically written, but it wants true nature 
 and genuine heart. In 1819 he prepared his "Physiology of 
 the Jlind," as a text-book for his students, and put it into the 
 press the following winter. By the Clmstmas of that year he 
 was rather unwell ; in spring he removed for the benefit of his 
 health to London, and died at Brompton on April 2nd, 1820. 
 His remains were deposited in the churchyard of Kirkmabreck. 
 We have an admirable biography of him by his pupil and friend. 
 Dr. Welsh, in his Account of the Life and Writings of Thomas 
 Brown, M.D., 1825. He was never married; he lived with his 
 mother and his sisters, to whom he was tenderly attached. In 
 his dispositions there was great gentleness, with a tendency to 
 sensitiveness and sentunentahty. His manner and addi-ess were 
 somewhat fastidious, and appeared a little finical. He was about 
 the middle size, his features were regular, and his expression had 
 a fine combination of sweetness and calm reflection. His lectures 
 were pubUshed shortly after his death, and had a popularity in 
 Britain and in the United States, such as no book on mental 
 science had ever attained before. His ])hilosopliy has never been 
 much appreciated on the continent, where the transcendental- 
 ists find fault with him for not going sufficiently far in one direc- 
 tion, and the sensationalists for not advancing in another. The 
 intellectual qualities which stand forth with greatest prominence 
 in Brown's Lectm-es are — fondness of analysis, ingenuity in main- 
 taining his positions, cleamess in arrangement, fehcity of illus- 
 tration, with a fervid and refined eloquence. As a philosopher, he 
 may be regarded as a sort of combination of the Scottish school 
 of Reid and Stewart, and of the French sensational school. Among 
 the excellencies of his system may be mentioned — his high views 
 of man's nature as a spuitual being ; his adherence to the Scot- 
 tish school in maintaining that man has certain intiutive beUefs, 
 •such as that which leads us to believe in cause and effect, and 
 personal identity ; his sidlful separation of the muscular sense 
 from the sense of touch proper ; his happy and acute manner of 
 illustrating the succession of our mental states, and the coex- 
 istence of different thoughts and emotions ; his classification of 
 the relations which the mind can discover, which is worthy of 
 being looked at; his eloquent exposition of the emotions; and 
 the purity of the moral sentiments inculcated by him. Over 
 against these excellencies we have to place certain glaring defects 
 which have been too frequently pointed out to require pai-ticiolar 
 mention. — J. JI'C. 
 
 ■" BRO^\'N, William, merchant, Liverpool, was bom at Bal- 
 lymena, county Antrim, Ireland, in 1784, and educated at Cat- 
 terick in Yorkshire. About the year 1800, his father, Alexander 
 Brown, removed with his family from Ballymena, where he was 
 engaged in the linen trade, to Baltimore, United States, where 
 he began a similar business. At this time, when about sixteen 
 years of age, William Brown, entered his father's counting- 
 house as a clerk, and a few years aftenvards he joined his father 
 and elder brother as a partner in their business. In 1809 he 
 returned to Europe for the purpose of opening a branch estab- 
 lishment in Liverpool, where he married soon after, and has ever 
 since resided. No longer confined to the linen trade, but 
 engaged in general commerce, the branch establishment in Eng- 
 land, under Mr. Brown's able management, speedily attained a 
 high position, and the house of Brown, Shipley, & Co., has long 
 been recognized as the leading firm in the American trade. Soon 
 after his settlement in Liverpool, Mr. Brown became extensively 
 engaged in banking transactions, which he also managed with 
 much credit aiul advantage. Active, public-spirited, and liberal 
 in his views, Mr. Brown has ever been most ready to lend 
 his assistance to every entei-prise calculated either to develope 
 mdustry, or to extend commerce; while his purse has always been 
 open where money could be judiciously applied, either in miti- 
 gating the suft'crings or extending the privileges of his fellows. 
 
 In 1825 jMr. Brown took an active share in the reform of the 
 dock estate, a question of vital importance to the town and trade 
 of Liverpool. An earnest and intelligent free trader, Mr. Bro^vn 
 was elected to represent the southern division of Lancashire in 
 that interest in 1845, and he has ever since retained his seat 
 unopposed by any party. With nothing imposing in his manner, 
 and with no pretensions to oratorical talent, the vast mercantile 
 experience and eminent sagacity which recommended him as 
 friend and adviser on commercial affairs to two of the most 
 remarkable statesmen of his time, Huskisson and Peel, secure 
 for Mr. Brown's opinion, on all practical questions, the highest 
 consideration of the house of commons. His parhamentary 
 career has been chiefly distinguished by his zealous advocacy of 
 a system of decimal money, weights, and measures. He moved 
 for and became chairman of a committee on decimal coinage, 
 which issued a conclusive report on that subject in 1853, a 
 report which must, ere long, produce its due effect. — Jlr. 
 Brown's charities have been numerous and munificent, but 
 that by which his name will be chiefly remembered, is the gift 
 of a building for a free library and museum for the town and 
 people of Liverpool. This noble building, it is estimated, will 
 cost Mr. Brown not less than from £50,000 to £60,000 ; a gift 
 truly worthy of a merchant prince. ^Mr. Brown is now the 
 senior partner of the firm of Brown, Shipley, & Co., Liverpool ; 
 member of parliament and deputy-heutenant for the county 
 of Lancashire, magistrate for the same county, and also for the 
 borough of Liverpool. — W. N. 
 
 BROTV'NE, Alexander, an English surgeon and botanist, 
 lived in the seventeenth century, after whom a genus, Brownia, 
 was named by Linnoeus. — J. H. B. 
 
 BROWNE, Edward, I\I.D., son of Sir Tliomas Browne, bom 
 at NoiTvich m 1G44, entered Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1663, 
 and graduated in medicine at Oxford in 1667. In 1668 he 
 visited Germany, and in the following year made an excursion 
 into Austria, Hungary, and Thessaly. He afterwards spent some 
 time in Italy, and pubUshed his travels, which are often refeiTed 
 to for his accounts of mines and metallm-gy. The Hfe of 
 Themistocles and that of Sersorius were translated by him, and 
 published in the book kno^m by the name of Dryden's Plutarch. 
 He was physician to Chaides II., and was with hun at his death. 
 He attended Rochester in his last Olness. In 1705 he was 
 chosen president of the College of Physicians. He died in 1708. 
 King Charles said of him — " He was as learned as any of the 
 college, and as well bred as any of the court." — J. A., 1). 
 
 BROWNE, George, count de, an Irish soldier of forttme, 
 was born on 15th June, 1698. He entered the service of the 
 elector palatine, from wliich, in 1730, he passed into that of 
 Russia. Here he rapidly advanced, and was engaged against 
 the Poles, the French, and the Turks. His life was one of 
 adventure. He was taken prisoner and sold thrice as a slave. 
 On obtaining his liberty he retmnied to St. Petersburg, and was 
 promoted to the rank of major-general, and aftenvards to that 
 of field-marshal under Peter III. The government of Livonia 
 was next given him, which he held till his death in 1792. 
 
 BROWNE, Robert, from whom the separatists, or early 
 English independents, were for some time called Brownists, 
 born in 1549, was the son of Anthony Bro^^•ne of Tolethorpe in 
 the county of Rutland. He was educated at Cambridge, and 
 whilst yet a young man became head master of the free school, 
 St. Olave's, Southwark, and chaplain to the duke of Norfolk. 
 Having embraced puritanic views, he was, along with several 
 other leading puritans, cited to appear in June, 1571, before the 
 archbishop of Canterbury (Parker) to answer for his opinions; 
 and though his patron, the duke of Norfolk, and his family 
 connections, saved him for this time, the archbishop gave the 
 duke to understand that his influence would not always avail 
 for such a purpose. Subsequently Browne rehnquished the 
 middle views of the puritans for those of the separatists. We 
 have his own authority, as reported by Fuller, for stating, 
 that " for preaching against bishops and their courts, the 
 ordaining of priests and the ceremonies, he had been committed 
 to thirty-two prisons, in some of which he could not see his 
 hand at noon." In 1580 we find him at Norwich preaching to 
 a Dutch congregation in that city ; but shortly after he found it 
 prudent to pass over to Holland, where he and several who 
 accompanied him settled at Middleburg in Zealand. Wiiilst bore 
 he wrote his work on " The Life and Manners of Tnic Chris- 
 tians," in which he advances statements wlierein the ecclesiastical
 
 BRO 
 
 772 
 
 BKO 
 
 i 
 
 opinions of presbyterians and independents are somewhat rudely 
 mixed. In 158-1 he visited Scotland, landing at Dundee, and 
 proceeding thence to St. Andrews, where he was received by 
 Andrew Jlelviile, who gave him letters of recommendation to 
 ministers in Edinbm-gh. Here, as usual, he began to attack the 
 opinions and usages of those aromid him ; and having, " after an 
 arrogant manner," offered to set "the session of the kirk of 
 Edinburgh" right on some points of doctrine and practice, these 
 worthies soon taught him they were not men to be trifled with 
 or attacked with unpunity, anil " he was committed to waird a 
 night or two till his ophiions were tried." His views having, for 
 some reason, found favour at the Scottish court, he received 
 protection from the king and returned to England, but not before 
 he had to some extent disseminated his opinions ; or, as James 
 afterwards expressed it, " sown his popple " among the people. 
 On his return to England he was again exposed to the persecu- 
 tion of the prelates, and again experienced the benefit of having 
 " a lo^ng friend and cousin," who " pitied the poor man," in the 
 great Burgh ley. He was allowed to reture for some time to his 
 father's house at Tolethorpe, where every means were used by 
 his father and others to bring hun to a reconciliation with the 
 church. For some time these failed, but at last, in some undis- 
 covered way, the heresiarch was induced to forsake, at least 
 oi'.twardly, his peculiar views, and to accept of the wealthy h\-ing 
 of Achm'ch, near Oundle, in Northamptonsliii-e. From this time 
 he was silent; he never officiated at Achurch, but contented 
 himself with consuming Ms tithes as the price of conformity. He 
 died, it is said, in prison in 1G30. His private life in later years 
 seems not to have been without reproach. He beat his wife, 
 Pagit tells us, and when reproved for it, said " that he did not 
 beat her as his wife, but as a curst old woman." — W. L. A. 
 
 BROWNE, Simon, a man of extraordinaiy parts and learning, 
 but even more remarkable on account of a strange frenzy, which 
 clouded the greater part of his life — was born at Shepton- 
 Mallet in Somersetshhe in 1G80, and died in 1732. He was 
 educated for the dissenting ministrj' ; and, after labouring for 
 some years at Portsmouth, accepted the charge of the congre- 
 gation of protestant dissenters in the Old Jewry, London. This 
 was in the year 1716. Seven years aftenvards, in consequence, 
 it is supposed, of severe domestic affliction, he fell into a pro- 
 found melancholy ; resigned his ministerial functions ; and in the 
 strange behef that the Almighty had, " by a singular instance 
 of his divine power, annihilated in him the thinking substance, 
 and utterly divested him of consciousness ;" retired to his native 
 place to pass the rest of his days in the obscurity that befitted 
 what he deemed his sad condition. A more singular frenzy is 
 not on record, for, after it took possession of him, he wrote 
 several works in which his talents and learning appear to greater 
 advantage than in any he had formerly published. It was, 
 during tiie last two years of his life, that he published " A Fit 
 Rebuke to a Ludicrous Infidel," &c. (Woolston); and a "Defence 
 of the Religion of Natiu-e," &c., against Tindal's Christianity as 
 Old as the Creation.— J. S., G. 
 
 BROWNE, Thomas, a learned English divine, bom in the 
 county of Middlesex in 1601, graduated at Christ Church in 
 1627, and became domestic chaplain to Archbishop Laud. On 
 the breaking out of the rebellion he was canon of Windsor, and 
 held the rectories of St. Mary Aldermary, London, and Oddiug- 
 ton, Oxfordshire. Having been deprived of these benefices, he 
 followed the fortunes of the king, to whom he became chaplain 
 at Oxford. He aftervvards fled to the continent, and found an 
 asylum with Mary, princess of Orange, who appointed him her 
 chaplain. After the Restoration he was restored to his prefer- 
 ments. Died in 1C73. — J. S., G. 
 
 BROWNE, SiK Thomas, an English physician and author, 
 ■was bom in London, October 19, 1605. On leaving the imiver- 
 sity of Oxford he practised physic during a brief period, and 
 then travelled through Ireland, France, Italy, and Holland, 
 taking his degree of JI.D. at Leyden. Returning to England, 
 he settled as physician at Shipden Hall, near Halifax, but soon 
 removed to Norwich, where he gained considerable professional 
 eminence. In 1642 he published the " Rchgio Medici," a work 
 which at once bestowed upon his quiet unostentatious life a 
 European fame. The remarkable character of the book 
 was at once perceived. It provoked numerous discussions, 
 aud was very greedily translated hito Latin, Dutch, and 
 German. The " Religio Medici," indeed, held up to the 
 age, in the miiTor of a personal character, some of the great 
 
 general tendencies of its speculative thought. It revealed a 
 mind which had learned to investigate everything, but had not 
 abandoned the calm repose of un questioning reliance upon the 
 wisdom of the past — which delig'.ited in antiquity, but did not 
 therefore refuse to behold the achievements of the hour — which 
 revelled in glorious imaginings, but apprehended the worth of a 
 fact — and which, therefore, was capable of receiving simulta- 
 neously (although not capable of welding into a perfectly 
 symmetrical whole) the most divergent principles of philosophical 
 thought. Hence did it happen that the " Religio Medici" was 
 condemned in the most contradictory directions. By one 
 translator its author was pronounced a catholic at heart, who 
 would openly declare himself did he not fear persecution ; but at 
 Rome it was actually placed in the Index Expurgatorius ; while 
 in England, some accepted it as protestant, others denounced it 
 as atheistical, and one member of the Society of Friends enter- 
 tained strong hopes of Dr. Browne's conversion to his own 
 opinions ! The nobler students of the age deeply sympathized 
 with the many-sided character of the work, and the cause of its 
 condemnation was the seal of its popularity. Men could repu- 
 diate no longer the Baconian method of investigation ; and yet 
 they feared to lose the rich glories of the faery land of their 
 scientific childhood. They discerned the birth of a hard, 
 matter-of-fact spirit, capable of acknowledging only the visible 
 and the tangible, and dreaded lest the yoimg child, grown into 
 a giant, should strangle their heavenly faith ; and, therefore, 
 they rejoiced in a mind like that manifested in the " Religio 
 Jledici," which seemed to them to gather up within itself the 
 highest glories alike of the past and the present. Moreover, 
 the " Religio Medici" appeared in that distracted year when 
 civil war broke out in England, and its calm and meditative 
 beauty furnished to troubled hearts a retreat, where for a 
 moment they could renew their inward peace. WTiile sometimes 
 fantastic in expression, it often rises into the noblest poetry ; and 
 when we read " that this world is but a picture of the invisible," 
 and that " there is a general beauty in the works of God, and, 
 therefore, no defonnity in any kind or species of creature what- 
 ever," we recognize the special principles of that modem poetical 
 development of which Wordsworth is the great representative. 
 In 1646 Sir Thomas Browne pubhshed the " Pseudodoxia Epi- 
 demica ; or Inquhies into Vulgar and Common Errors." The 
 errors inquired into are strange enough to modern ears, and 
 many admitted facts have been proved sufficiently baseless ; but, 
 nevertheless, the influence of this great work on scientific pro- 
 gress must not be lightly judged. The age needed not sunply 
 teachers who could destroy accredited absurdities with withering 
 scora, but also teachers possessed of sufficient poetical sympatli/ 
 with the faith of the multitude, not to give it too wide a shock ; 
 of sufficient gentleness to condescend to notice small arguments 
 and petty objections ; and of sufficient enlightenment to incul- 
 cate a trae method of research even when the actual error was 
 left unanswered. Among scientific teachers thus adapted to 
 their age. Sir Thomas Browne holds a high place. He takes an 
 interest in everything, and the truth or falsehood of the smallest 
 matters is of eager importance to him. He does abounding 
 justice to the grossest absurdities, inventing in their defence 
 every possible plea ingenuity can devise, and troubling himself 
 to give a solemn answer to it. In this respect his own personal 
 character is strongly manifested. He is by nature far more 
 inclined to believe than to doubt, and only parts with an absurd- 
 ity after keeping it in his mind so long as he can give it decent 
 entertamment, and finally conducting it to the door with due 
 ceremony, and giving it a polite bow on its departure. Even 
 when we examine his own particular delusions, we can discern 
 that they are but shadows cast by the very light of the truth he 
 held. He had, for example, a firm belief in witchcraft, and pave 
 evidence at Buiy St. Edmund's, which assisted in prociu-ing 
 the condenmation of two unfortunate \'ictims. The secret of 
 his belief in witchcraft and kindred matters, however, was not 
 so much his want of scientific accuracy, as his faith in the wide 
 range of spiritual agencies. To him the outward world was 
 something more than an aggregate of material atoms — it was 
 sustained and pervaded by tlie ])Owers of a world invisible. He 
 was a philosopher, who, by study of the tangible and definite, 
 gained but deeper faith in the intangible and infinite. — In 
 1658 Browne })ublished his "Hydriotaphia ; or a Discourse of 
 the Sepulchral Urns lately found in Norfolk," a work treating, 
 with abundant learning, on the funeral ceremonies of various
 
 BEO 
 
 773 
 
 BRO 
 
 nations, and containing high and noble thoughts concerning 
 death, oblivion, and immortality. A speculator of rich, infinite 
 ingenuity, constantly striving to penetrate the dark land sur- 
 rounding the realm of mortal light, could not but have a vein of 
 melancholy in his composition, which gave calm solemnity to his 
 learning ; while his meditative and oftentimes humorous imagi- 
 nation, touched this sadness with the light of an ideal beauty. 
 About the same time appeared the " Garden of Cyrus, or 
 Quincunsial Lozenge," in which profound learning is strangely 
 blended with whimsical fancy. BrowTie published no other 
 works during liis lifetime, but, upon his death, many papers 
 designed for the press were found and given to the world, tlie 
 most important among wliich is a " Treatise on Christian 
 Morals," to which Dr. Johnson prefixed a hfe of the author. A 
 complete edition of Browne's works was published at London, 
 1836 (Pickering), by Simon Wilkin. During the course of the 
 literary history we have sketched, Browne pursued his profes- 
 sional avocations with great success, while his inexhaustible 
 curiosity accumulated that minute information which his poetic 
 imagination idealized for its own delight. Among his friends he 
 numbered Evelyn and Sir William Dugdale, as well as Sir 
 Kenelm Digby, and certain alchemists ; thus combining in his 
 friendships those who could satisfy both his delight in strictly 
 scientific pursuits, and his love for fantastic speculation, and 
 thereby representing in his own single life the varied tendencies 
 of a transition age. In 1GG4 the Royal College of Physicians 
 elected him a member, and in 1G71 he was knighted by Charles 
 n. He had a large family, and his eldest son, Edward, achieved 
 a considerable medical reputation. His general disposition is 
 described as even and cheerful, not transported with mirth, or 
 dejected with sadness. He was liberal in his charity, modest, 
 and free from loquacity ; evidently a man who kept a quiet 
 heart in a troubled time ; and beneath the shadow of the sword 
 of civil war, calmly discharged the special duties for which he 
 was constitutionally fitted. He died at Norwich upon the 
 anniversary of his birth, 1682. "I visited him," says the Rev. 
 J. Whitefoot, ^L A., the author of the earUest biographical sketch 
 of his friend, " near his end, when he had not strength to hear 
 or speak much ; the last words I heard from him were, besides 
 some expressions of dearness, that he did freely submit to the 
 will of God, being without fear." 
 
 BROWNE, Ulysses BLvximilian, bom at Basle in 1705, 
 the son of an Irish officer in the Austrian service, a colonel of 
 cavalry in the same service. He distinguished himself both 
 by his personal courage and his literary knowledge. He gained 
 a high reputation as a soldier in the war against the Turks, and 
 was ultimately promoted to the rank of field-marshal. He died 
 in 1757, from the effects of his wounds, at the battle of Prague. 
 Bro^\'ne was accounted one of the gi'eatest soldiers of his day, 
 and especially esteemed by Frederick II. — J. F. W. 
 
 BROWNE, William, an English botanist, was bom in 1628, 
 and died in 1678. He published a catalogue of the plants 
 cultivated in the botanic garden of Oxford. — J. H. B. 
 
 BROWNE, William Laukence, professor of the law of 
 nature and of nations at Utrecht, and afterwards principal of 
 Marischal college, Aberdeen, born at the former city in 1755. 
 At twelve years of age he was admitted a student of the univei-sity 
 of St. Andrews, and, notwithstanding his extreme youth, greatly 
 distinguished himself in his various classes. After studying 
 divinity for a year or two he removed to Utrecht, where he 
 became minister of the English church. While in this living he 
 wrote " An Essay on the Origin of Evil," and " An Essay on 
 the Natural Equality of Men," &c. In 1793 he was appointed 
 to the chair of moral philosophy and ecclesiastical history in the 
 university. He returned to Scotland in 1795. The chair of 
 divinity in the university of Aberdeen being vacant in tliat year, 
 Dr. Browne was appointed to it, and shortly after named prin- 
 cipal of Marischal college. Died in 1830. His principal works 
 are — " An Essay on the Existence of the Supreme Creator," 
 which obtained Burnet's first prize of £1250, the second being 
 awarded to Dr. Sumner, archbishop of Canterbury, and "A 
 Comparative View of Christianity," &c., 1826.— J. S., (J. 
 
 * BROWNING, Elizahetii I'.auuktt, a poetess and wife of 
 a poet, was born about 1805 at Hope End, near Ledbury, Ilere- 
 fordsliire, the country seat of her father, an oi)ulent West India 
 merchant. She participated in the classical education given to 
 her brothers by a very able tutor, and at the age of fourteen 
 wrote her first published poem, "The Battle of Marathon," a few 
 
 copies of which were printed for private circulation. Proofs of 
 rare reading and reflection abound in her first volume of verse, 
 published in 1826, "An Essay on Mind, and other poems." 
 Her next literary enterprise was a daring one — a version of one 
 of the greatest and most difficult masterpieces of classical anti- 
 quity. In 1833 appeared, still anonymously, " Prometheus 
 Bound, translated from the Greek of iEschylus, and miscellane- 
 ous poems." This spirited translation Mrs. Browning afterwards 
 entirely recast. In the interval between the publication of this 
 and of her next volume of verse — "The Seraphun, and other 
 poems," London, 1838 — Mrs. Browning contributed occasionally 
 to various periodicals, notably, the New Monthly Magazine and 
 the Atheiueum; in the latter there appeared from her pen a very 
 remarkable series of papers on the " Greek Christian Poets." 
 About the time of the pubhcation of " The Seraphun," a melan- 
 choly incident occurred, which all but iiretrievably shattered the 
 constitution, naturally delicate, of the poetess. She had broken 
 a blood-vessel in her lungs, but happily no symptoms of con- 
 sumption supen'cned. Repairing on the approach of winter to 
 Torquay, she was accompanied by her eldest brother, to whom 
 she was devotedly attached. In a boating excursion, he and 
 some young friends were drowned; nor could even their boilies 
 be recovered. The event was nearly fatal to Mrs. Browning, 
 and it cast a funereal pall over her mind and heart. " During 
 that whole winter," as she herself described it, " the sounds of 
 the waves rang in my ears like the moans of the dying." AVhen 
 eventually removed to London and her father's house in Wim- 
 pole Street, she entered upon a life, which continued for many 
 years, of invalid imprisonment and inaction. She never stirred 
 from her room, to which only a few favoured friends and rela- 
 tives were admitted. It was during si.x or seven years of this 
 existence that she composed or completed the most striking of 
 those poems, published in two volumes in 1844, which first 
 procured her decided recognition as a poetess of genius, and 
 one of which, it is said, " Lady Geraldine's Com'tship," was the 
 means of introducing her to her future husband.' Her man-iage 
 with Mr. Browning (see the following article) occuiTed In 1847. 
 With marriage came Sirs. Browning's welcome restoration to 
 comparative health and activity. The poet-pair took up their 
 residence in Italy, whence Mrs. Browning issued in 1851 her 
 poem " Casa Guidi Windows," Italian in sceneiy and sentiment. 
 Her latest poem, " Aui'ora Leigh," pubhshed in 1856, received 
 the honour of a second edition, with a rapidity which proved 
 the wide circle of her readers. The poet and poetess have one 
 child, a boy of great intellectual and musical precocity. — F. E. 
 
 * BROWNING, Robert, the poet, and husband of the 
 poetess the subject of the preceding memoir, was boni at Cam- 
 berwell in 1812. His father occupied a high position in the 
 bank of England, and the poet himself has never followed any 
 profession. Noted dm-ing youth and early manhood for intellec- 
 tual promise and a passionate devotion to music, Mr. Browning 
 made his debut in literature by the publication in 1835 of 
 " Paracelsus," perhaps the most generally attractive of all his 
 works, a poem, di'amatic in its form, and full of solemn and 
 beautiful musings on human life and the destiny of genius. His 
 next attempt was " Straflbrd ; a historical tragedj'," perfomied 
 at Covent Garden on the 1st of May, 1837. Its author himself 
 rightly said of it, that it exhibited " action in character" rather 
 than "character in action;" and although Macready played 
 Strafford ; Vandenhoft", Pym ; and Helen Faucit, Lady Carlisle ; 
 it was unsuccessful. In 1840 ajipeared "Sordello;" in 1842 
 began the publicati(m of " Bells and Pomegranates," a series of 
 dramas and dramatic lyrics ; one of the former, " The Blot in 
 the Scutcheon," was brought out at Drury-Lane in 1843, but 
 proved, like " Straflbrd," a failure. In 1849, two years after 
 his marriage to Miss Barrett, as mentioned in the preceding 
 memoir. Mi-. Browning issued a collective edition of his poems 
 and other pieces, with the omission of " Sordello." In 1850 
 appeared " Christmas Eve and Easter Day," remarkable for 
 its religious significance. In 1852 he furnished an introdnc- 
 tiitn to the spurious letters of P. B. Shelley, which appeared 
 under the auspices of his publisher, the late Mr. Moxon. With 
 " Men and Women," two volumes of minor poems ])ublislied in 
 1855, we complete the catalogue of Mr. Browning's avowi'd 
 writings. Studiedly obscure, as well as odd in expression, Mr. 
 Browning's poems have still to meet with the appreciation which 
 the real genius displayed in them merits. — F. E. 
 
 BROWNRIG or BROUNRIG, Ralph, bishop of Exeter, born
 
 BEO 
 
 774 
 
 BRU 
 
 at Ipswich in 1'592. He became successively scholar and fellow 
 of Pembroke hall, Cambridge. Dr. Fclton, bishop of Ely, gave 
 him the rectory of Barley, and in 1621 a prebend in the chm-ch 
 of that town. Afterwards he was successively appointed to a 
 prebend at Litchfield and to one at Durham, became archdeacon 
 of Coventry in 1631, was for some time master of Catherine 
 hall, Cambridge, and on the translation of Dr. Hall to the 
 bishopric of Normch, was raised to the see of Exeter. On 
 the breaking out of the rebellion, although related to Pym and 
 other chiefs of the presbyterian party, he was deprived of the 
 revenues of his bisliopric, and appears to have retii'ed for some 
 time to the house of a friend in Berkshire. He is represented 
 to have had the boldness to counsel the Protector to restore 
 Charles II. Shortly before his death, which occm-red in 1659, 
 he was chosen preacher at the Temple. — J. S., G. 
 
 * BROWNSON, Orestes A., a vigorous and voluminous 
 American writer upon controverted topics in philosophy, theology, 
 and politics, was born in Vermont about 1808. His works 
 liavc always commanded attention, and some have been even 
 popular, chiefly on account of his felicitous style, which is as 
 clear, forcible, and precise, as that of William Cobbett, though 
 not so easy and idiomatic. Educated a presbyterian, he has 
 been successively a sceptic, a universalist, a unitarian, an epis- 
 copalian, a Newmanite, and an earnest Roman catholic of the 
 ultramontane school. For ten years he was an open and thorough 
 radical and socialist ; and now, for ten years more, he has 
 preached and advocated such conservatism and such doctrines 
 respecting society and government as Hobbes or Sir Robert 
 Filmer might have envied. His earliest separate publication, 
 1836, entitled " New Views of Christian Society and the 
 Church," was wiitten while he was minister of a peculiar con- 
 gregation at Boston, collected by himself, called the Society for 
 Christian Union and Progress. His next work, " Charles 
 Ellwood, or the Infidel Converted," 1840, is a novel in form, 
 but in fact an autobiography and a philosophical essay. From 
 1838 to 1842 he published five annual volumes, mostly written 
 by himself, entitled the Boston Quarterly Revieio. Finally, in 
 1844, he established the periodical which he has continued 
 to the present day, called BroicnsotCs Quarterly Revieio, and 
 which also lias been filled, in great part, by the products of 
 his own pen. — F. B. 
 
 BRU AT, Admiral, was bom at Colmar in 1796, entered the 
 naval school at Brest in 1811, and having obtained a commis- 
 sion in the French navy, rose through all the intermediate grades 
 of his profession until he became rear-admiral in 1846, vice- 
 admiral in 1852, and full admiral in 1855. In 1853 he took com- 
 mand of the French channel squadi'on, and in the year following 
 became second in command in the Black Sea. On the retvun to 
 France of Admiral Hamelin, Admiral Bruat succeeded to the 
 entire command, and co-operated very efficiently with Admu'al Sir 
 E. (afterwards Lord) Lyons. He died at sea, Nov. 25, 1855. 
 
 BRUCE, the name of a famous Scottish family of Norman 
 origin. Robert de Bras or Bruys, came over to England with 
 ^\'illiam the Conqueror, and was rewarded for his services by a 
 giant of land in Yorkshire. Robert, his son, was the companion 
 in ;u-ms of David I. of Scotland at the court of Henry I. of Eng- 
 land ; and when the Scottish prince succeeded to the throne of his 
 ancestors, in accordance with the enlightened policy which made 
 him encourage the settlement of Normans and Saxons in his 
 new dominions, he bestowed the lordship of Annandale upon his 
 early friend, Robert de Brus. The eldest son of the second 
 Robert carried on the English line of the family, while his 
 younger son became the proper founder of the Scottish branch. 
 His great-grandson manned Isabel, second daughter of David, 
 earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion ; and their eldest 
 son was Robkrt de Bruce, the competitor with Baliol for 
 the Scottish throne. (See Baliol, John.) His son, also named 
 Robert, married in singidar and romantic circumstances, a young 
 and beautiful widoiv, only child of Nigel, earl of Carrick, and 
 Margaret, a daughter of Walter, the High-Steward of Scotland, 
 and thus added largely to the estates and feudal influence of the 
 family. Of this union — 
 
 Bruce, Robert, the restorer of Scottish independence, was 
 the first-frait. He was born on the 21st of March, 1274 
 — the year in which Edward I. of England was crowned. 
 His early years were, in all probability, passed at the castle 
 of Turnbcrry, the residence of his mother ; but his father 
 afterwards placed him at the Enghsh court, and he was trained 
 
 by Edward himself in the exercises of war and chivalry. After 
 the contest for the Scottish crown was decided in favour of 
 Baliol, the elder Bruce and his son, the earl of Carrick, indig- 
 nantly refused to do homage to the now monarch. The grand- 
 son of the competitor for the throne, then a youth of eighteen, 
 was therefore invested with the family estates in Annandale, 
 and the title of earl of Carrick, and did homage to John Baliol 
 as his lawful sovereign. The elder Bruce died at his castle of 
 Lochmaben in 1295 ; his son survived till 1304, and on his 
 death the immense English estates of the family were inherited 
 by the earl of Carrick, who had then attained the age of thu'ty. 
 The career of Bruce had hitherto displayed nothing either of 
 lofty principle or of pure patriotism. In 129G, indeed, he joined 
 Wallace and the few patriotic barons who were in arms for the 
 independence of their country; and in 1299, after Wallace had 
 resigned the regency, he and John Comyn of Badenoch, and 
 Lamberton, bishop of Glasgow, were elected joint-regents of the 
 kingdom. But the attempt to reconcile tlie rival factions ot 
 Brace and Baliol proved unsuccessful, and some time previous 
 to the battle of Roslin, which was fought in 1302, Bruce made 
 his peace with Edward, and throughout the remainder of the 
 straggle continued faithful to the English party, and appears to 
 have been treated with gi-eat confidence by Edward. At tliis 
 period Bruce, though he had by no means relinqiushed his pre- 
 tensions to the Scottish throne, could not urge his claims with 
 any hope of success. Scotland lay completely prostrate under 
 the power of the English monarch, and the patriotic cause 
 seemed utterly ruined. Wallace and his associates were strenu- 
 ous supporters of the claims of Baliol, and after the submission 
 of that luckless prince, the hopes of his party and friends cen- 
 tered in John Comyn, his nephew, who, by the decision of 
 Edward, had in succession a clear right to the Scottish crown. 
 The families of Brace and Comyn were, therefore, with the 
 exception of one brief interval, ranged on opposite sides ; and 
 the movements of both during the earlier part of the war of inde- 
 pendence were regulated rather by a regard to their selfish interests 
 than to the good of the country. At the close of the straggle in 
 1304, Comyn, who had continued his resistance for some time 
 after Bruce's submission, fell under the deep displeasure of the 
 English king, and was pimished by a heavy fine, while Brace 
 stood high in favom* with Edward, and was regarded as the 
 most poweiful man in Scotland. His sole reward, however, for 
 his submission to the English monarch was to be employed as a 
 commissioner, along with Wishart, bishop of Glasgow, and Sir 
 John de Mowbray, in framing regulations for the future govern- 
 ment of that kingdom which he had hoped to obtain for himself. 
 Disappointed in his long-cherished expectations. Brace at this 
 juncture resolved to adopt other measures for the vindication of 
 his own rights, and the restoration of his coimtiy's freedom. He 
 now entered, 11th June, 1305, into a secret bond with William 
 de Lamberton, bishop of St. Andrews, by which they bound 
 themselves to make common cause in resisting the enemies of 
 their country. This league was joined by the earl of Strathearn, 
 the bishop of Jloray, and various other barons and prelates, and 
 ultimately Brace revealed the conspiracy to his rival, Comyn, 
 and sought to secure his services in achieving the independence 
 of Scotland. With the view of adjusting their rival claims and 
 combining their strength. Brace offered to support the title of 
 Comyn to the crown on receiving as the reward of his aid tlie 
 extensive estates of that noble, or, as an alternative, proposed 
 to make over all his possessions to Com}Ti, on condition that he 
 would bind himself to support Biiice's claim to the throne. To 
 this last alternative Comjm readily assented, and the contract 
 was secretly and solemnly ratified,- each party retaining a copy 
 of the bond. But Comyn, who hated Bruce, resolved to avail 
 himself of this opportunity to ruin his rival, and transmitted to 
 Edward information respecting the conspiracy, together with 
 certain letters which afforded decisive evidence of Brace's guilt 
 The earl of Carrick, unsuspicious of danger, was residing at the 
 English court, and without hesitation attended a parhament 
 which Edward at that time convoked. On being shown the 
 bond which Comyn had transmitted, and asked if he knew the 
 seal, he at once denounced the deed as a forgery, and offered to 
 prove this if allowed sufficient time to send for his real seal. 
 Edward, either staggered by Brace's coolness and air of injured 
 innocence, or desirous to get into his power the other members 
 of his family, acceded to his request, and allowed him to leave 
 the parhament for the purpose of prociuring the materials for his
 
 exculpation. But that very night Bruce was warned by his 
 kinsman, tlie earl of Gloucester, of a design to seize his person, 
 and accompanied by a single attendant, he fled into Scotland. 
 He was still ignorant of the person who had betrayed him, 
 though his suspicions must have been directed towards Comyn ; 
 but on his way to the north he met a person whom he recognized 
 as a sci-vant of that baron, and who, on being searched, proved 
 to be the bearer of letters from his master to Edward, urging 
 the immediate imprisonment of his rival. The messenger was 
 immediately slain, and his letters seized. With these documents 
 in his possession, Brace continued his flight, and after halting 
 for a brief space at Lochmaben, he proceeded to Dumfries, 
 where Comyn, along with the other barons of the district, was 
 in attendance upon the English justiciaries, who, at that time, 
 were holding theu- sittings in the town. The two rivals met 
 in the chm-ch of the Greyfriars, 10th Febraary, 1305-6. A 
 wai-m altercation took place, in the course of which Bruce 
 reproached his associate for his treachery. " It is a falsehood you 
 utter," retorted Comyn ; on which Bruce instantly stabbed him 
 with his dagger on the steps of the high altar ; and appalled at 
 his deed, he hurried out of the sanctuary in a state of the greatest 
 excitement. The wounded noble was immediately dispatched 
 by two of Bruce's followers, Lindsay and Kirkpatrick, and his 
 uncle. Sir Robert Comyn, and some of his adlierents shared his 
 fiUe. This atrocious deed cut off all hope of reconciliation with 
 the English king, and Bruce felt that he must either assert at 
 once liis right to the crown, or sink into the condition of an 
 outlaw and a fugitive, excommunicated by the church, and a 
 Mice set upon his head. His decision was speedily taken. 
 Summoning hastily to his assistance the friends and adherents 
 of his family, with a few nobles who were known to be favour- 
 able to the cause of Scottish independence, he rode to Scone, 
 and was there solemnly crowmed on the 27th of March, 
 1306. As the regalia of the kingdom had been carried off by 
 Edward, a small circlet of gold, probably boiTOwed from the 
 brow of some vu'gin or martyr, was substituted for the royal 
 crown, and the coronation robes were suppUed from his own 
 wardrobe by Wishart, bishop of Glasgow. Two days later, 
 Isabella, countess of Buchan, and sister of Duncan, earl of Fife, 
 appeared at Scone, and (in the absence of her brother, who with 
 her husband was in the English interest) claimed the hereditary 
 privilege of her family, who since the days of Malcolm Canmore 
 had enjoyed the distinction of placing the Scottish kings on the 
 celebrated Stone of Destiny. Bruce at once complied, and on 
 the 29th of March he was a second time placed upon the throne 
 by the countess, who was aftenvards craelly punished by 
 Edward for her adventurous and patriotic act. 
 
 When the news of this insmTection reached the English king, 
 ill spite of his age and mfiiTnities, he took immediate measm-es 
 to avert the dangers which threatened his northern conquests. 
 i'lie earl of Pembroke was appointed guardian of Scotland, and 
 despatched in all haste to his post ; and the pope was induced, 
 by the solicitation of Edward, to pronounce sentence of excom- 
 munication against Bruce and his adherents ; but the Scottish 
 ecclesiastics, who were strenuous defenders of their country's 
 rights, paid no respect to the mandates of the pontiff. Pem- 
 broke, on reaching Scotland, took possession of the important 
 town of Perth with a powerful army. Bruce, who had in the 
 meantime been visiting different parts of the coimtiy favourable 
 to his interests, appeared before that town, and though his forces 
 were gi-eatly outnumbered by those of his adversaiy, in the 
 chivalrous spirit of the age he challenged the earl to light him in 
 the open field. Pembroke having answered that he would meet 
 him on the morrow, Bnace drew off his men, in full reliance 
 on this solemn promise, which, according to the usages of 
 chivalry it was held dishonourable to violate, and encamped in 
 the wood of Methven, about six miles distant from Perth. 
 Pembroke, however, led out his troops that same evening (lyth 
 June), and fell upon the Scots, who were completely taken at 
 unawares, one-third of them having been sent out in search 
 of forage. After a desperate resistance, they were ultimately 
 routed with gi-eat slaughter, and Bruce, who was thrice imhorsed 
 in the action, with considerable difficulty effected his escape into 
 the wilds of Athol with the small remnant of his force, amount- 
 ing to about five hundred men. Driven from Athol by the want 
 of provisions, he descended into the low countiy of Aberdeen- 
 shire, where he was jomed by his queen and other ladies, deter- 
 mined to share in the dangers and privations of their husbands 
 
 and fathers. On the approach of a superior force of the enemy, 
 this small band of fugitives withdi'ew to the mountains of 
 Breadalbane, where they subsisted for some tmie on wild berries 
 and the produce of fishhig and the chase. Retreating by the 
 head of Loch Tay, they now approached the shire of Argyle, 
 the country of the M'Dougals of Lorn, whose chief was allied 
 by marriage to the Red Comyn, and was eager to avenge his 
 murder. On receiving intelligence of the approach of Bruce and 
 his adherents, this poweiful chieftain collected his vassals, and 
 attacked the little band of fugitives in a naiTow defile at Dairy, 
 near Teyndrum, m Strathfillan, and after a severe engagement, 
 in which Brace performed prodigies of valoiu", compelled them 
 to retreat. This repulse greatly aggravated the difficulties under 
 which the patriots already labom-ed. The approach of winter 
 rendered it impossible for the ladies any longer to subsist amid 
 those barren wilds, and they were accordingly sent to the castle 
 of Kildi'ummie in Aberdeenshire, under the escort of the earl of 
 Athol, and of Nigel Bruce, the king's brother. Brace himself 
 and a few of his adherents, after encountering great difficulties 
 and dangers, found means to pass over to the small island of 
 Rachrin, on the northern coast of Ireland, where he lurked in 
 concealment during the winter of 1306. 
 
 In the meantime, ruin fell upon the greater part of his friends 
 and adherent*. His queen and daughter were forcibly taken 
 from the sanctuaiy of St. Duthac at Tain, and committed to 
 close confinement in England. The heroic countess of Buchan, 
 who had placed the king upon the coronation chair, was immured 
 in a cage in one of the outer turrets of the castle of Berwick. 
 One of Bruce's sisters was confined in a similar cage in Rox- 
 bm-gh castle, the other was shut up in a convent. Nigel Brace, 
 a beautiful and accomplished youth, after a gallant defence, was 
 compelled to surrender the castle of Kildrummie, and being sent 
 in u-ons to Berwick, was there executed as a traitor. Sir 
 Christopher Seton, the king's brother-in-law, was put to death 
 at Dumfries, and his brother John at Newcastle. The earl of 
 Athol and the brave Su- Simon Fraser, the last friend and com- 
 panion of Wallace, were executed at London with circumstances 
 of shocking barbarity, as were also many other barons and 
 knights. The bishops of St. Andrews and Glasgow, and the 
 abbot of Scone, were put in irons and conveyed to prison in 
 England. A formal sentence of excommunication was at tliis 
 time pronounced by the papal legate against the Scottish king 
 and his adherents, and their estates were confiscated and 
 bestowed on difterent English nobles. 
 
 On the approach of spring, Bruce quitted his retreat in Rachrin, 
 and passed over to the isle of An-an. He now meditated an 
 attempt to wrest his ancestral domains in Carrick from the hands 
 of the English, and accordingly eftected a landing on the head- 
 land beneath Tumbeny Castle, which was occupied by a strong 
 garrison, commanded by Lord Percy. Under cover of night he 
 attacked the English troops quartered in careless security in the 
 hamlet of Turnberry, and put most of them to the sword. A 
 rich booty fell into the hands of the assailants, who, after this 
 exploit withdrew to the mountainous parts of the surrounding 
 country. Percy soon after evacuated Tumben-y castle and 
 retreated into England. This success was counterbalanced by 
 a grievous disaster which at tliis juncture befell two of Bruce's 
 brothers, Thomas and Alexander, who had been despatched to 
 Ireland for the purpose of collecting reinforcements in that 
 country. On their return, having landed at Loch Ryan in Gal- 
 loway with a force of seven hundred men, they were attacked 
 and routed by Macdowall, a powerful chief of that country, who 
 was in the English uiterest. The two brothers, along with Sir 
 Reginald Crawford, who were all sevei-ely wounded, were taken 
 prisoners, and carried to the English king at Carlisle. With his 
 habitual inhumanity, he ordered them to be instantly executed. 
 For some time after this disaster Brace was in a very critical 
 situation, and on several occasions narrowly escaped being taken 
 prisoner, as he skidked from one hiding-place to another among 
 his native mountains. His enemies hunted him like a beast of 
 prey, and even had the baseness to lay plots for his assassination. 
 From these perils, however, he succeeded in extricating himself 
 by his indomitable courage, and his skill in the use of his weapons; 
 and gaining ground step by step, he at length succeeded in 
 expelling the English from the whole of Ayrshire. In the 
 beginning of Maj', 1307, his old antagonist, the earl of Pem- 
 broke, advanced into this district with a body of three thousand 
 cavalry, and challenged the king to give him battle. Bruce,
 
 BRU 
 
 776 
 
 BEU 
 
 though at the head of only six hundred spearmen, agreed to 
 meet him at Loudon hill ; and, owing to his admirable disposi- 
 tions, the English were completely defeated. This conflict, 
 which was a kind of miniature of Bannockburn, may be regarded 
 as the turning-point of Brace's fortune, for his career from this 
 time to his great crowning victory in 1314, presented an almost 
 unbroken series of successes. 
 
 The Enghsh monarch was gi-eatly incensed at the reverses 
 which his troops had met with, and thougli worn out with age 
 and disease, he resolved to march against the Scots, and to 
 inflict signal punishment upon them for their insubordination. 
 He had been detained at Carlisle during the winter by a wasting 
 illness; but now, under the excitement caused by Brace's suc- 
 cesses, he put himself at the head of his army, and proceeded 
 towards Scotland, though he was so weak that he required to be 
 supported in the saddle. But in four days he advanced only 
 six miles, and on the 7th of July he expired at the small village 
 of Burgh-upon-Sands in Cumberland, within sight of that countn' 
 which, in spite of all his efforts to add it to his dominions, was 
 now on the eve of achieving its independence. 
 
 Fortunately for Scotland, Edward II., who now ascended the 
 English throne, had neither the ability nor inclination to cany 
 out the ambitious plans of his predecessor. After spending 
 three weeks at Cumnock in Ayrshire, he made his way back 
 into England, without having performed a single act of import- 
 ance. He sent the earl of Richmond, however, into Scotland at 
 the head of a formidable army; and Bruce, unable to make 
 head against a force so much superior to his own, prudently 
 retreated to the north of Scotland. In the com-se of this march 
 he was attacked by a wasting distemper, which Fordun attributes 
 to cold and hunger, and the hardships which he had been 
 subjected to in his contests with the English. While Mng at 
 Inverury he was attacked by Comyn, earl of Buchan, and his own 
 nephew. Sir David de Brechin, who ha\-ing received intelligence 
 of Brace's situation, made a hasty march towards his encamp- 
 ment, and drove in his outposts, and even slew some of the 
 soldiers who guarded his litter. Enraged at this militaiy aftront, 
 as he reckoned it, the king instantly rose from his litter and 
 mounted his horse, and although so weak that he was obliged 
 to be supported in the saddle, he led on his troops in person, and 
 entirely defeated the enemy with great slaughter. The efforts of 
 Brace were now directed to the capture of the strongholds of his 
 kingdom, by means of which the Enghsh were enabled to retain 
 their hold upon the countrj-. His success in these efforts was 
 unifonn and steady. Tlie citizens of Aberdeen declared in his 
 favour, stormed the castle which commanded the town, and 
 levelled the fortifications with the ground. The castle of Forfiir 
 was next taken by Phihp, the forester of Platane, who put the 
 ganison to the sword. Bruce himself captured the fortresses 
 of Dumfries ; Dalswinton, a stronghold of the Com3Tis ; and 
 Butel in Galloway, a seat of the Baliols. The strong castle 
 of Linlithgow was surprised by a brave husbandman named 
 Binnock or Binney. Sir .James Douglas captured Roxburgh, one 
 of the most important fortresses in the kingdom ; and Randolph, 
 earl of Jloray, stimulated by this exploit of his companion in 
 ai-ms, carried the castle of Edinburgh — one of the most desperate 
 adventures, says Barbour, that was ever achieved. While the Eng- 
 lish gannsons were thus expelled from the countiy, various districts 
 were, at the same time, recovered out of the hands of those 
 Scottish barons who had embraced the senice of the enemy. 
 
 The measures of the English king were characterized by 
 weakness and vacillation. No fewer than four expeditions into 
 Scotland were successively undertaken, two of them headed by 
 Edward in person, but without producing any permanent result. 
 Brace displayed admirable judgment in his mode of resisting 
 these invasions. He cautiously avoided a general engagement, 
 and contented himself with harassing the invaders on their 
 march, cutting off their provisions, driving the flocks and herds 
 into remote fastnesses, and laying waste the country as the 
 enemy advanced. As soon as the scarcity of provisions, or the 
 severity of the weather, compelled the invaders to retrace their 
 steps, the Scots issued from tlie mountains and woods in which 
 they had lurked, hung on their rear, and cut them off in detail. 
 And, not contented with defending his own dominions, the Scot- 
 tisli king made several incursions into the northern counties of 
 England, which he plundered and r.ivaged with merciless severity, 
 and led back his army in triumph, laden with spoil. Brace next 
 made a descent upon tlie Isle ot Man, to which his inveterate 
 
 enemies, the Macdowalls, had retreated. He defeated the gover- 
 nor in battle, took the castle of Russin by storm, .and subdued 
 the whole island. While the king was absent on this expedition, 
 his brother Edward expelled the English from Galloway and 
 Nithsdale, and demolished the fortresses in these districts. He 
 then made himself master of the castles of Rutherglen and 
 Dundee, and proceeded to lay siege to StirUng castle, almost the 
 only considerable fortress that still remained in the hands of the 
 English. The governor. Sir Philip Jlowbray, made a brave 
 defence ; but at length, prorisions having become scarce, he 
 offered to surrender the fortress if not reheved before the feast 
 of St. John the Baptist — 24th June — in the following year. 
 Edward Brace most impradently consented to this proposal, all 
 the advantages of which were on the side of the besieged. King 
 Robert expressed the strongest displeasure when the terms of 
 tlie trace were made known to him. He had every inducement 
 to violate the engagement; and Edward had set him the example 
 by compelhng the governor of Dundee, only a few months before, 
 to violate an agreement made under precisely similar circum- 
 stances. Bn;ce himself, in his earher days, had by no means 
 been distinguished for scrupulous adherence to his engagements. 
 But the stem, though wholesome discipline of adversity, had 
 now purified and strengthened his moral character, and he 
 honourably deteraiined, at aU hazards, to abide by the treaty 
 which his brother had made. 
 
 So far did the chivalrous generosity of King Robert extend, 
 that he allowed Sir Philip de Jlowbray to go in person to Lon- 
 don, that he might make known to Edward and his council the 
 terms of the truce which he had entered into with the Scots. 
 The king and his barons at once felt that they could not without 
 dishonour abandon Stirling to its fate, and immense preparations 
 were accordingly made for the relief of the beleaguered fortress. 
 The whole military array of the kingdom was summoned to 
 meet at Ben\ack on the 11th of June. Auxiliaries were brought 
 from Ireland, and a powerful fleet was equipped for the trans- 
 portation of provisions and warlike stores for the use of the 
 amiy. On the appointed day there assembled at the place of 
 rendezvous the most magnificent anny that England had ever 
 sent fortli, amounting in all to upwards of a hundred thousand 
 men, including fifty thousand archers, and forty thousand cavalry. 
 At the head of tliis fomiidable an-ay Edward crossed the border 
 and advanced towai'ds Siu-ling. King Robert meanwhile had 
 mustered his forces in the Torwood, midway between Stirling 
 and Falkirk. They amounted to httle more than thirtj- thousand, 
 of whom only five hiuidred were cavalry. But his weU-disci- 
 pUned infantr}' were anned with long spears, and carefuDy 
 trained to form in line, or squares, or circles, as the nature of the 
 gi'ound or of the fight might require ; and he had the sagacity to 
 perceive, what was satisfactorily proved at Bannockbtirn, as well 
 as at Waterloo, that such a body was capable of offering an 
 effective resistance to the charge of the best-equipped cavalry, 
 though greatly superior in numbers. The place which he 
 selected for the field of action was about two miles from Stirling, 
 and was admirably adapted to the number and character of his 
 troops. It was protected on either flank by defences, partly 
 natural, partly artificial, and was so naiTow in front as, in a 
 gi'eat measure, to deprive tlie enemy of their immense superiority 
 in numbers. The Scottish line of battle faced the south-east, 
 from which direction the English were apjiroacliing. The right 
 wing was protected by the steep and ragged banks of the rivulet 
 called BannockbmTi, and by a dangerous morass. The Iqft, 
 which extended to the village of St. Ninians, and was the most 
 vulnerable p:u-t of Brace's position, was defended against the 
 assaults of cavalry by rows of pits about three feet deep with 
 sharp stakes fixed in them, and covered with brushwood and 
 green sods. The right wing was commanded by Edward Bruce, 
 the centre by Thomas Randolph, earl of Moray, and the left 
 wing by Douglas and the young Steward of Scotland. The king 
 himself commanded the reserve, wliich was composed of his 
 own vassals of Carrick, and of the men of Arg}-le, Canthe, and 
 the isles. The camp-followers were stationed with the baggage 
 behind an eminence in the rear, still called the GilUes' («". e. the 
 Servants') hill. 
 
 On the moraing of June 23rd, the Scottish ai-my heard mass, 
 and made their shrift " full devofitly," says Barbour, like men 
 who were resolved to free their country or to die in the field. 
 King Robert then proceeded to arrange his men under their 
 different banners, and to assign to them their proper positions;
 
 and tbeir arrangements were scarcely completed when the vast 
 host of the enemy was descried covering the whole comitry far 
 and wide, and forming a magnificent spectacle of martial pomp 
 and splendour. On approaching Stirling, the English king 
 detached Sur Robert Cliflbrd with a chosen body of eight 
 bundi'cd liorse, directing them to make a circuit round tlie 
 left flank of the Scottish army, and to throw himself into the 
 beleaguered fortress. But this movement did not escape the 
 eaMe eye of Bruce ; and Randolph, whom he had enjoined to be 
 vin^ilant in preventing any such attempt, hastened vnth five 
 hundred spearmen to intercept the succours before they could 
 reach the castle. After a brief but stubborn conflict the English 
 were completely routed, and fled in disorder to the main body 
 of the army. 
 
 While this afl;ur was undecided, the English vanguard came 
 within sight of the Scottish anny. King Robert was, at the 
 moment, riding along the front of his hne marshalling the ranks 
 of his host. He was mounted on a small palfrey, but was clad 
 in complete armour, and carried a battle-axe in his hand. He 
 was easily recognized, both by his position, and by a golden 
 coronet which he wore on his helmet. Sir Henry de Bohun, " a 
 wycht knight and a hardy," who rode in front of the English 
 vanguard, armed at all points and mounted on a strong war- 
 horse, perceiving Bruce thus engaged, couched his lance, and 
 spurring his charger rode furiously against the king with the 
 eWdent expectation that he would easily bear him to the earth, 
 and end the war at a single blow. The contest was most 
 unequal, hut, to the sm-prise of the spectators, Bnice calmly 
 awaited the onset. .Just as they were about to close, however, 
 he suddenly turned his palfrey to one side, so that de Bohun 
 missed his aim, and, as he passed in his rapid career, Bruce, 
 rising in his stirrups, with one blow of his battle-axe dashed 
 helmet and head to pieces, and laid his assaihint dead at his feet. 
 The English vanguard, intimidated by the result of this personal 
 encomiter, retreated in confusion, and were pursued for some 
 distance by the Scottish spearmen. After a spirit-stin-ing 
 address from the king to his assembled generals, they repaired 
 to theu' respective positions, and the troops passed tlie night in 
 arms upon the field. 
 
 Early next mornmg — Jlonday, 24th June — the Scottish ai-my 
 iieard mass, which was perfomied by the abbot of Inchaftray 
 ;;jion an eminence in front of their line. They then took break- 
 -t and an-anged themselves in then- appointed divisions. The 
 iiiguard of the English, under the command of the earls of 
 Gloucester and Hereford, now drew near. The king himself 
 brought up the main body, consisting of nine divisions, but 
 compressed by the naiTowness of the ground into one unmense 
 column. At this moment the abbot of Inchaftray, bareheaded 
 and barefooted, walked along the Scottish line, and holding up 
 a crucifix exhorted the soldiers to fight bravely for their rights 
 and liberties. As he passed the whole army knelt down, and 
 " made a short prayer to God to help ihem in their fight." 
 " See ! " cried Edward, " they are kneeling to ask mercy." 
 " They do," replied Sir Ingram de Umfi-aville, who rode beside 
 him ; " but it is from God, not from you. Trust mo, yon men 
 will win or die." " Be it so," said the king, and immediately 
 commanded the charge to be sounded. The English van 
 advanced at full gallop on the right wing of the Scots, com- 
 manded by Edward Bruce, but was unable to produce any serious 
 impression on the semed ranks of the Scottish spearmen. The 
 centre and left wing of the Scots were soon after led up, so that 
 the battle bccam.e general along the whole line. The English 
 cavalry attempted, like the French cuirassiers at Waterloo, by 
 repeated and desperate charges, to break through the phalanx 
 of the Scottish mfantry, but were repulsed with great slaugliter 
 in every attack. The English archers, however, began to do 
 considerable execution on the close ranks of the spearmen, but 
 were taken in flank and completely routed by Sir Robert Keith, 
 marshal of Scotland, at the head of five hundred horsemen, 
 whom Brace had kept in reseiTC for that puqiosc. The battle 
 continued to rage with great fuiy, but King Robert, perceiving 
 that the English were becoming exhausted and dispirited, brought 
 up his reser%'c, and pressed with redoubled vigour upon the waver- 
 ing ranks of the enemy. At this critical period, the attendants 
 on the Scottish camp, whether acting on the impulse of the 
 moment or from previous orders it is impossible to say, suddenly 
 appeared on the Gillies'-hill, in the view of the army ; and having 
 hastily laid hold of such anns as were at hand, and fastened 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 blankets and sheets upon tent poles for banners, presented the 
 appearance of a new army advancing to the assistance of the 
 Scots. The English, dismayed at this unexpected sight, began 
 to give way, and King Robert, seizing the favourable moment, 
 shouted his war-cry, and made a fm'ious assault on the main 
 body of the enemy, by which they were completely broken. 
 This well-timed charge decided the fate of the day. The Eng- 
 lish fled in all directions, and were pm-sued with immense 
 slaughter. Thirty thousand were left dead upon the field, 
 among whom were twenty-seven barons, two hundred knights, 
 and seven hundred esquu-es. Twenty-two barons and baronets, 
 and sixty knights, with an immense quantity of spoil, fell into 
 the hands of the victors, and, according to the monk of Malmes- 
 bury, " the chariots, waggons, and wheeled carriages, which 
 were loaded with the baggage and militai-y stores, would, if 
 drawn up in a line, have extended for twenty leagues." The 
 English king himself escaped vath difficulty from this fatal field, 
 and after a continuous fliglit of sixty miles, during which he 
 was closely pursued by Douglas, he at length found refuge in 
 the castle of Dunbar, from which he escaped in a fishing skift" 
 to Bamborough castle. 
 
 Such was the memorable battle of Bannockbum, which, both 
 in its immediate consequences and its more remote effects, must 
 be regarded as one of the most important events in the histoiy 
 of Scotland. It virtually secured at once the freedom and inde- 
 pendence of the countiy. It showed the English monarchs the 
 hopelessness of their iniquitous attempts to reduce it permanently 
 to the condition of a conquered province, and taught the Scot- 
 tish people never to regard their cause as desperate even in the 
 last extremity. There cannot be a doubt that they were greatly 
 encouraged during ''heir subsequent struggles for civil and reli- 
 gious liberty by the recollection of the victory of Bannockburn, 
 and that the proud position which Scotland now occupies is in 
 no small degree owing to the great deliverance achieved by 
 King Robert and his gallant compatriots. 
 
 Deeply as Brace had been injured by the English, he made 
 no attempt to retaliate upon -the prisoners who had fallen into 
 his hands. He treated them with so much courtesy and 
 humanity that, according to the testimony of an English his- 
 torian, he " wonderfully changed the hearts of many of the 
 English from enmity to admiration and esteem." So far was 
 his success at Bannockbm-n from rendering bun presumptuous, 
 that he immediately followed it up with a proposal for peace. 
 Commissioners were appointed for that pm-pose, but as the 
 English refused to abandon then- claims to feudal superiority 
 over Scotland, the negotiations at once fell to the ground. The 
 war was instantly resumed, and was continued for fourteen 
 years, with almost uninteiTupted success on the part of the 
 Scots. During this interval England was twelve times invaded 
 by them, and frequently wasted as far as the gates of York. 
 The northern provinces abandoned to their fate, in consequence 
 of the fickleness and incapacity of the English king and the 
 fierce factions among his nobles, were compelled to purchase 
 exemption from plunder by the payment of a heavy tribute, 
 and many of the inhabitants even tendered their allegiance 
 to King Robert, that they might escape from ruin and capti- 
 vity. On the 26th of April, 1315, the Scottish parliament, in 
 a meeting held at Ayr, solemnly ratified an act of settlement, 
 regulating the succession of the crown. It was determined, with 
 the consent of Marjory, his only child, that if King Robert should 
 die without male issue bis brother Edward should ascend the 
 throne, and that failing Edwai'd and liis heirs male, Marjory and 
 her heirs should be next in succession. This important aiTauge- 
 ment, equally wise and patriotic on the part of Bruce, was 
 speedily followed by the marriage of Marjory with Walter the 
 hereditary High- Steward of Scotland. From this auspicious 
 union sprung a race of sovereigns, under whom the two king- 
 doms were at length hapinly united, and theu* descendant wears 
 at this moment the British crown. 
 
 About this period, a party of Irish chiefs, eager to throw 
 off the oppressive yoke of England, sent messages to Bruce, 
 imploring his aid in the attempt to expel their oppressors, and 
 off"ering in return to bestow the crown of Ireland on his brother 
 Edward. Though the chances of success must have seemed 
 both remote ami doubtful, the king ultimately compUcd, and 
 within a month after the passing of the act of settlement, 
 Edward Brace embarked for Ireland with six thousand soldiers, 
 and landed near CarricWcrgus on the 25th of Mav, 1315. 
 
 5 i'
 
 BRU 
 
 778 
 
 BRU 
 
 After a series of brilliant victories over the English settlers and 
 their partisans, lie was crowned king of Ireland on the 2nd of 
 May, 1316. Repeated reinforcements were sent over from 
 Scotland, and at length the king resolved to go in person to 
 the aid of his brother. Their united forces oveiran a gi'eat 
 part of Ireland, and inflicted several severe defeats upon the 
 English, but without gaining any permanent footing in the 
 country. King Robert was soon obliged to return to his own 
 dominions ; and after his departure his brother Edward for some 
 time maintained a precarious authority in Ulster ; but at length, 
 having rashly encountered, near Dimdalk, an Anglo-Irish army 
 ten times more nxunerous than his own, he was defeated and slain. 
 Dm-ing the absence of the Scottish king in Ireland, vaiuous 
 attempts were made by the English to distm-b the tranquillity 
 of his dominions ; but their incursions were as often repelled by 
 the activity and corn-age of the Steward and Douglas, to whom 
 Robert had intrusted the government of the country. The 
 pope, too (John XXII., a man alike venal and servile), favoured 
 the Enghsh side, and was induced by a large bribe to issue a 
 bull commanding a two years' truce between England and 
 Scotland. But as the pontiff withheld from Brace the title of 
 king, the Scottish monarch refused to receive the papal letters, 
 or to admit the legates to an interview ; and when the tnice was 
 proclaimed by theii- messengers, he refused to pay any regard to 
 it. Meanwhile, the death of Edward Bruce, and of the Princess 
 Marjory, who expired immediately after giving birth to a son, 
 Mai'ch 2nd, 1316, hanng rendered some new regulations neces- 
 sary regarding the succession to the crown, a parliament was 
 held at Scone on December, 1318, in which Robert, the infant 
 son of the Princess Marjory, was recognized as heir to the 
 throne, in the event of the king's death without male issue. 
 On the 28th of JI;u-ch, 1318, the important town of Berwick, 
 the key of the eastern marches, fell into the hands of the Scots; 
 and Robert, well aware of the vast importance of this acquisi- 
 tion, strengthened the f(n-tifications of the place, caused it to be 
 \nctualled and strongly garrisoned, and committed the keeping 
 of it to his gallant son-in-law, the Steward. In the summer of 
 the following year. King Edward, at the head of a formidable 
 army, made a vigorous but unsuccessful effort to recover the 
 town. With the \iew of compelling the besiegers to abandon 
 the siege, Bruce sent Randolph and Douglas, at the head of 
 fifteen thousand men, to invade England. Advancing into 
 Yorkshire, thej' encountered at Mitton a numerous but undisci- 
 plined force under the archbishop of York and the bishop of 
 Ely, and defeated them with great slaughter. The news of this 
 disaster caused the English to raise the siege of Berwick, and in 
 December following a truce for two years was concluded between 
 the kingdoms. Strange to say, tliis was the moment selected by 
 Edward's old ally the pope to renew the sentence of excommu- 
 nication against the Scottish king and his adherents ; and, 
 apparently provoked at the contempt with which his former 
 censures had been treated, he commanded the archbishop of 
 York and the bishops of London and Carlisle to repeat the 
 ceremony on every Sabbath and festival day throughout the 
 year. This unfair exercise of authority excited great indignation 
 among the people of Scotland ; and in a parlLament held at 
 Aberbrothock on the 6th of April, 1320, the barons and free- 
 holders of the realm, in the name of the whole community of 
 Scotland, addressed a spiiited memorial to the pope in vindica- 
 tion of themselves and their sovereign, which, together with the 
 representations of two ambassadors, whom Bruce shortly after 
 sent to the papal court, had such an effect upon the mind of the 
 pontiff, that he was induced to suspend for some time the publi- 
 cation of the sentence of excommunication, and earnestly to 
 recommend the English king to conclude peace w'ith Scotland. 
 Commissioners on both sides were accordingly appointed for this 
 purpose, and a meeting took place at Cariisle with the view of 
 negotiating the terms of peace, but it led to no satisfactoi-y 
 result. About this period a formidable conspiracy against the 
 life of King Robert was brought to light by the confession of the 
 countess of Stratheam, who had been made pri\'j- to the plot. 
 William de Soulis, hereditary butler of Scotland, and grandson 
 of one of the competitors for the crown, and David de Brechin, 
 the king's nephew, both of whom were in the pay of the English 
 monarch, were the ringleaders of this conspiracy, which seems to 
 have had for its object the death of the king, and the elevation 
 of de Soulis to the throne. The conspirators were brought to 
 trial before the parliament in August, 1320, and de Brechim and 
 
 three of his accomplices were condemned to death and executed 
 while de Soulis and the countess of Strathearn were punished by 
 perpetual imprisonment. Strange to say, in spite of the atrocity 
 of their crime, the punishment of these traitors excited strong 
 dissatisfaction in the community, and the parliament by which 
 they were condemned was long remembered in Scotland by the 
 name of the Black Parliament. 
 
 Shortly after this, Edward resolved to undertake another 
 invasion of Scotland, and wTote to the pope, infonning him that 
 he was about to establish a peace by force of anus. Before 
 liis preparations could be completed, however, the Scots t\rice 
 invaded the northern provinces of England, and after laying 
 waste the countn,', returned home laden with spoil. The 
 expedition which Edward imdertook against Scotland, at the 
 head of a hundred thousand men, proved utterly abortive ; all 
 the cattle and provisions, and every article of value, were carefully 
 removed by the inhabitants to places of safety, and the invaders 
 found themselves traversing a silent desert. They penetrated 
 as far as Edinburgh without having seen an enemy ; many of 
 the soldiers perished from famine ; and, in order to save his 
 army from destraction, Edward found it necessarj' to retrace his 
 steps with all haste, grievously harassed by Randolph and 
 Douglas, who hung on the rear of the retreating army, and cut 
 off their stragglers. Brace immediately retaliated, by leading 
 his forces into the north of England, and by a forced march 
 penetrated into Yorkshire, and suddenly attacked the remains 
 of the English army, which lay encamped at Biland abbey, near 
 ilalton. Although they were drawn up in a position of great 
 strength, the masterly dispositions of Bruce speedily determined 
 the victory in his favour. Edward with difficulty escaped to 
 York, leaving an immense booty and many prisoners in the 
 hands of the Scots, who, after plundering and devastating the 
 whole covmtry north of the Humber, returned in safety to their 
 own country. These successive disasters, together with the 
 divided state of his kingdom, and the treachery of many of his 
 nobles, made the English king anxious for peace ; and soon 
 after, a thirteen years' truce was concluded by the mediation of 
 Henry de Sidly, grand butler of France, who had been taken 
 prisoner at the battle of Biland. Soon after, the pope was 
 induced, by the dexterous management of Randolph, to address 
 a buU to Bruce, with the title of king. At this period, too, a 
 son was bom to Robert — 5th March, 1323— who afterwards 
 succeeded his father under the title of Da^-id II. But the 
 national joy at this event was speedily overclouded by the 
 untimely death of the king's son-in-law, the High-Steward of 
 Scotland, which caused deep and universal lamentation. 
 
 In the year following this event, 1327, the weak and unfor- 
 tunate Edward II. was deposed and murdered, and his son, 
 Edward III., a youth of fourteen, was called to the throne. The 
 council of regency, who earned on the government during the 
 minority of the king, roused the indignation of Brace by repeated 
 instances of bad faith, and at length both sides prepared for war. 
 The young king assembled a magnificent host at York for the 
 invasion of Scotland ; but before he could put his forces in motion 
 the Scottish army crossed the border, and laid waste the northern 
 counties with fire and sword. Edward pursued the invaders 
 for several weeks, tracing their march by the desolation which 
 they spread on all sides, but without success. (See Douglas, 
 Sir James.) At length the Scots regained their own country 
 in safety, laden with the plunder whicli they had collected during 
 their successful inroad. The English were now at length con- 
 rinced that all attempts to conquer Scotland must prove abortive, 
 and the disastrous issue of the recent expedition, the impoverish- 
 ment of the public exchequer, and the desolated condition of 
 their own country, made them at length sincerely desirous of 
 peace. Commissioners were accordingly sent with full powers 
 to conclude a permanent treaty between the kingdoms. The 
 preliminaries were settled in a parliament held at York on the 
 1st of March, 1328. It was stipulated that the English king 
 should renounce fully and for ever all claims of dominion and 
 supremacy over Scotland, and that there should be a perpetual 
 peace between the two kingdoms, for the confirmation of which 
 it was agreed that a maniage should take place between Darid, 
 son and lieir of Robert Brace, and Joanna, sister to the king of 
 England. This treaty was finally concluded at Edinburgh on 
 the 17th of JIarch, 1327, and ratified in a parliament held at 
 Northampton, the 4th of May, 1328. 
 
 This termination of the war of independence, which had lastea
 
 BRU 
 
 779 
 
 BRU 
 
 for thirty- two years, was not long survived by him to whom, 
 under God, this successful result was chiefly due. Robert, whose 
 constitution had been broken by the fatigues and hardships of 
 his early struggle, began to droop soon after ; he saw the 
 independence of his country established on a permanent basis, 
 and was attacked by a " heavy malady," which, in these days, 
 was termed a leprosy. He spent the last two years of his life at 
 Cardross, near Dumbarton ; and when his health permitted he 
 appears to have been much occupied in shipbuilding and garden- 
 ing, in enlarging his iTU-al palace, and especially in sailing on 
 the beautiful estuary of the Clyde. He died at Cardross on the 
 7th of June, 1329, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. His body 
 was buried in the abbey church of Dunfermline before the high 
 altar. His heart was taken out and embalmed, and delivered 
 to Sir James Douglas, who, in obedience to the dying commands 
 of the king, proceeded to carry it to Jerusalem for the purpose 
 of interring it in the churcli of the Holy Sepidclu-e. Douglas, 
 however, was killed at Seville on his journey in an engagement 
 with the Moors — (see Douglas, Sir James) — and his com- 
 panions brought back the heart of Brace, which was finally 
 buried in Melrose abbey. At the time of his death all classes, 
 says the venerable Barbour, made " great lamentation over his 
 untimely decease, and strong-bearded men wept full sore," regret- 
 ting his wortliy bounty, his wit, his strength, his braveiy, and 
 above all his kindness and courtesy — 
 
 " And ages after he was laid in earth, 
 ' The Good King Robert ' was tlie name he bore." 
 
 — (Barbour's Bruce ; Fordun ; Rymer's Fcedera ; M. Malmes- 
 bury.)— J. T. 
 
 BitucE, Edward, second son of Robert, earl of Carrick, and 
 brother of King Robert Bruce, was distinguished for his 
 indomitable courage, which, however, often degenerated into 
 recklessness ; but was deficient in the judgment and prudence 
 necessary to constitute a great commander. His tlioughtless 
 impetuosity repeatedly exposed himself and his brother to 
 imminent danger, and he at last lost his life in an engagement 
 with an enemy of vastly superior numbers, whom he insisted on 
 fighting, in opposition to the earnest advice of his principal 
 officers, 5th October, 1318. He was killed by John Maupas, 
 who was himself found lying dead upon the body of his enemy. 
 Notwithstanding tlie generous conduct of King Robert at the 
 battle of Bannockburn, tlie English, to their gi'eat disgrace, 
 treated the dead body of Edward Bruce with revolting indignity. 
 It was quartered, and exposed in four different places in Ireland 
 as a public spectacle, and the head was carried over by the 
 English general as an acceptable present to King Edward. 
 — (Barbour's Bruce.^ — J. T. 
 
 Bruce, David, only son of King Robert Brace, ascended 
 the throne in 1329, when he was little more than five years of 
 age. His reign began amid circumstances highly auspicious, 
 but in no long time the kingdom began to suffer both from 
 intestine treason and foreign aggression. The celebrated Ran- 
 dolph, earl of Moray, the regent, died at this juncture — 20th 
 July, 1332 — there is reason to believe of poison, administered 
 by the English faction ; and his successor, Donald, earl of Mar, 
 nephew to King Robert Brace, appears to have been utterly 
 unfitted for a situation so arduous and important. This unfor- 
 tunate appointment had scarcely been made when the kingdom 
 was invaded by Edward Baliol, the son of the dethroned king, 
 assisted by several powerful English nobles, who laid claim to 
 certain estates in Scotland on the gi-ound of lineal succession. 
 The total overthrow of the Scottish army at Dupplin, through 
 the incompetency of the regent — the coronation of Baliol at 
 Scone (see Bai.ioi-, Edward) — the invasion of Scotland by 
 Edward III., who now threw off" the mask which lie had at first 
 worn — the defeat of the Scots with great slaughter at Halidon- 
 hill, and the almost entire submission of the kingdom to the 
 English monarch followed in rapid succession, and it was found 
 necessary, in order to provide for the safety of the young king 
 and his consort, to send them to France, where tliey were kindly 
 received by Philip VI. The repeated invasions of the English, 
 combined with factious dissensions among tlie nobles, had reduced 
 tlie couiitiy to great extremity, when, fortunately for the cause 
 of Scottish freedom, Edward laid claim to the crown of France, 
 and declared war against that country, 7th October, 1337. This 
 step proved the salvation of Scotland. In 1341 David, then in 
 his eighteenth year, was recalled from France, and enthusiastically 
 welcomed by all classes of bis subjects. Great expectations had 
 
 been fonned of him ; but his headstrong temper, violent passions, 
 and immoderate fondness for pleasure, the result probably of his 
 education at the court of France, rendered him quite unfit for 
 the government of a country like Scotland, and speedily alienated 
 the affections of his people. 
 
 The war with England was still carried on with savage fero- 
 city; large tracts of countiy were left uncultivated, and a terrible 
 famine in consequence broke out, and continued for several years. 
 Pestilence, the natural consequence of famine, followed, and 
 swept away many thousands of the enfeebled inhabitants. A 
 two years' truce was at length concluded, which was to tenni- 
 nate at Martinmas, 1346. It was broken by the Scots, at the 
 instigation of the French king, and David invaded England 
 at the head of a powerful army, plundering and devastating 
 the whole countiy. Marching through the bishopric of Durham, 
 he encamped at a place called Beaurepair, near the city of 
 Durham, where, on the 17th of October, he was unexpectedly 
 attacked by a formidable army under Percy, Ne\Tlle, and other 
 northern barons. After an obstinate straggle the Scots were 
 completely routed, with the loss of fifteen thousand men, and 
 the kmg himself was taken prisoner, along with upwards of 
 fifty barons and knights. This calamitous defeat brought the 
 nation to the veiy brink of rain. The High-Steward, however, 
 who was now appointed guardian of the kingdom, exerted himself 
 to maintain the national independence with a courage and 
 pradence worthy of his illustrious descent ; and Edward finding 
 tlie conquest of Scotland as remote as ever, was obliged to con- 
 clude a truce with the regent, which was renewed from time to 
 time for six years. Meanwhile negotiations for the liberation of 
 the captive king were repeatedly begim and broken off"; but at 
 length they were, in 1357, brought to a successful termination. 
 The ransom finally agreed on was a hundred thousand pounds, 
 equivalent to twelve hundred thousand pounds sterling of modern 
 money. The payment of this enormous sum continued for many 
 years to be an oppressive burden on the resom-ces of the exhausted 
 country, and repeatedly brought it to the brink of insolvency. The 
 last instalment was not paid till the seventh year of Richard II. 
 David now returned to his kingdom, after a captivity of eleven 
 years, and was enthusiastically welcomed by his subjects. It 
 soon appeared, however, that his character had not been improved 
 by his long residence in England, and his headstrong and selfish 
 behaviour, particularly in attempting to set aside the right of tlie 
 Steward to the Scottish crown, in favour of Lionel, third son of 
 the English king, completely alienated the afl'ections of his people. 
 Some time after 1363, Joanna, David's consort, died at Hertford 
 castle in England, and the headstrong and impradent monarch 
 speedily contracted a maniage with Margaret Logie, a young 
 woman of remarkable beauty but inferior birth, a step which 
 gave great off'ence to his proud nobles, and seems to have 
 caused an open rapture between David and the Steward. 
 Margaret enjoyed her honours, however, only till 1369, when 
 she was divorced by the fickle king. David seems never to 
 have relinquished his base design to barter the independence of 
 his kingdom for paltry and personal advantages ; but, in the 
 midst of his nefarious intrigues for this purjiose, he was seized 
 with a mortal illness, and died in the castle of Edinburgh, 22nd 
 P'ebraary, 1370, in the forty-seventh year of his age. This 
 worthless prince presented a marked contrast to his father in 
 everj'thing, except in personal courage, and in his courteous and 
 aft'able manners. It is a melancholy consideration, it has been 
 justly said, that the death of the only son of Robert Bruce, 
 must have been regarded by his subjects as a national deliver- 
 ance. — (Wyntown's Chronicle ; Fordun ; Rpner's Fadera ; 
 Hailes' Annals.^ — J. T. 
 
 BRUCE, Rev. Archibald, professor of theology to the 
 General Associate Synod, was bom near Bannockbuni, towards 
 the middle of the last century. He studied at the university of 
 Glasgow, and was ordained at Whitbuni in 17 09. His prin- 
 cipal jiublications were — " Free Thoughts on the Toleration of 
 Popery ;" " A Dissertation on the Supremacy of the Civil Powers 
 in matters of Religion ;" "A Translation of Pictot's Discourses, 
 with Memoir of his Life and Writings;" "A Critical Account of 
 Morus, with a Translation of some of his Discourses." Mr. Bruce 
 died suddenly in 1810.— \V. B. 
 
 BRUCE, James, a celebrated traveller, was bora at Kinnaird, 
 in the county of Stirling, December 14, 1730. He was descended 
 on the female side from that noble Norman family of Brace 
 which in the fourteenth century produced the restorer of Scot-
 
 tish independence — his grandfather, David Hay, a cadet of the 
 Errol family, having married Helen Bruce, the heiress of Kinnaird. 
 Bruce was educated first at Harrow, and afterwards in the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, where he studied law, in order to prepare 
 himself for the profession of an advocate. He abandoned this 
 pursuit, however, and in 1754 mamed a Jliss Allan, daughter 
 of a deceased wine merchant in London, and at the same time 
 agreed to carry on the business left by her father. The death of 
 his wife a few months after their mamage alienated him from 
 this employment, and he endeavoured to dispel the grief that 
 had settled on his mind by the study of the Spanish and 
 Portuguese languages, and by a lengthened tour through Spain, 
 Portugal, Holland, and Germany. 
 
 On the death of his father in 1758, Brace returned to Eng- 
 land to take possession of the family estate, and spent three 
 years in retirement, principally in studying the Arabic language. 
 A project for making a descent upon Spain, which Bruce laid 
 before the elder Pitt, brought him into contact with the govern- 
 ment. Lord Halifax, another of the ministers, proposed to him 
 to visit the coast of Barbaiy, which had as yet been but partially 
 explored, and it was a casual reference made by his lordship 
 to the unknown source of the Nile, which fu-st suggested to 
 the enterpn^ng mind of Bruce that he should attempt " this 
 great discovery," which " for the last two thousand years had 
 been a detiance to all travellers, and an opprobrium to geography." 
 
 With the view of affording Bruce a favom-able opportunity of 
 exploring the African coast. Lord Halifax conferred on him the 
 office of consul at Algiers. After a preliminary tour in Italy, 
 where he spent several months in exploring the works of art in 
 Rome, Naples, and Florence, Brace proceeded to Algiers, which 
 he reached on the 15th of JIarch, 1763. He spent two years 
 there in acquiring a thorough knowledge of Arabic, and of the 
 nidiments of surgery. In August, 1765, Brace quitted Algiers, 
 and entered on his proposed expedition. He spent upwards of a 
 year in the prosecution of his discoveries along the African coast, 
 during which he was exposed to considerable danger and suffer- 
 ing from shipwreck and severe illness. He then proceeded to 
 Asia Slinor, where he visited Baalbec and Palmyra, and made 
 careful drawings of these celebrated rains, which were ultimately 
 presented by him to the royal fibrary at Kew. At length, in 
 June, 1768, he sailed for Alexandria, resolved no longer to 
 delay the execution of his long-clierished design, to explore 
 the sources of the NUe. From Alexandria he proceeded to 
 Cairo, and having obtained a number of recommendatory letters 
 from the bey, whom he had cm-ed of an illness, and from a 
 Greek patriarch, he at length embarked on the Nile, December 
 12th, 1768, and sailed up the river as far as Syene ; then leaving 
 the Nile, he crossed the desert to Cosseir, a fort on the Red Sea, 
 whence he sailed for Jedda in April, 1769. He remained for several 
 months in Arabia FeUs, employing huuself in making obseixa- 
 tions upon the coasts of the Red Sea. On the 3d of September 
 he sailed for Loheia, and on the 19th landed at Masuah, the 
 port of Abyssinia, where he encoimtered great danger and diffi- 
 culty, and was detained for two months by the treachery and 
 avarice of the nayib, a governor of that place. It was not till 
 the loth of November that he was permitted to resume his 
 journey. He endured severe sufferings in crossing the Tarenta 
 mountains, but at length, after a perilous jouraey of ninety-five 
 days from JIasuah, he reached Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia, 
 about the middle of Febraary, 1770. By his medical slull and 
 his graceful manners, Brace speedily ingi-atiatcd liimself with 
 the most considerable persons belonging to the com-t, and was 
 treated with special favour by the king and his cliicf minister, 
 Ras Michael. Towards the end of October, 1770, he set out 
 upon the last stage of his journey for the sources of the Balu: el 
 Azrek, or Blue Nile, which was then supposed to be the main 
 stream of the Nile — though this honour is now generally assigned 
 to the Bahr el Abiad, or White Nile — and on the 14th of Nov. 
 he succeeded in accomplishing the great object of his ambition. 
 After spending a few days in the neighbourhood of this memor- 
 able spot, he retraced his steps to Gondar, which he reached on 
 the 17th of November. Having accomplished his arduous 
 undertaking, Bruce was now anxious to return home ; but he 
 found it no easy mr.tter to obtain leave of the king, who was 
 engaged in suppressing an insurrection in his kingdom, and was 
 desirous to secure the assistance of so able an auxiliary. The 
 traveller was therefore obliged, in order to clear his way home- 
 wards, to take part in three successive engagements. May, 1771, 
 
 between the royal forces and the rehels, and rendered such signal 
 services to the cause of the government, that the king presented 
 him with a massive gold chain, and at length gave him permission 
 to depart. It was not till the ■20th of December, thirteen months 
 after his return from the source of the Nile, and two years afler 
 he had entered the country, that he was enabled to set out on his 
 homeward journey. In order to avoid coming in contact with 
 the treacherous napb of JIasuah, he resolved to return through 
 the gi-eat desert of Nubia, instead of following the more easy 
 and direct road by which he entered Abyssinia. On the 28d oi 
 March, after undergoing a series of the most di-eadful hardships, 
 he reached Teawa, the capital of Abbara, where he found the 
 sheikh quite as rapacious as the ruler of ilasuah ; by his intre- 
 pidity and presence of mind, however, he completely cowed the 
 petty tvrant, and was allowed to depart unmolested. On the 
 29 th of April he reached Sennaar, the capital of Nubia, where 
 he was detained upwards of four months by the villany of those 
 who had undertaken to supply him with money, and was reduced 
 to such straits that he was obliged to dispose of nearly the 
 whole of his gold chain. At length, on the 5th of September, 
 he was enabled to begin his jouraey across the great Nubian 
 desert, the most difficult and dangerous part of his route. For 
 twelve weeks he and his party toiled through the desert, enduring 
 the most fi-ightful hardships ; their provisions fiiiled, and they 
 were in constant danger of being swallowed up by the moving 
 sands, or robbed and murdered by the roving bands of Arabs. 
 His camels and one of his attendants perished ; he was compelled 
 to abandon his instraments and papers, and it was not until 
 after the last remaining meal had been served out to his men, 
 that they reached the town of Assouan, upon the Nile, where 
 their necessities were liberally supplied. After a few days' rest 
 at this place, he rode back into the desert, and recovered his 
 baggage and instraments, among which was a valuable quadrant 
 of three feet radius, presented to him by Louis XV. He 
 then sailed down the Nile to Cairo, which he reached on the 
 10th of January, 1773, after an absence of four years from 
 civilized society. In March, 1773, he embai-ked for Mar- 
 seilles, and on reaching France was received with marked 
 attention by Count Buflon and other distinguished French 
 savans. In the summer of 1771 he returned to England, after 
 an absence of twelve years. He was treated with great distinc- 
 tion by his countrjTnen, and was introduced at court, and 
 received in a very flatteiing manner by the king, to whom he 
 presented the drawings of Palmyra and Baalbec, which his majesty 
 had requested him to execute ; but his anecdotes respecting the 
 customs of the Abyssinian and Nubian tribes were Hstened to 
 with incredulity, and were severely ridiculed by the Grab Street 
 writers of the day. Keenly resenting this treatment, Brace 
 retu-ed to his estate, where he busied himself in the an-ange- 
 ment of his afiairs, which had become disordered during his 
 long absence. In 1776 he manied Miss Dundas of Fingask, 
 by whom he had three children. She died in 1785, and as 
 a means of diverting his thoughts from his bereavement, he, 
 in compliance with the advice of his friends, appfied himself 
 assiduously to the preparation of his joiuTials for the press. 
 They appeared in 1790, in five vols. 4to, embellished with 
 plates and charts. The whole of the first edition was immediately 
 disposed of, and it was in the same year translated into French 
 and German. Tlie work was ■\iolently PssaUed by a portion of the 
 periodical press, and a host of petty enemies levelled the shafts 
 of envy, maUce, and ridicule at the devoted head of the author; 
 but his great merits have been fully acknowledged by posterity, 
 and the accuracy of his most starthng statements has been con- 
 firmed by the researches of later travellers. He was preparing 
 a second edition of his work, when his death prevented the 
 execution of his design. On the 20th April, 1794, he was 
 escorting a lady to her carriage, when his ioot shpped, and he 
 fell headlong down stairs ; he was taken up in a state of insen- 
 sibility, and expired next morning in the sixty-fifth year of his 
 age. A second edition of " Brace's Travels," accompanied by a 
 life of the author, was pubUshed in 1806 by Dr. Alexander 
 Murray, the celebrated oriental scholar. — J. T. 
 
 BRUCE, James Daxiel, Count, a Russian officer of Scotch 
 extraction, bom at Moscow in 1070 ; died in 1735. He entered 
 the artillery', and was named governor of Novogorod. In ] 709 he 
 commanded the artilleiy at the battle of Pultowa, and two years 
 later was appointed grand master of this branch of the Russian 
 forces, which he organized on an excellent footing. Later, he
 
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 instituted a school of military engineering, and in 1721 was nomi- 
 nated one of the commissioners to negotiate the peace of Nystadt. 
 
 BRUCE, John, a Scottish philosopher, was born in 1741, 
 and died m 1826. He for some time held the office of pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, and 
 was afterwards member of parliament for the borough of Ilchestcr. 
 He was the author of " First Principles of Philosophy ; " " Ele- 
 ments of the Science of Ethics ; " and of several works on the 
 history and government of British India. — J. T. 
 
 BRUCE, Michael, a Scotch poet, whose short and painful 
 career has added much interest to his productions. He was bom 
 in 174G, of poor parents, in Kinncswood, Kinross-shire, and 
 received a scanty education at the parish school. For six 
 successive summers he herded cattle on the hills overlooking his 
 native village, and his poem of " Lochleven" is made up of liis 
 reminiscences of this period of his life, and ought to be regarded 
 by the reader as the impressions of the shepherd boy, clothed in 
 the language of the student and tlie scholar. It was his father's 
 wish to educate him for the ministiy, but he despau-ed of being 
 able to raise tiie funds requisite for so expensive an under- 
 taking. But the son set all dithculties at defiance, and entered 
 upon the course without knowing how the next step in it 
 should be taken. Ha\ing acquired some knowledge of Latin at 
 the parish school, he set out for Edinburgh university, where 
 he was enabled to complete a course of arts, supported by a 
 small suni of money left by a relative, and by what his father 
 could spare from his slender income. Insufficient diet and 
 too hard study, however, gi'eatly impaired his health. In 17G(5 
 he was admitted a student of the theological seminary of tlie 
 Secession church, and at the end of the session was appointed 
 to a school at Fon-est Mill. Soon after symptoms of pul- 
 monary consumption began to show themselves, and became 
 every day more marked. After composing his poem of " Loch- 
 leven," he was compelled to relinquish his school and seek repose 
 at home. Shortly after he composed his " Ode to Spring," 
 which, for touching allusions and exquisite pathos, is unsur- 
 passed in the English language. He expired on 5th July, 17G7. 
 
 Some time after Bruce's death, one of his college friends, Mr. 
 John Log.in, published a volume of his fiiend's poems, omitting 
 several of his pieces, and inserting others which belonged to neither 
 the editor nor the poet, under the plea of furnishing an attractive 
 miscellany, the prolits of which would go to Bruce's aged and then 
 widowed mother. This seemed generous enough, but the person 
 for whose benefit the publication was proposed never derived any 
 adv.antage from it, wliile the editor subsequently claimed and 
 pubUshed the best of the pieces as his ovra. Among these was 
 the celebrated " Ode to the Cuckoo," and some hymns, which 
 latter have since obtained a place among the paraphrases sung 
 in the Scotch cliurches. Logan was allowed to retain the repu- 
 tation thus acquired till within these few years, when the Rev. 
 Dr. Mackelvie of Balgedie published a new edition of Bruce's 
 works, accompanied witli a memou', in wliich he establishes, on 
 what seems to us unquestionable evidence, the claims of Bruce 
 to the authorship of the " Ode" and the hymns. — W. M'K. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, one of the most influential Scottish clcrgv-- 
 men of the seventeenth century, was bom about the year 1561. 
 He was the second son of Sir Alexander Bruce of Airth, by Janet, 
 daughter of Alexander, fifth Lord Livingston. It was intended 
 by his father that he shoidd follow the profession of the law, 
 and with this view he was sent to study at Paris, and after- 
 wards at Edinburgh. On completing his education he began 
 to practise before tlie court of session. But lie soon removed 
 to St. Andrews, and commenced the study of theology under 
 the famous Andrew Jlelville. In 1587 he was invited to 
 succeed Mr. Lamie, the successor of Knox, in the chiu-ch of 
 Edinburgh. The reputation of Brace for ability and learning 
 advanced so rapidly, that he was soon regarded as one of tlie 
 most influential leaders of the church. King .James both 
 respected and feared him, and in 1580, when lie sailed for 
 Denmark to bring home his queen, he appointed I'.race a member 
 of the privy council, and gave him special charge to preserve 
 order among the people during the absence of the sovereign. 
 James, however, did not long remain on good terms with his 
 powerful subject. His temporizing policy regarding the Roman 
 catholic nobles, and his various infringements of the rights 
 of the churcli, led to fre<iuent and angiy disputes between 
 Mm and Brace. That mysterious aflair, called the Gowric 
 conspiracy, brought matters 'to a crisis. He was at last brought 
 
 to express his belief of the guilt of Cowrie and his brother, but he 
 peremptorily refused to preach upon it in the manner prescribed 
 by the king, declaring that his conscience would not allow him 
 to submit to Imman dictation respecting what he should preach. 
 The king was so incensed at this refusal, that he deprived Bruce 
 of his benefice, and banished him to France. In the following 
 year he was pemiitted to return to Scotland, but the enmity of 
 the king was by no means abated; and in 1605 Bruce was 
 formally deposed and banished to Inverness, where he remained 
 for eight years. In 1G13 he was permitted to return to his seat 
 at Kinnaird, on conifition that he would confine himself to the 
 place; but in 1621 he was committed to Echnburgh castle for 
 some months, and then banished again to Inverness. On the 
 dentil of King James m 1625, Bruce obtained permission to 
 reside at his own house. He repaired the parish church of Lar- 
 bert, which the bishop had left in rains and without a minister, 
 and preached there every sabbath-day to a numerous and deeply- 
 interested audience. One of his converts was the famous Alex- 
 ander Henderson, the restorer of presbytery in Scotland. 
 
 Robert Bruce died on the 13th of August, 1631, worn out 
 with his labours and the infirmities of age. He was undoubt- 
 edly one of the most remarkable men that the church of Scot- 
 land has produced ; and in indomitable courage, independence, 
 and spotless integrity, was a worthy successor of Knox and 
 Melville. In person he was tall and dignified, and of a majestic 
 countenance — qualities which seem to have been hereditary in 
 his family. He was the ancestor of Bruce, the Abyssinian 
 traveller, in whom much both of his person and character seems 
 to have revived. — J. T. 
 
 * BRUCH, , an eminent German botanist of the present 
 
 day, has devoted special attention to cryptogamic botany, and 
 has published, at Stuttgart, along with Schimper, a very valuable 
 illustrated work, entitled " Biwologia Eiu'opa;a; or Descriptions 
 of the Genera of European Mosses." It is the most important 
 work on this subject at the present day, and is a standai-d book 
 of reference. — J. II. B. 
 
 * BRUCK, Carl Lewis, baron von, an eminent Austrian 
 statesman, famous as the lounder and chief director of the 
 Austrian Lloyds, was bom in 1798 in the duchy of Berg. At 
 Trieste, where he married the daughter of a wealthy merchant, 
 he earned his first honours as an expert financier, in the position 
 of secretary to a maritime assurance company, the failure of 
 which led to a combination of all the assurance companies of the 
 place, which was at first called the Trieste Lloyds, but is now 
 universally known as the Austrian Lloyds. The success of this 
 important association has been mainly, if not entirely, owing to 
 the activity, enterprise, and financial skill of Brack, who con- 
 tinued to manage its aft'airs till 1848. In that year he was 
 deputed by his fellow-citizens to the national assembly at 
 Frankfort, and was on his way to that city when he received 
 from the imperial government of Vienna the appointment of 
 plenipotentiary to the Heutenant of the Germanic empire. After 
 the revolution of October, 1848, he was named minister of trade, 
 a position in wliich his talents were exercised to the mestimable 
 advantage of the commerce of the empire. In 1851 he resigned 
 his portfolio ; but in the following year was recalled to tlie 
 imperial service, and in 1853 appointed to the dignified and 
 momentous post of internuncio at Constantinople. In this 
 position lie exerted himself strenuously to avert the rupture 
 between Russia and the Porte. In 1855 he became minister of 
 finance.- -J. S., G. 
 
 BRtrCK, Moses, a modern Jewish writer, in German, on the 
 religious ceremonies of the Jews. His " Pharisiiische Volks sitten 
 und Ritualien " (Popular usages and ritu.al obseiwances of the 
 Pharisees), and his " Rabinische Ceremonialgebriiuchc" (Rabbini- 
 cal ceremonials), give evidence of ext(>nsive rabbinical reading, 
 but occasionally, too, of a spirit of levity not in character witli 
 the subject. — T. T. 
 
 BRUCKER, John James, the celebrated historian of philo- 
 so])by, was born at Augsburg in 1696. His father was a 
 wealthy burgher of the city, and he enjoyed from the first the 
 advantages of a good education. On leaving school he proceeded 
 to the university of Jena, where he studied for the Lutheran 
 church; .and having finislied his college course, became in 1724 
 rector of Kauf beueren. At Jena he distinguished himself as a 
 schohir, and before leaving the university, had already plaimed 
 the gi-eat work to which his life was devoted. lie may be said, 
 hideed, to have actually conimcnced it before his college com'so
 
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 BRU 
 
 was closed. For, as early as the year 1719, lie published at Jena 
 a tract entitled " Tentamen Introductionis in Historiam Doc- 
 trinaj de Ideis ; " four years after he published at Aug.'iburg his 
 mature work on the same subject, his " History of the Doctrine 
 of Ideas," which is still a valuable book of reference. Having 
 attracted the attention of the learned, and acquu-ed considerable 
 fame, by these and other literary labours, he was in 1731 elected 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. Having been 
 early distinguished, however, not only as a scholar, but as a 
 preacher, and his reputation as a student and di\Tne havmg 
 reached his native city, he was called to its chief protestant 
 church, St. Ulric's, of which he soon became the senior pastor, 
 holding the office till his death in 1770. His gi-eat work, 
 " Histoiia Critica Philosophia;," was first published in four vols. 
 4to, and afterwards, with great additions and improvements, in 
 six vols. 4to, in 17G7. By this learned and comprehensive work, 
 Brucker justly ranks as the father of the histoiy of philosophy. 
 Before liis day nothing had been done to any purpose in this 
 dkection. The science of history in general is comparatively a 
 recent one, and that of philosophy one of its newest branches. 
 No such thing as a history of philosophy was known in antiqiuty. 
 Brucker 's work embraces the whole range of philosophy, 
 modem as well as ancient, and is a minute history of philo- 
 sophic systems and opinions, as well as a biography of the 
 thinkers who held and taught them. In both respects, but 
 especially in the latter, it is entitled to considerable praise. 
 Brucker was a sound scholar, an indefatigable reader, a most 
 laborious and conscientious workman ; in everything requiring 
 simply scholarship and research, he is a trustworthy guide. 
 The biographical part of his work is thus peculiarly valuable. 
 He arranges his materials geogi'aphically and chronologically, 
 but not scientifically ; showing clearly enough how one 
 system arose after another, but not sufficiently illustrating 
 the connection of their root ideas, or pointing out how the 
 one was the natural development of the other. To write the 
 histoiy of philosopliy efficiently, a man must be himself a 
 philosopher, a thinker of the first order, able to appreciate and 
 interpret the whole progress of philosophic thought in every 
 phase of its development. But Brucker was hiu'dly, in any true 
 sense, a philosopher at all. He was a scholar, gifted with a 
 dihgent inquiring mind, a sound orderly brain; but he had no 
 faculty for higher speculation, and little sympathy with its 
 results. Nevertheless, his work is not simply a compilation. 
 The expositions are his own, and his criticisms, if generally of a 
 rather heavy mechanical kind, and sometimes altogether eiTO- 
 neous, are always independent, and often just. With all its 
 faults, the critical history remains as a standard work, and 
 subsequent historians of philosophy have been largely indebted 
 to its learned author. A useful English abridgment of Brucker's 
 work was published by Doctor Enfield in 1791. The original 
 edition was in two vols. 4to, but it has since been republished in 
 a single octavo volume. — T. S. B. 
 
 BKUCKJIANN, Franz Ernst, a German physician and 
 naturalist, was bora at Marienthal, near Helmstaedt, in 1C97, 
 and died at Wolfenbuttel in 1753. He practised medicme, but 
 at the same time devoted his attention to natural science. He 
 made large collections both of plants and minerals, and pub- 
 lished numerous works, among which are the following — " A 
 Treatise on Subterranean Fungi ;" " A Treatise on Asbestus, 
 and on various other Minerals ; " and " Bibliotheca Ani- 
 malis."— J. H. B. 
 
 BRUDENELL, Sir Robert, an eminent lawyer, descendant 
 of William de Bredenkell or Brudenell, who held large landed 
 property in Oxfordshire and Northamptonshire ; was constituted 
 one of the judges of the king's bench in the twenty-second year 
 of Henry VII. ; in 1509 he was removed to the common pleas, 
 of which court he was made lord chief-justice in 1520. He 
 died about the year 1535, leaving behind him a reputation 
 inferior to none of his time for ability, learning, and integrity. 
 He was the ancestor of the Brudenells, earls of Cardigan, the 
 fourth of whicli line was raised by George II. to the dukedom 
 of Montagu.— E. W. 
 
 BRUE YS D'AIGALLIERS, Fuan(;-ois-Paul, a distinguished 
 French admiral, born at Uzes in 1758, was descended from a 
 noble fainily long settled in Languedoc. He entered the navy 
 at the age of thirteen. In 1780 he was appointed a lieutenant, 
 and took part under count de Grasse in five general engagements 
 against the English. In 179G he was promoted to the rank of 
 
 rear-admiral, and six sail of the line and three frigates were 
 placed under his orders. With this force he took possession of 
 the Ionian isles, and discharged the duties intnisted to him 
 greatly to the satisfaction of General Bonaparte. In 1798 he 
 was nominated vice-admiral, and was appointed to the command 
 of the Toulon fleet which conveyed to Egypt the powerful aiiny 
 destined for the invasion of that comitiy, lOtli May, 1798. After 
 landing the troops. Admiral Bnieys anchored his fleet in Abou- 
 ku- bay, and in accordance with the advice of a council of war, 
 consisting of all the flag officers and captains of liis fleet, resolved 
 to remain at anchor in the event of being attacked. On the 1st 
 of August the English fleet under Nelson came in sight, and 
 immediately prepared for battle. (For an account of the fight, 
 see Nelson.) Through the masterly tactics of the British 
 admiral the French ships were placed between two fires, and 
 were overpowered and beaten in detail. They made a vigorous 
 defence, but in the end most of them were disabled, and com- 
 pelled to suiTcnder. Afhniral Bnieys, who had hoisted liis flag 
 in the 07nent of 120 guns, was killed by a cannon shot. He 
 refused to be carried below, saying — " A French admiral should 
 die on his quarter-deck." The Orient caught fire just as he was 
 killed, and soon after blew up with most of her crew. — J. T. 
 
 BRUGMAN or BRUGMANS, John, a celebrated Flemish 
 preacher of the Franciscan order of monks, flourished in the 
 fifteenth century. Such was his reputation with the masses of 
 the people, whom he delighted as well as instructed, "by a style 
 of eloquence which abounded in the aptest and often the most 
 humorous illustrations, that " to speak like Biiigman," " Bnig- 
 man runs after souls and I after money," and other such com- 
 pliments to the powers and enthusiasm of the preacher, were 
 by-words among his coimtrymen. He was professor of theology 
 at St. Omer, and afterwards provincial of liis order. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRUGMANS, Sebald Justin, a Dutch naturalist, was bom 
 at Franeker in 1763, and died at Leyden, 22d July, 1819. He 
 studied at Groningen and Leyden, and at the age of eighteen 
 became doctor of philosophy. He devoted himself assiduously 
 to natural histoiy, and more particularly to physiological botany. 
 In 1786 he became professor of botany at Leyden. Subsequently 
 he superintended the publication of the Dutch pharmacopoeia, 
 and became general sanitaiy commissioner for Holland. Hij 
 wrote upon the use of the knowledge of indigenous plants, on 
 the growth of trees, and on the mode of destroying useless 
 and poisonous plants in meadows. — J. H. B. 
 
 BRULOFF, Charles, the greatest Russian painter, bom at 
 St. Petersburg in 1800. Bruloff studied his art in Rome, and 
 acquired a European celebrity by his famous pictm-e, " Ihe 
 Last Day of Pompeii," the subject taken from the description 
 given by Pliny. The emperor of Russia named him court 
 painter, and president of the Academy of St. Petersburg. He 
 was also elected member of the academies of Bologna and Milan. 
 He is considered greatest in colour and composition ; in design 
 he is occasionally incorrect. He died on the 22d June, 1852, 
 at Maresano near Rome, and a monument was erected in his 
 honour by the Russian sculptor Chschouzipoffi — M. Q. 
 
 BRUMOY, Pierre, a Jesuit, born at Rouen in 1688. He 
 was the teacher of the prince of Talmont. His pubhcations 
 are very numerous, and show how deeply his mind was imbued 
 with the love of classical literature, over the decline of which 
 he mourned in his " Thoughts on the decline of Latin Poetry." 
 It was to spread a taste fur Greek tragedy, the superiority of 
 which was with him a dogma, that he pubUshed his translations 
 of iEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. In some instances, 
 indeed, he contented hunself with a close analysis and splinted 
 outline, accompanied by observations of emphatic admiration. 
 After various miscellaneous publications he was engaged on a his- 
 tory of the Anglican church, the twelfth and last volume of which 
 he had nearly completed wlien he died, April, 1762. — J. F. C. 
 
 BRUN, Gabriel le, a brother of the great Le Brun, the 
 French eclectic, born at Paris about 1625. He was a poor 
 painter and an indifferent engraver. He engraved several of 
 his greater brother's designs, and an allegory on the peace of 
 that wily Italian, l\Iazarin. — F. Brun, was a neat French 
 efigi-aver, of probably the same family. — Madame Vigee le 
 Brun, a lady of some talent, and member of the Academy of 
 Painting. She died in 1842.— W. T. 
 
 BRUN, Joiian Nordahl, a Norwegian poet, and bishop of 
 Bergen, was born in 1744, near Drontheim, of peasant parents. 
 He was induced to study, entirely against his will, by an elder
 
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 BRU 
 
 brother. His first literary attempt, " Zarine," a worthless tragedy 
 in imitation of Voltaii-e, was remarkable not only as being the first 
 Danish tragedy ever presented on the stage, and which was at 
 first received with much enthusiasm, but for the violent literary 
 warfare to which it led. His second tragedy, " Einer Tambesk- 
 jelver," though unsuccessful as a play, procured for him fronr 
 Guldberg, the minister at that time, 1773, a small living, to which 
 he retired ; after which he married, and rose in the church, 
 until in 1804 he became bishop of Bergen. Brmi was in his 
 place as a preacher of the gospel. In tlie pulpit he was not 
 only powerful, persuasive, and original, but the spirit of an old 
 apostle seemed to animate him. He has also left behind him 
 an honoured name as a patriot, and two national songs, " Nor- 
 ges Herlighed," and " Norges Skaal," which have taken deep 
 root in the literature and the heart of the people. His collected 
 poems appeared in a second edition at Christiania in 18 IG, the 
 year of his death. — M. H. 
 
 BRUN, Sophie Chkistiane Feedeuika, a well-known 
 German-Danish writer of prose and poetry, was bom June 3rd, 
 1765, at Tonna in Gotha, where her father, Balthasar Miinter, 
 was a distinguished preacher. When she was scarcely five weeks 
 old her father removed to Copenhagen, as cliief minister of the 
 Gennan congi-egation of St. Peter's church in that city. Educated 
 at home, under the guidance of her father, she early exhibited 
 poetical talent. In 1783 she married Johan Christian Constan- 
 tiu Brun, royal administrator of tlie West Indian trade, afterwards 
 conference-raad and knight of the order of Dannebrog. Shortly 
 after her marriage she accompanied her husband to St. Peters- 
 burg, and for some months she enjoyed daily intercourse with 
 Klopstock at Hamburg. During the severe winter of 1788-89 
 she suddenly lost the sense of liearing, which she never regained. 
 She now devoted herself with mcreased energy to poetiy and the 
 acquisition of knowledge, finding in them a compensation for her 
 great loss. From 1790 she spent the following twenty years in 
 travel and foreign residence. An account of lier first journey to 
 the south of Europe was published in the first two volumes 
 of her prose works, Zurich, 1799-1801, whilst her two last 
 volumes of the same works contain her residence in Rome, and 
 a winter spent at the sulphur baths of Ischia. In 1801 she 
 made another jom-ney through south Germany, Switzerland, 
 and Italy, spending the winter near Coppet, where she enjoyed 
 the society of madame de Stael and her father. After this 
 period she returned to Copenhagen, where she remained till her 
 death. Her first poems were published in 1795, and passed 
 through four editions. In 1812 was published a volume of 
 "New Poems," and "Latest Poems" in 1820. Her last work, 
 published in 1824, " Truth in Morning Dreams, and Ida's ^Esthetic 
 Development," is said to contain, in part, an account of her own 
 youthful hfe. She died in 1835 ; and her husband in 1836.— M. H. 
 
 BRUNCK, Richard Franz Philipp, an eminent Hellen- 
 ist, was born at Strasburg, December 30, 1729, and carefully 
 educated by the Jesuits. He devoted himself in his native town 
 to the study of the Greek authors, and to the critical emendation 
 of their works. His most renowned editions are those of Ana- 
 creon, Apollonius Rhodius, Aristophanes, 1781-83, 3 vols., the 
 Poeta; Gnomici, and above all, that of Sophocles, for which he 
 "as granted a royal pension of 2000 francs. He also edited 
 I 1 lutus and Terentius, and died in his native town, June 12, 
 1^'>3.— K. E. 
 
 BRUNEHAUT, the famous queen of Metz or Austrasia, 
 ilanghtcr of Athanagildas, king of the Spanish Visigoths, born 
 in 534; espoused in 568 Siegbert, king of Austrasia. About 
 the same time Chilperic, king of Ncustria, brother of Siegbert, 
 married her younger sister, Galswintha. This prince having put 
 his wife to death, and invaded Austrasia while Siegbert was 
 engaged in repelling an invasion of the Huns, Brunohaut urged 
 her husband to retaliate by a war in Neustria, in the course of 
 which Siegbert was assassinated, and Branehaut herself taken 
 prisoner. On her escape from Rouen, after her marriage with 
 Meroveus, son of the king of Ncustria, she rctumed to Metz, 
 and combating successfully the opposition of the nobles, wielded 
 the royal authority during the minority of her son Childcbert. 
 After tlie death of that prince, and the accession of her gi"and- 
 sons, Thierry and Theodebert, the nobles of Austrasia compelled 
 her to fly into Burgundy. These two princes having quarrelled, 
 she took part with Thieny, who put his brother to death in 612. 
 Thierry dying in the following year, she again assumed the 
 authority of regent ; but being attacked by her ancient enemy, 
 
 Frcdegonda, second wife of Chilperic I., she was betrayed by her 
 nobles into the hands of the Neustrians, and, as some historians 
 report, delivered during three days into the hands of a brutal 
 solcJjpry, drawn at the tail of a wild horse, and finally bumed 
 piecemeal. Her character and government have been the source 
 of endless controversy — one class of historians representing her 
 as the most virtuous of women, and the most illustrious of sove- 
 reigns, and another abusing her memoiy as an infamous woman 
 and a bloody usurper. Gregory of Tours, her contemporary, is 
 in the former class ; and in the latter there is found no author df 
 an earlier date than a centuiy after her death. Tradition, which 
 attributes to her the foundation of numerous hospitals, and the 
 credit of repairing the Roman roads through Burgundy, Picardy, 
 and Flanders, is all in favour of her blameless character and 
 excellent government. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRUNEL, Sir Marc Isambard, a civil engineer of con- 
 summate ability and originality. He was born at Hocqueville in 
 Normandy in the year 1769. His father, a gentleman of ancient 
 lineage and some landed property, with the living of his parish at 
 his disposal, destined the younger Brunei for the church. But no 
 exertion on the part of his teachers at St. Nicain in Rouen — no 
 punishment threatened or inflicted at home, could secure pro- 
 gress. An instinctive predilection for mechanical contrivances, 
 together with a marked inaptitude for literary studies, was early 
 exhibited : nor was the latter defect ever overcome — a residence 
 of half a century in England having been insufficient to secure 
 Brunei a coiTcct knowledge of the language, while it robbed 
 him of the power of using his own with facility. The cai-penter's 
 shop and the wheelwright's yard had alone interest for the future 
 engineer. At length, in something like despair, steps were 
 taken to place the incorrigible idler in the navy. To this end 
 it was necessary that some knowledge of numbers and of mathe- 
 matics should be obtained. Euclid was devoured with a\ddity 
 — read, as Sir Isambard has been often heard to say, with all 
 the interest usually excited by a novel. No proposition ever 
 required to be perused twice. Upon his first introduction 
 to the naval officer under whose charge he was about to be 
 placed, he observed upon the table a quadrant. With the prin- 
 ciple of its action he was acquainted, but before this visit he 
 had never seen the instrument ; nor did he then venture to touch 
 it : yet, by a careful examination of it, as he walked round 
 the table, he was enabled to construct an instrument which he 
 used exclusively during his service in the navy. Drawing was 
 his pleasure — penmanship his delight. In both his excellence 
 was remarkable ; and, at a late period of life, he could describe 
 a circle with his hand alone, and determine the centre with 
 mathematical precision. To his mind, lines accurately repre- 
 sented forces, and of their relative value and position he would 
 always satisfy himself, before accepting any numerical calcula- 
 tion. Hence the immense importance which he attached to 
 drawing ; always considering it the true alphabet of the engineer, 
 without which he believed no complete idea of construction could 
 ever be realized. To his penmanship he was once indebted for 
 liberty, and perhaps for life. Upon the evening of the day — 
 17th January, 1793 — that the assembly voted the death of 
 Louis XVI., Brunei expressed himself in such strong coiulenma- 
 tory language of the proceeding, in one of the cafes in Paris, tiiat 
 he became a marked man, and narrowly escaped the guillotine. 
 With difficulty a passport for America was procured for him. 
 In his haste the passport was forgotten, and he embarked with- 
 out one. The vessel had not been long at sea when she was 
 boarded, and passports demanded. This event young Brunei 
 had anticipated ; but such good use had he made of his time 
 in imitating the passport of a fellow voyager, that he did not 
 hesitate to submit the cheat to official inspection. He escaped. 
 During the voyage he formed the acquaintance of a gentleman 
 engaged by the state of New York to make surveys of some of 
 the principal tributaries of the Hudson. From this gentleman 
 he gladly accepted the situation of assistant. During the con- 
 nection he had many opportunities of exhibiting his genius in 
 overcoming the natural difficulties with which .such an imder- 
 taking was necessarily beset in a wild and savage country 
 — rapids to be passed, forests to be penetrated. Upon Brunei's 
 return to New York, ho soon found employment, and was engaged 
 as engineer and architect in the construction of machinery of 
 various kinds, and in the erection of public buildings. To him 
 is due some of the important improvements in the printing- 
 press, and the application of machinery to the boring of ordnance.
 
 BEU 
 
 784 
 
 BRU 
 
 The first theatre at New York (subsequently burned down) was 
 erected by him, and it has been described as a masterpiece of 
 symmetry and elegance. 
 
 But a new field of constructive engineering opened ttjroim. 
 With the di-awings and working model of machinery for the 
 manufacture of blocks, he found his way to England in 1800, 
 impelled thither not only by respect for the liberal institutions 
 and nautical character of the countiy, but by an attachment 
 which he had early formed for Miss Kingdom, an English lady, 
 while she was at school in Rouen. The patent of ]\Ir. Walter 
 Taylor of Southampton had come into operation in 1781 ; con- 
 tracts had been made, to disturb which was held to be impossible. 
 After many vexations and disappointments, Brunei was installed 
 at Portsmouth in 180-1; but it was not until 1808 that the whole 
 system was, by the ingenious and indefatigable inventor, con- 
 sidered complete. From that time to the present, during a period 
 of the most unprecedented advancement in the mechanical arts, 
 no improvement has been either made, or even suggested, in the 
 block machiueiy at Portsmouth ; and it may be further added, that 
 to the mechanical appliances then first introduced, is the mechani- 
 cal world indebted for much of its present precision and economy. 
 It is computed that, to complete the shells of blocks, four men can 
 now accomplish what required fifty men by the old method ; that 
 to prepare the sheaves, six men can now do the work of sixty ; 
 and thus, that ten men can with ease, uniformity, and celerity, do 
 that which demanded the uncertain labour of one hundred and 
 ten. As a remuneration for his success m this unparalleled work, 
 Brunei asked the saving of one year, £20,000. He received 
 two-thirds. Besides the circular saw, Bnuiel now introduced 
 the circular knife, increasing thereby many fold the economy of 
 veneer-cutting. But he met here with most violent and suc- 
 cessful opposition from the trade. Amongst other works of a 
 less striking character, yet sufficient to have raised any other 
 man to the highest position in his profession, nuiy be enumerated 
 a suspension bridge, so admirably constructed as to resist the 
 hurricanes of the east; the application of condensed carbonic 
 acid gas as a moving power; the construction of an arch of 
 large span without centei-ing ; the introduction of those strong, 
 light, and economical roofs now common at our railway stations ; 
 and the masterly an-angement at Chatham for the prepai'ation 
 of timber for the construction and repair of shipping. This 
 beautiful arrangement displays in a remarkable manner that 
 singular comprehensiveness and simplicity of design, with el.abo- 
 rateness of detail, which so strongly characterize all Brunei's 
 labours. It may be noted, that so confident was he in the 
 completeness of his instnictions and in his resident engineer, 
 ^Ir. Elcum, that he scarcely visited the works until they were to 
 be reported upon as finished. The first double-acting marine 
 steam-engine was Brunei's invention— an engine which gave 
 such umbrage to the good people of Margate in 1816, upon the 
 occasion of the first trial trip, that common civility was denied 
 to all connected with the vessel, and a night's lodging absolutely 
 refused to the ingenious Inventor at the hotel. Of all his 
 labom-s, however, the one which has most excited the atten- 
 tion, not only of this country, but of civilized Europe, is the 
 Thames tunnel. The project for connecting the shores of the 
 Thames below London bridge, so as to avoid any interference 
 with the navigation, had long been considered an important 
 commercial desideratum. A company was formed in 1825, 
 and the works were commenced by sinking a shaft fifty feet in 
 diameter, from whence the horizontal excavation was opened by 
 means of a shield in u-on of singular and beautiful constniction, 
 thirty-si.x. feet wide and twenty-two feet high, allowing a double 
 arched roadway to follow, in brick and Roman cement. In the 
 spring of 1843 this work, which thirty-four years before, had 
 been pronounced by the highest scientific and practical authori- 
 ties impracticable, was completed. The histoiy of the Thames 
 tunnel — the last, and, as its gifted architect always considered 
 it, the greatest of his mechanical conceptions, and to which he 
 devoted the latter years of his valuable and fruitful life — has yet 
 to be written. In its progress an unusual variety of engineering 
 resources were developed ; an amount of energy, courage, and 
 endurance exhibited, uever before demanded iu the execution of 
 any work of peace. 
 
 In his person Bnmel was below the middle size, more actively 
 than strongly fonned, and of a ner.'ous lymphatic temperament. 
 His countenance and head were striking ; the latter of unusual 
 development both in the reflective and knowing faculties. In 
 
 his disposition he was peculiarly social and unaffected ; le,ss 
 remarkable for dignity, perhaps, than for amiability : had he not 
 been a great mechanist, he would probably have proved a dis- 
 tinguished philanthropist. Strongly attached to free institutions 
 Brunei resisted every temptation held out by other governments, 
 and more particularly by that of Russia, to increase his wealth 
 at the sacrifice of his independence. He died in London on the 
 12th December, 1849, in his eighty-first year, vice-president of 
 the Royal Society, and corresponding member of the Institute 
 of France, lea\'ing two daughters and one son. — E. B. 
 
 BRUNEL, IsAMBARD Kingdom, C.E., F.R.S., son of Sir 
 Marc Isambard Brunei, and, like his father, one of the most 
 eminent engineers of the present century, was bom in 1806 at 
 Portsmouth, where Sir JIarc was then engaged in erecting the 
 famous block-factory. The bent of his mind towards the same 
 pursuits as the elder Brunei had followed with European renown, 
 was marked at an early age by the intelligent interest which he 
 manifested in all his father's plans and occupations; by his 
 enthusiastic love of drawing; and by the ease and rapidity with 
 which he mastered difficult problems in mechanical science. Art 
 from the period of his boyhood was a passion with him, and to 
 the last he had the keenest relish for everything connected with it. 
 When he was about fourteen years of age he was sent to Paris, 
 and after going through a course of preparatory studies under t'je 
 care of M. Masson, was placed for two years in the college of 
 Henri Quatre. This discipline, following upon the an-xious 
 tutelage of his father, who was no doubt his best as well as his 
 earliest instructor, qualified him for taking an important part 
 in the great undertakings of Sir Marc ; and on his return to 
 England he entered his father's office, to be immediately engaged 
 in such works as the Thames tunnel (see preceding memoir). 
 This magnificent enterprise was commenced in 1825, when the 
 younger Brunei was in his twentieth year. By this time his 
 great capabOities as an engineer were manifest to all with whom 
 he came in contact. At the foundation of these, it was observed, 
 lay his determination to master completely the details of what- 
 ever subject engrossed his attention. Drawing, modelling, and 
 description of plans, were all easy to him, because his plans 
 were the offspring of a mind which no labour or difhculty 
 daunted, and which could only rest in the most thorough con- 
 ception and mastery of any given problem. It is said that if 
 he had failed in the pursuits he had chosen, he would have had 
 no lack of chances of pre-eminent distinction as a workman. 
 And while his skill in mechanical science was gradually obtain- 
 ing the recognition it merited, he was giving abundant proof 
 that his energy and enterpi-ise were inferior only, and perhaps 
 not inferior, to those of his father. Throughout the period ir> 
 which Sir Marc was employed in the construction of the Thames 
 tunnel, the younger Brunei underwent, in connection with the 
 work, an amount of fatigue and anxiety which seriously impaired 
 his health for the rest of his life. From such difficulties as 
 attended its execution, men of only ordinary physical and mental 
 energy would have slirunk, but both father and son had in them 
 a Norman hardihood of disposition, which in the face of difficul- 
 ties rose into a kind of heroism, and would not be baulked of 
 its purpose. In 1828, when an irruption of the river put a 
 period temporarily to the works under the Thames, the younger 
 Brunei undertook the construction of docks at Sunderland and 
 Bristol. These, and works of a similar kind at various seaports, 
 are among the best monuments of his genius. About the same 
 period he offered a design for a bridge across the Avon at Clif- 
 ton, which Telford recommended should be adopted ; but the work 
 was not completed. In consequence, however, of the merit of 
 this design. Brand's name became favourably known in Bristol; 
 and, on its being proposed to form a railway between London 
 and that city, Brunei was appointed engineer. By this app'iint- 
 ment, and his former connection with iron roads, as engineer 
 to the Bristol and Gloucestershire and the Jlerthyr and Cardift" 
 tramways, his attention was powerfully directed to the construc- 
 tion of railways, and the results were such as to bring his name 
 before the public in the most prominent manner. As engineer 
 of the Great Western Railway Company, it is well known that he 
 introduced, in the face of much uncivil o])position, what is popu- 
 larly called the broad gauge. The controversy to which it gave 
 rise has still an interest for the professional man, but this is not 
 the place to enter into details. Apart, however, from this fea- 
 ture of the Great Western, its constniction was such as to 
 enhance prodigiously the fame of Brunei. The viaduct at Han-
 
 BRU 
 
 r.KU 
 
 well, tlie ^.laidenliead bridge, and the Bos tunnel, still remain 
 
 objects of great interest to the professional student, as well as 
 
 to the ordinary sight-seer. As a railway engineer, if not always 
 
 snccessfiil in carrj-ing out his magnificent schemes, Bninel was 
 
 at least fortunate in the recurrence of gi-eat opportunities. In 
 
 the construction of the Soiith Devon and Cornish railways, no 
 
 less than in that of the Great Western, the range and amplitude 
 
 of his resources were abundantly tested. The sea wall of the 
 
 ♦"'nner railway, the bridge over the Tamar, called the Albert 
 
 ige, and the bridge over the Wye at Chepstow, show that it was 
 
 lii no inglorious result. On the South Devon railway Brunei 
 
 tried, but without siiccess, the plan previously adopted on the 
 
 London and Croydon line, of propelling the carriages by atraos- 
 
 1 >ric pressure. As is well known, it was his connection with the 
 
 •at Western railway that led Brunei into another department 
 
 iiis art, viz. shipbuilding. The Great Westeni, the power and 
 
 iiage of which was double that of the largest ship afloat at 
 
 time of her construction, was built under the supervision of 
 
 inel, to run between England and America. The Great Bri- 
 
 ;i, which was double the tonnage of the Great Western, and 
 
 ice the size of the largest iron vessel afloat, came next. When 
 
 ■s magnificent ship was wrecked upon the rocks in Dun drum 
 
 ^.ly, Brunei's views of her superiority in point of strength to any 
 
 vessel constructed of wood, were signally confinned, and he had 
 
 eventually the satisfaction of seeing her again afloat. It must be 
 
 ' orded to the honour of this great engineer, that he was among 
 
 • first of his profession to recognize the advantages of the screw 
 
 ;i^ a propeller. He adopted it in the Great Britain, and the first 
 
 ^liip in the British i\a\\ which was furnished with a screw was 
 
 • I ed with it at the instigation and under the du-ection of Brunei. 
 
 1851 and 1852, Brunei's mind was much occupied with the 
 
 :i that, to make long voyages economically and speedily by 
 
 :»m, vessels must be made hu-ge enough to cany coal for the 
 
 lire voyage outwards, and in the case of the outpost being ill 
 
 ; plied with fuel, for the return voyage also. With this idea 
 
 .'inated that of the Great Eastern. And with the completion 
 
 ; this "Leviathan" of steam ships closed the career of BruneL 
 
 He died on the 14th September, 1859, having been carried home 
 
 a few days before from the deck of the Great Eastern — the scene 
 
 of anxieties greater than his impaired health could bear, and, it 
 
 need not be added, of a triumph that links his name with the 
 
 progress of British enterprise in arts and commerce. — J. S., G. 
 
 BBUXELLESCHI, Filippo, sculptor and architect, whose 
 name is inscribed by Florence in the roll of her greatest men. 
 In the age of Brunelleschi, Gothic architecture had almost 
 supreme sway; but in his mind the li\-ing genius of Greece 
 again found a dwelling-place, and his works were rather fresh 
 creations of the ancient spirit, than servile imitations of its 
 external forms. He was born at Florence in 1377. His father, 
 a man of some note, wished him to be either a notary or a 
 physician ; but, j-ielding to his son's delight in ingenious questions 
 of mechanism and art, he placed him at last in the guild of 
 goldsmiths — in an age when working in gold was an independent 
 art, and not the mere servant of fashion. Branelleschi soon 
 distinguished himself by the elegance of his works in the pre- 
 cious metals, and the curious ingenuity of his mechanical con- 
 trivances. Adopting architecture rather than sculptor as his 
 profession, he journeyed to Rome, and studied so minutely the 
 mechanism and tlie gi-ace of its stately mins, that he was said 
 to be capable of reconstructing the city in his imagination, and 
 of discerning Rome as she had been before her desolation. A 
 great and worthy ambition gave deeper intensity to liis studies, 
 Amolpho di Lappo had left unfinished his gi'cat work — the 
 church of Santa JIaria del Fiore at Florence ; and a conference 
 of architects and engineers was held to consult upon its comple- 
 tion. The four branches of the cross fomiing the church were 
 finished ; but it was necessary to unite them by means of a 
 cupola. The supports of the cupola formed an octagon of large 
 diameter ; and there were great diflicultics involved in its adap- 
 tation to that form, on the immeitse scale required by the 
 proportions of the church. His studies at Rome, particularly of 
 the temple of Minerva ^ledica, came to his aid, and he proposed 
 that there should be a double cupola, tunied in the manner of 
 the pointed arch, the one vaulting within and the other without, 
 in such sort that a passage should be fonned between the two ; 
 the form of the pointed arch adjusting itself to the walls of the 
 base, and rapidly ascending to a magnificent height, while a 
 lantern, crowning the whole, would help each part to give sta- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 bility to the other. Nothing similar had been attempted before, 
 and the proposal was received with derision. But by the con- 
 stniction of models, Brunelleschi proved that the laws of nature 
 were on his side ; and he was finally commissioned to execute 
 the work, the successful completion of which constitutes an 
 epoch in architectural history. Brunelleschi, however, laboured 
 under the imputation of attempting an impossible task. Unfor- 
 tunately he died before his great task was finally completed, and 
 his successors did not accurately carry out his instructions with 
 respect to the lantern of the dome, giving it proportions which 
 contrast disagi'eeably with the rest of the building, while they 
 omitted one part of a galleiy he designed. — Brunelleschi erected 
 many other buildings — amongst others, the churches of San 
 Lorenzo and of the Holy Spuit at Florence ; the abbey of the 
 canons regular at I'iesole ; an arch in the sacristy of the canons 
 at Duomo ; the chapter-house of Santa Croce for the Florentine 
 ftimily of the Pazzi ; with the front elevation of the palace of 
 the Pitti, and several smaller palaces. He revived the use of 
 antique coniices, and restored the vaiious ancient orders of 
 architectm-e to their primitive forms. In his works there is 
 uniformly the grandei..- of a noble simplicity, although, perhaps, 
 one finds less harmo.,y in the details than in the masses, and 
 more of general vigour than of minutely delicate elaboration. 
 He died in 1446.— L. L. P. 
 
 BRUXFELS, Otto, a German physician and botanist, was 
 bom about the year 1464, in the neighbourhood of JIayence, 
 and died at Berne on 23d Xovember, 1534. — J. H. B. 
 BRUNI, Leoxaedo. See Aeetixo. 
 
 BRUNO, founder of the order of Carthusians, bom at Cologne 
 about the year 1030, was descended from an ancient and hon- 
 om-able family. Educated at Paris, and then at Rheims, he 
 had earned such a reputation for learning and piety in the 
 course of his academical career, that, about the time when he 
 should have quitted the latter university, be was raised to the 
 office of scholasticus, or director of studies in all the gi-cat 
 schools of the diocese. This situation he filled with gi'eat credit 
 for a number of years. In 1077 he formed the resolution of 
 retiring to a place of solitude, and accompanied by six clerks of 
 the church at Rheims, repaired first to Saisse Fontaine in the 
 diocese of Langres, and then to the desert of Chartruse in the 
 d'ocese of Grenoble. Here in 1084 he founded his celebrated 
 order. Each of his companions had a separate cell, in which, 
 practising the austerities of the rule of St. Benedict, they passed 
 six days of the week in unbroken silence, assembling only on 
 Simdays. He had passed six years in this solitude when Urban 
 II., who had been his pupil, summoned him to Rome. The pope 
 received him with every mark of respect and confidence, and 
 pressed him to accept the bishopric of Reggio. Refusing that 
 dignity, he asked permission to retire into the district of Cala- 
 bria, where, having founded a second Carthusian house named 
 La Torre, he died in 1101. He was interred in the chmxh of 
 the monastery. Leo X. canonized him in 1514. — J. S., G. 
 
 BRUXO, Giordano, born at Xola in the Idngdom of Naples, 
 about the middle of the sixteenth centuiy — the precise date of 
 his burth cannot be ascertamcd — called also il Nolano from 
 the name of his native place. The events of his early life are 
 enveloped in obscurity. Attracted, when yet a boy, by the love 
 of study to what was then considered the most suitable refuge 
 for such a calling — namely, the monastic solitude — he entered 
 a Dominican convent in his native land. But no sooner had he 
 drank at the sources of Hellenic poetry and philosophy, than he 
 felt the incompatibility of his classical aspirations with the 
 monkish life. Forswearing, tliercfore, his vows, he left the cell 
 of the friar to wander, as a knight-errant of philosophy, on the 
 highways of the world. He went first to Geneva when still 
 very young — perhaps at the age of twenty-five — in 1580 ; but 
 Calvinism seemed to ofter no better welcome to his ojiinions, or 
 satisfaction to his intellectual wants, than Romanism had done. 
 Thus, after a sojourn of two years at Geneva, we find him in 
 Paris, then in England, subsequently in Germany, challenging 
 everywhere the Peripatetics, teaching, delivering lectures, disput- 
 ing with masters of arts and superciUous rectors of universities, 
 ami publishing ]ihilosopl)ical books in Latin and Italian, in prose 
 and verse, with the main object in new of showing the fallacies 
 of the current philos'^phy. 
 
 Bruno was possessed, for the furtherance of his task, of a 
 staunch consciousness of the troths which had flashed on his 
 mental insight, of a large amount of original learning derived 
 
 5 G
 
 BRU 
 
 786 
 
 BRU 
 
 from Greek and Latin sources, of an extensive knowledge of 
 mathematics, of astronomy, and natural sciences, according to 
 the degree of development these had reached at that time. But 
 ho also united to such acquirements an unbridled imagination, a 
 fanciful disposition to trace out ungrounded connections and 
 superficial analogies, and a vain relish to play with high sound- 
 ing words over unfathomcd mysteries, rather than to expoixnd 
 methodically the part of trath he had realized. 
 
 Relying on the spirit of independence occasionally opposed by 
 the republic of Venice to popish persecutions, he returned in an 
 ill-advised moment to Italy, and established himself as a private 
 teacher at Padua, where, at the request of the inquisition, the 
 Venetian government caused him to be arrested in 1595, and 
 given up a prey to the Roman tribunals. Having been kept for 
 two years in the prisons of the holy office at Rome, and vainly 
 urged to recant, he was doomed at last to be burned alive as a 
 heretic and apostate, the sentence ending by these remarkable 
 words, " ut quam clementissime et citra sanguinis eiFusionem 
 punirctur," such being the cruelly ironical formula by which 
 the inquisition was used to design the death at the stake. 
 Bruno, unflinching to the last, listened fearlessly to the reading 
 of the sentence, and boldly replied to his judges — " Majori 
 forsitan cum timore sententiam in me dicitis, quam ego acci- 
 piam." He was executed at Rome in Campofiore on- the 17th 
 of February, IGOO. A detailed account of his trial and death 
 is to be found in a letter of Scioppius to Curr. Rittershusio (see 
 J. Brakeri Hist. Phil., cap. de Jordano Bruno Nolano). 
 
 We cannot attempt to give here a complete outline of the 
 philosophical system of Brano, and must limit ourselves to some 
 of the principal features of it. The leading spirit which per- 
 vades the whole of his works is a deep feeling of the vmity and 
 inward reality of the universe : a comprehensive conception of 
 the two elements of philosophy- — spirit and matter, God and the 
 world — as intimately one. The blind followers of Aristotle, 
 misunderstanding their o^;^ master, had, according to Bruno, 
 lost hold of the true principle of philosophy, having no idea of 
 the supreme unity of all things and of the organism of life in 
 the universe. Matter is not m his conception a dead aggregate 
 of atoms passively waiting for an external act of vivification, 
 but it is the very implement and condition of life, or rather the 
 organic process and manifestation of its evolution, which has no 
 end. ^\lth this metaphysical theory the other one of the infinity 
 of the uni-v-crse and of the worlds is strictly connected — (see the 
 dialogue " Dell' Infinito, Universo e Jlondi," 1. c.) — a subject 
 which he treats with gi-eat acuteness against the Aristotelian 
 and Ptolemaic assumption of the world being placed in a definite 
 locality. Having diligently studied the system of Copernicus, 
 Bnino embraced with enthusiasm the new doctrine, and defended 
 it against the Peripatetics with a truly heroic devotion. 
 
 There is an intimate connection between Bruno's ontology and 
 his moral philosophy. God being at the same time a perfect 
 Form, a rational Cause, and an infinitely good Will, the same 
 attributes are to be found, in duo proportion, in the phenomena 
 of the world. There is consequently, beauty and order, rationality 
 and final tendency towards perfection in every stage of being. 
 The soul of man is, through the same reason, a free, conscious 
 power called upon to fulfil its own law of development in the 
 universe. Evil and deformity, as well as death, are not real 
 entities, or self-grounded ideas — " in aliena specie cognoscuntur, 
 non in propria, quic nulla est." (J)e umhris idearwn.') 
 
 The psychology of Bruno is an emanation from his ontology. 
 There is an inner aftinity between the object and subject, between 
 the work of God in tiie universe and the understanding of man. 
 But the reflection of divine reality in the human intellect is 
 comparatively shadowy. Man cannot reach absolute truth. He 
 must be .satisfied with images more or less imbued with the 
 reflected light of it — umbrw idearum. The effusion of light 
 from the central fount of being — actus primus lucis — through 
 the substance of the universe — materia prima — and its acci- 
 dental modifications, gradually weakens as it spreads farther and 
 farther from its source. 
 
 Besides his works on metaphysical and scientific subjects, 
 Bruno wrote moral satires, generally in the fonn of dialogues, 
 and one comedy, " II Candclajo," against the corruption of his 
 times. Among these, the " Spaccio della Bestia trionfante,"' and 
 " La Cabala del Cavallo Pegaseo," deserve special mention. But 
 the most important, perhaps, among the moral writings of Bruno 
 is that which he rightly inscribed, under the title of " Gli Eroici 
 
 Furori," to his generous friend and patron in England, the 
 gi-eat Philip Sydney — a work in which he gave vent to his 
 highest aspii'ations towards divine beauty and perfection, tracing 
 out the noble struggles of the intellect in its conquest of tnith 
 and goodness, and the efBciency of the will in this militant 
 mission. — For a complete catalogue of the waitings of Bruno, 
 see, besides Bruker and Buhle, the preface to the edition of 
 his Italian works, by Wagner. — A. S., 0. 
 
 * BRUNOFF or BRUNOW, Baron Philip, one of the most 
 distingiushed living statesmen of Russia, bora at Dresden in 1794; 
 he entered the Russian sen-ice in 1818, at the tune of the congi-ess 
 of Aix la Chapelle. Count Capo d'Istria immediately formed a 
 high opinion of his capacity, and intnisted to him and Counsellor 
 Sturdza the task of compiling a ci\il code to be applied to the 
 government of the Roumane population of Bessarabia, then a 
 recent conquest. He assisted at the various congresses of 
 Troppau, Laybach, and Verona, in the quality of secretary to 
 the embassy. Count Xesselrode appreciated his talents, and 
 placed him at the head of his own chancellerie. The celebrated 
 answer of the Russian cabinet to the Anglo-French remon- 
 strance at the treaty of Unkiar-Skclessi in 1832, has always 
 been attributed to I3i-unoff. From 1840 to 1854 he acted as 
 Russian plenipotentiaiy in England, and began the exercise of 
 his functions in that capacity with the masterly treaty of the 
 loth July, 1840, which, on the eastern question, united Eng- 
 land, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, against France. The honour 
 of that achievement is universally allowed to belong to Brunoff. 
 He exerted himself to prevent that intemiption of diplomatic 
 relations between England and Russia which preceded the 
 Crimean war. At the close of the war BrmiofF was sent as 
 ambassador to Berlin, and in 1857 was again nominated am]>as- 
 sador to London. — JI. Q. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, House of, an ancient German family of 
 princely rank, descended from Albert Azo I., margrave of Este 
 in Italy, who died in 964. Guelpii, great-great-grandson of 
 this prince, inherited from his mother, daughter of Guelph II., 
 the duchy of Bavaria, and founded the junior house of Gueliih, 
 from which the Bnmswick family sprang. One of his descend- 
 ants, named Otiio, was invested with the province of Bruns- 
 wick as a fief of the empire in 1235, and was recognized as the 
 first duke of Brunswick. Several branches soon diverged from 
 the parent stem. Ernest, the Confessor, a staunch supporter 
 of the protestant cause — born in 1497; died in 1546 — 
 was the founder of both branches of the existing dynasty 
 — Branswick-Wolfenbiittel and Brunswick-Luneburg. One of 
 his descendants, Ernest Augustus of Biimswick-Luneburg, 
 joined the allies in the great war agauist Louis XIV. o" 
 France, and was rewarded with the long-desu-ed title of 
 elector of Hanover, which was procured for him through the 
 exertions of King William III. of England. (See Hanovek.) 
 George, a son of the elector, succeeded to the crown of Great 
 Britain on the death of Queen Anne in 1714. Duke Augus- 
 tus, who died in 1G6C, was distinguished for his liter.ary tastes, 
 and wrote several works under the designation of Gusta\'us Scle- 
 nus. On his decease, the youngest of his three sons became 
 duke of Bevern, and founded the line of that name. The two 
 elder, Rodolrh Ax/Gustus and Anthony Ulricii, became 
 joint rulers of Biiinswick-Wolfenblittel. The latter pubhshed 
 a number of novels, in 6 vols. 4to, and in 1710 renounced the 
 hereditary faith of his fomily, and joined the Romish church. 
 (See Carlyle's Life of Frederick the Great, vol. ii., p. 376.) 
 His great-grandson married, in 1739, Anne, duchess of Jlcck- 
 lenburg, heiress of all the Russias. Iwan, the son and heu- of this 
 couple, was mm-dered in 1704, and they were exiled to Siberia. 
 As the sons of Anthony Ulrich died without male issue, Ferdi- 
 nand Albert, of the line of Bevern, succeeded to the dukedom in 
 1735. One of his sons was the celebrated Prince FerdinanDi 
 " a cheerful, singularly polite, modesfe, and well-conditioned man 
 withal," who entered the Prassian service, acquired gi-eat reputa- 
 tion as a soldier in the Thirty Years' war, and in 1757 gained the 
 battles of Crefeld and IMinden, and di-ove the French out of West- 
 phalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel. Another son, Lewis 
 Ernest, was long captain-general of the United Provinces, but 
 was expelled by the popular party in 1787. After a reign of a few 
 montlis, Ferdinand Albert died in 1735, and was succeeded by 
 his son, Charles, who in 1754 transferred the seat of govern- 
 ment to Brunswick, and there founded the celebrated Collegium 
 Carolinum. He was succeeded in 1780 by his son, Cilakles
 
 Wii/LTAM Ferdinand, the most celebrated, but also one of the 
 most unfortunate princes of his house : bora, 1735 ; killed, 180G. 
 He devoted himself to the militai-y profession, and, at the head 
 of the Brunswick auxiliaries, distinguished himself in the Seven 
 Years' war — rendering signal service to his uncle, Frederick the 
 Great. In 17G4 he married Augusta, princess of Wales, and 
 on the return of peace, devoted himself to the improvement of 
 his ancestral dominions, which lie governed vnth. great wisdom. 
 On the breaking out of the French revolution, he was appointed 
 in 1792 to the command of the Prussian and Austrian araiies, 
 which invaded France for the purjiose of re-establishing the old 
 constitution of that kingdom. But in two successive campaigns 
 lie was foiled by the revolutionary generals ; and, disgusted 
 with his ill-success and the conduct of his Austrian allies, he 
 resigned Ids command, and withdrew to his ovfn territories. In 
 1806, when Prussia declared war against France, the duke 
 was summoned from his retirement to take the command of tlie 
 Prussian forces. But borne down by years, ignorant of the 
 new system of warfare which the French had introduced, and 
 at the head of an army morally disorganized and physically 
 inferior to the enemy, the aged duke was altogether unlit to 
 contend against Napoleon. He was first outmanoeuvred, and 
 then signally defeated, at the battles of Jena and Auerstadt, 
 fought on the same day, October 14. The unfortunate prince 
 died of his wounds at Ottensee, near Hamburg, on the lOth of 
 November, and his duchy was seized by Napoleon, and incorpo- 
 rated with the new kingdom of Westphalia. His son, William 
 1m:ederick, recovered possession of his ancestral dominions 
 'iin the French were driven out of Germany in 1813. He had 
 
 1 ved with considerable distinction under his father in the 
 campaigns of 1792, 1793, and 1806 ; and on the renewal of 
 hostilities with France after the return of Napoleon from Elba, 
 the duke joined the allied forces in Belgium with his black 
 Bnmswickers, and was killed fighting bravely at their head in 
 the battle of Quatre Bras, ICth June, 1815, in the forty-fourth 
 year of his age. (See Byron's Childe Harold, canto iv.) His 
 eldest sou, CiiAiiLES, then a minor, succeeded him; but his 
 mismanagement of the affairs of his duchy so exasperated his 
 subjects, that they rose in insurrection against him, September, 
 1830, and compelled him to seek safety in flight. On the 2nd 
 of December foUovi'ing, the Germanic confederation resolved that 
 the sovereignty of Brunswick should be transferred to his brother, 
 William, prince of Oels, who accordingly assumed the govern- 
 ment on the 25th of April, 1831.— J. T. 
 
 BRUNTON, Miis. Mary, authoress of "Self Control" and 
 " Discipline," two novels which long enjoyed a remarkable 
 popularity, and are still esteemed as among the best specimens 
 of the moral tale, was born in the island of Barra in Orkney in 
 1778. Her father, Colonel Thomas Balfour, was a cadet of one 
 of the most respectable families in Orkney, and her mother a 
 niece of the earl of Ligonier. The greater part of her education, 
 which at an early pei'lod of her life included an acquaintance 
 with French and Italian, she owed to her mother, who appears 
 to have been a woman of rare gifts and accomplishments. In 
 her twentieth year she married the Rev. Alexander Brunton, 
 minister of the parish of Bolton in East Lothian, afterwards 
 professor of oriental languages in the university of Edinburgh. 
 Her first work, " Self Control," was published in 1811. It was 
 followed by " Discipline," which sustained, but did not increase 
 her popularity. She was engaged on a third tale, " Emmeline," 
 when, to the great grief of her numerous circle of friends, she died 
 at Edinburgh in 1818. "Emmeline" was subsequently published 
 by her husband, with a prefatory memoir. — J. S., G. 
 
 BUUSASORCI. See Riucio. 
 
 IMUiSSELS, RooER or. See Vander Weyde. 
 
 BUUTO or BRUTI, Giovanni Miciiele, a Venetian his- 
 torian, was born towards 1515. A consummate scholar, Ste- 
 phens Battori invited him to Transylvania, and commissioned 
 him to write the history of that country. Having followed 
 that prince to the court of Vienna, he was apjiointed by two 
 successive emperors, Rodolplms II. and Maximilian, imperial 
 historiogi-uphcr of Austria. His " History of Florence," down 
 to the death of Lorenzo de I^Iedici in 1492, although incomplete, 
 is considered one of the best literary productions of that age. 
 The " Life of Callymaehus Experiens," the academical name of 
 Filippo Bonaccorsi, written in the choicest Latin, is also from 
 his pen. He died in Transylvania, in a state almost bordering on 
 indigence, towards tlie end of the sixteenth century. — A. C. M. 
 
 BRUTUS, the name of a family belonging to the ploljeian house 
 of the Junii, the most distinguished members of which are — 
 
 L. Junius Brutus, the supposed founder of the family. 
 He belongs rather to poetry than to real history. He was the 
 son of M. Junius and Tarquinia, the sister of the last of the 
 Taj-qiiins. His elder brother, after his father's death, was put 
 to death by the tyrant, his uncle, in order that he miglit possess 
 himself of his wealth ; and Lucius only saved his life by the 
 affectation of semi-idiotcy — whence his name of Brutus. When 
 Titus and Aruns, two of the sons of Tarquinius, were sent by 
 their father to Delphi to consult the oracle respecting a terrific 
 prodigy that had appeared to him, Brutus accompanied them. 
 Soon after this, while the king was besieging Ardea, occurred 
 the outrage by Sextus, the third son of the tyrant, on the 
 chaste Lueretia. After she had summoned her husband and 
 her father, wdth other friends, to her presence at Collatia, and, 
 having revealed to them her dishonour, had plunged a knife 
 into her breast, Brutus, while the rest stood speechless, drawing 
 it forth from the wound, swore, and called upon aU the by- 
 standers to swear, to pm'sue to destruction by fire and sword, 
 Tarquinius and all his impious race. All took the oath, and led 
 by Brutus, after placing the body of Lueretia upon a bier, they 
 brought it into the forum. When he had sufficiently roused the 
 passions of the men of Collatia, Brutus led a large body of them 
 to Rome. In the commotion that followed the monarchy fell, 
 244 years after the founding of the city; and Brutus was chosen 
 one of the two new officers, named consuls, on whom the supreme 
 government of the state devolved. Soon after this, a conspiracy 
 to restore the exiled king was detected, in which the two sons of 
 Brutus had the principal share. The story of the stern father 
 ordering and himself presiding over the execution of his sons is 
 too well known to require rec:<.pitulation. When Tarquinius, 
 having obtained the aid of the Veientines, invaded the Roman 
 territory, Brutus led an army to meet him, and engaging in single 
 combat before the battle with Aruns Tarquinius, lost his own 
 life after killing his antagonist. 
 
 Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of the assassins of 
 Julius Cffisar. He had served under Ca3sar in the civil war, and 
 had been nominated by him, shortly before his assassination, to 
 the command of the province of Cisalpine Gaul. After the ides 
 of March, Decimus Brutus, finding that nothing was to be done 
 at Rome, repaired to his province. Unable to cope with Antony, 
 who was shortly after appointed to supersede him, and mistrust- 
 ing Octavius, he sought the assistance of Plancus in Gaul. But 
 before long, Plancus joined Antony ; and Brutus, being deserted 
 by his soldiers, and betrayed by a Gaulish chief in whom he had 
 trusted, was put to death by Antony's orders. 
 
 M. Junius Brutus, son of M. Brutus, an officer in the army 
 of Lepidus, boni in the year B.C. 85. In the civil war between 
 Cassar and Pompey, Brutus was actively engaged on the side of 
 Pompey, and did good semce in the operations about DyiTa- 
 chium. At Pharsalia, Cajsar gave special orders to his soldiers 
 to save the fife of Brutus. To this he was probably moved by 
 SeiTilia, the mother of Brutus, with whom he is said to have 
 intrigued. After the battle I5rutus fled to Larissa, and there 
 gave himself up. He immediately accepted employment from the 
 conqueror, while his uncle, Cato, a man of sterner mould, after a 
 fruitless campaign in Africa, killed himself rather than yield. He 
 was greatly honoured and trusted by Ca3sar, being appointed, 
 successively, proconsul of Cisali)ine Gaul and pnvtor urbanus. 
 At the beginning of the year 44, he entered into the famous 
 conspiracy to kill the dictator. The morose and envious Cassius 
 seems to have originated the jilot, and to have worked upon the 
 vanity of Brutus, by appealing to the example of his namesake, 
 who delivered Rome from the tyranny of the Tarquins. The 
 assassination took place on the ides of March. Cxsar, according 
 to Phitarcli, ceased to resist when he saw Brutus coming against 
 him with his drawn sword, but, veiling his face, submitted to his 
 doom. After the murder, an act of oblivion for all concerned 
 was at first passed by the senate. But distrusting the temper 
 of the people, and still more that of the old soldiers of Cwsar, 
 who began to flock up to Rome, Brutus and Cassius retired 
 to their estates in the country, where they remained for 
 several months inactive. Wiieii, however, the senate had 
 assigned provinces in Asia to Brutus and Cassius as out-going 
 pra;tors — to Brutus Crete, and to Cassius Cyrcnaica, foreseeing 
 that they would have to enter upon a struggle for their vciy 
 existence, they gladly left Italy. Brutus arrived in Asia in the
 
 BRU 
 
 788 
 
 BRY 
 
 autumia of 4-1. Instead of confining himself to the province 
 assigned to him he went to Athens ; injrratiated himself with the 
 Romans of high family whom he found there; persuaded Apu- 
 leius to deliver to him a large sum of public money which he 
 was taking up to Rome, and Q. Hortensius to hand over to him, 
 instead of to C. Antonius, the lawful proconsul, the province of 
 Macedonia ; tampered successfully with the troops of Dolabella 
 and other officers ; and, by these and similar means, made him- 
 self master of Achaia, Llacedonia, and Illyricum, and of an army 
 of seven legions. Yet the senate, on the motion of Cicero, 
 ratified without hesitation all his measures ! After the sanguinary 
 proscription at Rome in 43, by Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus, 
 many of the aristocratical party fled to Brutus for protection. 
 At the end of the year Brutus and Cassius met at Sardis, and 
 arranged a plan of operations against the triumvhs. But their 
 dilatory and vacillating measures showed that they were no 
 match for Antony, a soldier trained in the school of Ca;sar. In 
 the autumn of 42 the armies met at Philippi, with such result 
 as might have been anticipated. The first action, which might 
 have been a \-ictory, was changed by the weak and premature 
 despair of Cassius into a defeat. In the second action Brutus 
 was completely defeated ; and, being cut off from his camp, fled 
 ■with some of his friends to a naiTow lonely glen not far from the 
 field of battle. We must refer to Plutarch for the striking story 
 of his behaviour during his last hours, till the moment when he 
 fell on Strato's sword. Brutus was twice married — to Claudia, 
 whom he divorced, and to Porcia, the daughter of Cato. — T. A. 
 
 BRUY£RE, Je.vn de la. See La BkuvfiRE. 
 
 BRU YN, John de, professor of natural philosophy and mathe- 
 matics at Utrecht, was born at Gorcum in 1G20. After having 
 applied himself closely to study in various places, he settled at 
 Utrecht, and became the pupil of Professor Ravensberg, whom 
 he succeeded as professor of natural philosophy and mathematics. 
 He wrote "De Vi Altrice;" "De Corporum Gravitate et Levi- 
 tate;" " De Cognitione Dei Natiarali;" and " De Lucis Causis 
 et Origine." He died in 1675. — T. J. 
 
 BRY, JoiiANX DiETERicii (Theodorus) de, a celebrated 
 engraver of the 16th centmy, has executed many valuable works 
 on botany, containing delineations of plants. His works are 
 entitled " Florilegium" and " Anthologia." — J. H. B. 
 
 BRY or BRIE, Theodore de, an eminent German engi-aver 
 and great worker, born at Liege in 1528. He set up at Frank- 
 fort as printseller and bookseller, studying the works of Sebald 
 Beham. He preferred street processions and parties of shaved 
 and feathered men, working with his graver in a neat, free style, 
 drawmg the heads especially with peculiar spirit and expression. 
 Brie died in 1598. — His two sous, John Theodore and John 
 Israel, both became engravers. They executed a " Triumph 
 of Death," &c., and a portrait of Mercator. — W. T. 
 
 BRYAN or BRYANT, Sir Francis, an English statesman 
 and man of letters of the sixteenth century. After his education 
 at Oxford, and some years spent in travel, we hear of him in 
 1522 attending on the earl of Surrey in the expedition to the 
 coast of Brittany, and leading successfully the troops sent against 
 the town of Morlaix, for which seiTice he was knighted. He 
 was afterwards sent on several diplomatic errands to Spain, 
 France, and Rome, and was gentleman of the privy chamber to 
 Henry VIII. and his son. In the reign of the latter, he joined 
 an expedition into Scotland, and distinguished himself at the 
 battle of JIusselburgh. He was sent to Ireland in 1549 as 
 lord-chief-justice, and died there in the following year. He 
 wrote some pieces which are found, with the productions of Wyat 
 and Surrey, in a collection of poems by uncertain authors, 
 printed in 1565. — J. B. 
 
 BRYAN, George, an American jurist and politician of the 
 revolutionary period, descended from an old and respectable 
 family, was born in Dublin about 1730, emigrated to America 
 at an early age, and lived in Pennsylvania over forty years. In 
 1776 he was named vice-president, and in 1778 became acting 
 president of the supreme executive council of Pennsylvania. 
 While a member of the legislature in 1779, he projected and 
 procured the enactment of a law for the gi-adual abolition of 
 slavery. In 1780 he was appointed a judge of the supreme 
 court of Pennsylvania, which office he held till his death in 
 JanuaiT, 1791. He was a conspicuous opponent of the adop- 
 tion of the federal constitution. — F. B. 
 
 BRYAN, Michael, author of the celebrated "Biographical 
 and Critical Dictionaij of Painters and Engravers," was born at 
 
 Newcastle in 1757. He resided in Flanders from 1781 till 
 1790, and on his return became known as an accomplished 
 connoisseur of paintings. He was employed to introduce to the 
 British public the well-known Orleans collection. His dictionary, 
 the fruit of many years' research and study, was published in 
 1812, and still retains its place as a standard work. — J. B. 
 
 BRYANT, CiLVRLES, an English botanist of the eighteenth 
 century, published a history of esculent plants, a dictionaiy of 
 the ornamental trees, shrubs, and plants cultivated in Great 
 Britain, and an accomit of two species of lycoperdon. — J. H. B. 
 
 * BRYANT, William Cullen, an eminent American poet 
 and man of letters, was born November 3, 1794, at Cummuig- 
 ton in western Massachusetts. When he was but thuteen years 
 old he wrote " The Embargo, or Sketches of the Times, a satire," 
 and the " Spanish Revolution and other Poems," Boston, 1808. 
 The youthful poet was entered at Williams college in 1810, but 
 left it before graduation, to begin the study of law. He was 
 admitted to the bar in 1815, and was engaged in legal practice 
 for ton years, mostly at Great Benington, Mass. In 1825 
 he finally quitted the profession, and went to reside in the city 
 of New York, where he has since exclusively devoted lumself to 
 literaiy pursuits. " Thanatopsis," the unrivalled production of 
 a youth only eighteen years old, was published by him in the 
 North American Review in 1816. In 1821 Bryant published 
 at Cambridge a volume containing " The Ages," " Thanatopsis," 
 and a few other of his finest productions. The book established 
 his position in the front rank of English poets. All the pieces 
 in it are polished to the last degi-ee of nicety, but they cannot 
 be said to betray labour, for theirs is the highest art that conceals 
 art. The forms of expression, the imagery, and the general turn 
 of thought, are perfectly simple and natm'al. The first outbreak 
 of Bryant's genius was the most rich and abundant. Since the 
 appearance of " The Ages," he has published only short poems, 
 and at considerable intervals. The whole of his published 
 poetry, the production of a full half centmy, is contained ui a 
 single volume of veiy moderate size. Several of Bryant's poems 
 appeared first in the Keio York Review, which he edited in 
 1825-27. In 1826 he became the editor of the Evening Post, 
 one of the oldest and most influential newspapers in the United 
 States, with which he has ever since been connected. Bryant 
 has always been a generous and uncompromising advocate of 
 free soil and fi-ee institutions. He has also laboured effectually 
 to diffuse a taste for the fine arts in America, has been presi- 
 dent of several associations for this purpose, and has always 
 shown hinxself a kind and judicious friend to young artists. As 
 a prose writer, his style is pure, easy, and idiomatic. Few who 
 have been compelled by chcunistances to write so much, have 
 written so uniformly well. He has twice visited Europe, travel- 
 ling over the British isles and a large portion of the continent. 
 Mr. Biyant resides at Roslyn, a beautiful village on the Sound, 
 at a short distance from New York. — F. B. 
 
 BRYDGES, Sir Samuel Egerton, Bait., a well-known 
 and highly-gifted writer, was born at Wootton, county of Kent, 
 in 1762. He was educated first at the grammar school at 
 JIaidstone, then at the King's school, Canterbury, and in October, 
 1780, entered Queen's college, Cambridge, where he remained 
 two years. He was called to the bar in November, 1789, but 
 never practised. In 1790, after the death of the last duke of 
 Chandos, his elder brother, the Rev. E. T. Brydges, was induced 
 by his persuasion to prefer a claim to the barony of Chandos; 
 but in June, 1803, the house of lords rejected the claim. This 
 result was deeply mortifying to Sii' Sanuiel, and coloured the 
 remainder of his hfe. He complained bitterly, and through 
 every possible channel, of the injustice of the decision, and used 
 to add to the signature of his name — " Per legem Terras Baron 
 Chandos of Sudcley." The best authorities, however, believe his 
 pretensions to be utterly unfounded. In 1808 he received the 
 order of St. Joachim of Sweden, and in 1814 was created a 
 baronet. He represented Slaidstone from 1812 to 1818. On 
 the loss of his seat he quitted England, and spent the remainder 
 of his long life on the continent. He died September 8, 1837, at 
 Champagne Gros Jean, near Geneva, in his seventy-fifth year 
 Sir Egerton is a very voluminous author. His most important 
 works are a volume of sonnets and other poems, which possess 
 great merit ; " Censura Literaria," a curious and valuable biblio- 
 graphical work in ten volumes 8vo ; " Memou'S of the Peers of 
 England during the reign of James I.;" " Res Literarix," three 
 volumes; "Letters from the Continent;" "Letters on Lord 
 
 (
 
 CRY 
 
 789 
 
 BUG 
 
 Byron;" " Eecollections of Forei_a:n Travel ;" " Stemmatfi illustria, 
 prjpcipue regia ;" his own " Autobiogi-aphy, Times, Opinions, and 
 Contemporaries," in two volumes 8vo ; an edition of Collins' 
 Peerage, in nine volumes 8vo ; a number of poems, novels, works 
 on politics and political economy, &c. &c. He established a 
 private printing-press at Lee Prioiy, from which a number of 
 valuable and cm-ious works issued. Sir Egerton was undoubtedly 
 a man of real genius, and of high accomplishments of a certain 
 class ; but both his usefulness and happiness were sadly marred 
 by his inordinate pride and ambition, and by his eccentricities 
 and unsteadiness of purpose. — (^Gent. Mag., vol. viii.) — J. T. 
 
 BKYDONE, Patkick, known as the author of a "Tour 
 through Sicily and Malta," was a native of Scotland, where he 
 was born in 1743. As a travelling tutor, he made several 
 excursions to the continent, visiting Sicily and Malta in 1770. 
 His book appeared in 1773, and attracted considerable attention, 
 especially on account of some speculations, borrowed from Recu- 
 pero, which he introduced with regard to the age of the earth, 
 as calculated from the number of eruptions of Mount Etna, 
 shown by the strata of the lava. Brydone was made comptroller 
 of the stamp-office. He found time to devote himself to expe- 
 riments on electricity, which won him honour in the Royal Society. 
 His later years were spent in retirement at Lennel house, near 
 Coldstream, where he died in 1818. He is the "reverend pil- 
 grim" in the stanzas of Marmion descriptive of the hero's halt 
 at " Lennel's convent." — J. B. 
 
 BRYNE or BRYAN, Albert, organist of St. Paul's cathe- 
 dral at the time of the great fire of London in 1666. He was 
 a pupil of John Tomkins, and succeeded Dr. Christopher Gib- 
 bons as organist of Westminster abbey in 1667. Many of his 
 services and anthems exist in the books of the various cathedrals. 
 He died in the reign of Charles IL, and was buried in the clois- 
 ters of Westminster abbey.— E. F. R. 
 
 BUAT, CiiEA'ALiER DiT, knight of the order of St. John of 
 Jerusalem, of the order of St. Louis, and colonel of the roj ..1 
 engineers of France. Ho published a first work on hydraulic 
 in 1779, founded on the experiments of previous authors ; but 
 seeing tlie necessity of further experimental knowledge on many 
 pomts, he obtained an annual grant from the government for 
 that purpose, which he applied in the most judicious manner for 
 four years, making experiments — chiefly on the resistance of fluids, 
 and on their flow in tubes and channels, and through orifices — 
 which formed the foundation not only of his own mathematical 
 researches, but of most of those of subsequent writers on hydrau- 
 lics down to the present time. In conducting those investiga- 
 tions, Du Buat may be said to have invented a new mode of 
 combining theoretical reasoning with experiment, peculiarly suited 
 to branches of science in that imperfect and provisional state in 
 which hydraulics then was and still continues. His experiments, 
 with the theoretical conclusions founded on them, were published 
 in two octavo volumes in 1786, under the title of " Principes 
 d'Hydraidique," foiTning a work which will always he held in 
 the highest esteem by those who appreciate the right method 
 of inquiiy in physico-mathematical science. The most important 
 of Du Buat's discoveries, and that which forms the key to all 
 the rest, is the law that the friction of a mass of fluid (which 
 either directly or indirectly is the only cause of resistance to its 
 motion, or to that of a solid body through it) is independent of 
 the pressm'e, and is proportional to the density of the fluid, to 
 the extent of the surface of contact between the fluid and the 
 body along which it glides, and very nearly to the square of their 
 relative velocity.— W. J. M. R. 
 
 BUCKR, i\L\KTiN, a celebrated reformer, was born at 
 Schlettstadt in Alsace in 1401. When not quite fifteen years 
 of age he entered the Dominican order, and repaired to Heidel- 
 berg, and entered on the study of Hebrew, Greek, and theology. 
 Having listened to a conference between Luther and some 
 scholastic doctors, he was deeply impressed with many of the 
 reformer's opinions, admiring, as he plu'ases it, " his Pauline 
 clearness and comprehensive Biblical knowledge." On his for- 
 mally espousing the now doctrines, he was bitterly persecuted, 
 l)ut was received by the Palsgrave Frederick, who made him his 
 court-chaplain in 1521. In the following year he resigned this 
 situation and married a nun. Changing his residence more than 
 once, he was reduced to extreme poverty, and betook himself to 
 Strasburg. Catholicism had been considerably shaken in that 
 city already, and Bucer willingly and energetically threw himself 
 into the movement, au<l was unanimotisly chosen minister in 
 
 1524. The sacramentarian controversy had begun to di^ade 
 the reformers, and Bucer was anxious to adopt heaUng measures. 
 His own opmions on the eucharist were, at this period, fidly 
 nearer those of Zuingle than those of Luther. But his eftbrts 
 with both parties were to no purpose, and Luther and he 
 exchanged some hard and unworthy words. At a famous con- 
 sultation at JIarburg, Bucer took part with the Swiss, holding to 
 the notion of " Christ . being ever present, hy his Spirit, in the 
 sacrament." Bucer took a part in many other attempts at media- 
 tion between the conflicting parties, but these attempts were vain, 
 and he only earned the title of a time-seiTer. Such was Bucer's 
 love of peace, that he entered into a conference with the catholics, 
 doing so, however, at the command of the emperor. But he would 
 not subscribe to the Augsburg Interim; and as his firmness 
 involved him in no little danger, he accepted the invitation ot 
 Archbishop Cranmer, and landed in England in April, 1549. 
 The king appointed him professor of theology at Cambridge, and 
 the university conferred upon him the title of D.D. King 
 Edward had a gi'cat respect for him, and on one occasion sent 
 him a hundred crowns to buy a German stove. But his consti- 
 tution had been shattered, and the return of a previous ailment 
 cut him off on the 28th of February, 1551. He was buried 
 with great pomp. During the reign of ^lary in 1554, his tomb 
 was broken into, and his bones disinteiTed and burnt. Queen 
 Elizabeth rebuilt his monument in 1560. 
 
 Bucer was a man in whom the spiritual had the ascendancy 
 over the intellectual portion of his nature. He was fond of 
 peace at almost any price, but compromise served no pm-pose in 
 that keen polemical age. He must have been reckoned a man 
 of tact, but his pacific enterprises usually failed. He could not 
 create the cm-rent, but he noljly strove to direct it. His works 
 are numerous, and indicate talent and industry. They are distin- 
 guished, not by any original power, but by facility of illustration and 
 promptitude of argument, and are enriched with a vigorous piety, 
 and a hearty desire to secure the progress of truth and the peace 
 of the church. Some of Bucer's commentaries are not without 
 value in the present day. As a reformer, he had neither Luther's 
 courage, Melancthon's erudition, nor Calvin's logical foculty; 
 his action was confined to a sidsordinate sphere ; strong partisans 
 suspected him, but his toils and sufterings prove his integi-ity. 
 His character was so pure, that it was never assailed, even in 
 those days of unscrupulous calumny and satire. — J. E. 
 
 BUCH, Le-opold von, one of the greatest of modern geolo- 
 gists, born in Uckermark, on the banks of the Oder, in 1774 : 
 di«d in the spring of 1853. His labom's constitute an epoch 
 in the science of his predilection. The life of Von Buch was 
 essentially a life of transition : he began as the disciple of Wemer; 
 when his labours closed, no doubt could rest in any candid mind, 
 that he had destroyed the authority of that great master. Tlie 
 early progi-ess of rational geology evolved the conflict of two 
 systems, that soon became two conflicting schools. At the head 
 of one was Von Buch's teacher, Werner of Freyberg. It was 
 the fixed opinion of Werner, who lived and wrought mainly 
 among the stratified rocks, that all rocks now existing have 
 been laid down by the action of water — some in the way of the 
 mere subsidence of materials suspended for a time in the primal 
 ocean — others in a crystalline form, because of the slow separation 
 of materials originally held in solution by that ocean. For- 
 tunately, Von Buch had the genius of the traveller, as well as 
 the acuteness and sternness of the explorer; and the conclu- 
 sion he finally reached was deduced from inspection of the 
 most striking and spacious aspects of Nature within range of our 
 European continent. At Perugino, and in presence of Vesuvius, 
 he learned that the volcanic forces could not be exceptional 
 disturbances, and lightly dismissed as such. His letters from 
 these regions arc written under a pervading sense of the wonder- 
 ful. In search of farther insight, he turued his steps tow:u-ds 
 Auvergne. In 1751, the Frenchman Guettard first jienctrated 
 the character of this remote and mysterious region ; and, twelve 
 years later, Desmarets traced through it a long chain of extinct 
 volcanoes, associated with countless and gigantic masses of 
 basalts, or " giants' causeways," mingling apparently with fresher 
 lavas and aslies still more recent. This, and much more than 
 Desmarets could see, burst upon the full althougli only half- 
 opened eye of Von Buch. Gazing on tlie long chain of Puys 
 that stretch away down from Mont Dore, ho saw, as if by pre- 
 sentiment, tliat he was surely looking on more than a group ot 
 hidependent volcanoes — that the entire mass of Mont Dore might
 
 have been elevated by subterranean forces, of whicli the number- 
 less craters covei-ing the plateau were but indi\"iJual and sub- 
 ordinate outlets ! Vesuvius, even, and Etna, and all these extinct 
 but at one time blazing Puys, thus shnuik into mere isolated 
 vents, communicating with the scat of some mighty igneous force, 
 far down below the surface of the globe. Oar geologist could 
 of couree be a Wernerian no longer; but something was still 
 wanting to the solidity and sufficiency of the basis of an edifice 
 like that imagined by the pioneers of the Plutonic school. 
 Volcanoes — even those masses of Auvcrgne — are, if compared 
 with the regions occupied by the crystalline or granitic rocks, 
 trilling in extent, and poorly representative of energies that 
 could have given birth to our stupendous primitive mountains. 
 Von Buch next looked towards the Scandinavian peninsula. 
 His Neptunism received its deathblow there ; and the blow 
 resounded through the scientific world. In the environs of 
 Christiania, and elsewhere in a great number of places, he 
 found mountains of porjihyry resting on limestone, and enormous 
 masses of granite leaning on stratified beds fuU of petrifac- 
 tions. The system of Werner could be sustained no longer ; — 
 Von Buch's early faith was conclusively done for I — But still 
 larger views soon broke on om- geologist. What he had seen 
 dimly indicated in the soil of Auvergne, became matter of 
 demonstration in Sweden. For more than half a centuiy pre- 
 vious to Von Buch's visit, the inhabitants of tlie sea-coast of 
 that country had marked a gradual retirement of the ocean. 
 Satisfjing himself that the fact is rigorously true, the inquirer 
 exclaims — " How strange a phenomenon, and to how many pro- 
 blems does it give rise ! . . .We can reach no otlier result than 
 that a slow and general rising of Sweden is taking place — from 
 Fredericshall to Abo, and probably to St. Petersburg." It was 
 years before Von Buch traced all the consequences of this 
 astonishing result ; but he succeeded in the end in laying, 
 through means of it, the sure foundations of the rational dynamics 
 of geology. Farther instructed, and confirmed by his subsequent 
 voyage to the Canaries, of which he has left so pleasing a record, 
 he bequeathed as fixed points of all future science — (1) tlie 
 doctiine of the elevation ahke of mountains and continents ; 
 
 (2) an analysis of the mechanism of tlie formation of volcanoes; 
 
 (3) the theoiy of the shifting of the beds of oceans, in connec- 
 tion with the elevation of moimtams ; and (4) the determinate 
 and marvellous significance of the unconformity of strata — a 
 phenomenon never before Lntei^preted, but which is nothing else 
 than a key to the periods and comparative ages of the gi-eat 
 revolutions of our globe. Tniths like these could be reached 
 only by a master-mind. They are, indeed, only inductions : 
 would that many which have succeeded them were as pure ! 
 His separate contributions on specific points are numeroiis and 
 invaluable. His manner of existence was simple and retiring — 
 affected, in a certain degree, by a racy peculiarity. He was the 
 true working geologist ; never shrinking from toil, and able to 
 endure it. — His friends were the most distinguished men in 
 Europe. Alexander Humboldt left, in a few words of affection, 
 the confession how much he loved lum, and how deeply he felt 
 that science should deplore his loss. 
 
 BUCHAX, David, a skilful and accomplished officer belong- 
 ing to the royal navy of Britain, is entitled to notice mainly 
 from his connection with enterprise in the arctic seas. In 1818 
 he was intrusted with the charge of tlie Dorothea and Trent, two 
 vessels fitted out by the British government for the purpose 
 of seeking a passage from the Atlantic ocean into the Pacific, 
 through Behring Strait, by way of the pole. Lieutenant (after- 
 ward Sir John) Franklin, in command of the Trent, was Buchan's 
 companion on this enterprise. For a narrative of this remarkable 
 voyage we are indebted to the pen of Captmn Beechey, who 
 bore a share in it. (See Beech ky, F. W.) Buchan was sub- 
 sequently employed upon the Newfoundland station, and held 
 for several years the office of high-sheriff of Newfoundland, to 
 which he was appointed in 1825. — W. H. 
 
 BUCILVN, David Stewakt Erskixe, earl of. See Eks- 
 
 KINE. 
 
 BUCHAN, Elspith, a crazy Scottish matron, whom, as the 
 leader of a small but enthusiastic sect of fanatics, it would have 
 been proper to call an impostor, if her impositions had only been 
 a httle more successful. She was bom at Fitney-Can, between 
 Bartff and Portroy, in 1738. Shortly after her maiTiage with 
 Robert Buchan, a potter in Glasgow, she assumed those high 
 but undefined pretensions to an apostolic character, which her 
 
 name but too ludicrously recalls ; and having persuaded a 
 certain Mr. Hugh Whyte, a rehef clerg}'man of Irvine, to under- 
 take the promulgation of her evangel, she soon found herself 
 surrounded by a score or two of adherents, some of whom, 
 strange to say, had neither the excuse of ignorance nor idiocy. 
 Irvine was at first the head-quarters of the Buchanites ; but in 
 1784, having been subjected to some annoyances by their fellow- 
 townsmen, they migi-ated, to the number of forty-six persons, to a 
 fiirmhouse two miles south from Thornhill, and tliirteen from 
 Dumfries. In 1791 !Mrs. Buchan had stUl a few followers, to 
 whom her last injunctions were communicated with the same 
 confidence as those she had laid on her first apostle. They 
 were to understand that she was in reality the Virgin Mary; 
 that she would only sleep a little as if she were dead, and return 
 to conduct them to the New Jerusalem ; and they were to keep 
 all that as an inviolable secret. She died in May, 1791. Her 
 deluded votaries, among whom still figured the unfortunate cler- 
 gyman, would not bury her, but built up the coffin in a corner of 
 the barn, expecting her speedy resmTcction. To conclude thb 
 strange tale of imposture, some country people who pitied its 
 victims as much as they abhoiTed the memory of its heroine, 
 consigned her bones to the dust, also expecting a resurrection, 
 but not in haste. — J. S., G. 
 
 BUCHAN, JoiLN' Stewakt, eoi-l of, second son of Robert, 
 duke of Albany, regent of Scotland, and grandson of Robert II. 
 of Scotland; bom in 1380; died in 1450. In 1420 Buchan 
 passed over to France at the head of 6000 Scotch troops to the 
 assistance of the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., then hard 
 pressed by the English ; and on the 22nd of ilarch, 1421, gained 
 a signal victoiy at Beauge in Anjou over an English army under 
 the duke of Clarence, brother of Henry V., who was slain in a 
 personal encounter with the earl. For this semce the dauphin 
 rewarded Buchan with the office of constable of France. He 
 was killed at the battle of Vemeuil, 17th August, 1424, which 
 was lost by the imprudence of the count of Narbonne, who dis- 
 obeyed the orders given by the constable. — J. T. 
 
 BUCHAN, William, M.D., author of the popular work 
 named " Domestic Medicine," was bom at Ancrum, Roxburgh- 
 shire, in 1729. His father mtended him for the church, but 
 his taste for medical study, which had been very early displayed, 
 thwarted the paternal purpose ; for though entered at the 
 university of Edinburgh as a student of divinity he devoted 
 his time to mathematics, botany, and the usual branches of a 
 medical course. Having been nine years at the university, he 
 began practice in Yorkslm-e, and was soon appointed physician 
 to the Ackworth Foundluig hospital, a position in wliich he 
 leamed much that was of senice to him in writing his well- 
 known book. Parliament having withdrawn the grant for the 
 support of the Ackworth institution, Dr. Buchan removed to 
 Sheffield, where he practised till about 1766, when he returned 
 to Edinburgh. His practice there was not extensive. He 
 devoted himself mainly to the preparation of the " Domestic 
 Jledicine," which was published in 1769. Its natm-e can l>c 
 best described by quoting the title in full — " Domestic Medicine; 
 or, the Family Physician — being an attempt to render the 
 medical art more generally useful, by showing people what is in 
 their own power, both with respect to the prevention and cure 
 of diseases : chiefly calculated to recommend a proper attention 
 to regimen and simple medicines." The work was prepared on 
 a plan similar to Tissot's Avis an Peuple, and was received with 
 extraordinary popular favour. It was said, that for nearly forty 
 years, the publisher realized £700 annually for its sale, that 
 being the exact sum which the author had received for the copy- 
 right. Dr. Buchan's book was soon translated into almost 
 every language of Em-ope, and its author received congratulatory 
 letters from all quarters. His great fame induced him to remove 
 to London, where he enjoyed a lucrative practice till his death 
 on the 2oth Febraary, 1805. He left a considerable number of 
 medical works, but his fame must rest on the " Domestic Medi- 
 cine," which is still found in many a family librarj-, especially in 
 rural districts. — J. B. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Dr. Claudius, vice-provost of the college of 
 Fort-William, Bengal, the able and scholarly author of the 
 " Christian Researches," was bom at Cambuslang, near Glas- 
 gow, in 1756. In 1787, having completed his cm-riculum at the 
 university, he conceived the romantic idea of making the tour of 
 Europe on foot, in the character of a fiddler ! but had only 
 reached North Shields, when he abandoned the project as too
 
 BUG 
 
 791 
 
 BUG 
 
 formidable, and with difficulty obtained the situation of clerk to 
 an attorney. In this capacity, with a salary of £40, lie man- 
 aged to subsist neai'ly a year, all wliicli time he pretended in his 
 letters to his parents to date from Florence. In 1789 he made 
 the acquaintance of the admirable John Newton, and through 
 him of an influential and wealthy gentleman, who immediately 
 conceived so high an opinion of the young man, that he sent 
 him to Cambridge at his own expense, to prepare for the chm-ch. 
 Having been ordained by the bishop of Loudon, he became the 
 curate of his tried and loved friend, Mr. Newton, but had only 
 been in that position a few months, when the offer of a chap- 
 laincy in India was made to him, which he immediately accepted 
 (1794). His station was at Barrackpore, near Calcutta, where 
 he remained, although much dissatisfied with his position, till 
 1801, when he was made vice-provost of the newly-founded 
 college of Fort-William. The success of this institution, not 
 a little of which was owing to the energy of the vice-provost, 
 excited immediate and universal interest. An account of the 
 benefits accruing to the population of India from its foundation 
 should be looked for in Mr. Buchanan's " Primitiaj Orientales." 
 In 180G he set out on a tour through the IMadras and Bombay 
 presidencies and Ceylon ; the result of which was the admirable 
 work by which he is best known, as it is a work by which he 
 will be long remembered — " The Christian Researches." The 
 university of Glasgow conferred on the author the degree of 
 D.D. Dr. Buchanan returned to England in 1808, when the 
 Fast India Company's charter was about to be renewed. To 
 his efforts at that critical moment was mainly owing the founda- 
 tion of an ecclesiastical establishment in India. He died in 
 1815, while engaged in preparing a Syriac edition of the New 
 Testament. — J. W. D. 
 
 BUCHANAN, George, the third son of Thomas Buchanan 
 and Agnes Heriot, was born in a farmhouse called the Moss, near 
 Killearn, Stirlingshire, about the beginning of February, 1506. 
 The family of Buchanan was ancient but poor, magis vehtsia 
 qmm opulenta, as George himself styles it in his brief autobio- 
 graphy. His father died at an early age, and at this tiying 
 period his grandfather became insolvent. But in the midst of 
 such adversity his mother struggled hard for her numerous 
 family, consisting of five sons and three daughters. George 
 received his first education at the parish school of Killearn, but 
 his uncle, James Heriot, sent him in 1520 to prosecute his 
 studies at Paris, and here he first gave himself to the composition 
 of poetiy. Two years afterwards this uncle died, and the young 
 Scottish student, left in destitution and disease, immediately 
 came back to Scotland, and in a short time enrolled hmiself 
 among the troops of the duke of Albany, not from the love 
 of adventure only, but, as himself confesses, to learn something 
 of the militai-y art. About the age of eighteen, he entered the 
 university of St. Andrews, and on the 3rd of October, 1525, he 
 took his degree of B.A., having been ranked as a pauper. .John 
 Mair's prelections made St. Salvador's famous. Buchanan, 
 whatever his opinions of his preceptor at this period, after- 
 wards, in a famous epigi-am, saluted him with the wicked pun 
 — "Solo cognomine Major." But in 1527 he followed ilair 
 into France, entered the Scottish college, and became master of 
 arts in March, 1528. In the meanwhile he adopted Lutheran 
 opinions, and two years after his degi'ce he became a regent or 
 professor in the college of St. Barbe. Here he taught grammar 
 for three years, and the misery he suffered from inadequate 
 remuneration he has immortalized in one of his poems. His 
 acquaintance with Gilbert Kennedy, earl of Cassilis, began at 
 this epoch ; and his first work, a Latin translation of Linant's 
 Latin Grammar, on being published was dedicated to his pupil. 
 Lord Cassilis, " a youth of the most promising talents." Tiie 
 date is Paris, 1533. Five years afterwards, in company with 
 his pupil, he i-cturned to Scotland, and sojourned for a brief 
 period at the baronial residence m Aj'rshire. Here he comjjosed 
 his " Somnium," a satire on the vices of ecclesiastics, and the 
 inconsistencies, hypocrisy, and indolence of a monastic life. In 
 this dream St. Francis appears to the poet, and endeavours, by 
 describing the character and pleasures of the order, to induce him 
 to enter it. One of his enemies gave him, in revenge, the tith; of 
 
 Baechicus histrio et atlicus ]i(icta." King .Tames then retained 
 him as tutor for one of his natural sons, so that the rage of tlie 
 Franciscans did not hinder his preferment. Then, at the royal 
 request, he published his " Franciscanus," a scourge not of whips 
 but of scorpions. The poem is one of the most felicitous of 
 
 satires : the wit and the scorn are clothed in a style of racy 
 magnificence — now fla.^hing into humour, and now darkening 
 into fulmination. The rancour of his adversaries broke out at 
 once upon him; Cardinal Beaton offered a price for his head ; but 
 though he was arrested he contrived to escape, and fled, as 
 might have been expected, through many dangers to London. 
 Applications for pecuniary assistance to the starring satirist were 
 made in vain to Thomas Cromwell and King Henry ; and it 
 seems that, when he was necessitated to beg, he made his Latin 
 muse his intercessor. Turning his footsteps to France, Buchanan 
 learned that Cardinal Beaton was there as ambassador, but, on 
 the invitation of Andrew Govea, he found refuge in Bourdeaux, 
 became a professor of Latin in the college of Guienne recently 
 established, and in this capacity presented a Latin poem to 
 Charles V. on his entry into the city. There he composed his 
 earliest drama, the " Baptistes," and wrote a Latin version of 
 the Medea of Euripides. Both tragedies were well received ; 
 then came the original drama of " Jephthes," and a translation 
 of the Alcestis. These tragedies, both original and translated, 
 show a wondrous command over the Latin language, unequalled 
 since the period of its native bards. The "Baptistes" and the 
 "Jephthes" abound rather in noble sentiments than in rich or 
 crowded imagery. Buchanan could picture what was terrible 
 far better than delineate what was touching or pathetic — could 
 more easily stir the indignation or horror of his readers than 
 excite them to tears. Honour, courage, liberty, and patriotism 
 are his favourite themes, as his lines roll on in sonorous declama- 
 tion. There is nothing mawkish or meretricious — no glitter or 
 false pomp — none of the fustian that apes the sublime, or of the 
 sentimental that often passes for tenderness. Michel de Mon- 
 taigne and the elder Scaliger were among Buchanan's cherished 
 friends in the south of France. 
 
 After residing at Bourdeaux for three years, he retiuiied to 
 Paris, and was appointed a teacher in the college of cardinal 
 le Moine, and had among others, Turuebus and Muretus for his 
 colleagues. In 1547 Buchanan and Govea sailed for Portugal, 
 the native countiy of the latter, and settled, with other distin- 
 guished men, at the new university of Coimbra. After the death 
 of Govea, Buchanan and his coadjutors became the victims of 
 Portuguese bigotry. Buchanan was confined for several months, 
 and during this incarceration, he began his famous Latin version 
 of the Psalms. When set at liberty, he longed to be again at 
 Paris, and sighed his regret in his " Desiderium Lutetiaj," but 
 he finally embarked at Lisbon for England. About 1553 he 
 returned to France, a nation admired and loved by him, for what 
 he calls its sumnia humanitas. He was first appointed a regent in 
 the college of Boncom't, and two years afterwards he became 
 tutor to the son of the comte de Brissac. The following year 
 appeared the first specimen of his translation of the Psalms. 
 Like the Consolations of Boethiiis, the Evidences of Grotius, the 
 History of Raleigh, the Henriade of Voltaire, and the Pilgrim of 
 Bunyan, this work of Buchanan's had been projected and com- 
 menced in a dungeon. Immediately after ISGO lie returned to 
 Scotland, and in a short time became classical tutor to the young 
 queen, who read with him every afternoon a portion of Livy, and 
 gave him in compensation the temporalities of Crossraguel abbey, 
 worth nearly 500 pounds Scots. Publicly avowing his attachment 
 to the doctrines of the Refoiination, he was, by the earl of Jloray, 
 nominated principal of St. Leonard's college in 15GG. This 
 year appeared the second edition of his Psalms, dedicated tersely 
 but gracefully to his royal pupil, whose marriage he had cele- 
 brated in his spirited and beautiful " Epitliahunium." A second 
 edition of the " Franciscanus " appeared at this time, dedicated to 
 the earl of ]\Ioray. Another of his satires, " Fratres Fraterrimi,'' 
 was also prepared during these months, and there followed others 
 of his lighter pieces, such as his " Elegiac" " Silva^," " Hendeca- 
 syllabi." Tlio high estimation in which Buchanan was held 
 is seen in the ftict, that after being a member of various assem- 
 blies of the Scottish church, and one of a commission to revise 
 the Book of Discipline, ho was chosen moderator when the high 
 ecclesiastical court met in June, 15G7. The conduct of Queen 
 Mary had produced a complete alienation from her in I'uchanan's 
 mind, and he ])ecame the earl of M(nviy's coadjutor before 
 Klizal>elh's commissioners at York and Westminster, and his 
 " Deteetio," not his " Actio contra Mariam," was published in 
 1571. In 1570 he published, in his own vcrn.aeular, another 
 political tract, called the " Chameleon" — a satire du-ected against 
 the laird of Liddingtone.
 
 In 1571 Buclianan was appointed preceptor to the young 
 king, who was only four years of age. The aged tutor tried to 
 make liis royal pupil a scholar ; hut his erudition, poured in 
 merciless profusion into a weak mind, at once degenerated into 
 jjcdantry. In his delicate task he was assisted by Patrick 
 Young and the abbots of Cambuskenneth and Dryburgh, cadets 
 of the noble house of Marr. There was some distinction between 
 the functions of Young and Buchanan, as James Melville, in his 
 diary, calls the one the " master" and the other the " preceptor." 
 Young was very lenient towards his royal pupil, but the stern- 
 ness of Buchanan made such lasting impression on his mind, that 
 long after he had ascended the throne of England he professed his 
 terror at the person and approach of one of his courtiers, because 
 they reminded him so much of his pedagogue. Lest the person of 
 the prince should be degraded by corporeal punishment, a boy was 
 procured to suffer the penalty in his room ; and many a time 
 his vicarious cries and sobs taught James what he was thought 
 to deserve for his mistakes in cases and conjugations, parts of 
 speech and prosody. But Buchanan, not content vidth such 
 polite substitution, occasionally exempted the " whipping-boy," 
 and flogged the original transgi'essor. Severely provoked in 
 one instance by his pupil's noisy petulance, and by words that 
 sounded like a challenge to touch him, Buchanan laid hold of his 
 birch, tmrobed his youthful majesty, and did not spare him fur 
 his cries. At this time Buchanan was made director of the 
 chancery, and also privy-seal. The treatise " De Jure Regni apud 
 Scotos" appeared at Edinburgh in 1579, and is dated Stnling, lUth 
 January. The tractate is in the form of a dialogue between the 
 author and Thomas JIaitland, and contains an eloquent defence 
 of popular government and its great charter, that liberty should 
 be guarded by law, and not be dependent on the pleasure of the 
 king ; that there can be no uiherited right of property in man ; 
 that sovereigns must be bound by the conditions on which they 
 have received the crown ; and that if the occupant of the throne 
 transgress such a paction, he may be resisted and brought to con- 
 dign punishment. Buchanan's book was immediately assailed by 
 such men as Blackwood, Winzet, Barclay, Lang, and Mackenzie. 
 In 1584, two years after its author's death, it was condemned 
 by parliament ; and every person who had a copy of it was 
 ordered, under a penalty of a hundred pounds, to surrender it 
 in forty days. In 1GC4 the privy council issued a more stringent 
 enactment; and in 168-4 the university of Oxford sent it and 
 the political tracts of Jlilton to the flames. But the " De 
 Jure" will ever remain a noble momunent of its author's integrity 
 and acuteness, and of his mental and moral superiority. For 
 while many of his compeers were fettered by misinterpretations 
 of scripture and decisions of early comicils, and enslaved by an 
 unworthy and almost superstitious reverence for the existing 
 powers, he maintained in his imperious style the rights of om- 
 common humanity, and the theories which modem times and 
 experience have eveiy«'here sanctioned. He argued for liberty 
 in an age of bondage, declaimed against tyi-ants in an age of 
 tyranny, and laid down those gi'and principles which now form 
 the basis of constitutional administration. 
 
 Buchanan's " Rerum Scoticarum Historia" was published in 
 1582. It is certainly a very unequal production; its earlier 
 chapters are a mixture of eradition and fable ; the latter copied 
 from Boece. The transactions of his own times occupy a large 
 portion of the work, and he chronicles affairs as he felt them, 
 not in all cases precisely as they happened. He was too near 
 them, and too much mixed up with them, to view them with 
 a dispassionate eye. But the style is pure and dignified ; the 
 narrative is lucid and full of interest — the whole, as Hallam 
 says, being " redolent of an antique air." When he rebukes, 
 it is with freedom, and when he moralizes, it is with a wisilom 
 that lifts him beyond commonplaces, and with a courage that 
 never forgets the rights, liberties, elevation, and advancement of 
 his species. George Buchanan died 28th September, 1582, 
 aged seventy-six, and was buried in the Grcyfriars' churchyard. 
 The scenes of his deathbed are exceedingly characteristic, as 
 given in James Melvill's Diary, published by the Wodrow Society. 
 Buchanan was buried at the public expense, and his funeral was 
 attended " by a gi-eat company of the faithful." 
 
 No Latin scholar has risen among us like George Buchanan. 
 We willingly contest the palm for him with all competitors, esjje- 
 cially in Latin poetry, with Beza, Andrew ^lelville, Boyd of 
 Trochrigg, Rollock, Arthur Jonston, Scott of Scotstarvet, Kerr, 
 Eaglesim, Heurison, Pitcau-ne, or Barclay, with Vida, Passerat, 
 
 or Saint Marthe, or any writer found in Gruter's collection, pub- 
 lished in three volumes, under the names of Delicia; Poetarum 
 Gallorum, Belgai-um, Italoram. (See Poetai-um Scotonun Musae 
 Sacrai ; Edin. apud. Tho. et Wal. Euddiniannos, 1739.) He had 
 made the Latin tongue his own. His style is no afl'ected 
 imitation of any favourite author, such as Erasmus in his Cicero- 
 nianus, and other satirists, were wont to castigate. It is won- 
 derfully free from mannerisms, though it is sometimes discursive 
 with the air of Li\-y,»and sometimes compact with a resemblance 
 to Tacitus. But it always fits into his thought without any 
 apparent straggle or awkwardness. His poetry is occasionally 
 heavy and rugged, and his hosts of epigi-ams, while they are 
 always clever, do not always sparkle. His poem " On the 
 Syihere," or in ridicule of the Pythagorean philosophy, wliich 
 Jlr. Hallam thinks one of his best, does not appear to us to 
 jr -Pi've so high a place. Its reasonings are lucid, and its 
 exposure of absurdities is telling ; but its strokes have more 
 hardness than dexterity, while its wit is ponderous — rather like 
 the gambols of an elephant than the frisking of a squirrel. 
 The Psalms are in every variety of metre, and those Hebrew 
 lyrics, though often diluted and paraphrased, were never clothed 
 in a strange language with less injury to then- tenderness, beauty, 
 and devotion. The version of the 104th psalm has often been 
 admired for its spirit and majesty — its magnificent imageiy, 
 and musical cadences. The version of the 137th psalm has also 
 been often quoted and eulogized, and so has his ode to May — 
 " Maice Calendse." Had George Buchanan worn a cowl and 
 lived in a cell, no higher scholarship could have been expected of 
 him. But he was a poor wanderer for the greater part of his life 
 — often in want, and as often in danger. Nay more, in his later 
 days he was engrossed by public business, and his love of country 
 was stronger than his love of the Muses. But he never made 
 learned retirement a pretext for neglecting the duties of a 
 patriot and a statesman. So fiir from being a dreaming pedant, 
 he was a shrewd and indefatigable man of business. In his 
 preface to his " Baptistes," he warns the young king against 
 the effects of flattery and wicked counsellors, and writes more 
 like an experienced statesman than a scliolarly recluse. His 
 satirical poems must have gi'eatly aided the Reformation in 
 Scotland, as was similarly done in Germany by the genius of 
 Erasmus. Beza loved the Scottish scholar, and heaped many 
 a compliment upon him ; and the learned men of the continent, 
 Thuanus, Le Clerc, Grotius, Scaliger, and Henry Stephens, the 
 giants of those days, were forward in their admiration and esteem. 
 Buchanan was apparently somewhat giim and irritable, and could 
 utter severe and cutting sarcasms. His enemies were treated by 
 him with considerable asperity, but, like all men of his tempera- 
 ment, he lavished his heart upon his friends. His Scottish rough- 
 ness was not wholly polished away by his French sojourns — the 
 keenness of tlie nurthcra blast cuts in many of his tirades. 
 Tradition speaks of his wit, and we do not doubt its accuracy; 
 for the flavour and pungency of the Attic salt still exhilarate his 
 readers. His youtliful poems are certainly not free from those 
 blemishes which are found in the juvenile productions of Beza ; 
 but the coai'se and vulgar extravagances ascribed to him .is the 
 king's fool or jester, and which are yet cuiTcnt among us, are 
 apocryphal — the most of them being the production of Dougal 
 Graham, the bellman of Glasgow, who, between 1750 and 1779, 
 composed, printed, and published a rare variety of " chap books," 
 such as — George Buchanan ; John Cheap the Chapman ; Leper 
 the Tailor; Paddy from Cork, &c. These pieces were carried by 
 shoals of pedlars through all the country, and saturated the 
 common mind with their gi-ossness and indecency. (Strang s 
 Clubs of Glasgow, page 92.) A monument has been erected at 
 Killearn to George Buchanan's memory, and a brief Latin poem 
 in honour of the event was composed by the most learned of 
 Scottish schoolmasters, the late Dr. Doig of Stu-ling. The poem 
 is short, but it is equal in merit to any of the elegies composed 
 at Buchanan's death by Beza, the two Seuligers, Andrew 
 Melville, and others. Buchanan's works are found in two 
 editions, one by Ruddiman, Edinburgh, two vols, folio, 1715, 
 and the other by Burmann, Lugduni Batavoram, two vols. 4to, 
 1725. — (IiTing's Life of Buchanan, second edition, Edinburgh, 
 1817.)— J. E. 
 
 * BUCHANAN, James, president of the United States of 
 America, was bom in Franklin county, Pennsylvania, April 13, 
 1791. After completing his education at Dickenson college he 
 studied law, and was a successful practitioner during the short
 
 BUG 
 
 793 
 
 BUG 
 
 portions of bis life which have not been devoted to politics. He 
 began his political career as a federalist, and as such was a 
 member of the Pennsylvania legislature in 1814-15. After an 
 interval he was chosen to the lower house of congi-ess in 1821, 
 and was continued a member by successive re-elections for ten 
 years. As soon as the democratic party was formed upon its 
 new basis by the adherents of General Jackson, 5Ir. BucJianan 
 became a prominent and active member of it, and has shared its 
 honours and its good or evil fortune for over thirty years. In 
 May, 1831, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to Russia, 
 as successor to the celebrated John Randolph, and he held this 
 post for three years. Immediately after his return he was 
 elected a senator of the United States, and continued so till 
 '"!3, a period of eight years. When the Polk administration 
 lU in 1845, ilr. Buchanan was appointed secretary of state, 
 : retained that office till the whigs came into power under 
 (Tal Taylor four years afterwards. Then there was an 
 , ival of four years, after which Jlr. Buchanan was appointed 
 minister to Britain in 1853, where he continued till the prospect 
 of his elevation to a still higher post tempted him to resign and 
 return home. In the autumn of 1856 he was chosen president 
 of the United States by 174 electoral votes, against 114 which 
 were cast for Colonel Fremont, and 8 for Mr. Fillmore. He is 
 regarded as a safe and able statesman. — F. B. 
 
 * BUCHEZ, Philippe -Joseph -Benjamin, bom in the 
 department of Ardennes in 1796, a noted French pohtician and 
 publicist. Buchez has been a politician through almost his entu-e 
 '■•- : and his course has been shaped by attachments to the old 
 • ctory and Robespierre. This statement, however, must be 
 uded. Buchez is a man of unsullied life and sterling huma- 
 nity and honour ; he merely has gone with the fantastic theories 
 of the parti exalte. He was, of course, a bitter foe to the Resto- 
 ration, and we find him closely connected with the secret 
 societies which swarmed at that time in France. He afterwards 
 connected himself with the Producteiit — a St. Simouian pub- 
 lication, founded by Bazard, Enfantin, and Rodriguez — all men 
 of considerable ability and much fervour. On the occurrence of 
 the Revolution of 1848, Buchez stood side by side with the men 
 of the Republic ; and the solidity and trustworthiness of his 
 character obtained for him positions of responsibility. He was 
 for a short period mayor of Paris, and aftenvards president of 
 the Assembly. Unfortunately, he fell on the fatal loth of Jlay, 
 and his feebleness ruined his cause. Buchez is eminent, how- 
 ever, as a literary and philosophical writer, and has made a 
 special philosophy of man, of society, and humanity as a whole. 
 Fair and even sound conceptions, betokening high aspirings 
 and a good heart, run through all Buchez's scheme ; but, how- 
 ever logical, it is not workable, and. cannot pretend to soHd 
 foundation. Like De Bonald, he begins with abstract specu- 
 lations concerning the natm-e of the human intellect ; nor are 
 the speculations of the two writers dissimilar, although De 
 Bonald takes refuge in despotism, while Buchez steers his bark 
 fearlessly out amid the tmnults and uncertainties of democracy. 
 Compared with reveries so dream-like as those of Buchez, there is 
 compiuatively little that is visionary in Jean-Jacques- Rousseau. 
 Along with iM. Roux, Buchez edited and published the pai'lia- 
 nientary history of the early periods of the first and great French 
 Revolution.— J. P. N. 
 
 BUCHHOLZ, Paul Ferdinand Fuieduicii, a Gennan 
 liistorian, was born at Altruppin in 1768, and died at Berlin in 
 1843. His writings are veiy numerous, but of very unequal 
 merit. We mention — " Darstellung eines neuen Gravitations 
 gesetzes fiir die moralische Welt;" '' Der neuc Macchia'vell;" 
 " Theorie der moralischen Welt ; " " Theone der politischen Welt ; " 
 "Geschichte der Europjiischen Staaten seit dcm Frieden von 
 Wien ; " and " Geschichte Napoleon Bonapartes," &c. — K. E. 
 
 BUCHOZ, Pierre Joseph, a French naturalist, was born 
 at Metz in 1731, and died at Paris in 1807. He was a most 
 laborious compiler. 
 
 BUCKEKIDGE, John, an eminent prelate, born near Marl- 
 borough in Wiltshire ; after leaving the university of Oxford was 
 appointed to some preferments in Essex ; in 1604 became vicar 
 of St. Giles', Cripplegate, and shortly after chaplain to King 
 James; in 1606 was one of the four episcopalians appointed to 
 preach before the king at Hampton Court, on the occasion of liis 
 giving an audience to the two Melvilles and other presbyterians 
 of Scotland; and in 1611 was promoted to the sec of Rochester. 
 He was afterwards, in succession, bishop of Bath and Wells, and 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 of Ely, where he died hi 1631. His principal work is " De 
 Potestate Papua in Rebus Temporalibus." — J. S., G. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, Dukes of. A title of great notoriety, 
 and intimately connected with English history. It were needless 
 to attempt to trace here a continuity, which in all probability 
 does not exist. The first great family is that of Villiers. 
 We find next the Sheffields, connected with the Albe- 
 marles ; and in more recent times the Grenvilles, headed 
 by the rather famous Earl Temple. 
 
 BUCKINGHA3I, George Villiers, duke of, occupies a 
 cmious place in history. In many respects he was the lord and 
 master of two English kings, and during a few troubled years 
 vutual sovereign of the empire. He was the younger son of Sir 
 G. Villiers of Rookesly, Leicestershire, though the eldest son 
 of his father's second marriage, and was educated in all the 
 fashionable elegancies of the day. As a youth he was pre- 
 eminently graceful in person, in dress, in manner, in riding, in 
 dancing, in speech ; and from his earliest years he had the position 
 of one of those arrogant favourites who win easy pardon for 
 eveiy caprice. He was sent to France for two or three yeai-s, 
 duiing which he devoted himself to the arts and charms of 
 " la haute politesse," and retm-ned to England at the age of 
 twenty-one. Presenting himself at court, he attracted the notice 
 of James I. A few days after his appearance young Villiers was 
 made cup-bearer, and in a few weeks succeeded Somerset as 
 cliief favourite. Offices and honours were showered upon him 
 in profusion. He was knighted, and made gentleman of the 
 bedchamber and knight of the garter ; and he became by rapid 
 strides a baron, a viscount, an earl, a marquis, lord high admiral 
 of England, master of the horse, and entire disposer of the 
 favours of the king. He had learnt that in dealing with a weak 
 monarch, abounding arrogance is victory. Called to guide the 
 grave affairs of a kingdom, through his influence with James, 
 Villiers treated events which determine the destinies of nations 
 as though they were intrigues to gratify personal pride and 
 passion. The famous journey of Prince Charles to Spain for the 
 purpose of seeing his intended bride, the Infanta, was planned 
 by Villiers. During his absence upon this journey he was 
 created duke of Buckingham. In Spain, Buckingham's gay and 
 independent famiharity astonished the formal courtiers. The 
 preliminaries of the marriage were arranged, but afterwards 
 broken oiF by James under the influence of Buckingham, guided 
 as much probably by personal hatred to Olivarez as by motives 
 of state policy. On the death of James, the duke's position at 
 court was unchanged; as heretofore the patronage alike in church 
 and state was at his disposal, but his general popularity was 
 on the wane. He resented his increasing unpopularity with a 
 proud and indignant scorn, and to save him from impeachment, 
 parliament was hastily dissolved, although no adequate supplies 
 had been granted for the Spanish war. Buckingham was shortly 
 after despatched to Paris to conduct the princess Henrietta to 
 England, as the bride of Charles I. ; and it is said that he ventured 
 to address the French queen, not as an ambassador, but a 
 lover. Threatened with assassination if he dared to repeat such 
 insolence, he swore that he " would see and speak with that 
 lady, in spite of the strength and power of France," and rumour 
 went that he did not break his wild oath. But not being able 
 to obtain permission to return to the French court, he openly 
 espoused tfie cause of the Huguenots. The duke himself went 
 as admhal and general of the expedition against France, which 
 terminated in the disaster at the Isle of Rh4 ; and, subsequently, 
 made preparations for a new expedition in favour of RocheUe, 
 then hotly pressed by the royal forces. His popuhuity was now 
 at its ebb. The commons impeached him as the one source 
 of national misfortunes. Sarcastic ballads were freely sung 
 among the people, threatening some terrible catastrophe Buck- 
 ingham was willing to stake all upon the expedition to relieve 
 Rochello. lie spent threescore thousand pounds of his own 
 money upon the fleet ; and declared that he would be the first 
 man who should set his foot upon the dyke before Rochelle, " to 
 die or do the work." But his end was near. On August 23, 
 1628, he was assassinated by John Fclton, a lieutenant, whoso 
 claims to prefennent he had overlooked. — L. L. P. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, second duke of, son 
 of the favourite of Charles I., was born at Wallingford house, 
 30th January, 1627, about a year and a half before his 
 father's assassination. Judging Buckingham by a true and 
 rigid standard, history must pass a stern sentence upon him.
 
 He gained his monarch's favour by meeting every royal 
 vrhim with a higher and cleverer manifestation of that 
 whim ; and as a politician he managed the changeful circum- 
 stances of the time by an equally changeful variety of resources 
 and dispositions within himself. Buckingham especially pos- 
 sessed a keen sense and power of satire, which at times 
 furnished tlie salt whereby his deeds were preserved from 
 utter corruption, and enabled him to scorn the very vices he 
 indulged in. Buckingham went through a course of study at 
 Cambridge, and then was sent al)road with his only brother, 
 Lord Francis Villiers, under the care of one Mr. Aylesbury. 
 When the young men returned to England the civil war had 
 already brolven out, and they at onec attached themselves to 
 the royal cause. They joined the force assembled by Lord 
 Holland, who made the duke master of the liorse. Surprised by 
 Colonel Iiich at Kingston, Lord Francis was slain in the confu- 
 sion, wliile Bucldngham escaped lirst to London, and afterwards 
 to Holland, where Prince Charles welcomed him with favom-. 
 Subsequently, he accompanied the prince in his expedition 
 to Scotland, being the only Englishman of quality allowed to 
 remain about tlie royal person in that country. When the 
 battle of Worcester rendered an immediate restoration hope- 
 less, Buckingham withdrew to France, soon rejoining the 
 exiled prince, by whom he was made knight of the garter 
 for his fidelity. About this period parhament bestowed on 
 Fairfox some of the Buckingham family estates, a large portion 
 of which, however, that general generously restored to the 
 mother of the duke. Buckingham ventured to visit Eng- 
 land privately, and married tlie daughter and sole heii-ess of 
 Thomas, Lord Fairfax. During an excursion made to visit 
 his sister, he was arrested and cast into the tower ; but at the 
 Kestoration recovered his liberty, and was made one of the lords 
 of the bedchamber, called to the privy council, and appointed 
 lord-lieutenant of Yorkshu-e and master of the horse. In 1G6G 
 he entered into a plot against Clarendon, and held correspondence 
 with parties disaft'ected to the king. This was detected, and he 
 was struck out of all his commissions. Restored in the follow- 
 ing year, and, after discharging an embassy to France, he finally 
 succeeded in overthrowing Clarendon and forming the famous 
 ministry of the cabal, so called from the initial letters of the 
 names of its principal members, viz., Clilibrd, Ai-lington, Buck- 
 ingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale. Of this cabal the duke of 
 Buckingham was president, and virtual prime-minister of Eng- 
 land. Charles abandoned Buckingham, however, when he was 
 assailed by the house of commons, and accused of carrying on a 
 correspondence with the king's foes. He then joined Shaftes- 
 bury and the opposition ; and on one occasion was committed 
 to the tower in consequence of an offensive speech concerning 
 the dissolution of parliament. After the death of Charles, Buck- 
 ingham retired to his manor of Helmsley in Yorkshire, where 
 he employed his time in receiving his friends, in literature, and 
 hunting. His principal literary work is the comedy of the 
 " IJehearsal," written in ridicule of the mock-heroic style of 
 tragedy then popular, and to which even the genius of Dryden 
 at times condescended to pander. Buckingham also wrote 
 a farce, called the " Battle of Sedgcmour," and adapted 
 liom Beaumont and Fletcher the comedy of the Chances, 
 lie produced in addition some religious tracts, in which lie 
 maintained that there was no way left to make the Reformation 
 flourish but espousing sincerely a true and perfect liberty of 
 conscience ; argued against cathohcism with clever though coarse 
 satire ; and endeavoured to induce men to a belief of religion by 
 the strength of reason. Buckingham died April 16, 1G«8, of 
 an ague and fever, arising from a cold caught by sitting on the 
 ground after fox-hunting. A complete edition of his works was 
 published in two vohunes, 1775. — L. L. P. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, James Silk, a prolific writer, was born in 
 1786. His career was marked by extraordinary vicissitudes 
 and adventures. He was at first bred to the sea, and tlien 
 became successively a printer, a bookseller, the captain of a 
 trading vessel, a shipowner and merchant, the proprietor and 
 editor of a newspaper and of two literary journals, and finally 
 an author and public lecturer. He travelled extensively in 
 Egypt, Syria, Jlesopotamia, and Persia, repeatedly visited Lidia, 
 and in 1816 established a journal in Calcutta, which, by the 
 boldness of its attacks upon the maladministration of Lidian 
 affairs, led to his expulsion from the presidency of Bengal, and 
 the seizure of his piiuting-presses. On liis return to England, 
 
 he established the Oriental Herald, and the Atkenceum, and 
 published his " Travels in Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia," &c. 
 He aftenvards made several tom-s through various parts of 
 Europe and North America, of which he published a very 
 lengthened account. Mr. Buckingham sat in the house of com- 
 mons as member for ShefHeld from 1832 to 1837. He took a 
 deep interest in social reforms, and delivered a great number ol 
 popular lectures in various parts of the country. He published 
 two volumes of his " Autobiography," but died before the work 
 was completed, 20th June, 1855. — J. T. 
 
 BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, John Sheffield, duke of, son of 
 Lord Mulgrave, was born in 1649. He served as a volunteer with 
 the earl of Ossory in the second Dutch war, and so distuiguished 
 himself by his gallantry at the naval battle of Solebay, that, 
 although a mere youth, he was appointed to the command of the 
 Royal Catherine, second-rate man-of-war. He entered the French 
 service, in order to leam war irom Turenne, and commanded 
 the forces defending Tangier against the Moors, writing, during 
 the expedition, a poem called " The Vision." He was made by 
 James II. governor of Hull and lord-chamberlain, and often 
 risked the royal displeasure by plain and sensible advice. He 
 was opposed to the Revolution, although he submitted to it, and 
 at first refused to hold any office ; but at the end of King Wihiam's 
 reign he was advanced to many dignities, which were increased 
 on the accession of Queen Anne, whose lover he was said to have 
 been. He was sworn lord of the privy seal, and created dulie oi 
 Buckingliamshire. He was an active friend of the tory party, 
 and brought into its service a certain skill for intrigue. He was 
 president of council, and one of the lords -justices in Great Britain; 
 but on the accession of George I. threw himself into active 
 opposition to the court. He died 24th February, 1720, and 
 was interred in Westminster abbey. Dryden is said to have 
 revised his " Essay on Satire," while his " Essay on Poetry" 
 was apjilauded by both Dryden and Pope. 
 
 BUCKLAND, Ralph, a noted English Ro'manist, born at 
 West Harptre, Somersetshire, in 1564; educated at Rheims, 
 and afterwards at Rome. The last twenty years of his life 
 were spent in missionary labours in his native country. He 
 died in 1601. One of his works, entitled "Seven Sparks of the 
 Enkindled Flame," &c., has some passages which, according to 
 a sermon of Archbishop Usher's preached in 1640, were best 
 interpreted by the gunpowder plot. 
 
 BUCKLAND, William, D.D., F.R.S., a distinguished geolo- 
 gist, eldest son of the Rev. Charles Buckland, was burn, March 
 12, 1784, and received his early education at the grammar 
 school of Tiverton, and at Wmchestcr college. In ISOI lie 
 entered Corpus Christi college, Oxford, as a scholar on the 
 Exeter foundation. — It was during the early boyhood of the 
 subject of our memoir that two happy generalizations were 
 arrived at by eminent scientific men. Werner hud shown that 
 the rocky strata which form the earth's crust, are arranged in 
 a certain determinate order, which is never interrupted ; and 
 William Smith, that the fossiliferous strata can be identified 
 at great distances by their organic remains, and can be classed 
 by means of these in the order of their relative antiquity. An 
 extraordinary interest was thus excited iii the study of fossils, 
 especially in the south of England, where the scene of Smith's 
 labours chiefly lay, and where organic remains are very abundant, 
 and easily obtained from the strata in a perfect state. Such 
 facilities were afforded by Axminster, the birthplace of Dr. 
 Buckland ; and here, when a mere child, he made his first col- 
 lection of fossils from the lias quarries of the neighbourhood 
 Afterwards, when a schoolboy at Winchester, which is situated 
 in tlie chalk district, other opportunities were afforded of grati- 
 fying this taste. He attended the mineralogical lectures of Dr. 
 Kidd, and in company with friends at Oxford, who had drawn 
 their knowledge of fossils from William Smith, he made frequent 
 excursions in the neighbourhood. The fruits of these formed the 
 nucleus of the maguiticent collection afterwards jdaced by him in 
 the Oxford museum. He took the degree of B.A. in 1804, 
 and five years after was elected a fellow of his college. During 
 the four or five following years, his geological researches were 
 directed to the verification of Smith's views, as regarded the 
 south-west of England, so as accurately to group the fossils in 
 the various strata, and to obtain coiTcct sections of the beds in the 
 order of their superposition. Of robust frame, active habits, and a 
 buoyant temperament. Dr. Buckland took great delight in these 
 excursions, which were usually performed on horseback. In 1813
 
 BUG 
 
 795 
 
 BUF 
 
 he was appointed to the chair of mineralogy, resigned by Dr. Kidd. 
 Like Dr. Kidd h3 embraced geology in his course of lectures ; 
 and in these, from the intimate acquaintance with the English 
 strata and their fossils, which he had gained in his numerous 
 excursions, he was enabled to give to the illustrations of general 
 truths a freshness and interest which were very captivating. 
 Geology became popular in the university ; it had been firmly 
 established as a new science by the two generalizations to which 
 we have already referred ; it was now publicly recognized as such 
 at Oxford, by the endowment, at the instigation of the Prince 
 Regent, of a "Readership in Geolog}-." In 1819 Dr. Buckland 
 received the appointment, and delivered his inaugural address on 
 the 15th of May in that year. This, his first work, was after- 
 wards pubhshed under the title of " Vindiciae Geologicge." In 
 ■ position which he now occupied, Dr. Buckland powerfully 
 ;:duenced the progress of geology. A rich imagination and 
 playful humour, a philosophic turn of mind leading to profound 
 reflections, a wondrous sagacity in detecting the adaptations of 
 organic structure in fossils to the purj)oses of life, an extra- 
 ordinary flow of language, a fine voice, and "good presence," 
 formed a union of qualities well fitted to give matchless force 
 and directness to his scientific expositions, and unequalled gra- 
 phic effect to his illustrations. His numerous papers, contributed 
 chiefly to the Geological Society, were not less influential in 
 consoUdating the new science, and enlarging its boundaries. 
 This society was founded in 1807; he joined it in 1813, and 
 continued for upwards of thirty years a zealous contributor on 
 every branch of the subject. Dr. Ruckland's separate works were 
 the "Rehquiae Diluvianaj." published in 1823, and the "Bridge- 
 water Treatise," published in 183G. This latter is a work of 
 singular eloquence and power, and on it, perhaps, his future 
 fame will chiefly rest. The subject was admu-ably adapted to 
 ' is genius, and he executed the task assigned him with extraordi- 
 ■vy ability. In 1818 Dr. Buckland was elected a fellow of 
 ,0 Royal Society; in 1821 he joined the Linna?an Society, 
 and in 1847 was named a trustee of the British Museum. 
 He was a most active promoter of every scientific object, and 
 !'■ British Association owed much in its first years to his 
 itiring energy and sound judgment. He was its president at 
 'Oxford in 1832, and for several years president of the Geologi- 
 I al Society. In 1825 he was made a canon of Christ Church, 
 and doctor of divinity, and having resigned his fellowship, 
 roeeived the living of Stoke Charity in Hampshire. In 1845 
 Dr. Buckland was appointed to the deanery of Westminster, on 
 the recommendation of Sir Robert Peel. His death took place 
 on the 2Gth August, 1856, but for some years previously he 
 had been completely withdrawn from the world, a dark shadow 
 having obscured his noble and perhaps over-tasked intellect. 
 
 * BUCKMAX, Ja3I1£S, an agricultural botanist, at present 
 professor of natm-al histoiy in the agi-icultural college of Ciren- 
 cester. He has pubhshed valuable papers on the application of 
 icnce to agriculture, and on the effects of cultivation on plants. 
 BTJDE, GuiLLAUME (BuD.EUs), bom at Paris in 1467; 
 uifd in 1540. In early fife he was dissipated and idle. At 
 the age of twenty-four or twenty-five he applied to study with 
 great industry. He was attracted by Greek literature, the study 
 of which was then new in Europe. He received lessons ' from 
 Lascaris, and after his death a copy of the editio princeps of 
 Homer was found, with many manuscript notes of his. Budc's 
 father made him study jurispradence, but he shrunk from the 
 practical duties of professional life. His father died in 1500, 
 leaving twelve children, but so well provided for that Guillaume's 
 portion enabled him to retire from practice as an avocat. About 
 this time he man-ied a lad)', who, if not as learned as himself, 
 was yet the partner of his studies. Bude was for a while 
 secretary of Charles VIII. He was regarded by Francis I. as one 
 of the men of letters of France who did most honour to the 
 countr}', was given the care of his library, and was appointed 
 by him ambassador at the court of Leo X. The foundation 
 of the college roy;d by this prince is ascribed to the influence 
 of Bude. Some jealousy which Cardinal Duprat felt towards 
 him led to his retirement from court. It would have been well 
 for him had this been pennanent. for he loved study, and 
 probably was never more happy than at this period ; but on 
 Poyet hecoming chancellor, 15ud6 was recalled. In a visit 
 which the court made to Nonnandy, Budd, now no longer young, 
 suffered from fatigue and heat, and caught his death-illness. 
 Bude directed that he should be buried as privately as possible. 
 
 There can be little doubt that this arose from humiUty of mind, 
 but it was refeiTcd at the time to other causes. It was said 
 that though he never formally united himself with the reformers, 
 that his feelings were with them, and that he shrunk in imagi- 
 nation from the thought of being in death the object of the 
 splendid ceremonial services of the church. Budd was present 
 at the interviews of the monarchs of England and France on 
 the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and we have a description of it 
 from him. Bude has the great merit of having been one of the 
 first judicious commentators on the pandects, and in fact, com- 
 mencing the school which has taken its name from Cujas. His 
 treatise on the Roman coinage is still refeiTcd to. — J. A., D. 
 
 BUDGELL, Eustace, bom at St. Thomas, near Exeter, in 
 1685 ; died in 1736. Educated at Chi-ist church, Oxford ; thence 
 going to London, entered the middle temple as a law student ; he 
 does not, however, appear at any time to have studied law. 
 Addison, to whom he was related, on being appointed secretary 
 to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, gave Budgell a clerkship in his 
 ofiice. His connection with Addison led to his writing in the 
 Tatler, and afterwards in the Spectator. His papers in tlie Spec- 
 tator are signed X. In 1717, on Addison's becoming secretary 
 in England, he made his friend accountant and comptroller- 
 general of the revenue in Ireland. In 1718 the duke of Bolton 
 was lord-lieutenant ; Budgell fell out with his secretar}-, and 
 compromised both him and the duke. He was deprived of his 
 offices, and published pamphlets detailing his grievances, in spite 
 of Addison's dissuasion. In 1733 he issued a weekly pamphlet 
 called the " Bee," which ran to about a hundred numbers. He 
 was now left two thousand pounds by Dr. Tindal, in whose work, 
 Cliristianity as Old as the Creation, he had probably in some 
 way assisted. Budgell was not a relative of Tindal, and the 
 public gave him the credit of having forged the will. To this 
 Pope alludes : — 
 
 " Let Budgell charge low Grub Street on my quill, 
 And wiite whate'er he please — except my will." 
 
 He got entangled in litigation, and attending the courts as a 
 client led him to remember his old profession, and he resumed 
 the long-abandoned wig and gown ; but it was too late. He now 
 determined on suicide, and takmg a boat at Somerset stairs he 
 ordered tlie wateraian to shoot the bridge, and as the boat was 
 passing under it threw himself into the river. On his table was 
 found a slip of paper with the words — " What Cato did, and 
 Addison approved, cannot be wrong." Insanity had been dis- 
 tinctly exhibited for some days before his death. — J. A., D. 
 
 BUDGETT, Sajiuel, of Kingswood Hill, an English mer- 
 chant, remarkable for his entei-prise, benevolence, and success, 
 was bom at Wrington, Somersetshire, in 1794. His parents were 
 poor, and he received but a scanty education. When fourteen 
 years old, he was apprenticed to an elder brother who kept a 
 retail grocery shop at Kingswood, near Bristol, with whom, in 
 the course of ten years he became partner. Thus admitted to 
 a share in the business, he applied himself strenuously to its 
 extension, and such were his perseverance and energ}-, that ere 
 many years the establishment of Messrs. Budgett had a connec- 
 tion extending over the greater part of Englaiul, and was known 
 as one of the wealthiest houses in the "provision" trade. Mr. 
 Budgett was no less distinguished for his great benevolence and 
 unwearied labours for the elevation of the poor in his neighbour- 
 hood, than for his uprightness as a merchant, and his desire to 
 spread the principles of just commerce. He died in 1851, and 
 his life has been ^%Titten under the title of " The Successful 
 Merchant." — J. B. 
 
 BUFFIEI!, Claude, a grammarian, historian, and metaphy- 
 sician of deser\'ed celebrity, was bom in Poland, of French 
 parents, on the 25th of ^lay, 1661. Soon after his birth his 
 family returned to France, and settled at Rouen, where Claude's 
 early years were spent. He was educated at the Jesuits' college 
 there, and having much distinguished himself as a student, 
 entcnvl their order at the age of nineteen. A few years after- 
 wards, in consequence of certain theological differences with 
 Colbert, archbishop of Rouen, he went to Rome, and on his 
 return settled at Paris in the Jesuits' college. Here he spent 
 the remainder of his life, occupied in study and tuition, and 
 producing from time to time philosophic and literaiy treatises 
 of remarkable shrewdness and originality, lie commenced his 
 literary labours in Paris, by taking part in the editorship of the 
 Journal de Trevoux, but soon relinquished this, in order to 
 prepare for publication the results of his own studies in liistory
 
 and the moral sciences. He published at inters'als a number of 
 historic essays, among others, one on the " History of Spain ;" 
 another on the " Origin of the Kingdom of Sicily and Naples ;" a 
 " Chronological History of the Seventeenth Century ;" and an 
 " Introduction to the History of the Royal Families of Europe." 
 During these years, however, he was diligently engaged m college 
 tuition for which he was admirably fitted, having a clear and 
 happy faculty both of analysis and exposition. His "French 
 Grammar, on a new plan," sufficiently illustrates tliis, the arrange- 
 ment being clear and philosophic, the definitions full and precise, 
 and the detailed expositions throughout lucid and original. 
 In addition to its clearness, however, there is an animation in 
 his style, which gives to these writings a peculiar charm ; for 
 Buffier was not only a priest, tutor, and grammarian, but a poet, 
 a man of letters and of the world, conversant with men as well 
 as books, and expert in the use of language as an instrmnent of 
 thought. Far more justice has been done to Bufiier's pliilo- 
 sophic writings in this country than in France. By the Scotch 
 school in particular, his power as a shrewd and independent 
 thinker was early recognized and acknowledged. Eeid and 
 Stewart have spoken of his " Treatise on Primaiy Tniths " in terms 
 of the highest praise. Among his own countrymen, till quite 
 recently, Buffier has been unaccountably neglected. Voltaire, 
 indeed, speaks of him as the only jesmt that had written sensibly 
 on philosophy, and some of the ideologists refer to him in temis 
 of praise. But, with these exceptions, his name seems to have 
 fallen into obUvion, and his philosophic works to have been 
 almost forgotten for nearly a centmy after his death. Now, 
 however, in the revived pliUosophical acti\'it}', his writings are 
 studied anew, and tardy justice awarded to his merits as an 
 original thinker. 
 
 Buffier's chief philosophical works, those which contain the 
 results of his own speculation, are his "Traite des Premieres 
 V^rites," published in 1717; and his "Elemens de Metaphy- 
 siques," in 1724. In these works he reflects, in an improved 
 and original form, the best philosophical tendencies of his time. 
 He sums up the past, and anticipates the fatm-e, being at once 
 the disciple of Descartes and Locke, and the herald of the Scotch 
 philosophy. His philosophic position is thus striking and 
 pecuhar. Though a jesiut, he could admire Descartes, sympa- 
 thize with Malebranche, and receive instructions from the Port- 
 royalists. From Descartes he learned to look for principles 
 native to the mind itself — the necessary foundation of aU its 
 reasonings. He accepted, in a modified form, his doctrine of 
 innate ideas, adopted his criterion, and followed his method. 
 From Locke he learned to reduce metaphysical speculation 
 within the sphere of experience, to convert philosophy into 
 psychology, by limiting its inquiries to the observation and 
 analysis of the himian understanding. By thus accepting the 
 teaching of both masters, he avoided the opposite extremes 
 of error into which their disciples severally fell. The most 
 original and important part of Buffer's plulosophy is his doctrine 
 of first truths or primitive principles expounded in each of the 
 treatises above referred to — in the first, as a detailed scientific 
 analysis ; in the second, as an outline of processes and results 
 in the form of a dialogue. He died in 1737. An EngUsh 
 translation of his most important essay appeared in 1760, with 
 an elaborate preface, in which the translator endeavours to show, 
 but without success, that Reid, and the Scotch writers generally, 
 had both stolen and spoiled the doctrines of Buffier.— T. S. B. 
 
 BUFFON, Count de, originally George Louis Leclekc ; 
 son of Benjamin Leclerc, councillor in the parliament of Dijon, 
 and of a mother from whom he inherited high mtellectual and 
 especially distinguished moral powers ; bom at ilcntbar in Bur- 
 gundy, on 7th September, 1707; died at Paris on 16th April, 
 1788. The life of BuflPon thus extended over the centur)' which 
 bore Voltaire, Jlontesquieu, and Rousseau — three of the greatest 
 masters of the French tongue, and in their several lines nearly 
 the greatest and most productive thinkers of modem times. 
 BufFon, in many respects, stood apart : he was not an encyclo- 
 pa;dist, neither was he a politician; yet there is no figure in 
 French literature so stately, if we except the majestic Bossuet. 
 The " Epoques de la Nature " have a sweep and swell recalling 
 the flow of the Discours sur I'Histoire Universelle ; nor is either 
 surpassed in such attributes by the superb periods of our own 
 Bacox. David Hume wrote thus of Buffon — " In his figure and 
 wr and deportment, he answers your ideas of a marshal of 
 France, rather than that of a philosopher." But he was a phi- 
 
 losopher also ; his mode and style were not the results of artifice) 
 they belonged to the native stateliness of the man. — We spare 
 no room for narratives of the circumstances mider which the 
 directorship of the Jai'din du Roi escaped from the position of a 
 sinecm-e belonging to the king's physician, and, after the brief 
 but spirited interregnum of Dufay, fell in 1739 to Buffon. But 
 it is miportant to note the kind of preparation constituted by his 
 previous life for an office which he soon rendered illustrious. At 
 the age of thirty-two Buffon indeed had gained no repute as a 
 naturalist, nor had his studies largely gone La that direction. Of 
 respectable fortune and parentage, and distinguished by his per- 
 sonal manners and ability, he had mingled favourably with the 
 world. He had travelled in France, Italy, and England in the 
 companionship of a son of the earl of Kingston ; he had exercised 
 his powers of observation, and thrown himself on several subjects 
 of interest and difficulty that then engaged the attention of the 
 learned. He had translated into French Hales' Statics of 
 Vegetables, and Newton's Fluxions, prefacing them very ably; 
 and he had pnbHshed besides various and unconnected, although 
 rather striking memoii-s, on matters pertaining to geometry, 
 physics, and agricultm-e. When he obtained, indeed, his most 
 auspicious appointment, Buffon's mind was in nowise a maga- 
 zine of special knowledge ; it was rather a magazine of force, — 
 faculties that had never slept, sharpened by vaiious exercise, and 
 brought through practical intercourse with men and things, into 
 that harmony which is at the root of a possession or power as rare 
 as it is essential to greatness — the power of good sense. Many 
 men can never acquire tliis power, but Buffon was of the class 
 to whom wisdom is possible ; and when he entered the Jardin 
 du Roi he brought along with him, wisdom as well as energy — a 
 genius capable of anything, and sound intellectual culture in its 
 train. His triumph need never have been doubted. Sustained 
 by a fine ambition, he raled his domain en jirince. Those mean 
 Jardins du Roi grew under his eye until they were unmatched 
 in Europe, which then signified " the world." Natural history, 
 re\-ivified so recently by the immortal Llsx.eus, rose in Ins 
 hands fi'om a collection of formal and arid classifications, to be 
 the sphere of ideas convei-sant with the order and majesty of the 
 imiverse : And where the limit to the sway of a Style — spacious 
 as an undisturbed river — which, at the command of one who 
 loved them, described the habits, forms, and qualities of the 
 creatures, with a minuteness, a reality, and an affection never 
 reached by the greatest painter? — Alas! that France should 
 have her visitations of madness, — then forgetting gratitude, and 
 treaduig under foot her glories ! She repents, indeed, and 
 changes ; but, although she changes, the scythe has swept her 
 prairies. The only son of this superb son of hers died a colonel 
 of cavahy, at the age of twenty-nine, on a scaflbld of the Revo- 
 lution. It is said that, in quietest dignity, he exclaimed at that 
 supreme hour — " Citoyens,je me nomme Buffox." 
 
 Buffon's fitness for his position in the Jardin du Roi was at 
 first gravely and acrimoniously questioned ; nor did what was 
 called " The Society of Naturalists" in Paris fail to write of him 
 injuriously. Long afterwai-ds even, he was termed by such men 
 not a naturalist, but a mere edition of Bemardin St. Pierre; and 
 this very partial \'iew of his senices and richly endowed nature 
 has not ceased even with the completion and the completed fame 
 of a monument that will endure as long as the French tongue- 
 Within the brief space at our command, we shall endeavour to 
 discriminate as to his qualities and defects. 
 
 The energy and sphere of that vast and creative power usually 
 termed " Imagination," in reference to philosophical or even 
 strictly scientific investigation, are for the most part sadly mis- 
 uuderetood. That Buffon himself had not fallen into one form 
 of the prevalent error is manifest enough, the following beuig his 
 own considerate words — ''Comment ose-t-on se flatter de 
 devoiler ces mysteres sans autre guide que son Imagination, et 
 comment fait-on oubUer que I'effet est le seul moyen de connaitre 
 la cause ? C'est par des experiences fines, raisonnees et suivies 
 que Ion force la Nature a decou\"rir son secret : toutes les autres 
 methodes n'ont jamais reussi, et les vrais physiciens ne peuvent 
 s'empecher de regarder les anciennes systemes comme d'anciennes 
 reveries, et sont reduits a lire la phipail des nouveaux, comme 
 on fit les romans." The tmth seems to be this : — of gi-eat mmds 
 there are two classes, or rather three, the third being the rarest. 
 The third is rarest necessarily, containing and expressing the 
 harmony of the other two. In the Jirst class the faculties chiefly 
 incline to discern the resemblances or analogies of things ; in the
 
 second the tendency is to rest rather on differences. A mind 
 perfectly adapted to the pursuit of any great subject must, of 
 course, have botli sets of faculties at its disposal, especially in the 
 case of natural history, — seeing that all true classification rests 
 essentially on binanj terms, one term expressing how near the 
 object is to other objects, and the second term how far, thi-ough 
 its individuality, it stands apart. The faculty to discern dift'er- 
 ences is, when isolated, a microscopic one, implying no exercise 
 of imagination or of any generalizing power ; neither, if we 
 consider the vast and various work it has to do, ought it perhaps 
 to be regretted that the men Avho possess it in greater or less 
 perfection, are comparatively the most numerous of inquu'ers. 
 Buffon's nature failed here, and the weakness (confirmed in so 
 far by his poor eyesight) had not been removed by an adequate 
 education. But he learned the existence of his weakness, and 
 took means to secure that the edifice he conceived should not be 
 inharmonious through effect of the imperfection of its architect. 
 He early associated with him, and inspired by the influence of 
 his genius, the acute and painstaking Daubenton, whose contri- 
 butions to the anatomy of zoology are and ever will be a con- 
 stituent element of the " Histoire Naturelle." Offended by one 
 of those acts which, however right and just, are singularly apt 
 to be misconceived by an assistant, Daubenton dissolved the 
 aAociation ; and Buffon, for the reason aforesaid, then resorted 
 to the counsels of the assiduous and affectionate Gueneau de 
 Montbelliard, and the Abbe Be-xon. But as years advanced, and 
 his labours grew towards their consummation, the architect him- 
 self increased in skill, and rose superior to defects. It is in 
 the early volumes only of his enterprise that we find those ill- 
 judged, because ill-informed references to the inmiortal Linnaius 
 — Buffon's only compeer in that age : for, when he has reached 
 the department of Birds, he has departed wholly from the idea 
 that the creatures should be classified according to their useful- 
 ness and interest to man, and given practical effect to premoni- 
 tions, strewn through his writings from the first, to the effect 
 that there is a unity throughout nature and all its departments, 
 and therefore a positive ground in the structure of every class of 
 beings, for an arrangement or grouping deeper than even Linnaius 
 had dreamt of. The "naturalists" of the time could not discern 
 his progress, or were unwilling to acknowledge it. They esti- 
 mated defects, but they failed to estimate in hints scattered 
 through various separate notices— such as those on the Ass and 
 the Zebra — that an intellect and a genius had arisen capable of 
 repeating, enlarging, and adorning the enterprises of an Aristotle 
 and a Pliny. One other fact they failed to see. The title of 
 Buffon's immortal work is "Histoire Naturelle geneeale et 
 PARTICULIERE," and Buftbn felt rightly, and from first to last 
 wrote under the conviction, that general treatment and undivided 
 attention to general theorems obscure our eyesight as to things, 
 and had gone far to destroy all true interest in the " creatures." 
 By whom else has the nature of an animal been ever so thoroughly 
 realized? By whom presented so affectionately and so faith- 
 fully ? A single picture of our Landseeu is, in this respect, 
 worth tons of disquisitions, and while they rot, it will be immortal. 
 The illustrious Swede felt this as deeply as any man : " Venit, 
 venit himndo, pulchra adducens tenipora et pulchros annos I " 
 Who but Buffon could have written of the stag that Landseer 
 has so often painted ! " Le cerf paralt avoir I'oeil bon, I'odorat 
 exquis, et I'oreille excellente. Lorsqu'il veut ecouter, il leve la 
 tete, dresse les oreilles, et alors il eiitend de fort loin : lorsqu'il 
 sort dans un petit tallis ou dans quelque autre endroit a demi 
 decouvert, il s'arrete pour regarder de tous cotes et cherche 
 ensuite le dessous du vent pour sentir s'il n'y a pas quelqu'un 
 que puisse I'inquie'ter ! " 
 
 Thus even the limitations of Buffon's miiul were counteracted, 
 m so far as they could seriously impede his efforts, or mar his 
 immortal work. But that very excess of the intellectual faculty 
 which threatened to injure the inquirer, was really the cause 
 of much of his grandeur, and the peculiarity that enabled him 
 to impress so inettaceably an influence on the future. It is not 
 requisite to fall back here on the obscure and questionable doc- 
 trine of Geoffrey St. JJilaire, on what he calls the " Theory of 
 Necessary Ideas;" — Buffon's influence and power can be explained 
 quite otherwise. The jiredominance of the element " imagina- 
 tion" impelled him irresistibly to seek for analogies, and inspired 
 him with a conviction, fixed as that in his own existence, that 
 unity and harmony underlie the whole variety and seeming 
 disorders of the universe. Such a conviction, so rooted, has one 
 
 inevitable result in its action on a mind struggling through 
 the narrow ways of imperfect knowledge : it constrains it to 
 frame '■''systems" or hypotlieses. These systems, as Buftbn him- 
 self says, are the means by which alone the inquirer can put 
 his whole thought and soul into his subject. It is only needful 
 that he hold them at their true value ; or that he always feel 
 disposed to write thus — " Nous nous refusons d'autant moins ii 
 publier ce que nous avons pense sur cette matiere que nous 
 esp(5rons par la mettre le lecteur plus en ctat de prononcer sur la 
 grande difference qu'il y a entre ime hypothese oil il n'entre que 
 des possibilites, et une theorie fondee sur les faits, — entre un 
 systeme tel que nous allons en douner un dans cet article sur la 
 formation et le prenfier dtat de la terre, et une histoire physique 
 de sou etat actuel, telle que nous venous de la donner dans le 
 discours precedent." The systems or hypotheses of a man ot 
 genius, are in reality the expression of his philosophic power, 
 and of his faculty of discovery,- — they are his groplnys. Living 
 in more advanced times, and under the light of established gene- 
 ralizations, we are apt to forget what science and the course 
 of thought owe to those majestic " Theorie de la Fevre," and 
 " Epoques de la Nature." BufTon did not imagine that the 
 process he has desci-ibed so loftily, was the course actually 
 pursued by the Creator. But persuaded irrevocably that the 
 present hangs by a long past, and that out of the present the 
 future must be unfolded, he cast aside the cataclysnial vagaries 
 of his predecessors, and with a few hints from Leibnitz, and 
 perhaps Woodward, alone ventured to suggest that by some 
 such process — by some such constant and orderly action of 
 cosmical laws, has the existing order, with all its bewildering 
 variety, been evolved. Take up Burnet or Whiston — not as to 
 their systems, which are simply absurd, but as to the spirit of 
 their systems — is it possible for any inquirer to mistake the 
 genius or underrate the value of the unpulse given by the 
 Frenchman? Nay, Cuvier himself, with all his greatness, 
 ranks here immeasurably below Buffon. He, too, propounded a 
 system without fully recognizing that it was only a system. 
 But the spirit of Gunner's system is in contrast exceedingly dis- 
 advantageous with that of the " Epoques de la Natm'e." Like 
 Burnet and Whiston, he accepts the doctrine of cataclysms — a 
 doctrine which, wherever and under whatever form it appears, 
 is simply an abnegation of all true or attainable philosophy, and 
 which Buffon, first of all among our modern greatest men, had 
 the courage and the honoirr to discredit and expel from within 
 the demesne of rational inquiry. Had we space or leisure to 
 analyse the " Epoques de la Nature," we might indicate remark- 
 able forecastings as to the largest generalizations of om' existing 
 geology. Passing from such, however, let us search a few of 
 the positive and universally acknowledged debts of science to 
 the " inventive " or lofty generalizing power of Buffon. He has 
 bequeathed a few theorems, as indisputable as the famous one 
 of Pythagoras, and which go far to form the bases of scientific 
 natural history. It is to this remarkable thinker that we owe 
 om* first clear and practical connection of the distrihvtion of 
 animals with the geography of the globe. Previous to Buffon's 
 labours, natural history had, in this respect, no light whatsoever ; 
 the animals had no recognized relationship with their habitats, or 
 — to speak more correctly — no natural habitat at all ; each one 
 appearing to live indifferently where it could or where it fisted, 
 or where it had been originally set down. The i)roclamation of 
 a geographical distribution or arrangement, depending inevitably 
 ou climate and a few other natural conditions, was an epoch 
 in science. Occasioning not unnaturally much surprise, and 
 exciting vast alarm and bitter hostility at the time, it has not only 
 grown into an accepted and indubitable truth, but is the clue by 
 whose aid inquirers are now striving to threail the labyrinth of the 
 organized world. Then, for the first time, were the forms of 
 organization brought into clear relationship with the grand phy- 
 sical forces and their arrangements. Closely connected with the 
 paramount law referred to, is Buffon's important generalization 
 regarding the unity of the human species, notwithstandingdiversity 
 in colour and less essential features. The great debt, however, 
 owing to him as to this order of truths, is his discovery of the 
 test, or " general term," of a species. Earliest among natural- 
 ists, he laid that down to hefciiiidily, or the power to continue 
 itself. But while drawing an ineffaceable line between an actual 
 species, and all mere anomalies, he guards himself from a philo- 
 soj)hical error of the gravest description that is still prevalent, 
 and into which also the great Cuvier fell, or rather rushed head-
 
 BUF 
 
 798 
 
 BUG 
 
 long. That variety of form and character which we now behold 
 — those innumerable species — are yet but fragments from an 
 immense past; '. .:3y no more constitute a whole or a hai-mony, 
 in so far as w«; see them, than the distribution and forms of 
 our continents and islands. The latter are a simple phase of an 
 immense history — unintelligible by themselves, and not yet to 
 be understood. But grand laws have produced them ; and even 
 these laws, mighty and remote though they are, are gradually 
 approaching the sphere of distinct vision. Shall we then, simply 
 because we cannot yet discern their relationship, consider all 
 those multitudinous species as fixed and independent entities! 
 Do those fragments belong to no majestic whole ? Cuvier shut 
 up the inquii-y ; he thought the prosecution of it, if not illegiti- 
 mate, at least hopeless. Buffon did not. He ventured to pro- 
 nounce the word " 7nutaljility" in reference to species; and he 
 did so because he bowed before the energies of Nature, exercised 
 through an unfathomable past. — Enough as to Buftbn, unless, 
 in powerful although partial support of the estimate ventured on 
 above, we subjoin the words of his most illustrious successor : — 
 " On the other hand, he gave by these very hypotheses an 
 immense impulse to geology. First of all, he caused it to be felt 
 that the actual state of the globe is the result of a succession of 
 changes, the traces of which may be discerned ; and thereb}- he 
 turned the attention of observers to such phenomena as seemed 
 likely to enable them to reach back to those changes. By his 
 own observations, also, he advanced the science of Man and the 
 Animals. His ideas as to the influence exercised by the delicacy 
 and development of each organ on the nature of the different 
 species, are conceptions of genius, which form the basis of all 
 philosophical Natural Histor)', and which have rendered services 
 to 2fethod so high, that their author may well be pardoned for 
 the harsh words he has written concerning that art. BufFun's 
 views of the degeneration of animals, and the limits which 
 climates, mountains, and oceans assign to each species, are 
 imperishable discoveries that are daily confirmed more and 
 more, and they have given to the researches of travellers tliat 
 fixed basis which previously was wholly wanting. Finally, 
 Buffon has rendered to his countiy one of the greatest services 
 that could be rendered ; he popularized science by his writings, 
 interested the great and powerful, who from that time have 
 aided its advance, and so produced effects that luave come down 
 to our times, and will be of incalculable value through the future. 
 A few errors ought not to induce us to wthhold our just tribute 
 of admiration, of respect, and above all of gi-atitude ; for men 
 have long owed him those gentle pleasures flowing to minds 
 still young from their first glance over nature, and those conso- 
 lations experienced during the fatigues of life, when our thoughts 
 rest on the spectacle of that immensity of beings peacefully obe- 
 dient to eternal and necessary laws.'" — (C«ivVr.) 
 
 The " Histoire Naturelle" is one of those works which astonish 
 by then- spaciousness. Beginning with a cosmogony, which Buffijn 
 afterwards corrected and completed in the " Epoques de la Na- 
 ture," he passes to a philosophical review of the general phenomena 
 of Animated Nature. Treating then of Man, the Quadrupeds, 
 and very strikingly of the Apes, he enters next on perhaps the 
 most superb portion of the work — that extensive treatise on the 
 Birds ; and an elaborate account of the Mineral Kingdom ter- 
 minates his labours. The several portions of this vast under- 
 taking are unequal in merit — the section on Minerals being least 
 worthy of consideration now. The deficiencies of Buffon's plan 
 need not be pointed out ; they have been supplied recently, in a 
 way worthy of the subject, by a magnificent publication " Suites 
 a Buffon." 
 
 The " Histoire Naturelle" has had many editors. The great 
 edition, however, is still Buffon's own — the original quarto. It 
 is impossible to speak with too much contempt of the pro- 
 ductions by Castel and Sonnini. Had these men edited the 
 grand Hebrew Lyrics, they would have changed the metre to 
 some modern sing-song, and probably added stanzas of their 
 own ! Buffon has truly said, " le style est I'homme." Certainly 
 his works are the history of his mind and its growth. Natural- 
 ists, in their own systematic treatises, may take advantage of 
 his discoveries, but let them leave these works and their author 
 alone ! The edition by Lamouroux is a good one ; but the only 
 really unexceptionable work is that by Flourens, in twelve large 
 and handsome volumes. Still we rejoice in Buffon's own volumes, 
 and welcome them with infinite pleasure in any library. 
 
 Of Buffon, personally, little is known beyond what we have 
 
 indicated. Some abbe has alleged recently that there are private 
 letters of his, doing no credit either to his sentiments or hb 
 heart. It might seem a primal moral law, that neither charges 
 nor insinuations ought ever to be made, unless they are on the 
 eve of being substantiated. The abbe should have published 
 these letters or been silent. All we know at present is, that 
 the abbe did not like Buffon. He was, as we have said, a stately 
 man, living, generally in full dress, either in the Garden of 
 Plants, or as a retired student at Montbar. — J. P. N. 
 
 BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, Thomas Robert, dnc 
 d'Isly, marshal of France, bom at Limoges, loth October, 1784; 
 died 'at Paris, 10th June, 1849. In June, 1804, he entered the 
 army as a private in the grenadier corps. At Austerlitz, where 
 he evinced gicat bravery, he was promoted to the rank of cor- 
 poral; and in the following year he was named sub-heatenant 
 in the 64th regiment of the line. He took part in the cam- 
 paigns of Prussia and Poland, and was wounded at Pultusk in 
 November, 1806. He was afterwards sent to Spain with the 
 rank of lieutenant adjutant-major, and remained there with the 
 army of Aragon until 1814. In 1811 he was made lieutenant- 
 colonel, and placed at the head of the 14th regiment of the 
 line ; and on his return to France promoted to a colonelcy. At 
 the first restoration he seemed favourable to the cause of the 
 ancient dj-nasty, but during the Hundred Days he followed the 
 emperor. In 1831 he was appointed a member of the 
 chamber of deputies, and was named field-marshal. He was 
 afterwards sent to Africa, where he signalized himself in a 
 campaign against the Arabs. In 1837, when public opinioTi 
 was strongly in favour of a partial occupation of Algeria, Bugeaud 
 was intnisted with an important mission to the province of 
 Oran, where he concluded the celebrated treaty of Tafna. In 
 1840 he was appointed governor-general of the French possessions 
 in Africa, and had not long held this ofiice when he recom- 
 mended the government to adopt measures for the absolute con- 
 quest of Algeria. In three years that project was realized ; the 
 whole territory, from the frontiers of Tunis to those of Jlorocco, 
 was subjugated to France. In May, 1844, hostihties commenced 
 between Bugeaud, as governor of Algeria, and the emperor of 
 Morocco; and in the following July, Bugeaud having completely 
 routed the army of the emperor at Isly, was rewarded with the 
 title of due d'Isly. In 1847 he was superseded by the dnc 
 d'Aumale; and on the memorable 24th February, 1848, was named 
 by Ban-ot and Thiers to the command of the army and of the 
 national guard of Paris. The president, M. Louis Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, afterwards intrusted him with the command of the aimy 
 of the Alps. He fell a victim to Asiatic cholera in 1849. — G. M. 
 
 BUGGE, Thomas, a very able Danish geographer, andseconc 
 only to Tycho Brahe as an astronomer, was bom l'2th October, 
 1740, at Copenhagen, where his father was clerk in a victualling 
 office. His first studies were theological, but he afterwards 
 devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy, physics, and especially 
 mensuration. In 1761 he was sent to Trondheim to make 
 observations on the transit of Venus; in 1777 became pro- 
 fessor of astronomy and mathematics in the university of Copen- 
 hagen, and in the following year was appointed keeper of the 
 obseiTatoiy of the Round Tower, of which, in fact, he might 
 be regarded as the restorer. In 1798 he was sent by govern- 
 ment to Paris to concert with the directors of the National 
 Institute a uniformity of weights and measures, and soon 
 after he was admitted a member of the Institute. His self- 
 forgetting earnestness to preserve the scientific treasures com- 
 mitted to his care, during the bombardment of his native 
 city in 1807, was rewarded by the office of councillor of state. 
 He was also made knight of the most noble order of Dannebrog, 
 and died loth of June, 1815. Bugge's labours were unre- 
 mitting and valuable. The extreme accuracy of the excellent 
 charts of Denmark published by the Academy of Sciences, is 
 mainly owing to him ; but still more useful was he in the geo- 
 graphical knowledge which he imparted to young men. The 
 extreme accuracy of his trigonometrical surveys was not alone 
 beneficial to his native Denmark ; but by the careful indication 
 of every coast, harbour, island, rock, and sandbank in both 
 Belts and the Cattegat, the navigation of the Danish waters is 
 rendered much more safe. Of his numerous works, all important 
 and highly valuable, may be briefly mentioned — " De forste 
 Gninde til den Sphjeriske og theoretiske Astronomic samt den 
 Jlathematiske Geographic," Copenh. 1796; " De forste Grande 
 til den rene eller abstracte Jlathematik " 3 vols., 1813-14. His
 
 BUG 
 
 799 
 
 BUL 
 
 " Beski'ivelse over den Opmaalingsmaade som bruges ved de 
 danske geograiihiske Karter," published iu 1779, is a handbook 
 of meiism-ation. His autobiography is contained in the Wormske 
 Lexicon, 3rJ vol. — M. H. 
 
 BUGENHAGEN, Johann, sm-named Pomeranus, one of 
 the most celebrated of the German reformers ; born in 1485 ; 
 died in 1558. While rector of the academy of Treptow he wrote, 
 by conmiaud of Buleslas X., a history of Pomerania, which was 
 published two centuries later by Balthasar. He was not one of 
 the earliest, but he became one of the staunchest of the sup- 
 porters of Luther. At Wittemberg, where he removed as soon 
 as he had determined to share the labours and the dangers of the 
 reformers, lie expounded the Psalms to large audiences, which 
 were not unfrequently graced by the presence of Melancthon. The 
 zeal and ability with which he aided Luther in all his movements, 
 recommended Bugeiihagen to , the favour of Christian IL of 
 Denmark, who employed him in the organization of the eccle- 
 siiistical establishments of the kingdom, and at the conclusion of 
 his labom's otfered him a bishopric, which, however, he was too 
 zealous a Lutheran to accept. Although the duties of his charge 
 at Wittemberg were of the most onerous description, he found time 
 to assist Luther in his translation of the scriptures, to prepare 
 a version of the sacred books in Low German, and to pubhsh a 
 great number of theological works, which, although little read at 
 the present day, are in a historical point of view — so great was 
 then- influence on the progress of the Reformation — only less 
 interesting than those of Luther and Melancthon. — J. S., G. 
 
 BUGIARDINL GiULiANO, a Florentine artist, born in 1481. 
 He imitated the milder and weaker qualities of Leonardo. He 
 was instructed by Bertoldo, a sculptor, and was educated and 
 
 cli beloved by Michel Angelo. His taste in design and coni- 
 
 -ition were iuiperfect; he drew badly, his colour was dry, and 
 ..io anatomy overdone. He died in 155G. — W. T. 
 
 * BULGAKIN, Thaddeus, born in Lithuania in 1789. 
 Although by birth a Pole, Bulgarin may be numbered among 
 the distinguished writers of Russia, as his politics are Russian, 
 and his best works are written in the Russian language. His 
 career has been in some respects that of an adventurer. He 
 sers'ed in a Russian regiment of lancers from 1805 to 1808, 
 when he joined the army of Napoleon in Spain; and in 1814 
 we find him at the head of a body of volunteers. In 1818 he 
 removed to St. Petersburg, where he has since remained. He 
 there commenced editing VAbeille du Nurd (the Northern Bee), 
 a journal which is still in existence. Gifted with great facility 
 of composition, Bulgarin has published many critical works, besides 
 various novels and romances, amongst others " Ivan Vigighin ; " 
 " Roslawlieft' ; " " Dmitri;" and " Mazeppa." As a critic Bul- 
 garin is clever, but too often satirical and unjust. He has lately 
 published a work entitled " Russia under its Historical, Literary, 
 and Geographical Aspects." — M. Q. 
 
 BULGARIS, EuGENius, a very learned Greek prelate, born 
 at Corfu in 1716 ; died at St. Petersburg in 1805. He was an 
 admirable lingiust, and wrote largely on philosophy, mathe- 
 matics, and astronomy. The modern Greeks regard him as one 
 of their best writers, and his style is held as a model at the 
 courts of the hospodars of Jloldavia and Wallachia. He is 
 commonly known by the name Eugenius. 
 
 BULL, George, D.D., bishop of St. David's, 1705-1710; 
 bom in Wells in 1634 ; educated at Tiverton gi-ammar school, and 
 afterwards at Exeter college, Oxford. In 1655 he was ordained 
 deacon and priest by Dr. Skinner, the ejected bishop of Oxford, 
 who dispensed with the canonical rules, on account of Bull's 
 " peculiar fitness for the ministry and the necessities of the 
 times." In 1658 he was presented to the rectory of Sid- 
 dington St. JLu-y, near Cirencester, and in 1662 the vicarage 
 of Siddington St. Peter was united to it — the joint income 
 being less than £100 per aninun. Here he employed himself 
 for twenty-seven years in the diligent discharge of pastoral 
 duties, in preaching aTid catechising, and in composing his 
 admirable worl« of practical and controversial divinity. In 
 1685 he became rector of Avening ; in 1686 the degree of D.D. 
 was conferred on him by the university of Oxford; in 1678 
 a prebend of Gloucester ; in 1686 the archdeaconry of Llan- 
 daff, by Archbishop Bancroft; and in 1705, at the advanced 
 age of seventy-one, he was made bishop of St. David's, the 
 duties of whiiii sec he discharged with much zeal and diligence 
 till 1710, when he died at Brecknock.— T. S. P. 
 
 BULL, JoHx, JIus. Doc, was born in Somersetshire about 
 
 the year 1563, and, as it is said, was a descendant from the 
 Somerset family. He was educated in music under Blitheman, 
 an organist of the chapel royal in the reign of Elizabeth. At the 
 age of twenty-three he was admitted to the degree of bachelor 
 of music at Oxford ; and six years afterwards to that of doctor. 
 On the death of Blitheman in 1591, he received the appointment 
 of organist to the royal chapel ; and Wood says of him, that he 
 had "a most prodigious hand on the organ." Shortly after- 
 wards, at the express desire of the queen, he was nominated the 
 first professor of music in Gresham college. In 1601 he went 
 abroad for the recoveiy of his health, which for some time had 
 been greatly impaired. Upon the accession of James I. he 
 retained all his pre\'ious appointments, and was nominated one 
 of the chamber musicians to the king ; in which capacity he had 
 the honour of instructing Prince Henry. Stow tells us in his 
 Chronicles, that he was selected to entertain the king and the 
 prince with his performance on the organ at Wer'chant-Taylors' 
 Hall, July 16th, 1607, the election-day of the master and war- 
 dens. Upon this occasion he is said to have composed the 
 national anthem " God Save the King;" the authorship of which 
 has so long been the subject of dispute. In 1841, the late Mr. 
 Richard Clark, one of the lay-vicars of Westminster abbey, 
 announced for pubUcation " The Manuscript Compositions of 
 John Bidl;" but, we are sorry to say, the annomicement 
 received so little support, that the promised volume never 
 appeared. The claims of Dr. Bull to the gratitude of his country- 
 men are thus set forth in Mr. Clark's prospectus: — ''Dr. Bull's 
 reputation as a composer and as an organist extended during his 
 lifetime to the capitals of Holland, France, and Germany, and 
 he may justly be considered the Henry Purcell of the latter hall 
 of the sixteenth century. It is presumed the i)ublication of this 
 interesting manuscript will tend to throw a new light on the 
 extraordinary genius and acquirements of one of the earliest, and 
 most celebrated musicians of which this country can boast ; and 
 it will materially assist in demonstrating that in the reign of 
 Elizabeth there first appeared those great harmonies and com- 
 binations of notes, which it has been the habit of many professors 
 to attribute to the later period of Heniy Purcell, and the still 
 later one of Sebastian Bach. ... It also exhibits another, 
 and, if possible, still more interesting claim on the attention and 
 patronage of the musical public, as it contains the national air 
 of " God Save the King," composed in four parts. This is 
 written in three-two time, and the melody is, with one or two 
 exceptions, precisely the same as is now in use ; and it is but 
 justice to the memoiy of Dr. Bull, its composer, to state that his 
 reputation may be considered to have suttered from the claims 
 which have unjustly been made for various persons as the com- 
 poser, and from the slight alteration which has arisen from the 
 lapse of time, and the want of an authentic copy as a reference. 
 In addition to this great cmiosity, there are twenty- 
 seven other compositions, including many fugues, canons, and 
 variations on the fine old Gregorian hymns, Gloria tibi Trinitas, 
 Salvator JIundi Domine, Felice namque oflertorium," &c. &c. 
 In 1613, as we learn from the old cheque-book of the chapel 
 royal, "John Bull, doctor of music, went beyond the seas without 
 license, and was admitted into the archduke's service, and entered 
 into pay there about Jlichaelmas." Wood says that he died at 
 Hamburg; others assert that this event took place at Lubeck ; 
 but recent researches have enabled us to set the matter beyond 
 doubt. Bull visited Antwerp in 1615, and was appointed 
 organist of the church of Notre Dame in that city in 1617. He 
 died on the I'ith or 13th of March, 1628, and was buried in the 
 cathedral of which he was organist. There is a picture of him 
 yet remaining in the music school at Oxford. It is painted on 
 board, and represents him in his habit of bachelor of nmsic. 
 (Wood's At/icmr ; Ward's Gresham Professors; Archives of 
 Antwerp, &c.) — E. F. R. 
 
 BULLER, Chari.es, a liberal politician, who promised to be 
 a statesman, was born at Calcutta in 1806. He was the 
 younger son of a younger son — the latter, then a mend)erof the 
 Bengal civil service, afterwards succeeding an elder brother iu 
 the representation of West Looe, a borough disfranchised by the 
 reform bill, and in which the Buller family had hiiluence. He 
 received his early education at Harrow, which he quitted with the 
 highest honours. He studied subsequently at Edinburgh, and 
 there had for one of his tutors Mr. Thomas Carlyle. His edu- 
 cation was completed at Cambridge, where he distinguished him- 
 self less in the academic studies of the place, than as a llucnt,
 
 BUL 
 
 803 
 
 BUL 
 
 vigorous, and witty orator — always on the liberal side — at the 
 famed debating society, the " Union." He was content with a 
 B.A. dpgi"ee, which he took in 1828 ; and destined for the law, he 
 was called to the bar in June, 1831. Sent to the house of com- 
 mons on the eve of the reform biU (for which, of course, he voted), 
 as member for West Looe, he delivered his maiden speech in 
 1830; and after the disfranchisement of West Looe, he sat until 
 his death for Liskeard, where also his family had influence. 
 In the first reformed parliament, he was conspicuous as a young 
 and promising radical, more a follower of Lord Durham than of 
 Lord John Kussell; more a philosophical than a democratic 
 radical: witness the vigorous pamphlet pubUshed by him in 
 1831, and in which, despite its title — "On the Necessity for a 
 Radical Refomi" — the unfitness, in the writer's view, of "the 
 lower orders," as he called them, for the reception of the fran- 
 chise, was emphatically indicated. Mr. Buller's first notable 
 parliamentary achievement was, however, scarcely a political 
 one, though it involved a great public benefit. On the 18th of 
 February, 1836, in a speech received with great applause, full of 
 wit, as well as sense and knowledge, he moved the appointment 
 of a select committee to investigate the affairs of the record 
 commission. Its issue need not be recorded. Some two years 
 afterwards. Lord Durham, on his appointment to the governor- 
 generalship of Canada, took Mr. BuUer with him as his civil 
 secretary. In 18-11 he had a short term of office as secretaiy 
 of the board of control, from which post he was speedily removed 
 by the accession of Sir Robert Peel's second administration. But 
 with his return from Canada, he began to practise as a counsel 
 in appeal cases before the privy council, and to occupy himself 
 energetically in pai'liament, and out of it, with the question of 
 national emigration. His speech on " Systematic Colonization." 
 calling for a royal commission to investigate the subject, was 
 delivered in April, 1843. Out of the house as in it, though 
 busy in many ways, colonization and colonial questions con- 
 stituted his most prominent sphere of activity, and he was a 
 leading man in the establishment and development of the 
 New Zealand company. In the house of commons he was rising 
 rapidly, by the freshness of his stj-le, the lucidity of his state- 
 ments, his general candour and originality as a speaker, and 
 last, not least, by his airy sparkling wit, which relieved his 
 treatment of the driest and most hackneyed subjects. If others 
 rose with him " to catch the speaker's eye," the cry was generally 
 for " Buller ! " On the formation of Lord John Ilussell's ministry, 
 he was appointed to the modest post of judge-advocate-general ; 
 but in July, 1847, having been appointed a queen's counsel the 
 previous November, he was made a privy councillor. In 1848, 
 when the poor-law commission broke down beneath the weight 
 of pubhc obloquy, Jlr. Buller, at a considerable sacrifice of 
 income, accepted the presidency of the new and remodelled 
 commission ; during his short occupancy of what had become 
 a very responsible post, he suggested many, and carried several 
 important improvements. But his career was prematurely closed; 
 he died of typhus fever on the 28th of November, 1848. In 
 the high social circles which he adorned, his loss was severely 
 felt, and politicians of every party mounied one whose wit had 
 never made an enemy, whose talents were admired, and whose 
 purity of public and private character was respected by all. — F. E. 
 
 BULLEVN, WiLLiAjr, an English physician and botanist, 
 was bom in the Isle of Ely in the early part of the reign of 
 Henry VIII. He was educated chiefly at Cambridge. In June, 
 1550, he was appointed rector of Blaxhall in Suffolk, but he 
 resigned this office in 1552. He afterwards took the degree of 
 doctor of medicine, and practised as a physician in Durham. 
 Finally, he removed to London, and became a fellow of the 
 College of Physicians in 1560. He wrote a book of simples, 
 being a herbal in the form of a dialogue, at the end of which 
 are some woodcuts of plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 BULLIARD, Pierre, a French botanist, was born at Aube- 
 pierre, near Langrcs, about 1742, and died at Paris in 1793. 
 He was an excellent artist, and gave beautiful delineations of 
 plants. Among his published works are the following — "Flora 
 of the neighbourhood of Paris;" " History of Poisonous Plants ;" 
 " Hiitorj- of the French Fungi, with beautiful figures ;" " Ele- 
 mentary Dictionary of Botany ;" and " French Flora." BuUiard 
 invented the art of printing natural history plates in colours, 
 and he employed this in his works. — J. H. B. 
 
 BULLINGER, Henry, the celebrated Swiss reformer, was 
 bora in 1504, at Bremgarten, a small town near Zoricb, of 
 
 which his father was parish priest and dean. In 1519 he 
 entered the university of Cologne, where he read Luther and 
 declared himself a protestant. In 1523 he was iurited by 
 Wolfgang Joner, Cistercian abbot of Cappel, to become lecturer 
 on divinity in that monastery. There he remained six years 
 and composed many of his works. There also he became inti- 
 mate with Zuinglius and other reformers. In 1527 he attended 
 for some months the lectures of Zuinglius at Zurich, and in 
 December of that year was deputed by the senate of Zurich to 
 accompany him to the disputation at Berne. In June, 1528 
 he undertook the pastoral office, and preached for some time at 
 Bremgarten, his father having renounced popery. After the 
 battle of Cappel, October 11, 1531, Bullinger removed to Zurich 
 for safety, and there succeeded Zuinglius as preacher in the 
 cathcih-al, which office he held till his death. He preached 
 daily, often twice: in pastoral labours he was incessant; and 
 his house was always open to shelter and protect refugees from 
 countries where religious persecution prevailed. He assisted in 
 drawing up the first Helvetic confession of faith at Basle in 
 1536. With Calvin and Farell he di-ew up an agi-eement, on 
 the subject of the Lord's Supper, between the churches of Geneva 
 and Zurich. After suffering some years from the stone, he died 
 at Zmich in 1575. His sermons, in five decades, have been 
 lately published at Cambridge by the Parker Society. Bullinger 
 appears to have been one of the most moderate of the continental 
 reformers — a man of much eloquence, of deep piety, and christian 
 amiability, well worthy of the general esteem in wluch he was 
 held by his contemporaries. — T. S. P. 
 
 BULOW. An ancient German family, originally belonging 
 to Mecklenburg, but long established in Prussia. The following 
 are its most distinguished members : — 
 
 BuLOW, Feiedrich Wilhelm, count von Dennewitz, a 
 celebrated Pnissian general, born in 1755. He entered the army 
 at the age of fourteen. In 1792 he was made a captain, and 
 appointed governor to the young prince, Lewis Ferdinand of 
 Prussia. He seiTcd with great distinction in the campaign of 
 the Rhine, and in 1808 was made general of brigade. He dis- 
 tinguished himself under Blucher at Eylau, Friedland, and Tilsit, 
 and on the 5th of April, 1813, gained an important victory over 
 the French at Mijckern. On the 10th of Jmie following, by a 
 skilful movement, he saved Berlin, then menaced by the French; 
 a second time, on the 23rd of August, by the victory of Gross- 
 Boeni ; and a third tune, on the 6th of September, by totally 
 routing Marshal Ney at Dennewitz. This gallant action gahied 
 him the title of Count Dennewitz. He took a prominent part 
 in the battle of Leipzig, and afterwards served with great dis- 
 tinction in Westphalia, Holland, and Belgium, and throughout 
 the campaign of 1814, especially at Soissons. On the conclu- 
 sion of peace, Bulow was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 Prussian infantry, and governor of Lithuania and eastern Prussia. 
 On the return of Napoleon from Elba, he once more took the 
 field under Blucher, and rendered signal service to the allies at 
 Ligny and Wa^Te. By great exertions he arrived with his 
 division on the field of Waterloo, in time to assist in the total 
 overthrow and dispersion of the French army. After the final 
 downfall of Napoleon, Bulow returned to his post at Konigsberg 
 as governor of the eastern provinces of Pnissia, and died there 
 on the 25th of February, 1816, leaving bebmd him a high repu- 
 tation for courage and professional skill, winning manners, and 
 knowledge of the fine arts. 
 
 Bulow, Henrich Wilhelm, baron von, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was bora in 17G0. He was educated for the military 
 sei-vice, which he entered at the age of fifteen, but soon became 
 disgusted with this life, and tried various other professions with- 
 out success. He visited South America, and afterwards spent 
 some time in France, and in London, where he ruined himself by 
 a newspaper speculation, and was confined in the King's Bench 
 prison. He published a treatise entitled " The Spirit of the 
 Modera System of War ; " a " History of the Camp.'iign of 
 1800 ; " a " Life of Prince Henry of Prussia ; " several treatises 
 on military tactics, and a work entitled " The Campaign of 
 1805," which gave great offence to the court of St. Petersburg, 
 and led to his imprisonment at Riga, where he died m 1807. 
 Bulow was an ardent disciple of Swedenborg, and wrote a trea- 
 tise upon his tenets, entitled " A View of the Doctrine of the 
 New Christian Church." 
 
 BiJLOw, Lewis Fkiedricii Victor Johaxx, count von, 
 bora in Brunswick in 1774. He was indebted to his cousin Har-
 
 BUL 
 
 801 
 
 BUN 
 
 denberg for promotion in the Prassian civil service ; and after 
 occupying vaiious important offices, he was in 1813 nominated 
 minister of finance, and subsequently minister of commerce. He 
 died in 1828. His brother-in-law, Augustus Fuiedrich Wil- 
 IIELM (bom 1762; died 1817), was secretary-general of admin- 
 istration, and chief of Prussian police at Dresden, and aftervi^ards 
 at Berlin, and wrote a treatise on " Jurisprudence," and a work 
 on " The State of the Protestant Church in Germany." 
 
 BuLOW, Heinrich, baron von, a distinguished Prussian diplo- 
 matist and statesman, born in 1790. His enthusiastic patriotism 
 made him abandon his studies at Heidelberg in 1813, and take 
 np arms against the oppressors of Germany. He distinguished 
 himself in various engagements under General Walmoden. On 
 the downfall of Napoleon, he was employed in various diplomatic 
 services. In 1817 he became secretary of embassy in London, 
 and in 1827 was elevated to the office of Prussian ambassador 
 at the English court, and took part in several important nego- 
 tiations. In 1842 he received the portfolio of foreign affiiirs, but 
 his administration was unpojiular, and he resigned his office in 
 1844. His death took place at Berlin in 1846.— J. T, 
 
 * BULOW, Karl Euuard von, a German novelist, was 
 bom near Eilenburg, November 17, 1803. He established his 
 literary fame at once by his " Novellenbuch," 1834-36, 4 vols., 
 a collection of one hundred translations of old Italian, Spanish, 
 French, and other novels. His own "Novellen" appeared from 
 1846-48 in 3 vols.— K. E. 
 
 BULWER LYTTON, Sir Edward. See Lytton. 
 
 * BULWER, Sir Henry Lytton, G.C.B., the Right Hon., 
 is the second son of the late Bi-igadicr-general William Earle Bul- 
 wer, of Heydon and Woodalling, county of Norfolk, by Elizabeth 
 Barbara, only daughter and heiress of R. W. Lytton, Esq. of 
 Knebworth, Herts. He is consequently elder brother of Sir 
 Edward Bulwer Lytton, Bart. — (See Lytton.) He was born in 
 the year 1804, and entered the diplomatic service in 1827. 
 From November, 1832, he was attached to the embassy at Paris 
 doirvn to November, 1835, when he was appointed secretaiy of 
 legation at Brussels ; two years later he was sent in the same 
 capacity to Constantinople, where he negotiated and concluded 
 a treaty, which is the foundation of our present commercial 
 system in the East. In November, 1843, he was appointed 
 envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the court of 
 Madrid, in which capacity he negotiated the peace between Spain 
 and Morocco. In 1848, however, he was dismissed from his 
 post by the fickle ministry of that countiy, and returned to 
 England. His able administration of affairs at Madrid, how- 
 iver, had already secured the addition of his name to the list 
 'it' her majesty's privy council, and his subsequent diplomatic 
 :ii:ts were rewarded with the honours of the highest decorations 
 111' the order of the Batli. In April, 1849, he was nominated 
 British minister at Washington, from whence he was transfeired, 
 in the same capacity, to the court of Tuscany in 1852. In 
 America and Italy alil^e his diplomatic career was attended 
 with success. In 1856 he was nominated by Lord Palmerston 
 commissioner at Bucharest, for investigating the state of the 
 Ounubian principalities. As British commissioner he elicited 
 liom evei-y minister and every government concerned, the warmest 
 expressions of approval, and all concurred in recommending liim 
 for the post of ambassador to the Ottoman Porte on tiie return 
 of Lord Stratford de RedclifFe (see that name) in the spring of 
 1858. Sir H. L. Bulwer is married to a sister of Earl Cowley, 
 our a.mbassador at Paris. — E. W. 
 
 liUNAU, Heinrich Graf von, the well-known patron of 
 Winkclmann, was bom at Weissenfels, June 2, 1697, and died 
 at his estate of Osmannstiidt, April 7, 1762. He studiad at 
 I^ipzig, and soon rose to high honours in the administrative 
 sen-ice of Saxony, but resigned his offices, and some years after 
 entered the service of tlie Emperor Chai-Jos 'VII., after whose 
 death he was appointed regent and afterwards prime minister of 
 the duchy of Weimar and Eisenach. He stood in general esteem 
 for his integiity as a statesman, as well as for his liberality as a 
 patron of learning and literature. — K. E. 
 
 BUNHURY, Henry Wii.liaji, an amateur caricaturist, who 
 now seems to us rather gross and dull. He was the younger 
 son of Sir William Bunbury of Mildenliall, Sufl'olk, and was 
 educated in Westminster school and Catherine Hall, Cambridge. 
 His " Directions to Bad Horsemen " are smart and spirited, but 
 not subtle or refined. Sir Joshua Reynolds, who was not fond of 
 praising men e(iual to himself, said these riding plates excelled 
 vol. 1. 
 
 everything of the kind. Mr. Bunbury died in 1811, near Kes- 
 wick. ISIany a barber's boy and coimtryman still rejoices in 
 the broad fun of Bunbuij^. — W. T. 
 
 * BUNGE, Alexander von, a Russian botanist and travel- 
 ler, was bora at Kiew on 24th September, 1803. He took his 
 degree of doctor at the university of Dorpat in 1825. He 
 travelled with Ledebour into Siberia, and visited the Altai 
 mountains. In 1830 he was sent by the Russian government 
 as naturalist with the mission to Pckin, where he remained for 
 eight months. He made a large collection of plants. He again 
 visited the Altai mountains at the request of the Russian govern- 
 ment. He came to Petersbm-g in 1833, and was subsecpiently 
 appointed professor of botany at Casan, and, finally, in 1836, 
 he succeeded Ledebour as professor of botany and director of 
 the botanic garden of Dorpat. His chief works are — " Con- 
 spectus of the genus Gentian ;" a " Treatise on the Natural 
 System ;" " Enumeration of Chinese Plants ;" and " Catalogue 
 of Altai Plants."— J. H. B. 
 
 * BUNSEN, Baron Ciiristian-Ciiarles-Josiaii, scholar, 
 theologian, and diplomatist, one of the most distingiushed men 
 and finely-balanced characters of the present age. He was born 
 at Korbach in the small principality of Waldeck, in 1791. He 
 studied first at Marburg, but afterwards, from 1809 to 1813, at 
 Gottingen, under the celebrated philologer Heyne. His first 
 [)ublication was a treatise on Attic law — early indicating tlie 
 grand combination of ancient learning with the business of life 
 for which his future career became so characteristic. In 1813 
 he left Gottingen ; unwilling, as a true German, to accept 
 office under the imperial sovereignty of Jerome Bonaparte, 
 then tottering to its fall. In Holland and Denmark, to which 
 he next proceeded, he enjoyed tlie instructions of Finn Magnu- 
 sen, while prosecuting those profound studies in the old German 
 and Icelandic dialects, which he had already commenced under 
 Benocke and Lachmann. In 1815 he went to Berlin, and made 
 the acquaintance of Niebuln-. In 1816 he studied Persic and 
 Arabic under the famous Sylvester de Sacy, at Paris; and 
 in the same year went to Rome, where, through Niebuhr's 
 influence, then Prussian plenipotentiary to the papal court, he 
 in 1818 received the appointment of secretary to the embassy. 
 About this time Bunsen married an English lady ; a circum- 
 stance prophetic of his future intimate connection with this 
 country. In 1827, after Niebuhr's removal to Bonn, Bunsen 
 succeeded to his office as Prussian minister in Rome. Besides 
 Roman topography and archaeology, we find him at this period 
 engaged in ethnological studies of a far-reaching character, in 
 the study of Platonic philosophy ; and again occupied with 
 profound researches on biblical criticism, church history, and 
 liturgical formulas. His attention was directed to Egyptian 
 antiquities by the visit of Champollion to Rome in the year 
 1826. To the importance of the great discovery made by this 
 extraordinary genius, his eyes were immediately opened; and 
 in his great work on Egypt he has done ample justice to the 
 genius of the great Frenchman. In 1839 we find him again in 
 the Prussian diplomatic service as ambassador at Bern. In 
 1841 he was called to Berlin to arrange the affairs of a new 
 l<]nglish-German bishopric, to be created in Jerasalem. For 
 this purpose he was despatched to England; when shortly after- 
 wards he was made Prussian ambassador in this country, as suc- 
 cessor to Baron Bulow. This important situation he filled for 
 fourteen years ; and the fruits of his residence were of great 
 political consequence, both to England and German}'. He took 
 an active part in all public questions. In 1848 he defended 
 vigorously the rights of the Gemian element, in the duchy of 
 Holstein, against the king of Denmark, who was supported by 
 Lord Palmerston and the English government. In 1854, on 
 occasion of the Russo-Ttu-kish war, he used etpial independenc'o 
 of judgment, and an eye no less clear, for the tme interests of 
 Germany; but as the Russian party wore yet too strong in Berlin 
 for such decidedly English sympathies as Bunsen exhibited in 
 the movements which led to the Crimean expedition to be offi- 
 cially tolerated, he demitted his post in London, and has since 
 lived as a private man in Heidelberg, prosecuting to a triumphant 
 close that long course of historical and tlieological study which 
 he had never for a single day remitted during liis long course 
 of public life in the busy ni('tro[»)lis of tlie British empire. He 
 has, however, never ceased, by stirring pamjihlets and otherwise, 
 to let his voice be hoard on important public questions, whicji 
 deeply interested him as a German and as a Christian ; and he 
 
 5 I
 
 BUN 
 
 802 
 
 BUN 
 
 has, moreover, always maintained his firm hold of the affections 
 of the monarch, who at an' early period discerned his worth. Of 
 this, the most remarkable proof is the high honoiir conferred on 
 him by the king of Prussia, in creating him a Freiherr or baron, 
 with a place in the Prassian upper house, under circumstances 
 and conditions alike honoui;able to the constant favour of the 
 royal bestower, and the* dignified consistency of the man on 
 whom so great a distinction was conferred. 
 
 The extraordinary activity of Bunsen's mind will be best illus- 
 trated by an enumeration of the various works — some of them 
 of immense compass — which he has contrived to publish, amid 
 the various occupations pf public life. The following is ^ list of 
 his principal works — " De Jure Atheniensium Hsereditario," 
 Gottingen, 1813 ; " Beschreibung der Stadt Rom.," 3 ,fede., 
 Stuttgart, 1830-43 (of this work he is only.part author); "All- 
 gemeine evangelisches Geang und Gebetbuchs," Hambui-g, 1846; 
 " Elizabeth Fit, an die christlichen Frauen und Jungfrauen 
 Deutschlands," Hamburg, 1843 ; " Die hcilige Leidensgeschichte 
 und die stille Woche," Hamburg, 1841 ; " Die Verfassung der 
 Kirche derZukunft," Hamburgh, 1845 — English, London, 1845; 
 " Ignatius von Antiochien und seine Zeit," Hamburg, 1847 ; 
 " Die drei echten und die vier unechten Briefe des Ignatius von 
 Antiochien," Hamburg, 1847 ; "Die Basihken des christlichen 
 Roms," Jlnuich, 1843; "Christianity and Mankind," Jena, 
 1854, in 7 vols. " Die Zeichen der Zeit," Leipzig, 1855 — 
 English, 185G ; " iEgyptens Stelle in der Weltgesciiichte," vols. 
 i. and ii., Hamburg, 1845 ; .vols, lii., iv., and v., Perthes, 1856-7; 
 " Gott in der Geschichte," Leipzig, 1857 ; and the great " Bibel- 
 wcrk," meant to be the crowning work of the author's life, of 
 which the greater part is now published. — J. S. B. 
 
 * BUNSEN, RoBEUT-WiLHELM Ebeuiiaed, a celebrated 
 German chemist, born at Gottingen in 1811, was educated at the 
 university of that town, and at Holzminden, whence he returned 
 to Gottingen to study natural philosophy and chemistry. After 
 an extended course of travel, he was appointed in 1841 titulary 
 professor of chemistry and physics at the university of Marburg, 
 and in 1851 was called to occupy the same position at Breslau. 
 Besides a vast number of valuable memoirs on chemical and 
 mineralogical subjects in Liebig's Annals of Chemistry, he has 
 published "Descriptio Hygrometroram," 1830, and "Eisenoxyd- 
 hydrat das Gegengift des weissen Arseniks und der arsenigen 
 Saure," 1837.— J. S., G. 
 
 BUNTING, Edward, a distinguished Irish musician, was 
 born at Armagh in 1773. His first collection of " Irish Airs" was 
 published in 1796 ; his second in 1809 ; and his third and last 
 in 1840. Bunting did not live to cany out his plan of repub- 
 lishing his first two collections uniform with the third. He died 
 21st December, 1843, aged seventy. — E. F. R 
 
 BUNTING, Jabez, D.D;^ a distinguished minister among the 
 Wesleyan metliodists, and four times iiresident of the conference, 
 was born in JIanchester in 1779. He is generally regarded as 
 tlie most distinguished successor of John Wesley. Kno^\'n to the 
 world as an eloquent preacher and speaker, and, by his services 
 to the cause of religion and philanthropy, his abilities as an 
 administrator of ecclesiastical affairs were of essential use to his 
 own denomination, and contributed mainly to its consolidation, 
 improvement, and prosperity, both in this country and in its 
 foreign missions. His published writings wci'e few, consisting 
 principally of sermons ; but his influence upon the literature of 
 methodism and of Christianity will be permanent, since he was 
 successful in raising among his brethren a high standard of 
 professional attainment, and in thus promoting the education, 
 without diminishing the zeal, of the people of their charge. He 
 retired from official life in 1857, with every token of affection 
 and respect from the churches he had so long and so faithfully 
 served, and in 1858 was followed to his grave, near the City 
 Road chapel, London, by multitudes of good men of all parties, 
 who admired his talents, and revered him for his long, con- 
 sistent, and useful career. — E. B. 
 
 BUNYAN, John, to wliosc genius we are indebted for the 
 " Pilgrim's Progi-ess," was bom at Elstow, in the neighbourhood 
 of Bedford, in the year 1628. He was of humble parentage, 
 belonging, as he himself expresses it, to " a low and inconsider- 
 able generation," for his father was a tinker or worker in brass, 
 and perhaps a gipsy. Some countenance at least is lent to this 
 supposition, by Bunyan's telling us that, on one occasion, he was 
 led to ask his father whether tliey were of the seed of Israel. 
 The son was brought up to follow the paternal craft. His 
 
 education, however, in the simplest branches, was not neglected; 
 for he tells us gratefully how his parents were careful to send 
 him to school, where he acquired, in a humble way, the arts of 
 reading and writing, to be speedily lost indeed, but recovered 
 by his own efforts afterwards. His boyhood was profane and 
 godless. He describes himself as having few equals at his 
 years " for cursing, swearing, Ipng, and blaspheming the name 
 of God." He was a ringleader in all juvenile mischief; a 
 reckless little dare-devil, throwing the wild energy of his nature 
 into the practice of all boyish vices. Not without checks of 
 conscience, however, which met him in the characteristic form 
 of fearfid dreams, in which evil spirits in monstrous forms 
 ajipeared to him, threatening to di-ag him to the pit; or the 
 day of judgment, with its flaming heavens and trump of terror 
 seemed come ; or Tophet disclosed its jaws beside him, belch- 
 ing out horrors, while a circle of fire began to close him round. 
 His boyhood passed into such a youth of open ungodliness as 
 left him no equal in his native district. Not that he was a 
 profligate in the ordinaiy sense of the term. He was neither 
 drunkard nor libertine. But he was " a blasphemer, and hiju- 
 rious," corrupting youth of less hardihood and energy, and 
 counted by the neighbours a vicious pest. Athletic sports and 
 pastimes he followed with a passionate avidity ; bell-ringing 
 and dancing were his choice amusements, and it was his wont, 
 especially, to " solace himself" with them on the sabbath-day. 
 At an early age, led by love of adventure or driven by poverty, 
 he entered the army; but it is matter of dispute whether 
 he joined the royalist or the republican ranks. But whether 
 kingsman or parliamentarian, Bunyan was doubtless at this 
 time gathering, though unconsciously, materials for the illustra- 
 tion of his " Holy War," and finding in cavalier trooper and 
 roundhead officer models for the mystic wamors who figure in 
 the aunals of beleaguered Mansoul. At the siege of Leicester, 
 he had been ordered to a particular service, when a comrade 
 requested to be allowed to go in his place ; Bunyan consented, 
 and the substitute was shot dead at his post. Returning home 
 shortly afterwards, he entered, while yet a youth, into the mar- 
 ried state. His bride brought with her, apparently as her entire 
 portion, two volumes of practical religion, in which she prevailed 
 with her husband frequently to read with her. The penisal of 
 these, together with his wife's talk of the piety of her deceased 
 father, wrought a marked change in the spirit of Bunyan, and 
 by and by the profane " blackguard," as Southey has called him, 
 became a pharisee. He went to chm-ch twice a-day, began to 
 "adore" in abject superstition eveiy thing connected with the 
 consecrated edifice, and was ready if he met a priest, though 
 ever so indifferent a character, to lie down at his feet and 
 worship him as the minister of God. At the same time, however, 
 he spent his Sabbath afternoons in cursing among his godless 
 compeers. But one day the parson preached on the desecration 
 of the Lord's day, and appeared to Bunyan as if he had prepared 
 the sermon expressly to meet his case ; so that when he went to 
 the playground as usual, he thought his game interrupted by 
 a voice from heaven, presenting to him. in direct question, the 
 alternative of leaving his sins and being saved, or having them 
 and being damned. For a little he stood stunned by the inquiiy, 
 but ultimately resolving to have his sins, and thinking that, 
 perdition being inevitable, he might as well go to hell for many 
 sins as few, he plunged anew into his course of godless pleasure 
 with a desperate gi-eediness. His grudge was that he could not 
 get his fill of sin as rapidly as he wished, and his fear that he 
 would die before he sh(mld be satiated. But standing on one 
 occasion beside a neighbour's window " playing the madman," 
 as was his custom, the woman of the house, herself an ungodly 
 creature, came out and rebuked him as a coiTupter of youth 
 and the most blasphemous wretch in the town. The shaft 
 reached his heart. From that time he laid aside his profane 
 vocabulary. In course of time he was wondered at as a prodigy 
 of piety. Proud of his godliness, he left off" his sports as 
 inconsistent with a profession like his ; first becoming simply 
 an onlooker at the ringing of the bells, then in fear of death 
 from the fall of the bell or the tower, forsaking the scene 
 altogether. In the same gradual way, though it cost him hard, 
 he abandoned dancing, and thought that now " no man in 
 England could please God better" than hhnself But the pha- 
 risee was soon to be stripped of his poor cloak, and made a 
 ti-ue penitent. His way to peace lay through protracted and 
 fiery conflicts. Joining one day a little circle of poor women,
 
 BUN 
 
 803 
 
 BUN 
 
 - they sat at the door of their cottages conversing of their 
 iigioufl experiences, he was led to mistrast his own state, 
 ~ kno\\Tiig nothing of what he heard them so pleasantly 
 scribe. He often afterwards frequented their society ;> his 
 iieart failed him under their applications of scriptm-e, and he 
 went from then* company to meditate incessantly on what he 
 had heard. He shook off a swearing comrade, to whom his 
 heart had before been knit; betook himself to prayer for 
 divine direction, and began to have a new relish for the word 
 of God, stUl crymg, as he pored over its pages, for light from 
 heaven. With that vindness of conception which projected all his 
 thoughts into the region of the ^■isible and audible, making them 
 voices and sights, he now in a kind of vision saw the poor 
 women of Bedford up on a sunny mountain-side, basking in 
 idiant wamith, while he himself shivered aloof amid frost 
 .-.li snow. A wall girdled the happy region round, which he 
 tuund could only be passed by a little doorway, very strait and 
 narrow ; through which, however, after long struggling, he was 
 able to force his way, and went and sat down in the midst of 
 the company, comforted with light and heat, and " exceeding 
 glad." The vision and its interpretation dwelt on his spirit, 
 :ind vehement prayer rose from his heart wherever he was, 
 at home or abroad, in the house or the field. But then came 
 the dai'k questions — Was he among the elected? and what 
 if his day of gi-ace were gone ? and through long and giuevous 
 I'liffetings he struggled onwards to the light, his help coming 
 'II from the word of God. It was now the dullness, insen- 
 ility, and unbelief of his soul that gi'ieved him : his con- 
 ii'nce as to outward sinning was tender and scrupulous, but 
 • thought inward vileness like his could never be cleansed, 
 ill he fought the battle, and still helpful texts of scripture 
 line to him, as voices from the skies. On one occasion, after 
 hand had in this way been stretched to him with healing 
 ives, he describes his happmess as so intense that he felt as 
 he could talk of God's love to him to the " ver}^ crows that 
 t upon the ploughed lands" before him. The clouds, bow- 
 er, returned again ; a voice seemed to sound in his ears — 
 ■^iraon, Simon, Satan hath desu-ed to have j'ou," so loudlv 
 :iietimes that he turned his head to see who stood behind 
 ;n, and once so startling!}' that it seemed to come to him from 
 iialf a mile's distance. Troops of blasphemous suggestions anon 
 entered his mind; gloomy questionings as to the being of God 
 and of the Saviour, doubts of the truth of the scriptures, temp- 
 tations to utter some homble curse against God, to blaspheme 
 the Holy Ghost, and fall down to worship the devil, till he began 
 to think himself possessed, and in his agony would hold his 
 mouth with liis hand, lest it should open to utter the unpardon- 
 aUe blasphemy. This lasted for about a year, at the end of which 
 time he became somewhat composed in mind, tlu'ough the reading 
 ' Luther's Commentary on the Galatians, and yet more tlurough 
 ; • counsels of Mr. Gifford, a baptist clergyman of Bedford. The 
 'kest wave of all in this billowy sea of trial, however, was yet 
 hind. He began to be hamited with an inward suggestion to 
 II the Saviour. " Sell hhn, sell him," said the horrid voice, 
 sell him for this, for that, for anything ;" till, like miserable 
 iticnts in cases of optical derangement, who cannot look in 
 .ny dii-ection without seeing the hideous or fantastic shape 
 \ehich haunts them, he could not pick up a pin, or chop a stick, 
 •It the hateful whisper was in his ear. " Sell him, sell hun," 
 went on; till one day he felt as if he were answering — 
 Let him go if he will;" and then came blank despau-. He 
 was in the iron cage now. He was Judas ; he was Cain, with 
 a brand on him ; he was Esau, shut out, as he interpreted 
 the text, from repentance ; he was worse than all the gicat 
 sinners of the Bible who had found mercy — David, Solomon, 
 Manasseh, Peter; he was a new Francis Spia-a, whose miserable 
 groanings he re-echoed as he read. At length, however, after 
 months of agony, the tempest began to pass away; the thunder, 
 as he says, got beyond liim, and only some small di-ops remained ; 
 with many a scripture text as his staff he had struggled through 
 the deep waters, and now stood on diy ground. By such stormy 
 conflicts, in which the strength of the ideal faculty gave body 
 and action to vivid thoughts, was Bunyan being prepared to 
 ser\-e his Lord as a preacher and an author. 
 
 In the year 1G53, the year in which Cromwell was made lord- 
 protector of England, Bunyan became a member of ]\Ir. Gifford's 
 church. His doubts and fears, after a season, returned upon him, 
 aggravated by failure of his health ; but he again battled through 
 
 them triumphantly. Within two years of his baptism, he was 
 formally invited to engage in the work of the ministry. He con- 
 sented, and oiSciated as a preacher, at first somewhat privately, 
 then with all publicity. For two years, preaching from the smart 
 of his own spirit, he cried out against sin and proclaimed its 
 perils, but ultimately taught the way of God more perfectly; 
 he '' altered," as he says, his mode, and laboured " to hold 
 forth the Lord Jesus Christ." His sennces — as was to be 
 expected from the ministrations of one who tells us that he 
 preached with such conviction of the tnith, that he felt as if he 
 could say he was more than sm'e of it — proved singularly 
 acceptable and powerful. The interest occasioned by liis preach- 
 ing is attested bj' the persecution it excited ; " the doctors 
 and priests of the country did open against" him, and he was 
 indicted to appear at the Bedford assizes, within a year of his 
 beginning his labours. The process somehow failing, his enemies 
 appear to have had recourse to all sorts of absurd calumny, 
 which Bunyan, strong in innocence, accepted as a badge of true 
 christian discipleship. 
 
 On the 12tli of November, 1G60, five months after the Restora- 
 tion, Bunyan had undertaken to preach at a place named Sawsel. 
 near Harlington, m Bedfordshire. Though warned that a war- 
 rant had been issued for his apprehension, the intrepid preacher 
 would not be held back from fulfilling his engagement. He 
 was accordingly arrested, and committed to Bedford jail, where 
 he remained, with inten'als of partial fiberation, for a period 
 of twelve yeai-s. Seven weeks after his incarceration he was 
 brought up at the quarter sessions in Bedford, with a bill of 
 indictment prefen-ed against him, as " a common upholder of 
 unla\\iul meetings and conventicles;" and as neither arguments, 
 nor threats, nor cajolei-y, nor ridicule, which were all tried, could 
 prevail on him to promise that he would desist from preacliing, 
 he was convicted and sentenced to miprisonment, with certifi- 
 cation that if he would not confonn, he should be banished the 
 kingdom. At the coronation of Charles II. in 1661, a procla- 
 mation was issued, allowing conncts twelve months to sue out 
 a pardon ; and had Bunyan, at that time, felt it consistent with 
 his views of duty to petition for freedom, he might probably 
 have been discharged. At the assizes of that year, his wife — 
 a trae heroine — after hanng travelled to London with a petition 
 to the house of lords, appeared several times before the judges 
 to plead her husband's cause. This she did with such a weight 
 of argimient, such prudence and modest intrepidity, as touched 
 the heart of the upright Hale, but could not move his coarse and 
 bigoted fellow-justices. " I am sorry, woman," said the kindly 
 judge, "that I can do thee no good." 
 
 In prison Bunyan had to do something to provide for his 
 family. He had four children — one of them blind and dearly 
 loved — by his first wife (for his heroic advocate before the jus- 
 tices was a second spouse, but a true mother to his little ones) ; 
 and these were looking to him for bread. So he set himself to 
 work for them as he might, making tagged bootlaces, an art 
 which he acquired in jail. Meanwhile he was laying the founda- 
 tions of an imperishable fame. His "Pilgrim's Progress" was, 
 at least, planned in jail, and probably the fii'st part was written 
 there. His " Grace Abounding," " Holy City," " Resurrection of 
 the Dead," together with other treatises and tracts, were also com- 
 posed in " the den." Persecution had filled the jail with many 
 prisoncre of congenial character, with whom he enjoyed many 
 jileasant hours of religious conversation. He was in favour 
 from the first with the jailor, who nearly lost his place for per- 
 mitting him on one occasion to go as far as London. Years of 
 stricter confinement followed, but at last he was often allowed 
 to visit his family, and remain with them over night. A 
 remarkable incident in connection with this indulgence is related. 
 Bunyan had received the usual liberty, but at a vcrj' late hour 
 felt resistlessly impressed with the propriety of retm-ning to the 
 prison. He arrived after the keeper had shut up for the night, 
 much to the official's surprise. But his impatience at being 
 untimeously disturbed was changed to thankfulness, when a little 
 after a messenger came from a neighbouring clerical magistrate 
 to sec that the prisoner was safe, and the custodier was able 
 to produce him. " You may go out now when you will," said 
 the jailor ; " for you know better than I can tell you when to 
 come in again." In the later years of his incarceration he was 
 allowed to attend the meetings of the church, and to officiate as 
 a preacher. He was still nominally a prisoner, although subject 
 to little restraint, when he was elected pastor of the church in
 
 BUN 
 
 804 
 
 BUO 
 
 Bedford, of wliicli lie had long been a member. He obtained his 
 full release through the intervention of the Quakers, and his 
 name is included in the " general pardon " passed by the king 
 in council, in behalf of the prisoners of that persuasion, bearing 
 date September 13, 1G72. 
 
 After his discbarge from prison his popularity as a preacher 
 widened rapidly. Crowds flocked to hoar him. His place of 
 worship had to be enlarged. On his fi-cquent visits to London, 
 when he delivered his week-day addresses, the large chapel in 
 Southwark was invariably thronged with eager worshippers. 
 He was not wholly unmolested, but always escaped his perse- 
 cutors' search. When the act of indulgence was passed in the 
 reign of James II., Bunyan did not hesitate to avail himself of 
 its provisions, although he descried and denounced the insidious 
 design of the measure. Next year came the Revolution and 
 the toleration act. But Bunyan did not live to see the happy 
 day of England's riddance from the house of Stuart. His last 
 illness was superinduced by esposm'e to wet, while engaged 
 on an eiTand of kindly intercession on behalf of a youth who 
 had offended his father. He had succeeded in his object, and 
 was returning home by way of London, when he was caught in 
 a drenching rain, and arrived in an exhausted condition at the 
 house of his friend, Mr. Strudwick, near Ilolborn bridge. Here 
 he was seized with fever, and after ten days' illness, wliich his 
 frame, weakened by a pre^^ous attack of tlie mysterious sweat- 
 ing distemper of the day, was less able to resist, he died in 
 peace on the 31st of August, 1GS8, in the sixtieth year of his 
 age. His last words were full of christian hope. His remains 
 were interred in Bunhill buiying-gi-ovmd, where his tomb may 
 still be seen. 
 
 Bunyan will always hold rank as one of the first among 
 practical religious writers in the English language. His 
 Saxon sagacity, his good sense, wonderful genius, and profound 
 acquaintance with the bible and the human heart, fitted him for 
 his work, without the aid of scholarship. He had studied but 
 two great volumes — the scriptures and his own experience ; but 
 the latter was such as few men ever had access to, and he had 
 made himself master beyond most, of the treasures of the 
 inspired book. His want of learning and of exact training made 
 him, indeed, defective as a textuary ; but no man ever drew 
 from the bible more thoroughly the great principles of faith and 
 practice. He wrote much, in varied forms, in prose and rhyme, 
 and always with power. His veiy verses, doggerel as they 
 must be admitted to be, have a rough vigour in them that 
 disclose the man. His practical and experimental treatises are 
 admirable, full of passages glowing with the light of a splendid 
 imagination. He wields the controversial pen with a sturdy 
 hand, and has a fomiidable power of logic, though not boiTowed 
 from the schools. His great charm lies in the clear pithy style, 
 and the di-amatic vivacity of his writings. His words are du'ect, 
 strong, and immistakable. He questions, answers, exclaims, 
 apostrophizes, personifies ; individualizes his readers, and takes 
 them by the hand, so that his pages are never dull, and his 
 words never wasted. The fame of John Bunyan, however, rests 
 most securely on his allegorical WTitings. Thousands that have 
 scarcely known him as a writer of practical treatises, or have 
 heard only of bis " Grace Abounding," have studied him in 
 the pages of the " Pilgrim's Progress." His " Holy War," 
 though more elaborately ingenious, has always been less popu- 
 lar, except perhaps with such boy-readers as think the sixth 
 book of Milton's Paradise Lost the gem of the immortal epic. 
 The "Pilgrim" has been, indeed, the book of the people. 
 Who has not heard of it, and who that has ever opened a 
 religious volume, has not read it ? There is no book, we 
 believe, the bible alone excepted, that has been translated into 
 so many languages ; few that have been read by so many classes. 
 It pleases the child by the resistless charm of its simple pictorial 
 story — it instructs, by its rich theology, the mature christian 
 — its genius captivates the man of letters. It has passed 
 through numberless editions — editions small and large, with 
 comment and without — editions annotated, illustrated, illumi- 
 nated — editions that have been laid as ornaments on the 
 drawing-room table — editions that have lain well-thumbed upon 
 the cottage window-sill. It has been imitated, supplemented, 
 modernized, tunied into rhyme — it has been read, referred to, 
 quoted, analysed, lectured from, till the characters and incidents 
 of its story, are as familiar to us as those of the bible narratives, 
 and its language, like that of scripture, has woven itself into 
 
 the textm-e of religious discourse. The pilgrimage described in 
 it has been mapped out with its stations, as if it were a real 
 journey ; and its shadowy personages have become almost as real 
 to our conceptions as the heroes of history. Bunyan himself 
 is hardly more veritable than his Christian. 
 
 It has been remarked, that Bunyan's treatises were as numer- 
 ous as his years. The following are his principal works, with 
 the dates of publication, as given in Charles Doe's Catalogue- 
 Table, cii-culated in 1691. The dates in parentheses are supplied 
 by George Otfor, Esq., one of Bunyan's most recent and enthusi- 
 astic editors. " Gospel Truths Opened," 1656 ; " Sighs from 
 Hell," (IGoO); "The Holy City; or, The New Jerusalem," 
 1665 ; " Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners," (1666); 
 "Justification by Jesus Christ," 1671; "The Pilgrim's Pro- 
 gress," 1678; "Come and Welcome to Jesus Christ ; " "The 
 Holy War," 1682; "The Ban-en Fig-tree," 1683; "The 
 Second Part of the Pilgiim's Progress," (1684); "The Life 
 and Death of Mr. Badman," (1680) ; " The Pharisee and Pub- 
 lican," 1685; "The Jenisalem Sinner Saved," 1688; " Solo- 
 mon's Temple Spmtualized," 1688. He wrote also "Defence 
 of the Doctrine of Justification," 1672, against Mr. (aftenvards 
 Bishop) Fowler ; and " Differences about Water-Baptism no bar 
 to Communion," 1673. — J. Ed. 
 
 * BUOL-SCHAUENSTEIN, Coimt, chief minister of Austria, 
 born in Switzerland, where his father was Austrian minister, in 
 1797. Count Buol commenced his political c:ireer as charge 
 d'affau'es at the Hague ; was afterwards envoy extraordinary at 
 Basle ; presided at the diet of Eatisbonne, and in 1815, after a 
 long retirement from public life, represented Austria at the diet 
 of Frankfort. In 1822, when he resigned the dignity of presi- 
 dent of the Germanic diet, he returned to Vienna, but took no 
 part in pubfic affairs till 1847, when he went to Turin with the 
 title of ambassador. In 1852 he was sumimoned from England, 
 on the death of Prince Schwarzenberg, to assume the high office 
 which he now holds. The refonn policy of his predecessor is 
 believed to be that to which Count Buol inclines. His name 
 is well known in this countiy fi-om his participation in recent 
 negotiations connected with the affairs of the East. 
 BUONACORSL See Vaga. 
 
 BUONAMICI, Castruccio, one of the most elegant Latin 
 writers of the last centmy, author of " Commentariaj de Belle 
 Italico," bora at Lucca in 1710; died in 1701. In 1754 the 
 knights of Malta presented him with the cross of their order, 
 and granted him an annual pension. — A. C. M. 
 
 BUONAMICI, Lazzaro, an eminent Itahan Latinist was 
 bora of poor parentage at Bassano in 1479 ; died in 1552. 
 BUONANNI, FiLiPPO. See Bonaxni. 
 BUONAPARTE. See Bonaparte. 
 
 BUONARROTTI, Filippo, a celebrated Italian republican, 
 born at Pisa in November, 1761, and descended from Michel 
 Angelo BuonaiTotti. He was already a conspirator when the 
 French revolution broke out. BuonaiTotti hailed that event witli 
 enthusiasm, and entered the ranks of those who conspired in 
 favour of French rule in Tuscany. Obliged to fly to Corsica for 
 safety, he there published a journal called the Friend of Italian 
 Liberty, and was the constant associate and friend of the young 
 Napoleon Bonaparte. On the proclamation of the French republic, 
 Buonarrotti hastened to Paris, joined the Societd des Amis du 
 Peuple, and became an intimate friend of RobespieiTe. He 
 was created a French citizen, and sent to Corsica to enforce the 
 recognition of the authority of the republic. In 1795, he became 
 a member of the jacobin society called the Societe du Pantheon, 
 where was hatched a conspiracy against the directory, for his 
 share in which BuonaiTotti suffered tlu-ee years' imprisonment at 
 Cherburg. The first consul offered him a brilliant position under 
 bis government, but Buonarrotti was too severe a republican to 
 sene under one whom he already regarded as a tjTant. He 
 afterwards conspired against Napoleon with General Mallet, and, 
 on the failure of the conspiracy, retired to Geneva. On the 
 revolution of 1830 he again went to Paris, and was united in 
 intimate friendship with many distinguished members of the 
 democratic party, especially Godfroy, Cavaignac, and Guinard. 
 He was in constant communication with Italian republicans in 
 France and elsewhere. He organized a secret association called 
 the Society of all. True Italians, about the same time that 
 Mazzini founded the association of Young Italy. Buonarrotti 
 was so faithful to his principles, that though by birth a noble 
 and rich, he refused to avail himself of either of these advantages.
 
 He supported liimsclf in honest poverty, chiefly by copying 
 music, until liis death, which happened in 1837. Buonarrotti 
 published a " Histoire de la Conspiration de Baboeuf." — E. A. H. 
 
 BUONARROTTI. See Michel Angelo. 
 
 BUONI, BuoNO DE, a Neapolitan painter, who flourished 
 about 1430. He was a patient disciple of Colantino del Fiore, 
 and assisted him in religiously adorning several of the Neapolitan 
 churches. He died about 1465, after decorating the Restituta 
 church with a St. Francis ecstatically recei\'ing the stigmata. — 
 Sit.VESTRO, his son, was the scholar of Solario, surnamed El 
 Zingaro. He died in 1480.— W. T. 
 
 BUONMATTEI, Benedetto, bom at Florence in 1581 ; 
 died in 1647. His fame rests principally on his grammar of 
 the Italian language, and other philological works. Maftei and 
 Gioberti both consider him the best grammarian of his age. 
 
 BUONTALENTI, Bernardo, surnamed Girandole, a 
 Florentine artist, born in 1556. His parents, ruined by a sudden 
 inundation of the Arno, gave their boy into the protection of 
 Duke Cosmo I. Salviati and Bronzino taught him painting ; 
 Buonarotti, sculpture ; George Vasari, architecture ; and Giulio 
 Clovio, miniature painting. He became also an engineer, me- 
 chanic, and mathematician. As an artist his madonnas have 
 dignity and colour. He died in 1G06. — W. T. 
 
 BURAGNA, Carlo, author of "II Canzoniere," bom at 
 Algheu'a, a town of Sardinia, in 1632. Died in 1671. 
 
 BURCHARD, bishop of Halberstadt in the middle of the 
 eleventh centuiy. He was sent to Rome by Henry IV. in 1060, 
 and in the following year charged to decide, on the part of the 
 emperor, the claims of the two rivals for the papal throne — 
 Alexander II. and Honorius II. 
 
 BURCHARD, Saint, first bishop of Wmizburg, bom in 
 England ; died in 752. He repaired to Germany about the time 
 that Boniface began to preach the gospel in that country, and 
 gave him his zealous assistance. 
 
 BURCKHARD, John Charles, bom at Leipzig in 1773 ; 
 died at Paris in 1825. His tastes impelled him to the calculat- 
 ing department of the science of astronomy, in which he became 
 so distinguished that, on the recoinmendation of Baron Zach 
 and La Lando, he received letters of naturalization in France, 
 and was put in charge of the obsen'atory of the Ecole ^lilitaire, 
 after the death of the latter astronomer. Burckhard's chief 
 works are his Treatise on the remarkable Comet of 1770 ; his 
 Tables of the Moon, adopted by the Board of Longitude, and in 
 the hands of almost every astronomer ; and his excellent and 
 most convenient auxiliary Tables. While yet a young man, he 
 translated the first two volumes of the Mecanique Celeste into 
 his native tongue. — J. P. N. 
 
 BURCKHARDT, Johann Ludwig, a celebrated traveller, 
 was bom at Lausanne in 1784, and studied at Leipzig and 
 Gottingen, where he was held in general esteem for his talents 
 and assiduity. In 1808 he went to England, and in 1809 
 was sent on an exploring expedition to Africa by the African 
 Society. He first repaii-ed to Aleppo, where, during a resi- 
 dence of three years, he metamorphosed both his outward and 
 inward man into a true Mussulman ; an operation which 
 he perfonned with so much success, that afterwards, when a 
 doubt had been raised as to his creed, he was examined by two 
 ulemas, and by them declared not only a true, but a deeply- 
 learned Moslem. In 1812 he travelled through Egypt, up the 
 Nile to Nubia, through the Nubian desert and across the Red 
 Sea to Mecca, in order to study Maliometanism at its fountain- 
 head. Thence he joined in a pilgrimage to Mount Ararat, by 
 which he acquired the title of hadji, i.e., pilgi-im. In 1815 he 
 returned to Cairo, and made preparations for his long-intended 
 journey into Fezzan ; when, however, the caravan was just 
 about to st;irt, he died of a fever, October 17, 1817, and was 
 honourably buried in the Mahometan cenictoiy. All his Oriental 
 MSS., 350 in number, he bequeathed to the Cambridge library. 
 His journals were published after his death at London (a German 
 edition appeared at Weimar) ; for truth, accuracy, and minute 
 observation they are hardly to be excelled. His " Notes on the 
 Bedouins and Wahabys," London, 1830; and his "Arabic 
 Proverbs," London, 1831, are also highly valuable works. — K. E. 
 ^ BURDETT, Sir Francis, Bart., third son of Francis Burdctt, 
 Esq., and gi-andson of Sir Robert Burdett, fourth baronet of 
 Bramcote, in the county of Warwick, was bom in 1770. He 
 received his early education at Westminster school, and after- 
 wards at Christ church, Oxford. In 1794 he entered the house 
 
 of commons as member for Boroughbridge. In 1797 he succeeded 
 to his grandfather's title, his father having predeceased him. 
 About this time he became intimate with the late Mr. Horne 
 Tooke, the celebrated author of Diversions of Purley (see Tooke, 
 J. H.), by whom he soon became imbued with strong notions of 
 the necessity of a reform in the electoral representation of the 
 kingdom, although the subject was then in its infancy, and indeed 
 had awakened as yet no public interest. Sir Francis Burdett, 
 with great penetration, foresaw that there would come a time 
 when it would force itself upon the consideration of both houses 
 of the legislature, and he laboured hard, both in and out of 
 parliament, to hasten on that period. He was returned in 1807 
 for the city of Westminster, which he continued to represent 
 without interruption for thirty years. During the early part 
 of tliis period his opposition to the governments of Lord Sid- 
 mouth and Mr. Percival was of the most formidable character. 
 On April 7th he was committed to the tower for a breach of 
 privilege, but was released on the i'ollowing 22nd of June. 
 On February 23, 1813, Sir F. Burdett proposed a new regency 
 bill, but without success, though he recommended it by a 
 speech of singular ability. In 1819 he addi-essed to his con- 
 stituents a letter on the subject of the recent riots in Manches- 
 ter ; for this letter he was prosecuted by the attorney-general, 
 and being found guilty of a libel, was fined £1000, and sen- 
 tenced to three months' imprisonment in the king's bench. 
 In 1837 he avowed that a total change had come over his 
 views — that he was satisfied with the progi'ess already made 
 in the cause of reform ; and that he had witnessed too many 
 atrocities committed in the cause of reform in the neighbouring 
 nation of France, to wish to see his own country placed in a 
 like predicament. Impressed with this di'ead of revolution, in 
 July, 1837, he declined to be put in nomination by his old con- 
 stituents at Westminster, and was returned for North Wilts as a 
 conservative and supporter of the late Su' Robert Peel. He was 
 re-chosen at the general election of 1841 ; and died in 1844. 
 He was a warm-hearted and benevolent man, a sincere friend, 
 and a perfect specimen of the old English gentleman. — E. W. 
 
 BURET, Eugene, author of "De la misere des classes 
 laborieuses en France et en Angleterre," a thoughtful and 
 earnest work, which grew out of a prize offered by the Academy 
 of Bloral Sciences of Paris about 1836, was born at Troyes in 
 1811, and died in 1842. 
 
 BURETTE, Pierre Jean, a ^vi-iter upon ancient music, was 
 born at Paris in 1665, where he died in 1747. His father, 
 Claude Burette, was a nmsician ; finding the boy's health too 
 delicate to allow of his being sent to school, he taught him his 
 own art as a recreation. Pierre made such rapid progress that at 
 eight years old he played on the spinet before Louis XIV., and 
 two years afterwards assisted his father in giving lessons on 
 this instrument and on the harp. Notwithstanding this pi'e- 
 cocious manifestation of musical talent, his predilection was for 
 the study of medicine, and he accordingly entered the college 
 of Harcourt, where he took the degree of doctor at the age of 
 twenty-five. He became also distinguished for his knowledge of 
 the dead languages, as well as those of modern Europe. In 1692 
 he was appointed physician to the hospital la Charitd ; in 1698 
 he was instituted professor of materia medica ; in 1701 he 
 was made Latin professor of chimrgeiy; and in 1710 he was 
 raised to the chair of medicine in the royal college of Paris. 
 His early familiarity with nmsic made this a favourite subject 
 with him in his classical researches, and he accordingly published 
 thirteen works illustrative of the music of the Greeks, including 
 a translation of Plutarch's treatise on music, with an examination 
 of its principles, and copious remarks upon them. — G. A. M. 
 
 BURG, John Tohias, an astronomer of high merit, born at 
 Treves in 1766 ; died near Clagenfurt in 1834. Having early 
 shown his inclination towards physical research, and a rare 
 industry, he was attached as assistant astronomer to an obser- 
 vatory at Clagenfurt in 1792. lie published an ephemeris of 
 considerable value, but his name is chiefly distinguished by his 
 labours on the motions of the moon. In 1798 tlie Institute 
 proposed a subject of a prize, " To dctei'mine, by means of a 
 great number of lunar observations (five hundred at least), both 
 ancient and inodern, the mean height of the apogee, and of the ( 
 ascending node of the moon's orbit." Burg undertook the very 
 difficult and laborious problem, and deduced the desired results 
 from three thousand observations, by a method as original as 
 exact. His only competitor was Alexander Bouvard. The
 
 judges. Lagrange, Laplace, Delambre, Legendre, and Mechain, 
 divided the prize, awarding to Burg two-thirds of it ; but Napo- 
 leon, aware of the importance of the achievement, doubled its 
 value. The emperor of Austria, proud of his subject, decorated 
 him with the cross of Leopold. To Burg we owe the first lunar 
 tables that can be said to approach to exactitude. He intro- 
 duced large corrections into the tables of T. Mayer ; nor have 
 his labours been improved until quite recent times, when our 
 knowledge of the lunar inequalities received, apparently, its last 
 perfection from Hansen (q. v.) — J. P. N. 
 
 BUllGEli, Gottfried August, one of the most popular 
 poets of Germany, was born at Molmerswende in 1748. After 
 .studying theology for some time at Halle, he went to Giittingen 
 in order to devote himself to the law. In 1772 he was appointed 
 bailiff of Altengleichen, a village nearGottingen ; an inferior situ- 
 ation with a beggarly income. By the faithlessness of a friend, 
 and an unsuccessful attempt at farming, he had become involved 
 in pecimiaiy embarassments. He resigned his office and began 
 lectui'ing at Giittingen, where in 1789 lie w.as appointed professor 
 extraordinary, but without a salary, and was therefore obhged to 
 write for the support of himself and children. He died, after a 
 protracted illness, Jmie 8, 1794. Biirger's great strength as a 
 poet lies in his ballads, a great many of which are imitations or 
 paraphrases of old English and Scotch originals. He may well 
 be said to have revived the taste for ballad poetry in Germany, 
 and to have led the way to a more natural style of composition. 
 Among his original poems, the celebrated " Leonore " takes the 
 highest rank; it has been repeatedly translated into English. 
 His lyrics, though sometimes rhetorical rather than poetical 
 productions, are distinguished by noble manliness, gi-eat fire, 
 and depth of feeling. Among his prose works, " The Travels 
 and Adventures of Baron JIunchausen," which vcere announced 
 as translated from the English, stand highest. The complete 
 works of Biirger were first edited by Karl von Reinhard, 
 Guttingen, 1796-98, 4 vols. His life was written by Althoti' 
 and During. — K. E. 
 
 BUllGH, Walter Hussey — the name of Bm-gh having been 
 taken in addition to the original name of Hussey — an Irishman, 
 distinguished as a scholar, a patriot, and a lawyer, occupied a 
 considerable place in Irish history during the time of Flood and 
 Grattan. He was born in 1743, and educated for the bar, at 
 which he gradually rose to an eminent position. In 1768 he 
 took a conspicuous part in the Irish house of commons, of which 
 he was a member, in opposition to Lord Townshend's govern- 
 ment. In 1779 he was member for tlie university of I)ublin. 
 He was shortly after made chief baron of the exchequer, and died 
 at the premature age of forty in 1783. Burgh was distinguished 
 for his classical learning and poetic taste. As an orator his style, 
 though at first too ornate, was by mature experience improved 
 and refined, till he acquired the reputation of the most elegant 
 debater of his day. Both Flood and Grattan highly eulogized 
 him. " He did not live," said the former, " to be ennobled by 
 patent ; he was ennobled by nature." — J. F. W. 
 
 BURGHtiRSH, John Fane, Lord. — See Westmoreland. 
 
 BURGIIO, De, an ancient and highly distinguished family 
 which settled in Ireland in the twelfth century and still, under 
 the cognate designations of De Burgho, De Burgh, and Burke, 
 has continued to represent nobility, genius, and power : — 
 
 BuRGiio, Richard de, who succeeded to the greater part 
 of Connaught, forfeited by O'Conor, king of that province, 
 and granted by John. His great power made him an object 
 of suspicion to Henry III., and for a time he was placed 
 in a position of hostility to the English government; but he 
 soon was restored to favour, receiving only a gentle remon- 
 strance from the king. Nevertheless, he quickly found or 
 made occasion, with the aid of the lord-justice, to invade the 
 territory of Feidlim 0"Conor, king of Connaught, and made him- 
 self master of largo tracts, wliich he continued to hold against 
 all the complaints of Feidlim and the orders of Henry. In 
 1-232 he built the castle of Gahvay, and in 1236 that of 
 Lough Rea, and affected the state of a provincial king, keeping 
 a train of barons, knights, and gentlemen in his service ; and 
 having gone in 1242, with a splendid suite, to meet the king 
 at Bordeaux, he died in France in the following year. 
 
 BuRGHo, Walter de, son of the former, was eminent for 
 power and enterprise, and the active part which he took in the 
 events of that dark period of Irish history. The contest with 
 the O'Conors, bequeathed by his father, was continued by Walter. 
 
 He died in 1271 at his castle in Gahvay. By bis maniage 
 •with the heiress of De Lacy he acquu-ed the earldom of Ulster. 
 
 BuRGiio, Richard de, son of the preceding, and second 
 earl of Ulster, called from his complexion the Red Earl, was 
 educated at the court of Hsnry III., and was the most powerful 
 subject in Ireland. In 1273 he pursued the Scots, who had 
 invaded Ireland, into Scotland, and committed great slaughter 
 and took much spoil, and was in consequence made general of the 
 Irish forces in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Gascoigne. So 
 high was his position that his name was placed before that of the 
 lord-lieutenant in all public documents. Richard founded niany 
 monasteries and castles, amongst them that of Castle Connel on 
 the Shannon, near Limerick, which is still held by a descendant 
 of the name of De Burgho. In 132G, he retired to the monastery 
 of Athasil, the foundation and bmial-place of his family, where 
 he died the same year. 
 
 BuRGiio, William de, earl of Ulster. Through his daughter 
 who married Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., 
 the titles of Ulster and Connaught were added to those of the 
 royal family. He was mm'dered by his own servants in June, 
 1333, in the twenty-first year of his age, and his death was 
 avenged by the people of Ulster, who rose in large masses, and 
 pursuing the murderers killed 300 of them. From this period 
 the power of the De Bm-gho family was divided, and began to 
 decline.— J. F. W. 
 
 BURGKJI AIR, Hans or John, a German painter and engi-aver, 
 disciple and friend of Albert Durer, born in 1474. His pictures, 
 presen'ed in the Diet city, have merit. His wood engravmgs are 
 wrought with fire and the vigour of a robust, struggling, reform- 
 ing age. Some of the early De Keyserberg prints are supposed 
 to be his, for they are marked — " 1510, J. B." — W. T. 
 
 BURGOS, Paulus de S^Us'cta Maria, bishop of Burgos. 
 Having rehnquished Judaism, and along with it his wife and his 
 children, he went to Pans, where he graduated ; hence he repaired 
 to Avignon, at that time a dependency of Rome : his eloquence 
 and piety gained him high patronage, through whose infiuence 
 he was successively preferred to the sees of Cai'thagena and of 
 Burgos, became first chancellor of the kingdom of Castile, and 
 was intrusted with the education of the youthful king, John II. 
 He died at the advanced age of eighty-five, in the year 1435. 
 His high literary fame rests on the learning and zeal for the 
 cathohc doctrines, displayed in his work "Scrutuiium Scrip- 
 turannn" against Judaism. — T. T. 
 
 BURGOYNE, John, Enghsh general and di-amatist, was the 
 natm-al son of Lord Bingley, and entered the army at an early 
 age. Rapidly rising to the rank of general, through the powei-f"! 
 patronage of his aristocratic friends, he held a command in Por- 
 tugal during its defence in 17 02. In the course of the cam- 
 paign, which terminated in the retreat of the Spaniards within 
 their now territoiy, he gained considerable distinction both for 
 skill and daring, and was successful in surprising a large reserve 
 at Valencia de Alcantara. Subsequently he was elected mem- 
 ber of parliament for Preston, and was ultimately called to, 
 what he himself terms, " the unsolicited and unwelcome service 
 in America." In 1775 he joined General Gye at Boston, in com- 
 pany with large English reinforcements, and witnessed, from one 
 of the batteries in that city, the famous battle of Bunker's Hill, 
 of which he has left an animated description. After proceeding 
 to Canada as governor, he returned to England, but in 1777 was 
 despatched to take command of that expedition from Canada 
 against the United States, the failure of which so largely contri- 
 buted to the establishment of American freedom. Few battles, 
 indeed, have achieved, in their ultimate influence, results so great 
 as the sun-ender of Burgoyne with 3500 fighting men, well pro- 
 vided with artillery, at Saratoga, to the anny of General Gates. 
 It gave heart to tlie colonists, and confirmed them in their 
 resistance. It decided the somewhat wavering sympathies of 
 the French government; and in England greatly strengthened 
 those opposed to a continuance of the struggle. General Bur- 
 goyne, on his return home, was received by the king with marked 
 disfavour. He defended himself with eloquence, and demanded 
 an inquiry. The inquiry was commenced, but summarily stopped 
 by a prorogation of parliament. Although Burgoyne did not 
 possess the genius of a great general, and was in many respects 
 utterly inadequate to the tasks imposed upon him, yet no one 
 can read the work published in his defence — " State of the 
 Expedition from Canada," London, 1780 — without acknow- 
 ledging his courage, and detecting qualities which, in a less
 
 BUR 
 
 807 
 
 BUR 
 
 exalted station, min;ht have been of sei-vice to his country, 
 Disgusted with liis treatment by the government, he vi'ithdrew 
 from the army, and having married the daughter of Earl 
 Derby, enjoyed considerable social ease. During his parlia- 
 mentary career, he obtained a committee of inquiry upon Indian 
 affairs, and moved a vote of censure upon Clive, May, 1773. He 
 employed his leisure in literary pursuits, and was tlie author 
 of the following di'amas, wliicli are occasionally elegant although 
 without power— "The JIaid of the Oaks;" "The Lord of the 
 Manor;" " The Heiress ;" and "Richard Coeur de Lion." The 
 best of these plays is " The Heiress," which was composed at 
 Knowsley, the seat of the earl of Derby, and was successful upon 
 the stage, Burgoync died on August 4, 1792. 
 
 * BURGOYNE, Sir John Fox, G.C.B., lieutenant-general 
 and inspector-general of fortifications. This very distinguished 
 officer entered the corps of royal engineers in the year 1798. 
 He served in the Mediterranean, with Sir John Moore in Sweden 
 and Portugal, and afterwards with Wellington in Spain. Li 
 subsequent years we find him employed in America ; and in 
 1845, after other services, he was appointed inspector-general 
 of fortifications. It was to Sir John that our illustrious duke 
 wrote his celebrated letter on the defenceless state of Great 
 Britain — a letter that commenced a reaction against a narrow 
 and suicidal policy, which, under the name of the public economy, 
 had gone far to reduce our naval and military services to a state 
 of comparative powerlessness. Sir John took part in all the 
 great actions occurring during the Crimean war : he had the 
 chief direction of the siege operations against Sebastopol. Very 
 able papers, arising out of that siege, on the relative merits of 
 fortification by stone or earth-works, are attributed to Sir John 
 Burgoyne. — J. P. N. 
 
 BURGSDORF, Friedrich August Ludwig von, a Ger- 
 man naturalist, was born at Leipzig on 23d March, 1727, and 
 died at Berlin on 19th June, 1802. He devoted much attention 
 to arboriculture. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Berlin, and was director of the Brandeburg Ibrests. His 
 works are — " History of Trees, and directions as to their choice 
 and cultivation ;" "Forester's Manual;" "Introduction to Den- 
 drology," &c.— J. H. B. 
 
 BURIDAN, Jean, a famous nominalist philosopher of the 
 fourteenth century, rector of the univei'sity of Paris in the year 
 1347, was a native of Bethune in Artois. His end is rej^orted 
 to have been tragical ; the wife of Phillipe le Bel, or one of his 
 three daughters-in-law, having, it is said, gratified her spleen 
 at the philosopher, who interfered with her royal license for 
 sinning, by throwing him into the Seine. Bmidan is remem- 
 bered not only by his scholastic treatises, which were of singular 
 reputation in their day, but by a sopliism called tliat of " Buri- 
 dan's Ass/' which, although it is not a settled point whether 
 the inventor of it was Buridan, or one of Buridan's philosophical 
 adversaries, has, to the advantage of his fame alone, been a 
 subject of discussion among all the historians of the schools. It 
 will be found at length in Bavle. — J. S., G. 
 
 BURKARD WALDIS, a German poet of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, was probably born at Altendorf' on the Werra, and died at 
 Abterode, electorate of Hassia. From a bigoted monk, he 
 became a zealous defender of the refomied doctrine ; and travelled 
 in Holland, Italy, and Portugal. His principal works are his 
 tables and comic talcs, partly from ^Esop and other old fabulists, 
 partly original, which first appeared at Frankfort, 1548. A 
 great number of them have repeatedly been modernized. — K. E. 
 
 * BURKE, Sir Bernard, Ulster king-of-anns, son of John 
 Burke, was born m London. After receiving his early education 
 in tlie metropolis, he was sent to the college of Caen in Normandy, 
 where he soon distinguished himself both in the sciences and clas- 
 sics. Here he remained till his education was completed, when, 
 returning to London, he was called to tlie bai*. He did not, how- 
 ever, seek general practice, but devoted himself, under the guidance 
 of his father, to the study of genealogy and historj', and took his 
 share in the production of those works — especially " The His- 
 tory of the Landed Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland" — which 
 have become the standard authorities in genealogy, and conferred 
 on the authors a high and extensive reputation. Upon the 
 retirement of his father in 184 G, the sole labour of these works 
 devolved upon Bernard, who, in addition, continued with unre- 
 mitting industiy and ability to bring out volume after volume 
 upon genealogical and heraldic subjects, each of which won 
 public favour, and increased his reputation. Meanwhile he did 
 
 not confine himself solely to genealogy, but wrote in various 
 periodicals of the day, and mainly conducted the Patrician, 
 and the St. James' Magazine. The death of Sir William 
 Betham hi October, 1853, made a vacancy in the office of Ulster 
 king-of-anns, and the high qualifications of Burke at once 
 secured him the succession, to which he was appointed in the 
 following month, and received the honour of knighthood early in 
 the year 1854. A happier or more popular selection for the high 
 and important office which Sir Bernard Burke fills could not have 
 been made. In addition to his competency as a herald and 
 genealogist, he unites the polish of the scholar and the court- 
 liness of the gentleman, with a frankness, good nature, and 
 affability, that gain him the respect of all who have ofiicial inter- 
 course with him, and the esteem of all who know him. — J. F. W. 
 BURKE, Edmund, the Right Hon., was bom in Dublin on 
 the 1st of January, 1730, and was the son of a respectable 
 attorney, whose family came from the south of Ireland. While 
 yet a child, he was sent to his grandfather's at Castletown-Roche 
 in the county of Cork, near Kilcolman, the residence of the poet 
 Spenser, receiving his first lessons from a man of the name of 
 O'Hallaren ; and in his twelfth year he was placed at the school of 
 Ballytore, kept by a Quaker of the name of Abraham Shackleton, 
 of whom Burke afterwards said that " he was an honour to his 
 sect, though that sect was considered one of the purest." Here 
 he already displayed those traits of character which ultimately 
 made him one of the greatest of men. He had remarkable 
 quickness of apprehension and great tenacity of memoiy, and was 
 extremely fond of reading; deligliting hi acquiring stores of 
 knowledge from every source and of eveiy description. While 
 his habits were reflective, reserved, and ahnost solitary, he was 
 gentle, good-natured, and obliging, with warm affections, and 
 disposed to form strong friendships. In the spring of 1744 he 
 entered the university of Dublin as a pensioner under Dr. Pelisier. 
 To his college studies he was not inattentive, as is proved by the 
 fact of his having obtained at least one prize in his senior fresh- 
 man year, and a scholarslnp in due course; but his compre- 
 hensive mind took a far wider range of human knowledge than 
 that prescribed by the university; and while de^•oting to his 
 course only so much study as was necessary for a creditable 
 progress, he abandoned himself to metaphysics, history, oratory, 
 and poetry with ardour, and was noted as at once a brilliant 
 and copious speaker, and a profound and vigorous thinker ; and 
 had already written several essays of ability, and a translation of 
 part of the second Georgic of Virgil, which a competent critic 
 does not hesitate to pronounce to be equal to Dryden's best 
 execution in the same line. Burke took his degree in Februaiy, 
 1748, and being designed for the profession of the law, he shortly 
 after proceeded to London, to keep his terms in the middle 
 temple, and in 1751 he took his degree of master of arts. 
 His health at this period was but indifferent, and he spent 
 much of his time between 1750 and 1753 in travelling through 
 England, in the society of men of letters, and in desultory read- 
 ing. He seems to have abandoned all intention of being called to 
 the bar, as we find him in the latter year an unsuccessful candi- 
 date for the chair of logic in Glasgow. For two years Burke con- 
 tinued in London, writing occasionally in periodicals, associating 
 with Murphy, Macklin, and Garrick, with the latter of whom he 
 formed a lasting friendship. In 175(1 he published anonymously 
 his " Vindication of Natural Society," an able css;i}', that 
 attracted considerable notice, in which he exposed the infidel 
 opinions of the time by following them out to their extreme 
 results. The celebrated " Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful " 
 followed soon after. No work of the day so suddenly sprang 
 into popularity ; it obtained for its author the most unqualified 
 admiration, and the unkno«Ti young man became a literary 
 celebrity. The great and the learned sought his acquaintance ; 
 and amongst his friends he reckoned, ere long, Reynolds, Soame 
 Jenyns, Lord Littleton, Warburton, Hume, and above all, Di. 
 Johnson. Chary as the latter was of his praise in general, he 
 was liberal of it in the case of Burke, declaring that he was 
 " the only man whose common conversation corresponds with the 
 general fame which he has in the world ; " and he often repeated 
 that " no man of sense would meet Mr. Burke by accident under 
 a gateway without being convinced that he was the first man in 
 England." Burke had devoted a vast deal of time and thoughc 
 to this work, which, indeed, he had commenced in his eighteenth 
 year, and his health was now far from robust from the effects ot 
 over inenlml exertion. In this state he put himself under the
 
 BUR 
 
 808 
 
 BUR 
 
 care of Dr. Nugent, who was equally distinguished as a physician 
 and a scliolar, and a cordial friendship grew up between them. 
 Durke became an inmate of the doctor's house, and ultimately 
 the husband of his daugliter, a union wliicli was productive of 
 the greatest happiness throughout life to both. Notwithstanding 
 the great reputation which he had acquired, Burke had still to 
 struggle slowly upwards. For three years he was occujiied with 
 occasional writing, with editing a " History of the European 
 Settlements in America," and with a History of England, 
 which, though prosecuted as far as eight sheets, was never 
 completed, and with the establishment, hi conjunction with 
 his publisher, Dodsley, of the Annual Register. He had now 
 directed his attention cliiefly to political subjects, and there is 
 no doubt he was anxiously casting about for the means of 
 coming forward in that course, for which he vvas by intellect and 
 education so eminently fitted. That opportunity was aflbrded 
 him by the carl of Charlemont, who introduced him to Mr. 
 W. G. Hamilton (better Ivuown as " Single-speech Hamilton "), 
 then secretary for Ireland, and this gentleman appointed Burke 
 to the office of his private secretaiy in 17G1, and with him he 
 returned to his native land. In this office he continued for two 
 years, rendering great services to the administration, and a pen- 
 sion of £300 a year was bestowed upon him, charged on the 
 Irish establishment. The conduct of Mr. Hamilton, however, 
 towards liim, though it has never been fully explained, was such 
 tliat a man of Burke's independent spirit could no longer act 
 with him. He therefore broke off all connection with Hamilton, 
 relinquished his pension, and in 1763 again returned to England. 
 But in returning to London, Burke found that his character for 
 political knowledge had preceded him, and he was looked upon 
 as a man whose future position was sure to be a high one. Two 
 years after his return the marquis of Rockingham was appointed 
 prime minister : he chose Burke as his private secretary, and 
 upon the opening of parliament in January, 17G6, he took his seat 
 as member for Wendover. Upon the first night that he sat an 
 opportunity was afforded him for the display of his gi-eat abilities. 
 He spoke upon American affairs in such a manner as to astonish 
 the house, and di-aw from Mr. Pitt, who followed him, a panegyric 
 as unusual from the latter as it was honourable to the subject 
 of it. The Rockingham administration was dissolved in July, 
 1766, and Mr. Burke retired to Ireland with the reputation of 
 being " the first man in the commons." On his return to Lon- 
 don an olfer was made to him by Mr. Pitt, wliich he refused, and 
 he appeared as the leader of the most powerful section of the 
 opposition to the new ministry. In the next parliament he was 
 again returned for Wendover, and purcliased an estate in Buck- 
 inghamshire. His first avowed political pamphlet was published 
 in the year 1769, being observations upon a pampldet written 
 eitlier by Mr. Fox or Mr. Grenville — On the Present State 
 of the Nation. Burke's " Observations " were characterized 
 by powerful argumentation and force of expression, and were 
 extremely well received ; and it is a proof of the high estimation 
 in which he was held, both as a politician and a writer, that the 
 celebrated Letters of Junius, whicli appeared about that time, 
 were attributed to him. In the following year appeared his 
 celebrated pamphlet " On the Cause of the Present Discontents," 
 which, for its merit as a literary composition and for the profound 
 aiui comprehensive knowledge which it exhibits, may be placed 
 beside the best productions of its author. 
 
 From this period we find Burke actively engaged in all the 
 political questions of those momentous times. In the contest 
 with the colonies he took a conspicuous part on behalf of the 
 Americans, and he was appointed agent for New York in 1771. 
 In the conflict which arose at this period between the house of 
 commons and the city of London upon the an-est of the printers, 
 Burke espoused the cause of the latter: he also took part in 
 tlie debates on the atlairs of India in the following year. In 1773 
 he went to France, the social state of which was then such as to 
 make a profound impression on his mind. In the meantime the 
 position of our relations with America was becoming daily more 
 critical, and on the 19th of April, 1774, a motion was brouglit on 
 for the repeal of the duty on tea. On this occasion Burke rose to 
 reply to a violent speech of Mr. Cornwall, and though the house 
 had been wearied of the debate, and most of the members had left, 
 such was the power of his eloquence, the force of his reasoning, 
 and the readiness with wliicli he replied on the moment to the 
 arguments of the government, that the house became filled with 
 admu-ing listeners ; and even the auditors in the gallflies could 
 
 scarcely be restrained from breaking out into applause. At the 
 conclusion of one of those splendid bursts with which he electrified 
 the house. Lord John To^^^lshend exclaimed — " Good heavens ! 
 what a man is this ! where could he have found such transcendant 
 powers?" On the dissolution of parliament Burke stood for 
 Alalton, on the Rockingham interest, and was successful ; but 
 immediately after consented to be put in nomination for Bristol, 
 where he was returned, free of expense, 3rd November. The 
 following year Burke came forsvard with his thirteen resolutions 
 for quieting America, which he introduced in a speech no less 
 celebrated than that of the previous year, and of which Lord 
 Chatham and Mr. Fox spoke in terms of the liighest commen- 
 dation. On the 11th February, 1780, he brought forward his 
 motion for economical retrenchment in a speech which is a 
 repertory of political wisdom and general knowledge, and which 
 added to his popularity. Burke's advocacy of the Roman CathoUc 
 claims, as well as his support of the acts for opening the 
 trade of Ireland, diminished his popularity with the electors 
 of Bristol, so that when he went to stand again for that town, 
 after the dissolution in 1780, he found that the populace were 
 disfavom-able to him, though the enlightened and higher portion 
 of the constituency publicly expressed their continued confi- 
 dence. He therefore declined to contest the representation, 
 and was returned for Slalton, which he continued to represent 
 during the rest of his political life. In 1782 Lord Rocking- 
 ham again became prime minister. Burke was not admitted 
 into the cabinet, to which his merits entitled him, but he was 
 made privy councillor and paymaster of the forces. In this 
 last office he gave evidence of a scrupulous and severe integrity 
 unexampled in public men. The interest of the money lying 
 in bank in the paymaster's name amounted to about £25,000 
 a year, which was always considered the fair perquisite of the 
 office. Of this sum Burke refused to appropriate one penny, 
 tliough his private cucumstances were very straitened; and he 
 brought in a bill by which he effected a saving in the public 
 expenditure of £72,000 yearly. The Rockingham administra- 
 tion terminated by the death of that nobleman in 1782, when 
 Lord Shelbourae succeeded, and Burke retired from office. 
 The famous coalition of Fox and Lord North put out the 
 Shelbourne administration in 1783, and Bm-ke resumed his old 
 office, and on the second reading of the East India bill, December 
 1, 1783, made one of his magnificent speeches, displaying the 
 vast amount of his knowledge and the great resources of his 
 mind — a speech that now remains only as a monument of superb 
 abilities misapplied. The bill was carried in the house of 
 commons, but lost in that of the lords, and on its defeat the 
 ministry went out, Mr. Pitt coming in as premier, and hence- 
 forth Burke was to be found in the ranks of the opposition. 
 The state of India was now a most engrossing subject, and 
 Burke applied all the energies of his mind to it. For years 
 had Burke been engaged in deep and laboiious investigations 
 in relation to the wrongs of India. In 1780 and 1781 two 
 committees had been appointed upon Indian aff'ahs, and of 
 those Burke was a most laborious member ; and their report 
 charged Warren Hastings, the governor-general of Bengal, and 
 William Hornby, the president of the council at Bombay, with 
 having " in sundry instances acted in a manner repugnant 
 to the honour and policy of tliis nation, and thereby brought 
 great calamity on India ;" and declared that it was the duty of 
 the directors to remove them from office. Hastings was recalled, 
 and returned to England in 1785. In February of the following 
 year Burke brought forward his specific charges against Hastings, 
 upon the motion for papers, which was followed by his going 
 into the detail of these charges successively, which occupied the 
 bouse at intervals during that and the following year ; and 
 during the progress of these proceedings Burke displayed all the 
 powers of his intellect, and the \'igour and industiy of one who 
 put his soul to the work that lie felt called upon to prosecute. 
 On the 10th of May, 1787, Burke accused Hastings at the bar of 
 the house of lords in the name of the commons of p]ngland, and 
 on the 13th February, 1788, the trial commenced in Westminster 
 Hall, in the most august form in which English justice has ever 
 appeared. The king, with the house of lords, spiritual and tem- 
 poral, sat on the tribunal ; the commons of England stood at 
 the bar. After the articles of impeachment were read, Burke, 
 on the third day, opened the case in a statement which occupied 
 four days. Whether viewed as a piece of forcible reasoning, or 
 looking to the momentous importance and vastness of the sub-
 
 ject, and the entire command and knowledge displayed of it, or 
 to the novel aspect in wliich he presented questions already so 
 thoroughly discussed and familiar — this statement may be pro- 
 nounced to be unparalleled in its power and effect, unsurpassed 
 as a masterpiece of commanding oratory. Its effect on Burke 
 himself w^as, on one occasion, to deprive him of the power of arti- 
 culation, while some of the terrible details caused others to faint. 
 This extraordinary trial was not concluded for nearly ten years, 
 during wliich Burke's energy never failed or flagged, commencing 
 his closing speech on the 28th May, 1794, wliich occupied nine 
 days, and on 23d April, 1796, Hastings was acquitted by a large 
 majority of the peers. Upon the conduct and motives of Burke 
 in this prosecution there has always been, and will be, a diver- 
 sity of opinion. While, on the one hand, personal causes for 
 animosity are suggested, which the extreme severity and almost 
 savageness of Burke's language aud demeanour would seem to 
 confirm — on the other hand, the well-known purity of his life, 
 the kindliness of his nature, and his hatred to all corruption 
 and oppression, as well as the profound interest which he had for 
 years taken in the affairs of India, justify us in doubting that 
 this one act was at variance in principle from the whole course 
 of his life, and constrain us to believe that he was compelled 
 to this painful undertaking by a sense of duty that overpowered 
 all feeluig of danger. During these proceedings Burke took part 
 in most of the public questions of the time. In 178G he visited 
 Ireland, and in the following year was elected a member of 
 the Royal Iiish academy. The regency question, consequent 
 on the illness of the king, which occurred the following year, 
 occupied a great portion of Bui-ke's attention, and the principal 
 part of the opposition was thrown upon him by the illness of 
 Fox. The progress of revolutionary feeling in France had now 
 developed itself so plainly, that it was impossible for one of 
 Burke's constitutional prmciples and political wisdom to remain 
 uger silent. An occasion soon forced him to speak out. In 
 lis debate on the army estimates in February, 1790, Fox pro- 
 nounced an eulogium on the revolt of the French guards. This 
 sentmient was met by a storm of reprobation from the house; 
 and on the renewal of the debate, Burke deprecated such opinions 
 being advanced on the authority of so great a name, and deli- 
 vered those immortal sentiments which excited the admiration of 
 all who heard him, and enlisted the sympathies of the whole 
 nation ; declaring that he " would quit his bust friends and join 
 his most avowed enemies, to oppose the least influence of such a 
 spirit in England." This declaration was received with loud 
 applause, in which Pitt joined. Fox replied with moderation, 
 and Burke was disposed to accept his concessions. Unfortunately 
 the petulance of Sheridan made a breach inevitable, by charging 
 Burke with " deserting from the camp, with assaulting the 
 principles of freedom, and defending despotism." Burke now 
 separated from his former colleagues, and produced the memorable 
 "Reflections on the Revolution of France," a work which has 
 had no equal in knowledge, eloquence, or insight into the tortuous 
 spirit of party ; in that " foreseeing and vigorous conception of 
 the revolutionary career, which makes the whole amount to the 
 most magnificent political prophecy ever given to the world." 
 Within the year 19,000 copies were sold in England, and 13,000 
 in France. This work produced an effect such as no other 
 political essay ever had, whether for extent or for permanent 
 importance. It aiTested the violent progress of the revolutionary 
 spirit in England, and gave the first and most decisive check to 
 the disorganizing influences which were rapidly spreading through 
 Europe. Honour and commendation poured in upcm him from 
 every quarter. The university of Dublin conferred on him tlie 
 degree of doctor of laws ; the graduates of Oxford presented him 
 with an address, through Mr. Windham; the bishop of Aix, and 
 the expatriated French clergy, acknowledged their obligations in 
 the most ardent language ; while in England the whole body of 
 established literature was loud in his praise. The views pro- 
 pounded tended, too, to introduce a schism in the whig party, and 
 to endanger the prospects of Mr. Fox, and thus it led to the final 
 breach between these two gi'eat men. Upon the debate on tlie 
 Quebec bill on the Gth of May, 1791, Burke, in rcjily to a speech 
 ot Fox, declared that " their friendship was at an end." This 
 statement touched Fox to the heart, and when he rose to rejily 
 the tears streamed from his eyes, and his emotion prevented liiin 
 for some time from addressing the house. Burke now formally 
 withdrew from the whigs, and stood alone, for he did not join 
 the opposition party. Thus excluded from any eft'octive line of 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 parliamentary conduct, he occupied himself in political writing. 
 He drew up a paper entitled " Thoughts on French Affairs," 
 which he offered to the consideration of government, but which 
 was not published till after his death. About this time the 
 Roman catholic party in Ireland soUcited him to support their 
 claims in parUament, to which he assented, and his efforts in 
 their behalf were attended with considerable success. He also 
 took part in several questions which were then agitating the 
 country, and di-ew up his " Heads for Consideration on the 
 Present State of Affairs." 
 
 Burke was now anxious to retire from parliamentary life, 
 and had made arrangements for his son, then thu'ty-five 
 years of age, succeeding him in the representation of Slalton. 
 One of his undertakings remained incomplete, aud for this only 
 he postponed his retirement : judgment had not yet been given 
 in the case of Wairen Hastings. On the 2oth of June, 1794, 
 Burke appeared for the last time in the house of commons, to 
 receive their thanks for the faithful discharge of the duties reposed 
 in him, and shortly after accepted the Cbiltern Hundreds. But 
 the heaviest atfliction of his life was now impending. He had 
 already secured a bright opening for his son, as secretary to Lord 
 Fitzwilliam, then about to go to Ireland as viceroy ; but con- 
 sumption had already showed itself in this promising and most 
 amiable young man, and its rapid progress could not be stayed. 
 He died on the 2nd of August, a few days after his election for 
 Malton. From the effects of this blow Burke never recovered ; 
 and he might be said to be visibly approaching the gi-ave from 
 the moment of his son's death. He was, to use his own words, 
 " a desolate old man." " I am alone," he writes to a friend ; 
 " I have none to meet my enemies in the gate : desolate at 
 Iiome, stripped of my boast, my hope, my consolation, my helper, 
 my counsellor, and my pride." Burke was to have been 
 promoted to a peerage — such an honour would have been now 
 valueless, almost a mockeiy. When the violence of the shock 
 had somewhat abated, Burke betook himself once more to the 
 resomxes of his former life, and from time to time published 
 several letters and papers on the great political events of the time. 
 In the scarcity of com in 1795-96, Burke erected a mill, and 
 retailed corn at a reduced price, at great private sacrifice. In 
 1795 pensions to the amomit of £3700 a year were granted to 
 him by the government, at the express desu'e of the king. This 
 act of gratitude, so well deserved, did not escape party censure. 
 The duke of Bedford and Lord Lauderdale attacked m parliament 
 the retired veteran, but were crushed by an able and manly reply 
 from Lord Grenville, and their demolition completed by Burke 
 himself in his " Letter to a noble Lord." To the last day of 
 his life Burke devoted himself to public good, and to acts 
 of private and extensive charities. Though exhausted in body, 
 his mind lost none of its vigour or clearness ; and the last 
 production of his pen," Thoughts on a Regicide Peace," gives 
 proofs that he had still the same masterly and powerful intellect. 
 But he was now rapidly sinking. On Friday the 7tli of July, 
 1797, being conscious of liis approaching end, he set himself to 
 review the conduct of his past life, vindicating his intentions, 
 regi'etting any petulance of manner or severity of rebuke whicli 
 might have given pain ; leaving it as an earnest assurance that 
 he never designed to give ofl'ence. He then gave himself 
 entirely to the consolations of religion. The lollowing morning, 
 feeling weariness, he expressed a wish to be carried hito another 
 room ; and as Mr. Nagle and some of the servants were bearing 
 him in their arms, he faintly said — " God bless you," and died. 
 It was proposed by Mr. Fox that he should be honoured bv 
 a public funeral, and hitcrred in Westminster abbey ; but by his 
 own desu'C, expressed in his will, he was buried in licaconsfleld 
 church, without pomp or expense, beside the remains of his 
 beloved son. He was in his sixty-eighth year. 
 
 The respect and admiration which was awarded to this great 
 man by his contemporaries has been fully affirmed by posterity. 
 One who knew him well, calls hnn " the prodigy of nature and 
 acquisition. He read everything, he saw everything, he foresaw 
 everything." His biographer, Dr. Croly, gives us this forcible 
 and elegant estimate : — " The rank of Burke sis a writer of 
 consummate ekxpience had been decided from the beginning of 
 liis career ; the progress of the Revolution placed him in equal 
 eminence as a statesman, and every year since has added to his 
 renown as a prophet. With the most palpable powers for 
 reaching the loftiest heights of speculation, he is the le.ast 
 abstract of all speculators. With the poetic fancy which so 
 
 5 K
 
 strono'ly tempts its possessor to spurn the ground, and %\-ith an 
 opulence of language that, like the tissues thrown on the road of 
 an oriental prince, covered the wild and thorny way before him 
 with richness and beauty, he never suffers himself to forget the 
 value of things. The application of reason to the purposes of 
 life, the study of the sources of moral strength, tlie inqiury into that 
 true ' wealth of nations ' which makes men safer from the shocks 
 of society, are his perpetual objects. He pours his river through 
 the moral landscape, not to astonish by its rapidity and volume, 
 or delight by its picturesque mndings, but to carry fertility on 
 its surface, and gold in its sands." In an age eminent for intel- 
 lectual distinction Burke secm-ed the admiration of Europe. He 
 possessed an understanding admirably fitted for the investiga- 
 tion of truth — an understanding stronger than that of any 
 statesman, active or speculative, of the eighteenth century. He 
 owed nothing to birth, riches, or official station. He rose with- 
 out them to the highest elevation in public esteem. His virtue 
 stood the trial alike of assault and temptation. " Burke grew 
 purer and more powerful for good to his latest moment ; he con- 
 stantly rose more and more above the influence of party, until at 
 last the politician was elevated into the philosopher ; and in that 
 loftier atmosphere from which he looked down on the cloudy and 
 turbulent contests of the time, he soared upwards calmly in tlie 
 light of truth, and became more splendid at every wave of his 
 wing." Whether we consider the large space he occupied in the 
 public eye, his genius, his learning, his multiform powers, natural 
 and acquired, or, finally, his political connection with all the 
 great events of his day, the name of Edmund Burke is assuredly 
 that which will most frequently attract and most deeply interest 
 the reader of om- political history of the past age. In person 
 Burke was about five feet ten inches high ; his figure was athletic 
 and symmetrical ; his appearance was graceful and dignified, and 
 his countenance is described as handsome, noble, and prepos- 
 sessing. A collected edition of his works, in quarto, was com- 
 pleted in 1827.— J. F. W. 
 
 BURKE, John, an eminent genealogist, born in Ireland on 
 the 29th of November, 1786, was descended from the Bm-kes 
 of Jlleelick, and collaterally from the noble house of Clanricarde. 
 He received a good classical education, and removed early in life 
 to London to devote himself to literaiy pursuits. In these he soon 
 succeeded, writing for the Examiner and other journals, as well 
 as in the periodicals of the day, both on political subjects and 
 general literature. His first avowed publication was a volume of 
 poetry, which had a rapid and large sale ; and this was followed 
 by an edition of Hume and Smollet's History of England, with a 
 continuation by himself. The works, however, by which he is best 
 known are those on genealogy, which he commenced by that on 
 "The Peerage and Baronetage," published in 1826. The suc- 
 cess of this book was as complete as it was immediate, and it has 
 gone through numerous editions with increasing favour. Other 
 publications in the same department followed at intervals, in which 
 Mr. Burke w\as assisted by his son, Bernard, and their united 
 labours produced the " History of the Landed Gentry," the " Gene- 
 ral Armoury," and the " Extinct Peerages and Baronetages," 
 works of gi-eat value to the historian and genealogist. Upon 
 the death of his wife in 1846, ]\Ir. Burke retired to the continent, 
 resigning to his son the further prosecution of those literary 
 labours which have given them both high reputation, and died 
 rather suddenly at Aix-la-Chapelle in 18-18. — J. F. W. 
 
 * BURKE, PiiTEK, barrister-at-law and queen's counsel for 
 the county palatine of Lancaster, brother of Sir Bernard, a 
 writer on law, especially the law of copyright and patents, and a 
 biographer of Edmund Burke, educated at the college royal of 
 Caen, where he gained the prix d'honneur for the best essay in 
 the French language. In presenting the medal the prefet said — 
 " Nous sommes vaincus par nos propres armes." — J. F. W. 
 
 * BORKNER, Hugo, a distinguished German wood engraver, 
 and professor of wood engraving at the Dresden academy, was 
 born at Dessau in 1818. He has gi-eatly contributed to re- 
 establish tlie genuine style of wood engraving, and practises 
 his art in the true spirit of the old German masters. — K. E. 
 
 BURLAMAQUI, Jean Jacquks, was born in 1691 at 
 Geneva, where he filled for many years the chair of natural 
 Jurisprudence, till failing health compelled him to renounce it. 
 He became a member of the council of the republic, and acted 
 a promhient pai-t in that assembly until his death in 17-18. He 
 was an intimate friend of Barbeyrac, and their imited labours 
 did much for the advancement of the science. He justly regards 
 
 the natural state of man as an approximation to that which it 
 is the aim of civil law to establish, this aim being to secure to 
 the members of the society the gi-eatest amount of happiness, an 
 end to which law, order, and authority are essential. Working 
 from this starting-point, he deduces the necessity for an invio- 
 lable and irresponsible sovereign, but allows to the people in 
 extreme cases the right of deposing him. All Burlamaqui's 
 writings are characterized by clearness and precision. — J. D. E. 
 
 BURLEIGH. See Cecil. 
 
 * BURLEIGH, Charles Callistus, one of the earliest, most 
 resolute, and indefatigable of the American abolitionists, bom in 
 Plainfield, Connecticut, in 1810. He was educated for the law; 
 but the question of slavery, in which from his earliest years 
 he had felt a peculiar interest, absorbed his attention. He is 
 the author of a veiy able essay, entitled " Thoughts on the 
 Death Penalty;" of a tract, entitled "The Sabbath Question;" 
 and another, " Slavery and the North." — S. M. 
 
 BUELEY, Walter, a celebrated scholastic philosopher and 
 divine, born at Oxford in 1275. At Paris, where he long resided, 
 he was the head of the nominalists of the period, and the chief 
 opponent of the Scotists. He was employed in the education of 
 Edward III., and in 1327 was sent by that monarch to Rome on 
 a mission of some importance. Besides immense and forgotten 
 commentaries on Aristotle, he published " De Vita et Moribus 
 PhilosophonuTi," 1472. 
 
 BURLINGTON, Earl of. See Boyle, Richard. 
 
 BURMANN, JoHANN, a Dutch botanist, was born in 1707, 
 and died in 1779. He was professor of botany at Amsterdam, and 
 was a friend of Linna;us, who dedicated to him the genus Burman- 
 nia. He devoted attention to Eastern botany, and published the 
 following works — "Thesaurus Zeylonicus, an account of Ceylon 
 Plants;" "Catalogue of African Plants observed by Hermann;" 
 "Flora Malabarica, or Index to the Hortus Slalabaricus;" :i 
 translation into Latin of Rumphius' Herbarium; and Fasciculi of 
 American plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 BURMANN, NicoLAus Lorenz, the son of Johann Bur- 
 mann, and also a Dutch botanist, was bom at Amsterdam in 1734, 
 and died in 1793. He took his degree of doctor of medicine at 
 Leyden. He published a " Flora Indica, with a Prodromus of 
 the Plants of the Cape of Good Hope ;" also a treatise on gera- 
 niums, and a "Flora of Corsica." — J. H. B. 
 
 BURN, Richard, born at Kirby-Stephen, near Winton iit 
 Westmoreland; died in 1789. Educated at Queen's college, 
 Oxford, he obtained the houoraiy degree of D.C.L. from Oxford 
 in 1762 ; in 1763 took holy orders, and was given the living of 
 Orton in Westmoreland, which he enjoyed for forty-nine years. 
 He was chancellor of the diocese of Carlisle. He published some 
 useful law books for popular use, one of which, " A Digest of 
 the Ecclesiastical Law," is still found convenient. In conjmic- 
 tion with Nicholson, he published a histoiy of the antiquities of 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland. — J. A., D. 
 
 BURNEL, Robert, the distinguished lord chancellor and 
 keeper of the privy seal of Edward I., was the son of Robert de 
 Burnel ; born at their ancient ancestral seat of Acton Burnel. 
 He distinguished himself in civil, ecclesiastical, and common 
 law, took holy orders, and also practised as an advocate in the 
 courts at Westminster. The young prince, Edward, became 
 W!u-mly attached to him, appointed him bis chaplain and private 
 secretary, and took him on his expedition to the Holy Land. 
 On the return of Edward, who, on the demise of his father 
 during his absence, had been proclaimed king, Burnel, then 
 archdeacon of York, was on the 21st Sept., 1274, appointed 
 lord chancellor, and shortly afterwards bishop of Bath and 
 Wells. He did much towards introducing English insti- 
 tutions and advancing civilization in Wales, and prepared the 
 code under which it continued to be governed until the reign of 
 Heniy VIIL, when it was permitted to send members to parlia- 
 ment, and fully received into the pale of the English constitution. 
 Edward honoured his chancellor by visiting him at his castle of 
 Acton Burnel, where in 1283 he held a parliament, memorable 
 for that excellent law for recovery of debts called the " statute 
 de Mercatoribtis." The laws passed during Burnel's long oflBcial 
 career exhibited the true spirit of wise legislation. Nor was the 
 lord chancellor unmindful of the due administration of the law. 
 In 1290 he prosecuted to conviction several of the judicial 
 functionaries for taking bribes and tampering with the records. 
 The chancellor again signalized himself in 1290-91, by his 
 adjustment of the disputed succession of the crown of Scotland,
 
 BUR 
 
 811 
 
 BUR 
 
 upon which he gave judgment in favour of Baliol to the exclusion 
 of Bruce. Burnel was lord chancellor for eighteen successive 
 years. He died at Berwick in 1292, and was buried in the 
 cathedral of his own see of Wells. He was one of the most 
 enlightened statesmen and lawgivers of his age. — F. J. H. 
 
 BURNES, Sir Alexander, was born at Montrose in 1805. 
 After being educated in that city, he proceeded to India when 
 sixteen years of age ; where distinguishing himself both as a 
 linguist and topographer, he was soon appointed assistant political 
 agent at Cutch. Possessed of an eager and enterprising dispo- 
 sition, he volunteered to explore the north-western frontier of 
 India, and descend the Indus to the sea. After reaching 
 Jaysulmeer, he was overtaken by an express from the supreme 
 government, desiring him to return, since it was deemed inex- 
 pedient to incur the hazard of exciting the alann of the rulers 
 of Scinde. In the following year, however, presents came from 
 the British sovereign to Runjeet Singh, ruler of Lahore, and 
 Barnes was appointed to convey them to their destination. 
 Soon after Burnes' return, he was despatched upon a second 
 expedition to Central Asia, during the course of whicli he 
 travelled across the Punjab to the Indus, and proceeded through 
 Peshawur to Cabool, where he was well received by Dost 
 JIahomed. He perceived, thus early, the general superiority of 
 that monarch, as to integrity, justice, and ability, to his rival Shah- 
 Soojah, afterwards so unfortunately placed on the throne by the 
 British government. From Cabool, Burnes journeyed over the 
 Hindoo Coosh to Koondosy, Balkh, and Bukhara ; and thence 
 ])assed westward to the Persian frontier, returning through 
 Teheran, Ispahan, and Shiraz to Bushire, where he embarked 
 for India. He was shortly despatched to England with the infor- 
 mation he had so acquired. By his success in this expedition, our 
 traveller at once became famous. He had retraced the greater 
 part of the route of Alexander, surveyed the kingdoms of Porus 
 and Taxiles, sailed on the Hydaspes, crossed the Indian Cau- 
 casus, beheld the scenes of the inroads of Jengis, and Timour, 
 and Baber ; but more than this, he had detected a new pathway 
 by which India might be invaded. Returning to Bomlxiy, he 
 again served in Cutch, but was soon appointed to the charge of 
 a (so-called) "commercial" mission to Aftghanistan. On his 
 arrival at Cabool, however, this pretext for the mission was laid 
 aside ; and Burnes plunged with the avidity of a spirit taking 
 natural delight in the intricacies of diplomacy and the manage- 
 ment of affairs, into the complications of Affghan politics. 
 Dost Mahomed was evidently not simply desirous to cultivate 
 the British alliance, but eager to secure it. Burnes himself 
 understood the advantages of an alliance with that ruler, whose 
 influence he saw the means of extending and consolidating over 
 a vast and important region. Other counsels, however, pre- 
 \ailed with the supreme government, and Burnes' mission at 
 I abool came to an end ; but not before the cloud of the approach- 
 ing terrible war broke upon the sky. The official correspondence 
 professedly narrating these transactions, was garbled in its 
 imblication by the British government, for the express purpose 
 of justifying their proceedings. The history of state-craft hardly 
 contains any instance of more glaring and deliberate falsehood. 
 War was declared against Dost Mahomed, and the expedition 
 started on the fatal mission to depose the rulers of Cabool and 
 Candahar, and enthrone Shah Soojah. After terrible sufferings, 
 alike from heat and cold, the army seemed to succeed. Oiu- 
 protege entered Cabool 7th August, 1839, and Dost Mahomed 
 surrendered shortly afterwards. Burnes remained in Cabool, 
 filling what he termed " the most nondescript of situations ; " 
 possessed of a large salary, but desirous of a more acti\-e and 
 commanding influence over the affairs of the country. Soon, 
 however, the desolating sword of Afl'ghan vengeance was uplifted, 
 and Burnes fell, one of the first victims in an outbreak that 
 tenninated in the almost complete destruction of a Britisli army. 
 The chief envoy, Macnaghten, was about to surrender office, and 
 Burnes hoped to attain it, when, on November 3, 1841, a mob 
 of insurgents attacked his house, and he was cut to )iiec('S as he 
 endeavoured to make his escape in disguise. There is no doubt 
 that the character of Sir A. Burnes, as described in official 
 despatches, has been grievously wronged. Mistaken as might 
 have been the policy of entering into Affghan politics at all, yet 
 — these affairs being interfered with — Bunies indicated a course 
 which would have saved the government from many disastiTs. — 
 Burnes' Travels were published in three volumes, and his garbled 
 despatches have been privately printed in their integrity. — L. L. P. 
 
 BURNET, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, and a justly cele- 
 brated writer on history and divinity, was bora at Edinburgh, 
 September, 1G43. He was of a very ancient family in the 
 shire of Aberdeen, where his father practised as a lawyer. 
 When only ten years of age, he entered the college of Aberdeen, 
 and ol>tained the degree of A.M. v^'hen only fourteen. He 
 applied himself to the study of civil law, with the intention of 
 following his father's profession ; but after the lapse of a year, 
 changed his mind, and determined to enter the ministry of the 
 episcopal chmxh. At the age of eighteen he was licensed as a 
 preacher, and shortly after offered a living in the shu-e of Aber- 
 deen, but this he conscientiously declined on the ground of 
 youth and inexperience. His father, who, after the Restora- 
 tion, had been appointed by Charles II. a lord of session, with 
 the title of Lord Cromont, soon after this died. Dr. Leighton, 
 then archbishop of Glasgow, and Mr. Nairn, the eloquent and 
 excellent minister of the Abbey church of Edinburgh, took a 
 deep interest in young Burnet ; and under their guidance for 
 two years he studied theology. In 1663, in his twentieth 
 year, he visited Oxford, Cambridge, and London, and was intro- 
 duced to some of the greatest celebrities in theology and 
 science. In 1664 he went to Amsterdam, where he perfected 
 himself in Hebrew, under the instruction of a learned rabbi, 
 and afterwards to Paris, where he received marked attention 
 from Lord Holies, then British ambassador in France. At the 
 close of this year, as he was retiu-ning to Scotland by way 
 of London, he was introduced to the president of the Royal 
 Society, and elected a member. Accepting now the living of 
 Saltoun, which had long before been offered him by Sir Robert 
 Fletcher, he was ordained to the office of deacon and priest by 
 the bishop of Edinburgh, Dr. Wiseheart. Nothing could exceed 
 the fidelity, ability, and enlightened piety with which Mr. Burnet 
 laboured in this charge for five years ; and during this period he 
 gained the affections of all classes, not excepting the presby- 
 terians. The government of Scotland being at this time in the 
 hands of moderate men, the minister of Saltoun was often con- 
 sulted in important affairs, and it is even suspected that it was 
 he who advised that the more moderate presbyterians should be 
 placed in the vacated livings. In 1669 he accepted the chair of 
 divinity at Glasgow, and for four years and a half discharged 
 the duties of professor with remarkable credit. After resigning 
 his charge at Saltoun, he published his " Modest and Free 
 Conference between a Conformist and Nonconfomiist," which 
 consisted of seven dialogues, and met with general approbation. 
 The important papers of the house of Hamilton being put into 
 Burnet's hands, he made a visit to London to consult with the 
 duke of Lauderdale respecting their publication, and while thus 
 occupied was offered a Scottish bishopric, which he declined. 
 On his retm-n to Glasgow he married Lady Margaret Kennedy, 
 daughter to Lord Cassilis. In 1672 he published " A Vindica- 
 tion of the Authority, Constitution, and Laws of the Church 
 and State of Scotland." He was once more offered a bishopric, 
 which was again declined. Although personally agreeable to 
 the court, he had a bitter enemy in Lauderdale, who at length 
 persuaded Charles to strike his name out of the list of chaplains- 
 in-ordinary, &c. Being shortly after obliged to vacate his chair, 
 he went to London to defend himself in person. Whilst in the 
 metropolis, being now about thirty years of age, he was offered 
 by the dean and chapter of St. Paul's the living of St. Giles, 
 Cripplegate ; but this, in a way very honouralile to himself, 
 he declined. He was now called to the bar of the house of 
 commons, to give evidence as to the suspected perfidy of 
 Lauderdale, some damaging facts of whose administration he 
 was most reluctantly obliged to state. In 1676 he published 
 his " Jlemoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton." Apprehensive of the 
 designs of the papists at this time, he published the first volume 
 of his "History of the Reformation in England," for which he 
 received the thanks of both houses of parliament. In the years 
 1681 and 1715, respectively, he issued his second and third 
 volumes, together with a very valuable supplement. This work 
 was so justly esteemed that it was translated into various 
 European languages. In 1680 he published "The Life and 
 Death of the Earl of Rochester," whom he had been the instru- 
 ment of reclaiming from infidelity and gross jjrofligacy. After 
 the publication of his " Life of Sir Matthew Hale," and " Bedell, 
 Bishop of Kilmore, Ireland," and sundry other valuable works, 
 ho deemed it pnulent to retire to the continent, and await the 
 issue of the ecclesiastical measures adopted by James II. He
 
 BUR 
 
 812 
 
 BUR 
 
 ■was induced by the flattering invitation of Prince William and 
 Princess Mary to settle at the Hague. Here, having some time 
 before lost his first wife, he married a Dutch lady of the name 
 of Scott, a descendant of the house of Buccleuch, and of con- 
 siderable wealth. This connection making him a free citizen 
 of the Hague, prevented his being forcibly ejected, as a letter 
 from the long of England had a httle before demanded. With 
 William he entered England, and in the year following was 
 appointed bishop of Salisbury, a diocese over which he presided 
 till his death in 1715. In parliament he was the advocate of 
 moderate measures towards the non-jurors, and the act of 
 toleration. By his clergy he was regarded as the most able and 
 conscientious of prelates. His " Exposition on the Articles of 
 the Church of England," came out in 1699, and has ever since 
 been esteemed a standard work. But his most important work, 
 and that on which liis fame must rest, is his " History of 
 His Own Time, from the Restoration of Charles II. to the Con- 
 clusion of the Treaty of Peace at Utrecht, in the Reign of Queen 
 Anne.' —J. W. D. 
 
 BURNETT, GilbektT., an eminent English botanist of the 
 present century, and formerly professor of botany at King's 
 college, London, contributed to the promotion of botanical science 
 by his outlines of botany, which contain an introduction to the 
 study, along with a classification of plants, and a full account of 
 the properties and uses of plants. He promulgated some original 
 \'iews on botany, and made interesting physiological observa- 
 tions on the respiration of plants. He died young. — J. H. B. 
 
 BURNET, Jacob, an American judge, senator, and one of 
 the pioneer settlers of that portion of the north-western territory 
 which is now the state of Ohio, with a population of more than 
 two millions, was born at Newark, New Jersey, February 22, 
 1770. He was graduated at Princeton college in 1791, was 
 admitted to the bar in 1796, and immediately removed to Cin- 
 cinnati, where he ever afterwards resided. When he came there 
 it was a small village of log-cabins, containing perhaps 500 
 inhabitants, ^\^len he died the city numbered 130,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Jlr. Burnet frequently served in the legislature both of 
 the territoiy and the state ; and was elected to the senate of the 
 United States, where he sat from 1828 to 1831. In 18'47 he 
 published " Notes on the Early Settlement of the North-western 
 Territory." He died at Cincinnati in 1853. — F. B. 
 
 BURNETT, James, Lord Monboddo, an eminent Scottish 
 judge, and ardent defender of the literature and philosophy of 
 the ancients, was descended from an ancient family in Kincar- 
 dineshire. He was bom at the family seat of Jlonboddo, near 
 Fordoun, in 1714. He received the rudiments of his education 
 at the parish school of Laurencekirk, studied the usual branches 
 of literature and science at King's college, Aberdeen, and 
 civil law at Groningcn. In 1738 he was admitted to the 
 Scotch bar, where he rose to eminence, and particularly dis- 
 tinguished himself in the famous Douglas case, in which he 
 was on the side of the Douglas family, which gained the suit. 
 In 1767 he was promoted to the bench. As a lawyer he 
 was upright and painstaking, and his decbions were sound, and 
 supported by great learning and acuteness. In 1745, when the 
 rebellion interrupted the business of the law courts, he proceeded 
 to London, where he mingled with the eminent litcrarj- men of 
 the age. In 1773 appeared his volumes " On the Origin and 
 Progress of Language," a work in which great learning is 
 combined with numberless paradoxes and eccentricities. His 
 grand aim in this treatise is to assert the superiority of ancient 
 above modem literature. His "Ancient Metaphysics," in which 
 he maintains the sujw'riority of ancient philosophy, is in six 
 quarto volumes, published at various periods from 1779 to 
 1799. The first two volumes and the last are full of erudi- 
 tion, to which there was nothing equal in Scotland in that 
 age. HLs greatest absurdities appear in his view of the history 
 of man and of language. He maintains that man at first walked 
 on all fours ; that he then learned to walk upright, as may be 
 seen in the ourang-outang, which he declared to be of the human 
 race ; and in due time made use of his hands, and acquired the 
 art of swimming. At his country seat he acted the farmer, and 
 lived on terms of great familiarity with the people on his estate. 
 It was at this place that he received Samuel Johnson on his 
 tour through Scotland. In Boswell's graphic account of the 
 intercourse of the two. Lord Monboddo appears in by no means a 
 disadvantageous light. He died in 1799. — J. M'C. 
 
 BURNET, Thomas, D.D., bom at Croft, near Darlington, | 
 
 about the year 1635 ; died at the Charter-house in September 
 1715. Although Burnet is now best known as a geolotnst or 
 rather as a dashing cosmogonist, it were the height of injus- 
 tice, should the briefest biography of him omit a tribute to hb 
 independence, alike in action and thought. The sensation 
 occasioned by his extraordinary " Theoria Telluris Sacra," has 
 thrown unworthily into the background those rare and solid 
 qualities, which enabled him, when master of the Charter-honse, 
 to offer the first formal opposition made in England to that 
 assmnption by King James II. of the famous "dispensing 
 power," which ultimately cost him a throne ; nor is it always 
 remembered that Burnet subsequently surrendered the high office 
 of clerk of the closet to King WilUam III., rather than retract 
 something accounted heretical in a curious treatise — " Archseo- 
 logife Philosophical, sive Doctrina Antiqua de Reram Originibns." 
 Undoubtedly, however, the chief interest attaching to his name 
 is connected with his "Sacred Theory of the Earth." The 
 theory itself, of course, as its title may indicate, is abundantly 
 untenable. Burnet assumes that the few abrapt and imperfect 
 notices in the early portion of the book of Genesis, are necessarily 
 and strictly interpretable by physical science ; and thereupon he 
 constructs a scheme of the earth's early physical historj', which 
 he intends shall be the starting-point of all geological investiga- 
 tion. It were useless to detain the reader with .an analysis of 
 his notions concerning the events which preceded the existing 
 order of nature, and launched the world upon its long history, 
 the fractured shattered thing that the outward eye sees in it : 
 but reflections of a general nature, and of consummate impor- 
 tance, are so strongly suggested by the " Theoria," and so essen- 
 tial at the same time to a correct appreciation of the place due 
 to speculators like Burnet, that we must request for them a brief 
 space. 1. It never seems to have occurred to Bnmet, and 
 the multitudes who have more or less followed in his path, that 
 a vital preliminarj- inquiry has escaped them ; viz., whether it 
 is possible to establish a sound critique, capable of determining 
 a priori the nature of the relations between these few sen- 
 tences in Genesis, and physical facts and their natural evolu- 
 tions ; and if so, what are the principles and results of such a 
 critique? Tentatives towards the establishment of a capable 
 critique have, indeed, been made in modem times ; they are far 
 from complete, and certainly they have not been universally 
 welcomed: but when Burnet lived, the logical necessity and 
 essential jmority of such a task had never been di-eamt of; nor 
 can it be said, that even now, a large amount of toil and intellect 
 is not wasted, because of the same fatal oversight. The time 
 has indeed long gone by, in which any investigator could think of 
 attempting to evolve the earth's physical history from intima- 
 tions so insufiicient and obscure. Nay, we have even passed 
 through and escaped from a second phase of eiTor : it would be 
 accounted altogether disreputable amongst us, were any one 
 pretending to the position of a man of science, to tmst, or 
 incline to twist, any fact established by careful and approved 
 investigation, so that it might seem to quadrate with cosmogo- 
 nies based on arbitrary conceptions regarding Genesis. But we 
 have not yet got beyond a third phase : talent unquestionable, 
 and an equally unquestionable earnestness, may be, and still are, 
 occupied without necessary discredit, in ingeniously twisting the 
 teiTns and clearest meaning of the sacred books, so that they 
 quadrate, or appear to quadrate, with physical facts. The 
 results are altogether to be deplored : persons professing to hold, 
 and really holding these sacred books in supremest reverence, are 
 — for the sake of an h}'pothesis, or, to say the least, because 
 they have not acknowledged the necessary priority of a sane 
 and comprehensive critique — treating these very books with a 
 philological, or rather an un philological and unprincipled license, 
 which no scholar of the present day dares to apply to Herodotus 
 or Homer. 2. Burnet's book, however, manifests in excess 
 another error, which also is by no means in disrepute even in 
 our — certainly improved — modem days. \Mien contemplating 
 any of those grander phenomena or aspects of the material 
 universe, where large developments occupy periods reducing 
 sublunary history to a simple tick of the clock, inquiry at 
 its beginning uniformly forgets the element of Time. With 
 Burnet, and very many of our elder scientific geologists, the 
 aspects of the earth presented the idea of sudden convulsions; 
 nor are illustrations rare, in the writings of our most recent 
 inquirers, of a tendency to attribute effects which may be the 
 result of the operation of actions occupying ages, to some start
 
 ir revolution in nature. — Burnet has farther daims. His 
 ngenuity and mental energy were undoubted ; and he was a 
 ■nsumiuate master of style. His paragraphs are often as 
 ;iicious as Bacon's: they are the adequate expression of 
 majestic thought. — J. P. N. 
 
 BURNET, William, royal governor, first of New York and 
 New Jersey, and subsequently of Massachusetts and New Hamp- 
 shire, was the eldest son of the celebrated Bishop Burnet, and 
 was bom at the Hague in ^larch, 1688. In 1720 he was 
 appointed governor of New York and New Jersey, and in Sep- 
 tember of that year, anived at New York and assumed the 
 government, which he held for eight years, his administration in 
 the main being popular and prosperous. He obtained from the 
 Mohawk Indians a grant of a strip of land ; established in 1722 
 •1 English trading post at Oswego, building a small fort for 
 ■j protection at his own expense; and thus got possession of 
 the south shore of Lake Ontario for his government, being the 
 first to erect the English flag upon the great lakes. He was 
 involved in a quarrel with the assembly, because tbey refused to 
 grant tlie standing revenue for a longer period than three years, and 
 in consequence was removed from his office, the government of 
 Massachusetts and New Hampshire being given him in exchange. 
 In consequence of an early quarrel with the general court, his 
 'sition at Boston was most uncomfortable. He died in 1729. 
 BUENETTUS or BRUNETTUS, Latinus, a native of 
 Florence, died in 1295. He was the master of Dante, who is 
 -.lid to allude to him in theloth canto of the Inferno. — T. J. 
 
 BURNEY, Charles, Mus. D., was bom of respectable 
 jjarents in the city of Shrewsbury, on the 7th April, 1726. The 
 tirst part of his education he received at the free school of that 
 city, and was subsequently removed to the public school at 
 Chester, where he also commenced his musical studies under Mr. 
 Baker, the organist of the cathedi'al, and a pupil of the celebrated 
 Dr. Blow. When about fifteen years of age, he returned to his 
 native town, and for three years longer pursued the study of 
 music, as a future profession, under his elder brother of the half 
 blood, Mr. James Bumey, organist of St. Jlary's, Shrewsbury ; 
 when, by the advice of Dr. Arne, he was sent to London, and 
 placed under that celebrated master for another tenn of three 
 't^ars. In 1749 he was elected organist of St. Dionis-Back- 
 iiurch in Fenchurch Street, and, in the winter of the same year, 
 iigaged to preside at the harpsichord in a subscription concert, 
 then recently estabhshed at the King's Arms in Comhill. In 
 the season of 1749-50, he also composed for Druiy Lane theatre 
 the music of three dramas, namely. Mallet's tragedy of Alfred, 
 Mendez's Robin Hood, and Queen Mab. Being threatened with 
 consumption, however, he could not continue these exertions, 
 and, in 1751, accepted the situation of organist at Iving's Lynn 
 in Norfolk, where he remained for the succeeding nine years. 
 In this retreat he formed the design, and laid the foundation 
 of his future great work, the "General History of Music." 
 In 1760, his health being completely re-established, Bumey 
 returned to London, and entered upon the exercise of his profes- 
 sion with increased profit and reputation. He had by this time 
 a large young family, and his eldest daughter, about eight years 
 of age, obtained great celebrity in the musical world by her sur- 
 prising performances on the harpsichord. Soon after his anival 
 in London, Bumey published several concertos which were 
 much admired. In 1766 he brought out at Dmry Lane, with 
 considerable success, a musical piece entitled " The Cunning 
 Man," founded upon, and adapted to the music of J. J. Rous- 
 seau's Devin du Village. It was a playful and spirited free 
 translation, not a mere version, of the original, and was higlily 
 praised by contemporary critics. On the 23rd of June, 1769, 
 the university of Oxford conferred on Jlr. Burnuy the degrees 
 of bachelor and doctor of music, on which occasion he per- 
 formed an exercise consisting of an anthem of considerable 
 length, with an overture, solos, recitatives, and choruses, which 
 continued long to be a favourite at the Oxford music meetings, 
 and was frequently perfonned in Germany midcr the direction 
 of the doctor's friend, Emanuel Bach. In the meantime, 
 neither the assiduous pursuit of his profession, nor the multi- 
 plied engagements to which musical men are liable, had inter- 
 rupted Dr. Bumey's collections for his "General History of 
 Music." He had now exhausted all the information that books 
 could afford him ; but these, as he remarks in the introduction 
 to his travels, are in general such faithful copies of each other, 
 that he who reads two or three has the substance of as many 
 
 hundreds, and were far from furnishing all the information he 
 wanted. Even if the past history of the art could have been 
 accurately and completely detailed by a digest of previous publi- 
 cations, its actual and present state could be ascertained only 
 by personal investigation and familiar converse with the most 
 celebrated performers in foreign countries as well as in his own. 
 For this pui-pose he resolved to make the tour of Italy, France, 
 and Germany, determined to hear with his own ears, and see 
 with his own eyes ; and, if possible, to hear and see nothing hut 
 music. He accordingly quitted London in the beginning of 
 June, 1770, furnished by the earl of Sandwich (a distinguished 
 amateur of music) with recommendatory letters in his oyra 
 handwTiting, to every English nobleman and gentleman who 
 resided as a public character at the several cities through which 
 he intended to pass. Proceeding first to Paris, he spent several 
 days in that city ; and then went by the route of Lyons and 
 Geneva (where he had an accidental inteniew with Voltaire), to 
 Turin, and visited, in succession, Milan, Padua, Venice, Bologna, 
 Florence, Rome, and Naples, consulting everywhere the libraries 
 and the leamed ; hearing the best music and most celebrated, 
 both sacred and secular ; and receiving everywhere the most 
 cheerful and liberal assistance toward the accomphshment of his 
 object. On his return to England, Dr. Bumey published an 
 account of his tour, in one volume, which was exceedingly well 
 received, and deemed by the best judges so good a model for 
 travellers who were inclined to give a description of what they 
 had seen or observed, that Dr. Johnson professedly imitated it 
 in his own Tour to the Hebrides, saying, " I had that clever dog 
 Bumey's musical tour in my eye." In July, 1772, in order to 
 complete his original plan. Dr. Bumey again embarked for the 
 continent, to make the tour of Germany and the Netherlands, of 
 which, on his return, he also published an account in two vol- 
 umes. At Vienna he had the good fortune to make the intimate 
 acquaintance of the celebrated poet Metastasio^a circumstance 
 the more honourable to Dr. Burney, as Jletastasio was then at 
 an age when new friendships are not frequently formed, and was, 
 besides, remarkably difficult of access to strangers, and averse 
 alike to new persons and new things. Here he also found two 
 of the greatest musicians of that age, Hasse and Gluck. From 
 Vienna he proceeded through Prague, Dresden, and Berlin, to 
 Hamburg, and thence by the way of Holland to England, 
 where he immediately devoted himself to the an-anging the 
 invaluable mass of materials which his laborious and expensive 
 travels had enabled him to collect. In 1773 Dr. Bumey was 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society ; and in 1776 he 
 published the first volume of his " General Historj' of Music," 
 in quarto. In the same year, the complete work of Sir 
 John Hawkins appeared. The subsequent volumes of Burney's 
 work were published at unequal intervals, the fourth and last 
 appearing in 1 789. Between the two rival histories, the pubhc 
 decision was loud and immediate in favour of Dr. Bumey. 
 Time has modified this opinion, and brought the merits of 
 each work to their fiiir and proper level — adjudging to Bumey 
 the palm of style, arrangement, and amusing narrative, and to 
 Hawkins the credit of minuter accuracy and deeper research, 
 more particularly in parts interesting to the antiquaiy, and to the 
 literary world in general. Bumey's first volume, which treats 
 of the music and poetry of the ancient Greeks, the music of the 
 Hebrews, Egyptians, &c., is a masterpiece of profound learning 
 and critical acumen. The second and thu-d volumes are admir- 
 able in the materials and their arrangement, comprising all that 
 was then known of the biographies of the great musicians ot 
 the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. The fourth 
 volume is perhaps less entitled to praise. Whole pages ai-e 
 given to long-forgotten and worthless Italian operas, whilst the 
 great works of Handel and Sebastian Bach remain unchronicled. 
 ^Vhen the extraordinary musical precocity of the infant Crotch 
 (afterwards Dr. Crotch) first excited the attention, not only of 
 the musical profession, but of the scientific world, Bumey at the 
 request of Sir John Pringle, drew up an account of the infant 
 phenomenon, which was read at a meeting of the Royal Society 
 in 1779, and published in the Philosophical Transactions of that 
 year. The commemoration of Ilandel in 1 784 again called forth 
 the literary talents of the historian of music; his account of those 
 magnificent performances, published in quarto for the benefit of 
 the musical fund, is well-known to every musical reader; and the 
 "Life of Handel," by which it is prefaced, still holds a distin- 
 guished rank in English biography. The author received for this
 
 work £100, -n-liicli was undertaken at the instigation of liis friend 
 the earl of Sandwich. Dr. Burney also wrote "An Essay towards 
 the History of Comets," 17G9 ; "A Plan for a ^lusic School," 
 1774; and the "Life and Letters of Metastasio," 3 vols. 8vo, 
 1796. His last literary labour was as a contributor to Recs' 
 Cyclopedia, for which work he furnished all the musical articles, 
 except those of a philosophical and mathematical kind. His 
 remuneration for this assistance was £1000, and as most of the 
 matter was extracted without alteration from his history of 
 music, the price was large for the service rendered. During a 
 long life. Dr. Burney enjoyed the intimate acquaintance of almost 
 every contemporary who was distinguished either in literature or 
 the arts ; with Dr. Johnson, he was in habits of friendship ; and 
 it is known, that soon after Johnson's death, he had serious 
 thoughts of becoming his biographer ;, a task which, to judge by 
 his other productions of a similar nature, it is perhaps to be 
 regretted he was diverted from ; but the subject was so over- 
 whelmed with various publications, that he withdrew from the 
 crowded competition, and relinquished his design. During many 
 years. Dr. Burney Hved at St. Martin's Street, Leicester Fields, 
 in a house which had once been the residence of Sir Isaac 
 Newton, and is still standing; but about the year 1789, on being 
 appointed organist to Chelsea college, he removed to a commo- 
 dious suite of apartments in that building, where he spent the 
 last twenty-five years of his life in the enjoyment of a handsome 
 independence, and the contemplation not only of his own well- 
 earned fame, but the established reputation of a family, each 
 individual of which (thanks to their parents' early c;xre and 
 example) had attained high distinction in some walk of lite- 
 rature or science. " In all the relations of private life," says 
 one of his biogi-aphcrs, " as a father, a husband, or a friend, his 
 character was exemplary, and his happiness such as that char- 
 acter desen-ed and insured. His manners were peculiarly easy, 
 spirited, and gentlemanlike ; he possessed all the suavity of the 
 Chesterfield school, without its stift'ness — all its graces, unalloyed 
 liy its laxity of moral principle." At length full of years, and 
 rich in all that should accompany old age, he breathed his last 
 on the 12th April, 1814, at his apartments in Chelsea college. 
 His remains were deposited, on the 20th of the same month, in 
 the burying-ground of that institution, attended not only by the 
 several members of his own family (of which he had lived to see 
 the fourth generation), but by the governor, deputy-governor, 
 and chief officers of the college, and many other individuals dis- 
 tinguished for rank and talent. As a composer. Dr. Carney's 
 principal works, in addition to those already mentioned, are 
 " Sonatas for Two Violins and a Base," two sets ; " Six Coniet 
 Pieces, with Introduction and Fugue for the Organ ;" a cantata 
 and song ; " Twelve Canzonetti a due voci in canone, poesie 
 dell' abate Metastasio;" "Six Duets for German States;" "Six 
 Concertos for Violin, &c., in eight parts;" "Two Sonatas for 
 Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello;" and "Si.x Harpsichord 
 Lessons." — (^Gentleman's Magazine; The I/armonicon ; Madame 
 D'Arblay's ^femoirs of Dr. Burney, &c. &c.) — E. F. R. 
 
 BURNEY, Charles, D.D., son of the jireceding, was bom 
 at Lynn, Norfolk, on the 4th of December, 1757. He was dis- 
 tinguished as a Greek scholar, and wrote in the Monthly Review, 
 to which he was a constant contributor, learned articles which 
 won for him immense reputation among the scholars of his day. 
 He was able to collect a library of singular value, containing two 
 very important MSS., one of Homer, and the other of the nunor 
 Greek orators. After his death in 1817, the collection was 
 purchased by parliament for £13,500, and is preser^-ed in the 
 British museum. — J. B. 
 
 BURNEY, Frances. See Arblay, JIadame d'. 
 
 BURNEY, James, eldest son of Dr. Burney the historian of 
 music. He early went to sea, and was one of Cook's companions 
 in his second and third voyages, succeeding him in the command 
 "f the Discovery, and conducting the vessel home after the cap- 
 tain's tragic death. He afterwards commanded the ship Bristol 
 on the East India station, and at last attained the rank of rear- 
 -idmiral. He published several works connected with nautical 
 discovery, but his fame rests on his "History of Voyages and 
 Discoveries in the Southern Ocean," 5 vols., 4to. — J. B. 
 
 * BURNOUF, J. L., professor of rhetoric in the college of 
 Loais-le-Grand, Paris, and member of the Asiatic Society of 
 Paris, has published " Methode pour etudier la Langue Grecque," 
 Paris, 1825, 14th edition. He has also issued a Sallust, 1822, 
 1 vol., 8vo ; " Examen du systbme perfectionne de la con- 
 
 jugaison Grecque," 1824, 8vo; and edited several of Cicero's 
 works. His knowledge of Sanscrit is profound. — E. Burnouf, 
 his son, is distinguished as an Orientalist, and has pubfished 
 " Analyse et Extrait du Den Mahatmyam, fragment du Mark- 
 andeya Pourana," 8vo, 1823. — T. J. 
 
 BURNS, John, CM., M.D., and regius professor of surgery 
 in the university of Glasgow, son of the Rev. Dr. Bums, minister 
 of the Barony parish of Glasgow, was born in Glasgow in the 
 year 1775. He commenced his professional career as a general 
 practitioner in his native city towards the close of the last cen- 
 tury. Although still a very young man, his fine natural talents, 
 untiring industry, strict integrity, and poUshed manners, soon 
 placed him at the head of his profession in the west of Scotland, 
 and secured him public confidence and private esteem, to a 
 degree rarely equalled. About the year 1805 he commenced 
 a course of lectures on his favourite science of anatomy, and 
 afterwards a similar course on midwifery, which he continued 
 till the year 1815, when he was appointed regius professor of 
 surgery in the university of Glasgow, a chair which he filled with 
 distinguished credit till his death. For many years his class- 
 room was filled to overflowing, and few who have listened to him 
 will forget the lucid, and even eloquent diction, the sharp satire, 
 and well-timed anecdote by which his prelections were enforced 
 and enlivened. As an author, Dr. Iiurns stands deservedly 
 high. His first work, " On the Gravid Uterus," appeared in 
 1799, and his latest, his " System of Surgerj'," in 1828-38. 
 But by far the most popular of his writings, that which gained 
 for him a "world-wide" reputation, was his "Principles of 
 Midwifery," a work which passed through ten editions, and 
 was translated into se^•eral foreign languages. The death of 
 this eminent man was a melancholy one. About the middle 
 of June, 1850, he was in Liverpool on his return from Bath; 
 and finding his favourite steam-ship, the Orion, about to sail for 
 Glasgow, he waited for it, and embarked on the doomed vessel 
 on the 17th. Early next moniing the shipwreck occurred. 
 Dr. Bums made no effort to save himself, but falling on his 
 knees on deck, and uttering a fervent prayer, he met his end 
 with characteristic resignation. — J. A. L. 
 
 BURNS, Robert, the poet of Scotland and the greatest lyric 
 of modern times, was bom in a cottage, about two miles from 
 the town of Ayr, on the 25th Januaiy, 1759. His father, 
 William Bumess — for so William spelt the family name — had 
 migrated to A\Tshire from the north, where his father, the poet's 
 grandfather, Robert Burnes — another variation of the name — 
 occupied the farm of Clockenhill in Kincardineshire, under the 
 Earls Marischal. A family tradition averred that the Bumesses 
 had been " out for the Stuarts," and although the particulars 
 have never been correctly ascertained, the tradition was believed 
 by the poet, and may account for his Jacobite tendencies which 
 could have no birthplace in the covenanting county of A_vr. It 
 may, perhaps, also have influenced the migration of Robert's 
 father, who, on his arrival in Ayrshire, was employed as a 
 gardener, first by the Laird of Fairlie, and afterwards by Mr. 
 Crawford of Doonside. He then, on the banks of the Doon, 
 rented seven acres of land for a nurserj' ground, and there, with 
 his own hands, he built the cottage in which Robert was ushered 
 into his feverish and unrequited life. The poet's mother, Agnes, 
 daughter of Gilbert Brown of Craigenton in Carrick, had little 
 education beyond that of being able to read her Bible ; but the 
 poet's fiither was a man of hard-headed intelligence, and 
 encouraged learning according to his ability; sent Robert to a 
 little school at AUoway-mill, and took the principal part in 
 establishing a young dominie, John JIurdoch, from whom Robert 
 learned to read. William was a worthy specimen of the class 
 that Scotland, for the last fifty years, has been so industriously 
 engaged in expatriating — the Scottish peasant — a man who 
 wrought hard, believed his faith, practised integrity, had the 
 fear of God before him, and wished to bring up his children 
 well — indulged in speculative theology, and fought his battle of 
 life unflinchingly. He never throve ; yet, with adverse wind and 
 tide, he held his face ever fiiTn towards the blast, and in a very 
 limited sphere exhibited qualities that had the elements of 
 greatness. When Robert was seven years of age, his father 
 removed to the farm of Mount Oliphant, and there Robert 
 wrought his daily work, as was the custom of the farmer's son. 
 At fifteen he could do the work of a man. His form was robust ; 
 yet overtasked by labour before the frame was knit, the nervous 
 constitution, though it did not give way, received a strain,
 
 from which there was no after recoveiy. The melancholy of 
 later times, and perhaps, moreover, the strong temptation to 
 excitement, may have originated in the excessive labours of 
 vouth. The muscular fibre remained, but the nervous fibre was 
 overstrung, and never afterwards acquired tlie faculty of repose. 
 Few men could have entered on life under less favom-able 
 circumstances. On the one hand, he had the arctic regions of a 
 frozen theology, with iceberg formalisms as the limiting boun- 
 daries of his desu'e. On the other, he had the torrid impulses of 
 hiS o^^^l inspiration urging onward, to clothe the world of his 
 thought with a thousand rays of gorgeous coloiuing. When lit 
 by love, by genius, and by passion, the peasant poet rushed into 
 a tumult of fitful, fiery existence, throwins; around the corusca- 
 tions of his meteoric nature — not living, but burning out a life, 
 with flame and smoke swaying hither and thither till the fire 
 burnt out, and the ashes of a noble nature alone remained 
 marking the funeral place of grand endowments. The mai-vel is 
 not that his course was in some sense iiTegular, but that he lived 
 to accomplish, with untiring industry, his wondous treasm-e-sture 
 of song — that the warbling wood-note wild had not been 
 quenched in the revelries that brought for a time forgetfulness 
 of pain ; and that, under the hostility of all surrounding influ- 
 ences, he could stUl pour forth such matchless gems of lyric 
 beauty. Burns commenced his poetic career, as a matter of 
 course, by a love song — Handsome Nell — " Oh ! once I lo'ed a 
 bonnie lass ;" and plainly enough this doggerel was only the 
 expression of his calf-love, when he thought he ought to be in 
 love, but was not. In 1777 his father removed to the farm of 
 Lochlea in the parish of Tarbplton, where William made a bad 
 bargain, by taking 130 acres of bad land at twenty shillings an 
 acre. From this place Eobert went to Kirkoswald to school, 
 and by his own account learned many more things than mensu- 
 ration and sun'eying. " I made," he says in the fragment of 
 his autobiogi-aphy, " a greater progi'ess in the knowledge of 
 mankind. The contraband trade was at that time very success- 
 ful, and it sometimes happened to me to fall in with those who 
 carried it on. Scenes of swaggering riot and roaring dissipation 
 were till this time new to me, but I was no enemy to social life. 
 Here, though I learnt to fill my glass, and to mix without fear 
 in a dninken squabble, yet I went on with a high hand with 
 my geometry, till the sun entered Virgo, a month which is 
 always a carnival in my bosom, when a charming Jileite, who 
 lived next door to the school, overset my trigonometry, and set 
 me off at a tangent from the sphere of my studies." The pecu- 
 liarity of Burns' zodiac seems to have been, that all its signs 
 were signs of Virgo. He was always in love, or in something 
 like it. His first articulate utterance in song was " writ with a 
 plume from Cupid's wing ; " his last, seven days before the final 
 delirium, told the same tale — " No love but thine my heart 
 shall know." Up to his twenty-third year Bums held on the 
 same course. " Vive I'amour, et vive la bagatelle," were, he 
 says, his principles of action, not knowing that he was making 
 an utter mistranslation of his feelings. Nothing in his eyes was 
 a bagatelle. He adds indeed, in sufficient contradiction — " My 
 passions, when once lighted up, raged like so many devils, till 
 they got vent in rhyme." He had the strong impulses of a man 
 who had a future, but up to his twenty-third year he lived an 
 irreproachable life of homely industry, as the eldest and most 
 aiding son of a small farmer. Men of similar stamp, though 
 not of similar genius, still grow in Ayrshire, their number rapidly 
 diminishing before the march of the modern change of manners, 
 and the exigencies of agricultural improvement. About this 
 time he appears to have composed his first song of note, " My 
 Nannie !" " Behind yon hill where Stinchar flows," the name 
 of the river being, with contemptible aflectation, changed to 
 Stinsiar. Even Burns was prevailed upon to substitute " Lugar." 
 The vale of Stinchar is one of the most beautiful in Scotland, 
 well worthy of an Ayrshire poet's celebration. 
 
 " My twenty-third year," says Burns, " was to me an 
 important era. Partly through whim, and partly that I wished 
 to set about doing something in life" (most probably with a 
 view to marriage), " I joined a flax-dresser in the neighbouring 
 town of Irvine. This was an unlucky aft'air. ... As we 
 were giving a welcome carousal to the new year, the shop took 
 fire, and burned to ashes, and I was left, like a true poet, not 
 worth a sixpence. I was obliged to give up this scheme. The 
 clouds of misfortune were gathering thick round my father's 
 head, and what was worst of all, he was visibly far gone in 
 
 consumption ; and to crown my distresses, a belle jiUe, whom I 
 adored, and who had pledged her soul to meet me in the field of 
 matrimony, jilted me with peculiar circumstances of mortifica- 
 tion. The finishing evil, that brought up the rear of this 
 infernal pile, was my constitutional melancholy being increased 
 to such a degree, that for three months I was in a state of mind 
 scarcely to be enned by the h(jpeless wretches who have got 
 their mittimus." At Irvine Burns learned something of a town 
 life, and formed a friendship with a young fellow, " a very noble 
 character," whose knowledge of the world was vastly superior to 
 his own, and who was the only man he ever saw who was a 
 gi'eater fool than himself, where woman was the presiding star ; 
 " but he spoke of illicit love with the levity of a sailor, which 
 hitherto I had regarded with hon-or. Here his friendship did 
 me a mischief, and the consequence was that soon after I resumed 
 the plough, and wrote " The Poet's Welcome." 
 
 Burns remained at Lochlea, in the performance of his ordinary 
 farm work, until he was twenty-five years of age. He had there 
 written " Poor Mailie," " John Barleycorn," " Mary Morrison," 
 and some other pieces. At Lochlea his father died, on the 13th 
 February, 1784, not without presentiments that the future 
 coiu-se of Robert's life would be in the wandering byepaths from 
 which, with puritan fortitude, he had so carefully presen'ed his 
 own footsteps. The old man pointed out that there was one of 
 his family for whom he feared. Robert turned to the window, 
 and with a smothered sob and a scalding tear acknowledged 
 that he knew the meaning of the reproof. He seems also to 
 have made some serious resolutions of amendment, which he 
 kept for a time. The old man was buried in Alloway kirk-yard, 
 and on the headstone of his grave the poet son paid the follow- 
 ing tribute to the puritan father : — 
 
 " Oh ye whose cheek the tear of pity stains, 
 Draw near with pious rev'rence and attend ! 
 Here lie the loving husliaiid's dear remains, 
 The tender father, and the generous friend; 
 The pitying heart that felt for human wo, 
 The dauntless heart that feared no human pride; 
 The friend of man, to vice alone a foe, 
 ' For even his failings leaned to virtue's side.'" 
 
 WTiatever Robert may have been at Lochlea, it is tolerably 
 certain that he had not learned to join extravagance to his other 
 accomplishments. His brother Gilbert — a dogged, stolid sort of 
 a character, stupidly wise — kept the family accounts, and knew 
 the outgoings. Robert received as wages — not an unusual thing 
 in Scottish farming families — the mimificent sum of seven pounds 
 sterling per annum ; and this sum Worldly- Wiseman Gilbert 
 assures us he did not exceed. He was fnigal, temperate, and 
 " everything that could be wished." In the spring of 1784, the 
 family removed to the farm of Mossgiel, in the parish of 
 Mauchline ; the sons and daughters of William Bumess having, 
 by ranking as creditors for aiTears of wages, saved from the 
 ckitches of Scotch law a small amount of stock to begin the new 
 adventure. Here Robert commenced his intended reformation, 
 — read farming books, calculated crops, attended markets, and 
 believed that, " in spite of the world, the flesh, and the devil, 
 he would be a wise man." But the first year, unfortunately, 
 he bought bad seed, and the second he lost half his crops by a 
 late harvest. The fates were adverse, or at least unpropitious, 
 and he solaced himself with verse, producing a grand prayer, 
 some psalms, " Green grow the rashes, 0," and " A big-bellied 
 bottle's the whole of my care" — a combination of theology, 
 hcentiousness, and drink, than w'hich nothing can possibly be 
 more expressive of the Scottish rural life of Burns' day. He 
 suffered much from constitutional melancholy, and kept a barrel 
 of water at his bedside, into which he jilungcd when attacked 
 by fainting fits. He struggled on, however, attended a free- 
 mason lodge, and learnt that sort of sociality. He alsc made 
 acquaintance with Jean Armour — 
 
 " A dancin', sweet, young, handsome quean, 
 O' guileless heart " — 
 
 to whom, after the fashion of Scotland, he was in every sense of 
 the word married, but who, at the instigation of her father, 
 thought proper still to consider herself a single woman. The 
 father — Armour, a stone mason — reckoned Burns too poor to 
 marry his daughter, and, notwithstanding the accident of a 
 prospective baby, calculated that she might still make a better 
 match — a species of caution which approaches the horrible ; but,
 
 BUR 
 
 816 
 
 BUR 
 
 poor man ! the morals of his district taught him no better, and 
 the chui-ch was satisfied if transgressors in this department 
 went through the formality of public censure. Burns, in fact, 
 had to do his penance, and to stand a rebuke before the congre- 
 gation of JIauehline, Cth August, 1786, being indulged in the 
 liberty " of standing in my own scat," instead of on the stool of 
 repentance, profanely called " cuttie." Jean, however, after 
 bearing twins a second time to the poet, ultimately became Mrs. 
 Burns, and was publicly acknowledged to be his wedded wife, 
 August 5, 1788. It would be out of place to speak of Burns' 
 interminable amours ; but it is worthy of remark, to show the 
 nature of the man, that in the spring before the autumn when 
 Jean's first children were born. Burns was pledging his faith in 
 bibles to Highland Mary ; and in the year when Jean's second 
 children were bom, he was writing his celebrated letters to 
 Clarinda. Whatever may have been his poetic genius, his moral 
 nature was ruined by licentiousness. 
 
 We have now shortly to trace Burns' literary career. This 
 he exidains in a few words in the fragment of his autobiography. 
 " The first eminent composition that I recollect taking pleasure 
 in was the Vision of Mirza, and a hymn of Addison's. 
 The two first books I ever read in private, and which gave me 
 more pleasure than any two books I ever read since, were the 
 Life of Hannibal, and the History of Sir William Wallace. . . 
 Polemical divinity, about this time, was putting the country 
 half mad, and I, ambitious of shining in conversation parties on 
 Sundays between sermons, at funi'rals, &c., used, a few years 
 afterwards, to puzzle Calvinism with so much heat and indiscre- 
 tion, that I raised a hue and cry of heresy against me, which 
 has not ceased to this hour." He here condenses his literary 
 life into the smallest possible compass — poetry, patriotism, 
 and opposition to the ecclesiastical system which prevailed in 
 his time, and which, by the concurrent opinion of all present 
 authorities, was sufficiently deplorable. He was a poet, a 
 patriot, and " a heretic." But he tells us, also, that when he 
 was a boy, an old woman resided in the family who had an 
 extraordinary collection of tales and songs concerning devils, 
 ghosts, fairies, brownies, witches, warlocks, &c. To poetry, 
 patriotism, ahd "heresy," therefore, must be added the popular 
 demonology of his youth. " But far beyond all other impulses 
 of my heart," says Burns, "was un penchant a Vadorable moitie 
 du genre humain. 5Iy heart was completely tinder, and was 
 eternally lighted up by some goddess or other." Add to these 
 a passionate love of nature, and the marvellous power of descrip- 
 tion with which he could convey his appreciation of nature's 
 loveliness, and we see at once the origin of all that Burns ever 
 wrote, and how it was that the author of the " Cotter's Saturday 
 Night " should also be the author of the merciless, but tnithful 
 satire, "The Holy Fair;" how the hand that could write verses 
 " To a Mouse," or " To a Mountain Daisy," could pen also 
 " Scots wha hae ;" how the wonderful epic, " Tam o' Shanter," 
 sprang from the witch and warlock teachings of the old woman 
 who dwelt in his father's house, and how, above all, his first song 
 and his last were devoted to beauty, to woman, and to love. 
 
 At Lochlea Burns had not written much. It was at Mossgiel 
 in 1784, 1785, and 1786, that he laid the foundation of his 
 fame, and resolved to publish his first volume. The publication 
 fell out in this wise. When Jean jilted him in 1786, he resolved 
 to go to the West Indies, and actually accepted the ofiSce of 
 booldceeper on a slave estate. But he was poor — that being the 
 reason that Jean did jilt him. He therefore applied to his 
 landlord, who advised him to publish his poems by subscription, 
 and Burns, acting on this advice, had subscription papers thrown 
 off, and circulated among his friends, whose fancy had probably 
 been more tickled by his satires than attracted by his poetic 
 powers. All this he tells us in his own concise way — " I have 
 tried often to forget her ; I have run into all kinds of dissipation 
 and riots, mason meetings, drinking matches, and other mischief, 
 to drive her out of my head, but all in vain. And now for a 
 grand cure ; the ship is on her way home that is to take me 
 out to Jamaica ; and then, farewell dear old Scotland, and fare- 
 well dear ungratefid .Jean, for never, never will I see you more. 
 You (the correspondent to whom he is writing) will have heard 
 that I am going to commence poet in print, and to-morrow, 
 June 13, 1786, my works go to the press. I expect it will be 
 a volume of about two hundred pages ; it is just the last foolish 
 action I intend to do, and then turn a wise man as fast as possible." 
 At this time Highland Muiy had gone home to her friends to 
 
 make preparations for her marriage with Bums ; one of his 
 songs being, " Will ye go to the Indies, my ]\Iary." A bookseller 
 in Kilmamock, afterwards the founder of the Ayr Advertiser, 
 undertook the business of publication, and the volume appeared 
 in July, under the title, " Poems, chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, 
 by Robert Burns," with the motto — 
 
 "The simple bard, unbroke to rules of art, 
 He pours the wild effusions of the heart ; 
 And if inspired, 'tis nature's powers inspire — 
 Hers all the melting thrill, and hers the kindling fire." 
 
 It contained " The Twa Dogs," " Scotch Drink," " The Author's 
 earnest Cry and Prayer," " The Holy Fair," " Address to the 
 Deil," "Mailie," "To T. S.," "A Dream," "The Vision," 
 " Halloween," " The Auld Farmer's New Year Morning's Salu- 
 tation," " The Cotter's Satm-day Night," "To a Mouse," "Epistle 
 to Davie," "The Lament," "Despondency, an Ode," "Man was 
 made to Mourn," "Winter," " A Prayer in prospect of Death," 
 "ToaMountain Daisy," "To Ruin," "Epistle toaYonng Friend," 
 " On a Scotch Bard gone to the West Indies," " A Dedication to 
 G. H., Esq.," " To a Louse," " Epistle to J. L.," " To the same," 
 "Epistle to W. S.," "Epistle to J. R.," Song — "It was upon a 
 Lammas Night," Song — " Now Westlin' Winds," Song— -"From 
 thee, Eliza, I must go," " Farewell to the Brethren of St. James' 
 Lodge, Tarbolton," " Epitaphs and Epigrams, and a Bard's 
 Epitaph." The speculation produced twenty pounds of profit 
 to the poet, and immediate popularity. " Even ploughboys and 
 maid-servants would have gladly bestowed the wages they earned 
 most hardly, and which they required to purchase necessary 
 clothing, if they might but procure the works of Burns." 
 
 But not only did "ploughboys and maid-servants" discover 
 that there was merit in the " Poems, chiefly in the Scottish 
 Dialect." A copy had reached Edinburgh, and had elicited the 
 favourable criticism of those who, at that time, were supposed 
 capable of judging. Within three months of the publication of 
 the volume at Kilmarnock, Burns resolved to go to Edinburgh, 
 and try his fortune there with a second edition, instead of going 
 to the West Indies, although it appears that his passage was 
 actually taken. He went to Edinburgh, and was received into 
 society — -was feasted, admired, and, above all, patronized. He 
 saw the aristocracy of the land, and the aristocracy saw him — 
 Robert Burns, the ploughman from Ayrshire, whose name will 
 still be familiar as a household-word, when all with whom he 
 came in contact will be consigned to oblivion, or only remem- 
 bered as having been once seen in the presence of the Scottish 
 bard who sung the i-equiem of lowland Scotland. Scotland, 
 which has the most unlimited faith in its own opinions, has little 
 or no confidence in its own judgment, and seldom ventures to 
 form an opinion, excejjt in theology, and even that was borrowed 
 from a Frenchman. Wlien once the opinion is formed, however, 
 be it begged, borrowed, or stolen, it will be adhered to, to the 
 death. Thus, no man recognized Burns as a great poet. Thoughts 
 the most exquisite, clothed in inimitable language, poetry in fact 
 of the highest order, was thrown down before the literary people 
 of Edinburgh ; but neither man nor woman could see that the 
 gems were of the first water, or that there had been bom to 
 Scotland such a poet as Scotland had never seen before, and 
 never can see again. Nor does it appear that any Scotsman 
 during Burns' lifetime ever recognized his true rank. That, in 
 fact, was reserved for an Englishman, William Pitt, who, on 
 reading Burns, named Shakspeare. But, nevertheless. Bums 
 was feasted and patronized, "glowered at," and thought a wonder 
 of some kind, but of what particular kind the ladies and gentle- 
 men with whom he came in contact were not particularly certain. 
 He was a " phenomenon," and as a phenomenon he was treated 
 and was lionized accordingly, and in that manner. His appearance 
 in Edinburgh is the most melancholy part of his career. His 
 country life, with all its errors and all its suft'erings, was at least 
 natural. It belonged to the man himself, like the gnarls upon 
 the oak. But his Edinburgh life was unnatural ; it was the oak 
 cut into the upholstery of life. His wild revelry and unbridled 
 passions were, at least, human, when the man was at home; 
 they were conventional and artificial when he drank with gentle- 
 men, or attempted to persuade himself that he was in love with 
 an indiflerent specimen of a modern fine lady. However he may 
 have preserved the independence of his bearing, he was false to 
 the integrity of his own nature ; and, accordingly, we find him 
 writing verses to be placed below an earl's portrait, epistles to 
 
 :^
 
 Mr. Graham of Fintry, prologue at Mr. Wood's benefit, letters 
 to Clarinda, and much similar matter, which might well be for- 
 gotten had it not been written by him. One noble thing he 
 did, however, which shows him in the light of a true man — 
 he placed a stone and an epitaph on the grave of Robert Ferguson, 
 poet, and this, be it remembered, before publishing a second 
 time, or recei\ang the proceeds of a second edition of his works. 
 The Edinburgh edition came out in April, 1787, no less than 
 two thousand eight hundred copies being subscribed for, the 
 Caledonian Hunt taking a hundred copies at a guinea apiece. 
 By this edition Burns made about four hundred pounds, including 
 one hundred pounds received for the copyright. 
 
 From Edinburgh he made an excursion throngh the south of 
 Scotland and into England, as far as Newcastle. He visited 
 Dunse, Coldstream, Kelso, Jedburgh, Innerleithen, Traquair, 
 Berwick, Eyemouth, Dunbar, Alnwick, Newcastle, Carlisle, and 
 Dumfries, and returned to ilaucliline ; from which place he 
 again set out on a trip to the west Highlands, where " I have 
 lately been rambling over by Dumbarton and Inverary, and 
 running a drunken race on the side of Lochlomond with a wild 
 Highlandman. His horse, which had never known the ornament 
 of ii'on or leather, zig-zagged across my old spavined hunter, 
 whose name is Jenny Geddes, and down came the Highlandman, 
 horse and all, and down came Jenny and my hardship ; so I have 
 got such a skinful of bruises and wounds, that I shall be at least 
 four weeks before I dare venture on my journey to Edinbm-gh." 
 He reached Edinburgh in August, and before the end of the 
 month set out on his principal Highland tour, passing by Fal- 
 kirk, Carron, Stirling, Bannockburn, Bhiir-Athole, Inverness, 
 Banff, Aberdeen, Stonehaven, Montrose, Perth, Lochleven, Dun- 
 fermline, and back to Edinburgh, near the end of October. In 
 Edinburgh he remained till February, writing the Clarinda 
 letters, then made a short run through to Ap-shire; dm-ing 
 which he concluded a bargain for the farm of Ellisland, on the 
 banks of the Nith, about five or six miles above the town of 
 Dumfries. He made another short visit to Edinburgh, and left 
 that city apparently on the 24th March, 1788. The above 
 places visited by Bums we have enumerated, because these jom-- 
 neyings not only form the subject of many of his letters, but 
 because traces of them have been left in his poems. He returned 
 again to Ayrshire for a time, and in June, 1788, took up his 
 residence at his new fiirm of Ellisland, where, among other 
 things he wrote the wonderful song, " Auld Langsyne," which, 
 from that day to this, has moved the heart of Scotland ; and the, 
 perhaps, more wonderful " Tam o' Shanter," in its construction 
 and in its marvellous power of narration the most perfect of all 
 hobgoblui epics. 
 
 In the autunm of 1789 Bums, moved by an increasing family, 
 applied to Mr. Graham of Fintiy to procure him an appointment 
 as excise officer of the district. The appointment was granted, 
 and Ellisland being as bad a bargain as usually fell to the lot 
 of the poet, he thought that he had been " extremely lucky in 
 getting an additional income of £50 a-year, while at the same 
 time the appointment will not cost me above i.'10 or £12 per 
 annniu of expenses more than I must have eventually incurred." 
 It had its drawbacks, however — " the worst circumstance is 
 that fhe excise di\-ision which I have got is so extensive — no 
 less than ten parishes to ride over — and it abounds, besides, 
 with so much business that I can scarcely steal a spare moment." 
 He had to ride from a hundred and fifty to two hundred nules a 
 week, and for this he received a salary of £50 a year. This was 
 
 > national reward. Genius was cheap in those tlays. 
 
 At Ellisland we catch a glimpse of him. " In the summer of 
 1781 two English gentlemen, who had before met him in Edin- 
 burgh, paid a visit to him at Ellisland. On calling at the house 
 they were infoi-med that he had walked out on the banks of the 
 river ; and, dismounting from their horses, they proceeded in 
 search of him. On a rock that projected into the stream they 
 saw a man employed in angling, of a singular appearance. He 
 had a cap made of fox's skin on his head, a loose greatcoat fixed 
 round him by a belt, from which depended an enormous High- 
 land broadsword. It was Burns." Ellisland, however, was a 
 bad, or, perhaps, rather an unprofitable farm, and Mr. Graham 
 of Fintry once more exerted his influence to jirocure for Burns 
 another appointment — that of exciseman at Dumfries, with a 
 salary of £70. To Dumfries, therefore. Bums removed in Dec, 
 1791, leaving nothing at Ellisland but a putting-stone and £300 
 of his money. At Dumfries he remained in the performance of 
 
 VOL. l'. 
 
 his duties till September, 1792, when he received a communica- 
 tion from Edinburgh, requesting him to contribute to the work 
 afterwards published as the "Melodies of Scotland, with syia- 
 phonies and accompaniments for the pianoforte, violin, &c. 
 The poetry chiefly by Burns. The whole collected by George 
 Thomson, F.A.S.E. In 5 vols. London : T. Preston ; and 
 Edinburgh, G. Thomson." To this work Bums contributed a 
 hundred songs, for which he received £5, a shawl for his wife, 
 and a picture by David Allan, representing the Cotter's Satiu-- 
 day Night. He did not return the money, as that " would 
 savour of affectation ; but as to any more traffic of that debtor 
 and creditor kind, I swear by that iioxouR, which crowns the 
 upright statue of Eobert Burns' integrity, on the least motion 
 of it I will indignantly spurn the by-past transaction, and from 
 that moment commence entire stranger to you." He would not 
 write for money, which Mr. Eobert Chambers, a publisher who 
 has printed an edition of Bums' poems and letters, describes as 
 a " sentiment highly honourable to him." Possibly. 
 
 From 1791 Bums remained at Dumfries, writing his many 
 songs. He was an exciseman — ochone the day — and could 
 reach no higher in social life, having no patronage, on account 
 of his sympathies with the revolutionary movements of France ; 
 arising, in his case, from an intense love of liberty, and utter 
 detestation of tyranny. He was soured. He saw that liis fate 
 was decided. Ambition died out of liim, even though the spirit 
 of poetry lingered to the last, with wreath iu hand, to crown the 
 gi'ave, if it could not crown the poet. The dark shadows were 
 closing around the gi-eat heart that had sung so nobly, and so 
 well. Never having mastered himself, he had not been able to 
 master fortune. He could not 
 
 " On reason build resolve, 
 That column of true majesty in man." 
 
 He took to tlie tavern, and wasted his heaven-bora talents upon 
 dnmken boors. He came in contact with none who were worthy 
 of him ; but this, indeed, was the fate of his whole life. His lot 
 was cast in an evil, small-souled generation. Of all who saw 
 him, there is not one worthy of remembrance in connection with 
 his story. 
 
 As early as December, 1794, when Burns was nearly thirty-sis 
 years of age, he began to feel that life was fading. " ^^'hat a 
 transient business is life. Very lately I was a boy ; but t'other 
 day I was a young man, and I already begin to feel the rigid 
 fibre and stifl'ening joints of old age coming fast o'er my frame." 
 A year later we find him with his health shattered. " His 
 appetite," says Dr. Currie, " now began to fail, his hand shook, 
 and his voice faltered on any exertion or emotion. His pulse 
 became weaker and more rapid, and pain in the larger joints, 
 and in the hands and feet, deprived him of the enjoyment of 
 refreshing sleep. Too much dejected in his spirits, and too well 
 aware of his real situation to entertain hopes of recoveiy, he 
 was ever musing on the approaching desolation of his family, 
 and his spirits sunk into a uniform gloom." In April, 179G, 
 "I fear it will be some time before I tune my lyre again. By 
 Babel's streams I have sat and wept. I have only known 
 existence by the pressure of the heavy hand of sickness, and have 
 counted time by the repercussions of pain. Eheumatism, cold, 
 and fever have foraied to me a terrible combination. I close my 
 eyes in miseiy, and open them without hope. I look on the 
 vernal day, and say with poor Ferguson — 
 
 " Say, wherefore has an all-indulgent heaven, 
 Light to the comfortless and wretched given." 
 
 On the 4th of July, for the benefit of his health, ne went to 
 Brow, a sea-bathing village on the Solway. " I was struck,"' 
 says a lady who visited him there, " with his appearance on 
 entering the room. The stamp of death was imprinted on his 
 features. He seemed already touching the brink of eternity." 
 
 On the 12th he wrote thus to his cousin, Mr. James Bums, 
 in Montrose — " When you ofl'ered me money assistance, little did 
 I think I should want it so soon. A rascal of a haberdasher, to 
 whom I owe a considerable bill" (£7. 45. for patriotic volunteering 
 uniform), '' taking it into his head that I am dying, has commenced 
 a process against me, and will infallibly put my emaciated body 
 in jail. Will you be so good as to aeconmiodate me, and that 
 by return of post, with ten pounds ? Oh, James ! did you know 
 the pride of my heart, you would feel doubly for me. Alas ! I 
 am not used to beg." 
 
 5 L
 
 BUR 
 
 818 
 
 BUR 
 
 LAST LETTER OF THE POET. 
 
 " To Mr. James Armour, Mauchline. 
 
 " Dumfries, ISiA Juhj, 1796. 
 " My Dear Sir — Do, for heaven's sake, send Mrs. Armour here 
 immediately. My wife is hourly expecting to be put to bed. Good 
 God! what a situation for her to be in, poor girl (not yet thirty), 
 without a friend. 1 returned from sea-bathing quarters to-day, and 
 my medical friends would almost persuade nic that I am better; but 
 I think and feel that my strength is so gone, that the disorder will 
 prove fatal to me. Your son-in-law, R. B." 
 
 The 19th and 20th p.nss over. The 21st comes and brings 
 delirium. The children are sent for and stand round the bed. 
 Last word — a curse on the law agent who had written for pay- 
 ment of volunteer uniform. On the 21st July, 179G, Robert 
 Burns is no more. On the 2.5th he is buried with local honours 
 — idiot volunteers firing three volleys over the grave — and the 
 poet's wife bearing a son on the day of the funeral. 
 
 To understand the position of Burns as a poet, he must be 
 placed in relation to the history of his country. He belonged 
 to lowland Scotland and rustic Scotland. He sang the song, 
 therefore, of lowland and rustic Scottish life. But it was the 
 death-song. Lowland Scotland, as a distinct nationality un- 
 mingled with extraneous elements, came in with two wan-iors 
 and went out with two bards. It came in with William Wallace 
 and Robert Bruce, and went out with Robert Bums and Walter 
 Scott. The two first made the history ; the two last told the 
 story and sung the song. 
 
 As the modern history of England commences at the Nonnan 
 conquest, so the modern history of Scotland commences at the 
 war which detennined whether the Norman conquest should or 
 should not extend to the kingdom of Scotland — that is, at 
 the war carried on by the Anglo-Norman Edwards. On the 
 part of Scotland, that war was maintained by two historic men, 
 the one representing the people, the other the aristocracy ; the 
 one representing the Scottish element, properly so called, the 
 other representing the Scoto-Norman element which assumed 
 the reins of power and became predominant. Wallace was a 
 Scotsman, Brace was a Scoto-Norman. When the Anglo- 
 Norman attempt to conquer the kingdom of^Scotland was rolled 
 back by Wallace and Bruce, Scotland entered on a national life 
 distinct from that of England, and in this national life were the two 
 elements of rustic or Saxon Scotland, and aristocratic Scotland. 
 At the Reformati(m the Saxon element came once more to the 
 surface, and the Norman fashion of things underwent a change. 
 In the parliamentary wars the two parties are pitched against 
 other — the covenanters representing rustic or Saxon Scotland, 
 and the cavaliers representing aristocratic or Norman Scotland. 
 Time flowed, and a union with England came about. The two 
 countries were to merge into one on equal terms, and the dis- 
 tinct and separate life of Scotland was to be merged into a com- 
 mon kingdom. Nominally, the union took place in 1707, but 
 the real admixture and solving of the two countries was little 
 more than commenced at the end of the last century. Before 
 Scotland could disappear, however, she must have her bards, 
 and these appeared not unworthily in Robert Bums and Walter 
 Scott — Burns taking the rustic life and the rustic language ; 
 Scott taking the aristocratic life, and, except in dialogue, the 
 aristocratic language. Burns was therefore the national poet of 
 Scotland, exclusive of the Norman element. Knighthood was 
 the theme of Scott — manhood the theme of Burns. With poetic 
 justice both fell victims — Bums to passion, Scott to pride. 
 
 For this purpose, and to be the tyi)e of Scottish lowland and 
 lowly life, no m.an ever possessed such qualifications as Burns. 
 He had a vast intellect and a burning nature — the sensibility of 
 a woman and -the strength of a giant. Had he chosen the path 
 of duty instead of indulgence, it is impossible to say what he 
 might not have achieved. With regard to intellectual endow- 
 ment, he has no compeer in the history of his country. His 
 intellect has the flash of intense electric light. He searches out 
 the quintessence of feeling, and distils it off into expressions so 
 concise and admirable, that they burn their way into the inner- 
 most existence of those who luive the ears to hear. In four 
 lines he paints a drama — 
 
 " Had we never loved sae kindly, 
 ll.id we never loved sae blindly, 
 Never met — or never parted, 
 We had ne'er been bruken-heartcd." 
 
 In one imc he sums up the highest and most universal fomi of all 
 democracy — 
 
 " A man's a man for a" that." 
 
 In a single verse lie prophesies the reign of merit and the ad\-cnt 
 of human brotherhood — 
 
 " Then let us pray that come it may. 
 As come it will, for a' that, 
 That sense and worth, o'er a' the earth, 
 May bear the gree and a' that. 
 For a' that and a' that. 
 It's coming yet for a' that, 
 Tliat man to man, the world o'er, 
 Shall brothers be for a' that." 
 
 Tam o' Shanter, short as it is, is a complete epic, with beginnini', 
 middle, end, and moral — a small picture, which, like one of 
 Rembrandt's engravings, exhibits power condensed into the 
 smallest compass. 
 
 Bums' language was the lowland Scottish dialect, and in that 
 he wrote naturally. English was, if not a foreign, at least an 
 acquired dialect, and he used it with far less success than his 
 own. And so true is it that Bums wrote the requiem of low- 
 land Scotland, that since his time his very dialect has almost 
 died away. There are very few in the present generation who can 
 read Burns without a glossary, and in the next generation he 
 will be almost as strange to Scotsmen as to Englishmen. His 
 Scottish dialect must ever be a barrier to that universal popu- 
 larity which he might have attained in a language more widely 
 diffused ; but if genius have the inheritance of fame, Robert 
 Bums will never disappear from the literature of the world. 
 To a Scottish ear, his pathos, his power, his inimitable satire, 
 his floods of native feeling, poured forth in words that seem to 
 have been coined expressly for his use ; his manly independence, 
 his reverential awe, and the solemn majesty of bis religious 
 thought — enshrine him fin- ever as the poet of his country. But 
 the moral of his life is dark and sad — too dark and too sad to be 
 touched on without the deepest and most serious reflection on 
 the vanity of human genius when severed from moral resolution. 
 
 The following description of Bums' personal appearance is 
 from Dr. Currie — " Bums was nearly five feet ten inches in 
 height, and of a form that indic.ited agility as well as strength. 
 His weU-raised forehead, shaded with black curling hair, indi- 
 cated extensive capacity. His eyes were large, dark, full of 
 ardour and intelligence. His fiicc was well fonned, and his 
 countenance uncommonly interesting and expressive. His mode 
 of dressing, which was often slovenly, and a certain fullness and 
 bend of his shoulders, characteristic of his original profession, 
 disguised in some degree the natural symmetry and elegance of 
 his form. The external appearance of Bums was most strikingly 
 indicative of the character of his mind. On a first view his 
 physiognomy had a certain air of coarseness, mingled, however, 
 with an expression of deep penetration, and of calm thonghtfcJ- 
 ness, approaching to melancholy. There appeared in his first 
 manner and address perfect ease and self-possession, but a stern 
 and almost supercilious elevation, not indeed incompatible with 
 openness and aft'ability, which, however, bespoke a mind con- 
 scious of superior talents. Strangers who supposed themselves 
 approaching an Ayrshire peasant who could make rhymes, and 
 to whom their notice was an honour, found themselves speedily 
 overawed by the presence of a man who bore himself with 
 dignity, and who possessed a singular power of correcting 
 forwardness and of repelling intrusion." 
 
 Upwards of a hundred editions of the works of Burns have 
 been published. In addition to the fir.st, published at Kilmar- 
 nock by John Wilson in 178G, and the second published in 
 Edinburgh in 1787 by William Creech, the following may be 
 mentioned — The Scots Musical Museum, six vols. 8vo, published 
 between 1787 and 1803 by James Johnson, engraver, Edin- 
 burgh ; in this are included one hundred and eighty-four songs, 
 written or corrected by Bums. The Works of Robert Bums, 
 with an Account of his Life, Liverpool, 1800, Dr. Currie's first 
 edition; Cronick's Reliques of Burns, 1808; Life of Burns by 
 J. G. Lockhart, J^dinburgh, 1828. (The Edinhurgh lieview, No. 
 9G, for December, 1828, contains a critique on Lockhart's Life 
 of Bums by Thomas Carlyle, the only man who could ever have 
 written a life of Bums with insight both into the man, and into 
 the whole circumstances of Scottish rural life. Properly speak- 
 ing, Burns' life has not yet been written, and in fifty years it 
 will be imjiossible.) Works and Life by Allan Cunningham, 
 eight vols., London, 1834 ; Works, edited by the Ettrick Shepherd 
 and William Motherwell, five vols., Glasgow, 3 834; the Corre- 
 spondence between Burns and Clarinda, with a Memoir of Mrs. 
 M'Lehose (Clarinda), by her Grandson, Edinburgh, 1843 ; Life
 
 and Works, by Robert Chambers, Edinburgh, 1852. In America 
 many editions have of course appeared, and the French and 
 Germans have tried the rather difficult task of rendering Bm-ns 
 in other languages. The French edition is entitled '" Poesies 
 completes de Robert Burns, traduites de I'Ecossais par M. Leon 
 de Wailly," Paris, 1843.— P. E. D. 
 
 BURR, A^VRON, president of New Jersey college, memorable 
 for the success of his efforts to extend the usefulness of that 
 institution, was born in Faii-field, Connecticut, in 1716. He died 
 in 1757, leaving a high and unblemished reputation both as a 
 M holar and a divine. — F. B. 
 
 BURR, A^VKOX, son of the preceding; a conspicuous actor in 
 the early historj' of the republic of the United States, though of 
 more than equivocal fame, was born at Newark, New Jersey, 
 February, 1756. At the outbreak of hostilities in 1775, he 
 joined the army at Cambridge, and ha^-ing taken part in various 
 expeditions, he retired from the service in 1780. Enterhig upon 
 the profession of the law at Albany in 1782, he shortly afterwai-ds 
 removed to New York, where politics began to divide with law his 
 ambition, and he was elected to the senate. He espoused at once 
 the opposition party. His severance from Washington's militaiy 
 family imbued his mind with a strong dislike to the head of the 
 administration, and to the last he never ceased to undervalue 
 bim. Two or three years later, the democratic party, who owed 
 him much, secured for him the vice-presidency, after a hard 
 contest ; but when, three years later, they strove to gain for 
 him the governor's chair of New York, the design was baffled 
 mainly by the activity of Hamilton. The duel with Hamilton 
 which followed this defeat, was the turning-point in Burr's his- 
 tory. He was henceforward to be an adventurer; and life seldom 
 showed to him any other face but that of a hard and dark 
 experience. In 1807 his lawless designs on the Spanish provinces 
 of South America led to his arrest. He was indicted for high 
 treason at Richmond ; but such had been the eagerness for his 
 ruin, that time had not been left him for an overt act, and his 
 acquittal followed. He sailed not long after for England, from 
 which, being obliged to depart, he crossed the channel to gain, if 
 possible, the ear of the French emperor — but in vain. In 1812 
 he ventured with fear and trembling, partly from his many 
 private debts, and partly from the jealousy of those in power, 
 and the aversion of the public at large, to retm-n to his native 
 land. His subsequent history is told in a line, as only that of 
 penury, obscmity, and neglect. He died in 1836. Hardly more 
 as a demagogue than as a debauchee, his name has passed into a 
 proverb. His life has been twice written — by his companion, 
 Matthew L. Da^•is, and by J. Parton of New York. — J. P. D. 
 
 * BURRIT, Elihu, an American, commonly known as " the 
 learned blacksmith," and as the earnest advocate of peace or 
 " the universal brotherhood " of nations, was bom at New 
 Britain, Connecticut, December 8, 1811. His father was a shoe- 
 maker. On his father's death he was apprenticed to a black- 
 smith, after he had received but a veiy limited education in a 
 common school. He worked at his trade for several years in 
 Worcester, Massachusetts, where the library of the Antiquarian 
 Society supplied him with books. An early fancy for the study 
 of languages was developed by unremitting application, not only 
 during his leisure hours, but while he was at work hammering 
 iron, as he contrived to have a grammar open before him, and 
 could catch glimpses enough of the printed page to keep his 
 thoughts busy, while his muscles were strained at their proper 
 work. In this way he gained a good knowledge of a few, and a 
 smattering of very many tongues. Oflers were made to give him 
 a college education, but he preferred this combination of physical 
 and mental labour, and declined them. But he was gradually 
 weaned from the forge by the ambition of teaching his fellow-men, 
 and otherwise improving their condition. He began his career 
 as a philanthropist by editing some periodicals, and contributing 
 to others. War and intemperance are the evils against which 
 his labours have been chiefly directed, and he has attracted more 
 notice by lecturing than by writing against them. In June, 
 1846, he came to Europe, and was warmly welcomed by the 
 band of reformers who are interested in his favourite projects. 
 In England, and on the continent, he has laboured zealously to 
 commend his scheme of a great peace league to public favour, 
 though with no very encouraging prospects of success. One of 
 his latest publications is entitled " Thoughts and Things at 
 Home and Abroad." — F. B. 
 
 BURROUGH, EuwARn, one of the earliest preachers and 
 
 writers among the Quakers, bom about the year 1634, near Ken- 
 dal, Westmoreland, was brought over to the Society of Friends 
 by personal intercourse with Giorge Fox. About the year 1654, 
 when he was twenty years of age, he went to London, and began 
 preaching. At that time the Society of Friends appears to have 
 possessed no meeting-house in the metropolis ; but this was no 
 disadvantage to a preacher of the ready eloquence of Burrongh. 
 Crowds of people attended on his ministration — many regularly 
 and with profit. While in Ireland for a short period he wrote 
 " The Trumpet of the Lord sounded out of Zion, which sounds 
 forth the controversy of the Lord of Hosts." In 1662-63, while 
 preaching at a meeting of his brethren, he was seized by a party 
 of soldiers, and committed to Newgate. After eight months' 
 confinement he died of fever. His works, of which the one 
 above-noted is the most important, were collected in one volume, 
 folio, 1G72.— J. S., G. 
 
 BURROUGH, Stepuex, an English navigator of the six- 
 teenth centm-y, sailed in 1553 as master of Richard Chancellor's 
 ship, the Edward Bonaventure, in the expedition fitted out under 
 the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby, in search of a north- 
 eastern passage to Cathay (or China) ; that is, by way of the 
 arctic coasts of Europe and Asia. This expedition, disastrous 
 as regarded its gallant leader and his immediate companions, 
 was attended by results highly important in a commercial point 
 of view. The merchant-adventurers of London were eager tc 
 prosecute the cause of north-eastern discovery, and three years 
 later, in 15o6, Burrough was despatched on an enterprise of the 
 like description ; a small vessel, the Searclithrift pinnace, being 
 fitted out for the purpose, and placed under his command. Bur- 
 rough sailed from Gravesend on April 29tli of that year. Entering 
 the small river Kola in Russian Lapland, on the way, he and his 
 companions proceeded along the coast to the eastward as far as 
 the island of Waygatz in lat. 70° 29', long. 59° 10'. In the 
 following year he returned to England, and is stated to have 
 been subsequently made comptroller of the royal navy. The 
 narrative of his vovage is given in Haklnvt. — W. H. 
 
 BURROW, Sir' John, born in 170i ; died in 1782. In 
 1724 he was made master of the crown office, which he held till 
 his death. On West's death, lie filled the chair of president of the 
 Roval Society till the regular time for the next election, when Sir 
 John Pringle succeeded. In the inten-al, on the presentation of 
 an addi'css from the society to the king. Burrow w;is knighted. 
 Burrow's claim, however, to be remembered, arises from his having 
 published reports of Lord ^Mansfield's decisions. The reports 
 extend from 26 George II. to 12 George III. — J. A., D. 
 
 BURROUGHES, Jeremiah, a puritan divine, born in 1596, 
 educated at Cambridge, was obliged to quit that university for 
 nonconformity. He was for some time minister of an English 
 church at Rotterdam, and after his retum to England in 1642 
 officiated to two of the largest congregations in London — Stepney 
 and Cripplegate. He was a man of eminent learning and piety. 
 His works include an " Exposition of Hosea," 3 vols. 
 
 BURROWES, Peter, born at Portarlington in Queen's 
 county, Ireland, in 1753 ; entered Trinity college, Dublin, in 
 1774; obtained a scholarship in 1777. In the year 1784 
 Burrowes, then a law student at the middle temple, published 
 a pamphlet on the subject of admitting the Roman catholics of 
 Ireland to the elective franchise, which led to an acquaintance 
 with Flood, who ultimately seciu-ed his return for the borough 
 of Seaford. In 1785 he was called to the Irish bar, and soon got 
 a good deal of employment, cliiefly in election cases. In 1794 
 he was engaged in a duel, the particulars of which exhibit a 
 strange picture of the manners of that day. Lord Mountgarret 
 had lawsuits — as the story is told by Mr. BuiTOwes' biographer — 
 with refractory tenants. It would appear that at every assizes of 
 the county town c;ises between his lordship and his tenants were 
 sure to come, and that he was generally the loser in these contests. 
 Under these circumstances he posted a notice, insisting that the 
 members of the bar should decline holding briefs against him, or 
 if not, he offered the alternative of fighting him. The extraordi- 
 nary thing is that duels did follow. The litigation, it would 
 appear, survived his lordship. Burrowes had the luck to hold a 
 brief in one of the records arising from the management of the 
 Mountgarret lands, and he found himself under the neces- 
 sity of sending a challenge to the Honourable Somerset Butler. 
 Bun-owes fell, as everyone thought, mortally wounded, and a 
 strange escape he had. Tlie ball stmck against a penny-piece, 
 part of some change accidentally in his waistcoat pocket. In
 
 BfPv 
 
 820 
 
 BUS 
 
 1799 BiuTOwes became a member of tlie Irish pai-liaraent for 
 the borough of Eniiiscorthr. He opposed the measure of 
 union. When " all the talents '" came into power, Fox obtained 
 for him the lucrative office of first counsel to the commissioners 
 of the revenue, from which he was displaced when that ministry 
 broke up. In 1821, under Lord Sidmouth's administration, he 
 was appointed commissioner of the first court for the relief of 
 insolvent debtors, established in Ireland. On resigning this office 
 in 1835, he was given a pension of £1G00 a year. His death 
 occurred in 1842. Few men seem to have been more loved than 
 Burrowes was by his friends. — J. A., D. 
 
 BUKSEK, Joachim, a German physician and botanist, was 
 born in Lusatia in 1G03, and died in ltj89. He devoted himself 
 to botany. After an extensive course of travel he became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Sora. He bequeathed his herbarium to the 
 university of Upsal. A genus of plants is named Bursera after 
 him. His published works are chiefly medical. — J. H. B. 
 
 BUKTOX, HExrtT, born at Bhsall in Yorkshhe about 1579. 
 After leaving Oxford, where he took the degrees of JI.A. and 
 M.D., he became tutor to the son of Lord Carey of Lepington, 
 and subsequently clerk of the closet to Prince Hemy- For 
 publishing his two sermons, entitled " For God and the King," 
 he was committed to the Fleet prison, and proceeded against in 
 the Star-chamber. To the information which was filed against 
 him he prepared an elaborate reply; but this his judges refused 
 him permission to read in court. Along with Frynne and Bast- 
 wick, his fellow-prisoners, he was sentenced to pay a fine of 
 4)5000, to be set on the pillory and have his ears cut off, and to 
 be placed in solitaiy confinement in Lancaster castle. An order 
 of council in 1637 transferred him to Comet castle, in the isle 
 of Guernsey, where he remained three years. In 1640, upon 
 his wife's petitioning the house of commons to reconsider his 
 sentence, he was brought to the bar of the house, freed from 
 fine and imprisonment, restored to his academical degrees and 
 to his benefice, and awarded £10,000 as a compensation for the 
 loss of his ears. He died in 1618. His works, Uke the course 
 of his life, exhibit rather a violent temper than a great intellect. 
 
 BURTON, Egbert, author of the famous book, " The 
 Anatomy of Jlelancholy," by Democrilus Junior, was bom at 
 Lindley, Leicestershire, February 8th, 1576. He was educated 
 at the grammar school of Sutton Colfield, Warwickshke, whence 
 he proceeded to Brazenose college, Oxford, and afterwards was 
 elected student of Christ church. He received the vicarage of 
 St. Thomas, Oxford, and also the rectoiy of Segrave, Leicester- 
 shire — the former being presented to hiw by the dean and 
 canons of Clu-ist church, and the latter by Lord Berkeley. He 
 retained both " with much ado " (to use the expression of 
 Anthony Wood in his Athenae Oxonienses) to his dying day, his 
 residence being principally at Oxford. He lived a silent, seden- 
 taiy, solitary life, for the most part confining himself to his 
 study. Possessed of a fantastic humour he read an infinite 
 number of books, seeking " to have an oar in every man's boat, 
 to taste of every dish, and sip of every cup," while his delight in 
 any subject was almost proportioned to its quaintness and its 
 oddity. He likens himself to a ranging spaniel that barks at 
 every bird he sees, leaving his game, and following all save that 
 which he should. Wood states that Bm-ton was an " exact 
 mathematician, a curious calculator of nativities, a general read 
 scholar, a thorough pac'd philologist, and one that understood the 
 surveying of lands well." He appears to have devoted himself 
 to the composition of his great work, for the purpose of avoiding 
 melancholy, by being busy. He says that he had a kind of im- 
 posthume in his head wliich he was veiy desirous to be unladen 
 of, and could imagine no fitter evacuation than his book, and 
 urges that he could not well refrain from dissecting melancholy, 
 iot uhi dolor ibi di;i'itus. "The Anatomy of Melancholy" was 
 first printed in 1621, and passed through several large editions, 
 to the great good fortune of the bookseller, who got an estate by 
 it. It is probably the most curious repertory of apt quotations, 
 — evincing the quaintest possible leaniing the world of literature 
 contains — and has often been found exactly the book to furnish 
 scholastic discourse " to gentles who have lost their time, and 
 are put to a push for invention." It contains manifest indica- 
 tions of that peculiarly clear moral insight into social hypocri- 
 sies which characterizes those in whom humour and honesty are 
 blended — their humour being honest, while theur honesty is 
 humorous. The style of this book is rough, the author declaring 
 himself' one who respects matter and not words, calling a spade 
 
 a spade, and quoting Seneca to prove that " a fellow cai'eful 
 about his words " has no solidity in him. At the same time, 
 Burton's mind was not without poetical grace, as is evidenced 
 by some very sweet introductory verses, which are not unlike 
 passages in Milton's II Penseroso, both in music and in thought. 
 The "Anatomy," although popular for half a century, and 
 now again well known, was, dming the intermediate period, a 
 mine of wealth to plagiarists. Sterne borrowed largely from 
 it. Burton died at Oxford, either at or ver}- near the time 
 which he had for some yeare foretold from the calculation 
 of his own nativity : upon which it was whispered among the 
 students that he had committed suicide, rather than that there 
 should be a mistake in the calculation — a tale which, although 
 enthely unauthenticated, yet indicates the quaintness of his 
 character as impressed upon his friends. He was buried at Chri.st 
 church, Oxford, January 27th, 1639. On the monument erected 
 over his gi-ave, was inscribed his nativity, with its mystic signs, 
 and an insciiption (also drawn up by himself) declaring that to 
 Melancholy he was indebted both for life and death. — L. L. P. 
 
 * BURTON, John Hill, advocate, author of some valuable 
 historical and biographical works, was bom at Aberdeen in ISOl). 
 He lost his father, who was an officer in the 94th regiment, in 
 early youth, and owed his education at Marischal college to the 
 pmdence with which his mother managed her somewhat scanty 
 resources. Having taken the degree of M.A., he was apprenticed 
 to a legal practitioner in his native city, and in 1831 became a 
 member of the Scottish bar. The leisure which a young advo- 
 Ciite usually enjoys he devoted to the study of law, history, and 
 political economy, contributing articles on these subjects to the 
 Westminster Review, and aftenvards to the Edinhuryh Ileviiir. 
 He is the author of " Life and Correspondence of David Hume;" 
 " Political and Social Economy ;" " A JIanual of the Law of 
 Scotland;" and a "History of Scotland, from the Revolution to 
 the Extinction of the last Jacobite Insun-ection." — J. S., G. 
 
 BUS or BOS or Vanden BOSCH, Cornelius, a Dutch 
 engraver, born about 1510 at Bois-le-Duc. The best of his 
 works, which are all executed with the graver, aj-e — " Lot and 
 his Daughters;" "the Battle of the Giants;" and "the Descent 
 from the Cross." 
 
 BUSBY, Richard, a celebrated English pedagogue, bom at 
 Lutton, September 22nd, 1606. After receiving his education 
 as a king's scholar at Westminster, he was elected student of 
 Christ Church, Oxford. He was so poor at this time that the 
 pai-ish of St. Margaret, Westminster, paid his fees for the degrees 
 of B.A. and il.A., a kindness which he repaid by a liberal 
 bequest to the paiish at his death. Having entered into holy 
 orders, he became first rector of Cudworth, and a prebendary of 
 Wells, and then, in 1640, head master of Westminster school, 
 an office which he continued to hold for the long period of fifty- 
 five years. In 1660 he obtained a prebendal stall in West- 
 minster, and became canon residentiary and treasurer of Wells. 
 At the coronation of Charles 11. in 1661, he carried the ampulla 
 containing the oil of consecration. He died, April 6th, 1695, 
 and was buried in Westminster abbey. He was distinguished 
 for his great leaming, diligence, and success as a teacher, which 
 have rendered him the proverbial representative of his class; and 
 not less for his numerous and liberal benefactions. A list of his 
 publications is given in the Biog. Brit. — J. T. 
 
 BUSBY, Tiioii^vs, Mus. Doc, was bora at Westminster, Dec., 
 1755, and died at Islington in 1838. He was for five years an 
 ai-ticled pupil of Jonathan Battishill ; in 1780 he was engaged 
 as organist at St. Clary's, Newington, and about twenty years 
 later received the same appointment at the church of St. Mar)', 
 Woolnoth. In 1800 he obtained liis degree at Cambridge, his 
 exercise for which was an ode on the victories of the British 
 navy. He produced an oratorio called " The Prophecy," in 1799, 
 which had no success ; he wrote some other works of the same 
 class, some dramatic pieces, and some detached songs. The only 
 one of all these compositions that has overhved the time when it 
 was written, is the music in a Tale of Mystery, notable as being 
 the first melodrama given on the English stage, which was first 
 performed at Covent Garden theatre in 1802, Busby had a 
 classical education, and distinguished himself more by his Ute- 
 rary than by his musical works. He published " The Age of 
 Genius," a poem, 1785 ; a translation of Lucretius; "Arguments 
 and Facts pro«ng that the Letters of Junius were written by 
 J. L. de Lolme," 1816 ; a musical dictionar}-, often reprinted; a 
 musical grammar, which also has been repiinted imder various
 
 titles; "A History of Music, compiled from Bmiiey and Haw- 
 kins," but continuing their account down to the date of its 
 publication ; " Concert Room Anecdotes," and many articles in 
 the Monthly Jfaffaziiie and the MonOdy Eeview. He was also 
 the author of one of the real rejected addi'esses for the opening of 
 Drury Lane theatre, after the fixe of 1810 ; and thinking injustice 
 was done to his poem by the preference of Byron's, he made his 
 son climb upon the stage from the pit, to recite it, but the 
 audience would not hear more than the first couplet. — G. A. JI. 
 
 BUSCHETTO, an architect of the eleventh century, whose 
 one work, the cathedral of Pisa, has rendered his name immortal. 
 That magnificent structure was commenced in 10G3. 
 
 BUSCHIXG, AxTox Friedrich, a prolific Geinnan writer, 
 was born at Stadthagen, September 27, 172-4, and died at 
 Berlin, May 22, 1793. He ultimately became ecclesiastical 
 councillor and head master of the Graue Kloster at Berlin. His 
 "Erdbeschreibung," Hamburg, was the first geographical work 
 in Germany that could lay claim to scientific value and com- 
 pleteness, and Biisching may well be ranked among the founders 
 of modem geography. Among his works, his " JIagazin fiir 
 Historic und Geographic," and his " Beitiage zur Lebensges- 
 chichte merkwiirdiger Personen," desen-e to be noticed. — His 
 son, JoiiANX GusTAV GoTTLiKB, bom 1783 ; died 1829. He 
 published an astonishing number of valuable works relating to 
 the history and antiquities of Germany. — K. E. 
 
 BUSEL, Augustus Ludovic, astronomer, was bom at 
 Dantzig in 1804. His family, from being in afiluent circum- 
 stances, were reduced to poverty by the bombardment of that 
 city by the French in 1813. In 1831 he became assistant 
 to Besscl at Eichendoi-fF, and his labours in that capacity are 
 known to all readers of the " Konigsberg Obsen-ations," and the 
 " Astronomische Nachricbten." In 1833 Busel undertook the 
 reduction of Bradley's Obserwitions with the zenith sector, and 
 the results were pubhshed in 1838. In 1849 he was appointed 
 to succeed Bessel in the directorship of the observatoiy of 
 Konigsberg. He died in 1855. — E. W. 
 
 * BUSH, George, an American theologian, was bom at 
 Nor\\-ich, Vermont, in 179G, giaduated at Dartmouth college, 
 and studied for the ministiy at Princeton. In 1824 he went 
 as a missionary to the west, and became pastor of a pres- 
 byterian church at Indianopolis. In 1829 he returned, and two 
 years afterwards was appointed professor of Hebrew and oriental 
 literature in the university of the city of New York. His career 
 as an author began with the publication of a " Life of iloham- 
 med" in Harper's Family Library in 1832. A " Treatise on 
 the Millennium" appeared the same year, and this was followed 
 by a volume of " Scripture Illustrations," compiled from the 
 works of oriental tourists, archjeologists, and commentators. He 
 has also published a Hebrew grammar, and a series of notes on 
 the books of the Old Testament, now extending to seven volumes, 
 which have been very popular, and have had a wide circulation. 
 Of late years the writings of Dr. Bush have been devoted to an 
 exposition and defence of the doctrines of Emanuel Swedenborg, 
 to which he has become a decided and zealous convert. — F. B. 
 
 BUSH, Paul, first bishop of Bristol, was raised to that see 
 in 1542 by Henry VIII., to whom had been reported " his gi-eat 
 knowledge in divinity and physic." Died in 1558. 
 
 BUSHE, Charles Kenhal, the Right Hon., born in 1767 ; 
 died in 1843. He was the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Bushc, 
 who, at the time of his son's birth, resided at Kilmurry in the 
 county of Kilkenny. In 1782 he entered Trinity college, Dublin, 
 was distinguished for classical scholarship, and exhibited great 
 talents for public speaking, in a society founded by the students. 
 Grattan, in reference to his early speeches in the Historical 
 Society — such waslhe title of the society — says — " He spoke 
 with the lips of an angel." Bu.she was called to the Irish bar. 
 His success is said not to have been rapid, and his biographers 
 speak of his having found it difficult to maintain his proper 
 position in society, from inadequacy of pecuniary means. On 
 coming of age he paid or secured the payment of some heavy 
 debts of his father. He married early ; and the struggle for 
 support is said to have been a difficult one. The Irish parlia- 
 ment may be described as almost in the agonies of dissolution 
 when Bnshe, a barrister of some five or sbc years' standing, became 
 a member. He does not appear to have spoken often, but his 
 speeches are among the best we have of that assembly. In 1805 
 he was appointed solicitor-general, with Plunket as attorney ; 
 during the administration of " the talents " both retained their 
 
 places. At the breaking up of that ministry Plunket retired, 
 and Bushe, Sam-in being now attorney-general, retained his place 
 as soficitor, till in 1822 he became chief-justice of the king's 
 bench. To law students, we know no books of the same value as 
 the series of reports of judgments of the court of king's bench 
 in Ireland, during the period in which Bushe presided. Our 
 recollection of many of Bushe's charges satisfies us that good 
 service would be done to the country by collecting them for 
 publication. Of Bushe's speeches, while he yet practised at the 
 bar, or acted for the crown as solicitor-general, several are also 
 reported. The case of the King against O'Grady, as reported 
 by Baron Greene, it is impossible to read without gi-eat admira- 
 tion of the powers displayed in its conduct at each side by 
 the master minds of the Irish bar. Equal to the highest of 
 them — though Plunket was one — or, if inferior to any, inferior 
 to Burton alone, whose argument apjiears to be unsurpassed 
 by anything we have in legal literature, was Bushe on this 
 great occasion. Injustice is done to Bushe by thinking of him 
 as a mere lawyer. It is probable, that eminent as was his 
 success, he regretted the necessity for the professional exertions 
 which made him eminent. In retu-ing from the bench — which 
 he did " whUe his eyes were not yet dim, nor his natural 
 vigour abated," though at the age of seventy-four or seventy- 
 five — he probably contemplated passing a long sabbath of 
 comparative rest ; and had plans of li\ing as a country 
 gentleman, as a neighbour and friend, on his paternal estate of 
 Kilmuny. The friends of Bushe began to feel some alai-m for 
 his health from some excitement connected with the circum- 
 stances of his retirement from the bench, and from their per- 
 ceiving an increasing failm'e of memory. He and they were 
 spared any lengthened sufl'ering. A surgical operation for a slight 
 local affection was followed by eiysipelas. He died 10th July, 
 1843. He is interred at Harold's Cross, near Dublin. In the 
 reprint of ilr. CuiTan's Sketches of the Irish Bar is un appendix, 
 which gives an account of some interesting conversations with 
 Bushe in 1826, during a visit to Kilmurry ; which conversations, 
 and Dr. Wills' narrative, in his Lives of Illustrious Irishmen, 
 give the best picture of Bushe in domestic life. — J. A., D. 
 
 BUSSY D'ANTOIXE, Louis de Clermoxt de, a profligate 
 favourite of the due d'Anjou, brother of Henry III. of Franco, 
 who lived about the middle of the sixteenth centmy. He was 
 as notorious for his crimes as he was celebrated for his courage. 
 He was assassinated in 1579. " The whole province," says De 
 Thou, " was delighted at his death." — J. T. 
 
 BUSSY-RABUTIX, Roger, comte de, bom in 1618 ; died 
 in 1693. Early introduced into military life, he was at eighteen 
 a colonel. He had the character of being a brave ofiicer; but 
 in some idle fit of high spirits, he gave offence to his superior 
 ofiicers, and had to quit the anny. He found his way to the 
 court, there wrote epigrams ofl'ensive to the king or the royal 
 mistress, and had to retire. His " Histoire Amoureuse des 
 Gaules" is often reprinted, and is more amusing than if it were 
 altogether true.— J. A., D. 
 
 BUTE, John Stuart, third earl of, was bom in 1713, and 
 died on 19th March, 1792. He studied at Eton. He entered 
 upon public life about 1737, when he was elected one of the 
 representative peers of Scotland. Subsequently he was made a 
 knight of the thistle, and one of the lords of the bedchamber to 
 the prince of Wales. He had charge in part of the education 
 of George III., and on his accession in 1760, Lord Bute was 
 sworn a member of the privy council, and made groom of the 
 stole. In 1761 he became one of the secretaries of state, and 
 in 1762 he was made knight of the garter. Lord Bute occupied 
 for some time a very important place in the government, and 
 was very unpopular. His want of popularity and support led 
 hiui to resign office in 1763. He was fond of science, and 
 devoted himself to botany. He printed at his own expense an 
 illustrated work of British plants in nine volumes quai-to. Only 
 twelve copies were printed, and the expense is stated to have 
 been £10,000. He was a patron of science as well as of lite- 
 rature and art. — J. H. B. 
 
 BUTTXER, CuiiisTiAN Wilhelm, an eminent philologist, 
 was bom at Wolftnbiittel in 1716. He travelled much, and in 
 every countiy that he visited, he acquired, not only its general 
 language, but the most minute peculiarities of its provincial 
 dialects. His library and museum were extensive and valuable, 
 though foiTncd from the savings of his slender income; contenting 
 himself, during the gi-eater part of his life, with a single meal a,
 
 day, at a cost which never exceeded a silbergroschen, about three 
 halfpence. His services as a scientific philologer, were of great 
 value. He was the first to observe and cultivate the true rela- 
 tions of the monosyllabic languages of Southern Asia, and to 
 place them at the head of his scheme of the Asiatic and P^uro- 
 pean languages. He may be looked upon also as the founder of 
 the theory of the geographical distribution of languages, and the 
 science of glossography. He was the first to systematize and 
 trace the origin and affiliations of the various alphabetical 
 characters, and his researches in the histoiy of the pala;ography 
 of the Semitic languages may be said to have exhausted the 
 subject. He died at Jena on the 8th October, 1801.— J. F. W. 
 
 BUTLER, Alban, second son of Simon Butler, Esq. of 
 Appletree, county of Northampton, was born about the year 
 1710, and educated at the English college, Douay, where he 
 became professor of philosophy. His fii-st publication was a 
 series of letters on " The History of the Popes." Having been 
 ordained a priest, he travelled through France and Italy with the 
 carl of Shrewsbury, and was appointed to the pastoral charge of 
 a mission in Staftordsbire, and subsequently became chaplain to 
 the duke of Norfolk. He went abroad as tutor to the duke's 
 nephew and heir-presumptive, and whilst resident in that capa- 
 city at Paris he completed his " Lives of the Fathers, ALirtyrs, 
 .and other Saints," arranged for every day throughout the year. 
 This work is still of standard authority among the Roman 
 catholic communion, and earned the praise of Bishop Lowth, 
 and- even of Gibbon. lie afterwards became president of the 
 English college at St. Omer's, and vicar-general to the bishops 
 of Arras, Ypres, St. Omer's, and Boulogne. He died at his college 
 May 15th, 1773, aged sixty-three. — E. W. 
 
 BUTLER, Chakles, an eminent scholar, grammarian, and 
 writer on music, was born at Wycomb in Buckinghamshire in 
 1559. He entered a student of Magdalen hall, Oxford, in 1579, 
 and shortly afterwards took the degree of M.A. Upon leaving 
 the university he became master of the free school at Basing- 
 stoke, Hants, and subsequently vicar of Wootton St. Lawrence, 
 in the same county — " A poor preferment, God wot," says 
 honest Anthony Wood, " for such a worthy scholar." In his 
 retirement, Butler devoted his leisure to study, and was the 
 author of the following works — " Rhetorics Libri duo, quor.im 
 prior de Tropis et Figuris, posterior de Voce et Gestu pra;cipit," 
 &c., Oxford, 1600, IGmo; "The Feminine Monarchy; or a 
 Treatise of Bees," Oxford, 1609, 8vo ; " De Propinquitate 
 Matrimonium impediente regula generalis," O.xford, 1625, 4to ; 
 " OratorifB Libri duo," Oxford, 1633, 4to ; " English Grammar," 
 Oxford, 1634, 4to; and "The Principles of Musick," London, 
 1636, 4to. He died in 1647, and was buried in the chancel of 
 the church of which he had been vicar forty-eight years. Butler 
 was evidently a man of gi'eat learnuig and ingenuity ; but 
 his English works arc disfigured by a peculiar orthography, 
 partly of his own invention, and partly borrowed from the Saxon 
 alphabet. Nevertheless, his "English Grammar" is a work of 
 considerable merit, and has been highly praised by Dr. Johnson. 
 "The Principles of ^lusick" is a useful and judicious supplement 
 to Morley's Introduction. — E. F. R. 
 
 BUTLER, Charles, a distinguished property lawyer and 
 jurist, and polemical writer, was born in London in 1750, and 
 (lied in 1832. He belonged to a Roman catholic family, and 
 was educated at the P'nglish college at Douay. He was the first 
 Roman catholic called to the bar subsequent to the period of the 
 Revolution. This was in 1791, under the act 31 Geo. iii. cap. 
 32, dispensing with pa]iists taking the oath of supremacy. After 
 the passiiig of the relii^f act in 1832, he was made king's counsel 
 during Lord Brougham's chancellorship. His j)rincipal law works 
 are — the completion of an edition of Coke on Littleton, of which 
 about one-half had been done by Hargrave, and an edition of 
 Fearne on Contingent Remainders. In general jurisprudence he 
 published "Hora; juridicaj suljseeiva?," and " Short Biographical 
 Notices of Chancellors d'Aguesseau and I'Hopital." His " Ilorre 
 Biblica;," is a work of much merit. His general works were col- 
 lected in five volumes in 1827. — S. H. G. 
 
 BUTLER, Jajies, one of the Irish ftimily of Ormonde, who, 
 with his brother, emigrated to Germany in the commencement of 
 the seventeenth century, and entered into the imperial serA'ice, 
 where they soon obtained the command of regiments, and served 
 under Jolm de Tscerelai, the Count Tilly, and Wallenstein, in 
 most of the battles of the Thirty. Years' war. James Butler 
 was a brave soldier, in the main an honom-able man, and faithful 
 
 to his adopted sovereign, even to an unscrupulous extent. Of 
 this latter quality he gave a memorable proof, in accomplishing 
 the death of the gieat Wallenstein at the wish of the emperor. 
 Without communicating with his brother Walter, he, in concert 
 with some Scottish officers in the emperor's semce, arranged the 
 plot, and finally determined to shay the great general, after dis- 
 posing of his followers at a banquet to which they were invited. 
 The friends, h.aving got rid of Captain Devereux, with a body of 
 soldiers rushed to the apartment of Wallenstein, Bulter remain- 
 ing below. The incidents of the tragedy will be found elsewhere, 
 in their proper place. (See Wallenstein.) After the assassina- 
 tion, James hastened to Vienna, where the emperor, Ferdinand 
 II., fastened round his neck a magnificent chain, giving him, at 
 the same time, his blessing and a gold medal, saying — " Wear 
 this. Colonel Butler, in memory of an emperor you have saved 
 from nun." He was also created a count of the holy Roman 
 empire, and given the golden key of the bedchamber, as well 
 as large estates in Bohemia. He died the following year, 1634, 
 at Wirtemberg, leaving a lai-ge bequest to found a college of 
 Irish Franciscans in Prague, which still continues. The family 
 still exists in Bohemia. — J. F. W. 
 
 BUTLER, Colonel John, was an emigrant from Connec- 
 ticut, New England, who settled on land grants of that colony, 
 within the Pennsylvania hmit, however, and of wliich the vale of 
 Wyoming was a part. With no better claim to any record, the 
 massacre of Wyoming has made his name infamous for ever. In 
 July, 1778, with a force 1600 in number, he made a descent 
 upon this beautiful valley, whose four slenderly garrisoned forts, 
 Lackawana, Exeter, Kingston, and Wilkesbarre, could offer but 
 a temporary resistance. Successively they fell before the assault, 
 and for those not happy enough to escape, there was no hope of 
 quarter at the hands of this savage butcher. The genius of 
 Campbell, in whose verse this paradise is made to bloom anew, 
 has gracefully veiled the horrors of that time. For a long period 
 the reproach rested upon the head of the Indian, Brant ; how 
 wrongfully, has since been made clear. The poet, who in his 
 first edition of Gertrude fell into the common error, has in later 
 ones been generously earnest to remedy that injustice. — J. P. D. 
 
 BUTLER, Joseph, one of the most distinguished of British 
 moralists and theologians, was born at Wantage in Berkshire, on 
 the 18th j\Lay, 1692. His father, Thomas Butler, had spent 
 most part of his life as a respectable shopkeeper in this place, 
 and was a presbyterian dissenter. Before the birth of Joseph, 
 who was the youngest of eight sons, he had retired from business, 
 and resided in the neighbourhood. Butler was destined for 
 the ministry among the body of dissenters to which his father 
 belonged, and after receiving the rudiments of his education in 
 the grammar school of his native place, he was transferred to a 
 dissenting academy, first kept at Gloucester, and then at Tewks- 
 bury, by a Mr. Jones. It was while a student at Tewksbuiy 
 that Butler engaged in his remarkable correspondence with Dr. 
 Samuel Clarke. The latter had just published his Demonstration 
 of the Being and Attributes of God. This was the very kind of 
 work to stimulate and interest an aspiring theologian like Butler. 
 He had long made it his business, he says, to find such an 
 argument, but without success. He hailed Clarke's attempt, 
 accordingly, but not feeling satisfied with several points in it, he 
 was led to addi-ess him on the subject. 
 
 Butler's studies at Tewksbury had the effect of unsettling his 
 presbyterian principles. His father became alarmed, and called 
 in the advice and assistance of several clergymen. This, how 
 ever, it may be imagined, was not a likely means of influencing 
 the young inquii-er. He rem.ained firm in his intention to con- 
 form to the chmxh of England, and at length, with his father's 
 consent, entered as a cunnnoncr of Oriel college, Oxford, in 
 March, 1714. At Oxford, Butler formed the friendship of Mr. 
 Edw.ard Talbot, the second son of the bishop of Durham, a 
 friendship to which he was more indebted for his advancement 
 in the church than to any other cause. Little seems to be known 
 of his Ciireer at the university. By the year 1717 he must have 
 taken orders, as he is found about this time occasionally supplying 
 the place of his friend Talbot at Hendred, the name of a fixing 
 held by the latter near Butler's native town. In the following 
 year, 1718, he was appointed preacher at the Rolls, an appoint- 
 ment which he owed to the mutual kind offices of his college 
 friend, and his old coiTespondent, Dr. Clarke, then rector of St. 
 James'. About this time Butler lost his friend Jlr. Talbot. On 
 his deathbed, however, he had commended both Butler and Seeker
 
 to his father's patronage ; and the result of tliis recommendation 
 soon appeared on the appointment of the former to the living of 
 llougliton, near Darlington, and of Seeker to that of Houghton- 
 le-Spring. This was three years after Butler's nomination as 
 preacher at the Rolls; and henceforth for some time he di^ndcd 
 his residence between the Rolls and his parochial benefice. 
 Four years later he received, through the representation, it is 
 said, of Seeker, the living of Stanliope, one of the richest and 
 the best in England, and hereupon, soon afterwards, he resigned 
 his preachership at the Rolls, and went to reside in the country. 
 Shortly before tliis he published his celebrated fifteen sermons. 
 The first three of these sermons especially, contiiin those ethical 
 views with which his name has been so prominently associated ; 
 and there are few facts more remarkable than the powerful 
 influence exerted by these brief and unsystematic compositions 
 on the course of ethical inquiry in this countiy. They appear, 
 with the others, to have been preached in the regular course 
 of his miuistry at the Rolls. Tliey are written obviously on a 
 preconceived and definite plan of thought, but without any great 
 elaboration, or strict consecutiveness of reasoning. They are 
 really sermons, in short, and not treatises, and this is always to 
 be borne in mind in judging them as a whole, and in relation to 
 a connected theoiy of morals. It is plain, moreover, that they 
 were meant to have a polemical bearing, although, as is Butler's 
 habit, this bearing is very iiidnectly expressed. It is in the notes, 
 and not in the test that it appears. The allusions in the former 
 to the views of Hobbes, show tliat Butler h?d these views before 
 him, and that ho aimed to meet them from a higher and more 
 comprehensive study of human nature. Whatever may be the 
 absolute value of the theoiy of morals implied in Butler's ser- 
 mons, there are few who will be disposed to deny their success 
 as directed against the selfish system of Hobbes. Taking liis 
 stand on the facts of human nature, he clearly proves that these 
 facts are at variance with sucli a system. It neither exhausts 
 them, nor so far rightly interprets them. Self-love is indeed a 
 true element of human nature ; but so also is benevolence. There 
 is a principle in man which just as directly seeks the good of his 
 fellow- creatures, as there is a principle in him which seeks his 
 own good. To endeavour to resolve the former principle into any 
 phase of the latter — the love of power for example — as Hobbes 
 had done, does not in the least embrace or explain the facts of 
 tlie case. But further, there is a definitely moral principle in 
 man. This he finds and establishes by the same process of induc- 
 tion, and it is in the assertion of this principle of conscience, 
 that his chief distinction as a moralist has been supposed to 
 consist. It is here also, however, in the constructive part of his 
 theory, that he has most exposed himself to criticism and objec- 
 tion. The reality of conscience, as an element of human nature, 
 he has strongly seized, and set on a firm and immovable basis. 
 He claims primarily, and above all, for human nature, a 
 moral cliaracter. Law and dutt/ are its highest expressions 
 — and this by no means merely in the spirit of the ancient 
 stoicism which denied any force to the lower and more 
 obviously natural principles. Natui'c and spirit, duty and self, 
 are not opposed with him. Each element is recognized in liis 
 broad survey, and he finds the complete idea of human nature 
 only in the harmonious adjustment and right relation of the 
 several elements. Beyond the breadth and thoroughness of his 
 an.alysis, however, Butler cannot be said to have given us any 
 adequate view of moral science. Various defects appear as soon 
 as we begin to exalt his hints into a philosophy, and inquire more 
 particularly what is the nature of conscience — what is its exact 
 relation to self-love — distinct, and in some senses opposed to 
 it, and which it yet, in its highest sense, embraces ? What is, 
 further, the relation of conscience to reason and education, and 
 what the source of that peculiar attribute of power, that he has 
 so strongly claimed for it ? Is it in any sense autonomous, as 
 Kant has maintained, and as everything that Butler has said on 
 the subject miglit leave it to be inferred? And if not, what is 
 its character in regard to a liigher will and etemal law of duty? 
 It cannot be said that Butler has met any of these questions. 
 To him remains the credit, however, of having vindicated on 
 a clear basis of fact, and in a powerfully original and effec- 
 tive manner, an interpretation of human nature whicli, in its 
 comprehensiveness, destroys eveiy system of mere selfishness. 
 Shaftesbury somewhat before him, and Hutehcson contemporary 
 with him, put forth the claims of the moral sense as opposed 
 to the penersions of Hobbism, and the caricatunsts of Locke ; 
 
 but neither of them did so with such a width and penetration 
 of view, or with such a simplicity and depth of ethical insight 
 as Butler. 
 
 Butler continued in the quiet retirement of Stanhope for seven 
 years, during which he conceived, and probably composed, tlie chief 
 part of his great work, " The Analogy of Religion, Natural and 
 Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature." He was 
 drawn from his retirement in 1733, being nominated by Lord 
 Chancellor Talbot his chaplain in that year, and then, in 1736, 
 a prebendary of Rochester. In the same year he received the 
 distinction of being appointed clerk of the bedcloset to Queen 
 Caroline, in which capacity his duties were to attend her majesty 
 every evenhig from seven to nine o'clock. 
 
 The "Analogy" appeared in 1736. It is conjectured that the 
 substance had formed part of the series of sermons delivered by 
 Butler while preacher at the Rolls — a conjecture supported by 
 Butler's O'svn statement, that the selection of the fifteen sermons 
 was very much determined by accidental circumstances. The 
 conjecture is not improbable; and the idea of the "Analogy" 
 may therefore have been present to the mind of Butler when he 
 retired to Stanhope. It was undoubtedly worked out in thought, 
 if not actually completed, during his rural retirement. In fairly 
 judging the " Analog}^" it is of great importance to keep in view 
 the circumstances in which it appeared, and the state of mind in 
 regard to Christianity which it was intended to meet. It has 
 been gi'eatly misjudged from inattention to these facts, not less 
 by men who have greatly admired it, than by those who have 
 severely censured it. Butler evidently never designed his work 
 to be an absolute and adequate proof of the truth of Christianity. 
 He designed it expressly to remove difficulties — to show, in his 
 own language, in which we may, as in many other places, dis- 
 cover a deep irony, that it is " not so clear a case as many 
 suppose, that tliere is nothing in Christianity." The deistical 
 spirit had been busy in England for more than half a centiuy. 
 Without descending into the vulgar arena of controversy which 
 was crowded on all sides of him by pamphlets and brochures 
 which have perished, save in the pages of Leland, it was 
 undoubtedly the intention of Butler to take part in the great 
 straggle going on around him. His habits of mind did not fit 
 him for any sharp-shooting. He does not, therefore, enter into 
 direct conflict with any of the deistical productions which had 
 recently appeared ; although, as Mr. Fitzgerald has remarked, 
 the influence of Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation, 
 which was first piiblished in 1730, may be distinctly traced 
 in many passages of the " Analogy." But, advancing from the 
 deistical position, he aims to find a general train of argimient 
 whicli should cany unprejudiced and discerning minds along with 
 him. Much had been said of nature, and the comparative excel- 
 lence of its course of action and government. There was no 
 dispute as to its divine authorship, and this, accordingly, Butler 
 makes the starting-point and fnutful principle of his whole 
 argument. Admitting the course and constitution of nature to 
 be divine, he maintains that all the characteristic facts and prin- 
 ciples of religion, natural and revealed, arc in strict analogy 
 therewith. There is a parallelism throughout — a correspondence 
 of plan and issue, of type and result ; and if the lower be divine, 
 the higher must, therefore, be no loss so. Being of the same 
 make, they must have the same author. We do not mean to say 
 that this positive aspect of Butler's argument is veiy strongly 
 turned upon us by liimself. He undoubtedly sets forth more 
 obviously and distinctly its polemical and rcfutatory aspect, 
 showing that whatever is dillicult and apparently objectionable 
 in Christianity, has its counterpart in nature ; and at particular 
 length pointing out (part i. chap, vii., and part ii. chap, iv.) tlic 
 grounds on which all our conclusions as to the divine govern- 
 ment must be held to be necessarily imperfect in tlie one case as 
 in the other. But wliile his more direct object is thus negative, 
 and according to the statement with which he starts ; tlie higlier 
 positive and constractive meaning is everywhere implied, and 
 jilainly gives a higher value and force to the argument, especially 
 in the face of mucli of the criticism that has been directed against it. 
 
 After the death of Queen Caroline in 1737, Butler's merits, 
 wliich she had strongly commended to her husband on her death- 
 bed, were not forgotten. He was appointed to the see of Bristol 
 in the year following; and in 1740 to the valuable deanciy of 
 St. Paul's, on which occasion lie resigned liis rectory. The 
 means sujiplied him by his deaneiy enabled him to carry out 
 at Bristol a favourite fancy which he had for building and
 
 decoration. He is said to have expended upwards of £4000 
 on the episcopal palace, and the adornment of his cliapel greatly 
 interested liim. He was transferred to the bishopric of Durham 
 in 1750. Shortly afterwards his health began to decline. He 
 sought restoratives from the waters at Bath, attended by his 
 faitliful chaplain and friend, Dr. Forster, whose letters to Seeker, 
 now arclibishop, give a minute and painful account of his illness. 
 All efforts failed to rally him. He died on the morning of June 
 16, 1752, and was buried in the cathedral of Bristol. 
 
 All that we know of Butler gives us the impression of a 
 character piu-e and elevated, candid and unostentatious ; simple, 
 yet with a touch of reserve ; practical and active, yet with a tinge 
 of melancholy. His works are comprised in two volumes, pub- 
 lished at the Oxford University Press, 1850. There are besides 
 numerous editions of his "Semions" and "Analogy;" the best of 
 the latter being that of Dr. Fitzgerald, bishop of Cork (Dublin, 
 1849), to whose interesting memoir we have been much indebted 
 in the above sketch. — T. 
 
 BUTLER, Samuel, born at Vigorn in the parish of Stren- 
 sham, Worcestershire; died in London in 1080. The accounts 
 of Butler's early life arc conflicting. He is represented as 
 educated at the gi-ammar school of Worcester, and from that 
 sent to Cambridge, which, according to one naiTative, he had 
 almost immediately to leave from want of money, and where, 
 according to another, he remained for seven years. Another 
 account sends him to Oxford, but no particular college of either 
 university is specified, nor is any document, public or private, 
 referred to by his biogi-aphers. We lean to think the university 
 education an ornamental fiction. He is first met in anything 
 that looks like authentic narrative, as clerk to a justice of the 
 peace in his native county. His occupations left him leisure for 
 music and painting, of both of which he was fond. He was after- 
 wards employed as clerk by Selden, at that time steward to the 
 countess of Kent. He next passes into the sen'ice of Sir Samuel 
 Luke, one of Cromwell's officers, and his study of his master's 
 character led to the creation of " Hudibras." Sir Samuel Luke's 
 name is made jingle into an odd rhyme, but there can be no 
 doubt that a hundred whimsical peculiarities of different indi- 
 viduals, and as many as the poet's imagination could conjm-e 
 up, either from reading or reflection, united to build up the 
 personality of the immortal hero. The Sir Hudibras or Huddi- 
 bras of the Faeiy Queen gave him his name. 
 
 Butler is said to have studied the common law, but he never 
 practised it. The earl of Carbmy, president of the principality 
 of Wales, on the king's return made Mm his secretary, and gave 
 him the stewardship of Ludlow castle. Butler married : his wife 
 was supposed to have some property, but her money was lent 
 on bad securities. In 1663 the first part of " Hudibras" was 
 published, and in the next year the second. The poem was 
 admired and quoted by the king, and was the great anuoury 
 from which the royal party were supplied with abundant and 
 irresistible weapons of ridicule against puritan and presbyterian, 
 but the author was wholly neglected. In 1678 — Butler was 
 now sixty-six — he published the third part, and within two 
 years he died. Sixty years after his death the m.onument in 
 Westminster abbey was put up by John Barber, lord mayor of 
 London. "Hudibras" — inimitable, as the fact that there has 
 been no successful imitation has shown it to be — called up a 
 host of imitators. There was the Dutch Hudibras, the Scotch 
 Hudibras, the Irish Hudibras, there was Butler's Ghost, and the 
 Occasional Hypocrite. The author of a spurious second part of 
 " Hudibras " was punished severely by Butler, when the genuine 
 second part appeared, in which he figures as Whackum. Butler's 
 distress appears to have been overstated. The language on 
 Barber's monument to him, and Samuel Wesley's epigra;.i — 
 
 " He asked for bread, and he received a stone," 
 
 have led to the belief that he was in a state of entire destitution, 
 which does not appear to have ever been the case. The stor}' of 
 "Hudibras" is unfinished, and through what further scenes he 
 was to have been carried it would be hazardous to conjecture. 
 There seems, however, strong reason to believe, as ^Ir. Gil- 
 fiUan has suggested in his Life of Butler, that the satirist was 
 preparing for an attack on the dissolute court of Charles II. 
 If the poem called " Hudibras at Court," printed in " the 
 Remains," be Butler's, there can be Uttle doubt that such was 
 his purpose. We are inclined to believe that " Hudibras at 
 Court" was Butler's, though not acknowledged as such by Thyer 
 
 or later editors. The king's admiration of Butler made him 
 disliked and envied by the persons about the court. His was 
 the misfortune which Spenser before him had endured in the 
 coml of Elizabeth — " To have thy prince's grace, but want his 
 peers'." He suffered injuries and injustice, and, at the close of 
 his career, seems not to have been indisjiosed to retaliate. Butler 
 — we quote Aubray — " was of a middle stature, strong-set, high- 
 coloured, with a head of soitcI hair, a good fellow, and latterly 
 much troubled with the gout." — J. A., D. 
 
 BUTLER, Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, born at Kenilworth 
 in Warwickshire in 1774, was educated at Rugby school, and at 
 St. John's college, Cambridge. His career at the university was 
 in the highest degree successful. In 1797 he was elected fellow 
 of St. John's college, and the following year he accepted the mas- 
 tership of the Royal Free Grammar school at Shrewsbury. About 
 the same time he was selected by the syndics of the university 
 press to prepare a new edition of JLschylus, with the text and 
 notes of Stanley. This task he accomplished in 4 vols. 4to, 
 1809-1816. In 1802 he was presented to the ^^carage of his 
 native town ; in 1822 created archdeacon of Derby, and in 1836, 
 on the recommendation of Viscount Melbourne, raised to the epis- 
 copal bench. During the last four years of his life, according to 
 one of his biogi-aphers, he knew no day of health, scarcely an 
 hour free from sufleiing. He died in 1839. Besides his edition 
 of jEschylus, above noticed. Dr. Butler published " M. Masuri 
 CaiTTien in Platonem;" "Is. Casauboni in Josephum Scaligenun 
 Ode ; accedunt Poemata et Excrcitationes utriusque Lingua-,'' 
 8vo, 1797; "A Praxis on the Latin Prepositions," and a few 
 sermons. He was much beloved for the benevolence and sincerity 
 of his character, and admired for his multifarious learning and 
 brilliant talents.— J. S., G. 
 
 BUTLER, Walter, younger brother of James Butler, as 
 already stated, entered the imperial service. In 1631, his bat- 
 talion of Irish musketeers formed part of the garrison which 
 defended Frankfort-on-the-Oder against Gustavus, and to him 
 was assigned the post of greatest danger. So sturdy was the 
 resistance of Butler and his Irish musketeers, that Gusta^^ls drew 
 off" his forces from the point they defended, and cairied the town 
 through another quarter. Butler at length fell wounded, and 
 with the remnant of his gallant Irish suirendered ; the other 
 generals having fled and reported that the town was betrayed 
 by Butler to Gustavus. At a banquet that evening, Gustavus 
 said — " Cavaliers, I will not eat a morsel until I have seen this 
 brave Irishman of whom we hear so much ; and yet I have that 
 to say to him which he may not be pleased to hear." Butler 
 thereupon was brought into his presence on a litter. "Sir," 
 said the king with stern anger, " art thou the elder or the 
 younger Butler ? " " May it please your majesty, I am but the 
 younger." " God be praised," said Gustavus; "thou art a brave 
 fellow. Hadst thou been the elder I meant to nin my sword 
 through thy body." As soon as Butler was able to travel, 
 Gustavus set him at liberty. Returning to the army he took 
 possession of Prague, and rose high in the favom' of Wallenstein. 
 Of the conspiracy formed by his brother James, Walter was kept 
 in complete ignorance, and the news of it filled him with hon'or 
 and dismay. He was at the siege of Nordlingen in 1634, where 
 his valour and example decided the victory in favour of the 
 imperialists. He died shortly afterwards.- — J. F. W. 
 
 BUTLER, Weeden, an English divine, well known from his 
 connection with the celebrated Dr. Dodd, whom he assisted in 
 preparing for the press his Commentary on tlie Holy Bible, and 
 in editing the Christian Magazine; born in 1742 at Margate j- 
 died in 1823. He succeeded Dodd as preacher at Charlotte 
 chape], Pimlico, and afterwards kept a classical school at Chelsea. 
 Dodd mentions him with respect in liis Thoughts in Prison. 
 
 BUTLER, Rev. Williaji AitcnEE, professor of moral philo- 
 sophy in the university of Dublin, was bom at Annerville, near 
 Clonniel, in Ireland, in the year 1814, or perhaps a year or 
 two earlier. At the age of nine he was sent to the endowed 
 school at Clonmel, whose able master, the Rev. Dr. Bell, sent 
 many eminent scholars into the world. Here Butler gave his 
 mind full scope. He perused the classics with the ardour of 
 a poet. Oratory too attracted him, and he soon distinguished 
 himself as a speaker. He read discursively as well as deeply, 
 and while eveiy branch of the belles-lettres captivated him, the 
 profounder subjects of philosophy and metaphysics engaged his 
 serious attention. Butler's mother was a Roman catholic, and 
 in that religion he was brought up most strictly. About his
 
 BUT 
 
 825 
 
 BUX 
 
 sixteentli year, however, he examined the controversy for himself, 
 and the result was that he became a protestant. Two years 
 after this Butler entered Trinity college, Dublin. In 1832 he 
 obtained a scholarship. While still in his undergraduate course 
 he contributed largely to the periodical literature of the day. 
 The Dublin University 3faf/azine was just then launched, and 
 roimd it the geuius and the learning of the young Irish spirits 
 clustered with loving industry. Among the ablest was Butler. 
 His poetical contributions attracted notice, and heljied to give 
 that periodical the high reputation for poetry which it has ever 
 i-.ice retained. His refined taste in criticism and his elegance of 
 (iiction made him an able and popular reviewer, and some of 
 his essays on history and philosophy still rank high in the estima- 
 tion of scholars. In November, 1835, Butler obtained the first 
 ethical moderatorship at his degree examination — a prize then 
 fur the first time instituted. Just at the time his scholarship 
 determined. Dr. Lloyd, the provost of Trinity college, estimating 
 tlie extraordinary abilities of Butler, succeeded in founding a 
 professorship of moral philosophy, and he who was the first to 
 L::iin an ethical moderatorship in the college, was also the first to 
 'ill the professor's chair. The young professor was now upon 
 :i field worthy his endo\vTnents. His lectures were as remark- 
 ible for their eloquence, as for their profound philosophy. The 
 living of Clondehorka in the county of Donegal was presented 
 to him with the chair of moral pliilosophy. This prefennent 
 he held till 1842, discharging with zeal and faithfulness the 
 duties of a parish priest, in a wild and poor district. In 
 the last-mentioned year he was re-elected to the professorship, 
 and promoted to the rectory of Eaymoghy in the diocese of 
 Kaphoe, where he spent a large portion of the rest of his life in 
 unwearied parochial ministrations, and in literary, religious, and 
 philosophic study. During the year 1845 the Eoman catholic 
 ■ 'Utroversy deeply engaged his attention, the result of which was 
 his " Letters on Mr. Newman's Theory of Development," which 
 were pronounced by the most eminent di\Tnes to be " models 
 and masterpieces of polemical composition." In 1848 he was 
 employed on a work on Faith, and in collecting materials for it, 
 he was engaged during the short period of his life that remained. 
 On Trinity Sunday, 1848, he preached with his usual power the 
 iirdination sermon for the bishop of Derry at Dunboe. On his 
 return home the following Friday, he was seized with fever, 
 induced by a chill after being heated with walking. The progress 
 i){ the malady was rapid and fatal, and he died on the 5th of 
 duly, ere he had reached the age of thirty-sis. 
 
 As a poet he was tender, imaginative, refined, and classical, 
 and won the commendation of so severe a judge as Professor 
 WUson. As a preacher his eloquence was of the highest order 
 — passionate without rant, affluent in all the grace of figure 
 and illustration, yet comprehensible to the most ordinary intelli- 
 i^'pnce. As an ethical phUosopher, he attamed to a deser\'edly 
 liigh repute, considering the few years he was permitted to devote 
 to so arduous a study; and the lectures which he delivered and 
 the essays which he has left are characterized as well by the 
 soundness of their views and brilliancy of their rhetoric, as by 
 tlie elegance and classicality of a style which is nevertheless 
 I minently practical and often thoroughly simple. — J. F. W. 
 
 BUTRET, Charles, baron de, a French horticulturist, died 
 at Strasburg in 1805. He belonged to a noble family, and 
 devoted himself in a great measure to agi-icultui-al pursuits. 
 In 1794 he published a work entitled " Taille raisonee des 
 arln-cs fnaitiers." He established at Strasburg a large horti- 
 cultural garden, which he intended as a model school for the 
 cultiu-e of forest trees. The French revolution interrupted his 
 labours, and compelled him to emigrate. He found an asylum 
 in the court of the elector palatine, who intrusted to him the 
 direction of his gardens. — J. H. B. 
 
 BUTTMANN, Philip Kaul, a distinguished German phi- 
 lologist, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, December 7, 1704, 
 and died at Beriin, June 21, 1829. He devoted himself to the 
 study of ancient languages at the university of Gottingen, and 
 in 1796 obtained an appomtment as secretary, and afterwards 
 sub-hbrarian at the royal library at Berlin. At the same time 
 he discharged the duties of professor of the Greek language 
 in the Joachimsthal'sche Gymnasium in 1808; and edited the 
 Haudii und Spener'sche Zdtimg from 1803-11. Among his 
 works, the " Griechische Grammatik ; " the " Ausfiihrliehe Gric- 
 cliische Spraehlchre ; " and the " Lexilogus odcr Beitriige zur 
 Griechischen Worterkliirang," &c., take the highest rank, and for 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 exactness and nicety of observation and treatment will always 
 be held in high esteem. No less praise is due to his editions 
 of Plato's Dialog! Quatuor, of Demosthenes' Midiana, and 
 Aratus' Phtenomena et Diosemia. His contributions to Wolfs 
 Museum der Altertlmniswissenchaft, and other learned periodi- 
 cals, were collected under the title " I\Iythologus." — K. E. 
 
 BUTTNER, David Sigismond August, a Gemian botanist, 
 was born in 1724, and died in 1768. He succeeded Haller in 
 the chair of botany at Gottingen. His name is kept up in 
 the genus Buttneria or Byttneria. He devoted his attention 
 specially to the classification of plants and the arrangements 
 of the natural orders. In 1750 he published at Amsterdam a 
 methodical enumeration of plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 BUTTON, Thojias, an English navigator of skill and expe- 
 rience, acquu'ed considerable reputation in the service of Prince 
 Henry, the eldest son of King James I. Scarcely anything, 
 however, appears to be knovra of him beyond his connection with 
 the search after a north-west passage from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific ocean, and the conduct of a voyage which he undertook 
 for its discovery. This voyage was made a year after that of 
 tlie unfortunate Henry Hudson. The merchant adventurers of 
 London fitted out two ships, the Resolution and the Adventure, 
 for the further prosecution of discovery in this quaiier, and 
 placed them under Captain Button's command. They sailed 
 in May, 1012, steering their course through Hudson Strait, and 
 thence to the westward. Button was the first navigator who 
 crossed the entire extent of Hudson Bay from cast to west. 
 He reached the mainland on tlie west side of the bay, in latitude 
 60° 40', at a spot to which he gave the name of Hopes 
 Checked ; and proceeding thence to the southward, discovered 
 the mouth of Nelson river, (upon which the chief station of 
 the Hudson Bay Company was afterwards formed), where he 
 wintered. Upon leaving their winter quarters, the ships proceeded 
 as far to the northward as lat. 65°, along the west side of South- 
 ampton island, when, seeing no opening which aflTorded the 
 means of a passage to the west, though with undiminished con- 
 fidence in the existence of such a passage on Button's own part, 
 they repassed Hudson Strait, and returned to England in the 
 autumn of 1613. Button was knighted on his return. — W. H. 
 
 BUTTURA, Antonio, was born at Malcesina, on the lake 
 of Garda, in 1771. He studied at Verona, where he made him- 
 self favourably known by the publication of a collection of sonnets 
 and odes. In the stormy times of the Revolution he was one of 
 its most enthusiastic advocates, and declaring himself strongly 
 for French rule in Italy, attracted the attention of Napoleon, 
 who appointed him secretary to the congi-ess of Venice. Having 
 been appointed first secretary to the minister of foreign aftairs, 
 he left Italy for Paris, where he remained till his death in 1832. 
 He published very accurate and elegant editions of many of the 
 best Italian writers, particularly poets; translations from the 
 French of Boileau and Racine ; an " Essay on the History of 
 Venice ;" and an " Italian and French Dictionary." — A. C. M. 
 
 BUTURLIN, Demetrius, a celebrated Russian writer on 
 military science and history, bom at St. Petersburg in 1790. 
 He served in the campaigns of 1812-14, and in 1819 he rose to 
 the rank of major-general. The greater number of the military 
 writings of Buturlin are in French ; those most widely known 
 are " The History of the Italian Campaign of 1799 ; " a " Sketch 
 of the German Campaign of 1813 ;" and a " Histoiy of Napo- 
 leon's Russian Campaign." He died, October 21, 1850. — M. Q. 
 
 BUXBAUM, Johann Christian, a German botanist, was 
 born at Merseburg in 1694, and died in 1730. In 1724 ho went 
 to St. Petersburg, and became a professor in the university. He 
 made botanical tours in various parts of Russia, visiting also 
 Siberia and Astracan. In 1726 he went to Turkey, and 
 examined the flora of that country. He died at the early age 
 of thirty-six. A genus of mosses has been called Buxbaumia, 
 and a Kj)ecies of veronica is denominated Buxbaumii. He i)ub- 
 lishcd an enumeration of the plants of Halle, also an account of 
 the plants in the Byzantine provinces. — J. H. B. 
 
 BtJXIIOWDEN, Count Frederick William, born in 
 1752 of a noble Livonian family at Magnusdal in the island of 
 Moon, near Oescl. He entered the Russian ser\-icc as a cadet, 
 and served in the campaign of 1769. He rose to a generalship 
 in 1790; defeated the Swedish generals Hamilton and Majen- 
 feld, and liberated the fortress of Friedricksham, at Wiborg, from 
 its besiegers. Catherine IL gave him the estate of Magnusdal. 
 As general-of-division, in 1794, he distinguished hiiir^elf at the 
 
 5 M
 
 BUX 
 
 826 
 
 BYX 
 
 battle of Prague. SuvrarofF made him governor of Varsovia, 
 where, by his moderation, he deserved and obtained the lasting 
 gratitude of the Poles. He commanded the left wing at the 
 battle of AnsterUtz, and in 1800 was nominated general-in- chief 
 of the ai-my sent against Napoleon. After the battle of Pultusk, 
 the chief command was intrusted to Bennigscn, but Biixhowden 
 resumed it after the battle of Friedland. In 1808 Biixhowden 
 at the head of 18,000 men completed in two days the conquest 
 of Friedland, and broiight the campaign to a close on the banks 
 of the Tornca, then the Russian frontier in Lapponia. He died 
 at the castle of Lohden in Esthonia in 1811. — JI. Q. 
 
 BUXTEHUDE, Dietrich, a musician, was bom most likely 
 in 1635 ; he died at Lubeck, ^lay 9, 1707. His father, Johann, 
 was organist to the church of St. Olaus at Elsinore in Denmark, 
 where, we may suppose, Dietrich was bom. Some writers affirm 
 that his father was his only musical instractor, but Hawkins 
 .states him to have been a pupil of Johann Tliiel. In 10C9 he 
 was appointed organist to St. Mary's church, Lubeck, in the 
 fulfilment of which office he gained his great celebrity as a 
 player and composer. A comparatively .small number only of his 
 voluminous compositions have been published : these consist of 
 several sacred cantatas ; an ode on the independence of Lubeck ; 
 another on the death of the composer's father ; seven suites de 
 pieces, depicting the characters of the seven planets ; fugues for 
 the organ, and lighter pieces for voices as well as for instru- 
 ments. The critics of near his own time speak of Buxtehude 
 as the greatest organist and writer for his instrument that had 
 ever existed, and eulogize his power of improvising on a canto 
 fermo as marvellous. An interesting testimony of his extraor- 
 dinary ability is the fact, that Bach walked from Anstadt to 
 Lubeck, about the year 1705, to hear him play, and prolonged 
 his stay for three months, for the sake of repeatedly witnessing 
 his performance. — G. A. M. 
 
 BUXTON, Jedediah, famous for his powers of calculation, 
 was born in 170-1 or 1705, at Ehnton, near Chesterfield. Though 
 his grandfather had been vicar, and his father schoolmaster of 
 the parish, his education had been so completely neglected, that 
 he was unable even to wiite. His general intellectual capacity, 
 indeed, was of a veiy low order, but he could resolve with the 
 greatest promptitude the most difficult arithmetical questions. 
 It is said that on one occasion he was asked to state how many 
 cubical eighths of an inch there are in a body whose three sides 
 are respectively 23,145,789 yards, 5, 6-42, 732 yards, and 54,905 
 yards, and that amid all the distractions of the labcmrs of 100 
 men, he gave the exact answer in little more than five hours. 
 He walked up to London in 1754, for the purpose of gratifying 
 a strong desire which he had to see the king, but unfortunately 
 missed him. During his stay in the metropolis, he was taken 
 to the Royal Society, and answered most satisfactorily vaiious 
 questions proposed to him by some of the members. He went to 
 see Garrick in Richard III. ; but during the performance he 
 occupied himself entirely in counting the number of words spoken 
 by each of the actors. He appears to have been either a small 
 landowner or agiicultural labourer. His death is supposed to 
 have occurred when he was about sixty-two years of age. — J. T. 
 
 BUXTON, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., the successor of 
 Wilberforce as leader of the antislavery party in the house of 
 commons, was born in 178G at Castle Hedingham in Essex. 
 His father was high sheriff of the county. He received his early 
 education at the school of Dr. Charles Burney of Greenvvich, and 
 returned home to Essex when he was fourteen, without having 
 attained to any gi-eat proficiency in learning. About this time he 
 became acquainted with the family of Jlr. John Gumey of Earl- 
 ham Hall, near Norwich, father of the future philanthropist, Mrs. 
 Elizabeth Fry. In 1803 Jlr. Buxton entered as an uudergi'aduate 
 in Trinity college, Dublin, where he studied with great persever- 
 ance for four years, and highly distinguished himself In Jlay, 
 1807, he was married to Miss Hannah Gumey of Earlham, a 
 union productive of much happiness. In 1811 he became partner 
 in the brewing establishment of Jlessrs. Truman, Ilanbury, & Co., 
 in which liis uncles were partners, and for the next seven yeai-s 
 devoted himself almost entirely to the business. Mr. Buxton's 
 career as a public man dates from 1810, when he addressed a 
 large meeting convened at the Mansion-house to procure relief 
 for the Spitalfields weavers, who were reduced to the utmost 
 distress by the reaction in their trade consequent upon the ter- 
 mination of the French war. The subject of prison discipline 
 was the next that engaged Mr. Buxton's attention ; he inspected 
 
 Newgate and other jails in conjunction with Mrs. Fry, Mr. Peter 
 Bedford, and others, and published, as the result of his labours 
 an "Inquuy into Prison Discipline," a valuable work, full of 
 facts carefully and clearly arranged, with shrewd and ingenious 
 practical inferences. In 1818 Mr. Buxton was returned as 
 member of parliament for Weymouth, after a contested election. 
 As he was diligent in his attendance on his parliamentary duties, 
 and though no orator, was clear in his arrangement of facts, 
 always regarding his subject from a moral and religious point of 
 view, he became a very influential member. In 1822, at the 
 earnest solicitation of Jlr. Wilberforce, he joined the abolition 
 party, and became one of their secret committee. In 1825 
 the declining health of Mr. Wilberforce obliged him to retire 
 from parliament, and the leadership of the antislavery party 
 devolved upon Mr. Buxton, whose systematic energy and fearless 
 pertinacity well fitted him for the eight years' straggle that 
 was needed to complete the work of emancipation. In 1827 
 Jlr. Buxton's exertions and anxieties brought on an attack of 
 apoplexy, from which he slowly recovered, to return to his work 
 with deepened religious feeUngs of devotion to it. From this 
 time until the final passage of the bill for the "total abohtion 
 of colonial slaveiy" in August, 1833, Mr. Buxton's exertions 
 were unwearied, and he consented to the " apprenticeship " and 
 " compensation " clauses, contrary to the feelings of many of 
 his coadjutors, in order to avert an insiurection in the colonies 
 from any further delay of the long looked-for hour of freedom. 
 In 1837 Mr. Buxton lost his seat in parliament, where, without 
 possessing very shining or very profound abilities, he had ably 
 and honestly laboured for nearly twenty years. In 1838 he 
 devoted himself to the preparation of a work on " The Slave 
 Trade and its Remedy." He spent the last few years of his life 
 improving his estates and assisting the poor in the vicinity of 
 Northrepps Hall, Norfolk, where he died in 1845. — R. M., S. 
 
 BUXTORF, John, bom at Camen in Westphalia in 1564 ; 
 died in 1029. He was son of a CalvLnist minister. After 
 studying some time at Marburg and Herbom, the fame of Beza 
 brought him to hear his lectures at Bale, where, after a course 
 of travel, he became professor of Hebrew. He was offered pro- 
 fessorial chairs at Leyden and at Taumen ; but his value was 
 felt by Bale, and they increased his appointments for the purpose 
 of retaining him. Several works on Hebrew and Chaldaic 
 learning were published by Buxtorf in German and in Latin, 
 and he left several in manuscript, some of which were edited by 
 his son, who pursued the same class of studies, and held a 
 Hebrew professorship in the same university where his father 
 liad so long Vaught. The patriarch of the tribe left seven 
 children — five sons and two daughters. — J. A., D. 
 
 BUXTORF, Jonx (Jean Jacques), grandson of the preced- 
 ing, born at Bale in 1645; died in 1704. He succeeded his 
 father in the chair of Hebrew at Bale, and was distmguished for 
 his knowledge of oriental languages. He published translations 
 of several rabbinical works, and he also compiled a collection 
 of proverbs and sententious maxims of morality from Jewish 
 writers of all ages, which is entitled " Florilegium Hebraicum." 
 He died of asthma, without following the example of his fathers 
 in leaving a son to inherit his throne. — J. A., D. 
 
 BUXTORF, John. The date of birth is not stated ; he died 
 in 1732. He succeeded his uncle, the preceding, in the Hebrew 
 professorship at Bale. Among his scholarly accomplishments, 
 John the fourth had acquired the character of a skilful artisan 
 in the fabrication of Latin verses. — J. A., D. 
 
 BYLOT or BYLETH, Robert, an English seaman, bore an 
 active share in the efforts made for the discovery of a north-west 
 passage to the Indies in the early years of the seventeenth 
 century. He was one of the companions of Hudson on that 
 unfortunate navigator's fourth and disastrous voyage in 1610, 
 and accompanied Sir Thomas Button in his expedition of 1612. 
 (See Button.) Bylot was again employed, under Captain 
 Gibbons, in the renewed effort of discovery made in the same 
 direction in 1614; and in each of the two following years he acted 
 as master of the vessel in wiiich Baffin, in the capacity of pilot, 
 made his important discoveries. These voyages of 1615 and 
 1610, made by Bylot and Baffin, are described elsewhere. — W. H. 
 
 BYNG, George, Viscount Torrington, a distinguished British 
 admiral, was bom in 1663. At the age of fifteen he entered 
 the navy as a volunteer. After sening with distinction in vari- 
 ous subordinate situations, and taking part in the battles of 
 Beachy-Head and La Hogue, he was in 1703 made rear-admiral
 
 BYN 
 
 827 
 
 BYR 
 
 of the red. In 1704 he assisted at the reduction of Gibraltar. 
 His guUantiy in the battle of Malaga, which followed soon after- 
 wards, won for him the honour of knighthood, and his services 
 to the house of Hanover were rewarded in 1715 with the 
 dignity of a baronet. In 1718 he was made admiral and com- 
 mander-in-chief of the fleet, and totally defeated a Spanish fleet 
 off Messina — a blow which completed the destruction of the 
 naval power of Spain, and compelled the Spanish court to accept 
 the terms presented by the quadruple alliance. In 1721 Sir 
 George was created Baron Byng of Southill and Viscount Tor- 
 rington, and one of the knight's companions of the Bath. On 
 the accession of George II. in 1727, he was appointed first lord 
 of the admu-alty — an office which he held till his death, in the 
 seventieth year of his age, January 17, 1733. — J. T. 
 
 BYNG, John, a British admiral, fourth son of the preced- 
 ing, was born in 1704. At an early age he entered the navy, 
 and passed rapidly through the various subordinate grades till 
 in 1756 he was, unfortunately for himself, appointed to com- 
 mand the fleet sent to relieve Minorca, at that time threatened 
 by the French. The British government had received ample 
 notice of the preparations made by the French king, but utterly 
 neglected the warning; and at length hastily despatched ten 
 ships, so badly equipped that they had to put in at Gibraltar to 
 obtain a supply of provisions and to refit. There Byng learned 
 that the French had already landed 19,000 men in Minorca, 
 supported by a powerful fleet, and that the whole island, except 
 Fort St. Philip, was in their hands. A council of war was held, 
 at which the major of artillery and the captain of engineers, 
 who had been employed in the erection of the fortifications of 
 Minorca, declaimed that it was impossible under these circum- 
 stances to relieve the island. Byng, however, made an attempt to 
 open up a communication with the fort, but failed. An action 
 foUowed with the French fleet, which ended in a drawn battle, 
 .nd Fort St. Philip capitulated. A fiiiious clamour immediately 
 
 use in England ; and the ministiy resolved to sacrifice Byng, in 
 Jie hope of averting public attention from their own Lmbecifity 
 and gi'oss negligence. He was accordingly superseded, and sent 
 home under arrest. The government journals employed the 
 vilest arts for the purpose of inflaming the minds of the popu- 
 lace against the unhappy admiral, and inducing them to clamour 
 for his blood. He was tried before a court-martial, 28th Decem- 
 ber, 1756, and found guilty of not ha\'ing done his utmost to 
 destroy the French fleet, and sentenced to be shot, but unani- 
 mously recommended to mercy on the gi'ound that he had failed 
 solely from an error in judgment. Strong representations were 
 made in his favom- from various quarters, and even, at the insti- 
 gation of Voltaire, from the French general. Marshal Eichelieu ; 
 but in spite of the vigorous efforts made to save the life of the 
 ill-fated admiral, the iniquitous sentence was carried into efiTect 
 at Portsmouth, 17th March, 1757. He met his fate with the 
 courage of a hero, and the resignation of a christian. Posterity 
 has reversed the sentence of his accusers and judges, and done 
 justice to his memory. — J. T. 
 
 BYED, William, or, as his name is sometimes spelt, BYRDE 
 or BIRD, one of the most profound musicians of the sixteenth 
 century, is supposed to have been the son of Thomas Byrd, a 
 gentleman of Jidward VI. 's chapel. It appears that he was 
 brought up in the music-school of St. Paul's cathedral ; and, 
 according to Wood, received his musical education under the 
 gi'eat master, Tallis. In the year 1554 he was senior chorister 
 of St. Paul's, and his name occurs at the head of the school 
 in a petition for the restitution of certain obits and benefactions, 
 which had been seized under the act for the suppression of 
 colleges and hospitals in the preceding reign. The precise date 
 of his birth is unknown, but the fact of his being senior chorister 
 in 1554, tends to fix it about 1638. In 1563 he was appointed 
 organist ot Lincoln cathedral, where he continued till 1569, when 
 he was appointed gentleman of the chapel royal. The chief part 
 of his ecclesiastical compositions being composed to Latin words, 
 Byrd is supposed, notwithstanding the office he held, to have 
 retained his predilection for the Romish communion. He continued 
 to publish his works as late as the middle of the reign of James 
 L; it is, however, scarcely to be supposed that he composed any 
 part of them at so advanced a period of life. In 1575, it 
 appears by the title-page of the " Cantiones Sacra3," and the 
 patent annexed to that work, that Byrd and Tallis were not 
 only gentlemen of the chapel royal, but organists to her majesty, 
 Queen Ehzabeth. Byrd is thought to have derived very con^ 
 
 siderable pecuniary advantages from a patent granted to him and 
 Tallis by Queen Elizabeth, for the exclusive privilege of printing 
 music and vending music-paper. Upon the decease of Tallis in 
 1585, the patent devolved wholly to Byrd, according to the con- 
 ditions on which it had been granted. The following is a list of 
 Byrd's works, printed and published under this patent — "Can- 
 tiones qua; ab argumento sacra; vocantur, quinqu.e et sex partium. 
 Authoribus Tlioma Tallisio et Gulichno Birdo Anglis, serenis- 
 sinia; majestati a private sacello generosis et organistis," 1575 ; 
 " Psalmes, Sonets, and Songs of Sadnes and Pietie, made into 
 musicke of five parts," 1587 ; " Songs of Sundiie Natures, some 
 of Gravitie and others of Myrth, fit for all Companies and 
 Voyces," 1589; "Liber Primus Sacraram Cantionum quinque 
 vocum," 1589; "Liber Secundus Sacrarum Cantionum," &c., 
 1591; " Gradualia, ac Cantiones Sacra2, &c.. Liber Primus," 
 1607; "Gradualia, &c., Liber Secundus," 1610; "Psalmes, 
 Songs, and Sonets, some solemne, others joyful, framed to the 
 life of the words," &c., 1611. In addition to this list, Byrd 
 published three masses (one of which has been reprinted by the 
 Musical Antiquarian Society) without date or printer's name, 
 and contributed largely to the works of Young, Watson, Leigh- 
 ton, &c. Of his compositions for the organ or vu-ginals, a few 
 specimens are printed in the " Partheiiia, or the first Musick 
 that ever was printed for the Virginals," 1611; the rest, to a 
 considerable extent, may be seen in the JIS. virginal books of 
 Queen Elizabeth, Lady Nevil, &c. For his church music, the 
 collections of Dr. Alldrich in Christ church, Oxford, and those 
 of Dr. Tudway in the British Museum, may be consulted with 
 advantage. Before closing this account of Byrd's compositions, 
 it will be necessary to say a few words respecting his claim to 
 the authorship of the celebrated canon " Non nobis, Domine." 
 Dr. Pepusch, in his Treatise on Hai-mony printed in 1730, 
 distinctly calls it " the famous canon by William Byrd," and 
 Dr. Burney states that it is to be found, with Byrd's name, in 
 Hilton's Catch that Catch can. The canon, it is true, may be 
 found in this work, a co})y of which is now before us ; but the 
 name of the author does not appear to it, at least in the edition 
 of 1652. Dr. Tudway, in the MS. collection of music made for 
 the carl of Oxford, 1715, and now in the British Museuir 
 attributes it to Thomas Jlorley ! — a mistake solely arising from 
 the circumstance of Blorley having given the first six bars as a 
 canto fermo in his Introduction to Practicall Musick. 
 
 Byrd was an inhabitant of the parish of St. Helen's, Bishops- 
 gate, and resided opposite to Crosby Hall, and adjoining the 
 garden of Sir Thomas Gresham. AVe learn from the cheque- 
 book of tfie chapel royal that he died July 4th, 1623. In the 
 record of his death he is styled " the father of musick," in 
 allusion, probably, to his great age. Of his fiunily very little is 
 known. He left a son named Thomas, who was educated in 
 his own profession. In 1601 he acted as substitute for Dr. 
 John Bull, then travelling abroad for the recovery of his health, 
 and in that capacity read the music lecture at Gresham college. 
 
 Byrd's talents were highly appreciated by his countrymen and 
 brother professors. Morley in his Introduction before quoted, 
 first printed in 1597, speaks of him as "his loving master never 
 without reverence to be named of musicians;" and Henry 
 Peacham, in his Compleat Gentleman, says — " For motets and 
 musicke of pietie and devotion, as well for the honour of our 
 nation as the merit of the man, I preferre above all other our 
 plurnix, Mr. William Byrd, whom in that kind I know not 
 whether any may equal." Byrd lived on terms of the strictest 
 intimacy with the elder Ferrabosco, and more than once was 
 his rival in trials of skill and ingenuity in the intrit'aeics of 
 composition. Of Byrd's moral character and natural disposition, 
 Burney remarks — "There can perhaps be no testimony more 
 favourable, or less subject to suspicion, tlian those of rival 
 professors, with whom he appears to have lived during a long 
 life, with cordiality and fViendship. And of the goodness of 
 his heart it is to me no trivial proof, that he loved and was 
 beloved by his master, Tallis, and scholar, Morley, who, from 
 their intimate connexion with him, must have seen him en role 
 de chambre, and been sj)ectators of all the operations of temper, 
 in the opposite situations of subjection and dominion." An 
 engraved portrait of Byrd (probably unicpio) is in the collection 
 of the writer of this notice. — (liinibault's JJ/'e of Ihjrd, preji.red 
 to a Mass for Five ]'oices, prinled bij the Musical Aidiquavian 
 Sociefi/.)—E. F. R. 
 
 BY ROM, born in 1691 at Kcrsall, near Manchester; died in
 
 BYR 
 
 828 
 
 BYR 
 
 1763 ; educated at Merchant Taylors' school, London, from 
 which, at the a£;e of sixteen, he was sent to Trinity college, 
 Cambridge. While yet an undergi'aduate he published a pas- 
 toral poem, then greatly admired, and two letters on Dreams in 
 the Spectator, under the name of John Shadow. In 1714 he 
 became a fellow of his collec;e, but within two years had to 
 resign his fellowship, not having taken holy orders as the rule 
 under which it was held required. He married a cousin ; his 
 father and hers both had money, but they would not give a 
 shilling to the adventm'ous pair. Byrom passed the winters of 
 each year in London, earning his support by teaching short-hand, 
 while his family resided in Manchester. The system which he 
 employed, and of which he was himself the inventor, is still 
 found useful. He did what he could to keep the principle a 
 secret. This was of course impossible, and an account of it is 
 given in Bees' Cyclopaodia. One of his pupils was Lord Ches- 
 terfield. In 1774 BjTom was elected fellow of the Royal Society. 
 The death of a brother gave Byrom some property, and the 
 evening of his life was passed in the house where he was born. 
 Through his whole life he had the habit of throwing his 
 thoughts into verse. It would seem that he almost thought in 
 rhyme. In his verses there is a total absence of anything like 
 poetry, but the style is pleasant and conversational, and one 
 cannot read his volumes without feeling that he was a good and 
 an amiable man. After his death such of his poems as could be 
 collected were published. He had destroyed many during his 
 last illness. BjTom, after resigning his fellowship, thought to 
 have educated himself for the medical profession, and was, on 
 this account, by his friends called Doctor. Some of B\Tom's 
 smaller poems have been ascribed to others, among them an 
 epigram on Handel and Bononcini, to Swift, in whose works it 
 is often printed. A jom-nal of Byrom's, together with a great 
 many letters to and from him, have been found in the houses 
 where he resided in Manchester and at Kersall. Two volumes 
 of these " Remains" have been printed by the Chetham Society, 
 edited by the Rev. Dr. Parkinson, principal of St. Bees' college. 
 The journal, so far as published, goes down to the year 1785. 
 More volumes are promised. — J. A., D. 
 
 BYRON, George Noel Gordon, Lord Byron of Rochdale, 
 Lancashire, bora in Holies Street, London, January 22d, 1788; 
 descended from the Scandinavian Biiriins, one branch of which 
 settled in Normandy, and came over to England with William 
 the Conqueror. Another branch had migrated to Livonia, pro- 
 ducing there the fonuidable Marshal de Buren, so notorious 
 through the absolute power which he had grasped, and for a 
 time wielded in Russia. Thus, — were one to repose confidently 
 on the influence of race, — it would not be difficult to find in such 
 antecedents the necessaiy ground of daring and tameless will 
 as regards the subject of our memoir, but causes abundantly 
 adequate to influence him in a similar direction, in so far as he 
 could be influenced from without, form a main part of the 
 story of his own brief life. — His mother, iliss Gordon of Gight, 
 a Scotch heiress, was the second wife of the poet's father. Captain 
 Byron. By a former marriage with Lady Carmarthen, Captain 
 Byron had one daughter, the Honourable Augusta Byron, after- 
 wards Mrs. Leigh. Between this sister and Lord Byron a most 
 tender and endmnng affection existed. Captain Byron and his 
 wife lived unhappily together, and were soon separated. !Mrs. 
 Byron's fortune being entirely swallowed up by her husband's 
 . debts, she found herself, in two years after her mairiage, pos- 
 sessed of only £150 per annum. She retired to Aberdeen, and 
 her son, when nearly five years old, was sent to a day school 
 there for one year, and afterwards to the school of a Jlr. Ross, 
 whose kindness he always remembered with gratitude. As 
 soon as he was able to read, " his grand passion was Roman 
 histoiy." From Mr. Ross's he went to the Aberdeen grammar 
 school. His schoolfellows agree in describing him as " a 
 lively, warm-heaited, high-spirited boy, passionate and resentful, 
 but affectionate and companionable : to a remarkable degi'oe 
 venturesome and fearless, and always more ready to give a blow 
 than take one." He is also said to h.ave been " more anxious 
 to distinguish himself by prowess in all sjwrts and exercises, 
 than by advancement in learning." It belonged to Byron's 
 nature to resolve to excel even in pursuits for which he seemed 
 naturally the least fitted — a feature of character distinguishing 
 him through life, and calling forth at once the greatness and 
 much of the weakness of the man. His keen feeling, connected 
 witli the deformity of one of his feet (occasioned by an accident 
 
 at his birth), a feeling that seldom left him — induced him to 
 engage eagerly on every suitable opportunity in violent physical 
 exercises, and it is well known how he triumphed in his success. 
 The disadvantage in question he had early surmounted to a great 
 extent by dint of stern determination, for his school-mates say that 
 " he excelled at ' bases,' a game requiring considerable swiftness 
 of foot." In 1796 Jlrs. Byron took her son to the Highlands, 
 and the wild grandeur of the scenery made an indelible impres- 
 sion on his muid, even at that tender age. His love of nature, 
 so intense that in her presence " he lived not in himself, but he 
 became portion of that around him," was hei'e first developed. 
 In after years he commemorates his old enthusiasm for mountain 
 gi-andeiu", and attributes some of the delight he experienced in 
 the sublimity of Alpine and classical scenery, to the charm of 
 Scotch memories : 
 
 " The infant rapture still survived the boy, 
 And Loch-na-gar with Ida looked on Troy." 
 
 Byron was an extremely sensitive and afiectionate child. At 
 the age of eight years, his attachment to his cousin, Mary DuflP, 
 seems to have deserved the name of love. In allusion to this 
 he says somewhere — " I certainly had no sexual ideas for years 
 afterwards, yet my misery and my love for that girl were so 
 violent, that I sometimes doubt whether I have ever been really 
 attached since." But this loving nature was rendered a source 
 of suiFcring to him in childhood, by the violent unregulated 
 temper of his mother, who, though she indulged him to excels, 
 was subject to paroxysms of rage, in which she would throw tlic 
 first missile that came to her hand at her son, and even call 
 him " a lame brat." " He traced the first feelings of pain and 
 humiliation he had ever kno^\Ti to the coldness with which his 
 mother received his caresses in infancy, and the frequent taunts 
 on liis personal deformity, with which she had wounded him.'' 
 The only gentle mfluence at work to relieve the harshness of these 
 scenes, was that of his nurse, ]\IaiT Gray, whose kindness to hun 
 as a child he never forgot. " This woman, in common with all 
 his nurses, tutors, &c., always spoke with tender remembrance 
 of the ' mixture of affectionate sweetness and playfulness ' in his 
 disposition, by which it was impossible not to be attached, and 
 which rendered him then, as he was in his riper years, easily 
 manageable by those who loved and understood him." In 1799 
 Mrs. B}Ton removed to London, and in 1800 she sent B}Ton to 
 HaiTow. Dr. Drury, head master of Harrow, says of him — " His 
 manner and temper soon commiced me that he might be led by a 
 silken string to a point, rather than by a cable." In 1803, while 
 passing the vacation in Notts, Byron first saw Mary, daughter 
 of ]\Ir. Chaworth of Anncsley. His unrequited love for her cast 
 its shadow over his whole futiu-e life. One of his most beauti- 
 ful and touching poems, the " Dream," describes its efiects upon 
 him, as no words but his own could do. Miss Chaworth, though 
 aware of his attachment, understood neither the deep heart nor 
 the genius of her youthful lover. He has spoken in his journal 
 of the intense sufiering he endured on overhearing Miss Chaworth 
 say to her maid — " Do you think I could care anything for that 
 lame boy?" and given a pahiful account of his rushing wildly 
 out of the house at night, he knew not whither, "in an agony 
 of humiliation and grief." In 1805 he went to Cambridge, and 
 there formed many ardent friendships, even the memory of which, 
 sLxteen years afterwards, could bring tears into his eyes. In 
 1806 his first volume of poems was printed for private circula- 
 tion. The first copy was presented by him to a friend, who 
 expostulated with him on the licentiousness of one poem in the 
 volume. Byron frankly admitted the justice of the censure, and 
 at once cancelled the whole edition. The poems were published 
 in 1807, and sold rapidly. In 1808 he spent the vacation in 
 London, courted and lionized by the blase London world, and 
 leading the thoughtless dissipated life too common among those 
 of his age and rank. His inner life, however, appears to have 
 been distressingly lonely. The unreasonable violence of his 
 mother's temper estranged him from her, and " he had not," 
 says Mr. Moore, " a single friend or relative to whom he conld 
 look up with respect." Injudicious praise, and equally injudi- 
 cious blame, were all he met with from the criticism of the 
 d.ay. In 1808, the criticism on his " Hours of Idleness," which 
 appeared in the Edinburgh Rerieio, first kindled the true fire 
 of his genius. In 1809 he answered it by publishing the 
 celebrated satire — "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." His 
 coming of age was celebrated at Newstead Abbey early in the
 
 BYR 
 
 829 
 
 BYR 
 
 same year, and in Jiaixh, he took liis seat in tlic house of lords. 
 He was much pained by the coldness shown him by a relative, 
 by whom he had expected to be introduced on that occasion ; 
 and Mr. Jloore attributes his determination to leave England 
 immediately after this, to the mortification he experienced at his 
 lonely and friendless position, and the want of means suited to 
 his rank. The bitter sadness which even then was creeping 
 over his natm'ally vivacious and affectionate disposition, may be 
 traced in the celebrated epitaph on his favomnte dog, written in 
 lf.08 ; and the kindness of his heart in the eagerness and 
 delicacy with which, notwithstanding his own pecuniary embar- 
 rassments, he gave Uberal assistance to the family of Lord 
 Falkland, when that gentleman was killed in a duel. His melan- 
 choly before stai-ting was increased, and his sensitiveness much 
 wounded by the refusal of a former schoolfellow, to whom he 
 was deeply attached, to spend a farewell hour with him on the 
 last day he passed in England, on plea of an engagement to go 
 shopping. He left London in June, and ^^sited Portugal, Spain, 
 Greece, and Turkey. During this journey he composed the first 
 and second cantos of " Childe Harold." He returned to England 
 in 1811. Almost immediately on his arrival, he heard of his 
 mother's severe illness, and hastened to Newstead Abbey, but 
 irrived too late to see her alive. His gi'ief at her death was 
 jueh as to surprise those who were aware how little of a mother's 
 tenderness he had ever known. In 1812 he published the two 
 first cantos of " Childe Harold," which instantly placed him at 
 the summit of popularity and fame. He gave the copyright of 
 this and many later poems to a friend, having determined not to 
 take money for his works, a resolution which he only reluctantly 
 ■iliandoned, in after years, from necessity. Mr. Hodgeson says — 
 ■ Were it possible to state all he has done for numerous friends, 
 le would appear amiable indeed. For myself, I am bound to 
 :icknowledge, in the fullest and warmest manner, his generous 
 und well-timed aid ; and were my poor friend Bland alive, he 
 would as gladly bear a like testimony." Even a man who had 
 unworthily libelled him was relieved by Lord Byron's ever open 
 hand. In 1813 he published the " Giaour," "Bride of Abydos," 
 and "Corsair;" and in 1814, "Lara." In this year, yielding 
 to the advice of friends, he made an offer of marriage to Jliss 
 Milbank, and was accepted. He was mamed on the 2nd of 
 •January, 1815. This marriage, entered into rather from the 
 influence of others, than from deep affection, was a grave error. 
 With feelings such as he has described in the " Dream," Byron 
 I'.ad no right to many ; and, indeed, the friends who urged the 
 step upon him appear to have been chiefly actuated by motives 
 "f conventional propiiety and advantage, quite unworthy of the 
 Hcasion. Yet Byron seems to have been really attached to his 
 >'.ife ; his letters, wiitten after marriage, speak of happiness ; and 
 he even playfully wrote to Moore, that " if marriage were to be 
 upon lease, he would gladly renew his own for ninety -nine years." 
 His daughter, Ada, was born on the 10th December, 1815. In 
 January, 1816, Lady Byron left town on a visit to her father's 
 bouse in Lancashire. "They had parted in the utmost kindness ; 
 -he wrote him a letter full of playfulness and affection on the road ; 
 iiiid, immediately on her arrival at Kirkby JIallory, her father 
 wrote to acquaint Lord Byron that she would return to him no 
 more. This unexpected shock fell upon him at a time when 
 those pecuniary embarrassments, which had been fast gather- 
 ing around him during the whole of the last year (there having 
 been no less than eight or nine executions in the house during 
 that period), had arrived at their utmost ; and at a moment, when, 
 to use his own strong expressions, he was ' standing alone on 
 his hearth with all his household gods shivered round him,' he was 
 also doomed to receive the startling intelligence, that the wife who 
 had just parted from him in kindness, had parted from him for 
 ever." The causes of tliis separation have never been explained. 
 Lord Byron, though he spoke bitterly of his wife's parents, gener- 
 ously exculpated her ; he was until the close of his life ever 
 ready for a reconciliation, and though deeply attached to his 
 child, he never attempted to w^ilhdraw her from her mother's 
 care. In the memoirs he presented to Mr. Moore, with orders 
 to publish them after his death, a detailed account was given of 
 all the circumstances of his marriage and separation, " as frank 
 as usual in his avowal of his own errors, and generously just 
 towards Lady B." Mr. Jloore, however, after Lord Byron's 
 death, was induced to suppress these memoirs, and to accept a 
 sum of money in compensation for his own loss — forgetful of 
 the loss sustained by the public in the transaction. Lord Byron 
 
 had directed that the memoir should be sho^\Ti to his wife before 
 publication, " that she might have it in her power to mark 
 anything mistaken or misstated." — The stoim of calumny and 
 abuse that now burst forth on all sides against his lordship was 
 undoubtedly the chief cause of his agahi determining to leave 
 England. He met, as he said, " condemnation without a charge, 
 sentence without trial, and was exiled by ostracism." . . . 
 " I was accused of eveiy monstrous vice by public rumour and 
 private rancour. My name, which had been a knightly and 
 noble one since my fathers helped to conquer the kingdom for 
 William the Conqueror, was tainted. I felt that if what was 
 whispered and muttered were time, I was unfit for England ; 
 if false, England was unfit for me." " Such an outcry was now 
 raised as perhaps, in no case of private life, was ever raised 
 before. Hardly a word was spoken, certainly none was listened 
 to, in his favour." Jloore attributes the unexampled fmy of 
 the public to jealousy, and says that " those who had long 
 sickened under the splendour of the poet, were now enabled, 
 under the guise of champions for innocence, to wreak their 
 vengeance on the man." Lord BjTon professed himself unable 
 to discover the secret of this hatred, and concluded that he 
 must be " personally obnoxious," as " without at least a charge 
 or accusation of some kind, actually expressed and substan- 
 tiated," he could " hardly believe that the mere common and 
 every-day occmTence, a separation between a man and his wife, 
 would in itself produce so great a ferment." The true causes 
 are in the very natiu-e and character of Lord Bp'on's mind, 
 which were " obnoxious " to so much of the spirit and temper 
 of England in his own day, and still prevent him from being 
 appreciated by a large portion of his countrymen. Madame de 
 Stael saw further into the truth than his lordship, when she 
 said to him — "You should not have warred with the world, it 
 won't do ;" but she did not comprehend that to war with the 
 world that siu-rounded him was the mission of Lord Byron's 
 genius, the source alike of his power and his pain. Nay, war- 
 fare in the abstract, was, in several senses, a condition of his 
 nature : and much of his poetry sprang out of the friction of 
 opposing principles in his own mind. Like very many great 
 men, he lived largely in the midst of contradictions, as if he had 
 been made up of two conflicting modes of being. Though natu- 
 rally most generous, he could yet be selfish; he could be isolated, 
 or social, att'able, and ingenuous ; and even in his most defiant 
 moods, his happiness, quite as much as that of most men, depended 
 on the approbation of those around him. He had mixed person- 
 ally, and apparently not disapprovingly, with the follies he 
 condemned. He never escaped from an overbearing and very 
 painful self-consciousness. The self-possession which he so 
 much admired, was perhaps the quality he w\is farthest from 
 attaining : to the last, he was ruffled by little jealousies. 
 Most strangely of all, while revolting utterly from the restraints 
 of English society, and the limitations of English thought, he 
 was yet an English peer of the nineteenth century. A large 
 democratic spirit undoubtedly possessed him, and often, as if 
 in spite of himself, his wide and strong sympathies led him fiir 
 beyond the confines of the circle of fashionable society ; but he 
 owed to his liking for that society and his interest in it, much 
 of his influence and power. By bu-th an aristocrat, and sharing 
 in the prejudices as well as the nobler qualities of his class, he 
 struck the severest blows at the principle of aristocracy. This 
 perhaps is the source of the singular power, and the true inward 
 and highest sense of his poems. He has been said to have 
 summed up the era of Individuality, and to have cleared tlie way 
 for one of Association, or of Humanity. Aristocracy, viewed from 
 a philosophical point of view, is, in fact, the Individual separating 
 itself from the Collective Life, and .asserting some sort of vital dis- 
 tinction between itself and its fellows, claiming to work out an 
 exclusive existence, and to draw nothing from the common sources 
 of life. The isolated individual being incapable of realizing this 
 fundamental idea of aristocracy, aristocracy became of necessity 
 a caste, but its origin is nevertheless in the assertion of the prin- 
 ciple of individuality. Byron's heroes are all types of this 
 struggle of individuality against the associative tendency of the 
 nineteenth century. They all manifest the impotence of the indi- 
 vidual to live a normal, a happy, or even a truly great life, by 
 separating his sympathies and aspirations from those of his human 
 brethren. Manfred, the Corsair, Lara, &c., arc all powerfully and 
 peculiarly endowed individualities, who have withdrawn them- 
 selves fi'om the common path, and set up in war with society,
 
 BYE 
 
 830 
 
 BYE 
 
 not for the s:ike of improving it, or in the worship of a new and 
 higher principle, but in tlie mere assertion and worship of their 
 own strength, by wliich alone they seek to crush while they 
 dazzle the society they despise. They are themselves crushed by 
 Fate ; the ever-advancing surge of humanity overwhelms even 
 tliem ; and Byron, who has first fascinated us, as he was himself 
 fascinated by these Titanic types, destroys them on a sudden, 
 and inscribes upon theu' tomb a curse — the curse which liangs 
 over exceptional gifts, when abused to the aggrandizement of 
 the one, rather than used for the advancement of all. This 
 instinct in Byron which finds its poetic expression (frequently, 
 as we have said, unconsciously) in his heroes, reveals itself in a 
 thousand ways in all his poetry, and is shown in the unceasing 
 war he wages against aristocratic tendencies and prejudices in 
 every shape. Passage's like the following are of constant recur- 
 rence in his letters, journals, &c. : — " The newspapers will tell you 
 all that is to be told of emperors, &c. They have dined, supped, 
 and shown their flat faces in all thoroughfares, and several 
 saloons. . . . News come ! The powers mean to war with 
 the peoples. . . . The king-times are fast finishing : there 
 will be blood shed like water, and tears like mist, but the 
 peoples will conquer in the end ; I shall not live to see it, but I 
 foresee it." It is this forecasting sympathy with the struggles 
 in which they are still engaged, which causes him to be 
 esteemed on the continent as the poet of a new era, and which 
 makes him eminently the poet of the people, even in England. 
 They do not, it is true, understand him ; but they feel tliat he 
 feels with them and for them, and they love him. This also 
 explains the intense interest with which Byron watched the 
 career of Napoleon ; his iipbraiding him, on his seizure of 
 empire, as " the hero sunk into a king," shows that it was not 
 merely the great militaiy genius, but the revolutionaiy chief 
 that he had hailed in liim. To these popular sympathies, so 
 powerfully and so boldly expressed, must be attributed the exces- 
 sive and exaggerated rancour exhibited against him by whoever 
 shared in or profited by privileges whose doom he prophesied. 
 But, moreover, the long-suftcrings and privations caused by the 
 war, and the still recent crimes and excesses of the French 
 revolution, had filled England with hoiTor and disgtist ; save an 
 enlightened minority, the English of Lord Byron's day regarded 
 the straggle for freedom on the continent as a mere bloody chaos 
 of anarchical passions, and such in truth it appeared. But 
 Byron, with the prophetic instinct of genius, recognized in the 
 storm of revolution that burst over Europe the finger of God ; 
 and while the majority of his countrymen, long accustomed to 
 see the continent shrouded in the darkness of comiption-made 
 law, viewed tlie comet-like career of Napoleon merely as a 
 lilighting scourge threatening even their own island, he saw in 
 him an avenging thunderbolt which purified the infected atmos- 
 phere around the thrones it blasted on its passage. Sentiments 
 so distasteful to the English mind go far to explain the obloquy 
 with which our poet was assailed, although the secret was 
 probably quite as unrecognized by his assailants as uncompre- 
 hended by him. — The gloomy and morbid scepticism into which 
 Lord Byron occasionally fell, may be attributed in a great 
 measure to the unjust hatred of his countrymen acting upon 
 a spirit already deeply saddened by a desolate youth, unhappy 
 attachment, and an ill-judged and ill-fated maniage. All who 
 knew him intimately have testified to the natural gentleness 
 and aff'ectionateness of his disposition ; but his very virtues 
 appear from unfortunate circumstances to have been a source 
 of suffering to him. The great Goethe has said of him that 
 he was " inspired by the genius of Pain." " A disposition 
 on his own side to form strong attachments, and a yearning 
 after aflection in return, were at once the feeling and the want 
 that formed the dream and torment of his existence. We 
 have seen with what passionate enthusiasm he threw himself 
 into his boyish friendships. The all-absorbing and unsuccessful 
 love that followed, was, if I may so say, the agony, without 
 being the death of this unsated desire ; disappointment of this 
 
 feeling met him at the very threshold of life His 
 
 mother either rudely repelled his alfection, or capriciously trifled 
 
 with it In all the relations of the heart his thirst 
 
 after affection was thwarted," while even " in his first literary 
 efforts disappointment and mortification awaited him." Then 
 followed his imhappy marriage, and the burst of calumny and 
 outrage which drove him into exile. He left England in April, 
 1816, not again to return. He could never quite forgive his 
 
 country, but neither could he forget her, nor while adapting 
 himself to new cucumstances, did he ever cast off his own 
 nationality. He went by Flanders and the Rhine to Switzerland, 
 and en route composed the " Third Canto of Childe Harold ;" 
 the " Prisoner of Chillon " was M'ritten at Ouchy, on the lake 
 of Geneva. At Diodati, on the same lake, he wrote the 
 " Dream," " Prometheus," &c. ; it was here that he became 
 acquainted with Shelley, and during a tour made at this time 
 among the Bernese Alps, he commenced " Manfred." Writing 
 of this journey, he says : — " In all this the recollection of bitter- 
 ness, and more especially of recent and home desolation, which 
 must accompany me through life, have preyed upon me here; and 
 neither the music of the shepherd, nor the crashing of the ava- 
 lanche, nor the toiTent, the mountain, the glacier, the forest, nor 
 the cloud, have for one moment lightened the weight upon my 
 heart, nor enabled me to lose my own wretched identity in the 
 majesty, and the power, and the gloiy, around, above, and beneath 
 me." From Geneva he went to Venice, where — probably from the 
 culpable weakness of endeavouring to di'own this cry of despair 
 and bitterness sounding from the depths of his wounded spirit — 
 he sank for a time into a course of reckless dissipation, utterly 
 imworthy his nature and his genius. "Manfred," wliich is the 
 embodiment of anguish and despair, and " Beppo," the expres- 
 sion of his scorn of professed and hollow morality, were wiitten 
 during this period. " Don Juan," too, was commenced. But 
 even here his better self did not quite forsake him ; the fourth 
 canto of " Childe Harold," with its magnificent curse of forgive- 
 ness, is also of this date. He seems to have been roused from 
 subjection to various and degrading passions by his fixed attach- 
 ment to the Countess Guiccioli, and by his entering heart and 
 soul into the caixse of the Italian Carbonari. He enrolled him- 
 self of their number, subscribed largely to their funds, concealed 
 their arms in his house, and shared in every way their perils and 
 their hopes. In 1819 he removed to Ravenna, where he wrote 
 "The Prophecy of Dante," "Francesca da Rimini," &c. In 1820 
 the Countess Guiccioli was formally separated from her husband ; 
 from which period Lord Byron lived vrith her until his departure 
 for Greece. He also continued in active sympathy with the 
 Italian liberals, though well aware of the danger to which he 
 thereby exposed himself His letters and jom-nals show how 
 completely he had identified himself with their cause : " I some- 
 times thhik, if the Italians don't rise, of coming to England. 
 I have lived in the heart of their houses . . . have 
 seen and become (^pars magna fui) a portion of their hopes, and 
 fears, and passions. . . . It is no great matter, supposing 
 that Italy could be liberated, who or what is sacrificed. . . , 
 It is a great object, the veiy poetry of politics : only think, a froc 
 Italy ! ! ! . . . If this countiy could be freed, what could be 
 too great for the accomplishment of that desire, for the extinction 
 of the sighs of ages ? . . . You neither know nor di'cara of 
 the consequences of this war. It is a war of men with mon- 
 archs. . . . What it is with you English you do not know, 
 for ye sleep. What it is with us here I know, for it is before, and 
 around, and within us. ... I am but as one of the many 
 waves that must break and die upon the shore, before the tide 
 they help to advance can reach its full mark. . . . What 
 signifies self, if a single spark of that which would be worthy of 
 the past can be bequeathed unquenchably to the future," &c., &c. 
 On the failm-e of the Italian insurrection of 1821, Lord Byron 
 removed to Pisa. During this year he wrote " Cain," the "Vision 
 of Judgment," " Heaven and Earth," &c., &c., besides continu- 
 ing " Don Juan." In 1822 he went with the Countess Guiccioli 
 and her brother to Genoa. The delight with which Byron hailed, 
 in the Greek revolution, the awakening of the spirit he had so 
 often invoked, may be infeiTcd from the energy with which, when 
 the continuance of the struggle had convinced him the Greeks 
 were in earnest, he prepared to assist them. He sent help in 
 medical stores and gunpowder ; and after a severe struggle, 
 occasioned by the pain of parting with the Countess Guiccioli, 
 and the gloomiest forebodings that he should never retuiTi to her, 
 he decided to start himself, and throw the weight of his per- 
 sonal influence, his counsels, and his whole fortune into the 
 scale. The friends who knew him at Genoa agree in declaring, 
 that he went to Greece as one fulfilling, at a great sacrifice, a 
 solemn duty. " He was always saying," adds JI™"- Guiccioli, 
 " that a man ought to do something more for society than write 
 verses." On the 14th June he sailed from Genoa, and reached 
 Argastoli in December. Eveiywhere he was hailed as a deliverer.
 
 BYR 
 
 831 
 
 BYR 
 
 Every letter lie wrote to his agent? in England, urged upon 
 tbem the necessity of making any sacrifice to obtain, by the 
 sale of his estates, &c., money for the cause. The space allotted 
 to this brief memoir renders it impossible to give any account 
 i)f the revolution itself, but Jlr. Moore thus describes the task 
 Lord Byron undertook : " To convince the government and 
 chiefs of the paralysing effects of these dissensions, — to incul- 
 cate that spiiit of union among themselves which alone could 
 _ive strength against their enemies, — to endeavour to humanize 
 lie feelings of the belligerents on both sides, so as to take 
 from the war its character of barbarism," &c. " Lord Byron," 
 says Colonel Napier, "judged the Greeks fairly. He knew 
 that haU-civihzed men are full of vices, and that great allow- 
 ance must be made for emancipated slaves. He proceeded, 
 therefore, bridle in hand, not thinking them good, but hoping 
 to make them better." On the oth of Januaiy he arrived at 
 Missolonghi, and was appointed commander-in-chief of a pro- 
 posed expedition against Lepanto. On the 22d he wrote the 
 lines " On Completing his Thii-ty-sixth Year." The climate of 
 Missolonghi, against which he had been most urgently warned, 
 proved fatal to him. On Februaiy 15, he was seized with a 
 convulsive fit, from the effects of which he never completely 
 recovered. On the 9th of April he became seriously iU, and on 
 the 12th he took to his bed, never to rise again. On the 14th 
 he was urged to be bled, but refused, and only submitted on the 
 16th, and as it proved, too late. He was worse aftem-ards, and 
 appearances of inflammation of the brain induced the medical 
 men to let blood a second and third time without avail. His 
 gentleness and kind thought for his attendants moved them to 
 tears ; he " feared they should be ill from sitting up day and 
 night." Aware that he was d}-ing, he attempted to send messages 
 to his sister and Lady Byron, but was inarticulate. His last 
 words, during his intervals of reason, were '' Augusta," " Ada," 
 and " Greece." At a quarter-past six on the morning of the 19th 
 April he expired. All the pubfic offices, even the tribunals, were 
 closed for three days. A general mom-ning of twenty-one days 
 was ordered by the Greek government, and prayers and a ftuieral 
 service were offered in all the chmxhes. His body was sent to 
 England, and after a funeral ceremony performed in London, 
 conveyed to Hucknall church, Kotts, and buried near his mother 
 in the vault of his ancestors. The tablet over the grave was 
 placed by his beloved sister Augusta. — Not unfitting season, 
 perhaps, at which a gi-and and stirring spirit should pass away ; 
 — the eve of a fierce and mighty struggle ! Nevertheless, there 
 was in Byron's death at such a juncture, a touch of profoundest 
 tragedy. On the point of entering on a course of manly action, 
 of taking the lead in momentous practical affiurs, and being 
 hailed by all men as a beneficent and practical power in Europe, 
 how much of weakness, how much of imperfection might soon 
 have been strengthened, perfected, and refined ! Perhaps it is 
 true, what Goethe said — " Bvron could, in a certain sense, go 
 no fiu-ther. He had reached the summit of his creative power, 
 and — whatever he might have done in the future — he would 
 have been unable to exceed the boundai-ies of his talent." But 
 there is a higher sense in which he might have gone much far- 
 ther, and for which the opportunity seemed to have just come. 
 If even now — notwithstanding the brilliancy of his genius — it 
 is the life and character of the !Man that chiefly rivets our 
 attention and constrains our affections, what might Byron not 
 have become to England and the World and all Time, had he 
 been permitted through aid of that purifier — Action, to ascend 
 from the stage of doubt, contradiction, and strife, to that of 
 " self-reverence, self-knowledge, and self-control ! " His course 
 has been compared to that of a meteor : indeed it was fierce 
 and fast. But when the intelligence of its close arrived, Europe 
 felt that a Sun had set. 
 
 As a poet, Lord BvTon will take rank with those second 
 only to Shakspeare and Dante. The great critic of Germany 
 indeed, recommended a student, on one occasion, to acquire 
 English, mainly that he might read these wonderful writings. 
 At the time of their publication they attained a popularity, 
 and exerted an influence never surpassed, either in extent or 
 intensity, by those of any writer retaining a place in the annals 
 of literature; and if this influence has partly dhninishcd, it 
 is chiefly because the intellectual wants of England have 
 changed. Byron possessed in a paramount degree many of 
 the richest qualities of an immortal poet — a keen eye, a fine 
 sense of harmony, an exquisite susceptibility, and the utmost 
 
 fluency of language ; but the grand source of his power is that 
 fullness of life which gave greatness to the lilan. Instead, 
 therefore, of being a mere artist, he felt that he was more than 
 an artist, and flimg out his verses carefully or carelessly as he 
 listed. " Do you fancy," he said once to Trelawney, " that I 
 am to subside into a poet?" Hence, these abundant verses 
 will not bear to be taken to pieces, or his poems judged of line 
 by line, as is pre-eminently the case with Keats, and to a 
 certain extent with Shelley ; they are by no means free from 
 commonplace phrases, prosaic images, and other faults of detail ; 
 but who has surpassed their force and fire ? Some one has 
 remarked of Byron's head, that it gave him the impression ot 
 being at a higher temperature than that of other men : — the 
 same might be said of his poetry. As a di'amatist he cannot be 
 called pre-eminent. His characters are selected from within a 
 narrow range, and are too correct reflections of the moods of the 
 writer to have an adequate individuality. The scenes are often 
 stilted, and the plots cramped ; but the majestic and gorgeous 
 passages which abound in them will cause these plays to retain 
 a higher place in general estimation than far more correct and 
 artistic structures. The lyrics, especially those in "Manfred" 
 and the " Deformed Transfonned," are models almost inap- 
 proachable. The third and fourth cantos of " ChUde Harold" 
 alone, place their author in the foremost rank of descriptive 
 writei's ; ])ut it is as a satiinst that he soars highest — above all 
 the poets of our century. The genius of Byron, with its wonder- 
 ful power to blend pathos, humour, wit, scorn, saturnine gloom, 
 and exuberant vitality, is better represented in "Don Juan," than 
 perhaps by aU his other poems put together. — The tendency of 
 liis writings, and especially of this his last and gi'eatest work, 
 has been the subject of much dispute. The majority of critics 
 have followed in the wake of Southey, Bowles, &c., and 
 denounced him as an immoral and irreligious writer : but it is a 
 question whether the accusation did not originate in great part 
 in an incomplete appreciation of his waitings as a whole, and of 
 the age in which he lived. The immorality and scepticism which 
 sully portions of Lord B}Ton's writings are not of his personal 
 creation ; they are the reproduction of what was the very atmos- 
 phere of the tainted society of his day : a society, which idolized 
 the incarnation of its worst vices in the " First Gentleman in 
 Europe," would readily cry anathema on the plain-spoken poet 
 who snatched the mask from its brow, and held, as it were, the 
 miiTor up to its evil nature. Byron was bom to overthrow, to 
 puU down : and his mission of destraction was rendered sacred 
 by the suffering of the destroyer. This may be said more or 
 less of all his poems, but of none so truly as of " Don Juan." 
 The offspring of reaction, and needlessly offensive to good taste 
 as this poem too often is, it is not, if rightly read, immoral. It 
 is a crusade against cant, fought with the weapon of a match- 
 less irony. Cant in all its shapes — in religion, in morals, in 
 politics — the poet flagellates with the stinging scourge of his 
 pitUess wit. 
 
 " With or without offence to friends or foes, 
 To sketch the world exactly as it goes," 
 
 he finds " prolific of melancholy merriment." He laughs, but it 
 is not the laugh of Voltake ; there is in it no enjoyment, only 
 bitterness — 
 
 " Andif I laugh at any mortal thing, 
 'Tis that I may not weep." 
 
 And the cries of anguish that follow, redeem the poet ; for, unlike 
 the laugh that preceded them, they spring from the very depths 
 of his heiirt. In the midst of the mocking scepticism by which 
 it is disfigured, "Don Juan" abounds in noble passages, pro- 
 phetic of, and aspiring ardently towards a coming era of truth 
 and justice. An eminent continental writer has stated what 
 English critics have too often overlooked — the European 7-o!c 
 given by Lord Byron to English literature, and the appreciation 
 of English he induced upon the continent. " From him dates 
 our continental study and knowledge of English literature, and 
 to a great extent of England. His poetrv', and his readiness to 
 devote himself to the cause, first of Italian and then of Greek 
 freedom, have made of him a sort of apostle of England in the 
 countries through which he passed. Before he came amongst 
 us, all we knew of English literature was the French translation 
 of Shakspeare, and the anathema hurled by Voltaire against 
 your ' intoxicated barbarian.' Since Byron we have learned to 
 study Shakspeare, and all your poets and other writers. We 
 felt what must be the land from which such a soul was sprung.
 
 From him dates the sympathy of men of heart towards your 
 land of lil)crty, whose vocation he so worthily represented among 
 the oppressed of all countries. He led the genius of Britain as 
 on a pilgrimage throughout all Europe." — There have been 
 numberless editions of Lord Byron's works, but the best are 
 those published by John Murray of Albemarle Street, London, 
 who purchased the first copj-right of nearly all his poems. The 
 memoirs published of him have been nearly as numerous. The 
 most trustworthy Life of Byron, rather because of its copious 
 extracts from his own letters and journals, than on account of 
 the author's appreciation of a man whom he was intellectually 
 and morally incapable of understanding, is that written by 
 Thomas Jloore (Murray, Albermarle Street). The best portrait 
 of Byron is the one painted by Phillips, now at Xewstead abbey 
 in the possession of Byron's schoolfellow, Colonel Wildman, who 
 has preser\-ed with affectionate and reverential care every relic 
 of the abbey's former illustrious owner. — II... N. 
 
 BYKOX, John, a celebrated Britisli admiral and circumnavi- 
 gator, second son of William fourth Lord Byron, and grand- 
 father of the poet, was bom m 1723. At the age of seventeen 
 he sen'ed as midshipman in the Wager, one of the vessels 
 attached to the squadron under Commodore Anson, despatched 
 against the Spanish settlements in the Pacific. The whole of 
 the ships composing this expedition successively suffered ship- 
 wreck, and the Wager, on the 15th of May, struck on the 
 western coast of America. In the end, the crew were compelled 
 to abandon the ship, and to land upon an uninhabited island, to 
 which they gave the name of Mount Jlisery. After residing for 
 several months on this desolate spot, they embarked in the cutter 
 and long-boat, and attempted to retm-n home through the Straits 
 of JIagellan. The cutter was lost, but the long-boat in which 
 Byron was, after a perilous voyage of upwards of a thousand 
 leagiaes, at length reached the Portuguese settlements in Brazil. 
 The survivors, after enduring the most feaiful sufferings from cold, 
 hunger, and sickness, ultimately succeeded in reaching Europe 
 in 1745. Campbell, in his Pleasures of Hope, gives a striking 
 description of the dreadful hardships endured by "the hardy 
 Bvron" on this voyage, of which Byron himself, on his return to 
 England, published a singularly' interesting narrative. On his 
 aiTival in England, he was raised to the rank of commander, and 
 soon after to th.it of post-captain. In 1758-60 he was employed 
 in the war against France, and distinguished himself by a brilliant 
 exploit in destroying a French squadron in Chaleur Bay. On 
 the return of peace in 1764, he was sent on a voyage of dis- 
 covery to the South Sea, in command of the ships Dolphin and 
 Taniar. He was absent two years, and though the voyage was 
 not productive of many important discoveries, it deserves honour- 
 able mention in the history of nautical adventures. In 1769 
 Byron was appointed governor of Newfoundland. In 1778 he 
 
 commanded the fleet sent to watch the movements of Count 
 D'Estamg in the West Indies. The French admiral was at the 
 head of a greatly superior force, and an undecisive action was 
 fought between him and Byron off Grenada in July, 1779. 
 During the course of his lengthened service, Byron was regarded 
 as so singularly unlucky in encountering adverse gales and 
 dangerous storms, that the sailors aptly nicknamed him " Foul- 
 weather Jack." He died in London, Apiil 10, 1786, leaving 
 behind him a high reputation for courage and professional skill. 
 His son, George Anson Byron — bom 1758 ; died 1793 — was 
 also a most meritorious and distinguished officer, and contributed 
 materially to the glorious victory gained by Lord Rodney over 
 the French fleet, 12th April, 1782.— J. T. 
 
 BYSTROM, Joseph Xikolaus, a celebrated Swedish sculp- 
 tor, and professor of the academy of sculpture in Stockholm, was 
 bom 18th December, 1783, at Philippstadt in the province of 
 Warmeland. He received his artistic education under Sergei in 
 Stockholm, of whom he was a favourite pupil, and by whom he 
 was especially led to the study of the antique. In 1810 he 
 went to Rome, whence he returned to his native city in 1815. 
 Having secretly executed a colossal statue of Karl Johann, at 
 that time crown prince of Sweden, he thereby won so greatly the 
 favour of that monarch, that the most valuable commissions 
 were henceforth given to him. His works are for the greater 
 part portrait-statues of distinguished men, and ideal figures from 
 the old m)'tholog}- ; of these the female and youthful forms are 
 greatly admired for their tender grace and lifelike freshness. 
 Amongst the most admu-ed of his works are — "Juno ;" "Venus 
 and Capid ;" " Harmonia ;" " Victoria ;" " Karl III. ;" and the 
 altar rlecorations of the cathedral of Linkoping. — JI. H. 
 
 BYTHXER, ViCTORiNus, an admirable linguist, was a native 
 of Poland. On arriving in England, where he passed the greater 
 part of his life, he was appointed Hebrew lecturer in Christ 
 church, Oxford, and while occupying this position, published a 
 number of works for the use of his pupils, several of which (par- 
 ticularly his " Lyra Prophetica Davidis Regis," &c.) are still 
 much esteemed. The work just named has been frequently 
 reprinted, and is an invaluable aid to the study of the Psalms. 
 Little is known with certainty respecting Bythner after his 
 removal from Oxford, which he quitted during the revolutionary 
 troubles, but it appears that about 1664 he commenced to practise 
 as a physician in Cornwall. — J. S., G. 
 
 BYZAXTIUS or FAUSTUS of Byzantium, author of a his- 
 tory of Armenia, was a native of Constantinople. He became 
 bishop of the province of Sbanthouni in Upper Amienia. Of 
 his work, which consisted of six divisions, four remain, which 
 are occupied with the wars of the Persians and Romans. An 
 edition of it appeared at Constantino])le in 1730, and one at 
 Venice in 1837. It bears the title of " Pouzanteran." — J. S.,G.
 
 CAB 
 
 CABADES. See Cobad. 
 
 CABAKDJI or I\A.BAKDJI-OGLOU, a celebrated Turkish 
 rebel, died in 1808. He was an officer in the corps of the 
 Yamaks, and in 1807 was chosen by them as their commander. 
 This body, being dissatisfied with certain military innovations 
 introduced by the sultan Selim, marched, to the number of 
 six hundred, with Cabakdji at their head, to Constantinople, 
 where they massacred many of the higli officers of the state, 
 and other persons of distinction. They then accused the sultan 
 of being the enemy of the janizaiies; and having contrived to 
 render him unpopular with his soldiers, succeeded in deposing 
 him, and proclaimed as his successor the sultan Mustapha, son 
 of Abdoul-Hamid. Cabakdji was surprised at Fanai'aki, on the 
 Bosphoms, and put to death. — G. M. 
 
 * CABALLERO, Fermix Agosto, a Spanish statesman, jour- 
 nalist, and geogi'apher, was born in 1800. He first came into 
 notice by a series of pamphlets which he published against 
 Miuano's Geographical Dictionary of the Penmsula. In 1843 
 he obtained a seat in the cabinet under Lopez, was expelled by 
 Espartero, but resumed oflSce for a short time after the f;;ll of 
 that minister. Of his works, which ai-e chiefly geographical, we 
 mention, " Manual Geogi'afico administrativo de Espaiia," and a 
 pamphlet on the geograpliical learning of Cervantes. — J. B. 
 
 CABALLERO, Joseph Antony, Marquis, a Spanish 
 statesman, bom in 1760. On the accession of Ferdinand VIL in 
 1808, he was made president of the coimcil of finance; but having 
 joined ]\Im-at's party, and become a firm adiierent of Joseph 
 Bonaparte, he was, on the do^^aifall of Na^Joleon, compelled to 
 retire to Bourdeaux. In 1818 he was sentenced by Ferdinand to 
 perpetual banishment, but was recalled in 1820 by the con- 
 stitutionalists. He died at Salamanca in 1821. — J. B. 
 
 CABANE, FiLiPPiNA, born in Catania, whence she is called 
 Catanea, early in the sixteenth century. She was the wife of a 
 fisherman ; but being chosen nurse to Robert, afterwards king of 
 Naples, she rose to a high place at court, man-ied the high- 
 steward to the king, and at length became governess to Giovanna, 
 afterwards queen of Naples. When Andrew, Giovanna's husband, 
 was murdered, the adventurer and her son were both aiTested on 
 suspicion, put to the torture, and died in 1545. — J. B. 
 
 CABANIS, Jean-Baptiste de Salagnac, a French lawyer 
 and agi-icultm'ist, was born at Yssoudun in 1723, and died in 
 1786. He was at first educated for the law, and afterwards 
 devoted himself to agriculture. He published a work on the art 
 of grafting.— J. H. B. 
 
 CABANIS, Pierre-Jean-Georges, physician and philoso- 
 pher, was boni at Conac in 1757. He manifested an early taste 
 for study ; but an in-itable temper was not well managed by the 
 masters of the college of Brives, which he entered at the age of 
 ten. Even under the discipline of the family he was rather 
 intractable ; and his f;ither having carried him to Paris, left him 
 very much to himself His taste for study revived. He read Locke, 
 and attended the course of Brisson. Having spent two or three 
 years m filling up what was defective in his education, he took 
 a journey to Poland in 1773. He returned to Paris at the 
 age of eighteen, and sought the society of men of letters. Ilis 
 father having urged him to make choice of a profession, he decided 
 in favour of medicine. He never became what is called a practi- 
 tioner — for which the we;ikness of his health unfitted him — and 
 his acquaintance with the last representatives of the philosophy of 
 the eighteenth century gave a turn to his thoughts more in accord- 
 ance with the theories and speculations of medical science than 
 mth its laborious duties. Having completed his professional 
 studies, he rethed from Paris to Auteuil, where he was admitted 
 to the society of ]\Iadame Helvetius, and some of the most dis- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 CAB 
 
 tinguished men of the day. There he met with Turgot, Diderot, 
 d'Alembert, Condillac, &c. He had also seen JelTcrson and 
 Franklin ; and when Voltaii-e came to Paris to have the tragedy 
 of Irene represented, Cabanis submitted to him some portions of 
 the lUad which he had translated into verse — which were favom- 
 ably received by the veteran litterateur. When the Revolution 
 approached, Cabanis was intimately associated with Jlirabeau, 
 whose opinions he shared, and whose labours he assisted. He 
 was also intimate with Condorcet, to whom, on the night of his 
 aiTcst, he gave, at his own desire, the poison which was to save 
 him from the scaffold. He collected the writings of Condorcet, 
 and subsequently married his sister-in-law, Charlotte Grouchy, 
 sister to the marshal of that name. During the horrors of the 
 Revolution, Cabanis, seeking seclusion and safety, attached 
 himself as medical officer to one of the hospitals, and in that 
 capacity had the opportunity of saving many of those who had 
 been proscribed. In 1795 he was named professor in the cen- 
 tral school of health; in the following year he was elected 
 member of the National Institute; and in 1798 he was chosen 
 a representative of the people in the council of Five Hundred. 
 But his health, which was precarious, gradually gave way ; and 
 about the beginning of 1807 he had an attack of apoplexy, 
 which inteiTupted his intellectual labours. He left Auteuil 
 to spend the summer at the residence of his father-in-law near 
 !Meulan ; and during the winter he established himself in a house 
 near the village of RueO. But the greatest care and skill were 
 unavaihng, and he sank under a second attack of apoplexy on 
 the 5th of BLay, 1808, in the fifty-second year of his age. 
 
 The writings of Cabanis, which are numerous, are either 
 purely literary, as " Melanges de Litterature Allemande," 8vo, 
 1797; or medical, as " Observations sur les Hospitaux," 8vo, 
 1789 ; or philosophical, as "Traite du Phj-sique et du Moral de 
 I'homme." It is by this last work that he is now chiefly known. 
 It was first pubhshed in 8vo, Paris, 1802. It next appeai'ed 
 in 1803, with an analytical table by ]\I. Destutt de Tracy, and 
 an alphabetical table by M. Sue. In 1815 it was published 
 under the title of " Rapports du Physique et du Moral de 
 I'Homme ; " ag;un in 1824, with a table and notes by M. Pariset, 
 and in the same year in three volumes, 12mo, with a table and 
 notice of the author by M. Boisseau. The starting-point of 
 Cabanis is the philosojjhy of Condillac, which reduces all oiu- 
 faculties to sensibility, or the capacity of experiencing sensations. 
 The nerves are the seat of this sensibility. The impressions 
 made on them from without are passively received, being carried 
 from the circumference to the centre ; a reaction proceeds from 
 the brain, sensation follows, and ideas are formed. Such was 
 the theory common among the ideologists of his day. But 
 Cabanis goes beyond them in noticing not only external but 
 internal sensations ; and by the latter he explains instinctive 
 movements, as the consequence of some internal change in the 
 nei-vous system. Still, all is sensation. Man is hitelligcnt, 
 active, and moral, beciuise he possesses sensibility, and sensibility 
 is the result of a nen'ous system ; so that thought is a func- 
 tion of the brain, just as digestion is a function of the stomach ; 
 impressions reach the brain as food reaches the stomach ; the 
 brain digests these impressions, and organically secretes thought. 
 As the food which enters the stomach is transfused throughout 
 the body in new and different forms, so impressions which reach 
 the brain isolated and incoherent are manufactured into new 
 and consistent ideas. But while Cabanis thus materialized the 
 mind, he spuituaUzed the principle of life. Among the pliysio- 
 logists of liis day, some thought that the phenomena of the living 
 frame may be explained by pliysieal laws ; others that they imi)ly 
 the existence of peculiar properties ; and, a thii-d class, that to 
 
 6N
 
 the material organization of a living body there is superadded an 
 unknown entity or principle which they called life. Cabanis held 
 this last view. About 1805 Mens. Fauriel, then a young man, 
 visited Cabanis ; and the discussions which ensued between them 
 led to a modification of his views, not so much as to the principle 
 of life, as with regard to the causes of intellectual phenomena. 
 In short, his ^^ews came to coincide with those of Stahl, and he 
 regarded the principle of life as not only organizmg and animating 
 the body, but as constituting the ego, and producing mental phe- 
 nomena — as the cause of vitality and intelligence — immaterial 
 and immortal. In extending bis views to the phenomena of 
 nature, he came at last to the conclusion that these cannot be 
 explained by the properties of matter, and that the harmonious 
 ongoings of the universe imply a conscious intelligence, and a 
 voluntary actinty. These views are contained in Lettre post- 
 hume et inedite k M. F., sur les causes premieres, avec des notes 
 de F. B&-ard, 8vo, Paris, 1824. They are to be regarded not 
 so much as a retractation, as the mature conclusions to which 
 continued reflection and extended inquiry conducted an ardent 
 and honest mind. — W. F. 
 
 CABARRUS, Francisco, Count de, a celebrated Spanish 
 financier, bom in 1752 ; died in 1810. He was the son of a mer- 
 chant of Bayonne, and for some time followed at Saragossa the 
 profession of his father. In 1782 he became director of a bank 
 called the Bank of Saint Charles. His gi-eat talents soon 
 recommended him to public employment under the reign of 
 Charles III., and afterwards under that of Charles IV. He 
 was employed in various public missions, particularly to the 
 congi-ess of Eastadt, and was subsequently accredited as ambas- 
 sador to the directory of the F)"ench republic. Under Joseph, 
 the brother of Napoleon, he was appointed minister of finance 
 — an office which he held until his death, a short time before the 
 expulsion of the new dynasty. — G. ^I. 
 
 CABASSOLE, Philippe de, a French prelate, bom in 1305. 
 He was successively chancellor of Sicily and patriarch of Jerusa- 
 lem. In 1369 Gregory XI. conferred on him the cardinal's hat, 
 after which he was sent as legate to Perugia, where he died in 
 1372. He is chiefly memorable for his friendship with Petrarch. 
 CABEL, Adrian vander, a Dutch painter, bom at Rys- 
 wick in 1631 ; died in 1695. He was a pupil of John van 
 Goyen. He started for Italy via France, but staying at Lyons, 
 he became so admired and rewarded, that he turned his tent into 
 a house. He was a concrete of imitations, for he imitated some- 
 times Castiglione and Salvator Rosa ; at other times Mola and 
 the Caracci. He painted landscapes vi\t\\ Jlgures (not men) and 
 cattle, and a sort of Italian sea-port was his humour. His trees 
 are well touched, his figures correct and spirited, his animals 
 clever ; his manner is " the grand Italian manner." His deep 
 brown tones spoil everything. At first he studied fi-om nature. 
 His real name was Vander Town, but his master, Van Goyen, 
 gave him the nick-name of Vander Cabel. He etched several 
 of his own designs of hermits in mountainous landscapes. — W. T. 
 CABESTAING, Guillaume de. The spelling of his 
 name is unfixed. The date and place of birth of Guillaume de 
 Cabestamg are uncertain. Millot says he was bom at RoussUlon. 
 He lived in the twelfth century. He was in the service of Ray- 
 mond de Castel-Roussillon, and his peculiar duty was that of 
 donzel or squire to Marguerite, Raymond's v\'ife. This, it 
 would seem, was a dangerous office; for the lady and her donzel 
 were soon in love with each other. Raymond took a deep and 
 deadly revenge — he murdered the troubadom-; and imitating 
 what old story told of the feast of Atrcus, had the minstrel's 
 heart drest as food and p^laced before the lady, who ate of it 
 without suspicion. When she was told the trath she refused 
 food, and found the means of self-destruction. The stoiy is told 
 in several ballads and poems ; it is also the subject of several 
 prose romances. Boccacio tells it in the Decameron. Of Cabes- 
 taing's poems seven are presei-ved in the BilUotheqne Imperiale, 
 five of which have been printed by Eaynouard. — J. A., D. 
 
 * CABET, Etienne, one of the leading members of the 
 communistic party in France, bora at Dijon, 2d Januaiy, 1788. 
 His father, who exercised the humble trade of a cooper, gave 
 him a liberal education. He embraced the profession of law, 
 and first practised at the bar of his native town. He subse- 
 quently went to Paris, where, disappointed in his expectation of 
 rising to eminence at the bar, he devoted himself for some 
 years to conducting the Journal de Jttrlsprudence. In 1830 he 
 received from the first minister of justice, M. Dupont de I'Eure, 
 
 the appointment of procurator-general ; but, considering the 
 revolution as incomplete, he had the indiscretion publicly to 
 avow sentiments adverse to the government of which he was 
 one of the principal organs, and was, in consequence, deprived 
 of his office the following year by the new mmister of justice, 
 M. Barthe. He was soon after elected member of the chamber 
 of deputies ; but having employed some expressions offensive 
 to the king in his joumal, Le Pojmlaire, he was prosecuted by 
 authority of the chambers, and having been foimd guilty by a 
 jury, he was in Febraary, 1834, condemned to two years' 
 imprisonment and a heavy fine. Prefemng exile to imprison- 
 ment he rctu'ed to England. Here he lighted on the work of a 
 kindred spirit, an account of an imaginary Utopia, with which 
 he was so charmed, that he appropriated some of the leading 
 ideas, and having adapted them to the taste of the French work- 
 men, published them in ^larch, 1842, in a httle volume entitled 
 " Voyage en Icarie." The establishment of a social rcpuMic 
 appears after this to have become the leading idea of his life, 
 and he had at last the happiness of seeming a grant of land in 
 Texas, whither he proceeded in 1848, with a considerable num- 
 ber of emigrants, anxious, Uke himself, to realize the daydream 
 with which their imaginations had been delighted. After many 
 hardships and difficulties, they succeeded in organizing them- 
 selves into a little community, over which, Cabet, now far 
 advanced in life, continues to preside. — G. M. 
 
 CABEZA DE VACA, Alvar-Nunez, a Spanish voyager 
 of the sixteenth centmy. In 1539 he was appointed to explore 
 La Plata ; but, exceeding his orders, he marched into Paraguay 
 and seized the government of Assumption. He was soon sent 
 home in bonds to Spain, where he was condemned by the council 
 of the Indies. He wrote the first account of Paraguay. 
 
 CABOCHE, Simonet, one of the chiefs of the Cabochiens, 
 a coi-poration of butchers at the beginning of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. They were partisans of the duke of Burgundy in his 
 contests with the Armagnacs, and for a time, although incon- 
 siderable in number, tyrannized over Paris. Their violence at 
 last roused the city against them, and through the tact and 
 energy of a carpenter named Guillamne Cu-asse, their power was 
 completely broken. 
 
 CABOOS, sumamed Shams al-5Iaala (the Sun in its 
 Splendour), a piince of the house of Shamgur, famous for his 
 virtues and misfortunes, succeeded to the government of Jorjaii 
 in 996. He protected the exiled Boniyan prince. Fakir El- 
 Dowlah, and submitted to be driven from his kingdom rather 
 than smTcnder the fugitive. When the cxUe was restored to 
 his dominion, he seized the temtoiy of his benefactor, who did 
 not regain his crown till the death of the Bouiyan king in 9^7. 
 He was dethroned in 1012 by his courtiers, who were provoked 
 at the severity with which he punished their licentiousness. He 
 died in the fortress in which they imprisoned him. Caboos was 
 the earliest patron of Avicenna, and was himself a poet and 
 astronomer. He wrote a treatise on eloquence, named " Kemal- 
 al-Belagat."— J. B. 
 
 CABOT, George, an American statesman, bom at Salem, 
 JIassachusetts, and educated at Harvard college, which he 
 entered with the class which is styled of 1770. In 1791 he 
 became United States senator from Slassachusetts, a post which 
 he held for five years — a steadfast friend throughout of the 
 Washington administration. He pelded essential aid to Hamil- 
 ton in perfecting his financial system. In 1798 he had the ten- 
 der made him from President Adams of being the first secretary 
 of the navy, which honour, however, he declined. In 1814 he 
 was chosen a delegate to the memorable Hartford convention, 
 and was elected president of that assembly. He died in 1823. 
 A high authority states, that long betbre the great work of Say 
 on Political Economy appeared, its leaduig principles were fami- 
 liar to Sir. Cabot.— F. B. 
 
 CABOT, CABOTTO, or GAVOTTA, John. See Cabot, 
 Sebastian. 
 
 CABOT, Sebastian, a gi-eat seaman of Venetian ancestry 
 but of English buth, who discovered the American continent 
 fourteen months before Columbus, and two years before Amerigo 
 Ves])ucci had been west of the Canaries. Cabot was bom about the 
 year 1477. His histoiy has been involved in obscurity in con- 
 sequence of the corrupt text of Ramusis, the looseness with wliich 
 Hakluyt has translated and quoted his authorities, and the care- 
 lessness of biographical bookmakers, who have expanded dubious 
 phrases into piositive sentences. The publication of original docu-
 
 CAB 
 
 835 
 
 CAB 
 
 ments from the rolls, however (LonJon, 1831), has established 
 many facts before doubtful. Cabot told Eden, author of Decades 
 of the New World, that he was bom in Bristol, and that at thi-ee 
 years old he was carried with his father to Venice, and so returned 
 to England with his father after certain jeai-s — whence he was 
 thought to have been born in Venice. He is described as a very 
 2;entie person, possessing a knowledge of the letters of humanity 
 and the sphere, able to make " cardes for the sea" with his own 
 hand, veiy expert and cunning in knowledge of the circuit of 
 tbe world, and having in his heart " a gi'eat flame and desire 
 to attempt some notable thing." A patent was granted by 
 Henry VII., oth March, 1496, authorizing John Cabot and his 
 three sons, Louis, Sebastian, and Sancius, to seek out whatsoever 
 isle^, countries, provinces, " which before this time have been 
 unknown to all chiistians ; " and to set up the royal banner in 
 very place by them newly found. The king reserved one-fifth of 
 the profit, while the pri\-ilege of exclusive traffic was secured to 
 the patentees. It is very uncertain whether John Cabot ever sailed 
 on this expedition. Hakluyt appears to have altered the name 
 of Sebastian, originally given in Stow (^Annals, page 804, edition 
 1605), to John ; and this error has been followed by Campbell, 
 Barrow, and others. The expedition, consisting of four or five 
 ships, sailed from Bristol, May, 1497, and on 24th June, dis- 
 covered " that land which no man before had attempted," and 
 which is described by the chroniclers as Terra Prima Vista, or 
 Newfoundland, while the island of St. John is mentioned as 
 discovered on the same day. The question is. Was this land, 
 first seen by Cabot, our present Newfoimdland, or was it the 
 continent of America ? We have no space to detail the evidence, 
 but there seems no doubt that it was the great American con- 
 tinent itself, on which Cabot first gazed. The whole of the 
 north region of America was designated Terra Nova in old maps, 
 and the term Newfoundland was applied to the same district, 
 while Ortelhus (who had the map of Cabot before him) places 
 an island of St. John, lat. 56°, on the east of Labrador, thus 
 distiuguishing the one seen by Cabot from the St. John in the 
 gulf of St. Lawrence, so named long after (1534) by Cartier. 
 Columbus was not acquainted with the continent of America 
 until he coasted the isthmus of Darien during his last voyage, 
 fourteen months after Cabot's discovery. On February 3, 1498, 
 a second patent was granted to John Cabot or his deputies, 
 giving authority to conduct ships " to the lande and isles of late 
 founde by the seid John, in oure name and by cure commande- 
 ment." About this time John Cabot, the father, died, whUe 
 Sebastian, understanding, " by reason of the sphere," that if he 
 sailed by way of the north-west he would, " by a shorter tract, 
 come into India," undertook a second voyage. He had with him 
 three hundred men with a view to colonization, and directed 
 his com'se by the tract of land upon the cape of Labrador at 
 58^, where in the month of July there was " such cold and 
 heaps of ice" that he durst pass no further, and turned his 
 course to the westward. In another voyage, probably in 1517, 
 Cabot reached W. lat. 67° 30'. Subsequently he became pilot- 
 major in Spain in 1518, was made captain-general of a Spanish 
 fleet to the Moluccas in 1526, and entered the Rio de la Plata. 
 In 1548 he again fixed his residence in England, was pensioned 
 by Edward VI., and assumed a general superintendence over 
 maritime affairs, being consulted whenever nautical experience 
 was required. He addsed the expedition which opened a trad- 
 ing intercourse with Russia, and his instructions for its conduct 
 are not only masterly in seamanship, but afford a pleasant 
 revelation of the character of the man. He urges that the 
 inhabitants of nations N-isited should not be provoked by disdain, 
 laughing, or contempt, but treated " with all gentleness and 
 curtesie," and that their own laws and rights should be respected ; 
 while with simple and affectionate earnestness he inculcates 
 upon every sailor personal purity, and remembrance of his oath, 
 conscience, duty, and charge. Cabot received the office of 
 governor " of the mysterie and companie of the merchant adven- 
 turers for the discoverie of regions, dominions, islands, and places 
 unknown." He observed and explained to the king the variation 
 of the needle, showing that it was ditferent in different places, 
 and the seamen he instructed were attentive to scientific facts. 
 Many pleasant pictures of the great navigator occur in the his- 
 tory of his genial old age. "When the Searchthrtft was despatched 
 to the north, " the good oldc gentleman. Master Cabota, gave to 
 the poor most liberal .alms, wishing them to pray for its good 
 fortune, and then he made great cheer," says the captain, " and 
 
 for very joy that he had to see the towardness of our intended 
 discoveiy he entered into the dance himself, which being ended, 
 he and his friends departed, most gently commending us to the 
 governance of Almighty God." Cabot died about 1557, the 
 time of his death and the place of his burial being uncertain. On 
 his deathbed his mind wandered again over the ocean he loved 
 with most pure and true and faithful passion ; and he spoke, in 
 moments of wandeiing fancy, of a di\ine revelation made unto 
 him of a new and infallible method of finding the longitude, 
 which he was not permitted to disclose to any mortal. Thus 
 passed away one of the true sea-kings of old, as adventurous as 
 wse, as courteous as bold, as gentle as daring, and no man 
 knoweth where slumber the mortal remains of him who, first of 
 Europeans, gazed on the mighty continent of the west. — L. L. P. 
 
 CABOT, VixcEXT, a French pubHcist and jurist, born at 
 Toulouse about the middle of the sixteenth century; died in 
 his native town m. 1621. His gi-eat reputation as a lawyer 
 secured for him the appointment of professor of civU and canon 
 law in the university of Orleans, whence he was recalled to 
 Toulouse. — G. JI. 
 
 CABRAL, Pedro Alvarez, a celebrated Portuguese navi- 
 gator, bom in the second half of the fifteenth century; died 
 about 1526. He is known to have belonged to a noble family, 
 but very few cu-cumstances of his early history have been left 
 on record. He was a contemporary of Vasco da Gama, whose 
 esteem he had acquii-ed, and at whose recommendation he was 
 intmstcd, when yet very young, with the command of an 
 expedition to Calicut, for the purpose of opening up commercial 
 relations ■nith the rajah of that place. On his voyage, from some 
 cause unexplained, he stretched away towards the south-west, 
 and touched on the coast of Brazil, which, ignoring the previous 
 discovery of that country by the Spaniards, he complacently 
 took possession of for the crown of Portugal. On reaching 
 Cahcut, Cabral obtained an internew with the rajah, con- 
 cluded with him a commercial treaty, and was permitted to 
 establish a Portuguese factoiy. This treaty proved subsequently 
 of immense advantage to the commerce of Portugal. Setting 
 out on his return home, his fleet was dispersed by a tempest ; 
 but, on his anival at Lisbon, he had the satisfaction of finding 
 there two of his vessels which he had supposed to be lost. 
 He was received with distinguished honours, and rich rewards 
 were heaped upon him ; but of his subsequent career little or no 
 account has been left. Even his tomb has only recently, and 
 after much research, been discovered. — G. M. 
 
 * CABRERA, Don Rajiox, a Carlist chief, celebrated in the 
 recent annals of Spain for his daring and military talent, and 
 no less notorious for his sanguinary disposition, was bom at 
 Tortosa in 1809 or 1810. He was destined for the priesthood, 
 but not by nature, for Latin proved an insuperable difficulty; 
 and when in 1833, on the death of Ferdinand VII., he was 
 expelled, along ■n-ith other absolutists and malcontents, from his 
 native town, he was only kno\vn as a youth of riotous and dis- 
 solute habits. The threat — for it was rather a threat than a 
 prophecy with which he departed from Tortosa — "I swear I will 
 make some noise in the world," he fulfilled in no long time. 
 The wild district of Slaestrazgo was in open revolt for Don 
 Carlos, and there Cabrera soon made himself a name ; being 
 appointed second in command of the insurgents, and on the 
 death of Ramon Camicer, commander-in-chief. This district 
 for several years was the scene of his most brilliant exploits, 
 and of his most wanton atrocities. When Gomez began his 
 daring march through Andalusia, he was joined by Cabrera, 
 who afterwards took Valencia, and would have taken JIadrid 
 but for the timid counsels of Don Carlos. For his great and 
 unscrupulous services to the Carlist party he was created count 
 of Morella. In 1840, at the conclusion of the civil war, he 
 took refuge in France, where he was confined a short time in 
 the fortress of Ham. Retuming to SpaLa ki 1848, with the 
 hope of rekindling the civil war, he was defeated and severely 
 wounded in an action fought at Pastcral in Januar}', 1849. 
 Since then he has been in exile in France; in England, where ho 
 married a young lady of fortune ; and in the kingdom of tbe Two 
 SiciUes, from which he was expelled in 1851. — J. S., G. 
 
 CABRILLO, JoAo or Juan-Roduiguez, a celebrated Por- 
 tuguese na\ngator of the sixteenth centur)'. He entered the 
 Spanish service, and discovered the islands of Santo-Tomas, 
 Santa-Craz, Santa-Rosa, and San-Bemardo, on the last of which 
 he died in 1543.
 
 CAC 
 
 i?,6 
 
 CAD 
 
 CACCIA, GcGLiELMO, a PiedmoBtese painter, bom at Jlon- 
 tabone in the duchy of Monferrato in 1568. He was surnamed 
 IL MoscALVO, from Ms long residence there. He painted 
 cliurch pictures at Jlilan ; afterwards lived for some time at 
 Pavia, and was favourably known at Novai-a, Vercelli, and Turin. 
 His chief work in oils is considered to be his " Descent from the 
 Cross," in the church of S. Gaudenzio at Novara. His " Kaising 
 of Lazarus," and " Miracle of the Loaves," at Chieri, are also 
 highly esteemed. As a painter of frescos, his reputation is 
 considerable. The most remarkable is perhaps his " St. Anto- 
 nio" in the church of that saint at Milan. His cupola of "St. 
 Paul" at Novara is another valued production. In his fresco 
 work, he was much aided by his two daughters, Orsola and 
 Francesca — almost the only female professors of that art. Caccia 
 died in 1625.— W. T. 
 
 * CACCLVTORE, Niccoi.o, an Italian astronomer, bom at 
 Casteltermini in Sicily in 1780. He was professor at Girgenti 
 in 1796, and of ancient geography at Palermo in 1797. In the 
 following year he commenced his astronomical studies, and in 
 1803 published an astronomical catalogue, which, after a second 
 pnbUcation in a revised and extended form, was crowned by the 
 Institute of France. He reckons the number of principal stars 
 at 220. The directorship of the obsen'atory at Palermo has 
 been held by liim since 1817. His works are numerous and 
 valuable.— J. D. E. 
 
 CACCINI, GiuLio, sometimes called GruLio RoaiANO, a 
 musician, distinguished as a singer, and still more as one of the 
 earliest composers of recitative. He was bom at Rome about 
 1560, and died shortly before 1640. He was a pupil of Scipione 
 Delia Palla, of whom he learned to sing and play upon the 
 lute. In 1578, being already an accomplished artist, he went 
 to Florence, where, in the following year, he sang at the nup- 
 tials of Francesco di Medicis; and he became attached to the 
 court of this prince as a singer in 1580. He became associated 
 with Giovanni di Bardi, count di Vemio, Giacomo Corsi, Pietro 
 Strozzi, and Vincenzo Gahleo (the father of the famous philoso- 
 pher), who, dissatisfied with the vague erpression of music in 
 the madrigal style, sought to restore to the art the declamatory 
 character it held in the ancient Greek drama: to this end they 
 purposed to limit performance to a single voice with instra- 
 mental accompaniments, to discard all repetition of words, and 
 to dispense with all definite rhythm — in short, to originate reci- 
 tative. The new form of composition was peculiarly congenial 
 to Caccini, because, though he had great natural ability, he was 
 wholly unlearned in counterpoint, and thus unable to write in 
 the style which, at that time, had general prevalence. The first 
 work he produced, according to the new principle, was a mono- 
 drama, entitled " Combattimento d'Apolline col serpente," which 
 was represented in 1590 at the palace of the count di Vemio, 
 who was the author of the poem. This is said to have been 
 modelled upon II Satiro, a somewhat similar composition of 
 Amelio Cavaliere, but which, having been brought out in the 
 same year, is quite as likely to have been founded upon Caccini's 
 monodrama. After this the count quitted Florence, and the 
 palace of Corsi then became the rendezvous of the musical 
 reformers, where Caccini's second production, " Dafne," was 
 represented in 1594. Rinuccini, who was the author of this 
 poem, wrote a lyrical tragedy called Euridice, for the celebration 
 of the marriage of Henri IV. with Maria di Medicis in 1600, for 
 which Caccini wrote part of the music, the greater portion beinc 
 by Jacopo Peri; but he subsequently reset the entire work, 
 and this composition is spoken of by contemporaries as the best 
 he produced. In 1600, also, he wrote, together with Peri, II 
 Ratto di Cefale, the poem of which was by the same author. 
 Besides these dramatic compositions, Caccini wTote many songs 
 of various character for a single voice, a collection of which was 
 published at Venice in 1615, under the title of "Le Nuove 
 Mnsiche." 
 
 The character of Caccini as a composer has been misre- 
 presented by Buraey, who even makes such errors in his 
 account of the instraments employed in Euridice, that we may 
 sni)pose this historian either to have been totally ignorant of the 
 work, or to have wilfully given a false description of it. He has 
 been followed in his account by Gerber, and later German writers 
 for all which, however, existing compositions corroborate the 
 eulogies of the musician's contemporaries, and prove liim to 
 have had great power of expression in his recitatives, and graceful 
 fluency in his melodies. The wannest praises of his singing are 
 
 to be found in tracts of several writers of his time ; his excel- 
 lence as a vocalist may, doubtless, be associated with the especial 
 jaerit of his music, which formed a most important innovation 
 in the progress of the art. — G. A. 51. 
 
 CADAHALSO or CADALSO, Jost de, a Spanish poet, 
 born at Cadiz in 1741. He was educated at Paris, and before 
 he was twenty years of age had travelled in Italy, Germany, 
 England, and Portugal. He embraced a militaiy career, in 
 which he attained the rank of colonel, and was intimate with 
 all the best men of his day in all classes. Wlierever his duty 
 led him, and especially during a residence in Salamanca from 
 1771 to 1774, he found opportunities of prosecuting literary 
 studies. He was killed at the siege of Gibraltar, 27th February, 
 1782. His principal works are a tragedy of no great merit 
 entitled " Don Sancho Garcia," published in 1771 under the 
 pseudonym of Juan de la Valle ; a volume of poems entitled 
 " Ocios de mi Juventnd" " Eruditas a la Violeta," and " Moorish 
 Letters," published after his death — a work after the model of 
 the Turkish Spy, or the Citizen of the World, but more literary, 
 and full of local aUnsions. In this last work he takes occasion 
 to correct some of the errors of Montesquieu in the Lettres Per- 
 sannes. He also wrote an imitation of Young's Night Thoughts, 
 entitled "Noches Lugumbres." There is an edition of the works 
 of Cadahalso in 3 vols., Madrid, 1818.— F. M. W. 
 
 CADALOUS, Pierre, or HONOEIUS IL See Alexan- 
 der II. , Pope. 
 
 CADA MOSTO, Alvise orLriGi da, one of the adventurers 
 employed by Henry of Portugal in the fifteenth century to 
 explore the African coast, was a native of Venice; bom in 1432; 
 died in 1480. In 1455, nominally under the command of a 
 Portuguese captain, but really head of the expedition, he set out 
 from Cape St. Vincent with a ship of ninety tons. Actuated 
 less by love of gain than by an honourable ambition of discovery, 
 in the course of a few months he visited Madeira, the Canaries, 
 and the coast of Senegal, and, on being joined by another Italian 
 voyager in the service of Henry, proceeded as far as the Gambi;'., 
 everywhere collecting valuable information with respect to race-. 
 commercial depots, and subjects of geographical and natural 
 science. On a second voyage he discovered the islands of Cape 
 Green, passed Cape Roxo (the name he gave it), and entered 
 the Rio Grande. About 1463 he published his journal of these 
 voyages, which was reproduced in 1507 under the title, "La 
 Prima Navigazione per I'Oceano alle terre de' negri della Bassa 
 Etiopia." — J. S., G. 
 
 CAD AVAL, NcxHO-C^T^vxo- Alvarez -Pereira de 
 Mello, Duke of, a Portuguese statesman, horn in 1798. He 
 was a member of the regency-council appointed on the abdicatiuii 
 of Don Pedro ; but, seduced by the nobles who represented the 
 absolutist party, he abetted Don Miguel, first in his seizure of the 
 regency, and tlien in his attempt on the crown. At last, when ' 
 the battle of Almoster restored the constitutional power, he was 
 abandoned by both parties. He died in Paris in 1838. 
 
 CADDAH, the surname of Abdallah, who, with liis father, 
 Maimnn-Caddah, was a zealous propagator of the Ismaili sect 
 among the Jlohamedans in the thu-d century from the Hegira. 
 He founded numerous secret societies in Syria, Persia, and 
 Northem Africa. The object of the sect, and of all the con- 
 federations for its advancement, was the estabUshment in the 
 klialifate of one of the race of Ismail. While this was the 
 pohtical object of the IsmaiU, they had also a set of hidden 
 doctrines preserved by them in a work named Meizan, or the 
 Balance, in which indifference to all mles of morality, and dis- 
 belief in all the tenets of religion, were inculcated. Tliese 
 doctrines bore ample fruit when the principles of the sect were 
 openly avowed and practised by theCarmathians(seeCARJL4TH), 
 the Ismaili khalifs of Egypt (see Cader B'Illau), and the 
 assassins of Persia. — J. B. 
 
 CADE, Joiix, the leader of a popular insurrection in the 
 reign of Henry VI. He was a native of Ireland, but claiming 
 kindred with the house of York, and assuming the name of John 
 Mortimer, he collected 20,000 followers, chiefly Kentish men, 
 who in June, 1450, flocked to his standard, that they might 
 claim redress for the grievances so widely felt, which were laid 
 to the ch.nrge of the then fallen duke of Suffolk and other 
 ministers of the crown. Cade defeated a detachment of the 
 royal forces at Sevenoaks, and at length obtained possession of 
 London, the king having retired to Kennilworth ; but having 
 put Lord Say cruelly to death, and laid aside the appearance of
 
 CAD 
 
 837 
 
 CAD 
 
 moderation which he had at first assumed, the citizens rose 
 against him and gave battle to his followers, who on the point 
 of defeat dispersed, in terms of an offer of pardon. Cade after- 
 wards tried to re-collect them, but in vain ; and he was himself 
 put to death in July, 1450, by Alexander Iden, "an esquire of 
 Kent," as Shakspeare styles him in his Henry VI. — J. B. 
 
 CADENET, Elias, "bom about 115G; died, according to 
 the account of Nostradamus, in 1280. He was a native of Pro- 
 vence, and a distinguished troubadour. His father is stated to 
 have been killed in the siege of Cadenet in 11G6. The orphan 
 liny was adopted and educated by a nol'leman of the district, 
 Hunand de Lantur. He was taught all the fitting accomplish- 
 ments of a chevalier of that period ; and in the course of his 
 apprenticeship to the " gay science," visited the courts of many 
 piinces and barons. Under what name he travelled during his 
 wanderjahre, we have no means of knowing; but it was not 
 till his return that he took the name of Cadenet, when all per- 
 sons had forgotten the obscure orphan whose father had perished 
 there. He now, in the manner of that day, and in the proper 
 dialect of a troubadour, sighed for Marguerite, the wife of the 
 seigneur de Kiez, but sighed in vain. Raymond Langier of 
 Dcux-fr6res in the diocese of Nice, afterwards gives food and 
 clothes to Cadenet, who was destined to go farther and fare 
 worse. The accounts of Cadenet are inconsistent. He is said 
 to have died in Palestine, warring against the infidels. Another 
 account makes him pass the close of his life at St. Gilles, among 
 the templars. His poems are not in any way distinguishable 
 from those of the same class. They are on the usual subjects 
 of love and religion, and in translation lose all interest. The 
 amatoiy poems seem to us better than the religious. — J. A., D. 
 
 CADER BTLLAH, Abu'l Abbas Ahmed, twenty-fifth of 
 the Abbasside khalifs, came to the throne of Bagdad in 991. 
 He is chiefly memorable from the fact that in 1011 he published 
 a manifesto signed by the chiefs of the Fatimite family, denying 
 the authenticity of the descent from Ali of the Ismaili or Fatimite 
 Idialifs of Egypt. — (See Caddaii.) Cader died in 1031, distin- 
 guished as a patron of learning. — J. B. 
 
 CADET-DE-GASSICOURT, Charles Louis, a French 
 pharmaceutist, was bom at Paris in 1769, and died in 1821. He 
 studied at the colleges of Navarre and ]\Iazarin, and passed as 
 advocate in 1787. In 1789 ho retired from the bar, and took 
 an active part in suppressing the pillage and massacres which 
 were taking place at that time in Paris. By his conduct he 
 involved himself in trouble, and was condemned to death by a 
 military council. He contrived to escape, and some time after- 
 wards he got the sentence reversed. In 1801 he took up the 
 .subject of pharmacy, and in 1806 was elected general secretary 
 of the council of health. During the Austrian campaign he 
 was appointed chief phannaceutist to the emperor. He vsTote 
 many literary and scientific treatises — among others, a work on 
 domestic chemistiy, a dictionary of chemistry, an essay on the 
 use of tea, a dissertation on jal.ap, and on the wax plant of 
 America. — J. B., G. 
 
 CADET-DE-VAUX, Antoine Alexis Francois, a cele- 
 brated French chemist and pharmaceutist, was born at Paris 
 in 1743, and died in 1828. Having lost his foi-tune, he 
 entered the school of pharmacy, and ha^'ing completed his 
 studies there, he turned his attention in a special manner 
 to chemistiy in its application to rural and domestic economy. 
 By the advice of Duhamel and Parmenticr, he commenced in 
 1777 the Jovnml de Paris. He was instramental in directing 
 pubUc notice to many important matters, such as destroying 
 the noxious gases from sowers, the improper use of copper 
 measures, the best mode of preparing bread, and of making 
 wine, the preparation of gelatin from bones, and the econo- 
 mical manufacture of soap. He has also iviitten iipon the 
 history and use of coffee, on the culture of tobacco, on the 
 treatment of fruit trees, on the employment of fruits in domestic 
 economy, on the saccharine matter of the apple and of the beet, 
 and on the culture and use of the potato. — J. H. B. 
 
 CADET-GASSICOURT, Louis Claude, a French pharma- 
 ceutical chemist, born in Pains in 1731 ; died in 1799. Ho held 
 several important public situations in connection with his pro- 
 fession, among others, chief phamiacopolist to the .aiTnics of 
 Spain and Portugal. In 1766 he became member of the 
 academy of sciences. He was the author of several valuable 
 discoveries in chemistry ; and in the memoirs of the academy are 
 many of his contributions to that science. In some of his 
 
 observations and experiments he was associated with Lavoisier, 
 JIacquer, and Darcot. To high ability as a scientific man, he 
 united singular disinterestedness of character. — J. B., G. 
 
 CADMUS, according to ancient Greek tradition, was the 
 leader of a colony of Phoenicians who settled at a very early 
 date in Boeotia, and founded the city of Thebes. The Greeks 
 attributed to him the introduction into their countiy of the 
 sixteen simple alphabetical characters; and the close analogy in 
 form between the Greek and Phoenician alphabets renders this 
 account highly probable. The personal history of Cadmus is 
 almost entirely fabulous. — W. M. 
 
 CADMUS OF Miletus, spoken of by Strabo as the first 
 Greek who wrote histoiy in prose, lived probably about 540 r..c. 
 His work was named " The Antiquities of Jliletus and of all 
 Ionia." Suidas speaks of another Cadmus, author of a " His- 
 tory of Athens," in sixteen books. 
 
 CADOC, Saint, son of a South Welsh prince ; died in 550. 
 He founded the monastery of Llancarvan, and, according to 
 Fuller, devoted a part of his estates to the support of three hun- 
 dred poor widows, besides pilgrims and ecclesiastics. 
 
 CADOGAN, Henry, a distinguished officer in the English 
 army, grandnephew of William, Earl Cadogan, was bom in 1780. 
 He was lieutenant-colonel in the 71st, or Highland light infantry 
 regiment, and distinguished himself in the most important 
 engagements in the peninsular war. At Vittoria he was charged 
 with the service of displacing the left wing of the French army 
 from the heights of La Puebla, a previous attempt having been 
 unsuccessful. Cadogan advanced with the 71st, and a battalion 
 of General Walker's brigade, and at once carried the heights. 
 He was mortally wounded in the charge, and having requested 
 to be carried to a commanding position, he leant his back against 
 a tree, and watched the progress of the battle with extraordinary 
 enthusiasm till he expired. The duke of Wellington spoke of 
 him in the very highest terms, both in his public despatches and 
 private letters ; and a monument depicting the scene of his death, 
 was erected at the public expense in St. Paul's cathedral. — J. B. 
 
 CADOGAN, William, Earl, one of Marlborough's famous 
 generals, was the son of an Irish bannster. He eai-ly entered the 
 army, and became quartermaster of the forces in 1701. Having 
 joined Blarlborough in the Low Countries, he was wounded at 
 Schullemberg in 1704, and distinguished himself at Blenheim. 
 After doing other important service, he was made lieutenant- 
 general in 1709. On the disgrace of his leader he resigned all 
 liis offices, detennined to share his misfortune, but on the acces- 
 sion of George I. he was sent against the Pretender, and rewarded 
 with a peerage in 1716. He was next created general, and sent 
 as ambassador to the Hague, where in 1720 he signed, in behalf 
 of Britain, the treaty of the quadruple alUance. Wlieii JLarl- 
 borough died in 1722, Lord, now Earl Cadogan, was appointed 
 to succeed him as commander-in-chief. Ho died in 1726. — J. B. 
 
 CADOUDAL, Georges, a celebrated Chouan chief, was the 
 son of a miller in Morbihan, a department of Brittany. In the 
 protracted and sanguinary contests between the royalists and 
 republicans during the French revolution, the Chouans and 
 Vcndeans were the most resolute of the supporters of the royal 
 cause ; and the energy and ability of Cadoudal soon raised him 
 to an influential position among the adherents of the house of 
 Bourbon. By his exertions a thoroughly organized, and, for a 
 time, successful resistance was made to the republican troops, 
 in which he displayed military talent of a veiy high order. At 
 this time attempts were made by Napoleon to gain over Cadoudal 
 to the cause of the republic, and a lieutenant-generalship in the 
 army was offered as the price of his submission ; but he firmly 
 declined all these overtures, and continued a determined royalist 
 during the whole of the war. He aftenvards engaged, in con- 
 junction with General Pichegni and others, in a conspiracy, having 
 for its object the overthrow of the consular government and the 
 restoration of the monarchy; and having been discovered and 
 arrested, he suffered cajiital inmishmcnt along with others of the 
 conspirators in 1804. — W. M. 
 
 CADOVIUS or MtlLLER, John, a native of Friesland, born 
 in 1650; died in 1725. His father, who had married while j'ct 
 a schoolboy, wishing to conceal his paternity, gave him the name 
 of Muller. He succeeded his father in the superintendency of 
 East Friesland in 1679 ; .and was, besides, a theologian, littera- 
 teur, and physician. His book, entitled "Memorialc Lingua) 
 Frisicx Antiquoc," first brought into notice the ancient dialect of 
 his native province.
 
 CAD 
 
 838 
 
 CAE 
 
 CADWALADEE, John, an oflScer in the American army 
 during the revolutionary war, was bom in Philadelphia about 
 1743. As soon as active opposition to the measures of the 
 British ministry began, he took a prominent part in the contro- 
 versy on the popular side. He served in the state convention 
 which met in July, 1776, and took the government of Pennsyl- 
 vania into its own hands. But his services were chiefly militaiy ; 
 anil though he acted only as a volunteer, or in command of the 
 militia, he earned the confidence and esteem of Washington. 
 He commanded a volunteer corps at the outbreak of the war, 
 was afterwards appointed colonel of one of the city battalions, 
 and finally was made brigadier-general, with which rank he 
 commanded the Pennsylvania militia in the winter campaign 
 of 1776-77. He was present, and did good service in the 
 battles of Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. 
 He wounded in a duel General Conway, being provoked by his 
 conduct as the leader of the cabal against the commander-in- 
 chief. In 1778 congress appointed him general of cavalrj', 
 but he declined to accept the dignity. He afterwards became a 
 member of the JIarj'land legislature. He died in 1786. — F. B. 
 
 CADWALADYR, king of Britain in 660. For his protection 
 of the christians he was called one of the three blessed kings. 
 This last king of the Britons died at Rome in 703, his dominions 
 having been wrested from him by the Saxons. 
 
 CADWALLON, a Welsh prince of the seventh centuiy. 
 Defeated by Edwin in 622 he fled to Ireland. After his return 
 he waged continual war with the Saxons. He was a patron of 
 the Welsh bards, and received their praises. 
 
 CADWGAN, son of Bleddyn, a Welsh prince of the twelfth 
 century. His son Owen having violated the wife of another 
 prince, called Gerald, Cadwgan escaped to Ireland with the youth. 
 At his return in 1110 he was murdered by a nephew of his own. 
 
 CECIL! US, Metelll'S, for twenty-two years pontifex 
 masimus at Rome. While holding that ofiice he rescued the 
 palladium from the burning temple of Vesta, 2-11 B.C., which 
 achievement cost him his sight. He was consul in 251, and 
 gained a great victory over Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian general. 
 He was consul again in 219, and dictator in 224. 
 
 C.ECILIUS or CECILIUS, Statius, a native of Milan, 
 according to St. Jerome and Aulus Gellius. His death is said 
 to have occurred in or about the year 168 B.C. He was a slave. 
 He is said to have died one year later than Ennius, and two 
 years before the representation of Terence's Andrian, which had 
 been read to him, and which he spoke of with great admiration. 
 The names of forty dramas of Csecilius are recorded, but of his 
 works nothing remains except a few lines preserved by accidental 
 quotations. Varro, comparing him with other comic poets, speaks 
 of the skill with which his plots are constructed. Cicero calls 
 him the first of comic poets ; Horace's line is in every one's 
 memory — 
 
 " ViDcere Ca;ciliiis gravitate, Terentius arte." 
 
 It would appear that most of Csecilius' comedies were formed 
 from dramas of the Greek poets — chiefly Jlenander. A chapter 
 of Aulus Gellius, in which he examines one of Cfficilius' plays, 
 and quotes the corresponding passage of Menander, is worth 
 looking at. — J. A., D. 
 
 CJi^D.MON, the famous Anglo-Saxon bard, was a native of 
 Northumberland, and died Lq 676 or 680. His poetical talent 
 lay hid till he had passed the midtime of his days. It is related, 
 that if he chanced to be in a company where the guests were 
 bound to sing each in his turn, he was wont, when he saw the 
 harp approaching him, to retire, abashed by the feeling of his 
 own inferiority. But a strange circumstance changed the whole 
 course of his life : for it happened that one niglit, having thus 
 slunk away from a banquet, he took refuge among the cattle. 
 Falling asleep he dreamt that a stranger came and asked him 
 to sing. Ca;dmon answered, it was because he could not sing 
 that he had left the good company. But the stranger persisted, 
 and gave him for a subject the creation ; whereupon the sleep- 
 ing herdsman poured forth an unstudied song, which was firmly 
 imprinted on his memory when he awoke. He repeated his 
 rude lines to the reeve, who introduced him into the abbey of St. 
 . Hilda, where a large auditory had assembled to test his newly- 
 found talent. Caedmon was approved to be a true poet ; and 
 ha^nng become a monk, " exercised his gift " in versifying the 
 bible. His learned brethren — for he himself could not read — 
 taught him portions of sacred history, which he sang to them 
 
 again in alliterative Anglo-Saxon verses. In this way he para- 
 phrased a great part of the scriptures. A fragment of his 
 paraphrase has been preserved ; and it is remarkable that hia 
 narrative of the fall contams passages which closely resemble 
 some parts of Paradise Lost. — R. M., A. 
 
 CJLLIUS, AuRELiANUs, a writer on medicine, supposed to 
 have been bom at Sicca in Africa, not earlier than the second 
 century and not later than the fifth, belonging to the sect of the 
 Methodici, so called from their adherence to the doctrine of 
 Themison, which, on account of its simplicity as well as sup- 
 posed excellence, was called the Method. This doctrine, which 
 formed a sort of connecting link between that of the dogmatists, 
 who held that the practice of physic must depend upon theory, 
 and that of the empirics who relied upon experience, is described 
 as having reduced all diseases to three kinds only, the strictum, 
 the Jaxum, the mixtum, and as having rejected from the phar- 
 macopoeia both specifics and purgatives. The work of Caelius, 
 which consists of eight books — thi'ee on acute and five on 
 chronic diseases — is a very barbarous translation into Latin 
 of the writings of Soranus, a Greek physician of the time ot 
 Hadrian. It was first published at Paris in 1529. The last 
 complete edition is that of Haller, 1774. 
 
 C.ESALPINUS, Andreas, or CJ:SALPINO, Axdrea. s 
 celebrated Italian naturalist, was bom at Arezzo in 1519, and 
 died 23rd February, 1603. He studied medicine, and took the 
 degree of doctor. He espoused the pliilosopliical doctrine ot 
 Aristotle, and secured a great number of disciples, who listened 
 eagerly to his prelections. His work, entitled " Qusestiones 
 Peripateticae," published at Florence in 1569, acquired great 
 celebrity, and was attacked by various parties, who wished to 
 bring the author before the tribunal of the inquisition. They 
 failed, however, in their attempt. It is said that he was the 
 first to give hints in regard to the circulation of the blood. He 
 devoted attention to botany, and endeavoured to free the science 
 from the dogmata and errors of the schools. He became pro- 
 fessor of botany at Pisa. He proposed a classification of plants 
 according to the nature of the flower, iruit, and seeds, and iaiti- 
 ated a new era in the science. He made interesting and valuable 
 observations also on the structure of the seed, and on the growth 
 of the plant. In his work, " De Plantis," he di\-ides the vege- 
 table kingdom according to the duration of life, whether annual, 
 biennial, or perennial, according to the situation of the radicle, 
 the number of the seeds in the fruit, the foi-m and nature of the 
 root, and the absence of flowers and fmits. This system of 
 Caesalpinus, although imperfect, led the way in the advancement 
 of botanical science. He devoted attention also to mineralogy, 
 and proposed a system of classification of minerals. A genns 
 of plants, Csesalpinia, has been dedicated to him by Plunder; it 
 is the type of one of the sections of leguminosEE. The herbarium 
 of Cajsalpinus is preserved in the natm^al history museum of 
 Florence. — J. H. B. 
 
 CJiSAR, a patrician family of the gens Julia. Sextns Julius 
 Cffisar, (noticed under Cesar,) is the first of the Julii who is 
 known to have borne the surname. " Clarum et duraturam cum 
 ffiteraitate mundi uomen ; " — its origin is unknown. In the list 
 of the famous " twelve Caesars," more emperors are found who 
 adopted it, than who held it of right. The family, indeed, went 
 out with Xero. Notices of these emperors vrill be found under 
 the appropriate heads of Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, 
 Caligula, &c. &c. ; but we have conceived that a memoir of 
 "the great Julius" ought to be placed under that surname, 
 which his deeds and genius rendered immortal. 
 
 CjESAR, Caius Julius, bom b.c. 100, was just eighteen 
 when Sulla became master of Rome. Though descended from 
 one of the noblest families, whose pedigree reached up to the 
 kings of Alba Longa and to the goddess Venus, he was by birth 
 connected with the popular party. Marius had been married to 
 his aunt Julia, and he himself married, at the age of seventeen, 
 Cornelia, a daughter of Cinna. He showed his spirit by refus- 
 ing to divorce his wife at the behest of the dictator. His name 
 was put on the list of the proscribed ; but at the request of the 
 vestals, Sulla granted him a pardon, though he foresaw that in 
 this one CjEsar were hidden many JIarii. Cajsar was serving 
 in Asia Minor, where he distinguished himself by his personal 
 courage on several occasions, when the news of the death of 
 Sulla, B.C. 78, gave the signal of new commotion. He imme- 
 diately returned to Rome, and began his systematic opposition 
 to the aristocracy, in which he persevered, without the slightest
 
 CAE 
 
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 CAE 
 
 deviation, all his life. But he met with little success, and 
 thought it prudent to retire from Rome for a time. He went 
 to Rhodes, ostensibly to study rhetoric in that great school of 
 Greek philosophers and orators, where Cicero also had learned 
 to round liis periods. At that time the Mediterranean swanner 
 with pirates. Caesar was captured by them, and kept a prisoner 
 until he could procure the enormous ransom of fifty talents. 
 He then manned a few ships in the port of MUetus, though he 
 was not invested with any military authority, surprised the 
 pirates, took them prisoners, and caused them to be strangled 
 and crucified. After this incident, so characteristic of the inse- 
 curity and lawlessness of the time, he continued liis joiumey 
 to Rhodes, and devoted about a year to his peaceful pursuits. 
 In the year B.C. 74, hostilities recommenced with Mithridates, 
 king of Pontus. Cresar, without any commission or authority, 
 collected troops and joined in the war. But he felt that the 
 proper place for him was Rome, the centre of political hfe. 
 Pompey was at that time considered the gi-eatest man in the 
 state. As yet, the idea of a possible rival did not enter his 
 mind. Pompey had already filled the highest commands ; he 
 had triumphed over Sertorins and Spartacus. Cwsar, on the 
 contrary, did not succeed till B.C. 68 iu obtaining the qurestor- 
 ship, the lowest office in the scale that led to the consular 
 dignity. Yet he gained ground steadily. He ingratiated him- 
 self with the people, who still enjoyed the much-abused right of 
 bestowing the high offices of state. Above all, he showed 
 afifabUity and liberahty. His own fortune was small and soon 
 exhausted, but the money-lenders supplied him with fabulous 
 sums, for they had confidence in his political abilities, and felt 
 sure his time would come to govern a province, to fiU his coffers 
 and to repay them with interest. 
 
 Cajsar's alliance with Pompey became more intimate in B.C. 
 67, by his marriage vrith Pompeia, a near relative of the great 
 political leader. Pompey, who was a good general in the field, 
 and a very bad one in the arena of political and party warfare, 
 longed again for a military command. The aristocracy had 
 begun to be shy and afraid of him; he therefore availed himself 
 of the assistance of the demagogues, and especially of Cfesar, to 
 obtain by a decree of the people, first, the command in a war 
 against the pirates, and, after its speedy termination, the man- 
 agement of the Mithridatic war in Asia. He was absent in the 
 east four years. Dm-ing this time C^sar continued to agitate 
 in the Roman senate and the forum. He was a perfect master 
 of this art, for which his rival showed a puerile inaptitude. He 
 was made acdile iu B.C. 65, and in that office he exhausted his 
 fertile ingenuity and the cofifei-s of the money-lenders to provide 
 bribes for the populace, in the shape of the most magnificent 
 games ever exhibited before the fastidious eyes of the Roman 
 people, bringing on one occasion no less than six hundred and 
 forty gladiators into the market-place. At the same time he 
 showed his boldness and his disregard of the laws enacted by the 
 aristocracy in the hour of triumph, by restoring on the capitol 
 the trophies of Marius, their most hated enemy. So loud was 
 the applause of the populace, that the senate was obliged to 
 submit to the affront. Emboldened by success, Caesar continued 
 his warfare without pause or truce. He endeavoured to bring to 
 justice several of the partisans of the senate, who, after the fall 
 of the Gracchi and of Marius, had been guilty of political mur- 
 ders. Though he failed to obtain his ostensible object he con- 
 trived to keep up the spirit of opposition, and to rise more and 
 more in the favour of the people, who now began to look upon 
 him as their chief patron and champion. This favour they 
 showed by electing him, under the stimulus of enoiTnous bribes, 
 in the following year, to the high position of pontifex niaximus. 
 
 The conspiracy of Catiline, which was discovered and punished 
 in this year, revealed more than any other event the rottenness 
 of the republic. Ca;sar kept aloof from designs in every respect 
 unworthy the leaders of a great party. He was charged with 
 complicity, and it is certain that he had knowledge of the plot ; 
 but, whatever hopes he may have built upon the slight chance of 
 their success, he was too pnident to malce common cause with 
 them. But when the conspiracy was discovered, and the senate 
 discussed the measures of repression and punishment, Cresar, who 
 was then pra;tor elect, employed the whole power of his eloquence 
 and position to incline the senate to milder measures. But Cato 
 carried the senate with him by his uncompromising firmness and 
 severity. The conspirators suffered death, and Caesar narrowly 
 escaped a similar fate. 
 
 Meanwhile Pompey had terminated the wars and the organi- 
 zation of the east. The troubles caused by the Catilinarian 
 conspiracy seemed to ofl'er a fair pretext for recalling Pompey 
 from the east, and investing him with a military command in 
 Italy. Accordingly one of his creatures, Q. Metellus Nepos, as 
 tribune of the people, proposed a resolution to that effect. 
 Cassar supported it cordially, for as yet he was not prepared 
 to venture upon a similar policy himself, and yet he wished 
 to prepare the public mind for extraordinai-y military com- 
 mands. This move was checkmated by the stubborn opposition 
 of Cato, but not till after one of those armed struggles that so 
 often disgraced the forum in the declining days of the republic. 
 
 CiBsar, on the expiration of his prajtorship, left Rome to 
 govern Spain as proprgetor, just when Pompey returned from 
 Asia. Pompey had dismissed his army, and returned into the 
 rank of a private citizen. But far from conciliating the leaders 
 of the senate, he was unable to obtain from them the confirma- 
 tion of his measures for the regulation of affiiirs in Asia, or the 
 agrarian law which he had promised to his soldiers. Under 
 these circumstances he sought the alliance of Ca;sar, who had 
 returned from Spain with a claim to a triumph for some suc- 
 cesses against the mountaineers of Lusitania and Gallfecia. He 
 waived that claim, in order to become a candidate for the con- 
 sulship of the year B.C. 59. Having obtained this object, he 
 entered into a close alliance with Pompey and Crassus — an 
 alliance known under the name of the first triumvirate. It was 
 a private and secret compact, cemented by the mamage of 
 Pompey to Julia, Cassar's daughter; by it these three men bound 
 themselves to co-operate with one another for obtaining the 
 objects they respectively had in view. Crassus, the wealthiest 
 man in Rome, was greedy for more wealth. Pompey desired the 
 confirmation of his acts in Asia, and an agrarian law for his vete- 
 rans. Cajsar required a military command which would enable 
 him to form a large army. All these measures were successively 
 caiTied. Cassar, being invested with the highest office of state, 
 and backed not only by his own supporters, but by the whole 
 interest of Pompey and the wealth of Crassus, soon bore do^vn 
 with a high hand the opposition of the senatorial party. 
 There was no chance of passing his I'esolutions in the senate. 
 But the constitution of the republic had given into the hands 
 of demagogues the power of superseding that body in legis- 
 lative as well as administrative measures. The people were, 
 therefore, called to ratify Ca;sar's propositions. The constitu- 
 tional resistance of his colleague Bibulus, and of some of the 
 tribunes, was overcome with physical force ; all his motions 
 were declared to be legally carried, and Cresai- was enabled to pass 
 not only the laws agreed upon with Pompey and Crassus, but 
 several other enactments, in which he had not his party, but the 
 welfare of the community at heart. He is sure of our approval 
 for the regulation by which he gave publicity to the discussions 
 in the senate, and for the law which enforced severer punish- 
 ments for misgovemment and extortion in the provinces. — But 
 the time for acting as legislator and as monarch was not yet come. 
 To arm for the contest, Caesar chose for his province the rich and 
 populous Cisalpine Gaul, contiguous to Italy. The government 
 of this province and Illyricum was given him by a decree of the 
 people for five years. The senate, whether from fear or with the 
 sinister view of implicating Ca-sar in dangerous wars, added Tran- 
 salpine Gaul. The wars which Cassar waged for eight years in 
 Gaul, B.C. 58-50, and in which he completely subdued that large 
 country to the Rhine, the channel, and the ocean, are described by 
 himself in a work which ranks among the most eminent produc- 
 tions of classical antiquity. But even Ca'sar's pen has failed to 
 give lasting interest to a series of expeditions, sieges, and battles 
 with barbarians, who have no history of their own, and who 
 appear in the page of general history only in their death struggle. 
 There is no method, no plan, no unity of design in the wars of 
 barbarians. The feuds of the JEdvd and Sequani, the resistance 
 of the Ncrvii, the Eburones, the Veneti, and Lexovii, can only 
 possess an antiquarian interest. We shall, therefore, confine our- 
 selves to stating that Caesar succeeded iu conquering the various 
 tribes of Gaul in succession, rarely meeting with a combined and 
 well-conducted resistance ; that twice he crossed the Rhine into 
 Germany, and twice the channel into Britain, without, however, 
 making a lasting impression on these countries ; that the net was 
 thrown over the necks of the Gauls before they seemed fully aware 
 of it ; and that the only formidable combination and the only 
 great man that encountered Caesar, the heroic Vercingetoiix at
 
 CAE 
 
 840 
 
 CAE 
 
 the head of a general couftderation, were finally overcome. Caesar 
 showed himself throughout a man equal to eveiy occasion. His 
 most striking characteristics are his bold strategy and his fertility 
 in resources. No danger ever appalled, no novelty ever surpiised 
 or baffled him. For every emergency he had the proper measures 
 in readiness. Whether a bridge was to be constructed to cross the 
 rapid Ehine, or siege and earth works, or ships, or engines of war 
 — his ingenuity solved the problem. His eminent talents for 
 organization controlled the greatest and the smallest things, and 
 especially the anny, which he meant to be in-esistible. All this 
 time he had his watchful eye over Rome, and noted every move 
 of the contending parties. — Pompcy had undertaken, dm'ing 
 Caesar's absence in Gaul, to manage affiiirs in the interest of the 
 triumvirate ; but this was a task he was not equal to. Irreso- 
 lute and yielding, he could not repress the opposition which, since 
 Ctesar's absence, had attempted to rescmd some of his enact- 
 ments, especially his agrarian law. He could not even sway the 
 elections. Low agitators like Clodius openly dared to beard and 
 resist him. In B.C. 56, therefore, a meeting of the trium\'irs and 
 their friends was held at Luca, where their policy for the future 
 was fixed. Ca;sar consented to assist in confening upon Pompey 
 and Crassus the consulship for the following year; to give to 
 Crassus the command in the east, and to Pompey the province 
 of Spain for five years — stipulating for himself a continuation 
 of his command in Gaul for a like period, pay from the public 
 treasury for the legions wliich he had levied without authority, 
 and the consulship for the year B.C. 48. The appointment of 
 consuls for the year B.C. 55 was efiected with the display of force 
 which had now become usual in contested elections. All opposi- 
 tion was overcome — the laws giving the triumvirs the stipulated 
 provinces, were moved and caniod by the tribune Trebonius, one 
 of their creatures, in an assembly of the people, without the con- 
 currence of the senate. Crassus hastened to the east, where he 
 met, B.C. 53, with overthrow and death. Pompey caused Spain 
 to be governed by his legates, and remained in Italy imder the 
 pretext of watching over the supply of Rome with com. He 
 now discovered that he had been playing the game of Cjesar, 
 and sought by degrees to conciliate the republican party. The 
 death of Crassus removed the only man who could have pre- 
 vented a colhsion between Pompey and Ca;sar, by thi-owing all 
 his weight on one side. In B.C. 54 Pompey lost his wife Julia, 
 Caesar's daughter, and with her another tie that bound him to his 
 rival. Taking advantage of the disorders in which Clodius and 
 Milo were chief actors, he caused himself to be elected consul 
 without a colleague. He then made his peace with the senatorial 
 party, and initiated or supported a series of measures calculated to 
 deprive Ca;sar of his province, his army, and the chance of obtain- 
 ing the consulship. II. Claudius JIarcellus, consul of B.C. 57, 
 a most violent enemy of Caesar, moved in the senate, though 
 without effect, that Caisar should be recalled. The same motion 
 was repeated in the follo\ving year by the new consul, C. Jlar- 
 cellus, but again defeated ; for Cxsar had not only bribed the 
 second consul, L. jEmilius Paulus, but also the tribune. Curio, 
 who approved the motion to deprive Ca?sar of his command, 
 adding, by way of amendment, that Pompey should be dealt 
 with in a similar manner; both should either lay down their 
 commands at the same time, or both retain them. Nothmg 
 could be more equitable than this propos:J ; yet it was not what 
 Pompey and the aristocracy wanted. It was therefore not 
 adopted for the present. Ca:sar, pending these angry discus- 
 sions, did, or at least appeared to do, eveiytbing to avoid an 
 open rupture. The senatorial party ascribed his moderation to 
 weakness. They had been infunned and eagerly believed, that 
 Cassar's troops were disaffected, and would desert him in a war 
 with the constituted authorities of the state. Therefore, though 
 the majority of the senate trembled at the prospect of civil war, 
 and gladly embraced at last the proposal of Ciuio, the viokiit 
 minority, Cato and Marcellus at their head, disregarded this 
 I'esolution, and insisted upon Cassar's immediate and uncondi- 
 tional submission. Caesar appeared to hesitate. He protested 
 that he wnshed for a peaceful arrangement, he deprecated the 
 horrors of civil war, and made a last proposal, the moderation of 
 which creates a well-grounded doubt in his sincerity. He declared 
 himself ready to give up Transalpine Gaul and his army, if he were 
 allowed to retain, until he was appointed consul, the provinces of 
 Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, or even Illyricum alone, with two 
 legions. Cmio submitted this ultimatum to the senate in Janu- 
 ary, B.C. 49. Stormy debates followed each other for several 
 
 days. At last the most violent party can-ied the day. The 
 original resolution was confirmed — Caesar was declared an enemy 
 to his country unless he abdicated his command, and the consuk 
 were invested with unlimited military authority. The die was 
 cast. Caesar had no choice but to accept the challenge of his 
 opponents, and he did it without hesitation. The contest that 
 now began was fonnidable, and it was not unequal. Pompey 
 was in possession of the legitimate authority of the repubhc, the 
 prestige of fonnal right was on his side, and all the resources of 
 the empire were at his command. Cresar appeared as an insub- 
 ordinate viceroy, marching against his countiy to subvert the 
 ancient order of things. The senatorial party had seven tried 
 legions in Spain under able and experienced ofilcers ; in Italy 
 ^hey had the materials for ten legions ; they had exclusive com- 
 mand of the sea, and were thus secure of easy communication on 
 the immense battlefield over which the war was sure to extend. 
 To this fonnidable army Cresar had to oppose only nine legions, 
 or about 50,000 foot, and a body of German cavalry; but this 
 army was perfect in every respect, and Caesar was its only master: 
 whilst Pompey had to consult a gi-eat number of counsellors, 
 whose conflicting wishes and opinions added to his natural hesita- 
 tion. Cajsar received the news of the declaration of war at the 
 head of only one legion of 5000 men and 300 horse. The 
 remainder of his army was stationed in the north of Gaul. In 
 consequence of the procrastination and supineness of Pompey, 
 the senatorial party had scarcely begmi to organize their forces. 
 Cassar, therefore, detenniued not to wait for the remainder of his 
 troops, but with his natural boldness, bordering upon temerity, 
 he rushed upon his enemies at once. The most complete suc- 
 cess rewarded liim. He crossed the small river Rubicon, wliich 
 separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy, and in rapid succession took 
 one city after another on his march along the Adriatic. The 
 troops and officers of Pompey were terror-stmck, and dispersed at 
 his approach. AH the aristocratical leaders fled, and threatened 
 with terrible vengeance those who should venture to remain and 
 to make their peace ■with Ca;sar. From Capua, where he had 
 collected his forces, Pompey marched direct to Brundisium; for 
 Italy was already lost, and he was obliged to secure a port to 
 effect his retreat to Greece. Half of his army was already 
 despatched when Ca;sar ai'rivcd before the place and immediately 
 began to blockade it, and to throw earthworks across the mouth 
 of the harbour. But Pompey had the command of the sea ; he 
 baffled Caesar's plans, embarked his remaining troops, and escaped 
 with a trifling loss across the Adriatic. The want of a fleet pre- 
 vented Cffisar from following. He was, therefore, obliged for the 
 present to content himself with the conquest of Italy, which he 
 had accomplislied in two months. Tmning to Rome, where he 
 remained but a short time, he set out for Spain. On his way 
 he laid siege to Massilia, a town strongly attached to the aristo- 
 cratical party ; but as it held out with great obstinacy, Ca'sar 
 left the siege to his lieutenants, and led his army across the 
 P}Tenees. He met the Pompeian generals north of the Ebro, 
 and after considerable difficulty defeated them. He generally 
 pardoned his prisoners. This success decided the campaign in 
 Spain. Yarro and the remaining troops capitulated, and many 
 of the Pompeian soldiers took service imder Cajsar. When Caesar 
 arrived again before Massiha the inhabitants smreudered at 
 discretion, and received at his hands that merciful treatment by 
 which he knew so well to conciliate his enemies. 
 
 Cassar now retimied to Rome (autumn 49). He had caused 
 himself to be nominated dictator, and as such, enacted a series 
 of legislative measures, regulating the laws of debtors, giving 
 the Roman fr;mchise to the inhabitants of his old province of 
 Gallia Cisalpina, and restoring to civil rights the sons of the 
 victims of the Sullanic proscriptions. Having accomplished 
 this, and having presided over the election of consuls for the 
 following year, he devoted the remainder of the year to prepara- 
 tions for the coming campaign. Hitherto he had been emuiently 
 successful. The only reverses that checkered his career of 
 victoiy, he suffered through his subordinate officers. One of them. 
 Curio, had succeeded in taking possession of Sicily ; but he had 
 crossed over into Africa, and there lost his life and army in a 
 battle against the Pompeians and King Juba of Numidia : another, 
 C. Antonius, after the loss of his ships, was blockaded in the 
 island of Curicta in the Adriatic, and made prisoner with his 
 whole force. Pompey had made good use of his time. He had 
 raised a very considerable army, and accumulated supplies in 
 Dyrrhachium and other places. About 200 of the senators, the
 
 CAE 
 
 841 
 
 CAE 
 
 most influential of tlie body, repro:luccd in Thessalonica the 
 image of tlie Roman curia. They elected the officers of state, 
 and di-ew abundant resources of men and money from all the 
 eastern provinces of the empire. Meanwhile, Caesar concentrated 
 his army of twelve legions and 1000 horse at Brundisium ; and 
 as, with all his exertions, he had not been able to procure sufficient 
 transports, he crossed the sea with half his forces during the 
 worst season of the year, when his enemies felt sure that he 
 would not venture to sail. He seized rapidly the seaport towns 
 of Oricum and Apollonia, and advanced upon Dyrrhachium. This 
 bold stroke had succeeded ; but until the remainder of his troops had 
 joined Ca;sar, he was not only unable to take the offensive against 
 Pompey, but was in a veiy precarious position. He had left his 
 faithful friend, M. Antony, in charge of the troops at Brundisium, 
 but the Pompeian fleet was now on the alert, and kept a close 
 watch of the coasts of Italy and Greece. Time wore on. Pompey 
 had approached, and threatened to crush Ca3sar. So dangerous 
 was his position, that he would have crossed the stormy Adriatic 
 to put himself at the head of his army, if he had found a fisherman 
 bold enough to take him across. At length, however, M. Antony 
 succeeded in stealing through the hostile cniisers. Soon after 
 landing he effected a juncture with Cffisar. Now Cresar resumed 
 the offensive, endeavoured to cut Pompey off from his maga- 
 zines in DyiThachium, and conceived even the strange idea of 
 besieging him in his camp, which he tried to surround on the 
 land side with two semicircular concentric trenches. It was an 
 undertaking in which the strategy of Ca?sar appears inferior to 
 that of his rival. Pompey profited by Cresar's mistake. He 
 ordered an attack upon the trenches near the sea ; the circum- 
 vallation was broken through ; C^sar was obliged to raise the 
 siege, and he retired, fortunately unpursued, directing his 
 retreat towards Thessaly. Near the ever memorable town of 
 Pharsalus the two armies met on the 9th August, B.C. 48. 
 Pompey had a force of eleven legions, or 47,000 foot and 7000 
 horse, to which Csesar could only oppose eight very diminished 
 legions, counting in all 22,000 men and 1000 horse. The 
 senatorial party resolved upon giving battle. Their splendid 
 cavalry advanced, dispersed the cavalry of Csesar, and threatened 
 to outflank his position. But they came suddenly and unex- 
 pectedly upon a reserve, consisting of Ca?sar's best veterans. 
 They were driven back, and in their wild retreat threw their 
 own infantry into confusion. The Cajsarians now advanced in 
 a body, and the fate of the day was decided. Pompey at once 
 gave up everything for lost, and fled ignominiously from the 
 field. His troops made a stand to defend their camp, but they 
 were overpowered, and 15,000 were wounded or slain ; 20,000 
 were made prisoners ; their chief officers fled in every direction ; 
 the whole army was annihilated with one blow, and the whole 
 war seemed terminated. Pompey fled to the nearest coast, took 
 ship, and after wandering about for some time among the coasts 
 and islands of the jEgean, sailed to Egypt, where he was treach- 
 erously murdered. Soon after Csesar appeared before Alexandria 
 at the head of only 3700 foot and 800 horse. We can under- 
 stand that he should have wished to bring the war to a close by 
 a relentless pursuit of his chief antagonist. But it seems 
 hardly in keeping with his general conduct, that after ascer- 
 taining Pompey's death, he stopped in Egypt to settle a purely 
 domestic squabble of the claimants to the Egyptian crown. He 
 landed in Alexandria, and soon found himself involved in a most 
 tedious, harassing, and dangerous conflict. The populace of 
 that large and wealthy emporium, supported by the regtdar 
 army of King Ptolemy Dionysus, besieged Caesar and his small 
 army in a quarter of the city ; at length, upon the arrival of 
 reinforcements from Asia, he prevailed over the obstinate resist- 
 ance of the Egyptians. Ca?sar regulated the succession in favour 
 of Cleopatra and her younger brother. He was captivated l)y 
 the charms of that artful beauty, who then stood just in the first 
 bloom of youth. In her company he spent some precious time, 
 which his opponents well knew how to make use of. In Italy 
 he had not been heard of for many months. His friends beg.an 
 to despair, to blunder, or to waver, and his enemies looked 
 up once more. After their great overthrow at Pharsalus, when 
 the chief actors, Caesar and Pompey, had so suddenly disap- 
 peared from the stage, the relics of the Pompeian army, and the 
 secondai-y officers, had been rallied at Corcyra under the protec- 
 tion of the still intact Pompeian fleet. Thence they had pro- 
 ceeded to Africa, where their friend and ally, King Juba of 
 Numidia, had annihilated the Caesarian corps under Curio, and 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 seemed able to give such an accession of strength to the sena- 
 torial party, that victory might still be hoped for. Here the 
 preparations for a second campaign were carried on with great 
 vigour, especially under the indefatigable Cato. The command- 
 in-chief was given to Metellus Scipio. Anns and supplies were 
 accumulated. A strong Numidian cavalry, elephants, and light- 
 armed slingers and spearmen under Juba, were added to the 
 heavy Roman legions. At Utica a new senate was formed, to 
 assist with its counsel the " legitimate " government. The civil 
 war once more raised its hideous head. Meanwhile Csesar 
 leisurely ascended the Nile in company with the lovely Cleopatra, 
 to explore the wonders of a bygone age : for Romans and Greeks 
 looked up at the pyramids with hardly less of awe and admira- 
 tion than does the modern traveller of om- own day. Taking 
 leave at length of Egypt and Egypt's queen, Ca?sar, still regard- 
 less of the threatening danger in the west, undertook, as a sort 
 of by-play, a campaign into Armenia against Phamaces, the son 
 of the great Mithridates. Caesar plunged into this unnecessary 
 war, and, with his usual good fortune, terminated it by the 
 decisive victory at Zela in Pontus, which he reported to Rome 
 in the celebrated bulletin — " I came, saw, and conquered." 
 Whatever may have been the defects in Csesar's plans, they 
 were crowned with success ; and he was at length enabled, after 
 an absence of twenty months, to return to Rome in September, 
 B.C. 47, and to finish at leisure the work that remained to be 
 done. It was time, indeed, that he returned. Agitation and riot 
 had begun to reappear in the capital, and what was more ominous 
 by fiir, a mutiny had broken out in the army. Csesar, indeed, 
 soon reasserted his mastery, but these untoward circumstances 
 delayed and partly weakened his expedition to Africa. At 
 length, again in the season of storms, he crossed from Lilybaeum 
 in Sicily with an army of six legions, into the neighbourhood of 
 Carthage. There was fought the sanguinary battle of Thapsus, 
 4th April, B.C. 46, in which Caesar's furious soldiery, bi^utalized 
 by the long continuance of the civil war, slaughtered 50,000 
 enemies, cutting down all their prisoners without mercy, in spite 
 of Csesar's commands, remonstrances, and entreaties. The sena- 
 torial party was now lost indeed. Metellus, Scipio, Afranius, 
 Petreius, Juba, and Cato, fell by their own hands. At Utica 
 the loss of the republic was sealed and ratified by the voluntary 
 death of the last republican. 
 
 The African campaign had lasted about six months. Cffsar 
 returned to Rome on the 26th of July, to celebrate his triumph. 
 On four successive days he exhibited to the wondering gaze of 
 the populace his trophies and prisoners from Gaul, Egypt, Asia, 
 and Africa. His enemies were officially represented as foreign 
 kings and nations — the Gauls, Ptolemy, Phamaces, Juba. The 
 triumph over Roman citizens was veiled under barbaric names. 
 Lavish rewards to his veterans, and rich presents and feasts to 
 the whole population of Rome, completed the satisfaction created 
 by the great show. In addition to a large donative, the soldiers 
 obtained allotments of land. By the two sons of Pompey, Cnaeus 
 and Sextus, Csesar was inteiTuptcd in the midst of his most 
 important legislative measures. He hastened to Spain, towards 
 the end of B.C. 46 ; and with his usual impetuosity, and more 
 than his usual courage, brought the war to a victorious issue 
 in the most hard-fought of his battles, at Munda. With the 
 battle of Thapsus the object of Caesar, so far as it was destruc- 
 tive, was accomplished. This corrupt oligarchy wliicli for a long 
 time had been the curse of Rome, was completely and hopelessly 
 crushed. The insuiTcetion in Spain was merely a personal and 
 local opposition, not based on any broad principles of conflicting 
 political parties. But the work of destruction was only the pre- 
 liminary part of the task which Caesar had undertaken. The 
 far more important and arduous duty remained — the gigantic 
 work of reorganization. Ca'sar could hardly hope to accomplish 
 it entirely, even if his life should be prolonged to tlie extremest 
 limit of human existence; for whc-reas destruction may be the 
 work of a moment, organic growth is the result of time. Tho 
 position of Caesar had become difficult from the moment that 
 victory in the field enabled him to drop the party leader, and 
 to rise into the monarch. Like other rulers who have obtained 
 power through a political convulsion, he found his own partisans 
 liardly less troublesome than his old opponents. A great number 
 of those who had followed the political heir of Marius were eager 
 for confiscation, and for abolition of debts. Not a few were of 
 the Catilinarian stamp, men ruined in purse and character, who 
 would have hailed a bloody proscription. With such men Caesar 
 
 6
 
 CAE 
 
 842 
 
 CAE 
 
 parted company after Pharsalus. He wisely and generously 
 threw into the fire the coiTespondence found in the tents of the 
 Pompeian leaders, and thus quashed most effectually all hopes 
 and fears of political prosecutions. Nothing was more foreign 
 to his feelings than cruelty and ^^ndictiveness. He took 
 a pleasure in pardoning. At the beginning of the war he 
 dismissed all captive officers ; even after Pharsalus and Thapsus 
 he pardoned freely those who submitted themselves. He shed 
 tears at the sight of Pompey's head, and regretted that by Cato's 
 suicide he had been denied the satisfaction of pardoning him 
 also. When Pompey's statue was pulled down, he caused it to 
 be re-erected, and persevered in this spirit of generous concilia- 
 lion, though he met with disaffection from both parties, which, 
 unable to attack him openly, found a vent in satires, placards, 
 popular manifestations, and even conspiracies. Caesar was, de 
 
 J'acto, master of the state. His will was law ; but it was neces- 
 sary to find a constitutional form for the actual order of things. 
 The most ready title was that of dictator. A dictator super- 
 seded all the republican magistrates, and swayed in his sole 
 hand the whole power of the state. Ctesar took this title, first 
 for a term of years, and at last for life ; yet he considered it 
 neither suflieient nor desirable. It was not wise to allow the idea 
 to take root, that any of the republican offices had an existence 
 and rights independent of the new rulei\ At the establishment 
 of the republic the royal prerogative had been broken up, and 
 divided among the several republican magisti-ates. The most 
 
 > natural process, therefore, of restoring the royal authority, was 
 to combine the several titles and functions, and to invest the 
 monarch with them. Cajsar possessed akeady the highest reli- 
 gious office. As pontifex maximus he was the head of the state 
 religion ; he took the title of consul for five and then for ten 
 years ; the leadership in the senate he occupied by assuming the 
 title of Fu-st of the senate ; the power of the censorship, and 
 with it the right of making and unmaking senators and knights, 
 was given him as " pra;fectus morum ;" the tiibunician power 
 also was joined to this accumulation of offices, so that he was in 
 almost ever}- respect the representative and beai'er of the public 
 authority, and of the majesty of the state. But all these offices 
 were originally and essentially municipal offices of the city of 
 Rome. The ci\il and military power over a province of the 
 republic might be added by special enactments, but was inherent 
 in none of them. This civil and military authority, comprised in 
 the name " Imperium" Caesar now took permanently for himself 
 with the title "Imperator," prefixed to his name. From it were 
 henceforth to emanate the delegated powers of the provincial 
 governors appointed by him, and responsible to him alone. This 
 last change was the greatest of all. It was by the oppression of 
 the proraices that the Roman oligarchy had ruined their unhappy 
 subjects, had corrupted the freedom of the Roman people, had 
 depraved and degraded themselves, and had called up the avenger. 
 In the Imperium, therefore, we justly find the cause, the essence, 
 and the title of the Roman empire. 
 
 A necessary consequence of this change was the depression of 
 the city of Rome, who, from being the mistress of the whole 
 republic, became the first municipahty of the empire. The 
 crowds of the Roman forum were henceforth stripped of the 
 privilege of sending forth governors into the provinces, and 
 taxing them according to their will and pleasm-e. The popular 
 elections of consuls, praetors, and other officers continued, indeed, 
 under certain limitations, which obliged the electors to choose 
 the candidates nominated by Cjesar ; but these ofBcers had no 
 concurrent authority with the emperor ; they were his legates 
 and servants, not those of the Roman people. This was the 
 most effectual stop that Cassar could put to the intolerable ^•iolence 
 with which the mob and hired gangs of desperadoes had, in the 
 last years of the republic, disgraced and undermined what was 
 once the liberty of the people. The forum and the field of Mars 
 became peaceful, when influence, power, and wealth were no 
 longer to be obtained there ; the gi-eat Roman people, coaxed and 
 flattered and bribed by all parties, not less by the unprincipled 
 demagogue than by the virtuous Cato, became a despised and 
 impotent rabble. When Caesar ascended to power, the hifamous 
 practice of distributing corn gratis, or at a low or nominal price, 
 at the expense of the provinces, had grown to such fearful 
 dimensions that it swallowed up one-fifth of the whole revenue 
 of the state. Nothing shows more clearly the altered position 
 of Ca>sar, tlian that he was enabled at one blow to strike off 
 170,000 from a list of 320,000 public pensioners, and to make 
 
 poverty the only claim of those who continued to receive a simikr 
 largess. He took care at the same time by establishing a broad 
 system of emigration and colonization, to relieve the capital from 
 the idle crowd that had flocked thither to paiticipate in the maBy 
 pridleges of Roman citizens, and at the same time to restore now 
 life to those ancient seats of industry, Carthage and Corinth. 
 
 But the wretchedness of the poor was njt more ominous of 
 decay than the mad extravagance of the rich. Csesar, in the spirit 
 of the time, vainly endeavoured to restrain this by severe sump- 
 tuary laws. He also tried to counteract the alarming increase of 
 slaves, and the corresponding decrease of freemen. He ordered 
 that of the herdsmen employed on the extensive Italian grazing 
 farms, a proportion of at least one-third should be freemen. He 
 attempted to restrict the hoarding of money, and by several other 
 well-meant but fruitless laws, fondly hoped to restore an inde- 
 pendent and healthy middle class. The most questionable 
 perhaps of these, was one by which he cancelled a part of exist- 
 ing debts ; he acted in this respect in the spirit of the old Roman 
 democracy, which seemed to be justified by the ruinous and 
 illegal rate of uiterest which the misfoitunes of the times had ill 
 part produced. We are amazed at the activity he displayed i 
 a legislator. No department of the state escaped his attention. 
 He established the finances and the taxation on a sound and 
 equitable footing ; he issued the most comprehensive laws for the 
 government of the provinces, the refonn of the municipal towns, 
 the administration of justice, the establishment of an effective 
 police, the want of which had delivered the highways of Italy, 
 and even the streets of Rome, into the hands of countless robbers 
 and assassins. He contemplated, and in part executed public 
 works, on an astounding scale of magnitude. Buildings, road 
 canals, ports, works of drainage and urigation, gave employment 
 to crowds of impoverished workmen. The interests of science 
 and hterature were not forgotten by a man, who, if he had not 
 been a statesman and a soldier, might have taken the highest 
 place in several departments of learning. He founded the first 
 public librai-y at Rome, invited scholars by the offer of rewards 
 and pri\ileges to the capital, and ^-ith the assistance of the 
 astronomer, Sosigenes, introduced the Eg}ptian solar year iu ■ 
 place of the old Roman lunar year, which, thi'ough the ignorance 
 of the "pontifices," and the meddling of political parties, had come 
 to be nearly three months in advance of the real time. His 
 genius rose even to contemplate a codification of the law, a work- 
 which his untimely death threw back for nearly six centuries, tol 
 be at last undertaken by far inferior hands. 
 
 In such an acti\-ity as this we must recognize and admire tho.^ 
 extraordinary genius, worthy of the exalted position to which he 
 had aspired, of regenerating his countr}'. But he never succeoded . 
 in gaining the loyal affection of the aristocracy, which he hal 
 deprived of power. The senate, though decimated by the civil 
 wars, and piu-ged of the uncompromising opponents of monarchy, 
 was still the centre of unconciliated animosity, though outwardly 
 the loyalty of the nobility seemed to know no bounds. Their 
 sen'ile spirit had followed up Cjesar's victories vdih a succession 
 of decrees in which their ingenuity was completely exhausted, to 
 dense honours and titles for the new master. They called him 
 the " Father of his country," they voted public thanksgivings for 
 his victories, they changed the name of the mouth in which he 
 was born from Quinctilis into .Julius, erected his statues in the 
 temples, and declared him a god. A laurel cro'ivn, a royal robe 
 of state, an elevated gold throne were to mark him out as their 
 lord and master ; a body guai'd of senators was to watch for his 
 safety. Nothing seemed left but to crown the king whom they 
 had accepted. \\Tiether it was Caesar's wsh to assume the titb 
 of Rex, may still be considered doubtful. He felt, on the one side, 
 that he already possessed the reality of power, and that the title 
 of king, from old time proscribed and odious to the Roman ear, 
 might add to the difficulty of his position, without increasing his 
 real strength. Yet he can hardly have been a stranger to the 
 several de^•ices by which his friends, especially M. Antony, 
 endently endeavoured to sound the public feeling on that subject. 
 At the festival of Lupercalia, JI. Antony offered Caesar a cro^vn ; 
 but the people showed their displeasure, and Caesar rejected 
 the proflered gift. Rumours, however, were rife that Ca;sar 
 meditated to take the title of king in all countries out of Italy. 
 He was making preparations for a war with Parthia, and the 
 Sibylline books contained a prophecy that the Parthians could 
 only be conquered by a king. These rumours, whether true or 
 false, gave a colour of republican virtue to a number of men,
 
 CAE 
 
 843 
 
 CAG 
 
 ':om personal hatred of Cn?sar had united in a conspiracy against 
 - life. C. Cassius was the soul and leader of this plot. Besides 
 ' . Brutus, there was not one among them whose motives were 
 t selfish and personal. They kept their secret well, though 
 Miut sixty shared it. The blow was stnick on the ever 
 i morable Ides of Slarch (15th March, B.C. 44). In the senate- 
 ase of Pompey, at the foot of the statue of his conquered rival, 
 i'.sar fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds. His death plunged 
 me again into the vortex of ci\-il war, from which she emerged 
 .1' hopeless slave of a man in every respect inferior to the great 
 founder of the Empire. 
 
 Csesar was only in his fifty-sixth year at the time of his death. 
 Though he did not live to accomplish his great work, the stamp 
 which his commanding genius left upon it never was obliterated 
 as long as Koman Cresai's wore the imperial purple ; and even 
 now a breath of his spirit pervades the world, and a faint echo 
 of his name. Rome in him produced her greatest man. Intellect 
 and will were justly balanced in his great soul. No illusion, no 
 enthusiasm, no ideals clouded his perception or perverted lus 
 Judgment. A cool, calm, reflecting, prosaic Roman, he saw 
 things as they were, not as he -n-ished them to be. He accepted 
 the facts of his position, and shaped his course of action accord- 
 ingly. He judged men and institutions for what they were 
 worth, and by the uTesistible force of his will, pressed them into 
 his service. He never wavered or hesitated in his whole life, 
 and never lost sight of his final aim. What he had undertaken 
 he carried out — not with the obstinacy of a narrow and stubborn 
 mind, but without passion, with caution and courage combined. 
 In war he was bold and daring, relpng more upon rapidity of 
 movement than upon numbers, and trusting much also to that 
 good fortune wliich always favom-s the brave. He relied not 
 upon niles and established usage, but upon the intuition of genius. 
 He had no system, and no school ; but, as if by inspiration, he 
 always adopted the means which led to success. His starting- 
 point in his career was not the field of battle, but the political 
 arena. He was forty years old before he knew that he could 
 command an army ; and though the greatest of Roman generals, 
 he was not so much a soldier as a statesman. But the univer- 
 sality of his genius fitted him for any career. He possessed that 
 kind of natural, plain, and persuasive eloquence which disdains 
 ponderous periods and pointed phrases. He was a perfect master 
 of all the polite learning of his time. Every intellectual occu- 
 pation had a chaim for him, from the study of astronomy to 
 that of the grammatical inflexions of his mother tongue. He 
 fully enjoyed the pleasm-es of life, physical as well as intel- 
 lectual. He drained the cup of pleasure to the dregs, but he 
 never became a slave to his passions. He never had to deplore, 
 like Alexander, a single rash act committed under the influence 
 of low excitement. An admirer of the fan- sex, he paid gi-eat 
 attention to his personal appearance, which was handsome and 
 imposing. His health, though natm-ally feeble, was strengthened 
 by exercise and exposure. He was a master in every manly feat, 
 and could set his soldiers an example in eveiy militai-y ^drtue. 
 Such was the gi-eat Cissar, by natm-e fitted to accomplish a 
 work which, in the development of human affairs, had become 
 imperative. He perceived his duty, he undertook and accom- 
 plished it; and if anytlung is wanted to engage ovu- sympathies, 
 not less than our admiration, for the greatest son of Rome, it 
 is that he died a victim on her altar. — W. I. 
 
 CiESAR, C.ESAKiAXO, an Italian architect, born ac Milan 
 about 1451. The work in connection \x\t\i which his name is 
 remembered, is a translation into Italian of the gi*eat work of 
 Vitruvius, De Ai'chitectura, to which he added an extensive 
 commentary. 
 
 CiESAR, Sir Julius, a learned English lawyer, master of 
 the Rolls from 1614-163G, bom near Tottenham in Middlesex 
 in 1557. He held some important appointments under Queen 
 Elizabeth, and was knighted on James' accession. He was also 
 appointed chancellor and undcr-treasurer of the exchequer, and 
 in 1G07 sworn into the privy council. 
 
 C.ESARIUS, an eminent French prelate, bom at Clialons- 
 snr-Saone in 470, succeeded Pomerius in 499 as abbot of the 
 monasteiy of Aries. Two years later he became bishop of the 
 diocese, and in the discharge of the duties of his office did much 
 to restore discipline among the clergy. His strictness procured 
 him enemies, and he was twice subjerted to temporary banish- 
 ment on fictitious charges of wishing to betray his countiy into 
 the hands of the Burgundians. With the consent of the pope, 
 
 Ca^sarius convoked and presided over several councils for settling 
 points of discipline and doctrine. The most noteworthy of them 
 was that of Orange in 529, at which Pelagianism was condemned. 
 Csesarius seems to have been a zealous disciple of St. Augusthie. 
 Several of his numerous homilies are to be foimd among the 
 sermons of that father. Slany of them ai-e also preserved in 
 Baluze's Bibliotheca Patram. Cajsarius died in 544. — J. B. 
 
 CAFFARELLI, Frax90IS-Marie-Auguste, a French 
 general, honoured on various state occasions with the friendship 
 and confidence of Napoleon, born at Falga in 17G6 ; died in 
 1849. He entered the army as a private soldier in a regiment 
 of dragoons, and attained successively by merit in the field, 
 particularly at Austerlitz, the gi-ades of colonel, general of 
 brigade, and general of division. In 1831 he was made a peer. 
 
 CAFFARELLI DU FALGA, Louis-Marie-Joseph-Maxi- 
 JiiLiEN, a French general, and man of science, bom at the 
 Chateau-du-Falga in Upper Languedoc in 1756. He assisted, 
 mider the orders of Kleber, at the passage of the Rhine, near 
 Dusseldorf, in September, 1795. He was subsequently attached, 
 with the rank of general of brigade and chief of the engineers, to 
 the expedition of Bonaparte into Egypt, where to the great grief 
 both of his superior and the soldiery, he died, April, 1799, in con- 
 sequence of a wound received at the siege of St. Jean d'Acre. 
 
 CAFFARO, the earliest historian of Genoa, born in 1080 ; 
 died in 1166. In 1100 he joined the cmsades, and fought at 
 the siege of Csesarea. Having returned to Genoa, he wrought 
 at his history, which, though written in very bad Latin, is of 
 great value as a som'ce of authentic information. It is preserved 
 in Mm-atori. 
 
 CAGLIARI, Benedetto. This painter was the brother of 
 Paolo Veronese, and was born at Verona in 1538. He succeeded 
 most in architectui-al compositions, viith which he aided the 
 works of Paolo. He painted also in the style of his brother, 
 and lus works in Venice ai'e highly accounted. He died in 
 1598.— W. T. 
 
 CAGLIARI, Cakletto, the elder son of Paolo Veronese, 
 and also his pupil. Cai-efully educated by his fiither, at the 
 age of eighteen he had painted some pictures of remarkable 
 promise, and acquired a considerable reputation. On the death 
 of Paolo, Carletto was left with his brother to finish the many 
 works left incomplete by their illustrious father. It has not 
 been easy to distingiiish the labours of the father and the sons 
 and several works pass current as Veronese's in which there is 
 little doubt he had no hand whatever. Carletto was born at 
 Venice in 1570. He died at the eai-ly age of twenty-six. — W. T. 
 
 CAGLIARI, Gabriele, was the younger son of Paolo Vero- 
 nese. He painted at first with promise; but ultimately put out 
 by the superior lights of his father, brother, and uncle, he 
 abandoned art for commerce. He was bom in 1568, and died 
 in 1631.— W. T. 
 
 CAGLIARI, Paolo. See Veronese, Paolo. 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO, Alexander, commonly called Count de, a 
 famous adventurer, bom of respectable parentage at Palermo in 
 1745 ; died in 1795. He commenced his public career in a 
 characteristic manner, by cheating a goldsmith of a large sum 
 of money, and ended it, as could hardly have been prophesied, 
 under the ban of the inquisition in the castle of St. Leo. 
 On escaping from Palermo, the proceeds of his crime, or 
 ratlier series of crimes (for the affair with the goldsmith was 
 not the first of his felonies), enabled him to undertake a 
 course of travel in the East, which he prosecuted under 
 various aliases, but with uniform success ; securing everywhere 
 the protection of pashas and muftis, and pocketing what it 
 was afterwards his splendid business to confer — immense riches. 
 Returning to Europe, he married at Rome or Naples a beautiful 
 woman of the name of Lorenza Feliciani, who played the part 
 of countess de Cagliostro to admiration, and added the wages 
 of prostitution to the gains of sorcery. At Strasbom'g, where the 
 adventurous pair settled about 1780, Cagliostro evoked the 
 gratitude of the pojiulacc by benevolent attentions to the sick, 
 at the same time that he filled his collers by his trade in necro- 
 mancy. Here he made the acquaintance of cardinal du Rohan, 
 under whose protection he removed to Paris in 1785. In the 
 capital of France, with a prince of the church for his protector, 
 his success could not but be decided, for he brought with him 
 the secret of Egy{)tian frccmasoniy, and by means of that the 
 Parisians could have the pleasure at any time of seeing the 
 ghosts of their departed relatives. He communicated immor-
 
 tality in one elixir, and the power of making gold in anotlier, 
 and added prodi^ously to his own store of the latter commodity. 
 But his connection with Rohan, who was concerned in the 
 famous affair of the diamond necklace, brought hun into trouble. 
 He shared the imprisonment and the exile of tlie cardinal. After 
 spending two years in England, and performing another torn- on 
 the continent, in an e\il hour he went to Rome, where he was 
 pounced upon by the inquisition, which, making light of his 
 elixirs, condemned him to death — a sentence which was com- 
 muted by the pope into perpetual imprisonment. The character 
 in which he was to have suffered death, and in which he imder- 
 went captivity, was that of a freemason ! His wife, who was 
 shut up in a convent, survived him several years. — J. S., G. 
 
 CAGNATI, Gilbert, an ItaHan botanist, was a native of 
 Nocera in the kingdom of Naples. He lived during the second 
 half of the 16th century, and wrote a work on gardens, which 
 was pubhshed at Basle in 1546. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAGNATI, Maesilius, an Italian physician, was bom at 
 Padua, and died about the year 1610. He studied medicine in 
 his native town, and afterwards went to Rome. He has written 
 various medical and botanical works. In his " Four Books of 
 Observations," he has given remarks on the plants mentioned by 
 Hippocrates and Theophrastus. — J. H. B. 
 
 * CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR, Charles, Baron, a cele- 
 brated French physicist, born at Paris in 1777. He distin- 
 guished himself greatly at the ecole Polytechnique ; was after- 
 wards attached to the council of state of the ministry of tlie 
 interior; received the cross of honom: in 1815, and the title 
 of baron in 1818; succeeded Gay-Lussac as member of the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1851. Cagniard de la Tour has effected 
 many valuable improvements in mechanical and chemical pro- 
 cesses. His greatest achievement in engineering is the suspended 
 aqueduct at Crouzol — a bold, original, and most successful work. 
 We are indebted to him for the beautiful sirerie, by which, for 
 the first time, the number of vibrations producing the different 
 notes of sound, could be accurately counted. His curious 
 researches and useful inventions find a place in almost every 
 scientific treatise on mechanics and physics. — J. P. N. 
 
 CAGNOL.\, LuiGi, Marquis, an Italian architect, bom at 
 MUan in 1762; died in 1833. At Rome he received lessons 
 from Tarquini, and soon attained high rank as an architect. 
 Napoleon, for whom he constructed the triumphal arches of 
 Marengo and the Simplon, made him a member of the council 
 of the ancients. 
 
 CAGNOLI, AxTONT, an astronomer of Italian extraction, 
 was bom at Zante in 1743. His father, though residing at 
 Zante, discharged the duties of chancellor to the republic of 
 Verona. In 1772 young Cagnoli, in the character of secretary 
 of legation, accompanied Marco Zeno to Madrid, and in 1776 he 
 took up his residence at Paiis. It is said that his purpose of 
 devoting himself to astronomy, originated in a ^'iew which he 
 obtained of Saturn's ring in the Paris observatory some time in 
 1780. Having commenced the study in good earnest, and pro- 
 cured the necessary instruments, he went to Verona, and estab- 
 lished a kind of observatory at his house. When this town was 
 taken by the French in 1797, he sold his instnmients and 
 removed, first to Bresa and then to Slodena, where he filled the 
 chair of mathematics in the militaiy school. He subsequently 
 retired to Verona, where he died in 1816. He was a member 
 of nearly all the academies in Europe. His principal works are 
 — " Trigonometria plana e sferica," Paris, 1786 and 1808 ; 
 " M(ithode pour calculer les longitudes geographiques d'apr^s 
 I'observation d'eclipses de soleil ou d'occultationsd'etoiles;""Alina- 
 nacco con diverse notizie astronomiche, adattate all'uso comime," 
 1787-1801, 1805-G; " Osservazioni meteorologiche," 1788-96; 
 "Notizie astronomiche, adattate all'uso comune," 1799-1802; 
 "Sezioni coniche," Modena, 1801; " Catalogue de 501 ctoiles, 
 suivi dcs tables relatives d'observation et de mutation," Modena, 
 1818; " Compendio della Trigonometria piana, ad uso degli 
 asprranti alia scuola militare in Modena," 1807 ; numerous 
 articles inserted in the Transactions de la Society Italienne ; 
 amongst them, " Nuovo e sicuro mezzo per riconoscere la figura 
 della ten-a," in vol. -n. of the Transactions, which was reprinted 
 ' in London by Baily, and noticed in the Philosophical Magazine 
 for May, 1822; " Degli dementi spettanti alia teoria della rota- 
 zione solare e lunare," vol. viii. of the Transactions ; " Problema 
 sull'equazione deU'orbita e suUa eccentricita, de'pianeti," Bologna, 
 1806.— J. D. E. 
 
 CAHANA, R'C. bex Thachlifa, was rector of the then 
 flomishing rabbinical school at Pum-beditha in Babylonia, from 
 397 to 413. To him is attributed the composition of the 
 " Pesiktha " (agadic, i. e. homiletic exposition of sections of 
 the Pentateuch), frequently mentioned by writers as the Pesiktha 
 of R' Cahana. With numerous additions and corrections, it 
 became known in the ninth century by the name of " Pesiktha 
 Rubbathi " (The Greater Pesiktha) ; the still existing fragments 
 of which have been published and translated into Latin. — 
 (Fiii'st, Kultur und Lit. Gesch.') Zimz, however, after a careful 
 analysis of all the vestiges to be found of the above exposition 
 in ancient authors, arrives at the conclusion that the later work 
 is entirely independent of the older Pesiktha, of which nothing 
 is extant save the fragmentary notices in the Midrashim and the 
 Aruch. — (Zunz, Gottesdienstl. For/r., chap. 11 and 13.) — T. T. 
 
 CAHEN, Samuel, a French Hebraist and publicist, was born 
 at Metz Ln 1796. He was educated for the rabbinical office, 
 but, contrary to the wish of his parents, began life as a private 
 teacher in Germany. Having returned to France, he taught 
 some time in the country, and afterwards conducted the consis- 
 torial school of Paris from 1823 to 1836. He is the author of 
 an " Easy Slethod of acquuing the Hebrew Tongue ;" of a 
 " Manual of Universal Histoiy," &c. But his greatest imder- 
 taking was a translation of the bible, and of the documents 
 collaterally related to it. The twentieth and last volume was 
 published in 1851. 
 
 CAHER-B' ILLAH, Mohammed, caliph of Bagdad, died in 
 950. In 929 a revolution placed him on his brother's throne. 
 Three days after Moctader was restored, and reigned till 932, 
 when Caher again ascended the throne. But the emirs soon 
 gi-ew tired of his crimes, and forced him a second time to abdi- 
 cate. They put out his eyes to prevent his regaining the 
 supreme power. 
 
 * CAHOURS, AuGUSTE, a noted French chemist, bora in 1813, 
 was educated at the polytechnic school of Paris. He has lectured 
 on his favourite science successively in the central school of arts 
 and in the polytechnic. Besides a gi-eat number of uiteresting 
 memoks inserted in the Comptes Rendus, he has published 
 " Le9ons de chimie generale elementaire," 1855-56. — J. S.,G. 
 
 CAHUSAC, Louis de, a di-amatic writer, born of a noble 
 family at Montauban, and died at Paris in 1759. He produced 
 a considerable number of tragic and comic pieces. One of the 
 latter, Zeneide, was for a long time a stock play. Cahusac was 
 fortunate in having his operas set to music, and so rendered 
 temporarily successful, by Rameau, th'e celebrated composer. 
 He WTote some works of a different kind, among which was a 
 " Treatise on Ancient and ilodern Dancuig." He also furnished 
 to the Encyclopedie articles on the grand sights of Europe. 
 
 CAIAPHAS (^Receiver), the Jewish high-priest before whom 
 Jesus Christ was tried and condemned ere he was taken before 
 Pontius Pilate. He was created high-priest by Valerius Grains, 
 Pilate's predecessor, but was deposed by Vitellins, the governor 
 of Svria. 
 
 CAIET. See Cayet. 
 
 CAIGNIEZ, Louis Charles, bom at An-as, April, 1762. 
 His celebrity as a di-amatic writer was great in his day amongst 
 the lower classes of the population of Paris, who delighted in 
 the intense emotions excited by his stirring melodramas. From 
 a drama of Caigniez was derived the " JIaid and the Magpie," 
 which in various shapes has found its way to every theatre in 
 Europe, and is as a child's nursery tale to big people. He could 
 also soar into such pretty realms of fimcy as "The Sleeping 
 Beauty in the Wood," which was the Jlidsummer's Night Dream 
 of this Boulevard Shakspeare. Notwithstanding the immense 
 popularity of his works, he died in indigence in 1842. — J. F. C. 
 
 CAILIIAVA, d'Estexdeux (Jean Fk.vxcis), a dramatic 
 wiiter, born near Toulouse in 1731. His genius was first stirred 
 by the general joy excited by the escape of Louis XV. from the 
 attempt on his life by Damiens. While the " well-beloved " 
 Louis yet retained his ascendancy over his people, the news of 
 Damiens' attempt reached the ears of the poetic Toulou.se, 
 famous for its floral games and jousts of amorous bards. 
 Cailhava wrote a " Piece de Circonstance," which raised meri- 
 dional enthusiasm so high, and the author's self-opinion as well, 
 that he set out for Paris with a head full of dramas. But he 
 found that he had to deal with an audience more critical than 
 emotional, and yet his failures were fairly balanced by success. 
 For a while his dramatic career was interrupted by an unlucky
 
 CAI 
 
 845 
 
 CAI 
 
 quan-el with the famous comedian Mole, who had influence 
 enough to have the Theatre Fran9aise shut in his face. He 
 next brought the leading critics on his back by essays against 
 the false taste they encoui-aged, and from which he was saved 
 by his love for Moliere, which amounted to adoration. The 
 Emperor Napoleon rendered his old age easy, which was more- 
 over sweetened by the devotedness of an excellent daughter, in 
 whose amis the dramatist exph-ed in 1813. — J. F. C. 
 
 CAILLAKD. Antoine-Bernaed, born in 1737 ; died in 
 1807. In youth he became acquainted with Turgot, to whom 
 he owed much of his success. Through his influence he accom- 
 panied the marquis de Verac in 1774, 1779, and 1784, as 
 secretary of legation to Cassel, Copenhagen, and St. Peters- 
 burg. In 1786 he was sent to the Hague. After the Revo- 
 lution the directory appointed him minister-plenipotentiary to 
 the court of Berlin. In this mission he obtained the Prussian 
 king's recognition of the left bank of the Rhine as the boundary 
 of the republic ; but the secret intrigues of Russia induced the 
 directory to supersede him by Sieyes, whom they considered a 
 more imposing ambassador. In 1801 Caillard received the port- 
 folio of the foreign department in the absence of Talleyrand. 
 His " Memoire sur la Revolution de Hollande en 1787," is highly 
 praised. — R. M., A. 
 
 CAILLAU, Jean-JIarie, a French physician, born at 
 Gaillac in 1765 ; died in 1820. He did not study medicine till 
 1789. In 1794 he obtained an appointment as physician to 
 the army of the Western Pyrenees. Having taken his degree 
 in 1803, he commenced practising in Bordeaux, where he ulti- 
 mately became ^^ce-dh•ector, and at last director of the medical 
 school. 
 
 CAILLE, DE LA. See La Caille. 
 
 CAILLfi, Ren£, a celebrated French traveller in the close of 
 the last centuiy. Having resided in Senegal for a number of 
 ' ars to inm-e himself to the climate, and acquire familiarity with 
 lie native manners, he started from Sierra Leone, after a short 
 visit to Paris, penetrated to Timbuctoo in the giiise of an 
 Egyptian who had been educated in France, and subsequently 
 reached Tangier half dead from fatigue and hardships. He was 
 awarded a prize of ten thousand francs by the Geographical 
 Society of Paris, and published the jom'nal of his travels in 
 1830.— W. B. 
 
 CAILLEMOTE, a gallant officer in the service of the prince 
 of Orange, descended fi'om a noble family of France. Coming 
 to England with William in 1688, he was despatched to Ireland 
 in the following year ■svith a command in the expedition under 
 the duke of Schomberg. After the reduction of Carrickfergus, 
 the army, with the exception of La Caillemote's regiment and 
 Cambon's, having gone into winter quarters, this brave officer 
 had an oppoilunity of distinguishing himself in a most hazardous 
 enterprise, an attempt against Charlemont Fort, which, although 
 considered an almost impregnable position, he succeeded with 
 extraordinary daring in damaging to such an extent, that it 
 surrendered to the duke shortly after. Caillemote fell at the 
 battle of the Boyne.— J. S., G. 
 
 CAILLET, Guillaume, known as Jacques Bonhomme, a 
 French peasant who lived in the fourteenth centuiy. He was 
 the leader ot the Jacquerie or insurgent peasants, who, driven 
 mad with hunger and wretchedness, in 1358 stormed the castles 
 of the nobles and slaughtered their inmates. These poor pea- 
 sants had been long ruthlessly plundered and degraded, and at 
 last suddenly overwhelmed their oppressors with a terrible 
 revenge. The nobles immediately declared against them, and 
 Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, completed their destruction. 
 The king of the .Jacquerie was crowned with a red-hot iron trivet. 
 
 CAILLET, Nicoi.as, a French lawyer of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He studied under the famous Cujas, and has left a work 
 entitled " Cnmmentarii in leges Marchia; Municipales. 
 
 * CAILLIAUD, FRiiDEKic, a famous French traveller, born 
 at Nantes in 1787. With a com])etent knowledge of natural 
 science, especially of geology and mineralogy, acquired in Paris, 
 he set out on his travels in 1814, and passing through Greece, 
 Turkey in Europe, and Turkey in Asia, reached Egypt in 
 the following year, where he was well received by the pasha, 
 Mohammed All, who commissioned him to explore the deserts on 
 both sides of the Nile. After acquainting himself with the 
 monuments abounding in the vicinity of the two upjierniost 
 Nubian cataracts, he discovered by a fortunate chance at Mount 
 Zabarah the famous emerald niiiies wrought under the Ptole- 
 
 mies, and since their day mines of wealth to the Arabic poets, 
 but although still in working order, being even furnished with 
 the necessaiy tools, long sacred from the hand of avaricious toil. 
 A hardly less curious discovery, which he made shortly after in 
 this region, was that of one of the ancient commercial routes 
 through Egypt to India, which, by the account of some of the 
 tribes among whom his inquuies were prosecuted, led through 
 a city of great extent on the borders of the Red Sea, probably 
 Berenice, the ruins of which are stiU visible. After spending 
 nine months at Thebes, he returned to France in 1819, with a 
 rich collection of antiquities, plans, inscriptions, &c., which JI. 
 Jomard, at the request of government, published in 1825, under 
 the title of " Voyage a I'oasis de Thebes et dans les deserts 
 situes a I'orient et a. I'occident de la Thebaide," &c. Returning 
 to Egypt before the end of the year, he collected the materials 
 for the " Voyage a I'oasis de Syouah," also published by M. 
 Jomard in 1823. Joining the expedition of the pasha's son, 
 Ishmail, into Upper Nubia, he gratified a cherished ambition by 
 a visit to the supposed site of the ancient j\Ieroe, of which, and 
 of the region to the north, he published an account in 1826-27, 
 under the title—" Voyage h Meroe, au fleuve Blanc, au dela de 
 Fazogl, dans le midi du royaume de Sennar, a Syouah et dans 
 les cinq autres oasis," &c. In 1831 he published an interesting 
 work on the arts and trades, the civil and domestic life of the 
 ancient races of Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia, and the manners 
 and customs of the modern inhabitants of these countries. Pre- 
 vious to the publication of this work he was appointed curator 
 of the museum of his native town. — (^Nouv. Biog. Gen.) — J.S.,G. 
 
 CAIN ^Possession), the eldest son of Adam and Eve; the 
 story of his ciime and punishment is recorded in Genesis, 
 chapter iv. 
 
 * CAIRD, Rev. John, a minister of the established church 
 of Scotland, possessed of rare accomplishments as a pulpit orator, 
 was bom at Greenock in 1820. His first charge was at Newton, 
 Ayr, whence in 1847 he was transferred to Lady Testers, 
 Edinburgh. His popularity in the city became so great that 
 his strength was overtasked, and for the sake of his health 
 he accepted in 1849 the countiy charge of EiTol, near Perth. 
 While there the power of the young preacher was not forgotten, 
 and whenever he was induced to visit the larger towns his 
 discourses were listened to by crowds such as no Scottish preacher 
 has drawn since the days of Chalmers. In 1855 he preached 
 before the queen in Crathie church, Balmoral, his sermon on 
 " The Rehgion of Common Life," w^hich being pubfished by 
 royal command, extended his fame far and wide, and obtained 
 for him a reputation much higher than that of a mere popular 
 preacher. In 1857 he accepted the pastorate of a newly-erected 
 church in Glasgow. The year following he published a volume 
 of sermons, which has been more widely read and more cordially 
 eulogised than any similar production of the present century. 
 He is now one of her majesty's chaplains for Scotland. — J. B. 
 
 CAIRELS, Elias, a Perigordian jonglem- and troubadour, 
 died about 1260. It was while working at his trade as a silver- 
 smith that the genius of poesy first visited him. After tiiis he 
 abandoned his craft, and betook himself to the com-ts of kings 
 and princes. Montferrat was one of his patrons. 
 
 CAIUNES, David, one of those names which is honourably 
 associated with the gallant and memorable defence of Deny in 
 1689. The family settled hi Ireland two centuries previously, 
 having come fi-om Scotland with the earl of Annandale, and 
 claun kindred with some of ilw. highest families, both in that 
 country and in England. David was educated to the profession 
 of the law, which lie followed previously to the Revolution, and 
 was possessed of considerable property and position. On the 
 day that Lord Antrim led his troops to the gates of Derry, 
 Cainies arrived in the city, and by his influence and the weight 
 of his character, he turned the scale of public opinion in favour 
 of " the 'Prentice Boys," and succeeded in persuading tho 
 leading men to co-operate with them in defending the town. 
 His exertions also induced the gentry in the surrounding coun- 
 ties to aid in the great straggle which was impending. During 
 three days he superintended and suggested the plan of defence 
 of Derry, and on the fourth day, the 11th December, he 
 undertook the hazardous task of bearing letters to King William 
 and the Irish Society from the citizens, representing the im- 
 minence of their position, and imploring speedy supplies of 
 arms and ammunition. Returning, after a delay of three 
 months, with a promise of succour, he was just in time to
 
 CAI 
 
 846 
 
 CAL 
 
 countei-vail the treaclieiy of Governor Lundy, and reassure the 
 citizens; a council was immediately called, and a resolution was 
 published declaring their determination to defend the city to the 
 last. In the engagement wliich took place at Pennyburn Slill, 
 Cainies distinguished himself by his personal valour, as he had 
 before by his zeal and ability in council ; and being appointed 
 lieutenant-colonel of horse, he signalized himself at Windmill 
 Hill on the 1st of June, wlien Hamilton's amiy was routed. He 
 was appointed recorder of Deny in 1707, and was promoted to 
 the office of attorney-general. He sen-ed, too, in parliament for 
 the city for thirty years, and was a zealous and faithful repre- 
 sentative. His death occurred in 1772. — J. F. W. 
 
 CAIRO, Cavaliere Fr^vncesco. This artist was bom at 
 Milan in 1598, and studied under Morazzone. Without the 
 vigoiu- of style of his master, he excelled him in grace of com- 
 position and beauty of colour. On the invitation of Victor 
 Amadeus, he visited the court of Savoy, received the honour of 
 knighthood, a pension, and the hand of one of the ladies of the 
 court. His portraits are stated to have many of the beauties of 
 Titian. He died in 1G74.— W. T. 
 
 CAIT BEY, the seventeenth sultan of the Circassian dynasty 
 of Mamelukes in Egypt and Syria. From the rank of a slave 
 he rose to the throne in 14C7. He was involved in almost 
 constant disputes with the Ottoman power, and at length a war 
 ensued which lasted for sLs years, in the course of which a most 
 signal victory was gained by the ^Mamelukes at Agadj-Tehair in 
 Cilicia. Peace was concluded in 1-191, and Cait Bey died in 
 1495, distinguished among the Mameluke sultans for the length 
 and brilliancy of his reign. — J. B. 
 
 CAIUS. See Gaius. 
 
 CAIUS, a disciple of Irenscns, consecrated bishop in 210. 
 He is remembered as an opponent of the heresy of Cerinthus, 
 and Photius ascribes to him a work named " The Book of the 
 Universe," which has been sometimes attributed to Josephus. 
 
 CAIUS, C-ESAR, one of the sons of Marcus Vipsanius 
 Agrippa and Julia, the daughter of Augustus, was, along with 
 his brother Lucius, adopted by the emperor, and introduced at 
 an early age into the ser\-ice, and raised to the honours of the 
 state. He held a command in the east at the beginning of the 
 christian era, and received a wound there, from the eflfects of 
 which he died in Lycia on his way home. — W. B. 
 
 CAIUS, JoHX, poet lam-eate to Edward IV., wrote a history 
 of the siege of Rhodes. 
 
 CAIUS, KEYE, or KAYE, John, M.D., the co-founder of 
 Caius and GonvU college, Cambridge, was bom at XoriiNich in 
 1510. He studied at Gonvil hall, of which he became a fellow, 
 devoting himself chiefly to theology. Having travelled into 
 Italy, he there became a student of medicine, and won great 
 distinction. On his return to England he became physician 
 successively to Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. He was a 
 fellow of the college of physicians in London, holding for many 
 years positions of eminence in that learned body. In 1557 he 
 obtained from Queen JIary a license for the incorporation of 
 Gonvil hall, where he had been educated, which was thenceforth 
 called Caius and Gonvil college, and endowed with estates pur- 
 chased by Caius at the dissolution of the monasteries. He 
 became the first master, and held the office till near the end of 
 his life. He died in 1573. The learning of Dr. Cains was veiy 
 extensive. Of his numerous works may be noted — "Hippocrates 
 de Medicamentis," first discovered in MS. by him; " I)e Ephe- 
 mera Britannica" — an account of the sweating sickness then 
 epidemic in England, in 1556 — reprinted in 1721; and "His- 
 tory of the University of Cambridge," in which he asserted 
 that this university was founded by Cantaber 394 years before 
 Christ.— J. B. 
 
 CAIUS, St., was a native of Dalmatia, and succeeded Euty- 
 chian in the papal chair in 283. He died in 296. 
 
 CAIUS, Thomas, master of University college, Oxford, 
 where he died in 1572. He was the opponent of Dr. John 
 Caius of Cambridge, in a dispute as to the antiquity of the sister 
 universities. He translated Erasmus' paraphrase on St. Mark, 
 and Aristotle's De mirabilibus Mundi, &c. 
 
 CAIUS, Valgius, a Roman physician, lived during the first 
 century of the christian era. He was physician to the Emperor 
 Augustus, and he is noticed by Pliny as ha\-ing written a work 
 on the medicinal properties and uses of plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAJETAN, Cardinai-, was bom in 1469, and died in 1534. 
 His real name was Thomas de Vio, but he took the name by 
 
 which he is best known from his bii-thplace, Cajeta in the 
 kingdom of Jl^aples. He was a distinguished member of the 
 Dominican order, holding the office of general for ten years. 
 Ha\nug written a work " On the Power of the Pope," a succes- 
 sion of preferments flowed iu upon him. He was first made 
 bishop of his native Cajeta, then archbishop of Palermo, and 
 at length in 1517 was elevated to a place in the college of car- 
 dinals. In the year following he was sent into Germany to 
 combat Luther, and it was in obedience to his summons that the 
 reformer appeared at Augsburg. Cajetan wrote commentaries on 
 the philosophy of Aristotle, and the theology of Thomas Aquinas, 
 and undertook the task of preparing a literal translation of the 
 whole bible, which he accomplished with the exception of Solo- 
 mon's Song, the Prophets, and the Apocalypse. The character- 
 istic of this work is the extreme care with which the author seeks 
 to be literal, even at the sacrifice of a clear rendering of the 
 meaning. The work is named " Commentaries on the Holy 
 Scriptures," Lyons, 1639. — J. B. 
 
 CAJETAN or CAET.-VX, Enrico, an Italian subject of the 
 Spanish king, died in 1599. He was chosen cardinal in 1585, 
 and is cliiefly known for the part he played in Paris during the 
 time of the Leagiie. He sided with the leaguers, and thus put 
 himself in opposition to the king, as well as to Henry IV. and 
 the Huguenots. The battle of Iviy considerably mitigated his 
 orthodoxy, and he was only too glad of the opportunity whic'a 
 the death of the pope affijrded him of returning to Italy. 
 
 CAJOT, Jean-Joseph, a Benedictine antiquarian and critic, 
 bom in 1726 ; died in 1779. His fii'st work was " Les Antiqui- 
 tes de Metz." In 1766 appeared his " Plagiats de M. J.-J. R. 
 de Geneve snr I'education," a somewhat unsuccessful attempt to 
 show that the "EmUe" of Rousseau is merely a compilation. He 
 wrote various other works, which at the present day offer few 
 points of much interest. 
 
 CALABEESE. See Preti. 
 
 CALADO, Maxoee, a Portuguese historian, bom at Villa- 
 Viciosa about 1584; died in 1654. He became a monk, but 
 soon quitted his monastic solitude among the mountains of Osss 
 for the more stirring scenes of Brazil, where he witnessed the 
 chief events which followed the Dutch invasion. He pubUshed 
 an account of the exploits of Fernandez Vieu-a. 
 
 CALAMIS, a Greek sculptor of the fifth century B.C., the 
 contemporar}' of Phidias. The chief of his works ai'e the Apollo 
 of the Ser\ilian gai-dens at Rome, of which Pliny spea'ss, and 
 which is supposed to be the " Apollo Belvedere " of the Vatican, 
 the "Apollo Alexikakos" seen by Pausanias at Athens, and a 
 colossal Apollo for ApoUonia in Illyricum. 
 
 CALAMY, Edmund, an eminent nonconformist divine of the 
 seventeenth century, was born in London in Febraary, 1600. 
 He was a distinguished student of Pembroke hall, Cambridge, 
 and having attracted the notice of the bishop of Ely, he was 
 appointed his domestic chaplain and vicar of Swaffham Prior, 
 Cambridgeshire. In 1626 he removed to one of the lectureships 
 of Buiy St. Edmund's, where he officiated for ten years, and was 
 all that time ranked as a conformist. When, however, Bishop 
 Wren's Articles were published, and the reading of the Book 
 of Sports enforced, he, with thii-ty other clergymen, publicly 
 declared his protest, and left the diocese. Becoming known as 
 a nonconformist, he was appointed by the earl of Essex to the 
 hving of Rochford in Essex. Compelled by the state of his 
 health to leave that district, and having avowed his adherence 
 to the presbyterian party, he was in 1639 chosen minister of 
 St. Maiy's, Aldermanbury, London, where he was long a popular 
 preacher, and an active partisan in the controversies of the day. 
 He was one of the authors of the work, famous in its time, 
 named " Smectymnus," a reply to Bishop Hall's Divine Right of 
 Episcopacy. He was one of the di\nnes appointed by the house 
 of lords in 1641, to confer concerning the ditferences in eccle- 
 siastical discipline, and at the Savoy conference appeared in 
 support of some alterations in the liturgy. He was never a 
 friend of Cromwell's govemment, and took an active part in 
 bringing .ibout the Restoration. He went to Holland as one of 
 the deputation sent to congratulate Charles II. On the king's 
 return, Calamy became one of his m.ijesty's chaplains, continuing 
 to advance the presbyterian interest, till the passing of the act 
 of uniformity compelled him to resign his living. He died 
 October 29, 1666. Calamy was ranked as an able theologian. 
 He published five sermons entitled " The Godly Man's Ark, or a 
 City of Refuge in the Day of his Distress," and took part in pre-
 
 CAL 
 
 847 
 
 CAL 
 
 paring several controversial documents di'awn up by his party. 
 — His eldest son, Edmuhd, bora in 1635 ; died in 1685 ; was, 
 like his father, a zealous nonconformist. — On the other hand, 
 his son Benjamix, who was in 1677 chosen minister of his 
 fatlicr's church of St. Mary's, Aldermanbury, was an adherent of 
 the high church party, and author of " A Discourse about a 
 Scrupulous Conscience," which attracted considerable notice in 
 the controversy. — Edjiund, bom in 1671; died in 1732 ; son of 
 the elder of these two brothers, followed his father and gi-andfathor 
 in a finn adherence to the nonconfonnist principles. He engaged 
 in a lengtliened controversy with Hoadly, afterwards bishop of 
 V\'inchester, in which many books were published on both sides; 
 but the works by which this writer is best remembered, are an 
 "Abridgement of Baxter's History of his Life and Times," and 
 " Lives of the Ministers ejected after the Restoration," intended 
 as a continuation of Baxter's History. — J. B. 
 
 CALANCHA, Frey Antonio de la, a Peruvian ecclesi- 
 astic, bora towards tlie end of the sixteenth century. Of an 
 antiquarian turn, he visited the ruins and was a zealous col- 
 lector of the ancient traditions of his country. Much of the 
 information he thus gathered has been preserved in his work, 
 entitled " Cronica Moralizada del orden de San Augustin en el 
 Pcra." This book was first published in Barcelona in 1639. 
 Although diffuse in style, and running too much into detail, it 
 lias the rare merit of veracity. Calancha twice visited the ruins 
 of tlie stupendous temple of Pachacamac. 
 
 CALAXDRA, Giovanna Battista, bom in 1586, achieved 
 a considerable fame as a mosaicist, and worked in the Vatican 
 (luring the pontificate of Urban VIII. The pictures in St. 
 Peter's being seriously injured by damp, they were replaced by 
 copies in mosaic. The first copy made by Calandra was after 
 the St. Michael of d'Ai-pino. Calandra died in 1644. 
 
 CALANDRELLI, Giuseppe, an Italian astronomer, born in 
 1749 ; died at Rome in 1827. Abandoning the study of law, he 
 cave himself wholly to physical and natm-al science, and in 1774 
 succeeded the celebrated Jacquier in the mathematical chair at 
 Rome. He had charge, besides, of the observatory founded by 
 Cardinal Trclada, and was one of those whom Pius VII., incited 
 by the example of the French, appointed to make astronomical 
 obsen-ations. In 1824 he had to abandon the Roman college 
 to the Jesuits, and retired to that of Santo Appollinare. 
 
 CALANDRINI, John Lewis, a Swiss botanist and mathe- 
 matician, was born at Geneva in 1703, and died 30th December, 
 1758. He prosecuted his studies at Lausanne and London. 
 lie became professor of mathematics in 1724, of philosophy in 
 1734, and councillor of state in 1750. He has written various 
 mathematical and scientific papers ; among others, an essay on 
 the vegetation and generation of plants. — J. H. B. 
 
 CALANUS, an Indian gymnosophist who attached himself to 
 Alexander the Great. At Pasargada in Persia he fell ill, and 
 refusing all medical aid, requested to be burned, that his immortal 
 jiart might be free of the pains of the body. Alexander com- 
 bated the fanatical purpose in vain, and at length ordered a 
 magnificent pile to be erected, round which the army was drawn 
 np. When Calanus was about to ascend, he, it is related, said 
 to Alexander, " I shall see you soon in Babylon." This was 
 remembered when the conqueror died in that city not long after. 
 
 CALAS, John, born in 1698, a protestant citizen of Toulouse, 
 whose shocking murder, under the forms of law, has served to 
 ])erpctuate his niemoiy. He had been forty years established in 
 business in Toulouse, and was highly respected for his piety, 
 integrity, and industrious habits. His eldest son. Marc Antoine, 
 a melancholy youth, whose spirits had been depressed by a pro- 
 (I'Ssional disappointment, hanged himself in his father's shop one 
 night in the month of October, 1761. It was immediately 
 lumourcd that young Calas had intended to turn Romanist, and 
 had in consequence been murdered by his family. The charge was 
 in the highest degree improbable, and was not supported by a par- 
 ticle of evidence. But it was at once credited by the Roman 
 cathohc authorities and inliabitantsof Toulouse, who hadlongbcen 
 notorious for their bigotry and fanaticism, and every effort was 
 niade by the clergy and the authorities to stir up the passions of 
 the populace against the unfortunate family. The forms of law 
 were per\-erted in the most sluuneful manner, and in the end the 
 jiarliament of Toulouse, on the 8th of I\Iarch, 1762, condemned 
 •lohn Calas to be tortured by rack and by water, and then to 
 he broken on the wheel. Tliis atrocious sentence was executed 
 llie following day. Calas endured the protracted agonies of his 
 
 sentence with astonishing fortitude, and to the last protested his 
 innocence of the crime imputed to him. His wife and younger son 
 were also tried as accomplices, along with La Vaisse, a friend who 
 had supped with the family on the evening when the son committed 
 suicide, and Jeanne Viguier, the maid-servant, who was a zealous 
 Romanist. The son was sentenced to banishment, but the others 
 were acquitted. Fortunately, the account of the judicial murder 
 of Calas reached the ears of Voltaire, then residing at Ferney, and 
 he spared neither time nor labour to procm-e a reversal of the sen- 
 tence. The whole strength of the church was put forth to uphold 
 the unjust deed, and it was powerfully aided by some of the 
 ministers. But in the end truth and justice triumphed. The 
 sentence of the pai'liament of Toulouse was annulled ; a new 
 trial was ordered, and terminated in completely establishing 
 the innocence of the Calas famil}', 9th March, 1765. David 
 de Beaudrigne, one of the " titular capitouls " of Toulouse, was 
 deprived of his office, and committed suicide ; but the other per- 
 petrators of this atrocious mm'der were allowed to go unpunished. 
 — (^Causes Celebris, vol. iv. ; Jean Calas et sa Famille, &c., Par 
 A. Coquerel Fils ; Paris, 1858.)— J. T. 
 
 CALASIO, Makio de, a celebrated Hebraist, bom in Abmzzo, 
 near Aqiula, in 1550. He entered the Franciscan order, and 
 became Hebrew professor at Rome. He pubhshed a gi*ammar 
 and lexicon of his favourite language ; but his great work, a 
 Hebrew concordance of the Biljle, the result of forty years' labour, 
 was not published tiU 1 621, the year after his death. An edition 
 was pubhshed in London in 1747. — J. B. 
 
 CALATRAVA, Jos^-JIaria, a Spanish statesman, bora at 
 Merida in Estramadura in 1781 ; died in 1846. He was, in 
 the outset of his career, a distinguish-ed advocate at Badajoz, 
 but was afterwards better known as a member of the cortes, to 
 which he was three times elected deputy. In this capacity he 
 showed himself an able and eloquent defender of public liberty. 
 In 1823, and afterwards in 1837, he held for a brief period the 
 portfolio of minister of justice. In 1843 he was raised to the 
 dignity of senator. — G. M. 
 
 CALCAGNINI, Celio, an astronomer, archaeologist, and 
 poet, bom at Ferrara in 1479 ; died in 1541. He sen'ed some 
 years in the amiies of the Emperor Maximilian and Pope Julius 
 II., and after fulfilling a diplomatic mission to Rome, was 
 appointed professor of belles-lettres in the university of Ferrara. 
 In one of his astronomical dissertations, headed "Quomodo cadum 
 stet, terra moveatur," Calcagnini demonstrates with mathemati- 
 cal precision that the earth turns round the sun. His poetical 
 compositions, in three books, are collected in the Delicise Poetannn 
 Italorum. As an archaeologist, and also as a miscellaneous 
 prose writer, he holds a high place in Italian literature, although 
 inferior to that assigned him as an astronomer and poet. 
 
 CALCAR or KALCKER, John van, was bom at Calcar in 
 the duchy of Cleves in 1499. From whom this artist received 
 instruction in his own country is not known, but subsequently at 
 Venice, he studied in the school of Titian, whose chief scholar 
 he became. In time he was enabled so successfully to imitate 
 the manner of his master, as even to have deceived the eminent 
 Goltzius. His imitations of Raffaelle were almost as happy. 
 His Venetian studies had completely ousted all traces of hiN 
 original Flemish taste in art. His fame seems to be limited 
 rather to his imitative talent. He was employed by Vasari on 
 the portraits of the painters, &c., for his work. Rubens pos- 
 sessed a work by Calcar representing the Nativity, in which, 
 it may be noted, that the light was made to emanate wholly 
 from the child. This picture afterwards became the property 
 of the Emperor Ferdinand. Calcar died in 1546. — W. T. 
 
 CALCEOLARI, CALZOLARLS, or CALCEOLARIUS, 
 Francksco, an Italian naturalist, lived about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. lie studied jiharmacy at Verona under 
 Ghini, and prosecuted natural history with enthusiasm. He 
 became intimately acquainted with Mathiolus and Akhovandus. 
 In 1554 and subsequent years he examined the botany of Mount 
 Baldo, along with Auguillara and the Bauhins. His researches 
 were afterwards published at Venice, under the title of " Iter 
 Baidi Montis." The genus calceolaria was named by Feuill<?e 
 in honour of him. — J. H. B. 
 
 CALCIII, Tristra>i, an Italian historian, born at Milan in 
 1462; died in 1507 or 1516. On the death of his master, 
 Giov. Merula, he was employed to continue his " History of tlie 
 Viscomti." — Calchi found the work so inaccui-ate that he had 
 to rewrite it.
 
 CAL 
 
 848 
 
 CAL 
 
 % 
 
 CALDANI, Leopold Mark Antony, an Italian ana- 
 tomist, born at Bologna in 1725. He was successively professor 
 of anatomy at Bologna, and of theoretical medicine at Padua, 
 where he succeeded Morgagni in the chair of anatomy. He pub- 
 lished " Elements of Pathology," " Elements of Physiology," and 
 an elementary work on anatomy. He continued till the very 
 close of his life to prosecute his favomite study of anatomy, 
 publishing, when seventy-six years of age, a series of anatomical 
 plates. He died in 1813.— J. B. 
 
 CALDARA, Antonio, a musician, was bom in Venice about 
 1671, where he died in 17C3. He studied composition imder 
 his fellow-to^vllsman, Legrenzi ; and in 1689 he produced, suc- 
 cessfully, an opera called " Argene." This was followed by 
 several works of the same class, the popularity of which led 
 to his engagement at Rome in 1711, to write the opera "Ate- 
 naide," for the display of the singer Amadora. He is said to 
 have been appointed majstro di capella to the court of Mantua 
 in 1714 ; but, since he produced no work there, this is very 
 questionable. Two years later he went to Austria, produced an 
 opera at Saltzburg, and proceeded to Vienna, where in 1717 he 
 brought out " Caio Mario," and no less than three other equally 
 important dramatic works. His success and his remarkable fecun- 
 dity so charmed the emperor, Charles VL, that he was engaged 
 to teach this imperial dilettante free composition, and in 1718 
 was appointed vice- kapellmeister under the famous Fuchs, who 
 was the monarch's instructor in counterpoint. In this capacity 
 Caldara was furnished with poems by Zeno and Metastasio, who 
 were resident in the Austrian capital, and was thus the original 
 composer of many of their lyrical dramas, which have since 
 been set again and again by other musicians. He wrote with 
 the greatest rapidity, producing three, four, and even five operas 
 in one year, until, in 1736, the failure of " Temistocle," his 
 sixty-eighth work, so greatly depressed him, that he never again 
 wrote for the stage. He resigned his appointment, and in 1738 
 returned to his native city, where he spent the remainder of his 
 long life in repose. Besides bis numerous operas and oratorios, he 
 wrote some music for the church and some instrumental pieces. 
 
 The English historians appear gi-eatly to exaggerate the 
 merit of his works ; fluency was his chief characteristic as a 
 composer, with the natural grace that always accompanies it, 
 but he had very little profundity. His style assumed greater 
 earnestness from the time of his settlement in Vienna, and this 
 is shown still more in his ecclesiastical than in his theatrical 
 music. — G. A. M. 
 
 CALDARO. See Caravaggio, Poi.idoro da. 
 
 CALDARONE or CALDERONE, John James, an Italian 
 physician and chemist, was born at Palermo on the 1st Jan., 
 1G51, and died in 1731. He prosecuted natural histoiy, and 
 particularly botany. He became first physician in Sicily, and 
 was charged with the inspection of drugs. He has written 
 letters on botany, which were published in 1673. — J. H. B. 
 
 CALDAS, Francisco Jose de, a South American naturalist, 
 born at Popayan in New Grenada about 1773, interesting as an 
 example of a self-made savant. Without help from teachers, and 
 with little from books, he attained to a respectable acquaintance 
 with botany, physical geography, mechanics, and astronomy. 
 To the explorer of New Grenada, Mutis, he rendered valuable 
 assistance, and, among other independent services to science, 
 detennined the height of Chimborazo and other peaks. In 1805 
 or 1806 he was appointed director of the observatory of Santa 
 Fe de Bogota. Having eagerly embraced the cause of inde- 
 pendence be fell into the hands of Morillo, by whom ho was put 
 to death in 1806. Humboldt has recognized the merit of his 
 scientific labours, the principal part of wbich is embodied in his 
 " Semenario de la Nueva Granada," edited and published, with 
 additions, at Paris in 1849.— J. S., G. 
 
 CALDENBACn, Christopher, a Gei-man naturalist and 
 poet, was born at Schwibus in Silesia on 11th August, 1613, 
 and died on 16th July, 1698. He prosecuted his studies at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Odcr and at Konigsberg. He has written 
 several literary works and commentaries on the laurel, the olive, 
 the ])alm, and the vine. — J. H. B. 
 
 CALDER, Robert, a zealous adherent of episcopacy in 
 Scotland after the Revolution, was bora at Elgin, Morayshire, in 
 1658. He had been appointed to the curacy of Newthorn, 
 Berwickshire, before the Revolution, but lost his living in 1689, 
 because he refused to read the proclamation of the new sovereign, 
 and continued to pray for King James. We gather from one of 
 
 his works that in 1693 he was imprisoned at Edinburgh. 
 After ofliciating for some time in Aberdeen and Elgin, from both 
 of which he was expelled, he returned to Edinbur-gh, where he 
 preached in a small chapel in High Street. He published a 
 number of works, chiefly bearing on the controversy in which he 
 took so prominent a part ; of these we mention his " Priesthood 
 of the Old and New Testament by Succession," and his " Scot- 
 tish Presbyterian Eloquence." — J. B. 
 
 CALDER, Sir Robert, Bart., a British admiral, fourth son 
 of Sir James Calder of Muirton in Morayshire, was bom in 
 1745. He entered the navy at the age of fourteen, and attained 
 the rank of post-captain in 1780. In 1796 he was selected bv 
 Sir John Jervis to officiate as captain of the fleet, and in that 
 capacity contributed to gain the glorious victory of Cape St. 
 Vincent, 14th February, 1797, and was the bearer of the 
 admiral's despatches home. In the following year he was 
 created a baronet, and in 1799 attained the rank of rear-admiral. 
 In 1801 he was despatched with a squadron in pursuit of a 
 French force under Admiral Gantheaume which had contrived 
 to escape from Brest, but did not succeed in coming up with 
 them though he followed them to the West Indies. In 1805 he 
 commanded for some time the squadron which blockaded the 
 French ships in the port of Ferrol. He was next ordered to 
 cruise off Cape Finisterre, for the purpose of intercepting the 
 combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve on its 
 return from the West Indies. At noon on the 22nd of July 
 this force, consisting of twenty ships of the line, a 50-gim ship, 
 and seven frigates, was observed on the lee bow by the British 
 fleet, which was composed of only fifteen ships of the line and 
 two frigates. An engagement took place which lasted till nine 
 o'clock p.m., and terminated in the capture of two of the enemy's 
 ships. Admiral Calder was severely censured both for the 
 alleged unskilful mode in which the attack was made, and for 
 declining to renew the action next day, and permitting the 
 enemy to retire unmolested. On his return to England he was 
 tried by a court-martial, and found guilty of not having done his 
 utmost to take and destroy the enemy's ships, owing to an error 
 of judgment, and was adjudged to be severely reprimanded. After 
 a time an impression began to prevail that Sir Robert had been 
 harshly treated. In 1810 he was appointed port-admiral at 
 Plymouth, an oflice which he held for three years, and died in 
 1818, aged seventy-four. — J. T. 
 
 CALDERARI, Ottone, an Italian architect, bom of a noble 
 family at Vicenza in 1730 ; died in 1803. A moonlight view 
 of the basilica of his native city, first gave him an enthusiasm 
 for architecture. He adorned Vicenza and its neighbourhood 
 with many noble buildings, and became known for various works 
 in other Italian cities. He was elected by the French Institute 
 as " foremost among the Italian architects of the day." 
 
 CALDERINI, DoRNizio, bom at Toni in Verona in 1446. 
 When only twenty-four years of age he was appointed by Pope 
 Paul II. professor of classical literature in the university of 
 Rome, which chair he also filled under the pontificate of Sixtus 
 IV. This pontiff raised him to the dignity of apostolic sec- 
 retary, and employed him along with Cardinal della Rovere to 
 treat with the citizens of A^'^gnon on the occasion of a rebellion 
 being declared against the papacy in that city. He left com- 
 mentaries on Juvenal, Martial, Propertius, Virgil, Statins, and 
 valuable manuscripts on Ovid's Metamorphoses, on Persius, &c. 
 Giglio Gregorio Giraldi notes many poetical compositions of this 
 author. Lucio Fostoro, one of the greatest Hellenists of that age, 
 in a letter to Alexander Cortese, bishop of Segni, asserts, perhaps 
 with some exaggeration, that the only three really elegant writers 
 of that epoch were Lorenzo Valla, Calderini, and Poliziano. He 
 died of the plague in 1478. — A. C. M. 
 
 CALDERON DE LA BARCA, Don Pedro, the great- 
 est of the Spanish dramatists, and one of the great national 
 poets of Europe, was born at Madiid on the 17th of January, 
 1600. His father held the important office of secretary to the 
 treasury board under Philip II. and Philip III. His mother 
 was the descendant of a noble family long settled in Spain, 
 which had originally come from the Low Countries ; and in a 
 work of authority connected with the literary history of Madrid, 
 Los Hijos de Madrid, tom. iv. p. 218, they are both praised for 
 the care they bestowed upon the religious and literary education 
 of their four children. Of these, Don Pedro, the poet, was 
 the youngest. Up to his ninth year, the elementary education 
 which he could receive seems to have been given to him at
 
 CAL 
 
 849 
 
 CAL 
 
 home, after which period he was transferred to the Jesuits' col- 
 lege or seminary at iladrid. His poetical talents, the precocity 
 of which was as remarkable as their undiminished vigour and 
 duration, seem not to have been discouraged by his ecclesiastical 
 instroctions. A play, entitled El Jlejor Amigo el Muerte, has 
 come down to us, which, from internal evidence, must have 
 been written before the end of the year 1610. To tliis play 
 Calderon contributed the entire third act, although at that time 
 he had not quite completed his eleventh year. Three years 
 after this period he composed, without assistance, an entire 
 play on the subject of Elias, caUed " The Chariot of Heaven." 
 This, though seemingly in existence when Vera Tassis wrote, 
 that is, in 1682, the year after Calderon's death, remains still 
 unknown. On proceeding to the university of Salamanca, 
 whither he was sent in his fourteenth year, he seems to have 
 dirided his time between cultivating his poetical talents and in 
 applying himself to those scholastic and theological studies, 
 the results of which are so apparent in many of his most cele- 
 brated dramas. Before leaving Salamanca, where he continued 
 till his nineteenth year, he wrote among other plays, the names 
 of which are only conjectured, the most famous and perhaps the 
 most powerful of all his dramas, namely, " The Devotion of the 
 Cross " — a woi-k which may be put in comparison with any that 
 has ever been produced at the same age by any other poet. 
 This, which is probably the production of Calderon that is best 
 known out of Spain, owing to the analysis given of it by Sis- 
 mondi, which is, however, more than usually inaccurate and 
 unfair, was originally called " La Cruz de la Sepultura," and 
 was published at Huesca in 1634 with other Comedies, where 
 it is erroneously attributed to Lope de Vega (Hartzenbiisch's 
 edition of Calderon, iladrid, 1850 ; Notas e Illustraciones, 
 tom. iv. p. 701). It contains some scenes or portions of scenes 
 which do not appear in the edition of Vera Tassis, as if they 
 were rejected by the maturer judgment of Calderon himself. 
 Having left Salamanca in 1619, we find him at ^Madrid in the 
 following year entering into friendly rivaliy with older and better 
 known poets in doing honour to the patron saint of that city, 
 San Isidro, and receiving for his contribution on the occasion the 
 praise of Lope de Vega. In 1622, two years later, he entered 
 the Hsts with the great Lope himself, not indeed in the drama, 
 in which he was destined to be his successor and superior, but 
 ill those poetical offerings at the shrine of the same newly- 
 canonized saint, in which he gained the third prize, Lope having 
 won the first, and Zarate the second. Not%vithstanding Cal- 
 deron's predilection for these poetical pursuits, in which he was 
 destined to achieve such pre-eminent success, he was not indif- 
 ferent to those other instincts which, as a hidalgo and a 
 Spaniard, seemed to him at least equally natural ; as we find 
 that, in common with almost every great name in Spanish 
 literature, his first active services were devoted to arms. In 
 1625 we read of him ser\-ing with the army in the Milanese, 
 and in the course of the same year in Flanders. His play, 
 " The Siege of Breda," which commemorates the surrender of 
 that town to the Spaniards imder Spinola on the 8th of June, 
 1625 — in some portion of the ten months' siege that preceded 
 it Calderon being supposed to have borne a part — was produced, 
 it is thought from the temporary interest of the subject, towards 
 the end of the same year. How long Calderon continued con- 
 nected with the anny is uncertain ; but his dramas, though not 
 produced during that period with the amazing fertUity that 
 characterized his genius a few years later, appeared Ln unbroken 
 succession. From internal evidence his three well-known 
 dramas, "The Garden of Falerina;" " 'Tis hard to guard a 
 House with two Doors ; " and " The Fairy Lady," are supposed 
 to have been written in 1629. On the same evidence his 
 " Worse and Worse," and his " Better and Better," are given 
 respectively to 1630 and 1631. In the former of these years 
 I^pe de Vega (^Laurel of Apollo, Silva vii.) recognizes the 
 sweetness and poetical elevation of his style — a recognition 
 which was rendered still more emphatic two years later by 
 Montalvan, who speaks not only of the works which Calderon 
 had already produced, but of those which he was then engaged 
 upon. The death of Lope in 1635 removed all impediment to 
 Calderon's supremacy over the Spanish stage, a realm which he 
 ruled with undivided sway and surpassing success until almost 
 the day of his death, which took place on Whitsunday, 1681. 
 
 Between the date of his recognition as the legitimate successor 
 of the great Lope and his death — a period almost of sixty years 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 — but few events of his life are recorded. It seems to have 
 flowed on in one unmfiled tide of outward prosperity and inward 
 peace, occupied in the splendid creations of his fancy, and the 
 more sacred duties of his priesthood — a state which he had 
 embraced in 1651, and for which the purity of his life and 
 writings, and the enthusiasm of his belief, had, as far as we are 
 able to judge, so appropriately fitted him. With the exception 
 of his residence at Salamanca, the period of his early service 
 in Italy and Belgium, and his presence in Catalonia during the 
 rebellion of 1640 — whither he went, almost contrary to the 
 wishes of the king, as a member of the military order of Santi- 
 ago, of which he had been elected a knight in 1637 — his life 
 hitherto had been spent almost exclusively in Madrid, he having 
 become not only an ornament, but almost a necessity at the 
 splendid court of Philip IV. Two years after his entering 
 the priesthood, however, some ecclesiastical appointment seemed 
 due to his attainments and position, and he was accordingly 
 nominated chaplain to the chapel of the New Kings at Toledo. 
 The duties of this office calling him away from the capital, the 
 king soon found that he could not dispense with the presence of 
 his favourite. He in consequence appointed him one of his own 
 chaplains of honour, thus securing his residence at JIadrid. He 
 received other important ecclesiastical promotions, in all of 
 which, according to the testimony of one of his contemporaries, 
 " he united by humility and prudence, the duties of an obedient 
 child and a loving father." From his connection with the court 
 and with the church, he was stimulated at the same time to 
 exertions of very opposite kinds ; but both of them remark- 
 able, and each pre-eminently worthy of his genius. For the 
 one he produced those marvellous and gorgeous spectacles 
 (Fiestas), performed in the gardens, or on the lake adjoining 
 the palace of the Buen Retiro, which combined a splendour of 
 diction, fancy, and invention, with an ingenuity and prodigal 
 outlay of expenditure as to machinery and decorations, never 
 previously united, or ever likely to be united again. For the 
 church he composed those still more wonderful and more original 
 autos ; pieces, many of them nearly as long as his full length 
 plays, which have no parallel in the literature of any country 
 but Spain, and none to equal them even in that for ideal beauty 
 and sublime elevation. Besides upwards of one hundred secular 
 dramas — many of these, however, being on religious subjects, 
 such as " The Devotion of the Cross," which, by Bouterwek 
 and others, has been mistaken for an auto — he has left over 
 seventy of these surprising performances, which are not included 
 in the ordinary editions of Calderon, and from the difliculty of 
 translating which, even German enthusiasm and industry have 
 almost entirely shrunk. They form sis quarto volumes, Madrid, 
 1759. In a sketch like the present, it would be impossible to 
 give an adequate idea either of the great variety and richness of 
 his plays, or of the subtle and profound undermeanings of his 
 autos. In the former — 
 
 " All thoughts, all passions, all delights. 
 Whatever stirs this mortal frame," 
 
 are chronicled and put before us in living action, by one who 
 seems to have penetrated the mysteries of existence rather by the 
 intuitions of genius than through the duller medium of experience. 
 Dealing often with the warmest passions, and the most seductive 
 crimes, he is pure without being cold, and teirible without that 
 unconscious complicity in sin which we are forced to suspect in 
 the delineations of similar hon'ors by other poets. He seems to 
 have been in fact what Goethe was but in theory — above all the 
 passions and weaknesses he describes ; but still with a sympathy 
 for all enjoyment that was innocent and natural in human life, 
 such as we may suppose a guardian angel to feel for the being 
 immediately under its protection. Those who seek for subtle 
 delineations of character — those to whom the power of producing 
 original individual creations is the test and result of dramatic 
 power, will be disappointed if they expect to find such in Calde- 
 ron. But, on the other hand, all who delight in the ingenious 
 complications of a well-compacted plot — all who relish the sweet 
 and playful converse of women, who are worthy of companionship 
 even with " Shakspeare's women" — all to whom the fresh and 
 original reproduction of the famous myths of Grecian imagina- 
 tion, or the pastoral and tmgic episodes of the Old Testament, 
 are capable of affording instniction or amusement — all those, in 
 fine, who wish to hear a never-ending hymn of rapture and of 
 praise upon the beauty of external natm-e, sung in the noblest 
 
 5 P
 
 CAL 
 
 850 
 
 CAL 
 
 and most harmonious of living languages — will find a never- 
 failing source of wonder and delight in the ever brilliant pages 
 of this great poet — a poet who seems to have been as much 
 loved for the amiability of liis character, as he was admired for 
 the splendour of his genius. 
 
 To those who are not acquainted with the works of this gi-eat 
 wi'iter, the following list of editions and translations, as well in 
 German as in English, may be of use: — 
 
 In Spanish. — "Las Comedias de Calderon,"per Keil, Leipsique, 
 1827-30, 4 vols. imp. oct. " Comedias de Caldcron," edited 
 by Hartzenbusch, 4 vols. imp. oct., Madrid, 1848-50. 
 
 In German. — There are numerous German translations of 
 the plays, and all generally very goo 1. Those by Schlegel, Gries, 
 ^Lalsburg, Schumacher, Schmidt, JLartin, and others, are excel- 
 lent. Of the autos, but one has been published, that by Eichen- 
 dorff ; it gives ten of them, and is admirably executed. 
 
 In English. — Until very recently, Calderon served only as 
 material for articles few and far between in the magazines and 
 reviews. The first, and still the only complete translation of any 
 of his plays that has appeared in English, is, Dramas from the 
 Spanish of Calderon, by Denis Florence M'Carthy, 2 vols., Lon- 
 don, 1853, giving unabridged translations of the following plays 
 — "The Purgatory of St. Patrick;" "The Constant Prince;" 
 "Tiie Physician of his own Honour;" "The Scarf and the 
 Flower;" " The Secret in Words ; " "Love after Death." Two 
 additional dramas — " The Devotion of the Cross," and "Love the 
 Greatest Enchantment;" and one auto, " The Sorceries of Sin" 
 — all strictly in the metre of the original — ai-e announced for 
 publication by the same translator. Six Dramas of Calderon — 
 freely translated by Edward Fitzgerald, London, 1853 — is very 
 much admired for its idiomatic English. In 1856 a very charm- 
 ing little volume on Calderon was published by Pilchard Chenevix 
 Trench, dean of Westminster. It contains translations of the 
 principal scenes of " Life's a Dream," and the gi-eater portion of 
 one of the autos—" The Great Theatre of the Worid." The 
 translations are remarkable for being the first attempt in English, 
 as far as Calderon is concerned, to reproduce the peculiar asso- 
 nant versification of the m-iginal.— D. F. j\I'C. 
 
 * CALDEPiON, Ser^^in E. de, a Spanish poet and novelist, 
 bom at JIalaga in 1801. He studied law in the university of 
 Grenada, and in 1822 was appointed to the chair of rhetoric 
 and belles-lettres. He published about this time some verses 
 which e%'ince a masteiy of language seldom equalled. Being 
 imsuccessful at the bar, he returned to Malaga, where he pub- 
 lished in 1830 some poems entitled " El Solitario " (The 
 Pecluse). Soon after appeared some letters on Andalusian 
 customs — " Escenas Andaluzas por el Solitario," Jladrid — 
 which have been much celebrated for their truth and piquancy. 
 In 1833, by desire of the government, he wrote a series of 
 memoirs on the principles of government. In 1834 he was 
 appointed auditor-general of the army in the north, and in 1836, 
 civil governor of Logi-ono. In the latter year he retumed to 
 Madrid, and published a novel entitled " Cristianos y Moriscos " 
 (The Moors and the Christians), and began the labour of col- 
 lecting the old cancioneros and romanceros. In 1837 he obtained 
 the important post of civil governor of Seville, and in that city 
 he commenced the accumulation of one of the noblest libraries 
 and museums in Spain. The political events of 1838 compelled 
 him to retire into private life. His attention has of late years 
 been given to the study of ^loorish literature. — F. M. W. 
 
 CALDERWOOD, David, an eminent divine and historian of 
 the church of Scotland, was bom about 1575, and was settled 
 about 1604 as minister of Craihng in the county of Roxburgh. 
 He early showed himself a zealous defender of presbytery against 
 the innovations of ej)iscopacy. In 1G17 James VI. came to 
 Scotland and summoned a parliament, hito which a bill was 
 introduced to empower the king to arrange matters affecting the 
 external polity of the church. A meeting of the clergy was being 
 lield simultaneously with the meeting of parliament, and Calder- 
 wood, with some other ministers, drew up a strong protest against 
 the obnoxious measure, which had the ctfect of making the king 
 lay it aside, even after it had received the assent of parliament, 
 but which, nevertheless, involved the protesters in trouble. 
 Caldenvood was summoned to appear before the high commission 
 court at St. Andrews, where the king attended. Adhering to 
 the terms of the protest, and refusing to promise more than 
 passive obedience to the measure, he was imprisoned, and only 
 released on condition that he should leave the kingdom. He 
 
 went to Holland, where he remained from 1619 till James' 
 death in 1625. During his exile he prepared and published a 
 treatise entitled " Altare Damascenum," in which he examines 
 the principles of episcopacy, and denounces the attempt to 
 obtrude it on the Scottish church. This book attracted great 
 attention, and was the cause of much uneasiness to his royal 
 opponent, who, it is said, instigated a certain Patrick Scott to 
 publish a document purporting to be a recantation, from the pen 
 of Mr. Caldenvood, of all the opinions for which he had con- 
 tended. This impudent forger}' following a report of the death 
 of Calderwood, had some success, which his reappearance in 
 Scotland instantly checked. For several years after his return 
 ^Ir. Calderwood lived in retirement at Edinburgh, and was 
 occupied in collecting materials for his most important work — 
 the history of the Scottish church, from the death of James V. 
 to the death of James VI. This work has been published by 
 the Wodrow Society from the original manuscript (six large 
 folio volumes) in the library of Glasgow university. It has been 
 of great service to Wodrow, M'Crie, and other writers on that 
 period of Scottish ecclesiastical history. On the breaking out 
 of the troubles in 1638, Mr. Calderwood again took part in vari- 
 ous public measures. He was present at the Glasgow assembly, 
 and though not a member of court, was of great service in pro- 
 moting its designs. He afterwards became minister of Pencait- 
 land in East Lothian, and in 1643 was one of the committee fur 
 drawing up the directoiy for public worship. He died at Jedburgh 
 in 1651, when Cromwell's army occupied the Lothians. — J. B. 
 
 CALDWELL, Charles, an American physician, and a 
 voluminous writer upon medical science and miscellaneous 
 topics, was born in Orange county, North Carolina, in 1772. 
 The means of education in that region were then very small, 
 and in great part he educated himself. He afterwards studied 
 medicine at Philadelphia. In 1795 he began his career as an 
 author, by translating from the Latin, Blumenbach's Elements 
 of Physiology. Ardent and impulsive in temperament, fond of 
 novelties in science and practice, and wielding a facile pen, his 
 publications soon became very numerous ; and being chiefly of 
 a controversial nature, engaged him in frequent disputes that 
 obstructed his usefulness, but never slackened his industry or 
 abated his self-esteem. In 1819 he removed to Kentucky, 
 and became professor of the institutes of medicine in the 
 medical department of the Transylvania university at Le-^ington. 
 After eighteen years' zealous and useful labour in this university, 
 circumstances led him to withdraw from it and attempt to 
 found another medical school at Louisville. Twelve years more 
 of his very active life were spent upon this project, and then, 
 in 1849, he retired and devoted himself to writing his autobio- 
 graphy, which was published two years after his death. He 
 died at Louisville in 1853. A catalogue of his publications 
 embraces more than two hundred articles ; many of them 
 relate to physical education, the unity of the human race, the 
 theoiy of animal heat, malaria, and especially phrenology, to 
 which doctrine, in the latter part of his life, he was a decided 
 and zealous convert. — F. B. 
 
 CALDWELL, Joseph, D.D., first president of the university 
 of North Carolina, bora at Leamington, New Jersey, in 1773, 
 graduated at Princeton college, with high honours, in 1791, 
 and subsequently became a tutor in that institution. In 1796 
 he was appointed professor of mathematics, and acting head of 
 the university of North Carolina, which had been established 
 only six years before. With this institution he was connected 
 for the remainder of his life — the an-angement of its internal 
 concems and its course of instraction, and the enlargement of its 
 means of usefulness, being due in gi'cat part to his exertions. 
 He was elected its president in 1804, and held that office, with 
 a brief interval, till his death in 1835. In 1824 he visited 
 Europe, in order to procure a philosophical apparatus, and 
 select books for the library. Though he -nTote much in the 
 joumals of the day to promote the cause of popular education 
 and internal improvement in North Carolina, his only separate 
 publication was a treatise on geometry, which he prepared for 
 use in the university. — F. B. 
 
 CALEB, an Israelite of the tribe of Judah, who along with 
 Joshua protested against the evil reports which the other spies, 
 whom Moses sent into Canaan, brought of the land. He was, 
 thorefore, preser\-ed through the years of wandering in the 
 wilderness, and had an inheritance given him at Kirjath-arba. 
 
 CALED. See Khaled.
 
 CAL 
 
 851 
 
 CAL 
 
 CALEF, Robert, a merchant of Boston in New England, 
 honourably distinguished for the brave and active share which 
 he took in opposing the witchcraft delusion of 1692. When 
 Cotton ]\Iather published his Wonders of the Invisible World, 
 Cak-f replied to liiin in a book entitled " More Wonders of the 
 Invisible World." It gave great oftence, but Hutchinson says 
 it contains a fair narrative of the facts. The book was printed 
 in London, and Dr. Increase Mather, then president of Harvard 
 college, caused a copy of it to be burnt in the college yard. 
 Calef states that, during the delusion, about 200 persons were 
 accused, 150 imprisoned, 28 condemned, 19 hanged, and one 
 pressed to death because he refused to plead. Public opinion 
 was not long in coming round to his side, and honouring him 
 for opinions, the publication of which at the time was perilous. 
 He died in Rosbury in 1719.— F. B. 
 
 CALENDARIO, Filippo, the Venetian architect of the 
 fifteenth century who constructed the porticoes, supported by 
 marble colmnns which surroimd the area of the square of St. 
 Mark, and on which stands a range of buildings ornamented by 
 bas-rehefs and paintings. He was liberally recompensed, and 
 received the daughter of the doge, Martin Faletri, in marriage. 
 
 CALENTIUS or CALENZIO, Elysius, an ItaUan writer, 
 died in 1503. He left a number of elegies, epistles, epigrams, 
 satires, and fables, which were published at his death, under the 
 title of " Opuscula." This collection found a place in t,^e Index 
 Expur., notwithstanding it was printed at Rome. 
 
 CALENUS, Q. FuFius, served under Ca?sar in the civil war. 
 After the battle of Fharsalia had vanquished the adherents of 
 Pompey, Calenus led an army which took Megara and some 
 other Grecian cities. In reward for his services he was made 
 consul, B.C. 47. After the dictator's death he joined Antony, 
 whose legions in the north of Italy he commanded. Calenus 
 died at the close of the Perusinian war. — J. B. 
 
 CALEPINO, Ambrogio, an Itahan philologist, born at 
 Calepio in Bergamo in 1435. His Latin dictionary, published 
 in 1502, is of note as one of the earliest works of the kind, and 
 so gi'eat was its fame, that books of a like natm-e were long 
 called calepines. Passorat published it in 1609, under the title 
 " Dietionarium Octolingue," giving the coiTesponding words in 
 seven other languages. Of this work a new edition appeared at 
 Padua in 1731, by Facciolati, assisted by Forcellini, and was 
 the foundation of Forcellini's Totius Latinitatis Lexicon, 4 vols, 
 folio, which superseded all former Latin dictionaries. Calepino 
 died in 1511, having been for some years blind. — J. B. 
 
 CALETTI, Giuseppe, called Ceemonese, was bom at 
 Ferrara about 1600. He was a successful imitator of Titian, 
 especially in his lesser efforts of bacchanalian character. But 
 the mind of the imitator could not keep pace with his hands. 
 Lanzi, laughing, states that he placed wild boors on the sea, and 
 dolphins on the land. That he was capable of better things, 
 appears by his " St. Mark," and " Four Doctors of the Church," 
 at Ferrara. He died in 1660. — W. T. 
 
 CALFHILL, CAWFIELD, or CALFED, James, a Latin 
 poet and learned divine, bom in Shropshire in 1530. In 1562 
 he was proctor for the clergy of London, and chapter of Oxford 
 iu the convocation which drew up the Thirty-nine articles. He 
 received various preferments in the church, and was about to be 
 consecrated bishop of Worcester when he died in 1570. He 
 wrote " Querela Oxoniensis Academife," &c., a Latin poem 
 on the death of two sons of the duke of Suffolk ; " Answer 
 to John Marshall's Treatise of the Cross," and " Poemata 
 Varia."— J. B. 
 
 CALHOUN, John Caldwell, one of the most eminent 
 American statesmen of the present century, was born in Abbe- 
 ville district. South Carolina, March 18, 1782. His father, 
 Patrick Calhoun, a native of Ireland, was one of the first resi- 
 dents in this district while it was a frontier settlement ; took 
 an active and patriotic part m Indian border warfare and in the 
 revolutionary contest, and served during nearly the whole later 
 part of his life in tlie state legislature. The son, after receiving 
 his preparatory education under the care of his brother-in-law, 
 Dr Waddell of Georgia, was entered at Yale college in 1802, and 
 graduated there with distinction in 1804. He pursued his pro- 
 fessional studies at the law school in Litchfield, Connecticut, and 
 was admitted to the bar of South Carolina in 1807. But he 
 appears soon to have abandoned the practice of law for politics ; 
 and after serving for two sessions in the legislature of his native 
 Btato, he was elected a representative to congress in 1811. From 
 
 that time tmtil his death, a period of nearly forty years, he wa> 
 seldom absent from Washington, being nearly the whole time in 
 the public service, either in congress or in the cabinet. J^ew 
 American statesmen have had so much experience in public affairs, 
 or have presei-ved so high a reputation for ability and uprightness. 
 Though an active party leader, and often engaged in the most 
 exciting contests, not the sHghtest imputation was ever thrown 
 upon his private character, or the sincerity and manliness of his 
 pubhc conduct. When he first entered congress, the difficulties 
 with England were fast approaching actual hostilities, and ilr. 
 Calhoun immediately took part with that section — the young 
 democracy as they were tenned — of the dominant party, whose 
 object it was to drive the still reluctant administration mto a 
 declaration of war. They succeeded, and as a member of the com- 
 mittee on foreign relations, Mr. Calhoun reported a bill for declaiing 
 war, which was passed in June, 1812. He afterwards strenuously 
 supported all the necessary measm-es for carrying on hostilities 
 with vigour, especially that for chartering a national bank, to 
 aid in providing the requisite funds, though the bill for this 
 purpose could not be carried till 1816. At the same period he 
 also supported bills for effecting internal improvements, and 
 for encouraging domestic manufactures, by imposing protective 
 duties — measures which his later policy strongly condemned. 
 When Mr. ]\Ionroe formed his administration in 1817, Mr. 
 Calhoun became secretary of war, a post which he filled with 
 great ability for seven years, reducing the affairs of the depart- 
 ment from a state of gieat confusion to simphcity and order. 
 In 1825 he was chosen vice-president of the United States 
 under John Q. Adams, and again in 1829 under General 
 Jackson. With the latter, however, he did not long continue 
 on amicable pohtical relations, but entered into fierce opposi- 
 tion, when the president and a majority of congress determined 
 to enforce submission to the law of 1828 imposing a heavy 
 protective tariff. It was at this period that Mr. Calhoun 
 broached his famous nullification doctrine, which is substan- 
 tially that the union of the United States is not a union of 
 the people, but a league or compact between sovereign states, 
 any one of which has a right to judge when the compact is 
 broken, and to pronounce any law to be null and void which 
 violates its conditions. From this time forward, that is, for 
 the last seventeen years of his public sernce, !Mr. Calhoun 
 hardly aspired to be considered as a national statesman, acting 
 ■for the whole country. He was content, he was even proud to 
 be viewed only as a southern statesman. Hence his advocacy 
 of the extreme doctrine of state rights ; his censure of the 
 Slissoini compromise, passed thirteen years before, when he 
 was himself in the cabinet ; his support of all measures tending 
 to the extension of slave-holding territory ; and, finally, his 
 proposal to amend the constitution by abolishing the single 
 office of the presidency, and creating two presidents, one for the 
 North and the other for the South, to be in office at the same 
 time. The place in which he advocated these doctrines was 
 his own favourite arena, the floor of the United States senate, 
 where he continued for the rest of his life, except for a short 
 time at the close of Mr. Tyler's administration, when he 
 accepted the office of secretarj' of state, in order to complete a 
 favomite measure — the annexation of Texas. At this period of 
 his life his policy respecting European affairs was pacific; and 
 it should be remembered to his honour, that he probably 
 prevented a war with England on the Oregon question. His 
 death took place at Washington in 1850. The eloquence of 
 Jlr. Calhoun, as was 'well said by Mr. Webster, "was part of 
 his intellectual character. It grew out of the qualities of his 
 mind. It was plain, strong, terse, condensed, concise, sometimes 
 impassioned, still always severe." The same great orator and 
 statesman, the most frecjuent and formidable of Mr. Calhoun's 
 opponents, paid the following noble tribute to the dignity and 
 purity of his public character. " He had the basis, the indis- 
 pensable basis of all high character; and that was unspotted 
 integrity, uninipeached honour and character. If he had aspira- 
 tions they were high, and honourable, and noble. There was 
 nothing grovelling, or low, or meanly selfish, that came near the 
 head or the heart of Mr. Calhoun. However he may have differed 
 from others of us in his political ophiions or bis political prin- 
 ciples, those principles and those opinions will now descend to 
 posterity under the sanction of a great name. He has lived 
 long enough, he has done enough, and he has done it so well, 
 so successfully, so houom'ably, as to connect liimself for all
 
 time with the records of liis country." Since his death the works 
 of Mr. Calhoun have been pubhshed in six octavo vohiines, 
 tlie first being a posthumous publication of "A Disquisition 
 upon Government," and "A Discourse on the Constitution and 
 Goveniment of the United States ; " and the others being a 
 republication of his speeclies in congress, official reports, and 
 other documents of which he was tlie author. — F. B. 
 
 CALIDASA, a celebrated Hindoo poet, who is supposed by some 
 to have flourished about the middle of the century preceding the 
 commencement of our era, by otliers about tlie close of the second 
 century. He is the author of a great number of poems of unequal 
 merit, but not a few of them are of a very high order. One of 
 his dramas, entitled " Sacuntala, or the Fatal Ring," was 
 translated by Sir William Jones (Calcutta, 1789, London, 1792), 
 and was received with great admiration. It has since been 
 repeatedly retranslated into Frencli and German, and several 
 attempts have been made on the continent to adapt it to the 
 stage. A correct edition of the text of this celebrated drama, 
 which had been greatly interpolated and corrupted, was published 
 by Hennan Brockhaus of Leipzig, and a free yet accm-ate Eng- 
 lish translation in prose and verse has since been published by 
 Professor M. Williams. C:\lidasa is also the author of " Vicra- 
 mon'asi," a dramatic poem iu five acts ; of a comedy called 
 "Agnimitra and WTilavirca ;" the "]\Iegha Duta, or Cloud Mes- 
 senger," a lyrical poem of one hunelred and sixteen stanzas ; an 
 unfinished epic poem called " Cumara Sambhava; " a narra- 
 tive poem entitled " Raghu Vansa," &c. A number of these 
 pieces have been translated by H. H. Wilson in his Hindoo 
 Theatre. — J. T. 
 
 CALIGNON, SoFFREY de, a French poet, born in 1550 ; died 
 at Paris in 1G06. He was chancellor of Navarre under Henry IV., 
 and was engaged, along with de Thou, in framing the edict of 
 Nantes. He wrote a poetical satire — " Le Mepris des Dames." 
 
 C ALIGN Y, Jean-Antenor Hue de, an eminent French 
 engineer, one of four brothers to whom was iutrusted the direc- 
 tion of a great number of the most hnportant military works in 
 France and the Low Countries: born in 1G57; died in 1731. 
 
 CALIGULA, Caius Cesar, emperor of Rome from 37 to 
 41. He was the son of Germanicus, and obtained the surname 
 of Caligula from his habit of wearing the caliga or military shoe. 
 He succeeded his grandfather, Tiberius, under the most favour- 
 able cu'cumstances for attaining popularity. The earlier mea- 
 s'lres of Caligula seem to have justified the expectations formed 
 of him by the populace. He dismissed from the court the profli- 
 gate favourites of Tiberius, remitted many of the taxes imposed 
 in the previous reign, and set at liberty many prisoners. For the 
 first eight months of his reign he continued, by measures such 
 as these, to retain the affections of his subjects, who manifested 
 in every possible way their satisfaction with his rule ; but about 
 that time he was seized with a severe and dangerous illness, 
 which is supposed by many to have deranged his mental facul- 
 ties. His character underwent a sudden and total change. He 
 became cruel and tyrannical, and gave himself up to eveiy species 
 of debauchery and extravagance. He assumed divine honours, 
 ei'ected a temjde for his own worship, and caused sacrifices to 
 be offered to himself eveiy day. His impiety was fully equalled 
 by his prodigality. Even the immense taxes imposed upon the 
 provinces proved inadequate to satisfy the demands of his lavish 
 expenditure, and the wealthier class of citizens then became the 
 victims of his rapacity. His favourite horse was kept in a stable 
 of marble, and treated with every mark of respect ; and it is 
 said that death alone prevented the infatuated emperor from 
 conferring the consulship upon it. The extravagance and 
 profusion of his domestic an-angements have scarcely a parallel 
 in histoiy. His cruelties were so great as almost to tran- 
 scend belief. To torture, and even to put to death innocent 
 people, was with him a favourite amusement; and he is said 
 to have maintained a large number of wild beasts, which were 
 daily fed with human victims. In a moment of ii-ritation he 
 once expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one 
 head, that he might strike it off at a blow. The slightest sus- 
 picion against any one he converted arbitrarily into a capital 
 charge. The old and infirm were frequently destroyed by his 
 orders, for no other reason than that they were useless to the state. 
 In this way he continued to give himself up to the practice of 
 every species of oppression and brutality, till, in the third year 
 of his reign, he was seized with an ungovernable desire for mili- 
 tary glory. Levies were made throughout the empire, and an 
 
 expedition was fitted out which he commanded in person, and 
 with which he proposed to reduce to subjection all Germany and 
 Britain. He contented himself, however, with marching his 
 troops into France, on the coast of which he drew up the army 
 in order of battle, and ordered each soldier to fill his helmet 
 with sea- shells, which were carried to Rome, and paraded with 
 much solemnity as the spoils of the ocean. A successful con- 
 spiracy at length put an end to the tjTanny of Caligula. After 
 a reign of about four years, he was assassinated during the cele- 
 bration of the Palatine games by a band of conspirators, headed 
 by Cassius Chffiroa, a tribune of the prjctorian guards. — W. M. 
 
 CALIMANI, Sisiieone, rabbi at Venice during a considerable 
 portion of the eighteenth century. He has left a grammar of 
 the Hebrew language, with a dissertation on Hebrew poetry. 
 The Hebrew-Italian lexicon which he intended to publish, was 
 not completed when he died. — T. T. 
 
 CALIXTUS. See Alexander III., Pope. 
 
 CALIXTUS I. (more properiy CALLISTUS), a Roman by 
 birth, succeeded Zephyrinus m the papacy, according to Fleury, 
 in the year 217, and, after having sat five years, was put to 
 death under Alexander Severus in 222. The chronology, how- 
 ever, is very uncertain. This pope is said by Platina to have 
 instituted the fasts at the four seasons, called Quarter-tenses or 
 Ember-days. Little authentic was known of him until the late 
 discovery of one of the lost works of Hippolytus, bishop of 
 Portus, in which statements are made respecting Callistus of the 
 most unfavourable nature. A famous christian cemetery m as 
 named after him. — T. A. 
 
 CALIXTUS II. (GuiDO, archbishop of Vienne) was electeil 
 at Cluny in France in 1119, after the sudden death of Gelasius 
 II. ; but he would not assume the papal insignia until he had 
 received tidings of the willing confirmation of his appointment 
 by the rest of the cardinals at Rome. He was connected by 
 birth with no less than three royal families. The struggle 
 regarding the right of investiture, that is, the right of appointing 
 to vacant sees and benefices, was now at its height. Paschal 
 II. had in 1118 weakly conceded to the emperor, Heniy V., 
 the right of investitm-e " by ring and crosier," the well-known 
 emblems of the spiritual jurisdiction of bishops. This conces- 
 sion was condemned by the nearly unanimous voice of the clergy 
 all over Europe ; and in a gi-eat council held at Rheims towards 
 the close of 1119, in which the pope j>resided, Calixtus endea- 
 voured to arrange the matter with the emperor. But the faith- 
 less conduct of Henry, who, while professing his willingness to 
 abandon the right, was found to be manoeuvring to get the pope 
 into his hands, caused the negotiations to be broken off. After 
 visiting Normandy, where he met the English king, Henry I., 
 at Gisors, CalLxtus proceeded to Italy. Soon after his arrival 
 in Rome, the antipope, Burdinus, who had been set up by the 
 emperor, was brought into the city a captive, and delivered up 
 to him. Calixtus pardoned him, and confined him for the 
 remainder of his life to the monastery of Cava. In 1122 the 
 affair of investitm-es was arranged. The emperor concluded a 
 concordat with the papal legates at Worms, by which he surren- 
 dered the right of investiture by ring and crosier, retaining only 
 that of investing " by the sceptre," when he put bishops in pos- 
 session of their temporalities. By the same treaty peace was 
 established in Germany. The concordat was ratified by the 
 gi-eat council of the Lateran (commonly called the ninth general 
 council), convened by the pope at Rome in the following year. 
 Calixtus died in 1124. Gibbon says of him, that "after giving 
 peace to Europe, Calixtus II. alone had resolution and power 
 to prohibit the use of private arms in the metropolis." — T. A. 
 
 CALIXTUS III. (AbrnoNsus Borgia, a Spaniard) suc- 
 ceeded Nicholas V. in 1455. He bent all his energies to the 
 task of recovering Constantinople, if possible, fi'om the hands of 
 the Turks, and renewed the proclamation made in 1453 for a 
 general crusade, sending his legates into every country of Europe 
 to preach the holy war. For this pui-pose he alienated many 
 valuable jewels, and even manors, belonging to the Roman 
 church. His otherwise unblemished character was tarnished by 
 the grossness of his nepotism. Calixtus died in 1458. — T. A. 
 
 CALIXTUS, George, one of the most learned, hberal, and 
 enlightened of the German theologians of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, was born on the 14th December, 1586, in a village of 
 Schleswig of the name of Medelbye. His father, wiio was 
 pastor of the village, had been one of the pupils of ]\Ielancthou 
 in his last years, and had imbibed his moderate and conciliatory
 
 epirit. He souglit to train his son in the same views. He was 
 himself accordingly his first teacher ; afterwards he sent him 
 to school at Flensburg, and then to the university at Helm- 
 stadt, the great seat of the more liberal and cultivated theology 
 which Melancthon had represented. Here, from 1603 to 1G09, 
 young Calixtus spent his time in the study, first of philosophy 
 and philology, and then chiefly, during the last two years, of 
 theology. The Aristotelian philosophy especially engaged his 
 attention, and he became a warm admirer of it. His theological 
 studies took their direction more from an independent examination 
 of patristic writings than from any special influence surrounding 
 him ; and the naturally free and comprehensive bias of his mind 
 grew and flourished from communion with the early christian 
 writers. After the completion of his university com-se, he tra- 
 velled for four years throughout Belgium, France, and England, 
 chieflv employed in examining into the state of religion in these 
 countries; and there can be little doubt that these years of travel, 
 and the cosmopolitan tastes and sympathies which they awiikened, 
 or perhaps only strengthened, served strongly to form him 
 for his future mediatory career. The theology and practical 
 working of the Roman catholic church excited his particular 
 regard at this early period, and he remained a winter in Cologne 
 with the view of studying them. His talents and activity 
 gradually attracted attention, and his fame as a rising theolo- 
 gian reached its height in a victorious encounter with the 
 Jesuit Turrianus, in the year 1614. He was offered a professor- 
 ship of theology in his own university, and here in the same 
 year he settled, and for nearly half a century devoted his 
 energies to the cultivation of a moderate and liberal theology, 
 and the spread of a more catholic and tolerant spmt in the 
 Lutheran church. He died in 1656. 
 
 It is of little consequence to record the several struggles in 
 which his efforts at christian union and his various writings 
 engaged Calixtus. His projects fell upon evil days, and met 
 with even a harder fate than is usual in such cases. Reviled 
 by the Lutherans, he failed to win the papists. He and his 
 friends were called by the old Lutherans crypto-papists, and 
 syncretism passed into a byword for every species of heresy. 
 With the Calvinists he seems to have got on better pei-haps 
 than with any other of the contending religious parties, and his 
 association with them on the occasion of a religious controversy 
 at Thom in 1646, was a subject of special indignation and accu- 
 sation against him on the part of his Lutheran brethren. His 
 efforts, unsuccessful as they were in their immediate object, made 
 a deep impression on the German chm-ches, and combined with 
 the comprehensive and humanistic spirit of his theology, helped 
 to prepare the way for a reaction against the barren dogmat- 
 ism of Lutheranism in the seventeenth century. The writings 
 of Calixtus were mainly of an occasional character — those at 
 least published by himself. Even in his lifetime, however, there 
 were published by others, several series of what appear to 
 have been his theological lectures, ■\'iz., his " Expositiones Lite- 
 rales," upon most of the books of the Old Testament ; and his 
 " Concordia Evangeliorum." After his death there appeared 
 " Orationes Selectee," Helmstadt, 1660 ; and his general contri- 
 butions to Old Testament exegesis were collected and published 
 by his son in 1665, under the title " Lucubrationes ad quonm- 
 dam V. T. librorum intelligentiam facientes." The student may 
 consult Gass. G. Calixt. und der S}Ticretismus, 1846 ; or G. 
 Calixtus und seine Zeit, by Hcnke, 1853. — T. 
 
 C.\LKON, Jan Freukuik Van Bkek, the most celebrated 
 a.stronomer of the Netherlands, was born at Groningen in 1772. 
 He was destined for the refomied church, of which his father 
 was a minister, but turned aside to mathematics and astronomy. 
 Visiting the Gennan universities, he made many friends among 
 the learned ; and afterwards taught astronomy and mathematics 
 at Lcyden and Utrecht. He was elected a member of the Dutch 
 National Institute, and died in 1811. He wrote a dissertation 
 on the clocks of the ancients. 
 
 CALL, SiK John, Hart., celebrated as a military engineer, 
 was bom in 1732. Having gone to India, he was made, ore 
 he had reached his twentieth year, chief engineer at Fort St. 
 Da\id; a situation which he held till in 1757 he was made chief 
 engineer at Madras, and soon after of all the Coromandel coast. 
 Having acconiiilislied the reduction of PondicheiTy and Vellore, 
 and distinguished himself in the war with Hyder Ali, lie was 
 advanced by the company, and was recommended by Clive to 
 succeed to the government of Madras ; but he chose rather to 
 
 return to England. He was in 1782 appointed one of a com- 
 mission of inquiry into the state of crowm lands, woods, and 
 forests. He entered parliament in 1784, was made a baronet 
 in 1791, and died in 1801. — J. B. 
 
 CALLACHAN, king of Cashel, and successor to Cormae, 
 reigned in the earlier part of the tenth century. Uniformly the 
 ally of the Danes, he was noted for his unremitting warfare 
 against Christianity. He pillaged the venerable monastery of 
 Clonmacnoise, and the abbey of Clonleagh. The life of this 
 fierce and sacrilegious prince stands out in black and odious con- 
 trast to that of the illustrious king and bishop, Cormae. At 
 length, about the year 939, he was delivered up to Donagh, king 
 of Ireland, with other captives and hostages. The only other 
 notice we have of him is on the occasion of a victory obtained by 
 him over Kennedy, king of ^lunster. — J. F. W. 
 
 CALLANAN, J. J., was born in the city of Cork in the year 
 1795, and was educated for the Roman catholic priesthood. 
 Finding, however, that he had no vocation for the ecclesiastical 
 state, he lefc the college of Mapiooth in 1816, and two years 
 after obtained the situation of tutor in a respectable family in 
 his native city. The ill-requited duties of a tutor were as little 
 congenial to his disposition as their reward was unsuitable to his 
 wants, and he accordingly left Cork and entered Trinity college, 
 Dublin, with the design of qualifying himself for the profession 
 of the law. During his college course he wrote two prize poems, 
 which secured for him the favourable judgment of the authorities. 
 Unfortunately he abandoned his college studies after the second 
 year, and having exhausted liis resources, he enlisted privately 
 in the Royal Irish regiment, then about to embark for Malta ; 
 but was, after a short time, discovered by his friends, who pro- 
 cured his release. Two more weary years of teaching followed. 
 Then, after an interval of indolence and poetic musing, we find 
 him at a school in 1823, which he soon left to ramble through 
 the lovely sceneiy of his native county, collecting its legends and 
 nmsing his poetic tastes. Meantime he had contributed some 
 pieces of high merit to Blackwood and Bolster's magazines. 
 In failing health and reduced circumstances, he went in the end 
 of the year 1827 to Lisbon, as tutor in a gentleman's family. 
 During his stay in Portugal he acquired the language, and 
 made several translations from its poetr}', and was occupied 
 in preparing his writings for publication. Meantime his health 
 daily declined, and at last his illness assumed so alarming an 
 aspect, that he determined on returning to die in his native land ; 
 but when on board the vessel he was unable to proceed, and 
 retm-ning to shore, he died a few days after on the 19th 
 September, 1829, in the 34th year of his age, just at the time 
 that his poems were published in his native city. Callanan was 
 a true poet. Thoroughly acquainted with the romantic legends 
 of his country, he was singularly happy in the graces and power 
 of language, and the feeling and beauty of his sentiments. There 
 is in his compositions little of that high classicality which marks 
 the scholar ; but they are full of exquisite simplicity and tender- 
 ness, and in his description of natural sceneiy he is unrivalled. 
 His lines on "Gougane Barra" are known to every tourist that 
 visits the romantic regions of the south of Ireland, and his longer 
 poems possess great merit. — J. F. W. 
 
 CALLARD^DE LA DUQUERIE, Jean Baptiste, a 
 French physician and botanist, was born in 1630, and died in 
 1746. He practised his profession at Caen, and subsequently 
 became one of the professors of medicine in the university. He 
 founded the botanic garden of that town. He published a 
 " Universal Medical Lexicon."— J. H. B. 
 
 CALLCOTT, Sir Augustus W.\r.i., was bom in Kensington 
 in 1779. He was a chorister as a boy, and officiated for some 
 years at Westminster abbey under Dr. Cooke. But he took early 
 to painting as a profession, and became the pupil of Hoppiu'r, 
 the distinguished portrait painter, Callcott himself, at first, fol- 
 lowing the same branch of the art. Callcott's talent was, how- 
 ever, for landscape painting, and he eventually attained such 
 eminence in this department of painting, that he was called tlic 
 English Claude. Some of Callcott's finest works are in the stylo 
 of Claude, but without the hardness of that painter, and with 
 a more skilful treatment of the foregrounds ; his colouring is 
 uniformly sober, and somewhat of the tone of the early works of 
 Turner. But Callcott never erred on the side of extravagance, 
 and wa.s always free from manner in his landscapes. In the 
 National Gallery are some remarkably fine examples of tlic 
 works of this painter, both of his least pretentious, and of his 
 
 -I
 
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 854 
 
 CAL 
 
 most important style, as the " Entrance to Pisa from Leghorn," 
 painted in 1833 — a grand landscape. Callcott was elected a 
 member of the Eoyal Academy in 1810, and was for many years 
 a constant and important contributor to its exhibitions. In 
 1837 he was knighted by the queen, and in this year he unfor- . 
 tunately forsook the line of art upon which he had founded his 
 deserved reputation, and became a figure painter. His first 
 attempt in this new province was a large picture of " Raphael 
 and the Fornarina," exhibited in 1837, well known by the print 
 from it by Lumb Stocks, A.R.A., which was distributed to the 
 subscribers of the London Art Union in 1843. This picture 
 was followed in 1840 by another work of like pretensions — 
 " Hilton and his Daughters ;" but it was so far from maintaining 
 the credit of his previous attempt, that it was generally admitted 
 to have been a complete failure. It was a great injury to his 
 reputation. It exhibited one of the first of living landscape 
 painters as below mediocrity as a figure painter. From this 
 time Sir Augustus did httle more ; his health rapidly failed him. 
 In 1814 he was appointed consen'ator of the royal pictures, as 
 successor to Mr. Sequier — an honourable office, but one of small 
 remimeration, and which he held for a few months only. He 
 died on the 2oth of November the same year. — R. N. W. 
 
 CALLCOTT, Lady, was the daughter of Rear-admiral George 
 Dundas, and was bom in 1788. In 1809 she manied Captain 
 Graham, R.N., who died at sea in 1822. She was married to 
 Su- Augustus Callcott in 1827. Lady Callcott was a great 
 traveller, and spent several years in India and South America. 
 She twice %-isited Italy, and published two works relating to it 
 — " Three months in the environs of Rome," and " Jlemoirs of 
 Poussin." She also published a " Histoi-y of Spain," in 2 vols., 
 " Little Arthur's Histoiy of England," " The Little Bracken- 
 buiTa"s Essays towards the History of Painting," and a " Scrip- 
 ture Herbal," her last work. Lady Callcott, who was an mvalid 
 for eleven years, died 21st November, 1843. Her memory wUl 
 long be affectionately remembered, not only for her talents and 
 great acquirements, but for her generous, kind, and pious dis- 
 position. — J. T. 
 
 CALLCOTT, John Wall, Mus. Doc, was bom at Ken- 
 sington in November, 17CG, and died May 15, 1821. His 
 father was a bricklayer and builder, and the musician, like his 
 brother Sir Augustus, the painter, was the offspring of a second 
 marriage, both bearing their mother's maiden name of Wall. 
 John, as a schoolboy, showed an equal capacity and inclination 
 for languages, which gi'ew with his years. In course of time he 
 became master of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and other dead and 
 oriental tongues, and he read French, Italian, and German, 
 with the same fluency. He was intended for the profession of 
 surgery, and evinced considerable aptitude for the study of 
 anatomy ; his feelings were so shocked, however, by witnessing 
 an operation, that he fainted in the room, and could not be 
 induced to apply himself farther to the pursuit. His first 
 interest in music was excited when he was twelve years old ; 
 his father was then engaged upon some repairs of Kensington 
 church, during which young Callcott had occasic)nally to attend 
 him, and thus had opportunities of hearing the organist practise, 
 an accident that determined his ultimate destiny. In the year 
 of his cliirurgical probation, he made constant visits to the 
 Kensington organist, whose warm encouragement stimulated his 
 natural taste; and when, at thuteen, he abandoned the study 
 of surgery, he had no difficulty in deciding upon that of music 
 to replace it. It was at Christmas in 1780 that he made his 
 first attempt at composition in writing music for a private play. 
 When he was about sixteen he made the acquaintance of Dr. 
 Arnold and Dr. Cooke, whose influential professional position 
 enabled them greatly to assist Callcott's advancement. Among 
 other advantages he obtained from these friends, was an intro- 
 duction to the society called the Academy of Ancient Music, 
 at whose concerts he played in the band, and also produced, 
 with great credit, an anthem for two choirs and orchestra. In 
 1783 he succeeded Attwood as assistant organist to Reinhold 
 at the church of St. George the ^lartyr, which appointment 
 he held for two years. In 1789 he competed for the organ 
 of St. Paul's, Coveut Garden, when the interest of the electors 
 was divided between him and Charles Evans, the glee writer; 
 so these two friends agreed to accept the office jointly, and 
 share its duties and its remuneration. When in 1795 the 
 chm-ch was burned, Callcott played once in aid of the fund 
 for its re-erection, at Ely chapel, Ilolborn, on which occa- 
 
 sion he was introduced to William Horsley, organist of the 
 chapel, who subsequently became his son-in-law. He was also 
 engaged as organist at the Female Orphans' Asylum from 1792 
 till 1802, when he was succeeded by Horsley, who had been 
 his assistant. He wrote his first glee in 1784, for the prize 
 given by the Catch Club ; but he was this time an unsuccessful 
 candidate. He made up for his Ul- fortune in 1785, when he 
 gained three of the four prizes for glees, canons, and catches, 
 annually awarded by that society. He gave a rare example of 
 industry in sending, two years later, a hundred compositions for 
 the prizes ; this inundation was so extraordinaiy as greatly to 
 embarrass the regular proceedings of the club, and a law was 
 consequently passed that no candidate should be allowed to 
 offer more than three pieces for each of the four prizes. 
 Though Callcott was made an honorary member of the club, 
 he regarded the new statute as a personal aft'ront, in resent- 
 ment of which, in 1788, he refused to write for the prizes. In 
 1789, however, he was persuaded of his eiTor, and, in com- 
 pliance with the restriction, submitted twelve compositions ; on 
 this occasion he gained all the four medals, a success of which 
 there has been no other example in the entu-e history of the 
 Catch Club. Greatly interested in this class of composition, 
 Callcott helped to promote its cultivation by organizuig, in 
 conjunction with Dr. Arnold, the Glee Club, which held its 
 first meeting at the New Coffee-house, December 22, 1787. He 
 was likewise one of the original members of the Concentores 
 Sodales, another institution to encourage the writing of glees 
 and canons, which was established in 1798. When Haydn 
 visited England in 1790, Callcott placed hunself under him 
 for a course of lessons. With that master he especially studied 
 orchestration, but, though he played several instruments, he 
 never excelled in tliis branch of the art. He took his bachelor's 
 degree at Cambridge, by invitation of Dr. P. Hayes, the pro- 
 fessor, when he was scarcely nineteen, and set AMiarton's 
 Ode to Fancy for his exercise. He was made doctor of music 
 at Oxford in 1800, when he obtained his testamen for a 
 Latin anthem. A few years prior to this he became deeply 
 interested in the investigation of the theory of music, to which 
 he was strongly stimulated by Overend, an organist, who pos- 
 sessed the extensive manuscripts of Dr. Boyce on this subject. 
 Callcott's classical attaumients greatly facilitated his researches 
 into the ancient systems, and his fluency in living languages 
 enabled him to read all that had been written upon modern art. 
 From 1797 his chief attention was spent upon the compilation 
 of a musical dictionary, the collecting of materials for which 
 became the hobby of the rest of his fife. As after several years 
 he felt himself in some respect compromised in not having 
 fulfilled his announcement of this purposed work, he thought it 
 necessary to produce something of a theoretical character, and 
 accordingly wrote his " Grammar of Music," which occupied 
 the leisure of 1804 and 1805. This book was, at the time 
 when it appeared, the most comprehensive musical treatise 
 that had been written in English, and, though later theories 
 have superseded it, its merit is still acknowledged. He made 
 some preparation for a biographical dictionar}-, but proceeded 
 only for the first few letters. He pubhshed in 1801 a 
 small educational book called "The Way to Speak Well," 
 intended to have been the first of his series ; but he did not 
 carry out this design. In 1805 Dr. Callcott was appointed to 
 succeed Dr. Crotch as lecturer at the Royal Institution, but was 
 never able to enter upon the office ; his constant habit of exces- 
 sive application had for long undennined his health, and liis 
 reason now gave way under the ceaseless strain upon it. For 
 five years he was an inmate of a lunatic asylum, during which 
 time his lucid intervals were occupied with musical composition 
 and religious exercises. He then returned to his friends, and 
 resumed his avocation of teaching ; but in three years his malady 
 regained its power, and it became necessary to place him once 
 more under restraint, and thus he remained until his death. 
 He man-ied in 1790, on which occasion he wrote his prize glee, 
 " Triumphant Love." Of his several children, his son, William 
 Hutchins Callcott, is known as a musician by his song, " The 
 Last JIan," and by his numerous pianoforte arrangements. 
 
 Dr. Callcott was the author of "Angel of Life," and some 
 other esteemed songs ; his reputation as a composer, however, 
 rests chiefly upon his glees, canons, and catches, of which a large 
 collection was edited by W. Horsley, and a far greater number 
 remain unpublished His glees may be divided into the
 
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 855 
 
 CAL 
 
 following classes — those taken from Ossian, the amatory, the 
 descriptive, the moral, and the characteristic ; of these, the last, 
 comprising " The Ked Cross Knight," and " When Artlmr first," 
 though least esteemed by genuine glee-lovers, are the most 
 popular, the most spontaneous, and the most indicative of 
 genius. The glee, for half a century the only type of an 
 English school of music, gives place now to a higher order of 
 composition ; but the institutions founded for its cultivation 
 continue to preserve it, and in all these Dr. Callcott's pro- 
 ductions form the standard of excellence. — G. A. M. 
 
 CALLEJA or CALLEJAS, Dox Felix del Ret, Count 
 de Calderon, a Spanish general, bom in 1750 ; died about 1820. 
 From 1810 till 1817 he served in the insuiTcctionary wars of 
 tlie Spanish Transatlantic settlements, particularly distinguishing 
 himself by the dispersion of the anny under Hidalgo. His fame 
 was stained by numerous acts of horrid cruelty. In 1815 he 
 superseded Venegas in the viceroyalty of ilesico, but was dis- 
 missed from that post in 1819, when he returned to Spain. 
 
 CALLEXBERG, Geraedt, a Dutch admiral, born at WQ- 
 lemstadt in 16-12. Callenberg distinguished himself on that fatal 
 day on which Ru}-ter was mortally wounded. He commanded 
 the Dutch fleet that assisted the English in the capture of Gibral- 
 tar; and died a simple burgomaster in 1722. 
 
 CALLEXBERG, John Hexrt, a learned German orientalist 
 and promoter of Jewish and Mohammedan missions, was born 
 in the duchy of Gotha in 1694, and studied at Halle, where in 
 1727, 1735, and 1739, he became successively extraordinary and 
 ordinary professor of philosophy, and ordlnar}' professor of theo- 
 I'lgy, in which last office he continued till his death in 1760. The 
 Collegium Orientale Theologicum, instituted by 0. H. Michaelis 
 in Halle in 1702, of which Callenberg became a member, had 
 great influence in determining his life-long studies and pursuits. 
 His lectures in the theological chair had chiefly reference to the 
 Hebrew language and to subjects connected with Judaism and 
 Jewish antiquities. His published writings were of no great 
 importance ; the principal work of his life was the Callenberg 
 Institute of HaUe, which he commenced in 1728, and which con- 
 tinued in existence for thirty years after his death, till it was at 
 length, in 1791, merged in the larger and more important Insti- 
 tute of Francke in the same city. The principal object of this 
 institution was the conversion of the Jews, for which purpose 
 missionaries were trained and sent forth to almost all the coun- 
 tries of Europe, and even to the East, and a printing-press was 
 maintained for the preparation of works specially adapted to 
 influence the Jewish mind. — P. L. 
 
 CALLENDER, James Thompson', a native of Scotl.and, 
 who gained some notoriety in America, whither his radical 
 jiolitics compelled him to emigrate about 1795. He had pub- 
 lished, before leaving England, " The Political Progress of 
 Britain, or an Impartial View of Abuses in the Government," and 
 " The Political Register." His " Sketches of the History of 
 America" appeared in 1798. For a political pamphlet, entitled 
 " The Prospect before us," containing an assault upon the 
 Washington and Adams administrations, he was tried and con- 
 victed under the sedition law ; but the ready pardon of Jlr. 
 Jefferson, whose stipendiary he was, made the judgment of no 
 effect. Mr. Jefferson attempts in his Correspondence to explain 
 the circumstances of this connection. Callender was drowned 
 in the James river, near Richmond, in 1803. He was the 
 "obscure scribbler who," says Boswell (1782), "collected and 
 ]iublished 'The Deformities of Johnson' in spiteful reply to 
 'The Beauties of the Doctor,'" then a recent book. — F. B. 
 
 CALLENDER, Rev. John, an eminent baptist clergjnnan 
 of America, born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1706, became 
 pastor of a congi-egation at Newport, R. I. He is best known 
 as the author of a centenary sermon on the purchase of Rhode 
 Lsland by emigrants from Massachusetts in 1638, pubUshed in 
 1739. He died in 17-18.— F. B. 
 
 CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS, a noble and wealthy Athe- 
 ni.in family, hereditary torch-bearers at the Eleusinian mysteries. 
 The names seem to have been borne by alternate heads of the 
 family. One, named Callias, fought at the battle of Marathon, 
 W.1S afterwards ambassador f^i-om Athens to Artaxerxes, and 
 negotiated a peace with Persia, n.c. 449. His son, named IIii>- 
 I'ONicus, commanded at the battle of Delium in 424, where 
 he was killed. He had a son named Callias, who squandered 
 all the ancestral wealth. The scene of Xenophon's Jianquet 
 and Plato's Protagoras is laid at his house. — J. B. 
 
 CALLIAS. Of those bearing this name, but unconnected with 
 the family preceding, we notice — Callias, who married Elpinice, 
 sister of Cimon, son of the great Miltiades. He released Cimon 
 from prison by paying a fine of fifty talents that had been imposed 
 on his father. — Callias, tyi-ant of Chalcis, in Euboea, defeated 
 B.C. 350, by the Athenians, with whom he afterwards formed an 
 alliance. — Callias, a comedian, flourished B.C. 412. — Cal- 
 lias of Syracuse wrote a history of Sicily in twent)--two books, 
 embracing the reign of Agathocles with whom he was contem- 
 porary. — J. B. 
 
 CALLICRATES, a Greek general, bom at Leontium in 
 Achaia ; died at Rhodes in the year b.c. 149. Intrusted with 
 various public embassies, and appointed general of the Acluiian 
 league, he took even- opportmiity, during a period of thirty 
 years, of betraying the interests of his country to the Romans. 
 His death was declared by Pausanias to be a fortunate event 
 for all Greece. — G. M. 
 
 CALLICRATES, the architect who, with Ictinus, was employed 
 by Pericles to construct the Parthenon at Athens. 
 
 CALLICRATIDAS, a Spartan general, died in the year 
 B.C. 406. He was sent to Ephesus to supersede Lysander in 
 the command of the fleet. He seized Delphinium in the isle of 
 Chios, ravaged Teos, and took possession of Methymne. He 
 was defeated and slain in a naval engagement with the Athe- 
 nians near the Arginusa3. — G. M. 
 
 CALLIERES, Francois de, a French statesman and writer, 
 bom in 1645. He was employed in several embassies by Louis 
 XIV., and died in 1717. He wrote some poetical pieces. His 
 chief work, " De la maniere de negocier avec les Souverains," 
 1716, has been translated into English, Italian, and German. 
 
 CALLIERGUS, CALLIERGI, or CALLOERGI, Zacha- 
 RIAS, a Greek philologist, bom in Crete about the end of the 
 fifth century. He studied at Venice, and afterwards conducted 
 the printing establishment of Agostino Chigi at Rome. His 
 editions of the Greek authors excelled all preceding ones in 
 correctness and in beauty of t^-pe. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS, bom at Cyrene in Lybia. The date of his 
 birth has not been ascertained. His death is stated to have 
 occurred about 270 years before our era. Apollonius Rhodius 
 was a pupil of his, but it would appear that master and pupil 
 had but little love for each other. The name of a poem against 
 Apollonius, by Callimachus, is preser\-ed — the poem itself has 
 perished. The names of several narrative and lyric poems, of 
 satires and of tragedies, by Callimachus, are preserved ; but his 
 hymns and some epigrams have alone suiTived to our times. 
 Callimachus was imitated by Propertius, who said that his gi-eat 
 ambition was to be called the Roman Callimachus ; and Catullus 
 translated one of his poems. Quinctihan preferred him to any 
 other of the Greek elegiac poets. The hymns of Callimachus 
 have been frequently published. They are interesting to stu- 
 dents of Greek mythology, and have been often well edited. 
 The Italian translation by Salvmi is spoken of with high praise. 
 The phrase, " A great book is a great evil," is said to have 
 originated with Callimachus. — J. A., D. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS, a Greek sculptor, who flourished probably 
 about 400 B.C. Vitruvius speaks of him as the inventor of the 
 Corinthian capital. He is said to have spoiled his works by 
 excessive finish, whence he was named xaxi'^oTij^ycs or " calum- 
 niator sui," as Pliuv interprets the epithet. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS, an Athenian who lived about 490 B.C. 
 He held the office of polcmarch at the time of the battle of 
 Marathon, where he fell, while commanding the right wing of 
 the Athenians. His body was found iu an erect posture, sup- 
 ported by arrows. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS-EXPERIEXS, Fn.irro, bom at Flo- 
 rence. The date of his birth is uncertain ; he died at Cracow in 
 1496. He was of the family of Buonacorsi, but adopted the 
 name of Callimachus at a period when it became fashionable 
 with the Italian literati to assume classical designations. The 
 academy to which he belonged found favour with Pius II., but 
 was distrusted in the next pontificate, when its members were 
 thought no better than conspirators, and had to fly for life. Cal- 
 limachus escaped to I'oland, where he found enii)lo)nncnt in edu- 
 cating the children of Casiniir III. He was afterwards secretary 
 to that monarch, and continued to hold the same ofhce under 
 his successor and till his own death. He was sent on several 
 embassies, the object of which was to avert some meditated 
 incui-sions of the Turks. \Vhile absent on one of those occasions
 
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 he had the misfortune of losing a valuable hbraiy by fire, by 
 which also some of his own writings were destroyed. His 
 principal works are — "Attila," or "De Gestls Attila;," printed in 
 Bonfini's Decades Rerum Hungaricarum, and some tracts on the 
 relations of the Turks to christian Europe. Some works of his 
 still remain in manuscript, among whicli are " Historia Peregri- 
 nationum Suarum" and " De Kegibus Pannonise." 
 
 CALLIXUS, a Greek orator, and the first it is said who 
 invented elegiac poetry, B.C. 776. Some of his verses, which 
 are of great excellence, are preserved in Stobaeus. 
 
 CALLIPPUS, an Athenian tyrant of Syracuse, died in the 
 year 351 b.c. He assassinated Dion, with whom he had been 
 on terms of intimate friendship, and seized on the government 
 of Syracuse in 353 B.C. 
 
 CALLIPPUS or CALIPPUS, a Greek astronomer, was born 
 at Cyzicus about 350 B.C., and is chiefly distinguished for his 
 reform oT the calendar. Meton, in the preceding centuiy, had 
 discovered that nineteen years nearly correspond with 235 lunar 
 months, and, assuming the correspondence to be exact, had 
 instituted a calendar repeating itself every nineteen years, which 
 came into general use in Greece. Callippus approximated more 
 nearly to the truth by deducting one day in every fourth period, 
 i.e., in every seventy-six years, and his correction was adopted 
 by the astronomers of the day. It appears from records left by 
 Ptolemy, that the Callippic cycle commenced on the 18th of June, 
 B.C. 330. The length of the year, according to the calendar of 
 Callippus, would be almost exactly 365j days. — J. D. E. 
 
 CALLISEN, Henry, a Danish physician and surgeon, born 
 in 1740. He was surgeon-in-chief of the Danish fleet, professor 
 of surgery in the uniyersity of Copenhagen, took an active part 
 in establishing the society of medicine in that city, and was in 
 1791 made professor of anatomy in the academy of surgeiy, of 
 which he became dii-ector-general. He died in 182-4. The most 
 important of his numerous works is " Institutiones Chuiu-gia; 
 Hodiernae," 1777. 
 
 CALLISTHENES, bom at Olynthus about 365 B.C., was 
 recommended by his relative and master, Aristotle, as the his- 
 torian to attend Alexander in his Asiatic expedition, and write 
 its history. He is said to have been bold in rebuking the con- 
 queror for his pride and excesses, and to have on that account 
 fallen into disfavour. He was accused of being privy to the 
 conspiracy against the king headed by Hermolaus, was imprisoned 
 for some months, and perished under the cruel treatment to which 
 he was subjected. His account of Alexander's expedition has 
 been lost, as well as his histor}' of Greece and other works. — J. B. 
 
 CALLISTRATUS, a Roman jurist, of whose writings Jus- 
 tinian made use in compiling his Digest. He lived under 
 Septimius Scverus, who died in 211, and his son Antoninus. 
 
 CALLOIGNE, Jeax-Robert, a Flemish sculptor, bom at 
 Bruges in 1775. It was while apprentice to a potter that Cal- 
 loigne resolved on becoming a sculptor. His father, pleased 
 with the figures which he modelled in clay and wood, sent him 
 to the academy, where he obtained a first prize. Soon after he 
 gained a medal in a competition for the finest bust of Van Eyck. 
 He died full of honours in 1830.— R. M., A. 
 
 CALLOT, Jacques. This distinguished artist was born in 
 1593 at Nancy in Lorraine. His family was of Flemish origin, 
 and Jean Callot, the father of Jacques, was king-at-arms of 
 Lorraine. At the age of eight, Jacques was engaged in drawing 
 armorial bearings and colouring escutcheons under the tuition of 
 his father. But his fantastic genius refused to be trammelled 
 by heraldic conventions ; his free pencil played strange freaks 
 with the genealogical papers. A difference with his parents 
 probably ensuing, combined with an irrepressible longing to visit 
 Rome, the head quarters of art, he quitted his father's roof, and 
 joined a troop of gipsy mountebanks travelling southward. 
 But at Turin he was arrested by some relatives, and sent back 
 to Nancy — very wretched indeed at the failure of his project. 
 Subsequently, however, moved by his son's entreaties, the father 
 pennitted his departure, and obtained for him an appointment 
 in the embassy despatched to apprise the pontiff of the accession 
 of Henry II. Jacques was then fifteen. He studied under 
 many professors, especially with Giulio Parigii, but he was his 
 own master, and formed his own style. Mind, eye, and hand, 
 were ever restless — never idle. Soon he seems to have perceived 
 that painting was not his forte. He threw away the palette, 
 and seized the graver, working hard under Philij) Thomassin, 
 the old French engraver settled in Rome. Engraving had but 
 
 few professors, was just becoming the vogue, and Thomassiii's 
 respectable religious subjects had brought him a fortune, ftis 
 young pupil's energy and fervid originality greatly swelled his 
 gains. But the pupil tired of the gi-aver, as he had wearied of 
 the bnish. He had not yet gi-asped the right art weapon for 
 winning him renown. He found it at last in the etching needle. 
 His connection with Thomassin ceased suddenly — the old artist 
 was jealous of the pupil's attentions to the young and pretty 
 JIadame Thomassin. This love episode is the foundation of the 
 well-known whimsical legend of Le Tableau Parlant. Callot 
 made for Florence, and penniless and crestfallen, would have 
 been utterly lost but for the genuine kindness of the grand dul^e, 
 Cosmo II. He is stated to have occasionally resumed his brush 
 at Florence, but with no marked success ; while his etchings 
 achieved for him a triumph, and he was rewarded with a gold 
 medal and chain from the hands of the grand duke. He 
 remained ten years at Florence, and received the patronage of 
 Ferdinand, the successor of Cosmo. Subsequently he retui'ned 
 to Nancy, and was welcomed with ecstasy by his parents. He 
 manied a resjjectable widow, and received the protection of 
 Henry, duke of Lorraine. In 1628 he proceeded to Paris to 
 finish the engravings of the Rochelle expedition, which he had 
 joined in the suite of Louis XIII. at the express command of 
 the king. He returned to Nancy — his works completed. 
 Afterwards his wrath was greatly excited by tlie fact of the 
 king laying siege to Nancy ; and being requested to commemorate 
 the event by an etching, he answered indignantly — " Sire, I am 
 a Lorrain. I would sooner cut oS my thumb than perpetuate 
 the disgrace of my countiy, or the dishonour of my king." The 
 court awaited an explosion, and trembled as only courtiers can. 
 " Monsieur Callot, your answer does you honour — I envy the 
 dulce of Lorraine such subjects," said the king benignly. After 
 a prolonged illness, Callot expired on the 25th March, 1G35, 
 aged forty-two, and was buried in the cloister of the cordeliers, 
 Nancy, in a magnificent tomb of black marble, by the side of 
 the dukes of Lorraine. The works of Callot consist of nearly 
 1600 plates. Of these the least successful are his religious 
 subjects. He worked with a wonderful facility — frequentlv 
 finishing a plate in a single day. His drawing is singularly 
 coiTect and elaborately finished, and yet without the slightest 
 appearance of labour. The designs seem to have fallen from 
 the point of the needle. In delicacy of workmanship he is 
 almost unequalled. One of his critics states that many of his 
 plates, but a crovm piece in size, contain five or six leagues 
 of country, and a multitude of figures, all in movement. His 
 most renowned works are his "Temptation of St. Anthony;" 
 "The Fair della Madonna Imprunetta; " "The Tortures ;" "TL« 
 Massacre of the Innocents ; " and " The Horrors of War." But his 
 fertile treatments of beggars, mountebanks, bullies, pieiTOts, and 
 tatterdemalions of every description, have created his great 
 fame. In these the grotesque and fanciful run riot. Rags are 
 surrounded by cliablerie that is wonderful in fascination and 
 exhilarating influence ; a beggar's carnival is celebrated, and 
 raggamuffinism is dazzlingly rampant. Van Dyck exchanged 
 portraits with Callot, as Raft'aelle had previously done with 
 Albert Durer. Not so great as either, still Callot is a happy 
 link — a very pleasant stepping-stone between Durer and Rem- 
 brandt. He has not the earnestness of Durer, but he has much 
 of his sardonic grimness. If Rembrandt gloried in shadow, 
 Callot was eminent in outline. His paintings are by no means 
 so highly estimated as his etchings, and there is much dispute 
 in regard to their authenticity. Some attributed to him have 
 grace and delicacy, but are weak in colour — a water colour 
 .Jerburg-look haunts them. — W. T. 
 
 CALLY, Peter, the first in France who avowed his adherence 
 to the Cartesian philosophy. In 1675 he became principal of 
 the college of arts, and afterwards curate of St. Martin's parish 
 in Caen, where he was specially popular among the protest.ints, 
 for whom he wrote his " Durand Commente," 1700. In 1674 
 he published an introduction to philosophy, which he greatly 
 enlarged and republished in 1695 under the title " Universse 
 Philosophise Institutio."- — J. B. 
 
 CALMET, Augustine, a learned French theologian and 
 historian, was bom near Commerci in Lorraine in 1672, and 
 died in Paris in 1757. At an early age he assumed the habit 
 of the Benedictines, and studied philosophy and theology in 
 various abbeys of that learned order. In the abbey of Munster, 
 a lucky accident threw in his way the Hebrew gi-ammar of Bustorf
 
 CAL 
 
 857 
 
 CAL 
 
 and some other writings in that language, which had the import- 
 ant eiFect of giving him the first direction to those biblical studies 
 which afterwards made him so extensively useful and so widely 
 renowned. He got his first lessons in the reading and exegesis 
 of the Old Testament from Faber, the protestant pastor of 
 Munster. In 1G98 he was appointed to the charge of instruct- 
 ing the young religieux of the abbey of Sloyen Moutier in phi- 
 losophy and theology. In 170-± he was made sub-prior of the 
 abbey of Munster, and was put at the head of an academy of 
 ten monks, who occupied themselves with the study of biblical 
 literature. In both these positions he wrote copiously on sub- 
 jects of sacred learning, in the form of commentaries and disser- 
 tations ; but, unable to determine whether his writings were of 
 sufficient importance to deserve publication, he went to Paris in 
 1706, to submit them to the judgment of Mabillon and other 
 scholars, by whom he was encouraged to bring out his commen- 
 taries in French, which accordingly appeared in 23 vols., 4to, 
 in 1707-16, and extended to all the books of the Old and 
 New Testament. In 1715 he was made prior of Lay, near 
 Nancy; in 1718 abh6 of St. Leopold in Nancy; and in 1719 
 he was raised to the dignity of a visitor of the congregation of 
 St. Vannes, to which he belonged. His last promotion was to 
 the abbey of Senones in Lorraine in 1728, where he con- 
 tinued to reside and to prosecute his learned labours till his 
 death, having declined the dignity of bishop, in order that he 
 might retain leism'e for his favourite pursuits. His writings and 
 publications were exceedingly niimerous, not only in biblical 
 literature, but also in history, topography, genealogy, biography, 
 and antiquities. The works by which he is best known are 
 " Dictionnaire Historique et Critique de la Bible," Paris, 1730, 
 4 vols, folio, which has been translated into English, German, 
 Italian, and Dutch ; the English translation appeared in 1732, 
 in 3 vols, folio, and a second edition of it in 1793, in 4to, with 
 additions from more recent sources ; " Dissertations, qui peuvent 
 servir de Prol^gomenes a I'Ecritnre Sainte," Paris, 2d edition, 
 1720 ; and augmented in the 3d edition, which bore the new 
 title, " Tresor d'Antiquites Sacrees et Profanes," Paris, 1722, 
 3 vols. 4to. This work, which is in part a reproduction of the 
 dissertations which the author had inserted in his commentaries, 
 has been translated into English, Latin, Dutch, and German. 
 The Gennan edition is enriched with a preface and notes by 
 Mosheim. The English edition was brought out by Samuel 
 Parker at Oxford in 1726. As a biblical scholar, Calmet was 
 more distinguished for erudition than for critical acumen, and 
 he was deficient in the departments of rabbinical learning and 
 oriental philology. But the two works named above have always 
 been highly esteemed, not only in his own chui'ch, but also by 
 protestant theologians. — P. L. 
 
 CALMO, Andrea, a Venetian di-amatist, born in 1510, was 
 the son of a gondolier. His five comedies — "II Travaglio;" 
 "La Pozione ; " "La Spngnola;" "La Saltuzza;" and "La 
 Fiorina," particularly the; last, had a success on the stage 
 unequalled in the sixteenth century. This they owed to a 
 humorous interweaving of various dialects, to considerable 
 ingenuity of plot, and utter absence of decency. Calmo wrote 
 eclogues and complimentary epistles, which were also successful. 
 He died in 1571.— A. C. M. 
 
 CALO-JOHN, a Bulgarian chief of the thirteenth century, 
 who adhered to the see of Rome, and received the title of king 
 from Innocent III. He made war with Baldwin I., emperor of 
 Constantinople, whom he subdued and imprisoned, and, it is 
 supposed, put to death. — (See Baldwin.) Leading on the 
 Greeks and Corsicans who followed his standard, he carried on a 
 devastating war till, while besieging Thcssalonica in 1207, he was 
 assassinated by one of his own officers. — J. B. 
 
 CALOGERA, Anoelo, born at Padua of a noble fiimily of 
 Greek origin in 1699. On the completion of his studios he 
 entered the order of St. Benedict in the convent of St. Michael, 
 an island between Venice and Mm-ano. In this solitude, 
 attracted to the study of literature, he soon became deeply 
 versed both in ancient and modern classics. The want of a 
 registiy of the proceedings of literary and scientific associations 
 was strongly felt all through Italy, and Calogera undertook the 
 difficult task, publishing, with the help of Muratori and others, 
 no fewer than fifty-one volumes. To this collection or registry 
 of historical facts, and to Calogera's " Opusculi per servire 
 alia Storia d'ltalia," Balbo, Cantii, and many other of the 
 historians of Italy, have been much indebted. Calogera also 
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 translated Teleniachus, and wrote many valuable biographies. 
 His voluminous correspondence with the literati of his time is 
 an inexhaustible source of useful information. He was official 
 reviser of all publications in the Venetian territory from 1730 
 till his death in 1768.— A. C. M. 
 
 CALOMARDE, Fkanclsco Tadeo, a well-known Spanish 
 statesman, was born at Villel in Arragon in 1775. He was for 
 several years the most influential minister of Ferdinand VII., and 
 made it his great aim to re-establish absolutism in Spain. His 
 parents were poor, and he was originally bred to the biU- ; but by 
 his marriage to the daughter of Beltran, physician to Godoy, 
 then the reigning favourite, he obtained an office at court, and 
 exchanged the practice of law for politics. He subsequently became 
 first secretary to Lardizabal, who, on the restoration of Ferdinand, 
 was appointed minister of the Indies. On the death of the 
 marquis of Casa Irujo in 1824, Calomarde was appointed minister 
 of justice. He discharged the duties of his office with great 
 severity, and it was under his administration (31st July, 1826) 
 that a schoolmaster named Antonio RipoU was burnt at Valencia 
 for heresy — the only auto-da-fe that has taken place in Spain 
 for the last thirty years. As the leader of the absolutist party, 
 Calomarde lent himself to all the pernicious schemes of the 
 apostolic junto, and, next to Ferdinand, he was mainly responsible 
 for the many despotic and unjust measures of the Spanish court 
 from 1824 to 1832. When Ferdinand was on his deathbed in 
 September, 1833, he was induced, by the advice of Calomarde, 
 secretly to revoke the deed by which he had set aside the claims 
 of his brother, Don Carlos, to the crown, in favour of his daughter, 
 and to add a codicil to his will restoring the male line of succes- 
 sion. But this step having become known through the indis- 
 cretion of the minister himself, the document was destroyed by the 
 queen's sister in his presence, and he was compelled to provide 
 for his safety by fleeing with the utmost haste into France, where 
 he spent the remainder of his life in retirement and dejection, and 
 died at Toulouse, 21st June, 1842.— J. T. 
 
 CALONIUS, Matthias, a Finlandic jurist, bom at Sari- 
 jarvi in the parish of Tavastland in Finland, 27th January, 
 1738. In the year 1771 he became secretary to the academy 
 of Abo, and in 1778 professor of jurisprudence there. From 
 1793 to 1800 he was member of the supreme tribunal at 
 Stockholm, and also of the committee who sat to frame a code 
 of forest laws. After the conquest of Finland by Russia, Calo- 
 nius sat in the Finlandic senate as statsraad procurator, which 
 office he resigned in 1816, and on the 13th of September in the 
 following year he died. Calonius is universally acknowledged 
 to have possessed the most profound knowledge of jurisprudence 
 of any Swedish lawyer of modern times ; and whether as member 
 of the Swedish supreme court, by his writings, or as member of 
 the legal committees, he exercised an equally powerful and bene- 
 ficial influence on the study of the law and the practice of justice 
 in that country. His collected works, published at Stockholm 
 by A. J. Arvidsson, 1829, consist in part of treatises and pro- 
 grammes, and in part decisions of the supreme tribunal, &c. 
 As a proof of the uprightness of Calonius and his stcadfiist 
 adherence to principle, it may be mentioned, that when every 
 other corporation in Finland took the oath of allegiance to the 
 Russian government, the consistorium of the academy of Abo, 
 headed by him, dared to refuse obedience to its demands until 
 Sweden had, by the treaty of peace, resigned all claim to the 
 province. — M. H. 
 
 CALONNE, Charles Alexander de, was born at Douai, 
 January 20th, 1734, his father being president of the parlia- 
 ment in that place. Having studied at Paris for the bar, he 
 became advocate-general of the provincial comicil of Artois, and 
 afterwards entered the parliament of Douai as procureur-general. 
 He gained some celebrity by his reports upon certain disputes 
 with the clergy, and was nominated intendant, first of Metz 
 in 1768, and then of Lille. Having displayed considerable 
 administrative abilities, and also having proved himself possessed 
 of that insinuating gi-acefulness of speech and manner, together 
 with that readiness of intriguing resource, which can render a 
 man of business as popular in the boudoir as at the bureau, 
 Calonne succeeded d'Ormesson as minister of finance, October 
 3, 1783. Nothing could be worse than the state of the exche- 
 quer when Calonne entered office ; but with a boldness which, if 
 not altogether wise, was brilliant and characteristic, he at once 
 proceeded to act as though everything were prosperous. He 
 disdained retrenchment; earned on gi-eat works at Cherbourg 
 
 5Q
 
 CAL 
 
 858 
 
 CAL 
 
 and Paris ; bought St. Cloud for the queen ; sustained the 
 stocks by secret advances ; assured the credit of the caisse 
 d'escomptc, which shortly before his accession had stopped pay- 
 ment; and established a sinking fund for the redemption of 
 the national debt upon a very judicious plan. For a time the 
 c luntry seemed saved, and the ladies of tlie court delighted to 
 speak of Calonne as the enchanter. He was compelled, how- 
 ever, to adopt the usual system of loans, and at last, perceiving 
 national bankruptcy inevitable without some great change, 
 determined to attempt a new arrangement of taxes. His plan 
 was at once just and daring. It involved the establishment of 
 a land tax from which no class should be exempted, and a 
 removal of rostiictions on internal commerce. Calonne sub- 
 mitted his financial statement to the assembly of notables, 22nd 
 February, 1787. He declared the deficiency to have been 
 accumulating under Terray, Turgot, Clugny, and Neckar ; and 
 admitted that the annual deficit amounted to a hundred and fifteen 
 million francs; and that since his accession (from 1783 to 
 1787), in three years and two months, three hundred and eighty 
 million francs had been boiTowed. He, therefore, called on the 
 jirivilcged classes to consent to taxation rather than impose 
 additional burdens on the unprinleged people. The opposition 
 was violent in the extreme. Neckar had declared when he left 
 office a surplus of four million francs, and therefore opposed 
 Calonne to justify himself; while the nobility, clergy, and 
 magistrates made common cause against a scheme which would 
 subject them to those public taxes from which they had been 
 previously exempt. The court was frightened by the ferment, 
 and abandoned Calonne, who was disgraced, and finally took 
 refuge in London. Although Calonne was vehemently accused, 
 l*y Slirabeau especially, of having exaggerated the deficiencies 
 under his predecessors, for the purpose of concealing his own 
 coiTuption, yet in fact he left office nearly destitute, and only 
 restored his fortune by his marriage with madame d'Harvelay, 
 the widow of a rich banker who had been his early friend. 
 ^Vhen the Revolution broke out, Calonne supported the cause of 
 the noble refugees, whose only hope was in influencing foreign 
 courts ; journeying on their behalf from countiy to country, and 
 freely spending for them the best of his means. He wrote 
 several able pamphlets in defence of his policy, but finally 
 abandoned political life, employing himself in the peaceful study 
 of the fine arts until his death in Paris, October 29th, 1802. 
 The judgment of his countrymen upon him is, that while he 
 possessed high administrative ability, and could grasp broad 
 plans and small details with admirable precision, yet that he 
 had not the wisdom which matures thought, the prescience 
 which divines obstacles, or the capacity to direct parties with 
 that orderly discijjline which prepares executive success ; and 
 thus, while he had power to raise the storm, he had no spell 
 wherewith to lay it. — L. L. P. 
 
 CALOVIUS, Abraham, a Lutheran divine and controver- 
 sialist, born at Morungen in the duchy of Branswick in 1612. 
 In 1650 he became professor of divinity at Wittemberg, where he 
 distinguished himself in a controversy with Calixtus. His party 
 were named Calovians. He died in 1686, lea\nng numerous works, 
 chiefly controversial. He is remembered as an able opponent 
 of the Socinians. — J. B. 
 
 CALPHURNIA, the fourth wife of Cfesar. In consequence 
 of a dream she had the pre^'ious night, she endeavoured to 
 detain her husband at home on the fatal ides of March. 
 
 CALPRENEDE, Walter de Costes, a dramatist and 
 romance writer, born in Perigord in 1612. He held a position 
 of honour at the French court. The tragedies of " Jlithridates," 
 ;md " The Earl of Essex," are the chief of his plays ; but his 
 lame rests upon his very voluminous romances of " Cassandra," 
 "Cleopatra," and " Pharamond." He died in 1663. — J. B. 
 
 CALPURNIUS, Titus. Little is known of Calpurnius, except 
 that he was boni in Sicily, towards the end of the third century. 
 A sort of biography has been made for him by assuming that 
 everj-thing he lias stated of the imaginary characters of some 
 eclogues — in which lie has imitated Theocritus and Virgil — is 
 true of himself. Of several of the eclogues themselves the 
 authorship is doubtful. Gibbon makes use of a passage in one 
 of them in proof of the character of the sports in the amphi- 
 theatre in the year 284 after Christ, as the evidence of an eye- 
 witnesfs. — J. A., D. 
 
 CALUSO, Thomas Valpekgo, a celebrated Piedmontese 
 author, bom at Turin in 1737 ; died in 1815. He was educated 
 
 at the Nazareno college in Rome. After a.ssuming a monkish 
 habit, he was successively member of the council, director of the 
 astronomical observatory, and professor of Greek and the orien- 
 tal languages in the university of Turin. He presented to the 
 library of that institution a large collection of Hebi-ew and 
 Arabic IISS., and some valuable works of the fifteenth century. 
 Caluso was member of the legion of honour, of the Academy 
 of Turin, correspondent of the French Institute, &c. He wrote 
 tlm-ty-six works, which have been divided into three classes — 
 poetry, mathematics, and oriental literature. — T. J. 
 
 CALVART, Denis. This distinguished painter was born 
 at Antwerp in 1555. His style was rather Bolognese than 
 Flemish. He started as a landscape painter; but anxious to 
 attain to the higher walks of his art, he proceeded to Bologna 
 to study the figure in the school of Prospero Fontana. He 
 copied carefully the works of Con-egio and Parmegiauo, and 
 aftenvards travelled to Rome with Lorenzo Sabattini to perfect 
 himself in architectural and anatomical drawing. Returning to 
 Bologna, he opened an academy which earned a considerable 
 fame. Albano, Guido, and Domenichino were among the pupils 
 of Calvart. He was learned in his art, and watched over the 
 studies of his pupils, and aided their progi-ess with an untiring 
 zeal. His own works are careful and pleasing, especially in the 
 composition and draperies. The figures are something strained 
 and mannered. "The Hermits," in the Palazzo Ranuzzi; 
 "The Holy Family" in the church of St. Giuseppe; and "St. 
 Michael" in the church of St. Petronio at Bologna, are among 
 his best works. He died in 1619 at Bologna. — W. T. 
 
 CALVEL, Etienne, a French agriculturist, died in 1830. 
 He devoted his attention to agriculture and horticulture, and 
 published numerous works on these subjects. Among others, 
 he wrote treatises on the cultivation of forest-trees and of frait- 
 trees, of melons, of beet- root, and of the white mulbeiTy. — J. H. B. 
 
 CALVERT, George and Cecil. See Baltimore. 
 
 * CALVERT, George Henry, an American man of lettere, 
 was bom in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1803. His grandfather, 
 Benedict Calvert, a descendant of the Baltimore family, though 
 a loyalist in the revolutionaiy contest, was an intimate friend 
 of General Washington. Mr. Calvert graduated at Harvard 
 college in 1823, and then went to Europe and studied at Gottin- 
 gen, where he imbibed a taste for Gennan literature, which 
 coloured many of his subsequent productions. After his return 
 to America he edited a newspaper for a while, and in 1832 
 published " Illustrations of Phrenology." Among his later 
 writings are — a " Volume from the Life of Herbert Barclay," 
 1833 ; a translation of Schiller's Don Carlos, 1836 ; " Count 
 Julian, a tragedy," 1840 ; a translation in part of the Goethe 
 and Schiller Correspondence, 1845 ; " Scenes and Thoughts m 
 Europe," first series in 1846 and a second in 1852. He was 
 chosen mayor of Newport, Rhode Island, in 1853. — F. B. 
 
 CALVERT, Sir Harry, General, a distinguished British 
 officer who entered the army in 1778. Ha\'ing served in Ame- 
 rica and Holland, he was created a baronet in 1818. He did 
 much for the improvement of the army, took an active part in 
 establishing the royal military colleges, and founded the royal 
 military asylum at Chelsea. He died in 1826. 
 
 CALVERT, Leonard, the first govemor of Maryland in Ame- 
 rica, was the second son of George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore.— 
 (See Baltimore.) He arrived in the colony at the head of two 
 hundred emigi-ants in 1633 or 1634, commissioned to attempt 
 the foiTnation of an English barony on the shores of the Chesa- 
 peake, founded on the feudal principles both of rank and property. 
 Several manorial grants were accordingly made to different 
 settlers, but they at length all disappeared before the democratic 
 spirit of the new settlement. The proprietary form of govern- 
 ment remained till the American revolution ; but the people 
 gradually acquired the same rights and liberties as in the other 
 colonies. The pojiulation increased but slowly, and the govemor 
 was in frequent trouble with the authorities of Virginia, who 
 laid claims to a part of his tcrritoiy ; and after the breaking out 
 of the civil war in England, he had much to suffer from the 
 disaffection of a portion of the colonists. In 1643 he wei\t to 
 England to confer with his brother, the proprietary, and on his 
 return in the following year, he fourid that the disaffection had 
 been fomented in his absence by agitators from abroad. An 
 insurrection soon after took place which obliged him to take 
 refuge in Virginia for nearly two years. In 1646 he retumed 
 to St. Mai-y's with an .armed force, and easily acquired possession
 
 CAL 
 
 859 
 
 CAL 
 
 of the government, drove away the rebel leaders, and issued a 
 general pardon to all Y»-ho returned to their allegiance. He died 
 in 16i7.— W. G. 
 
 CALVI, FoRTUNATo, a distinguished Italian republican, bom 
 at Padua in 1818. Calvi was educated at the military college 
 of Gratz, and was an officer in the Austrian army at the out- 
 break of the Italian revolution in 18-18. Calvi threw up his 
 commission and eagerly flew to Venice, where he entered the 
 republican forces as colonel, and greatly distinguished himself 
 during the siege. On the fall of Venice he escaped to Piedmont. 
 In 1853 the celebrated Orsini having undertaken to lead an 
 i'.isuiTectionaiT movement in Lunigiana, Calvi was commissioned 
 by JIazzini to head a simultaneous revolt in Cadore. On enter- 
 ing Lombardy he was betrayed by a Tyrolese guide, arrested, 
 and taken in chains first to Inspruck, then to Verona, and then 
 to Mantua, where he was tried by an exceptional tribunal. He 
 answered the interrogatories of his judges with calm dignity, 
 carefully avoiding every possibility of compromising his fellow- 
 conspirators. He was then confined in tlie fortress of Mantua. 
 At first he was well treated, but early in 1855 he was ordered 
 mto a sohtary cell. On the 2nd July in that year he was again 
 carried before the exceptional tribunal, and sentenced to be hung 
 on the 4th. He listened calmly ; and on being told that he 
 might receive a pardon if he would implore the emperor's 
 clemency, he replied — " Never! my hatred to Austria is stronger 
 than my love of life."' — E. A. H. 
 
 CALVI, Lazzaro and Pantaleo. These painters were 
 the sons of Agostino Calvi, an old Genoese ai-tist. Lazzaro was 
 bom in 1501. The brothers studied under Perino del Vaga. 
 Pantaleo was the elder ; but either from modesty, or from infe- 
 rior talent, or what is most probable, from dread of the turljuleut 
 temper of his brother, he claimed little share in the success of 
 the many works they executed in conjunction. The brothers 
 painted at Genoa, Monaco, and Naples. Lanzi accounts veiy 
 highly their fa9ade of the palazzo Doria (now that of Spinola). 
 Theu- "Continence of Scipio" in the palazzo PaUavacini at Zer- 
 bino, Mengs regards as equal in power to any production of their 
 master. Envj' or ambition carried Lazzaro to great excesses. He 
 sought to build up his fame on the mm-dered bodies of his rivals. 
 He poisoned, among others, Giacomo Bargone, an artist of great 
 promise. By various \illanous contrivances he souglit to clear 
 his path of other competitors. With a fertile list of crimes in 
 his heart, however, he comfortably worked away at the " Birth 
 of John the Baptist," in the chapel de Nobili Centurioni. 
 Andra Semini and Lucia Cambiaso were likewise engaged on 
 this picture. The labour of Cambiaso being preferred by Prince 
 Doria, the successful artist obtained the commission to paint the 
 frescos in the church of St. Matteo. Mad with rage and dis- 
 appointment, Lazzaro flung away his art and went to sea. For 
 twenty years he followed a sailor's life, then resumed the brush, 
 and died a painter at the extreme age of 105. His last works, 
 in the church of St. Caterina, betrav his years. — W. T. 
 
 CALVIN. CAUVIN, or CHAUVIN, John, the second son of 
 (Gerard Calvin and Joanne Lefranc, was born at Noyon in Pic- 
 ardy, 10th July, 1509. The elder Cahdn, a notary apostolic 
 and procureur-fiscal for the lordship of Noyon, was able to afford 
 his son the means of a good education, and he was trained along 
 with the children of the noble family of De Jlontmor. The boy's 
 correctness, fidelity, and religious susceptibilities encouraged his 
 father to set him apart for an ecclesiastical life. Cahin was 
 thirteen years of age when he obtained a benefice in the chapelle 
 fie Notre Dame de la Gesine, and was enabled by the income 
 knved from this nominal situation to proceed to Paris and enter 
 ' n a course of regular academical study. After a short period 
 f attendance at the colle'ge de la Marche, he removed to the 
 ' ollege Montaigu. At this period the grammatical and logical 
 j'rogress of Cahin was remarkable; acutencss and power cha- 
 I acterized him no less than the habit of patient investigation and 
 iirecise composition. At the age of nineteen he obtained the 
 living of Martville, and two years afterwards he exchanged it for 
 Pont-l'Evfique, a village near his birtliplace. These preferments 
 were irregular, and the unfledged incumbent was required only 
 t'l take the tonsure and hold a disputation. Though never 
 ordained, he is said to have preached several times. But Calvin 
 was not destined to enter the priesthood. His father imagined 
 that the study and practice of law would present a more lucra- 
 tive field for the genius and industry of his son, and the young 
 man seems for a season to have entertained a similar opinion. 
 
 He resigned his living, left Paris, and settled at Orleans, to 
 study law under Pierre de I'Etoile, president of the parlia- 
 ment of Paris, and a famous teacher of the day. In this new 
 sphere the energy and talent of the young jmisconsult asserted 
 themselves, and his subtle and yet laborious mind so fullv 
 mastered the science, that he not only often taught in room of 
 his tutor, but on leaving Orleans received the title of doctor of 
 laws without the usual fees. During his sojourn in this place, 
 his spirit had been awakened to the study of the bible, and, 
 in common with many anxious inquirers, he felt those impres- 
 sions which soon ripened into enhghtened, li^ang, and masculine 
 piety. On repairing to Bourges to prosecute the study of law 
 luider Alciato, he had the unspeakable advantage of leaming 
 Greek under Volmar. The doctrines of the Reformation were 
 embraced by him, and were immediately also imparted by him 
 to many listeners. His fervent and resolute nature could not 
 hide convictions of such moment, and his gi-eat earnestness made 
 itself felt in many circles, for he taught, as Beza says, not 
 " with affected eloquence, but with solid gravity of style." 
 There were with him no bursts of juvenile enthusiasm, none of 
 those wondrous raptures with which many embrace and pro- 
 pound a religious novelty. His calm but animated soul in his 
 earhest and somewhat reluctant efforts to teach the new views, 
 chose weighty and well-weighed words as the fitting expression 
 of what he deemed traths of the highest interest. In fact, he 
 had passed through a severe and prolonged mental discipline, 
 which, while it had made him proof against extravagance and 
 declamation, had, as his first biographer justly surmises, seriously 
 undermined his health. 
 
 At this period Calvin's father died, and after some months of 
 unsettled life, the reformer fixed his abode in Paris, and fre- 
 quently preached, ha%'ing given himself without reserve to the 
 study of theology. The reformed doctrines were then lifting 
 then: head in the French capital. The thoughtful and pious 
 were attracted towards them ; those who longed for a smipler 
 and purer creed ; those who had been protesting in heart against 
 clerical inconsistency and arrogance ; and those who had been 
 wearied with the lassitude or impressed with the vanity of cere- 
 monial routine. Calvin's master-spirit gave him a speedy and 
 unsought supremacy among the friends of the Keformation, and 
 exposed him to the fury of its opponents. To soften the heart 
 of Francis I. towards the evangelical party, he published in 1532 
 Seneca's two books De Clementia, accompanied with such notes 
 and comments as might induce his majesty to adopt milder 
 measures towards those whose only crime was a daring avowal 
 of their religious convictions. In this work he confounds the 
 two Senecas, father and son, and uniting both their ages, blun- 
 ders so far as to say that the author of the work on Clemency 
 died 115 years of age. In the title-page he latinized his name 
 into Calvinus, which he after\vards retained. He prepared also an 
 address for his friend Copp, which, as regent of the Sorbonne, he 
 delivered on the festival of All Saints. The address was so free 
 and ardent a vindication of the reformed tenets that the reciter 
 of it was obliged to flee from Paris, while its author made his 
 way with difficulty to the court of the queen of Navarre. He 
 then retired to Saintongc, and afterwards to Nerac. Shortly 
 after we find him in Paris again, challenging Sen'etus, refuting 
 in his " Psychopannychia," published in 1531, the " soul-sleep" 
 of the anabaptists — and maintaining the consciousness and intel- 
 ligence of the disembodied spirit. Persecution, however, became 
 so intense that Calvin found it necessary to leave France, and 
 take up his residence in Basle, where he found solace and excite- 
 ment in the society of several eminent scholars and trutli-seekers, 
 and set himself to the acquisition of Hebrew. Francis I. had 
 alleged to the German princes, in vindication or apology for 
 his persecution of the reformers, that his punishments lighted 
 only on men guilty of sedition and political disorder. Calvm 
 saw the hollow pretext — that it was " a trick of the court to 
 excuse itself for shedding the blood of the saints ; " and it was 
 this, he says, that "moved me to publish my ' Institutes.'" 
 There seems to have been an anonymous French edition of this 
 immortal work published at Basle in 1535. But next year it 
 was enlarged and published in Latin with the author's name ; 
 Basle, 1536. This work is a literary prodigy, whether we con- 
 sider its style and form, its lucid and logical arrangements, or 
 the influence which it has exerted on the age that produced it 
 and on succeeding centuries. Written when Cahin was only 
 twenty-five, and after but a few years of theological study, it is
 
 CAL 
 
 8G0 
 
 CAL 
 
 marked bv thonglits so developed and matm-ed that its author, 
 while he retouched and enlarged it, did not in any new edition 
 of it, nor in any of his numerous subsequent publications retract 
 or modify any of its primary tenets. The dedication to the king 
 is a classic masterpiece in its style, and a noble and eloquent 
 protest in its spii-it. There were new editions in 1539-43—14- 
 50-53-54-59 ; and it was translated by the author himself into 
 French in 1541. This rare maturity of mind has struck many 
 observers. "He never had occasion to recant," said Scaliger; 
 and Bossuet admits that he had a better regulated mind than 
 Luther, and that liis doctrine appears to be more uniform than 
 that of the German refonner. It may be added that he had a 
 prodigious memory, which was tenacious without failure, and 
 could recall without eflort ; and his mind was so calm, methodical, 
 and self-poised, that after being obliged to suspend composition 
 he could at once resume his argument without reading over 
 what he had written before the interraption. Prior to the pub- 
 lication of the " Institutes," Calvin had gone to the court of the 
 duchess of Ferrara to spend a brief period ; then he went to his 
 native place to arrange his affairs, with the resolution of return- 
 ing to Basle. But the ordinary route being very dangerous, 
 " he must needs pass through " Geneva. There he was unex- 
 pectedly discovered and arrested by the intrepid Farel, originally 
 a French nobleman, who, after many a hard struggle, had won 
 Geneva to the Reformation, and who boldly laid the curse of 
 God upon Calvin if he would not on the spot become his coad- 
 jutor. The pale and youthful stranger would have passed on, 
 but " necessity was laid upon him," and he who entered the city 
 as a casual visitor was induced at the age of twenty-eight to 
 make it his abode — an abode which, pregnant with immediate 
 results, has also given it undpng historic eminence. 
 
 Calvin and Farel began their work with an eagerness and a 
 sweep which soon produced a reaction. They attempted to regu- 
 late dress and to control the fashions of private Hfe. The fault lay 
 in their identifying church with state, or in so incoi-porating them 
 as to form a species of theocracy. The people in parties of ten 
 swore to the reformed confession as citizens to a charter, and not 
 as members of the church to a creed. Their orthodoxy did not 
 amend their lives, or lead to that austere purity which their 
 spiritual guides inculcated, expected, and exemplified. The 
 people would not bend to the new authority, which in turn main- 
 tained its independence of all ci\il control. The council, without 
 consulting Calvin and Farel, had accepted, through the influence 
 of Berne, the resolutions of the Lausanne synod of 1537 ; and 
 the pastors refused to administer the sacrament. The council 
 resolved to prove its power, and a popular assembly convoked by 
 its coinmand ordered the preachers, on the 23d of April, 1538, 
 to quit the city within two days. Calvin's brief stay in Geneva 
 had already been signalized by the overtlirow of the anabaptists, 
 and his defeat of Caroli, a reckless opponent, who quibbled about 
 words and Ibrgot realities, and impugned the orthodoxy of the 
 author of the " Institutes." Two smart tracts against popery had 
 also been published by him. 
 
 The banished preachers retreated to Zurich, sojourning for a 
 few weeks at Berne. They stated their case before a synod of 
 Swiss pastors at Ziirich, urged their willingness for a compromise 
 in many things indifferent, such as the use of fonts and the 
 observance of festivals, and obtained a favom'able verdict ; but 
 the Bernese interfered, and a second edict of banishment was 
 confiiTned. Calvin next went to Basle and thence to Strasbnrg. 
 He seemed to feel his banishment from Geneva as a kind of 
 relief, since it gave him leisure for theological study. But Bucer 
 prevailed upon him to engage in active service, and he became 
 pastor of a congregation composed of French refugees, and 
 occasionally lectured also in the academy. Here he put the 
 finishing touch to the " Institutes," in a new edition published 
 in 1539, published his elaborate " Commentary on Roman.s," 
 the result of his academical prelections, and also a tract in 
 French on the Lord's Supper. At this time he married a 
 widow, Idelette de Bures. The portions of his correspondence 
 in which her name occurs, his references to her, and his poig- 
 nant sorrow at her death, prove that he was not, as is often 
 supposed, a diy .and callous recluse, or an incarnation of polemical 
 dialectics ; but that, amidst all his cares and labours, he was 
 endowed with many genial susceptibilities, though he was no*' 
 forward to display them, and possessed not a few elements of 
 tenderness and atlection, though be was not addicted to a fond 
 or frequent expression of them. 
 
 Though Calvin felt the treatment which he had received at 
 the hands of the Genevese, he had not disdainfully forgotten 
 them. He corresponded with them, and by his powerful letters 
 frastrated the attempt of Cardinal Sadolet, bishop of Carpentras, 
 to bring them back to the church of Rome. But disorders had 
 multiplied in his absence; the fate of the four syndics who had 
 procm-ed his exile alarmed the popular mind; for one of them 
 had fallen and broken his neck, another had been convicted 
 of murder and been executed, and two had been banished 
 under a charge of treason. In the summer of 1541 a pressing 
 invitation from the repentant people was sent to the reformer, 
 soHciting and urging his return. He received it at Worms, and 
 at first refused to comply, saying, there is '" no place in the 
 world which I dread so much as Geneva." But Farel and Bucer 
 prevailed upon him to yield, so that he writes — "■ I offer tj 
 God my slain heart in sacrifice." He returned in September, 
 and was received ^ath enthusiasm aUke by magistrates and 
 populace. The council presented him with a house, and gave 
 him eight dollars to buy a piece of cloth for a new coat. 
 
 His labours now were incessant — preaching every day on alter- 
 nate weeks, teaching theology three days eveiy week, absorbed 
 in literary work, engaged in an extensive correspondence, main- 
 taining repeated controversies, and battling with fierce and 
 vindictive opponents. The work of the day was often prolonged 
 through a large portion of the night, so that he complained that 
 he should soon not know the appearance of the sun, not having 
 had time to look at it for many days. The rule which Calvin again 
 established at Geneva was very rigorous, and there was often a 
 recoil. It comprised all the citizens, not merely those who will- 
 ingly and from conviction placed themselves under it. He had 
 high ideas of church authority and spiritual independence. The 
 state was in no way to control the church, though the church 
 spread its own jurisdiction over the state. He did not subject the 
 church to the civil power, but thought that the state should aid 
 the church in the execution of its sentences. The populace often 
 rebelled against the curb which was so forcibly laid upon them, 
 but the stern refonner ultimately prevailed ; the council also 
 wished to have some elements of spnitual power in their hands, 
 but they, too, were at length obliged to succumb. The anomaly 
 lay in this — that the Genevese consistory did not, as it might, 
 exercise its authority only on those who on a profession of i'aith 
 were admitted to the church and promised submission to it, but 
 stretched its sway over all the inhabitants, no matter what their 
 theoretical opinions or their general character. Calvin's nale was 
 an imperiimi in imperio — inconsistent alike with the rights of 
 individual conscience, and the general liberties of the state. 
 But the rule at least was impartial. The consistory, consisting 
 of six city ministers and twelve elders, met every Thursday, and 
 exercised its powerful and uncompromising jurisdiction. Men 
 of all classes often became refractory, some for political reasons ; 
 but there were other " libertines" to whom the freedom for which 
 they clamoured was a cloak for licentiousness. The theocratic 
 power triumphed, and the rebels were forced to do penance in a 
 variety of forms. Non-attendance at church was punished by 
 a fine, and adulteiy was made punishable by death ; sumptuary 
 laws of the strictest kind were enacted; brides, unless of unblem- 
 ished character, were not allowed to wear wreaths ; idle talk was 
 under the cognizance of the police ; gamblers were put in the 
 pillory, and the manufacture of cards was forbidden. Those 
 who approached the Lord's Supper without obtaining permission 
 were punished, and those who neglected the opportunity giight 
 be banished for a year. An edict was issued that every one 
 confined to bed with sickness for three days should give notice 
 to the pastors. Tortiire was in use, though not in the trial of 
 heretics, and witches were to be burned. 
 
 Among the enemies which Calvin encountered was a man 
 named Pighins, who violently attacked his \iews of predestina- 
 tion, but was brought over by the refonner's reasoning contained 
 in his reply, published in 1543. In 1551 he had to defend the 
 same doctrine against Bolsec, once a Carmelite monk, and now 
 settled as a physician in Geneva. According to the custom of the 
 times Bolsec was banished, and he finally returned to the popish 
 church, writing as his recantation a romance of slanders, which 
 he called the life of Calvin — Histoiro de la vie de Jean Calvin. 
 *rwo years afterwards happened the memorable contest with 
 Servetus. Calvin's share in this business has often been blamed, 
 and often misunderstood. Calvin's sin was the sin of the age, 
 for there was nearly a unanimity of opinion that heresy should
 
 CAL 
 
 861 
 
 CAL 
 
 be punislied with death ; nay, Sei-vetus himself had advocated 
 that opinion. It is, therefore, unfair to single out Calvin as 
 if he had been solitary in his convictions and influence ; for to 
 blame him, as indeed lie deserved, is only to say that he was not, 
 on this subject, in advance of his age. Servetus had been already 
 convicted and condemned by the popish authorities at Vienne, 
 but had found means of escape. He had come to Geneva, 
 and was about to leave for Zurich when he was discovered and 
 apprehended. His accuser was Nicholas de Fontaine, but Cahdn 
 drew up thirty-eight articles of charge. At the second liearing 
 Calvin attended. The council at Vienne demanded back theh- 
 prisoner, but the poor Spaniard pleaded with tears that the 
 Genevan syndics should retain him ; for he was sure that he 
 would be put to death at Vienne, while he had at least a 
 chance of life at Geneva. The charge against him was now 
 handed over to the attorney-general, and treason had as large a 
 space in the accusation as heresy. The libertine party seemed 
 to be growing in influence, and Servetus, rising in hope, craved 
 that an indictment be preferred against Calvin ; a document 
 containing these memorable words — till the cause be decided 
 for his death or mine, " pour mort de luy on de moy." The 
 Helvetic chmxhes unanimously condemned Servetus, but differed 
 as to the amount of the penalty to be inflicted upon liim. Serve- 
 tus was formally sentenced on the 2Gth of October to be bimit at 
 the stake on the following day. (See Servetus.) Certainly 
 Calvin thought and said that Servetus was worthy of death, 
 and Sen'etus thought and said the same of him. But Calvin 
 had little influence with the council during the latter portion of 
 tlie trial. In the document which contains the sentence against 
 Servetus, there is no mention of any assault made by the cul- 
 prit upon Calvin or any of tlie Genevan clergy. Calvin acted 
 very wrongly, but only as other good men thought and acted 
 around him, for even Jlelancthon justified the barbarous exe- 
 cution. When Servetus was burnt at Geneva, five Genevese 
 Calvinists were burned in France. John Knox and Peter Dens 
 use tlie same argument and illustration for the capital punish- 
 ment of heretics. Nay, Servetus, in his Christianismi Resti- 
 tutio, tlie book for which he had been seized and tried, avers 
 that blasphemy should be punished with death, simpUciter — 
 without dispute. It was not understood in that age that man 
 is responsible to God alone for his belief — -that liberty of con- 
 science is a universal birthright — that religious truth and error are 
 beyond the cognizance of the civil magistrate — and that heresy 
 cannot be extirpated by force. Antitrinitarian tenets grew up in 
 Geneva as in the case of Blandrata, Alciat, and Ochino. Might 
 is not right, and free thought can never be quenched in fire or 
 blood. Truth is degraded and her nobleness shamed, when force 
 is employed to punish her enemies, or guard herself from assault. 
 Had Servetus been burned at Vienne, his name would scarcely 
 have been heard of, but his execution in a protestant city has 
 preserved the memory of his fiite — a proof that men expected 
 mental emancipation in a place which had won its eminence by 
 free thought and inquiry. Servetus was a restless and daring 
 spiritualist— or rather a pantheist with some tinge of fanaticism. 
 His writings have frightful caricatures of divine tilings — such as 
 calling the Trinity a Cerberus. It may show what a dillerence 
 was between him and Calvin, that while Cahin could not bring 
 himself to expound the Apocalypse, Servetus began with it. But 
 yet, let his views and blasphemies be what they might, to the 
 Master alone was he answerable, and not to any human tribunal, 
 and the Place Champel where he was burned will remain a 
 melancholy monument of the injustice and intolerance which the 
 infancy of the reformed church in the theocratic city of Geneva 
 had not been able to shake oft". 
 
 Calvin was exceedingly anxious for the miion of the reformed 
 churches. But the sacramentarian controversy was raging, and 
 his efforts seem only to liave increased the fury. His own views 
 were not unlike those of Mi'lancthon, and on the point he would 
 not have quarrelled with the language of the revised Augsburg 
 coni"('ssion. The simple Zuinglian theory he decidedly condemns, 
 and in one instance, writing to Viret, he calls it " profane." 
 The quarrel of Calvin with Castellio proceeded from excessive 
 zeal, though Castellio's opinions, and some clauses of his biblical 
 translation must have sorely provoked him. As to the question 
 of toleration, involved in the fate of Servetus, the elegant scholar 
 Was right ; but in questions of pure theology he was no match 
 for the reformer, either in retort or argiuncnt. 
 
 The labours of Calvin up to the period of his death were inces- 
 
 sant, " in season and out of season." Such was his fame, that 
 he had sometimes a thousand hearers in the Genevan academy, 
 for Geneva had become the spiritual metropolis of the reformed 
 churches. The reformer maintained an extensive correspondence 
 on the continent, in Italy, and in England. All the while he lived 
 in frugal simplicity, and was suffering under a terrible complica- 
 tion of maladies. Asthma, hemorrhoids, gout, stone, and fever 
 tormented him. Frequent headaches led to as frequent fastings 
 to reheve them ; nocturnal study was earned on with the aid of 
 a dim lamp suspended from a comer of the humble bed on 
 which he lay — so that his frail body was wasted and worn 
 away by the early part of the year 15G4. He delivered his last 
 discourse on the 6th of February in that year. Several months 
 more he survived in agony and weakness, and his words and 
 exercises on his deathbed betokened his fortitude and resigna- 
 tion. When the members of the council obeyed his summons 
 and came into his room, he spoke to them of past mercies and 
 jeopardies, and asking their pardon for the trouble he had given 
 them, and for any outbreaks of hasty temper he had manifested 
 among them, and then oftering a fervent prayer for them, he 
 solemnly gave his right hand to each of them as he said farewell. 
 He died on the 27th of May, 156-4, at the early age of fifty-five. 
 No stone was set to mark his grave — such had been his request 
 in his testament. 
 
 As Luther was the orator, and Melancthon the scholar, so 
 Calnn was the divine and dialectician of the Reformation. He 
 had not Luther's hearty eloquence which could move the popular 
 masses as a storm heaves the forest, nor could he employ that 
 style, the spell of which lies in its quaint and home-ly idiom 
 — the vocabulaiy of every-day life. Nor had he, like the great 
 German, the " merry heart which doeth good like a medicine," 
 nor that glowing genius which gave outlet and language to its 
 impulses in hymns and songs. Calvin's greatness was that of 
 pure mind — one might almost say of pure spirit, so fully did his 
 intellectual nature gain the mastery over its pliysical framework, 
 as it revelled in sustained and serious thought which neither 
 lost itself in speculation, nor faded away into mysticism. Yet he 
 was not surly and repulsive, for he had all the courtly and gentle 
 manners of a Frenchman, and ladies never shrank from convers- 
 ing with him on theological subjects. Nay, he could now and 
 then so far unbend as to play a game at la clef with the magis- 
 trates. But thinking was his element. He seldom diverges, 
 but fixes at once on the knotty point of the argument, and 
 discusses it. Extraneous matter is promptly brushed away, 
 and the real merits of the case are eagerly seized and adjustetl 
 with a masterly hand, which never wearies through eft'ort or 
 trembles through indecision. His system of theology is com- 
 pact and logical in all its parts — a powerful reproduction of 
 the Augustinian theology. His numerous commentaries, though 
 of unequal merit, display great acuteness and learning, excel- 
 ling more in tracing the course and development of thought 
 than in the analysis of idioms and phrases — and they are as 
 concise and sim])le in style as they are clear, judicious, and dis- 
 criminating in matter. 
 
 The character of Calvin has been variously judged, for he has 
 been the object of fanatical hatred and extravagant eulogy. It 
 is true that his language is not at all times courteous, but 
 Sei-vetus outdoes him in scmTility. Coarse epithets are some- 
 times heaped upon his antagonists, but his virulence scarcely 
 approaches that of Luther. Only Calvin wrote in comparative 
 calmness what Luther threw out in invectives and violent 
 outbursts. Nor can it be denied that he was conscious of his 
 position, for he was an oracle to Coligny, to the duchess of 
 Ferrara, and to the young King Edward of England. No unwor- 
 thy feeling of rivalry seems ever to have disturbed him, for he 
 can write concerning Luther — " I have often said it, I would 
 still acknowledge him for a servant of Christ, even though he 
 should call meilcvil;" and he secured the publication of Mclaiu-- 
 tlion's Loci in French, and wrote a eulogistic preface to it — it 
 being the only book that could come into comi>ctition with his 
 own "Institutes." "I leave it to you," says Scaliger, " to judges 
 wliether the man was great." Of his infirmities, which were in 
 fact the excesses of his virtues, he was perfectly conscious ; " of 
 all conflicts with my faults," says he, " the hardest has been 
 with my impatient temper." Firmness in a man so far before 
 his age is a])t to pass into obstinacy, and courage into overbear- 
 ing zeal, while charity is forgotten in cliivalrous devotion to truth. 
 Yet there were elemeuts of deep aiiection in Calvin's nature.
 
 CAL 
 
 862 
 
 CAM 
 
 Melancthon would sometimes lay his weary head on his bosom, 
 and wish it to be his resting-place in death. The necessities of 
 his station demanded a severity of tone, to which his nature 
 was not wholly averse ; perpetually assailed in his character and 
 opinions, he was always doing battle, and failed to enjoy the 
 mollifying influences of leisure and peace. As he was obliged 
 ever to wear intellectual armour, he embraced his friends with 
 his helmet on and his vizor down, or grasped them with mailed 
 arms and gauntleted hand. Polemics, while they sharpened 
 his mind, could not, however, dry up many springs of sweetness 
 and cheerfulness in his heart. Like all great thinkers, he has 
 left an impression behind him which is deepening as time rolls 
 on ; for it is the spirit of his theology that unlimited dependence 
 upon God is the source and sustentation of all spiritual life aud 
 activity in man. With all drawbacks arising from an irritable 
 temper, edged and embittered by a fragile and diseased constitu- 
 tion, and the sullen and intolerant opinions and practices of his 
 age, which mistaken \-iews of the rights of conscience fortified; the 
 name of CiJvin will ever hold a high place in the hearts of those 
 who admire the spectacle of a great mind triumphing over bodily 
 infirmity, growing in multiplied laboiu-s as life comes to a speedy 
 close, and giving all its power with unselfish generosity to what 
 it deemed, and what myriads more for three centuries since have 
 deemed tl.o welfare of humanity, the interests of truth, and the 
 cause of God. 
 
 According to Beza's description, Calvin was not of large sta- 
 ture ; his complexion was pale, inclining to brown, and his eyes were 
 of peculiar brightness and penetration. He took little sleep, and 
 often ate only one meal a day. He had amazing facility in recog- 
 nizing people whom he had but once seen ; and amidst gi-eat and 
 serious enterprises, he never forgot the more trifling minutia; of 
 daily business. Calvin's works have been often printed, at least 
 many detached portions of them, both in French and Latin. His 
 complete works appeared at Geneva, 1617, in twelve volmnes 
 folio, and another edition at Amsterdam, 1671. Jules Bonnet has 
 recently edited four volumes of his letters, which have also been 
 translated into English: Constable, Edinburgh. His Commen- 
 taries, Institutes, and Tracts, have been translated by the Calvin 
 Society, Edinbm-gh. Tholuck has edited his Latin commentaries 
 on the Xew Testament. Beza wrote his life, and in an augmented 
 form it often stands as a preface to the exposition of Joshua. 
 Portions of autobiogi-aphy are found in the preface to his commen- 
 tary on the Psalms. There is also an elaborate life of the reformer 
 by Henry, Das Leben J. Calvins, 3 vols. 8vo, Hamburg, 1835-44. 
 Stebbing has presented this work in English, and there are other 
 biographies, one in French by Audin, and another in English by 
 Dyer. The only trustworthy account of the trial of Servetus has 
 been given by Rilliet de Candolle : Relation du procfes criminel 
 intents k Geneve en 1553, contre Michel Servet, &c., Geneva, 
 1844. — (Bayle's Dictionary, article, Calvin ; Herzog's Diction- 
 ary, article, Cahin.)— J. E. 
 
 C-\LVISIUS, Sethus (so called in the Latin title-pages of 
 all his works, his baptismal and family name being Seth Kal- 
 wiTz), a musician, chronologer, astrologer, and a man of general 
 learning, was bom at Sachsenberg in Thuringia, February 21, 
 1556, and died at Leipzig, November 28, 1615. His father, 
 Jacob, was a poor peasant ; he sent Seth to the free school of 
 Frankenhausen, but after three years his slender means could 
 no longer enable him to support him there. In this time the 
 boy liad made considerable progress as a scholar, and, besides 
 showing great aptitude for music, he had developed so fine a 
 soprano voice, that he obtained an appointment as a singer at 
 Magdeburg, by means of which, and of his teaching the clavecin, 
 he maintained himself. He successively studied at the uni- 
 versities of Helmstadt and Leipzig, still supporting himself by 
 musical tuition, until he obtained the engagement of music 
 director at the church of St. Pauline in the latter city. He 
 resigned this for a similar appointment at the Schul-Pforte, the 
 principal school of Upper Saxony, which after ten years he 
 quitted, to return to Leipzig in the. capacity of cantor at St. 
 Thomas' school, when he was made a fellow of that college. 
 He was next prefeiTed to the office of music director in the 
 same establishment — that which, a century later, was filled 
 by S. Bach ; and his inauguration into this, May 19, 1594, 
 was celebrated by the performance of several of his com- 
 positions. His able discharge of the various duties of composer, 
 organist, and instructor, involved in this appointment, gained him 
 such general esteem, and drew around him such manifestations 
 
 of kindness, that he could never be persuaded to quit Leipzirf, 
 though he had oft'ers of more lucrative engagements successively 
 at Wittenberg and Frankfort-on-the-Maine. His implicit faith 
 in astrolog)- was confirmed by what he believed to be the fulfil- 
 ment of one of his predictions. He had foretold, on the authority 
 of his horoscope, that a great calamity would befall him on a 
 certain day in the year 1602, to avert which he shut himself in 
 his library, and, appl}-ing himself assiduously to study, supposed 
 that no harm could reach him ; implacable destiny, however, 
 was not to be cheated ; Calvisius dropping a knife with which 
 he was mending a pen, it struck against his knee, and inflicted 
 an injury which lamed him for life. He is chiefly known as a 
 musician by his didactic works ; these are, " Jlelopoia," a gene- 
 ral dissertation upon music, with an exposition of the principles 
 of counterpoints ; " Compendium Musicae Practicae," an elemen- 
 tary book for beginners, which was several times printed during 
 the author's life, with various titles and some modifications; 
 and " Exercitationes Musicae," in three parts, embodying the 
 substance of lectures he deUvered at his college. The historical 
 and technical learning displayed in these productions is very 
 great ; the author's warm advocacy of a system of nomenclature 
 for the notes, that had been recently invented by an anonymous 
 Dutch musician, is remarkable. According to this the syllables 
 Bo, Ce, Di, Ga, Lo, Ma, Ki, were the names of the seven notes, 
 and its propriety is manifested when we consider that the ordi- 
 nary solmization at that time contained but six syllables, the 
 name of Si, for the seventh note, not having been added until 
 afterwards. It is next to speak of the musical compositions of 
 Calvisius, namely — " Harmonia Cantionum Ecclesiasricarum ;" 
 " Deutsche Tricinia ; " " Bicinionun ; " some important pieces 
 in Der Psalter Da\'id's Gesangweis, a work collected by the 
 brothers Becker; and the 150th Psalm, set for twelve voices 
 in three choirs, which he wrote in the year of his death, on the 
 occasion of the wedding of his friend Anckelmann, a merchant 
 of Hamburg. They are commended for purity of counter- 
 point and strictness of canonical imitation. His works on chro- 
 nologj' held a high rank in their period — " Elenchus Calendarii 
 Gregoriani" is an argument against the Gregorian calendar; 
 and " Chronologia," which appeared not to have been printed 
 iintil fom-teen ye;u'S after his death, is a comprehensive general 
 treatise. — G. A. M. 
 
 CALVO, Jeajj Sauveur de, known as " the brave Calvo," 
 was born at Barcelona in 1625. He first sen-ed in the Cata- 
 lonism army against Philip IV., but having passed to the French 
 service, he won great distinction, and rose to a high rank in the 
 army of Louis XIV. He died in 1690. 
 
 CAM, DioGO, a Portugtaese na^ngator who lived in the latti??^'' 
 half of the fifteenth century. He was sent to prosecute those 
 explorations of the African coast which the great Prince Heury 
 had so enthusiastically undertaken. He discovered Congo, and, 
 at the request of the king of that country, took home with him 
 some of the natives to leam the Christian faith. Martin Behaim 
 is said to have accompanied him in his first voyage ; and in his 
 second he planted a stone pillar — a mark of the furthest stage 
 of discovery — far beyond the kingdom of Congo. 
 
 CAMBACEPES, Jeax Jacques de, a distinguished French 
 senator, was born at ilontpellier in 1753. He sprang from an old 
 fiimily which had produced several eminent lawyers, and he was 
 brought up to the same profession. He soon distinguished him- 
 self as a lawyer, and Ln 1774 succeeded his father as counsellor 
 of the audit oflice of MontpeUier. AMien the Revolution broke 
 out, he was chosen to represent the order of the nobles in the 
 legislative assembly, and was afterwards elected a deputy to the 
 convention. On the trial of Louis XVI. he gave a conditional 
 vote for the condemnation of that monarch. During the reign 
 of terror which followed, Cambaceres was on the side of modera- 
 tion, and endeavoured, though cautiously, to check the illegal 
 and arbitrary measures of the assembly. He was afterwards a 
 member of the council of Five Hundred, and spent much time 
 and labour in the classification of the civil laws ; and in 1796 
 drew up a " Projet de Code Civil," which subsequently became 
 the basis of the Napoleonic code, of which he was one of the 
 compilers. About this period he was exposed to consider- 
 able danger in consequence of a suspicion that he had a lean- 
 ing towards the royahst party, and proposed to retire into 
 private life. But on the formation of the directory, he was 
 induced to accept the oflice of minister of justice ; he zealously 
 promoted the views of Bonaparte in the revolution of the 18th
 
 CAM 
 
 863 
 
 CAM 
 
 Brumaire, and accepted the ofBce of second cons;il under him. 
 From this period he became one of the most useful and faithful 
 followers of that great chief, who highly appreciated the cha- 
 racter and talents of Cambaceres, and bestowed on him his 
 fullest confidence. When Napoleon became emperor, he elevated 
 Cambaceres to the office of arch-chancellor, with the perpetual 
 presidency of the senate, and bestowed on him the title of duke, 
 with other high honours. His friends allege that he bore his pros- 
 perity with great moderation, and that while be remained to the 
 last fiiithful to the emperor, he endeavoured to dissuade him 
 i'rom the murder of the duke d'Enghicn, and other crimes which 
 stain his memory. On the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, 
 Cambaceres withdrew into private life ; but on the return of the 
 emperor from Elba, he prevailed upon his old and faithful ser- 
 vant to accept of his former office of minister of justice. After 
 the final overthrow of Napoleon, Cambaceres was banished from 
 France on the gi'ound of his having voted for the death of 
 T.ouis XVI., and in February, 1816, went to reside at Brussels, 
 liut in 1818 he was reinstated in all his civil and political 
 lights, and permitted to return to Paris, where he died in 1824. 
 Cambaceres was courteous in his manners, as well as sagacious 
 and moderate in his views. He was famous for hospitality, and 
 his table was in fiict an important state-engine. One of the 
 brothers of Cambaceres became archbishop of Rouen in 1802, 
 was elevated to the dignity of a cardinal in 1803, and in 1815 
 obtained a seat in tlie chamber of peers, of which he was deprived 
 on the return of Louis XVIII. He was by no means so faithful as 
 his brother to the fortunes of Napoleon, to whom he was indebted 
 for many marks of fiivour. Another brother followed the mili- 
 tary profession, and attained the rank of general. He took part 
 in the campaigns in Spain and on the Rhine, and fought at Aus- 
 terlitz and Jena in 1806, and at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden 
 in 1814. — The Abb^ Cambaceres, uncle of tlie arch-chancellor 
 — bom in 1721 ; died in 1802 — was a celebrated pulpit orator, 
 and is the author of a panegyric on St. Louis, and of three 
 volumes of sermons which have been greatly applauded. — J. T. 
 
 * CAMBACERES, Marie J. P. H., Due de, nephew of the 
 arch-chancellor, was born in 1798. In 1812 he was nominated 
 one of the pages of the emperor, and in 1815 accompanied him 
 as first page in the campaign in Belgium, where he was taken 
 prisoner on June 1 6th. After the restoration of the Bourbons, 
 Cambaceres enrolled his name in the list of tlie advocates in the 
 royal court of Paris, and on the death of his uncle in 1824, 
 successfully resisted the attempt of the government to seize his 
 papers. In 1830 he gave in his adhesion to the new dynasty, 
 and in 1835 obtained a seat in the chamber of peers, and was 
 made one of the secretaries of that chamber. In 1852 he was 
 appointed grandmaster of ceremonies to Louis Napoleon, and 
 one of the secretaries of the senate. — J. T. 
 
 CAM BERT, Robert, a musician, notable as the first com- 
 poser of French operas, was born at Paris in 1628, and died in 
 England in 1677. His master for the clavecin was Chambonidre, 
 from whom probably he learned the principles of composition. 
 He held the office of organist at the collegiate church of St. 
 Honorcj. He was much patronized by the marquis de Sourdeac, 
 to please whom, and to meet the growing taste for dramatic 
 music in France, he set several dialogues, written for him by 
 the Abbe Perrin. The success of these led to the construction 
 of a work upon the model of Italian operas, that had been intro- 
 duced in Paris by the Cardinal Mazarin, of which Perrin wrote 
 the words, Cambert composed the music, and Sourdeac designed 
 the decorations; this was entitled " La Pastorale, premiere comiJdie 
 fran9aise en musique," and it was performed at the chateau 
 d'lssy in April, 1659. Various rude attempts had been made 
 in France to combine music with dramatic action, originating 
 with Adam do la Hale in the thirteenth centm-y ; but this was 
 the first production that assumed tlie character of a complete 
 lyric drama. It created so great a sensation that Louis XIV. 
 commanded its performance at Vincennes. Tlius encouraged, 
 the same author in 1661 produced " Ariane, ou le Mariagc 
 de Bacchus," a work of like construction, whicli, however, in 
 consequence of the death of Cardinal Mazarin, was not performed. 
 In 1666 Cambert received the appointment of superintendent de 
 musique to the queen-mother. The king about this time granted 
 to Perrin a patent for the performance of French operas, " after 
 the manner of those of Italy, Germany, and England." The poet 
 associated himself once more with Cambert and the marquis, 
 and in fulfilment of his privilege opened the Academic Royalc 
 
 de Musique, June 28, 1669. Here was produced in 1671 
 "Pomone," and in 1672 "Les Pcines et les Plaisirs de I'amonr," 
 the two most important of Cambert's compositions. Perrin then 
 quarrelled with Sourdeac, the consequence of which was that his 
 patent was revoked, and another was granted to Lulli. This 
 excluded Cambert and his compositions from the Academic. His 
 more courteous manners than those of Lulli retained friends 
 around him, but the superiority of his rival's talent at once 
 eclipsed the popularity of Cambert's music. Annoyed by the 
 neglect he now experienced, Cambert came in 1673 to England, 
 and, probably in the following year, was engaged to replace 
 Banister as master of the band of Charles II., known by the 
 name of " the four-and-twenty fiddlers." It appears that 
 Cambert reproduced here his opera of " Pomone," and perhaps 
 also gave that of " Ariane ;" but under what circumstances 
 these were performed, and whether in French or in English, is 
 not known. The Siege of Rhodes, the earliest English opera, was 
 produced in 1656. Tliis gave rise to a taste for the musical 
 drama in London, which became very general by the time of 
 Cambert's arrival ; but the operas then in vogue consisted of 
 spoken dialogue interspersed with music, whereas those performed 
 in Paris were composed entirely of music. It may have been 
 the difference in their construction which rendered the works of 
 Cambert unacceptable here ; but whether from this or any other 
 cause they did not succeed, and he is said to have died from 
 disappointment at their failure. — G. A. M. 
 
 CAMBESSEDES, Jacques, an eminent French botanist of 
 the present century. He has written a monograph of the genus 
 spirjea; an account of the plants of the Balearic islands; memoirs 
 on the natui-al orders of ternstroemiaceie, guttiferfe, and sapin- 
 daceffi ; and a synopsis of the Brazilian plants of the orders 
 crucifern;, caryophyllaceas, paronychiacese, portulacacea;, crassu- 
 laceae, ficoideas, and cunoniacea?. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAIMBIASO or CANGIAGIO, Ludovico orLucA, and called 
 also LuCHETTO DE Genova. This distinguished painter was 
 the son of Giovanni Cambiaso, also an artist, and was born at 
 Moneglia, near Genoa, in 1527. He studied under his father, but 
 soon distanced his preceptor. At the cai'ly age of fifteen he had 
 produced works of an extraordinary promise. His rapidity of 
 execution was only equalled by his fertility of invention. He 
 worked with a wonderful facility, and yet with a most remarkable 
 con-ectness. His power of foreshortening was very great. He 
 visited Florence and Rome, and studied the productions of 
 Raffiielle and Michel Angelo. Cangiagio had three manners of 
 painting. His earhest was daring to extravagance and gigan- 
 tesque in size ; his second was infinitely his best style. These 
 were productions of extreme care, and are very highly esteemed. 
 His third was a return to much of his old hasty execution. 
 He became a hack picture-manufacturer, and painted as much 
 as he could for the benefit of his family — not of art. His most 
 prized works are his " Martyrdom of St. George," his " St. 
 Benedetto," and " St. Giovanni Battista," at Rucchettini, and his 
 " Rape of the Sabines," at Terralba, near Genoa. On the 
 invitation of Phihp II. he went to JIadrid in 1583, and died 
 there in 1585. He painted the ceiling of the chou- in the 
 Escurial. The work represents the assemblage of the blessed, 
 and is of enormous size. His works are very numerous. — W. T. 
 
 CA]\IBINI, Giovanni Giuseppe, a musician, was born at 
 Leghorn, February 13, 1746, and died in the h<is])ital of Bicetre 
 at an extreme age. He began to study the violin very young ; 
 and though he never became eminent as a soloist, his general 
 knowledge of music induced such admirable style in his per- 
 formance, that Manfredi, Nardini, and Bocchcrini, the three 
 most distinguished quartet players of the last century, each 
 chose him to play the viola with him in music of this class. 
 Cambini went in 1763 to liologna, to study composition under 
 the famous Pardre JIartini, with whom lie remained till 1766, 
 when lie proceeded to Naples. Here he aj>pears to have pro- 
 duced an unsuccessful opera, which was his first introduction into 
 public life. At Naples he formed an attachment with a young 
 lady of his native city, with whom he embarked to return to 
 Leghorn, in order that they might be married ; their vessel was, 
 however, ca])tured l)y a corsair commanded by a Spanish rene- 
 gade, and they were carried to Barbary and sold for sla\cs. 
 Cambini was purchased by a Venetian merchant named Zam- 
 boni, who gave him his liberty. In 1770 he went to Paris, 
 where he made the acquaintance of Gossec, through whose 
 interest some of his instrumental compositions were publicly
 
 CA1\I 
 
 864 
 
 CAM 
 
 performed. These were of the lightest character, but probably 
 on account of their veiy lightness, they met with remarkable 
 success. Cambini, who liad little artistic conscience, took advan- 
 tage of the favourable reception of his music to produce as 
 rapidly as he could tind a sale for his works ; accordingly, in a 
 very few years, he wrote eighty symphonies, a hundred and 
 forty-four violin quartets, and an immense number of concer- 
 tanti pieces for various instruments, besides a vast amount of 
 solfeggios and more important vocal music, an instruction book 
 for the flute, and many other compositions. Added to these, 
 lie wrote the following works for the theatre — " Les Romans," 
 a ballet, Paris, 1776 ; " Hose d' Amour et Carloman," an opera, 
 Paris, 1779; "La Croisee ; " " Cora ; " "Les deux Freres;" 
 and " Adele et Edwin," all operas produced at Beaujolais, 
 between 1788 and 1791; " Nantilde et Dagobert," an opera 
 produced at the Louvois ; and some operas that were never per- 
 formed. His oratorio, " Le Sacrifice d' Abraham," was produced 
 at the concert spirituel in 1780, which had been preceded by some 
 motets at the performances of the same institution. The little 
 that is known of this prodigious mass of music, is a proof 
 of the littleness of its merit. Cambini was engaged as con- 
 ductor of the opera at Beaujolais in 1788, and at Louvois in 
 1791. In 1800 lie was commissioned by Pleyel to write some 
 quartets and quintets in the style of Boccherini, which were 
 ])Hblished under the name of this composer, together witli some 
 works of his, not previously printed ; and it was not until all 
 interest in the original and the imitator had passed away that 
 the fraud was made known. In 180i Cambini wrote some 
 articles in the Mux'ikalUche Zeitung of Leipzig ; and in 1810 he 
 joined M. de Garaude in tlie editorship of the Tuhhttes de 
 Polymnie, in which bis criticisms, however musicianly, were 
 noted for their bitterness. Having led a life of excessive dissi- 
 pation, Cambini was by this time reduced to be a drudge of the 
 music-sellers, and was content to undertake the most unworthy 
 engagements to procure him the means of indulging his vices. 
 In extreme indigence he was in 1815 received into the hospital, 
 in which, after several years' residence, he died. — G. A. M. 
 
 CAilBON, Jeax-Louis-Auguste-Emmaxuel, a French 
 lawyer, born at Toulouse in 1737; died iu 1807. In 1758 he 
 became a councillor of the parliament of Toulouse, and in 1761 
 advocate (attorney) general. Whilst holding the latter ofBce he 
 procured a decision in the case of Stephen Sales, which estab- 
 lished the validity of protestant marriages. In 1787 Louis 
 XVI. named him first president of the assembly of notables ; 
 but after the abolition of parliaments he had to fly for his hfe. 
 
 C AMBON, Joseph, a French statesman, born in 1754 ; died 
 in 1820. Having entered the legislative assembly in 1791, he 
 zealously advocated democratic measures, denouncing priestly 
 privilege, and once uttering the stern sentence — " War to the 
 chateau ; peace to the hut." He voted for the king's death, 
 but opposed the setting-up of the revolutionary tribunal : at one 
 time seemed to side with the mountain and the commune, and 
 again denounced them ; accused RobespieiTc, and after his death 
 had to flee from the hostility of the Thermidorians. He was 
 chosen president of the assembly in 1793. Cambon directed 
 most of liis attention to finance. He drew up nearly all the 
 reports ; and had, as Carlyle says, a wonderful " finance-talent 
 for the printing of assignats." — E. M., A. 
 
 CAM BRAY, Baptiste, a French peasant of the thirteenth 
 century, who invented the fine linen cloth still called cambric. 
 Absolutely nothing is known of this ingenious peasant, although 
 Ids invention has enriched his native province. 
 
 CAMBUAY-DIGXY, Louis-Guillaume de, a French 
 physicist naturalized at Florence, bom in 1723 ; died in the 
 same century. At the age of twenty-two he accompanied into 
 Tuscany a band of Frenchmen, to whom the gi-and duke had 
 farmed out part of his revenues. Tliere his abilities soon pro- 
 cured him promotion to the office of minister of finance. It was 
 only brief intervals of leisure that he could devote to his favomite 
 pursuit. One of the fruits of these was a " machine a. feu " for 
 the salt-works at Castiglione — the first of its kind constructed 
 south of the Alps. Cambray was an honorary member of several 
 French and Italian institutes. 
 
 CA.MBRIUGE, H.R.H. Pkixce Adoli-ih.s Fkedeuick, 
 Duke of, the seventh son of George III., born in 177-1; died in 
 1850. He entered the Hanoverian army in 1793, rose in 1798 
 to be lieutenant-general, and three years later was made a peer 
 of the United Kingdom. In 1803 he was transfen'ed to the 
 
 British service, and in 1813 rose to the rank of field-marshal. 
 He was soon after appointed governor-general of Hanover, ao 
 office which he held till the accession of the duke of Cumberland 
 in 1839. His administration there was mild and discreet, and 
 on his return to England, he was popular and distinguished for 
 his ready patronage of all charitable institutions. — J. B. 
 
 * CAMBRIDGE, H.R.H. Geokge William Frederick 
 Charles, Duke of, son of the preceding, and therefore first 
 cousin to Queen Victoria, was born in Hanover in 1819, and 
 succeeded to his father's title in 1850. He entered the army in 
 1837, and was in 185-1 advanced to the rank of lieutenant- 
 general, and sent to the Crimea to command the first division of 
 the British army. He fought with distinction at Alma and 
 Inkermann, but had to retire to Pera, and afterwards return to 
 England on account of the state of his health. In 1856 he 
 was made a general, and when Lord Hardinge resigned the cliiaf 
 command of the British army was appointed his successor. — J. B. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Richard, born in London m 1717 ; died in 
 1802. The family were originally from Gloucestershire. His 
 father died early, and young Cambridge was brought up under 
 the care of his mother and a maternal uncle. He was sent to 
 Eton; then m 1734 to St. .John's college, Oxford; and in 1737 
 to Lincoln's inn. He left Oxford without a degree, and he was 
 soon called to the bar. In 1741 he married, and fixed his resi- 
 dence at his family seat of Whitminster in Gloucestersliire. He 
 was wealtliy, and he occupied himself in improving the scenery 
 round his seat. He rendered the river Stroud navigable for 
 many miles ; and is said to have introduced some valuable 
 improvements in the construction of boats. In 1748 Cambridge 
 succeeded to the property of an uncle, took the additional name 
 of Owen, rented a house in London for a year or two, and then 
 pm'chased a vUla at Twickenham, where the rest of his life was 
 passed. Cambridge was a water-di-uikcr, was fond of horse 
 exercise, and out-of-door amusements. He lived in unbroken 
 health through the greater part of a fife prolonged to eighty- 
 five. Within the two last years of his life hearing and then 
 sight failed, but his mental faculties are described as unimpaired. 
 In 1751 Cambridge published his " Scribleriad," the poem by 
 which he is chiefly known. To the periodical called the World, 
 he contributed twenty-one papers. In 17G1 he published a 
 " History of the Coast of Coromandel." His works — with the 
 exception of this volume — vv-ere collected by his son, the Rev. 
 George Owen Cambridge. His best poem, " The Fakeer," is his 
 shortest, and would be better could it be reduced to the two 
 Imes — 
 
 Indian — " I give to the poor and I lend to the rich." 
 Fakeer — " But how many nails do you run in your breech?" 
 
 The amusement of quietly laughing at bis own pursuits probably 
 led to the " Scribleriad." The hero is an antiquary. Tliis is the 
 basis of the character ; and on this we find engrafted the pedant 
 and the alchemist. The style throughout affects a mock gravity, 
 which we think is too anxiously sustained. Some of the best 
 passages are formal parodies of passages in Homer and Virgil, 
 or rather in the translations of Pope and Dryden, whose manner 
 is often happily imitated. — J. A., D. 
 
 CAilBRONNE, Pierke-Jacqles-Iltiexxe, Baron de, a 
 French general, born in 1770. He entered the aimy at the 
 Revolution, and served in most of Napoleon's campaigns. He 
 commanded a division at Waterloo, and was left for dead on the 
 field, but recovered, and lived till 1842. 
 
 CAMBYSES was a son of Cyms, the great founder of the 
 Persian monarchy, and his successor on the throne of that king- 
 dom. His accession took place B.C. 529. As soon as Cambyses 
 was settled on the throne of Persia, he turned his attention to 
 the conquest of Egypt, which he invaded at the head of a large 
 army. After defeating the Egj-ptians in battle, and capturing 
 Psammenitus their king, he fixed his residence for a tune in that 
 country ; but the severity of his rule, and the indignities he 
 heaped upon the Egyptian religion, soon rendered him odious to 
 the people, who took advantage of his temporary absence to rise 
 in open rebellion. Before measures could be taken to suppress 
 the revolt, an accidental wound caused the death of Cambyses, 
 B.C. 522.— W. M. 
 
 C--\3IDEN, Earl, lord-high-chancellor of England. One of 
 the most illustrious among the jurists and statesmen who adomed 
 the close of the eighteenth centuiy. Of the young men who, 
 inheriting gi-eat paternal influence and celebrity in the English 
 law, have been promoted to the highest judicial offices, the most
 
 CA]\I 
 
 8G5 
 
 CAJI 
 
 famous are Lord Bacon; Charles Yorke, the brilliant and unfor- 
 tunate son of Lord Hardwicke ; Charles Pratt, the third son of 
 Sir John Pratt, chief-justice of the king's bench, and the subject 
 of our present notice. He was descended from a respectable 
 Devonshire fiimUy, who had their seat at CaresweU Priory, near 
 CoUumpton ; but his ftither was the first of the name who attamed 
 any high distinction. Charles Pratt was born in 1714 — the 
 closing year of Queen Anne's reign — shortly before his father's 
 ele\-ation to the bench. Accustomed in childhood to associate 
 dignity and honour with the profession of the law, he early 
 evinced a desue to enter on that line of life in which his own 
 fame was destined to eclipse that of the chief-justice. In the 
 tenth year of his age his father's death left him without the benefit 
 of much wise counsel and experience, but with a demand on his 
 self-reliance, and an additional stimulus to independent action. 
 Pratt was sent to Eton in 1726, where he studied for five years. 
 He read with successful diligence, and was a general favom-ite 
 with his schoolmates ; among these he had the fortune to make 
 the acquaintance of several with historic names, as Lyttleton, 
 Walpole, Cornwallis, and Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham), whose 
 friendship, now in the spring, by and by blossomed and bore 
 substantial fruit. He was called to the bar at Trinity term, 1738. 
 No one ever entered on a professional life with fairer prospects of 
 success. On the western cucuit, the fame of his father was still 
 fresh in the memories of counsel and attorney. He was con- 
 nected either by blood or friendship with some of the most talented 
 and influential gentlemen in England. But so little did these 
 adventitious favom's of fortune contribute to success, that for 
 fourteen years Pratt rode from Hampsldre to Cornwall, with no 
 loftier occupation than to mend pens and to show his wig. Like 
 Lord Eldon he was on the point of retuing in disgust and disap- 
 pomtment. According to the etiquette of the bar, no coimsel can 
 leave his circuit without giving intimation of his purpose to the 
 leader. With a deep sense of humiliation, he summoned com'age 
 to inform LIr. Henley (afteiT\-ards Lord Northington) of his mteu- 
 tion to relinquish law and apply for orders. He admitted that 
 the case was discouraging, yet not desperate. Some of the great- 
 est la^-yers, with talents long uncredited, had risen to the most 
 honoured offices in the state. Opportunity was even-thing. Let 
 him trv' one circuit more, and stake liis future upon this last 
 cast. Riding on this forlom-hope-circuit Pratt met with decided 
 success. Was it a generous contrivance — or was it chance that 
 brought him an important brief under the leader of the cu-cuit V 
 Pressure of business, we are told by some — an attack of gout, by 
 others — compelled ilr. Henley to remain out of court when the 
 trial came on for healing ; so the lead was unexpectedly cast upon 
 the junior counsel. He opened the case with method and clear- 
 ness ; made a spirited reply, and obtained a verdict. Pratt had 
 none of the brilliancy of his rival Yorke, nor was he in the 
 highest sense an orator. In his greatest efforts — including his 
 last memorable speech — he never had command of that rich 
 unagery and passionate eloquence which characterize Erskine and 
 Brougham ; but his sound legal knowledge, familiarity with the 
 details of business, quiet sustained dignity, and convincing address, 
 gave sufficient assurance to the attorneys of his worth and ability, 
 and the road to distinction now lay open before him. His first 
 great triumph was in a libel case, Iving v. Owen (Howell's State 
 Ti-ials, vol. xviii., p. 120-23), in which Sur Dudley Ryder, then 
 attorney-general, led the prosecution. In this remarkable trial, 
 he enunciated, even against the authority of the bench, those 
 opuiions regarding the judicial rights of juries, which were 
 eventually adopted by the legislature, and became the rule of 
 law on that important question. In 1 755 he put on his silk gown, 
 and went over to the court of chancery. Two ye;irs after, when 
 his schoolfellow, the "great commoner," ascended to power, he 
 was elevated over his rival Yorke to the office of attorney- 
 general. He had already been eight years in parliament as 
 representative of the close borough of Downton ; but although 
 afterwards one of the most distinguished speakers m tlie upper 
 house, he only once spoke in the house of commons, on the 
 occasion of the habeas cur-pus bill of 1758. It was about this 
 time, though not far from fifty, that he married Elizabeth, the 
 daughter of Nicholas Jefireys, Esq., Brecknock Priory, a lady 
 ^lowered with a large fortune and many virtues. On the 
 death of Chief-justice Willes, there was a general change of 
 titles in the law. The attorney-general, on the 23d January, 
 1762, received his patent as lord chief-justice of the common 
 pleas. During the four years he administered justice in the 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 common pleas, he gave three very important decisions, "which 
 made him next to the earl of Chatham the niost popular man 
 in England. In the case of Leech v. iloney, the illegality of 
 general warrants was declared. In Doe v. Kersey, he held 
 against the judges of liis comt, and the unanimous decision of 
 the king's bench, that attesting witnesses to a will must be 
 disinterested at the time of attestation, and that it is not enough 
 that their interest be removed before the pronng of the will. 
 The legislatiue afterwards confirmed his opinion. But by far 
 the most celebrated trial over which he presided, was that of 
 the ftimous or notorious John Wilkes. The secretary of state. 
 Lord Halifax, had, in compliance with the wishes of the king, 
 issued a sweeping warrant against the authors, printers and 
 publishers of No. 45 of the North Briton, in accordance with 
 which Wilkes was aiTested and lodged in the Tower. A writ 
 of habeas corpus, returnable immediately, was issued fi-om the 
 common pleas ; and the chief-justice, after hearing the case, 
 gave judgment against the arrest, concluding in the following 
 words : — " We are all of opinion that a libel is not a breach of 
 the peace ; it tends to a breach of the peace, and that is the 
 utmost. In the case of the seven bishops, Judge Powell, the 
 only honest man of the four judges, dissented, and I am boimd 
 to be of his opinion, and to say that case is not law, but it shows 
 the miserable condition to which the state was then reduced. 
 Let Mr. Wilkes be discharged from his imprisonment." Close 
 upon this came an action, on Wilkes' o^vn part, on the ground of 
 false imprisonment, in which the chief-justice denounced in 
 language which has been censured as violent, the system of 
 arrests under general wan-ants, and set forth his ^uew of 
 damages. " These are," he said, " designed not only as a satis- 
 faction to the injm'ed person, but likewise as a punishment to 
 the guilty, and as proof of the detestation in which the wrongful 
 act is held by the jury." Wilkes, as was to be expected, 
 obtained a verdict with £1000 damages. The London rabble 
 were enraptured with the triumph of their champion; he was 
 carried through the streets, with shouts of WUkes and liberty, 
 and Pratt rose to the height of his popularity. Strangers came 
 from a distance to see, among other sights, the great chief-justice. 
 He received the freedom of Dublin, Bristol, Bath, Exeter, and 
 Normch ; and Sir J. Reynolds was employed to prepare a fine 
 portrait of the assertor of hberty for the GuUdhall. 
 
 In 1765 the Rockingham ministry determined to grace their 
 advent to power, by conferiing a peerage on the favourite judge 
 of the nation, ^-ith the title of " Baron Camden of Camden Place 
 in the county of Kent." The followmg year Camden received 
 the great seal, and was installed as chancellor on the 6th No- 
 vember, hi which office he fully sustained his high legal reputa- 
 tion. Though he had not the learning of Nottingham and 
 Hai-dwicke, the " fathers of equity," nor the sagacity of Kenyon, 
 Littledale, and Holroyd, yet his unruffled calmness of temper, 
 soundness of understanduig, his memoiT' singularly powerful and 
 retentive, the patience and impartiality with which he sifted 
 every case, and the clearness with which he pronounced judgment, 
 conciliated the respect and good opinion of all parties. For 
 three years and a half he was lord chancellor, and in every 
 instance proved himself ''^ par negot'ds." 
 
 And now we come to the only stain on Lord Camden's public 
 character. From the majority of his colleagues in the duke of 
 Grafton's cabinet he diflered on two vital questions, and yet for 
 two years, from 1768 to 1770, he remauied a member of the 
 administration ; sanctioned with his presence proceedings which, 
 in his judgment, tended to a breach with the colonies ; yielded, 
 without remonstrance, to measures which he felt to be unconsti- 
 tutional; submitted to be overpowered on questions of law; and 
 followed a line of acquiescence, which in the present day would 
 be pronounced a grave political delinquency. At last, in 1770, 
 he made a bold avowal of his opinions, and surrendered the great 
 seal. During the remauiing twenty-four years of his life, as 
 judge of appeal, as privy councillor, as member of the opposition 
 and the cal)inet, he was of signal service to the state. Tlu:ough- 
 out the American war, he held that England was the aggressor, 
 that the enactments of the government were oppressive, and in 
 one memorable speech declared that, if he were an Ameri- 
 can, he "should resist to the last such manifest exertions of 
 tyranny, violence, and injustice." As judge of appeal, Camden's 
 opinion always had great weight. In Harrison v. Evans, 
 where the question was — " Whether a dissenter was liable to a 
 fine for not serving a corporation office, which he was disquaU- 
 
 5 B
 
 ca:\i 
 
 86G 
 
 CA^l 
 
 fied from serving by the corporation act, he not having taken 
 the sacrament of the Lord's Supper according to the rights of 
 the chm'ch of England," — he pronounced in favour of religious 
 liberty, and the judgment of the lower court was reversed. In 
 the celebrated Douglas case, which was an appeal from a deci- 
 sion of the com't of session, in favour of the duke of Hamilton, 
 Lord Camden dehvered a most elaborate judgment in fuvom* 
 of the appellant, and the house, without a division, reversed 
 the decision. Under his auspices the nullum tempus act, 9 Geo. 
 IIL, c. 16, was passed, by which an adverse enjoyment of pro- 
 perty for sixty years gives a good title against the crown. 
 When England witnessed the unparalleled sight of a prime min- 
 ister at the age of twenty-four. Lord Camden readily joined the 
 cabinet of Pitt as president of the council. In his seventy-fifth 
 year, he conducted with great learning and ability those remark- 
 able debates on the constitutional questions which the malady of 
 the king forced on the consideration of parliament. But his last 
 appearance in the arena of political contest, was perhaps the 
 gi-andest event in his life. On the 16th of Jlay, 1792, the bill, 
 improperly called Fox's libel bUl, came up to the lords. There 
 was a full attendance of peers. Thurlow, with his " tremendous 
 white bushy eyebrows," sat savagely on the woolsack. Near him 
 was the shabby Ken\-on, lynx-eyed and law-armed. Bathurst 
 was there, too, ready to follow the leader, and at least bark. 
 Against the unanimous opposition of the law-lords, Camden rose 
 in his place to defend the bill. Leaning upon his staff, and 
 beginning in a low tremulous voice, he gradually wai-med into 
 the passionate enthusiasm of younger days : — " I ask your lord- 
 ships to say who shall have the care of the liberty of the press 
 — the judges or the people of England ? The jmy are the 
 people of England. The judges are independent men ! Be it 
 so. But are they totally beyond the possibility of corniption 
 from the crown ? The truth is, they may be corrupted ; juries 
 never can. . . . If it is not law, it should be made law, 
 that in prosecution for libel the jury shall decide upon the whole 
 case. In the full catalogue of crmies, there is not one so fit to 
 be determined by a jmy as libel." The debate terminated with 
 the following dialogue : — 
 
 Thurlow — "Will my Lord Camden agree to a clause to authorize 
 the granting of a new trial, if the court should be dissatisfieil with a 
 verdict for the defendant ?" 
 
 Camden — " What, after a verdict of acquittal?" 
 
 Thurlow — "Yes." 
 
 Camden — " Ko, I thank you." 
 
 These were his last words in the house. Two years after this, 
 on the 13th of April, 1794, in the eighty-first year of his age. 
 Lord Camden died fall of years and honours, and was buried in 
 the faniilv vault in the parish church of Seal in Kent. — G. H. P. 
 
 CAMDEN, WiLLiASi, called the "Strabo of England," was 
 born in the Old Bailey, 2nd May, 1557, and died 9th November, 
 1623. Left an orphan and unprovided for, he received his 
 early education at Christ's hospital and St. Paul's school. In 
 his fifteenth year he entered Oxford as servitor at JIagdalen's 
 Hall ; but being disappointed of a demi, removed to Pembroke 
 college, where he won the favour and eventually the patronage 
 of Dr. Thornton, the tutor of Sir Philip Sidney. After a resi- 
 dence of five years, without obtaining college honours, family 
 affairs recalled him to London ; and in 1575, through the kind 
 offices of ilr. Goodman, dean of Westminster, he was appointed 
 under-master of Westnnnster school. Being of studious habits 
 and of a retuing disposition, he devoted his leisure hours and 
 holidays to the study of antiquity. To qualify himself for 
 deciphering ancient records and monumental inscriptions, he 
 acquired Gaelic, Welsh, and old Saxon. After ten years' prepara- 
 tion, his first work, the " Britannia," was published in 158G, 
 and received with applause. Thus brought into publicity, the 
 bishop of Salisbury appointed him in 1588 prebend of Ilfracombe. 
 Five years after he succeeded Grant as head-master of West- 
 minster. In 1597 his "Greek Grammar" appeared, which was 
 received in all the colleges, and passed through forty editions. 
 This same year the office of clarencieux-at-anns falling vacant, 
 Camden was raised to that sinecure ; but so modest was his 
 disposition that a short tune afterwards he declined the honour 
 of knighthood. He shared the remainder of his life between 
 scientific pursuits and his official duties. To collect materials 
 he made frequent exploratory ^isits to various parts of the 
 kingdom. A Latin di.stieh which appeared in his lifitime, 
 hints that he explored England with two eyes, Scotland with 
 
 one, and Ireland with none. In 1613 he received the degree of 
 ]\I.A. His fife closed when his popularity was in its zenith. 
 A fond remembrance of his humble origin was with him to the 
 last. To the guild of painters and members of the craft, by 
 which his father had earned a scanty living, he bequeathed a 
 sacramental goblet on which the donor's name was mscribed. 
 The year before his death he founded the Camden professorship 
 of histoiy in Oxford. The work which made his name famous 
 is " Britannia, or a Chorographical Description of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland." It is written in finniUar and elegant 
 Latin ; and so accurately are places described, that, in many 
 instances, notwithstanding the changes of time, they can even now 
 be recognized. Professor Holland in 1610 translated it into 
 English ; but the best edition of this interesting work is that of 
 Richard Gough, published in London in 1789. In 1838 a society 
 was fomied for the publication of early historical and hterary 
 remains, wHch, in recognition of the public worth of this author, 
 was called the Camden Society. His '' Anglica Nomiannica 
 Cambrica," &c., published in 1G03, contains extensive selections 
 from Asser, Walsingham, Thomas de la More, Gkaldus Cam- 
 brensis, &c. The " Annales Eerum," &c., is a history of the reign 
 of Elizabeth. Compelled to advert to contemporary events, his 
 remarks aroused such personal hostility as to induce him to 
 postpone the publication of the sequel until after his death. His 
 minor productions are entitled " Keges, EeguiK, Nobiles," &c. ; 
 " Actio in Henricum Gametmn ; " Lnditterent Latin verses, "Sylva 
 Hybernia." The fullest account of his life is given in a book 
 published in 1691 by T. Smith, "Gulielmi Camdeui Epistolse." 
 Camden possessed those great qualifications of an antiquarian — 
 patience, assiduity, and enthusiasm. He died at the advanced 
 age of seventy-two, and was biuied with much solemnity in 
 Westminster.— G H. P. 
 
 CAJXIELLI or KAilEL, Geokge Joseph, a German botanist 
 of the seventeenth century, in honom- of whom Lmnsens has 
 named a species of plant, gi-owing in Japan, Camellia. He was 
 a Jesuit missionaiy to the PhiHppine islands. 
 
 CA^MERARIUS, Elias, a Gennan physician, second son of 
 Elias Rudolf, and brother of Rudolf Jacob Camerarius, was bo; i 
 at Tubingen Ln 1673, and died there in 1734. He graduate 1 
 asM.D. at Tubingen, and afterwards filled the chair of medicii.j 
 in that university. He was first physician to the duke of Wnr- 
 temberg. He was elected a member of the society Naturaj - 
 Curiosorum. He adopted some pecuHar views in regard to medi- 
 cine and science, the publication of which called forth attacks 
 from various quarters. He had a decided leaning to the mar- 
 vellous, and believed the statements in regard to magic. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAJIERARIUS, Elias Rudolf, a German physician, was 
 bom at Tubingen in 1641, and died 7th June, 1695. He 
 studied medicine, and became professor of medicine at Tubingen. 
 He was also first physician to the duke of Wiutemberg, and 
 a member of the academy Naturte Curiosomm. He wrote mediad 
 works on palpitation of the heart, on pleurisy, on fracture, and 
 ischuria ; as well as a treatise on chicory. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAJIERARIUS, JoACHiji, a German physician and botanist, 
 was bom at Nuremberg on 6th November, 1534, and died in 
 that town on 11th October, 1598. He prosecuted his medical 
 studies in Germany and Italy, and took his degree of doctor of 
 medicine at Bologna in 1562. On his return to Nuremberg, he 
 commenced the practice of medicine, and he was the means of 
 founding an academy of medicine in his native city. He was 
 elected dean of the medical faculty. Amidst the duties of 
 professional life, he devoted attention in a special manner to 
 chemistry and botany. He instituted a botanic garden at Nm'em- 
 berg, and enriched it with specimens from Prosper Alpinus, 
 Dalechamp, Clusius, and other eminent botanists. He became 
 possessed of Gesner's botanical libraiy, and of all his wood-cuts. 
 He was physician to the electors of Saxony, and seems to have 
 rendered them special services. Plumier has dedicated to him 
 the genus Cameraria, one of the apocynaceas. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, Joachim, an eminent German scholar, 
 whose original surname was Liebhakd, was born at Bamberg, 
 April 12, 1500. After having studied at the universities of 
 Leipzig, Erfurt, and Wittenberg, he became classical master at 
 the gj'muasium of Nurnberg, and in 1530 was chosen deputy of 
 this city to the diet of Augsburg, where, in company with 
 Melancthon, he drew up the Augsburg Confession. Some years 
 later he was called to Tubingen in order to reorganize the 
 imiversity, a task of which he acquitted himself so honourably,
 
 that in 1541 he was invited to Leipzig for the same pm-pose. 
 In 1555-5G he was again deputed to the diets held at Augsbm-g, 
 Nurnberg, and Eegensburg. He died at Leipzig, April 17, 
 1574. He has left upwards of 150 works, amongst which his 
 " Life of Melancthon" — new edition by Strobel, Halle, 1777; his 
 '• Comraentarii Linguae Grsecre et Latinre," Basle, 1551; and 
 his " EpistolsB Familiares," which were published after his death, 
 are the most renowned. Bj his numerous editions and transla- 
 tions of Greek and Roman classics, he greatly contributed to the 
 revival of classical learning in Germany. — K. E. 
 
 CAilERARIUS, RcDOLF Jacob, a Gemian physician and 
 !>ritanist, son of Elias Rudolf, was born at Tubingen in 1G65, and 
 .lied in 1721. He studied philosophy and natural history at 
 Tubingen, and afterwards prosecuted medicine in Gennany and 
 Holland. At Leyden he became assistant demonstrator in the 
 university. He aftei-wards visited Britain, and subsequently 
 studied in the Hopital de la Charite at Paris. After visiting 
 Savoy and Italy, and spending much time at Venice and Rome, 
 he returned to Tubingen through Switzerland. He received the 
 degree of doctor of medicine at the university of Tubingen, and 
 was appointed assistant to his father as professor of medicine 
 :ind inspector of the botanic garden. He was subsequently elected 
 'successor to his father as primarins professor of medicine. His 
 botanical works were edited by !Mikan in 1797. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAMERON, the name of a powerful Highland clan, which 
 had its original seat in Lochaber, and figured conspicuously in 
 Scottish history. The most celebrated of the chiefs of this war- 
 like tribe was — 
 
 Camerox, Sir Ewen, of Lochiel, sumamed the Black. 
 lie was bora in 1629, and educated at Inverary castle tinder 
 the guardianship of his kinsman and feudal superior, the marquis 
 uf Argyll, the leader of the Scottish covenanting party. At the 
 age of eighteen he broke loose from the authority of his guar- 
 dian, and took up arms in the royal cause. He joined the eaii 
 of Glencairn and General Middleton in 1652-54, and fought 
 with distinguished braveiy against Monk, Morgan, and other 
 parUamentary generals. When the Restoration took place Locliiel 
 was cordially welcoifled at court, and received the honom- of 
 knighthood from King James. On the expulsion of that monarch, 
 (ieneral Mackay attempted to gain over Lochiel to the side of 
 King William by the ofier of a title and a sum of money ; but his 
 attachment to the cause of James, and especially his hatred to the 
 liouse of Argyll, induced him to reject these proposals and join 
 the standard of Dundee. His judicious counsel and undaunted 
 courage contributed greatly to the complete victory which the 
 Highlanders gained at Killiecrankie over the royal forces under 
 Mackay. He ultimately submitted to the government, and took 
 the oath of allegiance to King William. The remainder of his 
 life was spent in retirement. He died in 1719 at the age of 
 ninety, lea\'ing behind him a reputation for personal prowess, 
 wisdom, and integi-ity, unrivalled among the Celtic chiefs. 
 JIacaulay teiTQS Sir Ewen " the Ulysses of the Highlands." 
 — (Jlacaulay's Hisfori/, vol. ui., page 320 ; Memoirs of Sir 
 Ewen Cameron, printed for the Abbotsford Club.) 
 
 Camerox, Donald, of Lochiel, the gi-andson of Sir Ewen, 
 was the model of a Highland chieftain, and is still remembered 
 by the title of " the gentle Lochiel." He took a conspicuous 
 part in the rebellion of 1745, being the first to appear with his 
 clan at the place of rendezvous in Glenfinnan ; and there is every 
 reason to believe that, but for his influence, the other Highland 
 chiefs would not have joined that ill-fated enterprise. It was 
 he who captm-ed the city of Edinburgh without the loss of a single 
 life. He was in the front of the battle of Prestonpans, which 
 was mainly gained by his clan. At Culloden, where they suflered 
 great loss, he was severely wounded in the legs, but was earned 
 off the field by some of his faithfid followers, and was concealed 
 for some time in a cave on the side of a mountain called Ben- 
 alder, where, on the 30th of August, 1746, he was ioined by 
 the hapless prince himself. Ultimately they embarked togetlier 
 on board a French vessel, named L'JJeurevx, and on the 29th 
 September landed in safety on the coast of Brittany. Lochiel 
 was soon after appointed to the command of a regiment in the 
 French ser\-ice, but did not long survive, having died in 1748. 
 His estates were of course forfeited, but were afterwards restored, 
 and still remain in the possession of the family. 
 
 Cameron, Dk. Archibald, the brother of Lochiel, escaped 
 with him to France, but revisited Scotland in 1749 and again 
 in 1753. On this latter occasion lie was apprehended, brought 
 
 to trial in London, condemned, and hanged at Tyburn — -tlie last 
 victim of the mihappy rebellion of " the Forty-five." 
 
 Camerox, John, Colonel, who fell at Quatre Bras at the 
 head of his regiment, the 92nd Highlanders, was one of the 
 most distinguished British officers who fought under Wellington. 
 A baronetcy was bestowed upon his father, Sir Ewen Cameron, 
 as an acknowledgment of the bravery and eminent services of 
 his gallant son. — J. T. 
 
 CAilEROX, Sir Alax, K.C.B., distinguished in the British 
 army as the leader of the Cameron Highlanders. He first seiwed 
 in the American war, and while making his escape from a two 
 years' imprisonment at Philadelphia, received injuries from which 
 he never completely recovered. In 1793 he raised at his own 
 expense and in thi-ee months, from among the members of his 
 clan, the 79th or Cameron Highlanders. At the head of this 
 regiment he served in the Netherlands and West Indies, and 
 when it was disbanded, he succeeded in raising it anew. He 
 subsequently served in the Eg'i'iJtian campaign, the descent upon 
 Zealand, and under Sir John Moore in Sweden and the Peninsula, 
 where he distinguished himself in several engagements. Ha\'ing 
 risen to the rank of lieutenant-general, he died in 1828. — J. B. 
 
 CAMERON, David, a celebrated gardener, died in 1848, 
 at the age of sixty-one. In 1827 he was head-gardener at 
 Bury Hill, near Dorking, Sun-ey, and in 1831 was appointed 
 curator of the recently-founded botanic garden at Birmingham. 
 He was a successful cultivator, and contributed many articles to 
 the Gardener's Magazine and to the Phytohgist. He was par- 
 ticularly successful in the cultivation of orchidese. He continued 
 curator of the Birmingham garden till his death. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAjSIERON, Johx, elected bishop of Glasgow in 1426, was 
 lord-high-chancellor of Scotland from the fourth year of James 
 I. to the third of James II. He attended the council of Basle 
 in 1431 as representative from Scotland. 
 
 CAMERON, Jonx, one of the first biblical scholars whom 
 Scotland has produced, was born at Glasgow about 1579. He 
 was educated in his native city, where he also taught Greek in 
 the university for about a year. In 1600 he went to France, 
 and was cordially received by the protestant ministers of Bor- 
 deaux. Jlr. Cameron acquired great reputation among them as 
 a classical scholar. It is said that he could speak Greek as 
 fluently as it was usual for the learned of that day to speak 
 Latin. He was soon appointed to teach the classics in the 
 college of Berberac, and ere long to the chair of philosophy at 
 Sedan. He then, after visiting Paris, returned to Bordeaux, 
 where in 1604 he was nominated one of the students of divinity, 
 to be maintained for fom- years at the expense of the church. 
 'UTiile he held this position he was also tutor to the two sons of 
 Calignon, chancellor of NavaiTe, and in company with his pupils 
 studied successively at Paris, Geneva, and Heidelberg. In 
 1608 he settled at Bordeaux as colleague to Dr. Primrose, 
 and ten years later succeeded the celebrated Gomarus in the 
 chair of divinity at Saumur. He had been there only two 
 years when the ciril war compelled him to seek refuge in 
 England. After reading private lectures on divinity for some 
 time in London, he was sent by King James in 1622 to assume 
 the principalship of Glasgow university, in, room of Robert Boyd 
 of Trochiig, whose firm adherence to presbytery was offensive to 
 the king. He retained the appointment only a year. Retm-ning 
 to France, he became in 1624 professor of di%nnity at Montauban. 
 The civil commotions had not subsided, and his return to the 
 scene of them cost him his life. He maintained the doctrine of 
 passive obedience against the agents of the due de Rohan, who 
 were endeavouring to excite the inhabitants of Montauban 
 to take arms. This offended the more zealous party, and 
 Cameron was attacked on the street and wounded by some 
 unknown assailant. He never recovered from the effects of this 
 assault, but died at Montauban in 1625, when only forty-six 
 years of age. His "Pradectiones in selectiora loca Novi Testa- 
 menti," were published at Saumur shortly after his death, with 
 a sketch of the author's life and character by his pupil Capellus. 
 A collection of his numerous theological works appeared at 
 Geneva in 1642, under the editorial care of Frederick Span- 
 hcim. Cameron's position as a theologian is worthy of note. 
 Dissatisfied with the doctrine of his church on the subject of 
 predestination and freewill, he founded a system known as 
 " hypothetic universalism," which was more fully developed by 
 his pupil, AmjTaut, and came from him to be called Amyraldism. 
 It differed from Arminianism in holding the doctrine of uncon-
 
 ditional election, and from Calvinism proper in asserting the 
 universality of the atonement, and that man's will is moved by 
 God only morally, or by the knowledge which he infuses, and 
 which influences the judgment of the mind. — J. B. 
 
 CAMERON, RicfiARD, one of those firm and faithful pres- 
 byterians who resisted the attempt to impose prelacy on Scot- 
 land in the seventeenth centuiy. He was bom at Falkland in 
 Fife, taught for some time a public school there, and was after- 
 wards private tutor and chaphiin in the family of Sir William 
 Scott of Harden, whose lady was a nonconformist. He was pre- 
 vailed on by Welsh, grandson of John Knox, to accept of license 
 to preach, and exercised his gifts in different quarters, but chiefly 
 in Annandale, AyrsMre, and Galloway. Cameron refused the 
 indulgence offered by Charles, because of the erastian and galling 
 conditions with which it was clogged, of its tendency to betray 
 the covenanting interests, and of its contrariety to the grand 
 principles of presbyterianism. 'When called to account for the 
 freedom of his strictures on this measure, he came under a pro- 
 mise of silence, which on mature consideration he found himself 
 bound in conscience to recall. Having in this way lost his situa- 
 tion in the family of Sir William Scott, he went to Rotterdam, 
 where he preached to certain persecuted exiles ; and, after having 
 been ordained by ^Messrs. M'Ward, Brown, and Roleman, he 
 returned to Scotland in 1680. He was concerned, along with 
 Cargill, Douglas, and others, in what was called the Sanquhar 
 Declaration, in which they renounced the authority of Charles — 
 a deed which may be censured as rash and premature, but which 
 has this to be said for it, that it proceeded on the very same 
 principles on which the whole nation, a short time afterwards, 
 expelled Charles' successor from the kingdom. A price ha\'ing 
 been set on their heads, Cameron and his friends were obliged to 
 betake to the fields, and defend themselves by arms. They were 
 surprised at Airsmoss, a wild morass in the parish of Auchin- 
 leck, by a troop of dragoons under Bnice of Earlshall ; but, after 
 a gallant resistance, which even their enemies could not help 
 applauding, they were overpowered, and several of them killed 
 on the spot, amongst whom was Richard Cameron. His head 
 and hands were cut off, and earned with heartless cruelty to his 
 father, from whom the sight only drew an expression of pious 
 resignation to the will of God. His death gave rise to many 
 touching displays of sympathy and regret, and a monument still 
 marks the spot where Cameron fell. It is from this individual 
 that the Refonned Presbyterians of the present day derive the 
 vulgar sobriquet of Cameronians. — (See Scots Worthies; Wod- 
 row's Histori/ ; Walker's Bioqraphia Presbyteriana ; and Life 
 o/R. Cameron, by G. M. Bell.)— W. S. 
 
 CAMERON, William, a Scottish poet, bom in 1751 ; died 
 in 1811. He became minister of Kirk-Newton in the county of 
 Midlothian in 1785. In 1790 he published a volume of poems, 
 and about the same time assisted in preparing the collection of 
 paraphrases which, sanctioned by the general assembly, are still 
 used in public worship in the Scottish church. He is the author 
 of the 14th, 17th, and C6th paraphrases, and of portions of the 
 32d, 40th and 49th.— C. R. 
 
 CAMERS, John, a Franciscan monk and celebrated Greek 
 scholar, was bom at Camerino in 1448. He was professor of phi- 
 losophy at Padua, and afterwards taught theology at Vienna. He 
 did much toward the restoration of Greek learning, which had 
 declined after Constantinople was taken by the Turks. He 
 edited many of the classic authors, such as Claudian, Florus, 
 Justin, and Lucian, and died either in 1546 or 1556. — J. B. 
 
 CAMILLA, .sister of the three Horatii, who fought the three 
 Albans or Curiatii, a combat famous in early Roman histoiy. 
 Camilla was betrothed to one of the Curiatii, and when the only 
 surviving Horatius returned home, his sister reproached him 
 with the murder of her lover, upon which the victor, mad with 
 passion, killed her. 
 
 CAMILLUS, Lucius Furius, grandson of Marcus Farius 
 Camillus, was appointed consul, B.C. 338. He commanded the 
 Roman army in the Latin war, and after captm-ing Tibur (Tivoli) 
 reduced the whole Latin country to subjection. He was again 
 chosen consul in 325. 
 
 CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, a Roman general of cele- 
 brity, called, for his distinguished services to his country, the 
 second founder of Rome. After holding several important offices 
 in the state, the duties of which he uniformly discharged with 
 the greatest fidelity, Camillus was appointed dictator in the 
 tenth year of the siege of Veii, and took the command of the 
 
 troops which were besieging that city. His energetic measures 
 soon resulted in the captm-e of the town, and he returned to 
 Rome laden with spoil ; but having incuiTcd the hatred of the 
 people by his opposition to a proposal which contemplated the 
 establishment in Veii of part of the population of Rome, he 
 found it necessary to retire for a time into exile. He reappeared 
 when the city of Rome was in the hands of the Gauls under 
 Brennus, and putting himself at the head of an army, succeeded 
 in ridding the country of the barbarians. He afterwards lived 
 at Rome, enjoying the highest offices of the state, till his death, 
 B.C. 365.— W. M. 
 
 CAMINATZIN or CACUJIAZIN, king of Tezcnco, was 
 nephew of Montezuma, emperor of Mexico. He fomied the 
 design of freeing his countiy from the Spanish yoke, and was 
 taking measures for the expulsion of Cortes and his associates, 
 when he was treacherously seized by the emissaries of his uncle, 
 and delivered up to the Spaniards, who put him into prison. 
 He was liberated, however, by some jMexican insurgents, and is 
 believed to have perished at the siege of Mexico in 1521. — J.T. 
 
 CAMINHA, Pedro de Andrade, a Portuguese poet, one 
 of that school which immediately preceded the era of Camoens. 
 He was camareii'o (gentleman of the chamber) at the court of 
 the Infante Dom Duarte, brother to King John III., and died 
 in 1595. He wrote eclogues, epistles, elegies, and a host of 
 epigrams, of which nineteen are " to an ugly face !" " In these,'' 
 says Sismondi, " as in the rest of his works, we have the labours 
 of the critic and the man of taste endeavouring to supply the 
 want of genius and insj>iration." The works of Caminha have 
 l:)een republished by the Portuguese Royal Society. — F. M. W. 
 
 CAJIINHA, Pedko Vaz de, a Portuguese traveller. 
 Caminha, who had formerly filled a situation at Calicut, sailed 
 in the first expedition that touched the shores of Brazil. He 
 vsTote a letter to Emmanuel (it was not published till the present 
 century), in which he felicitously records his first impressions of 
 the new countiy. It is thought he perished in a Mahometan 
 affray at Calicut. 
 
 CAMO, Pierre, a native of Toulouse, who cultivated poetry, 
 and was one of the seven troubadours of Toulouse, as a group of 
 poets called themselves. In 1324 they annomiced a kind of 
 tournament, in which poets were to contend for the prize of a 
 golden violet ; and they proposed to hold, at the same time, 
 something in imitation of the comitia of a university, in which 
 they were to confer degrees in what was styled the "gaie science." 
 Sismondi, in his Literature of the South, gives some account of 
 these fantastic amusements. — J. A., D. 
 
 CAMOENS, Luiz de, the only Portuguese poet who has 
 acquired a Em-opean reputation. The time and place of his 
 birth are matters of dispute ; the balance of evidence, however, 
 appears to be in favour of his having been bom at Lisbon in 
 1524. The poet's family had been distinguished for several 
 generations in dift'erent departments of the public service : his 
 father, Simon Vas de Camoens, being shipwrecked on the coast 
 of Goa, settled and died there soon after the birth of his son. 
 At the age of twelve or thirteen, Luiz was sent to the university 
 of Coimbra, where he could not fail to be influenced by the 
 reviving taste for classical literature. Some amatoi-y verses still 
 extant are supposed to have been written at this period. At the 
 age of twenty Camoens retmned to Lisbon, and led the ordinary 
 life of a courtier. Here it was that he conceived a passion which, 
 proving even more unfortunate than the attachments of poets in 
 general, influenced greatly the whole course of his life. The 
 friends of the lady, on whom the affections of the poet were 
 bestowed, Catarina de Atayde, the daughter of one of the 
 favourites of John III., procured on some plea or other his 
 banishment from Lisbon for two years. The place of his retreat 
 was Santarem, and to this period of enforced Icism-e we may 
 attribute three of his comedies — " El Rey Seleuco ;" " Filodcmo •" 
 and the " Amphitrioes ; " hkewise some sonnets, and, possibly, 
 the first conception of the " Lusiad." But a longing for active 
 life .seems to have possessed him, and he returned to Lisbon in 
 1549. It would appear that before long he again found it 
 necessary to leave the capital, for we find him embarking in the 
 expedition which was despatched about this time against the 
 Moors of Ceuta, under Antonio de Noronha — a firm friend 
 throughout all his subsequent life, to whom several of his poems 
 are addressed. In this expedition Camoens earned no little 
 distinction. He lost his right eye in an engagement in the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. His sonnet commencincj " Brandas agoas
 
 rf 
 
 CAM 
 
 8(J9 
 
 CAM 
 
 do Tejo" was written at the period of embarkation, and a second 
 eleijy a'so bears internal evidence of having been composed 
 about this time. In 1552 we find him again in Lisbon, where, 
 it is said, he had to mourn over the death of Dona Catarina ; 
 but this is jirobalily an error, originating with some biographer, 
 who has confounded tlie poet's mistress with a relative of his. 
 Dona Catarina de Almayda, frequently alluded to in his poems. 
 In March, 1553, still eager for adventure, Camoens embarked 
 in the Sao Benito, the only one of four vessels, fitted out under 
 tha distinguislied navigator Cabral, which escaped sliipwreck. 
 In one of his letters he tells us that, as he stepped on board the 
 ship, he adopted the words of Scipio Africanus, Ingrata pairia, 
 non mea ossa possklebls. When off the Cape of Good Hope, the 
 Sao Benito experienced a violent storm, which perhaps suggested 
 the vision of Adamastor, the supposed guardian of that terrible 
 spot, in his great poem. Arriving at Goa in September, 1553, 
 we find him, two months afterwards, engaged in an expedition 
 against the king of Pimenta, in favour of the king of Cochin, 
 wlio at that time was an ally of the Portuguese. Nearly all his 
 companions perished, and he returned to Goa. He was next 
 employed in an expedition against the Arabian corsairs of 
 the Ked Sea, who, in conjunction with the Venetians, still kept 
 up a precarious traffic by the overland route with India, and were 
 thus considered as rivals by the adventurers who had recently 
 opened the route by the Cape of Good Hope. The expedition 
 wintered in the island of Ormuz, and here he found time to 
 exercise his poetical powers. Returning to Goa in 1555, he 
 found a new governor in power, and satirized the abuses which 
 surrounded this functionary in some verses entitled " Disparates 
 na India" (Vagaries in India), which cost him a term of banish- 
 ment in the island of Macao. These four years of exile foiTn, 
 perhaps, the most tranquil and productive epoch in the poet's 
 life. Soon after his arrival, according to the most probable 
 naiTation, he heard of the death of the lady to whom he had 
 been so fondly attached, and perhaps it was to dissipate the grief 
 thus occasioned that he undertook a voyage to the Moluccas. 
 Returning to Macao, by the favour of a successor of the hostile 
 governor at Goa, he obtained an office (administrator of the effects 
 of deceased persons), which placed him above want during the 
 remainder of his residence in the island. The grotto of Camoens, 
 where the greater part of the "Lusiad" was composed, is still shown 
 to\nsitors. In 1560 he was recalled to Goa, but suflFered ship- 
 wreck on the coast of Cochin China, and barely escaped with 
 his life by swimming, saving only his " Lusiad." Arrived at Goa, 
 fresh troubles awaited him. He was thrown into prison on a 
 charge of misconduct in his office, and, when this was disposed 
 of, a claim for an alleged debt was set up, which detained him 
 for some time longer in captivity. It was not till 1569 that 
 Camoens again beheld the waters of the Tagus, nor was he even 
 then permitted to touch the soil of his native land ; for, owing 
 to the great plague which tlien raged, all ingress was strictly 
 forbidden. In 1570, however, he landed at Lisbon, and in 1572 
 was published his great work, " Os Lusiados" (The Portuguese), 
 with a manly dedication to the young King Sebastian, who was 
 then but ten years of age. The poem reached a second edition 
 within the year — a success then almost vrithout precedent — and 
 Tasso, who was then writing his Jerasalem Delivered, addressed 
 a sonnet to the author. But court favour in those days was 
 reseiwed for other than poetical meiits, and beyond a pension 
 equal to aboixt £5 per annum (which perhaps he was entitled to 
 on other grounds), no mark of royal or national gratitude seems 
 to have been bestowed on him. Camoens had brought home 
 only his "Lusiad" from the land whence so many had returned 
 laden with wealth, and the remaining years of his life were spent 
 in the most abject poverty. A poor Japanese slave, who had 
 come to Europe with him, supported his master by begging in 
 the streets, and when this faitlif'iil dependent died, Camoens was 
 carried to a public hospital. Here he lingered long enough to 
 hear of the battle of Alcacer-Quivir in 1578 in which the king 
 fell, and with him the Portuguese monarchy. With a bettor 
 feeling than he had manifested in earlier days, he wrote in one 
 of Ids latest letters — "I have so loved my country, that I 
 rejoice not only to die on her soil, but to die with her." He 
 died in the beginning of 1579, and was buried in the church of 
 Santa Anna. No stone marked the spot till 1593, when a gener- 
 ous Portuguese erected a simple tablet, recording that he, " the 
 jmnce of poets, lived poor and miserable, and died so." The 
 church itself was destroyed by the earthquake of 1755. 
 
 Fairly to appreciate the merits of the " Lusiad," we must 
 remember that Camoens was not only the first in modern times 
 to venture on an epic poem, and to execute it in the course of so 
 chequered a life, but that he had the courage, despite the classical 
 affectation then in vogue, to choose as his theme the history of 
 his own country. The first lines of the poem will sufficiently 
 indicate its scope, and the models which he proposed to follow : — 
 
 " Arms and tlio heroes, who from Lisbon's shore, 
 Through seas where sail was never spread before ; 
 Beyond where Ceylon lifts her spicy breast, 
 And waves her woods above the watery waste," &c. 
 
 It is an en-or to suppose that Camoens only intended to com- 
 memorate the achievements of the Portuguese navigators, with 
 which the minds of his contemporaries were familiar. He aimed 
 also to interweave with their lives the whole histoiy of Portugal, 
 by means of artifices which he could not fail to bon-ow from 
 the classic jioets, and which he has employed with perhaps not 
 inferior skill. The gi-oundwork of the poem is the voyage of 
 Vasco de Gama; but from the first there is a confusion between 
 the old pagan deities, under whose auspices the scene opens, 
 and the newer faith of which the heroes of the poem were zealous 
 propagators. If, however, the poem loses somewhat in artistic 
 completeness by this intermingling of conflicting theologies, it 
 may be said, on the other hand, that the achievements of Portu- 
 guese adventure could not have been rendered more romantic by 
 being clothed in the drapery of a bygone age. The poem consists 
 only of some 1100 rhymed octave stanzas in the metre of 
 Ariosto. Vasco de Gama is introduced when craizing near the 
 island of Mozambique, and arrives in safety at Melinda. The 
 king receives him hospitably, and in answer to his inquiries, 
 Gama proceeds to describe Europe, and his own counti-y in par- 
 ticular, and next relates the history of Portugal from the earliest 
 times down to his own day. The most remarkable episode — • 
 which is told with almost rigid historical accm-acy — is the well 
 known story of Inez de Castro. 
 
 If it were needful to add to the eulogies which Tasso, Calderon, 
 Voltaire, and Schlegel have passed on the " Lusiad," we might 
 allude to the fact that it has been translated not only into almost 
 every modem language, but into the Hebrew. There are three 
 translations into English ; that of Sir R. Fanshaw in 1655 ; that 
 of Mickle (perhaps the best for the ordinary reader), first pub- 
 lished in 1771 ; and that of Sir T. Mitchell in 1854. Mr. John 
 Adamson, the biographer of Camoens, has also edited another 
 version of part of the work ; and Lord Strangford is the author 
 of some elegant translations of his minor poems. A splendid 
 edition of the original work was published in Paris in 1817. The 
 other poems of Camoens consist of nearly 300 sonnets, of which 
 only a few are noteworthy, as bearing the impress of the poet's 
 chequered life; several canzoni, after the model of Petrarch ; a 
 few lyrical songs, sweet and impassioned ; a poetical version of 
 the 137th psalm ; and a number of eclogues, of which all but 
 eight are lost. It deserves to be noted, that Camoens enriched 
 his native tongue by the addition of above 2000 new words. In 
 person (we are told by Antoni) he was of middle stature, the 
 face full, the brow lowering, the nose long and raised in the 
 middle ; the hair, in his youth, so light as to be almost the 
 colour of saffron. His life is perhaps more in harmony with his 
 writings than that of most modern poets ; and had not the poli- 
 tical fortunes of Portugal, after his death, led to a disregard of 
 her language and literature, we may safely say that the fame of 
 Camoens would have been far more widely ditfused. — F. M. W. 
 
 CAMPAGNOLA, Domknico, an Italian painter, sm-named 
 Dali^e Greche. He was the son of Giulio Campagnola a painter 
 and engraver of some note. This artist flourished in the year 
 1543, and studied under Titian, with a success which is stated 
 to have even excited the jealousy of his master. His best 
 works in the Scuola del Santo, representing the "Evangelists," 
 approximate very nearly to the grandeur of Titian, as Lanzi 
 testifies. His drawings from the nude arc descril)ed as daringly 
 successful. As a landscape painter, of a Titianesque style, he 
 also possessed gi'cat merit. He was a man of no limited means 
 in art ; for his repute as an engraver, on both metal and wood, is 
 unquestionably good, though Ottley appears to hold that the 
 wood works ascribed to him are mostly copies from his designs 
 for the better material. Among h.is numerous etchings are 
 representations of the "Adoration of the Magi;" " Dives and 
 Lazarus;" "Christ and the Sick;" "The Holy Family;" 
 "Venus;" and "Bacchanals." — W. T.
 
 CAM 
 
 870 
 
 CAM 
 
 CAMPAGXOLI, BART0L05IE0, a violinist, was bom at 
 Cento, near Bologna, September 10, 1751, and died either at 
 Neustrelitz or at Hanover, November 6, 1827. His first master 
 was Dair Ocha, a pupil of Lolli, and he received farther instruc- 
 tion on his instrument from Don Paolo Gnastarobber, a pupO of 
 Tartini. He went with Lamotta to Venice, and thence to Padua. 
 In this place, where Tartini was reposing on the laurels of his 
 long and honourable ailistic career, Campagnoli played to the 
 venerable master, and received his warm encouragement. In 
 1770 he visited Rome, with success. He next spent six months 
 at Faenza, during which he pui-sued his study of the \-iolin with 
 the maestro di capella, Paolo Alberghi. Thence Campagnoli went 
 to Florence, where Nardini was residing, whom he was so pleased 
 to take as a model, that he remained at the Tuscan capital for 
 five years, where also he made the friendship of Cherubini. At 
 the end of 1775 he accepted the invitation of the prince bishop 
 of Freisingen in Bavaria, to enter his chapel. In 1778 Campag- 
 noli commenced a tour, in company vrith ISeinert the fagotist,* 
 through Poland and the adjacent states. In 1783, if not earlier, 
 he went to Dresden, where he was engaged by Carl, duke of Cour- 
 land. This liberal patron gave hun leave of absence to ^•isit dif- 
 ferent cities for the displa}- of his now famous' skill as a violinist ; 
 accordingly, besides other places, he appeared at Stockholm, 
 where he was created member of the Eoyal Academy of Music. 
 His engagement continued until the duke's death in 1787, when 
 Campagnoli was appointed concert master at Leipzig, with the 
 duection of the Abonnement concerts. In 1801 he visited Paris, 
 where he met once more his old friend Cherubini, and where his 
 playing successfully stood the test of comparison with that of 
 Rode, Krutzer, and the other eminent artists then resident in 
 the French metropolis. In 1808 he brought out as a singer his 
 second daughter, Albertina, then but thirteen years old, and, in 
 1810, her younger sister, Gianetta, also appeared as a vocalist. 
 These ladies subsequently attauied considerable distinction in 
 their art, to extend their opportunities for which, in 1816, their 
 father took them to Italy, and ilattei officiated as his deputy in 
 Leipzig duiing his absence. He afterwards resigned his appoint- 
 ment in that city to accept the less arduous one of music director 
 at Neustrelitz, which allowed him to spend much of his time 
 with his daughters, who were permanently engaged at Hanover. 
 Though he wrote extensively for his instrument, and naturally 
 exhibited his speciahties best in the performance of his own 
 music, he was not less successful in playing the bravura pieces 
 of other ^•iolin composers ; and he added much to his reputation 
 by his rendering of quartets, and similar chamber music. He 
 was personally liked as much as he was artistically admired, and 
 the extremely bad Gei-man he habitually spoke (for in his many 
 years of residence in Germany he never mastered the language), 
 gave drollery to all he said, which, combined with his natural 
 good humour, made him a welcome companion wherever he 
 appeared. His published works, which form but an inconsider- 
 able portion of his productions, consist of pieces for the violin in 
 all forms, from the study to the concerto, some compositions for 
 the viola, and some for the flute. These have all passed away 
 with their time, but his " Method for the Violin," with its 
 numerous progressive exercises, is still held in esteem, and his 
 " Exercises on the Seven Positions " is a work in the highest 
 repute. — G. A. M. 
 
 CAMPAN, Jeaxne-Louise-Hexriette Gexest, bom at 
 Paris in 1752. This lady, the strange vicissitudes of whose 
 life she has herself described in her interesting memoii-s, was the 
 daughter of a gentleman who held a respectable situation in the 
 office of the minister for foreign affairs under Louis XVI., and 
 was noted for his fiterary tastes. Hanng enjoyed from childhood 
 the combined advantages of courtly and literary society, she so 
 well profited by these as to be thought worthy of being appointed 
 reader to the royal princesses. After her marriage with M. 
 Campan, son of the king's private secretaiy, the queen, JIarie 
 Antoinette, attached Madame Campan to her person by appoint- 
 ing her first femme de chambre. She, like her royal mistress, 
 was surprised by the Revolution ; and, having witnessed the 
 dreadful scenes of the 10th August, was so little dismayed on 
 her o\N'n account, that, with admirable fidelity, she offered to 
 share the queen's imprisonment in the Temple. Her unconcealed 
 attachment to her mistress exposed her to such danger that she 
 was obliged to qiut Paris. On her arrival at Combertin, the 
 place of her retreat, she was met by the fearfid tidings of her 
 sister having been arrested, and of her having committed suicide. 
 
 As soon as the fall of Robespierre relieved her from apprehension 
 for her personal safety, she opened school at St. Gennain. When 
 Josephine Beauharnais, about to be man-ied to General Bonaparte, 
 wanted to place her daughter Hortense at school, that of iladame 
 Campan was selected. This naturally brought the ex-reader of 
 the court of the unfortunate Louis XVI. under the notice of 
 the futm-e emperor of the French. Hortense, the destmed wife 
 of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, remained under Madame 
 Campan's care, while her stepfather was running his marvellous 
 career of gloiy in Italy. The hero on his retiuii assisted at the 
 repi-esentation of Racine's Esther by the female pupils of St. 
 Germain, as Louis XIV. used to honour by his presence the 
 performance of the same play by madame de Maintenon's pro- 
 tegees at St. Cyr. Shortly after Napoleon assumed the imperial 
 purple, he appouited Madame Campan superintendent of the 
 imperial school at Ecouen, an institution erected for the daughters 
 of officers of the legion of honour. From this situation she was 
 ungenerously dismissed at the Restoration. To add to the mor- 
 tification of dismissal, came soitow for the death of her only 
 son. A cancer declared itself, and, after fingering some time 
 in suffering, she died at Mantes in 1822. Besides the memoire 
 alluded to, JIadame Campan has left " Anecdotes of the coiuts 
 of Louis XIV. and X\\," and some works on education. — J. F. C. 
 
 CAMP^VNA, Antonio Fuancesco, an Italian physician, was 
 bom at Fen-ara in 1751, and died in 1832. After prosecuting 
 the study of medicine at Ferrara, he became physician to the 
 hospital of Saint Jlaiy at Florence. He subsequently devoted 
 himself to natural science, and turned his attention to botany, 
 agriculture, and chemistry. He filled a chair of physical science 
 at Ferrara, His published works are, "A Catalogue of the 
 Plants in the Botanic Garden of Feirara ;" " The Pharmacopceia 
 of Ferrara ;" and treatises on inteiinittent fevers. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAilPANAIO, Lorenzo di Ludovico, a Florentine sculptor 
 and architect, bom in 1491 ; died in 1541. At Rome he attracted 
 the norice of Raphael, on whose recommendation he was 
 intrusted with some important tombs and buildings. 
 
 CA:kIPANELLA, Thojias, was bom oth Sept., 1568, at Stilo, 
 a small town in Calabria. At five years old, it is said, he was 
 distinguished for his extraordinaiy memory ; at thu-teen he read 
 and made notes on all the Latin authors; at fifteen he embraced 
 the monastic life, and joined the order of the Predicatori. The 
 silence of the convent, where his studies and meditarions were 
 pursued with unflagging assiduity, seems to have favoured the 
 rapid development of his mind ; and, before he had attained the 
 age of twenty-three, his name was already famous in the philo- 
 sophical world. But his ardent and enterprising genius could 
 not long brook the monotony of a cloister, nor could his intel- 
 lectual energy long be limited to merely contemplative study, 
 which, left to itself, must ever be devoid of practical result. It 
 is a leading characteristic of the Italian race, that they strive 
 ever to connect ideas with practice. Penetrating into the most 
 abstruse regions of speculation, they seek conrinually to turn 
 theory into life. Campanella is a striking instance of this 
 tendency. He was led to embrace warmly the philosophical 
 doctrines initiated by Bernardino Telesio, who sought to free the 
 human mind from Aristotelian tyranny, and to substitute expe- 
 rience and induction for the barren a priori process. With the 
 zeal of a convert, Campanella travelled all over Italy to spread 
 the new emancipating ideas. His vast erudition, his profound 
 con^-iction, gave to his fluent speech the force of eloquence, and 
 he made numerous proselytes in Calabria, Bologna, Florence, 
 and Padua. During his residence in Bologna, however, his 
 manuscripts were seized and handed over to the inquisition at 
 Rome ; but no immediate consequences followed. At the close 
 of this scientific pilgiimage, Campanella returned to Stilo in 1598. 
 Passing through the kingdom of Naples on his way, he could 
 not avoid seeing how that unhappy country was groaning under 
 the Spanish yoke — the worst that has ever oppressed even 
 Italy. The count de Lemoz, the stakes and gibbets of the holy 
 office, the ignorant and haughty despotism of its rolers, had 
 reduced this once smiling and fertile countiy, the birthplace of 
 some of earth's mightiest intellects, to the lowest stage of degra- 
 dation. NaturaHy enough Campanella, hitherto the apostle of 
 the emancipation of thought, now became the apostle of political 
 emancipation. The political tyranny of Philip III. was as 
 injurious to intellectual fi-eedom as was the intellectual despo- 
 tism of Aristotle to political liberty. The one was the bulwark 
 of the other, and in order to overtlu-ow either, it was necessary
 
 CAM 
 
 871 
 
 CAM 
 
 to combat both. So Campanella, following out his convictions 
 into this new sphere, consecrated himself to the work of redeem- 
 in'' his country from slavery. In a short time the influence of 
 his virtue and his genius enabled him to organize a powerful 
 conspiracy, spreading over the greater part of the kingdom, the 
 principal centres being Cerifalco, Catanzaro, Nicastro, Stilo, 
 Tropea, Squillace, Sant Agata, Cosenza, Keggio, Cassano, Cas- 
 trovillari, Satriano, and Terranova. But, a short time before the 
 appointed outbreak, two of the conspirators, Giambattista Biblia 
 and Fabio of Lauro, either through fear or cupidity, betrayed the 
 preparations. The leaders were imprisoned, and among them 
 Campanella. His imprisonment lasted twenty-seven years ; and 
 in the preface to one of his works, " Atheismus Triumphatus," 
 he nan-ates that he was tortured seven times. After this he 
 was tlurown into a subterranean dungeon. But torture and the 
 squalor of imprisonment only redoubled Campanella's activity, 
 and sharpened his genius. It is probable that the feeling of his 
 impotence to serve his country, the failure of all his plans, and 
 the effect which the sepulchral silence of his prison must have 
 had on his mind, may have persuaded him that a longer intel- 
 lectual labour was necessary in order to give new life to his 
 native land. Considering that the existing society was still ruled 
 in a great degree by old ideas and prejudices, he resolved once 
 more to enter the lists against Aristotelianism, and conceived 
 the audacious design of reconstracting human science from its 
 very foundations. In his earlier years he had published a work 
 entitled " Philosophia Sensibus Demonstrata," Naples, 1591, in 
 defence of the doctrines of Telesio ; and this work constituted 
 the foundation of his speculations, and determined then- method. 
 The fomidation of all is the maxim, Seritire est scire — know- 
 ledge is derived from sensation : the method is that of ascending 
 from the known to the unknown, in order to declare and prove 
 it. It is, as we said, the philosophical method of Telesio, fol- 
 lowed to such glorious results in later times by our own Bacon. 
 But two conditions were requisite in order to reconstruct the 
 edifice of human knowledge, according to the plan conceived 
 by Campanella — " Prodromus Philosophia; Instaurandie," Frank- 
 fort, 1017. First, a theory of the absolute, or the cogitation 
 of a system of metaphysics, which should form, so to speak, 
 the skeleton. This he provided in two works — " Philosophia3 
 Rationalis partes quinque," Paris, 1G38, in 4to; and " Univer- 
 sahs Philosophia3, sive metaphysicarum rerum juxta propria 
 dogmata, partes tres," Paris, 1G38. In the second place, it 
 was necessary to unite two things which, in the general opinion, 
 were separated, namely, philosophy and religion ; because life 
 is a unity resulting from the harmony of all its manifesta- 
 tions. So he wrote " Monarchia Messiah, ubi per philosophiam 
 demonstrantur jura summi pontificis super universum orbem," 
 Paris, Dubray, 1636, in 4to. But still more important was the 
 conquest of unbelief by a refutation of its theories and argu- 
 ments. With this view he wrote " Atheismus Triumpliatus ;" 
 and in order to upliold the rules which are necessary, in order 
 to enter with profit into the sanctuary of science, he wrote a 
 didactic book, " De Recta Ratione Studendi." The foundation 
 thus laid, he proceeded to build upon it all that can be known 
 iu the whole circle of arts and sciences, physics and politics. 
 In order thus to complete the edifice, he wrote " Realis Philo- 
 sophise partes quatuor, hoc est de rerum natura, hominum mori- 
 bus, pohtica, osconornica," &c., Frankfort, 1623. — One cannot 
 avoid asking how it happened that a man of such universal 
 genius, who can only be compared to Aristotle and to Leibnitz, 
 did not attain his goal? Why did his gigantic labours remain 
 almost unfruitful '? and why was the subsequent work of Des- 
 cartes and of Bacon necessary ? First, because it is an invari- 
 able, logical law, that demolition must precede reconstruction. 
 Catholicism had by this time discharged its functions in the 
 career of universal progi-ess. Luther had appeared. But Cam- 
 panella, fullowing the example of Marsilio Ficino, strove to use 
 Catholicism as an element in the restoratiim of human knowledge; 
 and it was this error which frustrated his herculean toil. With 
 such tenacity, indeed, did Campanella espouse the cause of 
 tlie churcli, that he waged an implacable war with the German 
 reformation. Secondly, as Leroux obsen'es, " Campanella 
 resolved to lay anew the foundations of everything; whereas 
 Bacon (of whom we may say what he said of Plato, that 
 whatever subject he took into consideration, he grasped the 
 whole as from a lofty rock) spent his whole life on a single 
 work, the perfecting of the natm-al sciences. In certain epochs 
 
 the struggles undertaken by the human spirit are like ordinary 
 battles; he is the great general who, presenting a wide front 
 and a wise arrangement, concentrates all his forces on one 
 point, breaks the ranks of the enemy, and crushes liim by falling 
 on the wings thus separated. Thus did Bacon, with his im- 
 mense ardour for progress of every kind, concentrate all his 
 strength on one single point. The natural sciences, whose 
 destiny he presaged, have triumphed ; and hence liis renown. 
 But Campanella, wishing to embrace all, and to construct all, 
 lost the battle through his eagerness to conquer at every point 
 at once, in battle array, as if the conquest of one point would 
 not have sufficed to decide the rest." But the special and 
 undeniable merit of this man of genius is that of having felt, in 
 the presence of a historical epoch dying and crumbling to atoms, 
 the necessity of unifying the functions of thought and its 
 representations, human activity and its products. To this wc 
 must add, the merit of ha\ang attempted this unification by 
 initiating a work which was to form the special task of the 
 nineteenth centuiy ; and of having, with the keen intuition of 
 genius, recognized two centuries before Lessing and Condorcet, 
 the law of the indefinite progress of the human race, bound 
 together by the ties of om- common natm-e. "The partial 
 steps," says Campanella, " made by individuals and by nations, 
 are but the elements and the efforts which advance the human 
 race, considered as one general association. This association 
 follows the laws which preside over its destiny, and which tend 
 to the development of its faculties in harmonious proportions." 
 And the nineteenth century ought to remember this, for assm-edly 
 the consciousness of the future is not to be attained without the 
 consciousness of the past. In that past the modern investigator 
 will find himself arrested by tlie intellectual monument raised 
 by Campanella, and will find, glistening among the rubbish of a, 
 past age, many gems well worthy of being brought to light. 
 
 The sepulchral gloom overspreading all Italy, only lighted up 
 to the eye of Campanella, as he watched from his living tomb, 
 by the funeral piles of fresh martyrs, did not in the least degree 
 diminish the hope of the indomitable mind of living to see his 
 speculative system translated into actual fact. Italy, as a 
 nation, was dead, and he concluded that, instead of isolated 
 nations, there would arise a universal monarchy, a cosmopolisin 
 which perfectly corresponds to his " Monarchy of Christ." Ho 
 turned to Spain, and said — " Dare, and thou shalt wield the 
 sceptre of the world." In this view he composed the work " De 
 Monarchia Hispanica," Amsterdam, 1640, 24mo. But Spain 
 was deaf to his appeal. One bitter disappointment after another 
 took from him the hope of seeing his desu-es fulfilled in his 
 lifetmie, but nothing could prevent bun from dreaming of their 
 realization in the future. So he continued to build up, stono 
 by stone, that city of the future in which the erring human 
 family should hereafter be gathered. His " Utopia " (Civitas 
 Solis) is the republic of Plato presided over by Christ. It is a 
 system of socialism, in which religious tolerance is practised, as 
 the only method of reconciling all men, and as almost an indis- 
 pensable preliminary of the religious unification which is to 
 come. It results in little less than cancelling the human 
 personality by an association of a monastic character ; but it 
 unfolds the precious principle " to every man according to his 
 works," a principle divulged by certain contemporary socialists 
 with the air of men who are announcing a new revelation. In his 
 saddest hours, too, Campanella tempered his soitows with song. 
 He composed Italian poems, warm with the tenderest affections, 
 and ever bright with the hopes which were the source of con- 
 stant inspiration, as one illusion iifter another passed away. 
 
 At length, in 1626, Campanella was fiberated from the 
 prisons of Naples. But the church of Rome could not forget 
 that this man would have robbed her of all the authority she 
 derived from the doctrines of the humiliation of the faithful, of 
 mortification, of the abnegation of every impulse of conscience. 
 Campanella recognized only Christ, radiant with the glory of 
 his transfiguration; Christ promising the reign of God on earth 
 — a reign of justice, truth, and love: so he was accused of 
 heresy. The church did not forget that he had designed a 
 temple that shoidd embrace all religions, so that the catholic 
 faith would only find itself on a level with others. The church 
 looked on tolerance as a mere idiilosophical hypocrisy — a blind 
 for infidelity — and she accused him of atheism. The unfortu- 
 nate philosopher, therefore, passed from the subterranean vaults 
 of Naples to the secret dungeons of the inquisition at Rome, wheie
 
 CA^l 
 
 872 
 
 CAM 
 
 he lingered for three years longer. Liberated in 1G29, lie was 
 warned that the implacable Spaniards were resolved to imprison 
 liim again in Naples, and various traps were laid for him, which 
 for a time he eluded. But the danger increashig, he resolved 
 to escape; and with the aid of the French ambassador, in 1634 
 he effected his object, disguised as a Minimo friar. At Mar- 
 seilles he was warmly welcomed by the illustrious Teireschio, 
 who took hun to his residence at Aix. After a few months 
 Campanella took up his abode at Paiis in the convent of the 
 Jacobms. Here he was honoured and sought after by all the 
 leading men of the capital. Cardinal Richelieu presented him 
 to Louis XIIL, who assigned to him a pension of 1000 francs. 
 Ue died May 2G, 1639, at the age of seventy-one — one of the 
 many martyrs of science whose worth was greater than his 
 fame. His works, besides those mentioned above, are — "Ad 
 doctorem gentium dc gcntilismo non retmendo, et de pra;destina- 
 tione et gratia," Paris, 1656, 4to; " De praidestinatione, elec- 
 tione, rej)robatione, et au.'ciliis divinas gratiai contra," Paris, 1636, 
 4to ; " De sensu reruni et magia," Paris, 1637, 4to; "Apologia 
 pro Galilreo." — [M.] 
 
 CAMPANI, GiovANxi Antonio, an Italian bishop, bom at 
 CarelU in 1427. His birth was so obscm-e that his real name 
 was unknown; and he might have died without having risen 
 beyond the condition of a shepherd, but for a priest who became 
 strack with the intelligence of the lad, whom he found tending 
 sheep, and, taking him into his service, taught him Latin. 
 Thi'ough the aid of the same kind patron he was enabled to 
 complete an education which embraced belles-lettres. While 
 following a course of studies he made the friendship of a man of 
 rank, who recommended him to the pope, and Campani became 
 secretary to CallLstus IIL When Pius IL succeeded to the papal 
 chair, he had his predecessor's secretary appomted major domo to 
 his own chief minister, Sassoferrato, and made him bishop of 
 Crotona. It is a stiiking proof of the opinion entertained of his 
 abilities by a court whose diplomatic skill has never been ques- 
 tioned, that the bishop should have been selected for the delicate 
 task of exciting the German powers to make war against the 
 Turks. His mission failed, and he did not take his failure in a 
 spuit of christian resignation, for he left Eatisbonne uttering 
 maledictions on the German race. It is not improbable that 
 his indignation was not unmingled with generous regrets for 
 what he believed a good cause ; for we subsequently find him 
 quarrelling with another pope, Sextus IV., on account of the 
 excesses committed by his troops on the suppression of a revolt 
 in Todi. This learned, acute, and brave bishop, who rose from 
 being a poor nameless keeper of sheep to be the confidant of 
 popes, had not even advantages of fixce or figure, for he was 
 ugly and deformed. His protest in favour of the people of Todi 
 lost him further favour. He died at Sienna in 1477. His 
 writings, directed to topics of the day, were brisk, vigorous, and 
 effective ; but contain no present interest beyond then* being 
 illustrative of a remarkable character. — J. F. C. 
 
 CAMPANI, Matteo and Giuseppe, two brothers, natives 
 of the diocese of Spoleto, floimshed about 1678. Matteo is 
 celebrated for several optical inventions, especially object-glasses 
 of enormous focal length. It was by the aid of these that he 
 discovered Jupiter's spots, a discovery which he had to maintain 
 against the claims of Diviiii. Giuseppe was also a noted inventor 
 and astronomer. 
 
 CAMPAXNA, Pedro, an artist, born of Spanish parents at 
 Brussels in 1503. He studied in Italy at an early age, and is 
 even alleged to have been a pupil of Kaffaelle. Charles V. invited 
 him to Spain, where he painted the "Purification" and the 
 "Nativity" fur the cathedral of Seville, and a " Descent from the 
 Cross" for the church of St. Lorenzo. He was glad, however, 
 to exchange his success in a foreign city for the sight of his natal 
 place once more, and he died rich and famous at Brussels in 
 1570.— W. T. 
 
 CAMPANTON or CANPANTON, Rabbi Isaac ben 
 Jacob, celebrated as a teacher of the Talmud, and therefore 
 styled the " Gaon of Castile," died in 1463, at the remarkable 
 age of 103 years. He composed an excellent treatise on the 
 method of studying the Talmud, under tlie title of " Darche 
 Ha-Talmud " (The Ways of the Talmud), which has gone through 
 several editions. — T. T. 
 
 CAiMPANUS OK NovARA, the first translator of Euclid into 
 Latin. It is not certain when the Campanus Uved who did this 
 eminent service to mathematics. There was one of the name 
 
 who wrote a calendar in 1200, an(jther who was chaplain to 
 Pope Urban IV., elected 1261, and the honour has been claimed 
 for both. Some have thought that it is due to an even earlier 
 Campanus living some time in the eleventh century. The trans- 
 lation was manifestly made from an Arabic version, and was first- 
 printed in 1482. — J. B. 
 
 CAJIPANUS, JoHANN, a German divine of the sixteenth 
 century. He was a follower of Luther till 1530, when he 
 fomided a sect of his own called the Campanites. He held a 
 peculiar opinion respecting the Supper, and taught that the Son 
 and Holy Spirit are not two persons distinct from the Father. 
 
 CAMPBELL, one of the most powerful clans among the' 
 Scottish Highlanders, whose chiefs have for upwards of five cen- 
 turies taken a prominent part in the public affairs of the country. 
 According to tradition their original name was O'Dubbin, and 
 theii' seat Lochuw. One of then' chiefs named Diarmid was a 
 famous warrior, and from him the clan were frequently denomi- 
 nated " the sons of Diarmid." In the reign of ilalcolm Canmore, 
 a chief named Gillespie mamed the heiress of Locliow, ami 
 assumed the name of Campbell, which was henceforth borne by 
 the whole clan. Sir Colin, one of his descendants, was so 
 distinguished by his warlike achievements and the additions he 
 made to his estates, that he obtained the surname of More or 
 Great, and from him the chief of the clan is to this day styled 
 in Gaelic Mac Caelum Moke, or the son of Colin the Great. 
 His eldest son. Sir Neil, was one of the first to join Robert 
 Bruce, and adhered with unwavering fidelity to that monarch's 
 cause throughout the whole of his chequered career. He was 
 rewarded with the hand of Lady Maiy, Brace's sister, and with 
 a grant of the forfeited estates of the earl of Athol. Sir Colin, 
 his son, rendered important service to Edward Bruce in his 
 Irish campaigns, and to David, son of King Robert, m expelling 
 the English from the kingdom. Sir Duncan, the great-grandson 
 of Sir Colin, was accounted one of the most wealthy barons in 
 Scotland, and was raised to the peerage by James II. in 1445. 
 He was appointed king's justiciary by James I. with the title of 
 Lord Campbell. His gi-andson Colin, first earl of Argyll (1457), 
 acquired by marriage the extensive lordship of Lorn, and after 
 holding successively many important public situations, such as 
 master of the household, ambassador to the courts of Eugland 
 and France, royal justiciary, &c., eventually, for a long period, 
 filled the office of chancellor of Scotland. He received in 1481 
 an extensive gi'ant of lands in Knajidale, from the forfeited 
 possessions of the Lord of the Isles. His son and successor, 
 Archibald, second earl, fell in command of the vanguard at 
 the disastrous battle of Flodden. During the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries the Campbells continued to make rapid 
 advances in territoiy and in power. Colin, thu-d earl, obtained 
 the important hereditary office of justice-general of Scotland. 
 His son Archibald was the first person of rank and infiueuco 
 in Scotland who embraced the prutestant religion, and was one 
 of the most strenuous supporters of the Reformation. On his 
 deathbed he earnestly entreated his son to maintain the pro- 
 testant religion as his most precious heritage. Archibald, fifth 
 earl, was deeply involved in the plots and wars of the troublous 
 times of Queen ILary, and commanded the vanguard of her ai'my 
 at the battle of Langside. He was ultimately appointed lord- 
 high-chancellor, an office which was also held by his successor, 
 Colin, sixth earl. Archibald, seventh earl, gained consider- 
 able reputation as a military officer, and sen'ed with great 
 distinction under Philip of Spain in his wars against the states 
 of Holland. It was probably through his connection with that 
 monarch, that he renounced the hereditary faith of his family, 
 and joined the Romish chm'ch. In consequence of this step tho 
 government compelled him to make over the greater part of his 
 estates to his son, 
 
 Campbisll, Archibald, Lord Lorn, afterwards ninth earl and 
 first marquis of Argj'll, the celebrated Gillespic Gkumach, or 
 Archibald the Grim, the leader of the covenanting party 
 during the great ci«l war. He was born in 1598, and was early 
 introduced into public life. In 1626 he was made a privy 
 councillor, and in 1634 was appointed one of the extraordinary 
 lords of session. When the arbitrary and impohtic measures 
 of Charles I. and Laud had kindled a flame throughout Scot- 
 land, which ultimately destroyed the royal authority, Argyll was 
 summoned to London to assist the king with his counsel, and 
 earnestly recommended the entire abolition of those innovations 
 on the worship of the Scottish church, which had roused the
 
 CAM 
 
 873 
 
 CAM 
 
 indi,<!;natioii of the people. His advice was not followed, and 
 on his return to Scotland he signed the national covenant, and 
 a few months after attended the famous assemhly which met 
 at Glasgow, November, 1638, and declared publicly his approba- 
 tion of its proceedings. When hostilities at length broke out 
 between Charles and the Scottish nation in 1639, Argyll raised 
 his vassals and espoused the popular cause. In 1640, he marched 
 to the north at the head of five thousand men, and compelled 
 the inhabitants of Badenoch, Athol, and Mar, to submit to the 
 authority of the parliament. Then marching eastward into 
 Angus he demolished Au-lie and Forthar, the castles of the earl 
 of Airlie, who had fled on hearing of his approach. Next year 
 when Charles visited Scotland, with the view of gaining over 
 the covenanters, he raised Argyll to the rank of marquis, and 
 made every effort to conciliate his powerful subject. When Charles 
 took up arms against the English parliament, Argyll, who was 
 now the recognized leader of the covenanters, induced the Scottish 
 council to make repeated offers of mediation ; but these proposals 
 Lavhig been rejected by the king, the Scots at length resolved to 
 send an army to the assistance of the parliament. From this 
 time onward Argyll took a prominent part in the civil war ; and 
 when, after the battle of Marston Moor, Montrose took the 
 field in behalf of the king, and collected a considerable body 
 of Highlanders to his standard, the marquis was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the covenanting army. His talents, 
 however, were not of a warlike kind, and he met with a bloody 
 defeat at Inverlochy, 1st Febniary, 1645 — the most signal 
 disaster that ever befell the race of Diarmid. His estates 
 were so completely wasted by the devastating inroads of Mon- 
 trose and Colkitto, that a sum of money was voted by the 
 parliament for the support of his family, and a collection was 
 ordered to be made throughout all the churches for the relief of 
 Lis plundered clansmen. Argyll took no direct part in the 
 negotiations between the Scottish army and the parliament 
 respecting the disposal of the king's person ; but he opposed 
 the engagement entered into by the duke of Hamilton, and 
 other prosbyterian royalists, for the purpose of restoring the 
 royal cause ; and after the defeat of the engagers at Preston, 
 Argyll, Warriston, and the other leaders of the covenanting 
 party seized the reins of government. The execution of Charles 
 completely alienated this party, and indeed the whole Scottish 
 nation, from the English republicans ; and they immediately pro- 
 claimed Prince Charles, the eldest son of the deceased monarch, 
 king of Scotland in his father's stead. At his coronation on 
 the 1st of January, 1651, Argyll placed the crown on the 
 young monarch's head. So great was the influence of the mar- 
 quis at this juncture, that Charles, though secretly fearing and 
 hating him, promised to confer upon him a dukedom, and made 
 a proposal to man-y his daughter, which the wary chief pru- 
 dently declined. After the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar and 
 Worcester, Argyll, amid almost universal despair, strove to 
 raise the de-pressed spirits of his fellow-nobles, and nmstered 
 his clan with the view of resisting the victorious forces of the 
 Commonwealth, but without effect ; and a reluctant submission 
 was at last extorted from him by Major-general Dean, who 
 unexpectedly arrived at Invcrary by sea, and surprised the 
 marquis while confined to his castle by sickness. On the 
 death of Cromwell, Argyll was elected by the county of Aber- 
 deen a member of Richard's parliament, and showed great 
 zeal in promoting the interests of the exiled monarch. At the 
 Restoration he repaired to London, for the purpose of congratu- 
 lating the king ; but on his arrival at Whitehall, he was imme- 
 diately aiTested and committed to the Tower. He was shortly 
 after sent down to Scotland and tried on fourteen dill'crent 
 charges, extending over all the transactions which had taken 
 place in Scotland since 1638. The trial was conducted by 
 Middleton, the royal commissioner, with a total disregard, not 
 merely of justice, but of common decency. The unanswerable 
 defence of the accused peer compelled the parliament, though 
 filled with his enemies, to exculpate him from all the charges 
 in his indictment except that of compliance with Cromwell's 
 usm-pation. Even on this point the evidence was defective, and 
 his acquittal seemed certain ; but after the case was closed, a 
 number of private letters which Argyll had written to Monk, 
 were laid before the court by a messenger, whom that treacherous 
 villain had sent down from London with all haste, on learning 
 the scantiness of the proof against his former friend. On evi- 
 dence thus basely obtained and illegally brought forward, the 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 old nobleman was found guilty and condemned to be beheaded. 
 This sentence was executed on the 27th of May, 1661. The 
 marquis displayed great calmness and dignity during the closing 
 scene. " I could die like a Roman," he said ; " but I choose 
 rather to die like a Christian." The character of Argyll was not 
 free from defects ; but he was a true patriot, a stauuch prosby- 
 terian, and a statesman of great sagacity, experience, and con- 
 summate address. His vast influence and ambition made him 
 equally dreaded and hated by the neighbouring chiefs ; but he 
 was almost adored by his own clan, and his memory is still 
 held in high veneration by the Scottish presbyterians. 
 
 Campbell, Akchibald, ninth earl, was the eldest son of 
 the preceding. He received an excellent education under the 
 eye of his father, and travelled for three years on the continent. 
 On bis return he took the opposite side from his father, and, 
 attaching himself to the royal cause, fought for Charles IL at 
 the disastrous battle of Dunbar. Even after the final defeat of 
 the Scottish army at Worcester, he still continued in arms, and 
 in 1654 joined the earl of Glencaim with a strong body of his 
 clan ; and, in his zeal for the interests of the king, consented to 
 serve against the English parliament along with the Jlacdonalds, 
 and other hereditary enemies of his house. After all hope of 
 resistance was extinguished. Lord Lorn submitted to Monk, who 
 treated him with greivt severity, and even committed him to prison 
 in 1657, where he lay till the Restoration. In return for his ser- 
 vices, Charles remitted his father's forfeiture, and bestowed upon 
 him the family estates and the ancient earldom, to the great 
 disappointment of the greedy and unscrapulous ^Middleton, who 
 expected to be enriched by tlie spoils of the man whom he bad 
 hunted to death. In 1662, the earl was condemned to death 
 by the Scottish parliament, because in a private letter which 
 Middleton intercepted, he had comiilained of the calumnies of his 
 enemies ; but the king at once interposed, and saved his life. For 
 twenty years he continued to give a moderate though steady sup- 
 port to the government, and even to some extent countenanced 
 then- persecution of the covenanters — a part of bis conduct which 
 he afterwards bitterly bewailed. In 1681 the Scottish parlia- 
 ment, at the instance of the duke of York — afterwards James VII. 
 — enacted the notorious test of passive obedience, which was so 
 absurd and self-contradictory, that even eighty of the episcopal 
 ministers refused to take it, and were in consequence ejected 
 from their hvings. Ai-gyll was prepared to resign his office of 
 privy councillor rather than subscribe this test ; but, at the 
 request of the duke, he at length complied, subjoining the explana- 
 tion, that he took it so far as it was consistent with itself and 
 the protestant religion. James had previously been made aware 
 that this explanation was to be given by the earl, and had 
 apparently received it with great satisfaction. He had perceived, 
 however, that he could not rely on the support of Argyll in his 
 flagitious designs against the religion and liberties of the country, 
 and therefore resolved to avail himself of this opportunity to 
 destroy him. The carl was accordingly apprehended and brought 
 to trial for treason and leasing-mnking, found guilty, and con- 
 demned to death on the 18th October, 1681. On the evening 
 of the 20th, however, he made his escape from the castle of 
 Edmburgh, in the disguise of a page holding up the train of his 
 stepdaughter. Lady Sophia Lindsay; and, in spite of a keen 
 pursuit, made his way to London, and thence passed over to 
 Holland. Sentence of attainder was immediately pronounced 
 against him, his estate was confiscated, his arms were reversed 
 and torn, and a large reward was offered for his head. 
 
 Argyll remained in Holland, living in obscurity, until 1685,^ 
 where, in company with other exiles, he planned an invasion of 
 Scotland, sinndtaneously with the descent of ]\Ionmouth on the 
 southern coast of England. They set sail from Amsterdam on 
 the 2nd of May ; but on reaching his own country, Argyll found 
 that ample preparations had been made against his attack, and 
 that even his own clan were disheartened, and unable to aflbrd 
 him adequate assistance. The covenanters cherished a deep grudge 
 against Argyll on account of the support which he had fonnerly 
 given to the persecuting government, and refused to unite with 
 him. His ships were captured by some royal frigates, his military 
 stores fell into the hands of the enemy, provisions failed, and the 
 Highlanders deserted by hundreds. In this extremity, Argyll, in 
 conqdiance with the urgent advice of his associates, quitted tlio 
 Highlands, and marched tow:u-ds Glasgow. But his guides mistook 
 their way during the night, and led the troops into a morass. All 
 order and subordination ceased, the diminished and disheartened 
 
 68
 
 band of insiu-gents broke up and dispersed, and next day their 
 unfortunate leader was taken prisoner by a party of militia while 
 attempting to cross the Cart at Inchinnan, near Paisley. He 
 was immediately conveyed to Edinburgh, eveiy kind of indignity 
 being heaped upon him during his journey. On reaching the 
 castle he was put in irons, and informed that he was not to be 
 brought to a new trial for his rebellion, but to be executed under 
 his former sentence. He bore all this treatment with astonishing 
 patience and equanimity, and though threatened with the torture 
 by the positive orders of James himself, to compel him to reveal 
 the names of his supporters, he resolutely declined to say anything 
 that could compromise his friends. He professed deep penitence 
 for his former unworthy compliance wth the sinful measures of 
 the government, and expressed his firm con\-iction that the good 
 cause would ultimately triumph. His beha\-iom- on the scaffold 
 was remarkably composed, and even cheerful ; and his farewell 
 speech breathed the spirit of piety, resignation, and forgiveness. 
 He was beheaded on the 30th of June, 1685, and his head 
 fixed on the tolbooth. After the expulsion of the Stuarts, the 
 iniquitous sentence against Argyll was treated as a nullity by 
 the convention, and his son was at once restored to his estate 
 and honours, and was selected from the whole body of Scottish 
 nobles to offer the crown to William and ilary. 
 
 Campbell, Johx, duke of Argyll and Greenwich, bom 10th 
 October, 1678, was the son of Archibald first duke, and grand- 
 son of Archibald ninth earl of Ai-gyll. At an early age he gave 
 promise of his futm-e eminence as a statesman and a soldier. 
 In 169i King William bestowed upon him the command of a 
 regiment, and on the death of his father in 1703, he was made 
 a pri\'y councillor, captain of the Scotch horse guards, and one of 
 the extraordinary lords of session. In 1705 he was appointed 
 high commissioner to the Scottish parliament, and in return for 
 his services in promoting the union between the kingdoms, he 
 was created an English peer by the titles of Baron of Chatham, 
 and Earl of Greenwich, and in 1710 was made a knight of the 
 garter. He served with gi-eat distinction in Flanders, under the 
 dulce of j\Iarlborough, and was present at the famous battles of 
 Eamilies, Oudenarde, and JIalplaquet, and at the sieges of Ostend, 
 Lisle, Ghent, Bruges, and Tournay. He had a considerable 
 share in defeating the French at JIalplaquet, where his coat, hat, 
 and penike were pierced by musket balls. On the change of 
 rainistiy in 1710, the duke was appointed commander-in-chief 
 in Spain ; but having been seized with a violent fever, and dis- 
 appointed of supplies through the treachery and mismanagement 
 of the government, he retmTied home. He denounced the con- 
 duct of the ministry in his place in the house of lords, and was 
 in consequence deprived of all his employments. On the fatal 
 illness of Queen Anne in 1714, the duke repaired uninvited to 
 the covmcil board, along \nt\i the duke of Somerset ; and by his 
 presence and prompt measures completely disconcerted the plot 
 of Bolingbroke and his Jacobite accomplices, for the restoration 
 of the Stuarts. On the accession of George I., the important 
 services which the duke had rendered to the protestant succession 
 were not overlooked, and he was made groom of the stole, and 
 commander-in-chief of the forces in Scotland. WTien 5Iar 
 induced the Highlanders to take up arms in 1715, Argyll, who 
 was now esteemed, after JIarlborough and Stair, the greatest 
 British commander of his day, was despatched to Scotland for the 
 purpose of suppressing the rebellion. The number of regular 
 troops placed under his command was altogether inadequate ; 
 but by prompt and \-igorous measures, he succeeded in raising a 
 large body of volunteers for the protection of the country south 
 of the Forth. After a long and ruinous delay at Perth, JIar, 
 who was utterly incompetent for the task he had assumed, set 
 out on his march towards the south ; but his progress was arrested 
 by Arg)-ll, who led his forces out from Stirling, and gave battle 
 to the Highlanders at Sheriffumir, near Dunbhme, 13th November, 
 1715. After a brief but sharp struggle, the left wing of both 
 armies was defeated, and both generals in consequence claimed 
 the victory. But all the advantages of the contest remained 
 with Argyll. He returned triumphant to London, and at first 
 stood high in the favour of the king ; but in a few months he was 
 deprived of all his offices in consequence, it was generally believed, 
 of the moderation of his counsels, and the humanity he had 
 exhibited in the hour of victory. The government soon became 
 sensible of the blunder they had committed, in affronting a 
 nobleman so powerful and popular, both in the Highlands and 
 Lowlands of Scotland; and in 1719 he was appointed lord- 
 
 steward of the household, and created duke of Greenwich. Dur- 
 ing the ministry of Walpole the government of Scotland waa 
 virtually mtrusted to the duke and his brother, Lord Hay. 
 His influence as a statesman was great, both in the senate and 
 the cabinet, and was, no doubt, increased by his vast authority 
 as a highland chieftain. He did not hesitate to risk the favour 
 of the court, and to incm* the loss of his places, by opposing 
 whatever measures he considered injurious to the country ; anj 
 his defence of the privileges of the Scottish capital on the occiuS I 
 sion of the Porteous mob, gave great offence to Queen Caro-* I 
 line, who acted as regent in the absence of George II. on 
 the continent. He spent the last three years of his busy and 
 useful life in retnement, and died in 1743, in the sixty-fifth 
 year of his age. A monument, executed by Roubillac, has been 
 erected to his memoiy in Westmmster abbey, and Pope has paid 
 a beautiful and well-known tribute both to his public and 
 domestic vu-tues. — His brother, Archibald, earl of Hay, who 
 succeeded hun in the dukedom, was born in 1682._ He at first 
 studied law at Utrecht, but afterwards adopted the military 
 profession, and served for some time under the duke of ilarl- 
 borough. He was one of the commissioners for treating of the 
 Union, and, after it was completed, was chosen one of the Scotch 
 representative peers in the first parhament of Great Britain. 
 When the rebellion broke out in 1715, he took up arms in 
 defence of the reigning dynasty, and was wounded at the battle 
 of Sheriffmuir. He was appointed keeper of the privy seal in 
 1725, and the great seal was held by him from 1734 till his 
 death in 1761. He was for many years intrusted with the 
 management of Scottish affairs, and had almost imbounded 
 influence among his countrymen. The duke was as much dis- 
 tinguished for his Uterary accomplishments as for his pohtical 
 talents and experience, and had collected one of the most valu- 
 able Ubraries in Great Britain. 
 
 " Cajipbell, George Johx Douglas, eighth duke, bom 
 in 1823, is distinguished both as a statesman and a man of 
 letters. He succeeded liis father in 1847, was appointed lord- 
 privy-seal, January, 1853, and held the oflSce of postmaster- 
 general from November, 1855, till the overthrow of Lord Pal- 
 merston's admmistration in 1858. The duke is hereditary master 
 of the queen's household in Scotland, and hereditary sheriff' of 
 Argyleshire. He was elected chancellor of the university of St. 
 Andrews in 1851, and rector of the university of Glasgow in 
 1854. He is the author of "An Essay on the Ecclesiastical 
 HistoiT of Scotland since the Keformation," and of several 
 pamphlets on chmxh questions. — J. T. 
 
 Besides the ducal house of Argj'U, several branches of the 
 clan Campbell have been elevated to the peerage. The moat 
 powerful and noted of these is the Breadalbane branch, which 
 sprang from Sii" Colin Campbell, second son of Sir Duncan of 
 Lochawe, who was created by James II. Lord Campbell of 
 Argyll. 
 
 Campbell, Sir John, of Glenorchy, the first earl of Breadal- 
 bane, acted a conspicuous part in public affairs at the period of 
 the Revolution. In 1690 he was employed by the government 
 to treat with the Jacobite chiefs, and was intrusted with the 
 sum of twelve or fifteen thousand pounds to distribute among 
 them, with the view of attaching them to the interest of King 
 William. When afterwards asked to account for the money, he 
 answered — " The Highlands are quiet, the money is spent, and 
 that is the best way of accounting among friends." Though he 
 had sworn allegiance to Wilham and Marj^, he took a leading 
 part in Montgomery's plot for the restoration of James ; and the 
 Jacobite chiefs affinned that he advised them to give in their 
 adherence to the new government for the present, but to hold 
 themselves in readiness to take up arms for James when he 
 should call upon them to do so. On this charge he was for 
 some time conmiitted to prison. The earl was deeply implir 
 cated in the massacre of Glencoe ; and was the only one of the 
 perpetrators of that atrocious deed who had any personal ends 
 to serve by the extermination of the Macdonalds. He was at 
 once cruel, treacherous, and venal ; and is described by Mackay 
 as being " grave as a Spaniard, as cunning as a fox, as wise as a 
 serpent, and as slippeiy as an eel." — (Macaulay's History of 
 England, vol. iv.) — J. T. 
 
 CAilPBELL, Alexander, D.D., the fomider among the 
 Baptists of the United States of America of a new sect, called 
 after himself Campbellites, died at New Orleans in 1855, aged 
 sixty-three. He edited a monthly journal named the Millennial
 
 CAM 
 
 875 
 
 CAM 
 
 Jlarbinger, in wbicli he expounded and advocated his peculiar 
 views. The new sect prevails chiefly in the western states, and 
 its chief peculiarities seem to be a renunciation of all creeds, and 
 some original doctrine respecting the millennium. In 1850, 
 according to a very careful estimate made for the Baptist 
 Almanac, the sect numbered nearly 2000 churches, 848 ministers, 
 and over 118,000 communicants. — F. B. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir AleXjVnder, a distinguished British 
 officer, born in Perthshire in 1759. He was sent to India in 
 1793 with the 74tli regiment, and served there for fourteen years, 
 risino' in 1802 to the command of the northern division of the 
 Madras army, and being appointed, when Sir Arthur Wellesley 
 left the East, to succeed him in the command of Seringapatam, 
 Mysore, and all Tippoo's dominions. He next served in the 
 peninsular war, winning special distinction as the leader of the 
 right wing of the British araiy at the battle of Talavera, where 
 he was severely wounded. He was made a baronet in 1815. 
 In 1820 he was appointed commander-in-chief at Madras, and 
 died at Fort St. George in 1824. — J. B. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Archibald, a Scottish prelate, a descendant 
 of the Argyll family, was consecrated in 1711, and in 1721 
 elected by the clergy of Aberdeen to be their bishop. Along 
 OTth Bishop Gadderar, he represented his brethren in Scotland 
 in the negotiations entered into at that period, for the union of 
 the Greek chmxh in Turkey and Russia with the nonjuring 
 episcopalians of England and Scotland. These negotiations 
 were broken off by the death of the czar, Peter. Bishop Camp- 
 bell died in London, having a considerable time before his death 
 resigned his office at Aberdeen. — J. B. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir Archibald, Bart., G.C.B., &c., a meri- 
 torious and most distinguished British officer, descended from 
 the Campbells of Glenlyon. The military profession having 
 been almost hereditary in his family, he entered the army in 
 1787. The follo\^Tng year he embarked for India, where he 
 remained till 1801, and was actively employed in the Mysore, 
 and against Tippoo Sultan. In 1808 he embarked for Portugal, 
 and served with great distinction both under Sir John Moore 
 and Wellington ; and was present at nearly all the great battles 
 and sieges in the Peninsula. After the downfall of Napoleon, 
 Su: Archibald was appointed by the prince regent of Portugal 
 to the command of a division of his array, with the rank of 
 major-general. He retiu-ned home in 1820, and soon after 
 sailed for India as colonel of the 38th regiment. At this junc- 
 ture war broke out with the Bm-mese, and Sir Archibald, on his 
 arrival in India, was appointed to the command of the expedi- 
 tion against Rangoon, the principal seaport of Burmah. He 
 anchored off that place on the 10th of May, 1823, and captured 
 it m twenty minutes after the landing of his troops. The enemy 
 assembled an army of nearly 60,000 men, with 300 pieces of 
 cannon, while the British troops did not exceed GOOO. A series 
 of engagements followed, in every one of which the Bunnese 
 were defeated with great slaughter, and ultimately compelled to 
 make peace on terms dictated by the British. Sir Archibald 
 was rewarded for his brilliant and important services with the 
 thanks of the governor-general and of the two houses of the 
 British parliament, along with a pension of £1000 per annum. 
 He returned to England in 1829, and in 1831 he was created a 
 baronet, and appointed lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 
 an office which he held for ten years. In 1839 he was offered 
 and accepted the appointment of commander-in-chief in Bombay, 
 but was soon after compelled by ill health to resign the office. 
 He died at Edinburgh in 1843. — Sir John Campbell, his son, 
 born in 1807, was also a general in the British army, and fell 
 at the siege of Sebastopol, 18th June, 1855, in the unsuccessful 
 attack on the Redan. His loss was deeply deplored, and his 
 kindness and courtesy, not less than his brilliant courage, ende;u- 
 his memory to all who knew liim. — J. T. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Colonel Arthur, bom in Augusta county, 
 Vhginia, in 1742; died in Knox county, Kentucky, in 1815. 
 When only fifteen years old he was captured by the Indians, 
 and carried into the wilderness near the gi-eat northern lakes, 
 where he was protected by a chief who adopted him as a son. 
 He staid with them three years, during which time ho learned 
 their language, joined in their excursions, and adopted their 
 habits. Then he made his escape ; and after travelling several 
 liundred miles through the forests, obliged to make long circuits 
 to avoid the Indian encampments, he reached the outposts of 
 the English army, and thence regained his home. In the war 
 
 of the revolution he took the popular side, attained the rank of 
 colonel, and saw considerable sei-vice. He also had a seat in 
 the Virginia assembly, and assisted in forming the constitution 
 of that state.— F. B. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Colin, an architect, a native of Scotland, who 
 published between 1715 and 1725 a series of architectural 
 designs named " Vitruvius Britannicus." Two supplementary 
 volumes were published in 1767 and 1771 by Gandon and 
 Woolfe. Mr. Campbell was surveyor of the works at Greenwich 
 hospital, and died about 1734. — J. B. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir Colin. See Clyde. 
 
 CAMPBELL, George, D.D., one of the most distinguished 
 theologians of Scotland, was born at Aberdeen in December, 
 1719, He received his education at the grammar school in 
 that town, and afterwards attended the literary classes in its 
 university. The profession which he originally chose, or which 
 was chosen for him, was that of the law ; and he was regularly 
 articled to a clerk or writer to the signet in Edhiburgh. Before 
 the expiry of his apprenticeship, however, he had formed the 
 resolution of quitting the law for the church, and with that view 
 resumed his attendance on the classes necessary to prepare him 
 for being licensed as a preacher dm-ing the continuance of his 
 legal engagements. In the year 1746 he received license at 
 Aberdeen, and two years afterwards was appointed to the charge 
 of Banchory-Teman, a country parish upon the Dee, about 
 twenty miles above Aberdeen. He remained there eight years, 
 quietly prosecuting his studies and discharging his pastoral 
 labours. It was during that period, and about the year 1750, as 
 we learn from his own prefaces, that two of the works by which 
 he subsequently became most fiivourably known were begim^ 
 his '' Philosophy of Rhetoric," and his " Translation of the Gos- 
 pels." In 1757 he was promoted to one of the city charges in 
 Aberdeen ; and in 1759 he was made principal of Marischal 
 college. In 1760 he preached a sermon before the synod of 
 Aberdeen, in which he vigorously grappled with the well-known 
 argument of Hume against miracles. He was requested by 
 the synod to publish the discourse ; but he wsely prefeiTcd 
 throwing it into the form of a treatise, which afforded greater 
 scope for doing justice to the subject. The manuscript in 
 this form was transmitted to Dr. Blair, for the purpose of 
 being submitted to Mr. Hume; and it appeared before the 
 pubHc in 1763, with the letter written by Hume on its perusal. 
 This was Dr. Campbell's first publication, and it has always 
 been regarded as one of his best. In 1771 Dr. Campbell was 
 appointed to the chair of divinity and church histor}' in Marischal 
 college, and on accepting this appointment he resigned his paro- 
 chial charge.. In 1777 he published a sermon preached before 
 the Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge, on the " Suc- 
 cess of the first Publishers of the Gospel, considered as a proof 
 of its Truth." The argument for Christianity on this ground 
 has, perhaps, never been within a short compass more clearly 
 and happily put. Several other productions of a smaller kind 
 proceeded at intervals from his pen, which it is unnecessary to 
 specify here. In 1776 he published his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," 
 a work which fully sustained his reputation, and which is char- 
 acterized by Archbishop Whately, in the introduction to his treatise 
 on rhetoric, as the most important that had been produced on the 
 subject in modern times, for " depth of thought and ingenious 
 original research, as also for practical utility to the student." 
 His largest, and in various respects his greatest work, was his 
 " New Translation of the Gospels," accompanied by prehminary 
 dissertations on the language and more peculiar phrases of the 
 New Testament, and with critical notes on the portion translated. 
 It made its appearance in 1778. In many important respects 
 the work on the gospels is far superior to any production of the 
 period, and is still deserving of careful perusal. Dr. Campbell 
 lost his wife in 1792, and his own death took place in 1796. 
 They died without issue. His lectures on church history, and 
 those also on divinity and the composition of discourses, were 
 published after his death. A uniform edition of Dr. Campbell's 
 works has been published by Tegg & Co., London, in six 8vo. 
 vols.— P. F. 
 
 CAMPBELL, George W., born in Scotland about 1768; 
 graduated at Princeton college in America in 1794. At one 
 period he was judge of the United States district court in 
 Tennessee. From 1803 to 1809 he was a representative in 
 congress from the same state; and during the last two years 
 of this term he held the important post of chainnan of the
 
 committee of wajs and means. From 1811 to 1814, and again 
 from 1815 to 1818, he was a senator in congress. During the 
 interval between these two periods, he was secretary of the 
 treasury under President JIadison. In 1818 he was appointed 
 minister-plenipotentiary to Eussia, and remained abroad for two 
 years. The latter part of Mr. Campbell's life was spent in 
 retirement. He died at Nashville, Tennessee, in 1848. — F. B. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir Ilay, president of the supreme court of 
 Scotland, born in 1734, was the son of a writer to the signet in 
 Edinburgh. He became a member of the bar in 1757. One of 
 the first cu-cumstances to bring him into notice was his employ- 
 ment in the famous Douglas case, and in time he acquired a 
 very extensive practice. His merits as a counsel were, sagacity, 
 clearness, great ingenuity in argument, and the possession of a 
 widely extended knowledge of law. In 1783 he was appointed 
 sohcitor-general, and in the following year lord-advocate, when 
 he was returned to parliament as member for the Glasgow burghs. 
 The disadvantages he laboured imder — of a monotonous voice 
 and inexpressive features— were such as to prevent his ever 
 becoming a favourite speaker in a popular assembly. He was 
 not, however, altogether without reputation beyond the walls of 
 the court, for he received the honour of beuig elected lord rector 
 of the university of Glasgow. On the death of Sir Thomas 
 Sliller of Glenlee, Lord-advocate Campbell was appointed presi- 
 dent of the court; and, imtil his resignation in 1808, he discharged 
 the duties of the office with diligence and eminent success. He 
 was liberal and patient, treating every one with respect and 
 courtesy. As judge he took in general a firmer and a wider 
 grasp of any question than his compeers ; and he was one of 
 tlie few lawyers of that day who were thoroughly acquainted 
 with the principles of mercantile law — a circumstance especially 
 fortunate for the rising commercial prosperity of Scotland. The 
 kind encom'agement he gave to the younger members of the 
 profession was long gratefully remembered. Cockbmni and BeU 
 have borne v^^tness to it ; and the late Lord-justice-clerk Hope 
 was wont to refer with admiration to " that gi-eat law^^er, Sir 
 Ilay Campbell." When in 1808 the court of session was so 
 remodelled by the legislature as to be almost a new institution, 
 two com-ts of more manageable numbers being foitned in place 
 of tlie ancient unwieldy coxmcil of fifteen, Campbell resigned 
 the presidency, and left the introduction of the new system to 
 younger men. On retiring he was created a baronet. He still, 
 however, devoted much of bis time to the service of the public, 
 as chairman of two commissions which were successively 
 appointed for the improvement of the law of Scotland. He 
 died in 1823, at a very advanced age. The only writings he 
 published were one or two tracts upon law refoiTn, and a collec- 
 tion of the rarer " acts of sederunt." — J. D. W. 
 
 CAMPBELL, John, an eminent historical and political 
 writer of the last centur)-, w-as born at Edinburgh in the year 
 1708. His mother, who was an Englishwoman, took him with 
 her to England when he was five years old, and settled at 
 Windsor, from which time he never saw Scotland again. He 
 was intended for the law ; but having a strong predilection for 
 a literary career, he did not long continue his legal studies. In 
 1736 he published the " Militaiy Histoiy of Prince Eugene and 
 the Duke of Marlborough." Several other works issued anony- 
 mously from his fertile pen before the year 1742, in which 
 appeared his " Lives of the English Admhals," the first of his 
 writings to which he prefixed his name. In 1743 he published 
 a curious pamphlet called " Hermippus Revived," founded upon 
 a foreign publication of the same name. Its ostensible and 
 apparently serious object was to prove the possibility of pro- 
 longing human life indefinitely, by the inhalation of the breath 
 of young girls ; and gi-eat learning and ingenuity are expended 
 on the illustration of this thesis. But the writer afterwards 
 confessed that his real purpose was to rival the celebrated 
 Bayle, by showing that neither the serio-comic style of writing, 
 nor recondite and curious learning, were confined to the French 
 side of the Channel. In 1745 he began to write for the Bio- 
 graphia Britannica, and continued his contributions to it for 
 several years. His articles are written in a tone of the utmost 
 impartiality, and err, if at all, on the side of too indiscriminate 
 eulogj-. In 1754 the university of Glasgow rewarded his 
 untiring literary industry by conferring on him the degree of 
 LL.D. His last work of importance, published in 1774, was 
 entitled " A Political Survey of Britain, being a series of reflec- 
 tions on the situation, lands, inhabitants, rivers, colonies, and 
 
 commerce of this island." Though his habits were extremely 
 sedentaiy, his manner of life was so regular and abstemious 
 that his health remained good up to the latest period of his life. 
 In Mai-ch, 1765, he was appointed his majesty's agent for the 
 province of Georgia. He died in December, 1775, at his house 
 in Queen Square, Ormond Street, London. His style, though 
 correct, is diffuse and unimaginative, to a degree that borders on 
 tediousness. His hterary industry brought him large profits, so 
 that Dr. Johnson could say of him — " He is the richest author 
 that ever grazed the common of literature." — T. A. 
 
 CAMPBELL, John, served as master's mate on board the 
 Centurion, under Lord Anson, in his famous voyage of dis- 
 covery. On his retm-n to England he was speedily advanced, 
 and we find him as flag-captain in the Royal George, under Sir 
 Edward Havvke, taking a prominent part in the memorable 
 defeat of the marquis de Coqilans in 1759. He was honoured 
 to bear to England the news of the victory. In 1782 he was 
 appointed governor of Newfoundland, and in 1787 advanced to 
 the rank of vice-admiral of the red. He died in 1790. — J. B. 
 
 CAMPBELL, John, an independent minister at Kingsland, 
 and author of " Travels in South Africa," was bom in Edinburgh 
 in 1766. He took an active part in establishing the British and 
 Foreign Bible Society, and on two diflerent occasions, 1812-15 
 and 1818-21, %'isited the stations of the London Missionar}- 
 Society in South Africa, publishing accounts of both voyages. 
 Mr. Campbell wrote chiefly for the young. He died in 1 840. 
 
 * CAMPBELL, John, lord, chief-justice of the queen's bench, 
 at one time lord-chancellor of Ireland. — John Campbell is the 
 second son of the late Rev. Dr. Campbell, minister of the first 
 charge in Cupar-Fife. He was bom at Springfield in 1779. 
 His eldest brothei-, Su' George Campbell, made a successful career 
 in India ; and during his latter years he lived in easy retkement 
 at Edenwood, near his native town, performing independently, 
 and with superior intelligence, the various duties of a Scottish 
 country gentleman. — John thought at first of the Scottish church 
 as a field of useful and honourable exertion ; but finding some 
 incongeniality between that profession and his own nature, he 
 repau'ed to London and enrolled himself in 1800 at Lincoln's 
 inn. Occupying his leism'e as reporter for the Morning Chronidi , 
 a course which also fed his then not over-copious pecunian- 
 resomxes, he sedulously pursued his legal studies, and was calleil 
 to the bar in 1806. There is no doubt that young Campbell had 
 to struggle hard, and needed all the courage and perseverance 
 belonging to him. But his clear head, full knowledge, and well- 
 known resolution ultimately made way, and he rose gi-adually 
 but surely to a large practice. His early history was one of stern 
 and continuous battle, in which one inch was gained to-day aiiJ 
 two on the day following. In that battle, the strongest of course 
 overcame at last. In 1827 Campbell received his silk gown 
 — but for the injustice of Lord Eldon, he would have had it a 
 number of years sooner. Shortly afterwards Campbell entered 
 on political fife, -and was elected in 1830 member of parliament 
 for Stafibrd. He bore his part so well in the gi-eat struggle of 
 1830 and 1831 in the matter of the Reform Bill, thatLord 
 Grey selected him for the important office of solicitor-general in 
 1832: in 1834 he had risen to the office of attomey-general. 
 With a brief interval, during Sir Robert Peel's short tenure of 
 office, he occupied this high office — latterly under Lord Mel- 
 bourne — until 1841, when he became lord-chancellor of Ireland. 
 MeanwhUe, Campbell had changed his constituency from that 
 of Stafford to that of Dudley, and his countrymen .subsequently 
 did him the honovu- to elect him a representative of the city ot 
 Edinburgh. Campbell was always hstened to with interest in the 
 house of commons. Orator, in the usual sense of the word — in 
 the sense, for instance, in which it is applied to Lord Brougham 
 — he certainly was not, and never aspired to be ; but his speak- 
 ing was clear, and his arguments always consequent and often 
 cogent. He knew distinctly what he meant to say, and he said 
 it plainly and precisely. After a brief tenure of the seals in 
 Ireland he took his seat in the house of peei-s, sitting during the 
 Peel administration on the oppo.sition benches. On the return 
 of the Whigs to power in 1846, he became chancellor of the 
 duchy of Lancaster, and on the retirement of Lord Denman he 
 .succeeded him as lord-chief-justice. — Lord Campbell's reputation 
 at the bar was that of a man of full knowledge of his subject, 
 and who, withal, was acute and resolute as a pleader. He had 
 the conduct of many important cases, such as the famous plea 
 of Norton v. Lord Melbourne ; the case of Joh7i Frost for high
 
 treason ; tliat of Lord Cardigan for murder, before the high 
 court of Peers. He has collected a few of his addresses into one 
 volume. They are eminently characteristic of his peculiar powers. 
 As a member of the house of commons, as well as subse- 
 quently in his place as a peer. Lord Campbell has been a zealous 
 law reformer in the true direction ; nor do we know any address 
 containing sounder prmciples on this subject, than the one he 
 pronounced, before leaving Dublin, before the bar of Ireland. 
 Law reform seems the most difficult of all. Lord Campbell 
 has been thwarted too frequently by the formidable obstructions 
 thrown in his way by the profession. As a judge his lordship has 
 the highest repute. His acuteness is never at fault. The charge 
 to the yury in the difficult case of the murderer Palmer, will be 
 long remembered. That charge and the speech of the attorney- 
 general, Sir Alexander Cockbum, are probably as fine pieces 
 of clear reasoning as were ever pronounced in an English court 
 of justice. — He has farther amused his leisure by occupying 
 himself with literaiy pursuits. We owe to him seven volumes 
 of " Lives of the Chancellors of England," and three volumes 
 of "Lives of the Chief-Justices." All these memoirs are most 
 pleasantly written. They present in an agreeable form, tradi- 
 tionary anecdotes, and the usually-received characters of the 
 personages of whom he writes. — His lordship mairied a daughter 
 of Mr. Scarlett, afterwards Lord Abinger. — J. P. N. 
 
 * CAMPBELL, JoHX, D.D., a leading nonconformist divine, 
 editor of the Christian Witness aud British Standard, and 
 minister of the Tabernacle in London. His early career some- 
 what resembled that of Elihu Burrit, both in his original position, 
 and in the indomitable energy and perseverance with which he 
 prosecuted his studies. But Dr. Campbell enjoyed the advan- 
 tage of attendance on several of the classes of the university of 
 St. Andrews — the senatus of which showed their estimate of 
 his talents and acquirements by confemng upon him in 1841 
 the degree of D.D. Dr. Campbell has in various ways rendered 
 most important services to the cause of religion and social pro- 
 gress; and to his unwearied exertions the virtual abolition of the 
 obnoxious bible monopoly in England is mainly to be attributed. 
 He is the author of " Maritime Discovery and Christian Mis- 
 sions ; " " The Martyr of Eromanga, or the Philosophy of 
 Missions, illustrated from the labours, life, and character of the 
 late John Williams ; " " Jethro," a prize essay on the diiSision 
 of the gospel among our home population ; " Theology for Bible 
 Classes ; " " Chmxh Fellowship," &c. &c.— J. T. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir Neil, a distinguished British officer, bom 
 about 1770. After sendng in the West Indies and the Peninsula, 
 he was in 1813 appointed to ser\'e in connection with the Russian 
 army, to which he was attached till its entry into Paris in !March, 
 1814. In April of that year he was sent by the British govern- 
 ment to accompany Napoleon from Fontainebleau to Elba, and 
 charged to remain as long as the presence of a British officer 
 should be deemed necessary. He was away from the island for 
 eleven days, when Napoleon left it, 26th Febraary, 1815. 
 Toward the close of that year Su' Neil was appointed to prose- 
 cute Mungo Park's discoveries on the Niger. In the summer of 
 1826 he was sent to Sierra Leone, but fell a victim to the 
 noxious climate in the following year. — J. B. 
 
 CA3IPBELL, Samuel, Colonel, an American officer, was 
 bom in Londondern,-, New Hampshire, in 1738, and removed 
 with his father in 1745 to Cherry Valley in New York, then a 
 frontier settlement. Though veiy young, he was in military 
 service in the "old French war," that of 175G; and in the 
 revolutionary contest he commanded a body of militia, and had 
 a share in most of the battles fought on his portion of the 
 frontier. When General Herkimer advanced to relieve Fort- 
 Schuyler, then besieged by the tories and Indians, Campbell was 
 his subordinate, and took part in the tembly destructive battle 
 of Oriskany. He was present also when the Indians and loyalists 
 surprised Cherry Valley, and subjected it to nearly the same 
 fate as Wyoming. His house was then burnt, his lands ravaged, 
 and his wife and all his children, except his eldest son, carried 
 off into captivity. They were finally brought to Montreal, where 
 Mrs. Campbell was exchanged for the wife of Colonel John 
 Butler, and the children also were redeemed. After the peace 
 he was elected to the legislature, where he was a zealous member 
 of the republican part)'. He died in 1824. — F. B. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Thomas, the youngest son of Alexander and 
 Margaret Campbell, was bom in Glasgow on the 27th of July, 
 1767. His father, a retired Virginia merchant, then in his 
 
 sixty-eighth year, fondly predicted, it is said, that the " son of 
 his old age" would grow up to be an honom- to his country; and 
 he had the happiness to see liis prediction fulfilled. The child 
 evinced a precocity of intellect from his veij cradle, and when 
 sent to the grammar school, attracted the special notice of his 
 master, and took the lead in every class. These indications ot 
 genius were the delight of his home circle, where his father, 
 careful to foster a literary taste, was still more so to imbue his 
 infant mind with the practical lessons of early piety. AMien 
 eleven years old — and the fact deserves mention from the influ- 
 ence it had upon his opening mind — the boy was sent to recniit 
 his health in the country ; and there the latent germ of poetry 
 first began to assert its vitality. At the age of thirteen he 
 entered the university, and gained several prizes, which lured 
 him on to higher attainments. His cmTiculum, extending over 
 six college sessions, was distingtiished by a long series of literary 
 competitions, in which he earned off the chief prizes in Latin, 
 Greek, Logic, and Moral Philosophy. He excelled in transla- 
 tions from the Greek di-ama, and was so much commended for 
 his English essays, chiefly poetical, that he was called the 
 young " Pope of Glasgow " — a title which proved to be no 
 great misnomer. During a college recess which he passed hi 
 the Isle of Mull, he translated the Choephors of JEschylus, and 
 there also — what appears to have given specific dii-ection to his 
 taste — he read the Pleasures of Memoiy, by Rogers. The 
 perusal of that poem quickened all his literary aspirations. It 
 was the magic key that unlocked the fountain of his genius : 
 the sparkling waters gushed forth, and the first idea of " the 
 Pleasures of Hope " took possession of his mind. Once sug- 
 gested, the theme was soon reduced into shape ; and, though 
 often interrupted, it was never laid aside until he had given it 
 to the public in its present form. Returning from the " lonely 
 Hebrides," he supported himself at college by private tuition, 
 hving, so to speak, out of his inkstand. Though stOl a mere 
 youth, he was a keen politician, a ready speaker at the debating 
 club, looked upon with deference by his companions, and quoted 
 in knotty points as a " competent authority." But all the 
 honours he had gained — all the praise lavished upon him by his 
 teachers, had only, as he complained, diverted his attention 
 from other and more profitable studies. Poetiy had expelled 
 mathematics ; a string of idle fancies had strangled the lessons 
 of worldly pradence. He felt he had no social standing, no 
 means of improving his circumstances, and no prospect of 
 acquiiing the independence for which he longed. With these 
 melancholy reflections, he accepted the office of a domestic 
 tutor, and retii-ed with his pupil to the banks of Loch Fyne. The 
 fair face of nature, and the fii-st sight of the hills, soothed and 
 tranquillized his spiiit ; and, calling in the muse to his aid, he was 
 soon himself again, and deep in poetiy. There he wrote " Love 
 and Madness," " Caroline," numerous epistles to friends, and 
 added another and another episode to " the Pleasures of Hope." 
 
 In November, 1788, at the age of twenty, he arrived in 
 Edinburgh. His manuscript poem was read and approved by 
 Dr. Anderson, then offered to the booksellers, and finally sold 
 to " Mundell and Son" for sixty pounds in money and books. 
 It was a fortimate speculation. No sooner was it published 
 than the juvenile author was hailed as a new light on Parnassus. 
 At one flight, it was said, he had taken his place with the first 
 poets of the age, and the high estimate of his private friends 
 was soon confirmed by the voice of public admu-ation. While 
 the tide of popularity was at its height, the youthful poet 
 embarked for Germany, landed at Altona, wrote his " Exile of 
 Erin," and letters to the Morning Chronicle, and then proceeding 
 forward to the seat of war, spent several months at Ratisbon. 
 There he was a spectator of several grand militarj' operations, 
 and witnessed a hot conflict between Austrian and French 
 hussars, which suggested " the Battle of Ilohenlinden," " the 
 Soldier's Dream," and other spirited lyrics. 
 
 In the spring of 1801, after being chased ashore by a 
 French privateer, Campbell arrived in London, and at the 
 table of Mr. Peny made the acquaintance of many literary 
 magnates, who became his attached friends through life. Sud- 
 denly called home by the death of his father, he spent the 
 remainder of the year with his widowed mother in Edinburgh, 
 where he published " Lochiel's Warning, and other Poems." 
 The following spring he returned to London in his new capacity 
 of private secretaiy to Lord Minto, who introduced him to the 
 leading men of the day.
 
 CAM 
 
 878 
 
 CAM 
 
 In September, 1803, be married his cousin, Miss Matilda 
 Sinclair, a lady of refined taste and personal beauty ; and with 
 " fifty pounds in his writing desk," and the prospective "fruits 
 of literary engagements," he sat down to work with a " happy 
 and contented mind." But with a continual round of visitors, 
 letters, cards, invitations, appeals to the author of " the Pleasures 
 of Hope," which deranged all his plans, he was soon compelled 
 to retreat from Pimlico to a cottage on Sydenham heath. There 
 he found quiet congenial friends, who honoured his talents, and 
 united their efforts to promote his welfare. This was the hap- 
 piest period of his life. With his busy forenoons in town and 
 studious evenings at home, he made literature a stafi" on which 
 he could lean with comfort. His familiar letters of that period 
 exhibit the poet and his little household in a very amiable and 
 engaging light. 
 
 In 1806 the king was graciously pleased to grant him a 
 literary pension of £200 a year. Three years later appeared his 
 " Gertrude of Wyoming ;" "O'Connor's Child;" "Battle of the 
 Baltic," and other poems, which had their fuU share of popu- 
 larity. He then wrote a course of lectures on poetry, which he 
 read at the Royal Institution, edited Specimens of British 
 Poets, and lectured in the provinces. But at length, in losing 
 his favourite child, he appeared to have lost all his health and 
 energy ; and then acting upon professional ad\-ice, he struck his 
 tent, packed up his books, and removed to a house near Hyde 
 Pai-k. There he undertook the editorship of the New Monthly, 
 which he conducted for many years, making it the vehicle of 
 numerous articles from his own pen, both in prose and verse. 
 His house was the evening resort of a brilliant literary circle. 
 He was identified with every scheme of public and private 
 benevolence, a friend and promoter of talent in every depart- 
 ment, and charitable often to excess. He was the avowed 
 champion of the Poles, of all "patriots" and "refugees;" and 
 never was literaiy championship more vigorously sustained. 
 He founded the London university, visited the public schools of 
 Germany on its behalf, and reported to his colleagues on the 
 Pmssian system of education. He founded the Association of 
 the Friends of Poland, and the Literary Club, and gave lectm-es 
 for public charities on various occasions. 
 
 In November, 1826, he had the " crowning honour" of being 
 chosen lord-rector of his native university, a " sunburst of 
 popular favour," as he expressed it, which was repeated a second 
 and a third time, and acknowledged on his part by singular 
 devotedness to the duties of his high office. His " Letters to 
 the Students of Glasgow," published in his magazine, were 
 much read and commended at the time as models of classical 
 taste and composition. After the publication of his new poem, 
 " Theodoric," he undertook a life of Mrs. Siddons, the queen of 
 tragedy, whom in 1814, in company with John Kemble, he had 
 attended on her ^'isit to Paris. Having completed this task — 
 a djing bequest — he went abroad, where he was publicly feted 
 in Paris as the " Champion of Poland — the Poet of Freedom — 
 the Friend of JIankind ;" and with these plaudits ringing in his 
 ears he embarked for Africa, and spent the winter in Algiers. 
 The results of that tour were published in his " Letters from 
 the South." On his return home through Paris he was gra- 
 ciously received and complimented by Louis Philippe upon his 
 lucid report of Algiers and the regency. The next works to 
 which he gave his name were a life of Frederick the Great, a 
 life of Petrarch, and a new edition of Shakspeare, with intro- 
 ductory notes and comments, which furnished him with pleasing 
 occupation, but neither advanced his fame nor improved his 
 income. He was then in delicate health ; but a summer tour 
 in the Highlands set him up, and brought under his notice 
 materials for a new poem, which he published with the ominous 
 title of " Glencoe ! " Its reception by the public was not very 
 flattering. The bursts of applause which had followed and 
 cheered him through forty years of his poetical life, now fell 
 on his ear with a fainter and fainter echo. He had lived in the 
 society of warm hearts — in times of great excitement — in the 
 sunshine of popularity. But most of his old fiiends were now 
 departed, and he looked anxiously around for something which 
 neither fame nor friendship itself could bestow. " When I think," 
 he said, " of the existence that shall have commenced when the 
 cold stone is laid over my head, what can literary fame ajipear to 
 me but as vanity — as nothing!" But he consoled himself with 
 the conviction that he had never written a line to countenance 
 infidelity, nor to lower the standard of christian morals. 
 
 The last beautiful edition of his poems, illustrated from 
 drawings by Turner, soon reimbursed him for the heavy outlay, 
 and during his latter years brought hira a handsome annuity. 
 This, with his pension and several legacies bequeathed to him 
 by his friends, Telford and others, might have rendered him 
 quite independent of " literary drudgery." But his practical 
 benevolence, acting as a continual drain upon his resources, 
 involved him in difficulties, from which the more wary and 
 calculating are generally exempt. At his farewell breakfast 
 given in London, Rogers, Moore, Milman, and two or three 
 intimate friends, were his guests. The party was cheerful; 
 and during this act of hospitality his wit and humour played 
 gracefully round the table. But it was painfully evident that 
 these momentary flashes were but the fitful lights that often 
 precede the hour of sunset. In a few months he parted 
 with his house at Pimlico, and took the lease of an old family 
 mansion in Boulogne, not far from that in which Le Sage and 
 also the poet ChurchUl had expired. It was a rash step, the 
 result of a needless panic, and the change was rapid. His 
 health broke down, his pen was laid aside, all literary specvdations 
 were abandoned, and with a "forecast" that his time was come, 
 he took to his bed — never again to leave it until removed in his 
 coffin to Westminster abbey. On the 15th of June, 1844, at a 
 quarter past four in the afternoon, he entered, by a cahn and 
 painless transition, into a new state of existence. — Hoc ernt 
 luctuosum suis, acerhum patrke. — All necessary arrangements 
 being concluded, the poet's remains were embarked at midnight 
 on the 27th June, conveyed to London, and then to the "Jeru- 
 salem chamber" in the abbey (where the body of Addison had 
 lain), there to wait the ceremony of interment. On the 3rd of 
 July the funeral procession moved to Poets' Comer. The pall 
 was supported by eight peers of the realm, headed by the duke 
 of Argyll, while the sublime service for the dead, chanted 'jy 
 the choir, and responded to by the deep-toned organ, produced 
 an effect of indescribable solemnity. At the moment the coffin 
 was lowered, and while the Reverend Dean Milman pronounced 
 the words — " Dust to dust, ashes to ashes" — Colonel Sczynna. 
 heading a deputation of Polish nobles in deep mourning, toi.k 
 from his breast a handful of dust, brought from the tomb of 
 Kosciusko, and with a trembling hand sprinkled it over the poet's 
 coffin. This delicate token of respect and affection to him who 
 had been emphatically "the exiles' friend," drew tears from many 
 eyes, and formed an appropriate close to the solemnities of the 
 day. — A fine classic statue of Campbell, by JIarshall — on a 
 pedestal, presented by Mrs. Roylance-ChUd, now faces that ol 
 Addison in Poets' Corner, and occupies one of the best sites in 
 Westminster abbey. — W. B., L. 
 
 * CA_MPBELL, William Hunter, a Scotch botanist, was 
 bom at Edinburgh about the year 1815. He prosecuted the 
 study of law, but devoted much time to botany, and made many 
 excursions in Scotland. He was one of the originators of the 
 Botanical Society of Edinburgh, and acted as its first secretary. 
 He now occupies an important judicial office in Georgetown, 
 Demerara, the government of which lately appointed him, along 
 with two others, to explore a route by the rivers Waini, Barama, 
 and Cuyuni to the goldfields of Caratal, and thence by Upata to 
 the river Orinoco. The report was presented by him in Decem- 
 ber, 1857. His collection of plants, wliich contains numerous 
 Indian species, has been handed over to the herbarium of the 
 university of Edinburgh. He is an LL.D. of King's college and 
 university, Aberdeen. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, a distinguished German 
 educator and author, was bom at Deensen, ducliy of Bnmswick, 
 in 1746, and studied theology at the universities of Helmstedt 
 and Halle, Attracted and inspired by the educational reform 
 then everywhere in progress, he engaged with no less zeal than 
 ability in the work of education. He accepted a mastership 
 which was offered him in the Dessau philanthropinum, and was 
 soon raised to be one of its directors. His love of independence, 
 however, induced him to establish an academy of his own at 
 Trittow, near Hamburg, which his feeble health obliged him to 
 resign some years after to one of liis colleagues. In 1787 he 
 was appointed scholastic councillor at Brunswick, and there 
 superintended a thorough reform of schools and scholastic affairs. 
 At the same time he purchased the so-called " Schulbuchhand- 
 lung," which, chiefly by the publication of his own works, he 
 raised to a highly flourishing state, and after his death bequeathed 
 to his son-in-law, Mr. Vieweg. He died in 1818. His works
 
 CAM 
 
 879 
 
 CAM 
 
 ,ke a high rank in German literature, and for their exquisite 
 morals, as well as their purity and elegance of style, will always 
 be held in great esteem. — K. E. 
 
 CAMPEGIO or CAMPEGGI, Lorenzo, Cardinal, was bom 
 at Milan in 1474. He first followed the profession of law, but 
 having entered the church, he rose to various positions of honour. 
 Created cardmal in 1517, he was sent to England to induce 
 Henry VIII. to join the confederation against the Tm-ks. He 
 was well received, and was created bishop of Salisbury ; but 
 failing to accomplish the object of his en-and he returned to 
 l{ome. He was, however, sent back in 1527 as papal legate, to 
 try the question concerning the king's divorce. He died at 
 Rome in 1539. His letters have been published under the title 
 " Epistolanim miscellanearum libri decern." — J. B. 
 
 CAMPEN, James van, a Danish architect of the seventeenth 
 century. His principal work was the re-erection of the Hotel 
 de Ville at Amsterdam, which had been destroyed by iire. He 
 also built a palace for Prince Maurice of Nassau. 
 
 CAMPEN or KA.MPEN, Jan van ben, a learned Dutch- 
 man, born in 1490. He taught Hebrew for some time at Lou- 
 vain, the labours of ReuchUn having directed his attention to 
 tbat language. In 1521 he set out on a tour through Germany, 
 Poland, and Italy, for the purpose of perfecting himsdf in the 
 oriental tongues. He died of the plague in 1538. His para- 
 phrastic asposition of the psalms has been translated into many 
 languages. 
 
 CA5IPEN0N, Vincent, a French poet, bora at Guadaloupe 
 in March, 1772. He arrived in France at a tune when the 
 great revolution was on the point of breaking out, and seeing 
 with disgust the indignities to which the royal family were 
 exposed, was bold enough to express his feelings in a copy of 
 verses addressed to the queen, Marie Antoinette, which appeared 
 in an anti-revolutionary journal. The consequence was that 
 he was obliged to fly to Switzerland, where he wTote a poem 
 which proved to be so like Delille's Trois Regnes de la Nature, 
 that, fearing to be set dovm. as a plagiarist, he published some 
 fragments only. These, however, were considered so beautiful, 
 that on the death of Delille in 1813, the Fi-ench Academy voted 
 him worthy of succeeding to the place of one with whose genius 
 bis o^vn was so perfectly in accord. Campenon purchased the 
 favour of tbe emperor by an epithalamium on the occasion of his 
 marriage with Maria Louisa, which did not prevent his becoming, 
 on the restoration of the Bourbons, the king's private secretary. 
 Besides poems and essays, he translated Robertson's History of 
 Scotland, and contributed an essay on the life and writings 
 of David Hume — prefixed to the History of England. He 
 died in 1843.— J. F. C. 
 
 CAMPER, Petek, an anatomist and physician, born at Ley- 
 den on the 12th of May, 1722. His father, Florent Camper, 
 was a clergyman, vcho numbered amongst his friends the cele- 
 brated Boerhaave, Gravesande, Musschenbroeck, and Moor; and 
 in their society Camper imbibed his taste for science and the fine 
 arts. He was instmcted in drawing by Moor, and in geometry 
 by Labordes. On entering the university of Leyden, he devoted 
 himself to the study of medicine under Gaubius, Van Rooyen, 
 the elder Albinus, and Trioen, under whom he soon rose to dis- 
 tinction. In 1748 he visited London, where he spent a year asso- 
 ciating with Mead, Pringle, and Pitcairn, and where his taste for 
 natural history was awakened by the cabinets of Sir Hans Sloane 
 and CoUinson, and the collections of Hill and Catesby. He suc- 
 cessively filled the chairs of philosophy, anatomy, surgery, and 
 medicine in the universities of Franeker, Amsterdam, and Gro- 
 ningen. His introductory addresses in these several departments 
 were remarkable for their clearness, and the amount of informa- 
 tion they evinced. He obtained prizes from many learned and 
 scientific bodies, and was a member of most of the continental 
 and English scientific societies. He was a fellow of the Royal 
 Society of London, and also a foreign associate of the Academy 
 of Sciences at Paris, being the only Dutchman except Boerhaave 
 who had attained that honour. Camper died of plem'isy on the 
 7th A])ril, 1789, in the sixty-seventh year of his age, leaving 
 behind liim the well-earned reputation of a distinguished ana- 
 tomist and philosopher, and of an honest man. His works, as 
 enumerated in the Bibliography of Agassiz, are thirty-seven in 
 number, chiefly detached essays and papers. In his "Anatomi- 
 cal Demonstrations," he treats of the structure and diseases of 
 the human arm, and of the human pelvis. He published also 
 separate dissertations on the following subjects — on the sense 
 
 of hearing in fishes ; on the physical education of children ; on 
 the origin and colom- of negi-oes ; on the signs of life and death 
 in newborn children ; on infanticide, with a project for estab- 
 lisliing a foundling hospital; on the operation of lithotom.y at 
 two different times according to Franco's method. To the different 
 learned societies his papers were numerous. Among the noticeable 
 points in his works is the discovery of the presence of air in the 
 bones of buds ; his demonstration that the curvature of the 
 urethra is greater in cliildren than in adults ; his remarks on the 
 variation of the facial angle in different nations, and his osteo- 
 logical investigations into lost races of animals. — E. L. 
 
 * CAMPHAUSEN, Ludolf, a Prussian statesman, born in 
 1803. Camphausen was already well known as a public man 
 when he took his seat in Febniary, 1848, in the committee of 
 estates at Berlin. On 29th March he became president of the 
 council of ministers ; but the restlessness of the democracy on 
 one side and the immobility of the court on another, rendered his 
 attempts at useful legislation abortive. After two years more of 
 political life he returned to his banking-house at Cologne. — His 
 brother. Otto, born in 1812, is also well known in the political 
 world for his moderate liberalism. 
 
 CAMPHUYS, JoHANN, was bom at Haarlem in 1G34 ; died 
 in 1695. Camphuys was a common artizan when, at the age 
 of twenty, he entered the service of the Dutch East India Com- 
 pany. Step by step he rose to the office of governor-general. 
 This office, the highest which his countrymen in the east could 
 aspire to, he held from 1684 till 1691, when he resigned. After 
 this he hved near- Batavia, his chief delight being in his fine 
 flower garden. 
 
 CAMPHUYSEN, Dirk Theodore Raphael, a Dutch 
 artist, born at Gorcum in 1586, pamted under Diedric Goverts. 
 He was most successful in small pictures of moonlight scenes 
 decked with mins — Rhine castles, peasant huts, and boats with 
 figures, thinly painted, yet delicately and dexterously. Consider- 
 al.'le doubt veils his history. He is reputed to have abandoned 
 the fine arts for theology, at the age of eighteen, when he became 
 a minister of the reformed cluuxh. Another account makes him 
 occupy the position of tutor to the sons of Lord Nieuport, and 
 afterwards the office of secretary to that nobleman. It is evident 
 that his career is not very accurate in its drawing. " The 
 pictures of Camphuysen," says Pilkington, " are scarce and 
 dear." His death is said to have occuiTed in 1626. — W. T. 
 
 CAM PI, Baldassare and JIichele, brothers, Italian botan- 
 ists, hved during the fu-st half of the seventeenth century. They 
 were born at Lucca. They devoted themselves zealously to 
 botanical science, and after studying the works of Dioscorides, 
 and many of the older botanical writers, especially Arabian 
 authors, they undertook excursions to the Alps and Pyrenees in 
 quest of plants. Their conjoint works are treatises on balsam ; 
 on the trae mithridatium ; and on the cinnamon of the ancients. 
 They were printed at Lucca, 1640-1669. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAM PI, Bernardino, an Italian painter, born at Cremona 
 in 1522. He studied his art at Mantua, Parma, and Modena, 
 and afterwards returned to Cremona, where he painted his 
 enormous work in the cupola of St. Gismondi, representing an 
 assemblage of the blessed of the Old and New Testament. His 
 execution was wonderfully rapid ; his skill in drawing the nude 
 vei-y gi'eat ; and his composition and expression veiy powerful. 
 He died about 1590.— W. T. 
 
 CAMPI, GiULio. This artist was the son of Galeazzo Campi, 
 a respectable painter of Cremona. He studied first under his 
 father, and afterwards in the school of Giulio Romano at Mantua. 
 His advance was great ; and with facile execution, architectural 
 knowledge, and considerable creative talent, he went to R(mie 
 to study the anticjue, and the works of Raff'aelle. For the glories 
 of colour, he went to the pictures of Titian and Pordenone. He 
 attained to no mean rank in his time, and was regarded as the 
 founder of the school of his country. The church of St. ]\Iar- 
 garet at Cremona is crowded with his paintings. He died in 
 1572.— W. T. 
 
 CAM PI AN, Edmund, an Englisli Roman catholic who suf- 
 fered death in the reign of Elizabeth, was born in London in 1640. 
 Having won distinction at Oxford, he went to Ireland in 1568, 
 and wrote a history of that country. Suspected of popery, he 
 had to flee into England, and thence, in 1571, into the Low 
 Countries, where, at the Jesuits' college of Douay, he openly 
 renounced protestantism. Admitted into the order oi Jesuits, he 
 lived for some time at Brune, then at Vienna, and then at
 
 Prague, where he taught rhetoric and philosophy in a newly 
 founded Jesuit college. In 1580 he was sent into England, and 
 made himself active, though living in retirement, in disseminat- 
 ing the principles of his faith. He published a work named 
 '• Rabsaces Romanus," which attracted considerable attention ; 
 and, mifortunately for Canipian, came under the notice of Secre- 
 taiy Walsingham. His retreat in Berks was discovered, and he 
 was conveyed to the Tower with this inscription on his hat — 
 "Edmund Campian, a most pernicious Jesuit." Suspected of 
 being one of a band of plotters against the life of the queen, he 
 was condemned for high treason, and hanged at Tyburn, 1st Dec, 
 1581. In addition to his " History of Ireland," he left several 
 works, which, with the testimony of contemporaries, have won 
 for him the reputation of an eloquent and subtle writer. — J. B. 
 
 CAMPISTROX, Jean Galbekt de, born at Toulouse in 
 1656 ; died in 1713. He is said to have found it convenient 
 to leave Toulouse in consequence of a duel in which he was 
 engaged. However this be, he is found in Palis in 1683, writ- 
 ing tragedies, instracted and patronized by Racine. His trage- 
 dies are mentioned with the doubtful praise, that the situations 
 in his dramas are tragic, and the style is that of high comedy. 
 Racine did something better for Campistron than encourage him 
 to write dramas ; he introduced him to the duke de Vendome to 
 conduct the representation of a drama at his chateau. The duke 
 took a fancy to him, made him his secretaiy, and obtained for 
 him some foreign orders, among others that of St. Jago of Spain. 
 In 1701 Campistron became member of the French Academy. 
 He was also member of the Jeus. Floraus of Toulouse. In 1723 
 he died of apoplexy. The fit was brought on by a violent 
 squabble with a chaiiinan, who refused to carry him on accoimt 
 of his size and weight, he being "more fat than bard beseemed." 
 His "Theatre" has been often reprinted. — J. A., D. 
 
 CA3IP0-BASS0, Nicholas, Count de, a celebrated com- 
 mander of Italian mercenaries, lived in the latter half of the 
 fifteenth ceutuiy. He at first supported the interests of the 
 house of Anjou in the kingdom of Naples, but afterwards trans- 
 feiTed his services to their opponent, Chaides the Bold, duke of 
 Burgundy. By accommodating himself to the opinions, and pan- 
 dering to the prejudices of that headstrong prince, he acquired 
 great influence over his mind ; and, in the end, availed himself 
 of the confidence placed in him by the duke to sell him to his 
 enemies, and ultimately to lead him to his min. MTiile the duke 
 was engaged in the siege of Nancy in 1477, on the approach of 
 a superior force under Ferrand, duke of LoiTaine, to relieve the 
 place, Campo-Basso deserted to the enemy immediately before 
 the armies joined battle. The Bm-gundians were in consequence 
 defeated with gi-eat slaughter, and the duke himself was slain. 
 The treacherous Italian was supposed to be not free from the 
 guilt of his master's death, as the bodies of a number of his men 
 were observed near the spot where the unfortunate prince was 
 found killed and stripped the day after the battle. — (De Comiues' 
 Chronicle, book v. chap. 9, and Sir V/alter Scott's Anne of 
 Geiersiein.') — J. T. 
 
 CAMPOMANfiS, Pedro Rodriguez, Count, bom in the 
 Asturias in 1723 ; died in 1802. Campomanes was early 
 known as a profound jurist ; and the study of political economy 
 — to which attention had been then called, chiefly through the 
 labours of Turgot — occupied his whole mind. In 176-4 Charles 
 III. appointed him fiscal-advocate of the council of Castile, an 
 office similar to that of attorney-general in England. He had 
 already published " Historical Dissertation on the Order of the 
 Knights Templars," and a translation of the Periplus of Hanno, 
 with notes, sustaining the authenticity of the work. This led 
 to his being appointed a corresponding member of the French 
 Academy, and on Franklin's nomination, he was made an 
 honorary member of the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia. 
 He was du-ector of the Royal Academy of History at Madrid. 
 The highest praise is given by Robertson, in his Histoiy of 
 America, to two tracts of Campomanes, pubUshed in 177-1 and 
 1775 — one on the subject of the promotion of industry in Spain, 
 the other on the education of artisans. Robertson speaks of the 
 information to be derived from them on almost ever)' point con- 
 nected with the police, taxation, agriculture, manufactures, and 
 trade of the country. The incidents of Campomanes' life are few, 
 or have not been recorded. The wisest and best man of Spain 
 during his time is chiefly known through his books. In 1763 
 and 1764 he published two memorials on the subject of finding 
 employment for gipsies and vagrants ; one on free trade in com 
 
 in 1764 ; on provisioning Madrid in 1768; on the education of 
 ai-tisans in 1775; and in the next year, an elaborate appendix 
 to this last work, containing a vast body of statistical informa- 
 tion. This appendix was in four octavo volumes. In 1764 
 he pubfished a valuable book on the nature of church property, 
 and the subject of land held in mortmain, which was translated 
 by order of the council of Venice into Italian. Campomanfes 
 was a man of considerable learning. In early life he published 
 one or two tracts on philological subjects, and he translated 
 from the Arabic a work on agricultm-e. His vaiious essays 
 on economic subjects were, for the most part, oificial repoits, 
 and were the basis of important legislation. The great object 
 which was always present to his mind, and which he ^\-ished 
 to inculcate, was, that Spain should place her chief reUance on 
 the resources of the Peninsula itself, and seek to become, in a 
 true sense, a portion of the Em-opean system. He sought to 
 counteract the policy which refeiTed eveiything to her trans- 
 atlantic possessions. Campomanes was looked on with distnist 
 by the ecclesiastical party. He was instrumenUil in the expulsion 
 of the Jesuits from Spain. Through the reign of Charles III. 
 his power was almost imlimited, but did not long sunive that 
 monarch. On Bianca's coming into power early in the reign 
 of Charles IV., Campomanes was dismissed, and lived in such 
 retirement as to be almost wholly forgotten. — J. A., D. 
 
 CAMPSON. See Canssuh. 
 
 CAJMUCCINI, ViCEXzo, one of the most distinguLslied 
 Roman painters of modem times, was bom about 1775. He- 
 first earned his living by copying the old masters. His earliest 
 original works were historical paintings of prominent scenes in 
 early Roman liistory, such as the " Infancy of Romulus and 
 Remus;" " Horatius Codes;" "The Death of Ca;sai-;" and 
 " Death of Virginia." He painted in the classic style, so mucli 
 in favour among modem Italians, and was rewarded with numer- 
 ous honours. He was inspector-general of the papal museums. 
 and of the mosaic works, keeper of the collections of the Vatican, 
 director of the academy of St. Luke, and of the Neapohtan 
 academy at Rome. A series of lithographs, by Scudellari, from 
 his pictures, was pubUshed at Rome in 1829. — J. B. 
 
 CAMUS, Armand Gastox, at one time advocate to the 
 French clergy, was bom in 1740. Camus eagerly welcomed the 
 Revolution, and was deputed to the states-general and the con- 
 vention. He acquired great influence ki the latter assembly, 
 and proposed many of its most characteristic measures. It 
 was he who drew up the " civil constitution of the clergy." He 
 voted for the king's death, and was one of the famous deputa- 
 tion sent to Dumouriez whom that general handed over the lines 
 to Coboiu-g. He lay in Austrian strongholds nearly three years. 
 Camus retained his oflice of national archivist under Napoleon. 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 CAMUS, Charles Etiexxe Louis, a mathematician and 
 astronomer, was bom at Cressy in 1699; died in 1768. He 
 studied at Paris, and first distinguished himself in 1727, by an 
 essay written for the purpose of obtaining a prize ofiered by the 
 Academic des Sciences. The essay failed to obtain a prize, but 
 nevertheless possessed such merits that it procured his admission 
 as a member of the Academic. In 1736 he was sent with other 
 astronomers to Noi-way, to determine the flattening of the earth 
 towards the pole ; and he was subsequently deputed on a similar 
 work, the determination of the diflerence between the length of 
 a degree of the meridian at Paris and at Amiens. The appoint- 
 ments of examiner in the schools of artillery, and professor of 
 geometry, were afterwards confen-ed upon him. He was, for the 
 last eight years of his life, pei-petual secretary to the Academy 
 of Architecture, and for the last three a member of the Royal 
 Society of London. He published several works on mechanics, 
 and accounts of the teiTestrial observations above described. 
 
 CAMUS, Francois Joseph de, an ingenious mechaniciaB, 
 was bom in 1762 at Rechome in Lorraine, of a noble family. 
 He was admitted a member of the Academic des Sciences in 
 1716. During his early years he constantly employed his 
 leisure moments in mechanical amusements, and a clock which 
 he constmcted with his own hands was long preserved as a 
 memorial of his skill. His genius flowed in the same course to 
 the end of his days, manifesting itself in the invention of a self- 
 adjusting floating-bridge, automaton soldiers, a coach of improved 
 constraction, a machine for excavating and embanking, a clock 
 to go for a year without winding up, an instrument for observ- 
 ing the stars, an automaton watch, a self-adjusting ladder, a
 
 CAIM 
 
 881 
 
 CAN 
 
 sieve, and a rowing machine. He also projjoscd improvements 
 in tile tempering of metals, and in the manufacture of guns, 
 capstans, wheelbarrows, carriage shafts, and chariots. Being 
 expelled from the academy in 1723 on the ground of ahsence, 
 he travelled to Holland, in the hope of deriving profit from his 
 rowing machine ; and, proving unsuccessful, he repaired to Eng- 
 land, where he ended his days amidst much distress in 1732. 
 His principal work is a " Treatise on j\Ioving Forces for the 
 practice of Arts and Trades, with an explanation of twenty- 
 three new and useful machines," Paris, 1722. — J. D. E. 
 
 CAJIUS, Jean Pierre, a French prelate, bom in 1582. 
 He was consecrated bishop of Bcllay before he had reached the 
 canonical age. He wrote a number of religious novels, intended 
 to counteract the then prevalent taste for reading romances, and 
 was distinguished for his attacks upon the mendicant friars for 
 their laziness and want of discipline. He seems to have had 
 considerable satirical power. He died at Paris in 1652, having 
 written, it is said, more than tvi-o hundred volumes. — J. B. 
 
 CAM US AT, Jean, printer to the French Academy from its 
 first uistitution till his death in 1G39. He attended the sittings 
 of the academy as usher, and occasionally performed the duties 
 of secretary. Before being provided with accommodation in the 
 Louvre, this learned body often met in the house of theu- printer. 
 At his death the academy, in opposition to the demand of 
 Richelieu that the printer Cramoisy should be appointed his 
 successor, elected his widow to the post, charging her to imitate 
 " the discretion, the civility, and the diligence of the defunct." 
 
 CANAAN, the son of Ham, grandson of Noah, on whom the 
 curse was pronounced of which we read in Genesis, chapter ix. 
 24, 25. His descendants, inhabiting the land which bore his 
 name, were subdued by the Israelites under Joshua. 
 
 CANAL, Antonio, called CANALETTO, or, incoiTectlv, 
 CANALETTI. This celebrated artisf first siiw light at Venice 
 in 1697, and the son of a scene-painter at the theatre, was born 
 and bred in a realm of canvas and paintpots. For some years 
 he laboured with his father at scenic decoration, and then 
 proceeded to Rome, where he made many studies of the great 
 remains of the holy city and its neighbourhood. But his chief 
 works relate to his native place, of whicli he painted innumerable 
 views. He is stated to have used the camera-obscura to obtain 
 his accuracy of outUne. On the advice of Amiconai, Canaletto 
 came to England and remained about two years. During this 
 period he made a drawing of the inside of King's College chapel, 
 Cambridge — distinguished by his usual perspective accm-acy and 
 lightness of colour. He died in 1768. The nimiber of his works 
 is very great. Hardly a galleiy but possesses a pair, if not more, 
 of examples of this master. There is no doubt that hundreds 
 of the pictures attributed to him, however, are spiUious — the 
 work of some of his many pupils and imitators. The pictures 
 of Francesco Guardi more especially resemble Canaletto's ; but 
 the genuine works are marked by a precision of line and detail, 
 and a luminous quality of tone, which his disciples have vainly 
 attempted to attain. Canaletto's paintings are eminently 
 favourites of the collectors ; but their merits do not reach veiy 
 much beyond the higher class of scene painting. There is 
 poetry in the subjects, but there is little in tlie master. He 
 painted one uniform sunshine. He ignored the marvels and 
 beauties of transient rain-clouds, of impending tempests, of 
 dreamful twilights, and the golden hazes, the glowing steams of 
 the sun's rise and set. He thought less of his art than of its 
 emoluments ; .so, from an artist he degenerated into a mechanic. 
 He made many pictures and much money; coined his future 
 artistic fame into ready cash. To the fenad restlessness of the 
 mind of genius he preferred the steady stillness of a stone from 
 which many pictures may be printed, but all alike. — W. T. 
 
 CANALE, NtcoLo, a Venetian admiral of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. Having in 14G9 assembled a large fleet at Negropont, he 
 reduced the town of Enos to ashes; for which deed of brutality, 
 strange to say, the pope gave thanks to heaven. Mahomet II., 
 although this tovim was christian, fitted out a fleet to avenge its 
 wrongs. He chased Canale back to Negropont, and, before his 
 very eyes, took possession of that port. Canale's ollicers vainly 
 remonstrated with him on his criminal inaction, for wliicli he 
 was soon sent in irons to Venice, and exiled to Porto-Gruero. 
 
 CANALETTO.— See Canal. 
 
 CANANI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian anatomist, born 
 at Ferrara in 1515. He became physician to Pope Julius IIL, 
 and on his death, chief physician of the duchy of Ferrara. He 
 vol. I. 
 
 discovered the valves of the veins — a discovery confirmed and 
 more fully described by Vesalius. His only work was named 
 " Musculorum humani corporis picturata dissectio." It bears 
 no date, but was printed, Haller thinks, in 1543, Tiraboschi in 
 1572. He died in 1579.— J. B. 
 
 CANARD, Nicolas-Francois, a French mathematician, 
 born at Moulins about the middle of the eighteenth century ; 
 died there in 1833. He devoted himself to the study of the 
 exact sciences, and was appointed jirofessor of mathematics in 
 the central school belonging to the department of Allier. After- 
 wards he filled a higher chair in the lyceum of Moulins. His 
 leisure hours were given to the writing of works on political and 
 scientific subjects. 
 
 CANAYE, Philippe de la, Sieur de Fresne, born in 1551. 
 Canaye distinguished himself at the bar of the parliament of 
 Paris. He was ambassador from Henry IV. to England, and in 
 1594 became president of the chambre de Castres. In 1660 he 
 was appointed to arbitrate between the Catholics and Calvinists; 
 to the former he latterly went over. Died in 1610. 
 
 CANCELLIEPJ, Francesco Gieolamo, distinguished as a 
 writer on ecclesiastical antiquities, was born at Rome in 1751. 
 While librarian to Cardinal Antouelli, prefect of the Vatican, he 
 acquired an extensive knowledge of early church records, and 
 when Pius VI. added a new sacristy to the basilica of the Vatican, 
 Cancellieri established his fame by publishing four volumes, 
 " De Secretariis Basilicas Vaticanse," giving an account of its 
 early history and constniction. This work was followed by some 
 others on the origin and import of the ceremonies performed on 
 feast days in St. Peter's and the pope's chapel. He also wrote 
 on the statues and diflerent parts of the ancient city, and edited 
 a newly-discovered fragment of the 91st book of Livy. When 
 the French invaded Rome in 1798, Cancellieri was separated 
 from his patron ; but when Pius VII. regained the city, was made 
 director of the printing-press of the propaganda. Having rejoined 
 AntonelH, he accompanied him to Paris in 1804 to attend the 
 coronation of Napoleon. He died in 1826. — J. B. 
 
 CANCER Y. VELASCO, Geronimo, a Spanish poet, one 
 of the immediate followers of Calderon, born at Barbastro in 
 Ai-ragon ; died in September, 1G55. He has left fourteen pieces, 
 chiefly comedies. One of his works, "The Death of Bal- 
 dorinas," is in the index of the inquisition. Another, founded 
 on the story of the conversion of St. Gines, a Roman actor, 
 will repay perusal. His works were first published at Madrid, 
 1650, and again in 1761.— F. M. W. 
 
 CANCRIN or CANCRINUS, Franz Ludwig von, a German 
 mineralogist, born in 1738 at Breitenbach, Hesse-Darmstadt; 
 died in 1796. He filled several public situations under the govern- 
 ment of his native state, and at Altenkirchen, near Coblentz. 
 In 1783 he was appointed by the Empress Catherine, director of 
 the salt mines of Staraja-Roussa, and councillor of the imperial 
 college. Three years after he retired to Giessen in Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, and till 1793 devoted himself to scientific investiga- 
 tions. He then returned to Russia as councillor of state. He 
 published in German many valuable works on mineralogy and 
 metallurgy. His principal one is a standard work on the subject 
 of mines. It has been translated into several languages. — J. B., G. 
 
 CANCRIN, Georo, Count, son of Franz Ludwig, was born 
 at Hanau in 1773 ; died in 1845. In 1796 he went to Russia, 
 where he obtained an appointment in the commissariat. He 
 was a great favourite with Alexander, who, in 1823, made him 
 minister of finance. This responsible office he filled with com- 
 plete success, having introduced order and method into his 
 department, and greatly augmented the revenue of the empire. 
 
 CANDACE, the title of tlie wan-ior queens of Ethiopia. One 
 of them in B.C. 22 invaded Egypt, then held by the Romans, 
 compelled several Roman garrisons to surrender, but was defeated 
 near Pscleha by Petronius the prefect. — Another Candace is 
 referred to in Acts viii. 27. 
 
 CANDALLE or CANDALE, Henri de Nooaret d'Epeu- 
 NON, Due de, a French general, born in 1591. Candalle quitted, 
 while still young, a governorship in the south of France, and 
 entered tlie duke of Tuscauy's service. Returning to his native 
 countiy in 1614 he joined the Calvinists; again became loyal, 
 and obtained a peerage in 1621. After that he served, first under 
 the prince of Orange, then in the Venetian army, and once more 
 reUniicd to the loyalty of a French soldier. He died in 1639. 
 
 CANDAJIO, Francisco Bances y, a Spanish poet, born 
 in the province of Asturias in 1G62. He was of an ancient 
 
 6T
 
 family, and was early sent to court, where he obtained some 
 distiaction, and filled several offices in the finance department ; 
 but died in disgrace, 8th September, 170 i. Most of his works 
 were posthumous ; his plays and comic poems being published 
 in 1722, and some lyric poems in 1729. The most noted of 
 his pieces, perhaps, is " The Slave in Golden Fetters," founded 
 on a scene supposed to be taken from the life of Trajan. He 
 introduced the zarzuela, a kind of musical drama, which may be 
 considered the precursor of the modern opera. 
 
 CAXDIANO I., PiETKO, doge of Venice, was killed in a 
 naval fight in 887. 
 
 CAKDIANO II., PiETRO, doge of Venice, son of Candiano 
 I., was elected in 932 ; died in 939. 
 
 CAXDIANO III., PiETKo, doge of Venice, son of Candiano 
 II. ; elected in 9i2. His rule was saddened by the revolt of 
 Hs son, who was associated with him in the government. A 
 celebrated event occurred during his magistracy. Marriages 
 amongst the Venetian nobles took place only on one day of the 
 year, and in the same church. On that particular day the 
 pirates of Istria once burst suddenly into the church and carried 
 off the brides. Nut one of the ravishers, who were imme- 
 diately pursued, escaped the vengeance of the lovers. The 
 rescued brides were brought back in triumph to the altar. 
 
 CANDIANO IV., PiETRO, doge of Venice. The sers-ices of 
 his ancestors procured his election in 959. For a while he ruled 
 well; but after his second marriage, which brought him immense 
 wealth, he became tyrannical, and perished in an insm-rection 
 which his excessive rigour had provoked. 
 
 CANDIANO v., ViTALE, doge of Venice, and brother of 
 Candiano IV., died in 979, after governing foiu-teen months. — 
 
 CANDIDO. See Decembuio and Wit. 
 
 * CANDLISH, PiOBERT Smith, D.D., one of the leading 
 divines of the Free Chm-ch of Scotland, was bom at Glasgow. 
 He was educated at the university of his native city, and 
 licensed as a preacher in connection with the established church 
 of Scotland. After behig for some time an assistant in St. 
 Andrew's church, Glasgow, and in the parish of BonhUl in the 
 Vale of Leven, he was in 1834 settled as minister of the 
 parish of Sprouston, whence he removed to the pastorate of 
 St. George's, Edinburgh. He soon threw himself with heart and 
 soul into the agitation for ecclesiastical reform, and became one 
 of the most prominent leaders of the movement which resulted 
 in the Disruption of 1813, and the formation of the Free Church 
 of Scotland. Dr. Candlish has, since the death of Chalmers, 
 been the acknowledged leader of the Free Chmxh, and it is 
 in no small degree owing to his untiring activity that so much 
 has been achieved by it for the cause of religion and educa- 
 tion. He is thoroughly at home in the region of ecclesiastical 
 politics, and his power as a debater in church courts is well- 
 nigh unrivalled. As a preacher he is distinguished mainly for 
 this, that with little imagination or pictorial power, he is yet 
 able to enchain the large audiences which his fame every- 
 where collects, by the clear and earnest exposition of that 
 system of doctrine which he believes to be taught in scripture. 
 He is a firm adherent of the old formuhis of Scottish theology, 
 which he is at all times ready to defend with a fire and polemical 
 zeal pecuHarly his own. Wliile Dr. Candlish's position as a 
 writer is not equal to his reputation as a preacher or debater, his 
 works hold a respectable place in the theological literature of 
 Scotland. The chief of them are a treatise on " The Atone- 
 ment;" "Contributions to the Exposition of the Book of 
 Genesis ; " " An Examination of Jir. JIaurice's Theological 
 Essays;" and "Life in a Risen Saviom\" — J. B. 
 
 CANDOLLE. See De Candolee. 
 
 CANDORIER, Jean, the mayor of Rochelle, who in 1372 
 dislodged the English garrison from the citadel of that town by 
 an ingenious stratagem. When Mancel, the English commander, 
 was his guest, he showed him what purported to be an order from 
 Edward III. to review the troops before the citizens. Seeing the 
 royal seal, and being unable to read the document, Mancel led 
 out his troops. They were at once overpowered by an ambus- 
 cade, and compelled to surrender. — J. B. 
 
 CANETTA, Don Andrea Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis 
 de, was in 1537 sent as viceroy to Peru. His strong hand restored 
 tranquillity to that distracted country, and completely ruined the 
 cause of the incas. His next undertaking — an expedition to 
 explore the vast regions of the Amazon — miscarried through 
 mutiny. His enemies at last procured his recall. He died in 15G0. 
 
 CANEVARI, Demetkio, an Italian physician, was bom at 
 Genoa in 1559, and died at Rome in 1625. He prosecuted his 
 studies at the latter city, and was distinguished for hb know- 
 ledge of languages, and his taste for belles-lettres, as well as for 
 medicine. He was physician to Pope Urban VII. He soon 
 realized a large fortune. Among his works are the following — 
 "Commentary on Lignum Sanctum," pubhshed at Rome m 
 1G02; "Medical Ajl ;" a general treatise on diseases; and a 
 commentary on reproduction. — J. H. B. 
 
 CANGA-ARGUELLES, don Jo.si, was bom in 1770 ; died 
 in 1843. Having taken an active part in the Revolution, he was 
 deputed to the cortes of 1812, in wluch he advocated constitu- 
 tional principles. Ferdinand in 1814 first exiled and then 
 recalled him. On the restoration of the constitution of 1812 
 in 1820, he became minister of finance ; and on its overtlirow in 
 1823, took refuge in England. After his retui'n he wrote a 
 history of Spain. 
 
 CANINA, LuiGi, Chevalier, a celebrated Italian architect 
 and archasologist, born at Casal in 1793. His first considerable 
 publication, " L'Ai-chitettm-a antica descritta e demonstrata cui 
 monumenti," the fi-uit of long and toilsome researches at Rome, 
 appeared about 1830, and was followed by a valuable topogi-a- 
 pliical plan of the ancient city. Having been appointed to 
 continue the excavations commenced at Tusculum in 1840, hs 
 collected the materials for his valuable " Descrizione dell' antico 
 Tusculo," which, with the description of the ancient city of Veii, 
 where he was also for some time officially engaged in archasolo- 
 gical research, won him honours from most of the learned 
 societies of Europe. He also pubhshed a work on architecture, 
 particularly the christian style ; one on maritime Etrm-ia, and 
 one on "The Buildings of Rome." Cauina died in 1856. — 
 (Vaperau, Diet- des Contemp.') 
 
 CANINO. See Bonaparte. 
 
 CANISIUS or CANNIUS, Nicholas, a learned Dutchman, 
 whom Erasmus employed to aid him in his literary labours, 
 chiefly in making translations from the Greek. He died in 1555. 
 
 CANISIUS, Peter, an eloquent jesmt, born in 1521; died 
 in 1597 : famous for his zeal against the refonners. He was 
 prominent at the council of Trent, was papal nimcio at the 
 court of Austria, and wrote a "Summa Doctrinal Christianas," 
 which has been often translated. 
 
 CANITZ, Friedrich Rudolf Ludwig Freiiierr von, 
 a German poet, w-as born at Berhn in 1654, and died in 1699. 
 He held several high posts of trast and honour in the court of 
 Berlin, and in 1698 was ambassador of the elector to the Hague. 
 He wrote satirical and other poems. His " Poetical Recreations" 
 went through fourteen editions. — K. E. 
 
 CANIZARES, Jos£ de, one of those Spanish dramatists 
 who, immeifiately succeeding the school of Lope de Vega, led 
 the way for that close imitation of the French style which has 
 almost destroyed the distinctive character of Spanish literature. 
 He was born at Madrid in 1676, and died in 1750. He is 
 said to have written plays at fourteen years of age. Of the 
 dramatic pieces — nearly eighty in number — which he wrote, 
 many have perished, but probably literatm'e has sustained no 
 great loss thereby. The most successful of his works are those 
 descriptive of character and the social fife of his day, such as 
 "Domine Lucas" and the " Mountaineer at Court," in which he 
 satirizes the poor decayed nobility of the court of Madrid as it 
 was in his day; and " The Famous Kitchen Wench," founded on 
 the story of Cervantes. — F. W. M. 
 
 * CANNABICII, JoiiANN GGnther Friedrich, a German 
 writer on geography, was born at Sondershausen in 1777, became 
 minister of some villages in its vicinity, and is still hvhig in 
 retirement in his native town. He has written a great number 
 of popular and instnictive works on geogi-aphy and statistii'.s, 
 some of which have gone through seventeen editions. — K. E. 
 
 CANNE, John, preacher to the congregation of Englisli 
 Brownists at Amsterdam, whither he fled after the Restoration. 
 He was author of an edition of the bible, with parallel pass;iges, 
 Amsterdam, 1664, and Edinburgh, 1727. 
 
 CANNICE, an Irish ecclesiastic who lived in the sixteenth 
 century, and was distinguished for piety and learning. He 
 founded several monasteries, and has left some writings, especially 
 a life of St. ColumbkilL He died in 1600.— J. F. W. 
 
 CANNING, George, British statesman and orator. Can.iing 
 so thoroughly lived in the conduct of public affairs, that the 
 loftiest pai-t of the character of the man is most clearly revealed
 
 CAN 
 
 883 
 
 CAN 
 
 in the policy of tlie statesman, and liis highest life culminated in 
 a Em'opean policy. He was born in London, April 11, 1770. 
 His family was originally English, but migrated to Ireland upon 
 receiving certain estates from James I. His fiither lived under 
 the ban of family displeasure, in consequence of his marriage 
 with Miss Costello. He forsook the law, to which he had been 
 educated, for literature ; became involved in debt ; surrendered 
 the entail of the Irish estate ; and died on the first anniversary 
 of his son's buth, a broken-hearted man. Mrs. Canning went 
 upon the stage, but was afterwards remarried, and lived to wit- 
 ness her son's career, receiving from him until her death the 
 tenderest treatment of faithful love. Canning's natural endow- 
 ments were magnificent; and his gifts were as varied as they 
 were mighty. He felt the warmth of keen passion, and knew 
 also the calmness of disciplined thought. He possessed a fervid 
 imagination, united with remarkable logical acumen. He could 
 master a great principle, and wanu both himself and others into 
 enthusiastic devotion thereunto, and yet manage passing affairs 
 with the subtle tact of an accomplished man of the world. He 
 was an orator who, by pomp of gorgeous eloquence, could almost 
 compel men to kneel in admuation at his feet, and at the same 
 time a man of business, who never used two words when one 
 word would denote his purpose. He was a wit whose keen darts 
 flew somewhat too wildly, and yet he had a soul to feel^too 
 acutely for its own peace— every passing passion of the wayward 
 world. He was a scholar, not ignorant of the technicalities of 
 learning, but one to whom scholarship was rather a robe of 
 graceful endowment than a restraint to the free life of genius. 
 With gifts so memorable. Canning was early recognized as a man 
 who would die at the head of whatsoever profession he might 
 choose to adopt. It was as certain, however, that he would 
 have fierce foes, as that he would achieve greatness. The very 
 variety of his powers led him, when they ripened into maturity, 
 to attempt " to hold the balance between conflicting principles," 
 and thus di-ew upon him somewhat of the hatred of the advo- 
 cates of both, and occasionally involved him in compromises 
 which failed to embody his own noblest thoughts. As a wit, 
 unable to restrain himself in the ovei-flowing enjoyinent of his 
 humour, and yet endowed with quick personal sensitiveness. 
 Canning ran as much danger of being wounded as of wounding, 
 and paid ultimately a bitter penalty of inward suffering for every 
 blow he struck. Unconnected with any of the great ruling 
 families, his genius could not protect him from being treated as 
 a pai-venu ; and some of his high associates never forgave a 
 speech in which he flung back the charge of being an adventurer, 
 with the proud assertion that he had no claims but those of 
 character, and never subscribed to the creed " which assigns to 
 a certain combination of great families a right to dictate to the 
 sovereign and to influence the people." 
 
 Canning was educated at Eton, through his uncle's aid, where 
 he edited a periodical started ara(nig the lads, named the Micro- 
 cosm, and gave abundant signs of future power. In a poem 
 called " The Slaveiy of Greece," he poured forth aspii'ations 
 towards freedom, which never died within him. In 1787 Can- 
 ning entered Christ Church college, Oxford. At Oxford he gained 
 distinction, and cemented that firm friendship with the Hon. 
 C. Jenkinson (afterwards the premier. Lord Liverpool), which 
 idtimately secured him the ministry of foreign affairs on the death 
 of Castlereagh. From Oxford he proceeded to Lincoln's inn, and 
 although he at first associated with Fox, Burke, and Grey, to 
 whom his friend Sheridan introduced him, he finally entered 
 parliament under the patronage of Pitt in 1793. In 179G he 
 became undcr-secretary of state, and from time to time defended 
 the policy of Pitt. At the close of 1797 he commenced the 
 Anti-Jacobin, to which he contributed some famous parodies 
 upon Southey — one of which, " The Friend of Humanity and the 
 Knife-Grinder," has assumed a lastmg place in humorous litera- 
 ture ; " The Rovers," a burlesque on the sentimental drama, 
 containing some exquisite feeling ; and " New Morality," a 
 satire on the French. In 1798 Canning married Miss Jane 
 Scott, one of the daughters of General Scott, tliereby advancing 
 both his pecuniary and social position. He went out of office 
 with Pitt in ISUl, returning with that minister in 1804, but 
 again leaving the govenmient on Pitt's death in 180G. Upon 
 the resignation of the Grey and Granville administration in 1807, 
 Canning became minister of foreign affairs, but withdrew in 
 consequence of a duel with Castlereagh, who held the war office. 
 Castlereagh charged Canning with obtaining a promise that he 
 
 should be removed from office, and concealing the whole afl'air ; 
 the king, however, subsequently explained that Canning's com- 
 plaint had been that their offices clashed, but that it was still 
 hoped to retain both in the government, and that it was not 
 intended to conceal so long the change in agitation. Upon the 
 death of Percival in 1812, Lord Liverpool became prime minister, 
 and sought the aid of Canning. Canning, to his honour, declined 
 to join the cabinet, in consequence of the refusal of Lord Liver- 
 pool to take into consideration the catholic claims, although at 
 this moment of his career, as he afterwards declared, he had a 
 temptation to take office more powerful than he had felt at any 
 other period of his political life. In 1812 he was chosen 
 representative for Liverpool, for which borough he was returned 
 in three successive parliaments; and in 1814 he accepted the 
 ambassadorship at Lisbon, his sympathies being closely di'awn 
 to the government by its prosecution of the French war. In 
 1816 he returned to England, and became president of the board 
 of control, the catholic question being left open ; but on the 
 accession of George IV. he resigned office in consequence of his 
 opposition to the proceedings against Queen Caroline. In 1822 
 Canning was announced as the successor to Lord Hastings in the 
 government of India, and prepared to leave England. As he 
 journeyed to Liverpool, however, to take leave of his constituents, 
 great news reached him. Castlereagh, who had been at the 
 foreign office since 1809, had fallen by his own hand, and the 
 name of Canning was on every tongue as his successor. In 
 spite of the opposition of the Iring and of some members of the 
 cabinet, through the firmness of his old friend. Lord Liverpool, 
 Canning was offered the fon^ign office, Sept. 11, 1822, which he 
 accepted, and by this act a change came over the foreign policy 
 of Britain ; and by a change in the foreign policy of Britain, the 
 whole course of modem history was necessarily dii'ected into a new 
 channel. The substitution of Canning for Castlereagh as minister 
 was an epoch in modern history. Canning's first great aim was 
 the withdrawal of Britain from the Holy AUiance. The grave 
 attempt was then being made in Europe to establish an authori- 
 tative congress of royal families, pledged to assist each other by 
 force of arms, and claiming a right to interfere upon the slightest 
 pretext with the internal conduct of every state. Canning 
 directed his policy against this system of holding congi'esses for 
 the government of the world. His second great aim was to 
 dissolve this Holy Alliance peacefully. He dreaded a fresh war, 
 for he prophesied that it would be a war of opinion. Were 
 there no Holy Alliance to interfere, and had each nation a time 
 of peace in which it could grow according to its genius, then he 
 trusted Europe would achieve her noblest destiny. His third 
 grand aim was to place Britain in such a position that she could 
 act for and by herself. In consequence of the firmness of the Bri- 
 tish minister in carrying out this policy, it was not decided at the 
 congress of Verona in 1822, to interfere forcibly in the affairs of 
 Spain ; and although France ultimately declared war, through 
 dread of a free constitution so near its borders. Canning, while 
 preserving British neutrality, could fairly boast that he had 
 prevented the war from being carried on under the assumed 
 jurisdiction of a congress, and rendered it possible to manage its 
 issues by ordinary diplomacy. He had, however, clearly made 
 known to Europe that the principle on which Britain deprecated 
 the Spanish war, was its acknowledgment " of the right of any 
 nation to change or modify its internal institutions." While 
 these events were going on— to use his own famous phrase — 
 he sought materials of compensation in another liemisphere, 
 and called the new world into existence to redress the balance 
 of the old, " by recognizing the independence of the Spanish 
 South American colonies, w^hich had revolted from the mother 
 country." Canning read another lesson to Europe on the foreign 
 policy of Britain, when the British consul at Tangiers refused 
 to surrender to Spain some political offenders. He regretted 
 that such conduct should be deemed unfriendly, since Great 
 IJritain could contract no obligation to surrender political 
 oil'enders to Spain or any other power. That Canning in his 
 love of peace was not disposed to forget the honour or the 
 ancient obligations of his country, apjiears from the fact, tliat 
 when Portugal was invaded from Spain by deserters from its 
 army — an invasion more than sanctioned by the Spanish govern- 
 ment — he at once despatched British troops to its aid, risking 
 a general war rather than compromise national faith. He was 
 active in the abolition of the slave trade, although his general 
 position on the subject of slavery was an instance of tlie way
 
 CAN 
 
 884 
 
 CAN 
 
 in wliich the attempt to balance conflicting principles is often 
 rather a surrender of the right, than the dispensation of an equal 
 justice. To Canning, however, is due the humane order of council 
 on JIarch 16, 1824, which forbade some of the more glaring 
 cruelties of West Indian slavery. With the cause of catholic 
 emancipation his name is closely identified, and he made great 
 personal sacrifices in its behalf, although his conduct was some- 
 times more dii-ected by considerations of policy than its recog- 
 nized leaders could brook. There is no doubt, however, that 
 through Canning's influence the catholic cause was accepted by 
 many in high authority, who would have listened to no other 
 teacher. The famous scene in the house of commons in 1823, 
 must be quoted as characteristic. In his speech at Liverpool 
 in 1820, he had suggested a liberal compromise. This was 
 constantly quoted as an abandonment of the cause, and when 
 lie afterwards accepted ofiice under an anticatholic premier, 
 the two things were bitterly combined, although the ques- 
 tion had been left an open one. Brougham, during one of 
 liis philippics, bitterly taunted him with "monstrous truck- 
 ling." Canning at once interrupted the speaker with the 
 words — " Sir, I rise to say that that is false." A dead silence 
 followed. Canning being called to order, declared that no 
 consideration should induce him to recall his words ; but at 
 last accepted the suggestion that Brougham's expressions were 
 addressed to him in his political capacity. Brougham has since 
 honourably declared that Canning was too disposed to act a 
 " high, manly, and honourable part." It is curious to note that 
 while he delivered Britain from the Holy Alhance abroad, he 
 withstood rcfomi at home ; and that he upheld the rights of the 
 catholics, while opposing those of the dissenters. Such incon- 
 sistencies may be attributed to peculiarities of mental constitu- 
 tion — to his political education — and especially to his overdriving 
 the idea of balancing antagonistic principles, until it compelled 
 liim to pursue a path true in direction to neither. In financial 
 policy he supported the enlightened measures of Huskisson. 
 On February 17, 1827, Lord Liverpool, the premier, was seized 
 with an apoplectic fit, and the public voice named Canning as the 
 foremost man in Britain. The king hesitated, but a deputation 
 of noblemen having threatened the mthdrawal of their sup- 
 port from government should Canning become premier, his royal 
 pride was touched, and he bestowed on him the seals of 
 office. His old colleagues refused to assist the new minister, 
 but he succeeded in organizing a powerful cabinet, with which 
 he met parliament, Jlay 1, 1827. But now, to this statesman of 
 genius and sensitiveness, came the time of bitter trial. Sharp 
 arrows, well-pointed for rankling in his proud heart, were 
 flung from the hand of every foe. Those who did not see how 
 a gi-eat mind can combine within itself varied elements of policy 
 and power, and be really consistent in allegiance to master prin- 
 ciples, althoiigh apparently inconsistent in practical applications 
 as to outward detail ; those who recognized no growth of policy — 
 even as the demands of new-bom hom-s have their individual char- 
 acteristics, and require their own special treatment ; partisans, 
 those " hard taskmasters," who will not brook the following of 
 any path but one, although there may be many roads to the 
 same end ; the sufferers from the statesman's wit, who could not 
 forgive a joke for the sake of its genius ; high and noble families, 
 who resented the authority of one who had distm'bed their 
 accustomed relationships with the government — all joined their 
 voices to swell the storm of personalities with which the premier 
 was beset. Canning's power had often been manifested in bring- 
 ing peaceful issues out of noisy antagonisms ; but the contest 
 now needed the body as well as the mind of a giant, and there 
 was the seat of Canning's increasing weakness. At the close of 
 the session he went for change of air to the duke of Devonshire's 
 villa at Chiswick, occupying the very room in which Fox died. 
 Some time pre\nous he had attended the funeral of his great 
 antagonist the duke of York, and caught his death-chill besiile 
 the open grave. On the evening of August 3, 1827, he was 
 attacked by internal inflammation, and breathed his last on 
 the morning of the 8th. He was buried in Westminster abbey, 
 close to Pitt, and his widow was raised to the peerage. Thus 
 solemn was the end of his premiership, after its few months of 
 stormy controversy. The chill of deatli fell on him at the grave 
 of his greatest opponent, and the chamber sacred to the memory 
 of Fox witnessed the j)assing of Canning's life into the inevitable 
 shadow ; while friend and foe paused in their hot strife to con- 
 fess that a great man had departed from the land. — L. L. P. 
 
 * CANNING, Chaklks John, Viscount Canning, third and 
 youngest, but only suniving son of George Canning, was born 
 at Brompton in the suburbs of London, Dec. 14, 1812. He 
 received his early education at Eton, and subsequently at Christ 
 Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1833, as a first 
 class in "literaj humaniores." On a casual vacancy in the repre- 
 sentation of Warwick in 183G, he was returned to parliament 
 as a supporter of the opposition, headed at that time by the 
 late Sir Robert Peel ; but his stay in the lower house was of 
 limited duration, inasmuch as, in the following year, the decease 
 of his mother (who had been raised to the peerage on her 
 husband's death in 1828) transferred him to the house of lords. 
 On the formation of Sir Robert Peel's administration in 1841, 
 he accepted the post of under-secretary of state for foreign afiairs, 
 which he held till ]\Iarch, 1846, when he was promoted to the 
 chief commissionership of woods and forests. This appointment, 
 however, he resigned in the following July, on the retirement of 
 his party from office. On the foiTnation of the Aberdeen 
 ministry in 1852, he undertook the office of postmaster-general, 
 which he held until 1855. Towards the close of 1855 the marquis 
 of Dalhousie resigned the governor-generalship of India, and one 
 of the last acts of Lord Aberdeen's government was to nominate 
 Lord Canning as his successor. He reached the seat of govern- 
 ment in February, 1856, and immediately set himself to work 
 in earnest, promoting to the utmost of his ability the many social, 
 political, educational, and military reforms, which had been com- 
 menced by his pi'edecessor, and developing the internal resources 
 of India by the extension of roads, railroads, and telegraphic 
 communication between the most important cities and mihtary 
 stations. In Slay of the following year, after smoiddering for 
 several weeks, the temble Indian mutiny broke out in the 
 neighbom-hood of Jleenit and Delhi. The suddenness of the 
 outbreak was enough to have paralyzed an ordinary mind ; but 
 the danger was met by ihe government of Lord Canning in a 
 way which reflected the highest credit on himself and his sub- 
 ordinates. Instead of issuing threatening pi-oclamations, which 
 it would have been as impoHtic as it was impossible to carry 
 into effect. Lord Canning, with characteristic readiness, inter- 
 cepted the British troops that happened to be on their way to 
 China, ordered such regiments as could be spared to be sent up 
 from JIadras and Bombay, and appointed one of the Company's 
 officers. Sir Patrick Grant, to the cliief command. Disregarding 
 the public excitement, and the popular outer)' raised against him, 
 he resisted the persuasion of those who would have m'gcd him 
 to adopt a bloodthirsty and vindictive course. He at once 
 placed a curb upon the Indian press ; and by the appointment 
 of a llahomedan to a high position, showed the feeling of the 
 government towards such natives as remained faithful in their 
 allegiance. He refused to allow to Europeans the unrestrained 
 use of firearms, being unwilling to stigmatize the natives as a 
 body. And when the mutiny was ah-eady far advanced, he 
 issued his celebrated proclamation with respect to Oude, by 
 which he nominally confiscated to the British crown the entire 
 proprietary rights of the land, intending to apply it to indiNndual 
 instances, with such modifications as he might find to be neces- 
 sarj'. This despatch was much criticised at the time, and was 
 severely and publicly censured by Lord Ellenborough, the 
 president of the board of control, who in consequence was 
 obliged to resign his post in the administration of Lord Derby. 
 At present it would be premature to pronounce a deliberate 
 opinion on Lord Canning's powers of statesmanship ; but it is 
 not too much to say, that he bids fair to rival in fame the best 
 of our Indian proconsuls. — E. W. 
 
 CANNING, Stratford. See Redcliffe. 
 
 CANO, Alonzo. This eminent Spanish painter was born in 
 1600 at Grenada, and was the son of Miguel Cano, a distinguished 
 architect. From the wide compass of his genius he has been 
 sumamed the Michel Angelo of Spain, succeeding as he did in 
 the triple profession of architect, sculptor, and painter. He was 
 educated as an architect by his father, but the son soon out- 
 stripped the su-e. He then studied sculpture, and with marked 
 success. He next proceeded to Seville, and entered the school 
 of painting of Pacheco, but afterwards became a pupil of Juan 
 del Castillo. When Mttle more than twenty years of age, he 
 executed works for the public places of Seville that excited great 
 admiration. At this time also he demonstrated his talent as 
 a sculptor by several noble specimens, more especially his two 
 colossal figures of "San Pedro" and "San Pablo," and also
 
 CAN 
 
 885 
 
 CAN 
 
 his " Madonna and Child " in the church of Xcbrissa. On the 
 invitation of Count OUvai-ez, he now went to 3iladi-id, where he 
 was appointed to be royal architect, to be special painter to the 
 king, and to be preceptor to the Prince Don Balthasar Carlos of 
 Austria. But troubles accompanied him, and dimmed his glories. 
 He foimd one day his wife murdered, and his house robbed. 
 Suspicion fell on an Italian pahiter, who, however, had disap- 
 peared. But then it came to light that Cano had been jealous of 
 this Italian, and had further formed a liaison with another woman. 
 The Italian was acquitted, the husband was condemned. The 
 judges considered he had suflBcient motive for the crime — another 
 love and a false wife. He took to flight, reached Valencia, and 
 sought refuge in a Carthusian monastery. He waited some time, 
 thought the thing had blown over, and then imprudently ventured 
 again in Jladiid. But justice sleeps with one eye open. He was 
 seized and tortured. He bore his sufferings without a mnrmur ; 
 he confessed nothing; so it was concluded at last, that really 
 he had nothing to confess. The king received him again into 
 favour; but Cano, afraid of bemg subjected to new trials, sought 
 the protection of the church, and by the king's permission he 
 was nominated residentiaiy of Grenada. The ecclesiastics 
 grumbled a little at the suspected bloodstain on their lawn, but 
 consoled themselves by considering the art-treasm-es their new 
 brother would bestow on the church. They were right. Rich 
 gifts in painting and sculpture accrued to the cloth, and Cano 
 spent his last years in acts of extreme devotion and charity. 
 He died in 1G76 or 1667, as some assert. His works are very 
 numerous, and are to be met ynth in most of the chm-ches and 
 convents of Spain. In his later life he made no scruple of 
 exacting the full price of his works. A coimsellor is related to 
 have said to him — " You have been twenty-five days carving this 
 figure of St. Antony ; you demand one hundred pistoles for it ; 
 why, that is at the rate of fom- pistoles a day. Why, I, a coun- 
 sellor, do not make half that sum by my talents." " Fool," 
 screamed the incensed artist, " don't talk of your talents. I have 
 been fifty years learning to make this statue in twenty-five days I " 
 and he dashed the saint to the eaith into a thousand pieces. For 
 this profane violence the king suspended him from his office, 
 but he was restored on his completion of a magnificent crucifix 
 for the queen. Fiiseli rates Cano above all his contemporaries, 
 with the exception of Velasquez. He was very grand in style, 
 powerful in effect, and perfect in drawing. His faults were a 
 certain tendency to the overloaded and redundant. — W. T. 
 
 CANO, Juan Sebastian del, the first circumnavigator of 
 the globe, was a native of Biscay. He sailed in the Conception 
 under Magellan, when he passed through the straits that bear his 
 name ; and when that commander was killed at the Phillippines, 
 continued the voyage, touched at the Sunda isles, doubled the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and anived near Seville in 1522. He was 
 rewarded by Charles V., who presented him with a globe bearing 
 the motto " Primus, me circumdedisti." He died in 1526 whUe 
 on a voyage m the South Seas. — J. B. 
 
 CANO or CANUS, JIelchior, a Spanish Dominican, bom 
 at Taranzo in 152.3. He studied at Salamanca, where in 1546 
 he became professor of theolog}-. He was a bitter opponent of 
 the Jesuits, and through their influence, having been summoned 
 by Paul III. to the coimcU of Trent, he was sent away from 
 Spain to be bishop of the Canaries. Philip II., however, recalled 
 him, and he became provincial of his order in Castile. He died 
 at Toledo in 1560. His principal work is a treatise "De locis 
 theologicis," Padua, 1727. — J. B. 
 
 CANONIC A, LuiGi, an architect, bom at Milan in the 
 eighteenth century. He adorned his native city with many 
 noble buildings, and is especially remembered for the construc- 
 tion of the arena or ampliitheati-e begun in 1805 by order of 
 Napoleon. He died at Milan in 1844. 
 
 CANONICUS, a distinguished sachem or chief of the Narra- 
 gansett Indians in New England. The district over which he 
 ruled lay on the borders of IJhode Island and Connecticut. He 
 continued a firm friend to the English to the end of his life. In 
 the war between Massachusetts and the Pequods, Canonicus was 
 on the side of the colony. In 1644 he submitted himself and 
 his tribe to the authority and protection of the English king, 
 and was one of the noblest specimens of the New England 
 Indians. He died Jmie 4, 1647, aged, as was beheved, eighty- 
 five years. — W. G. 
 
 C.\NOPPI, Antonio, an Italian artist, first known as a 
 fresco painter, became afterwards a scene painter in the theatres 
 
 at Venice and Mantua. Compelled to leave Italy, because he 
 was suspected by the French government, he sought refuge at 
 Vienna, where he became acquainted with the Russian ambassa- 
 dor, at whose recommendation he settled at Moscow in 1807. He 
 there decorated the halls of many of the nobles, and the senate 
 hall. Just before the great fire which destroyed all his works, 
 he had gone to St. Petersburg, where, till his death iu 1832, 
 he was scene-painter in the imperial theatre. — J. B. 
 
 CANOVA, Antonio, was bom at Possagno in the pro^^nce 
 of Treviso, November 1, 1757, of a respectable family of that 
 place ; but, havuig lost his father when still an infant, he was 
 brought up by his grandfather. At a very early age young 
 Canova was set by his grandfather to the work of a stone-mason, 
 and in this hmnble sphere his capacity for fine art soon developed 
 itself. He attracted the notice, when only thirteen years old, 
 of the Venetian senator, Giovanni Faliero, who placed him with 
 the sculptor Torretti, at that time hving in the neighbourhood of 
 Possagno, and with whom Canova passed two years near his 
 native place, when he removed with his master to Venice ; and 
 here smrounded by gi'eat works, if not by great masters, he 
 rapidly enlarged his views of art. He was so far advanced that, 
 on the death of Toiretti, which happened not long after he 
 settled in Venice, his grandfather felt justified in selhng a small 
 piece of land in order to find funds to place the young sculptor 
 with a second master, Torretri's nephew, Ferrari, equally obscure 
 as the uncle, yet both quite capable of instructing the young 
 sculptor in the practical work of his art. Their names, however, 
 have been preserved from oblinon, solely by the fact of their 
 having been concerned in the education of the young Canova, 
 and to this alone they owe their immortality. Among Canova's 
 first works were two baskets of fruit, made for the staircase of 
 his patron, Faliero, who also commissioned him to make his first 
 group of figures, " Orpheus and Emydice," executed in stone, 
 of which he made afterwards a copy in marble for another 
 patron at Venice, by which he acquired considerable local dis- 
 tinction ; an achievement, however, then comparatively easy, 
 for the arts were fallen to so low a state in the fonner mistress 
 of the Adi-iatic, that its rank was no higher thau that of any 
 ordinaiy provincial to^vn. His next gi-oup was " Daedalus 
 and Icarus," which developed a still greater advance, and carried 
 his reputation beyond the hmits of the Venetian waters. In 
 1780 Canova left Venice for Rome, with a pension gi-anted by 
 the state for three years, and a special recommendation to the 
 Venetian ambassador, Count Zulian, who became subsequently 
 a valuable patron to him. He contracted also a friendship 
 with Gavin Hamilton, then an important critic in Rome, and a 
 valuable acquaintance for Canova. He initiated him into the 
 histoiy and principles of ancient and modem art. About 1783 
 Canova decided to fix himself definitively at Rome. Pompeo 
 Battoni was then the great Roman celebrity in painting. From 
 this time he commenced that series of gi-eat works which have 
 eamed him the renown of the most distinguished sculptor of 
 modem times. Among the first was " Theseus and the Mino- 
 taur." One of his first important monuments was the mausoleum 
 of Clement XIV. in the church of the Santi Apostoli, with three 
 colossal figures. This was followed by the still more important 
 momunent to Clement XIII. in St. Peter's, uncovered in 179.5, 
 and particularly celebrated for its two crouching lions. In this 
 year he made the bas-relief to the Venetian aihnlral, Emo, for 
 the arsenal at Venice, and for which the senate sent him a gold 
 medal with this inscription — "Antonio Canova Vencto artibus 
 elegantioribus mirificfe instraeto ob monumentmn publicum 
 Angelo Emo egregie inscnlptum Senatus Munus : A. jidccxcv." 
 Among the minor works of this period is the well-known 
 " Penitent Magdalene," made shortly before the invasion of Rome 
 by the French. It was about this time also that Canova tried 
 his hand at painting. There is a print by Pietro Vitali, entitled 
 Venere Transteverina, which is engi-aved'from a painted Venus 
 by Canova. He painted also his own portrait for the Florence 
 gallery, besides several other pictures. When Rome was occu- 
 pied by Berthier in Febraary, 1798, and Pius VI., a great patron 
 of the arts, was dethroned and removed, a suspension took place 
 in the labours of Canova at Rome, who also left the eternal 
 city and revisited his native place, Possagno. Rome was no 
 place for artists during its short-lived republic, which was a 
 simple interregnum of anarchy. Many of its most valued art- 
 treasures were alienated at this period. Canova made an exten- 
 sive tour ui Germanv during his absence from Rome, and the
 
 Austrian government wished to retain him in Vienna, for the 
 treaty of Campo Formio had made every Venetian an Austrian 
 subject. Upon the re-establishment of the papal government 
 under Pius VII. in 1802, Canova returned to Rome. Among 
 the most remarkable of his VFOrks of this period is the colossal 
 group of " Hercules throwing Lycas into the Sea ;" the figure 
 being the Farnese Hercules in action, the ancient and modern 
 colossus being of the same 'dimensions. The small bronze made 
 in Paris of the original sketch is well known. This was fol- 
 lowed by the beautiful statue of " Perseus," as a rival of the 
 Apollo Belvedere. Pius VII. had it placed in the vacant uiche 
 in the Vatican, which had been occupied by the Apollo before 
 it was carried off to Paris. Canova himself visited Paris in 
 1802 to model a bust of the first consul, Bonaparte, and from 
 which he afterwards made his colossal statue of the emperor, 
 now at Apsley house. 
 
 His next great works were the two boxers, Creugas and 
 Damoxenus, of tenible grandeur and effect, now placed in the 
 Vatican. In 1805 Canova was made a knight of the golden 
 spur, and received the appointment formerly held by Eaphael, 
 that of superintendent of antiquities, and at the same time 
 inspector of the fine arts. A few other works of this time must 
 be mentioned ; those most remarkable for grace and beauty are 
 — the " Venus," now in the Pitti palace, made to replace the 
 Venus de Jledici canied to Paris ; three " Dancing Girls," in 
 various collections ; the " Three Graces," in this country ; 
 "Hebe;" and the Trojan " Paris," now in the Glyptothek at 
 ilunich ; most of them several times repeated. 
 
 In 1810 Canova visited Paris a second time, to make a bust 
 of the Empress ]Maria Louisa ; his brother, the Abbate Canova, 
 accompanied him as his secretary. Napoleon wished to retain 
 the sculptor in Paris, but Canova was not to be tumed from his 
 purpose by persuasion. He returned to Rome the same year, 
 and was allowed to re-establish the academy of St. Luke, now 
 located in the Fabbrica Vecchia. Canova was elected president 
 or principe. In 1815 Canova acted as the papal commissioner 
 to select, for restitution, the works of art which had been plun- 
 dered by the Frenclr from the government of Rome, and he was 
 forced to make a long sojom'n in Paris for that purpose. From 
 Paris he repaired to London, and had an opportunity of examining 
 tlie Elgin marbles, on which he gave an opinion. On his return 
 to Rome in the beginning of 1816, he was created by the pope, 
 for his services in the restitution of the plundered works, War- 
 chese dTschia ; his name was written in the golden book of the 
 Capitol; and he was granted an annual pension of 3000 scudi 
 — about £G30 — the whole of which income Canova spent on 
 public uses for the encom-agement of the arts in Rome. Towards 
 the close of his career he was engaged in building a temple, or 
 Doric church, at Possagno, his native place, for which he had 
 already painted the altarpiece — " The Descent from the Cross." 
 In liis excitement in superintending this structure he neglected 
 his health, and he died at Venice, October 12, 1822. His 
 funeral was performed with great honours in the basilika of St. 
 Mark, and his body was buried at Possagno, in the temple con- 
 structed by him there. In the interior is placed the monument 
 to Canova, made by general subscription from a sketch by Canova 
 himself, originally for a monument to Titian. It is similar 
 in plan to the gi-eat mausoleum by him, raised to the Austrian 
 Ai-chducliess Christma at Vier.na. Canova's works are extremely 
 numerous, and they are well known from the many excellent 
 engravings from them. He was the most able and productive 
 of modern sculptors. His works are generally beautiful — the 
 male as well as the female combining natural truth with classic 
 beauty and proportion. His extraordinary ability and industiy 
 are both displayed to advantage in the noble collection of casts 
 after his works, now preserved in the academy at Venice. " Her- 
 cules, with the tunic of Dojanira, hurling Lycas from the rock 
 into the sea," is a most imposing group. He has been styled by 
 some the renovator of sculpture among the moderns, and the 
 reviver of the antique ; but he has been reproached by others as 
 too effeminate in his style. He excelled most in female figures ; 
 and in the power of rendering the effect of flesh he is almost 
 alone. Though his masterpieces are less vigorous and grand 
 than some of the great works of ancient art, sucli as the Torso 
 of Apollonius, or the so-called Discobolus of Naucydes, he is 
 often more beautiful and more natural, and at the same time 
 free both from affectation, and from the severe ngidity which 
 characterizes the antique. The attitude of the Apollo Belvedere 
 
 is fine, but its great beauty is in the head ; the body and limlw 
 are inferior to many of the figures of Canova ; and it is difficuBf 
 to imagine anything more graceful or beautiful than some of his 
 female figures. There is a fine portrait of Canova by Sii 
 Thomas Lawrence. — (Missirifii, Vifade Antonio Canova^ 1827, 
 Quatremere de Quincy, Canova etsesouvrages, 1836.) — R.N.W. 
 
 CANOVAI, Stanislaus, bom at Florence in 1740 ; died in 
 1811. An ecclesiastic, professor, at Cortona, of mathematics; 
 afterwards professor of mathematics at Parma. He published 
 some tracts insisting that Columbus was not entitled to the 
 credit of having discovered America, and claiming the honour 
 for Americus Vespucius. He also published some elementary 
 treatises on mathematics. — J. A., D. 
 
 * CANROBERT, Francois Certain de, a distinguished 
 French general, bom in Brittany in 1809. He entered the army 
 as a private in 1830, but doing good service in Africa and else- 
 where, he soon attained the command of a regiment of Zouaves, 
 and the rank of brigadier-general. In 1853 he became a general 
 of division, and in the following year was sent to the Crimea, to 
 command the first division under Marshal St. Arnaud. On the 
 death of that distinguished «oldier, Canrobert was raised to the 
 command of the French army, and fought bravely at Inkermann ; 
 but in 1855 he resigned in favour of General Pelissier, and took 
 his place at the head of his old division. He was created marshal " 
 in 1856. 1 
 
 CANSSUH, a Circassian, who was in 1632 appointed pacha • 
 of Yemen, and sent thither to quell a revolt against the authority 
 of the Porte. The expedition was unsuccessful, and the Tui-kish 
 power in Yemen came to an end. 
 
 CANSTEIN, Kakl Hildebhaxd Fkeiherr von, was bom 
 of an old noble family at Lindcnberg, August 4, 1667, and died 
 at Berlin, August 19, 1719. After having studied law at Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Oder, he became attached to the court of Berlin, and 
 aftei'wards sei-ved as a volunteer in the Netherlands, until by a 
 dangerous and protracted illness, he was obliged to retui-n to Ber- 
 lin, where he formed an acquaintance with Spener and Francke. 
 He actively joined in their pious and philanthropic endeavours, by 
 founding the celebrated " Bibelanstalt" at Halle, which still bears 
 his name, and by which upwards of five millions of bibles have 
 since been published. He wrote a " Harmonie der vier Evan- 
 gelien" and a "Life of Spener." — K. E. 
 
 CANT, Andrew, an influential Scotch presbyterian clergy- 
 man of the seventeenth centuiy, was incumbent of Pitsligo in 
 1638, and afterwards one of the ministers of Aberdeen. He 
 took a leading part in the abolition of episcopacy, in the promo- 
 tion of the national covenant, and in all the other measures 
 of the zealous presbyterians during the great civil war. At 
 the division in the ranks of the presbyterians in 1660, Mr. 
 Cant jouied the protesters or extreme party, who wished to 
 exclude from the national semce all who had not approved 
 of the solemn league and covenant. But he was at the same 
 time a staunch royalist ; and even when the English troops 
 were stationed in Aberdeen, he boldly prayed in their presence 
 for the exiled king, Charles. II., that "the Lord might deliver 
 him from the bondage of oppressors." On one occasion, some 
 of his military auditors were so enraged at his denunciations 
 of the policy of Cromwell, that they drew their swords and 
 threatened to slay hun. Mr. Menzies, the colleague of Mr. Cant, 
 was so ten-ified that he hid himself beneath the pulpit ; but the 
 indomitable preacher, who in his day had wielded the sword as 
 well as the bible, bared his breast, and expressed his readiness to 
 receive the blows of his assailants, " if any will venture to give 
 them, for the truth." At the Restoration he was of course 
 ejected from his church, and obliged to leave the town. He 
 died in 1664. It is very generally supposed that the word 
 "cant" was derived from the name of this zealous and upright, 
 though somewhat rigid divine, but it was in use before his day* 
 — A clerg}'man bearing the same name, and supposed to have been 
 the son of Andrew Cant, was one of the ministers of Edinburgh 
 during the reign of Charles II., and was also principal of the 
 university between 1675 and 1685. He must, therefore, have 
 been an episcopalian. An Andrew Cant was consecrated one of 
 the bishops of the episcopal church in 1722, and died in 1728; 
 but he was probably the son of the principal, and grandson of 
 the famous " apostle of the covenant," as the royalists termed 
 the minister of Aberdeen. — J. T. 
 
 CANTACUZENE, Constantine. See Bessaraba. 
 
 CANTACUZENE, Demetrius, brother of Scherban II.,
 
 waiwode of ]^Iolda\ia ; he was detested by his subjects, and fled 
 to Poland in 1G79. He was restored only to be again deposed 
 — this time by Ibrahim Pacha in 1685. 
 
 CAXTACUZEXE, John V., emperor of the East, and one of 
 the Bvzautine historians, was bom about 1295. He held high 
 oflSce under Andronicus the elder, and attained the highest import- 
 ance in the state when his grandson Andronicus came to the throne 
 in 1328. He did eminent service to the empire under this younger 
 piince, and on his death in 134:1, was appointed regent during 
 the minority of John Palajologus. Exposed to the intrigues of 
 the empress dowager, the patriarch, and some of the nobles, he 
 ui self defence, and at the entreaty of the army, assumed the 
 pui'ple, and was crowned at Hadrianople in 13-42. It was not, 
 however, till after a civil war of five years that he entered 
 Constantinople, and was acknowledged as joint emperor with 
 John Palaeologus. The union was not lasting, for in 1353 
 jealousies spr;ing up, and a new war began, which lasted till 
 1355, when Cantacuzene abdicated and retired to a monastery. 
 He then took the name of Joasaphus Christodulus, and wi-ote 
 in four books a "History of the Byzantine empire from 1320 to 
 1355," which forms one of the series of Byzantine liistories. He 
 also wi-ote an apology for the christian faith against Jews and 
 Mohammedans. It is said that he hved more than a hundred 
 years, but the date of his death is uncertain. — J. B. 
 
 CANTACUZENE, Matthew, son of John V., bom in 1325. 
 He continued the civil war after his father's death, and was 
 forced by John Palteologus to renounce his title to the throne. 
 
 CAXTACUZEXE, Schekbax, who made a doubtful claim 
 of descent from John V., was a native of WaUachia, of which he 
 rose to be waiwode in 1678. He long aspired to the thi'one of 
 Constantinople, and was imprisoned in 1672. Released by the 
 Turks, and holding oiBce under them, he nevertheless conceived 
 the design of driving them from Em'ope, and coming to the 
 throne of his ancestors. He plotted with the Emperor Leopold 
 and the Czar of iluscovy, but his scheme had just been discovered 
 when he died in 1685. — J. B. 
 
 CAN'TACUZEXE, Stephen III., son of Constantine Can- 
 tacuzene, succeeded his cousin, Constantine Brancovan, in 1714. 
 (See Bessakaba.) Chosen as a pretext for the deposition of 
 his cousin, the Turks immediately determined to get rid of him 
 also. He was executed at Constantinople in 1716, and with him 
 perished the native hue of princes. 
 
 CAXTARIKI, Rabbi Isaac Chatim Cohen, was of the 
 family of the Chasanim, of which word Cantarini is a transla- 
 tion. This great scholar was a native of Padua, where his 
 father had occupied an honourable position. Isaac Cantarini 
 studied medicine at the university of his native city; and 
 although the rehgious affairs of the congregation over which he 
 was appomted rabbi claimed his principal attention, he never 
 relinquished entirely the practice of medicine, in which, indeed, 
 he arrived at considerable eminence, according to the testimony 
 of contemporary authorities. Some of his Hebrew writings 
 have a mystic tendency, and are composed in a correspondingly 
 obscure although elaborate style. Of this character is " Eth 
 Kez" (The Time of the End), in which the advent of the Messiah 
 is calculated, although investigations of tliis kind are discoun- 
 tenanced by the rabbinical law. His " Pakad Yitzchak" (The 
 Awe of Isaac), gives an account of the persecution suffered by 
 the Jews at Padua on August 20, 1684. Wolf attributes to Can- 
 tarini the authorship of Yindex Sanguinis, an apology, in Latin, 
 of the Jews against the absurd accusation of using christian 
 blood in the making of the unleavened passover-bread. — T. T. 
 
 CANTARINI, SuiONE, called Simone da Pesaeo, was 
 bom in 1612. He attained to unquestionable eminence, both as 
 a painter and an engraver. He studied under Giovanni Giacomo 
 Pandulfi, Claudio Ridolfi, and afterwards under Guido Reni. He 
 endeavoured to establish a school at Bologna, but, failing to 
 obtain pupils, in groat disgust he set out for Mantua. The duke 
 profiered the sunshine of his patronage, and ordered a portrait. 
 For some cause, either from a want of honesty, or too much of it 
 in the picture, the duke was by no means satisfied. Cantarini's 
 insolent and irritable temper of mind could not bear up under 
 this disappointment. He died in 1648 at Yerona, where he had 
 retreated. Stories were told of his ha^^ng been poisoned by a 
 jealous rival, but of this nothing certain has been ascertained. 
 Cantarhii had gi-eat talent, but it was of the imitative character 
 merely. He came very near to Guido, not because he could 
 create like Lim, but because he could copy bun. His etchings are 
 
 very spirited and clever, but still reflective of a greater man's 
 spirit and cleverness. His saints' heads have been called prodi- 
 gies of beautv. — W. T. 
 
 CANTE i)EL GABRIELLI D'AGOBBIO, became podestat 
 of Florence in 1301. Allied with Charles of Yalois, he had 
 already rendered himself odious by liis part in the massacre of 
 the Bianchi. His rule was mercilessly severe; and in the records 
 of his numberless decrees of banishment appear the names of 
 Dante, and of Petraccio, the father of Petrarch. 
 
 CANTEillR, Ajs'tiochus, a Russian poet, fourth son of 
 Demetrius, bom in 1709 ; died in 1744. Having been carefully 
 educated for the imperial semce, Cantemir, while stiU a youth, 
 was rapidly promoted. In 1730, when Anne of Courland came 
 to the throne, his prudence defended her from the machinations 
 of the aristocracy. He was sent as ambassador to London, and 
 afterwards to France. His last years were devoted to study. 
 
 CANTEMIR, Constantine, waiwode of Moldavia in the 
 seventeenth century. He served after his father's death in the 
 Polish army, and ha\-ing retmiied to Moldavia, ultimately, in 
 1684, became waiwode of that province. In the war between 
 Sobieski and the Tm-ks, he, being a christian, remained neutral, 
 except so far as to succour the former in his retreat. By means 
 of his political cunning and ability he deluded the Turks, and 
 died on his throne — the latter a rare thing among waiwodes. 
 
 CANTE^IIR, Demetrius, son of the prince of Moldavia, was 
 bom in 1673. He was disappointed in his hope of succeeding to 
 his father's dignity, but in 1710 was made governor of Moldavia 
 and sent to defend it against Peter of Russia. He conceived 
 the design of betraying it to the enemy, and when the Russian 
 arms failed, left the territory and became a follower of the czar, 
 receiving large estates and lucrative appointments under his new 
 master. He died in 1723. Cantemir was a learned man, and 
 has left several works, of which the most important is, "A 
 History of the growth and decay of the Ottoman Empire," of 
 which an English translation appeared in London in 1734. 
 Gibbon says this history is full of blunders, and it is now known 
 to have been taken from an inaccurate abridgement of Saad-ed- 
 deen's Turkish histoiy. — J. B. 
 
 CANTER, Guillaume, bom at Utrecht in 1542 ; died in 
 1575. After the usual courses of study in Holland, he learned 
 Greek at Paris from Jean Dorat, and then travelled in Germany 
 and Italy. He is described as on his return from his travels 
 refusing all public employment, and giving himself entirely to 
 his studies — never \isiting a friend or receiving a visit. Lipsias 
 describes him as always with an hourglass or clepsydra before his 
 eyes, and devoting each hour to some separate branch of study. 
 He published eight books of what he styled '' Nova Lectiones," 
 being suggested emendations and explanations of passages of 
 Latin writers. He edited Euripides, Sophocles, and ^schylus. 
 His early death is ascribed to overwork. — Two brothers of his 
 are also mentioned as distinguished scholars — Theodore, who 
 pubUshed some classical tracts ; and Andrew, whose name is 
 found in lists of learned children. — J. A., D. 
 
 CANTON, John, born at Stroud m 1718, died in 1772 ; an 
 eminent cultivator of physics. His researches lay chiefly in the 
 field of electricity. We owe him the pith-ball electrometer, and 
 other instruments. He demonstrated the compressibility of 
 water, and he recognized the important fact that clouds are in 
 opposite electric states. — J. P. N. 
 
 CANTONI, Simone, an Italian architect who died in 1818. 
 He was a native of Maggio, and having studied at Rome, settled 
 at Milan, where, as well as at Como and Bergamo, he erected 
 some noble mansions. He rebuilt the great council hall in the 
 ducal palace of Genoa, destroyed by fire in 1777. 
 
 * CANTU, Cesare, an ItaUan historian, bom in the village of 
 Brisio, near Milan, in 1805. His father, Celsio, having died 
 suddenly in 1828, he became the head and only support of a very 
 large family. At the age of eighteen he obtained a professorship 
 of belles-lettres, first at Soadiio, then at Como, and finally at 
 Milan. His first work, a tale entitled " L'Algisa della mole 
 deir Ildegondo," he published when only twenty -two years of 
 age. This was followed by a continuation of the history of 
 Como, some comments on the history of Lombardy, and a 
 variety of treatises and essays, and some poems, the most 
 remarkable of which is the " Madonna of Imbevero." His ode, 
 " The Exile," the Lombard peasants sung triumphantly as they 
 were driven from their homes after the defeat of the Piedmou- 
 tese armv in 1848. If he had written nothing more than his
 
 CAN 
 
 CAP 
 
 sacred hymns, Iiis odes to Komagnosi and Pariui, and the his- 
 torical novel, " JIargherita Pusterla," all puhlished before 1845, 
 he would have been entitled to a high place in the history of 
 modem literature. But in the dreary solitude of a prison he 
 was to execute a work which marked him out to his counti-ymen 
 as the first of their historians. His attachment to liberal ideas, 
 and his undisguised abhorrence of the Austrian yoke, drew on 
 Cantii the animadversion of the governor of Lombardy, who 
 caused him to be an-ested, and confined nearly a year in the 
 Santa lilargherita, the prison in 1821 of Sihao Pellico. Here 
 he wrote his famous " Umversal Histon.'," a colossal work that 
 has already gone through seven editions. In the memorable 
 year 1848, Cantu followed the Piedmontese amiy, led by the 
 unfortunate King Charles Albert, against the oppressors of his 
 country; and, after the fatal issue of that unequal contest, 
 Cantii was obhged to seek shelter under the Sardinian flag, and 
 fixed his residence at Tm-in, refusing many honours and rewards 
 ofl'ered him by the government of that kingdom. Austria, how- 
 ever, dreading the mighty influence of the gi-eat historian's name 
 on the fernd imagination of the youth of Piedmont, thought 
 proper after a while to ignore the part Cantu had taken in the 
 preceding political events of Lombardy, where he now resides, 
 honom-ed and esteemed even by his enemies. Cantu has been 
 decorated by many sovereigns, and his name enrolled in almost 
 all the academies and societies in Europe. — A. C. JI. 
 
 CANUTE I., surnamed Dana-Ast, a Danish prince of the 
 tenth centmy, son of Gomi the Old, who united into a mon- 
 archy the various Danish estates. His mother was the famous 
 Queen Thyra Danebod. This prince, who, although he never 
 reigned, is regarded as the first of the name, perished in an 
 expedition into England. 
 
 CANUTE II. or the Great, the Danish king of England 
 in the eleventh centmy. His father, Sweyn, had obtained almost 
 complete ascendancy in England, and had diiven the Saxon 
 king, Ethelred the Unready, to seek refuge in Normandy ; but 
 on his death in 1014 the nobles invited Ethelred to return. 
 That weak and unprincipled king found Canute a too foi-midable 
 opponent. The Danes were laying the countiy waste, and some 
 of the Saxon nobles were deserting to their side. Ethelred, 
 cowardly and discouraged, retu-ed to London, where he died in 
 1016. His son, Edmund Ironside, who had already taken up 
 arms in defence of his father's government, was more equal to the 
 occasion ; and had it not been for the base treachery of Edric, 
 one of his nobles, he might have retrieved the fortunes of the 
 Saxon line. As it was he fought bravely ; but after several 
 battles, and the almost complete desolation of the country, a com- 
 promise was effected and the kingdom divided. Edmund obtained 
 Wessex, while Mercia and the north fell to Canute, who, when 
 Edmund was murdered in 1017, became sole king of England. 
 He confimied his power by banishing the sons of Edmund and 
 marrj-ing Emma, sister to the duke of Nonnandy and widow of 
 King Ethelred ; while he established his popularity by putting to 
 death some of the Saxon nobles who had been most treacherous 
 to their foraier prince, and by sending back to Denmark, as soon 
 as he could do so with safety, many of his adventurers. Canute 
 soon came to love his new subjects and have full confidence in 
 them. Having imdertaken an expedition to Denmark against 
 the king of Sweden, he was attended by Earl Godwin and a band 
 of Saxon warriors, whose bravery secured his victoiy, and won his 
 lasting esteem. In another expedition, undertaken in 1028, he 
 conquered Olaus, king of Norway, and added that kingdom to his 
 now vast dominions. In his later years he became distinguished 
 for bis piety and devotion, building churches, founding monas- 
 teries, and performing a pilgrimage to Rome. The well-known 
 story of his reproof to his flattering courtiers by the sea-shore, 
 gives us a glimpse of something beautiful in the heart of the 
 rough old warrior. He stands distinguished among conquerors 
 as one who sought to preserve the liberty, and in every way 
 advance the prosperity of the people he subdued. His last 
 expedition was against Malcolm of Scotland, who refused to pay 
 homage as a vassal for the county of Cumberland. Canute died 
 in 1036, having reigned for twenty years. — J. B. 
 
 CANUTE III., called Hardi-Canute, son of Canute the 
 Great, was elected king of Denmark on the accession of his 
 brother Harold to the throne of England, and, at the death of 
 that prince, became master of both kingdoms. This last of the 
 Danish kings of England died in 1042, after a short and 
 uneventful reign. 
 
 CANUTE IV. or the Pious, succeeded his brother, Haroli 
 the Simple, on the throne of Denmark in 1074. He won th 
 epithet by which he is distinguished for his wai's against tn 
 idolatrous tribes of the north, and for his submission and liberalit 
 to the clergy at the expense of his subjects, who at length, i 
 his proposing an expedition against England, broke into'oj 
 revolt. He was killed in Funen in 1087. 
 
 CANUTE v., son of Magnus, and grandson of Nicholas, od 
 of the three piinces, who, on the death of Eric, king of Dea 
 mark, in 1147, began a contest for the crown of that kingdom, 
 which lasted ten years; Canute being assr.ssinated in 1157, and 
 his brother Valdemar being obliged to take to flight. 
 
 CANUTE VI., king of Denmark, succeeded his father, Valde- 
 mar I., in 1182, and reigned till 1203. In this reign the countrj- 
 was remarkable for its prosperity and the great success of its arms. 
 
 CANUTE, son of Eric III. of Denmark, was appointed to 
 govern the duchy of Sleswick, then attacked by the prince of the 
 Vandals. Canute defeated the invader, and at the same time 
 so won his esteem, that he was appointed guardian of his children 
 and kingdom. He soon became duke of Mecklenburg, and 
 received the title of King of the Vandals ; but a conspiracy was 
 formed against him by his uncle, the Danish king, who was i 
 jealous of his success, and he was put to death in 1133. j 
 
 CANUTE, son of Eric the Holy, king of Sweden, fled into 
 Norway on the death of his father and accession of Charles ; led 
 an army into Sweden ; displaced the new king ; and himself 
 ascended the throne in 1169. He successfully resisted the 
 Danes and Goths, and reigned for twenty-three years with gi-eat 
 justice and prosperity. 
 
 CANUTI, DoMENiCHiNO Maria. This Bolognese artist 
 was born in 1620. He studied under Guido, and attained more 
 reputation th.an any other of his pupils. His picture of " The 
 Descent from the Cross," in the church of the Olivetani at 
 Bologna, is accounted very highly, from its extraordinary moon- 
 light effect. This work is always called the " Notte del Canuti." 
 He etched veiy successfully in the manner of Guido, with more 
 finish, but less genius. He died in 1684. — W. T. 
 
 CANZ, LsRAEL Gottlieb, a learned German theologian of 
 the eighteenth century, was boiTi on the 26th Febraaiy, 1690, in 
 Wurtemberg, and studied at Tiibingen, where he became pro- 
 fessor of eloquence and poetry in 1734, of logic and metaphysics 
 in 1739, and of theology in 1747. He was at first opposed 
 to the philosophy of Wolf and its application to theology ; but 
 farther »study and reflection changed his views, and induced 
 him to give to the world in 1728, his principal work, entitled 
 " Philosophic Leibnitzianoe et Wolfiana3 usus in Theologia, per 
 prajcipua fidei capita." His " Compendium Theologire Puriorij," 
 published in 1752, was written in the same spirit, and exhibited 
 the doctrinal system of the Lutheran chmxh as modified and 
 supported by the principles of the Wolfian philosophy. Canz 
 published a good many other writings on theology, morals, and 
 philosophy ; but he is now only remembered as having contri- 
 buted more than any other author to the ascendancy which the 
 Wolfian philosophy obtained for a time over the theological mind 
 of Germany. He died on the 28th of January, 1753. — P. L. 
 
 * CAP, Paul Antoine, a French pharmacologist, was born 
 at Macon on April 2, 1788. He is devoted to the nalm-a! 
 sciences, and has given his attention particularly to phamiaey. 
 He is a member of many learned societies, and a chevalier of the 
 legion of honour. Among his works are the following— Ou the 
 classification of drugs ; on the inspection of phannaccutists ; 
 " Elementary Principles of Pharmacy ;" treatises on botany and 
 on pharmacy ; and numerous articles in the Journal de Phar- 
 macie. — J. H. B. 
 
 CAPDUEIL or CAPDUELH, Poxs de. Of Capdueil Uttle 
 is known, except that he was a nobleman and a troubrdour 
 belonging to the diocese of Puy-Sainte-JIarie, who died towards 
 the close of twelfth centuiT. Late in life he assumed the cross. 
 and became a preacher of the crusades. He wrote poems in fur- 
 therance of the object, calling on sovereigns to suspend their 
 private wars till the holy sepulchre was delivered. He hunselt 
 died in the east in the third crasadc. — J. A., D. 
 
 CAPECE, CoxRADE, Marixo, and Jacopo, three Neapoli- 
 tan nobles and brothers, put to deatli in 1268. Devoted to the 
 house of Suabia and the Ghibelline party, they abetted Man- 
 fred! in his attempt on the throne of Naples. After his death, 
 Conrade and Marino were commissioned by the Ghibelline nobles 
 to offer the standard of Suabia to Conradin his nephew, and the
 
 CAP 
 
 889 
 
 CAP 
 
 last prince of that house. Conradin agreed to put himself at 
 their head ; but the brief prosperity of his cause was utterly 
 extinguished at the battle of Tagliacozzo, after which the Capece, 
 along with many of the Ghibellines, were mercilessly slaughtered 
 by Charles of Aiijou. 
 
 CAPECE-LATRO, Giuseppe, a Neapolitan archbishop, bom 
 in 1744; died in 1836. More liberal than most of his order, 
 Capece-Latro wrote against the hierarchical pretensions of the 
 Roman see, as well as against the celibacy of the clergy. At 
 the outbreak of the Revolution he advised the reformation of 
 .'ibuses, but without effect. Imprisoned after the Restoration, 
 the king was soon forced to set him again at liberty. He was 
 minister of the interior under Joseph Bonaparte and Jlurat. 
 
 * CAPEFIGUE, Baptiste Hoxore Rayjio:nd, French 
 historian, born at Marseilles in 1801. Perhaps no writer could 
 be named who has produced so many historical volumes as this 
 prolific author ; and although his works are not deficient in 
 grace and vivacity of style, they ha\-e failed in creating that 
 hi^h reputation which such untiring labour would seem almost of 
 itself to merit. To enumerate his writings would be to chronicle 
 every portion of French history, from the earliest period dovni 
 to the reign of Louis Philippe, which alone occupies ten large 
 ■ volumes. Besides general histories, he has written memoirs of 
 modern statesmen and public characters who have figured at 
 diflferent times. As a critic of men and manners he has been 
 piilty of the gi-eatest errors. What is to be thought of a grave 
 historian and politician, who can take for the subject of solemn 
 eulogy that duke of Richelieu, the most notorious profligate of 
 the infamous profligates of the reign of Louis XV., and who has 
 attempted to raise madame de Pompadour from the mire, and 
 place her on a par with Jeanne d'Arc, attributing to this adul- 
 teress and comtezan the purest motives of patriotism ? As a 
 political writer, Capefigue did himself much injury by the assump- 
 tion of a misleading nom de plume. He who had never been in 
 office, nor had even represented a constituency, published bulky 
 pamphlets under the title — homme d'ttat. The title in this 
 case was unwarrantable, because it offered a voucher for the 
 position of the writer ; it was as if one who had never received a 
 iliploma should give out a treatise as the work of a physician, or 
 a layman write under the title of a church dignitary. — J. F. C. 
 
 CAPEL, Arthur, was the son of Sir Henry Capel, sheriff 
 of Esses. In 1G40 he was chosen to represent the county of 
 Hertford in the celebrated " long parliament," and was elevated 
 to the peerage in 1641 by the title of Lord Capel of Hadham. 
 When the ci^^l war broke out he espoused the side of the king, 
 and raised and maintained a troop of cavalry at his own expense. 
 On the total niin of the royal cause Lord Capel submitted to 
 the parliament, and retii'ed to his mansion at Hadham. When 
 the designs of the republican party became manifest, he once 
 more took the field ; and along with Goring, Sir Charles Lucas, 
 and other cavaliers, threw himself into Colchester, which was 
 immediately besieged by Fairfax and Ireton. After a pro- 
 tracted and desperate resistance, during which the ganison were 
 reduced to feed on putrid horse flesh, and even on more disgust- 
 ing substances, they were compelled to surrender. Sir George 
 Lisle and Sir Charles Lucas were immediately shot. Lord Capel 
 was condemned by the commons to be banished ; but some of the 
 parliamentary leaders, judging the sentence too lenient, caused 
 him to be committed to the Tower. After the execution of the 
 king he contrived to make his escape, but was apprehended two 
 days after, and brought to trial at Westminster for treason 
 and other high crimes. He pleaded that he was a prisoner of 
 war, and that his life was promised him by Fairfax ; but the 
 plea was rejected, and he was executed in Palace-yard on the 
 9th of March, 1649, displaying on the scaffold the greatest 
 calmness and dignity. Lord Capel was the author of " Daily 
 Observations, or Meditations Divine, Moral, and Political," to 
 which are added " Letters addressed to several persons;" a post- 
 humous publication, afterwards reprinted under the title of 
 '■ Excellent Contemplations," with an account of his life. While 
 l}'ing in the Tower he wrote several stanzas, which were published 
 in the Gentleman s Magazine for 1757. — J. T. 
 
 CAPEL, Arthur, son of the preceding, was, after the 
 Restoration, created Viscount Maiden and Earl of Essex. He 
 filled the office of lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1672 to 1677, 
 and was subsequent!}' made first commissioner of the treasury, 
 lie had been a prominent member of the country or whig party, 
 but consented to take office with the view of eft'ecting a reconcilia- 
 
 YOL. 1. 
 
 tion between that party and the throne. The perfidy of Charles, 
 however, and his arbitrary designs against the liberties of the 
 people, speedily produced an irreparable breach between him and 
 the whigs. Essex was implicated in the charges brought against 
 his fiiends, Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney, and 
 perished by his o«m hand in the Tower, loth July, 1683. " He 
 was," says Lord jMacaulay^. " a man of solid, though not brilliant 
 parts, and of gi-ave and melancholy character." — J. T. 
 
 CAPELL, Edward, a laborious commentator on the works 
 of Shakspeare, was bom near Bury, Suffolk, in 1713, and died 
 at London in 1781. He held the office of deputy-inspector of 
 the plays, with an annual salary of £200. In 1768 his long 
 projected edition of the plays of Shakspeare appeared in ten 
 volumes, with an elaborate and strangely-WTitten introduction. 
 In these he gave promise of some others which were afterwards 
 pubUshed, containing notes, comments, and various readings; 
 and also of a work named "The School of Shakspeare," contain- 
 ing extracts from English books in print dm-ing the lifetime of 
 the dramatist, and from which he might have taken his fable 
 and part of his dialogue. — J. B. 
 
 CAPELLA, Martiaxus Mineus Felix. The dates of 
 Capella's birth and death have not been ascertained. He lived 
 towards the close of the fifth century of our era. A passage 
 from the eighth book of his poem on the " Nuptials of Philologia 
 and ^Mercury," seems to prove that he was born, or at least 
 educated, at Carthage. His biographers say that he was at one 
 time proconsul, but the rank seems to have been given him 
 without any evidence. Nothing is known of him but that he 
 left a work, entitled " De Nuptiis Philologiae et MercmiaB," 
 which is a kind of encyclopaedic romance, partly written in verse 
 and partly in prose, in the manner which was adopted by 
 Boethius, and which Cowley sought to introduce into English 
 literatiu'c, in essays written with such felicity that we feel 
 surprised at his not having found many imitators. Capella's 
 subject is the circle of the sciences, according to the views taken 
 of them in his time. The poem consists of nine books. Mer- 
 cury is weary of single life, and determines to mairy. The first 
 object of his choice is the fair Sophia (Wisdom). She has 
 unluckily made a vow of celibacy, and so Sophia cannot be his. 
 Psyche is next thought of, but Psyche's old engagement with 
 Cupid mterferes. At Ajjollo's recommendation the disappointed 
 god looks round him again, and is attracted by a young lady of 
 great learning, and who, it is suggested, may not be unwilling 
 to change her name, and so he addresses Philologia, who accepts 
 him v\-ith an absolute shout of delight. There are, however, 
 difficulties : Jlercury is the son of Jupiter, Philologia a mere 
 daughter of the Earth, and in heaven marriages of disparage- 
 ment are not approved of. The difficulties, however, are got 
 over. Such is the subject of the first book. In the second, 
 Philologia ascends to heaven to the cu-cle of Mercury. She 
 arrives at the milky way, and then her marriage is celebrated 
 with gi-eat splendour. Seven more books follow. The first of 
 the seven — the third of the work — tells us of Grammatica, the 
 daughter of Mercury. Dialectica, an Egyptian woman with 
 sparkling eyes, is the subject of the fourth book. She has 
 a taste for argument, but gives way to her sister Rhetorica. 
 Rhetorica reveals the secrets of her art, which are reducible to 
 a few elements ; but the fervour of her nature is expressed by 
 her printing a burning kiss on the forehead of Philologia. 
 Geometr)', in the sixth book, commences a lecture on the science 
 known by her name ; but the subject not being adapted for 
 prelections, she hands a copy of Euclid to the god who presides. 
 Then comes Arithmetic speaking on her fingers, and is followed 
 by a splendid phantom. Astronomy, a virgin with dazzling hair, 
 limbs covered with eyes, and wings on her shoulders. She is 
 summoned from a hollow globe by Apollo. In this book is a 
 remarkable passage, which is said to have suggested to Copernicus 
 his system of the universe. Capella says that Venus and Mer- 
 cury do not revolve round the earth, but round the sun as the 
 common centre of their orbits. The ninth book closes the 
 work. In it !Musica explains the theoi-y of her art, and a hymn 
 from her terminates all. The book was probably once popular, 
 as few works are so often found in manuscript. It has l)een 
 often printed. Grotius, when but fifteen, published an edition 
 of some character. The best edition is Kopp's, Frankfort, 1836. 
 Leibnitz at one time ]iroposed publishing it. — J. A., D. 
 
 CAPEM.ARI, Gexxaho, an Italian Jesuit, celebrated as a 
 Latinist, was bora at Naples in 1655. After a sojourn at Rome, 
 
 5 U
 
 where he was on terras of friendship with the most eminent men 
 of the capital, he was pursuing quietly his literary avocations in 
 the society of his early friends, when, having incurred the enmity 
 of a prince of the church, he was accused of treason, and with- 
 out even the show of justice, condemned to death in 1702. His 
 principal works are — "De Laudibus Philosophic;" a Latin poem 
 on comets ; and a history of the Arcadian union. He wrote also 
 some dramas, sonnets, and canzones. — A. C. M. 
 
 CAPELLEN, GoDERD Gerard Alexander Piiiixip, 
 born in 1778; died in 1848. Capellen, whose career began 
 early, was appointed prefet to East Friesland by Louis, king of 
 Holland. After this he held several high offices. But his best 
 services to his country were rendered when he was tirst colonial 
 minister, and afterwards governor-general in the East. He 
 greatly increased the revenue of the Dutch colonies. 
 
 CAPELLEN, Theodore Frederick, Baron van, bom in 
 1762 ; died in 1824. Capellen spent the first part of his life 
 cruizing chiefly in the North Sea, and off the coast of Africa. 
 When the Dutch fleet in 1799 surrendered to the British, Capel- 
 len was condemned to death for contumacy. He escaped to 
 England ; but subsequently served under the Dutch flag. 
 
 CAPELLI, Marco Antonio, an Italian scholar, author of a 
 treatise on the Last Supper. He took part with the Venetian 
 republic against the interdict of Paul V., but was afterwards 
 reconciled to the pope. He died in 1025. 
 
 CAPELLO, Bianca, second wife of Francis de Medicis, grand 
 duke of Tuscany, was the daughter of a Venetian noble. Having 
 fonned an attachment for Bonaventuri, a Florentine merchant, 
 she fled with him to his native city, where her beauty and talents 
 attracted the notice of the gi-and duke. On the death of his 
 first wife he married her, and granted her an influence which 
 she so abused, that she acquired the name of the " Detestable 
 Bianca." She died in 1587, the day after her husband, and of 
 the same disease, but not without the suspicion of its influence 
 being aggravated by poison. — W. B. 
 
 CAPELLUS or CAPPEL, Louis, an eminent French Heb- 
 raist, called by Bishop Hall " JLagnum Hebraizantiuni oraculum 
 in Gallia," was born at Sedan in Champagne about 1679. He 
 seems to have studied at Oxford, going thither in 1610, and 
 residing for a time at Exeter college. On his return he became 
 professor of oriental languages at Saumur, where he died, 16th 
 June, 1058. Capcllus is chiefly famous for his controversy with 
 the younger Buxtorf, concerning the antiquity of the vowel points 
 in Hebrew. Buxtorf the elder had written a treatise in defence 
 of the opinion, that the points are coeval with the language, and 
 were always in use among the Jews, and his son defended his 
 position. On the other hand, Capellus held that they were an 
 invention of the modern rabbis, to preseiTC a language which was 
 fast ceasing to be spoken, and ascribed them to the Masoreth 
 Jews of Tiberias, about 600 years after Christ. He defended his 
 opinion in a treatise entitled " Arcanum punctuationis revela- 
 tum." So great was the opposition of the French protestants, who 
 feared that were the theory of Capellus received they would lose 
 many of their arguments against the Vulgate, that it was only 
 in Holland he could find liberty to print his paper. He had the 
 misfortune once more to displease his protestant brethren — 
 tremblers for the authority of the canon — by writing his "Critica 
 Sacra," a collection of various readings and errors which he noted 
 as having crept into the text througli the fault of transcribers. 
 He was occupied for thirty-six years in preparing this learned 
 work, of which Grotius writes in the very highest terms. Of 
 his other works we note " De gente Capellomm," in which he 
 gives some account of his own life ; " Spicilegium post messem," 
 a collection of criticisms on the New Testament ; " Chronologia 
 Sacra," to be found among the prolegomena to Walton's Poly- 
 glot ; an edition of the " Critica Sacra," containing many of his 
 minor tracts, published at Halle in 1775 and 1778. — J. B. 
 
 CAPERAX, Aknaud Thomas, born in 1754 at Dol, and 
 died in 1820 ; a learned orientalist, employed at Rome in the 
 college Mariano in teaching Syriac and Persian, afterwards 
 acting as cure of the parish of Trouchet in his native district. 
 His learning was very considerable, but towards the close of his 
 life he became insane. The subject of the Incarnation had 
 occupied his thoughts, and on it he published some tracts. He 
 believed himself to be the Messiah. He pubhshed several 
 philological works. — J. A., D. 
 
 CAPET, HuGUES or Hugh, son of Hugnes the Great; crowned 
 lung of France in 987 ; died in the yeiir 996. Cajfet is a sur- 
 
 name of unknown origin, bestowed and accepted, that this Hugucs 
 might be distinguished among the multitudes of chieftains named 
 Hugh. Whatever its origin, it has passed into the family name 
 of a succession of sovereigns, stretching through a space of yeara 
 far exceeding the duratiim of our Plantagenets, and quite as 
 illustrious. " Remember," said Marie Antoinette to her vacil- 
 lating husband, " remember thon art a Capet." The Capets 
 belonged to Anjou ; they were obscure chieftains, first known 
 in the reign of Charles the Bald. Step by step this family 
 advanced. We learn, from its annals, of Robert the Strong, of 
 Eudes, of Hugues the Great — the list culminating in Hugh 
 Capet, sovereign of all France. Capet had the wisdom to recog- 
 nize the realities of his position. Although nominally sovereign, 
 many counts were at his side, some of whom were richer 
 than he, and as powerful. With consummate sagacity he rallied 
 these men around the throne, as its grand vassals ; and then, 
 for the first time. Feudalism, which, of course, had its roots 
 long laid in the constitution of society, became a recognized 
 and orderly part of the govennnent of France. Hugues on 
 his accession found seven great princes in existence, each with 
 a vast territory. He increased the number to twelve, and on 
 these, as on twelve massive pillars, he rested the dome of the 
 monarchy. But he also delivered the monarchy from entangle- 
 ments, establishing hereditary succession, and bestowing the 
 dangerous office of " master of the palace " on the king's eldest 
 son. This grand institution stood for ages. The number of the 
 great vassals indeed gradually increased — the power of each 
 being thereby weakened ; but civilization proceeded under its 
 guardianship until the relentless axe of Louis XL cut down 
 those supports, and left the monarchy sustained by the strength 
 of the king alone. — J. P. N. 
 
 CAPILUPI, Camillo, author of a work which answei-s to 
 the strange description of an apology for the massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew's day ; bom at Mantua, died towards the end of 
 the sixteenth century. His eccentric, although deeply serious 
 account of the horrible work of Charles IX., was, fortunately for 
 the fame of the author, suppressed by the cardinal of Lorraine. 
 Capilupi had some success in Latin poetry. — A. C. M. 
 
 CAPILUPI, LiCLio, an Italian author, elder brother of Camillo, 
 born at Mantua in 1498. Moreri considers Lelio the greater of 
 the two brothers. He wrote a parody of Virgil's iEneid, in 
 which he has surpassed Ausone and Proba Falconia. According 
 to De Thou, an eminent authority, but that Capilupi wrote on 
 subjects unknown to the Roman bard, his versification might be 
 mistaken for that of Maro himself. He died in 1500. — A. C. M. 
 
 CAPISTRANO, Giovanni de, a Franciscan, born at Capis- 
 trano in Italy in 1385. He was originally a lawyer ; but ha^vLig 
 taken holy orders, he became a zealous servant of the church, 
 first against the Hussites, and afterwards against the Turks 
 under Mahomet 11. He died in 1456, soon after the victory of 
 Belgrade, to the gaining of which he very much contributed. 
 He wrote a work entitled " Speculum Clericorum," in which 
 he defended the full power claimed by the pope and councils. 
 
 CAPISUCCHI, Paolo, a Roman prelate, bom in 1479; 
 died in 1539. Capisucchi, come of a warlike family, rose rapidly 
 in the church. Being asked by Clement VII. to consider of the 
 question, he gave his opinion against Henry VIII. in the matter 
 of his divorce. He was employed by the popes in many difficult 
 negotiations. 
 
 CAPITO, Caius Ateius, an eminent Roman jurist of the 
 time of Augustus, is known chiefly as the founder of a cele- 
 brated school of law. His father had been tribune of the people, 
 and had taken an active part in public life in the time of Caesar. 
 The date of Capito's bii'th is not known ; but Augustus made 
 him consul suffectus, a.d. 5, when he was probably about 
 forty-two, the proper age for appointment to that office. In 
 the year 13 he received the important office of "curator aqua- 
 nun publicamm," which he held till his death in 22. Capito 
 studied law under Ofilius. Tacitus describes him as skilled 
 in every department of law, human and divine ; but he is 
 believed to have been but imperfectly acquainted with any 
 other branch of knowledge. The position he attained proves 
 that he possessed some ability. He certainly possessed inge- 
 nuity, which, being backed by a large share of servility, was 
 sufficient to acquire for him the favour of Augustus and Tibe- 
 rius. It is from anecdotes preserved by Suetonius and Tacitus, 
 that we attain this knowledge of his character. When the wide- 
 spread conquests and commerce of Rome had rendered the narrow
 
 CAP 
 
 891 
 
 CAP 
 
 doctrines of her ancient jurisprudence no longer tenable, the party 
 ■which still wished to preserve them unaltered found naturally their 
 leader in Capito. This party was in favour with the emperors, 
 who were afraid that changes which did not directly strengthen 
 their power, might indirectly weaken it. Strangely enough, the 
 opposite party found its leader among those who had most stre- 
 nuously opposed the recent political changes. Labeo, a man of 
 great ability, of courage, and old republican independence; 
 holding the old ideas of freedom ; skilled in all the known 
 branches of science ; and bringing all his knowledge to bear on 
 Lis legal studies — was well fitted to lead those who demanded 
 reform of the private law. A contest thus arose. Capito 
 defended by ancient authority the existing laws ; being willing, 
 however, to modify them on individual points, where experience 
 had proved them hm-tful. Labeo attacked the system, and 
 announced principles of law which, with strong logic, he pursued 
 to their furthest consequences. Hence originated the two schools. 
 That of Capito received the name of Sabiniani, from Masurius 
 Sabinus, one of his followers ; and occasionally that of Cassiani, 
 fh)ni Cassius Longinus, another follower. The school of Labeo 
 likewise received its name from one of his followers — Proculeiani, 
 from Sempronius Proculus. The contest between the schools 
 continued long after the success of the principles of that of 
 Labeo had become inevitable, and long after all traces of the 
 original causes of dispute had vanished. Capito was a volumi- 
 nous writer, but nothing beyond mere fragments has been pre- 
 served. He is quoted in the Pandects some nine times, but each 
 time at second-hand, in quotations from other jurists. He wrote 
 a work called " Conjectanei," in which he had collected various 
 laws of Augustus and Tiberius ; and also treatises — " De Pub- 
 hcis Indiciis ; " " De Officio Senatorio ;" and " De Pontificio Jure." 
 — {Gell. XX. 2, and iv. 6, 10, 14.) Macrobius (Saturn, lib. iii., cap. 
 10) mentions a treatise — "De Jure Sacrificorum." — (Tacitus, 
 Annul, iii. 70, 75 ; Suetonius, De Illust. Gram. 22 ; Pomponius, 
 quoted in the Pandects, lib. i. lit. ii. fr. 2, § 47 ; Dirksen, Bei- 
 trage zur Kuiide des Romischen Rechts, cap. i. § 1 ; Puchta, 
 Cursus der Tnstitutionen, v. § 96 to 99 ; Com. van Eck, De 
 Vita, Moribiis, et Studiis M. Antistii Labeonis et C. Atteji 
 CapHonis, in Oelrich's Thesaurus Novus Dissertutionum, v. i. 
 p. 825 ; Pothier, Pandectm Just'miaiim Prefatio, pars. ii. cap. i. 
 § 25, 26, and cap. ii. ; Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Biography.)— 3. D. W, 
 
 CAPITOLINUS, T. Quinctius Barbatus, a Roman patri- 
 cian, who lived in the fifth century B.C. He was six times elected 
 consul, and gained several brilliant victories over the Volscians 
 and the jEqui. During his second consulship in 468 b.c. he was 
 honoured with a triumph, and probably on that occasion received 
 the surname of Capitolinus. In the dispute between the patri- 
 cians and the plebeians in 471 B.C., he took the side of the latter, 
 .and assisted in passing the Publitian law, which enacted that the 
 tribunes should be nominated in the comitia by the nobles. Dur- 
 ing his sixth consulship he refused the office of dictator, which 
 was conferred upon his brother L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, and two 
 years after, he served as lieutenant under the dictator Mam. .-Emi- 
 lius Mamertinus. 
 
 CAPITOLINUS, Julius, one of the authorsof the "Augustine 
 History," of whom nothing more is known save that he died in 
 the early part of the fourth century of our era. He is said to 
 liave been of patrician origin. The "Augustine History" contains 
 the lives of thirty-four emperors, and extends from the years 
 119 to 284, a period of one hundred and sixty-seven years. 
 Tiie sixth, seventh, and eighth of these lives are attributed on 
 seeminglv good authoritv to Capitolinus. — J. A., D. 
 
 CAPITO or KOEPSTEIN, Wolfgang Fabuicius, a 
 German Hebraist and theologian, born in 1478. He studied 
 theology and the canon law at Basle, where he also became a 
 physician. He filled several ecclesiastical offices, and figured a 
 good deal at di(;ts and conferences, having the reconciliation of 
 the ])rotestant churches much at heart. He died of the plague 
 in 1542. 
 
 CAPJIANY Y DE MONTPALAU, Antonio de, a Spanish 
 writer, born 24th November, 1742. In his youth he was a 
 Soldier, and served in the wars against Portugal in 1762. We 
 next hear of him as engaged in a scheme for colonizing tlu^ 
 Sierra Morena, on the failure of which he returneil to Madrid, 
 where he remained until the entrance of the French in May, 
 1808. He afterwards became a prominent member of the 
 Cortes of Cadiz, whore he died of yellow fever in 1813. His 
 
 most important work is the "Teatro Critico de la Elocuentia 
 Espanola." His "History of Barcelona" contains, besides topo- 
 graphical details, some valuable speculations on the influence 
 of French manners in the south of Spain. He also composed 
 an excellent French and Spanish dictionary, and some miscella- 
 neous essays entitled " Questiones Criticas;" but he himself 
 valued above all his others works a pamphlet, entitled " Cen- 
 tinela contra Franceses," or a Sentinel against the French, 
 against whom, stung by the calamities they had inflicted on his 
 country, he cherished the bitterest hatred. The work is dedi- 
 cated in terms of wami friendship to Lord Holland. — F. M. W. 
 
 CAPO DTSTPJA or CABODISTRIAS, John, Count, pre- 
 sident of Greece, was born in Corfu about 1780. His father 
 was a physician, and chief of the Seven Islands at the time of 
 the treaty of Tilsit, by which they passed under the protection 
 of France. The son then entered the Russian service, and in 
 1812 was appointed private secretary to the Emperor Alexander. 
 He soon after went as minister to Switzerland, accompanied 
 Alexander to Paris in 1814, represented hun at the Congress of 
 Vienna, and afterwards conducted the department of foreign 
 affairs in conjunction with Count Nesselrode. The Greeks in 
 Turkey, disappointed that the congress of Vienna did not, as 
 they had hoped, interpose in their favour, formed an extensive 
 and carefully organized secret society, called the Hetairists, 
 which embraced the flower of their population, and almost the 
 whole of their clergy. Of this association Capo dTstria and his 
 master were, in all probability, the founders and leading mem- 
 bers. But the insurrections which broke out in Spain and Italy 
 in 1821 alarmed Alexander, and, adhering to the principles of 
 the Holy Alliance, he declined to favour any movement of the 
 kind in Turkey, though well aware that his support would secure 
 success. Capo dTstria immediately threw up his appointments, 
 and retired to Switzerland, whence he watched the progress of 
 the Greek insurrection. Nicholas succeeded Alexander in 1825, 
 and the virtual independence of Greece was recognized by all the 
 European powers except Turkey in 1827. On the 20th of 
 April in that year Capo dTstria was elected president for seven 
 years by the national assembly at Troezene, and on the 18th of 
 January following he landed at Napoli di Romania, and assumed 
 the government. But the turbulent elements over which he 
 presided were not easily to be reduced to order, and he did not 
 meet with anything like unanimous support from his country- 
 men. So little confidence was felt by the European powers in 
 the stability of the Hellenic government, that it was not per- 
 mitted to take any part in the discussions which continued to 
 be carried on for the settlement of its political position and 
 geographical boundaries. In Febraary, 1830, the plenipoten- 
 tiaries offered the crown of Greece to Prince Leopold of Saxe 
 Coburg. The letters of Capo dTstria so strongly impressed this 
 prince with the difficulties with which he would be surrounded, 
 and the doubtful nature of his welcome, that he declined the 
 proposal. Capo dTstria remained president, but a general insur- 
 rection broke out against his authority, and he was assassinated 
 at Napoli by two brothers named Mauromichaeli, on his way to 
 prayers on Sunday morning, October 9, 1831. — A. H. P. 
 
 CAPON, William, an English architect and scene-painter, 
 born at Norwich in 1757. He was employed by Mr. Kemble in 
 the decoration of the new Drury Lane theatre in 1794, and 
 painted many of the scenes for Covent Garden. The works on 
 which his fame rests are his plans of the old palace at West- 
 minster, and ancient substructure of the abbey, which occupied 
 him for more than thirty years. He died in 1827. 
 
 CAPORALI, Cksakk, an Italian poet, born at Venice in 
 1531, and died at Castiglione, near Perugia, in 1601.' He 
 excelled in burlesque satire, which, in his hands, never degene- 
 rates into indecency or buffoonery. Secretaiy of three cardinals 
 in succession, he was appointed governor of Atri in the Abruzzo, 
 but resigned this post, and went to reside with Ascanio, marquis 
 della Cornia, with whom he passed the remainder of his life. 
 His principal poems are — " Viaggio del Parnasso;" " Avvisi di 
 Parnasso ;" "Esequie di Mecenate;" "I Giardiui di Mecenate;" 
 and " La vita di Mecenate." — A. C. M. 
 
 CAPOZZOLI, DoMENico, Patisizio, and Donato. The 
 brothers Capozzoli, celebrated Italian carbonari, were bom of an 
 ancient and wealthy family towards the close of the eighteenth 
 century, at Montefbrte in the district of the Valle, ]irovince of 
 Salerno. From 1821 to 1827 they, together with a priest, De 
 Luca, led an insmTcction in Calabria, and were frequently, even
 
 CAP 
 
 892 
 
 CAR 
 
 gignally victorious over the royal troops. In 1828 the moun- 
 taineer's of Cilento, headed hy the Capozzoli, defeated the royal 
 troops at Palinuro ; but not being seconded they were obhged to 
 retii-e into their mountains. The king despatched against them 
 the notorious and ferocious Del Carretto, chief of the pohce, sup- 
 ported by a large body of soldiers, who perpetrated atrocious 
 cruelties on their way, and reduced whole villages to ashes. The 
 brothers Capozzoli succeeded in evading the pursuit of the royal 
 forces, but De Luca and many others were captured at Bosco after 
 a vigorous resistance. The brothers Capozzoli, with another of 
 the leaders of the insurrection, named Galotti, after incredible 
 hardships succeeded in escaping in a small boat ; and after many 
 days of semistarvation at sea they landed near Leghorn, and fled 
 into the mountains. A Neapolitan police -agent discovered their 
 retreat, and passing himself off as a brother patriot, succeeded 
 in persuading them to retm-n to Cilento. On their arrival they 
 were invited to dinner by a pretended friend, and during the meal 
 the house was surrounded by the royal troops. The brothers 
 defended themselves with extraordinary corn-age and obstinacy, 
 but were at length overpowered by numbers. They were carried 
 in chains to Salerno, and beheaded on the 17th June, 1829. 
 They died as bravely as they had lived, their last words being a 
 prayer for their unhappy country. — E. A. H. 
 
 CAPPE, Newcojie, a Socinian preacher and writer of some 
 note, was born in Leeds, Febniary 21, 1732-33. Having been 
 educated at Kil^vorth under Dr. Aikin, at Northampton under Dr. 
 Doddridge, and subsequently at Glasgow university, he became 
 pastor of the dissenting chiu-ch of St. Saviour-Gate, York, where 
 he was forty years distinguished as an eloquent preacher. He 
 died in 1800. Of Mr. Cappe's works we mention — "A Selection 
 of Psalms for Social Worship ;" " Discourses on the Providence 
 and Government of God ;" " Critical Remarks on many Import- 
 ant Passages of Scripture," &c. ; " Remarks in Vindication of 
 Dr. Pricstlev," &c.— J. B. 
 
 CAPPELLARI. See Gregory XVI. 
 
 CAPPELLE, Jax Yaxder, a Dutch artist, born about 1635. 
 He painted marine pieces and river ■\'icws in the manner of 
 Vandevelde.— W. T. 
 
 CAPPELER, Maurice Antoine, a Swiss physician and 
 naturalist, born at Lucerne in 1685 ; died in 1769. In the early 
 part of his life he practised as physician in the imperial army. 
 On his retirement to his native place, while following his pro- 
 fession, he devoted his attention to scientific subjects, particularly 
 crystallography. In 1730 he was admitted a member of the 
 Royal Society of London. He wrote a number of papers, chiefly 
 scientific ; one on crystallography appeared in the Philosophical 
 Transactions. A complete work m German on the same subject 
 was left at his death in MS., but has not been published. — J. B., G. 
 
 CAPPELLO, Berxardo, an Italian poet, born of a patrician 
 family at Venice; died in 1565. \Mnle a student at Padua, he 
 formed an intimacy with the celebrated Bembo, who gave him 
 lessons in poetry, and, somewhat later, was in the habit of sub- 
 mitting to his critical judgment those historical and poetical 
 works which have made the fame of the cardinal. He became 
 a member of the Venetian senate, and disturbed that assembly 
 by a style of oratoiy so vehement and caustic, that he inciuTcd 
 sentence of banishment. Protected by Cardinal Alexander 
 Famese, he passed his later years in the papal states, where he 
 held several lucrative offices. His canzoniere have been warmly 
 eulogized by Tu-aboschi and Crescimbeni. — A. C. M. 
 
 CAPPER, James, a British officer and traveller, who attained 
 the rank of colonel in the East India Company's service, and 
 was subsequently appointed comptroller-general, and mtrusted 
 with the charge of the fortifications on the coast of Coromandel. 
 On his return from a visit to England in 1778, he traversed the 
 Arabian desert, and passed down the right bank of the Euphrates 
 to Bassora. He embodied the results of his obsei-vations during 
 this journey in a quarto volume, with plates and maps, which 
 he published in London in 1782, with the title of " Obsen-a- 
 tions on the Journey from England to India by Egypt, &c." He 
 died in 1825.— J. T. 
 
 CAPPERONIER, Claude, bom at Jlontdidier, May, 1671. 
 Son of a tanner, he contrived to teach himself Latin, and by his 
 ardent love of learning attracted the attention of his uncle, a 
 monk of the Benedictine order, who had the lad sent to the 
 college of Montdidier. He received orders in 1698, and, becom- 
 ing a teacher of Greek, had the good fortune to give lessons to 
 the illustriors Bossuet, the year of the latter's death, 1704. In 
 
 1722 he was appointed Greek professor in the college of France, 
 where he assisted in preparing new editions of the classics. 
 Besides his translated works, he entered the field of controversy 
 with Voltaire on the subject of the merits of Sophocles, whose 
 name that irreverent wit had not spared. He died in Pains, 
 24th July, 1744.— J. F. C. 
 
 CAPPE RONIER, Jeax, nephew of Claude, was born at 
 Montdidier, March, 1716. As Claude owed his good fortune to 
 his uncle the Benedictine, so he in turn helped his own nephew, 
 Jean, whom he brought to Paris to share his labours. On 
 Claude's death, Jean succeeded to his chair of Greek professor, 
 and in 1759 was made conservator of the royal library. He 
 died 30th May, 1775.— J. F. C. 
 
 CAPPONI, a Florentine family holding high office in the 
 republic. Gixo was one of its earliest magistrates, and wrote 
 an account of the revolution in 1378, of which he was an eye- 
 witness. His son Neri gained a brilliant victory at Anghieri in 
 1440. But the most famous of the family was Pietro, Gino's 
 grandson. Charles VIII. of France having been allowed to 
 pass through Florence on his way to Naples, laid claim on that 
 account to the sovereignty of the city, and caused his secretary 
 to read before the magistrates a document setting forth his pre- 
 tensions. Pietro Capponi stepped forward and tore the paper, 
 saying — "Before we condescend to such dishonourable conditions, 
 you may order your ti-umpets to sound, and we shall ring our 
 bells." He then left the room, followed by his brother magis- 
 trates. The king was daunted by his boldness, recalled him, 
 and signed a treaty preserving the liberties of the repubhc. Died 
 in 1496.— J. B. 
 
 CAPRA, Baldass.\re, was bom at Milan, where he after- 
 wards practised medicine. He applied himself to philosophy and 
 astronomy, and claimed the invention of Galileo's proportional 
 compass. Capra attacked the great astronomer in a work entitled 
 " Considerazione astronomica sopra la nuova stella del 1604." 
 
 CAPRANICA, DojtExiro, an Italian cardinal, born in 1400. 
 He became legate to the Marca d'Ancona, and leader of the 
 army which defended that provmce against Francis Sforza. He 
 afterwards put an end to the quarrel between the church and 
 Alphonso of Naples, and died in 1458, having won the repute 
 of great learning. He founded a college for the maintenance of 
 students, which still bears his name. He wrote " Italica con- 
 stituenda, ad Alfonsum regem;" " De Actione belli contra Turcos 
 gerendi;" and "De conteniptu mundi;"- — the last a famous work, 
 of which there are editions in most European languages. 
 
 CAPRARA, GiovAxxi B.\ttista, an Italian prelate, bom 
 in 1733. While still a young man, Caprara was sent as nuncio 
 to Cologne, Lucerne, and Vienna. It was he who cro^Mied 
 Napoleon Idng of Italy. He died in Paris, an infirai and bhnd 
 old man, in 1810. 
 
 CARA-KOOSH, a name meaning an eagle, borne by Bahaed- 
 deen, whom Saladin made governor of Cairo. He was among 
 the defenders of Acre, was taken prisoner at its fall in 1191, but 
 released the following year, and reinstated in his government in 
 Egvpt. He died in 1193.— J. B. 
 
 CARA-MUSTAPHA, a Turkish officer under Mohammed IV., 
 born at Merzisour in 1634 ; died at Belgrade, 26th December, 
 1683. In 1661, through the friendly influence of Kupnili- 
 Jlohammed, the grand vizier, he was appointed grand equerr}*, 
 and in 1676 he was raised to the rank of grand vizier. In this 
 ca])acity he became odious for his pride, avaiice, and cruelty, 
 and extorted for his own aggrandizement enormous sums from 
 the provinces subject to the Porte. At last his insatiable desire 
 of wealth proved his ruin. At the siege of Vienna in 1683, being 
 anxious to appropriate to himself the vast treasures which he 
 believed were to be found in that capital, he was unwilling to 
 abandon it to the pillage of the Turkish soldier)', and accordingly 
 obstinately refused to give orders for the assault. In the mean- 
 time, Sobieski arrived to the succour of the city, and completely 
 routed the Ottoman army. For this crime Cara-Mustapha was 
 arrested bv order of the grand signior, and put to death. — G. M. 
 
 CARA-YAZIDJI-ABDUL-HALIM, a Turkish soldier of 
 fortune, died in 1602. A rebellion having broken out against 
 the government of Mohammed III., Cara-Yazidji placed himself 
 at the head of the insurgents, defeated the Ottoman army sent 
 against him, and assumed the state of a sovereign with the title of 
 Halim-Chah (Always Victorious). He was, however, defeated in 
 turn, and sought refuge in the mountains of Djamik, where he 
 died. — His brother, Deli-Husseix, succeeded him as head of the
 
 yet unsubdued rebels, but in 1603 he made his submission to 
 the sultan, and received in recompense the government of Bosnia. 
 He was afterwards put to death on a charge of treason. 
 
 CARA-YUSEF, the first prince of the Turcoman dvnasty 
 of the Black Sheep, bom in the second half of the fourteenth 
 century; died in 1420. He commenced his career as the chief 
 of a horde of brigands, who, issuing from their retreat at the 
 foot of the mountains of Armenia, ravaged the plains of Irak, 
 plundered the caravans of Mecca, and rendered themselves for- 
 midable to the inhabitants of the banks of the Euphrates. After 
 a variety of fortune, he succeeded in 1410 in rendering himself 
 master of Diarbekir, Kurdistan, Aderbidjan, and a part of 
 Armenia and Georgia. 
 
 CARACALLA, whose proper name was Marcus Antonixus 
 Bassianus, received the sobriquet, which is now his common 
 historical appellation, from the caracalla, a long Gallic tunic, 
 which he brought into fashion at Rome. He was one of the 
 sons of the Emperor Severus by his second wife, Julia Domna ; 
 and he seems to have inherited the haughty ambition without 
 the wisdom of his father, and the loose morals which have been 
 ascribed to his mother, without her generous disposition and lite- 
 rary tasces. Impatient and unscrupulous in his desire of power, he 
 made more than one attempt to hasten the issue of the distemper 
 which was carrying Severas to his grave ; but when the throne 
 at length became vacant in 211, he was compelled to share it 
 with his brother Geta. Their discords soon destroyed the hope 
 of their reigning amicably in concert ; and a proposed partition 
 of territory would have given him the guiltless possession of 
 Europe and Asia, had not the murder of Geta by two of his 
 partisans placed him in the undivided sovereignty imder the 
 brand of fratricide. This crime was followed by a pitiless 
 massacre of all whom he feared or suspected ; no fewer than 
 20,000 persons are said to have fallen victims, and among them 
 the accomplished and upright jurist, Papinian. The power thus 
 acquired was not of long continuance ; and but for the favours 
 which the t}Tant heaped upon the army, probably a shorter 
 period than the five years which elapsed between his brother's 
 assassination and his own, would have terminated the excesses 
 which he earned from Rome into the pro\-inces of the empire. 
 He met his fate on a pilgrimage to the temple of the moon at 
 Carrhse, being slain by a disappointed officer of his guards, at 
 the instigation of the prefect Opilius JIacrinus, who succeeded 
 him in 217.— W. B. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, the name of a celebrated Neapolitan family, 
 of which the following are the most distuiguished members : — 
 
 Caraccioli, Gl\.xxi, who in 1416 obtained the ofi[ice of 
 secretary to Queen Joanna of Naples, and became so great a 
 favomite that he was elevated to the dignity of constable and 
 gi'and seneschal, with the title of duke of Vicenza. During 
 sixteen years he exercised almost absolute authority ; but his 
 arrogance and ambition ultimately lost him the favour of the 
 queen. With her knowledge and consent a conspiracy was 
 formed against him, and he was assassinated in 1432, during 
 the festival given on the occasion of his son's marriage. 
 
 Caraccioli, Gianni, prince of Melfi, grand seneschal of the 
 kingdom of Naples, born in 1480 ; died in 1550. After the 
 conquest of Charles VIII. of France, Caraccioli attached himself 
 to the French ; but on their expulsion he espoused the Spanish 
 cause. In 1528 the prince of Orange intrasted to him the 
 defence of Melfi against the arniy of De Lautrec ; but after a 
 desperate resistance the tower was taken, and the garrison, with 
 the exception of the prince and a few of his ofiicers, were put to 
 the sword. Caraccioli was carried into France, and there set 
 at liberty. Francis I. appointed him lieutenant-general, and 
 bestowed upon him a grant of extensive estates. His sen-ices 
 m the defence of Luxembourg in 1543 were rewarded with the 
 rank of marshal, and in 1544 he was made governor of Piedmont. 
 
 Caraccioli, Do.menico, Marquis, born in 1715 ; died in 
 1789. He commenced his diplomatic career as ambassador to 
 Turin, and afterwards discharged the duties of the same office 
 in England and France. In 1781 he was appointed to the 
 government of Sicily, and in 1786 was nominated minister of 
 foreign affairs. !Mannontel has pronounced a high eulogium on 
 his character and conduct. 
 
 Caraccioli, Francesco, a Neapolitan admiral, who was ibr 
 some time in the British ser\-ice, and commanded a Neapolitan 
 squadron before Toulon. The cold reception which he met with 
 on his return home alienated him from the Neapolitan court, 
 
 which was at that period in a most deplorable state, ^\'hen the 
 royal family fled to Palenno, and Naples was abandoned to the 
 French in Januaiy, 1796, Caraccioli entered the service of the 
 new government, termed the Parthenopaean republic. A few 
 months after, Cardinal Ruffo, at the head of what he called the 
 Christian army, and assisted by Captain Foote of the Seahorse 
 and some Neapolitan frigates, besieged Naples. The "patriots" 
 who garrisoned the castles of Uovo and Nuovo capitulated on 
 condition that their persons and property should be protected. 
 But Nelson, who arrived soon after, annulled the treaty ; and 
 notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of Ruifo, delivered up 
 the patriots to the vengeance of the court. CaraccioU was 
 immediately tried by a court-martial of Neapolitan ofiicers assem- 
 bled on board the British flag-ship, found guilty, and condemned 
 to be hanged. This sentence was, by Nelson's orders, carried 
 into execution that same evening, and the body of the aged 
 prince was cast into the sea. This transaction has left an 
 inefihceable stain on the character of the great admiral. — J. T. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, Louis Axtoine, a French litterateur, bom 
 in 1721 ; died in 1803. He is chiefly remembered as the author 
 of the " Interesting Letters of Pope Clement XIV.," which were 
 for a long time a mystery to Europe. He is also the author of 
 a " Life of Clement XIV.," of a " Dictionary Picturesque and 
 Sententious," and of many other works. — J. T. 
 
 CARACTACUS, a famous king of the Silurians, the ancient 
 British inhabitants of South Wales, who lived in the first century 
 B.C. Ha\'ing, with varied success, but with indomitable valour, 
 resisted the Romans for nine years, he was at length defeated, 
 after a desperate struggle, by the praetor Ostorius, and took 
 refuge with Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes. But she 
 treacherously delivered him up to the Romans, who earned him 
 to Rome in 51. He bore his misfoi-tunes with such patient 
 dignity, and addressed the Emperor Claudius in such noble yet 
 touching language, that he at once obtained a pardon for himself 
 and his friends.— (Tac. Ann. xii. 33, 38 ; Hist. iii. 43.)— J. T. 
 
 CARADOC, a Welsh historian of the twelfth century. He 
 wrote in Latin a history of the Welsh kings from Cadwalladyr 
 to his own time. The original, which was long preserved in 
 Christ college, Cambridge, is now lost, and only a Welsh trans- 
 lation remains. Caradoc wi'ote some other books. 
 
 CARADUC, author of the most ancient Welsh lay known. 
 The time and place of his bu-th and death have not been dis- 
 covered ; but he must have lived at or after the time of King 
 Arthur, as many of the mcidents of the lay relate to his court. 
 
 CARAFFA. See Paul IV., Pope. 
 
 * CARAFA, MiCHELE, a musician, was bom at Naples, 
 November 28, 1785, according to M. Fetis, but other authorities 
 state in 1787. He is the second son of the prince de Colo- 
 brano, and, though his musical education was assiduously prose- 
 cuted in his youth, he was designed for the military profession. 
 He accordingly became an officer of hussars under Murat, in 
 whose service he was appointed ecuyer du roi. He was engaged 
 in the expedition against Sicily, and was created a chevalier of 
 the order of the Two Sicilies. He served also as an officer in the 
 French campaign in Russia in 1812; on his return from which 
 he was created a chevalier of the legion of honour. His musical 
 studies, at first undertaken as a source of amusement, were 
 carried on for some years at the conservatoi io of his native city, 
 where Jlonte Oliveto was his instructor. He next had lessons 
 from Francesco Ruggi ; then from Feneroli ; and lastly, when 
 he was settled at Paris, from Chenibini. His first attempt at 
 composition was an opera called " II Fantasma," which was 
 represented by amatem-s. His next was in 1802, when he 
 wrote two cantatas, "II Natale di Giove," and "Achille e Dei- 
 damia," for performance on the birthday of his mother, who was 
 then, by a second marriage, princess di Caramanica. He came 
 before the public as a musician in 1814, when his opera, "II 
 Vascello d'Occidentc," was produced at the Fondo theatre in 
 Naples. This was followed in successive years by " La Gelosia 
 Corretta;" " Gabriele di Vergi;" "Ifigenia in Taurida;" "Adele 
 di Lusignano ; " " Berenice," in Siria ; and " Elisabetta," in 
 Derbyshire (both in 1818); "II Sacrifizio d'Epito," and "Le 
 due Figari." His next work, " Jeanne d'Arc," was written for 
 and played in Paris in 1821; but had no success. He then 
 spent some time in Rome, where he produced " La Capricciosa 
 ed il Soldato ; " and wrote also " Tamerlano," which was not 
 performed ; and " Le Solitaire," which was given at the Fay- 
 deau theatre in Paris in August, 1822, with great applause, and 
 
 \=zz
 
 CAR 
 
 894 
 
 CAR 
 
 has since been represented in Italian with equally good effect. 
 He then brought out " Eufemio di Messina," in Rome, and 
 "Abufar," in Vienna. The " Valet de Chambre" was produced in 
 Paris in 1823, very successfully, and has recently been revived 
 there with the same good fortune. Remaining for a time in 
 Paris, he next gave " L'Auberge suppost^e," and " La Belle au 
 bois dormant." "II Sonnambulo" was produced in Milan, and 
 " Paria " in Venice. In 1827 Carafa returned to Paris; there 
 he produced " Sangarido," " La Violetto," in which Lebome 
 Avrote some pieces; "!Masaniello;"' "Jenny;" and"LeXozze 
 di Lammermoor," for the Italian theatre, in which Sontag per- 
 sonated the heroine. Still resident in Paris, he wrote the 
 ballet of " L'Orgie," and the opera of " La Prison d'Edinbourg," 
 and "La Grande Duchesse." There are two other ItaUan 
 operas of this composer, " Aristodemo," and " GlTtalici e glTn- 
 diani ; " a mass, a requiem, and a stabat mater written in Paris ; 
 an overture to the opera of La ^larquise de BrinvilUers; several 
 other orchestral pieces, and many for the pianoforte. Besides 
 Lis military orders, Carafa has the .irtistic distinction of being a 
 member of the Institut des Beaux Arts. He holds the important 
 appointment of principal of the conservatoire militaire, by which 
 he has the supervision, if not the superintendence, of all the 
 military music throughout France; and, in this capacity, his 
 opposition to JI. Sax's mventions for extending the capabilities of 
 brass instniments, is not without beneficial influence in hindering 
 their universal adoption, and so preventing the pernicious effect, 
 even in regimental bands, and the still worse tendency in the 
 orchestra, of the noisy monotony resulting from the employment 
 of these injudicious though ingenious innovations. — G A. M. 
 
 CARAITES. See Karaites. 
 
 CARAMAX-OGLOU (Son of Caraman), the common desig- 
 nation of the princes of a petty dynasty which ruled over the 
 province of Caramania. The first Avho bore the name was the 
 son of an Armenian named Xur Isofi, who received from Ala- 
 Eddyn, the first sultan of the Seljukian dynasty, the principality 
 of Selucia, together with his sister in maniage. His grandson, 
 Mahmood Bedr-ed-deen, who died in 1317, first established the 
 sovereignty of the family over Caramania, after the downfall of 
 the Seljukides. Caraman, the grandson of this prince, after 
 maintaining a long and desperate struggle against Amurath I., 
 his father-in-law, and his successor, Bajazet I., was taken pri- 
 soner, and put to death by one of the generals of the latter. 
 His descendants, however, continued to exercise authority over 
 their dominions, as vassals of the sultans, until the reign of 
 Mohammed II., when Caramania was finally united to the 
 Turkish empire. — .J. T. 
 
 C.\RAMAN, Peter Paul Riquetde Boxrepos, Count de, 
 a French general, bora in 1G46. He was made ensign in the 
 gu;irds in 166G, and by his courage and conduct, gained the 
 various steps of promotion, till he was made lieutenant-general 
 in 1702. He served in Flanders under Marshal VUleroy and 
 Boufflors, and gained the grand cross of the order of St. Louis 
 by his bravery in covering the retreat of the French anny in 1705, 
 when driven by Marlborough from the lines of Gette. Count 
 Caraman distinguished himself in 1706 by his defence of ilenin, 
 and was present at the battles of Ramifies, Oudenarde, and 
 Malplaquet. He died in 1730. — J. T. 
 
 CARAMAN, Victor Louis Charles de Riqlet, Duke of, 
 born in 1762. At the Revolution he left France, and entered the 
 Russian service. He returned to his native country during the 
 consulate, but was arrested and kept in confinement till the fall 
 of the empire. Louis XVIII. appointed him minister at Berlin 
 in 1814, and ambassador to Vienna in 1815. He assisted at the 
 congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laybach, and Verona, 
 and was raised to the rank of duke in 1828. After the revolu- 
 tion of 1830, he occupied himself almost exclusively with indus- 
 trial questions. He died in 1839, lea«ng memoirs, part of which 
 have since been published in the Journal des Debats. — His 
 brother. Count JIaukice — born in 1769 ; died in 1837 — was an 
 officer in the army, a member of the legislative body in 1811, and 
 a member of the chamber of deputies from 1821 to 1828. — J. T. 
 
 CARAMUEL DE LOBKOVITSH, Juan, a Cistercian monk 
 who combined great scholarship with a peculiar taste for 
 mechanics, was bora at Madrid in 1606. He studied at Sala- 
 manca, was successively professor at Alcala, abbot of ^Melrose, 
 titulary bishop of Missi in the Low Countries, intendant of 
 fortifications in Bohemia, bishop of Konigsgratz, and then of 
 Vigevano in the Milanese, where he died in 1682. He wrote 
 
 some works of controversial theology, and a system of divinity 
 in Latin, 7 vols, folio. — J. B. 
 
 CARAMURU, or "Man of Fire," the name given by the 
 savage natives of Bahia in South America to Diooo Alvarez, 
 a Portuguese seaman of the sixteenth century. He was ship- 
 wrecked on tlieir coast, and was saved by the savages — who 
 murdered all his fellow-voyagers — that he might assist them in 
 procuring spoil from the wreck. Finding a musket, he fired it 
 off in their presence, and so impressed them that they made him 
 their chief, gave him their daughters for vj-ives, and persuaded 
 him to turn his fire against their enemies. Sailing with his 
 favourite wife in a French vessel, he arrived at the court of 
 France, and w.is highly honoured. Returning to Bahia, he 
 fortified his position, and established himself in his dominions. 
 Father Durand, a native of Brazil, and the earliest poet of that 
 country, has written an epic on the adventures of Caramuru. 
 
 * CARASCOSA, Michael, Baron de, a military officer, bom 
 in Sicily in the latter half of the eighteenth century. He served 
 with the troops of the Parthenopreim republic, and when Naples 
 was retaken by the French in 1806 he received a commission in 
 the forces raised by Joseph Bonapaiie. In 1814 he commanded 
 a division which fought with the Austrians against the French. 
 In 1820 Caracosa, then minister of war, was appointed to suppress 
 the miUtary insurrection which broke out in that year ; but, umlli 
 to cope with the insurgents, he placed himself at theu: head. F'.s 
 coi"ps being dispersed by the Austrians, he took refuge in Bar- 
 celona, and subsequently, being condemned to death for contu- 
 macy, he withdrew to England, where he still lives. — G. M. 
 
 CARAUSIUS, emperor of Britain in the third centmy, was 
 a native of Flanders, of low origin, who having done sen-ice to 
 the Roman emperors, was appointed by ilaximian to the com- 
 mand of a fleet at Boulogne, for clearing the seas of the Frank and 
 Saxon pirates. Having connived at their ravages that he might 
 enrich liimself with the spoils of their vessels, he was apprised 
 of the emperor's design to punish him with death. He sailed 
 with his fleet, and took possession of Britain. The emperor 
 finding the naval force of the usurper strengthened by the 
 pirates, who had joined his standai-d, at length ceded to him 
 the government of the island, which he held for seven years, 
 till in 293 he was murdered by his chief minister. — J. B. 
 
 CARAVAGGIO, Michelangelo da, the name by whid 
 Michelangelo Merigi is generally called; he was bom at 
 Caravaggio in the Jlilanese in 1569. He was originally a 
 mason's labourer, but had sufficient ability and determination to 
 establish himself as a portrait painter, first at Milan, and after- 
 wards at Venice, where he painted also historical pictures. He 
 then went to Rome, and unable through poverty to estabUsh 
 himself independently, he entered the service of the celebrateci 
 painter the Cavaliere D'Aj-pino, who employed Caravaggio to 
 paint the accessory parts of his pictures. Eventually, however, 
 he produced a picture of some " Cardplayers " (II Giuoco di 
 Carte), which, from its unusual force and truth, attracted great 
 notice, and estaWished the independence of the painter. Cara- 
 vaggio now made rapid progress ; he was employed to paint 
 several oil pictures for the Contarelli chapel in the church of 
 San Luigi de' Franc»si, but his style was so exceedingly forcible 
 and unusual, that the monks rejected his first picture of " St. 
 JIatthew writing the Gospel," as too vulgar for such a place and 
 such a subject. He painted another, but the first found a willing 
 purchaser in the ilarchese Vincenzio Giustiniani. Caravaggio's 
 masterpiece in Rome is the " Deposition from the Cross," now 
 in the Vatican gallery ; there is a mosaic of it in St. Peter's. 
 He attained a great reputation in Rome, but hLs fall was as sud- 
 den as his rise ; he was capricious, idle, and ostentations, and of 
 an exceedingly irritable and overbearing temper. He painted 
 only a few hours a day, and used to parade about in the after- 
 noon with his sword at his side ; and on an occasion when 
 engaged in a game at tennis, he became so violent in the cfispnte 
 with his companion that he killed him on the spot. He fled to 
 Naples, where he remained a short time ; he then went to 
 Malta, where he obtained the protection of the Grand-master 
 Vignacourt, but here too he quarrelled with one of the knights, 
 and was cast into prison ; he, however, contrived to make his 
 escape, and we next find him painting at Syracuse, Messina, and 
 PaleiTuo. From Sicily he returned to Naples, and by the inter- 
 cession of some friends, having procured the pope's pardon, he 
 deterafined to go back to Rome. He set out in a felucca from 
 Naples ; but being mistaken for another person by the Spanish
 
 CAR 
 
 895 
 
 CAR 
 
 coastguard, he was arrested and detained for a short time, and 
 when liberated, he discovered that the crew of the felucca had 
 gone off with all his effects. He wandered despondingly along 
 the coast, until he reached Porto Ercole, where he was seized 
 with fever, brought on by vexation and exposure, and he died 
 after a few days' illness in 1G09, aged only forty. 
 
 Caravaggio introduced a new and forcible st}'le, depending chiefly 
 upon contrasts of light and shade, in which, however, the latter 
 prevailed. His subjects were generally very ordinaiy, and his 
 imitation exact ; or, if his subject is not ordinary, the actors are 
 sure to be so, but everything is rendered with great power. His 
 followers were called " naturalLsti," because they were opposed 
 to the ideal principle of selection, copring literally what was set 
 before them. He completely revolutionized the art of his time, 
 and found a host of imitators among the younger painters ; even 
 Guido and Domenichino were not exempt from his influence for 
 a period. Guercino was at one time a complete Caravaggiesco. 
 His permanent followers were Spagnoletto, Bartolomeo IManfredi, 
 Carlo Saracino, the French Valentin, and the Flemish Gerard 
 Honthorst, known in Italy as Gherardo della Notte. He and 
 his followers generally painted only half figures. — (Bellori, Vite 
 dePlUori, &c., 1672.)— R. N. W. 
 
 CARAVAGGIO, Pietro-Paolo, bom at MOan in 1G17; 
 died in 1688. After receiving a careful education, he procm-ed 
 a place in the magistracy of his country ; but abandoned this 
 for the profession of arms. He afterwards taught Greek and 
 mathematics ; and from 1676 till his death was a sort of inspec- 
 tor of the castles belonging to the duchy of Milan. He wrote a 
 number of works on various subjects, aU of considerable merit ; 
 but his fiime rests principally on his contributions to the art of 
 military engineering. 
 
 CARAVAGGIO, Polidoro da, the name by which Poli- 
 DORO C A LD.VRA is commoulv known. He was born at Caravaggio 
 about 1495, and was originally a mason's labourer, in which 
 capacity he was employed in the Vatican in 1512 among the 
 worlanen of Raphael. JIaturino of Florence, one of Raphael's 
 assistants, having discovered a peculiar abiUty in the Lombard 
 labourer, undertook to teach him to draw, and Polidoro made 
 snch rapid progress that he became very usefid to his master, 
 and eventually attracted the notice of Raphael hunself. He 
 and Maturino executed many beautiful chiariscurl (designs in 
 light and shade) in the Vatican chambers, such as friezes and 
 other decorations in imitation of mai-ble and bronze. Vasari 
 says they copied all the remains of ancient art in Rome. Their 
 compositions were conspicuous for then* fine classical style and 
 proportions. Few of these works remain, but some are preserved 
 in the prints of Alberti, Bartoli, and Galestruzzi. The last 
 engraved the " Niobe," painted on a house near the Palazzo 
 Lancellotti at Rome, their masterpiece. The sack of Rome in 
 1527 by the soldiers of Bourbon, put an end to these and almost 
 all other art-labours for a season. Polidoro went first to Naples, 
 and afterwards to Jtlessina, where he resided many years, and 
 executed many pictures and other good works in the former 
 style of decoration. Vasari mentions a " Christ led to Calvary" 
 as a masterpiece. In 1543 Polidoro, having acquii'ed a con- 
 siderable fortune by his labours, determined to return to Rome ; 
 and having got everything ready, was prepared to set out on his 
 journey the following morning, in company with an old servant 
 who had lived with him many years. This wretch hired some 
 assassins to murder his master, which they did during the night, 
 and he shared the spoil with them. Having strangled and 
 stabbed Polidoro, they placed the body at the door of the house 
 of a lady he was in the habit of visiting. A friend of the 
 pamter, however, suspected this servant, and had him put 
 to the rack : the whole infamous affair was confessed by the 
 villain, and he was tortured to death. The galleiy of Naples 
 possesses some of the pictm'cs painted by Polidoro at Jlessina. 
 He etched a few plates in a good style, which are very scarce. — 
 (Vasari, Vite de Pittori, &c.)— R. N. W. 
 
 CARBAJAL, Luis de, a Spanish artist, bom in 1534. He 
 was a native of Toledo, and became a pupil of .Juan de Villoldo. 
 He was employed by Philip II. in the decoration of the Escurial. 
 Some scenes from the life of the Virgin in the principal cloister, 
 were painted by Carbajal. Several of his works deck the 
 churches of Madrid and Toledo. He died in 1591 at Madrid. 
 Some statements, however, make him living in 1613, and 
 employed on the Pardo. — W. T. 
 
 CARBO, a Roman family, of whom we notice : — 
 
 Carbo, C.vius-Papirius, a celebrated orator, bom about 
 164; died about 119 B.C. Having undertaken the defence of 
 Opimius, who was accused of the murder of Caius Gracchus, he 
 became unpopular with all parties, and being himself accused, 
 and fearing a sentence of condemnation, he terminated his exist- 
 ence by poison. 
 
 Carbo, C. Papirius, son of the preceding, and, like his 
 father, an orator. As a supporter of the aristocracy, he fell into 
 popular disfavour, and was assassinated, B.C. 82. 
 
 CARBO, Cneius Papirius, three times consul at Rome, was 
 a leader of the Marian party, and fought against Sulla, B.C. 82. 
 He was afterwards taken prisoner and put to death by Pompey. 
 
 CARBON. See Flins. 
 
 CARBONE, LoDovico, an Italian orator and poet, bom of a 
 patrician family at Ferrara about 1436 ; died at Rome in 1483. 
 He had scarcely attained the age of twenty when he was appointed 
 to fill the chair of eloquence and poetiy in the university of his 
 native city. Pius II., whom he addressed in a splendid oration 
 on the occasion of his passing through Ferrara, raised him to the 
 dignity of count palatine. He recited more than two hundi'ed 
 orations, and, as he boasted to the Emperor Frederic III., com- 
 posed upwards of ten thousand lines of Latin verse. Many of 
 his orations were delivered at Bologna, where he long resided. 
 He left some important historical works which are still in 
 manuscript. — A. C. M. 
 
 CARBURIS, John B.vptist, Count, physician, brother of 
 Marine, bora at Cephalonia ; died at Padua in 1801. Charles 
 Emmanuel, desirous of reforming his medical schools, gave him 
 a chair of medicine at Tm'in, which he filled twenty years. He 
 was ultimately professor of physiology at Padua. Carburis was 
 a member of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 CARBURIS, ^Marine, a celebrated Greek engineer, known 
 also by the name Lascakis, was bom in Cephalonia early in the 
 eighteenth century. The achievement in connection with which 
 he is remembered, was the removal from Cronstadt of the large 
 gi-anite block which supports the equestrian statue of Peter the 
 Great at St. Petersburg. The feat was accomplished in 1769. 
 
 CARBURIS, Mark, Count, brother of the preceding, born 
 in 1731; died at Padua in 1808. The government of Venice 
 appointed him to the chair of chemistry at Padua, and sent 
 him to examine the mines of Denmark, Sweden, Hungary, and 
 tiermany. One of his discoveries was that pm-e crystals can be 
 obtained from sulphuric acid. 
 
 CARDANO, GiROLAMO, bom at Pavia hi 1501, a celebrated 
 philosopher, and one of the most learned men of the sixteenth ceu- 
 tuiy, remarkable both for his eccentricities and his extraordinary 
 intellectual powers. Ill-treated during his childhood and early 
 youth by his parents, he was left almost entirely to his own exer- 
 tions in the acquisition of knowledge ; whilst the leanings of his 
 father towards magic, astrology, and apparitions of spirits, gave 
 to his mind a superstitious turn. His writings bear the stamp of 
 the contrast between this disposition and the subsequent work of 
 his faculties of observation and reasoning. He studied medicuie, 
 first at Pavia, then at Padua, where in 1525 he took his doctor's 
 degree. In 1538 we find him at Milan professor of m.athematics 
 and at the same time celebrated as a physician. lie became fam- 
 ous throughout Europe, and received the offer of a professorship 
 from Denmark, which, however, he refused. After a journey to 
 Scotland — where he proceeded in compliance with the request of 
 the bishop of St. Andrew.s, John Hamilton, who was sutl'ering 
 from asthma, and who derived benefit from his cure — and a short 
 stay in London, where he was received with much honour by 
 Edward VI., he returned to his native land, and resumed his occu- 
 pations as a teacher and a writer. One of the most renowned 
 mathematicians of that time, Luigl Ferrari, was his pupil. He 
 went snbseinu'ntly to Bologna, where he taught with great suc- 
 cess until 1570. He was singularly aftlieted throughout life with 
 domestic misfortunes, which contributed in a great measure to 
 the strangeness of his temper, and to his gloomy views of human 
 destiny. In the latter part of his life he went to Rome, where 
 he was received with hospitality, and made a member of the 
 college of physicians. He died there in the year 1575. — (See 
 Morley's Li/e of G. Cardano, London, 1854.) One of the most 
 interesting books of Cardano is his autobiogi-apliy. In this work 
 the reader may trace out the growth of a powerful nature, 
 developed almost entirely through its own native energies in spite 
 of a false education, struggling with obstacles both external and 
 intemal, and conquering, amidst many difticulties and aberi'ations,
 
 CAR 
 
 896 
 
 CAR 
 
 some splendid fragments of science and truth. Laying open with 
 perfect sincerity the antagonisms of his character, he tells us how, 
 ■with many a call for the highest developments of intellect and 
 many a germ of evil, he grew, on the one side, wild in fancy, and 
 often in folly ; and, on the other, strong in thought, not devoid of 
 nohle and generous instincts, impressionable, changeable, incon- 
 sistent, still capable of great mental achievements, and of an ardent 
 devotion to scientific discovery and the extension of knowledge. 
 (See Liber de vita propria, Cardani Opera, vol. i.) He embraced 
 in his works (10 vols. fol. Lugd., 16G3) almost every department 
 of philosophy and natural science, mathematics, astronomy, 
 physics, medicine, divination, theology, morals, history of liter- 
 ature, of philosophy, &c. His treatises, " De Subtilitate, et 
 rerum varietate," besides being, on the whole, extremely valu- 
 able documents for the history of science in those days, contain 
 some original ideas and observations on the phenomena of heat 
 and cold, on light, colours, &c., experimental attempts in physics, 
 chimics, and mechanics, and descriptions of machines, which, as 
 G. Libri says in his Histoire des sciences math6matiques en 
 Italie, have been recently reproduced as modem inventions. 
 (^Libri, vol. iii., p. 178. See also, as regards the studies and 
 experiments of Cardano in mechanics, his Opus Novum, Oper. 
 torn, iv.) Cardano also took the deepest interest in the progress 
 of geometry and algebra, and, together with his great contem- 
 porary, Nicolo Tartaglia, gave a fresh impulse to that branch of 
 knowledge, which was in his opinion one of the highest attain- 
 ments of man's mind. He actually co-operated to the solution 
 of some mathematical problems, which, at that stage of the 
 science, were considered of the greatest difficulty. (Cardano, 
 Ars magna, cf. Cossali, Storia delV Algebra.') Thus, at the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century, before Bacon and Galileo had 
 led the way to the discoveries of natural philosophy. Cardano's 
 mind having shaken off the trammels of scholastic authority, and 
 trusting only to its own reason and deep insight, foresaw by 
 intuition, though un.ible fully to comprehend them, those laws 
 of nature and of the human mind, which the collective work of 
 three centuries has afterwards ascertained and organized into a 
 system of scientific knowledge and useful application. — A. S., 0. 
 
 CARDER, Peter, an English naval officer, who lived in the 
 latter half of the sixteenth century. He was with Drake when 
 that celebrated commander was despatched to the South Sea 
 for the purpose of harassing the Spanish commerce, and was 
 sent by him to England, September 6, 1586, with tidings of the 
 expedition. Carder passed safely through the Straits of Magel- 
 lan on his homeward voyage, but having been overtaken by 
 stormy weather to the north of Rio de la Plata, his vessel was 
 shipwrecked, and he and one sailor alone escaped with their lives. 
 They suffered the most frightful hardships from the want of 
 food and water, but at last succeeded in constructing a raft out 
 of the wreck of their ship, and after a perilous voyage of three 
 days, they reached the continent of America. Carder's com- 
 panion perished, but he fell into the hands of the native tribes, 
 who pitied his misfortunes and supplied his pressing wants. He 
 quitted the friendly savages after a residence among them of 
 some months, and ultimately succeeded in reaching England in 
 1586.— J. T. 
 
 CARDI, LcDovico, called Cigoli, a distinguished artist of 
 the Florentine school, born at the castle of Cigoli in Tuscany in 
 1559. He was a pupil of Alessandro AUori, and afterwards of 
 Santo di Titi. At Florence he studied earnestly the works of 
 Michel Angelo, Andrea del Sarto, and Pontormo, and received 
 instruction in architecture and perspective in the school of 
 Bernardo Buontalenti. He was received into the academy of 
 Florence, and was rewarded by the patronage of the grand duke, 
 for whom he painted a " Venus and a Satyr," and a " Sacrifice 
 of Isaac," to adorn the Palazzo Pitti. His patron sent him to 
 Rome. He there painted " St. Peter healing the Lame Man at 
 the Gate of the Temple," estimated to be one of the chief art- 
 treasures of the Vatican, although now fatally injured by damp. 
 He painted smaller pictures of saints and magdalens, remarkable 
 for their devotional fervour and for their Dutch-hke finish. He 
 died in 1613. A fine work by him is the '' Stoning of Stephen," 
 in the convent of Monte Domini at Florence. He executed one 
 or two engravings in a good style. — \V. T. 
 
 * CARDIGAN, James Thomas Bkudenei.l, seventh earl 
 of, was born in 1797, and succeeded to the title in 18:36. He 
 entered the army as comet in the 8th hussars in 1824, and became 
 ia 1832 lieutenant-colonel in the 15th hussars, but left this regi- 
 
 ment in the following year, when Captain Wathen, whom he had 
 accused of insubordination, was acquitted by a court-martial. Li 
 1836 his lordship was aj^pointed to command the 11th hussars. 
 It would be unprofitable to follow him through his famous "'black 
 bottle quaiTel" at Canterbury, his duel with Captain Tuckett in 
 1840, and his subsequent trial and acquittal before the house of 
 peers. In the Crimean war he led the famous charge of the light 
 brigade at Balaklava, 25th October, 185-4. We cannot enter 
 into the question as to his share of the blame in connection with 
 that glorious, but disastrous engagement. His whole conduct 
 in the Eastern war made him unpopular in England, but it is 
 only fair to mention that when he commanded the 11th hussars, 
 the duke of Wellington complimented him on the general effi- 
 ciency of his regiment. He was appointed, after the Crimean 
 war, inspector-general of cavalry. — J. B. 
 
 CARDINI, Igxatii's, a physician and naturalist, bom in 
 Corsica in 1563 ; died about the close of the century. He prac- 
 tised medicine in his native town, and was distinguished fur the 
 universality of his acquirements. Cardini wrote in Latin a 
 remarkable work on the minerals and plants of Corsica, but 
 brought on himself the odium of the priests by some satirical 
 letters against the clergy appended to his book. He was obliged 
 to flee to Lucca, where he died. — J. B., G. 
 
 CARDIUS, Olaf, a Swedish clergyman, pastor of Soder- 
 manland, who lived in the eighteenth century. He was the 
 author of a ballad history of Sweden, from Christina to Adolf 
 Fredeiik, written in the manner of the Folk's songs, and called 
 "Honsgumman's Visa," or the Henwife's Song. This is one of 
 the latest of the many imitations of the old Folk's songs ; and, 
 whilst it retains its place in eveiy cottage of Sweden, it is devoid 
 of true poetry, or of that tender sentiment which characterizes 
 the true old national poetry of all lands, and for which the Folk's 
 songs of the north are so remarkable. — il. H. 
 
 CARDOSO, George, a Portuguese priest and author, bom 
 at Lisbon ; died 3d October, 1669. His chief work is entitled 
 " Agiologeo Lusitano, dos Sanctos e varones illustres en virtude 
 do reino de Portugal e sus anguistas," or a calendar of the 
 saints and illustrious men of Portugal. The first part of this 
 work appeared in 1652, but the author only lived to complete 
 half the year. At the time of his death he was engaged on a 
 " Parnaso Lusitano." — F. M. W. 
 
 CARDOSO, Isaac, was bom in the early part of the seven- 
 teenth century at Cerolica de Fruta, in the Portuguese province 
 of Beira, of parents who belonged to the numerous class of the 
 new, i.e. compulsory, christians. He chose the science of medi- 
 cine, fixed himself at Jladrid, and soon acquired great fame as a 
 practitioner among the nobles and the clergy. In the midst of 
 his professional successes, however, he found no refuge from the 
 pangs of his conscience, which upbraided him with the duplicity 
 of which he had been guilty from his childhood. At length, 
 unable to sustain his mental agony, he escaped from Spain, and 
 safely aixived at Venice. On the free soil of that republic he 
 re-entered the synagogue to which his ancestors had belonged ; 
 he changed his name, and subsequently removed to Verona, 
 where he lived a immber of years, apparently at ease, amid the 
 congenial occupations of literature and medical practice. His 
 earlier yeai-s produced some poetical effusions ; several medical 
 treatises were also published by him previously to his flight from 
 Spain. His claim to posthumous fame, however, rests on his 
 " Philosophia Libera" (on Philosophy and Dogmas), and more 
 especially on his work, " Las Excelencias de los Hebreos" (The 
 Privileges of the Hebrews). He died at Verona, some time after 
 the year 1680. — .\braham, Isaac Cardoso's brother, experienced 
 nearly the same vicissitudes. He, too, broke loose from Spain 
 and Catholicism. He emigrated into Africa, where he became 
 physician to the dey of Tripoli, and devoted his leisure to philo- 
 sophical studies, as is proved by a work of his still extant, 
 entitled ",De Scala Jacobi." — {Fiirst.') — T. T. 
 
 CARDOSO, Michael and Raphael, two brothers, adher- 
 ents of the pseudo-Messiah, Shabbatai Zen, lived in the African 
 state of Tripoli, towards the end of the seventeenth century. 
 They fanaticized a great number of their brethren, and ulti- 
 mately caused, perhaps unwillingly, many Jews in North Africa 
 to embrace the Islam, in imitation of their pretended Messiah. 
 They expressed their hope of enforcing, by this wholesale defec- 
 tion from Judaism, the advent of the Son of David. Jliehael 
 Cardoso, whose cabbalistical writings have been preserved, boldly 
 declared himself to be the fellow-Messiah (Messiah ben Ephraim)
 
 CAR 
 
 897 
 
 CAR 
 
 to Shabbatai. The descendants from these sectarians have been 
 completely absorbed by the Mahommedan population, from 
 whom it is now impossible to distinguish them. — (Josi.) — T. T. 
 
 CARDUCCI, Baktolojieo. This artist was born at Florence 
 in 1560, and studied under Federigo Zucchero. He assisted his 
 preceptor in painting the great cupola at Florence, and accom- 
 panied Lim on his visit to the capital of Spain. Conjointly with 
 Peregiino Tibaldi, he painted the celebrated ceiling in the 
 library of the Escm-ial, his portions being the figures of Aristotle, 
 EucUd, Archimedes, and Cicero. His most distinguished work 
 is his " Descent from the Cross," in the church of St. Philipe al 
 Real at Madiid, which has been classed with the best works of 
 Eaffaelle. His "Last Supper" and "Circumcision" are also 
 highly accounted. He died in 1610. — Vincenzo, his younger 
 brother, became king's painter to Philip III., and afterwards also 
 to Philip IV. He died in 1638. His works are to be seen in all 
 of the cities of Segovia, Salamanca, Castile, Toledo, and Vallado- 
 lid. He published an important work on painting in 1633. — W. T. 
 
 CAREL DE Sainte Garde, Jacques, bom about the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century, and died about 1684. He 
 was a churchman, and had some character as a preacher. He 
 accompanied an embassy to Spain, but does not seem to have 
 had any fixed provision. In the want of better occupation 
 while there, he commenced a poem which he entitled " Childe- 
 brand ou les Sarrasins chasses de France," and printed in 1666 
 the four first cantos. Boileau ridiculed the name of the hero, 
 and the public found the cantos dull reading. The epic of 
 "Childebrand" was therefore never completed. — J. A., D. 
 
 CAREW, Bamfylde Moore, famous as a genuine " gipsy- 
 king," was the son of the Rev. Theodore Carew, rector of 
 Bicklegh, Devon, and was born in 1690. Having got into some 
 scrape, he ran away from the grammar school at Tiverton, and 
 falling in with a company of gipsies, was so pleased with their 
 mode of life that he abandoned his home and family and joined 
 their society. He became a great adept in all manner of dis- 
 guises, and frequently deceived the same persons, even when 
 apprised of the design, several times in one day. He was so 
 much respected by the community that they elected him their 
 king. He continued to live with them many years, but finally 
 returned to Bicklegh, where he died in 1758. — M. 
 
 CAREW, Sir Edmund, Baron Carew of Ottery Mohun, 
 was an eminent military commander in the wars of Henry VII. 
 and Henry VIII. He was one of those who relieved Exeter 
 when besieged by Perkin Warbeck in 1-197, and having accom- 
 panied the expedition to France, he was killed at the siege of 
 Terouenne in 1513. He was the last of his family who bore 
 the title of Baron Carew. — M. 
 
 CAREW, George, Baron Carew of Clopton, and Earl of 
 Totnes, second son of Dr. George Carew, who held many high 
 preferments in the church in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was 
 born in 1557, and admitted a gentleman commoner of Broadgate 
 hall, now Pembroke college, Oxford, in 1572. Leaving college 
 he proceeded to Ireland in a militaiy capacity, and quickly made 
 himself conspicuous by his coixrage and conduct. In 1581 we 
 find him governor of the county of Catherlagh, being at that time 
 only twenty-two years of age. Captain Carew was also constable 
 of Leighlin castle. In 1585 he received the honour of knighthood. 
 In 1587 he was created master of the ordnance in Ireland for life. 
 In 1589, by a special grace, he was made master of arts of 
 Oxford, and, in the following year, he was admitted a member 
 of her majesty's privy council of Ireland. In January, 1592, 
 upon the sun-ender of his Irish patent, he was created lieutenant 
 of the ordnance in England. By his carefid and vigorous 
 administration, he caused the removal of many abuses which had 
 existed in this branch of the public service, and introduced a 
 system which, without any material change, has been found to 
 work well even to our own day. In 1596 he accompanied the 
 expedition under the lord-admiral, Howard, and the earl of 
 Essex to Cadiz, distinguishing himself as commander of the 
 Mary Roue. In 1594 he had drawn up a treatise on the con- 
 dition of Ireland, in which, with great clearness and ability, 
 he pointed out the danger which threatened the kingdom 
 from the ambitious designs of Hugh O'Neil, earl of Tyrone. 
 His predictions were afterwards amply fulfilled. In conse- 
 quence of his knowledge of Irish affairs, he was appointed in 
 1599 lord-president of the province of Munster, then in open 
 rebellion. By sowing division in the councils of the Irish 
 chieftains, and by vigorous action in the field, he soon restored 
 
 VOT,. I. 
 
 order in the province. He then demanded his recall, but this 
 the arrival of the Spaniards at Kinsale rendered impossible. 
 He was actively engaged in the siege of that place during the 
 winter of 1601-2, under the lord-deputy, and, subsequently, 
 by the display of the most extraordinary energy and valom-, he 
 captured the almost inaccessible fortress of Dunboy castle at 
 Beerhaven. In 1604 he was constituted, by act of parliament, 
 one of the commissioners to treat about the union between 
 England and Scotland, and in the same year the king gi-auted 
 him the office of receiver-general of his revenues. Higher 
 honours still awaited him. On the 4th of June in the following 
 year he was advanced to the dignity of a peer of parliament, 
 and in 1606 appointed master of the ordnance. In the year 
 1611 Lord Carew was again sent on a special mission into 
 Ireland, for the piu-pose of inquiring into the causes of the 
 inadequacy of the revenue of that kingdom to meet the expen- 
 diture, and to make such suggestions as might appear necessary 
 to remedy the evil. On the accession of Charles I., in consider- 
 ation of his long and meritorious services, he was advanced to the 
 title of Earl of Totnes in the comity of Devon. He died at his 
 house in the Savoy in 1629. — {Lamb MSS. ; State Paper Office 
 MSS. ; Ordnance MSS. ; Holitished, &c.) — M. 
 
 CAREW, Sir George, knight, was the second son of Sir 
 Wymond Carew of Antony. After being called to the bar he 
 became secretary to Lord Chancellor Hatton. He was sub- 
 sequently knighted by Queen Elizabeth, and in 1598 was sent 
 on an embassy to Branswick, Sweden, Poland, and Dantzig, to 
 obtain the removal of an edict against the merchant adventurers. 
 On the accession of James I. he was employed as one of the 
 commissioners to treat of the union with Scotland, and in 1605, 
 being then the representative in parliament of the borough of 
 St. Germains, he was sent ambassador resident at the court of 
 France, where he remained until 1609. He died in 1612. — M. 
 
 CAREW, Sir John, sixth baron of Carew and Mullesford, 
 was an eminent soldier and statesman of the reign of Edward 
 III. In 1350 he was appointed lord-deputy of Ireland, and 
 died in 1363. 
 
 CAREW, Sir Nicholas, knight, of Beddington, Surrey, 
 appointed master of the horse to King Henry VIII. in 1521. 
 He was created grand esquire of England in 1527, in which 
 year he accompanied the Viscount Lisle on an embassy to 
 Francis I. of France. In 1529 he was sent to Bologna to ratify, 
 in the king's name, the treaty of Cambray. In 1536 he was 
 elected K.G. He was executed in 1539 for corresponding with 
 Cardinal Pole. — {State Papers.) — 51. 
 
 CAREW, Sir Peter, of Ottery Mohun, Devonshire, bom in 
 1514, was the youngest son of Sir William Carew. In his twelfth 
 year he was placed in the grammar school at Exeter, where he 
 was only remarked as a truant and a scapegi'ace. To get rid 
 of a troublesome charge, his father sent him to France with a 
 gentleman of his acquaintance, who was to educate him for the 
 profession of arms, m consideration of receiving his services as 
 a page. Some time after, one of his relatives discovered the 
 young Carew in the dress, and performing the duties, of a muleteer. 
 Rescued from this degradation, he accompanied his Idnsman into 
 Italy, was taken into the service of a French nobleman, and after 
 the battle of Pavia, where his master fell, entered the service of 
 the princess of Orange. In 1532 he returned to England, bear- 
 ing very flattering letters of commendation from his late mistress. 
 He was immediately appomted one of the king's pages, and not 
 long afterwards a gentleman of the privy chamber. In 1535 he 
 accompanied Henry VIII. to France, and m 1539, with other 
 courtiers and gi'eat officers of state, was sent to Calais to conduct 
 Anne of Cleves to I]ngland. In 1545 he distinguished himself 
 in the attack upon Treport, being the second man who landed. 
 For his braveiy he was honoured with knighthood by the lord- 
 admiral, and was deputed to convey the gi'atifying intelligence 
 to the king. Although warmly attached to Queen Mary, when 
 the project of her marriage with Philip of Spain was known, he 
 is said to have joined \\itli others in a consi)iracy to prevent 
 the landing of the prince, was proclaimed a traitor, and nan-owly 
 avoiding apprehension, escaped into France. In 1555 he was 
 traitorously seized at Brussels by Lord Paget, convejed to 
 England, and committed to the Tower, from which he was not 
 liberated until 1556, when he received pardon. In 1560, 
 when the Irish rebellion broke out, known in history as the 
 " Butlers Wars," Sir Peter, who had just recovered large ances- 
 tral estates in Ireland, was appointed to command a division of 
 
 5 X
 
 CAR 
 
 898 
 
 CAR 
 
 tlie royal forces, and was mainly instrumental in the restoration 
 of peace. He died at Cork in 1575. — CLife of Sir Peter 
 Careiv.) — 51. 
 
 CAREW, Richard, of Antony, was bom in 1551, and was 
 educated at Christ Church, Oxford. He was a friend of Camden 
 and Cotton, and gave much attention to the study of antiquities. 
 Wien the society of antiquaries was founded in 1572, he was 
 one of the original fellows. In 1602 he published the first edition 
 of his " Survey of Cornwall," in quarto, a second edition of which 
 was published in 1723, and a third in 1789. He was a man of 
 good abilities and studious habits, being self-taught in the Greek, 
 Italian, German, French, and Spanish languages. He died sud- 
 denly in 1620.— M. 
 
 CAREW, Sir Thomas, knight, eighth baron of Carew and 
 Mullesford, son of Leonard, Baron Carew, bom in 1368. He was 
 a distinguished commander both by sea and land. We find his 
 name in the list of persons summoned to attend a great council 
 of the nation in 1405. He was present at the battle of Agincom't 
 in 1415. In 1417 he commanded the expedition which con- 
 veyed the earl of I\Iarch to France. The next year he was made 
 captain of Harfleur, and was intrusted with the defence of the 
 passage over the river Seine. Died in 1430. — (_Acts of Privy 
 Council, State Pajyers, &c.) — JI. 
 
 CAREW, Thomas, of Bicklegh, Devon, was the second son 
 of Sir Edmund, Bai-on Carew of Ottery Mohun, in the same 
 county. He joined the expedition under the earl of Suirey 
 against Scotland in 1513, and was present at the battle of Flod- 
 den Field. Before the battle began, a gallant Scottish knight 
 sent a challenge to the English amiy, offering battle to any 
 gentleman that would fight him for the honour of his country. 
 Carew received permission to accept the challenge, and won the 
 victory. He gi-eatly distinguished himself iu the battle, but was 
 ultimately taken prisoner. — M. 
 
 CAREW, Thomas, an English poet of gi-eat merit, friend of 
 Ben Jonson and Davenant. His parentage and the date of his 
 birth are somewhat uncertain, but there are strong reasons for 
 believing that he was the second son of Sir Matthew Carew of 
 Littleton in the county of Worcester, and that he was bom in 
 1589. He entered at the Temple, and was afterwards for a short 
 time secretaiy to Sir Dudley Carleton, from whose senice he 
 was dismissed in 1616. He was also a gentleman of the prixy 
 chamber, and sewer to King Charles I. He lived a gay and 
 dissipated life, but Clarendon says " he died with the greatest 
 remorse for that license, and with the gi-eatest manifestation of 
 clu-istianity that his best friends could desire." Wood says that 
 his death occurred about 1G39. Thomas Carew has often been 
 confounded with Thomas Carey, son of the earl of Monmouth, 
 who lived at the same time, and was also a poet of considerable 
 celebrity. The similarity in the pronunciation of their names, 
 has probably given rise to the mistake, Carew being pronounced 
 Carey. Carew's poems were published in 1640. Several beauti- 
 ful songs of his yet remain in MS. in the Ashmolean libraiy, and 
 there are, doubtless, other stray pieces in the British museum. 
 Many of his h-rics and sonnets were set to music by the famous 
 composers, Hcniy and William Lawes, and were sung freqiiently 
 at the court masques. Hallam says of Carew, that he has moi-e 
 fancy and more tenderness than Waller ; high praise, in which, 
 however, Percy, who has also commended our author, would have 
 joined. — M. 
 
 * CARf^Y, Alice and Phcebe, two American sisters, who 
 Lave published several volumes of poetry and miscellaneous 
 prose, which have attracted considerable notice. They were 
 bom in a rural district near Cincinnati, Ohio — the eldest, 
 Alice, in 1822 — and have had the advantages only of a common 
 school education. They have lived together in the home which 
 was their birthplace, most of the time in portionless orphanage, 
 with little aid from books or literary friends. A volume of 
 their poems was printed at Philadelphia in 1850 ; and this 
 was succeeded the next year by one of prose sketches, entitled 
 " Clovemook, or Recollections of our Neighbourhood in the 
 West." A second series of those sketches appeared in 1853, 
 and these have been followed by several other volumes of prose 
 and verse. Without showing any of the higher qualities of art, 
 their b )oks are popular, as they are written in an easy and 
 natural style, and evince a lively fancy, a nice obsen-ation of 
 nature, and correct sentiment. — F. B. 
 
 CAREY, George Savile, son of Ilenrv- Carey, the composer, 
 inherited a considerable portion of his father's taste and spirit, 
 
 and much of his misfortunes. He was brought up as a printer, 
 but his passion for the stage led him to the theatres, in which he 
 had little success, yet enough to give him a wandering unsettled 
 disposition. For forty years he employed himself in composing 
 and singing a vast number of popular songs, chiefly of the 
 patriotic kind, in which there was not much genuine poetry, or 
 cultivated music. These he perforaied from town to town, in 
 what he called " Lectures." He wrote also, from 1766 to 1792, 
 several fiirces — a list of which may be seen in the Biographia 
 Dramatica, and by the performance of which he eamed tem- 
 porary supplies. Besides these dramatic pieces, he T>Tote 
 "Analects in Prose and Verse," 1771, 2 vols. ; "A Lecture on 
 Mimicla-y," 1776; "A Rural Ramble," 1777; and " Balnea, 
 or Sketches of the different Watering-places in England," 1799. 
 In the latter part of his life, being in very necessitous circum- 
 stances, G. S. Carey laid claim, on the part of his father, to the 
 authorship of the words and music of the national anthem. 
 This was done in the hopes of seeming for himself a government 
 pension ; but his claim was too ill-founded to receive the slightest 
 support. The anthem in question is a composition of a much 
 earlier date. (See under Bull, Johx.) This son of Momns 
 died July 14, 1807, aged sixty-four, being bora the year his 
 father died, and was bmied by subscription among his friends, 
 ha\dng never realized any property, or, indeed, ha\'iug been ever 
 anxious but for the passing hour. One of his daughters was the 
 mother of the celebrated actor, Edmund Kean. — E. F. R. 
 
 CAREY, Henry, Earl of Monmouth, born in 1596, was the 
 eldest son of Robert the first earl of Monmouth. He was 
 educated at the university of Oxford, becoming at the age of 
 fifteen a fellow commoner of Exeter college. Two years after- 
 wards, having taken the degi-ee of B. A., he left Oxford to improve 
 himself by foreign travel. He profited much by his sojouni 
 abroad, and acquired a thorough knowledge of French and Italian, 
 which languages he spoke vnih remarkable facility. He wrote 
 very few original works ; of these, his " History of the Wars 
 of Flanders," and "Politic Discoiu-ses," rank highest. It was as 
 a translator that he chiefly excelled. 
 
 CAREY, Henry, a musical composer and poet, once of great 
 popular reputation, is commonly said to have been an illegitimate 
 son of George Sa\-ile, marquis of Hahfax, who had the honour 
 of presenting the crown to William III. Of his educatinn 
 nothing seems to be known, except that he was not a regularly 
 bred musician. He received lessons when a young man from 
 Linnert, Roseingrave, and Geminiani ; but the result of all this 
 did not, as his friend Lampe used to say, enable him to put a 
 bass to his own ballads. Being thus slenderly accomphshed in 
 his art, his chief employment was teaching at small boarding- 
 schools and among people of middling rank in private families. 
 He possessed a prolific, ready invention, and very early in life 
 distinguished himself by the composition of songs, of which he 
 was the author of both words and music. One of these, " Of all 
 the girls that are so smart," or " Sally in our alley," was sung 
 by even-body when it came out, and has never ceased to be a 
 favourite since. This, the author relates, was founded on a real 
 incident ; and mean as the subject may appear, he states that 
 Addison was pleased with that natural ease and simplicity of 
 sentiment which characterize the ballad, and more than once 
 vouchsafed to commend it. The first we hear of Carey is in the 
 year 1713, when he published a small volume of poems. Here he 
 speaks of his "parents" as still living, which seems to disprove 
 the claim of his relationship to the marquis of Halifax, who died 
 in 1695. Probably his mother then kept a school, as we find 
 in the volume, " A Pastoral Eclogue on the Divine Power of 
 God, spoken by two young ladies, in the habits of shepherdesses, 
 at an entertainment perfomied at Mrs. Carey's school by several 
 of her scholars." In 1715 he produced tvFO farces, one of which, 
 "The Contrivances," had considerable success. In 1720 he 
 published another collection of poems; and in 1722 a farce 
 called "Hanging and Blannage." In 1729 he brought out by 
 subscription his poems much enlarged, ■«'ith the addition of one 
 entitled " Namby Pamby," in richcule of Ambrose Phillips' lines 
 on the infant daughter of Lord Carteret. When 5Iiss Rafter, 
 aftenvai-ds the celebrated Jlrs. Clive, first appeared on the stage 
 of Drury Lane as a singer, it was at the benefit of Harry Carey 
 in 1730, who seems to have been her singing master. The 
 manner in which this benefit was announced in the Bai/i/ Post, 
 December 3, is so singular that we shall transcribe the pai'a- 
 graph. After announcing the play, which was Greenwich Park,
 
 and the additional entertainments of singing, particularly a dia- 
 logue of Purcell, by Jlr. Carey and Miss Rafter, and a cantata 
 of Jlr. Carey's by Jliss Rafter, there is an apology from Carey 
 for the " tragedy of half an act " not being performed ; but a 
 promise is made of indemnification by the entertainments between 
 the acts. The editor of the paper then adds — " But at our 
 friend Harry Carey's benefit to-night the powers of music, poetry, 
 and painting assemble in his behalf, he being an admirer of the 
 three sister-arts. The body of musicians meet in the Haymar- 
 ket, whence they march in great order, preceded by a magnificent 
 moving organ, in form of a pageant, accompanied by all the 
 kinds of musical instruments ever in use from Tubal Cain to the 
 present day; a great multitude of booksellers, authors, and 
 painters, form themselves into a body at Temple Bar, wliere 
 they march with gi-eat decency to Covent Garden, preceded by a 
 little army of printers' devils, with their proper instruments. 
 Here the two bodies of music and poetry are joined by the 
 ■irothers of the pencil ; when, after taking some refreshment at 
 :he Bedford Arms, they march in solemn procession to the 
 theatre, amidst an innumerable crowd of spectators." In 1732 
 Carty produced the words of two serious operas, " Amelia," and 
 •' Teraminta." The first of these was set by Lampe, and the 
 second by J. C. Smith, Handel's friend and amanuensis. Two 
 years afterwards his mock tragedy of half an act, called '' Chro- 
 nonhotonthologos," was first performed at the little theatre in 
 the Haymarket — a piece of humour that will always be in season 
 as long as extravagance and bombast shall dare to tread the 
 stage. In 1736, and for several subsequent years, his little 
 English opera, entitled " The Honest Yorksliireman," was almost 
 always in constant run. The year 1737 was rendered memor- 
 able at Covent Garden theatre by the success of the bm'lesque 
 opera of the " Dragon of Wantley," written by Carey and set by 
 Lampe, " after the Itahan manner." This excellent piece of 
 humour had run twenty nights when it was stopped, with all 
 other public amusements, by the death of her majesty Queen 
 Caroline, on November 29, but was resumed again on the open- 
 ing of the theatres in January foUo^rag, and supported as many 
 representations as the Beggar's Opera had done ten years before. 
 Lampe, in the music of this farcical drama, has capitally bur- 
 lesqued the style of the Handelian opera. In the iollowing 
 year, " Margeiy, or the Dragoness," a sequel to the " Dragon of 
 Wantley," written with equal humour, and as well set by Lampe, 
 was produced ; but had the fate of all sequels. The " Dragoness " 
 appeared but a few nights, and was never revived. " Nancy, 
 or the Parting Lovers," written and composed by our author, 
 nest appeared, and was for a long period an especial favourite 
 with the public. Carey's separate songs and cantatas are 
 innumerable. His burlesque birthday odes turned the odes of 
 Gibber into ridicule as etlectually as Pope's Dunciad could do. 
 In the latter part of his life Carey collected his scattered songs, 
 and published them in folio under the title of " The Musical 
 Century," 1737—40. His last publication was a collected edition 
 of his dramatic works, which was printed in 1743 in quarto, 
 with a long list of subscribers. He died Oct. 4, 1743, at his house 
 in Warner Street, Coldbath-Fields. It is generally said that 
 "he put a period to a life, which had been led without reproach, 
 when at the advanced age of eighty, by suicide." But this seems 
 not to have been the fact. In the Daily Post of October 5, 
 1743, we read — " Yesterday morning Mr. H. Carey, well known 
 to the musical world for his droll compositions, got out of bed 
 from his wife in perfect health, and was soon after found dead. 
 He has left sis children behind him." On November 17, of the 
 same year, the performance at Drury Lane was for the benefit 
 of " the widow and fom- small childi-en of the late H. Carey." 
 His age at the period of his decease was probably about fifty- 
 five. It has been observed of Carey that " as a poet, he w;is 
 the last of that class of which D'Urfey was the first ; with this 
 diflference, that in all the songs and poems written by him on 
 wine, love, and such kind of subjects, he seems to have mani- 
 fested an inviolable regard for decency and good manners." This 
 remark is not quite accurate. Dibdiu was the last of that order 
 of poets of which D'Urfey was the first. — (^Hawkins; Burney ; 
 and original soiu^ces.) — E. F. R. 
 
 CAREY, Matthew, who became eminent in America as a 
 book-publisher, author, and philanthropist, was born in Dublin, 
 Ireland, January 28, 1760. After receiving a common English 
 education, he was apprenticed, at his own earnest request, to a 
 piinter, though his father's circumstances were such that he 
 
 might have aimed at some higher occupation. At the age of 
 seventeen, he wrote an essay against duels, and when but little 
 more mature, he pubhshed a pamphlet on the wrongs endured 
 by the Irish catholics. This was denounced as treasonable in the 
 Irish parliament, and the writer was obliged to fly for safety to 
 France, where he remained a year, being employed for most of 
 the time by Dr. Franklin, who had a small printing-office at 
 Passy for the convenience of printing his despatches and other 
 papers. Returning to Dublin after the noise excited by his 
 pamphlet had died away, he began in 1783 to publish the 
 Freemaii's Jownal, a newspaper afterwards described by himself 
 " as enthusiastic and ^lent," and which soon procured him the 
 honour of imprisonment in Newgate by order of parliament, 
 and a prosecution for libel on one of the ministry. Parliament 
 adjourned for a few weeks, and he was then necessarily released ; 
 but to avoid trial on the other complaint, it was thought best 
 that he should emigrate to America. Disguised in a female dress 
 to escape the notice of the police, he embarked, and was landed 
 in Philadelphia in November, 1784, with only a few guineas in 
 his pocket. Fortunately, while in France he had become slightly 
 acquainted with Lafayette, who now kindly recommended him to 
 his friends, and lent him, without solicitation, 400 dollars to 
 enable him to set up a newspaper. Accordingly, in January, 
 1785, he began to publish the Pennsylvania Herald, which had 
 great success, because it contained, what was then a new thing 
 in America, a full account, reported by hmiself, of the debates in 
 the assembly. He afterwards began successively two monthly 
 magazines ; one of which, the American Museum, was continued 
 for six years. In 1791 Mr. Carey began his career as a bookseller 
 and publisher, in which he was afterwards so eminently successful. 
 The noted William Cobbett was then pouring forth his political 
 diatribes in Philadelphia under the name of Peter Porcupine ; and 
 Mr. Carey, nothing loath, entered into a fierce newspaper and 
 pamphlet warfare with him, and showed himself no contemptible 
 adversary of this gi-eat master of personal invective. In 1814 he 
 wrote and published the "Olive Branch," a volume intended, "by 
 a candid publication of the faults and errors of both sides, to calm 
 the embittered feelings of the political parties." It strack the 
 right note at the right time, and had extraordinaiy success. In 
 1818 it was followed by " Vindiciaj Hibcrnica;," pronounced by 
 high authority to be the best vindication of Ireland that was ever 
 written. Mr. Carey then began his vindication of the American 
 system of protecting domestic manufactm'es, and continued it 
 for many years Ln a series which finally numbered fifty-nme 
 distinct publications, forming by far the best and most suc- 
 cessful plea ever published in America for protective duties, 
 and the encouragement of native industry. Among his later 
 pubhcations were an autobiogi-aphy contributed to the Neiv Eng- 
 land Magazine, and the "Philosophy of Common Sense." His 
 business had now long been prosperous, and he had accumulated 
 a large fortune, which was chiefly gratifpng as it enabled him to 
 indulge his charitable dLsposition. As a practical philanthropist, 
 brave, munificent, and discreet, his adopted country is under 
 lasting obligations to him. Few have ever done more good, or 
 in a more disinterested and unostentatious manner. He was an 
 untu'ing advocate of popular education, and a bold reformer of 
 municipal abuses — laboming effectually to cairy out the greatest 
 good of the greatest nmuber. His personid charities he reduced 
 to system, by forming a long list of objects of benevolence, to 
 whom he administered aid once a fortnight. At the age of 
 eighty he met with an accident, being overturned in his car- 
 riage ; and though the injmy seemed slight at first, it hastened 
 his death, which took place September 17, 1840. His funeral 
 was one of the largest ever seen in Philadelphia. — Henry C. 
 Cakey, son of Matthew Carey, and his successor in the book- 
 selling and publishing business, as well as in the advocacy of the 
 American system of protecting domestic industry, was bom in 
 Philadelphia in 1793. From the time of his father's retirement 
 in 1821, he conducted successfully the affairs of one of the 
 largest publishing houses in America till the period of his own 
 withdrawal, with a competent fortune, in 1838. Since that 
 time he has been a diligent and effective writer upon subjects of 
 political economy. — F. B. 
 
 CAREY, William, D.D., the founder of the baptist mission 
 in India, and a distinguished oriental scholar, was bom at 
 Paulerspuiy, Northamptonshire, 17th August, 17G1. Having 
 received a scanty education at a free-school, taught by his 
 father, he was, when only fourteen years of age, apprenticed to
 
 CAR 
 
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 I 
 
 a shoemaker at Hackleton. In 1783 he joined the baptist 
 communion and began preaching, and three years later was 
 diosen pastor of a congregation at Moulton, where, however, 
 ho liad still to labour at his trade to win a scanty support 
 for his fomily, for he had by this time married. Nevertheless, 
 he found time to acquire a knowledge of Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew, and to prepare for niissionaiy labour in distant lands. 
 He prepared u rude outline map, which he hung upon the 
 wall of his workshop, and on which he was in the habit of 
 making notes concerning the population, religion, and manners of 
 various countries. In 1787 he removed to the pastorate of 
 a congregation in Leicester, where he employed his extended 
 influence to excite an interest in the state of the heathen. The 
 result was that a meeting of his brother minist^s, among whom 
 were Robert Hall, Fuller, and Ryland, was held at Kettering, 
 Northamptonshire, October 2, 1792, when they formed them- 
 selves into a Baptist Missionary Society. They chose India as 
 the field of labour, and Carey as their first missionary. Early 
 in 1794 he landed in Bengal with his wife and family. He had 
 to encounter early disaster, for all that he had provided for the 
 establishment and support of the mission was lost by the 
 upsetting of a boat on the Hooghly. Thus deprived of the 
 means of subsistence, and desolate in a strange land, Carey and 
 his party proceeded in an open boat, till about forty miles east of 
 Calcutta they found refuge at Dehatta, the residence of Charles 
 Short, Esq. Mr. Cai'ey soon obtained a situation as manager of 
 an indigo factory near Malda. He did not, however, lose sight of 
 his gi-eat work, but erected a school near the factory, where he 
 also preached in the language of the country on two days every 
 week, making occasional journeys into neighbouring districts to 
 prepare the way for missionary labour, when he should be joined 
 by assistants from England. When these came, however, the 
 East India Company refused them peraiission to settle, because 
 they foncied the operations of the mission were in violation of 
 the treaties they had made with the native governments. Mr. 
 Carey, therefore, resolved to avail himself of the protection of the 
 Danish governor. Colonel Bie, and removed in 1799 to Seram- 
 pore, where, with ^Messrs. Ward, !Marshman, and Fomitain, he 
 opened schools, began preaching, and established a printing- 
 press. Early and marked success attended these varied labours. 
 Mr. Carey's fame as an oriental scholar became so great, that in 
 1801 he was appointed by JIarquis Wellesley to the chair of 
 Sanscrit, Bengalhee, and Mahratta, in the new college at Fort- 
 William. In 1805 he began to preach with great success in 
 the Loll bazaar at Calcutta ; but in the, following year, on 
 the breaking out of the Vellore mutiny, which was foolishly 
 attributed to animosity against the missionaries, oi'ders were 
 is.sued by the Bengal council that their labours should cease. 
 They still, however, found protection and encouragement in the 
 Danish settlements, and ere long were able to resume opera- 
 tions even in the territory of the company, the true cause of 
 the mutmy having come to light. In 1814 they had twenty 
 stations ; and in the following year the new charter act came 
 into operation, which gave a legal sanction to their exertions as 
 schoolmasters and teachers. lu 1805 Mr. Carey received the 
 degi-ee of D.D. from a British university, and in 180G was 
 elected a member of the Asiatic Society. From about this 
 time till his death on .June 9, 1834, he continued to prosecute 
 his missionary and philological labours with uninteniipted and 
 increasing success. The extent of Dr. Carey's acquirements as 
 a student of eastern languages, may be gathered from the tact, 
 that he pubhshed a Mahratta gi-ammar, 1805 ; a Sanscrit 
 grannnar, 1806; a Mahratta dictionaiy, 1810; a Pamjabee 
 grannnar, 1812 ; a Felingee grammar, 1814; the "Eaymayana," 
 in the original text, three vols. 4to, 1806-1810 ; a Bengalhee 
 dictionary, 1818 ; a Bhotanta dictionaiy, 1826 ; and, with the 
 assistance of Dr. JLirshman, a grammar of the same language. 
 From the Serampore press there issued dming his lifetime, edi- 
 tions of the scriptures in the dialects of more than forty tribes, 
 comprising nearly 200,000,000 of Inmian beings. Dr. Carey 
 had also no mean disthiction as a man of science, from his 
 researches into the botany of the East. — J. B. 
 
 CARGILL, Donald, one of the foremost of Scotland's noble 
 army of martyrs. He was minister of the Barony parish of 
 Glasgow at the restoration of Charles XL in 16G0. Ilis refusing 
 to observe a day of thanksgiving for the Ilestoration, which no 
 presbyterian could consistently do, exposed him to the fierce 
 opposition of the civil power ; he was forbidden to preach, and 
 
 sentence of banishment was passed on him as a rebel. In spite of 
 these tyrannical acts, however, he continued to proclaim the gospel 
 whenever an opportunity offered. He took part with Richard 
 Cameron in the Sanquhar Declaration in 1680. After that 
 dauntless witness for truth and liberty fell, Cargill was one of 
 the most distinguished in bearing aloft the banner of the cove- 
 nant. He had the courage to pronounce in due form sentence 
 of ecclesiastical excommunication on the king and a number of 
 his associates among the nobility. This is known in history as 
 the Torwood Excommunication, from the place in Stirlingshire 
 where it occuiTed. The act, however much censured, has 
 this to be said in its defence, that it was only too well 
 merited by the character and conduct of those on whom it fell. 
 After many remarkable escapes, Cargill was at length appre- 
 hended by his pursuers, was carried to Edinburgh, tried, and 
 condemned to the gallows. He was, accordingly, along with 
 some others, executed at the cross of Edinburgh in 1681. His 
 behaviour at the scaffold, his dying speech and testimony, and 
 some letters addressed to friends, bear ample and touching wit- 
 ness to the lofty piety, the ardent zeal, and the uncompromising 
 fidelity of the venerable martyr. — (See Scots Worthies ; Cloud 
 of Witnesses ; Hind Let Loose ; Biographia Preshyteriana ; 
 Wodrow's History, &c.)— W. S. 
 
 CARGILL, James, a Scotch physician and botanist, resided 
 at Aberdeen during the sixteenth centuiy. He studied botany 
 and anatomy at Basle during the time that Caspar Bauhin held 
 the professorship of those sciences, for whom a chair was first 
 created in that city in 1589. Bauhin mentions Dr. Cargill as 
 one who transmitted seeds and specimens to him. Gcsner and 
 Lobel also acknowledge his services, and the latter speaks ot 
 him as a philosopher, and as well skilled in the sciences of 
 botany and anatomy. He appears to have been alive in 1603, 
 when he sent specimens of fucus (laminaria) digitatus to 
 Bauhin. He has not left anv writings. — J. H. B. 
 
 CARIBERT or CHAEIBERT, I. and II. See Merovin- 
 
 SIAXS. 
 
 CARIBERT or HARIBERT, eldest son of Clothaire I., lived 
 in the sixth century. On the division of the dommions of Clo- 
 thaire, at the death of that monarch in 561, Caribert had for his 
 share the kingdom of Paris. He afterwards obtained some other 
 towns, among which were Avranches and Marseilles. He died 
 near Bourdeaux about the year 567. 
 
 CARIBERT or CHARIBERT, son of Clothah-e II., and 
 younger brother of Dagobert, whom he obliged to cede to him 
 the realm of Aquitaine. He died in the year 631. 
 
 CARIBERT or CHAROBERT, son of Charies Martel, king 
 of Naples and Hungarj-, born at Naples about 1292 ; died iu 
 1342. His succession to the throne of Hungary having been 
 disputed by Wenccslaus, f'om-th king of Bohemia, Pope Boniface 
 VIII. summoned the rival princes to plead before his tribunal, 
 and by a bull dated 30th May, 1303, decided in favom- of Cari- 
 bert, who, during a long and flourishing reign, greatly extended 
 by conquest and diplomacy the frontiers of the kingdom. 
 
 CARIGNANO. The name of a branch of the royal house of 
 Savoy, which ultimately succeeded to the throne of Sardinia. 
 It took its name from Carignano, a small town in the province 
 of Turin. The first prince of Carignano was Thomas Francis, 
 son of Charles Emmanuel I., duke of Savoy. He was born in 
 1596, and at the age of sixteen gave sign.al proofs of courage 
 and ability in the Italian war which his father waged against 
 the Spaniards. In consequence of the hostility of Cardinal 
 Richelieu, he abandoned the French and joined the Spanish 
 interest, and gained considerable advantages over the French 
 and their allies the Dutch. His ambition excited gi-eat troubles 
 in Savoy during the minority of his nephew, but ultimately 
 peace was established through the mediation of the pope, 
 Urban VIII., and Carignano obtained the commission of lieuten- 
 ant-general of the French and Piedmontese army. The great 
 Turenne served under him when Asti and Trino were taken from 
 the Spaniards. The favour of Cardinal Mazarin obtained for 
 the prince the office of high-steward of France, in the room of 
 the prince of Conde, who had been declared guilty of treason. 
 He died at Turin in 1656. His grandson, Victor AmAoeus, 
 who died in 1741, was lieutenant-general of the armies of 
 France and Savoy. A grandson of tliis prince, bearing the same 
 name, was a lieutenant-general in the service of France, and died 
 in 1780, and Charles Alrert, his grandson (see Charles 
 Albert), ascended the throne of Sardinia, on the failure of the 
 
 i
 
 
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 901 
 
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 maiu branch of the house of Savoy in 1831, in the person of 
 Charles Felix. — J. T. 
 
 CARILLO D'ACUNHA, Alfonso, a Portuguese of the 
 fifteenth century, who became known in Spanish history. In 
 1446 he became archbishop of Toledo, and rose to be minister 
 of state to Henry IV., king of Castile, against whom he led a 
 band of rebels, who, though defeated, and condemned by the 
 pope, at length succeeded in compelling Henry to sign a treaty, 
 declaring his daughter Jane illegitimate, and the celebrated 
 Isabella, his sister, heiress to the throne. He afterwards 
 deserted the interest of Isabella, and became the champion of 
 the princess against whom he had before intrigued; but he 
 failed, and was compelled to retire into a convent at Alcala, where 
 he died in 1482.— J. B. 
 
 CARIXUS, Marcus Aurelics, a Eoman emperor, associated 
 with his father Carus in the government a.d. 283, and raised 
 to the throne conjointly with his brother Numerianus in the 
 following year, was assassinated by his own officers at the battle 
 of Margum, 285. He was one of the most cruel and profligate 
 of the Roman emperors. 
 
 CARISSIJII, GiACOMO, a musician, was bom at Padua (some 
 say at Venice) about 1582, and died, most likely at Rome, 
 about 1672. In 1649, according to the statement of Kiixher, 
 who was his intimate friend, Carissimi held the office of maestro 
 di capella at the chmxh of S. Apollinari in the German college 
 at Rome. Further than this nothing is known of his personal 
 history. There is no valid ground for the assertion that he 
 lived and wrote for some years at Paris, and Baini's valuable 
 account of the pontifical chapel disproves the statement that 
 Carissimi was once a member of that establishment. He lived 
 to the advanced age of ninety, was greatly honoured by his con- 
 temporaries, and died in affluence. This composer importantly 
 aided the progi-ess of music by his development of recitative, 
 wliich was originated in his own time by Caccini; but though 
 Peri, Monteverdi, and Cavaliere, also wrote in this fonn before 
 Carissimi, his is the merit of ha\ing first brought it to maturity. 
 He, too, was the first who wrote cantatas on sacred subjects. 
 This style of composition, an alternation of recitative and rhyth- 
 mical melody, had already been employed for secular subjects by 
 Barbara Strozze, but the merit of his productions established it 
 in general esteem. He was one of the earliest who ■\\Tote for 
 string instruments in ecclesiastical music, showing thus, in all 
 he did, a tendency to break through the trammels of the old 
 Roman school ; and though little of his music is now known, 
 his influence upon art is still in operation. The imperial library 
 at Paris contains JISS, of many oratorios by Carissimi, one of 
 which, " Jephtha," is esteemed his masterpiece. There are also 
 a large number of motets, and some comic pieces of con- 
 siderable humour. A series of twenty-two of his cantatas was 
 published in London at the beginning of the last century ; there 
 are some works in MS. by him in the British museum ; the 
 raost extensive collection of his music, however, is that pre- 
 sented by Dean Aldrich to the Christ Church library at Oxford, 
 who also adapted several pieces of this master, as anthems, to 
 English words. The most accessible specimen of his talent is 
 "Perorate, filiae Israel," a chorus in his " Jephtha," which Handel 
 appropriated to the words " Hear, Jacob's God," in the oratorio 
 of Samson. Carissimi bequeathed his flowing unlaboured style 
 to his pupils, the most distinguished of whom were Bassani, 
 M. A. Bononcini, Cesti, and A. Scarlatti. — G. A. M. 
 
 CARL, JoHANx Samuel, German physician and naturalist, 
 bom at ffihringen, principality of Hohenlohe, in 1676. He studied 
 at Halle in Saxony under Hoffman and Stahl. He filled several 
 important public situations, and finally was appointed first 
 physician to Christian VI. of Denmark. His works are numerous, 
 and on various medical and scientific subjects. He was the 
 first to notice that fossil bones do not yield a volatile alkali 
 by distillation, as recent bones are found to do. His medical 
 works are remarkable for advanced views on the laws of hygiene, 
 especially on the connection between mind and body. — J. B., G. 
 
 CARLE, PiEKKE, a French engineer, i)orn in 1666 ; died in 
 1730. He quitted France at the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, entered the sei-vice of William III. of England, and was 
 actively engaged in the war which was ended by the peace of 
 Ryswick. On one occasion William signified his confidence in 
 tlie abilities of the Frenchman in a manner offensive to his 
 generals. At a council of war, the king terminated a long .and 
 acrimonious discussion by saying — "We shall follow the counsel 
 
 of the lame fellow," meaning Carle. Ciirle served also in the 
 war of the succession m Spain. His last years were devoted to 
 agiiculture. 
 
 * CAKLEN, Emilie, born SJIITH, a Swedish novelist, born 
 in 1807, and widow of a country medical practitioner — Flygere 
 — -vvho died in 1833. In 1841 she married J. G. Carlen, a 
 Swedish lawyer and author, and is now one of the most pro- 
 ductive and universally read of all the novelists of her country. 
 Whilst yet at school she wrote novels ; but it was omng to the 
 extreme poverty to which she was reduced, after the death ot 
 her first husband, that in 1838 she published her first and very 
 popidar work, " Valdemar Klein," anonymously. From the 
 publication of this first work to the .year 1853, she has pro- 
 duced twenty-four separate works, amongst which may be named 
 — " Professoni och hans skyddslingar," 1846 ; " Rosen pa 
 Tistelon," 1842 ; " Biixden pa Omberg," 1845 ; " En nat vid 
 Bullarsjon," 1847; " Formyndaren," 1851; "Inom Sex Veckor," 
 1853; many of which, if not the greater number, have been 
 translated into German, Danish, and Enghsh. The son of her 
 first marriage, Edward Flygeke, magister at the university 
 of Upsala, also a promising novelist, was unfortunately cut off by 
 death in 1852, since which time, his mother, who was deeply 
 attached to him, has not written anything. — M. H. 
 
 CARLETON, Sir Dudley, afterwards Lord Dorchester, 
 an English statesman in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., 
 was bom in 1573. He sat in James' first parHament. After dis- 
 charging some less important embassies, he was sent as ambas- 
 sador to the states-general of Holland, an office which he held 
 from 1616 to 1628. He was the last English minister who sat 
 in the council of state for the United Provinces. In the disputes 
 between the Anninians and Gomarists, he embraced the cause of 
 the latter, who were headed by Prince Maurice. On the death 
 of his patron, the diike of Buckingham, Lord Dorchester was 
 appointed by Charles I., secretai-y of state, an office which he held 
 till his death in 1631. The letters to and from Sii- Dudley 
 Carleton, during the first part of his embassy in Holland, were 
 published by the earl of Hardwick in 1757. — J. B. 
 
 CARLETON, George, an English divine and voluminous 
 writer of the 17th century, was born at Norham in Northumber- 
 land, where his father was governor of the castle. He studied 
 at Edmvmd hall, Oxford, took his master's degree in 1585, and 
 became doctor of divinity in 1613. In 1618 he was consecrated 
 bishop of Llandaff, and in the same year sent by King James I., 
 with four other divines, to attend the synod of Dort, where he 
 so ably defended episcopacy that on his return he was promoted 
 to the see of Chichester, where he died in 1628. In addition to 
 a large number of independent works on various subjects, he took 
 part in preparing the Dutch annotations and the new translation 
 of the bible, undertaken by order of the synod of Dort. — J. B. 
 
 CARLETON, George, Captain, an English officer who 
 was employed in various negotiations by James II., and sened 
 in the war of the succession in Spain, under Lord Peterborough. 
 He died about 1740. The interesting work entitled " Jlemoirs 
 of an English Officer who served in the Dutch War in 1692," 
 &c., by Captain George Carleton, has been sometimes attributed 
 to Defoe, but on gi-ounds that recent research has rendered 
 extremely doubtful. — J. T. 
 
 CARLETON, Sir Guy, afterwards Lord Dorchester, a 
 British general distinguished in the American war, was born at 
 Strabane in Ireland in 1724. Having done good sen-ice in 
 Canada, he was raised in 1772 to be governor of Quebec, and 
 when the American war broke out in 1775, he bravely defended 
 the to^^•n, and repulsed the besieging force under Generals Mont- 
 gomeiy and Arnold. He then prepared for offensive operations, 
 and in 1776 defeated Arnold's force on Lake Champlaiu, and 
 took possession of Crownpoint. In the next year the command 
 of the Canadian armament being unaccomitably given to General 
 Burgoyne, Carleton resigned his government; but in 1781 he 
 was appointed to .succeed Sir Henry Clinton as commander-in- 
 cliief in America, where he remained till the close of the war. 
 In 1786 he was reappointed governor of Quebec, Nova Scotia, 
 and New Brunswick, and raised to the peerage. After some 
 years he returned to England, and died 10th Nov., 1808. — J. B. 
 
 CARLETON, Richard, an English priest and compo.ser of 
 madrigals in the reign of Elizabeth. Nothing seems to be known 
 of his biography. He published " Madrigals to Five Voyces" in 
 1601, dedicated to Thomas Farmer, Esq., of Nori'olk ; and 
 contributed one of the compositions to Morley's celebrated
 
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 902 
 
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 publication, in honour of the " vii-gin queen," the Triumphs of 
 Oriana. He appears to have graduated Mus. Bac. at Oxford. 
 — (Piimbault's Bibliotheca Madrigaliana.^ — E. F. R. 
 
 * CARLP2T0N, William, an Irish novehst, well known for 
 his unrivalled delineations of the habits and character of his 
 countrymen, was born at Prillisk in the comity of Tyrone. His 
 parents were of the class known as small farmers. He received 
 his education at one of those schools which he afterwards immor- 
 talized by the well-known tale entitled the "Abduction of Mat 
 Kavanagh." His father and mother were both persons who, if 
 not well educated, were at least better informed than most of 
 their class, and seem to have been possessed of mental gifts, 
 which, in another station, and with other culture, might have 
 rendered thera remarkable. The former was gifted with a 
 memory of sucli marvellous gi"asp, that it is said he could repeat 
 the greater part of the bible " by heart." He was also a reper- 
 tory of legendary lore, and could tell tales and sing songs from 
 Christmas to Christmas. His mother was noted for her beautiful 
 voice, and her powers in the wild Ossianic poetry of the Caoine. 
 William was intended for a priest, and accordingly commenced 
 the studies necessary to fit him for entering Maynooth. He has 
 given to the world an interesting and humorous picture of himself 
 at this period of his life in the story of " Denis O'Shaughnessy 
 going to Maynooth," a character which has all the freshness and 
 firmness of touch of a study from natiu-e. At this critical 
 period of his career his father died, and, with a fuller liberty, 
 came a change of purpose. For reasons that can only be sm-- 
 mised, he abandoned all thoughts of the priesthood, and some 
 years afterwards he left the Roman catholic church, and joined 
 the church of England. Of a volatile and imaginative tempera- 
 ment, he was led to take the first independent step in life by 
 the wafting of a feather. Chance threw in his way a copy of Gil 
 Bias, which so worked upon his fancy that he determined to 
 seek his fortune, and, full of the hopeful errantry of youth, left 
 his native vale to battle with the world. His first effort at 
 independence produced a veij sombre result. He obtained a 
 situation as tutor at a miserable salary in a fanner's house. 
 Here his chivalry pined over strips of spelling, and languished 
 over " Vosther." It rose against them at last. He resigned the 
 ungenial occupation in disgust, and started for Dublin, where 
 he found himself, without any definite plan in his head, and with 
 two-and-ninepence in his pocket. Some years more elapsed, 
 which were devoted to the uncongenial labours of a tutor ; but 
 disciplined by hardship and heavy experience, he now patiently 
 submitted to that toil from which the sanguine youth had 
 revolted. In Dubhn he was introduced to the Rev. Caisar 
 Otway, at whose suggestion he wrote the " Lough Derg Pilgrim," 
 which appeared in the Christian Examiner^ and attracted general 
 notice. This sketch was followed by " Father Butler," which 
 evidences the same graphic touch. In 1829 appeared the first 
 series of the " Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry," which 
 was followed in 1832 by the second series of the same. These 
 sketches are masterpieces of art, and stories of inimitable fun : 
 they are fresh and forcible because the author wrote what he had 
 seen and felt before thought and feeling had become venal. He 
 has continued his literary career ever since, with varied success. 
 He became a regular contributor to the Dublin University 
 Magazine, in which many of his best stories have appeared. 
 In attempting to depict the life of the more wealthy classes he 
 has been less successful, as might naturally be expected. Some 
 of his novels exhibit singular power and skill. A finer or more 
 striking work of fiction than "The Miser" has rarely appeared. 
 This book is further interesting as giving an accurate description 
 of Ribbonism as it existed in Ireland some years ago. In the 
 " Black Prophet," a tale of the famine, he has portrayed the Irish 
 female character with matchless strength and pathos. — W. W. 
 
 CARLI, Giovanni Giuolamo, an eminent philosopher and 
 biographer, born near Siena ; became professor of eloquence, 
 first at CoUe in Tuscany, then at Gubbio in the papal dominions, 
 where he was so much respected and beloved by the inhabit- 
 ants as to be frequently employed in important public affairs. 
 Returning to Siena he accepted the secretaryship of the academy. 
 He subsequently removed to Mantua, where he was created 
 perpetual secretary of the academy of arts. There he wrote 
 the greater numbc^r of his scientific and literary works. Of 
 these many are inedited. Carli published translations of elegies 
 from Tibullus, Propertius, and Albinovanus, and several valuable 
 biographies. He died at Florence in 1505. — A. C. JI. 
 
 CARLI, Giovanni Rinaldo, Count de, commonly called 
 Cakli-Rubbi, one of the most prolific writers of the eighteenth 
 century, was bom at Capo dTstria in 1720, and died in 1795. 
 Such was the precocity of his intellect, that before he had com- 
 pleted his twentieth year he was admitted a member of a 
 learned academy for having, by various publications, advanced 
 the sciences of philology, archa?ology, mathematics, and astro- 
 nomy. To his skill in these branches of knowledge, he added 
 a considerable mastery over the dramatic art, which he had 
 cultivated almost from his infancy, publishing in his twelfth year 
 a drama to which, in his old age, he often aUuded with com- 
 placency. In his twenty -fourth year he was elected professor of 
 astronomy and of nautical science by the Venetian senate, who 
 had to thank him for the zeal with which he discharged the 
 duties of the office. He con-esponded with the most eminent 
 savants of Italy, took part in all the leading questions, pohtical 
 as well as scientific, of his day, and enjoyed the double honours 
 of philosopher and poet. Upon the death of his wife, who left 
 him a large fortune, he resigned his chau- at Venice, retired to 
 Istria with the naturalist Donati, and occupied himself with 
 archaeological pursuits ; the results of which, particularly his 
 discover}' of the amphitheatre of Pola, he gave to the world in 
 dissertations of remarkable elegance. Having transferred a cloth 
 manufactory left by his wife to the neighbourhood of his resi- 
 dence, he undertook the superintendence of the business, and lost 
 his entire fortune. In 1771, to compensate him for this dis- 
 aster, he was named by the government of Austria president of 
 the council of finance established at !Milan. His great work on 
 Italian antiquities appeared in 1788. — A. C. M. 
 
 CARLINGFORD, Theobald Taafe, Eari of, was distin- 
 guished for the active part which he took with Lord Clanricarde 
 in 1639 in suppressing the disturbances in Ireland, where he 
 undertook to raise 2000 men to support the royal cause, and the 
 lord-lieutenant granted him a commission to levy troops, with 
 which he besieged and took several gamsons. He accompanied 
 Ormonde into Westmeath, and was constituted general of the 
 province of Munster in 1G16. After the surrender of Cahir to 
 Lord Inchiquin, Taafe retired with his army from Cashel, and 
 subsequently encountered Inchiquin's forces at Knocknoness, 
 where, notwithstanding great personal bravery, the English 
 troops were routed. On Inchiquin's giving his allegiance to the 
 king, he was joined by Taafe, who, though he had reason to 
 complain of a preference shown to Lord Castlehaven, yet con- 
 tinued his arduous efforts in the king's cause. He was soon 
 after made master of the ordnance. Taafe went to Paris in 
 order to raise a loan, and succeeded in obtaining £5000 to buy 
 arms and ammunition. In Cromwell's act of parliament for the 
 settlement of Ireland, Taafe was excepted from pardon for fife 
 and estate, but after the Restoration he was reinstated in his 
 property, and in June, 1662, was created Earl of Carlingford, 
 with a grant of £4000 a year. He died in 1677.— J. F. W. 
 
 CARLISLE, Earls of. The first person who bore this title 
 was Andrew de Hartcla, warden of the marches, a distin- 
 guished soldier in the Scottish wars. The earldom was con- 
 ferred on him by Edward I., along with immense estates, for bis 
 victory over the rebel earl of Lancaster at Boroughbridge ; but 
 he was subsequently convicted of treason and executed in 1322. 
 After the lapse of more than three centuries, the earldom of 
 Carlisle was re^■ived, and conferred upon a branch of the great 
 house of Howard, descended from " Belted Will," famous in 
 border tradition and song. — (See Lay of the Last Minstrel.) 
 
 Carlisle, Frederick, fifth earl of, bom in 1748, was dis- 
 tinguished both as a statesman and a poet. He was appointed 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1780, and for several years took an 
 active part in parliamentary discussions. He mixed largely in 
 the gay world, to the serious detriment of his estate, and was the 
 friend of Selwyn, Fox, and other leaders of fashion. — (See Hay- 
 ward's George Selwyn, his Life and Times.') Lord Carlisle was 
 the author of a number of fugitive pieces of poetry, and of two 
 tragedies, "The Father's Revenge," and "Bellamere." But his 
 poetical reputation has suffered serious injury from the unjust 
 and acrimonious attack of Lord Byron in his English Bards 
 and Scotch Reviewers, for which, however, his lordship subse- 
 quently made a beautiful atonement in the third canto of Childe 
 Harold. Lord Cariisle died in 1826. 
 
 Carlisle, George, sixth earl of, born in 1773 ; died in 
 1848 ; was employed in various diplomatic services, and was 
 a member of Canning's government in 1827. — J. T.
 
 CAR 
 
 903 
 
 CAR 
 
 * Carlisle, George William Frederick Howard, 
 seventh earl of; an English statesman, or rather public man, 
 whose rare urbanity, and many corresponding qualities of heart, 
 have rendered him a favourite with all parties and all classes of 
 men. Lord Cai-lisle was born in London on the 18th April, 
 1802. Known then as Lord Morpeth, he greatly distinguished 
 himself at Oxford by his fine scholarship. Soon after quitting 
 the university he became an attache of the embassy of St. 
 Petersburg. He entered parliament in 1826, representing suc- 
 cessively the town of Morpeth and the West Riding of York- 
 shire. • He lost his seat for the latter very important district 
 during the early struggles regarding the com- laws, solely because 
 of his attachment to the now triumphant doctrines of free-trade. 
 Lord Carlisle has always been a pleasing and most acceptable 
 speaker, the good sense forming the matter of his address being 
 commended by the com-tesy and candour of his manners, and 
 the conviction of his hearers that the speaker is thoroughly 
 sincere. He has held important offices under the various Whig 
 governments. He has been chief-secretary for Ireland, com- 
 missioner of woods and forests, chancellor of the duchy of Lan- 
 caster; and in 1855 Lord Palmerston selected him as his Irish 
 viceroy. Lord Carlisle's defect as a statesman, is the absence of 
 a certain rough vigour — he cannot say, Xo. Probably, also, he 
 lacks ambition. It may be that his natural tastes are rather lite- 
 rary than political. His essay on Pope (originally a lecture read 
 to a mechanics' institution) is exceedingly creditable, evincing, 
 if not the profoundest appreciation, at least a highly cultivated 
 taste. His " Diary in Turkish and Greek Waters" has interested 
 multitudes of readers ; and recent as well as impending events, 
 will probably reconcile many to the opinions expressed in that 
 volume as to the certain and approaching fall of the Ottoman 
 empire. Influenced, it would appear, by these forebodings, his 
 lordship has recently wrought out and printed a poetical para- 
 phrase and commentary on the Book of Daniel. It is no disgrace 
 to him that, where many harder heads than his have not suc- 
 ceeded, he has utterly failed. His assertion, inter alia, that the 
 authenticity of this much-disputed book has never been ques- 
 tioned, curiously manifests the state of knowledge prevailing in 
 England regarding existing biblical criticism. It scarcely requires 
 to be remarked that his lordihip has been throughout a consist- 
 ent Liberal — certainly not more on account of party ties or 
 family connections, than in obedience to the essential liberality 
 of an amiable, free, and generous nature. He travelled through 
 America, that he might see personally the workings of its 
 institutions; and even although his strong opinions regarding 
 slavery were never concealed, his name is nowhere mentioned in 
 the States he visited, but with respect and affection. — J. P. N. 
 
 CARLISLE, AxxE. This English lady painted portraits 
 very dexterously, and, according to Walpole, had a repute for her 
 copies of Italian works. She died about 1680. She was greatly 
 favoured by Charles I., who presented her with more than =£200 
 worth of ultramarine, a fitting tribute to a b?ue. She probably 
 painted in oil as well as in miniature. — W. T. 
 
 CARLISLE, Sir A>thont, a distinguished surgeon, bom 
 near Durham in the year 1768 ; died in London on the 2nd 
 November, 1840. The early part of his medical education was 
 carried on first at York, and afterwards at Durham, under Mr. 
 Green, the founder of the hospital in that city. He afterwards 
 went to London and entered as a pupil at the Westminster 
 hospital under !Mr. Watson, then surgeon there. On the death 
 of Mr. Watson in 1793, Mr. Carlisle was appointed his 
 successor. He was very early elected on the council of the 
 College of Surgeons, and was for many years a member of 
 the examining board, and one of the curators of the Hunterian 
 museum. He also held the appointment of professor of anatomy 
 and surgery, and in 1829 became president of the college. He 
 was surgeon to George IV. when he was prince regent, who 
 conferred knighthood upon him at the first levee he held after 
 he became king. In 1808 he succeeded Mr. Sheldon as pro- 
 fessor of anatomy to the Royal Academy, which office he held 
 for sixteen years. Sir Anthony Carlisle was, when a young man, 
 in intimate and frequent communication with John Hunter. His 
 early literary productions were chiefly on subjects connected with 
 the studies to which he was introduced by that great m.aster of 
 comparative anatomy. In 1793 he wrote a paper on a case of 
 an unusual formation in a part of the brain ; and in 1794 con- 
 tributed to the Transactions of the Linnajan Society, " Obser- 
 vations upon the structure and economy of those intestinal worms 
 
 called Taeniae." In 1800 he was elected a fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and contributed a paper to the Philosophical Transac- 
 tions of that year, entitled " An account of a peculiar arrange- 
 ment in the Arteries distributed on the JIuscles of Slow-moving 
 Animals." There are several other contributions of his in the 
 same Transactions. In 1804 he gave the Croonian lecture on 
 muscular motion. To medical literature Sir Anthony Carlisle 
 made many contributions — " On the Nature of Corns and their 
 Cure ; " " A new method of applying the Tourniquet ;" " Ou 
 the general and indiscriminate use of Bougies ; " " I^etter to 
 Sir Gilbert Blane on Blisters, Rubefacients, and Escharotics," 
 giving an account of the employment of an instrument adapted 
 to transmit a defined degree of heat to effect those several 
 purposes. In 1817 he published a large work entitled " Essays 
 on the Disorders of Old Age, and the means of prolonging 
 Human Life;" a second edition was published in 1818. Many 
 contributions by him to other branches of literature stUl exist, 
 on plants, antiquities, and one of the most worthy of notice on 
 "Galvanic Electricity," in NlchoIson^s Journal, in which he was 
 the first to point out the fact that water might be decomposed 
 by the galvanic battery. — E. L. 
 
 CARLOJIAN : the name of some French princes of early 
 date, of whom we notice— Carlojiax I., the eldest son of 
 Charles Martel, and brother of Pepin le-Bref, who was for many 
 years sovereign of Anstrasia, Suabia, and Thuringia. He died 
 at Yienne in Dauphine in 755. — Carlomax, second son ot 
 Pepin le-Bref, a younger brother of Charlemagne, bom about 
 751. On the death of his father, he received as his share of 
 the paternal dominions, Anstrasia, Burgundy, and part of Aqui- 
 taine — the remainder falling to the lot of Charlemagne. He 
 died in 771, after a reign of four years. — Carlosiax, third of 
 that name, the son of Louis II., the Stammerer, was king of 
 Aquitaine and part of Burgundy, and manied a daughter of 
 Boson, king of Provence, who was first his ally, and afterwards 
 his enemy. In 882, on the death of his brother, Louis III., 
 whose assistance had enabled him to overcome his numerous 
 adversaries, Carloman became sole king of France ; but two 
 years after he died, without issue, of a wound received in hunting 
 the wild boar. — Carlomax, fourth son of Charles the Bald, 
 lived about the end of the ninth century, and was appointed by 
 his father abbot of St. Medard. In 870 he was accused of a 
 conspiracy against Charles, deprived of his benefices, and put 
 in prison at Senlis. In 871, after devastating, at the head of 
 a band of brigands, Belgium, Lorraine, and Burgundy, he con- 
 sented to return to his father, who a second time put him in 
 prison at Senhs, and in 875 he was deposed from the office of 
 priest by a synod assembled there, and condemned to be deprived 
 of his eyes. He did not long sur^•ive the loss of his sight. — J. T. 
 
 CARLOMAN, king of Bavaria, was the eldest son of Louis I., 
 king of Gemiany. At his father's death in 876 he succeeded to 
 the sovereignty of Bavaria, including also Bohemia, Jloravia, 
 Caiinthia, Austria, Sclavonia, and part of Hungary. He invaded 
 Italy, and having made himself master of several towns, assumed 
 the title of king of that country. He was ultimately defeated 
 bv the Moravians, who took up amis against his authority. — J. T. 
 ' CARLONI, Giovanni, a Genoese painter, bom in 1590. 
 He was a pupil of Pietro Sorri, and afterwards studied under 
 Domenico Passignani at Florence. Returning to Genoa he 
 obtained celebrity as a pamter in fresco. With his brother he 
 completed an important work in the cathedral of the Guastato at 
 Genoa. He was subsequently invited to Milan, and died in 
 executmg the ceiling of the church of the Theatins. He was 
 remarkable for his correct drawing and glowing colour. He died 
 in 1630.— AV. T. 
 
 CARLONI, Giovanni Battista. This painter, the younger 
 brother of Giovanni Carloni, was bom at Genoa in 1594. He 
 studied in the school of Passignani at Florence. With his 
 brother he painted the three naves of the cathedral at Genoa. 
 In the same church he also painted the " Presentation in the 
 Temple," and " Christ disputing with the Pharisees." He died 
 at tlie advanced age of eighty-six. He was noted for his affluence 
 of invention, the grace of his drawing, and the lucidity of his 
 colour. — His son Andrea was also a painter of some note. 
 He was born in 1639, and died in 1697. 
 
 CARLOS, Don, of Navarre, bora in 1421, was son of John, 
 brother of Alfonso V., king of Arragon, and Blanche, queen of 
 Navarre. On the death of the latter in 1441, a contest ensued 
 between Carlos and his father for the throne of Navarre. Carlos
 
 CAR 
 
 904 
 
 CAR 
 
 took refuge Tvith his uncle, King Alfonso, who resided at Naples. 
 On the death of Alfonso without issue in 1458, he became heir 
 to the crown of Arragon, but was compelled to rouse the Spanish 
 population to obtain from his father, John II., the acknowledg- 
 ment of his right. Died without issue in 1461. — A. H. P. 
 
 CARLOS, Dox, eldest son of Philip II. of Spain, by llary 
 of Portugal, his first wife, was bom at Valladolid, July 8, 154.5. 
 A constant and bitter animosity prevailed between this unfor- 
 tunate prince and his father. The disposition of Carlos was 
 ambitious and uncontrollably passionate, but he was altogether 
 destitute of capacity for the business of government, a defect at 
 which Philip was giTatly disappointed. Carlos, on his side, was 
 deeply incensed at his father's marriage with Isabel, daughter of 
 Henry II. of France, to whom he had himself been betrothed. 
 It is said that Philip suspected an intrigue between them. In 
 the beginning of 1568, the king, informed that Carlos had 
 secretly expressed sympathy with the protestants of the Nether- 
 lands, and meditated quitting Spain and placing himself at their 
 head, and had even attempted the life of the duke of Alva, who 
 had accepted that government, repaii-ed at midnight with a 
 guard to his son's chamber, and placed him under arrest. Kept 
 in a rigorous confinement, the unfortunate prince made several 
 attempts upon his own life, which was at last terminated by 
 poison, by order of the king, and on the sentence of the inquisi- 
 tion of Madrid, in July, 1568. — A. H. P. 
 
 CARLOS, Dox, pretender to the crown of Spain, and next 
 heir to the old French monarchy after the descendants of Charles 
 X., was the second son of Charles IV., king of Spain, and Maria 
 Louisa of Parma, and was bom March 29, 1788. He shared 
 the captivity of his family in France in 1807. In March, 1830, 
 his brother, Ferdinand VII., repealed the salic law in favovu- of 
 his own daughters, Isabella and Louisa. This law had been 
 introduced by the Bourbon kings, and formed no part of the 
 ancient Spanish constiturion. Ferdinand died September 29, 
 1833, and the absolutist party immediately asserted the claim 
 of Carlos. A sanguinary war followed, in which the pretender's 
 cause was brilliantly sustained until his general, Zumalacarregui, 
 was Hlled before BUboa in Jime, 1835 ; after which he met 
 with a series of reverses, and in September, 1839, was com- 
 pelled to retreat into France, where the government placed him 
 imder sun-eillance at Bourges. He abdicated his claims, Slay 
 18, 1845, and retired into Italy, with the title of Count de 
 MoUna. He married in succession two daughters of John VI., 
 king of Portugal, viz., Slaria Francesca, September, 1816, and 
 Maria Theresa, October, 1838. Died at Trieste in 1855. — His 
 eldest son. Count de Montemolin, born in 1818 ; maiTied in 
 1850, Maria Carolina, sister of Queen Christina, and of Ferdinand 
 II., king of the Two Sicilies, but has no issue. — The younger, 
 Don Juan Carlos, has two sons. — A. H P. 
 
 CARLOWITZ, Aloise Christine, Baronne de, bom at 
 Fiume, loth Febraary, 1797, and although of German origin, 
 considered a French authoress. She has written historical and 
 other romances of merit, yet her reputation rests chiefly on a 
 translation of the Messiah of Klopstock, which, with her trans- 
 lation of Schiller's History of the Thirty Years' War, obtained 
 the high approbation of the French Academy. — J. F. C. 
 
 CARLSON, GusTAV, bom in 1647, was a natural son of 
 Charles X., king of Sweden ; his mother was Brita AUertz. After 
 the death of his father in 1660, the queen-dowager, Hederig 
 Eleanora, took charge of his education. The estates of Brange 
 and the convent of Lindholm in Skaane were settled upon him, 
 and from the year 1658 to 1668, he travelled under the care of 
 Count Lindskold through the greater part of Europe ; after which 
 he entered the French army, and served in the war between 
 France, England, and Holland. In 1673 he was elevated to the 
 rank of count and "friherre" of the before-mentioned estates in 
 Skaane. During the war in Germany under Charles XL, he 
 became prisoner in Brandenburg. On the conclusion of peace he 
 returned to Sweden, but shortly afterwards, offended by his non- 
 recognition by the royal family, left that coimtry for ever, and 
 entered the Dutch senice as lieutenant-general, in which capa- 
 city he was employed by our WUliam III. in his Irish campaign. 
 After this he lived the remainder of his days in tranquillity in 
 Holland, and died, without descendants, 1708. Carlson was 
 a lover of learning and science, and left behind hun a valuable 
 Ubrary.— M. H. 
 
 C.\RLYLE, Alexander, D.D., a well-known Scotch divine, 
 was bom in 1721, and in 1747 became minister of Inveresk, 
 
 near Edinburgh. He was a very zealous moderate, and stre- 
 nuously supported those ecclesiastical measures with which the 
 name of Principal Robertson is identified. Though he pubUshed 
 Httle or nothing himself. Dr. Carlyle was the intimate friend 
 and counsellor of David Hume, Hugh Blair, Adam Smith, John 
 Home, and other illustrious writers who at that period flomished 
 in Edinburgh. WTien the tragedy of Douglas was privately 
 rehearsed, Carlyle enacted the pait of Old Norval, and afterwards 
 attended its first representation at the theatre. He was rebuked 
 by the ecclesiastical courts, both for this oft'ence and for the pub- 
 lication of some satirical jeux-(Tesprit reflecting on his brethren ' 
 for their proceedings in regard to this affair. The personal 
 appearance of Dr. Carlyle was exceedingly imposing, and he 
 obtained the niclvuame of Jupiter Carlyle, from the resemblance 
 wliich his noble countenance bore to the Jupiter Tonans in the 
 Ciipitol. The world is indebted to him for the preservation of 
 Collins' beautiful ode on the Superstitions of the Highlands. 
 Dr. Carlyle died August 25, 1805, in the eighty-fourth year of 
 his age. It is much to be regretted that the valuable memoirs 
 of his own time which he left behind hun, are stUl allowed to 
 remain in manuscript. — J. T. 
 
 CARLYLE, Joseph Dacre, celebrated as an Arabic scholar, 
 was bom at Carlisle in 1759. He was a student of Christ's 
 college, Cambridge, where he took his master's degree in 1783. 
 While resident at the university he studied Arabic with tlic 
 assistance of David Zamio, a nati^ e of Bagdad. On the resig- 
 nation of Dr. Paley, he became chancellor of the diocese of Car- 
 lisle, and in 1794 was elected professor of Arabic in Cambridge. 
 Having been in 1799 appointed chaplain to Lord Elgin's embassy 
 to Constantinople, he had an opportunity of visiting the libraries 
 of that city, and of travelling through the countries of Asia 
 Jlinor, as well as through Italy, Tyrol, and part of Germany. 
 He retumed to England in 1801, and was presented to the living 
 of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He published — '' Rerum Jigyptiaca- 
 rum Annales, ab anno Christi 971 usque ad annum 1453," in 
 Arabic and Latin, 1792 ; and " Specimens of Arabic Poetry fmrn 
 the earliest time to the extinction of the Khalifs, with soinu 
 account of the Authors." After the author's death appeared his 
 " Poems, suggested chiefly by scenes in Asia Elinor, Syria, and 
 Greece," 1805. Mr. Carlyle was engaged in preparing a correct 
 edition of the Arabic Bible, and a very complete edition of the 
 Greek New Testament, when he died in 1805. — J. B. 
 
 * CARLYLE, Thomas, was bom at his father's farm, near 
 Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire m 1795 ; and after some years of 
 training in his own parish, went to the grammar-school of Annan 
 to prepare for a course at the university. He became a stndont 
 at Edinburgh in 1809, and remained there during seven sessions. 
 Not much is known of his college life : we may infer from the 
 hints we have, that he Uved mainly with his own thoughts, 
 and owed comparatively little to the system under which he 
 was reared. Yet he distinguished himself as a pupil of Leslie, 
 in the pursuit of mathematics. For some years after leaving 
 the university, he was engaged as a teacher of this science at a 
 school in Fifeshire, and in 1823 he became tutor to the late Mr. 
 Buller. Carlyle had been originally destined for the Scottish 
 ministry; but during his course of study his views regarding 
 the chm-ch had become modified, and his thoughts were already 
 turning towards a literary life. He commenced his career as a 
 writer, by the contribution of articles to Brewster's Edinbtu-gh 
 Cyclopaedia on Montesquieu, Montaigne, Nelson, and the two 
 Pitts ; .articles not republished in his collected works. About 
 this time he translated Legendre, and prefixed to his transla- 
 tion an original essay " On Proportion." The first part of 
 his "Life of Schiller" appeared in the London Mafjazine in 
 1823 ; it was completed in the following year, and published in 
 1825 in a separate form. Among other encouraging signs, a 
 Gemian version of this biography was introduced by a favonrable 
 preface from Goethe himself, whose works had already begun to 
 exercise a paramount influence over the mind of the rising 
 author. Carlyle's translation of Wilhelm Meister's Apprentice- 
 ship was published in 1824. It was attacked in the London 
 Magazine by a celebrated writer, who has made himself, on 
 various occasions, notorious for the injustice of his criticism ; but, 
 on the whole, it met with a cordial reception. Even Jeffrey, 
 in his absurd re\-iew of the book itself, speaks in high terms of 
 the t.alent and skill displayed by the translator. The " Wan- 
 deryahre," which now composes the third volume of the English 
 edition of Meister, first appeared as the last of four volumes of
 
 German romance, published in 1827. Carlyle married in 1825, 
 and about the same time retired to his country farm of Craig- 
 enputtoch in Dumfriesshire, where he remained for several years 
 to cultivate, undisturbed, his own line of literature and con- 
 templation. There is an interesting reference to his abode and 
 manner of life in one of his letters to Goethe, with whom he 
 at this period maintained a friendly correspondence : — " Here 
 Rousseau would have been as happy as on his island of Saint 
 Kerre. My town friends, indeed, ascribe my sojourn here to a 
 similar disposition, and forebode me no good result. But I 
 came here solely with the design to simplify my way of life, 
 and to secure the independence through which I could be 
 enabled to remain true to myself. This bit of earth is our own ; 
 here we can live, write, and think as best pleases ourselves, 
 even though Zoilus himself were to be crowned the monarch of 
 
 literature From some of our heights I can desciy, about a 
 
 day's journey to the west, the hill where Agricola and the 
 Romans left a camp behind them. At the foot of it I was born, 
 and there both father and mother still live to love me — The only 
 piece of any importance that I have written since I came here, is 
 an 'Essay on Burns.'" Besides this (1828), he had contributed 
 to the Edinburgh Review his first article on Richter and a survey 
 of German literatm-e (1827). From that date till 1844 he con- 
 tinued to write at inteiTals for the Edinburgh, Foreign Quar- 
 terly, and Frazer, the series of critical and historical essays 
 which make up his "Miscellanies." Those on Count Cagliostro 
 and the Diamond Necklace form a sort of proem to the " French 
 Revolution." That work itself appeared in 1837, and with it 
 Carlyle's name was for the first time brought before the public. 
 "Sartor Resartus" was originally written in 1830, and after 
 being rejected by several London finns, was printed in successive 
 numbers of Frazer's Magazine. Published as a single volume 
 only in 1838, it made its way in this country slowly but steadily, 
 and helped to establish the author's place in the front rank of 
 our thinkers. "Chartism" appeared in 1839. Meanwhile 
 Carlyle, who had transfeiTed his residence to the metropolis, 
 had been distinguishing himself in another sphere. In the 
 summer of 1837 he delivered a course of six lectures on German 
 literature, and a second series of twelve on the history of litera- 
 ture (1838). In 1839 he gave a course on the revolutions of 
 modern Europe ; and in 1840 dehvered the lectures on " Heroes 
 and Hero-worship," which were afterwards published. Carlyle 
 himself, at the conclusion of his last lecture, expressed his satis- 
 faction with the cordial way in which his call for attention had 
 been answered, but it was his last effort in this direction. He has 
 confined himself since then to the other channels of literatm-e, 
 in which he judged, perhaps rightly, that his force more really 
 lay. His "Past and Present" was published in 1843; "Oliver 
 Cromwell's Letters and Speeches" in 1845. The rapid sale of 
 this latter work bore testimony to the growing fame of its author. 
 A new edition was called for a few weeks after its publication, 
 and a third, with additions, appeared in 1849. The " Latter 
 Day Pamphlets" came out in 1850, and the "Life of John 
 Sterling" in 1851. The first instalment of his great work on 
 Frederick II., 2 vols. 8vo, appeared in 1858. 
 
 Wlien Carlyle's essay on German literature first appeared, it 
 marked an era in the history of critici.sm. The writers who 
 contributed to the early numbers of the Edinburgh Review, 
 brought with them a large amount of taste and sound judgment, 
 which they successfully applied to such works as fell within 
 their sphere, and could fairly be tested by their canons. In 
 dealing with a new literature they failed to criticise, because 
 they had never made the necessaiy effort to comprehend it, and 
 intolerantly proscribed all that did not conform to rules which, 
 appUed beyond that sphere, became mere arbitrary formulae. If 
 such criterions have been dismissed as inadequate — and it is a 
 first principle of our criticism that we must place ourselves as 
 far as possible in the position of our author — it is mainly owing 
 to the infiucnce of the " Miscellanies." The literature of Germany 
 — to which three-fourths of those papers are devoted — first 
 became known in England through Carlyle, because he himself 
 was the first to apprehend its meaning. At the close of one of 
 his essays he gives two pieces of advice, salutary at all times, 
 but more especially needful at the time they were given. The 
 first records his conviction that careful study is necessary to 
 understand well anything that is much worth understanding; — 
 the belief, in his own phrase, that nothing great can be " ade- 
 quately tasted." Nothing more impresses the student of his 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 works th.an his thoroughness. He never takes a task in hand 
 without the obvious determination to perform it to the best of 
 his ability ; consequently, when he has satisfied himself that he 
 is master of his subject, he will more than satisfy others. His 
 second impresses the duty of trying to throw ourselves into the 
 mind of others before we pronounce judgment on them. This 
 is the grand secret of Carlyle's success as a critic : to it is chiefly 
 owing his pre-eminent skill to interest us in the thoughts, feel- 
 ings, and fortunes of every one of whom he writes. He has 
 many of the minor requisites of a good critic ; he knows how to 
 distinguish the essential from the accidental — what to forget 
 and what to remember — what to say and what not to say — 
 where to begin and when to stop. Not only his biographies of 
 Schiller and Sterling, but the shorter notices scattered among 
 his essays, are intrinsically more complete, and throw more 
 real light on character, than whole volumes of ordinary me- 
 moirs. He exhibits in prose the same penetrating imagination 
 which distinguishes a great poet, and, circum prcEcordia ludens, 
 brings out in bold relief the main features of the men whom 
 he designs to commemorate. His desire to find good in all 
 greatness — a charitable breadth of sympathy expressed in the 
 saying, that we must judge a man not by the number of his 
 faults, but by the amount of his deflection from the circle, 
 narrow or wide, which bounds his being — enables him to 
 appreciate those most widely differing in creed, sentiment, and 
 lines of activity from each other and himself. "We can under- 
 stand how a native of the Scottish Lowlands, ha\'ing much of 
 his nature in common with their lyrist, should have written 
 the best of essays on Robert Burns ; or how one so remarkable 
 for stem independence and strength of will, should find con- 
 genial themes of discom-se in Johnson, Luther, Jlirabeau, and 
 Francia ; but when the same searching criticism is applied to 
 such names as Voltaire, Diderot, and Novalis, with the same 
 generous liberality, we admire a genius as flexible as it is intense. 
 Carlyle sums his view of history, when he calls it "the essence of 
 innumerable biographies." Nothing is more characteristic than 
 his tendency to individualize every thing he meets, and his dis- 
 like of abstractions, political or moral, which he cannot connect 
 with something concrete, single, and definite. Most biographies 
 are too vague for him ; he delights in Boswell. He glides over 
 dissertations and generalizations, to pick out some little bit of 
 fact from the heart of Clarendon or Hume. The essence of 
 history does not lie in laws, senate -houses, and battle-fields, but 
 in the tide of thought and action — the world of existence that 
 in gloom and brightness blossoms and fades apart from these. 
 Other writers have expanded biography into histoiy — Carlyle 
 condenses history into biography. Even in the " French Revo- 
 lution," where he has pre-eminently to deal with masses, he 
 gives a striking prominence to their leaders. They pass before 
 us as the ^vriter gives them names, and calls them back again 
 as they lived, and moved, and died, amid those stormy scenes. 
 But this is only one of the aspects of the work. The " Revolu- 
 tion " has been compared to an epic poem. Its author recognizes 
 in his theme the longest and fiercest fight the world ever saw — 
 the death-wrestle of outworn feudalism and young democracy. 
 Hence there is a deep back-ground to all these figures, in the 
 rush and surge of contending multitudes. If the book is in 
 prose, it is such prose as was never seen before. It is all a 
 " flame picture," every page seems on fire ; we read the whole as 
 if we were listening to successive volleys of artillery. " Crom- 
 well" is avowedly biographical. The events of the period are 
 brought out in Carlyle's book only so far as they are connected 
 with the career and character of his hero ; but in its elucidation 
 of that character it is without a rival. There never was a work 
 which more completely reversed a historical verdict. The old 
 notions of hypocrisy, fanaticism, and ambition are refuted out 
 of his own mouth ; but it required the illustrative genius of his 
 editor to bring back life and me.aning to those half-forgotten 
 letters, and sweep away the clouds that so long obscured the 
 august proportions of the Protector. " Frederick" abounds with 
 evidences of the same revivifying power. The introductory por- 
 tion, which has to lead us through one of the most tangled mazes 
 of early Prussian history, is rendered interesting mainly by the 
 restoration of a whole gallery of German worthies. In the main 
 body of the book, the men and women coinipcted with the Prussian 
 court are brought out in fuller light and shade : — Frederick 
 himself at Sans Souci, with his cocked hat, walking stick, and 
 wonderful grey eyes ; Sophie Charlotte, with her grace, wit, and 
 
 5 Y
 
 music ; Wilhelmina and her book ; the black artists, Seckendorf 
 and Grumkow ; George I. and his Bluebeard chamber ; the Old 
 Dessatier ; August the Strong ; Voltaire ; Algerotti. All these, 
 and more are summoned as by a wizard's wand from the land 
 of shadows to march or flutter past the central figure of his 
 volumes. Carlyle as a historian is notably exact. What he 
 himself calls " a transcendant capacity of taking trouble," and a 
 genius for accui-acy, preserves him from being carried away from 
 the strict confines of fact. He has a keen eye for nature, and 
 tlie reliance we come to have on then- fidelity adds a new charm 
 to his pictures. His descriptions of places and events, even the 
 most trinal, have a freshness which one hardly finds anywhere 
 else out of Homer. See especially in "Cromwell" the account 
 of the battle and battle-field of Dunbar, where the naiTative is 
 sustained throughout with more than Homeric grandeur. His 
 last work brings before us a host of places and scenes — all \-i\-idly 
 realized, and enriched by the memories that are made to cluster 
 round them, 
 
 ISIuch of the power of this wanting is connected with the 
 pecuHar ftiscination of the author's later style. Questionable as 
 a model for others, his own manner suits him, for it is empha- 
 tically part of his matter. Its abruptness con-esponds with the 
 abruptness of his tliought, which proceeds often by a series of 
 electric shocks, as if — to borrow a simile from a criticism on St. 
 Paul — it were breaking its bounds and breaking the sentence. 
 It has a rugged energy which suggests a want of fluency in the 
 writer, and gives the impression of his being compelled to wiite. 
 He is at all hazards determined to convey his meaning ; willing 
 to bon-ow expressions from all lines of life and all languages, 
 and even to invent new sounds and coin new words, for the 
 expression of a new thought. He cares as little for rounded 
 phrases as for logical arguments, and rather convinces and per- 
 suades by calling up a succession of feelings than a train of 
 reasoning. Hence his love of repetitions, and his profuse use of 
 i^ix ari^eivTu,. The most Protean quality of Carlyle's genius is 
 his humour. Now lighting up the crevices of some quaint fancy ; 
 now shining over his serious thought like simshine on the sea, 
 it is as subtle as that of Cervantes, more hrnnane than Swift's, 
 and only less exuberant than Richter's. There is in it, as in 
 all humour, a sense of ever-present contrasts and apparent 
 contradictions, a sort of double sight, of matter for laughter in 
 soiTow and tears in joy. It has besides a gloomy fervour of 
 its own, and an irony which is more Socratic than Sophoclean, 
 for it is as often at the expense of the writer as of others. He 
 seems perpetually checking himself, as if afraid of betraying too 
 much emotion, and throwing in absurd illustrations of serious 
 propositions, partly to show their universal applicability, partly 
 to escape the suspicion of sermonizing. Carlyle's humour is a 
 mode in which he practises his doctrine of golden silence. It is, 
 m one of its aspects, the offspring of intense reserve. Some- 
 times it takes a lighter fonn, and appears as side-splitting satire ; 
 sometimes it consists in drollery of description ; sometimes in 
 oddity of conception ; sometimes it is a character sketch ; some- 
 limes it is prominent in the account of an event ; now it is an 
 antithesis — now a simile ; sometimes it lurks in a word, some- 
 times in a sentence. Its most unfortunate use is where Carlyle 
 forgets his own warning, and makes laughter a test of truth ; its 
 noblest accompanies the purittj which enables him to handle 
 fearlessly themes that in more awkward hands might have easily 
 become disgusting. Unlike others, he can touch pitch and not 
 be defiled. His humour is equal to that of Sterne ; his pathos 
 is profounder, in proportion as the man himself is more true. 
 Pathos is the other side of humour. It is the same deep sym- 
 ]>athy that laughs with those who laugh, and mourns with those 
 who mourn. Its two phases are often simultaneously prominent 
 in our author's works ; but his reverence for the past makes 
 him more touched by its sorrows than moved by its folly. With 
 a sense of brotherhood he stretches out a hand of compassion to 
 all that were weary ; he feels even for the pedlars climbing the 
 Hohenzolleni valley, and pities the solitude of soul on the frozen 
 Schreckboni of power, whether in a dictator of Paraguay or a 
 Prussian prince. He leads us to the death-chamber of Louis 
 Quinze, of Mirabeau, of Cromwell, of Sterling, his own lost 
 friend ; and we feel with him in the presence of a mystery 
 which solemnizes the errors as well as the gi-eatness of men. 
 Ever and anon amid the din of battle and the cares of state, 
 some gentler feeling wells up in his pages like the cliime of 
 Sabbath bells. It is Teufelsdrockh left "alone with the night" 
 
 — Oliver remembering the old days at St. Ives — or the Elcc- 
 tress Louisa bidding adieu to her Elector. "At the moment 
 of her death, it is said, when speech had fled, he felt from her 
 hand, which lay in his, three slight slight pressures — Farewell, 
 thrice mutely spoken in that manner, not easy to forget in 
 this world." There is nothing more pathetic than the whole 
 account of the relations of father and son in the domestic his- 
 tory of the Prussian court, fi-om the first estrangement between 
 them — the young Frederick in his pj-ison at Custrin, the old 
 Frederick gliding about seeking shelter from ghosts, mourning for 
 Absalom— to the reconciliation, the end, and the after-thoughts 
 about the loved one — a scene never to be mentioned without 
 thoughts that he too deep for tears. 
 
 What Carlyle says of Dante's Francesca, that it is " a thing 
 woven as of rainbows on a ground of eternal black," might be 
 applied to his own tenderness. Every reader of his works has 
 felt in them the presence — sometimes the excess — of an element 
 of steraness. He is a good hater. What he loves most is 
 truth ; what he hates most is falsehood, and his denunciations of 
 all its forms — as shams, hypocrisies, phantasms — often remind 
 one of the Hebrew prophets, or Dante himself in their condensed 
 ferocity. He is constantly drawing lessons from history to 
 show theu' necessaiy overthrow, and in somewhat exaggerated 
 terms proclaiming their essential weakness. A strong sym- 
 pathy with strength is one of his characteristic qualities. A 
 Titan himself, he is ever ready to shake hands with Titans, 
 Gothic gods, burly Dantons, JLaliomet, Knox, Columbus. Hence 
 his connection of truth and strength ; his view that virtue, 
 valour, and victory, are inseparable ; his assertion that Might 
 is Right ; that all power is moral — convictions which express a 
 truth as jet but partially realized, and which in their premature 
 anticipation of it lead this writer to partial verdicts even on 
 questions of histoiy and biography. He is apt to find excuse 
 for all the tyranny of conquest, and withdraw his sympathy 
 even from the gi'eatness of conquered nations. His burden is 
 too prevaihngly a " Vse victis." We may admit that right is 
 might, and remember that wrong is might also. We can only 
 hope for the ultimate triumph of the better power. There is 
 nothing more difficult to guard against in speculation than 
 schemes of crude optimism ; it seems almost irreligious to draw 
 no morals from history. Yet surely we do not honour God by 
 being too eager to justify his ways to men. In the fraction of 
 the universe we see, our notions of justice are but imperfectly 
 borne out ; we may try to enlarge them, but we only jump the 
 difficulty by proclaiming loudly that they are borne out. When 
 we make success or failure the test of national or individual 
 merit, we revive in a new form the old error that made sorrow 
 the sign of sin. Power may accompany the right to conquer, 
 but they are not indissoluble, for the right is not derived from 
 the power. Even the power to rule is an insufficient test ; it is 
 only the power to rale well that is a wan-ant of just victory. 
 We may avoid the logical consequences of a partial view by a 
 vague use of words. If power means moral force it is of course 
 moral ; but the assertion, explained, is tautological ; unexplained, 
 it is misleading. Carlyle's dcsu-e to reconcile the moral and 
 intellectual powers, leads him to fill up the side of a character 
 which is wanting from his imagination. He attacks other schemes 
 of historical optimism, and yet frames one for himself which 
 embraces only half the truth. We need only read it between 
 the lines of his chapter on the Reformation to see its limitations. 
 But his \iew of the past is comparatively a just one ; in long 
 periods the laws of the universe do at least dimly appear, and in 
 the main assert their supremacy. It is when he turns to politics 
 with the eye of a historian, and regards present relations as 
 history accomplished instead of histoiy in progress, that he falls 
 into serious eiTors. While apprehending more, perhaps, than 
 any prenous writer the foundations of existing greatness, it is 
 strange how seldom he tries to realize what may propei-ly be 
 called the new ideas of the age. He wars against the anarchy 
 of passion, and yet respects that other anarchy which takes the 
 name of order. Rebellion is generally but an indication of impa- 
 tience ; nations which cannot obey need not liope to command. 
 He ridicules the American abolitionists in the assertion of a 
 principle which is not based on his view of national deserts. 
 Strength of mind and industry, the prime marks of merit, do not 
 appear prominently in the negro race. It is a proof that it had 
 better remain as it is, in slavery. He derides, in the same 
 way, all female emancipation and other movements which rest
 
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 their sole authority on a recognition of the rights of weakness. 
 He acknowledges the importance of new powers that have not 
 yet found their place ; but he despises new ideas that have not 
 yet become powers. This is the negative aspect of Mr. Carlyle's 
 political philosophy. Its positive side is Htro-worshijJ^hxs notion 
 of Order and Fealty. Feudalism had its chiefs, and flourished, 
 or not, as it followed them well or ill. Democracy, the new 
 idea of this age, must also find its representatives in great 
 men. Political science consists in discovering the will of the 
 people ; but this will is not to be found by universal suffrage 
 and ballot-boxes. It is only a sovereign, well chosen and loyally 
 served, who can express it. Theoretically Carlyle's view ignores 
 the conception of collective wisdom and the action of masses, 
 lUtferent in kind as well as degree, from that of units. It is 
 • lartly a result of his excessive individualism. He forgets the 
 practical impossibility of finding wisdom before trial — the 
 iniseiy of mistakes which are irrevocable. What we want is 
 the guidance of our wisest men ; but how many of her wisest 
 men has any nation been able to rank among her kings? 
 In despotic governments we have a happy hit for how many 
 unhappy misses ? Carlyle assigns everywhere too wide a sphere 
 to compulsion, and forgets that freedom itself is greater than any 
 end. He is noc altogether responsible for the use that has been 
 made of his views to support theories of absolutism ; but it cannot 
 be concealed that some of these views lie athwart the best ten- 
 dencies of the time, and have materially obstructed their pro- 
 gress. Even this, the weakest phase of Mr. Carlyle's philosophy, 
 has some advantages. Standing aside from all political parties, 
 he corrects in turn the errors of each, and checks their exagger- 
 ations even by his own. He sees deeply into the undercurrent 
 evils of the time. He assails, with equal force and justice, our 
 practice of leaving those evils to adjust themselves, or dealing 
 with them by empty catchwords. He brands the meanness 
 which too often marks our mercantile dealing, the selfishness 
 which results from over-strained competition, and teaches a truth 
 we are apt to ignore ; viz., that wealth is not the one thing need- 
 ful for national prosperii!/. Some of his du-ect suggestions are 
 jiractical and excellent ; as the advice to let merit rise from the 
 ranks in all spheres — to employ our army and navy in time of 
 peace — to provide a national education for the people — to fix more 
 exactly the province of the executive and legislative bodies — to 
 promote men of eminence who cannot face a popular election — 
 to organize a new chivaliy of labour — making industrial regi- 
 ments of our able-bodied paupers, and enlarging the sphere of 
 partnerships in all trades. Even on the vexed question of the 
 negi'ocs, his proposals to change their ser\atude into serfdom, 
 and open the door to the purchase of liberty by the slaves them- 
 selves, indicate the best path towards securing their ultimate 
 emancipation. 
 
 But it is neither as a politician nor a biographer, nor even in 
 the domain of history proper, that Carlyle's greatness preemi- 
 nently appears. Everything he writes has at bottom a personal 
 reference. It is as an ethical arid religious teacher that he has 
 the largest claim on our gratitude. When he first came to 
 London, eveiybody was making inquiries about the political and 
 religious opinions of the rising author; was he a chartist, an abso- 
 lutist, a calvinist, or an atheist ? — inquiries which were then and 
 ever doomed to disappointment. He had come from the Scottish 
 moors and his study of the great German literature, a strange 
 element into their society, not to promulgate a new set of opinions, 
 but to infuse a new spirit into those already existing. He found 
 Benthamism prevailing in philosophy ; the Byronic vein in 
 poetry ; formalism in religion ; society was regulated by fashion 
 and routine ; men wore their dogmata like their dress, and really 
 believed only in that on which they could lay their hands. His 
 mission was not to controvert any form of creed, but to show 
 the insufficiency of this mode of belief. He raised the tone of 
 literature by referring to higher standards ; he tried to elevate 
 men's minds to the contemplation of something better than them- 
 selves, and impress upon tliein the necessity of professing nothing 
 with their lips which in their hearts they could not believe. He 
 taught that we must make our own convictions, and that the 
 matter of profoundest cons(?quoncc is the degree of sincerity with 
 which we hold them. Beliefs by hearsay are not merely liarren 
 but obstructive ; it is only " when half gods go, the gods arrive." 
 Carlyle had to war against credulity, in order to grapple with 
 unbelief. A deep sense of reverence lies at the root of all his 
 syinbohsm. He uses new jjhrases to express a meaning that old 
 
 ones have ceased to convey. After all that has been done to 
 explain it, this world seems to him still a mystery, and we our- 
 selves the miracle of miracles. There is beneath all the sound- 
 ings of science a deeper deep. Content witli what we see and 
 know, we would need no religion. It is the feeling that mere 
 sight and knowledge leave us only more forlorn, that creates 
 the grand want. However Carlyle's own form of faith may 
 differ from others (and we have no right to assume more than 
 he chooses to annomice), his appeal to the sense on which they 
 all depend, has done sen-ice to the cause of religion which it is 
 not easy to estimate. He has done much to shatter all exist- 
 ing schemes of utilitarianism. Our relation to om- fellows is 
 not a relation of repulsion merely ; we are bound to them by 
 invisible yet adamantine chains of duty. Duty is with Carlyle 
 something which cannot be derived. Bare calculation would 
 leave the world a wilderness of mean contentions. It is through 
 the sense of the infinite within and around us, that our moral, 
 as well as om- religious nature, first truly unfolds itself. " The 
 hero gives his life, he does not sell it." We must be ready to 
 renounce the pursuit of happiness, and in self-annihilation — 
 merging our interests in our duties — we shall find blessedness. 
 Thus alone are true ethics possible. There may be something 
 of the spirit of the mystic in that portion of "Sartor Resartus" 
 where this view is unfolded, but sm-ely there is much of the 
 essence of Christianity. It is a firm grasp of the religious sen- 
 timent that qualifies any one to be the exponent of religious 
 epochs in history. By this alone, says Dr. Chalmers, " Thomas 
 Carlyle has done so much to vindicate and bring to light the 
 Augustan age of Christianity in England." It is the secret of 
 his sympathy with the Puritans. It is the secret, also, of his 
 appreciation of the higher Teutonic literature. " It is obvious 
 from all his writings," we quote from the same authority, " that 
 they are not the dogmata of Germany which he idolizes, but the 
 lofty intellect, the high-souled independence, and above all, as 
 most akin with the aspirings of his own chivalrous and undaunted 
 nature, the noble-heartedness of Germany." Those are the com- 
 mon characteristics which have bound him so closely to Goethe 
 The relation between the great poet and his English intei-prcter is 
 a remarkable one. There are many points of contrast between 
 them. The one, self-centered, solitary in his calm, "totus teres 
 atque rotundus," an Apollo sending forth notes of Memnonian 
 music; the other, a rough giant, struggling, restless, suffering with 
 the soiTows of all humanity ; the one all symmetry, the other all 
 strength. It is as if Shakspeare and Luther had been born again as 
 master and disciple. Yet they are one at heart. They have the 
 same deep insight — the same sense of the glory and mystery of 
 the universe — the same great grasp of life — the same reverence 
 for man as man — the same intense convictions and the earnest- 
 ness they bring. The essential difference between Carlyle and 
 the Germans is that of action and thought. To know is not his 
 end, but to be. Either to know ourselves or others is in gi-eat 
 measure impossible. " Know thy work and do it." A practical 
 philosopher, he habitually depreciates metaphysicians. ( Vide 
 his treatment of Leibnitz.) He loves the lyre, but it is the 
 lyre that builds the walls of cities. Truth is with him not so 
 much a majestic vision, as an element to mould the cliaracter 
 and rule the will. Carlyle does not rest in it — paint, sing, or 
 prove it ; but breathes, moves, fights, and dies for it. He loves 
 the strife ; like Luther's, his words arc battles. Hence his 
 gospel of labour, his sympathy with all its forms. Laborave ent 
 orare. He, and he alone, is honourable who does his day's task 
 bravely, whether by the axe, or plough, or pen. Knowledge and 
 strength are the rewards of toil. Action converts the ring of 
 necessity that girds us into a ring of duty ; it frees us from the 
 unhealthy blight of self-consciousness — from morbid dreams — 
 from childish frctfnlness — from despair itself — and makes us 
 men. There is nothing grander in literature than some of 
 these litanies of labour. They have the roll of music that makes 
 armies march ; rousing us, as by a trumpet, to put forth new 
 power, and force, and energy. They are among the most bene- 
 ficent influences of Carlyle's philosoiihy, for they continue to 
 present it on its most genial side. It has anotlier and less con- 
 solatory aspect. Tlie ajipreciation of what is wise and excellent 
 involves, in a world like ours, an equally present sense of folly 
 and crime ; but it is unfortunate when tiie sense of evil predo- 
 minates over the sense of good. Carlyle seems to forget his own 
 best teaching when, turning from the past with its religious 
 aisles and solemn memories — the past, softened and harmonized
 
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 CAR 
 
 by time — to the present, with its tumults, discord, and wrong, 
 he addresses it in words of impntient anger. This mood has 
 grown upon him. His accents come to lis oftener in the thunder 
 and the whii-lwind, more rarely in the still small voice. We have 
 had less in recent years of the sublime hopefulness that illumines 
 " Sartor Resartus," — that most beautiful of all his works, 
 " written in star fire and immortal tears," so rich in tenderness 
 and gi'ace, full of all sights and sounds and modes of melody. 
 Turning from this to the scorn and mockery of the "Latter Day 
 Pamphlets," we are impressed with a somewhat saddening con- 
 trast. It is as if he who had led us so far on the way had 
 himself lapsed backward into the Everlasting No. Loss of 
 temper is not loss of faith ; but the gloom which per\-ades some 
 of Carlyle's later writings goes deeper than loss of temper. The 
 " riddle of the painful earth " weighs too heavily upon him. The 
 pressure of infinity itself threatens to overwhelm his hberty ; 
 the old doubts ever and anon recm*, and the shadow of a dreary 
 fatalism seems to pass over his mind. But tlie doubts are 
 never quite victorious. Tliere is a profound sense in the remark 
 of one who loved him — He is never at rest in his fatalism, and 
 while he resists it, it is not fatalism. It is a struggle, " yet a 
 struggle never ended, ever with true unconcjuerable purpose begun 
 anew." His fiery unrest is a sign of tlie presence and conflict 
 of the spirit of freedom, and an unwearied will. 
 
 We have accorded a greater length to this than is generally 
 due to contemporary notices, from a sense of the paramount 
 influence Carlyle's works are exercising, and are long destined 
 to exercise, on the whole speculation of the age. They ha\e 
 already made a deeper impression on the literature of England 
 than the works of any writer who has lived for a centuiy. 
 They have done much to mould some of the best thinkers in 
 America ; and are extending their influence to the continent of 
 Europe. Thomas Carlyle has been, by his advice and guidance, 
 the Greatheart to many a pilgrim. Not a few could speak in 
 the words of the friend whose memory he has so affectionately 
 preserved: — '"Towards me it is still more true than towards 
 England, that no man has been and done hke you." He is one of 
 those regarding whom we are constrained to acknowledge, after 
 all is said that can be said about then' works, the man is 
 mightier than them all. — J. N. 
 
 CARilAGNOLA, Francesco, a celebrated Italian general, 
 was born in Piedmont about the year 1390. His original name 
 was Busone, but after his elevation he assumed the designation 
 of Carmagnola, from the place of his nativity. In his youth he 
 was a swineherd, but enlisted as a private soldier in the sen-ice 
 of Philip Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. His courage and 
 abilities attracted the notice of that prince, who made him 
 commander-in-chief of his anny. His brilliant successes soon 
 showed the wisdom of the choice. Carmagnola inflicted several 
 severe defeats on the enemies of the duke, restored to him the 
 whole of Lombardy, and afterwards added to his dominions 
 Piacenza, Brescia, Bergamo, and other towns, and made him 
 the most powerful prince in Italy. In retum for these important 
 services, Philip created him Count of Castelnuovo, gave him in 
 marriage one of his natural daughters, and made him governor 
 of Genoa. These honours, and the great wealth he had accu- 
 mulated, raised up many enemies to the fortunate soldier, and 
 excited the jealousy of the duke, who was of a dark and suspi- 
 cious temper. In 1424 he deprived Cannagnola of his military 
 command, and refused to listen to his defence, or even to grant 
 him an audience. Indignant at this treatment, the count imme- 
 diately quitted the territorj' of Milan, and ultimately repaired to 
 Venice, and revealed to the senate the intrigues and ambitious 
 designs of Philip, who meanwhile had confiscated the immense 
 possessions of Carmagnola, and had sent an assassin to murder 
 him. War was immediately resolved on against Visconti, and 
 Carmagnola was appointed commander-in-chief of the united 
 army of Venetians and Florentines. In the campaigns of 1426 
 and 1427 he was eminently successful, and the duke was com- 
 pelled to purchase peace in 1428, by ceding to the Venetians 
 Brescia, Bergamo, and one half of the province of Cremona. 
 But in 1431, war having again broken out between Venice and 
 Philip, Carmagnola was appointed to his former office, but met 
 wth various reverses, which excited the suspicion of the Vene- 
 tian senate, and he was eventually invited to Venice, for the 
 purpose, it was pretended, of assisting the government with his 
 advice. On his arrival he was received with marked distinction, 
 and conducted to the ducal palace, where he was suddenly 
 
 arrested, charged with treason, put to the torture, and then 
 beheaded on the 5th of May, 1432. Considerable diversity of 
 opinion prevails as to the question of Carmagnola's guilt or inno- 
 cence : but the base treachery of the Venetian senators cannot 
 be too severely condemned. — J. T. 
 
 CARMATH or CARJL\THI, the founder of the sect of Car- 
 mathians among the Mahommedans of the tenth centmy. He 
 belonged originally to the sect of the Ismaili, but openly avowing 
 and cam-ing to excess their infamous secret doctrines, he at length 
 separated from their chief, and founded the sect which bears his 
 name, and which existed for some time after his death. — J. B. 
 
 CARMELI, Michel Angelo, a distinguished Greek and 
 Hebrew scholar, bom at Cittadella, near Vicenza, in 1686; 
 died ill 1766. He entered the Franciscan order, and became 
 professor of theology and sacred history. CanneU translated 
 Euripides into Italian verse in a style which Piattoni has pro- 
 nounced classic. On the subject of this translation the author 
 had to maintain a long controversy with Reiske. He has also 
 left a translation of Aiistophanes' Pluto, and a version from 
 the Hebrew of Ecclesiastes and the Canticles. A complete list 
 of his works, which are exceedingly numerous, is given by 
 Tipaldo.— A. C. -M. 
 
 CARMICHAEL, Gerriioji, a Scottish minister at Moni- 
 mail, Fifeshire, and aftenvards professor of moral philosophy in 
 Glasgow university, was bom in 1682, and died in 1738. He 
 wrote some leamed notes on PufFendorf s De OfRciis Hominis. 
 His son Frederick — born in 1708; died in 1751 — succeeded 
 his father in Monimail, became afterwards one of the ministers 
 of Edinburgh, and left a volume of elegant sermons. — J. B. 
 
 CARMICHAEL, James, a practical engineer, well known as 
 the inventor of the fan-blowing machines, was born in Glasgow 
 in 1776. In 1810 he became a partner with his brother Charles, 
 who had commenced business as a millwright in Dundee some 
 years before. The brothers soon became famous as ingenious 
 workmen, and were reputed especially successful in the construc- 
 tion of stationary' engines. In 1821 they constnicted the first 
 twin steamboat for the feny across the Tay at Dundee. For 
 this vessel James invented an apparatus commonly described as 
 reversing gear, which entitles him to honoiu-able mention among 
 the improvers of steam navigation. In 1829 Mr. Carniichael 
 succeeded, after numerous experiments, in constmcting his fan- 
 blast, and with a liberality of which there are few examples, 
 declined to patent the invention. He died in 1853. — J. S., G. 
 CARMICHAEL, Richard, M.R.I.A., for many years a 
 surgei)n of the first eminence in Dublin, was the fourth son 
 of Hugh Carmichael, solicitor in that city, and was bora on 
 the 6th of Febiiiary, 1779. After graduating in the schools of 
 the College of Surgeons in Ireland, he was appointed to the 
 Wexford militia. In 1803 he settled as a practitioner in DubHn, 
 and was in the same year elected surgeon to St. George's hospital 
 and dispensary, where his attention was particularly directed 
 to the nature and treatment of cancerous disease. This was the 
 subject of his first publication, an essay which appeared in 1806, 
 and was reprinted in 1809. In 1810 he pubhshed an essay on 
 scrofula, and in the course of that year was nominated one of 
 the surgeons to the Lock hospital. This appointment led to 
 the appearance of the great work in which he put forward his 
 ideas on the use and abuse of mercury — views which have 
 undoubtedly ever since modified the practice of the profession, 
 in the therapeutic employment of that mineral. In 1816 Mr. 
 Carmichael was appointed one of the surgeons of the Richmond, 
 Hardwicke, and Whitworth hospital, which office he resigned in 
 1836. He continued, however, as consultant surgeon to the 
 institution up to the period of his death, and in that capacity 
 gave from time to time clinical lectures on his favourite subjects 
 — pcrofiJa, cancerous diseases, and syphilis. In 1826 Mr. 
 Cai-michael, in conjunction with Dr. Robert Adams and the 
 late Mr. M'Dowell, foimded the "Richmond," now known as 
 the " Carmichael " school of medicine. To this school he gave 
 annually during the last eight years of his Ufe, the sum of £50 
 to be distributed in premiums to the students, and by his will he 
 left £2000 as a premium fund. He also left £8000, under cer- 
 tain regulations, for the improvement of the school. In 1808 
 Mr. Carmichael was one of the censors, and a member of the 
 court of examiners of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 
 and hi 1813, 1826, and 1840, he filled the ofiicc of president of 
 the college. He was also a member of the Royal Irish Academy, 
 and of the Royal Dublin Society; and in Febrnary, 1835, he
 
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 CAR 
 
 received the sparinfcly bestowed honour of the corresponding 
 membership of the Boyal Academy of Jledicine in France. A 
 complete hst of his writings, thirty- one in number, is given in 
 the ninth volume of the Duhlin Quarterly Journal of Medical 
 Science. Jlr. CarmichaeUs active and useful career was, on the 
 8th of June, 1849, brought to a sudden and melancholy close 
 by drowning in a rapid stream, while endeavouring to cross on 
 horseback the Strand, in the neighbourhood of Dublin. The 
 bequests made by his will to the medical institutions of Dublin 
 were worthy of his generous nature. — W. D. M. 
 
 CARillCHAEL, William, an American diplomatist of the 
 revolutionaiy epoch, was a native of Maiyland, of Scotch 
 extraction. In 1775 he was in England, and went to Paris, on 
 his way home, with despatches from Aithm' Lee. Being 
 detained by sickness, he aided Silas Deane in his official corre- 
 spondence, and went to Berhn to give information to the king of 
 Prussia respecting American commerce. He returned to America 
 in May, 1788, and soon afterwards was made a delegate from 
 Marj'land to congress, where he seems to have bonie testimony 
 against Deane. In 1779 congress appointed him secretary of 
 legation to llr. Jay in his mission to Spain. He went to Madrid 
 in this capacity, and when Mr. Jay left in June, 1782, he 
 remained as charge d'affaires. Congress- soon appointed him 
 to this office, and he remained in it at Jladrid for several 
 years. Carmichael returned to the United States, and died 
 early in 179.5. — F. B. 
 
 CARMIGXAXI, GiovAxxi Alessandro, was born at 
 Pisa in 1768, and educated at the college t)f Arezzo, where he 
 obtained the degree of LL.D. He was called to the bar at 
 Florence, and in 1799 appoj*fed to a magistracy at San Minato. 
 Selected by the goverameift of Tuscany for the post of professor 
 of jurispradence in the univ^-sity of Pisa, he accepted the 
 appointment, but under protest that he would teach from the 
 chair his views of the inutihty, injustice, and inhumanity of 
 capital punishments. The rest of his life was devoted to the task 
 of rescuing human victims from the hand of the executioner, and 
 he was often rewarded by success. In his leisure hours he 
 occupied himself with literature, and his comments on the 
 Teatro d'Alfieri are of high merit. He died in his native city in 
 1847.— A. C. M. 
 
 CARMONTELLE : born at Paris in 1717. He merits a 
 place amongst literary celebrities, for being the inventor of that 
 charming entertainment which the French call " Proverbe." It is 
 a drama which, depending altogether on dialogue, without aid 
 of scenery or decoration, may be acted in a di-awing-room, or 
 got up by a party enjoying a day in the country. Carmontelle 
 obtained a place in the household of the duke of Orleans, which 
 he lost by the Revolution. He died in 180(3.— J. F. C. 
 
 CARNE, Joiix, the author of several pleasant volumes of 
 travel, particularly " Letters from the East," and " Letters from 
 Switzerland;" died at Penzance, in his fifty-fifth year, in 1844. 
 Bom in affluent circumstances, he cultivated literatiu-e merely as 
 a recreation, and probably was as much astonished as delighted 
 at the success of his productions. The latter part of his life 
 was spent at Penzance, where, although accustomed to the plea- 
 sures of London literary society, he lived in kindly and contented 
 intercourse with his rustic neighbours. — J. S., G. 
 
 * CARXfi, Louis Marcien, Comte de, a French publicist 
 and politician, was born at Quimper in 1804 of an ancient and 
 distinguished family. After passing through the offices of attache 
 and ambassador's secretary, he became a member of the general 
 council of Finisterre in 1833, and a deputy in 1839. In 1845 
 he supplanted M. Drouyn-de-Lhuys in the ministry of foreign 
 affairs, and held this office till the revolution in 1848. He is the 
 author of numerous articles in the Revue des Deux Mondes and 
 other periodicals, and of sundry political works. — J. D. E. 
 
 CARNEADES, a Greek philosopher, famous as the founder of 
 the Third or New Academy, was an African, a native of Cyrene, 
 and was born about 213 b.c. In company with Critolaus and 
 Diogenes, he was sent by the Athenians to Rome in 155 to com- 
 plain of the injustice of a fine which, under the authority of the 
 Romans, had been imposed upon Athens by the Sicyonians for 
 having laid waste Oropus, a town in Bceotia. Each of the three 
 ambassadors excited the attention of the learned men of Rome by 
 some display of learning or eloquence, and particularly Carneades, 
 who harangued in prai.se of justice before Galba and Cato the 
 censor, with such subtlety of reasoning and copiousness of diction, 
 that when on the day following he undertook to refute all his 
 
 own arguments, Cato, in dread of the effect such displays of 
 tongue-fence might have upon the youth of the capital, in divert- 
 ing them from the pursuit of arms to that of Grecian learning, 
 abruptly dismissed the three Athenians. Carneades died in 129. 
 The leading doctrine of the New Academy was that neither our 
 senses nor our understanding supply us with sure criteria of 
 truth. It was also distinguished by its opposition to the tenets 
 of the stoics. — J. S., G. 
 
 CARNEAU, Etiexxe, born at Chartres in the beginning of 
 the seventeenth centuiy, and died in 1()71. He first studied 
 jurispradence imder the care of his father, a distinguished avocat, 
 then devoted himself to pohte literature. In 1630 he joined 
 the Celestines, and died in their monastery at Paris. Cameau 
 amused hunself by writing verse, and published among other 
 volmnes one which has been often reprinted, and which stiU has 
 some interest, " L'Economie du Petit Monde." The "Petit 
 Monde" was in the language of the alchymists, the microcosnios, 
 or man. He translated into verse some tracts of St. Augustine. 
 
 C.A.RNEGIE, Sir Robert, a Scottish lawyer and statesman, 
 appointed in 1547 a lord of session. His father, .John de Car- 
 negy, had fallen at Floddcn. Sir Robert attached himself to the 
 regent, AiTan, in whose ser\-ice he visited England and France. 
 After the assumption of the regency by the queen dowager, 
 Carnegie was clerk to the treasurer of Scotland, and one of the 
 commission for concludhig peace with England. At the Refor- 
 mation he treated with the lords of the congregation in name of 
 the regent,'but having gone over to their party he was sent as 
 their ufribassador to France and England. He died in 1556, 
 leaving a work on Scots law named '"Carnegie's Book." — J. B. 
 
 CARNOT, Joseph Francois Claude, an eminent French 
 criminal lawyer, bom at Nolai, department of C6te-d"0r, 22d 
 May, 1752 ; died in 1835.— W. J. M. R. 
 
 * CARNOT, LAZARE-HiPPOLYTE,son of the illustrious mem- 
 ber of convention, born at St. Omer in 1801. The assoaiate 
 of his great father in his exile — in Belgium, Bavai-ia, Poland, 
 and various parts of Germany, he returned to France in 1823, 
 and devoted himself to the bar. Led away, like many other 
 of the young sanguine and intelligent spirits of Paiis in those 
 days, Camot was deluded by the di-eams of St. Simon, and 
 imited himself closely to Enfantin. Repelled, however, by the 
 excesses of this enthusiast in reference to the question of m;ur- 
 riage, Camot, along with Jean Reynaud, Leroux, and others, 
 mifurled a flag of his own; and propagated more chastened 
 ideas through the columns of the Globe. He has never quite 
 escaped from the impressions raling this early period of liis 
 life ; but he has gained sufficient wisdom to know that the 
 statesman and the politician must, as such, stand apart at pre- 
 sent from all these theories, — that the thing to be asked for 
 is simple hberty to test them tlu-ough private enterprises and 
 organizations. Camot was elected deputy in 1839, 1842, and 
 1846, and took his place prominently among the ]\ fountain, or 
 the party of radical opposition. On the occuiTcnce of the revo- 
 lution of 1848, the portfolio of the ministry of public insfraction 
 was confided to him; and it cannot be denied, that, during his 
 brief tenure of office — aided by his friends, Reynaud, Renouvier, 
 &c. — he acted with an intelligence and good faith not unworthy 
 of his descent. He fell chiefly through the impradence of 
 Renouvier, with whom Socialism was still all in all — being 
 replaced by Vaulabelle. He was subsequently elected to the 
 constituent assembly for the department of the Seine by 200,000 
 suflrages ; but notwithstanding his strongly-pronounced repub- 
 licanism, he had the numliness to concur in the vote that " the 
 General Cavaignac had desen-ed well of his country." After 
 the coup d'elaff three republicans, Cavaignac, Camot, and 
 Henon, were retumed to the legislative assembly. Their seats 
 were vacated on their refusal to take the required oath. Camot 
 was again retumed in 1857 for one of the districts of Paris, but 
 he persisted in his refusal to acknowledge the legitimacy of the 
 power of Louis-Napoleon. He now pursues in Paris important 
 literary labours, being engaged on a History of Germany during 
 the Wax of Liberation, and the Memohs of his Father. He has 
 already written and published much — for instance, his curious 
 " Memoires de Bertrand Ban-ere," in 4 vols., and of " Henri 
 Gregoire, Bishop of Blois." There is also an interesting volume 
 by him — " (luelque.'s reflexions sur la domesticite." — J. P. N. 
 
 CARNOT, Lazark-Nicolas-^Lvrguerite, a mathemati- 
 cian, man of letters, engineer, and milit.ary administrator of the 
 highest order, and the most able, honest, and brave of French
 
 CAR 
 
 910 
 
 CAR 
 
 republican statesmen, was born at Nolai in the department of 
 Cote-d'Or, and province of Burgundy, on the 13th of Jlay, 
 1753, and died at JIagdeburg on the 23d of August, 1823, 
 His father was a member of a respectable family of middle 
 rank, and the parent of eighteen children. In 1771, the young 
 Carnot having passed the necessary examination with distinc- 
 tion, was admitted to the govemment school of engineering at 
 Me'zi^res, where for two years he received the instruction of 
 several distinguished professors, and especially of the famous 
 Monge. In 1773 he received his commission as lieutenant, and 
 was sent to Calais to superintend the progress of military and 
 hydraulic works. In the com'se of the ensuing year, besides dis- 
 tinguishing himself in his profession, he published various lyric 
 poems and scientific essays. The most remarkable of the latter 
 was his " Essai sur les Machines en general," first published in 
 1783, republished in 1786, and again republished and remodelled 
 under the title of " Essai sur les principes de I'equilibre et du 
 mouvement," in 1803. In that essay we first meet with a dis- 
 tinct temi — " force vive latente " — to designate what is now called 
 " potential energj'." In 1784 he obtained much celebrity by 
 gaining the prize offered by the Academy of Dijon for the eloge 
 of Jhirshal Vauban, and was elected a member of that academy. 
 The science and art of fortification were amongst the special 
 subjects of Camot's study, and he did much to improve them. 
 In 1 786 he manned Mademoiselle Dupont, a lady of the Pas 
 de Calais. On the breaking out of the Revolution, Carnot 
 strongly avowed repubhcan principles. In 1791 he was elected, 
 along mth his brother, deputy to the legislative assembly from 
 the department of the Pas de Calais. In August, 1792, he 
 took an active part in the suspension of the royal power. In 
 1793 he was one of those who voted for the execution of Louis 
 XVI. In the summer of 1793, having gone, as republican 
 commissioner, to superintend the operations for the defence of 
 Dunkirk, threatened by the army of the duke of York, Carnot 
 in person led the successful assault of the important position of 
 Fumes. On the revolt and flight of Dumourier, Carnot, being 
 present with the army of the north, exerted himself with suc- 
 cess to prevent the defection of the soldiers. He soon after- 
 wards again distinguished himself in actual combat, by leading 
 in person, and on foot, one of the attacking columns of the 
 army commanded by Jourdan, which dislodged the Austrians 
 from Wattignies, and forced them to raise the siege of Maubeuge. 
 On the 14th of August, 1793, Caniot was appointed a mem- 
 ber of the equally famous and infamous committee of public 
 safety. To Carnot alone was intrusted the whole conduct of 
 affairs of war. To his skill in directing and combining the 
 operations of sometimes as many as fourteen armies at once, 
 and to his judgment in choosing officers to command them, are 
 to be ascribed all the honour which belongs to the central 
 organization of the glorious career of victory that marked the 
 eai-ly wars of the French republic. Fully occupied by his own 
 duty of guarding the frontier of France, Carnot had no share 
 in the domestic butchery by which his colleagues earned for 
 the period of their domination, the name of the " reign of 
 teiTor." By the leaders amongst them he was regarded with 
 fear and hatred, which he repaid with contempt and abhorrence. 
 After the fall of the terrorists, Carnot continued to direct the 
 military affairs of the nation mth the same success as before. 
 The original idea of the polytechnic school is by many ascribed 
 to him. In 1795 he was appointed one of the five directors, 
 and was elected a member of the Institute. Soon aftenvards he 
 encountered a military genius, before which his own had to give 
 way ; for on his attempting to control the movements of Bona- 
 parte in Italy, the young general threatened to resign, unless he 
 were allowed to conduct his campaign according to his own plans, 
 and Carnot yielded. The jealousy of Carnot's colleagues in the 
 dhectory led to a plot for his assassination in 1797, from which 
 he narrowly escaped ; but was proscribed as a conspirator and 
 compelled to fly to Germany. In 1799, when Bonaparte seized 
 the supreme power, Carnot was recalled to France, and appointed 
 minister of war. In 1800, disapproving of the consular govern- 
 ment, as being opposed to his repubhcan principles, he resigned 
 liis office, and retired to a country seat at Etampes, where he 
 passed about two years in scientific labours and in the education 
 of his family. About this tune he rose to the rank of colonel of 
 engineers by seniority alone, never having used his former great 
 authority for his own promotion or profit. He ultimately 
 attained the rank of hcutenant-treneral. 
 
 In 1802 Carnot was appointed a tribune; in that capacity he 
 steadily opposed all measures of the consular govemment having 
 an aristocratic or monarchical tendency ; and finally stood alone 
 in opposing the elevation of Napoleon to the empire. It is to 
 the honour of both those great men that, to the end of his career, 
 Napoleon never ceased to evince the highest esteem and even 
 personal regard towards this inveterate political adversaiy. On 
 the abolition of the tribunate in 1806 Carnot retired into private 
 life. In 1809 the emperor granted him an annual pension of 
 10,000 francs, which he lost at the restoration of the Bourbons. 
 Shortly after the former date he was elected to the senate by his 
 native department of the Cote-d'Or, and was most favourably 
 received by the emperor, who offered him his choice of offices 
 and dignities, but in vain. At length, in 1814, when the power 
 of Napoleon was tottering to its fall, Carnot, believing the 
 safety of his country to be involved in the maintenance of the 
 empu-e against its threatened overthrow by foreign powers, came 
 forward to offer those services which he had refused in the time 
 of Napoleon's highest prosperity. The offer was gladly accepted 
 by the emperor, who appointed Camot to be governor of Ant- 
 werp, the most important fortress in his dominions. The day 
 after Carnot's amval in Antwerp its bombardment by the allies 
 commenced. Carnot practised with success those principles which 
 he had previously published respecting the defence of fortresses; 
 he held out firmly against force and negotiation for nearly three 
 months, and even after the news of Napoleon's abdication had 
 reached him ; and it was not until he was assured of the accept- 
 ance of Louis XVIII. by the French nation as its sovereign 
 that he surrendered, on the 18th of April, 1814. Camot on 
 arriving in Paris was coldly received by the king, to whom he 
 afterwards addressed a memorial on political affairs. 
 
 On the return of Napoleon from Elba, he created Camot a 
 count and peer, and minister of the interior. In that capacity 
 Carnot recommended liberal measures to the emperor, and for- 
 bade the practice of opening letters in the post-office. On the 
 final overthrow of Napoleon, it was Carnot whom he chargi d 
 with the reading of his abdication to the chamber of peers. 
 Camot then became a member of the pro^sional government, 
 and published an exposition of his political conduct. He alono, 
 of all Napoleon's ministers, was proscribed by the govemment of 
 Louis XVIII. Being in danger of arrest, he quitted France by 
 the aid of a passport furnished to him by the Emperor Alexander 
 I. of Russia. That sovereign, having a mind capable of appre- 
 ciating the great and good qualities of Camot, offered him the 
 rank of lieutenant-general in his army, which he declined, pre- 
 fei-ring to settle at JIagdebm-g, where he passed the remainder 
 of his life in the cultivation of literature and science, and died 
 on the 23rd of August, 1823. 
 
 We are informed that Carnot was of tall stature, and a noble 
 carriage ; that his features were expressive and regular, his 
 forehead broad and high, his eyes blue, lively, and full of intel- 
 ligence, his nose slightly aquiline ; and that his mouth was 
 expressive of serenity and kindness. 
 
 Carnot's poetiy is marked by simplicity and tenderness, his 
 political writings by truthfulness and energy. His works on 
 geometry and mechanics, full as they are of genius and origin- 
 ality, would be sufficient of themselves to immortalize his name ; 
 but their lustre grows pale before the splendour of his political 
 virtue. In him we see the man who rejected wealth, rank, 
 power, and all that common men prize — who braved the mob, 
 the demagogue, the despot, and all that common men fear — who 
 showed by his every act that patriotism, to common men a pre- 
 text or a fable, was to him a reality, and the ruhng principle of 
 his life — one of the few men of whom Horace's description is 
 true; — 
 
 " Justum et tenacem propositi virum ; 
 NoQ civium ardor pi'uva jiibentium, 
 Non vultiis instantis tyranni, 
 Alentequatit solidfi." 
 
 Besides the life of Carnot by Korte, his memou-s, chiefly com- 
 piled from his own documents, have been written by Tissot. 
 His life, by one of his sons, has long been announced as forth- 
 coming ; but so far as the author of this article has been able 
 to ascertain, it has not yet been published. — W. J. M. R. 
 
 CARNOT, Sady, son of Lazare Carnot, and captain of 
 engineers, disco\ercd one of the laws of the motive power of 
 heat, and published it in 1824, in an essay called "Reflexions 
 sur la Puissance Jlotrice du Feu." — W. J. JI. R.
 
 CAR 
 
 911 
 
 CAR 
 
 CAKO, Anxibale, a celebrated Italian poet, bom at Nova, 
 near Ancona, in 1507; died in 1566. At an early age, com- 
 pelled by the poverty of his parents to do something for his 
 own support, he was taken into the service of a nobleman, first 
 as tutor to his family, and then as his secretary, and so won 
 the favour of his patron as to be appointed to a priory and a 
 rich abbey. In 1543, after the death of this nobleman, Caro 
 found a patron of like munificence in Pierluigi Farnese, who 
 supplied him so liberally with money that he could gratify his 
 taste for archaeology by collecting a museum of antiquities. 
 This in course of time became one of the richest in Europe. 
 Caro's fame rests principally on his translation of the jEneid 
 into blank verse, a work which has been warmly praised by 
 Maffei, Sismondi, and others. He left a volume of rhymes, a 
 play, " Gli Straccioni," and some translations from the Greek. 
 His " Lettere Famigliari " are admirable both in style and 
 matter.— A. C. I^I. 
 
 CAROLAN, TuRLOUGH 0', the celebrated Irish bai-d, was 
 bom in the year 1670, at Nobber, or, as some asserc, at a neigh- 
 bouring village in the county of Westmeath, and died at the 
 age of sixty-eight in 1738. Early deprived of his sight by the 
 small-pox, the inhabitant of a country recently desolated by a 
 civil war, and add to these his propensity to dissipation, we 
 must wonder at the proofs he has given of the depth and versa- 
 tility of his talents. Some idea of the fertility of his invention 
 may be formed from the circumstance, that one harper who 
 attended the Belfast meeting in 1792, and who had never seen 
 Cardan, nor been taught by any person who had an opportunity 
 of imitating him, had acquired upwards of one hundred of his 
 tunes, which he asserted constituted but an inconsiderable por- 
 tion of them. As an instance of the facility with which he 
 committed tunes to memory, as well as of the astonishing ease 
 with which he could produce new melodies, take the following 
 fact, vouched for by the Monthly Revieic : — " At the house of 
 an Irish nobleman, where Geminiani was present, Carolan chal- 
 lenged that eminent composer to a trial of skill. The musician 
 played over on his violin the fifth concerto of Vivaldi. It was 
 instantly repeated by Carolan on his hai-p, although he had 
 never heard it before. The surprise of the company was increased 
 when he asserted that he would compose a concerto himself at 
 the moment ; and the more so when he actually played that 
 admirable piece known ever since as Carolan's Concerto." Caro- 
 lan was the first who departed from the purely Irish style in 
 composition ; but, although he delighted in the polished compo- 
 sitions of the Italian and German schools, wth which style many 
 of his melodies are strongly tinged, yet he felt the full excellence 
 of the ancient music of his own country, and has been heard to 
 say that he would rather have been the author of Molly JI 'Alpine 
 — a channing original air by O'Connallon — than of any melody 
 he himself had ever composed. Yet, it must be admitted that 
 he has produced some airs of surpassing tenderness and of purely 
 Irish structure. We are not informed as to the exact time or 
 cause of Carolan's commencing his career as an itinerant musi- 
 cian; whether he " n'eut abord d'autre Apollon que le besoin" — 
 whether it was necessity or a love of music which induced him 
 to adopt that mode of profession. However, without further 
 dwelling on this question, we can fancy our bard mounted on a 
 good horse, and attended by a harper in the character of a ser- 
 vant. Wherever he goes, the gates of the mansions of the 
 nobility and gentry are thrown open to him. Like the Demo- 
 docus of Homer, he is received with respect, and a distinguished 
 place assigned him at the table ; near him is his harper, ready 
 to accompany his voice. Ritson considers him the genuine 
 representative of the ancient bard. 
 
 It was during these peregrinations that Carolan composed most 
 of those airs which continue to afford delight, and he seldom 
 failed to pay the tribute of a song for the kindness and respect 
 shown to him ; thus, as Goldsmith remarks, " his songs in general 
 (for he wrote both words and music) may be compared to those 
 of Pindar, as they have frequently the same flights of imagination, 
 and are composed (I don't say written, for he could not write), 
 merely to flatter some man of fortune upon some excellence of 
 the same kind." Thus, like Pindar's, one is prai.sed for his 
 hospitality, another for the beauty or the good qualities of his 
 family, and the like. His playful song of 
 
 "O'Rmirke's noble feast will ne'er be forgot, 
 By those who were there, or those wlio were not," 
 
 is generally kno\vn as being translated by the witty Dean Swift, 
 
 but it by no means takes the first place amongst our bard's 
 numerous compositions. Our "Irish Orpheus" was inordinately 
 fond of " Irish wine," as Pierre le Grand used to call the whisky ; 
 bitt it is remarked tliat he seldom used it to excess, and that he 
 only imbibed that spirit from the feeling that it was not ungi-ateful 
 to the muse. Carolan was not the only bard who drew inspira- 
 tion fi-om that generous source, for " there have been several 
 planets in the poetical hemisphere that seldom shone but when 
 illuminated by the rays of rosy ^\nne." Though Carolan died 
 universally lamented, he would have died unsung, had not the 
 humble muse of 11 'Cube poured a few elegiac strains over his 
 cold remains. He left seven children, six daughters and one son. 
 The latter, who had studied music, went to London, where he 
 taught the Irish hai-p. He published in 1747 a collection of 
 his father's music. To this work a short preface is prefixed, in 
 which most fulsome praise is lavished on our bard, and a parallel 
 drawn between him and Horace. — (Walker's Irish Bards ; Bunt- 
 ing's Third Collection, &c.)— E. F. R. 
 
 CAROLINE (Amelia Elizabeth), daughter of Charles 
 William, duke of Brunswick, was born 17th May, 1768, and 
 married in 1795 to George, prince of Wales, afterwards George 
 IV. As the man-iage was one of mere convenience on the 
 part of the prince, he from the first treated the unfortu- 
 nate princess with indifference, which speedily deepened into 
 hatred, and three months after the birth of their daughter, the 
 Princess Charlotte, a separation took place at his instance. 
 Caroline took up her residence at Blackheath, where she dis- 
 pensed her charities with a liberal, though not always .with a 
 prudent hand. Meanwhile unfavourable rumours arose regarding 
 her conduct, and in 1808 the most serious accusations were 
 brought agamst her by her husband. But a secret commission 
 appointed by the king to inquire into these charges, after a rigid 
 scratiny, acquitted her of all guilt. At length, goaded beyond 
 endurance by the insults heaped upon her by her hirsband and 
 his infamous associates, she resolved to seek peace and comfort 
 abroad; and, contrary' to the urgent advice of her friends, she 
 quitted England in 1814, with the view of travelling in Italy 
 and Greece. She spent six years on the continent, and on the 
 accession of her husband to the British throne in 1820, the most 
 liberal offers of money were made to induce her to renounce the 
 title of queen, and to remain pennanently abroad. These pro- 
 posals, however, were indignantly spurned by her, and she 
 immediately declared her determination to return home, for the 
 pui-pose of asserting her rights. On her arrival in England the 
 ministry, at the urgent demand of the king, proceeded to take 
 steps for her degradation and divorce, on the alleged ground that, 
 during her residence on the continent, she had been guilty of 
 adultery with one of her attendants, an Italian named Bergami. 
 The premier. Lord Liverpool, accordingly laid before the house 
 of lords on July 5th, 1820, a bill of pains and penalties against 
 the queen. Her defence was conducted with transcendent ability 
 by her counsel, Messrs. Brougham and Denman, and the speech 
 of the former in particular is one of the finest specimens of 
 forensic eloquence in the English language. Meanwhile the tide 
 of popular feeling ran high in favour of Caroline. The shameful 
 treatment which she had throughout received from her husband, 
 the mode in which the investigation into her conduct had been 
 conducted, and the character of the witnesses adduced against 
 her, roused the indignation of the public to such a pitch, that 
 there can be little doubt a serious insurrection would have broken 
 out, if the obnoxious measure had been carried. But the majority 
 for the second reading having dwindled down to nine, the bill was 
 withdrawn on the 10th of November. Further indignity, how- 
 ever, was yet in store for the hapless princess. In July, 1821, 
 when the coronation of George IV. was about to take place, 
 Caroline demanded that she should be crowned along with her 
 husband, but the privy council decided against her claim. In 
 spite of this decision, she presented herself at the door of West- 
 minster abbey on the day of the coronation (19th July), but was 
 refused admi.ssion. This was her last contest with her husband, 
 for on the 2nd of August following she was attacked with 
 inflammation, which in five days temiinated her troubled career. 
 (See Lord Brougham's Speeches, vol. i.) — J. T. 
 
 CAROLINE (WiLHicLJiiNA Dohothea), daughter of John 
 Frederick, marquis of Brandenburg-.-Vnspach, and wife of George 
 II., king of Great Britain, was born in 1683, and married George, 
 then electoral prince of Hanover, in 1705. On the death of 
 George I. in 1727, her husband succeeded to the throne; and
 
 CAR 
 
 912 
 
 CAR 
 
 from tins period till her death she and Walpole were the real 
 governors of the country. The king, who rarely took any step 
 against her will, had implicit confidence in her judgment and 
 affection, though he was in continual dread of the imputation of 
 being governed by his wife. But she had the dexterity to per- 
 suade him that in adopting the course which she and Walpole 
 had previously settled, he was only following the dictates of his 
 own judgment. Her power, however, was dearly bought ; for 
 she often sacrificed her ovm inclinations and tastes to his wishes, 
 connived at his sinful connection with Lady Suffolk, and even 
 submitted to bear the imputation of his avarice and other vices. 
 She possessed considerable personal attractions, together with 
 a vigorous understanding and indomitable resolution, combined 
 with great tact and address, which, however, not unfrequently 
 degenerated into duplicity. When inoculation for the small-pox 
 was first introduced into England, she had the courage to cause 
 her own daughters to be inoculated by Dr. !Mead. Her learning 
 was considerable, and she was fond of patronizing literaiT and 
 scientific men. It was at her request that Newton drew up an 
 abstract of a treatise on Ancient Chronology, and she pressed 
 Halley to become the tutor of her second son, William, duke of 
 Cumberland. Her favourite study was divinity; she delighted in 
 controversial treatises, and Butler's Analogy was the work most 
 frequently perused by her. Walpole says she had rather weak- 
 ened her faith than enlightened it by study. She was certainly 
 not orthodox in her creed, but though, as Walpole affirms, she 
 patronized " the less-believing clergy," such as Whiston and 
 Clarke, yet, on the other hand, it is no less certain that Butler, 
 Berkeley, and Seeker owed their advancement to her influence. 
 She died 20th November, 1737. A mumte and graphic descrip- 
 tion has been given by Walpole, Hen-ey, and Chesterfield of the 
 character and habits of CaroUne, and of the mingled gaiety and 
 gi'ossness of the court during her reign. — J. T. 
 
 CAROLINE MARIA, queen of Naples, daughter of Francis I. 
 and Maria Theresa, was married to Ferdinand the Neapolitan 
 monarch in 1768. The French invasion of Italy compelled her, 
 with the rest of the royal family, to take refuge in Sicily in 
 1798. She participated in the restoration which followed the 
 full of Napoleon. Born in 1752; died in 1814. — W. B. 
 
 CAROLINE MATILDA, queen of Denmark, daughter of Fre- 
 derick Lewis, prince of Wales, and sister of George III. of England, 
 born in 1751, was married to Christian VII. in 1766. Her beauty 
 and amiable disposition encountered in the weak intellect, fickle 
 temper, and dissipated habits of her husband an adverse influence, 
 which speedily consigned her to neglect, cruelty, and insult. A 
 reconciUation was effected through the representations of Count 
 Struensee ; but it was followed by reports prejudicial to the 
 honour of the queen, who seems to have been imprudent, though 
 not guilty, in her intercom'se with the minister. On his downfall 
 she was arrested, tried on a charge of infidelity, and divorced. 
 Three years afterwards she died a prisoner in the castle of Zell 
 in Hanover, at the age of twentv-four. — W. B. 
 
 CAROLOSTADT or CARLSTADT, Andrew Bodenstelv, 
 one of the first reformers, was a native of Carolostadt in Fran- 
 conia. Being professor of divinity, and archdeacon at Wittem- 
 berg, he early joined Luther and did good service to the Refonn- 
 ation. But in 1522, while Luther was at Wartburg, Carolostadt 
 became the leader of the iconoclasts at WittemJjcrg, inciting them 
 to great excesses. Laying claim to a peculiar spiritual enlight- 
 enment, he taught that learning was useless, and through his 
 influence many of the students renounced their studies. Luther 
 of course ojjposed this fanaticism, and the breach between the 
 two was widened by Carolostadt's embracing the sacramentarian 
 doctrines. After retiring for a time to Orlamund and Jena, he 
 was banished from the elector's dominions and wandered through 
 various German towns, encouraging the disturbances then so 
 rife. Recalled in 1525, chiefly through Luther's intercession, he 
 recanted some of his more extreme opinions, and afterwards 
 retired to Switzerland, where he was received by Zwingle, who 
 sympathized with his doctrine of the sacrament. He seems to 
 have spent his later years in something of the calmer zeal that had 
 at first distinguished him. He died at Basle in 1 541. Carolostadt 
 was the first of the reformers who ventured to marry. — .1. B. 
 
 CAROSELLI, Antonio: this painter was bom at Rome in 
 1573. He was a pupil of Caravaggio, whose manner he imitated, 
 adding a grace and elegance of his own. He was remarkable 
 for the extreme felicity of his copies of more renowned artists. 
 He died at Rome in 1651.— W T. 
 
 CAROSO, F.\nRiTio, " da Sermoneta," was the author of a 
 valuable book on dancing, entitled " II Ballarino," published at 
 Venice in 1581, 4to. This singular volume contains engraved 
 plates of the various dances used in Italy in the sixteenth cen- 
 tur}-, as also the music in tablature for the lute. — E. F. R. 
 
 CAROVE, FiUEDRicH WiLHEi.M, a German philosophical 
 and controversial writer, was born at Coblenz, June 20, 1789, 
 and studied the law. After having been employed for some 
 years in the French administrative sendee in Holland, he refund 
 from office in 1815, and devoted himself to the study of philosophy 
 under Hegel at Heidelberg. Here he became one of the origin- 
 ators of the Burschenscliaft, and was one of their representatives 
 at the famous Wartburgfest. In 1818 he followed Hegel to 
 Berlin, lectured some time at Breslau, and finally retired to 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine, in order to devote himself exclusively 
 to Hterary labours. In 1848-49, he took a prominent part in 
 the proceedings of the Vorparliament, and of the peace congress, 
 and died at Heidelberg in 1852. Several of his works are 
 directed against papacy, and the rest are descriptive of the philo- 
 sophical and religious state of France. — K. E. 
 
 CARPANI, Giuseppe, bom at Rome on the 2nd of May, 
 1683 ; died in 1765. He entered the order of Jesuits in 1704, 
 and became professor of rhetoric, philosophy, and theology, in 
 the Roman college. Under his academic name of Tin-o Creo- 
 polita he published two ascetic works, entitled " De Jesu 
 Infante," which have been translated into many languages. He 
 is also the author of seven tragedies in Latin which have been 
 highly praised, and of some theological essays. — A. C. M. 
 
 CARPANI or CARPINI, G.i^tano, a musician of the middle 
 of the eighteenth century. He held the office of maestro di 
 capella in the Jesus Church at Rome, and was also connected 
 with several other Jesuitical establishments. He was celebrated 
 as the most profound contrapuntist of his time, and he produced 
 many ecclesiastical compositions of elaborate character. He was 
 the instmctor of Jannaconi and Lorenzo Baini, both eminent 
 masters of the same Roman school, and also of Clementi. The 
 roughness of his manner is as much spoken of as the extent of 
 his learning. — G. A. M. 
 
 CARPENTER, George, a British officer, who rose to be 
 Baron Cai-penter of Killaghy in Ireland. Entering the army 
 in 1672, he served in Ireland, Flanders, and Spain, distinguishing 
 himself at the unfortunate battle of Almanza, at Almenara, and 
 especially at Britmega, where he bravely defended in person a 
 breach in the wall, and received a wound which nearly proved 
 fatal. In 1714 he entered parliament, but had soon to be sent 
 north to quell the rebellion in Scotland. In 1716 he was made 
 governor of Minorca, and commander-in-chief of the forces iu 
 Scotland. He died in 1731-32.— J. B. 
 
 CARPENTER, Dr. Lant, a learned unitarian clergyman, 
 was bom in 1780, and received his education first at the dissent- 
 ing academy, Northampton, and afterwards at the university 
 of Glasgovr. He became in 1805 the pastor of a unitarian con- 
 gregation in Exeter, where he remained twelve years. The 
 university of Glasgow confeiTcd on him the degree of LL.D. in 
 1806. He removed to Bristol in 1817, and performed the duties 
 of the ministerial office there for nineteen years. While travel- 
 ling for the recovery of his health, he accidentally fell overboard 
 on his passage from Naples to Leghorn, and was drowned, oth 
 April, 1840. Dr. Caq^enter was a voluminous author. His 
 principal work is entitled " A Harmony or Synoptical Arrange- 
 ment of the Gospels." He also wrote " An Introduction to the 
 Geography of the New Testament;" " Unitarianism, the doc- 
 trine of the Gospel;" "Principles of Education, Intellectual, 
 Moral, and Physical;" "Sermons on Practical Subjects;" various 
 other polemical works, and articles on grammar, and on mental 
 and moral philosophy, &c. — J. T. 
 
 * CARPENTER, Mrs. I^Iargaret, bom at Salisbury in 
 1793. She is the daughter of Alexander R. Geddes, Esq., an 
 associate of the academy. She received her earliest les.son8 
 in painting from an artist of her native town. The earl of 
 Radnor was her first patron, and did much to foster her talents 
 as well as her ambition, by throwing open to her his fine gallery 
 of paintings. On his recommendation she sent pictures for 
 three seasons to the exhibition of the Society of Arts, and in 
 1813 she obtained the gold modal for a child's head, .iftcrvvards 
 purchased by the marquis of Stafi'ord. The following year she 
 removed to London, where she married in 1815 Jtr. W. H. 
 Carpenter, then a curator, and since keeper of the prints and
 
 CAR 
 
 913 
 
 CAR 
 
 drawings of the British mnseuin. For thirty years Mrs. Car- 
 penter has been a constant contributor to the exhibitions of the 
 Royal Academy and British Institution. Finnness of touch and 
 fineness of colour are the remarkable qualities of her art. She 
 contributed to the General Exliibitiou of 1855 a portrait of an 
 aged woman, which excited attention. The sister of Mrs. Car- 
 penter married in 1822 the late William Collins, R.A. — W. T. 
 
 CARPENTER, Nathaniel, an En<:;li&h divine, born in 
 1588 at North-Lew in Devonshhe, where his father, John Car- 
 penter, the author of some sermons well known in their day, 
 was rector. He was appointed by Ai'chbishop Usher one of 
 his chaplains in Dublin, and was intrusted with the education of 
 a number of sons of Roman catholics, who, as king's wards, were 
 to be brought up in the protestant faith. He seems to have 
 risen to the dignity of dean, and died in Dublin about 1625 or 
 1638. He pubhshed "Philosophia libera, triplici exercitationum 
 decade proposita," 1621 — one of the earliest attacks on the Aris- 
 toteUan philosophy; "Geography," in two books, 1625 ; and a 
 number of sermons bearing on political subjects. — J. B. 
 
 CARPENTER, Richard, an English divine and poet of the 
 seventeenth century, was a student of Cambridge, but having 
 gone to study abroad, he became a Roman cathoUc. Entering 
 the Benedictine order, he came to England to proselytize ; but 
 whUe there he returned to the protestant faith, and became 
 rector of Poling in Sussex. At the time of the cinl war he 
 went to Paris, became again a Roman catholic ; returned once 
 more to England, and once more left the bosom of mother church, 
 only, however, to retm-n a third time and to die in her com- 
 munion. He pubhshed a number of works, of which only two 
 are worthy of note — a treatise, entitled " Experience, History, 
 and Divinity," 1642 ; and a comedy, published after the Restora- 
 tion, named " The Pragmatical Jesuit." — J. B. 
 
 * CARPENTER, Willl\m Benjamin, :\I.D., one of the 
 most distinguished physiologists and writers on physiology of the 
 present day. He is the son of the late Dr. Lant Carpenter of 
 Bristol. On leaving school he was destined for the career of a 
 cinl engineer, and commenced a course of study accordingly. 
 His tastes, however, led him ultimately to choose the medical 
 profession, and he entered at University College about the year 
 1833, where, as a student, he was distingiushed for his accurate 
 knowledge, and for the elegance of his written compositions. 
 He passed his examination at the College of Surgeons, and the 
 Society of Apothecaries, in 1835, and afterwards pursued his 
 Studies at Edinburgh, where his capacity for original thought 
 and dealing with the most profound physiological discussions 
 became apparent. One of his earliest papers on the subject of 
 physiology was published in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical 
 Journal (No. 132), entitled " On the Yoluntarv' and Instinctive 
 Actions of Living Beings." In this paper may be discovered the 
 germs of those views he has so fully developed in his various 
 works on physiology. He graduated at Edinburgh in 1839, but 
 not until he had published the three following papers — 
 " On the Unity of Function in Organized Beings ;" " On 
 the Differences of the Laws Regulating Vital and Physical 
 Phenomena ;" " Dissertation on the Physiological Inferences to 
 be deduced from the Structure of the Nervous System in the 
 invertebrate class of Animals." This paper was published in 
 Edinburgh in 1838, and translated in MuUer's Archio for 1840. 
 In these papers he laid the foundation of those principles which 
 he afterwards developed more fully in an independent work, 
 entitled " Principles of General and Comparative Physiology," 
 1839. This was one of the first works in our language, giving 
 a general %new of the science of life, and pointing out the 
 relation of physical laws to vital phenomena. It was a very 
 remarkable production for so young a man, and soon gained for 
 Dr. Carpenter the recognition of physiologists, and the position 
 amongst them which he so well deserved. A second edition 
 appeared in 1841. He now settled at ISristol, with the intention 
 of practising his profcssiun, and was appointed lecturer on medical 
 jurisprudence in the medical school of that city. The practice of 
 his profession was, however, less in accordance with his tastes 
 than the pursuit of those studies by which alone the science of 
 medicine can be advanced. With an almost unrivalled ficility of 
 acquiring and connnunicating knowledge, it is not to be wondered 
 at that he found it more agreeable to write books on science 
 than to submit to the dnidgery of medical practice. In 1843 
 and subsequent years he wrote the " Popular Cyclopedia of 
 Science," embracing the subjects of mechanics, vegetable physio- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 logy and botany, animal physiology and zoology. These works 
 were professedly only compilations ; but they contain many of 
 the author's original views, and are written in a very agreeable 
 style. In 1846 Dr. Carpenter published a work on the 
 " Principles of Human Physiology," which reached a fourth 
 edition in 1853. It may be truly said that this is the best 
 work extant on the subject, and has done much to establish the 
 author's reputation as a great physiologist. ^\Tiilst the " Human 
 Physiology" was passing through its several editions, the " Prin- 
 ciples of Comparative and General Physiology " reached a third 
 edition, thus forming a companion volume. It was, however, 
 thought desirable to separate the general from the comparative 
 physiology, and in 1854 a volume entitled the " Principles of 
 Comparative Physiology" was published. This will be followed 
 by the " Principles of General Physiology," m one volume. These 
 three volumes will form a cyclopedia of biological science in 
 themselves. This work indicates not only a vast amount of 
 labour in its production, but a large extent of careful reading 
 and research. Such works might well have occupied a lifetime, 
 but Dr. Carpenter, with indefatigable industry, has been a con- 
 stant contributor to the Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, 
 where some of the most important articles are from his f)en. 
 In addition to the works above mentioned. Dr. Cai-penter has 
 published a " Manual of Human Physiology," for the use of 
 students, which has gone through several editions. For many 
 years he edited the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical 
 Review, and was for some time lectm'er on general anatomy and 
 physiology at the London Hospital school of medicine ; and an 
 examiner in physiology and comparative anatomy in the uni- 
 versity of London. In 1856 he resigned these positions, on 
 being elected registrar to the university of London, which office 
 he now holds. He is also the professor of medical jurisprudence 
 at University College. Dr. Carpenter has since published a work 
 " On the Microscope, its Revelations and its Uses." It displays 
 the same industry, accuracy, and impartiality, as his other 
 writings, and undoubtedly deserves a high position amongst 
 works devoted to an account of the uses and structure of this 
 instrument. Dr. Carpenter has been for some time engaged in 
 pie;iaring a work for publication by the Ray Society, contain- 
 ing the results of his researches on the structure, functions, and 
 general history of the family Foraminifera. In 1849 he gained 
 a prize of one hundred gumeas ofl'ered for the best essay on 
 alcohoUc liquors. His essay was published in 1850, under the 
 title of the " LTse and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors." He advo- 
 cates the principles of total abstinence, and has acqiured great 
 popularity among the friends of this system. Dr. Carpenter 
 occupies the position of resident director at University Hall, an 
 establishment built for the purpose of insuring a comfortable 
 home and personal supervision to young men pursuing their 
 studies at University College, chiefly connected with the Uni- 
 taiian denomination. — E. L. 
 
 CARPENTIER, Pierre, a member of the Benedictine order 
 of St. Maur, born on the 2nd Febraaiy, 1697. He distin- 
 guished himself for the zeal with which he pursued his pains- 
 taking research into old MSS., following the footsteps of 
 Ducange. The latter had in his Glossarium ad Scriptores mediaa 
 et infinife Latinitatis, gone through the corrupt Latin of the 
 middle ages, but not so perfectly as not to leave room for the 
 mighty erudition of Carpentier to correct errors and supply 
 deficiencies. Ducange's glossary, as enlarged by Carpentier, is a 
 most useful work of reference. He died in Paris, December, 
 1769.— J. F. C. 
 
 CARPI, GiHOLAiMO da. this artist was bom at FeiTsra in 
 1501. He was a pupil of Benvenuto Garofolo, and was accounted 
 one of the most promising of his schol.ars. He went to Bologna 
 and practised portrait painting, visiting subsequently Parma and 
 Modcna, and other cities of Italy. He was early imbued with a 
 sense of reverence for the works of Correggio, and applied bini- 
 sclf to the imitation of the gi-aces of that master. He succeeded 
 in this to the full. Many of his copies were accepted as the 
 genuine original works. But he was not a skilful copyist only; 
 liis own unaided eft'orts brought him extraordinaiy commenda- 
 tion. His most celebrated works are his " Adoration of the 
 Magi," and his " Madonna and Samts," at Bologna. He died in 
 1556.— W. T. 
 
 CARPI, Ugo da : this painter and engraver was born at 
 Rome about 1486. To him is generally attributed the invention 
 of that method of wood-engraving known as chi.aro-oscnro, per- 
 
 5 Z
 
 fonned with three blocks of oak wood of different gi-adations of 
 shadow. Tliis manner of ait was afterwards earned to perfection 
 by Baldasarre Pemzzi and by Paraiegiano. Carpi's works are 
 chiefly copies of the works of Raffaelle, uicluding the C;irtoous. 
 He died about 1530.— W. T. 
 
 CARPIXI, JoHX DE Plaxo, a celebrated traveller, was 
 born probably in the kingdom of Naples, early in the thirteenth 
 century, and became a friar of the Franciscan order. One 
 of six monks sent into Chinese Tartary in 1246, to negotiate 
 on the part of Pope Innocent IV. with the reigning descendant 
 of the ]\Iongol conqueror, Jenghis Khan, he wrote an account of 
 the jouniey and was the first to give Europeans any tnie idea of 
 the country and customs of the dreaded Tartars. His book, or 
 the substance of it, was inserted by Eamusio in his " Kaccolta di 
 Ka\-igazioui e Viaggi," Venice, 1556, and from it copied by 
 Hakluyt into his Navigations and Discoveries. — J. B. 
 
 CAKPIOXI, GiULio. This painter was bom at Venice in 
 1611, and was a pupU of Alessandro Varotari, called Paduanino. 
 He painted after the manner of Paolo Veronese. His paintings 
 are principally of a small size. The subjects are often of a 
 Bacchanalian character, and are remarkable for spmt of execution 
 and beauty of colom". Considerable resemblance has been found 
 in them to the works of Poussin. He also painted sacred sub- 
 jects for the Venetian churches. His pictm-es are rare and 
 highly valued. He died in IGT-l. — His son Carlo had some 
 success as a portrait pamter. — W. T. 
 
 CARPOCRATES, or CARPOCRAS, of Alexandria, a 
 gnostic, founder of the sect of Cai^pocratians, hved in the reign 
 of the Emperor Hadrian. Like the other gnostics, he maintained 
 the existence of one Supreme Principle, and the formation of 
 the miiverse by angels. Others of his tenets were that Jesus 
 was but human, having been born in the ordinaiy coui'se of 
 nature of Joseph and JIary ; and that although endowed, ui 
 consequence of what he had seen in a pre-existent state, with 
 wonderful firmness and pmity of mind, it was not impossible to 
 equal and even excel him in these respects. The sect of the 
 Carpocratians, according to some historians, was distinguished 
 even from all other gnostic sects by the immoral practices of its 
 members, who, deducing from their system the maxim that 
 there is no distiuction between right and wrong not depending 
 merely on human opinion, and taking their lusts for monitors of 
 the will of the Supreme — indulged in the most open and flagi-ant 
 licentiousness. Other historians have defended the character of 
 the sect, and treated this charge of systematic immorahty as a 
 calumny. — J. S., G. 
 
 CARPZOV, the name of a German family, various members 
 of which have attained distinction as jurists or as theologians : — 
 
 Carpzov, Benedict, an emhient German jurisconsult, was 
 bom at Wittenberg in May 27, 1595, and died at Leipzig, 
 August 30, 1666. Besides the chair of criminal law in the 
 university of Leipzig, he held several high posts, and wrote 
 a number of important works on juiisprudence. According to 
 the spuit of his age, he was a gi-eat defender of the rack and of 
 capital punishment. He is said to have pronounced more than 
 twenty thousand sentences of death, and to have read his bible 
 fifty-two times. — K. E. 
 
 Caupzov, Johann Gottlob, a German protestant theo- 
 logian and orientalist, born at Dresden in 1679, became, after 
 many years' service in the church and in various universities, 
 first pastor of the cathedral of Liibeck, where he died m 1767. 
 His works are numerous and display an uncommon acquaintance 
 with hiljHcal litcratm-e. — J. S., G. 
 
 CARR, John, an Enghsh architect, a native of Yorkshire, 
 was born in 1721, and died in 1807. He belonged to the 
 Anglo-Palladian school, and adorned his native county and the 
 districts of England adjouiing with many noble buildings. He 
 realized a very large fortune. 
 
 CARR, Sir John, a writer of poetry and books of travel, 
 was bom in Devonshire in 1772, and died in 1832. His first 
 publication was named " The Fury of Discord, a poem," 1803. 
 Afterwards he wrote '' The Stranger in France;" " The Sea-side 
 Hero, a drama;" '"A Northern Summer, or Travels Round the 
 Baltic ; " and " The Stranger in Ireland " — a work severely 
 satirized by Edward Dubois in a volume entitled My Pocket- 
 book, or Hints for a righte merrie and conccitede torn- to be 
 called the Stranger in Ireland. Sir John also published an 
 account of travels in Scotland, in Spain, and in the Balearic 
 Isles, and in 1809 a volume of poems. — J. B. 
 
 CARRA, Je.\n Louis, born in 1748 at Pont de Vcvl,-. 
 While a young man he entered the service of the hospodur ni' 
 Moldavia, and on his return to France became employed in the 
 king's library ; but on the Revolution breaking out, entered into 
 the ranks of the enemies of the court. Becoming a member of 
 the Jacobin club, he was one of the loudest in calling for war 
 against foreign despots ; and for the sake of more efficaciously 
 putting forward his ultra-democratic views, founded the Journal 
 de UEtat et du Citoyen. Elected a member of the convention, he 
 took a leading part in denouncing military operations which did 
 not seem vigorous enough, aud on account of his presumed mihtary 
 knowledge and ardour, was sent to watch Dumouriez. The 
 commission was fatal to himself; for, whether rightly or wrougly, 
 he was in tm-n accused of havmg allowed himself to be captivated 
 by that suspected general, and, at the instance of the terrible 
 Murat, tried and executed, 31st October, 1793. — J. F. C. 
 
 CARRA-SAINT-CYR, Jean Fr.^(;'OIS, Count de, a French 
 general, bom in 1756, began his military career in the American 
 war, and attained the rank of general of brigade in 1794. He 
 contributed gi-eatly to gain the battles of ]\Iarengo, Hohenlinden, 
 and Eylau, and in 1805, as commander of the army of occupation 
 in Naples, took 6000 prisoners after the retreat of the Ai'chduke 
 Charles. He was created baron of the empire m 1808, and was 
 appointed governor of Dresden and of the Illyrian provinces. His 
 abandonment of Hamburg in 1813 brought him into disgrace 
 with Napoleon, but in 1814 the emperor again availed himself of 
 St. Cyr's great mihtary talents, and confided to him the defence 
 of Bouchain, Valenciennes, and Conde. After the retm-n of the 
 Bourbons, St. Cyr was nominated by Louis XVIII. count and 
 chevalier of the order of St. Louis, and appointed governor of 
 French Guienne. He retired from active life in 1824, and died 
 in 1834.— J. T. 
 
 CARRACCI : the name of three cousms, Lodovico, Agos- 
 TiNO, and Annirale, celebrated painters of Bologna of the 
 close of the sixteenth centmy, and the founders of the famous 
 school of painting of that city, distinguished for its numerous 
 able disciples : — 
 
 Carracci, Lodovico, the eldest, the actual founder of the 
 school, was born at Bologna, April 21, 1555. He was educated 
 in the school of the pamter Prospero Fontana, and appeared so 
 inapt in his art, that he acquired the nickname of il Bue (the 
 Ox) among his fellow pupils. What he wanted in quickness, he 
 made up for by his perseverance. Afcer leaving Fontana, he 
 studied with Passignano in Florence, and then successively visited 
 Parma, ilantua, and Venice, to make himself acquainted with 
 the works of the great masters of these celebrated cities of 
 the arts — Con-eggio, Ginlio Romano, and Titian. Having dis- 
 covered distinct excellencies in these several masters, and exclu- 
 sively possessed, it occurred to him that by combining their 
 quahties, a really perfect style might be developed. This became 
 the great eSbrt and amblti(m of his after life, and was the origin 
 of the designation eclectic, as given to the school and style of 
 the Cai-racci, as explained in the sonnet afterwards written by 
 .\gostino : — 
 
 " Let him who a good painter would be 
 Acquire the drawing of Rome, 
 Venetian action, and Venetian shadow, 
 And tlie dignified colouring of Lomljardy; 
 Tlie terrible manner of Michelangelo, 
 Titian's truth and nature, 
 The sovereign purity of Correggio's style, 
 And the true symmetry of a Raphael ; 
 The decorum and thoroughness of Tibaldi, 
 The invention of the learned Primaticcio, 
 And a little of Parmegiauo's grace. 
 But without so much study and toil, 
 Let him only apply himself to imitate the works 
 Which our Niccolino has left us here." 
 
 This sonnet sufficiently explains the principles of the eclectic 
 school, and shows their purely technical tendency. 
 
 Lodovico opened his school in 1589, his cousins, Agostino 
 and Annibale, assisting him in his labours. They worked 
 together until t'ue year 1600, when it was carried on by Lodo- 
 vico alone until his death, December, 13, 1619. Domenichino, 
 Guido, Albani, and Lanfranco, were all pupils of this school, 
 which produced a change in the principles of most other schools 
 in Italy. General excellence of execution became the common 
 aim — drawing, coloming, and chiaro-oscuro ; the higher quahties 
 of expression and composition being practically neglected in the 
 eager pursiut after the more palpable and material quahties.
 
 Such is the nature, and such were the consequences of the 
 academic eclecticism of the Carracci. Lodovico was equally distin- 
 guished for his oil paintings and his frescos. In tlie opinion of 
 Sir Joshua Rej'nolds, no painter knew better how to harmonize 
 the treatment of a picture witli its subject than Lododco Car- 
 racci. His style was sombre, and his pictures were generally of 
 grave and dignified subjects ; indeed, both somewhat of the 
 ascetic in taste. In the gallery of Bologna are thirteen of his 
 oil pictures. His cliief frescos were those in the convent of 
 San Jlichele in Bosco, but now known only by the prints of 
 Giovannini. — (// Clmistro dl San Michele in Bosco dl Bologna, 
 &c., 1694.) " Susannah and the Two Elders," in the National 
 Gallery, is a very tine example of the works of this painter, and 
 of unusual excellence in colour. — (Belvisi, Elogio Storico del 
 Pittore Lodovico Carracci, Bologna, 1825.) 
 
 Carracci, Agostino, was born at Bologna in the summer 
 of 1559, according to the inscription on his tomb, published 
 by Belloii — " OB. v. id. mart, mdcii. ^t. svje. am. xliii." 
 Malvasia fixes his birth two years earlier. His father, An- 
 tonio, was a tailor, and Agostino was at first ai-ticled to a 
 jeweller, but was afterwards, through the influence of his cousin, 
 Lodovico, placed with Fontana to learn painting. He studied 
 afterwards with Domenico Tibaldi and Cornelius Cort, under 
 whom he took up engi-aving ; and though he never wholly 
 gave up paintmg, his chief occupation was that of an engraver, 
 and there are many excellent plates by him in most public 
 collections. Agostino also studied at Parma and Venice. 
 Towards the beginning of the seventeenth century, Agostino 
 joined his brother at Rome, who was then engaged painting the 
 Famese gallery. Agostino assisted Annibale in the paintings 
 of the ceiling. He not only designed the two great compositions 
 of Galatea and Aurora, of which the cartoons are now in the 
 National Galleiy, but executed the frescos themselves ; and with 
 such success, that it was reported in the art circles of Rome 
 that the engraver had surpassed the painter in the Farnese, for 
 Agostino had until then been chiefly known as an engraver. 
 This rivalry caused some jealousy between the brothers, and a 
 rude jest of Annibale's caused their final separation. Agostino 
 was fond of what is considered gi-eat society, a weakness of 
 which Annibale was well aware, and taking advantage of it, he, 
 on one occasion, while Agostino was surromided by some of his 
 distinguished friends, placed in his hands a caricatm-e of their 
 father and mother busy at their tailoring work. Agostino was 
 so much offended that he left Rome for Parma, where he entered 
 the service of the Duke Ranuccio, but after painting a very few 
 pictures there, he died on the 2"2nd of March, 1602, in his 
 forty-third year only, and was buried in the cathedral of Parma. 
 The artists of Bologna, however, honoured his memory with 
 the ceremony of a pubhc funeral, which was celebrated with 
 great pomp. A description of the ceremony was published by 
 Vittorio Benacei in 1603, which is reprinted without the cuts in 
 the Felsina Pittrice of Malvasia. Agostino's masterpiece is the 
 '' Communion of St. Jerome," now in the gallery of Bologna. 
 It is said to be the only picture on which he wrote his name. 
 The treatment of this picture in its main featm'es was borrowed 
 by Domenichino in his celebrated composition of the same sub- 
 ject, which is now in the Vatican, hanging opposite the Trans- 
 figuration by Raphael. Among the most celebrated engravings 
 of Agostino, are an unfinished plate of St. Jerome, which 
 was completed by Francesco Brizzio ; the Crucifixion by Tin- 
 toretto in the sciiola of San Rocco at Venice, and by which he 
 won the affections of the old Venetian painter. Also the St. 
 Jerome of Vanni ; the Marriage of St. Catherine, after Paul 
 Veronese; and the Adoration of the Kings, by Baldassare Peruzzi, 
 from the drawing in the National Gallery. Agostino was con- 
 sidered the most learned of the Carracci. Malvasia observes 
 that he was always more correct than Annibale, and sometimes 
 more correct than Lodovico. 
 
 Carracci, Annibale, the younger brother of Agostino, was 
 bom at Bologna in 1560. His father designed to bring him up 
 as a tailor, but his cousin Lodovico persuaded him to turn 
 his attention to painting, and became his instructor in the art. 
 In 1580 he went to Parma, and there devoted himself to the 
 study of the works of Correggio. From Purnia he went to 
 Venice, and returned to Bologna to take part in the academy 
 proposed by Lodovico, which was established in 1589. The 
 three worked this academy conjointly for about ten years, 
 when Annibale was invited to Rome by the Cardinal Odoardo 
 
 Famese, to decorate the great hall of his palace in the Piazza 
 Faniese. He was well received by the prince, says his biographer, 
 being allowed a monthly salary of ten scudi (about two guineas), 
 and maintenance for himself and two servants. The works 
 were completed in 1604, and Annibale received a present of 
 five hundred scudi, over and above his moderate salary ; which, 
 however, his friends considered very unhandsome treatment, 
 after the production of so great a work as the Farnese gallery, 
 which was prefeiTed by Nicolas Poussin to all the paintings in 
 Rome after those of Raphael. It comprises many subjects from 
 ancient mythology. It has been several times engraved, first 
 by Carlo Cesio in 1657, in thirty sheets, with descriptions by 
 Bellori. — (Jkdleria nel Palazzo Farnese in Roma, &c.) The 
 several compositions are of a good dramatic effect, and of a grand 
 style of form, but inferior in colouring, and devoid of expression. 
 Annibale's health seems to have declined after the completion of 
 this work. He painted little more during the remaining five 
 years of his life. The altarpiece in the chapel of San Diego in 
 San Giacomo degli Spagnoli, must have been completed about 
 the same period. The frescos of the chapel were painted chiefly 
 by Albani from Annibale's designs. Annibale received 2000 
 scudi for the entire work, half of which he gave to Albani for 
 his assistance, though he had endeavoured in vain to persuade 
 his friend to accept a much larger proportion of the amount of 
 the commission, maintaining that the gi-eat merit was in exe- 
 cuting the frescos, not in the designing them. The transaction 
 showed a generous heart on the part of both painters. Anni- 
 bale CaiTacci died at Rome, July 15, 1609, and was buried near 
 Raphael in the Pantheon. Fine works by this painter are 
 common in England; among the best are — the "Three Marys" 
 at Castle Howai'd ; the " Coronation of the Virgin" at Clumber; 
 and " Erminia and the Shepherds," " St. John in the Wilder- 
 ness," and " Silenus Gathering Grapes," in the National Gallery. 
 He was a good landscape painter, and also engi-aved a few 
 plates. — (Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice; Bellori, Vile de Pittori 
 Moderni ; Baglione, Vite de Pittori, &c.) — R. N. W. 
 
 CARRACCI, Antonio, suraamed il Gobbo, a natural son 
 of Agostino, bom at Venice in 1583. He was a pupil of Anni- 
 bale, and accompanied him to Rome. He was an artist of 
 singidar promise, and, under the patronage of Cardinal Tonti, 
 executed several frescos, representing scenes from the life of the 
 Virgin and the passion of the Saviour, in the church of St. Bar- 
 tolomeo neir Isola. A highly-esteemed work is his frieze 
 in the palace of Monte Cavallo. He attended Annibale in his 
 last moments, and honoured his remains with a superb funeral. 
 He died at Rome in his thirty-fifth year. — W. T. 
 
 CARRACCI, Francesco, the brother of Agostino and Anni- 
 bale, and pupil of Lodovico, born at Bologna in 1595. He 
 was expert as a painter of the nude, and was highly accounted 
 by his preceptor for his correctness and genei-al freedom of 
 execution. But his vanity lured him on to the breakers. He 
 re-enacted the old frog and the bull fable. He set up an 
 academy in opposition to Lodovico, and inscribed over the door — 
 " This is the true school of the Caracci." He thought that tho 
 greatness of his name exempted him from the ordinary labours 
 which work men up to success. He stopped, therefore, at medi- 
 ocrity — the usual goal of impudence and indolence. He died in 
 1622. He painted "St. Roch and the Angel," in the church 
 of St. Rocco at Bologna ; and, aided by Lodovico, " The Death 
 of the Virgin," in the church of St. Maria Maggiore. Ho 
 engraved a few plates from the designs of his brothers. — W. T. 
 
 CARRADORI, Giovacchino, an Italian physician, was bora 
 at Prato in 1758, and died in 1818. He was for some time 
 professor of philosophy at Pistoga, but had to resign his chair 
 in consequence of a dispute with the bishop. He afterwards 
 practised medicine in his native town, and wrote upon agricul- 
 ture and natural science. He was a powerful advocate of vaccina- 
 tion. Among his published works are the following — " Delia 
 transformazione del Nostoc in Tremella verrucosa, in Lichen 
 fascicularis e in Lichen nipestris, 1797 ; " " On the Reproduction 
 of some of the Lower Plants;" "On Plant Life;" "On tho 
 absorbing organs of the roots of Plants ; " " On the in'itability 
 of Plants ; " " On Heat ; " " On Animal Electricity ; " " On 
 Epizootic Diseases;" "On the fertility of the Earth;" "On 
 the History of Galvanism;" and "On tho Contagious Fevers." 
 
 CARRANZA, Bautiioi.omew, a Spanish bishop, born at 
 Miranda in Navane in 1504. In 1546 he was sent by Charles 
 V. to tho council of Trent, where he read a paper, "De neccs-
 
 saria residentia Episcoporum et alloram pastorum" — afterwards 
 published. He attended upon Pbilip when he went into Eng- 
 land to espouse Queen Mary, and was employed by the queen in 
 the endeavour to convert her protestant subjects. He was after- 
 wards created archbishop of Toledo, 1557. Having published a 
 work named " Commentarios sobre el Catechismo Cluistiano," 
 Antwerp, 1588, he was accused of heresy by the inquisition, 
 and sulyected to imprisonment and persecution, which lasted 
 till his death in 1576. In addition to the works referred to, 
 he wrote "A Simimaiy of the Councils," Venice, 15-16. — .J. B. 
 
 CARRARA, a family of Longobard origin, who long held the 
 sovereignty of Padua. Jacopo was elected lord of Padua in 
 1318. Frajs'cesco I., who, in 1355, became sole sovereign, was 
 at the head of the Guelph league agahist the Visconti of Milan. 
 He joined in 1378 the Genoese in their attack on Venice. Allied 
 against Verona with Gian Galeazzo Visconti, he was betrayed by 
 his ally, who took Padua and Treviso, and aiTested Francesco in 
 1388,'keeping him prisoner till his death in 1393. This Francesco 
 was the friend of Petrarch. His son, Fkaxcesco II., regained 
 Padua in 1390 with the assistance of Venice, forming an alliance 
 with that goverament, which he afterwards broke, and in con- 
 sequence lost his temtory, which was never regained by the 
 family. He was put to death in 1406. — J. B. 
 
 CARRE, Francis, an artist, born in Friesland in 1630. His 
 pictures are not greatly known out of his own country. He 
 painted landscapes and rural festivals. He was appointed chief 
 painter to the stadtholder, William Frederick, prince of Orange. 
 He died at Amsterdam in 1669. — W. T. 
 
 CARRE, GuiLLAUME-Louis-JuLiEX, a French lawj'er, bom 
 in 1777; died in 1832. He distinguished himself first at the 
 bar, and afterwards as a teacher of law, having in 1806 been 
 made professor to the faculty of Rennes. Carre exhibited some 
 courage in defending the victims of the reactionary poHties of 
 1815 ; but he shrank from the task, imposed on him by his 
 eminent position, of urging the necessary reforms in the law. 
 After 1830 he was offered high preferment in Paris, but chose 
 to abide by his chau-, in the duties of which, and in correcting 
 his numerous writings, he passed the rest of his life. — R. M., A. 
 
 CARRE, Hexky : this painter was the eldest son of Francis 
 Carr6, and was bom at Amsterdam in 1656. He was a scholar of 
 Jm-iaen Jacobsz and Jacques Jordaens. He served for some years 
 in the anny in the regiment of the princess of Orange, and was 
 present at the siege of Groningcn. Subsequently, however, 
 he returned to the arts of peace, and was appointed state painter 
 at the court of Friesland. He painted chase and animal sub- 
 jects after the manner of Snyders. He died in 1721. — W. T. 
 
 CARR!^, Louis, a French mathematician, born in 1663. 
 Cast off by his father because he refused to become a priest, he 
 was employed by JIalebranche as his amanuensis. Under him 
 he studied mathematics and philosophy, which he soon under- 
 took to teach. In 1687 he was admitted into the Academy, of 
 which he speedily became associate and then pensioner. Thus 
 provided for, he devoted himself to study and investigations con- 
 nected with mechanics, and died in 1711. In 1700 he pub- 
 lished " A method of Pleasuring Surfaces and Solids, and finding 
 their centres of gravitation, percussion, and oscillation." — J. B. 
 
 CARR!^, LIicHAEL, bom at Amsterdam in 1666, and the 
 younger brother of Henry Carr6. This painter first studied 
 with his brother, and subsequently in the school of Nicholas 
 Berghem. He is stated to have visited England, but to have 
 met with httle encouragement. He was afterwards invited to 
 the court of Berlin, and appointed one of the principal painters 
 to the king. He died at Alkmaer in 1728. His best work is a 
 saloon at the Hague — a landscape with figures, from the story 
 of Jacob and Esau. He had a bold and facile manner, and his 
 landscape and cattle pieces are esteemed. — W. T. 
 
 * CARRfi, Nakcisse-Epajiinondas, a French magistrate, 
 now occupying the chair of councillor in the Cour Imperiale at 
 Paris; born in 1794. Of course he is chevalier of the Legion 
 of Honour. Carr6 is not a mere judge, he has devoted himself 
 to the study of civil jurisprudence in its largest sense, and pro- 
 duced a number of excellent and instnictive works. Among 
 these ranks foremost his edition of Dojlvt, in nine volumes. 
 He wrote also the "Code des Femmes," a useful repertory and 
 analysis of the laws especially affecting women. Other treatises 
 from his pen are well known in France. — J. P. N. 
 
 CARREL, Nicoi^A-s Armand, a celebrated French journalist, 
 was born at Rouen, May 8, 1800, and educated at the military 
 
 school at St. Cyr. He obtained a commission in 1821, but in 
 1823 repaired to Barcelona, and fought in the foreign hberalist 
 legion on the side of the Spanish revolutionists, but in the cause 
 of Napoleon 11. For this conduct he was tried for high treason, 
 but acquitted, in 1824. He then acted for six months as secre- 
 tary to M. Augustin Thieiry, author of the Norman Conquest 
 of England. During the next three years he published the 
 following works — " Resume de FHistolre d'Ecosse ;" " K^sum^ 
 de I'Histoire des Grecs Modemes ;" and " Histoire de la Centre- 
 revolution en Anglcten-e." He also at one time kept a book- 
 seller's shop. In August, 1830, he became principal editor of 
 the National, in wliich capacity, after supporting the Orleanist 
 goverament for some time, he gi-adually adopted republican sen- 
 timents. The freedom of his expressions brought him into 
 repeated collision with the government, as well as with private 
 persons. He fell by the hand of SI. Emile de Gu-ardin in a 
 duel, July 22, 1836, and died two days after. Thirty thousand 
 people attended his funcral.^ — A. H. P. 
 
 CARRENNO de Miranda, Don Juan : this Spanish 
 painter was tlie descendant of an old family, and was bom at 
 Abiles in Asturias in 1614. He entered the school of Pedro 
 de las Cuevas at Madrid, but subsequently studied under 
 Bartolomeo Roman. He was employed in decorating some of 
 the palaces of Philip IV. with fresco painting, and so satisfied 
 that monarch, that he received the appointment of painter to 
 the court about 1651. He pamted also for many of the churches 
 of Madrid, Toledo, Alcala de Henares, Segovia, and Pamplona. 
 His colour is described as something between Titian's and 
 Vandyck's — rich, brilliant, and very superior to liis drawing. As 
 a painter of expression and feeling, he has been ranked next to 
 Murillo. He died at Madiid in 1685.— W. T 
 
 * CARRERA, Rafael, bom in 1814 in Guatemala of poor 
 parents, was in his early days employed as a drummer boy and 
 cattle-driver. An insurrection, consequent on the distress caused 
 by the appearance of cholera, having broken out in 1837, Carrera 
 joined it, and soon became its leader. In 1839 he obtained 
 possession of the town of Guatemala, and in the following year 
 the triumpli of the popular party was completed by the defeat of 
 General Morasan. Since then CaiTera has almost constantly 
 remained at the head of public affaks, which he has conducted 
 with singular wisdom. — J. B. 
 
 CARRICHTER, Bartholomjeus, a German pliysician, 
 flourished about the middle of the sixteenth century. He was a 
 believer in astrology, and published several works in which he 
 advocates the virtues of herbs as depending on the influence of 
 the stars. In his " Krauterbuch," published at Strasbiu'g i«l 
 1573 and 1575, he mentions the medicinal properties of plants 
 in connection with the signs of the zodiac ; in another Krau- 
 terbuch he describes the plants of Germany in relation to the 
 influences which they receive from the heavenly bodies. He 
 also wrote on German dietetics, and on the harmony, sympathy, 
 and antipathy of plants. The early editions of his works appear 
 under the name of Philomousus. — J. H. B. 
 
 CARRIER, Jean-Baptiste, one of the most infamous names 
 in the histoiy of the Revolution. This bloody demagogue was 
 bora at Zolai in 1756. Entering the convention in 1792 he 
 helped to set up the revolutionary tribunal, and voted for the 
 death of the king. At Nantes, whither he was sent from Nor- 
 mandy, he perpetrated, in name of the convention, but really 
 without its knowledge, the most shocking atrocities. The detail 
 of his crimes is, at the present day, read almost with incredulity. 
 The world was rid of a monster who, on a throne, would have 
 been a worse Nero, when Carrier was brought to the block in 
 December, 1794. 
 
 CARRIERA. See Rosalea. 
 
 * CARRIERE, MoRiTZ, a German philosophical writer, was 
 bora at Griedel, gi-and duchy of Hassia, March 5, 1817, studied 
 philosophy at Giessen, Gottingen, and Berlin, and then travelled 
 for some years in Italy. In 1849 he obtained the chair of 
 philosophy at Giessen, and in 1855 was translated to Munich as 
 professor of the history of art.— K. E. 
 
 CARRINGTON, Noel Thomas, author of some volumes of 
 poetry, was bora at Plymouth in 1777, and died in 1830. He 
 wrote " The Banks of"Tamar"in 1830 ; " Dartmoor, a descrip- 
 tive poem," in 1826 ; and " My Native Village, with other 
 Poems," published after his death. 
 
 CARRION-NISAS, Marie Henri Francois Elisabeth, 
 Marquis de, born at Montpellier in March, 1787. The Revolu-
 
 tion found liim a cavalry officer, at a time when every young 
 nobleman felt it incumbent on him to be in the king's sen-ice. 
 He was arrested in 1793, but was liberated on the fall of Robes- 
 pierre. Tm-ning to the rising star of Napoleon after the 18th 
 Brumaire, he became a member of the tribunate, and was, through 
 the interest of Cambaceres, with whom he was connected by 
 marriage, raised to the presidency of that assembly ; which 
 favour he repaid by supporting the ambitious wish of the first 
 consul to be recognized emperor, and more signally by helping 
 to extinguish what little appearance of constitutional liberty the 
 tribunate still presented. He afterwards returned to the military 
 profession, for which he proved his capacity by saving Junot in 
 Portugal from being made prisoner. After the defeat of the 
 French at Talavera, it was Carrion who was selected to bear the 
 unhappy tidings to the emperor ; and he put so good a face 
 upon the matter, that he who entered a poor major with bad 
 news, quitted the imperial presence a baron of the empire. That 
 there was something better in him than command of plausible 
 language, he proved. When disgraced for having failed in an 
 enterprise, he re-entered the army a private soldier, and fought 
 his way up to a colonelcy. On the rctiurn of the Bourbons he 
 was allowed to resume his old title of marquis, was made secre- 
 tary-at-war, and having in that capacity done all he could to 
 stop the miraculous progress of !^apoleon on his escape from 
 Elba, joined the conqueror as soon as he reached the Tuileries, 
 for which he lost the favour of Louis XVIII. His literary 
 attempts were not successful; for his two tragedies of "Peter the 
 Great" and "Montmorency" failed. He died in 1841. — J. F. C. 
 
 CARROLL, Charles, the latest survinng signer of the 
 declaration of American independence, was of a Roman catholic 
 family of L-ish origin. He was born at Annapolis, Maryland, 
 September 20, 1737. He studied at Paris and at Bourges, and 
 in 1757 went to London, and became a member of the inner 
 temple. In 17G4 he returned to his native colony in the midst 
 of the excitement consequent on the stamp act, in which he 
 zealously espoused the cause of the colonies. Elected to con- 
 gi-ess in 1775, along with the other members, he signed the 
 declaration on August 2nd of the following year. In 1778 he 
 resigned his seat in congress, and returned to his place in the state 
 legislature, where he was actively engaged in settling the difficult 
 questions consequent on the revolution. In 1801 he withdrew 
 to private life at CaiTollton, his patrimonial estate, where, as his 
 life advanced, he became an object of universal veneration. His 
 mind was highly cultivated, and his manners were graceful and 
 attractive. He survived by six years all the other signers of 
 the declaration of independence, and in his 96th year died at 
 Baltimore, November 14, 1832.— F. B. 
 
 CARROLL, John, D.D., LL.D., brother of the preceding, 
 and first Roman catholic bishop in the United States, was born 
 at Upper Marlborough in Maryland in 1734. He was sent to 
 Europe at the age of thirteen for his education, which he 
 received chiefly at the famous institution at St. Omer. Wlien 
 the order of the Jesuits, to which he belonged, was suppressed 
 by the pope, he went to England, and acted as secretary to the 
 dispersed fathers in their effiirts to obtain, from the various courts 
 in Europe, a mitigation of their sentence. In 1775 he returned 
 to America, and acted for some time as a parish priest in 
 Maryland. When it was first deteiTnined to establish a catholic 
 spiritual hierarchy in the United States in 1786, Mr. Carroll 
 was appointed vicar-general, and took up his residence in Bal- 
 timore. Three years afterwards he was made bishop, and went 
 to England in 1790 to be consecrated. He was made an arch- 
 bishop a few years before his death in 1815. — F. B. 
 
 CARRON, GuY-ToussAiNT-JuLiEN, I'Abbe, a celebrated 
 French moralist, was born at Reimes in 17G0; died in 1821. 
 Carron early manifested an earnest and enlightened spirit of 
 philanthropy. Driven from France in 1792, he went first to 
 •Tcrsey and then to London, where he opened a college and a 
 school — the one for the sons and the other for the daughters of 
 French emigrants ; built chapels, established hospitals, and in 
 many ways wrought unweariedly for the benefit of his exiled 
 countrymen. After his return to France he obtained from Louis 
 XVIII. the endowment of ITnstitut Royal de Marie Tlieri'so, in 
 which were educated the children of those who had died in exile. 
 Carron found time to write many books of practical religion, 
 which, with many recommendations, boast none so weighty as 
 the name of the venerable author. — R. I\L, A. 
 
 CARRUCI. See Pontokmo. 
 
 CARRUTHERS, William A., an American novelist, born 
 in Virginia about 1800, and educated in part at Washington 
 college in that state. He began to publish in New York about 
 1834. Among his works are — "The Cavaliers of Virginia, a 
 Historical Romance of the Old Dominion ; " " The Kentuckian 
 in New York ;" and " The Knights of the Horseshoe." Car- 
 ruthers passed the latter years of his life at Savannah, Georgia, 
 where he practised medicine, and wrote for the southern maga- 
 zines. — F. B. 
 
 CARSON, Alexander Ross, LL.D., rector of the High 
 school of Edinburgh, born about the year 1778, in the county 
 of Dumfries. At the age of twenty-four he was appointed 
 head-master of the grammar school of Dumfries, and four years 
 afterwards, having already given proof of the acuteness of intel- 
 lect and energy of character which distinguished liim throughout 
 his professional career, he was promoted to a mastership in the 
 High school of Edinburgh, of which he was rector for twenty- 
 five years previous to his retirement in 1845. He published 
 "Exercises on Attic Greek." He died in 1851. — J. S., G. 
 
 CARSTAIRS, William, an eminent Scotch divine and poli- 
 tician, and one of the most remarkable men of the Revolution era, 
 was born at Cathcart, near Glasgow, in 1649. His father was 
 presbyterian minister of the High church, Glasgow, and was 
 ejected from his church at the Restoration. Young Carstairs was 
 educated first at the university of Edinburgh, and afterwards 
 at Utrecht, under the celebrated professors Leusden, Witsius, 
 and Gra3\'ius. In the distracted state of his native country, 
 he resolved to remain in Holland, and was there licensed as 
 a preacher of the gospel. Having been introduced to William 
 of Orange, he so completely gained the confidence of that prince, 
 that nothing of importance was undertaken by him respecting 
 the British comi, without the advice of Carstairs. He was 
 repeatedly sent on important missions to Scotland and England, 
 and was admitted into the councils of William Lord Russell, 
 Sydney, Argyll, and the other patriots who were in constant 
 correspondence with the prince of Orange. After the discovery 
 of the Rye-house plot in 1684, and the execution of Lord Rus- 
 sell, Carstairs was apprehended and brought before the privy 
 council ; but as he steadfastly refused to make any disclosures, 
 he was illegally sent down to Scotland, to be tried and examined 
 by torture before that infixmous tribunal, the Scottish privy 
 council. He bore the excruciating suffering inflicted by the 
 thumbscrew for an hour and a half with the utmost fortitude. 
 But on being threatened with a repetition of the question, 
 and ha-^dng learned that the government had made certain 
 discoveries by torturing Spence, the earl of Argyll's secretary, 
 he gave way, and answered the questions put to him, on con- 
 dition that his answers should not be used as evidence against 
 any person. He confessed, however, nothing more than the 
 government already knew, and the council had no suspicion 
 that he withheld from them secrets of vast importance, which 
 had been intrusted to him by Pensionary Fagel, the discovery 
 of which, at this time, might not improbably have been fatal 
 to the Revolution. On his release from prison he returned 
 to Holland, and was appointed one of the chaplains of the 
 prince of Orange, and was elected minister of the English 
 protestant congregation at Leyden. He .accompanied William 
 to England in 1688; and when the landing of the troops had 
 taken place at Torbay, performed divine ser\'ice at their head. 
 He was mainly instrumental in procuring the peaceable settle- 
 ment of the presbyterian church in his native country; and 
 became, indeed, the real prime minister for Scotland. He was 
 appointed his majesty's chaplain for that kingdom ; and as he 
 was constantly in attendance upon the king, he had apart- 
 ments assigned him in the palace when at home, and when 
 abroad with the anny was allowed £500 a year for camp equi- 
 ])age. He enjoyed more of William's confidence and esteem 
 than any other Scotchman, or indeed than any other of his 
 councillors, except Bentinck. In consequence of his vast influ- 
 ence, he obtained the significant nickname of Cardinal Carstairs. 
 On one occasion in 1693, when a collision between the Scottish 
 church and the government was imminent, he ventured even to 
 stop the messenger who was about to hasten down to Scotland 
 with instmctions, which the king and his ministers had agreed 
 to issue in the absence of their confidential adviser. William, 
 though highly displeased at first, when Carstairs showed him the 
 packet which be liad taken from the messenger and confessed what 
 he had done, speedily yielded to the remonstrances of his tiiisty
 
 friend, and ordered the despatches to be destroyed, and others 
 of a different tenor to be drawn out by CarstMrs himself, which 
 liappily removed the grounds of dissatisfiiction on the part of 
 the Scottish people, and averted the impending danger of an open 
 quarrel between them and the court. After the death of King 
 William, Carstairs was in 1704 appointed principal of Edin- 
 burgh college and minister of the Greyfriars', and three years 
 later of the High church He was a liberal benefactor to all 
 the Scottish universities, and contributed greatly to promote the 
 cause ©f learning in Scotland. His influence in the Scottish 
 church was as powerful as in the court ; and in the space of 
 eleven years he was four times elected moderator of the general 
 assembly. He strenuously opposed the restoration of patronage 
 in 1712; and though his efforts were vmavailing in regard to 
 this obnoxious measure, he succeeded in defeating some other 
 schemes of the tory ministry for curtailing the prinleges of the 
 Scottish church. He did not long survive the accession of 
 George I., who gratefully acknowledged the sen-ices he had 
 rendered to the Hanoverian dpiasty. He died in 1715, in the 
 sixty-seventh year of his age. Carstairs was probably the most 
 sagacious statesman Scotland has ever produced. He exhibited 
 the rare combination of profound learning and genuine piety 
 with great shrewdness and knowledge of the world, and what is 
 even more worthy of notice, the firmest adherence to his own 
 principles, along with remarkable benevolence and liberality 
 towards the members of other religious bodies. Amid all the 
 intrigues and treacheries of the Revolution era, the integrity of 
 Carstairs was unquestioned : and his piety, humility, and waiTU 
 affection for his relatives and friends remained uninjured either 
 by the possession of great power, or by courtly adulation. — (Rev. 
 D. M'Cormick, The Carstairs State Papers, &c.) — J. T. 
 
 CARSTEXS, AsMCS Jacob, an artist, born in 1754 at St. 
 Gurgen, near Schleswig. He commenced life as an apprentice to 
 a wine merchant ; but when not engaged in drawing corks, drew 
 portraits with considerable success. After painting an " Adam 
 and Eve," which was purchased by the crown prince, he entered 
 the academy of Copenhagen as a student, but, quarrelling \vitli 
 his professor, he quitted it in 1783 for Italy. His funds failed 
 him at Milan, however, and with his brother he commenced to 
 journey to Gennany on foot. At Lubec he took up his residence 
 for five years, and obtained some success as a portrait painter. 
 He then moved to Berlin in 1788, and remained there two years, 
 giving lessons in art, and making drawings for the booksellers. He 
 was employed on the decoration of the Dorvill palace, and there 
 became known to the minister, who aftenvards introduced him 
 to the king, from whom he obtained a pension. In 1792 he was 
 enabled to visit Rome. He studied the works of ^Michel Angelo 
 and Raffaelle, and produced several classical works in imitation 
 of the latter. His last work was an " ffidipus Tyrannus," and 
 he died while executing a "Golden Age," May 25, 1758. — W. T. 
 
 CARTE, Thomas, a learned English historian, was bom 
 in Warwickshire in 1G86. After studying at Oxford and 
 Cambridge he was appointed reader in tlie Abbey church at 
 Bath ; but refusing to sign the oath of allegiance to George I. 
 he had to resign the preferment. Suspected of some share in 
 the rebelUon of 1715, and afterwards of being concerned in the 
 treason of which Bishop Atterbury, to whom he was secretary, 
 was accused, he had at length to flee to France, where he 
 remained till about 1730, when, on the intercession of Queen 
 Caroline, he was allowed to retum to England. Soon after this 
 he issued "The Historj' of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde," 
 and applied himself to the preparation of a " General History of 
 England," the proposals for which excited considerable attention, 
 and procured many subscribers. This work is valuable for its 
 research, but is disfigured by an obtrusion of the author's ultra- 
 political opinions. He wrote many minor works. — J. B. 
 
 CARTER, Elizabeth, a learned lady, was bom in 1717 
 at Deal in Kent, where her f;ither. Dr. Nicholas Carter, was 
 perpetual curate. She was educated along with her brothers, 
 under her father's care. She showed at first but little aptitude 
 for learning; but as the result of great pereeverance, she acquired 
 a knowledge of Latin, Greek, French, German, Italian, Spanish, 
 Portuguese, Hebrew, and Arabic. When only seventeen she 
 began to write verses for the GentlemarCs Magazine, which 
 appeared with the signature " Eliza." A collection of these 
 earlier poems was published in 1738 by Mr. Cave, the proprietor 
 of the magazine, to whom Dr. .lohnson thus writes — " I have 
 composed a Greek epigram to Eliza, and think she ought to be 
 
 celebrated in as many different languages as Lewis le Grand." 
 Her fame was greatly extended by her publication in 1739 of a 
 ti-anslation from the Italian of Crousaz's Examen of Pope's Essay 
 on Man — a work which Boswell tells us was ascribed to Dr. John- 
 son. In the same year she published a translation of Algarotti's 
 Explanation of Newton's Philosophy, for the use of Ladies. These 
 works brought Jliss Carter into correspondence with such men as 
 Butler, Benson, Johnson, Burke, Reynolds, and Archbishop Seeker, 
 Her translation of Epictetus appeared in 1758. In 1762 she 
 published another volume of poems. She wrote two papers, Nos. 
 44 and 100, for Johnson's Rambler. The later years of her life 
 were spent in the enjoyment of the societj' of her hterary friends, 
 by whom she was held in great esteem for her varied accompUsh- 
 ments. She died in London, 19tli Feb., 1806. In the year 
 after her death there appeared " Memoirs of her Life," &c. — J. B. 
 
 CARTER, George. This painter was more renowned for 
 his eccentricity than his art. He was bom of poor parents, was 
 educated at the free school in his native town, Colchester, became 
 a shopman, then a shopkeeper, a bankiiipt, then a painter — • 
 felicitous stepping-stones to art. He journeyed to Rome, St. 
 Petersburg, Gibraltar, and the East Indies — was despised for 
 his want of ability, and yet somehow seemed to thrive upon 
 contempt, and to coin incompetence. He realized a fortune, 
 retired, and died at Hendon in 1795. 
 
 CARTER, Nathaniel Hazeltixe, an American author, 
 bora at Concord, New Hampshire, in 1787 ; graduated at Dart- 
 mouth college in 1811. When the legislature in 1817 altered 
 Dartmouth college into a university, he was appointed professor 
 of languages in the new institution ; but lost this place a year or 
 two aftenvards, when the supreme court abrogated this act of 
 the legislature as unconstitutional, and reconstituted the college. 
 Then he became editor of a newspaper in New Yoi-k, which 
 advocated the interests of De Witt Clinton. In 1824 he wrote 
 and delivered a poem called " The Pains of the Imagination." 
 The next year he \'isited Europe, and on his return pubUshed 
 in two octavo volumes, " Letters from Europe, comprismg the 
 Journal of a Tour through England, Scotland, France, Italy, 
 and Switzerland in the years 1825-27." This work was 
 received with well-merited favom*. Ill health obliged him, after 
 spending the winter of 1828 in Cuba, to sail for Marseilles in 
 France, where he died a few days after his arrival. — F. B. 
 
 CARTPvR, Tho.mas, a distinguished composer of vocal music, 
 was bom in Ireland about the year 1758 (not 1758 as generally 
 stated), and in the early part of his life held the situation of an 
 organist in that country. Having paid considerable attention 
 to the study of vocal music, he was patronized by the earl of 
 Inchiquin, who appears to have contributed towards defrajing 
 the expenses of a journey into Italy, which he undertook for the 
 purpose of completing his musical education. At Naples he 
 was much noticed by Sir William and Lady Hamilton. After 
 this he went to India, where for a short time he conducted the 
 musical department of the theatre in Bengal; but his health 
 suffering from the heat of the climate, he was under the neces- 
 sity of returning to England. As a composer Carter had con- 
 siderable merit. He was a large contributor to the theatres, 
 and amongst the pieces for which he comjiosed the music are 
 the follov.ing — the Rival Candidates, 1775 ; the Milesian, 1777; 
 the Fair American, 1785 ; the Soldier's Farewell, 1791 ; Just 
 in Time, 1792; the Birthday, 1799. He is popularly known 
 as the composer of the music of the pleasing ballad, " 0, Nanny, 
 wilt thou Gang wi' Me," and the celebrated description of a sea 
 fight, " Stand to your Guns, my Hearts of Oak." In the year 
 1793 he married one of the daughters of the Rev. Mr. Wells of 
 Cookham in Berkshire ; and wom down by a complaint in his 
 liver, supj)oscd to have been the conso(juence of his residence in 
 India, he died on the 8th of November, 1800, leaving a widow 
 and two children. — E. F. R. 
 
 CARTERET, Sin Geokge, disringuished during the civil 
 war for his steadfast loyalty to the house of Stuart, was bom 
 in 1599 hi Jersey, of which island he rose to be governor in 
 1626. On the outbreak of the civil war he was appointed by 
 parliament vice-admiral of the fleet, but at the command of the 
 king he declined the office and retired to Jersey, where, and in 
 the neighbouring counties, he was active in the royal cause. 
 On the death of the king he at once proclaimed Charles II., whom 
 he entertained for six months in Jersey. But the govemment sent 
 a fleet under Blake in 1651, and after an obstinate resistance 
 Carteret had to abandon the island and betake himself to the
 
 king, whom he followed in his wanderings till the Restoration. He 
 was rewarded with the appointment to some high offices of state, 
 and was about to be made a baron, when he died in 1679. — J. B. 
 CARTERET, John, Lord, afterwards Eakl Granville, a 
 distinguished statesman in the time of the first two Georges, 
 was bom 22nd April, 1G90. He was earlv distinguished for his 
 profound and extensive learning. This gave weight to his speeches 
 when he was introduced to the house of peers in 1711. He rose 
 through various grades, and by the successful discharge of various 
 embassies, to be secretary of state in 1721. He was an especial 
 favourite with George I., being, it is said, the only one of his 
 ministers who could converse with him in his native German. 
 In 1724 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, an office to which 
 he was reappointed in 1727, after the accession of George II., and 
 in which he won the regard of the people, and the special friend- 
 ship of Dean Swift and the other literary men of the country. 
 He retimied to parliament in 1730, and joined, indeed became 
 the leader of the opposition against Sir Robert Walpole. When 
 the fall of that minister was, after a twelve years' contest, accom- 
 plished in 1742, Lord Carteret became secretary of state and 
 chief minister. In gi-eat favour with the king, and supporting 
 measures which he had before condemned, he had in turn to 
 confront a formidable opposition, and was at length displaced 
 in 1744 by the duke of Newcastle. Now Earl Granville, he 
 regained, but could only retain for four days, the seals of office 
 in 174G. He still, however, continued in favour with the king. 
 He died in 17G3. In the most exciting times of his political 
 career, he found time to discuss questions of scholarship with 
 Bentley, who undertook at Granville's request his edition of 
 Homer. Even Horace Walpole, of whose f;ither he was the 
 bitter opponent, confesses that, of the statesmen of the day, 
 none equ.alled Lord Carteret in genius. — J. B. 
 
 CARTERET, Philip, an English voyager of the eighteenth 
 century. In 1766 he was appointed commander of the Swalloiv, 
 to saU imder the orders of Captain Wallis in the Dolphin, on a 
 voyage of discovery. The ships were parted by foul weather in 
 the Straits of Magellan, and the Swallow proceeded alone. Sail- 
 ing in the Southern Pacific, Carteret discovered and named a 
 large number of little islands ; proceeding westward, and touch- 
 ing at Borneo and Celebes, he doubled the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and arrived in England in 1769, winning thus accidentally a 
 place among the circumna\'igators of the globe. — J. B. 
 
 CARTES. See Des Cartes. 
 
 CARTHEUSER, Joiiann Friedrich, a German physician 
 and chemist, born at Hayn in Prussia in 1704 ; died in 1777 at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In the university of the latter town he 
 held several professorships. His works were valuable and very 
 numerous ; but his chief merit consisted in the salutary reform he 
 effected in materia medica. He subjected the plants used in 
 medicine to the most careful analyses, determining their com- 
 position, the nature of the vegetable oils and salts, aJid was thus 
 enabled to make many improvements in the pharmacopoeia. 
 
 CARTIER, Jacques, a French navigator and explorer, was 
 bom at St. Malo, December 31, 1494. The French govern- 
 ment, desiring to found a settlement near the banks where 
 many of their vessels were engaged in the fisheries, sent out 
 Cartier in command of an expedition consisting of two vessels 
 in April, 1534. He passed through the Straits of Belleisle — 
 sailed round the Gulf of St. Lawrence — discovered the great 
 river which empties into it — gave a name to the bay of Cha- 
 leurs, and returned to France in September of the same year. 
 The next May he was sent again, in command of three vessels, 
 with a more ample outfit, to prosecute his discoveries. He now 
 sailed up the St. Lawrence, discovered the island of Orleans, 
 near Quebec, and in his pinnace and small boats ascended as 
 far as where Montreal now stands — -opening friendly relations 
 with the natives by the way. Returning to his ships, he 
 selected a place wliich he called La Croix, near Quebec, where 
 he landed his company and passed the winter. Next May they 
 all returned to France, carrying with them several of the Indians, 
 all of whom died soon after their arrival. Cartier published an 
 account of this voyage, which contains some useful information 
 and many strange and incredible stories. In 1.540 a third expe- 
 dition was set on foot, under Roberval, who was commissioned 
 as lieutenant-govenior of Canada. Cartier was made his pilut, 
 and second in command, and sailed first with live vessels. He 
 passed up the river about four miles above his former position at 
 La Croix, and there landed his company, and built a fort called 
 
 Charlesbourg. But again experience of the hardships of a new 
 settlement in the wilderness sickened the people of their under- 
 taking, and in less than two years they all embarked, and turned 
 their faces homeward. At Newfoundland, however, they met 
 Roberval, who was now first coming out, and were ordered by 
 him to return. But Cartier chose to disobey, and sailing away 
 privately in the night reached France. RobeiVal persevered, and 
 founded a colony. Of Cartier's subsequent history nothing is 
 known. — F. B. 
 
 CARTISAMUNDA, the queen of the Brigantes in Britain, 
 who perfidiously delivered up Caractacus to the Romans. Having 
 discarded her husband, Venusius, and married Vellocatus, his 
 armour-beai-er, her subjects revolted. She asked the assistance 
 of the Romans, who thus obtained possession of the country. 
 
 CARTOUCHE, Louis Dominique, a famous brigand, bom 
 at Paris about 1693. He commenced his larcenous career with 
 petty depredations, and ultimately became the chief of a numer- 
 ous band of robbers, over whom his courage, craft, and prodigious 
 strength gained him absolute authority. The Pai-isian police 
 were at that time exceedmgly inefficient, and Cartouche kept 
 the citizens of the capital in constant terror by the number and 
 audacity of his depredations. He was at length captm-ed by 
 the authorities, and after a lengthened trial, which excited 
 extraordinary interest, he was condemned, and executed on the 
 28th of November, 1721. A well-known French proverb says 
 — " Cartouche began by stealing pins." — J. T. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Edmund, the inventor of the power-loom, 
 was born at Maraham, Nottinghamshire, in 1743. He studied 
 at University college, Oxford, was elected a fellow of Magdalene, 
 and held successively the lidngs of Brampton and Goadby- 
 Marvvood. Before he directed his attention to mechanical 
 invention, he occupied himself with literary pursuits, contributin" 
 for some time to the Monthly lievieiv, and publishing some 
 little poems — "Arminia and Elvira;" "The Prince of Peace;" 
 and " Sonnets to Eminent Men." Cartwright had completed his 
 fortieth year when, m 1784, being on a visit to Matlock, he 
 chanced to meet some gentlemen from ]\Ianchester, whose con- 
 versation turned on the mechanical appliances for weavnng. He 
 became interested in the subject, began to study it, and made 
 so rapid progress that, early in the following year, he was able 
 to set his first power-loom in motion. It was met by great 
 opposition on the part of the workmen, and of many of the 
 manufacturers, who were afraid to oft'end then labourers, and it 
 did not soon come into general favom-. The first mill that was 
 built for worldng the new looms, and which contained 500 of 
 them, was wilfully burned to the ground. So late as the year 
 1813 there were no more than 2300 of these power-looms in 
 the United Kingdom. But Cartwright was nothing daunted, and 
 persevered in devising improvements, till he had brought to very 
 great perfection what was at first a rude unwieldy machine, but 
 what has since become a prime necessity of British manufactm-e. 
 Nor did he confine himself to this, but took ten ditlerent patents 
 for inventions of various kinds. One of them was a patent for 
 combing wool, taken out in 1790. His great invention brought 
 him no increase of fortune. In 1807 a petition was sent to 
 government by the principal cotton-spinners, cra'ving for some 
 recognition of his numerous services to the manufacturing inter- 
 est, and in 1809 a grant of £10,000 was given — a sum which 
 did not nearly compensate him for his outlay. He died October 
 30, 1823.— J. B. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, John, known as Major Cartwright, was 
 the brother of Ednmnd, and was born at Marnham in 1740. 
 He entered the navy, and took part in the capture of Chcrburg 
 and some other important engagements. When the war witli 
 America broke out in 1774, he refused to serve against the 
 colonies, because of his views on the subject of constitutional 
 liberty, which he embodied in a work entitled " Letters on 
 American IndeiH'udence." In 1775 he received a major's com- 
 mission in the Nottinghamshire militia, and retained through lii'o 
 the title which that aj)pointinent gave him. He was early known 
 as zealous in the cause of parliamentary refonn, being, indeed, 
 one of its first advocates. He took part with Dr. Jebb and 
 Granville Sharp in forming, in 1780, the "Society for Consti- 
 tutional Reformation," and was known to have co-operated 
 with Tookc, Hardy, and Thelwall, who were tried for their 
 zeal in the cause of reform. He died in 1824, and a statue was 
 erected to his njemory in Burton crescent, London. — J. B. 
 CARTWRIGHT, Thojias, an eminent puritan divine, born
 
 in Hertfordshire about 1535. He studied at St. Jolm's college, 
 Cambridge, of which he was chosen feUovv in 15G0. Ten yeai-s 
 later, having meanwhile been elected to a fellowship in Trinity, 
 he was appointed Lady Margaret's divinity reader. His lectm'es 
 and sermons attracted very great attention, the more especially 
 that he took occasion to deliver his sentiments on church disci- 
 pline, which were unfavourable to the established hierarchy. He 
 was cited before the \ice-chancellor and heads of the university, 
 but defended his conduct by assertmg that he had only taught 
 what seemed to him to flow from the texts he was expounding, 
 and that he had never done so in any spirit of contro\-ersy. 
 One of liis principal opponents. Dr. Whitgift, ha\Tng in 1571 
 become vice-chancellor, Cartwright was at once deprived of his 
 professorship, and very soon after of his fellowship. He then 
 went to the continent, and became acquainted with Beza and 
 many other eminent scholars. During his exile he officiated 
 as minister to English merchants, first at Antwerp, afterwards 
 at Jliddelbm'g. Eeturning to England, he soon came into 
 fresh trouble. " An Admonition to Parliament " conceramg the 
 discipline of the chmxh and the measures which had been taken 
 against the puritans, having been presented, its authors, Messrs. 
 Field and Wilcox, were committed to Newgate in 1572. Mr. 
 Cartwright ventm-ed to address the pai-liament in a " Second 
 Admonition," wliich involved him in a long controversy with 
 Whitgift, and compelled him once more to leave the country. 
 He was abroad for five years, officiating as minister at some 
 English factories. He was offered by James VI. of Scotland a 
 professorship at St. Andrews, which he declined, choosing rather 
 to return to England, where, however, he was soon apprehended 
 and committed to prison. He was released through the interest 
 of the earl of Leicester, and by that nobleman appointed master 
 of a newly- founded hospital in Warwick. At the request of many 
 protestant divines, he undertook to write against the Ehemish 
 translation of the New Testament ; and notwithstanding the 
 prohibition of Ai-chbishop Whitgift, prepared the work — which 
 was published in 1618, many years after his death — entitled 
 " A Confutation of the Rheniish translation, glosses, and anno- 
 tations on the New Testament." By the command of Aylmer, 
 bishop of London, he was again sent to prison in 1585, was 
 released, and again imprisoned till 1592. He was finally set at 
 liberty through the intercession of Lady Russell and of King 
 James, who had always admired him, and who wrote a letter to 
 the queen on his behalf. His health was sadly impaii-ed by 
 his wanderings and imprisonments, and he died December 27, 
 1603. Besides the works refeiTed to, Jlr. Cartwright published 
 " Commentaria Practica, in totam Historian! Evangelicam, ex 
 quatuor Evangelistis haraionic^ concmnatam," 1630 ; Commen- 
 mentaries on the Proverbs and on Ecclesiastes ; " A Directoi-y 
 of Church Government ; " and " A Body of Divmity." — J. B. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, William, an English poet of some reputa- 
 tion in his day, was bom at Northway, near Tewkesbury, Sep- 
 tember, 1611. He studied at Oxford, and ha\'ing taken orders, 
 became a preacher of note in the university — one of his sermons 
 finding a place, as a specimen of university preaching, in a volume 
 of Five SeiTiions in Five several Styles or Ways of Preaching. 
 In 1642 he received an appointment to an office in the church 
 of Salisbury, and was in the same year made one of the Oxford 
 council of war, appointed to provide for the king's troops 
 stationed in tlie town. In 1613 he was chosen junior proctor 
 in the university, and reader in metaphysics ; but he did not long 
 hold these offices, for he died in December of the same year. 
 He had attained very great reputation, and was spoken of in 
 terms of the highest commendation by Ben Jonson and others 
 of his time. His works are now scarcely remembered. His 
 "Comedies, Tragi-Comedies, and other Poems," appeared in 
 1647, and again in 1651. Wood praises his scholarship, and 
 mentions that he wrote " Poemata Grceca et Latina." — J. B. 
 
 CARUS, Fkiedkich Augustus, a German philosopher, 
 author of several works on the histoiy of psychology, containing 
 some of the most original views on that branch of science wliich 
 have illustrated its annals in the present century, was born at 
 Bautzen in 1770, and died at Leipzig in 1807. He was for 
 some time pastor of a protestant congregation at Leipzig, and 
 latterly professor of philosophy in the university. His most 
 remarkable publication is a "History of the Psychology of the 
 Hebrews," a subject on which he has lavished all the resources 
 of his great talents and remarkable erudition. He wrote also 
 "Elements of Psychology," and "History of Psychology." 
 
 * CARUS, Kakl Gustaf, a distinguished German physiflfc 
 cian and naturalist, was born in 1780, at Leipzig, where hifB 
 father practised the art of a dyer. His early education was 
 conducted in the gymnasium of his native city, and he studied 
 chemistry in the university, with the view of following his 
 father's business. Having, however, acquired a taste for anatomy 
 he determined on the pursuit of medicine as a profession. He 
 pursued his studies with so much success, that in 1811 he waa 
 appointed extraordinary professor to the university, and delivered 
 lectures on comparative anatomy, which had not till that time 
 been taught in the university. Whilst devoting himself to the 
 pursuit of the science which he taught, he practised more espe- 
 cially the obstetrical branch of his profession, and wrote many 
 able papers and two works on the subject. He also cultivated 
 with great success the art of drawing, as the illustrations to 
 many of his works on comparative anatomy show. In 1813 be 
 caught a fever during his professional labom-s, w-hlch rendered 
 him for some time incapable of scientific research. In 1815, 
 on the foundation of the medico-chirurgical academy of Dres- 
 den, he was appointed to the chair of clinical midwifeiy. In 
 1822 he published his "Manual of Midwifery," and in 1828 hia 
 " Handbook of Gynecology," in two volumes. These works 
 display great practical acquaintance with the science of obstetrics, 
 and the physiology of the human female. In 1829 he was 
 appomted physician to the king of Saxony, a post he held till 
 the death of the king. In 1829 he accompanied the Prince 
 Frederick- Augustus in a journey through Switzerland and Italy. 
 He also subsequently came to England with the lung. The works 
 of Cams on the subject of comparative anatomy are very numer- 
 ous. He is best known in this comitiy for his researches on the 
 typical forms assumed by the vertebrate skeleton, a subject to 
 wliich he has devoted several of the numerous papers he has 
 published in the Transactions of scientific societies, and in philo- 
 sophical journals. He has written several systematic works on 
 zoology, comparative anatomy, and physiology, amongst which 
 may be mentioned his " Introduction to Comparative Anatomy," 
 published in 1827. This work was translated into English by 
 Gore, and published in two volumes with an atlas. In 1834 he 
 pubUshed an " Elementary Treatise on Comparative Anatomy." 
 which was translated into French, and published in Paris in 
 1835. In 1840 he completed in three volumes a work entitled 
 " A System of Physiology." His papers are very numerous, 
 and contain much original and valuable obsei-vation, especially 
 those devoted to the subject of embryology, ilost of his works 
 are illustrated with di'awings from his o^^Ti pencil, and possess 
 considerable artistic merit. The fist of his works published in 
 1850 in the Bibliogi'apliia Zoologia; et Geologioe of Agassiz and 
 Strickland, contains forty-nme titles. These probably do not 
 exhaust the whole of the contributions of this indefatigable 
 observer and writer to the literature of natural history and the 
 medical profession. — E. L. 
 
 CARUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Roman emperor, died in 
 283. He was proconsul of Cilicia, and proitorian prefect of 
 the Emperor Probus, whom he succeeded, but not ■without the 
 suspicion of having been accessoiy to his murder. The reign of 
 Cams was short, but brilliant. Of an austere nature, he disre- 
 garded the senate, enforced a rigorous simplicity in the camp, 
 and maintained an uncompromismg hostility against the enemies 
 of Rome. Having defeated the Sarmatians m Illyricum, he 
 prepai'ed to execute the long-suspended design of the Persian 
 war, and had already earned his victorious anus beyond the 
 Tigris, when death suddenly overtook him. It is believed that 
 his fate was similar to that of his predecessor. Cams was suc- 
 ceeded by his two sons, on whom he had conferred the title 
 of Cffisar. His reception of the Persian ambassadors is well 
 known. — R. M., A. 
 
 CARUSO, LuiGi, a musician, was bom at Naples, September 
 25, 1754 ; the time and place of his death are unknown. He 
 studied his art first under his father, and subsequently under 
 Nicolo Sala. He is said to have been designed for a singer; but 
 failmg in this capacity, turned his attention to composition. 
 His first opera, " II Baronne di Trocchia," was produced at 
 Brescia in 1773. In the summer of 1774, he brought out 
 " Artaserse " in London. He wrote in all sixty operas, the last 
 of which, " L'Avviso ai Maritati," was given at Rome in 1810. 
 Besides these voluminous dramatic works, he composed many 
 j)ieces for the church, like them in a very light style ; he pro- 
 duced also four oratorios and several sacred and secular cantatas.
 
 There is no satisfactory foundation for the statements that he 
 lived for some time in Germany and in Paris, and that he was 
 maestro di capella in Palermo. — His brother Emmanuele was 
 also a musician. — G. A. M. 
 
 CARVALHO DA Casta, Antonio, a Portuguese ecclesiastic, 
 born in 1650 ; died in 1715. In spite of the discouragements 
 arising from a deformed person and extreme poverty, he reso- 
 lutely applied himself to study. Mathematics and cosmography 
 were his fiivourite pursuits, the best part of his life having been 
 spent on his great work " Corographia Portugueza." 
 
 CAEVER, John, first governor of Plymouth in North Ame- 
 rica. Little is known of his early life. He joined at Ley den 
 the congregation of separatists, who had followed Richard Clifton 
 and John Robinson from Nottinghamshire to Amsterdam in 1G08, 
 and to Leyden in the following year. When they determined in 
 1617 to remove to America, Carver, along with Robert Cushman, 
 was sent to England, to solicit from the king an assurance of reli- 
 gious toleration, and to negotiate with the Virginia company for 
 a grant of land. In the same year he was despatched a second 
 time to London on the same errand, and two or three years after, 
 when the arrangements had been completed, including a part- 
 nership with some London merchants who were to furnish an 
 outfit, he went to Southampton " to receive the money, and 
 provide for the voyage." The Speedu-ell, having brought over 
 from Holland a portion of the Leyden congi'egation, was joined 
 at Southampton by the Mayflower, and the two vessels put to 
 sea with about a hundred and twenty passengers. The leaky 
 condition of the Speedwell compelled her twice to put back, and 
 the Mayflower sailed a third time with a company of a hundred 
 and two persons, of whom Carver was one. After a passage of 
 nine or ten weeks, she arrived on the 11th of November, 1620, 
 in the harbour of Cape Cod, where an instrument was signed 
 on the same day, which has been called by President Adams, 
 " the first example in modem times of a social compact, or 
 system of government, instituted by voluntary agreement." On 
 the same day Carver was chosen governor of the colony. In the 
 following month Plymouth was selected for the site of the plan- 
 tation, by an exploring party which Carver commiiTided. His 
 death in the first week of the ensuing April caused great sorrow 
 in the community. — F. B. 
 
 CARVER, Jonathan, was born at Still watei in Connecticut 
 in 1732, and died 31st January, 1780. He studied medicine, 
 but afterwards entered the army, and served in the English 
 regiments during the American war. On the restoration of 
 peace, he travelled in America, and published an account of his 
 travels during the years 1766, 1767, and 1768. He seems to 
 have been in reduced circumstances during the latter period of 
 hb life, and to have accepted a mean situ.ation in a lottery office 
 in London. He published in 1779 a work on the cultm-e of the 
 tobacco plant." — J. H. B. 
 
 GARY. See Falkland. 
 
 GARY, Henry Francis, the accomplished and well-known 
 translator of Dante, was born at Birmingham in 1772. He 
 early displayed a taste for poetry, publishing in 1787 "An 
 IiTegular Ode to General Elliot," and in the following year a 
 collection of " Sonnets and Odes." Having entered as a com- 
 moner of Christ's church, Oxford, he applied himself not only 
 to the study of Latin and Greek, but to acquiring a very exten- 
 sive acquaintance with the languages of modern Europe. In 
 1797 he was presented to the vicarage of Bromley Abbot's in 
 Staffordshire, and then devoted himself to his task of furnishing 
 English readers with a version of the work of the great Italian. 
 In 1805 the Inferno appeared, accompanied with the original, 
 and in 1814 Gary was able to issue his translation of the whole 
 poem, which he chose to name the " Vision" — a title, he says, 
 " more conformable to the genius of our language than that of 
 the 'Divine Comedy.'" A second edition was called for in 
 1819, and in issuing it Gary acknowledges his obligation to 
 Coleridge, to whose " prompt and strenuous exertions in recom- 
 mending the book to public notice," the fame to which this 
 translation has attained is mainly owing. A third edition was 
 called for in 1831, but it was not till February, 1844— in the 
 August of which year he died — that Gary found time to prepare 
 it for the press. From 1826 to 1832 he held the office of 
 assistant-librarian in the Bi-itish museum; and for some years 
 before his death he enjo3-ed an annual pension of £200 con- 
 ferred by govemment. Of his other works, we may mention 
 verse translations of the Burds of Aristophanes, and of the Odes 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 of Pindar ; " Lives of English Poets," in continuation of John- 
 son ; " Lives of early French Poets ; " and editions of Pope, 
 Cowper, Milton, Thomson, and Young. — J. B. 
 
 GARY, LoTT, a negi-o clergyman and missionarj-, one of the 
 founders of the civilized African colony of Liberia, was bom a 
 slave in Virginia about 1780. At Richmond, where he joined 
 a congregation of Baptists, he learned to read and write, studied 
 the scriptures and many other books, and preached regularly to 
 the blacks in the town and its neighbourhood. He was employed 
 at a tobacco warehouse, where his services were highly valued, 
 and where, from the presents which he received, and the profits 
 of some little trade on his o-mi account, he saved up money 
 enough to buy his own liberty, and that of two of his children, 
 at the cost of 850 dollars, or about £170. He soon rose to be 
 the owner of a little farm near the city, received a salaiy of 
 800 dollars for his serv'ices in the warehouse, and became much 
 esteemed as a preacher. But as soon as the American Coloni- 
 zation Society began active operations, he resolved to leave all, 
 and emigi-ate under their auspices to Africa. He sailed from 
 Richmond in .January, 1821, and went first to Sierra Leone, 
 where he worked as a cooper and missionary, till the Coloniza- 
 tion Society obtained Cape Jlesurado for their settlement. The 
 next year he went thither, and soon proved himself one of the 
 most active and useful members of the little community. In 
 1826 he was appointed vice-agent of the colony, and two years 
 afterwards, when Jlr. Ashman was obliged by sickness to return 
 to America, the whole government devolved on Gary. He 
 administered the affairs of the colony successfully till November, 
 1828, when he was killed, with seven others, by an accidental 
 explosion in the magazine where they were making cartridges, 
 against a threatened attack upon the settlement by the native 
 tribes.— F. B. 
 
 GARY, Robert, a learned chronologer, was bom at Cock- 
 ington in Devonshire about 1615. He belonged to an old and 
 famous family. Having studied at Oxford, where he won con- 
 siderable distincticm, and having travelled on the continent for 
 some time, he was, on his retm-n, presented to the rectory of 
 Portlemouth in Devon. In 1662 he was preferred to the arch- 
 deaconry of Exeter, but he only held that dignity for two 
 years. Returning to his rectory of Portlemouth, he lived there 
 till his death in 1C88. The book in connection with which he 
 is remembered is named " Pala3ologia Chronica ; a chronological 
 account of ancient time, in three j]arts — didactical, apodeictical, 
 and canonical," London, 1677.- — J. B. 
 
 CARYL, John, a dramatic -s-iTiter of the latter pai-t of the 
 seventeenth century. He was secretary' to Mary, James II. 's 
 queen, and seems to have followed the fortunes of the exiled 
 king, who rewarded him with knighthood, and the honorary titles 
 of Earl Carj'l and Baron Dartford. He, however, returned to 
 England, for we find him in London in the time of Queen Anne, 
 hving on terms of intimate friendship with Pope, who addressed 
 to him the Rape of the Lock, the subject of which he is said to 
 have suggested. Caiyl wrote two plays, "The English Princess, 
 or the Death of Richard III.," 1667; "Sir Salomon, or the 
 Cautious Coxcomb," 1671. He also published the Psalms of 
 David, translated from the Vulgate, 1700. The date of his 
 death is uncertain ; he was living in 1717. — J. B. 
 
 CARYL, Joseph, a nonconformist divine, author of a com- 
 mentary on Job, was born in London in 1602. He took a 
 prominent part in the public questions of the day, was appointed 
 by parliament to attend Charles I. at Holmby house, was one 
 of the commissioners to the Isle of Wight, and in 1650 was 
 sent along with Dr. Owen to officiate as minister, and to attend 
 on Cromwell in the Scottish expedition. After the passing of 
 the act of uniformity, he collected a congi-egation in the neigh- 
 bourhood of London bridge, where he continued to ofticiate till 
 his death in 1673.— J. B. 
 
 GASA, Giovanni Della, a celebrated Italian poet, orator, 
 and ])hilosopher, born of noble parentage at Mugello in Tuscany 
 in 1503; died in 1556. Having prosecuted his elementary 
 .studies at Bologna and at Florence, he was sent to Rome, where 
 he completed his acquaintance with the classics and studied theo- 
 logy. In 1538 his reputation for scholastic learning drew on 
 him the attention of Cardinal Alexander Farncse, who obtained 
 for him a secretaryship in the apostolic chamber. The talents 
 he displayed in that office secured him early promotion. He 
 was sent as nuncio to Florence, and soon after intiiisted with an 
 important embassy to the court of Venice. On this latter occasion 
 
 6 A
 
 CAS 
 
 922 
 
 CAS 
 
 Delia Casa pronounced before tlie senate two of his most cele- 
 brated orations. In IS-l-l he was raised to the arclibishopric of 
 Benevento as the reward of his diplomatic success. Involved in 
 the disgrace of his early patron, Famese, and obliged to quit 
 Rome, he sought consolation in his studies at a small villa in the 
 province of Treviso. In this retreat he remained till the elevation 
 of his protector to the pontifical throne, under the name of Paul 
 IV., when he was raised to the dignity of secretary of state. 
 His licentious life, or perhaps rather the immoral character of 
 his works alone prevented his being dignified with the purple. 
 Both in prose and verse his style is singularly felicitous. " Delia 
 Casa," says Gioberti, " is the first of lyric poets who abandoned 
 the servile imitation of Laura's bard, and sang of love in strains 
 never heard before, combining the wisdom of a philosopher with 
 the graceful melody of a poet." His principal prose works are 
 — " II Galateo," and a treatise in Latm entitled " De Officiis," 
 of which he left an Italian translation. All his works are con- 
 sidered classic, and his name has been enrolled amongst those of 
 the greatest writers of the sixteenth century. — A. C. M. 
 
 CASABIANCA, Louis, a French naval officer bom in 1755; 
 died in 1798. He entered the service young, and soon acquired 
 such a reputation for bravery, that he was elected a deputy to 
 the national con\'ention, and afterwards became a member of 
 the council of five hundred under the directory. In the French 
 expedition to Egypt he was appointed flag-captain to Admiral 
 Brueys ; and in the battle of Aboulvir was mortally wounded by 
 a splinter at the time the Orient caught fire. His son, a boy of 
 ten years of age, refused to abandon his father when the oppor- 
 tunity was offered of escaping in a small boat, and perished with 
 him in the explosion of the ship. — J. T. 
 
 CASAL or CAZAL, JImmanuel Aykes de, a Portuguese 
 geographer of the seventeenth century. He took orders, and 
 went while still young to Brazil. His book, " Corografia Bra- 
 siUca," has not yet been superseded. Casal spent much labom' 
 on it, diligently examining records, and gathering information 
 from the most recent travellers; its accuracy has been recog- 
 nized by Humboldt. — R. M., A. 
 
 CASANOVA, FuANCESOO : this artist, brother of Giacomo, 
 was born in London in 1732. At a very early period of his 
 life he was sent to Venice to study under Francesco Simonini, a 
 painter of battles in the style of Borgonone. Casanova imitated 
 his master — himself an imitator. But his imitative skill was 
 leavened by a considerable creative talent of his own. He painted 
 landscapes bloody with battle, and landscapes benign with peace. 
 He painted marine and pastoral subjects. Some years of his life 
 he spent at Dresden; some at Paris, where his reputation spread, 
 and he was received into the Academy. Subsequently he appeared 
 at Vienna, where his works were highly accounted, and he etched 
 royal plates. He died in 1805.— W. T. 
 
 CASANOVA, Giacomo, a notorious adventurer, born at 
 Venice in 1725. The family of Casanova was of Spanish origin, 
 and, from the fourteenth century, addicted to the same irregular 
 habits which were so perfectly developed in the famous Giacomo. 
 Casanova began life as an ecclesiastic, but soon quitted the 
 church to enter on his vagrant career. A recital of his adven- 
 tures, which he has minutely detailed in his " Memoirs," is here 
 impossible. Their name is legion. Some of the incidents taken 
 by themselves — such as his imprisonment at Venice and subse- 
 quent escape — are surpassingly interesting ; but the effect of 
 the whole is that of a dreary record of repulsive scoundrelism. 
 His life was a succession of intrigues, impostures, duels, impri- 
 sonments, escapes, arrests, amours, brawls, conjurings, and 
 debaucheries. And yet, strange to say, he found favour for a 
 short time almost wherever he came ; managed to get himself 
 presented at most of the European courts, and lived famiharly 
 with the nobln and learned. He could hoodwink a marquise 
 d'Urie, talk learnedly with a d'xVlembert, or bandy irreverent 
 sarcasms with a Voltaire. The resources of his consummate 
 impudence were boundless, provided only the liberty of moving 
 about from capital to capital were allowed him. Casanova 
 reminds us of Cagliostro, although he deals less in the black art, 
 and has scarcely any of the arcliquack's solemn pretence of 
 respectability, trusting more in his native impudence and swift- 
 ness of heels. The last years of his life were spent — discon- 
 tentedly, as might be expected — at the castle of a Bohemian 
 count. It is uncertain whether he died in 17'J9 or 1803. One 
 of his List sayings was — "I have lived a philosopher, but I die a 
 christian." — R. M., A. 
 
 CASAS. See Las Casas. 
 
 CASATI, the name of four musicians much esteemed in their 
 day: — 
 
 Casati, Francesco, was an organist and composer at Milan 
 in 1600, first at the chiuxli of St. Maria della Passione, and 
 afterwards at that of St. Mai'co ; his compositions are all eccle- 
 siastical. 
 
 Casati, Gasparo, lived at Venice in 1G50 ; he was distin- 
 guished as a vocal composer, and his works, though not all 
 designed for the church, are all of a sacred character ; this 
 makes it remarkable, considering the severe style then employed 
 for religious music, that many of his canzonets are written in 
 triple measm'e, which at that period was regarded as light, if 
 not trivial. 
 
 Casati, Girolamo, was mnastro di capella at Mantua in 
 the middle of the sixteenth century ; he produced many sacred 
 compositions for one or more voices. 
 
 Casati, Teodoro, lived at ililan in the latter half of the 
 seventeenth century ; he was organist successively of the churches 
 of S. Fidele and S. Sepolcro, and finally of the cathedral ; he 
 held this last oflice in 1667, when he was one of the umpires 
 who elected the celebrated San Romano to be organist of St. 
 Celso. Maria Anna, queen of Spain, was so pleased with an 
 opera of this composer, that she offered him an appointment ut 
 her com't, which, however, he did not accept. — G. A. M. 
 
 CASAUBON, Isaac, one of those great scholars of the middii' 
 ages who studied classical literature with an affection and self- 
 devotion almost apostolic in its intensity and fer^-our. He was 
 born at Geneva, February 8, 1559, of a proscribed family from 
 Daupliiue ; and when a young man of twenty -four succeeded 
 Portus as professor of Greek in the university of that city. His 
 anxiety to be worthy of his position as a classical scholar, was 
 sufficiently pure and noble to partake of a certain religious 
 character. In 1586 he married Florence, daughter of the eccen- 
 tric printer and scholar, Henri Estienne (Henry Stephens), and 
 from time to time issued editions and translations of Greek and 
 Latin authors, with notes and commentaries. In 1596 he was 
 appointed professor of Greek and belles-lettres at Montpelliir ; 
 but in consequence of miserable treatment as to pecunimy 
 matters, he accepted an mvitation to Paris given him by Heniy 
 IV., who wished to place him in one of the university chaii>. 
 Henry, however, on account of the opposition raised because 
 of Casaubon's protestant opinions, ultimately substituted the 
 appointment of royal librarian. The scholarship of Casaubon 
 was varied, and probably no man has published commentaries 
 on a greater number of authors ; but his chief delight was in 
 Greek. The Greek language may, indeed, be called le demon 
 Jainilier of his life, solacing his worst troubles, and creating 
 his most grateful pleasures. — The scholars of the middle ages 
 may be aiTanged in several distinct classes. Around Cardinal 
 Bessarion, in the fom-teenth centuiy, may be grouped those who 
 dug out from the hard soil of oblivion the remains of antiquity, 
 as a Layard might excavate Nineveh. In the beginning of the 
 sixteenth centur}', we may group around Erasmus those who 
 loved the ancient spirit more than the letter, and sought to 
 breathe into the present the glory of the past, and rival classical 
 productions upon actually existent gi'ounds. These men were 
 less famous as excavators than as new builders upon old foun- 
 dations. Around Casaubon, at the end of the sixteenth centurj', 
 may be grouped scholars who combined both these previous 
 tendencies, and who sought by original critical commentary to 
 give life to the exca\'ated remains. The bible had not yet 
 gained its commanding authority over the critical intellect of 
 Europe, although that time drew near ; and Casaubon once or 
 twice turned from classical to scriptural commentary. This 
 tendency occurred, however, after a severe illness, and did not 
 hold its ground when returning health gave strength to his 
 natural tastes. His memory was wonderful, and he could coirect 
 author by author with apt quotations ; while he possessed that 
 sagacity in the detection of textual corruptions, which in the 
 trae scholar is a fine instinct ; and he must be numbered amongst 
 those who carried into philology that self- same rigorous method 
 of observation which was brought by Bacon to beai- upon the 
 study of nature. Casaubon's devotion to study was an enthu- 
 siasm so single-minded as to be lovable. In a rude and troubled 
 time how could learning have lived had it not thus been 
 served with a completeness of self- surrender? The life of 
 Casaubon, in relation to his age, may have been one-sided ;
 
 but an overstress on commentary alone preserved literature 
 in times when mind was generally undervalued in comparison 
 with the sword. Casaubon published an edition of Aristotle in 
 Greek and Latin, and a similar edition of Polybius — the latter 
 being the more excellent of the two — with commentaries on 
 Dioo-enes Laertius, Theophrastus, Theocritus, Persius, Suetonius, 
 Pliny the younger, and many others. His commentary on the 
 Deipnos Sophistse of Athenasus is probably the most notable 
 of all. He remained a protestant throughout life, although his 
 modest and kindly spirit, and his anxiety to be fair and just, 
 exposed him to constant proselytizing efforts on the one hand, 
 and to suspicions among his fellow-believers on the other. One 
 of the most honourable facts of his life exposed him to the 
 greatest annoyance. At the conference of Fontainebleau, the 
 protestant champion, Duplessis was convicted of misquoting the 
 Fathers ; and Casaubon, who had been nominated one of the 
 judges on the protestant side, not being able to resist the evi- 
 dence, honourably decided against his own party. One of his 
 friends concluded from this conscientious fairness that he must 
 be a catholic in disguise, and was thus indignantly rebuked — 
 " I conjure you by the immortal God do not soil my life with 
 this stain, that like a masker my countenance belies my heart. 
 Such a one I am not, I never have been, and I never will be." 
 His conversion to Catholicism being found impossible he was 
 accused of atheism. To this charge he pointedly answered — 
 " Had I been an atheist, I should have been at Rome, where I have 
 frequently been invited." Upon the assassination of Heniy IV. 
 he went to England, where he was favourably received by James 
 I., and becoming that monarch's chief theological adviser, so 
 pursued the even tenor of his way that the puritans were even 
 scandalized at the moderation of his polemics, and the Jesuits 
 thought him deserving of every imaginable reproach. At James' 
 request he prepared an examination of the Annals of Baronius, 
 but his ecclesiastical was not equal to his classical learning. 
 Casaubon died July 6, 1614, and was buried in Westminster 
 abbey. Some time pre%'ious to his death he had been offered 
 various Oxford degrees, and had replied with mingled modesty 
 and pride, that as long as he lived his name should be his only 
 title.— L. L. P. 
 
 CASAUBON, M^Ric, son of the more famous Isaac Casau- 
 bon, was l)oiTi at Geneva in 1599. He came to England with 
 his father in 1610, and was entered at Christ church, Oxford, 
 where he took his master's degree in 1621, and in the same 
 year published a defence of his father, named " Pietas contra 
 maledicos patrii nominis et religionis hostes," which brought 
 him into notice, and secured for him the favour of the king, at 
 whose command he published a second defence in 1624. He 
 received various prefer.ments in the church, which he held till 
 about 1644, when the violence of the civil wars deprived him of 
 his livings. He was, however, honoured by a request from 
 Cromwell to write the history of the war, which he declined, as 
 well as the offer of a pension. He also refused a flattering offer 
 from Christiana of Sweden, who wished him to undertake the 
 inspection of her universities. At the Restoration he received 
 his ecclesiastical preferments once more, and enjoyed them till his 
 death in 1671. His works were very numerous. Sir William 
 Temple praises his work on Enthusiasm ; and his treatise " Of 
 Credulity and Incredulity in things natural, civil, and divine," 
 is remarkable as avowing his belief in " spirits, witches, and 
 supernatural operations." — J. B. 
 
 CASE, .John, M.D., a learned physician of the sixteenth 
 century, and the author of an interesting little work, entitled 
 " The Praise of JIusick ; wherein, besides the antiquity and 
 dignity, &c., is declared the sober and lawful use of the same in 
 the congregation and chiu-ch of God;" printed at Oxford, 12nio, 
 1586, with a dedicatory epistle to Sir Walter Raleigh. He was 
 born at Woodstock about the year 1550, and died in 1599. 
 A list of his works, which, with the above exception, possess 
 little interest at the present day, may be seen in Wood's Athenas 
 Oxonienses (ed. Bliss, i. 686).— E. F. R. 
 
 CASE, John, M.D, a noted astrologer of Queen Anne's time. 
 He was a native of Lyme-Regis in Dorsetshire, and succeeded to 
 the magical apparatus of Lilly and Salford. A work entitled 
 "Compendium Anatomicum, nova arte institutum," is with 
 much probability ascribed to Case. It is a defence of De Graafs 
 opinion as to the generation of all animals ah ovo. — J. B. 
 
 CASEARIUS, John, a Dutch botanist, lived during the 
 second half of the seventeenth century. He resided as a mis- 
 
 sionary at Cochin, and assisted Rheede in his Hortus Malabaricus. 
 He arranged the plan of that great work, and described the 
 plants in the first two volumes. An American genus of plants 
 is called Casearia in honour of him. — J. H. B. 
 
 CASES. See Las Cases. 
 
 CASES, Pierre Jacques, a French painter, bom at Paris in 
 1676. He obtained the grand prize for painting in 1699, and 
 was received into the academy in 1704. He painted a gi'eat 
 number of works, but towards the end of his life he stooped to 
 become a mere art-machine for the rapid production of pictures. 
 He was the instructor of Le liloine. He died in 1754 at Paris 
 
 CASIMIR. See Sarbieusky. 
 
 CASIMIR, the name of five kings of Poland : — 
 
 Casimir L, sumamed the Restorer, and also the Monk, 
 son of Miccislaus II., and of Rikscha, niece of the emperor, Otho 
 III., died in 1058. At the death of his father, which occurred 
 in 1034, when Casimir was still a minor, his mother undertook 
 the government with the title of regent ; but her administration 
 proving unpopular she fled with the young prince to France. 
 Becoming a member of the Benedictine order of Cluni, he remained 
 in France till recalled by his subjects in 1041. He was a just 
 and liberal monarch, and did much to foster the civilization of the 
 kingdom by his patronage of letters, and by repressing idolatry. 
 
 Casimir II., called the Just, younger son of Boleslas III., 
 born in 1017, siicceeded his brother, Miccislaus III., in 1177, 
 and reigned till his death in 1194. He defeated the heathen 
 tribes of Prussia, and compelled them to adopt the christian 
 faith, and at home protected the common people from the tyranny 
 of the nobles. 
 
 Casimir III., styled the Great, bom in 1300; died in 1370. 
 He succeeded his father, Wladislas, in 1333, commencing a reign 
 of singular lustre and beneficence with the character, only too 
 well deserved, of a reckless libertine. His first public acts 
 augured little for the prosperity of the kingdom under his nde. 
 Absorbed in pleasure he allowed several provinces to be wrested 
 from the crown, piu^chased peace with his enemies at the price 
 of dishonour, and connived at the most shameful abuses of 
 the administration and the courts of justice. The memory of 
 these delinquencies, however, he gradually effaced by successful 
 wars with the Tartars, Cossacks, Livonians, and Bohemians, and 
 at length completely obliterated, by the introduction of reforms 
 into eveiy branch of the public service, which only the talents 
 of a great legislator, and the wisdom and beneficence of a great 
 sovereign, could have been eftectual in inaugurating. A higher 
 title than that by which he is commonly distinguished in histoiy, 
 was that by which the nobles of the kingdom sought to point 
 the finger of scom at his administration, calling him " the 
 peasants' king," with a contempt which it was his glorj' to have 
 eamed, not by the ^-ulgar acts of display and condescension, but 
 by earnest, although not always successful exertions to relieve 
 the great body of his subjects from the oppression of feudal 
 institutions. He abolished the arbitrary powers of the judges by 
 the introduction of a double code of laws (for the Greater and the 
 Lesser Poland), established a supreme court of appeal .at Cracovia, 
 projected and endowed .schools and hospitals for the poor, and 
 on the model of the university of Paris founded that of Cracovia 
 (1347). In contrast to all this beneficence, however, was his 
 absurd submission to a Jewish mistress, who had the art to 
 obtain from him for her countrymen commercial monopolies, 
 which throughout the reign of Casimir continued to weigh 
 heavily on the enterprise of other classes of his subjects. 
 Casimir III. was twice married, to Anne, daughter of Gedemin, 
 grand duke of Lithuania, and to Adelaide of Hesse, but left no 
 children by either of his wives. At his death in 1370, the two 
 kingdoms of Hungary and Poland were united, under the mle of 
 his nephew and successor, Louis of Anjou. 
 
 Casimir IV., second son of Jagello, grand duke of Lithuania, 
 who married a diuighter of King Lewis, and afterwards became 
 king of Poland, under the title of Wladislas III. Casimir suc- 
 ceeded to the crown.s of Poland and Lithuania at the death of 
 his brother, Wladislas IV., who fell gloriously at the battle of 
 Varna in 1444. Personally little entitled to distinction, his 
 character being that of an indolent although not incompetent 
 sovereign, Casimir gave his name to a period in the history of 
 Prussia, which was illustrated by the subjection of the Teutonic 
 knights, and by the introduction of deputies from provinces into 
 the diet of the kingdom. He died in 1492. 
 
 Casimir V., John, son of Sigismund III., king of Poland,
 
 and of Constance of Austria, bom in 1G09 ; died in 1672. His 
 brother, Wladislas V., succeedin;^ to the crown on the death of 
 his father in 1633, Casimir undertook in 1638 the hazardous 
 task of assisting, by a naval annament collected at Genoa, the 
 designs of Philip III. of Spain against the commerce of the 
 French on the JlediteiTanean. His fleet being driven by contrary 
 winds on the coast of Provence, he was taken prisoner, and con- 
 fined by order of Richelieu at Vincennes. After two years' 
 imprisonment he was allowed to return to Poland. He was at 
 Rome, where he had entered the church, and been promoted to 
 the rank of cardinal, when the news of his election to the 
 sovereignty of Poland, following the tidings of his brother's 
 death, reached him, and necessitated an appeal to the pontiff for 
 a dispensation from his clerical vows. With this, which was 
 readily granted, and with a license to many his brother's widow, 
 he returned to Poland, and commenced his long wars with the 
 Tartars and Cossacks, the evils of which were shortly to be 
 increased by an incursion of Swedes under the formidable Charles 
 Gusta\-us. Charles overran the greater part of Poland, and 
 defeated the Polish army in a great battle, near Warsaw. By 
 the treaty of Oliva in 1660, Casimir gave up Livonia to the 
 Swedes, and Smolensk and Kiew to the Russians. In 1667 he 
 abdicated the crown and retired to France, where the abbacy of 
 St. Germain-des-Pres and other benefices were confeired upon 
 him by Louis XIV. His death occurred at Xevers. — J. S., G. 
 
 CASLEY, David, an English bibliographer of the first half 
 of the eighteenth century. He was subkeeper of the Cottonian 
 library ; published " Report of Committee on the Cottonian 
 Libraiy, &c., with an Appendix," 1732 ; and compiled a cata- 
 logue of the ^LSS. of the king's library, and of the Harleian 
 MSS. from 2405 to 5709. 
 
 CASLON, WiLLiAJi, a distinguished letter-founder, was 
 born in Shropshire in 1692. His original occupation was that 
 of an engraver of ornaments on gun-barrels, with which he 
 combined the making of tools for bookbinders, and the chasing 
 of silver plate. Mr. Bowyer, the printer, having seen the letter- 
 ing on the back of a book, which was executed with peculiar 
 neatness, inquired who had furnished the letters. Finding that 
 it was Jlr. Caslon, he waited on him, and persuaded him to 
 devote himself to letter-founding, for -which he soon showed 
 peculiar aptitude. He was first employed to cut the letters for 
 an edition of the Xew Testament and Psalter, printed in Arabic 
 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. After this he 
 began to cut pica, and in 1722 furnished the fount for printing 
 an edition of Selden. Encouraged by 5Ir. Bowyer he opened a 
 foundry, and soon, by his peculiar excellence in the art, made 
 the importation of types from Holland unnecessary. Indeed, ere 
 long, the productions of his foundry began to be exported to the 
 continent. Mr. Caslon reahzed a considerable fortune, and died 
 at his country seat at Bethnal-green in 1766. — J. B. 
 
 CASMAXN, Otto, a German dinne of the sixteenth century, 
 known as one of the earliest of the so-called scriptural philoso- 
 phers, who foiTned a system of philosophy founded entirely on 
 the records and doctrine of the bible. He died in 1607. Among 
 other works he wrote a treatise named " Cosmopceia," in which 
 he derives a system of natural philosophy from scripture ; and 
 " Jlodesta Assertio Philosophiae et Christianse et Verse," in which 
 he professes to write the christian institutes of grammar, rhetoric, 
 logic, arithmetic, &c. — J. B. 
 
 * CASS, Lewis, General, an American statesman of consider- 
 able notoriety, was born at Exeter, New Hampshire, about the 
 close of the last centuiy. He was originally intended for the legal 
 profession, but quitted it for the army. His mihtar}' career, how- 
 ever, gained him no lam-els, for his only service in the field appears 
 to have been in the luckless expedition against Canada in 1812, 
 which terminated in the surrender to the British of the American 
 army under General Hall. On the return of peace. General Cass 
 was elected governor of Michigan. In 1831 he received the 
 appointment of .secretary of war from General Jackson, and 
 subsequently became United States minister plenipotentiary at 
 the court of France, where he was noted for his cordial approba- 
 tion of the policy of Louis Philippe. He resigned his office and 
 returned home, in consequence of a difference of opinion with 
 President Harrison respecting his foreign policy. Since that 
 time he has taken a leading part in political aft'airs ; and in 1844 
 was an unsuccessful candidate for the office of president. Cass 
 is now a senator for the state of Michigan, and a member of 
 President Buchanan's cabinet. He is a violent and factious 
 
 partisan of the democratic party, a zealous supporter of slavery 
 and of a high protection tariff; and has always shown himself an 
 unscrupulous advocate of the annexation of Texas, the war with 
 Mexico, and the other aggressive measures of the American 
 government against their neighbours. — J. T. 
 
 CASSAGNES, Jacques, a French writer, bom at Xismes in 
 1633. Early knowTi as a poet, he was admitted at the age of 
 twenty-seven into the French Academy, and rose in court favour, 
 till, when preparing to become a court pi-eacher, he was satirized 
 by Boileau, which so affected his spirits that he became insane. 
 He died in 1679, leaving odes, and some translations. — J. B. 
 
 CASSAXA, GiovAXNi Agostixo, called L' Abate : this 
 painter, the younger brother of Xicolletto, was born at Genoa 
 in 1658, and was instructed by his father. He painted por- 
 traits successfully, but is more celebrated for his quadruped 
 lilvenesses. His animal and fruit pieces have been very highly 
 considered, and follow the style of Benedetto Castiglione. He 
 died in 17'20.— W. T. 
 
 CASSAXA, Giovanni Francesco, a painter, born at Genoa 
 in 1611. He studied under Bernardo Strozzi. He excelled 
 most as a portrait painter, but he executed a St. Girolamo in 
 the dome of the church of the !Mirandola with great credit. He 
 died in 1691. He was the progenitor of a gi-oup of painters. 
 
 CASSAXA, XiccoLO, the second son of Giovanni Francesco 
 Cassana, bom at Venice in 1659. He was sumamed Xicol- 
 letto. He studied under his father, and aided him in many of 
 his works. He excelled as a painter of portraits. He visited 
 the court of Tuscany, and earned great fame by his portraits 
 of the gi'and duke and his wife. The Tuscan aristocracy, of 
 course, followed the suit of the court, and had their illustrious 
 faces limned by the favourite painter. He practised historical 
 painting in the intervals of his more profitable labours. His 
 large picture at Florence of the " Conspiracy of Catiline" is not 
 without merit. He visited England, and had a great success. 
 " Queen Anne's" refined features figured on his canvass, and her 
 majesty bestowed great fiivour upon him. The British nobility 
 also patronized him. But his career in England was not long. 
 He died m 1713.— W. T. 
 
 CASSAXDER, king of Macedonia, was born about 354 B.C. 
 His father Antipater had Macedonia allotted to him on the 
 di-insion of the empire after the death of Alexander the Great. 
 When Antipater died, B.C. 318, he appointed Polysperchon, one 
 of the oldest of Alexander's captains, to succeed him. Cassander, 
 enraged at his exclusion, repaired to Asia, and obtained assistance 
 from Antigonus to enforce his claims upon the Macedonian 
 throne. In the end Polysperchon was overthrown, and 01ympia9, 
 the mother of Alexander, whom he had associated with himself 
 in the government, was blockaded iu Pydna by Cassander, and 
 on the capitulation of the town, B.C. 315, was put to denth 
 through his agency, in express violation of the temis of surrender. 
 He then, in the hope of strengthening his dominion, married 
 Thessalonice, the half sister of Alexander the Great, and soon 
 after founded the flourishing city of Cassandria in Pallene, and 
 began the restoration of Thebes, which Alexander had destroyed. 
 He formed an alliance with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Seleucus 
 against Antigonus. Peace was concluded in 311 B.C., on con- 
 dition that Cassander should be militaiy governor of the European 
 provinces till the son of Alexander by Roxana should attain his 
 majority. But two years after this, both the young prince and 
 his mother were put to death by his orders. Polysperchon then 
 set up against him Hercules, the son of Alexander by Barsine, 
 the daughter of Darius, but he agreed to put Hercules to death 
 at the instigation of Cassander, aud thus the line of Alexander 
 the Great became totally extinct. Cassander now assumed the 
 regal title as he had long enjoyed the power. He became a 
 party to a new combination against Antigonus, who was sig- 
 nally defeated at Ipsus B.C. 301, and died of his wounds. But 
 Cassander did not long survive the removal of his most formid- 
 able enemy, having died B.C. 296. He was succeeded by Philip, 
 his eldest son. — J. T. 
 
 CASSAXDER, George, a Roman catholic divine, bom in 
 Cadsand, near Bmgcs, in 1515. Distinguished as a scholar, lie 
 latterly devoted himself exclusively to theolog)', and to the 
 endeavour to efi'ect a reconciliation between his own church and 
 protestantism. With this view he wrote, in 1562, his work 
 •' De officio viri pii," &c., which involved him in a controversy 
 with Calvin. Afterwards encouraged as a mediator by the 
 German princes, he published his " Consultatio Cassandii," in
 
 CAS 
 
 925 
 
 CAS 
 
 which he reviews the Augsburg Confession, and suggests con- 
 cessions that might be made by Rome. He died in 1566. His 
 works were collected and published at Paris in 1616. — J. B. 
 
 CASSARD, Jacques, a famous French naval officer, born 
 at Nantes in 1672. He commanded a privateer, which inflicted 
 considerable injury upon the English commerce, and performed 
 several daring exploits, which obtained for him a wide celebrity 
 in his native country, but were not productive of any permanent 
 benefit to his own interests. After the peace of Utrecht, when 
 his services were no longer required, he was completely neglected 
 bv the French court, and died in great poverty in 1740, having 
 been confined for the last twenty-one years of his life in the 
 fortress of Ham. — J. T. 
 
 CASSAS, Louis Francois, a French painter and architect, 
 born in 1756; died in 1827. He pubhshed several illustrated 
 works of travel, particidarly " Voyages pittoresques de la Syrie, 
 de la Phenicie, de la Palestine, de la basse Egypte," 1799, 
 remarkable for its plans and ^-iews of Palmyra and Baalbek; 
 and " Pictorial Sketches of the piincipal Sites and Monuments 
 of Greece, Sicily, and Rome." 
 
 * CASSEBEER, Johaxx Heixrich, a German botanist, 
 celebrated for his work "Ueber die Entwickelung der Laub- 
 moose," published at Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 1823. A genus 
 Cassebeera is named after him. — J. H. B. 
 
 CASSERIO, Julius, a celebrated Italian anatomist, born in 
 1545, and sumamed Plaxcentinus from Placentia the place 
 of his birth. He was originally a sen-ant in the family of 
 Fabricius de Aquapendente, of Padua, who, ha\-ing marked his 
 great talents, gave him instructions in anatomy, in which he 
 soon made astonishing progress. Fabricius was proud of his 
 accompUshed pupil, and frequently employed him as his substi- 
 tute in giving public lectures; and when, in 1604, his advanced 
 age compelled him to resign his professorship, the Venetian 
 senate appointed Casserio liis successor. The minuteness and 
 accuracy of his dissections enabled him to make many valuable 
 discoveries, especially regarding the organ of heaiing, which have 
 immortalized his name. He died in 1616. His great work on 
 anatomy, consisting of ninety-seven folio plates, representing all 
 the parts of the human body, was not published till some years 
 aftef his death. — J. T. 
 
 CASSLANI, GiULiANO, an Italian poet, born at Jlodena in 
 1712. Having been elected professor of poetry in the college 
 for the nobility of his native state, he devoted his time entirely 
 to poetical composition. He ranks amongst the first lyric poets 
 of Italy, and every lover of Italian poetry is acquainted with his 
 inimitable sonnet, "II Ratto di Proserpina." Francis, duke of 
 Modena, appointed him professor of eloquence in the university, 
 intrusting him at the same time with the lucrative office of ducal 
 historiographer. Cassiani's poetical and prose works have been 
 published bv his favourite pupil, Marquis Girolamo Luccesini. 
 He died in 1778.— A. C. JI. 
 
 CASSIEN, Jeax, bom about 350 ; died about 443. The 
 place of his birth is doubtful, some statements making him the 
 native of a Greek city on the Black Sea. The authors of L'His- 
 toire litteraire de la France describe him as descended from a 
 distinguished French family. Marseilles is said to have been 
 his birthplace. However this be, at Marseilles he chiefly resided ; 
 he vrrote all his works there ; he founded in that city his famous 
 abbey of St. Victor, and there he died. Pilgrimages were the 
 passion of the period in which he lived, and Cassien, with his 
 friend, Germain, visited, first Bethlehem, and then the Thebaid. 
 On his return he was ordained deacon at Constantinople by St. 
 Chrysostom, and soon afterwards is said to have obtained priest's 
 orders at JIarseilles. At Marseilles he foimded two monasteries 
 — one of men, the other of females. In the first there were sub- 
 ject to his rule as many as five thousand monks. Cassien's 
 chief works are his " ^Monastic Institutions," and his " Twenty- 
 four Conferences of the Fathers of tlie Desert " — they were 
 translated into French by Kicolas Fontaine. Another work of 
 Cassien's is " A Treatise on the Incarnation," written at the 
 request of Pope Celestine against Nestorius. — J. A., D. 
 
 CASSINI, the name of a family originally of Italy, bnt 
 naturalized in France since the time of Louis XIV., all the 
 representatives of which, with one exception, have attained 
 eminence as astronomers. We notice : — 
 
 Cassixi, Jean Domixique, a celebrated astronomer, was 
 born at Pe'rinaldo in the coimty of Nice in 1625. His studies, 
 commenced under an able schoolmaster, were continued among 
 
 the Jesuits at Genoa ; and a love of literature then manifested 
 itself, which he retained through life. His attention was called 
 to astronomy by means of the study of astrology, which he 
 prosecuted for a short time with much interest, and he is said 
 to have made, in accordance with its rules, several predictions 
 which the event fulfilled. But he soon discenied the emptiness 
 of its pretensions, and relinquished it for the more reliable 
 investigations of astronomy. His progress in this science was 
 so rapid, that in 1650, at the age of twenty-five years, he was 
 chosen by the senate of Bologna to fill the chair of astronomy in 
 the university of that town, vacant by the death of the famous 
 mathematician, Cavalieri. While occupying this position, he 
 performed what was considered a very difficult achievement, 
 the tracing of a meridian in the church of the Petrone, and was 
 employed by the senate to design and execute some works con- 
 nected with the embanking of the Po. He also undertook the 
 fortification of Urbino and Perugia, and was besides intrusted with 
 some important negotiations with the Roman and Tuscan govern- 
 ments, relative to the com-ses of the Po and Chiana. In 1665, 
 while residing at Citta della Pieve in Tuscany, he discovered the 
 shadows cast upon the planet Jupiter by his satellites, and made 
 use of the discovery to amend the theoiy of satellite motion. He 
 also discovered about the same time, by means of the fixed 
 spots on Jupiter, JIars, and Venus, the times of rotation of these 
 planets, which he determined to be respectively, 9 h. 55 m., 24 h. 
 40 m., and about 24^ hours. In 1684, while residing in France, 
 where he had been naturalized in 1673, he discovered four of the 
 satellites of Saturn, in addition to the one which was pre^^ously 
 known through the discovery of Huygens. He investigated the 
 zodiacal light, and gave an exact description of its form and 
 position ; and he was the first to announce the inclination of 
 the moon's axis. The laws of its apparent variation, which 
 he announced with considerable precision, constitute one of his 
 finest discoveries. He was one of the principal projectors of the 
 Cayenne expedition, which resulted in the disclosure of the fact, 
 that gravity diminishes from the poles to the equator. In 1 668 he 
 published tables of the motions of Jupiter's sateUites, a work of 
 immense laboiu", and performed with great exactness, considering 
 the state of astronomical science at the time. A revised edition 
 appeared in 1G93. In 1700 he completed the measm-ement of 
 an arc of the meridian extending from some distance south of 
 Paris to Roussillon, part of which had been previously measured 
 by Picard and Lahire. He died in 1712. 
 
 Cassixi, .Jacques, son of the preceding, was bom at Paris 
 in 1677, and admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences in 
 1694. He travelled successively in Italy, Holland, and England, 
 where he made the acquaintance of Newton, Halley, and Flam- 
 stead, and was admitted a member of the Royal Society of London 
 in 1696. On his return to Paris he prepared a number of scientific 
 jiapers for the Academy; and in 1717 presented to this society 
 his gi-eat work "On the Inclination of the plane of the ring, and 
 orbits of the satelUtes, of the planet Saturn." But he is best 
 known by his terrestrial measm-ements. He had assisted his 
 father in 1701 in extending an arc of the meridian to Canigou. 
 In 1718 he carried it on to Dunkirk, and published his work 
 " On the Size and Figiu-e of the Earth," Paris, 1720. He was 
 then intrusted by the Academy with the measurement of an arc 
 of longitude extending across the whole kingdom of France, 
 from Brest to Strasbourg. Cassini also published "Astronomical 
 Tables of the Sun, !Moon, Planets, Stars, and Satellites," Paris, 
 1740, which for a long time ranked among the best. A supple- 
 ment was added to this work by his son in 1756. Jacques 
 Cassini died at Thm-y in 1756. 
 
 Cassixi de Thury, Cesak Fkax^ois, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1714, and at the age of twenty-two was 
 received into the Academy of Sciences. The great work of his 
 life was a trigonometrical survey of France, the expense of which 
 was borne by government till 1756, after which time it was 
 chiefly sustained by private enteq)rise. The results were pub- 
 lished from time to time in the form of large charts on a scale 
 of a line to 100 toises, and the whole were capable of being 
 united in one large chart 38 feet high and 34 broad. The po.-^i- 
 tions of all the towns are determined in it, with reference to the 
 meridian of Paris, and a peq>endicular to it passing through 
 Paris. The publication of this nuignificent work efll'cted a com- 
 plete revolution in geography, and it has scr\-ed as a model for 
 many subsequent undertakings. Cassini de Thury died of small- 
 pox in 1784, ha^ng lived to see his work almost completed.
 
 CAS 
 
 926 
 
 CAS 
 
 Cassixi, Alexandre Hexri Gabriel De, a descendant 
 of the preceding, was born in 1781, his father being director of 
 the Paris observatory. He had no taste for the pursuits in which 
 his ancestors had distinguished themselves, but devoted himself 
 to botany, and made extensive researches in the department of 
 synantherous plants. His excessive multiplication of genera 
 ])revented his nomenclature from being generally followed. He 
 was the author of numerous botanical articles in the Journal de 
 Plii/sique, the principal of which he collected and published under 
 the title of "Opuscules Phytologiques :" Paris, 1826. He was 
 also one of the most active editors of the JIagasin Encyclope- 
 dique, and of the Dictiounaire des Sciences Naturelles. Having 
 commenced the study of law in 1804, he was in 1810 appointed 
 juge au tribunal de premiere instance, afterwai-ds became a 
 member of the court of cassation, and in 1830 was admitted to 
 the chamber of peers. He died of cholera in 1832, having been 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences since 1827. — J. D. E. 
 
 CASSIODORUS, Magnus Aureliu s, a distinguished states- 
 man, historian, and man of letters, who enjoyed the confidence 
 of Theodoric the Great, and was for a long series of years at the 
 head of the government of the Ostrogothic kingdom, was born 
 at Sylacium in Bruttium, about a.d. 468, his father being the 
 representative of an ancient and wealthy Roman family. At 
 the age of seventy he retired to the monastery of Viners, in 
 Calabria, where he died, almost a centenarian, leaving the fol- 
 lowing works, a complete edition of which was published by 
 D. Garet at Rouen in 1679: — "Chronicon;" " De artibus ac 
 disciplinis Liberalium Literarum;" " De Institutione Divinaram 
 Literarum ; " a few other treatises, and twelve books of his letters 
 (state papers), written in accordance with the instiuctions of 
 Theodoric and his successors. — J. S., G. 
 
 CASSIUS, the name of one of the most illustrious of the 
 Roman gentes, originally patrician, afterwards plebeian. The 
 more distinguished members of this gens follow in chronological 
 order : — 
 
 Cassius Viscellinus, Spcrius, thrice consul; first in 502 
 B.C., when he defeated the Sabines at Cures; again in 493, when 
 he concluded a treaty with the Latins ; and lastly in 486, when 
 he made a league with the Hemicans, and earned the first 
 agrarian law, the lex Cassia, in spite of the bitter opposition 
 of the patrician order, of which he was a member. The provi- 
 sions of this law were never earned into execution ; for its author 
 was accused of treason by the patricians, and condemned to 
 death immediately on resigning his office in 485 B.C. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, Caius, elected consul with P. L. Crassus 
 in 171 B.C., obtained as his province Italy and Cisalpine Gaul. 
 Desiring to engage in the war in JIacedonia, he endeavoured to 
 penetrate thither through Illyricum, but, being prohibited after a 
 time by the senate, he desisted and returned to Italy. In 170 B.C. 
 he was accused by ambassadors from various tribes before the 
 senate for his conduct during the war, but escaped with a reproof. 
 When censor in 152 B.C., along with his colleague Valerius 
 Messala, he erected a theatre. It was demolished by the senate 
 at the instance of Scipio Nasica, on the plea of its injuriousness 
 to public morals. The date of his death is uncertain. 
 
 Cassius Longinus Ravilla, Lucius, the son of Q. Cassius 
 Longinus, a Roman of consular rank. In 137 B.C., when tribune 
 of the Plebs, he passed the second lex tabellaria, extending the 
 use of the ballot. In 127 B.C. he was elected consul along with 
 Cornelius Cinna, and in 125 B.C. censor along with Cn. Servilius 
 Cepio. In his judicial capacity he was noted for severity and 
 uprightness. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, Lucius, consul along with C. Marius 
 107 B.C. ; died that year fighting against the Tigurini. While 
 prsetor in 111 B.C., he went as ambassador to Numidia, and 
 returned bringing with him the celebrated Jugurtha. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, Caius, one of the leaders of the con- 
 spiracy against Ca;sar. Nothing is known of his historj- until 
 the expedition of Crassus ag.ainst the Parthians B.C. 53, when 
 lie acted as quajstor, and succeeded in resciung about five hundred 
 horse, the only remnant of the army that escaped destraction. 
 He afterwards defeated the victorious Parthians when they laid 
 siege to Antioch, and compelled them to abandon Syria. Dur- 
 ing the civil war between Casar and Pompey, Cassius attached 
 himself to the aristocratic faction, and commanded the fleet of 
 Pompey in the Hellespont. After the battle of Pharsalia B.C. 
 4 8, he fell in with Cnesar, who had only a single vessel with him, 
 and might easily have taken him prisoner ; but for reasons which 
 
 have never been explained he at once obeyed the summons of 
 the victorious general to surrender, and passed over to his side. 
 History is silent concerning Cassius from this time until the 
 period of the conspiracy against Caesar. He was the main- 
 spring of the plot, and was evidently actuated by strong 
 personal as well as party dislike to the gi-eat dictator, and it 
 was he who succeeded in drawing into the confederacy Bratus, 
 whose sister Junia he had married. After the murder of Ctesar, 
 Cassius was deprived of the command of Syria through the 
 agency of Antony ; and, on receiving this intelligence, he imme- 
 diately collected an army and made himself master of Syria, 
 Phoenicia, and Judea. But he was recalled to Europe by Brutus 
 for the purpose of resisting the triumvirs. — (See Brutus.) At 
 the battle of Philippi, which was fought against his advice, the 
 left wing which he commanded was defeated by Antony, and 
 thinking all was lost he committed suicide. He was certainly 
 an able man, and one of the best generals of his age. But he 
 was jealous and morose, and much better fitted for a conspirator 
 than Brutus. — J. T. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, Quintus, first cousin of the preceding, 
 went as quwstor of Pompey into Spain in 54 B.C., and became 
 infamous in the province for rapacity and cruelty. By the yesur 
 49, when he was tribune of the Plebs, he had deserted the inter- 
 ests of Pompey, and espoused those of Cassar, whom, on being 
 expelled from Rome as a too zealous partisan, he accompanied 
 into Spain. After the defeat of Afranius and Petreius, the 
 legates of Pompey, Cassius received from Ca?sar the governor- 
 ship of Farther Spain. Escaping the twofold peril of a popular 
 insurrection and a mutiny of the soldieiy, he left the province 
 in 47, but his ship sank, and he was lost in the mouth of the 
 Ibenis. — J. S., G. 
 
 Cassius Parjiensis, Titus, so called from Parma his birth- 
 place, a poet and one of the murderers of Cscsar, fought against 
 the trinmvirs, and after the defeat of Brutus and Cassius joined 
 Pompey with a fleet off Sicily. He aftei-wards followed the 
 fortunes of Antony. After the battle of Actium he went to 
 Athens, where he was put to death by command of Octavian 
 B.C. 30. Cassius was the author of two tragedies, "Thyestes" 
 and " Brutus," and of some epigi"ams and other poetical pieces. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, Carus, a famous jurist, who flourished 
 in the reigns of Claudius and Nero. He traced his descent on 
 the mother's side to the lawyer Senius Sulpicius, and was con- 
 nected on the other with the family of Cassius the conspirator. 
 We hear of him first on occasion of his being commissioned as 
 governor of Syria, to lead to the banks of the Euphrates, 
 Meherdates, whom the Parthians had chosen as their king, 
 a.d. 49. Peace prevailed during his tenure of office, and left 
 more room for the display of his legal than his military talents. 
 On his return to Rome he was regarded as an authority amcng 
 her statesmen, and his aid was called for on various emergencies ; 
 but his gi-owing reputation, wealth, and independence of charac- 
 ter, brought upon him the enmity and persecution of a jealous 
 court. The detection of Piso's conspiracy served to intensify the 
 tyranny to which he at last fell a victim. After the death of 
 Poppa^a he was prohibited from attending her funeral — a sign, 
 says Tacitus, of his approaching doom. There stood among his 
 ancestral images a statue of C. Cassius, with the inscription 
 " Dux Partium," gi-aven on its pedestal. This inscription was 
 made the gi-ound of a capital charge, and by a decree of the senate 
 he was exiled, ns one of the "suspect" (a.d. 65), to the island 
 of Sardinia. His name does not again appear in history ; but we 
 learn that he was in his old age recalled from banishment by 
 Vespasian. He wrote ten books. " De Jure Civili," and his 
 commentaries on Mtellius and Ferox are referred to in the 
 Digest. In law he was an adherent of the school of Capito, and 
 transmitted the name of Cassiani to those who followed in the 
 same track. — J. N. 
 
 Cassius, Avioius, an able general of Marcus Anrelins, was 
 a native of Cyrrhus in Syria. His father, Heliodorus, who was 
 prefect of Egypt, enjoyed great reputation as a rhetorician. In 
 the Parthian war, a.d. 102-165, Avidius served under Verus, 
 and, after defeating the Parthians, took Seleucia and Ctesiphon. 
 He also fought against the Sarmatians on the Danube. He 
 was subsequently appointed governor of Syria, and in 170 
 suppressed an alarming insun-ection of banditti. A few years 
 after, A.D. 175, he took up arms against the emperor Marcus 
 Aurelius, and proclaimed himself imperator in the East. He 
 reigned only a few months, and was assassinated by two of his
 
 own officers before M. Aurelius anived in the East. The 
 humane emperor lamented his death, and spared the lives of his 
 family. — J. T. 
 
 Cassius Ch.eeea. See Cii^eeea. 
 
 Cassius Dion. See Diox. 
 
 Cassius Seveeus. See Severus. 
 
 CASSIUS, Andkew, a German physician of considerable 
 celebrity, was born at Schleswig. His father, who was physi- 
 cian to the duke of Holstein, was the inventor of a kind of bezoard 
 wliich he regarded as an infallible remedy against the plague. 
 The younger Cassius was the discoverer of the chemical sub- 
 stance which forms the rose and violet coloiu's on cliina, called 
 from him the purple of cassius. It is prepared by adding the 
 hydrochlorate of the protoxide of tin to a solution of the hydro- 
 chlorate of gold. Cassius wrote a treatise entitled " De trium- 
 vu-atu intestinali cum suis eftervescentiis," which has been 
 frequently reprinted; and another concerning the nature, pro- 
 duction, and effects of gold, and its fitness for works of art, 
 8vo, Hamburg, 1085.— J. T. 
 
 CASSIVELAUNUS or CASSIBELAN, a British prince, who 
 at the time of Julius Caesar's invasion of England ruled over the 
 country north of the Thames, and was chosen commander-in- 
 chief of the confederated tribes which made common cause 
 agamst the mvaders. He had a high reputation for skill and 
 bravery, and repeatedly baffled the attacks of the Roman legions, 
 but was in the end deserted by his allies, and compelled to sub- 
 mit to the terras dictated by Casar. — J. T. 
 
 CASTAGNO, AndrEjV del, sometimes called the Infa- 
 mous, was born at Castagno in the Mugello in Tuscany about 
 1406. His works are not numerous, and little is known of his 
 education ; but he is remarkable as being the first Florentine 
 who adopted the new method of painting commonly called oil 
 paiuting, but which is literally varnish painting, and it is very 
 doubtful whether any oil whatever entered into the vehicle used 
 by the Van Eycks and their school. (See Van Eyck.) It 
 was the mode in which Andrea acquired this secret that pro- 
 cured him his surname of the Infamous after his death. About 
 the year 1400 Domenico Veneziano, who had leanit the new 
 method of Antonello da Messina, was engaged with Andi'ca del 
 Castagno at Florence, to execute some paintings in the Portinari 
 chapel in Santa JIaria Nuova, when the greater sensation caused 
 by the superior brilliance of the pictures of Domenico excited the 
 envy of Andrea, who, according to Vasari, insinuated himself 
 into the confidence of Domenico, acquired his secret from him, 
 and then waylaying him on one occasion as he returned in the 
 evening from his work in the Portinari chapel, stmck him on 
 the head with a piece of lead, and returned immediately to the 
 chapel, whence he was called out shortly afterwards to his 
 wounded friend Domenico, who died in the arms of his treacher- 
 ous companion. This was about the year 1403. The story 
 rests entirely on the recorded confession of Andi'ea ; it was, 
 however, never contradicted. The paintings of the Portinari 
 chapel have perished. Up to this time the works of Andi-ea 
 were exclusively in fresco and tempera, and tlie pictures by him 
 preserved in the Florentine academy are in this method. He 
 must have been nearly sixty years of ago before he commenced 
 oil painting. During his lifetime Andrea had acquired the name 
 of Andrea degli Impiccati, or of the Hanged, instead of his ori- 
 ginal name del Castagno, from the pictures of the Pazzi and 
 other conspirators concerned in the murder of Giuliano de' Medici, 
 whom he represented in 1478 on the wall of the Podcsta of 
 Florence — a fresco which has long shice perished. The conspi- 
 rators were represented hanging with their heads downwards ; 
 it was considered Andrea's best work. His drawing was good 
 for the time, but his lines are hard and his figures ugly. There are 
 works by him still remaining at the monasteries of San Giuliano 
 and Degli Anpeli at Florence, and at Legnaia ; there are also 
 four in the Florentine academy, and a work by him was 
 bought for the nation in the Lombardi collection lately ])ur- 
 chascd. The date of liis death is not known, but it is supposed 
 to have been shortly after 1480. — (Vasari, Vite dei Pittori, &c., 
 ed. Le Monnier.)— It. N. W. 
 
 CASTALDI, Cf)itNKi.ius, an Italian poet and lawyer, was 
 born in 1480, and died in 1530. He studied at Padua, where 
 ho founded a college. He was the friend of many of the most 
 eminent scholars of his day. His poetical works were j)ublis]ied 
 in 1757, under the title of "Pocse Volgari e Latine." His Latin 
 poems have been preferred to those written in his native tongue. 
 
 CASTALIO or CHASTEILLON, Sebastian : the place of 
 his birth is uncertain. In his epitaph he is said to be Allo- 
 BEOX, which might mean of Savoy or the Dauphine. He 
 was probably born in the latter country in 1515. He w-as 
 a man of brilliant learning, but questionable theology. He 
 studied first at Lyons. He afterwards lived at Geneva. Here 
 he incurred the hostility of Calvin by doubting the inspiration 
 of Solomon's Song, refusing subscription to the article in the 
 Genevan Catechism on the Descent into Hell, and to the views 
 of Calvin on election and predestination. In 1553 he was nomi- 
 nated professor of Greek at Basle. In 1551 he published a version 
 of the Old and New Testaments in Latin, with annotations, dedi- 
 cated to King Edward VI. Beza and the Calvinists charged him 
 witli the errors of Pelagius ; and others have openly accused him 
 of rationalism. He died at Basle in 1503. He edited Homer, 
 Xenophon, and Herodotus; German Theology, 1557 ; and Thomas 
 k Kempis, 1503. Scaliger says that he died of actual want. 
 Montaigne in his essays tenderly alludes to this circumstance. 
 
 CASTANHEDA, Fernando Lopez de, a Portuguese 
 historian, from whose history of the discovery and conquest of 
 India by the Portuguese, Camoens boiTOwed the greater part of 
 his materials for the Lusiad, died in 1559. The histoiy, which is 
 singidarly trustworthy, appeared in 1551. 
 
 CASTANOS, Don Francis Xaviee de, Duke de Baylen, 
 the most distinguished Spanish general in the peninsular war, 
 was born about 1750. He was descended from an eminent 
 Biscayan family, and was a pupil of General Count O'Reilly, 
 whom he accompanied to Germany, where he studied military 
 tactics in the school of Frederick the Great. He attained the 
 rank of lieutenant-general in 1798, and when Napoleon seized 
 upon Spain in 1808, Castaiios was appointed to the command 
 of a division of the Spanish army on the frontiers of Andalusia, 
 and defeated a French force under Dupont in the unportant 
 battle of Baylen (July 22, 1807), which had the effect of driving 
 Joseph Bonaparte from Bladrid. But in November of the same 
 year he was routed by the J'rench at Tudela. In 1811 he was 
 appointed by the regency commander of the fourth corps of the 
 army, and was present at the battles of Albuera, Salamanca, 
 and Vittoria. After the return of Ferdinand VII. he was 
 nominated captain-general of Catalonia, and in 1815 com- 
 manded the Spanish force which invaded France in conjunction 
 with the British army under Wellington. He resigned his 
 office in 1810. Though a member of the moderate party, and 
 a zealous supporter of Ferdinand, he opposed the changes made 
 on the right of succession to the crown in 1833, and retired 
 into private life till 1843, when, on the downfall of Espiirtero, 
 he accepted the oftice of tutor to the young Queen Isabella. 
 Castanos died 24th September, 1852, at the age of ninety-six, 
 only ten days after the decease of the duke of Wellington. — J. T. 
 
 CASTEL, Louis Beutrand, a French mathematician and 
 physician, belonging to the order of the Jesuits, was born at 
 Montpellier in 1088. He came to Paris In 1720, on the invita- 
 tion of Fontenelle and Tournamine, became a contributor to the 
 Journal de Trevoux and the Afercury, and published a consider- 
 able number of scientific treatises, several of which attracted a 
 great deal of attention. His principal works are a "Treatise on 
 Universal Gravity;" an "Abridged System of Mathematics ; " a 
 " Universal System of Mathematics," which gained him admis- 
 sion into the Royal Society of London; his " Clavecin Ocuhiire," 
 or Ocular Harpsichord, which at one time excited great attention, 
 but is now forgotten ; and his " True System of General Physics," 
 in which he highly eulogizes Newton, but opposes his philosophy. 
 Castel died in 1757.— J. T, 
 
 CASTEL, Ren6 Louis Richard, a French poet and natu- 
 ralist, born at Vire, 0th October, 1758. He sat in tlie legislative 
 assembly, but his bent was decidedly towards natural history, 
 which at first took a poetic form. His poem, descriptive of 
 plants, published in 1797, was very successful. Inspiring him- 
 self with the Georgics, he wrote another poem descriptive of 
 Fontainebleau. A})pointed inspector-general of the university 
 by Napoleon, he was dismissed by the Bourbons, when he 
 turned his attention seriously to the study of natural history, 
 taking for the chief subject of observation, fishes, on which he 
 wrote largely. He died in 1832.— J. F. C. 
 
 CASTELA, Henei, a Froncli traveller, a native of Tou- 
 louse, W'ho visited Palestine and Egypt iibout tlie beginning of 
 the seventeenth century, and published an account of his travels, 
 with the title of " Saint Voyage de Jerusalem et du Mont Siiiai,
 
 CAS 
 
 928 
 
 CAS 
 
 en Van du grand jubile, IGOO ;" Bordeaux, 1G03. He was the 
 author of a " Guide to the Holy Land." — J. T. 
 
 CASTELL, Edmund, an oriental scholar, the industrious 
 compiler of the " Lexicon Heptac^lotton," a dictionary of seven 
 languages, was born at Hatley, Cambridgeshire, in 1606. His 
 great work cost him seventeen years' labour and an outlay of 
 £12,000, absorbing his whole fortune, and reducing him to 
 poverty. In 1669 he published his Lexicon, but the sale of the 
 work in no way repaid the labour and expense it had cost him. 
 In 1666 he was made Arabic professor at Cambridge, and two 
 years later a prebendary of Canterbury, He received various 
 other ecclesiastical preferments. Dr. Walton was much indebted 
 to him in the preparation of the Polyglot Bible. His oriental 
 MSS. were bequeathed by him to the university of Cambridge. 
 Died in 168.5.— J. B. 
 
 * CASTELLANE, Esprit Victor-E.-B., Count de, marshal 
 of France, was born in 1788. He entered the army in 180-1 as 
 a private soldier, and rose rapidly in the ser\-ice, having gained 
 the confidence of Napoleon, both by the courage and skill which 
 he displayed in the Spanish, German, and Russian campaigns, 
 and by the fidelity with which he discharged various missions 
 intrusted to him. He served faithfully the various governments 
 which have successively arisen in France since the downfall of 
 Napoleon, and after the revolution of 1848 he contributed 
 greatly to establish order and tranquillity in the district of Rouen, 
 where he then held an important command. He was nominated 
 a senator in 1852, and received at the same time a marshal's 
 baton from Napoleon III. — J. T. 
 
 CASTELLANUS. See Chatel. 
 
 CASTELLESI, Adrian, an Italian prelate, whose writings 
 are remarkable for their elegant Latinity, lived in the first half 
 of the sixteenth century. In 1503, being then on a mission to* 
 Henry VII., he was created bishop of Hereford, and the year 
 following translated to the diocese of Bath and Wells. On his 
 return to Italy, Pope Alexander VI., in many of whose crimes he 
 is said to have participated, raised him to the rank of cardinal. 
 Under the pontificate of Leo X. he was outlawed as a traitor. 
 
 CASTELLI, Benedict, an Italian mathematician and phy- 
 sician, was born at Brescia in 1577. He was one of the most 
 celebrated pvipils of Galileo, whom he assisted in his astrono- 
 mical observations, and whose hydrostatical theories he defended 
 in a treatise entitled " Risposta alle oppossizione," &c., Florence, 
 1615. From this date until 1623 he occupied the mathema- 
 tical chair at Pisa, and then removed to Rome on the invitation 
 of Pope Urban VIII., and was made mathematical professor in 
 the college Delia Sapienza. He was the first who applied the 
 new theory of motion to hydraulics, and wrote a treatise on the 
 subject entitled " Delia Jlesura dell' Acque Correnti," Rome, 
 1638. But he fell into a mistake in supposing that the velocity 
 of issuing fluids is proportional to the height of the reservou-, 
 instead of the square root of the height. He was often con- 
 sulted respecting the best means of introducing water into cities, 
 and was successful in draining the stagnant waters of the Arno. 
 He died in 1644.— J. T. 
 
 * CASTELLI, Ignaz Friedrich, a prolific Gei-man drama- 
 tist, was born at Vienna, May 6th, 1781. He held several sub- 
 ordinate situations in the administrative service, but since 1840 
 lives retired from office in an elegant cottage near Lilienfeld, in one 
 of the most picturesque valleys of Austria. He was for a long time 
 one of the chief representatives of literature and belles-lettres 
 in Austria, and has written upwards of one hundred dramatic 
 pieces, all of which are distinguished by great good humour and 
 naivetC;. He has also published a great number of poems, chiefly 
 in the Austrian dialect, tales, sketches, and anecdotes. His 
 complete works appeared at Vienna in fifteen volumes (second 
 edition), 1848.— K. E. 
 
 CASTELLI, PiETRO, an Italian physician and botanist, was 
 bom at Messina, and died in 1657. He studied medicine at 
 Rome. He instituted the botanic garden at Messina, and became 
 the first director of it. He published some works under the 
 cognomen of Aldinus. Among his writings may be noticed — 
 a treatise on hellebore ; on the plants in the Farnesian garden at 
 Rome ; on the garden of Messina ; on opobalsamum ; on smilax 
 aspera; catalogue of the plants of Etna; on the aphorisms of 
 Hippocrates ; on emetics ; besides medical treatises. — J. H. B. 
 
 CASTELLI or CASTELLO, Bernardo: this painter was 
 born at Genoa in 1557. He was a pupil of Andrea Scmini, and 
 subsequently followed the manner of Luca Cambiaso. He pos- 
 
 sessed considerable talent, but not so much judgment. He was 
 industrious and rapid, but did not, or perhaps could not, bestow 
 much thought upon his work. But his name will live. He 
 was the intimate of Tasso, for whose Jerusalem he made the 
 original designs, engraved by Agostino Carracci. Other poets 
 of note called him friend, and so he gets embalmment in their 
 verses. He painted miniatures also, and is praised by Marino 
 the poet, for his delineations of insect life. His works are pos- 
 sessed by Genoa and Rome. He died in 1629. — W. T. 
 
 CASTELLI or CASTELLO, Giovanni Battista, called il 
 Bergamasco : this painter was born in Gaudino, in the Valla 
 Seriona in the Bergamese in 1500. He was a pupil of Anreiio 
 Bussi of Crema, whom he accompanied to Genoa. On the 
 departure of his preceptor from the city, Castelli, thrown entirely 
 upon his own resources, attracted the attention of a Genoese 
 nobleman, who sent him to Rome to study the great masters, 
 and perfect himself in all the branches of his art. He did credit 
 to his patron, and returned a proficient in architecture, sculp- 
 ture, and painting. His first work on his return was the deco- 
 ration of the palace of his patron. He painted the frescos in the 
 church of St. Marcellino and the monastery of St. Sebastiano. 
 Soon afterwards he was employed, in conjunction with Cam- 
 biaso, in the Nunziata di Portoria, where, on the ceiling of the 
 choir, he painted "Christ at the Judgment receiving the Elect," 
 a work dazzling in its golden effects of light. Cambiaso painted 
 the laterals, being " The final dooms of the Blessed and the 
 Cursed." Castelli fairly eclipsed his rival by the strength of his 
 composition, the magnificence of his colour, and the grandeur of 
 his style, approaching the glory of Giulio Romano, and hinting 
 already the coming of the art-god Raftaelle. He also painted 
 subjects from the Iliad in the saloon of the Lanzi palace at Gor- 
 lago. He was not sufficiently appreciated, or was not satisfied 
 with his appreciation in Italy ; for he afterwards journeyed to 
 Spain, and was appointed painter to the court of Charles V., for 
 whom he adorned the p.alaee of the Pardo with subjects from 
 Ovid. He died at Madrid in 1570.— W. T. 
 
 CASTELLI or CASTELLO, Valerio, the son of Bernardo, 
 was born at Genoa in 1625. He was a pujiil in the school of 
 Domenico Fiasella, but his education was chiefly derived from 
 his study of the works of Procaccini at Milan, and Coreggio at 
 Parma. His colour is noted for its vigour and harmony, and his 
 composition for its freedom and life. He earned a reputation 
 for battle pieces and historical pieces, in the style of Tintoretto 
 and Veronese. His fresco paintings came near to Carloni. He 
 decorated the cupola of the church of the Annunciation at Genoa, 
 a very important work. He painted the " Conversion of St. 
 Paul" at the Franciscan's, and the " Descent of the Holy Ghost" 
 at the Augustine's. He died in 1659. Several of his smaller 
 works are in English collections. — W. T. 
 
 CASTELLO, Gabriel Lancelot, a distinguished Sicilian 
 antiquary, born at Palermo in 1727, author of an elaborate 
 work on the " Histoiy and Antiquities of Halesa," a colony of 
 Niconia, which was swallowed up by an earthquake in 828, and 
 of " Sicilian Populoram et Urbium, Regum quoque et Tyrannorum, 
 veteres numnii Saracenorum epocham antecedentcs." Castello 
 died in 1794.— J. T. 
 
 CASTELLOZE, Dame de. This lady was a troubadour who 
 lived in the thirteenth century. She was born at Auvergne, and 
 married a noble who bore the name of Trac de ^lah-ona. Armand 
 de Breon was admired by the lady of Castelloze, and appears not 
 to have returned her passion with the ardour she expected. She 
 can only be described in the dialect of her own day — " Era una 
 domna mout gaia, mout ensegnada, et mout bella." The attri- 
 bute of " mout ensegnada " expresses that she possessed all tho 
 accomplishments which were fashionable in her day. Three of 
 her chansons remain ; they are highly praised by the antiquarians 
 who have succeeded in accustoming their ears to the versificatii n 
 of such pieces, and who are skilful enough to detect more mean- 
 ing in them than they convey to us. — J. A., D. 
 
 CASTELNAU, Jacques pe Castelnau-Mauvissieuk, 
 Marquis de, marshal of France, grandson of Michel, bom in 
 1620 ; died in 1658. His first campaign was in Holland, where 
 he fell into an ambuscade, and was carried prisoner to Cambray, 
 but contrived to make his escape. He was severely wounded 
 at Friburg in 1644; and next year, at the battle ofNordlin- 
 gen, where the imperial general, Mercy, was slain, Castchiau 
 had two horses killed under him, and received no fewer than 
 six wounds from musket balls. His distinguished bravery pro-
 
 cured him tlie appointment of major-general from the king. 
 In 1646 he was present at the siege of Mardick, where he 
 was again wounded, and the following year at the siege of 
 Dunkirk. In 1650 he attained the rank of lieutenant-general, 
 and took part in the campaign of Guienne. In 1653 he served 
 under Turenne ; and in 1656 commanded the French army in 
 Flanders during the absence of that famous general. After the 
 battle of Dunes in 1658, where he routed the Spanish cavalr}-, 
 Castelnau was mortally wounded in an attack upon the fort of 
 Leon, and died at Calais, two days after the king had sent him 
 the baton of marshal of France. — J. T. 
 
 CASTELNAU, Michel de, Sieiu- de la llauvissiere, a cele- 
 brated French ambassador and soldier, was bom about 1520. 
 He received a good education, and made rapid progress in litera- 
 ture and science. After completing his studies he entered the 
 army, and soon acquired a high reputation for courage and skill 
 in the war between France and Spain. He next entered the 
 navy, and held a command under the grand-prior of France, 
 Francis of Lon-aine. His behaviour gained the confidence of the 
 cardinal of Lorraine, who intrusted him with several important 
 missions. The king sent him into Scotland with Mary Stuart, 
 the affianced bride of the dauphin, and afterwards into England 
 for the purpose of conciliating Queen Elizabeth, whom he per- 
 suaded not to insist on the restoration of Calais. This successful 
 embassy was followed by various other missions to Germany, the 
 Low Countries, Savoy, and at last to Eome, where Castelnau 
 assisted in procuring the election of Pope Pius TV. On his return 
 to France he re-entered the naval service, in order to serve under 
 his former patron, the grand-prior of Fnmce ; and it was he who 
 first discovered the Amboise conspiracy. After the death of 
 Francis II. Castelnau accompanied Queen Mary to Scotland, and 
 fought for her cause against her insurgent protestant subjects. He 
 was a judicious and zealous friend of that unfortunate princess, 
 and paid several visits to the English coiurt with the \iew of effect- 
 ing a reconcihation between Mary and her rival Elizabeth. The 
 civil war having broken out in France in 1562, Castelnau 
 returned home, and embraced the Eoman cathoUc side, but acted 
 with great moderation. He was present at the battles of Dreux, 
 Jamac, and Moncontour, and in various ways rendered important 
 services to his party. In 1572 he was intrusted with several 
 missions to England, Gennany, and Switzerland; and in 1571 
 he was sent by Henry III. as his ambassador to the English 
 court, where he continued to reside for two years. ^Tien Henry 
 IV. ascended the throne he treated Castelnau, in spite of his 
 former support of the Romish league, with great regard, and 
 intrusted him with various confidential missions. Castelnau died 
 in 1592. His "Memoirs," published in 1731, in three vols, folio, 
 were composed during his residence at the English court. They 
 are of great value to the historian. — J. T. 
 
 CASTELNAU, Pierke, a Cistercian monk of the convent of 
 Fontfroide, near Narbonue, who was invested by Innocent III. 
 with the title of legate, and, along with two other monks of the 
 same convent, sent against the Albigenses, commissioned to 
 exterminate the heretics by fire and sword. Raymond VI. of 
 Toulouse opposed to the fury of the legate a cool dc-termmation 
 to protect the lives of his subjects, which so in-itated Castelnau 
 that he excommunicated the count. This bold measm-e a gen- 
 tleman of the count's retinue resented by following the legate to 
 some distance from Toulouse, and, after a short preliminary dis- 
 pute, stabbing him vdlh his poniard (1208). — J. S., G. 
 
 CASTELVETRO, Ludovico, an Italian critic and miscel- 
 laneous writer, bom of a noble family at Modena in 1505. He 
 studied with distinction at Bologna, Panna, Siena, and Padua, 
 and at the conclusion of Hs university career was offered a 
 bishopric, which his determination to devote himself exclusively 
 to study prevented him from accepting. His acquaintance with 
 the structure of his native tongue was reputed unequalled, and 
 he was recognized throughout Italy as the supreme authority 
 on all philological questions. This flattering recognition of his 
 scholarly attainments, as appeared in his famous controversy 
 with Annibale Caro about one of his sonnets, had a pernicious 
 effect on his temper, which was originally none of the best. 
 The literary squabble of these two eminent men had unfortunate 
 consequences for Castelvetro, who, it is said, was accused by his 
 opponent of atheism, and obliged to save himself from the fangs 
 of the inquisition by a timely flight. During his exile he wrote 
 his corrections of Varchi's Ercolano, and an admirable version of 
 Aristotle's Poetics. He died at Chiavenna in 1571. — A. C. M. 
 
 VOL. L 
 
 CASTI, GlAlX Battista, an Italian poet, bom at Prato or 
 at Jlontefiascone, was educated at the seminary of the latter 
 place. In his sixteenth year he obtained a professorship of 
 belles-lettres, and a few years later was appointed to a canonry, 
 wliich, after the success of his first poetical publication had 
 opened up to him a more congenial line of life, he resigned. He 
 afterwards Uved a gay and somewhat profligate life at various 
 courts, residing for a number of years at Vienna, where he was 
 honom-ed with the laureateship. His principal works are — 
 " Novella Galanti ; " a satire on the court of Catherine II. of 
 Russia ; five dramas in the manner of Metastasio ; and " Gli 
 Animai Parlanti." He died at Paris in 1803. — A. C. M. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, Baldassare, a distinguished Italian 
 statesman and author, bom of a noble family in the duchy of 
 ^Mantua in 1-178. He was related by his mother's side to 
 the ducal family of Gonzaga, and was educated under the direc- 
 tion of the two most eminent scholars of the period, Jlerula and 
 Calcondilo. Hj'.ving embraced a military career, he served imder 
 Ludovico Sforza, then under his relative Gonzaga, and after- 
 wards under the duke of Urbino, by whom he was sent as 
 ambassador to Henry VIII. of England. Returning to Urbino, 
 he was raised to the dignity of count, and on the accession of 
 Leo X. to the popedom, despatched as ambassador to Rome, 
 where his diplomatic talents procured him the favour and con- 
 fidence of Leo and his successor, Clement. He was frequently 
 employed by the latter pontiff in negotiations with Charles V., 
 at whose court he was for some tune resident, and whose favour 
 he so conciliated as to be appointed to a bishopric, and raised to 
 the rank of a Spanish grandee. Hax-ing fallen under a suspicion 
 of venality dming his residence at Madiid, he did not return to 
 Rome, but occupied himself in volimtary exile with his famous 
 work, " II Cortigiano." He died at Toledo in 1529, leaving a 
 variety of poetical compositions, and a most interesting collection 
 of letters.— A. C. M. 
 
 * CASTIGLIONE, Carlo OTTAXiAyo, Count of, an eminent 
 Italian numismatist and linguist, was bom of a patrician family 
 at Jlilan towards the end of the eighteenth century. In 1819 
 he published a volume entitled " Monete Cufiche dell' I. R. 
 JIuseo di Milano," which at once established liis fame as an 
 antiquarian. AVith the assistance of the celebrated Angelo JIaio, 
 he also published in 1817 the fragments of Ulphilas, lately dis- 
 covered by Maio in the Ambrosian Ubrary. He has since given 
 to the world various works of bibUcal criticism. — A. C. M. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, Giovax.ni Benedetto, called Grechetto, 
 a distinguished Genoese painter, bom in 1616. He studied under 
 Battista Paggi, and aftenvards in the school of Giovanni Andrea 
 de Ferrari. But probably his best art-education was derived 
 from the instruction and friendship of Vandyck, who was at 
 that time \^iting Genoa, and who is reputed to have taken the 
 student by the hand and encouraged him in eveiy way in the 
 practice of his art. He painted almost every branch of subject 
 — history, animal, landscape, portrait. His nu-al subjects were 
 his most successful, and so probably the most congenial to his 
 own tastes. His gi-oups of animals, cattle caravans, shepherds 
 and flocks, are accounted to be unsurpassed for tmth, colour, 
 and correctness of drawing. His manner is mai-kcd by a certain 
 proneness to red in his tones. His landscapes were also singu- 
 larly felicitous. But his higher style of works is noteworthy. 
 His "Nativity," "Magdalene," and "St. Catherine," at Genoa, 
 are very highly esteemed. He \-isited Rome, Naples, Florence, 
 Parma, and Venice ; fourid liberal patrons, such as Sacredo, 
 the Venetian senator, and the duke of Mantua, and yet con- 
 trived to die poor in 1670. The etchings of this artist are also 
 remaikable. He left about seventy plates, distinguished by their 
 ^^go^ous and tasteful execution. Some in their free effects of 
 light approach the power of Rembrandt. Among his principal 
 works are — "The Animals entering the Ark," "Rachel hiding 
 her Father's Gods," " The Angel appearing to .Joseph," " The 
 Nativity," "The flight into Egypt," "Diogenes," "Fauns and 
 Satyrs," and two sets of heads. — W. T. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, Valeric, a learned Italian writer, bora at 
 Milan in 1593, entered at an early age the order of the Bene- 
 dictines, among whom he acquired distinction as an orator. Pope 
 Innocent X. bestowed on him the dignity of prior. He wrote a 
 history of Louis XIII. of France, and one of Charles Emmanuel 
 of Savoy. Of his numerous works, in Latin and in Italian, we 
 may mention his " Hist 017 of the Revolutions of Piedmont;" 
 " Clio," an Italian poem in blank verse ; and his " Elogium de 
 
 6 B
 
 CAS 
 
 930 
 
 CAS 
 
 gestis heroicis Caroli-Emmanuells de Sabuadia." He died at 
 Milan in 1668.— A. C. M. 
 
 CASTIL, Blaze. See Blaze. 
 
 * CASTILHO, Antonio Feliciano de, one of the latest and 
 most distinguished poets of Portugal, bom at Lisbon in 1800 ; 
 one of four brothers, all of whom attained to some eminence. 
 At sis. years of age he lost the sight of one eye by measles, and 
 hence is often spoken of, by a pleonasm, as the " blind poet." 
 At the age of ten his predilection for sculpture attracted the 
 notice of the Portuguese artist, Machado de Castro, who was 
 anxious that his genius should be cultivated, and retained in the 
 sernce of his own country. At sixteen years of age, however, 
 the young artist-poet was sent to Coimbra to study law, a pro- 
 fession for which he never evinced any inclination. His first 
 literaiy essay, " Cartas de Echo a Narcissus " (Letters from Echo 
 to Narcissus), led to a romantic coiTespondence, at first carried 
 on clandestmely, w^th a lady. Dona Maria Nabel de Baena, to 
 whom he was at length married, and who died two years after- 
 wards. After this Castilho resided constantly with his brother, 
 Augusto Federigo, a clergyman settled at Aveira. Under King 
 John VI. he held a government post. On the accession of Don 
 Miguel, both the brothers were obliged to flee from Portugal, but 
 returned when Don Pedro came into power, and have since resided 
 at Lisbon. In 1836 he wrote "Noite de Castello" (Xight at 
 the Castle), a tale in verse. The plot of this piece is the same 
 as that of Monk Lewis' once celebrated ballad of Alonzo and 
 Imogene, though Castilho states he had never seen the ballad 
 untU four years after his own work was written. Another of his 
 works is entitled " Amor y melancolia, o a novissima Heloisa" 
 (Love and Melancholy, or the Newest Heloise). His " Dia de 
 Primavera" (A Day in Spring), reminds the English reader of 
 Thomson. Other works are a historical essay on Camoens, and 
 a treatise on Portuguese versification. His greatest production, 
 however, is his " Quadros historicos de Portugal," a series of 
 descriptions of paintings, intended to illustrate the history of 
 Portugal, published in Lisbon, 1838. This work is the joint 
 production of Antonio and his brother above named. The 
 " Excava9oes Poeticas " (Poetical Foragings), were published in 
 1844. Besides these works, Castilho has published some trans- 
 lations from Ovid, a Portuguese version of the " Paroles d'un 
 croyant " of La Iklennais, and various smaller tales hi the Jornal 
 da Sociedade. His poems are distinguished by a rich apprecia- 
 tion of natural beauty, and a nobility both of senthnent and 
 diction, which deserve to be more widely appreciated — F. il. W. 
 
 CASTILLA, Francisco de, a descendant by an illegitimate 
 branch of Pedro the Cmel, lived in the time of Charles V., and 
 was for some time attached to the court, but withdrew from it, 
 and devoted himself to literature. His " Theorica de las Vir- 
 tudes" (Saragossa, 1552) is a bibliographical cmiosity, being 
 licensed by the inquisition, though dedicated to the emperor. 
 His other works are — "A Treatise on Friendship ;" a " Satire on 
 Human Life," an allegory; "Virtue and Happiness;" and the 
 lives of the good kings of Spain, from Alaric the Goth to Charles 
 V. His style is the old Castilian — pithy and ornate, but often 
 encumbered with learning. — F. M. W. 
 
 * CASTILLA, Ration, president of the republic of Peru, 
 was bom there in 1793. At an early age he manifested a fond- 
 ness for the military profession, and entered the Spanish cavahy. 
 But in 1821, when General St. Martin proclaimed the indepen- 
 dence of Peru, Castilla quitted the sen-ice of the mother country, 
 and fought with great courage and enthusiasm in the ranks of 
 the patriots. On the successful termination of the war he 
 was appointed a colonel; in 1834 he was elevated to the rank 
 of general of brigade, and in 1845 was elected president of the 
 republic. He discharged the duties of his difficult situation till 
 1851 with great pradence, and then voluntarily resigned the 
 reins of government. In January, 1855, amidst general enthusi- 
 asm on the part of the Peruvians, he again placed himself at the 
 head of affairs. — J. T. 
 
 CASTILLEJO, Christobal de, a Spanish poet, born pro- 
 bably in 1494 at Ciudad Rodrigo. From the age of fifteen he 
 was attached to the court of Ferdinand I., the younger brother 
 of Charles V., and afterwards emperor of Gennany. A great 
 part of his life was spent at Vienna, and a young German lady 
 named Schomburg, figures largely in his poems as Doiia Ana de 
 Xomburg, — the harsh Gemian sounds not being readily admis- 
 sible in Castilian verse. Disgusted with court intrigues, Cas- 
 tilk'jo retm'ned to Spain, and died in the convent of Val de 
 
 Iglesias, near Toledo, in 1596. If the date of his birth as given 
 above be correct, he must have attained the patriarchal age of 
 one hundred and two. CastUlejo was by some early critics placed 
 in the foremost rank of poets, but their judgment has not been 
 sustained by posterity. His most striking characteristic is the 
 vigour with which he maintained the old Spanish style of poetry 
 against the muovalemo of the " Petrarquistas," Boscan, Garcil- 
 laso, and others of his time, who were labouring to introduce 
 the spirit and metre of Italian poetry. His comedies are httle 
 known, and several of his works, having been condemned by the 
 inquisition, are lost ; but a selection was published in 1573. 
 Some of his love verses and canciones or lyric pieces are exqui- 
 sitely graceful and tender. Satire was his forte, however — his 
 " Dialogije on Woman," and " Transfonnations of a Drunkard 
 into a Mosquito," abounding in the highest qualities of satirical 
 writing. His moral works are generally speaking the dullest of 
 all, but the " Loves and Griefs of a penitent soul " may stOl be 
 read with pleasure. Castillejo's works may be found in the 
 Colleccion of Fernandez, vols. sii. and xiii. : Madrid, 1792 ; and 
 a more modem edition in Aiibau's Biblioteca. — F. M. W. 
 
 CASTILLO, Bernard-diaz del, a Spanish officer and 
 historian, bom 1519. He accompanied Cortes in his expedi- 
 tion against Mexico, and distinguished himself greatly by 
 his corn-age and conduct. Indignant at finding that Gomara 
 in his Chronicle had made no mention of his name, and had 
 ascribed all the glory of the conquest to Cortes, Castillo resolved 
 to write his own liistory of the campaign, which was published 
 in Madrid, In 1 vol., folio, under the title of " Historia Verdadera 
 de la Conquista de Nueva Espaiia." The author died in Mexico 
 about 1560.— J. T. 
 
 CASTILLO, Fernando del, a Spanish author, of whom 
 little or nothing is known save that he was the compiler of the 
 first " Cancioneros Generates," or collection of popular poems, 
 published at Valencia in 1511. 
 
 CASTLEREAGH. See Londonderry. 
 
 CASTOLDI. See Gastoldi. 
 
 CASTOR, Antonius, a Greek physician and botanist, lived 
 at Rome at the beginning of the christiau era, and died about 
 the year 80. Plmy states that he possessed a botanic garden 
 which contained many interesting plants. He is s;ud to have 
 written a herbal. — J. H. B. 
 
 CASTOR OF Rhodes, a Greek grammarian, surnamed Phi- 
 LOROM.EUS, hved, it is supposed, about B.C. 150. A portion 
 of his "Art of Rhetoric" is still extant. 
 
 CASTREN, JIatthias Alexander, remarkable for his 
 devotion to philological research, was bom in 1813 in the pro- 
 vince of Uleoborg hi Finland. At the university of Helsingfors 
 he became an enthusiastic student of the language and literature 
 of his native Finland. In 1838 with three companions he set 
 out on a tour as far as the Lake Enare, with the object of inves- 
 tigating the antiquities and mythology of Lapland. His second 
 expedition, which he undertook at the expense of the hterary 
 society of Finland, was a more successful one. He travelled 
 into Russian Carelia, and collected ballads and legends illustra- 
 tive of the ancient Finnish mythology. In 1841 he publishoii 
 a Swedish translation of the gi-eat Finnish poem, Kalevala, w-hicli 
 had been discovered by Lonnrot. The translation brought the 
 poem into general notice. It is said that Longfellow's Hiawatha 
 is, to a great extent, modelled on the Kalevala. Castren's next 
 journey was a most arduous one. He went by the Lake Enare 
 and Kola, the capital of Russian Lapland, as far as the country 
 of the Samoyeds on the banks of the White Sea. In the hut of 
 one of the savages he passed nearly a whole summer, learning the 
 Samoyed language. About the end of his foiu- years' journey 
 he crossed the Tundras, between the White Sea and the Ural. 
 He returned to Helsingtbrs in 1849 with a i-uined constitution. 
 In 1851 he was appointed by the Duke Alexander of Russia 
 professor of the Finnish and old Scandinavian languages at 
 Helsingfors; but he did not long survive his accession to this 
 honourable office. He died May 7, 1852. Besides the transla- 
 tion referred to, and many interesting letters written during his 
 travels, he published a number of philological works of great 
 interest and value to students of the Ugrian family of languages. 
 His lectures on Fmnish mythology w-ere published in 1853, and 
 in the same year, at Leipzig, a Gemian version of his travels by 
 Helms.— J. B. 
 
 CASTRIOT. See Soanderbeg. 
 
 CASTRO, Christopher Baca de, a Spaniard, sent to Peru
 
 CAS 
 
 931 
 
 CAT 
 
 in 1540 by Charles V. to re-establish order in that pro\ance. He 
 defeated and brought to the block Almagro (see that name) and 
 his confederates in the murder of Pizarro. He died in 1558. 
 
 CASTRO, Guillen de, a Spanish dramatist, was born at 
 Valencia in 1567. It is probable that he was early a distin- 
 guished member of the Nocturnos, a society which formed the 
 nucleus of the Royal Academy of iladrid. At one time he was 
 a captain of cavalry, and held an office under Benevente, \'iceroy 
 of Naples. He also received a pension from the duke of Ossuna. 
 The most notable of his works are the two plays entitled " Noce- 
 dades del Cid" (Youthful Amusements of the Cid) ; from these 
 pieces Comeille drew the greater part of the materials for his 
 more celebrated drama. In all, there exist twenty-seven or 
 twenty-eight plays of this author, of which we need only name 
 — " AlU van leges donde quieren Reges " (Laws must twist as 
 monarchs list); "Santa Barbara, or the ^Mountain iliracle and 
 Heaven's llartyr ; " " Caballero Bobo ; " " ilaravUlas de Babi- 
 lonia," founded on the history of Nebuchadnezzar ; " El Amor 
 Constante" (Constant Love), of which the scene is laid in Hun- 
 gary; " New Matches in Valencia ; " " Dido and ^Eneas ;" and 
 some others. He was also the author of the ballads of " Count 
 Alareos" and "Count d'Islos." He seems to have been the inti- 
 mate friend of Lope de Vega, and in 1620 assisted him at the 
 festival of the canonization of St. Isidore. In 1615 he is spoken 
 of by Cer\'antes in a manner which indicates that he was then 
 an author of some reputation. He died in poverty in 1031. 
 Lord Holland has written a Ufe of Gmllen de Castro, subjoined 
 to his Life of Lope de Vega: London, 1817. — F. M. W. 
 
 CASTRO, Isaac Orobio de, a Spanish physician, was 
 secretly brought up in the Jewish religion by his neo-christian 
 parents, whom the di-ead of the stringent laws in force through- 
 out the Pyrenean peuinsula against judaizing, induced to have 
 their son ostensibly baptized as Balthazai', and educated at 
 Salamanca. His eminent abilities gained for him the chair of 
 metaphysics at the university where he had gi'aduated. He after- 
 wards removed to Seville, and began to practise medicine, in 
 which profession he soon became very successful. Here, how- 
 ever, in the midst of his professional successes, he incuri'ed the 
 suspicion of being a secret adherent of Judaism, and was incar- 
 cerated for three years in the dungeons of the inquisition. After 
 liis release he journeyed to Toulouse, where he became for a time 
 icher of medicine ; but finding that here, too, he was under the 
 -irveillance of the inquisition, he resigned his chair and betook 
 himself to Amsterdam, where he publicly connected himself with 
 the synagogue, and lived many years in gi'eat repute as a skilful 
 physician and an eminent scholar. The three Latin theses of 
 this author which gave rise to the colloquy between him and the 
 learned christian theologian, Peter Limborch, and other theological 
 tracts, attest his zeal for the honour of the Je^vish religion. 
 '■ Israel venge" is a controversial work, published in French by 
 Henriquez, but professedly translated from the Spanish of Orobio. 
 It is probably Orobio's " Exposition of the fifty-thu'd chapter of 
 Isaiah " in a French dress. Orobio's adventurous life terminated 
 at Amsterdam in 1687. — (Basnage, Schudt, Wolf, De' Rossi, 
 Carmoly.') — T. T. 
 
 CASTRO, JoHANX VON, a musician, distinguished as a com- 
 
 pMser and as a perfonner on the lute, was bom at Liege, and 
 
 died at Juliers. In 1570 he followed his profession in Lyons; 
 
 and in 1580 he held the appointment of kapellmeister to the 
 
 • rince of Juliers. He published, between 1569 and 1600, many 
 
 ts of madi-igals, chansons, sonnets, odes, and cantiones sacrse 
 
 r one and many voices. It has been supposed that these works 
 
 •re the production of two composers of the same name, but the 
 
 ..pposition is not substantiated. — G. A. M. 
 
 CASTRO, Juan de, Portuguese viceroy of the Indies in the 
 sixteenth century, belonged to a noble family, originally Gallician, 
 and was educated along with Don Louis, son of King Emmanuel, 
 under the celebrated Pedro Nunez. His first military sen-ices 
 were those which he performed against the Jloors in Africa, 
 >vhere he won the applause of Charles V., as well as the favour 
 of his own sovereign; and on his return to Lisbon in 1538, he 
 was rewarded with the commandery of St. Paul de Salvaterra. 
 His marriage soon followed, but the revenues of his office were 
 small, and in the course of a year or two he accompanied his 
 maternal uncle, De Noronha, to the East Indies, to take part in 
 the struggles by which the Portuguese were then maintaining and 
 seeking to extend the new empire which they had founded at Goa. 
 His bravery made him a valuable acquLsition in the camp, and he 
 
 rendered to Stephen Da Gama, in the exploring of the Red Sea, 
 scientific services not less honourable, and then more rare. AMien 
 he was subsequently appointed, in 1545, to succeed De Souza 
 in the governorship of the Indies, he had a fierce contest to 
 maintain against Mahmoud, king of Cambodia, whose energetic 
 ministers, Khodja Sophar and Roumi-Khan, tasked severely for 
 a time his military talents. Having brought that war to a 
 triumphant issue, he set himself to administer wisely the domi- 
 nions which he had so valiantly defended and enlarged, being 
 well fitted, by his generous disposition and high integrity, to 
 repair the evils which a series of dissolute and tyrannical rulers 
 had introduced. In 1547 he received the rank of viceroy, but 
 in the following year died in the arms of his friend, St. Francis 
 Xavier, ha\-ing acquired not only among his own countrymen, 
 but among the natives, an honourable reputation, which long 
 sur\dved him. His " Hydrographical account of the Red Sea" 
 was published in 1833 at Paris, from a copy of the manuscript 
 in the British ^luseum. — W. B. 
 
 CASTRO, Paul de, an Italian jurist of the first half of the 
 fifteenth centui-y, famous for his skill in Roman law, which he 
 taught successively at Florence, Bologna, Fen'ara, and Padua. 
 Cujas held his works in the highest estimation, saying — " Qui 
 non habet Paulum de Castro, timicam vendat et emat." 
 
 CASTRO, Rodriguez de, a Spanish Jew, bom at Lisbon, 
 studied philosophy and medicine at Salamanca. After baring, 
 for a considerable period of his life, outwardly conformed with 
 the obsers-ances of the catholic religion, he embarked stealthily 
 for Holland, then the only refuge in Europe for the religiously 
 and politically proscribed, and once on a free soil, made a public 
 profession of Judaism, of which he remained a staunch adherent 
 till his death. From Holland he removed to Hamburg, where he 
 was distinguished as a medical practitioner and writer, during 
 the space of thirty years, from 1596 to 1627, when he died an 
 octogenarian. — Benedict, or Baruch Nehemiah de Castro, was 
 a son of Rodriguez. He embraced his father's profession, and 
 ultimately became attached as physician to the court of Chris- 
 tina, Gustav Adolf s eccentric daughter. He died in 1684 at the 
 advanced age of eighty-six. — Rodriguez's younger son, Daniel, 
 or Andreas de Castro, studied medicine and philosophy, and rose 
 to the rank of first physician to the kmg of Denmark. — T. T. 
 
 CASTRUCCI, PiETKO, a vioHnist and composer, immortalized 
 by the pencil of Hogarth, who has preserved the lineaments of 
 this vain and irascible, but not contemptible musician, in the 
 Enraged Musician, was a Roman by birth. He was made first 
 violin at the opera-house about 1718, and died in London at the 
 age of eighty. 
 
 CASTRUCCIO-CASTRACANI, a celebrated Italian general, 
 bom at Lucca in Tuscany in 1284. At an early age he embraced 
 the profession of arms, and served successively in France, Eng- 
 land, and Lombardy. A staunch adherent of the Ghibellines, 
 he rendered such signal service to his party, that the people of 
 Lucca elected him chief of their republic. He was the principal 
 adviser of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria, in his Itahan campaign 
 against the Guelphs in 1327, and in return for his services he 
 was made Count Palatine, and acknowledged as duke of Lucca, 
 Pistoja, Volterra, and Lunigiana. He put himself at the head 
 of the Ghlbelline party in Tuscany, and carried on a war with 
 the Florentines for the space of fifteen years. In the end the 
 Ghibellines triumphed, and in May, 1328, the opposite faction 
 were defeated in a great battle, in which no fewer than 22,000 
 of them were killed. The supreme authority in Tuscany was 
 now within reach of Castraccio, when he died of ague, after an 
 illness of a few days, caught by his imprudently halting while 
 tired and heated, after the action, to address his victorious 
 soldiers, as they passed from the field of battle. His death 
 gave a fatal blow to the GhibellLne party in It.aly. The Italian 
 historians extol highly the enlarged views of Castraccio, his 
 military tactics, the secrecy of his plans, and the rapidity of 
 his movements. JIachiavelli wrote a life of this distinguished 
 general, but it is more a romance than a real biography. — J. T. 
 
 CAT, C. N. LE. See Le Cat. 
 
 CATALANI, Angelica, the renowned singer, was bom at 
 Senigaglia, near Rome, in 1783, and died at Florence in 1849. 
 Her singularly beautiful voice attracted gener.al attention while 
 she was yet a child, and gained for her the zealous patronage of 
 Cardinal Onorati, who placed her in the convent of S. Lucia, at 
 Gubbio, for her education, when she was twelve years old. While 
 there, her singing was so remarkable, that the pubUc, who heai-d
 
 her in the celebration of high mass, inteiTupted the divine service 
 by their applause, an indecoruni which the cardinal could only 
 suppress by disallowing her to take part in the performance. In 
 her fifteenth year the father of Angelica, who was a merchant, 
 found his aliairs so emban-asscd in consequence of the political 
 disturbances of the tune, that he yielded to her ardent desire to 
 appear upon the stage, and she accordingly sang at Venice at 
 that early age with distinguished success. This was the com- 
 mencement of one of the most briUiant careers that has ever 
 been accomplished by a public vocaUst. She then sang at all the 
 chief theatres of Italy, and about the end of 1801 went to Lisbon 
 to gain new honours. She remained there for five years, and in 
 1806 married M. Yalabreque, who had been an oflicer in the 8th 
 French hussars, and was then attached to the French embassy. 
 Their union was the result of the romantic coincidents of their 
 having each, on the first occasion of their meeting, secretly 
 resolved to many none but the other. From the time of their 
 maiTiage, her husband imdertook the entire conduct of her afi"airs ; 
 he contracted iier engagements, managed her concerts, received her 
 payments, disbursed her expenses, and, it has been said, sijuan- 
 dered much of her earnings at the gaming-table ; whatever may 
 be the tmth of this last report, it is certain that she Uved in 
 undisturbed happiness with liim. She went from Lisbon to Madi'id 
 with letters to the queen from the court of Portugal ; thence to 
 Paris, and next proceeded to London. She made her first appear- 
 ance here at the King's theatre, loth December, 1806, in Porto- 
 gallo's opera of Semiramide, and the sensation she created was 
 wholly unexampled in the history of the lyric stage. She was 
 re-engaged the following season, when her salary of £2000 was 
 increased to £5000, the amount of which was more than doubled 
 by her receipts for smging at concerts during the six months, 
 which were then the extent of the London season. The enor- 
 mous sum paid to her at the theatre, necessitated such hinitation 
 of the salaries of other singers, that no one of any talent, besides 
 herself, was engaged ; so great, however, was her attraction, that 
 the estabUshment was most prosperous, though this was its only 
 resource, il. Yalabreque accordingly increased his demands for 
 a subsequent season, an exaction which the management resisted ; 
 but he readily obtained his own terms for the following year. 
 Madame Catalani was no less sought at the English theatres 
 than required at the Italian, and she was sometimes engaged to 
 sing God Save the King, and Rule Britannia, at both Diauy 
 Lane and Covent Garden on the same evening. She remained in 
 England, the idol of all classes, until the first restoration of the 
 Bourbons, when she went to Paiis by in\'itation of Louis X^^I^., 
 who had heard her in England, and who gave her the du-ection 
 of the Theatre ItaUen, with a subvention of 160,000 francs. 
 Upon the return of Napoleon, she quitted France for Gennany ; 
 but re\'isited Paris in 1816 to resume her management and to 
 experience a repetition of her London success. Her husband 
 continued the policy of making her the sole attraction of the 
 opera, a pohcy by which even her prodigious popularity was 
 exhausted, and made critics discuss the decline of her powers. 
 After the season of 1818 she went to Berlin, then appeared in 
 all the principal cities of Germany, and finally at Vienna, where 
 the magistracy had a medal struck in acknowledgment of the 
 benefits to ])ublic charities that resulted from her performances. 
 She next visited Russia, where, besides a popular reception totally 
 unprecedented, she experienced such personal courtesies from the 
 nobility, and from the emperor himself, as have been accorded to 
 no other artist. In the summer of 1821 JIadame Catalani 
 returned to London, where, contraiy to the opinion of the French 
 critics, the «Titer in the Musical Quarterly Review, in noticing 
 her first concert, speaks of her transcendant powers of voice, of 
 execution and of declamation, as undiminished in every respect. 
 She sung at concerts here in each of the two following years, 
 including the famous festivals of 1823 at York and Birmingham ; 
 and in 1824 reappeared on the stage at the King's theatre, 
 where she gave her last series of theatrical perfonnances, and in 
 this year took her final leave of England. She continued to 
 give concerts in the chief continental cities until 1827, when she 
 retired with her three children to an estate she had purchased 
 at Florence, in which city she founded a musical academy. 
 
 Madame Catalani's munificeJTt liberality to charitable institu- 
 tions and to members of her own profession, is remembered in 
 every place she visited ; besides large donations in money, she 
 gave concerts for the benefit of the poor wherever she found 
 opportunity to do so, the results of wliich were always as advan- 
 
 tageous to the necessitous as honourable to herself. Her private 
 character was as spotless as her public career was brilliant. Her 
 manners were amiable, and the natural simplicity of these had a 
 chaiTn that counterbalanced her manifest educational deficiencies. 
 The fascination of her personal appearance had a considerable 
 share in the unparalleled efl'ect of her singing, and this was a 
 type of all the admirable qualities of her character. Her voice 
 was remarkable for its quality, power, and great compass, 
 extending upwards to G in altissimo. She possessed a most 
 voluble execution — e-ianced in her singing of the air Son 
 Regina, in the last act of Portogallo's Semiramide, and of Eode's 
 air with variations for the viohn, which she was the fii'st vocalist 
 to attempt. Her impressive declamation was best exhibited 
 in some of Handel's songs, in our two national airs, and in 
 Non pill an drai, from Mozart's Figaro, which was a favourite 
 concert song with her. All these remarkable qualifications were 
 entirely natural to her, for her artistic training was of the shal- 
 lowest description, and she was almost entirely without technical 
 knowledge. She is variously stated to have been passionately 
 fond of the stage, and to have had great repugnance to it ; be 
 this as it may, her dramatic talent, both in tragedy and comedy, 
 appears to have made a wonderful eiFect during the first years 
 of her perfonnances, however she may have neglected to exer- 
 cise it on the occasion of her reappearance. Unique as were her 
 powers, she must be regarded rather as a phenomenon in art 
 than as an artist ; for, besides that she allowed no parallel talent 
 to share her applause, the operas which, for the most part, she 
 chose to sing were of the flimsiest character, and thus, while she 
 was the meteor of her own time, she has bequeathed & memory, 
 but no influence to ours. — G. A. M. 
 
 CATEL, Chakles Simox, a musician, was born at Aigle in 
 the Pays de Yaud in June, 1773, and died at Paris, November 
 29, 1830. He went early to Paris where, through the interest 
 of Sacchini, he was admitted a pupil of the ecole royale de chant 
 et de declamation, an institution founded in 1783 by Papillon 
 de la Ferte. Here he studied the pianoforte successively under 
 Gobert and Gossec, and composition imder the latter ; when 
 fourteen years of age, he was appointed accompanyist and pro- 
 fessor in this school, and three years later he was engaged as 
 accompanyist at the opera, and held the ofiice till more import- 
 ant avocations induced him to resign it in 1802. The most 
 important* circumstance of his life was his friendship with 
 Sarette, which commenced in- 1790, and continued without 
 inteiTuption. This led to his appointment as chief of the corps 
 de musique of the nation.al guard, which Sarette estabhshed; 
 and in 1795, upon the organization of the consen'atoire, ip 
 which the same politician was principally concerned, to his being 
 included Ln the list of professors. Catel's first important essay 
 as a composer was a " De Profundis" for the funeral of M. 
 Gou\-ion, major-general of the national guard, in 1792. He 
 wrote a vast number of marches and other pieces of military 
 music, besides some compositions of far higher pretension, in 
 which a vocal chorus was combined with wind instruments, and 
 which were performed at the public miUtary festivals. His first 
 opera, " Semiramis," was given in 1802, with Httle success. He 
 wrote seven other works of this class, of which " ^Vallace," 
 produced in 1817, was the most esteemed. He wTote also a 
 ballet, and a portion of an opera %vith other composers. The 
 production by which the name of Catel is most extensively 
 ioiown, is his " Treatise on Harmony," written for the use of the 
 consen-atoire. The principles expounded in this work were sub- 
 mitted to and approved by a committee of professors, imder 
 whose authority it was adopted in the conservatoire immediately 
 on its publication in 1802. Catel's system is opposed to that of 
 Rameau, which was in general use in France before this work 
 appeared. Its \iew of the subject is derived from earher German 
 theorists ; this consists in the classification of harmonic com- 
 binations as natural, namely, derived from harmonic -vibrations ; 
 and artificial, namely, produced by suspension or other forms of 
 preparation ; it traces all the natiu-al combinations to one fun- 
 damental root, and shows one general principle to prevail for 
 the treatment of each of them. It is held in the highest esteem 
 in France, and is still the class-book of the conservatoire. This 
 work rendered its author a special mark of the attacks levelled 
 against the conservatoire by the musicians not comprised in the 
 stafi" of the institution ; and his intimacy with Sarette drew upon 
 him further invectives in connection with the same seminary. It 
 was not till 1810 that Catel was added to Chembmi, Gossec,
 
 CAT 
 
 933 
 
 CAT 
 
 and Mehnl, as professor of composition in the conservatoire, and 
 he relinquished this appointment four years later, when the great 
 political changes in the country removed his friend and patron 
 Sarette from a share in the direction of the institution, after 
 which nothing could induce him to resume it. The honours of 
 membership of the Institute, and chevalier of the legion of honour, 
 which he received in 1815 and 1824, were conferred upon him 
 entirely without his seeking, becoming thus the greater testi- 
 monies to liis merit. His personal character was so highly and 
 so generally esteemed, that his obsequies were attended, not only 
 by the chief musicians at Paris, but by a multitude of persons of 
 all classes and callings. — G. A. M. 
 
 GATE LAN, Laurent, a French pharmaceutist, lived at the 
 be<Tinning of the seventeenth centiuy. He devoted his attention 
 to the composition of various medicaments — among others, of the 
 famous confection called thcriacum, concerning which he wrote 
 a treatise, which was published at Montpellier in 1614 and 
 1626. He also vncote an essay on the mandrake, which was 
 published in Paris in 1639. — J. H. B. 
 
 CATELLAN-AUMONT, Jean Astoine, Marquis de, a 
 French statesman, born in 1759. Throughout the stormy period 
 of the first revolution, the empire, and the revolution of 1830, 
 he showed liimself a moderate royaUst and friend of the consti- 
 tution. His reports on various legal and constitutional questions 
 are valuable. He was elevated to the chamber of peers in 1819, 
 and died in 1834.— J. T. 
 
 CATESBY, Mark, an English natiu-alist, was bom about 
 the end of 1679 or the beginning of 1680, and died in London 
 on 23d December, 1749. He had an early propensity to the 
 study of natm-e ; and in order to gratify his taste in that respect 
 he repaired to London, and afterwards to distant parts of the 
 globe. The residence of some relations in Virginia induced him 
 to visit that country in 1712. He remained there seven years, 
 making a large natural history collection, with which he returned 
 to Britain in 1719. During his residence abroad he sent seeds 
 and plants, both dried and in a growing state, to Mr. Dale of 
 Braintree in Essex. On his return to Britain he secm-ed the 
 friendship of Sir Hans Sloane, Dr. Sherard, and other naturalists, 
 and they induced him to pay a second visit to America. Accord- 
 ingly, in 1722 he went to Carolina. He examined the lower 
 parts of the country, making excursions from Charleston, and 
 afterwards sojourned for some time among the Indians near Fort. 
 Moore. He then travelled through Georgia and Florida, and 
 having spent nearly three years on the continent, he visited the 
 Bahama Islands, taking up his residence in the Isle of Pro\d- 
 dence. In 1726 he came back to England, and employed him- 
 self in preparing an account of his travels, which was published 
 in parts, from 1730 to 1748, and was illustrated by etchings 
 made by himself. The whole work is comprised in two volumes 
 folio, and is entitled " The Natural Histoiy of Carolina, Florida, 
 and the Bahama Islands ; containing the figures of birds, beasts, 
 fishes, serpents, insects, and plants ; particularly the forest 
 trees, shrubs, and plants, neither hitherto described or very accu- 
 rately figured by authors ; together with their description in 
 French and English." He also added observations on climate 
 and agriculture. The subjects described and figured are — 
 plants, 171; quadrupeds, 9 ; birds, 111; amphibia, 33; fishes, 46; 
 insects, 31. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of 
 London after his second return from America. Besides his large 
 work already referred to, he published " Hortus Britanno-Ame- 
 ricanus ; or a collection of trees and shiubs of North America, 
 adapted for the soil and climate of England;" and "Hortus 
 Europa'o-Americanus ; or a collection of 85 common North 
 American trees and shrubs, adapted for the climate of most 
 parts of Europe." He was the author of a paper printed in 
 the forty-fourth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, " On 
 Birds of Passage." His name is recorded by Gronovius in the 
 genus of plants called Catesbasa, cue of the natural family 
 Rubiacea;.— J. H. B. 
 
 CATHALA-COTURE, Antoine de, born at Montauban in 
 1632. Having distinguished himself as an advocate at the bar, 
 as well as by his active benevolence, he dignified his retirement 
 by taking for the subject of his studies the antiquities of his 
 native province of Quercy, the result of which he gave in a pub- 
 lished liistoiy. He also wrote poems. He died in 1724. — J. F. C. 
 
 CATH ALAN, Jacques, a celebrated French orator, a member 
 of the order of Jesuits, born in 1671 ; died in 1757. His order 
 signified then- admiration of liis talents by appointing him to 
 
 pronounce the funeral oration over most of the royal personages 
 who died in his time. 
 
 CATHARINUS, Ambrose, an Italian bishop and volumin- 
 ous author, bom at Sienna in 1483. His original name was 
 Lancelot Politi. He joined the Dominicans in 1515, and 
 having acquired celebrity by his writings, he was sent to the 
 council of Trent in 1545, where he distinguished himself by his 
 ability and learning. He was made bishop of Minori in 1547, 
 and archbishop of Conza in the kingdom of Naples in 1551. 
 He died in 1553. Catharinus was, undoubtedly, a man of great 
 natural abilities, acuteness, and learning. He was the author of 
 two works against Luther, of the " MuTor of Heretics," and of a 
 vast number of theological and polemical treatises of a similar 
 kind. He was the first who defended the dogma that the 
 sacraments are valid, if projierlj' administered, even though the 
 officiating priest should be an unbeliever. — J. T. 
 
 CATHCART, a noble Scottish family, which for several cen- 
 turies has been distmguished for the high military talents of its 
 members. Barbour, speaking of a singularly daring and suc- 
 cessful exploit performed by Edward Bruce in 1308, says, the 
 particulars were recounted to him by Sir Al^vn de Cathcart, 
 who was present — a knight 
 
 " Worthy and wycht, stalwart and stout, 
 Courteous and fayr, and of goode fame." 
 
 Lord Hailes observes, in reference to these lines, that it is 
 pleasant to have a family likeness in an ancient picture. Alan 
 master of Cathcart, fell at Flodden, and his son at Pinkie. 
 Charles, eighth Lord Cathcart, a distinguished military officer, 
 was present at the battle of Sheriff'muir, tilled several high offices 
 in the court of George II., and ultimately was appointed m 1740 
 commander-in-chief of all the British forces in America, but died 
 at sea a few months after. — His son, Charles, ninth haron, also 
 attained the rank of general, and served as aid-de-camp to the 
 duke of Cimiberland at Fontenoy. His son — 
 
 Cathcart, William Schaw, tenth baron and first earl of 
 Cathcart, born in 1756, adopted, like his ancestors, the profession 
 of arms. He entered the army in 1777, and served with great 
 distinction throughout the American war. On his return he was 
 elected one of the representatives of the Scottish peerage, and for 
 four years filled the office of chairman of the committees of the 
 house of lords. He served under Sir David Dundas in the unfor- 
 tunate campaign in Holland m 1795. In 1803 he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland. In 1805 he was 
 nominated ambassador-extraordinary to the court of St. Peters- 
 bm-g, and commanded the British contingent in the allied aimy. 
 After the disastrous battle of Austerhtz he returned home, and was 
 appointed commander of the forces in Scotland. In 1807 the 
 British government having resolved to send an expedition to the 
 Baltic for the purpose of seizing the Danish fleet, the command 
 was intrusted to Lord Cathcart. He was completely successful, 
 and as a reward for his services was raised to the British peerage, 
 and received the thanks of both houses of pai-liament. In 1813 
 he was again sent on an important mission to St. Petersburg, and 
 was present with the allied army during the whole of their cam- 
 paign in Gemiany. In 1814 he was advanced to the dignity of 
 an earl, and died June 6, 1843, in the eighty-seventh year of 
 his age. His eldest son, a lieutenant-general in the army, suc- 
 ceeded him as commander of the forces in Scotland, &c. 
 
 Cathcart, Sir George, K.C.B., third son of the first earl 
 of Cathcart, a distinguished British general, was born 12t]i 
 May, 1794, and fell at Inkermann, November 5th, 1854. He 
 was educated first at Eton, and afterwards at the university of 
 Edinburgh. The military profession having become almost here- 
 ditary in his family. Sir George entered the ai-my in 1810, and 
 in 1812 accompanied his father as aid-de-camp, when the earl 
 was sent as plenipotentiary to Russia. At the time of his arrival 
 at St. Petersburg the French were in possession of Moscow, and 
 shortly after, the Emperor Alexander having taken the field in 
 person. Lord Cathcart and his son joined the imperial head- 
 quarters, and remained with the grand allied army throughout 
 the whole of the e\entful campaigns of 1813-14 in Gemiany, and 
 1814 in France. Sir George had thus the opportunity of witness- 
 ing the great battles of Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden, Leipzig, and 
 the other sanguinary confiicts of that momentous period. He 
 published in 1850 a valuable volume of Commentaries upon these 
 campaigns, in which he gives a clear and soldier-like narrative 
 of the operations of the hostile armies, and by the aid of dia- 
 grams and charts, enables even the unprofessional reader to
 
 CAT 
 
 934 
 
 CAT 
 
 understand the plan of the campaigns and battles, and tlie 
 strategic errors into which the commanders on both sides fell. 
 In 181-1 he accompanied his father to the congress of Vienna. 
 On the retm-n of Napoleon from Elba, Sir George was appointed 
 extra aid-de-camp to the duke of Wellington, and was present at 
 the battles of Quatre Bras and Waterloo. He held the post 
 of aid-de-camp to the duke for twelve years, and subsequently 
 served for about seven years with liis regiment in Nova Scotia, 
 Bermuda, and Jamaica. When the outbreak took place in Canada 
 in 1837, Sir George did excellent service in protecting the fron- 
 tier of Lower Canada from the inroads of American sympathizers, 
 and contributed greatly to restore tranquillity in the distm-bed 
 districts. In 1852 he was appointed governor and commander- 
 in-chief at the Cape, and in that capacity brought the Caftre war 
 to a satisfactory conclusion. On his return to England in 1854 
 he was despatched with all speed to the Crimea, as commander 
 of the foui'th division of the British forces before Sebastopol, and 
 after his arrival was appointed adjutant-general of the army. 
 High exjsectations were fomied of the services of an officer, who 
 with long experience and a decided genius i'or war, still combined 
 all the activity and endm-ance of youth; and many looked forward 
 to him as the future commander-in-chief of the British army. 
 But these hopes were frustrated by his untimely death in the 
 battle of Inkermann, while cheering on the guards in their des- 
 perate struggle against the overwhelming masses of the Rus- 
 sians. Sir George was buried along with Generals Strangways 
 and Goldie, and eleven other officers, on the hill which now bears 
 his name. — J. T. 
 
 CATIIELINEAU, Jacques, commander-in-chief of the army 
 of La Vendee, and one of the noblest specimens of a peasant 
 soldier the w-orld has ever seen, was boi-n at Pin in 1759, and 
 followed the trade of a hawker of woollen goods. He was a man 
 of great intelligence and piety, and was held in such high esti- 
 mation in the district, that he was called the " Saint of Anjou." 
 As soon as Jacques heard of the breaking out of the royalist 
 insurrection in La Vendee in 1793, he resolved on leaving his 
 wife and family, and putting himself at its head. With a small 
 band of trusty followers, he attacked and captured the chateau 
 of Jallais, garrisoned by 150 soldiers, and thus obtained a supply 
 of arms and ammunition. In a few days he was joined by two 
 other peasant leaders, named Stofflet and Foret. With their 
 combined forces they attacked and can-ied the town of Chollet, 
 and immediately after dispersed a body of national guards at 
 Vihiers. The whole district was now in a state of great excite- 
 ment, and several other armies of insurgents took the field, under 
 different officers. A powerful force under General Berenger, 
 who had been sent down by the convention to suppress the 
 insurrection, was defeated by the peasants at Cherville, 11th 
 April, after a desperate struggle. Proceeding in their enter- 
 prise, the insurgents, though occasionally worsted by the regular 
 troops, succeeded in expelling the enemy from Brassure, Thouars, 
 and Saumur; and then- numbers, having now greatly augmented, 
 they found it necessary, about the middle of June, to appoint a 
 commander-in-chief, and Cathelineau, who had shown himself 
 possessed of military genius of a very high order, was unani- 
 mously elected by the other leaders. But the noble peasant 
 commander did not long discharge the arduous duties of his 
 office. On the 29th of June he was mortally wounded in head- 
 ing a desperate attack upon the town of Nantes, and died in a 
 few hours. Three of his brothers perished in the first Vendean 
 war, along with upwards of thirty of their near relatives. One 
 of his sons lost his life in the attempt which the duchess de 
 P>erri made to raise the inhabitants of La Vendee in favour of 
 her son in 1832. — J. T. 
 
 CATHELINliiRE, Ripaui.t de la, one of the royalist chiefs 
 in the insurrection in La Vendee. He sometimes co-operated with 
 Charette, at other times held an independent command, and 
 showed gi-eat courage and energy in carrj-ing on the unequal 
 sfniggle against the government. He was severely wounded by 
 a nmsket-shot in February, 1794, shortly after fell into the hands 
 of liis enemies, and was tried and executed at Nantes. — J. T. 
 
 CATHELINOT, Don Ildefonse, a learned Benedictine, 
 who wrote, under the direction of Calmct, a great number of 
 historical, pliilological, and theological works, and contributed 
 the supplement to Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible ; born in 
 1070; died in 1756. 
 
 CATHERINE I., Empress of Russia, was a Livonian peasant 
 girl, born hi 1687. The most contradictory accounts have been 
 
 given of her parentage, some alleging that she was the natural 
 daughter of a country girl, others that she was the legitimate 
 daughter of John Rebe, the quartermaster of a Swedish regiment 
 at Afsborg. Be this as it may, it is certain that she was, at an 
 early age, left an orphan, in such destitute circumstances that 
 the parish clerk of the village took pity on her and received her 
 into his house. Soon after, Ernest Gluck, protestant minister 
 of j\Larienburg, took her into his family and employed her in 
 taking care of his children. In 1701 she married a dragoon of the 
 Swedish regiment of Marienburg, who was innnediately after sent 
 with a detachment to Riga, and she never saw him more. When 
 Marienburg was captured by the Russians, Catherine was taken 
 prisoner and conveyed to Moscow, where she fell into the hands 
 of Genei-al Bauer. She superintended his domestic affiiirs for 
 some time, and was believed to be his mistress. She next passed 
 into the family of Prince Menchtchikof, and lived with him till 
 1704, when the Czar Peter saw her and fell in love with her. 
 She inspired him with so strong an affection that, after she had 
 lived with him for several years, he married her privately at 
 Yaverhof, near Warsaw, 29th May, 1711, and the ceremony was 
 publicly performed with great pomp at St. Petersburg on the 20th 
 of February, 1712. The original name of the new empress was 
 Martha, which she changed for Catherine when she embraced the 
 Greek religion. After her marriage she accompanied her husband 
 in his campaign against the Turks in 1711, and when his army 
 was surrounded on the Pruth by a vastly superior force of the 
 enemy, Catherine succeeded in bribing and persuading the grand 
 vizier into a negotiation, by which the Russians were permitted 
 to retire, and peace was restored on terms by no means so disad- 
 vantageous as might have been expected. On the death of 
 Peter, 28th January, 1725 — the imperial guards having been 
 previously gained over — the senate and nobility were induced 
 by Menchtchikof, who declared that such was the wish of the 
 czar, to proclaim Catherine his successor. She was, however, 
 extremely averse to business, and having neither inclination nor 
 abilities for government, left the entire management of the affairs 
 of the empire in the hands of the man who had been the means 
 of raising her to the throne. She was intemperate in her habits, 
 and careless of her health, so that her reign lasted only about 
 two years. She died 17th May, 1727, in the fortieth year of 
 her age. She bore a numerous family of daughters to the czar, 
 but only three of them survived their father. — J. T. 
 
 CATHERINE II., Empress of Russia, whose original name was 
 Sophia Augusta Fkederica, was born in 1729, and was the 
 daughter of Chi-istian Augustus, prince of Anhalt-Zerbst in Upper 
 Saxony, and governor of Stettin, \^^len only fourteen years of age 
 she was selected by the Empress Elizabeth of Russia to be the wife 
 of her nephew, Charles Frederick, duke of Holstcin-Gottoi-p, whom 
 she had designated as her successor. The unhappy union was 
 celebrated at St. Petersburg in 1745 ; the ill-assorted couple 
 having been previously received into the communion of the Greek 
 church, when the duke took the name of Peter, and his consort 
 that of Catherine Alexiowna. After the celebration of the mar- 
 riage, they were formally acknowledged by the czarina and the 
 senate as grand duke and duchess of Russia. Disagreements soon 
 took place between them. Peter was disfigured by the small-pox, 
 was vulgar in his manners, intemperate, in-esolute, and fooMsh, 
 although not without some good and even noble qualities ; and 
 almost from the outset was an object of contempt to his clever, 
 cunning, and ambitious wife. He spent his time in mihtary 
 exhibitions, in training dogs and arranging puppets, in the plea- 
 sures of the table and the company of his mistress, and seldom 
 saw Catherine except in public. She, on the other hand, hvcd 
 in retirement, cultivating her mind by means of books. She 
 acquu'cd a thorough knowledge of the Russian language, pro- 
 fessed gi-eat attachment to her new faith, was exceedingly 
 affable in her intercourse with the people, and aflected a decided 
 predilection for Russian manners and customs. The life of the 
 Russian court at this period, as depicted in Catherine's autobio- 
 graphy, was peculiarly dismal. " Its formality was oppressive, 
 its espionage was friglitful. Universal selfishness, universal sus- 
 picion, universal plotting and counter-plotting, were the order of 
 the day, and there was nothing but intrigue and drink to relieve 
 the stately tedium of daily duties." For several years after her 
 marriage the conduct of Catherine was irreproachable, and pre- 
 sented a marked contrast to the gross debauchery of her husband, 
 and of the Russian nobility. But the corrupt atmosphere of the 
 court in time exercised an injimous influence upon her char-
 
 acter; and about 1754 suspicions began to be entertained tbat 
 I improper intimacy had commenced between the duchess and 
 ■unt Soltikof, for whose society she indicated a marked pre- 
 ference. The count was replaced by his friend Leon Narichkine, 
 and he in turn gave place to Stanislaus Poniatowski, a young 
 and handsome Polish noble, whom Catheruie afterwards made 
 king of Poland. Peter discovered or suspected the intimacy 
 between the duchess and Poniatowski, and on his accession to the 
 throne, 5th January, 1762, he is said to have talked of repudiating 
 his wife. There is reason to believe that she had long cherished 
 the desire to obtain the crown for her son and the regency for 
 herself, and she now resolved at once to anticipate the movements 
 of Peter by a bold stroke for the empire. She had numerous par- 
 tisans both among the nobles and the people. By her liberality 
 and affability she had completely gained the soldiers who did 
 duty around her residence, and a conspiracy was immediately 
 fonned for the deposition of Peter. The regiments in the capital 
 were instigated to revolt, partly by bribes and promises, partly 
 by misrepresentations and falsehoods. The emperor, while living 
 in fancied secmity, totally unconscious of his danger, was arrested 
 14th July, 1762, prevailed on by threats and entreaties to sign 
 an act of abdication, conveyed to the castle of Robscha, and six 
 days afterwards strangled by Alexis Orloff, one of Catherine's 
 favourites. Catherine was then solemnly crowned at Moscow. 
 Soon after, the unhappy Prince Iwan, grandnephew of Peter the 
 Great, who had been destined by the empi-ess, Anne Iwanowna, 
 as her successor, and had been kept a close prisoner for eighteen 
 years, was put to death on the plea that a plot had been formed 
 to set him at Uberty, and raise him to the throne. All com- 
 titers for the crown being now removed, Catherine set herself 
 ,'irously to carry out her schemes for the aggrandizement of 
 liussia. She expelled the reigning prince of Courland, and set up 
 Biron, a creature of her own in his place. Partly by bribes and 
 partly by threats she procured the crown of Poland for her favour- 
 ite. Count Poniatowski. She suppressed a dangerous insmrection 
 in her own dominions, and carried on several successful wars with 
 the Turks, which terminated in her acquirement of the Crimea 
 and other provinces of the Ottoman empire. She was the moving 
 ^liirit in the partition of Poland, as Russia was ultimately the 
 principal gainer by that infamous transaction. She was preparing 
 to take part in the revolutionary war against France, when she 
 "as seized with an apoplectic fit, and died 10th November, 1796, 
 after a reign of thirty-five years. Catherine was undoubtedly 
 an able and vigorous sovereign. She had a considerable taste for 
 letters and for painting, and was passionately fond of music. She 
 showed great favour to Diderot, D'Alembert, Euler, Voltaire, and 
 other literary and scientific men ; composed several treatises 
 herself, and established schools in all the provinces of her empire. 
 She also encouraged commerce, founded towns, docks, and arsenals, 
 reformed the courts of justice, and to some extent ameliorated the 
 condition of the serfs. But her grossly licentious life, and the 
 fearful crimes to which her wicked ambition led, have left an 
 indelible stain upon her memoiy. A very curious autobiography 
 of Catherine was found after her death among her most secret 
 papers. It was carefully suppressed by her family, but a copy 
 was taken in some unknown way, and has been published (1859) 
 with a preface by M. Herzen. — J. T. 
 
 CATHERINE de Bourbox, Princess of Navarre and 
 Duchess of Bar, bom in 1558. Her brother, Henry IV. of 
 France, constrained her to marry in 1599 Henry of Lorraine, 
 duke of Bar, much against her will, as she was strongly attached 
 to the count de Soissons. Like her brother, Catherine was dis- 
 tinguished for her power of repartee. She continued steadfast 
 in her adherence to protestantism, notwithstanding Hemy's 
 abjuration of that faith. She died in 1604. Her life has been 
 written by Mdllc. Caumont de la Force. — J. T. 
 
 CATHERINE de Medicis, consort of Henry II., king of 
 France, bom at Florence in 1519, was the daughter of Lorenzo 
 de Medici, duke of Urbino (grandson of Lorenzo the Magnifi- 
 cent), and of Madeleine de Boulogne, a princess of the house of 
 Auvergne. Bereaved of both her parents, her mother djnng in 
 giving her birth and her father soon after, she was brought up 
 under the care of her uncle Giulio de Mi;dici, afterwards Clement 
 VII., who, when she had hardly completed her thirteenth year, 
 had her betrothed to Prince Henry, second son of Francis I. 
 Although endowed with extraordinary qualities both of mind 
 and person, and possessed, as the latter part of her career wit- 
 nesses, of no less talent than fondness for political mtrigue, 
 
 she contented herself, during the lifetime of her father-in-law, 
 with the modest position at court her noble, not royal birth, and 
 the divided affections of her husband assigned her ; and dming 
 the reign of Henry she was no less artful to secure real power 
 by appearing to support the influence of the Guises, while she 
 secretly directed the schemes of their enemies the Huguenots. 
 By Henry she had five sons, of whom three successively wore 
 the crown of France, namely, Francis II., Charles IX., and 
 Henry III. Still controlled by the power of the Guises duiing 
 the reign of the first of these princes, as soon as Charles IX., at 
 the age of eleven, ascended the throne, she asserted her indepen- 
 dence with a high hand, assumed the title of regent, and from 
 that time wielded the destinies of France until the close of a 
 reign which corruption and craelty, culminating in the fearful 
 butchery of St. Bartholomew's day, have consigned to everlasting 
 infamy. After the accession of her youngest son, Henry III., 
 Catherine retained a considerable portion of her former power, 
 and this she exerted as little to the advantage of the kingdom 
 as destractively to the schemes of her rivals ; the principal of 
 whom, the Guises, notwithstanding her solemn denial of being 
 concerned in their death, she has not been thought guiltless of 
 removing by assassination. She died at Blois in 1589, leaving 
 the kingdom in a state of anarchy, and the illustrious name 
 she bore indissolubly and, but for her munificent patronage of 
 arts and letters, exclusively associated with the worst crimes 
 and the most calamitous distm-bances of the period in which 
 her family held the throne of France. — J. S., G. 
 
 CATHERINE of Alexandria, Saint, martyred during the 
 persecution of MaximLn towards the year 307. 
 
 CATHERINE of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. She 
 was the youngest daughter of Ferdinand, king of Spain, and of 
 Isabella of Castile, and was born in 1483. In her eighteenth 
 year she became the wife of Prince Arthur, the eldest son of 
 King Henry VII. of England, and in five months after was left 
 a ^vidow. Upon her maniage with Arthur, Catherine's father 
 had settled upon her a large dowry, a considerable portion of 
 which, however, remained unpaid at the time of her husband's 
 demise ; and Ferdinand scmpled to pay the remainder, unless 
 the kmg of England would agree to give the widowed princess 
 in marriage to his other son, Hemy, who by the death of Arthur 
 had become heir-apparent to the throne. A threat was even 
 held out that if this were not done the sum already paid must 
 be refunded, and this so worked upon the cupidity of the English 
 monarch, that he entered at once into the proposed arrangement, 
 and prociu-ed a special dispensation from the pope sanctioning the 
 union. The young widow, accordingly, became the wife of her 
 brother-in-law, Hemy, who, upon his accession to the throne, had 
 his man-iage with Catherine publicly ratified, both being cro\\Tied 
 by Warliam, archbishop of Canterbury. For a period of nearly 
 twenty years they lived together in the greatest harmony and 
 apparent affection ; but the want of male issue had ever been to 
 Henry a source of great disquietude, and there is little doubt 
 that his feeling on this point, together with an ardent passion 
 which had suddenly sprung up in his mind for Anne Boleyn, one 
 of Catherine's maids of honour, caused him to seek a dissolution 
 of his marriage. He accordingly applied to the pope for a dis- 
 pensation of divorce, which was promised, but deferred from 
 time to time on various pretexts. Ultimately Hemy took the 
 matter into his own hands, and first of all privately mairied 
 Anne Boleyn early in 1533, and then appealed for a divorce to 
 an ecclesiastical court convened at London, where the question 
 was publicly tried. The result was that Cranmer, then arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, pronounced, not a divorce, but a sen- 
 tence, declaring the king's mamage with Catherine a nullity, 
 because it had been contracted and consummated against the 
 di\ine law; and Catherine, under the title of the Dowager 
 Princess of Wales, retired almost broken-hearted to Kimboltou 
 castle in Huntingdonshire, where she died in January, 1536, in 
 the fifty-second year of her age. Whatever opinion may be 
 formed of the motives by which Henry was actuated in seeking 
 a divorce, it must be conceded by every one convei-sant with the 
 facts of the case, that Catherine was an attached and faithful 
 wife, an affectionate mother, a true christian, and an oppressed 
 and most unfortunate woman. — G. A. 
 
 CATHERINE of Braganza, daughter of John IV., king 
 of Portugal, was born in 1638, and in 1661 was married to 
 Charles II., king of Great Britain. The marriage was highly 
 unpopular in the country, though the princess brought with her
 
 CAT 
 
 936 
 
 CAT 
 
 a dowrv of half a million sterling, with Bombay and the fortress 
 of Tangier in Africa. It was an unfortunate union for Catherine 
 herself, who was most shamefully treated by her callous and 
 libertine husband. Immediately after his mamage he introduced 
 his mistress, Lady Castlemaine, to his bride, and insisted that 
 she should be one of the ladies of the bed-chamber. The queen 
 at first indignantly resented this gross insult; but friendless 
 and alone in a strange countiy, and deprived, too, of the attend- 
 ance of her Portuguese servants, subjected to daily insults and 
 mortifications, the whole of the licentious com-t against her, and 
 even the lord chancellor, Clarendon, according to his own account, 
 striving " to induce her to a full compliance with what the king 
 desired," her resolution at length gave way. From that time 
 forwai'd she seems to have borne her unhappy lot with patience, 
 or at least without open complaint. Charles treated her with 
 inditference or contempt, but he interposed for her protection 
 when she was accused by the infamous Titus Gates, at the bar of 
 the house of commons, of complicity in the Popish plot. Buck- 
 ingham, at the same time, proposed to the king a plan for cai-iy- 
 ing off the queen to some plantation in the West Indies; but 
 Charles, profligate though he was, had still some faint remains 
 of coilscience, and he told Burnet that, considering his faultiness 
 towards the queen in other things, he thought it would be a 
 horrid tiling to abandon her now. The commons voted an ad- 
 dress for the removal of the queen, but the lords would not join 
 in this step, and the accusation was allowed to drop. In IG'JB 
 Catherine returned to Portugal, and died there in 1705. — J. T. 
 
 CATHERINE of France, daughter of Charles VI., and wife 
 of Henry V., king of England, was bom in 1401, and married 
 in 1420. Henry died in 1422, and in 1426 Catherine espoused 
 Owen Tudor, a ^^'elsh gentleman, to whom she bore three sons, 
 and who was put to death by the duke of Gloucester, aftei-wards 
 Richard III. After the tenniuation of the wars of the Roses, 
 Henry VII., the gi-andson of Owen Tudor and Catherine, 
 ascended the English throne. Catherine died in 1438. — J. T. 
 
 CATHARINE of Sienna, was so called from the Tuscan 
 town where she was born in 1347. At the early age of eight 
 she took the veil, and when she reached her twentieth year, was 
 admitted into the Dominican order. Her austerity, fastmg, and 
 rigid adherence to the rule of her order, obtained for her the 
 reputation of extraordinaiy sanctity ; whilst her alleged visions 
 caused the Tuscans to regard her with superstitious veneration. 
 Her influence became so great that she was sent on a political 
 embassy to the pope, Gregory XL, by the Tuscan people, m 
 order to procm-e tlieu- restoration to the pontifical favour, and 
 the removal of the sentence of excommunication under which 
 they lay. 'Her persuasion contributed to induce the pope to 
 return to Rome in 1376, and thus to temiinate what Roman 
 catholics have called the " Babylonish capti^'ity" of their climxh. 
 St. Cathei-ine died in 1380, and was canonized by Pope Pius II. 
 in 1461. A collected edition of her works was published at 
 Sienna in 1707, 4 vols. 4to. 
 
 CATHERINE HOWARD, fifth wife of Henry VIIL of Eng- 
 land, and gi-anddaughter of Thomas, second duke of Norfolk. 
 Her ftither. Lord Edward Howard, was marshal of the horse at 
 the battle of Flodden. On the divorce of King Henry from 
 Anne of Cleves, he married Catherine in August 8, 1540, mainly 
 through the influence of her uncle the duke of Norfolk, and 
 Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, the leaders of the papal party, 
 by whose counsels she was entirely guided. She speedily gained 
 great ascendancy over the king, which she employed to an-est 
 the progress of the Reformation ; and on his return to London 
 from York, whither she had accompanied him in 1541, he gave 
 public thanks for his domestic feheity. The very next day, 
 however, conclusive evidence of the queen's immorality was laid 
 before the king by Aixlibishop Cranmer. She confessed her 
 guilt to a commission appointed by parliament to examine her ; 
 though it is doubtful whether her confession extended farther than 
 the admission of licentious conduct before her marriage to the king. 
 She was shortly after attainted of high ti-eason, and, along with 
 the Lady Rochford, her accomplice, was beheaded on 'J'ower-hiU 
 on the 12th of February, 1542. Lady Rochford was the sister- 
 in-law of Anne Bole}Ti, and had been the principal instrument 
 in bringing that unfortunate lady, together with her own husband, 
 to the block. Her death was therefore commonly regarded at 
 the time as a judgment from heaven. Lord William Howard, 
 and several other relatives of Catherine, were found guilty of 
 misprision of treason, and condemned to imprisonment and 
 
 forfeiture of their goods; and Dereham and Culpepper, her 
 associates in guilt, were executed. — J. T. 
 
 CATHERINE PARR, sixth and last wife of Henry VIIL, 
 was the daughter of Sir Thomas Parr of Kendal. She had been 
 twice mai-ried before the king selected her for his consort ; first, 
 to Edward, eldest son of Thomas, Lord Brough ; and, secondly, 
 to John Ne\alle, Lord Latimer. She had no childi'en by either. 
 At the time of her marriage to Henry, 12th July, 1543, she 
 was in her thu'ty-fourth year, and was esteemed "a very 
 matronly, learned, discreet, and sagacious woman." She was 
 well versed not only in polite literature, but in theology, and 
 was a zealous adherent of the protestant faith. She became, in 
 consequence, exceedingly obnoxious to the papal party, who laid 
 a plot for her destniction, which she narrowly escaped by her 
 adroit submission to the authority of the king, whom she had 
 provoked by arguing with him on religious subjects, and urging 
 him to perfect the work of the Reformation. When Henry set 
 out on his famous expedition to France in 1544, he appuinttd 
 Catherine regent during his absence. She must have frequently 
 felt, however, that her life hung npon a thread, especially after 
 disease and confinement had aggravated the headstrong dispo- 
 sition and impatient temper of her imperious husband. Alter 
 the death of Henry, Catherine manied, in 1547, Sir Thomas 
 Seymour, lord-admiral of England, and brother to the protector, 
 Somerset — a marriage of affection on her part, but of interest on 
 the part of Seymour, who was a man of inordinate ambition, 
 and very speedily neglected and ill-treated liis wife. She died, 
 after giving birth to a daughter, on the 3 0th of September, 
 1548. On her death-bed she pathetically complained that 
 " those about her cared but little for her," and that she hud 
 received some neglect or niism;magement at the time of her 
 dehvery. Catherine was learned, and a lover of learning. She 
 published in 1545 a volume of "Prayers and Meditations, col- 
 lected out of Holy Woorkes," and contaming some psalms and 
 other devotional pieces of her own composition. She wrote also 
 the " Lamentation of a Sinner Bewailing the Ignorance of Hi '■ 
 Blind Life," meaning the errors of popeiy in which she ha ^ 
 passed her earlier yeiu-s. This work was published after hei 
 death hi 1548, with a preface by Lord Burleigh, Queen EHza- 
 beth's famous minister. — J. T. 
 
 CATHARINE PAULO^\^SrA, fourth daughter of Paul I., 
 emperor of Russia, was bora at St. Petersburg in 1788. After 
 refusing the hand of Napoleon, she mai-ried in 1809 Peter 
 Frederick George, duke of Oldenburg, who died in 1812. The 
 widowed princess accompanied her brother, the Emperor Alex- 
 ander, who was fondly attached to her, all through the cam- 
 paigns of 1813 and 1814. In the beginning of 1816 she 
 maiTied the prince royal of Wurtemburg, who, niue months after, 
 succeeded to the throne under the title of William I. This able 
 and accomplished princess died suddenly in 1819. 
 
 CATHERINOT, Nicolas, a French lawyer and philologer, 
 bora at the chateau de Susson, near Bom-ges, in 1628 ; died 
 at Bourges in 1688. He was educated in the faculty of law 
 at Bourges, then practised as avocat at Paris for three years, 
 and afterwards retmnied to Bourges, having obtained there 
 some judicial ajipointnient. His being known beyond his own 
 day arose from the accident of his being an antiquarian as 
 well as a lawyer, and one whose labours were not much valued. 
 The antiquities of Beny early engaged his attention, and he 
 published a number of pamphlets about them— if his mode 
 of circulating his works can be called publication. Booksellers 
 would not be at the expense of printing what nobody would 
 buy : the author, as he could afford it, would print a pamphlet 
 of some ten or twelve pages ; would then loiter in bookshops, 
 or at bookstalls, affecting to look over works exposed for sale, 
 and before going away, contrive to leave on counters, or among 
 the pages of the books he had been examining, his brochures. 
 For nearly thirty years he pursued this strange habit, and 
 secured for his name and for his works a sort of fame, which, 
 had they been published in the ordinary way, they could not 
 have obtained. The difficulty of getting a complete set of pai'ts 
 in this way dispersed, was such as to render the search an 
 object of interest to traders in book rarities; and Catherinot's 
 works are still looked for, and bring veiy liigh prices. In the 
 Bibliotheque Curicuse of David Clement, one hundred and 
 eighty-two of these pamphlets are mentioned. Catherinot was 
 also a poet. He tells us that he had composed fifty thousand 
 lines without biting his nails, thus violating the established cus-
 
 CAT 
 
 937 
 
 CAT 
 
 torn of the irritable race. Eiglit books of Latin epigrams proved 
 his stupidity and his scholarship. He also published some law 
 tracts, said to be of no value. — J. A., D. 
 
 CATILINE, or with his full name, L. Sergius Catilina, 
 occupies a much more prominent position in the annals of the 
 civil conflicts of Rome than the influence he exercised upon 
 them would warrant, had not the extant writings of Cicero and 
 Sallust made his name familiar to us from our schoolboy days. 
 Descended from a noble family ; endowed with strength of mind 
 and body ; with courage, capacity, and ability equal to the dis- 
 charge of any otHce, whether civil or military, in the service of 
 his counti-y, he might have satisfied an honourable ambition and 
 become a benefactor of his fellow-citizens. But with great and 
 shining intellectual qualities he combined a moral depravity 
 which, even in his depraved age, secured him a disgraceful pro- 
 minence. His brutal and savage dispcsition was stimulated to 
 madness by the intoxicating revelry in infamous lust and civil 
 blood, with which the partisans of Sulla were allowed to gorge 
 themselves after the triumph of their leader. Catiline was fore- 
 most among the bloodhounds of the dictator. He had free scope 
 to follow the inclinations of his savage nature, and to restore his 
 dilapidated fortune with the spoils of his victims. He is accused 
 of having murdered his brother-in-law, his wife, his son, and 
 many others, who suffered at his hands not only a cruel death, 
 l)ut more cruel tortures before death, and disgraceful indignities 
 after. Yet, such was the state of public morals of those times, 
 that, nevertheless, he obtained in due season the office of prtctor, 
 B.C. 67, and was sent to govern the province of Africa. This 
 is explicable only from the unsettled state of public affairs at 
 that time. Rome had just passed through a sanguinary civil 
 war, which had so thoroughly shaken the principles of legality, 
 that instead of time-honoured and deep-seated reverence for law 
 and order, and for those who, as the executive of the state were 
 the bearers of its majesty, it was force and violence, fraud and 
 cunning, which upheld the government and animated the oppo- 
 sition. Thus Catiline, through his daring and ability, soon found 
 himself the apparent leader of a band of noble profligates, who 
 had nothing to lose and everything to gain in a political and 
 social revolution. It was a matter of no moment to him that 
 the party in power, whom it was his object to overthrow, were 
 his old confederates, the aristocracy. He longed for another 
 general confusion, SuUanic proscriptions, spoliation of the wealthy, 
 and abolition of debts; and he was bold enough to aspire to 
 become a second Sulla himself. It was easy in the then state 
 of society to find confederates among the highest and among 
 the lowest classes. But this was only part of the danger by 
 which the state was menaced. It was no secret to the ruling 
 aristocracy that their real enemy was not Catiline, but a craftier 
 and more dangerous man working behind the scenes, and waiting 
 I for an opportune moment to step in and secure for himself all 
 I the advantages of their overthrow. This was no other than C. 
 Julius Cffsar. He was too discreet and wary to make common 
 cause with such a desperate character as Catiline. He guarded 
 his words and actions so that no charge of complicity could be 
 brought against him ; but, nevertheless, he pulled the strings, 
 and though he may have thought Catiline's success improbable, 
 he knew it was possible, and he lay ready to pounce upon the 
 prey if it should be hunted down by his hounds. The political 
 situation of Rome was very favourable for a bold stroke. Pom- 
 pcy, the champion of the aristocracy, was absent in Asia with 
 all the militaiy strength of the republic. He had brought to a 
 victorious issue the long war with Mithridates. What his inten- 
 tions were, was a subject of anxious and doubtful speculation 
 for a man like Coesar. If Pompey returned to Italy with his 
 army, it was in his power to make himself master of the Roman 
 world. No time was, therefore, to be lost if his rivals wished to 
 l)revent this. They might hope to obtain possession of the 
 niachinery of government, just as Marius and Cinna had done 
 before to oppose Sulla, and as Pompey afterwards did himself to 
 oppose Cajsar. Having constituted themselves the legitimate 
 government, no matter by what means, they might hojie to 
 dictate the law to Pompoy. To give a colour to this selfish and 
 personal policy, the leaders of this party proclaimed themselves 
 the patrons of the people and the enemies of the aristocracy. 
 They endeavoured to gain adherents by proposing popular mea- 
 sures, such as the agrarian law brought in by Caesar, by w hich 
 it was intended to sell all the domain land of the state in tjie 
 provinces, and to allot land in the valuable domain of Capua to 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 the hungry populace of Rome. Such was the state of parties 
 when Catiline, soon after his return from Africa in B.C. 66, 
 attempted to seize the consulship by open violence. Ca3sar 
 and Crassus are said to have been privy to his conspiracy ; but 
 it failed through the impatience of Catiline, who gave the pre- 
 concerted signal before his associates were ready. It must 
 create surprise that so outrageous an attempt, which only failed 
 through a mere accident, was not followed by an official inves- 
 tigation, and by the punishment of those implicated in it. But 
 the aristocratical party in possession of the government was 
 without moral strength and without able leaders. United by 
 no principle, its members consulted their own interest alone, 
 which counselled caution rather than vigour and severity. We 
 consequently find Catiline undiscouraged by his first failure, 
 offering himself for the consulship of the year G3 B.C., and 
 straining every nerve to defeat the candidate of the aristocracy, 
 the great political triumvir, M. Tullius Cicero. Foiled in this 
 competition, he determined once more to try his chance at the 
 next consular elections ; but at the same time to prepare his 
 party for open resistance and civil war. But Cicero, who, through 
 his spies, was informed of all his doings, met him at every point, 
 and by alarming the people with vague and perhaps exaggerated 
 reports of Catiline's nefiuious and bloody schemes, created a 
 general panic, the result of which was that Catiline lost his 
 election a second time. Now there was nothing left to him but 
 open violence. He despatched emissaries into various parts of 
 Italy to organize the insiu-rection, especially into Etniria, which 
 swarmed with the disbanded veterans of Sulla. He himself 
 resolved to stay at Rome, where, simultaneously with the advance 
 of the insmTectionary forces, an outbreak was prepared, the 
 hideous atrocity of which we could hardly credit, had not the 
 Marian and Sullanic massacres preceded. Even after having 
 fixed upon his atrocious plan, Catiline had the impudence and 
 audacity to appear in the senate, and, when charged by Cicero 
 with every detail of his attemjjt, to protest his innocence and 
 challenge inquiry. But when he saw the alarm and indignation 
 caused by Cicero's discovery, he left Rome in the following night 
 for the army in Etruria, intrusting the execution of the concerted 
 scheme to his associates. With the flight of Catiline the greatest 
 danger was averted, for in an open war even an abler man must 
 have succumbed to the organized forces of the government. But 
 so long as a powerful section of the conspirators was left in Rome 
 the government could not feel safe. It was well known to Cicero 
 who these conspirators were, and what were their plans. The 
 prajtor, P. Cornelius Lentulus, and C. Cornelius Cethegus, were 
 at their head, and grave suspicions attached to Cajsar, Crassus, 
 and even to L. Antonius, Cioero's colleague in the consulship. 
 But such was the feel)leness of the government, and the ineflfi- 
 ciency of the means of public safety, that these men continued 
 to carry on their treasonable plotting under the very eyes of the 
 public authorities. If their leader, Lentulus, had been a man of 
 capacity they must have succeeded ; but whilst neglecting to act 
 promptly and energetically, they seemed to delight only in plan- 
 ning and plotting. They were foolish enough to open negotia- 
 tions with the members of an embassy of the Celtic tribe of the 
 Allobroges, who were then in Rome on a mission of complaint 
 and remonstrance from their countrymen. The conspirators 
 tried to gain over the Allobroges, for objects so distant and 
 uncertain that we are at a loss to discover them. The Allobro- 
 gian ambassadors pretended to listen to these overtures, but at 
 the same time reported the transactions to the consul. The 
 conspirators were innnediately summoned to appear in the 
 senate, and being convicted by irrefragable evidence, they con- 
 fessed their guilt. At this stage one would fancy that the 
 troubles of the government ought to have been over. But in 
 Rome the difficulty seemed rather increased than diminished ; 
 for the question arose, what was to be done with the piisoners. 
 There was no efficient force, whether military or jiolice, even to 
 keep the prisoners in safe custody. They might at any time be 
 forcibly liberated by their adherents. Nor was there a short 
 and safe procedure by which they could be tried and punished. 
 The popular assembly for the trial of capital offences had fallen 
 into disuse, and would have been too cumbrous and dangerous a 
 machinery, if it could have been resorted to. The senate had 
 no jurisdiction in this matter, but all the risk and all tlie respon- 
 sibility. If, therefore, the city was to be saved from anarchy, 
 it was necessary to strain the law. It fell to the lot of Cicero, 
 one of the most timid and vacillating of pubhc men. to propo.so 
 
 G
 
 CAT 
 
 938 
 
 CAT 
 
 this bold and extreme measure. He was well aware of the dan- 
 gerous responsibility he incurred, but he had iirmness enough on 
 this momentous occasion to advocate a vigorous policy. He 
 carried the senate with him, and in spite of the opposition of 
 Cajsar, sentence of death was passed on the prisoners. The 
 sentence was executed without delay. In the dismal prison 
 under the capitol, some of the first nobility of Rome were, in 
 the same night, strangled by the common executioner. The 
 people received the news with shouts of triumph, and welcomed 
 Cicero as their deliverer and as the father of his country. 
 
 Thus the conspiracy found an inglorious end in Rome. 
 Meanwhile, Catiline had taken the command of a body of troops 
 in Etruria, which soon swelled to the dimensions of two legions, 
 animated with the courage of despair; but the forces of the 
 government, \-ictorious in all parts of Italy over the irregular 
 levies of the conspirators, gradually surrounded Catiline on all 
 sides. The consul Antonius, who was not unjustly suspected 
 of favouring Catiline's design, but who had been kept in check 
 by his colleague Cicero, commanded the Roman army ; but he 
 seemed not inclined to come to the rescue of an old associate 
 whose cause had become desperate. Under the pretext of suf- 
 fering from gout, he left the command to his legate, Petreius. 
 Catiline, seeing there was no escape, offered battle near Pistoria 
 in Etruria, and fell with his adherents to the number of 3000, 
 fighting to the last, in March, 62 B.C. Such was the san- 
 guinary end of a civil commotion which, indeed, had no lasting 
 influence upon the destinies of Rome, but is highly interesting to 
 the historian, as showing clearly the rotten state of the Roman 
 republic, and its inability to resist the designs of men like 
 Cajsar and Augustus. — T. I. 
 
 CATINAT. See Maurel, Abdias. 
 
 CATINAT DE LA Fauconnerie, Nicolas de, marshal of 
 France, and one of the ablest generals of Louis XIV., was the 
 son of the president of the parliament of Paris, and was bom 1st 
 September, 1637. He studied for the bar, but having lost his 
 first cause unjustly, as he imagined, he quitted the profession in 
 disgust and entered the army. His conspicuous bravery in the 
 presence of the king at the siege of Lisle in 1667, procured him 
 a lieutenancy in the regiment of guards. He distinguished him- 
 self at Mffstricht, Scnef, Cambray, Valenciennes, and other places 
 noted in the wars of Louis XIV., and rose rapidly in the sen-ice, 
 till he attained the rank of lieutenant-general in 1688. Two 
 years after this he inflicted a sanguinary defeat upon Victor 
 Amadeus, duke of Savoy, at Staffarde, and again hi 1691 at Mar- 
 saille, and made himself master of the whole of Savoy and of a 
 part of Piedmont. In 1693 he was created a marshal of France. 
 In 1696 he acted as plenipotentiary of the French king in 
 arranging the terms of peace with the duke of Savoy. He was 
 then appointed commander of th3 army in Flanders, and, in spite 
 of the efforts of the prince of Orange and the elector of Bavaria, 
 besieged and took the town of Ath in 1697. In 1701 war broke 
 out again in Italy, and Catinat was opposed to the celebrated 
 Prince Eugene, who commanded the imperial forces. The issue 
 of the campaign was disastrous to the French, and Catinat was 
 superseded by Marshal Villeroi. He was shortly after nomhiated 
 to the command of the army of Alsatia, but a large portion of 
 his forces having been withdrawn by JIarshal Villars, Catinat 
 was reduced to a state of inactivity, and in consequence solicited 
 and obtained his discharge. He spent the remainder of his days 
 in retirement at St. Gratien, and died in 1712. — J. T. 
 
 CATLIN, George, a native of Wyoming, North America, 
 was bora in the beginning of this century, of parents who 
 entered that sylvan valley after the close of the revolutionary 
 war and the Indian massacre. The events of his life are well- 
 marked and of considerable interest ; his earliest boyhood spent 
 in Wyoming ; ten years in the valley of the Oc-qua-go, where he 
 held alternately the plough, the rifle, and the fishing-rod ; five 
 years at the classics ; two years under Reeve and Gould in Con- 
 necticut, studying Blackstone and Coke ; three years practising 
 in the courts of Pennsylvania ; five years at the easel in Phila- 
 delphia ; eight years amongst the Indian tribes of the prairies 
 and Rocky Mountains ; and eight years in the civilized capitals 
 and towns of Europe, presented to kings, queens, and princes. 
 His father, practising as a solicitor, educated his son for a higher 
 walk in the same profession. But two passions, growing with 
 his growth and strengthening with his strength, shaped a life 
 now rough -hewn for law, into a unique and unexpected model. 
 The love of adventure, fostered by stories of tomahawks and 
 
 bisons ; and the love of art, the gift of benignant fortvme, made 
 the pursuits of his profession distasteful. Accordingly he sold 
 his library and the appurtenances of his ofiice, converted the 
 proceeds into brushes and paint-pots, and started for Philadel- 
 phia. When practising the art of painting there, without 
 teacher or adviser, " a delegation of some ten or twelve noble 
 and dignified-looking Indians," strutting about in silent and 
 stoic dignity, with their brows plumed with the quills of the war 
 eagle, wearing tunic and manteau, shield and helmet, arrived in 
 the city, and fired the sensitive imagination of the aspiring 
 painter. Despite the solicitations of friends, relatives, and wife, 
 he remained immovable in his determination to traverse the "far 
 west!" to place on canvass the figures, customs, and ceremonies 
 of people little known, and thus to snatch from obhvion the 
 memory of tribes whose origin was lost in antiquity, and whose 
 existence was rapidly drawing to a close. Dming the eight years 
 of his travels, Mr. Catlin visited forty-eight tribes ; familiarizing 
 hunself with their economic and ceremonial history, by becoming 
 one of themselves, and assiduous in the use of brush and palette. 
 By dint of laudable toil he collected three hundred and ten 
 portraits in oil, all painted in their native dress and in their 
 own wigwams, together with two hundred other paintings in 
 oil, cont.dning views of Indian villages, then- sports, their dances, 
 their ballplays, buffalo hunting, horse racing, and religious 
 rites. Few books have greater interest to the reader of history 
 than the " Letters and Notes" of Mr. Catlin. On his return, 
 he exhibited his Indian collection in New York, Boston, and 
 Philadelphia. In 1839 he embarked at New York for Liver- 
 pool, with six hundred portraits, two grisly bears, &c., making 
 altogether a fireight of eight tons. When "Mr. Catlin arrived 
 in London, large audiences crowded to see his unexampled speci- 
 mens, and to hear his Uvely descriptions. He received visits 
 and invitations from gentry and nobility, looked down on Hyde 
 Park from the top of Mr. Disraeli's house, danced in the Cale- 
 donian ball at Almacks, and v*as presented to the queen. In 
 1844 a Mr. Melody landed in Liverpool with fourteen loway 
 Indians for exhibition in this country, and prevailed upon Mr. 
 Catlin to dehver lectures on their habits and customs. After 
 a short stay in England, they exhibited in Paris and in Brussels. 
 In 1848 Mr. Catlin returned to London, and betook himself once 
 more to pauiting. But his wife having died some time previous, 
 the healing wounds of bereavement were torn open by the death 
 of his only boy ; whereupon he determined to quit England, and 
 return to his native country. Besides the " Letters and Notes on 
 the Planners and Conditions of the North American Indians," 
 Mr. Catlin published a.volume entitled "Catlin's Notes of Eight 
 Years' Travels in Europe," and a pamphlet under the title ot 
 " Catlin's Notes for the Emigi-ant to America." — G. II. P. 
 
 CATO : the more distinguislied persons who bore this name 
 follow in chronologic.ll order : — 
 
 Cato, i.e., "the Wise or Sagacious," a surname given to Mar- 
 cus PoRCius Priscus, sometimes called the Censor and Cato 
 Major, a celebrated Roman soldier, statesman, and orator, who 
 was born at Tusculum in 234 B.C., and passed his earlier years 
 on his fiither's farm ui the Sabine territory. At the usual military 
 age of seventeen he commenced his career as a soldier, in 217 
 B.C., the year in which Hannibal was laying waste the north of 
 Italy, and throughout the remainder of the second Punic war he 
 signalized himself by his hardiness and sobriety no less than by 
 his valour. On the termination of the war he retired to his 
 farm, and is said to have taken for a model the frugality and 
 simple manners of the famous old Roman, Curius Dentatus, who 
 once occupied an adjoining farm. Many of Cato's shrewd and 
 laconic maxims became cuiTent among his neighbours, and at 
 length his reputation attracted the attention of Valerius Flaccus, 
 a young nobleman of considerable influence, who persuaded him 
 to remove to Rome and to become a candidate for office. He 
 was elected quaistor in 204 B.C., and sen-ed in Africa under 
 Scipio, whose profuse exjjenditure excited his strong disapproba- 
 tion, and who was afterwards violently denounced by him before 
 the Roman senate. In 199 B.C. he was made redile, and in the 
 following year prrotor, having Sardinia assigned him as his pro- 
 vince. He was elected consul m 195 B.C., along with his friend 
 and patron Valerius, and was appointed governor of Spain, where 
 he conducted military operations with great ability and success, 
 and was rewarded with a triumph on his return to Rome in 194 
 B.C. Three years later he served under the consul M. Acilius 
 Glabrio in the campaign against Antiochus in Greece, and the
 
 CAT 
 
 939 
 
 CAT 
 
 chief glory of the victory gained by the Roman army at Ther- 
 mopylae was ascribed to Cato. This action terminated his mili- 
 tary career, and from this time he took an active and conspicuous 
 part in ci\'il affairs. In 184 B.C. he was elected censor, with his 
 friend Valerius again as his colleague. The remarkable strict- 
 ness with which Cato perfonned the duties of this oifice, and 
 the unflinching determination with which he attacked the ^ices 
 and crimes of the nobles and checked their luxurious habits, 
 subjected him to great obloquy and raised him up a host of 
 enemies, who assailed him with incessant prosecutions. But he 
 resolutely persevered in his efforts to stem the tide of luxmy 
 and vice, and to restore the ancient simplicity of manners and 
 purity of morals. With all his severity and rusticity, Cato was 
 a friend to literature, and was one of the patrons of the poet 
 Ennius, whom he brought from Sardinia to Italy. He learned 
 the Greek language after he was sixty years of age, and according 
 to Cicero, was a warm admirer of tlie historians, philosopliers, 
 and orators of Greece. He was scarcely less celebrated as an 
 orator than as a statesman and soldier, and left behind him 
 150 orations which were long held in admiration by his country- 
 men. AVitli aU his excellencies, Cato was a man of strong pre- 
 judices, and his character was disfigured by great faults. He 
 was envious as well as ambitious, harsh and severe ; a man of iron 
 body and iron soul, Livy terms him ; and utterly unscrupulous in 
 amassing wealth by all means which the law did not forbid and 
 punish. He was the chief instigator of the third Punic war, 
 maintaining that Rome could never be safe as long as Carthage 
 was in existence, and adding to every speech he delivered in the 
 senate, no matter what the subject might be, the well-known 
 words, " Carthage must be destroyed." He died in 149 B.C. at 
 the age of eighty-five, leasnug behind him, besides his orations, 
 a work on rural affairs, entitled " De Re Rustica," and a his- 
 torical work entitled " Origines," of which only a few fragments 
 remain. — {Liry, hb. xxxix. cap 40 ; Plutarch, Life of Cato ; 
 and a life which passes under the name of Com. Nepos.) — J. T. 
 
 Cato, M. Pokcius Licixiaxus, the senior of the two sons 
 of Cato the censor, and the second of his name, is famous for his 
 eminence as a practical jurist, and his authorship of works which 
 became authorities in the Roman law. He was reared in the 
 stoical prhiciples of the elder Cato, and the care bestowed on his 
 physical education had the effect of bracing a naturally weak 
 frame to endure the vicissitudes and hardships of warfare. He 
 served imder Popilius Lasnas in Liguria in 173 B.C. — in a legion 
 which was afterwards disbanded. Cicero (/)e Officiis i. 11), m 
 illustration of the strict forms of mihtary law, mentions that 
 Cato on this occasion thought it necessaiy to renew his military 
 oath, before engaging with the enemy. He fought again at 
 Pydna (b.c. 168), and was commended for his prowess by the 
 consul jEmilius, whose daughter he subsequently manied. From 
 this time till his death, in 152 b.c. he was exclusively engaged 
 ia his legal pursuits. He died as prastor designatus some years 
 before his father. Cicero, in the De Oratore, alludes to the publi- 
 cation of Cato's " Responsa," and objects to the introduction of 
 the names of persons, which they seemed to authorize. Aulus 
 Gellius speaks of his haWng written a valuable treatise " De 
 Juris Disciplina." He is quoted by the jurist Paulus, and 
 Festus refers to his commentaries. It is probably from him 
 that the regula Catoniana take its name. This was a rale of 
 Roman law applying the maxim " quod initio non valet, id tractu 
 temporis non potest convalescere," to test the legitimacy of 
 legacies. He decided that those only could be considered valid 
 which were valid from the first. A bequest, for instance, could 
 only be received by one who was in a rank legally entitled to 
 receive it when the bequest was made ; he could not claim it on 
 the ground of having afterwards risen to that rank. — J. N. 
 
 Cato, JIarcius Pokcius, surnanied Uticensis (of Utica), 
 from the place of his death, was the great-grandson of Cato the 
 censor, and was born in 95 B.C. From his earliest years he 
 exhibited great finnness and independence, and as he advanced 
 towards manhood, the inflexible decision, harshness, and severity 
 of his character increased. He applied himself to the study of 
 the stoic philosophy under Antipater of Tyre ; and taking his great- 
 grandfather as his model, adcqited fmgal habits and manners, 
 and inm-ed himself to liardships and privations by frequent 
 exposure to cold and fatigue, by abstaining from food, and by 
 making long joiuTicys on foot, bareheaded, and in all weathers. 
 He affected singularity, and stood out conspicuous from the 
 profligate nobles of his day, in his morals no less than in his 
 
 manners. He sen'ed his first campaign as a volunteer under 
 Gellius Poplicola in the senile war of Spartacus, 72 B.C., and 
 afterwards, about 67 B.C., as legionary tribune in JIacedonia 
 under the proprastor Rubrius, where he distinguished himself 
 by his sobriety and temperance, as well as by his courage and 
 activity. In 05 B.C. he was elected qua?stor, and corrected 
 various abuses in the administration of the public funds. He 
 supported Cicero against Catiline and liis associates in 63 B.C., 
 and made a vigorous speech in support of the motion, that the 
 conspirators should be put to death. On the breaking out of 
 the gi-eat civil war, having failed in his efforts to effect a recon- 
 ciliation between Ca;sar and Pompey, he joined the latter, and 
 after the battle of Pharsalia and the death of Pompey, he passed 
 over to Africa. He resigned the command of the army there to 
 Q. Metellus Scipio, the father-in-law of Pompey, who proved 
 incompetent for the task, and was completely defeated at Thap- 
 sus, April 6, B.C. 46. Cato then fled to Utica, followed by 
 Csesar, and finding that the inhabitants were unwilling to stand 
 a siege, he advised his friends to save themselves by flight, but 
 refused to accompany them himself, and resolved to die rather 
 than submit to the conqueror. After partaking of his evening's 
 meal, he tenderly embraced his son and the friends who remained 
 with him, and withdrew into his chamber, where he first read a 
 portion of Plato's Phrodo on the Immortality of the Soul, and 
 then stabbed himself below the breast, and died that same night. 
 On receiving intelligence of this event, Caesar exclaimed — " Cato, 
 I gradge thee thy death, since thou hast grudged me the glory of 
 saving thy life." — (Plutarch, Li/e of Cato Minor ; Sallust, Catil. 
 cc. 52-54; Lxicaii^ i. 128, ii. 380; Addison's Cato.') — J. T. 
 
 Cato, Valekius, a distinguished Roman grammarian and 
 poet, who lived about the close of the republic. He was left an 
 oi-phan at an early age, and was stripped of his patrimony during 
 the usurpation of Sulla. He afterwards acquired a villa and 
 beautiful domain at Tusculum, but his creditors ultimately seized 
 all his property, and he died at an advanced age in gi-cat poverty. 
 Besides various treatises on grammar, he was the author of two 
 poems, " Lydia," and " Diana," of which only the titles have 
 surnved. To Cato has also been ascribed a poem entitled 
 " Du-a%" edited at Oxford in 1838 by Dr. Giles.— J. T. 
 
 Cato, Dioxysius, the name given to the author of a Latin 
 work entitled "Disticha de Moribus ad Filium." These disticlis 
 are in hexameter verse, and consist of moral precepts for tlie 
 young. Diu-ing the middle ages they were extensively used in 
 schools, both on the continent and in England. An English 
 version was published by Caston in 1483. — J. T. 
 
 CATROU, Frax^ois, a learned French author, and a member 
 of the Society of Jesus, was born in 1659. He officiated as a 
 preacher for seven years, and then undertook the management of 
 i\\Q Journal de Trevoux. His principal production, "Histoire 
 Romaine," 2 vols. 4to, has been translated into Italian, Spanish, 
 German, and English. It is a learned and valuable work, but 
 disfigured by a bad style. Catrou died in 1737. — J. T. 
 
 CATS, Jacques, born in 1577 at Brouwershaven ; died in 
 1660 at Zag\liet. First studied at Leyden, and then took the 
 degree of doctor at Orleans. He refused a professorsliip at 
 Leyden, wishing to devote himself to his own studies. But 
 political duties were forced upon him; in 1627 and 1631 he was 
 ambassador in England; in 1636 and 1651 he was grand pen- 
 sionary of Holland. Cats' poems are described as characterized 
 by simplicity and n.aivete. They shared the fate of most national 
 poetry — for a while popular, then disregarded or forgotten, then 
 recalled to public attention and again admired, because it becomes 
 a sort of patriotism to admire them. In something of this feel- 
 ing, Bilderdijk and Frith republished Cats' poems in 1800. A 
 monument was erected to him at Gand, which, to use the phrase 
 adopted on such occasions, was inaugurated in 1820. — J. A. I). 
 
 * CATTANEO, Caui.o, born at Milan at the conmiencement 
 of the present century, celebrated as the greatest economist and 
 statistician of contemporary Italy. He took an active part in 
 the Lombard insurrection of 1848, first, by personally heading the 
 attack in Contrada del Monte ; then as tlie leading member of the 
 committee of war, which so admirably directed the memorable five 
 days' struggle in Milan, that for a while eniaucipated Lomhardy. 
 Cattaneo may be said to have then had Milan in his hands; but 
 when the king of Piedmont entered Lomhardy and ofl'ered to 
 prosecute the war, Cattaneo, although by conviction a republican, 
 at once yielded his power to a provisional govcniment formed of 
 the king's adherents, and withdrew from allii terfercnce in public
 
 CAT 
 
 940 
 
 CAT 
 
 affairs. When the king, after repeated defeats, signed an armis- 
 tice, by tlie terms of which Milan was again delivered up to the 
 Austrians, Cattaneo went to Switzerland, where he published 
 a valuable work on the Lombard insurrection, and the true 
 causes of its overthrow — as a commentary to which he under- 
 took the publication of very important historical documents 
 relating to that period, under the title of "Archivio Storico," of 
 which three volumes have already appeared. Cattaneo has 
 been created a Swiss citizen, in consideration of his valuable 
 ser;-ices in relation to various undertakings of public industrial 
 and economical utility, and has been honoured with the appoint- 
 ment of professor of philosophy at the lyceum of Ticino. Among 
 his most important works may be mentioned a translation of 
 Zschockke's History of Switzerland ; " Notizie Naturali _e Civili 
 della Lombardia;" and the " Lettere sopra alcune instituzioni 
 agrarie dell' Alta Italia applicabili a sollievo dell' Irlanda," 
 written in reply to some questions addressed by Lord Ebrington 
 to the Austrian government of Lombardy. — E. A. H. 
 
 CATTANEO, Danese, an Italian sculptor and architect, was 
 bora at Carrara about 1500. He spent some time at Verona, as 
 a pujiil of Sansovino. Among many other works he executed 
 the tomb of the Venetian general, Alexander Contarini,at Padua; 
 the mausoleum of Giano Fregoso at Verona ; and the tomb of 
 Andrea Badouero at Venice. Cattaneo left behind him a long 
 poem entitled " L'Amor di JIarfisa." — J. T. 
 
 CATTANEO, Giammakia, a learned Italian writer, who died 
 at Rome in 1529, was the author of a celebrated commentary on 
 the Letters and Panegyric of Pliny the Younger: Venice, 1500, 
 and Milan, 1506; of translations of Isocrates and Lucian ; and 
 an unfinished poem on the taking of Jenisalem by the crusaders. 
 CATTENBUEGH, Adrian Van, a Dutch di\'ine, born in 
 106-1; died in 1737. He was one of the leaders of the Dutch 
 Remonstrants, and held the Arminian tenets of that sect. He 
 is the author of " Spicilegium theologia; Christiana; Philippi a 
 Limborch," 2 vols., folio; a "Life of Hugo Grotius" in Dutch, 
 2 vols., folio; "Bibliotheca Scriptorum Remonstrantium," 1 vol., 
 8vo ; " Syntagma Scientiai Jlosaicic," 4to, against deists and 
 atheists. — J. T. 
 
 * CATTERMOLE, George, an English painter in water- 
 colour, born in 1800 at Dickleburgh in Norfolk. His subjects are 
 chiefly prominent scenes in English history, in Scott's novels, and 
 Shakspeare's plays. His productions are distinguished by genuine 
 poetic feeling and fineness of colour and tone. He designed the 
 engra\-ings for the History of the Great Civil War in England 
 by his brother, the Rev. R. Cattermole. — J. B. 
 
 CATTHO, Angelo, archbishop of Vienne, was born at Taren- 
 tum, and died at Vienne in 1494. He resided for some time at 
 the court of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and was the friend 
 of Philip de Comines, to whom he gave some assistance in the 
 composition of his celebrated Memoii-s. After the defeat of the 
 duke of Burgundy by the Swiss, Cattho repaired to France, 
 where he was cordially welcomed by Louis XL, who made him 
 his almoner, and afterwards created him archbishop of Vieime 
 in 1482. He addicted himself to the study of astrology, and 
 is said to have announced to Louis the death of his enemy, the 
 duke of Burgundy, at the moment it occurred. — J. T. 
 
 CATTON, Charlt:s, an English artist, born at Norwich, 
 who ser%'ed his apprenticeship as a coach painter. He after- 
 wards studied in the academy of St. ^Martin's Lane. He was 
 the first to introduce any close resemblance to nature, or indeed 
 any sort of art, in the rendering of the animals of heraldic 
 designs. A collection of his drawings of animals was engraved 
 and published. He was chosen one of the original members of 
 the Royal Academy, and became master of the conipanj of paper 
 stainers in 1784. He died in 1798. — His son Chaki.es had 
 some fame as a landscape painter. He emigrated to New York 
 in 1800, and died there in 1819.— W. T. 
 
 CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, one of the two poets of the 
 republic whose genius still shines wth a lustre imobscured by 
 the brilliancy of the Augustan age. Old polities often pass 
 away in a blaze of light. The sunset of Greek liberty was the 
 meridian of Greek speculation. The last days of free Rome 
 were peculiarly rich in the display of literary eminence, and 
 illuminated by a whole cluster of great names. The earlier 
 poets were rivalled, if not sur])assed, in the graces of refinement 
 and fluency by those who, in the succeeding epoch, adorned tlie 
 imperial court; but they had on their side all the advantage of 
 greater freshness and greater freedom. They were at least 
 
 imitators at first hand ; their language and imagery were new in 
 Latin speech, while those who followed in their track frequently 
 present only the reflection of a reflection. This freshness is a 
 distinguishing feature of the poems of Catullus. He was a keen 
 student of her literature, and adopted many of his measures, 
 thoughts, and expressions from the lyrists of Greece. Some of 
 his verses are direct translations ; others in their metaphors, 
 phrases, and subject matter, vividly recall Greek models. But 
 those phrases and expressions had not become the common stock 
 of poetry, and he applied them with all the \agour of an original 
 mind to the purposes of his own inspiration. He lived before 
 the times of patronage and dictation, with a large share of that 
 daring spirit which belongs more to an ideal than an actual 
 republic. He wrote to please himself, his mistress, and his 
 friends, because he chose and as he chose, and this gives his 
 verses the fascination of freedom which we sometimes miss in 
 Horace, and look for vainly in Virgil. The personal career of 
 the poet was that of most youths of fortime in his age. He was 
 bom at Verona about 87 B.C. His father, Valerius, held a good 
 station in society, and was known as the friend and occasional 
 host of Cajsar. Catullus himself must have enjoyed a comfort- 
 able independence. Besides the family residence on a promon- 
 tory of the Lago de Garda, he had a villa near Tibur, celebrated 
 in another of his songs. He came to Rome early in youth — 
 " venustus et dicax et urbanus" — and became a favourite with 
 the ■tt'its and ladies of the city. Cicero, C. Nepos, Asinius Pollio, 
 Varus, and Calvus were among his friends ; to the first he offers 
 one of his most complimentary addresses ; the last is the theme 
 of one of his lighter satires. Having wasted his means by a 
 somewhat reckless pursuit of pleasure, Catullus was pestered by 
 duns, and accompanied the pra;tor Memmius to Bithynia, with a 
 view of reinstating his fortune. Disappointed in his liopes of the 
 expedition, he has recorded his chagrin in verses which allude to 
 "Memmii clara propago" in terms strangely contrasting with 
 the eulogy of his more philosophic admirer. The " Dedicatio 
 Phaseli," and the exquisite lines in praise of Sinnio, refer to the 
 poet's retuni. The death of his brother in the Troad, which 
 called fortli some of the most touching expressions of fraternal 
 affection, probably occurred at a later period. The exact term 
 of his own career is unknown ; it is only evident from Carmen 
 52 that he must have seen Vatinius consul in 47 B.C. He 
 appears to have divided the latter years of his life between his 
 northern villa and the capital. 
 
 The poems of Catullus which have come down to ns are derived 
 from a MS. discovered at Verona early in the fourteenth century. 
 They consist of one hundred and sixteen pieces, a large propor- 
 tion of which record the shifting moods of the poet's impulsi\c 
 nature. The most ardent of lovers, a warm friend, a good hater, 
 he has given expression to all forms of passion, with an equal 
 disregard of restraint. His amatory verses are, in their grace, 
 sweetness, and simplicity, gems of art, but they owe their s})eeial 
 channs to an air of genuineness. Rich in the most plaj-ful fancies, 
 none of them seem to have been written as mere exercises of the 
 imagination. Catullus found in song the natural vent for strong 
 feeling. Whoever Lesbia or Clodia may have been, some living 
 and breathing beauty must have set the poet's heart on fire. His 
 epigrams sparkle with wit, sprightly or spiteful as they serve 
 to preserve a jest or perpetuate sincere indignation. Their 
 scurrility nuist be explained by the taint of coarseness which 
 pei-vaded the literature of the time. Three of the most virulent 
 are aimed at Caesar himself. There is a story told, that on 
 reading one of them, he threw it into the fire, and invited the 
 writer to dinner on the same afternoon, which, if tnie, places in a 
 conspicuous light the magnanimity of the great Julius. Among 
 the finest of those fugitive pieces are "Ad Passerem ; "Miser 
 Catulle, desinas ineptire;" " Furi et Aiu-eli comites Catulli;" 
 "Ad Dianam;" "De Acme et Septimio;" "Ad Pocillatorem," 
 &c. The three elegies " Ad Hortalum," " Ad Manlium," and 
 the " Inferia; ad Fratris tumulum," are interesting memorials 
 of the autlior's life, and express with delicate pathos the sor- 
 rows of bis bereavement. Of the poet's longer performances, 
 the most remarkable are the two odes written for the nuptials 
 of Julia and Manlius, the " Epithalamium Pelei et Thetidis," 
 and the " Atys." The first are for passionate depth of concep- 
 tion, beauty of expression, and choice profusion of imagery 
 unrivalled among the love songs of classical antiquity. The 
 exquisite stanza about the young Torquatus has tried and baffled 
 a host of copyists, while the similes of the ilower and the vine
 
 in the carmen have provoked more imitations than any other 
 in the range of Latin poetry. The hexameters in the Peleus and 
 Thetis have a greater majesty and flow than is to be found in 
 the verses of the Augustan age. The picture of Ariadne's 
 soUtude, and the description of ''Bacchus and his crew," are in 
 the liighest degree di'amatic ; in richness of colouring they are 
 equal to the best passages of Keats. Tlie "Atys," both in its 
 tone and rhythm, bears traces of a Greek origin. It is unlike 
 any modern production, and can hardly be appreciated in a 
 northern country. It is properly a birth of the East, a wonder- 
 ful representation of a wonderful worship. Its wild intensity 
 seems to suit the religion of Cybele. The dithyrambs, which 
 now hurry along with the fire of a maddening frenzy, now break 
 into the passion of remorse, and again die away in a wail of 
 despair, are inspired by the very spii-it of the Maenad. Catullus 
 is the most versatile of the Latin poets ; he touched almost every 
 theme of poetry, and adorned all he touched. Lucretius sm- 
 passed him in sublimity ; Horace in the melody and refinement 
 of his lyric strains ; Ovid was the greater master of elegy ; the 
 epigrams of Martial have a keener sting ; but Catullus was 
 excellent in all, and only second in any of those lines of effort. 
 He held a high place in the esteem of his contemporaries. 
 Among his successors Ovid speaks of him as the glory of Verona, 
 and feigns to have met his shade among the foremost of the 
 blessed bards. Propertius declares that Lesbia has, through her 
 Roman lover's praise, outstripped the fame of Helen herself; 
 and Martial, in reference to the earlier poets, says, with a mix- 
 ture of modesty and confidence, "uno sed tibi sim minor Catullo." 
 The epithet doctus so frequently applied to him, may refer to 
 his intimate acquaintance with Greek literature ; but it is more 
 likely used in the sense of caUidus, to express the skill and sub- 
 tilty of his own language. One of our living classics has called 
 Catullus " the most elegant of all poets in all ages." We do 
 not know that he belonged to any philosophical sect, but his 
 writings are those of an Epicurean. Oppressed by a prevailing 
 sense of the shadows that close round the sunshine of life, he 
 seeks and finds refuge in the joys of the hour. His morality 
 was that most prevalent in his age. n7vE xai »«<?£, 6yr,To; i fiio;. 
 " Let us eat and drink for to-morrow we die." The same strain 
 of thought is common in the odes of Horace ; it appears in the 
 poetry of all nations from a sort of beauty in the contrast 
 between gaiety and gloom on which it rests. " Death is the end 
 of Ufe ; ah, why should life all labour be ? " Catullus wrote in 
 thirteen varieties of metre. His text is very corrupt. The best 
 restoration of it is Lachmann's. Dunlop gives a fair selection of 
 imitations of his most famous passages ; but the most adequate 
 criticism of him that has yet appeared is Landor's. There have 
 been many versions of his poems ; few of them are veiy success- 
 ful. It requires a poet to translate a poet — a poet, a lover, and 
 a man of fashion to translate Catullus. — J. N. 
 
 CATULUS, the name of an illustrious Roman fiimily belonging 
 to the gens Lutatia, which has produced a considerable number 
 of distinguished generals and statesmen : — 
 
 Catulus, Caius Lutatius, was consul along with A. 
 Postumius Albinus in 242 B.C. He acquired great distinction in 
 the first Punic war by defeating, near the jEgates, the Cartha- 
 ghiian fleet under Hanno, destroying no fewer than 120 galleys. 
 
 Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, consul along with Marius in 
 102 B.C., gained, in conjunction with his colleague, a signal 
 victory over the Cimbri at Vercellse, in the north of Italy. In 
 the civil war he espoused the cause of Sulla, and was pre- 
 scribed by Marius, B.C. 87. Finding escape impossible, he put 
 an end to his life by shutting himself up in a room filled with 
 the fumes of burning charcoal. Catulus is warmly commended 
 by Cicero for his wisdom, integrity, and eloquence. He pos- 
 sessed a highly cultivated mind, was well skilled in Greek lite- 
 rature, and was celebrated for the purity and elegance of his style. 
 
 Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, son of the preceding, born 
 about 120 B.C., was chosen consul along with jEmilius Lepitlus 
 in 78, the year in which Sulla died. He opposed the attempt of 
 his colleague to rescind the laws of the dictator, and afterwards, 
 as proconsul, defeated him in two engagements, and compelled 
 him to take refuge in Sardinia, where he perished. Catulus 
 resisted the proposal to intrust Pompey with the connnand of 
 the forces appointed to exterminate tlie ])inites in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and was equally hostile to his nomination to the connnand 
 of the war against Mithridates. He died B.C. GO, leaving behind 
 him the reputation of an honest and courageous man. — J. T. 
 
 CAUCHE, Francois, a French sailor, born at Rouen, who 
 visited Madagascar in 1G38, and along with several companions, 
 spent three years on that island. They afterwards sailed to the 
 Red Sea, where they seem to have followed piratical practices, 
 and captured several vessels belonging to the Arabs and the 
 people of Malabar. Cauche published in 1(J51 "A true and 
 curious account of the island of Madagascar," &c., the accuracy 
 of which has been impeached, but without just reason, by Fla- 
 court, the governor of the French colony in Madagascar. — J. T. 
 
 CAUCHON, Pierre, bishop of Beauvais during the first half 
 of the fifteenth century. He took an active part in the civil 
 broils which at that period convulsed France, and after the death 
 of Charles VI. became an active partisan of the Burgundian 
 faction. He has been doomed to perpetual infamy by the share 
 which he took in procuring, by the vilest arts, the condemnation 
 of Joan of Aj-c. Cauchon died suddenly in 1443, twelve years 
 after the perpetration of this crime. He was excommunicated 
 by Calixtus IV., and his character and conduct were held in 
 such abhorrence by the people of his diocese that his remains 
 were dug up and cast upon the highway. — J. T. 
 
 CAUCHY, AuGUSTiN Louis, one of the most remarkable 
 of the more recent mathematicians of France. Born on 21st 
 August, 1789, his family was happily of a humble though 
 respectable station belonging to the tiers etat ; and so their 
 moderate fortunes escaped being affected by the political hum- 
 canes which afterwards devastated France. Cauchy obtained 
 an excellent classical education, chiefly in consequence of a 
 counsel given his father by the great Lagrange, then facile 
 j)rincej)s of all analysts — " Do not pennit your son to open a 
 mathematical book, or intermeddle with a solitary figure, until he 
 shall have completed his literary studies." The most wholesome 
 advice was followed ; but Caueby's predilection for abstract science 
 soon manifested itself, and he left the polytechnic school, after a 
 brilliant career, in 1807. He began his original labours in 1811, 
 by some remarkable papers (on polyhedrons) of pure geometry ; 
 but subsequent efforts connected with abstruse points in the 
 Modern Analysis and the Theory of Numbers, as well as his 
 remarkable essay on the propagation of waves on the surface of 
 a heavy fluid of profound depth (crowned by the Academy in 
 18 IG), indicated the rise of a genius whose powers and sympathies 
 were confined to no special branch of scientific inquiiy, but could 
 encompass and enrich them all. It were useless to attempt to 
 eniunerate all Cauchy's ser\-ices — much less can we reckon up 
 the innumerable papers and memoirs which, to the end of his 
 life, continued to flow with scarcely conceivable rapidity from his 
 too prolific pen. It may be said in perfect tnith that there is 
 scarcely a portion of Analysis which he did not advance ; less even 
 by what he did himself than by the impulse which his remarkable 
 ideas communicated to the thoughts and investigations of others. 
 He brought the force of his intellect to clear up several of the 
 obscurest and most arduous problems in physical astronomy ; and 
 to him are unquestionably owing those last perfections in the 
 Undulating Theory of Light, which, imperfectly appreciated at 
 the period of their publication, lay hidden amid the mass of his 
 memoirs until the experimental researches of Jamin and other 
 physicists of quite recent years, established by experiment the 
 very facts that Cauchy predicted, and of which, so long before, 
 he had divined the cause. Notwithstanding the indisputable 
 eminence of Cauchy as a thinker, it were indeed vain to 
 conceal that great imperfection attached to him as a writer. 
 His earlier works, the "Course of Analysis," the "Differential 
 Calculus," and the " Ajiplication of the Infinitesimal Calculus 
 to the Theory of Cur\'es," are confessedly imexceptionable either 
 as to rigour or method ; but even here one jiainfuUy dis- 
 cerns the rudiments of an obscurity which rajndly gi-ew upon 
 him — an obscurity frequently and fatally affecting the writings 
 of men eminent in various departments of thought. In rare 
 cases perhaps, tlu'ough affectation, in othei\s through a certain 
 intellectual imperfection, the writers in question forget that a 
 writer and a thinker are different ; that to write means to 
 instruct ; that, in order to instruct, the condition of the mind to 
 be instructed must be retained constantly before the writer's 
 mind, and that unnecessary ellipses and startling enigmas, 
 whether in algorithm or development, are not a whit more 
 conmieuilable than " .stannnering " in ordinaiy speech. In this 
 respect Cauchy sinned greatly. It never occurred to him to ask 
 whether a new idea could not be adecjuately and fully expressed 
 in common symbols ; with the thought, he generally threw
 
 CAU 
 
 942 
 
 CAU 
 
 down before one some new and probably unnecessary symbol 
 — demanding that his reader, before being benefited by his 
 discovery, should acquire his new language ! Strangely enough, 
 verbosity often attends this kind of obscurity. How often and 
 sadly he wearied the Academy by his everlasting repetitions 
 concerning his ftimous " Coefficient of extinction," many men 
 stni living may tell ! He became latterly, indeed, a very hore in 
 the Academy. Not the less, however, are his writings a precious 
 mine, from which many bright and unexpected treasures will 
 assuredly yet be disinterred. Caucliy died in 1857. In private 
 life he was all that could be desired — devoted and pure. In 
 politics he had attached himself to the elder Bourbons, and 
 considerations of self-interest never sullied his loyalty. He was 
 naturally pious, and, through conviction as well as education, a 
 sincere catholic. — J. P. N. 
 
 CAULAINCOURT, Akmaxd Augustin Louis de, Duke of 
 Vicenza, the celebrated French diplomatist to whom Napoleon, 
 confided many of his most important negotiations, particularly 
 with liussia, was bom of noble parentage in the department of the 
 Somme in 1772, and died in 1827. He had some experience in 
 military matters, but none in diplomacy when, on the accession 
 of the Czar Alexander, he was intrusted with an embassy to St. 
 Petersburg. In this and many subsequent diplomatic charges, 
 however, he exhibited so much address, as completely to gain the 
 confidence of Napoleon, who la\-ished upon him both money and 
 titles. To the intercession of Caulaincourt with Alexander, 
 Napoleon owed not a little of the consideration with which his 
 wishes were treated by the allied sovereigns on the occasion of 
 his first abdication. Caulaincourt, after the fall of the empire, 
 lived in retirement, persecuted by well meaning but probably 
 misinformed partisans of the restored Bourbons, who endeavoured, 
 in spite of his solemn refutation of the charge, to bring home to 
 him the obloquy of having been concerned in the murder of the 
 due d'Enghien. — His brother, Auguste-Je.\:n-Gabriel, an 
 able general, served with distinction in the compaigns of the 
 Ivhine, in the Peninsula, and in Russia, where he was killed at 
 the battle of Moskowa in 1812.— J. S., G. 
 
 CAULET, Etiexne Francois de, bishop of Pamiers, was 
 born in IfilO. He was appointed to that office by Vincent de 
 Paul, and vindicated the choice by his zeal in remedying the 
 evils which the civil war had brought upon his diocese. He 
 introduced various salutaiy reforms, and devoted a great part of 
 his revenues to the relief of the poor, the aged, and the infirm. 
 Along with the bishop of Aleth he espoused the cause of the 
 I'ort Royal, in the contest between the Jansenists and .Jesuits. 
 He also boldly resisted the claims of the crown to dispose of 
 ecclesiastical revenues during the vacancy of a see. He was in 
 consequence deposed, and died about 1680. — Jean Caulet, his 
 nephew, bishop of Grenoble, was the author of various treatises 
 on ecclesiastical subjects. — J. T. 
 
 CAULFIELD. See Charlemont. 
 
 CAULFIELD, James, an English writer, bom in T7G4 ; died 
 in 1826. He became an enthusiastic collector of rare prints and 
 engravings, for the sale of which he opened a shop in 1780. 
 Among his works are — " Lives and Portraits of Remarkable 
 Persons ; " " History of the Gunpowder Plot ; " " Gallery of 
 British Portraits;" " Cromwclliana;" " Chalcographiana, or the 
 Printseller's Chronicle and Collector's Guide to the Knowledge 
 and Value of Engraved British Portraits," &c. — J. B. 
 
 CAUMARTIN, Louis Lefevre de, a distinguished French 
 statesman, bom in 1552, was successively ambassador to Swit- 
 zerland, councillor of state, and president of the grand council. 
 Louis XIII. had such a high opinion of his talents and judg- 
 ment, that he placed him at the head of the magistracy of the 
 kingdom ; but he died three months aftenvards, in 1623. — His 
 great-grandson, Louis Urbaik, born in 1653, was educated by 
 the celebrated Flcchier, and was highly eulogized by Boileau. 
 He held in succession various important public offices. It was at 
 Caumartin's seat of St. Ange that Voltaire, who had addressed 
 to him some complimentary verses, first conceived the plan of 
 his Hcnriade. — J. T. 
 
 * C.\UMONT, Arcisse de, a geologist and antiquary who 
 has contributed more than any other living French author to the 
 propagation of a taste for the study of archaeology among his 
 countrymen, bom at Bayeux in 1802 He is the founder of the 
 Linnwan Society of Normandy, and of the society for the conser- 
 vation of works of art, and has written several archajological 
 works of gi'cat merit. 
 
 CAURROY, Francois Eustache du, Sieur de Saint Frd- 
 min, a musician, was bom at Gerberoy, near Beauvais, in 1549, 
 and died at Paris, August 7, 1609. He was designed by his 
 parents for the order of Jlalta, of which his brother was a com- 
 mander. His inclination and his talent for music, however, 
 were so gi"eat that the intention was given up, and he was 
 allowed to devote himself to this art. He entered holy orders — 
 at that time quite compatible with the profession of music — 
 became canon of Ste. Chapclle in Paris, and prior of St. 
 Aioul de Provence. About the beginning of 1569 he was 
 appointed superintendent de la musique du roi, an office that was 
 created for him, and which he held successively under Charles 
 IX., Henri III., and Henri IV. The cardinal du Perron was 
 his intimate friend, and not only supplied him with verses for 
 music, but wrote the eulogistic epitaph inscribed on the monu- 
 ment erected to his memory by his successor, Nicholas Forme. 
 He was called by his contemporaries " Le prince des profes- 
 seurs de musique," a title that rather proves their admiration 
 than his merit, since the same name was given to Palestrina 
 and Orlando di Lasso, both greatly his superiors. He appear^ 
 to have produced a large number of noels (songs for Christmas, 
 mo.-^tly of an elaborate character), one of which is printed in 
 Burncy's Histoi-y. His most reputed work is a " Jlissa pro 
 defunctis" for five voices, which, until the beginning of the last 
 century, was always performed at the obsequies of the kings of 
 France. His published works are " Preces Ecclesiastical," in 
 1609 ; " Precum Ecclesiasticaram," in the same year; " Melan- 
 ges de I\Iusique," published by his grandnephew, Andre Pitart, 
 in 1610; and " Fantaisies," in three, four, five, and six part?, 
 likewise in the year after his death. Besides these, there exist 
 several compositions in manuscript ; and he is said to have 
 written some theoretical works which are unknown. — G. A. JI. 
 CAUS, Solomon de, whose name is associated with the 
 history of the steam-engine, was bom in NoiTnand}' towards thi; 
 end of the sixteenth century. From his childhood he showcil 
 great taste for mechanics .ind hydraulics. He first settled in 
 England, where he was employed in the senice of the prince uf 
 Wales ; then in Germany, as engineer to the elector of Bavaria, 
 who gave him the superintendence of his buildings and pleasure- 
 gardens. Having spent the greater part of his life with this 
 prince, he retumed to France, where he died about 1630. He 
 has left several works on subjects connected with mechanics, and 
 in one of them he describes an engine for raising water by the 
 pressure of steam. He proposes to introduce one end of a pipe 
 below the surface of the water, and then by admitting steam to 
 press upon the surrounding surface, to force the water up the 
 pipe. It has been erroneously said that his opinions on the 
 subject of steam power being considered those of a madman, 
 Solomon de Cans spent the last years of his life in a lunatic 
 asylum. — J. D. E. 
 
 CAUSSIN, Nicolas, a learned French Jesuit, bom in 
 1583. Through the influence of Cardinal Richelieu he was 
 appointed confessor to Louis XIII., but he soon lost the fovour 
 of his patron, and nine months after his appointment was dis- 
 missed from office, and banished from Paris, because, as he alleged, 
 he would not reveal some things he had learned from the king's 
 confession, nor submit to the dictation of his superiors as to the 
 mode in which he should direct the roval conscience. He died 
 in 1651.— J. T. 
 
 * CAUSSIN DE Perceval, Armaxd Pierre, son of J. 
 J. Antoine, a distinguLshed writer on Oriental philology and 
 history, bom at Paris in 1795, passed some time among the 
 Maronite christians of Syria, became dragoman at Aleppo, and, 
 after his return to his native country, was appointed professor of 
 Oriental languages in the college of France, and interpreter of 
 Arabic to the ministrj' of war. Besides a gi-ammar of Arabic 
 and some translations of Arabic historical documents, he has 
 published " Essais sur I'liistoire des Arabes avant I'lslamisme, 
 pendant I'epoque de Mahimiet, et jusqu'a la reduction de toutes 
 les tribus sous la loi musulmane," 1847. — J. S., G. 
 
 CAUSSIN de Perceval, .1. J. Antoine, an oriental 
 scholar, bom at idontdidier in 1759; died in 1835. He was 
 the pupil of Deshauterayes, whom he succeeded as professor of 
 Arabic at the college of France in 1783. In 1787 he was 
 appointed keeper of the manuscripts at the Bibliotheque Royale, 
 and in 1803 he became a member of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions. His works are a translation into French of the Argonautic 
 expedition, by Valerius Flaccus; "A Seijuel to the Thousand
 
 CAU 
 
 943 
 
 CAV 
 
 and one Tales of the Ai'abian Nights," translated from the Arabic; 
 and "A History of Sicily under the Mussulmans," also translated 
 from the Arabic, 1802.— B. de B. 
 
 CAUX DE Cappeval, ■ DE, bom at Ruuen in 1700. 
 
 His admiration for Voltaire's not very sublime epic, the Henriade, 
 was so enthusiastic as to inspire him with resolution to translate 
 it into the becoming language of Virgil. That his own taste was 
 not unexceptionable, may be considered proved by the singular, 
 if not original poem which he wrote under the title of "Parnassus." 
 The poet imagines Apollo to take that precious monarch, Louis 
 XV., to the top of Parnassus, and to march before his eyes all 
 distinguished persons of all times in every branch of literature 
 and art. Disgusted with the coldness of the public, the poet 
 retired to llanheim, where he died in 1774. — J. F. C. 
 
 CAVAGNA, Giovanni Paolo : this artist was bom at 
 di San Borgo Leandro in the territory of Bergamo in 1560. He 
 visited Venice in the noon of Titian's glory, and is supposed to 
 have received instruction from that master. On his return to 
 Bergamo he entered the school of Moroni, the eminent portrait 
 painter, and for some time he followed his delicate colour and 
 firm free manner. Subsequently, however, he adopted the style 
 of Paolo Veronese, and caught very happily his florescence, dash, 
 and dramatic effect. He painted both in oil and fresco, and 
 acqmred repute for the expression of his old men and children. 
 He died in 1G27.— W. T. 
 
 CAVAIGNAC, Jean-Baptiste, a French statesman, bom 
 1762, studied law, and, after holding some subordinate offices, 
 was elected a member of the national convention, in which he 
 voted for the death of Louis XVL He subsequently served in 
 several diplomatic missions, had a seat in the council of five 
 hundred and in the cabinet of Murat at Naples, was prefect of 
 the Somme during the hundi-ed days, and died in exile at Brussels 
 in 1829. — His brother, Jacques-Marie, Viscount Cavaignac, 
 born in 1773, rose to the rank of general in the French service. 
 He distinguished himself under Moreau and IMurat in Italy, 
 received from Napoleon the grand cross of the legion of honour 
 at Austerlitz, commanded a brigade of cavalry in covering the 
 retreat from Moscow, and fell into the hands of the allies at the 
 capitulation of Dantzig. After his liberation, he obtained his 
 peerage, and other honours. — W. B. 
 
 CAVAIGNAC, Louis-Eugene, a younger son of Jean- 
 Baptiste, was born in 1802. Having chosen the military pro- 
 fession, he served in the Morea, obtaining his captaincy in 1829; 
 and in the following year, being at Arras with his regiment 
 when the revolution broke out, he promptly declared himself in 
 favour of the republic. In Algeria, to which he was commis- 
 sioned in 1832, he built up the fabric of his military reputation 
 by ten years of active semce, during which his bravery in the 
 field, his resolute endurance of hardships, and his strategic skill, 
 were equally conspicuous ; especially at the taking of Tlemcen, 
 where he won from Marshal Clausel the honour of being 
 appointed commander of the captm'ed fortress ; and also in his 
 obstinate defence of that post with a small company of volunteers, 
 against repeated assaults of the Arabs, and an exhausting 
 blockade directed by Abd-el-Kader in person. In 1840 he 
 commanded the advanced guard of Marshal Bugeaud's army, 
 and after other important services was appointed governor of 
 Algeria, with the rank of general of division, by the provisional 
 government in 1848. In the same year he declined the port- 
 folio of the war-office, but promptly undertook the defence of the 
 government against the disaft'ectcd and insurgent classes of the 
 Parisian populace. A fierce straggle followed, during which the 
 capital was declared in a state of siege, and Cavaignac invested 
 with the powers of dictator ; but at length, after four days of 
 hard fighting at the bamcades, he succeeded in completely 
 crushing the insurrection. On resigning his dictatorship, he was 
 elected j)residcnt of the council ; and in the close of the year was 
 the rival of Louis Napoleon for the presidency of the republic. 
 At the coiiji d'etat of 1851 he was arrested and imprisoned, 
 but speedily released, and permitted to reside in France. In 
 1852, and again in 1857, his popularity with the Parisians 
 secured his election to the legislative assembly, but refusing to 
 take the oath of adhesion to the new government, he was 
 excluded from his seat by the votes of a majority of his fellow- 
 deputies, lie died in 1857.— W. B. 
 
 CAVALCANTI, Baktoh)MMEO, an It:ilian writer, born in 
 1503 ; author of a treatise called " Rettorica," which has been 
 often reprinted ; of " Trattati, owero discorsi sopra gli ottinii 
 
 reggimenti delle republiche antiche e moderne ; " and of a trans- 
 lation into Italian of the Castrametation of Polybius, 1552. 
 He died at Padua in 1652.— J. T. 
 
 CAVALCANTI, Guido, an Italian philosopher and poet, 
 known as the intimate friend of Dante, and a suft'erer with him 
 in the political troubles of the thirteenth century, was born at 
 Florence. It is curious to note, that while the greater poet 
 takes Virgil for his guide in the infernal regions, the lesser 
 minstrel decries the study of the Roman bard as hostile to the 
 spread of the Italian language, and, therefore, a crime against 
 national feeling. Cavalcanti's most fiimous productions are his 
 canzones to love, written under the inspiration of a passion he 
 entertained for a French girl, whom he names Mandctta. He 
 died of a fever at Sarzana in 1300. — A. C. M. 
 
 CAVALIER, John, one of the principal leaders of the Cami- 
 sards or protestants of the district of Cevennes in France, who 
 rose in insurrection on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. 
 He was the son of a peasant, and was born in 1679 at the 
 village of Ribaute. When the persecution of Louis XIV. had 
 driven the protestants of his native district into rebellion in 
 1702, Cavalier, who was only twentj'-three years of age, was 
 one of their first chiefs, and by his great courage, aided by 
 the predictions of a pretended prophetess, he acquired vast 
 influence among the insurgents. Like the Scottish covenanting 
 ministers, the leaders of the Camisards discharged the duties 
 both of preachers and of generals. Cavalier, who possessed mili- 
 tary talents of a very high order, worsted the French generals 
 in a succession of sanguinary conflicts, and ultimately compelled 
 the marshal de Villars, who had a great admiration of his abili- 
 ties, to offer him, in 1704, highly favourable terms. It was 
 agreed that he should be received into the royal service, with the 
 rank of colonel of a regiment of his fellow-protestants, who were 
 to be allowed the free exercise of their own religion. The other 
 chiefs of the Camisards, however, refused to agree to these terms, 
 and persevered in their resistance. But Cavalier, faithful to his 
 engagement, abandoned his native mountains and proceeded to 
 Paris. Finding, however, that he was regarded with jealousy 
 and suspicion by the king and court, he withdrew to Lausanne 
 and afterwards to Holland. He organized a regiment of seven 
 hundred refugees, whom he commanded at the battle of Almanza, 
 where they fought with desperate fury against the French. He 
 ultimately entered the English ser\'ice, and obtained the rank 
 of a general, with the governorship of Jersey. He discharged the 
 duties of this post with great discretion, as well as bravery and 
 talent. He died at Chelsea in 1740. — J. T. 
 
 CAVALIERE, Emilio del, a musician of noble family, was 
 born at Rome about 1550, and died in 1601. He cultivated 
 his natural taste for music in the severe schools of his native 
 city, and produced some madrigals that proved his practical 
 knowledge of the contrapuntal style. He quitted Rome at the 
 invitation of Ferdinand de Medicis, to officiate at the court of 
 this prince as inspector of the fine arts. Here he became asso- 
 ciated with Bardi, Corsi, Vincenzo Galileo, and Rinuccini, in their 
 purpose of restoring to music the declamatory character it held 
 with the ancient Greeks, iis opposed to its very vague expression 
 of sentiment and frequent confusion of sense, by the repetition of 
 words, in the imitative style of canonical contrivance, which at 
 that time universally prevailed. Unlike the two greatly esteemed 
 singers, Giulio Caccini and Jacopo Peri (who were likewise 
 concerned in this important movement, which originated recita- 
 tive and founded the modern lyrical drama), Cavalierc had a 
 large amount of theoretical knowledge to Ijring to bear upon the 
 subject, and had, besides tliis, much of the natural feeling for 
 vocal effect, by which alone their writings are distinguished. In 
 1590 he produced " II Satiro," and " La Disperazioni di Filene," 
 two of the earliest attempts in that class of composition which 
 has been modified into tlie opera of the present day ; and, in 
 1595, "II Giiujco delta Cieca," another piece in the same 
 form, was represented before Cardinals Monte and Mont' Alto. 
 Cavalierc's most important work, and the only one that is 
 printed, is the oratorio of " La Rappresentazioni di Aninia e di 
 Corpo," the poem of which was furnished by Laura Guidiccioni, 
 a noble and religious lady of Lucca, and which was performed 
 iu the oratory of St. Maria in Valieella in February, 1600. The 
 oratorios of Animnecia, so called on account of their perfonnancc 
 in the oratorj' of the church, had, half a century earlier, excited 
 such general interest, that it was now a piece of ecclesiastical 
 polity to attract the public to the churches by similar entertain-
 
 CAY 
 
 944 
 
 CAV 
 
 ments. Though designed for the same purpose, and performed 
 in the same situation, Cavaliere's oratorio was eminently ditfer- 
 ent in character from those of his predecessor ; its form was 
 dramatic, and it was represented with scenic decorations, and 
 with action, and even dances accompanied the chorases. Thus, 
 as Animuccia founded the ecclesiastical oratorio — most nobly 
 exemplified in the Passions-^Musik of Bach — so the work under 
 consideration originated the dramatic oratorio ; of which Handel's 
 Samson, and like productions, are familiar specimens. In this 
 composition the newly-invented recitative fonns a prominent 
 feature ; but though we find in this the germ of that grand style 
 of declamation which Handel brought to perfection, its merit 
 admits of no comparison with that of the masterpieces the last 
 century and a half have produced. " La Rappresentazioni di 
 Anima e di Corpo" has not only accompaniments for instruments 
 independent of the voices — which at that period were most 
 uncommon — but also a tignred bass, from which the performer 
 on the harpsichord improvised a counterpoint. In this respect 
 it agrees with an opera by Peri and Caccini, bearing the same 
 date, and containing, as this does, an explanation of the figures. 
 We thus learn that the practice — always ineffectual, and now 
 happily obsolete — of employing this form of musical short- 
 hand, instead of writing the notes to be played, originated at 
 this period, if not with these composers. Cavaliere was also the 
 first to write, and perhaps the inventor of, the embellishments 
 of the turn and the shake, of which Alessandro Guidotti, the 
 editor of the " Rappresentazioni di Anima e di Corpo," gives a 
 careful description in his preface to this work. — G. A. M. 
 
 CAVALIERI, BoN.vvENTUKA, a famous mathematician, was 
 born at ililan in 15D8. At the age of fifteen he entered the 
 order of the hieronymites, and at first studied theology ; but his 
 taste for geometry soon manifested itself, and he removed to the 
 college of his order at Pisa that he might have better opportu- 
 nities of instruction. Here he was introduced to Galileo, and 
 soon became one of his most distinguished pupils. He devoted 
 special attention to the determination of areas and volumes con- 
 tained by cm'ved lines and surfaces, and finally invented a mode 
 f>f procedure known as the " method of indi\isibles," which very 
 much shortened the process till then in use, and was preli- 
 minary to the differential calculus. On the recommendation 
 of Galileo he was made professor of mathematics in the univer- 
 sity of Bologna, which he filled till his death in 16-17. He died 
 of gout, from whicli he had been a great sufferer during his life ; 
 in the ardour with which he prosecuted his favourite studies, he 
 found, it is said, more relief from pain than in the nostrums of 
 physicians. His " Geometry of Indivisibles " was published at 
 Bologna in 1G35. The subject was eagerly taken up by the 
 best mathematicians of the day, including Pascal, who made 
 considerable use of it. Cavalieri published a defence and expo- 
 sition of his method in the year of his death, under the title of 
 " Exercitationes Geometries Sex," Bologna, 16-17. — J. D. E. 
 
 CAVALLI, Francesco, a musician, was born at Venice in 
 1610, where probably he died in April, 1G76; at least Jlon- 
 ferrato was appointed his successor at the duomo on the 30th 
 of that month. His family name appears to have been Calletto, 
 the reason for the change of which is unknown. He was famous 
 as a singer, still more as an organist, and most of all as a 
 dramatic composer. The first of his operas seems to have been 
 " Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo," dated 1G3'J ; and the last, 
 " Coriolano," dated 16G9. It has been stated, and frequently 
 repeated, that in his opera of " Giasone," dated 1649, is the 
 earliest instance of an aria so defined by title, and distinguished 
 by rhythmical regularity from the recitative, in which the entire 
 dialogue of the first lyrical dramas was conducted ; but Monte- 
 verde anticipated him in this important feature of dramatic 
 music. He held for some time an appointment at the court of 
 the elector of Bavaria. In 1C60 he went to Paris by invitation 
 of Cardinal Mazarin, where he produced, on the occasion of the 
 marriage of Louis XIV., his opera of " Xerxe," which had been 
 given in Italy six years earlier. In 1G68 he succeeded Rovetta 
 as maestro di capella at the cathedral of St. Mark in his native 
 city. His many operas were greatly esteemed in his own time, 
 and several of them remained upon the stage long after his death. 
 A piece from his opera of " Eismena " is printed in Burney's 
 History.— G. A. M. 
 
 CAV^ALLINI, PiKTKO : this eminent old painter was bom 
 at Rome in 1279. He is believed to have been a pupil of Giotto ; 
 his style undoubtedly follows that master, and with Giotto he 
 
 worked in mosaic in the navicella of St. Peters. He practised 
 his art with an enthusiasm that was quite devotional ; according 
 to some accounts the number of his works amounted to 1300. 
 His industry was only equalled by his piety ; his life was so 
 ascetically exemplary that he was within a few inches of being 
 canonized. In fact, he was as good as a saint, if he were not 
 one, and some of his handiworks performed miracles in the most 
 orthodox and saintly manner. A cmcifix wrought by him was 
 gifted with speech, and a figure of the Virgin, of his car\-ing (for 
 he was a sculptor also) performed some very extraordinary feats. 
 His most remarkable work was his fresco of the " Crucifixion" in 
 the lower church of San Francesco at Rome, a wonderful vestige 
 of Giotto-esque art. The relics of this artist are few and frag- 
 mentary, and much doubt and discussion cling to every portion 
 of his history and his works. By some he is reputed to have 
 contributed the designs of the house of Edward the Confessor 
 in Westminster abbey, and also the crosses in memory of Queen 
 Eleanor. There are some anachronistic stumbling-blocks in the 
 path of this notion however. He probably died in 13G4. — W. T. 
 
 CAVALLO, Tiberius, a distinguished electrician, born at 
 Naples in 17-19; died at London in 1809. He was sent to 
 London to acquire a knowledge of commerce in 1771, but being 
 of a studious turn, was diverted from mercantile to scientific 
 pursuits, and finally relinquished the former altogether. He 
 made some interesting researches in the science of electricity, 
 and invented some useful instruments. In 1779 he was elected 
 a fellow of the Royal Society of London. His principal work is 
 a "Complete Treatise of Electricity," 1777; enlarged and repub- 
 lished in 1795. He wrote also "An Essay on the Theory and 
 Practice of Medical Electricity," 1780 ; and " Elements of 
 Natural and Experimental Philosophy," 1803. — J. B. 
 
 CAVAM-ED-DOWLAH (Elevated in the State), the title 
 of a Turkish prince frequently called Carbonas and Canmioran, 
 but whose real name was Ketboga, who lived in the time of the 
 first cnisades. After the death of Malek Shah, he supported 
 Barkyaroc, the eldest son of that prince, against his uncle, Tatasb, 
 but was worsted in the conflict, and taken prisoner. Tatash died 
 soon after, however, and Ketboga recovered his liberty. He 
 was subsequently made prince of MosiU, and at the head of an 
 immense force blockaded the aimy of the crusaders in Antioch, 
 but was signallv defeated by them (June '28, 1098), and driven 
 out of Syria. He died in 1101.— J. T. 
 
 CAVANILLES, Antonio Josfi, a celebrated Spanish botanist 
 and ecclesiastic, was born at Valencia on 16th January, 1745, 
 and died at Madrid in May, 1804. His parents were poor. He 
 received his first education among the Jesuits of Valencia. B« 
 subsequently turned his attention to theology and philosophy. 
 He removed to Murcia, and was appointed by the duke de ITn- 
 fantado to superintend the education of his sons. In 1777 he 
 accompanied the family to Paris, where he continued for twelve 
 years. During that period he had an opportunity of studying 
 natural history, and particularly botany, to which subject he 
 afterwards devoted much of his time. His botanical writings 
 extend from 1785 to 1790. His earliest botanical work con- 
 sisted of dissertations on plants belonging to the class monadel- 
 phia. It mcluded figures and descriptions of species and genera 
 of malvacea?, sterculiacese, and geraniacese, as well as of passiflora 
 and other plants having their stamens united by the filaments. 
 The work extended to ten fasciculi, and was published partly 
 in Paris and partly in Madrid. The number of plates is 296. 
 Cavanilles also published figures and descriptions of plants 
 which grow naturally in Spain, or are cultivated in gardens in 
 that country. The work extends to six volumes, and contains 
 many interesting plants from Mexico, Peru, and Chili, as well 
 as from New Holhmd and the Philippine Islands. Among 
 his other works may be noticed — " A Treatise on the Natural 
 History, Geography, and Agriculture of the Kingdom of Valen- 
 cia," 1795, 2 vols. ; " Observations on the article ' Spain,' m the 
 new Encyclopaedia;" and contributions to the Madrid Annals of 
 Natural Sciences. Cavanilles was elected a corresponding mem- 
 ber of the French Institute ; and in 1801 he was appointed 
 director of the royal botanic garden at Madrid. He aftei-wards 
 published " Elementary Principles of Botany," and a description 
 of the plants used in his public lectures. At the time of his 
 death he was engaged in the preparation of his " Hortus Regius 
 Matritensis," which was to contain descriptions of rare or curious 
 plants in the garden or herbarium at Madrid. The genus Cava- 
 nillea was named after him by Thunberg. — J. H. B.
 
 CAV 
 
 945 
 
 CAV 
 
 CAVARAZZI, Baktolosieo, called Crescexzi. This 
 painter was bom at Viterbo about 1590, was a pupil of Cavaliere 
 Boncalli, called Pomarancio. He was subsequently taken under 
 the patronage of the noble famUy of the Crescenzi, from whom 
 he derived his sobriquet. He painted many pictui'es for bis 
 patron, and for the churches of Rome. He possessed, according 
 to Lanzi, " a captivating and natural style." He painted a St. 
 Anna in the chiu-ch of that saint " in his best taste, and with a 
 vigorous pencil," wiites Baglione. In the chui'ch of St. Orsola 
 there is a remiu-kable work of Caravazzi's, representing the saint 
 with the famous legend of the eleven thousand -v-irgins. He died 
 at Rome m 1625.— W. T. 
 
 CAVE, Edward, a printer, bom at Newton in Warwickshire 
 in 1691. His father followed at Rugby the trade of a shoe- 
 maker, and was supported by his son in the latter part of his 
 life. Edward was educated at Rugby school under the Rev. 
 Mr. Holyock, who was so greatly pleased with his progress as to 
 recommend him as a servitor to some of his wealthy scholars, 
 and to resolve to prepare him for the imiversity. Being unjustly 
 charged with a petty theft, however. Cave lost the favour of his 
 master, and was at length compelled to leave the school, and 
 abandon ;dl hope of a literaiy education. He then entered the 
 sen-ice of a collector of excise, but being harshly treated by his 
 employer's wife, he proceeded to London m search of work, was 
 for a short time in the employment of a timber merchant, and 
 then became apprentice to Mr. Collins, a printer of some note. In 
 this new situation he commended himself so much to his master 
 by his skill and ability, ia the course of two yeai-s, as to be sent 
 to Norwich to conduct a printing-office, and pubhsh a weekly 
 paper. His master dying before the end of his apprenticeship, 
 he left the house and mairied. At this time he worked as a 
 jouraeyman in the printing-office of Jlr. Barber, and wrote in 
 3Iisi's Journal. He corrected the Gradus ad Parnassum, and 
 was Uberally remunerated by the company of stationers. He 
 also wrote " An Account of the Criminals," and published many 
 pamphlets. He had obtained a place in the post-office, which 
 did not occupy all his time, and afterwards became clerk of the 
 firanks, a situation in which he acted with gi"eat finnness — 
 frequently stopping franks given by members of parUament to 
 their friends. This procedm-e, however, led to his citation before 
 the house for a breach of pri^-ilege. He was accused of opening 
 letters. By pleading his oath of secrecy he was dismissed. 
 Having purchased a small printing-office, he begau the Gentle- 
 man's Magazine, a periodical that has been continued with 
 remarkable success till the present day, and by means of which 
 he amassed a considerable fortune. After his wife's death in 
 1751, he lost his sleep and appetite, and fell into a bad state of 
 health, from which he never recovered. He died January 10, 
 1754, after the completion of the Magazines twenty-thu-d year. 
 Cave is described as a man of large statm-e and gi-eat strength. 
 In his latter years he was much afflicted with the gout. His 
 mental faculties were slender, narrow, and slow; but his memory 
 was tenacious, and his disposition cahn. His chief claim to 
 notice is his having commenced, by a new species of publication, 
 an important epoch in the hterary history of Great Britain. 
 His hfe has been written by Dr. Johnson, who, in the earlier 
 part of his career in London, was liberally befriended by the 
 printer. — S. D. 
 
 CAVE, WiLLiAJr, a theologian of great learning, was born at 
 PickweU in Leicestershue on the 30th of December, 1637. In 
 May, 1653, he was admitted into St. John's college, Cambridge, 
 took his B.A. degi-ee in 1656, and his M.A. in 1660. In 1662 
 he was presented to the \-icarage of Islington. After taking the 
 degree of D.D. in 1672, he was presented to the rectory of 
 Allhallows the Great, London, in 1679. In 1684 he became 
 canon of Windsor, and in 1690 vicar of Isleworth in Middlesex, 
 having preriously resigned the rectory of Allhallows, and soon 
 after the vicarage of Ishngtou. His death took place in 1713; 
 and his body was inteiTtd in Islington chiu-ch, where a monu- 
 ment has been erected to his memory. For some time he had 
 been chaplain to Charles II. The life of Dr. Cave seems to have 
 been tliat of a studious man, who took comparatively Uttle inter- 
 est in public affairs, because he was so much occu])ied with books, 
 and his own publications. His principal works are — 1. " Primi- 
 tive Christianity, or the religion of the ancient chiistians in the 
 first ages of the gospel," London, 1672. This has been several 
 tunes reprinted. 2. "Tabula; Ecclesiasticx, tables of the ecclesi- 
 astical writei-s," London, 1674 ; reprmtcd at Hamburg in 1676 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 without his knowledge. 3. "Antiquitates Apostolicae, or the 
 history of the lives, acts, and martyrdoms of the holy apostles 
 of our Saviour, and the two evangelists, St. ilark and St. Luke. 
 To which is added, an introductoiy discourse concerning the 
 three great dispensations of the church, patriarchal, mosaical, 
 and evangelical ; bemg a continuation of Antiquitates Chris- 
 tiana?, or the life and death of holy Jesus," written by Jeremy 
 Taylor: London, 1676, folio. 4. " Apostohci, or the histoiy of 
 the lives, acts, deaths, and martjTdoms of those who were con- 
 temporaries with, or immediately succeeded the apostles ; as 
 also of the most eminent of the primitive fathers for the first 
 three hundred years. To which is added, a chronology of the 
 firet three ages of the church," London, 1677, folio. 5. "A 
 Dissertation conceming the government of the ancient church 
 by bishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs ; more particularly 
 concerning the ancient power and jurisdiction of the bishops 
 of Rome, and the encroachments of that upon the other sees, 
 especially the see of Constantinople," London, 1683, 8vo. 6. 
 " Ecclesiastici, or the history of the lives, acts, deaths, and 
 writings of the most eminent fathers of the church that flourished 
 in the fomih centuiy," London, 1682, folio. 7. " Chaitophylax 
 Ecclesiasticus," London, 1685, 8vo. 8. " Scriptorum Ecclesi- 
 asticorum Historia Literaria," i.e., a literary histoiy of ecclesi- 
 astical writers, in two parts, folio ; the firet prmted at London, 
 1688, and the second m. 1698. The best known of these works 
 are 1, 3, 4, and 8, especially the last, which is by far the most 
 valuable of all. The rest have been superseded by modern 
 works, which in many instances give better and more conrect 
 informarion on the topics discussed. But the " Historia Literaria" 
 is still indispensable to the scholar, and wUl perpetuate the 
 name of the author. It was reprmted at Geneva in 1705 and 
 1720 ; but the best edition is that which was printed at Oxford 
 by subscription, in two vols., folio, 1740—43. This contains 
 the author's last amendments and additions, with some contri- 
 butions by others. It was principally superintended during the 
 printing by Dr. Daniel Waterland. — S. D. 
 
 CAVEDOXE, GiACOMO : this master was bom at Sassuolo iu 
 the ilodeuese in 1577, and died in 1660. The inconsiderate 
 severity of liis father diives hun at a very early age into the world 
 to earn independent bread. He enters the service of a nobleman, 
 a lover of art, and a collector of pictm^es. The patron exhibits his 
 page's drawings, and introduces him to Annibale Carracci, who 
 encom'ages the young beguiner, and lends him drawings to copy. 
 The student prospers, and soon is received into the school of the 
 master. Formally apprenticed to art, he works assiduously and 
 progresses wonderfidly. After some time he proceeds to Venice 
 and carefully examines the works of Titian. He seeks to dive into 
 the secret of their deUcious colour. From day to day he subjects 
 them to his piercing perusal, and he comes away \-ictorious. 
 He paints afterwards in a blended manner derived from Can-acci 
 and Titian. At Bologna his works were esteemed as equal to 
 the productions of Carracci ; and Albano, asked by a stranger if 
 there were any Titians at Bologna, replied — " No, but there are 
 two works by Cavedone in St. Paolo, whicli are as good." It is 
 even recorded that Rubens, Velasquez, and Michelangelo Colonna 
 supposed Cavedone's " Visitation of the Virgm " in the king of 
 Spain's chapel, to be the work of Annibale Cai-racci. He painted 
 for the chm-ches of Bologna both in oil and fresco. His manner in 
 the latter mode of art was so felicitous that Guido adapted him 
 as a model. He possessed an extraordinary fiiciUty and extreme 
 rapidity of execution; yet never — for he was a true artist — conde- 
 scended to be negligent, or upheld want of finish, or conceived 
 coarseness to be good eft'ect. He was correct in drawing, and 
 especially cai-eful of his hands and feet — a good sign. He 
 favoxured simple attitudes and gentle expression : length of pro- 
 portions, a compendious method of treating the hair and beard, 
 a graceful and rapid touch, and a rectilinear folding of his dra- 
 peries, characterize the manner of Cavedone. He rose to the 
 highest eminence in his art ; he then tottered, fell, and ended 
 miserably. Troubles gathered thickly round him. His wife was 
 charged with witchcraft, and the foolish, foul accusation preyed 
 upon his mind. His only son, a youth of great promise, fell sick 
 aud died. Illness came also upon him ; a scaftblding badly con- 
 j structed, falling, nearly ciiisbcd him. His was a nen'ous an.\ious 
 [ temperament, easily disorganized. The canker of disease fomied 
 in his mind, and palsied his hand. Imbecility and poverty came 
 ' next, and then death. He left many important works, which 
 i ai-e rightly prized as gems, even in such a diamond mine as 
 
 6 D
 
 Bologna. Of these the most noted ai-e his " Adoration of the 
 Ma^i;" his " Holy Family ; " "Last Sapper;" "Four Doctors of 
 the Church ; " and the great work in the church of the Slendicanti 
 di dentro, representing St. Alo and St. Petronio kneeling before 
 the virgin and child, suiTOunded by angels. Bologna rightly 
 esteems these ; yet the old man that painted them begged for 
 bread, and not getting it, died of hunger in the streets of the 
 same Bologna. — W. T. 
 
 CAVEIRAC, Jeax Novi de, a French ecclesiastic, bom in 
 1713. He is the author of several works against tolerating the 
 protestants, and of apologies for the massacre of St. Bai-tholo- 
 mew's day, and the revocation of the edict of Nantes. He wrote 
 a treatise in defence of the Jesuits entitled " Appel a la raison 
 des Merits publies entre les Jesuites de France," and was in con- 
 sequence condemned to perpetual banishment. But he was 
 permitted to return to France after the disgrace of the duke de 
 Choiseul. Caveirac Ls the author of two pamphlets against 
 Rousseau. He died in 1782. — J. T. 
 
 CAVENDISH, the name of a noble English family, two 
 branches of which have attained dukedoms, and have figured 
 conspicuously in the history of the country. They sprang from 
 Sir John Cavendish, chief justice of the court of king's bench 
 in 1366, 1373, and 1377, and chancellor of the university of 
 Cambridge. His yoimger son is said to be the person who actually 
 slew Wat Tyler, and the judge himself was put to death by a mob 
 of insurgent peasants in the fifth year of Richard II. William, 
 the fourth in descent from him, was gentleman-usher to Cardinal 
 Wolsey, and one of the few who adhered to him in his disgrace. 
 He wrote a life of his old master, which was pubUshed in a 
 mutilated form in 1641, and was first correctly printed in Words- 
 worth's Ecclesiastical Biogi-aphy. After the death of the car- 
 dinal. Cavendish was taken into the service of the king, was 
 made treasurer of his chamber, and a pri\7 councillor, and laid 
 the foundation of the vast possessions of the Cavendishes, by 
 obtaining extensive grants of abbey lands at the dissolution of the 
 monasteries. Sir William was the founder of Chatsworth. His 
 third wife, the famous Bess of Hardwick, added largely to the 
 estates and influence of the family. His grandson, 
 
 Cavendish, Williaji, Earl, ilarquis, and Duke of Newcastle, 
 was a zealous supporter of the royal cause in the great civil war. 
 He was bora in 1592, andat an early age, by his remarkable abilities 
 and attainments, he attracted the notice of James VI,, who raised 
 him to the peerage in 1620 as Baron Ogle and Viscount Jlans- 
 field. Charles I. advanced him to the higher dignity of earl of 
 Newcastle, and subsequently intrusted to him the care of the 
 prince of Wales. When hostilities broke out between Charles 
 and the parliament, the earl contributed £10,000 to the royal 
 treasury, and raised a troop of horse, consisting of two hundred 
 gentlemen, who served at their O'rni chai-ge. In 1642 the king 
 appointed him general of all the royalist forces in the northern 
 and midland counties. In the course of a few months he di-ove 
 the enemy neai-ly out of Yorkshu-e, and next year he recovered 
 Scarborough, took Rotherham and Sheffield, and after some 
 minor successes, inflicted a severe defeat upon Lord Fairfax at 
 Atherton Moor, near Bradford, June 30, 1643. He then cap- 
 tured in succession the towns of Bradford, Gainsborough, Lincoln, 
 and Beverley, but he was unsuccessful m an attempt to reduce 
 Hull, the only place then held by the parliament north of the 
 Humber. The king rewarded him for these achievements by 
 raising him to the rank of marquis of Newcastle. WTien the 
 Scotch ai-my marched into England, the marquis kept them for 
 some time at bay in Northumberland and Durham, but was ulti- 
 mately obliged to retire southward for the purpose of presening 
 York, which was seriously endangered. After sustaining a siege 
 of three months in that city, he was relieved by the arrival of 
 Prince Rupert at the head of twenty thousand men. The par- 
 liamentary aiTny withdrew at his approach to Marston ^loor, 
 about eight miles from the city. Not content with raising the 
 siege, the prince insisted on attacking the enemy, in opposition to 
 the earnest advice of the marquis. The royalists were defeated 
 with great slaughter. Newcastle's regiment, composed of his 
 old tenants and domestic retainers, refused to flee, and were 
 slain almost to a man. Their chivalrous leader, weary of a 
 strife always distasteful to him, and disgusted with the treat- 
 ment he had received from the court, retired to the continent, 
 and continued abroad till the Restoration. His extensive estates 
 were confiscated by the parliament, and he was reduced to extreme 
 poverty. He and his wife were at one time forced even to pawn 
 
 theu- clothes. On the accession of Charles II. the marquis 
 returned to England. He was loaded with honours, and in 
 1664 was created duke of Newcastle. He died in 1676 in the 
 eighty-fourth year of his age, and was buried in Westminster 
 abbey. During his exile he wrote a treatise on horsemanship, 
 and several comedies, "The Coxmtiy Captain;" "The Humorous 
 Lover;" " The Triumphant Widow," &c. 
 
 Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle, the second 
 wife of the preceding, was born about the end of the reign of 
 James VI., and was the daughter of Sir Charles Lucas of Col- 
 chester. She married the duke at Paris in 1645, and remained 
 abroad with him till the Restoration. On her return to England 
 she spent the remainder of her life in writing an immense number 
 of plays, poems, overtures, and pliilosophical discourses, together 
 with a life of lier husband, amounting in all to thirteen folio 
 volumes, ten of which are in print. This most voluminous of 
 female writers died in 1673. "The high-souled" duchess, as she 
 has been tenned, was an especial favourite with Charles Lamb. 
 
 Cavendish, Williaji, second son of Sir William, carried on 
 the main line of the famOy, and was elevated to the peerage as 
 Baron Cavendish in 1605, and created earl of Devonshire in 1618. 
 
 Cavendish, Charles, a younger son of the second earl 
 of Devonshu'e, bom in 1620, acquired great distinction by his 
 valour and skill in the civil wars between Charles I. and the 
 parliament, and attained the rank of lieutenant-general in the 
 royal sen'ice. He captured Grantham, and defeated a body of 
 the parliamentary forces at Donnington in 1643; but a fe\v 
 days after was defeated and slain in an encounter with Cromwell 
 near Gainsborough. Cavendish was among the most lamented 
 victims of the civil war. He was so much beloved, that when 
 his body was brought to Newark, it was with great dilficiilty, 
 and not tiU after the lapse of some days, that the people would 
 allow it to be interred. — (See Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, 
 vol. i. p. 122, and vol. iii. pp. 388, 391.) 
 
 Cavendish, Williajm, fourth earl and first duke of Devon- 
 shire, was bom in 1640. He was one of the most upright states- 
 men and distinguished patriots of his time. He spent the early 
 part of his life abroad. On his return to England in 1661, he 
 entered the house of commons as member for Derbyshire, and soon 
 distinguished himself by his vigorous opposition to the cornipt 
 measm-es of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee 
 appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the trea- 
 surer, Danby. Next year he was chosen a member of the privy 
 council as remodelled by Temple; but the perfidious conduct of 
 the king and his ad\'isers soon compelled him to withdraw. In 
 1680 he carried up to the house of lords the articles of impeach- 
 ment against Chief-justice Scroggs, and took a prominent part in 
 the desperate straggle of the whig party to exclude the duke of 
 York from the succession to the throne. At great personal risk he 
 supported his friend Lord William Russell on his memorable trial. 
 After his condemnation, he offered to change clothes with him in 
 the prison, and remain there while Lord William made his escape. 
 He was one of the principal promoters of the Revolution, and 
 upon the landing of the prince of Orange, was the first nobleman 
 who appeared in arms to welcome him. He held several important 
 offices at the court of William and Mary, and was created duke 
 of Devonshire in 1694. His last public service was to act as a 
 commissioner for concluding the union with Scotland. He died 
 18th August, 1707, and directed the following inscription to be 
 inscribed on his monument: — 
 
 WiLHELsa-s Dux Devox. 
 
 BONORUM PEIXtirUM FiDELIS SUTDITUS, 
 
 Inuucus et iNvisus Tyrannis. J. T. 
 
 Cavendish, Henrt, one of our most celebrated English 
 physicists ; bom in 1733 ; died at the ripe age of 77. Caven- 
 dish was second son of the duke of Devonshire ; possessed, 
 therefore, of a competent, although moderate fortune. The elders 
 of this noble family eamestly desired that, according to custom, 
 Henry should raise himself by means of a profession, advance- 
 ment in which would be secured to him by their influence in 
 the state; but to their serious disappointment — a disappoint- 
 ment rising from disapproval to ahenation — his tastes lay in the 
 direction of the culture of science, and in the enjoyment of the 
 simplicities of Ufe. His career was a most successful one, and 
 soon gained him a personal consideration more elevated and last- 
 ing than title or rank could have bestowed. A controversy has 
 recently been carried to some degree of keenness among scientific 
 men, as to whether the honour of the discovery of the composi-
 
 tion of water — one of the most remarkable in history — be due 
 to Cavendish or James Watt. The fact had to some extent 
 been indicated by Scheele; and perliaps the truth is, that the 
 somewhat vague presentiment, known to both these eminent 
 men, was defined by each. It is most certain that Lavoisier 
 accepted the investigation of Cavendisli as original, and con- 
 firmed it by experiments on a larger and more adequate scale. 
 First of all, by common consent, Cavendish detected the 
 peculiar properties of hydrogen ; and he advanced, through 
 effect of his peculiar precision, to his memorable analysis of 
 nitric acid — succeeding in combining oxygen and nitrogen by 
 the electric spark. It merits to be recorded, that on his announc- 
 ing this discovery to Berthollet, the eminent Frenchman replied 
 by the same courier that he had detected the composition of 
 ammonia. The facts referred to have now in so far lost their 
 interest through fiimiUarity ; but in history they wLU be ever 
 memorable ; they are great landmarks in the progress of dis- 
 covery. Perhaps, however, the name of Cavendish is now most 
 generally known through his detennination of the mean density 
 of the earth. Availing himself of the ease with which the tor- 
 sion of a thread can measure small forces — a principle brought 
 into play first by Coulomb — lie constructed the great apparatus 
 which is now so widely known. His experiments, recalculated 
 bv Francis Daily, give us that mean density, 5'448. They 
 have been three times repeated since — once by Baily himself, 
 and twice by Reich — the results being 5'G60, 5'440, and 5'577. 
 The mean of the last three is 5-559, and the mean of all the four 
 5'531, no shght evidence of the accuracy of the original efforts of 
 Cavendish. — As years passed on, the fortunes of this excellent 
 person underwent a very great change — an uncle bequeathing him 
 a fortune of £300,000. Nothing, however, was thereby changed 
 to Cavendish, excepting that his liberality showed itself on a 
 larger scale, and that his benefactions to science increased in 
 proportion. He altered indeed the details of his household, but 
 he preserved intact his primitive simplicity, his methodical 
 habits, and the purity of his pursuits. And he was enabled to 
 collect one of the choicest libraries ever brought together by a 
 single man : he threw this open to all inquirers, issuing with 
 great freedom tickets to some, that enabled them to consult 
 and read in his magnificent hall, while others obtained the 
 power to carry what books they desired to their homes. The 
 liberty thus generously given was of course guarded by strict 
 regulations, to all of which Cavendish with some whimsicality 
 compelled himself to submit. To prevent interference with his 
 privacy, his great library was placed several miles from his 
 house, and it is said, that when he -n-ished a book, he applied to 
 the librarian exactly in the way to which the public were 
 required to conform ! Cavendish left at his death an accumu- 
 lated fortune of £1,300,000, a sure evidence of the constant 
 moderation of his life. Few names in English science remain 
 surrounded with a higher respect. — J. P. N. 
 
 Cavendish, Lord Frederick, the third son of the third 
 dnke of Devonshire, was born in 1729. He chose the military 
 profession, and ultimately attained the rank of field-marshal. 
 He represented first the shire, and aftenvards the town of Derby 
 in several parliaments, and was distinguished by his chivalrous 
 sense of honour. He died in 1803. — His brother. Lord John 
 Cavendish, was one of the most prominent members of the 
 whig party towards the close of the last centiu-y. He was one of 
 the lords of the treasury under the marquis of Rockingham in 
 1765, and, on the resignation of Lord North in 1782, Lord John 
 was made chancellor of the exchequer in Lord Rockingham's 
 second administration. He died in 1796. — J. T. 
 
 CAVENDISH, Sir Robert Spencer, a distinguished 
 English naval officer, was born in 1791. He entered the navy 
 at an early age, and served under Nelson in the East Indies, 
 and against the combined French and Spanish fleets, was in the 
 expedition to Egj'pt in 1 807, at the blockade of Toulon in 1808, 
 and of Marseilles in 1813; served in the contest with the 
 United States, and on the coast of South America in 1819. In 
 1823 he signed the capitulation granted to the dey of Algiers, 
 and was sent to the coast of Greece and into the Archipelago to 
 protect our commerce. Sir Robert was for some time secretary 
 to the duke of Clarence, aftenvards William IV. He returned 
 to active service in 1828, and was appointed to the Mediter- 
 ranean station. He died at Alexandria in 1830. A kind of 
 manual or naval catechism entitled "Ninety-Nine Questions," is 
 said to be from his pen. — J. T. 
 
 CAVENDISH or CANDISH, Thomas, born at Trimby in 
 Suffolk, was the second Englishman who sailed, round the globe. 
 He entered the naval service at an early age, and when war 
 broke out between Spain and England, he resolved to repair his 
 dilapidated fortune at the expense of the Spaniards. In 1585, 
 having obtained letters of marque, he undertook an expedition 
 to the coast of Virginia and Florida, and returned to England 
 with considerable booty. This success encouraged him to under- 
 take a second expedition, and next year, Jidy 22nd, he sailed 
 from Plymouth with three small ships. His first descent was 
 made on Sierra Leone and the coast of Guinea, where he col- 
 lected a rich booty. He then touched at the island of St. 
 Sebastian, sailed along the coast of Patagonia, passed through 
 the Straits of Magellan, 7th Jan., 1587, defeated the Spaniards 
 in numerous encountei-s, burned and pillaged their villages and 
 to\vns, and took many rich prizes along the coasts of Chili and 
 Peru. On the 28th of July he fell in, near California, with the 
 Santa Anna, an Acapulco ship of seven hundred tons, laden 
 with a cargo of immense value, and in spite of the inequality of 
 his force, captured her, after a conflict which lasted six hours. 
 On the 12th of ]\Iay, 1588, he doubled the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and having completed the cucumnavigation of the globe, he 
 reached England again on the 9th September. His voyage 
 gained him honour as well as immense wealth, as it contributed 
 not a little to the progress of geographical discovery. But his 
 hastily gotten riches were as rapidly dissipated, and he was 
 compelled in 1591 to undertake another voyage, which was 
 entirely unsuccessful. His ships were driven back by contrary 
 winds, and at length sliip\vrecked on the coast of Brazil. He 
 became dispnited at his reverses, and died of grief in the flower 
 of his age. — J. T. 
 
 CAVOIE, Louis d'Oger, Marquis de, a distinguished French 
 officer, who was bom in 1640, and died in 1716. He was one 
 of the most brilliant attendants in the court of Louis XIV., and 
 was remarkable for his intrepidity. In 16G6 he entered as a 
 volunteer in the Dutch fleet, and served with great distinction 
 imder De Ruyter in the war with England. His conspicuous 
 bravery gained him the friendship of Turenne, whom he accom- 
 panied in all his camp,aigns. He was much esteemed also by 
 Marshal Luxembourg and Racine, and bore the highest reputa- 
 tion for loyalty and integiity. He was a liberal patron of 
 hterature.— J. T. 
 
 CAVOLINI, FiLiPPO, an Italian naturalist, born at Naples 
 in 1756, published a number of dissertations of considerable 
 value, the principal of wluch are on zoophytes and marine plants. 
 He died in 1810. 
 
 * CAVOUR, Camillo di, Count, the younger son of an 
 ancient Savoyard family, was bom at Turin, August 10, 1810. 
 Cavour was sent at an early age to the military academy, 
 where he obtained the rank of lieutenant in the corps of 
 engineers, and shortly afterwards was appointed one of the royal 
 pages. He resigned his commission and his position at court, 
 however, in order to gratify his desue to travel, and proceeded 
 to England. The power and influence of the English nation 
 appear to have produced a great impression on his practical 
 and positive intelligence. He attributed the supremacy of 
 England less to the vigour and energy of the national character 
 than to her institutions, and consequently became an earnest 
 admirer and advocate of constitutional monarchy. He also 
 applied himself to the study of political economy, and declared 
 himself a believer in the principles of free trade. With these 
 views, it is not surprising that on his return to Turin, Count 
 Cavour should have taken part in the disturbances that com- 
 pelled the king of Piedmont to grant the constitution of 1848. 
 lie was chosen with Santa Rosa, Broft'erio, Durando, and 
 others, to foiTn a deputation to urge upon the king the danger 
 of longer delay in yielding to the demands of his subjects. 
 Shortly after the proclamation of the constitution, Cavour was 
 elected deputy to the chamber by the first electoral college of 
 Turin, but his debut in political life does not appear to h.ave 
 been very successful, and at the next election he failed to obtain 
 a seat. He was, however, re-elected in 1850, and nominated 
 minister of agriculture, commerce, marine, and finmice. He 
 resigned in 1852, and again visited France and England. 
 On his return, he was commissioned by the king to form a 
 cabinet, and has ever since held the position of prime minister. 
 The policy of Count Cavour is severely blamed by the national 
 party in Italy, who hold that he s,acrifices the interests of the
 
 country at large to the aggrandizement and importance of 
 the house of Savov, of which he is the honoured and distin- 
 guished servant. But this is not suifirising, as Count Cavour 
 himself is by family, sympathy, and tendencies, a Savoyard, 
 and only Italian by the accident of birth. The people of Italy, 
 however, not excepting the Piedmontese, are yeaily becoming 
 more and more avowedly national in their aspirations. Every 
 one of the late insurrections, in whatever part of the Peninsula 
 it has occun-ed, has been attempted in the name of the unity of 
 Italy — a fact necessarily threatening the very existence of the 
 present reigning families in the separate states. In the attitude 
 he has caused the Piedmontese government to assume, Count 
 Cavour has sIiotnti great perspicacity and tact. Driven by the 
 necessities of his position, and the interests he serves, to a con- 
 tinually wavering policy, he has, with great diplomatic skill, 
 alternately caressed or persecuted, according to circumstances, 
 the revolutionary element so powerful in the more oppressed 
 states of Italy, and visibly gaining gi-ound in Piedmont itself. 
 Hence the encouragement given by the minister to the insur- 
 gents who invaded the Limigiana in 1856, on condition of their 
 r.iising the cry of " Viva Casa Savoia," and their arrest by the 
 Piedmontese authorities on the failm'e of the attempt. Hence 
 the exciting words of the "memorandum" of the count to the 
 conferences of Paris, and his assertions in the chamber that 
 " great revolutions cannot be achieved by the pen. . . . the 
 policy of the cabinet is iiTeconcilable with that of Austria;" 
 contradicted a few days after by the declaration that " the 
 monarchy only exists in vutue of treaties which it respects," — 
 alluding to the treaties of 1815, which, wliile they gave Pied- 
 mont and Sardinia to the house of Savoy, consigned Lombardy 
 to Austria. Xone can deny that Count Cavour has hitherto 
 steered the vessel of his government amid conflicting elements and 
 through difficult channels with consummate skill. He is admired 
 in the Piedmontese chamber rather as an elegant causeur than 
 as an orator ; and he is described as very remarkable for facility 
 and cleaiTiess in discussion. He has acqvured some renown as 
 a journalist, and is the author of several highly esteemed works 
 on political economy. — E. A. H. 
 
 CAAVTHORN, James, a minor poet of the last century, was 
 bom at or near Sheffield in 1721. But little is known of his 
 family or of the events of his Hfe. He was educated at the 
 grammar schools of Rotherham and Kirkby-Lonsdale ; whether 
 he went to any university is uncertain. In 1743 he was chosen 
 master of Tunbridge school by the Skinners' company of London. 
 In conjunction ^vith his patrons he founded the Ubrary annexed 
 to that seminary. He is said to have been in the general inter- 
 course of Ufe generous and friendly; but in the management of 
 his school singularly harsh and severe. Although a bad rider, 
 it is said that he was much addicted to hunting ; and with no 
 ear for music he was enthusiastic on the subject of concerts and 
 operas. He was killed by a fall from his horse in April, 1761, 
 and was buried in Tunbridge chm-ch. Cawthom's poems con- 
 sist chiefly of moral tales, moral essays, epistles in the style of 
 Ond, and one or two amatory pieces. He is a close but feeble 
 imitator of Pope. Always straining after subhmity and point, 
 he mistakes bombast for grandeur, and only puns where he means 
 to be witty. Thus, in the epistle of Abelard to Eloisa, we have 
 such hues as — 
 
 " Thy uncle's form, in all his ire arrayed, 
 Serenely dreadful, stalked along the shade." 
 
 And in his " Prussia," a heroic poem celebrating the victories 
 of Frederick the Great, he expresses the hope that the monarch's 
 exploits may — 
 
 " Exalt my spirit, animate my line, 
 And lend my numbers all the strength of thine." 
 
 On the whole, the oblirion into which Cawthom's eftusions have 
 fallen seems to be well deserved. — T. A. 
 
 CAWTON, Thomas, a learned English dinne, was bom in 
 1605. He was celebrated not only for his classical attainments, 
 but for his knowledge both of the Oriental and of the modem 
 European languages. Cawton gave assistance to Walton in the 
 compilation of his polyglot bible, and to Castell m his polyglot 
 lexicon. He was presented to the living of Wivenhoe in Essex 
 in 1636, and subsequently to the rectory of St. Bartholomew in 
 London. Though Cawton held the religious principles of the 
 ptiritans, he boldly denounced, in a sermon before the lord mayor 
 and aldennen, the conduct of Cromwell and his associates in the 
 execution of the king, and was in consequence imprisoned. He 
 
 ultunately retired to Holland and became minister of the Eng-i 
 lish church in Rotterdam, where he died in 1659. — J. T. "ji 
 
 CAWTOX, Thomas, son of the preceding, was bom in 1637. 
 He studied first at Utrecht, where he acquii-ed a high reputation 
 for leaining, and subsequently at Oxford under Samuel Clarke. 
 He received ordination from the bishop of Oxford in 1661 ; but« 
 his principles would not allow him to submit to the sway of the9 
 party then dominant in the established church ; and after officiat- 
 ing for some time as chaplain to Sir Anthony Irby, and subse- 
 quently to Lady Amim, he became minister of a nonconformist 
 congi-egation in Westminster, and died in 1677. He was the 
 author of a dessertation on the Hebrew language, of a life of 
 his father, and of a treatise on Divine Providence. — J. T. 
 
 CAXTON, WiLi^iA3i, the introducer into England of the art 
 of printing, was bom in the Weald of Kent early in the fifteenth 
 century. The exact date of his bu-th has not been ascertained. 
 Oldys places it in 1412. Some time between Ms fifteenth and 
 eighteenth year, after receiving an education more than usually 
 liberal for the time, he was apprenticed to Robert Large, an 
 eminent London mercer, who was lord mayor of the city in 1439. 
 Books would probably form part of Mr. Large's merchandise, and it 
 has been conjectured that Caxton's literary tastes were developed 
 while in this emplo\-ment. He did not, however, fail to give 
 ample attention to business, for we find that his master, who 
 died in 1441, left him as a token of favour a legacy of twenty 
 marks, and he was about the same time admitted a freeman of 
 the company of mercers. In the course of the year following he 
 went to the Low Countries, either to transact business on his 
 own accoimt or as agent for some trading house. We find him 
 in 1464 commissioned, along with one Richard 'NMiitehiU, "to 
 continue and confinn a treaty of trade and commerce between 
 Edward IV. and Philip, duke of Burgundy." The two commis- 
 sioners are named " ambassadors and special deputies." Caxton, 
 however, was not wholly occupied with business, but found 
 leisure to study the art of printing, and also to translate into 
 English Raoul Le Fevre's Recueil des Histoires de Troyes. He 
 seems to have begim the work in 1468, and for some reason to 
 have discontinued it. When the Lady JIargaret of York was 
 married to Charles, duke of Burgundy, Caxton was admitted 
 into her household, and seems to have occupied some high posi- 
 tion there. At the request of his mistress, and "ha\'ing," as he 
 says, " no great charge or occupation, and ■nishing to eschew idle- 
 ness," he resumed and finished his translation of the History of 
 Troy. The date of his first essay in the art of printing is not 
 kno^vn, neither how he acquired the knowledge of it. This only 
 is manifest, that he learned it wholly in the Low Countries, for 
 the types which he fii-st employed must have been made without 
 his having seen those in use at Paris, Venice, or Rome. The first 
 product of his press was the original of his favourite Recueil des 
 Histoires de Troyes ; the second the oration of John Russell on 
 Charles, duke of Burgundy, being created a knight of the garter ; 
 and the third his own translation from the French of Raoul Le 
 Fevre, "whyche sayd translacion and werke," as the title testifies, 
 " was begonne in Bragis in 1468, and ended in the holy cyte of 
 Colen, 19th Sept., 1471." These three works were certainly 
 printed by Caxton when abroad ; but when he retumed to Eng- 
 land is not distinctly ascertained, farther than that it was before 
 1477. It is, however, more than probable that he established 
 himself in London in 1474, for the figures of that date are 
 inwrought with his device as a printer. If this be so, his trans- 
 lation from the French of the Game and Play of the Ches.se 
 (see Cessolec, Jacques de), printed in that year, is to be set 
 down as the first book printed in England. There is, indeed, a 
 story, to which, however, no credit can be given, that in 1468 
 Edward IV. sent over a M. Tm-uour, who, with the assistance of 
 Caxton, bribed Frederick Corsellis, a sen-ant in a Dutch printing- 
 office, to bring to England the secret of his art, and that a book 
 at Oxford, with the date 1468, is entitled to the honour which we 
 claim for the Game and Playe of the Chesse. Whether this 
 book was printed on the continent or in England, it is at least 
 ccrt;dn that Caxton was fairly settled m his native country in 
 1477, and that in that year he printed the Dictes and Notable 
 Wyse Sayenges of the Phylosophers, a translation from the French 
 by" one of his earliest patrons, the Earl Rivers Mr. Caxton's 
 first printing-office was at Westminster, and, as appears from a 
 curioixs old advertisement in his largest type, and preserved at 
 Oxford, it was set up in the almonry of the abbey. It was 
 afterwards removed to King Street. Jlr. Caxton not only busied
 
 liimself to tlie very close of his long life in his occupation as a 
 p,.inter — which cannot have been idly prosecuted, seeing that as 
 many as sixty-four books issued from his press in no more than 
 twenty years — but he was constantly employed translating works 
 to be printed, chiefly from the French. His last labour was the 
 translation of the Lives of the Fathers, wliich we learn from an 
 edition published by Wynkin de Worde in 1495, he finished " at 
 the last day of his life." In the parish records of St. Margaret's, 
 Westminster, for the year 1491 or 1492, we read — " Item, atte 
 bnreyng of WiUiam Caxton, for iiij torches," and " Item for the 
 bftUe at same bureyng." It may be interesting to quote the titles 
 of a few more of the earlier products of this first English print- 
 ing-press — Tlie Book named Cordyale, or Memorare Novissima, 
 wliich treateth of the " Foure Last Things," 1478-80 ; The 
 Chronicles of Englond, 1480 ; Descripcion of Britayne, 1480 ; 
 The Mirrour of the World, or th3-mage of the same, 1481; The 
 Historye of Reynart the Foxe, 1481 ; The Book of Tullius de 
 Senectute, with'Tullius de Amicitia, and the Declamacyon, which 
 laboureth to shew wherein Honour sholde rest, 1481 ; Godefroy 
 of Bologne, or the Last Siege and Conqueste of Jherusalem, 
 1481; The Pylgi-emage of the Sowle, 1483, &c., &c.— (The 
 sources of information with regard to Caxton and the early 
 history of printing are Lewis' Life of Caxton, London, 1737 ; 
 Oldys in Biog. Brit. ; AVarton's Hist, of Eng. Poet. ; Dibdin's 
 edition of Ames' Typog. Antiquities; Chahners' Biog. Diet.; 
 Penny Cyclopadia.') — J. B. 
 
 CAYET, Pierre Victor Palma, bom at Montrichard in 
 Touraine in 1525 ; died in 1610. He adopted the refonned 
 doctrines in early life, and was chaplain and preacher to Catheiine 
 de Bourbon. The example of Henry IV. was not lost on the 
 puritan preacher, and after a passage of arms in a theological 
 tournament, Cayet was reconciled to what in France was called the 
 church. It was a neck and neck race between Catholics and 
 Calvinists for the body and soul of the wretched man. The 
 Calvinists held a synod and deposed him, in order that the 
 opposite party should not have it to boast that they had converted 
 a man revered among the reformers, but had, by receiving a man 
 degraded and deposed, in some degree shared such indignities as 
 'ifre studiously heaped on him. Degraded and deposed he was 
 V the Calvinists ; by the party who had won him, he was given 
 ^ riests' orders at the age of seventy-five. By the party whom 
 lie left he was accused of immoralities of a kind from which the 
 period of life to which he had arrived might have protected him, 
 were there any protection from the accusations of people so 
 strongly preoccupied by prejudice as to be almost incapable of 
 reasoning. Cayet was accused, not alone of such crimes as in 
 any state of society may be imputed truly or falsely, but of 
 others which, as resting on no grounds that could be exammed, 
 were more easily believed. The memory of Cayet cannot be 
 Nvashed clear of the scandal and the sin of apostasy. He was 
 lielieved to be a magician, to have entered into a contract with 
 the devil, who was to have his soul finally, on the strange con- 
 dition of enabling liim to have the best of eveiy adversary in 
 tlieological argumentation. Among other works of Cayet was 
 a translation from the German of one of the legcndarj' histories 
 "f Fau.stus. Cayet's book was entitled " Histoire prodigieuse et 
 lamentable du Docteur Faust, grand magicien." Another of his 
 books is the "Veritable histoiy of the delivery of the soul of the 
 I'^inperor Trajan from hell torments, by the intercession of St. 
 • iregory the Great." Cayet at his death did not quite satisfy 
 iie clergy of the church which he joined. He, however, was 
 iven the last rites of the church, and buried in the monasteiy 
 of St. Victor, the abbe expressing some doubts as to the pro- 
 priety of the concession. — J. A., I). 
 
 * CAYLEY, Arthur, a very eminent English mathematician, 
 bom at Richmond, 1 Ctli August, 1821. Mr. Cayley was destined 
 for the bar, but his scientific tastes prevailed. He has devoted 
 himself chiefly to the culture of the transcendental analysis ; and 
 his able memoirs are found in all our scientific collections. One 
 paper, out of the multitude, may be remarked, viz., " On the 
 Theory of Linear Transformation." Mr. Cayley seems destined 
 to confer yet many services on analytic science. — J. P. N. 
 
 CAYLUS, Anne-Claude-Philupe de TuiuiiREs «e 
 Grixioakd DE Pestels DE Levi, Count de, a distinguished 
 student of the fine arts, born at Paris in 1092. He became a 
 soldier at an early age, and won considerable distinction. After 
 the peace of Rastadt he left the aiTny and travelled into Italy, 
 for the purpose of studying art, and aftenvards visited Constan- 
 
 tinople, Ephesus, and Colophon. On his return to Paris he was 
 employed in engraving and illustrating the stones and medals 
 of the king's cabinet, and superintending the publication of works 
 descriptive of the collection. In 1731 he was admitted into the 
 Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and in return for the honour 
 wrote the lives of its more distinguished members. Among 
 numerous works of less moment, Caylus prepared the " Recueil 
 d'Antiquite's Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques, Romaines, et 
 Gauloises," 7 vols. 4to. He died at Paris in 1765. — J. B. 
 
 CAYLUS, jMarthe Marguerite deVilette de Mur^'Ay, 
 Marquise de, well known as the authoress of " Jlemoirs," edited 
 by Voltaii'e in 1770. She was the granddaughter of the celebrated 
 Theodore Agrippa D'Aubigne, and was consequently related to 
 madame de Maintenon, who took her to Paris at an early age, 
 and mtroduced her into comtly society. Her extraordinary beauty, 
 talents, and accomplishments found her hosts of admirers, who 
 loaded her with adulations, a husband whom she reasonably 
 detested for being always drunk, and the opportunity of amass- 
 ing those interesting " Souvenirs," which have added to her fame 
 with i)Osterity the only merit she seemed to lack in the eyes of 
 her contemporaries— that, namely, of an accomplished authoress. 
 She was born in Poitou in 1673, and died in 1729. — J. S., G. 
 
 * CAYX, Remi Jean Baptiste Charles, born at Cahors, 
 July, 1795. Having, under the monarchy of Louis Philippe, 
 held high appointments in the university, which, owing to the 
 restrictive system adopted by Napoleon III., no longer exist, M. 
 Cayx is now obhged to be contented with the rectorship of the 
 departmental academy of the Seine. Elected in 1840 a member 
 of the chamber of deputies, he took httle part in any discussions 
 which related not to the interest of letters, of which he showed 
 himself the faithful guardian. He is the author of a history of 
 France during the middle ages, and of a history of the Roman 
 empire from the battle of Actium, in 2 vols. — J. F. C. 
 
 CAZALES, Jacques Antolne Marie de, famous for the 
 eloquence and hardihood with which he enforced the doctrine 
 and supported the cause of constitutional monarchy during the 
 early days of the first Revolution ; and for the zealous although not 
 inconsiderate services he rendered to the Bom-bon family during 
 theu- tedious exile, was born at Grenade-sur-Garonne in 1758. 
 At the age of fifteen, when he entered the military ser\'ice, his 
 education was exceedingly, although for a young gentleman- 
 soldier not singularly defective ; but so diligently had he applied 
 himself to study, especially the study of Jlontesquieu and the 
 English historians, during the period between the date of his 
 enlistment and that of the formation of the first national 
 assembly, that upon being deputed to that body by the noblesse 
 of his native bailHage, he at once assimied a lead in the most 
 important deliberations then pending respecting the rights and 
 privileges of the three orders of the state and those of the sove- 
 reign. A royalist by birth and inclination, and the chief defender 
 of royalty, in virtue of the command he exercised by his elo- 
 quence over his fellow-deputies ; a zealous defender also of the 
 privileges of the order he served — he was, nevertheless, as 
 Mh-abeau and others have testified, held in respect by all parties, 
 and no less admired for his virtue than his talents. He was in 
 exile in England when he learned that Lotus XVI. was to be 
 brought to judgment. With characteristic devotion he wrote to 
 the unhappy monarch, praying to be allowed to conduct his 
 defence. To Louis XVIII. his political talents, and no less his 
 high character, were often of singular advantage. In 1803 he 
 was allowed to return to France. Till his death in 1805 he 
 Uved in the greatest privacy on a small estate near his native 
 village. — J. S., G. 
 
 CAZAN-KHAN, the seventh sovereign of the Mogul djmasty 
 in Persia, was placed upon the throne on the dejiosition and 
 death of Baidu in 1295, through the influence of the emir 
 Norouz. He at the same time embraced the Jloslem religion, 
 but was always suspected of adhering in secret to his former 
 faith. He behaved with great ingratitude to his powerful sup- 
 porter, Norouz, drove him from court, and ultimately put him 
 to death in 1297. He entered into an alliance with Pope 
 Boniface VIII. against the mamelukes, invaded and subdued 
 great part of Syria, and inflicted a .signal defeat upon the sultan, 
 Nasser-JIohamnied, near Hems, in 1299. But in 1303 he was 
 stripped of all his conquests in Syria, and completely defeated 
 by the sultan at Mardj-safar, near Damascus, with the loss of 
 almost his whole anny. Cazan's mortification at this defeat is 
 said to have shortened his life. He died in 1301. His person
 
 CAZ 
 
 950 
 
 CEC 
 
 was dwarfish and completely deformed ; but he was possessed of 
 great courage and ability, and, by his enactment of a new code of 
 laws and his vigorous administration of justice, conferred great 
 benefits upon his people. He was also a munificent patron of 
 literature and art, and was justly reckoned one of the ablest 
 Asiatic princes of his age. — J. T. 
 
 CAZOTTE, Jacques, born at Dijon in 1720. The name of 
 Cazotte is better known in connection with a strange prophecy 
 regarding the Revolution than as an author, notwithstanding 
 the grace and hveliness of his " Diable Amoureux," and other 
 pleasant tales. It is related by La Harpe, one of the persons 
 present, that at a banquet where appeared amongst the guests 
 a number of distinguished Lndi\iduals, doomed victims of the 
 approaching revolution, Cazotte distinctly prognosticated the 
 manner of the death of each. He told Condorcet that he 
 would commit suicide to escape the guillotine ; to Chamfort he 
 announced the death that followed by his own hand ; predicted 
 ■what would be the fate of Bailly ; and, in reply to some question 
 touching the attendance of priests at the scaffold, announced 
 that there would be only one confessor spared for the benefit of 
 the king of France. It must be acknowledged that the descrip- 
 tion of this very miraculous piece of clairvoyance, which up to 
 a late period was held worthy of controversy, is now believed to 
 have been the work of La Harpe, opres coup. At the time 
 Cazotte was said to have lifted the veU of the futm-e, he had 
 become a religious mystic, animated by the most ardent piety. 
 He was himself one of the victims of the Revolution, being 
 brought to the scafibld, 2otli September, 1792.— J. F. C. 
 
 C AZWYXY, Zacharlas - bex - Mohammed - bex - Mah- 
 MOUD, a famous Arabic naturalist, bom at Cazwj-n, a town 
 of Persia, about the year 1210; died in 1283. At Bagdad, 
 where he studied law and natural science, he won the favour of 
 the caliph, and was taken into the public sen-ice. His great 
 work entitled " Wonders of Created Things, and Singulaiities of 
 Existing Things," a cosmogony derived from Greek and Arabic 
 sources, which has procured its author the title of the Pliny of 
 the East, but which is stUl imperfectly known in Europe, no 
 edition of the text ha^•ing as yet appeared, was written after the 
 capture of Bagdad by the Tartars in 1258. — J. S., G. 
 
 CECCHI, GiovAXXi Makia, a Florentme comic dramatist, 
 bom in 1517. His plays, of which only ten are extant, although 
 now little read, are of considerable interest to the historian of 
 letters, inasmuch as they were the first to revive the idea of the 
 classic comedy, and to displace from the stage the absivrd troop 
 of Harlequin and Pantaloon. He died in 1587. — A C. M. 
 
 CECCO D'ASCOLI, or Fraxcesco Stabibli, an Italian 
 encyclopedist, bom at Ascoli in 1257. He taught astrology in 
 the university of Bologna, and published a work on the occult 
 sciences, for which he was first subjected by the church to cor- 
 rectional punishment, and then condemned to death. He was 
 burned alive at Florence in 1327. His death has been some- 
 times attributed to the enmity of Dmo del Garbo, a friend of 
 Dante.— A. C. M. 
 
 CECIL, Robert, first earl of Salisbury, the son of William 
 Cecil, Lord Burleigh, by his second wife, was born about the 
 year 1550, and educated at St. John's college, Cambridge. He 
 was trained by his father to statecraft as a profession, and was 
 early employed by Queen Elizabeth in many dilBcult and deli- 
 cate negotiations. He was deformed in person, but, as an old 
 biographer quaintly says, " upon his little crooked body he 
 carried a head and a head-piece of a vast content." He inherited 
 much of Lord Burleigh's courteous pradence, skilful foresight, 
 and exquisite good sense ; and proved himself possessed of that 
 consummate tact which amounts to wisdom, in the discharge of 
 public business. He served on board the English fleet against 
 the Spanish Armada in 1588 ; and represented the county of 
 Hertford in parliament. The queen sent him as assistant to 
 the earl of Derby, ambassador at the French court ; and after- 
 wards (1596) created him second secretary of state under Sir 
 F. Walsingham. Upon the death of Walsingham he succeeded 
 to his office, and served during the remainder of his life as first 
 secretary. In 1597 he became chancellor of the duchy of 
 Lancaster, and lord pri\y seal ; and ultimately succeeding his 
 father as prime minister (1599), conducted the affairs of state 
 with the power of a kindred pmdence and patriotism. He 
 upheld Elizabeth's policy in resistance to the Spaniards, and 
 support of the United Provinces, and while subduing an Irish 
 rebellion turned his attention to many practical measures for the 
 
 i 
 
 relief of the country. In the course of Cecil's administration we 
 find him wisely alive to Irish grievances, endeavouring to abate 
 the charges of the garrisons, to introduce systematic law, and to 
 develope industrial energies. Upon the accession of James I., 
 with whom he had kept up a private correspondence, Cedl 
 continued to hold the office of prime minister, and appeared "in 
 deamess and privacy" with the king, as though he had been his 
 faithful servant for many years l)efore. Sully called James the 
 ■nisest fool in Christendom, and he certainly had wit enough to 
 perceive the value of a well-trained statesman who imderstood 
 the management of a kingdom. CecU advanced his princi- 
 ples of policy though free of practical necessities ; and when 
 compelled to act in a way opposed to his own views, he still 
 continued in office as a means of tempering antagonisms, and 
 preventing the complete triumph of an inimical cause. Thus, 
 although he could not overcome James' desire to make peace 
 with Spain, he yet moderated his servility ; and while there was 
 scarce a comlier of note who tasted not of Spanish bounty 
 either in gold or jewels, he kept hunself free from corruption. 
 Every transition age needs these mediators between abstract 
 laws of right, and the prominent, tangible, vested interests of 
 the hour ; and there is no doubt that James' reign would have 
 been more shameful, had Cecil been absent from the council 
 chamber. In especial, his allegiance to protestantism did good 
 service. His devotion to the interests of the United Provinces 
 caused many unsuccessful efforts to be made by the Spaniards 
 and their partisans to effect his rain. Cecil came to the know- 
 ledge of the " surprise plot," according to which James was to 
 be compelled to change his ministry and favour the cathoUc 
 party ; and he was a chief agent in preventing its success. The 
 prosecution of Sir W. Raleigh, however, upon the alleged dis- 
 covery of Spanish treason, was a deep blot upon his administra- 
 tion. Upon the death of the earl of Dorset, Cecil became lord 
 high treasurer, ^lay 4th, 1608, and carried out some financial 
 refbnns. In the words of an old biographer, " he encouraged 
 manufactiu-es, as the home making of alum ; salt by the sun ; 
 salt upon salt by new fires and inventions ; copper and copperas 
 of iron and steel ; that the subjects at home might be kept ou 
 work, and the small treasiu-e of the nation liindered from going 
 abroad." On the other hand, Cecil sometimes stretched the 
 claims of the royal prerogative in the raising of money. For 
 instance, it is said that he got .£200,000 for making two hun- 
 dred baronets, telling the king — " He should find his English 
 subjects like asses, on whom he might lay any burden, and 
 should need neither bit nor bridle, but their asses' ears." Cecil's 
 intense apphcation to business aggravated certain consumptive 
 tendencies, and rendered him an easy prey to a tertian ague. 
 He died at Marlborough, 24th May, 1612, and was buried 
 at Hatfield m Hertfordshire. He left two children by his wife 
 Elizabeth, daugher of Lord Cobham, viz., a son, William, who 
 succeeded to the title, and a daughter, Frances, married to 
 Lord Clifford, heir to the earldom of Cumberland. In Cecil, 
 James lost a councillor who tried, with consummate skill, to miite 
 the service of his royal master with the prosperity of his country, 
 and who played the double part of a courtier and a patriot. 
 Had he been less a courtier, his country would have suifered 
 through the loss of his influence in the council chamber. In an 
 age when an enlightened patriotism ran in danger ofltimes of 
 being condemned as treason, CecU, Lord SaUsbury, by an 
 exquisite prudential tact managed to maintain himself as the 
 sen-ant and lover both of his king and of his country. He was 
 the author of a treatise against the papists ; some parUamentary 
 speeches ; a treatise concerning the state and dignity of a sec- 
 retary of state, with the care and perU thereof, and of some 
 notes on Dr. John Dee's discourse concerning the reformation 
 of the calendar. His correspondence has been published by Lord 
 Hailes.— L. L. P. 
 
 CECIL, Thomas, an English engraver who flourished about 
 1630. Evelyn highly praises him, accounting him on a level 
 with the greatest artists of his day. His plates show very neat 
 clean execution, and are principaUv portraits after his own draw- 
 ings.— W. T. 
 
 CECIL, William, Lord Burleigh; the foremost statesman of 
 the great Elizabethan era of English history; was bora at Bourne 
 in Lincolnshire, Sept. 15, 1520. He was the son of Richard Cecil, 
 master of the robes to Henrj' VIII. An accident introduced him 
 to the notice of Henry. Happening to meet in the presence- 
 chamber two Irish priests who had accompanied their chieftain
 
 CEC 
 
 951 
 
 CEC 
 
 O'Neil, to court, he entered into a Latin controversy with them 
 concerning the supremacy of the pope, and disphiyeJ such rare 
 abihty that his antagonists lost their temper. Henry hearing of 
 the dispute sought conversation with him, and determined to 
 engage him in his service. Cecil's fatlier, at the king's request, 
 selected an office for his son, and chose the reversion of the 
 custos brevium in the common pleas. By a marriage with a 
 daughter of Sir John Cheke, his influence was still further 
 increased, and he was introduced to the earl of Hertford, after- 
 wards duke of Somerset. When Edward VI. ascended the 
 throne Cecil became custos bre-^num ; and his first wife having 
 died at an early age, he married a daugliter of Sir A. Cook, 
 director of the king's studies. His protestantism as well as 
 prudence rendered him acceptable to Somerset, who, on becoming 
 protector in 1547, appointed him master of requests. He accom- 
 panied his patron in the expedition against Scotland, and nar- 
 rowly escaped losing his life at the battle of Puikey. In 1548 
 he became secretary of state ; but in 1549 he fell with the pro- 
 tector, and was sent with other noblemen to the Tower. Cecil 
 had, however, established his own position as a statesman, and by 
 his skilful mastership of the ways of the world had done much 
 to blunt the edge of animosity. There was no personal rancour 
 to be gratified by his disgrace. He was soon released therefore 
 from imprisonment, and as highly advanced by Noithumberland 
 as he had been by Somerset. He again became secretaiy of state, 
 was knighted, and admitted to the privy council. Following the 
 dictates of a wise patriotism, Cecil disregarded the intrigues of 
 court hfe, and with thoughtful industry devoted himself to the 
 discharge of the practical duties of government. He discerned 
 at once the weak and the strong points of those around him, and 
 with fine tact could make meaner minds minister to his wise 
 purposes. On the death of Edward VI., he refused to join 
 Northumberland in advancing the cause of Lady Jane Grey; 
 and was well received by Queen Mary. Mary would willingly 
 have taken advantage of his abiUties and employed him in his 
 old ofiices, but he refused to abandon his faith, and remained 
 unconnected with the government. During the reign of Mary, 
 he quietly mingled with men of all parties, and threw the weight 
 of his influence on the side of moderation, especially cultivating 
 the friendship of Cardinal Pole, who also resisted extreme mea- 
 sures. In his place in parliament, as member for Lincolnshire — 
 for which county he had been elected without solicitation — he 
 boldly opposed the bills brought forward for increasing the ci\'il 
 penalties upon protestantism. " I incuiTcd," he writes, " much 
 displeasm'e by this conduct, but it was better to obey God than 
 man." Meanwhile he pondered over the condition of England, 
 and considered the plans by which the approaching reign might be 
 made more glorious. With Elizabeth he kept up a secret con-e- 
 spondence ; and on the veiy day upon which she ascended the 
 throne, he presented her with a fist of what he considered the 
 most pressing necessities of state. He was the first person sworn 
 upon the queen's privy council, and remained during the remainder 
 of his life chief minister of her state. No man ever went 
 through more toil with a calmer spirit. Passing over the claims 
 of rank to find the men best fitted to fill the posts at his dis- 
 posal, he was ever willing to hazard personal offence in behalf 
 of a public good. Deliberate in thought and character, he 
 measured every opponent with an accuracy beyond the reach 
 of passion. Tolerant and generous in disposition, he appeared 
 more anxious to do justice to his opponents, than even to benefit 
 his friends. Possessed of a perfect command of his temper, 
 secrets of state and of family were alike safe in his keeping. 
 He understood the wisdom of silence, and ruled men at times 
 by what he did not say, as much as by what he did. Cecil's 
 first advice to Queen EUzabeth was to call a parliament, and 
 the first great question on which he entered was the Refor- 
 mation ; and through his influence, the queen was induced to 
 consent to measures far more decidedly protestant than her 
 natural inclinations sanctioned. Yet his mind rose clearly 
 above sectarian animosities, and he was willing to tolerate the 
 catholics so long as they did not interfere with the peace of 
 the state. He remonstrated strenuously against that liarsh 
 treatment of the nonconformists which found favour with the 
 queen and some of the prelates. He characterized their pro- 
 ceedings as too much savoui-ing of the Romish inquisition, and 
 mdicating a desire " rather to seek for offenders than to refn-m 
 any." In the conduct of foreign affiirs Cecil was emphatically 
 a minister of peace. His policy was to support the protestants 
 
 against cathoUc governments in different European countries, 
 and thus by preventing any combination against England, to 
 give her a vantage-ground in negotiation ; while he risked popu- 
 larity by refraining from taking advantage of opportunities of 
 aggression. It was one of his maxims "that a realm gains more 
 by one year's peace than by ten years' war." Although many 
 of his financial measures were not in harmony with modem 
 science, yet the strict and successful economy of Elizabeth's 
 government was chiefly due to his judicious administration. In 
 1571 Cecil was created baron of Burleigh, and subsequently 
 became knight of the garter and grand treasurer. After the 
 execution of Mary Queen of Scots, Elizabeth tried to cast the 
 blame on Burleigh, and forbade him her presence ; but, this stonn 
 passing, he regained his influence, and prepared for the defence 
 of England against the Annada. From time to time plots were 
 laid against him — on one occasion by the favomite earl of 
 Leicester ; and the queen's wayward impetuosity sometimes fell 
 rudely on him ; but until his death Lord Bm'leigh held his place 
 in the hearts of queen and people as the foremost statesman of 
 the land. His private life was pure, gentle and generous. 
 Although he maintained a princely magnificence of state and 
 equipage, he cared anxiously for the poor. Lord Burleigh died 
 August 4th, 1598, after ha^-ing wisely guided the destinies of 
 his country as prime minister for forty years. It was one of 
 his own sayings, that he that is false to God can never be true 
 to man ; his countrymen may reverently reverse the sentiment, 
 and say of the great statesman himself, that by his truthfulness 
 to man he made nobly manifest his tn;thfulness to God. — L. L. P. 
 
 CECILIA, Salnt, a Roman virgin, reputed as the patron 
 saint of music, flom-ished in the second centuiy. She was emi- 
 nent for piety, and had vowed perpetual vu-ginlty, but was 
 espoused by her parents to a heathen nobleman named Valerian, 
 whom however she prevailed on to embrace Christianity, and to 
 respect her vow. They both suffered martyrdom, either at the 
 close of the second or the beginning of the third century. The 
 body of Cecilia was discovered about 821 by Pascal I., in the 
 cemetery of a church which bore her name, it is said, from the 
 sixth century. The honour paid to Saint Cecilia as the patroness 
 of music can be traced to no better origin than the devotion or 
 credulity of the early Italian painters and poets, who, on the 
 faith of her " Acts" — now considered an apocrj-phal production 
 — represented her as the inventress of the organ. About 1G83, 
 musicians began to celebrate her birthday, the 22nd November. 
 Dryden's Ode to St. Cecilia is well known.— J. B. 
 
 CECINA or CjECINA, Alienus, a Roman statesman and 
 general, was qua3Stor in Ba;tica at the time of Nero's death, 
 and joming the party of Galba, was rewarded with the com- 
 mand of a legion in Upper Germany. Prosecuted for peculation, 
 he joined Vitellius, who intrusted him with a large ai-my, with 
 which he gained a victory over the the troops of Otho, the suc- 
 cessor of Galba, at Bedriacum. He was afterwards consul under 
 Vitellius, but again proved traitor, and yet again, having withm 
 ten years joined Vespasian, and headed a conspiracy to dethrone 
 him. He was slain by order of Titus, a.d. 79. — J. S., G. 
 
 CECINA or CECINA, Aulus, author of a libel against 
 Ca?sar, for which he was banished ; of a work entitled " Querelae," 
 dedicated to Cicero, who recommended him to the favour of 
 several public characters ; and of " Etnisca disciplina," a work 
 quoted by Pliny and by Seneca — lived about the year 46 B.C., 
 and enjoyed immense reputation as an orator. 
 
 CECINA or CjECINA, Severiis, a distinguished Roman 
 general, who lived in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He 
 was governor of Moesia in a.d. 6, when the insun-ection under 
 the two Batos broke out in the neighbouring provinces of Dal- 
 matia and Pannonia. He marched against the insurgents and 
 defeated them. In the following year he gained a second ^^ctory 
 over them. In a.d. 14 he was appointed lieutenant to Ger- 
 manicus, and sent against Arminius, whom he defeated. He 
 was rewarded with the honours of a triumph. — J. T. 
 
 CECROPS or KECROPS, a mythical personage, who is said 
 by Apollodonis to have been the first king of Attica. According 
 to some authorities he was an Egyptian, who immigrated into 
 Attica about 1580 B.C. ; but the greater nmnbcr represent him 
 as indigenous or eartliborn. He is said to have instructed the 
 semibarbarous inhabitants in the advantages of social life, of 
 marriage, property, justice, and civil rights. To him is also 
 attributed the erection of the first temples in the country, the 
 institution of the court of Areopagus, and the distribution of
 
 CED 
 
 952 
 
 CEL 
 
 the inhabitants of Attica into twelve local sections. A second 
 Cecrops is mentioned by tradition ; but Sir. Grote is of opinion 
 that lie is a mere reduplication of the first Cecrops. — J. T. 
 
 CEDEEHJELM, JosiAS, a Swedish bai-on, bom in 1673. He 
 held a post in the home depai-tment, was also royal secretarj-, 
 and was employed in various diplomatic services imder Charles 
 XII during his stay in Poland and Saxony. After the battle of 
 Pultowa he was taken prisoner, but liberated on a written 
 engagement to return in fom- months ; when he hastened to 
 Stockliolm to lay before the government the proposal of the Czar, 
 and also to assure the nation of the king's safety. This done, 
 he faithfully retm'ned to his imprisonment, from which he was 
 not released till 1722, on the conclusion of peace. Distinguished 
 by his knowledge, energy, and ability, he was unmediately after- 
 wards nominated to tlie office of secretary of state. He attached 
 himself to the Holstein party, and even when member of the 
 council, which he became in the following year, placed himself 
 at its head. After the death of Czar Peter, he was sent in 1725, 
 contrary to the wishes both of the king and Horn, as ambas- 
 sador to Russia, and in this capacity labom-ed, in opposition to 
 the object of his mission, to biing about a reconciliation between 
 the contending parties, and to establish a treaty of alliance 
 between Sweden, Austria, and Russia. He was recalled the 
 following year; and the plans of the Holstein party being 
 defeated, Cederhjekn, to avoid his dismissal, petitioned for leave 
 to retu-e from office ; which being granted, he withdrew to his 
 estate of Lindholm in Upland where, two years afterwai'ds, he 
 died, 3rd September, 1729. — M. H. 
 
 CEDERSTEUM, Olof Rudolf, a Swedish admiral, bom 
 8th Febniaiy, 1761. He distinguished himself in the war of 
 1788-89. In 1790 he conducted an expedition against Roggers- 
 vik, stonned its defences, and destroyed the supplies. In 1808 
 he drove the Russians out of Gothland, and on the conclusion of 
 peace became governor of tliat island, wliere he established an 
 armed force among the people. Dming 1813-14: he acted as 
 vice-adniu-al ; in 1815 he was appointed councillor of state; 
 and in 1819 received the title of Count. In 1821 he became 
 one of the lords of the empire, and in 1824, after ha\-ing 
 laboured to reorganize the Swedish navy, he was appointed lord 
 high admu-al. Owing to the disgi-aceful trading which went 
 forward in the commissariat department of the navy, the manage- 
 ment of which was committed to Cederstrom, and the continu;il 
 attacks on govemment which it gave rise to, he retured from 
 office in 1828. He died 1st June, 1833.— M. H. 
 
 CEDRENUS, Georgius, a Greek monk and chronicler of 
 the eleventh centur}', author of a synopsis of the Greek general 
 histories published before his time — a work of Uttle value to the 
 student either of histoiy or letters. The last edition of Cedrenus 
 is that of Bekker, published at Bonn in 1838. 
 
 CELAKOWSKY, Fe^vntiseic Ladislaw, a Bohemian poet 
 and philologist, born near Prague in 1799. Devoting himself 
 to the study of the Slavonic languages, he became editor of a 
 Bohemian newspaper in Prague, and professor of the Bohemian 
 language in the university of that city — offices from which he 
 was dismissed about 1831, for animadverting on the severity of 
 the Russian emperor against the Poles. After being for a tune 
 librarian to the Princess Kinsky, he was appointed in 1842 to a 
 chair of Slavonic literature in Breslau, and in 1849 returned to 
 Prague to enter on a professorship of Slavonic pliilology, which 
 he held till his death in 1852. Celakowsky did much to advance 
 the knowledge of Slavonic literatm-e. He wrote many original 
 works in Bohemian, and made valuable translations from other 
 languages. We notice — a volume of poems ; a translation of 
 Herder's Leaves of Antiquity ; a collection of Slavonic national 
 songs ; a translation of a collection of Russian national songs ; 
 " The Hundred- leaved Rose ;" and a work named " The Philo- 
 sophy of the Slavonic Xation in Proverbs."— J. B. 
 
 CELER, a Roman architect, who, in conjimction with Severus, 
 drew the plans of Kero's immense palace — the famous golden 
 house. They also projected a na\-igable canal from the lake of 
 Avemus to the mouth of the Tiber. This gigantic scheme was 
 commenced by Nero, but was left mifinished. 
 
 CELESTI, Cavaliere Andrea : this painter, bom at 
 Venice Ln 1637, studied under JIatteo Pozzoni, but followed a 
 diffisrent mamier of art to his preceptor's. He was a fertile, 
 florescent, graceful painter of the Paolo Veronese type — luminous 
 and tender in colour, and freehanded and courageous in drawing. 
 He painted both sacred and profane subjects. His chief histori- 
 
 cal works are in the chmxh of the ascension at Venice. Some 
 of his works are much in the manner of Rubens, and marked by 
 an excessive proneness to a tone of pm-plish cai-uation. He 
 painted landscapes also, which are scarce and highly prized. 
 Some of these are very beautiful \-iews of Venice and other cities 
 of Italy. He died m 1706.— W. T. 
 
 CELESTINE : the name of five popes : — 
 
 Celestine I., a Roman, was elected in 422 on the death of 
 Boniface I. The personal character of this remarkable pope 
 can be but dimly guessed at from the records, voluminous though 
 they ai-e, which attest his earnestness as a theologian, and his 
 unresting activity as chief bishop of the church. The acts of his 
 pontificate we notice under two heads — his resistance to heresy, 
 which was called into action mainly in the east, and his measures 
 to evangelize the heathen, which transport us to the north aid 
 west. 
 
 Kestorius, the famous author of a heresy which in the east 
 still counts its adherents by millions, succeeded to the patriarchate 
 of Constantinople in 428. He prided himself on his zeal for the 
 purity of the faith ; and to prove it commenced a cruel perse- 
 cution of the Arians, Novatians, &c., at Constantinople. But 
 his sermons against the Apollinarians overshot the mark ; and 
 whUe reprobating those who confounded the two natures, he 
 himself denied by implication the unity of the person of Christ. 
 Cyril, the patriarch of Alexaudiia, detected and combated the 
 error. Nestorius thereupon refen-ed the matter to the pope, to 
 whom Cyiil also wrote, sending copies of all the documents 
 wliich had passed, and statmg that he had not yet broken off 
 communion with Nestorius, pending the declaration of the pope's 
 opinion. Celestine, after being fmTiished with all that each side 
 had to aUege, convened a council at Rome, which condemned 
 the doctrine of Nestorius. Upon heaiing this, the emperor, 
 Theodosius the Younger, strongly m-ged by the Nestorian party, 
 convoked the general council of Ephesus, which met in 431. At 
 the second session of the council the papal legates appeared and 
 opened the proceedings by reading a letter from Celestine. The 
 condemnation and deposition of Nestorius were finally resolved 
 on. During the entu-e proceedings the pope kept up a diligent 
 and \'igoi-ous correspondence with the emperor, the council, St. 
 Cyril, and all concerned, and his letters bear the stamp of no 
 common ability. While thus he crushed the new heresy in the 
 east, he was not less watchful agamst the inroads of an old 
 enemy in the west. He combated seini-pelagianism in Gaul, 
 and pelagianism in Britain, whither he sent St. Germanns in 
 430 to root it out. 
 
 The other great division of his actions embraces his labuuis 
 for the conversion of the heathen, and must here be very briefly 
 summed up. Early in his pontificate he sent Palladins to 
 convert the Scots ; and upon hearing of his death in 432, he 
 selected St. Patrick as his successor, ordained him bishop, and 
 sent him to preach the faith in Ireland. A man, one would 
 say, of some discernment in his choice of instruments ! Celestine 
 died in April, 432. 
 
 Celestine II., a Tuscan, succeeded Innocent II. m. 1143, at 
 a time when disastrous news were constantly arriving from the 
 christian kingdom of Jerusalem. He died withm five months 
 after his election — " happy only in this one cii-cumstance," says 
 Platina "somewhat satirically, " that on account of, as I suppose, 
 the shortness of the time, he was harassed by no seditions dur- 
 ing the whole of his pontificate." 
 
 Celestine III. (Cardinal Hyacinth Bobo), of the family of 
 the Orsini, succeeded Clement III. in 1191, being then in his 
 eighty-fifth year. The most memorable act of his pontificate is 
 his interference to procure the release of our Richard Coeur de 
 Lion from imprisonment. Duke Leopold of Austria had seized 
 the king while on his return from Palestine, and for a sum of 
 money transferred liim to the custody of the emperor, Henry VI. 
 Moved by the bitter entreaties of Eleanor, Rich:u-d's mother, the 
 pope exerted liimself to induce the emperor to release his prisoner. 
 But it was not till the payment of a large ransom, of which 
 Leopold received one-third, that Richard obtained his Uberty. 
 After the death of Leopold the pope obtained tlie restitution of 
 his third of the spoil, as the condition of his receiving christian 
 burial. Celestine died in 1197. 
 
 Celestine IV., a native of Jlilan, was elected upon the death 
 of Gregory IX. in 1241, in the midst of the straggle between the 
 papacy and the empu'e, but lived only eighteen days after his 
 elevation.
 
 CEL 
 
 953 
 
 CEL 
 
 Celestine v. (Peter of ilorrone) was elected in 1294, after 
 the papal chair had been vacant for more than two years. He 
 had lived for many years as a hermit on the momitain of 5Ior- 
 rone, and was totally unacquainted with the ways of the world. 
 He at once accepted the papal dignity, imagining in his sim- 
 plicity that it was the du-ect will of heaven. Charles II., the 
 king of Naples, immediately visited him, and easily contrived to 
 make him see all things in the light that best suited Neapolitan 
 interests. Hence the pope was led to commit many foolish and 
 hasty acts, such as creating new cardinals without consulting the 
 old ones, nominating unfit persons to benefices, &c. Affairs 
 were rapidly getting into confusion ; but the aged pope, with a 
 degree of sense and humility seldom displayed by men in power, 
 found ont before five months were over that his great office was 
 not suited for him, nor he for it, and he determined upon abdi- 
 cating. He carried out his pur])ose against much opposition, 
 and was succeeded by Boniface VIII. in December, 129-1. For 
 an account of his death see the article on that pope. — T. A. 
 
 CELESTIUS, an Irish ecclesiastic of the fifth century, the 
 pupil of Pelagius, and with hun identified in the heresy that bears 
 his name. Celestius was a man of great vigour and ability, and an 
 eloquent writer. He was by many reputed to be the real author 
 of works that bear his master's name. After the death of 
 Pelagius, Celestius and a brother pupil, Julian, continued to 
 propagate theu- tenets till they were expelled from Gaul. Their 
 opinions spread through Britain and Ireland. — J. F. W. 
 
 CELLAMARE, Antonio Giovanni, Duke of Giovenazzo, 
 Prince of, was descended from a noble Genoese family, and born 
 at Naples in 1657. He was educated in the court of Charles II., 
 and declared for Philip V. on his accession to the throne. In 1702 
 he accompanied that monarch in his campaigns in Naples against 
 the imperialists, obtained the rank of major-general after the 
 battle of Luzzara, and was taken prisoner at the siege of Ga;ta. 
 He regained his liberty at the peace of 1712, and, returning to 
 Spain, adopted a diplomatic career. He was sent as ambassador 
 to France in 1715, and having become implicated in a plot 
 against the regent, which was accidentally discovered at the 
 moment of execution, Cellamare was arrested and escorted to the 
 frontiers of France, and dismissed. The Spanish court, as a 
 compensation for this affront, nominated the duke captain- 
 general of Old Castile. He died in 1733.— J. T. 
 
 CELLARIUS, Cheistoph, a distinguished German scholar 
 and educator, whose real name was Keller ; he was born at 
 Schmalkalden, November 22nd, 1638, and successively became 
 teacher and head master in various renowned gymnasia. In 1693 
 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and history at Halle, 
 where he died, 4th June, 1707. Besides numerous editions of 
 Latin classics, he has published many learned works, amongst 
 which we mention — " Antibarbanis Latinus," 1677; " Anti- 
 quitates Romanae," 1710; " Notitia Orbis Antiqui," 2 vols.; 
 '• Orthographia Latina," new edition, by Harless, 1768. — K. E. 
 
 CELLINI, Benvenuto, the son of Giovanni and Elisabetta 
 Celhni, was born at Florence on the night of November 1, 1500, 
 in the Via Chiara, No. 5079. He was named Benvenuto (Well- 
 come), because his parents had so long desired a son. The first 
 instruction he received from his father was to play on the flute 
 and to sing, much to Benvenuto's distaste, whose heart was in 
 drawing and modelling. His inclination to be a sculptor was 
 so decided that his father placed him in 1513 with the jeweller 
 Baccio Bandinelli; and two years afterwai'ds he entered the 
 shop of a jeweller named Antonio Marcone. Benvenuto com- 
 menced his wanderings when quite a boy, undertaking various 
 jeweller's work in Sienna, Bologna, Pisa, and Rome, before his 
 twentieth year. He had the opportunity in 1518 of ^•isiting 
 this country with Tonigiano ; but be declined, owing to the 
 dislike he had to that sculptor for the blow he gave Michelangelo 
 when a boy. Benvenuto went to Rome ui 1519, but he does 
 not mention Raphael in his account of this visit, though he was 
 there for two years, and at the time of that painter's death. 
 He returned to Rome in 1524, and from this time dates his 
 successfid career as an ornamental jeweller. He was employed 
 by Clement VII. and several of the Roman nobility. Benvenuto 
 was in Rome also during the sack of the city in 1527, by the 
 soldiers of Constable Bourbon ; and, according to his autobio- 
 graphy, it was he who shot Bourbon as he was scaling the 
 walls. The consequent disturbances of the time caused Benve- 
 nuto to leave Rume and return to Florence. The gi-eat school 
 of Raphael was dispersed by the same events. Having passed 
 vol. I. 
 
 some time at ]Mantua and Florence, always engaged in his art, 
 Benvenuto Cellini was recalled to Rome by the pope in 1529, 
 and was employed, not only in jewellery, but also hi makmg the 
 dies for medals and for the mint. He was appointed papal 
 mace-bearer ; and after the death of Clement, Paul III. became 
 his patron. He, however, seldom remained long in one place; 
 being repeatedly in difficulties, owing to his violence and quarrels 
 with his fellow-artists and others, he was compelled to tiy from 
 one city to another. In 1534 he assassinated a rival; in 1535 
 he was engaged alternately at Rome, Naples, Florence, and Venice ; 
 and in 1537 he visited Paris, where he was presented to Francis 
 I. Again in Rome in 1538, he was imprisoned in the castle of 
 Sant' Angelo, upon a false accusation of having embezzled some 
 jewels : he escaped from the castle, but fell and broke his right 
 leg. When recovered, he was remanded to the castle, but obtained 
 his freedom before the close of the year, through the mtercession 
 of the cardinal d'Este. In 1540 Cellini, through his friend the 
 cardinal d'Este, was received into the sen"ice of Francis I., with 
 an allowance of seven hundred scudi a year, independent of pay- 
 ment for all work done. This is the salary which the same 
 king gave to Leonardo da Vinci. Cellini gained the favour of 
 Francis, who gave him letters of naturalization, and a small 
 estate, and employed him on the decorations of Fontainebleau. 
 His position soon created him invidious enemies, who, aided by 
 his own nature, destroyed his peace. He retm-ned with a great 
 reputation to Italy in 1545, and received from Duke Cosmo de' 
 lledici at Florence the commis.sion for the celebrated Perseus, 
 which was cast in 1546, but not completed tUl 1554 ; it is now 
 in the Loggia de' Lanzi in the Piazza Granduca at Florence. 
 In this year (1554) Benvenuto Cellini's name was inscribed 
 among the nobility of Florence. In 1558 he made up his mind 
 to turn monk, and received the first tonsm-e ; but wishing to 
 marry in 1560, he abandoned the resolution. In the follow- 
 ing year Duke Cosmo gave him a house in the Via del Rosaio. 
 There is no account of his marriage, but it must have been about 
 1563, as his first legitimate child, a daughter, was born in 1565. 
 His numerous children up to this tune were all illegitimate. In 
 1569 he had a son, legitimate, Andrea Simone. He died at 
 Florence, February 13, 1571, leaving his property to his three 
 legitimate~childi-en, his son and two daughters. Benvenuto 
 Cellini's was a hfe of strange adventure and constant trouble, 
 owing perhaps chiefly to his own violent temper and dissolute 
 habits. He has, indeed, painted himself m liis autobiography 
 as a thorough vagabond ; he confesses to three homicides, among 
 many other disgraceful adventures, though they may have been 
 then of very ordinary occmrence, and quite consistent with the 
 habits of the sixteenth centuiy. His laboiu's were divided chiefly 
 between Rome, Fontainebleau, and Florence. As an ornamental 
 jeweller, or silversmith, he was the most distinguished artist of 
 his time. He was also a good sculptor. He himself quotes in 
 his " Life," a letter from Michelangelo at Rome, in which the 
 gi-eat Florentine compliments Mm on a bronze bust of Bindo 
 Altoviti, saying, that he had " long known him as the best of 
 jewellers, and that in the bust of Bindo Altoviti he had shown 
 himself equ.ally good as a sculptor." His principal work as a 
 sculptor is the bronze of the Perseus with the head of Medusa, 
 already mentioned, of which there is a cast at the Ciystal Palace; 
 but this is a work of no remarkable merit. His ornamental 
 silverwork, on the other hand, is of unrivalled excellence — 
 chased dishes, salt cellars, and such work for the table. His 
 style is renaissance, in contradistinction to cinquecento, the style 
 chiefly of the architectural sculptors. Cellini's designs generally 
 abound in the cinqiieccuto arabesque, but very much mixed and 
 sometimes overloaded with the strap-and-scroUed-sliield-work 
 which distinguishes our Elizabethan. Cellini is, in fact, the 
 great exponent of this style ; and it is sometimes described as 
 Celhni-work, like the similar term Boule-work, after the French 
 artist of that name. — ( Vita di Benvenuto Cellini sa'itta da lui 
 medesiino, &c. : ^lolini, 1832.) — R. N. W. 
 
 CELSIUS, Andrew, a Swedish astronomer, born at Upsal 
 in 1701. His fither, Olaus Celsius, was a celebrated theologian 
 and savant, and his grandfather, Magims Nicolaus, a famous 
 mathematician and botanist. Andrew Celsius was a professor 
 of astronomy at Upsal. He was associated with !Maupcrtuis, 
 Clairaut, and other French savans, in their voyage to Lapland 
 for the purpose of measm'ing a degree. He was the first who 
 used a centigrade thermometer. He wrote several scientific 
 treatises, of which wc may mention — " Dissertatio de novo 
 
 6E
 
 methodo dimetiendi distantiam solis a teiTa;" " cccxvi. obser- 
 vationes de lumine boreali;" " De Luna non liabitabili;" and 
 "Letters on Comets," in Swedish. — J. T. 
 
 CELSIUS, JIagxus Nicolaus, a Swedish naturalist and 
 mathematician, was bom in 1621, and died in 1679. He was 
 professor of mathematics at Upsal ; but his published works are 
 on natural history — such as " De Plantis Upsalia;," 1647, and 
 " De Natura Piscium in Genera et Piscatoria," 1676. — J. H. B. 
 
 CELSIUS, Olaus or Olaf, a well-known medical botanist 
 and theologian, was the sou of Magnus Nicolans Celsius. He 
 was bom in 1670, and died in 1756. He was professor of theo- 
 logy and of the oriental languages at Upsal. By order of Charles 
 XI. he travelled through the principal European states. His 
 most celebrated work is entitled " Hierobotanicon," or an account 
 of the plants mentioned in the Bible. It is a very learned work, 
 and shows that the author was both a good oriental scholar and 
 a botanist. He was one of the founders of natural science in 
 Sweden, and he was the first instructor of Linnteus, who named 
 the genus Celsia after him. Besides numerous botanical disser- 
 tations, Celsius wTote various theological works, such as — on the 
 original language of the New Testament ; on the Suedo-Gothic 
 versions of the Bible ; on the warlike laws of the Hebrews ; on 
 the sculpture of the Hebrews ; on Solomon's na\'igation ; on the 
 p}Tamids of Eg)'pt ; on the Arabic language, &c. — J. H. B. 
 
 CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher of the time of the Anto- 
 nines, a friend of Lucian, supposed to be the author of the work 
 against Christianity entitled Aiyo; a.Xyi9r,;, which the reply of 
 Origen rendered famous. — J. S., G. 
 
 CELSUS, in English CELESTINE, and in Irish CELLACH, 
 bom in 1079, was consecrated archbishop of Armagh in 1106. 
 He was deeply learned, and is called in the Antiquities of Oxford, 
 " an universal scholar." He was present at the gi-eat svnod held 
 in 1111, convoked "to regulate the lives and manners of the 
 clergy and laity." He died in 1129, aged fifty years, and was 
 buried at Lismore. — J. F. W. 
 
 CELSUS, Albixovaxus, a Roman poet who lived about the 
 beginning of the christian era. He was the secretary of Tiberius 
 Claudius Kero, and the friend of Horace, who has addressed to 
 him one of his epistles. — J. T. 
 
 CELSUS, Allus or Aurelius, CoEXELit s, the most cele- 
 brated, and one of the most valuable of the ancient Latin medi- 
 cal writers. His exact date is unknown, but he hved probably 
 at the beginning of the christian era, and at Rome. Little or 
 nothing is known of his personal historj', and it is even doubtful 
 whether he was a physician by profession, or whether he was 
 merely a literaiy man who wrote on various subjects, and on 
 medicine among the rest. At any rate, his work " De Medicina," 
 wliich is the only one of his writings that remains (with the 
 exception of a lew fragments of a treatise on rhetoric), shows 
 that he was quite on a level in scientific and medical knowledge 
 Avith his contemporaries ; and it is the best synopsis we possess 
 of the opinions and practice of the physicians of his day. It is 
 divided into eight books, and treats in a cursory manner of diet, 
 hygiene, pharmacy, anatomy, medicine, surgery, &c. The most 
 valuable portion of the work is his account of various surgical 
 operations which were commonly performed in his day, and 
 which show, that, while the medical theories of his contemporaries 
 were frequently erroneous, and their treatment of internal diseases 
 feeble and unskilful, their surgical practice was much superior, 
 and exhibited consider.able boldness and judgment. It ought not 
 to be forgotten that the style of his Latinity is peculiarly elegant, 
 and fully equal to that of his contemporaiies in the Augustan 
 age. Celsus does not seem to have been much read during the 
 middle ages ; but four editions of his work were published in the 
 fifteenth century, and it has ever since continued to be reprinted 
 from time to time. Part of its present popularity in England 
 is caused by its being one of the usual text-books for medical 
 students. Among the principal editions may be mentioned that 
 by Targa, Patav., 17G9, 4to, whose text has been the basis of 
 most subsequent editions. There is a good edition by Milhgan, 
 Edinburgh, 1826, 8vo; and a new edition has been j)repared by 
 Dr. Daremborg for a publisher at Paris. Celsus has been trans- 
 lated into English, French, Italian, and German ; none of the 
 English translations that the writer has had an opportunity of 
 inspecting appear to be very good. — (For further particulars 
 respecting his opinions and practice — see Ilaller's BibUoth. 
 Chirurg., vol. i. ; and Bibliofh. Medic. Pract, vol. i. ; and the 
 Histories of Medicine by Le Clerc, Sprengel, Bostock, and 
 
 Hamilton. See also Choulant, Handhuch der Bilcherkunde fur 
 die Aeltere Medicin, Leipzig, 1840, 8vo ; Dr. WilUam Smith's 
 Bid. of Greek and Roman Biography.') — W. A. G. 
 
 CELSUS, Caius Titus Cokxelius, one of the tliirty tyrants 
 of Rome. Proclaimed emperor in Africa, a.d. 265, in the twelfth 
 year of the reign of Gallienus, he was slain on the seventh day 
 after his assumption of the purple. 
 
 CELSUS, P. JuvEXTius, the name of two Roman jurists, 
 father and son, both cited in the Digest. Of the elder little Ls 
 known. The younger flourished under Nero and Trajan, and 
 wrote " Digestorum libri xxxix. ; " " Epistolas ; " " Commen- 
 tarii ;" and " Institutiones." 
 
 CELTES, Koxrad, an eminent German scholar, whose real 
 name was either Pickel or Meissel. He was born at Wip- 
 felde, near Wurzburg, in 1459, and died at Vienna in 1508. His 
 father's intention of making him a vintner was fnistrated by his 
 flight to Cologne, where he strenuously applied himself to the 
 study of the ancient languages, and soon distinguished himself as 
 a scholar and poet. He then visited the most renowned xmi- 
 versities of Germany, was crowned poet laureate at Xumberg in 
 
 1487, by the emperor, Frederick III., and travelled in Italy in 
 
 1488, where he formed acquaintances with the foremost scholars 
 of his age. After his return he spent some years at Cracow, 
 and thence proceeded to Slentz where he originated the cele- 
 brated Rhenish Society of Letters. In 1497, he was appointed 
 professor of poetry and rhetoric in the university of Vienna by 
 Maximilian I. Here he fomided the Collegium Poetarum in 1502, 
 enriched the imperial library with numerous Greek and Latin 
 works, and first introduced theatrical representations in the 
 court. In one of his frequent travels, he discovered in the con- 
 vent of Tegemsee that celebrated old map, known as the Tabula 
 Peutingeriana, so called after its first editor. He wrote a num- 
 ber of Latin works, edited the writings of the nun Hroswitha, 
 and chiefly excelled in Latin poetry after the model of Horace 
 and Tibullus. — (See Klupfel, De vita et Scripiis C. C. ; edition 
 by Ruef and Zell, Freiburg, 1827, 2 vols.)— K. E. 
 
 CENCI, Beatrice di, a Roman lady of the eleventh century, 
 whose memory has been preserved by her extraordinary beauty 
 and tragical fate. She was the daughter of Count Francesco 
 Cenci, a man notorious for his debauchery and frightful wicked- 
 ness. He had on various occasions purchased at an enormous 
 price, from the papal government, pardon for murder and other 
 shocking crimes. He had married a second time, and had con- 
 cei\ed an implacable hatred towards his children by his first wife, 
 and is even charged with having put two of his sons to death. 
 The remarkable beauty of his daughter Beatrice, excited in the 
 breast of the old villain " feelings at which nature shudders," 
 and the gratification of his incestuous passion was aggravated by 
 every circumstance of cruelty and violence. His unfortunate 
 victim appealed to the pope, Clement VIII. , but in vain ; and 
 her attempts to escape by flight having been frustrated, she sank 
 into despair. At length her mother-in-law and brother, unable 
 longer to bear the ill-treatment and villanies of the count, con- 
 spired with his steward and several other persons to put their 
 oppressor to death, which they accomplished by means of a 
 hu-ed assassin. It is uncertam whether or not Beatrice was 
 privy to this plot. Suspicion, however, fell upon her as weU as 
 upon the other members of the Cenci family, and they were all 
 arrested, carried to Rome, and subjected to the most frightful 
 tortures. Beatrice constantly asserted her innocence, but she 
 was condemned to death along with her mother-in-law and two 
 brothers. The most earnest entreaties for her pardon were 
 made to the pope by the noblest families in Rome, but the pon- 
 tiff was inexorable, and Beatrice was executed on the 11th Sep- 
 tember, 1599, along with her mother-in-law and elder brother; 
 the younger hanng been spared on account of his youth. The 
 immense possessions of the family were confiscated by the pope. 
 The details of this terrible tragedy were long kept secret by the 
 p.ip.al court, and have only within these few years been brought 
 to light. The story of the Cenci has been made the subject of 
 a powerful drama by Shelley. — J. T. 
 
 C£XE. See Lec^xe. 
 
 CENNINI, Cexxixo, an Itahan painter, bora about 1360. 
 He was a pupil of the celebrated Giotti. The only frescos of 
 his which remain are in the church of St. Francis at Volterra. 
 He is best known now, however, by his treatise on painting, the 
 earUest extant, which lay unnoticed in the Vatican until it was 
 discovered in 1821, and published by the chevaUer TambronL
 
 It is curious and valuable, and shows that painting in oil was 
 known before the time of John Van Eyck, to whom its invention 
 Lad been previously ascribed. — J. T. 
 
 CENSORINUS : the name of a plebeian family of the gens 
 Marcia, originally called Eutilus. The following are the more 
 distinguished members of this family : — Caius JIarcius, the 
 son of that Caius Marcius RutOus who, chosen dictator in 356 
 B.C., was the first plebeian who filled the office. In 310 B.C., 
 the year of his father's death, he was consul, and engaged in 
 war with the Samnites. He was one of the first four plebeians 
 who were elected pontifices, in 300 B.C., under the Lex Ogulnia. 
 He was twice censor, first in 294 B.C., and again in 265 B.C. 
 — Caius Marcius, one of the chiefs of the Marian party, 
 executed after its defeat in 82 B.C. by order of Sulla. 
 
 CENSORIXUS, a Latin chronologer and grammarian, who 
 lived under Alexander Severus and his immediate successors, 
 about the beginning of the third century. His only work which has 
 been presen-ed is a treatise, "De Die Xatali," in which he treats 
 of various matters of chronology, mathematics, and cosmography. 
 There is a fragment, " De Metris," by this author, still extant. 
 He wrote also on accents and on geometry, but both of these 
 works have been lost. The earliest edition of Censorinus is that 
 of Bologna, 1497, and the latest that by Gruber, Xiirnberg, 
 1805.— J. B. 
 
 CENSORINUS, Appius Claudius, a Roman, after having 
 filled with credit many of the highest offices in the state, was 
 living in retirement near Bologna, when, in spite of his remon- 
 strances, some malcontents of the army proclaimed him emperor 
 in A.D. 270. Seven days after his election he was assassinated. 
 
 CENTEXO, Diego, a Spanish officer, bom in 1505. He 
 accompanied Pizarro to Peru; after his death joined Gonzalo, his 
 brother; and took a prominent part in the wars and murders of 
 that period. He assassinated his own friend, Almendras, in 
 order to obtain possession of the supreme authority in Charcas. 
 After several alternate successes and reverses, he was completely 
 defeated by Gonzalo in the battle of Huarina, 16th October, 
 1547. He fled for safety to the royal army, and next year 
 assisted in crushing the partisans of Gonzalo. He was poisoned 
 at a banquet in 1549. — J. T. 
 
 CENTLIVRE, Susanxah, a dramatic writer of considerable 
 reputation. The exact date of her birth is a matter of dispute, 
 and so is the place of her nativity. We are inclined to concur with 
 those who state her to have been bom in the year 1680, and in 
 Ireland, whither her father, a Lincolnshire gentleman of the name 
 of Freeman, had to fly upon the restoration of Charles II., in conse- 
 quence of his religious and political principles. A few years of 
 exile and poverty brought the life of Freeman to a close, and his 
 daughter was soon thrown upon the world almost without friends, 
 resources, or education. It is said a stepmother took the charge of 
 her, but this wants confinna*:ion ; indeed that such a person existed 
 is doubtful. Some way or other the girl contrived to gather 
 knowledge both of books and of human nature, as genius always, 
 and genius alone gathers them. Ere long she formed the bold 
 idea of making her way to London and seeking her fortune there. 
 Her finances were so slender that she commenced- the journey 
 on foot ; but she soon broke down, and, weary and desponding, 
 sat down by the roadside and wept. It so happened that 
 Anthony Hammond, a gentleman of literary note, met the fair 
 and destitute girl ; and the result was that, learning her story, he 
 took her under his protection, and lodging her in the neighbour- 
 hood of Cambridge, procured her, as Whincop states, the advan- 
 tages of university tuition in the disguise of male attire. The 
 connection thus formed did not last many months, and Susannah 
 again resumed her route to the metropolis, not without the 
 means of pushing her fortune, which were supplied by Hammond. 
 Here she applied herself diligently to the improvement of her 
 mind, at the same time frequenting the places of public enter- 
 tainment. Her accomplishments and personal attractions soon 
 won the affection of a nephew of Sir Stephen Fox, to whom, as 
 .•some allege, she was married. Scarcely a year elapsed before 
 this connection was terminated by his death in his seventeenth 
 year, leaving Susannah once more free. She soon after became 
 the wife of an officer named Carroll, who, in less than two years 
 from his marriage, was killed in a duel. Now, for the first time, 
 Susannah, widowed and in poverty, betook herself to author- 
 ship. Her first dramatic production was a tragedy called 
 "The Perjured Husband," which had not sufficient intrinsic 
 merit to insure success, nor had the author a patron who could 
 
 promote it. A comedy, her next work, had no better fate ; and 
 she was forced to take an engagement as an actress in Bath, 
 still labouring at dramatic literature. Her perseverance was at 
 length rewarded. Of three pieces which she contrived to bring 
 on the stage, one, " The Gamester," met with a decided success, 
 and was followed by others which were played at Druiy Lane. 
 Meantime she continued to appear on the boards, and while at 
 Windsor, acted a male paii, that of Alexander the Great. In 
 this it is said she captivated the heart of an honest official of 
 her majesty's household, whose administrations, if not the highest, 
 were of the most important — a royal cook — Joseph Centhvre by 
 name. Happy Joseph, who, by his marriage with Susannah in 
 1706, has transmitted his patronymic to posterity with a richer, 
 though not a more savoury renown than Kitchiner or Soyer. 
 Joseph made her a good husband, and Susannah was as good a 
 wife ; and thus, having at last found " snug Mng," she gave 
 her undistracted attention to literature. " The Busy Body " was 
 the first oSspring of her new life, and a sickly babe it seemed 
 to be, with small chance of living. The first night it was 
 scarcely tolerated by the few yawning auditors in Drury Lane. 
 The second night was somewhat better, and even theatrical 
 censors found something to praise. This brought a full house 
 on the thu-d night, and a decided success, which was sustained 
 by a reasonable " rim " of eighteen nights. Next season the 
 piece was performed both at the Haymarket and Druiy Lane, 
 and the authoress established in reputation. After one or two 
 other dramas came " The Wonder," a comedy which, for spirit, 
 plot, and brilliant dialogue has few equals, and placed Jlrs. 
 Centlivre in almost the highest rank of dramatic writers. AVe 
 pass over intenncdiate dramas till 1718, when "A Bold Stroke 
 for a Wife " enhanced the reputation of the writer, and falsified 
 at least one part of the prediction of Wilkes, that "the play 
 would be damned, and the writer damned for writing it." Mrs. 
 Centlivre wrote several other dramas; but her fame rests on the 
 three we have last mentioned, which stOl retain their places as 
 stockpieces. At length, after a life of happiness and respecta- 
 bility, passed amidst the society of some of the distinguished 
 authors of the day, she died on the 1st December, 1723, in 
 Spring Gardens, London. As a dramatist Jlrs. Centlivre still 
 holds a very respectable place. She was undoubtedly a woman 
 of genius, observation, and knowledge of the world, and not 
 without learning. It is true her works are disfigured by much 
 that is condemnable, both in sentiment and expression. Their 
 morality is of the laxest, and the language often of the coarsest. 
 But this fault is not hers alone, but that of her times, for the 
 taint of the Caroline morals had not yet disappeared. Society 
 was not yet healthy enough to expel it from the system. In 
 private life Mrs. Centlivre enjoyed esteem and respect as a 
 woman of a sterling nature, benevolent and amiable. — J. F. W. 
 
 CEO, ViOLAXTE DO, a Portuguese poetess, bom in 1601 ; 
 died in 1693. She became a nun of the order of the Domini- 
 cans at the age of eighteen, but previous to tliis she had written 
 a comedy entitled " Santa Engracia." Her literary labours, 
 though in a changed direction, were continued in the convent 
 till her death. Violante do Ceo has been styled the tenth muse 
 of Portugal, and some of her works show considerable vigour of 
 fancy; but they are defaced by the affectation of far-fetched 
 images and trivial conceits, universally prevalent in her time. 
 Some of her sonnets, both in Spanish and Portuguese, have 
 considerable grace and sweetness. " By her writings after the 
 revolution of 1640," says Bouterwek, "she distinguished herself 
 as a patriot, but not as a judicious poetess." Her miscellaneous 
 works were for the first time collected after her death under the 
 title of " Pamasso Lusitano de divinos y hum.anos versos." Her 
 " Remas," chiefly Spanish, were printed at Ruan in 1646 — one 
 of the few pieces among these that can be read with pleasure, 
 is an ode on the death of Lope do Vega. — F. M. W. 
 
 CEOLFRID or CEOLFIRTH, a Saxon writer, bom in Nor- 
 thumberland about 642. He founded the abbey of Wcarmouth 
 in 674, and for thirty years presided over that institution. Ills 
 school attained great celebrity, and the venerable Bede and other 
 illustrious ecclesiastics were among his pupils. Worn out with 
 age and infirmity, he resigned his office in 716, and after addres- 
 sing the monks in a touching farewell speech, which is recorded 
 by Bede, he set out for Rome, in order that he might end his 
 days in that city. But he was unable to travel farther than the 
 neighbourhood of Langres in France, where he died on the 25th 
 September, He was the author of " A Treatise Concerning
 
 CEO 
 
 956 
 
 CER 
 
 Easter," addressed to the king of tlie Picts, wliich forms the 
 21st chapter of the 5th Book of Bede. — J. T. 
 
 CEOAVULF, a Saxon king, who reigned over Xorthnmberland 
 in the eighth century. He ended hb days in the monastery of 
 Lindisfame, where he sought refuge from the troubles which 
 distracted his kingdom. He is highly commended by Bede for 
 his piety and justice. — J. T. 
 
 CEPHALAS, CoNSTAXTi>'us, a Greek author of the tenth 
 century, whose " Anthologia," edited by Eeiske in 1754, was 
 reprinted with a preface by Warton at Oxford in 1766. 
 
 CEPHISODOTUS, an Athenian general and orator, much 
 employed in negotiations with Sparta about the year 370 B.C. 
 He was sent against his friend Charidemus, who had traitorously 
 turned his arms against the Athenians and jjossessed himself of 
 the Chersonese ; but failing to subdue the traitor, he concluded a 
 treaty so disadvantageous to the Athenians, that he was deprived 
 of his command and heavily fined. He was living in 355 B.C. 
 
 CEPHISODOTUS, a celebrated Greek sculptor, a contempo- 
 rary of Praxiteles, was alive in 372 B.C. He executed a group 
 of figures in marble for the temple of Jupiter at Megalopolis, 
 a statue of Peace for the Athenians, and a group representing 
 the Nine Muses on Mount Helicon. — Another Cephisodotus, 
 a sculptor, called " the Yoimger," son of the great Praxiteles, 
 was alive in 300 B.C. Along with his brother Timarchus he 
 executed various works in marble, bronze, and wood, for the 
 Athenians and Thebans, particularly a statue in wood of Lycurgus 
 the orator, and statues of Latona, Diana, and jEsculapius. 
 
 CEPIO or CJJ^PIO, a patrician family of the gens Servilia, 
 several members of which are distinguished in early Boman 
 history. We notice — Cx. SER^nLirs, who, succeeding to the 
 command of the army in Spain about the year 140 B.C., induced 
 two friends of Viriathus, the Lusitanian chief, to murder him. — 
 QtriXTCS Servilius, who commanded in Spain about the year 
 110-108 B.C., became consul in 106 B.C.; served afterwards as 
 military commander in Gaul, where he tarnished his reputation 
 by robbing a temple at Thoulouse of the sacred treasure ; and by 
 his share, which was considerable, in the tenible defeat the Roman 
 legions suffered in an action with the Cimbri. He lost his com- 
 mand, and was committed to prison. During his consulship the 
 law of C. Gracchus, committing the whole judicial power to the 
 equestrian order, was repealed, and one passed by which the 
 judges were to be chosen jointly from the senate and the knights. 
 — QuiXTL'.s Servilius, who was urban quasstor in 100 b.c, 
 and distinguished himself by his violent opposition, as leader of 
 the equestrian party, to the lex judicaria of il. Livius Dinisus ; 
 and afterwards more creditably by his valour in the Social War. 
 
 CERACCHI, Giuseppe, a sculptor, bom in Corsica about 
 1760; was executed in 1802 for attempting, along with four 
 others, the life of Bonaparte. His reputation as a sculptor towards 
 the end of last century was only second to that of Canova. 
 
 CERATINUS, James, a learned Dutchman, successivelv 
 Greek professor at Leipzig, Toumay, and at Louvain, where he 
 died in 1530. Erasmus entertained the highest opinion of his 
 scholarship, and wrote a preface for his edition of the Graeco- 
 Latin Lexicon, printed in 1524 by Froben. 
 
 CERCEAU, Jeax Axtoixe'du, born at Paris in 1670; 
 died at Veret, near Tours, in 1730. Cerceau at eighteen 
 became a Jesuit. He showed some talent for literature, and 
 published some Latin poems of no great merit. His next efforts 
 were more successful. They were dramas, drawn up for educa- 
 tional purposes, and possessed the strange peculiarity of being 
 without female characters. The parable of the Prodigal Son 
 furnishes the subject of one of these plays; in another some 
 scenes of Don Qui.xote were imitated. A prose work of his, 
 " The Conspiracy of Rienzi," which was published, ■with some 
 additions, by Bramoy, is greatly praised. His death was occa- 
 sioned by the accidental discharge of a pistol in the hands of his 
 pupil, the prince of Conti. — J. A. D. 
 
 CERDA : the name borne by Ferdinand, eldest son of Alfonso 
 X. of Castile, and his descendants. It originated with this 
 prince, who was so called on account of his having a mole on 
 his shoulders. He was manied in 1269 to Blanche, daxighter 
 of St. Louis, king of France, and died in 1275. — His two sons, 
 Alfonso and Ferdinand, notwithstanding the great exertions 
 of their mother Blanche, and their grandmother, wife of Alfonso 
 X., to secure their succession to the crovrn of CastUe, vainly com- 
 bated the ambition of their paternal uncle, Sanchez, who, on 
 the death of his brother, took possession of the throne. Alfonso, 
 
 the eldest of these brothers, finally submitted to his uncle's son 
 and successor, Ferdinand, receiving in exchange for an abnega- 
 tion of his rights to the throne, the lordship of certain incoo* 
 siderable towns. — ^J. S., G. J 
 
 CERDIC, the leader of a band of "Saxons, who about the 
 beginning of the sixth century landed in Britain, and after a 
 protracted warfare of many years' duration with the native tribes, 
 conquered Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, and founded the 
 kingdom of Wessex or West Sussex. He died about 534 a.d., 
 and was succeeded by his son Cynric. — J. T. 
 
 CERDO, a Syrian heresiarcli belonging to the school of gnos- 
 tics known as that of Italy or Asia ilinor, came from Syria 
 to Rome in the time of Antoninus Pius about the year 141. 
 The accounts of Ms doctrine are meagre and inconsistent, perhaps, 
 because it varied vs-ith the necessities of his residence in a foreign 
 city ; but it seems at least certain that he, at one time, taught 
 the existence of two opposite principles — one good and unknown 
 God, the father of Jesus ; and the other, e%-il and known, the 
 Creator who spoke in the law and appeared to the prophets. 
 
 CERii, Jean-Xicolas, a French botanist, was born in 1737 
 in the ^Mauritius, where, after being educated in France, he 
 became director of the royal botanic garden. He cultivated 
 trees and shrubs with singular success, and earned the gratitude 
 of European naturalists, both by the gifts of specimens which 
 he made to various botanical societies, and by his contributions 
 to their journals. He died in 1810.— J. S., G. 
 
 CEREZO, Matteo : this Spanish artist was bom at Burgos 
 in Andalusia in 1635. He was a pupil of Don Juan Correno 
 at Madrid. He painted some fine works for the churches of 
 Madrid and Valladolid, and was employed by Philip IV. on 
 some of the decorations for the royal palace. His best work is 
 his "Christ at Emmaus." He died in 1685. Bermudez con- 
 siders some of his works as equal to those of Titian, and other 
 applauders have dubbed him the Vandyck of Spain. — W. T. 
 
 CERIXTHUS, a noted heretic of the first century, whose 
 opinions it is not easy to comprehend or characterize. The 
 early fathers are not consistent in their descriptions of his errors. 
 Epiphanius seems to charge him with Judaism; Eusebius pictures 
 him as a sensual millennarian, and Irenasus expressly ascribes 
 gnostic views to him. The latter account is entitled to credit, 
 though probably he formed a connecting link between Ebionism 
 and Gnosticism. Theodoret affirms that he was educated at 
 Alexandria, and there was taught philosophy and theology. He 
 maintained the existence of angels or emanations, by some of whom 
 of the lowest grade the world was created ; denied the super- 
 natm-al conception of the Saviour, holding that the JEon called 
 Logos, or Christ, descended on him at his baptism, but left him 
 on the eve of his crucifixion. Cerinthus lived and taught in 
 Asia Minor, and the tradition is, that the apostle John meeting 
 him in a public bath hastily quitted it in terror lest the root 
 should fall on the malignant errorist. His followers, at least 
 at a later period, denied Christ's resurrection and observed cir- 
 cumcision. There is no distinct proof that the fourth gospel 
 was written in refutation of his tenets, though such a hypothesis 
 has been plausibly maintained. — (Xeander's Church History; 
 Eusebius; Irenceus, &c.) — .J. E. 
 
 CERISAXTES, Mark Duncan, son of a Scotch physician 
 settled at Saumtir, was born there about the year 1600. He 
 became preceptor to the marquis de Fors, son of the marquis de 
 Vigeau, and was present with his pupil at the siege of Arras, 
 where the young marquis was killed in 1640. He was after- 
 wards sent as ambassador to Constantinople by Richelieu, and at 
 a later period figured somewhat notoriously as Swedish envoy 
 at Paris, where his vanity and insolence got him mto endless 
 troubles. From Paris he went to Rome, and then to Naples, 
 where, having joined the duke of Guise in su})porting an insur- 
 rection of the citizens, he was killed in 1648. — J. S., G. 
 
 CERQUOZZI, Michelangelo, commonly called Michel- 
 angelo delle Battaglie, from his skill in painting battles, 
 was bom in Rome, February 2, 1602. He was fu-st the pupil 
 of Giuseppe Cesari, and studied afterwards vrith a Flemish battle 
 painter, knovm at Rome as Giacomo Fiammingo ; and also >vith 
 Pietro Paolo Bonsi, known as the Gobbo dei Carracci, an admir- 
 able flower painter. Cerquozzi painted battles, genre, flowers, 
 all equally well ; and from his skill as a (/enre painter, or uni- 
 tator of Pieter Laer, was known likewise as Michelangelo delle 
 Bambocciate. His colouring is forcible and effective ; in this 
 respect he followed the example of the tenebrosi, or imitators of
 
 CER 
 
 957 
 
 CER 
 
 Caravaggio. He made money by his pictures; but was ren- 
 dered unhappy, and almost insane, by the fear of losing it. He 
 was in the liabit of burying it, and hiding it in various parts of 
 the house, until by the advice of his friends he was induced to 
 invest it ; and he finally conquered his strange mania, though 
 retaining all his parsimonious habits. He died at Rome in 
 his own house in April, 1660, and was honoured by his fellow- 
 artists with a public funeral. He left a nephew the considerable 
 income of three hundred scudi per annum, entirely acquired by 
 his industry. Cerquozzi's masterpiece is considered " Masaniello 
 in the market-place at Naples," now in the Palazzo Spada at 
 Rome. — (Passeri, Vife dei Piftor{,&c.: Rome, 1772.) — R.N.W. 
 
 CERRINI, Giovanni Domenico, called il Cavaliere 
 Perugino, was bom at Perugia in 1606. He was a pupil of 
 Guido and Domenichino. His best work is his fresco of St. Paul's 
 vision in the cupola of la Madonna della Vittoria. His style 
 fluctuates a good deal, but he more generally aims at the manner 
 of Guido, who frequently worked on his pictures, and so leavened 
 them with value that they often pass cuiTent as the legitimate 
 ofispring of the great master. He died in 1681. — W. T. 
 
 CEKUTTI, Joseph Antoine Joachim, born at Turin in 
 1738 ; died in 1792. He was educated at Turin by the Jesuits, 
 and became a member of the order. An essay of his on " Repub- 
 lics, Ancient and Modern," was crowned, as is the phrase, at 
 Toulouse, and, before the author was known, was for a while 
 attributed to Rousseau. In the year 1762 Cerutti published 
 his " Apologie de Finstitut des Jesuites." The order of Jesuits 
 was, in spite of liis advocacy, suppressed ; but his book, written 
 with considerable talent and in an honest spuit, led to the 
 ex-jesuits receiving protection and support from Stanislaus the 
 Polish king, and his grandson the dauphin. In 1788 Cerutti 
 was among the thousands engaged in preparing all manner of 
 possible and impossible constitutions for France and for the 
 world. He was one of the many men of talent who worked up 
 subjects for Mirabeau. He published a political journal entitled 
 Feuille Villcigeoise, creditable to his talents, and useful in com- 
 municating the results of science to classes imperfectly educated. 
 His newspaper led to his being elected to the legislative assembly. 
 He pronounced a funeral oration on Mirabeau, and himself died 
 soon after. — J. A. D. 
 
 CERVANTES, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. There 
 can scarcely be mentioned a wi'iter of ancient or modern times 
 who at all approaches the illustrious subject of this memoir in 
 the wide extent of his popularity, and the universal reception 
 ^vhich his great work has had in every portion of the ci\'ilized 
 world. With the exception of Homer, or rather of the Homeric 
 poems, and in particular of the Odyssey, the great works and 
 the great authors of the classical world have been, since the 
 revival of letters, familiar but to the scholar and to the student 
 alone ; while in modem times the brightest luminaries that have 
 risen above the horizon move in a much narrower orbit, and shed 
 their light within more limited space. To take the highest 
 instance, that of Shakspeare, though his name is now probably a 
 familiar one in every quarter of the globe, and his works, bound 
 up as they are with the language of the British isles, must, in 
 the course of time, be as widely diffused as is the race whose 
 most glorious product they are, still, at present, no one would 
 venture to assert that any characters of his are pictured to the 
 eye with the same clearness, and are so impressed upon the 
 memories and affections of such myriads of beings, as those im- 
 niortal photographs of the pen — the knight, the squire, and the 
 steed — which have not only been transferred to every literature, 
 but have given their names as types of things to almost every 
 language in wliich their adventures have been read. This can- 
 not be said of Dante, of Milton, or of Goethe. The first and 
 UTeatest of these has no doubt the highest and most intellectual 
 audience in the world. That of the second is, as he himself 
 predicted, "fit," but, alas! still "few;" while Goethe, like Shak- 
 speare, may claim a naturalization in two nations at least. 15ut 
 the only liousehold work which is " as familiar as a household 
 word " throughout the world, is " Don Quixote." 
 
 Cervantes was born in the small, but once flourishing city of 
 Alcala de Henares, about twenty miles from Madrid, and was 
 baptized in the parish chm-ch of Saint Maiy Major's, on the 9th 
 of October, 1547. His family had been a distinguished one for 
 many generations, both in the mother countiy and in the colo- 
 nies, but had declined in consequence and wealth long before the 
 birth of the great writer, whose genius was destined to confer 
 
 upon it a new glory which can never fade. He was the youngest 
 of four children — a brother who immediately preceded him, and 
 two sisters. Alcala being at the time the seat of a university, 
 it is probable that Cervantes received his education there, 
 although it is asserted that he spent two years at the still more 
 celebrated university of Salamanca, whither his parents, not- 
 withstanding their poverty, contrived to send him. The know- 
 ledge of student life at Salamanca, as evinced by him in his 
 " Exemplary Novels," next to "Don Quixote " the most charming 
 of his works, renders this extremely probable, and the street in 
 which he is said to have resided is still pointed out. There is, 
 however, no evidence of his having matriculated at Salamanca, 
 which probably the necessity of embracing some means of living 
 prevented. His boyish years were characterized by that insatia- 
 ble thirst for knowledge that usually distinguishes the youth of 
 eminent men, and his love of reading was evinced by his collecting 
 even the scattered pieces of torn paper which he found in the 
 streets, so as to draw from them some food for the ever-craving 
 necessities of his growing intellect. An early love for poetry and 
 the drama was stimulated if not created by the rude exhibitions 
 of Lope de Rueda, the founder of the Spanish theatre, whose 
 performances he witnessed both at Segovia and Madrid before 
 his eleventh year. His first appearance as an author is supposed 
 to have been in a little volume which his schoolmaster, Juan 
 Lopez de Hoyos, published in 1569, commemorative of the mag- 
 nificent funeral ceremonies connected with the interment of 
 Elizabeth de Valois, the first wife of PhiHp II., which took place 
 on the 24th of October, 1568. To this volume Cen'antes con- 
 tributed six short poems, which are only remarkable for the 
 terms of affection and respect in which they are introduced to 
 the reader by Lopez de Hoyos, as being written by his " dear 
 and well-beloved disciple." 
 
 In 1570 we find him acting in the capacity of chamberlain 
 at Rome to the prelate and nuncio, Monsignor Aquaviva, who 
 subsequently became a cardinal. Whatever may have been the 
 cause of his dissatisfaction with this employment, it is certain 
 that Cervantes abandoned it after a short trial. In the following 
 year (1571) we find him volunteering as a private soldier in the 
 holy league against the common foe of Christendom — the Turk ; 
 and losing his hand in the memorable sea fight of Lepanto, 
 on the 7th of October of that year. With the rest of the 
 wounded in that famous action he was carried to Messina, in 
 the hospital of which place he continued till April, 1572. On 
 being able to resume active service, he immediately joined the 
 expedition of Mark Antonio Colonna to the Levant, the most 
 memorable result of which otherwise unsuccessful expedition 
 was the stoiy of the captive in "Don Quixote," which the 
 poor maimed soldier founded upon it. In the next year he 
 was again under the command of the hero of Lepanto, Don 
 John of Austria, at Tunis, and in the subsequent three or four 
 years saw much of Sicily and Italy, particularly of Naples, 
 ^vhere he resided more than a year. On his being discharged in 
 1575, he determined to return to Spain, to endeavour to obtain 
 some recognition of his long services in three campaigns, and 
 some reward for his many wounds. He accordingly pi-ocured 
 letters of recommendation from the duke of Sesa and Don John, 
 and with his brother Rodrigo, .also a private soldier, embarked at 
 Naples for Spain, from which he had been so long absent. On 
 the 26th September his ship. El Sol, was captured by pirates, 
 and he and all on board were carried prisoners to Algiers. He 
 was sold as a slave, and continued for five years in this condition, 
 going through adventures and trials mtire romantic and danger- 
 ous than any he had previously experienced. At length, however, 
 his day of liberation arrived, and, by the sacrifices of his poor 
 widowed mother, the exertions of his brother, who had been 
 previously ransomed, and the charitable efforts of a poor friar, 
 whose name. Fray .Juan Gil, he has gratefully recorded in his 
 " Trato de Argel," the trifling sum required for his liberty was 
 made up, and Cervantes was once again a free man. Being 
 without any resources, it is not very surprising, notwithstanding 
 all his previous sufferings, that on his return to Spain he should 
 once more resume the military life, and rejoin his brother, who 
 was serving under the duke of Alva in the newly-acquired 
 kingdom of Portugal, and subsequently at the Azores. The 
 residence of Cervantes at Lisbon is memorable for some inter- 
 esting circumstances connected with his private life, as well as 
 for the opportunities it afforded him of studying the pastoral 
 romances of Portugal, with which, and with the country itself.
 
 CER 
 
 958 
 
 CER 
 
 he has expressed himself in several places as being much pleased. 
 His first published book, the " Galatea," is professedly an imi- 
 tation of the Portuguese romances of this class that preceded it. 
 It is said that the " Galatea " was written to win the aiFections 
 of a Spanish lady with whom he was in love ; and having suc- 
 ceeded in this object before the completion of the work, his 
 interest in it ceased, and it thus remains unfinished. Be this 
 as it may, he married Doiia Catalina de Palacios de Salazar, 
 who is supposed to be the heroine of the stoiy, on the 14th 
 December, 1584, with whom he lived in happiness, if not in 
 wealth, for more than thirty years, and who surviving him, 
 desired at her own death to be buried at his side. 
 
 After his marriage he appears to have settled at Madrid, 
 and commenced writing for the stage as the readiest mode of 
 contributing to the support of a family. The Spanish drama 
 was then almost in its infancy, and had not developed into 
 the marvellous completion it was destined to attain at the 
 hands of Lope de Vega, Calderon, and their great contem- 
 poraries. Cervantes, however, did more than any one who 
 preceded him, and attained a success which even towards the 
 end of his life he regarded with complacency and pride. Of 
 the twenty or thirty plays which he tells us that he produced 
 at this period, he has himself recorded but the names of nine, 
 and of these only two have been discovered. These were the 
 "Numancia" and " Trato de Argel," which were first published 
 with an edition of the "Journey to Parnassus" in 1784. The 
 " Trato de Argel," or Life in Algiers, though defective in many 
 respects, contains some striking episodes, in which Cervantes' 
 own adventures during his captivity in Africa are described 
 with spirit and fidelity. The " Numancia," which has earned 
 for him the epithet of the Spanish iEschylus, has been pro- 
 nounced by August Schlegel not only as one of the most memor- 
 able efforts of the early Spanish theatre, but one of the most 
 striking exhibitions of modem poetry — a dictum which less 
 enthusiastic critics have disputed. These dramas are not to be 
 confounded with the eight comedias and etiiremeses, or farces, 
 which he produced and printed at a much later period of his 
 life; and which are so much below what might have been 
 expected from Cen'antes in the maturity of his intellect, that 
 some Spanish critics, in order to uphold the intellectual cha- 
 racter of their idol, have put forward the untenable theory that 
 they were written as a caricature of the successful dramas of 
 Lope de Vega, which were then carrj-ing everything before them. 
 They were first published in 1615, the year of Cervantes' death, 
 and have been republished in 1749, in two volumes, quarto. 
 
 However those early dramas, of which "Numantia" and 
 " Life in Algiers" are the only specimens that have reached us, 
 may, in the decline of his life, have satisfied the perhaps over- 
 partial remembrance of their author, it is certain that they did 
 not add considerably to his material prosperity. The golden 
 days of the Spanish theatre had not yet arrived, nor had Cervantes 
 at any period of his life that happy facility of adapting himself 
 to the tastes of his immediate audience, that could bring him in 
 those substantial results that followed the exercise of Lope de 
 Vega's splendid and genial power of improvisation. \Maether the 
 fault was the public's or his own, it is certain that the dramatic 
 muse whom he courted at this time with so much assiduity, like 
 the gentle muse of Goldsmith at another time and in another 
 place, " found him poor, and left him so." Finding his efforts 
 to support himself, his wife, daughter, and an unmanned sister 
 who was dependent on him were unavailing, he determined to 
 leave Madrid, and seek his fortunes elsewhere. In ] 588 he went 
 to Serille, and there acted in several humble employments; 
 among others as a collector of debts, not only on behalf of the 
 government, but even for private individuals. In this capacity 
 his duties led him to various parts of Andalusia and Granada, 
 and thus gave him an opportunity of visiting the most beautiful 
 portions of his native country, and of making those observations 
 on life and manners that afterwards enriched his later works. 
 ''During his residence at Seville," says Jlr. Ticknor, "which, 
 with some interruptions, extended from 1588 to 1598, or 
 perhaps somewhat longer, CeiTantes made an ineffectual appli- 
 cation to the king for an appointment in America, setting forth 
 by exact documents — which now constitute the most valuable 
 materials for his biography — a general account of his adventures, 
 services, and sufferings while a soldier in the Levant, and of the 
 miseries of his life while he was a slave in Algiers. This was in 
 1590. But no other than a formal answer seems ever to have 
 
 been returned to the application, and the whole affair only leaves 
 us to infer the severity of that distress which should induce him 
 to seek relief in exile, to a colony of which he has elsewhere 
 spoken as the great resort for rogues." Little as there is known 
 of Cervantes during his ten years' residence at Seville, we know 
 still less of his proceedings dming the few subsequent years 
 between 1598 and 1603, when we again hear of him at Valla- 
 dolid. It is probable that he still continued to discharge the 
 duties of debt- collector and clerk for any who would avail 
 themselves of his services. There is a tradition, probably refer- 
 ring to this pursuit, which, as it has some connection with the 
 great work that has immortalized his name, may be mentioned. 
 It is said that being employed by the grand prior of the order of 
 St. John in La Mancha to collect rents due to his monastery, 
 he proceeded to the village of Argamasilla for that purpose. 
 Whether the defaulters disbelieved his agenc_v, or that there was 
 some informality on his part, we know not ; but his claims were 
 rejected, and he himself thrown into prison. It was in thb 
 prison, it is said, that he commenced writing the first part of 
 " Don Quixote," making the village in which he had been so 
 badly treated the scene of the knight's insanity and misfortunes. 
 We have his own authority, indeed, for the fact that " Don 
 Quixote" was begun in a pi-ison ; but he was an inmate of so 
 many, of which we have unquestionable evidence, that it is 
 unnecessary to adduce this, perhaps imaginary one of Argama- 
 silla as the one alluded to. Notwithstanding all his privations 
 he found opportunities of completing the first part of " Don 
 Quixote," which was licensed in 1604 at Valladolid, and printed 
 in 1605 at Madrid. The success which attended its publication, 
 though giving but a very faint idea of its future celebrity, was 
 however satisfactory. A new edition was called for at JMadrid 
 before the end of the year. Two more were published elsewhere 
 — " circmnstances which, after so many discouragements in other 
 attempts to procure a subsistence," says Mr. Ticknor, "naturally 
 turned his thoughts more towards letters than they had been at 
 any previous period of his life." In 1606 the court having 
 returned from Valladolid to Madrid, Cen'antes followed. In 
 1609 he joined the fraternity of the holy sacrament, a religions 
 society of which Lope de Vega, Quevedo, and other eminent 
 writers, were members. In 1613 he published his " Novelas 
 Exemplares," or Mond Tales, next to "Don Quixote" the most 
 delightful of his works. In 1614 appeared his "Journey to 
 Parnassus," a satirical poem, written in terza rima, the most 
 interesting portion of which treats in a light and cheerful spirit 
 of his own earlier writings. The " Comedies," akeady referred 
 to, appear to have been his next work. Stimulated by an 
 audacious continuation of " Don Quixote" which a writer, who 
 assumed the name of Avcllauada, but whose real name has not 
 transpired, brought out as the second part of " Don Quixote" 
 in 1614, Cervantes hiuTied on the completion of his gi'eat work, 
 which he published in October, 1615. In the dedication of this 
 part to the count de Lemos, he speaks of his failing health, and 
 intimates that he did not expect to surs'ive many months. His 
 spirits, howe\'er, and his industiy never forsook him. He 
 worked vigorously at his " Persiles and Sigismnnda," the last of 
 his works, which, though not entitled to be considered what he 
 himself thought it would prove, " either the best or worst book 
 of amusement in the language," is remarkable for the fertility of 
 imagination it displays, and for that innate love of the wild and 
 mai-veUous which he has so amusingly depicted in his immortal 
 satire. In the spring of 1616 he made an excursion to Esquivias, 
 with which place his wife was connected, and where she had a 
 little estate. On his return he wrote the remarkable preface to 
 his unpublished romance, in which he states that his pulse had 
 warned him that he would not live beyond the next Sunday; 
 concluding it in this cheerful but solemn manner — " And so 
 farewell to jesting, farewell my meny humours, farewell my gay 
 friends, for I feel tliat I am dj-ing, and have no desire but soon 
 to see you happy in the other life." His preparations for death 
 were made with the calmness and solemnity which might have 
 been expected from his philosophical mind and strong religious 
 belief. On the 2nd of April he entered the order of Franciscan 
 friars, whose habit, in accordance with the custom of many of his 
 great contemporaries, he bad assumed some years before. On the 
 1 8th of the same month he received the last rites of the church, 
 and in four days after, on Satm-day, the 23rd of April, 1616, in 
 the full possession of his faculties, and in perfect peace, this gi-eat 
 writer sun-endered his spirit into the hands of his Creator.
 
 CER 
 
 959 
 
 CES 
 
 This memorable day in the history of Spain (April 23, 1616) 
 is also a memorable one in the history of England, the death 
 of Shakspeare being recorded with the same date. Shakspeai-e, 
 however, dying on the 23rd of April, 1616, sm-vived Cervantes 
 twelve days, England not having adopted the Gregorian calendar 
 tiU 1754. 
 
 The eloquent French writer, il. Viardot, in his Xotice sur la 
 vie et les ou^Tages Cervantes, thus epitomizes the varied events 
 of Cervantes' career, who he eloquently says was "an illustrious 
 man before he became an illustrious writer, one who was the doer 
 of great deeds before he produced an immortal book:" — -"Behold 
 the sum of all that history records of this illustrious man, 
 one of those who purchases by the misfortunes of an entire 
 life the tardy honours of posthumous glory ! Born of a family 
 honourable but impoverished ; receiving at first a liberal educa- 
 tion, then thrown by misery prematurely into the struggle of 
 life; a page, a valet-de-chambre, at last a soldier; mutilated by 
 the loss of his hand at the battle of Lepanto ; distinguished at 
 the taking of Tunis ; captured by a barbarous corsair ; a slave 
 for five years in the bagnios of Algiers ; ransomed by public 
 charity after iuefleetual efforts of audacit}' and enterprise ; again 
 a soldier in Portugal and the Azores ; attached to a lady as well- 
 born and as poor as himself ; led at one moment by love to the 
 pursuit of letters, and then torn away again from them in 
 another by distress ; rewarded for his services and his talents 
 by the magnificent appointment of an insignificant collectorship ; 
 accused of defalcation in liis accounts ; thrown into prison by 
 the underlings of the king ; released after the proof of his inno- 
 cence ; then again imprisoned by mtitinous peasants ; becomes 
 i"iet and commercial agent; doing a little business to earn his 
 
 ' ead by making sales on commission, and supplying the theatre 
 with dramatic pieces ; discovering at fifty years of age his true 
 vocation ; finding a careless public that condescended to laugh 
 indeed, but neither to appreciate nor to comprehend him ; jealous 
 rivals who ridiculed and defamed him ; envious friends who were 
 deceitful to him ; pursued by want even to his old age ; for- 
 
 itten for the most part, neglected by all, and dying at last in 
 
 '.itnde and in distress — such was, during his life, Jliguel de 
 Cervantes Saavedra. It was only after about two centuries that 
 the world began to inquire about his cradle and his tomb — that 
 a marble bust of him was placed in front of the house in which 
 he lived — that a statue was erected to his honour in the public 
 square of JIadrid, and the obscure name that it bore, being 
 effaced from the corner of the little street in which he died, 
 inscribed thereon the great name that fills the world." 
 
 The editions of " Don Quixote " in Spanish are almost innu- 
 merable ; the best being the magnificent edition printed by the 
 Spanish Academy, Madrid, 1780, 4 torn, folio ; that of Pellicer, 
 Madrid, 1797-98, 5 tom. Svo ; and the edition of Clemencin, 
 Madrid, 1833-39, 6 tom. 4to. There are several translations 
 in Enghsh of " Don Quixote," of which perhaps that by Motteus 
 is the most spirited. The best edition of this translation is 
 the Edinburgh one, 1822, in 5 vols. Svo. This contains a Life 
 of Cen'antes by the late Sir. Lockhart ; and in the notes are 
 given those translations of Spanish ballads which have done so 
 much in England towards keeping alive a taste for Spanish 
 poetry. The " Novelas Exemplares," or Jloral Tales, have also 
 been translated into English — a very good edition of them has 
 been given by Jlr. Bohn in one of Hs libraries. — D. F. JI'C. 
 
 CERVOLE or CERVOLLE, Arxauld de, a famous captain 
 of free lancers, commonly called the Ai-chpriest, was bom in 
 Perigord about the beginning of the fourteenth centmy. He was 
 wounded and taken prisoner at the battle of Poitiers in 1356, 
 along with King John. On his return to France, he collected a 
 large body of men-at-arms, and marched into Provence, where 
 they took many strong towns and castles, and wasted and plun- 
 dered the countrj' as far as Avignon. Pope Innocent ^'I., who 
 resided there at this time, was fain to enter into a treaty with the 
 Archpriest, whom he entertained with great distinction, gave him 
 absolution from all his sins, and on his departure presented him 
 with forty thousand crowns to distribute among his companions. 
 In 1359 Cervole entered into the serN-ice of the dauphin, then 
 regent of France ; but next year, after the treaty of Brequigny, 
 he reassembled his band, which now acquired the name of " tlie 
 white company," from the white crosses on their shoulders, 
 and ravaged the country around Langres, Lyons, and Nevers. 
 The count de Nevers was compelled to enter into a treaty 
 with hun in 1361, which was ratified by the king. The Ai-ch- 
 
 priest was faithful to his engagements, and commanded the 
 vanguard of the royal army in the conflict with a strong force of 
 brigands near Brignay, in which the former were defeated with 
 great slaughter, and Cervole and many other knights taken pri- 
 soners. He subsequently entered the service of Philip the Hardy, 
 duke of Burgundy, and commanded a corps of Bm-gundians at 
 the battle of Cocherel. In 1365 we find the Archpriest at the 
 head of a numerous body of brigands, whom he purposed to lead 
 on a crusade against the Turks ; but the merciless ravages they 
 inflicted on the countries through which they marched, roused 
 the inhabitants against them, and they were chased from pro- 
 vince to province, till the remnant was driven back to France, 
 where the Archpriest was soon after killed by one of his own 
 sen-ants. — (^Froissart, chap. 176 and 215.) — J. T. 
 
 CESAR or CJCSAR. The more distinguished persons of tliis 
 name follow in chronological order : — 
 
 Cesar, Sextus Julius, prstor B.C. 208, the first of this 
 name of whom mention is made in history. 
 
 Cesar, Lucius Julius, consul b.c. 90, in which year he 
 carried a law confeiTing the citizenship upon the Latins and the 
 Socii, who had remained faithful to Rome in the civil wars of 
 the period. He was put to death by Marius in 87. 
 
 Cesar, Caius, sumamed Stkabo Vopiscus, brother of 
 Lucius Julius, was curule sdile in 90 B c, and was slain along 
 with his brother by Marius in 87. He was an orator and dra- 
 matist, and renowned in both characters, particularly the former. 
 The names of two of his tragedies are preserved — -"Adrastus" 
 and " Tecmessa." 
 
 Cesar, Lucius Julius, son of the consul of the same name, 
 and uncle by his sister Julia of Antony the trium\'ir, was consul 
 B.C. 64. He belonged originally to the aristocratical party, but 
 appears to have deserted it before the year 52 B.C., when he 
 was one of C. J. Cssar's legates in Gaul. On the death of the 
 dictator he sided with the senate, in opposition to his nephew 
 Antony, and was consequently proscribed by the latter in 43. 
 A son of this person, bearing the same name, joined Pompey on 
 the breaking out of the civil war, and was sent by him to Ca;sar 
 with proposals of peace. After serving in Africa, and in Utica, 
 where he was proquajstor to Cato B.C. 46, he submitted to the 
 dictator, and was shortly afterwards put to death. 
 
 Cesar, Caius Julius, the father of the dictator, was praHor, 
 in what yeai' is uncertain, and died suddenly at Pisa; in 84 B.C., 
 when his son was at the age of sixteen. 
 
 Cesar, Caius Julius, the dictator. See Caesar. 
 
 Cesar, Caius and Lucius, sons of M. Vipsanius Agiippa 
 and Julia, and grandsons of Augustus, by whom they were 
 adopted ; died, the one in Lycia, a.d. 4, of a wound which he 
 received in Armenia; and the other, a.d. 2, at Massilia, on his 
 way to Spain. 
 
 CESARI, Antonio, an eminent Italian grammarian, boni at 
 Verona in 1760, entered the order of the oratory in 1798, and 
 studied theology under Bertolini. With a view to reviving a 
 taste for the early purity of his native tongue, he published, 
 after an assiduous study of their style, the works of the Tre- 
 centisti, beginning with Passavanti's Specchio di Penitenz.a, the 
 style of which he particularly adniked as a model of simplicity 
 and elegance. He was for many yeai-s occupied in annotating 
 the Divina Coramedia. His " Selva," a collection of poetical 
 pieces composed about tlie time his native city was taken by 
 the French, abounds in vituperation of the invaders. After 
 the proclamation of peace, he undertook to revise the famous 
 dictionary of La Crusca. He died in 1828.— A. C. M. 
 
 CESARI, Cavaliere Giuseppe, called d'Arpixo, and 
 sometimes Giuseppixo. This artist was born at Rome in 1560. 
 His father, a painter of very humble pretensions, was a native of 
 Arpino, in the kingdom of Naples. With great desire for fame, 
 but as yet very ill supplied for attaining it, the young Cesari 
 journeyed to Rome seeking employment. A group of artists 
 were hard at work at the Vatican under Gregory XIII. Some 
 one was very much wanted to grind colours and set palettes, 
 and to these humble ofiices Cesari was only too happy to apply 
 himself. While thus occupied he attem])ts painting, and is 
 reported to the pope, who iirotects him, and places him in the 
 school of Niccolo Pomerancio. His success is wonderful, and 
 Pope Clement VIII. follows Gregory in conferring patronage 
 and honour upon the artist. He is made knight of the order 
 of Christ and director of St. John Lateran. In 1600 he accom- 
 panied Cardinal Aldobrandini in his mission to France on the
 
 CES 
 
 9G0 
 
 ci:t 
 
 marriage of Henry IV. with ilary de !XIedici. With success came 
 arrogance. He nislied headlong into quarrels, blinded by an 
 impetuous vanity and an utter want of appreciation of any talent 
 but his own. Cesari died at Rome in 1G40. His works at Rome 
 are numerous — too numerous in fact. He painted both in oil 
 and fresco, but his fresco works are the more esteemed. His 
 best productions are his cupola of St. Prassede, representing 
 the "Ascension;" the madonna on the ceiling of St. Giovanni 
 Grisognono; the gallery of the Casa Orsini ; and the birth of 
 Komulus, and the battle of Romans and Sabines, in the Campi- 
 doglio. His fame was very great, but it must be confessed that 
 his style is vicious. His talents were not balanced by taste 
 and judgment. He abused his gift of facility to abandon nature 
 more and more. His freedom lapsed uito looseness and want of 
 care. However, his battle pieces are vigorous, and the treatment 
 of his horses very admu-able. He was a gi-eat artist, though he 
 did little good to art, for hg rather hurried on the reign of 
 depravity and falsehood that afterwards ensued. He was much 
 assisted by his brother, Bernardino Cesari, who followed an iden- 
 tical manner, and painted a large work in the church of St. 
 John of Lateran. — \V. T. 
 
 CESARIO or C.ESARIO, son of C. Julius Csesar and Cleo- 
 patra, originally called Ptolenifeus, was born 47 B.C., and 
 executed by order of Augustus in 30 B.C. In 42 the triumws 
 gave him the title of king of EgT.-pt, and in 34 he received from 
 Antony that of king of kings. 
 
 CESAROTTI, Melchioee, an Italian miscellaneous writer, 
 bom of a patrician family at Padua in 1730. When very 
 young, he himself relates, he was sent to pass a school vacation 
 with his uncle, a Franciscan friar, who, having no great love of 
 children in general, and being particularly annoyed with the 
 importunities of this nephew of his, shut 1dm up in the library 
 of the convent. This confinement, intolerable at first, soon 
 became a delight — a taste for reading being formed in his mind, 
 which found ample gratification in the literary stores of his 
 prison. From this time fonvard his eminence in literature was 
 rendered certain by an ardent love of study, and by the encou- 
 ragement of learned patrons. His philosophical works, which 
 were his earliest, were the models on which were composed those 
 of Gioberti and Rosnini. His immense acquirements as a lin- 
 guist he turned to account in translations of ^Eschylus and 
 Voltaire, and particularly the poems of Ossian. His success in 
 the translation of this last work was in some degree owing to 
 the assistance of Charles Sackville. It appeared in 1772, and 
 was received with rapture throughout Italy — the author being 
 appointed to a chair of languages at Palma, and to the secretary- 
 ship of the academy of science and belles-lettres. His other 
 translations, and his philological treatises, are still standard 
 works. On the downfall of the Venetian republic in 1798, 
 Cesarotti earaed an immense j)opularity by some essays of a 
 patriotic character. He was allowed a handsome pension, and 
 decorated with the insignia of the order of the iron cro\vn. All 
 his works are remarkable for elegance and even harmony of 
 style.— A. C. M. 
 
 * CESATI, VixcEXZO, Baron, an Italian botanist of the 
 present centur}', has made himself known by the following 
 works — "A Treatise on the study of Physiological Botany," 
 Milan, 1836 ; " Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of the 
 Plants of Lombardy," Milan, 1844 ; and " A Description of 
 Rare or New Italian Plants." — J. H. B. 
 
 CESI, Barxolosieo : this artist was bom at Bologna in 
 1556. He was a pupil of Giovanni Francesco Bezzi, called 
 Nosadella, but subsequently he studied the works of Pelegrino 
 Tibaldi. He was the friend of the Carracci, though he often 
 painted in competition with them. They respected the artist 
 while they loved the man ; for he was both talented and good. 
 From him Tiarini acquired the art of fresco-painting ; and on 
 his works Guido founded his chaste poetic manner. Many of 
 his pictures might fairly be ascribed to Guido's early style — 
 beauty and simplicity are so similarly felt and created by the 
 two painters. It is said that Guido in his youth was in the 
 habit of sitting for hours in rapt contemplation and wonder 
 before the works of Cesi. He was a scrupulous follower of 
 nature, though he sought her in her hajipier moments. He 
 studied simplicity in his forms and folds, subdued attitude and 
 hues; and was rather refined than vigorous. Malvasia's opmion 
 was that Cesi's manner at once satisfies, pleases, and enamours 
 the beholder, beiug as exquisite and sweet as any style of the 
 
 best Tuscan masters in fresco. His principal works are at 
 Bologna. He died in 1629.— W. T. 
 
 CESI, Freuerico, Prince of, called also C.esius, an Italian 
 naturalist, was bom at Rome in 1585, and died in 1G36. His 
 zeal for natural science was early displayed. At the age of 
 eighteen he founded a society called the Academy of Lincci 
 expressing the care or lynx-eyed attention with which the mem- 
 bers examined objects. The prince formed in his palace a botanic 
 garden, cabinet of natural history, and a library, all of whitli 
 were open to the members of the academy. While he was a 
 sort of Maecenas of his day, he also worked at natural science. 
 The spores of fungi, the microscope, and the telescope attracted 
 his attention. He wrote numerous treatises and aided in the 
 pubUcation of valuable works, more particularly that of Her- 
 nandez on the plants, animals, and minerals of Mexico. — J. T. 
 
 CESPEDES, Pablo, called in Rome Cedaspe. This pamter 
 and ecclesiastic was born at Cordova in Spain about 1535. He 
 was educated in the clerical seminar}' ; and, noted for his learning 
 and merit, was raised to the rank of a dignitary of the church. 
 He is one of the most distinguished of his countiy's painters. 
 He travelled twice to Rome to perfect himself in art, and to con- 
 template the works of Michel Angelo and other gi-eat masters. 
 At Rome he contributed several works to the public edifices — 
 among others the " Annunciation " and the " Nativity," in the 
 chapel of the Trinita di Jlonti. He became the intimate frientl 
 of Federigo Zucchero, who, applied to by the bishop of Cordova 
 to decorate the cathedral of that city, answered that, while Spain 
 possessed Cespedes, she need not send to Italy for painters. 
 His works are chiefly at Cordova, and are remarkable for their 
 extraordinary beauty ot colour, which has been compared to 
 Corregio's. His '' Last Supper " is his most esteemed work. 
 He died at Cordova in 1608, and was bmied in the cathedral. 
 He was as esteemed for his modesty as for his genius. — W. T. 
 
 CESSOLES, Jacques de, a monk of Picardy, whose "Game 
 of Chess Moralized," a work in Latin, which long enjoyed an 
 extraordinaiy popularity in almost all the countries ol' Europi-. 
 and an English translation ol which, printed by Caxton Lq 1474. 
 in folio, was the first typographical production bearing a dati 
 that is known to have been executed by the first of English 
 printers, lived at Reims in the thirteenth centuiy. — J. S., G. 
 
 CESTI, Padre Marco Antoxio, a musician, was bom at 
 Arezzo, according to various authorities, in 1720 or 1724. He 
 died at Rome, some say in 1675, others in 1681. He was a 
 pupil of Carissimi, and followed his master's example in the 
 composition of cantatas with eminent success. In 1646 he was 
 appointed maestro di capella at Florence. Three years later h# 
 produced his first opera, " Orontea," at Venice, which was a 
 favourite work throughout Italy for nearly forty years. The 
 advance of this class of composition owes much to the labours of 
 Cesti and his fellow-pupil Cavalli, particularly in the development 
 of the alia as distinguished from recitative, by its rhythmical 
 periods ; for, although Monteverde anticipated them both in the 
 employment of this form, their talent gave a grace to it which it 
 had not in the hands of the earlier writer. " La Dori," pix)- 
 duced at Venice in 1663, is described as the best of Cesti's 
 dramatic works ; and " II Pomo d'Oro," written for the Emperor 
 Leopold I., and represented with singular magnificence, appears 
 to have excited in its time a remarkable sensation. Cesti went 
 to Rome in 1658, and two years later was appointed tenor suiger ^ 
 in the pope's chapel, in which capacity Baini speaks of him. 
 After this he became maestro di capella to the emperor, and held 
 this office in 1667, when he wrote, in company with Ziani, the 
 opera of " La Schiava Fortunata" at Vienna. His motets, and 
 other compositions for the church, are less numerous, but not less 
 esteemed than his secular works. A valualile collection of his 
 music is preserved in the library of Christ church, Oxford ; and 
 Hawkins and Burney each print a specimen of his vocal writings, 
 which are interesting illustrations of the state of dramatic com- 
 position in his time. — G. A. M. « 
 
 CETINA, GuETiERKE DE, ouc of that baud of poets who, 
 says Velasquez, introduced true poetiy into Spain, was bom at 
 Seville in the early part of the sixteenth centuiy. Many autho- 
 rities, and among them the Biographic Universelle, confounding 
 him with another person, liave stated that he was an ecclesiastic ; 
 but it is beyond doubt that he early embraced the career of arms, 
 and fought' bravely in Italy. Afterwards he went to Mexico, 
 but returned to die in his native city about 1560. The greater 
 part of his works have been lost, though they existed in manu-
 
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 script in 1776. His Anacreontic poems — the first of their kind 
 — liave been highly aduiu-ed ; and several of his comedies in the 
 old manner are remarkable, as marking the transition to a new 
 school of poetrj'. — F. M. W. 
 
 CETRAS or GERAS, a mechanician of Chalcedon, celebrated 
 for the improvements he eftccted in the construction of the ancient 
 machine of war, the battering-ram. 
 
 CEULEN, LuDOLPH van. See Keulen. 
 
 CEVALLOS, Pedro, a Spanish statesman, was born in 
 1764. After being employed as secretary to the embassy at Lis- 
 bon, he was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and discharged 
 the duties of that office with great prudence and moderation. 
 AVhen Napoleon made known his designs upon Spain, Cevallos 
 espoused the patriotic side, and took a prominent part in rousing 
 the country against the aggressions of the French. After the 
 retiuTi of Ferdinand he filled several high offices, and at one 
 time possessed great influence with the king. He retired into 
 private life in 1820, and died in 1840.— J. T. 
 
 CHABANNES : the name of an ancient family of Limousin 
 in France. Robert de Ciiabanxes, Lord of Chartres, was 
 killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415. His second son — 
 
 Chabaxxes, Jacques de, Grandmaster of France, Lord of 
 La Palice and of Curton, &c., was born about 1400. He was one 
 of those French captains, who by theu- bravery rendered signal 
 service to their native country during the disastrous broils of 
 the fifteenth centuiy. He died in 1454. 
 
 Chabaxxes, Axtoixe de, youngest son of Robert, lord of 
 ■ Chartres, grandmaster of France, Count of Dammartin, was born 
 about 1411. Like his brother he signalized himself at the siege 
 of Orleans in 1428, and assisted Joan of Arc in her campaigns 
 against the English. He afterwards tarnished his reputation by 
 becoming captain of a body of brigands called " the flayers," who 
 wasted the country with fire and sword. Chabannes died in 1488, 
 governor of the Isle of France and of Paris, leaving behind him 
 a high reputation for bravery and military skill. It was this 
 Chabannes who enjoyed for a long period, and abused at the 
 court of Charles YII. that monstrous power, and that immunity 
 from the consequences of mal-administration, which the king 
 conceded to his favourite ministers. 
 
 Chabaxxes, Jacques de, Lord of La Palice, Marshal of 
 France, was born in the latter half of the fifteenth century. He 
 was distinguished both for his valom' and his fidelity to the service 
 of his sovereign. He was governor of Rubos, when that place 
 was attacked by the Spaniards under the celebrated Gonsalvo ; 
 and having been severely wounded and taken prisoner in a sortie, 
 was threatened with an ignominious death, unless he gave orders 
 to his lieutenant to suiTeuder the citadel. He was brought to the 
 foot of the wall for this purpose ; but instead of yielding to the 
 threats of his captors, he exhorted the garrison to hold out to 
 the last extremity. According to Amaud, Chabannes was in 
 consequence put to death ; but this is a mistake. Gonsalvo, 
 who could well appreciate such an instance of courage and fide- 
 lity, spared his life, and had him cured of his wounds. After his 
 liberation Chabannes took a prominent part in the Italian wars 
 of Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I., and contributed 
 greatly to the \'ictory of Ravenna in 1512, and of !Marignano 
 in 1515, which decided the fate of the whole duchy of Milan. 
 He was taken prisoner by an Italian officer at the fatal battle 
 of Pana in 1525, which was fought agidnst his earnest adnce, 
 and was bratally killed by a Spaniai'd. 
 
 Cu^UJAxxES, Jeax de, Lord of Yendenesse, brother of La 
 Palice, was one of the most famous captains of his age, and, on 
 account of his remarkable braver}', was surnamed " the Young 
 Lion." At the battle of Agnadel he took prisoner the celebrated 
 Venetian general, Alviano, and presented him to Louis XII. on 
 the field of battle. He played a conspicuous part in the battle 
 of Marignano. He was mortally wounded in the retreat of 
 Rebec in 1524. 
 
 Chab.vxxes, Jean Baptist IMarie Frederic, Marquis de, 
 was bom in 1770 ; died in 1835. He quitted France on the 
 breaking out of the Revolution, and joined the army of Conde. 
 After this force was disbanded he retired to England, where he 
 busied himself with projects for purifying charcoal, and lighting 
 the city of London. On the repeal of the law against eniigi-ants 
 he returned to Paris, and devoted himself to the construction, on 
 an improved principle, of carriages, which recei\ed the name of 
 velocifers. On the restoration of the Bom-bons, he returned to 
 public life, and was elevated to the chamber of peers. — J. T. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 CHABAXON, Michel-Paul-Gui de, poet and musician, 
 born at St. Domingo in 1730. He is best known through his 
 own memoirs, wliich possess the interest that must ever attach 
 to an account of personal experience, written with the warmth 
 of one who sees the world thi'ough the medium of excited, even 
 if erroneous feelings. In early fife he was religious, even to 
 fanaticism ; and having devoted so many years to religion, and 
 then so many to love, he gave up eight years to music, and three 
 to literature, with a success which insured him admission into 
 the Academy of inscriptions and the Academy of letters. His 
 poetry is devoid of originality, and his dramatic efforts have not 
 retained possession of the stage. His life is more interesting 
 than his works. He died in June, 1792.— J. F. C. 
 
 CHABERT, Joseph Bernard, ^Marquis de, an eminent 
 French admnal, astronomer, and geographer, bom at Tonlon in 
 1724 ; died at Paris in 1805. He made several voyages to 
 America, with a view to rectifying the charts of Acadie and 
 Newfomidland, and was long occupied with projects for obtaining 
 correct charts of the Mediterranean. He sei-ved with the French 
 fleet in the American war, and was for some time during the 
 revolutionaiT period an exile in England, where he was honour- 
 ably entertained by Dr. Slaskeh-ne. On his return to France, 
 Napoleon gave him a pension. He was a member of most of 
 the learned societies cf Em-ope. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHABOT, Fraxcois, one of the most crael and comipt of 
 the French revolutionists, was bom in 1759. He was originally 
 a capuchin monk, but the perusal of the works of certain 
 infidel philosophers converted him to atheism. In 1791 he was 
 elected a member of the assembly, and at once took his seat 
 among the extreme democrats. He was the instigator of not a 
 few, and a strenuous promoter of all of the atrocious measures, 
 adopted by the assembly during the frenzy of that terrible period. 
 It was Chabot who was the author of the well-known blasphemous 
 statement that "citizen Jesus Christ was the first sans-culotte of 
 the world." He affected great severity of manners, and attended 
 the convention in clothes made of the coarsest materials, his 
 neck and breast bare, and his person filthy and squaUd m the 
 extreme. This ferocious monster was as notorious for his 
 conniption as for his cruelty. In the end he became implicated 
 in a conspiracy along with two profligate Gennan barons named 
 Frey, whose sister he married. His mtrigues were detected, 
 and finding death inevitable, he attempted to destroy himself by 
 swallowing corrosive sublimate. His life, however, was pro- 
 longed in extreme torture for three days, and he was guillotined 
 on the 5th of April, 1794.— J. T. 
 
 CHABOT, Philippe, Count of Chami and Busan9ois, known 
 by the name of the Admiral de Brion. He was bora about tie 
 end of the fifteenth century, and was educated along with Francis 
 I., and several distinguished young nobles. In 1524 he threw 
 himself into Marseilles, then besieged by the imperialists, whom 
 he compelled to raise the siege. In 1535 he was intmsted with 
 the management of the war against Savoy, and in a short time 
 gained possession of nearly the whole of Piedmont ; but he is 
 said, through the influence of the cardinal of Lorraine, to have 
 neglected to follow up his success. On his return to France he 
 was mixed up with the intrigues of the court, and through the 
 enmity of the constable De Montmorency, was an-ested, brought 
 to trial on the 3rd February, 1540, found guilty of various malver- 
 sations, and condemned to pay a heavy fine, to banishment, and 
 the confiscation of his goods. Francis, however, was induced to 
 pardon Chabot, through the entreaties of the duchess d'Lltanipcs, 
 and to reinstate him in all his employments. In a short time 
 after, the constable was in turn disgraced, and Chabot and the 
 cardinal de Bourbon were appointed to succeed him in his oflicrs. 
 Chabot was the author of the project to colonize Canadiu He 
 died in 1543.— J. T. 
 
 CHABOT DE l'Allier, Georges Antoine, a distin- 
 guished French la^TCr, l)ora in 1758. He was admitted a 
 councillor of the jiariiament of Paris in 1783. He was pR'.sidcnt 
 of tlie tribunate when the pe.ice of Amiens was concludeii, and 
 energetically supported the elevation of Napoleon to the imperial 
 throne. Chabot was nominated inspector-general of schools of 
 law in 1806, member of the legislative body in 1807, and 
 councillor of the court of appeal in 18(iO. On the downfall of 
 Napoleon, he was confinncd in all his ofVucs by Lo>iis XVIII. 
 He died in 1819, leaving some legal dissertations. — J. T. 
 
 CHABRRY or CUABRI^:E, DoMixiQiE, called also Chab- 
 r-EUS, a physician and botanist, was born at Geneva towards 
 
 6F
 
 the end of the sixteenth century, and died about 1670. He 
 practised his profession at Yverdun. He published descriptions 
 and drawings of plants, particularly native species and those 
 used in the arts, domestic economy, and medicine. He also 
 superintended, but very inefficiently, the publication of Bauhin's 
 Historia I'lantarum.— J. H. B. 
 
 CHABKIAS : a renowned Athenian general. In 388 B.C. 
 he defeated Gorgopas at the head of a powerful Spartan force 
 i in the island of jEgina. In 379 he was sent with an army of 
 j 5000 men to the assistance of Thebes against Agesilaus, whom 
 I he forced to retire on one occasion, by drawing up his troops 
 with their right knees on the ground, their shields resting on 
 I their left, and their spears protruded. The Atlienians erected 
 ! a statue to Chabrias in commemoration of this success, repre- 
 ! senting him in the attitude which he had caused his soldiers to 
 ( assume. In September, 376 B.C., in a sharply-contested action 
 ' near Naxos, he completely defeated the Lacedemonian fieet under 
 Pollio, disabling or capturing forty-nine triremes, and regained 
 ! for Athens the mastery of the sea. The Athenian admiral then 
 ' sailed victorious round the iEgean, and, according to Demos- 
 thenes, made prizes of other twenty triremes; took three 
 I thousand prisoners, with one hundi'ed and ten tf.lents in money ; 
 I and added seventeen new cities to the Athenian confederacy. 
 j After many other brilliant exploits, he at length perished in the 
 I social war, 358 B.C., in an attack upon Chios, which had thrown 
 off the Athenian yoke. — J. T. 
 
 CHABROL DE Ckouzol, A-Ndr^ Jean, Count, a distin- 
 guished French statesman, was born in 1771. He was prefect 
 of the Ehone when Napoleon landed from Elba, and dexterously 
 contrived to evade the duty imposed upon him by that respon- 
 sible situation of resisting tlie advance of the emperor upon 
 Lyons. On the restoration of the Bourbons, violent tumults 
 broke out at Lyons against the Bonapartists, and many innocent 
 persons were assassinated, or murdered, under tlie forms of law. 
 Chabrol incun-ed deserved odium for not resisting the proceedings 
 of the fanatical royalist mob, and was recalled in 1817. Soon 
 after his return to Paris, however, lie was employed by the 
 ministry, and after filling various subordinate situations, was 
 created a peer in 1824, and minister of marine. His economical 
 and energetic administration of this department gave general 
 satisfaction. In 1829 the urgent entreaties of Charles X. induced 
 liim reluctantly to accept the portfolio of finance under Prince 
 Polignac. Dming his short term of office he effected considerable 
 savings in the public expenditure. After the revolution of 1830, 
 Count Chabrol devoted himself mainly to agricultui'al, scientific, 
 and literary pursuits. He died in 1836. — J. T. 
 
 CHABROL DE VoLvic, Gilbert Joseph Gaspard, Count 
 de, brother of the preceding, was born in 1773. He was a 
 member of the scientific expedition sent to explore the antiqui- 
 ties of Eg}-pt ; took part in the preparation of the gi'eat work on 
 Egypt, compiled by the members of the expedition ; and published 
 a volume of his ovra " On the lilanners and Customs of the 
 Modern Eg3'ptians." His ser('ices and abilities attracted the 
 attention of Napoleon, who appointed him prefect of an Italian 
 department, and afterwards of the department of the Seine. 
 He subsequently gained the entire confidence of Louis XVIIL, 
 and for many years devoted himself with untiring assiduity to the 
 duties of his situation. He reformed and enlarged the public 
 hospitals, constructed slaughter-houses, sewers, canals, bridges, 
 fountains, walks, and the Bourse, together with a great number 
 of churches. The fine arts also were the objects of his constant 
 solicitude, nor was he less anxious to promote public education. 
 He erected the royal colleges of St. Louis, Stanislaus, and Rollin, 
 contributed towards the restoration of the Sorbonne, and insti- 
 tuted great numbers of primar)' schools, leaving, when he quitted 
 office, twenty-six thousand children, instead of seventeen hun- 
 dred, under instruction in his department. After the restoration 
 of 1830, Chabrol retired into private life, and died in 1843.— J. T. 
 CHACON or CIACONIUS, Pedro, a learned Spaniard, 
 born at Toledo in 1525; died at Rome in 1581. His erudition 
 was the admiration of such learned contemporaries as Baronius, 
 De Thou, and Casaubon. He was canon of Seville. 
 
 CHADERTON, Laurence, first master of Emmanuel college, 
 Cambridge, was born in Lanca.sliirc in 1546. He was educated 
 a Roman catholic, and intended by his father for the profession of 
 law. Devoting himself to theology, and becoming a student at 
 Cambridge, he was disinherited by his father. He gradually 
 rose ia his profession, till, in 1584, Sir Walter Mildmay, the 
 
 rcfounder of Emmanuel college, chose him for its first master. 
 He was one of the divines employed under James I. in the 
 translation of the scriptures. He is the author of some sermons, 
 and of a treatise on justification. He died in 1640. — J. B. 
 
 * CHADWICK, Edwin, was horn on the 24th January, 1801, 
 in the vicinity of i\Ianchester. He was intended for the bar, but 
 the natural bent of his mind was towards social and statistical 
 questions, and he attracted considerable attention by an article on 
 life assurance in the Westminster Review in 1828, and by two 
 papers — one on "Preventive Police," the other on "The Admin- 
 istration of Medical Charities in France" — which appeared in the 
 London Review in 1829. In 1832, when preparing to practise 
 at the common law bar, he was, on the recommendation of Jlr. 
 Senior, appointed an assistant-commissioner upon the inquny into 
 the working of the poor laws in England and Wales. The masterly 
 report which he prepared obtained for him at once a seat in the 
 commission of inquiry. He was next employed, along with Dr. 
 Southwood Smith and ^Ir. Tooke, in an inquiry into factory 
 laboiu'. When the poor law board was constituted in 1834, 
 Mr. Chadwick was appointed sccretaiy to the board, and for 
 thirteen years discharged the duties of that laborious and respon- 
 sible office with untiring assiduity and wgour. During tliat 
 period he also assisted in caiTj-ing out various important mea- 
 sures for promoting public health, and drew up the report of 
 the constabulary commission, and the report " On the General 
 Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes in Great Britain." 
 In 1847 Mr. Chadwick was appointed to the metropolitan sani- 
 tary commission, and in the following year he was nominated 
 a member of the general board of health. It is undeniable 
 that this board contributed gi'eatly to the improvement of the 
 public health, but its vigorous sanitary measures excited the 
 hostility of several powerful individuals and mterests, and when 
 the government proposed in 1854 to renew the public health 
 act, they were taken by surprise, and unexpectedly defeated 
 by a small majority. The administration of the act was in 
 consequence intrusted to a member of the house of commons, 
 and Jlr. Chadwick, who had previously received the honour of 
 companion of the bath, retired upon a pension. — J. T. 
 
 CHyEREA, C. Cassius, the originator of the conspu-acy by 
 which the Emperor Caligula was slain, a.d. 41, was tribune of 
 the pra?torian guards. On the accession of Claudius he was put 
 to death. 
 
 CHjEREJION, a celebrated tragic poet, flourished at Athens, 
 380 B.C. Three epigi-ams in the Greek anthology are ascribed 
 to Cha^remon. 
 
 CHiEREMON of Alexandria, a stoic philosopher, chief 
 librarian of the Alexandrian library, came to Rome, and was 
 appointed one of the preceptors of Nero. Besides treatises on 
 hieroglyphics and comets he WTOte a history of Egyj)t. 
 
 CHyEREPHON, the well-known disciple of Socrates, was 
 banished by the thirty tyrants, returned to Athens 403 B.C., and 
 died some time before the condemnation of his master in 399. 
 
 CHAGIS, R' Jacob ben Samuel ben Jacob, descended 
 from a Spanish family, settled at Fez. He passed some time of 
 his life at Leghorn, then officiated as rabbi at Jerusalem, and 
 ended his days at Constantinople in 1688. His fourteen works, 
 enumerated by his son, Moses Chagis, in a preface to one of 
 Jacob Chagis' compositions, are valuable introductions to the 
 study of the Mishna and Talmud. — Moses Chagis, son of Jacob, 
 was a native of Jerasalem, and came to Europe for the piu-pose 
 of collecting funds for the support of the Eastern synagogues. 
 He resided for a time at Altona near Hamburg ; in 1738 he 
 returned to Sidon, thence to Zephath, where he died at an 
 ad^■anced age. His literary activity was great ; he wrote on the 
 Talmud; a commentary on Daniel; several books on ethics; also 
 a topogi-aphy of Jerusalem and the adjacent country. The 
 doctrines of Sabbatai Zebi, propagated in Europe by Nehemiah 
 Chayun, were zealously controverted by Chagis in the "Iggereth 
 Hakkenaoth" (the Epistle of Zeal); " Shofetim Baarez" (the 
 Judges in the Land) ; and " Sheber Poshim" (the Shattering of 
 the Wicked) ; in which the system and the histoiy of Sabbatai's 
 school are unsparingly exposed. — T. T. 
 
 CHAHYN-GH^RAI, the last khan of the Crimea, who 
 reigned from about 1777 to 1780. He was installed on the 
 throne through the intervention of the emperor of Russia, who 
 afterwards, availing himself of an insurrection in the khan's 
 dominions, sent an army into the Crimea. To resist this aggres- 
 sion, the Tartars and Turks entered into an alhance, but their
 
 CHA 
 
 963 
 
 CHA 
 
 army was defeated, and the Russians became the virtual masters 
 of the country. In 1779 a treaty was entered into bet\yeen the 
 Empress Catherine and the Porte, through the inten'ention of 
 the French court, by wliich the former became bound to evacuate 
 the Crimea. But new distm'bances soon arose among the Tartars, 
 and the unhappy khan, worn out with domestic troubles and 
 foreign intrigues, in 1783 renounced his rights in favour of 
 Russia, and received in retm-n a pension of eight hundred thou- 
 sand roubles. Having afterwards sought an asylum in Constanti- 
 nople, he was put to death by order of the sultan.- — J. T. 
 
 CHAIS, Charles, an eminent protestant divine, born at 
 Geneva in 1701, became pastor of a congregation at the Hague 
 in 1728 ; and till the close of his long and laborious hfe enjoyed 
 the reputation of an eloquent preacher, an erudite writer on 
 theolog}^, and a zealous promoter of public charities. Besides 
 a translation of the bible, with a commentary, in six volumes, he 
 published various tracts on divinity, and an edition of Hainault's 
 Chronological History. He died in 1785. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHAISE. See Filleau and Lachaise. 
 
 CHALAFTA, R' Jose ben C, one of the Tanaim or teachers 
 of the tradition among the Jews in Palestine, lived in the early 
 part of the second century at Sepphoris. His moral sayings, 
 amounting to upwards of three hundred, are preserved in the 
 Talmud, and bear evidence of the depth of his feeling and of 
 the correctness of his judgment. Notmthstanding his high 
 authority as a teacher of the people, he practised the humble craft 
 of a tanner. He composed for his own use an epitome of the 
 traditional laws under the Greek title of " Nomicon." None of 
 his contemporaries showed an equal zeal for the collection of 
 chronological data bearing on the history of the Jews. He left 
 behind him a chronicle extending from the creation of the world 
 to the war of Bar Cochba, entitled " Seder 01am" (Order of the 
 World). He endeavoured to fix the chronology of the biblical 
 events, and to fill up historical gaps with traditional notices. 
 From the epoch of Alexander downward, the chronicle of R' Jose 
 furnishes independent and trustworthy, though but meagi'e data. 
 — (Crate, vol. iv., p. 218.) This " Seder 01am," of which 
 mention is made m the Talmud, exists in two recensions, viz., 
 "Seder 01am Rabba" and "Seder 01am Zuta" (the Great 
 Chronicle and the Small Chronicle), the latter of which certainly 
 speaks of facts by much posterior to the time of Jose Ben 
 Chalafta.— T. T. 
 
 CHALCIDIUS, a platonic philosopher, who lived probably 
 either in the fourth or the sixth century of our era. His trans- 
 lation into Latin of the Timxus of Plato, ^nth its voluminous 
 commentary, was edited by ]\Ieursius, Leyden, 1G17; and by 
 Fabricius, Hamburg, 1718. The religious tenets of this philo- 
 sopher have been the subject of much controversy among the 
 learned ; some maintaining and others denying that he was a 
 christian. 
 
 CHALCOCONDYLAS, Laonicos or Nicolaos, born at 
 Athens towards the close of the fourteenth century; died about 
 1464. He was of a princely family. In the year 14.30, or 
 about that period, he went to Constantinople to solicit from the 
 sultan a participation in the government of Attica, which was at 
 the time in the hands of his family or their near connections. 
 The visit to the sultan was an unfortunate one, for it not only 
 failed in its object, but during Chalcocondylas' absence a different 
 faction got the upper hand in Athens, expelled the governing 
 party, and gave tlie management of the city to two Florentines. 
 Chalcocondylas, becoming an object of suspicion to the sultan, 
 was arrested, made his escape (with the loss, however, of con- 
 siderable property), and fled to the Peloponnesus. He was there 
 taken, delivered to the sultan — his money was of more moment 
 to the sultan than his life — and the only measures taken against 
 him were to declare thirty thousand pieces of gold, which had 
 fallen into Amurath's hands, confiscated. Chalcocondylas' future 
 course is no further traced than that we know he was occupied 
 in long, and probably fruitless efforts, to beg back his money. 
 His " History of the Turks " is, in some respects, one of the 
 most valuable of the works of Byzantine history. It is divided 
 into ten books. The first is introductory. If we are to regard 
 it as the commencement of the work, tlic whole narration may 
 be described as extending from 1298 to 14G2. However, the 
 year 1389 may more properly be described as the date from 
 which the actual histoi-y commences. His account of the taking 
 of Constantinople is very spirited, and has supplied many details 
 to Gibbon and Von Hammer. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHALIER, Marie Joseph, a French revolutionist, born in 
 1747 in Piedmont. He was originally destined for the cluirch, 
 but ultimately settled at Lyons as a merchant. In 1789 he 
 abandoned his mercantile pursuits, and threw himself with 
 headlong fury into the vortex of the Revolution. He became a 
 zealous partisan of the party of the Mountain, and applauded 
 their most sanguinary edicts. He resolved to cany out their 
 policy at Lyons, and proposed, Februaiy 6, 1793, to a club which 
 he had established there, that they should put to death nine 
 liundred of their fellow-citizens, and cast their bodies into the 
 Rhone. But the mayor of the city having fortunately received 
 notice of this diabolical plot, called out the national guard for 
 the protection of the inhabitants. At length a conflict took 
 place between them and the Jacobins on the 29th of May, in 
 which the latter were worsted. Chalier and his accomplices 
 were seized, tried, and condemned to death, and this ferocious 
 monster was guillotined on the 16th of July. — J. T. 
 
 CHALKHILL, John. See Walton, Isaac. 
 
 CHALMERS, Alexander, an industrious man of letters 
 and eminent biographer, was bom at Aberdeen, March 29, 1759. 
 Having received a classical and medical education, he left his 
 native city in 1777, intending to proceed as sm-geon to the West 
 Indies ; but when at Portsmouth and about to sail, he changed his 
 mind and proceeded to London, where he soon found emploj-ment 
 in connection with the periodical press. He contributed to many 
 of the leading journals, and was for a time editor of the Morning 
 Herald. It was as an editor of standard works, however, that 
 he was to be permanently connected with the metropolitan 
 press. We cannot afford space to enumerate all the works 
 which were published under his editorial care. In 1803 he 
 edited the British Essayists, in forty-five volumes, beginning 
 with the Tatler and ending with the Observer. The historical 
 and biographical prefaces of this work are executed with singular 
 carefulness and discrimination. In the same year he prepared 
 an edition of Shakspeare; and in 1805 prefixed lives of Burns 
 and Dr. Beattie to editions of their respective works. In 1806 
 he edited the works of Fielding, Johnson, and Warton, arid 
 assisted Bowles with his edition of Pope. From this date to 
 1812 we find him editing Gibbon's History, Bolingbroke's works, 
 the works of the English poets — with Johnson's Lives, and sup- 
 plemental lives from his own pen — Hurd's edition of Addison, 
 Pope's works, and Cruden's Concordance. He also wrote a 
 histoiy of the public buildings of Oxford, and in 1822 edited 
 the ninth edition of Boswell's Life of Johnson. But tlie work 
 on which Mr. Chalmers' fame must rest is his " General Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary; containing a historical and critical account 
 of the most eminent men in every nation." The first volume 
 appeared in May, 1812, and the thirty-second and List was 
 published in Jlarch, 1817. By this work, which might well 
 seem to represent a lifetime of patient and conscientious toil, 
 all subseqiient publications of the same kind and literature in 
 general have deeply profited. iMr. Chalmers was for the long 
 period of fifty years well known and highly resjjected as an 
 industrious, talented, and upriglit man, among the cliief literary 
 men and booksellers of the metropolis. He died, December 10, 
 1834. We are indebted for these facts to a biography in the 
 Gentleman's Magazine, to the pages of which Mr. Chalmers was 
 long a valued contributor. — J. B. 
 
 CHALMERS, George, aScottish antiquary and gcneralwritcr, 
 was born in 1742 at Fochabers in Morayshire. He was educated 
 at King's college, Aberdeen, and after studying law at Edinburgh, 
 he emigrated to North America, where he followed the legal i)ro- 
 fession until tlie breaking out of the revolutionary war. He then 
 returned to England, and was appointed clerk to tlie board of 
 trade — an office which he continued to hoUl for tlic remainder 
 of his fife. He had previously written " Pohtical Annals of tlio 
 United Colonies from tlicir Settlement till 176.S," and "An 
 Estimate of the Comparative Strengtli of Great Britain," whicli 
 works, together with the losses ho had sustained in consequence 
 of liis loyal sentiments, recommended him to the patronage of 
 the government. He now devoted liimself zealously to literary 
 and anti(iuarian pursuits. He wrote the lives of De Foe, 
 Thomas liuddiinan. Sir John Davis, Allan Ramsay, Sir James 
 Stewart, Gregory, King, and Ch.arics Smith; together with a 
 number of paiiiphlits and fugitive pieces, and a life of Tliomas 
 Paine, which he published under the name of Oldys. He also 
 edited the works of Allan Ramsay, Sir James Stewart of Colt- 
 ness, and Su- David Lindsay of the Mount. His principal work,
 
 however, entitled " Caledonia," a historical and topographical 
 account of North Britain from the invasion of the Romans 
 down to the present time, in 3 vols. 4to, was left unfinished 
 at the time of the author's death. It displays prodigious 
 research, and is full of valuable information, but is disfigm-ed 
 by an awkward clumsy style. His lust published work was 
 "'The Life of JIary Queen of Scots," in 2 vols. 4to, a violent 
 and prejudiced defence of that unfortunate princess. Wr. 
 Chalmers died on the 31st Jlay, 1825.— J. T. 
 
 CHALMERS, Thomas, born at Anstruther, Fife, March 17, 
 1780; died at Edinburgh, i\Iay 31, 18-17. His boyhood was 
 not remarkable ; but when a young student at St. Andrew's under 
 Dr. James Brown, his intellect awoke, and geometry was the 
 fairy world on which the eyes of his understanding opened. 
 Soon after, the perusal of Jonathan Edwards on the Freedom of 
 the Will introduced hun to " a sort of mental elysium, in which 
 he spent nParly a twelvemonth ; the one idea which ministered 
 to his soul all its rapture being the magnificence of the Godhead, 
 and the universal subordination of all things to the. one great 
 purpose, for which he evolved and was supporting creation." 
 And in much the same way did other truths from time to time 
 efl'cct their advent, gaining all the homage of his intense and 
 enthusiastic nature. Thus for some years he was absorbed in 
 chemistry, which the discoveries of Black, Lavoisier, and Da\-y 
 conspired to render tlie most romantic of the sciences ; and, 
 by and by, as the disciple of the Wealth of Nations, he was 
 entranced in economical reveries, and bent all the strength of 
 his mind to questions of taxation, trade, and labour. In the 
 meanwhile he had become a minister. On the 31st July, 1799, 
 from the presbj-tery of St. Andrew's, he obtained license to preach 
 the gospel; from July, 1801, till September, 1802, he was the 
 assistant minister at Cavers in Roxburghshhe ; and in November 
 of the latter year he was appointed to the charge of Kihnany in 
 Fife. But whilst the mirustry was his profession, science was 
 his pursuit. Not but that he loved his people, and occasionally 
 perambulated their abodes, " his affections flying before him ; " 
 and in frank and homely exhortations he sought to soften tlieir 
 manners and improve their morals, but with very inconspicuous 
 success. His own heart was divided, and it was the lesser half 
 which conscience was able to rescue for his parish and his pas- 
 torate. The Saturday afternoon was devoted to some hasty 
 preparation for the pulpit, and the rest of the week he was 
 wandering among the glorious hills, alone or in the society of 
 his neighbour and brother-natm-alist, Fleming of FUsk, chipping 
 the rocks, and exploring the quaixies ; or he might be seen 
 trudging along to St. Andrew's, to enlighten its lieges on the 
 wonders of oxygen, or to improvise mathematical poems to a class 
 of applauding students ; whilst the gospel, which it was his 
 commission to proclaim, lay upon the shelf an unsolved enigma, 
 or looked out upon him from the pages of the Testament, an 
 "open secret" to which he had never yet adverted. 
 
 The death of a beloved sister, followed by a lingering illness 
 of his own, forced his mind into earnest contact with the truths 
 of revelation. The first result was a new view of the lofty 
 requirements of Christianity. As dehneated in the apostolical 
 writings, and as exliibited in the person of its Divine Founder, 
 it possessed a sjnnmetiy and grandem- of which he had never 
 foiTued the least conception ; and for many months it was his 
 daily effort, both in intercourse with others and in the on-goings 
 of the inner man, to realize the beauty of its holiness. Very 
 noble were his efl'orts, and probably no one except himself would 
 have pronounced them entirely unsuccessful. Still, the veiy pro- 
 cess which, in the eyes of on-lookers, was elevating his character, 
 tended to quicken his own moral sensibilities so much more 
 rapidly, that the usual paradox was repeated, and growing 
 excellence was hidden from his own eyes by a deepening sense 
 <if his own deficiencies. In this mood of mind, he was prepared 
 to hail a statement of the divine plan for saving sinners, and 
 nobilitating anew their natures, which he first met in the Prac- 
 tical View of Mr. Wilberforce. A right relation to God as the 
 starting-point and not the goal, a gratuitous forgiveness, and 
 a present salvation, were the truths which he then for the first 
 time ajjprchended ; and as they rose upon his soul m all their 
 self-coinmending majesty, he felt " the true light now shineth," 
 and he wept and exulted in the immortal day-spring. 
 
 From this time forward (and he had reached his thirtieth 
 year) it may be said that all the powers of his extraordinary 
 intellect were devoted to develope and apply the great discovery ; 
 
 and it was not long till Kilmany and the district adjacent con- 
 fessed the power of his fen'id ministiy. The change in his 
 preaching was followed by a perceptible change in many of his 
 people. In a valedictory address he declares — "I am not sen- 
 sible that all the vehemence with which I urged the virtues and 
 the proprieties of social life, had the weight of a feather on the 
 moral habits of my parishioners. And it was not till I got 
 impressed by the utter alienation of the heart in all its desires 
 and affections from God ; it was not till reconciliation to him 
 became the distinct and the prominent object of my ministerial 
 exertions ; it was not till the free offer of forgiveness through 
 the blood of Christ was m'ged upon their acceptance, and the 
 Holy Spirit, given through the channel of Christ's mediatorship 
 to all who ask him, was set before them as the unceasing object 
 of their dependence and their prayers .... that I ever 
 heard of any of those subordinate reformations which I aforetime 
 made the earnest and the zealous, but I am afraid, at the same 
 time, the ultimate object of my earlier ministrations." 
 
 Of such preaching and its results the fame soon spread, and 
 in July, 1815, he was transferred to the Tron church in Glas- 
 gow, which, in 1819, he exchanged for the new church and 
 parish of St. John's in the same city. In this latter sphere his 
 leonine energies were chiefly given to work out his fondly-cherished 
 ideal of a city parish, in virtue of which it should be approxi- 
 mated as nearly as possible to a niral district, with provision for 
 maintaining a friendly christian intercourse with all its families, 
 and for educating and morally elevating all its inhabitants ; 
 and with the fellow -workers whom his own feiTour enhsted, 
 his success was remarkable. But it was his efforts in the pulpit 
 which chiefly contributed to render memorable and miique the 
 eight years of his Glasgow ministry. All his powers were in 
 their prime. One by one the great truths of revelation had 
 come mto his soul; and, as with its inimitable gi-andeiur and 
 infinite adaptation, each divine announcement filled that soul 
 like a possession, it was the effort of the sermon to gain for it 
 the vivid perception and intelligent assent of a promiscuous 
 auditoiy ; but even whilst labouring by the simplest illustrations 
 to make it plain, the elevation of his spirit still kept it sublime. 
 With something of each hearer in his o^vn composition ; with a 
 store of good sense, and a proverbial homeliness which concili- 
 ated the practical, and with an imagination which earned help- 
 lessly captive the more sentimental ; with a pathos which melted 
 every tender heart, and a fearless majesty which made eveiy 
 manly nature thrill with contagious heroism — he brought to his 
 theme an intellectual ascendancy and a fervour of spirit entirely 
 his o\\Ti, and the listener who at first walked on the same level, 
 at last could only keep him company by catching the skirt of 
 his mantle or mounting his chariot of fire. Into each discourse 
 he threw his soul entire — the geometrician's breadth of axiom 
 and carefulness of deduction, the psychologist's insight into the 
 arcana of human consciousness, the philanthropist's desirous- 
 ncss for his hearers' welfare, the christian's high-toned vhtue 
 and de\ otion. Like a pebble cast into the quiet crater, he often 
 commenced with some plain and simple aphorism; and as it 
 began to gather towards itself the materials which a copious 
 science furnished, the overhanging cloud expanded and displayed 
 the chromatic glories which a gorgeous imagination cast upon it ; 
 and as then the ground began to tremble and the finnament to 
 mutter with mysterious emotion, the volcano burst — like flaming 
 seraphim words of rapture went up, like red lava the over- 
 whelming demonstration came down, and with thunder in his 
 ears and an earthquake in his frame the hearer carried away a 
 new sensation at the least, and along with it, peradventure, the 
 elements of a change in his moral constitution. 
 
 Like all noble natures, Dr. Chalmers was distinguished by 
 a profound and all-pervading sincerity. He could not be per- 
 functoiy. When he commenced his career, the evangeUcal 
 ministrj' was wont to confine itself to a few traditional topics 
 and time-honoured commonplaces. The consequence was that 
 most of its preaching missed the mark. It edified believers, 
 but it was little calculated to increase their number. With his 
 eyes open to the immediate exigency. Dr. Chalmers could only 
 gi-apple with existing evils. For example, amongst the more 
 intelligent citizens he found not a few whose rehgious faith was 
 distm-bed by scientific doubts ; but instead of denouncing as black 
 arts astronomy and geology, or flinging anathemas in the face of 
 facts, he stepped forward with philosophy in the one hand and 
 the bible in the other, and by such feats of sanctified eloquence
 
 as the "Astronomical Discourses," he vindicated for the christian 
 revelation Its place of high and magnificent enthronement. Then 
 again, he knew right well that in a commercial capital the gospel's 
 great opponent was not any scientific doubt or intellectual diffi- 
 culty, so much as actual earthly-mindedness ; and leaving it to 
 others to adjust theological niceties, he dealt open war with the 
 love of pelf, tlie pride of purse, the tricks of trade, the gambling, 
 the swindling, and the hardness of feeling which are apt to beset 
 men hastening to be ricli ; and to such frank and faithful exhor- 
 tations as abound in the "Commercial Discourses" may be 
 ascribed not a little of the public spirit and princely munificence 
 which, amidst many mortifying exceptions, still make " Glasgow 
 flourish." 
 
 Such sermons, however, and such toils were self-consuming. 
 Accordingly, when the chair of moral philosophy in his own 
 alma mater ^ St. Andrews, was offered to him in 1823 he 
 accepted it as an asylum opportune and welcome. His fame 
 secured a crowded classroom, and from his high-souled religious 
 grandeur, as much as from his ethical expositions, a multitude 
 of ardent disciples carried away the impulses which are not yet 
 exhausted, and the lessons for which the world is the better 
 still. Here, too, he was enabled to revise and mature those 
 opinions on social science, of which the ripe results were after- 
 wards (1832) given to the world in his volume " On Political 
 Economy." According to the testimony of llr. John Stuart ]\Iill 
 and other competent judges, this work, characterized by free and 
 independent thought, has thrown much new light on the per- 
 plexed but urgent questions of which it treats ; and the great 
 principle by which it is pervaded, viz., the need of moral worth 
 in order to a nation's material well-being, is every day forcing 
 itself on our legislators and statesmen more and more. It may 
 be questioned, however, whether the originality and value of his 
 speculations on social and economical topics have been sufli- 
 ciently recognized in his own countiy. Doubtless, it was chiefly 
 to these that he was indebted for a high distinction conferred on 
 him in 1834, when he was elected a corresponding member of 
 the Institute of France. 
 
 In 1828 he was translated to the professorship of divinity in 
 the university of Edinburgh. This appointment not only gave him 
 opportunity to expatiate on those broad and comprehensive lea- 
 tures of the christian faith for which his ovni soul had an intense 
 affinity ; but it enabled him to inculcate with eager minuteness 
 those views of parochial administration with which as a christian 
 patriot he believed that the well-being of his country was identi- 
 fied. Nor was he content with academic demonstrations. Con- 
 vinced that the thousand parish chm-ches, supplemented by some 
 hundreds of seceding chapels, did not provide for the population 
 a sufficiency of instruction and superintendence, he committed 
 himself to a herculean undertaking ; and, through the prestige of 
 his name and the powerful appeals with which he passed from 
 town to town and from village to village during the campaigns 
 of successive summers, contributions were obtained for the erec- 
 tion of nearly two hundred places of worship. But l)efore this 
 movement was completed a contest had arisen between the civil 
 and ecclesiastical tribunals of the country, which, on the 18th of 
 May, 1843, ended in the disruption of the church of Scotland. 
 At the head of the maintainers of spiritual independence was Dr. 
 Chalmers ; and he was borne by acclamation into the moderator- 
 ship or presidency of the first Free Church Assembly. He had now 
 passed the grand climacteric, and with so many of his favourite pro- 
 jects for ever frustrated, and with his new churches left behind 
 him, it would have been no wonder if his spirit had soured or his 
 heart had broken ; but though disappointed, he was not dismayed. 
 Cheered by the self-sacrifice of four hundred and seventy minis- 
 terial brethren, and by the munificence which evolved like magic 
 over all the land in a still larger number of new churches, lie set to 
 work and organized that mutual sustentation fund which invites 
 the stronger congregations to support the weak, and which seeks 
 to give a palpable expression to presbyterian parity. Called to 
 the principalship of the Free Church college, and surrounded by 
 the love and reverence of his brethren, he passed his few remain- 
 ing years in thankfulness and hope, and abounding in labours to 
 the last. That last came abruptly ; his sun went down when 
 no one thought that it was setting, and the pang which the 
 sudden tidings sent through the nation's heart proclaimed that, 
 like Knox, and Burns, and Scott, all Scotland was proud of 
 Thomas Chalmers. 
 
 Before his death he had edited his own works in a collective 
 
 series, extending to twenty-five foolscap volumes. Of these, to 
 thoughtful readers, the most abidingly valuable are likely to be 
 his work on the Christian Evidences, and his Bridgewater Trea- 
 tise. Since his death nine additional octavos have appeared, 
 five of them being observations on passages of scripture, unspeak- 
 ably interesting and valuable as the free and off-hand expression 
 of a piety so genuine and of an intelligence so superior. Known 
 to his contemporaries chiefly as a pulpit orator, or as the cham- 
 pion of some great principle in church courts. Dr. Chalmers 
 will go down to posterity as the most inventive and influential 
 of christian philanthropists. Familiar as they have now become, 
 his schemes of beneficence were once so novel that few did not 
 deem them visionary. Territorial missions and volunteer agencies 
 for raising the helpless and refornfing the vicious, were so httle 
 dreamed of in the days of our fathers, that we who see them 
 carried out in refomiatories and ragged schools and city missions, 
 can hardly conceive how transcendental and impracticable they 
 once appeared. But happily their first propounder was no mere 
 poet; as soon as the plan was clear before him, he was impatient 
 to put forth his hand and commence the great experiment. And 
 he was happy in finding or creating coadjutors. Like all men 
 of overmastering energy — like all men of clear conception and 
 valiant pm-pose — like Nelson and Napoleon, and others bom to 
 be commanders — over and above the assurance achieved by suc- 
 cess, there was a spell in his audacity, a fascination in his 
 sanguine chivalry. Many were drawn after him, canied irresist- 
 ibly along by his fervid spirit and his force of character ; and 
 though at first some felt that it needed faith to follow, like the 
 great genius of modern warfare, experience showed that, for 
 moral as well as military conquests, there may be the truest wis- 
 dom in dazzling projects and rapid movements and unprecedented 
 daring. At the same time it must he remembered that it was 
 owing to the width of his field, the extent of his future, and the 
 greatness of his faith, that the most venturesome of philanthro- 
 pists has proved the most victorious. The width of his field — 
 for, whilst operating on St. John's he had an eye to Scotland ; 
 in seeking an optimism for his own church or country, he had an 
 eye to Christendom. The extent of his future — for it is oidy by 
 overtopping his coevals that a man can be the vaticination of 
 some age to come, and Chalmers was the giant wlio struggled 
 evermore to speed his generation onward, and bring it abreast of 
 that wiser kinder epoch of which he himself was the precocious 
 denizen. The gi-eatness of his faith — for it was his Ijelicf that 
 whatsoever things are scriptural are politic. Whatsoever is in 
 the bible, he believed shall yet be in the world. And he believed 
 that nothing is too great to hope for which Divine goodness has 
 promised, and that nothing is impossible which God has asked 
 his church to perform. — (See Mtmoirs of Dr. Chalmers, an 
 ample and delightful biography by his son-in-law, Dr. llanna ; 
 North British Review, vol. vii.) — J. H. 
 
 CHALON, John James, K.A., was born of Swiss parents in 
 this country about the year 1785 ; he was the elder brother of 
 Alfred Edward Chalon, the royal academician. John Ciialon 
 painted figures, animals, landscapes, and marine pieces, but is 
 best known as a (/ewre painter. His pictures are painted with 
 great skill and much humour; his taste is shown in some 
 "Sketches of Parisian Manners," which he published in 1820. 
 Of his landscapes the " Castle of Chillon " is spoken of as a 
 noble work. Chalon was a member of the Sketeliing Society 
 from its commencement, and he displayed remarkable skill in 
 some of the sketches he produced at the evening meetings of 
 that society. He was elected an associate of the Ivoyal Academy 
 in 1827, together witli Sir Charles Eastlake, but he did not 
 attain to the full honours of membership until 1840. He died 
 on tlie 14th of November, 1854.— K. N. W. 
 
 CHALONER: the name of a family distinguished in ])olitics 
 and literature in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Siit 
 Thomas, the elder, was born in London about 1515. After dis- 
 tinguishing himself at Candiridge, lie was received at the court 
 of Henry VIII., and sent on an embassy to Cliarles V., wliom 
 ho followed in the fatal expedition against Algiers. On his 
 return to England he was aii])oiiited first clerk of the council. 
 During the reigns of Edward and Mary, his fortunes were some- 
 what variable, but when Elizaiicth came to the throne he rose 
 into high favour, and was the first ambassailor appointed by 
 the queen. His was sent to Ferdinand I., and was eminently 
 successful in his mission. He was next despatched to the court 
 of Spain m 15G1, where he remained till 15G4. Duruig his
 
 residence in Spain he wrote his great work, "Of the Right 
 Ordering of the English Republic." He died in 1565, leaving a 
 number of minor tracts and some poetical pieces, aftenvards pub- 
 lished under the patronage of his constant friend Lord Burleigh. 
 That statesman took a warm interest in the education of his son. 
 Sir Thomas, the younger, who was bom in 1559, and who, after 
 studying at Oxford, travelled for some years, remaining longest 
 in Italy, and there acquii-ing a taste for natui-al pliilosophy for 
 which he became distinguished. About IGOO he discovered 
 alum mines not far from Gisborough in Yorkshu-e, the first 
 wrought in England. Toward the close of Elizabeth's reign 
 Sir Thomas went to Scotland, where he gained the favour of 
 King James, whom he accompanied in his journey to England, 
 and by whom he was appointed tutor to Prince Henry in 1603. 
 He died in 1615. He wrote a work entitled " The Vulue of 
 Nitre, wherein is declared the sundi-y cures by the same effected," 
 London, 1584. He had three sons, all of some note. — Edward, 
 bom in 1590 ; died of the plague at Oxford in 1625 ; wrote a 
 treatise on the authority, universality, and visibility of the church. 
 — Thomas and Jasies were both members of the long parlia- 
 ment, and were among the king's judges. The latter wrote a 
 history of the Isle of ilan. — J. B. 
 
 CHALOTAIS. See La Chalotais. 
 
 * CHALYB^EUS, Heinrich Moritz, a German philoso- 
 phical writer, was bom at Pfatfroda in Saxony in 1797, and 
 studied at Leipzig. In 1839 he was appointed professor of 
 philosophy at Kiel, but was dismissed from his chair in 1852. 
 He has written — " Historische Entwickelung der speculativen 
 Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel," 4th edition, 1818; "System 
 der speculativen Ethik," 1850, 2 vols. ; " Philosophie und 
 Christenthum," 1853, &c. — K. E. 
 
 CHAMBER or CHAJIBRE, John, a learned English physi- 
 cian of the sixteenth centun.-, one of the founders of the college 
 of physicians, took his degi-ee of M.A. at Oxford about 1502 ; 
 afterwards studied medicine at Padua, and on his return to 
 England became physician to Henry VIII. Henry's charter for 
 the foundation of the college of physicians, dated 1518, was 
 obtained through the intercession of Cardinal Wolsey, at the 
 request of Chamber and other four physicians, two of whom, 
 like himself, were attached to the court. Chamber afterwards 
 obtained preferment in the church, being ordained in 1510 canon 
 of Windsor, and in 1524 archdeacon of Bedford. He was also 
 prebend of Salisbury; in 1525 was elected warden of Merton 
 college, and at the same time became dean of the royal college 
 and chapel adjoining to Westminster hall, dedicated to the 
 Virgin Mary and St. Stephen. This chapel he endowed with a 
 considerable gift of lands, and enlarged by the addition of a 
 cloister which cost 11,000 marks. He died in 1549. — J. S.,G. 
 CHAJIBERLAYNE, Edward, born in Gloucestershire in 
 1616 ; died at Chelsea in 1703. He wrote a number of works, 
 historical, poUtical, and polemical, which, that they might be 
 preser\-ed for posterity, he caused to be covered with wax, and 
 buried in his grave. He published " Angliaj Xotitia, or the 
 Present State of England, with divers reflections upon the 
 ancient state thereof," 1668. This book passed through twenty 
 editions in the author's lifetime. — His son John continued 
 the " Anglife Xotitia." He was distinguished for his extensive 
 acquaintance with modem European languages, from which he 
 made numerous valuable translations. He published the Lord's 
 Prayer in a hundred languages. Died in 1723. — J. B. 
 
 CHAMBERS, DA-vao, a Scottish judge, and author of several 
 historical and legal works, was bom in Ross-shire in 1530. He 
 received his education at the college of Aberdeen, and afterwards 
 at Bologna, where he studied under Marianus Sozenus in 1556. 
 On his return to his native country he entered into clerical 
 orders, and was presented to the parish of Suddie, and made 
 chancellor of the diocese of Ross. He continued, however, at 
 the same time the prosecution of his legal studies, and in 1564 
 was elevated to the bench by Queen Mary, under the titular 
 designation of Lord Ormond. He was about the same time 
 intrusted, along with other high legal functionaries, with the 
 duty of compiling the volume of the acts of parliament known 
 by the title of " the Black Acts." Notwithstanding both of his 
 clerical and legal character, he was implicated in Bothwell's con- 
 spiracy against the life of Darnley ; and after the perpetration of 
 that atrocious deed, he was publicly denounced as an accomplice 
 in the king's murder. On the flight of Bothwell and the capture 
 of the queen. Chambers quitted the Idngdom, and took refuge in 
 
 Spain. He subsequently took up his residence in France, where 
 he published in 1572 a work entitled " Histoire Abr^gee de 
 tous les roys de France, Angleteire, et Ecosse," mainly founded 
 on the fabulous narrative of Boece. In 1579 he published a 
 panegyric upon the laws, religion, and valoijr of his native 
 country, under the title of " La Recherche des singularit^s les plus 
 remarquables concernant I'estait d"Ecosse," and a vindication 
 of the right of succession of females, entitled " Discours de la 
 legitime succession des femmes aux possessions des leurs parens 
 et du gouvemement des princesses aux empires et royaumes," 
 dedicated to Queen ]SIary. This learned but unprincipled writer 
 ultimately returned to Scotland, and, strange to say, was restored 
 to the bench by King James in 1586, and continued to discharge 
 his judicial functions till his death in 1592. — J. T. 
 
 CHAMBERS, David, a Roman catholic writer who flourished 
 in Scotland in the seventeenth centuiy. He is the author of a 
 woi-k dedicated to Charles I., and entitled " Davidis Camerarii, 
 Scoti, de Scotoram Fortitudine, Doctrina, et Pietate, Libri Qua- 
 tuor:" 4to. Paris, 1631.— J. T. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Ephkaim, author of the " Cyclopa;dia of 
 Science " which bears his name, was bom towards the close of 
 the seventeenth century at Kendal, Westmoreland, where his 
 father was a famier. After receiving an ordinary education, he 
 was sent to London, and apprenticed to Jlr. Senex, a globe- 
 maker, in whose employment he acquu-ed that taste for science 
 which resulted in the preparation of the work on which his fame 
 rests. Indeed it is said that the first articles for the dictionary 
 were written behind the counter. Finding, however, that more 
 leism'e was needed for prosecuting his design, he left the estab- 
 lishment of the globe-maker, took chambers in Gray's inn, and 
 devoted himself entu-ely to the preparation of his dictionar)', the 
 first edition of which appeared in 1728. It immediately won 
 reputation for its author, who was in 1729 elected a fellow of 
 the Royal Society. A second edition of the Cyclopaedia was called 
 for in 1738, and such was its popularity that it reached a fifth in 
 1746. Ere this, however, the author was dead. He had gone to 
 the south of France to recniit his health, but with little success ; 
 and retm-ning to England, he died in 1740. The Cyclopaedia 
 continued its popularity. A sixth edition appeared with sup- 
 plemental articles by Mr. Scott and Dr. Hill, and the work 
 was made the basis of the Cyclopaedia published under the care 
 of Dr. Abraham Rees, the issue of which was begun in 1778, 
 and completed in 1785. Mr. Chambers contributed to the 
 Literary Magazine; was associated with Mr. John Martyn in 
 publishing English abridgments of the papers on natural scieuce, 
 read before the Royal Academy at Paris ; and translated from 
 the French the Jesuits' Perspective. — J. B. 
 
 CHAMBERS, George: this ai-tist was bom at Wliitby, 
 Yorkshire, about the close of the last century. He was the son 
 of a poor seaman, and at the age of ten years commenced to 
 follow his father's profession as a cabin-boy on board a small 
 trading sloop. For two years the little fellow served in this 
 humble capacity, and was then apprenticed to the master of a 
 brig trading in the Mediterranean and Baltic. He was not in a 
 very auspicious arena for the developing of his art-resources; 
 the rough seamen he was cast among were not great applaudere 
 or appreciators of pictorial art, and were at first disposed, doubt- 
 less, to snub and deride so land-lubber an accomplishment as 
 sketching. But neither tar, nor ropes, nor rough work, nor the 
 jeers of the forecastle, could manacle the childish hand born with 
 a facility for design ; or could keep back the childish mind 
 already breaking out eagerly into the first steps of art. And 
 soon the forecastle applauds the sketching sailor-boy, and his 
 fame spreads " aft," and the captain's cabin at last gets wind of 
 the business. The boy is encouraged to quit the sea for land, 
 there to ply his pencil for his living — his indentures are can- 
 celled, and he works his way home again in another ship. The 
 boy returns to Whitby, but finds the entrance to his adopted 
 profession no easy matter to one so poor and unaided as himself. 
 He has no learning ; he knows nothing of colours ; he has had 
 no single lesson, no one word of instmction ; he has nothing 
 but his own good cause, liis stout heart, his active mind, and 
 his fiicile fingers. But poverty clogs his ambition. His first 
 connection with his profession is rather distant from art. Still 
 it is dabbling with colour, and that is something. He appren- 
 tices himself to an old woman who kept a painter's shop. He 
 paints houses; it is not certam that he does not plumb and 
 glaze and carpenter also. But he finds time and money to
 
 commence legitimate work at higher branches of art. He takes 
 lessons of a di-awing-master at Whitby, Bird by name, and paints, 
 and sells for anything he can get, small pictures of shipping 
 subjects. For three years he went on in this way ; his love of 
 art growing and swelling within him all the while. He never 
 despaired, but he longed for a wider field of chances ; he burned 
 to come to London. But the money ? There was but one 
 way. The sailor was called in to aid the artist. He worked 
 his way before the mast in a brig trading between Whitby and 
 London. And now fortune took him by the hand. He obtained 
 an introduction to Mr. Thomas Horner, and was employed for 
 seven years to assist in painting the Panorama of London at the 
 Colosseum, Regent's Park. Then he is appointed scene painter 
 at the Pavilion theatre. Admiral Lord Mark Kerr notices him, 
 and introduces him to King William the Fourth. That urbane 
 monarch does not know which to applaud the most — the painter 
 or the seaman. Chambers now stood fair to establish, on secure 
 foundations, both fame and fortune. Unhappily his strength 
 gave way. His health, never good, had been keenly tried by 
 the vicissitudes of his career. Mind and body suffered. He 
 gi'adually sunk, and died in 1840. His best works are his 
 naval battles. Three of these decorate the hall of Greenwich 
 hospital ; all are very spirited. Collectors set a high price upon 
 pictures of this nature by Cliambers. — W. T. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Siit Robert, chief justice of the supreme court 
 of judicatui'e in Bengal, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1737 ; 
 died at Paris in 1803. Educated at Oxford, he was chosen in 
 1754 an exhibitioner of Lincoln college ; shortly afterwards 
 became a fellow of University college ; in 1762 was elected by 
 the university Vinerian professor of the laws of England, and in 
 17G6, on the nomination of the Earl of Lichfield, obtained the 
 appointment of principal of New Inn Hall. In 1774 he went 
 to Bengal as second judge in the superior court ; in 1778 
 received the honour of knighthood; and in 1791 was advanced 
 to the dignity of chief justice. In 1799 the state of his health 
 obliged him to return to England, which he quitted in 1802 to 
 winter in France, where his honourable and useful career was 
 terminated by a paralytic seizure in 1803. He left a large 
 collection of Oriental MSS. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Sir William, a distinguished architect, born 
 at Stockholm in 1726. He was of Scotch descent, and when 
 only two years old, was brought to England. He made a 
 voyage to China in the service of the Swedish East India Com- 
 pany, but did not long continue in commercial life, for, at the 
 age of eighteen, he seems to have become an architect and 
 draughtsman in London. He was soon appointed to teach the 
 prince of Wales, afterwards (icorge III., the elements of archi- 
 tecture. This laid the foundation of his fame and fortune, for 
 after the accession of that prince, he was employed to lay out 
 the gardens at Kew. Before receiving that appointment, he 
 had published in 1759, " Designs for Chinese Buildings," and a 
 " Treatise on Civil Architecture ;" and after entering on his 
 duties, he issued in 1765, " Plans, Elevations, Sections, and 
 Perspective Views of the Gardens and Buildings at Kew." Both 
 in his writings and his designs he showed a peculiar predilec- 
 tion for the Chinese mode, both of architecture and gardening. 
 In 1771 he was made a knight of the Swedish order of the 
 polar star, and in the following year published " A Disser- 
 tation on Oriental Gardening," which attracted much attention, 
 and called forth a clever satire, attributed to Mason the poet. 
 Of the many buildings with the execution of which he was 
 intrusted, the most important were Somerset Place (never com- 
 I'leted) ; the seat of the marquis of Abercom, near Edinburgh ; 
 and Milton Abbey, Dorsetshire. He died in 1796. — J. B. 
 
 CHAMBERS, William Frederick, a distinguished physi- 
 cian, born in India in the year 1786. He was the eldest son 
 of William Chambers, Esq., a gentleman in the civil service 
 of the East India Company, and a distinguished oriental scholar. 
 Ho received his early education at the gi'ammar school at Bath, 
 and was afterwards transferred to Westminster, and from thence 
 to Trinity college, Camliridgc. He then entered at the Wind- 
 mill Street school of medicine, London, at the head of which was 
 Mr. Wilson, and stmlicd there for some time. Having taken 
 the degree of M.A. at Cambridge, ho went to Edinburgh, and 
 spent a year there in diligent attendance upon the various lectures 
 of that school. On his return to London he placed himself 
 under the tuition of Dr. Bateman and Dr. Laird, at the Bishop's 
 Com-t dispensary, Lincoln's inn. He afterwards enrolled himself 
 
 as a pupil at St. George's hospital, and studied at the Eye infir- 
 mary, under Dr. Farre, and Messrs. Travers and Lawrence. 
 Wliile at St. George's he became a licentiate of Cambridge, and 
 commenced practice at Dover Street. In 1816, when Dr. 
 Chambers was just thirty years of age, he was appointed full 
 physician to St. George's hospital. About the same time he 
 graduated at Cambridge. In 1819 he was appointed, on the 
 resignation of Dr. Dick, to the office of examining physician to 
 the East India Company. In 1820 he married his first cousin, 
 Miss Frazer, by whom he had two sons and two daughters. In 
 1822 he was appointed one of the censors of the College of Phy- 
 sicians. He had also been elected honoraiy physician to the Lock 
 hospital, an office he held for some years, and resigned in 1827. 
 In 1836 he was gazetted physician in ordinary to the queen. Upon 
 the illness of the king in the following May, he was appointed 
 physician in ordinary to his majesty, William IV., who created 
 him K.C.H., but allowed him to decline the honour of ordi- 
 nary knighthood, wliich had until that time been considered a 
 necessary accompaniment of the commandership of the Guclphic 
 order. On the accession of Queen Victoria, he was gazetted 
 one of the physicians in ordinary, and in 1839 he was appointed 
 physician in ordinaiy to the duchess of Kent. In 1S35 he 
 resigned the office of physician to the Hon. East India Com- 
 pany, and about 1837 he ceased to lecture. In 1839 he resigned 
 the post of physician to St. George's hospital, with which he had 
 been so long and so honourably connected. From the year 1836 
 Di'. Chambers' annual professional income ranged for many years 
 between seven and nine thousand pounds, and it kept up to its 
 full point even in the year of his temporaiy retu-ement through 
 illness in 1848. In the year 1850 he was obliged to retire from 
 the active duties of his profession, from the existence of that 
 disease of the brain which was destined to terminate his earthly 
 career, and of which he died on Monday, the 15th of December, 
 1865. Dr. Chambers was by no means a voluminous author. 
 Lectures on medical subjects, published in the Lancet and Medicol 
 Gazette, formed the bulk of his literary labours. Nevertheless 
 he was a great writer. From the time he began practice, he 
 regularly made clear and concise memoranda in Latin respecting 
 every case which came before him, and kept a copy of every 
 prescription given to his patients. The books he used for this 
 purpose were quarto volumes of about four hundred pages each. 
 At the time of his retirement there existed sixty- seven of these 
 valuable volumes, besides numerous thinner quartos, in the shape 
 of indices. This labour frequently occupied him until the niglit 
 was far spent, when he would seek a short rest, to begin work 
 again between eight and nine o'clock in the morning. To these 
 extensive notes he would add sketches of his patients and their 
 maladies, and it was with the most painstaking assiduity that 
 each case was investigated and recorded — not for public reputa- 
 tion and display, but from a conscientious desire to satisfy his 
 own mind that all was done that was possible in each particular 
 case, numerous as they were. We see in this thorough per- 
 formance of duty the great secret of Dr. Chambers' imrivalled 
 success as a London physician, which could neither liave arisen 
 nor been maintained by merely fortuitous circumstances. — E. L. 
 * CHAMBERS, William and Roueut, two Scottish authors 
 and publishers, who have contributed greatly to the difl'usion 
 of literature among the common people. Tlicy are natives of 
 Peebles, and the former was born in 1800, the latter in 1802. 
 Having at an early age been thrown upon their own resources, 
 they removed to Edinburgh, and opened two small bookshops in 
 Leitli Walk. William also taught himself the art of printing, 
 and being unable to pay for assistance, continued to work for 
 some years as his own compositor and pressman, often toiling 
 half the night at his handpress. The brothers early displayed 
 a taste for Scottish literature, and in 1824 appeared Robert's 
 first work, entitled " The Traditions of Edinburgh " — a popular 
 and exceedingly interesting handbook of the anti(iuitie.s, and local 
 traditions, of the ancient capital of Scotland. This was followed 
 in 1826 by a curious and most agreeable volume entitled 
 " Popular ifhymes of Scotland," and in the following year by 
 "The Picture of Scotland," in 2 vols. The "History of the 
 Scottish Rebellions of 1G38, 1715, and 1745," and "A Life of 
 James I.," followed, in successive volumes of Constable's Miscel- 
 lany ; and three volumes of " Scottish Songs and Ballads, with 
 Annotations." Robert also edited a Biogr.iphical Dictionaiy of 
 Eminent Scotchmen, in 4 vols. Meanwhile AMlliam was engaged 
 in the preparation of an elaborate work, entitled "The Book of
 
 Scotland," which appeared in 1830, and furnishes a clear and 
 succinct account of the chief institutions of that country, as well as 
 of its more prominent and pecuhar laws and usages. In 1832 the 
 celebrated Edbihuryh Journal was established by the brothers, 
 and was from the outset received with a degree of favour which 
 far outstripped the most sanguine expectations. The circulation 
 of this fiir-famed cheap periodical at one period reached ninety 
 thousand copies; and though many formidable competitors have 
 since started up, it still retains its rank, and is widely circulated, 
 not only in Great Britain, but in the Colonies and the United 
 States. In 183-1 the Jlessrs. Chambers issued a series of popular, 
 scientific, and historical treatises, entitled " Infonnation for the 
 People," of which the sale of each number has averaged thirty 
 thousand co])ies. " The Cyclopedia of English Literature," in 
 3 vols.; the People's Editions of Standard English Works; "The 
 Educational Course," designed as a complete set of text-books 
 for public or private tuition; "The Jliscellany of Useful and 
 Entertaining Tracts ;" " The Popular Library ;" " The Juvenile 
 Library ;" and " The Papers for the People," followed in succes- 
 sion, and attained a wide circulation. All these works have 
 been printed at their own establishment, which sends forth on 
 an average ten millions of sheets annually. The Messrs. Cham- 
 bers make no pretensions to having been the founders of that 
 stupendous system of cheap literature with which then names 
 are indelibly associated ; but they may justly lay claim to the 
 high honom- of having given it a wholesome and beneficial direc- 
 tion, and of having contributed largely towards the substitution of 
 entertaining and useful works for the coarse and degrading publi- 
 cations which were once extensively read by the working classes 
 of this countiy. In addition to the works already mentioned, 
 Mr. Robert Chambers is the author of a treatise on "Ancient 
 Sea Margins," a " Life of Robert Bmiis," and " The Domestic 
 Annals of Scotland," 2 vols., 8vo. "The Gazetteer of Scotland," 
 2 vols., 8vo, is a joint production of the two brothers ; but the 
 chief share of the work devolved on William, who has also pub- 
 lished " Obser\-ations on America," the result of a tour through 
 that country. Since his return from America, he has purchased 
 an estate in the neighbourhood of Peebles, and has presented to 
 his native town, at the cost of many thousand pounds, a reading 
 and newsi-oom, and well-fmTiished libraiy. 
 
 CHAMBRAY, Georges de. Marquis de, known as the his- 
 torian of Napoleon's disastrous Russian expedition, born at Paris 
 in 1783 ; died in 1850. In the Russian campaign he was captain 
 in the imperial artillery, was left sick at Wilna, and became a 
 prisoner. After 1815 he returned to Paris and entered the garde 
 royale, but on account of his health was permitted to retire in 
 1829, with the title of major-general. In 1833 appeared the first 
 edition of liis " Histoire de I'Expedition de Russie ; " a second 
 and fuller edition was issued in 1835. He also published some 
 tracts on military subjects. — .J. B. 
 
 CHAMBRAY, Roland Fkeakt de, bom at Mans in the 
 early part of the seventeenth century; died in 1G7G. Cham- 
 bray having been employed by the government to make selections 
 of worlcs of art in Italy, met Poussin, for whom he fonned the 
 most profound attachment and admiration, and whom he was 
 the means of bringing to France. He wrote some works on 
 architecture and painting. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHAMBRE. See La Ciiambre. 
 
 CHAMBRE (in Scotch, Chambeks or Chamber), Nicole or 
 Nicolas, a member of a Scotch family which established itself 
 in France in the beginning of the fifteenth century. Nicole, 
 who was captain of the Scotch guards of Charles VII., became 
 one of the first favourites of that king, through whose liberahty 
 he acquired great riches. In 1418 he pmxhased the seigneurie 
 de la Guerche, one of the residences of his royal master. 
 
 CHAMBURE, Augu.ste Lepelletier de, a famous French 
 soldier, bom in 1789. Various anecdotes are told by French 
 writers of his reckless courage. At the siege of Dantzig in 
 1813, the company whidi he commanded was named "the 
 Infernal," and Chambure himself received from the besiegers the 
 designation of " the Devil," on account of his daring. One of 
 his exploits in 1813 has been made the subject of a celebrated 
 picture by Horace Veraet. Chambure died of cholera at Paris 
 in 1832.— .1. T. 
 
 CHAMFORT, Sebastienx-Roch-Nicolas, bom in Au- 
 vergne in 1711. After receiving a good education, he became 
 clerk to a lawyer. It was in 17G1 that his first work appeai'ed, 
 "La Jeune Indienne." He had previously contributed essays to 
 
 the Revue Encyclopedlque. There was something in his first 
 romance which, besides the gi'aces of composition, cliuned in with 
 the feelings of the day ; and it was certain to evoke the plaudits 
 of numerous readers, those especially to whom the gross excesses 
 of a coiTupt civilization seemed to invest with seriousness the 
 paradoxical opinions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau in favour of 
 savage life. In 17G6 Chamfort produced bis "Mustapha and 
 Zeangir," a dramatic piece which greatly increased his popu- 
 larity. The court proffered him royal patronage, which he at first 
 rather declined. He was fond of the society of intellectual women, 
 and preferred the conversation of old Madame Helvetius, enjoyed 
 in the little village of Autueil, to the pleasures found in the 
 saloons of the capital. Having accepted an offer from the Prin- 
 cess Elizabeth, the imfortunate sister of an unfortunate king, to 
 become her reader, for her amusement he wrote his commen- 
 taries on La Fontaine, and other writers of fables — a form of 
 composition to which he appeared much attached. Although 
 he disliked the Revolution, yet it was his singular fortune to 
 originate that famous title to a pamphlet of which the credit 
 has devolved on the Abbe Sitiyes — " What is the Tiers Etat ? 
 Nothing. What ought it to be ? All." The reforms contem- 
 plated by Chamfort were far, indeed, from the excesses which 
 he characterized by one of his o\Tn comprehensive sayings — 
 " Be my brother, or I kill thee." Having been appointed conser- 
 vator of the national library by the minister Rolland, Chamfort 
 was, on the fall of that statesman, arrested on suspicion, but 
 soon liberated. So keenly did he sutler duruig his short imprison- 
 ment, that to escape a second incarceration, he attempted suicide 
 by inflicting several wounds on himself with a razor. He hved 
 on for a month, and would probably have recovered had he not 
 been unskilfully treated. His influence on others was so great, 
 that Mirabcau called his head an electrifying one. The man who 
 could inspire natures so opposite as those of Sieyes and Mira- 
 beau, must have been of no ordinary stamp. He died on the 
 13th April, 1794.— J. F. C. 
 
 CHAMIER, Daniel, a learned French protestant divine, 
 born about 1570, and killed by a cannon ball at the seige of 
 Montauban (where he was professor) in 1621. Chamier distin- 
 guished hunself by his opposition to the anti-protestant intrigues 
 of the court, and is said to have had a chief share in framing the 
 edict of Nantes. His vast eradition was shown in his Catholica 
 Paustratla, a work written against BeUarmine, and published at 
 Geneva under the care of Trnxetin in 1626. Chamier was 
 remarkably corpulent, and his love of good cheer once brought 
 upon him the anger of the synod of Privas. — R. 51., A. 
 
 * CHAMIER, Frederick, a novelist of some note, bora in 
 1796. He served for many years in the British navy. His best 
 tales are "Ben Brace" and "The Ai'ethusa." He was an eye- 
 witness of the French revolution of 1848, and has published a 
 review of it. His tales of the sea are modelled on those of Alairyatt. 
 
 CHAJ\IILLARD, I\Iichel de, a French statesman, born in 
 1651. He was appointed by Louis XIV. controller-general of 
 the finances in 1699, and minister of war in 1701. Chamillard 
 was not a politician, or a soldier, or a financier, and he allowed 
 himself to be guided in the discharge of his onerous duties by 
 his subordinates. He sacrificed the interests of France in order to 
 preserve the favour of the king, and allowed himself to become 
 the mere tool of the court. Under his administration the finances 
 fell into extreme disorder ; the ablest generals were displaced, and 
 their places filled by incapables, and the country was brought 
 to the brink of ruin by a succession of mortifjing defeats and 
 disasters. The general dissatisfaction of the people at length 
 compelled Chamillard to resign ofKce in 1708-9. He died in 
 1721, leaving behind him the reputation of a very bad minister, 
 but an honourable man in private life. — J. T. 
 
 CHAMILLY, NoKL Bouton, Count de, a French marshal, 
 born of a good family at Chamilly in Burgundy in 1636. He 
 entered the army at an early age, and soon acquired distinction 
 by his remarkable courage. In 1664 he accompanied Marshal 
 Schomberg into Portugal, and took a conspicuous part in the 
 battle of Villa Viciosa. He ser\-ed subsequently with distinction 
 in Candy, Italy, and Holland, and in 1675 covered himself with 
 honour by his gallant defence of Grave, which he held out for 
 ninety-three days against the prince of Orange, who lost in the 
 siege 16,000 men. Chamilly was created a lieutenant-general 
 in 1G78, and received a marshal's baton in 1703. He died in 
 1715. It was to this nobleman that Marianna Alcaforada (see 
 that name) addressed her celebrated Lettres Portugaises. — J. T. 
 
 ii
 
 CHAMISSO, Adelbert von, a German naturalist and 
 poet of French extraction, was bom at the castle of Boncourt, 
 near Sainte-Menehould, on ■27th Januaiy, 1781, and died at 
 Berlin on 21st August, 1838. He was of a noble family, that 
 was obliged to emigrate to Berlin at the commencement of the 
 tirst French revolution. There young Chamisso became one of 
 the queen's pages, and in 1798 he entered the Prussian army, 
 in which he sen-ed until after the peace of Tilsit. He was a 
 self-taught botanist in the tirst instance. He commenced the 
 study of plants at Copet, situated near the lake of Geneva, 
 where madame de Stael had a beautiful residence. Her son, 
 the Baron Auguste von Stael Holstein, was much attached to 
 Chamisso, who was his first instructor in botany, and the earliest 
 companion of his botanical excursions, which, having exhausted 
 the immediate vicinity, were extended to St. Gothard and the 
 country round Jlont Blanc. Here he laid the foundation of his 
 excellent herbarium. In 1812 he went to Berlin, where he 
 attended lectures on natural science, and became acquainted 
 with Schlechtendal, who accompanied him in his rambles. 
 Chamisso organized a party of working botanists, of whom he 
 was the foremost. His dress during their trip consisted of an 
 antique garb, once the state dress of a South Sea chief, much 
 worn, mended and stained, and a black cap of cloth or velvet. 
 About this time he frequently visited the estate of Count Von 
 Itzenplitz, near the Oder ; and here he composed his well- 
 known romance, " Peter Schlemihl, or the Man without a 
 Shadow." He did not neglect his botanical studies, and pub- 
 lished, with the assistance of the count's gardener, " Annotations 
 on Kunth's Flora of Berlin." He devoted much attention to 
 potamogetous and other aquatic plants. In 1818 he engaged 
 to accompan}', as naturalist, the expedition fitted out by Count 
 Romanzoff, and he embarked at Copenhagen on board the ship 
 Rurick. He was engaged in the voyage for three years, and 
 made large collections of plants. He visited Teneritfe, Brazil, 
 Cliili, Kamtschatka, the islands which divide America and Asia, 
 California, Sandwich islands, Unalaschka, Guajan, Manilla, and 
 the Cape of Good Hope. Returning to Prussia, his adopted 
 country, he presented his zoological and mineralogical collections 
 to the university museum at Berlin, and commenced arranging 
 his plants according to their places of growth, and their natural 
 families. He was aided in the description of his plants by 
 Schlechtendal, Nees von Esenbeck, Kaulfuss, Trinius, and others. 
 In 1819 the university of Berlin conferred on him the honorary 
 title of doctor of philosophy, and he was appointed professor in 
 the Berlin botanical institution, including the botanic garden. He 
 now prepared a familiar grammar of botany, also thirty herbaria 
 for schools, with descriptive letterpress. He became one of the 
 editors of the botanical journal called Linncea. He presented a 
 specimen of everything which he had collected to the royal her- 
 barium at Berlin. Exposure to weather brought on a bad cough 
 in 1833, from which he never entirely recovered, and which finally 
 caused his death. A plant among the amarantacea3, described 
 by his friend Kunth, bears his name. He will be long remem- 
 bered as an enterprising traveller and a zealous botanist. He 
 was a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. Among his 
 published works are the following — "Account of Kotzebue's 
 expedition;" "One of the Animals described by Linnaeus;" 
 " On the Useful and Deleterious Plants of the North of Ger- 
 many ; " " On the Hawaiian Language ; " besides poetical works, 
 and the romance already noticed. — J. H. B. 
 
 CHAMOUSSET, Claude Humbert Piarron de, a French 
 gentleman, distinguished for his remarkable philanthropy and 
 benevolence, was born in 1717, and was the son of a judge in 
 the parliament of Paris. He devoted his time and fortune to 
 the alleviation of the sufferings of the poor, transformed his 
 house into an hospital for the diseased indigent, and by his wise 
 and zealous efforts succeeded in effecting a great reform in tlie 
 hospitals of Paris. He was appointed surveyor- general of the 
 military hospitals of France, and took extraordinary pains in 
 promoting their efficiency. Among many other useful schemes 
 lie suggested the establishment of a penny post in Paris, the 
 bringing of good water into the city, the institution of fire 
 insurance companies, and of societies among the workmen for 
 their mutual support in sickness, and the adoption of a measure 
 for the suppression of begging. He died in 1773. His complete 
 works were published in 1783, in two vols., 8vo. — J. T. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, the Dukes of, will be found under their 
 respective names. 
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, Philip de : this painter was borri at Brus- 
 sels in 1602, and studied under Bouillon, Michel Bourdeaux, and 
 Fouquier. At the age of nineteen he set out for Italy. Taking 
 Paris in his way, he proceeded no further on his journey, but 
 took up his abode in the college of Laon, and commenced an 
 acquaintance with a fellow-lodger, Niccolo Poussin. Du Chesne, 
 painter to Mary de Medicis, engaged the two artists to assist him 
 in decorating the Luxembourg. Poussin executed some portions 
 of the ceiling; Champagne painted the pictures for the queen's 
 apartments. The queen was so much pleased that Du Chesne 
 grew jealous, and Champagne, who preferred a quiet life among 
 his pahits and brushes to success amidst brawls and jealousy, 
 made his escape from Paris and retm-ned to his native Bnissels. 
 He came back again to Paris on the death of Du Chesne, was 
 made director of the qtieen's painting, had a pension of 1200 
 livres settled on him, with rooms in the palace. In this clover 
 Champagne was eminently happy, for there was only one thing 
 he liked better than work, and that was the money that work 
 brought him. He lacked neither. He painted for the chapter 
 house of Notre Dame, for the Carmelite convent, for the king's 
 apartments at Vincennes. He was made director of the Royal 
 Academy of Paintuigs. He was a calm, industrious, painstaking 
 man, and he went constantly to nature, and was noted for his 
 fidelity to her. But he was cold in his con'ectness, he could not 
 appreciate fire and movement, he possessed no intensity. He 
 loved art, but he could not feel thoroughly the subjects which 
 elevate and give life to art. Expression was a sealed book to 
 him, passion an unknown language. He was an honest plodding 
 man, and had a good eye lor correct drawing and correct colour, 
 and so no wonder his portraits are highly esteemed. One of 
 Colbert has been ranked with Vandyck. He painted also faith- 
 ful portraits of Richelieu, and Louis XIII. praying to the \'irgin. 
 He died at Paris in 1674.— W. T. 
 
 CHAMPAGNY, John Baptist Nojipere de, Due de 
 Cadore, a French minister, was born in 1756. He served with 
 distinction in early life in the navy ; was appointed deputy to 
 the states-general by the noblesse of Forez ; and on the estab- 
 lishment of the consulate, became a zealous partisan of Bonaparte. 
 He was sent in 1801 as ambassador to Vienna; in 1801 was 
 appointed minister of the interior in the room of Chaptal ; in 
 1807 succeeded Talleyrand as minister for foreign affairs, and 
 the following year was created Due de Cadore. He accompanied 
 Napoleon throughout the campaign of 1809, and assisted in 
 framing the treaty of Vienna, and in bringing about the nnm-iage 
 of the emperor to the Archduchess Maria Louisa. In spite of his 
 services and his subseiviency the duke lost the favour of Napoleon, 
 and was deprived of his office in 1811. During the critical cam- 
 paigns of 1814 and 1815, Champagny seems to have followed 
 a trimming course, and on the restoration of the Bourbons he 
 retired into private life. He died in 1834. — J. T. 
 
 CHAMPEAUX (in Latin, Campellensis), Guillaumic dk, 
 a scliolastic philosopher and divine, was born near Melun, and 
 died in 1121. Ordained archdeacon of Paris, he lectured on 
 logic for some time with great success in the school of the 
 Notre Dame cathedral ; but latterly retired to .a suburb of the 
 city near the chapel of St. Victor, where he founded in 1113 
 the abbey of that name. In the same year he became bishop of 
 Chalons-sur-Marne. The name of Cbampeaux is known in con- 
 nection with that of Abelard, who was first his disciple and then 
 his adversary. He took the side of Realism, and is supjxised to 
 have been the first public professor of scholastic divinity. — R.M.,A. 
 
 CHiVMPEIN, Stanislas, a musician, was bom of Greek 
 parents at Marseilles in 1753; he died at Paris, September 19, 
 1830. His precocious talent for nnusic was confided to the 
 instmction of two incompetent masters, wliich acccnuits in some 
 degree for the want of teclniical acquirement sliown in his 
 writings. In 1766 lie was appointed iiiiisic master at tlio college 
 of Pignon in Provence, for which establislnnent, extremely young 
 as he was, he composed a mass, and several other pieces of 
 church music. He went in 1770 to Paris, where, after a short 
 residence, he had some of his .sacred compositions performed 
 before Louis XV. He commenced his career as a dramatic 
 composer, in which he made his reputation, with the comic opera 
 of " Lc Soldat Fran^ais." This was followed by neariy fifty 
 other works of the same class, the most esteemed ot which, and 
 the only one that has been performed out of France, is " La 
 Melomanie," in one act, produced in 1781. The extreme light- 
 ness of his style gained instant popularity for his music, but 
 
 6 G
 
 made it as quickly to be forgotten. He wrote " Le nouveau Don 
 Quicliotte" in 1789, for the theatre de Jlonsieur; as the patent 
 of this establishment was for the pi-oduction of Italian composi- 
 tions, the opera was pretended to be a translation, and the name 
 "Zuccharelli" was fabricated for its author, by wliich even the 
 Italians were deceived. In 1793 Champein obtained a small 
 appointment in a government office, and from this time, though 
 he wrote several works fur the stage, nothing of his composition 
 was produced in public. The political disturbances in France, 
 at the period when he ceased to bring out his operas, overset the 
 old institutions, and thus prevented Champein from receiving 
 in his latter days any paTOient for the performance of his woi-ks. 
 A pension was granted hira by Napoleon, which he lost on the 
 Restoration ; and he suffered great privation until tlie commission 
 of authors settled upon him an annuity of 1200 francs, and 
 obtained for him a further grant from the civil list. This was 
 but a short time before the close of his long life. — G. A. M. 
 
 CHAMPIER, Symphouien, called also Campegius, a 
 French physician, born in 1472, and died in 1533. His early 
 studies were prosecuted at Paris, and he subsequently studied 
 medicine at Jlontpellier. He settled as a medical practitioner 
 at Lyons. He entered the army as a medical man, and accom- 
 panied Louis XII. to Italy. He was rewarded for his services 
 on the battle-field by being knighted. His success appe;u-ed to 
 have elated him much, and he became anxious to claim a descent 
 from some family of renown. He was severely lampooned by 
 Scaliger for his vanity and conceit, and more particularly for 
 his ignoble attempt to separate from his wife, whose family he 
 found out to be unworthy of his high pretensions. His self- 
 love was much exalted by subsequent honours conferred on him 
 by the medical men at Padua. On his return to Lyons he 
 became a coimcillor, and seems to have purposed the founding 
 of a school of medicine in that city. He wrote numerous works 
 on histoiy and on medicine; among others, a " Hortus Gallicus, 
 or an account of the native medicinal plants of France ;" and 
 " Campus Elysius Gallia?." — J. H. B. 
 
 CHAMPION, John G., a zealous botanist, was born at Edin- 
 burgh in May, 1815, and died at Scutari, 30th November, 1854, 
 He gained his commission in the army at Sandhurst in 1831, 
 and was appointed to the 95th regiment, with which he served 
 uninterruptedly in various climes until his death, when he had 
 attained the rank of major. He was engaged in the Crimean 
 ■war, and behaved most gallantly at Alma and Inkermann. He 
 had a great taste for natural history, and in his youth was fond 
 of entomology. He continued to collect and examine objects of 
 nature wherever he was located. Botany became a favourite 
 pursuit, \\lien at Ceylon, he was stimulated in this depart- 
 ment of science by Gardner, the superintendent of the botanic 
 garden. For three years he was stationed at Hong Kong, and 
 he investigated thoroughly the entomology and botany of the 
 island. A beautiful longicom beetle discovered by him at Hong 
 Kong has been called erythrus championi. He collected nearly 
 five hundred species of plants at Hong Kong, exclusive of grasses 
 and ferns. The wliole collection is now in the herbarium at 
 Kew. Some interesting plants, such as rhodoleia championi 
 and rhododendron championce, have been introduced by him to 
 this country. — J. H. B. 
 
 CHAMPIONNET, Jean Etiexxe, a distinguished French 
 general, was born in 17G2. His ser\'ices in suppressing the 
 rising of the Girondists, and in the campaigns on the Ilhine and 
 in Flanders, especially at the battle of Fleurus, procured him 
 rapid advancement. In 1798 he was appointed by the directory 
 to the command of the army sent to occupy Rome. With a 
 force of only 13,000 men he had to contend against an army of 
 00,000 Neapolitans, and was obliged to evacuate the city on the 
 approach of General Mack, leaving a garrison, however, in the 
 c;istle of St. Angelo. But, in a short space of time, the Neapoli- 
 tan army underwent a succession of humiliating defeats. Mack 
 was compelled to surrender, Rome was reoccupied by Champion- 
 net, Capua and Gaeta taken, and at length Naples itself was 
 captured by him, 23rd January, 1799. He immediately took 
 measures to pacify the mob, who were fiercely hostile, and to 
 organize the Parthennpean republic, but he felt so much disgusted 
 by the misconduct of the director)', that he refused to enforce 
 their orders, and was in consequence arrested and put in prison 
 at Grenoble. He regained his liberty on the revolution of the 
 30th Prairial, and the new members of the directory appointed 
 hira to the command of the army of the Alps, in the room of 
 
 Joubert, immediately after the disastrous battle of Novi. He 
 found the troops without ammunition, provisions, or money, pent 
 up in a most difficult position, and greatly outnumbered by the 
 enemy. The revolution of the 18th Brumaire speedily followed, 
 and Championnet, whose principles were republican, disapproved 
 of the coup d'etat of Bonaparte, and demanded and obtained his 
 recall. He died in 1800.— J. T. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, Samuel de, the founder of Quebec and 
 governor of Canada, was bom at Brouage in France, and died 
 at Quebec in December, 1635. In the wars of the League he 
 served under Hemy IV., who granted him a pension. Having 
 contracted, in the course of a voyage which he made to tlie 
 West Indies, a taste for maritime adventure, he was induced by 
 the governor of Dieppe to take the lead in an expedition whicli 
 anchored in the St. Lawrence, May 24, 1G03. In 1604, under 
 De Mants, he explored the Bay of Fundy, formed a little 
 settlement at St. Croix, went as far south as Cape Cod, and 
 returned to France in 1607. Ha\ing once more obtained an 
 outfit from some merchants at St. Jklalo and Dieppe, he again 
 went to the St. LawTence in 1608, and estabhshed a settlement 
 at Quebec, a spot which he had selected in the former voyage as 
 most suitable for the purpose. The fur trade soon caused a 
 little tovpu to spring up there, but it was not fortified till 1624. 
 The next summer he joined an expedition of the Huron Indians 
 against their enemies, the Iroquois, and passing up the river 
 Richelieu, discovered and explored the great lake wliich bears 
 his name. A series of explorations followed in several succes- 
 sive summers, extending far up the Ottawa, and to the western 
 shoi'e of Lake Huron. On these were founded the French claim 
 to all those possessions in North America wliich were called 
 New France. Having a robust frame and a pliable disposition, 
 Champlain lived much among the Indians, made them his sole 
 attendants in his voyages, and sometimes rowed his own boat 
 alone up rivers where no white man had preceded him. He 
 went to France in 1620, and brought out his family and a 
 commission as governor of the new settlement. Eight years 
 afterwards, an English expedition under Kirk passed up the 
 river, and having first captured the French vessels which had 
 been sent out with supplies, compelled Quebec, from the want of 
 provisions, to surrender. Still undismayed, Champlain went to 
 France in an English ship, and mainly through his exertions 
 Canada and Acadie passed again to the French, by the treaty 
 of St. Germains. He returned to Quebec in 1633, with the 
 necessary supplies for placing the settlement, which had been 
 temporarily abandoned, on a permanent footing. A college was 
 founded at Quebec in 1635, with special reference to the insti^uc- 
 tion of Indian children ; but Champlain did not live to witness 
 its good effects. He was an able pioneer and governor, and 
 deserves to be remembered as the father of New France. An 
 account of his voyages was published by him in quarto in 1632, 
 having appended to it a catechism in the Indian language, and 
 a treatise on navigation. — F. B. 
 
 CHAMPOLLION, Jexs Francois, an eminent orientalist, 
 born at Figeac on the 2Gth of December, 1790; died at Paris 
 on the 4th of JIarch, 1832. Like many distinguished men 
 devoted exclusively to study, the life of M. Champollion is merely 
 the history of his intellectual progress. He commenced the study 
 of the classic languages while very young ; and so intense was 
 his appHcatiou, that he contracted a penuanent defect of his lefc 
 eye in consequence of his prolonged readings by candlelight. 
 In addition to his philological training, his taste for antiquities 
 was awakened by the example of his brother, who possessed an 
 extensive collection of medals, and whose assistance was always 
 at hand. Besides these advantages, he had the valuable endow- 
 ment of a taste for drawing, which enabled bun to write or copy 
 oriental characters with facility and elegance. From the classics 
 he passed to the study of the Semitic languages and biblical 
 hterature ; and the young philologist gave proof of his zeal, if 
 not of his proficiency, by writing a memoir, in which he endea- 
 voured to prove that the giants mentioned in scripture were 
 merely the powers of nature personified. It is but ju.stice to state 
 that in his maturer years he had the good sense to characterize 
 this performance as the folly of. his youth. From the Semitic 
 languages the transition to Egj-ptian antiquities and Coptic 
 literature was easy ; and he now entered on the career which 
 was to conduct him to eminence. WTien entering on this very 
 difficult investigation, his point of departure was the assumption 
 that the Coptic language, as preserved in the version of the
 
 CHA 
 
 971 
 
 CHA 
 
 scriptures and in fragments of other eminent writings, was tlie 
 representative of the ancient Egyptian tongue, and of the idiom 
 in which the hieroglypliic inscriptions are written. In accord- 
 ance with this view, he endeavoured to restore the topography of 
 the land of the Pharaohs by making a collection of all the names 
 of Egyptian towns and localities to be found in old writings, 
 whether Hebrew, Greek, or Arabic, and endeavouring to restore 
 them to their original Coptic forms. This investigation led to 
 the writing of a memoir, which, whatever may be its merits, we 
 cannot but admire as the production of a boy of sixteen. While 
 employed in this manner, Champollion resided at Grenoble, where 
 his pursuits fortunately brought him under the notice of the 
 mathematician Fourrier, at that time prefect of the department, 
 and who had been a member of the scientitic commission which 
 accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. M. Foiurier, naturally inter- 
 ested in everything that related to Egypt, assisted the young 
 archaeologist by his influence, and induced him to remove to 
 Paris, where he would meet with encouragement, and find gi'eater 
 facilities in following out his pursuits. 
 
 While residing in Paris, M. Champollion obtained a copy of 
 the inscription on the famous Rosetta stone, which is now pre- 
 served in the British museum. As this well-known stone bears 
 an inscription in hieroglyphic characters, accompanied by a Greek 
 translation, it obriously afforded the key by which the mys- 
 tery of Egyptian writing might be deciphered. We need not 
 mention here the discoveries of Dr. Young respecting the Rosetta 
 inscription, nor the way in which they have been treated by 
 French writers, but will be content to follow the progress of M. 
 Champollion. To prepare himself for the task, he composed a 
 grammar and dictionary of the Coptic language. Guided by 
 this preliminary study, and by comparing the Rosetta inscrip- 
 tion with the writmg on a papyrus, he succeeded in detecting 
 twenty-five letters of the alphabet in what is called the De- 
 motic character. In 1809 he was appointed to a professorship 
 at Grenoble, and in this retirement he was enabled to publish 
 his geographical description of Egypt. It was not, however, 
 until 1822 that his most important memoir was read before 
 the institute, in which he succeeded in giving the interpreta- 
 tion of the hieroglyphic names of Ptolemy, Berenice, Cleo- 
 patra, &c. This memoir produced a great excitement among the 
 learned in Paris ; and it is to the credit of Louis XVIII., that 
 he lost no time in bestowing due honour on its author. In this 
 respect the conduct of the French government to Champollion 
 exhibits an honourable contrast to the neglect which Dr. Young 
 experienced from that of England. From this time every 
 facility and national aid was afforded to Champollion in the 
 prosecution of his researches, and his life was one of incessant 
 activity. He examined the rich Egyptian collections of Turin 
 and Rome, and was the means of securing for his country the 
 valuable collections made in Eg}-pt by Mr. Salt, the English 
 consul. He was afterwards sent to Egj'pt at the public expense, 
 and furnished with an efficient staff of assistants. Unhappily, 
 he did not long sm-vive his return to France, and died while 
 occupied with his great works the " Egyptian Grammar" and 
 " Dictionarv of Hieroglyphics." — [J. S.] 
 
 » CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, Jean Jacques, elder brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Figeac in the department of Lot 
 in 1778. He has been successively keeper of the MSS. in the 
 royal library at Paris, keeper of the library of the palace of 
 Fontainebleau, and librarian to the Emperor Napoleon III. Of 
 his numerous works we notice — " Lettre a M. Fourier sur 
 Tinscription gi-ecque du temple de Denderah en Egypte," 180G ; 
 "Antiquites de Grenoble," 1807; " Nouvelles recherches sur les 
 patois, ou idiomes vulgaires de la France," 1809 ; " Annales de 
 Lagides, ou Chronologic des rois grecs d'Egypte, successeurs 
 d' Alexandre le Grand," 1819 (this work received the prize of the 
 Acadt5mie des Inscriptions) ; and " Les Tournois du Roi Rene," 
 1827-28. He has also published some charters and ancient docu- 
 ments illustrative of the histoiy of France in the middle ages, a 
 treatise on archaeology, and another on chronology. — J. B. 
 
 CHANCELOR, Richard, a celebrated English voyager, 
 who was ajjpointcd to the command of one of the vessels 
 in the expedition under Sir Hugh Willoughby, sent out 
 in 1553 by a company fonned by Sebastian Cabot to find a 
 north-east passage " to Cathay and India." The ships were 
 separated by a violent tempest off the Lofi'oden isles. Sir Hugh 
 was driven to the coast of Lapland, and in September jjut ui at 
 the mouth of the river Arzina, where he spent the winter. In 
 
 the following year he and all his crew were found by some 
 Russian fishermen frozen to death. Chancelor was more fortu- 
 nate, and succeeded in reaching Archangel, where he was well 
 received by the inhabitants. He thence proceeded to Moscow, 
 where he was cordially welcomed by the czar, Ivan IV., and 
 entered into arrangements with him which laid the foundation 
 of the commercial intercourse between England and Russia. On 
 his return home in 1554, Chancelor formed the I\Iuscovy Com- 
 pany, and next year retm-ned to Archangel with three ships, 
 accompanied by two agents of the new association, who con- 
 cluded a most satisfactory treaty of commerce with the czar. But 
 on his homeward voyage in 155G Chancelor was shipwrecked in 
 Pitsligo bay, off the coast of Aberdeenshire, and perished, along 
 with the greater part of his crew. Only one of his vessels, which 
 can-ied the Russian ambassador, reached England. — J. T. 
 
 CHANDLER, JIaky, an English poetess; born at Malms- 
 bury in 1687; died in 1745. Her parents being in humble 
 circumstances, she was brought up to the business of a milliner, 
 which she continued longer than was necessary but for the sake 
 of her poor relations. Mary schooled her intellect and taste by 
 reading the best authors, and published, besides a volume of 
 shorter pieces, a poem on Bath, which attracted considerable 
 notice. She was honoured by a visit from Pope, and enjoyed 
 the valuable iriendship of Mrs. Rowe. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHANDLER, Richard, D.D., a celebrated antiquary and 
 traveller, was born in 1738, and educated at Oxford. In 1763 
 he edited, by the appointment of the university, the Mamiora 
 Oxoniensia, for which he wrote an elegant Latin preface. His 
 fame, however, is founded on his connection with a society 
 called the Dilletanti, composed of gentlemen who had travelled 
 in Italy, and who were associated for the piu-pose of preserving 
 and spreading a taste for the antiquities in which they had been 
 interested while abroad. By this society Chandler was sent in 
 1764, along with Revett the architect and Pars the painter, to 
 explore certain parts of the East, and to make resi-arch among 
 the monuments of classical antiquity. The party visited Troas, 
 Tenedos, Scio, Smyrna, Athens, Marathon, Salainis, Megara, 
 Argos, Corinth, Delphi, and many adjacent places of interest, 
 and returned to England near the close of 1766. In 1769 there 
 appeared their joint work " Ionian Antiquities." In the same 
 year Dr. Chandler was appointed to the livings of East World- 
 ham, and West Tisted, Hants, whence he removed to the rectory 
 of Tylehm'st, Berkshire, where he died in 1810. As the result 
 of his travels Dr. Chandler published several itineraries and 
 antiquarian dissertations. He also prepared, but did not live 
 to publish, a life of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, lord high 
 chancellor of England under Henry VI., and founder of Mag- 
 dalen college. It was published in 1811. — J. B. 
 
 CHANDLER, Samuel, D.D., bom in 1693 at Hungerford 
 in Berkshire, where his father, the Rev. Heniy Chandler, was 
 minister to a congregation of protestant dissenters, received the 
 chief part of his education at Gloucester, having for fellow 
 students Seeker, afterwards archbishop of Cantcrljury, and But- 
 ler, author of the Analog)'. Having laid a solid foundation for 
 the stores of classical, bibhcal, and oriental learning, which ho 
 put forth in after-life in numerous valuable writings, Dr. 
 Chandler settled as minister of a presbytcrian congi-egation 
 at Peckham, near London. While in this post he took part in 
 the celebrated debate at Salter's hall in 1719, on subscription to 
 articles of faith, and his name apjiears in the majority, along 
 with those of Lardner, Lownian, Hunt, &c. Losing consideral)lo 
 property in the fatal South Sea scheme of 172(1, he engaged for 
 some years in the trade of a bookseller. In 1726 he became 
 assistant minister and afterwards pastor of tiie presbytcrian 
 congregation in the Old Jewry, where he officiated for tlic space 
 of forty years. Dr. Chandler distinguished himself by several 
 works calculated to establish, illustrate, and enforce the divinity 
 of cliristianity, particularly as assailed by the unbelievers of 
 his dav. Of these the principal are his " Vindiciition of the 
 Christian Religion, in two parts," &c. ; " Reflections on the 
 Conduct of Modern Deists in their late Writings against 
 Christianity ; " "A Vindication of the Antiquity and Authority 
 of Daniel's Prophecies ; " " The History of Persecution, in four 
 parts," &c. ; "A Vindication of the Histoiy of the Old Testa- 
 ment, in answer to the misrepresentations and calumnies of 
 Thomas Morgan, M.D. ;" "The Witnesses of the Resurrection 
 of Jesus Cln-ist re-examined, and their Testimony proved 
 entii-ely Consistent;" and "A Critical History of the Life of
 
 David." Dr. Chandler was a man of extensive learning and 
 eminent abilities, and both his talents and general character were 
 such as to procure for him a powerful influence in the dissenting 
 body of which he was a member.— J. R. B. 
 
 CIL\XDOS, SiK John, a famous p]nglish knight, who con- 
 tributed greatl)' to the success of Edward III. and the Black 
 Prince in their wars with France. He commanded a division 
 at the battle of Poitiers, where King John was taken prisoner, 
 and was mainly instrumental in gaining the victoiy. He was 
 appointed regent of all the possessions which the king of Eng- 
 land had in France, and constable of Guienne. His courage 
 and skill mainly decided the battle of Auniy in 13G4, which 
 gave the duchy of Brittany to the house of Montfort. Sir John 
 was as generous as he was brave ; and when his gi-eat antago- 
 nist, Bertrand de Guesclin, was taken prisoner at the battle of 
 Navarette in 1367, Sir John solicited and obtained his liberty, 
 and himself became security for his ransom. This valiant 
 knight was at length mortally wounded in a skirmish at the 
 bridge of Lussac near Poitiers. " God have mercy on his soul," 
 says Froissart, who dwells upon his exploits with great delight, 
 "for never since a hundred years did there exist among the 
 English one more courteous nor fuller of every virtue and good 
 quality than him."— J. T. 
 
 * CHANGAIiXIER, Nicolas-Anne-Theodule, a cele- 
 brated French general, who took a leading part in public iiffairs 
 between the overthrow of Louis Pliilippe and the coup d'etat of 
 Louis Napoleon. He was born in 1793, educated at the military 
 school of St. C3T, and entered the army in 1815 as sous-lieutenant. 
 He took part in the invasion of Spain in 1823, and distinguished 
 himself in the affair of Jorda and of Caldes. After the revo- 
 lution of 1830 he was sent on the African expedition with 
 the rank of captain. The courage and coolness he displayed 
 in an expedition which Marshal Clausel undertook against 
 Achmet-Bey extricated the French troops from a position of 
 great peril, and gained for Changarnier the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel. He was actively engaged in all the subsequent expedi- 
 tions against the Kabyles and Abd-el-Kader, and in 1843 was 
 promoted to the rank of general of division. M. Changaniier 
 visited Paris in 18-18, but in May of that year was sent to 
 replace General Cavaignac in the government of Algeria. Five 
 months after, he returned to France, and was chosen by the 
 electors of the Seine to represent them in the national assembly. 
 When the insurrection broke out in Paris in June, 1848, Chan- 
 garnier was appointed commander of the national guard, and 
 retained that ofSce after the election of Louis Napoleon as 
 president of the republic. He was subsequently invested also 
 with the command of the troops stationed in the capital. He 
 resolutely opposed the ambitious projects of Louis Napoleon, 
 and exhibited unwavering fidelity to the national assembly. He 
 was in consequence arrested and imprisoned, along with the 
 other leading statesmen and generals, on the night of the coup 
 d'etat, 2nd December, 1851, and since the establishment of the 
 empire has lived in exile at Brussels. — J. T. 
 
 CHANGE. See Duchange. 
 
 CHANGEUX, PiEKKE Jacques, bom at Orleans, Januaiy, 
 1740. Attention was first called to his name by an article in 
 the famous Enajchpedie under the title " Realite," which he 
 made the vehicle for propounding a doctrine which, at the 
 present day, characterizes a rather small, but yet important sect. 
 Reality, according to Changeux, never belongs to extremes, but 
 is always found in what the doctrinaires call le juste milieu. 
 Whatever be the truth of this maxim, it would have been well 
 for the author had he confined it to spccidative philosophy. He 
 attempted to bring within its scope all branches of human 
 knowledge, and in trying to fit facts of science to an ethical 
 theor)', failed in many important particulars. He was a pro- 
 found thinker, a good metaphysician, and skilled in the natural 
 sciences. He died in October, 1800. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHANNING, Edward Tykkei., LL.D., brother of William 
 Ellerj- Channing, professor of rhetoric and oratory in Harvard 
 college from 1819 to 1851, was born in Newport, December 12, 
 1790. He was educated at Harvard, in the class which graduated 
 in 1808, and then studied law and was admitted to practice in 
 Boston. But his tastes were literarj', and he became associated 
 with a club of gentlemen who founded the North American 
 Review, to the eariy pages of which he was a frequent contri- 
 butor, and of which, in 1818, he was the editor. The next 
 year he was apjiointed to a professorship in the college. The 
 
 graduates of his day were more deeply indebted to him than 
 to any other person for the guidance of their tastes, and the 
 formation of their opinions. He did not publish much; some 
 contributions to the reviews, and a life of his grandfather, 
 William Elleiy, being all that appeared in his lifetime ; but after 
 his death a volume which he had himself prepared, of selections 
 from his lectures, was printed at Cambridge. He retired from 
 office in 1851, and died February 7, 185fi, aged sixty-five. — F. B. 
 
 CHANNING, William Ellkry, D.D., an eloquent American 
 preacher, essayist, and philanthropist, was born at Newport, 
 Rhode Island, April 7, 1780. His father was an able lawyer 
 in that place, who had held high offices in the state; his mother 
 was a daughter of William Elleiy, one of the signers of the 
 declaration of independence. From early childhood Mr. Chan- 
 ning was remarkable for sensibility of temperament, sweetness 
 of disposition, pmity of manners, and a peculiar earnestness of 
 faith and feeling, so that his associates used to call him " the 
 little minister." Small and slightly built, delicate in health, 
 with a very expressive face and a melodious voice, he quickly 
 won the confidence and esteem of all around him, and bright 
 hopes wei'e entertained of the part which he was to play in life. 
 And, in these respects, the child was the father of the man ; his 
 whole career was but the uniform and consistent development of 
 these traits of mind, character, and person. " Washington 
 Allston the artist, his life-long friend, described him as a brave 
 and ingenuous child, who, though his junior, inspired him with 
 a sentiment of respect." After completing his preparatory 
 studies under the charge of one of his uncles, he entered 
 Hai-vard college when only fifteen years old, and graduated in 
 1798 with the highest honours of his class. In order to support 
 himself while studying theology, he became a private tutor in a 
 wealthy fiimily in Virginia, and there soon learned to detest the 
 institution against which he laboured so long and so earnestly 
 in his subsequent life. " This alone," he wrote home, " would 
 prevent me from ever settling in Vu-ginia. Language cannot 
 express my detestation of it. Master and slave ! Nature never 
 made such a distinction, or established such a relation." His 
 earnestness in study, which he was wont to continue late into 
 the night, and some injudicious attempts to harden himself by 
 an ascetic regimen, injured his health, so that when he returned 
 to Newport in 1800, it was as a thin and pale invalid. Still he 
 pursued his studies for the ministry at home and in Cambridge, 
 Mass., and in June, 1803, he was ordained a pastor of the church 
 in Federal Street, Boston. In this situation he continued for 
 the rest of his life, though ill health often prevented him from 
 discharging all its duties ; and, after the lapse of twenty years, 
 he was obliged to ask the aid of a colleague, upon whom by 
 degrees a large portion of the work was devolved. Towards the 
 close of his life, aware that he was performing but little clerical 
 labour, he repeatedly asked leave to give up his position and 
 salary altogether; but his people were so much attached to him 
 that they would not think of a total separation. His preaching 
 made a strong impression even on those, who, two years after 
 his settlement, had the privilege of hearing for the first time the 
 silver tones and fervid eloquence of the younger Buckminster. 
 Never before or since has the standard of pulpit eloquence been 
 so high in Boston as it was during the early ministry of these 
 two young men, the elder of whom was hardly twenty-five years 
 old. Channing was always a spiritualist, and in the latter part 
 of his life he inclined perhaps to mysticism. But in expres- 
 sion he was always simple and clear, his depth of feeling and 
 earnestness of purpose always finding forcible and perspicuous 
 utterance. His tenets were those of unitarianism, most of his 
 earliest published discourses being a defence of the doctrines 
 usually known under that name, or rather an exposure of what 
 he regarded as the gloomy views of calvinistic theology. But 
 he grew more and more impatient of any bondage of sects or 
 creeds, and wished to work out a faith for himself, and to be 
 known only as a liberal christian, claiming and conceding the 
 largest liberty of thought. He wished to carry out the precepts 
 of Christianity into action and life, and with advancing years he 
 became more and more interesti^l in the movements for opposing 
 slavery and instituting social reforms. 
 
 Dr. Channing became generally known as a brilliant essayist 
 by the publication, in 1826-29, of his articles on ililton, Bona- 
 parte, and Fenelon. They are characteristic productions, not 
 pretending to breadth or completeness of portraiture, but regard- 
 ing the subject exclusively from a moral and christian point of
 
 view, glowing with a fine enthusiasm, and fervidly eloquent alike 
 in eulogy or denunciation. In common with nearly all the eminent 
 men of New England at that time, Dr. Channing was a federalist 
 in his politics, and had thus learned to look with utter distrust 
 and aversion on revolutionary France, and the military usurper 
 whom he regarded as the bloody offspring of a great national 
 crime. He took a warm interest in all measures tending to 
 meliorate the condition and elevate the character of the human 
 race ; and his published addresses on temperance, self-culture, 
 and the elevation of the labouring classes, attained a wide circu- 
 lation and great influence both in England and America. In 
 1823 he visited Europe, and remained a year abroad, and in 1830 
 sickness obliged him to spend the winter in the West Indies. 
 What he saw while in the island of Santa Cruz of the practical 
 effects of slaver}', revived and strengthened the aversion to it 
 which he had felt during his early residence in Virginia ; and he 
 resolved upon an attempt to rouse his countiymen from their 
 apathy upon the subject — for apathy it was. Since the agitation 
 of the Missouri question in congress in 1820 the topic had slept, 
 politicians and even philanthropists fearing to touch it, seeing 
 the ditEculties vrith which it was surrounded, and shrinking from 
 the fearful consequences which the discussion of it might involve. 
 While in the West Indies he began the work on slavery, which 
 was not published till four years afterwards. The length of the 
 interval shows how anxious he was to consider the matter in all 
 its relations, and not to begin a controversy, the bitterness of 
 which he foresaw, till he could promise himself that it would 
 lead to some useful result. The work appeared in 1835, and 
 " from that time he seemed to consider himself bound to the 
 cause of abolition." There followed in rapid succession a letter 
 to J. G. Bimey on the Abolitionists ; one to Heniy Clay on the 
 Annexation of Texas ; " Remarks on the Slaveiy Question ; " 
 " The Duty of the Free States, or Remarks suggested by the 
 Case of the Creole ; " and the last woi-k of his life, " An Address 
 delivered at Lenox on Emancipation in the British West Indies." 
 The natural result followed, that the more he wrote upon the 
 subject, the more his interest in it deepened, and the more 
 incUned to favour radical measures for its extirpation. Yet he 
 never identified himself either in action or opinion with the 
 extreme and violent abolitionists. His good taste and the gen- 
 tleness of his disposition shrank from fanatical counsels and 
 desperate measures. He wrote upon it almost as if engaged in 
 an abstract discussion, loving to recur to first principles and 
 dwell upon them, and taking little notice of particular facts or 
 special remedies. Yet the unafi'ected earnestness of his manner, 
 the loftiness of his rebukes of timidity, ignorance, or apathy on 
 such a subject, and the eloquence of his denunciations of a great 
 social wrong, did much to help the cause ; they found many 
 listeners, and made many converts. The abolition movement 
 gi'adually absorbed all his powers, and up to the day of his death 
 it was the interest nearest his heart. The summer of 1842 he 
 passed in a beautiful mountainous district in the western part 
 of Massachusetts. He intended to return home through the 
 passes of the Green Mountains; but he was attacked at Ben- 
 nington by a fever, which continued more than three weeks, and 
 finally terminated his life, October 2, 1842. His memoirs, with 
 copious extracts from his coiTespoiidence, have been published 
 in three volumes by his nephew, W. H. Channing ; and his col- 
 lected works have also appeared in a handsome edition in six 
 volumes. — F. B. 
 
 CHANTREY, Sir Francis, was bom at Norton in Derbyshire 
 on the 7th of April, 1782. His father had a small farm there, 
 and Chantrey's first impressions of the great world were acquired 
 in his occasional visits to Sheffield with his mother on market- 
 days, when she went into town to dispose of the produce of the 
 farm. It was on these visits that the young sculptor's attention 
 was first drawn to can'ings and similar objects exposed in the 
 shop wmdows, which produced in him tlie ardent desire of 
 imitating such works; and he was eventually placed with a carver 
 of Sheffield, to whom he was bound for three years, though 
 his father had wished to make an attorney of him. Cliantrey 
 was, however, soon dissatisfied with carving, which he found too 
 mechanical a process, and he turned his attention to modelling in 
 clay. He left Sheffield, first for Dublin ; he then tried Edinburgh, 
 and finally settled in London, where he was fortunate in obtain- 
 ing the patronage of Nollekens, whose attention was attracted 
 to a bust by the young sculptor of J. R. Smith. It is related 
 that Nollekens, during the disposition of the works for exhibition, 
 
 singled out this early work of Chantrey's, saying — "It is a 
 splendid work ; let the man be known ; remove one of my busts, 
 and put this in its place." Nollekens recommended Chantrev 
 on all occasions when a bust was required, and his own works 
 soon established his reputation with the public. He was elected 
 a member of the Roj-al Academy in 1818, after being only two 
 years on the list of associates. And during a visit to It.ily in 
 1819, he was elected a member also by the academies of Ronie 
 and Florence, and he was knighted by the queen in 1837. He 
 died of disease of the heart, November 25, 1841, leaving many 
 works unfinished in the hands of his friends and assistants, Allan 
 Cunningham and Henrj' Weekes, to be by them completed. 
 Chantrey was buried in a vault constructed by himself in the 
 church of his native place, Norton in Derbyshire ; and he be- 
 queathed £200 a year to tlie clergyman of the place, to be paid 
 so long as his tomb shall last, as a charitable fund to provide for 
 the instruction of ten poor boys, and to furnish a pension of £10 
 a year to five poor men and five poor women, parishioners of 
 Norton, to be selected by the clergyman ; the residue to be 
 reserved by the clergyman for his own use. 
 
 Sir Francis Chantrey earned the distinction of being the best 
 bustmaker of his time ; he was also a good moimmental sculp- 
 tor, but met with only very partial success in the few practical 
 works he attempted, notmthstanding he had the aid of Stothard 
 in their composition. Two of his fiuest pieces — Lady Louisa 
 Russell at Wobum abbey, and the sleeping children in Lichfield 
 cathedral, are fi-om designs by Stothard. One of his very best 
 statues is the bronze of WilUam Pitt in Hanover Square. He 
 was essentially a portrait sculptor only, or maker of what the 
 Greeks called iconic figures ; he is entitled to the same rank, 
 therefore, in sculpture that is given to successful portrait paint- 
 ers in painting. His equestrian statues are not successful, the 
 horses are particularly inanimate ; as, for instance, in the monu- 
 ment to George TV. in Trafalgar Square. His last work of this 
 class, that to the duke of Wellington before the London Royal 
 Exchange, was executed almost entirely by Jlr. Weekes. 
 
 Chantrey's will has secured him a very important position in 
 the future histoiy of the art of his country. His great success 
 enabled him to accumulate a large fortune, and as he had no 
 chOdren he bequeathed it to the nation, to be laid out, accord- 
 ing to directions provided, in the encouragement of British art. 
 He left the reversion of his property, at the death or remarriage 
 of his widow, at the disposal of the Royal Academy of Arts, to 
 be laid out in the purchase of the finest examples of painting 
 and sculpture executed within the shores of Great Britain ; all 
 purchases to be bond Jide purchases of finished works. The 
 amount to be thus expended towards the fonnation of a national 
 collection of British fine art in painting and sculpture, is sup- 
 posed to be about £2500 per annum, from which are to be 
 paid annuities of £300 to the president of the Royal Academy, 
 and £50 to the secretary; payable on the 1st of January of 
 every year. Chantrey ti^usted to the nation to find a repository 
 for these purchases, as he has expressly prohibited any of his 
 fund from being used for such purpose. Tlie fund is not to 
 accumulate for more than five years. Chantrey left to his friend 
 and principal assistant, Allan Cunningham, £2000, and in a 
 codicil a life annuity of £100, witli reversion to his widow; he 
 left also £1000 to liis assistant, HeniT Weekes, provided, in both 
 cases that they continued in their offices as assistants until the 
 completion of his unfinished works, or such as it might be neces- 
 sary to finish. Allan Cunningham did not survive Chantrey 
 an entire year. There are two monograi)hs on Chantrey — 
 Recollections of his Life, Practice, and Opinions, by George 
 Jones, R.A., 8vo, London, 1840; and Memorials of Sir Francis 
 Chantrey, R.A., Sculptor, in Hallamshirc and elsewhere, liy 
 John Holland, 8vo, London, 1851.— R. N. W. 
 
 CHAl'ELAIX, Anduk, is supposed to have lived at the 
 court of Philippe Augustus somewhere between 1180 and 122.1. 
 He wrote a work — " I)e Arte Amatori.i et RejirobatioMc 
 Anions," which, coming from an ecclesiastic, throws curious 
 light upnn the sentiments of the time. — J. F. C. 
 
 CIIAPELAIN, Jkan, a French poet, born at Paris in Decem- 
 ber, 1505. His connection with tho foundation of the Fronrli 
 Academy, of which he was one of the principal originators, would 
 alone insure Ills name a place in tiie memory of men of letters. 
 While yet a child, he learned the Spanish and Italian languages 
 by hunself, and his enraptured motlier foreseeing fame and for- 
 tune for her gifted son, would not let his father make him a
 
 ClIA 
 
 974 
 
 CHA 
 
 notary. "While a tutor in the family of the grand provost of 
 France, he attracted the attention of the cardinal de Richelieu, 
 who named him a member of the academy, and gave him a 
 pension. He subsequently found another patron in the due de 
 Longueville, who allowed him a pension while writing a poem, 
 '* La Pucelle." The money did not happily inspire the bard, 
 who took over twenty years to produce a dead failure ; but 
 the patron, instead of showing vexation, doubled the annuity. 
 Chapelain was said to have gi'own avaricious with age, but the 
 charge is not supported by sufficient testimony. As he often 
 displayed liberality, he may have indulged in some peculiarities 
 which gave a handle to the envious. Died in 1674. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHAPELLE, Claude Emm^vnuel Lullier, bom at La 
 Chapelle, near St. Denis, in 1626. His intimacy with Moliere 
 gave rise to a nimour that he aided the most famous of French 
 comic writers in the composition of his immortal productions, 
 which so oftfcndi'd the latter that he laid a trap for Chapelle by 
 asking him to write a scene for a play m which he was engaged. 
 Amied with this proof of inferiority, he stopped the pretended 
 partner's tongue by threatening to show v\'hat he had written. 
 The fact was, that Chapelle possessed ready wit and singular 
 humour in conversation, which chilled when he took the pen in 
 hand. It is gi-eatly to the credit of the poet that he could exhibit, 
 in a servile age, a personal independence which amounted to 
 intrepidity. "While travelling with the due de Brissac, whose 
 sen'ice he had entered, his eye lighted on a passage in a classic 
 author to the effect that ser\ice of the gi-eat and slaveiy were 
 synonjTnous terms, on which he threw up his employment. 
 As he was much addicted to the bottle, his friend, the celebrated 
 BoOeau, kindly undertook to remonstrate with him ; but the 
 conversation ended in the censor being left dead dnink by his 
 captivating companion. He was one of a wild party who, at 
 Moliere's, in a tit of intoxication proposed to bid adieu to a 
 wicked world by jumping into the Seine, a mad act which was 
 prevented by the dramatist, who was a teetotaler. ^loliere, 
 with great presence of mind, proposed that so heroic a deed 
 should have the day for witness, and the day witnessed no worse 
 than aching heads. In conjunction with Bachaumont, Chapelle 
 wrote the famous " Voyage en Provence." He died in Sep- 
 tember, 1686.— J. F. C. 
 
 CHAPMAN, George, a dramatist of the Elizabethan period, 
 but better known as the translator of Homer, was bom, proba- 
 bly in Kent, in the year 1557. He resided two yeai-s at Trinity 
 college, Oxford, but did not take a degree, because, Anthony 
 Wood thinks, though he excelled in Latin and Greek, he had no 
 turn for logic or philosophy. He afterwards settled in London, 
 and lived, it is said, in familiar intercourse with Shakspeare, 
 Spenser, Ben Jonson, Daniel, Marlow, and other poets. He was 
 intimate also with Inigo Jones the celebrated architect, and dedi- 
 cated to him one of his plays. He found a powerful patron in 
 the Secretary AViilsingham. Wood describes him as " a person 
 of most reverend a.spect, religious and temperate, and highly 
 esteemed by the clergy and academicians." — (^Aihence, Oxon., i. 
 592.) He died at an advanced age in 1634, and was bmied in 
 the churchyard of St. Giles'-in-the-Fields. Chapman's claim 
 to literary distinction mainly rests on his translation of Homer. 
 His version, which is in long rhyming lines of fourteen syllables, 
 like the metre of Drayton's Poly-olbion, comprises, not only the 
 Iliad and Odyssey, but the Homeric hymns and the Batracho- 
 myomachia. Until of late years Pope's translation had com- 
 pletely driven it out of the field ; but a new edition was printed 
 some years ago and attracted much attention. Chapman ren- 
 ders his original rather more faithfully than Pope ; but his long 
 unwieldy lines can never vie with the spii-it and verve of the 
 more modern version. Our author wrote eighteen plays, partly 
 tragedies and partly comedies, which are now forgotten. One 
 of his tragedies, " Bussy d'Amboise," seems to have been a good 
 acting play, for it w;is popular on the stage ; but Dryden speaks 
 of it as intrinsically the most despicable stuff. "A famous 
 modem poet," says Dryden in the dedication to his Spanish 
 Friar, " used to sacrifice every year a Statins to Virgil's manes ; 
 and I have indignation enough to bum a D'Amboise annually to 
 the memory of Jonson." Warton, strangely enough, is in doubt 
 whether this passage be meant to convey praise or censure ! — 
 {Hist. Eng. Poetry, vol. iii.) One of his comedies, " Eastward, 
 Ho ! " is said to have been the joint work of himself, Jonson, 
 and JIarston, and is remarkable as having furnished Hogarth 
 with the idea worked out in the Idle Apprentice. — T. A. 
 
 CHAPMAN, John, an English divine, bom 1704, died 1784. 
 He became domestic chaplain to Archbishop Potter, and arch- 
 deacon of Sudbury. His first book was against Collins the 
 infidel, and in his "Eusebius" he answered the objections of 
 Morgan and Tindal. He wrote also several short pieces on 
 classical matters, in one of which he maintained that Cicero 
 published two editions of his Academics. As executor to Potter, 
 he presented himself to the precentorship of Lincoln ; but by a 
 decision of the house of lords was deprived of the office. — R. M., A. 
 
 * CHAPMAN, Maria Weston, an American lady, one of the 
 earliest and most zealous abolitionists in the United States, was 
 born in 1806 at We3-mouth, near Boston, Massachusetts, and was 
 educated first at Weymouth public schools, and afterwards in 
 England. She became in 1829 the associate of Ebenezer Bailey, 
 Esq., of Boston, in his undertaking of the collegiate education of 
 young ladies. In 1830 she mamed Henry Grafton Chapman, 
 Esq., of Boston, and both became ardent supporters of the anti- 
 slaveiy cause. It is perhaps not easy now to undei'stand all that 
 was mvolved in this early adherence to the cause of antislavery 
 in America. Every inducement of a social and worldly nature 
 tended in the strongest manner to dissuade one in Mrs. Chap- 
 man's position from giving it the least support. . But in her case 
 there was neither doubt nor hesitation. She saw the justice, 
 righteousness, and necessity of the movement, and cheerfully 
 undertook to bear her share of the opprobrium heaped upon its 
 promoters. Mrs. Chapman was one of the women of Boston 
 and vicinity who, in 1835, formed the " Female Antislavery 
 Society." In 1836 an attempt was made by the abolitionists 
 to reach the judiciaiy and law of the state of Massachusetts. 
 The decision of the supreme court, in the " Jled " case, placed 
 the Massachusetts judiciary on the old level of the English 
 " Somerset" case ; while the " Latimer" law, forbidding the 
 prisons and jails of the state to be used for the detention of 
 fugitive slaves, and all state-officers from taking part in their 
 arrest, raised the state-legislation to nearly as high a point as it 
 can be brought, while remaining in a common union with slave- 
 holders. Another imdertaking in 1837 was the reform of the 
 church by influences from without — a movement which secured 
 the co-operation of all the abolitionists, and has ever since been 
 successfully continued. In all these movements, Mrs. Chapman 
 was a leading spirit both in the design and the execution. It 
 was on the petitiim of herself and others of Weymouth, sustained 
 by 30,000 other women of Massachusetts, for the abolition of 
 slavery in the district of Columbia (in which Washington, the 
 seat of the national government, is situated), that the hon. 
 John Quincy Adams encountered on the floor of congress the 
 southern threat of assassination, and, " persisting in reading 
 the petition, was compelled to take his seat amid uproar and 
 confusion." During all these years it was Mrs. Chapman's 
 effort to connect the antislavery cause in America with the 
 earlier opponents of slavery in both hemispheres ; and Clarkson, 
 John Quincy Adams, and others, gave her their cordial co-opera- 
 tion. She was at one tim.e co-editor of the National Antislavery 
 Standai'd, which she had largely assisted in establishing in 
 1840, as the organ of the American Antislavery Society ; and 
 she published historical statements of the several undertakings 
 above-mentioned in four Mttle works, entitled " Eight and 
 Wrong in Boston and Massachusetts." The series of annual 
 volumes, entitled '• The Liberty Bell," composed of original 
 contributions from the ablest and most distinguished friends of 
 freedom both in the Old world and the New, is owing mainly to 
 her labours. In 184], Mr. Chapman being ordered to a milder 
 climate in search of health, his wife accompanied him to Hayti. 
 Taking letters from the Antislavery Society, they travelled both 
 in the French and the Spanish parts, and gathered such informa- 
 tion as enabled them on their return to put in motion, through 
 the JIassachusetts Antislavery Society, the first popular effort 
 by petition for the recognition of Haytian independence. In 
 1848, after the death of her husband, Mrs. Chapman took her 
 family to France, and resided on the continent until 1855, con- 
 tinuing unwearicdly her exertions in the cause of antislavery. 
 
 CHAPONE, Hester, a literary lady, known as the authoress 
 of " Letters on the Improvement of the Mind," and as the fnend 
 and con-espondent of some of the most eminent of her day, was 
 bom in 1727. She was the daughter of Thomas JIulso, Esq., 
 of T^vj-well, Northamptonshire. She early displayed her literary 
 tastes, and it is said at the age of nine composed a romance 
 entitled " The Loves of Amoret and Melissa." Through her
 
 CHA 
 
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 CHA 
 
 friend Richardson, she was introduced to Mr. Chapone, a har- 
 rister at the Temple, to whom, after a long acquaintance, she 
 was married in 1760, but who only survived ten months. Her 
 early widowhood was somewhat cheered by the friendship of 
 Jlrs. Montague, Lord Lyttleton, and Miss Carter. Mrs. Chapone 
 contributed one of the earliest numbers of Johnson's Rambler ; 
 wrote a story named " Fidelia," which appeared in the Adven- 
 turer ; an ode to peace ; and an ode addressed to Miss Carter 
 on the publication of her translation of Epictetus. Her first 
 avowed work was the " Letters," written at first for the benefit 
 of a favourite niece, but published in 1773 at the request of Mrs. 
 Montague. This was soon followed by a volume of miscellanies. 
 She died in 1801. Her works, with a sketch of her life, were 
 published in two volumes in 1807. — J. B. 
 
 CHAPPE, Claude, a French mechanician, nephew of the 
 famous astronomer the Abbe Chappe d'Auteroche, was born at 
 Brulow in Normandy in 1763. He is distinguished as the 
 inventor of the telegraph or semaphore, a machine for carrying 
 signals between distant places similar to that invented by Dr. 
 Hook in England, and modified by Amontons in France. He 
 died in 1805.— J. B. 
 
 CHAPPE D'AUTEROCHE, Jean, a French astronomer, 
 bom of a distinguished family in 172'2. Wliile studying at the 
 college of Louis le Grand, his progress in mathematics and 
 astronomy attracted the notice of the principal, father De la 
 Tour, who introduced him to Cassini — an introduction that 
 proved the beginning of his good fortune. In 1760, he departed 
 for Tobolsk, to obsen'e the transit of Venus, predicted by Halley 
 to happen in the following year. He accomplished the object 
 of his journey amid incredible hardships, and published an 
 account of it in two volumes in 1768. In 1769 another 
 transit of Venus took him to California, where he died in 
 August of the same year, after having been successful in 
 making his obsei-vations. They were published by C. F. Cassini 
 in 1772 under the title of Voyage de Californie. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHAPPELL, William, an English divine, was born in 
 1512. Appointed soon after 1533 provost of Trinity college, 
 Dublin, he was preferred in 1538 to the bishoprick of Cork, 
 Cloyne, and Ross. But he soon got into trouble. Charged with 
 puritanism at Cambridge, he was now accused of popery in Ire- 
 land. He was impeached in the house of peers — the charges 
 being perjur}' and malice towards the Irish. He left Ireland at 
 the breaking out of the rebellion, and died at Derby, after suft'er- 
 ing many misfortunes, in 1649. He wrote a work entitled 
 " Methodus Concionandi," and also an account of his own life 
 in Latin. Some have supposed him to be the author of The 
 Whole Duty of Man.— R. M., A. 
 
 * CHAPPELL, William, F.S.A., a musical antiquary, was 
 bom in London, November 20, 1809. His father founded the 
 extensive music warehouse which bears his name. Engaged in 
 this establishment, Mr. Chappell's national pride was continually 
 offended by his hearing the existence of English music denied ; 
 and the more so as the fashion of the day for Scotch songs, 
 arising from the successful performance of popular singers, 
 induced the manufacture of numberless pieces pretending to be 
 Scotch, and the false attribution to Scottish origin of many 
 excellent melodies native to the south side of the border. Ac- 
 cordingly, he applied himself with such zeal as can only belong 
 to a labour of love — to the investigation of whether or not 
 England possessed any national music ; and in the prosecution 
 of this inquiry he collected the materials for his first publication. 
 This was " A Collection of National English Airs," which 
 appe.ared in parts in 1838, 1839, and 1840. It contains an 
 immense number of songs and dance tunes, procured from anti- 
 quarian sources and from tradition, with a historical account of 
 each ; and the remarkable beauty of these fully demonstrates, not 
 only that England possesses music of its own at least equal in 
 merit to any other national music in the world, but that the want 
 of disposition for music with which this country is familiarly 
 characterized, is an entirely false aspersion. On the c()m])letion 
 of this work, ]\Ir. Chappell was elected a fellow of the Society of 
 Antiquaries. In seeking materials for the " Collection of National 
 English Airs," he came across so many interesting specimens 
 of early poetry and light literature — illustrating manners and 
 customs — equally valuable to historians, antiquaries, and biblio- 
 graphers, that he thought it desir.able to take measures for tlieir 
 republication. Accordingly, after the example of the Camden 
 Society, he founded, in conjunction with Dr. Rimbault, and with 
 
 the assistance of Jlr. Halliwell and others, the Percy Society, for 
 printing these works by the subscription of its members. The 
 society commenced its operations in 1840, continued its existence 
 for eleven years, and produced ninety-five books. It was at first 
 designed to include in the proceedings of the Percy Society, the 
 republication of the musical compositions of the Elizabethan 
 masters which had become obsolete, which would as powerfully 
 prove the scholarly musicianship that formerly flourished in 
 England, as did ^Ir. Chappell's collection the prevalence with 
 our forefathers of a popular taste for music. Finding it incon- 
 venient, however, to combine these two objects in one institu- 
 tion, the founder again, in conjunction with Dr. Rimbault and 
 with the Gresham professor, Mr. E. Taylor, established the 
 Musical Antiquarian Society, in order to carry out his favourite 
 idea of vindicating the English musical character. This society 
 was formed in November, 1840, la.sted six years, and issued 
 eighteen works, which throw most valuable light on the history 
 of the art. Of this, as of the Percy Society, Mr. Chappell and 
 Dr. Rimbault officiated as treasurer and secretary. In 1843 Jlr. 
 Chappell became a partner in the music firm of Cramer & Co. 
 His labours in the cause of English national music ceased not 
 with the issue of his first publication. On the contrary, this 
 work served the editor as a nucleus, round which to gather fresh 
 proofs of the indigenous musical character of his countrj' — fresh 
 examples of the beautiful melodies that at once expressed and 
 inspired the feelings of former generations of Englishmen. The 
 original book having been for some time out of print, ilr. Chap- 
 pell commenced in 1845 the publication of "Popular Music of 
 the Olden Time," in parts, the last of which has been issued in 
 1859. This work is greatly more extensive than the former, and 
 much more systematic in its arrangement ; it forms, in fact, an 
 illustrated history of music in England from the time of Alfred 
 to that of George III. ; and the beauty of its examples and the 
 force of the facts proving their once general popularity, must have 
 the effect of obliterating the stigma prejudice has stamped upon 
 the character of the country, and demonstrating that England is 
 a musical nation. The thanks of every one of his countrymen 
 who is interested in art, will repay the editor's elaborate and 
 indefatigable researches. — G. A. M. 
 
 CHAPPELOVV, Leonard, a celebrated Orientalist, was 
 born in 1683, and died in 1768. He studied at Cambridge, 
 and in 1720 succeeded Simon Ockley in the Arabic chair. He 
 held, besides, the livings of Great and Little Hormead. In 1727 
 he published Spencer's work, De Legibus HebrKonnn Ritualibus, 
 with additions and con-ections ; in 1730 "Elementa Lingua; 
 Aral)ica3;" and soon after a Commentary on Job. In 1765 
 appeared Bull's Two Sermons on the State of the Soul after 
 Death, with a preface by Chappelow. His last publication was 
 entitled " Six Assemblies," &c. It is part of a lai-ge work 
 written in Arabic by Hariri of Basra. — R. JL, A. 
 
 CHAPTAL, Jean Antoine, Count de Chantoloup, an emi- 
 nent French chemist, of the Lavoisier period, was bom in 1756 ; 
 died in 1832. Throughout his long career he was passionately 
 fond of chemistiy, and devoted himself more particularly to the 
 application of that science to the industrial arts. He obtained 
 his diploma as ]\LD. at Montpellier in 1777, and tlien repaired 
 to Paris, where his progress was rapid, and attended with 
 remarkable success. On his return to Montpellier in 1781, the 
 states of Langncdoc founded for him a chair of chemistry 
 in the school of medicine. Having succeeded to tlic fortune 
 of a rich uncle, he instituted several establishments for the 
 manufacture of chemical products. He improved the iirocesses 
 for the production of mineral acids, alum, soda, white- load, 
 sugar of lead, &c. ; discovered a new method for dyeing turkey 
 red, and was also successful in naturalizing the barilla of Ali- 
 cante in the south of France. For these useful laboui-s he was 
 rewarded with letters of nobility, and the conion of the order 
 of St. ]\Iichael. He a.lopted all the ideas of the Revolution, 
 but he highly disapi)roved of tlieir excess. He was appointed 
 director of the saltpetre works at Gronelle, and was soon after- 
 wards intrusted with tlic reorganization of the school of medicine 
 at Paris, in which he was professor of cliemistry. The 18tli 
 Brumaire opened to his talents a more brilliant career. He was 
 named by the first consul, councillor of state, and on the retire- 
 ment of Lueien, received the portfolio of the interior. Under 
 his administration chambers of connnereo were founded, special 
 encouragements gi-anted to the industrial arts and manufactures, 
 the culture of beet-root and woad extended, and schools for
 
 CHA 
 
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 CHA 
 
 trades establislieJ. The Conservatoire des arts et metiers is 
 indebted to him for several useful collections. He resigned office 
 in 1804, and in the same year he entered the senat-conserva- 
 teur, of which lie was appointed treasurer. In 1813-14 he 
 was commissioner extraordinary at Lyons. On the return of 
 Napoleon from Elba, he accepted the direction of commerce and 
 manufactures ; and for his devotion to this cause his name was 
 erased by Louis XVIII. from the list of peers. In 1816 he was 
 elected member of the Institute, to which he communicated 
 several important memoirs. Chaptal has left a number of works, 
 all marked by elegance of style, rigorous method, and great 
 perspicuity; and wliich, though now old, may still, especially 
 his " Chimie appliquee aux Arts," be consulted with advantage. 
 His declining years were visited by cruel reverses ; and of the 
 immense fortune amassed by his great labours, and during his 
 long and useful career, only a wreck eventually remained. — F. P. 
 
 CHARDIN, SiK John, an eminent eastern traveller, born at 
 Paris in 1G43, was the son of a jeweller, and was brought up to 
 the same profession. To gratify his taste for travel, and " to 
 endeavour the advancement of his fortunes and estate," he left 
 France for the East in 1664, and before his rctiu-n in 1G70, 
 visited Persia and the East Indies. In 1671 he again went to 
 Persia, where he remamed till 1677. In the course of his two 
 journeys, he gained a perfect acquaintance with the language, and 
 attained much familiarity with the manners and customs of 
 Persia. In 1681 he settled in London, and was appointed 
 jeweller to the court and tlie nobility ; was knighted by Charles 
 II., and elected a fellow of tlie Royal Society. The first part of 
 liis " Travels" was published in 1686, and the second in 1711. 
 Tlie work lias been translated into various languages : an edition 
 in 10 vols. 8vo, with notes by Langles, was published at Paris 
 in 1811. Chardin resided during the last years of liis life at 
 Turnham Green, and was buried at Chiswick in 1713. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARES, a statuary of the seventh centuiy. He was a 
 native of Lindus in Rhodes, and a disciple of Lysippus. His 
 fame rests on his colossus of the smi at Rhodes, which was 
 wont to be reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world. 
 The popular account of this wonder, dating from the time of 
 Blaise de Vigen^re, is now exploded. The statue was thrown 
 down by an earthquake, B.C. 224. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHARES, an Athenian general, was born about 400 B.C. 
 He was sent in 367 to the assistance of the Phli.asians, who were 
 hard pressed by the Argives, Arcadians, and the Theban gar- 
 rison of Sicyon, and gained some successes over these aggressors. 
 In 361 he was nominated successor to Leosthenes, who bad 
 met with a defeat from the ships of Alexander, and landing 
 at Corcyra assisted the oligarchical faction in that place to 
 overthrow their democratical opponents. In 358 lie was sent 
 to Tlirace at the head of a considerable mercenary force, and 
 compelled Charidemus and Cliersobleptes to execute the conven- 
 tion of Athenodorus, by which the whole of the Chersonese 
 was surrendered to Athens. In the following year Chares was 
 appointed to take charge of the social war, along with Timotheus 
 and Iphicrates, whom he accused before the people because they 
 refused to risk an engagement, on the ground of a storm that 
 was then raging. During the Olynthian war Chares was sent to 
 the assistance of the Olyntliians, and obtained some advantages 
 over the mercenaries of Philip. He was one of the commanders 
 of the Athenian army at the disastrous battle of Chseronea, and 
 exculpated himself from blame by throwing the responsibility of 
 that engagement on one of his colleagues, Lysicles, who was con- 
 demned to death. We last hear of hiin as holding Jlitylene for 
 the Persians, with a garrison of two thousand men ; but, unable 
 to hold out against the Macedonians, he agreed to evacuate the 
 city, in 333 is.c. Chares acquired immense sums by plunder, 
 which he spent in bribing the orators and gratifying his licentious 
 tastes. — J. T. 
 
 CHARETTE de la Contkie, Francois Atiiana.se, one 
 of the principal heroes of the Vendean war, was born in 1763. 
 He was descended from an old and respectable family, and his 
 lather was a captain in an infantry regiment. He entered 
 the navy in 1779, was engaged in the American war, and 
 attained the rank of lieutenant, but retired from the service 
 when the Revolution broke out. He was living on his estate in 
 Brittany when the outbreak of the royalists took place in March, 
 1793. Yielding to the urgent requests and even threats of the 
 peasants of Machecoul, he reluctantly consented to be their leadir. 
 The army which he led was called that of Bas-Poitou, to distin- 
 
 guish it from the Vendean force under Cathelineau, which was 
 called the army of Haut-Poitou. On the 29th the two armies 
 united in the unsuccessful attack up<m Nantes, in which Cathe- 
 lineau was mortally wounded. While acting in concert, though 
 defeated in an attack upon Lufoii, they gained three signal 
 victories over the republicans on the 19th, 21st, and 22nd ot 
 September. But Cliarette, who, with all his patriotism, had 
 much personal ambition, quarrelled with the other generals, 
 quitted the grand army, and carried on operations by him- 
 self. When General Hoche was sent with a numerous army 
 to terminate the contest in the western provinces, he offered 
 Charette liberty to quit the country with all the persons whom 
 he chose to name, but the offer was rejected. On the 23rd of 
 March, 1795, Charette was attacked by an overwhelming force, 
 severely wounded, and taken prisoner. He was carried to Nantes, 
 where, on the 29th, he was tried by a military commission, con- 
 demned, and immediately executed. The death of this able 
 soldier terminated the war in La Vendee. — J. T. 
 
 CHARIDEMUS, a Greek general, born at Oreus in Eubcea, 
 about 400 B.C. He was a commander of a band of merce- 
 naries, and was in the habit of hiring himself to the best 
 bidder. He entered into the service of Athens under Iphicrates, 
 and was employed against Amphipolis in 367, but not long after 
 entered into the pay of Cotys, king of Thrace, a decided enemy 
 of Athens. Having been captured by the Athenian fleet, he was 
 again prevailed on to serve Athens, and assisted Timotheus in 
 his attack upon Amphipolis. He subsequently passed over into 
 Asia, and hired himself to the satrap Artabazus, who had 
 revolted against Artaxerxes III. Then returning to Europe, he 
 took service with Cotys (whose sister he married) against his 
 former employers the Athenians. On the murder of Cotys in 
 358, Charidemus became the main support of his son Clierso- 
 bleptes, in his struggle with Athens for the possession of the 
 Chersonesus. (See Cephisodotus, Chabrias, and Chares.) 
 In the end he was compelled to surrender the long-coveted terri- 
 toiy to the Athenians, retaining however Kardia for himself. 
 In 349 Charidemus is once more found in the service of Athens, 
 and was appointed commander of the troops sent to the assist- 
 ance of the Olynthians ; but next year he was superseded by 
 Chares. From this period he disappears from history. — J. T. 
 
 CHARIDEMUS, an Athenian orator, was born about 390 
 B.C. In 358 he was sent ambassador along with AntiphoH to 
 Philip of Macedon, ostensibly for the purpose of confirming the 
 treaty between that monarch and the Athenians ; but in reality 
 to treat secretly with him for the restitution of Amphijiolis. 
 He was a second time ambassador at the Macedonian court, 
 when Philip was murdered in 336 B.C. Charidemus was one of 
 the orators whose surrender was demanded by Alexander, 335 
 B.C., after the destruction of Thebes. He fled to Asia, and took 
 refuge with Darius, by whose orders he was put to death, 333 
 B.C., shortly before the battle of Issus. — J. T. 
 
 CHARILAUS, king of Sparta, son of Polydectes, lived about 
 800 B.C. His father died early, leaving a pregnant widow, who 
 made to her husband's brotlier, the celebrated Lycurgus, a proposal 
 that he should many her, and become king. Lycurgus, however, 
 indignantly rejected the offer ; and, on the birth of his nephew, 
 Charilaus, held up the child publicly in the agora as the future 
 king of Sparta, and immediately relinquished the authority 
 wliich he had provisionally exercised. Charilaus undertook an 
 expedition against the Tegcans, but was defeated and taken 
 prisoner by an ambuscade of the women. They set him at liberty 
 without ransom, telling him to remember never again to make 
 war upon the Tegeans. — J. T. 
 
 CHARISI, R' Jehudah ben Solomon Aloharisi, sm-- 
 namcd by some writers Alchofni, a distinguished Hebrew 
 poet and ingenious translator into Hebrew, was born about the 
 year 1175 in a part of Spain subject to the IMoors. He took for 
 his model the famous Makamat by Mohanied ben Ali Al-Hariri 
 of Basra, in which the Arab poet introduces two personages, 
 Hareth ben Hemmam and Abu Seid, for the narration of their 
 adventures in rhymed prose, interspersed with metrical jneces. 
 This singularly charming production, Charisi imitated in Hebrew, 
 under the title of" Mechaberath, or Machbereth, Ithiel," of which, 
 unfortunately, instead of the fifty chapters of the original Arabic 
 only twenty-seven have been preserved in Hebrew. The applause 
 with which the version of Hariri's poem was received by the 
 Hebrew-reading public in Spain and southern France, encouraged 
 Charisi to attempt an original production of the same species of 
 
 J
 
 fiction, which, under the title of " Thachkemoni" (see 2 Sam- 
 ssiii. 8) ranks foremost in the secular poetrj- of the Jews. As a 
 translator, Charisi was especially active on behalf of the Jews in 
 the Provence, to whom the writings of the Spanish Jews of that 
 period were unintelligible in their Arabic originals. Thus, we 
 meet with a translation by Charisi of Jlaimonides' Commentary 
 on the Mishna, order " Seraim ;" of Jlaunonides' great work, the 
 Moreh ; of the JIusre Haphilosophim (Jloral Apothegms of the 
 Philosophers) ; and the Iggereth Aristo (Aristotle's Letter) ; and 
 even of several medical dissertations of Greek origin. Charisi's 
 travels extended over many lands ; to say nothing of the penin- 
 sulai- cities which he visited, he speaks familiarly of Marseilles, 
 Alexandria, Cairo, Jerusalem, Damascus, Bagdad, &c. He 
 returned in 1218, and probably died sometime before 1235. — 
 (Zunz in Benjamin of Tudela, ii. p. 258; Dukes, Ehrerisdulen; 
 Carmoly, Revue Orieritale, vol. iii. ; Jost, Geschichte, &c.) — T. T. 
 
 CHARKE, Charlotte, youngest daughter of Colley Cibber, 
 the famous actor and pcet lam-eate. Charlotte received a very 
 masculine education, and married, while still young, a violinist 
 of the name of Richard Charke. The profligacy of his life, 
 however, soon caused a sepiu-ation. Charlotte then betook 
 herself to the stage ; but quarrelling with Fleetwood the 
 manager, she ultimately joined a strolling company, and died in 
 a state of the utmost misery in 1760. In 1755 she published 
 a narrative of her own life. — R. JI., A. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, eldest son and successor of Pepin le Bref, 
 first Cai-lovingian king of the Franks, bom in 742. But httle 
 is known of his history until he ascended the throne at the age 
 of twenty-sLs. At the age of eleven, in the year 753, he met 
 Pope Stephen IL at the Lombard frontier of France, and con- 
 ducted him to join his father Pepin at Pontyon. Next summer, 
 with his father and younger brother, he received from the pope 
 the royal consecration, and the title '" patrician of Rome." We 
 hear of him as engaged in the Aquitanian war which fills the 
 close of Pepin's reign ; and these are the only notices we possess 
 respecting his youth. At the death of Pepin in 7G8, the empue 
 was shared between Charlemagne and his brother Carloman. 
 They extinguished together the last sparks of agitation in 
 Aquitaine ; and Bertrade the queen-mother, after reconciling 
 a rising difi'erence between the brothers, departed for Pa\'ia to 
 negotiate a union between Charles and the daughter of the 
 king of Lombardy. Notwithstanding the \-iolent repugnance of 
 the pope to a match which would unite the pious royalty of the 
 Franks to the nation of the Lombards, "perfidious, horrible, 
 fetid, and the authors of leprosy," Charles repudiated his first 
 wife to marry Desiderata. The marriage, however, was of no 
 long continuance, the sensitive and delicate constitution of the 
 Lombard princess not realizing the Frank's ideal. The divorce of 
 Desiderata left room for the Suabian Hildegarde, a strong-voiced 
 princess, and was closely followed by the death of Carloman, 
 whose wife and children fled to Lombardy, lea\'ing Charlemagne 
 sole monarch of the Franks. 
 
 Before entering on this great reign, it is important to trace 
 lightly the origin and nature of the " renaissance," of which 
 it forms the cuhninating point. The barbarian invasions have 
 of late assumed then: "real place in the perspective of histoiy. 
 The image of the Roman empire was rather shattered by them 
 than eft'aced ; like a reflection on water, it was ready to return 
 when the ripple subsided. The barbarians felt awed, and as 
 it were, trode softly. They were like beggars hutting in a palace 
 — ^the place had harboured greater men than they. The church 
 of the Romans had met, and even welcomed Clovis on the fron- 
 tier. Signs and wonders lighted him to victory, and the ordeal 
 of battle had vindicated the religion of the christians. But the 
 history of the Franco-Gallic church is one of failure and corrup- 
 tion, and we must look to the Anglo-Saxon missionaries of Rome, 
 seconded by the papacy and the mayors of the Austrasian 
 palace, if we wish to identify the causes which, in the eighth 
 century, infused an altered spirit into religion and politics. 
 Three potent influences — the popes at Rome, the Pepins iu 
 Austrasia, and the Anglo-Saxon missionaries in the Teutonic 
 forests — presided at the first of the three great " renaissances." 
 The reign of Charles Martel exhibits the revolution in its clearest 
 form. He is the man of the new religion, gathered by Boniface 
 in " the huts where poor men lie." He plunders and degrades 
 the Franco-Gallic church, but he sustains the pope against the 
 Lombards, and he saves the world at Tours. Pepin le Bref 
 continues the same policy. The almost Hebraic imction con- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ferred on him by Boniface marks the rise of the royalty of the 
 future ; the Lombard wars of 754-55, and the temtorial dona- 
 tion to the pope, settle the spiritual power on a firm basis ; and 
 a clause in a Saxon treaty of 753, binding the Saxons to allow 
 the preaching of the gospel among them, indicates the missionary 
 and crusading character of the new dj-nasty. A moral idea 
 and purpose was penetrating and organizing the chaotic and 
 incoherent nationalities of western barbarism ; and the centre 
 of this revolution was Rome, the only spot in the empire which 
 had risen to a new life without the renovating touch of a bar- 
 b;u-ian conquest. No longer based, as in the days of the republic, 
 on the exclusive domination of Italy — for the feeble or generous 
 provincialism of the empire had long made the Eternal City the 
 seat, instead of the possessor of imperial power — Rome directed 
 the world in -virtue of its past glories, and still more, of its pre- 
 cious possession of the bones of St. Peter. The characteristic 
 of the Roman empire had been conquest made creative. Char- 
 lemagne was about to earn a revival of the title by a revival 
 of the work. The atmospheric pressure of barbarism which 
 destroyed the old empire showed some signs of recommencement. 
 Between the Rhine and the Cai-pathians extended a vast surface 
 of half-settled barbarous nations, entering hke a wedge between 
 the two civifizations of East and "West. Since the era of the 
 Roman empue httle progress had been made in diminishing this 
 standing menace to regular government. Varus had never really 
 been avenged ; Thuringia and Aiemanuia had, indeed, long been 
 more or less subject to the Franks, and Prankish influence was 
 felt in Bavaria and even Saxony ; but between Metz and Con- 
 stantinople was ranged a double cordon of imcivilized races — the 
 first, Teutonic, consisting of the Prisons, Saxons, and Bavarians ; 
 the second formed by the Slavonic Wiltzes in the north, the 
 Slavonians of Carinthia on the Adriatic, and between them the 
 Jlongol Avars, camped on the Hungarian plains. The great 
 and permanent result of the reign of Charlemagne was to be the 
 creation of Germany in this wilderness of barbarism. 
 
 Ten active years, the last of Pepin's life, had definitively car- 
 ried the Frankish authority to the foot of the Pyrenees, but had 
 allowed a pressure on the north-eastern frontier, which early 
 attracted the attention of Charlemagne. Amid the shadows 
 and solitude of then: gigantic forests, the Saxons spumed the 
 religion, the royalty, and the civUization of the Franks. Sullenly 
 constant to the ideas of their fathers, the three tribes acknow- 
 ledged no common king, retained the indefinite boundaries of the 
 old Teutonic gau, and knew nothing of the division into tithings 
 and hundi-eds, common to the Franks and the Saxons of Eng- 
 land. War commenced characteristically by the burning of a 
 church at Deventer in 772. The spring assembly of the Franks 
 was held at Worms — the first of those thii-ty champs de Mai 
 which gathered up the Frankish levies to the field of action, 
 and then launched them on the Saxon marches. The attack 
 was du'ected against the Hermen-Saul, a mysterious idol in the 
 form of a column set on the summit of the castled rock of 
 Ehresburg, the scene of the destruction of Vanis and his legions, 
 and possibly raised in commemoration of his victor. After 
 destroying this image, Charlemagne penetrated to the Wcscr, 
 and returned with twelve hostages to the patrimonial residence 
 of the Pepins, at HerLstal, near Liege. 
 
 The two next years were occupied by a war with Desiderius, 
 king of the Lombards, who resented the divorce of his daughter, 
 suj)ported the sons of Carloman against their uncle, and had 
 despoiled the pope of certain cities of the exarchate, in revenge 
 for his refusal to adopt the same cause. Late in the nutunm 
 of 773 the Frankish forces gathered at Geneva, and, pressing 
 through the snows of the Great St. Bernard and the Mount 
 Cenis, besieged Desiderius in his capital of Pavia. The city 
 opposing an obstinate resistance, Chtirlemagne, says Eginhard, 
 " went to Rome to pray there," and renewed the alliance of the 
 popes and the Carlovingians at tlie tomb of St. Petor. He 
 returned to Pavia in time to receive the submission of its famished 
 defenders. The Lombard duchies, with the exception of Bcne- 
 vento, made their submission. No ho.stile tcmtory now inter- 
 vened between AL\-la-Chapelle and Rome, but the native dukes 
 and counts were left undisturbed in their authority, and, with 
 the exception of a Frankish garrison in Pavia, there was little 
 external change to tell that the king of the Franks was now 
 the king of the Lombards. This settlement of Lombardy was 
 of short dur.ition. One year later, Roger, the duke of Friuli, 
 revolted. Charles pounced upon him from the Alps with the 
 
 6 II
 
 swoop of an eagle. The Lombard counts were dispossessed all 
 over north Italy, and Franks put in their place. The duchy of 
 Benevento remained independent till 78G, when Aregise, its 
 duke, fled to Salerno before the arms of Charlemagne, and was 
 reduced to pay an annual tribute. Oh the death of Aregise in 
 788, his successor, Grmioald, found himself in presence of a for- 
 midable Greek invasion, headed by Adalgise, the son of the last 
 Lombard king of Italy. Tlie Greeks were routed with severe 
 loss, and from that time forward, Italy, the tribe of Levi among 
 modern nations, renounced all hopes of independent national 
 sovereignty, and remained faithful to the pope and the emperor, 
 both alike its glory and its nun. 
 
 The earlier years of the reign of Charlemagne are remarkable 
 for rapid change in the scene and direction of his campaigns. 
 Breaching the firm enceinte of barbarism which hemmed him in, 
 now in this direction, now in that, each isolated conquest worked 
 like a charged mine among the yet unthreatened portions of the 
 fabric. From Aquitaine he turns on Saxony, from Saxony on 
 the Lombards, thence to Saxony again, and then he pours 
 through the two great rifts of tlie Pyrenees, at then- eastern and 
 western extremity, a stream of Franks, of Bavarians, Lombards, 
 Gascons, and Proveufals, converging on Saragossa to receive 
 from the local governor his proffered submission. Disappointed 
 of this, the Franks laid siege to Saragossa, received the submis- 
 sion of the country between the Pyrenees and the Ebro, and 
 withdi'ew in triumph by the gorge of Eoncevaux. Charlemagne 
 had abeady gained the crest of the pass, when a host of Gas- 
 cons, emerging from the dense forests which covered the moun- 
 tain slopes, tlirew themselves on the rear-guard, rent it from 
 the main body, and hurling it in confusion mto the valley of 
 Pampeluna, destroyed it to a man. Among the names of those 
 who fell, Eginhard has preserved for us that of " Roland, pre- 
 fect of the march of Bretagne." The winded horn and the 
 terrible sword of the deserted hero arc claimed by poetry ; but 
 the silence of the mountain valley, so suddenly broken and so 
 rapidly restored, stands out as a poetic feature, even in the dry 
 pages of the secretary of Charlemagne. 
 
 The Lombard and Spanish campaigns interrapt, parenthe- 
 tically, the one long Saxon war wliich lasted nearly through the 
 reign. Spring after spring, the Frankish armies flooded the 
 Saxon marches, lea^ang each autumn as they retked a fort and 
 garrison in the fastnesses of the country. Sometimes the 
 Frankish foragers returning to their fort at nightfall, would be 
 joined by pretended comrades, who avenged at midnight tlie 
 plunder of the day. At other times a spirit of submission would 
 seize the natiim, and the camp of Charlemagne, fixed at the 
 sources of the Lippe, would be crowded by myriads of Saxons, 
 recognizing, perhaps, in the brookside the seats of their early 
 pagan worship, and pressing to be baptized in token of subjec- 
 tion, or to secure the tunics of fau- white linen they received 
 after the ceremony. In 778 the nation broke out again, and 
 from Deutz to Coblentz, the Austrasian dwellers on the left 
 bank of the Rhine saw the blaze of villages, farms, and churches, 
 advancing fast and far along the right. A Frankish force 
 crossed the Rhine, defeated the Saxons at the ford of the Adeni, 
 and pushmg across the Weser and Ocker to the Elbe, discovered 
 in the darkness of the East, the Wends, the northern link in 
 that great chain of Slavonic nations, which stretched from the 
 Baltic to the Gulf of Venice. The episcopal organization which 
 Saxony now received appears to have kept it in order for foiir 
 years ; but in 782, the heavy defeat of the Franks at Sonnethal, 
 though cruelly revenged by the decapitation of 4500 Saxons m 
 one day, inaugurated a struggle more severely contested than 
 any previous. Charles sought and found the Saxons on the 
 Teutberg, near Dethmold; they offered a sullen resistance; 
 the carnage was terrific; and he retired, baffled, to Paderborn. 
 Reinforced from France, he again attacked them ; this time tlie 
 defeat was total ; tlie merciless army of Charlemagne burst 
 over Saxony from the Rhine to the Elbe ; the roads echoed witli 
 the tramping of captive men and cattle, setting steadily to the 
 West; the king established liis family at Ehresberg for the 
 winter, scattered his army in flying columns, ai>d dh-ected in 
 person a systematic slaughter of tlie Saxons in tlieir homes. 
 This tremendous and penetrating warfare met with complete 
 success. Witikind, the great Saxon leader, accepted the ofiors 
 of Chariemagnc, and was baptized at tlie royal villa of Attigni- 
 sur-Aisne. The happy news was sent in tnumph to Ofl'a, the 
 Anglo-Saxon; and the pope crowned with masses the missionary 
 
 prowess of the sword. Baptism had now in fact assumed a 
 new meaning ; it was not merely the outward sign of Chris- 
 tianity ; it was the shibboleth of civilization. The baptism 
 of \Mtikind was more significant than his execution could 
 have been, for it implied not merely his defeat, but his adoption 
 of the ideas of bis victor. The cajjitulary of 785 seconded 
 the example of the Saxon leader. It punished with death 
 the refusal to be baptized, the burning of the dead, and the 
 non-obsei-vance of Lent ; an inquisitorial enactment of civilized 
 customs which betrays the terrors of a christian regime of 
 conquest in those early days. 
 
 These dark and relentless years possibly point to the influence 
 of the beautiful Fastrada, whom Charlemagne had married 
 after the death of Hildegarde in 783, and whose cruelty now 
 raised more than one conspiracy against her husband's life. The 
 first was Thuringian. There was no difficulty in its detection. 
 One of its leaders boldly avowed in the presence of Charle- 
 magne—" If my advice had been followed, you would never 
 have repassed the Rliine alive." The merciful sovereign imposed 
 on them some edifying pilgrunages to the tombs of saints, but 
 bad them mm-dered on their way home. Seven years later, a 
 natural son, named Pepin, conspired against his life at Ratisbon. 
 The nocturnal conference of the conspu'ators in the church of 
 St. Peter was overheard by a humble deacon concealed beneath 
 an altar, who, penetrating half clad through the seven doors 
 and seven passages which led to the king's chamber, was received 
 with stifled merrunent by the queen's waiting-women, but 
 succeeded in communicating his news to Cluu'lemagne, who laid 
 his iron hand on the conspii-ators, and sent Pepin to the monas- 
 teiy of St. Gall, " considered," says the monk of St. Gall ■with 
 humour, "the poorest and most outlandish spot in the vast 
 empire." 
 
 The submission of the Lombards, completed by the homage of 
 the duke of Benevento in 786, laid open the duchy of Bavaria 
 to Frankish attacks on the south, as well as on the west and 
 north. The fortunes of Lombardy and its overhanging Alpine 
 plateau were then, as now, indissolubly connected. Three 
 armies converged upon Bavaria. The people disavowed the 
 intrigues of their duke with the Avars ; he was degraded at the 
 assembly of Ingelheim, and the hercditaiy duchy gave place to 
 Charlemagne's favomite government of counts and margraves. 
 
 The first or Teutonic enceinte of barbarous nations was now 
 levelled, but only to disclose a second barrier. The spear of 
 Charlemagne had pierced the outer plate of the barbaric shield, 
 but rang vainly on the inner. In 789 he aided the Obotritcs of 
 Jlecklenbm-g against the Weletabians, receiving hostages for the 
 latter ; and the submission of Bavaria laid bare the singular 
 nation of the Avars. Hsre opened a prospect worthy indeed of 
 Charlemagne. To fix and settle the wild and tumultuous 
 oscillations of those intrepid cavaliers who bathed their horses, 
 says Gibbon, alternately in the Euxine and the Adriatic, was 
 to dry up the well-head of barbarism from the Alps to the 
 mouths of the Danube. The Saxons, the Prisons, the Thmin- 
 gians, the Franks, and the Aquitanians, moved in two great 
 masses down the two banks of the Danube, and penetrated to 
 the Raab, while the Italians, under their king, Pepin, pierced 
 the outermost circle of the mysterious nhiefold ring, situated 
 between the Danube and the Theiss, within which the brigand 
 nation brooded like an eagle over the accumulated treasures of 
 two centm-ies of plunder. The army retmned on foot from this 
 achievement, for its horses were lost in the marshes of Hungary. 
 
 The irritabihty of exhaustion followed this tremendous effort. 
 Like the sailors of Columbus, or the Israelites in the desert, the 
 world weai'ied of Charlemagne, — 
 
 " There is no joy but calm, 
 Why should we only toil, the roof aud crown of things?" 
 
 Pepin conspired against his father's life ; the coimt Theodoric 
 gathering reinforcements in Saxony for the Hungarian war, was 
 massacred with all his forces ; the revolt of Benevento stripped 
 Aquitaine of defenders ; Duke William of Toulouse was defeated 
 in attempting to protect that province ; even spirits from tlie 
 other world fought against Charlemagne, for the ears of corn 
 were empty, and a council declared that demons had blighted 
 them because the tithes were not duly paid. These dark clouds 
 passed away with the death of Fastrada in 794. Cliarlemagne 
 was not content with replacing the bishops and counts in 
 Saxony ; the missionaries had worked well as pioneers, but they 
 were unequal to government. He drew off a vast number of
 
 Saxons into Germany and France, and divided the confiscated 
 lands among great feudatory vassals. These deportations were 
 thrice repeated in 796, in 798, and in 804 ; but this temble 
 combination of Eastern and Western, Assyrian and feudal 
 methods of empire, extinguished even Saxon resistance, and 
 created a civilized nation, vrhich, in the next centuiy, gave 
 emperors to Germany, and kings to France. Everjn-here the 
 barbarian world gave signs of exhaustion ; the creation in 798 
 of the " march of Spain," advanced the Franldsh froncier to the 
 Ebro. Herrick, the duke of Friuli, penetrated the nine circles of 
 the ring, and Pepin, king of Italy, rased it the year after. The 
 gold of the Avars brightened the two capitals of the West ; but 
 its late owners, deprived of their palladium, the ring, petitioned 
 to be allowed to settle west of the Danube, and the Bohemians 
 succeeding to their plains and marshes, were reduced in one 
 campaign by the eldest son of Charlemagne. 
 
 In the midst of these triumphs the state of Rome caused 
 anxiety. Leo III., the successor of Adrian, was siurounded by 
 enemies. The nephews of the late pope attacked him on his 
 way to the church of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and attempted to 
 deprive him by mutilation of speech and sight. Leo fled to 
 Charlemagne at Paderborn, who restored him to the papal throne, 
 and followed him to Rome. On the 24th of November, 800, 
 Charlemagne was received on the steps of St. Peter's by the 
 pope, the bishops, and the clergy. An inquiiy, held a few days 
 after, into certain charges prefen-ed against the pope by the two 
 nephews, resulted in the acquittal of the pope and the exile of 
 his accusers. Leo, in the pulpit of St. Peter's, with the holy 
 gospels in his hand, made a solemn affiiTnation of his innocence. 
 But the great event was reserved for Christmas day. The 
 Prankish and the papal courts met for high mass in the great 
 Basilica. The pope in person chanted the sen'ice ; Charlemagne 
 knelt in devotion. A cro\\Ti was placed upon his bent head by 
 Leo, and the Romans thrice shouted — " To the most pious Charles, 
 Augustus, crowned of God, mighty and pacific emperor, life and 
 victoiy!" The pope completed the ceremony by adoring the 
 new emperor in the manner prescribed by ancient imperial custom. 
 
 The Roman empire was restored. Again came the age of 
 those mighty imperial artificers, under whose hands the map of 
 civilized Europe had grown — pushing with the earlier CaBsars to 
 the banks of the Rhine, or spreading with Trajan to the foot of 
 the Carpathians. Again the landmarks of civilization were 
 plucked up, and the tide of barbarism flung backwards ten 
 degi-ees ; but though the work was the old work, the spirit was 
 new. In the " Holy Roman Empire" of the ninth centuiy 
 appears a new figure ; this counted tw'o leaders — a spiritual 
 and a temporal — the emperor and the pope. " Duo soli," says 
 Dante — 
 
 " Che I'uiia e I'altra strada, 
 Facfen vedere, e del mondo, e di Dio." — Purg. Cant. XVI. 
 
 The polytheism of ancient Rome had suited well with conquest, 
 but more by its tolerance after victory than by any eagerness it 
 inspired for war. The Christianity of the Prankish period was 
 warlike and propagandist throughout. "Alas," said Charle- 
 magne, when disappointed by the retreat of a band of Norman 
 brigands, " why have I not deserved to see how this christian 
 arm of mine would have played about those apes ! " This spirit 
 of conquest — half theological, half militaiy — is the distinctive 
 characteristic of the reign of Charlemagne. Nor were these the 
 only respects in which the empire was changed. Its silent and 
 flexible mechanism was replaced by a noisy publicity, necessaiy 
 in so Homeric an age. The terrible tongue of Charlemagne was 
 everywhere — applauding, sneering, scolding. Two assemblies in 
 spring and autumn gathered the important men of the empire 
 together, and interested them in its welfare and progress. The 
 emperor was among them, his shiill voice audible as he greeted 
 his great nobles, chatted with rare visitors, comforted the old, 
 joked with the young, and had a word for everj-body. They 
 gathered in the palace coiirt, the stout Teutonic figures, who 
 sustained the western world upon their lances — marquises and 
 margraves from the march of Spain ; the few dukes %vhom the 
 jealous Charlemagne still suffered to exist ; Hemk of Friuli, 
 glittering with the spoils of the Avar Ring, with the warriors 
 * round him who had carried each of them nine wends together 
 transfixed upon their spear-points ; here and there one of the 
 strange Carlovingian bishops, so open to temptation, so incon- 
 solable in their remorse, so naively ignorant of this world, and 
 so intimate with the evil spiiits of the other; or an old noble 
 
 from the sequestered valleys of Aostrasia, who scorned with 
 Charlemagne the short, many-coloured mantle of the Gauls, and 
 stood there in his long blue tunic, with a knotted applestock in 
 his right hand, a living relic of the past. 'WTiatever their oflice 
 or theu- origin, there were few to whom the gigantic presence 
 of the emperor was not familiar; the round head, white and 
 war-worn, the full bright eyes, the big nose, the great cheerful 
 face and sturdy figure, were known in every county of the empire. 
 They had seen him hunting on the Tp-olese Alps in his suit 
 of sheepskin, bathing with a hundred paladins in the warm 
 springs of Aix-la-Chapelle, or mounted on his war-horse, his 
 daughters cavalcadmg behind him ; " a man of iron, an iron 
 helmet on his head, anjl gauntlets of vcon on his hands, his iron 
 chest and shoulders shielded by an iron cuirass, in his left hand 
 a lance of iron lifted in the air, and grasping with the right hand 
 his invincible ' Joyeuse.'" Or, perhaps, they had watched him at 
 matins in his lighted chapel ; his long white mantle reaching to 
 his feet, following in an undertone the chanting of his unequalled 
 choir, or uplifting that ten-ible high voice to rebuke a failure in 
 the sei-vice. Such failures seldom occun-ed. A military precision 
 reigned in the chapel of Charlemagne. No mark was needed 
 or allowed to identify the lesson for the day. A movement 
 of the imperial hand started the reader, and an inarticulate 
 guttural ejaculation brought him to a close, frequently (sic visum 
 superis) in the middle of a sentence. The liturgj' used was that 
 of Rome — the Gregorian chant had supplanted the Ambrosian. 
 A story was told about the organ. Late one evening as he sat 
 in his palace, Charlemagne heard melodious sounds of devotion 
 from an adjacent chamber, where some Greek envoys were cele- 
 brating vespers with an organ. The emperor Ustcned in rapture, 
 and the imperial carpenters starved and thirsted until they 
 produced an imitation. His gi-ief could be as intense as his plea- 
 sure. He mourned for liis friend. Pope Adrian, with passionate 
 fits of weeping. The same intensity showed itself in his pursuit 
 of knowledge. " Alcuin," says the biographer of Charlemagne, 
 " appeased a little his thirst for learning, but could not satisfy 
 it." 'When urged to punish Paulus Diaconus the historian, for 
 conspuing to murder him, he replied — " How can I cut off one who 
 writes so elegantly ? " He spoke Latin, and understood Greek. 
 But religious writings, especially those of St. Augustine, were 
 his favoiuite study. " I would rather," he said to Archbishop 
 Riculf, an obstinate admirer of Virgil, " I would rather possess 
 the spirit of the four evangelists than that of all the twelve books 
 of the Eneid." Alcuin was his master in grammar. He laboiu-ed 
 long and successfully at rhetoric, logic, and astronomy ; but the 
 art of writing presented difficulties which he never fully over- 
 came. Under the pillows of his camp-bed tablets and copyslips 
 were always hidden, and the great emperor might be seen, in the 
 intervals of his triumphs, humbly schooling his wai'worn fingers 
 in the formation of the letters of the alphabet. 
 
 But his own studies were the least part of his services to 
 knowledge. Around him were the foremost scholars of the age, 
 gathered from all countries — Alcuin the Anglo-Saxon, Paul the 
 Lombard deacon, the Goth Theodulf, the Scot Clement, the 
 Tuscan Peter of Pisa; and the schools which produced later 
 the great names of Anselm and Abelard were framed on the 
 model of the palace school at Aix-la-Chapelle — the creation of 
 Alcuin, who may take place, as the reviver of letters, with 
 Bonifa:e, the reformer of chi-istianity, and Charlemagne, tho 
 restorer of the empire. 
 
 If we turn to the internal organization of the imperi.al govern- 
 ment, we shall find ample reason why Charlemagne should seek 
 to rest upon religion and education the vast system which, in 
 reality, his indomitable resolution alone kept in play. His 
 instruments of government were the legacy of ignorant and 
 anarchical times. His counts and margraves were identical with 
 those of Clovis, hardy Teutons, incapable .as ever of comprehend- 
 ing office distinct from property, but checked by the institution 
 of " missi dominici," imperial inspectors of administration, and 
 by the precaution, which Charlemagne always obsen-ed, of never 
 placing more than one county in the same hands. The slow 
 paralysis of feudalism had long been stiffening the action of the 
 empire. One hundred years before, the great mayor of the 
 Neustrian palace, Ebroin, had torn in pieces with his own hands, 
 the decree that bound him to select the counts from the counties 
 they were to govern ; but Charlemagse . seems seldom to have 
 been able to appoint his counts from the pal.acc. Tho old 
 judicial institutions of the Franks were giving way; the rakim-
 
 bourgs or freemen no longer flocked as assessors to the coiu't of 
 the count, who made their absence an opening for extortion ; 
 and Charlemagne substituted the Scabini, seven assessors named 
 by the count himself But the principle and practice of terri- 
 torial jurisdiction by the great lords within their feuds, appears 
 clearly admitted in this reign, and the final policy of Charlemagne 
 in Saxony indicates in tlie plainest manner that the proprietor 
 was looked upon as the surest instrument in maintaining sub- 
 mission. This in-esistible feeling placed beyond a doubt the 
 ultimate triumph of the feudal organization ; and Charlemagne 
 stands in a double relation to the social system that supplied 
 the place of his commanding intellect in the following century. 
 On the one hand, by the impulse whicli he gave to the prac- 
 tice of commendation, he expressed his sense that the surest 
 guarantee of society was then the government by and through 
 great lords ; and, on the other, he instinctively delayed the day 
 when the gi-eat human organization of the western world — its 
 brain at Rome, its heart at Aix-la-Chapelle — should degenerate 
 into the low feudal type of the diffusion of nen-ous centres. 
 By the precautions to which reference has already been made, 
 by requiring an oath of fidelity from every free subject, by the 
 promotion of foreigners, and by the recognition of low-bom 
 merit, but still more by his systematic elevation and purification 
 of the church, he strove to win an hour or two of empire for 
 the achievement of that great effort towards the settlement of 
 the barbarous nations, which, we can conceive, he foresaw the 
 utter impotence of feudalism to effect. The capitularies of 
 Charlemagne, which an ignorant age or a grateful priesthood 
 attributed to tlie direct inspiration of God, enact the payment of 
 tithes, exempt the clergy from the jurisdiction of the civil courts, 
 institute ordination examinations, and, towards the close of the 
 reign, raise the episcopal courts high above the secular, authorize 
 them to judge aU manner of causes, and declare the bishops' 
 sentence without appeal. As the world gi-ew more worldly, the 
 church grew more distinctively clerical. The bishops were for- 
 bidden to serve in the wars ; the semi-monastic order of canons 
 was instituted, and largely extended; the monasteries were 
 reformed by St. Benedict d'Aniane. But the episcopate, under 
 the successors of Charlemagne, degenerated into a hereditary 
 caste of proprietors ; its ideas were smothered in gold ; and the 
 church was not finally to shake the dust of the world from its 
 feet, until Hildebrand, dm-ing the height of feudalism, enforced 
 the celibacy of the clergy. 
 
 Never was empu-e founded on such heterogeneous bases. Like 
 the architecture of the age, it pieced and patched the native 
 barbarism of the Teuton with marble relics gathered from the 
 rivers of Rome. The traditional instinct of imperial subordina- 
 tion had been effaced by the Teutonic immigrations, and its place 
 was imperfectly supplied by an incessant and ubiquitous vigilance. 
 The government of Charlemagne was " full of eyes, before and 
 behind." The palace itself was pierced with peeping holes. 
 Nothing was too minute for Carlo\-ingian legislation. The mighty 
 emperor, who denounced adoptianism, maintained the Filioque, 
 or thmidered against the adoration of images, stooped to prohibit 
 dninkenness, and to forbid nuns writing love-letters. It was not 
 well that the office of pope and emperor should be thus united. 
 The dissolution of the Carlovingian power left the world free to 
 carry out, in the hands of Hildebrand, that severance of the 
 spiritual and temporal authority which was necessary to the age. 
 But we recognize in this activity, not the meddling interference 
 of a pedant, but the honest enthusiasm of a man who felt deeply, 
 and reflected seriously, the fresh and varied interest of a world 
 awakening to thought. 
 
 The story of the last fourteen years of Charlemagne's reign 
 remains still to be told. For five of them he rested at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. The patriarch of Jerusalem sent the gi'eat crusading 
 emperor the keys of the lioly Sepulchre ; two embassies from 
 Haroun al II;ischid laboriously found their way to the west ; 
 the euiir of Fez sent envoys ; the pope of Rome and the con- 
 verted chagan of tlie Avars met at the great northeni capital, and 
 across the now settled and christianized districts which separated 
 the two empires, Charlemagne offered his hand to the Empress 
 Irene. An assembly at Thionville in 806, ratified the testament 
 of the emperor, which arranged that on liis death the empire 
 should be divided between his three son.s, Charles, Louis, and 
 Pepin. Pepin was to reteive Italy, Bavaria, and all Alemannia 
 south of the Danube, and east of the Upper Rhine; the king- 
 dom of Louis to extend eastward to the Rhone and Jlont Cenis ; 
 
 Charles to inherit the remainder. The pope's subscription of 
 this testament was requested and secured, and it is remarkable 
 that the arrangement of the kingdoms places Rome at the centre 
 of the tliree, as the transalpine possessions of Pepin were reached 
 by the valley of the Adige ; while an entrance into Italy was 
 secured to Charles by the Yal' d'Aosta, to Louis by the ilont 
 Cenis. The empire, which now extended from the Elbe to the 
 Ebro, from Capua to the mouths of the Rhine, no longer dreaded 
 the great waves of invasion which set across the eastern plains, 
 and seemed ready to drown the kingdoms of the Avest. For 
 eighty years, until the incursions of the JIagj'ars, that danger 
 was appeased ; but forts rising at the mouths of rivers, fleets 
 gathering within the harbour bar, lighthouses and watchtowers 
 scattered along the headlands, betrayed the new danger that 
 menaced the empire — the Northman and Saracen invasions by 
 sea. Godfrey, king of Denmark, might avert the stream of 
 Prankish invasion by the barrier of the Danewirk, drawn from 
 sea to sea ; but Charlemagne, in visiting a port of France, was 
 subject to the vexation of seeing Norman pirates plundering in 
 the harbour, and we read on an occasion of this kind, that the 
 gi'oat emperor rose hurriedly from the table, and turning to the 
 window which faced the east, the scene of his victories, stood 
 gazing into the distance, his face streaming with tears. He lost 
 his son Charles in 811 ; a gloom fell upon the palace; a bitter 
 tone of sarcasm appears in the capitularies ; and the burning of 
 the great bridge of Mayence, the naiTOw portal through which 
 Christianity had entered GeiTnany, was held to portend the death 
 of its great constructor, who survived it but a few months. 
 They buried him in his own cathedral. " There," says Palgrave, 
 " they reverently deposited the embalmed corpse, surrounded by 
 ghastly magnificence, sitting erect on his curule chair, clad in 
 his silken robes, ponderous with broidery, pearls, and orfray, the 
 imperial diadem on his head, his closed eyelids covered, his face 
 swathed in the dead-clothes, girt with his baldric, the ivory horn 
 slung in his scarf, his good sword, 'Joyeuse,' by his side, the 
 gospel-book open on his lap, musk and amber and sweet spices 
 poured around, his golden shield and golden sceptre pendant 
 before him." — W. L. N. 
 
 CHARLEMONT, James, first eari of, grandson of William 
 second Viscount Charlemont, was bom in Dublin in 1728. He 
 received his early education at home, being too dehcate for a 
 public school, and in his eighteenth year he set out on a course 
 of continental travel, from which he returned, at the end of eight 
 years, with a mind richly stored both from obsen'ation and study. 
 He was created a doctor of laws, and appointed governoi' of 
 Armagh, and a privv councillor. At this time the govemment 
 was m conflict with the Irish house of commons upon the cele- 
 brated question of the right to dispose of the surplus revenues of 
 that kingdom. The house of commons earned their resolution, but 
 the government, notwithstanding, applied the money according to 
 their o\vn discretion. Such a state of things was highly embarrass- 
 ing, and Lord Charlemont's influence was resorted to in order, to 
 effect a reconciliation between the parties — an object which he 
 accomplished successfully. A spirit, however, was awakened by 
 the contest that never subsided till it had manifested itself in the 
 most remarkable events of the Irish history of that period. A 
 steady supporter of the rights of his country and the privileges of 
 his order. Lord Charlemont felt tlie injustice of depriving the Irish 
 peers of their functions as an appellate court of law, and instituted 
 a fictitious suit for the purpose of tr}-ing the question. Illness, 
 however, prevented his prosecuting the matter to an issue. On 
 the accession of George III. the peeresses of Ireland were at first 
 denied the right to appear at the coronation according to their 
 rank. Lord Charlemont took up the matter, and after experi- 
 encing much unworthy and vexatious opposition, succeeded in 
 establishing their right. In the struggle which took place between 
 the Irish house of commons and the crown. Lord Charlemont was 
 an active sympathizer with the former, and one of five lords who 
 protested against the proceedings of Lord Townshend. When 
 the American and French fleets infested the Irish channel and 
 seized on trading vessels, the English govemment, unable to 
 aflbrd sufficient protection, permitted Belfast to raise a volunteer 
 corps. The example was followed by most of the northern towns, 
 and that of Armagh was committed to Lord Charlemont. This 
 was the origin of that celebrated body, the Irish volunteers, with 
 which the name of Lord Cliarlemont is historically connected. 
 On the 10th of November, 1783, a national convention of dele- 
 gates from all the volimteer corps in Ireland met in Dublin,
 
 and elected Lord Charlemont their president — a post which he 
 accepted cliiefly with the hope of behig able, by his moderation 
 and prudence, to control the acts of so powerful and dangerous 
 a body. In this he was to a great extent successful, and his 
 moderation, sagacity, temper, and firmness enabled him not only 
 to do good service to the state, but to strengthen the hands of the 
 real patriots in their efforts to obtain reform. During the progress 
 of the gi-eat political events of this period, Lord Charlemont 
 exercised a more efficient and beneficial influence than any other 
 man. The head of a great party, to a certain extent in antagon- 
 ism with the British government, he yet commanded the esteem 
 and respect of the latter. With a high spirit of the purest 
 patriotism, he held back from all the honours and advantages 
 which were ofiered to him, and his whole conduct exhibits no taint 
 of ambition — no spirit of self-aggrandizement. In 1786 Lord 
 Charlemont was elected president of the Royal Irish Academy — 
 an office he most worthily filled, having contributed several papers 
 to the Transactions. After he had attained his sixty-second year, 
 the health of Lord Charlemont became infirm ; but he did not 
 relax his vigilance or activity in taking his part in all tlie leading 
 political events of his time ; and shortly before his death he was 
 faithfully at his post resisting the great measure of the legislative 
 union of Great Britain and Ireland. But the excitement and 
 agitation of the struggle was too much for him. His constitution 
 was entirely shattered, and he died on the 4th of August, 1791), 
 in his seventy-first year. If the talents and genius of Charlemont 
 were inferior to those of Grattan and Flood, and others of his 
 contemporaries, the rare and eminent combmation of high and 
 useful qualities, the purity of his heart, his integrity and 
 patriotism, all assign him a place amongst the highest of his day. 
 Accomplished, high-minded, and eminently moral ; endowed with 
 the most refined intellectual tastes, the noblest aspirations, the 
 most endearing social aSections, he was a politician without the 
 tincture of corruption, and a patriot without the alloy of a selfish 
 motive. He was created an earl in 1763. — J. F. W. 
 
 CHARLEMONT, Sir Tobias Caulfield, first lord, born in 
 1565, was descended from an ancient family of Oxfordshire, and 
 at an early period of life served under the celebrated Martin 
 Frobisher, with whom he went to the Azores in the expedi*^^ion 
 to these islands, where he conducted himself in a manner to 
 elicit high approbation. He was present in a naval campaign 
 under Howard of Effingham agamst a Spanish fleet destined 
 for Ireland, on which occasion he won new honour and fame. 
 Subsequently he entered the land service, being engaged under 
 Essex and other commanders, serving in France and Belgium, and 
 signalizing himself at the siege of Dreux, where he was severely 
 wounded. In 1598 he went to Ireland in command of a troop 
 of horse, and rose rapidly into honom" and public trust during 
 the wars against the earl of Tyrone. In 1602 Lord Mountjoy 
 gave him the command of Charlemont fort, then lately built to 
 command the Blackwater, as a key to Tyrone's county, where 
 his services obtained him large grants of the estates of the 
 rebel earl; in 1615 he was appointed one of the council for 
 Munster; and in 1620 was created Lord Caulfield, baron of 
 Charlemont. He died in 1627.— J. F. W. 
 
 CHARLEMONT, William, second viscount, gi-andnephew of 
 the preceding, took a distinguished part in the wars which preceded 
 the revolution of 1688, and was visited with attainder and 
 sequestration by the parliament of James II., but was reinstated 
 by William III. He served with distinction under the earl of 
 Peterborough in Spain, especially at the siege of Barcelona and 
 the attack upon Monjuich, when he received the thanks of the 
 king of Spain. He rose to the rank of major-general, and was 
 made governor of the counties of Tyrone and Armagh. — J. F. W. 
 
 CHARLES. The emperors, kings, and princes of this name 
 we notice under the names of their respective countries : — 
 1. England; 2. Germany; 3. France; 4. Navarre; 5. Spain; 
 6, Sweden; 7. Naples; 8. Savoy and Sardinia: — 
 
 I. — CHARLESES OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHARLES I., King of Great Britain, the second son of 
 James Sixth of Scotland and First of England, and of Anne of 
 Denmark his wife, was born at the palace of Dunfermline, 19tli 
 November, 1600. His Scotch title was Didcc of Albany; but 
 after his father's accession to the throne of England, Charles 
 was created Duke of York. The death of his elder brother, 
 Henry, in 1612 opened to him the succession to the throne, and 
 in 1616 he was formally created Prince of Wales. He was a 
 very weakly child; but as he advanced towards manhood his 
 
 strength gradually increased, and at twenty he was distinguished 
 for his skill in manly exercises. He received an excellent 
 education, and was of a gentle and serious disposition ; but his 
 close intimacy with his father's infamous favourite, the frivolous 
 Buckingham — " Steenie," as James called him — exercised an 
 injurious influence upon his character, and sowed the seeds of 
 those political errors which lost him both his kingdom and his life. 
 In 1618 James entered into negotiations with the Spanish court 
 for the maniage of Charles to the sister of the reigifing king of 
 Spain. But though the prince undertook an incognito journey 
 to Madrid in 1623 for the purpose of expediting the match, it 
 was ultimately broken off, mainly through the artifices of Buck- 
 ingham, whose violence and dissolute conduct had rendered him 
 as obnoxious to the Spaniards as to his own countrymen. In 
 1625 Charles espoused Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of 
 France, a most unfortunate union for himself and his family. 
 On the 17th of March of that same year he succeeded his father 
 in the throne. His accession was hailed with great favom* by 
 the nation ; but as he inherited his father's principles of govern- 
 ment, and his arrogant favourite still continued to sway the 
 councils of the young king, his popularity was shortlived. The 
 nation had now become conscious both of its rights and its 
 strength, and the spirit of freedom kept pace with the growing 
 wealth and intelligence of the people. An inevitable collision 
 soon took place between the nation and their new sovereign. 
 His first parliament met in Jvme, 1625; but as the commons 
 showed their determination to obtain the redress of grievances 
 rather than to vote liberal supplies for carrying on the war witli 
 Spain, the king dissolved them on the 12th of August. A second 
 parliament, which was convoked in the spring of 1626, adopted 
 the same policy as its predecessor, impeaclied the obnoxious 
 Buckingham, and was preparing a remonstrance against the 
 levying of tonnage and pomidage- — -an odious and oppressive tax — 
 without the consent of the legislature, when Charles, alarmed and 
 indignant at its proceedings, dissolved parliament on the 15th of 
 June. He then had recourse to forced loans and other arbitrary 
 methods of raising money, and imprisoned nearly eighty gentle- 
 men who refused to comply with his illegal denianiis. The 
 ill success of a war with France, which was brought about by 
 the violence and profligacy of Buckingham, compelled Charles 
 to summon a third parliament in 1628. The commons voted 
 five subsidies, or £280,000, to the king, but refused to pass this 
 vote into law until Charles gave his solemn assent to the ''petition 
 of right" — the second great charter of the liberties of England, 
 as it has been termed — by which he hound himself to abstain 
 from forced loans and other illegal taxes, and from arbitrary 
 imprisonments and billeting soldiers on the people. As soon 
 as the parliament was prorogued, however, the king violated his 
 promise, and resumed those arbitrary assertions of his jireroga- 
 tive which had been expressly provided against in the "petition 
 of right." When the legislature again met, therefore, the con- 
 test with the kuig was renewed; and Charles, finding that the 
 commons were deterndned to vindicate their riglits, dissolved the 
 parliament on the 10th of March, and connnitted Sir John Elliot 
 and several others of its leading members to prison. 
 
 Charles now resolved to call no more parliaments, and entered 
 upon a course which would soon liave entirely destroyed tlie 
 liberties of his subjects. Taxes were raised by his own arbitrary 
 authority ; ship-money was, for the first time, levied from tlio 
 inland counties ; the puritans were imprisoned, fined, and cruelly 
 mutilated ; and an attempt was systematically made to reduce 
 pariiament in future to a nullity. At length the king and his 
 adviser, Laud, attempted to force a liturgy ii\m\ Scotland, and 
 this foolish project produced an open rebellion among the inlia- 
 bitants of his ancient kingdom, and ultimately led to tlie total 
 overthrow of his long-cherished schemes. Tlio Scots entered uito 
 a general combination against this religious innovation, framed 
 the famous document called the " national covenant," which 
 was eagerly signed by all classes of the conmumity, and at length 
 took up arms in defence of their religious liberties. Charles 
 marched northward in the spring of 1(!39, at the head of a 
 powerful army, for the i)urpose uf enforcing submission to his 
 <lecrees; but on reaching the borders of Scotland he wavered in 
 his resolution, and in the end concluded a treaty with the insur- 
 gents, and withdrew his forces. But this peace was not of long 
 duration. The Scots proceeded to carry out their own religious 
 views, and abolished ci)iscopacy. Charles attempted to reas- 
 semble an ai-my, with the view of coercing them ; but finding it
 
 impossible to support his forces by his former illegal expedients, 
 he was compelled to convoke a parliament in the spring of 1640. 
 
 The new house of commons was remarkably moderate in its 
 views and procedure. Even Clarendon acknowledges that it 
 " was exceedingly disposed to please the king and to do him 
 sei-vice." But the members, though willing to give a large 
 supply, showed that they were not disposed to overlook the 
 grievances under which the country was suffering, and the king 
 in consequence dissolved the parliament in an angry speech, and 
 threw several of the members into prison. By means of forced 
 loans, and other similar expedients, he was enabled to equip 
 and set in motion an army of upwards of twenty thousand men 
 for the suppression of the Scottish insurrection. But his soldiers 
 liad no heart for the enteqirise. The Scots crossed the borders, 
 defeated a detachment of the English army who opposed their 
 passage of the Tyne, and occupied the northern counties of 
 England. Charles, in this extremity, was compelled to make a 
 ti-uce with the Scots, and to summon a parliament. The houses 
 met in November, 1C40, and proceeded at once with vigour 
 and resolution to the work of redressing the grievances of the 
 country. They passed a bill of attainder against Strafi'ord, 
 and brought him to the block, imprisoned Laud, and in various 
 ways punished the other instruments of royal tyranny. They 
 abolished the star-chamber, the high commission court, and the 
 council of York ; and wrung from the king an assent to a law 
 providing that the existing parliament should not be prorogued 
 or dissolved without its own consent. In the autumn of lG-41 
 the houses were adjommed, and Charles visited Scotland, where 
 he made large concessions for the purpose of gratifying the 
 people, and used every artifice to gain over the leaders of the 
 covenanting party. On his return from Scotland, the English 
 parliament met after a recess of six weeks. The Irish rebellion 
 had meanwhile broken out, and the puritans believing that it 
 had been secretly encouraged by the court, and distrusting the 
 king's sincerity, framed an address to him, called the " gi-and 
 remonstrance," enumerating all the illegal and oppressive acts of 
 his reign, and entreating him to employ only persons in whom 
 the parliament could confide. But a reaction had now taken 
 place both in the country and in the legislature. JIany of the 
 moderate reformers, who had cordially supported the previous 
 measures of the parliament, were of opinion that sufficient con- 
 cessions had now been made by the king, and rallied round the 
 throne. The grand remonstrance was caiTied, after a fierce and 
 protracted debate, by a majority of only eleven, and if Charles 
 had only been true to himself and to his friends, there cannot 
 be a doubt that he would soon have triumphed over the opposi- 
 tion of his enemies. But after a brief show of moderation, he 
 suddenly, on the 3rd of January, 1642, sent down the attomcy- 
 general to impeach Lord Kimbolton, and five members of the 
 house of commons, of high treason, at the bar of the house of 
 lords, and next day went in person to the house with an armed 
 force to seize these members at their post. They, however, had 
 received intelligence of his design, and withdrew before his 
 arrival, so that this perfidious and unconstitutional step, which 
 was the direct cause of the civil war, completely failed, and indeed 
 brought ruin on its author. The commons felt that they could no 
 longer trust the king, that their own personal safety, as well as 
 the security of the national rights, required that he should be 
 deprived of the power to do them injury, and demanded that 
 the militia should, for an appointed time, be intrasted to officers 
 whom tliey should nominate. " No, not for an hour," was the 
 indignant reply of the king. Both parties had now proceeded 
 to such extremities, that nothing remained but an appeal to 
 arms, and the royal standard was at length raised at Notting- 
 ham on the 25th of August, 1642. 
 
 Our limits will not permit us to enter into the details of this 
 disastrous contest. The war was carried on for some time in a 
 languid and desultory manner, and after two campaigns the 
 issue was still doubtful. But the genius of Cromwell, and the 
 intervention of the Scots, who sent an :uTny of twenty thousand 
 men under General Leslie to the assistance of the parliament, 
 turned the scale in their favour, and the decisive battle of 
 Naseby, on the 14th of .June, 1644, completely ruined the royal 
 cause. Charies ultimately fled for refuge to the Scottish army at 
 Newark on the 5th of May, 1645 ; and after several months had 
 been spent in negotiations and discussions, as he steadily refused 
 to accede to the terms offered by the presbyterian party, he was, 
 at his own request, delivered up to the English parliament. His 
 
 removal to Holmby house, and seizure there liy Cornet Joyce at 
 the instigation of Cromwell, the march of the aniiy to London, 
 the submission of the parliament, the overthrow of the presby- 
 terians, and the complete ascendancy of the republican party 
 speedily followed. The first demands made by the amiy were 
 exceedingly moderate ; but when these were rejected by the 
 king, who expected to hold the balance between the two parties, 
 fierce invectives were launched against him by the army agita- 
 tors ;r^nd Charles, becoming alarmed for his personal safety, 
 fled to the Isle of Wight, where he was detained as a prisoner 
 in Carisbrooke castle by Colonel Hammond the governor. 
 Negotiations were again entered into with the king, but the 
 tenns offered were opposed by the Scottish commissioners, with 
 whom he entered into a secret treaty ; and encouraged by their 
 support, he refused to accede to the demands of the parliament. 
 This brought matters to a crisis. The extreme republicans now 
 first broached their daring proposal to bring the king to trial, 
 and to put him to death by a judicial sentence. The Scottish 
 parliament, on the other hand, levied an army which marched 
 into England for the purpose of restoring the king by force of 
 arms. But the levies were raw and undisciplined, and the duke of 
 Hamilton, their general, was utterly unfit for the management of 
 such an enterprise, and they were totally defeated by Cromwell at 
 Preston on the 17th of August, 1648. Several desultory risings 
 of the royalists in various parts of England were at the same time 
 crashed, and the army returning ^^ctorious to London, expelled 
 the leaders of the presbyterian party from the house of commons, 
 put a stop to all negotiations with the king, seized his person, 
 and prepared to bring him to a public trial. A high court of 
 justice was constituted for this purpose, consisting of the chief 
 officers of the army and the other leaders of the republican party, 
 and presided over by John Bradshaw, a lawyer. This unpre- 
 cedented trial began on the 20th of Januaiy, 1649. Charles, 
 who conducted himself throughout these proceedings with gi-eat 
 dignity and firmness, was three times brought before the court, 
 but persisted in declining its jurisdiction. He was brutally 
 insulted by some of the soldiers and rabble, but bore their treat- 
 ment with exemplaiy meekness and patience. On the 27th 
 sentence of death was passed upon him, and on the 30th his 
 head was severed from his body, on a scaffold erected in front of 
 Whitehall palace. He died in the forty-ninth year of his age, 
 and the twenty-fourth of his reign, leaving six children, of whom 
 the two eldest, Charles and James, successively ascended the 
 British throne. Charles possessed many of the qualities which 
 adom private life, and if his lot had been cast in more propitious 
 circumstances, he might have been a respectable and useful, if 
 not a popular sovereign. But it was his misfortune to live at 
 a period when the ancient forms of the constitution required to 
 be accommodated to the gi-owing intelligence and spirit of the 
 people ; and he perished in the vain attempt to resist the onward 
 progress of freedom. The celebrated work entitled " Eikon 
 Basilik^," which was published immediately after his death, and 
 purported to be froni his pen, was long regarded as authentic, 
 but is now generally believed to have been written by Dr. 
 Gauden, afterwards bishop of Worcester. — J. T. 
 
 CHARLES II., King of Great Britain, second son of Charies 
 I., and of his queen, Henrietta, was born 21)th May, 1630. His 
 elder brother, Charles James, died on the day of his birth, 18th 
 March, 1629. On the breaking out of the civil war, Charles, 
 though a mere youth, took up amis in his father's cause. After 
 the fatal battle of Naseby he retired to Scilly, and ultimately 
 took refuge in Paris. The Scots, who had for some time felt 
 aggrieved by the proceedings of the English parliament and 
 army, deeply resented the execution of Charles I., and a few 
 days after, on the 3rd of Februaiy, 1649, proclaimed Prince 
 Charles king of Scotland in his stead. They still adhered, how- 
 ever, to their presbyterian principles, and they carefully stipulated 
 that Charles should acknowledge the " solemn league and cove- 
 nant," and confirm the presbyterian government and worship. 
 He landed in Scotland on the 23rd of June, 1650, and on the 15th 
 of July was again proclaimed at Edinburgh. The unpalatable 
 terms exacted from him, and the austerity of manners prescribed 
 by the covenanters, led him ever after to regard them and 
 their religion with the deepest aversion. A few weeks after the 
 arrival of the prince, Cromwell invaded Scotland at the head of 
 a powerful anny The cautious policy of David Leslie for a 
 time completely foiled the attempts of Cromwell to force the 
 Scottish lines, and reduced the English forces to the utmost
 
 extremity ; but the folly of the committee of estates and kirk 
 led to the battle of Dimbar on the 3rd of September 1650, in 
 which the Scots were completely defeated, and the whole country 
 south of the Forth, together with the capital, fell into the hands 
 of the victors. The coronation of Charles, however, took place 
 at Scone on the 1st of January, 1651. In the course of the 
 follo\ving summer, Cromwell tm'ned the position of the Scottish 
 army at Stirling, and Charles adopted the desperate expedient 
 of marching into England, in the hope that his friends ia.that 
 country would flock to his standard. In this expectatioilfSbw- 
 ever, he was completely disappointed. The Scottish forces were 
 overtaken at Worcester by Cromwell, at the head of an army 
 nearly three times their number, and, after a fierce and pro- 
 tracted engagement, were totally routed on the 3rd of September. 
 Charles himself with great difficulty made his escape. Clothed 
 in the garb of a peasant, he found refuge sometimes in a barn, 
 at other times in wretched hovels. On one occasion he con- 
 cealed himself for twenty-four hours among the branches and 
 leaves of a large oak. After a variety of romantic adventures 
 and hau-breadth escapes, he at last found refuge in France, forty- 
 five days after his defeat at Worcester. He continued to reside 
 on the continent, principally in France and Flanders, often in 
 great distress, until IGGO. The resignation of Richard Crom- 
 well, the cabals of the officers, the dissolution of the rump 
 parhament, and the apprehensions of a military despotism, led 
 the great mass of the people of England to turn their eyes 
 towards the heir of their ancient race of monarchs. The new 
 parliament declared in his favour. General Monk had previously 
 entered into secret negotiations for his restoration to the throne, 
 and at length, on the 25th of May, 1660, Ch:irles landed at 
 Dover; four days later he made his entry into London amid 
 the most extravagant demonstrations of joy, and took up his 
 residence in the palace of his ancestors. 
 
 It soon appeared that adversity had taught Charles neither 
 self-denial nor industiy, and that he had returned from exile 
 indolent, selfish, mifeeling, faithless, ungrateful, and insensible to 
 reproach or shame. The reforms which the long parhament had 
 introduced were at once swept away, and the old abuses restored. 
 A number of the regicides and leading republicans were put to 
 death with the most revoltmg cruelties, episcopacy was re-estab- 
 lished, and the puritan clergy expelled from office and treated 
 with shocking insolence and cruelty. The old cavaliers, who had 
 lost then- all in the royal service, were suffered to pine in want 
 and obscurity, while the revenues of the court were profusely 
 squandered on harlots and bufibons. Scotland, which had freely 
 spent its blood and treasm-e in the support of his claims, was 
 treated with great injustice and severity. The presb}i;erian fonn 
 of worship, which Charles had solemnly sworn to maintain, was 
 abohshed, and " black prelacy," which the Scots abhon-ed, was 
 set up in its room. The supporters of the covenant were fined, 
 imprisoned, tortured, and put to death ; the entire proceedings 
 of the various pariiaments which had been held since 1633, were 
 at once annulled, and all the barriers which had been raised to 
 protect the civil and religious liberties of the nation, were at one 
 swoop annihilated. The injuiy which the profligate conduct of 
 Charles and his associates inflicted upon the cause of religion 
 and morality, was peAaps even more fatal than his arbitrary 
 measures, to the well-being of the community ; and there can be 
 no doubt that his shameless debaucheries contributed in no small 
 degi-ee to produce that deeprooted and general conniption of morals 
 and manners which throughout his reign disgraced the nation. 
 
 Our space ■nail not permit us to do more than glance at the 
 leading events which occurred during the quarter of a century 
 Charles occupied the throne. In 1663 the government engaged in 
 hostilities with Holland, which were so grossly mismanaged that 
 the Dut;ch fleet burned the ships which lay at Chatham; and this 
 war ternnnated in a humiliating peace. At this disastrous period 
 too the plague broke out in Loudon, and in sis months swept 
 away six hundred thousand human beings. The great fire followed, 
 which laid a large portion of the metropolis in ruins. In 1668 
 the sagacious counsels and skilful management of Sir William 
 Temple brought about a treaty between England, Holland, and 
 Sweden, commonly called the Triple Alliance, for the purpose of 
 thwarting the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. ; but this wise 
 and popular policy was speedily abandoned. The lavish expen- 
 diture of Charles on his licentious pleasures kept him always in 
 poverty, in spite of his liberal civil list and the large sums which 
 he contrived to divert from the public funds to his own private 
 
 use. The once loyal and subservient parliament began to 
 exliibit unequivocal signs of reluctance to allow the public 
 money to be squandered on debasing indulgences and frivolous 
 amusements ; and so great was the anxiety of Charles to escape 
 this irksome dependence on the commons for the supply of his 
 necessities, that he stooped to become the hired lacquey of the 
 French king, and bartered his own reputation, the independence 
 of his crown, the honour and interests of his kingdom, and the 
 safety of Europe, for the pui-pose of satisfying the rapacity of 
 his worthless courtiers and the profusion of his female favourites. 
 In 1670 he entered into a secret treaty iiN-ith France, by which 
 he hound himself in return for the promise of a large subsidy, 
 to make a public profession of the Roman catholic faith, and to 
 assist Louis in making war upon Holland, and in his designs 
 upon the Spanish monarchy. War was accordingly declared 
 against the United Provinces, and the funds for carrj-ing it 
 on were obtained by gross fraud and a violation of faith with 
 the public creditors. But the pohcy was as unsuccessful as it 
 was unprincipled and unpopular, and Charles was compelled to 
 dismiss the infamous cabal ministry from office, and to make 
 peace with Holland in 1674. His domestic pohcy was equally 
 detested by the people. He claimed and exercised the power of 
 suspending by his own authority the penal laws against Roman 
 cathoHcs and protestant nonconformists, and, by his marked 
 popish leanings, excited great alarm for the safety of the estab- 
 lished church and of the protestant religion. Throughout the 
 excesses and judicial murders caused by the alleged discovery of 
 the pretended popish plot, Charles, though convinced of its false- 
 hood, readily went with the cun-ent. But he strenuously resisted 
 the attempt to exclude the duke of York from the succession to 
 the throne on the gi-ound of his profession of the Romish faith, 
 and three times dissolved the parhament, rather than sanction 
 the exclusion bill passed by the commons. In the end, a tory 
 reaction set in throughout the countiy, and rose to such a 
 height that the whigs were speedily at the mercy of the court. 
 A series of attacks on the constitution of the country fol- 
 lowed. It was resolved that no more parhaments should be 
 called. The charters of the great t0T\Ti.s, in which the strength 
 of the whigs lay, were confiscated ; the persecution against the 
 nonconformists was renewed ; Russell and Sydney were brought 
 to the scaffold by the most glaring pen'ersion of law and jus- 
 tice ; the Scottish covenanters were goaded into rebelhon by the 
 oppressive and merciless misgovemment of Jliddleton, Lander- 
 dale, and the duke of York, and put to death with the most 
 shocking tortures. In the midst of these despotic and cruel 
 proceedings, Charles was suddenly seized with a fit of apoplexy 
 on the 2nd of February, 1685, and expired on the 6th, in the 
 fifty-fifth year of his age and the twenty-fifth of his reign. A 
 few hours before his death he made a profession of the Romish 
 faith, which he had long held in secret, and received absolution 
 from a popish priest. Charles possessed excellent abilities, and 
 was good-tempered, witty, affable, and polite ; but he was an 
 unfaithful husband, a cold-hearted and treacherous friend, a 
 profligate man, and a bad sovereign. — J. T. 
 
 CHARLES-EDWARD Louis Philip Casimir Stuart, 
 called THE Pkktexdek, was the grandson of James II., the 
 exiled king of Great Britain, and son of the titular chevalier St. 
 George, by his wife, the Princess Clementina Sobicski, grand- 
 daughter of the celebrated King John Sobieski of Poland. 
 Charles-Edward was born nn the 31st of December, 1720. Ho 
 was skilled in manly exercises, but his intellectual training 
 was shamefully neglected, and he was allowed to grow uj) 
 in almost entire ignorance of the constitution of the country 
 which he aspired to govern ; while his instnictors took care to 
 instil into him those antiquated notions of horcditar}' divine 
 right, and passive obedience, which had proved so disastrous to 
 his family. Various projects for the restoration of the Stuart 
 dynasty had been entertained by the French government, .w.i 
 afterwards laid aside. At length, in the spring of 17-15, 
 Charles-Edward determined to undertake an expedition to Scot- 
 land on his own resources, with such pecvniiary assistance as he 
 was able to obtain from private individuals. Charics landed 
 on the 25th of July at Moidart, Inverness-shire, with a train 
 of only seven persons, afterwards called " the seven men of 
 Moidart." The general rendezvous of his adherents was apjKiintod 
 to be at Glenfinnan, a desolate sequestered vale about fifteen miles 
 from Fort-William, and there, on the 19th of August, the Jacob- 
 ite standard was unfurled by the old marquis of Tullibardinc.
 
 CHA 
 
 984 
 
 CHA 
 
 The Macdonalds, Camerons, lil'Phersons, M'Gregors, and other 
 Jacobite clans flocked to the camp in considerable numbers, and 
 Charles in a short time found himself at the head of several 
 thousand men, ill-aniied many of them, and slenderly provided 
 with warlilvc equi]iments, but all of them brave, active, hardy, 
 and skilled in the use of their own weapons. The almost incredible 
 stupidity of Sir John Cope in marching to Inverness where there 
 was no enemy at all to encounter (see Cope), having left the low 
 country open to the Highlanders without obstniction, Charles 
 promptly took advantage of this blunder, and at once began his 
 march to the south. On the 17th of September he was in 
 possession of Edinburgh, and next day took up his quai'ters in 
 Holyrood palace. Cope meanwhile had transported his troops by 
 sea from Aberdeen to Dunbar, and was on his march towards the 
 city. On receiving intelligence of his movements, the Highlanders 
 marched out to meet him on the 20th of September, and found 
 his forces encamped near the village of Prestonpans, a few miles 
 to the east of Edinburgh. Next day a battle took place, which 
 terminated in the complete destruction of the royal army. This 
 victory made Charles master of the whole of Scotland, with the 
 exception of the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling, and a few 
 insignificant Highland forts. He was eager to march imme- 
 diately into England, but his proposal was oveiTuled by his 
 council, and he spent several weeks in the palace of his ances- 
 tors, discliarging the functions of royalty, issuing proclamations, 
 exacting forced loans and contributions, holding levees, giving 
 balls, and exerting himself to the utmost to render his enter- 
 tainments attractive, and to secure the public favour. His 
 prepossessing personal appearance, well-formed and regular 
 features, dignified mien, and easy graceful manners, contributed 
 not a little to increase the popularity of his cause. On the 31st 
 of October, the prince quitted Edinburgh and began his romantic 
 march towards London, at the head of between five and six 
 thousand men. He entered England by the western border on 
 the 8th of November, and took the town of Carlisle, after a feeble 
 resistance. He then resumed his march through the northern 
 counties without meeting any opposition, but obtaining little 
 countenance from the people. On the 4th of December the 
 insurgents I'eached Derby, only 127 miles from London; but 
 their condition had become exceedingly perilous, opposed as they 
 were by three armies, each more numerous than their own, with 
 no prospect of succours from France, and no symptoms of any 
 rising in their favom* among the people of England. The chiefs 
 were unanimously convinced of the necessity of a retreat, and in 
 spite of the obstinate resistance of Charles, they commenced 
 their retrograde movement on the Cth of December. They 
 crossed the Scottish border on the 20th, and marching through 
 the south-western counties, they entered Glasgow on Christmas 
 day. After levying heavy contributions on that staunch whig 
 and presbyterian city, the Highlanders proceeded to Stirling, 
 and spent several weeks in an unwise and fruitless attempt to 
 reduce the castle. On the 17th of Januaiy, 1746, they out- 
 manoeuvred and defeated, on Falldrk moor, the royal army 
 under the incompetent and brutal General Hawley, and captured 
 his cannon, military stores, and baggage. But this was the last 
 of their triumphs. The approach of the duke of Cumberland at 
 tlie head of a greatly superior force, compelled them to abandon 
 the siege of Stirling castle on the 1st of Februaiy, and to retreat 
 towards their Highland fastnesses. They spent two months at 
 Inverness, suffering gi-eat privations from the scarcity both of 
 money and provisions. At length, on the IGth of April, they 
 gave battle on Drmnmossie moor, near Culloden, to the duke of 
 Cumberland, under every disadvantage as regards inferiority in 
 the numbers, equipments, aiTangement, and condition of their 
 forces, and even the locality of the fight ; and after a brief but 
 fierce struggle, were defeated with great slaughter. The con- 
 querors behaved with shocking cruelty to the prisoners and 
 the wounded, as well as to the defenceless inhabitants of the 
 surrounding countiy, leaving neither house, cottage, man, nor 
 beast, within the compass of fifty miles. 
 
 The interesting and romantic adventures of Charles after 
 the battle of Culloden, form one of the strangest chapters in 
 history. For upwards of four months he wandered from place to 
 place in constant peril of his fife, subjected to almost incredible 
 hardships and privations. Somerimes he found refuge alone in 
 caves and huts, sometimes he lay in forests or on mountain 
 tops, with one or two attendants ; frequently he was compelled 
 to pass the night in the open air exposed to every \-icissitude of 
 
 the weather, suffering from hunger and thirst, often barefooted, 
 and with clothes worn to tatters. In the course of his wander- 
 ings, he had occasion to trast his Hfe to the fidelity of a great 
 number of individuals, many of whom were in the humblest 
 walks of life ; and yet not one of them could be induced to -betray 
 him, even by the offer of a reward of £30,000. At length a 
 privateer of St. Haloes, hired by his adherents, arrived in Loch 
 Nannuagh, and Charles embarked on board that vessel for 
 France, accompanied by Lochiel and a few other friends, and 
 on tie 29th of September, 1746, landed in Brittany. 
 
 It would have been well for the reputation of Charles if he 
 had perished at Culloden. The faults of his character gathered 
 strength with his advancing years ; and sad to relate, humiliating 
 habits of intoxication, and family discords, arising out of an 
 unhappy union with Louisa of Stolberg, a Gernian princess, 
 darkened the close of his unhappy career. After his compulsory 
 removal from France in 1748, on the conclusion of peace with 
 England, he went first to Venice and then to Flanders. He 
 continued for years to be the object of the hopes of the Jacobites 
 and the centre of their intrigues, and in 1750 ventured to pay 
 a visit to London, for the purpose of promoting a scheme which 
 was soon found to be impracticable. In 1766 he laid aside the 
 title of prince of Wales, and assumed that of count D'Albany. 
 He died at Rome, 31st January, 1788, in his sixty-eighth year, 
 and was interred in the cathedi-al church of Frescati. — His 
 brother Henry, a cardinal, and titular duke of York, the last 
 male heir of the line of Stuart, survived till 1807. He was a 
 prince of a mild and amiable character, and during the latter 
 years of his life was supported by an annuity of £4000, assigned 
 him by the British government. — J. T. 
 
 II. CHARLESES OF GEEMANT. 
 
 CHARLES I. See Charlemagne. 
 
 CHARLES II. See Charles I. of France. 
 
 CHARLES III., suniamed le Gros, son of Louis le Ger- 
 manique, was bom in 832, and at his father's death inherited 
 the German portion of his dominions with the imperial title ; his 
 brothers, Louis and Carloman, bemg crowned kings of France. 
 After the death of these princes in 881, he was called to the 
 throne of France during the minority of Charles the Simple. 
 His reign was short and inglorious, being seriously disturbed by 
 the incursions of the Normans, whom he was obliged to propi- 
 tiate by large concessions. He was deposed in 887, and in the 
 course of the following year died poor and neglected. — W. B. 
 
 CHARLES IV., son of John of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia, 
 was elected emperor at the death of Louis of Bavaria in 1347, 
 but had difficulty in establishing himself on the imperial throne. 
 His subserviency to the pope displeased the electors, and an 
 attempt was made to substitute Edward III. of England, whose 
 wars with France, however, did not permit him to take advan- 
 tage of the movement in his favour. Charles at length suc- 
 ceeded in securing the imperial dignity, and was subsequently 
 consecrated king of the Romans by the pope. He fixed his 
 residence at Prague, and spent his principal care on his patri- 
 monial kingdom of Bohemia, to which Brandenburg and Silesia 
 were annexed in his reign. His most important act was the 
 issuing of the "golden bull," in 1355, which defined the respec- 
 tive rights of the electors and the emperor, and is still looked to 
 as a basis of the Germanic constitution. He died in 1378, 
 leaving the imperial dignity and the crown of Bohemia to his 
 son Wenceslas, who enjoyed the former only two years. — W. B. 
 
 CHARLES v., emperor of Germany and king of Spain, was 
 born at Ghent, 24th Febniaiy, 1500. He was the son of Phihp 
 the Handsome, archduke of Austria, and Joanna, second daughter 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile and Arragon, and the gi\and- 
 son of the Emperor llaximilian, and of Mary, the only child of 
 Charles the Bold, duke of Burgimdy. His earl}' years were spent 
 in the Low Countries, under the care of two princesses of great 
 abilities, Margaret of xVustria, his aunt, and Margaret of York, 
 sister of Edward IV. of England. ^A'illiam de Croy, lord of 
 Chievres, was appointed governor of the young prince, and 
 Adrian of Utrecht, his preceptor; and both seem to have discharged 
 the duties of their respective offices with gi-eat fidelity. Charles 
 early showed a passion for the chase and martial exercises, rather 
 than for books and learning ; but he was carefully instmcted in 
 the histoiy of his kingdom and in the art of government, and 
 thus acquired the habits of gravity, thoughtfulness, and reserve, 
 for which he was distinguished through life. At the age of six 
 Charles lost his father, and his Flemish dominions were intrusted
 
 to the charge of his grandfather, Maximilian, who acted as regent. 
 The succession to the Spanish throne was opened to Charles by 
 the death of Ferdinand in 1516 ; but, as Joanna was still alive, 
 althou,2;h in a state of mental imbecility, it was not without great 
 difficulty that, on his visit to the Spanish dominions in 1517, the 
 Cortes were prevailed upon to acknowledge him as joint-king. 
 The death of Maximilian having left the Imperial throne vacant, 
 Charles, after a keen contest with Francis I. of France, was 
 elected emperor at Frankfort, 28th June, 1319. The preference 
 given to Charles on this occasion excited in the mind of Francis 
 feelings of jealousy and rivalship, which subsisted during the 
 remainder of tlieir lives, and involved them in almost perpetual 
 hostilities. Both were eager to gain the assistance of Hem-y 
 VIII. of England in their impending struggle, and courted him 
 and his minister Wolsey with the greatest assiduity. Charles 
 paid a sudden visit to England, on 26th May, 1520, and by his 
 attention to Henry, and by a liberal pension and lavish promises 
 to his powerful minister, succeeded in detaching them from the 
 French alliance. He then proceeded to Aix-la-Chapelle, where 
 he was crowned emperor with extraordinary solemnity and pomp. 
 
 The first act of his administration was to convoke a special 
 diet of the empire, to be held at Worms, 6th January, 1621, for 
 the purpose of checking the progress of those religious opinions 
 which, under the influence of Luther, were rapidly diffusing them- 
 selves over Germany. The great reformer himself was summoned 
 to appear before the diet, and a letter of safe conduct was at the 
 same time sent him, which Charles afterwards regretted that he 
 did not violate. Luther was permitted to depart in safety ; but, 
 a few days after he had left Worms, an edict was published in 
 the emperor's name, condemning his doctrines and placing him 
 under the ban of the empire. Other questions soon arose, how- 
 ever, to divert the attention of Charles from these religious 
 disputes. As a rupture with Francis seemed imminent, he 
 entered into a secret alliance with Leo X., for the purpose of 
 expelling the French out of the Milanese. But while the 
 emperor and the pope were preparing to cany out this project, 
 hostilities commenced in Navarre, which Charles unjustly with- 
 held from the children of John d'Albret in violation of the 
 treaty of Noyon. An army, levied in name of Hemy d'Albret, 
 but with the connivance of Francis, overran Navarre, but in a 
 short space of time was completely defeated, and their general and 
 principal officers were taken prisoners. About the same time, a 
 petty prince named Robert de la Marck, relying on the support 
 of Francis, declared war against the emperor, ravaged the open 
 countiy of Luxembourg, and laid siege to Vireton. Charles 
 retaliated by sending an army under the count of Nassau, who 
 entered France, took Mouson, and laid siege to Mezieres, but 
 was foiled by the strenuous resistance made by the finnous 
 Chevalier Bayard, and compelled to retreat with loss and dis- 
 grace. Meanwhile a congi-ess was held at Calais, 5th August, 
 1521, under the mediation of Henry VIII. , in order to reconcile 
 the differences between Francis and the emperor. But Wolsey, 
 to whom the sole management of the negotiation was committed, 
 was exclusively devoted to the interests of Charles, and took no 
 pains to conceal his partiality. In the end, the congress proved 
 utterly abortive, and after negotiations were broken off, Wolsey 
 joined the emperor at Bruges, and concluded with him a treaty 
 in the name of his master, in which it was agreed that they 
 should invade France — Henry on the side of Picardy, Charles 
 on the frontier of Spain — each at the head of an army of forty 
 thousand men ; and that the latter should espouse the Princess 
 Mary, the only child of the English king. Meanwhile the 
 Jlilanese had become the theatre of war through the intrigues 
 of the pope, and the haughtiness and rashness of the mareclial 
 de Lautrec, and his brother, who commanded the French troops 
 in that province. Left without adequate supplies either of men 
 or money, Lautrec was unable to resist the united imperial and 
 papal forces, who compelled him to retreat to the Venetian terri- 
 tories, seized Milan, and stripped the French of nearly the whole 
 of their conquests in Lombardy. In spite of the death of 
 Leo X., 2nd December, 1522, the succeeding campaign was 
 equally disastrous to the French, who were completely defeated 
 at Bicocea, owing to the turbulence of their Swiss alHes; and the 
 ^vhole of the fortified places in the Milanese, except the citadel 
 of Cremona, surrendered to the imperialists. 
 
 At this juncture an insurrection broke out in his Spanish 
 dominions, which for some time diverted the attention of Charles 
 from his scliemes of foreign conquest. The citizens of Segovia, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Toledo, Burgos, Valladolid, and other cities of Castile, took 
 up arms for the purpose of obtaining redress of their political 
 grievances, and of vindicating theii- rights and privileges, which 
 had been grossly violated by the ministers of Charles, and 
 headed by Don John de Padilla, son of the commendado of 
 Castile, a young nobleman of great talent and courage, they 
 inflicted several defeats on the royal troops, formed an associa- 
 tion called " The Holy Junta," and for a time obtained the com- 
 plete control of the kingdom. In the end the insurrection was 
 suppressed, not without considerable bloodshed. Padilla was 
 taken prisoner and executed; the privileges of the free cities of 
 Castile were gradually abolished, and the Cortes, once one of the 
 most considerable orders in the state, were deprived of their right 
 to examine and redress public grievances, and had their powers 
 limited to granting such supplies as the king chose to demand. 
 
 Charles had now succeeded in detaching from Francis all his 
 ancient allies, and in uniting them in a confederacy against him. 
 To add to the perplexities of the French monarch at this moment, 
 a domestic conspiracy was discovered which threatened the ruin 
 of his kingdom ; and the constable Bourbon, his most powerful 
 subject, provoked beyond endurance by the injuries he had 
 received, went over to the enemy (see Bourbon, Charles de). 
 The French army in the Milanese, owing to the incapacity of 
 its commander, Bonnivet, was foiled by the imperial general, the 
 veteran Colonna. But an English force which entered Picardy 
 under the duke of Sufiblk was compelled to retreat; and an 
 army of Flemings and Spaniards, which invaded Burgundy and 
 Guienne, was repulsed with great disgrace in 1523. In the 
 following year the French army was driven out of Italy, and 
 completely defeated on the banks of the Sesia, where the famous 
 Chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded; and an army of eighteen 
 thousand imperialists, under the marquis of Pescara, invaded 
 France and laid siege to Marseilles, but were compelled to retreat 
 with considerable loss. Francis, elated with this success, and 
 eager to recover the possessions of which he had been stripped 
 in the former campaigns,' imprudently marched into the Milanese 
 at the head of a numerous army, drove the enemy out of Milan, 
 and laid siege to the town of Pavia. Here, in opposition to the 
 advice of all his most experienced officers, he risked a battle on 
 the 3rd of Febniary, 1525, and was defeated and taken prisoner 
 with the loss of ten thousand men. (See Francis I.) Charles 
 did not use his victory with the moderation which he at first 
 professed. He immediately began to revolve vast and ambitious 
 designs altogether inconsistent with the balance of power and 
 the liberties and peace of Em-ope, and which excited great alarm 
 in the minds of his allies, and ultimately induced both Henry 
 VIII. and the pope to make common cause with the French king. 
 In the end Chades profited little by his ungenerous treatment 
 of his captive rival. Francis recovered his liberty by a conven- 
 tion agreed upon between him and Charles at Madrid, in Janu- 
 ary, 1526, but on his return to Fnmce he jjeremijtorily refused 
 to fulfil the rigorous terms which had been exacted from liim in 
 his prison. The pope, Clement VII., not only absolved the French 
 king from the oath which he had taken to observe the treaty of 
 Madrid, but united in a "holy league," as it was termed, \yith 
 Henry, Francis, the Venetians, and the duke of Milan against 
 the emperor, to compel him to set at liberty the French king's 
 sons who had been left in his hands as hostages, and to aban- 
 don his designs upon the Milanese. The confederates, however, 
 were tardy in their movements and unsuccessful in their projects. 
 Clement was compelled to withdraw from the confederacy; but 
 in spite of this abandonment of his allies, liume was soon after 
 stormed by the constable Bourbon, who fell in the assault, the 
 inhabitants were cruelly abused and pillaged, and Clement liim- 
 self was taken prisoner and shamefully treated by tlie imperialists. 
 Charies hypocritically professed to lament the captivity of the 
 pontiff, and appointed prayers and i)roeessions througliout all 
 Spain for the recovery of his liberty. War continued to be waged 
 in the Milanese between the imperialists and the French with 
 varied success. In the end botli i)arties were exhausted by 
 the prolrai ted struggle, and became desirous that it should ter- 
 minate ; and at length peace w.is concluded at Cambray on the 
 5th of August, 1529, on terms which, though tliey modified 
 considerablv the treaty of Madrid, left all the advantages of the 
 contest witii diaries, and inliicted a serious injury botii on the 
 reputation and the interests of Ids rival. The emperor then 
 proceeded to Italy, where he affected great moderation in his 
 
 dealings, srave Francis Sforza a full pardon of all past offences, 
 fa . b (.J
 
 and granted Mm the investiture of the duchy of Milan, with the 
 hand of his niece, the daughter of the king of Denmark, and by 
 force of arms compelled the Florentines to submit to the resto- 
 ration of the Jledici. After the publication of the treaty of peace, 
 1st January, 1530, he was solemnly crowmed by the pope at 
 Bologna, king of Lombardy and emperor of the Komans. 
 
 Charles now tiu'ned his attention to the state of Germany, 
 where the reformed doctrines had gained much ground ; nearly 
 one half of the German body indeed had thrown off the papal 
 yoke, and the emperor, who was a zealous supporter of the 
 Komish faith, saw that prompt and vigorous measures alone 
 could prevent the entne revolt of Gennany from the papal see. 
 A diet of the empire was therefore held at Spires, March 15, 
 1529, at which a decree was carried by a majority against the 
 reformed doctrines. The elector of Saxony, the marquis of 
 Brandenburg, and other princes, along with the deputies of 
 fourteen free cities, entered their protest against this decree, 
 and thencefonvard were distinguished by the name of "Pro- 
 testants" — an appellation which has since been given to all 
 who have abandoned the Romish faith. Charles made various 
 attempts to gain over both the protestant divines and princes, 
 but without success. He resolved, therefore, to adopt vigorous 
 measures for the suppression of the reformed doctrines, and 
 induced the diet of Augsburg to issue a decree condemning the 
 peculiar tenets held by the protestants, and forbidding any 
 person to protect or tolerate those who taught them. Alarmed 
 at this step, which convinced them that the emperor was 
 resolved on their destruction, the protestant princes assembled 
 at Smalkalde, and concluded a league of mutual defence against 
 all aggressors, and soon after sent ambassadors to the kings of 
 France and England, to entreat their assistance. The deter- 
 mined front presented by the protestant confederacy, together 
 with the precarious state of his relations with Francis, Henry, and 
 the Sultan, convinced Charles that he had acted with imprudent 
 haste in provoking the enmity of a body so united and vigorous. 
 He therefore made overtures to the elector of Saxony and his 
 associates, that, after some difficulties and delays, terminated 
 in the pacification of Nuremberg, by which it was agreed that 
 no person should be molested on account of his religion. The 
 protestants, gi-ateful for this concession, raised a powerful body 
 of troops to assist in repelling an invasion of the Sultan Soli- 
 man, who had entered Hungary with three hundred thousand 
 men, and Charles took the field in person in 1532 at the head of 
 a numerous and well-disciplined army, which compelled the 
 invaders to retreat to Constantinople. Shortly after, the emperor 
 undertook an expedition to Africa, vanquished Barbarossa, king 
 of Algiers, re-estabhshed Muley Hassem on the throne of Tunis, 
 and set at liberty twenty thousand christian slaves. On his 
 return to Europe Charles found himself involved once more in 
 hostilities with Francis, wlio had seized the dominions of the 
 duke of Savoy, the emperor's ally, and again laid claim to the 
 duchy of Milan, which had become vacant by the death of Sforza 
 in 1535. Charles, after launching against his rival a manifesto 
 filled with bitter invectives, invaded Provence at the head of a 
 formidable anny and laid siege to Marseilles ; but was completely 
 baffled by the pradent tactics of the marcchal de Montmorency, 
 and was ultimately compelled to retreat with the loss of one half 
 of his troops by disease or famine. Next year (1537) Francis 
 in his turn invaded the Low Countries and took several towns, 
 but hostilities in that quarter were speedily terminated by a truce 
 for ten months, though the war continued to rage for some time 
 longer in Piedmont, till a truce for ten years was ultimately 
 concluded at Nice, June 18, 1538. 
 
 It soon became evident that hostilities had continued so long 
 as nearly to exhaust the emperor's resources. His troops broke 
 out into open mutiny, on account of the vast arrears of pay 
 which were due to them, and the greater part of them had to be 
 disbanded. His Spanish subjects too complained loudly of the 
 load of taxes with which they were oppressed, and the Cortes at 
 length refused to vote the supplies which Charles demanded. 
 After employing in vain arguments and entreaties to induce 
 them to comply with his wishes, he indignantly dismissed them, 
 and from that time called neither nobles nor prelates to these 
 assemblies, but only the deputies of the eighteen cities, who 
 were entirely subscn-ient to the crown. The inhabitants of the 
 Netherlands also complained of the exactions made upon them for 
 the purpose of caiTying on the ambitious schemes of the emperor ; 
 and in 1539 the citizens of Ghent, enraged at the violation of 
 
 their ancient privileges, and the arrogance with which they were 
 treated by the emperor and his deputy, took up anns against 
 their sovereign, invited the assistance of the other towns of 
 Flanders, and even went the length of making overtures to the 
 French king. The insurrection assumed so alarming an aspect 
 that Charles, who was then in Spain, and eager to repair in per- 
 son to the spot, asked from Francis permission to pass through 
 France on his way to Flanders, assuring him at the same time, 
 that he would soon settle the affair of the I\Iilanese to his entire 
 satisfaction. Francis gave implicit credit to this assurance, and 
 at once gi-anted the request of his rival, and received him with 
 the greatest honours. The unfortunate citizens of Ghent, left 
 entirely without support, were compelled to surrender at discre- 
 tion. Notwithstandmg then- claims on the forbearance of their 
 sovereign, they were treated with the greatest severity, their 
 privileges and immunities were declared to be forfeited, their 
 revenues confiscated, and twenty-six of their leaders were exe- 
 cuted, and a greater number banished (15-10.) But Charles 
 ha\ing thus gained his end, first eluded the demands of Francis, 
 and then peremptorily refused to fulfil the promises he had made 
 respecting the ililanese — a breach of faith which has left a deep 
 stain upon his character. 
 
 In 15-11 Charles undertook an expedition against Algiers, 
 though warned by his old admiral, Andrea Doria, of the dan- 
 gerous nature of the enterprise. The voyage proved tedious 
 and hazardous, but he succeeded in landing his army near 
 Algiers without opposition, and began the siege of the city. A 
 dreadful storm, however, destroyed the greater part of his ships 
 with their crews, his troops were cut off by disease and the 
 incessant attacks of the Arabs, and at last he was compelled to 
 abandon his artillery and baggage, and re-embark with the rem- 
 nant of his forces ; and after having been tossed about for weeks 
 by contrary \vinds, with great difficulty he reached his own 
 dominions. In the following year, war again broke out between 
 the emperor and the French king, in consequence of the bar- 
 barous murder of two ambassadors of Francis by the marquis del 
 Guasto, governor of Milan. The first campaign was attended 
 with alternate success and reverses on both sides. In the 
 second, the imperialists were defeated with gi-eat slaughter by 
 the duke d'Enghien, at Cevisolles in Piedmont. On the other 
 hand, Charles invaded Champagne, and took several towns, and 
 Henry VIII., his ally, entered Picardy in 1544 ; but nothing of 
 much importance was effected, and as both parties needed peace, 
 a treaty was soon after concluded between Charles and Francis 
 at Crespi (1545.) 
 
 The conclusion of peace with France left Charles at liberty 
 to put into execution the scheme which he had formed for the 
 overthrow of the protestant party in Germany. He employed 
 various artifices, however, to deceive the reformers, and to lull 
 them into a state of secm-ity, until his plans were ripe for 
 execution ; when he at once threw off the mask, and prepared 
 to maintain by force of arms the claims of the papal see. The 
 protestants, on becoming aware of their danger, sought assist- 
 ance from the Venetians, the Swiss, and the kings of England 
 and France, but without success. Though left single-handed, 
 however, to fight the battle of religious liberty, and deprived 
 of the assistance of Maurice of Saxony, and others of their own 
 number who had been gained over by the artifices of Charles, 
 they succeeded in assembling in a few weeks a niunerous and 
 well-appointed army, and took the field in 1546 under Fre- 
 derick, elector of Saxony, and the landgrave of Hesse. But the 
 slow and dilatoiy movements of the elector showed his unfitness 
 for the position which he occupied. His own dominions, wliich, 
 when he took the field, he committed to the protection of 
 Maurice, were treacherously seized by that prince, who, though a 
 protestant, and the son-in-law of the landgrave of Hesse, sided 
 with the emperor, in the hope of being rewarded for his support 
 at the expense of the confederates. The death of Francis at this 
 juncture freed the emperor from all apprehensions of a diversion 
 on the side of France. The league fell to pieces, and the Saxons 
 were completely defeated at JIuhlberg ; the elector himself was 
 taken prisoner, treated with great harshness, and deprived of 
 his electorate, which was bestowed upon his perfidious kins- 
 man Maurice. Charles sullied his success, both by his duplicity 
 and his ungenerous treatment of the elector and also of the 
 landgi-ave of Hesse, whom he treacherously detained a prisoner 
 when he had repaired to the imperial camp in reliance on the 
 emperor's safe conduct. This perfidious act excited general
 
 indignation throughout Germany. The ambition, arrogance, 
 and rapacity now displayed by the emperor amid the intoxica- 
 tions of his success, alarmed not only the protestants, but even 
 the pope himself; a scheme called the Interim, which Charles 
 published with the view of conciliating the rival parties, roused 
 the violent hostility of both ; and JIaurice of Saxony, who bit- 
 terly resented the harsh and perfidious treatment of liis father- 
 in-law, the landgrave of Hesse, and the disregard of his own 
 reiterated applications to Charles for his release, entered into 
 a secret alliance with the other protestant j)i-inces of Germany, 
 for their mutual protection against the arbitrary designs of the 
 emperor, ilaurice acted with consummate skill, and success- 
 fully employed various artifices to deceive Charles as to his real 
 intentions, and to gain time for maturing his schemes. So 
 dexterously did he conceal his operations from his wary and 
 suspicious superior, that his machinations remained entirely 
 unsuspected, until his plans were ripe for execution. At length, 
 in 1552, he suddenly threw off the mask, took the field at 
 the head of a powerful army, for the purpose of securing the 
 protestant religion, maintaining the constitution and laws of 
 the empire, and delivering his father-in-law from his long and 
 unjust imprisonment. So rapid were his movements, that he 
 had nearly surprised Charles himself, who was living in security 
 at Innspruck ; and it was only by a rapid flight over the Alps by 
 roads almost-impassable, amid the darkness of a stormy night, 
 that the bewildered and mortified emperor escaped being taken 
 prisoner. At this juncture too, Henry II., the new king of 
 France, resumed hostihties against his father's unscrupulous 
 enemy. In these circumstances, Charles was compelled to relin- 
 quish all the advantages he had wrested from the protestant 
 confederacy, and to sign the treaty of Passau, August 1552, by 
 which the free exercise of their religion was secured to all the 
 adherents of the reformed faith. 
 
 The war with France still continued, but the issue proved 
 disastrous to the imperialists, who lost several towns, and 
 Charles himself totally failed in his attempt upon Metz, which 
 he besieged with an army of one hundred thousand men. " For- 
 tune," he said, " resembled other females, and strove to confer 
 her favours on young men, while she turned her back on those 
 who were advanced in years." In 1554: he bestowed on his son 
 Philip the crowns of Naples and Sicily, on his marriage with 
 Mary, queen of England. In the following year, Joanna of 
 Spain died, after having been insane for nearly fifty years ; and 
 Charles, disgusted with the reverses of fortune which had clouded 
 his latter days, and oppressed by sickness, resolved to carry into 
 effect a resolution which he had formed many years before, to 
 resign his dominions to his brother and his son. Having 
 assembled the states of the Low Countries at Brussels, 25th 
 October, 1555, he surrendered to his son Philip the sovereignty 
 of the Netherlands. " From the seventeenth year of his age," 
 he said, " he had devoted all his thoughts and attention to 
 public objects, reserving no portion of his time for the indulgence 
 of his ease, and very httle for the enjoyment of private pleasure. 
 He had visited Germany nine times, Spain six times, France 
 four, Italy seven, Flanders ten times, England twice, Africa 
 as often, and had made eleven voyages by sea. He had never 
 shunned labour nor repined under fatigue ; but now, when his 
 health was broken, and his \'igour exliausted by the rage of 
 an incurable distemper, his growing infirmities admonished him 
 to retire from the helm. He was not so fond of reigning as to 
 ■wish to retain the sceptre with an impotent hand." Then turn- 
 ing to his son, he gave him some prudent adnce respecting his 
 duties to his subjects ; and exhausted with fatigue and emotion, 
 he concluded this impressive and touching scene. A few weeks 
 after he resigned in the same solemn manner, in the presence of 
 an assembly of Spanish grandees and German princes, the crowns 
 of Spain and of the Indies. He retained the imperial dignity a 
 few months longer, in the vain hope that he might at last induce 
 the electors to bestow it upon his son ; but finding all his efforts 
 ineffectual, he resigned the government of the empire to his brother 
 Frederick. In August 1556 he embarked for Spain, which he had 
 selected as his place of final retreat. He landed at Laredo in 
 Biscay on the 28th September, and lost no time in proceeding 
 towards the place which he had chosen for his residence — 
 the Hieronymite monastery of Yuste, situated in a sequestered 
 valley near Placencia in Estremadura. As the apartments 
 which he had ordered to be prepared for him were not ready, he 
 took up his abode for some months at Jarandilla, a village two 
 
 leagues east of Yuste. At length, on the 8th of February, 1557, 
 accompanied by a small body of retainers, he took possession of 
 the simple residence in which he was destined to pass the brief 
 remainder of his days. There he amused himself principally with 
 mechanical piu-suits, and especially with the adjustment of clocks 
 and watches, in which he was assisted by a clever mechanician 
 named Ton-iana. He continued however to take a lively interest 
 in public affairs, and regularly sent ad\ice to his son respecting 
 the measm-es which he considered requisite for the welfare ot 
 his kingdom. Towards the close of his eventful career, incessant 
 attacks of gout, aggravated by the intemperate indulgence of his 
 appetite, which had been one of his besetting sins through life, 
 shattered his constitution, and enfeebled his mind as well as his 
 body. He became the prey of a gloomy superstition, and sought 
 to expiate his sins by the practice of ascetic austerities, and the 
 application of the lash with such severity, that the scourges 
 which he used were found after his decease stained with blood. 
 At length he caused his own funeral obsequies to be celebrated 
 in the chapel of the convent, and himself took part in the 
 mournful ceremony. The exact date of this event cannot now 
 be ascertained, but very soon after, some say on the same day, 
 he was seized with a fever, which his enfeebled frame could not 
 resist. He expired on the 21st of September, 1558, in the 
 fifty-ninth year of his age. Charles V. was undoubtedly the 
 greatest monarch of the sixteenth century, and occupied the 
 most prominent place in its annals. He was both a consum- 
 mate politician and a brave soldier. He was alike bold and 
 sagacious — cautious in the extreme in forming his plans, and 
 prompt as well as indomitably firm and persevering in canying 
 them into execution. He possessed great skill in reading charac- 
 ters, and in selecting counsellors and generals whose abUities 
 were admirably adapted for the duty intrusted to them. In 
 spite of his phlegmatic temperament and reserved disposition, 
 he was good-humoured, easy, and affable in his manners, and 
 was always a favom-ite of the multitude. But his ambition was 
 insatiable, and his policy fraudulent and insidious. He was 
 cold, selfish, and suspicious, and he was not unfrequently as 
 ignoble in his rivalries and aims as he was unscrupulous in the 
 means which he adopted to obtain success. Though he laboured 
 zealously to uphold the Romish faith, he showed no fanaticism 
 while he wielded the sceptre; but on his retirement into the 
 cloister he exhibited, as 3Ir. Stirling remarks, all the passions, pre- 
 judices, and superstitions of a friar. He dwelt with complacency 
 on his persecution of the protestants, and frequently expressed 
 his deep regret that he had kept his plighted word to Luther. 
 As a codicU to his wUl, he enjoined upon his son to pursue every 
 heretic in his dominions with the utmost severity, and without 
 favour or mercy to any one. By his queen Isabella, daughter of 
 Emmanuel of Portugal, a princess of great beauty and accom- 
 plishments, Charles had one son, who succeeded him, and two 
 daughters. He left also a number of natural children, of whom 
 the most celebrated was Don Johx of Austiua. — J. T. 
 
 CHARLES VI., born in 1685, was second son of Leopold I., 
 and was destined by his father to the crown of Spain. On tlie 
 death of Charles II. in that countn,', his testamentary heir, the 
 duke of Anjou, assumed the sovereignty under the title of Philip 
 v., and Charles, aided by England, Holland, and Portugal, was 
 engaged in a protracted and fluctuating struggle with that prince, 
 when the death of his brother Joseph I. called him to the 
 imperial throne, to which he added the crown of Hungary in the 
 following year. The peace of Utrecht in 1713 secured to his 
 rival in Spain the government of that country', and left Charles 
 to employ his famous general. Prince Eugene, for the defence of 
 Venice against the Turks. Subsequent wars, consequent on tlie 
 disputed succession in Poland, involved the loss of considerable 
 territories and at the peace of Belgrade in 1739 ; he was com- 
 pelled to cede Wallachia and Senia to Turkey. He died of a 
 surfeit in 1740.— W. B. . 
 
 CHARLES VII., bom in 1697, was the eldest .son of Maxi- 
 milian-Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria. In early life he seni-ed 
 against the Turks, and at the dc.ith of his father in 1726 he 
 succeeded him in the electorate; but his passion for the chiise, 
 his Hcentious habits, and the extravagance in wliich he indulged, 
 were incompatible with a wise and honourable administration. 
 Altliongh he had joined tlie European powers in the pragmatic 
 sanction, by which Charles VI. hoped to secure the rights of his 
 daughter, Maria Theresa, the elector at the death of that mon- 
 arch laid'claim to the imperial crown, on the plea of liis descent
 
 CHA 
 
 988 
 
 CHA 
 
 from a daughter of Ferdinand I. ; and by the aid which France 
 and PiTissia afforded him, he succeeded in solemnizing his coro- 
 nation at Frankfort in 17G2, having previously occupied 
 Bohemia, and been invested with the crown of that kingdom. 
 But he had a resolute and spirited rival in JIaria Theresa. 
 The enthusiasm which she awakened among the Hungarians 
 enabled her to devastate Bavaria ; thence she carried her success 
 into the Bohemian territories. By the cession of Silesia to Frederick 
 II., she detached Prussia from the hostile alliance ; Sardinia 
 declared in her fovour; and George II. of England, taking the field 
 in person, defeated the French at Dettingen in 1743. The war, 
 however, was still in progress and the issue uncertain, when 
 Charles died in 1745, being succeeded in the electorate by his 
 son, Maximilian Joseph, who dropped the claim to the imperial 
 crown. — W. B. 
 
 CHAELES-LOUIS, Archduke of Austria, third son of the 
 Emperor Leopold II., was born in 1771. His brother, Francis 
 II., succeeded to the imperial throne in 1792. In the same year 
 the French declared war against Austria and Prussia; and the 
 archduke holding a command under Prince Cobourg, took a 
 prominent part in the campaigns of the two following years 
 on the Belgian frontier, distinguishing himself specially in the 
 brilliant charge of cavaliy, which he led at Landrecis. After 
 the treaty between France and Prussia had thrown the burden 
 of the war in that quarter on Austria, he was invested with the 
 command on the Rhine, and in 1796 gave proof of great mili- 
 tary talents against Jloreau and Jourdan. Compelled at first 
 to retreat, he succeeded in separating the forces of the two 
 French generals, defeated Jourdan at Teiningen, Amberg, and 
 Wurmser, and improved his success so ^•igorously, that Moreau, 
 who had penetrated into Bavaria, was constrained to fall back, 
 fighting his way with difficulty through the Black Forest to a 
 position of security beyond the Rhine, and even the tete du pont 
 at Strasburg fell into the hands of the archduke. His next 
 campaign was against Bonaparte in Italy, where he did all 
 that vigour and skUl could effect with a few dispirited troops 
 to retard the progress of that wonderful captain, particularly at 
 Tarves and Glogau ; nor was he without the hope of drawing 
 together, in the rear of the French, such a force as would have 
 made their advanced position extremely perilous, when his opera- 
 tions were interrapted by the temporaiy peace, negotiated at 
 Leoben, and ratified at Campo Forniio towards the close of 
 1797. Hostilities being recommenced in 1799, Charles defeated 
 Jourdan in Suabia and Massena at Zurich ; then moving down 
 the Rhine to support the duke of York, he captured Philipsburg 
 and Mannheim ; but in the following year he was compelled by 
 the state of his health to give up his command and return 
 home, where he made some unsuccessful eftbrts to reform the 
 military administration of the empire. In 1805 he was again 
 at the head of an army in Italy, and defeated Massena at 
 Caldiero ; but four years later, notwithstanding the victor}' 
 which lie gained against Napoleon at Aspem, he was driven 
 back into Jloravia, and compelled to conclude an armistice, 
 which issued in the treaty of Vienna. The remainder of his life 
 was spent in comparative retirement, and he died in 1847, 
 having pubhshed a work on military strategy, and a history 
 of the campaign of 1799. — W. B. 
 
 III. — CHARLESES OF FRANCE. 
 
 CHARLES JIARTEL, or the Hammer, a renowned warrior 
 and monarch in the early annals of France, was the illegitimate 
 son of Pepin d'Heristal, duke of Austrasia, and mayor of the 
 palace under the last Merovingian kings. He was born in 689, 
 and after Pepin's death, was raised to the dignity of duke by 
 the Austrasians in 715. The Neustrians, and their allies the 
 Frisians, invaded his duchy, but were signally defeated by him in 
 a succession of fierce encounters. Cliilperic II., who succeeded 
 to the throne after the murder of Dagdbert III., finding Ciiarles 
 too strong for him, entered into an alliance with Eudes, duke of 
 Aquitaine, but the associates were entirely defeated near Sois- 
 sons. Eudes, disheartened by this disaster, delivered up Cliil- 
 peric into the hands of Charles, who, however, treated him viith 
 the greatest respect, though he allowed him no real power, but 
 exercised supreme authority in his name. Chilpcric died in 720, 
 but Charles continued to possess the chief authority of the state, 
 as mayor of the palace to his successor Thierry IV. Charles was 
 soon after attacked by the Suevians, Frisians, Alemanni, and 
 the adherents of Eudes, whom he successively defeated, and 
 compelled to do homage to the Frankish crown. He had scarcely 
 
 freed himself from these enemies, when he was called upon to 
 contend with the Saracens, who had overnni Spain, and now 
 threatened to subdue the whole of Europe. Charles encountered 
 and defeated them in a gi-eat battle between Tours and Poitiers, 
 in 732, in which three hundred and seventy-five thousand of the 
 invaders, together with their commander Abderrahman, are said 
 to have perished ; but the number is doubtless greatly exagger- 
 ated. " This victorj'," says Mr. Hallam, " may justly be reckoned 
 among those few battles of which a contrary event would have 
 essentially varied the di-ama of the world in all its subsequent 
 scenes." Charles subsequently defeated the Frisians, annexed 
 their country to his own dominions, and compelled them to pro- 
 fess Christianity. At length the fame of Martel became so gi'eat, 
 that Pope Gregory III. chose him as his protector, sent him the 
 keys of the tomb of St. Peter, and offered him the dignity of 
 Roman consul. Charles, hov.ever, was not a favourite with the 
 clergy, as he compelled them to contribute towards the expenses 
 of the war against the Saracens. He died in 741 ; and his 
 dominions were divided among his three sons, Carloman, Pepin, 
 anil Griffin.— J. T. 
 
 CHARLES I., LE Ciiauye (the Bald), son of Louis le 
 Debonnaire and his second wife, Judith, was born at Frank- 
 fort-on-the-]\Iaine in 823. By his first maniage, Louis had 
 three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis, among whom, previous 
 to the birth of Charles, he had partitioned his dominions, associ- 
 ating Lothaire to the empire, and assigning to Pepin and Louis 
 respectively the kingdoms of Aquitaine and Bavaria. As a pro- 
 vision for his youngest son, Louis formed a new kingdom, which 
 was called the kingdom of Germany. This comprisuig portions 
 of the territories assigned to the three elder brothers of Charles, 
 he incurred their united enmity, and was ultunately shut up in a 
 monastery in the diocese of Treves in 833. In 839, however, by 
 a new partition of the empire, and somewhat later, by the death 
 of Pepin, he came into possession of territories which more than 
 equalled in extent the gift of his fiither. On the death of his 
 father in 840, Charles disputed with his brother Lothaire the 
 succession to the imperial crown ; and allying himself with his 
 other brother, Louis of Bavaria, brought about, by the victoiy of 
 Fontenay, the final partition of the empire of Charlemagne. 
 Charles obtained as his portion that part of France which lies to 
 the west of the Mouse, Saone, and Rhone, and that part of Spain 
 which lies between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. In 858, disgusted 
 with the imbecility of his government, and distracted by the 
 ravages of the Noithmen, the subjects of Charles offered the 
 crown to his brother Louis le Germanique. This bold measure 
 had the effect of driving Charles from the kingdom ; but at 
 the end of a year, having effected a reconciliation with his 
 brother, he was allowed to return. In 869 the dominions of 
 Lothaii-e, the younger, nephew of Charles, were divided between 
 his two uncles, the king of France and Louis le Germanique. 
 Louis II., brother of this Lothaire, died without issue in 875. 
 Charles, on the invitation of the pope, unmediately went to 
 Rome, and was invested with the imperial crowTi. Louis, his 
 brother, exasperated by the success of this movement, invaded 
 France in 876 ; but on the return of Charles from Italy, hastily 
 retreated. The following year one of the sons of Louis II. suc- 
 ceeded in driving Charles out of Italy. He was in retreat for 
 France when he died suddenly at Brios, in the neighbourhood of 
 Mount Cenis in the Alps, in 877. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES II. See Charles III. of Gennany. 
 
 CHARLES III., le Simple, son of Louis le Begue and 
 Adelaide, his queen, bom in 879 ; was called to the throne in 
 893, by a party of nobles discontented with the government 
 of Eudes, count of Paris, who had succeeded Chailes le Gros. 
 The party of the malcontents, with a king only fourteen yeai-s 
 of age for their chief, were unable to cope with Eudes ; but on 
 the death of that prince in 898, they procured the general 
 assent of the nation to the election of Charles. One event of 
 his reign, the cession of Normandy to the Northmen under 
 Rollon or Eollo, renders it memorable, in spite of its uniform 
 character for civil discord, the result of the monarch's incapacity. 
 He was ultimately deposed by his subjects, who called to the 
 throne a brother of the late Iving Eudes. This prince, treacher- 
 ously surprised in his camp by Charles, fell with a great part of 
 his troops; but the remainder, under his son Hugues, made 
 head against Charles, who was again driven from the kingdom. 
 Raoul, duke of Bourgogne, succeeded to the vacant throne. 
 Charles, seeking the assistance of a friend in Heribert, count of
 
 Vermandois, found a jailor who kept liim in confinement the 
 remainder of his life. He died in 929. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES IV., LB Bel, third son of Philip IV., le Bel, 
 born in 1294, succeeded his brother Phillip V., le Long, in 1322. 
 His reign was short and unmarked by great events. He dealt 
 severely with unjust judges and public defaulters of all kinds, 
 extending his cognizance of defalcations backwards to the late 
 reign, one of the financiers of which he even put to the torture. 
 His sister Isabella was married to Edward II. of England. On 
 the breaking out of hostilities between the brothers-in-law, 
 Isabella undertook to compromise the quaiTel, and coming to 
 Paris, succeeded in conciliating the French king, from whom 
 she obtained supplies of men and money, with which to assault 
 the power of her husband and the favourite by whom it was 
 wielded, Le Depenser. The intrigues of Charles at the papal 
 court respecting the imperial crown were fruitless, although 
 enforced by an invasion of Germany by a horde of pagan bar- 
 barians, whom his gold had lured to an attack on the empire. 
 He died in 1328 without male issue. In him the direct 
 succession of the line of Capet ceased, the crown passing into 
 the collateral branch of the Valois.- — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES v., LE Sage, son of the unfortunate King John, 
 who was taken prisoner by the English at the battle of Poitiers 
 in 1316, was born in 1337, and died in 1380. During the 
 captivity of his father, with the title first of lieutenant, and 
 then of regent of the kingdom, but with an authority which the 
 rising spirit of liberty in the states-general circumscribed within 
 limits little flattering to his ambition, he conducted public affairs 
 with considerable address and resolution, gaining often by the 
 arts of diplomacy what it would have been madness to attempt 
 by force, and averting the revolutionary schemes of his enemies 
 by infusing discord into their councils. When assailed by the 
 formidable provost of the merchants of Paris, Etienne Marcel, 
 he detached, by secret means, from the party headed by the 
 provost, Charles le Mauvais, king of Navarre, and with the aid 
 of the mercenaries in the pay of that prince, maintained his 
 position against popular outbreaks and the more dangerous 
 movements of the states-general. After the murder of Marcel 
 by some of his fellow-citizens, Charles gained possession of the 
 capital, Paris, and with a firm hand set himself to redress *^he 
 disorders of the kingdom. " The free companies " and " the 
 Jacquerie " (see Guillaume Caillet,) were successively put 
 down, and an invasion of the English, notwithstanding the 
 anarchy of the time, met with a stout resistance on the part of 
 the regent. By the treaty of Bretigny, King John being restored 
 to his dominions, the power of the regent determined. In 1364, 
 however, John died, and Charles resumed the government of the 
 country with the undisputed title of king. In 1369 he declared 
 war against Edward the Black Prince, and his father Edward 
 III., both of whom, the one by disease and the other by age, were 
 then incapacitated from taking the field in person. The task of 
 answering the challenge of the French king was therefore com- 
 mitted to John of Gaunt, who marched with thirty thousand men 
 from Calais to Bourdeaux without encountering an enemy. A 
 truce for a year was concluded and renewed, and during its con- 
 tinuance occm-red the deaths of the Black Prince and Edward 
 III., 1376-77. Immediately after the news of the death of the 
 king of England reached France, Charles prepared for a descent 
 on the English coast, which was efiected by a combined French 
 and Castilian fleet, at the same time that the king's brother 
 ravaged Guienne. In 1380 the English reinstated the duke of 
 Bretagne, the enemy of Ciiarles, in his dominions, and again 
 traversed a great part of France unopposed. In the midst of such 
 humiliations Charles expired in the forty-third year of his age. 
 That he deserved the appellation of le Sage for his patronage of 
 letters if not for his learning, is not disputed ; but that he was 
 cruel and perfidious is also placed beyond question, by many of 
 the facts of his reign. He founded the biblotheque royale at Paris, 
 and the no less celebrated institution of the bastile. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES VI., called le Bien-Aime, and also lTnsense, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Paris in 1368, and died in 
 1422. At the age of twelve he was called to the throne on the 
 death of his father ; his four uncles, the dukes of Anjou, Berry, 
 Bourgogne, and Bourbon recognizing the authority of their nephew, 
 and trusting to his youth for license to enrich themselves at his 
 expense. Anjou confiscated for his own use the treasures left 
 by the late king. To replenish the royal exchequer, a heavy 
 tax was laid upon the nation. This, however, the people, already 
 
 sufficiently irritated against their rulers, would not pay; "the 
 Jacquerie" reappeared everywhere under other names, and, as 
 Froissart declares, it seemed as if the time were come for gentle- 
 hood to perish utterly under the assaults of infuriated mobs. 
 In these circumstances Bourgogne engaged his nephew to lead 
 an army into Flanders, which had risen in insurrection against 
 Comit Louis, Bourgogne's father-in-law. The result was fatal 
 to the spirit of insurrection in that country, the battle of Rosc- 
 becque (1382) and several successful sieges having been followed 
 by a wholesale slaughter of the Flemish peasants; and was no 
 less fatal to the insurgent subjects of Charles, who, on his return 
 to Paris flushed with victory, were treated with merciless severity. 
 In 1385 Charles mamed Isabella, daughter of Stephen duke ot 
 Bavaria, Ingolstadt. Shortly afterwards he proposed to make 
 a descent on England; but this proposal miscarried through 
 the avarice of his uncle. Berry, and before long the English were 
 in possession of several of his fortresses. Charles having in 
 1388, by a bold exercise of his authority, rid himself of the 
 tutelage of his uncles, recalled the most hateful of their enemies, 
 the ministers of his father. Of these Clisson was particularly 
 obnoxious to the duke of Bretagne, and this minister being 
 assassinated in Paris, his murderer found protection at the court 
 of the duke. This led to an invasion of Bretagne by the royal 
 forces, which was rendered memorable by an incident that 
 deprived the monarch of his reason. As he was traversing, 
 almost unattended, a lonely spot in the forest of Maine, he was 
 accosted by a person of sinister visage who bo terrified him with 
 assurances that treason tracked his footsteps, that, on issuing 
 into the open country, he was discovered to be in a state of 
 insanity. The malady never left him except for short periods, 
 which recurred with less and less frequency ; and for the rest of 
 his life this unhappy king was thus what he had been in its 
 earlier years, a mere tool in the hands of his perfidious relatives. 
 Than the thirty years of French history which succeeded the 
 first outbreak of the king's insanity, it would be impossible to 
 find in the annals of any country a period more replete with 
 disaster and disgrace. The detail of the bloody feuds which arose 
 out of the division of the kingdom into two great factions, that of 
 Burgundy and that of the Armagnacs, must, however, be sought 
 elsewhere — the chronicles of the period, particularly Monstrelet's, 
 give it with characteristic and appalling minuteness. In 1396 
 the infant daughter of Charles was aflianced to Richard II. ot 
 England, but the deposition of Richard two or three years after- 
 wai'ds nullified the match. About this period the duke of Orleans, 
 who was more than suspected of an improper mtimacy with the 
 queen, maintained his baneful ascendancy at court in spite of 
 the utmost efforts of his rival the duke of Burgundy, and, on 
 the death of the latter, he obtained the complete mastery of 
 the kingdom; but in 1407, having unwarily ventm-ed into 
 the presence of the son of his late rival, he was treacherously 
 murdered. Again the chiefs of the opposing factions resumed 
 their deadly strife, and it seemed as if there were nothing so 
 desirable for their unhappy country as political extinction, 
 under the grinding yoke of a foreign tyrant. The battle of 
 Agincourt, where Henry V. of England made good liis demands 
 for a daughter of France, dowered with all the provinces ceded 
 to England by the treaty of Bretigny, and with the aiTears of 
 the ransom of King John, eventually gave to France for its 
 salvation a foreign master. Although unaccoimtably induced 
 to retire from France after this decisive victory, Henry was far 
 from renouncing the claims he had put forth, and far even 
 from renouncing his expectations of obtaining the crown of 
 France. While the Annagnacs and the Bnrgundians butchered 
 each other with remorseless eagerness, Hem-y kept together by 
 pay and promises not a few partisans wlio steadily counselled 
 the opposing factions to call in the king of EnglaiKl for the set- 
 tlement of their quarrels, and who, after the massacre of the 
 Armagnacs and the subsequent nuniler of the duke of Burgundy 
 at Montereau, had doubtless some share in hastening the alliance 
 of the party of the nmrdered duke with Henry, who had just 
 completed the reduction of Normandy. The treaty of Troycs, 
 which was concluded in 1420, placed the administration of 
 France in the hands of the English monarch, and i)rovided for 
 his succession to the throne to the exclusion of the dauphin, who 
 had retired to Poitiers. Henry survived the ratification of this 
 treaty and his consequent marriage with the princess Catherine 
 only two years, which were mainly occupied in prosecuting the 
 war against the dauphin, afterwards Charies VII. Ho died in
 
 CHA 
 
 990 
 
 CHA 
 
 August, 1492, and in October of the same year died Charles VI., 
 after a disastrous reign of forty-two years.- — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES VII., LE VicTORiEux, fifth son of the preceding, 
 and of Isabelhi of Bavaria, bom at Paris in 1-103; died in 1461. 
 He became daupbiu in 1416, on tlie death of John, fourth son 
 of Charles VI. Two years afterwards, the party of the duke of 
 Burgundy having surprised Paris, and by the most sanguinary 
 means exterminated the party of the Armagnacs, with whom 
 Charles was allied in the factious movements of the time, he fled 
 to Poitiers in Languedoc, and there having convened a parlia- 
 ment, assumed the title of regent of the kingdom. This was 
 a bold and hazardous proceeding ; and the hatred it evoked on 
 the part of his mother and the Burgundian party, now in favour 
 with the queen, he had the temerity to inflame, by shielding 
 the murderers of Jean-sans-peur, duke of Burgundy. . The 
 consequence of this atrocious deed was to throw the party of the 
 murdered duke into the hands of Henry V. of England, who 
 now found no difliculty in securing, by diplomacy, all that he 
 had failed to extort by the victory of Agincourt. After the 
 conclusion of the treaty of Troves (see Charles VI.), Charles, 
 diso\vned by his parents, and derided as a bastard by the par- 
 tisans of England, led a vagrant life in the southern provinces 
 of the kingdom, which, with Henry V. at Paris, were far from 
 offering security as well as subsistence ; but on the death of 
 Henry in 1422, an event which was followed at an interval of 
 a few months by that of Charles VI., the partisans of native 
 royalty took a bolder attitude, and in the autumn of that year 
 Charles was proclaimed king at Bourges. At the same time 
 Henry VI., the infant son of Henry V., was crowned with all 
 solemnity at Paris by his uncle the duke of Bedford, to whom 
 the late king had confided the tutelage of his son and the 
 regency of France. By the year 1428, the English having pro- 
 secuted the war with all but uniform success, hardly one fourth 
 part of the realm owned the authority of Charles. In that 
 year, Orleans, the most important of the towns on which he 
 reckoned for assistance, was besieged by an English force, under 
 leaders of high renown. The place was defended by Dunois, a 
 bastard of the family of Orleans, by XaintraOles, La Hire, and 
 other famous captains, who, recei-ving little aid from Charles, 
 disputed the attacks of the English with less and less success. 
 The fall of Orleans must have been fatal to the hopes of Charles 
 and his adherents ; but at this juncture appeared the famous Joan 
 of Ai-c (see Joan), and at once, and as it proved conclusively, 
 turned the scale of victory in their favour. From this time 
 onwards, in his struggle with the English, and especially after 
 the treaty of Arras had secm'ed him the assistance of Burgundy, 
 Charles, although in general cautious of exposing his own person 
 to the risks of war, pursued by his generals an almost uninter- 
 rupted career of victory. In the same year in which Joan 
 raised the siege of Orleans, he was again solemnly crowned at 
 Eeims, principally in obedience to the demands of the Maid of 
 Orleans, who for a brief period ruled the court no less than the 
 camp. In 1436 the English surrendered Paris, in 1450 quitted 
 Normandy, and in 1456 Guienne ; thus rehnquishing within a 
 brief period the whole of their possessions in France, except 
 Calais and the suiTOunding territory. To this glorious period, 
 besides the assertion of the national independence, are to be 
 referred two gi-eat events of the reign of Charles — the issuing 
 of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the organization of a standing 
 army, but on neither of these points have we space to dwell. 
 The victorious monarch had need of his well-appointed regi- 
 ments when the wars of the " Praguerie," and the repeated 
 defections of the dauphin his son, afterwards Louis XL (see that 
 name), threatened to subvert his throne, and for a period endan- 
 gered his person. The latter years of his life, although not free 
 from the stains of debauchery, and of a too facile forgiveness of 
 the crimes perpetrated by the rapacious and sanguinary ministers 
 who from time to time gained the ascendant in his councils, were 
 little chargeable with the indolence and effeminacy of his youth 
 and early manhood — a remarkable metamorphosis of character, 
 which is properly ascribed, perhaps, to the influence of his wife, 
 Mary of Anjou, but is more frequently, although erroneously, 
 attributed to the eloquence and the graces of his mistress, Agnes 
 Sorel ; having occurred to him about the time when his aftairs 
 began to assume a hopeful aspect after the first triumph of the 
 Maid of Orleans. His treatment of Joan, however, even in the 
 absence of all other subjects of reproach — and, unfortunately, 
 the long career of Charles furnishes not a few — would always 
 
 seriously impair his title to the veneration, although he cannot 
 be denied the gratitude of his countrymen. Charles, who was at 
 last afflicted with a kind of monomania, that manifested itself 
 in a dread of being poisoned by his family, died of exhaustion, 
 after seven days' abstinence from food — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES VIIL, king of France, succeeded his father Louis 
 XL in 1483, being then only thirteen years of age. During the 
 minority the guardianship of the king's person was vested in his 
 eldest sister Anne of Beaujeu. The power which she enjoyed 
 excited the jealousy of the duke of Orleans, the next heir to the 
 throne, who made some unsuccessful attempts to subvert the 
 royal authority. He and his allies were finally defeated in 1488. 
 The kuig was soon in new trouble, on account of his maniage with 
 Anne of Bretagne, the betrothed of MaximiUan the Austrian 
 emperor, to make way for which he broke an engagement with the 
 daughter of Maximilian. Hem-y VII. of England and Ferdinand 
 of Spain supported the aggrieved emperor, and entered with him 
 into a confederacy against France ; but by the payment of money 
 and cession of some provinces to the confederates, a settlement was 
 cftccted in the treaty of Senhs in 1493. Thus freed from danger 
 at home Charles set about asserting his claim to the throne of 
 Naples, which he founded on the rights of the house of Anjou, 
 purchased by his father Louis XL Advancing with an army 
 and passing through Florence and Rome, he took possession of 
 Naples in 1495, the king retiring on his approach. He then 
 began to conceive ambitious designs of eastern conquest, at the 
 very time that a league was forming to intercept his return to 
 France. Leaving a gannson in Naples he began his homeward 
 march with a force of about nine thousand men, and was met at 
 Fornovo, near the foot of the Apennmes, by the army of the 
 hostile confederacy, numbering forty thousand. He bravely met 
 and vanquished this vast force, winning, however, by his victory 
 little more than a safe retreat. Naples was soon recovered 
 and the king restored by Gonsalvo, a Spanish general. The 
 subsequent projects of Charles for its reconquest were never 
 carried out. He had only three sons, none of whom suri-ived 
 him, so that on his death in 1498 the duke of Orleans, Louis 
 XII., succeeded to the throne. — J. B. 
 
 CHARLES IX., king of France, succeeded his brother, 
 Francis II. in 1560, being then in his eleventh year. The 
 government was conducted during his minority by his mother, 
 Catherine de Medici, assisted by Anthony, king of Navarre, who 
 jomed himself to the Huguenot party, to which Catherine also for 
 a time showed signs of favour. In 1561 an edict being issued 
 to prevent the preaching of the reformed religion, the Huguenots 
 took up anus and demanded a conference, which led to no im- 
 portant result, except that it gave the king of NavaiTe a pretext 
 for deserting to the catholic side. Through the influence of 
 Catherine, who was jealous of this union of Navarre with the 
 Guises, a pacific edict was issued, which procured a temporary 
 peace. This was soon broken by a quarrel at Vassy in Cham- 
 pagne, which ended in a war, led on the protestant side by Prince 
 Conde and the admiral Coligni ; and on the other by the constable 
 Montmorenci, the duke of Guise, and the marshal St. Andr^, 
 who were named the Triumvirate. In 1563 a peace followed 
 the siege of Orleans and the death of the duke of Guise. As 
 early as the following year, however, the protestants had reason 
 to be disatisfied with some of the edicts issued, and in 1567 
 Cond(5 and Coligni attempted to seize the person of the king, 
 and gave rise to the second religious war, in which Catherine 
 exerted all her influence against the Huguenots. A short peace 
 followed the battle of St. Denis, in which Montmorenci fell, but 
 was soon broken when the king issued an edict ordering all the 
 protestant ministers to leave the kingdom. The battle of Jamac 
 followed in 1569, when the protestants were defeated, and their 
 leader, prince Conde, killed. The head of the party was now 
 Henri of Bourbon, prince of Bdam, but the command remained 
 with Coligni, to whose resolution and courage, as well as to the 
 king's jealousy of his brother, the duke of Anjou, now leader of 
 the catholic party, is to be attributed the peace of 1570, and 
 the favourable provisions which it secured for the exercise of the 
 protestant worship. It is not certain, indeed, that the granting 
 of this favourable peace was not part of the deep plot for the 
 destruction of the Huguenots, which resulted in the massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew, two years later. This at least is sure, whether 
 or not the king was a party to the plot, the peace was made by 
 the consphators the foundation of then- schemes. Coligni was 
 invited to court. Suspicious of the designs of Catherine, he
 
 refused the invitation, but in the end of 1571, after recei\-ing 
 repeated assurances of goodwill, he at length repaired to Blois, 
 where Charles was holdhig his court. Any suspicion he might 
 still have had was soon removed by the appai-ent kindness of 
 the king, which he crowned on the 18th of August, 1572, by 
 the marriage of his sister to Henry of Navarre. On Friday the 
 22nd an attempt was made to shoot Coligni, as he was passing a 
 house occupied by a dependent of the dake of Guise. The king 
 professed to be deeply grieved by this cruel attempt, and visited 
 the wounded man ; but the conspirators were plotting deeply, 
 and whatever were the king's motives for his previous conduct, 
 it is sure that his consent was obtained for the dreadful massacre 
 which was begun on the morning of the 24th. He professed to 
 have discovered a conspiracy against his life, and that he ordered 
 the slaughter of the Huguenots in self-defence ; but was ever after- 
 wards distracted with the thought of the cruelty to which he had 
 given his sanction, and died in great distress in 157-1. — J. B. 
 
 CHARLES X., King of France, was the youngest son of the 
 dauphin, grandson of Louis XV., and brother of Louis XVI. He 
 was born at Versailles in October, 1757, and received at his 
 birth the name of Charles-Philippe, and the title of Count of 
 Artois. His early years were spent in frivolity and dissipation. 
 On the brciiking out of the Revolution, he resolutely opposed all 
 concession to the popular demands, and quitted France in July, 
 1789, after the destruction of the bastile. He peremptorily 
 refused to return when invited to do so in 1791, and the legis- 
 lative assembly in consequence stopped his allowance and con- 
 fiscated his property. When war was declared against France, 
 Charles took the command of a body of emigrants, and joined the 
 Austrian and Prussian armies in the unsuccessful campaign of 
 1792. In the following year, after the execution of his brother, 
 Louis XVI., he undertook a journey to Russia, in the hope of 
 obtaining assistance fi-om the Empress Catherine. He next made 
 a descent on the coast of Brittany, after the breaking out of the 
 Vendean war, but speedily re-embarked, and returned to England 
 without accomphsliing anything of importance. He resided some 
 years in the palace of Holyrood at Edinburgh ; but in 1809 he 
 joined his brother, Louis XVIII., at Hartwell, and in 1814 he 
 went to Germany to watch the progress of events. On the abdi- 
 cation of Xapoleon, the count of Artois entered Paris on the 12th 
 of April, and the senate conferred on him the provisional govern- 
 ment of the kingdom. On the arrival of the king, his brother, 
 Charles was appointed colonel-general of all the national guards 
 of the kingdom. The return of Napoleon, of course, compelled 
 the coiuit to leave France along with the rest of the royal 
 family ; but he returned after the battle of "Waterloo. As the 
 leader of the ultra-royalist and priestly party, the count exer- 
 cised great influence on the government of his brother, and 
 indeed from the date of M. Villele's ministry in 1821, Charles 
 may be regarded as the real king of France. He succeeded to 
 the throne on the death of Louis X^^II., 16th September, 
 1821. He was fond of popularity, and for a short time his 
 conduct seemed to make a favourable impression upon the 
 French nation ; but the priests and Jesuits, by whom he was 
 really though unconsciously governed, soon induced him to 
 adopt measures that interfered with the rights and privi- 
 leges, both sacred and secular, of the people, and excited the 
 strong disapprobation of all sagacious and moderate men. 
 Among the most hateful of these measures may be mentioned 
 the law which was proposed in 1827 for restricting the liberty 
 of the press. Opposition to the government continued to gather 
 force ; and in November the chamber of deputies was dissolved by 
 the king. The new elections were decidedly unfavourable to the 
 ministry ; and in 1 827, JI. de Villele and his colleagues were com- 
 pelled to resign, and were succeeded by Viscount Martignac, 
 counts de Ferronays, Portales, and others. Several good 
 measures were brought forward by the new ministry. M. 
 Martignac, however, did not possess the confidence of the king, 
 and was only endured by him as a necessary e\'il, to be got rid 
 of at the first favourable opportunity. Accordingly the ministry, 
 having been defeated by a coalition of parties on a bill for 
 reforming the municipal councils, were soon after dismissed by 
 the king (August, 1829), and a government composed of extreme 
 royalists, with Prince Polignac at their head, was established in 
 their room. The appointment of such men was regarded as an 
 insolent defiance to the nation, and a conspiracy against its 
 liberties. It was vehemently denounced by the press, and excited 
 such indignation throughout the whole country, that associations 
 
 were formed for the purpose of resisting the payment of taxes. 
 The new ministry were defeated on the address in the chamber 
 of deputies by a majority of forty ; but the king, in reply to the 
 address, which told him plainly that his ministers did not possess 
 the confidence of the representatives of the people, declared that 
 his resolution was immovable. The next day (March 19) the 
 chamber was prorogued to the 1st of September, and a dissolu- 
 tion was resolved on in May. A crusade was undertaken against 
 the press, and the managers of several of the liberal journals 
 were con\ncted and severely punished. The new elections went 
 strongly in favour of the opposition. The whole policy of the 
 government was \-iolently reprobated, and every act of theirs was 
 regarded with suspicion or dislike. Even the tidings of the con- 
 quest of Algiers, which arrived at this juncture, in no degree 
 lessened their unpopularity. Charles and his advisers, how- 
 ever, were determined not to give way, and at length it was 
 determined on the 7th of July to suspend the constitution. 
 Accordingly, on the 25th, the king issued several ordinances, 
 countersigned by his ministers, abolishing the liberty of the press ; 
 dissolving the newly-elected chamber of deputies ; which had not 
 yet met, and establishing a new electoral system ; reducing the 
 number of deputies from four hundred and thirty to two hundred 
 and fifty-eight ; altering the electoral franchise ; and placing the 
 elections under the direct influence of the prefects. On the 
 publication of these fatal ordinances, the chief journalists of 
 Paris signed an energetic protest, written by M. Thiers, and 
 continued to publish as before. This was followed by a protest 
 from a number of deputies declaring the ordinances illegal. The 
 people rose in arms, erected barricades in all the principal quar- 
 ters of Paris, and prepared to overturn the government by force. 
 With a folly and want of foresight almost incredible, Charles 
 and his ministers had taken no precautions whatever against a 
 popular outbreak. The troops in the city were comparatively 
 few in number, and no arrangement had been made to furnish 
 them either with provisions or ammunition. A fierce and 
 sanguinary contest ensued, which lasted for three days, and 
 terminated in the complete triumph of the insm-gents and the 
 establishment of a provisional government. Jlamiont, to whom 
 the command of the ganison of the capital had been intrusted, 
 was compelled to evacuate the city. When the disastrous result 
 was communicated to Charles, who remained at St. Cloud, he 
 was at length induced to revoke the obnoxious ordinances and to 
 dismiss his ministers. But this concession came too late. The 
 popular leaders assembled at the Hotel de Ville, issued a procla- 
 mation that Charles X. had ceased to reign. Deserted on all 
 sides, the unhappy monarch finding further resistance hopeless, 
 abdicated the crown on the 9th of August in favour of his 
 grandson, the duke of Bourdeaux ; and set out for Cherbourg. 
 The chambers, however, refused to recognize the claims of the 
 young prince, and elected the duke of Orleans, who had previ- 
 ously (July 30) been nominated heutenant-general of the king- 
 dom by the provisional government. (See Louis-Piiilu'I-e.) 
 From Cherbourg the dethroned monarch sailed for England, and 
 ultimately took up his residence in HoljTood House. He after- 
 wards spent some time in Pr.ague in Bohemia. In the autumn 
 of 183G he removed to Goritz in Styria, and died there of cholera 
 on the 6th of October. Charies man-ied in 1773 Maria Theresa 
 of Savoy, sister to the wife of his brother, Louis XVIII. His 
 eldest son, the due d'Angouleme, who died at Goritz in 1813, 
 was childless. His second son, the due de Berry, who was assas- 
 sinated in February, 1820, left one daughter and a posthumous 
 son, the duke de Bourdeaux, or Count Chambord, as he is now 
 called.— J. T. 
 
 CHARLES THE Bold, Didce of Burgundy, and Count of 
 Charolais, was the son of Philip the Good, and of Isabella of Por- 
 tugal, and was bom in 1433. The mild and free government of 
 Burgimdv, in the time of Phillip, had raised the duchy to a degree 
 of prosperity unparalleled at any former period. During the 
 greater part' of his reign, Charies was at enmity with his feudal 
 superior, Louis XL of France. In the lifetime of his father he 
 put himself at the head of a confederacy of the principal French 
 nobility, who had been oppressed by Louis, and marched with 
 a powe'rful army towards Paris in 1465. A battle took place at 
 Jlontlhen-, where, after an obstinate struggle, Charies remained 
 master of the field. In 1467 he succeeded to the dukedom of 
 Burgundy on the death of his father, from whom he inliented 
 immense treasures, which he squandered in the prosecution of his 
 ambitious and often fantastic schemes. In 1468 he entered into 
 
 ~
 
 a league against his suzerain with Francis, duke of Bretaa;ne, and 
 Edward IV. of England. With the view of detaching him from 
 this confederacy, Louis, who despised the intellect of Charles, and 
 had an overweening confidence in his own powers of persuasion, 
 determined to risk a personal conference with his rival, and paid 
 him a memorable visit at I'eronne, a fortitied town of Picardy, 
 belonging to the duke. Unluckily for this crafty schemer, the 
 inhabitants of Liege, among whom he had secretly fomented 
 disturbances, broke out into open rebellion against Charles at this 
 critical moment, and massacred many of his adherents. The 
 duke, transported with rage at this treachery, commanded the 
 gates of the castle in which Louis had taken up his residence to 
 be shut and strictly guarded, and vowed the severest vengeance 
 on the perfidious instigator of the revolt and massacre. It was 
 only by the distribution of large sums of money among the 
 counsellors of the duke, and by making great promises and con- 
 cessions, that Louis regained his liberty, on condition that he 
 should be present at the assault of Liege, and witness the savage 
 punishment which, for the second time, Charles inflicted upon 
 that turbulent city. As miglit have been expected, the peace 
 concluded at I'eronne was not of long duration. No promises or 
 treaties could bind Louis, and as Charles was rash and impetuous, 
 and not much more scrupulous than his rival, grounds of quarrel 
 were never wanting. The French king employed all his art to 
 overreach the duke, and lost no opportunity of fomenting distm-b- 
 ances among liis Flemish subjects, and embroiling him with his 
 neighbours ; while Charles, on the other hand, organized several 
 successive confederacies against the French king, which that 
 cunning and politic prince contrived, by one means or other, to 
 dissolve. Charles was for a time, however, successful in almost 
 all his projects. He sup])ressed and punished with great severity 
 the insurrections of Ghent, Liege, and other Flemish cities; 
 invaded France, captured several important cities, and wasted 
 the country with fire and sword, with the landgraviate of Alsace 
 and the duchy of Lorraine. He was compelled, however, to 
 raise the siege of Nuz, the possession of which would have made 
 him nearly master of the whole course of the Rhine, and he was 
 deeply mortified by the failure of his attempt to obtain the 
 dignity of king, when apparently on the eve of being successful. 
 His violence ana rashness soon after involved him in a war with 
 the Swiss, by whom he was ignominiously routed in 1476, at 
 Granson in the Pays de Vaud, with the loss of his military chest 
 and baggage, and of his plate and jewels. This mortifying defeat 
 threw him into a severe sickness, but after his recovery he 
 resumed his insane project of conquering Switzerland, and having 
 collected a numerous ai-my, attacked the combined Swiss and 
 German forces at Morat, near Friburg. After an obstinate 
 struggle he was again defeated, with the loss of eighteen thousand 
 men. This second disaster was followed by tlie defection of 
 most of his allies, with the loss of the city of Nancy, and the 
 greater part of Lorraine, which was now recovered by the dispos- 
 sessed duke. Charles was completely overwhelmed with this 
 defeat, and for a time was sunk in silent and sullen despair; 
 but at length he roused himself from his inactivity, and, in 
 opposition to the earnest advice of his best officers, laid siege to 
 Nancy. The duke of Lorraine advanced to the relief of the city 
 at the head of a powerful force, while the besieging army was 
 small and dispirited. Charles, however, desperately set his life 
 upon the cast, and giving battle, was defeated and killed. There 
 is every reason to believe that the unfortunate prince was mur- 
 dered in the tumult by certain emissaries of Count Campobasso, 
 who basely deserted his standard at the commencement of the 
 action, but left behind him twelve or fifteen of his followers, for 
 the purpose of assassinating the master whom he had betrayed. 
 Charles was possessed of several good qualities ; he was intrepid 
 beyond most men, generous, liberal, and easy of access to his 
 servants and subjects ; but his ambition, together with his pride 
 and arrogance, and violent and headstrong disposition, involved 
 him in perpetual quarrels, and ultimately led to his ruin. After 
 the death of the duke. Burgundy was seized by Louis, who alleged 
 it was a male-fief which reverted to the crown, as Charles left 
 no son. His Flemish possessions were united to Austria by the 
 marriage of his daughter Anne with the Emperor Maximilian. 
 — (Comines ; Froissart. For a masterly character of Cliaries 
 see Queidin Durward and Anne of Geierstein by Sir Walter 
 Scott.)— J. T. 
 
 CHARLES OF Lorraine. See Lorraine. 
 
 CHARLES DE Blois, or de Chatillok, Duke of Bretagne, 
 
 son of Marguerite, sister of Phillip of Valois, married in 1337 
 Jeanne de Penthievre, daughter of Gui de Bretagne. Tlie con- 
 ditions of the marriage were, that Charles should assume tlie 
 name and the arms of his bride's family, and that he should 
 succeed to the duchy on the death of Duke John III. When 
 this event happened in 1341, a formidable rival in the person of 
 Jean de Montfort, brother of the late duke, arose to dispute the 
 title of Charles to the duchy ; and between these two princes a 
 bloody war was waged in which England and France took part, 
 and wliich was only terminated by the death of Charles de Blois 
 who was killed at the battle of Auray in 1364. The straggle 
 of Charles and his rival for the possession of Bretagne was 
 rendered memorable by the heroic conduct of the countess de 
 I\Iontfort, and by the exploits of such famous warriors as 
 Duguesclin, Beaumanoir, and Sir John Chandos. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES I., called le Bon, Count of Flanders, son of 
 Canute IV., called le Saint, succeeded Baldwin of Flanders in 
 1119. The throne of Jerusalem, vacant in 1124 by the 
 imprisonment of Baldwin II. by the Turks, and the crown of 
 Germany on the death of the Emperor Henry V., were offered to 
 Charles ; but his Flemish subjects, by whom he was revered for 
 his talents and his virtues, prevailed on him to decline both of 
 these dignities. He was assassinated in one of the churches of 
 Bruges in 1127.— J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES, called of Artois, Count of Eu, son of Phillip of 
 Ai'tois count of Eu, and of Marie de Beriy, afterwards manied 
 to John duke of Bourbon, was bom in 1393, and died in 1472. 
 Allied during the reign of Charles VI. with the Orleans faction, 
 he took part in the battle of Agincourt, was made prisoner, 
 carried to London, and confined in the Tower twenty-three years. 
 On his return to France he was taken into confidence by Charles 
 VII., and bore arms in most of the campaigns undertaken by 
 that monarch. Louis XI. also distinguished him by honoui-able 
 appointments, both civil and military. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES of Valois, Count of Maine and Anjou, third son 
 of Phillip the Hardy, king of France, was born in 1270. His 
 title and estates he derived from his maniage with Marguerite, 
 daughter of Charles II. of Anjuu, king of Naples. Pope Martin 
 IV. had conferred on him the title of king of Arragon, but this 
 his father-in-law obliged him to renounce. He took a promi- 
 nent part in the wars which the pope and the house of Anjou 
 waged with the republics in Italy, and in those which his 
 nephew, Phillip le Bel, commenced against Edward II. of Eng- 
 land in Flanders and Guienne. He died in 1325, leaving by 
 the first of his three wives a son, who, under the title of Phillip 
 VI., succeeded to the throne of France, and commenced the 
 dynasty of the Valois. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES I. and II., Counts of Maine and Anjou. See 
 Charles of Naples. 
 
 CHARLES III., Coimt of Maine, third son of Louis II. of 
 Anjou, king of Naples, bom in 1414; died in 1473. He was a 
 marked favourite of Charles VII., who, along with various grants 
 of land, gave him the government of Languedoc. Under Louis 
 XL he held high military command ; but his conduct at the 
 battle of Montleheiy, which was dastardly in the extreme, lost 
 him the favour of the king. He died in 1472.— J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES D'ANJOU or CHARLES IV., Count of Maine and 
 Anjou and King of Sicily, bom in 1436; died in 1481. Inherit- 
 ing from his uncle Rene le Bon, who died in 1480, besides the 
 realm of Sicily, the counties of Anjou and Provence, he had the 
 misfortune to fall under the power of Louis XL, who deprived 
 him of the former county, and by artfully repulsing in his behalf 
 the attempts of the grandson of Rene to establish himself in 
 Provence, gained over the chief minister of Charles, and then 
 the prince himself, to the execution of a deed by which, on the 
 death of Charles, Anjou was to be permanently united to the 
 realm of France. — J. S., G. 
 
 IV. — CHARLESES OF NAVARRE. 
 
 CHARLES I. See Charles IV. of France. 
 
 CHARLES II., surnamed the Bad, King of Navarre and 
 Count of Evreux, was born in 1332. He was the great-grandson 
 of Philip the Hardy, king of France, and grandson by the 
 mother's side of Louis the Boisterous. He succeeded to the 
 throne of Navarre in his seventeenth year, and in 1353 married 
 Joanna, elder daughter of King John of France. He was 
 remarkable for the graces of his person, and for his courage, 
 eloquence, liberality, and address ; but he was no less detested 
 for his crunes. In 1353 he caused Charles de la Carda, con-
 
 stable of France, to be murdered in bis bed, out of revenge, 
 because he bad been disappointed in his attempt to obtain tlie 
 duchy of Angouleme, which the king had bestowed upon La 
 Cerda. He soon after began to intrigue against his sovereign, set 
 up a claim to the throne of France in right of his mother, and 
 even ventured to draw the dauphin into a confederacy against 
 his father. But the king having obtained full information 
 respecting these machinations, suddenly an-ested Charles and his 
 adherents while seated at dinner with the dauphin iii the castle 
 of Rouen, sent him a prisoner to Chateau Gaillard, and put 
 several of his most obnoxious associates to death. After the 
 disastrous battle of Poitiers in 1356, at which King John was 
 taken prisoner, the king of Navarre made his escape, and soon 
 after proceeded to Paris, wliere his eloquence and whming 
 address had rendered him, in spite of his crimes, a gi-eat favour- 
 ite with the citizens. He continued his intrigues against the 
 royal authority, and having attracted to his standard numbers 
 of Norman and English adventurers, known by the name of Com- 
 panions, he declared war against France, took several towns and 
 fortresses, and reduced the dauphin almost to the last extremity ; 
 but at length peace was concluded between them in 1360. 
 The remainder of the reign of this able but unprincipled sove- 
 reign was spent in continual plots and broils. In 1361 he 
 entered into an alliance with Pedro the Cruel, and assisted him 
 in his campaigns against the king of Arragon. He conducted 
 the Black Prince, who came to the assistance of Pedi-o with a 
 body of English troops, through his own territories, as far as 
 Pampelmia, but was accidentally taken prisoner by a French 
 knight before the battle, in which the prince defeated the French 
 army that had espoused the cause of the king of Arragon. 
 He soon regained his liberty, however, and peace was subse- 
 quently concluded between him and Charles, his brother-in-law, 
 the new king of France, which lasted for four years. But hostilities 
 again broke out on the discovery of a conspii'acy on the part of 
 the king of Navarre, to poison the French king. The poison was 
 actually administered, and Charles never recovered from its 
 effects, though its immediate operation was partially suspended 
 by the skill of a physician, sent by the Emperor Charles IV. 
 Unable to resist the French arms, the king of Navarre entered 
 into a treaty with the English and engaged to deliver Cher- 
 bourg into their hands as the price of their aid. On this con- 
 dition a powerful army was sent to his assistance, and soon 
 turned the tide in his favour. This wicked sovereign died in 
 1387. His death was worthy of his life. He was wrapped in 
 clothes that had been dipped in spirits of wine and sulphur, to 
 reanimate the chill in his limbs caused by his debaucheries, and 
 to cure his leprosy. By some accident they caught fire, and 
 bunit the flesh off his bones. — (^Froissart.^ — J. T. 
 
 CHARLES III., Iving of Navarre, called the Noble, on 
 account of his good qualities, was bom in 1361. He married 
 in 1375 Leonora, daughter of Henry II. of Castile, surnamed 
 the Magnificent. Charles ascended the throne of Navarre in 
 1390. In 1404 he entered into a treaty with Charles VI. of 
 France, by which he renounced his pretensions to the provinces 
 of Champagne, de Brie and d'Evreux, receiving in exchange the 
 duchy of Nemours. Charles died in 1425. — J. T. 
 
 CHARLES IV., son of John II., king of Navarre and 
 Arragon, and of Blanche, daughter of Charles III. the Noble, 
 bom in 1421, became titular king of Navarre on the death of 
 his mother in 1441 ; but after some fruitless attempts to over- 
 come the opposition of his father, which w;is vigorously sup- 
 ported by Joan of Castile, John's second wife, he abandoned 
 his claims to the crown, and accepted the title of Count of 
 Barcelona. This accomplished and unfortunate prince was 
 poisoned in 1461. — J. S., G. 
 
 V. — CHAULESES OF SPAIN. 
 
 CHARLES I. See Charles V. of Germany. 
 
 CHARLES II., son of Philip IV., was a child of four years 
 at his accession to the throne in 1665, and the country, already 
 wasted by his father's follies, had to undergo the evils of a long 
 minority. The queen-mother held the regency ; and her sub- 
 serviency to her favourites was checked only in part by the 
 influence of Don John of Austria. This able and popular 
 commander obtained the ascendancy, when Charles, at the age 
 of fifteen, assumed the reins of government ; but the young 
 king was speedily left by the death of his minister to responsi- 
 bilities, for which he was incapacitated by bodily weakness and 
 mental imbecility. It was in this reign that Portugal secured 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 her independence ; but the most serious dangers arose out of the 
 ambitious attempts of Louis XIV. to annex the Low Countries 
 to his dominions, and to obtain for a Bourbon prince the heu-- 
 ship of the childless Spanish monarch, in opposition to the 
 claims of the Emperor Leopold and the electoral Prince Joseph 
 Ferdinand. The alliance of England, Holland, and Germany 
 checked the progress of the French arms in the Netherlands ; 
 and at the peace of Nimeguen in 1678, the marriage of Cliarlcs 
 to a niece of Louis was expected to be the bond of a pemianent 
 accord. Her death, however, in the following year, brought on 
 new conflicts, which were embittered by the man-iage of the 
 king to an Austrian princess, and continued till the peace of 
 Ryswick in 1697. Charles died in 1700, having been induced 
 by the plots of Philip and the influence of the pope to execute 
 a wiU in favour of Philip of Anjou, who succeeded him. — W. B. 
 
 CHARLES IIL, a younger son of Philip V., bom in 1716, 
 acquu'ed distinction at an early age by his military ser\"ices in 
 Italy, and was invested by his father with the sovereignty of the 
 Two Sicilies, in which he was confirmed by the treaty of Vienna 
 in 1730. Succeeding to the throne of Spain at the death of his 
 brother, Ferdinand VL, he found the kingdom strengthened in 
 its internal organization and resources by the wise and benefi- 
 cent administration of his predecessor, and his own disposition 
 led him to cultivate similar means of national prosperity. But 
 the confederacy of the Bourbon princes in the middle of the 
 century involved him in a war with the British, who CJiptured 
 Manilla, and some of the other Spanish colonial possessions. 
 After the peace of Fontainebleau, Charles again devoted himself 
 to the social and administrative improvement of his kingdom, 
 and made an attempt to repress the Algerine pirates, which 
 proved unsuccessful. In the stmggle of the British colonies in 
 America for their independence, he joined France in aiding them 
 with a naval force ; and at the close of the war, the provinces 
 of Florida, with the island of Minorca, were ceded to Spain. 
 His death occurred in 1788. — W. B. 
 
 CHARLES IV., King of Spain, son and successor of Chai-les 
 III., was born at Naples in 1748, and died at Rome in 1819. 
 He maiTied his cousin, Maria Louisa Theresa of Parma, in 1765, 
 and was crowned king of Spain at Madrid in 1789. His reign 
 was anything rather than glorious. Of a violent temper, and 
 destitute of almost every kingly quality, it was impossible that 
 he should distinguish himself in the task of guiding the national 
 councils during the stormy times which succeeded the French 
 revolution. His father had tried to rouse the Spaniards out of their 
 natui-al indolence ; but immediately after the accession of Charles 
 IV., the ancient spirit of inaction and routine took possession of 
 the nation. In 1792 he superseded his able minister Florida 
 Blanca by Aranda, whom he soon after exiled for favouring 
 the French revolutionists. Charles, who had hitherto been at 
 peace with the Revolution, took vigorous measures to save the 
 life of Louis XVI., and, failing in his efforts, entered into war 
 with France. In 1795 a peace was negotiated at Basle by 
 Godoy, the queen's favourite, who had been appointed prime 
 minister, and was now created I'rince of Peace, high admiral, 
 and generalis.simo. An alliance, offensive and defensive witli 
 France, which followed the treaty of Basle, drew Spain into 
 war with Portugal and England; the consequences of which 
 were the min of her commerce and the annihilation of her fleet 
 at the battle of Trafalgar, diaries was now tired of France, 
 but the hostile proclamation made by Godoy in 1806, only 
 brought him more under the power of Napoleon, who forced 
 him in the following year to sign a secret treaty, that had for its 
 object the partition of Portugal between the queen of Etrnria 
 and the Prince of Peace. The French troops, which had pro- 
 fessedly been sent to enforce the stipulations of this treaty, were 
 however ordered to Madrid, upon which Godoy withdrew with 
 the court to Andahisia. diaries prepared to floe to America, 
 but was arrested by the populace, and on the 9th of March, 1808, 
 abdicated the throne in favour of his son Ferdinand. The ruin 
 of the djniasty was at hand. Napoleon, having now gained over 
 Godoy, who had long been the mortal enemy of Ferdinand, 
 enticed the royal family to Bayonne, and there succeeded, with 
 the aid of the Prince ot' Peace and of the queen, in depriving the 
 house of Bourbon of the Spanish crown. He assigned to Charles 
 a pension of seven millions of francs, and the chateau of Com- 
 peigne for a residence. The unfortunate monarch aftenvards 
 lived for sometime at Marseilles. In 1811 he dej)arted with his 
 little court for Rome, where he died. — R. M., A. 
 
 6 K
 
 VI. — CHARLESES OF SWEDEN. 
 
 CHARLES I., or following the purely mythological nomencla- 
 ture of John Magnus, Charles VII. (Svekkersox), the first 
 who bore the title of king of Sweden and Gothland, was assas- 
 sinated after a short reign in 1168. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES VIII. (Caxutson), elected king of Sweden in 
 1448 ; the union of the crowns of Denmark, Norway, and 
 Sweden being dissolved in that year, by the death of Christopher, 
 duke of Bavai-ia, who had reigned over the three countries. A 
 war ensuing between Charles and Christiern, king of Denmark, 
 the fonner was deprived of his crown in 1458. Recalled after 
 an exile of six years, Charles was worsted in an encoimter with 
 his powerful subject the archbishop of Upsal, and again obliged 
 to quit his dominions. Again recalled by his subjects in 14G7, 
 he survived this second restoration only three years, dying in 
 May, 1470.— J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES IX., fourth son of the famous Gustavus Vasa, 
 bom in 1550 ; came to the throne in 1604. He was involved 
 in various wars with Denmark, Poland, and Russia, in which, 
 being indifferently seconded by the diet of the kingdom, he 
 was, although a brave soldier ^nd an acute politician, generally 
 worsted. He died in 16 11, and was succeeded by his son, the 
 renowned Gustavus Adolphus. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES GUSTAVUS X., son of John Casimir, count 
 palatine of the Rhine, and of Catharine, daughter of Charles 
 IX., king of Sweden, was born at Upsal in 1622, and died in 
 1660. Acceding to the throne of Sweden on the abdication of 
 his cousin Christina in 1654, he undertook, with an impoverished 
 exchequer, an expedition against Poland, the greater part of 
 which he oveiTan, but without attaining any other object than 
 that of humiliating Casimir the king, on whom he revenged a 
 slight affront by obliging him to take shelter in SOesia. His 
 expedition against Denmark was no less fruitless ; the partition 
 of the country, at which he aimed, being reprobated by several 
 of the great potentates of Europe, Cromwell among the number. 
 While engaged in a second attempt against the independence of 
 Denmark, he was seized with a fever, which proved fatal. Charles 
 Gustavus X. is to be ranked among those Hotspurs of princes 
 who have loved war, if not merely, yet to an astonishing degi-ee 
 devoutly, for its own sake. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES XL, son and successor of the preceding, bom in 
 1655. On the death of his father he was proclaimed king, 
 under the regency of his mother and a council, by whom peace 
 was successively established with Poland, Denmark, and Russia. 
 In 1672, the year of his accession to power, Charles, acting under 
 the control of France, invaded the electorate of Brandenburg, and 
 thus involved himself in a war with Denmark and Holland, the 
 result of which, notwithstanding the success of his campaign in 
 the electorate, was disastrous to Sweden, the province of Pome- 
 rania having been lost to the crown. This province, however, 
 was restored to Charles by a treaty concluded in 1679 between 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Brandenburg. In 1682 Charles, by an 
 unconstitutional exercise of authority, reduced the number of 
 the Swedish senators, and from that period till the end of his 
 reign, sternly and sometimes savagely affected the character, 
 while circumstances gave him the power, of an absolute monarch. 
 Fortunately he was disposed to exercise his t}Tannical authority 
 for the protection of the inferior classes of his subjects against 
 the rapacity of the nobles, and in general for the well-being of 
 his kingdom, the internal polity of which under his severe, but 
 just and equitable rule, was not a little ameliorated. The pay- 
 ment of the debts of the nation, the restoration to the crown of 
 lands unjustly rent from it by the rapacious nobles, and constant 
 accessions of territory — the result of successful wars with neigh- 
 bouring powers — were events which gave a lustre to the reign of 
 Charles, that disguised, if they could not conceal, many of its 
 harder features. Among the arbitrary edicts of his administra- 
 tion which he enforced with characteristic severity, was one 
 forbidding the exercise in his dominions of any religion but the 
 Luthi-ran. He died in 1697.— J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES XII. This renowned sovereign, son of Charles 
 XL, and of Ulrike Elenor^, a Danish princess of excellent char- 
 acter and understanding, was bom at Stockholm on the 27th of 
 June, 1682. He lost his mother in his eleventh year, and his 
 father in 1697, when he was only fifteen. The regency was 
 invested in his grandmother, and Charles left all care of govern- 
 ment with her. His great propensity at that period was for 
 active physical exercises, and especially for bear-hunting. At 
 
 the same time he was well grounded in mathematics, and in the 
 German language, then the court language at Stockholm, as well 
 as in Latin and French. At a martial review, the very year that 
 he came to the throne, he hinted to the covmcillor of state, 
 Piper, that he desired to command the troops hunself, and the 
 supreme power was transfen'ed to the young prince, who was 
 crowned, 24th December of the same year. The depreciatory 
 accounts which the ambassadors of the northern nations had sent 
 to their court regarding Charles' abilities, encouraged them to 
 the attempt on his provinces on the other side of the Baltic. 
 Peter I., afterwards called the Great, of Russia, Augustus II. of 
 Saxony and Poland, and Frederick IV. of Denmark, made a 
 league to seize and dinde these proraices amongst them. The 
 Swedish ministers were consulting on the best means of avoiding 
 a war by negotiations and concessions, when the young king, 
 suddenly broke forth with the declai'ation that he would concede 
 nothing, but undertake the three monarchs, one after another, 
 and so teach them the ancient tcn'ors of the Swedish name. 
 The Danes commenced the first attack on the territor)' of the 
 duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who had married Charles' elder sister, 
 and to whom Charles was gi-eatly attached. On the 17th June, 
 1700, he crossed the sea with thuty line-of-battle ships and <i 
 gi-eat number of lesser ones, supported by a squadron of Dutch 
 and English vessels which he had called to his aid, and on 
 August 4th, landed near Copenhagen. As the water was shallow, 
 Charles was the first to leap inti> it, in the face of the Danish 
 batteries. His brave officers fell on either hand, but he showed 
 no sign of fear, and made good his landing. The Danes were 
 compelled to make a hasty peace at Thavendahl, resuming the 
 league with Russia and Poland, and restoring the territory of the 
 duke of Holstein-Gottorp. Augustus II., elector of Saxony and 
 king of Poland, had marched down upon Livonia, whilst Charles 
 was engaged at Copenhagen. Charles sent thither twenty thou- 
 sand men under General Dahlberg, who defended Riga against 
 the Polish king, and Charles himself hastened with only eight 
 thousand men to encounter the czar, who was besieging Narwa, 
 and threatening the coast of Finland with eighty thousand. 
 But Charles, encouraged by the news that the king of Poland 
 had retreated from before Riga, attacked the Russian fort on the 
 30th of November, in the midst of a furious snow stonn, and put 
 the huge Russian army to flight, with the slaughter of eighteen 
 thousand men, and the capture of thii-ty thousand prisoners. 
 Peter, however, instead of being cast down, coolly obsen'ed to 
 his ofiicers, that he was well aware that the Swedes must beat 
 them a good many times before teaching them how to conquer 
 in turn. Charles then crossed the Diina, attacked the camp of 
 the Saxons, and won a complete victory over them. It was now 
 in his povver to conclude a peace, which should have made him 
 the umpire of the north ; but at this crisis he began to display 
 that fatal want of political wisdom, which, instead of a great 
 monarch, made him for a time a wild and terrible meteor of 
 war. Instead of making such a peace, or watching and con- 
 fronting the far more dangerous and ambitious Peter, he deter- 
 mined to drive Augustus from the throne of Poland, and set 
 another king upon it. For seven years he prosecuted this object, 
 refusing to listen to any tenns of accommodation from Augustus, 
 till he had dethroned him in Poland, set up in his place, as king, 
 Stanislaus Leszinsky, the waiwode of Posen, and following 
 Augustus into Saxony, compelled him to an ignominious peace. 
 But during these seven years, which brought no real advantage 
 to Sweden, the politic czar, Peter, had been assiduously at work, 
 conquering the Swedish provinces on the Baltic. He had 
 defeated a Swedish army on the Peipus lake, had conquered 
 Dorpat and Narwa, and laid siege to Reval. In 1703 he took 
 Noteburg on the lake Ladoga, and fortified it so strongly that he 
 now named it Schliisselburg, or the Key of the Land, and the 
 following year he took Nienschanz, on the Neva ; and having 
 obtained what he had long aimed at, a portion of the Baltic, he 
 began to build his new capital of St. Petersburg on the very 
 land reft from Sweden. All this time, instead of attacking 
 and driving away the czar, Charles was pm-suing Augustus, and 
 did not cease till he had completed his utter subjection, and 
 compelled the delivery of Patkull, whom he tortured and put to 
 death. At length, having glutted his unworthy vengeance on 
 the Polish king, he tumed his attention to the czar, but instead 
 of concentrating all his power in driving Peter out of the Baltic 
 provinces, and destroying his newly-founded town, he determined 
 to attack the distant Moscow, which could only be reached by a
 
 terrible march througli a hostile country. AMierever he came 
 the Russians fled at his approach, and Peter himself, who was in 
 Grodno, retreated to Petersburg. Had Charles marched thither, 
 the campaign would have been ended ; but instead, he pursued 
 his way to Smolensk; Mazeppa, the Cossack hetman of the 
 Ukraine, who was disaffected to the czar, offering to join him 
 with thirty thousand men and provisions, and thus facilitate his 
 conquest of Moscow. It was in vain that Count Piper and his 
 most experienced officers dissuaded him from this rash enter- 
 prise ; and with amazement and exultation Peter saw him, about 
 midsummer, marching away towards the Ukraine. 
 
 It was the 23rd of October, winter and a fearful country 
 were before them ; but no persuasions could induce the military 
 madman to give up the hopeless march he purposed. The 
 unexampled winter of 1708-9 set in, and his troops fell by 
 hundreds, frozen on the way. On reaching Baturin, Mazeppa's 
 capital, in November, where they expected to pass the winter, 
 they found it a heap of ashes. Prince Menzikow had been 
 before them, burnt down the city, laid waste the country, and 
 hung the effigy of Mazeppa on a gallows. Even Mazeppa now 
 joined with his own officers to persuade Charles to a retreat, but 
 he would not listen to it, and went on through the winter, losing 
 men, artillery, and ammunition. Beaching Pultowa, the Russians 
 kept him out of the city, with a garrison of eight thousand, 
 and Peter marched down upon him with sistj'-five thousand 
 fresh troops. Charles, in a skirmish, was shot through the ankle, 
 and whilst thus disabled, Peter attacked him, and completely 
 routed his army. This celebrated battle, which was fought on 
 the 27th of June, 1709, saw the hitherto nnconquered king of 
 Sweden flying in a litter for the frontiers of Turkey ; not only 
 his army, but his generals, his military chest, containing six mU- 
 Uons of Saxon dollars, and his able and faithfol minister. Piper, 
 in the hands of the Russians. After a painfnl flight of three 
 weeks, he crossed the Bug into Turkey, and was received at 
 Bender with much honour, though attended by merely a thousand 
 followers. His enemies now overran his territories, and hoped 
 to seize and divide Sweden amongst themselves. Augustus of 
 Saxony abandoned the treaty of Altranstadt, and prepared to 
 recover the throne of Poland. Peter overran Livonia, and the 
 king of Denmark landed in Schonen to make himself master of 
 Sweden. But the Swedes, under General Stenbock, drove the 
 Danes from Schonen, and passed over to defend Finland against 
 the Russians, who, however, poured in such shoals into that 
 province, that they were irresistible. The news of those invasions 
 roused Charles to endeavour to induce the Poles to join him in a 
 war against the Russian czar, whom he represented as designing 
 next to attack Turkey. He was so far successful, that the Turks 
 declared war against Russia, and at Falczin on the Pruth, a great 
 battle was fought on the 30th of June, 1711, in which the 
 Russians were routed with great slaughter, and Peter himself 
 and his czarina, Catherine, taken prisoners. Peter was so 
 completely disheartened that he shut himself up in his tent, 
 saying — " Now I am far worse off than my brother Charles at 
 Pultowa ! " But the wit of his wife rescued him from his 
 dilemma. Charles was furious, and made vehement represen- 
 tations to the Porte of the dangers to be apprehended from 
 Peter, but in vain; the Russian agents were already making 
 their representations in Constantinople, and Charles received 
 instant orders to quit Turkey. He refused unless he received 
 six hundred thousand dollars ; they were sent, but he demanded 
 five hundred thousand more. At this the sultan ordered him to 
 be driven out with force. The madman and three hundred 
 followers fortified his Uttle camp at Vamitza, near Bender, and 
 set at defiance the whole Turkish army. His defences were 
 attacked and driven in, the thatched hut in which he lived 
 set on fire, and in making a forious sally on his enemies, the 
 desperate Swede fell, on which a crowd of Turks rushed upon 
 him and overpowered him. He was then conducted to Demotika, 
 where he continued to importune the sultan to make alliance 
 with him against Russia ; and to prevent his being sent away, 
 he pretended to be ill, lay in bed for two months, and kept his 
 chamber for ten, amusing himself with reading and wriring ; but 
 at length convinced that the grand Turk was immovable, he 
 suddenly announced his intention to depart, and was accom- 
 panied on his way by a splendid retinue of Turks. Suddenly, 
 however, leaving them, he rode away day and night for a fort- 
 night, having left all his own attendants behind, except Colonel 
 During, and in that time travelling nearly thirteen himdred miles 
 
 without once going to bed, he reached Stralsund at midnight oa 
 the 22nd of November, 1714, to the great wonder and joy of the 
 people. His boots had to be cut from his legs, they were so 
 swollen, but he had not much time for rest. Nothing could be 
 worse than the situation of his affairs ; he had destroyed a noble 
 army, ruined the exchequer of his country, and found, in addition 
 to his old trio of enemies, the kings of England and Prussia 
 joined with them in the league against him — Prussia in posses- 
 sion of Swedish Pomerania, the dukedom of Bremen and Verden 
 sold by the Danes to Hanover. He was himself immediately 
 besieged in Stralsund by an overwhelming army of allied Rus- 
 sians, Danes, Saxons, and Prussians, and though he did wonders 
 of bravery, he was compelled to evacuate the city on the 23rd of 
 December, 1715, and crossed in haste to Lund, in order to take 
 measures for the defence of lus own coasts. That winter he 
 spent with Gortz in striving to restore the national finances. In 
 the beginning of February he marched into the motmtains of 
 Norway to avenge himself on Denmark, to which it belonged, but 
 with indifferent success. He spent again the winter in Lund, 
 planning with Gortz a treaty with Russia. There was a talk of 
 a combined Russian and Swedish army landing on the coast ot 
 Scotland to drive George I. thence ; but no sooner did his affairs 
 appear to be taking an auspicious tm-n, than he once more invaded 
 Norway with twenty-seven thousand men. One disision, under 
 Generail Armfeld, commenced its march in August, 1718, but 
 was overtaken in the mountains by winter, and perished almost 
 to a man. ^NTiole regiments seized by the frost stiffened as they 
 stood in the ranks erect ; whole squadrons lay overwhelmed in 
 the snows, and others slipping from the ice-covered rocks, perished 
 in the abysses below. Long after these mountains were thronged 
 with bears and wolves, which had been drawn there by the scent 
 of the remains of Armfeld's host, and were reckoned the best 
 hunting grounds in Norway. Scarcely five hundred of this unfor- 
 tunate ten thousand reached Sweden again. Charles reconducted 
 his division by the southern route to Friedrickshall, where on 
 Sunday evening, December 11, 1718, about nine o'clock, he 
 walked out with two Freuch officers, the chief engineer, Megret, 
 and the lieutenant-general, Siquier, to note the progress of the 
 siege. The officers left him resting his arms on the breastwork 
 of a battery, watching the firing from the city. Soon after, 
 Megret returned with some of the officers, when Siquier met 
 them and informed them that the king was dead. On reaching 
 the place they found him leaning with his back against the wall, 
 his hand on his sword, his head and gloves bloody. He was shot 
 through the head, as was at first supposed, by a ball from the 
 city. But it was discovered that the ball was a pistol-ball, and 
 it was then recollected that not even a musket-ball could have 
 reached him at that distance. There was no doubt that he had 
 fallen by the hand of an assassin, and the suspicion fell on 
 Megret. As there was a violent opposition party in Sweden, it 
 was believed that the nobles of that party had bribed these two 
 Frenchmen to commit the murder. 
 
 The passion of Charles for war amounted to little short of 
 insanitv. For the rest he had many virtues. He despised luxury 
 and effeminacy. He was most shnple and temperate in his diet, 
 he avoided pleasures and amusemeuts, eat coarse bread, banished 
 wine from his table, and dressed in a coarse blue coat with brass 
 buttons, leather breeches, huge jack-boots, and buff-leather gloves, 
 reaching nearly to his elbows. He lay on the b:uT ground in 
 his camp, like his soldiers, wTapt in his mantle. In the most 
 desperate circumstances his spirit never gave way, and in the 
 brief times of peace he was busily engaged in promoting the com- 
 merce and the maritime affairs of the country, and in enjoying 
 the company of men of genius and learning, whom he allowed 
 incomes to enable them to travel The life of Charles has been 
 written by his chapbin, Norberg, and by Voltaire ; his iniUtary 
 achievements bv Adlereld. — W. H. 
 
 CHARLES XIII., King of Sweden and Norw.iy, second son 
 of Adolphus Frederick and Louisa Ulricu, sister of Frederick the 
 Great, bom in 1748 ; died in 1818. He w.is c.irefully trained 
 to the' naval service, having been appointed at his birth to the 
 ditoiity of high admiral. In the revolutionary troubles of 1772, 
 he" powerfully supported his brother Gustavus III., who, to 
 show his gratitude, n.amed him governor of Stockholm, and duke 
 of Sudennania. Gusta\-us having been as.-.issinated in 1792, 
 his son, a minor, acceded to the throne, under the tutelage of 
 his uncle Charles, to whom the late king, by testament, had 
 assigned the regency. Having, during the reign of his brother,
 
 acquired considerable distinction as a commander in the wars 
 •with Russia, he readily established the credit of the new govern- 
 ment, and succeeded in intimidating Denmark and other hostile 
 states into treaties of peace. When his nephew Gustavus IV. 
 attained his majority in 1796, Charles at once resigned his post 
 of regent, and retired into private life. In 1809, on the abdi- 
 cation of Gustavus, he was called to the vacant throne, the 
 estates of the kingdom formally proscribing Gustavus and his 
 descendants in the excess of their zeal for the interests of the 
 new monarch. Two years afterwards, the death of the prince 
 of Holstein, who had been named hen-apparent, was followed 
 by a burst of popular feeling in favour of Bernadotte, ■which 
 constrained Charles, not unwillingly, to recognize the famous 
 marshal as his heir and successor. This done, he ceased to take 
 an active part in the business of government, confiding it with a 
 confidence which was repaid by affection, to the more energetic 
 hands of his adopted son. — J. S., G. 
 CHARLES XIV. See Berxadotte. 
 
 VH. — CHARLESES OF NAPLES. 
 
 CHARLES D'ANJOU, King of Naples and Sicily, was bom 
 sometime between 1220 and 1226, and died in 1285. He was the 
 youngest son of Louis VIII., and was made duke of Anjou and 
 Provence. He took part in the eastern crusade of his brother, 
 St. Louis, and on his return exercised, as the right hand of the 
 regent, gi'eat authority in France. His ambition subsequently 
 began to look towards Italy, and the death of the Emperor 
 Conrad IV. gave him hopes of success in that quarter. Pope 
 Urban, jealous of the house of Suabia, which had reigned in Naples 
 more than half a century, offered the crown of the Two Sicilies to 
 Charles on condition that he would conquer them from Slanfred, 
 their present usurper, and hold them as a fief of the holy see. 
 Upon this a crasade was proclaimed against Manfred, as an 
 enemy of Christendom. Charles d'Anjou at the head of the finest 
 chivalry in Europe, encountered him on the banks of the Calora; 
 Manfred, who had an inferior force, seeing that the battle went 
 agamst him, plunged into the midst of the enemy and fell. But 
 Conradin, grandson of Frederick II., and the heir to the throne, 
 was still living. When he was sixteen years old the eyes of the 
 people no less than the liopes of the Ghibellines, wiio now felt 
 the unmitigable severity of the French rule, were turned towards 
 him. Conradin, who inherited the spirit of his father, at the 
 head of the chivalry of Germany penetrated into Lombardy. 
 The Ghibellines sent him reinforcements as he went onwards; 
 but the battle of Tagliacozzo, in consequence of a cruel stratagem 
 of Charles, proved fatal at once to the hopes of Italy and the 
 house of Suabia. Conradin was taken and butchered after a 
 mock trial. The cold-blooded cruelty and habitual perfidy of 
 the new rulers led to the terrible tragedy known in history as 
 the Sicilian Vespers, in which about eight thousand Frenchmen 
 were massacred when the bells were ringing to evening ser\'ice. 
 After this the crown of Sicily was given to Don Pedro of 
 Arragon, whose admiral, Roger di Loria, burned Charles' fleet 
 before his eyes. Charles, whose rage was imbounded at the 
 loss of Sicily, was making preparations for the recovery of that 
 island, when he fell sick at Foggia. — R. M. A. 
 
 CHARLES II., surnamed the Lame, King of Naples, son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1248, and died in 1309. He was 
 made prisoner of war by the Arragonese in a naval action, 
 and recovered his liberty only on this condition, among others, 
 that the pope should be allowed to crown James of Arragon king 
 of Sicily. He himself was crowned at Rieti, in 1289, king of 
 Naples, Apulia, and Jerusalem. The crown of Hungary came 
 to him on the death of his wife's brother Ladislaus, king of that 
 country, but he gave it to his son Charles Martel. Charles II. 
 greatly contributed to the embellishment of Naples, to the pros- 
 perity of the university, and the increase of monasteries. He 
 was succeeded by Robert, his third son. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHARLES III., DuRAZzo, called the Little, King of Naples 
 and Hungary, was born in 1345. Son of the count of Gravina, 
 he was adopted by Joan I., queen of Naples, who afterwards 
 disavowed him in favour of Louis, duke of Anjou. Upon this, 
 Charles Dm-azzo, stirred up by Urban VI. and the king of 
 Hungary, the sworn foe of Joan, raised an army, with which he 
 entered Naples, and took possession of the kingdom. Joan, 
 because she refused to renew her act of adoption, was, by order 
 of Charles, shut up in the castle of Muro, where she was 
 smothered to death among mattresses. The reign of Charles in 
 Naples was neither long nor happy. He was in a short time 
 
 excommunicated by the pope, who also placed his kingdom under 
 an interdict. In 1385, at the invitation of the nobles who were 
 tired of the regency of Elizabeth, he accepted the crown of 
 Hungary. But in the end of the following year he was, at the 
 instigation of Elizabeth and in her own presence, assassinated 
 at Buda.— R. M., A. 
 
 CHARLES IV., Kmg of Naples, Sicily, and Spain. See 
 Charles V., emperor. 
 
 CHARLES v.. King of Naples, Sicily, and Spain. See 
 Charles II. of Spain. 
 
 VIIL — CHARLESES OF SAVOY AND SARDINIA. 
 
 CHARLES I., THE Warrior, Duke of Savoy, born at Carig- 
 nano in 1458 ; died at Pignerol in 1489. He was brought up 
 at the court of Louis XL of France. On the death of that 
 monarch he went to Turin, and assumed the government of his 
 duchy. It was at the court of this accomplished prince that the 
 celebrated Bayard first donned his armour. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES II., or Charles John Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, 
 son and successor of the preceding, bora in 1489 ; died in 1497. 
 
 CHARLES III., THE Good, Duke of Savoy, born in 1486 ; died 
 in 1553. His reign extended over forty-nine years. Menaced 
 on one side by the emperor Charles V., and on another by Francis 
 I., he yielded now to the threats of one, and now to the cajoleries 
 of the other, but still managed to retain possession of his estates. 
 He repressed with considerable severity an insurrection of the 
 Genevese. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES EMMANUEL I., the Great, Duke of Savoy, 
 born in 1562; died in 1630. He succeeded his father, Philhbert 
 Emmanuel, in 1580. Ambitious and meddling to an extraor- 
 dinary degree, he attempted, on the death of Henry III., to seize 
 the crown of France ; successively laid claim to the kingdom of 
 Cyprus, the province of Macedonia, and the duchy of Mantua ; 
 attacked in a treacherous manner the Genevese ; carried on a 
 war with Genoa ; and on the death of the Emperor Matthias, he 
 became a candidate for the imperial crown. He was ultimately 
 despoiled of most of his estates by Louis XIII. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES EMMANUEL II., Duke of Savoy, son of Victor 
 Amadeus I., born in 1634, succeeded his brother Francis in 
 1638, and died in 1675. He was a munificent patron of the 
 arts, and by an enlightened system of policy foreign and domestic, 
 improved the commerce of his estates. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLES EMMANUEL III., King of Sardinia, was born in 
 1701, and died in 1773. He came to the throne on the volun- 
 tary abdication of his father, Victor Amadeus I. Charles, who 
 was a wanior prince, joined France and Spain in the war againt^t 
 Austria, and, after the victory of Guastalla, succeeded in adding 
 Novara and other valuable territories of the Milanese to his 
 dominions. In 1742 having changed his political connections, 
 he fought by the side of Hungary against his former allies. 
 Charles was a mild and prudent ruler, and the return of peace 
 afforded him opportunities, which he eagerly embraced, of foster- 
 ing the prosperity of his countiy. A new code of laws known 
 as the corpus caroUnuin, was published under his direction in 
 1770. The pope gave him the right of conferring ecclesiastical 
 dignities, and of subjecting the clergy to taxation. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHARLES FELIX, Giuseppe Mario, King of Sardinia, 
 was born in 1765. He was the fourth son of Victor Amadeus 
 III., and took the title of Duke of Genoa. When the revolu- 
 tionary disasters of the end of last century overtook his family, 
 he followed it into Sicily, and became in 1799 viceroy of that 
 island. He married in 1807 Maria Christina of Naples, sister 
 of the queen of Louis Philippe, and obtained the crown of Sar- 
 dinia on the abdication of his brother, Victor Emmanuel, in 
 1821. He died without issue in 1831.— R. M., A. 
 
 CHARLES ALBERT, King of Piedmont and Sardinia, bom 
 prince of Savoy Carignano, a younger branch of the ducal family 
 of Savoy, on the 2nd October, 1798. The dukedom of Savoy 
 having been overthrown by the French revolution, Piedmont 
 became a French department, and Charles Albert was educated 
 in France. On the fall of Napoleon I. the prince returned to 
 Piedmont. In 1817 he married the Austrian arch-duchess, 
 Maria Teresa, daughter of the grand duke of Tuscany. By this 
 princess he had two sons; the eldest, Victor Emmanuel, succeeded 
 him on the throne of Piedmont. On the partition of Italy by 
 the treaties of 1815, Geneva, Piedmont, and Sardinia fell to the 
 share of the house of Savoy. Against this partition of Italy 
 among foreign rulers, however, the spirit of Italian nationality 
 rebelled, and the association of the carbonari spread over the whole
 
 peninsula, and penetrated all ranks of society. It was 
 an-anged that Naples should commence the revolution, and 
 that Piedmont should follow up the movement; both states 
 were then to unite to expel the common enemy, Austria. The 
 Piedmontese carbonari affiliated the prince of Carignano, and 
 accepted him as leader of the constitutional movement. The 
 NeapoUtan revolution was promptly victorious, the Piedmon- 
 tese was equally successful, and the Spanish constitution was 
 proclaimed in all the important cities of the two kingdoms. 
 In 1821 the king of Piedmont abdicated in favour of his 
 brother Charles Felix, and nominated the prince of Carignano 
 regent, until the arrival of the new king. The prince publicly 
 swore fidelity to the constitution. Tenified, however, by the 
 proclamation with which the new king heralded his an-ival at 
 Turin, he fled secretly at midnight to Novara, thence, after 
 a conference with the general of Felix's forces, to ililan ; 
 nor was it until after three years' time, and at the price of 
 I)earing arms in Spain against the very constitution he had 
 conspired to establish and sworn to maintain in Piedmont, 
 that Charles Felix permitted him to retuni to his country. 
 
 On the death of Charles Felix in 1831, Charles Albert ascended 
 the throne. The secret association of "Young Italy" was 
 founded by Slazzini, ah-eady an exile, at Marseilles in this 
 year. Its aim being the overthrow of all the existing Italian 
 governments, for the creation of the unity of Italy by means 
 of a war of the whole people, it was even more dreaded by 
 the princes of Italy than carbonarism ; and the edicts of Charles 
 Albert condemned to the galleys all guilty of perusing or pos- 
 sessing the journal of the association. In 1833 an accident 
 revealed to the government a trace of the vast conspiracy ; indis- 
 criminate arrests commenced, and fresh discoveries were the 
 result. From this time forward, says Broflerio in his History 
 of Piedmont, " the external policy of the Subalpine government 
 may be briefly summed up by the words ' Rome and Vienna,' 
 the internal may be expressed by ' the Jesuits and the police.' " 
 On the other hand, the king encouraged industry and the arts, 
 promoted railways, and erected many useful public works, from 
 which reforms the court party rapturously prophesied the pacific 
 redemption of Italy, though the marriage of the duke of Genoa 
 with an Austrian princess in 1842 was significative of opposite 
 tendencies. In 1843 the centre of Italy was the scene of 
 constant and threatening agitations among the people. In 1844 
 occurred the attempt of the Bandiera in Sicily. In 1847 the 
 Sicilian revolution broke out, not alone in the name of reform 
 and constitution, but of " Italy and Nationality, " cries which 
 were instantly echoed in every comer of Italy. Rome, Tuscany, 
 and even Naples arose, and obliged their sovereigns to grant 
 them representative governments and a national guard. Not 
 until all the other princes of Ital_y had yielded, and when longer 
 resistance was impossible, did Charles Albert concede to the 
 threats of his subjects the constitution he had denied to their 
 entreaties. A few days after, the news arrived of the insur- 
 rection of Milan and expulsion of the Austrians (1848). 
 The excitement of the Piedmontese people could no longer be 
 restrained; they loudly demanded to be led against the Aus- 
 trians, and threatened to overthrow the government in case of a 
 refusal. The king was compelled to yield; but before crossing 
 the frontier, he addressed despatches to the governments of 
 Europe, and especially to England, protesting that the step was 
 taken under compulsion and in order to save his crown, as the 
 republic would inevitably be proclaimed were he to delay. The 
 Austrians — disorganized by their defeat at Milan, acted merely 
 on the defensive, and fled, rather than retreated, into the for- 
 tresses of Verona, JIantua, Peschiera, and Lcgnago. Hampered 
 by treaties with the other European goveraments, however, 
 Charles Albert was unable to prosecute the war with vigour. 
 He disbanded all the volunteers, withdrew those already in 
 action from the passes of the Alps, leaving them and the port 
 of Trieste open to the enemy, and sat down with the whole of 
 his army before the fortresses. At the end of four months the 
 Austrian general, Radetsky, having resumed the off"ensive, the king 
 was defeated in two engagements, and obliged to make a precipi- 
 tate retreat on Milan. The Milanese, on the approach of the 
 Austrians, appealed to Mazzini to organize the defence of the city. 
 He nominated a committee of defence who displayed extraordinary 
 energy, and had already commenced \ngorous preparations for 
 resistance, when the Piedmontese army appeared before the walls. 
 The king entered Milan, presented himself to the people, declared 
 
 that his ai-my would protect them, and swore that he and his sons 
 would die in their defence. He had, however, secretly signed an 
 armistice with Radetsky, the terms of wliich included the sur- 
 render of Milan, and he had no sooner thus quieted the people, 
 than he fled privately from the city and witkdrew his army into 
 Piedmont, lea^-ing Jlilan exposed to the merciless Austrians. 
 On the expiration of the armistice, the renewed threats of his 
 subjects, and it is thought also his own remorse, compelled the 
 king to continue the war. The Piedmontese, 100,000 strong, 
 under General Chrzanowsky, and the Austrians, 110,000 strong, 
 under Radetsky, agaui confronted each other at Novara. The king 
 exposed his own life so rashly during the engagement as to create 
 the impression that, tortured by remorse, he wished to die; and 
 the rout of the Piedmontese was so rapid and complete, thougli 
 only a small portion of the aiTny was engaged, that it was uni- 
 versally attributed to treachery in high quarters. The general- 
 in-chief. General Ramorino — the same man who had betrayed 
 JIazzLni in Savoy — and even the king's eldest son, were accused 
 by popular nimour, and it was found necessary to appease the 
 public indignation by the execution of Ramorino for treason. 
 The king again demanded an armistice, but the terms offered by 
 Radetsky were so humiliating, that Charles Albert preferred to 
 abdicate rather than submit. He immediately retired to Portugal 
 to a small villa on the banks of the Douro, where he expired, a 
 prey to gi-ief and remorse, on the 28th July, 1849. — E. A. H. 
 
 CHARLES, Jacques Alexl\ndke Cesar, a famous French 
 natural philosopher, bom at Beaugency in 1746 ; died at Paris 
 in 1823. Attracted to the study of electrical science by the 
 discoveries of Frankhn, he gave prelections on that branch of 
 natural philosophy to crowded Parisian audiences, from the 
 fashionable as well as the scientific portion of which, his 
 ingenious and flashy experiments never failed to elicit r.apturous 
 applause. The fame which he acquired in this way was little, 
 however, compared with that which attended his experiments in 
 the science of aerostation. Substituting hydrogen gas for tl e 
 heated air used by the brothers Montgolfier iu their experiments, 
 he prepared a balloon of immense compass, and in company with 
 Robert made an ascent fi'om the garden of the Tuilleries, the 
 triumphant success of which had some results advantageous 
 both to the fortunes and the fame of the aeronaut, for he was 
 assigned by Louis XVI. apartments hi the Louvre, and shortly 
 afterwards admitted into the academy. In his apartments in 
 the Louvre, the amiable and retiring philosopher was surprised 
 by the unwelcome visitors who crowded from the faubourgs to the 
 Tuileries on the memorable 10th of August, 1792. It was an 
 experiment, on the success of which the life of the philosopher 
 depended, when he raised his voice to remind the furious mob of 
 their dehght at the success of his aerial voyage two years before. 
 Charles' lectures, and many of his scientific papers, have merited 
 the eulogies of Franklin and Biot. He was latterly occupied 
 with the sciences of optics and acoustics, which he enriched 
 with the results of numerous ingenious experiments. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARLETON or CHARLTON, Walter, a learned physi- 
 cian, bora at Shepton-Mallet in Somersetshire in 1C19. He w.is 
 educated at Oxford, where he had for tutor Dr. Wilkins, after- 
 wards bishop of Chester. Charleton was an ardent student of 
 philosophy and medicine. He received his doctor's degn>e in 
 1642, and was soon after appointed one of the physicians in 
 ordinary to the king, who at that time (the beginning of the 
 civil wars) kept his court at Oxford. He removed to London, 
 however, before the royal cause was comi)k-tcly ruined, and tliere, 
 having been admitted of the College of Physicians, met with 
 considerable success as a practitioner. He also became pliysiciau 
 in ordinary to Charles II., and w.ns one of the first members of 
 the Royal Society. Charieton engaged in a controversy with 
 Inigo Jones about' the origin of Stonehcnge; lectured on anatomy 
 in the college theatre in 1683, and was chosen president of the 
 College of Physicians in 1689. He is famous also for liis defence 
 of Haney's claim to the discover)- of the circulation of the blood. 
 His last vears were spent, in consequence of his straitened 
 circumstances, in the island of Jersey. The following arc some 
 of his numerous writings — " De Lithi.isi Diatriba," Leyden, 
 1650; " Natural History of Nutrition, Life," &c., London, 1658; 
 " Excrcitationes Physico-Anatomicas de (Economifi Animali," 
 1659; "Natural History of the Passions," 1G74; " Epicuru.s, 
 his Morals," 1655. The last work has been translated into 
 several laniruages. — R. JL A. 
 
 CHARLEVOIX, Pierre Fran<;'OIS Xavier de, a French
 
 Jesuit, the historian of New France, as the French possessions 
 in North America were called, was born at St. Quentin, October 
 29th, 1682, and died at La Fleclie, February 1st, 1761. Early 
 in life he was a teacher of philosophy and the languages in a 
 Jesuit seminary. Being detailed for service on the missions in 
 Canada, he embarked at Kochelle in July, 1720, and soon after 
 his an-ival in America undertook a long journey of exploration. 
 He made large collections for the history of Canada, and an 
 account of the native tribes, embracing his own observations; 
 and in 1744 his work appeared, in 3 vols, quarto, entitled a 
 "History of New France." It was translated and published in 
 London in 1769. Though containing much extraneous matter, 
 and showing considerable credulity and not much elegance of 
 style, it is still the chief authority for the history of French 
 America. — F. B. 
 
 CHARLOTTE (Caroline Augusta), Princess of Saxe- 
 Coburg, the only child of George IV. of England by his queen 
 Cai-ohne, was born 7th January, 1796. As heir to the English 
 throne she was looked upon with deep interest by the nation, 
 to whom her warm affection, great benevolence, and more than 
 usual intelligence had endeared her. Stories are told, however, 
 which show that she combined with these qualities a very irrit- 
 able and imperious temper. It was long thought that the prince 
 of Orange was her accepted lover, but in 1816 she was married 
 to Prmce Leopold, king of the Belgians. Besides the usual 
 dowry and outfit, an annuity of £50,000 was settled on the 
 royal couple during their joint lives. The hopes of the nation 
 arising from this auspicious union were soon blighted by the death 
 of the princess in childbed, November 6, 1817. The sad event 
 caused deep lamentation throughout the countiy. — J. B. 
 
 CHARLOTTE de Savoie, Queen of France, was bom in 
 1445. A daughter of Louis, duke of Savoy, she was betrothed 
 in 1450 to the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, against the 
 wishes of his father, Charles VII. It was chiefly the influence 
 of the duke of Burgundy, in whose territories the dauphin for 
 many years found an asylum, that brought about this alliance. 
 The marriage, which proved an unhappy one, was consummated 
 at Namur in 1457. The dauphin, after succeeding to the throne, 
 broke with his former protectors, the houses of Savoy and 
 Burgundy. His queen shared the consequences of his displeasure 
 against her father's court. He kept her shut up with a small 
 train of attendants, now in one castle and now in another. She 
 founded a convent of the order of St. Francis at Paris in 1472, 
 and died three months after the king in 1483 — R. M. A. 
 
 CHARMIDES, an Athenian philosopher, son of Glaucon, 
 cousin to Critias, and uncle by the mother's side to Plato, who, 
 in the dialogue which bears his name, introduces him as a youth 
 of surpassing beauty. In 404 B.C. he was one of the ten 
 magistrates appointed by Lysander when he took Athens, and 
 was slain fighting against Thrasybulus at the Piraeus. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHARNACI^^, Hercule-Girard, Baron de, a French soldier 
 and diplomatist, was born towards the end of the sixteenth 
 century. He was connected by marriage with the family of 
 Richelieu. The cardinal appointed him ambassador to Sweden, 
 where he concluded the treaty of Berwalde with Gustavus 
 Adolphus in 1631. He was employed in other embassies, and 
 fell in the trenches at the siege of Breda in 1637. — R. M. A. 
 
 CHARNOCK, John, a writer of some note, was born in 1756. 
 After studying at Winchester and Oxford, he retired to his 
 father's liouse, and applied himself to the study of naval and 
 military tactics. He entered the naval service as a volunteer, 
 and attained considerable distinction. Retiring into private life, 
 he sought to support himself by literary labour. Neglected by 
 his friends, and though heir to a considerable fortune, he fell into 
 debt and died in the prison of King's Bench, 16th Way, 1807. 
 Ilis piincipal publications were — " Biographia NavaUs," 6 vols., 
 1794, a very valuable work; "A Letter on Finance and on 
 National Defence;" "A History of Marine Architecture;" and 
 a " Life of Lord Nelson." — J. B. 
 
 CHARNOCK, Stephen, a learned nonconformist dinne, was 
 bom in London in 1628. He was for a time senior proctor at 
 Oxford, whence he went to Dublin, where he was admired as an 
 eloquent preacher. After the Restoration he refused to conform, 
 removed to London, and became minister of a dissenting church. 
 He died in 1680. The greater part of his writings appeared after 
 his death. They are — " Several Discourses of the Existence and 
 Attributes of God," 1682; "Works," 1684; and " Two Discourses 
 of Man's Enmity to God, and of the Salvation of Sinners," 1699. 
 
 CHARON OF Lampsacus (on the Hellespont), a Greek 
 historian who lived before Herodotus, flourishing about 464 
 B.C. He wrote a history of his native town ; of Persia ; and of 
 Crete ; but only fragments have reached us. — J. B. 
 
 CHARONDAS, a lawgiver of Catania, who flourished before 
 the time of Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, B.C. 494-476. This 
 tyrant abolished the laws of Cliarondas. They were long in use 
 in Catania and other cities of Chalcidian origin in Italy and 
 Sicily. Charondas is said to have been a disciple of Pythagoras. 
 A tradition declares him to have fallen by his own hand in 
 obedience to a law he had himself enacted against the wearing 
 of arms in the popular assemblies — this law being inadvertently 
 violated by him on the occasion of his being hastily summoned 
 to quell a tumult which had arisen in an assembly of the people. 
 
 CHARPENTIER, Fran(^ois, bora at Paris in 1620. His 
 talents were of so high an order that the great minister, Colbert, 
 engaged liis pen to forward some of Ids own comprehensive pro- 
 jects for the public good. It was Charpentier who, by desire 
 of Colbert, drew up a paper in favom* of the plan of an East India 
 company, which, after promising beginnings, was destined to yield 
 to British ascendancy in that part of the globe. It was he also 
 whom the minister placed at the head of the Academie des 
 inscriptions et belles-lettres, which he had lately founded. A 
 writer on the fine arts, he took the side of the moderns agauist 
 the ancients, but the prejudices of the day were too strong for 
 argument. He died m April, 1702. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHARPENTIER, Francois-Philippe, a French mecha- 
 nician, born of poor parents at Blois in 1734. The discovery of a 
 process by which he took colom^ed copies of the gi-eat masters, 
 was the first of a long series of useful and ingenious inventions 
 which his countij' owed to the genius of Charpentier. He refused 
 many tempting offers of place and pension, and died in poverty 
 in 1817.— R. M., A. 
 
 CHARPENTIER, Jacques, a French physician and philoso- 
 pher, bom in 1524 ; died in 1574. For sixteen years he taught 
 philosophy with prodigious success in the college de Bourgogne. 
 He then studied medicine, and became dean of the f;iculty of 
 Paris in 1568. Charpentier was devoted to scholasticism, and 
 defended it, though too bitterly, against the famous Peter 
 Ramus. He is even suspected of having been accessory to the 
 murder of his opponent. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHARRIERES, Mme. St. Hyacinthe de, born at the 
 Hague in 1740. This lady, although of Dutch family, has left 
 writings which French critics pronounce to be, for style and 
 sentiment, worthy of an eminent place in their literature. At 
 an early age she married a Swiss gentleman, who lived as tutor 
 in her father's family, and whom she accompanied to his 
 native land. They lived for some time in the neighbourhood of 
 Neufchatel, and afterwards at Lausanne. Her letters, descriptive 
 of Swiss scenes and manners, are singularly graphic. Besides 
 her published correspondence, she has left " Trois Femmes," a 
 novel. She died, December, 1805. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHARRON or LE CHARRON, Pierre, the son of a book- 
 seller, who had twenty-five children, was born at Paris in 
 1541. He was sent to study law, first at Orleans, and then at 
 Bourges, where he obtained the degree of doctor. Having 
 returned to Paris, he practised as an advocate in the com-t of 
 parhament for five or six years ; but, meeting with little suc- 
 cess, he embraced the ecclesiastical state, and speedily obtained 
 great reputation as a preacher. Arnaud de Pontac, bishop of 
 Bazas, promoted him to be a canon in his diocese. The queen 
 named him her preacher in ordinary, and the king, though a 
 protestant, heard him with pleasure. After an absence of 
 seventeen years, he returned to Paris in 1585, to accomplish a 
 vow which he had made to enter the monastery of Chartreux. 
 He was refused admission on account of his years, the austeri- 
 ties of the order requiring all the vigour of youth to sustain them. 
 Having experienced a similar refusal from other religious orders, 
 he considered his vow to be no longer binding, and resumed his 
 preaching, first at Agen, and then at Bourdeaux. In this latter 
 place he contracted a friendship with the celebrated Montaigne 
 — a friendship which gave to his thoughts and character a new 
 complexion. JNIontaigne, having no children, permitted ChaiTon 
 to bear the amis of his family, and he seems also to have inocu- 
 lated him with the light and sceptical humour by which he was 
 himself distinguished. Charron testified the sincerity of his 
 friendship by bequeathing all he had to the brother-in-law of 
 Montaigne. The first work of Charron was published anony-
 
 mously at Cahors in 1594, at Brussels in 1595, under tLe name 
 of Benoit Vaillant, and also at Bourdeaux, under the name of 
 the author. It was entitled " Les Trois Veritas," and was 
 intended to prove : — ] st, That there is a God whom we ought 
 to worship ; 2nd, That of all religions the christian is the only 
 true one ; 3rd, That of all christian communions the Roman 
 catholic is the only safe one. This treatise attracted at once the 
 condemnation of Duplessis Jlornay, and the favour of Ebrard of 
 Saint Sulpice, bishop of Cahors, who appointed the author vicar- 
 general of his diocese, and canon theological of his church. In 
 1600 Charron published at Bourdeaux, " Discours Chretiens," a 
 work as irreproachably orthodox as the preceding. But the 
 work by which he is now best known, "l)e La Sagesse," did not 
 appear till the following year, at the same place. When he was 
 in Paris in 1603, superintending a second edition of this work, 
 Charron died suddenly in the street of an attack of apoplexy. 
 The issuing of this work was opposed by the rector of the rmi- 
 versity of Paris, by the Sorbonne, and by the parliament. At 
 length it appeared with many changes and mutilations in 1604. 
 A third edition, from the ]MS. of the author, was published at 
 Paris in 1G07 ; the subsequent editions have been too numerous 
 to be specified. His collected works were published in quarto at 
 Paris, in 1635, with a life of the author by Michel de la Roche- 
 maillet. There have been two translations into English of the 
 treatise " De La Sagesse ;" the latest by George Stanhope, D.D. 
 In his treatise, " De La Sagesse," Chan-on manifests much of 
 the sceptical humour of his friend ^lontaigne. He almost equals 
 him in the eloquence with which he delineates the miseries of 
 human life (Liv. i. c. 6). His comparison of the state and faculties 
 of man with tliose of the inferior animals is full of severe satire 
 (Liv. i. c. 8). And notwithstanding his arguments in favoiu* 
 of religion, and especially of the christian religion, as professed 
 by Roman catholics, he speaks of the various forms of worship 
 among men as introduced and upheld not by i-eason and convic- 
 tion, but by custom and policy. According to him true religion 
 is an affair of the heart, and not the ceremonial or superstitious 
 worship of God. External forms are not altogether to be neglected ; 
 but they should be in accordance with reason, and should be 
 observed merely as the means of awakening and cherishing that 
 true worship which is internal. In a similar spirit he dwells with 
 complacency upon the differences in the opinions, customs, laws, 
 and morals of men. He represents all knowledge as coming from 
 the senses, and all om- faculties as the results of organization and 
 temperament (Liv. i. c. 12). And as to the immortality of the 
 soul he speaks of it, as " a thing the most generally, religiously, 
 and usefully believed, and the most feebly proved or established 
 by reason" (Liv. i. c. 15). Notwithstanding these dangerous 
 statements, the treatise, " On Wisdom," contains views which 
 show the author to have been in many respects before the age 
 in which he lived. In the first book he notices what is peculiar 
 to our several senses ; enumerates the different faculties of 
 understanding, memory, and imagination ; and hints at classifpng 
 human knowledge with reference to them, as was subsequently 
 done by Bacon. He defines passion (Liv. i. c. 20) as a violent 
 movement of the soiJ in its sensitive part, prompting it to seek 
 what is apprehended as good, and to shun what is apprehended 
 as e\dl. He analyses the different forms which passion assumes, 
 as love and hatred, hope and fear, &c., and urges the great 
 importance of knowing ourselves psychologically. In the second 
 book he lays down the general rales of practical wisdom ; and 
 these rules, although savouring somewhat of selfishness and 
 scepticism, contain much sound sense and knowledge of the 
 world. The third book treats of the four cardinal virtues, and 
 the rules to be observed in the practice of them by the different 
 ranks and conditions of men. His style is lively ; his remarks 
 striking, and his spirit daring. If not always original, he seldom 
 fails to embellish what he has boiTOwed ; and although inferior 
 to Montaigne in the vigour and richness of his thoughts, he 
 often reminds us of his sarcasm and naivete. The treatise " On 
 A\'isdom," notwithstanding the Censures to which it was exposed, 
 had astonishing success; and there can be little doubt that it had 
 a beneficial effect in liberalizing the public mind, and preparing 
 the way for more free and independent thinking than was then 
 common. The eiTors which it contained were not unmixed with 
 great and important truths, which attracted attention, and 
 produced fruit ; and the scepticism which pervades it seems 
 in some degree to have been assumed, as it is not consistently 
 maintained. Like many others, by his love of saying some- 
 
 thing startling, he seems sometimes to have been seduced into 
 saying more than he really meant or thought. Dr. Stanhope, 
 his translator, says, "he was a good man, and a good christian;" 
 and Buhle, the historian of philosophy, did not think he was 
 liable to the charges of infidelity which were levelled against 
 him. Sir ^\'illiam Hamilton {Lectures, vol. i., p. 89) calls him 
 " the pious Charron." — W. F. 
 
 CHARTIER, Alain, born at Baycux between 1380 and 1390. 
 The dates of his birth and death are uncertain. Du Chesne and 
 Pasquier state his death to have occurred in 1458 ; by others 
 it is referred to 1449. He was early distinguished at the uni- 
 versity of Paris, and his whole afterlife was a succession of 
 triumphs. He was successively secretaiy to Kings Charles VI. 
 and VII. ; and there is some reason to think he had been in the 
 same office to King Charles V. The traditions of his family 
 make him archdeacon and prebendary of the cathedral of Notre 
 Dame, and send him as ambassador to Scotland. He had the 
 reputation of being one of the cleverest and also one of the 
 ugliest men of his day. Margaret of Scotland, wife of the 
 dauphin, who afterwards became Louis XL, saw him asleep and 
 kissed him. "How kiss so ugly a man?" asked the lord in 
 attendance, for the favour was a public compliment. " I do 
 not kiss the man," said she, " but the lips from which have 
 proceeded so many brilliant sentences." 
 
 Alain wrote earnestly on subjects of church discipline, and 
 vindicated the marriage of the clergy as the only cure for some 
 of the abuses. He was best known as a poet. His poems were 
 eminently national and patriotic. At a time when almost all 
 France was in the possession of the English he published the 
 " Quadriloque Invectif," a discussion in which France, the 
 noblesse, tlie people, and the clergj^ are the interlocutors ; and 
 also, soon after the battle of Agincourt, the " Livre des Quatier 
 Dames," in which each of four ladies laments her lover lost by 
 death or captivity on that fatal day. Another of his publica- 
 tions was the " Breviaire des Nobles." Of tliis book it is said 
 that the pages and young gentlemen at com't were obliged to 
 get passages by heart, and to read it as regularly and as 
 religiously as priests their breviary and devotional offices. 
 Among other works written by Chartier, or attributed to him, 
 there is one which professes to instruct us on the nature of the 
 fire of hell, another is on the wings of the cherubim. 
 
 Alain Chartier contributed his part to the moral and political 
 regeneration of his country. His songs aided in the creation or 
 the diffusion of a sound public opinion. They echo or predict 
 the great facts of the period. A strong reason with us that his 
 death occurred in 1449 is, that the English abandoned tlicir 
 conquests in Nonnandy in 1450, and there is no song of exulta- 
 tion from Chartier on the event. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHARTIER, Guii.LAUME, born at Bayeux about 1400 ; 
 died at Paris in 1472 ; brother of Alain and Jean Chartier. 
 Guillaume Chartier was councillor to the parliament of Parit;, 
 and afterwards bishop of Paris in 1447. In 1455 he was 
 appointed one of the commissioners to examine the process 
 against Joan of Arc, with the view of repairing the injustice to 
 her memory. The bishop of Paris was for awliile a favourite 
 of Louis XI. ; but taking part with the leaguers, lie so provoked 
 the king, that his death occurring seven years after in no way 
 softened his displeasure. An epitaph which recorded the virtues 
 of the bishop the king ordered to be removed. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHARTIER, Jean, born at Bayeux ; brother of Alain and 
 Guillaume Chartier. The date of his birth is not recorded. He 
 died about 1462. A Benedictine, Jean Chartier was cliantre 
 of the abbaye of St. Denis. From the time of Sngor one of the 
 monks of St. Denis was appointed to draw up the annals of the 
 kingdom, and Jean Chartier filled this office for the reign of 
 Charies VII. On the accession of Louis XL another annalist 
 or chronicler was appointed. Godefrin has pul)lislio(l what ho 
 calls "L'Histoire de Charles VII., par Jean Chartier," Ittit willi 
 such alterations and corrections as essentially to vary the cliar- 
 acter of the book. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHARTIER, Rexi::, a French physician, born in 1572; died 
 in 11)54. Chartier was a versatile scliolar, and prior to his 
 receiving his doctor's degree in 1608 had taught rhetoric and 
 mathematics. He was afterwards attached to the French court, 
 and in 1617 succeeded Etienne de la Font in the chair of surgery 
 in the royal college. In 1624 he went to Spain, afterwards into 
 Italy, and eventually followed Henrietta Maria into England. 
 He wrote several medical works. — R. M., A.
 
 CHARTRES, Renaud de, cardinal-archbishop of Reims 
 and chancellor of France, was bom about 1380. Chartres rose 
 rapidly in the church, ha^^ng obtained the archbishopric of 
 Reims at thu-tv-four. He joined the cause of the dauphin, 
 afterwards Charles VII., and reached also the highest office in 
 the state. He was chancellor of France when Joan of Arc 
 presented herself before Chai'les at Chinon. Elated with his 
 honours and jealous of a rival, he frowned on the pretensions 
 of the maid of Orleans. AVhen she fell into her enemies' 
 hands, he proved himself worthy to have such a suffragan 
 as the brutal bishop of Beauvais. Chartres, however, managed 
 to retain the king's fftvour. He died in 1444. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHASDAI or CHISDAI, ben Isaac, ben Ezra, ben Sprot, 
 lived at the court of Abderrahman III., surnamed Naser Ledin 
 Allah, 912-961, the greatest of the Omayad khahfs of Cor- 
 dova. Chasdai, who appears in Arab writings under the name 
 of Iza ben Ishac, and of Hasdai ben Bashrout Israili, stood high 
 in the favour of his sovereign, under whose sway the Moors of 
 Spain reached nearly the zenith of their greatness in arms, arts, 
 and commerce. " In the houses of the wuzier, Iza ben Ishac, 
 and of Chalaf ben Abas el Zahrawi," says Conde, the historian 
 of the Arabs in Spain, " both of them famous for their learning 
 in all the sciences, and especially for their erudite works on 
 medicine, conferences were held by men conversant with the 
 physical sciences and astronomy, the science of numbers, and 
 other studies. Both of them were physicians to the king; and 
 they were so charitable that their houses remained open by day 
 and night for the relief of the numerous afflicted that came to 
 consult them." — (Conde, Hist, de la Domin. de los Arabes en 
 Esp., part ii. chap. 81.) At the court of Abderrahman, the 
 splendour of which attracted visitors from many remote countries, 
 Chasdai had valuable opportunities for inquiring into the condi- 
 tion of his bi-etliren in various parts of the world. Through 
 some envoys from Chorassan, and others from Hungary, he 
 was informed of the existence of the Jewish kingdom of the 
 Khazars on tlie shores of the Caspian Sea. He resolved on 
 placing himself in communication with the king of Ivhazaristan, 
 in which, after several fruitless attempts, he succeeded. Joseph, 
 the king of the Khazars, replied to Chasdai's inquiries, con- 
 firming the statement referred to in his letters respecting the 
 Judaism of the chakans (rulers), and adding that, at the same 
 time, the professors of other religions enjoyed equal privileges 
 in the land of the Khazars. Both these documents — viz., the 
 letter from Chasdai ben Sprot to the king, and that from the 
 king to Chasdai — were known in Spain in the twelfth century, 
 as they are mentioned by Abraham ben David Ha)levi, whose 
 Sepher Hakkebala was -vn-itten in 1161. — {Zunz on the geo- 
 graphical writers of the Jews, in Asher's Benjamin of Tudela, 
 page 245.) They were printed by Isaac Akrish at Constan- 
 tinople in the sixteenth century, and by Buxtorf in the preface 
 to his edition of Cusari, a philosophical work by the great Judah 
 Ilallevi. For a long time the genuineness of the correspondence 
 between Chasdai and Iving Joseph — indeed the very existence 
 of such a kingdom as that of the Khazars — was more than 
 doubted by writers in good repute. Basnage, Wolf, Baratier, 
 Buxtorf, are unanimous in rejecting the whole correspondence 
 as a forgery; Jost, while acknowledging the authenticity of 
 Chasdai's letter, is unwilling to admit the reply of King Joseph. 
 The suspicions of these historians were nevertheless ill-founded. 
 The genuineness of both letters is no longer impugned, since the 
 principal objection — viz., the apocrj-phal character of a Khazarite 
 kingdom — has been completely removed by the production of 
 indisputable affinnative evidence from oriental and contemporary 
 \viiters, all attesting that the kingdom of the Khazars played 
 an important part in the history of Asia from the fourth to 
 the eleventh century, and also that the chakan, Bulan, was 
 converted to Judaism about the middle of the eighth century. 
 By Jewish writers this conversion is ascribed to a Babylonian 
 rabbi named Isaac Singari. — {Ibn Haulcal; Massoudi, Karamsin; 
 Frakn; Jost, Geschichte, vol. \n. ; Carmoly, Revue Orientale HI. ; 
 Zedner, Aiiswahl, p. 27 ; D'Herbelot, s. v. Khozar.) — T. T. 
 
 CHASE, Philander, D.D., bishop of the protestant epis- 
 copal church in Ohio, and afterwards in Illinois, for some years 
 senior bishop in America, was bom in Cornish, Xew Hampshire, 
 in 1775, and graduated at Dartmouth college in 1795. In 
 1805 he was in\-ited to commence preaching in the city of New 
 Orleans where he organized a church, became its rector, 
 established a school, and made missionary excursions in the 
 
 vicinity. In 1811 he became rector of Christ church in Hart- 
 ford, Connecticut; and in 1818 he was elected bishop of the 
 newly-erected diocese of Ohio. He succeeded, not without the 
 display of uncommon energy, in raising funds to found a college 
 in connection with his diocese. It was estabhshed in the town 
 of Gambler, and called Kenyon college. But no sooner was it 
 in operation than difficulties arose between the professors and 
 himself as bishop and ex officio president ; and the final decision 
 of the convention in 1831 being in favour of the former, he at 
 once gave up all connection with the college ; resigned his 
 episcopate, and removed to Michigan where he began to labour 
 again as a missionary. In 1835 he was elected bishop of 
 Ilhnois, where the church was still younger and feebler than in 
 Ohio. In this diocese he founded Jubilee college at Robin's 
 Nest, Illinois. The remainder of his life was devoted to the 
 interests of this new establishment, and the labours of his 
 episcopate. Besides some pamphlets written to recommend 
 his various projects, he published, in two volumes octavo, some 
 very lively and faithful '' Reminiscences " of his own labours and 
 life. He died at Peoria, Illinois, in 1852. — F. B. 
 
 CHASE, Samuel, a judge of the supreme court of the United 
 States, was in the practice of the law at Annapolis, Maryland, 
 when the revolution began. He became a delegate to the pro- 
 vincial congi-ess at Philadelphia in 1774, serving in that body for 
 several years. In 1783 he was sent to England, as the ^Maryland 
 agent to reclaim a large amount which had been intrusted to the 
 bank of England. He removed to Baltimore in 1786 ; became 
 a member of the state convention to consider the national con- 
 stitution, 1790; and was appointed, the year after, chief-justice 
 of the general court of Maryland. In 1796 he became associate- 
 justice on the supreme bench of the United States, which office 
 he held till his death in 1811. The memorable event of his 
 history was in 1804, when, at the instigation of John Randolph, 
 he was impeached for his conduct on the trial of Fries and 
 Callender — a measure of mere party hostility. It resulted in 
 acquittal by his judges and the senate, and that on almost 
 every count triumphantly. — F. B. 
 
 CHASLES, LoDis, born at Chartres in 1754. Originally a 
 priest, he, like not a few of his order, adopted the principles of 
 the Revolution in their most exaggerated form. He attached 
 himself to Marat, and voted for the death of the king. Having 
 been appointed by the convention commissioner to the army of 
 the North, he took part in several engagements, and was 
 wounded at Hondschoote. On his return to Paris he tried to 
 continue Marat's journal, VArni du Peuple, with httle success. 
 He appealed in vain to the jacobin club, and was at last impri- 
 soned, but again let loose by the directory. Ultimately his wife 
 obtained a small situation, and he was admitted into the Hotel 
 des invalides, where he died in 1826. — J. F. C. 
 
 * CHASLES, Michel, one of the most eminent and original 
 of modem French geometers, bom at Epemon on 15th Novem- 
 ber, 1793. Very few writers of any age have so largely united 
 emdition and the finest spirit of criticism. The essay which 
 first distinguished Chasles was the " Aper9U sur I'origine et le 
 developpement des methodes en Geometric," published in the 
 memoires of the Academy of Brussels. It glances over the whole 
 range of geometrical methods, ancient as well as recent, detects 
 their philosophical character, discriminates and defines their 
 range. The modem reform in geometry begun by Camot, and 
 earned so much farther by Poncelet, has been almost completed 
 by Chasles in a later work — the famous " Traits de Geometric 
 Superieure." In one respect it is a revolt against Des Cartes — 
 asserting the sufficiency of purely geometrical ideas in dealing 
 with geometrical problems. These new views did not for a 
 considerable time make way in this countrv' ; but latterly they 
 have taken firm hold of what may be tenned the Dublin or 
 Trinity college school. The merits of this geometer have long 
 been recognized in France. Chasles has been appointed one of 
 the presidents of the Academy of Sciences. — J. P. N. 
 
 * CHASLES, Victor Euphemion Philarete, son of 
 Louis, bom in October, 1799, at Mainvilliers, near Chartres. 
 Bound apprentice to a bookseller, a man who to the neglect 
 of his business entered into political conspiracies against the 
 Bourbons, young Chasles shared the opinions and feelings of 
 his master, and early got into difficulties. He was arrested, but 
 on account of his youth allowed to depart for England, where 
 he completed his apprenticeship. After he had passed seven 
 years amongst the English, studying their manners and literature
 
 while followins; his ordinary avocations, he went to Gennany, 
 where he passed some years in the like pursuits. At length the 
 Journal des Dehats opened its columns to him ; his letters 
 upon English and German literature secured him a regular con- 
 nection with this important journal. From the Debats to the 
 Revue des deux Mondes, the transition was natural and easy, 
 as nearly all the writers for the one were essayists in the other. 
 His connection with the metropolitan press speedily led to his 
 being appointed professor of foreign literatiu-e in the college of 
 France, where his lectures upon living English and German 
 writers gained him great popularity. Besides his professorship 
 he holds the situation of keeper of the Mazarin library. — J. F. C. 
 CHASSAIGNON, Jean Marie, a French writer of eccentric 
 mind and manners, the absurdest personage and the most savage 
 moralist of his age, was born at Lyons in 1736, and died in 1795. 
 On the outbreak of the Revolution he had the heroic corn-age to 
 write in defence of priests, and against the vices of the people, 
 and, a more dangerous undertaking still, offered to defend the king. 
 Among the titles of his dissertations we notice, " Cataractes de 
 rimagination ; " "Deluge de la Scribomanie;" " Vomissement 
 Litteraire ; " and " Hemon-hagie Encyclopedique."' — J. F. C. 
 CHASSANEE. See Chasseneux. 
 
 CHASSfi, DA^^D Henky, a Dutch general, bom in 1765 ; 
 died in 1849. He sided with the patriots in the Revolution, fled, 
 returned with Pichegru, and again entered his country's service. 
 He commanded the Dutch troops in the Peninsular war. After 
 1814 he again returned to Holland, and distinguished himself 
 at Waterloo. He earned a European reputation by his long and 
 gallant defence of the citadel of Antwerp, where he was besieged 
 by the Belgians in 1830, and by the French in 1832. In the 
 latter year he was made prisoner by the French, but was set at 
 liberty the vear after. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, Fran<^ois, Marquis, a French 
 general of engineers, bom in 1754; died in 1833. He served 
 with great honour in the Italian, Prussian, and Russian cam- 
 paigns ; was made general of a division in 1799, and grand oiiicer 
 of the legion of honour in 1811. At the Restoration, Louis XVIII. 
 raised him to the dignity of a peer of France. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHASSENEUX, Bauthelemy de. Seigneur de Prelay, a 
 French lawyer, born in 1480. After a sojourn in Italy, he 
 began practising as an advocate in Burgundy, became in 1531 a 
 counsellor of the parliament of Paris, and the next year rose to 
 be president of that of Provence. He suspended the execution 
 of a decree of the latter against the Vaudois of Cabrieres and 
 Merindol. It took effect, however, with the utmost cruelty after 
 his death in 1541. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHASTEL or CHATEL, Jean, famous for his attempt on 
 the life of Henry IV., was the son of a Parisian draper, born in 
 1575. The king, just returned from Picardy, was suiTounded 
 by his nobles, when Chastel, then only nineteen years of age, 
 having slipped unnoticed into the chamber, dealt him a blow 
 with a dagger. He luckily received but a slight wound. The 
 ruffian, who was a tool of the Jesuits, pretended that he was 
 driven by the wickedness of his past life to do some great action. 
 He was condemned to a fearful death. — R. M., A. 
 CHASTEL. See Duchatel. 
 
 CHASTELAIN, Georges, was bom in the comte d'Alost in 
 Flanders in 1403; died at St. Valenciennes in 1475. He claimed 
 to be descended by his father from the noble house of Gavre 
 and Mamnes. At seven years of age some favomnte opportunity 
 offered of giving him the education fitted for a soldier. In after 
 life he was known by the title of " L'Adventureux." WliUe yet a 
 boy, he visited France and England, and was favourably received 
 at the court of Charles VII. Philippe le Bon, duke of Nor- 
 mandy, his o^vn sovereign, was especially his patron. In 1443, 
 Chastelain left the military service altogether for that of the 
 duke. He was first his pannetier, or pantler ; next he was styled 
 his orateur, or litterateur ; and finally bore the title of official 
 chronicler of the house of Burgundy. A satire which he wrote 
 in 1455 gave offence to the royal family of France, and his 
 personal safety seems for a while to have been endangered. In 
 1467 Philip the Good was succeeded by his son, Charles the 
 Rash, who continued Chastelain as chronicler. Chastelain now 
 resided at Valenciennes, where he continued till the time of his 
 death. A manuscript in the imperial library at Paris has a 
 vignette of Chastelain presenting his book to the duke. Georges 
 Chastelain was buried at Valenciennes, in the collegiate church 
 of Salle-le-Compte, to which he is recorded as a great benefactor, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 and, in particular, as the founder in that church of what would 
 seem to have been an annual service in connection with his patron 
 saint — La solemnite de St.-Georges a I'honneur des tous cheva- 
 liers. The student of history will find it worth while to consult 
 Chastelain. Impartial he is not. On the contraiy, he writes with 
 strong party feelings ; but his sketches of individuals are always 
 such as impress us with the feeling that we are looking at a 
 portrait, and that the featm-es are given fi-om frequent and careful 
 observation. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHASTE LARD, Pierre de Boscosel de, would probably 
 be forgotten as a poet, were it not for his insane passion for 
 Mary Queen of Scots, that purchased for him at once an untimely 
 death and literary immortality. Either fate was somewhat 
 beyond his merits. In our days he would have finished his 
 life in a lunatic asylum, and his fame would have terminated in 
 an obituary entry. He was born in Dauphine in 1540. Having 
 the blood of Bayard in his veins, he was, as he said himself in 
 his last moments, " sans peur," and to this he joined the quali- 
 ties of a gentleman of his day and nation, much liveliness, a 
 little poetry, and less religion. The poet Ronsard was his 
 master and his model, and when IMary returned to Scotland 
 after the death of Francis II., Ronsard addressed some compli- 
 mentaiy verses to her, which he sent to her by Chastelard. The 
 favourable reception accorded to him for the sake of his master 
 and his mission, and in lionom- of his profession, by one whose 
 attractions were nresistible, turned the brain of the conceited 
 poet. He not only loved madly, but in his madness fancied his 
 love was returned. The account of this untoward affair is 
 differently stated by the French and English writers. The 
 former insist that the queen encouraged the poet, that she 
 replied to his amatory verses, inflamed his passion, excited his 
 imagination, and threw him into a fever of delirium. The latter 
 for the most part acquit JIary of impropriety. Be this as it 
 may, the poet was discovered on the l'2th Febnjary, 1562-3, 
 concealed with a sword and dagger under her bed, by her ladies, 
 before she entered her chamber. On being informed the next 
 day of this outrage, the queen, says Miss Strickland, ordered the 
 mad bard to quit her court. JI. Dargeau asserts, that Jlary not 
 only pardoned, but encouraged him in his folly. At all events, 
 she went next day to Biu-ntisland, wdiither Chastelard followed 
 her, and again gained entrance mto her chamber. The queen's 
 screams brought Moray to her rescue, whom she passionately 
 ordered " to put his dagger in the villain." Moray calmed the 
 queen, and reserved the poet for a legal trial, and he was con- 
 demned to be beheaded. To all entreaties for his pardon she 
 was inexorable, and the sentence was put in execution. Mad 
 to the last, the poor gentleman ascended the scaftbld reading, 
 not his breviaiy, but '' The Hymn of Death " of his master 
 Ronsard. On the whole, we think posterity will acquit Jlary of 
 giving any encouragment to poor Chastelard, though we camiot 
 concur in the suggestion of Miss Strickland, that the story of 
 Margaret of Scotland kissing Alain Chartier (see that name) 
 was confounded with a similar liberty, said to have been accorded 
 by Mary to Chastelard. It is quite impossible that such a con- 
 fusion should take place between living persons and those dead 
 more than a century. — J. F. W. 
 
 CHASTELER, Jean-Gabriel-Joseph-Albert, JMarquis 
 du, a famous general in the Austrian service, born at Mons in 
 1763 In 1789 his conduct at the assault of Belgrade, in the 
 Tm-kish war, won for him the cross of Maria Theresa. From 
 that time till the peace of 1802 he distinguished himself in 
 numerous sieges and battles. In 1805 he was again in the field 
 under Archduke Charles, and defeated Marmont at Gratz. Three 
 years after he threw himself into the Tyrol, raised the brave 
 mountaineers, and was almost master of the province, when he 
 was totally routed by Lefevre. Chasteler was general of artillery 
 in the campaigns of 1813-14, fought against Murat in 1815, and 
 in the same year was appointed to the difficult post of governor 
 of Venice, where he died in 1825. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHASTELET. See Duchatelet. 
 
 CHASTELET, Paul Hay du, a French pubHcist, bom in 
 1593; died in 1636. He was at first advocate-general to the 
 pariiament of Rennes, but subsequently became a hirehng of the 
 court. He was employed in a paper war against the house of 
 Savoy. One of the judges of the marechal de J'nrillac, he 
 published a libel against him during the trial. Richelieu had to 
 commit him for this offence, but he was too useful a tool to be 
 long imprisoned. — R. M., A. 
 
 G L
 
 CHASTELLUX, Francois Jean, Chevalier, and afterwards 
 Marquis de, bom at Paris in ITSi; died there in 1788. He 
 entered the army at the age of fifteen; at twenty-one became 
 colonel of the regiment of Guyenne, and served from 1756 to 
 1761 in Germany. In 1780 he served in America >vith dis- 
 tinction. He wrote occasional verses with ease and grace, and 
 was a poet in the sense of the word which is not meant to 
 express more than a becoming accomplishment. Chastellux, 
 however, was born and educated for better things ; and he pub- 
 lished in 1772 an essay which attracted gi-eat admiration — 
 " De la felicite publique, ou considerations sur le sort des hommes 
 dans les diflerens (?poques de Thistoire." The object of the work 
 was to show that the happiness of mankind increases in direct 
 proportion to their increased knowledge. Slalesherbes gave the 
 book high praise in saying that it was worthy of Chastellux's 
 grandfather (D'Agesseau). Voltau'e said it was superior to 
 ilontesquieu's Esprit des Lois. Tliis work led to the author's 
 becoming a member of the academy. In 1780 he published his 
 " Travels in North America." His connection with the academy 
 led to an eloge on Helvetius. He wrote some articles for the 
 supplement to the Encyclopedic. He married Lu the year 1787 
 an Irish lady. The marriage was not happy. Some details 
 connected with it are given in the edition, published in 1822, of 
 his " Felicite publique." — J. A., D. 
 
 CHATEAUBRL\ND, Francois Acguste, Viscount de, a 
 French statesman and miscellaneous writer, was bom at St. Malo 
 in 1768. The youngest of ten chilch-en, his father intended him 
 for the navy ; but he showed an invincible repugnance for that 
 as well as the military branch of the service. His early yeai's 
 were passed in solitude and ardent study, from which the attrac- 
 tions of the capital could not divert him. The attack on the 
 Bastile, and the subsequent humiliation to which the royal family 
 became exposed, roused the studious recluse into activity. As 
 occurred throughout his subsequent cai'eer, his sensitive nature 
 seems to have been operated upon in contrary ways ; for while 
 a sentiment of honour and family traditions bound him to the 
 cause of royalty, he could not exclude certain sympathies with 
 the republican movement. In 1791 he set out for America, 
 inspired with the grandiose idea of discovering the north-west 
 passage. Stopping at Baltimore, the monarchical young viscount 
 paid his respects to General Washington, who, with a mUd wave 
 of his hand, cut short a florid strain of compliment, and then 
 sensibly advised him to desist from his project of discovering the 
 north-west passage. How far he might have proceeded, had not 
 an English jom-nal with startling intelligence fallen in his way, 
 it would be needless to inquire. It was in a remote settlement 
 of the backwoods that he read of the flight of the royal family 
 to Varennes, and their arrest. The voice of honour, he tells us, 
 whispered him to return ; and he did return, with his genius 
 awakened by the contemplation of natm-e, as seen in the wild 
 magnificence of American savannahs, lakes, and forests. His 
 family received him with joy ; and, probably with a view to keep 
 the wanderer out of adventures, provided him with a wife, whom 
 he accepted with indifference, and never afterwards either loved 
 or hated. Resolved upon joining the emigres at Coblentz, he 
 turned the assignats which made up his wife's fortune into money, 
 and out of their depreciated value realized 12,000 francs, of 
 which he lost 10, .500 at a gaming table. Having joined in 
 the futile attack on Thionville, he was left for dead in a ditch ; 
 was taken up by a few flying soldiers and thrown into an 
 ammunition waggon, until arriving at Namur, they assigned 
 him to the tender charities of the good women of the place, from 
 ■whom he parted strengthened and refreshed to seek an asylum 
 in Brussels. He proceeded after some time to Jersey to join 
 the royalists, but stopped at Guernsey in a raging fever, was 
 saved from death by the kind attentions of an Enghsh family, 
 and finally made his way to London. Dming the reign of terror 
 Chateaubriand was living in London, suft'ering such extreme 
 poverty, that he declares himself to have passed three days with- 
 out food; yet were his spirits sustained by a light-hearted cousin, 
 who fought privations with his guitar and song. A clergj'raan 
 employed him to assist in a work he was preparing for the press ; 
 and the clergy-man's daughter showed herself not insensible to 
 attentions, which went so far as to requii-e explanation, when 
 Chateaubriand rather tardily avowed his marriage. Losing his 
 secretaryship, he taught French and translated books until 1797, 
 when he appeared as an author, with his "Essay on Eevolutions," 
 which met with no success. A letter written by his mother on 
 
 her death-bed, and sent through a sister whom he dearly loved, 
 who herself died before the letter reached her brother, wrought 
 by its pious sentiments, to which the attendant cii-cumstances 
 gave greater force, a revolution on his mind, the efl'ect of which 
 became manifest in his "Genie du Christianisme." The effect 
 produced by this work was prodigious. Its merits have not, 
 indeed, stood the test of time, but it came into the world with 
 the great advantage of meeting a present want. Men were 
 feeling a certain tenderness towards the past, when Chateau- 
 briand hit exactly the sentiment of the moment with those 
 poetical and fmciful ^^ews and descriptions which, while they 
 exalt the imagination and cheer the soul, disturb not by chal- 
 lenges to controversy, with hard reasonings, or dogmatic 
 assertions. In 1800 he ventured to return to France; and his 
 fame becoming further spread by " Atala" and " Rene," the first 
 consul sent for him and appointed him in 1803 secretary to 
 the legation at Rome, and then minister to Switzerland. Upon 
 the execution of the due d'Enghien, Chateaubriand to his honour 
 resigned. The publication of his " JIartyrs," a sort of prose 
 epic, in which Christianity and paganism contend to the disadvan- 
 tage of the latter, confirmed his reputation, despite the objections 
 of critics, who found that a work half-romance and half-poem 
 violated propriety in more ways than one. In 1806 he paid 
 that pilgrimage to Jerusalem which produced his least objection- 
 able work, abounding as it does in vivid and graphic description, 
 and animated with sincere sentiments of veneration for the 
 subjects suggested by the sceneiy of the Holy Land. It was this 
 work which softened the resentment of Napoleon, who — having 
 deprived Chateaubriand of his periodical, the Mercure — intimated 
 to the academy his wish that they should elect him to the seat 
 vacant by the death of Marie Joseph Chenier ; but Chenier was 
 a Jacobite, and as Chateaubriand would be obliged to pronounce 
 an eulogium on his predecessor, he declined the proffered honour. 
 When Bonaparte was sent to Elba, Chateaubriand, in order to 
 confirm the new-born zeal of the country towards the Bourbons, 
 published his " Bonaparte and the Bourbons." Louis XVIII. 
 pronounced it worth an army, and appointed the author 
 ambassador to Sweden ; but as he was setting out. Napoleon 
 landed at Cannes, and the ambassador followed the king to 
 Ghent. After Waterloo, Chateaubriand refused to take oiSce 
 under Fouche. Henceforward he is to be newed rather as the 
 statesman than the author, and with no advantage to his fame. 
 Whatever opinion may now be pronounced on his writings, it is 
 certain that they produced great influence on his generation. 
 Inflated and fantastic rather than eloquent and imaginative, and 
 conceived with a view to efiect, there nevertheless shone through 
 his works a fine chivalrous nature and a noble invention, which 
 tended to redeem the factitious tastes which prevailed, and with 
 which they were in haiTnony. When, however, the florid author 
 attempted to act a showy statesman's part, in order to attract 
 attention to his own appearance, it would be well if we had 
 no worse to say than that he failed. While professing love for 
 constitutional principles, and even avowing his belief in the future 
 advent of the repubhc, he inconsistently sided -wMh that ultra- 
 monarchical party, whose intrigues thwarted the enlightened 
 aims of Louis XVIII. Having successively represented France 
 at Berlin and London, Chateaubriand was sent to the congress 
 of Verona, where he advocated that abominable invasion of Spain 
 in 1822, which, as minister for foreign affairs, he odiously carried 
 into effect. Unceremoniously tumed out by the president of the 
 council, Villele, at the instance of the king, who disliked him, he 
 became a newspaper writer, and avenged himself in the columns 
 of the Journal des Dehats upon the cabinet. His antagonist 
 having at length fallen, the new minister, JIartignae, sent Cha- 
 teaubriand as ambassador to Rome ; but on the nomination of 
 Polignac to be prime minister, he threw up his post. He arrived 
 in Paris in time for the revolution of July, received an ovation 
 from the people, proceeded, however, to the chamber of peers, 
 where he proposed the recognition of the due de Bourdeaux with 
 a regency, and failing in his motion, refused to take the oath of 
 allegiance to Louis Philippe, and resigned his seat. The rest of 
 his life was spent in the preparation of memoirs for publication 
 after liis death ; while his literary labours were relieved by the 
 society of the once beautiful madame de Recamier, at whose 
 mansion, the Abb.iye aux Bois, he passed several hours every 
 day without taking much part in conversation, and seldom 
 satisfied unless at the hearing of his own praise, for he was 
 inordinately vam. At length his feebleness increased so far that
 
 CHA 
 
 1003 
 
 CHA 
 
 he had to be borne from his carriage to the salon ; yet, as long 
 as strength sufficiently remained, he continued his daily visit 
 to her whoso goodness and amiability never wearied towards 
 her illustrious friend. He lived long enough to see the advent 
 of the republic he predicted, and long enough to see it diverge 
 into a wrong and fatal course; for he died 10th July, 1848. 
 Besides the works we have referred to, he published a pamphlet 
 on elective monarchy in 1831: Natchez; "Historical Studies, 
 or Fall of the Roman Empire ;" essay on English Literature ; 
 a prose translation of Paradise Lost ; " The Congress of Verona ;" 
 " Life of the Abbe de Ranee'," &c. &c.— J. F. C. 
 
 CHATEAUBRIANT, Fkan^oise de Foix, Comtesse de, 
 mistress of Francis I., was born about 1495, and died in 1537. 
 Fran9oise, who was cousin to Gaston de Foix, nephew of Louis 
 XIL, appeared at the court in the time of Anne of Brittany, and 
 accepted the hand of the count of Chateaubriant. Her great 
 beauty and accomplishments made her a favourite with Francis 
 I., but she afterwards found a successful rival in Mile, de Heily. 
 
 CHATEAUBRUN, Jean Bavtiste Vivien de, was bom 
 at Angouleme in 168G; died in 1775. In 1714 his tragedy of 
 " Mahomet II." appeared, and was favourably received. In 
 1754, forty years after, was acted his " Troyennes," a drama, 
 which, as far as it can be called inspired at all, was inspired by 
 the genius of Euripides. The cause of this long silence was, that 
 Chateaubrun was maitre d'hotel ordinaire of the due d'Orleans, 
 and sous-precepteur of his son ; and he thought it inconsistent 
 with the implied duties of his station to appear as a dramatic 
 author. Chateaubrun, although no great dramatist, did as well 
 as Racine for Mademoiselles Clairon and Jussieu, who appeared 
 as Cassandra and Andromache in his tragedy. "Philoctetes" 
 and "Astyanax" were Chateaubran's next ventures. He had 
 composed two other tragedies — " Ajax" and "Antigone" — and 
 left them, without any apprehension of the manuscripts being 
 stolen, in an open drawer. He searched for them in vain, and 
 at last asked his servant about them. " Have you seen," said 
 the master, "two very large paper books?" "Yes," replied 
 the servant ; " they had been l3'ing there a long time, and I took 
 them ' pour envelopper ces cotellettes de veau, que vous aimez 
 tant.'" The poet sun'ived what his biographers call the "dis- 
 grace" more than twenty years. He became a member of the 
 academy in 1753. In a discourse delivered at the academy, 
 Buffon gave him the highest praise for integrity and the entire 
 absence of selfishness in all his dealings. He died poor, but his 
 will exhibited unusual confidence, which was not misplaced, in 
 the generosity of his pupil, the due d'Orleans. He left annuities 
 to two nieces, and also provided in the same way for two domestic 
 servants, requesting the due — to whom, however, he gave no funds 
 for the purpose — to pay them. They were paid. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHATEAUROUX, Marie -Anne, Duchesse de, one of the 
 mistresses of Louis XV., died in 1744. She married in 1734 
 the marquis de la Tournelle, and was left a widow at twenty- 
 three. She then became, what three of her sisters had been before 
 her, mistress of Louis, by whom she was created duchess of 
 Chateauroux, with a pension of eighty thousand livres. It was 
 she who induced the king to take the field in 1744, thinking to 
 compound for her guilt by contributing to her countiy's glory. 
 Two volumes of her letters were published in 1806. — R. ]M., A. 
 
 CHATEL. See Chastel. 
 
 CHATEL, Fran(;'ois du : this painter, renowned as the 
 favourite pupil of David Teniers, was born at Brussels in 1625. 
 He followed the manner of his preceptor, and did him infinite 
 credit. He also dealt in guardrooms and village festivals, hob- 
 nobbing peasants and inebriated burghers, but he occasionally 
 handled higher subjects with success. He painted groups of 
 family portraits, conversation pieces, and assemblies of persons 
 of rank. His design was correct, his colouring pure, and his 
 execution very delicate, neat, and spirited. His best production 
 is a large painting nearly twenty feet long at Ghent, representing 
 Philip IV. of Spain receiving the oath of fidelity from the states 
 of Brabant and Flanders in 1666. It is stated that the number 
 of figures in this work amounts to one thousand, but the dispo- 
 sition is so excellent, that the effect is singidarly unconfused. 
 His pictures are frequently ascribed to Teniers, and also to 
 Gonzales Coqucs. He died in 1679. — W. T. 
 
 CHATELAIN. See Ciiastelain. 
 
 CHATELAIN, John Baptist: this artist was born in 
 England of French parents in 1710. He designed and engraved 
 with extraordinary cleverness. Unfortunately he was so disso- 
 
 lute and depraved as to render this cleverness almost altogether 
 nugatoiy. He engraved after his own di-awings or after Poussin. 
 He died in London in 1744. — W. T. 
 
 CHATELET. See Duciiatelet. 
 
 CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of, younger son of Robert 
 Pitt of Boconnock in Cornwall, was bom November 15th, 1708. 
 His grandfather had been governor of INLidras, and his mother 
 was sister to the earl of Grandison. William Pitt was edu- 
 cated at Eton and Oxford; and upon quitting the university 
 travelled in France and Italy, for the purpose of alleviat- 
 ing the gout — a disease which seized him in his youth, and 
 haunted him through life with frequent and cruel agonies. 
 Returning to England, he selected the army as his profession, 
 and obtained a coraetcy in the Blues. In 1735 he entered 
 parUament as member for Old Sarum, and in consequence of 
 his opposition to Sir Robert Walpole, then at the head of the 
 government, was deprived of his commission. He received, 
 however, the appointment of gi-oom of the bedchamber to Fred- 
 eric, prince of Wales, and continued to assail the ministry with 
 unjaelding vigour. The commanding genius of Pitt soon gained 
 for him high parliamentary authority. He was the orator of 
 orators, at a time when the agitated passions of the country, 
 having no sufficient vent in the press, concentrated themselves 
 upon individual men ; and when the house of commons was, in 
 consequence, a more frequent theatre for those gladiatorial 
 combats in which eloquence is mastery. Pitt was not only a 
 consummate actor, both by natural endowment and careful culture 
 — perfect in tone, glance, and movement — but was also sufficiently 
 subject to the inspiration of the hour to give fi-eshness and 
 glowing warmth to liis artistic skill. Walpole says, that though 
 no man knew so well how to say what he pleased, no man ever 
 knew so little what he was going to say. He thus possessed 
 a twofold power, blending the mechanical skill of the cul- 
 tured artist, with the passion of the speaker whose heart 
 vibrates with the emotion of the moment. He is described as 
 gi'eatest among British orators in causing men tojear his power, 
 and the epithet "temfic" is applied to those declamations he 
 poured forth in which passion and sarcasm contended for the 
 mastei-y. In his speeches, arguments lived and moved as if 
 warm with life. As they marched on to their purposed end, he 
 flung about lively anecdotes and sarcasms, jests and denuncia- 
 tions, disarming or frightening opponents on eveiy side. He thus 
 conquered by anticipation all that his worst foe could say ; and 
 never cared to have the last word. He gained his victory before 
 his antagonist rose to speak. It is said of Michel Angelo, that 
 by his skill he could give dignity to a hump on the back of a 
 dwarf; and Pitt possessed, as an orator, a kindred power of 
 giving a certain majesty to the commonest glance, circumstance, 
 or word. With such wonderful endowments, in an age of cor- 
 n;ption when parliamentaiy votes were regularly bought and 
 sold by the minister of the day, Pitt was able to command any 
 price he might choose to name. He refused, however, either to 
 soil his hands with a bribe, or even to take advantage of cus- 
 tomary official perquisites. He loved his comitry, and sought 
 power for no selfish end. He loved England, Macaulay writes 
 with tmth, "as an Athenian loved the city of the violet crown ; 
 as a Roman loved the city of the seven hills ; " and his ])olicy 
 sought to deliver his native land from the disgrace into which she 
 had been dragged by incapable intriguers. Among the first of 
 great modem statesmen he appealed for support not Kimj)ly to 
 ruling aristocratic families, but to the people at large ; and in 
 their pride and love, his countrymen dslighted to call him " the 
 Great Commoner." Most significant in relation to this point, 
 was the answer of George II. when Pitt pleaded for mercy on 
 behalf of Admiral Byng: — "The house of commons. Sire, seems 
 inclined to mercy," pleaded Pitt. "Sir," replied the king, "you 
 have taught me to look for the sense of my i)cople in other 
 places than the house of commons;" and wlien Pitt resigned 
 office in 1761, in language seldom heard in those days, he 
 declared himself "accountable to the people, who had called him 
 to power." A list of the great statesman's faults and failings 
 could readily be drawi up. The skill of the actor degenerated 
 at times into an affectation which darkened his best virtues; 
 towards his colleagues he often liehaved more like an eastern 
 satrap than a British minister ; distracted by the pain of con- 
 stitutional gout, his conduct is occasionally scarcely referable 
 to any distinct principle whatever ; but when tlie list of his 
 imperfections is completed, William Pitt, cart of Chatham, still
 
 remains "the Great Commoner" who, when his country was in 
 despair, out of weakness brought forth strength ; who appealed 
 to the people, when such appeals were rare indeed ; who used 
 power not for pereonal aggrandizement, but for national glory ; 
 whose hands were clean in an age of foul corruption ; a states- 
 man who could persuade as an orator, and an orator who could 
 command and govern as a statesman. On the retirement of 
 Walpole, Pitt became vice-treasurer of Ireland, and, subsequently, 
 paymaster of the forces during the ministry of the duke of New- 
 castle. The perquisites of the latter office were great, and no 
 dishonour attached to their reception, but he would accept only 
 the legal salary. The conduct of Pitt in the house was not dis- 
 tinguished by any submission to the inferior men placed above his 
 head. Although holding a suboffice he ridiculed the government 
 leader of the commons, or rather, with more cutting sarcasm, 
 assisted that gentleman in bringing ridicule upon himself: on one 
 occasion he boldly referred to the premier, and asked whether 
 the house of commons sat only to register the edicts of one too 
 powerful subject, and finally refused a seat in the cabinet when 
 Newcastle almost fell at his feet entreating him to accept it, on 
 condition of supporting the king in his wish to caiTy on the French 
 war by a system of subsidies to Russia and the German states. 
 Grave events, however, thickened day by day. The country 
 was defenceless, and German mercenaries were imported — the 
 Seven Years' war commenced in Europe — Jlinorca was lost. It 
 was an evident necessity that political intriguers should make 
 place for men of power and patriotism ; and on December 4th, 
 1756, Pitt became secretary of state, in the administration of 
 the duke of Devonshire. A fresh vigour was immediately 
 infused into every branch of national life. A national militia 
 was substituted for German mercenaries ; the Highland clans 
 were made friends instead of foes, by being converted into 
 regiments of the line for foreign service ; and the new minister 
 who had opposed a " system of subsidies," proved no niggard in 
 giving aid when he found in the field a great man, Uke Frederic 
 of Prussia. George II. dismissed, however, both Pitt and Temple 
 in April, 1757, declaring, that he did not consider himself a king 
 in their hands ; but the affairs of the nation became more 
 and more disastrous, and Pitt was recalled, 27th June, 1757. 
 " I am sure," said Pitt, iu his proud consciousness of adminis- 
 trative power, " that I can save my countiy, and that nobody 
 else can." The four following years during which Pitt held 
 office, were the noblest of his life. He redeemed the government 
 in some measure from the domination of corrupt factions, and 
 his spirit breathed itself within his officers, animating them to 
 deeds of daring which rang tlirough Europe. Every man knew 
 that there was more chance of being pardoned for an overbold 
 enterprise than for a weak retreat. " Pitt," says a contem- 
 porary, " expressed himself with great vehemence against Earl 
 Loudoun, who reported that he found the French too strong to 
 justify an attack on Louisburg." The energj' of the statesman 
 pervaded the British forces both by land and sea. Wolfe climbed 
 the heights of Quebec, and Canada was won. Hawke gained the 
 famous victory at Belleisle, replying, in the spunt of the minister 
 he served, to the master who reported the danger of the naviga- 
 tion — "You have done your duty in making this representation ; 
 now obey my orders, and lay me alongside the French admiral." 
 It is one of the most sigiuficant signs of Pitt's genius that he 
 thus created his captains. Hawke and Amherst, for instance, 
 displayed abilities in the ser\-ice of Pitt which never could have 
 been called forth by the duke of Newcastle. Soon after the 
 accession of George III., the " family compact " was concluded 
 between France and Spain, and Pitt advocated against the 
 latter country an immediate declaration of war ; but, overnded 
 in the cabinet, he resigned office in 1761, proudly declaring that 
 he " held himself accountable to the people who had called him 
 to power." Upon his rethement, his wife was created Baroness 
 Chatham, with a pension. The Spanish war broke out within 
 a few weeks, and Pitt showed his magnanimity by taking no 
 party advantage of the fact that his rejected advice had become 
 a necessary state policy. Burke remarks, that the behaviour of 
 Pitt when the new parliament met, in which he made hb own 
 jastification without impeaching the conduct of any of his col- 
 leagues, or taking one measure that might seem to arise from 
 disgust or opposition, " set a seal upon his character." " A time 
 of war," said the orator, " is no season for personal altercation. 
 In the face of the common enemy, England should be united as 
 one man." His future career was frequently and terribly over- 
 
 shadowed, through the agonies of his constitutional diseases — 
 agonies so stem as to affect the healthful working of his mighty 
 mind. During the proceedings taken against Wilkes, Pitt 
 denounced that surrender by the house of its privilege of protec- 
 tion from arrest, which was voted for the purpose of enabling 
 the government to an-est the democratic leader for libels in the 
 Norlh Britain. The importance attached by him to the liberty 
 of the press, strikingly appears in all his private correspond- 
 ence. When the stamp act threatened the American war, 
 he used all his strength to secure its repeal. On the 14th 
 January, 1766, he delivered one of his mightiest speeches in 
 opposition to that act. " I rejoice," exclaimed Pitt, " that 
 America has resisted. Three millions of people so dead to all 
 the feehngs of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, 
 would have been fit instraments to make slaves of the rest." 
 When noticing the legal technicalities of the question, he finely 
 remarked that he did not come " with the statute-book doubled 
 down in dogs' ears to defend the cause of hberty ; " and drawing 
 the distinction between legislation and taxation, and taxation as 
 essential to freedom, altogether denied the right of the commons 
 of Great Britain to give in grant even to the king the property 
 of the commons of America. During the five yeai-s which had 
 elapsed since Pitt's resignation (1761-66), he had three times 
 been offered office ; and in 1766 he returned to the government 
 as Earl of Chatliam. His bodily infirmities increased upon him 
 to such an extent, that his greatness is hardly recognizable in 
 the feebleness of that administration. He was one of the first, 
 however, to discern the importance of Indian affairs, and the 
 necessity of ameUorating the condition of Ireland. In the early 
 part of 1767, he was so afflicted as to be mcapable of transact- 
 ing business. During his retirement his colleagues adopted 
 measm-es entirely opposed to his principles, and on October 
 l'2th, 1768, he finally resigned. From time to time, when his 
 strength permitted, he was carried to the house of lords, and 
 continued to recommend the abandonment of coercive measures 
 towards America. Even after the declaration of Independence, 
 he endeavoured to mduce the government to agree to some tenns 
 of reconcihation. Upon the conclusion of the treaty between 
 France and America, the final separation of the colonies from 
 the mother country, became certain ; and then Pitt's pride in the 
 glory of the British empire flamed forth in indignation against 
 its dismemberment. Of all men, his personal happiness and 
 honour were bound up inextricably with the greatness of his 
 nation ; and the loss of America was like an affliction brought 
 down upon the very flesh and blood of the " old man eloquent." 
 Few will agree with his policy, but all will feel as one of the 
 most touching scenes in history, that last appearance of the 
 eai-1 of Chatham in the house of lords (April 8th, 1778), when 
 he entered supported by his son, and his enthusiastic energy 
 struggled \vith his feebleness as he opposed the withdrawal of 
 the British troops from America, untU he fell in a convulsive fit, 
 and was carried forth a dying man. Upon May 11th, 1778, at 
 Hayes in Kent, the earl of Chatham died. He was buried in 
 Westminster abbey ; the chief mourner being his second son, 
 William Pitt, whose name, with his father's, will live for ever in 
 the pages of British historj'. — L. L. P. 
 
 CHATTERTON, Thom.\s, was bom at Bristol on the 20th 
 November, 1752. There was nothing remarkable about the 
 family, except that a taint of madness ran in the blood. The 
 father had been for years subchanter at the cathedi'al, aiyl 
 master of the free school in Pyle Street. A few months previous 
 to the birth of Chatterton he died, lea^ing a widow and daughter. 
 In the straitened circumstances of this humble family the higher 
 advantages of education were not to be thought of, and the Httle 
 boy was therefore sent to the free school. From the subsequent 
 versatility of his mind we naturally look for early inihcations of 
 precocity. But he was remarkably stupid. Tlie master gave 
 him up in despair, and pronounced him utterly incapable of 
 instniction. The mother undertook the task which had worn 
 out the patience and baffled the skill of the stranger. Weeks 
 and months passed ; all the experiments which affection could 
 suggest had been tried, yet, in the seventh year of his age, 
 Chatterton showed no signs of intelligence. The saddest thought 
 that can flash across a parent's mind, now strack her to the 
 ground — she had given birth to an idiot! Lying about the 
 house was an old musical manuscript in French, over which the 
 deceased subchanter had spent many a noisy hour. Tossed 
 about for seven years, in the recurring confusion of housewife
 
 industiy, that fragment of paper liad been preserved unharmed. 
 It was destined to start the mind of Chatterton on its swift and 
 terrible career. By chance the boy took it up, fixed his eyes 
 upon the large capitals illumined with gorgeous colours, and 
 gi-ew solemn with emotion. Not by the persuasive caresses of a 
 mother, not by the indestractible hornbooks of Pyle Street fi-ee 
 school, but by the gentle force of colour, was the soul of Chatter- 
 ton aroused from its chrysolitic sleep. Once hberated from the 
 blind dominion of instinct, his mind passed by a sudden transi- 
 tion into the highest type of genius. " At eight years of age he 
 was so eager for books that he read from the moment he waked, 
 which was early, until he went to bed, if they would let him." 
 About this time the thought that he was destined to be great 
 seized him like a passion. This ambition was no ephemeral 
 fancy, flitting in moments of conceit across the mind, but a stern 
 reality, enthroning itself imperially in the centre of his being. 
 Wandering alone on the banks of the Avon, sitting beside the 
 sepulchre of Canynge, in full view of the chiselled towers and 
 lofty steeple of St. Mary, Redcliff, or gazing upon the frolic and 
 mirth of boyish pastime, the consciousness of future fame haunted 
 him like a spirit. This is the key to his strange behaviour — 
 the melancholy which clouded his gayest moments, the unac- 
 countable fits of crying which alarmed his friends, the dreary 
 solitude in which he loved to indulge, and the veil of mystery 
 behind which he performed his gi-eatest achievements. On the 
 3rd of August, 1760, close upon his eighth year, he was admitted 
 to the bine-coat school, endowed by a Bristol gentleman of the 
 name of Colston. The prospect of entering Colston's school 
 threw him into great enthusiasm — "Here," he said, "I shall get 
 all the learning I want." But the routine of reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic soon damped his ardour. From the first dawn of 
 intelligence his mind exhibited astonishing vigour and rapidity. 
 As if conscious that life was short, he flew through his career 
 with lightning speed. In his eleventh year he had the thoughts 
 and experiences of a man. He had already read seventy volumes; 
 neat copy-books and ingenious sums were objects of no attraction. 
 The proffered advantages of school were spurned away as chaff; 
 he wanted solid nutritive knowledge. This he found in the study 
 of history and divinity. Three circulating libraries were soon 
 laid imder contribution, and barely sufficed to meet the demands 
 of the blue-coat boy. What books fell into his hands in the 
 course of this reading is not known. It is interesting to learn 
 that among them was Speght's Chaucer, the glossary of which he 
 transcribed for his own use. Once a week, on Saturday after- 
 noons, the blue-coat boys were at liberty to visit their friends. 
 Chatterton spent these half-holidays invariably in the little 
 cottage on Redcliff hill, with his mother and sister. They were 
 very fond of him, and believed thoroughly in his future fame ; 
 upon them the tendrils of his affection fastened and grew. In 
 the storms of life, the hold upon them was never lost. In school 
 he was known as a proud, perhaps overbearing boy. Social fami- 
 liarity was impossible. Tlie nearest approach he could make to 
 it, was to mount the church-steps, and " repeat poetry to those 
 whom he preferred among his schoolfellows." Nevertheless he 
 had a kind heart. The sight of a beggar on the old bridge drew 
 tears to his eyes. At home he was all love. One of the gi-eatest 
 pleasures he anticipated from his approaching greatness, was that 
 of being able to present his mother and sister with rich gowns 
 and pretty bonnets. Much as he loved them, however, they 
 shared little of his society. In a lumber-room, fitted up for his 
 own use, he would remain under lock and key all day. If they 
 remonstrated, his short answer was — " I have a work on hand." 
 What was he doing with so much secrecy in this little chamber 
 Saturday after Saturday? " In this room he had always by him 
 a great piece of ochre in a brown pan, pounce bags of charcoal 
 dust, and a bottle of blacklead powder." When he came down 
 to tea, his face and hands were begrimed with yellow and black. 
 It must have been on one of these Saturday visits, sometime before 
 the summer of 1764, that Chatterton made the famous discovery 
 of what he called the manuscripts of Rowley. It thus happened : 
 — One day his eye was caught by some thread papers which his 
 mother and sister used. The writing upon them appeared old, 
 and the characters uncommon. After submitting his mother to 
 a cross-examination, he was led to a full discovery of all the 
 parchments which remained. To the last day of his life he con- 
 tinued to set a high value upon them. Even on that solemn 
 morning when the time and manner of his death had in all 
 probability been detemiined, and there remained no inducement 
 
 to perpetuate a deception, he expressed in significant language 
 his appreciation of their worth. The tendency of modern criti- 
 cism is to disparage these papers as containing nothing of a 
 literary character. The truth is, we are in complete ignorance 
 of their contents. That Chatterton should have been allured 
 to palm some of his best poems upon an old monk of the 
 fourteenth century is not to be wondered at; that he should 
 have so completely succeeded remains to this day a marvel. 
 These veiy manuscripts no doubt suggested the idea. Their 
 history is shortly this : — In a room over the north porch ot 
 Redcliff church, some half a dozen chests, supposed to contain 
 legal documents, were forced open in 1727 under the superin- 
 tendence of an attorney. The deeds referring to the church 
 were removed, and all the other parchments were left there 
 .scattered about as being of no value. In 1748, Chatterton 's 
 father being nearly related to the sexton, was permitted to take 
 away from time to time " baskets full " of these documents for 
 covering bibles and copy-books. Mrs. Chatterton also found 
 them useful for " making dolls, thread papers, and the like." 
 It was the bulk which survived these depredations that after- 
 wards obtained such celebrity as the manuscripts of Rowley. 
 From the De Bm-gham pedigree, it is evident that Chatterton, 
 while yet in the blue-coat school, had not only conceived the 
 plan of his literary imposture, but had actually entered upon 
 its execution. Attached to the genealogical tree was a poem, 
 " The Romaunte of the Cnyghte," actually written by an illus- 
 trious ancestor of the pewterer ! It is chiefly nodceable as 
 being the first in point of time of those antique poems on which 
 the fame of Chatterton mainly rests. But it was not until he 
 had left school and entered upon his apprenticeship as lawyer's 
 clerk, that the Bristol people became aware of his existence. 
 His first adventures in literature had produced no great sensa- 
 tion. " The last Epiphany or Christ's coming to Judgment ; " 
 " Sly Dick ;" " The Churchwarden and the Apparition ;" and 
 " Apostate Will," were smart pieces for a boy not yet in Ids 
 teens. But they had not moved the world — not even Bristol. 
 One morning in 1768, however, when the municipal excitement 
 of opening a new bridge was at its height, the inhabitants of 
 Bristol were startled with a remarkable paragraph in Felix 
 Farley's Journal. It contained a graphic account of the 
 opening several centuries before of the old bridge ; under the 
 signature of " Dunkelmus," who had extracted it from ancient 
 documents in his possession ! Inquiries were instituted, and the 
 authorship was traced to Chatterton. At first he gave evasive 
 answers, then prevaricated, afterwards retracted, and finally 
 made the statement to which he adhered all his life. The 
 success of the adventm-e flattered his vanity, and concealed from 
 his view the degradation of his conduct. His moral nature, 
 originally weak, had never been cultivated, and his intellect assert- 
 ing a supremacy over his whole being, urged him forward against 
 terrible odds. Nothing but some strong internal convulsion 
 could now restore him to manly honesty and peace. It was the 
 crisis of his life. If oiu- estimate of Chatterton is coiTcct, it 
 was at this juncture, that ho deliberately resolved upon that 
 career of unscrupulous imposture, which has exposed him to the 
 just censure of aftertimes. Horace Walpole was at this time 
 collecting materials for his Anecdotes of Painting in England, 
 Chatterton inclosed him " The Ryse of Peyncteyne in Englande, 
 wroten by T. Rowlie, 1469, for Master Canynge ! " Barret the 
 surgeon was engaged in writing a history of Bristol. Chat- 
 terton from time to time supplied him with invaluable facts ! 
 On the 21st December, 1768, he informed Mr. Robert Dodsley, 
 a London publisher, that he had in his possession " poems and 
 interlude, and perhaps the oldest dramatic pieces extant, wrote 
 by one Rowley, a priest of Bristol, who lived in the reigns of 
 Henry IV. and Edward IV." This sixteenth year w;i.s the busiest 
 of his life. " The Bristowe Tragedy ; " tragical interiude called 
 "Ella;" a fine pastoral entitled " Eliuore and Ing;i," were all 
 completed before the close of 1768. In the meantime his pro- 
 fessional studios were sadly neglected. IMr. Lambert was tx 
 rough-handed gentleman, and sometimes administered correction 
 to the young apprentice in the form of a " blow or two." Then 
 he UKuie Chatterton sleep with the footboy, and take his meals 
 with the servants, which was not pleasant. The scraps of poetry 
 found about the floor were characteristically called " stuff," and 
 hurled at Chatterton's head. On the whole, his " life was 
 miserable." There was found in the office that will, written in 
 contemplation of suicide, which one cannot read without a
 
 CHA 
 
 1006 
 
 CHA 
 
 slaudder. Jilrs. Lambert was afraid to continue under the same 
 roof as this desperate young man, and thus Chatterton was 
 Hberated from the obligations of his apprenticeship. On the 
 24th April, 1770, a week after leaving Lambert's, he started for 
 London, with high hopes of eaniing a liveliliood and literary 
 fame. The rapidity with which he accomplished so much during 
 his residence in London is astonishing. In May and June he 
 had articles in the Toivn and Country Magazine, the London 
 Museum, the Freeholder's Magazine, the Political Register, 
 the Court and City Magazine, and Gospel Magazine. One 
 week he is about an oratorio ; the second finds him busy with 
 a burlctta, which was afterwards acted at Marylebone gardens ; 
 and the third opens with another dramatic effort — "The Woman 
 of Spirit." Little songs, for which Mr. Hamilton paid him at 
 the rate ot eightpence a piece, took well at the gardens, and 
 became popular with street boys. Such were the rare endow- 
 ments of Chatterton that, in these various occupations, his talent 
 never failed him. We must not, however, apply the rigid laws 
 of criticism to these huiTied contributions to literature. He 
 was writing for bread, and not for fome. The antique poems 
 exhibit a line imagination and true poetic feeling. His talent 
 lay in depicting the stronger emotions, and giving form and life 
 to abstract ideas. In his political essays and letters we do not 
 find e\'idences of such rare powers. They are written in smart 
 serial style, without much thought. Chatterton an-ived in London 
 with some five pounds in his pocket. Three months had not 
 passed away before he was reduced to a state of penury. At last 
 he was driven to buy his bread stale, that it might last the longer. 
 One whole week he took nothing but a loaf. His pride repelled 
 the benevolent advances of his friends. IMr. Cross, a chemist, 
 living in the same street, and very intimate with Chatterton, M'as 
 afraid to ask him to supper. Mrs. Angell, the landlady, out of 
 sheer pity, returned him sixpence from the rent, but this he 
 indignantly refused, and added, pointing to his forehead — "I have 
 that here which will get me more." Under so severe a pressure 
 the powers of natm-e gave way. Neighbours noticed a certain 
 wildness about his looks. He was observed to talk to himself, 
 to pause suddenly in conversation, and then to start off volubly 
 on some krelevant subject. On the 22nd of Augvist, 1770, he 
 came home in a great passion with the baker's wife, who had 
 refused to let him have another loaf till he had paid her three 
 and sixpence, which he owed her previously. This drove him 
 to the last desperate act. Under the pretence of ha\'ing an 
 experiment on hand, he purcliased a quantity of poison from Jlr. 
 Cross. The next morning Chatterton was not astir at the 
 usual hour. ^Vhen the door of his bedroom was burst open, he 
 was found " lying on the bed with his legs hanging over, quite 
 dead. Some of the bits of arsenic were between his teeth." Of 
 the Rowleian manuscripts Chatterton only produced four origi- 
 nals. That which he exhibited first, the longest of the four, has 
 been lost. It contained " The Challenge to Lydgate;" "The 
 song to Ella ; " and " Lydgate's Answer ; " amounting in all to 
 sixty-six verses. The remaining three, which may now be seen 
 in the British museum, were — " The Accounte of William 
 Canynge's Feast;" "Epitaph on Robert Canynge;" and thirty- 
 six verses of the " Storie of William Canynge." These are 
 written in continuous lines, extending like prose across the 
 breadth of the parchment. The square pieces of vellum were, 
 no doubt, " antiquated " by himself, and the writing exhibits a 
 skilful imitation of medieval orthography. — G. H. P. 
 
 CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the most distinguished of the early 
 poets of England, was born in the first half of the fourteenth 
 centuiy, but in what year cannot be stated with positive certainty. 
 Tradition assigns the date of his nativity as 1328, while Leland 
 gives a later period, and a deposition made by Chaucer seems to 
 confirm this view. Sir Harris Kicolas, who has investigated 
 the matter with his usual care and ability, is disposed to think 
 that upon the whole the earlier date is the nearest to proba- 
 bility. The birthplace, parentage, and education of Chaucer are 
 involved in like obscurity, and it would be a bootless task to 
 pursue all the speculations on these subjects. The probabilities 
 are in favour of his having been bom in London ; whether he 
 was the son of a knight, a merchant, or a vintner, it is in vain 
 to inquire : there is, however, reason to believe that his family, 
 though not of rank, were wealthy and respectable, and it is 
 certain that he received the education befitting a gentleman of 
 those times. Where that education was received is equally prob- 
 lematical ; Cambridge and Oxford each claim the honour, but 
 
 neither can adduce any proof to support its pretension. It is 
 not improbable that he m.ay have studied in each, and Leland 
 asserts that he completed his education at Paris. But be this 
 as it may, Chaucer acquired a large amount of information and 
 learning, which the evidence of his contemporaries and his own 
 compositions abundantly attest. Indeed there is no branch of 
 the knowledge of his times in which he appears to be deficient, 
 and he was equally proficient in scientific subjects as in the 
 learning of the schoolmen, in divinity, law, and philosophy. The 
 first reliable notice of Chaucer occurs in 1359, when it appears 
 that he served under Edward III. in the expedition against 
 France, and was taken prisoner. In that country he remained 
 some years, probably till the conclusion of the peace of Chartres 
 in 1360. Shortly after he mamed Philippa, a maid of honour 
 in the royal household, and daughter of Sir Payne Roet, a gen- 
 tleman of Hainault, who came to England in the retinue of 
 Queen Philippa ; another daughter, Katherine, attached herself 
 to Blanche, the first consort of John of Gaunt, by which circum- 
 stance Chaucer vras subsequently brought into intimate acquaint- 
 ance with that noble. It is remarkable that Chaucer's wife 
 afterwards entered into the service of John's second wife, while 
 Katherine subsequently became his third wife, and secured to 
 Chaucer and his wife the favour and protection of the duke. 
 Chaucer's accomplishments and brilliant parts soon recommended 
 him to the patronage of Edward III. In 1367 he was made one 
 of the valets of the king's chamber, and received a grant for life 
 of twenty marks a year. In 1372 he was sent with two Genoese 
 citizens on a commission to determine an English port where a 
 Genoese commercial establishment might be formed, and appears 
 to have left England in the end of that year upon this mission. 
 Dming his absence he visited Florence and Genoa, returning to 
 his native land in November, 1373. It was during this visit 
 to Italy that Chaucer is said to have met Petrarch at Padua. 
 That such is the fact there is strong presumption, which more 
 than counterbalances the mere assertions of those who maintain 
 the contrary. Petrarch was certainly at Arqua when Chaucer 
 was at Florence, and it is scarcely credible that the latter would 
 have omitted the opportunity thus afforded of forming the 
 acquaintance of one who was then the most distinguished literaiy 
 man living. Wharton asserts that they met at the marriage of 
 Violante, daughter of the duke of JNIilan, with the duke of Clar- 
 ence, and that Boccaccio and Froissart were of the party. The 
 clerk of Oxenford, in the prologue to the tale of Griselda, states 
 that he learned it from " a worthy clerk " at Padua, " Franceis 
 Petrark, the latu-eat poete," and we know that at this period 
 Petrarch had translated the tale from the Decameron, and had 
 even previously shown it. In 1374 Chaucer was granted "a 
 pitcher of wine daily," and in the same year was appointed 
 comptroller of the customs in the port of London, under the 
 obligation of writing the rolls with his own hand. If the poet ever 
 performed this duty, no roll in his handwriting is now extant. 
 Grants, pensions, and other emoluments followed, and in the 
 two following years he was employed in two secret missions to 
 Flanders, the object of which was, if we credit Froissart, to 
 negotiate a marriage between Richard, prince of Wales, and 
 Mary, daughter of the king of France. Richard II. continued 
 to Chaucer the favour which Edward had accorded him, and 
 employed him on several embassies, in one of which, to Lombardy, 
 he was accompanied by his friend the poet Gower. In February, 
 1385, Chaucer was permitted to appoint a permanent deputy, 
 and being thus released from a personal discharge of the duties 
 of comptroller, he turned his attention to politics, and sat in 
 parliament in 1386 as representative for Kent. His knovm 
 attachment to the duke of Lancaster was, there is little reason 
 to doubt, the cause of his being deprived shortly afterwards of 
 his office in the customs. The older biogi-aphers of Chaucer, 
 relying on the adventures in " The Testament of Love " as an 
 autobiographic statement by the poet, assert that he was dis- 
 missed for defalcations ; was engaged in an affray in which several 
 lives were lost; that he fled to Hainault to avoid arrest, and then 
 to Zealand, whence, after remaining three years, he was forced 
 through poverty to return to England ; that he was committed to 
 the Tower, and obtained his liberty on condition of impeaching 
 his former confederates. Happily for the fame of the poet. Sir 
 H. Nicolas supphes an authentic and complete refutation of the 
 whole naiTative ; and we now know, that when Chaucer was said 
 to have been a fugitive and exile, he was at large in London 
 enjoying his pension ; and at the very moment when he is
 
 supposed to have been a prisciner in the Tower, he was sitting 
 in parliament as a knight of the shire for one of the largest 
 counties in England. In 1387 Chancer lost his wife, and with 
 her the pension settled upon her b_v Queen Philippa. Upon the 
 accession of the Lancaster party Lq 1389 he was appointed clerk 
 of the king's works — an important office which he was allowed to 
 perform bv depntv: this post he held till 1391. From that 
 period we hare nothing authentic in relation to the poet till 
 139-1, when he obtained a grant fivm the king of £20 a year; 
 but we learn that his circxunstanoes were far from easy, and he 
 was protected from arrest for debt by a royal letter. That 
 Chaucer should have been in pecuniary difficulties is somewhat 
 surprising, seeing that he had, with occasional interruptions, 
 what must be considered, at the lowest, a competency. It is said 
 he lived extravagantly, a supposition that some passages in his 
 writings seem to favour. Be this as it may, the prosperity which 
 had been interrupted by these circumstances happily returned 
 to brighten the close of his career. Another grant of wine was 
 made to him, and Henry IV. on his accession conferred on the 
 poet an additional pension of £26. ISs. -Id. a year. Chaucer 
 was now over seventy years old, residing, not at Dorrington 
 castle in Berkshire, as is generally asserted, but in London in a 
 house taken by him nearly upon the site of Henry ^^L■s chapel 
 at Westminster. His end was approaching, and he spent his 
 last hours in tranquillity and resignation, having composed a 
 poem entitled " Gode CounsaDe of Chaucer," made by him " upon 
 his dethe bed, leyiug in his gret anguyse."' Chancer died on 
 the 25th October, 1-100, about the age of seventy-two, and was 
 buried in Westminster abbey, where a monument erected to him 
 in 1556 may still be seen, though the inscriptions are nearly 
 e&ced. In his younger days Chaucer must have been hand- 
 some ; he is described in his thirtieth year as being '" of a fair 
 and beautifal complexion, his lips full and red, his size of a just 
 medium, and his port and air graceful and majestic" Later in 
 _ie he became corpulent, and lost much of his grace of person, 
 though his features retained their fairness. In addition to the 
 portraiture he has given of himself in '" The Canterbury Tales," we 
 have several portraits, especially that of Ocdave, which conveys 
 " the perfect image of a character not less remarkable for its 
 rare combination of power and sympathy, than for the variety of 
 accomplishments by which it was graced," 
 
 We have next to speak of Chaucer as a poet. As such he 
 stands pre-eminently before us as '' the father of English poetry,'" 
 as one who laid the foundations '' that stiU support the fabric of 
 our poetical literature, and will outlast the vicissitudes of taste 
 and language." Amongst his own contemporaries this his 
 position was accorded to him ; successive ages continued it to 
 him ; and the present affirms it. The praises of Lydgate, and 
 Gower, and Occlave. and Ascham, and Spenser, have received 
 the imprimatur of Wharton and Drayton, Coleridge and Hal- 
 lam, Byron and Tennyson, and every critic of taste and eru- 
 dition. He was in England what his great contemporary or 
 rather predecessor, Dante, was in Italy, each the maker of a 
 langu^e, which, as long as it shall last, will uphold the fame of 
 its author. An elegant modem writer thus speaks of him — 
 "Poet, soldier, and diplomatist, and master of the philosophy, 
 sdence, and divinity of his time, the versatility of his genius is 
 not more remarkable than the practical judgment he displayed 
 in its employment. With a complete command of the springs 
 of universal interest, the tragical and the humorous, the solemn 
 and the gay, the sublime and the grotesque, he applied his 
 knowledge of life and nature, his consummate art, the copious 
 resources of an imagination that seemed incapable of exhaustion, 
 and a power of expression as extensive as the empire of his genius, 
 to the creation of works which, while they reflect in vivid colours 
 the features of his own time, possess also an enduring value for 
 all time to come." Mr. H. Eeed, in his able lectures on English 
 literature, portrays Chancer with happy eloquence. " No 
 poet ever held such large and fi«e communion with the world 
 and his fellowmen. He stood in the presence of kings and 
 nobles, and became versed in the lore of chivalry — ^its principles 
 and passions ; he went forth fixim the pomp of a court to do a 
 soldiers service, and, in the season of peace, to muse in the 
 fields, to look with loving eyes upon the flowers, to sympathize 
 with the simple hearts of children and of peasants, to honour 
 womanhood alike in humble or in high estate, and to commune 
 with the faithful and the zealous of the priesthood. What most 
 distinguishes the genius of Chaucer is the comprehensiveness 
 
 and variety of his powers. Ton look at him in his gav mood, 
 and it is so genial that that seems to be his very nature, 
 an overflowing comic power, touched with thonghtfiilness and 
 tenderness — •'humour" in its finest estate. And then vou turn 
 to another phase of his genius, and with something of wonder 
 and more of delight, you find it shining with a light as true and 
 natural and beautiful into the deeper places of the hmnan soul 
 — its woes, its anguish, and its strength of suffering and ot 
 heroism. In this, the harmonious union of true tragic and comic 
 powers, Chaucer and Shakspeare stand alone in our literature ; 
 it places these two above all the other great poets of our lan- 
 guage, for such combination is the highest endowment of poetic 
 genius." 
 
 It remains now to notice briefly the Tarions works of Chancer. 
 It is impossible to ascertain their chronological order. "The 
 Court of Love " was probably one of his earliest productions, 
 and " Troilus and Creseide " may also be assigned to his youth. 
 '■ The Assemblee of Foules " was written before the marriage 
 of Blanche of Lancaster, probably about 1358; and •' The Booke 
 of the Duchesse" after her death. "The Legende of Good 
 Women" must have been written before 1382, and '"The Honse 
 of Fame" somewhere about the same time. We are not able to 
 assign a date to the " Eomaunt of the Rose." It is a transla- 
 tion from the French poem commenc-ed by William of Lorris, 
 and concluded by John of Meun. In the hands of Chancer 
 it is infinitely improved and beautified. His other poems are 
 "The Cockow and the Xightingale:" "The Flower and the 
 LeaT" — the latter an exqnisite composition ; and "The Testa- 
 ment of Love." But the great work upon which the fame of 
 Chaucer rests imperishably is "The Canterbury Tales." These 
 were the occupation of the last ten years of his life. Wharton, 
 following tradition, says that they were composed partly at Wood- 
 stock, and partly at Dorrington in Berkshire, but there is good 
 reason to doubt that he occupied the latter place. The poem is 
 onfinished, but for what it achieved, as well as what it proposed 
 to accomplish, is worthy of high admiration. The design, sug- 
 gested probably by the Decameron of Boccaccio, is extremely 
 happy. A company of pDgrims to the shrine of St. Thomas a 
 Becket at Canterbury, set out from the Tabard inn at London, 
 and, at the instance of the host, each tells a tale to beguile 
 the way. The prologue presents us with the truest and liveliest 
 picture of the state of society in England in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury — we see the freedom and ease of intercourse between the 
 personages, though ranging through every grade of life. Each 
 character is drawn with the hand of a master, and stands out a 
 living reality — a type of a class. The various tales exhibit the 
 wondrous power of Chaucer, as various and flexible as it is deeply 
 skilled in the heart of humanitv and the soul of nature — the 
 inward and the outward of mind and of matter. "After four 
 hundred years have closed over the mirthful features which 
 formed the hving originals of the poet's descriptions, his pages 
 impress the fancy with the momentary credence that they are 
 still alive." All the powers of his learning, his experience, and 
 his genius have here free scope, and place Chancer next to Shak- 
 speare as one, who, dealing not only with what is changing and 
 evanescent in the times and in the character of man, but com- 
 prehending also what is enduring and essential to humanity, has 
 written for all times, and will be read while the English language 
 shall last— J. F. W. 
 
 CHAUDET, AsTorNE-DEXis, a French sculptor, bom at 
 Paris in 1763; died in 1810. After returning from Rome he 
 executed for the Pantheon a group representing the emulation 
 of glory. Not being of the vicious style then in vogue, it was 
 at first neglected. Chaudet"s next work was his fine statue of 
 "(Edipus." "Paid and Virginia," "Surprise," "Belisarins," &c., 
 followed, and raised him to the first rank among modem sculptors. 
 His articles in the dictionary of the fine arts are said to be also 
 admirable. — His wife, Jeaxxe-Eusabeth, who was also his 
 pupil, gained a considerable reputation by her exquisite paintings 
 of familiar subjects. — R. M., A- 
 
 CHAUDON, Loris Mayevl, bora in Provence in 1737 ; a 
 benedictine of the congregation of Cluny, who, like so many of 
 that learned order, devoted himself to historical research. His 
 " Xouveau Dictionnaire historique," first published in 1766, went 
 throut'h several editions. This was followed by his " Diction- 
 naire Antiphilosophique," directed against the Philosophical 
 Dictionary of Voltaire. As the witty sceptic too often sacrificed 
 drv fact to the desire of saying smart things, and rather loved
 
 CHA 
 
 1008 
 
 CHA 
 
 to exaggerate the ridiculous side of circumstances than to enter 
 into careful investigation, the painstaking benedictine frequently 
 succeeded in exposing his en-ors and his bad faith, and restoring 
 the truth of historj'. His works are valued on account of the 
 impartiality of his judgments on historical personages. The 
 severity of his studies affected his sight, which some time before 
 his death left him entirely. After the suppression of monasteries 
 at the Revolution he retired to Mezin, where his portrait may 
 be seen in the to^vn-hall, a testimony of the regard of his fellow- 
 citizens. He died in 1817. — .J. F. C. 
 
 CHAULIAC or CHAULIEU, Gui de, a celebrated writer 
 on surgery, who lived in the latter half of the fourteenth century. 
 He studied at Paris and Bologna ; practised some years at Lyons, 
 then went to Avignon, where he became physician to Popes 
 Clement VI., Innocent VI., and Urban V. There he wrote his 
 famous " Inventorium sive collectorium partis chimrgicalis medi- 
 cinse," a work which greatly contributed to the scientific study 
 of surgery. It was used as a class-book for several centuries. 
 Chauliac has left us a description of the plague, which, sweeping 
 from the east, ravaged a great part of Europe in 1343. He 
 was himself attacked by it, but recovered. — E. M., A. 
 
 CHAULIEU, GuiLLAUME Ajifrye de, bom at Fontenoy 
 in 1639 ; died in 1720. He was sent early to Paris, where he 
 was educated for the church. He was patronized by the grand 
 prior of Vendome, and given large benefices. The parties of 
 the Abb6 de Chaulien were among the pleasantest in Paris, and 
 he himself, as men who give pleasant parties will often be 
 regarded, was regarded as one of the wittiest men of his time. 
 He suffered from gout, but amused himself during the fits in 
 writing poems, which his friends praised, but which were too 
 negligently written to have much chance of being remembered 
 beyond the days which they enlivened. In this way he lived on 
 till he attained the age of eighty-one. In the year before his 
 death, he suffered from the two calamities of blindness and of 
 love. He addi-essed with more than the fervour of youth the 
 witty lady known under the names of Mademoiselle Launai and 
 JIadame de Stael. He was prevented from being named as a 
 member of the academy by a successful cabal. He disregarded 
 a slight, which, when others having similar claims suffered, 
 excited them almost to madness. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHAUilEIX, Abraham Joseph de, bom at Chauteau, 
 near Orleans, in 1730; died at Moscow in 1790. He was the 
 son of a distinguished militai-y engineer. His first work was, 
 considering what France then was, a daring adventure. It was no 
 less than an attack on the Encyclopedists — on their principles 
 and on their book. Voltaire assailed him in stinging satire. 
 Chaumeix could have weathered the storm, had his enemies con- 
 fined themselves to fair warfare ; but this was not the way in 
 which controversy was then earned on. Chaumeix was described 
 as a man of the lowest grade in society ; he had, it was said, 
 married his cook. A hundred idle stories of this kind were 
 circulated. He was driven from Paris by these calumnies. He 
 found a home in Eussia. There he earned his support by assist- 
 ing in the education of the sons of some of the families of the 
 nobility. Chaumeix was a benevolent man ; and from the time 
 of his settling in Eussia endeavoured, not altogether unsuccess- 
 fully, to ameliorate the condition of the serfs. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHAUilETOX, Francois Pierre, a French medical man, 
 was bom at Chouze on the Loire in Touraine on 20th September, 
 1775, and died on 10th August, 1819. After officiating as 
 miUtary surgeon for many years in hospitals and in the field, he 
 retired from the service and took up his residence in Paris, where 
 he published various literary and scientific works. Along with 
 Chamberet and Poiret he pubfished a Medical Flora, illustrated 
 by coloured drawings. He wrote an essay on medical entomo- 
 logy, and contributed articles to scientific periodicals. — J. H. B. 
 
 CHAUMETTE, Pieere-Gaspard, "a, French revolutionist, 
 bom in 1763 ; died in 1794. He was one of the most violent 
 and bratal demagogues of the time. He heaped insults on the 
 king when confined in the Temple, and, along with Hebert, 
 concocted the foul accusation brought against Marie Antoinette 
 on her trial. Chaumette was the originator of the Fetes de la 
 Raison, and planned the procession of the goddess of Eeason. 
 He fell a sacrifice to the jealousy of Robespierre in 1794, and left 
 to posterity an execrable name. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHAUXCEY, Charles, D.D., an eminent nonconfomiist 
 divine, bom in Hertfordshire in 1592. After quitting the uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, where he held a Greek professorship, he 
 
 was presented to a living in Hertfordshu-e ; but his puritanical 
 principles soon brought him into difficulties. He was condemned 
 by the court of high commission, and obliged to recant some 
 charges he had made in a sermon. He afterwards went to New 
 England, where he was for twelve years minister of the little 
 to^\Ti of Scituate. He was pressed to return to England during 
 the Commonwealth ; but the presidentship of Havard college hav- 
 ing meanwhile been offered to him, he accepted it, and died in the 
 new world in 1 672. It was this Chauncey that wrote the i^ixciris 
 prefixed to Leigh's Critica Sacra. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHAUNCEY, Charles, D.D., the twelfth minister of the 
 mother (first) church of Boston, New England, of which place 
 he was a native. He was a graduate, at an age unusually early, 
 of Harvard college in 1721, and six years after became the col- 
 league of the Rev. S. Foxcroft, his complete ministry extending 
 to sixty years; in the last nine of which he had himself the aid 
 of a younger pastor — the Eev. John Clarke. This long career 
 was signalized by his opposition to Whitfield, who once and 
 again in his day \'isited the Massachusetts chvu-ches, and by 
 his zeal against episcopacy ; his " Complete View " of which 
 appeared in 1771. Dr. Chauncey's belief was of the strongest 
 Arminian type ; but the distinctive feature of his theology arose 
 from his coming forth as the earliest champion perhaps within his 
 denomination of the " restoration" theory, so called, m relation to 
 a futm-e fife. His great defensive work, " The Mystery hid from 
 Ages, or the Salvation of all men," published in 1784, was 
 replied to by the yomiger Edwards. His " Benevolence of the 
 Deity considered," and " Five Dissertations on the Fall of Man," 
 both issued in 1785, bear on the same topic. Beside the works 
 now specified. Dr. Chauncey's fugitive productions, inclusive 
 of more than thirty occasional discourses, amounted to little 
 less than half an hundred. He died at the age of eighty-two 
 in 1787.— F. B. 
 
 CHAUNCY, SiK Hexrt, author of the " Historical Anti- 
 quities of Hertfordshire," was born in 1632. He was educated 
 at Cambridge, fi-om whence he removed to the middle temple. 
 He was called to the bar in 1656, made a member of the middle 
 temple in 1675, knighted by Charles II. in 1681, and lastly 
 made a Welsh judge in the year of the Revolution. His book 
 was not pubfished till 1700.— R. M., A. 
 
 CHAUNCY, Maurice, a monk of the Charter-house, Lon- 
 don, died in 1581. He was imprisoned by Henry VIII. for 
 refusing to own his supremacy. Alter the dissolution of the 
 monastery, he and a few of his brethren led an unsettled life, 
 now in England and then abroad as the times permitted. Ho 
 wrote an account of some of the catholic martyrs — now a rare 
 book. It contains Sir Thomas Jlore's epitaph by himself. 
 
 CHAUSSARD, Pierre Jean Baptiste, bom in Paris iu 
 1766. His first work, which appeared in 1789, was on the 
 subject of criminal law, in which he put himself forward as a 
 ref'omier. As the Revolution advanced, he entered so warmly 
 into its spirit, that he was deemed worthy of being despatched 
 to Belgium as a commissioner for propagating the new spirit 
 in that country. His zeal so far outstripped his discretion, that 
 he excited the people of Antwerp to sedition by throwing their 
 bishop into prison. In 1803, he was appointed professor of 
 belles-lettres at the college of Rouen, from whence he was 
 removed to Nismes, in the capacity of professor of Latin poetry. 
 He wrote " L'Esprit de JILrabeau ; " a translation of Arrien's 
 Expeditions of Alexander ; besides some poetical pieces and 
 treatises not altogether free from objection, as he occasionally 
 indulged in a tone of levity on sacred subjects unbecoming the 
 position he held, and of which he was deprived by the Bourbons, 
 although for poHtical reasons. He died in 1823. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHAUStE. See La Chacssee. 
 
 CHAUVEAU, Francois, an engraver and painter, bom in 
 Paris about 1621. He studied under Laurent de la Hire, 
 and painted cabinet pictxu-es in the style of his master. His 
 success as a painter was not great. He had a quick and fively 
 fancy, and soon discovered that the etching needle was a more 
 convenient instrument wherewith to develop his fertUe imagin- 
 ings than the more slowly-moving brush. Painters, sculptors, 
 booksellers, caiTers, goldsmiths, jewellers, embroiderers, and 
 even joiners and smiths, alike came to him for aid. He engraved 
 with his own hands upwards of four thousand plates, and about 
 fourteen hundred were engraved by others from his designs. He 
 occasionally resumed the painting bmsh, and many of his pic- 
 tures were purchased by Le Brun. The great number of works
 
 on wliich lie was engaged brought such a multitude of authors 
 so frequently to his house, that their meetings ultimately 
 resulted in the establishment of the French Academy. He was 
 admitted into the Eoyal Academy of Painting and Sculpture in 
 1663. He died in Paris in 1676. He worked very hard, but 
 work was easy to Mm, for mind and hand were both fertile and 
 facile.— W. T. 
 
 CHAUVEAU-LAGAEDE, Claude-Fea>-cois, a French 
 advocate, bom in 1756; died in 1841. His timidity kept him 
 strictly to his profession. He defended General ilnauda, Bris- 
 sot, and Charlotte Corday. But his most iUustrious client was 
 Jlarie- Antoinette. After her condemnation, he was cited before 
 the revolutionary committee to reveal the secrets she had con- 
 fided to him. The advocate replied he had none of her secrets, 
 and touch ingly laid before them a lock of hair as the only 
 recompense he had received from the noble victim. — R. il., A. 
 
 CHAUVELIX, Fk.vxcois-Beexaiid, Marquis de, a French 
 politician, bom in 1766. In spite of his royalist connections, he 
 was sent to London as the representative of France, to secm-e 
 the English neuti'ality. Returning to his country, he was next 
 sent to Florence, but Lord Hervey peremptorily demanded his 
 dismissal. Napoleon named him councillor of state, and after- 
 wards governor of Catalonia. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis 
 X\'IIL after the restoration, and died of cholera in 1832. 
 
 CHAUYIX, Etiexxe, a protestant divine, born at Nismes in 
 1610 ; died in 1725. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes 
 lie fled to Rotterdam, where in 1688 he occupied Bayle's chair 
 kuing his illness. He became professor of philosophy at Berlin 
 in 1695. Chauvin was a follower of Des Cartes. His chief 
 work is entitled " Lexicon Nationale, sive thesaurus philosophi- 
 cus, ordine alphabetico digestus:" Rotterdam, 1692. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHAVES, Emmanuel de Silveyka Pinto de Foxseca, 
 Marquis de, a Portuguese officer of noble birth, who served with 
 distinction in the peninsulai- war from 1809 to 1811, holding a 
 command in the contingent furnished by his country against the 
 French. Ten years later, when the revolutionists threatened the 
 Mjvereignty of John VL, De SUveyra, then count d'Amarante, 
 urganized a militiu-y force against them, but after some successes 
 he was compelled to retne into Spain. In the subsequent res- 
 toration of the royafist cause his seiTices were rewarded with 
 the marquisate, which he enjoyed only for a few years, his death 
 taking place in 1830. — W. B. 
 
 CHAYL'G, R'Juda ben Daa^id Fasi (in Arabic, Yahia 
 Abu Zechariah), of Fez in Africa, flomished in the beginning 
 of the eleventh century (1020-1010), as physician and gram- 
 marian. In the latter quality he received from Ibn Ezra the 
 title of " Rosh Hammedakdekim " (Piince of Grammarians). He 
 studied medicine at the school of Kairwan, and wrote a commen- 
 tary on Ebn-Sina (Avicenna), now lost. His gi-ammatical works 
 on the Hebrew language were originally written in Arabic, and 
 subsequently translated into Hebrew by Jloses ben Gekatilia 
 Hacohen, and by Abraham Ibn Ezra, under the respective titles 
 of " Sepher Othioth Hannuach " (on the Quiescent Letters) ; 
 "Sepher Hakkephel" (on the Gemmate Verbs); "Sepher Han- 
 nikud" (on the Vowels and Accents). These three treatises have 
 been published by Leopold Dukes, with valuable notes. The 
 Bodleian hbrary possesses also a " Sepher Hanikma " (on the 
 Syntax) by Chavug, translated from Arabic into Hebrew by 
 Gekatilia; his lexicon of the sacred tongue is mentioned by Jona 
 ben Gannach among the older, and by Salomo Parchon among 
 the more modem writers on Hebrew lexicogi-aphy. Chayug, 
 says the learned Dukes, was the first who investigated the 
 properties of the quiescent letters and then- pennutations. He 
 established the triliteral chai'acter of all Hebrew roots^ pre\-iously 
 unnoticed, and thus removed much confusion from the grammar 
 and exegesis of the scriptural text. — T. T. 
 
 CHAYUN, R'Nehemiah Chya, c<ime from Zephath in the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, professedly to collect for 
 the eastern synagogues among the Jews in Europe. His real 
 object, however, was the propagation of Sabbatai Zebi's Messianic 
 doctiines. Chayun seems to have had many of the resources of 
 an adi-oit adventurer. A follower of Zebi at Smyrna ha^•ing 
 raised a report of the resurrection of their ilessiah, Chayun at 
 once availed himself of the excitement thereby produced among 
 the Jews in Eastern Em-ope, on whose credulity he largely 
 imposed. He elected for his apostle one LobU of Prossnitz, 
 skilled in jugglery of all kinds, and the two representatives of 
 the Jlessiah sold talismans, wrought wonderful cm-es, and pro- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 mised the immediate opening of the miUeunium. To gam the 
 countenance of the ruHng power, Chayun made some show of ;m 
 endeavour to argue the Jews into an adoption of the dogma of 
 the trinity, on the basis of the Ciibbalistical books then in high 
 authority among them. It is Sidd that in an audience which he 
 obtained from the emperor of Gernnmy, Chayun boldly promised 
 the conversion of all the Jews in the empu-e. The works which 
 he published in defence of Ms doctrines did not f;ul to excite 
 the antagonism of the leading men m the Jewish communities in 
 the west of Em-ope. The rabbis at Amsterdam, London, and 
 several German cities laid a cherem (ban of excommunication) on 
 the author and Ms books, in wMch they were joined even by 
 heads of eastern congregations, so that the signatures of one 
 hundred and thirty rabbis appeared on the document. The 
 deception, however, was not as easily put down as brought to 
 fight. Multitudes joined these fanatics, and the mysticism 
 under whose garb they disguised their profound immoraUtj" has 
 left deep roots in the Jewish population of some parts of Poland 
 and Russia. Chayun himself led for many yeai-s the life of an 
 adventurer, and died blind and destitute at Amsterdam, uni- 
 vers;dly detested for his principles, but as generally admired for 
 his extensive leai-ning. The numerous works pnbUshed by 
 Chayun in the midst of Ms wandei-ings refer to the Kabbala, 
 and are most of them controversial. From the account given by 
 R. Da\-id Nuiies Ton-es, in the BibUothfeque Raisonnce, of the 
 spirit of Chayun"s writings. Wolf infei-s that his metaphysical 
 system was Spinozism.^ — (^Bibl. Eeb. part iv. page 928.)— T. T. 
 CHECKLEY, Rev. John, was one of the earfiest episcopal 
 ministers in New England. He was bom in Boston, of English 
 p:urents, in 1680, but was early sent to England for Ms educa- 
 tion, where he studied at the imiversity of Oxford. After Ms 
 return to Boston he published, in 1715, a tract against the 
 calvinistic views of the puritans, and in 1723, "A modest view 
 of the Government settled by Christ and his Apostles in the 
 Church." For the publication of a " Discourse concerning Epis- 
 copacy," &c., he was prosecuted, and fined fifty pomids by the 
 supreme comt of Massachusetts. In 1727, having conceived the 
 idea of becoming a clergyman, he went to England for episcop;d 
 ordination, which he obtained only after twelve years" soUcitation. 
 He retm-ned to America in 1739, and was settled as rector of St. 
 John's chm-ch m Providence, Rhode Island. He was regarded as 
 a man of wit and of some classical acquirements, but of groat 
 eccentricities of character, and extremely fond of controversN". 
 He died in 1753.— F. B. 
 
 * CHEEVER, George Barrell, an eminent American 
 clergyman and man of lettei-s, was bom on the 17th of April, 
 1807, at HaUowell, Maine ; graduated at Bowdoin college in that 
 state in 1825 ; and studied theology at the Andover seminary in 
 Massachusetts. He was first settled at Salem, Mass., in 1832. 
 His eai-ly contributions to the Biblical Rejtositori/, A'or/A Ameri- 
 can Beview, and other periodicals, were remiu-kably popular. In 
 1828-30 he pubfished tMee compilations of Americ;m prose and 
 verse, selected with excellent taste, and illustrated with biographi- 
 cal and critical notices. Being an earnest advociite of tlie cause of 
 temperance, lie wrote a striking allegory or dream, called "Deacon 
 Giles's Distillci-v," in which the spirits are represented as demons, 
 and the whole scene as an inferno, one of the facts mentioned being, 
 that the owner had a little counting-room in one corner of the 
 distillei-y, where he sold bibles, and that he went to cliurch on 
 the sabbath, where he heard unitarian or univei-salist doctrines 
 preached. The publication of it brought upon the author a suit 
 for libel ; all the circumstances described pointing out with suffi- 
 cient distinctness the real o\vner of the distillon.-, though liis 
 name was not Giles. Mr. Cheever was convicted and suft'ered a 
 month's imprisonment, beside receiving a severe beating in tlie 
 street from the foreman of the distillon'. In 183G he \-isitod 
 Europe for a year, and in 1839 removed to the city of New York, 
 where he is the pastor of a large and flom-isliing congregation. 
 His numerous publications, his excellence as a pulpit orator, and 
 his vehement and unsparing manner as a controversialist have 
 kept him almost constantly before the public His doctrine is 
 that of orthodox Congregationalism ; and he has had frequent 
 discussions with Romanists, episcopalians, unitai-ians, and pres- 
 bvterians, all of whom he has attacked with considerable asperity. 
 But he has made himself respected by his literar}- talents, and 
 bv the evident sincerity and earnestness with which he inenlcatos 
 what he considers to be the truth. Of late years he has been 
 Cipeciallv conspicuous as an uncompromising opponent of slaver)-. 
 
 6 .M
 
 Among his works, all of which cannot be specified here, are — " The 
 Hill Difficulty and other Allegories;" " The Windings of the River 
 of the Water of Life ;" " Lectures on Biinvan and the Pilgrim's 
 Progress ; " and " Wanderings of a Pilgi-im in the Shadow of 
 Mount Blanc and the Jungfrau Alp." — F. B. 
 
 CHEFEZ, R'MosES ben Gerson (in Italian, Gentile), died 
 at Venice iu 1711, at the age of forty-eight years, and not, as 
 Rossi eiToneously states, one hundred and three years old. — (See 
 a notice by S. D. Luzzatto in the Orient, 1847, Lit. B., p. 280.) 
 He was an eminent scholar, as well read in the philosophical 
 writings of christians as in the Talmud and the Kabbala of the 
 Jews. His philosophical commentarj' on the Pentateuch, entitled 
 by him in Hebrew, "Melecheth i^Iachshebeth" (Work of Thought), 
 and styled in Latin, "Opus ad iuventum," gives ample evidence 
 of his great learning. His views on the souls of animals gave 
 oiTence to the orthodox rabbins of his age, who felt inclined, it 
 is said, to interdict the work in consequence. Lender the title of 
 " Cha-nukath Ha-bayith" (the Inauguration of the House), he 
 described with great care and erudition the second temple at 
 Jerusalem. — T. T. 
 
 CHEFFONTAINES (in Latin, A Capite Foxtium), Ciiris- 
 TOPiiE, a French cordelier, bom in 1532 ; died in 1595. 
 After teaching theology at Rome, he was chosen general of his 
 order in 1571. When the term of his nile expired, he was 
 made archbishop of Cajsarea by Grcgoiy XIII. Cheffontaines 
 was charged with heresy, but had his orthodoxy satisfactorily 
 established by the Holy See. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHEKE, SiK Joiix, a celebrated English scholar of the 
 sixteenth century, was bom of a good family in 1514 at Cam- 
 bridge, where he was early admitted a member of St. John's 
 college. Devoting himself to the classical languages, he soon 
 became a distinguished student, particularly for his knowledge 
 of Greek, which was at that time almost entirely neglected in 
 the English universities. Thomas Smith, a member of Queen's 
 college, was one of the few students at Cambridge who shared 
 in Cheke's tastes and pursuits, and a close intimacy and friend- 
 ship sprang up between them, which continued through life. 
 Having been brought under the notice of Henry VIII. by Dr. 
 Butts, the king's physician, Cheke was nominated king's scholar 
 along with Smith, and a handsome stipend was assigned to him 
 to enable him, not only to prosecute his studies at home, but 
 also to visit foreign universities and courts. His sen-ices as a 
 fellow and tutor of St. John's were of the greatest importance in 
 the re-i-ival of learning and scriptural theology in the university. 
 " He dhected," says his biographer Stiype, '' to a better method 
 of study, and to more substantial and useful leaming, so that he 
 was said by one that knew him well, to have laid the very foun- 
 dation of leaming in that college." Stiype here refers to Roger 
 Ascham, who was a pupil of Cheke's, along with many other 
 men who were aftenvards highly distinguished in church and 
 state — such as Bill, Lever, PiUcington, Hutchinson, and William 
 Cecil. In or about 1 540 a professorship of Greek having been 
 founded in Cambridge by Hemy VIII., Cheke was appointed to 
 the chair, though only in his twenty-seventh year. His appoint- 
 ment gave a gi-eat stimulus to Greek studies in the university, 
 and having embraced the ■views of Greek pronunciation which 
 were first broached at Cambridge by his friend Sir Thomas 
 Smith, he did his utmost to recommend and introduce the new 
 and improved method. This innovation, however, gave offence 
 to many who were jealous or envious of the influence of the 
 young scholar, and involved him in an unpleasant controversy 
 with Bishop Gardiner, then chancellor of the university, who 
 was so ilhberal as to issue an order for the discontinuation of the 
 new style of pronunciation. In 1544 Cheke was appointed 
 joint-tutor, along with Sir Anthony Cooke, of Prince Edward — 
 aftenvards Edward VI. — and his instractions powerfully con- 
 tributed to form the character, and determine the faith of the 
 future monarch. His sendees were liberally rewarded by Edward 
 on his accession to the crown. He received the honour of 
 knighthood, along with a gift of lands sufficient to enable him 
 to maintain this new rank, and was advanced, in succession, to 
 several offices of high honour and trast in the court and in the 
 public service. On the death of Edward his fortunes declined. 
 Having espoused the cause of the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey, 
 and acted for a short time as her secretary of state, he was 
 committed to the Tower by Queen Mary, and though pardoned 
 and released in the following year (1554), he found it desirable 
 to consult his safety from persecution on the score of religion, by 
 
 obtaining leave to withdraw to the continent. He went first to 
 Basle, then to Padua, where he gave lectures to some of his 
 countrymen on Demosthenes ; and next to Strasburg, where he 
 was compelled, by the confiscation of his whole property at home, 
 to support himself by giving lessons in the Greek language. 
 Hearing, in the beginning of 1556, that his wife had come from 
 England to Brussels, he set off to join her there. But his enemies 
 were on the watch for him, and he was arrested on the road 
 between Brussels and Antwei-p, hunicd on board an English ship, 
 and carried prisoner under hatches to London. The offence laid 
 to his charge was, that he had exceeded the time allowed him in 
 his leave of absence from the kingdom, and that he had openly 
 associated himself with the worship of the heretical exiles at 
 Strasbm'g. Dr. Feckenham, the popish dean of St. Paul's, was 
 sent to reason with him in the Tower on the doctrines of the 
 church, and he was brought into the presence of Cardinal Pole, 
 who counselled him to return to the unity of the faith. The 
 alternative was a fearful one — recant or bum — and Cheke's 
 courage and constancy were not equal to such an emergency. 
 He consented to be submissive to the queen's pleasure : he only 
 begged that he might be spared the humiliation of a public 
 recantation. But even this poor satisfaction was sternly refused 
 him, and he was compelled to make an open retractation befbi-e 
 the whole court. The pangs of his remorse and shame were 
 extreme, and he died of a broken heart in Wood Street, London, 
 September 13, 1557. To Sir John Cheke belongs the honour 
 of having been one of the foremost revivers of classical know- 
 ledge in England, and especially one of the first to infuse that 
 love of Greek leaming which has ever since continued to adom 
 the English universities. His principal works are — " De Pro- 
 nunciatione Grajca? potissimum linguag Disputationes." " De 
 Superstitione" — addressed to Hemy VIII., and prefixed to a 
 translation of Plutarch's treatise on the same subject ; " De 
 Obitu doctissimi et sanctissimi Theologi Domini Martini Buceri, 
 Epistolse Dua; :" London, 1551 ; " The Hurt of Sedition, how 
 grievous it is to a Commonwealth," 1549. — P. L. 
 
 CHEL]\ISFORD. See Thesiger. 
 
 CHELSUM, James, D.D., a learned divine of the church 
 of England, author of "Remarks on Gibbon's Roman History," 
 1772, a work which excited some attention, was bom in 1740, 
 and died rector of Droxford in Hampshire in 1801. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHEJNINITZ, Martin, a distingiushed Lutheran theologian 
 of the sixteenth centmy, was born on the 9th of November 
 1522, at Treuenbritzen in the Middle Slarck of Brandenburg, 
 where his father, though spnmg from an ancient noble family, 
 earned on the trade of a clothmaker. After studpng for some 
 time at Frankfort-on-the-Oder mider the eye of his relative. 
 Professor George Sabinus, he repaired in 1545 to W^ittemberg, 
 where he became a favourite student of Melancthon, by whose 
 advice he directed his special attention to mathematics and astro- 
 logy. When the university of Wittemberg was scattered and 
 almost annihilated by the Smalkaldic war in 1547, he withdi'ew 
 to Konigsberg where Sabinus had preceded him, and was 
 appointed i-ector of the cathedral school. Here he continued 
 till 1553, occupying himself chiefly with the systematic study of 
 theology in all its branches, and amassing an immense store of 
 learning, of which he gave the first public example in a con- 
 troversy which he maintained during those years with Andreas 
 Osiander, one of the Konigsberg theologians, on the subject of 
 the Lutheran doctrine of justification, on which Osiander had 
 proposed several veiy material and indeed dangerous modifica- 
 tions. His opponent, however, prevailed in the stiife, and Chem- 
 nitz was obliged to leave Konigsberg. Returning to Wittemberg, 
 he was cordially welcomed by Melancthon, and began, by his 
 advice, to deliver lectures in the university on Melancthon's 
 Loci Communes. But an in\'itation to settle in Branswick 
 having been offered him in 1554, he accepted it, and in that 
 city he spent the remainder of his life; first as coadjutor in 
 the pastorate, then as pastor, and, finally, as superintendent. 
 He died, 8th April, 1586. Chemnitz was one of the most 
 learned theologians of the Lutheran church. He took a pro- 
 minent part along with Andrea against the Crypto-Calvinisls, 
 and in the dramng up of the Fomiula Concordia?; and he 
 highly distinguished himself by his polemical treatises against 
 the Jesuits and the decrees of the councU of Trent. His prin- 
 cipal writings were as follows — "Loci Theologici, quibus et Loci 
 Communes Phil. Melancthonis perspicue explicantur : " Frank- 
 fort, 1591 ; "Theologiffi Jesuitaram pra?cipua capita:" Leipzig,
 
 15G2; " Examen Concilii Tridentiai," 1565; " De duabus 
 naturis in Cliristo:" Jenae, 1570. It was acknowledged by the 
 Romish divines that since Luther's death, no protestant theo- 
 logian had brought such formidable weapons to bear against 
 their system, or had inflicted such hea-s-y blows upon it as 
 Chemnitz. — P. L. 
 
 CHEXEDOLLE, Charles Jiliex Pioult de, was bom 
 at Vire in 17G9. On the breaking out of the Revolution, he 
 took part with the royalists, joining the army of the prince of 
 Conde, and suffering great hardships. In 1807 appeared his 
 poem, the " Genius of ilan," in which he treats with eloquence 
 and feeling the ordinary yet never common-place subject of won- 
 der and mystery — that mixed nature which, sinking at one time 
 to bestial debasement, rises at another to angelic power. WhUe 
 holding the inspectorship of the university of Yal de Vire, his 
 unfortunate sovereign Charles X. passed by, a discrowned king, 
 on the road to exHe, when ChenedoUe, immindful of place, turned 
 out his whole famUy to pay homage to his old master. The 
 act did him no harm with the new governor. Two years after- 
 w,ards he resigned office, to cultivate in retirement his love of 
 jwetry and of nature. His poems descriptive of pastoral scenes 
 reveal the fine spirit of the man, who in his youth took Klopstock 
 to his heart, and in his old age revised the translated works of 
 Shakespeare. He died in 1833. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHEXEVIX, Richard, an Irish chemist of French extraction, 
 died in 1830. Chenevix is known in literature by his " ilantuan 
 Rivals " and tragedy of Henry VII. ; but it is on his chemical 
 writings that his reputation chiefly rests. His earliest work was 
 entitled " Remarks on Chemical Nomenclature according to the 
 System of the French Xeologists," 1802. His " Obser\-ations 
 on Jliaeralogical Systems"' appeared first in a French translation 
 in the Annales de Chimie. It may be added that an " Essay 
 on Natural Character"' was published after his death. — R. JI., A. 
 
 CHEXIER, AxDRE Marie de, a poet, was bom at Constan- 
 tinople on 29th October, 1762. His father, who exercised the 
 functions of consul, married a Greek lady. Andre imbibed, with 
 the knowledge of Greek taught him by his mother, a passionate 
 love for the poets of ancient Greece, whose style he successfully 
 imitated. Brought to Fi-ance when two years old, he was, when 
 arrived at the proper years, sent to the college of Carcassonne. His 
 parents, who ambitiously desired for him a diplomatic career, had 
 him attached to the embassy at London ; but yielding to his over- 
 raling love of letters, he devoted his attention to the study of 
 Milton and Shakspeare. Soon after the outbreak of the French 
 revolution he returned to France, sharing the hopes felt by so 
 many at the outset of that great national movement. Acquainted 
 with Condorcet, Sieyes, and other men of the same high stamp, 
 he was introduced into the distinguished club which met at the 
 palais royal ; and in the character of secretary wrote a manifesto, 
 expressing at once love of liberty and hatred of violence. King 
 Stanislaus sent the writer a medal in testimony of his admiration, 
 but revolutionists of the temper of Camille Desmoulins repudiated 
 such moderate sentiments. As the Jacobite party increased in 
 strength, Andre's opposition to their principles gi-ew more decided 
 and his courage became more conspicuous. On the occasion of 
 the banquet given by the municipality of Paris to the forty-five 
 soldiers who had mutinied, the poet's indignation found vent in a 
 vehement satire, in which he boldly attacked the formidable Collot 
 d'Herbois, the author of the affairj by name. With still more 
 courage he oft'ered himself to Malesherbes, the counsel for the 
 unfortunate Louis XYI., and his ser\ices being accepted, wrote 
 several of the papers for the defence, and was the author of the 
 king's letter to the assembly, claiming right of appeal from its 
 sentence to the judgment of" the people. At last he became so 
 obnoxious to the terrorists that, yielding to the advice of his 
 friends, he retired to Versailles ; but hearing of the arrest of his 
 friend, madame de Pastoret, he flew to her assistance, and com- 
 mitted the further imprudence of getting into an altercation with 
 the officer charged with her arrest. Taken off as a suspected 
 person, his antecedents soon became known, and he was sum- 
 marily examined and condemned by the revolutionary tribunal. 
 While in prison he composed that exquisite production, "La 
 Jeune Captive," inspired by the youth and beauty of his com- 
 panion in misfortune, mademoiselle de Coigny. Fully conscious 
 of his own powers, and thinking that his scattered papers were 
 little likely to be collected, he, on leaving prison for the place of 
 execution, strack his hand against his forehead, saj-ing — " There 
 was something here." He was guillotined with forty-four others, 
 
 25th July, 1794. Twenty-six years afterwards the poems of 
 Andre Chenier appeared for the first time in a collected shape, 
 and were received with a burst of admiration ; and there can be 
 no doubt that his influence on modem French poetrj- was very 
 decided. " The most melodious verses of Lamartine," observes 
 the fine critic, M. de ViUemain, " have perhaps derived inspira- 
 tion from Chenier's poetry, and have not echpsed it." Nor did 
 Victor Hugo and the rising romantique school, whose canons of 
 criticism were directly opposed to those of M. de "Slllemain and 
 his classic followers, show less delight. Under that pure attic 
 form which they thought superannuated, they recognized the 
 trae beat of a fervid heart. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHEXIER, ilARiE Joseph de, brother of the foregoing, 
 bom at Constantinople hi 1764 ; died in 1811. He produced 
 on the 4th of Febraary, 1789, his tragedy of Charies IX., 
 remarkable as an exposure of the crimes of a king of France, 
 while the old regime was yet standing in apparent strength, and 
 remarkable also as ha^g furnished Talma with the part which 
 began his splendid career. The shock which the execution of 
 his brother Andre gave his mind, was felt so profoundly that he 
 wrote nothing more till the year 1804, when he produced the 
 "Advent of Cyrus," meant to please Napoleon by flattering 
 allusions to the new emperor. The old jacobin, while missing 
 the aim of his production, stirred up the anger of former asso- 
 ciates, who saw in him a renegade ; and with the too frequent 
 I'ecklessness of party, they did not hesitate to circulate accusa- 
 tions of his having been privy to his brother's death, for which 
 there does not appear to have been a shadow of proof. Besides 
 his tragedies, which, although they had much success when first 
 produced, are now little remembered, he wrote lyrical pieces, one 
 of which, the " Champ du Depart," almost rivalled the Jlar- 
 seillaise, during the late revolutionary days of February, 1848, 
 as much as it did when the republican youth rushed to the 
 fi-ontier at the cry of "La Patrie est en d.anger." Successively 
 a member of the convention, of the council of Five Hundred, 
 and of the tribunate, ^larie Chenier honourably distinguished 
 himself by his wise zeal in the cause of pubhc education, which 
 he is acknowledged to have much advanced. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHEOPS or CHEilBES and CHEPHREX, ancient kings 
 of Egypt. According to Herodotus, Cheops was a wicked and 
 impious prince. He closed the temples, and robbed his people 
 of their labour. The first and largest pyramid is thought to 
 have been built by him. Chephren, his brother and successor, 
 was not less cmel. It was he who built the second great p}Ta- 
 mid. The Egyptians so inveterately hated these two brothers, 
 that they publi'cly reported that the pyramid had been erected 
 by a shepherd called Philition. — R. M., A. 
 ' CHEROX, Elizabeth Sophia : this artist was bom in 
 Paris in 1648. She was the d.aughter and pupil of Henry 
 Cheron, a painter in enamel. She distinguished herself by her 
 portraits, which were not merely con-ect likenesses, but had the 
 additional ai-tistic merit of bemg good pichires — remarkable for 
 their beauty of colour, graceful design, and dexterity of execution. 
 She painted also historical subjects with marked success; and on 
 the proposal of Le Bran she was received with marked respect 
 and distmction by the Academy of Paris La 1676. She died in 
 1711. She plied the graver fehcitously, and left many plates 
 from original and other designs. — W. T. 
 
 CHEROX, Locis: this painter, the brother of Elizabeth 
 Sophia Cheron, was bom in Paris m 1660. When young, and 
 furnished with means through the liberal love of his sister, he 
 went to prosecute his studies in Italy. He particularly studied 
 the works of Raffaelle and Romano; and on his return to Piins 
 he painted two pictures for the church of Xotre Dame— one bemg 
 " Herodias with the head of John the Baptist," and the other 
 "Acabus before St. Paul." He was a coldly correct pamter, 
 and%vorked as though he k-new design, but did not love it, and 
 neither knew nor loved colour. The religious troubles of Franco 
 compelled him to seek refuge in England, where he obtamed 
 considerable patronage, particularly from the duke of Montague, 
 for whom he painted "The Council of the Gods," "The Judgment 
 of Paris," and other works. He etched several plates in a spirited 
 and agreeable manner. He died in 1713, or in 1723 as others 
 sav, who credit him with the omament.il designs to the edition 
 ofMilton's Paradise Lost, publbhed m 1720.— W. T. 
 
 CHERRY, Andrew, an Iiish actor and dramatic .author, was 
 bom in Limerick on the llth January, 1762, and was the eldest 
 son of John Cherry, an cmuient printer and bookseller of that city.
 
 Andrew received a good education, being intended for the churct; 
 but he was ultimately bound to Mr. James Potts, a printer in 
 Dublin. Potts appears to have been very kind to young Cherry; 
 and being partial to theatres, he generally took the lad with him 
 there, finding that he had a strong turn in that direction. The 
 printing-office was soon deserted by young CheiTy for the stage, 
 and at fourteen years of age he made his first appearance at a 
 temporary theatre fitted up in James' Street. A manager of a 
 strolling company induced Cheny and some other play-struck 
 lads to join him, and with him Cherry continued for ten months, 
 going through the provincial towns all the time, laboriously 
 studying most of the principal characters in tragedy and 
 comedy — half-starved, ill-lodged, and without a shilling in his 
 pocket. At length he was reduced to the verge of starvation, 
 and after four days' fasting the tniant returned to his friends 
 and his trade, to which he attended steadily for three years. 
 Then the old passion came strong upon him, to which was added 
 the passion of love; and so he enlisted under the management of 
 Richard William Knipe as his master, and that of his daughter 
 as his wife. Belfast was for a time the scene of his labour, 
 where he acquired considerable reputation, and in 1797 he got 
 an engagement in the Theatre Royal, Dublin, where his success 
 . was such as soon to place him at the top of his profession as a 
 comic actor. CheiTy accepted an engagement to play in the 
 provinces in England, and returned to Dublin, where he wrote 
 and produced two operatic pieces which were received with 
 general approval. Leaving Ireland once more he went to Jlan- 
 chester, and thence to Bath, where his performance was pro- 
 nounced to be " as finished a picture of the scenic art as had 
 ever been performed on their boards." In 1802 he made his 
 first appearance at Druiy Lane, where he at once established a 
 high character and position. In Februaiy, 1804, Cheny came 
 out as a dramatic author by the production of " The Soldier's 
 Daughter." This comedy had a run of tbirty-five nights to 
 crowded houses during the first season, and has kept the stage 
 ever since. Though somewhat mawkish in sentiment and full 
 of claptraps, it is nevertheless an effective piece, and affords 
 opportunities for good acting. Its great popularity was in no 
 small degree due to the acting of ^Irs. Jordan as Widow Cheerlij, 
 a part afterwards sustained by Miss O'Neile at Covent Garden. 
 In 1805 Cheny brought out "All for Fame," "The Village," 
 and a musical interlude entitled " Spanish Dollars." The follow- 
 ing yeai- he produced " The Travellers," a grand operatic drama, 
 the music of which was composed by Corn. He wrote a few 
 other pieces, and continued to play in Drury Lane till it was 
 buiTied; after which he took the management of a company that 
 travelled through Wales, and of which Edmund Kean was the 
 leading actor. He died at Monmouth on the 7th February, 
 1812, in his fiftieth year.— J. F. W. 
 
 CHERSIPHRON, the Cretan architect who designed the 
 famous temple of Diana at Ephesus, and who, with his son 
 ]\Ietagenes, determined the proportions of the Ionic order, 
 flourished about 5G0 B.C. His wiitings were still extant in the 
 time of Vitruvius. — J. S., G. 
 
 CIIERUBINI, Maria Luigi Caelo Zknobio Sai.vator, 
 a musician, was born at Florence, 14th September, 1760, and 
 died at Paris, 3rd February, 1842. His father, Bartolo, taught 
 him music when he was but six years old ; three years later 
 he began to study composition under Bartolo Felici and his son 
 Alessandro, and upon their death, Bizzari, and subsequently 
 Castnicci, were appointed his masters. The best evidence of 
 his extremely early susceptibility of instruction, and of the suc- 
 cessful result of the teaching he received, is the fact, that in 
 1773 he composed a mass, which is said to have possessed far 
 more than boyish pretensions. This was followed by some 
 other sacred works, and some light pieces for the theatre, of 
 such merit as to draw upon the young artist the attention of 
 the gi-and duke of Tuscany, who gave him a pension to enable 
 him to pursue his studies under the famous Sarti. From 1778 
 till 1782, first at Bologna, and then at Milan, Cherubini received 
 the lessons of this theorist, by which he was trained in the 
 contrapunt.al formula; of the severe Roman school — a discipline 
 to which is to be attributed the earnest character and classic 
 tendency of liis writings. Sarti's instruction, however, was of 
 a nature to develope bis pupil's imagination, as much as to 
 exercise his reason, and thus, so far as teaching might influence 
 his genius, he owed to this master the best elements of his style. 
 During his pupilage, he was often intrusted to write pieces for 
 
 the minor characters in the operas of his master, which were 
 produced without mention of his own name ; and these were 
 not of gi-eater assistance to Sarti in saving his trouble, than of 
 valuable service to Chenibini in exercising his invention while 
 still imder a teacher's direction. In 1780 Cherubini produced 
 his first opera, " Quinto Fabio," which the censm-e of the time 
 pronounced to be of a character too elaborate for its pui^pose — 
 a criticism common to all works of art that aim above the 
 applause of the million, and one which was a surety for the 
 genuine artistic integrity of the career of which this opera was 
 the commencement. Several other works of the same class 
 were brought out by our composer in quick succession at differ- 
 ent Italian cities, with sucli fortune, that in 1785 he was 
 engaged as music director at the king's theatre in London. 
 Here he -nTote " La Finta Principessa " and " Giuho Sabino," 
 and many additional pieces for the operas of other composers. 
 In 1787 he made a sojoum at Paris, where he published some 
 inconsiderable compositions, and then proceeded to Tuiin, where, 
 early in the following year, he produced " Ifigenia in Aulide," 
 the best accredited of his early operas. He returned to Paris in 
 1788, which place was from thenceforward his permanent abode. 
 Cherubini's artistic life assumed a new character from the 
 period of his adopting France as a country, from which time, by 
 writing for its estabhshments and to its language, and becom- 
 ing an active member of its musical institutions, he influenced 
 in a marked degree the progress of his art in that nation. 
 " Demophon," his first French opera, was produced at the 
 academic, 5th December, 1788 ; it had little success, partly 
 because his style was new to the public, and above immediate 
 appreciation ; partly because Vogel, who had recently died, had 
 left an unfinished opera on the same subject, of which the 
 overture had obtained popularity ; but Demophon stamped the 
 character of its author, and gained him a high position in Parisian 
 esteem. In 1789 Cherubini was engaged to direct an Italian 
 opera at the Theatre de la Foire Germain, for which, as previously 
 in London, he composed many pieces to be introduced in the 
 different works that were brought out ; these are noticed for 
 the far gi'eater lightness of their style than that in which he 
 generally wi'ote ; a proof of his capability to adapt his thoughts 
 to the situation for which he conceived them. He made a most 
 important success with " Lodoiska" in 1791, notwithstanding the 
 rivahy of the opera of Kreutzer of the same name ; this was the 
 first of his works that has made a lasting impression. On 
 the establishment of the conser\'atohe in 1795, Chenibini was 
 appointed inspector, and also professor of composition, and in this 
 capacity he has done more than perhaps any one in the establish- 
 ment of a school of music peculiar to France. To pass over 
 several compositions which are now less known, particular men- 
 tion must be made of "Mddee," produced in 1797 at the Theatre 
 Feydeau. This opera underwent some subsequent alterations 
 by the composer ; it is now not unfrequently performed at 
 Frankfort and Berlin, and the soundest judges declare it to be 
 a masterpiece. "L'Hotellerie Portugaise," the name of which is 
 made familiar in England by its favourite overture, was first 
 performed in 1798. The work upon which, above all others, 
 the fame of Chenibini rests, " Les Deux Joumdes," was first 
 performed at the Theatre Feydeau, 16th January, 1800. Though 
 forgotten in France, this most beautiful opera is still, like several 
 others of its author, a standard work at the principal German 
 theatres, where, under the name of "Der Wassertriiger," it ranks 
 high in popular esteem and critical approval. In England little 
 is known of it besides the overture; but this, by the power of its 
 ideas, their admirable development, the peculiarity of its form, 
 and the \'igour and brilliancy of its oi'chestration, gives Cheru- 
 bini a foremost rank among mnsicians, in the estimation of all 
 who set the highest value on the greatest order of artistic pro- 
 ductions. " Anacreon, on I'Amour fugitif," an opera in two acts, 
 the overture of which is here better known, and, far from justly, 
 more admired than any other composition of Cherubini, was 
 produced at the Theatre de I'Opera, 4th October, 1803. The 
 success of his music in Germany, even then exceeding what it 
 met with in Paris, led to his invitation to visit Vienna, where 
 he went in July, 1805. There he reproduced at the imperial 
 theatre his opera of " Lodoiska," with some additions, and he 
 composed for the same establishment the eminently beautiful 
 opera of "Faniska," which was brought out at the commence- 
 ment of the ensuing year. Cherubini returned to Paris in the 
 spring, but produced no work of importance there for some
 
 CHE 
 
 1013 
 
 CHE 
 
 considerable time. He was never in favour with Xapoleon, for 
 which some account by the emperor's liking for light Italian 
 music, others, by his personal disinclination for Cherubini. He 
 wrote, it is true, some odes and other occasional pieces for public 
 festivals during the Bonaparte administration ; but he appears 
 to have had all the ditBculties of the want of com-t countenance 
 to prevent his theatrical prosperity. He spent much of the 
 latter part of 1808 on a visit at Chimay, where he commenced 
 his admired mass in F for three voices, which he completed at 
 Paris the following year. This recurrence to ecclesiastical com- 
 position gave a new direction to his genius ; and the many grand 
 works of the same class — of which that just mentioned is to be 
 dated as the first — that he produced dming the latter half of his 
 career, redound as much to his glory, and prove as decidedly 
 his individuality, as anytliing he wrote. Some circumstances of 
 special good fortune led to his being commissioned to compose a 
 one-act Italian opera, "Pimmalione," to be performed before the 
 emperor at the theatre in the Tuileries in November, 1809 ; and 
 stUl in court favour, he ^vrote an ode for the imperial marriage 
 in the following May. The opera of " Les Abencerages " was 
 produced in 1813, but its first success was greatly quahfied by 
 the public grief for the calamities of Moscow. Cherubini was 
 engaged by our Philharmonic Society in 1815, the third year of 
 its existence, to write an overture, a symphony, and a vocal 
 quartet for their concerts, and he came to London in the Feb- 
 ruary of that year, to complete the commission, and to direct 
 the performance of the works. His celebrity at this time as a 
 composer in the classical style, was second to that of no contem- 
 _ irary, save only Beethoven ; and the active energy of the young 
 ,-ociety whose inaugural concert had been opened with his 
 overture to Anacreon, directed this application, as a measure 
 for advancing the art for the furtherance of which they were 
 associated. The result proved, however, that their estimate was 
 erroneous of Cheruhini's genius, the power of which was quite 
 unfitted for concert composition ; neither the overture nor the 
 symphony was ever played after the first performance. 
 
 The Bourbon restoration made a complete change in the 
 circumstances of our composer, if not in the consideration in 
 which the world held him ; he was appointed in 1816 .•mr- 
 intendant de la musique du roi and master of the royal chapel ; 
 he was created chevalier of the legion of honour, and invested 
 with the order of St. Michael ; and these beams of royal gi'ace 
 were reflected by the public establishments, the Institut des 
 beaux Arts admitting him as a member, and the consen-atoire, on 
 its reorganization, appointing him chief professor of composi- 
 tion. From this time until the choir was dismembered in 
 consequence of the revolution of 1830, Cherubini was indefati- 
 gable in his labours for the service of the chapel ; he produced, in 
 the year of his appointment his masterly requiem in C minor, 
 and this was followed by a constant succession of masses and 
 lesser pieces of ecclesiastical music. Of these may be specialized 
 the mass in G, composed in 1819 for the coronation of Louis 
 XVIII., and that in A, compiising an unusual number of pieces 
 for the coronation of Charles X., which was completed in April, 
 1825. He was installed dkector of the conser\-atoire in 1822, 
 and held this most important office till his death. The celebrated 
 party led by Baillot, played in 1829 Cherubini's violin quartet 
 in E flat, which was written fifteen years previously ; the impres- 
 sion made by this induced the composer to adapt as a quartet 
 the symphony produced in London, transposing the work from 
 the key of D to C, and substituting a new adagio for a move- 
 ment of the original. These quartets were published with a 
 third, and dedicated to the eminent violinist to whose playing is 
 due the good effect they made ; their merit entitles them to no 
 distinction, and it is scarcely to be supposed that his several 
 subsequent works of the same class which have not been printed, 
 can possess any gi-eater interest, since these prove the author's 
 entire want of feeling for the style, and aptitude for the fonn 
 of instrumental chamber music. In 1831 Cherubini wrote a 
 portion, in company with several others, of the opera of "La 
 Marquise de BrinvilUers," and in 1833 produced "Ali Baba " at 
 the academic, portions of which had been long composed, but 
 which had been extended from three into four acts, and finally 
 completed, immediately before its performance. The success of 
 this work, remarkable for its merit, and still more so from the 
 great age of its author, was but indifferent in I'aris ; the opera, 
 however, excited the warmest admiration in Germany, where it 
 was received with applause, and criticized with enthusiasm. The 
 
 last composition of magnitude that Cherubini produced was his 
 requiem for male voices, which he wTote in 183G, because a 
 recent ecclesiastical regulation forbidding the employment of 
 females in church choirs, had prevented the performance of his 
 requiem in C minor at the funeral of Boieldieu, in the preceding 
 year. This extraordinarj- effort of a man of seventy -six years 
 proves the unabated activity of Ms mind, if not the unexhausted 
 freshness of his mvention ; it was first performed at the obse- 
 quies of the composer. The last srs years of Cherubini's life 
 were constantly occupied in composition, and in the discharge 
 of his duties at the consenatou-e. A month before his death. 
 Louis Philippe conferred on him the grand cross of the legion of 
 honom-, this being the only occasion on which that special 
 distinction has been received by a musician ; and the most rare 
 tesrimony to the eminence of the master may be regarded as a 
 symbol of the reverence of the whole artistic world. 
 
 Cherubini produced twenty-four complete operas, besides par- 
 ticipating in the composition of four more with other authors, 
 writmg many additional pieces for introduction in standard works, 
 and commencing several operas which he abandoned. He wrote 
 eighteen masses besides his two requiems, and an enormous 
 number of minor pieces for the church. He composed many 
 odes and cantatas for the frequent public occasions of the first 
 quarter of a century of his residence in Paris, and chamber 
 music of almost every class, to a scarcely conceivable extent. 
 His countless solfeggios and other exercises for the use of the 
 conservatoire, are held in great estimation. In addition to these 
 works of instruction, he was prominently concerned ui writing 
 the trearise on singing adopted by the same institution, and his 
 course of counterpoint and fugue is one of the most perspicuous 
 books upon the subject that exists. Of this last, however, it 
 must be admited, that admirable as are its rules, and lucid as is 
 their explanation, there is not one of them which is not violated 
 in some or other of the illustrative examples — a fact to induce 
 the supposition that the principles may have been taken down 
 from his oral teaching, and the examples supplied by one of his 
 pupils who had a better memory for the rules than capacity for 
 their application, and this at a period when the infirmity of 
 advancing age disinclined the master for his strict revision of the 
 work. Cherubini's position is unique in the history of his art ; 
 actively before the world as a composer for threescore years and 
 ten, his career spans over more vicissitudes in the progress of 
 music than that of any other man. Beginning to write in the 
 same year with Cimarosa, and even earlier than Slozart, and 
 being the contemporary of Verdi and of 'Wagner, he witnessed 
 almost the origin of the two modem classic schools of France 
 and Germany, their rise to perfection, and, if not their decUne, 
 the anival of a time when criticism would usurp the place of 
 creation, and when, to propound new rules for art, claims higher 
 consideration than to act according to its ever unalterable prin- 
 ciples. His artistic life was indeed a rainbow based upon the two 
 extremes of modem music, which shed light and glory on the 
 great art cycle over which it arched. Notwithstanding the great 
 merit of some of his overtures, this appears to have been the 
 result of momentary inspiration rather than of masten.- in that 
 style of writing ; for he was manifestly deficient in the principles 
 of constmction, and instrumental music was therefore a depart- 
 ment m which he was unqualified for success. Though evincing 
 a rare power of dramatic effect, even the best of his operas are 
 blemished by a disregard of the exigencies of the scene, which 
 are often sacrificed to the technical development of the musical 
 idea. His excellence consists in his unswening earnestness of 
 purpose, in the individuality of his manner, in the vigour of his 
 ideas, in the fluency of his melody, and in the purity of his 
 hamiony. His personal manners appear to have been harsh 
 and repulsive to strangers, but to liave growni so cordial with 
 famiUaritv, as to have bound to him in inseparable friendship all 
 who approached near enough to him to experience his amiable 
 qualities. Foremost in the fist of his friends was M. nal(\7, who 
 witnessed his dying moments. A singular proof of the orderly 
 precision of mind which eminently cliaracterizes his scores, is an 
 accurate chronological catalogue in his own writing of everything 
 he composed from 1773 to 1839, by which interesting document 
 the chief facts of the present notice have been verified. In conclu- 
 sion, his powerfully beneficial influence upon music in France is 
 proved by his hanng produced as pupils the following — the most 
 eminent musicians of that countrj- of the present centurj-— Boiel- 
 dieu, Aiiber, Carafa, HaMvy, and Derton. — G. A. M.
 
 CHESELDEX, Wiixi.ur, a distinguislied surgeon and ana- 
 tomist, born iu Leicestershire in 1688. At tlie age of fifteen he 
 commenced his medical studies in London, and at the early age 
 of twenty-two he began himself to give lectm-es on anatomy, of 
 which a syllabus was printed in 1711. TOl then such lectm'cs 
 were very uncommon in England, ha-s-ing only been introduced 
 by M. Bussicre, a French refugee, a surgeon of gi-eat cmmence 
 in the reign of Queen Anne. He was elected into the Eoyal 
 Society in 1712, and contributed many papere to the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions. One of the most remarkable of them 
 is an account of the sensations of a youth of fourteen, blind 
 from his infancy, on recovering his sight by the formation of an 
 artificial pupil. This paper has been much quoted by meta- 
 physical writers, and the operation, now common, was then 
 perfectly new, and added greatly to Cheselden's reputation. In 
 1713 he pubUshed a work on anatomy which passed through 
 several editions, and was long the text-book of that science in 
 the medical schools. He became surgeon to St. Thomas,' and 
 afterwai-ds to St. George's and the Westminster hospitals. As 
 an operator and skilful surgeon he was unrivalled, and has per- 
 haps never been surpassed in dexterity and coolness ; he is said 
 also to have been as tender as he was skilful. He was almost 
 the fii-st surgeon to operate successfully in lithotomy. We are 
 told that out of forty-two patients who came under his hands 
 for this operation he lost but one — the present average being at 
 least six in that number. In 1723 he published a work on the 
 subject, and in 1733, his great work on the bones, which he 
 dedicated to Queen Caroline, appeared. It was a series of plates 
 of natural size with short descriptions, and was then unequalled 
 in execution and accuracy. Cheselden was an ultimate friend 
 of Pope, and seems to have had a turn for rhyming himself; and 
 he was more gratified by a compliment on a well-tmned extem- 
 pore stanza than by being called the first operator in Em'ope. 
 In 1737, after a brilliant professional career, he retired from 
 practice at the age of forty-nine — it is said partly in disgust at 
 the jealousies and asperities to which his success had exposed 
 hnu. In his leisure he undertook the duties of honoraiy surgeon 
 to Chelsea hospital, which he retained for the rest of his life. 
 His last contribution to science was a series of plates, with 
 original remarks, appended to Gataker's translation of Le Dran's 
 Surgeiy. In 1743 Cheselden was elected sheriff of London 
 and Middlesex with Horatio Townsend, Esq. He, however, did 
 not serve. In 1751 he suffered an attack of apoplexy, from 
 which he recovered, but a return of the complaint caused his 
 sudden death at Bath on the 10th of April, 1752, in his sixty- 
 fourth year. Cheselden's reputation as a surgeon was solid, and 
 will be lasting. In his character there was much to admire, 
 though we cannot but regret that he should have prided himself on 
 talents for literature and classics which he ihd not possess, instead 
 of endeavouring to consolidate his reputation on the trae basis 
 of his professional knowledge and great skill. — E. L. 
 
 CHESXE, AsDRi r>v. See Du Chesne. 
 
 * CHESXEY, Francis Rawdox, was bom in Bal]y\-ea in the 
 north of Ireland, on the 16th of March, 1789. Being destined 
 from an early age for the army he was educated at Wool- 
 wich, whence he entered the Eoyal Jlilitary Academy in January, 
 1804. In November following he passed his examination for 
 the royal artillery, and obtained a fii-st lieutenancy on the 28th 
 October, 1805. His regiment was sent to Guernsey in lilarch, 
 1808, to protect the Channel Island harbours, where he remained 
 some time on the staff as aid-de-camp to Sir A. Gladstanes, 
 occupying himself in studying military tactics. Having obtained 
 his captaincy in 1815, he was withdrawn from active ser\-ice 
 till 1821, when he was sent to Gibraltar, whence he returned in 
 1825, after the death of his wife. He now formed the project 
 of exploiiiig the Niger, but the expedition was abandoned, and 
 Chesney then occupied his active mind in visiting the great 
 battle-fields of Europe. He next went to Turkey, with the 
 recommendation of Sir Sydney Smith, and was employed by the 
 Porte in fortifying the passes of the Balkan ; but his operations 
 were inteiTupted by the treaty of Adrianople. He now travelled 
 through Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, the result of which was 
 the publication of the first report on the steam navigation to 
 India by way of the Red Sea. A subsequent tour of inspection 
 was undertaken through Palestine and Arabia Petrea; and 
 embarking on the Euphrates at Anah on a raft na^^gated by 
 three Arabs, and accompanied by a Turk as an Intei-preter, and 
 a young boy, he descended as far as the Indian ocean. The 
 
 narrative of this exploration is one of the most interesting on 
 record. Chesney returned to England in 1832, and in 1834, 
 the house of commons having granted £20,000 for the fmther 
 prosecution of experiments in relation to the two I'outes, an 
 expedition was fitted out, the command of which was given to 
 Chesney with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, who sailed fi-om 
 Liverpool on the 10th of Februun-, 1835. After unexampled 
 difficulties which occupied nine months, in transporting two iron 
 steam vessels across the desert, they were launched on the 
 Euphrates, and the expedition commenced to descend the river 
 on the 16th of March, 1836. One of these vessels, the Tigris, 
 with all her instruments, journals, and surveys, was wrecked in 
 a hurricane, when Chesney, who was on board, with difficulty 
 escaped, his too lieutenants and most of the crew being drowned. 
 With undaunted courage Chesney persevered, detennining to take 
 on himself the risk of continuing the enterprise ; and accordingly 
 he proceeded with the other vessel and reached the Indian ocean 
 in safety on the 19th of June. After making extensive surveys, 
 he ascended the Tigiis as far as Bagdad. Another ascent of 
 the river was subsequently made and valuable smTeys com- 
 pleted, and Chesney returned to England just after the death of 
 William IV. In 1846 Chesney was m.ade lieutenant-colonel, 
 and in 1850 he published "The Expedition for the Surveys of 
 the rivers Tigris and Euphrates," iu two vols. He obtained his 
 colonelcy the following year. He has since published observa- 
 tions on firearms and their probable effects in war, and a nan-a- 
 tive of the Russo-Tm-kish campaigns of 1828-29. — J. F. W. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Eari of, 
 was bom in London, September 22, 1694. He is famous in 
 litei-ary history as the author of those confidential letters to 
 his son, which, while reducing gentlemanly beha%-iour to a syste- 
 matic art, attempt the elaboration of a science of life so shrewd 
 as to render its devotee the master of fools and knaves, even in 
 matters of worldly interest and repute ; so adapted to vai-ying 
 circumstances as to lessen the chances of a " checkmate " in 
 any schemes of personal pleasure or ambition ; so fascinating in 
 its grace as to render ladies, courtiers, and princes unconscious 
 servants of its will. Lord Chesterfield stands the representative 
 of that class of "men of the world," who may more justly be 
 said to exalt etiquette into a moral system with its own special 
 characteristics, than to bring down morality to etiquette, and 
 who, while sanctioning indulgences from which pm-er teachers 
 justly shrink, at the same time uplift matters of behaviom' into 
 certain principles of conduct, vrithont which sanctity itself can- 
 not make manifest the perfection of its inward chaims. In the 
 absence of any con-esponding English terms, Chesterfield must 
 be described as Thomme coinme ilfuut, who practised the art de 
 savoir vivre. He studied at Cambridge, not without distinction. 
 He could read Greek with ease; and pm'sned mathematics under 
 the eminent blind professor, Saunderson, attending also classes in 
 civil law and philosophy. The desire to excel others was veiy 
 strongly implanted In his nature, and he felt great sympathy 
 with the saying of Julius Csesar, that he would rather be the 
 first in a village than the second in Rome. This resolute wish 
 to outstrip others was so powerful within him, th.at he applied it, 
 according to his o\vn confession, to vices as well as virtues. He 
 refen-ed the vices of his youth not to any natural inclination, but 
 to a resolution not to be second to any "man of pleasm-e." "I 
 always naturally hated hard drinldng," he wrote in one of his 
 confidential letters, " and yet I have often dnmk with disgust, 
 only because I then considered drinking as a necessity for a fine 
 gentleman." With even-handed justice, however, he applied 
 the same principle to his studies as well as to his enjoyments, 
 and became sufficiently accomplished to enjoy the friendship of 
 Pope, Bolingbroke, and Montesquieu. His confession about his 
 pleasm-es must, therefore, be in fairness united to his other and 
 nobler declaration — "I used to think myself in company as much 
 above me, when I was with ]\Ir. Addison and !Mr. Pope, as If I 
 had been with all the princes in Europe." On lea\nng the iml- 
 versity, Chesterfield travelled in Holland, Italy, and France. He 
 had leai'nt French from his nurse, and not only was a perfect 
 French scholar, but so enthusiastic an admirer of the graceful 
 side of the French character, that he reverenced a cultivated 
 Frenchman as the type of a perfect man. He often said that 
 the "perfection of human nature" was manifested in a French- 
 man who united the manners and good breeding of his country, 
 with a fund of vu-tue, learning, and good sense. He cultivated 
 his character according to this favourite standard, more success-
 
 f.illv than Englishmen generally are able to do, and frequently 
 •ceived in Paris the compliment — "Monsieur, vous etes tout 
 ■mme nous." Lord Chestertield returned to England upon the 
 ocession of George I., and entered the house of commons, where 
 
 :.:< very characteristic fear of being ridiculed kept him from 
 .king anv frequent part in the debates, although his talents 
 
 - on made a favourable impression. Upon the death of his 
 ; Lther in 1726, he took his place in the house of lords, which 
 
 rrorded a more favourable theatre for displacing the polishe(J 
 ubtilty of his cultured style both of thought and speech. In 
 1728 he was appointed ambassador to Holland, and for Ids con- 
 uuct on this mission, received from George II., who had come to 
 tlie throne in 1727, the order of the garter, and an appomtment 
 i:i the royal household. He was recalled from the Hague in 
 1732, but shortly returned to fill the same office as before. 
 Subsequently he became viceroy of Ireland ; and in 1 748 was 
 .'Ivanced to the dignity of secretary of state and member of the 
 ibinet. Although the fall of Walpole in 17-12, whom Chester- 
 eld had steadily opposed for ten years, apparently left for him 
 J open path to a position of the highest authority, yet he never 
 
 - cured any very considerable political power. He injured his 
 rospects of advancement early in his career, by a mistake of a 
 laracter, not uncommon among adepts in that peculiar know- 
 jge of the world upon which he prided himself, and over- 
 ,;ched himself by basing his calculations too exclusively upon 
 
 I lie weakness of human nature. In order to secure the favour of 
 (leorge II. before his accession to the throne, Chesterfield paid 
 I 'urt to him through his mistress ; and this was neither for- 
 _ 'tten nor forgiven by George's wife, Caroline of Anspach, when 
 leeii of England. In addition to the adverse influence thus 
 :ought to bear upon his career, Chesterfield's shrewd insight 
 ; to the failings of men was not united with an equal amount 
 : practical mauagiug skill. He was rather the critical observer, 
 iio can detect mistakes made by players at chess, when looking 
 ^;i unbiassed by the eager anxiety of the game, than himself 
 the master of the board. In 1744, when in his fiftieth year, 
 Chesterfield's health began to fail, and his political ambition not 
 having been sufficiently gratified to encourage him in running 
 any risks, or putting himself to much anxiety on its behalf, he 
 retired from public life. The great interest of his life was now 
 concentrated upon the education of his son. Philip Stanhope, 
 an illegitimate child, his mother being madame de Bouchet, a 
 French lady whom Lord Chesterfield had met in Holland, deeply 
 absorbed both his afl'ection and his ambition. He would train up 
 the child systematically and firmly, and create a model states- 
 man, who should be the most educated, the most polished, and 
 the most powerful courtier in Europe. Chesterfield accordingly 
 commenced a confidential correspondence with the young lad in 
 his earliest years, and continued it untU his manhood. Dr. 
 Johnson's ofien-quoted criticism upon these letters, that they 
 teach " the morals of a coiu-tesan and the manners of a dancing- 
 master," fails in justice. Chesterfield urges upon his son that 
 Lis first duty is towards God ; his second to obtain knowledge ; 
 and his third to be weU-bred ; and very evidently does not 
 intend to spare any weakness, or to corrupt any principle, but 
 has a certain ideal of character into the likeness of which he is 
 striving to fashion his child's mind and conduct. He beheved 
 himself a severe rather than an over-indulgent monitor. " Be 
 persuaded," he writes, " that I shall love you extremely while 
 you deserve it, but not one moment longer." With respect to 
 mental culture, the discipline directed is firm and wise, and 
 embraces a range of subjects not usual among the young men of 
 the day. Apprqfondi^sez, he urges again imd again, go to the 
 bottom of things ; anything half done and half known, is, in my 
 mind, neither known nor done at all. The precepts enjoined 
 concerning good manners, often coincide with the sweet graces 
 of a true christian gentleness. The well-bred man is described 
 as one who remembers that honest errors are to be pitied and 
 not ridiculed ; who can converse with his inferiors without 
 insolence, and be at perfect ease with kings ; who is indulgent 
 towards other people's innocent though ridiculous vanities ; who 
 is carefal never to make another fear a mortiiying inferiority in 
 knowledge, rank, and fortune, and is never indifferent about 
 pleasing. \Miile, however, there are principles inculcated which 
 would carry a man to the height of christian virtue — as when it 
 is declared that he would much rather die than do a base or 
 criminal action — other principles are ako urged which would lead 
 to Toluptuousness and hypocrisy. The moraUty of Cato is 
 
 forgotten in that of Alcibiades : and the didactic dignity of a 
 Xestor advising a Telemachus is mingled with the libertiidsm of 
 a refined count de Grammont. Lord Chesterfield felt no passion 
 to reform the world, he would simply master it and enjoy it ; 
 hence he directs his son to take kings and kingdoms as he finds 
 them, and never to deprive himself of anything he wanted to do 
 or see, by refusing to comply with an established custom ; and 
 lays down the principle that, while every one should think as he 
 pleases, "or rather as he can," no one should communicate ideas 
 which might trouble the peace of society. " Leave people tran- 
 quilly to enjoy," he writes, " their errors of taste as of religion." 
 The son, upon whose education Chesterfield lavished such anxious 
 care, proved a man of sense and learning, rather deficient than 
 otherwise in the graces upon which such stress had been laid, 
 and became envoy at the com-t of Madrid, but died before his 
 father, when in his twenty-sixth year. Dr. Johnson dedicated 
 to Chesterfield the plan of his dictionary, declaring himself 
 overpowered by the enchantment of his address; but concei\-ing 
 that he was unduly neglected, indignautly rejected the praise 
 Chesterfield lavished on it upon its pnbhcation, and took his 
 revenge by substituting the VkOii patron for garret in his famous 
 couplet — 
 
 " Yet think what ills the scholar's life assail. 
 Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail."' 
 
 Dr. Johnson's testimony to the learning and grace of Chesterfield 
 is, however, striking — "His manner was exquisitely elegant, and 
 he had more knowledge than I expected.'' During his latter 
 days Chesterfield was afflicted with deafness, and hved entirely 
 apart from the world, solacing himself with fiterature and gar- 
 dening. He cultivated fine melons and peaches, and awaited 
 death without desiring or fearing its approach. Lord Chester- 
 field died !^L^rch 24, 1773. The best edition of his works is in 
 3 vols., 4to, London, 1777. — L. L. P. 
 
 CHETH.Al^I, Hcjiphret, founder of the college and library 
 at 5Ianchester which bears his name, was bom in 1580, and died 
 in 1653. He was the third son of Henry Chetham of Cramprall, 
 a Lancashire proprietor. Of his personal history little is known, 
 except that, having engaged in trade, he realized a large fortune, 
 and that he was high sheriff of the county of Lancaster in 1635. 
 He died unmarried, and made provision in his will for the erec- 
 tion of the college and library with which his name is still 
 associated. The design of the former was to maintain and 
 educate forty poor boys. Since 1780, however, this number has 
 been doubled. Chetham gave £1000 to found the Ubrary, and 
 left to it besides what remained of his estate after endowing the 
 school and pro%'iding for other charities and bequests. It is one 
 of the few really free libraries in the kingdom, and contains, 
 besides its thousands of valuable books, a great number of rare 
 manuscripts. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHETWOOD, KxiGHTLT, D.D., a learned di^-ine of the 
 church of England, bom in 1652 ; died in 1720. He contributed 
 a "Life of Lvcurgns" to the translation of Plutarch's Lives 
 pubhshed in 1683. The "Life of Virgil," and the preface to 
 the Pastorals prefixed to Dryden's Virgil, were from the pen of 
 this ingenious writer. He rose to be dean of Gloucester. 
 
 CHETWOOD, WiLLiASi Rms, author of a " General 
 History of the Stage," 1749; died in 1766. He followed for 
 some time the calling of a bookseller in Covent Garden, and in 
 later life was prompter at Drury Lane theatre. — J. S., G. 
 
 CH'ETWYXD, John-, a learned and eloquent Enghsh writer, 
 bom in 1623 ; died in 1692. He was vicjir of Temple in Bristol, 
 and prebendaiT of the cathedral. His now scarce and curious 
 work, "Anthologia Historica," was pubhshed in 1674, and 
 reprinted in 1691, with the title of "Collections, Historica], 
 Political, Theolo^cal," &c.— J. S., G. 
 
 CHEVALIER, AsTOixE-RoDOLrnE, a French philologist, 
 bom in 1507 ; died in 1572. Chevaher acceded to the n-fomied 
 faith, and became professor of Hebrew at Geneva. He afterwards 
 went to Caen, where, on account of persecution, he pa.ssed into 
 England. It is said that he t.aught Queen Elizabeth French. 
 He'was also appointed to teach Hebrew at Cambridge, where he 
 remained till his return to Caen. — R. JL, A. 
 
 CHEVALIER, Etiexxe. tre.isurer of France, was bom abont 
 1410, and died in 1474. He began his career in the service of 
 the Constable Artus de Richemont ; but soon passed into th.it 
 of the king, Charles VIL, who made him treasurer of France in 
 1452. He was attached to the embassy sent to England in 
 1445 to negotiate a peace ; was appointed one of her executors
 
 CHE 
 
 1016 
 
 CHE 
 
 by Agnes Sorrel in 1450, and, as a last mark of his favour, was 
 similarly honoured by his royal master. Chevalier continued to 
 enjoy his places and pensions under Louis XI. — R. M., A. 
 
 * CHEVALIER, IMichel, a celebrated French political 
 economist, born at Limoges in 1806. Having passed through 
 the polytechnic school, and studied for two years in the Ecole 
 des mines, he was appointed engineer to the department of the 
 north, in which capacity the revolution of 1830 found him. 
 With the revolution sprung up the socialist sect of the Saint 
 Simonians, of which M. Chevalier became an ai-dent member. 
 The Globe newspaper having been started as the organ of the 
 sect, it devolved on M. Chevalier, as chief editor, to vindicate 
 doctrines which the government of July considered to be subver- 
 sive of social order. The model establishment at Wenilmontant 
 was broken up by the police. M. Thiers, as lenient towards 
 the members as he was hostile to theu- system, oftered employ- 
 ment to those di'eamy spirits not unworthy of theu- talents 
 and ambition. The editor of the Globe was sent to the United 
 States to study the American system of railways. His letters 
 from that countiy, written in 1832, enriched the columns of 
 the Journal des Debats. So well did he fulfil the objects of 
 his mission, that he was authorized to go to England in 1836, 
 to make a report on the causes of the commercial crisis of that 
 year. After this he laboured, chiefly through the Debats, to 
 prove to the French people the necessity of railway undertakings, 
 with respect to which the country was miserably behindhand ; 
 and was rewarded for his pains by a seat in the council of state, 
 and by a chau- of political economy in the college of France. In 
 this capacity the professor boldly advocated free-trade. Having 
 been elected deputy for L'Aveyron, his constituents punished the 
 free-trader by turning him out on the occasion of the general 
 election for 1846. The republic of 1848 treated him still worse, 
 for it abolished his professorship. The empire not only restored 
 him to his chair, but raised him to the rank of senator. — J. F. C. 
 
 CHEVALLIER, Francois Fulgis, a French botanist, died 
 m 1840. He pubUshed a flora of the environs of Paris, and 
 devoted attention specially to ciyptogamic plants. He wrote a 
 history of the natural order gi-aphideaj, in which he gives valuable 
 anatomical and physiological details, as well as a classification of 
 the genera. A large work containing illustrations of European 
 fungi was left incomplete at his death. — J. H. B. 
 
 CHEVERUS, Jeas-Louis-Anne-!Madeleine Lefebvke, 
 DE, a French cardinal, who being di'iven from his countiy by 
 the troubles of the Revolution, settled at Boston in America, 
 and there dm-ing many years by indefatigable labours as a priest 
 and a philanthropist, secured the highest esteem not only of his 
 co-religionists, but of the general community — was born at 
 llayenne in 1768. Obliged by ill-health to return to France in 
 1823, he was received with raptiu-e by his countrpnen, and was 
 appointed by the king bishop of Montauban, and shortly after- 
 wards archbishop of Bordeaux. He died in 1836. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHEVREAU, Urbain, born at Loudon in 1613; died in 
 1701. Of his earher life little is known, except that he was 
 fond of travelling, and found the means of living abroad. In 
 16o2 we find him at Stockholm secretary to Queen Christina. 
 We find him afterwards at Heidelberg consellor of the Elector- 
 palatine Charles-Louis. He is mentioned as the instrument 
 used in the conversion of the Princess-palatine Charlotte Eliza- 
 beth, when this step was adopted as a convenient arrangement, 
 previous to her mairiage with the due d'Orleans. After the 
 elector's death he returned to P;u-is, and was appointed, first, 
 preceptor, and afterwards private secretary of the due du llaine. 
 He subsequently retired to Loudon, where the rest of his life was 
 past in study and in the cultivation of flowers. He pubhshed 
 several dramatic works and romances. A work of his, giving an 
 account of the gi-eat rebelhons which have changed the face of 
 society, was at one time popular. It has been printed sometimes 
 with the title of " Tableaux de la Fortune," sometmies as " Ettets 
 de la Fortune." Another of his works, " Histohe du Monde," 
 has been veiy often reprinted. He is accused of hanng, in the 
 earlier part of his work, made too much use of rabbinical 
 legends. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHEVRIER, Francois Antoine, born at Nancy about 
 1720 ; died at Rotterdam in 1752. Chevrier's life was irregular 
 and unfortunate. His talents were considerable, his education 
 good, and he entered life with high prospects. He was for a 
 short time in the army, which, however, he left from some 
 impulse of literary ambition. "He thought," says Gustave 
 
 Desnoireterres, " that he could better use fi pen than a sword ; 
 but in his hand the pen became a dagger." He published a 
 history of the illustrious John of Lorraine, and was banished or 
 had to fly the country. It is said that he was sentenced to the 
 galleys for calumny. This is unlikely, for we find him soon after 
 the publication at Paris, engaged in scribbling obscene and 
 libellous pamphlets. He has to quit France, hides for awhile 
 somewhere m Germany, and is next found at the Hague. Here 
 he contiimes his libels ; but not feeling himself safe from the 
 French government, to whom he is afraid of being deUvered up, 
 he gets to Rotterdam, and here dies so suddenlj' that poison is 
 suspected. His works, all of them produced to pi-ovide for the 
 wants of the passing day, are veiy numerous. "The Colporteur" 
 is still looked at occasionally. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHEYNE, George, a distinguished physician, was born in 
 Scotland in the year 1670. He was intended by his parents for 
 the church, but after attending the lectures of Dr. Archibald 
 Pitcairn he determined to study medicine. He took his degi'ee 
 of M.D. in Edinburgh and came to London about the year 
 1700, and soon after published his "Theory of Fevers," m which 
 he attempts to explain the doctrine of secretion on mechanical 
 principles. His next work, on "Fluxions," was published in 
 1705, and procm'ed his admission into the Royal Society. This 
 work was rather severely critcised by Drs. Oliphant and De 
 Moiore. In after life he acknowledged the justice of their 
 remarks, which gave him gi-eat oflence at the time. A work 
 entitled "Philosophical Principles of Natural Rehgion" was 
 dedicated to the earl of Roxburgh, for whose use it seems to 
 have been written. Cheyne's natural and hereditary disposition 
 to corpulency, increased by full living in London, soon under- 
 mined his health, and he gives a very graphic description of his 
 symptoms in a work entitled "The English Malady," published 
 in 1734. His size became prodigious, so that at one time he 
 weighed thirty-two stones. He says — "My breath became so 
 short that upon stepping into my chariot quickly and with some 
 effort, I was ready to faint away for want of breath, and my 
 face tm-ned black." His own sufferings seem to have led him 
 to determuie on a rigid diet as the only means of cure, and 
 and after trying various forms of food, he confined himself to 
 "seeds, bread, mealy roots, and milk." This treatment answered 
 so well in his own case that he recommended it strongly to his 
 patients, and enforced it on all those who would listen to him. 
 Having been of a very social and jovial disposition, often indulg- 
 ing too freely in the pleasures of the table, this change in his 
 habits was the more remarkable, and lost him the acquaintance 
 of many who had before taken delight in his company. He thus 
 mentions the fact in the account of his own case. "On tliis 
 occasion aU my bouncing, protesting, undertaking companions 
 forsook me, and dropt oft' like autumnal leaves ; they could not 
 bear, it seems, to see then- companion in such misery and distress, 
 but retired to cheer themselves with a cheerupping cup, leaving 
 me to pass the melancholy moments with my own apprehensions 
 and remorse. Even those who had shared the best part of my 
 profusions, who had been assisted in their necessities by my false 
 generosity, and in their disorders reheved by my care, did now 
 entirely rehnquish and abandon me, so that I was forced to 
 retire into the countr}- quite alone, being reduced to the state of 
 Cardinal Wolsey when he said 'that if he had seiTed his Maker 
 as faithfully and warmly as he had his prince, he would not have 
 forsaken him in that extremity ;' and so will eveiT one find when 
 union and friendship are not founded on solid \ii-tue or in con- 
 foiTnity to the divine order, but in sensual pleasures, and mere 
 jollity." He goes on to say how at this time he began to look 
 to religion for comfort and consolation, and "at last came to 
 this fii-m and settled resolution, to neglect nothing to secure my 
 eternal peace, more than if I had been certified I should die 
 within the day; nor to mind anything that my secular avocations 
 and duties demanded of me less than if I had been insured to 
 live fifty years more. This, though with mfinite weakness and 
 imperfection, has been my settled intention in the main since." 
 On his recovery to health he gradually returned to a more 
 generous diet, tliough after repeated attacks of illness he again 
 resumed his milk and fiirinaceous regimen, which he continued 
 until his death in 1742, which took place at Bath. Dr. 
 Cheyne's published works are sis in number, all bearing the 
 impress of earaestness and a desu-e for trath. They are very 
 interesting as the opinions and practice of an intelligent phy- 
 sician of that period, combmed with the thoughts and aspu-ations
 
 of a religious and earnest man. The titles of the works are 
 as follows — "An Essay of Health and Long Life ; " "An Essay 
 of the true nature and due method of sneetuig the Gout : 
 together with an account of the nature and quality of Bath 
 Waters, the manner of using them, and the diseases in -which 
 they are proper;" "A New Theoiy of acute and slow-continued 
 Fevers;" "Philosophical Principles of Rehgion, Natural and 
 Revealed;" and "Fluxioni ^lethodus Inducta." — E. L. 
 
 CHEYNE, James, an eminent mathematician and pliiloso- 
 pher, boni in Aberdeenshire in fhe early part of the sixteenth 
 century; died in 1G02. With John Henderson, under whom he 
 studied divinity at Aberdeen, he went over to France to escape 
 the troubles of the Reformation period, and became professor of 
 philosophy at the college of St. Barbe in Paris. He afterwards 
 resided in the same capacity at Douay. His works are princi- 
 pally on scholastic subjects ; commentaries on Aristotle, &c. 
 
 CHEYNE, John, a physician of great eminence, a descen- 
 dant of Dr. George Chei,-ne, and belonging to a family connected 
 with the medical profession for many generations. His father 
 practised at Leith, where his son John was bom on 8rd Feb., 
 1777. His mother was an ambitious woman of honom-able 
 principles, constantly stimulating her children to exertion, and 
 intently occupied with their advancement in life. She was the 
 daughter of ilr. William Edmonston, a fellow of the College of 
 Surgeons, Edinburgh. After passing foiir years at the gi-ammar 
 school at Leith, young Cheyne was sent to the high school of 
 Edinburgh, under the care of the rector. Dr. Adam, into whose 
 class the boy was immediately introduced. Being totally unpre- 
 pared for such a position, he was rendered very unhappy at not 
 being able to keep up with his companions, and he often feigned 
 sickness, in order to be kept from school. He was afterwai-ds 
 placed under the care of a clergyman of the episcopal church of 
 Scotland, who proved to be a bad tutor and an idle dissipated 
 man ; so that the time spent with him was productive of no good 
 to young Cheyne. Li his twelfth year he began to attend his 
 father's poor patients, and thus gained a certain knowledge of 
 disease, which was useful to him afterwards. In his sixteenth 
 year he attended lectm-es in the university of Edinburgh; and 
 with a very imperfect knowledge of his profession, by the aid of 
 a system technically called " grinding, " he was enabled to take 
 his medical degi-ee in June, 1795. On the day after his gradu- 
 ation, having previously procured a sm-geon's diploma, he left 
 Edinburgh for Woolwich, where he joined a regiment of royal 
 artillery, to which he had been appointed assistant-surgeon. 
 From 1795 to 1799 he spent his time, as was the custom in 
 the army, m reading novels, shooting, planng billiards, and such 
 follies, gaining nothing but a certain ease of bearing and man- 
 ner. At last he seems to have awakened to a sense of the folly 
 of such a life, and to feel his own deficiencies in professional 
 knowledge. He accordingly left his regiment, and retm-ned to 
 Scotland, resolved to become once more a medical student. He 
 now commenced study in earnest, for the first time, and happily 
 formed a friendship with Jlr. Bell, who encouraged him in 
 every good work and efiort to attain knowledge. His attention 
 was chiefly directed to the diseases of children, and acute dis- 
 eases and epidemics. These he worked at laboriously in every 
 way, and in 1801, at the age of twenty-four, wrote his first 
 essay on " Cynanche Trachealis, or Croup." In the same year, 
 he published a treatise on the " Bowel complaints of Children." 
 These volumes have the advantage of being illustrated with 
 beautifully-executed coloured plates, by Sir Charles Bell. In 
 1808 he pubhshed his third essay on the diseases of children, 
 being " Hydrocephalus Acutus." In 1809 he determined on 
 trying to establish himself in practice at Dublin; and in the year 
 1811 he became physician to the Meath hospital, and shortly 
 after was appointed lecturer on the practice of physic to the 
 Irish College of Sm-geons. In 1812 he published a volume on 
 " Apoplexy and Lethargy," and at this time he appears to have 
 had an increasing and respectable practice. In 1815 he was 
 appointed by the lord-heutenant one of the physicians to the 
 house of industry. The labour consequent on this office, how- 
 ever, was so great, that he was obliged after a little time to 
 resign the lectureship at the College of Surgeons, as well as his 
 charge of the Meath hospital. In 181G his private practice 
 yielded an annual income of about £1800, and he then removed 
 into a house in Jlerion Square, Dublin, where he lived until he 
 left that city in 1831. The course of Dr. Cheyne's prosperity 
 was at last arrested by failing health. In the end of 1825 he 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 became aiFected with a sort of nen^ous fever ; he became depressed, 
 feeble, and languid. He was obliged to relax as much as possi- 
 ble in his duties— sleeping out of town, and getting his friends 
 to assist him in his work. By this means he was able to go on 
 until 1831, when finding himself utterly unable to persevere in 
 his medical practice, he resolved on relinquishing it altogether ; 
 which he did, much to the regi-et of his friends and patients in 
 Dublin, and accompanied by the good wishes and kind feeling of all 
 his medical brethren. Dr. Cheyne's chosen retreat was an estate 
 he had purchased in the neighbourhood of Newport-Pagnell, 
 Buckinghamshire, and here he established himself in the private 
 and charitable exercise of his professional skill amongst the poor, 
 which, however, in rime extended to his being consulted bv 
 some of the more wealthy families in the neighbourhood. He 
 imdertook at this time to write some articles for the Cyclopedia 
 of Practical ^ledicine, in compUance with the request of Dr. 
 Tweedie, one of the editors. He thus began again to use his 
 pen, which, however, was soon prevented by the formation of 
 a cataract in his right eye, which from the year 1833 deprived 
 him of the use of that organ. The general breaking up of 
 the system went on gi'adually, evincing first one symptom and 
 then another, until January, 1836, when after being confined to 
 bed for sis weeks he peacefully died. Dr. Cheyne was an exten- 
 sive writer on medical subjects. He constantly contributed 
 papers to the Edinhurrjh Medical and Surgical Journal, and to 
 the Dublin hospital reports, as well as separate essays on inter- 
 esting branches of medical science which appeared in the form 
 of separate volumes. He was an earnestly rehgious man, and in 
 his autobiogi-aphy.^ which is preserved, there are many references 
 to this all-absorbing subject from his own pen. His will con- 
 taining directions for his bmial, is singular and impressive. The 
 features of his character were great penetration and decision, 
 comlesy combuied with rigidly honourable feelings ; and under 
 the appearance of inditference to the sufferings which he daily 
 witnessed, an intense and almost overwhelming si.'mpathy with 
 the SMTOws and pains of others. He was a warm admirer of* 
 art ; and in his domestic relations most amiable, gentle, and 
 wise. His wife was the daughter of the Rev. Dr. Macartney, 
 vicar of Antrim in Ireland. — E. L. 
 
 CHEYNELL, Francis, a nonconformist divine, bom at 
 Oxford in 1608, became a member of the university in 1623, 
 was elected probationer-fellow of Merton college in 1629, sided 
 with the parliament in the civil war, and was made one 
 of the assembly of divines in 1643, and visitor of Oxford in 
 1647. He is chiefly memorable for his scmTilous treatment of 
 Chillingworth, whose work. The Religion of Protestants &c., he 
 criticised in the "Rise, Growth, and Danger of Socinianism." 
 Not content with profaning the obsequies of that illustrious 
 divuie (see Chillingworth), he printed in 1644, an attack 
 upon his memory, entitled " Chillingworthi Novissima, or the 
 Sickness, Heresy, Death, and Burial of WilUam Chilhngworth." 
 He died at Preston in Sussex in 1665. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHIABRERA, Gabrielle, an Italian poet, called the 
 Pindar of Italy, bom at Savona in 1552; died in 1638. He 
 was of an impetuous and irascible disposition, and once in Rome, 
 and again in his native place, fought a duel, e-ich time killing 
 his opponent. He chiefly excelled in lyric measures; his 
 canzones and sonnets are remarkably spirited, but his longer 
 poems are deficient in animation. — A. C. M. 
 
 CHIARI, PiETRO : the date of his birth is not recorded, but 
 was about the beginning of the eighteenth centurv- ; he died ia 
 1788. He bore the title of the poet of the Jhke of Modena, 
 but resided at Venice. He wTote for the stage, and within ten 
 or twelve years his prolific muse gave birth to more than sixty 
 comedies, all of which, it would appear, were represented. There 
 were also four tragedies, which, if they struggled to the birth, 
 soon ceased to breathe. Chiari wrote prefaces to sonic of his 
 plays, to prove that, if not as successful as those of Goldoni and 
 Pozzi', it was owing to the bad taste of the public. At times 
 he took a different tone, and asserted that if heads were reck- 
 oned, he had as manv admirers as either of the poets above, 
 whom pen-erse critics still insisted on prefemng. Chiari wrote 
 some amusing novels, and he published one or two letters on 
 moral philosophy. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHIAKINI, LoDOVico: bom in Tuscany in 1780; died at 
 Warsaw in 1832. The Abbe Chiarini was educated at Pisa, was 
 first made known by the publication of some poems, and was 
 invited to a professorship of eastern languages and antiquities 
 
 6 N
 
 CHI 
 
 1018 
 
 CHI 
 
 at Warsaw. In his professorship he chiefly applied himself to 
 Hebrew learning, and proposed translating the Talmud into 
 French. The announcement of this project created such alarm, 
 both amongst Jews and christians, that Chiarini felt himself 
 compelled to abandon it. A controversy was maintained on the 
 subject of the proposed translation, by Beugnot's writing against 
 it in the Revue Encydopedique, and by Chiarini in detached 
 pamphlets. His " Theorie du Judaisme," P;ms, 2 vols., 8vo, is 
 a work of gi-eat interest. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHICHELE, Hexry, archbishop of Canterbury, was bom 
 about 1362 at Higham-Ferrers. He commenced his literary 
 education at Winchester school, and studied ci\'il and canon law 
 at New college, Oxford. After passing through various prefer- 
 ments, and being employed on various embassies to France and 
 to the pope, Heniy IV. presented him to the bishopric of St. 
 David's in 1408. Next year he represented England in the 
 council of Pisa, where the pretensions of Popes Gregory and 
 Benedict were discussed, and themselves both deposed. In 
 1414 he succeeded to the see of Canterbury. He has been 
 accused of urging on Henry V. to that war with France of which 
 the field of Agincourt was a brilliant memorial. Chichele 
 resisted with no little courage the claim of the pope to dispose 
 of ecclesiastical preferments in England, and he also had no 
 little vexation from the growth of Lollardism, and no little 
 trouble in attempting to suppress it. In his advanced years 
 he commenced and finished the erection of All Souls college at 
 Oxford, and richly endowed it under the name of " Collegium 
 omnium animarura fidelium defunct, de Oxon." The society 
 was to pray for the king and the archbishop .during their lives 
 and after their death ; for those who had fallen in the war 
 with France; and for the souls of all who had died in faith. 
 He also, by his high influence with all parties in the state, 
 secured various benefits to both the universities. In 1442, and 
 when he was fourscore, " heavy-laden, aged, infirm, and weak 
 beyond measm-e," as he describes himself, he applied for the 
 ■necessaiy papal permission to resign his office, but died ere the 
 result of his application could be known, and was interred in the 
 cathedral of Canterbury. JIany instances of his generosity are 
 on record, for he freely expended his wealth in various public 
 and benevolent enterprises. His liberaUty and enlightenment 
 were beyond the age in which he lived. Education, such as he 
 conceived it ought to be, always found in him a genei-ous and 
 heartv supporter. — J. E. 
 
 CHICHESTER, Sir Arthur, first Baron Belfast, a distin- 
 guished soldier and politician, was born in Devonshire towards 
 the end of the sixteenth century. He is said to have been a 
 boy of very precocious talent, and of a lively and daring temper. 
 This latter quahty led him to indulge in a frolic similar to those 
 played ofi' by Prince Hal, and made it necessary for him to leave 
 the country and avoid the vengeance of Queen Elizabeth, who 
 did not view the plundering of one of her baililfs, even in sport, 
 as a joke. Taking refuge in France, his personal bravery and 
 military talents recommended him to the notice of Henry IV., 
 by whom he was knighted. The reputation of the soldier won 
 from Elizabeth pardon for the practical joker. He transferred 
 himself to the queen's services, was sent to Ireland, rapidly pro- 
 moted, and dm'ing the war with Tyrone was one of the most 
 active, trusted, and successful leaders. Honours and position 
 quickly followed. In 1603 he was appointed governor of Car- 
 riekfergus, and the following year commander of all the forces, 
 and governor of the surrounding districts ; and, finally, he was 
 made lord-deputy of Ireland. He originated and carried out the 
 plantation of Ulster ; and was, in recompense for his great ser- 
 vices, created Baron Chichester of Belfast. Having filled the 
 office of lord-deputy till 1615, he was, at his own request, 
 ])ennitted to retire, but was appointed lord-high-treasurer. 
 Chichester also filled some diplomatic functions. He went as 
 ambassador to the Palatinate in 1622. He was afterwards 
 commissioned to treat for a peace with the emperor ; and being 
 shut up in Manheim, then besieged by Tilly, he sent to say that 
 it was contrary to the law of nations to besiege an ambassador. 
 Tilly not having noticed this remonstrance, Chichester again 
 addressed him — " If my master had sent me with as many hun- 
 dred men as he hath sent me on fruitless messages, yoiu- general 
 should have known that I had been a soldier as well as ambas- 
 sador." He died in London in the year 1624.— J. F. W. 
 
 CHICHESTER, Arthur, first Earl of Donegal, was bom in 
 June, 1606, and early entered upon the military life, in which 
 
 he became subsequently so distinguished. In 1627 he had the 
 command of a troop of horse, and had risen to the rank of colonel 
 before the breaking out of the rebellion, in which he distinguished 
 himself by his fidelity to the royal cause and his bravery and 
 activity. In reward of his long services, and on the represen- 
 tation of Ormonde, he was, in 1645, created Earl of Donegal. 
 After the restoration he was appointed governor of Carrickfergus, 
 a post which proved to be one of peril and difiiculty. He died 
 in Belfast in 1674.— J. F. W. 
 
 CHICOYNEAU, Francois, a French physician, born in 
 1672; died in 1752. He was famous as a practitioner, and 
 was sent in 1720 by the regent to ^larseilles to plan measures 
 for arresting the plague, then raging in that city. Ciiu'ac, who 
 was his father-in-law, introduced him at court ; and after his 
 death, Chicoyneau was appointed first physician to the king and 
 councillor of state. He published, amongst other things, a 
 " Treatise on the Causes and Cure of the Plague." — His son, 
 Francois, who was born in 1699, and died in 1740, succeeded 
 him in his honourable and lucrative position. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHIFFLET, jEAjf Jacques, a physician of Franche-comte, 
 author of various historical and archaological works, bom in 
 1588; died in 1660. Philip IV. of Spain, made him his physi- 
 cian, and commissioned him to write a history of the order of the 
 golden fleece. Several brothers and descendants of this learned 
 writer, also attained distinction in literature. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHIGI, Fabio. See Alexander VII., Pope. 
 
 * CHILD, Lydia Maria, born Francis, one of the most 
 pleasing, graceful, and pure of American writers, was bom in 
 Medford, Massachusetts, in Febniary, 1802. In early life love 
 of letters and a refined taste in writing were developed in her, 
 and her earliest publications were received with favour. Among 
 these were " Hobomok : an Indian story ; " and " The Rebels : 
 a Story of the Revolution." At the age of twenty-five she 
 was married to David Lee Child, Esq., editor of the Massa- 
 chusetts Journal. In 1832 she published a small volume, 
 entitled " An Appeal m behalf of that class of Americans called 
 Africans." This work was one of the first on the question of 
 slavery which attracted a general attention in America. Its 
 historical character was of much value — its arguments most 
 weighty — its appeals to the conscience, honour, and humane feel- 
 ing of the nation most touching. It was an important work,- 
 and deservedly placed the authoress among the most prominent 
 of the friends of the oppressed. Subsequently for several yeai-s 
 Mrs. Child was one of the editors of the National Antislavery 
 Standcn-d, the organ of the American Antislavery Society. 
 Her " Letters from New York," in 2 vols., were first published 
 in that journal. Parents and children are deeply indebted to 
 her for her " Mother's Book ;" " Flowers for Children," in 4 
 vols. ; " Girl's Ov^1l Book ;" " Fact and Fiction ;" " The Oasis, 
 a collection of Antislaveiy Stories;" as well as for the Juvenile 
 Miscellany, a small monthly periodical, which she conducted 
 with the happiest success for many years. Her largest work, 
 the result of a life's study and most conscientious hiquiry and 
 thought, is the " Progress of Religious Ideas," in 3 vols., pub- 
 lished in 1855. — F. B. 
 
 CHILD, Sir Josiah, an eminent London merchant and 
 writer on pohtical economy, was the second son of Richard Child, 
 merchant, and was bom in 1630. He was one of the directors, 
 and for some time chairman, of the East India Company. He is 
 believed to be the author of a tract published anonymously in 
 defence of the trade to the East Indies, and entitled " A Treatise 
 wherein it is demonstrated that the East India Trade is the most 
 national of all Trades," 4to, London 1681. His principal pub- 
 lication, however, is entitled " Brief Observations concerning 
 Trade, and the Interest of Money," by J. C, 4to, London 1688, 
 which has passed through several editions, and was reprinted in 
 Glasgow in 1751, under the title of "A New Discourse of Trade." 
 In epite of a fundamental mistake conceiTiing the interest of 
 money, the work embodies many sound and valuable sentiments 
 happily expressed, and shows that the author Avas in adv.ance of 
 his day. One of the chapters contains an account of a plan for 
 the relief of the poor, which has attracted a good deal of atten- 
 tion. Sir Josiah was created a baronet in 1678, and died in 
 1699. He was veiy wealthy, and his children intermarried with 
 some of the highest nobility. — J. T. 
 
 CHILD, William, Slus. Doc, according to Anthony Wood, 
 was a native of Bristol, and educated under Elway Bevin, 
 organist of the cathedral of that city. In 1631, being then of
 
 CHI 
 
 1019 
 
 CHI 
 
 Christ Church, Oxford, he took his degree of bachelor, and in 
 1636 was appointed one of the organists of St. George's chapel, 
 Windsor, in the room of Dr. John JIundy; and soon after was 
 promoted to an organist's place in the royal chapel, Whitehall. 
 After the restoration he held the office of chanter of the king's 
 chape], and became one of the chamber musicians to Charles II. 
 In 1663 he was advanced to the degree of doctor in music by 
 the university of Oxford. He died in 1696, having attained the 
 age of ninety years, and was succeeded as organist of the king's 
 chapel by Francis Piggot. Dr. Child's principal productions 
 are his sen-ices and full anthems, printed in Dr. Boyce and 
 Dr. Arnold's collections. His service in D is one of the finest 
 specimens of -n-riting in the fugato style of the seventeenth 
 century ; and what is still higher praise, the melody throughout 
 is clear and pleasing even to modem ears. His verse service in 
 E flat possesses much elegance, and in a style which must have 
 appeared quite new when first produced. That in E minor is 
 rich in modulation, and shows the hand of a master. " His 
 style," Dr. Bumey says, " was so remarkably easy and natural, 
 compared with that to which choirmen had been accustomed, 
 that it was frequently treated by them with derision. Indeed, 
 his modulation at present is so nearly modem, as not to produce 
 that solemn and seemingly new effect on our ears, which we now 
 experience from the productions of the sixteenth century." The 
 memory of Dr. Child is celebrated for a remarkable act of his 
 generosity, and of the meanness of his superiors. His salary at 
 Windsor was much in arrear, and he in vain applied to the dean 
 and chapter to discharge the debt. After many fruitless appeals 
 he told them, that if they would pay what was due to him, he 
 would new pave the choir of St. George's chapel. They complied 
 with his terms ; and Sir John Hawkins observes, neither they 
 nor the knights companions of the most noble order of the 
 garter interposed to prevent his incurring such an expense. He 
 was buried in the chapel which he had thus repau-ed, and the 
 following lines are inscribed on his gravestone: — 
 
 " Go, happy soul, and in the seats above 
 Sing endless hymns of thy great Maker's love. 
 How fit in heavenly songs to bear thy part, 
 Before well practised in the sacred art. 
 Whilst hearing us, sometimes the choir divine 
 Will sure descend, and in our concert join; 
 So much the music then to us has given. 
 Has made our earth to represent their heaven." 
 
 His liberality was not confined to the church ; for, at his death, 
 he bequeathed twenty pounds towards the building of the town- 
 hall at Windsor, and fifty pounds to the corporation, to be 
 disposed of in charity at their discretion. — E. F. E. 
 
 CHILDEBERT I., one of the four sons of Clovis I., the 
 founder of the Frankish empire, obtained at his father's death 
 the central portion of the divided territories, with Paris for his 
 capital. In conjunction with his brothers, Clodomir and Clotaire, 
 who reigned at Orleans and Soissons respectively, he conquered 
 Burgundy, and, on the death of the former, received a share of 
 his dominions. His kingdom was subsequently enlarged by the 
 defeat of Amalaric the Visigoth, and by the demise of his rela- 
 tive the king of Austrasia without heirs ; but, at his own death 
 in 558, the empire of Clovis was reunited. — W. B. 
 
 CHILDEBEPvT II., son of Sigibert of Austrasia, and grand- 
 son of Clotaii-e I., was a child when his father was assassinated, 
 A.D. 575, by the pai-tisans of Fredegonda. — (See Chilperic I.) 
 Having nan-owly escaped the same fate through the fidelity of 
 Gundobald, duke of Campania, he was established in his royal 
 patrimony by the Austrasian nobles, with the aid of his uncle, 
 Guntram, king of Burgundy, whose dominions he subsequently 
 inherited. He died at the age of twentv-sis in 596.— W. B. 
 
 CHILDEBERT III., second son of'Theodoric III., king of 
 Xeustria, succeeded his brother, Clovis III., in the nominal 
 sovereignty of the more extended dominions which Pepin of 
 Heristal had brought under one sceptre. This enterprising and 
 able mayor of the palace was the real monarch, but Childebert 
 bore the royal title till his death in 711. — W. B. 
 
 CHILD ERIC I., was the son of that Werowig or Merovaeus, 
 from whom the Merovingian dynasty took its name. He suc- 
 ceeded his father in the sovereignty of the Salian Franks in 
 456, but was speedily driven into exile on account of his licen- 
 tious excesses. Having subsequently recovered his throne and 
 influence, he engaged in a struggle with the Visigoths, and 
 began the series of victories which his celebrated son, Clovis I., 
 completed. — W. B. 
 
 CHILDERIC II., son of Clovis II., saw the Prankish sceptre 
 pass, at the death of his father in 656, into the hand of his 
 elder brother, Clotaire III. But the Austrasians, desiring a king 
 of their own, selected Childeric, and on the death of Clotaire in 
 670, the cro^vTl of Neustria also was conveyed to him. Three 
 years later he was assassinated in a revolt of his turbulent 
 nobles. — W. B. 
 
 CHILDERIC in., the last of the degenerate Merovingian 
 princes, was placed on the throne by Carloman and Pepin,"the 
 sons of Charles JIartel. The whole power was in their hands, 
 and when Pepin at length resolved to assume the title as well 
 as the authority of king in 750, the helpless Childeric was 
 consigned to a monastery. — W. B. 
 
 CHILDREN, John George, an eminent scientific writer, 
 bom at Ferox Hall, Tonbridge, in 1777 ; died in 1852. After 
 distinguishing himself as a student of mineralogy, chemistry, 
 and galvanism, and becoming acquainted with Davy, Woolaston, 
 and other eminent scientific writers, he was elected in 1807 a 
 fellow of the Royal Society. In 1808, and again in 1815, he con- 
 tributed to the Philosophical Transactions a paper on his 
 favourite subject of galvanism. He discovered a method of 
 extracting silver from its ore without amalgamation. In 1826 
 he was elected secretary of the Royal Society, and resigning the 
 appointment in the following year, on account of iU health, was 
 again elected in 1830.— J. S., G. 
 
 CHILLIXGWORTH, William, was bom at Oxford in Octo- 
 ber, 1602. He was admitted a scholar of Trinity college in 
 1618, and after taking his degrees, was chosen a fellow in 1628. 
 He had already distinguished himself by mathematical as well 
 as theological study, and had also indulged in versification. At 
 this period the great theme which enlisted the talents and 
 leaming of all young men was the popish controversy, sharpened 
 by the king's marriage with the daughter of Henry IV. of 
 France. Several popish polemics lived near Oxford, and often 
 won over students to then- side. The Jesuit Fisher easily 
 entangled Chillingworth on the question of the necessity of a 
 " li\-ing rule of faith," and at length prevailed upon him to 
 renounce the communion of the church of England, and settle 
 at the college of Douay. But Laud, who had been his god- 
 father, and was now bishop of London, entered into a corre- 
 spondence with him, and as easily induced Mm to return to 
 Oxford, of which university Laud was also chancellor. He 
 came back in 1631, and set himself to a calm and prolonged 
 re-examination of the whole subject, and in 1635 published, as 
 the result of his studies, " The Religion of Protestants, a safe 
 way to Salvation." This is the work on which his fame chiefly, 
 if not wholly rests. It was a reply virtually to a book called 
 Charity Mistakes, by Mathias Wilson, a Jesuit, who had been 
 previously answered by Dr. Potter. The treatise of Chilling- 
 worth is a masterpiece, somewhat hard and dry, but made up 
 of arguments compacted with all the rigour and cogency of 
 a mathematical demonstration in proof that the scriptures, and 
 not ecclesiastical tradition, are the sole and infallible rule of 
 faith. It made an immediate and deep impression, for the 
 author's talent and tergiversation were well-known in all literary 
 and theological circles. Two editions of it \vere published in less 
 than five months, and it has been often reprinted, the edition of 
 1742 being reckoned the standard one. 
 
 The fame of Chilling\vorth attracted the notice of men in 
 power, and Sir Thomas Coventry, keeper of the great seal, 
 offered him preferment, which he refused, however, because he had 
 scruples about subscription. But Sheldon and Laud dealt with 
 him, and brought him to the convenient beUef that subscription 
 to the Thirty-nine .\rticles was a matter of peace and union, not 
 of belief and' assent. With all his dialectic skill, his convictions 
 do not seem to have been verv- stable, and he was easily wrought 
 upon by the reasonings of others. Uis doubts being removed by 
 this friendly inten-ention, he was promoted in 1638 to the 
 chancellorship of Salisbury, witli the prebend of Brixworth 
 annexed— aud subscribed the articles with the usual fomiula— 
 ex aidmo. In 164G he represented the chapter in convocation, 
 but seems to have made no figure either as preacher or polemic 
 during his incumbency. 
 
 Chilling>vorth being a zealous royalist according to Claren- 
 don's own heart, was present with the king's anny at the siege 
 of Gloucester, and advised and superintended the constraction of 
 certain warlike engines, but having accompanied the royal troops 
 under Lord Hopton to Arundel castle, he was taken prisoner when
 
 the castle surrendered to the parliamentary forces commanded by 
 Sir William Waller. Being in bad health, and unable to be 
 removed to London, he was conveyed to the bishop's palace 
 in Chichester, where he shortly after died in January, 1644, 
 and was buried at his own request in the cathedral. His last 
 days were disturbed by the dogmatic assaults of Dr. Cheynell, 
 who charging him with socinianism refused to bury him, but met 
 the mourners at the grave, and with solemn buffoonery buried 
 Chillingworth's book, " as a cursed treatise which might rot with 
 its author and see corruption." — (See Cheynell.) — Chilling- 
 worth was one of those men whose subtilty of mind occasionally 
 overreaches themselves — who are so fond of debate, and so 
 readily to split a hair, that they destroy their own powers of 
 belief, and amidst arguments and counter-ai-guments, doubts and 
 difficulties, and all the other weapons of a sleepless casuistry, 
 gradually, and as if unconsciously, train themselves to scepticism. 
 Tillotson vindicates him from the charge of socinianism, and 
 Locke says that the reading of him " will teach both perspicuity 
 and the right way of reasoning, better than any book that I 
 know." ChiUingworth was rather small in stature, " but of 
 great soul," says Wood, and he was rarely provoked into passion, 
 though so often engaged in intellectual slcimiishes. — J. E. 
 
 CHILilEAD, Edmun'd, a deeply-read mathematician, and 
 well skilled both in the theory and practice of music. He was 
 born at Stow in the Wold in Gloucestershire, and became one of 
 the clerks of JIagdalen college, Oxford. About the year 1632 
 he was nominated one of the chaplains of Christ chmxh ; but 
 being ejected by the parliament visitors in 1648, he came to 
 London, and took lodgings in the old printing-office of Thomas 
 Este in Aldersgate Street. In a large room of this house he 
 held a weekly music meeting, from the proiits of which his chief 
 subsistence was derived. Chilmead was an excellent Greek 
 scholar, and was employed to draw up a catalogue of the 
 Greek MSS. in the Bodleian library. W'ood mentions a treatise 
 of his " De Sonis," which does not appear to have been printed. 
 His tract, " De JIusica Antiqua Grajca," printed at the end of 
 the Oxford edition of Aratus in 1672, contains a designation of 
 the ancient genera, agi-eeable to the sentiments of Boethius, 
 with a general enumeration of the modes ; after which follows 
 three odes of Dionysius, with the Greek musical characters 
 adapted to the notes of Guido's scale. This learned man died 
 in 1654, in the forty-third year of his age, and was interred in 
 the church of St. Botolph Without, Aldersgate.— E. F. R. 
 
 CHILON, a Lacedemonian, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
 flourished about the year 590 B.C. The institution of the 
 ephoralty is erroneously ascribed to Chilon. He died of joy, it 
 is said, when his son gained a prize at the Olympic games. 
 
 CHILPERIC I., one of the four sons of Clotaire L, attehipted, 
 at his father's death, to get possession of the undinded sove- 
 reignty, but was compelled to content himself with the kingdom 
 of Soissons or Xeustria in 562. Haraig divorced his first 
 wife, and caused his second to be strangled, he raised to their 
 place his former mistress, the infamous Fredegonda; and her 
 influence, in conjunction with his own licentious ambition, 
 plunged him into a series of wars and crimes, which terminated 
 with his assassination in 583, when engaged in an attempt to 
 dispossess his brother Guntram of Burgundy. — W. B. 
 
 CHILPERIC II., a reputed son of Childeric II., was placed 
 upon the throne of Xeustria at the death of Dagobert III. He 
 was a man of considerable energy, and attempted to enlarge hLs 
 territories by the conquest of Austrasia. But he had to cope 
 with a formidable opponent in the celebrated Charles :!ilartel ; 
 and, notwithstanding the aid of Eudes of Aquitaine, he was 
 compelled in 719, to accept terms, which, while they gave 
 him the nominal sovereignty of the Frankish empire, placed the 
 whole power in the hands of Martel. — W. B. 
 
 CHIPJIAN, Nathaniel, LL.D., an eminent jurist and 
 senator of Vennont in New England, was born at Salisbury, 
 Connecticut, in 1752, entered Yale college in 1773, quitted 
 it to join the American army as a lieutenant in 1777, and 
 received his degree as A.B. whUe absent m the field. He 
 spent the winter at Valley Forge, was present at the battle of 
 Monmouth, and then resigned his commission, and began the 
 study of law. He commenced practice in Rutland county, Ver- 
 mont, and soon became a leader of the bar, being employed in 
 every important case. At several different periods he was chief- 
 justice of Vermont, and from 1798 till 18U4, a senator of the 
 United States. In 1796 he was appouited to revise the laws of 
 
 the state, and nearly all the revised statutes of the following year 
 were written by him. In 1816 he was appointed professor of 
 law in Jliddlebury college. He published a volume of reports 
 and legal dissertations, and a work on the "Principles of Govern- 
 ment." He died in 1843.— F. B. 
 
 CHIRAC, Pierre, first physician to Louis XV., bom at 
 Conques in AvejTon in 1650 ; died in 1732. He practised for 
 some time at Montpellier, in 1706 went to Italy with the duke 
 of Orleans, the following year accompanied the duke to Spain, 
 and in 1715 was appointed his first physician. He was a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1728 received letters of 
 nobility from Louis XV., who made him his first physician in 
 1731. He left some medical treatises which, although written 
 in an uncouth style, hold an important place in the history of 
 his profession. — J. S., G. 
 
 * CHISHOLM, Mrs. Caroline, famous for her benevolent 
 exertions on behalf of the emigrant population of Sydney and 
 elsewhere, was bom about the year 1810, in the parish of 
 Wooton, Northamptonshire. She mairied in her twentieth year 
 Captain Alexander Chisholm, with whom shortly after their 
 mairiage she proceeded to Madras. There she established a 
 school for the female children and orphans of the British soldiery, 
 which, so long as she remained in India, proved remarkably suc- 
 cessful. Her husband being obliged by ill health in 1838 to 
 seek a change of climate, went to Sydney in Australia, and there 
 ]!ilrs. Chisholm was to endear herself to thousands of emigrants, 
 by lending them small sums of money, by receiving into an 
 asylum the destitute girls among them, and by exerting herself 
 to prociu-e situations for all who applied to her. In 1846 
 Captain Chisholm and his wife revisited England, taking up 
 their residence at Islington. Wliile in England, where she 
 remained till 1854, the date of her return to Austraha, Sirs. 
 Chisholm established a " Family Colonization Society " for col- 
 lecting passage money in weekly instalments, and in various 
 cities explained in public her views on the subject of emigration. 
 Before she left England a considerable sum of money was pre- 
 sented to her by a numerous body of subscribers. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHISHULL, Edmund, a learned divine, and ^vriter on 
 classical antiquities, bom at Eyworth in Bedfordshire ; died 
 rector of South Chm-ch in Essex in 1733. He was educated at 
 Corpus Chiisti college, and ha^nng obtained a traveller's exhibi- 
 tion, and been appointed chaplain to the English factory at 
 Smyrna, he sailed from England in 1698, and continued in 
 Syria tiU 1702. On his retm-n to England, among other prefer- 
 ments he obtained that of chaplain in ordinary to the queen. 
 The greater number of his dissertations were incorporated in the 
 edition of his "Antiq. Asiatics," published in 1724. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHITTENDEN, Thomas, first governor of the state of 
 Vermont in New England, was born at Guilford, Connecticut, in 
 1730. Having received only a common school education, he 
 was bred a farmer, and being a shrewd, active, and able man, 
 soon rose, in Yankee fashion, to be a colonel in the militia, and 
 a justice of the peace. In 1774, to provide more effectually for 
 the wants of a growing family, he removed to the " New Hamp- 
 shire Grants," as they were then called — a territory, the 
 jurisdiction of which had long been fiercely disputed between 
 New Hampshire and New York, but which was afterwards, 
 mainly through Chittenden's agency, erected into the independent 
 state of Vermont (1777). Fearful of giving offence to the two 
 outside claimants, however, congress virtually refused to admit 
 Vermont into the union. Chittenden, as governor, therefore 
 opened a coiTespondence with the English authorities, holding 
 out hopes that Vermont would follow the example of Canada in 
 adhering to British rale. The letters were intercepted, as lie 
 probably intended they should be ; and congi'ess in dismay then 
 attempted to compromise, but had no power to compel New 
 Hampshire and New York to withdraw their claims. The con- 
 troversy was protracted till the end of the war ; and the people 
 of Vennont being then numerous and stout enough to defend 
 themselves by arms, their independence was virtually acknow- 
 ledged, and in 1791 the state was finally admitted into the 
 imion. Such was the simplicity of manners, that Chittenden, 
 though governor for many years, still continued his original 
 occupations as farmer and inn-keeper. He was a benevolent 
 and religious man, of iireproachable character, and great popu- 
 larity. In October, 1796, he took a solemn and affecting leave 
 of his associates in the government, and died August 24th in the 
 following year. — His son, Martin Chittenden, a graduate of
 
 CHO 
 
 1021 
 
 CHO 
 
 Dartmouth college in 1789, was a representative in congress 
 from 1803 to 1813, and governor of the state for the two fol- 
 lowing years. He died in 1810, aged seventy-five. — F. B. 
 
 CHIYA, R'Chita BEX Abba bex Silla, of Kafii in Baby- 
 lonia, a contemporary of E'Jehudah the piince, in the second 
 century, by whom the Slishna, or traditional code of the Jews, 
 was aiTanged in its present order. After having long been an 
 active teacher of the law in Babylonia, where Huna was at the 
 time exilarch (prince of the captivity), Chiya set out for the 
 Holy Land, where the fame of his learning had prepared for him 
 a friendly reception, especially from R'Jehudah. To R'Chiya, 
 in conjunction with R'Hoshaiah (who belongs, however, to the 
 generation after Chiya), is attributed a coUection of traditional 
 legal decisions, apart from E'Jehudah's Mishna, and known tmder 
 the title of " Thosephtha," in three hundred and eighty-three 
 chapters. — (Printed in UgoUni's Tliesamnis, in Alfasi's Talmu- 
 dical Commentaries, and elsewhere.) Two other compilations 
 made by the same rabbi are no longer extant. An excellent 
 biography of R'Chiya, the product of much research, has been 
 published by Raphael Kirchheim, in the Orient, 1848. — T. T. 
 
 CHIYA or CHAYA, R'Abraham Ha-Sephaedi, by birth 
 a Spaniard, but who, according to Fiirst, at some time resided 
 at ilarseUles, was a disciple of R'Moses Ha-Darshan, and teacher 
 of the celebrated Aben Ezra. According to Rossi he still lived 
 in the year 1136, although some annalists fix on the year 1105 
 as that of his death. Among his astronomical works special 
 mention is due to the Sepher " Zurath Haarez," &c. (on the form 
 of the earth, the spheres, and the orbits of the stars), composed 
 at the request of his teacher ; a Latin translation, with notes by 
 Sebast. Munster, was published at Basle in 1516. He has also 
 written on the Jewish calendar. — T. T. 
 
 CHLADXI, Erxst-Florexs-Friedrich, a German philo- 
 sopher, bom in 1756 ; died in 1827. He was professor of juris- 
 prudence at Leipzig, but resigned his chair in order to apply 
 himself to natural philosophy. Chladni made some ingenious 
 discoveries, the result of numerous experiments, on the nature 
 and properties of sound. He has detailed them in a methodical 
 manner La his " Treatise on Acoustic^."' — R. M., A. 
 
 CHODOWIECKI, Daxiel Nicholas, an engi-aver and 
 designer, bom at Dantzig in 1726. His father was a drug mer- 
 chant, with an amateur talent for miniature painting. He brought 
 up his son to work at drug selling, and to play at miniature 
 painting. His son reversed the paternal precepts, he played at 
 being a merchant, and worked hard as a painter, and luckUy as 
 it turned out. The father died prematurely, leaving no money, 
 and a widow and child to live as they could out of a merchant's 
 business which only brought in losses. The young Chodowieeki 
 could not yet feel his art-feet. If he could have earned his own 
 support, he had in addition to render aid to his mother. So he 
 worked still at his art by encroaching on the time allotted him 
 for sleep, and served the remainder of the day in the shop of a 
 grocer. A halo of insolvency hvmg about him ; the grocer failed, 
 and the young man was sent to an imcle at Berlin, to serve 
 out his term of apprenticeship. He stiU kept up the stmggle 
 of art against commerce. He painted snutF-bos Uds, selling 
 them for what he could get, and sending his earnings to his 
 mother. Gradually the light dissolved the bushel over it; his 
 uncle tmharnessed him, took the mercantile curb out of hb 
 mouth, had him taught enamelling, and bade him Godspeed as 
 an artist. He dived into the sea of art, and soon brought up 
 the pearl success. The Academy of Painting at Berlin took notice 
 of him, and employed him to design and engrave the figures for 
 their almanack. He was soon almost swamped with orders. 
 He produced a series of twelve plates of the " Passion of Christ," 
 which brought him gn^eat fame. He pubUshed a print called 
 " Les Adieux de Calais," which created quite a sensation. He 
 executed the designs and plates for Lavater"s Physiognomy, 
 Klopstock's Messiah, and editions of Don Quixote, Shakspeare, 
 Voltaire, La Bruyere, La Fontaine, Gessner, Lessing, and others. 
 He died at Berlin in 1801, director of the academy of arts of 
 that city. — W. T. 
 
 * CHODZKO, Alexaxder Boreyko, a Polish orientalist, 
 bom at Krzywicze on the 11th July, 1804; author of "Speci- 
 mens of the popular Poetry of Persia," London, 1812 ; " Le 
 Theatre en Perse," Paris, 1845; "Le Guilan," &c., ; " Exctu-- 
 sions aux pyles Caspiennes," 1851 ; "Le Khora9an et son heros 
 populaire," 1852 ; " Le De?ati," 1852 ; " Grammaire Persane," 
 1852 ; and other oriental works. — F. M. W. 
 
 * CHODZKO, Jajies Leonard Boreyko, a Polish his- 
 torian, born 6th November, 1800, at Oborek ; a member of an 
 ancient and noble Lithuanian family which has produced several 
 distinguished men. He studied history at the university of 
 \\ ilna under the celebrated Leiewel, and aftenvards, as secretary 
 to Prince Michel Oginski, travelled over Europe from 1819 to 
 1826, when he settled in Paris. In the revolution of 1830 he 
 acted as aide-de-camp to La Fayette, but soon returned to 
 Uterary pureuits, and was successively employed in the hbraries 
 of the Sorbonne, St. Genevieve, and the ministry of public 
 instraction. His works are numerous, including " Histoire des 
 legions Polonaises en ItaUe," Paris 1829; "Les Polonais eu 
 Italic," Paris, 1829 ; " Esquisse chronologiqne de I'histoire de la 
 htterature polonaise," Paris, 1829; "Tableau de la Pologne 
 Ancienne et Modeme"; " Coup d'oeil, etc., sur la guerre actuelle 
 entre la Russie et la Pologne," 1831; "Histoire politique de la 
 Lithuanie," 1831; "Tableaux des revolutions de la Pologne," 
 in conjunction with M. de Marcey; "Notices sur Kosciuzko;" 
 " Fontainebleau," 1837 ; and a memou: of Leiewel, 1834 ; " La 
 Pologne, historiqne, Utteraire, monumeutale, &c," 1834-47 
 "Histoire de Turquie," 1855; and "Histoire de Pologne," 
 1855. M. Chodzko has also contributed to the Globe, ConstUu- 
 iionnel. and Courrier-Francais. — F. M. W. 
 
 CHCERILUS (Xo/.jXoj) of Athens, bom about 584 years 
 before the christian era ; died about 464. He was the author, 
 it is said, of a hundred and fifty dramatic pieces, and to have 
 repeatedly borne away the prize for which ^Eschylus and Sopho- 
 cles are described as competitors. Some changes in the arrange- 
 ment of the chorus, and the introduction of a metre before 
 unused, are referred to him. A hue which differs from the 
 ordinary hexameter, by the fact of wanting the final syllable, is 
 by some grammarians called the Choerilian. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHCERILUS (Xe/»iXc,-) OF Samos, bom at Samos about 
 470 B.C. This Choerilus was a slave ; author of an epic poem 
 on the war of the Greeks against Darius and Xerxes. The 
 work was entitled " The Persian." Some lines of it are pre- 
 served by Aristotle. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHCERILUS (Xo/piXo^) of Jascs: this Choerilus is mentioned 
 as ha\-ing lived about 340 B.C. He owes liis immortality to 
 Horace, by whom he is described as a sort of poet in ordinary to 
 Alexander the Great. Alexander paid him liberally for his 
 praises, but seems not to have estimated the poet himself highly. 
 " I should," said he, " rather be the Thei-sites of Homer than 
 the Achilles of Choerilus." The scholiast to whom we owe this 
 story tells another less credible. He says that Alexander agreed 
 to give him a piece of gold for every good verse — a blow for 
 every bad one. He got seven pieces of gold, and so many blows 
 that he did not survive — so many were the blows he earned, and 
 so scmpulonsly were they paid. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHOISEUL, a French family, various branches of which are 
 known in histoiy by the names of representatives who attained 
 distinction as commanders or as statesmen. The following are 
 the more notable members of this family: — 
 
 Choiseul, Cesak, Due de, I>ord of Plessis-Praslin, known as 
 marshal du Plessis, was bom in Paris in 1598, and died in 
 1675. Particularly distinguished as a soldier, he was also a 
 skilful diplomatist; and while he had the privilege of instmcting 
 Lotus XIV. in the art of war, he had more than once the honour 
 of assisting Richelieu in his game of diplomacy. It w.is he 
 who conducted the negotiations between Louis XIV. and Ch.vles 
 II., wliich resulted in the treaty of alUance against Holland. 
 
 Choiseul, Etiexxe Francois', Due de, was bom 28th 
 June, 1719: entering in early life into the military senioc 
 under the name of the comte de Stainville, he rai>iiliy rose to 
 the highest rank. In 1753 he commenced his political care<T 
 as ambassador of France at Rome, .ind astonished the fr.-uiquil 
 court of Benedict XIV. whh the splendour of his luxury. Ho 
 proved himself one of those gay and brilliant men whose influ- 
 ence is almost irresistible through their power of gracefully 
 adapting themselves to the various influences around them, 
 awakening no direct antagonisms, and appe.iring to favour every 
 partv, but in effect guiding all to jiurposcs of their own. He 
 acquired considerable authority at the papal court, and procured 
 a promise of a cardinal's hat for the Abbe Bemis, then minister 
 of foreign affairs in France, and to whose office Choiseul himself 
 soon succeeded. From Rome Choiseul pjissed to Vienna, and 
 the liuxury of the embassy under his charge better suited an 
 Austrian than an ecclesiastical capital. In 1758 he replaced
 
 CHO 
 
 10-22 
 
 CHO 
 
 Cardinal Bernis as minister of foreign affairs, and being created 
 duke and peer, rose to the highest point of favour with Louis 
 XV., and subsequently received the ministries of war and marine. 
 Many cu-cumstances advanced the interest and reputation of 
 Choiseul at the court of Louis XY. He was a favourite with the 
 king's mistress, madame de Pompadotir, and to be a favourite of 
 the mistress was to be master of the monarch. He played with 
 one of the king's chief prejudices, viz. his dislike to the dauphin 
 (the father of Louis XVI.), and sacrificed to the living sovereign 
 all chance of success with his probable successor. His personal 
 character, moreover, fitted him admirably for the court of the 
 king he served. Few men ever lived in a sphere more perfectly 
 adapted to their peculiar gifts. Under Louis XIV. Choiseul 
 would have appeared frivolous. The genius of the age would 
 have been beyond his power to grasp and direct. Under Loius 
 XVI., the influence of the throne being greatly lessened, and the 
 stormy dissensions of the Eevolution wakening their discords, 
 his peculiar courtly powers of fascination would have had no free 
 scope. The troubled dawn of revolution is no time for develop- 
 ing the skill of the polished gentleman. Choiseul was precisely 
 fitted for the age of Louis XV., an age when the royal prestige 
 was weakened but not destroyed, and ready to make popular 
 concessions if so be the matter could be managed in a gentle- 
 manly way ; and when the people, not grown conscious of the 
 terrible use to which their powers could be subservient, were 
 willing to honour and to accept in good part monarchical 
 measures gracefully commended to them. Choiseul, adapting 
 himself natm-ally to these circumstances, managed to unite the 
 powers both of a comlier and a tribune, and played this double 
 part wthout injuring the elegant freedom of his character. For- 
 tune also had been prodigal to Choiseul of gifts which nature 
 had refused. Nobly bom, he inherited no patrimony wherewith 
 to forward his undisguised ambition ; but a marriage with the 
 sister of the duchesse de Gontaut made him rich. A certain 
 capacity for business was united to his lighter accomplishments, 
 so that he could direct the concerns of the state without making 
 them troublesome — an enviable gift in the minister of a monarch 
 who loved his ease, and yet wished to feel himself a king. From 
 this sketch it will appear how precisely the age and the character 
 of Louis XV. furnished the circumstances under which a due de 
 Choiseul could become the most successful of men. While minister 
 of foreign affairs, Choiseul concluded the famous Family Compact 
 in 1761 between France, Spain, Parma, and Naples, to cement a 
 perpetual union among the members of the house of Bourbon. 
 When really first minister of the crown, although without the 
 title, he consented to the expulsion from France of the Jesuits in 
 1764, and effected this measure in spite of the opposition of the 
 dauphin. Whenever the liberal pai-ty became troublesome, this act 
 was constantly appealed to on Choiseul's behalf, and did him 
 good sen-ice in securing his populaiity when it was threatened by 
 more obnoxious proceedings. Named minister of war and marine 
 at a disastrous epoch, when France had been forced to abandon 
 her German conquests and cede many colonies to the British, he 
 employed himself in preparing for the more successful resumption 
 of the war. He reorganized the army, established new schools 
 for the different services, and introduced a wiser economy. In 
 less than four years he managed to create a considerable fleet. 
 The death of madame de Pompadour in 1764 deprived Choiseul 
 of a powerful friend. Madame du Barry became the reigning 
 favourite, and, being met by Choiseul with disdain, at once 
 became the eager ally of his foes. The enmity between the min- 
 ister and the favourite increased day by day, and it could not be 
 long doubtful on which side a Louis XV. would declare himself. 
 The due de Richelieu directed the policy of madame du Ban-y, 
 and Maupeou, the Abb^ Terray, and the due d'Aiguillon com- 
 bined themselves together to grasp the power of the chief whose 
 fall was near — a triumvirate now to engage in a contest against 
 the parliament of the kingdom with the rashest party upon 
 which a feeble government ever rehed. The king at first hesi- 
 tated, but at last yielded to the pleadings of madame du Barn,-, 
 and on the 24th of December, 1770, signed the lettre de cachet 
 exiling Choiseul to Chanteloup. Some hours after recei\-ing 
 the letter, Choiseul left the court more powerful in France than 
 the king himself. So siurounded was the fallen minister with 
 testimonies of national homage, so visited and courted by the 
 noblest of the land, that Chanteloup seemed to render Versailles 
 a desert. The honour paid to Choiseul was in truth a testimony 
 of the degi-adation into which the royal authority had fallen. 
 
 and a warning that men began to foresee those days in which 
 ambition would have more hope in opposing than in serving 
 the monarchy of France. The three years of this disgrace 
 proved the happiest of Choiseul's life. Recalled from exile upon 
 the accession of Louis X\'I., he received from that prince an 
 honourable welcome, but never regained political power. The 
 gaiety of his disposition led him to treat the loss of power as of 
 little import, but shrewd sarcasms on public affairs constantly 
 betrayed the spirit of a dismissed minister. Choiseul died in 
 May, 1785, lea\ing princely legacies to those by whom he had 
 been faithfully served. — L. L. P. 
 
 Choiseul, Claude-Antoixe-Gabeiel, Due de, bom in 
 1760, succeeded to the family honours in 1785; his relative, the 
 celebrated minister of Louis XV., by whom he was beloved almost 
 as a son, dnng childless in that year. His share in the king's 
 unfortunate attempt at flight in 1791, and the attachment which 
 he manifested to Louis XVI. when a prisoner in the temple, 
 rendered his own attempt to escape from the scene of revolution 
 peculiarly difficult. It succeeded, however, and almost till the 
 epoch of the restoration, JI. de Choiseul was numbered amongst 
 the most imfortunate, as he was certainly one of the most able 
 and patriotic of the emigres. On the return of the Bourbons, 
 he took his seat in the chamber of peers, where he played a con- 
 spicuous and honourable part till his death in 1838. 
 
 Choiseul-Gouffier, Marie-Gabriel-Florent, Comte 
 de, bom in 1752; died in 1817. This accomplished nobleman 
 was the author of a " Voyage Pittoresque en Grfece," which was 
 received with equal admiration by scholars and the unlearned 
 public, and which secured its author's admission into the Academy 
 of Inscriptions. At the Revolution he was ambassador at Con- 
 stantinople, and being proscribed as a traitor to the republic, 
 fled into Russia, where he won the favour of Paul I., and was 
 created a privy councillor. On the return of the Bourbons, he 
 was made a minister of state, and a peer of France. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHOISY, Francois Timoleox, Abbe de, bom at Paris 
 1644. Descended from two gi-eat chancellors, one of whom, 
 the chancellor L'Hospital, was amongst the greatest men of his 
 own or any other countrj', Choisy, nevertheless, betrayed in 
 his early years a levity and vicious effeminacy which, had he not 
 subsequently refonned, would have rendered his name a blot on 
 the family escutcheon. LTp to eighteen years of age he wore 
 female costume, to which he had taken such a perverse fancy 
 that when induced to set it aside for more becoming habiUments, 
 he could not overcome the custom, and resumed them once 
 more. Stung by reproofs in the capital, he withdrew to a 
 chateau in the neighbourhood of Bourges, under the name of the 
 countess de Barres. He travelled through Italy, attending all 
 the gambling tables, and returned ha%-ing lost all his money, but 
 still dressed as a woman. Having caught a fever on his return 
 home, his mind became sensible of the odious follies of his past 
 life, and he resolved, if spared, to make amends for his transgres- 
 sions. Yielding his mind to severe studies, he proved that under 
 contemptible appearances tliere had lain a spark of the ancestral 
 spirit. He wrote dialogues on the soul, on God, on Providence, 
 and on religion. Not satisfied with intellectual speculation, he 
 thirsted for action, and hearing that the king, Louis XIV., was 
 sending an ambassador to Siam, he asked leave to accompany 
 the mission, (March 1685) with the view of converting the 
 pagan monarch to Christianity. It was on the voyage out that 
 he was ordained, and said his first mass on shipboai-d. He 
 foiled in his attempt to convert the king of Siam, and on his 
 return in 1686, instead of being received with favour was treated 
 ■with coldness. His knowledge of the language, however, ren- 
 dered him necessary to the court. The rest of his Ufe he passed 
 in penitence, but yet retained so much of the courtier as to 
 introduce into his life of Solomon many pointed compliments to 
 the king. Amongst his other works is a translation of the 
 immortal Imitation of Jesus Christ. He died 1724. — J. F. C. 
 
 * CHOISY, Jacques Dexys, a Genevese botanist of the pre- 
 sent century, has contributed several valuable works on botany ; 
 among others a monograph of the hypericacere, and memoirs 
 on the selaginaceaj and hydroleacese. He has also written a 
 monograph of convolvulacea?, and he revised that order in Decan- 
 doUe's Prodroraus. — J. H. B. 
 
 CHOPIN, Frederic Francois, a pianist and composer for 
 his instrument, was bom at Zelazowawola, near Warsaw, in 
 1810, and died at Paris, 17th October, 1849. He studied his 
 art at the conservatory of Warsaw, where his instmctors were
 
 CHO 
 
 1023 
 
 CHO 
 
 Zywni for the pianoforte, and Eisner for composition. He made 
 in ewrlv life several excursions into Germany, where he heard 
 the chief pianists of the time, from -whose example, more than 
 from the precepts of his master, he formed his style. The poli- 
 tical troubles of 1831 obliged him to quit Poland, and from this 
 period dates his career as an artist. He appeared first at Vienna, 
 with marked success as a player ; made an equally good impres- 
 sion at Munich, and reached Paris at the close of the year — 
 which city became his permanent residence. His compositions 
 were at this time of a bra\-ura character, \\-ritten to display his own 
 execution in public performance ; among others, a fantasia with 
 orchestra on " La ci darem," was especially popular. Of a delicate 
 constitution, which eminently affected the character of his mind, 
 he was attacked in 1837 by a pulmonaiy and asthmatic disease 
 from which he never recovered, that indisposed, if not incapaci- 
 tated him for appearance in public, and thus concentered his 
 thoughts upon composition, while it tinged them with a peculiar, 
 not to say a morbid expression, which gives marked individu- 
 ality to eveiything he wrote. His intimacy of many years with 
 JIadame Dudevant (Georges Sand) cannot have been without 
 influence upon his intellectual powers, and thus, however indi- 
 rectly, must have affected his music. Add to this the ardent 
 love of his country and of everything associated vrith it, common 
 to his exiled compatriots, and we have all the external causes 
 that may be supposed for the aesthetical peculiarities of his 
 writing. Circumstances similar to those which compelled him 
 to quit his native land, induced him, for the first time, to leave 
 France during the excitement of 1848. He then visited London, 
 and at the close of the fashionable season made a tour in 
 Scotland. The piercing climate of the north greatly irritated 
 his suffeiings from his disease, and he returned to the metropolis 
 late in the autumn. He had played very much in private society 
 during the year, and in Kovember was persuaded to rise from 
 his sick-bed to perform at a ball given for the Polish refugees 
 at Guildhall — this being his only appearance in a public concert- 
 room. He went back to Paris at the end of the year, where he 
 Ungered for many months in the protracted hopelessness of his 
 ruthless malady. Chopin -wTote two concertos, two sonatas, 
 several concert pieces, eighteen nocturnes, a large number of 
 impromptus, scherzos, ballads, polonaises, valses, and studies, 
 and eleven books of maziukas — all for the pianoforte. The best 
 idea of his playing is to be gathered from his music : it was 
 characterized by the most highly refined delicacy of expression, 
 and rendered very peculiar by his free use of the tempo rubato, 
 which no one ever employed so much, and few with such natural 
 grace and effect. For his remarkable speciality as a composer, 
 he owed little to the technical training of his Polish preceptor ; 
 with no command of the principles of construction, he made his 
 lengthened pieces incoherent, and even his lightest productions 
 give occasion to question the sotmdness of his grammatical know- 
 ledge. The singular beauty, and the constant individuality of 
 his ideas, however ; his exquisite feeling for harmonic combina- 
 tion and progression, which led to his habitual employment of 
 resources most rarely used by others ; his unreserved application 
 of exceptional forms of passing notes, and his perfect and pecu- 
 liar gracefulness of phraseology — give a charm to his music 
 which is iiTCsistibly fascinating. His mazurkas are unique in the 
 range of musical composition, and they are as full of character, 
 national colouring, sentiment, humour, and technical peculiarity, 
 as they are insusceptible of imitation. — G. A. M. 
 
 CHOPPIX or CHOPIN, Rene, a famous French law)-er, 
 bom in 1537 ; died in 1606. He practised with great success 
 in the parhament of Paris; but latterly confined himself to 
 his study, where he was consulted as a legal oracle. He was 
 ennobled by Henry IIL for his treatise " De Domanio Francia; ;" 
 his best work, however, is the " Commentaires sur la coutume 
 d'Anjou." Choppin's attachment to the league drew on him 
 Hofman's satire, entitled Anti-Choppinus. He seems ultimately 
 to have given in his adherence to Henry IV. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHOQUE, Pierre : lived towards the end of the fifteenth 
 and beginning of the sixteenth century ; he was a herald, and 
 in the mysterious nomenclature of that science is designated as 
 Bretagne. He was premier herald and king at arms to Anne 
 of Bretagne. There are in the imperial library at Paris several 
 manuscripts of his, recounting the ceremonies of royal marriages 
 and funerals at which he assisted. A poem translated from the 
 Latin of Brice into French verse by Choque, also exists in the 
 imperial library. Brice, we are told, was Germain Brice 
 
 d'AuxeiTe, canon of the cathedral of Paris, and almoner of Louis 
 XII., and who died in 1538. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHORICIUS : bom at Gaza. The precise time of his birth 
 and death are unknown, but he is said to have flourished about 
 520, in the reign of Justinian. He was educated by Procopius, 
 not the historian, but a rhetorician, who bore the same name. 
 Twenty-one discourses of Choricius exist In manuscript. Of 
 these Fabricius published two ; Villoison a third ; Iriarte and Mai 
 also published some fragments. Monsieur Boissonade had some 
 more fragments transcribed from a Madrid manuscript, and 
 published at Paris in 1846, the whole collectively, under the 
 title of " Choricii Gazaei Orationes, Declamationes, et Frag- 
 menta. Insunt ineditae orationes dua;." — J. A., D. 
 
 CHORIX, R' Aaron ben Kaljian, for fifty-five years rabbi 
 at Arad in Hungary, one of the most zealous and learned pro- 
 moters of reform among the Jews in modem times. He pubhshed 
 numerous works in defence and furtherance of his cause. The 
 most interesting to Hebrew scholars in general are — '"Zir nee- 
 man" (the Faithful Messenger), on the fundamental articles of 
 faith ; " Emek Ha-shaveh" (the Valley of the Plain, or Shave), 
 on the harmonizing of religious duties with the exigencies of 
 active life; "Dabar be-itto" (a "Word in Season), on reforms in 
 synagogue-worship ; and his autobiography, " Yeled Zekunim," 
 an eloquent appeal on behalf of progress. This enlightened rabbi 
 died at Arad on August 24, 1844.— T. T. 
 
 CHORON, Alexandre Etienne, a musician, was bom at 
 Caen, October 21, 1772, and died at Paris, June 29, 1834. His 
 father was a director of farms under government, an office of 
 considerable emolument, and was so entirely adverse to Choron's 
 adoption of music as a profession, that he threw every possible 
 obstacle in the way of his studying this art ; which obstacles, 
 however, the son's strong natural inclination overcame. Choron 
 was placed for general education in the college of Juilly, which 
 he quitted at the age of fifteen with great distinction. Here he 
 developed a remarkable faculty for languages, and so powerful 
 a memory, that till his latest years he had the constant habit of 
 reciting long passages from the Greek and Latin classics. His 
 mastery of Hebrew was such, that when he first went to Paris, 
 he frequently officiated as a deputy teacher at the Ponts et 
 Chaussees ; and, in pursuit of his musical studies, he acquired 
 a knowledge of Italian and German to enable him to read the 
 didactic works In those languages. The calculations of musical 
 ratios in the ^vritings of Rameau .ind d'Alembert directed Choron's 
 attention to mathematical science, and he applied himself to 
 this with the ardour and v.-ith the success that distinguish all 
 his studious efforts. He became a pupil of Monge, by whom he 
 was appointed in 1795 teacher of descriptive geometn.- in the 
 normal school, and afterwards, on the opening of the polytechnic 
 school, chef de brigade in that institution. To conclude this 
 account of his pursuits unconnected with music, it must be stated 
 that he pubhshed an ingenious tract on the improvement of 
 instruction in reading and writing, which was not without bene- 
 ficial influence on the elementary schools of France; and he wrote 
 in 1 8 1 2, as correspondent of the Classe des Beaux A rts, a tract upon 
 the works of Scopa, which is a reputed masterpiece of criticism. 
 Choron was nearly twenty years of age when he began the serious 
 study of music, which was even then undertaken without the aid 
 of a teacher to explain the theoretical works he read, or to 
 correct the exercises he set himself. It was not till 1797 that 
 he obcained his first master, Bonesi ; after this, by the advice of 
 Gretry with whom he had become intimate, he took lessons in 
 counterpoint of Abbe Roye, and these two were his only instmc- 
 tors. In 1804 he published " Principes d'Accompagiiement des 
 icoles d'ltalie," a work written in conjunction with Ficxchi, a 
 sinning master resident in Paris, but of which Choron contributed 
 the greater portion. With a view to the interests of his art, he 
 embarked his property in the music publishing firm of Le Due 
 and Co., and devoted great energy to the search after and 
 production of works of a cla.ssical character that had not Wn 
 printed in France, and that, as a connnercial undertaking, 
 probably might never have been printed there. At this estab- 
 lishment in 1808 he published the Principes de Composition 
 des iSlcoles d'ltalie, an extensive work comprised in three 
 volumes, which included the large collection of specimens of the 
 Italian contrapuntist, that had been printed at Naples by the 
 venerable Sala, but of which the plates had been destroyed at 
 the time when the French invested the city. It included, also, 
 much matter selected from other sources, and a large amount
 
 CHO 
 
 1024 
 
 CHR 
 
 furnisLed by himSelf, and, in fact, somewhat belied its name, 
 being rather an eclectic comprehension of all schools than a 
 representation of the one indicated in its title. He contemplated 
 the translation of Gerber's Slusical Biogi-aphy; but he took M. 
 Fayolle into co-operation with him, to whom, in the end, he 
 confided the entire work, with the exception of some original 
 articles, and a long mtroductory essay. This book appeared in 
 1810 and 1811. In 1812 Choron was commissioned to fomi a plan 
 for the reorganization of cathedral choirs, the success of which 
 led to his appointment as director of the music for religious fetes 
 and ceremonies. A want of prompt facility, which was a natm-al 
 consequence of the late commencement of his artistic studies, 
 occasioned him considerable embarrassment in the discharge of 
 tliis office ; by unceasing assiduity, however, he made up for this 
 impediment, and eflFected a most important refonnation in the 
 dep.irtment intrusted to him. Many circumstances, and perhaps 
 some prejudice, had made him always opposed to the conser\'a- 
 toire ; but when this institution, which had been founded by 
 the republic, was dissolved upon the restoration, Choron was 
 intnisted to draw up a system for an establishment to replace it, 
 and the ^cole de chant et de declamation, which has since been 
 developed into the present conservatoire, was formed under his 
 superintendence. In 1816 he was appointed director of the 
 opera, which office he held for little more than a year. His 
 scheme for bringing forward the talent of untried artists, by 
 allowing such to write one-act operas for the theatre, was deemed 
 a gi-eater boon for tliese composers than for the public, and his 
 management was generally unpopular. He next conceived a 
 design of an extensive institution for instruction in choral sing- 
 ing, and, after gi-eat difficulty, obtained a grant from government 
 for its support. For the purposes of this establishment, he 
 published in 1818 his "Methode Concertante de I\Iusique a 
 quatre parties," a work admirably appropriate to its object, and 
 the new school, under the name of the Conservatoire de musique 
 classique et religieuse, was opened under Choron's exclusive direc- 
 tion. He now performed an extraordinary art-pilgrimage through 
 the southern provinces to obtain disciples for his seminary, 
 seeking fine voices among all classes of the people, but especially 
 among the peasantry, whose robust constitution is generally 
 favourable to the development of the vocal organs. Besides the 
 efficacy of his system, his personal manner in its administration, 
 and the untiring energy with which he discharged this, produced 
 the most admirable results. Many as were the occupations of 
 his ever active mind, this institution became his chief object 
 of attention, and when, after the revolution of 1830, in the 
 rearrangement of aflf\iirs, the grant for its support was so greatly 
 diminished, as virtually to put an end to its operations, Choron's 
 vexations preyed upon him to the extent of undennining his 
 health, and eventually bringing him to the grave. As a com- 
 poser, he was so successful in " La Sentinelle," one of a set 
 of romances published in 180G, that this has become a popular 
 national song thi-oughout France. All his subsequent publica- 
 tions, however, were for the uses of the church, or practicable 
 exercises in extension of his " Methode Concertante," and they 
 are highly accredited for the profundity of their style and the 
 purity of their countei-point. As a theorist, his translation of 
 the works of Albrechtsberger, with copious comments ; his 
 translation of the treatise of F. Azopardi ; and his many original, 
 critical, and elementary writings, entitle him to be classed above 
 any of his countn,-men ; at least, if he produced little that was 
 new upon the subject of his art, he exhibited a most profound and 
 comprehensive knowledge of its principles as set forth by previous 
 writers, and an excellent skill in expounding them. — G. A. M. 
 
 CHOSROES. See Arsaces. 
 
 CHOSROES I. and II. See Khosroes. 
 
 CHOUDJAA-ED-DOULAH or SUJAH DOWLAH, sur- 
 named Djelaled-Dyx-Hayder, Nabob of Oude, and Vizier of 
 the monarchy of Ilhidostan, was born at Delhi in 1729. He 
 was a greedy, cowardly, and cruel tjTant, and his memory has 
 been preserved mainly by his connection with Lord Clive and 
 Warren Hastings. He succeeded his father in 1754, and one of 
 liis first acts was the assassination of the governor of Allahabad 
 who had shown a desire to get rid of his yoke. The English 
 were regarded by him with intense hatred, as rapacious usurpers; 
 and he speedily drew down then- displeasure by affording shelter 
 to lyieer Cossim, who fled to Oude for refuge after the massacre of 
 his English prisoners, which, as ]\Iacaulay remarks, '* siu-passed 
 in atrocity that of the Black Hole." The Company determined 
 
 to punish him for this hostile proceeding, but he anticipated 
 them by a declaration of war in 1763, and penetrated tO tlie 
 environs of Patna, which the English were obliged to evacuate. 
 Next year, however (October 22), ]\Iajor, afterwards Sir Hector 
 Munro, with a force of seven thousand sepoys and English, 
 attacked at Buxhar the army of the nabob, consisting of forty 
 thousand men, and defeated them, with the loss of two thousand 
 men and one hundred and thirty-three pieces of artilleiy. A 
 second defeat was inflicted upon him and his Mahratta allies at 
 Calpi, by General Carnac, on the 3d of ISIay, 1765, and Sujah- 
 Dowlah, finding farther resistance hopeless, sm-rendered to the 
 victors on the 19th of May. Lord Clive, by whom the terms 
 of peace were ratified, allowed the nabob to retain possession 
 of his dominions (with the exception of Allahabad and Corah, 
 which were assigned to the Mogul), on condition that he should 
 pay fifty lacs of rupees, as the expenses of the war, and give 
 no further shelter to Meer Cossim, or the German soldier, 
 Sumroo. In 1773 the nabob cast a covetous eye upon the 
 Rohilla country, and entered into an agi-eement with Warren 
 Hastings, by which he stipulated to pay forty lacs of i-upees, on 
 condition that the Enghsh troops should assist "in the conquest 
 and extermination of the Rohillas." In fulfilment of this most 
 infamous compact, a British force, imder Colonel Champion, 
 invaded the Rohilla territories in 1774, in conjunction with Sujah- 
 Dowlah. A bloody battle took place on the 23d of April. The 
 dastardly nabob speedily took to flight, and left the British to 
 fight single-handed; but after an obstinate struggle the Rohillas 
 were defeated, and their gallant chief, Hafiz Rhamet, was slain. 
 The nabob inflicted the most shocking cnielties on the conquered 
 nation. Men, women, and children were giv. n up to the sword, 
 and the country w-as reduced to a desert. This transaction has 
 left a deep stain on the character of Hastings and of the British 
 goveiTiment. Sujah-Dowlah died in 1775. — (See MiWs Histoif/ 
 of British Lidin, vol. iii., and Macaulay's Essay on Warren 
 Hastings J) — J. T. 
 
 CHRESTIEN, Florent, bom at Orieans in 1541 ; died at 
 Vendome in 1596. He was tutor of Henri of Navarre, after- 
 wards Henri IV. of France. There are several works of Florent 
 Chrestien in verse and prose ; tragedies, original and translated ; 
 Greek epigrams ; a translation of the Quatrains of Pibrac into 
 Greek and Latin ; satires against Ronsard ; and he assisted in 
 satire Menipp^e, though his parts are not now knowm. He 
 translated Hero and Leander from the Greek of Musasus, and 
 also Oppian's book on hunting. His knowledge of Greek was 
 veiy accurate for the period. He followed the example of the 
 king in becoming a member of the church of France. The 
 fancy of taking Latin names was frequent in Chrestien's day, 
 and he called himself Quintus Septiniius Christianus — Quintus 
 as the youngest of five brothers, and Septimius as being a seventh 
 month's child. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHRESTIEN or CHRESTIEN be Troyes, a French poet. 
 Neither the date of his birth or death is known with certainty ; 
 he appears not to have died till within the last four or five years 
 of the twelfth century. We find him described as " orateur et 
 chroniqueur" of Madame Jeanne, comtesse of Flanders. He 
 WTOte several romances in verse, most of which exist in manu- 
 script in the bibliotheque imperiale. A good many of the stories 
 of the Round Table are told by Chrestien, and as far as we can 
 judge by the extracts given in the Histoire Litteraire de la 
 France are amusingly told. The incidents are those familiar to 
 all readers of romances — " fierce wars and faithful lovers — forests 
 and enchantments drear." Some of his romances were trans- 
 lated into prose, and in this form probably gave higher pleasure 
 to a larger number of persons, than had heard the verses of the 
 original said or sung. Perceval le Gallois — a prose version of 
 Chrestien's rhyming legend — printed in folio in 1580, was a 
 volume at one time greatly treasured. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHRISTIAN, Edward, chief justice of the isle of Ely, and 
 Downing professor of the laws of England in the university of 
 Cambridge, died in 1823. He is the author of an edition of 
 Blackstone, and of several legal dissertations of gi-eat merit. 
 
 CHRISTIANA, duchess-regent of Savoy, daughter of Henrj' 
 IV. of France, and Maria de Medicis, was born in 1606, and 
 married in 1619 Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy. Before his 
 death in 1C27, the duke appointed Christiana regent, and 
 guardian of her children. Her regency was one continued scene 
 of troubles and disturbances excited mainly by the cupidity of 
 the French court, who sought to take advantage of her unpro-
 
 tected position, and to seize the principal fortresses of the dachv. 
 Her two brothers-in-law, the Cardinal Maurice, and Prince 
 Thomas, disturbed the peace of the countrv by their intrigues 
 
 ;ad plots, invaded Piedmont, and the latter captured Turin 
 .aid several other important places, while a Spanish army at 
 the same time assailed the duchy. Peace was concluded, how- 
 
 ver, in 16i"2 between her and her brothers-in-law. The majority 
 
 ■f Charles Emmanuel was proclaimed in 1648, but his mother 
 retained her power until her death in 1663. As a ruler her 
 > onduct exhibited ability and firmness, but her private character 
 ■ .as not unblemished. — -J. T. 
 
 CHRISTL\XUS, a warlike prelate of the twelfth century, 
 
 ;i-chbishop of Mayence, took an active part in the Italian wars of 
 
 iie Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. He died in 1183. 
 CHRISTIE, Jailes, a noted antiquarian, followed in London 
 
 lis father's profession of auctioneer. He wrote "An Essay on 
 ihe ancient Greek game supposed to have been invented by 
 Palamedes" &<;., 1802; "A Disquisition upon Etruscan vases,"' 
 1806; and "An Essay on the earliest species of Idolatrj-, the 
 ^vorship of the elements," 1815. He died in 1831. — J. s"., G. 
 CHRISTIE, Thomas, a Scottbh writer, was bom at ^Montrose 
 'n 1761. He went to London for the purpose of stndj.'ing 
 
 nedicine, but soon abandoned that profession, and addicting 
 ::imself to Uterary pursuits, commenced a pubhcation called the 
 AnaJytical Revieic. He visited France in 1789, when he wa.s 
 c TdiaUy welcomed by the leaders of the revolutionary party, and 
 v.Tote a reply to Burke's denunciation of the Jacobins. He died 
 
 (t Surinam in 1796, leaving " Miscellanies, Philosophical, 
 Medical, and Moral," published in 1789. — J. T. 
 
 CHRISTIEEN I. (Christian), the founder of the house of 
 T'ldenburg, which still reigns in Denmark, was bom in 1425 
 
 :• 1426. He was the second son of Theodoric, count of Olden- 
 
 Tu-g, and was elected king of Denmark on the death of Chris- 
 topher III. of Bavaria, the last of the Waldemars, in 1448. 
 C'hristiem expected that the treaty of Colmar, which was 
 negoriated under the direction of the celebrated Queen Margaret, 
 and guaranteed the union of the three northern cro^vns, would 
 take effect in his case. But in the same year in which he was 
 intrusted with the supreme power in Denmark, Carl Knutson 
 (Charles Canuteson) became king of Sweden, and soon after 
 seized on the crown of Norway. Carl was forced, however, in 
 1450, to resign the latter, which then fell to Chiistiem ; and 
 his arbitrary rule in Sweden at length, in 1458, brought about 
 the union of the three crowns in the person of the same king. 
 Two years after, the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein came 
 also into Christiem's possession. In 1464 an insurrection 
 placed Carl a second time on the throne of Sweden. Chris- 
 tiern made two determined, but fruitless efforts, to recover the 
 crown, in the latter of wliich he was himself wounded at the 
 sanguinary battle of Brunkebjerg. He founded the university 
 of Copenhagen. Christiem died in 1481. When his daughter 
 Margaret became the queen of James III. of Scotland, Chris- 
 tiem, whose exchequer was unequal to the payment of her dower, 
 pledged the islands of Orkney and Shetland, which have never 
 been redeemed. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHRISTIERN II., grandson of Christiem L, king of Den- 
 mark, Norway, and Sweden, was bom in 1480. He was chosen 
 successor to the throne during the life of his father, John, and 
 fix)m the year 1501 had a considerable share in the government, 
 particxdai-ly in Norway, where he suppressed two insurrections 
 with more vigour than humanity. On his accession in 1513 he 
 signed a capitulation favourable to the power of the aristocracy ; 
 but this did not hinder him from straining all his energies to 
 render his own sway in the last degree absolute. To strengthen 
 his tyrannical pretensions he allied himself in 1515 with the 
 most powerful dynasty in Europe, by marrying Isabella, sister of 
 Charles V. Soon after this he began to prepare for a war 
 against Sweden, where the younger Sture, who had been named 
 administrator of that country, refused to recognize the treaty of 
 Colmar. His first expedition failed ; but in 1520 the battle of 
 Borgesund, in which Sture fell, was won by his general Otto 
 Krumpen, and, notwithstanding the heroic defence of Stockholm 
 by Sture's widow, decided the fate of Sweden. Christiem was 
 crowned king In the same year, and proclaimed an amnesty, 
 which he almost immediately profaned by barbarously murdering 
 about ninety of the Swedish nobles, besides a great number of 
 the people. At last Gustavus Vasa, who had borne the Swedish 
 banner during Christiem's first expedition, and whose father was 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 one of the murdered nobles, appeared at the Bead of the famous 
 Dalecarlians. The Danes were soon driven out of the countrv. 
 Gustavus, the liberator of Sweden, was elected king on the 7th 
 June, 1523, and on that day the treaty of Colmar, which had 
 lasted a hundred and twenty-six years, became a dead letter. 
 Meanwhile Christiem had lost also the crown of Denmark ; the 
 nobles having taken advantage of his reverses to revenge the 
 violation of the articles which he had signed on becoming khig. 
 For nine years after this he led an adventurous life, chiefly 
 in the Low Countries. He conversed with Erasmus and corres- 
 ponded with the German reformers, whose doctrines he approved 
 when no opposite interest w,is present to his mind. In 1531 
 he at last succeeded, with the aid of Charles V., in conducting 
 an expedition into Nonvay. The diet of that country proclaimed 
 him king ; but soon after he fell into the power of Frederic I., 
 his successor on the Danish throne, who threw him into prison, 
 where he died after a long confinement in 1559. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHRISTIERN III., King of Denmark and Norway, .Hud son 
 of Frederick I., was born in 1502, and died in 1559. He 
 ascended the throne in 1536. like Gustavus Vasa, with whom 
 he was in close alliance, he signalized his reign by a vigorous 
 support of the Reformation. One of the first measures of his 
 rule deprived the clergy of all share iu the civU power. At a 
 diet held at Copenhagen in October, 1536, and composed of four 
 hundred nobles, together wdth a few deputies of the people, 
 Lutheranism was declared the religion of the state. The secu- 
 larization of the church property immediately followed ; although 
 Christiem, listening to the remonstrance of Luther, reserved a 
 considerable part of it for the support of the new establishment. 
 Bugenhagen was brought from Wittemberg to assist in organizing 
 the Danish protestant church. Its constitution, drawn up by the 
 clergy and approved by Luther, was sanctioned at the diet of 
 Odensee in 1539. The university of Copenhagen was likewise 
 placed upon a better footing, and the general reform included a 
 new order of schools for the Uberal education of youth. In the 
 midst of these peaceful improvements Christiem was threatened 
 with war. The pretensions of the two sons-in-law of Christiem 
 II. to the Danish throne being agaui raised, were supported by 
 Charles V. Christiem III. upon this entered into an alliance 
 with France ; but the peace of Spire, at which Charles V. aban- 
 doned the caxise of his brother-in-law, was concluded in 1544, 
 and put an end to the danger. Christiem joined the league of 
 Schmalkalden ; but when the war of that name broke out, his 
 treaty with the emperor prevented him from actively engaging in it. 
 Commerce flourished during his reign. His wise policy tirst effec- 
 tively neutralized the dangerous preponderance of the Hanseatic 
 towns. Christiem, like many powerful rulers, was an encouniger 
 of letters. He was succeeded by his son Nidare. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHRISTIERN lY., King of Denmark and Norway, son of 
 Frederick II., was bom in 1577, and died in 1648. Being only 
 twelve years of age when his father died, the regency, which 
 should, according to custom, have fallen to Sophia of Mecklcii- 
 burc, was seized by the aristocracy. He began to reign in 1596. 
 The claims of Russia and Sweden to Norwegian Lapland brought 
 bun Into collision with these two powers. Christiem, who pos- 
 sessed one of the best fleets of that time, conducted in person a 
 naval expedition against the former in 1599, and twelve years 
 afterwards gained several important victories in a war with 
 Charles IX." It was in this w.ar that the Nonvegian peasants of 
 the valley of Guldbrand destroyed a company of Scottish soldiers, 
 one thousand sh-ong, commanded by Colonel Sinclair. Pe.ice was 
 concluded between Sweden and Denmark on the accession of Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus. The twelve years following 1613 were the most 
 peaceful and illustrious of Christiem's reign. His whole attention 
 was given to the intemal condition of his countr}-, and to the 
 extension of her commerce. He improved the legislature, reor- 
 ganized the university, founded schools of various kinds, made 
 provision for the education of a number of poor scholars, estab- 
 lished libraries, and built towns. He w.is the first monarch that 
 sent expeditions to explore the north-west passage. One of the 
 results of these expethtions w.is the annexation of Greenland to 
 the crown of Denmark. Chri.'^ticra also laid the foundation of 
 the Danish power in the E.TSt. These peaceful labours were inter- 
 rapted by the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. Christiem was 
 .sppointed capt.-iin-general of the league formed by the protestant 
 powers for the defence of the elector-palatine, whose territories 
 were invaded by the emperor. His military career, however, proved 
 unsuccessful. At the head of twenty-seven thousand men of 
 
 CO
 
 CHR 
 
 1026 
 
 CHR 
 
 various nations he had advanced as far as Brunswick, when, on 
 the 27th August, 1626, he was completely overthrown by Tilly 
 at the battle of Lutter-sur-Barcmberg. He immediately received 
 a reinforcement of six thousand English and Scotch; but Wallen- 
 steiu having meanwhile effected a junction with Tilly, he was 
 forced to retire into Fionia, wliilst his victorious enemies ravaged 
 Holstein and Jutland. Wallenstein who now, it is said, aspired 
 to the crown of Denmark, occupied Rostock and Wismar, and laid 
 siege to Stralsund. But Christiern, aided by a Swedish army, 
 at length drew him out of the North, and reconquered Jutland, 
 Schleswig, and Hulstein. A peace was concluded at Lubeck in 
 1629. Christiern is said to have entertained the project of 
 conquering Sweden. But the Swedes were beforehand with him 
 in the work of invasion ; they suddenly entered Denmark in 164:1, 
 and, in spite of the energetic defence of Christiern, forced him 
 to sign hmniliating conditions of peace. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHRISTIERN V., King of Denmark and Norway, son of 
 Frederick III., was born in 1646, and died in 1699. He 
 succeeded his father in 1670, and was the first hereditary king 
 of Denmark, the crown having been elective till the year 1 660. 
 Christiern visited England in 1662, and soon after married the 
 Princess Charlotte- Amelia of Hesse. In 1675, joining the league 
 formed by tiie German princes, the empei'or, and the Dutch, he 
 declared war against Sweden. At first he carried it on with 
 great vigour and success. Jemteland and Scania were con- 
 quered, and, at the battle of Uddevalle, General Loevenhjelm 
 with tliree thousand men routed a Swedish army eleven thousand 
 strong. But victory then went over to the other side ; and, not- 
 withstanding the complete success of the combined fleets of 
 Denmark and Holland at sea, Christiern fomid himself in 1679 
 obliged, by the defection of his allies, to conclude an unsatis- 
 factory treaty of peace at Nimeguen with Sweden and France. 
 His attempt on the independence of Hamburg brought him little 
 honour. That he was a weak ruler is sufficiently proved by the 
 fate of his able minister Griffenfeldt, who was condemned to 
 death in 1676 for crimes that were never proved, the king pos- 
 sessing so little power, that the utmost he could do was to com- 
 mute the sentence into imprisonment for life. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHRISTIERN VI., King of Denmark and Norway, son of 
 Frederick IV., was born in 1699, and died in 1746. He 
 ascended the throne on the death of his ftither in 1730. His 
 reigii was peaceful throughout, and politically considered, is 
 utterly devoid of interest. Nothing but the usual squabbles 
 with the house of Holstcin-Gottorp, an insignificant quarrel 
 with Sweden, and an alliance defensive with France, need be 
 noticed. The king and queen, who could not speak the language 
 of their people, surrounded themselves, to the great discontent 
 of the countiy, with a crowd of needy pietistic Germans. Chris- 
 tiern, however, took a deep interest in the welfare of his sub- 
 jects, and kept a kindly eye on whatever concerned the advance- 
 ment of science, of education, and of good morals. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHRISTIERN VII., King of Denmark and Norway, son of 
 Frederick V., was born in 1749, and died in 1808. Shortly 
 after ascending the throne in 1766 he married Caroline Matilda, 
 sister of George III. of England. Accompanied by Struensee his 
 physician, he travelled into Germany, Holland, France, and Eng- 
 land, where he received the degree of LL.D. from Cambridge. 
 In 1770 Stniensee became his prime minister, and govemed 
 with almost regal authority for sixteen months. Struensee 
 amongst some other excellent reforms procm-ed the liberty of 
 the press ; but the nobles, jealous of his power, conspired his 
 full. He was condemned to death by a commission, and exe- 
 cuted on 28th April, 1772. The fate of Caroline Matilda was 
 involved in that of the favourite. Being accused of an illicit 
 connection with Struensee, she was divorced from her husband, 
 and removed by the English government to Zell in Hanover, 
 where she died in 1775. Soon after this the king fell a 
 victim to insanity. Frederick his eldest son was declared major 
 in 1784, and from that year conducted the government as prince 
 regent, though he did not take the name, till his father's death. 
 The reign of Christiern VII. was the most illustrious in regard 
 to literature, science, and art, that Denmark had yet seen. It 
 is sufficient to mention the names of Baggesen, ffihlenschlaeger, 
 Thorwaldsen, and the two brothers CErsted. — R. M., A. 
 
 CHRISTIERN VIII., King of Denmark, son of the heredi- 
 tary prince Frederick, was born in 1786. He married in 1806 
 the princess Charlotte Frederica of IMecklenburg. The king, 
 Frederick VI., knowing the designs of Sweden with regard to 
 
 Norway, sent Prince Christiern as his representative to the latter 
 country. He was proclaimed king by the loyal Norwegians, 
 but an army of forty thousand men, and threatening notes from 
 the gi-eat powers, caused him to abdicate the throne on 26th 
 October, 1814. Before parting with the crown he extorted a 
 promise from Sweden that the independence of the Norwegian 
 constitution should be sacredly maintained. Christiern ascended 
 the Danish throne on the death of Frederick in the end of 1839. 
 He was a most accomplished prince ; his accession caused uni- 
 versal joy, but death put an end to his too short reign amidst 
 the troubles of 1848.— R. M., A. 
 
 CHRISTINE, Queen of Sweden : This extraordinary woman, 
 the daughter of the great Gusta%Tis Adolphus by his queen 
 Eleonore, princess of Brandenburg, was bora December 18, 
 1626. At the time of her father's departure for the Thirty 
 Years' War she was only four years old ; consequently though it 
 has been said that Gustavus educateil her rather as a boy than 
 a girl, he could have had little or nothing to do with her educa- 
 tion. At his death on the field of Liitzen, November 16, 1632, 
 she was only six years of age. She was immediately crowned 
 queen of Sweden, and the Swedish parliament appointed the five 
 principal ministers of state as her guardians. At the head of 
 these was the celebrated Chancellor Oxenstjerna, who had been 
 the able and zealous supporter of Gustavus in the great enter- 
 prise for the enfranchisement of protestantism, and who con- 
 tinued to prosecute the same design through the famous generals, 
 Duke Benihard of Weuuar, Torstenson, Horn, Banner, and 
 Wrangel, till the object was achieved at the peace of Westphalia. 
 
 Cluistine was educated with gi-eat care by Oxenstjerna, who 
 became to her like a father. He gave her the most learned 
 teachers in languages (ancient and modern), history, geography, 
 philosophy, and politics. She displayed on her part an extra- 
 ordinary force of imagination and of memory, and to these 
 advantages added an unappeasable thirst of knowledge. Her 
 guardians were amazed at the rapid progi-ess she made in her 
 education ; but they were as quickly strack with the eccentricity 
 of her character. She had the high courage and the desire of 
 distinction of her father, to whom she bore a strong resem- 
 blance. She showed a decided taste for manly, rather than for 
 feminine pursuits and accompUshments. She had a great pas- 
 sion for horseback and fox-hunting, in which no danger could 
 distiu^b her. She was fond of wearing men's apparel, of asso- 
 ciating with men, despised female ornaments, and showed great 
 repugnance to the etiquette of royalty. At the same time, 
 though an Amazon in her spirit and habits, she was under the 
 middle size, and had one shoulder rather higher than the otlier, 
 which she concealed as much as possible by the aid of dress and 
 the carriage of her person. At sixteen the states proposed to 
 dismiss her guardians and give her independent possession of the 
 government ; but she at this time displayed more wisdom than 
 the parliament, excusing herself as too young, and the guardian- 
 ship was continued two years longer, namely till 1644. Having 
 once undertaken the supreme power, she entered on the business 
 of the state \vith a zeal and an ability which astonished her 
 ministers. She gave the highest promise of becoming a great 
 sovereign by the tact and firmness of her judgment. She put 
 an end to the war with Denmark begun that year, and at the 
 treaty of Bromsebro in 1645, she obtained some new provinces. 
 She then, contraiy to the wishes of Oxenstjerna, hastened the 
 conclusion of peace in Germany, disregarding the chancellor's 
 suggestion that a continuance of the war must procure still 
 greater advantages to Sweden. She turned her attention to 
 the mercantile affairs of the country, and introduced various 
 measures to the advantage of commerce. But her chief delight 
 was in the prosecution of literature and science, and she reformed 
 and promoted the literary and learned institutions of the country. 
 She was, herself, perhaps the most accomplished woman of the 
 age, understanding six languages, of which she wrote and spoke 
 French and Italian like her native tongue ; conversed with 
 coiTectness in Gei-man, and read her favourites, Thucydides and 
 Polybius, in the original. She maintained an autogi-aph corre- 
 spondence with the most learned men of foreign nations, and 
 invited them to visit Sweden, or to send her information of the 
 works they were engaged in. Gassendi sent her his mathematical 
 works. Descartes, Grotius, Salmasius, Bochart, Vossius, Mei- 
 bom, and other learned men sought her court, and were received 
 with the most flattering distinction. Descartes ended his days 
 at Stockholm ; and Salmasius, under her patronage, entered the
 
 lists against the republicanism of ililton. He does not, however, 
 seem to have realized her expectations, for she dubbed him 
 " omnium fatuorum doctissimum." She studied chemistry, 
 astronomy, and even alchemy and astrology, with the most cele- 
 brated professors. She purchased, with a royal recklessness of 
 expense, books, pictures, coins, antiquities, autographs, &c., and 
 indulged herself in such hberahty to artists and professors of 
 v;u-ions kinds, and in feasts and entertainments at which they 
 fi;^ed, to such a degree, that her ministers and parliament 
 complained of the pressure of her expenditure on the finances of 
 the country, already exhausted by the wars of her father. At 
 the same time her people regarded her with admiration, as 
 capable of taking the lead in the aSairs of the north, and the 
 ministers advised her to marry. But, hke Elizabeth of England, 
 she could not reconcile the idea of a partner on her throne with 
 her love of independent power, and she rejected the proposal. 
 The states, however, continued to press her on thb head, till it 
 became intolerable to her ; and the complaints of the people of 
 the waste of the public money on foreign artists and learned 
 favourites, led her to contemplate the abdication of her throne 
 in favour of her cousin, Karl Gustav of Pfalz-Zweibriicken, the 
 son of her father's sister, who had sought her hand, and was 
 highly distinguished for the nobility of his nature, his exten- 
 sive knowledge, and ability. Though her counselloi-s, and 
 especially Oxenstjerna, earnestly, and at this time successfully, 
 dissuaded her from this starthng project, she prevailed on the 
 states in 1649 to name him her successor, asserting that the 
 kingdom required a king rather than a queen, who could not 
 only rule in the cabinet, but lead his armies in the field. Hav- 
 ing settled the succession, she allowed hei-self to be cro^vned 
 with great state in 1650, and for some time resumed the reins 
 of government with every appearance ot earnestness, and pros- 
 pect of sunnounting the temporary difficulties of the realm. But 
 this did not last long. She showed a growing disposition to 
 neglect the coimsels of her quiet ministry, and to listen to those 
 of ambitious favourites, as Tott, De la Gardie, PimonteUi, &c. 
 She relapsed into her extravagance ; unworthy favourites were 
 promoted over the heads of men of real standing and ability ; 
 the treasury was empty ; the court filled with petty feuds and 
 bitternesses. At length, not only the favourites, but herself was 
 jn jeopardy fi-om the conspiracy of Messenius. There arose in 
 the three lower estates, especially the clerical, a violent opposi- 
 tion to the nobihty in which Christine was imprudent enough to 
 mix herself; and whilst she seemed to incite the opposition, she 
 at the same time raised many unworthy persons to the rank of 
 nobility, and heaped estates and privileges on that class. 
 
 The discontent of the people grew from day to day. To add 
 to her motives for abdicating the throne, Christine had resolved 
 to abandon protestantism, the rehgion for which her father had 
 spent his treasure and his Ufe. In 16o4 she again announced 
 her intention to resign the crown, and, notwithstanding the 
 earnest entreaties of all persons and parties, amongst whom one 
 of the most zealous to dissuade was her cousin Karl, who would 
 have preferred marr}'ing her, she this time, on the 16th of June, 
 in an assembly of the states at Upsala, renounced the crown in 
 favour of her cousin. She resen-ed to herself an annual income of 
 200,000 dollars, and the right of royal jurisdiction over her o\vn 
 little court. Having addressed the states in a speech which was 
 listened to with tears, she laid down the insignia of her autho- 
 rity — Karl was crowned the same day as Karl X. — and five days 
 afterwards she travelled in man's attu-e through Denmark to 
 Hamburg. Italy was the country which she had marked out as 
 her home, and where she promised herself — freed from the cares 
 of a throne, and surrounded by art and artists, and in the free 
 enjoyment of her new religion — a felicitous hfe. In Bnissels, 
 where she remained nearly a year, she made a private confession 
 of the catholic faith in the presence of Duke Albrecht and some 
 distinguished Spaniards. At Inspruck she made a more formal 
 and public avowal of it, to the gi-eat disgust of the brave Swedes 
 who had fought under her father to check the horrors of catholic 
 oppression. From Inspruck to Rome her journey was a perfect 
 ovation. She rode in Amazon costiune on horseback, and all 
 the cities through which she passed were crowded with people 
 shouting in exultation over so great a proselvte, and were all astir 
 with illuminations, feasts, plays, and triumphal arches. At 
 Eome her reception was rapturous ; she did homage to the pope, 
 Alexander VII., and received the honour of his name, in addi- 
 tion to hers, being thence styled Christine Alexandi-a. In 1656 
 
 she went to France, where she lived principally at Fontainebleau, 
 Compiegne, and Paris. Her finances were so low that she was 
 obUged to pawn her jewels in Rome before setting out. The 
 Parisian ladies, who were at first terrified at the fame of her 
 talents, were soon very free in criticism on her high shoulder, 
 her small figure, and the tasteless negligence of her dress, as 
 well as her miserable retinue. The men were wonderfullv 
 fascinated by her knowledge and the freedom of her opinions. 
 On her return towards Italy she %nsited the celebrated Ninon de 
 I'Enclos at her country seat. The following autumn she again 
 returned to France, where her arrival excited little attention ; 
 but within a fortnight she excited a universal horror by pro- 
 nouncing sentence of death on her master of the horse, the 
 Jlarquis ilonaldeschi, who had been her confidant, but had 
 betrayed her secrets, and having him put to death in the pre- 
 sence of Father Lebel, the walls and floor being stained with his 
 blood. She received an intimation from the French court to 
 quit the country, and it was two months before she dared to 
 show herself in the streets of Paris : yet she remained in France 
 till the spring of 1658, when she returned to Rome. From the 
 poveiiy of the Swedish treasury, her annuity now remained 
 unpaid, and the pope was obliged to allow her a pension of 
 twelve hundred scudi. In 1660, Karl Gustav, her successor on 
 the throne of Sweden, died, and Christine hastened to Stockholm 
 to claim the throne again : but her religion was of itself a suffi- 
 cient bar to her wishes, had not her recent history been sufficiently 
 admonitory to the Swedish people. They obliged her to sign a 
 more binding deed of abdication, and she felt herself compelled 
 to retire from Stockholm. In 1666 she returned to Sweden 
 once more, but being informed that she could not be permitted 
 the pubhc practice of her rehgion, she retmned to Hamburg. 
 There she lived about a year, offering herself to the Poles as 
 their sovereign, but receiving little attention. In 16G8 she 
 finally returned to Rome, where she continned to Uve yet twenty 
 years, and died in 1689, sixty-three years old, and was buried 
 in St. Peter's, the pope himself writing her epitaph. During 
 her later years she foimded an academy in Rome, and increased 
 her collections of paintings, coins, and autographs. Her library 
 was purchased by the pope, Alexander VIII. ; part of her paint- 
 ings and the antiques by OJescalchi, the nephew of Innocent 
 Xi. ; the other part of the paintings by the duke of Orleans. 
 The value of these collections may be seen in Haverkamp's 
 Nummophvlacium Reg. Christinte, in the Museum Odescalcum, 
 and in Scroder's Berichte iiber die Gemiihlde und Statuen der 
 Konigen Chiistine. 
 
 Christine, ^\-ith all her talents and learning, was what is now- 
 a-days called a "strong-minded woman." She wanted solid judg- 
 ment to Decome a great woman ; and the opinion of Fryxell, the 
 Swedish historian, that she was to a certain degree insane, 
 appears to be correct. The same taint was sufficiently obvious 
 in the poetical Erik, in Charles XII., and others of the royal 
 line of Sweden. Some of her writings remain in Arckenholz's 
 memoirs of her, but doubts have been cast on the authenticity 
 of some of the letters beaiing her name. — W. H. 
 
 CHRISTINE DE Pis.v>', a French poetess of Italian descent 
 She was bom at Venice about 1363 ; died about 1431. Her 
 fiither was astrologer to Charles V. of France. His daughter, 
 then five years old, accompanied him when he fixed his residence 
 at Paris in that capacity. At the age of fifteen she married a 
 French gentleman, Etienne du Castel, who was notary and 
 secretary to the king. The king died, and his death was followed 
 soon by that of his astrologer and his notary. Christine found 
 herself alone in the world at the age of five-and-twenty, witli 
 three children, and with little other evidence of property but what 
 was furnished by her being defendant in several lawsuits instituted 
 by persons having claims on her husband. In these circum- 
 stances she found some means of support in authorshij) — of course 
 through the patronage of the great, then the only public for such 
 wares as she dealt in. The mam.ige of Richard II. was the 
 subject of a poem of Christine's, and on that occasion the earl 
 of Salisbury adopted a son of liers, .and brought with him into 
 England a" collection of her poetn,-, which led in the next reign 
 to an invitation from Henry IV. that she should reside in 
 England. She refused this, and also a similar invitation from 
 Milan. She preferred remaining in France, where she wrote 
 " Le Wrre dcs faits et bonnes nieurs du s.ige roy Charles," and 
 was patronized and liberally rewarded by several princes of the 
 royal family. She was aided by the duke of Burgundy in marry-
 
 ing her grandcHldi-en. Christine has left a very large number 
 of works both in verse and prose ; most of tliem still remain in 
 manuscript. A poem of hers on tlie subject of Joan of Arc 
 has been published first by Jubinal and afterwards by Quicherat, 
 in the Proces de la Pucelle. Of her prose works, that which seems 
 of most interest is her " Acts and Manners of Charles V. of 
 France," which has been published in Lebeufs Dissertations sur 
 I'histoire de Paris, and in the Collections of Petitot and ilichaud. 
 — Her son Jean du Castel, had some reputation as a poet. — 
 A grandson of hers, another Jean du Castel, held the official 
 position of chronicler in the reign of Louis XL- — J. A., D. 
 
 * CHKLSTISON, Robert, M.D., an eminent Scotch physi- 
 cian, was bom in 1798. He graduated at the university of 
 Edinburgh in 1819. From an early period of his professional 
 career, he devoted himself particularly to chemical pursuits, 
 more especially those connected with the materia medica and 
 forensic medicine. He was elected to the chair of medical juris- 
 prudence in his alma mater, but subsequently was transfen-ed 
 to the professorship of materia medica, with which was conjoined 
 that of clinical meihcine ; and among the many eminent men who 
 have contributed to the reputation of the Edmburgh school of 
 medicine, none occupies a more conspicuous position than Dr. 
 Christison. He has been a prolific author. Perluips the most 
 celebrated of all his works is that on " Poisons," which has been 
 characterized by an able writer as " the most philosophical and 
 perfect which has yet appeared on the subject." Dr. Christison 
 is also author of a " Dispensatorj'," or commentary on the phar- 
 macopoeias, in which vast industry and learning are displayed. 
 In all criminal trials in which questions connected with poisons 
 are investigated, Dr. Christison's authority is invoked. In addi- 
 tion to the above-named volumes, Dr. Christison wrote a treatise 
 on "Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys," and his contribu- 
 tions to periodic medical hterature have been veiy numerous. 
 As a consulting physician he now stands at the head of the 
 profession in Scotland — an honourable position, which has been 
 honourably achieved by severe labour and the exercise of great 
 natural talents. — J. C. 
 
 CHRISTOPHE, Henri, King of Hayti, was of African blood 
 though born in Grenada, and spent the first years of his hfe in 
 slaveiy. He received his freedom as a reward of foithful service ; 
 and, having acquhed some means and a good name by his 
 industry, he was managing one of the principal hotels at Cape 
 Fraufois for its widowed proprietrLx, when the revolutionaiy 
 spirit of France spread to St. Domingo, and brought on the 
 fierce struggle between the coloured population and their masters, 
 wliich, notwithstanding the temporary occupation of the island 
 by the British, issued in the declaration of its independence, 
 in 1801. Christ ophe was one of the leaders in the wild parti- 
 san warfare by which the blacks accomplished tliis result ; his 
 ability and energy having attracted the attention of Toussaint 
 rOuverture, who employed him in imjiortant enterprises, and 
 ultimately conferred upon him the military command of the 
 north. But the expedition sent out by Napoleon in 1802 revived 
 the contest, and turned the tide of victoiy. Leclerc, the French 
 general, adding to the force of arms the influence of wily nego- 
 tiations, undermined the fidelity of some of the insui-gent chiefs, 
 and seizing Toussaint by stratagem, sent him to imprisonment 
 in France. Christophe, however, was soon in the field again 
 under Dessalines, the successor of Toussaint. The war was 
 renewed with increased ferocity ; and when the French were com- 
 pelled to evacuate the island in 1803, Dessalines obtained the 
 chief power, with the title of governor-general, which he exchanged 
 ere long for that of emperor of Hayti. On his assassination, 
 Christophe, who had been again made military commander in 
 the north, became a candidate for the throne; but he had a 
 struggle to maintain against other claimants, and it was not till 
 18i0 that the civil war ended in an arrangement which gave 
 Christophe the undisputed po.ssession of a part of the island, 
 with the title of king of Hayti. His reign, which extended to 
 ten years, was that of a capricious and cruel despot ; disaffection 
 appeared, and increased till it took the form of a revolt so 
 serious, that the king, abandoning the hope of its suppression, 
 put an end to his hfe in 1820. — \V. B. 
 
 * CHRISTOPHE, Jean Baptiste, a French Roman cathohc 
 priest, born in 1809, pubhshed in 1852 a "History of the Papacy 
 during the fourteenth centuiy," in 3 vols, 8vo. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, Saint, a Christian martyr who is supposed 
 to have lived in the third century of our era. He was a native 
 
 either of Syria or Palestine, and is believed to have suffered 
 martyrdom by decapitation in the reign of the Emperor Decius. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, Duke of Wmtemberg, a noted personage hi 
 the history of the Reformation in Germany, was bom in 1515. 
 His father, Ulric, being expelled from his dominions by the con- 
 federated Suabian cities, Christopher was carried to Vienna in 
 1519-20, and, while there, narrowly escaped being made prisoner 
 by the Turks during their siege of the capital. Charles V., who 
 bore him no good will, and dreaded not a little the influence of 
 his talents and energy, in 1532 attempted to confine him in a 
 Spanish monastery; but, on his way to the appointed hermitage, 
 Christoplier escaped from his escort and fled to Bavaria, where 
 he enlisted in favour of his father and himself the active support 
 of his uncle, the reigning duke, who, again, was the means of 
 inducing Philip, the landgrave of Hesse, to join the confedera- 
 tion. The battle of Laufen, in which the landgrave was victoiious 
 over the Austrians, restored Ulric to his dominions, which were 
 thencefom'ard under the safe protection of the protestant league 
 of Schmalkalden. Two years after the death of Ulric, who was 
 succeeded by his son, the Lutheran religion was completely 
 established in tlie duchy. Christopher honourably consecrated 
 the enthe property of the church in Wurtemberg to educational 
 pui-poses, and the support of the ministers of the new religion. 
 It was converted into a fund called the " Wm-temberg chm-ch 
 property," the revenue from which supported in vigorous opera- 
 tion the cloister schools of the duchy, the gi'eat theological 
 establishment at Tiibingen, and other educational and ecclesi- 
 astical institutions. Christopher died in 15G8. — J. S., G. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER I., King of Denmark, died in 1259. He 
 was the third son of Waldemar the Victorious, and succeeded to 
 the throne by election in 1252, on the death of his brotlier, 
 King Abel, and to the exclusion of his sons. Tlie counts of 
 Holstein on this laid claim to Schleswig, and an aiTangement, 
 which was made in 1253, and which recognized Chi'istopher as 
 the guardian of his nephews, and Schleswig as a fief of the 
 crown, proved afterwards a source of embarrassment in the con- 
 test between the church and the monarch. Christopher died 
 suddenly in 1259, it is said of poison administered by a canon 
 named Amfast. He was succeeded by his son, Eric VII. — J. T. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER II., King of Denmark, son of Eric VII., 
 bom in 1276, succeeded his brother Eric VIII. in 1319. He 
 was involved in continual disputes with the church, the nobility, 
 and even with his own brother, .John. At length the nobles 
 raised the standard of revolt, and, having been joined in 1325, 
 by Geert, count of Holstein, they compelled Christopher to 
 abandon his kingdom and take refuge in Rostock, where he 
 lived in great misery for some years, while the thi-one of Den- 
 mark was occupied by Waldemar, duke of Schleswig. He 
 recovered his kingdom in 1330, but in the following year new 
 misfortimes overtook him. He was defeated by Waldemar ; 
 Jutland was seized by Geert, and Christopher himself, while he 
 was living in secm-ity at the town of Skanderbon, was treacher- 
 ously made prisoner by two of his nobles. He died soon after, 
 15th July, 1333.— J. T. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER III., of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway, 
 and Sweden, was a descendant in the female line of Waldemar 
 the Great. He was elected king of Denmark in 1440, on the 
 deposition of his uncle Eric, of Sweden in 1441, and of Norway 
 in 1442. In 1441 an army of 25,000 Jutland peasants, goaded 
 into insurrection by the oppression of the nobles, defeated the 
 royal troops, and took prisoners twelve nobles, and put them 
 to death. Christopher attacked the victorious hism-gents with 
 a powerful force, and defeated them with the loss of 2000 of 
 their number. On the restoration of peace he adopted mea- 
 sures to protect the people from the arbitrary exaction of tithes; 
 exerted himself to abridge the commercial monopoly possessed 
 by the Hanseatic towns ; and extended similar privileges to 
 the Dutch, the English, and the Scotch ; transferred the seat of 
 royalty from Roskilde to Copenhagen, and made that city the 
 capital of Denmark, and the rival of the Hanseatic towns. He 
 promulgated a municipal code, and devoted himself to the welfare 
 of his kingdom. He died in 1448. — J. T. 
 
 CHRISTOPHERSON, John, a learned Enghsh prelate of 
 the sixteenth century, educated at Cambridge, was one of tlie 
 first fellows of Trinity college, succeeded to the mastership, and 
 in 1554 was made dean of Norwich. On the accession of JIary 
 he was made bishop of Chichester. He died in 1558. He was 
 an industrious, but not very successful translator. His Latin
 
 CHR 
 
 1029 
 
 CHR 
 
 translations of Pliilo-Judtcus and of the ecclesiastical histories 
 of Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, P^vagiius, and Theodoret are 
 melefjant and not unfrequently inaccurate. — J. 3. G. 
 
 CHRISTOPHERSON, JIichel, an English Roman catholic 
 theologian, who lived in the seventeenth centuiy, and is chiefly 
 known by his " Treatise of Antichrist, in three puits," in defence 
 of Bellarmine a2;ainst Dr. Downham. 
 
 CHRISTOPHORUS, Angelcs, the author of a work pub- 
 lished in 1619 in Greek, with a Latin translation, on the present 
 state of the Greek church, containing many curious details 
 respecting its discipline and ceremonies. A new translation of 
 this work, with notes, was published at Franlrfort in 1G53 by 
 George Phelavius. — J. T. 
 
 CHRISTOPOULOS, Athaxasias, bom at Castoria in 
 Macedonia in 1772 ; died in 1847. He was the son of a Greek 
 priest, who was settled at Bucharest in Wallachia. Athanasias 
 was sent to Italy for his education, and at Padua studied law 
 and jmisp rude nee. His attention, however, was chiefly given to 
 classical learning. On his return to Bucharest he was employed 
 as tutor to the children of the piince of Wallachia. He published 
 in 1805 a di'ama which was acted with some success at Bucha- 
 rest. About the same time he printed a Romaic grammar, in 
 which he endeavoured to show that the modem language is 
 composed exclusively of the Doric and Oolic dialects. He soon 
 after went to reside in Constantinople, where he published some 
 poems, chiefly bacchanalian and amatory, in modern Greek. 
 The changes of government materially affected Athanasias. 
 Durmg the power of the Prince Mourousi and that of Cai-adja, 
 Athanasias was employed in several departments of the state. 
 When they had successively passed away, he occupied himself in 
 a work which he called " Parallela," being a comparison of the 
 advantages and disadvantages of different forms of government. 
 He published, together with his collected poems, an essay on the 
 sceptical philosophy of the ancients. Of this there are two 
 editions, one in 1833, the other in 18il, the last of which differs 
 considerably from the former. He translated the first book of 
 the Riad, and the first two books of Herodotus. He also pub- 
 lished a tract, in which he maintained that the pronunciation of 
 the modern Greeks was the true one, and identical with that of 
 the ancient Greeks. His works have been collected, and pub- 
 lished at Athens in 1853, under the title "'ExXtiK^i a^x'^""^"- 
 ■yrif^nTo." They are in many points of view of considerable 
 interest. — J. A., D. 
 
 CHRISTY, William, an enthusiastic English botanist and 
 entomologist, died about the year 1840, at an eai'ly age. His 
 zeal and success in the pursuit of science were only equalled by 
 his readmess to impart to others a portion of the stores which 
 he had collected. He formed a large herbarium of British 
 and foreign plants, which he gave to the Botanical Society of 
 Edinburgh. He made extensive tours in Britain, and visited 
 Norway and Madeira. — J. H. B. 
 
 CHRISTYN, Jean Baptiste, a writer on antiquities and 
 jurisprudence, was born at Bmssels in 1G22. After passing 
 through various subordinate offices, he was sent by the king of 
 Spain as ambassador to the congress of Nimeguen in 1G78, and 
 in 1681 as first commissioner to the conferences held at Cour- 
 tray. He was rewarded for his ser\'ices by being created a 
 baron, and appointed chancellor of Brabant. He died in 1690, 
 leaving a large number of works on jurispmdence and Belgian 
 antiquities. His brother, Libert Fraxc^ois — born in 1639; 
 died in 1717 — edited two works, entitled "De Legibus abrogatis 
 et inusitatis in regno Francite," par P. Bugnyon, and " Opera 
 Omnia Juridica" of John and Frederick Van der Sande. His 
 nephew, Je.vx Baptiste, who was bom in 1635, and died in 
 1707, was the author of a great number of treatises on legal 
 subjects. — J. T. 
 
 CHRYSIPPUS, a famous Stoic philosopher, was the son of 
 Apollouius of Tarsus, and was born at Soli, a town of Cilicia, 
 about B.C. 280. HaNing spent his patrimony, some say in the 
 public service, he devoted himself to the study of philosophy, 
 and, taking up his residence at Athens, became a disciple of the 
 celebrated Cleanthes, successor of Zeno. He soon became one 
 of the foremost defenders of the philosophy of the Porch, and 
 his disquisitions on the tenets of the Stoics acquired such celebrity 
 as to give rise to the proverbial remark that, "if Chn,'sippns 
 had not existed, the Porch could not have been." Cicero terms 
 him tlie main pillar of the Porch, and speaks of his extraordinary 
 acuteness and subtilty, though he admits that he was jejune in 
 
 his writings ; and Diogenes Laertius affirmed that, if the gods 
 themselves were to hold disputations, they would adopt the 
 manner of Chrysippus. The satirist Persius notices his skill in 
 the arts of sophistry, and his frequent use of the figure sorites, 
 which on this account he calls the " heap of Chrysippus." All 
 agi-ee that Chrysippus exhibited great readiness and courage in 
 disputation, combined with equal arrogance and self-confidence. 
 " Give me doctrines," he was in the habit of saying to his pre- 
 ceptor, " and I will find arguments to support them." When a 
 certain person asked him what instractor he would recommend 
 him to choose for his son, he replied, " Jle ; for if I thought any 
 philosopher excelled me, I would myself become his pupil." On 
 the other hand it is related that, when he was told that some 
 person spoke ill of him, he said, " It is no matter ; I will live 
 so that he shall not be credited." Not contented with defending 
 the tenets of his own school, he attacked those of the Academic 
 and Epicurean sects with a vehemence which created him many 
 enemies. Plutarch charges him with numerous inconsistencies 
 and contradictions, as well as with obscurity and excessive sub- 
 tilty. It is undeniable that his disquisitions abounded more in 
 nice distinctions and curious subtleties than in solid arguments ; 
 and his friends of the Stoic school complained that he frequently 
 adopted unusual and illogical modes of reasoning, and that he 
 had collected many arguments in favour of the sceptical hypo- 
 thesis which he could not answer himself, and had thus fm-nished 
 his chief antagonist, Cameades, with weapons which he wielded 
 with great effect against himself. Chrj'sippus has also been 
 accused of impiety and of teaching doctrines subversive of reli- 
 gion, but his tenets do not seem to be fairly open to any other 
 chai'ge on this head than those which may be brought against 
 the Stoical system itself. Chrysippus was indefatigably indus- 
 trious, and he is said to have seldom written less than five 
 hundred lines a day, and to have left behind him about seven 
 hundred treatises ; but of these nothing remain except a few 
 extracts, which are preserved in the writings of Cicero, Plutarch, 
 Seneca, and Aulus Gellius. He died B.C. 207. — J. T. 
 
 CHRYSIPPUS, of Cnidos, a Greek physician, sometimes 
 confounded with the preceding, lived in the fom-th century B.C. 
 His works, which are not now extant, are quoted by Galen. 
 He was son of Erinens, and pupil of Eudoxus of Cnidos. 
 
 CHRYSOCOCCES, Georgius, a Greek physician of the 
 fourteenth century, author of various works on astronomy, which 
 still remain in MS., appears to be the same person who was 
 associated with Gaza in his labours in the Vatican hbrary. 
 
 CHRYSOLORAS, JIaxuel, a learned Byzantine, famous as 
 one of the restorers of classical learning in Italy, was born at 
 Constantinople about the year 1355. He was sent to Italy 
 in 1387 by the Emperor Manuel Palisologus to solicit the 
 assistance of the Venetians and the pope against the Turks. 
 About the year 1396 he settled in Italy as a teacher of Greek, 
 and had for a pupil the famous Leonardo Bruni. He afterwards 
 taught the same language at Florence, Jlilan, Pavia, and Rome, 
 where he gained such favour at the papal couit as to be sent as 
 nuncio to the Emperor Sigisniund. He was one of the repre- 
 sentatives of the Greek church at the council of Constance, but 
 died shortly after its convocation, April, 1415. Poggio Braccio- 
 lini, and Filclfo were also pupils of Cln-ysoloras. He wrote a 
 Greek grammar entitled " Erotemata," which was one of the first 
 published in Italy. Of this work there were numerous editions 
 between the years 1480 and 1550, 4to and 8vo. Several of his 
 Latin epistles are still extant. 
 
 CURYSOSTOM, John, was born at Antioch, of a noble 
 fiimily, in the year 347. His father Sccundus dying when lie 
 was young, his education devolved on his mother Arelhusa, who 
 sowed the seeds of faith in his young mind with pious care, and 
 had the happiness of witnessing their silent growth, amid favour- 
 able influences, in the soil of a susceptible lieart. Having been 
 designed for the bar, he was sent to learn riietoric under Libanins, 
 who^soon conceived a very high oi)inion of his eloquence and 
 abilities. But after having connnenced a successful practice, he 
 abandoned the forensic ])rofession, in con.sequcncc ol the in- 
 fluence exerted upon him by the aged bishop Meletius, by whom, 
 after three years' instruction, he was subsequently baptized and 
 ordained teacher. After his mother's death he spent six years 
 in monastic seclusion among the mountains, under the abbot 
 Diodorus,, afterwards bishop of Tai-sus. Several other young 
 men, whose inclinations led them to the same kind of life, were 
 his companions in such seclusion ; one of whom was Theodore,
 
 CHR 
 
 1030 
 
 CHR 
 
 afterwards bishop of Mopsuestia. Eemote from the haunts of 
 men, Chrysostom passed these years in solitary perusal of the 
 Bible, and in rigorous austerities which exhausted his strength 
 so much that he was obliged to return to Antioch and begin 
 another mode of life. Soon after his return he was ordained deacon 
 l)j Jleletius in 381. In 386 he was ordained presbyter by Flavian, 
 bishop of Antioch, from which time his reputation became 
 increasingly great. His sermons were powerful, exciting, 
 and edifying, pervaded by gi-eat earnestness and zeal, so that 
 his hearers felt Christianity to be a vital system that purifies 
 the principles as well as refonns the conduct. Men learned to 
 fear, while they admired, the bold champion of the gospel, 
 who did not hesitate to attack prevailing corruptions, in what- 
 ever rank of society they appeared, with intrepid front. It was 
 here that he preached his famous "Discourses of the Statues" — 
 after an uproar of the city, in which the statues of the Emperor 
 Theodosius, and of the empress, and the two piinces Arcadius 
 and Honorius, were insulted and thrown down. But he was 
 not destined to spend the energies of his life in his native 
 city. He was transferred to a more splendid and influential 
 place, though one which was unhappily full of dangers and 
 disquietude. By the influence of Phitropius, who chanced to 
 be one of his hearers on a certain occasion, he was called to 
 the bishopric of Constantinople, on the death of Nectarius in 
 397. A stratagem was employed to induce him to repair to 
 the imperial city, where all the preparations had been made 
 for his elevation to the patriarchate. The eloquent and suc- 
 cessful preacher was not easily drawn away from his native 
 Antioch. It reqiured all the authority of the Emperor Arcadius 
 to induce him to accept the offered see. Perhaps it would 
 have been better had the conscientious man been allowed to 
 follow his own wishes. An imperial mandate to Theophilus, 
 bishop of Alexandria, to consecrate Chrysostom bishop of Con- 
 stantinople, could not be resisted, and the dedication took 
 place accordingly in February, 398; though Theophilus, too, 
 was secretly opposed to the measure. As soon as he began 
 his labours in this new sphere, it was felt by all classes 
 that an unsparing reformer had come amongst them. In 400 
 he was engaged in endeavouring to settle disputes among the 
 churches of Asia, at Ephesus, whither he went at the request 
 of the clergy of that city. He deposed thirteen bishops of Lydia 
 and Phrygia, and settled various disorders which had arisen in 
 that church. But his measures created bitter enemies and a 
 formidable party was organized against him, consisting of nobles 
 and ecclesiastics, with whom the Empress Eudoxia herself was 
 leagued. Had it not been for this ambitious and covetous 
 woman, the pious bishop would have suffered less at the hands 
 of his persecutors. But she too thought herself aimed at by 
 the uncompromising advocate of truth, and winced under his 
 reproofs. Theophilus of Alexandria, Chrysostom's old adver- 
 sary, who had fostered all the machinations of his enemies, 
 came to Constantinople in the year 403. A synod was assem- 
 bled at a villa near Chalcedon, known by the name of the 
 Oak, where various charges were preferred against Chrysostom, 
 most of them false and unfounded. When the deputies of the 
 Oak synod presented themselves before the illustrious accused 
 for the purpose of citing him to their tribunal, forty bishops 
 from various countries were with him — friends who knew his 
 value to the church of Christ. Justly did they pronounce 
 the court an incompetent one ; but he whom they so much 
 respected declared his readiness to appear before the assembly, 
 provided four bishops, who were his determined enemies, should 
 be excluded from the number of judges. This condition was 
 refused; and therefore Chrysostom did not appear, though thrice 
 summoned. Sentence of deposition was then passed upon him. 
 The Emperor Arcadius liimself had sent a message to the 
 synod, urging it to that course ; nor need we wonder at sucli 
 a proceeding on his part, since his weak mind was in entire 
 subjection to his queen. Among the charges mentioned was 
 that of high treason, which they left to the emperor to deal with. 
 At first Chrysostom was unwilling to leave his office unless by 
 force ; but seeing that the people were greatly excited, and 
 seemed disposed to detain him in opposition to the imperial 
 authority, he surrendered in three days to those who were em- 
 powered to carry him into exile, and was conducted by them to 
 a small town in Bithynia. In a few days, however, Chiysostum 
 was solicited to come back — the empress having despatched a 
 letter to that effect. His reappearance in Constantinople 
 
 diffused general joy; and although unwilling to resume his 
 office till a regularly-constituted synod had fully and formally 
 reinstated him, he was persuaded by liis flock to enter upon 
 his duties at once. In the meantime, he still demanded the 
 calling together of such a synod ; till, in the short space of 
 two months, his affairs assumed a different aspect. Having 
 preached against the indecent festivities which were held near 
 his church at the dedication of a silver statue erected to the 
 empress, she was provoked, and tried again to effect his ruin. 
 It is said that her rage knew no bounds, when Chrysostom 
 began a discourse with the words, " Once more Herodias mad- 
 dens — once more she dances, and once more demands the head 
 of John." If he used this language, it was certainly rash and 
 imprudent. Again, therefore, the synod of Theophilus proceeded 
 against him, alleging that he had not been reinstated in his see 
 by an ecclesiastical court like that which had deposed him, but 
 by the secular power only ; and according to a canon of the 
 council of Antioch in 341, he was incapable of administering 
 the episcopal functions. Thus the venerable man was again 
 deposed and sent into exile. In 404 he set out under a guard 
 of soldiers for Nic£ea, where he did not stay long, but prose- 
 cuted his journey to Cucusus — a desolate city on the borders of 
 Armenia, Isauria, and Cilicia, which was the appointed place 
 of banishment. It is remarkable that the very day he left 
 Constantinople, the great church was set on fire and burned, 
 together with the palace adjoining. In the remote place of his 
 banishment the devoted bishop suffered much, both from the 
 severity of the climate and the threatened invasions of robbers. 
 But his spirit was unchanged. He had the same zeal for tlie 
 highest welfare of his fellow-men. His friends in Constanti- 
 nople, persecuted as they were for his sake, were not forgotten. 
 He corresponded with and advised them in religious matters. 
 In the clu'istian widow Olympia he continued to take a lively 
 interest. Priests and monks were despatched to preach the 
 gospel to the Goths and Persians, and to superintend the 
 churches of Armenia, as well as of other regions. Towards the 
 end of the year 405, an invasion of the Isaurians forced him to 
 fly to Arabissus, whence, by order of the emperor, he was con- 
 veyed to Pityus, a little town in Pontus, near the eastern border 
 of the Euxine sea, on the very verge of the Roman empire, and 
 in a most inhospitable region. The journey, however, proved too 
 long and fatiguing for the aged saint worn out with labours and 
 sufferings. The fatigues of travelling on foot, the heat, and the 
 rough treatment he received from the guard of soldiers, brought 
 on a fever, of which he died in a few hours at Comanum in 
 Pontus, September 14, 407. His last words were those of 
 Job with which he was so familiar, " Praise be to God for all 
 things," (iiia, Tu 0ia ^civTiuv £►£««.) In 438 the body of the 
 saint was brought back to Constantinople, and deposited with 
 gi'cat pomp in the temple of the holy apostles. The Greek 
 church celebrates his festival on the loth November; the Latm 
 on the 27th Januaiy. 
 
 Chiysostom was the most eloquent though not the most 
 learned of the fathers. As a preacher he excelled all his 
 contemporaries ; nor had he, perhaps, any equal in the use of 
 that impassioned eloquence which befits the pulpit, till the 
 time of Jeremy Taylor. He was accustomed to address crowded 
 audiences ; and with such applause were his homilies received, 
 that the church of St. Sophia became a sort of theatre to which 
 multitudes of pleasure-loving men and women resorted as to 
 a place of amusement. His language is pure, his style highly 
 figurative, his diction copious and diffuse, but often overwrought 
 and strained. As a commentator, he belongs to the school of 
 historico-grammatical interpreters. He was more of the prac- 
 tical, ethical divine than the logical theologian, conserving rather 
 than advancing theology. The character of Chrysostom presents 
 a fine combination of qualities rarely seen together in so great 
 strength. He was sincere, open-hearted, generous, beneficent, 
 pure-minded, simple in his manner of life, hospitable, and without 
 guile. He maintained no outward pomp like other comt bishops, 
 but spent the greater part of his income in charitable and bene- 
 volent acts. The epithet " Chiysostom " (Golden-mouthed) was 
 given him on account of his eloquence, but not till after his death. 
 It is an honourable and just tribute to his oratory. In person 
 he is described as short in stature, with a large bald head, 
 deeply-wrinkled forehead, hollow cheeks, and sunken eyes. The 
 works of Chi-ysostom consist of commentaries, homilies, liturgies, 
 treatises, and epistles. The most valuable ai'e the homihes on
 
 the New Testament, and on the Psalms ; most of which have 
 been published and translated in the Oxford Library of the 
 Fathers. His treatise "On the Priesthood" was translated by 
 Bmice, London, 1759, 8vo, and subsequently by ILirsh. The 
 best and most complete edition of all the works is that of Jlont- 
 fau9on, in 13 volumes folio, Paris, 1718-1738; reprinted at 
 Paris, 183-4-1839, in 13 volumes imp. 8vo, under the editorship 
 of Sinner. Eai-lier editions were those of Sir H. Savile, 8 
 volumes folio, Eton, 1610-1G13 ; and of Fronto Ductus, 
 completed by Morell, Paris, 1609-36, 12 vols., folio. His life 
 has been written by Palladius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, 
 Erasmus, Du Pin, Tilleniont, Montfaufon, Cramer, Cave, 
 Oudin, Schi-oeckh, Neander, Bohringer, and others. The best 
 biogi-aphy is that of Neander, third edition, 1858, translated 
 by Stapleton from an earlier edition, London, 1838, 8vo, vol. 
 i. (all published). Perthes's biography is much briefer and more 
 popular, but has no independent value. — S. D. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, Diox. See Diox. 
 
 * CHEZA^OWSKI, Adalbert, a Polish general, bom in 
 1788, descended from an ancient famOy celebrated in the annals 
 of Poland. He entered the Russian army in 1809, and seri-ed 
 with distinction throughout the war with France. After the 
 downfall of Napoleon he returned home and obtained a commis- 
 sion as lieutenant in the new Polish army which was organized 
 nnder the command of the Grand Duke Constantine. He served 
 under Diebitsch in 1828 in the campaign against the Turks, and 
 was rewarded for his distinguished services by being appointed 
 a lieutenant-colonel by the Emperor Nicholas after the peace of 
 Adrianople. On the breaking out of the Polish insurrection in 
 1830, Chrzanowski joined the patriots, and was appointed chief 
 of the staff to the commander-in-chief Skrzynecki. Though he 
 seems from the first to have foimed an exaggerated opinion of 
 the excellence of the Russian troops, he fought with great bravery 
 in his countr}''s cause, gained a signal victory at Minsk, and 
 made a masterly retreat from Zamosc. Towards the close of 
 the insurrection he was nominated governor of Warsaw, and made 
 a desperate though unsuccessful resistance to the Russian assault. 
 On the capture of the city he retired to France. In 1849 he 
 was appointed commander of the Piedmontese army under the 
 king, in the war with Austria, but was defeated at Novara ; and 
 on the termination of the campaign returned to Paris, where he 
 has ever since resided. — J. T. 
 
 CHUBB, Thojias, a noted deistical writer, was bom at East 
 Harnham, near Salisbury, Sept. 29, 1679. His early education 
 was scanty, and at the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a 
 glover in Sahsbmy. Some ti.ne afterwards he became a tallow- 
 chandler in the same city. His leisure time was employed in 
 reading, and acquiring a knowledge of mathematics and some 
 of the sciences. At that period theological controversy ran high, 
 especially about the trinity, and Clarke and Waterland were in 
 the field. After Whiston's Arian work had appeared in 1710, 
 the restless mind of Chubb plunged into the debate, and he 
 published in 1715 the "Supremacy of the Father Vindicated." 
 The book made some noise, as coming from an illiterate trades- 
 man ; Pope spoke of it with respect, and its success intoxicated 
 the author. Tract followed tract from his teeming and ill- 
 ordered brain in vast variety. Sir Joseph Jekyll patronized 
 him, and received him for a period into his house. His last 
 years were spent in connection with his business in Salisbury, 
 though authorship engrossed no little of his time ; and he died 
 suddenly on the 8th of Febraarj-, 1746-47, in the sixty-eighth 
 year of his age. In 1730 Chubb published a quarto volume of 
 his collected tracts, and in 1738 he published " True Gospel of 
 Jesus asserted." He left behind him two volumes of posthumous 
 works, which were published in 1748, and from them his last 
 opinions may be gathered — that he had no true fiuth in revela- 
 tion — that he did not believe in a future judgment, if even in a 
 future state, and that he held that prayer is not a necessary 
 duty. Among his publications may be mentioned a " Discourse 
 on Reason ;" " On Moral and Positive Duties ;" " On Future 
 .Judgment and Eternal Punishment ;" " Inquiry about the 
 Inspiration of the New Testament ;" and " Doctrme of Vica- 
 rious Suffering and Intercession Refuted." Chubb thought 
 himself qualified to write on any topics in morals or religion, 
 and his style is not without vigour, though he was rash and 
 careless in the extreme. Vanity led him astray, and the idea 
 of being a champion dazzled him. He aimed at too many things 
 in his morbid impatience of mind, became arrogant on points 
 
 which he was not fitted to discuss, dealt in low quibbles about 
 obscure passages in the English version of the scriptures, sneered 
 where he could not argue, and at length sank into a species of 
 universal scepticism. As Bishop Law says, " Notwithstanding 
 the caveat he has entered against such a charge, he must 
 unavoidably be set down in the seat of the scomer." — (Leland's 
 View of Deistical Writers.) 
 
 CHUDLEIGH, L.vuy I\Lvry, wife of Sir George Chudleigh, 
 Bart., and daughter of Richard Lee, Esq., Devonshire, bora in 
 1656; died in 1710. A number of poetical pieces from her 
 pen, which had been separately published, appeared in 1703, 
 8vo, and a tliird edition in 1722. The year of her death, she 
 dedicated to the Piincess Sophia of Hanover a collection of 
 essays in prose and verse. Specimens of her correspondence are 
 preserved in various collections.— J. S., G. 
 
 CHUMNUS, NicEPiiORUs, a Byzantine of high bu^h, who 
 lived about the close of the thirteenth and the beginning of the 
 fomteenth century, and held several important offices in the 
 court of the emperor, Andronicus Palaeologus the elder. He was 
 on the most intimate terms with his imperial master, and in 
 1295 his daughter Irene married the emperor's son, John. Dur- 
 ing the civil war which followed Chumnus remained faithful to 
 his master; but he was at length defeated and compelled to 
 retire into a cloister, where he assumed the name of Nathaniel. 
 He died in 1330, lea^■ing a great number of treatises on philo- 
 sophy, religion, rhetoric, and on ci\'il and ecclesiastical law, and 
 a valuable collection of letters. — J. T. 
 
 CHURCH, Benjamix, a New England captain distinguished 
 in the Indian wars, was born in Duxbury, Massachusetts, in 
 1639, and was the first settler of Little Compton in Rhode 
 Island. Philip, sachem of the Wampanoags, a savage of much 
 energy and ability, stirred up a general Indian war against the 
 white settlements in New England, which caused great blood- 
 shed and devastation. Chm-ch was commissioned as a captain 
 in this war, and did excellent service till its close, fighting the 
 Indians in their o\vn fashion. Church kept a journal of his 
 adventures, which is a good history of the war, and was published 
 by his son in 1716, and reprinted in 1772. In 1689-1704 he 
 commanded four different expeditions against the French and 
 Indians on the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers, and in Nova 
 Scotia ; in all of them showing braver}' and good conduct, and 
 having good success. Hutchison calls him a " fortunate officer," 
 and Hubbard describes him as " both prudent and brave." He 
 died on the 17th of January, 1718, in consequence of a fall from 
 his horse, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. — F. B. 
 
 CHURCH, Sir Richard, an English officer who ser^-ed in 
 the Greek war of independence, was bom in 1780. He em- 
 braced the mOitary profession at an early period, and served for 
 many years in the British army, and afterwards in the Neapolitan 
 force. He commanded for some time a Greek corps kept on 
 English pay in the Ionian islands. In 1827 he went by invita- 
 tion to the assistance of the Greek patriots, whom he found rent 
 into hostile factions, waging furious contests with one another, 
 rather than against the common foe. By his influence, com- 
 bined with that of Lord Cochrane and Captain Hamilton of the 
 Camhriun, a temporary reconciliation was effected between the 
 rival parties, and Church was appointed general of the land 
 forces, while Lord Cochrane was made admiral of the fleet. A 
 vigorous effort was made by these eminent officers to retrieve 
 the decaying fortunes of the Greeks, and a considerable force 
 having been collected, General Church was persuaded to risk a 
 battle for the relief of the citadel of Athens, which was closely 
 blockaded by the Turks. His movements, however, were 
 paralyzed by the insubordination of his troops and their officers, 
 and the result was a dis.a.strous defeat, in which the Greeks lost 
 1500 men, and the citadel soon after was forced to capitulate. 
 General Church then took up a strong position on the istlmius 
 of Corinth, and after the battle of Navarino he led a force of live 
 thousand men into Acamani.o, and recovered all the country 
 south of Arta from the Turks. In 1829 he made liimsclf 
 master of tlic gulf of Prevesa, and occupied all tlio pl.ices 
 along the gulf of /Vmbraeia, with the exception of Prevesa. But 
 he was treated with base ingratitude by the President Cajio 
 dTstri.as, who was devoted to tiic interests of Russia, and com- 
 pelled to resign his command. Tiie publication, in 1830, of 
 his pamphlet entitled " Obserrations on an eligible line of 
 frontier for Greece as an Independent State," was seized as a 
 pretext by the president to order General Church to quit the
 
 CIIU 
 
 1032 
 
 CHU 
 
 Greek territory. On the assassination of Capo cVIstrias, Sir 
 Eicbard put himself at the head of a body of troops, and along 
 with the portion of the national assembly seated at Megara, 
 prepared to resist by force the government of the president's 
 brother. But the inten'ention of the French put an end to the 
 civil war. On the elevation of Otho to the throne, of Greece, 
 General Church was created a councillor of state. — J. T. 
 
 CHURCH, Thojias, a learned English divine, author of 
 several controversial works, bom in 1707 ; died in 175G. "A 
 vindication of the miraculous powers which subsisted in the 
 tirst three centuries of the Christian church, m answer to Dr. 
 Middleton's Free Inquiiy," 1750; and an analysis of Bohng- 
 broke's philosophical works, 1755 ; are his principal works. 
 
 CHURCHILL. See Maulbokough. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Charles, a celebrated satirical poet, was the 
 son of the Rev. Charles Churchill, rector of Rainham in Essex, 
 and curate and lectm'er of St. John's, Westminster, where the poet 
 was born in February, 1731. He was educated at Westminster 
 school, and entered of Trinity college, Cambridge, which he 
 quitted abruptly, for what reason is miknown, and returning to 
 London, made a clandestine marriage in the Fleet. Mr. Southey, 
 however, is of opinion that Churchill's marriage took place pre- 
 vious to his entering the university, and that he never resided 
 there. He lived for about a year with his wife under his father's 
 roof, and then went for some time to study theology at Sunder- 
 land, and having taken orders, officiated first at Cadbury in 
 Somersetsliire, and subsequently as curate in liis father's Uving 
 at Riunham. On the death of his father in 1758, he was 
 elected by the parishioners to succeed him in the curacy and 
 lectureship of St. John's. He is said to have carefully discharged 
 the duties of his office at tliis time, and as the cares of a family 
 were now pressing on him, he endeavoured to eke out his 
 narrow income, by engaging in private tuition. He fell into debt, 
 however, his home became a scene of continual discord, which 
 led to a separation between him and his wife in 1761, and his 
 embarrassments grew so serious, that he was only saved from a 
 jail by the mterjiosition of Dr. Lloyd, one of the masters in 
 Westminster school, who persuaded the poet's creditors to accept 
 of a composition, which he assisted him to pay. It must be 
 stated, to Churchill's credit, that he subsequently discharged all 
 his obligations m full, as soon as his means enabled him to do 
 so. About this period he entered on a literary career. The 
 first of his poems, for which he could find a publisher, was the 
 " Rosciad," a satire upon actors, which appeared at first without 
 his name in 1761, and was received with great favour. This 
 was followed shortly afterwards by his " Apology to the Critical 
 Reviewers," in which he retaliated with great vigour and keen- 
 ness upon the assailants of his fii-st work. His next puljlicatiou 
 was a poem called " Night," in which he endeavom^ed to palliate 
 the convivial excesses in which he now indulged. The best and 
 most successful of his works is a political satire entitled " The 
 Prophecy of Famine." It is directed against the Scottish nation, 
 to gratify the notorious John WOkes, whose personal political 
 associate he had now become, and is distinguished by its 
 "laughable extra v;igance." Churchill's other publications, "The 
 Ghost," which was aimed at Dr. Johnson ; " The Duellist ; " 
 "Gotham Independence," "The Times ;" &c., betray unequivocal 
 marks of haste and carelessness, and were avowedly written 
 with the Anew i-athcr of profiting by the celebrity he had acquired 
 than of increasing his permanent reputation. Meanwhile Church- 
 ill had launched into a career of dissipation and extravagance, 
 which di'ew forth the merited censure of his clerical superiors, 
 and the final complaint of his parishioners. He resigned in 
 consequence his lectureship, plunged deeper and deeper into 
 excesses, and set at defiance both moral jirinciple and public 
 opinion. He became an intimate friend of John Wilkes, equally 
 notorious for his factious and spurious patriotism and his private 
 debauchery, assisted h'mi in the North Britain, and narrowly 
 escaped imprisonment when Wilkes was apprehended under the 
 famous " general warrant." When he threw off the clerical 
 profession, he had explicitly declared that he threw oif with it 
 his belief in Christianity. His conduct showed that he had 
 become equally hostile to its morality, for about this time he 
 separated from Ids wife, and seduced the daughter of a trades- 
 man in Westminster. At the end of a fortnight, the guilty 
 couple seem to have been struck with compunction, and the 
 unhappy woman, at their joint entreaty, was received by her 
 father. But her home was rendered intolerable by the continual 
 
 reproaches of her sister, and she was driven to throw herself 
 again upon Churchill's protection. His friendship with \\'ilkes 
 led to a quarrel with Hogarth, who caricatured the satirist in 
 the form of a bear dressed in canonicals, with torn bands and 
 ruffles at his paws, and holding a pot of porter. Cluu-chill 
 revenged himself in a sathical epistle to Hogarth, which, though 
 characterized by great bitterness and ferocity, yet contains a 
 glowing panegyric on the painter's works. ChmThills career 
 came to a sad and premature close. In October, 1764, he paid 
 a visit to his friend Wilkes at Boulogne, where he caught fever, 
 and died on the 4th of November, in his thirty-third year. He 
 was biuied at Dover, and some of his loose associates placed over 
 his gi-ave a stone, on which was engraved a line from one of his 
 own poems, as much at variance with trath as with good taste — 
 
 "Life to the last enjoyed, here Cluirchill lies.'" 
 
 Churchill undoubtedly possessed vigorous original talents, but his 
 writings are characterized rather by great faciUty of versification, 
 and the boldness and bitterness of personal mvective, than by 
 poetical feeling or unagination. Dr. Johnson, who disliked him 
 both as a man and as a writer, spoke contemptuously of 
 Churchill's poetry, and predicted that it would sink into obli- 
 vion. " No English poet," says Southey, " has ever enjoyed so 
 excessive and so short-hved a popularity, and indeed, no one 
 seems more thoroughly to have understood his own powers ; 
 there is no indication in any of his pieces that he could have 
 done anythmg better than the thing he did." " Churchill," 
 says Jlr. D'Israeli, " was a spendthrift of fame, and enjoyed all 
 his revenue while he lived. Posterity owes him little and pays 
 him nothing." On the other hand, Cowper had a higher opinion 
 of Churchill than of any other contemporary writer ; and Camp- 
 bell says he may be ranked as a satirist immediately after Pope 
 and Drj-den, with perhaps a greater share of humour than 
 either.— J. T. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Sir Wixston, father of the celebrated duke 
 of Marlborough, bom in 1620 ; died in 1688. During the civil 
 war he adhered to the royalist party, and at the restoration was 
 raised to the dignity of knighthood. In 1664, soon after its 
 foundation, he was elected to the Royal Society, and in the 
 following year was appointed to a government office in Ireland. 
 On his return to England he obtained a post at court, which, 
 with a brief inteiwal, he retained till the close of the reign of 
 James II. He published " Divi Britannici, being a Remark 
 upon the lives of all the kings of this Isle from the year of the 
 world 2855, unto the reign of grace 1660." — J. S., G. 
 
 CHURCHYARD, Thom^vs, an English poet, bom in Shrews- 
 bury about the year 1520 ; died in 1004. He was of a respect- 
 able fiimily according to Wood, and was patronized first by the 
 earl of SuiTey, and aftenvards by the earl of Leicester. At 
 various times he exercised the profession of anus, serving on the 
 continent, in Ireland, and Scotland, but not with advantage to 
 his fortunes, which were bad at home and worse abroad. His 
 productions are numerous ; the most esteemed is his " Legende 
 of Jane Shore."— J. S., G. 
 
 CHURRUCA Y ELORZA, Cosme Damian de, a distin- 
 guished Spanish naval officer, was bom 27th September, 1761. 
 He was originally intended for the church, but exchanged the 
 clerical for the naval profession, and studied ibr it at Cadiz and 
 Ferrol. His fii'st service was in the American war, in which he 
 distinguished himself by his bravery and his humanity. He 
 then obtained an appointment in the expedition sent out by 
 the Spanish government to survey the Straits of IMagellan, and 
 some time after his retum pubhshed an interesting diaiy of the 
 exploration of Tierra del Fuego. In 1791 he was appointed to 
 the command of an expedition sent to survey the coast of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and constracted thirty-four charts of the coasts 
 of Cuba, Hayti, &c., which are regarded as models of hydro- 
 graphy. Churruca was highly esteemed by Napoleon, and was 
 appointed to the command of the San Juan in the combined 
 French and Spanish fleet in 1805, and was killed at the battle 
 of Trafalgar on the 21st of October of that year. The greatest 
 respect was shown to his memory both by friends and foes. — J. T. 
 
 CHURTON, Ralph, an English di\ine, bora at Bickley in 
 Cheshire, in 1754; died in 1831. He was educated at Oxford, 
 and early obtained preferment in the church, partly through his 
 own merit, and partly through the favour of Dr. Townson. 
 JIany of tlie most estimable churchmen of his time were his 
 intimate friends. He published several sermons, letters, &c.
 
 CHYR-SCHAH or SHEER-KHAN (Hacasalian), the 
 surname of a celebrated prince named Feiyd, of Affghan origin, 
 who was bom about the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 He entered the sei-vice of the prince of Behar, and distinguished 
 himself by his valour. After the death of his master he seized 
 upon his dominions, to the exclusion of the rightful heir. He 
 afterwards took possession of Bengal, defeated the Saltan 
 Humaioon, drove him from his throne, made himself master of 
 Hindostan, and extended the limits of his empire from the Ganges 
 to the Indus. He was a sagacious and vigorous sovereign ; his 
 death, which took place in 1545, was regarded as a pubhc calam- 
 ity, and was succeeded by a period of great disorder. — J. T. 
 
 CHYTR.EUS, DA^^D, an eminent German theologian of the 
 sixteenth century, was born 26th February, 1530, near Halle in 
 Schwabia. His father was a disciple of John Breuz, the reformer 
 of Wurtemburg, and died in 1559 as pastor of Menzingen, near 
 Heidelberg. At the early age of nine years Chytrseus was sent to 
 Tiibingen, where he enjoyed the instructions of Camerarius and 
 Schnepf, and he was still a boy when he took his bachelor's and 
 master's degrees. He then repaired to Wittemberg to study 
 under Melancthon, who received him with paternal affection, 
 after making trial of his attainments, exclaiming — " Tu merito es 
 magister, et tu mihi filii loco eris." During the suspension of 
 that university in the troubled years of 1546 and 1547, Chytrseus 
 pursued his studies at Heidelberg and Tiibingen; but in 1548 he 
 returned again to Wittemberg, where he delivered lectures with 
 applause on rhetoric, astronomy, and jNIelancthon's Loci Commu- 
 nes. In 1551 he was appointed professor of theology in Rostock, 
 and there he continued to labour till his death in 1600. In many 
 respects his character and career bear a striking resemblance to 
 thoss of 5Iartin Chemnitz his contemporary. Brought up like 
 him in the school of Jlelancthon, and inspired with the same 
 veneration and affection for their illustrious master, Chytraus 
 was often associated with Chemnitz in the same ecclesiastical 
 transactions, and devoted his talents and life to the same great 
 interests — the defence of divine tmth, the consolidation of the 
 Reformation, and the promotion of sound learning. They drew 
 up in conjunction the statutes of the new university of Hehn- 
 stadt, and they were both coadjutors of Andrea in introducing 
 into the Lutheran church the Formula Concordire. But in 
 learning and ability Chytrteus was inferior to Chemnitz, and 
 neither his writings nor his practical activity were of the same 
 public importance. The characteristic spirit of the Jlelanctho- 
 nian school found in him a worthy representative, and still 
 survives in the following selections from his works — " Historia 
 August.mae Confessionis," 1578. " Oratio de studio theologiae 
 inchoando," 1608 ; " Oratio de studio Theologise exercitiis 
 verse pietatis" et virtutis, potius quam contentionibus et risis 
 disputationum colendo," Viteb. 1581. — His brother Nathan, 
 bom in 1543 ; died in 1598. He was a man of some repute as 
 a Latin poet. — P. L. 
 
 CIACONIUS. See Chacox. 
 
 CIAilBERLANO, Luca, an artist, bom at Urbino about the 
 year 1580. He first pursued the study of the law, and took a 
 doctor's degree; but ulrimately abandoned the subtleties of juris- 
 pradence for the mysteries of engraving. He acquired con- 
 siderable fame, more especially by his etchings after the Italian 
 masters. A hundred and fomteen plates are attributed to him. 
 His hand was neat and dexterous. Ciamberlano died at Rome 
 in 1641.— W. T. 
 
 CIAMPELLI, Agostixo, a Florentine painter, was born in 
 1578, and educated under Santo di Titi. He did not reach the 
 eminence of his master, but was an able artist, grand in concep- 
 tion, correct in drawing, and brilliant rather than trathful in 
 colour. A " Visitation," with its two laterals in the church of 
 St. Stephen of Pescia, is among his choicest works. He died in 
 1640.— W. T. 
 
 CIAilPI, Sebastiaxo, bom at Plstoia in 1769, and died 
 in the neighbourhood of Florence in 1847. Ciampi took priest's 
 orders in 1793 ; afterwards studied civil and canon law at Pisa, 
 where he found employment in teaching jurispradence. He 
 afterwards held a law professorship at Warsaw. He returned 
 to Italy in 1822, and occupied himself with literature. His 
 publications were very numerous between the years 1800 and 
 1843. Some of them are important to students of the earlier 
 Italian literature.' — J. A., D. 
 
 CIAMPINI, Giovanni GicSTiNO,bom at Rome in 1633, 
 and died in 1698 ; a learned archajologist, whose first studies 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 were in jurispradence, but who afterwards devoted lumself to 
 hterature. He was member of several literary societies, and 
 himself originated several of the class of academies of which 
 Italy is so fond. His works were collected in three volumes, 
 folio, by Gianini, in 1717. — J. A., D. 
 
 CIAMPOLI, Giovanni Battista, born at Florence in 
 1589; died in 1683. Ciampoli is said to have attended the 
 lectures of Galileo at Padua. From this place he passed to 
 Bologna, where Cardinal JIaffeo Barberini gave him some 
 valuable appointments and benefices. From Bologna he went 
 to Rome, where he obtained farther preferments. Maffeo became 
 pope, and had not Ciampoli been bora under some unlucky star, 
 which afflicted him with an unconquerable passion for rhyme, 
 and what is less easily to be accounted for, with an irremoveable 
 conviction that his poems were better than Tasso's, Petrarch's, or 
 Virgil's, he might have prospered. All this the pope might 
 have endured and smiled at, but the pope was himself a poet, 
 and there was something on the part of Ciampoli like a claim of 
 superiority for his own verses over those of his hoUness. This 
 could not be allowed, and the too ambitions poet was sent to a 
 distance from court. His exile was effected by giving him the 
 oflice of governor or resident magistrate of a country district of 
 Uttle importance. The poet died in his government — in what 
 his biographers call his disgrace. He left his manuscripts to 
 Ladislaus IV., king of Poland, who at no time discontinued his 
 attentions to him. His poems were collected, and published at 
 Rome in 1648.— J. A., D. 
 
 CIASSI, GiovAXNi Maria, an Italian physician and botanist, 
 was born at Treviso in 1654, and died about 1679. He pub- 
 lished in 1677 a work entitled, " Jleditations on the Nature of 
 Plants," in which he enters into the phenomena of vegetation in 
 a physiological, as well as in a physico-mathematical point of 
 view'— J. H. B. 
 
 CIBBER or CIBERT, Caius Gabriel, was the son of a 
 cabinetmaker to the king of Denmark, and was born at Flens- 
 burg in tlie duchy of Holstein. Exhibiting a promisuig talent 
 for sculpture, he was sent at the king's expense to Rome. He 
 came to England during the Protectorate, and not long before 
 the Restoration. His early history is not well known. His son, 
 Colley, has recorded many particulars of his contemporaries, but 
 few regarding his father. His most celebrated works are his 
 figures of "Melancholy" and "Raving Madness," which formerly 
 adomed the principal gate of old Bethlehem hospital, and 
 have since been removed to the museum of South Kensington. 
 Allan Cunningham says of these, " that they stand first in con- 
 ception, and only second in execution, among all the productions 
 of the island. Those who see them for the first time are fixed 
 to the spot with terror and awe." Raving Madness is a naked 
 muscular figure, heavily manacled, writhing in con\'ulsions of 
 passionate agony. It is said to have been modelled from Oliver 
 Cromwell's porter, then an inmate of the hospital. The other 
 figure is feebler in character, and represents rather idiocy than 
 madness. Pope's lines on " the brazen brainless brothei-s " are 
 well known. The bassi-reUevi on two sides of the monument of 
 London, the "tall bully that lifts its head and lies," are by tho 
 hand of Cibber. So was the fountain in Soho Square, and one 
 of the vases at Hampton Court, said by Walpole " to be done iu 
 competition with a foreigner, who executed the other; but nobody 
 has told us which is Gibber's." He can-ed some of the statues 
 of kings, and that of Sir Thomas Gresham, in the Roy.ll E.\change. 
 The first duke of Devonshire employed him much at Cliatswcrtli, 
 where he executed two sphinxes on large bases, a fountain of 
 Neptune, several door-cases of alabaster, and many ornaments 
 in the chapel, including st.atues of F.aith and Hope, one on each 
 side of the altar. In 1688 he took up anns under tlie duke in 
 favour of the prince of Orange. He was appointed can-er to 
 the king's closet, and died about 1700. He built the Danish 
 church In London, and w.as buried there himself, as had been 
 his second wife, to whom he erected a monument. — W. T. 
 
 CIBBER, CoLLEY, son of the preceding, a celebrated dram.itic 
 author, poet-laureate to George II., was bom in London, 1C71 ; 
 his motlier, from whom he took his name, being the descendant 
 of a good familv in Rutlandshire. He w.as sent in 1682 to the 
 free school at Granth.am in Lincolnshire. In 1687 he was an 
 applicant for a scholarship at Winchester school, the founder 
 of which, William of Wykeham, according to Cibber, was 
 among the ancestry of liis mother. This application being 
 rejected, probably because the genealogy on which it rested
 
 was considered doubtful, Gibber thought of entering the uni- 
 versity ; but this purpose also miscanied, the revolution of 
 1688 having found occupation for him among the forces raised 
 by the earl of Devonshire at Nottingham. His term of mili- 
 tary service over, Gibber no longer di-eamt of a university 
 career, but determined to indulge his e:irly passion for the 
 stage. His first appearances as an actor were only respect- 
 able, but a decided success attended his first performance of 
 the chaplain in the tragedy of the Orphan ; and successively 
 as Lord Touchwood in Congreve"s Double Dealer, and as 
 Fondlewife in the Old Bachelor, he was received with uncommon 
 favour. The successful actor now attempted the character of 
 dramatist, his first production being " Love's Last Shift, or the 
 Fool in Fashion" (1695) — a comedy wliich met with great 
 success, the hero, Sir Novelty Fashion, being personated by the 
 author with such abundant foppery as to give him a monopoly 
 of the character, and of the character of fop in general for the 
 rest of his life. " Woman's Wit," a comedy, and " Xerxes," a 
 tragedy, followed; the one in 1697, and the other in 1699, but 
 neither of these pieces was successful. In 1704, the " Gareless 
 Husband," on which Gibber's reputation as a dramatist mainly 
 rests, was acted with the greatest success; and in 1717, taking 
 a hint from the TartufFe of iloliere, he produced his comedy 
 of the " Nonjuror," the dedication of which to the king was 
 rewarded immediately with a present of two hundred pomids, 
 and eventually with the dignity of poet-laureate (1730). For 
 nineteen years from 1711, he was one of the lessees and princi- 
 pal manager of Drury Lane, where his impersonations of fops 
 and feeble old men were stock attractions of the most profitable 
 description. Occasionally, after his retirement from the stage, 
 the offer of fifty guineas for one night's performance induced 
 him to reappear in one of his favourite characters ; and on 
 such an occasion the populaiity of the actor-dramatist appeared 
 unbounded. He was found dead m his bed on the 12th Decem- 
 ber, 1757. An edition of his plays appeared in 1721, 2 vols. 
 4to, and an 8vo edition, in 5 vols., in 1777. A list of thirty 
 dramatic pieces, in the production of which Gibber was more or 
 less concerned, is given in the Biog. Dramat. His Apology for 
 his life, published in 1740, and since frequently reprinted, is 
 probably the performance by which Gibber is now best known. 
 Johnson allowed it to be very well done — " Very well done, to 
 be sure, Sir ;" and Swift sat up all night to read it. Both in this 
 work and in the " Remonstrance " wliich he addressed to Pope, 
 who made the sprightly and ingenious, but not poetical laureate, 
 the second hero of the Dunciad, Gibber exhibited a sturdiness of 
 character and a force of intellect, for which the usual vanity and 
 the occasional absurdity of his conduct had little prepared his 
 contemporaries to give him credit. — J. S., G. 
 
 CIBI5ER, Mrs. Susannah Maria, a celebrated singer, the 
 sister of Thomas Augustine Ame, was bom in 1714, and 
 prepared for the stage by the instruction of her brother. She 
 made her first appearance at the theatre in Lincoln's Inn fields 
 in 1732, in Lampe's opera of Amelia. The success of his pupil 
 in the part of Amelia induced Ame to prepare another for her. 
 He accordingly composed new music for Addison's opera of 
 Rosamond. It was performed in 1733, confirming the reputa- 
 tion of Miss Ame, and laying the foundation of that of her 
 brother who now became kno\vn for the fu'st time as a composer. 
 Soon after her success in the part of Rosamond, Miss Ame 
 became the second wife of the celebrated, or rather notorious, 
 Theophilus Gibber, to whom she was married in 1734. Gibber's 
 own and his wife's emoluments, though very considerable, were 
 insufficient to supply his extravagant expenses ; and soon after 
 their marriage the derangement of his affairs rendered it neces- 
 sary for him to retire to France. During his absence a liaison 
 took place between Mrs. Gibber and a young gentleman of 
 fortune at which, after his return, he is said not only to have 
 connived, but even to have been accessory to their correspondence. 
 He was afterwards induced, however, to bring an action against 
 the gentleman, laying his damages at £5000 ; but the amount 
 which he recovered (£10), shows the sense which was enter- 
 tained of his own conduct. This worthless and unhappy man 
 was drowned in a shipwreck in 1758. The vessel in which he 
 had embarked for Ireland, was driven by storaiy weather to the 
 western coast of Scotland where it was lost, and most of the 
 crew and passengers perished. Mrs. Gibber rem.ained on the 
 Drury-lane stage till her death, January 30, 1766. Wlien the 
 intelligence of this event was communicated to Garrick, he gave 
 
 her character in the following words — " Tragedy is dead with 
 her ; and yet she was the greatest female player belonging to my 
 house ; I could easily parry the artless thrusts, and despise the 
 coarse language of some of my other heroines : but whatever was 
 Ciljber's object, a new part or a new dress, she was always sure 
 to carrj- her point by the force of her invective and the steadiness 
 of her perseverance." Her person is described by her bio- 
 graphers as having been perfectly elegant. Even when she had 
 lost the bloom of youth, although she wanted that fullness of 
 person which is frequently so effectual in concealing the hand 
 of time, it was impossible to contemplate her figm-e and face 
 without thinking her handsome. Her voice was naturally 
 plaintive and musical. Davies says, " In grief and tenderness 
 her eyes looked as if they swam in tears — in rage and despair 
 they seemed to dart flashes of fire. In spite of the miim- 
 portance of her figure, she maintained a dignity in her action, 
 and a grace in her step. She was a perfect judge of music; and 
 though she was not mistress of a voice requisite to a capital 
 singer, yet her fine taste was sure to gain her the applause and 
 approbation of the best judges." Handel was very partial to 
 her, and some of his finest contralto songs were written for 
 her voice. — E. F. R. 
 
 GIBBER, Theophilus, son of Golley Gibber, was bom in 
 1703. After spending four years at Winchester school, he 
 appeared on the stage of Drury Lane in 1720; and notwith- 
 standing some defects of person and manner, became a popular 
 actor. He married an actress of the name of Johnson, and after 
 her death fomied a second union ^vith Miss Ame. (See the 
 preceding memoir.) In 1738 he retired to France to escape his 
 duns ; on his return separated from his wife ; for twenty years 
 lived the hfe of a prodigal, except when he was in prison ; and 
 in 1758, having sailed from Parkgate to fulfil a theatrical 
 engagement in Dublin, perished by shipwreck. He altered a 
 few pieces for the stage, and was the author of one comedy. 
 The " Lives of the Poets," 5 vols. 12mo, was published with his 
 name, but his claim to the authorship of the work has been 
 disputed in favotir of a Scotchman, named Shields, who had been 
 amanuensis to Johnson. — J. S., G. 
 
 GIBO. See Innocent VIII. 
 
 GIBOT, Pierre Martial, a French Jesuit missionary at 
 Pekin, where he became professor of mathematics to the Ghinese 
 court; born in 1727; died at Pekin in 1780. He formed the 
 project of illustrating the text of the sacred books by Ghinese 
 historical documents, but accomplished only a small part of the 
 work, his annotations being confined to the book of Esther. 
 The work contains some cmious allusions to subjects of sacred 
 history, extracted from ancient documents, to which Cibot had 
 access at the court of the emperor. — J. S., G. 
 
 * GIBRARIO, LuiGi, was bom at Turin in 1802. The ulti- 
 mate friend of king Gharles Albert, he was intrusted by him 
 with many diplomatic missions in the years 1832-33. He was 
 royal commissary to the Venetian republic in the memorable 
 year 1848. After the battle of Novara, Gibrario followed his 
 royal patron into exUe, and in vain endeavoured to bring him 
 back to Turin. Nominally a member of the Sardinian ministry, 
 he enjoys the full confidence of Gount Cavour, and devotes all 
 his leisure hours to the revision of his numerous historical and 
 statistical works. Amongst these we may distinguish his " His- 
 tory of the Monarchy of Savoy," and Ms " Economy of the 
 Middle Ages." As a noveUst, no less than as a historian, 
 Gibrario is much esteemed.— A. C. M. 
 
 GIGALA, SciPio DE, a famous adventurer, of Italian birth, 
 who rose to be capitan-pasha under the immediate successors of 
 Soliman the Magnificent. He was taken prisoner by the Turks 
 along with his father, a Genoese viscoimt, at the sea-fight of 
 Djerbi in 1560, and being carried to Constantinople, was 
 employed as a page in the imperial seraglio. He was soon 
 transfen-ed to the more congenial service of the field ; and so 
 conspicuous were his talents and braveiy, that, on the accession 
 of Amurath III., he was appointed aga of the janizaries. He 
 distinguished himself greatly in the war which shortly afterwards 
 broke out between the Porte and Persia, and on the conclusion 
 of peace was named capitan-pasha. This dignity, after the 
 Hungarian campaign of Jlohammed III., which he chiefly 
 directed, and which his personal valour at the battle of Keresztes 
 turned signally to the advantage of the Turks, he exchanged for 
 the title of grand vizir. He was dismissed from the vizirat, 
 however, before the lapse of a month, and resumed his former
 
 rank of capitnn-pasha. In the next Persian war, after conduct- 
 ing successfullv one campaign, he was signally defeated by Shah- 
 Abbas the Great, and died of chaginn in 1605. — J. S., G. 
 
 CICCARELLI, Alfonso, an Italian physician, was bom 
 at Bevagna, and died in 1580. In 1561 he published at Padua 
 a work " On Truffles." He made himself notorious for literary 
 forgeries, and fabricated genealogies and family histories. He 
 was arrested by Gregoiy XIII. for these felsifications, and was 
 executed, after having his hand cut off. — J. H. B. 
 
 CICERO, Makcus TuLLii's, the greatest of the Roman 
 orators, was bom on the 3rd January, 106 B.C., at Arpinum, 
 where the family, who were of equestrian rank, had been long 
 settled, and where the grandfather of the orator, who was Uving 
 at the birth of his grandson, was a man of considerable influence. 
 Cicero records an observation of this busy and energetic ancestor, 
 which might have been pronounced by the orator himself Ln the 
 wider arena which he eventually occupied — that the men of his 
 day were Uke Syiian slaves ; " the more Greek they knew, the 
 greater knaves they were." And we know on the same authority 
 that when the old man had one of the municipal disputes in 
 which he delighted referred to the consul at Rome, he received 
 from the first magistrate of the republic a reply somewhat to 
 the effect, that it was a pity a man of old Cicero's energy should 
 have preferred to be the tirst man of a village, rather than a 
 considerable personage at Rome. JIarcus Tullius Cicero, the 
 father of the orator, though prevented by infirm health from 
 occupying that distinguished position in public life which his 
 talents and literary culture would otherwise have secured for 
 him, was not unknown to several of the leading statesmen of 
 Rome ; and when, with a view to the proper education of his 
 two sons, ilarcus and Quintus, he removed to the capital, his 
 society was courted by such men as the orators M. Antonius and 
 L. Crassus, and the jurists Q. Scsevola and C. Aculeo. The 
 sons of this Aculeo, whose sister Helvia was the mother of the 
 orator, and their cousins, the young Ciceros, pursued their studies 
 together under masters carefully selected for them by Crassus, 
 whose accomplishments as an orator, and experience as a states- 
 man, peculiarly fitted him for the task of directing their education. 
 With but one exception, Cicero's masters at Rome were Greeks. 
 One of them, Archias of Antioch, though of great celebrity in 
 his day as a poet, would now he forgotten but for his connec- 
 tion with the orator, who more than discharged the obligations 
 he was under to his master, by defending in one of the most 
 splendid of his orations the poet's right to be a citizen of Rome. 
 The character and pursuits of this master, no less than his 
 instructions, were influential in forming the character and 
 developing the tastes of Cicero. While under the care of Archias, 
 the pupil imitated the master in the abundance and in the 
 indifferent quality of his verses. MTien a mere boy he had com- 
 posed a poem in tetrameters, called " Pontius Glaucus," which 
 was extant in Plutarch's time. He produced before his twenty- 
 fifth year one entitled " Marius," and another "Limon;" and 
 translated into Latin verse the Phasnomena of Aratus. These 
 efforts of the young poetaster, although hardly rising to medio- 
 crity, served to exhibit the diversity, and no doubt contributed 
 to the improvement of his taste. In his sixteenth year Cicero, 
 having exchanged his boy's dress for the manly gown, was placed 
 under the tutelage of his father's friend, Scavola the augur ; and 
 upon his death was committed to the care of the pontifex of the 
 same name, by whom he was initiated into an acquaintance 
 with the constitution of the republic, and the principles of juris- 
 prudence, which, together with the lessons of practical wisdom 
 that he received from the same admirable instructor, gave a 
 distinct direction to his talents and ambition from which they 
 never swerved. 
 
 In 89 B.C. Cicero, who was then of age to bear arms, fulfilled 
 the duty imposed upon every citizen of the republic of sening at 
 least one campaign, by following Pompeius Strabo, father of the 
 great Pompey, to the Marsic war. On its termination in the 
 following year he returned to Rome, and resumed his forensic 
 and philosophical studies under the most famous of the numerous 
 Greek teachers who then resided in Rome. For upwards of six 
 years from the date of his short tei-m of soldiering, although 
 haunted by no common ambition of "burning in the forum," he 
 kept himself sedulously aloof from public life — the arena of 
 which, indeed, oft'ered little temptation to a youth of his diposi- 
 tion and talents, at a period when the furious rivalry of Marius 
 and Sulla had annihUated order and government, and committed 
 
 the lives and fortunes of the community into the hands of a 
 brutal soldieiy. During this period — one of the most calamitous 
 in the history of Rome — Cicero attended firet the lectures of 
 Phajdrus the Epiciu-ean ; then those of Philo, the chief of the 
 new academy, whom the invasion of Greece by Jlithridates had 
 driven from Athens to Rome. These were liis masters in phi- 
 losophy ; to the first he was chiefly indebted for a spirit of enthu- 
 siasm in the pursuit of philosophical subjects ; to the second he 
 owed many of the opinions which he put forth in his philosophical 
 works. Diodotus, the Stoic, who hved and died in liis house, 
 was his master in logic ; and in rhetoric he enjoyed the advant- 
 age of being instructed hx one of the most famous masters of the 
 art, Apollonius Molo of Rhodes, who, like Philo, had been diiven 
 from Greece by the Mithridatic mvasion. About this period, 
 simply, it would appear, for the sake of practice in composition, 
 he drew up the treatise " De Inventione Rhetorica," translated 
 the (Economics of Xenophon, and added a poem or two to the 
 catalogue of his early failures. With an industry and perse- 
 verance which were prophetic of his future eminence, he daily 
 exercised himself in declamation — haranguing his friends and 
 companions sometimes in Latin and sometimes in Greek, upon 
 the subjects and according to the rules prescribed by his various 
 masters. When Sulla became master of Rome, and with the 
 establishment of his power a decent although ghastly tranquillity 
 began to reign in the capital, it was thought time that the youth 
 upon whom had been larished so many advantages of culture, 
 and whose assiduity, no less than his abilities, had answered all 
 the expectations of friends and patrons, should at last enter upon 
 the exercise of his profession ; and accordingly Cicero, then in 
 his twenty-fifth year, came forward as a pleader in 81 B.C. The 
 earliest of his extant speeches, although not the first he deUv- 
 ered, is that in favour of P. Quinctius. The first time he 
 appeared in the forum — his former pleadings being in civil suits 
 — was in defence of Sex. Roscius of Ameria, who, at the instance 
 of ChiTSogonus, a freedman of Sulla, was accused of parricide. 
 The defence of Roscius, which was undertaken not without danger 
 from the partisans of Sulla, was successful; Cicero, in the course 
 of his pleading, boldly execrating the mahce and cnielty of Chry- 
 sogonus, and indirectly reprehending the tyranny and injustice 
 of the dictator. So decided was the impression that the fervour 
 and eloquence of his address made upon his auditory, that as he 
 himself says, the public voice at once placed him among the first 
 orators of Rome. If there was any danger to be apprehended from 
 Sulla, when his proceedings during the struggle with Marius were 
 thus publicly called in question, Cicero, either ignorant of it or 
 encouraged to contemn it by the success of his defence of Roscius, 
 within the two following years once more bearded the dictator 
 in the foram : for having undertaken the defence of a woman 
 of Arretium, against whose title to appear in court the prelimi- 
 nary objection was urged that she belonged to a town which in 
 the recent troubles had been deprived of the rights of citizenship, 
 Cicero declaimed with all his power of invective against the 
 measure of deprivation, pronouncing it unconstitutional, and 
 therefore null and void. In this defence he was again fortunate 
 enough to cany his judges with him, and nothing could be more 
 auspicious for his professional careerthau the character of defender 
 of the oppressed, in which this and the Roscian success estab- 
 lished him with the populace. But after two years of assiduous 
 professional labour the state of his health, which h.id never been 
 robust, began to create serious alarm among his friends, and by 
 the advice of his physicians, which was seconded by his own 
 desire to improve his style of oratory under Greek masters, he 
 departed for Athens. There he found his old schoolfellow, 
 Atticus, who had quitted Rome in 85 B.C., and had during a 
 long residence in the capital of Greece acquired those elcg.ant 
 tastes in all matters of art and literature, wliicli with Cicero, who 
 after this \-isit to Athens was bound to him by the strongest ties of 
 personal affection, and with many other illustrious coutcmpor.iries, 
 were the subject of unbounded panegyric. In the company of 
 this accomplished and amiable person Cicero spent six months 
 at Athens, extending his acquaint.ance with philosophy in the 
 school of Antiochus of Ascalon, occasion.nlly listening to tlie lec- 
 tures of Zono, the Epicurean, and assiduously studying rhetoric 
 under Demetrius Syrus. When he left Atliens it was to pursue, 
 in an extensive tour through .\sia Minor, the same objects which 
 had engaged his attention in the city. He cultivated ever}-wliere 
 the society of men of letters, and besought their advice; if they 
 were rhetoricians, obtained from them examples of their art ;
 
 and if philosophers, treasured up their dogmas. Before retoming 
 to Rome he passed over to Rhodes, 78 B.C., where he became 
 acquainted with Posidonius, and renewed his intercourse ^vith 
 Molo, whose critical strictures upon the young orator's style 
 were of great advantage to him in overcoming a certain tendency 
 to proU.^ty and redundance. After an absence of two years 
 Cicero again appeared in the Roman foram ; the improvement 
 that travel had \\Tought upon his person was universally 
 remarked ; but, whether he was a more accomplished orator, or 
 indeed an orator at all, after a long residence in the enen-ating 
 clime of Atliens, was for a time a subject of question among those 
 of his fellow-citizens who thought it patriotism to hate Greek, 
 and the votaries of Greek art. If, however, there was any 
 appearance of indolence or effeminacy about the young orator 
 to justify the taunts of Greekling and scholar with which he 
 was assailed, it was no more than an appearance, and before long 
 the ascendency which he obtained by his splendid powers of 
 declamation over the great orators of the law courts and the 
 forum, Hortensius and Gotta, silenced all cavil, and permanently 
 assigned him the first place ui the first rank of Roman orators. 
 On the completion of his thirtieth year, the age at which he 
 could legally become a candidate for poUtical dignity, Cicero lost 
 no time in oflering himself for the office of qutestor, and although 
 comparatively a noi-us homo, was elected by the votes of all the 
 tribes. In the distribution of provinces by lot it was decided 
 that he should serve in Sicily under Sex. Peducaus, prajtor of 
 Lilybaeura. The duties of his office, although compararively 
 simple in ordinary tunes, were during his tenure of it peculiarly 
 difficult; and the credit for tact, energy, and uitegrity which he 
 obtained among the SiciUans by supplpng the gi-auaries of the 
 capital, then almost in a state of famine, with extraordinary 
 contributions of com, without wantonly harassing the provincials, 
 he hoped, but with more vanity than prescience, to find echoed 
 and exaggerated in the applause of the Roman tribes. The 
 mortification which, on his landing at Puteoli, he experienced on 
 being abruptly accosted by a distinguished citizen of Rome, who 
 inquired where he had been for some time past, he has himself 
 described in one of his speeches; and the humour of the passage 
 strikes us the more forcibly that some other humiliations which 
 befel the orator in the later part of his career, were recorded by 
 him in terms that, for pungent bitterness of complaint, might have 
 become the hps of Timon himself. The lesson he drew ftom the 
 neglect which he experienced on his return to Rome was, that in 
 order to stand well with the Romans, it was necessary to keep 
 himself constantly before them ; for while their eyes were bright 
 and piercing, their ears were dull. The four years following his 
 return from Sicily in 74 b.c, hardly present any trace of him 
 either in a professional or political capacity. During that period 
 we know, on his own authority, that he conducted a multitude 
 of causes, and that his professional reputation was daily on the 
 increase ; but, with the exception perhaps of the oration " Pro. 51. 
 Tullio," some fragments of which have been recently discovered, 
 none of his speeches have been so much as indicated by name. 
 Although a comparative blank in the life of Cicero, these years 
 were memorable in the history of Rome. Lucullus was in the 
 East victoriously fighting against Mithridates ; Crassus in Italy 
 making head against the daring and heroic Spartacus, and 
 Pompey at home manoeuvring — now that he was alienated from 
 Crassus — for the suppression of aU authority but his own. In 
 the year 70 b.c. Cicero was a successful candidate for the 
 aedileship ; he was elected by a majority in each of the Roman 
 tribes, and obtained a greater number of votes than any of his 
 competitors. Shortly before the election one of the few causes 
 in which he was concerned as prosecutor came on for a hearing — 
 the famous impeachment of Verres, who, while praetor of Si.Ta- 
 cuse, had roused the indignation of the SiciUans by acts of the 
 most flagrant misgovemment and oppression. Cicero, although 
 strongly averse to appearing in the forum in any other character 
 than that of defender, undertook the impeachment, probably out 
 of gratitude to the accusers, who, dming his own term of office in 
 Sicily, had, as we have seen, heaped upon him an amount of adula- 
 tion which satisfied the demands of his egregious vanity. The 
 accused was not easily brought into coiut ; the Jletelli and other 
 powerful families interested in his behalf exerted themselves to 
 wrest the cause out of the hands of Cicero ; and when, after a two 
 months' \-isit to Sicily for the purpose of summoning witnesses and 
 collecting evidence, the undaunted orator returned to Rome amply 
 provided \vith materials for an impeachment, he was met by a 
 
 variety of legal manoeuvres on the part of Verres' agent, Horten- 
 sius the consul elect, which, if successful, would have delayed 
 the trial till the commencement of the following year, have 
 brought Verres before a juiy of friends, and have sent the 
 SicUians home to await the airival of a new tyrant and peculator. 
 All this opposition, however, was imavailing against the energy 
 and circumspection of Cicero, who opened the case in a brief 
 address on the 5th August, and proceeded at once to the 
 examination of witnesses, and the production of the necessaiy 
 papers. This was sufficient to elicit the feeling of the court. 
 Hortensius gave up the contest as hopeless, and Verres forthwith 
 departed into exile. If this extraordinary trial had run the 
 lengthened com-se it was expected to take, Cicero was prepared 
 to substantiate his charges in a series of pleadings, and these 
 he afterwards pubHshed, perhaps to show his contempt of the 
 supporters of VeiTCs, or perhaps merely to give the Roman world 
 some evidence of his talents for the business of impeachment. 
 However this may be, the trial of Ven-es has furnished the 
 world with such specimens of oratory as for minute and scru- 
 pulous treatment of evidence, and for splendour of declamation, 
 are unmatched among the productions of their author. 
 
 In 69 B.C. Cicero entered upon the duties of his new office, 
 the most important of which was to superintend the celebration 
 of the public festivals. The sediles were accustomed to lavish 
 immense sums on these celebrations. In this Cicero, with his 
 scanty fortune, could not imitate his predecessors. His old friends 
 the Sicilians, however, came to his aid with seasonable supplies, 
 and the great shows of the capital, under the management of 
 Cicero, passed off not unsuccessfully. Two years afterwards he 
 was triumphantly elected to the office of praetor, 67 B.C. In 
 the duties of this magistracy the tastes of the orator were better 
 suited, and his peculiar talents better employed, than in those of 
 the aedileship. He presided in the highest civil court, and 
 besides acted as commissioner in trials for extortion. At the 
 same time that he discharged these official obligations, he was 
 energetically prosecuting the ever-increasing business of his pro- 
 fession. To the period of his prsetorship belong his celebrated 
 defence of Cluentius, and his still more famous address in favom- 
 of the llanilian law. The same period was marked by the 
 conviction of Licinius Macer in opposition to the prodigious 
 influence of his kinsman, Crassus. By the address in favour ot 
 the ilanilian law, which was spoken from the rostrum, and com- 
 manded the more attention that it was his first political address 
 to the people, Cicero doubtless had private as well as patriotic 
 purposes to serve. The tenor of his life up to this point had 
 been smooth enough, and the ascent to power singularly easy ; 
 but the great prize of the consulship was yet to be won ; and 
 without the hearty support of one or other of the great parties 
 into which the republic was divided, he could not hope to win it. 
 Pomppy was at this time the idol of the masses ; to conciliate 
 their idol, as was doubtless one chief purpose of the addi-ess, was 
 therefore to court the populace. The party of the optimates, 
 from whose courtesy Cicero would gladly have besought the 
 prize he had in view instead of servilely courting it from the 
 people, were the natural enemies of any man not of their own 
 class who ventm"ed to aspire to the consular seat. The favour 
 of Pompey and of the popxilace was therefore all in aU to the 
 ambitious orator, and the Manilian address was not without its 
 effect, nor intended to be without its effect, in gaining him the 
 favour of both. C. Antonius and the profligate Catiline were 
 the competitors whom Cicero most dreaded ; backed as they 
 were by a coahtion of the partisans of the pohtic Caesar and 
 those of the wealthy Crassus, they were really formidable oppo- 
 nents; but the event belied all expectation, Cicero being chosen 
 by all the centuries, while Antonius, his colleague, obtained 
 only a small majority over Catiline. The eventful year of his 
 consulate — with its tumults, administrative reforms, judicial 
 enactments, and state prosecutions — as belonging rather to the 
 province of the historian than to that of the biographer, we pass 
 over with the remark, that wliile the new consul in his addresses 
 to the people neglected none of the arts of popularity, he showed 
 unmistakably on various important occasions, that his sym- 
 pathies lay with the corrupt and selfish ohgarchy who had 
 frowned on his access to power, and would have frustrated, if 
 they could, all his efforts to mamtain order and dispense justice. 
 This truckling conduct of the consul, if it were at all remarked 
 by the democratic faction, however, was speedily forgotten amid 
 the hurry of preparation for civil strife which began with the
 
 discovery of Catiline's conspiracy. The details of that infamous 
 plot — tlie history of its origin, its actors, and their utter discom- 
 fiture, will be found elsewhere. — (See Catiline.) If ever the 
 enthusiasm of a community, after a deliverance from proscrip- 
 tion and bloodshed, concentrated upon one man, it was when the 
 Romans, after the dispersion of Catiline and his crew, hailed the 
 great orator, whose work it was, as father of his country, and in 
 his name voted thanksgivings to the gods. But tho height of 
 popularity to which the sublime achievement carried him was 
 as perilous as it was dazzling, and before long events transpired 
 which rendered his fall inevitable. With the occasion which 
 gave it birth the admiration of the nobles for the saviour of their 
 country passed away, and again it was the vanity and arrogance 
 of the consul which fretted tliem out of patience with his autho- 
 rity. The leaders of the democratic faction on the other hand 
 were not slow to perceive, that the consul had more than once lent 
 the influence of his station and his talents to the cause of oligar- 
 chical oppression ; nor had they failed to note some occasions on 
 which the patriotic prosecutor of Verres had come forward to 
 defend the conduct of public ofKcers who had no less shamelessly 
 than the Sicilian praetor practised every form of extortion and 
 cruelty. No sooner had he laid down the emblems of the con- 
 sular office, than the animosity of the nobles and the disaffection 
 of the populace combined to work his immediate disgrace. His 
 conduct in the Catilinarian conspiracy left him open to the 
 charge of having violated the laws of his country ; for, contrary 
 to the statute which provided that no citizen could be put to 
 death without the authority of the people, Cicero, acting merely 
 on the authority of the senate, had given orders for the sum- 
 raaiy execution of the conspirators. It was in vain the orator 
 contended that Lentulus, Cethcgus, and their associates, had by 
 their guilt forfeited entirely the privileges of Roman citizens. 
 To this his enemies easily replied, that the comitia alone were 
 competent to pronounce upon the question of guilt, as they 
 alone could legally determine the question of pimishment. On 
 the last day of the year, when he ascended the rostram to give an 
 account of his official proceedings, so much had the popularity of 
 the great orator declined, that one of the tribunes was allowed 
 to interrupt him with the insulting exclamation, that a man 
 who had put Roman citizens to death without granting them a 
 hearing, was himself unworthy of being heard. The populace 
 indeed, after hearing him solemnly asseverate that he had saved 
 the city and the republic, escorted him home ; but by this 
 passing homage to his talents and his character nothing in the 
 aspect of the fallen consul's position was materially changed. 
 Retm-ning to the senate as a private member, he was soon 
 involved in a series of angry disputes, the result of which was 
 only to augment the number and aggi-avate the hatred of his 
 enemies. The destruction of Catiline and his army in the begin- 
 ning of 62 B.C., and the return of Pompey from his Asiatic 
 campaign in the autumn of the same year, for a while diverted 
 public attention from these factious recriminations; but they 
 were renewed with tenfold bitterness on the occasion of Cicero's 
 taking part against P. Clodius Pulcher, who was accused before 
 the senate of ha\'ing violated in the house of Cassar the rites 
 of the Bona Dea, and began to be the sole subject of talk, 
 and the fertile source of dissension among the citizens. Clodius 
 from this time forward was the mortal enemy of Cicero. After 
 being adopted into a plebeian family, this unscrupulous patri- 
 cian was elected to the tribuneship in 59 B.C. His purpose 
 in seeking, and the purpose of Pompey, Cxsar, and their par- 
 tisans in procuring him that office, was undoubtedly the ruin, 
 or at least the humiliation of the ex-consul under forms of law. 
 To the machinations of such an enemy, and to the even more 
 dangerous designs of his supporters, Cicero could oppose neither 
 the vigilance of devoted friends, nor the stern endm'ance of con- 
 scious integrity. When Pompey, on whom he still reckoned 
 for support against his personal enemies, and through whom he 
 still hoped to control his political adversaries, made common 
 cause with Crassus and Ciusar against the aristocratic leaders, 
 his disgrace was sealed. Clodius could now prosecute his schemes 
 of vengeance with entire impunity. His first act after entering 
 upon office was to get a bill passed interdicting from fire and 
 water any one who had put a Roman citizen to death untried. 
 The purpose of the measure could not be mistaken, and Cicero 
 at once took guilt to himself. He endeavoured to move the 
 senate in his favom-, and not altogether in vain ; nor was the 
 garb of an acciTsed person, in which he appeared in the forum, 
 
 without its effect upon the better portion of the citizens. But 
 the new consuls, Piso and Gabinius, sternly repressed all demon- 
 strations of sympathy, and Pompey, pretending fear of a civil 
 commotion, at length declared against the orator. Cicero now, 
 giving way to despair, resolved to depart from Rome. He 
 quitted the city, April, 58 b.c, and, taking Brandisium in his 
 way, went over to Greece. Plancius, quaestor of JIacedonia, 
 entertained him honourably at Thessalonica, where he remained 
 till November. His next residence was at Dyrrachium, where, 
 as at Thessalonica, he was chiefly occupied in corresponding 
 with his wife Terentia, and his friend Attieus. The letters he 
 addressed to them give us a picture of physical and mental pros- 
 tration imder grief, such as it would be difficult to parallel. At 
 Rome, as might have been expected, a reaction, to which the 
 extravagant vengeance of his enemy Clodius no less than the 
 enthusiastic exertions of his friends contributed force and 
 feiTour, soon occm-red in favour of the expatriated orator. In 
 spite of the formal decree of banishment with which Clodius had 
 piu-sued his victim, various attempts were made by parties in 
 the senate to procure the recall of the exile. In 57 b.c. 
 political changes, and the accession of Pompey to the ranks of 
 its promoters, determined the success of the movement. On the 
 4th August the comitia centuriata, by an overwhelming majority, 
 voted the bill of restoration. The same day Cicero, anticipating 
 this event, quitted DyiTachium and passed over to Brundisium. 
 Along the Appian way, which was his route to the city, the 
 towns sent forth their magistrates to offer him congratulations ; 
 and on his arrival at the gates of Rome he was met by a crowd 
 of the citizens, who escorted him in triumph to the capitol, there 
 to render thanks to Jupiter Maximus. In the circumstances of 
 the republic at the time of Cicero's return, his name and the 
 recollections which attached to it would have served him well 
 with the senate and with many of the citizens in an attempt 
 to regain his political supremacy ; but, in a contest with 
 Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, whose authority was now firmly 
 established, neither the reputation of the great orator nor the 
 splendid memories of his consulate would have supported him 
 for an hour, and a collision with the triumvirs was therefore 
 what he most anxiously and timorously avoided. Ca:sar had 
 magnanimously attempted to break the fall of the consul of 
 63 B.C. by urging him, but in vain, to become one of his legates, 
 and since then had treated him with a frigid civility. No 
 reliance could be placed upon Pompey, and Crassus was 
 decidedly hostile. Thus really at feud with the triumvirs, but 
 caressed by them when he humbly did their bidding, Cicero 
 passed the next five years of his life, either at Rome or one of 
 his country seats. During this period he composed his " De 
 Republica " and his " De Legibus." In 52 B.C., during the 
 third consulship of Pompey, with whom Cicero was then on 
 terms of personal intimacy, a law was enacted with a view to 
 the repression of bribery and corruption, which ordained that no 
 consul or pra?tor should be appointed to the government of a 
 province imtil five years had elapsed from the date of his 
 quitting office, and that in the meantime governors should be 
 selected by lot from the class of persons of consular or prwtorian 
 rank who had never held any foreign command. Under this 
 law Cicero was appointed to the province of Cilicia, to whieli 
 were annexed Pisidin, Pamphylia, some districts to the north of 
 Mount Taurus, and the island of Cyprus, The unlucky orator 
 regarded this appointment, although an honourable and lucra- 
 tive one, only in the light of a second banishment from Rome, 
 and went to his province in the temper of a man on whom 
 fortune had done her worst. His appreiiensions on the score 
 of an invasion of Cilicia by the Parthians were not destined 
 to be realized; his administration turned out as popular as 
 he had promised Attieus it should be pure — which, indeed, it 
 was to a degree that astonished and delighted the Greeks; 
 the success of his campaign against the robber tribes of the 
 Syrian frontier was such as to inspire him with hopes of a 
 triumph — but nothing could alleviate the horrors of absence from 
 the capital, and the very day on which his term of office expired 
 Cicero was on his way to Italy. Ho arrived in the neighbour- 
 hood of Home, 4th January, 49 B.C. It was a critical or rather 
 a fatal moment for the liberties of the republic, and for all who 
 had been conspicuous in their defence. The senate had just 
 commanded the dismissal of Ca\sar's anny. M. Antony, and one 
 of his colleagues in the tribuneship who had opposed the decree, 
 had escaped to the camp of the future dictator, and the immediate
 
 CIC 
 
 1038 
 
 CID 
 
 advance of his legions upon the capital was a matter of doubt 
 only to those who knew little of his character and less of his 
 resources. With the consuls and the leadins; men of the aris- 
 tocracy, Cicero quitted the neighbourhood of Rome on the 17th 
 January. It was the intention of the fugitives to guard what 
 they could of the southern parts of the peninsula, and each had 
 the defence of a particular district intrusted to his care. Cicero 
 was to provide for the security of Formia2 and the district around 
 Capua, but this task he soon relinquished in disgust. A prey to 
 fears, none of which were for his country, and to distractions 
 which began and ended in schemes of personal aggrandizement, 
 he inclined now to the side of Pompey, and now to that of 
 Cassar, coiTcsponded alternately with the partisans of each and 
 with the enemies of both, and lost in idle recriminations, now 
 against Ca;sar and now against Pompey, the opportunity and 
 the credit of sening either. At an interview which he had with 
 Cfesar after the departure of his rival from Brundisium, Cicero 
 promised to observe a strict neutrality dming the progi-ess of 
 the war, but not long after, he determined to follow the for- 
 tunes of Pompey, and accordingly passed over to Greece, June 
 49 B.C. After the battle of Pharsalia, which occurred in 
 August of the following year, Cicero, who was not present at 
 the engagement, refusing to accept the command of a fleet and 
 of a strong body of troops offered him by Cato, determined at 
 once to throw liimself upon the mercy of the conqueror. He 
 landed at Brundisium about the end of November, and there he 
 remained ten months, awaiting the return of Caisar firom his 
 campaigns in Egypt and Africa. During this period he was a 
 prey to the most abject terror, except when compunction for his 
 desertion of his friends got the better of his fears. He narrowly 
 escaped being put to death by the soldiers of M. Antonius ; and 
 a traitor himself, he experienced the treacherj- of his nearest and 
 dearest friends, his brother and his nephew having at this cala- 
 mitous period repaid the favours of their illustrious relative, by 
 combining to cast upon him the foulest calumnies and the most 
 opprobrious aspersions. Cnesar returned to Italy in September. 
 He had pre\-iously addressed a friendly letter to the orator, and 
 now gave him his hand not only in token of forgiveness, but of 
 respect and affection. The next four years of Cicero's life con- 
 stitute that period of it in which he was least conspicuous in 
 the political world, and in which he did most to exalt his reputa- 
 tion as a writer. To this period, indeed, belong almost all his 
 philosophical and rhetorical works. The production of these was 
 his resource against misanthropy and idleness, when all other 
 activity was forbidden him by the stern censor who now ruled 
 the destinies of Rome ; and it was the resource against sorrow to 
 which he naturally, although unsuccessfully reverted, when 
 assailed, as he now was, by domestic discord and bereavement. 
 After separating from his wife Terentia, and contracting a mar- 
 riage with one of his wards, a young and beautiful lady named 
 Pnblila, whom he divorced in the coui-se of a year, he lost his 
 only daughter Tullia, and in this loss experienced the utmost 
 bitterness of domestic misfortune. As the fatal Ides of March 
 approached, Cicero's intimacy with Cassar seemed daily on the 
 increase ; subserviency on the part of the orator, and kindness 
 approaching affection on the part of the dictator, seemed to 
 unite them in the stroncest bonds of friendship. But, as soon 
 as the scene of assassination in the senate-house had transpired, 
 Cicero was among the first to declare his satisfaction at having 
 seen the tyrant perish. This identified him with the conspira- 
 tors, and united his fate with theirs. Obliged to retreat from 
 the city by the growing indignation of the populace, he went 
 first to Rhegium, then crossing to Sicily, amved at Syracuse on 
 the 1st of August. Leaving this place on the following day, he 
 was driven by cross winds to Leucopetra, where he was assured 
 by some people lately from Rome that he might with safety 
 return to the capital, as the chances of a popular commotion 
 were now over. At Velia, where he touched on his way home, 
 he had his last inters'iew with Brutus. He arrived in the 
 capital on the 31st of August, 43 B.C. Two days afterwards he 
 delivered in the senate-house the first of his celebrated Philippics 
 — a series of violent and intemperate harangues, in which, as its 
 oracle, he expended all the rage of a doomed, but still proud and 
 powerful oligarchy. The purpose of these harangues was to 
 rouse the senate and the people against Antony and his friends ; 
 it failed, and hastened the doom of the orator, who had shown 
 no mercy and could expect none. Proscription of their respective 
 enemies followed the coalition of Octavianns and Lepidus with 
 
 Antony, and among the most odious of Antony's enemies was 
 Cicero. He was at his Tusculan villa with his brother and 
 nephew when he learned the news of the proscription. A rapid 
 flight to Astura on the coast, an unsuccessful attempt to escape 
 by sea, followed next day by another equally unsuccessful, and 
 Cicero was in the hands of the triumvus' myrmidons. He had 
 reached his villa at Formice; in the middle of the night his 
 slaves informed him of the approach of the soldiere ; he made 
 an attempt to escape in a litter, but was overtaken in a wood 
 and instantly dispatched. His head and hands, according to 
 Plutarch, were carried to Rome, and by order of Antony affixed 
 to the rostrum in the forum. 
 
 The best edition of the complete works of Cicero is that of 
 Orellius. His Life by Conyers ]\Iiddleton is disfigured by indis- 
 criminate eulogy. Hardly any English translations, except Mel- 
 moth's Letters of Cicero, desen'e attention. For an admirable 
 account of the works of Cicero, see Smith's Diet, of Greek and 
 Roman Biog. — J. S., G. 
 
 CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the only son of the great orator 
 and of Terentia, bom in 65 b.c. He accompanied his father 
 into Cilicia in 51 B.C. ; in the following year passed into Greece, 
 and served with the army of Pompey ; after the battle of 
 Pharsalia entered upon a course of study, or rather a career of 
 dissipation, at Athens; was one of the military tribunes mider 
 Bratus in his JIacedonian campaign ; and in the year 30 B.C. 
 was drawn from his retreat in Rome by Octavian, to become 
 consul along with the future emperor. He aftenvards held poli- 
 tical office in Asia Jlinor, or, according to some historians, in 
 Syria. So little effect had the De Officiis of the great orator 
 and moralist upon the person for whose use it was written, that, 
 according to Pliny, Cicero the younger was reckoned at Rome 
 a gi-eater drankard than Antony, who was one of the gi-eatest 
 drunkards of the city. — J. S., G. 
 
 CICERO, QuiXTUs TcLLius, brother of the orator, bom 
 about 102 B.C., was educated along with his brother. He was 
 successively a;dile and praetor, and in 61-58 governed Asia as 
 propr»tor. On his retmn to Rome he endea\'ourcd to procure 
 the recall of his brother from banishment ; in 55 went as Casar's 
 legate into Gaul, and there distinguished himself as an able and 
 gallant soldier; in 49 joined the army of Pompey, and was 
 proscribed by the triumvirs and put to death in 43.— J. S., G. 
 
 * CICOGXA, Emmani'ele Antoxio, an eminent Italian 
 author, was born at Venice in 1789. His Venetian inscriptions 
 " Inscrizioni di Venezia," brought him under the special notice 
 of the Austrian government ; under its auspices they are still 
 continued. His treatise on orthography has gone through several 
 editions. Cicogna holds the important office of imperial procu- 
 rator at the supreme court of Venice. — A. C. !M. 
 
 CICOGNARA, Leopoldo, Count of, bora at Ferrara in 
 1767; died at Venice in 1834. He first studied law; then for 
 a while gave himself to mathematics and to physical sciences; 
 afterwards became an earnest student of the fine arts. With the 
 object of pursuing these studies, he resided for a considerable 
 time in Rome, and visited Sicily. On his return to Ferrara he 
 was at once occupied in the high duties natural to his rank. 
 We find him member of the legislative council — plenipotentiary 
 of the Cisalpine republic at Turin. He is councillor of state ; 
 president of the Academy of fine arts at Venice ; and the first 
 Napoleon gives him the order of the iron crown. After the fall 
 of Napoleon the emperor of Austria continued him as president 
 of the Academy of Venice. In his position of president Cico- 
 gnara was of infinite use to the academy. The creation of new 
 professorships ; the real education of pupils by the best instruc- 
 tors ; and, what is of less moment, the temptation to students 
 to come to the academy by the offer of pecuniary rewards, are 
 all attributed to him. Of his works, those relating to the anti- 
 quities of Venice attracted most attention. — J. A., D. 
 
 CID CAMPEADOR, Ruy or Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, 
 the favourite hero of the Spaniards, in whose history and litera- 
 ture he fills much the same place that King Arthur occupies 
 in our own. Of the literature relating to the history of the Cid, 
 it would be out of place to treat in a biographical memoir. So 
 much is the mythical element mixed up with simple history in 
 the accounts which have come do%vn to us, that some critics have 
 altogether denied his existence. There is no reason for canying 
 scepticism to such a length ; but m endeavouring to disentangle 
 the trae from the doubtful, we are often driven back on the 
 remark of the canon in Don Quixote, that " there is no reason
 
 to doubt that there was such a man as the Cid, but very great 
 reason to doubt whether he did what is attributed to him."' Nor 
 need we wonder at the obscurity which overhangs the life of a 
 hero, contemporary with our AViJliam the Conqueror, especially 
 since the earliest JIS. of the Poema del Cid bears date either 
 1207 or 1307. The other chief sources of information as to the 
 history of the Cid are the ftmious Chronicle, of which the earliest 
 known edition is dated Burgos, 1593, but which was in all pro- 
 bability written within one hundi-ed and fifty years after the 
 Cid's death. This work corresponds (with some curious varia- 
 tions) with the Cronica General of Alfonso the Wise. There 
 are also nearly two hundred ballads on the exploits of the Cid, 
 some of which, judging from internal evidence, may be dated at 
 a period not much later than the lifetime of the hero. From 
 these, and from various old Spanish lives of more or less autho- 
 rity, modem historians extract the following as the principal 
 facts of the Cid"s life : — The year of his bu-th is variously stated, 
 but was probably about a.d. 10-40. His father was Don Diego 
 Lainez, a descendant of one of the ancient judges of Castille, and 
 his birthplace was Burgos. The romance of his early years, 
 according to the chronicles, was worthy of his later exploits. 
 Having avenged an insult offered to his father, by Count Lozano 
 de Gomez, in the blood of the offender, the daughter of the slain 
 count, of whom Rodrigo had been it seems enamoured before, 
 besought the king, Fernando I., to give her in marriage to the 
 victor; " for certain I am," thus runs the chronicle, "that his 
 possessions will be greater than those of any man in your domi- 
 nions." Rodrigo — whether impelled by ancient love, or now for 
 the first time smitten by the chai-ms of the damsel — consented 
 to obey the king, but resolved first to prove himself worthy of his 
 bride by unheard-of exploits against the floors and the emperor 
 of Germany. In these wars it was that he earned the title of 
 Cid, five Moorish kings submitting at one time to him as their 
 lord or seid. There is a bombastic account how he won the city 
 of Calahorra for his lord by overcoming in single combat the 
 champion of the king of Arragon, who preferred a claim to it. 
 But the portion of the Cid's life which belongs to authentic his- 
 tory, may be said to commence with the death of Ferdinand, who, 
 unwisely resohnng to bequeath sovereign power to each of his 
 children, left the kingdom of Castile to his son, Sancho II., Leon 
 to Alfonso VI., and Galicia to Garcia; while his daughter Urraca 
 received the city of Zamora, and her sister Elvira that of Toro. 
 Sancho, the most able and powerful of the three, aided by the 
 sword of Rodrigo, soon drove both his brothers from their pos- 
 sessions ; but in attempting to seize upon Zamora, the heritage 
 of his sister, he was assassinated, and Rodrigo now owned as 
 lord-paramount his brother Alfonso. But, as the story goes on 
 to relate, so solemnly did Rodrigo challenge his sovereign to 
 swear that he was guiltless of his brother's death, that the king 
 was visibly agitated, and never afterwards regarded the Cid with 
 favour. On some pretext — which the ambition of the courtiers 
 could readily furnish — the Cid was banished from the kingdom. 
 He betook himself first to Barcelona, and then to Saragossa, 
 aUjring himself with the Jloorish king, Almuctaman. There is 
 no doubt that, at this time, Rodrigo was the chieftain of a 
 powerful band of waniors, whose alliance was eagerly sought 
 by any prince who might have a cause, good or bad, to 
 maintain by arms. On the death of Almuctaman, Rodrigo 
 became anxious to. return to Castile, and his aid was welcome 
 to King Alfonso, who, just then, was engaged in war with 
 Jussef, the emperor of Jloroeco. But a second time the malice 
 of courtiers, or the smouldering jealousy of the king, led to his 
 being forced to fly the kingdom — his wife and children being 
 seized, and only Uberated after some time. Again his aid was 
 sought in the hour of need, and again was he driven away by 
 the jealousy of King AHbnso. The fugitive found an asylum in 
 the kingdom of Valencia, where he fortified the castle of Pinna- 
 catel, and renewed his alliance with the king of Saragossa. 
 His first care, when he found himself again powerful, was to be 
 avenged on his old foe, the count of Naxera; but, having 
 become rich with the booty of a successful expedition, he turned 
 his attention to the city of Valencia, then in a state of great 
 distress under the rule of the Arabs. The iloorish king, Hiaya, 
 had been assassinated in a domestic revolution ; and Rodrigo, 
 seeing that the time was favourable, laid siege to the place, and, 
 after an obstinate resistance, became master of it. According to 
 the Ai-ab chronicles, the victory was stained by the most san- 
 guinary ferocity ; but the Spanish story extols the clemency and 
 
 moderation of the Cid on this occasion. Probably the adminis- 
 tration of Rodrigo was marked by a military sternness which 
 might well account for the indignation of the vanquished. But 
 we can gather, that, for the five years from this conquest, till 
 his death (1084-1089) he ruled beneficently and justly — in 
 striking contrast with the habits of his predecessors. He 
 repelled the attempts of the iloorish king to recover his terri- 
 tory, and strengthened himself by various additions to the 
 dominions he had won. Over the history of his later years, 
 there is the same veil of fiction which hides his earlier davs. 
 We gather, however, that wheu he became powerful, he renewed 
 his alUance with Kmg Alfonso, and sent for his wife. Dona 
 Ximena, and his daughters. Dona Elvira and Doiia Sol. It 
 would seem that this first-named lady, celebrated as his faithful 
 companion through his later years, was not his first love, of 
 whom we have already made mention, but a second wife, the 
 daughter or niece of the King Alfonso. The chronicle and the 
 old ballads relate with great pathos the matrimonial adventures of 
 the two daughters of the Cid — how they were sought in mar- 
 riage by the two counts of Carrion, who brutally ill-treated and 
 forsook them — and how the offenders were summoned before the 
 Cortes, made to disgorge the dowry they had thus disgracefully 
 obtained, and deservedly punished, ilore historically interesting 
 is the fact, that the two daughters of the Cid, Christina, manied 
 to the Infanta Ramiro of Navarre, and Maria, married to 
 Ramon Berenguer III., count of Barcelona, are reckoned among 
 the ancestors of the present royal families both of Spain and 
 Germany, ilention is also made of a son, who died young. 
 The death of the Cid took place in 1099, and, soon after this 
 event, the Moors, freed from the terror of his name, recovered 
 possession of the territory of Valencia. The remains of the Cid 
 were interred in the convent of San Pedro de Cardena at Burgos. 
 They were afterwards removed in 1272 by Alfonso the Wise, 
 and again in 1147, in loll, and 1736, to various places. They 
 were again disturbed by the French in 1809, but in 1826 they 
 were restored to their original shrme at San Pedro de Cardena. 
 It is impossible to enumerate the various dramatic works 
 founded on the life of the Cid. For the English reader, the 
 best authorities are Southey's Chronicle of the Cid, and a small 
 work entitled The Cid, by George Denis. The chronicle may 
 be read in the original, edited with more than German learning 
 and zeal, by Professor Huber of Berlin (Marburg, 1844). This 
 edition is dedicated to the then reigning emperor of Austria, him- 
 self a descendant of the Cid. The Poema del Cid is also carefully 
 edited by Ochoa, Paris, 1842 ; and of the ballads, the best speci- 
 mens may be fovmd in Dm-an's Romancero General. — F. il. W. 
 
 CIECO, Feaxcesco, one of the first gi-eat organists on record. 
 Phillip Villani, who flourished about the year 1343, and who 
 lived till 1408, among the fives of illustrious Florentuies, 
 chiefly of his o^vn times, says — " JIany are the Florentines who 
 have rendered themselves memorable by the art of music ; but 
 aU those of former times have been far surpassed by Francesco 
 Cieco, who still lives, and who during childhood was deprived of 
 sight by the small-pox. He was the son of Jacopo, a Floren- 
 tine painter of great probity and simplicity of manners ; and, 
 being arrived at adolescence, and beginning to be sensible of the 
 misery of blindness, in order to diminish the horror of perpetual 
 night he began in a childish manner to sing: but advancing 
 towards maturity, and becoming more and more captivated with 
 mijsic, he began seriously to study it as an art — first by learning 
 to sing, and afterwards by applying himself to the practice 
 of instruments, particularly the organ, which he soon played, 
 without ever ha\nng seen the keys, in so masterly and sweet a 
 manner as astonished the hearer. Indeed his superiority was 
 soon acknowledged so unanimously, that by the common consent 
 of all the musicians of his time, he was pul)licly honoured at 
 Venice with the laurel crown for his performance on the organ 
 before the king of Cyprus and the duke of Venice, in the manner 
 of a poet-laureate." Cieco died at Florence in 1390, and was 
 buried in the church of St. Lawrence with gi-eat state. — E. F. R. 
 
 CIEXFUEGOS, NicAsio Alvarez de, a Spanish poet and 
 political writer, born at Madrid, A.D. 1764. He studied at 
 Salamanca, and afterwards lived a retired life at ^Ladrid for some 
 time. His poetical works consist of two plays, entitled " Zoroeda " 
 and the " Condesa de Castilla," several odes to pcxce, to spring, 
 to Nice, and some others published after his death. Cienfuegos 
 after a while entered public life, and was employed in the office 
 of the chief secretary of state, and as editor of the Government
 
 Gazette. In this post lie remained until the invasion of the 
 French in May, 1808. An article appeared in the Gazette 
 unfavourable to the invader, and Cienfuegos was sent for by 
 Murat, bitterly reproached for his resistance to the conqueror of 
 the day, and sent a prisoner to France. He died in July, 1809, 
 at Ortez, soon after his arrival. So vehement was his anti- 
 Bonapartist feeling, that he suppressed an ode in which he had 
 praised the emperor for having respected the tomb of Virgil. 
 The poet, it would seem, felt that no homage to departed great- 
 ness could atone for the destruction of his country's liberty and 
 prosperity. — F. M. W. 
 
 CIFRA, Antonio, a musician, was born in the Roman 
 States in 1575, and died at Loretto before 16.38. He was a 
 pupil of Palestrina and of Bernardo Nanino. His first engage- 
 ment was at the German college in Rome. In 1610 he was 
 appointed maestro di capella at Loretto ; he left this place to 
 fulfil the same office at the church of S. Giovanni di Lateran in 
 1620 ; he entered the service of the Archduke Charles, with 
 whom he went to Vienna in 1622 ; and he returned to Loretto 
 in 1629, to be reinstated in his former appointment, and there 
 remained till his death. He wrote a very great number of 
 masses, motets, and works in every other form of church music, 
 including a series of antiphones for every day in the year; these 
 are reputed as admirable specimens of the severe Roman school. 
 After the death of Cifra, A. Poggioli published two hundi-ed 
 of his compositions undin- the title of Ten Concerti Ecclesiastici ; 
 this collection is dated 1638.— G. A. M. 
 
 CIGNA, Giovanni Francesco, an Italian anatomist, author 
 of several dissertations on electricity, was born at Mondovi in 
 1734, and died in 1790. He was professor of anatomy in the 
 university of Turin, and was one of the founders of the Academy 
 of Sciences of that city. — J. S., G. 
 
 CIGNANI, Count Carlo : this painter was burn at 
 Bologna in 1628. He was the descendant of an honourable 
 family, and his first efforts in the way of art were in attempting 
 copies of the pictures in his father's gallery. He was then 
 placed in the school of Battista Cairo ; subsequently he studied 
 under and became a disciple of Francesco Albano. Of a modest 
 and anxious disposition, and always depreciating his own worth, 
 he nevertheless possessed much original talent, could think 
 for himself when he dared, and even eventually founded a style 
 of his own. It had Carracciesque elements certainly, but it 
 was original nevertheless. He revelled in grand flowing drawing, 
 in elevated and noble heads, in broad and gorgeous folds and 
 draperies, and in a harmony of colours, rich yet strong, mellow 
 but intense. He was very careful of general effect, and his 
 details were most painstakingly wrought out. After \'isiting 
 Rome, and working for some of the churches there, he returned 
 to Bologna; and in the employ of Cardinal Farnese he painted 
 his " Entry of Pope Paul III. into Bologna," and his Francis 
 passing into that city, for the grand saloon of the palace of the 
 cardinal. He was the founder of the Clementine academy at 
 Bologna, and by the diploma of Pope Clement XL, he was 
 placed at its head. He was soon after appointed to decorate 
 the cupola in the church of La Jladonna del Fuoco at Forli. On 
 this prodigious work he was occupied for above twenty years ; 
 and so great was the respect and love of his acadeiny for him, 
 that they moved bodily to and held their seances at Forli, to be 
 near their founder, and receive the full benefit of his superm- 
 tendence and counsel. Cardinal San Cesareo, passing through 
 Forli, desired to possess a work of Cignani's, and purchased an 
 "Adam and Eve" which the painter had by him, and wrought at 
 leisurely for his own delectation. The cardinal bought the work 
 for five hundred pistoles, saying, that he gave that sum for the 
 canvass ; for the painting, he could only give his thanks, it being 
 beyond pecuniary price. This picture, a work of extraordinary 
 beauty, was some few years back in England, and for sale. It 
 is now in the possession of the king of Hulland. Cignani lost 
 much time in cross-examining his own success. His facility 
 was strangely fettered by his want of confidence. Yet he has 
 left many and important works, and his name is a star of some 
 magnitude in art's heavenly host. At Bologna he painted the 
 "Nativity" in the church of S. Giorgio ; in S. Lucia the "Virgin 
 and Child," with saints ; in S. Michele fom- sacred subjects, 
 oval shaped, supported by angels of exquisite beauty. Next the 
 Palazzo Zambecan-i he painted a " Samson," very grandiose and 
 noble ; and in the collection of the duke of Devonshire there is 
 a duplicate work of "Joseph's Temptation" — the original being in 
 
 the palazzo Arnaldi at Florence — a very fine composition, with 
 beauty in its drawing, and vigour in its colour. For a monastery 
 of Piacenza he painted the "Conception of the Virgin." " Robed 
 in white,"^ says Lanzi, "Mary is seen bruising the serpent's 
 head — while in gorgeous purple, her son stands with an air of 
 dignity and gi-ace, his foot placed upon that of his mother." 
 His " Birth of the Virgin," at Urbino, was treated in so poetic a 
 spuit as to incur censure. He died in 1719. — W. T. 
 
 CIGNANI, Felice: this painter, the son and scholar of Carlo, 
 was born at Bologna in 1660, and died in 1724. He was one 
 of the few disciples who adhered to the finished and unremunera- 
 tive method of their master. — W. T 
 
 CIGNANI, Paolo, the nephew and scholar of Carlo, also a 
 good painter, bom in 1709 ; died in 1764. — ^W. T. 
 
 CIGNAROLI, Giovanni Bettino : this accomplisbed 
 painter was born at Verona in 1706. He studied under Santo 
 Prunati at Venice ; subsequently he became a pupil of Antonio 
 Balestra. He attained to considerable eminence, and has been 
 ranked among the first painters of the modern Venetian school. 
 He painted with a serene and graceful manner, dignified in his 
 attitudes, and sober in his general composition. He had. an 
 ugly proneness to green shadows in his flesh, with a certain 
 coppery tone in places ; and he studied effect, rather than nature, 
 in his disposition of light. The Emperor Joseph II. was wont 
 to declare that he had seen two great sights in Verona — one the 
 amphitheatre, the other Cignaroli, the most accomplished painter 
 in Europe. He was a studious man, fond of philosophical 
 reading, relishing the Roman classics, and himself playing 
 prettily with Tuscan verse. He produced also treatises on the 
 fine arts, of great repute in their day. His finest work is his 
 " Flight into Eg^-pt," at the church of S. Antonio Abate at 
 Parma. He died in 1770. — AV. T. 
 
 CIGOLI. See Carol 
 
 CIMABUE, Giovanni : this illustrious artist was born in 
 the city of Florence, in the year 1240. At an early age he was 
 sent to Santa Maria Novella, to study letters under a relation 
 who was master in gi'ammar to the novices of that convent. 
 The young Cimabue did not prosper in his studies ; he neglected 
 his books all but the margins, which he adorned with multitudi- 
 nous devices ; and when certain Greek painters came to decorate 
 the chapel of the Gondi, situate next to the principal chapel of 
 the Santa Maria, he took every opportunity, legitimate or not, 
 of frequenting their society. Eventually he was taken into their 
 employment. He aided in the decoration of the convent walls, 
 and soon gave ample and astounding evidence of his genius. 
 Fame dawned upon him. He painted a picture for the altar 
 of Santa Cecilia, and of the Virgin in Santa Croce m Florence. 
 He produced a picture of " St. Francis " in panel, on a gold 
 ground, and then a large pictuj'e for the abbey of the Santa 
 Trinitii. He was gradually emancipating art. He still clove 
 to gold grounds ; still something of the mosaic maimer clung 
 to his work. But the shai-p angles began to disappear, and the 
 hard lines to melt. He painted a colossal crucifix on wood for 
 the church of Santa Croce so successfully, as to obtain a com- 
 mission to paint a picture of " San Francesco" for the church of 
 that saint at Pisa. For the same church he also produced a 
 large picture of the Virgin with the Infant in her arms, sur- 
 rounded by angels. He acquired a wide repute by these labours, 
 and received an invitation to decorate the church of St. Francis 
 at Assisi. He here so far surpassed the Greek painters working 
 with him, that he proceeded alone to paint the upper church in 
 fresco. This was a work of amazing labom", which he was 
 obliged to leave incomplete, being recalled to Florence by private 
 affairs. Many years after, Giotto's pencil put the finishing 
 stroke to the work of Cimabue. Returned to his native city, 
 he next painted in the cloister of Santo Spirito. At the 
 same time he sent some of his works executed in Florence 
 to Empoli, where they were preserved for some centuries with 
 great veneration. He next painted the picture of the "Virgin" 
 for the chm-ch of Santa Maria Novella. This work created an 
 extraordinary popular enthusiasm. It was earned in procession, 
 amidst trumpetings and acclamations of all sorts, from the house 
 of the painter to the church. It is reported that the studio of 
 the artist was visited, while this work was on the easel, by King 
 Charles the Elder, of Anjou, who was passing tlu'ough Florence. 
 Cimabue had now reached a high name and great wealth. He 
 had been appointed, m conjunction with Ai-nolfo Lapi, to super- 
 intend the building of the church of Santa Maria del Fiore in
 
 CLM 
 
 1041 
 
 CBI 
 
 Florence. His repute had reached its zenith — he was crowned 
 with all earthly honours. He died in the year 1300, "having 
 achieved," says Vasari, " little less than the resurrection of 
 painting from the dead." He left many pupils, the most cele- 
 brated being Giotto, whose greatness and whose art-tastes, 
 bringing him nearer the views of more modem critics, have 
 possibly done something towards diminishing the glory of 
 Cimabne. An Italian critic, writing a few years after the 
 painter's death, remarks of him, " He knew more of the noble 
 art than any other man. He was so arrogant and proud, withal, 
 that if any discovered a fault in his work, or if he perceived 
 one himself (as will often happen to the artist who fails, from the 
 defects in the materials that he uses, or from insufficiency of the 
 instrument with which he works), he would instantly destroy 
 that work, however costly it might be." The portrait of 
 Cimabue is in the chapter of Santa JIaria Novella, painted by 
 Simon of Siena. Few of the remains of Cimabue give any fair 
 criterion of his genius. Decay is rendering his great influence 
 upon art Uttle more than traditionaL That his repute was very 
 great in his time ; that, dating from him, all that is beautiful 
 and noble in art fairly commences ; that his immediate succes- 
 sors paid him the greatest homage — all these testify to the 
 eminence of the painter. Cimabue painted in fresco and dis- 
 temper, oU not being in his time employed as a medium. — W. T. 
 
 CDIAROSA, DoMEXico, a musician, was born at Aversa in 
 the kingdom of Naples, December 17, 1749, and died at Venice, 
 January 11, 1801. His father was a mason, who, obtaining 
 employment in the erecting of the royal palace at Naples, 
 removed to that city during the infancy of Domenico. There 
 he set np his abode in a miserable dwelling in the neighbour- 
 hood of his occupation, which was conriguous to the church of 
 S. Severe; and his vrife was engaged as laundress to the 
 fathers of the convent connected with this establishment. 
 Domenico was sent to a free school belonging to the convent, 
 where he showed uncommon aptitude for such limited instme- 
 tion as the place aflbrded ; but the death of his father, by a fall 
 from the building on which he was at work, before the completion 
 of the boy's seventh year, led to an important change in his 
 prospects. Padre Polcano, the organist of the convent — partly 
 from compassion for the extreme indigence of the widow, 
 partly from interest in the abUity of the son — took Domenico 
 under his particular care, for the purpose of advancing his 
 education. In his hours of lebure this worthy man found his 
 chief pleasure in music; and it was in listening to his playing 
 on the harpischord in his cell, that the remarkable genius of 
 the young Cimarosa received its first impetus. Perceiving the 
 indications of unusual musical talent in his little client, the 
 monk began to teach him his favourite art, for which he was 
 repaid by his satisfaction at the boy's rapid progress. The 
 statement appears to be incorrect that Aprili was at any time 
 Cimarosa's master ; the reverend convent organist taught him 
 entirely until the year 1761, and then made successful interest 
 for his admission into the conservatorio of S. Maria di Loretto. 
 Here he successively studied under JIanna (afterwards organist 
 at the cathedral at Naples), Antonio Sacchini, and finaUy 
 Feneroli, from whom he learnt composition according to the 
 principles of Durante. He derived also great advantage from 
 the counsels of the famous Nicolo Piccini, whose attention was 
 drawn to him by the manifestation of his talent, and who 
 regarded him with the kindliest feeling of friendship. This 
 master was the first who comprehended a long continuous 
 dramatic action in an unbroken piece of music, constituting the 
 extensive finale of an opera ; and from his personal advice no less 
 than from his example, Cimarosa acquired the art of construc- 
 tion in this form of composition which, more than anything else, 
 ^ves dignity and importance to theatrical music. 
 
 Cimarosa began his public career with an opera called " Le Stra- 
 vaganze del Conte," which was produced at the Teatro dei Fioren- 
 tini in Naples in 1772, with success, which was due entirely to the 
 merit of the music, since it had the disadvantage of an extremely 
 weak hbretto. Happier in the choice of his next poem, the young 
 composer more than confirmed the good impression of his first 
 essay, when in the following year he brought out another opera, 
 from the reception of which his reputation rose so high, that he 
 was now engaged to write as rapidly as his wonderfully fertile 
 invention could produce ; and a long succession of his operas 
 obtained paramount popularity in all the theatres of Italy. 
 " U Fanatico per gli antichi Eomani," produced at Naples, 1777, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 is said to have been the earliest dramatic work in which Piccini's 
 piinciples of construction were transferred from the finale to 
 duets and trios, and in which the whole of the acrion was thus 
 embodied in music, instead of the music bemg, as in the earlier 
 lyrical dramas, a series of episodical arias and other pieces that, 
 at most, illustrated the scenic situation, without aiding in the 
 progress of the drama. Cimarosa was invited to all the chief 
 cities to write for their theatres ; his singular fecundity made 
 him ever ready with new ideas, the sjwntaneons freshness of 
 which is intrinsic evidence of his natural facility of production, 
 and of this his rapidity, and the great number of his works, afford 
 equally striking proof. One of his most brilliant successes was 
 " H Convito di Pietra," produced at Venice in 1781 ; after the first 
 performance of which, the audience formed a procession to escort 
 the composer to his home, with many hundred flambeaux — the 
 subject being the same as that of Don Giovanni, and the frequent 
 comparison that has been made between the genius of Cimarosa 
 and Mozart, point particular attention to this remarkable 
 triumph. " n Sacrifizio d'Abramo" (an aria from which stUl 
 holds its place in the programmes of classical concerts in 
 London), seems to have been produced at Naples about 1786. 
 On the return of Pxsiello to Naples in 1785, from an engage- 
 ment of nine years at the court of Petersburg, the Empress 
 Catherine II. wished his equally distmguished townsman 
 Cimarosa to replace him, and made him liberal offers accord- 
 ingly to visit the Piussian capital ; it was not, however, till 
 1789 that he made up his mind to accept these proposals. In 
 this year he started by sea on his way to his new engagement, 
 but was obliged by a tempest to put in at Leghorn. This 
 accident brought him imder the notice of the duke of Tuscany, 
 who innted him to his palace, where he paid him the highest 
 honours, singing several of his compositions at a concert, he 
 appointed him to direct ; and dismissed him with costly presents 
 to himself and his wife. Proceeding to Austria, the traveller 
 was inconvenienced by the confiscation of his baggage at the 
 cnstom-house ; his reputation, however, drew friends around 
 him in this dUemma, and procured him the restitution of his 
 property. He then went to Vienna, and was received with 
 mai-ked distinction at the court, and the emperor personally 
 made gifts of valuable jewellery to his wife and hunself. He 
 arrived at Petersburg in the December of this year, and was at 
 once installed as director of the imperial opera, and chamber 
 musician to the empress. Dming his residence in Russia, he 
 wrote four operas, a cantata, and an immense number of 
 detached compositions; and he was there loaded with such 
 honours as only iluscovite munificence confers on an artist, the 
 chief of which was that the Emperor Paul I. officiated as 
 godfather to one of his children. The poor mason's son was 
 now elevated, through the exercise of his genius, to the greatest 
 eminence a commoner can enjoy ; his merit acknowledged 
 throughout Em-ope, and himself signaUzed by the kindliest 
 courtesies of the greatest potentate. The brealdng out of the 
 war with Russia, in the course of the tliird year of his stay, 
 brought, however, this period of his career to a summary close. 
 Though the opera was dismembered, Cimarosa received propos;Us 
 to remain in a private appointment at the coiul ; the excitement 
 of a life before the pubUc had, however, become necessary to 
 him, added to which his health was impaired by the severity of 
 the clunate, which contrasted too strongly with the genial tem- 
 perature of his native land ; and he therefore quitted Russia in 
 1792. He now went to fill the post of director of the court 
 opera at Vienna, where he produced the work which had a 
 success, not only greater than any other of Cimarosa's, but scarcely 
 paralleled in the annals of the lyric stage— the work, moreover, 
 which has held its place permanently in pubhc favour through 
 all the variations of taste till the present day. This was " II 
 Matrimonio Segreto," which, on the first night of its performance, 
 so enraptured the audience that the emperor, wlio was one of 
 them, commanded the repetition of the entire opera on the same 
 evening. In 1793, upon the accession of the Emperor Francis, 
 Salieri was reinstated in the office he had left, when Cimarosa 
 was appointed to it, who, however, resigned it under most 
 honourable circumstances, receiring a costly present fi-om the 
 emperor, and leaving the memory of his remarkable success. 
 Returning to Naples, Cimarosa there reproduced, with some 
 additions" " II Matrimonio Segreto." which was there performed for 
 a greater number of successive nights than any other opera has 
 been in an ItaUan city, where the nightly-repeated visits of the 
 
 6Q
 
 CIM 
 
 1042 
 
 CIN 
 
 same audiences to the theatre, make a more frequent change 
 in the entertainment, than in our large metropolis, eminently 
 desirable, if not imperatively necessary. He brought out " Gli 
 Orazii e Cuiiazii" at Venice in 1794, an opera interesting to us 
 on account of its long popularity in this country, and on account 
 of our famous Braham having been the original representative 
 of its principal character. In the political troubles that dis- 
 turbed Naples towards the close of the last century, Cimarosa so 
 far compromised himself with the revolutionaiy party, that upon 
 the re- establishment of royal authority he was thrown into prison, 
 and there remained for more than a year under sentence of death, 
 which is said to have been remitted in consideration of his artistic 
 distinction. It may be remarked, that his Neapolitan biographers 
 make no mention of Cimarosa's mdiscreet interference in politics ; 
 but speak of his twelve months' absence from public life as a retire- 
 ment for the benefit of his health. Upon his release in 1800, 
 he went to Venice, where he completed one opera, which was suc- 
 cessfully produced, and was engaged upon another, Artemisia, 
 which death prevented him from finishing. The belief was preva- 
 lent that he died from poison, secretly administered to him by order 
 of the Neapolitan government, which, though deeming it impolitic 
 to bring a man of such universal popularity to public execution 
 for his state oifence, would not suffer one who had made open 
 profession of republicanism to pass impmiished. So greatly was 
 the government scandalized by the cun-ency of this report, that 
 it became necessaiy to issue officially a certificate of Piccioli, the 
 physician to the court and to the pope, stating that he died from 
 an internal tumour, which, however, obtained very little credence. 
 In the September following his death, a magnificent fimeral 
 solemnity for the repose of his soul was celebrated at the church 
 of S. Carlo dei Cattinari in Eome, at the instigation of Cardinal 
 Ercole Consalvi, where the entire music was the composition of 
 Cimarosa, for the performance of which, all the ailists of the city, 
 and many from distant states, gave their gratuitous services, as 
 an act of homage to his memoiy. In 1816, the same cardinal 
 had a monument to the composer, the work of Canova, erected in 
 the rotunda of the church of S. Jlaria ad Jlartyres. Cimarosa 
 was twice manied ; his second wife bore him two sons. 
 
 Cimarosa wrote, witliin eight-and-twenty years, nearly ninety 
 operas, many masses, and other works for the church, several 
 sacred cantatas, and an incalculable number of detached pieces, 
 to particularize which would far exceed the present Hmits. He 
 lived at a most important epoch in the history of dramatic music, 
 when the opera had assumed its present ascendancy in all the 
 theatres of his country, and when these sent forth their creative 
 and executive artists into all the capitals of Europe, to raise 
 temples to the national muse of Italy, and disseminate a feeling 
 for her worship; but the opera had yet to acquire that grandeur, 
 as a work of art, which it derives, not from its presentation of an 
 individual passion, but from its embodiment of a comprehensive 
 action, in which conflicting emotions and wide diversity of 
 character are involved ; and Cimarosa was one of the first to 
 develope this great essential of the lyrical drama, and thus to 
 raise his branch of the art to the elevation at which it now 
 flomishes. It has been, more than it is, a custom to compare 
 Cimarosa with Mozart ; and the parallel holds in respect to 
 their spontaneous fluency of thought and to their felicitous 
 application of the resom-ces of their art to the illustration of the 
 business of the scene : but these resources were widely different 
 at the disposal of the two masters; and though their works may 
 have some affinity in design, they are constituted of veiy dis- 
 similar elements. A more tnithful resemblance is to be traced 
 between the genius of Cimarosa and of his contemporaiy coun- 
 trymen, Pffisiello and Gughelmi, the former of whom certainly 
 ranks -n-ith him in excellence, but is distinguished from him by 
 the tender sentiment that stamps his music ; whereas that of 
 Cimarosa is marked rather by humom-, force of character, and 
 dramatic colouring. Though the majority of his operas have 
 comic subjects, and his best successes were with works of this 
 class, he was far from wanting in abifity for the treatment of 
 gi-aver themes, as is proved by the merit of his many tragic 
 works ; and, to sum up in one phrase his relationship to other 
 labourers in the same field, his writings form the link between 
 the ancient and modern schools of Italian music — between the 
 styles of Piccini and Pvossini.— G. A. M. 
 
 CIJIBER, L. TuLLius, one of the murderers of Cassar, 44 B.C. 
 He was near the person of the dictator on the fatal day, under 
 pretence of presenting a petition in favour of his exiled' brother. 
 
 After the murder he went to Bithynia, the province which had 
 been assigned him by CjEsar, and raised a fleet, with which he 
 co-operated with Cassius and Bratus. — J. S., G. 
 
 CIMON, one of the most famous Athenian statesmen and 
 generals, was the son of Miltiades, -idctor at Marathon, and 
 Hegesipyle, daughter of Olorus, king of Thrace, and was born 
 510 B.C. Cimon brought himself into notice on the invasion of 
 Greece by Xerxes ; but his first memorable exploit was the 
 capture of the important town of Eion on the Stiymon 476 B.C. 
 Boges, the Persian governor, after defending himself to the last 
 extremity, finding his provisions exhausted, threw his gold and 
 silver into the river, and consumed his wives and children and 
 himself on the same pile. Cimon then seems to have set him- 
 self to complete the overthrow of the Persian dominion in Europe, 
 by expelling then- remaining garrisons from the coasts and islands 
 of Greece. He seized the island of Scyros, expelled its piratical 
 inhabitants, and peopled it with Athenian settlers. But his 
 most brilliant success was at the Eurymedon in Pamphyha, 
 466 B.C., where he destroyed a large Persian fleet, then disem- 
 barked his men, defeated the army wliich was drawn up on 
 shore to protect the ships, and finally entrapped and destroyed 
 a squadi-on of Phenician ships which was on its way to reinforce 
 the Persians. He took an immense booty and many prisoners, 
 dislodged the enemy fi'om the entire coast of Thrace, and thrust 
 them back to the regions eastward of Phaselis. As the leader 
 of the oligarchy, Cimon was now for some years the most powerful 
 citizen in Athens ; but the democratic party, headed by Pericles, 
 gradually gained ground upon their rivals, and at length taking 
 advantage of the insulting manner in which the Spartans dis- 
 missed a body of Athenian troops under Cimon, who had been 
 sent to their aid in suppressing an insuiTection of the Helots, 
 the partisans of Pericles succeeded in procuring by ostracism a 
 sentence of banishment against Cimon for ten years, 461 B.C. 
 After the unsuccessful battle of Tanagra, however, 467 B.C., 
 in which he was not allowed to take part though he entreated 
 permission to fight in the ranks, he was recalled by a decree 
 proposed by Pericles himself, apparently under the impulse 
 of generous sympathy and patriotic feeling. In 450 a peace 
 was concluded between Athens and Sparta, mainly through the 
 influence of Cimon, and next year the war with Persia was 
 renewed at his instance. He set saU for Cypnjs with a fleet ot 
 two hundred triremes, and laid siege to Citium. Here he died 
 either from illness or from the effects of a wound. Cimon was 
 noted for his open-hearted manner, convivial habits, and gener- 
 ous disposition. He spent the large fortune he had acquired by 
 his successful expeditions, with unsparing liberality, in decorating 
 and providing for the defence of his native city, and in enter- 
 taining the poorer citizens. His great policy was to maintain 
 the unity of the Grecian states, and to carry on incessant war 
 against the Persian monarchy. — J. T. 
 
 CIMON OF Cleox.^, a Greek painter of doubtful date, who 
 is reckoned the first painter who adopted foreshortening. He 
 flourished probably before 460 B.C. — J. S., G. 
 
 CINADON, the leader of a conspiracy against the Spartan 
 oligarchy, who was put to death in 397 B.C. 
 
 CINCINNATO, PiOMOi.o : this painter was bom at Flor- 
 ence about the year 1525. He was a pupil of Francesco 
 Salviati; and in 1567, on the invitation of Philip II., he pro- 
 ceeded to Spain, and was employed in the decoration of the 
 Escurial. He painted part of the great cloister in fresco, and 
 in the chm-ch of St. Lorenzo two subjects representing St. Jerome 
 reading and preaching to his followers, and also two frescos of 
 St. Lorenzo. He painted " The Circumcision " in the church of 
 the Jesuits at Cuen9a, and some mythological subjects in the 
 palace of the duke del Infantado at Guadalaxara. He died in 
 1600. — His two sons, Diego and Francesco, both achieved 
 fair reputations as portrait painters. They studied under their 
 father. Diego was sent to Rome by Philip IV. to paint for that 
 monarch a portrait of Pope Urban VIII., who highly applauded 
 the painter, knighted him, and decorated him with a gold chain 
 and medal. Diego died in 1626; Francesco in 1635. — W. T. 
 
 CINCINNATUS, Lucius Quintius, a famous Koman consul, 
 and a model of integrity and simplicity of manners, was born 
 about 519 B.C. In 460 B.C. he was chosen consul in the room 
 of P. Valerius; and when the messengers went to announce his 
 election they found him cultivating his farm with his own hands. 
 Soon after, in 458 B.C., he was called again to leave his rural 
 employment and assume the office of dictator, in consequence of
 
 CIN 
 
 1043 
 
 CIR 
 
 the perilous position in which the Roman consul and army had 
 been placed by the JEqnl He rescued the amiy, inflicted a 
 signal defeat upon the enemy, and then returned' to his fann, 
 after holding the dictatorship for only sixteen days. He was a 
 second time appointed dictator at the age of 80 (b.c. 439), for 
 the purpose of suppressing the alleged seditious machinations of 
 Sp. Maelius. A story is told of Cincinnatus having been reduced 
 to poverty by paj-ing a fine imposed upon his son Ca3sa ; but it 
 is rejected by Niebuhr as a mere fabrication. — (_Tit. Liv., lib. 
 iii. & iv. ; Nieb. Home, vol. ii. p. 286.) — J. T. 
 
 CINCIUS ALhMEXTUS. See Alimentus. 
 
 CINEAS, a famous Thessalian orator, the friend and minister 
 of Pyn-hus, king of Epirus. He was the most eloquent man of 
 his day, and Pp-rhus was wont to say that "the words of Cineas 
 had won him more towns than all his own armies." He was no 
 less celebrated for the vivacity of his conversation, and many of 
 his bon mots and repartees have been preserved by the classical 
 writers. He was a strenuous advocate of peace with the Romans, 
 and was sent to Rome with proposals for a treaty after the battle 
 of Heraclea, 280 b.c. Two years later Cineas was sent a second 
 time to negotiate a peace, but without effect. He appears to 
 have died soon after. — J. T. 
 
 CINELLI, Calvolu Giovanni, bom at Florence in 1625, 
 and died at Loreto in 1 706. He practised medicine, and after 
 seeking to establish himself in more than one locality, returned 
 to Florence. Through ]\Iagliabecchi he obtained access to the 
 librai-y of the grand duke, and employed himself in cataloguing 
 pamphlets and rare books. He printed sixteen parts of his 
 catalogue imder the title of " Biblioteca Volante." It was con- 
 tinued to twenty parts by Scanzani, who republished the whole 
 in four volumes, quarto, Venice, 1734. — J. A., D. 
 
 CINESIAS, a dithyrambic poet of Athens, who owes his 
 celebrity to the ridicule with which he was treated by Aristo- 
 phanes and other comic poets. — J. S., G. 
 
 CIXGETORIX, a chief of the Gauls in the district of Trevisi 
 (Treves), who revolted to the Romans and fought against his 
 own father-in-law, Indutiomarus, the leader of the patriotic party. 
 On the death of that chief and the defeat of his tribe, Cmgeto- 
 rix was appointed his successor by Ctesar. — J. T. 
 
 CIXNA, Caius Helvius : the date of his birth is unknown. 
 His death occurred on the day of Julius Caesar's funeral, 44 B.C. 
 He was mistaken by the mob for Cornelius China, one of the 
 conspirators who had slain Ca;sar, and was murdered by them. 
 Cinna was a poet — the friend of Catullus. His name is also 
 mentioned by Virgil. Of Cinna's verses some eight or nine 
 lines remain, being found in accidental quotations. Two Ihies, 
 not ungi-aceful, are preserved by Servius: — 
 
 Te matutinus flontem conspexit Eous, 
 
 Et flentem paulo vidit post Hesperus idem. 
 
 These lines are from an epic poem entitled Smyrna, the name of 
 which we learn from Catullus, but what the subject of the poem 
 was, remains tmknown. — J. A., D. 
 
 CINXA, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman patrician, an associate 
 of JIarius, and the leader of the popular party dming the absence 
 of Sulla in the east. In 86 b.c. he was elected consul along 
 with Cn. Octavius, and in violation of his oath to Sulla he 
 attempted to ovei-power the senate, and to procure the recall of 
 Marias and his party from banishment. In the contest which 
 ensued he was defeated by his colleague and driven from the 
 city. His office thus became vacant, and the senate appointed 
 another consul in his room. He soon returned, however, along 
 mth Marius, and laid siege to Rome. The senate were forced 
 to capitulate ; but while the votes of the people were being taken 
 for the repeal of the sentence against Marius, he broke into the 
 city, massacred the friends of Sulla, and allowed his partisans to 
 commit the most frightful excesses. — (See JIarius.) For the 
 next three years Cinna was consul ; but Sulla, ha^-ing brought 
 the Jlithridatic war to a close, resolved (84 B.C.) to return to 
 Italy in order to inflict condign punishment on his enemies. 
 Cinna prepared to resist him by force of arms, but was slain by 
 his o^\^l troops in a mutiny caused by the orders he had given, 
 that they should cross over from Italy to Greece, where he 
 intended to encounter Sulla. — J. T. 
 
 CIXNA^IUS, Joannes, one of the most distinguished of the 
 Byzantine historians, lived under the Emperor Slanuel Com- 
 nenus, in the second half of the twelfth century, and wrote the 
 history of Manuel, and of his father, Ciilo-Joannes, in six 
 
 books. The work was edited by Du Cange, Pains, 1G70, folio; 
 and by Meineke, Bonn, 1836. — J. S., G. 
 
 CIXQ-JIARS, Henri Coiffier de Ruz£, Marquis de, was 
 bom in 1G20. At the age of eighteen he was presented at 
 court by Richelieu, and soon grew into favour -n-ith the king, 
 Louis XIII. Already master of the horse, he chafed at the 
 restraint under which Richelieu kept hun, and eagerly longed for 
 political power. His ambition soon compassed his ruin. He 
 framed a conspkacy to overthrow the cardinal, of which the 
 king and Gaston, duke of Orleans, liis brother, were members. 
 But Louis was weak and fickle, Eustace perfidious, and Richelieu 
 not the man to be put down by a youth just turned of twenty. 
 Cinq-JIars was delivered up to Richelieu, and beheaded at Lyons, 
 along with his friend De Thou, a young counsellor, on the 12th 
 of September, 1642.— R. M., A. 
 
 CINTRA, GoNZALOs de, a Portuguese na\-igator who lived 
 in the first half of the fifteenth cent«ry. He distinguished him- 
 self at Ceuta in the gi-eat African expedition of John I., and 
 acquired great celebrity by taking part in various exploring voyages 
 along the coast of Africa. A gulf in that coast bears his name. 
 His ship was attacked by the blacks at the isle of Arguin, and 
 Cintra and many of his men were killed in 1445. — J. T. 
 
 CIOFAXO, Ercole, a noted Italian scholar, author of a life 
 of Ovid, and of a commentary on the Metamorphoses, which 
 has been highly prized by subsequent editors, was bom at Salmo 
 in the beginning of the sixteenth centmy. — J. S., G. 
 
 CIOXE, Andrea di. See Orcagna. 
 
 CIPRIAXI, Giovanni Battista: this celebrated artist was 
 born in Florence about the year 1727. He was descended from 
 a family of Pistoja. He is stated to have foi-med his style by 
 studying the works of Antonio Domenico Gabbiani, a Florentine 
 painter, then lately dead. His first pictui'es of any note were two 
 altarpieces for the abbey of St. Michael at Pelago — one of " St. 
 Thesaurus," the other of " St. Gregoiy VII." These are the 
 more valuable from the fact of the limited number of Cipriani's 
 paintings. In 1750 he was in Rome, where he studied for 
 some two or three years. Thence he proceeded to England in 
 company with Sir William Chambers and Mr. WUton. When 
 the duke of Richmond opened a gallery for studving the antique 
 at his house in Whitehall, he appointed Cipriani professor of 
 drawing, and Wilton supei-intendent of the modelling and sta- 
 tuary. This scheme was but short-lived ; still it was one of the 
 foundation stones of that more permanent edifice, the Royal 
 Academy. Cipriani was one of the twenty-two artists who 
 signed the petition to George III. for the institution of the 
 academy, and was employed to make the design for the diploma 
 given to the academicians and associates on their election. For 
 his labours, the academy awarded him a silver cup " as an 
 acknowledgment for the assistance the academy received from 
 his great abilities in his profession." It is difficult to define 
 how much of the fame of Cipriani may rest upon the charm- 
 ing interpretations given of him by Bartolozzi ; but it would 
 seem that the flow and grace of the painter were eminently 
 adapted to the spirit and dexterous delicacy of the engraver. 
 Each appears to have aided and supported, and given value to the 
 work of the other. Cipriani was greatly patronized in his d.ay. 
 He was employed on the restoration of the Rubens ceilings to 
 \\Tiitehall chapel ; also on the paintings of Venio at \\'indsor. 
 He painted the compartments of a ceiling in the antique style 
 at Buckingham House. He decorated with ])oetical subjects a 
 room in the house of Sir AVilliam Young at Standlinch in Wilt- 
 shire. Some of his pictures were in the collection of 5Ir. Coke 
 at Holkham, and four are in the ceiling of the library of the 
 Royal Academy. But his fame will probably rest ultimately 
 almost altogether upon his drawings, as engraved by Bartolozzi. 
 Fuseli renders high homage to Cipriani, both as a painter .and a 
 man, when he says — "The fertility of his invention, the graces of 
 his composition, and the seductive elegance of his fonns, were 
 only surp.asscd by the probity of his character, the simplicity of 
 his manners, and the benevolence of his heart." He died on 
 the 14th December, 1785, and was interred in the cemetery at 
 Chelsea. He left two sons, one of whom, Pnii-ir, was a clerk 
 in the trcasuiy, .and died in 1821. — W. T. 
 
 CIPRI.\X6 DI Robe. See Rork. 
 
 CIRCIGXAXI, Antonio, was the son of Niccol6, and was 
 born in 1560, at Pomarance. He was the pupil and assistant 
 of his father, .and after his death, decorated by himself a chapel 
 at the Traspontina, another at the Consolazione, and painted also
 
 CIR 
 
 1044 
 
 CLA 
 
 for private collections. He spent the greater part of his life at 
 Citta di Castello, and painted there some of his best pictures. 
 Among these the most admired was " the Conception " at tlie 
 Conventuali. He returned to Eome in the pontificate of Urban 
 VIII., and was employed in several of the churches. He died 
 in 1620.— W. T. 
 
 CIRCIGNANI, Niccoi.6, called Dalle Pomarance or II 
 PoMAEANCio. This painter was born at Pomarance in Tus- 
 cany in 1516. He studied painting at Rome. His master is 
 supposed to have been Titi. He was employed in the pontificate 
 of Gregory XIII. in the gi-eat saloon of the Belvedere. He 
 grew old in Rome, s.iys Lanzi, and left there numerous speci- 
 mens of the labours of his pencil, which he employed with 
 freedom and at a good price. He showed himself superior to 
 the painters of his day in some of his works, as in the cupola of 
 S. Prudenziana. He died .about 1591.— W. T. 
 
 CIRILLO, DoMENico, in Latin Cyeillus, a Neapolitan 
 medical man, was born at Gragno in ITSi, and died at Naples 
 in 1799. In early youth he was elected to the chair of botany 
 on the death of Professor Pedillo. He travelled extensively, 
 visiting Germany, France, and Britain. He was elected a fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London, and received distinguished marks 
 of attention in Paris from Buifon, D'Alembert, and Diderot. He 
 became afterwards professor of medicine at Naples, but still 
 continued to prosecute botany, and to publish works on that 
 science. Towards the end of the eighteenth century he became 
 involved in political matters, and was elected by the people their 
 representative under the republic, and afterwards a member, and 
 president of the legislative assembly. He was afterwards put in 
 prison, and condemned to de.ath by Ferdinand, in spite of the 
 remonstrances of Admiral Lord Nelson. He appears to have 
 been a man of great intelligence, and to have possessed good 
 powers of obse:-vation. His botanical writings include an " In- 
 troduction to the Study of Botany ; " " Elementaiy Botanical 
 Plates ; " " An .account of the Plants of Naples ; " and a treatise 
 "On the Papyi-us." He also wrote "On the Insects of Naples ;" 
 " On the Manna of Calabria ;" " On the Rudiments of Nosology," 
 and "On the Tarantula."— J. H. B. 
 
 CISNER, Nicholas, a le.arned Lutheran, pupil of Bucer and 
 Jlelancthon, filled various chairs in the university of Heidelberg. 
 He was born at Mosbach in the palatinate in 1529, and died in 
 1583. His works, which are numerous and learned, consist of 
 dissertations on subjects of law, history, politics, and philology. 
 CISNEROS, Francisco Ximenez de. See Ximenez. 
 CITTADINI, Pier Francesco, called II Milanese. This 
 painter was born at Milan about 1616, and was educated in the 
 school of Guido. He seems to have been a creditable pupil, 
 and his " Stoning of St. Stephen," " Christ in the Garden," 
 "the FlagelLation," and " Ecce Homo" in the church of St. 
 Stefano, and "S. Agata," in the church of that saint, were highly 
 applauded. Yet he suddenly dropt from these high flights into 
 a much humbler walk of art, and devoted himself to careful 
 renderings of fruits, flowers, dead game, and still life. M&nj of 
 his productions of this kind are in the collections of Bologna. 
 He died in 1681.— W. T. 
 
 CIVERCHIO, Vxncenzo : this painter was born at Creina 
 in the state of Venice. He flourished from 1500 to 1535, and 
 had a threefold reputation as a painter, an engraver, and an 
 architect. He was chiefly famed for his portraits. He resided 
 at Milan, and educated several pupils for th.at school of paint- 
 ing. Vasari praises his frescos vei-y highly. In the great 
 church of Crema was a picture by him of the Annunciation, 
 but his most famous work representing " Justice and Temper- 
 ance" was seized upon by the French in their capture of Crema, 
 and presented to Francis I. He died about 1540. — W. T. 
 
 * CIVIALE, Jean, a French surgeon, bom in 1792 at 
 Thiezac (Cantal), the discoverer of a method of dispensing with 
 the dangerous operation of lithotomy, which he has described 
 in a work published at Paris in 1826 — " De la Lithotritie ou 
 broiement de la pierre dans la vessie." — J. S., G. 
 
 CIVILIS, Claudius, or Julius, the leader of the Batavi, a 
 Celtic tribe, who revolted from Rome A.D. 69-70, was of the 
 r.ace of the Batavian kings. His brother, Julius Paulus, was 
 put to death a.d. 67 or 68, and he himself was sent in chains 
 to Nero at Rome. He afterwards became prefect of a cohort, 
 but in this position made himself obnoxious to the army of 
 Vitellius, and with difficulty, escaped with his life. The mis- 
 conduct of the Roman officers in Gaul and Germany made it an 
 
 easy task for Civilis to rouse his countrymen against their 
 masters ; and accordingly, under pretence of supporting the 
 cause of Vespasian, he assembled an army, and gave battle to 
 the generals of Vitellius, who were completely defeated. Civilis, 
 however, continued in open revolt after the death of Vitellins. 
 He was defeated in a.d. 70. by Petilius Cerealis. What became 
 of him afterwards is not certainly known. — J. S., G. 
 
 CIVININI, Giovanni DOiMENico, an Italian botanist, lived 
 during the first half of the eighteenth centuiy. He published at 
 Florence a work on the history and nature of coffee. — J. H. B. 
 CIVITALI, Matteo, a distinguished Italian sculptor and 
 architect, who achieved all his success after he was thirty, 
 having till that age followed the trade of a barber, apparently 
 without the least consciousness of his genius for art. Specimens 
 of his art are to be seen in his native city Lucca and at Genoa, 
 which for beauty of composition may be compared with the works 
 of the foremost sculptors of the fifteenth century. He was born 
 in 1435, and died in 1501. — J. S., G. 
 CIVOLI. See Cardi. 
 
 CL.\GETT, William, an English theologian, was bom at 
 St. Edmundsbury in 1646; died in 1688. He was successively 
 rector of Farnham, and ch.aplain to James II. His principal 
 works are — " Difference of the case between the separation of 
 Protestants from the Church of Rome and the separation of 
 Dissenters from the Church of England," London, 1683 ; "The 
 State of the Church of Rome when the Refonnation began, as it 
 appears by the advices given to Popes Paul III. and Julius III. 
 by creatures of their own." — J. T. 
 
 CLAGETT, Nicholas, brother of the preceding, bom in 
 1654, was for forty-six years preacher at St. Edmundsbury. He 
 died in 1726, leaving "A Persuasive to an ingenuous Trial of 
 Opinions in Religion," 4to, London, 1685; "Truth Defended," 
 &c., 8vo, London, 1710.— J. T. 
 
 CLAIRAUT, Alexis Claude, bom in Paris in 1713 ; died 
 in 1765. In our more modern times there are three great and 
 classical epochs as to matliematical science. The first was 
 filled by the achievements, the fame, and the power of Newton, 
 Leibnitz, and the Bemoullies. Following them we have the 
 great trium\'irate Euler, D'Alembert, and Clairaut ; to which 
 succeeded the reign of Lagrange and Laplace. Genius did not 
 indeed terminate on the death of Laplace, but the reign of 
 ancient methods certainly terminated then. We have had since 
 Abel and Jacobi ; Gauss, and our own Hamilton — the last, the 
 sole survivor, and perhaps the real inaugurator of the coming 
 and not feebly indicated era. During that early triumvirate, 
 in which, as regards taste in composition and its accompanying 
 quickness of perception, Clairaut occupies no inferior rank, 
 the gi-and problem was the problem of perturbations. And 
 Montucla is correct in saying that Clau-aut was the first who had 
 the courage to attack with requisite boldness, and in a mode 
 sufficiently general, the purely dogmatical problem — Three 
 bodies, the Sun, the Earth, and the Moon, being cast into space, 
 at given distances, and ivith given velocities and matter, and 
 attracting each other according to the Nevjtonian law; it is 
 required to determine the curve, tuhich one of them — say the 
 Moon — must describe around the Earth? Clairaut wrote on 
 every question of astronomical physics that had been cast up at 
 that time. He wrote better than any contemporary on the 
 " Figure of the Earth." It is still most pleasant to read his 
 volume on " Cur^'es of Double Cuiwature," and his elementary 
 book on Geometry is in many respects a model. Clairaut was 
 no insignificant fonn in the midst of the "gi'eat world" of Paris. 
 He lived in times that preluded the great Revolution — when 
 "territorial constitutions" had come to be at discount. — J.P.N. 
 CLAIRON, Claire -Joseph- Hippo LYTE Legris de 
 Latude, a famous French actress, was born in French Flanders 
 in 1723, and died in Paris in 1803. She was for a long period 
 the chief ornament of the Theatre fr.an^ais. Her name occm's 
 frequently in the literary memoirs of the great dramatic authors 
 of her day. Voltaire, who was delighted with her impersonations 
 of several of his own heroines, has immortalized her in some 
 well-known verses. Her "Memoirs" appeared in 1799. 
 
 * CLAIRVILLE, Louis Francis Nicolaie, a dramatic 
 writer, born at Lyons in January, 1811. Originally, hke his 
 fiither and mother, an actor, Clairville at length tried his hand 
 at writing vaudevilles, and the result was perfect success in that 
 light and agreeable kind of dramatic literature. During the 
 revolutionary fever of 1848 he produced a piece which required
 
 CLA 
 
 1045 
 
 CLA 
 
 some coura<;e at the time. Taking for liis subject M. Proud- 
 hon's paradoxical maxim that " property is robbery," Clairville 
 brought out his ''Propriete c'est le vol" — a piece in which he 
 ridiculed and satirized the various extravagant notions of the 
 socialists with an extravagance no less absurd, but redeemed by 
 being amusing. All Paris vreut, including the members of the 
 provincial government ; some of whom were caricatured before 
 their eyes, and all laughed and applauded. Clah-ville's fertility 
 in this kind of writing appears inexhaustible. — J. F. C. 
 
 CLAJUS, JoH^us'N, the Elder, a German poet and scholar, 
 was bom at Herzberg about 1530, and died in 1592 at Pende- 
 leben near Sondershausen. He wrote several volumes of poetry ; 
 his principal work, however, is his German grammar (Gram- 
 matica linguae Germanica?, 11th ed., Nurnberg and Prague, 
 1720). Life by J. E. Goldhagen, Nordhausen, 1751.— K. E. 
 
 CLAJUS, JonAxx, the Younger, was born at Meissen in 
 1616, and died at Kitzingen in Franconia in 1656. He was a 
 poet-laureate, and one of the fomiders of the Pegnitzorden. He 
 wrote tragedies — "Herodes" and "Der leidende Christus" — 
 poems, and other works. — K. E. 
 
 CLAMENGES, ]\Iatthieu Nicolas de (in Latin Cle- 
 siAXGirs), a French theologian, was born about 1360. He 
 was educated in the college of Navarre at Paris under Professors 
 Nogent, JIachet, and Gerson, and seems to have imbibed their 
 reforming opinions. He was early distinguished for his learning 
 and eloquence, and in 1393 was elected rector of the Academy 
 of Paris. In the following year he presented to the king, in the 
 name of the Sorbonne, a treatise pointing out various methods 
 by which the king might terminate the schism then existing in 
 the church; but in 1408 a bill of excommunication was issued 
 against Clamanges by Benedict XIII., and he was forced to retire 
 to the abbey of Vallombrosa in Tuscany. He ultimately returned 
 to France, held several important offices, and spent the close of 
 his life in the college of Navarre, where he died about 1440. 
 Clamanges was a man of great ability, learning, and piety, and 
 denounced with unsparing fidelity the vices of wicked princes, 
 and of the pope, the clergy, and the monks. He has left a great 
 many works, including treatises on " Antichrist," " The Corrupt 
 State of the Church," " The Parable of the Prodigal Son," 
 " The Benefit of Adversity," &c. — J. T. 
 
 CLANCY, Michael, M.D., an Irish author, whose life from 
 infancy was one of adventure, was bom in the end of the seven- 
 teenth century. At eight years old he was sent to a college in 
 Paris, whence he stole out to see the duke of Onnond, and 
 being ashamed or afraid to return he made his way to Dublin. 
 Ignorant of the abode of his relations, he was saved from 
 starvation by a stranger who placed him in a free school. He 
 was finally discovered by his relatives, who sent him to Trinity 
 college. He next sought his fortune in France, but was 
 wrecked oif the coast of Spain, and ultimately worked his way 
 to Bordeaux, and subsequently obtained the degi-ee of doctor of 
 medicine at Rheims. Finally he returned to Ireland, and had 
 good practice till he lost his sight. He now took to authorship, 
 wrote several plays, one of which, "The Sharpers," is favourably 
 spoken of by Swilt, and all held their ground for some time on 
 the stage. His poverty forced him to the singular expedient of 
 playing for his ovm benefit in the character of the blind prophet 
 " Tiresias," in Drj-den and Lee's tragedy of Oedipus. He 
 obtained a pension from the king of j£40 a-year, and died about 
 the vear 1760.— J. F. W. 
 
 CLANRICARDE, a branch of the noble family of De Burgho 
 which has given many illustrious names to Irish history : — 
 
 Ulick, the first earl, was distinguished in the sixteenth 
 century for his vast territories and power, and the many impor- 
 tant towns which he founded, including Roscommon, Galway, 
 Loughrea, and Leitrim. He surrendered all his possessions to 
 Henry VIII. in 1543, and obtained a regrant of them with the 
 earldom of Clanricarde. He died in 1544, and was succeeded 
 by his son — 
 
 RiCHAKD, second earl, commonly known as Sassanagh. He 
 was a firm adherent to the English rule, and in 1548 captured 
 the famous Connac Roe O'Conor. Lodge states that he was 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and that he gained a victory over the 
 Scots at Moyne in 1553. The latter years of this earl were dis- 
 turbed by the dissensions of his sons. He died in 1582. 
 
 Richard, fourth earl, took a distinguished part with Lord 
 Mountjoy in the battle of Kinsale, fought in 1601 between the 
 English forces and those of O'Neil and O'Donnell, displaying 
 
 extraordinary valour and personal prowess, for which he was 
 knighted on the field. King James I. appointed him governor 
 of Connanght, keeper of his house at Athlone, and one of the 
 privy council. In 1615 he refused the presidency of Munster, 
 but accepted the command of the county and city of Galwav. 
 In 1624 he was created an English peer as Baron Somerhill and 
 Viscount Tunbridge, and Charles I. conferred upon him the titles 
 of Baron Imany, Viscount Galway, and Eari of St. Albans. He 
 sat by proxy in the house of lords' in England, died ki 1635, and 
 was succeeded by his son — 
 
 Ulick, fifth earl, who was bom in 1604. His great power 
 and personal influence enabled him to render important sei-vice 
 to his sovereign in the Irish rebellion in 1641. He strengthened 
 the fort of Galway, of which he was governor, and when that 
 town at length became infected with the spirit of disaffection 
 and besieged the fort, he subdued the assailants by that moral 
 energy of character for which he was remarkable. Though 
 many overtures were made to him by the leaders of the rebellion, 
 he remained unshaken in his loyalty, and was included in the 
 king's commission, with Ormonde and others, to meet the 
 recusants and transmit their complaints, and went so far as to 
 procure a treaty for a cessation of hostilities for a year. Clan- 
 ricarde, in conjunction with Onnonde, opposed the progi-ess of 
 Ireton and Coote towards Athlone, and on the return of 
 Ormonde to England he was appointed his deputy with full 
 power. In tliis arduous duty he had to encounter great diffi- 
 culties. The success of the republicans did not prevent this 
 loyal noble adhering with desperate fidelity to the cause of his 
 master, till at length, in compliance with the king's instructions, 
 he yielded when resistance could no longer be availing. His 
 high character procured him the respect even of his enemies, 
 and he was allowed to transport himself and three thousand 
 Irish into the service of any foreign prince not at war with 
 England. His Irish estate was confiscated, and he retired to 
 Somerhill in Kent, where he died in 1657. 
 
 John, ninth earl, commanded a regiment of foot in the 
 service of James II., and was taken prisoner at the battle of 
 Aughrim. He was outlawed and attainted, and died in 1722. 
 On the accession of Queen Anne the attainder was reversed, 
 and the estates restored to his children. — J. F. W. 
 
 CLAP, Thojias, president of Yale college in New England, 
 bom at Scituate, Massachusetts, in 1703, and graduated at Har- 
 vard college. After officiating as a minister for thirteen years 
 at Windham, Connecticut, he was appointed in 1739 president 
 of Yale college. He entered on the duties of the office with a 
 high reputation for general scholarship, especially for a know- 
 ledge of astronomy and pure mathematics. His career of 
 usefulness in the college was latterly much marred by a con- 
 troversy with Jonathan Edwards, arising out of the disputes 
 to which Whitfield's visit gave rise among the theologians of 
 New England. He resigned his office in 1766, a year before his 
 death.— F. B. 
 
 CLAPAREDE, Couxt, a distinguished general and peer of 
 France, bom in 1774 ; died in 1841. He served in nearly all 
 the campaigns of Napoleon, and earned in various battles the 
 reputation of a brave and able soldier. — J. T. 
 
 CLAPPERTON, Hugh, a distinguished African traveller, 
 was the son of a respectable surgeon, and was bom at Annan in 
 Scotland in 1788. Having acquired some knowledge of practical 
 mathematics, including navigation and trigonometry, he was 
 apprenticed at the age of thirteen in a merchant-ship which 
 sailed between Liverpool and North America. After making 
 several voyages he was impressed for the navy, and sent on board 
 the Clormde man-of-war as a common seaman. Partly throngli 
 the influence of a relative, partly by his own intelligence and activity, 
 he was soon promoted to the rank of a midsliipman. In 1813 
 he was drafted on board the Asia, the flag-ship of Vice- Admiral 
 Sir Alexander Cochrane, for the purpose of acting as drill- 
 sergeant, and training the crew in the use of the cutlass, in 
 which, along with some others, he had been instructed by the 
 celebrated guardsman Angelo. In the following year he was 
 sent to the Canadian lakes, where he was promoted to the rank 
 of lieutenant, and appointed to the command of the Covfianct 
 schooner. The flotilla on the lakes having been disbanded in 
 1817, Clapperton returned home, and was placed on half-jiay. 
 After spending some time at Loclnnaben, Clapperton removed to 
 Edinburgh in 1820, and became acquainted with Dr. Oudnoy, a 
 young Englishman, who first directed his attention to the subject
 
 of African discoveiy. After the return of Captain Lyon from 
 his unsuccessful attempt to penetrate Northern Africa, the 
 government resolved to send out a second expedition to explore 
 that countiy ; and with this view Dr. Oudney was dii-ected by 
 Lord Bathurst to proceed as consul to Bornou in Central Africa ; 
 and Captain Clapperton and Colonel Denham were appointed to 
 accompany him. They set out from Tripoli early in 1822, and 
 advanced in a line nearly south to Mourzook which they reached 
 on the 8th of April. Finding it impossible to proceed farther 
 at tliis time, Denham returned to Tripoli, while Clapperton and 
 Oudney made an excursion westward into the country of the 
 Tuaricks, and penetrated as far as Ghraat, E. long. 11. Denham 
 rejoined them in October; and on the 29th of November they 
 set out for the kingdom of Bornou. On the 17th of Februaiy, 
 they reached Kouka, the capital, which they made their head- 
 quarters for some months, undertaking occasional excursions to 
 the south and west. On the 14th of December, Clapperton and 
 Oudney quitted Kouka, for the purpose of exploring the course 
 of the Niger. They reached Murmur in safety, but there Oudney 
 breathed his last; and Clapperton, prosecuting his jom-ney alone 
 and in deep distress, succeeded in penetrating as far as Saccatoo, 
 N. lat. 13, and E. long. 6§, where he was obliged to tm-n back. 
 On his retm-n to Kouka, 8th July, he was rejoined by Denham, 
 who had meanwhile been exploring the shores of the great lake 
 Tchad, and scarcely recognized his emaciated friend. After a 
 liarassing journey across the desert, the enterprising travellers 
 reached Tripoli, January 26, 1825, and thence proceeded to 
 Elngland, where they arrived on the 1st of June. The results of 
 this expedition were published in a work entitled " Nan-ative of 
 Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in the 
 3-ears 1821-24." Immediately after his return, Clapperton, who 
 had been raised to the rank of commander, was engaged to 
 undertake another expedition in company %^"ith Captain Pearce, 
 R.N., Mr. Dickson, and Dr. Morrison, and attended by a youth, 
 named Richard Lander, and two or three other servants. This 
 time Clapperton resolved to penetrate into Africa from the 
 Guinea coast. He left England on the 25th of August, 1825, 
 and landed in the Bight of Benin on the 28th of November. 
 The party commenced their journey into the interior on the 7th 
 of December ; but Pearce and Momson soon sunk under the 
 maladies of the country. The survivors, who met with great 
 kindness from the natives, reached Katunga, the capital of 
 Yariba, on the loth of Januaiy, 1826, and goon after crossed 
 the Niger at Broussa, the scene of Mungo Park's lamented 
 death. They then proceeded to the gi'eat commercial town of 
 Kano, which Clapperton had previously visited. Then tumuig 
 westward, he went on to Saccatoo, the extreme point of his 
 former expedition. It was his wish to obtain permission from 
 Bello, the sultan of Saccatoo, to proceed to Timbuctoo and 
 Bornou. But Bello was at this time carni-ing on a war with the 
 sheik of Bornou, to whom Clapperton carried considerable presents 
 from the king of England, and detained him for several months 
 at Saccatoo. The vigorous constitution of the English traveller 
 gave way under the effects of the climate, and privation, and 
 vexation. He was attacked with dysentery, loth March, and on 
 the loth of April, 1827, expired in the arms of his faithful 
 attendant Lander. Captain Clapperton was admirably fitted, 
 both bodily and mentally, for arduous and hazardous enterprises. 
 He was tall, robust, and manly in his frame, and united indomi- 
 table corn-age and resolution to great gentleness and simplicity; 
 tliough he tailed in the main object of his expedition, he con- 
 tributed greatly to our knowledge of Northern Afi-ica. — (Journal 
 of a Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa^ &c., by the 
 late Commander Clapperton ; Records of Captain Clapperton^s 
 Last Expedition to Africa, by Richard Lander.) — J. T. 
 
 CLARAC, Charles Othon Fkederic Jean Baptiste, 
 Comte de, antiquarian and artist, bom at Paris in June, 1777. 
 Having quitted France on the breaking out of the Revolution, 
 he took up his abode in Russia, devoting himself to study, and 
 becoming a proficient in several languages. He accepted in 1808 
 the place of tutor in the family of Murat, king of Naples, and 
 while thus employed had an opportunity of examining Pompeii, 
 of which he published an account. In 181-1 he went to Brazil 
 attached to the embassy, and on his return was appointed keeper 
 of that splendid collection of antiquities which enriches the 
 museum of the Louvre. Having had his mind opened to the 
 surprising excellence of ancient art, he resolved upon attempting 
 a history of the subject. His work, derived from a study of the 
 
 objects under his own care as well as from examinations of col- 
 lections in other countries, is not considered to have exhausted 
 so fertile a subject. He died in 1847. — J. F. C. 
 
 CLARE, John Fitzgibbon, first earl of, was bom in 1749 ; 
 and being destined by his father, an eminent barrister, to follow 
 the same profession, he received a good education, and entered 
 Trinity college, Dublin, where he was the contemporary and 
 rival for academic honours of Grattan. When called to tue bar, 
 his energy, industry, and talent at once insured his success, and 
 in 1777 he was elected to represent the university of Dublin, 
 giving his support to the government. In 1784 Fitzgibbon 
 was appointed attomey-general for Ireland, an office due as well 
 to his high professional position as to his parliamentary services. 
 His position was an arduous one, as it arrayed against him the ! 
 popular opposition of the demagogues of the day ; and he ! 
 exhibited undoubtedly much wisdom, courage, and fiminess in 
 the discharge of his duties. In 1789 Fitzgibbon was promoted 
 to the office of lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage 
 by the title of Baron Fitzgibbon. Few men had to contend 
 with greater political difficulties than the chancellor. Ireland 
 was in a state of secret disorganization, that shortly was to 
 eventuate in open rebellion ; and no doubt the vigoiu- and wisdom 
 of his measures did much to keep the daring spirits of the day 
 in check. In 1795 he was created Earl of Clare, and in 1799 
 his signal merits were rewarded by a peerage of the United 
 Kingdom as Lord Fitzgibbon. Lord Clare was one of the most 
 prominent and able advocates for the legislative union, which 
 measure he did not long survive, dying in 1802. His intellect 
 was rapid, clear, and full of power, but its power seems to have 
 consisted more in sagacity and common sense than in depth or 
 extraordinary comprehensiveness. Still, for mere intellect, he 
 may be placed at the head of the eminent Irishmen amongst 
 whom he was an actor. With profound, but rough and mascu- 
 line strength of feeling, he was endowed with an amount of 
 moral firmness and superiority to popular influences rarely 
 found amongst public men. Few men have been more exposed 
 to censiu-e and calumny than Lord Clare ; but we believe that, 
 on the whole, those who carefully weigh his conduct will 
 acquit him of the charges which his enemies were ever ready to 
 bring against him. It is trae his zeal may have been some- 
 times Ciuried beyond the bounds of lenity, but it must be 
 remembered that the crisis demanded strong action, and great 
 allowance may be made in minor matters for one who, neaily 
 alone in that tr\-ing tune, stood firm and nnappalled at the post 
 of duty.— J. F.'W. 
 
 * CLARE, John, the peasant poet of Northamptonshire, was 
 bom at Helpstone on the loth of July, 1793. His parents were 
 very poor, and John was at an early age obliged to assist his 
 father in the labom-s of the field. He was never sent to school ; 
 but when ten years of age he learned to read from an old dame 
 who held her school in the church belfiy, his earnings for five 
 days in the week enabling him to attend school on the sixth. 
 At a later period he was taught to write by a kind exciseman 
 at Helpstone, named John Turnbull. At the age of thirteen 
 Thomson's Seasons fell into his hands, and inspired the composition 
 of his first verses, "The Morning Walk." In 1818 Clare, who 
 was still engaged in the toilsome labours of the field, published 
 his first volume of poems on " Rm'al Life." The volume was 
 cordially reviewed in the Quarterly and other journals, and 
 obtained for the author the liberal patronage of Lords Fitz- 
 william, Spencer, and Exeter, which has been contmued to the 
 present time. In 1821 Clare published " The Village Jlinstrel;" 
 in 1827 "The Shepherd's Calendar;" and m 1835 "The Rm-al 
 Muse." A pure vein of genuine poetry and feeling mns through 
 the whole of his verses ; and his descriptions of nature are tnie 
 and loving, and are clothed in picturesque and nervous language. 
 Clare unfortunately embarked in some unsuccessful speculations, 
 in which he lost his little all. He sunk in consequence into a 
 deep melancholy, and is now, 1859, a patient in the Northamp- 
 ton lunatic asylum. — J. T. 
 
 CLARE or CLARA, St., founder of an order of nuns 
 called after her name, was born at Assisi in Italy in 1193, and 
 died in 1253. At the age of eighteen she fled from her parents, 
 who were persons of rank, and placed herself under the care of 
 St. Francis, who established her in a nunnery, which the fame 
 of its superior soon crowded with ardent devotees. She was 
 canonized two vears after her death by Pope Alexander IV. 
 
 CLARENDON. See Hyde.
 
 * CLARENDON, George William Villiees, fourth earl 
 of, a distin2;uislied diplomatist and statesman, was born in 
 London on the 12th January, 1800. He is descended from Sir 
 Edward Villiers, an elder brother of the famous duke of Buck- 
 ingham ; the Villierscs, earls of Jersey, are an elder branch of the 
 family to which the present earl of Clarendon belongs. The 
 first Villiers, earl of Clarendon, was a younger son of a Villiers, 
 earl of Jersey, and married a descendant of the celebrated Hyde, 
 Lord Clarendon ; he was successively joint postmaster-general, 
 chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and ambassador at the 
 court of Berlin. He was created earl of Clarendon in 1776, and 
 his third son was the father of the ex-secretaiy for foreign affairs. 
 Lord Clarendon was educated at Cambridge, and, entering early 
 the service of his countiT, was attached to the embassy at St. 
 Petersburg during the years 1820-23. From 1823 to 1833 
 lie was first commissioner of excise, two of his uncles being or 
 having been favourite companions of George IV. From 1827 to 
 1829, Mr. Villiers was resident in Dublin, the capital which he 
 was afterwards to visit as viceroy. His ostensible occupation 
 was the arrangement of the union between the two excise boards ; 
 but if credence is to be given to a passage in the late Lord 
 Cloncurry's memoirs — he played an important though an unseen 
 part in the local negotiations which preceded the emancipa- 
 tion of the Roman catholics. To natm-al talents, conciliatory 
 manners, and good family connections, Mr. Villiers added a 
 singular aptitude for business ; and after the foiination of the 
 first refonn ministry, and the establishment of the monarchy of 
 July, he was sent to negotiate a commercial treaty with R-ance. 
 In September, 1833, he was appointed envoy extraordinary 
 and minister plenipotentiary' at Madrid, an important and con- 
 spicuous post in the then state of the Iberian peninsula, and 
 which he held until October, 1839. Succeeding, on the death 
 of his uncle in 1838, to the earldom, he returned soon after- 
 wards to England and delivered in his place in the house of 
 lords a speech on Spanish aftaii-s, which produced a considerable 
 effect. In October, 18-40, he was admitted into the Melbourne 
 cabinet as lord pri\-y seal, being also, on the death of Lord 
 Holland, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster jjro tern., and held 
 both offices up to the accession of Sir Robert Peel as premier, in 
 the autumn of 1841. On the formation of Lord John Russell's 
 first ministry in 1846, Lord Clarendon was appointed president 
 of the board of trade, from which he was elevated, on the death 
 of Lord Bessborough the following year, to the lord-lieutenancy 
 of Ireland. There he remained during a most critical period of 
 Irish history, until the fomiation of Lord Derby's first ministry. 
 On the accession of Lord Aberdeen's coalition ministry to power. 
 Lord Clarendon became secretaiy for foreign affairs, after a brief 
 occupancy of that department by Lord John Russell. The 
 negotiations which issued in the Russian war were, of course, 
 conducted by Lord Clarendon, and on its termination, he, along 
 with Lord Cowley, represented Great Britain at the conferences 
 held in the French metropolis, which led to the treaty of Paris. 
 Jleanwhile his lordship had been complimented by an offer from 
 a political opponent to retain the seals of the foreign department, 
 when Lord Derby made an unsuccessful attempt in 1855 to 
 form an administration, on the overthrow of Lord Aberdeen's 
 ministry. In 1839 Lord Clarendon married Catharine, daughter 
 of the first earl of Vendam, and widow of J. F. Barham, Esq., 
 by whom he has a youthful family. — F. E. 
 
 CLARI, GiAN Carlo Maria, a musician, was bom at 
 Pisa in 1669 ; the time and place of his death are unknown. 
 He studied his art under Giovanni Paolo Colonna, at Bologna, 
 and held the office of maestro di capella in the cathedral of 
 Pistoja. He gained considerable reno\\Ti by the production in 
 1695 of an opera at Bologna entitled " II Savio Delirante," 
 which, however, like almost all his ecclesiastical music, was 
 never printed. His vocal duets and trios, with a figured bass, 
 obtained very extensive circulation in MS. before they were 
 published in 1720. Their appearance in print was preceded by 
 that of a similar collection by Stefani, who, not improbably, had 
 modelled his compositions upon those of Clari ; some of these 
 are still occasionally heard in public performance, and the purity 
 of their counterpoint, and the ingenuity of their fugal imitation, 
 justify the very high esteem in which, as a composer in the 
 severe style, their author is held. With his usual freedom of 
 appropriation, Handel has employed several subjects from this 
 work of Clari, in his oratorio of Theodora. An edition of the 
 duets and trios, with a developed accompaniment for the piano- 
 
 forte by Mirecki, a Polish musician, was published at Paris in 
 1823. A profound contrapuntal composition of Clari is printed 
 by Padre Paolucci in his theoretical treatise. — G. A. JL 
 
 CLARICI, Paolo Bartolomeo, an Itahan botanist, was 
 bom at Ancona in 1664, and died at Padua on 22nd December, 
 1724. He resided at Padua, and devoted his time and attention 
 to the cultivation of plants. Subsequently he entered the church, 
 and became bishop of Padua. He wrote a work on the " Culti- 
 vation of Plants in Gardens," which was pubhshed by a nephew 
 of the bishop at Venice in 1726. — J. H. B. 
 
 CLARIDGE, Richard, an eminent quaker writer, bom in 
 Warwickshire in 1649 ; died in 1723. 
 
 CLARIUS or CLARIO, Isidore, an Italian prelate, bom at 
 Chiari in Brescia in 1495, was promoted to the see of Foligno 
 in 1547. His reform of the Vulgate, with annotations upon the 
 difficult passages, was the great work of his life. He was 
 equally distinguished as an orator and as a critic, and played a 
 conspicuous part at the Council of Trent. He died in 1555. 
 
 CLARK, Abraham, a member of congress from New Jersey, 
 and one of the signers of the American declaration of independ- 
 ence, was bom at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, 15th Februarj-, 
 1726. At the outbreak of the Revolution, he espoused the 
 popular cause, became a member of the committee of safety, and 
 was elected to congress, just in time to vote for the Declaration. 
 Mr. Clark was a member of congress from 1776 to 1782, and 
 again in 1787-88. He was elected to the convention which 
 framed the federal constitution, but ill health prevented him 
 from taking his seat. After the new government was put in 
 operation, he was again sent to congress, and remained there 
 from 1791 till his death in 1794.— -F^B. 
 
 CLARKE, Adam, LL.D., F.A.S., &c., Wesleyan minister, 
 remarkable for his attainments in oriental and general literature, 
 was born of highly respectable parents at Moybeg in the county 
 of Londonderry, Ireland, in the year 1760 or 17G2, the precise 
 date being uncertain. His childhood gave no promise of his 
 future literary eminence, as he acquired the radiments of the 
 English and Latin languages with great difficulty. Intended 
 by his parents for the ministry of the church of England, his 
 connection with the Wesleyan Society in 1778 led to his appoint- 
 ment by Mr. Wesley to the laborious duties of the Methodist 
 itinerancy, which he commenced in 1782 m what was then 
 called the Bradford (Wiltshire) circuit. From that period until 
 his death, he labom-ed as a regular minister in the most impor- 
 tant towns of England, and was at various times engaged in 
 extensive journeys in Ireland, the Channel Islands, Scotland, 
 and the Shetland Islands, in fmlherance of the religious mis- 
 sions of the Wesleyan church. As an intelligent, interesting, 
 and most powerful preacher, he was remarkably popular during 
 the whole of his ministerial career, and was on three occasions, 
 namely in 1806, in 1814, and in 1822, elected by his brethren 
 president of the conference. As an instance of " the pursuit of 
 knowledge under difficulties," the record of the early studies of 
 Dr. Clarke, by his latest biographer, is most valuable, and fur- 
 nishes matter of encouragement to all students similarly circum- 
 stanced. By diligent application, and by a scrapulous regard 
 to the value of time, without neglecting the duties of his minis- 
 trv, he acquired a respectable acquaintance, not only with the 
 Latin and Greek, but also with the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriae, 
 Persic, Ethiopic, Coptic, and Arabic languages. These acquire- 
 ments rendered him so sei-viceable to the committee of the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society, that he was in 1808 con- 
 tinued by the Wesleyan conference in the London circuit, to 
 meet the wishes of that valuable society, who at that time had 
 special need of his literary assistance. He was about tlie same time 
 elected librarian of the Surrey Institution, but after ten months 
 resigned this position, as incompatible with his other more impor- 
 tant engagements. Soon after this, he was engaged by the com- 
 missioners^'of the public records in the editing of Rymcr's Fanlera 
 and Supplement, but was compelled by his failing health m 
 1819 to relinquish this employment. To the Eclectic Review 
 he was a regidar contributor, from its establishment in 1804. 
 His literarj' labom-s were not permitted to interfere with his 
 duties to the church to which he l)elonged, and the various 
 institutions of Wesleyan ]\Iethodism received from him no ordi- 
 nary degree of attention and support. In the cause of the 
 missions to the heathen he was specially zealous, and was for 
 many years an active meml)er of the committee. But he is best 
 kno'nm to the world by his " Commentary on the Holy Scnp-
 
 CLA 
 
 1048 
 
 CLA 
 
 tures," six volumes, 4to, commenced in 1798 and finished in 
 1805. The publication was deferred until 1809, and from that 
 time was continued in parts until the whole was completed. 
 This work is remarkable for its originality and honesty, as well 
 as for its learning, which at the period of its publication placed 
 it in this respect far in advance of most English commentaries. 
 Some of his opinions — for instance, his attributing the tempta- 
 tion of Eve to the baboon, and not to the serpent, and his 
 notion that Judas was finally saved — di'cw forth much animad- 
 version, wliich was yet more justly administered when, in t!ie 
 notes upon Romans, he made use of the writings of the semi- 
 Socinian, Dr. Taylor of Norwich. His opinions on the eteraal 
 Sonship were stlao contrarj' to those of his own and of most 
 orthodox churches, and were severely criticised by the Rev. Henry 
 Moore and the Rev. R. Watson. The " Commentary," which 
 the more advanced scholarship of the present generation has 
 rendered compai-atively useless to the biblical student and critic, 
 must, however, be judged by the standard of its own age, and 
 not of ours. It was in its time an extraordinaiy work, and 
 gave an impulse to bibhcal studies of which we now reap 
 the benefit. "It is on the whole one of the noblest works of tlie 
 class in the entire domain of sacred literature." " The ' Com- 
 mentary' is not equal through aU its parts. The pentateuch 
 and gospels are done well, and so are the apostolical epistles. 
 On the historical books, also, he is generally satisfactory ; but 
 on the prophetic portions of the word of God he commonly fails." 
 —(Life of Dr. Clarke, by J. W. Etheridge, M.A., LL.D.) The 
 other works of Dr. Clarke are "ABibliograpliical Dictionaiy and 
 Miscellany," 8 vols. 12mo-1802, 180G; "A Concise Account 
 of the Succession of Sacred Literature," 1 vol. 12mo, 1807 
 (completed by his son, J. B. B. Clarke, m 1831); "Memoii-s of 
 the Wesley Family," 8vo, 1823; with sundiy sermons and 
 treatises, which after his death were published in a collection of 
 his miscell;meous works, 13 vols. 12 mo. He also edited Har- 
 mer's Observations, Butterworth's Concordance, Stunn's Reflec- 
 tions, and Fleur)'"s Manners of the Ancient Israelites. Dr. 
 Clarke died rather suddenly of an attack of Asiatic cholera, in 
 London, August 27, 1832. — W. B. B. 
 
 CLARKE, De. Alured, an English divine famous for his 
 charities, born in 1696; died in 1740. He studied at Cam- 
 bridge, became one of the chaplains in ordinary to George I. and 
 George II., and iu 1740 dean of Exeter. He published some 
 occasional sermons, and an " Essay towards the Character of 
 Queen Caroline," 1738. The whole surplus of his income he 
 expended in works of charity. He was the piincipal founder of 
 the sick hospital at Wincliester. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLARKE, Sir Charles Mansfield, Bart., a successful 
 and learned physician, born in 1782; died on the 7th September, 
 1857, at Brighton. He was tlie son of Mr. John Clarke, of 
 Chancery Lane, a surgeon, and received his classical education at 
 St. Paul's school. His medical education was earned on at St. 
 George's hospital, and by attendance on lectures at the Wind- 
 niill Street school of anatomy and medicine. His elder brother. 
 Dr. John Clarke, was a successful practitioner, especially in the 
 department to wliich both the brothers ultimately devoted them- 
 selves — that of midwifery and the diseases of women and children. 
 In association with his brother Dr. Chai'les Clarke lectured on 
 these subjects from the year 1804 to 1821. For many years 
 he held the appointment of surgeon to Queen Charlotte's 
 Lying-in Hospital. In 1825 he was elected a fellow of the 
 Royal Society ; and in 1830 he became physician to Queen 
 Adelaide on the accession of William IV. to the throne. On 
 September 30, 1831, he was created a baronet; and in 1836 
 was elected by the fellows of the College of Physicians into their 
 body. His practice was large and lucrative ; and his records of 
 cases which came under his own notice, and his contributions to 
 medical societies, prove him to have been a careful investigator 
 of the diseases on which he wTote. His most important work 
 was " On the Diseases of Females." — E. L. 
 
 CLARKE, Edward D.vniel, LL.D., the well-known travel- 
 ler, second son of the Rev. Edward Clarke, rector of Buxted in 
 Sussex, was bom at Willingdon in that county in 1769. He 
 was educated at Tunbridge school, and Jesus college, Cambridge, 
 which he entered in 1786. From his residence at the university, 
 which extended to three years, he derived httle advantage, 
 having no taste either for classics or the mathematical sciences. 
 He spent his time chiefly in desultory reading; chemistry, mine- 
 ralogy, and the belles-lettres being his favourite pm-suits. In 
 
 1790 he became tutor to a nephew of the duke of Dorset, and 
 in company with his pupil made a toiu- through part of Great 
 Britam and Ireland. In 1792 he accompanied Lord Berwick on a 
 tour through Italy and Germany and in 1797, travelled through 
 Scothmd and the Western isles in company with a son of Lord 
 Uxbridge. The following year he was elected fellow of his college. 
 In the spring of 1799, having been appointed tutor to Mr. 
 Cripps, a young gentleman of fortune, he set out in company with 
 his pupil on a tour which was intended to last only six months, 
 but which was protracted tlirough three years and a half. In 
 the com-se of that time he visited Denmark, Norway, Sweden, 
 Lapland, Finland, Russia, Tartary, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria, 
 Palestine, part of Eg}"pt, and Greece; and, taking Constantinople 
 on his way home, returned through Germany aud France to 
 England. This extensive jommey fm-nished Clarke with mate- 
 rials for six volumes of remarkable interest ; they were written 
 with manifest care and candour, and evinced on the part of the 
 author uncommon learning and research, as well as no ordmary 
 powers of obsers-ation. Clarke and his fellow-traveller, on their 
 return to England, presented to the university of Cambridge a 
 fragment of a colossal statue of the Elensinian Ceres, and other 
 valuable antiquities. The university in return conferred on 
 Clarke the degree of LL.D. and on Cripps that of M.A. The 
 Alexandrian sarcophagus — generally but not coiTectly called that 
 of Alexander the Great, a dissertation on which is among the 
 miscellaneous works of Clarke, he had the honour of rescuing 
 from the hands of the French, and the gratification of seeing 
 safely deposited in the British museum. In 1807 Clarke com- 
 menced at Cambridge a series of lectures on his favourite subject, 
 mineralogy ; the following year a chair of mineralogy was estab- 
 lished in the university and Clarke appointed professor. Shortly 
 after his return from the East, having taken orders, he had been 
 appointed to two livings, one a college benefice, and the other 
 belonging to his father-in-law, Sir WiEiam Rush. Clarke was 
 not midistinguished as a man of science; he improved the con- 
 struction and application of the blowpipe ; discovered cadmium 
 in some Derbyshire minerals, aud wrote well if not extensively 
 upon mineralogical and chemical subjects. He died in 1822, no 
 less esteemed for his amiable disposition than for the rare activity 
 of his mind, and the variety of his accomplishments.^ — J. S., G. 
 CLARKE, George Rogers, an American general in the 
 revolutionary war, and a leader of the pioneer settlers of Ken- 
 tucky, was bom in Albemarle county, Vu-ginia, in 1753. In 
 1775 he first entered what is now the state of Kentucky, and 
 the following year, a convention of the settlers at HaiTodstown 
 chose him a delegate to the assembly of Virginia, to obtain 
 military aid against the British, or, if refused, to intimate dis- 
 tinctly that their Indian aUies would set up an independent 
 state, and protect themselves. Clark obtained some powder and 
 munitions of war, and a legislative act erecting Kentucky into 
 a distinct county of Vii-guiia, to be represented as such in the 
 general assembly of the state. On his return, he took up his 
 residence in the county, and became the chief counsellor and 
 military leader of its inhabitants, who, under his command, 
 fought long and bravely against the British. He retained mili- 
 tary possession of the country till the close of the revolutionary 
 war, and was thus the means of securing it to the United States 
 by the treaty of peace of 1783. The latter portion of his life 
 was unhappy ; oppressed by pecuniar)- difficulties, he became a 
 victim of intemperance. He died in Kentucky, m 1818. — F. B. 
 CLARKE, Henri-Jacques Guillaujle, Coimt d'Hune- 
 bourg and Duke de Feltre, marshal of France, was bom 17th 
 October, 1765. He entered the army in 1782, and rose by 
 successive steps to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1792. He 
 was made provisionary general of brigade in 1793, but wa.s 
 suspended in that same year. Two years later he was taken 
 under the protection of Carnot, and was appointed by him to an 
 oiBce in the bureau of the ministiy of war, the duties of which 
 he discharged with great energy and success. In 1796 Clarke 
 was despatched by the dircctoiy on a secret mission to Vienna, 
 and soon after was sent to Italy to watch the movements of 
 Bonaparte, whose success was exciting uneasiness in the minds 
 of the government. He was so fascinated, however, by that 
 extraordinaiy personage, that he completely forgot the object of 
 his mission, attached liimself to Bonaparte, and assisted huu in 
 concluding the treaty of Campo Formio. He was in consequence 
 recalled by the directory, and deprived both of his rank as 
 general and his office as chief of the topographic bureau. After
 
 the revolution of the 18th brumaire, he was intrusted with 
 several important missions by the first consul, and in 1804, whs 
 made councillor of state and private secretmy to Napoleon for 
 the war department. He accompanied the emperor in the cam- 
 paign of 1805, and distinguished himself both at Ulm and 
 Jena. In 1807 he succeeded Berthier as minister of war, and 
 held that office until 1814. As a reward for his important ser- 
 vices in that department, he was created Count d'Hunebourg 
 in 1807, and Duke de Feltre in 1809. On the downfall of 
 Napoleon, he gave in his adherence to the Bourbons, and held 
 for some time the portfolio of war, and was created a marshal 
 of France. He died in 1818. — J. T. 
 
 * CLARK, SiK J,A3iES, Bart., physician-in-ordinary to the 
 queen, was bom at CuUen in Banffshii-e in December, 1788. He 
 received his early education in the grammar school at Fordyce, 
 and afterwards entered King's college, Aberdeen, where he took 
 his M.A. degree. He nest studied medicine in Edinburgh, and 
 took the diploma of the college of surgeons of that city, and of 
 London. In 1809 he entered the navy, where he remained until 
 1815 when he returned to Edinburgh, and in 1817 graduated 
 in that university. Dr. Clark travelled extensively on the con- 
 tinent, visiting all the districts containing the reputed mineral 
 waters, and investigating the effect of climate on health and 
 disease in different places frequented by invaUds. He settled in 
 Rome, and for eight years practised regularly there. Becom- 
 ing acquainted with Prince Leopold of Saxe-Cobnrg, he was 
 appointed by him to be his physician in 1824. Two years 
 later he returned to England,and having settled in London, 
 was appointed physician to St. George's parochial infirmary. In 
 1829 appeared his work entitled, "On the Sanative Influence of 
 Climate," which passed through several editions, and has become 
 an authority on the subject. In 1832 he was elected a fellow of 
 the Royal Societv, and on the death of Dr. Maton in 1835, became 
 physician to the duchess of Kent and the Princess. Victoria. On 
 her majesty's accession to the throne he received the appoint- 
 ment of physician-in-ordinaiy to the queen. In 1835 he published 
 a " Treatise on Pulmonaiy Consumption and Scrofulous Disease," 
 which by its clear exposition and able reasoning, has done much 
 to clear away the false notions which formerly obtained respect- 
 ing the nature and treatment of these diseases. On the estab- 
 lishment of the university of London, Dr. Clark was chosen on the 
 senate. AMiilst living abroad he had greatly interested himself 
 in the state of medical education in foreign universities and 
 schools, and had observed their superiority in several points, 
 more especially that of cUnical instruction. His views on the 
 subject were set forth in a pamphlet on " Clinical Instruction." 
 This defect in our institutions has been remedied by the senate 
 of the London university, so far as regards its medical graduates. 
 Sir James Clark was created a baronet in 1838. He is a 
 member of the principal foreign, scientific, and medical societies, 
 and has been several times chosen on the council of the Royal 
 Society. In addition to his other claims to distinction, he is well 
 known to take a warm interest in sanitary refoiTn, and has 
 exerted all his influence in favour of measures Hkely to promote 
 the improvement of public health. In medical politics he has 
 taken a Uvely interest, and his appointment by the government 
 as a member of the medical comicil of the United Kingdom, 
 may be regarded as a public recognition of the sendees he has 
 rendered his profession. — E. L. 
 
 CLARKE, James Staxier, brother of Edward Daniel, a 
 chaplain in the royal navy, attended Nelson at the battle of Tra- 
 falgar, and subsequently became domestic chaplain and librarian 
 at Carlton House. He pubhshed a " Life of Lord Nelson," 1809, 
 2 vols., 4to ; and the " Life of King James II., from his own 
 Memoirs and the Stewart ]\ISS. at Carhon House," 181G, 2 
 vols , 4to, &c. He died in 1834.— J. S., G. 
 
 CLARKE, Jeremiah, a celebrated musician, was educated 
 in the royal chapel under Dr. Blow, who entertained so great a 
 friendship for him as to resign in his favour the places of almoner 
 and master of the children of St. Paul's cathedral. He received 
 these appointments in 1693, and shortly afterwards added to 
 them that of organist of the same foundation. In July, 1700, 
 he was appointed a gentleman-extraordinaiy of the chapel-royal, 
 and at the expuration of about four years was also made organist. 
 The compositions of Clarke are not numerous, as an untimely 
 and melancholy end was put to his existence before his genius 
 had had time to expand. Eariy m life he was so unfortunate 
 as to conceive a violent and hopeless passion for a very beautiful 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 lady, of a rank far superior to his own, and his sufferings under 
 these circumstances became at length so intolerable that he 
 resolved to terminate them by suicide. Being at the house of a 
 friend in the country, he found himself so miserable that he 
 suddenly detennined to return to London. His friend observing 
 in his behaviour great marks of dejection, furnished him with a 
 horse and a servant to attend him. In his way to town a 
 fit of melancholy and despair having seized him, he ahghted, 
 and giving his horse to the servant, went into a field, in the 
 coraer of which was a pond surrounded by trees. This pointed 
 out to his choice two ways of getting rid of life ; but not being 
 more inclined to the one than the other, he left it to the 
 detei-mination of chance. He took out of his pocket a piece 
 of money, and tossing it in the air determined to abide by its 
 decision. The money fell on its edge in the clay, and thus 
 seemed to prohibit both these means of destruction. His mind, 
 however, was too much disordered to receive comfort from, or 
 take advantage of tliis delay. He therefore mounted his horse 
 and rode to London, determined to find some other means of 
 ridding hknself of life, and in July, 1707, not many weeks 
 after his return, he shot himself in his own house in St. Paul's 
 chm'chyard. The works of Clarke published in his hfetime, are 
 lessons for the harpsichord, and many songs to be found in the 
 collections of his day, particularly in Dm-fey's Pills To Purge 
 Jlelancholy. He also ^\Tote for Durfey's comedy. The Fond 
 Husband, that pleasing ballad introduced in the Beggars' 
 Opera, and sung to the words, " 'Tis woman that seduces all 
 mankind," and he contributed to the Harmonia Sacra. But his 
 compositions for the church are those on wliich his fame chiefly 
 rests. They abound in melody which time has not antiquated, 
 and are rich in harmony and deeply pathetic. Dr. Bumey sums 
 up Clarke's merits in the following disciiminating sentence — 
 " Tenderness is so much his characteristic that he may well be 
 called the musical Otway of his time." — E. F. R. 
 
 CLARKE, Rev. John, one of the founders of the colony of 
 Rhode island in America, was born, as is supposed, in Bedford- 
 shire, England, in 1609. In 1649 he was chosen an assistant 
 or councillor, and also treasurer of the colony ; and two years 
 afterwards was sent to England with Roger Wilhams, first to 
 procm-e the annulling of a commission or proprietary grant, 
 which had been given to Mr. Coddington of all the islands in 
 Narragansett bay ; and secondly, to obtain from the council of 
 state a charter for the colony. After an absence of nearly twelve 
 years he returned to Rhode island in 1664; resumed the care of 
 his chm-ch, and was elected to numerous cinl stations in the 
 colony. In his last will and testament he left a large farm at 
 Newport in trust, for the support of learning and religion. No 
 name in early New England history shines with a more nnsulUed 
 brightness. He died without children, April 20, 1676, in the 
 sistv-seventh yeai- of his age. — F. B. 
 
 CLARKE, John, ilns. Doc, afterwards known as Clarke 
 Whitfield, was bom at Gloucester in 1770. He commenced 
 his musical education at Oxford in 1783, under Philip Hayes, 
 and in 1789 was appointed organist of Ludlow in Shropshire. 
 In 1793 he took his degree of musical bachelor at Oxford, 
 and two years afterwards that of doctor in the university 
 of Dublin. In the same year he was elected organist of the 
 cathedral of Armagh. Dr. Clarke returned to England in 1798, 
 and accepted the post of organist of Trinity and St. John's col- 
 leges, Cambridge, which appointments he held for more than 
 twenty years. In 1814, he took the surname of 'Wlutfield, by 
 sign manual, on the death of his maternal uncle, Henn- Fotherby 
 Whitfield, Esq. of Rickmansworth Park, Herts. In 1820 he 
 was elected organist of Hereford cathecbal, and in the following 
 year professor of music in the university of Cambridge. Dr. 
 Clarke's numerous compositions consist of songs, glees, cathedral 
 music and an oratorio entitled " The Crucifixion." The latter 
 was perfonned in the cathedral of Hereford, at the triennial 
 music meeting in 1822. He also edited fifteen volumes of 
 Handel's oratorios, with a compressed accompaniment for the 
 pianoforte ; two volumes entitled The Beauties of Purcell, &c. 
 Dr. Clarke was an excellent musician, without displaying much 
 original genius. He died at Hereford in 1836.— E. F. R. 
 
 CLARK, John, a Scotch physician, was born at Roxburgh 
 in 1744. He entered the ser\-ice of the East India Company 
 in the capacity of a surgeon ; and, as the result of the expe- 
 rience acquired in several voyages, he published in 1773, in one 
 vol. 8vo, " Observations on the Diseases in long Voyages to hot 
 
 6 R
 
 countries, and particularly to the East Indies." He subsequently 
 settled at Newcastle and was employed to refonn the gi-oss abuses 
 which had crept into the management of the public hospital, and 
 to erect a dispensaiy for the poor. He subsequently published 
 in 1780 " Observations on Fevers, especially those of the con- 
 tinued type," one vol. 8vo ; and " A Collection of Memoirs on 
 the Means of Preventing the Progress of Contagious Fevers," 
 12mo, 1802. Dr. Clark died at Bath in 1805.— J. T. 
 
 * CLARKE, Mrs. JIary Cowdex, the authoress of the 
 invaluable " Complete Concordance to Shakspeare," a work to 
 which the author "devoted the untiring labour of sixteen years 
 — twelve in the preparation of the ilS., and four more in guid- 
 ing it through the press." She is the daughter of ilr. Vincent 
 Novello, and was bora in June in 1809. In 1828 she mamed 
 Jlr. Charles Cowden Clarke, the friend of Lamb, Hazlitt, and 
 Leigh Hunt, and the teacher as well as friend of Keats. Not- 
 withstanding all that has been done for the elucidation of the 
 text of Shakspeare by other modern authors, the literary world 
 acknowledges a heavy debt of gratitude to the author of the 
 " Concordance." Mrs. Clarke's "Girlhood of Shakspeare's Hero- 
 ines;" "Shakspeare Proverbs;" " Kit Barn's Adventures;" " Iron 
 Cousm, or JIutual Influence;" "World-noted Women, or Types 
 of Particular Womanly Attributes of all Lands and Ages, Illus- 
 trated," which, published in New York, 1858, are also well- 
 known and admirable works. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLARKE, Samuel, an estimable English divine, was bora 
 in 1599 at Woolston in Warwickshu-e, where his father had been 
 a long tune minister. He was educated at Cambridge ; became 
 assistant to the incumbent of Thornton in Cheshire ; removed to 
 Shot^rick, and, after five years' residence there, was presented to 
 the rectory of Alcester. He refused the et cetera oath, and 
 di-ew up a petition on the subject, which he presented to the king 
 at York. Hanng officiated nine years at Alcester, he went to 
 London on some business connected with his petition to the king, 
 and was there chosen preacher of the parish of St. Bennet Fink, 
 where he remained till the Restoration. About the year 1662 
 he was ejected for nonconformity, having, although warmly 
 attached to the constitution and the doctiines of the church, 
 long entertamed conscientious scruples respecting certain of its 
 ceremonies and points of disciphne. TUl his death, which 
 occurred in 1682, he continued to attend as a hearer the sendee 
 he had foraierly conducted, not daring, as he said, to gather a 
 private church out of a true church, which the church of Eng- 
 land in his judgment was. His principal works are — " A MiiTor 
 or Looking-glass for Saints and Sinners," &c. ; " The Marrow of 
 Ecclesiastical Histoiy," &c. ; A General Martyrology, and an 
 English Martyrology; "The Lives of Sundry Eminent Persons 
 in this latter Age ; " and " The Marrow of Divinity," &c. — His 
 son Sajiuel published "Annotations on the Bible," which Dr. 
 Owen and Mr. Baxter commended as able and judicious, and 
 which have been of great although unacknowledged service 
 to many modern commentators. — The great-grandson of the 
 martyrologist, also called Samuel, pastor of a congregation of 
 dissenters at St. Albans, published a work entitled "Scripture 
 Promises," which has been frequently reprinted. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLARKE, Samuel, born at Brackley in Northamptonshire, 
 in 1G23, was "right famous," according to Wood, "for Oriental 
 learning." After studying at Oxford, he became master of a 
 boarding-school at Islington. While there he assisted Walton 
 iu his Polyglott Bible. In 1658 the university elected him 
 architypographus and superior beadle of the civil law. His 
 death occmTed in 1669. He published " Varise Lectiones et 
 Observationes in Chaldaicam Paraphrasim," " Scientia Metrica 
 et Rhythmica," &c. Some other works of his, printed and in 
 MS., are noticed by Wood. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLARKE, Samuel, D.D., distinguished as a theologian and 
 philosopher, the son of Edward Clarke, alderman of Norwich, 
 was born there in 1675. He received the early part of his 
 education in the free school of that city, and entered Caius 
 college, Cambridge, in 1691. In order to his degree in arts, he 
 performed a public exercise on a question taken from the philo- 
 sophy of Newton. Having obtained orders, he became in 1698 
 chaplain to Dr. Jloore, bishop of Norwich, who presented him to 
 the rectory of Drayton. In 1704 he was appointed to preach at 
 the Boyle lecture, and chose for his subject, " A Demonstration 
 of the Being and Attributes of God." He preached at the same 
 lecture next year on " The Evidences of Natural and Revealed 
 Religion." These were first piinted in two separate volumes in 
 
 1705 and 1706. They have since been printed in one volume, 
 and have gone through several editions. To the later editions 
 are generally appended some Letters from Butler, then attending 
 a dissenting academy in Gloucestershire, and afterwards bishop 
 of Durham, expressing some hesitation and difficulty as to the 
 conclusiveness of the " demonstration." Clarke saw the ingenu- 
 ousness and ability of his correspondent, and replied so as to 
 satisfy him ; for IJutler, in the Analogy which he afterwards 
 wrote, accepts the "demonstration" as valid. Clarke did not 
 farther interfere in the discussions to which the " demonstration " 
 gave rise. Law, who was afterwards bishop of Carlisle, animad- 
 verted upon it in his Notes to King's Essay on the Origin of 
 Evil. He was replied to by Mr. John Clai-ke. He answered 
 this, and received a second reply ; and a controversy of some 
 length followed, in which Jlr. John Jackson and Mr. Joseph 
 Clarke took part. In 1706 Dr. Clarke published a " Letter to 
 ]Mr. Dodwell," in answer to his arguments against the immor- 
 tality of the soul ; and during the same year he translated 
 Newton's Optics into Latin. Sir Isaac was so pleased with this 
 translation, that he made Dr. Clarke a present of £500. Dming 
 this same year, Bishop Moore procm-ed for him the rectory of 
 St. Bennet's, London ; and having recommended him to the 
 favour of Queen Anne, she appointed him one of her chaplains- 
 in-ordinaiy, and presented him to the rectory of St. James', 
 Westminster, in 1709. At this time he took the degree of D.D. 
 with much applause. In 1712 he published " The Scripture 
 Doctrine of the Trmity," a work which gave rise to much con- 
 troversy. It was brought under the notice of the two houses of 
 convocation, to whom Dr. Clarke made an explanation. In 
 1715 and 1716, a correspondence on the principles of natural 
 philosophy and religion took place between him and the cele- 
 brated Leibnitz. This was published m 1717, along with 
 " Remarks upon a Philosophical Enquiry concerning Human 
 Liberty, by Anthony Collins." In 1718 he printed " Select 
 Psalms and Hymns," in which some alterations were made in 
 the forms of doxology, which occasioned considerable discussion. 
 On the death of Sir Isaac Newton in 1727, he was offered, but 
 declined, the place of master of the mint, worth £1200 or 
 £1500 a-year — a proof of his attachment to the church and the 
 cause of rehgion. In 1729 he published the first twelve books 
 of Homer's Iliad, with an entirely new Latin version. And it 
 was while occupied with the remaming books that he was inter- 
 rupted by an illness, which terminated in death on the 17th May 
 of that year. During the same year were printed by his brother. 
 Dr. John Clarke, dean of Sanmi, his " Exposition of the Chmxh 
 Catechism," and " Sermons," in ten volumes. His sermons are 
 full of plain and clear explanations of scriptiu-e, and of vigorous 
 inculcation of sound moraUty. On the doctrine of the trinity he 
 was charged with Arianism, a charge countenanced by the fact, 
 that 5Ir. Wliiston heard him say that he never read the Atha- 
 nasian creed in his parish, at or near Norwich, but once ; and 
 that was by mistake, at a time when it was not appointed by the 
 rubric. As a philosopher, Dr. Clarke cannot be said to have 
 founded a school, neither can he be said to have been a follower 
 of any school. But he was the strenuous advocate of eveiy 
 cause that could advance the dignity and the virtue of man. He 
 defended human Uberty against Collins, and the spirituality and 
 immortahty of the soul against Dodwell. He opposed the selfish 
 philosophers, by showing the eternal and immutable obligation of 
 morahty ; and he combated the atheism of Hobbes, and the pan- 
 theism of Spinoza, by his " Demonstration of the Being and 
 Attributes of God." His fame now rests on these two books, 
 especially the last, and it wUl be proper to give a glance, how- 
 ever slight, at the tenor of its argument. The " demonstration " 
 proceeds a priori, and consists of the three following proposi- 
 tions : — I. As something now exists, something must always have 
 existed ; otherwise something must have sprang out of nothing. 
 II. That which has always existed must be either one 
 independent and unchangeable being, or an infinite series of 
 changeable and dependent beings. But an infinite series of 
 changeable and dependent beings is absurd, as it has no cause of 
 its existence from without nor from within ; and, therefore, that 
 which has always existed must be one independent and unchange- 
 able being. III. This independent and unchangeable being must 
 be self-existent, that is, must exist by necessity of nature. For 
 even when we try to think that nothing has existed always, the 
 idea of something which exists necessarily forces itself upon us, 
 and we cannot dismbs it. But may not that which has existed
 
 CLA 
 
 1051 
 
 CLA 
 
 always be the external universe ? To this Dr. Clarke replies — 
 1. Negatively : that the universe is a contingent existence ; that is, 
 we can conceive it to have existed differently, or not to have existed 
 at aU. 2. Positively : that there are some things which we cannot 
 think of as not existing. Such are time and space. But time and 
 space are qualities, and qualities imply the existence of a sub- 
 stance to which they belong. And as time and space are infinite, 
 the substance to which they belong must be infinite also ; and 
 this infinite substance is God. The germ of this argument is to 
 be found in the scholium of Sir Isaac Xewton — " Deus non est 
 duratio vel spatinm, sed durat et adest." Time and space are 
 constituted by the existence of God. Similar reasoning had been 
 employed by Cudworth. The vahdity of it was disputed by 
 Leibnitz, who maintained that time is merely the order of things 
 successive, and space is the order of things co-existing. The 
 reasoning is accepted by Butler, Price, and Stewart, while it is 
 rejected by Brown, Brougham, and Chalmers. — W. F. 
 
 CLARKE, Stephen, was a teacher of music, and organist of 
 the episcopal chapel in the Cowgate, Edinburgh. He assisted 
 Bums and Johnson in the production of the " Scottish JIusical 
 Museum," by harmonizing a number of the airs. He survived 
 Bums httle more than twelve months, having died at Edinburgh 
 on the 6th of August, 1797. He was the composer of many 
 airs of considerable merit, and after his death his son and suc- 
 cessor, WiLLiAii Clarke, appears to have rendered Johnson 
 the like ser%'ice in harmonizing the airs for the concluding volume 
 of the Museum. The latter died about the year 1820.— E. F. R. 
 
 CLARKE, WiLLiAsr, a learned English divine and antiquary, 
 rector of Buxted in Sussex, was bom in Shropshire in 1696, 
 and died in 1771. His principal work, in which he was assisted 
 by Bowyer, is entitled " The Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, 
 and English Coins," &c It is highly praised by Pinkerton, 
 and M'CuUoch refers to it as containing a very good account of 
 the ancient trade of the Black Sea. His son Edward, also 
 rector of Buxted, bom in 1730, published on his return from 
 Madrid, where he had been chaplain to the embassy (1760-62), 
 " Letters concerning the Spanish Nation," &c. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLARK, WiLLiAJi, an American explorer, was bom in Vir- 
 ginia, August 1, 1770, and went with his father to Kentucky in 
 1784. In 1803 the government of the United States organized 
 an expedition to explore the vast region acquired by their recent 
 purchase of Louisiana; and President Jefferson offered Clark the 
 rank of captain of engineers, and the joint command of the 
 party with Captain Merriwether Lewis. The company left St. 
 Louis in March, 1804; ascended the Missouri to its source; 
 crossed the Rocky ^lonntains ; strack one of the upper branches 
 of the Oregon or Columbia, and descended that river to the 
 Pacific ocean. They returned in the autumn of 1806 ; having 
 performed the most extensive and important exploration ever 
 undertaken by the American government. Clark kept the journal 
 which was published in 1814, in two volumes octavo. In 1813, 
 though he had twice refused the appointment, he was made 
 govemor of the territory and superintendent of Indian affairs, 
 which two ofliees he held till ilissouri was admitted into the 
 union as an independent state in 1820. He died in 1838. — F. B. 
 
 CLARKSON, David, an eminent nonconformist divine, bora 
 at Bradford in Yorkshire in 1622 ; died in 1686. He studied at 
 ClarehaU, Cambridge, and became fellow of his college. Tillotson, 
 who was his pupil, succeeded him in his fellowship in 1651. 
 He was ejected for nonconformity from the living of Mortlake in 
 Surrey in 1662. In 1683, ha\ing for a year officiated as col- 
 league to Dr. Owen, he succeeded that eminent di\-ine. Of 
 Clarkson's published discourses, the most remarkable are — 
 ''Primitive Episcopacy," 1680; "No Endence of Diocesan 
 Episcopacy in Primitive Times," 1681, in answer to Stilling- 
 fleet; and "Discourse of Liturgies," 1689. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLARKSON, Thomas, bom at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire, 
 in 1760, one of the earliest and most devoted advocates of the 
 abolirion of the slave trade. He was first educated by his father, 
 who was a clergyman and master of the free grammar school in 
 his native town. He afterwards went to St. Paul's school, 
 London, and completed his studies at St. John's college, Cam- 
 bridge. In 1784 he gained the prize for a Latin dissertation, 
 and the following year entered with scholastic ardour as a com- 
 petitor for a similar honour. The subject announced for the 
 thesis by the Rev. Dr. Peckard, vice-chancellor of the university, 
 was " Anne liceat in^•itos in senntutem dare ?" (Is it lawful 
 to make slaves of others against their will ?) In the course 
 
 of his researches and investigations for his essay, his literary 
 ambirion gave place to righteous indignation at the enormiries 
 connected with slavery and the slave-trade, which furnished him 
 with such cogent arguments in answer to the proposirion, that 
 he won the prize ; and his mind was so thoroughly roused to the 
 importance of the subject, that he translated his essay into 
 English, and resolved to devote himself to the redress of African 
 wrongs. He gave up his design of entering the church, for 
 which he had taken deacon's orders, and may be said to have 
 chosen antislavery for his profession, as the advocacy of that 
 cause became the chief work of his Ufe. The publication of his 
 essay led to his introduction to ilr. Granville Sharpe, the first 
 public assertor of the rights of negroes in England ; and to Mr. 
 ■\Villiam Dillwyn, Mr. Richard Phillips, and other members of 
 the Society of Friends in London, who gladly associated with 
 him in his abolition efforts. From the time of William Penn, 
 who in 1688 denounced the slave-trade, this sect had protested 
 against slavery; and at their yearly meeting in 1760, in addition 
 to the " severe censures" passed in former years on " the crael 
 and unjust practice of importing negroes," they resolved to disown 
 as members of their society " all who participated in any wav in 
 that guilty traffic." In 1787 the first " committee for effecting 
 the abolition of the slave-trade " was instituted by Jlr. Clarkson 
 and his friends. They deemed it wise to limit their efforts to the 
 suppression of the slave-trade at first, the extinction of slavery 
 appearing at that time an unattainable object. Universally 
 diffused as information on this subject afterwards became, and 
 now stands recorded in history, it had at that period no existence 
 in literature, and no place in the public mind. Sir. Clarkson 
 visited the principal ports in the kingdom, and, with the utmost 
 industry and perseverance, collected evidence from the custom- 
 houses, on board slave-ships, and from documents concerning 
 West India property. Obtaining an introduction to Mr. Wilber- 
 force, who, as member for Yorkshire and the intimate friend of 
 Mr. Pitt, as well as from his high personal character, held an 
 influential position, Mr. Clarkson induced him to bring the 
 question before parliament, where a party in its favour was 
 gradually formed. ^Meantime the committee held meetings, and 
 published the results of their researches. In 1788 several peti- 
 tions were presented to the house of commons in favour of the 
 abolirion of the slave-trade, and the question was brought forward, 
 but postponed for further inquiry. In 1789 Mr. Wilberforce 
 introduced the subject, the materials being furnished him by 
 Mr. Clarkson ; but the measure was again put off; and year 
 after year a succession of divisions and defeats took place, until, 
 after a stmggle of more than twenty years, the " bill for the 
 abolirion of the slave-trade " passed the house of commons in 
 March, 1807. Mr. Clarkson's efforts, as prompter and assistant 
 to Wilberforce and his party, never relaxed during this period, 
 and with characteristic ardour he visited Paris, after the breaking 
 out of the Revolution of 1789, to supply Mirabeau with matter 
 for his speeches in the national convention against the slave- 
 trade. He was an active member of the " African institution," 
 which was established in 1807 to promote civilization in Africa, 
 and took part in the contest which terminated, in 1833, with the 
 passage of the act for the " abolition of British colonial slavery." 
 In 1838 the corporation of London granted Sir. Clarkson the 
 freedom of the city, as an acknowledgment of his sen-ices as the 
 originator of the great antislavery stmggle, and placed his bust 
 in the Guildhall. In his declining years he lost his sight from 
 cataract, but underwent an operation that restored it. He 
 attended the antislavery convention at Exeter Hall in 1840. 
 His last public act was to present a petition to the house of lords 
 against slave-grown sugar. In addition to numerous jianiplilets 
 on the subject, he published " A History of the Abolition of the 
 Slave-Trade," 2 vols., London, 1808; " A Portraitm-c of Quaker- 
 ism," 3 vols., London, 1806 ; and other works. His style is 
 diffuse, and he is less remarkable as a writer than as the 
 patriarch of the antislavery cause. He possessed a happy, con- 
 tented disposition, and passed the last years of his life in his 
 domestic circle at his patrimonial seat, Pla_\-ford-hall, Suffolk, 
 where he died in 1846, aged eighty-sbc years.— R. JL, S. 
 
 CLAUBERG, Joh.\xn, one of the clearest and most method- 
 ical expositors of the Cartesian philosophy, was bora at Solingen 
 in Westphalia in 1622; taught philosophy and theology at 
 Herbom, and afterwards at Duisburg, and died in 1665. Thera 
 is an edition of his works with the date 1699. 
 
 CLAUDE, Bishop of Turin. See Claudius.
 
 CLAUDE, Jean, an eminent di\'ine of the Protestant church 
 of France, was born in 1619 at La Sauve-Sauvetat, near Agen. 
 His fiither, Francis Claude, who was also a protestant minister, 
 gave him liis first education, and afterwards sent him to the col- 
 lege of Montauban, where he was ordained in 164:5. His first 
 charge was at the Hague, his next at St. Afric, from which he 
 was removed, after a pastorate of eight years, to the important 
 position of Nismes, where he gave assistance in training candidates 
 for the protestant ministry. Having incurred the resentment of 
 tlie court by opposing, in the synod of Languedoc, a project for 
 the reunion of the Roman catholics and protestants, he was pro- 
 hibited by a decree of council to execute any longer the functions 
 of the ministry in that province. He then became pastor at 
 Montauban, and was again, after an interval of foiu- years, for- 
 bidden to preach there also. In 1666 he accepted an invitation 
 from the congregation of Charenton, and continued to labour 
 there with great acceptance and with eminent public usefulness 
 to the cause of his oppressed church, till the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes on the 22nd October, 1685. At ten o'clock in 
 the morning of that day Claude had an order sent to him to quit 
 France in twenty-four hours. On his arrival in Holland he was 
 humanely received by the prince of Orange, who allowed him a 
 liberal pension. But he survived his expatriation little moi-e 
 than a year. He preached his last sermon at the Hague on 
 Christmas-day, 1686, and died on the 13th of Januaij follow- 
 ing. He was a distinguished preacher, but still more distin- 
 guished as a polemical writer. He entered the lists against 
 the most eminent controversialists of Eome — against Bossuet, 
 Arnauld, Nonet, and Nicole — and proved himself an antagonist 
 worthy of their steel. His chief writings are — " Defense de la 
 Reformation contre le Livre intitult5, Prejuges Legitimes contre 
 les Calvinistes," 1673, 1680; " Les Plaintes des Protestants 
 cruellement opprimds dans le Royaume de France," 1686; 
 " Sermons sur div. Textes de I'l^lcriture Sainte," Gen., 1724 ; 
 " Traite de la Composition d'un Sermon," 1688, first published 
 in his " (Euvres Posthumes," and translated into English in 
 1778, by Robert Robinson of Cambridge. A new edition was 
 brought out in 1796 by Rev. Charles Simeon. Claude left two 
 sons, Isaac and Jean Jacques, both of whom followed in the 
 footsteps of their father. The fonner was born in 1653, and 
 died in 1695 ; the latter was born in 1684, and died in London, 
 where he was pastor of a French congregation, in 1712. — P. L. 
 
 CLAUDIANUS, Claudius, bom about the year 365 of the 
 Christian era, at Alexandria in Egypt. His mother tongue was 
 Greek, and he only began to write Latin verse when he was past 
 thirty. Claudian was patronized by Flavius Stilico, who held 
 high place at the court of Honorius. In one of his poems he 
 mentions having married an heiress at Alexandria. The poems 
 of Claudian have for us but little interest; they are chiefly pane- 
 gyrics — a class of poetry almost necessarily dull — and satires, 
 which, to say the truth, are in Claudian's hands almost as dull 
 as panegyrics. The praises of Stilico, of which he is never 
 weary, have the merit of expressing real feeling. On Stilico's 
 death he seems to have retired into private life. The " Rape of 
 Proserpine" gives us more pleasure than any other of his longer 
 poems. The power of commentators to find in a poem whatever 
 they seek for, is illustrated by the notes on this poem, in which 
 some have discovered the Eleusinian mysteries, and others the 
 philosopher's stone. Claudian's " Old IMan of Verona," is in 
 our estimation worth all else that he has wiitten, and it has 
 been translated by Cowley with singular felicitv. — J. A., D. 
 
 CLAUDIUS or CLAUDE, Clemens, Bishop of Turin, a 
 Spaniard by birth, and the disciple of Felix, bishop of Urgel ; 
 died in 839. In the commentaries of this learned prelate, we 
 meet with perhaps the earliest protest which was raised by an 
 ecclesiastic of his rank against the errors of doctrine and disci- 
 pline that had crept into the church of Rome. 
 
 CLAUDIUS I., Roman emperor. His full name was 
 Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Gerjianicus. He was 
 the younger son of Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, and of 
 Antonia, the niece of Augustus, and was born at Lyons B.C. 10. 
 In his youth he was exceedingly weak and sickly, and often 
 laboured under cruel maladies. He was shamefully neglected 
 by his relatives. His mother said he was an abortion, and the 
 rough draught of a man, and Augustus used to call him miselliis, 
 little wretch. He was left to the comjjany of slaves and freed- 
 men, and was allowed no share in public aifairs. He appears, 
 however, to have devoted a great part of his tune to study, and 
 
 became a proficient in the Greek and Latin languages. He was 
 elevated to the consulship by the Emperor Caligula his nephew, 
 A.D. 37, but on the expiry of his term of oflBce, he withdrew 
 again into private life. On the death of Caligula, the mutinous 
 pretorians who were overranning the palace, discovered Claudius 
 concealed behind some tapestry, and trembhng for fear. They 
 dragged him from his place of refuge, and carried him on their 
 shoulders to the camp, where he was proclaimed emperor in spite 
 of the opposition of the senate. He was then fifty years of age, 
 and for some time governed with justice and moderation, endeav- 
 om-ed in various ways to make compensation for the oppressive 
 deeds of his predecessors, and executed the famous Claudian 
 aqueduct and other works of great utility, for the embellishment 
 of the city and the comfort of the citizens. But he afterwards 
 fell completely under the control of his wife and freedmen, who 
 induced him to give his consent to many crael and tyrannical 
 acts which he never would have committed of his own accord. 
 His third wife, the notorious Messahna, brought gi'cat scandal 
 upon his government and family by her shameless licentiousness. 
 After her execution, the emperor married in a.d. 50 his niece 
 Ag]-ippina. Claudius died in the sixty-fourth year of his age, 
 and the fourteenth of his reign. He visited Britain in a.d. 43, 
 and in his reign it first became a Roman province. — J. T. 
 
 CLAUDIUS II. (Marcus Aurehus, surnamed Gothicus), 
 one of the best of the Roman emperors, born in Illyricum, a.d. 
 214. His origin was obscure, but he acquired distinction by his 
 military services under Decius and Valerian. On the death of 
 Gallienus in 268, Claudius was raised to the imperial throne 
 by the army, and their choice was immediately ratified by the 
 senate. Soon after his accession he defeated, at Milan, Aureolus, 
 who had revolted against Gallienus. He then marched against 
 the Alemanni, who had invaded Italy, and routed them on 
 the banks of the lake of Garda (Benacus). He entered Rome 
 in triumph, and set himself vigorously to reform the abuses ol 
 the government. Next year he gained a gi'eat victory over an 
 immense host of Goths or Scythians, who had invaded the pro- 
 vince of Mcesia, and took a vast number of prisoners, whom he 
 compelled to labour on the public works. This victory gained 
 him the surname of Gothicus. He died in the following year, 
 A.D. 270, at Sirmium in Pannonia, after a short but brilliant 
 reign of two years, and was succeeded by Am-elian. — J. T. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Appius Pulcher, held the office of prxtor in 
 57 B.C., and next year was propraetor in Sardinia. In 54 he was 
 consul along with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and in 53 he was 
 appointed proconsul of Cilicia, and governed that province with 
 great tyranny and rapacity. Two years later he was superseded 
 by Cicero, whose appointment he regarded with great displeasure. 
 On his return to Rome he was impeached by Dolabella, but was 
 acquitted through the influence of Pompey. He was appointed 
 censor in 50, along with L. Piso, and expelled a number of 
 senators belonging to Ca'sar's party — among others, the historian 
 Sallust. On the breaking out of the civil wai-, he embraced the 
 cause of Pompey, and was in consequence compelled to flee 
 from Rome. He died in Greece before the battle of Pharsalia. 
 He wrote a work on augural science, which he dedicated to 
 Cicero. — J. T. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Matthias, a German popular writer of eminence, 
 was born at Rheinfeld in Holstein, 15th August, 1743, and after 
 having studied at Jena, settled at Wandsbeck, near Hamburg. 
 In 1778 he was appointed reviser to the Altona bank, with per- 
 mission to reside at Wandsbeck. Under the assumed name of 
 Asmus he pubhshedfrom 1770 till 1775 the " Wandsbecker Bote," 
 a quaint miscellany of poetry, essays, reviews, &c., written in a 
 powerful and highly popular style. All the productions of his 
 pen evince a mind as serene as it was pious, and a generous 
 sympathy with the interests of the people. Many of his poems 
 are sung to this day, for instance his beautiful "Rheinweinlied." 
 After a happy old age he died at Hamburg, 21st January, 1815. 
 His collected writings appeared under the title "Asmus Omnia 
 sua secum portans," in 8 vols., new ed. 1844. His life has 
 been written by W. Herbst, Gotha, 1857. — K. E. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, PuBLius Appius Pulciier, the first of the 
 famous Claudian family who bore the name of Pulcher, lived 
 about 250 B.C. Like the rest of his family, he was noted for 
 his pride and haughtiness, and his resistance to the demands of 
 the plebeians, as well as for his deficiency in militaiy sldll and 
 valour. He was elected consul in 249 B.C. ; and, in defiance of 
 the auguries, attacked the Carthaginian fleet in the harbour ot
 
 Drepana, and was defeated by Adherbal with the loss of ahnost 
 all his forces. Having been recalled and commanded to nomi- 
 nate a dictator, he named M. Claudius Glycias or Glicia, the son 
 of a freedman, but the appointment was set aside. He was 
 accused of treason, and severely punished. The exact date of 
 his death is unknown. — J. T. 
 
 CLAQDIUS. See Appius Claudius. 
 
 CLAUREN, H. See Heun, Karl. 
 
 CLAUSEL, Bektkand, Count and Marshal of France, was 
 bom 12th December, 1772. He was the nephew of Jean Bap- 
 tiste Clausel, one of the regicides. Having entered the army in 
 1791, he served in several campaigns, and was also employed in 
 various missions. He was made general of brigade in 1799, 
 and sent to St. Domingo. He returned to France in 1802, 
 with the rank of general of division. In 1805 he was employed 
 in the armies of the north, and of Holland, and subsequently in 
 Naples, Germany, and Spain. He was present at the famous 
 battle of Salamanca and assumed the command after ^larmont 
 was wounded. He was present also at the disastrous conflict of 
 Vittoria. After the first abdication of Napoleon, Clausel was 
 appointed inspector-general of infantry, and obtained the gi-and 
 cross of the legion of honour from Louis XVIII. ; but this did 
 not prevent him from deserting the cause of the Bourbons as 
 soon as Bonaparte landed from Elba. On the final overthrow 
 of Napoleon, Clausel fled to America to escape the sentence of 
 death pronounced upon him, 11th September, 1816. On the 
 proclamation of the amnesty of 1820 he returned to France, and 
 was elected a deputy. In 1830 Louis Philippe made him com- 
 mander of the African army, and created him a marshal in 1831. 
 The disastrous result of the expedition to Constantina in 1836 
 was attributed to Clausel He died in 1842.— J. T. 
 
 * CLAUSEN, Hkxry Nicholas, a celebrated Danish 
 theologian and statesman, born in 1793; became professor of 
 theology at the university of Copenhagen in 1821 ; some years 
 afterwards became known as an intrepid champion of constitu- 
 tional rights ; in 1840 was elected a deputy to the legislative 
 assembly; played a conspicuous part in the refoiTns of 1848, 
 and tUl 1852 was a member of the Danish ministry. His 
 works are numerous. 
 
 CLAUSSEN, Peder, the celebrated translator of Snorre 
 Sturleson, was born at Egersund, on the southwest coast of 
 Norway, in the year 1545. He became, in 1566, parish priest 
 of Undal, as his father had been before him. His translation of 
 Sturleson did not appear till after his decease which happened 
 in 1614. It was brought out in 1633 under the care of the 
 learned Ole Warm, and at the expense of Joachim Moltken. 
 An inferior edition, altered for the worse, was brought out by 
 the printer Godiche in 1757. Claussen's translation of Stur- 
 leson's great work is not a mere literal translation, but a free 
 and somewhat abridged rendering, in a very bold and original 
 style. It fumished for a long period the favourite reading of 
 the Norwegian peasantr}^ Claussen was also the author of a 
 " Description of Noi-way," published likewise after his death, in 
 1632, at the cost of the same Joachim Moltken. — M. H. 
 
 CLAVELL, John, a highwayman of the time of Charles I., 
 nephew of Sir N. Clavell, published in 1628 a poem entitled 
 " The Recantation of an Ill-led Life, or Discovery of the High- 
 way Law." &c. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLAVE RET, Jean, bom at Orieans in 1590 ; died in 1G66. 
 He first studied law, and commenced to practise as an advocate. 
 He fancied himself a poet, and formed an acquaintance with 
 Comeille, who advised him to stick to his trade of advocate. 
 He was offended, and commenced a pamphlet war against Cor- 
 neille. This was not enough ; he had interest suiScient to get 
 a comedy acted, which bore the same title as one of Cor- 
 neille's. The court were for Claveret, the public for Comeille. 
 He regarded this as success, and tried another comedy, which, 
 however, the actors refused to bring out. It was the day when 
 the unities were the rule of the French theatre, and Claveret, 
 who was not daring enough to violate them, escaped from the 
 difficulty with a dexterity all his ovm. A drama of his, " The 
 Rape of Proserpine," was so arranged as to have the scene now 
 in heaven, now on earth in Sicily, and now in hell. The unity 
 of place was not violated, for the poet imagined a perpendicular 
 line from heaven to hell passing through Sicily. ^J. A., D. 
 
 CLAVIER, Etienne, born at Lyons in 1762 ; bred to the 
 law, he combined with his legal pursuits the study of ancient 
 languages and literature, more especially the Greek, and even 
 
 seems to have imbibed the heroic spirit of the days of old. It 
 was while he sat as judge of the criminal court of the depart- 
 ment of the Seine that he set an example of independence not 
 veiy common under the empire. When General iSIoreau was on 
 his trial before him, the law officers, pressing for a capital con- 
 viction on grounds which the court deemed insufficient, thought 
 to overcome scruples by an intimation that the emperor, if grati- 
 fied by a conviction, would pardon the accused ; on which the 
 judge exclaimed— " Who would pardon us?" In 1809 he was 
 elected member of the class of ancient history and literature at 
 the Institute. In 1811 the criminal court over which he 
 presided was suppressed. His chief literaiy labours consist of 
 translations from the Greek. He wrote, besides, essays on the 
 oracles of the ancients, and "A History of the early" times of 
 Greece." He died in 1817.— J. F. C. 
 
 CLAVIERE, Etienne, a French statesman of the revolution- 
 ary period, was bom at Geneva in 1735. He was one of the 
 leaders of the party of the Girondists ; in 1792 he was appointed 
 minister of finance. The foUo^-ing year, along with all the 
 most eminent members of his party, he was condemned to death. 
 He killed himself in prison. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLAVIGERO, Francisco Saviero, a Spanish Jesuit, born 
 in Mexico in 1720, and author of a curious work on the customs, 
 history, and language of his native countiy since the Spanish 
 conquest. In the latter part of his life he came to Eiu'ope, 
 and resided at Cesena in the papal states, where his great 
 work was published in 1780, under the title of " Storia Aiitica 
 del Messico," &c.— F. M. W. 
 
 CLAVIJO, RuY Gonzales de, a Spaniard, who lived about 
 the commencement of the fifteenth centuiy, and was sent on an 
 embassy to Tamerlane by Hemy III., king of Castile, of which 
 an account, supposed to be from his pen, was pubhshed at Seville 
 in 1582.— J. T. 
 
 CLAVIJO Y FAJARDA, Jos£, a Spanish author, editor of 
 a joumal at Madrid, and the translator of Buffon, born in 1730; 
 died in 1806. He fought a duel with Beaumarchais, who came 
 to j\Iadrid to avenge a slight which Clavijo had put upon one of 
 his sisters. Slore than one dramatist has made use of the 
 incident. — F. M. W. 
 
 CLAVIUS, Christopher, an eminent Gennan mathema- 
 tician, called "the Euclid of the sixteenth century," was born at 
 Bamberg in 1537, and died at Rome in 1612. He was 
 employed by Pope Gregory XIII. in the business of refonuing 
 the calendar. 
 
 * CLAY, Cassius Marcellus, the seventh son of General 
 Green Clay, born in Madison county, Kentucky, in 1810, has 
 been mainly and very honourably distinguished for his bold and 
 resolute eftorts to free his native state from the curse of slaverj-, 
 and to induce the great body of slaveholders to adopt measures 
 looking to ultimate emancipation. With a view to qualifying 
 himself for an active public and political career, he studied law. 
 The owner of extensive lands and proprietor of many slaves, he 
 commenced his efforts for the freedom of Kentucky by giving his 
 slaves their freedom. His life has since been fi-cquently in dan- 
 ger from the propagandists of slaveiy. The writings of C. M. 
 Clay, with a memoir by Horace Greeley, Esq., were published 
 in New York in 1848.— F. B. 
 
 CLAY, Henry, an eminent American senator and statesman, 
 was the son of a baptist clergyman, and was bom in Hanover 
 county, Virginia, in 1777. His father died when he was only 
 four years old, leaving his mother vciy poor, so that his only 
 education was obtained in a, log school-house, and in 1791 ho 
 was placed as an apprentice in a store in Richmond. But his 
 stepfather procured for him a place as copying clerk in tlie 
 office of the chancery court, where his character and talents 
 attracted the notice of the venerable Chancellor AVythe, who 
 gave him the use of his library, superintended his reading, and 
 turned his ambition to the study of law. His preparation was 
 completed in the office of the attorney-general, Brooke, and 
 being admitted to the bar, he removed to Lexington, Kentucky, 
 when hardly twenty-one years old, and began the practice of his 
 profession. His success was signal and immediate ; with a com- 
 petent amount of legal learning, he became one of the most 
 successful advocates that ever addressed a jury. With a winning 
 manner, a silver-toned voice, great fluency of speech, and quick- 
 ness of thought, and an instinctive appreciation of the characteis 
 and prejudices of those whom he addressed, he never failed of 
 enlisting their sympathies, and seldom of winning their assent.
 
 CLA 
 
 1054 
 
 CLA 
 
 Of course tlie Delilah of politics soon enticed him away from the 
 more sober charms of the matron who presides over the tribunals 
 of law. The greater pai-t of Mr. Clay's life was spent in the 
 public service, and so important were the official posts which he 
 lield, and so numerous and grave the public questions in the 
 settlement of which he had a prominent share, that a full bio- 
 graphy of him would be almost a history of his countiy for half 
 a century. Only a brief summaiy of his career can be given 
 here. While the old division of parties existed between federalists 
 and republicans, Mr. Clay was heartily associated with the 
 latter; when this distinction passed away, and a new one was 
 instituted about 1829 between whigs and democrats, he became 
 the leader of the former. In 1806 he became a senator of the 
 United States for a single year, to fill the unexpired term of 
 Mr. Adair. The two succeeding years he spent in the legisla- 
 ture of Kentucky, Then he returned to the federal senate for 
 another year, to supply the vacancy caused by a resignation. 
 In 1811 he was elected to the lower house of congress, and was 
 chosen to be speaker, remaining in that post till 1814, when he 
 was sent abroad as one of the commissioners to negotiate the 
 treaty of peace w^ith England at Ghent. During these years 
 emban-assing questions were open between Great Britain and the 
 United States, which gradually ripened into hostilities, and Mr. 
 Clay was most prominent and active among those younger and 
 more impetuous members of his party, who rather pushed than 
 followed President Madison into a declaration of war. Indeed he 
 was the leader of congi-ess upon this subject, and upon the 
 measures requisite for the prosecution of the war. On his return 
 from Ghent he was again sent to congi-ess, and became speaker of 
 the house, in which post he remained with few intermissions till 
 1825. The chief subjects which he took a prominent part in 
 discussing at this period were, the acknon'ledgment of the inde- 
 pendence of the Spanish American republics, and the protection 
 of American industiy by a protective tariff. Mr. Clay also had a 
 prominent share in the vehement discussions about slaveiy which 
 were excited in 1820 by the question respecting the admission 
 of Missouri into the Union ; and he was, if not the author, the 
 earnest advocate of the famous " compromise " on that subject, 
 which established the line of 36° 30' as the northern limit of 
 slaveholding territory. In 1825 he was a candidate for the 
 presidency against Mr. J. Q. Adams, General Jackson, and Mr. 
 W. H. Crawford ; and, no choice being effected in the electoral 
 college, when the matter came up in the house of representatives, 
 Jlr. Clay and his friends voted for Mr. Adams, and thereby 
 decided the election in his favour. During the whole of the 
 Adams administration, from 1825 to 1829, Mr. Clay was secre- 
 tary of state, and performed the important duties of that office 
 with consummate ability. In 1831 he returned to the United 
 States senate, where he was the leader of the opposition to the 
 administration of General Jackson, and strove ineffectually for 
 the renewal of the charter of the United States bank. Through 
 his influence, also, the " compromise bUl," as it was called, was 
 passed through congress, which put an end to the nullification 
 controversy, by a pai-tial abandonment of the protective system. 
 In 1832 he was again the candidate of his party for the presi- 
 dency, though with little chance of success, owing to the over- 
 whelming popularity of General Jackson, who was re-elected. 
 He retained his seat in the senate till March, 1842, when he 
 resigned, and retued into private life. Two years afterwards he 
 was again a candidate for the presidency, in one of the most 
 exciting pofitical contests that ever took place in the United 
 States, but was defeated by a veiy small numerical majority, 
 obtained mainly through the influence of the administration, then 
 in the hands of his political opponents, and the obstinacy of the 
 so-called "liberty party." The unmediate consequence of his 
 defeat was the annexation of Texas, a measure to which he had 
 avowed strenuous opposition. This was viilually the termination 
 of his public career, though in 1849 he consented to resimie his 
 seat in the senate, in view of the perilous contest which was 
 then imjiending between the slaveholding and non-slaveholding 
 portions of the country, on the California and territorial questions. 
 He was the author of the famous " compromise of 1850," as it 
 was termed, by which, after a long and vehement straggle, this 
 dispute was adjusted. It was the third occasion in his career m 
 which, by giving the whole weight of his abilities and influence 
 to an intermediate com-se between two extremes, he put an end 
 to a vehement contest, which menaced the peace of the country 
 and the duration of the Union. On the matter of slavery he 
 
 always favoured moderate counseLs, and a pacificatoiy policy. 
 Though born in one slaveholding state and a resident in another, 
 he made his delut in political life as an emancipationist, by 
 advocating publicly in 1798 the gradual abolition of slavery. 
 He was always an earnest and efficient friend of the Colonization 
 Society, which has built up a free and flourishing colony of civi- 
 lized blacks on the African coast, and in the debate of 1850 he 
 avowed in the most decided terms his uncompromising opposition 
 to the extension of slaveholding temtoiy. The excitement and 
 exhaustion of this last great controversy gave the final blow to his 
 already enfeebled constitution. He died at Washington, June 
 29, 1852, aged seventy-five. The strife of parties was hushed 
 for a moment at his decease, and all united in rendering him the 
 praise which was his due, as an able and patriotic statesman 
 whose public life was without a stain. Mr. Clay's wife was 
 Lucretia Hai't, oi Kentucky, whom he married in 1799. By 
 her he had a numerous family, consisting of six daughtei-s and 
 five sons. The daughters all died before him, but the sons 
 survived him except one, who was killed in the Jlexican war, 
 and three of them are now holding highly respectable positions 
 in the countiy. — F. B. 
 
 CLAYTON, Dr. John, an American botanist, was born at 
 Fulham, England, about 1686, emigi-ated to America in 1705, 
 and died in Gloucester county, Virginia, in 1773, aged eighty- 
 seven. He resided near the city of Williamsbm-g, and was clerk 
 or prothonotary of Gloucester county for over half a centuiy. 
 He was a private countiy gentleman of moderate fortune, gi-eatly 
 respected by all who knew him. Several of his papers are pub- 
 lished in the Philosophical Transactions; ])ut the work by which 
 he is chiefly known is his " Flora Virgiuica," which was published 
 at Leyden, by Gronovius, in 1739-43, and again in 1762. — F. B. 
 
 CLAYTON, John Middleton, an American statesman 
 bom in Sussex comity, Delaware, m 1796, was chosen senator 
 in congi-ess in 1829, and held office till December, 1836, when 
 he resigned. He was immediately appointed chief-justice of his 
 native state, and continued on the bench for nearly three years. 
 In 1845 he was again sent to the United States senate, and 
 remained there till March, 1849, when he became secretaiy of 
 state under Presidimt Taylor. In this capacity he negotiated 
 what is usually called the " Cla}'ton-Bulwer Treaty," adjustmg 
 the respective claims of England and the United States in Cen- 
 tral America. Mr. Clayton resigned office on General Taylor's 
 death in July, 1850, and immediately re-entered the senate, 
 where he remained till his own decease, 9th November, 1856. 
 He was a zealous member of the whig pai-ty, an able debater, and 
 a statesman of high character for talent and uprightness. — F. B. 
 
 CLAYTON, Egbert, D.D., a distingiushed prelate, and 
 member of the Royal and Antiquarian societies of London, was 
 born in Dubfin in 1695, and died in 1758. He was appointed 
 to the bishopric of Killala in 1729, translated to Cork m 1735, 
 and to Clogher in 1745. He is said to have owed his advance- 
 ment to Dr. Clarke, who recommended him to the patronage of 
 Queen Caroline. Dr. Clayton was the author of " An Introduc- 
 tion to the Histoiy of the Jews ;" " Chronology of the Hebrew 
 Bible Vindicated ; " "A Dissertation on the Prophecies ; " and 
 " A Vmdication and Defence of the Histories of the Old and New 
 Testament, in answer to Lord Bohngbroke." The bishop's well- 
 known leaning to Arianism did not hinder his prefenuent ; but, 
 in consequence of a motion which he made in the house of lords, 
 that the Athanasian and Nicene creeds should be expunged from 
 the litm-gv-, their lordships commanded him to be prosecuted for 
 heresy, jjut he died on the day fixed for the commencement of 
 his trial. — J- T. 
 
 CLAYTON, Thomas, was a member of the royal band of 
 music in the reign of William and JLaiy. Although a man of 
 very inferior talents in his profession, he was induced in the 
 early part of his life to travel into Italy for the purpose of 
 improvement. On his return to England he so far imposed on 
 the good sense of the public, as to obtain the reputation of an 
 eminent musician. Several persons of distinction were per- 
 suaded into a belief, that by means of Mr. Clayton's assistance, 
 nisticity would be no longer the characteristic of English music, 
 and that if due encouragement were given to him, our music 
 would in a veiy short time emulate that of Italy. Accordingly, 
 in 1705, he produced the opera of " Arsinoe, Queen of Cyprus," 
 in which, as Dr. Burney con-ectly observes, " not only the com- 
 mon rules of composition were violated in every song, but also the 
 I prosody and accents of om- language." Yet such was the charm
 
 CLE 
 
 1055 
 
 CLE 
 
 of novelty, and so effectually had Clayton persuaded the public 
 that lie was a great man, that this worthless production was 
 performed twenty-four times the first season, and eleven times 
 the second. Addison unfortunately partook so much of the 
 general delusion as to commit the composition of the music of 
 his opera of Rosamond to this worthless pretender. It was 
 performed for the first time on the 4th of March, 1707 ; but 
 notwithstanding the favourable prepossessions of the public, and 
 the poetical merit of the piece, it was received with the utmost 
 coldness, and struggled with difficulty through three representa- 
 tions. It was then laid aside, and never again pei-formed in 
 the lifetime of the author, though it was revived thirty years 
 afterwards with new music by Dr. Arne. Rosamond owed its 
 f;xilm-e in a great measure to Clayton's wretched music, which 
 tlie audience were now able to compare with better things. 
 Addison's mortification at this ill success appears to have been 
 the cause of the constant hostility he ever afterwards exhibited 
 to the Italian opera. After the failui-e of Rosamond, Clayton 
 disappeared from the musical world, and the date of his death is 
 unrecorded. — E. F. R. 
 
 CLEANDER, was originally a Phiygian slave ; afterwards 
 the profligate fiivourite and mmister of the Emperor Commodus. 
 In a popular tumult occasioned by a scarcity of corn, he was 
 torn to pieces by the mob. — J. T. 
 
 CLEANTHES : the second in order of the philosophers of 
 the Porch. Boi'u at Assos in the Troad about 300 b.c. he 
 came to Athens in his manhood, and listened for fifteen years to 
 the instructions of Zeno. When he began his studies he had in 
 his possession only four di-achma?. He was not gifted with the 
 faculty of quick apprehension, and his steady industry at first 
 only served to excite the laughter of his fellows. But neither 
 toil, poverty, nor ridicule could damp his zeal, or check his 
 dauntless ])ursuit of knowledge. In the expressive words of 
 Laertius " he took to philosophy bravely." Unable to pm'chase 
 paper to make notes on Zeno's lectm-es, he scrawled tliem on bits 
 of potsherd and ox-bones. The spectacle of a man in his station 
 and circumstances devoting his entire time to speculative studies 
 attracted the attention of the Areopagus, and in the exercise of 
 an old right they called on him to give an account of his mode 
 of life. It came out that he earned subsistence by drawing 
 water for a gardener during the night, and v^as thus enabled to 
 surrender his days to the search after wisdom. Struck with 
 admiration for his industry, the judges offered him ten mina;, 
 but the proffered gift was refused in the tiiie spu-it of a stoic. 
 When the witty disciples of the porch applied to Cleanthes the 
 nickname of the Ass, he said mildly, "That implied that his back 
 was strong enough to bear whatever Zeno put upon it " — a remark 
 confirmed by the result of after years when he taught in his 
 master's chair, and the same indefatigable perseverance had won 
 for him the more flattering title of the second Hercules. He 
 was distinguished at all times by the composure with which he 
 bore attack. On one occasion when he was satirized on the stage 
 by Sositheus he looked so calm and dignified that the satirist 
 was hissed off the stage by the spectators. He succeeded Zeno 
 in 263 B.C., and continued to teach liis doctrines with his 
 faculties unimpaired to the age of eighty years. Cleanthes has 
 no place among the great intellects of Greece, but he had 
 acquired in a pre-eminent degi-ee that grasp of the guiding 
 principles of life which crowns an earnest and self-denying 
 career. His writings manifest that loftiness which springs from 
 purity of thought. He struck out no new path of speculation, 
 but his sympathy with the difficulties of the mass of mankind, 
 his own straggle and triumph, together with a vein of genuine 
 religious feeling, fitted him to be one of the leaders of the stoic 
 philosophy on its most important — its practical side. He is the 
 author of a hymn to Jove, which has been justly characterized 
 as the most devotional fragment of antiquity. It is to this 
 hymn that St. Paul refers in his address at Athens — " As certain 
 of your own poets have said, ix a-o-j yr.^ yivo; la-f^iv," It is per- 
 vaded by the sense of a personal God having relation to the 
 individual spirit of man. Another fragment of Cleanthes finely 
 expresses the stoic view of fate — " Lead me, Zeus, and thou 
 Destiny ; whithersoever I am by you appointed, I will follow 
 not reluctant; but even though I am unwilling, through badness, 
 I shall follow none the less." Several of his detached sayings 
 remain to indicate his obsei-vance and inculcation of plain living 
 and philosophic contentment, as, when asked what is the best 
 way to be rich, he answered, " To be poor in desu-es." The stoic 
 
 satirist of Rome refers to him as presenting the best pattern of 
 a life according to the ascetic rules of his school. 
 
 "Cultor enim juvenum purgatos miseri aures 
 Fruge Cleau'thea." 
 
 Of the future he tauglit that all souls are immortal, but that 
 the intensity of existence after death would vary according to 
 the strength or weakness of the soul in life — a view capable 
 of translation into the language of christian faith. His own 
 decease was another instance of the resignation produced by his 
 philosophy. Having fasted for two days by order of the phy- 
 sician to cure himself of an ulcer, Cleanthes said wlien asked to 
 take food, he had gone so far on the road, he was unwUling to 
 turn back again, and of his free will finished the journey. — J. N. 
 
 CLEARCHUS, a Spartan general who was employed on 
 several important expeditions during the latter part of the 
 Peloponnesian war. He latterly seiwed under Cyrus at the head 
 of some Greek mercenaries. 
 
 CLEARCHUS, tyrant of Heracleia, born 411 B.C.; was 
 assassinated in 353. 
 
 * CLEAVELAND, Parker, LL.D., an American mineralo- 
 gist and man of science, was born in Rowley, JIassachusetts, 
 loth July, 1780; graduated at Harvard college in 1799; and 
 six years afterwards was appointed professor of chemistiT, mine- 
 ralogy, and natural philosophy in Bowdoin college, Jlaine — a 
 position which he has occupied honourably and efficiently for 
 over half a century. In 1816, he published in one large volume 
 " The Elements of Mineralogy and Geology," founded on the 
 systems of Brongniart and Haiiy. It was favom'ably received, 
 and passed to a second edition, much enlarged, in two volumes, 
 octavo, in 1822. He has been a pioneer in the cultivation of 
 this science in America, and is highly respected for his labours 
 in it, and for his success as a teacher. — F. B. 
 
 CLEEF, John Van : this painter was bom in 1646 at 
 Venloo in Guelderland. He studied under Primo Gentile at 
 Brussels, and afterwards in the school of Gaspar de Crayer. 
 AVithout reaching his beauty of colour he fairly surpassed Crayer 
 in design. He had great facility, and a strong, free hand. His 
 compositions are rich and graceful, and his thorough knowledge 
 of architecture makes itself apparent in many of his works. He 
 was renowned for the painting of his boys. His most celebrated 
 work is in the chapel of the convent of the black nuns at 
 Ghent, representing the sisters relieving the sick of the plague. 
 He died at Ghent in 1716.— W. T. 
 
 CLEEF or CLEEVE, Joseph or JoAS Van : this painter, 
 called also Sotto CIcef, was born at Antwerp about loOO. He 
 was highly considered as a colourist, and in this respect his 
 works have been often accounted equal to the best Italian 
 masters, though it docs not seem that he ever visited Italy. 
 He painted portraits, and heads of misers, bankers, and Jews 
 weighing and counting money, in the manner of Quentin 
 Matsys, though with more power and finer colour. His altar- 
 pieces at Antwerp gained him great esteem. His countryman. 
 Sir Antonio More, brought him to England, and introduced him 
 to King Philip, who took so little notice of his pictures, that the 
 vain and irritable Dutchman quite lost his reason, and, according 
 to Walpole, died in confinement. In Antwerp cathedral is his 
 picture of "St. Cosmus and St. Damien." His portraits of 
 himself and his wife, and his pictm-e of " Mars and Venus," 
 were purchased by Charies I. James II. possessed his paintings 
 of the "Nativity" and the "Judgment of Paris," and Sir Peter 
 Lely and the duke of Buckingham each had specimens of his 
 art. His death occurred in 1536. — W. T. 
 
 * CLEGHORN, Hugh, a Scotch botanist, conservator of 
 forests in the Madras presidency of India. He took the degree 
 of M.D. in the university of Edinburgh, and was one of the 
 early members of the Botanical Society. Proceeding to India 
 as a medical man, in the service of the East India company, 
 he rendered himself conspicuous by his botanical knowledge. He 
 became professor of botany in the Madras medical college, and 
 aided the Agi-i-horticultural Society in the improvement of their 
 garden. He has printed an Index to Wight's Icones, and has 
 published several papers in botanical periodicals on the " Plants 
 of India." He also contriliuted to the exhibition of Indian pro- 
 ducts at Madras, and has sent home many valuable specimens to 
 the museum at the Edinburgh botanic garden.— J. II. B. 
 
 CLELAND, John, son of Colonel Cleland, the Wn.i, 
 Honeycomb of the Spectator, died in 1789, in his eightieth
 
 year. He was for a time consul at Smyrna, went afterwards to 
 Bombay, quarrelled with some of the residents, and returned to 
 England about 1749. Having fallen into pecuniaiy embarrass- 
 ments, he prostituted his talents to the composition of an 
 infamous work, the sale of which produced no less than 
 £10,000. The rebuke he received from the privy council, 
 and the pension of £100 with which it was accompanied, 
 prevented the repetition of a literary scandal which should 
 have sent the author to the pilloiy. His subsequent publications 
 were political, dramatic, and philological. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLELAND,WiLLiAjr, lieutenant-colonel of the Scottish Came- 
 ronian regiment, and author of a volume of poetiy, was bora about 
 the year 1C61. He was a zealous covenanter, and when little 
 more than sixteen years of age, held a command as captain in the 
 army of the insurgent covenanters at Drumclog and Bothwell- 
 bridge. He is supposed to have escaped to the continent on the 
 suppression of this insurrection, and there is reason to believe 
 that he studied civil law at Utrecht in 168-4. In the following 
 year he was in hiding among the wilds of Ayrshire and Clydes- 
 dale. He again left the country, but returned at the Revolution, 
 and was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the famous Cameronian 
 or earl of Angus's regiment, and commanded them when they 
 were attacked at Dunkeld by a vastly superior force of Highland- 
 ers, under General Cannon, 21st of August, 1689. After an 
 obstinate struggle, in which Cleland displayed the most indomi- 
 table courage, the insurgents were compelled to retreat, leaving 
 three hundred men killed and wounded behind them. But the 
 gallant young leader of the Cameronians was unfortunately 
 killed in the action. " He was a youth of distinguished corn-age 
 and abilities," says JIacaulay ; " his manners were pohshed, and 
 his literary and scientific attainments respectable. He was a 
 linguist, a mathematician, and a poet." Among other poems, 
 he is the author of a bitter Hudibrastic satire upon the High- 
 landers. (See Cleland's Poems, Edin., 1697; and Macaulay's 
 History, vol. iii., chap. 13.) Su- Walter Scott has stated, in his 
 Border Minstrelsy, that Colonel Cleland was the grandfather of 
 the notorious Jolm Cleland above noticed. But this is an entire 
 mistake, and has been satisfactorily disproved by a comparison 
 of dates.— J. T. 
 
 CLEJIEXCET, DoM Charles, a French historical writer of 
 the Benedictine order, was born in 1703, and died in 1778. He 
 was employed for some time, along with Diirand, upon the con- 
 tinuation of the " Decretals of the Popes," and other historical 
 works. He was of a most laborious disposition, and continued 
 his researches till the moment of his death. His most important 
 works are, " The Art of Verifying Dates," begun by Danton, but 
 which Clemencet revised and completed ; a " General History of 
 Port Eoyal," 10 vols., and "The Literary History of France," 
 vols. X. and xi. — J. T. 
 
 CLEJIENCIN, Diego, a Spanish statesman and man of 
 letters, born in Murciaon 27th September, 1765. At ten years 
 of age he was entered at the college of S. Fulgencio in that city, 
 and so distinguished himself, both by character and acquirements, 
 that at the conclusion of his course he was appointed assistant- 
 professor of philosophy and theology. In 1788 he went to 
 Madrid to superintend the education of the sons of the duchess 
 of Benavente. In 1800 he was admitted a member of the 
 Academy of History, and distinguished himself by a memoir on 
 the reign of Isabel the Catholic; he also rendered important 
 services to the academy of the Spanish language, and the national 
 academy. Like nearly all the literary men of his day, Clemencin 
 took a prominent part in the stormy politics of the time. As 
 editor of the Gazette of Madrid, he very narrowly escaped with 
 his life from the vengeance of Murat, after the sanguinary con- 
 flict at Madrid on the 3rd of May, 1808. Still, however, he con- 
 tinued to defend through the press the interests of Ferdinand VII., 
 and in 1810 he went to Cadiz, where the royalist party main- 
 tained their head-quai-ters, to resume his duty of editing the 
 Gazette. In 1813 he was elected a deputy to the Cortes for 
 his native province of JIurcia, and in the same year was chosen 
 one of the royal secretaries. The events of 1814 necessitated 
 his retirement into private life ; but in 1820 he was again elected 
 to the cortes, and twice filled the post of secretary, and once that 
 of president. For a few months in 1822 he was secretary of 
 state for the colonies, and for a short time for home affairs also. 
 Again, in 1823, the political vicissitudes of the day obliged him 
 to retire to his country-seat, where his time was divided between 
 literary and rural pursuits. In 1827, on his return to Madrid, 
 
 he was employed by the government in various duties, which he 
 dischai-ged greatly to the advantage of the country — such as 
 the framing of new laws relating to game, and the redistribution 
 of districts for judicial purposes. A more questionable employ- 
 ment was the compilation of an index of prohibited books. In 
 1833 he was appointed principal royal hbrarian, and in 1834 
 was raised to tlae dignity of a peer of the realm by the queen- 
 regent. Clemencin's reputation, however, must be considered 
 as literary rather than political. His earliest essay was a trans- 
 lation of the Agricola of Tacitus and other classical works. His 
 " Commentaiy on Don Quixote" may be said to have thrown an 
 entirely new light, even for his own countr}'men, on the immor- 
 tal work of Cervantes ; the notes consist not only of philological 
 explanations, but of acute criticisms of the manners and spirit 
 of the time. Only a part of the work was edited by himself, 
 the last three volumes being published by his sons after his 
 death, which took place on the 30th of July, 1834, from an 
 attack of cholera. Among his manuscripts is a memoir on the 
 hfe of the Cid, the publication of which could not fail to be 
 interesting. — F. M. W. 
 
 * CLEJIENS, Friedricii, the assumed name of a modem 
 German poet of considerable genius, but of rather eccentric 
 character. He was bom of very poor parents, named Gerke, at 
 Osnabriick in Westphalia, on the 22d January, 1801 ; and the 
 circumstance of having had for godfather the Rev. Clemens von 
 Morsey, induced him to take the " nom de plume " of Friedrich 
 Clemens, under which he is at present known. His career was 
 a very curious one. He began writing verses when about ten 
 years old, and this ha\'ing attracted the attention of some nota- 
 bilities of his native town, he was nominated to the post of 
 assistant letter-carrier at the age of fourteen. He next became 
 a student of theology ; then an itinerant schoolmaster ; after that 
 a footman in the sernce of a merchant at Hamburg, and finally 
 a lawyer's clerk. As such he mairied "on fifteen pounds a-year" 
 a Httle milliner's assistant ; set up shop as milliner and tobac- 
 conist ; failed in both occupations ; enlisted with an English 
 recmiting officer for the 60th regiment, then in Canada; and set 
 sail, in company with his wife, for the latter country, in ^Lirch, 
 1821. But the hfe of a soldier proving as unacceptable as any of 
 his former occupations, he again took to verse-making ; and pro- 
 curing by means of it the necessaiy fimds, he bought his discharge 
 from the 60th, and retumed to Hamburg in 1823. " Rhyme- 
 forging " now became his regular business, to which he added 
 that of a printer of his works, he having himself constructed, 
 " out of an old tobacco press," a printing machine, and obtained 
 the loan of an old set of types. He in this way issued " Emste 
 und heitere Proben meiuer Dichtung" (Specimens, light and 
 serious, of my Poetry), a volume which was reprinted afterwards 
 in the regular, and it must be said the better way, so far as the 
 getting-up of the book was concemed. His next publications 
 were " Kliinge der Herzens an die Gottheit " (Aspirations of the 
 Heart to God), Hamburg : Hoffman and Campe, 1832 ; " Die 
 Escentrischen " (The Eccentric People), ibid. 1834; and " Jlani- 
 fest der Vernunst" (The Manifesto of Reason) 1836. The last 
 named work made a gi-eat sensation in Geraiany, and was inter- 
 dicted by the Diet ; which, of course, immediately trebled its 
 circulation and the author's renown. After this he pubhshed 
 two novels, " Das entschleierte Bild zu Sais " (The unveiled 
 Picture at Sais) ; and " By Nacht und Nebel " (Through Night 
 and Fog) ; as also a comedy, " Der Auswanderer am Ohio " (The 
 emigrant on the Ohio.) His friends about this time procm-ed 
 him the office of inspector to the Hamburg-Altona telegraph 
 company, which situation secured him against fm'tlier want, but 
 likewise prevented him following his literary labours. He 
 pi-oduced another work, entitled, " Allbuch '' (AU-Book,) an 
 attempt to preach the " Religion of Love," but this met with 
 little success, being condemned by the philosophical schools as 
 well as by the orthodox beUevers, and, besides, sufl'ering from a 
 want of clear logical argumentation. The works of Friedrich 
 Clemens have recently been republished in a new and complete 
 edition. — F. JI. 
 
 CLEJIEXS, Titus Flavius, cousin of Domitian, and his 
 colleague in the consulship a.d. 95. His father was Fla\nus 
 Sabinus, elder brother of the Emperor Vespasianus. During 
 his consulship he was put to death by Domitian. According to 
 Dion Cassius he was exeented on a charge of atheism ; for which, 
 he says, many others who had embraced the Jewish opinions 
 were also put to death. It has been inferred from this that he
 
 CLE 
 
 lOo'i 
 
 CLE 
 
 Tras a christian. His wife was banished because she had embraced 
 the same religion. Under the church of St. Clement at Eome, 
 on the Cajlian hill, was found, in 1725, an inscription in honour 
 of Flavius Clemens, martyr. Sometimes he has been confounded 
 with Clemens Romanus. Notices of him may be found in 
 Eusebius and Jerome. — S. D. 
 
 CLEMENS NOX PAPA or CLEMEXT, J.\cob, a musician, 
 was born in Flanders, but the exact time and place are unknown ; 
 he died in 15 Go. He was designated by his contemporaries 
 with the affix " Non Papa" to his name, to distinguish him from 
 Pope Clement VIL, who lived at the same time. Clemens spent 
 some years in Italy, where his fame as a composer became very 
 general ; he was afterwards engaged to direct the chapel, then 
 in very high repute, of the Emperor Charles V. A mass, printed 
 in 1558, and some pieces in three ditferent collections of motets 
 and secular songs for four voices, were the only works of this 
 master published during his life ; but in 1568 and 1569 were 
 printed his "Cantionum Sacrarum"' and "Chansons Fran9aises," 
 and in 1580 his " Requiem." Burney praises the pmity of his 
 counterpoint, and Hawkins prints a canon of his composition as a 
 specimen of this, and of the state of music in his tims." — G. A. M. 
 
 CLEMENT, a distinguished Irish scholar and ecclesiastic, 
 who lived towards the end of the eighth century. He accom- 
 panied his friend Albin to the court of Charlemagne at Paris ; 
 the manner in which they attracted the notice of the monarch is 
 already stated. — (See Albin.) Charlemagne retained Clement in 
 Paris, and all the young men of the city of every rank were put 
 under his tuition. It is right to remark that Tiraboschi, in his 
 History of Italian literature, doubts the truth of the story of 
 these monks' introduction to the emperor; but both JIuratori 
 and Denina give credence to it, and there is no reason to doubt 
 the facts of the narrative. Clement wrote a life of his royal 
 patron, and several other works which were held in high repu- 
 tation.— J. F. W. 
 
 CLEMENT, AuGUSTix Jean Charles, bishop of Ver- 
 sailles, was born at St. Creteil, near Paris, on the 8th September, 
 1717. After stud^-ing jurisprudence he became a clergyman, 
 received priest's orders in 1741-, and was admitted into the 
 chapter in the principal church at Auxerre. He was a zealous 
 jansenLst, combating the Jesuits with great boldness. To promote 
 the jansenist interest, he visited the Netherlands in 1752 and 
 1762, and took several journeys to Italy and Spain. In 1797 
 he was appointed constitutional bishop of Versailles. In that 
 year he took a leading part in the first national council at Paris. 
 After Pius VII. entered into negotiation with the Emperor 
 Napoleon respecting a concordat, he resigned his dignity, and 
 died on the 3d JIarch, 1804. — (See 3femoires secrets su7- la vie 
 de M. Clement, by Saillant, Pai-is, 1812, 8vo.)— S. D. 
 
 CLEJIENT, Francois, abenedictine monk of St. Maur, bom 
 at Beze in Burgundy in 1714. He embraced the monastic life in 
 the benedictine abbey of Vendome, where he studied with intense 
 application. Having been ordered by his superiors to Paris, 
 he turned his attention chiefly to history. In 1770 he published, 
 in connection with Brial, the twelfth volume of the "Recueil des 
 histoires des Gaules et de la France," begun in 1738. The 
 thirteenth voUmie appeared in 1786. He is also the author of 
 "Catalogus MSS. codicum collegii Claromontani," 1764, 8vo; 
 and " L'art de verifier les dates des faits historiques," which, in 
 the third edition, Paris, 1783, three volumes folio, may be called 
 a new work, though founded upon that which was originally 
 published by Dantine, Durand, and Clemencet in 1750, and of 
 which he had superintended the second edition in one volume 
 folio, Paris, 1770. It is said that he spent thirty years on 
 this work. His studies were interrupted by the Revolution, 
 during which he sought shelter in one convent after another, and 
 lastly in the house of his nephew. He had made considerable 
 progress in the composition of another book to be entitled "L'art 
 de verifier les dates avant Jes. Christ.," but died suddenly of 
 apoplexy before its completion, on the 29th ^Larch, 1793. — S. D. 
 
 CLEMENT, Jacques, murderer of Henry III., king of France, 
 ■was born in the village of Sorbonne. He became a dominican 
 monk, and afterwards priest. His disposition was gloomy and 
 enthusiastic. Sights from heaven appeared to him ; voices 
 fi-om heaven addressed him. God commissioned him, so he 
 alleged, to sacrifice his life for the faith, and deliver the church 
 from an apostate king. He set out for Paris on the 31st July, 
 1589, to the camp of the king at St. Cloud, with a knife in 
 his sleeve. La Guesle, procurator-general of the king, whom 
 
 VOL. I, 
 
 lie had informed of his having important things to disclose to 
 Henry, conducted him into the royal presence, in the house of 
 one Jerome of Gondi. When the monk presented to the king 
 an epistle, the latter read it as he sat, inclined his ear to the 
 kneeling man to receive the important intelligence wliich could 
 not be given in the hearing of another, and received a mortal 
 wound in the abdomen from Clement. The king tore the 
 knife from his body, and with it stabbed the murderer twice in 
 the face. La Guesle and the royal servants soon despatched 
 Clement, who never spoke. He is supposed to have betm 
 twenty-four or twentv-five years old at the date of his death. — 
 (See Thuani Hht. ed". Francof., lib. 94-96.)— S. D. 
 
 CLEMENT, .Jean Marie Bernard, a French critic of con- 
 siderable celebrity, bom at Dijon in 1742 ; died in 1812. 
 
 * CLEMENT, Knl't Jungbohn, a Danish writer of reputa- 
 tion, was born Ln the island of Amram on the 4th December, 
 1803. In 1825, he was sent to Altona, whence in due time he 
 entered the university of Kiel, devoting himself to theolog}- and 
 languages. Here he remained two years, and after a short resi- 
 dence at the university of Heidelberg, took his degi-ee of doctor in 
 philosophy. The reputation of Clement soon attracted the notice 
 of the Danish government, who furnished him with the me.ans of 
 travelling through the British islands, France, Belgium, and Ger- 
 many. On his return he was attached to the university at Kiel, 
 where he delivered a very popular course of public lectures. 
 The pen of Clement has not been an idle one. Besides several 
 volumes on his travels, he has written on politics, histor}', lan- 
 guages, and polite literature. He is justly esteemed as a writer 
 of original genins and sprightliness, and enjoys the reputation 
 of being an excellent linguist. — J. F. W. 
 
 CLEMENT, NicoL.vs, a French historical writer, and one of 
 the librarians of the royal library, was bom in 1651, and died 
 in 1716. He prepared a work entitled " Memoirs and Secret 
 Negotiations of France conceming the Peace of Munich," &c., 
 which was published at Amsterdam in 1716. He fomied an 
 •immense collection of prints (18,000 in number), which he 
 bequeathed to the Bibliotheque Royale. — J. T. 
 
 CLEMENT, Pierre, born in 1707; died in 1767; was the 
 author of a number of plays, both tragic and comic, written in 
 French. He was originally a protestant clergyman in Geneva, but 
 having removed to Paris, and devoted himself to theatrical com- 
 positions, was required by the consistory of Geneva, in 1740, to 
 renounce his clerical title. 
 
 CLEMENT, Titus Flavius, one of the most distinguished 
 teachers belonging to the catechetical school of Alexandria. He 
 was descended from a heathen family which resided either at 
 Athens or Alexandria ; probably the former. Little is known of 
 the events of his life. Gifted with an inquiring mind, he studied 
 the writings of poets and philosophers in search of tnith, but 
 remained unsatisfied. In mature years he discovered in chris- 
 tianitv what he had long been seeking, and embraced it cordially 
 as the highest philosophy. What the stores of classical antiquity 
 had failed to supply, he found in the scriptures as intei-preted by 
 Pantaenus, head of the Alexandrian scliool. After assisting his 
 preceptor in the management of the school, he became his suc- 
 cessor, and laboured there with success about 190-202, till the 
 tenth year of Severus, when persecution obliged him to leave the 
 place. He filled the office of catechist and presbyter with distin- 
 guished ability. It is impossible to trace his movements after 
 leaving Alexandria. Probably he repaired first to his disciple 
 Alexander, then bishop of Cappadocia. He was in Palestine and 
 Syria under Caracalla, as is inferred from a letter of Alexander, 
 then bishop of Jerusalem, recommending him to the churcli at 
 Antioch as a virtuous and godly minister. Some suppose that he 
 returned to Alexandria before 211, and succeeded liis preceptor 
 at that time as master of the school ; but for this tlie evidence is 
 slight. His death took place between 211 and 218. Theprincip.il 
 works of Clemens Alexandrinus are, \iyo! rrforftiTixit »{»« 
 "EkXr.ttts, or Cohortatio ad Gr.Tcos, Hortatorj- discourse to the 
 Greeks; naiSaj-^-^o.-, P:cd.igogus, Pedagogue; 2T{».u«T(rf, Miscel- 
 lanies. These three are properiy parts of one work, iii which are 
 traced the successive steps of convci-sion, discipline, and free 
 insitjht. The best edition of Clement's woi-ks is that of 
 PotUr, in 2 vols., folio, Oxford, 1715. The materi:ils for his 
 biography are in Eusebius, Jerome, and Photius. — (See Le Nourrj- 
 in Sprenger's Thesaums Patrum, torn, iii., p- 718; Von CoUnjs 
 article in Ersch and Gruber's ICncyclopscdia, vol. xviii. ; Neander's 
 Churcit Uistovy; Bishop Kaye'-s Account of the u-rilinys and 
 
 G S
 
 CLE 
 
 1058 
 
 CLE 
 
 opinions of Clement of Alexandria., 8vo, 1835; and Smith's 
 Dictionary of Biography and Jifythology.') — S. D. 
 
 CLEMENT I. or Clemexs Eom^vnus, an ecclesiastical writer 
 belonging to the early cliui-ch. Very few particulars of his life 
 are known. Many think that he was the same Clement whom 
 the apostle Paul alludes to in the epistle to the Philippians, iv. 3. 
 But though Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome, and others 
 in ancient times, as well as various critics in modern times 
 have asserted the identity, it is more probable that they were 
 different persons. If his first epistle to the Corinthians be 
 authentic, Clement occupied an eminent place in the church 
 at Rome. He seems to have been a bishop there. So at least 
 tradition asserts. The order of succession in the first bishops at 
 Eome is uncertain. The oldest tradition is that found in Ire- 
 na3us, wliich arranges them thus — Peter, Linus, Cletus, Clement. 
 The oldest Latin tradition, which is found in Jerome, represents 
 the order thus — Peter, Clement, Linus, Cletus, with which 
 agrees Tertullian's statement that he was ordained by Peter. 
 It has been conjectm-ed that he died the death of a martyr; 
 but Irenaeus, Eusebius, and Jerome never once allude to 
 such an event. The year 102 has been assigned as the date 
 of his decease. There is extant a first epistle (so called) to the 
 Corinthians, written, or purporting to be written, by Clement. 
 To its authenticity we think thei-e can be no well-founded objec- 
 tion; though many critics have denied or doubted it — veiy 
 recently those belonging to the Tubingen school. Presuming, as 
 we do, that the letter was Clement's own production, it probably 
 belongs to the reign of Domitian. Others place it about a.d. 68, 
 which is too earl}', as Schliemann has shown. It appears to have 
 been occasioned by a strife in the Corinthian church — the same 
 in all probability which existed there in the time of Paul ; and 
 its general tenor is to eff'ect a reconcihation between the parties. 
 Another epistle is ascribed to the same writer, the (so called) 
 second epistle to the Corinthians, of which only fragments exist. 
 The production, however, is supposititious, and must have been 
 written at the close of the second centurj'. These two letters 
 are preserved in the Alexandrian JIS., whence they were first 
 transcribed and published by Patrick Young, Oxford, 1()33, 4to, 
 and afterwards much more coiTectly by H. Wotton, Cambridge, 
 in 1718. The apocryphal literature included under the name 
 " Clementines," professetlly proceeded from Clement of Eome ; 
 but this is justly denied by all critics of the present day. 
 Neither the Homilies called the Clementines, nor the Eecog- 
 nitions derived from them ; nor the Epitome, the offspring of a 
 later orthodoxy; nor the Apostolic Constitutions and Canons 
 which were written much later than Clement's day — though 
 recording many genuine apostohc traditions — belong to his pen. 
 In like maimer the two Syriac epistles to the virgins, first printed 
 by Wetstein at the end of his edition of the Greek Testament, 
 must be dissociated from Clement's authorship, notwithstanding 
 the opinion of Wetstein, Miihler, Zingerle, and others. The 
 remains of Clemens Romanus are included in editions of the 
 apostolic fathers, as in those of Cotelerius (ed. Clericus), 2 vols., 
 folio, Amsterdam, 1724; Jacobson, 2 vols., 8vo, Oxford, 1840; 
 Hefele, at Tubingen, 1 vol., 8vo, 1847. Tbey have been trans- 
 lated into English by Ai-chbishop Wake and Chevallier. — (See 
 Hilgenfeld's Erforschmigen iiber die Schriften apost. Vdier, 
 1853, 8vo ; and Uhlhom, in Herzog's Encyclopaedia of Protes- 
 tant Theoloriy, article " Clement." — S. D. 
 
 CLEMENT II., Pope, a German, bishop of Bamberg, suc- 
 ceeded Gregoiy VI. in 104G. He immediately crowned Henry 
 III. emperor of Germany. He died in the following year. — T. A. 
 
 CLEJIENT III., a Eoman, one of the cardinals created by 
 Alexander III., was elected pope in 1187. In this year Jerusa- 
 lem was taken by Saladin, and the christian kingdom of Palestine 
 subverted. Clement endeavoured, and not unsuccessfully, to 
 arrange the quarrels which divided the sovereigns of Europe, and 
 to unite them into a confederacy for the purpose of undertaking 
 a new crusade. He reconciled Henry II. of England and Philip 
 Augustus, and they, together with Frederic Barbarossa, assumed 
 the cross. Clement died in 1191. — T. A. 
 
 CLEMENT W. (Guido, bishop of Sabina), was elected on the 
 death of Urban IV. in 1265. He had fomaeriy been a lawyer, 
 and had two daughters hving at the time of his elevation. 
 Clement carried on Urban's design of getting Naples and Sicily 
 for Charles of Anjou, whom he vigorously assisted, first against 
 Manfred, then against Conradm, until the whole of Sicily fell 
 into his hands. Crusades were promoted by this pope, in 
 
 Spain against the Moors, and in Hungarj' against the Tartars. 
 He had already mLxed in English affairs, having been sent by 
 Urban IV. on a mission of conciliation between Henry III. 
 and his barons, and of coercion as regarded the bishops who 
 sided agamst the king ; and now, as pope, he continued his 
 efforts ; exhorted the king of France, St. Louis, to act also as a 
 peacemaker, and sent Cardinal Ottoboni to England as his 
 legate, with highly beneficial results. Clement was a good 
 preacher, and led an ascetic life. He died in 1286.— T. A. 
 
 CLEMENT V. (Berteand de Goth, archbishop of Bour- 
 deaux), was elected in 1305 by the cardinals assembled at 
 Perugia, after the sittings of the conclave had been protracted for 
 eleven months since the death of Benedict XL He would not 
 hearken to the entreaty of the cardinals that he would come 
 to Italy; but after fixing his court first in Poitou, and then in 
 Guienne, he established it permanently at Avignon in 1309. In 
 two nominations he created none but French cardinals. He 
 granted to Philip le Bel a tithe of the revenues of the French 
 church for five years, to aid him in his unjust war upon Flanders, 
 and in many other ways sacrificed the interests of the church to 
 conciliate this haughtv sovereign. Clement died at Eoquemaure 
 on the Ehone in 1314. — T. A. 
 
 CLEMENT VI. (Peter Eoger, archbishop of Eouen), one 
 of the Avignon popes, succeeded Benedict XII. in 1342. The 
 rupture which his predecessor had unwisely kept open between the 
 Emperor Louis of Bavaria and the holy see, came to a crisis 
 under Clement, who in 1345 fulminated against Louis a bull 
 of excommunication, in which he exhausted the vocabulary of 
 malediction. The candidate favoured by the pope, the Margi-ave 
 Charles of Jloravia, was chosen emperor by the majority of the 
 German electors in 1346. In 1348 Clement purchased the 
 territory and city of Avignon from Joanna, queen of Naples 
 and countess of Provence, for the sum of eighty thousand florins. 
 In 1350 he authorized the celebration of the second jubilee at 
 Rome. He died in Avignon in 1352. — T. A. 
 
 CLEMENT VII. (Giulio), was an illegitimate son of Julian 
 de Medici, who was assassinated in the conspiracy of the Passo 
 at Florence in 1478. He joined the Johannites, and became 
 prior of Capua. Leo X., his cousin, after being elevated to 
 the papacy, made him legirimate, and created him archbishop 
 of Florence, and soon after cardinal in 1513. Henceforth he 
 was Leo's privy councillor. After Hadrian VI.'s death, Giulio 
 was chosen pope in 1523, and took the title of Clement VII. 
 After the battle of Pavia, where the French army was destroyed, 
 Clement was obliged to lean to the side of Charles V., though 
 he had secretly inclined to that of Francis I. He encouiaged 
 a league with France and England against the claims of Charles, 
 when the independence of Italy was in peril. When Francis I. 
 purchased his liberty from the emperor, Clement VII. absoh-ed 
 him from the oath he had taken as a prisoner, and did all that 
 he could to organize a confederacy against Charles' exorbitant 
 power. But the agitations of Germany were unfavourable to 
 the pope's success ; his allies did not keep their word with him ; 
 the enemy pressed on ; the papal forces were overthro^vn at the 
 fii'st assault ; the imperial army entered Eome on the 6th of 
 May, 1527 ; and the city was sacked and pillaged with savage 
 ferocity. The pope himself was besieged in the castle of St. 
 Angelo, and four hundred thousand ducats demanded as the 
 condition of his release. He escaped from prison in the di'ess of 
 a merchant and fled to Or\-ieto. Humbled as he was, the kings 
 of England and France could not induce him to enter into their 
 league against Charles. The misfortunes of the French arms in 
 Italy in 1528-29, strengthened his aversion to come to terms 
 with France ; and in view of all chcumstances he resolved to 
 make a formal peace with the emperor at Barcelona, on the 29tli 
 of June, 1529. Towards the close of this same year Clement 
 had an interview with the emperor of Bologna, in which the 
 latter promised to invest Florence, and compel it again to sub- 
 mit to the Medici family. The progress of the Eeformatiou 
 gave Clement considerable uneasiness, and he used various means 
 to regain the influence which Eome had lost by that movement, 
 but generally without effect. He protracted the decision of 
 Henry VIII. 's suit of divorce from his wife, Catherine of Arra- 
 gon, till the haughty Enghsh king was wearied of delay, and 
 procured a sentence of divorce at home. On this the pope, 
 urged by the cardinals of the emperor's party, issued an ana- 
 thema against Henry, and thus scaled the annihilation of his 
 authority in England. In addition to the troubles which the
 
 CLE 
 
 1069 
 
 CLE 
 
 events in England caused the pope, Francis L menaced Italy 
 with a fresh invasion, afSrming that he had the pope's oral 
 approbation of the project. The emperor pressed on the reluc- 
 tant Clement the necessity of convoking a council ; domestic 
 troubles embittered his mind, his two nephews falUng out about 
 the sovereignty of Florence. He died September 25, 1534. 
 Thcugh his judgment was good, he wanted decision and fiimness 
 of character. His covetousness, dissimulation, and faithlessness 
 created distrast of his policy and contempt of his character. 
 
 A conclave of cardinals who had suffered from the severity of 
 Urban VI., set up as his rival Cardinal Robert of Geneva, under 
 the name of Clement VII., in 1378. He took up his residence 
 at Avignon, and was looked upon as one of the regular French 
 popes. He died in 1394. — S. D. 
 
 CLEMENT VIII. (Cardixai, Ippolito ALDOBRANDrN'o), 
 was elected pope in 1592. FaUing between the long period 
 of European warfare, which was terminated by the peace of 
 Chateau Cambresis in 1559, and that which opened in 1618 at 
 the commencement of the Thirty Years' war, the pontificate of 
 Clement presents the holy see in the light of an important 
 arbitrating and reconciling power in the affairs of the south and 
 centre of Europe. In 1598 the papal forces took possession of 
 the tenitory and city of FeiTara, dispossessing the house of Este. 
 In 1599 occurred at Rome the frightful tragedy of Beatrice Cenci, 
 which has been dramatized by Shelley. Under this pope com- 
 menced the long controversy on the doctrines of grace and fi'ee 
 will, origuiated by the -wiitings of the Jesuit, Molina. The 
 domiuicans opposed Molina, and the matter was referred in 1604 
 to Clement, who, though leaning to the side of the dominicans, 
 did not live long enough to pronounce a decision. This able 
 pope died in JIarcli, 1605. — T. A. 
 
 CLEMENT IX. (Cardinal Giulio Rospigliosi), succeeded 
 Alexander VII. in June, 1667. He was a wise and moderate 
 pontiff. He continued the proceedings commenced by his pre- 
 decessor against the four French bishops who had refused to give 
 an unqualified adhesion to the decision of the holy see upon the 
 famous live propositions of Jansenius. The news of the loss of 
 Candia, taken by the Turks from the Venetians in 1669, is said 
 to have hastened the pope's death, which occurred in December 
 of that year. He was succeeded by 
 
 CLEilENT X. (Cardixal Emilio Ai.tieui), then in his 
 eightieth year. His pontificate is remai-kably barren of interest. 
 He died in 1676.— T. A. 
 
 CLEMENT XI. (Cardinal Giax Francesco Albani) 
 was elected in 1700. He was then in the ^^gour of hfe, and 
 wore the tiara for twenty years, during a most eventful period of 
 European history. The war of the Spanish succession broke 
 out in 1702, and the pope espoused the cause of the French 
 aspirant, Philip V., a younger son of Louis XIV. In eastern 
 Europe, Clement, true to the traditions of the papacy, brought 
 about a successful combination against the Turks. The result 
 was the gi-eat victory of Peterwaradin, gained by Prince 
 Eugene in 1716, which was followed up by other successes, and 
 led for the time to the complete humihation of the Turkish 
 power. Clement assisted with money the pretender, the son of 
 James II , in his abortive attempt in 1715. In 1713 he issued 
 the famous bull Unigenitiis, condemning certain Jansenistic 
 propositions extracted from the waitings of Pere Quesnel. The 
 personal character of Clement was almost without a blemish. 
 He died in 1720.— T. A. 
 
 CLEMENT XII. (Cardinal Lorenzo Corsini) succeeded 
 Benedict XIII. in 1730. This pontiff was a dilettante in the fine 
 arts, and a lover of show and magnificence ; his personal bearing 
 was gentle and noble. He died in 1740, at the age of eighty- 
 eight.— T. A. 
 
 CLEilENT XIII. (Cardinal Carlo Rezzoxico), a noble 
 Venetian, was elected on the demise of Benedict XIV. in 1758. 
 He was one of the most excellent of men ; in Padua he had 
 passed by no other name than "the Saint." The eleven years 
 of his pontificate were one long struggle against the growing 
 influence of the infidel philosophy of France. The great 
 question of the day was that of the suppression of the Jesuits. 
 Clement did not cease to defend by word and act the persecuted 
 society. Nor did he scruple to become in his turn the assailant ; 
 he condemned the monstrous production of Helvetius, entitled 
 De I'Esprit, and also censured the Encyclopfedie of D'Alembert 
 and Diderot, "as pernicious alike to reUgion and morality." 
 Clement died in 1769. — T. A. 
 
 CLEMENT XIV. (Cardinal Lorenzo Ganjaxelli) was 
 
 elected in 1769 on the death of the foregoing pope. By slow and 
 cautious steps he proceeded to that consummation which he 
 well knew was expected from him — the aboUtion of the Society 
 of Jesus. On the 23rd July, 1773, having nearly a year before 
 shut up the Jesuit seminary at Rome, he signed the bull beginning 
 Domihus ac Redemptor noster, by which the order was ipsofucto 
 abolished ia every part of the catholic world. Clement XIV. died 
 in September, 1774. — T. A. 
 
 CLEMENTI, Mlzio, the eminent pianist and composer for 
 his instrument, was born at Rome in 1752, and died in London 
 10th March, 1832. His father, a worker in gold and silver, was 
 chiefly occupied in making ornamental vessels for churches. He 
 was a great lover of music, and was delighted, therefore, when 
 he obsei-ved the manifestation of a natural talent for this art in 
 his son; and he was sedulous to procure him the best opportunity 
 for developing his ability. Antonio Baroni, maestro di capella 
 at one of the ecclesiastical estabhshmcnts in Rome, was a rela- 
 tion of the family; and to his instruction young Clementi was 
 confided when but six years old. The year following, he began 
 to study harmony under a master of some repute named Cordi- 
 celli. In 1761 he gained a prize at a public competition by his 
 efficiency for the requii'ements of an organist, playing fluently 
 from the figured basses of Corelli, and transposing music at 
 sight. He was now placed under Santerelli to learn singing, and 
 he acquii'ed some repute for his voice and his manner. In his 
 twelfth year he became a pupil for composition of the famous 
 Carpini, who was as noted in his own circle for his roughness 
 of manner, as distinguished throughout Europe for the depth of 
 his contrapuntal knowledge. Unlaiown to his rigid master, 
 Clementi wrote a mass for four voices, and found an occasion to 
 have it publicly executed ; Carpini attended the perfonnance, 
 and, though he rebuked his scholar for not having shown him 
 the work, he could not withhold his commendation of its merit. 
 
 Peter Beckford, a brother of the eccentric author of Vathek, 
 and a participator with him of their father's riches, spent the 
 winter of 1765-66 in Rome, and there made acquaintance with 
 the already remarkable powers of young Clementi. Charmed 
 with these, he took the boy under his special care to England, 
 engaguig to make provision for him until he should be of an age 
 to enter upon the world. At this gentleman's seat in Dorset- 
 shire, besides ardently pm-suing his musical studies, Clementi 
 cultivated a knowledge of the classics, in the languages of which 
 he became as great a proficient, as his subsequent residence in 
 different countries made him in those of modem Europe. He 
 remained in this retirement until 1770, prior to which he wrote 
 several of the compositions which, when afterwards published, 
 drew upon liim the attentive admiration of the best musicians 
 of the time ; among others were the six sonatas, op. 2, which 
 are accredited as the origin of this form of writing for the 
 pianoforte ; they were printed in 1773, and their merit was at 
 once acknowledged. On leaving Mr. Beckford, Clementi came 
 to London, where he obtained the appointment, now obsolete, of 
 accompanjist on the harpsichord at the opera. In 1780 he 
 went to Paris, where the eulogies lavished on his very remiu-kable 
 playing might well have intoxicated a less genuine artist, whose 
 love of applause had been greater than his ambition to deserve it. 
 Thence he proceeded, in the nest year, to Vienna, making a 
 short stay at Strasburg and at Munich. In the Austrian capital 
 he played, nightly, together with Mozart, before the emperor, 
 refening to which occasions a letter of Mozart to his father speaks 
 of dementi's executive excellence, but denies in him the power 
 of expression, for which he is most particulariy reputed. One 
 cannot pass unnoticed this direct opposition of the opinion of the 
 man most qualified to form one, to the verdict of the whole world; 
 but it must be borne in mind, that Mozart's was a private letter, 
 not a public declaration, and that in writing to his father, his 
 object would rather be to quiet any apprehensions in the worthy 
 Leopold, of immediate danger to himself from his new and 
 powerful rival, than to give a faithful criticism of the talents of 
 Clementi, which should be openly discussed in after ages. 
 
 Clementi returned to London in 1782, and here remained, 
 except during a short visit to Paris in 1784, for twenty years. 
 So great was his esteem as a teacher, that at the terms of a 
 oTiinea per lesson, then more exorbitant than in the present day, 
 he was continually compelled to refuse pupils by the want of 
 time to attend to "them. Great as was this golden temptation, 
 he never suSered it to allure him from his truthful devotion to
 
 bis art, nor to make him disregard his high calling as an artist. 
 By assiduous practice he was always striving to perfect his skill 
 as' a pianist; and, in the course of this period, he produced many 
 of his ablest works, and wrote his introduction to the art of 
 playing the pianoforte, the valuable influence of which has been 
 proved in the many admirable players that have been fonned 
 upon its principles. The bankruptcy of the firm of Longman 
 & Broderip in 1800, occasioned a severe loss to Clementi, to 
 repair which, by the advice of his commercial friends, he took 
 the principal share in their establishment, and became a music- 
 publisher and pianoforte manufacturer. From this time, except 
 in the case of professional pupils, he entirely gave up teaching, 
 determining to apply himself to the consideration of improve- 
 ments in the construction of his instrument, in which he was 
 so peculiarly successful as to raise up the high character of his 
 house, which his partner, Mr. Collard, maintains at the present 
 time. In 1802 Clementi commenced a professional tour, upon 
 which he was longer absent from England than at any time after 
 his first arrival in this countrj-. "With his pupil, John Field, 
 he visited Paris and Vienna, and then went to St. Petersburg. 
 Returning to Germany, he appeared, with the success which 
 everywhere attended him, at the chief capitals, and went a third 
 time to Vienna. There, through the misrepresentation of ill- 
 judging friends, Beethoven and he were led each to expect such 
 courteous advances from the other, that both w-ere offended at 
 not receiving them ; the two, therefore, were never introduced, 
 and though they not unfrequently dined at the same table in a 
 public room, they neither forgave the slight each one thought 
 he suffered, nor ever spoke to one another. At Berlin, Clementi 
 married the daughter of a poor cantor of St. Nicholas' chmxh, 
 and went with her to his native country, which he had not seen 
 for seven-and-thirty years. Mature as was his age, he was 
 passionately attached to his young wife, whose beauty was 
 remarkable ; and he felt severely her death, which occun-ed 
 within a year of their- marriage, in childbirth. He returned to 
 Berlin to place the infant under the care of his wife's relations. 
 There he met with Berger, whom he accepted as a pupil ; and, 
 to dissipate his grief in changeful excitement, travelled with him 
 in 1805 again to St. Petersburg, resting at even- principal town 
 through which they passed. After this he once more visited 
 Vienna, and was called from thence to Italy by the death of his 
 brother, which necessitated his presence to conclude the an-ange- 
 inents of the family affairs. The troubled state of Europe at 
 this time made it impossible for Clementi to leave his native 
 land before 1810, when he finally returned to England. In 
 1811 he contracted a second marriage, which produced him 
 several children. He now almost entirely seceded from public 
 life, but ceased not his artistic labours. The formation of the 
 Philhannonic Society in 1813, created the opportunity, which 
 had not before existed in England, for producing orchestral 
 compositions ; Clementi was an original member of the society, 
 and he wrote several symphonies — one as late as the year 1824 — 
 which were played at the Philharmonic concerts. His great 
 work, " Gradus ad Parnassum," was the occupation of some 
 years; it was pubhshed about the year 1818, and soon became 
 a class-book for the pianist, and a study for the composer in 
 every music-school in Europe. He received a cruel shock in 
 his extreme old age, from the accidental death, by fire-arms, of 
 his eldest son. On the 17th December, 1827, the musicians of 
 London, with J. B. Cramer and Moscheles at their head, gave a 
 dinner at the Albion tavern, in honour of Muzio Clementi, the 
 father of the pianoforte. On this interesting occasion, the won- 
 derful octogenarian was persuaded to play, when every one of 
 the large assembly was as delighted as astonished at the freshness 
 of his powers evinced, not only in the marvellous finish of his 
 mechanism, but in the spontaneous beauty of his impro\-isation. 
 dementi's playing has left a more lasting impression than 
 that of almost any other executant, since the merits of his 
 style have been handed down, through his many distinguished 
 pupils, to the present generation. Of these pupils, the first in 
 consideration are J. B. Cramer and John Field, both of London; 
 and only less eminent than these were Reuner of St. Petersburg ; 
 Klengl. of Dresden ; and Berger of Berlin, the master of 
 Mendelssohn. As a composer, Clementi may be said to have 
 done for the pianoforte what Haydn did for" the orchestra, by 
 appropriating to it, in the sonata, the grand principles of musical 
 construction which the founder of modern instrumental music 
 developed in the symphony. He was a master of all the 
 
 resources of counterpoint, with a complete grasp of the powers 
 of modern harmony; and, besides the depth of character resulting 
 from this knowledge, his music is distinguished by energy, fire, 
 and intense passion ; tenderness and melodious gi'ace, however, 
 the qualities one would most expect in the writings for his 
 instrument, of an artist whose playing was especially signalized 
 by these points of style, are rarely to be found in his composi- 
 tions. He wrote no less than a hundred and six sonatas for the 
 pianoforte — some of them with accompaniment for other instru- 
 ments — besides many works of less extensive form, and his 
 orchestral symphonies. The grandest example of his genius, and 
 the one in which all his best characteristics are combined, is the 
 sonata called " Didone Abbandonata." His extempore playing 
 was such as could only have resulted from the union of his 
 perfections as a composer and as an executant — rich in the 
 fanciful and elaborate development of ideas, it proved at once 
 the mind quick in invention, and the finger ready to give utter- 
 ance to the thought. Upon the whole, few musicians have 
 exerted greater present, and more lasting influence than Muzio 
 Clementi.— G. A. JI. 
 
 CLEMENTI, Peospero, bom about the commencement of 
 the sixteenth cent my at Reggio ; died in 1584. He was one 
 of the finest sculptors of his day. Algarotti calls him the Cor- 
 reggio of his art. 
 
 CLEMENTOXE. See Bocciardo. 
 
 CLEXARD or CLEYNAERTS, Nicholas, a famous 
 Brabantian gi-ammarian, whose Greek grammar, edited by 
 Vossius and others, was long in use. Died in 1542. 
 
 CLENNELL, Luke : this painter, the son of a fanner at 
 L'lgham, near Morpeth, Northumberland, was bom on the 30th 
 JIarch, 1781. At a veiy early age he exhibited a decided 
 tendency to art. His schoolboy's slate was covered with carica- 
 tui'es, which flowed over and submerged his arithmetic. He was 
 taken from school — the pedagogue entertaining rather mean 
 notions of his abilities — and apprenticed to his uncle, a tanner. 
 But the tanyard, no more than the farmyard, could quench his 
 persistent love of art. He was caught caricaturing his uncle's 
 customers. It was thought vain to struggle longer with the 
 predilections of one so incomgible — so incurable. He was 
 apprenticed to Bewick the wood engi-aver, and soon became 
 known as one of Bewick's most assiduous and promising pupils. 
 Having served out his indentures, he removed to London in 1804, 
 and mai-ried the daughter of Charles WaiTen the engraver. The 
 fame he had already acquired supplied him with as much work 
 as he could execute. Among many other things he engraved 
 the illustrations to Falconer's Shipwreck and Rogers' Poems, 
 after drawings by Stothard. The artist-like character of his work 
 became generally recognized, and Clennell was gi'adually induced 
 to abandon the graver for the brash. He entered as a candidate 
 for the prize offered by the British Institution for the best picture 
 of the " Final Ch.irge of the Guards at Waterloo." Almost to 
 his own sui-prise he succeeded and received the guerdon, one 
 hundred and fifty guineas. In 1814 he was commissioned 
 to paint a picture in commemoration of the entertainment 
 given by the city of London to the allied sovereigns. It is 
 believed that the anxieties this entailed upon him, the difficul- 
 ties he experienced in procuring the requisite portraits, and his 
 own doubts and fears about satisfying those he painted, faWy 
 undermined his reason. He worked away manfully, however — 
 had completed a first sketch of his subject, and was full of 
 arrangements for carrying it further, when, with an awful 
 suddenness, his brain gave way, and for ever. He died in a 
 lunatic asylum on the 9th April, 1840. He had considerable 
 genius, great facility of composition, and very dexterous execu- 
 tion. His best work is perhaps his " Day after the Fair," being 
 excellent in colour and rastic character. His " Market Boats at 
 Brighton " received gi'eat admiration. His power as a land- 
 scape painter is amply exhibited in his work on the " Border 
 Antiquities." — W. T. 
 
 CLEOilBROTUS, son of Anaxandrides, king of Sparta. 
 After the death of his brother Leonidas in the famous battle of 
 Themiopyla?, 480 B.C., Cleonibrotus was made regent for Plis- 
 tarchus, the infant son of that prince, and put himself at the 
 head of the forces which, at the time of the battle of Salamis, 
 occupied and fortified the isthnms of Corinth. He died the 
 same year, and was succeeded in the regency by his son Piiu- 
 sanias. — J. T. 
 
 CLEOilBROTUS I., twenty-tlm-d of the family of the
 
 CLE 
 
 lOGt 
 
 CLE 
 
 Agides, king of Sparta, son of Pausanias, succeeded his brother 
 Agi'sipolis I., and reigned from 380 to 371 B.C. He com- 
 manded the Spartan troops several times against the Thebans, 
 and fell at the battle of Lcuctra, 371 B.C. He was succeeded 
 by his son Agesipolis. — J. T. 
 
 CLEOMEDES, a Greek astronomer who lived somewhere 
 about the year 300 a.d. ; Letronne insists that he lived after 
 Ptolemy. The work by which he is known is entitled " Cii'cular 
 Theor}' (^fiind^aiv') of the Bodies Aloft." It is written with great 
 clearness, and contains many advanced conjectures. He says, 
 for instance, that the first stars are as large as the sun, pro- 
 bably larger ; and that they appear small because of theii- vast 
 distances. He refers the tides to some action of the moon, and 
 distinctly enunciates the fact that this luminary rotates on its 
 axis in the same period that it revolves around the earth. He 
 infers that we, therefore, can never see but one and the same 
 hemisphere of that body. He gives, also, a good explanation of 
 eclipses. Except to the historian of astronomy, the works of 
 Cleomedes have necessarily lost all interest. The best edition 
 of them is that by Bake, Leydcn, 1820.— J. P. N. 
 
 CLEOJIENES: three kings of Sparta of the family of the 
 Agides. Cleomenes L, son of Anax:mdrides, reigned B.C. 
 520-191. In 510 he went with an army to the assistance of 
 the Athenians against the Pisistratida?, expelled Hippias, and 
 afterwards aided Isagoras and the aristocratical party against 
 Clisthenes. He had a colleague named Demaratus, whom, by 
 bribing the priestess of Delphi, he succeeded in deposing. Cleo- 
 menes rendered himself infamous by his slaughter of the Argives, 
 five thousand of whom he immolated by fire in a wood sacred to 
 Argus. He was seized with madness in 490 and killed himself. 
 — Cleomenes II., son of Cleombrotus, reigned in 370-309. — 
 Cleomenes III., son of Leouidas II., reigned in 236-222. He 
 was one of the most remarkable of the Agid sovereigns ; simple in 
 his private tastes, but energetic and imposing in his public conduct. 
 His marriage with Agitatis, the widow of Agis IV., although 
 entered into with reluctance by both parties, proved a fortunate 
 event for the young prince, who found in his wife an energy of 
 purpose and activity of mind which were of the greatest service 
 to him in his schemes of political reform. His first object on 
 acceding to the throne was to revive the ancient militaiy renown 
 of Sparta ; and this he accomplished in his wars with the 
 Acha;ans, whom he repeatedly defeated. He then prepared to 
 restore the ancient constitution of Sparta, put the ephors to 
 death, commanded a redistribution ■ of property, and greatly 
 augmented the number of the citizens. In these projects of 
 reform he was interrupted by his old enemies the Achseans, 
 who, having called in the aid of Antigonus Doson, king of Mace- 
 donia, carried on a war of throe years' duration, which terminated 
 in the battle of Sellasia, and the total defeat of the Spartans. 
 Cleomenes fled into Egypt and placed himself under the protec- 
 tion of Ptolemy Euergetes, on whose death he was imprisoned 
 by the new king Philopator. He eventually escaped from piison 
 and attempted to raise an insurrection, but found no followers, 
 and in despair put an end to his own life 220 B.C. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLEOilKNES, an Athenian sculptor, whose name is inscribed 
 on the base of the celebrated statue of the Veniis de Medici, was 
 the son of Apollodorus of Athens, and flourished between 3G3 
 and 146 B.C. 
 
 CLEON, a celebrated Athenian demagogi;e, the son of 
 Cleasnetus, was originally a tanner. His first appearance in 
 public life was in opposition to Pericles, whom he denounced 
 with great violence. After the death of this great statesman 
 in 429 B.C., Cleon became one of the most pop'Jar leaders of 
 the democracy ; and during the Peloponnesian war, was the 
 acknowledged head of the party opposed to peace. In 427, on 
 the capture of Iklitylene, he vehemently advocated in the 
 assembly that the whole male population of military age should 
 be put to death, and the women and children sold as slaves. In 
 424 the Athenians, appointed him to take charge of certain 
 reinforcements which they sent to reduce the island of Sphac- 
 teria, then held by the Spartans. Elated by his success in this 
 expedition, he strenuously advocated a war policy, and induced 
 the Athenians to undertake the recovery of Amphipolis. He 
 was appointed to lead the expedition, it is supposed, against 
 his will, for he had neither talents nor experience for a mili- 
 tary command. He met with some success at the outset, but 
 was ultimately defeated by Brasidas, the famous Spartan general, 
 under the walls of Amphipolis, and fell in the engagement, 422 
 
 B.C. The portrait of Cleon has been drawn in most unfavour- 
 able colours, both by Thucydides and Aristophanes. But i\lr. 
 Grote has shown that much %veight cannot be attached to the 
 satire of the poet, and that the usual impartiality of the his- 
 torian has been warped by the personal injury inflicted on him 
 by Cleon. — J. T. 
 
 CLEOPATRA, the celebrated Egyptian queen, was born G9 
 B.c;. She was the eldest daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, and from 
 her early years was celebrated for her beauty and fascinating 
 manners. She was seventeen at the time of her father s death, 
 and, in accordance with his will, she ascended the throne along 
 with Ptolemy, her younger brother. A dispute, however, soon 
 arose between them, and Cleopatra was expelled the kingdom, and 
 forced to take refuge in Syria. Having collected an army there, 
 she was preparing to march into Egypt when Ca?sar arrived at 
 Alexandria in pursuit of Pompey, 47 B.C., and espousing her cause, 
 reinstated her on the throne. The defeat and death of Ptolemv 
 soon followed, but another brother of the same name, and still 
 quite a child, was associated with her in the kingdom. She 
 bore a son to Cresar, called Cassarion, who was afterwards put 
 to death by Augustus ; and after the departm'e of the great 
 dictator from Egypt, Cleopatra followed him to Rome, and had 
 apartments assigned her in his palace. After the assassination 
 of Caesar, 44 b.c. she returned to Egypt, and rendered active 
 assistance to the triumvirate in the overthrow of Brutus and 
 Cassius. She now obtained sole possession of the throne by 
 poisoning her brother Ptolemy. In 41 B.C. she met Antony in 
 Cilicia, after the battle of Phifippi; and by her combined beauty 
 and talents, obtained such a complete ascendancy over the 
 susceptible and voluptuous Roman, that he remained ever after 
 her devoted lover and slave. He accompanied her to Egypt, 
 but after the death of his wife Fulvia, he quitted Cleopatra and 
 returned to Italy, for the purpose of marrying the sister of 
 Octavian. In the course of his expedition against Parthia, how- 
 ever, he landed in Syria, and finding himself so near the fascinat- 
 ing queen, the profligate triumvir sent for her, and publicly 
 acknowledged her as his wife, conferring upon her the most 
 extravagant titles and honours. In the war which followed 
 between Augustus and Antony, Cleopatra was present at the 
 battle of Actium, 31 B.C. Her precipitate retreat with her 
 fleet contributed to the loss of this decisive conflict. She 
 fled to Alexandria, where she was joined by Antony. On the 
 approach of Augustus, perceiving that the affairs of Antony 
 were desperate, with characteristic selfishness she attempted to 
 gain the favour of the conqueror, by oftering to sacrifice Antony. 
 She fled to an unfinished mausoleum, in which she had collected 
 her treasures, and caused a report of her death to be given out. 
 Antony resolving not to survive her, threw himself upon his 
 sword and died. Finding that all her efforts to conciliate 
 her cold-blooded conqueror had failed, and that he had deter- 
 mined to carry her captive to Rome to gi-ace his triumph, she 
 put an end to her life, 30 B.C., either by the poison of an asp, 
 or by a poisoned comb — most probably by the former. She 
 died in the thirty-ninth year of her age, and with her ended the 
 dynasty of the Ptolemies, who had occupied the throne of Egypt 
 for three hundred years. Cleopatra was undoubtedly a woman 
 of extraordinary beauty, talents, and accomplishments, and refined 
 taste, but degraded by her voluptuousness. 
 
 CLEOPATRA, daughter of Antony and of the preceding, was 
 bom in 40 B.C. After the death of her parents she was carried 
 to Rome, along with her twin brother, Alexander, and was 
 received under the protection of Octavia, the wife of Antony. 
 She married Juba, king of JIauretania, and by him had two 
 children. 
 
 CLEOPHON, a celebrated Athenian demagogue of obscure 
 ori<^in, alleged by Aristophanes to have been a native of Thrace. 
 He possessed great influence in Athens, and towards the latter 
 end of the Peloponnesian war, successfully opposed the jiroposal 
 to make peace with Sparta. During the siege of Athens by 
 Lysander, 404 B.C., he was brought to trial, condemned, and 
 put to death by the aristocratical party, on the accusation of 
 having evaded his military duty. Cleophon was satirized both 
 by Aristophanes, and by Plato the conuc poet. — J. T. 
 
 CLEOSTRATUS, an astronomer of Tenedos, supposed to h.ave 
 flourished in the fifth century B.C. The division of the zodiac 
 into signs is attributed to him. 
 
 CLEKC. See Lecleuc. 
 
 * CLERC, Louis, a French botanist, who published in 1835
 
 " A Classical and Elementary Manual of Vegetable Anatomy 
 and Phj'siology, containing an account of all the parts of plants, 
 and their functions." It is illustrated by eight lithographic 
 plates, containing one hundred and sixty figm-es, and is preceded 
 by a small Flora of France. — J. H. B. 
 
 CLERISSEAU, Charles Louis, an architect and painter 
 in water colom's, bom in Paris, who came over to England with 
 Robert Adams the architect. He made the di'awings for the 
 "Ruins of Spalatro," &c., published in 1764. On the bank- 
 ruptcy of Adams he returned to France, where he published 
 " Antiquitds de France ; " " Monumens de Nimes," and other 
 works. In 1783 lie was appointed architect to the empress of 
 Russia. He is noted for his very excellent water-colour draw- 
 ings, which are highly prized. He died in Paris in 1820, in 
 his ninety-ninth year. — W. T. 
 
 CLERKE, George, an English navigator who was born in 
 1741. He was educated at the marine academy of Portsmouth, 
 and at an early age went to sea, where he distinguished himself 
 by his intrepidity and zeal. In June, 17G4, he entered as 
 midshipman on board the Dolphin, and made his first voyage 
 i-ound the world under the command of Commodore Byron. He 
 undertook a second voyage in 1768 with Captain Cook in the 
 Endeavour as assistant-boatswain's mate. In 1771 he was 
 promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and during the remainder 
 of his life was associated on the most intimate terms with his 
 illustrious commander. He accompanied him a second time 
 in the Resolution in 1772; and again in 1776, as commander of 
 the Discovery, he joined Cook in his last voyage. On the death 
 of that intrepid navigator, 14th Febraary, 1779, Captain Gierke 
 assumed the command of the expedition, and displayed great 
 prudence and energy in the critical circumstances in which he 
 was placed. After quitting Owhyhee he made some exploratory 
 researches among the other Sandwich islands ; and in spite of 
 the feeble state of his health, he resolutely persisted in carrying 
 out the object of the expedition by visiting Kamtschatka and 
 Behring's Straits. On the 28th of JIarch he reached the bay of 
 St. Peter and St. Paul, and after spending some time in repair- 
 ing and victualling his ships, he proceeded to follow out the 
 attempt to discover the north-east passage ; but finding it unpos- 
 sible to penetrate through the ice, either on the coast of America 
 or that of Asia, Captain Clerke was compelled to return to the 
 southward, and on the 22nd of August, 1779, he died of con- 
 sumption at the age of thirty-eight. Although the voyage was 
 thus unfortunate as regards the two commanders, it made a 
 great addition to our knowledge of the earth's surface. One of 
 the islands near the entrance of the North Sea, discovered by 
 Captain Cook in 1778, was named by him Clerke's island after 
 his colleague. — J. T. 
 
 CLERK, John, an English Roman catholic dinne, who was 
 at one time chaplain to Cardinal Wolsey. He was deputed by 
 Henry VIII. to present to Leo X. the treatise of the king against 
 Luther, which obtained for Heniy the title of Defender of the 
 Faith. On his return in 1523 he was nominated bishop of Bath 
 and Wells. He was subsequently employed by Henry in nego- 
 tiating with the duke of Cleves regarding the divorce of his sister 
 Anne. The bishop died in 1540. — J. T. 
 
 CLERK, JoHx, of Eldin, N.B., author of a famous essay 
 "On Naval Tactics, Systematical and Historical, with Explana- 
 tory Plates." In this work is embodied and explained the 
 celebrated naval manoeuvre, technically called " breaking the 
 line," which was employed for the first time by Lord Rodney in 
 1782, and led to his decisive victory over the French under De 
 Grasse in the West Indies, and was adopted with invariable 
 success by Lord Howe, Nelson, and others during the war with 
 France. Mr. Clerk's friends claim for him the invention of this 
 manoeuvre. They afiirm that he first broached his notions on 
 this subject in 1779, and that, in the following year, he men- 
 tioned his plan to Mr. Kichard Atkinson, the particular friend 
 of Admiral Rodney, by whom it was communicated to that 
 distinguished ofiicer. On the other hand, this view has been 
 zealously controverted by General Sir Howard Douglas, who 
 affirms that Mr. Clerk's essay could not have been communi- 
 cated to Lord Rodney before his engagement with the French 
 fleet. It is curious tliat the author of this ingenious essay had 
 never made a single voyage. Mr. Clerk was a zealous antiqua- 
 rian. He died in 1812.^(See Scott's Life by Lockhart, vol. i.; 
 Edinburgh Review, vol. vi. p. 301.) — J. T. 
 
 CLERK, John, Lord Eldin, a distinguished Scottish lawyer, 
 
 son of the preceding, was bom in 1757. He was educated at first 
 with the view to a career in India ; but afterwards turning his 
 attention to the law, he was called to the bar at Edinburgh in 
 1785. His success there was striking; but being a liberal in poli- 
 tics, he was excluded fi-om holding any of the great offices, except 
 for a short time that of solicitor-general for Scotland, under 
 the coalition administration of 1805, Henry Erskine being lord- 
 advocate. After Erskine had retired from practice, and Blair, 
 Hope, Boyle, and one or two others, had been raised to the bench. 
 Clerk remained undisputed leader of the bar; the next after him 
 being Cranstoun, who used generally to be retained on the other 
 side; and until about 1820, when his faculties began to fail, 
 he was in the receipt of one of the largest professional incomes 
 ever eamed in a Scotch court. In personal appearance, as well 
 as in manner of pleading, he was remarkable. His large head ; 
 broad, massj', projecting brow; eyes full and clear, overhung by 
 rough shaggy eyebrows ; a mouth with lines marking decision ; 
 and a lurking sense of humour — spoke to gi-eat intellectual \agour. 
 His frame was robust and full of nen-e, and a slight lameness in 
 one limb scarcely disfigured him. When pleading, so long as 
 he was imexcited he was slow, distinct, sensible, but nothing 
 more. Once roused, and no man was more easily roused, the 
 \vords flowed in a torrent of invective; sarcasm and ridicule were 
 heaped on his opponent, and even launched at the bench if he 
 were crossed. His powers of reasoning at the same time were 
 strong, his knowledge of law vast, and he never applied either 
 better than when humed away by this enthusiasm. But he was 
 very unequal. Few great counsel, it is said, ever made so many 
 poor appearances. From his hastiness and love of opposition, 
 it may easily be believed that he delighted in paradox, and the 
 more he was thwarted, the more strongly would he insist that 
 he was right. When he spoke, crowds gathered to hear him, 
 and it was rare that some piece of brilliant sarcasm or strong 
 humom- did not reward them. His hearers relished it none the 
 less that he delivered it in his native Scotch, which with him, 
 however, was tainted with nothing vulgai". His fame extended 
 beyond the courts of law. Although a man so fond of opposi- 
 tion could hardly have been expected to have adopted the politics 
 of those in power, the liberality of his principles had a deeper 
 foundation, and formed part of him. His coiu-age in maintain- 
 ing them was everywhere respected. He was known as the man 
 who, after Henry Erskine, was the boldest in the popular cause. 
 The threats and allurements of the Dundases and the other tory 
 lawyers who then monopolized power and patronage, had no 
 influence over him, and his example had doubtless effisct on 
 others in lower ranks. The parliament house then was one of 
 the few places having an air of publicity, where opinion was 
 freely expressed. When Clerk first entered on life the opposition 
 press had hardly a respectable writer, the terrors of the law of 
 libel hung over it, and public meetings were unknown. Certainly 
 some of the merit of producing that change which he lived to 
 see, must be attributed to the bold, able, and outspoken lawyer. 
 Among his merits, also, it nnist not be forgotten that he steadily 
 supported law reform. In private life Clerk was almost a dif- 
 ferent man from what he was in pubhc. Cultivating literature 
 of all kinds, he was passionately devoted to the fine arts. He 
 had great knowledge of painting, was himself a clever di'awer 
 and etcher, and also modelled occasionally. A great part of his 
 income was devoted to the formation of a fine private gallery of 
 pictm-es and of other objects of art, the benefits of which he was 
 far from confining to himself. In times when eveni-one was 
 social in Edinburgh, he was a favourite with its best society. 
 In his earlier days he would remember when every citizen in 
 Edinburgh, from the judges downwards, spent some portion of 
 his evening in some club or place of public entertainment. In 
 his later days this spirit had not died, though its fonn had 
 somewhat altered. The age of exclusiveness had not begun. 
 "People visit each other in Edinburgh," said the author of 
 Peter's Letters writing about 1816, "with all the appearance 
 of cordial familiarity, who, if they lived in London, would 
 imagine their diilerence of rank to form an impassable barrier." 
 This freedom extended to all circles. The literaiy men, among 
 whom were conspicuous Scott and Jeffi'ey, and the host of rival 
 contributors to the Edinburgh Revietv and to Blacl-wood's Maga- 
 zine, with Dugald Stewart and other professors in the univer- 
 sity, did not find themselves too enhghtened for their fellows ; 
 and, while they raised the whole tone of society, in turn profited 
 themselves by an ever fresh knowledge of human nature and
 
 geniality of mind. It was in society sucli as this, that Clerk 
 shone with never-failing humour and endless store of anecdote. 
 If occasionally he discoursed complacently on his own talents 
 and virtues, it was thought nothing of; for eccentricity had not 
 then become the reproach it is now counted in less cultivated 
 society. Nor did his inattention to dress make him anything 
 the less welcome. The real kindness and liberality of the man's 
 whole nature might well have made much gi-aver faults to be 
 overlooked. At home among the curiosities, he seems to have 
 been not the least himself. Stories are told of how visitors used 
 to find him in his study, suiTounded by a litter of books, engrav- 
 ings, and statuettes, with possibly half a dozen cats or dogs 
 lying about, and in all likelihood one of the former animals, of 
 which he was specially fond, perched on his shoulder. The days 
 for these things are past, and half the eccentricity of Clerk would 
 now prevent a man from being what lie was in his day — a leader 
 in public opinion, in the courts, and in society, and an authority 
 in literature and art. John Clerk was not made a judge till 
 1823, when he was very old, and all his faculties were dim. 
 His memory, in particular, had failed. Accordingly, his reputa- 
 tion as a judge is veiy limited, and his decisions of little value. 
 He resigned his judgeship in 1828, and died in 1832. — J. D. W. 
 
 CLERMONT, Louis de Bourbon, Count de, a prince of 
 the royal family of France, was born in 1709. He was at first 
 intended for the clerical profession, and actually received several 
 abbacies; but in 1733 he obtained a dispensation from the pope, 
 Clement XII., authorizing him to bear arms. He served in 
 several campaigns in Germany and the Low Countries. In 
 175-1 he was elected a member of the French Academy — a 
 step which provoked a number of smart epigrams both on the 
 academy and on the new member. In 1758 he was appointed 
 to the command of the French anny in Hanover, and was 
 attacked by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, driven across the 
 Rhine with great loss, and ultimately defeated at Crefeldt, leav- 
 ing seven thousand men on the field. He died in 1771. — J. T. 
 
 CLERY or O'CLERY, JIichael, the chief compiler of the 
 Irish Annals, called " of the Four blasters," was born in the 
 parish of Kilbarron, near Ballyshannon, Donegal, Ireland, about 
 the year 1575. He was a lay brother of the Franciscan order, 
 and while in the world had borne the name of Teige of the 
 Mountain ; but on his admission to the order of St. Francis 
 he assumed that of Michael. Soon after joining his order at 
 Louvain, he was sent to Ireland by the guardian of the Lish 
 convent there, Hugh Ward (who was then himself employed in 
 writing the lives of Irish saints), to collect Irish manuscripts and 
 other helps towards this undertaking. O'Cleiy, who was emi- 
 nently qualified for the task, pursued his inquiry for fifteen years, 
 during which period he visited the best Irish scholars and anti- 
 quaries then living, and transcribed from ancient manuscripts 
 many lives of Irish sjiints, several genealogies, martyrologies, and 
 other monuments, all which he transmitted to Hugh Ward in 
 1635, who, however, did not live to avail himself of them ; but 
 they proved of great use to the Rev. John Colgan, jubilate 
 lecturer of theology at Louvain, who took up the same subject 
 after the death of Ward. During O'Cleiy's stay in Ireland, he 
 compiled the following works — in one volume, " A Catalogue 
 of the Kings of Ireland, and the Irish Calendar of Saints' Days; " 
 "The Book of Conquests;" and "The Annals of Ireland," 
 called "The Annals of the Four Masters." None of these 
 works, of which copies are preserved in the libraiy of the Irish 
 academy, have yet been published, except the " Annals of the 
 Four Masters," of which a complete translation has lately been 
 published by Dr. J. O'Donovan, Dublin. Besides these works, 
 ilichael O'Clery also wrote and published at Louvain a glossaiy 
 of difficult and obsolete Irish words, which Lloyd embodied in 
 his Irish dictionary. This work is now very scarce. Colgan, 
 who published his Acta Sanctorum in tlie year 1G45, states that 
 Michael had died a few months previously. — J. O'D. 
 
 CLEVELY, JoHX : this painter was bom in London about 
 1743. He was brought up in the dockyard at Deptford, but 
 afterwards he entered the navy; and, as a lieutenant in that 
 service, accompanied Lord Jlulgrave in his voyage of discovery 
 to the north pole. He subsequently went with Sir Joseph 
 Banks to Iceland. He painted both in oil and water colours — 
 more generally in the latter. His marine pieces brought him 
 renown, and many of his di'awings were engraved. He died in 
 London in 1786.— W. T. 
 
 CLEVES, Anne of. See Henry VIIL 
 
 CLEVES, ]\Iarie de. Duchess of Orleans, Milan, and Valois, 
 born in 1426, was the daughter of Adolphus IV., duke of Cleves. 
 In 1440 she was married to the duke of Orleans, who was nearly 
 three times her age, and had been twice a widower. Marie of 
 Cleves was a woman of a noble and beautiful appearance, and 
 was possessed of considerable abilities and of high literary culture. 
 She wrote a number of romances, ballads, and other poems, many 
 of which have been preserved. She contributed greatly to the 
 promotion of learning in France, by supporting many students 
 at the universities of Pavia and Orleans, and by giving assistance 
 to the university of Caen. — E. B. 
 
 CLEYN or KLEYX, Fraxz : this artist was bom at Ros- 
 tock, and for some time worked in the service of Christian 
 IV., king of Denmark. Then moved by a strong desire for 
 improvement, he travelled to Italy, and for four years studied 
 zealously at Rome. Afterwards, at Venice, he became known 
 to Sir Henry Wotton and Sir Robert Anstruther, and on their 
 advice journeyed to England, wliere he was placed in the king's 
 new manufactory of tapestry at Mortlake, and required to 
 furnish historical and grotesque designs for the works. He 
 decorated many mansions of the nobility. A room and ceifing 
 by him at Holland House were lauded as equal to Parmegiano. 
 He was original in design, and elaborate in workmanship. He 
 died in 1658.— W. T. 
 
 CLICQUOT, Francois Henri, a French organ-builder of 
 considerable eminence, born at Paris in 1728. He bmlt — some- 
 times in conjunction with Pierre Dallery — the organs of Notre 
 Dame, St. Nicholas-des-Champs, St. Gervais, the chapel-royal at 
 Versailles, St. Sulpice, and many others. He died at Paris iu 
 1791.— E. F. R. 
 
 CLIEVELAND, CLEAVELAND, or CLEVELAND, John, 
 a popular cavalier poet of the reign of Charles I., born at Lough- 
 borough, Leicestershire, in 1613, was educated at Christ's college 
 and St. John's college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow 
 in 1634. Of his poems the best known was a satire entitled 
 " Petition to the Lord-Protector for the Scots Rebel." The 
 author, after his ejection from his fellowship, led an unset- 
 tled life during the civil war, and was for some time a prisoner 
 at Yamiouth. Fuller praises his Latinity, his excellent oratory, 
 and the " lofty fancy" displayed in his poems. He belonged to 
 the metaphysical class of poets, and outdid the most conceited 
 of them in conceits. His death occurred m 1659. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLIFFORD, the name of a famous noble family, " the stout 
 Lords Clifford" as they were called, whose adventures occupy a 
 conspicuous place in English history. They were descended 
 from the dukes of Normandy, and took their English appellation 
 from their castle in the county of Hereford — 
 
 Clifford, Roger de, was the first of the family who gained 
 a footing in the north, by inheriting the lands and castle of 
 Brougham, near Penrith, in Cumberland. He was slain in the 
 Welsh wars. His eldest daughter was the " Faur Rosamond " 
 of romantic celebrity. — Robert, the son and successor of Roger, 
 was said to have been the greatest man of all the family, being 
 of a most martial and heroic spirit. He was one of the guar- 
 dians of Edward II. when a minor, and was subsequently made 
 by him lord high admu-al. He acquired great celebrity iu the 
 Scottish wars, and was rewarded for his valour by gi-ants out of 
 the possessions of the Maxwells and Douglases. But he went 
 upon his neighbour's land once too often, and was slain at the 
 battle of Bannockbiu-n, 24th June, 1314. 
 
 Clifford, Roger, fifth lord, is said to have been "one of the 
 wisest and gallantest " of the race. He took a prominent part 
 in the French and Scottish wars of Edward IIL He was the 
 longest possessor of the fiimily estates of any before or after him 
 tiirthe " Shepherd Lord," and it was his fortune to be the first 
 Lord Clifford of Westmoreland who lived to be a grandfather. 
 
 His son Thomas, was one of Richard II.'s dissolute favourites, 
 
 and on being banished from the court by authority of parliament, 
 he joined the crusade and was slain, leaving an infant son who 
 married the only daughter of the famous Hotspur, and stood 
 deservedly high in the favour of Henry V. He fell in the flower 
 of his age at the siege of Meux in France. 
 
 Clifford, Thomas, the sixth lord, gained renown at the b.attlc 
 of Poitiers, and did "brave service in the wars in France, at the 
 assault and taking of the strong town of Pointhoise, when and 
 where he and his men were all clothed in white by reason of the 
 snow, and in that manner surprised the town. He also valiantly 
 defended the same town against the assaults then and there
 
 CLl 
 
 1064 
 
 CLI 
 
 given by the French king, Charles VII." He took a prominent 
 part on the Lancasti-ian side in the wars of the Roses, and fell at 
 the battle of St. Albans, 22nd May, 1455. This Lord Clifford 
 is the subject of some powerful lines in the second part of Shak- 
 speare's Henry VI. — His son, the "Younger Clifford," is stigma- 
 tized by the great dramatist and the old chroniclers, as notorious 
 for his cruelty, even in that merciless age. Leland says, " that 
 for slaughter of men at Wakefield, he was called the ' Boucher.'" 
 The duke of York, the competitor for the crown, fell in that 
 bloody engagement, and his son, the youthful earl of Rutland, 
 was killed in the pursuit by " blackt'aced Clifford," as Shak- 
 speare terms him. The perpetrator of this barbarous deed was 
 himself slain soon after, at the age of twenty-six, the day before 
 the battle of Towton ; and, according to the traditional account 
 of the family, his body was thrown into a pit with a promiscuous 
 heap of the slain. His estates were forfeited, and bestowed upon 
 the " crook-backed" duke of Gloster, afterwards Richard III. 
 
 Clifford, Henry, Lord, the elder son and successor of this 
 redoubted Lancastrian partisan, was the best of his heroic race. 
 At the time of his father's death, he was a child of seven years 
 of age, and was forced to seek a refuge among the simple dales- 
 men of Cumberland, where he lived as a shepherd for the space 
 of twenty-four years. During his pastoral life he is said to 
 have acquired great astronomical knowledge, watching upon the 
 mountains, like the Chaldeans of old, the stars by night ; and 
 in the archives of the Cliffords have been found manuscripts of 
 this period, supposed to belong to the " Shepherd Lord," which 
 make it more than probable that astrology and alchemy were 
 also among the pursuits to which he was addicted. On the 
 death of Richard III. in the battle of Bosworth, " the good 
 Lord Clifford," as he was affectionately termed, was restored to 
 his ancestral honours and estates — an event commemorated in 
 Wordsworth's beautiful song, At the Feast of Brougham Castle, 
 one of the finest specimens of lyric poetry in our language. At 
 the age of sixty, the " Shepherd Lord " went at the head of his 
 retainers to the battle of Flodden Field, " and there showed," 
 says Whitakcr, " that the military genius of the family had 
 neither been chilled in him by age, nor extinguished by habits of 
 peace." He died in 1528, ten years after the battle of Flodden. 
 — His son, who was created Earl of Cumberland, sorely disturbed 
 the old age of his venerable father by his follies and vices. But 
 he is said to have been reclaimed in good time, and there is great 
 reason to hope that his father lived to see the effects of his 
 reformation. The earl was the youthful comrade of Henry VIII., 
 and had the address or good fortune to retain the favour of that 
 monarch till the end of his life. 
 
 Clifford, Henry, second Earl of Cumberland, " had a 
 good library," says his granddaughter Lady Anne, " and was 
 studious of all manner of learning, and much given to alchemy." 
 His first wife was the Lady EHnor Brandon, niece to Hem-y 
 VIII., and daughter of Mary, the widow of Louis XII. ; " a 
 woman," says Hartley Coleridge, " to be held in everlasting 
 honour, for she dared, in the sixteenth century, to unite herself 
 to the man of her choice." The most memorable event in the 
 history of the earl was his recovery from a violent sickness 
 which, for a time, suspended all appearances of animation, so 
 that the physicians thought liim dead. His body was stripped, 
 laid out upon a table, and covered with a hearsecloth, when 
 some of his attendants perceived symptoms of returning anima- 
 tion, and by the use of warm applications, internal and externa], 
 gradually restored him to life. — His son and successor — 
 
 Clifford, George, third Earl of Cumberland, was distin- 
 guished by his romantic daring, and his unextinguishable passion 
 for nautical adventure. He made eleven expeditions, fitted out at 
 his own expense, chiefly against the Spaniards and Dutch, to the 
 West Indies, Spanish America, and Sierra Leone. The voyages of 
 this chivalrous but eccentric sea wanderer, are full of extraor- 
 dinary adventures and perils. In 1588 he commanded one of the 
 vessels in the fleet which destroyed the Spanish armada, and highly 
 distinguished himself by his bravery and skill in the various con- 
 flicts with the invaders, especially in the action fought off Calais. 
 In the following year he dismantled Fayal in the Azores, and cap- 
 tured twenty-eight vessels of various sizes, valued at more than 
 £20,000.— (See the narrative of Edward Wriglit in Hakluyt's 
 Collection.) The earl stood high in the good gi-aces of Queen 
 Elizabeth, who seems to have both admired and flattered his 
 foibles. She invested him with the garter, and appointed him 
 her peculiar champion at all tournaments, He lavished immense 
 
 sums on public spectacles, on horse racing — which had just then 
 become fashionable — and in magnificent banquets; and taking 
 this expenditure into account, as well as his great losses at sea, 
 it is no wonder that having " set out with a larger estate than 
 any of his ancestors, in little more than twenty years he made 
 it one of the least." This extraordinary man who saw, and did, 
 and suffered so much, died 30th October, lGfl5, in the forty- 
 seventh year of his age. His daughter and heiress — 
 
 Clifford, Lady Anne, was the last of this great race, and 
 was one of the most remarkable women whom this country has 
 produced. She was born in 1589, and was man-ied at a very early 
 age to Richard, third earl of Dorset, a man of talent and spirit, 
 but a licentious spendthrift. He died in 1624. Lady Anne speaks 
 gently of his memory, though his licentiousness and extravagance 
 must have caused her much miseiy. After six years of widow- 
 hood, she was wedded in 1630 to Philip Herbert, earl of 
 Pembroke and Montgomery, and nephew of Sir Philip Sidney. 
 This new connection was a source of much misery to the count- 
 ess. She admits that the marble pillars of Wilton, the ancient 
 seat of the Herberts, were as Knowle (the seat of the Dorset 
 family) had been to her, "oftentimes but the gay arbours of 
 anguish." The earl of Pembroke died in 1650, immediately 
 after the downftill of the monarchy. He had rendered himself 
 peculiary obnoxious to the royalists, and their contemptuous 
 hatred broke out in keen and bitter satires after his death. One 
 of these, entitled his " Last Will and Testament," &c., has been 
 attributed to Samuel Butler. The death of Francis, fourth earl 
 of Cumberland, uncle of Lady Anne, and of his son, without 
 male issue, terminated the contest which, during thirty-eight 
 years, had been carried on for the Clifford estates, between the 
 male and female branches of the house ; and the death of her 
 husband left Lady Anne free and uncontrolled mistress of the 
 inheritance of her ancestors. During the remainder of her life, 
 she was chiefly occupied in repairing the damages of war, of 
 law, of neglect, and of waste. She did great works, and took 
 good care to commemorate them, and had a very commensurate 
 consciousness of her many good and gi'eat qualities. She restored 
 six of her ancestral castles, and several churches which had been 
 ruined by the great civil war. She erected a monument to her 
 tutor, "the well-languaged" Daniel the poet. She was a woman 
 of a high spirit and a determined will, as is abundantly shown 
 by the famous letter which she is said to have written to the 
 secretary of Charles II., who had attempted to interfere with her 
 borough of Appleby. " She patronized," says Dr. Whitaker, 
 " the poets of her youth, and the distressed loyalists of her 
 mature age. Pier home was a school for the young and a retreat 
 for the aged, an asylum for the persecuted, a college for the 
 learned, and a pattern for all." She died at Brougham castle 
 in 1675, at the age of eighty-seven, and with her the noble race 
 whose high characteristics seem to have been united in herself 
 became extinct. She left behind her a curious autobiography, 
 containing many interesting details respecting her oven life and 
 the history of her family. — (See Whitaker's History of Craven ; 
 Hartley Coleridge's Northern Worthies; Edinburrjh Journal, 
 vol. xii. ; " The Cliffords" by the writer of this sketch.) — J. T. 
 
 CLIFFORD, Arthur, an English lawyer and writer. He 
 edited the official con-espondence of Sir Ralph Sadler, 1809 ; 
 The Texall Poetry, with notes, 1813; and was the author of 
 an ode entitled " Carmen Seculare," 1814, on the centenary of 
 the accession of the Hanoverian dynasty. He died in 1830. 
 
 CLIFFORD, James, was the author of a choice little volume 
 entitled " Divine Services and Anthems, usually sung in the 
 cathedrals and collegiate choirs in the church of England," printed 
 in 1663 and 1664 — a work frequently referred to by Anthony a 
 Wood, and valuable as giving us the words of the anthems (with 
 the names of the composers) in use from the Reformation to the 
 death of Charles I. Wood says, " He was born in the parish of 
 St. Mary Magdalen in the north suburb of Oxon ; educated in 
 Magdalen college school as chorister of the said college, but 
 took no degree in this university. After the restoration of King 
 Charles II. he became petty canon of St. Paul's cathedral in 
 London, reader in a church, near Carter Lane, which is near the 
 said cathedral, and afterwards chaplain to the honourable society 
 of Serjeant's Inn in Fleet Street, London." He died at the close 
 of the year 1G!)9, and was buried in the church of St. Andrew 
 Undershaft.— E. F. R. 
 
 CLIFFORD, Thomas, first Lord Clifford of Chudlcigh, was 
 born in 1630, and was the eldest son of Hugh Clifford of Ug-
 
 CLI 
 
 1065 
 
 CLI 
 
 brook, the lioad of a junior branch of the great house of Clifford. 
 After completing his education at Oxford, he travelled on the 
 continent, and there went over to the Roman catholic faith. 
 lie was elected a member of the parliament which restored 
 Charles II., and soon showed himself one of the most ardent 
 defenders of the royal prerogative, tmd strove by every means in 
 his power to augment the authority and revenue of the crown. 
 He joined the fleet as a volunteer during the war with Holland 
 in 1665 and 1666, and fought with signal bravery in several 
 engagements. On his return, he was sworn of the privy council, 
 and appointed first comptroller, and then treasm'er of the house- 
 hold. He soon became one of the most confidential advisers of 
 the king, and was a member of the notorious " cabal" ministiy. 
 He was the most respectable of the number, although he recom- 
 mended the fraudulent and infamous measure of shutting up the 
 exchequer and robbing the banks, which led to the downfall of 
 the cabal. In 1672 he was elevated to the peerage by the title 
 of Lord Clifford of Chudleigh, and made lord-treasurer. But, in 
 the following year, Charles was compelled to give liis consent to 
 the celebrated test act, and Cliflbrd, refusing to conform to it, 
 was obhged to resign liis office. Overwhelmed with chagrin, he 
 retired to the countiy, where he died soon after, September, 
 1673. Evelyn says he was " a valiant, uncorrupt gentleman; 
 ambitious, not covetous; gener'ous, passionate, and a most sincere 
 constant fiiend." — J. T. 
 
 CLIFT, William, a distinguished naturalist, born at Bur- 
 combe, near Bodmin, on the 14th February, 1775. He was 
 the youngest of seven children. His father, Robert Clift, died 
 a few years after the bu-th of his son, leaving his widow and 
 family in naiTow cii-cumstances. William was put to school at 
 Bodmin, and soon distinguished himself for the readiness with 
 which he acquired knowledge. His great natural talent for 
 drawing brought him under the notice of Colon^'l Gilbert of the 
 I'riory, whose lady was an intimate friend of Miss Home, who 
 afterwards became the wife of the great John Hunter. Thus 
 Mrs. Gilbert heard of the loss which Mr. Hunter sufl'ered in the 
 departure of his assistant and draughtsman, William Bell, for 
 Ceylon in 1790; and she accordingly suggested to Mrs. Hunter 
 that possibly her young protege might in some measure supply 
 his place. The proposal was accepted ; and William Clift was 
 sent to London, and duly appreuticed to John Hunter for six 
 years in the year 1792. The inestimable advantage of this posi- 
 tion of amanuensis, artist, and clerk to such a man, was cut short 
 )>y the death of Jolm Hunter in 1793. Hunter died in difficulty 
 and debt : the sole provision for his family was his museum. 
 Dr. Bailfie, one of the executors, gave Mr. Clift free admission to 
 his anatomical lectures; and the other, Mr. Home (aftei-VN'ards Sir 
 Everard) occasionally employed him to assist in his operations on 
 private patients, or in the dissection of rare ammals. Hunter's 
 premises consisted of the residence in Leicester Square, a house 
 in Castle Street, and the museum which he had built in the 
 intenuediate space. The house in the square was let to lodgers ; 
 the house in the rear was occupied by Mr. Clift and the old 
 housekeeper of the family; and thus accommodated, Mr. Clift 
 undertook the custody of the museum until government should 
 determine to accept or decline the terms on which it was offered 
 by the testamentary directions of Hmiter. After seven years' 
 resistance the government at last purchased the Hunterian 
 collection for £15,000 ; and it was then transferred to the 
 corporation of surgeons in a better state of an-angement and 
 preservation than when it received in 1793 its last addition 
 from the hands of its immortal founder. The corporation 
 having been reincorporated by charter in 1800 under the title 
 of the Royal College of Surgeons, one of its first acts was to 
 appoint Mr. Clift consei-vator of the museum, under the superin- 
 tendence of a board of cm-ators chosen from the council. From 
 this time forwards the time and talents of Mr. Clift were 
 exclusively devoted to this service in various ways, and great 
 were his devotion and zeal in this prime object of his life. His 
 own immediate contributions to science are few. Two only 
 appear in the Transactions of the Royal Society ; the first is 
 entitled " Experiments to ascertain the Influence of the Spinal 
 Marrow on the Action of the Heart in Fishes," in the year 1815 ; 
 and the other is a " Description of some Fossil Bones found in 
 the Caverns at Preston," pubHshed in 1823. Both papers are 
 })eculiarly clear, simple, and worthy of attention. Soon after 
 their publication Mr. Clift was elected a fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and served in the council in the years 1833 and 1834. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 He communicated some papers to the Geological Society, " On 
 the Megatherium," and " On Fossil Remains from the Irawaddi." 
 Mr. Clift, however, worked assiduously for others in determining 
 fossils and in figming them. His labours are gratefully acknow- 
 ledged by Baron Cuvier and by Dr. Mantell. From the duties 
 of his office ilr. Clift was allowed to retne, with a full salary of 
 £400 a year, a few vears before his death, which took place on 
 the 20th June, 1849."— E. L. 
 
 CLIXIUS, father of Alcibiades, fought at the battle of 
 Artemisium in 480 B.C., and fell at Coronea in 447. 
 
 CLINIUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, a contemporary and 
 friend of Plato, Kved at Tarentum. Some fragments of his 
 writings are preserved in Stobajus. 
 
 CLINTON, Dewitt, governor of New York, was born at 
 Little Britain, Orange coimty, in that state, March 2, 1769. 
 He was the son of General James Clinton. In 1798 he was 
 elected a senator in the New York legislature, and in 1802 was 
 appointed by the governor of New York, a senator of the United 
 States. In 1803 he was appointed to the post of mayor of the 
 city of New York — an appointment which he continued to receive 
 by annual bestowment till 1815, with the exception of the years 
 1807 and 1810. During this period he laid the foundations 
 of several of the most important public institutions of the city, 
 among which were the Orphan Asylum, the Academy of Arts, 
 and the Historical Society. At his suggestion in 1817 the New 
 York legislature authorized the construction of the Erie Canal, 
 to connect the Hudson river with lake Erie. He was president 
 of the board of canal commissioners in 1823 and 1824; and in 
 1826 witnessed the completion of the Erie canal, and partici- 
 pated in his official capacity in the splendid ceremonies with 
 which the waters of the great lakes were, on that occasion, made 
 to mingle with those of the Atlantic. The length of the Erie 
 canal is three hundred and sixty-three miles, and its cost was 
 near six millions of dollars. It is the noblest monument to the 
 enterprise and sagacity of Clinton, and its beneficial residts to 
 the state of New York and to the whole countiy have more than 
 realized his highest expectations. He died in 1828. — W. G. 
 
 CLINTON, George, governor of New York, and vice- 
 president of the United States, was bom in Ulster county, New 
 York, in 1739. He was elected to the continental congress in 
 April, 1775, and voted for the declaration of independence. In 
 FebraaiT, 1777, he was appointed brigadier-general in the regidar 
 army; and a few months afterwards was chosen governor of 
 New York — a post which he continued to hold, by successive 
 re-elections, for eighteen years. He conmianded the forts on the 
 Hudson when they were stormed and talcen by Sir Henry Clin- 
 ton — a temporaiy reverse from which he soon recovered. Clinton 
 was in opposition under the administrations of Washington and the 
 elder Adams, having no voice in the federal councils ; but he was 
 chosen vice-president under Jefterson in 1804; and again, though 
 with high claims to the presidency, under Madison in 1808. He 
 held this office till his death at Washington in 1812. — F. B. 
 
 CLINTON, Sir Henry, an English general, who commenced 
 his military career in the Seven Years' war, in 1750, and in 
 1778 was appointed to succeed Lord Howe as commander-in- 
 chief of the British forces in America. Obliged to evacuate 
 Philadelphia, he made a skilful retreat to New York. Ho cap- 
 tured Charieston in 1779, but failed in an attempt to drive the 
 French from Rhode Island. It was Sir Henry who entered into 
 a negotiation with the American general, Arnold, to betray the 
 important post of Westpoint, which led to the apprehension and 
 execution of the unfortunate Major Andre. General Clinton 
 was recalled in 1782, and two years after published an account 
 of his American campaigns under the title of " Reflections on 
 the history of the American war." He was appouited governor 
 of Gibraltar, and died there in 1795. — J. T. 
 
 CLINTON, Henry Fynes, a most accomjilished classical 
 scholar and author, was born in 1781, and was the eldest son oi 
 the Rev. Dr. C. Fjmes Clinton, prebendary of Westminster and 
 incumbent of St. JIargaret's, Westminster. He was educated 
 first at Westminster school, and then at Christchurch, Oxford. 
 His accurate and extensive scholarship was worthy of l)is 
 remarkable industry. Having inherited an ample fortune from 
 a distant relative, he represented the borough of Aldborougli iu 
 pariiament from 1806 to 1826, when he w.as succeeded by his 
 brother. His reputation, however, rests not on his political 
 career, but on his literary productions, and mainly on his " Fasti 
 Helleiiici " and " Fasti Romani " — works which have desen-edly 
 
 G T
 
 CLI 
 
 10G6 
 
 CLI 
 
 attained a European fame. The former, which is now divided 
 into three volumes, contains the civil and literary chronology of 
 Greece from the earliest period down to the death of Augustus, 
 interspersed with dissertations on the early inhabitants of 
 Greece, scripture chronology, the writings of Homer, the popu- 
 lation of ancient Greece, &c. The " Fasti Romani " comprises 
 the civil and literary chronology of Rome and Constantinople, 
 from the death of Augustus to the death of Justin II., with an 
 appendix containing the chronology to the death of Heraclius. 
 A useful epitome of both works was published by the author in 
 1851 and 1853. On the death of Mr. Planta in 1827, Mr. 
 Clinton was an unsuccessful candidate for the office of principal 
 librarian of the British museum. He died in 1852. — J. T. 
 
 CLINTON, James, an American brigadier-general in the war 
 of the Revolution, born in 173G. In 1777, congress having made 
 him brigadier-general in the continental army, he commanded 
 in the highlands on the Hudson river, where he was surprised 
 by Sir Henry Clinton, who made a dashing expedition up the 
 river in the hope of rescuing Burgoyne. In August, 1779, he 
 commanded a brigade under General Sullivan, in the expedition 
 up the Susquehanna into the countiy of the Iroquois Indians, 
 which avenged the massacres at Wyoming and Cherry Valley. 
 Clinton afterwards commanded at Albany, and also served at the 
 siege of Yorktown. He died in 1812.— F. B. 
 
 CLISSON, Olivier de, constable of France, bom in Brittany 
 about 1332 ; died at Josselin in 1407. When about the age 
 of twelve, Clisson, having lost his father, who was decapitated 
 by Philip of Valois, was sent to England by his mother, and 
 there he appears to have remained till about 1364. In that 
 year he took part in the battle of Auray, losing an eye in the 
 engagement, and shortly afterwards signalized his prowess by 
 expelling the celebrated Sir John Chandos from the castle of 
 Gavre, which had been given to tlie Englishman by De Montfort, 
 duke of Brittany. In 1370, after being received with marked 
 favour at the court of Charles V., he became the associate in 
 arms of the famous Duguesclin, whose valoui' and probity were 
 at that period the chief sccimty of the state against the machi- 
 nations of the grandes comjmgnies. On his return to Brittany, 
 Clisson was received at the court of the duke vrith many marks 
 of favour ; but shortly afterwards was consigned to prison, and 
 only recovered his liberty after payment of a considerable ran- 
 som. Named constable by Charles V. on his death-bed, Clisson 
 commanded the French army at the battle of Rosebecq, where 
 the Flemings lost 20,000 men. In 1393 he narrowly escaped 
 assassination, a band of brigands having been set upon him in 
 the night by one Pierre de Craon, who had long been the mortal 
 enemy of the constable. He was undoubtedly one of the greatest 
 .soldiers, and next to Duguesclin, perhaps one of the noblest 
 characters of his age ; but he was not above the weakness of a 
 great desire for wealth, and of that infirmity his enemies made 
 the most. AVitli Charles VI. Clisson was as gi-eat a favourite 
 as he had been with Charles V. ; but the civil broils consequent 
 upon the insanity of the former afforded the enemies of the con- 
 stable the opportunity of annopng, and eventually of disgracing 
 him. He was accused of malpractices in his public trusts, dis- 
 charged from all his offices, and condemned to a fine of 100,000 
 marks of silver. W^ith the remainder of his fortune, which at 
 his death was found to amount to an enormous sum, he retu-ed 
 to his castle of Josselin. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLISTHENES, tyrant of Sicyon, between 600 B.C. and 
 560.— J. T. 
 
 CLISTHENES, an eminent citizen of Athens, son of 
 ^legacies, and grandson of the preceding, was the head of the 
 Alcmseonid clan on the expulsion of the Pisistratidaj, and author 
 of an important change in the Athenian constitution, by which 
 the four ancient tribes were abolished, and ten new ones estab- 
 lished in their stead in 510 B.C. — J. T. 
 
 CLITOMACHUS, a Greek philosopher who, 129 b.c, suc- 
 ceeded Carneades as head of the new academy, and wrote 
 upwards of four hundred books in support of its tenets, was a 
 Carthaginian by birth. He was known among his Carthaginian 
 countrymen by his original name of Hasdrubal. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLITUS, a Macedonian general, sumamed the Black, was 
 born about 380 B.C., and died in 328. His sister Hellenice 
 was the uin-se of Alexander the Great. He followed his sove- 
 reign throughout his campaigns in Asia, and saved his life at 
 the battle of the Granicus in 334. A quarrel arose between 
 them, at a banquet given on the occasion of Clitus' appoint- 
 
 ment to the office of satrap of Bactria, when both were heated 
 with wine ; and Alexander, provoked at the insolent language 
 employed by Clitus in depreciating his exploits as compared 
 with those of Philip his father, snatched a weapon from one of 
 the guards, and pierced his friend to the heart. — J. T. 
 
 CLIVE, Catherine, an Irish actress, bom in 1721 ; died in 
 1785. Her maiden name was Raftor. In 1732 she married a 
 lawyer named George Clive, but the man-iage proved unlia])py, 
 and she was obliged to separate from him. She excelled in 
 comedy, and was unequalled in the sprightliness of her humour. 
 She was also a good musician, and had an excellent voice. Dr. 
 Johnson had a very high opinion of Llrs. Clive's comic powers, 
 and delighted to converse vrith her. He thought her the best 
 actress he ever saw. " ^\^lat Clive did best," he said, " she did 
 better than Garrick, but could not do half so many things well ; 
 she was a better romp than any I ever saw in nature." Mrs. 
 Clive retired from the stage in 1768, and died in 1785. Her 
 private character was most exemplaiy. — J. T. 
 
 CLIVE, Robert, Lord, the founder of the British empire in 
 India, was bom 29th September, 1725, at Styche, in the parish 
 of Moreton-Say, near Market Drayton, Shropshire. Before the 
 age of three years, he was sent to an uncle, Mr. Bayley, in whose 
 family he resided for some time, and proved himself the veiy 
 king of mischievous boys. Combative, courageous, daring to the 
 last degree, he was impatient of control, and a teiTor to all 
 quiet-minded people. " I am satisfied," \\Tites his uncle, " that 
 his fighting, to which he is out of measure addicted, gives his 
 temper a fierceness and imperiousness, that he flies out upon 
 eveiy trifling occasion ; for this reason I do what I can to sup- 
 press the hero, that I may help forward the more valuable quali- 
 ties of meekness, benevolence, and patience." In young Clive, 
 however, it proved impossible to suppress the hero. He was 
 seen seated on a stone spout near the top of the lofty steeple of 
 Market Drayton church, careless of the danger ; and once when 
 a little dam broke, which his companions had made across some 
 water, for the mischievous purpose of making it overflow an 
 obnoxious shop, Clive threw his body into the breach and 
 remained there until it was repaired. It is said also that he 
 used to levy black mail upon tradespeople in retm-n for not lead- 
 ing against their windows and their comfort his little band of 
 mischievous comrades. After spending a few years at the 
 Merchant Taylor's school, London, and at a private school in 
 Hertfordshire, Clive was appointed a writer in the East India 
 Company's sen-ice, and left England in 1743, reaching Madras 
 in 1744, with the reputation of a lad by no means addicted to 
 learning, and likely to bre.ak his neck in attempting the first 
 hazardous feat that struck his fancy. An unusually lengthened 
 voyage caused Clive to miss the gentleman to whom he had been 
 recommended at Madras, and threw him into debt at his first 
 landing, while a certain proud shyness prevented him from 
 forming many acquaintances. His wild and wayward disposition, 
 intensified by the melancholy fostered hi isolation, from time to 
 time broke out so strongly as to endanger his connection vrith 
 the company's service. In a fit of despondency, indeed, be 
 made an attempt upon his own life. A comrade coming into 
 his room was requested to take up a pistol and fire it out of the 
 window, which he did. "Well," exclaimed Clive, "I am reseiTed 
 for something ! that pistol I have twice snapped at my own 
 head." Fortunately the governor of Madras gave him admission 
 to his library, and Clive's enei'gies spent themselves in repaiiing 
 the random carelessness of bis schoolboy days. At this time the 
 rulers of the French presidencies in India leagued themselves 
 with native powers, and organized a general policy, for the pur- 
 pose of effecting the ruin of English influence; and it appeared 
 far more probable that an Eastern empu-e would be achieved by 
 France rather than by Britain. Madras was taken by La Bour- 
 donnais in 1746, and Clive became a prisoner of war imdcr 
 parole. The conditions of parole having been broken through 
 the influence of Dujileix, who aimed at the absolute humiliation 
 of the company, Clive effected his escape to Fort St. David. 
 A remarkable illustration of his spirit of dauntless daring now 
 occurred. He was challenged by an officer to whom he had 
 refused to pay a gambling debt, on the gi-ound that there had 
 been unfair play. Clive tired and missed his antagonist, who 
 came up close to him and desired him to ask his life. Clive 
 complied. The officer then threatened to shoot him unless he 
 retracted his assertions concerning unfair play. " Fire," cried 
 Clive with an oath ; " I said you cheated ; I say so still ; and I
 
 will never pay you ! " Tlie astonished oificer tlirew away his 
 pistol, declaring Clive to be mad. 
 
 In 1747 Clive obtained an ensign's commission in the annv, 
 but passed from military to civil duties according to the exigen- 
 cies of the time. In 1748, the powerful viceroy of the Deccan, 
 Nizam al Hulk, died, and rival claimants disputing the sove- 
 reignty of the Camatic, severally sought the assistance of the 
 French. The candidate supported by Dupleix, with French 
 forces, triumphed, and there appeared no obstacle capable of 
 preventing the estabhshment of French supremacy in the Cai- 
 natic. The rival prince had been slain, and his son, JIahommed 
 Ali, acknowledged by the English as nabob, was shut up in 
 Tiichinopoly, and his sun-en der became day by day more inevit- 
 able. The crisis called forth the genius of Clive, whose skill 
 was ever the most consummate when the danger was the most 
 terrible. He urgently declared that, upon the fall of ilahommed 
 Ali, an Indian empire would be won by France, and proposed to 
 attempt to raise the siege of Tiichinopoly by attacking Arcot 
 the capital of the Camatic. His plan was adopted, and he 
 started with two hundred Europeans and three hundred sepoys, 
 commanded by eight officers, four of whom were from the mer- 
 cantile service, and six of whom had never been in action. The 
 ganison of Arcot fled, and the little band of warriors marched 
 into the city, through one himdred thousand spectators. Clive 
 immetliatt'ly prepared for a siege, and fortified his position. Ten 
 thousand men appeai-ed before Arcot, including one hundred and 
 fifty French auxiliaries ; while Clive's force had been reduced to 
 one hundred and twenty Europeans and two hundred sepoys. 
 For fifty days the young soldier held his ground, untU the besieg- 
 ing anny, balHed and dismayed, abandoned the to\vn. What is 
 said of true poets may be said of Chve as a soldier — he was bom 
 a general, and not made one. The historian remai'ks, that not- 
 withstanding he had at this time neither read books nor con- 
 versed with men capable of giving him much instniction in the 
 mUitary ai-t, all the resoiu-ces which he employed in the defence 
 of Arcot were such as are dictated by the best masters in the 
 science of war. After the successfid defence of Arcot, \ictory 
 followed victory, and finally Trichinopoly was reheved ; Chunda- 
 Sahib, the French ally in the Camatic, was put to death, and 
 l:u-ge bodies of French auxiliaries were compelled to surrender. 
 Before the victories of Clive the natives did not believe that the 
 EngUsh as soldiers were equal to the French. But a little rime 
 before, Dupleix had been chief arbiter of the destinies of Indian 
 princes, and had been declared governor of India from Kistna to 
 Cape Comorin ; wliile the Enghsh settlers had been looked upon 
 as tradespeople, far more capable of driving a hard bargain than 
 of fighting a daring battle. By the genius of Clive the whole 
 prospect of affairs was changed. The chances of French supre- 
 macy in the East were overthrown ; and measures were taken 
 and victories won, by the might of which a few traders, with 
 fifteen thousand mUes of sea between them and their native land, 
 became consuls and proconsuls in authority and wealth, greater 
 than any imperial Rome herself had sent forth. Clive's health 
 being in a precarious state, he retm-ned to England in Febmarj', 
 1753, immediately after his marriage with Miss JIaskelyne, sister 
 of the astronomer royal of that name. The daringly mischievous 
 schoolboy was welcomed home as the hero ; and his father, some- 
 what astonished at the result, exclaimed — " The booby has sense 
 after all ! " The com-t ot directors voted him a sword set with 
 diamonds; but with gi-eat deUcacy he objected to receive this gift 
 unless a similar distinction was confen-ed upon Colonel Lawrence, 
 his old commander, and one of the fu-st to recognize his abUities. 
 In England Clive mingled in parUamentary strife. Eeceiving 
 the support of Mr. Fox, secretary at war, he was elected for the 
 rotten borough of St. Itlichael, but unseated on petition. Mean- 
 while the anticipation of another French war rendered the com"t 
 of du'ectors very anxious for CHve's presence in India ; and he 
 again set saU in 1755, as a Ueutenant-colonel in the British 
 army, with the appointment of governor of Fort St. David, and 
 a provisional commission to succeed to the government of iladras. 
 Chve landed at Bombay, 27th November, 1775, and, after 
 destroying the piratical stronghold of Gherich, proceeded to Fort 
 St. David. On the very day upon which CUve assmned the 
 government of Fort St. David, June 20th, 1756, Sm-aj-a-Dowlah, 
 nabob of Bengal, marched into Calcutta, where the English 
 submitted without daring to offer any resistance. The fearful 
 tragedy of the Black Hole followed, and Clive prepared for 
 victory and revenge. The expedition sailed from Madras, October 
 
 16th, and Calcutta was soon recovered and Hooghly stomied. 
 Siu-aj-a-Dowlah offered terms, and, much against Clive's ynsh, 
 the company entered into negotiations with him. 
 
 Chve now appears upon the stage of Indian history, not 
 s'miply as a daring soldier, but as a subtile diplomatist, able to 
 match cunning against cunning, and to conquer Asiatic intriguei's 
 by the free use of their own weapons. Clive's more than Indian 
 cunning, as a negotiator among native princes, appears in strange 
 contrast -nith his almost defiant straightfonvardness when deal- 
 ing with his own countrymen. He seems to have made up his 
 mind that it was necessary to meet Hindoos as though himself 
 a Hindoo ; and whatever condemnation may be passed upon the 
 crooked ways which the adoption of this pohcy forced his feet to 
 tread, it yet remains a sign of the inherent nobleness of his 
 nature that, among Enghsh gentlemen, he still remained an 
 English gentleman — frank, open, and sincere. Suraj-a-Dowlah 
 proved unfaithful to any temis of peace, and was obviously 
 intrigumg against the English on every^ possible occasion. Chve 
 therefore determined to establish the English power in Bengal 
 by the expulsion of the French, and the overthrew of the nabob. 
 In the first instance, the French settlement ot Chandemiagore 
 was attacked and taken after a siege of fourteen days. A 
 conspiracy was then fomied within the very camp of Suraj-a- 
 Dowlah to place a Itlahometan soldier of fortune, Meer Jaffier 
 Khan, upon his throne. Omichund, a wealthy Hindoo banker, 
 acted as chief agent in the deception of Suraj-a-Dowlah, and 
 was himself deceived by Clive, through the instrumentality of a 
 duphcate deed. By the one document an immense reward was 
 secured to Omichund, but in the other his name was altogether 
 omitted. Admiral Watson felt some scraples about the honesty 
 of the matter, and his signature was in consequence forged. 
 Chve, however, before the house of commons, stated that, to the 
 best of his remembrance, Admual Watson gave the gentleman 
 who carried the fictitious treaty to him leave to sign his name upon 
 it, and defended his conduct generally by the assertion that he 
 thought art and pohcy wan-antable in defeating the purposes of 
 a villain ; forgetful that whatever temporary advantages may be 
 gained by meeting knavery with a kindred duplicity, the strength 
 of a British empire in the East must ultimately depend upon the 
 fact that among the faithless it is faithful. Clive at last threw 
 off all disguise, and the nabob at once marched to Plasscy with 
 his whole force. On one side of the river was Suraj-a-Dowlah 
 with sixty-eight thousand men; on the other was Chve with 
 three thousand two hundred men, only six hundred and fifty of 
 which were European infantr}'. For the first and last time in 
 his life Chve held a council of war, at which he voted with the 
 majority that it was not prudent to make an attack. He then 
 retked to a grove of mango trees, and after remaming an hour in 
 silent thought returned to the camp with the word " Forwai'd " 
 on his hps, and gave orders for the advance of the army on the 
 following moming. Upon the 23rd of June, 1757, the battle of 
 Plassey was fought, and the British empu-e in India was fimily 
 foimded. ^Meer Jaifier was estabhshed as nabob of Bengal, and 
 he bestowed upon Chve enonnous wealth. 'When afterwards 
 taunted with his gains, Chve drew a pictm-e of the treasures 
 cast at his feet, and declared himself astonished at his own 
 moderation. Chve's next gi-eat ta.^k was to check the power of 
 the Dutch, whom his newly-elected nabob secretly favoured; and 
 this he eflectually accomplished, forcing upon them a treaty that 
 they should build no fortifications, and raise no troops bej-ond 
 those required for police. During these proceedings Colonel 
 Forde wrote a note, stating that if he had the order in council 
 he could attack the Dutch with a fair prospect of success. Clive, 
 who was playmg at cards, replied in pencil — " De:ir Forde, 
 fight them unmediately, I will send you the order of council 
 to-moiTow." In 1760" Clive again sailed for England, leaving 
 behind him virtually an empire where he found a commercial 
 settlement. He was given an Irish peerage, and engaged deeply 
 in electioueeiing aflairs to aid his friends in the government. 
 His residence m England was greatly embittered by a contest 
 with the court of directors of the East India Company. An 
 attempt was made to deprive him of a land-rent granted by 
 ]\Ieer Jafiier, and he was subjected to many paltry annoyances. 
 The state of affairs in India, however, agaui becoming critical, he 
 was besought to return, and reached Calcutta, May 3, 1765, with 
 the dignity of governor, and commander-in-chief of the British 
 possessions in Bengal. The refoiin of the civil service was the 
 gi-eat and worthy task of CUve's third and last residence in
 
 CLO 
 
 10C3 
 
 CLO 
 
 India. He declared that actions had been committed under the 
 sanction of the company's sen-ants which made the name of the 
 English stink in the nostrils of a Gentoo or a Mussulman ; that 
 the company's servants had interfered with the revenues of the 
 nabob ; turned out and put in the officers of the government at 
 pleasure, and made every one pay for their preferment. In order 
 to effect a reform, Clive stopped private commercial speculation 
 on the part of the company's sen-anis, and when there was a 
 " strike " among the gentlemen, very unceremoniously filled up 
 their places with substitutes from Madras. He wished to make 
 the company's service a sufficient dignity and profit in itself and 
 for itself, hence awarded the proceeds of the salt monopoly to make 
 up for the loss arising from the suixender of private trade. He 
 enforced the direction that all presents above a certain value 
 should be handed over to the company. Two hundred officers 
 threatened to resign on the same day upon occasion of a financial 
 reform, but Clive gave commissions to civihans, threw himself upon 
 the faithfulness of his sepoys, and thus triumphed by firm boldness 
 over what might have been a fatal mutiny. While these measures 
 were going on, Clive procured from the Mogul sovereign a war- 
 rant for the administration and the collection of the revenues of 
 Bengal, Bohar, and Orissa, and thus connected the authority of 
 the company with that native potentate who was, even in his 
 weakness, considered by the natives the legitimate source of all 
 rank. Clive perceived that the company must either abandon 
 all, or take all into their own hands and rule as a militaiy 
 power, and directed his policy towards the establishment of an 
 imperial sway. Clive's health again compelled him to leave 
 India — it proved for ever. He landed at Portsmouth, 14th July, 
 1767, but found no peace in his native land. Those whom his 
 civil reforms had deprived of opportunities for amassing wealth 
 were numerous, and their enmity was unrelenting. His fellow- 
 countrymen were taught to cast on him the burden of every 
 Indian abuse by those who knew they would liave been wealthier 
 men had Clive been less just. Colonel Burgoyne obtained a 
 select committee of the house to inquire into Indian matters, and 
 Clive was cross-examined with bitter and eager enmity. He 
 defended himself with frank and impetuous, although dignified 
 and collected eloquence ; and, when the house of commons had 
 resolved that acquisitions made by the arms of the state belong 
 to the state, and that Clive had received large sums from Jleer 
 Jaffier, it yet stopped short of voting the gi-eat general a paltry 
 criminal, and unanimously agreed to the motion — That Robert 
 Lord Clive did, at the same time, render great and meritorious 
 services to his country. Clive's shattered health could endure 
 no more. He had sought in opium a solace for his physical 
 sufferings, until his mind was overcome by the weakness of the 
 flesh, and he died by his own hand on the 22nd of November, 
 1774, at the age of forty-eight. — L. L. P. 
 
 CLODIUS : a family settled at Neustadt, which produced 
 several members distinguished in letters. — Johann, bom 15tli 
 August, 1645, was an eminent theologian and philosopher, and 
 died at the ripe age of seventy- eight, lea%'ing a considerable 
 number of dissertations. — His son, Johann Christian, after 
 studying medicine and languages at Jena, settled in Leipzig, 
 where he became eminent as a linguist, especially in oriental 
 tongues, and filled the chair of Arabic in the university. He 
 died in 1745, having written a large number of treatises, prin- 
 cipally philological. — M. Christian, another son of Johann, 
 was a man of letters, but more noted as the father of the poet. 
 Christian August. — J. F. W. 
 
 CLODIUS, Christian August, a German writer, was bom 
 at Annaberg in 1738, and died at Leipzig, 30th November, 
 1784, where he had honourably filled the chair of rhetoric and 
 poetry. He wrote — "Medon," a drama; " Versuche aus der 
 Literatur und Moral;" "Neue Vermischte Schriften," 1780, 
 4 vols. ; and Odeiim, a monthly magazine, 1784. — K. E. 
 
 CLODIUS, Christian August Heinrich, son of the 
 former, bom at Altenburg, 21st September, 1772, was professor 
 of practical philosophy at Leipzig, where he died 30th March, 
 1836. He wrote poems ; " Eros and Psyche," an allegorical 
 poem; " Entwurf einer systematischen Poetik; "Von Gott 
 in der Natur, in der Menschengeschichte und im Bewasstsein," 
 4 vols., and edited Klopstock's Remains. — K. E. 
 
 CLODIUS, PuBLius, youngest son of Appius Clodius, mem- 
 ber of the illustrious Claudiau family, lived in the first half of 
 the century B.C., and was notorious, even in that profligate age, 
 for the open profligacy of his manners, and his avarice and 
 
 ambition. In 78 b.c. he served in Asia under his brother-in- 
 law Lucullus ; but, taking offence at his not receiving the pro- 
 motion he expected, he excited a mutiny among the troops. He 
 then joined his other brother-in-law, Q. Marcius Rex, proconsul 
 in Cilieia, and was intrusted with the command of some ships : 
 but he was defeated and taken prisoner by pirates, who, how- 
 ever, set him at liberty through fear of Pompey. He after- 
 wards served in Syria and in Transalpine Gaul, where he extorted 
 money by the most nefarious means. On his return to Rome he 
 mixed himself up with the intrigues and contentions of the fac- 
 tions who were then straggling for supremacy, and plunged into 
 the most scandalous excesses. He was accused of incestuous 
 intercourse with his own sisters ; and in 62 b c. profaned the 
 mysteries of the Bona Dea, by entering, in the disguise of a 
 female, the house in which they were celebrated, in order to 
 meet Pompeia, the wife of Caesar, with whom he had an intrigue. 
 He was detected and brought to trial for this gross outrage, but 
 escaped punishment by bribing his judges. He contracted bitter 
 enmity to Cicero, who gave e-N-idence against him on bis trial, 
 and in order to accomplish his revenge upon the great orator, 
 renounced his patrician rank, and was adopted into a plebeian 
 fiimily, that he might obtain the office of tribune of the people. 
 He was elected tribune in 58 B.C. : and, with the assistance of 
 Csesar, Pompey, and Crassus, succeeded in driving Cicero into 
 exile, though he was unable to prevent his recall in the following 
 year. A fierce quarrel in consequence broke out between Clo- 
 dius and Milo, the new tribune of the people, an active friend of 
 Cicero, which led to frequent fights in the streets cjf Rome 
 between their adherents. At length the rivals met accidentallv 
 on the Appian Way, 20th of Jan., 52 B.C. An affray ensued 
 between their followers, and Clodius was killed. The mob, witli 
 whom he was a great favourite, broke out at his burial into a 
 violent tumidt, which was not without difficulty suppressed by 
 Pompey.— (See Milo.)— J. T. 
 
 CLCELIA, a Roman heroine, who lived about 508 B.C. 
 According to Livy, she was one of the hostages given to Por- 
 senna, but made her escape from the Etniscan camp by .swim- 
 ming across the Tiber. The Romans sent her back, but Porsenua 
 was so strack with her extraordinary daring, that he not only set 
 her at liberty, but also released a number of the other hostages. 
 The Romans erected an equestrian statue of the heroine in the 
 Sacred Way, in commemoration of her exploit. — J. T. 
 
 CLOXCURRY, Valentine Lawless, Baron, an Irish poli- 
 tician who occupied a prominent position in his day, was bom in 
 Dublin on the 19th of August, 1773. His father was a wealthy 
 Roman catholic who two years after the birth of Valentine, was 
 made a peer. Valentine's school-days were spent at Portarlington, 
 where he had both good education and good company. Thence 
 he passed to King's college, Chester, being domesticated with 
 the bishop of the diocese, and finally entered Trinity college, 
 Dublin, where he took a prominent part in the famous Historical 
 Society. In 1792 he went to Switzerland, where he remained for 
 two years. On his return he joined the society of " United Irish- 
 men," but though elected one of the executive committee, he 
 attended only one meeting. WTiile keeping his terms at the middle 
 temple, young Lawless was a constant ^'isitor at the house of 
 John j\l'Namara, where he became aquainted with many eminent 
 men, including Home Tooke, Reeves, Sir Francis Burdett, and 
 Pitt. On his return to Ireland he was deeply impressed witli 
 the impolicy of the proposed legislative union, and accordingly 
 published his " Thoughts on the Projected Union with Great 
 Britain and Ireland," a pamphlet which increased the jealousy 
 with which he began to be regarded by the government of the 
 day. Again in London, Lawless joined a club called the 
 United Irish, which he assures us had no connection with the 
 United Irishmen, and was not political, but merely social and 
 benevolent. Nevertheless it became the object of suspicion, and 
 one of its acts being a subscription for one Finnerty, the editor 
 of the Press newspaper — which Lawless had himself supported, 
 and which was burned by the hangman for a seditious libel — the 
 government imagined tlie members were in treasonable com- 
 munication with the French directory. In addition to this, 
 Lawless assisted a priest of the name of Quigley, who was 
 shortly afterwards hanged for treason, and a letter of this man's 
 to Lawless having been found, the government caused Lawless 
 and three others to be arrested. After an imprisonment of six 
 weeks he was discharged, with the observation that he had I)ecn 
 impmdent rather than criminal. On the 14th of April, 1799,
 
 Lawless was again arrested upon suspicion of treasonable 
 practices, and committed to the Tower on the 8th of May follow- 
 ing, where he remained till the ex])iration of the suspension of the 
 Habeas Corpus act in March, 1801. His imprisonment resulted 
 in heavy pecuniary losses, including a sum of near i:70,000 
 which bis father, on his death in 1799, left away from him lest 
 it should be confiscated. A lady, too, to whom he was affianced 
 died, as he tells us, from anxiety for his fate. Upon obtaining 
 his liberation Lawless, now Lord Cloncurry, commenced pro- 
 ceedings for fiilse imprisonment against the duke of Portland and 
 Ml'. Pitt, less, he says, to obtain compensation than to clear his 
 character. These actions, however, were stopped by the bill of 
 indemnity obtained by ministers, and Lord Cloncurry had to 
 content himself with the sentiments pretty freely expressed of 
 the injustice with which he had been treated. He now retunied 
 to L-eland ; but the frail state of his health from long confine- 
 ment made it necessary to seek a better climate. Accordingly in 
 1802 he went to the continent. After his return to L-eland in the 
 endof 1805, though subjected to some annoyances. Lord Cloncurry 
 devoted himself entirely to the duties of his station as a country 
 gentleman, and took an active and useful part as a justice of peace. 
 Upon the accession of George IV. Lord Cloncuny took a very 
 memorable part on the occasion of a meeting convened to address 
 the king, and with the aid of Mr. O'Connell defeated the object of 
 the meeting. Nevertheless, when the king came to Ireland, Lord 
 Cloncurry attended upon his majesty, dined at the royal table, 
 and even invited the sovereign to his seat at Lyons. Meantime 
 he occupied himself energetically in the endeavour to obtain 
 Catholic emancipation, and conduced much to its final conces- 
 sion. It is worthy of remark, too, that in 1827 he projected 
 a ship canal from Dublin to Galway, chiefly with the aim of 
 establishing a transatlantic communication between that port 
 and America, and the arguments used by him are mainly those 
 which thii-ty years aftei-wards succeeded in establishing that 
 communication and justifying his sagacity. Though a staunch 
 advocate for the repeal of the legislative union between Great 
 Britain and Ireland, Lord Cloncuny did not ajjprove of O'Con- 
 nell's mode of carrj-ing this object, and he accordingly refused to 
 preside at a public meeting for tl:e purpose. This led to a public 
 and vituperative denunciation of the lord by the demagogue, 
 and a personal estrangement for several years. In all the 
 political questions which agitated the public mind in Ireland for 
 many years Lord Cloncurry was a participator, and we find him 
 in correspondence with many of the great minds of the da)'. He 
 closed an active life in his eightieth year, dying at his residence, 
 Maretimo, near Dublin, on the 28th October, 1853.— J. F. W. 
 CLOOTS, Jean Baptiste du Val de Grace, better known 
 as Anacharsis Cloots, <me of the most violent fanatics who 
 figured in the French revolution, was a wealthy Prassian baron, 
 and was bom in 1755. He came to Paris in 176G for the pur- 
 pose of completing his education, and there imbibed both the 
 republican and materialistic opinions which were prevalent among 
 the French philosophers at that period. He renounced his rank 
 and title, and adopted the classical prenomen of Anacharsis in 
 lieu of his christian names, which he rejected as having a super- 
 stitious origin. On completing his education, he travelled over 
 a great part of Europe, including England, Gennany, Italy, and 
 Spain, promulgating everywhere his Utopian speculations regard- 
 ing the reformation of the human race. In 1780 he published 
 a work entitled " La certitude des preuves de Mahome'tisme," 
 which was intended to prove the falsehood of all systems of 
 religion. In 1789 he took up his residence in Paris. When 
 the Revolution broke out, Cloots appeared at the bar of the 
 national assembly, 19th June, 1790, in the assumed character 
 of " the orator of the human race," followed by a number of 
 foreigners, each wearing his distinctive national garb, and 
 demanded in their name the right of admission to the grand 
 federation fete. He became president of one of the jacobin 
 clubs, was elected a deputy to the national convention in 1792, 
 and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He advocated the 
 establishment of a universal republic, of which he professed to 
 be the ambassador, proclaimed himself the personal enemy of 
 Jesus Christ, aftirmed that reason would unite all men in a 
 single representative church, that religion was the only obstacle 
 to this Utopia, and that the time had arrived for eradicating it. 
 He expended a considerable fortune in his attempts to propagate 
 these opinions, and in supporting the republic against its foreign 
 enemies. He published "La Republique Universelle," and several 
 
 other works. Cloots at length excited the jealousy of Robespien-e, 
 and was sent to the scaffold, along with Hebcrt,'Chaumette, and 
 others, in 1794. — R. B. 
 
 CLOQUET, HippoLYTE, a French physician, born in Paris 
 in 1787 ; died on the 3rd of March, 1849. He took his degree of 
 doctor of medicine in 1815, and filled for some time the positions 
 of prosector and professor of anatomy in the schools of Paris. 
 " A Complete Treatise on Descriptive Anatomy," 2 vols., 8vo, 
 Paris, 1816, is his great work, on which his reputation as an 
 anatomist rests. — E. L. 
 
 * CLOQUET, Jules Germain, brother of the preceding, 
 was bom in Paris on the 18th December, 1790. He is a Frencli 
 physician of great eminence, and has distingnislied himself 
 by his contributions to science, in the shape of papers read 
 before the Academy of Sciences, and other learned bodies. As 
 an anatomist, a surgeon, and an author, JI. Cloquet has 
 acquired a lasting reputation. His works are many in number, 
 and contain much valuable information and many original views. 
 He is the inventor of many surgical appliances and modes of 
 operation, and excels in the art of making anatomical prepara- 
 tions and models in wax. In 1831 M. Cloquet was appointed 
 professor of clinical surgery to the faculty of Paris. — E. L. 
 
 CLOSTERMAN, Johann: this artist was bom at Osnaburg 
 in 1656. In 1679, with his countryman Tiburen, he went to 
 Paris, and was employed bj' De Troyes. In 1681 he came to 
 England and painted di-aperies for Riley. He obtained the notice 
 of the duke of Somerset, and painted portraits of the duke's 
 children. He also painted portraits of the duke and duchess 
 of Marlborough and all their children ; in reference to which 
 work, and the difficulties that arose in its progress between the 
 artist and the duchess, the duke declared — " It has given me 
 more trouble to reconcile my wife and you than to fight a battle." 
 Closterman died in 1710.— W. T. 
 
 CLOTAIRE I., youngest son of Clovis and Clotilde, bom 
 about 500, on the death of his father in 511 shared with his 
 three brothers the throne of France. He kept court at Soissons. 
 By the death of his brothers and the murder or degradation 
 of their children, he reigned as sole king from 558 till his death 
 in 561.— R. B. 
 
 CLOTAIRE II., an illegitimate son of Childeric, whom he 
 succeeded on the throne of Neustria 584, while still an infant. 
 During his minority he was under the guardianship of the ambi- 
 tious Fredegonda, his mother, and was protected by Gontran of 
 Burgundy. He died in 628, aged forty-five. — R. B. 
 
 CLOTAIRE III., grandson of Dagobert, born about 652, 
 reigned over Neustria and Burgundy from 655 till his death 
 in 670. He was at first raled by his mother, Bathilda, who, by 
 her marriage, had been raised to royal rank from the condition 
 of a Saxon slave ; and latterly by the mayors of the palace. 
 
 CLOTAIRE IV., of unknown origin, placed on the throne of 
 Austrasia by Charles Martel. He reigned in 717-720. 
 
 CLOTILDA or CLOTILDIS, daughter of Chilperic of Biu-- 
 gimdy, was married to Clovis I. in 493. She professed the 
 christian ftiith, and her zealous efforts for the conversion of her 
 husband were ultimately successful; but, tradition says, not 
 without the aid of a miraculous interposition in his favour at the 
 battle of Zulpich, against the Alemanni. On the death of Clovis, 
 and the division of his kingdom amongst her four sons, she 
 retired to a life of devotion in the cloisters of St. Martin. The 
 fame of her sanctity, and the miracles which are said to ha\-e 
 attended her prayers, procured for her the honour of canoniza- 
 tion ; although the influence which she exerted on the qnan-els 
 of her kinsmen was not always of a peaceful character. — W. B. 
 
 CLOUET, Albert, a Flemish engraver, was born at Antwerp 
 in 1624. He studied in Italy under Bloemaert, and his plates 
 are executed much in the neat finished manner of his master. 
 He engraved some of the pictures in the Palazzo Pitti at Florence ; 
 several portraits for the work " Effigies Cardinal, nunc Viven- 
 tium," published at Rome ; also, portraits of painters for Belloni's 
 Vite de Pittori ; and subjects after Baldinucci, Da Cortona, and 
 Borghignone. He died in 1687. — W. T. 
 
 CLOUET or CLOWET, Peter: this Flemish engraver was 
 born at Antwerp in 1024. At an eariy age he went to Italy, 
 and at Rome studied under Pierre and Bloemaert. He after- 
 wards returned to Antwerp and engraved several portraits after 
 Van Dyck and pictures after Rubens. His plates ;u-e finished 
 in a firm, free, masterly manner. His Rubens plates are highly 
 prized. Among these are the "Descent from the Cross,"
 
 ''Death of St. Anthony," and "St. Michael defeating the Evil 
 Spirit." He died in 16G8.— W. T. 
 
 CLOUGH, Benjamin, Wesleyun minister .and Oriental scho- 
 lar, born at Bradford in 1791. He was one of the party of 
 missionaries which accompanied Dr. Coke to Asia in 1813, and 
 was stationed iu the island of Ceylon from 1814 to 1838. He 
 greatly distinguished himself as a laborious missionary, and as a 
 Singhalese and Pali scholar, and was one of the first translators 
 of the scriptures into these languages. He published a Sin- 
 ghalese dictionary, in 2 vols. 8vo, a work of great value, and died 
 on the 13th of April, 1853.— W. B. B. 
 
 CLOVIO, GiULio GiOKGio : this eminent artist, called the 
 MiNiATUKisT, and MACEUOor Macedone, from his family being 
 of Macedonian origin, was born at Grisone in Croatia in 1498. 
 At the age of eighteen, desirous of improvement, he went to 
 Italy and attached himself to Cardinal Jiarino Grimani, in whose 
 service he had opportunities of obtaining the counsel of Giulio 
 Eomano. This pamter, struck with the minute delicacy of some 
 of Clovio's work, recommended him to abandon large works and 
 devote himself to miniature painting entii'ely, giving him instruc- 
 tion in the use of colours prepared with gum and in tempera. 
 Clovio's success was remarkable. " There never has been, and 
 for many ages there probably never will be, a more admirable 
 and more extraordinary miniaturist," writes Vasari. He died 
 m 1578.— W. T. 
 
 CLOVIS I., son of Childeric I., succeeded to the chieftaincy 
 of the Salian Franks, at the age of fifteen, in 481. His first 
 military expedition was against Syagrius, who ruled at Soissons 
 the little remnant of the Roman possessions in Gaul. A single 
 battle in 486 decided the issue of the conflict, and extended the 
 Franldsh boundary to the Loire. This conquest of the Alemanni 
 and his conversion to Christianity in 496, rapidly followed by his 
 victories over the Armoricans, the Burgundians, and the Visi- 
 goths, procm-ed for him in 508 the titles of Roman patrician 
 and consul from the Emperor Anastasius. His progress in the 
 south being at the same time cliecked by Theodoric the Ostro- 
 goth, he turned his ambitious designs against tlie independent 
 Prankish princes, Sigebert of Cologne, and Ragnacaire of Cam- 
 brai, whose territories fell successively imder his sway. He died 
 in 511, after a reign of thirty years, having laid the foundation 
 of the extended emphe which, after various vicissitudes, lias 
 issued in the modem kingdom of France. — W. B. 
 
 CLOVIS II., son of Dagobert, and grandson of Clotaire III., 
 inherited in 638 the united kingdoms of Neustria and Bur- 
 gundy, the Austrasian sceptre faUing to his brother, Sigebert 
 III. Clovis was then only six years of age, and the govern- 
 ment, till his majority, was conducted by his mother, Nanthilde. 
 In 656 Grimoald, the Austrasian mayor, liaving placed his own 
 son instead of the rightful heir upon the throne of Sigebert III., 
 Clo\-is procm-ed his assassination, and assmned the nominal 
 sovereignty of the whole Frankish empire, but died in the course 
 of the same year. — W. B. 
 
 CLOVIS III., son of Theodoric III., held the powerless sceptre 
 of the degenerate Jlerovmgian line from 691 to 695, scarcely 
 visible under the shadow of the fiimous mayor of the palace, 
 Pepin of Heristal.— W. B. 
 
 CLOWES, Rev. John, M.A., rector during the long period 
 of sixty-two years of the chm-ch of St. John's, Manchester. He 
 was born in ]\Ianchester in 1743. Shortly after he had been 
 establislied in his living, he became acquainted with the theo- 
 logical works of Swedenborg. "The delight," he says in his 
 autobiography, "produced in his mind by the first penisal of 
 the work entitled Vera Christiana Religio, no language could 
 fully express." Before long he was busily engaged in the work 
 of translation ; tlm-ty volumes of the works of Swedenborg 
 came from his pen in rapid succession ; besides which he pul)- 
 lished a variety of original works and numerous sei-mons. He 
 was amongst the first who introduced Sunday schools into 
 Manchester, and was appointed the first secretary to the Sunday 
 School Union in that town. He was never idle when he could 
 promote the cause of popular education, or in any way ameliorate 
 the condition of his fellow-men. No man was ever more pro- 
 foundly revered, or more affectionately beloved than he was by 
 his flock. At the end of the fiftieth year of his ministiy, his 
 congregation erected a fine piece of statuary in the church to 
 commemorate the jubOee. The work was executed by the cele- 
 brated Flaxman; it represents the venerable pastor exhorting 
 and teaching three generations. A noble monument, the work 
 
 of Westmacot, was erected to his meniory shortly after his death, 
 which took place in 1831. — J. H. S. 
 
 CLOWES, William, an eminent English surgeon of the 
 sixteenth century, who wrote upon the lues venerea, and upon 
 gunshot and other wounds, was surgeon to St. Bartholomew's, 
 and afterwards to Christ's hospital, London. In 1586 he went, 
 by order of the queen, to the Low Countries as surgeon to the 
 army, serving under the earl of Leicester. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLOWES, William, a printer, who from small beginnings 
 rapidly rose to be perhaps the most eminent man in his profession 
 in London, was born in 1779, and died in 1847. From his 
 immense and well-organized establishment the Penny Mar/azine 
 and Penny Cyclopadia issued with admirable regidarity for 
 fourteen years. Mr. Clowes was a native of Chichester, where 
 his father, who had been educated at Oxford, was master of a 
 lai-ge school. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLUBBE, John, autlior of " The History and Antiquities of 
 the ancient Villa of Wheatfield, in the County of Sufi'olk," 1758, 
 was rector of that place and vicar of Debenham. He was bom 
 iu 1703, and died in 1773. His son, William, author of some 
 spirited translations from Horace, died in 1814. — J. S., G. 
 
 CLUENTIUS, Habitus A., a Roman citizen, born at 
 Laiinum, who accused his stepfather, Oppianicus, of having 
 attempted to poison him ; and who eight years afterwards was 
 himself accused by the son of Oppianicus of three attempts at 
 mm-der by poison. He was defended by Cicero in an oration 
 still extant.— J. S., G. 
 
 CLUSIUS or ECLUSE, Charles d', a celebrated Dutch 
 botanist, was bom at Ai-ras on February 18, 1526, and died at 
 Leyden in April, 1609. He studied medicine at Montpellier, 
 where he took the degree of doctor of medicine. He travelled 
 over various parts of Europe, and settled at Antweqj, where he 
 began to pubhsh his botanical works. He was for some tune 
 director of the botanical garden at Vienna, a situation which he 
 was compelled by a court cabal to leave in 1587. In 1593 he 
 became professor of botany at Leyden, and he helped to render 
 the garden of that city famous. His experiment on the palm, 
 called Chamasrops humilis, tended to continn Lmuasus' views, by 
 showing that pollen required to be applied to the pistil, in order 
 that seed might be perfected. — J. H. B. 
 
 CLUTTERBUCK, Henry, a well-known physician who 
 practised in London, was bom at Marazion in Cornwall, 28th 
 JanuaiT, 1767. His father was a solicitor there, and he was 
 educated at the grammar-school of that town. He received 
 his medical education in London, chiefly within the walls of 
 St. Thomas' and Guy's hospitals. In 1790 he was admitted 
 a member of the College of Sui'geons. He passed the sessions 
 of 1802-3 at the university of Edinburgh, and in 1804 he 
 graduated at Glasgow as doctor of medicine. On his return 
 to London in the same year he became a licentiate of the 
 College of Physicians. From the year 1808 to 1826 he gave 
 lectm-es on various subjects — the theory and practice of medicine, 
 materia medica, and chemistry — with great success. Dr. Clut- 
 terbuck held the appointment of physician to the Aldersgate 
 Street general dispeus;uy for a period of five years, resigning his 
 ofiice owing to some dispute in 1833. Dr. Clutterbuck's principal 
 published works are as follows — " An Account of a new and 
 successful method of Healing those Affections which arise from 
 the Poison of Lead," 1794 ; " Remarks on some of the Opinions 
 of the late Mr. John Hunter respecting the Venereal Disease," 
 1799. In the year 1795 he instituted the Medical and Chinirgi- 
 cnl Review, which he continued to edit, without assistance, until 
 tlie year 1809. The nature and cause of fever was a subject 
 wliich especially engaged Dr. Clutterbuck's attention. In 1807 
 appeared the fii-st edition of his " Inquuy into the Seat and 
 Natm-e of Fever." A second edition appeared in 1825. In 1819 
 he published " Observations on the Prevention and Treatment 
 of the Epidemic Fever at present prevaihng in the Jletropolis.'' 
 In 1837 he wrote " An Essay on Pyrexia, or Symptomatic 
 Fever." For four years Dr. Clutterbuck presided over the 
 Medical Society of London, and he contributed two papers to the 
 Transactions of this society. For many years Dr. Clutterbuck 
 occupied a very prominent position as a physician in the city of 
 London. He was off'ered the fellowship of the College of Physi- 
 cians, but decluied this, at that time, somewhat equivocal honour. 
 He died at his residence, Bridge Street, Blackfrim-s, on the 24th 
 of April, 1857, aged eighty-nine years. — E. L. 
 
 CLUTTERBUCK, Rokekt, a laborious antiquaiy and topo-
 
 grapher, autlior of a " History of Hertfordshire," was l>orn at 
 Watford in tliat county in 1772, and died in 1831. 
 
 CLUVIER, PuiLiPP, a celebrated German geographer, was 
 born at Dantzig in 1580, and died at Leyden in 1G23. By his 
 disobedience to the will of his father, who had intended him for 
 the study of law, he was reduced to poverty and obliged to enlist 
 in the Austrian army, but was afterwards enabled to follow his 
 literaiy pureuits at Leyden. Among his works we mention : 
 "De tribus Ebeni alveis," IGll; "Germania Antiqua," 1616; 
 "Introductio in Universam Geogi-aphiam, tam Veterem quam 
 Novam," 1624 ; "Italia Antiqua," 1625, itc— K. E. 
 
 CLUYT, Ontger, in Latin Asgeril"S Clutius, a Dutch 
 botanist of the seventeenth centuiy. He visited the principal 
 countries of southern Europe. As assistant to Belleval, he 
 resided some time at Jlontpellier. Subsequently he visited 
 Spain and Africa. In the latter country he was seized as a 
 slave, but finally made his escape, and retm-ned to Amsterdam 
 about 1630. He wrote a treatise on the nutmeg tree, as well 
 as works on insects ; on the transport of trees, seeds, and fniits ; 
 and on " Lapis Nephriticus." — J. H. B. 
 
 CLUYT, Theodoke Ostger, a dutch botanist of the six- 
 teenth century. He practised pharmacy at Leyden, and took 
 charge of the botanic garden, which was founded in 1577. He 
 devoted his attention to botany and entomology. The botanic 
 garden tinder his auspices became fiimous, and contained a large 
 collection of valuable plants. He wrote a work on the natural 
 history of bees. — J. H. B. 
 
 * CLYDE, CoLix Campbell, Baron, was bom in Glasgow 
 on 16th October, 1792. Both his parents were Scotch, so that 
 Caledonia can claim the undivided honour of the hero of Luck- 
 now, to whom Great Britain is mainly indebted for the salvation 
 of her Indian empire. His parents, both of Highland descent, 
 though highly respectable, were far from affluent ; and it was to 
 his mother's connections, who was a lady of good family, that 
 the young hero was indebted for his first entrance into life. He 
 received the rudiments of his education at the high school of 
 Glasgow ; and by the influence of his uncle. Colonel Campbell, 
 obtained an ensigncy in the 9th regiment of foot on the 26th 
 May, 1808, being then not yet sixteen years of age. Hardly 
 had he dorn^d his unifoiin, when he was called into that active 
 sernce in which nearly his whole subsequent life has been spent. 
 He embarked with his regiment in July of that year under Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley, and first heard the whistling of the bullets at 
 the battle of Vimiera, which efTected the liberation of Portugal 
 in the autumn of the same year. Subsequently his regiment 
 advanced into Spain under Sir John Jloore ; and he shared in 
 the calamitous retreat through^Galicia by which it was followed, 
 and the memorable battle of Corunna, which threw a ray of glory 
 over the last efforts of one of the bravest armies that ever left 
 the shores of Britain. 
 
 After the retm-n of that army to England, and the fitting out 
 of a fresh one under Wellington to continue the Peninsular con- 
 test, he was despatched with his regiment to Cadiz, and bore a 
 part in the battle of Barossa and glorious defence of Tariffa in 
 1811. Soon after, as liis military capacity had become known, 
 he was attached in a separate station to the army of Ballasteros, 
 and by his counsels and intrepidity contributed to the prolonged 
 mountahi warfare which that gallant chief maintained with the 
 greatly superior armies of France in the mountains of Ronda. 
 He was present also in the less fortunate expedition in 1812 for 
 the relief of Taragona. In the beginning of 1813 he was called 
 to a more glorious campaign under the direction of Wellington ; 
 was present with him in the battle of Vittoria on 21st July in 
 that year ; and led one of the storming parties at the memorable 
 assault of San Sebastian in the October following, on which 
 occasion he received two severe wounds. His gallantry on this 
 occasion is mentioned in just terms of eulogy by Sir William 
 Napier in his History of the Peninsular War. He recovered in 
 time, however, to take part in the passage of the Bidassoa, 
 when he was again severely wounded by a musket shot, which 
 passed through his right thigh, and disabled him from farther 
 active service in the Peninsular war. 
 
 Still Campbell was only a captain, which rank, as well as that 
 of lieutenant, he had received as a reward for his ser\-ices with- 
 out purchase; and immediately after the peace of 1814 he was 
 despatched with the 60th rifles, in which he held his commission, 
 to Amei-ica, and bore a part with it in the victory of Bladens- 
 borg in 1814, during the advance on Washington, and m the 
 
 gallant though unsuccessful assault of the lines in front of New 
 Orleans in the same year. The conclusion of the general peace 
 in 1815 deprived him for a considerable period of active employ- 
 ment ; bv-t he turned this period of comparative repose to good 
 account in making himself thoroughly acquainted with the theo- 
 retical as well as practical part of his profession. He was already 
 noted as a thorough disciplinarian, when in 1823 he was in- 
 trusted with the command, as brigadier-major, of the troops 
 employed in quelling the insurrection of the negi-oes in Demerara. 
 But he was ere long called to higher and more important duties. 
 In 1825 he obtained his majority by purchase; and in 1832 he 
 was made by the same means lieutenant-colonel of the 98th 
 regiment. With it he went to China during the war of that 
 year with the Celestial Empire, and was greatly distinguished 
 by his conduct in command of that regiment, both in the attack 
 on Chusan, and the subsequent brilliant operations in the assault 
 of Chin-kiang-fou, and before Nankin in that year. His ser- 
 vices in this campaign were so brilliant, that he was rewarded 
 for them by being appointed full colonel without purchase by the 
 Horse Guards. 
 
 The Chinese war bebg concluded at the same time that the 
 Affghanistan contest was closed by the second capture of Cabool 
 and the subsequent retreat from that province. Colonel Campbell 
 was not again engaged in active sen-ice till 1848, when, from 
 his abihties in command being well known, he received from 
 Lord Gough the local rank of brigadier, and as such distinguished 
 himself in the untoward affau- of Eamnuggur, and aftenvards 
 in the hard-fought and, in some respects, calamitous battle of 
 Chillian-walliah, in which last action he was again woimded. 
 His conduct during that perilous passage at arms was so con- 
 spicuous, that Lord Gough, in his despatch giving the account 
 of the battle, said — " Brigadier Campbell, with the steady coohiess 
 and militaiy precision for which he is so conspicuous, earned every- 
 thing before him." The governor-general, in his official despatch 
 concerning the battle, added his testimony to the same effect. 
 He was not less distinguished in the subsequent battle of Goo- 
 jerat, which finally closed the Sikh wars. For his conduct on 
 these occasions Colonel Campbell was made a K.C.B., and was 
 specially named in the thanks of parliament and of the East 
 India Company. 
 
 Colonel, now Sn Colin Campbell, still remained in India after the 
 termination of the Sikh wars ; and hostilities ha\'ing again broken 
 out in Scinde, where Sir Charles Napier was in command, he was 
 early selected by that able and discriminating general for high and 
 important separate duties. During the year following he was 
 constantly employed in the conduct of important operations against 
 the hill tribes, who dwelt in the mountains lying to the eastward 
 of the great plain watered by the Indus. In the course of these 
 he distinguished himself m the combat which ended in the forc- 
 ing of the Kohat Pass under the immediate command of his gallant 
 general ; and he was engaged in an almost constant warfire with 
 the Jlomunds, who mustered eight thousand horse and foot, but 
 were finally defeated at Puni-Pas, and compelled to sue for peace. 
 The final seal was put upon these successes by a decisive victory 
 over the Colwankbail and Eanozan tribes, whose chief stronghold 
 he stormed with three thousand men at Pranghur, and routed 
 with great slaughter at the decisive battle of Isakota, where the 
 enemy mustered eight thousand sabres and bayonets. 
 
 Though having had the command in operations of this magni- 
 tude in the East, Sir Cohn's rank in the army which enabled 
 him to hold these appointments was local only, and when he 
 returned to England in 1853 he was still a colonel in the queen's 
 army. His character as an admirable officer, however, was too 
 well known to permit his remaining in that comparatively humble 
 rank when serious work required to be done ; and accordingly, 
 when the Crimean war broke out in 1854, he was promoted to 
 the rank of brigadier-general, and as such intmstcil with the 
 command of the Highland brigade, forming the loft wing of the 
 division commanded by his royal highness the duke of Cambridge. 
 In consenting to act in this comparatively subordinate situation 
 in the British anny, Sir Colin gave proof of the disinterested and 
 patriotic spirit by which lie was animated ; for neariy all the 
 officers in the ai-my above him were his juniors both in years 
 and military standing, and not a few of them had been in tho 
 cradle when he fouglit his first battle under Sir Arthur Wellesley 
 at Vimiera in 1808. 
 
 Though placed under the command of the duke of Cambridge, 
 however, Sur Colin was not long of giving proof of his militar}-
 
 CLY 
 
 1072 
 
 CLY 
 
 talent. When the attack by the duke of Cambridge's division, 
 composed of the guards and Highlanders at the Alma, was ordered 
 on the Russian entrenchments on the extreme right of their posi- 
 tion, the fusilier guards, as is well known, were received by so 
 tremendous a fire that they were obliged to recoU after sustaining 
 a very heavy loss. Seeing this, and feeling that he could not 
 renew the attack without re-forming his men, the duke sug- 
 gested to Sir Colin to halt his men in order that the attack of 
 the tiivo brigades might be simultaneous. But Sir Colin, who 
 was in the veiy front of his men among the tirailleurs warmly 
 engaged with those of the enemy, still moved on. He saw his 
 advantage, which in a few minutes would be lost, and which, 
 from his position, could not be known to his royal highness. 
 The IJussian guns were levelled a shade too high ; their balls 
 were going through the feather bonnets, for the most part 
 above the heads of the men. He pressed on, therefore, without 
 an instant's delay, himself leading on his favourite charger, 
 which was shot dead during the rush. Before the Russians had 
 time to lower their gmis, the Highlanders, after deliveiing a 
 volley, rushed in and earned the right flank of the works with 
 very httle loss. " Campbell," says Bezancourt, the official 
 French annalist, " carried the right flank of our works at a run, 
 and the battle was gained." Nearly at the same time the 
 fusilier guards re-formed, and, supported by the grenadier guai'ds, 
 renewed the attack, and entered the entrenchments by the front. 
 The duke of Cambridge, much to his honour, has more than 
 once pubhcly admitted these facts at meetings in Loudon. 
 
 Duiing the ten-ible winter which ensued, when the troops of 
 all anus were exposed to such unheard-of hardships. Sir Colin 
 was stationed with his brigade on the heights of Kamora, cover- 
 ing the vital point of Balaklava, the sole channel of communica- 
 tion for the ai'my by which all its supplies were obtained. No 
 such evidence could be given of the estimation m which he 
 himself and the brave troops he commanded were held in the 
 army ; for it was known that the principal efibrts of the enemy 
 would be directed against this point. He gave decisive proof 
 how worthy his followers were to hold the post of honour, when, 
 on the 25th October, at the head of the " thin red line" foiTned 
 by the 93d Highlanders, not even formed in square, he repulsed 
 the formidable attack of the Russian horse on the post of Bala- 
 klava. During the severe winter which followed he was inde- 
 fatigable in his endeavour to mitigate the suiferings and provide 
 for the comforts of his men ; and with such success were his 
 efforts attended, that the Highland brigade was by universal 
 consent the best-conditioned and efficient part of the anny. As 
 such it was brought up to the front before the first assault on 
 the Redan, on 18th June, 1855, and held in rcsene to rush 
 forward at the decisive moment, Lf the attack had been found to 
 be practicable. On the final assault on 8th September, when 
 the MalakoiF was carried, he marched with his brigade from 
 KamiU*a to the front, a distance of nine miles, before daylight, 
 and was in the front trenches under a heavy fire with them the 
 whole day, waiting the signal for advancing from the commander- 
 in-chief. ^Mien WjTidham was driven out of the Redan, Sir 
 Colin received orders to renew the assault, which, by his advice, 
 was postponed till day-break on the following mornmg. During 
 the night he arranged his plan of attack, which was to have been 
 made by a general rush of the whole brigade, formed in close 
 column on the open in front of the trenches dm-ing the dark, the 
 light company of the 72nd, which happened to be in front, lead- 
 ing. Before midnight, however, the work was found abandoned, 
 and Sir Colin was baulked of a triumph which would doubtless 
 have been won and made the world ring from side to side. 
 
 Upon the appointment of General Codiington to succeed 
 General Simpson as commander-in-chief, Sir Colin resigned his 
 command and returned to England, deeming himself ill-used by 
 the appointment of an officer so much his junior over his head. 
 At the earnest request, however, it is said, of the liighest per- 
 sonage in the realm, he agreed to resume active senice, and 
 return to the Crimea. The most important duty in the cam- 
 paign which was preparing, was to have been intrusted to the 
 Scottish hero ; for he was to have had the command of a corps 
 of fifteen thousand British and twenty-five thousand Turks, who 
 were to have been landed at Theodosia, and ascending the stream 
 which flows into the sea at that place, to have taken the fonni- 
 dable Russian entrenchments on Mackenzie Heights in rear. 
 The conclusion of the war, however, which the French, exhausted 
 in finance, had become unable to carry on, prevented the execu- 
 
 tion of this design, and Sir Colin returned to England, where he 
 was made a G.C.B., and received with the highest distinction by 
 his sovereign. There he received also a gratifying mark of 
 general esteem by the presentation of a sword subscribed for by 
 six thousand of his fellow-citizens in his native city of Glasgow. 
 
 When the Indian revolt broke out, and every post from the 
 East brought the intelligence of fresh and seemingly overwhelm- 
 ing disasters in Hindostan, all eyes were turned to Sir Colin 
 as the only man capable of staving the disasters which were 
 ' Accumulating round a "sinking throne and a falling empire." 
 Yielding to the universal voice. Lord Palmerston, then prime 
 minister, sent for him on July 11th, and asked him whether he 
 would undertake the command, and Lf so, when he could set out. 
 " Within twenty-four hours," replied the Scottish chief, then 
 sixty-four years of age. He was as good as his word. On the 
 following evening he set out, accompanied by his staff", for India, 
 with no more baggage than a trooper could carry with him on 
 his saddle; and on the 13th August following reached Calcutta, 
 after an uncommonly quick passage. The labours which then 
 awaited him were such as would have overwhelmed any one of 
 inferior resolution, and less accustomed to make every difficulty 
 yield to an energetic will. Disarmed, and with its forces dis- 
 banded or scattered by the imprudent reductions of a pacific 
 administration, the supreme government at Calcutta was utterly 
 unprepared for a contest. The arsenal there was empty; that 
 at Delhi was in the hands of the enemy ; arms, powder, guns, 
 balls, all requu-ed to be manufactm'ed, and, as fast as they could 
 be got ready, sent off in the utmost haste for the service of the 
 troops, now reduced to the last extremity, despite all the heroism 
 of Havelock and his men m the north-western provinces. 
 
 The whole autmnn of the year was employed by Su- Colin in 
 the most herculean efforts to repair the deficiencies in military 
 stores, to provide the means of transporting them, with the 
 slender reinforcements which anived from China, to the theatre 
 of war in the neighbourhood of Cawnpore. At length something 
 like an army having been formed, and the 93rd Highlanders, 
 1019 strong, having anived from Cliina, Sir Colin set out from 
 Calcutta on the 2Gtli of October; and after narrowly escaping 
 ha\ing been made prisoner by a body of rebels on the road between 
 Allahabad and Cawnpore, he reached the latter town on the 2nd 
 of November. He was there fortunately joined by a body of 
 admu'able troops, under General Hope Grant, who had come 
 dowa from Delhi after the storming of that city. By this 
 accession of forces. Sir CoUn's little army was raised to six 
 thousand men and thirty-six guns, and with this small force he 
 forthwith set out to effect the deliverance of Havelock, now at 
 the last extremity in Lucknow, and besieged by sixty thousand 
 of the best troops of Oude. 
 
 The task before him was arduous, and to all appearance 
 hopeless, for not only was the force in his front tenfold stronger 
 than his own, but his communications were threatened by the 
 Gwahor contingent, fourteen thousand strong, composed of the 
 best troops in India, disciplined by European officers, which 
 lay at Calpee, only forty-five miles, threatening Cawnpore ; the 
 bridge of which, over the Ganges, commanded the only com- 
 munication with Calcutta, and the base of operations Ln the 
 south. Yet necessity commanded an immediate effort for the 
 relief of Lucknow, for Havelock could only hold a few days 
 longer the buildings he had so nobly defended, and it was well 
 known, that If forced to surrender, he himself, his brave fol- 
 lowers, and the women and children in the residency, twelve 
 hundred in number, would all be massacred. Detennined to 
 rescue them or perish in the attempt, he marched with all the 
 disposable troops he could command, only five thousand five 
 hundred in number, on the 8th November, taking the route to 
 Lucknow, which was fifty-two miles distant, leaving Wyndham 
 with twelve hundred to make head against the Gwahor contin- 
 gent, and hold the important bridge and fort of Cawnpore dming 
 his absence. 
 
 The operations which followed were conducted with the most 
 consummate abiUty, and have justly raised Su- Colin to the very 
 highest rank in military glory. Swiftly, yet cautiously advanc- 
 ing, he reached the neighbourhood of Lucknow on the 12th 
 of November, and immediately began his advance to deliver 
 the beleagured garrison. Directing his march by a semicircular 
 sweep round the city, he avoided the long banicaded street lead- 
 ing direct to the residency, in forcing his way through which, 
 Havelock had lost nine hundred men ; but he had still a des-
 
 perate sLock to encounter before liis object was gained. Eveiy 
 building was garrisoned and loopholed, every palace constructed 
 into a fortress which obstnicted their advance. By successive 
 and persevering eflbrts, however, they were all overcome — the 
 Martiuiere canied after a sharp conflict, the bridge of the 
 canal forced, and with infinite difficulty heavy guns di-agged up 
 to batter the Secunderbagh, ganisoned by two thousand of the 
 best sepoy troops. On to the assault rushed the 93rd and the 
 2nd Punjaub infantry at a nm, stri\-ing who should first pene- 
 trate in ; and they effected an entrance at the same time, and 
 awfully avenged the massacre of Ca'svnpore, by putting the whole 
 defenders to the sword. 
 
 StUl the Shah Nussief's mosque stood in the way, strongly 
 gariisoned by sepoys, and till it was carried access to the 
 residency was impossible. Peel's guns were brought up to breach 
 the walls, but the fire of musketry from them was so severe, 
 that the gunners were all strack down and the guns silenced. 
 Sir ColLii then ordered up the 93rd, and assembling them around 
 him, told them that the guns were silenced, but the mosque 
 must he carried that night, and they must do it with their 
 bayonets, and he would put himself at their head. He did so 
 accordingly. Sir Colin himself and all his staff leading on the 
 assault were wounded or had their horses shot under them ; ilajor 
 Alison, his military secretary, lost his arm in the advance ; Cap- 
 tain Alison, his aid-de-camp, was struck down ; Colonel Adrian 
 Hope, the bravest of the brave, Sir D. Baird, and Captain Foster, 
 both aid-de-camps to Sir Colin, had their horses shot under 
 them. Success seemed hopeless ; for no fissure could be dis- 
 covered in the massy walls, from which incessantly streamed a 
 terrific fire of musketry. The 93rd was fast falling, and orders 
 were already given to retreat, when Colonel Adrian Hope, with 
 a party, of the 93rd, found a small opening, which, being enlarged, 
 they got in, and the fort was carried. This success was decisive 
 — access was obtained next day to the residency. Havelock, his 
 brave garrison, and the whole women and children were brought 
 off' in safety ; and Sir Colin having achieved this deliverance, set 
 out with the utmost expedition to succour Wyndham, who was 
 hard pressed in his rear. 
 
 It was high rime he should do so ; for that general, over- 
 powered by an overwhelming superiority of forces, had been dinven 
 back into Cawnpore. The town was taken, the fort hard pressed, 
 and already the enemy's balls were begimiing to fall on the 
 bridge, the sole line of communication of the troops. In a few 
 hours more the bridge would have been taken, the army cut off 
 from its base, itself destroyed, and India lost, for there was no 
 reserve at Calcutta to effect a second deliverance of Lucknow. 
 But Sir Colin soon restored matters ; his gray hairs were 
 worth a thousand men. The enemy was soon repelled from the 
 heights they had won which commanded the bridge, and the 
 long file of wounded men, women, and children having been got 
 in safety across, and despatched to Allahabad, the chief sallied 
 forth at the head of six thousand men, and by an extraordinary 
 display of skill and tactics, succeeded in completely defeating an 
 army double the size of his own, flushed with victory, and taking 
 all their guns. This was the crisis of the war — the tide had 
 tm-ned — the Scottish hero had, with an energy and skill equal 
 to the greatest efforts of Kapoleon, with an army of seven 
 thousand defeated seventy thousand, brought off the long train 
 of helpless beings without the loss of one, under their verj' eyes, 
 and deUvered India from the greatest peril in which it had been 
 placed since the victories of Clive, a centmy before, had laid the 
 foundation of the British empire in the East. 
 
 The subsequent career of Sir Colin has been nothing but an 
 unbroken succession of triumphs. Casting an eagle glance 
 over every part of India, he despatched its forces in eveiy du-ec- 
 tion, so as to crush all the efforts of the rebels. Before the hot 
 weather had recommenced, he himself had regained the import- 
 ant post of Futtyghur, which restored the dii-ect communication 
 with Delhi and the Punjaub. No sooner had the next cool 
 season commenced, than he advanced, with ten thousand men 
 and eighty guns, a second time against Luclcnow, and ha\ing 
 by a most skilful movement succeeded in enfilading the whole 
 of the enemy's works with his guns in their rear, he carried 
 the begum's palace by storm, and made liimself master of the 
 whole city, with ninety-sis guns, immense militai-y stores, and 
 resources of all kinds. This was unmediately followed by an 
 advance into Rohilcimd, and the capture of Bai-eilly, the next 
 greatest stronghold in possession of the insurgents, after several 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 hard fought and biilliant actions. The retina of the hot season 
 having again necessarily suspended mihtary operarions, the 
 intei-val of rest was turned to such good account by the veteran 
 commander-in-chief, that when he took the field again in 
 November, 1858, he succeeded in capturing the whole strong- 
 holds of Oude yet in the hands of the insurgents, and diiving 
 the remains of then- scattered bands to perish in the wUds 
 of the Nepaul mountains. Subsequent accounts contained the 
 gratifying intelligence that Oude, the centre of the insurrection, 
 was entii-ely pacified; two hundred and seventy-three forts in 
 course of bemg demolished, and four hundi-ed thousand stand of 
 anns delivered up. For these astonishing successes. Sir Colin, 
 with the entu-e approbation of the nation, was raised by her 
 majesty to the peerage by the title of Lord Clyde. But history 
 must, in justice to his transcendent merits, give him a still 
 higher title, and pronounce him the greatest general whom Scot- 
 land has produced since the time of Robert Bruce, and one 
 of the greatest benefactors to England who has ever appeared ; 
 for he has preserved and strengthened in its utmost need the 
 British empire in the East. Kindly and affectionate in his dis- 
 positions, com-teous and high-bred in his manners, independent 
 and manly in his character ; he unites with these brilliant martial 
 quaUties, those most fitted to command respect and win regard 
 in private life. Ovei-flowing with com-age, and ever in the front 
 of battle, he was avaricious only of the blood of his soldiers ; and 
 by his mingled caution and dash, achieved his glorious successes 
 with an kicredibly small effusion of human blood. — A. A. 
 
 CLYMER, George, chairman of the committee which pre- 
 vented the tea sent out by the English ministry from being 
 sold in Philadelphia, and a signer of the American declaration 
 of independence, bora of a good family in Philadelpliia in 1739 ; 
 died in 1813.— F. B. 
 
 COBAD or CABADES, nineteenth king of Persia of the 
 dynasty of the Sassanides, succeeded his brother, Palasch, in 
 486. A revolt of the people not long after placed his brother, 
 Jamasp, upon the throne, but, by the assistance of the khan of 
 Taitary, Cobad succeeded ui subduing the usurper. He after- 
 wards waged war with the Emperor Anastasius, who compelled 
 him to pay a large ransom. He died in 531. — J. S., G. 
 
 COBB, Ja3ies, author of several light dramatic pieces which 
 had some success on the stage, born in 175G ; died in 1818. 
 
 COBB, Samuel, an Enghsh poet of some note, master of 
 Christ's hospital, published " A Collection of Poems on several 
 occasions," 1707; some translations; the Miller's Tale from 
 Chaucer, and a Pindaric ode " the Female Reign," which was 
 printed in Dodsley's Collection. He died in 1713. — J. S., G. 
 
 COBBETT, w'lLLiAJt, an English poUtical writer, possessed 
 of peculiar and independent personal characteristics, and of 
 extraordinary influence, was the son of a farmer at Farnham, 
 Surrey, where he was born in 1762. His education being 
 uncared for at home, he took it in hand for himself, and obtained 
 such a master)' of the Enghsh language, that few better examples 
 of its severe and vigorous power can be obtained than those 
 afforded by the writings of WiUiam Cobbett. Weai-icd of farm 
 work, he became copying clerk to an attorney in London, but 
 soon deserted tliis monotonous avocation for the stimng adven- 
 tures of the army. He proceeded in a regiment of foot, as a 
 common soldier, to Nova Scotia, and in 1791 returned to Eng- 
 land a sergeant-major, married, and obtained his discharge. In 
 1792 he went to France, intending to pass the winter in Paris; 
 but hearuig of the dethronement of the king and the massacre 
 of the guards, he changed his route and embarked for Phila- 
 delphia, where he landed m October, 1792, and soon obtained 
 abundant employment as a teacher of English to the numerous 
 emigrants who had left France and St. Domingo to avoid the 
 dangers of the Revolution. Cobbett was a thorough Englishman 
 in heart and soul ; and although he hunself did not shrink from 
 attacking the faults of his country, yet, when upon American 
 soil, he upheld the English constitution as the ty])e of perfection, 
 and would not tolerate one upbraiding word against the govern- 
 ment, even when men like Dr. Priestley were driven into exile. 
 For eight years — 1792 to 1800 — Cobbett remained in America, 
 and took an eager part in the discussion of the question whether 
 an alliance should be sought with France or England. In 
 numerous pamphlets, very personal and sarcastic but sufficiently 
 masterly, which commanded an enormous circulation, Cobbett 
 attacked the French or anti-federal party. The anti-federalists 
 compared him to a porcupine ; he accepted the name and
 
 published an autobiography entitled " Life and Adventures of 
 Peter Porcupine." Sometime afterwards when Lord Castlereagh 
 spoke of his writings as twopenny trash, he very characteristically 
 accepted that name also, as the title of his publications. In 
 179G he opened a shop at Philadelphia for the sale of his own 
 works. His friends feared for his safety, since the feeling on 
 behalf of France was very strong. " I saw," says Cobbett, 
 "that I must at once set all danger at defiance, or live in 
 everlasting subjection to the prejudices and caprices of the 
 democratical mob. I resolved on the former ... I put 
 up in my windows, which were very large, all the portraits that 
 I had in my possession of kings, queens, princes, and nobles. I 
 had all the English ministiy, several of the bishops and judges, 
 the most f\imous admirals, and, in short, eveiy picture that I 
 thought likely to excite rage in the enemies of Great Britain. 
 Early on the Monday I took down my shutters. Such a sight 
 had not been seen in Philadelphia for twenty years." In spite 
 of his sympathies, however, the English government found him 
 too independent to become their tool. He heard himself called 
 by the English consul " a wild fellow," and remarked, " When 
 tlie king bestows upon me £500 a year perhaps I may become 
 a tame fellow and hear my master, my friends, and my parents 
 belied and execrated, without saying a single word in their 
 defence." Cobbet ultimately was in\'olved in several prosecutions 
 for libel, and returned to England in 1800. He was introduced 
 to Pitt, and opened a bookseller's shop in Pall JIall ; but dis- 
 puting the policy of the peace of Amiens, he quarrelled with the 
 government ; broke off from many proffered friendships ; and 
 in 1802 commenced the Political Register, which grew into a 
 weekly essay on politics. His opinions became more and more 
 democratic, but they were always sincere and his own, and he 
 was influenced in their formation neither by threats nor bribes. 
 Cobbett's pohtical writings amount to one hundred octavo 
 volumes. For nearly forty years he gave his thoughts to the 
 public upon political and social questions, at least once a week. 
 Of a vehement and open disposition, he expressed every passion 
 and every wish, every personal prejudice and every patriotic 
 prayer. Bold and sometimes coarse, he was also fearless and 
 free. His hatred and his affections were equally intense. His 
 maxim — professed to be boiTowed from Swift — was " If a flea 
 bite me, I will kill it if I can." The greater the odds against 
 him, the higher his courage rose. Inconsistent, he always 
 owned his change, and gave his reason, following the rule laid 
 down by Chatham, " It is the duty and ought to be the honour 
 of every man to own his mistake, whenever he discovers it, 
 and to warn others against those frauds which have been too 
 successfully practised upon himself." He eagerly espoused the 
 cause of reform ; but, at the same time, wrote to the journey- 
 men and labourers of England to respect the constitutional 
 history of their country ; for, said he, " there is no principle, 
 no precedent, no regulations (except as to mere matter of 
 detail) favourable to freedom, which is not to be found in the 
 laws of England, or the example of our ancestors." In fact, 
 many of the opinions for uttering which Cobbett was called 
 " fool," " incendiary," " vulgar," " libeller," would to-day be 
 regarded ahke by whig and tory as plain common sense. With 
 clear insight into the course of history in a free country, in 1816 
 Cobbett wrote to "the Labourers" of England, that "a reformed 
 parliament would soon do away all religious distinctions and dis- 
 abilities. In their eyes a catholic and a protestant would both 
 appear in the same light." Upon practical questions, Cobbett's 
 clear-headed advice was of infinite sen-ice to the agricultural 
 population, among whom his chief influence was exerted. He 
 pointed out that thrashing machines were no causes of misery to 
 the poor; and endeavoured to persuade the working people not 
 to enter upon a crusade for their destruction. To tliis day, 
 Cobbett's "Cottage Economy" and "Advice to Young Men" con- 
 stitute standard books in the cottages of the southern counties, 
 and many a Sussex and Surrey countryman finds that his 
 " Grammar " gives him the most intelligible account of his native 
 tongue. Cobbett was repeatedly tried for libel, and on one occa- 
 sion was sentenced to a fine of £1000 and imprisonment for 
 two years, on account of some strictures he made on a case of 
 flogging in the army. In 1817 he revisited America, but 
 returned in 1819, bringing with him the bones of Paine. He 
 was returned to parliament for the borough of Oldham in 1832, 
 but having been previously accustomed to retire to rest at nine, 
 and rise at four in the morning, his health could not accommodate 
 
 itself to the change of habit ; and after a brief illness he died 
 June 18th, 1835. His personalities were forgotten in his power, 
 his inconsistencies in his honesty, his vehement impulses in his 
 common sense, and his thousand battles were remembered only 
 for his fearless daring ; while the chief organ of his opponents 
 bestowed upon the peasant politician whose voice had echoed 
 through the mine and the coal-pit, and who, to use the expres- 
 sion of Coleridge, had lifted the latch of every cottage door and 
 thundered with no runaway knock at the palace gate, the not 
 unfitting title of — the Last of the Saxons. Cobbett's political 
 works consist of — "Porcupine's Works," 12 vols. 8vo, Philadel- 
 phia, 1794 to 1800; and "The Weekly Political Eegister," 88 
 vols. 8vo, London, 1802 to 1835. An abridgment of the 100 
 volumes has been published by his sons in 6 vols., 8vo, London, 
 1835. In addition to his political works, Cobbett wrote French 
 and English grammars, " Cottage Economy," "Advice to Young 
 Men," " Legacy to Parsons," &c. &c. — L. L. P. 
 
 * COBDEN, Richard, the chief contemporary apostle of free 
 trade, was born at the farmhouse of Dunford, near Midhurst, 
 Sussex, on the 3rd of June, 1804. He is thus, by seven years, 
 tlie senior of his friend and fellow-worker, Mr. Bright. The 
 family of Mr.' Cobden had long been resident in the locality 
 where he has once more settled. His grandfather is still remem- 
 bered at INIidhurst, in the immediate vicinity of his birthplace, 
 as " Maltster Cobden ;" and such designations as " Cobden's 
 Lane " still surnve there, memorials of ^Ir. Cobden's progenitors 
 rather than of his notable self. His father was a substantial 
 yeoman, but some obscmity rests over his earlier years and 
 career. Certain it is that, unlike Mr. Bright, Mr. Cobden was 
 the architect of his own worldly fortunes. It is understood that 
 at an early age he -was placed in a London warehouse, from which 
 he emerged as traveller for a Manchester firm extensively 
 engaged in the cotton trade. In 1830 we find him a master 
 calico-printer, in partnership with Jlessrs. SheiTeff and Foster, 
 at Sabden, in a romantic district of hill-country, near Blackburn, 
 in Lancashire, where every valley has its stream of pure water, 
 that indispensable element in the finer departments of calico- 
 printing. Subsequently, with an elder brother, he engaged in the 
 same business at Chorley in Lancashire ; the name of the new 
 firm being Richard Cobden & Brothers. Mr. Cobden rethed 
 from commerce after the great free trade triumph of 1846. 
 
 Up to 1835 Mr. Cobden was little known in Lancashhe 
 or INIanchester, where he had a counting-house, save as a 
 calico-printer of good taste and business ability, beginning to 
 produce articles of a superior quality, which competed with the 
 best London products, and which grew to be celebrated as the 
 " Cobden-prints." From this period onwards, his local and 
 general actinty expanded in scope, until it reached its acme in 
 the repeal of the com laws. Mr. Archibald Prentice, foiinerly 
 editor of the Manchester Times, has described in his Annals 
 of the League, the surprise and delight with which he perused 
 in 1835 some singularly lucid and logical letters addressed to 
 him anonymously on pohtical and politico-economical topics, 
 intended for publication in his journal. Soon afterwards he 
 received a copy of a pamphlet, published in 1835, "England, 
 Ireland, and America, by a Manchester manuf;icturer;" and in 
 the inscription on the fly-leaf, " From the author," he recognized 
 the hand-writing of the anonymous correspondent, of whom he 
 had predicted that he would one day be a man of note. It was 
 the first literary work of Richard Col)den. All Mr. Cobden's 
 political, economic, and social philosophj', is to be found in this 
 his earliest publication. Mr. Urquhart was beginning his denun- 
 ciations of Russia ; Mr. Cobden maintained that the absorption 
 of Turkey by Russia would be the best possible solution of the 
 Eastern question. Peace, noninten'ention, retrenchment, and 
 free trade, were the watchwords of the " JIanchester manufac- 
 turer." The germ of tlie Anticom-law League lurked in his 
 suggestion, that as we had a Linnwan Society, so we ought to 
 have a " Smithian," to diffuse a knowledge of the principles 
 of the Wealth of Nations, and that prizes might advantageously 
 be offered for the best essays on the corn question, and lecturers 
 be usefully sent into the rural districts to enlighten the pro- 
 tectionist ignorance of the agricultmists. Mr. Cobden's views 
 of foreign policy, whether sound or not, were not those of a 
 mere student of books and newspapers. In 1835 he made the 
 continental tour already refen-ed to in the memoir of Jlr. 
 Bright, and again in 1837, he traversed some of the chief 
 comitries of Europe; on both occasions partly with a view to
 
 business. In the interval, he had published in 1836 another 
 pamphlet, " Russia," in which the views of his fonner one, still 
 more boldly enforced, were defended from some of the numerous 
 attacks wliich " England, Ireland, and America" had provoked. 
 It may be added that Mr. Cobden took a prominent part in 
 several local movements. He helped to found the ilanchester 
 Athenaum, and to procure a charter of incorporation for the 
 borough of Manchester. He had been already a member of the 
 Manchester chamber of commerce, and one of the members of 
 the first Manchester town council was "Mr. Alderman Cobden." 
 His first attempt to add parliamentary to his other honours 
 was unsuccessful. Stockport, which accepted him as one of its 
 representatives in 18-41, rejected him in 1837. 
 
 JIuch had elapsed in the interval to give Mr. Cobden claims 
 to the suffrages of a manufacturing constituency. Soon after 
 his second retimi from the continent in 1838, the Manchester 
 Anticoni-law Association was formed. Tliis was in the 
 autumn; on the 13th of December a meeting of the Manchester 
 Chamber of Commerce was convoked to deUberate on the pro- 
 priety of sending a free-trade petition to parliament, and Mr. 
 Cobden was the member who spoke most ably in favour of the 
 step. He was one of the delegates sent the followng year to 
 London from the north, to co-operate with the free-trade 
 members of the house of commons; and it was at a delegate 
 meeting in Palace Yard that, recalling the memory of the 
 Hanseatic league, he proposed to give to the Anticom-law 
 Association the designation which has become so famous. The 
 League took its name from this suggestion of ^Ir. Cobden. 
 Early in the following year, 18-40, the Free-trade hall was erected 
 at ilanchester, on ground belonging to Mr Cobden, and cmiously 
 enough, the site had been the scene of the famous Peterloo 
 massacre in 1819. At the crowded and enthusiastic Lnaugm-a- 
 tion of the temporary pavilion, afterv\-ards the Free-trade hall, 
 in January 13, 1840, the Uon of the occasion, the late Daniel 
 O'Connell, was immediately followed, as a speaker, by Mr. Cob- 
 den. The year 1840 was, owing to various causes, one of the 
 busiest in the career of the league, and, before its close, Mr. 
 Cobden's indefatigable activity and skilful oratory, vigorous and 
 persuasive without vehemence or declamation, had secured him 
 the leadership of the movement. At the general election of 
 1841 he was returned for Stockport, and made his first speech 
 in the house of commons in the course of the debate on the 
 address ; the date was the 25th of August. Mr. Cobden's 
 success in the house of commons was rapid, if not immediate. 
 Though never a commanding parliamentary orator of the highest 
 class, he has enjoyed from first to last the " ear of the house." 
 In 1846 the long and arduous struggle was successful, and Sir 
 Robert Peel proclaimed that the person to whom the honour of 
 the triumph v.'as mainly due was Richard Cobden. At home a 
 national subscription, which resulted m the collection of £70,000, 
 was raised as a substantial recognition of the labour devoted by 
 Jlr. Cobden to the cause of corn-law repeal, at the sacrifice of 
 liis own commercial interests. The hero of free-trade now gave 
 himself what was intended to be a holiday ; he made another 
 and an extensive continental tour. Numerous ovations, how- 
 ever, from the admirers of free-trade abroad, accompanied his 
 progress, and made it appear the mission of an active propagan - 
 dist. It was during this continental tour that he received one 
 of the highest honours that has been bestowed on him. He had 
 been requested to allow himself to be nominated a candidate 
 for the representation of ^Manchester, but he declined ; chiefly, 
 perhaps, out of consideration for the claims of Jlr. Bright. At 
 the general election of 1847, his old constituents of Stockport 
 re-elected him without opposition. Almost at the same time the 
 greatest constituency in England, that of the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, semi-spontaneously elected him one of their represen- 
 tatives. !Mr. Cobden bade farewell to Stockport, and accepted 
 the trust reposed in him by the electors of the West Riding. 
 Returning to England towards the close of 1847, Mr. Cobden at 
 once declared war against the military and naval expenditure of 
 the country. Early in the following year, the great revolutionary 
 year of 1848, he became vice-chainnan of an association of wliich 
 Joseph Hume was chairman, for parliamentary reform and its 
 corollaries. Although no longer personally connected with Man- 
 chester he appeared frequently on its platforms, to advocate, in 
 the company of Mr. Bright and !Mr. Milner Gibson, parliamentary 
 and financial refonn. In the house of commons he introduced 
 several motions for the reduction of armaments, and the reference 
 
 of national disputes to arbitration. In 1851 he figured at the 
 opening of the Exhibition of Industry as one of the royal com- 
 missioners. He protested against Russian loans, and he was 
 prominent in the welcome given to Kossuth. He attended peace- 
 congi-esses both abroad and at home, and was one of their chief 
 orators. Yet, although ever active and busy, he cannot be said 
 to have retained, during the eight years which followed corn-law 
 repeal, the influence and popularity which had been liis previous 
 possession. In 1854, on the breakmg out of the war with 
 Russia, Mr. Cobden joined ilr. Bright in his unpopular crusade 
 against the war ; and when failure silenced him in parliament 
 and on the platform, he had recourse to the priu ting-press, and 
 published, after the fall of Sebastopol, a pamphlet entitled 
 " ^^ hat next ? and next ? " — questions which were answered by 
 the peace of Paris. Only a few years before, it may be men- 
 tioned, he had displayed his old pamphleteering skill in the 
 publication of two brochures, one entitled — " How Wars are got 
 up in India," directed against the policy of the Burmese war ; 
 the other, " 1793 and 1853" — a plaidoyer against the French 
 invasion-panic, and an attempt to prove that in the great revolu- 
 tionary war England, and not France, had been the aggressor. 
 One gleam of success at last irradiated his long and seemingly 
 fruitless advocacy of peace-principles. It was when, on the 3rd 
 of March, 1857, the house of commons aflBrmed a resolution 
 brought forward by Mr. Cobden and Mr. Gibson, condemnatory 
 of Sir John Bowring's proceedings at Canton, and therefore of 
 the last China war. But the victory was, in one sense, fatal to 
 the victor. It lost him a seat in parliament. Jlr. Cobden had 
 resolved to retire from the representarion of the West Riding as 
 taxing too severely his time and energies ; he hoped, however, 
 to procure, through the medium of a smaller constituency, 
 readmission into the house of commons when Lord Palmerston, 
 in the spring of 1857, appealed to the country. He was unsuc- 
 cessful in two separate attempts. At Salford a subordinate 
 member of the Palmerston ministry was preferred to him, and 
 at Huddersfield, a local and industrial notabihty of Palmerstonian 
 tendencies. Since then Mr. Cobden had hved in comparative 
 retirement, near Midhurst, until he sailed on a temporarj- visit to 
 the United States in 1858. Just before his dep.arture he pub- 
 lished a translation, adding an original preface, of a work on 
 the efiects of the gold discoveries of America and Austraha, from 
 the pen of the distinguished French economist, ilichel Chevalier, 
 At the dissolution of parhament by the Derby ministry in 1859, 
 Sir. Cobden, who was still in America, was returned to parha- 
 ment for the borough of Rochdale. — F. E. 
 
 COCCEIUS, Xerva. See Nerva. 
 
 COCCEIUS or COCK, John, an eminent biblical scholar, 
 whose opinions respecting the rules of scriptural interpretation 
 gave rise to mucli controversy in the Netherlands during the 
 latter part of the seventeenth centun', was bom at Bremen in 
 1603, and died professor of theology at Leyden in 1669. His 
 complete works were published at Amsterdam in 1673-1675. 
 
 COCCEJI, Heixrich Freiherr von, an eminent German 
 jurisconsult, was bom at Bremen, 24th March, 1644, studied at 
 Leyden and in England, and was successively professor of juris- 
 prudence in the universities of Heidelberg, Utrecht, and Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Oder. In 1712 he was sent on an extraordinary 
 mission to the Hajpie by King Frederick I., and after his return 
 appointed privy councillor. He died at Beriin, 18th August, 
 1719. His principal works are — "Juris publici prudentia;" 
 "Anatomia Juris Gentium ;" " Exercitationes Curiostc." — K. E. 
 
 COCCEJI, Saju'el Freiherr vox, the youngest son 
 of the above, was bom at Heidelberg in 1679, and like his 
 father devoted himself to the study of law. By degrees ho 
 attained to the highest office in the Prussian ser^•ice, and in 
 1746 was even made high chancellor of the kingdom. He was 
 the great reformer of the administration of justice in Pmssia. 
 Ovenvhelming as the duties of his ofticcs must have been, lie 
 yet found leisure for literary labours. We mention his " Codex 
 Fridericianus, 1747-50; his "Corpus Juris Fridericianum," 
 1749-52; his "Jus Civile Controversum" (new edition by 
 Emmiiighaus) ; and his introduction to a new edition of his 
 father'sljrotius lUustratus — all of them works which are still 
 held in the highest esteem. He died at Berlin 22nd October, 
 1755.— K. E. 
 
 COCCHI, Antonio, an Italian physician of high repute for 
 learning and professional skill, who visited this country- on an 
 invitation from the earl of Huntingdon, made the acquaintance
 
 of Newton, Mead, and Clarke, and was elected a member of the 
 Royal Society. He resided latterly at Florence, where he was 
 professor of anatomv, and court antiquary. He was born in 
 1695, and died in 1758.— J. S., G. 
 
 COCCIA, Carlo, a musician, was bom at Naples, April, 
 1789 ; the date of his death is uncertain. His father, Nicolo 
 Coccia, was a distinguished violinist ; he desired his son to pro- 
 secute the study of architecture, but the boy's fondness for 
 music, and his fine soprano voice, induced the relinquishment of 
 the paternal plan, and young Carlo adopted his favourite art 
 as a profession. He sang, as a boy, in some of the Neapolitan 
 churches ; and, before the age of thirteen, produced some 
 compositions of considerable extent. He then entered the 
 consei-vatorio, where he became the pupil of Fenaroli and of 
 Paesiello, the latter of whom took especial interest in him, which 
 he proved, not only by the careful development of his talent, but 
 by obtaining for him opportunities to exercise it. On the 
 recommendation of this famous musician, Coccia was engaged 
 as teacher in the families of the chief nobOity, and was appointed 
 accompanyist at the court concerts of Joseph Bonaparte, then 
 king of Naples. It was through Paesiello's influence, also, that 
 he produced his first dramatic work, an opera bufta, given at 
 Eome in 1808 ; the non-success of which, far from discom-aging 
 his friend, induced him to exert himself the more to procure 
 Coccia a second trial. At Florence he was more fortunate, and 
 the success he there obtained was the opening of a career of 
 rapid and extensive popularity. For some time he -sYTOte one, 
 two, or three operas every year, and these he composed with 
 remarkable facility — an example of which was the entire com- 
 pletion of " Donna Caritea " in the inten^al of six days. In 
 1820 he went to Lisbon, where, during the next three years, he 
 produced several works. He came to London as music director 
 of the King's theatre in the autumn of 1823. Here he was 
 appointed one of the professors of composition in the royal 
 academy of music, at the opening of the institution. In London 
 he was held in great esteem as a teacher of singing, and he 
 obtained great credit for the discharge of his theatrical duties. 
 He had now means of becoming acquainted with the severer 
 style of music, which Italy had not afforded ; and this was not 
 without effect upon the character of his writings. He printed 
 in London many detached vocal pieces, but produced no new 
 opera until 1827, when " Maria Stuarda" was brought otit with 
 success. At the close of this season Coccia returned to Naples, 
 and remained from that time in Italy, save during a visit to 
 London of a few months in 1833. He contmucd to vrrite 
 operas for the several Italian capitals, but with more care, and 
 consequently less rapidity than before. In 1836 he was 
 instituted inspector of singing in the philharmonic academy of 
 Turin.— G. A. M 
 
 COCHIN, Charles Nicholas, called the Elder, a French 
 painter and engraver, bom at Paris in 1670. He abandoned 
 painting at the age of nineteen, and devoted himself exclusively 
 to engraving. He engraved many plates after Watteau and 
 Lancret, and scripture subjects after Raffaelle, Le ^loine, Bertin, 
 Coypel, and others. His drawing was neat, and his execution 
 spirited. He died in 1754. — Charles Nicholas, was his son, 
 and is called the Younger. He was bom in Paris in 1715. He 
 produced several literary works relating to the fine arts. He 
 executed upwards of fifteen hundred plates, remai-kable for the 
 grace of their design and the neatness of their execution. Among 
 some of the portraits he completed are the heads of Chaides 
 Sackville, earl of Dorset, David Garrick, the Prince De Turenne, 
 Restout the painter, Bouchardon the sculptor, &c. He died at 
 Paris in 1790. — W. T. 
 
 COCHLAEUS, John, a divine of the Romish church, was a 
 vehement opponent of Luther, Bucer, and Melancthon ; born 
 in 1479, near Niirnberg; died at Breslau in 1552. Among 
 his works is one, the title of which betrays the pompous and 
 blustering character of the author — " The Broom of Johannes 
 Cochlaeus for sweeping down the Cobwebs of IMomson." It is 
 a reply to Dr. R. Morrison's refutation of the tract published by 
 Cochlaeus against the man-iage of Henry VIII. — J. S., G. 
 
 COCHRANE: a noble Scottish family of gi-eat antiquity, which 
 derived its surname from the barony of Cochrane, in the county 
 of Renfrew. About the close of the sixteenth centuiy the fiimily 
 terminated in an heu-ess, who married a younger son of Blair of 
 Blah-. — Her second son, Sir William Cochrane of Cowden, 
 was elevated to the peerage in 1647 as Baron Cochrane of Dun- 
 
 donald, and in 1669 was advanced to the dignity of Earl of 
 Dundonald. — (See Dundonald.) 
 
 Cochrane, Sir John, of Ochiltree, second son of this noble- 
 man, was a distinguished patriot and presbyterian, and was the 
 bosom friend of Algernon Sidney, Lord William Russell, and other 
 eminent English liberals. He was in consequence deeply impli- 
 cated in then- plans for the exclusion of the duke of York from 
 the throne. On the discovery of their designs. Sir John Cochrane, 
 along with Sir Patrick Hume and other Scottish patriots, fled 
 to Holland, where they remained until the death of Charles II. in 
 1G85, and the consequent accession to the throne of the duke of 
 York. Sir John then took part in the descent of the earl of Argyle 
 upon Scotland, and by his wrongheadedness and jealousy of the 
 earl contributed not a little to the ruin of that ill-fated expedi- 
 tion. On the final dispersion of the insurgents, Sir John was 
 betrayed by his uncle's wife, tried, and condemned to death. 
 His daughter Grizel, a young lady of eighteen, disguised in 
 male attire, near the borders robbed the postman of the mail 
 bags containing the warrant for her father's execution, and thus 
 afforded time for her grandfather, the old earl of Dundonald, to 
 open a negotiation with Father Petre, the king's confessor, and 
 by a bribe of £5000 to procure his son's pardon. — .J. T. 
 
 Cochrane, Sir Alexander Forrester Inglis, G.C.B.. 
 a distinguished British admiral, son of Thomas, eighth earl of 
 Dundonald, was bom in 1758. He entered the naval service 
 at an early age ; and after passing through the interaiediate 
 steps with distinction, obtained the rank of post-captain in 
 1782. At the commencement of the war with France he 
 was appointed to the command of the Hind, and then of the 
 T/ietis, and displayed such activity and courage, that in 1793 
 he captured eight French privateers. In 1796, aided by the 
 Hussar frigate, he attacked five French ships in Chesapeake 
 bay, and captured one of the largest of them, the rest having 
 made their escape after they had struck. In 1799 he was 
 appointed to the Ajax of 80 guns, and having joined the fleet 
 in the Mediten-anean under Lord Keith, appointed to convoy Sir 
 Ralph Abercromby's expedition to Egypt, he was appointed to 
 superintend the landing of the British troops — a service which he 
 performed with admirable skill and success. In 1804 he was 
 elected member of parliament for the Dunfermline burghs, but 
 lost his seat at the general election in 1806. On the resumption 
 of hostilities with France, after the brief peace of Amiens, Cap- 
 tain Cochrane was appointed to the command of the Northum- 
 berland 74 ; and in the following year he was made rear-admiral, 
 and pursued to the West Indies and back a French squadron 
 which had contrived to escape from the blockaded port of Roche- 
 fort. He then joined Lord Nelson in his famous pursuit of the 
 combined fleets of France and Spain. In 1806, along with Sir 
 John Duckworth, he pursued and overtook a French fleet sent 
 to relieve the to\^Ti of St. Domingo ; and after a severe action, 
 captured the whole except two frigates and a corvette. For this 
 important sei-vice Admiral Cochrane received the thanks of both 
 houses of parliament, together with the freedom of the city of 
 London, and a sword of the value of a hundred guineas, and was 
 created a knight of the bath. He subsequently assisted in the 
 reduction of the West Indian islands belonging to Denmark, and of 
 Martinique and Guadaloupe, and ui 1810 was appointed governor 
 of tJiis latter island and its dependencies. When war broke out 
 with the United States in 1813, Sir Alexander was appointed 
 to the command of the fleet on the North American station, and 
 effectually blockaded the enemy's ports. In 1819 he was raised 
 to the rank of admiral of the blue ; and from 1821 to 1824 held 
 the office of commander-in-chief at Plymouth. Admiral Coch- 
 rane died suddenly at Paris on the 26th of Januaiy, 1832. — J.T. 
 
 Cochrane, John Dundas, a British naval officer, sur- 
 named " the pedestrian traveller," was the nephew of Admiral 
 Su" Alexander Cochrane, and was bom in 1780. At the age of 
 ten he went to sea, and served with distinction against the French 
 in America and in the East Indies. Resolved to make the tour 
 of the globe on foot, he quitted London in 1820, and in the 
 space of three years and two months traversed France, Germany, 
 Finland, Russia Proper, and Siberia, sailed down the Lena as far as 
 Yakoutik, thence travelled in a sledge dra^\'n by dogs to Nijnei- 
 Kolymek, traversed the country of the Tchouktchis as far as 
 Oschotsk, and visited Kaintschatka, where he married a young 
 lady of the country. He suffered dreadful hardships during this 
 journey, and at one period travelled four hundred miles without 
 meeting a living creature. His restless disposition did not allow
 
 coc 
 
 107: 
 
 COC 
 
 him to remain long at home; and in 1823 he embarked for 
 South America, contemplating a jonrney on foot through the 
 whole of that country. He died at Valencia, in the state of 
 Columbia, on the 12th of August, 1825. His "Narrative of a 
 Pedestrian Journey through Rassia and Siberian Tartary, Frontier 
 of China, to the Frozen Sea and Kamtschatka," published in 
 1824, contains many very curious and interesting details. — J. T. 
 
 * CocHKASE, Sir THOMAs-.Jonx, rear-admiral, son of Sh 
 Alexander, was horn in 1789. He distinguished himself in the 
 American war under the command of his father ; was for some 
 years governor of Newfoundland; in 1837 was elected member 
 for Ipswich : in 184-4 was appointed commander-in-chief on 
 the East Indian station, and undertook a successful expedition 
 against the pirates on the Indian Archipelago ; and in 1846 
 seized the capital of the sultan of Borneo. Sir Thomas was 
 raised to the rank of rear-admiral in 1850. — J. T. 
 
 * Cochrane, Ai.exaxder Dcxdas Ross Wisrart 
 Batllie, son of Sir Thomas- John, was bom in 1813. He has 
 been successively member of parliament for Bridport, Lanark- 
 shire, and Honiton. He is the author of two novels called 
 "Lucille Belmont" and "Ernest Vane;" and a pohtical work 
 entitled " Young Italy," in which he espouses the cause of the 
 goveraments of the peninsida in opposition to the Uberal party. 
 
 COCHRAX, William: this painter was bom in 1738 at 
 Strathem in Clydesdale. He was placed in the school of 
 design at Glasgow, founded by the two famous painters, Robert 
 and Andrew Fonlis ; and after studpng there for some years, 
 proceeded to Italy in 1761, and for five years received instruction 
 from Ga^-in Hamilton. He then returned to Glasgow and worked 
 hai-d for the support of his aged mother and himself. He painted 
 portraits in oil and miniature, which obtained repute for their 
 accuracy of likeness, and general correctness of drawing and 
 colour. Some of his early works of more ambitious character 
 are to be found in Glasgow, viz., " Da;dalus and Icarus," and 
 " Diana ;md Endymion." These were painted during his sojourn 
 at Rome. From a remarkable feeling of diffidence or humihty 
 he would never send his works for exhibition at any of the public 
 galleries, or, indeed, affix his name to them. He died at Glas- 
 gow in 1785, and was interred in the cathedral there. The 
 inscription on his monument sums up his merits thus — " Tht 
 works of his pencil and this marble bear record of an eminent 
 artist and a vii-tuous man." — W. T. 
 
 COCKBURX, Catherine, the authoress of a number of 
 plays and political and moral treatises which attained considerable 
 celebrity in their day, was born in London in 1679. She was 
 the daughter of a Scotch gentleman named Trotter, who held a 
 naval command in the reign of Charles II. ; and in 1708 she 
 married a Scotch theologian of the name of Cockbnm. She 
 published three tragedies named " Agnes de Castro ; " " Fatal 
 Friendsliip ;" " Gustavus Erikson, king of Sweden ; " and a comedy 
 entitled " Love at a Loss." She also wrote a " Discourse con- 
 cerning a Guide in Controversy ; " " A Letter to Dr. Holdsworth 
 concerning the ResmTection of the same body;" "A defence of 
 Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding ; " and a " Vindi- 
 dication of Locke's Christian principles,'" in reply to Dr. Holds- 
 worth ; " Remarks upon Rutherford's Essay on the nature and 
 obligations of Virtue," &c. — J. T. 
 
 COCKBURX, Henrt, a distinguished Scotch lawyer and 
 judge, was born in 1779, and was the son of Archibald Cock- 
 burn, one of the barons of the exchequer in Scotland. He was 
 educated at the high school of Edinburgh, which then num- 
 bered amongst its pupils, Brougham, Scott, Jeffrey, and Homer. 
 His education was completed at the university of Edinburgh, 
 and in the far-famed Speculative Society, in which his school- 
 fellows mentioned above, along with Lord Henry Petty (now 
 marquis of Lansdowne), James iloncrieff, and Charles and Robert 
 Grant, took an active part in the discussions. Cockbnm was 
 called to the bar in 1800, and although he was nephew to Lord 
 ilelviUe the great dispenser of the court patronage in Scotland, 
 and all his family connections were staunch tories, the young 
 advocate adopted at the outset the liberal opinions to which he 
 adhered through life. Xotwithstanding that he was frowned on 
 by the men in power, Cockburn made steady progress in his 
 profession ; he became peculiarly distinguished for eloquence and 
 skill in his addresses to juries, and though the Scotch bar was 
 then crowded with formidable competitors, he ultimately won 
 his way into the foremost rank as a popular pleader. As a 
 lawyer, he was inferior to several of his contemporaries, but as 
 
 an orator, he stood at the very head of his profession. His powers 
 of conversation also were of a high and rare order. He was 
 gifted both with a lively fancy and with a quaint and pimgent 
 wit. His language was pure Scotch, such as was spoken by the 
 higher classes in Scotland towards the close of last century, 
 and he has justly been pronounced the model of a high-bred 
 Scottish gentleman of the last distinctive school which his 
 country produced. He was known to and heartily liked by all 
 classes all over Scotland. Associated as he was in the most 
 intimate personal friendship with the leading Edinburgh whig?, 
 he took an active part in promoting the reform of our legal and 
 political institutions ; and when the hberal party obtained office 
 in 1830, Cockburn became soUcitor-general, while his friend 
 Francis Jeffrey was appointed lord-advocate. In 1834 he was 
 promoted to the bench as one of the lords of session, and three 
 years later received the additional appointment of a lord com- 
 missioner of justiciary. As a judge he was painstaking, acute, 
 judicious, and cautious, and his clear enunciation of legal prin- 
 ciples, the soundness of his judgment, and his skill in the detection 
 of sophistry gained him a high reputation in the criminal court ; 
 but on questions of feudal law his opinion did not carry much 
 weight. He was universally esteemed and beloved as a relative, 
 a friend, and a citizen. He died after a very brief illness on 
 26th April, 1854, while he was on circuit at Ayr. Lord Cock- 
 biuTi was an early contributor to the Edinburgh Revieic ; but his 
 first separate work was his " Life of Lord Jeffrey," in 2 vols. 
 8vo, published in 1852, a work remarkable for its genial, 
 humorous, and picturesque writing. Since his death there has 
 been published a volume entitled " ilemorials of his time," con- 
 taining an account of the distinguished men and important 
 events that have marked the progress of Scotland, and especially 
 of Edinburgh, during his day. It is a most delightful book, filled 
 with inimitable sketches of character and manners. — J. T. 
 
 COCKBURX, John, of Ormiston, a celebrated Scottish 
 agiicnlturist, was bom in the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century, and was the son of Lord-justice-clerk Cockburn and 
 Susan, the daughter of John, fonrt"h earl of Haddington. John 
 Cockburn was a member of the last Scottish parliament, and was 
 the first representative of East Lothian in the parUament of Great 
 Britain. At one period he also held the office of lord of the 
 admiralty. It was not, however, the public, but the private 
 career of the " father of Scottish husbandry " which has per- 
 petuated his memory. He granted long leases to his tenants, 
 introduced on his estate the culture of turnips, rape, and clover, 
 brought down skilful agriculturists from England, and sent up 
 thither the sons of his tenants to study the modes of cultivation 
 practised in the south. He induced an eminent Irish manufac- 
 tui'er to set up a linen manufactory at Ormiston, and a 
 bleachfield — the second establishment of the kind in Scotland — 
 and brought over from Holland some workmen to give instrac- 
 tion in the art of bleaching. Potatoes were raised on his estate 
 so early as 1734, and are said to have been introduced by the 
 workmen of the Irish linen manufacturer. The Ormiston Agri- 
 cultural Society, which was instituted by Jlr. Cockburn, and 
 comprised nearly all the ablest men in Scotland at that period, 
 was of great service in promoting improvements in the rural 
 economy of the kingdom. This patriotic and public-spirited 
 gentleman died in 1758. — J. T. 
 
 COCKBURN, Mrs., the authoress of the modern version of 
 the celebrated Scotch song " The Flowers of the Forest," and 
 various other poetical pieces of great merit, was the daughter of 
 Rutherford of Faimilee in Selkirkshire. She married in 1731 
 Patrick Cockburn, advocate, younger brother of Cockburn of 
 Ormiston, the father of Scottish agiiculture, and died in Edin- 
 burgh in 1794 at an advanced age. She was distinguished for 
 her'wit and conversational powers, as well as for her poetical 
 abilities. Sir Walter Scott, who knew her well, says — "She 
 maintained the rank in the society of Edinburgh which French- 
 women of talent usually do in that of I'aris ; .and her little 
 parlour used to assemble a ver}' distinguished and accomidishcd 
 circle, among whom David Hume, John Home, Lord Monboddo, 
 and many other men of name were frequently to be found. Her 
 evenin£r parties were ver\- frequent, and included society distin- 
 guished both for rank and talents." — J. T. 
 
 COCKBURN, Patrick, a Scottish divine and Oriental 
 scholar, was a native of Langton in Benvickshire. He studied 
 at Paris, and held for a considerable time the professorship of 
 Oriental languages in the university of that city. He ultimately
 
 coc 
 
 1078 
 
 COD 
 
 returned to Scotland, embraced the reformed faitb, and became 
 first protestant minister of Haddington, and then professor of 
 Oriental languages in the university of St. Andrews, where he 
 died in 1559. — J. T. 
 
 COCKER, Edward, once a very familiar or rather household 
 name in England. He was born about 1631 ; professionally an 
 engraver, and a teacher of writing and arithmetic. He died 
 about the year 1675. Taking advantage of his skill as an 
 engi-aver, he' is said to have been the first who published engi-aved 
 copy-lines, or exercises in penmanship. Odd, indeed, was their 
 subject m-itter, viz., descriptions of hell-tire and portraits of 
 fiends! We have surely got a little way on in practical 
 pedagogy since the days of Cocker ? But his celebrated work 
 was the one on arithmetic — the first truly commercial and prac- 
 tical treatise. It was not published by Cocker himself, but by 
 one John Hawkins, who, on finding its great success, afterwards 
 forged others bearing the name of Cocker. — Persons, we suppose, 
 are still living who remember Cocker lying on the desks of their 
 schoolmasters, alonffside of Dillworth and others as venerable. 
 But the day of these incomparable worthies has passed, and their 
 place been usiu^ied by Gray and Jlelrose, and a host of very 
 microscopic modern men. Sic transit gloria ! — J. P. N. 
 
 * COCKEKELL, Charles Robert, R.A., architect, was bom 
 in 1788. After receiving the usual professional training, he 
 spent several years in a careful study of the famoas architectural 
 remains in Asia Jlinor, Athens, Rome, Sicily, &c., and in 
 1811-12 assisted in excavating the ruins of the temple of 
 .Jupiter jEgina and of Apollo at Phygaleia. In 1829 he was 
 elected associate of the Royal Academy; R.A. in 1836 ; and in 
 1840 he was appointed professor of architecture in the room of 
 Mr. Wilkins. His lectures contain much valuable information 
 respecting the history and theory of architecture, and sustain his 
 well-earned reputation for ability and learning. He is one of the 
 eight foreign associates of the academy, of the Institute of France, 
 a member of the academies of St. Luke, Rome, of Munich, 
 &c., and a D.C.L. of Oxford. He has a decided predilection 
 for the classic style of architecture, though he has of late 
 vears executed several designs in Gothic. The principal stnic- 
 tures erected by him are the New Library at Cambridge, the 
 University galleries at Oxford, the Philosophical Institution at 
 Bristol, the College at Lampeter, the Sun Fu-e Office in London, 
 Westminster Fire Office in the Strand, and the various alterations 
 in the Bank of England, of which he is standing architect. — J. T. 
 COCKERILL, William, the celebrated ironfounder in the 
 Netherlands, was a native of Lancashire, and first gained his 
 living by making " roving billies," or flying shuttles. His me- 
 chanical-genius, however, was of a veiy superior order, and he 
 could with his own hands make models of any machine of modem 
 invention for spinning. When the Empress Catherine of Russia 
 wished to procure a few artisans from England to promote the 
 progi'ess of art in her own dominions, WilUam Cockerill was 
 recommended to her notice, and was accordingly invited to St. 
 Petersburg, where he met with every encouragement from the 
 empress. But her death, only two years after, blasted his pros- 
 pects. Her insane successor, Paul, put Cockerill in prison, 
 because he was unable to complete a model in a certain fixed 
 time. He contrived to make his escape, however, and went to 
 Sweden, where he was for some time employed by the govern- 
 ment in the construction of the locks of a public canal. Having 
 heard of the want of proper machinery in manufactures at Liege 
 and Verviers, he proceeded to Holland, and commenced in 1807 
 an establishment in the Pays de Liege for the fabrication of 
 machinery and steam-engines. In 1816 he established at 
 Seraing on the Meuse the gi-eatest iron foundry on the continent, 
 or perhaps in the world. Not less than four thousand persons 
 are employed in this establishment, in which the king of Holland 
 was at one time a partner, having invested in it the sum of 
 one hundred thousand pounds. William Cockerill retired from 
 business a millionaire, and died at Brussels at an advanced age. 
 — His son John, bom in 1799 ; died in 18-10, who succeeded 
 him in the management of the great national concern at Seraing, 
 was a very remarkable man. His manufacturing and financial 
 talents were of the very highest order, and entitle him to a con- 
 spicuous place in the annals of modem industry. — J. T. 
 
 COCLES, Horatius, a Roman wan-ior, celebrated for his 
 heroic conduct in defending the city against the army of 
 Porsenna, an Etrarian king who invaded Rome with the view 
 of establishing the Tarqninii on the throne. With the assistance 
 
 of two others he is said to have kept the whole invading army 
 at bay, while the bridge over the Tiber, which was the only 
 means of communication with the city, was being demolished by 
 the Romans ; and, on this being accomplished, it is related that 
 he plunged into the river with aU his armour, and swam safely 
 across to his friends. The story of Codes is naiTated by Livy ; 
 but little dependence can be placed on its truth. — W. il. 
 
 CODAGORA, ViviANO: this painter flourished about 1650. 
 He studied in the Roman academy, and was distinguished for 
 his views of ancient Rome, and perspective composition. Lanzi 
 designates Codagora the Vitruvius of his class of painters. 
 Many of his best pictures are at Naples. He is often con- 
 founded with Ottavio Viv-iani of Brescia. — W. T. 
 
 CODDIXGTON, William, a principal founder, and the 
 first governor of the settlement at Rhode Island in America, 
 was a native of Lincolnshire, England. He arrived at Salem, 
 12th June, 1630, in the Arabella. The settlement at Rhode 
 Island was begun 7th March, 1638, when Coddington, with 
 eighteen others, affixed their names to a social compact, which 
 recognized the laws of Christ as the laws of their new society. 
 He was at the same time chosen judge of the colony, and for 
 nearly a year was its only magistrate, when three others were 
 associated with him with the title of elders. In 1640 the style 
 of the first magistrate was changed to governor, and the others 
 were called assistants. He continued to be governor till 1645, 
 when the patent was received which united Rhode Island with 
 Providence Plantations, in one jurisdiction. In Januaiy, 1649, 
 he sailed for England. At the end of a year or a little more 
 he returned, bearing a commission from the council of state 
 constituting him governor for life of Rhode Island, apart from 
 the other settlements of the colony. This was in effect a 
 revocation of the patent, and benig not acceptable to the people, 
 was imperfectly earned into eifect. It was annulled by the 
 council in 1652, through the representations of Dr. John Clarke 
 and Roger Williams, who were sent to England for that pur- 
 pose. From this period Jlr. Coddington withdrew from public 
 afiairs, but later in lii'e he was an assistant, and in 1674-75, he 
 was again chosen governor. He died in 1678. — F- B. 
 
 CODINUS, Georgius : the date of Codinus' birth is not 
 known ; he died about 1534. Two works of his are preserved of 
 considerable interest to the students of Byzantine histon,% viz., 
 " De Officialibus palatii Constantinopolitani," and " Origines 
 Constantinopolitanae," The authorship of the latter work is not 
 free from doubt. — J. A., D. ^ 
 
 CODRINGTON, Christopher, was bora at Barbadoes in 
 1068, and died there in 1710. After completing his studies at 
 Oxford, he entered the military service, and took part in the 
 campaigns in Flanders under King WilHam III. He was rewarded 
 for his distinguished services by being nominated governor of 
 the Leeward islands after the peace of Ryswick. He bequeathed 
 a portion of his immense fortune to the Society for the Propa- 
 gation of the Gospel, on condition that it should establish in 
 Barbadoes a college for teaching medicine, surgery, and theology. 
 He also left a legacy of ten thousand pomids, and his hbrary, to 
 the college of All Souls, Oxford. Governor Codrington was the 
 author of several poems in the Musffi Anglicanas. — J. T. 
 
 CODRINGTON, Sir Edward, G.C.B., a distinguished 
 British admiral, was bora in 1770. He entered the navy in 
 1783, and acted as lieutenant of the Queen Charlotte, Lord 
 Howe's flagship, in the famous conflict with the French on the 
 1st of June, 1794. He rose steadOy in the sen'ice ; commanded 
 the Orion at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805 ; accompanied the 
 expedition to Walcheren in 1808-9; served on the coast of 
 Spain in 1810-11 ; in North America in 1814, and took part 
 in the attack on New Orleans. He was promoted to the rank 
 of vice-admu-al in 1821. In 1826 he was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of fhe Mediterranean squadron, and took the leading 
 part in the battle of Xav.arino on the 20th of October, 1827, in 
 which the Turkish fleet was destroyed by the combined squadrons 
 of Great Britain, Russia, and France. The British government, 
 however, regarded this victory as an " untoward event," and Sir 
 Edward was recalled in April, 1828. He afterwards commanded 
 a squadron of observation in the channel in 1831, attained the 
 full rank of admiral in 1837, and from 1839 to 1842 was com- 
 mander-in-chief at Portsmouth. In 1832 he was elected mem- 
 ber of p.arhament for Devonport, and was re-elected both in 
 1835 and 1837. He was a consistent supporter of hberal mea- 
 sures. Sir Edward died in 1851, aged eighty-one. — J. T.
 
 COD 
 
 1079 
 
 COF 
 
 CODEIXGTOX, EoBEUT, an English writer, born of an old 
 family in Gloucestershire in 1602. He was educated at Oxford, 
 and died of the plague in 1665. He wrote " The Life and Death 
 of Robert, Earl of Essex;" " The Life of jEsop;" and translated 
 Du Moulin, on the Knowledge of God, Justin, Quintus Ciulius, 
 the prophecies of the German prophets, &c. — R. JL, A. 
 
 • CODKINGTON, Siu William John, K.C.B., eldest sur- 
 viving son of Sir Edward, was bom in 1800. He entered the 
 ai-iuy in 1821, and rose through the intervening grades until 
 he became lieutenant-colonel of the Coldstream Guards in 1836, 
 and obtained the rank of major-general in 185-t, without, how- 
 ever, having been engaged in any actual war service. At the 
 commencement of the Russian war he accompanied, as a spec- 
 tator, the British army sent out to Turkey, immediately before 
 the sailing of the Crimean expedition, and was appointed by 
 Lord Raglan to the command of the first brigade of the light 
 division, vacant by the promotion of General Au-ey to the office 
 of quarter-master general to the army. He led his brigade with 
 great gallantry at the battle of the Alma, and was the first to 
 give notice of the approach of the Russians at Inkermann. 
 Lord Raglan noticed his conspicuous bravery during the battle, 
 and appointed him to command the light dinsion when Sir 
 George Brown was obliged to leave fcr Malta, in consequence of 
 a wound received at Inkermann. Sir William led the unsuc- 
 cessful attack on the Redan, at the capture of Sebastopol, 8th 
 September, 1855 ; and after the resignation of General Simpson, 
 was appointed commander-in-chief of the British army in the 
 Crimea. On his return home at the close of the war, he was 
 elected JI.P. for Greenwich. — J. T. 
 
 CODRUS, the seventeenth and last king of Athens, was the 
 son of Melanthus, and reigned from 1123 to 1095 B.C. 
 
 COECK OK KOECK. See Koeck. 
 
 COELLO, Claudio, an eminent Spanish painter, born at 
 Madrid early in the seventeenth century. In 1680 he was 
 appointed cabinet painter to Philip IV., and employed in the 
 Escurial.— W. T. 
 
 COELN, WiLiiELM vox, or William of Cologne, an 
 eminent old German painter of the latter part of the fourteenth 
 century, called also Meister Wilhelm. He is supposed to 
 have been born at Herle, a village near Cologne. As early as 
 1370 he was certainly settled in Cologne with his wife, Jutta ; 
 and a passage in the annals of the dominicans of Frankfort 
 testifies to his extraordinary repute. !Many paintings in dis- 
 temper of the old Cologne school are credited to Coeln, but the 
 evidence of their authenticity is often only conjectm'al. Other 
 works ai'c attributed to him, equally with his pupil, Meister 
 Stephan, of whom, unfortunately, no reliable records are pre- 
 served. Of these pictures is the so-called Dom-bild, or cathedral 
 picture, formerly the altarpiece of the chapel of the Rath-haus 
 of Cologne, but now in the cathedral. The best accounts of 
 both masters are to be found in Dr. Kugler's history of paint- 
 ing, part ii., and in Michiel's Etudes sur I'Allemagne. The 
 disputed pictm-es are remarkable for simple beauty of colour, 
 elaborate execution, Gothic manner of design, and extraordinaiy 
 resemblance to the school of Van Eyck, without its accuracy 
 of drawing.— W. T. 
 
 COfiX, Chananel Chayim, of Reggio, died at Florence in 
 1834, a learned Hebraist whose activity was especially du-ected 
 towards the religious education of the Italian Jews. He wrote 
 a vocabulai-y in Hebrew and Italian ; a treatise on the language 
 of the Jlishna ; an account of the heathen deities mentioned in 
 the Hebrew scriptures ; a collection of Hebrew synonjines ; 
 moral dissertations for the use of young people ; and valuable 
 compendia on the poetic art of the Hebrews. — T. T. 
 
 COEX, Jaon Pieterzon, a Dutch East India governor, was 
 born at Hoom in 1587. He received a connnercial education 
 at Rome, went to India in 1607, and returned in 1611. In the 
 follo\ving year he was sent out with two ships under his com- 
 mand, and acquitted himself so well, that in 1613 he received 
 the entire management of the Indian trade, with the title of 
 director-general — an office that was created expressly in his 
 favour. He was chosen president of Bantam, and in 1619 
 founded the town of Batavia, which he declared the capital of 
 the Dutch East India settlement. In 1629 the emperor of 
 Java, jealous of the rising power of the Dutch, made an unsuc- 
 cessful attack on the capital, soon after which event Coen died. 
 COETLOGON, Jean Baptiste Felicity, Count de, a poet, 
 bom at Versailles in August, 1773. His mother, having accom- 
 
 panied her royal highness the countess d'Artois in her exile, took 
 her son with her, and so imbued his mind with the principles of 
 loyalty that his poetry, when he began to write, derived its 
 inspiration from the same source. His odes are all devoted to 
 the royal family. He has written a poem on Bayard, the knight 
 sans petir et sans reproche, and even aspired to the high theme 
 of David, and with success enough to justify the council of 
 public instraction bestowing their approbation upon the court 
 bard. He was appointed governor of the royal chateau of Rum- 
 bouillet. He died m September, 1827.— j" F. C. 
 
 COEUR, Jacques, a celebrated French merchant, who was 
 born about the end of the fourteenth century, and took a distin- 
 guished part in the pohtical history of Charles VII. At an eariy 
 age he made choice of a mercantile career, and by bis remarkable 
 ingenuity, prudence, and perseverance, soon acquu-ed an im- 
 mense fortune. He was appointed master of the mint to Charles 
 VII., and was a special favourite of that monarch, whom he 
 assisted with large sums of money to carry on the war for the 
 expulsion of the English. A plot was fomied against him in 
 1450 by Antoine de Chabannes and others, at whose suggestion 
 he was arrested on the charge of having poisoned Agnes Sorel, 
 the king's mistress, and was cast into prison, where he was 
 long confined, tortured, and shamefully treated. Charles, with 
 base ingratitude, left his faithful servant in the bands of his 
 enemies, and even connived at their violation of aU law and 
 justice in their treatment of him. In 1453 Jacques Coeur was 
 pronounced guilty, and condemned to pay a fine of four millions 
 of crowns, to have the rest of bis property confiscated to the king, 
 and to be imprisoned till the fine was paid, and then to be banished 
 the kingdom. The writers of that age are unanimously of opinion 
 that his riches were his only crime, and " the vultm-es of the 
 court " shared among them the plunder of their victim. After 
 bis liberation in 1455, by the dexterity and daring of one of his 
 agents, Jacques was conveyed to Rome, where he was cordially 
 welcomed by Pope Nicholas V. In the following year he was 
 appointed captain-general of the church against the infidels, and 
 was sent "svith a fleet to the assistance of the Greek isles, then 
 menaced by the Turks. He was seized with an illness at Chios, 
 and died there m 1456. — J. T. 
 
 COFFEY, Charles, an Irish dramatic author, bom at the 
 end of the seventeenth centur)% He wrote nine dramatic pieces 
 which were all successful — one, " The Devil to Pay," decidedly 
 so, as it has kept the stage ever since, and was the foundation of 
 a successful modern ballet, Diable a Quatre. He died on the 
 13th May, 1745.— J. F. W. 
 
 COFFIN, Charles, bom at Buzancy in 167G. Having risen 
 to the distinction of rector of the university of France he signal- 
 ized his position by a decree establishing gratuitous instraction 
 in the colleges. After three years' occupation of this high post, 
 he resumed his fonner station of principal of the college of Beau- 
 vais. He wrote Latin verses with ease and gi-ace, in which lan- 
 guage Coffin composed some hymns for the ser\'ice of the church. 
 While in one of his Horatian moods he wrote a Latin ode in 
 praise of champagne wine, which so pleased some classic growers 
 of the grape, that they agreed to send the poet a hamper every 
 year. He died in 1749.— J. F. C. 
 
 COFFIN, Sir Isaac, Bart., a brave English naval officer, 
 was born in 1760. He entered the naval service in 1773, 
 obtained a lieutenancy in 1778, and was made a commander in 
 1781. He shared in a good deal of active service on the Halifax 
 station on the coast of America, and on board the Barfkin; under 
 Sir Samuel Hood. Disgusted at some shabby treatment which 
 he had received from the admiralty, Captain t'offin in 1788 trans- 
 ferred his services to the Flemish patriots, but he soon returned 
 to England, and in 1790 obtained the command of the Allii/atoi; 
 of twenty-eight guns. On the breaking out of tlie war with 
 France, Captain Coffin was appointed to the Mdampus frigate. 
 He was for some time resident commissioner of Corsica, then the 
 superintendent of the naval establishment at Lisbon, and in 
 1798 he was intrusted with the charge of the arsenal at Port 
 Mahon in Mmorca. In 1804 he was promoted to the r.ank of 
 rear-admiral, was soon after created a baronet, and became a 
 full admiral in 1814. Sir Isaac was for a number of years 
 member of parliament for the borough of Ilclicster, and was a 
 gi-eat favourite in the house, on account of his bonfiommie, and 
 the facetious remarks with which he enlivened the debates. He 
 died in 1841.— J. T. 
 
 COFFINHAL, Jean Baptiste, one of the most sanguinaiy
 
 COG 
 
 1080 
 
 coil 
 
 of the French revolutionists, was born in 1754. He was origi- 
 nally a student of medicine, but abandoned that pursuit for the 
 study of the law. On the breaking out of the Revolution he threw 
 himself headlong into the current, and by his energy, violence, 
 and great physical power, contributed greatly to direct the 
 popular movements. He was executed 29th July, 179-1. — J. T. 
 
 * COGALNICPvANO, JIichel, one of the few representatives 
 of the Rouman people in the world of letters, was bom in 1806, 
 and, adopting the profession of a teacher, obtained the professor- 
 ship of natural history at Jassy. He left Wallachia in 1834, 
 and travelled through Germany and part of France, in search 
 of materials for his " History of Moldavia and Wallachia," pub- 
 lished at Berlin in 1837, in French. Respecting the Tsiganis, 
 or Bohemian slave population, their language and history, he 
 has published some interesting memoirs. He was the founder 
 of the Etoile du Danube, and when, on the establishment of the 
 censorship, it ceased to appear at Jassy, he re-established it at 
 Brussels, where it is still published in French. He also con- 
 tributed to various other jom-nals, and published a valuable 
 collection of ancient chronicles, rescued from the recesses of 
 monasteries. In 1857 M. Cogalniceano was elected deputy to 
 the divan ad hoc, for Jloldavia. He performed another signal 
 service to his country by establishing a cloth factory at Niamgo, 
 the sole one which Moldavia possesses. — F. M. W. 
 
 COGAN, Thomas, an English physician and philosophical 
 writer, was born m Northamptonshire in 1736. He was first 
 the pastor of a presbyterian congi'egation at Amsterdam. He 
 then studied medicine at Leyden, and returning to London in 
 conjunction with Dr. Hams, founded the Royal Humane Society. 
 He subsequently retiu-ncd to Holland, where he remained until 
 tlie breaking out of the French revolution compelled him to 
 withdi-aw to England, where he died in 1818. He was a 
 voluminous \vi'iter on scientific and philosophical subjects. — J. T. 
 
 COGGESHALLE, Ralph, an English historian and cister- 
 cian monk, was bom in the middle of the twelfth centuiy, and 
 died about 1228. He wrote a " Chronicle of the Holy Land," 
 which, together with his "Chronicon Anglicanum," and "Libellus 
 de JIotibiTS AngUcanis sub Johanne Rege," were published by the 
 fathers Martenne and Durand in the 5th volume of the Amplissima 
 CoUectio veterum Script., &c. — R. M., A. 
 
 COGSWELL, William, D.D., an American clergyman and 
 man of letters, bom in Atkinson, New Hampshire, in 1787 ; 
 graduated at Dartmouth college in 1811, and died in Gilmanton, 
 New Hampshire, in 1850. After leaving college, he taught an 
 academy for two years, then studied theology, and was settled 
 over the south parish m Dedham, Massachusetts, for fourteen 
 years. In June, 1829, he resigned his pastoral charge, and was 
 appointed general agent of the American Education Society ; 
 and three yeai's afterwards he was elected secretary and director 
 of this society. He resigned his office in the education society in 
 18-11, and became professor of history in Dartmouth college, and 
 shortly afterwards president and professor of theology in the 
 theological seminaiy at Gilmanton, New Hampshire. He left a 
 considerable number of works on practical religion. — F. B. 
 
 COHAUSENr JoiiAXN Heinrich, a physician was born at 
 Heidelsheira in 1665, and died at IMunster in 1750. Cohausen 
 wrote two satirical pieces against the use of tobacco, the first of 
 which was entitled " Dissertatio satjiica physico-medico-moralis 
 de pica nasi, sive Tabaci sternutatorii moderno abusu et noxa." 
 His " Hennippus Redivivus," which was translated into English, 
 promulgates a new mode of prolonging life. — R. ^L, A. 
 
 COHEN, Anne Jean Philippe Louis, bom at Amersfoort 
 in the Low Countries, October, 1781; became first librarian of 
 the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevie've at Paris in 1824. His 
 writings embrace romance, poetiy, politics, and travels, and are 
 of average merit. Foreign authors, and particularly English, 
 are indebted to his pen for translations of their works into the 
 French language. Besides translations from German and Swed- 
 ish, he has rendered into French the novels of Jlaturin, Lady 
 Jlorgan, j\Iiss Porter, Bulwer, &c. He died m 1848. — J. F. C. 
 
 COHEN, R'Jehuda b. Solomon, lived at Toledo in the thir- 
 teenth century. His work " Medrash Chochmah " (Investigation 
 of Wisdom), still unedited, proves him to have been eminent as 
 a philosopher and a mathematician, as a biblical scholar and a 
 linguist. Wlien quite a young man he corresponded with 
 Frederick II., the illustrious emperor of Germany, on scientific 
 subjects. He visited Tuscany and the Romagna, and there 
 translated his work from the original Arabic into Hebrew, for 
 
 the benefit of the studious among his co-rehgionists in Italy. 
 (Rossi, Dlz. Stor.)—r. T. 
 
 COHEN, Jacob Shalom, was born at ^Meseritz, 23d Decem- 
 ber, 1771, and died at Hamburg in 1846, after a life spent in 
 incessant literary activity. He wrote both in Gemian and 
 Hebrew ; but his fame rests especially on the beauty of his 
 Hebrew compositions. He combined an astonishing versatility 
 with indefatigable industrj-. For the benefit of youth he wrote 
 "Mishle Agur" (Fables in Verse); a catechism of the Jewish 
 religion, " Chlnuch Amunah ; " a practical Hebrew grammar, 
 " Thorath Lashon Ibrith ;" he translated the whole of the Hebrew 
 scriptures ; composed Hebrew poems, and furnished the transla- 
 tion of them into German — " Matae Kedem al admath Zafon " 
 (Eastem Plants on a Northem Soil) ; projected a history of the 
 people of Israel fiom the Maccabees to the present tune, in 
 Hebrew, on the plan of Jost's German work (only the first 
 volume, to the destruction of Jerusalem, is published); composed 
 psalms on the life of David — " Mizmorim ;" and attempted dra- 
 matic literature — "Amal va Thu-zah, Naboth." His epic poem 
 " Nir David " (The light of Da\'id), takes rank among the best 
 productions of the neo-hebraic school. He was among the fir.st 
 to promote, through the medium of serials, the diffusion of 
 general knowledge among those classes of bis corefigionists 
 whose reading had heretofore been too limited — " Achere Ha- 
 measef " (The Gleaner) ; " Bikure Ha-ittim " (The First Fruit of 
 the Times). His memoiy is desen-edly revered by all lovers of 
 Hebrew literatm'e. — T. T. 
 
 COHEN, R' Joseph ben Josua ben Meie, a faithful histo- 
 rian and gi-eat physician, was bom at Avignon in 1497, where his 
 father had settled after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. 
 His family originally resided at Cuen9a, and some time at Huete 
 in Spain. When Joseph was five years old his father removed 
 to Genoa, but in 1516 the family were again compelled to 
 change their abode. They went to Novi. Here Joseph was 
 married ; but fi-om 1538 to 1550 he again resided at Genoa, 
 where he practised medicine, until, on the 2d of April of the last- 
 named year, a decree of banishment against all the Jews of Genoa 
 (dictated, he states, by the jealousy of the Genoese traders), 
 involved him in new troubles. He carried his profession with 
 him to Volteggio, and hence to Costelleto in Montferrat, where 
 he seems to have ended his days about 1575, in long-sought 
 peace. He has become famous in Hebrew literature by 
 two historical works — " Dibre Ha-yainim le-Malche Zarfat 
 u-^Ialche beth Otman Ha-tugar" (Annals of the Kings of 
 France and of the House of Othman the Turk) ; and " Emek 
 Ha-baca" (Valley of Baca or Weeping), a naiTative of the suffer- 
 ings of the Jews in the author's times. — T. T. 
 
 COHEN- ATTHAR, Aboulmeny Ben Abou Nask Isray- 
 LYN Haroun, an eminent Egyptian physician and writer on 
 natiu^al philosophy, bom at Cairo about 1100. He was one of 
 the best mathematicians of the Egyptian school ; his reasoning is, 
 however, totally at variance with mechanical ideas on any view 
 of the problem to find the force which will support a body on an 
 inclined plane. His principal work is entitled "Materia Medica," 
 a rich mine of natm-al histoiy, contauimg every Egyptian plant, 
 and every insect and mineral, truthfully delineated after nature, 
 with descriptive text in Arabic. The only copy which ever 
 reached Europe is to be seen at the Bibliotheque Imperiale de 
 Paris, section des manuscrits arabes. Died in 1170. — Ch. T. 
 
 COHORN, Menno, Baron de, called the Dutch Vauban, was 
 born of a family of Swedish extraction, at Leuwarden in Fries- 
 land in 1641. Inheriting from his father a decided taste for 
 military studies, he joined the Dutch army at the age of sixteen. 
 During the earlier part of his career as a soldier, he had little 
 opportunity of engaging in actual service, and he appears to 
 have devoted himself with ardour to the study of military 
 engineeiing. When the war broke out in 1672 he took part in 
 the defence of Maestricht ; and the talent which he displayed 
 tliere, together with his services in the battles of Senef, Cassel, 
 St. Denis, and Fleurus, procured for him the rank of colonel. 
 His ability as an engineer soon attracted the notice of govern- 
 ment ; and when peace was concluded, he was employed in 
 repairing and completing the fortifications of the principal towns. 
 In this he was actively engaged till the resumption of hostilities 
 In 1683 made his ser\-ices necessary in the field. In all the 
 subsequent compaigns he took a prominent pai't. At tlic siege 
 of Namur in 1692, he found himself opposed by his great rival 
 Vauban ; and the professional skill of the two gi-eatest engineers
 
 of the age was exhausted in the attack and defence of the town. 
 In the war of the Spanish succession, Ciihom, now a heutenant- 
 general, resumed his duties -nith unabated vigour, and rendered 
 material assistance to the cause of the allies by his success in 
 directing the operations against Venloo, Buremonde, and Liege, 
 and, in the following year, by the p;irt which he took in the 
 capture of Bonn. In the spring of 1704 he was seized with 
 apoplexy, which ended in his death at the Hague on the 17th 
 of March. Ccihorn was the author of various works on the 
 science of military engineering, the most important of which is 
 his " New Method of Fortification," published at Leuwarden 
 in 1685, and afterwards frequently translated. — W. M. 
 
 COIGXET, Giles, called Giles of Antwerp. This painter 
 was bom at Antwerp in 1530, and studied under Antonio 
 Palermo, then residing in that city. He visited Kome and 
 Naples — painting many historical works in fresco and oil. He 
 was admitted into the academy of Antwerp in 1561. The 
 troubles of the time, under the prince of Parma, compelled 
 Coignet to quit his native country, and take refuge in Holland, 
 where he remained many years. He was successful rather in 
 effect than in di'awing — in finish, rather than accuracy. Some 
 of his moonlight and candlelight subjects are very admirable. 
 He finally settled at Hamburg, where he died in 1600. — W. T. 
 
 COIMBRA, Dox Pedro, Dukede, siuuamedALFARROBEiRA, 
 son of John I., king of Portugal, and Philippa, daughter of John 
 of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, was born at Lisbon in 1392. 
 After receiving a careful education at the court of his father, he 
 was intrusted with the command of the Portuguese fleet in the 
 first attack upon Ceuta^ and subsequently held various com- 
 mands of importance in the war in Africa. He spent several 
 years in travelling over Europe and pait of Asia ; and on his 
 return to Portugal devoted himself to scientific studies, till he 
 was called upon in 1439 to assume the regency of the kingdom 
 during the minority of his nephew, Alphonso V. He retained 
 the office of regent with advantage to the state tUl 1446 ; but 
 in that year, in consequence of the intrigues of the duke of 
 Braganza, he was deposed by a summary decree of the cortes. 
 Instigated by the duke of Braganza, the young king declared 
 Coimbra a rebel, and mai-ched against him at the head of an 
 army. Don Pedro was at length forced to give battle, which he 
 did on the '20th of May, 1449. He was himself among the first 
 that fell. The common Portuguese account of his travels and 
 adventures is fictitious. — W. M. 
 
 COITIEE, VoLCHER, an eminent Dutch anatomist, bom at 
 Groningen in 1534. He prosecuted his professional studies at 
 some of the most celebrated universities of France and Italy, and 
 was a pupil of FaUopius, Eustachius, and Aranzi. In 1569 he 
 was appointed physician to the town of Niimberg, but resigned 
 that office to become a ^jhysician in the French army. The 
 researches of Coitier greatly promoted the progress of anatomical 
 science, and especially in regard to the formation and growth of 
 the bones in the fuetus, and the muscles of the nose. — J. T. 
 
 COITIER or COICTIER, Jacqles, physician to Louis XL 
 of France, was bom in the first half of the fifteenth century. 
 He exercised the most tyrannical influence over Louis, and 
 extorted from his royal patient immense sums of money and 
 donations of lands. He died about 1505. — J. T. 
 
 COKAYNE, Sir Astox, an English poet, bora at Elvaston 
 in Derbyshire in 1608, and died in 1684. He was educated at 
 Trinity college, Cambridge, and in 1632 travelled in France and 
 Italy. Cockayne was happy in numbering among his friends 
 such men as Donne, Slassinger, Drayton, Randolph, Habington. 
 Suckling, Sir William Dugdale, &c. ; but he suflered severely 
 during the ci\'il war on account of his attachment to the cause 
 of the king. His poems and plays, which are not of great merit, 
 were printed and reprinted in 1658, and are now sought after 
 chiefly as curiosities. — R. M., A. 
 
 COKE, Sir Edward, successively chief-justice of the com- 
 mon pleas and of the king's bench, has been considered for 
 upwards of two centuries the highest authority on the municipal 
 law of England, Notwithstanding the rapid obhteration of 
 almost every trace of feudal precedents from our present system 
 of jurispradence, the " Institutes " and the " Reports " are to 
 this day greatly venerated by the profession for their learning 
 and accuracy. To form a right estimate of this eminent jurist, 
 we shall ^-iew him as a member of the bar, the bench, and the 
 senate. Edward Coke was bom in the reign of Edward VI. on 
 the 1st of Febmary, 1551-52; and died under Charles I. on 
 
 the 3d of September, 1634. He was the only son of Robert 
 Coke of Jlileham in the coimty of Norfolk — a gentleman whose 
 pedigree was traced by Camden to the reign of King John. 
 ^\ hen Edward was ten years old, his father, who was a bencher 
 of Lincoln's inn, died in London, and was buried in the church 
 of St. Andrew's, Holbora. After spending some years in the 
 free grammar school at Nonvich, he was admitted a pensioner 
 of Trinity college, Cambridge, in September, 1567. Unlike 
 Bacon, the great rival of his later years, who came to the same 
 college a short time after him, and even then conceived the mde 
 outlme of a great creation. Coke neither indulged in philoso- 
 phical speculation, nor emulated the varied accomplishments 
 of a scholar. It was when he was admitted in 1572 to the 
 congenial cloisters of the inner temple, that he felt morally and 
 intellectually at home. In his law studies he was indefatigable. 
 He went to bed at nine, and got up at three — m the winter 
 lighting his own fire. Until the courts met at eight he read 
 Bracton, Littleton, and the year-books. From eight tiU twelve 
 he sat on the back benches in Westminster taking notes of the 
 cases argued. After a short repast in the inner temple hall, he 
 attended "readings" in the afternoon, and then resumed his 
 private studies till five, or supper-time. After this he took part 
 in the "moots" (always without notes), and before retiring for 
 the night made up his common-place book. In consequence of 
 his superior attainments, the usual period of study was abridged 
 in his favour, and the benchers of the inner temple, as a mark 
 of their high opinion of his legal knowledge, called him on the 
 30th of April, 1578. He was equally successful as a teacher. 
 Two years after his call, the society of the inner temple appointed 
 him reader to Lyon's inn. " His learned lectures so spread forth 
 his fame that crowds of cheuts sued to him for comisel." The 
 early popularity of Thomas Erskine, two hundred years from 
 this date, is the only parallel to the rapid rise of Coke. But 
 nothing can be more striking than the difference between these 
 two eminent men on their first appearance as advocates. In 
 Captain Baillie's case, Erskine delivered a bold impassioned 
 harangue, and with his — " I will drag him to light " — struck 
 the bar with terror, and brought confusion on the bench. In 
 Lord Cromwell's action of scan. mag. against the Rev. Sir. 
 Denny, the case had gone fairly against the defendant, for whom 
 Coke was retained as counsel. AMien all was thought lost. Coke, 
 with an acuteness prophetic of his future distmction, ferretted 
 out a misrecital in the declaration of the statute, moved in arrest 
 of judgment, and obtained it. Shortly after this, he took a 
 prominent part in one of the most celebrated cases ever ai'gued 
 in a British court, and succeeded in establishing the important 
 rule in the law of real property, well known as the nile in 
 Shelley's case. His great merits were now recognized by the 
 pubUc. In 1586 he was chosen recorder of Norwich. Five 
 years after. Sergeant Fleetwood, who had been some time 
 recorder of London, was pensioned off at £100 a year, to make 
 room for Edward Coke. The same year, 1592, saw hiin solicitor- 
 general, reader of the inner temple, and speaker of the house of 
 commons. His lectures at the inner temple were verj' popu];u-. 
 He had delivered five out of seven on the statute of uses, when 
 he was driven away by the plague from a class which numbered 
 one hundi-ed members of the society. Of these, nine benchers 
 and forty members paid him the honour of escorting liim on his 
 way to Suffolk as far as Romfurd. 
 
 Coke owed every step in Ms promotion to his own talent. 
 His practice was enormous : there was scarcely a single motion 
 or ai-gument before the court of kings bench in which he was 
 not engaged. But he had no influence at court. When Sir 
 Thomas Egerton was elevated to the seals, the carl of Essex 
 stirred heaven and earth to oppose the promotion of Coke, and 
 to secure the office of attomey-general to his favourite. Bacon. 
 But Burleigh, with his practical sagacity, gave preference to 
 the ablest lawyer, and, in the year 1594, Coke became attomey- 
 general. The rivalry wliich the contest excited between these 
 eminent men, gradually passed into animosity, that exhibited 
 itself in the alternate reverses of their fortunes in undignified 
 acts, until it finally subsided into implacable hate. The free- 
 holders of Norfolk, proud of their countrj-man, returned him as 
 theu- representative in 1593, as Coke himself states, without any 
 sohcitation or canvassing on his part. 
 
 In the annals of the Enghsli bar, the scurrility and vitupera- 
 tion of Coke — with one exception — have no parallel. But for 
 his creat intellect, and those virtues which grow like parasites 
 
 ^ 6X
 
 COK 
 
 1082 
 
 COK 
 
 on tlie trunks of vice, our condemnation of Coke would be 
 unqualified. In fierceness of demeanour he was more odious 
 than Elizabeth's captains — in scholastic conceits more despi- 
 cable than James's churchmen — in avarice more prurient than 
 the ancient monks, and in bigotry not a whit less violent. His 
 disposition was selfish, aiTogant, and harsh. Lost in the acqui- 
 sition of legal knowledge, and determined thereby to secure his 
 own aggrandizement, he never was the centre of a genial friend- 
 ship. As advocate he delighted in hectoring trembling criminals, 
 and treating with nideness his professional brethren. The lowest 
 barrister in the Old Bailey, would this day blush to act the part 
 of Coke in that altercation with Bacon in the court of exchequer. 
 The violence of his manner contrasts painfully with the sustained 
 dignity of the accomplished Ealeigh, who — then on his trial for 
 life — was thus addressed by Mr. Attorney — " Thou art a mon- 
 ster. Thou hast an English face and a Spanish heart. 
 All that he did was by thy instigation, thou viper : for I fhoti 
 thee, thou traitor." In his pleadings, he sometimes indulged 
 in quaint antithetical expressions, much to the delight of King 
 James. To one of the Jesuits he once said — " You do not watch 
 and pray, but you watch to prey." "True repentance," he 
 said on another tccasion, "is indeed never too late, but late 
 repentance is seldom found true." When James, jealous of his 
 purchases, told him he had as much land as a subject ought to 
 possess, Coke, who was then in treaty for the purchase of Castle 
 Acre priory, returned this .answer with much pleasantry — 
 " Then, please your majesty, I will only add one ac7'e more." 
 
 Nothing can be more painful than the tale of his domestic 
 history. His first marriage took place on the loth of August, 
 1582. He was then thirty-two, and rapidly rising at the bar. 
 The lady was the daughter of J. Paston, Esq., of Huntingfield 
 hall, Suffolk, who brought him a fortune of £30,000. She died 
 in 1598, after leading a life, as we must charitably suppose, of 
 comparative happiness. This "most beloved and most excel- 
 lent wife" had not been in her grave many months, when the 
 astute attorney commenced his treaty for a union with the Lady 
 Elizabeth Hatton, granddaughter of Burleigh, now a young, 
 beautiful, and wealthy widow. The formalities of wooing were 
 dispensed with, and the requisitions of the canonical law were 
 also overlooked ; so that Archbishop Whitgift siimmoned the 
 rector. Coke, Burleigh, .and all, into the spiritual com't, and 
 only remitted the penalty, on the plea of Coke's ignorance of 
 the law. They soon found grounds for domestic dissension. 
 There was an utter discrepancy of taste and manners, as well as 
 of age. Coke spent his days toiling in court and chambers, 
 whUe his lady was performing in court masques, and compli- 
 mented by Ben Jonson's verses. In 1617 it was reported that 
 "the Lord Coke and his lady had great wars at the council table." 
 
 Though conjugal love may sometimes fail, there must be some 
 unnatiu'alness of character, where parental affection is obliterated. 
 The conduct of Coke towards his daughter, then a child of four- 
 teen, though not without parallel in the low morality of that 
 age, exhibits a venality, seldom if ever known at the present 
 time. Now in his sixty-sixth year, and through his sturdy 
 independence as a judge thrust out of royal favour, instead of 
 retiring into private life, with the consciousness of his judicial 
 integrity, he determined to sacrifice his child to secure his resto- 
 ration to honour and office. His plan was to many Frances 
 to Sir John Villiers, Buckingham's brother. Lady Hatton (who 
 had always refused to be called Lady Cook, as she spelt it) 
 opposed the match. The child " voluntarily and deliberately 
 protested that, of all men living, she could not have him." The 
 mother, a high-handed woman, ran away with the daughter, and 
 concealed her in a house of Lord Argyle's, near Hampton Court. 
 Coke started off with his sons in pursuit, and, after breaking 
 through several doors, dragged away the recusant daughter. A 
 short time after he infoiins Buckingham that his daughter is 
 quite in love with Villiers; which love on her part, however, 
 exhibits itself in irrepressible snifflings and tears. Then follow 
 negotiations about a settlement, shuflling on the part of the 
 parent, hymeneal rejoicings, reception of the company by bride 
 and bridegroom at their couchee, the elevation of Villiers to the 
 peerage under the title of Viscount Parbeck, his desertion and 
 ilight to the continent. Lady Parbeck's frailty, and sentence to 
 stand in a white sheet in the Savoy church, and her escape. 
 The only redeeming passage in this affair is, that when the poor 
 girl flew to Stoke tor protection, she was kindly received in her 
 degradation by her age-stricken father. 
 
 Leaving these domestic scenes, we shall now resume the his- 
 tory of Coke's public career. Having been fourteen years at the 
 head of the bar, on th^ oOth of June, 1606, three years after 
 receiving the honour of knighthood, he was made chief-justice 
 of the common pleas. It is only as judge that we can contem- 
 plate the character of Coke with unmixed admu-ation. On the 
 bench his conduct was independent and brave ; in one or two 
 instances worthy of Gascoigne and Fortescue. Though holding 
 office durante bene placiio, he ventured to excite the "great 
 rage" of James, by telling his majesty, that he was not learned 
 in the laws of England, and that it was by the law his majesty 
 was protected in safety and peace. He opposed the high com- 
 missioner, resisted the claim of the king to sit and trj' causes, 
 and pronounced an emphatic denial of the power of tlie crown 
 to alter the law by "proclamations." Thus, by maintaining the 
 prerogatives of the judicial office, and refusing to sanction the 
 despotic pretensions of the king, he lost his lucrative office, and 
 was removed in 1613 to the chief-justiceship of the king's bench. 
 This mark of royal displeasure somewhat damped his courage. 
 A short time after he gave a qualified support to " benevolences." 
 In Peacham's case, after considerable grumbling against taking 
 anticipatory opinions of the judges .apart and in writing, this 
 initial resistance ended in giving to Bacon his separate answers 
 in his own hand. Complaints were made against him as chief- 
 justice of the king's bench, for maintaining the jimsdiction of 
 his court against the injunctions of the court of chanceiy. In 
 one case. Chancellor Ellesmere granted an injunction against 
 suing out execution on a judgment obtained in the king's bench 
 by a gross fraud. Lord Coke declared this to be against the 
 common law, and contrary to act of parliament ; but, after 
 taking infinite pains to prove his statement, he submitted to the 
 king's decision, adding, " that he and his brethren had since 
 entertained his majesty's commandment to the contrary, as an 
 order of the court, with a promise to observe it." But in the 
 commendmns, Coke nobly sustained his character as a fearless 
 judge. The question in this action (Colt v. Bishop of Lichfield) 
 was, whether the king had a right to grant ecclesiastical bene- 
 fices to be held along with a bishopric. The learned counsel, in 
 the coui'se of his address, indulged in some reflections upon the 
 clergy, which the bishop of Winchester, in his report of the 
 trial to the king, represented as an attack on one of the sacred 
 prerogatives of the crown. After consulting Bacon, his attorney- 
 general, a royal prohibition was issued, suspending the trial, 
 until the king should intimate his pleasure to the judges. The 
 royal mandate was disregarded, and the cause was heard and 
 determined in due course. The judges were summoned to 
 Wliitehall to answer for their conduct. On being asked, whether 
 they ought not, in a matter of supposed prerogative, to suspend 
 trial until the king had considted them, all of them, except 
 Coke, answered — " Yes ! yes ! yes ! " But Coke said calmly — 
 " When the case happens, I shall do that which will be fit for 
 a judge to do." In 1G16, having made himself still more 
 obnoxious to the court by his late conduct, he was summoned 
 before the council, and being made to kneel, the earl of Suffolk 
 pronounced the sentence of his suspension from the office ot 
 chief-justice. A few months later, the supersedeas received the 
 royal signature, and Lord Coke was no longer chief-justice. 
 
 Stunned by this blow. Coke soon rallied and laid down that 
 unfortunate plan for his restoration to which we have alluded. 
 Bacon at first opposed his intrigues ; but finduig that the king 
 approved of the proposed match, he opportunely changed his 
 line of conduct, stopped the prosecution in the star-chamber, and 
 decl;u-ed himself a warm friend to the alliance of the Lady Frances 
 with Sir S. Villiers. The ex-chief-justice did not derive from 
 this alliance the advantages he had hoped for. The influence 
 of Bacon was too strong, and the spleen of James too bitter, to 
 leave any chance of reconciliation. Coke could make no nearer 
 approach to royal confidence than a seat at the council table and 
 star-chamber. This was the most inglorious period in his life. 
 After four years of fruitless expectation he determined to join 
 the ranks of the popular party. In 1620, after an interval of 
 six years, parliament was again summoned, and Coke being now 
 eligible, was returned for the borough of Liskeard in Corawall. 
 Here, properly speaking, his political career begins. Though 
 twenty years before this date he had been elected speaker of the 
 lower house, he distinguished himself more as attorney-general 
 than as a statesman. His high arrogance, humiliated by rebuffs 
 of the court, gradually changed into a stern determination to
 
 oppose the king and overthrow his favourites. Though tlie 
 triumphant straggle for liberty upon which he now entered was 
 conducted from motives of high political virtue, it cannot be 
 questioned that coincident circumstances gave to that straggle 
 peculiar charms. Hitherto Sir Edward Coke had professed 
 high-church principles ; now he put himself at the head of the 
 puritans. In the first session he carried an amendment " that 
 supply and giievances should be referred to a committee of the 
 whole house." He succeeded in overthrowing monopolies. He 
 inveighed against the attempt of the king to force the adjourn- 
 ment of the house, opposed the negotiations for the proposed 
 match of the prince with the infanta of Spain, \-indicated the 
 privileges of parliament, and drew up a "protestation" against 
 the attempted infraction of its liberties and rights. But a 
 revenge, sweeter than the humiliation of a king, was waiting 
 him in the downfall of a subject. A committee was appointed 
 to inquire into the abuses of the courts of justice, and it was 
 soon noised abroad that the lord-chancellor had been guilty of 
 grave delinquencies. Coke, out of decency, declined to be chair- 
 man, but superintended all the proceedings. After refusing 
 to refer the case to a royal commission, the house voted the 
 impeachment, and Sir Edward Coke was appointed to conduct 
 it. But the chancellor hanng made a full confession, and put 
 himself upon "the gracious mercy" of his peers, deprived 
 Coke of that gratification. After this event Bacon never again 
 appeared in public life, but devoted himself to the pleasures of 
 literature and philosophy, whUe Coke remained a champion in 
 the arena of politics until he earned the famous " petition of 
 rights." The leaders of the opposition had now become so 
 obnoxious to the king that Coke, together with Selden and 
 Prynne, were sent to the Tower. Against Coke several frivolous 
 charges were prefeiTed — that he had concealed some depositions 
 taken against the earl of Somerset — that he had made an-ogant 
 speeches when chief-justice, and had compared himself to the 
 prophet Samuel, &c. But his conduct in parliament was the 
 trae ground of his imprisonment. By the intercession of Prince 
 Charles, after eight months' imprisonment, he was set at liberty, 
 under an order to retire to his coimtry hoxise, and not to appear 
 at court without express license from the king. In that age 
 expulsion from the court was no trifling matter. It was political 
 death added to the highest public disgrace. But in this instance 
 the victim lost but little of his popularity, and the king was in 
 constant fear lest he should be returned to parliament. To get 
 him out of the way he was appointed on the commission in 1 623 
 to inquu-e into the Irish church establishment. His exclusion 
 from the second parliament of Charles in 1625, when returned 
 for Norfolk, was substantially managed by the artifice of appoint- 
 ing him sheriff of Buckinghamshire. In 1028, when the 
 impending war with France left the king no alternative but to 
 summon parliament, the attempt to exclude Coke was not 
 renewed. Such were the apprehensions of the people regarding 
 the impending struggle between absolutism and liberty, and 
 such the high value set upon the sternness and integiity of Coke, 
 that he was returned for two counties, Suffolk and Buckingham- 
 shire. Taking his seat for the latter, he proved himself in this 
 parliament the champion of freedom and able expounder of the 
 constitutional rights of Englishmen. Following the footsteps 
 of his father, Charles had already alarmed the country by 
 successive despotic acts, which, though not altogether new, had 
 never before presented such a bold front. He raised money by 
 forced loans and benevolences ; he \-iolated the liberty of the 
 subject by imprisoning suspected offenders without specifying 
 the offence in the warrant ; he commanded different sea-ports to 
 furnish ships for his sei-vice at their own expense ; and grossly 
 tampered with the administrators of justice. The commons 
 having initiated the business of the session with solemn fasting 
 and taking the sacrament, addressed themselves in earnest to 
 these grievances, and embodied them in the famous " petition 
 of rights," which Sir Edward Coke was appointed to draw up. 
 His vast legal knowledge, great popularity in the house, and 
 undaunted spirit, qualified him pre-eminently to take the lead 
 on that occasion. Had our ancestors flinched in that hour of 
 trial, we might have been born to the heritage of bondsmen — the 
 slaves of kings, and the drudges of their flatterers. But bravely 
 and well did the commons of England resist the wavering lords, 
 and defy the insolence and pride of the royalists, until they 
 finally wrang from the king his reluctant assent to an enactment 
 which is veritably a second magna charta. 
 
 Having conducted this struggle to so happy an issue, and won 
 for himself a high place among distinguished patriots. Sir Edward 
 Coke never again appeared in public life, but devoted his few 
 remaining years to the peaceful occupations of an author. On 
 the 3d of j\Iay, 1032, riding one morning to Stoke, his horse 
 fell upon him. The interaal injury sustained by this accident 
 was the cause of his death, wliich happened two years after, on 
 the 3rd of September, 1631, in the eighty-thu-d year of his age. 
 Perhaps Sir Edward Coke is better known as an author than as 
 a statesman or a judge. His gi-eat works are — the "Reports" 
 and the " Institutes ;" the former, of more interest to the pro- 
 fessional lawyer than to the general student of history; the 
 latter, of much value to both. The "Picports" — thkteen in 
 number — are histories of several cases, containing the arguments 
 on both sides, the questions decided, -sv-ith the reasons given by 
 comt for its judgment. The "Institutes" appeared in four 
 volumes. The first is a comment of great length upon a little 
 treatise on tenures, compiled by Judge Littleton in the reign of 
 Edward IV., and is quoted and referred to by modern lawyers 
 under the brief designation of " Coke Littleton." On all ques- 
 tions relating to the common law, this volume contains materials 
 of the highest authority, collected from the ancient reports and 
 year-books. The second "Institute" contains an exposition of 
 magna charta and other statutes ; the third of the criminal law ; 
 and the fourth of the jm-isdiction of the various courts. On 
 account of subsequent changes in the law, the two "Institutes" 
 last-mentioned, have lost much of theu- original value and inter- 
 est. In addition to these works, upon which the fame of Coke 
 as an author chiefly rests, he also wrote a treatise on " Bail and 
 Mainprize ;" " The Complete Copyholder ;" a book of " Entries, 
 or Legal Precedents ;" and a book entitled " A Reading on Fines 
 and Recoveries." — G. H. P. 
 
 COKE, Thomas, LL.D., a divine of the church of England, 
 and afterwards the coadjutor of the Rev. John Wesley in his 
 multifarious labours, was born at Brecon in South Wales, 9th 
 September, 1747. His family was influential and wealthy; and 
 being intended for the church, he was educated at the university 
 of Oxford, where he naiTowly escaped the contamination of 
 infidelity. In 1772 he sers-ed his fellow-tovNTismen in the office 
 of mayor, and soon after having received orders, he was appointed 
 to the curacy of South Petherton, where his zeal provoked some 
 degree of opposition, and caused him to be dismissed from his 
 post in 1770. Soon after this he became formally acquainted with 
 Mr. Wesley, was by him cordially received, and from time to 
 time appointed by him to visit the Wesleyan societies in Ireland 
 and elsewhere. In 1781 he was deputed by Jlr. Wesley to visit 
 the Wesleyan societies in America, and an-ange for their future 
 government. On his second voyage to America he was driven 
 by stress of weather to Antigua, one of the West Indian islands, 
 December 25th, 1786, a circumstance which led to the establish- 
 m.ent of the Wesleyan mission to the negroes in these colonics. 
 He was specially identified with the mission work of Wesleyan 
 methodism in America, the West Indies, and Western Africa, 
 and his whole life was devoted to journeys beyond the Atlantic, 
 or to exertions at home for raising the pecuniary means necessary 
 for their support. He had long set his heart upon a mission to 
 India, and succeeded at length in inducing the Wesleyan confer- 
 ence to countenance the undertaking; he himself advancing a 
 large sum of money towards defraying its expenses. He set 
 sail in December with six missionaries, but died suddenly at 
 sea, 3rd May, 1814, aged 66. Dr. Coke published — "A 
 Commentary on the Bible," 6 vols, 4to, a very useful compila- 
 tion; "A History of the West Indies," 3 vols. 8vo ; and 
 sundiy other treatises and sermons of minor importance. His 
 name will be ever had in reverence by the Wesleyan churches 
 as the founder of their missions, for which, "he stooped to the 
 very dradgery of charity, and gratuitously pleaded the cause of a 
 perishing world from door to door"— (Minute of Conference, 
 1815.)— W. B. B. 
 
 COKE, WnxiAM, Earl of Leicester, bom m 1752, was the 
 eldest son of Wenman Roberts, Esq., who assumed the surname 
 and arms of Coke on inheriting the estates of his maternal 
 uncle, Thomas Coke, cari of Leicester. Mr. Coke succeeded to 
 his father's estates in 1790, and from that period down to 1832 
 he represented, almost uninterruptedly, the county of Norfolk 
 in parliament. He was throughout his career a consistent and 
 zealous member of the whig party, and cordially supported all 
 their leading measures. It is as an agriculturist, however,
 
 rather than a politician, that Mr. Coke's memory deserves to be 
 perpetuated. By granting leases to bis tenantry, and otherwise 
 giving them the most liberal encouragement, as well as by costly 
 experiments made at bis o-^vn expense, he enriched himself and 
 his tenantry, and turned his estate into a model agricultural 
 domain. He introduced what is called the Norfolk system of 
 the rotation of crops, the culture of turnips and maize, the 
 crossing of the breeds of cattle and sheep, and other marked 
 improvements ; turned bare and barren land into a fine fertile 
 soil, and raised forests where there was scarcely a blade of grass. 
 He increased the population of the village of Holkham from one 
 hundred and sixty-two to nine hundred, and the rental of his 
 estates tenfold. He stated in his will that he had lately 
 expended £500,000 in the improvement of his estate. He long 
 enjoyed the reputation of being "the first commoner in England," 
 but in 1837 he was raised to the house of peers by the title of 
 Earl of Leicester. He died, June 30, 1842, at the age of ninety. 
 A monument was erected to his memory at the cost of £4000, 
 contributed by men of all political opinions. — ^J. T. 
 
 COLALTO, AxTOXio, bom at Vicenza in 1717. His claims 
 to authorship rest upon his having written for the French stage 
 a piece called "Les Trois Jumeaux Venetiens," for the sake of 
 playing the three brothers himself, which, according to the con- 
 current testimony of the time, he did with astonishing efiect. 
 The play was taken from the Venetian Twins of Goldoni, but 
 Colaltc wished to add a third character, so that he might exhibit 
 wit, stupidity, and irascibility, contrasted in tliree different 
 persons. Goldoni was himself so pleased that he declared the 
 merits of Colalto's performance to be such as to entitle him to 
 the rank of an original author. Before his appearance in France 
 in 1759 he had acquired fame in Venice. With a fine voice and 
 figure, he could nevertheless stoop to the mummeries of panta- 
 loon, and under so apparently unfavourable a disguise, express 
 every change of feeling with a grotesque air of truth that gave 
 him perfect mastery over the tears as well as smiles of his 
 audience. He died in Paris in 1778. — J. F. C. 
 
 COLARD, JIansiox, a printer of Bruges, who lived in the 
 fifteenth century. He was protected by Louis de Bruges, 
 seigneur de Gnithuyse, the great patron of letters of the time. 
 Colard was himself a classical scholar, and besides the number 
 of Latin works he printed in the original, published translations 
 of his own into the French language. — J. F. C. 
 
 COLARDEAU, Chaki.es Pierre, bom at Janville in 
 Beauce in 1732 ; died in 1776. He was educated by a 
 maternal uncle. Monsieur Regnard, cur6 of St. Salomon, at 
 Pithiviers. His uncle's object was to have him a lawyer, and 
 with this view he was placed in the office of an attorney or 
 notary. The passion of poetry, however, seized on him, and 
 his law papers were neglected. He dramatized a story from 
 Telemaque, and the piece, after some delay, was acted with 
 success. His next effort was a tragedy, "Calista," which seems 
 to have failed. The literature of England now engaged his mind, 
 and a very successful imitation of Pope's Epistle of Eloisa to 
 Abelard, was followed by a translation of Young's Night 
 Thoughts. Colardeau became a member of the French Academy 
 in 1776— J. A., D. 
 
 COLBERT, AuGUSTE Marie Fkax<;-ois, Comte, was bom 
 at Paris in 1777, and entered the army a volunteer in the 
 national guard of Tarbes in 1792. He rose rapidly in his pro- 
 fession, becoming an aid-de-camp to Grouchy in 1796. In the 
 following year Napoleon raised him to the rank of captain, and 
 he quitted Grouchy for Murat. He distinguished himself in 
 Egypt, and then in Italy, tinder Dessa'ix, so as to receive in 1800 
 the cross of the legion of honour. His courageous bearing at L'lm 
 and Austerlitz obtained for him a brigadier-generalship. Napoleon 
 intrasted him vnth the conveyance to the Emperor Alexander 
 of his final terms of peace after the battle of Austerhtz. In the 
 eighth bulletin of the grand army, his conduct at the battle of 
 Jena is made the subject of special praise. Towards the close 
 of 1808 he went to Spain, having received a cavalrv command 
 trader the duke of Istria. He was killed at Cacabell'os in 1809, 
 while conducting a reconnaissance. — R. B. 
 
 COLBERT, Jean Baptiste, born in 1619 ; died in 1683 ; 
 one of the most illustrious statesmen of France ; inferior in 
 intellect to neither Sully, nor Richelieu, nor Mazarin ; superior 
 to them all in integrity. Colbert was discovered by JIazarin, 
 who, a short time before his death, presented him to Lotus XIV., 
 with these words — "Sire, I owe everythmg to your Majesty; but 
 
 I believe that, in so far, I pay my debt by ginng you Colbert." 
 Louis accepted the gift ; it would have been well for himself, 
 for France, and for Europe, had he known thoroughly to appre- 
 ciate it ! The finances of his kingdom having fallen into utter 
 CO nf usion under the worthless Frequet, Colbert was happily 
 installed as controller-general, and he finally became finance 
 minister, or rather prime minister of the king. It were weaii- 
 some to narrate the measures, through means of which his sagacity 
 and convictions of justice enabled him to draw France back from 
 the verge of the gulf of bankruptcy ; and every one of these 
 sound provisions would have borne fruits, but for the restless and 
 reckless ambition of Louis, fostered by the able but unprincipled 
 Loitvois. War was expensive then as it is now. The ordinary 
 revenue would not bear the burden of the enterprises of 1672, 
 and Louvois insisted on loans for the king. Colbert, foreseeing 
 the result, energetically opposed having rectu-rence to an expe- 
 dient whose issues he knew so well. He was overruled in the 
 council, chiefly by Louvois and the president Lamoignon. " You 
 triumph," said he to Lamoignon ; " but have you done this 
 as an honest man ? Do you fancy I did not know as well as 
 you that money can be had by borrowing? But do you know 
 as well as I do, the character of the person with whom we have 
 to do — his passion for show, for gi'eat enterprises, and all sorts 
 of expenditure .' Now the career is open to borrowing, and 
 therefore to expenditure and taxation illimitable ! Answer for 
 what you have done to the nation and to posterity !" The his- 
 tory of this gi'eat but imfortunate reign is known to the world. 
 Colbert could not restrain the magnificent king, whose extrava- 
 gance in everything recognized no bounds. His honest minister 
 remonstrated when he could — ever in vain. " The fourth class 
 of expenses," says he in one of his reports, " the expenses of the 
 cotu^, ought to be subjected to all possible retrenchment and 
 economy, in accordance with the following maxim, let even five 
 sovs be saved in reference to tmnecessary demands, in order that 
 we may have millions to expend in support of your Itlajesty's 
 glory ! I dechu'e, for my own part, that a feast costing three 
 thousand lilies gives me inexpressible pain, while, when the 
 question is concerning millions of gold for Poland, I would sell 
 all my goods ; I would pledge my wife and children ; I would 
 trudge barefoot through life, in order to contribute towards it 
 what was necessary." Colbert straggled in vain. Louvois and 
 Louis prevailed ; and, having first been insulted, the intrepid 
 minister was disgraced. He died soon afterwai'ds at the age of 
 sixty-four. — Colbert's name seldom appears to advantage in our 
 modern histories of political economy. He is presented usually 
 as the systematic originator of the now unfashionable protective 
 system ; and every one has heard the famous reply of some 
 merchants to him — "ZaiWz aller." This, however, cannot be 
 received by any philosophic thinker without much reservation. 
 In so far as regarded the exterior, or other nations, his policy 
 was protective ; within France itself he deUvered industry from 
 every bond and burden that he could remove. As to protection 
 in a national point of view, there is a difficulty grave enough 
 to puzzle even a brain hke Colbert's. Not a doubt can exist 
 that the largest amount of material wealth must issue from 
 the installation of the principle of the division of labour carried 
 to its very extreme ; but whether a pohcy having regard to 
 that principle alone, will best conduce to the development of 
 the intellectual and moral actirity and well-being of a nation 
 (which after all is its true wealth), is wholly a different question. 
 Or to descend to a lesser problem, it is quite conceivable that 
 a nation having great natural capabilities, originating in its 
 climate and soil, may be unable to start on the ."special industries 
 suited to it, through its incapacity to contend, at the outset, 
 with other nations already exercised in these special industries. 
 Both considerations occupied and influenced Colbert ; and 
 whether theoretically correct or not, the merit cannot be denied 
 to him of having evolved the productive energies of France to 
 an extent never hoped for before, and created a force that has 
 borne her since through the disasters of successive and deplorable 
 revolutions. His coimtry is entitled to venerate him as the 
 founder of those industries which are stUl its pride. He evolved 
 the silk trade of Lyons ; he established the manufacture of lace ; 
 he destroyed in everything the monopoly of Venice ; and, as 
 already hinted, he benefitted every mode of labour by the equity 
 and order of his fiscal laws. Nor was his capacious mind absorbed 
 by the reqidsition of mere material industry. The present Im- 
 perial Observatory, the Jardin des Plantes, the Academy of
 
 Painting, the Academy of Architecture — all these were institu- 
 tions of Colbert's. He also left no less an enduring impression 
 in other essentials to the stability and power of France. Previous 
 to his government France had no marine. Colbert taught her 
 how to compete even with England ; he created engineers, min- 
 isters, captains, and — most indispensable perhaps of all — sailors. 
 The arsenals of Brest, Toulon, and Rochefort, were planned by 
 him, and constructed at his command. Cherbourg— a barren 
 shore of Normandy — grew into a safe harbour. The possessions 
 of France abroad were conciliated and extended ; her commerce 
 with India flourished apace ; and her flag came to be known in 
 new seas. Quite as much as Richelieu or Mazarin, Colbert was 
 a founder of tlie French nationality ; and his name will last as 
 long as that of liis master — the king who first formulized, UEtat, 
 c'est moi. — J. P. N. 
 
 COLBURN, Wauren, an American writer upon mathematical 
 subjects, and the theory of education, graduated at Harvard 
 college in 1820, and died at Lowell, Massachusetts, September 
 15, 1833, aged forty. Not long after leaving college he pub- 
 lislied " First Lessons in Arithmetic" on the inductive system, 
 or after the method of Pestalozzi — a little book, containing 
 hardly a sentence of disquisition, which has revolutionized the 
 whole theory and practice of elementary mathematical instruction 
 in the United States. Its great success induced the author to 
 cany out the plan by publishing a larger work on arithmetic ; 
 one on algebra; and he was meditating one on geometry when 
 he was interrupted by disease and death. — F. B. 
 
 COLBURN, Zerah, whose performances as an " arithmetical 
 prodigy," excited much interest in the United States and Europe 
 over forty years ago, was born of poor parents at Cabot in the 
 state of Vermont, September 1, 1804, and died in 1840. — F. B. 
 COLBY, Thomas, Major-general, an able and accomplished 
 officer of engineei-s, and superintendent of the ordnance survey, 
 was bom in 1784. In 1801, when he was only seventeen years 
 of age, he obtained a commission as second lieutenant of engin- 
 eers. In the following year he was appointed one of the 
 assistants in the ordnance survey, at the special request of Cap- 
 tain Mudge, the superintendent, who had noticed his diligence 
 and zeal in his studies. Though he lost his left hand, and 
 suffered other severe injuries in 1803 by the btirsting of a 
 pistol, Lieutenant Colby soon became conspicuous for his 
 unwearied assiduity in the discharge of his duties, surveying 
 during summer at various important points, and passing the 
 winter months in town preparing the results for publication. In 
 1813 the survey was extended to Scotland, and Captain Colby 
 spent the next three years in superintending operations at the 
 principal stations in North Britain. On the death of Captain 
 Mudge in 1820, Captain Colby was appointed his successor, 
 and was also elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1824 
 he undertook the survey of Ireland, and in the course of his 
 operations invented a " compensation bar," which has been 
 found of great semce in making exact measurements. In 
 1838 he resumed the siu^ey of Scotland, which had been most 
 improperly suspended, and from this date up to 1846 he con- 
 tinued to superintend the work with, his characteristic activity 
 and skill. He resigned his office, in accordance vrith the rules 
 of the service, on attaining the rank of major-general, and died 
 in 1852.— (Knight's Eiiffiish Cyclop.)— J. T. ' 
 COLCHESTER, Viscount. See Abbot. 
 GOLDEN, Cadwallader, an eminent American historian, 
 botanist, and physicist, son of the Rev. Alexander Colden of 
 Dunse in Scotland, where he was born, Febniary 17, 1688 ; 
 died in 1775. After completing the course of study at the 
 university of Edinburgh, he applied himself to medicine and 
 mathematics for three years, and then emigrated to America in 
 1708, and practised physic with great success in Philadelphia till 
 1715. Then he visited London, where he became acquainted with 
 Halley the astronomer, and read a paper on animal secretions 
 before the Royal Society, by whom it was very favourably 
 received. He returned to America; and in 1718 established 
 his residence in New York, where he left his profession and 
 engaged in the public service, filling in succession many impor- 
 tant offices, particularly that of lieutenant-governor of the colony 
 under Burnet. He was the author of " A History of the 
 Five Indian Nations," published in 1727; reprinted at London in 
 1747, and in a third edition in 1755 ; he also published " The 
 Cause of Gravitation," which was reprinted, with additions, in 
 1751, and was then entitled "The Principles of Action in Mat- 
 
 ter." Among his correspondents were the principal learned and 
 scientific men of his day, such as Linn.Tus, Gronovius, the earl 
 of JIacclesfiekl, Dr. Franklin, and Peter Collinson. Though he 
 abandoned practice early in life, he never lost his interest in the 
 science of medicine, his publications upon which were numerous 
 and valuable. His essay " On the Virtues of the Great Water 
 Dock" led to a correspondence with Linnaeus, who printed in 
 the Acta Upsala, an account of several hundred American plants 
 furnished by Colden. He communicated to Dr. Franklin the, 
 first hint of the art of stereotyping, which was only carried 
 into practice in Germany long after his death. — F. B. 
 
 * COLDING, Andreas, a civil engineer, bom in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Copenhagen, 13th of July, 1813. Like many of 
 our greatest English civil engineers, he rose from the working 
 class, and after having passed splendid examinations, was 
 appointed by government in 1845, inspector of high roads, and, 
 two years later, of water-works. In 1850 he was sent by his 
 government to England and Scotland, for the pm-pose of studying 
 our systems of gas, water, and city drainage. In 1856 he was 
 elected member of the Scientific Society, and in 1858 was 
 appointed engineer of his native city. He has had the duection 
 of the new gas and water works of Copenhagen, as also of those 
 of Gotheborg and other cities, and the great tunnel between 
 Copenhagen and Christian's harbour has been made accordmg 
 to his plans. He is a man of profound scientific knowledge, and 
 has paid considerable attention to the subject of heat as produced 
 by friction. Some of his works are published independently ; 
 others find their place in the publications of the Scientific 
 Society. — (Nordisk Conv. Lex.) — M. H. 
 
 COLE, Sir G. Lowrt, one of the heroes of the peninsular 
 war, was born in 1772, and died in 1842. For his conduct 
 throughout the campaigns of 1812-14 he received the thanks 
 of both houses of parliament, and was made governor of the 
 Cape of Good Hope. — J. S., G. 
 
 * COLE, Henry, C.B., one of the originators of the plan for 
 establishing an exhibition cf national industry in London, which 
 eventually issued in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Much of 
 the success of that experiment was due to the ability and unwea- 
 ried assiduity of Mr. Cole. At the close of the Exliibition he 
 was rewarded with the honour of companion of the bath, and the 
 donation of a handsome sum of money. He was soon aftenvards 
 appointed to an important office in the department of practical 
 art under the board of trade. He was the English commis- 
 sioner in the Paris Exhibition in 1855. Mr. Cole is the author 
 of some pleasant guide-books for tourists, published under the 
 name of " Felix Summerly," and of a popular work for the 
 young on " Light, Shade, and Colour." — J. T. 
 
 COLE, William, an English antiquarian writer, was born 
 in 1714, and died in 1782. He was educated first at Eton, 
 and then at Cambridge, where he took his degree. He was the 
 college friend of Walpole, Mason, and Gray, and he and Walpole 
 visited France together in 1765. He became rector of Horasey 
 in 1749. Browne Willis the antiquary gave him the rectory of 
 Bletchley in Buckinghamshire in 1753, and he was afterwards 
 presented to the vicarage of Buraham, near Eton. He devoted 
 himself with great ardour to the study of the antiquities of 
 Buckinghamshire. His life was passed in studious drudgery, 
 and though he wi'ote little in his oato name, he contributed an 
 immense number of notes to the works of other writere.^ He 
 bequeathed his immense manuscript collections, extending to 
 fifty folio volumes, to the British Museum, with an order that 
 they should not be opened for twenty years. They contain 
 much that is valuable, with much that is gossiping, trifling, and 
 scandalous. His great object was to compose an " Atiienaj 
 Cantabrigienses," as a companion to the work of Anthony Wood. 
 —(See D'IsraeU's Calamities of Authors, pp. 90-03.)— J. T. 
 
 COLE, William, an English botanist and divine, was bom 
 in 1626 at Adderbury in the county of Oxford, and died in 1C62. 
 He acted as secretary to Dr. Duppa, bishop of Winchester. He 
 wrote on " The Art of Simpling, being an Introduction to the 
 Knowledge and Gathering of Plants." The work was published 
 in London in 1657. He also wrote a work entitled " Adam in 
 Eden, or Nature's Paradise ; the Histoiy of Plants, Fruits, Herbs, 
 and Flowers." — J. H. B. 
 
 COLEBROOKE, Henry Tiiojias, F.R.S., a great oriental 
 scholar, was the third son of Sir George Colebrooke, Bart., and 
 was bom in 1765. At an early age he displayed an extraordi- 
 naiy aptitude both for mathematical and classical studies, and
 
 COL 
 
 108G 
 
 COL 
 
 acquired an intimate knowledge also of the French and Gei-man 
 languages. In 1782 he was appointed to a writership in India. 
 After passing through various subordinate situations, he was 
 appointed chief-justice of the court of Sudder Dewanna and 
 Nizamut Adawluts, and became a member of the supreme 
 council at Bengal. After he had spent eleven years in India, he 
 began the study of the Sanscrit language, in which he became 
 eminently proficient. He published a critical grammar and dic- 
 tionary of that tongue, and enriched the Asiatic Transactions, 
 published at Calcutta, with memoirs on " The Religious 
 Ceremonies of the Hebrews," on " The Sanscrit Language 
 and Literature," " The Vedas," &c. He also published the 
 great Digest of Hindoo Law, which had been compiled under 
 the direction of Sir William .Jones ; two treatises on " The 
 Hindoo Law of Inheritance," translated from the Sanscrit; 
 " Algebra of the Hindoos, &c. Mr. Colebrooke died in London 
 in 1837.— J. T. 
 
 COLEMAN, Charles, ^Ius. Doc, a musician belonging to 
 the private band of Charles I. He was an excellent composer, 
 and contributed many pieces of music to " The Musicall Ban- 
 quet," 1G51; "JIusicallAyres and Dialogues," 1652; " JIusick's 
 Eecreation on the Lyra-Violl," 1056; " Select Ayres," lGo9, &c. 
 He also assisted in composing the " Instrumental Musick," for 
 Davenant's Siege of Rhodes, performed at Rutland house in 
 1656 ; and contributed many of the explanations of musical 
 terms in Phillips' "New World of Words," 1658. At the 
 restoration of Charles II. the company of musicians was estab- 
 lished upon the charter granted by Charles I. to Nicholas 
 Lanierc. Coleman who had received the degree of doctor of 
 music in 1651, was admitted a member of tliis company ; and 
 in the minute-book (preserved in Harl. MS., No. 1911) we 
 read, under the date, 1661, July 19, "Thomas Purcell chosen 
 an assistant in the room of Dr. Charles Coleman deceased.'" 
 He left a son of the same name, who was one of the musicians- 
 in-ordinary" to the king in 1694. — (See Chamberlayne's ^n- 
 ffli(e Notit'icE for that year.) — E. F. R. 
 
 COLEMAN, Edward, a musician (the husband of !Mrs. 
 Coleman, who acted in the Siege of Rhodes), brother to the 
 preceding. He and his wife are frequently spoken of in the 
 Diary of the old gossip Pepys. He was appointed a gentleman 
 of the royal chapel at the restoration ; and the ancient cheque- 
 book of that establishment records his death to have t;iken place 
 at Greenwich, August 29, 1669.— E. F. R. 
 
 * COLERIDGE, Rev. Deravent, only surviving son of S. 
 T. Coleridge, was born at Keswick in 1800, and received his 
 early education with his brother at Ambleside. He then entered 
 St. John's college, Cambridge, and along with JLacaulay, Praed, 
 Moultrie, and others, became a contribiitor to KniyMs Quarterly 
 Magazine. He took orders in 1826, but has since been mainly 
 occupied in the business of tuition. He is now prmcipal of St. 
 Mark's college, Chelsea — a well-know^l training establishment 
 for teachers. He is also a prebendary of St. Paul's. Mr. Cole- 
 ridge is the author of a work on the " Scriptural Character of 
 the English Church," and since the death of his sister the duty 
 of collecting and editing his father's unpublished works has 
 devolved upon him. — (See Coleridge, Sara.) — J. T. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Hartley, eldest son of S. T. Coleridge, was 
 born at Clevedon, near Bristol, in 1796. He was educated at 
 Ambleside, in the school of the Rev. John Dawes, and in 1815 
 entered Merton college, Oxford. From the earliest years he 
 was distinguished for the brilliancy of his imagination. Words- 
 worth, in an exquisite poem addressed " To H. C, six years 
 old," speaks of him as one " whose fancies from afar are 
 brought." At school his story-telling powers were quite marvel- 
 lous, and at college his extraordinary conversational talents 
 caused his society to be much courted, and his frequent invita- 
 tions to wine parties exposed him to temptations which he was 
 ill fitted both by constitution and training to resist. He passed 
 his examination for a degree in 1818, and gained a fellow- 
 ship at Oriel with great distuiction ; but " at the close of his 
 probationary year," says his biogi-apher, " he was judged to have 
 forfeited his fellowship, on the ground mainly of intemperance ; 
 and, as too often happens, the ruin of his fortunes served but to 
 increase the weakness that caused their overthrow." The fore- 
 bodmgs of Wordsworth — 
 
 " I think of thee with many fears 
 For what may be thy lot in fatuve years," 
 
 •were unhappily fulfilled in the subsequent career of his gifted 
 
 young friend. After leaving Oxford, Hartley spent two years in 
 the metropolis, occasionally contributing to the London Maga- 
 zine. He then removed to Ambleside and reluctantly tried for 
 four or five years the experiment of receiving pupils, which 
 utterly failed. From 1820 to 1831 he contributed a number of 
 admirable articles to Blackwood's Magazine. In 1832-33 he 
 resided in London with Jlr. Bingley, a young publisher, for 
 whom he wrote his delightful bingi-aphies of the " Worthies of 
 Yorkshu-e and Lancashire." The remainder of his wayward 
 career he spent in the lake district, occasionally contributing a 
 prose sketch, full of deep thought, or a short poem to one of the 
 periodicals of the day. He died in a cottage on the banks of 
 Rydal water, on the 6th of January, 1849, and was buried in 
 Gra^mere chm'chyard. His illustrious friend, Wordsworth, hes 
 by his side. In 1851 appeared his " Poetical Remains," and 
 collected essays and marginalia, in 2 vols. 12mo, with a touch- 
 ing memoir by his brother, one of the most beautiful pieces of 
 biography of the present day. — J. T. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Henry Nelson, son of Colonel Coleridge and 
 nephew of the poet, was born at the beginning of this centiu-y. 
 He was educated at Eton and subsequently at King's college, 
 Cambridge, where he acquired a high reputation for talent and 
 scholarship. Along with his cousin and other promising youths he 
 was a contributor to KnigMs Magazine, under the signature of 
 Joseph Haller. In 1825 he made a voyage to Barbadoes in com- 
 pany with his uncle. Bishop Coleridge, for the recovery of his 
 health ; and upon his return he published a lively and amusing 
 naiTative of his experiences imder the title of " Six Months in the 
 West Indies." Sir. Coleridge was called to the bar in 1826, 
 and shortly after married his cousin, the accomplished daughter 
 of the poet. His progress in his professional career was gradual 
 but steady, and he iiltimately attained a good practice in the 
 court of chancery. He did not, however, neglect his literary pur- 
 suits ; and in 1830 published an "Introduction to the Study of 
 the Greek Classics." After the death of his uncle, to whom he 
 was appointed literary executor, he devoted himself assiduously 
 to the task of collecting and publishing such of his works as were 
 best fitted to exhibit his gi-eat abilities as a theologian, philoso- 
 pher, and critic; and his " Table Talk," his " Literary Remains," 
 " Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit," and a republication of 
 "The Friend" successively issued from the press under his care. 
 This labour of love, however, which was performed with great 
 judgment and unwearied industry, combined with the duties of 
 bis profession, seems to have proved too much for Mr. Coleridge's 
 strength. The malady from which he had suffered in 1825 
 retuiTied upon him ; and after a lingering sickness of many 
 months, which he bore with most exemplar)- patience and cheer- 
 fulness, he died on the 10th of January, 1843. — (Knight's 
 Enqlish Cyclop.^ — J. T. 
 
 * COLERIDGE, Sir John Taylor, one of the judges of the 
 court of queen's bencli. cousin of the preceding, and nephew of the 
 poet, was bom in 1790. He was educated at Corpus Christi college, 
 Oxford, where he was first class in classics in 1812, and became 
 the intimate friend of Dr. Arnold, and of Keble, the author of 
 the "Christian Year." He was called to the bar in 1819, and 
 was raised to the bench by Sir Robert Peel in 1835. Jlr. Justice 
 Coleridge was for a short time editor of the Quarterly Review, 
 and has contributed frequently to its pages. In 1826 he pub- 
 lished an edition of Blackstone's Commentaries, with notes. — J. T. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, was bom at Ottery St. Maiy 
 in Devonshu-e, on the 21st October, 1772. His father was the 
 Rev. John Coleridge, \-icar of that parish ; a man of considerable 
 leaming, of singularly amiable qualities, and remarkable for 
 certain eccentricities of mind and manner, which reappeared in 
 no faint degi-ee in his illustrious son. Samuel Taylor was the 
 youngest of a numerous fimiily, and is said to have displayed 
 even in his childhood many of those quahties which characterized 
 his after life. Averse to the ordinaiy amusements of children, 
 he loved to dream away the hours in solitai-y haunts. Having 
 become an orphan at the age of nine, he was, on account of the 
 narrow circumstances of his family, placed on the foundation of 
 Christ's hospital. Leigh Hmit and Charies Lamb were among 
 his contemporaries at that noble establishment, with the latter 
 of whom he formed an intimate friendship which continued 
 tender and trae till the day of his death. Coleridge outstripped 
 all his competitors in learning. He made extraordinary advances 
 in classical knowledge, in proof of which it may be mentioned 
 that before completmg liis fifteenth year he translated the Greek
 
 hymns of S} nesius into English anacreontic verse ; his choice of 
 these hymns having been prompted most probably by his predi- 
 lection for metaphysics, in the subtilties of which, as well as of 
 theological controversy, he had already, according to his own 
 statement, bewildered himself. Lamb, in one of his most 
 dehghtful essays, recalling these early years, denominates Cole- 
 ridge the " young ilu-andula," and the " inspii-ed charity boy," 
 and says that " even then he waxed not pale at such philosophic 
 draughts as the mysteries of Jamblicus and Plotinus." But a 
 more genial influence was destined to give a new direction to 
 his precocious energies before leaving school. The sonnets of 
 \\'illiam Lisle Bowles had just appeared, and, having fallen 
 into Coleridge's hands, made so delightful an impression on his 
 poetic sensibility, that he " transcribed forty copies of them with 
 his own pen, by way of presents to his youtliful friends." This 
 impression, singular as it may seem, continued for several years 
 to influence the development of his powers, and to these sonnets 
 must undoubtedly be attributed the awakening of the poet, 
 whose "Ancient Mariner" still holds the world enraptured with 
 the melody of his marvellous tale. 
 
 In the year 1791 Coleridge was, by privilege of his station at 
 school, transfeiTcd to Jesus college, Cambridge. His reputation at 
 Christ's hospital betokened for him an unusually brilliant career 
 at college ; but unfortunately, even before he quitted Christ's, 
 he was noted for those habits of desultory study, resulting, it 
 is to be feared, from native instability of pui"pose, which clung 
 to him through life, and blighted so much of the promise of 
 his enthusiastic youth. He won, however, some distinction in 
 the classics at Cambridge, having obtained the prize for a Greek 
 ode in Sapphic metre, and having also distinguished himself in 
 a contest for the Craven scholarship, in which Butler, afterwards 
 bishop of Lichfield, was the successful candidate. In after life 
 he often regi-etted that he had not applied himself more dih- 
 gently to mathematics. It was at Cambridge, probably, that he 
 became acquainted with the philosophical system of Hartley. 
 That distinguished man had also been educated at Jesus' college. 
 His name would naturally, therefore, be still popular there in 
 Coleridge's time. There, at all events, it was that Coleridge, in 
 the rashness of his speculative humour and the exuberance of 
 his enthusiasm for philosophic wai-fare, embraced the tenets of 
 tmitarianism. This, of course, utterly destroyed his chance of 
 academical distinction. He left the university suddenly, and 
 without cause assigned, during the second year of his residence ; 
 and, after coming up to London, and wandering about a few days 
 in the metropolis, in a fit of chagrin — the consequence, it is said, 
 of unrequited love — recklessly enlisted in a dragoon regiment. He 
 was in a short time discovered by his friends, and immediately 
 rescued from this degi-adation. There is another more romantic 
 way of telling the story. 
 
 Robert Southey, with whom Coleridge had become acquainted 
 in 1792, was now residing in Bristol, and thither accordingly 
 Coleridge now betook himself. They had both haUed with 
 enthusiasm the " ideas of liberty " promulgated by the French 
 revolution ; they were both devout unitarians, both had left the 
 university without taking their degrees, and both were devoted 
 heart and soul to literary pursuits, and particularly to poetry. 
 There was another young man there, a poet, and also an enthu- 
 siast for liberty. This was Robert Lovell, a member of the 
 Society of Friends, but possessed of a greater number of accom- 
 plishments than is usually approved of by the estimable class 
 of persons to which he belonged. These three friends formed 
 a harmless but extravagant project of trying the experiment of 
 human perfectibility on the banks of the Susquehanna, " where," 
 to use Coleridge's o^vn words, "our little society, in its second 
 geueration, was to have combined the innocence of the patriarchal 
 age with the knowledge and genuine refinements of European 
 culture, and where I dreamed that in the sober evening of my 
 life I should behold the cottages of independence in the undivided 
 d de of industry, — 
 
 ' And oft, soothed sadly by some dirgcful wind. 
 Muse on the sore ills I had left hehiud.' " 
 
 Tliis vision of pantisocracy, as it was aflcctedly called, was soon 
 dissipated by the marriage of Southey and Coleridge to two 
 sisters, the Misses Fricker of Bristol, to whom Lord Byi-on made 
 so unhandsome an allusion in his English Bards and Scotch 
 Reviewers. Lovell, who had already manned another sister, 
 died soon after this; Southey went to Lisbon with his uncle ; and 
 
 Coleridge hired a cottage in Clevedon, a village on the Severn, 
 and applied himself to the preparation of a volume of poetry, 
 for which he had been paid in advance by Mr. Joseph Cottle, 
 bookseller, Bristol. Indeed, the scheme of " establishmg a 
 genuine system of property " on the banks of the Susquehanna 
 was so absolutely visionary, that, if the authors of the project 
 had clubbed their resources, they could not have paid a steerage 
 passage to the Xew Worid, far less have freighted a vessel and 
 taken out all sorts of implements, as they innocently talked. It 
 is said that at that time Coleridge knew nothing about the Sus- 
 quehanna, not even through what part of America it held its 
 course. The fine poetical name, if we may believe Jlr. Cottle, 
 who was a most indulgent friend, formed great part of the 
 foscination with which the scheme was regarded. Coleridge had 
 not yet parted company from his youthful enthusiasms. His 
 friends hoped, however, that the cares of domestic fife would steady 
 his energies, and dissipate the day-dreams in which they were 
 weakened as well as wasted. But that fatal u-resolution which 
 had so early revealed itself, grew upon him as he advanced in 
 years. And this was not the worst — he had fairly acqiured the 
 habit of taking laudanum. This insidious practice was carried 
 by him to such a pitch, that he drank for a considerable 
 time at least as much as a pint a day. It destroyed his 
 naturally robust constitution, unhinged the stractiu-e of his 
 mind, imd bUghted for ever his prospect of happiness i.j this 
 world. If we remember aright, he once seriously i)roposed placing 
 himself in a mad-house, where he should be under control and 
 medical treatment at the same time. In such circumstances it 
 was impossible that he should contemplate the fiterary profession, 
 upon which he was now wholly dependent, with other than 
 dubious and apprehensive feelings. Accordingly, in a letter to 
 Mr. Cottle, written about this tmie, he gave expression to those 
 fears with which the thought of the future mspired him : — "It is 
 my duty and business to thank God for all his dispensations, and 
 to beheve them the best possible ; but, indeed, I think I should 
 have been more thankful had he made me a journeyman shoe- 
 maker instead of an 'author by trade.' So I am forced to 
 write for bread ! Write the flights of poetic inspiration, when 
 every moment I am heaiing a groan from my wife ; gi'oans, and 
 complaints, and sickness. The present hour I am in a quickset 
 hedge of embarrassment, and whichever way I turn a thorn nuis 
 into me. The future is clouds and thick darkness 1 Poverty, 
 perhaps, and the thin fiices of them that want bread looking up 
 to me. Xor is this all. Jly happiest moments for composition 
 are broken in upon by the reflection that I must make haste." 
 
 The village of Clevedon did not long please him. He removed 
 to Bristol. Bristol soon became as irksome as Clevedon, and he 
 again sought the country ; this time taking up his residence at 
 Nether Stowey, a pleasant village at the foot of the Quantock 
 hills in Somersetshire, where he was in the immediate neighbour- 
 hood of his friend and benefiictor Mr. Poole, and of Jlr. Words- 
 worth, who was then living with his sister at AIl-Foxden. We 
 ought to have stated that he had akeady, in 1795, published his 
 " Conciones ad Populum, or. Addresses to the People;" and in 
 1796 planned and set on foot a weekly paper called the Wiiich- 
 man, which did not, however, siu-N-ive the tenth number. The 
 period of his residence at Nether Stowey, was perhaps, in spite of 
 many difiiculties and apprehensions, the happiest of his life. 
 " His poetical faculty, which had budded in his sixteenth year, 
 was ripened under the genial impulses of nature, friendship, 
 and domestic affection." He enjoyed the intimate society of 
 William Wordsworth, with whom he had almost daily conversa- 
 tion on poetical and other matters. Out of these conversations 
 grew the famous "Lyrical Ballads," which appeared in 1798, 
 and attracted so great a share of the attention of the literary 
 world. It was here also that he wrote his tragedy of " Remorse," 
 and the first part of " Christabel." Coleridge still professed the 
 unitarian faith, and for some time preached every Sunday at 
 Taunton. Indeed, he had in 1798 accepted an off'er to become 
 preacher to a unitarian congregation in Shrewsbuiy, and had 
 actually preached his first sermon, when his friends Josiah and 
 Thomas M'edgewood, of Etruria in Staflbrdsbure, granted him an 
 annuity of £150. Upon this he set out for Germany, accom- 
 panied by Wordsworth. Of these travels, an account is given in 
 the Biographia Literaria. They visited the celebrated author of 
 the Jlessiah, wliom Coleridge was in the habit of facetiously 
 calling Klubstick. It should perhaps be mentioned, that the 
 generosity of the Wedgewoods had some years previously enabled
 
 Coleridge to proceed to the university of Gottingen, where he 
 completed his education according to his own scheme. Shortly 
 after his return in 1800, in which year was published the trans- 
 lation of " Wallenstein," he and his family settled for some years 
 ■with Southey, at Keswick. Wordsworth had also by this time 
 come to the north, and was then living in the vale of Grasmere. 
 Coleridge now finally abandoned his unitarian tenets. In the 
 first volume of his " Biographia Literaria," referring to an early 
 period of his life, he says — " I was at that time, and long after, 
 though a trinitarian (i.e., ad normam Platonis) in philosophy, 
 yet a zealous unitarian in religion ; more accurately, I was a 
 psilanthropist, one of those who believe our Lord to have been 
 the real son of Joseph, and who lay the main stress on the 
 resurrection rather than the crucifixion." His groping after 
 religious truth had been long and difficult. Even before he had 
 arrived at the stage where he fully embraced " the truth as it 
 is in Jesus," he tells us that " his head was with Spinoza and 
 Leibnitz, while his heart was with Paul and John." 
 
 His habit of opium-eating having now begun to tell with 
 teirible effect on his health, Coleridge made a voyage to Malta 
 in the year 1804, in search of convalescence. His friend Dr. 
 Stoddart was then king's advocate in that island. He intro- 
 duced him to Sir Alexander Ball, one of Nelson's old captains, 
 and then governor of Malta. Sir Alexander was so much pleased 
 with the eloquent philosopher, that he appointed him secretary 
 to the government, at a salary of £800 a-year. But a 
 farther acquaintance discovered that there was little congeniality 
 of mind between the governor and his secretary. The conse- 
 quence was that the latter came home within the year. The 
 iact that Coleridge afterwards devoted a number or two of his 
 " Friend " to a highly-wrought eulogium on Sir Alexander Ball, 
 a man whom nobody else regarded as remarkable for any- 
 thing, points to one of the enigmatical features of his character. 
 From his return from Malta till the year 1816, he lived a veiy 
 imsettled, miserable life, now with his family, now with one 
 friend, again with another. In 1809-10 he issued from Pen- 
 rith in Cumberland, twenty-seven numbei-s of the " Friend " wliich 
 were afterwards republished with additions in three volumes. 
 This periodical proving a failure, he went to London, where he 
 lived for some time with Mr. Basil Montagu. He contributed to 
 newspapers — the Morning Post and the Courier ; and delivered 
 lectures at public institutes. This was the most wretched period 
 of his life : that in which the punishment of his habitual sin of 
 opium-eating — for such it was in a very high degree — overtook 
 him, and violently struck him to the ground. It were almost to 
 be wished that the glimpses which we have of his condition 
 during these years of his London life, and of the shifts to which 
 he was put, had been altogether withheld. The depths to which 
 this " rapt one of the godlike forehead " had fallen, cannot be 
 better described than in his own words : — " Conceive a poor, 
 miserable wretch, who for many years has been attempting to 
 beat off pain by a constant recurrence to the vice that produces 
 it. Conceive a spirit in hell, employed in tracing out for others 
 the road to that lieaven from which his crimes exclude him. In 
 short, conceive whatever is most wretched, helpless, and hope- 
 less, and you will form as tolerable a notion of my state as it is 
 possible for a good man to have. I used to think the text in 
 St. James, that " he who offends in one point, offends in all," 
 very harsh ; but now I feel the awful, the tremendous truth of it. 
 In the one crime of opium, what ciiine have I not made myself 
 guilty of. Ingratitude to my Maker and benefactors, injustice 
 and unnatural cruelty to my poor children, self-contempt for my 
 repeated promise, breach of it, nay, actual falsehood." Silence 
 were best here. 
 
 In the year 1816 he placed himself under the care of his 
 friend Mr. Gillman, surgeon, Highgate, in whose family he 
 remained till his death on the 25th of July, 1834. Here he was 
 in the habit of holding weekly conoersazioni, when he indulged 
 to their fidl bent those powers of conversation which were the 
 wonder of all who heard him. The influence which in this 
 manner he exercised on ardent young men from the universities 
 and others is quite incalculable. To this period, too, belong 
 some of the most valuable of his works — the two "Lay 
 Sermons;" "Aids to Reflection, in the formation of a manly 
 character, on the several grounds of Prudence, Morality, and 
 Rehgion, illustrated by passages from our elder divines, espe- 
 cially from Ai-chbishop Leighton ; " the " Biographia Literaria ; " 
 and the " Constitution of Church and State, according to the 
 
 idea of each." His gradual and, we believe, at last, complete 
 emancipation from his almost life-long bondage brought back 
 somewhat of the happiness and peace which he had known in 
 his earlier years; and long before the final scene closed, hi^ 
 naturally intense religious natm-e found all its longings fully 
 satisfied in that peace which passeth all understanding. A few 
 days before his death he wrote a letter to his godchild, Adam 
 
 Steinmetz K , near the conclusion of which occur these 
 
 words — " I thus, on the very brink of the grave, solemnly bear 
 witness to you that the Almighty Redeemer, most gracious in 
 his promises to them that truly seek him, is faithful to perform 
 what he has promised, and has preserved under all my pains 
 and infirmities the inward peace that passeth all understanding, 
 with the supporting assurance of a reconciled God, who will not 
 withdraw his Spirit from me in the conflict, and in his own time 
 will deliver me from the evil one." 
 
 Wordsworth has described his friend as " a noticeable man, 
 with large grey eyes." 
 
 It is not our purpose, neither does it consist with our limits, 
 to present an account of the philosophical system of Coleridge. 
 The fact is, that he did not build up a compact logical 
 system. His works are all fragmentary. " The whole labours 
 of Coleridge," it has been said, " present the appearance of 
 an unfinished city — the outline of the streets exhibits only 
 how splendid they might have been : the basement of a pillar 
 shows how gorgeous might have been the capital." His opinions 
 embrace a wide range of subjects — mental, moral, political, 
 literary, and theological ; and they are sometimes found jumbled 
 together in a manner that might well bewilder the ordinary 
 reader. The uncouth terminology of his metaphysical writings 
 forms another hinderance to his extensive popularity. He fol- 
 lowed the ■ modern Germans in their abstnise doctrines of the 
 " absolute" and the " practical reason," and was the first to 
 introduce the transcendental philosophy into England. He 
 insisted perpetually on what he termed the important distinctions 
 between the " reason" and " understanding" — between " genius" 
 and " talent." From talent without genius — that is, from the 
 exclusive exercise of the understanding, he expects only a swarm 
 of clever, well-informed men — an anarchy of minds — a despotism 
 of maxims. And thence despotism of finance in government 
 and legislation — of vanity and sciolism in the intercourse of life 
 — of presumption, temerity, and hardness of heart in political 
 action. He has a horror of " idealess facts," misnamed proofs 
 from history, and of the substitution of the gi-ounds of experi- 
 ence for principles and the insight derived from them. He waged 
 continual war with the utilitarians, and boldly contended that 
 they had substituted the guess-work of general consequences for 
 moral and political philosojjhy. The ])hilosophy of Locke and 
 Paley he represented as almost the exact opposite of that which 
 he himself taught in all his writings. " The pith of my system," 
 he says, " is to make the senses out of the mind, not the mind 
 out of the senses, as Locke did." He elsewhere gives a more 
 extended description of his philosophy, or rather of the end at 
 which it aimed. " My system, if I may venture to give it so 
 fine a name, is the only attempt I know ever made to reduce all 
 knowledge into harmony. It opposes no other system, but shows 
 what was trae in each ; and how that which was true in this 
 particular, in each of them became error, because it was only 
 half the truth. I have endeavoured to unite the insulated frag- 
 ments of truth, and therewith to frame a perfect miiTor. I shovs^ 
 to each system that I fully miderstand and rightfully appre- 
 ciate what that system means ; but then I lift up that system 
 to a higher point of view, from which I enable it to see its 
 former position ; where it was, indeed, but under another light, 
 and with different relations. So that the fragment of truth is 
 not only acknowledged but explained. . . I wish, in short, to 
 connect, by a moral cvpola, natural history with political histoiy ; 
 or, in other words, to make history scientific, and science histo- 
 rical — to take from history its accidentality, and from science 
 its fatahsm." It is needless to say that this system was not 
 worked out. But in all his writings there are- fixed principles 
 which, however imperfectly stated, will, as the reader grows 
 familiar with them, and with their extensive bearings, gradually 
 fashion themselves into recognizable shape. 
 
 The mind of Coleridge turned ever more fondly towards theo- 
 logy as his years increased. It is impossible to state here the 
 ser\'ices which he has rendered to this highest of all studies ; or 
 to do more than merely notice his invaluable tractate on the
 
 "Constitution of Church and State, according to the idea of 
 each." We believe that a future age will reckon his theological 
 labours considerably more valuable than the present has yet 
 done. It will, perhaps, be then acknowledged that the " Aids 
 to Reflection," was one of the most remarkable boolis of its time. 
 Meanwhile this influence has been already very great both in 
 England and America ; we might say greater than that of any 
 other single mind which has appeared in theology for many 
 years. And whether for good or for evil, that influence is still 
 steadily gathering force. Coleridge takes high rank also as a critic 
 in poetry and the fine arts. It is very much to be regretted that 
 traces of the irregidarity of his efforts are painfully evident in 
 this department of his intellectual acti\'ity: for his subtlety, 
 his acumen, his intense literary and artistic instincts, but above 
 all, his hearty sympathy with every kind of excellence, fitted 
 him beyond any man of his time for the difficult office of 
 critic. As it is, we have still but little criticism, worthy of the 
 name, that has not come from his versatile pen. But we believe 
 that the reputation of Coleridge the poet, will outlive that of 
 Coleridge the philosopher and theologian ; and this even though 
 it should have to be gi-anted that a considerable part of his 
 poetical writings is of comparatively little value. For whatever 
 of really excellent there is, will be found to be pre-eminently so, 
 and excellent too in such an original sense, that its immortality 
 is as certain as that of anything which has been produced in this 
 age. His earliest poems, it is true, gave but slight indication of 
 what was behind. Their juvenility is strongly marked upon them. 
 They are in a considerable degree turgid and laboured, and betray 
 greater evidences of imitation than originality. This fact has 
 been objected against Coleridge by his detractors, as, though he 
 wanted originality as a poet, because his first efforts are chiefly 
 the result of excited poetic sensibility, acting in conjunction with 
 reminiscence. But nothing, in truth, can be more pm-ely original 
 than the gi-eat bulk of his poetry — a fact which is evident enough 
 from the pecijliar influence it had on some of the greatest of his 
 contemporaries ; si;ch, for instance, as Byron and Scott, and 
 which it continues to exercise on the poetry of the present day. 
 It cannot be denied, however, that in his poetical, as in his prose 
 writings, there is more of promise than performance ; that much 
 is left incomplete — glorious fragments, it may be, but stUl frag- 
 ments, and wanting that last perfection, which can only be 
 attained when the powerful will acts sweetly under the bm-den 
 of high imagination. We refer not now particularly to his 
 unfinished pieces — sucli as "Christabel" — but rather to the fact 
 that, instead of combining his conceptions in one gi'eat continuous 
 effort, he has broken them up into small pictures, which, though 
 each may be exquisitely beautiful in itself, give us the notion of 
 imperfection, if not indeed of radical weakness itself: for the 
 strength of the eagle, as has been said, is not measured by the 
 height to which he can soar, but by the time that lie continues 
 on the wing. The most prominent characteristic of Coleridge's 
 poetry is its "exquisite and original melody of versification, whose 
 very sound chains the ear and soul !" In this respect he excels 
 all poets. But his poetiy cannot properly be called the poetry 
 of high imagination. Its power lies rather in the region of the 
 senses ; but the senses breathed upon and spiritualized by ima- 
 gination. Even tlie emotions which he describes, belong not to 
 the strong direct passions of om* common natm-e ; his love is a 
 kind of romantic and spiritual movement of wonder, blended 
 ■with an ineffable suffusion of the powers of sense. There is 
 more of aerial romance than of genuine tenderness even in the 
 peerless love of his Genevieve ; although, to be sure, the heart 
 is sometimes startled with a tone of true passion, as in the 
 " Keepsake," where he speaks of — 
 
 " Her voice, that even in her mirthful mood, 
 Has made me wisli to steal away and weep.'" 
 
 But in the description of that preternatural fear, that ominous 
 dread of some undefined evil, which properly belongs to super- 
 stition, Coleridge is unapproached and unapproachable. It is 
 in the perfect mastery of these feelings — feelings which, in a 
 certain measm'e, are common to the race — that the indescribable 
 charm of his "Ancient Mariner," the most perfect of all his 
 productions, consists. The loveliness and the teiTor glide before 
 us in alternate vision, the mind being all the while entranced 
 with the depth and wondrous fascination of its unequalled melody. 
 " Christabel" belongs to the same class — poems to be felt rather 
 than criticised. Coleridge has also produced several highly 
 VOL. r. 
 
 elaborate odes ; but his want of lyric rapture and femd human 
 passion necessitated his failm-e in this most difficult species of 
 poetic composition. But success in ode writing is one of the rarest 
 things in literature. Even Wordsworth's famous Intimations of 
 Immortality, notwithstanding its high reputation and undoubt- 
 edly fine poetry, shows but poorly in the light of artistic excel- 
 lence. Except in a few passages, it is stiff and lumbering, and 
 unworthy of comparison with the splendid productions of tliis 
 kind which have come down to us from the ancient world. In 
 his " Poems of Later Life," Coleridge touches a different chord 
 from any which he had sounded in his pre\-ious poems. There 
 is gi-eater condensation and intensity both of thought and expres- 
 sion — more reflection and less imagination ; while in all there 
 is to be detected a certain indefinable pathos, that dimly shadows 
 forth the ineffable sorrow of a mind that has proved untrue to 
 its own surpassing powers. The little poem entitled " Youth 
 and Age," is a thing by itself, and fittingly stands at the portal 
 of that period of his life, dm-ing which a serene but genuine sad- 
 ness carried hun gently fonvard, till the final dai-kuess covered 
 him from our sight for evermore. — R. M., A. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Saka, the only daughter of Samuel T. Cole- 
 ridge, was bom at Keswick in isOS, and was brought up and 
 educated by her uncle, Robert Southey, whose influence had a 
 most powerful eftect in the formation of her intellectual cliar- 
 acter. In 1822 she executed an excellent translation of an 
 Account of the Cipones from the Latin of ILirtin Dobrizhoffcr. 
 She mai-ried her cousin Henry Nelson Coleridge in 1829 ; and 
 with the exception of a Latin lesson-book for her children, 
 entitled " Pretty Lessons for Good Children," sbe produced no 
 literary work until after the death of her fixther in 1834, when 
 she assiduously aided her husband in the jiious duty of editing 
 and annotating the poet's unpublished works. After the death 
 of Henry Coleridge the whole of this arduous work devolved upon 
 his widow ; and the mode in which she has executed this labom' 
 of love, and especially the elaborate and closely-reasoned disser- 
 tations on some of the most important questions in theology, 
 morals, and philosophy with which she has enriched several of 
 the volumes, are fitted to give a vciy high idea both of her 
 learning and her abihty. She died on 3rd jMay, 18.32. — J. T. 
 
 COLES, Elisha, an English lexicographer, of considerable 
 fame in his own day, was born in Northamptonshire about 1G40. 
 He was educated at Oxford ; taught for some time the Latin 
 and English languages in London, and ultimately removed to 
 Ireland, where he died about 1700. — J. T. 
 
 COLET, Dr. John, a learned English divine, and the 
 founder of St. Paul's school, London, was the eldest son of Sir 
 Henry Colet, twice lord-mayor, and was born in 1-1 0(5. After 
 completing his education at Magdalene college, Oxford, he 
 travelled in France and Italy, and there became acquainted with 
 Erasmus, Budfeus, and other distinguished scholars, and acquired 
 a knowledge of the Greek language, which was then little known 
 in England. He returned home in 1497, and next year took up 
 his residence in Oxford, where he read lectures on St. Paul's 
 epistles. Colet was possessed of a large estate, without any near 
 relations, and devoted his property to the establishment of St. 
 Paul's school in London, of which he made the company of 
 mercers trustees. He appointed the Icanicd Mr. Lilly first 
 master in 1512. Dr. Colet died in 1519, in his fifty-third 
 year, and was buried in St. Paul's choir. Among other digni- 
 ties, he enjoyed those of canon and dean of St. Paul's cathedral, 
 and chaplain and preacher in ordinary to Henry VIII. He was 
 the author of "Rudimenta Grammaticcs ;" " Absolut i.^simns dc 
 octo orationis partium constructione libellus;" "Daily Devo- 
 tions;" " Epistolaj ad Erasmum," &c. — J. T. 
 
 COLGAN or .AIACCOLGAN, Joiix, born in the parish of 
 Donagh, in the barony of Inishowen, Donegal, Ireland, in the 
 end of the sixteenth century, was a Franciscan friar in the Irish 
 convent of St. Anthony of Padua at Louvain, in which he was 
 professor of divinity. After the death of Ward in 1G35, 
 Colgan was appointed to complete the lives of the Irish saints, 
 which the latter had left unfinished. He executed this task 
 in two large volumes, whicli arc illustrated by \iseful and 
 most elaborate notes, especially in what relates to the ancient 
 topogi-aphy of Ireland. The last of these volumes in order was 
 the first printed, and is entitled "Acta Sanctorum Hibernian" 
 &c., Lovanii, 1645, folio. The other volume is entitled 
 "Triadis ThaumaturgaJ Acta," Lovanii, 1G47, folio. Colgan 
 died in Louvain in 1G58. — J. O'D. 
 
 G Y
 
 COLIGNI, Gaspard, a celebrated French admiral, and leader 
 of the protestants, was the son of the Marshal Coligni and of 
 Louise Montmorency, sister to the famous duke and constable 
 of that name. He was bom on IGth February, 1517. He 
 accompanied Francis I. throughout the Italian campaign of 
 1543, and was conspicuous for his coolness in the field. In the 
 following year he and his brother Francis served in Italy under 
 the duke d'Enghien, and distinguished themselves at the battle 
 of Ccrisolles. ' Gaspard Coligni next assisted the dauphin in 
 repelling the invasion of Champagne by Charles V. and Henry 
 VIII. After the death of Francis he was made colonel-general 
 of infantrj', and afterwards, in 1552, admiral of France, by Henry 
 II. The courage and skill which he displayed at the battle of 
 Renti in 1554, and in the defence of St. Quentin in 1557, added 
 greatly to his reputation and influence. After the death of 
 Henry II. the admiral joined the party of the Huguenots, and, 
 next to the prince of Conde, became their principal leader. In 
 the civil war which ensued, he fought at the battles of Dreux, 
 St. Denis, Jamac, and Moncontour; and by his indomitable 
 energy and activity contributed greatly to repair the losses which 
 the Huguenots met with in the field. After the conclusion of 
 peace in 1570, the admiral was invited to court, and flattered 
 and caressed by Cliarles IX., for the purpose of lulling the 
 veteran and his friends into a fatal security. On the 22nd of 
 August, 1572, as Coligni was retuniing from the Louvre to his 
 lodgings, he was severely wounded by a musket-shot fired out 
 of a window, at the instigation of the ducliess of Nemours, widow 
 of Francis, duke of Guise. The king pretended to be highly 
 indignant at the dastardly attack, but on the evening of the 
 same day the massaci-e of the protestants, which had long been 
 meditated, was finally arranged. It commenced at midnight, 
 August 24th. As soon as the signal was given, a party, headed 
 by the duke of Guise attacked the admiral's house, forced open 
 the doors, and rushing into the room where the admiral was 
 sitting, murdered the defenceless veteran in cold blood. His 
 body was then thro'i\Ti out of the window at the command of 
 the duke of Guise himself; and after being subjected to the vilest 
 indignities by the populace, was at last chained by the feet to 
 the common gallows, and the head was cut off and caiTied to 
 the queen-mother, Catherine de Medici, the prime instigator of 
 the infamous transaction. The body of the admiral was after- 
 wards secretly buried in the vaults of the chateau of Chantilly, 
 and finally transferred to Maupertuis, where a monument was 
 erected to his memory. — J. T. 
 
 COLLAKD-ROYER. See Royer-Collard. 
 COLLE, Charles, the most renowned fabricator of chansons 
 in his day in France, as well as the author of several very suc- 
 cessful dramatic pieces, was bom at Paris in 1709. At a 
 vei-y early age he displayed a passion for poetry and the theatre. 
 Apprenticed to a lawyer, he spent his time reading La Fontaine 
 and Moliere, or associating with Peron, Galert, the younger Cre- 
 billon, and others, who were at once convivial and literary. This 
 association led to the establishment of the celebrated " Caveau," 
 so called from the place of meeting, and which may justly be 
 denominated the academy of song. Tlience issued the spright- 
 liest and best lyrics of the day, and Colle was the most distin- 
 guished of the contributors. From 1729 to 1739, these joyous 
 " noctes " were continued, till at length wealth and rank found 
 an entrance which should be conceded to genius alone, and the 
 Caveavi, like other pleasant societies, fell to pieces. We next 
 find Colle filling nominally the post of secretaiy to the duke of 
 Orleans, but in reality wi-iting comedies for his patron. In this 
 occupation he continued twenty years, producing some admirable 
 pieces, though it must be admitted they were occasionally open 
 to censure for their freedom of language and morals. Colle 
 tried his hand, too, at sentimental comedy, and with remarkable 
 success ; and one of these pieces, the " Partie de Chasse," still 
 keeps its place on the French boards. It is, however, as a 
 cbansonnier that Colle is principally famous. He may be con- 
 sidered as one of the best representatives — Beranger always 
 excepted, who, indeed, followed in his steps — of the French 
 chanson ; sprightly yet sentimental, piquant and graceful, warm 
 — often too much so — but rarely vulgar or actually gross. He 
 died on 2nd November, 1783. — J. F.'W. 
 
 COLLE, Raffaellino del, bora at Colle, near Citta San 
 Sepolcro, probably at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 This painter is generally regarded as the pupil and assistant of 
 Raphael in the Farnesina and the Vatican. He painted cartoons 
 
 after the designs of Bronzino for the tapestry of Cosmo I. 
 He kept a school at San Sepolcro whence proceeded Gherardi, 
 Vecchi, and other artists, some of whom may have surpassed 
 him in genius, but none in grace, or finish, or conscientiousness 
 The date of his death is not known. — W. T. 
 
 COLLENUCCIO, Pandolfo, bom at Pesaro— the date of 
 his birth is not recorded — died in 1504. He was employed in 
 several embassies and public negotiations by the city of Venice, 
 and exercised the office of "podesta," or governor in several Ven- 
 etian cities.. Pandolfo became an object of suspicion to Sforza, 
 who accused him of a secret con-espondence with Ca;sar Borgia, 
 and had him thrown into prison, where he was strangled. His 
 principal works are a " History of Naples," and some essays on 
 Pliny's Natural History. He translated into Italian Plautus' 
 Amphitryon.— J. A., D. 
 
 COLLES, Abraham, 51. D., a surgeon of great eminence in 
 Dublin, was born in 1773 at Millmont, near Kilkenny. In 1799 
 he was elected resident surgeon to Steevens' hospital; in 1804 was 
 appointed lecturer on anatomy and surgery to the royal college 
 of surgeons in Ireland, and in 1826 became professor of surgeiy 
 to the same institution. His health haxdng in 1835 begun to 
 give way, he was compelled, in the following year, to resign his 
 professorship in the college of surgeons, on which occasion the 
 college assembled, and presented hhn with a superb piece of jjlate 
 and a complimentary address. The college also ornamented 
 their board-room with his full length portrait by Cregan, and 
 tlieir museum with a marble bust by Kirk. The honour of a 
 baronetcy was offered to Mr. CoUes, but was declined. He 
 expired in 1843 in the seventy-first year of his age. Among 
 his principal writings are a volume on "Surgical Anatomy;" 
 essays on the injuiy which has since been designated Colles' 
 fracture of the radius ; on ligature of the subclavian artery, 
 published in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Joiiriial; 
 several papers in the Dublin hospital reports, of which valuable 
 series he was one of the originators; his great work on "The 
 Use of Mercui-y ; " lastly, some posthumous papers liave recently 
 appeared in the Duhlin Quarterly Journal of 3Iedical Science, 
 having been prepared for publication by his son Dr. William 
 Colles.— W. D. M. 
 
 COLLETET, Guillaume, bom at Paris in 1598 ; died in 
 1659. "Wliile yet at school he showed some talents for versifi- 
 cation, and he was unlucky enough to have his rhymes praised 
 by Malherbe. He studied law, and in due time became an 
 advocate, but soon gave up the practice of his profession, 
 assigning an impediment of speech as the cause. It is probable 
 that tlie real motive which influenced him was his passion for 
 literature. He was among the first members of the French 
 Academy, and a discourse read by him in 1636, on the 
 " Oratory of the Ancients," attracted great attention. Colletet 
 was one of five authors pensioned by Richelieu. (See Corneille, 
 Pierre de.) He was the great prize poet of his day — the very 
 ideal of a laureate. He became rich, and possessed country seats 
 as well as his town house. But he married successively three 
 servant-maids, and on his last maniage, his home was invaded 
 and occupied by his wife's tribe, and became a low cabaret. 
 Colletet was literally eaten out of house and home, by the 
 strange associates to whom his maiTiage introduced him. He 
 at last died, and was buried by subscription. Colletet wrote a 
 history of French poetry. It contains the lives of one hundred 
 and thirty poets. No member of the academy is among them. 
 Much of Colletet's poetry is very pleasing. — J. A., D. 
 
 COLLETT, Jonas, a Norwegian minister of state, was born on 
 his father's estate, Ronnebeksholm, in Zealand, in 1772. He was 
 educated at the university of Copenhagen, and devoted himself 
 to the study of the law. In 1814 he was elected a mem- 
 ber of the preparatory chamber, and when the national assembly 
 had declared the independence of Norway, he was appointed 
 privy councillor, and head of a department. He acted as 
 minister of home affiiirs from that year tUl 1822, and on the 
 resignation of count von Wedel-Jarlsberg, he became minister of 
 finance, trade, and customs. In 1829, he was elected to the 
 presidency of the privy council. In 1836 he retii'ed from public 
 life, desiring to spend the remainder of his days in raral and 
 literary pursuits. Collett had the honour of leaving the finan- 
 cial afiairs of his country in so flom-ishing a condition that the 
 succeeding storthing (parliament) abolished all direct impost 
 and reduced many duties, appropriating at the same time large 
 sums to the completion of fortifications, the augmentation of the
 
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 COL 
 
 fleet, and the diminution of the national debt. Collett died in 
 1851, highly esteemed by his countrymen. — SI. H. 
 
 COLLETTA, Pietro, boru at Naples in 1775 ; died at 
 Florence in 1833. Colletta first served in the army, then 
 showed considerable talents as an engineer. In 1812 we 
 find him " directeur des ponts et chaussees ;" in 1813 "dii-ec- 
 temr en chef du genie militaire;" in 1814 "conseiller d'etat ;" 
 in 1815 engaged against the Austrians on the banks of the 
 Panaro, and signing the capitulation of Cazalonza. After the 
 fall of Bonaparte, we find him still employed, though distrusted, 
 by the government ; in 1820 he is sent to Sicily, and from 
 26th February to 23rd March, 1821, he is minister of war. He 
 is next mentioned as imprisoned by Canoza, and exiled to Brun. 
 We find him then at Florence, and occupied with a history of 
 Naples from 1734 to 1825. The book was not published till 
 after his death. It passed through several editions. A French 
 translation appeared in 1835. — J. A., D. 
 
 COLLIER, Arthur, a remarkable writer and metaphysician, 
 was born at Langford Magna, near Salisbuiy, in 1680. His 
 ancestors for several generations were rectors of the parish, the 
 advowson being in the possession of the family. In 1697 he 
 entered Pembroke college, Oxford, but subsequently joined 
 Balliol. In 170-4 he was inducted into the rectory of Langford 
 JIagna, on the presentation of his mother. In 1707 he manied 
 a niece of Sir Stephen Fox, and he died in 1732. Such is the 
 brief record of one who lived and died in comparative obscurity. 
 But CoUier was a powerful and original thinker. He had no 
 intercourse with the literaiy world, never quotes Locke, ])ut was 
 conversant with Des Cartes and Malebranche, his chief friend 
 and counsellor being Norris of Bemerton, a place in the neigh- 
 bourliood. In fact, he thought out for himself a system of 
 idealism, ignorant of the similar attempt of Bishop Berkeley. In 
 1713 he published his " Clavis Universalis, or a new inquiry after 
 truth, being a demonstration of the nonexistence or impossibi- 
 lity of an external world." The nature of the theory is so well 
 known that it need not be analyzed. There are many points 
 of resemblance between the Clavis and Berkeley's Hylas and 
 Philonous. There is one marked ditference, however, that while 
 Berkeley seeks to strengthen his argument by an appeal to 
 natural or universal belief. Collier somewhat contemptuously 
 rejects such support. Collier lays great stress on the position, 
 that his doctrine would put an end to the dogma of transub- 
 stantiation ; for, under his hypothesis, the distinction between 
 substance and accidents could have no place. Collier's book 
 remained unknown ; and indeed it wants the attractive style 
 and varied illustrative power of Bishop Berkeley's work. Nei- 
 ther Oxford nor Cambridge had a copy of it, but Dr. Reid found 
 one in the library of the university of Glasgow, and his reference 
 to the author turned to him the attention of Dugald Stewart and 
 Dr. Parr. Dr. Parr republished the " Clavis," along with other 
 metaphysical tracts — reissued, London, 1837. Collier also 
 pubhshed "The Specimen of true Philosophy" in 1730, and 
 " The Logology," published in 1732, his theology being a species 
 of Arianism. — -(Hamilton's Disctissions, p. 186 ; Memoirs of the 
 Life and Writings of the Rev. Arthur Collier, ij-c, by Robert 
 Benson, M.A., London, 1837 ; Dictionnaire des Sciences Philo- 
 sophiques, art. " Collier.") — J. E. 
 
 COLLIER, Jeremy, a learned English divine, was bom at 
 Stow-Qui, Cambridgeshire, in 1650, and died in 1726. He was 
 educated at Cains college, Cambridge, and took orders in 1677. His 
 first living was the rectory of Ampton in Suffolk, and in 1685 he 
 was made lectm'er of Gray's inn, and he also held the ofiice of 
 preacher of the Rolls. His eminent abilities and extensive and 
 profound learning, would, in all probability, have raised him to 
 high ecclesiastical dignity ; but he was an extreme high churchman, 
 and, at the Revolution, joined the ranks of the nonjurors, refused 
 to take the oaths to government, and was in consequence obliged 
 to resign all his preferments. He was imprisoned in 1688 for 
 writing in defence of the dethroned monarch, and again in 1692 
 on a charge of treason, but he was released on both occasions 
 without trial. He continued, however, to liarass the govern- 
 ment by virulent pamphlets, and carried his factious violence to 
 such a height that he exulted over the loss of the British at 
 the battle of Landen, and the destruction of then: property by 
 shipwreck on the Spanish coast. In 1696 he had the boldness 
 to grant absolution on the scaffold to Friend and Pai-kjTis, who 
 were executed for high treason, in plotting the murder of King 
 Wilham. This audacious act excited strong and general dis- 
 
 approbation. The matter was brought before the court of 
 king's bench, and a bill was found against Collier by a jury. As 
 he was determined not to recognize the authority of the 
 government so far as to give baU, he absconded. He was 
 in consequence outlawed, and remained under the outlawry 
 until his death. The government, however, with a praiseworthy 
 moderation, made no attempt to molest their indomitable and 
 honest, though \-iolent and bigoted assailant, and firom that 
 time forward he employed his leisure principally in the compo- 
 sition of literary works. In 1698 he published his celebrated 
 treatise entitled "A Short View of the Profaneness and Immo- 
 rahty of the English Stage" — a book which produced a powerful 
 and most salutary effect upon English light literature, and 
 involved its dauntless author in a lengthened and most triumph- 
 ant controversy with Congreve, Vanbrugh, and other theatrical 
 writers of the day. '' There is hai-dly any book of that time," 
 says Lord Macaulay " from which it would be possible to select 
 specimens of writing so excellent and so various." The other 
 publications of Collier are a translation of iloreri's Historical and 
 Geographical Dictionaiy," in 4 vols., folio ; " An Ecclesiastical 
 History of Great Britain," in 2 vols., folio ; essays upon several 
 moral subjects, in 3 vols., 8vo; a translation of Antoninus' 
 Meditations, and a volume of practical discourses. — J. T. 
 
 * COLLIER, JoHX Pay>-e, an English litterateur and 
 critic, the son of a bookseller and journalist, was bom in Lon- 
 don in 1789. At the age of twenty he entered as a student 
 of the inner temple, and became also a parliamentary reporter 
 on the staff of the Morning Chronicle. He was afterwards 
 appointed editor of the Evening Chronicle, and became a contri- 
 butor to several reviews and magazines. He was one of the 
 earliest critics of the present age who drew the attention of 
 the public to the merits of the old English dramatists, and has 
 contributed largely to the elucidation both of the plays and the 
 life of Shakspeare. Collier's piincipal works are — " The Poetical 
 Decameron," 2 vols. 1820; "The Poet's Pilgrimage," 1822; 
 "Dodsley's Old Plays," 1825-27; "Histoiy of Dramatic Poetry," 
 3 vols. 1831 ; " New Facts regarding the Life of Shakspeare," 
 1835; "New Particukrs," 1836, and "Further Particulars," 
 1839 ; " Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plavs of 
 Shakspeare," 1846 ; " A Book of Roxburgh Ballads," 1847 ; 
 " Extracts from the Registers of the Stationers' Company of 
 Books entered for pubhcation, 1557-70," 1848, &c. Mr. Collier 
 is a vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries, and enjoys a 
 pension on the civil list of £100 per annum as a recognition of 
 the services he has rendered to literatm-e. — J. T. 
 
 COLLIN, Heinrich Joseph von, a German tragic poet, 
 was bom at Vienna, 26th December, 1772, where he held a 
 conspicuous place in the administrative ser%-ice, and died 28th 
 July, 1811. His tragedies, "Regulus," " Coriolan," &c., are 
 distinguished by manliness of thought. He also wrote lyric poems, 
 1812. Collected writings, Vienna, 1812-14, 6 vols. — K. E. 
 
 * COLLIN, JoN'AS, a distinguished statesman and author of 
 Denmark, also knight of Dannebrog, was bora, Jan. 6, 1776, in 
 Copenhagen. Having completed his education he entered the 
 service of govemment in 1798, in the finance department, to 
 which he has always, and with increasing advantage to the 
 state, remained attached. In the year 1809 he became member 
 and president of the Royal Society for the improvement of mral 
 economy, and was especially useful in promothig agiiculture. He 
 was also zealous for the public improvement in various directions 
 — for the constraction of a fleet at Elsinore ; for ameliorating 
 the condition of the county clergj', &c. In fact, his labours for 
 his country extend into every branch of moral and social reform. 
 In 1821 he was appointed one of the directors of the theatre 
 royal, and in this office first became acquainted with the after- 
 wai-ds well-known and greatly-admired Hans Christian Andersen 
 (see that name), to whom he proved hmisclf one of the most 
 kind and fatherly of men. Collin is the author of various works, 
 among which may be mentioned a great variety of articles in 
 periodical publications, on statistical, geographical, agi-icultural, 
 politico-economical and philological subjects. — JL H. 
 
 COLLIN, !MattiivEus von, brother of Heinrich, was born 
 at Vienna, 3rd March, 1779. In 1808 he was appointed 
 professor of aesthetics at Cracow; in 1813 professor of philoso- 
 phy at Vienna; and in 1815 governor of the duke of Reich- 
 stadt. He wrote tragedies — "JIarius," " Der Tod Fricdrich's 
 den Streitbaren," &c., operas, and poems; and since 1813 has 
 been editor of tl e Vienna Literalurzeitung. — K. E.
 
 COL 
 
 1092 
 
 COL 
 
 COLLIN HARLEVILLE, Jean Fran(;'OIS, a dramatic writer, 
 born at JIaintenon in 1755. Intended originally for the legal 
 yirofession, his inclination for the drama proved too strong for 
 the di-y study of law. The " Vieus Cehbataire," played in 
 1792, is esteemed the most successful of his thirteen comedies. 
 He died in 18()G.— J. F. C. 
 
 COLLIXGS, JoHX, a learned nonconformist divine, was 
 born in 1G23, and educated at Emmanuel college, Cambridge. 
 He was forty years minister of Norwich — a portion of that time 
 he held the living of St. Stephens, from which he was ejected 
 in 1GG2. He was one of the commissioners at the Savoy con- 
 ference, and was highly esteemed for his learning and piety. He 
 was the author of many works on controversial and practical 
 theology, the best of which is his " Weaver's Pocket-Book, or 
 Weaving Spiritualized," 8vo, 1675. A considerable portion of 
 Poole's Annotations on the Bible was written by Collings. He 
 died in 1G90.— J. T. 
 
 COLLINGWOOD, CuTHUEnx, first Lord Collingwood, a 
 famous British admiral, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne on 
 the 2Gth of September, 1750, of an ancient family, but of slender 
 patrimony. He went to sea when only eleven years of age, under 
 the protection of his uncle. Captain afterwards Admiral Brath- 
 waite ; was made a lieutenant by Admiral Graves in 1774 ; five 
 years later was appointed commander of the Badger, and shortly 
 afterwards post-captain of the Uinchinhrolce. In 1780 he was 
 sent under Nelson, his early and intimate friend, to the Spanish 
 main ; and when Nelson received promotion, succeeded him in 
 the command, as he did repeatedly on other similar occasions. 
 He served again with Nelson in the West Indies in 1783-86. 
 In 1793 he was appomted captain of the Prince, the flagship of 
 Rear-Admiral Bowyer. He was present in the Barjhur at the 
 great naval battle of 1st June, 1794, under Howe; and in the 
 Excellent in the battle otF Cape St. Vincent on the 14th of 
 February, 1797, under Jervis. On both occasions he distin- 
 guished himself so much by his judgment and braveiy, that his 
 efforts were the theme of universal admiration throughout the 
 fleet. He was raised to the rank of vice-admiral in 1799, and 
 was actively employed in the ]\Icditerranean until the peace of 
 Amiens. On the recommencement of hostilities with France in 
 1803, Colhngwood was recalled to active service, and never 
 again was permitted to retm-n to his happy home. He was made 
 vice-admiral of the blue in 1 804 ; was commissioned to watch 
 the French fleet oft' Brest, and spent nearly two years in per- 
 forming that task with unwearied vigilance. In 1805 he was 
 appointed to the command of a squadron, with orders to pursue 
 the combined fleets of France and Spain, which had sailed from 
 Toulon, and fell in with them as they were returning to Cadiz, 
 but, having only three vessels with him, was not strong enough 
 to give them battle. They were at last compelled to quit Cadiz, 
 however, and the battle of Trafalgar followed, in which Colling- 
 wood led one of the two lines of the British fleet, and his vessel, 
 the Royal Sovereign, was the first engaged. " See," said Nelson, 
 as this swift-sailing ship penetrated the centre of the enemy's 
 line, " see how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship 
 into action." The glorious result of the battle was in no small 
 degree owing to the consummate skill and valour of Collingwood, 
 and on the death of Nelson he assumed the supreme command 
 of the fleet. He was rewarded for his services by the thanks of 
 both houses of parliament, together with a peerage, and a pen- 
 sion of two thousand pounds a year. In spite of his declining 
 health, Collingwood continued at his post as commander of the 
 Mediterranean fleet, and rendered many important, political as 
 well as professional, services to Great Britain and her allies. 
 For nearly three years he hardly ever set foot on shore. He 
 repeatedly requested to be relieved of his command, but was 
 compelled to remain, by the ungenerous refusal of the govern- 
 ment to relieve him, and their urgent representations that his 
 services could not be dispensed with by his country. Com- 
 pletely worn out, he died at his post, on board the Ville de 
 Paris, off' Port Mahon, on the 7th of March, 1810. 
 
 The selections from the public and private correspondence of 
 Lord Collingwood, published in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1828, exhibit 
 a most beautiful picture of his private character and domestic 
 life, as well as of his public career. His letters, especially those 
 addressed to his wife, are among the best specimens of letter- 
 writing to be found in the English language. — J. T. 
 
 COLLINS, Antiionv, a noted controversialist and sceptic, 
 was born at Horton, near Hounslow, Middlesex, June, 1676. 
 
 After preparatory study at Eton he entered King's college, 
 Cambridge, his tutor being Francis Hare, afterwards bishop of 
 Chichester, and on leaving the university he became a student 
 at the Temple. But he soon relinquished legal pursuits, and, 
 possessing an estate of considerable value, he married the daughter 
 of Su" Francis Child, lord-mayor of London. He seems at this 
 period to have been on terms of intimacy with Locke, who 
 bequeathed to him some property, and seems to have held him 
 in high esteem. In 1707 Collins published an " Essay concern- 
 ing the use of reason in propositions the evidence of which rests 
 upon testimony." In this treatise, amidst much sound thinking, 
 there are hints and observations, especially on Gastrell's book on 
 the Trinity, the covert design of which became more and more 
 apparent in subsequent years. During this year, also, he threw 
 himself into the controversy between Clarke and Dodwell, about 
 the immateriality and immortality of the soul, issued no less 
 than five tracts in support of the theory of Dodwell, and denied 
 that the human soul is in itself naturally a'n undying principle. 
 Dean Swift, in the twelfth chapter of Martmus Scriblerus, has 
 covered Colhns' arguments with inimitable ridicule. In 1709 
 he published " Priestcraft in Perfection, or a detection of the 
 fraud of inserting and continuing that clause — ' The church hath 
 power to decree rites and ceremonies, and authority in contro- 
 versies of faith ' — in the twentieth article." Collins maintained 
 that the clause was spurious, as it did not form a portion of the 
 ailieles established by parliament in the 13th of EHzabeth, or 
 ratified by the convocations of 1562 and 1571. The result was 
 a sharp controversy, with shoals of pamphlets. In 1710 he 
 published a " Vindication of the Divine Attributes," in reply to a 
 sermon by Dr. King, the archbishop of Dubhn, On divine pre- 
 destination and foreknowledge. In 1713 he gave out to the 
 world his notorious " Discom-se on Free-thinking." The book is 
 ingenious, but dishonest. It takes for granted that those who 
 support revealed religion must be enemies of free inquiiy, and 
 the clerg)', as being professionally on the side of scripture, are 
 perpetually assailed with invective and ridicule. Nay, it is 
 maintained that scriptm-e has been falsified through pious fraud, 
 and he lays special stress on a stoiy connected with the Emperor 
 Anastasius. He fetches several objections from the various read- 
 ings which belong to the New Testament, and which, through the 
 publication of Mill's edition, were then attracting some attention. 
 Dr. Bentley, under the signature of " Phileleutherus Lipsiensis," 
 entered the field, and disposed of this hterary objection in a 
 masterly style, pointing out the author's blunders, misrepresen- 
 tations, and artifices, and showing, among other things, by some 
 stiiking comparisons, that the text of no ancient author is in so 
 satisfactory a state as that of the New Testament. Wharton, 
 Hare, and Hoadley also replied to Collins. After this contro- 
 versy Collins visited Holland, and on his return was made a 
 justice of the peace and deputy-lieutenant in the county of 
 Essex, where he resided. But his busy brain was ever at work, 
 and in 1715 he inibfished " A Philosophical Inquiry concerning 
 Human Liberty," which was reprinted in 1717. Dr. Clarke 
 rephed to it, dwelling more upon what he reckoned the moral 
 consequences of the necessitarian theory so held and argued, than 
 upon its metaphysical nature and grounds. Unfatigued by 
 constant application, and undaunted by so many assaults, he 
 published m 1724 "Grounds and Reasons of the Clu-istian 
 EeHgion," in two parts. This book created an immediate and 
 deep sensation, and in two years drew forth no less than 
 thirty-five replies. In defence, Collins pubfished in 1727 "The 
 Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered," and in it he attacks 
 the antiquity and canonical authority of the book of Daniel. 
 Collins was a man of shrewd mind, throwing off his immature 
 thoughts too rapidly, and seeming to have pleasm'e in the mere 
 sensation which his books created. He had no conscience in 
 making quotations, but would freely alter, transpose, or gloss, so 
 as to serve his purpose. A second trip to Holland was occa- 
 sioned by some alarm as to his personal safety, some of his 
 antagonists having, in the spirit of the age, hinted at a civil 
 penalty. His character is said to have been marked by gene- 
 rosity and equity, and he ably discharged his functions as a 
 magistrate. After some months of declining health, he died in 
 London in 1729, saying with his latest breath that he "endea- 
 voured, to the best of his abilities, to sei"ve God, his king, and 
 his countiy." — J. E. 
 
 COLLINS, Arthur, an eminent antiquary, author of a 
 "Peerage of England," 1708 — which has gone through many
 
 editions — and of varions other useful works, was bom in 1682, 
 and died in 1760. Sir Egerton Brvdges published an edition of 
 the " Peerage"' in 1812. Besides editing with remarkable care 
 and judgment various collections of family papers, Collins com- 
 piled a "Baronetage of England" in 1720 and 1741, and "The 
 English Baronage" in 1727. — J. S-, G. 
 
 * COLLINS, CnAELEs Allstox, son of William Collins, 
 bom in 1828, and remarkable as one of the original band of 
 young ])ainters who, assuming the affected title of pre-Ratfaellite 
 Brethi-en, have done much to revolutionize, and let it be added, 
 to benefit English art. His m«st important work is his " Con- 
 vent Thoughts," first exhibited at the academy in 1850, and 
 subsequently at the JIanchester Art Treasures exhibition in 
 1857. Since this Jlr. Collins has exliibited no picture of mark, 
 devoting himself rather to literary than art pursuits. — W. T. 
 
 COLLIXS, John, an eminent mathematician, a native of 
 Wood-Eaton, near Oxford, was bom in 1624, and died in 1683. 
 His father, a nonconformist minister, sent him to Oxford to learn 
 the trade of a bookseller ; but, during the civil war, he went to 
 sea and saw some service on board a man-of-war in the Mediter- 
 ranean. On his return to England he adopted the profession of 
 an account.int, the laborious duties of which did not prevent him 
 from pursuing with great success his favourite studies. Becom- 
 ing known to the public as the author and editor of various 
 mathematical works, he was soon on terms of friendship with 
 most of the eminent scientific men of his day ; and so much 
 advantage did he derive from his immense correspondence, that 
 he came to be considered " the register of all the new improve- 
 ments made in the mathematical sciences." Most of Collins' 
 once popular works are now completely antiquated. — J. S., G. 
 
 COLLINS, William, a minor poet of the last centun-, was 
 born at Chichester in the year 1721. His father was a hatter 
 and an alderman of that ancient city. He was a scholar on the 
 foundation at Winchester school for seven years, and afterwards 
 in 1740 went up to Oxford, entering first as a commoner at 
 Queen's college. He soon obtained a demy-ship at Magdalen 
 college. His talent for versification had shown itself even at 
 school; and while at ^Magdalen in 1742 he published some 
 " Oriental Eclogues," but they were not successful. The con- 
 sciousness of intellectual power, added to a considerable portion 
 of vanity and ambition, led him to abandon the career marked 
 out for him at Oxford and go up to London in search of distinc- 
 tion. But indolence, coupled with irresolution, caused the 
 failure of his hopes and marred the bright promise of his genius. 
 He planned several tragedies, besides other works, but, as Dr. 
 Johnson says, only planned them. He became involved in debt, 
 out of which he had not sufficient energy to extric ite himself. 
 In 1746 he published his "Odes, Descriptive and Allegorical." 
 Jkliller, his bookseller, gave him a good price for the copyiight, 
 but the sale was insignificant, and Collins, as soon as he was 
 able to afford it, repaid Miller, and caused the unsold copies of 
 the impression to be burnt. Soon after this his uncle. Colonel 
 Slartui, died, and left him two thousand pounds. His long struggle 
 with poverty was thus ended, but idle desultoiy habits long 
 protracted, and the kind of intellectual self-indulgence to which 
 he had yielded through life, now brought on a nei-vous disorder 
 which, before long, incapacitated him from_ all sustained mental 
 exertion. Finding the disease growing upon him he took to 
 dram-drinking ; but this only made matters worse. He was for 
 some time the inmate of a lunatic asylum ; after which he lived 
 under the care of his sister at Chichester, where he died in 1756, 
 at the early age of thirty-five years. Collins' poems form one 
 very small volume. His once celebrated odes ai-e now in a fair 
 wav to be forgotten. — T. A. 
 
 COLLINS," WiLi.iAJi, was bom in Great Titchfield Street, 
 London, on the 18th September, 1788. His father, a native of 
 Wicklow, was a picture dealer and cleaner, and the author of a 
 tlu-ee volume novel called " i\Iemoirs of a Picture," and of a Life 
 of his friend Jlorland the painter. At an early age William 
 Collins evidenced a love of art, received lessons from Jlorland, 
 and was afterwards formally despatched to the academy to pursue 
 his studies. " CoHins and myself," wrote ]\Ir. Etty, " started as 
 probationers in the same week. He drew the Laocoon and I the 
 Torso. His dra^vings were remarkable for their careful finish and 
 good effect." When twenty-one, Collins commenced to exhibit 
 at the academy, and for years afterwards he continued to be a 
 constant exhibitor. He rapidly attamed success. He was very 
 careful what as well as hoio he painted. He lived an easy, 
 
 successful, uneventful life — hard-working, but well paid. In 
 1815 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy. He 
 married in 1822 the daughter of Mr. Geddes, A.R.A., and the 
 sister of Mrs. Carpenter, the portrait painter. In 1820 he had 
 been elected an academician, presenting as his diploma-picture 
 the work called " The Young Anglers." For sixteen years he 
 continued to exhibit without losing a year. He then made a 
 mistake — following Wilkie's advice, he travelled on the conti- 
 nent for two years with the view of changing his style. His 
 great successes had been coast scenes. " The Shrimpers ;" 
 "Fishermen coming Ashore before Sunrise;" "Getting out the 
 Nets;" "Mussel Gatherers;" Haunts of the Seafowl" — the 
 names of his works bespeak their character. He now sought to 
 render Italian scenes and scriptural subjects. He exhibited for 
 some years the fruits of his Italian travels — mediocre landscapes, 
 and worse than mediocre scripture illustrations. Before long he 
 judiciously resumed his first line of subjects. The public wel- 
 comed back his "coast scenes" with acclamations. These works 
 are very perfect of their class. His peasant groups are singu- 
 larly happy, full of repose and quiet settled unconsciousness. His 
 execution was extremely careful — no slovenfiness ever disfigured 
 his canvas. His colour was quiet but agreeable, -n-ith pleasant 
 atmospheric effects, hinted at rather than forcibly insisted on. 
 Altogether it would be hard to find more rehable renderings of 
 English coast life. This of itself, apai-t from technical qualities, 
 would always maintain the value of the works of William Collins. 
 The highest price he ever received was five hundred guineas 
 from Sir Robert Peel for his " Frost Scene." In 1840 Collins was 
 appointed librarian to the academy, but resigned the office not 
 long afterwards, finding it absorbed his attention too much. In 
 1844 first became apparent the symptoms of the heart disease, 
 which resulted in his death on the 17th February, 1847, at his 
 house in Devonport Street, Hyde Park Gardens. William CoUins 
 had two sons, Wilkie and Charles Allston. — W. T. 
 
 * COLLINS, William Wilkie, a di-amatic author, biographer, 
 and novelist, was bom in London in 1825. He is the eldest 
 .son of the late William Collins, R.A., his mother being a daugh- 
 ter of Geddes the painter. Jlr. Collins' Mterary career began 
 with the publication of " Memoirs of WilUam ColUns, R.A.," 
 1848. This well-executed biography was succeeded by " Anto- 
 nina; a novel," 1850 ; " Rambles beyond Railways, or Notes in 
 Cornwall taken a-foot," 1851; " Basil, a Storv of modern life," 
 1852; " Hide and Seek," 1854; " After Dark"," 1856. Besides 
 these works, Mr. Collins has written " ]\Ir. Wray's Cash-box, 
 or the JIask and the Itlystery ; " numerous tales for the various 
 leading magazines and serials of the metropohs (amongst which 
 Houseliold Words and Fraser may be especially mentioned) 
 and two very remarkable dramas, " The Light-house" " and 
 " The Frozen Deep," which have been put on the stage with 
 decided success. 
 
 COLLINSON, Petek, an English botanist, was bom in 
 Westmoreland on 14th January, 1693, and died on 11th August, 
 1768. He devoted himself early to botanical pimsuits, and 
 cultivated many rare plants. He imported a number of useful 
 species from America. He also transmitted European plants to 
 the American continent, and is said to have introduced the 
 culture of the vine into Virginia. He appears to have aided 
 Franklin in his electrical experiments, and to have supplied him 
 with instraments. He was a great antiquarian, and investigated 
 the antiquities of England. He also contributed articles to the 
 Gentleman's Marjazine. Linnasus named the genus Collinsonia 
 after him.— J. H. B. 
 
 COLLOT D'UERBOIS, Jean Makie, one of the most 
 prominent and sanguhiary agents in the French revolution, was 
 born at Paris in 1750. He was originally a strolling player, and 
 peifomied with little success in the principal towns of France 
 and Holland. When the Revolution broke out he repaired to 
 Paris, .and rendered himself conspicuous by the violence of his 
 haranijues. He was one of the principal instigators of tlic con- 
 flict of 10th August, and of the massacres of September. He 
 was deputed by the convention in November, 1793, to punish 
 the revolt of Lyons, and not only battered down the walls, and 
 strove utterly to destroy the city, but in conjunction with 
 Fouche, put to death upwards of sixteen hundred of the inhabit- 
 ants — six hundred of whom were shot in one day. On his 
 return to Paris he associated himself with Robespierre, on all 
 occasions supported the most violent and sanguinaiy measures, 
 and voted for the death of Louis XVI., and the abolition of the
 
 monarchy. His blood-thirsty conduct gained him the -well- 
 merited designation of the " Tiger." When Robespierre's power 
 was on the wane, Collot abandoned his cause, and, as president 
 of the convention, exerted his utmost influence to procure the 
 condemnation of his former friend. In March, 1795, he and 
 Billaud were condemned to he transported to Guiana. Collot, 
 who was almost constantly in a state of intoxication, died there, 
 8th January, 1796.— J. t. 
 
 COLMAN, an Irish monk of the Columbian order in the 
 island of lona, who lived in the seventh century, and was 
 presented to the see of Lindisfame. He is known for the con- 
 troversy which he maintained with Wilfrid, bishop of York, 
 upon the observance of Easter, supporting against this last the 
 views of the Irish clergy. Colman ultimately retired to the 
 island of Inis-bo-fin, where he founded a monastery and after- 
 wards another in Mayo. He is said to have died on the 8th of 
 August, 676, and to have been bm-ied in his o^vn church at 
 Inis-bo-fin.— J. F. W. 
 
 COLMAN, Benjajsiix, D.D., an eminent American clergy- 
 man, born at Boston, 19th October, 1673; died 29th August, 
 1717. After a long residence in England, where he enjoyed the 
 friend-ship of many eminent di.ssenters, he became pastor of a 
 congregation at Boston, Slassachusetts, in 1G99. — F. B. 
 
 COLMAN, George, the Elder, born at Florence about 1733; 
 died at Paddington in 179-1. He was the sou of Thomas Col- 
 man, Esq., British resident at the court of the grand-duke. He 
 was educated at Westminster school, and at Christ church, 
 Oxford. He graduated master of arts in 1758. He formed 
 earlv friendships with Lloyd, Cowper, Churchill, and Bonnell 
 Thornton. In conjvmction with the latter, he published the 
 Connoisseur, a weekly periodical, which commenced in January, 
 1754, and terminated September, 1756. Soon after lea\'ing 
 Oxford, he was called to the bar from Lincoln's Inn. He held 
 a few briefs, but soon discontinued to attend the courts. Two 
 amusing poems written in conjmiction with Lloyd, attracted a 
 good deal of attention. The admirers of Gray and Mason 
 were scandalized by odes to Obscurity and Obll%-ion, in which 
 their style was skilfully imitated. In 1760 appeared Colman's 
 " Polly Honeycomb," which was acted at Drury Lane with great 
 success. In the next year he produced " The Jealous Wife," 
 the story of which is formed from Fielding's Tom Jones. He 
 became co-proprietor with Thornton of the St. James' Chronicle, 
 and printed in it some essays, which he afterwards republished 
 in a collection of his miscellaneous works. In 1764 Lord Bath, 
 whose wife was liis mother's sister, left him an annuity which 
 placed him comparatively at ease. A second annuity from Lord 
 Bath's mother followed in 1767. About this time he pubhshed 
 a translation of Terence in the loose dramatic verse of Beau- 
 mont and Fletcher. In 1769 he contributed the play of "the 
 Merchant" to Bonnell Thornton's Plautus. These translations 
 are among the best in the language. In 1768 Colman had 
 become joint-manager of Covent Garden theatre, but disputes 
 arose between him and the other proprietors, which ended in 
 his selling his share, and purchasing the Haraiarket from 
 Foote. In 1783 he published a translation of Horace's Art of 
 Poetry, with a commentaiy, in which he endeavoured to show 
 that the poet's purpose was to dissuade an unpromising aspirant 
 from publishing a dramatic poem. He has thrown the poem into 
 a light and graceful style, not unlike the manner of the best 
 of Garrick's prologues. In 1785 he had an attack of paralysis. 
 In 1789 he exhibited derangement of mind, wliich increased 
 till reason became quite extinct. His dramatic works, which 
 are verj- numerous, have been published m four volumes, and his 
 miscellaneous works in three. — J. A., D. 
 
 COLMAN, George, the Younger, son of the preceding, born 
 1762. Like his father, he was educated at Westminster school, 
 and Christ chmxh, Oxford. He, however, left Oxford for King's 
 college, Aberdeen, fi-om which, with the intention of being called 
 to the English bar, he entered the Temple as a law student. 
 His father's theatre, however, proved a formidable rival to 
 Westminster hall, and the state of his father's health rendering 
 some change in the management necessary, he undertook it at a 
 salai-y of £600 a year, and did not again open his law books. 
 While yet at Aberdeen, he published a poem, " The Man of the 
 People," of which Fox was the hero ; and in 1782 " The Female 
 Dramatists," founded on Roderick Random, which was acted at 
 the Haymarket for a benefit, but not repeated. This is said to 
 have been his first work for the stage. " Two to One" was his 
 
 next piece. This was perfectly successful, and he was bailed 
 by a poet of the day as 
 
 " A George the Second sprung from George tlie First." 
 
 The management of the theatre brought him into serious diffi- 
 culties. Litigation unintelligible occupied both sides of West- 
 minster hall, while Paternoster Row was in its day occupied 
 with pamphlets now unpurchaseable at any price, and unreadable 
 by any diligence. This state of things necessarily brought with it 
 ruin on all concerned, and poor " George the second" hved many 
 a long year iu the "rules" of the Fleet. Relief, however, came at 
 last, though slow to come. Through the interest of the duke of 
 York, he was given the office of licenser of plays, and this made 
 his latter days comfortable. Actors and authors are seldom 
 destined to agree. One of Colman's plays, " The Iron Chest," 
 founded on Godwin's Caleb Williams, failed — the author thought, 
 through Kemble's fault — and he pubhshed the play with a 
 preface, which he afterwards withdrew. Large prices are still 
 given by book-fanciers for copies with the suppressed preface. 
 George Colman, the Younger, published some humorous poems, 
 many of which were veiy popular. He was jealous of his repu- 
 tation as a dramatic author, and when he brought out farces or 
 other pieces that could not be classed ■svith the regular drama, it 
 was under the assumed name of Arthur Griffinhoof. — J. A., D. 
 
 COLNET DE Ravel, Charles Jean Auguste Maxi- 
 milian DE, born in Picardy in 1768. He was in his school- 
 boy days a fellow-student of Bonaparte and Bertrand at 
 Brienne, which he left to study medicine. He opened a book- 
 shop in the year 1797 in Paris ; and while waiting for customers, 
 wrote satires upon contemporary authors. Tins was unprofitable 
 work, for the police constantly interfered >vith it. Colnet sought 
 to elude his censors in writing "The Art of obtaining a Dinner," 
 and in editing a jouniiil of ai-ts, sciences, and literature. Charles 
 X. allowed him a small pension, which was enough for his few 
 wants. He lived to witness the fall of his royal patron, and 
 died in 1832.— J. F. C. 
 
 COLONNA, Fabio, or Fabids Columna, a musical mathe- 
 matician and distinguished botanist, was bom at Naples, accord- 
 ing to Lichtenthal and others, in 1567 ; according to Gerber 
 in 1578; he died at Naples in 1650. He belonged to the 
 veiy ancient noble Roman family whose name he bore. He 
 published three books of plants, with commentaries on the Greek 
 naturalists. He became a member of the Academia Lynca^i in 
 Rome, founded by the duke of Aqua Sparta for the advance- 
 ment of science. The remarkable revolution in music wrought 
 in Florence at the close of the sixteenth century, through the 
 origination of recitative, of which the compositions of Caccini, 
 Peri, Monteverde, and Cavalieri furnish the first specimens, was 
 eftected by an association of hterai-y and philosophical men, under 
 the idea of restoring to the art the declamatory character it 
 held in Greece. The subject of Greek music was thus brought 
 under the consideration of the learned; and Colonna, accordingly, 
 with the design of revivmg the use of the three ancient genera, 
 diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic, constructed an instrument 
 of fifty strings, on which the tone was divided into five degi-ees, 
 and printed in 1618 an elaborate description of this and of the 
 prmciples it illustrated, in a work entitled " Delia Sambuca 
 Lincea, overo dell' instrumento musico perfetto." Bm-ney ridi- 
 cules the instrument as useless, and the pinnciples set forth in 
 this very scarce book as impracticable; unmindful that whatever 
 affinity they may bear to the Greek laws of musical proportions, 
 they are precisely analogous with the system of music which 
 prevails in Arabia at the present day. Hawkins gives a complete 
 account of the work and of its tenets, wliich, however superseded 
 by subsequent mathematical calculations of ratios, is far from 
 unimportant in the history of musical science. — G. A. M. 
 
 COLONNA, Francisco, born at Venice in 1449; died in 
 1527. While yet very young he became a dominican, taught 
 rhetoric at Treviso in 1467, and took the degree of doctor in 
 theology at Padua in 1473. He is known by an allegorical 
 romance, " H}'pnerotomachia Poliphili, ubi humana omnia non 
 nisi somnium esse docet." The collectors of rare books are glad 
 to pm-chase at almost any price the original edition, printed at 
 Venice in 1499 by the elder Aldus. It is a folio, with wood 
 engravings by Giovanni Belhno. A later edition, 1545, Venice, 
 " in casa de' figliuoli di Aldo," is more often met with, but is 
 of little comparative value. — J. A., D. 
 
 COLONNA, GiovA^SNi Paolo, a musician, was born at
 
 Brescia towards the middle of the seventeenth centurv, where his 
 father, Antonio, obtained considerable repute as an organ-bailder. 
 He held the otfice of maestro di capella at the church of S. 
 Petronio in Boloc^ia, in which city he estabUshed a music-school 
 that became justly famous for the eminent pupils it produced. 
 In 1685 Colonna engaged in a controversy with Corelli on the 
 importance of contrapuntal purity, the profound knowledge he 
 brought to bear upon which, greatly enhanced his consideration 
 among the musicians of the time. His first publication, his 
 series of short Psalms for eight voices for the entire year, 
 appeared at Bologna m 1681, and was followed by ten other 
 extensive collections of ecclesiastical music. He produced one 
 opera, "Amilcare,"perfonnedatBolognainl693; andhepublished 
 an oratorio, " La Profezia d'Eliseo," but produced other works of 
 the same class that were not printed. He wrote, according to 
 the custom of his time, independent accompaniments for instru- 
 ments to his choral compositions, and it is alleged that Handel 
 imitated him in the construction of his scores ; but since Colonna 
 was not peculiar in that combination of resources, Handel 
 cannot justly be said to have derived from this esteemed master 
 what he shared with his contemporaries. — G. A. 51. 
 
 COLQUHOUN, Janet, wife of Sir James Colquhoun, Bart., 
 of Luss, and daughter of Sir John Sinclair, Bart., the cele- 
 brated author of the Statistical Account of Scotland, was bom 
 in London in 1781. Imbued at an early age with rehgious 
 feelings of uncommon depth and fervour. Lady Colquhoun, till 
 her latest moments, continued to be a rare example of all the 
 christian virtues, and what more particularly entitles her to 
 notice in these pages, one of the most active and liberal pro- 
 moters of missionary enterprise, both at home and abroad, of 
 which her country could boast. With an earnest desire to con- 
 secrate her personal gifts to the spread of evangelical religion, 
 but with no ambition of literary distinction. Lady Colquhoun 
 published at first anonymously, and afterwards, by the request 
 of her father and her husband, with her name, several Uttle 
 works of practical religion, which attained, as they deserved, an 
 extensive circulation. Her liberality to the poor ; her munificent 
 gifts to the church ; the assistance she rendered to ministers and 
 students whose straitened circumstances excited her compassion; 
 her labours as a teacher among the children of her tenants ; her 
 attentions to the sick wherever she chanced to be resident; 
 enshrine her memory in the hearts of thousands as that of one 
 of the most amiable and beneficent of women. Lady Colquhoun 
 died in 1846. A well-known memoir of her from the pen of 
 Dr. Hamilton of London was published in 1849. — J. S., G. 
 
 COLQUHOUN, Patrick, a well-known writer on economics, 
 statistics, and criminal jmisprudence, was bom at Dumbar- 
 ton in 1745. At the age of sixteen he went to Virginia, 
 where he engaged in commercial pursuits. He returned home 
 in 1766, and settled as a merchant m Glasgow, and ulti- 
 mately attained the dignity of lord provost of that city. He 
 was the founder of the Glasgow chamber of commerce, and was 
 most zealous and active in promoting the manufacturing and 
 commercial interests of the country. In 1789 he removed 
 to London, where he pubUshed in 1796 his most celebrated 
 work, entitled " A Treatise on the Police of the Metropohs," &c. 
 His last work, which appeared in 1814, was "A Treatise on 
 the Population, "Wealth, Power, and Resources of the British 
 Empire." In 1797 Mr. Colquhoun received the degree of LL.D. 
 from the university of Glasgow. He resigned his ofiice as a 
 police magistrate in 1818, and died in 1820. — J. T. 
 
 COLSTON, Edward, an English merchant and philanthro- 
 pist, was born in Bristol in 1636. He acquired in the Spanish 
 trade a lai-ge fortune, which he laid out in works of benevolence. 
 He erected and munificently endowed several charitable institu- 
 tions in his native city; gave sis thousand pounds for the 
 augmentation of sixty small Hvings, and hberal donations to 
 several of the London hospitals. He had no near relations, and 
 never manied, alleging that he had all the poor widows in 
 Bristol instead of a wife, and their oi-phans instead of children. 
 This benevolent "merchant prince" died in 1721, and was 
 buried in the church of All Saints, Bristol. — J. T. 
 
 COLTON, Charles Caleb, bom about the year 1780, 
 was the son of the Rev. Barfoot Colton, canon residentiary of 
 Salisbury. He was educated at Eton and at King's college, 
 Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1801, JI.A. in 1804, 
 and in due com-se obtained a fellowship. For many years he 
 held a curacy at Tiverton in Devonshire, to which he had been , 
 
 presented by his college; and in 1818 he succeeded to the united 
 living of Kew and Petersham. In 1820 he created a considerable 
 sensation in the hterary world by the publication of " Lacon, or 
 many things in few words," one of the most valuable works in 
 the English language. Shortly afterwards appeared " Remarks 
 on the Talents of Lord BjTon, and the Tendencies of Don Juan." 
 Colton was a man of ready susceptibility, but very infirm in 
 principle, eccentric in manner, extravagant in his habits, and 
 irremediably addicted to gambling. Having contracted debts 
 to a large amount — chiefly for diamonds and jewellery, and 
 for ^-ines — a fiat of bankruptcy was strack agamst him ; wherein 
 he was sued as the Rev. Charles Caleb Colton, late of Princes 
 Street, Soho, wine merchant. Bewildered by the number and 
 gravity of his pecuniary obligations, Colton secretly embarked 
 for the United States. Retuming to Europe after a sojourn of 
 some years in America, he took up his abode m Paris, where he 
 became acquainted with the habitues of the gaming saloons of 
 the Palais Royal, and so successful was he in his speculations that, 
 in the course of a year or two, he acquh-ed a considerable fortune, 
 but it was soon dissipated. After a life chequered by nearly 
 every phase of good and of adverse forflme, preferring suicide to 
 the endurance of a painful surgical operation, he blew out his 
 brains at Fontainebleau in April, 1832 ; and this was the act 
 of him who, in his "Lacon," proclaims this aphorism — "The 
 gamester, if he die a martyr to his profession, is doubly ruined. 
 He adds his soul to every other loss, and by the act of suicide, 
 renounces earth to forfeit heaven." — E. B., L. 
 
 COLUMBA or COLUMBKILLE, one of the most important 
 personages in Irish ecclesiastical history, was bom at Gartan, in 
 the county of Donegal in Ireland, on the 7th December, a.d. 521. 
 Through both his parents he was descended from princely ancestors, 
 his father, Fedilm, being a member of the reigning famiUes of Ire- 
 land and British Dalriada, and his mother, Eithne, a descendant 
 from an illustrious pronncial king. This union of noble races 
 no doubt contributed to the extended influence which he subse- 
 quently acquired when education, piety, and zeal, were super- 
 added. He was baptized by the name of Colum, one then 
 common in Ireland. The appellation of Cille, " of the cell," 
 appears to have been added in consequence of the frequency of 
 his coming from the cell in which he read his psalms to meet the 
 neighbouring children. Columba was early placed under the 
 tutelage of an ecclesiastic, " spectabilis vitte presbyter," in his 
 native district, where he remained till he attained a sufficient 
 age for higher instruction, when he went to ilovUle, at the head 
 of Strangford Lough, and became a pupil of the famous bishop 
 St. Finnian or Finnan, where he received deacon's orders. 
 Thence he proceeded to Leinster, where, after remaining for a 
 time under the instraction of a learned scholar, called Gemman, 
 he entered the monastic seminary of St. Finnian of Clonard, 
 and was there associated with a class of students who afterwards 
 attained great celebrity as fathers of the Irish church. Having 
 finished his studies, he was ordained a priest, and commenced 
 those labours by which his fame was established. In his twenty- 
 fifth year he founded the monastery of Derry, and in the year 553 
 that of Durrow ; and during the inten-al between that and his 
 departure from Ireland, he founded a vast number of monastic 
 establishments, stated at one hundred by Ussher, and three 
 hundred by 0"Donnel. He travelled through the whole country, 
 awakening the people to piety, and restoring the churches which 
 had fallen into decay. In 568 he passed over with twelve 
 attendants to the west of Scotland, possibly on the invitation of 
 thi provincial king, Conall, to whom he was allied by blood, as his 
 biographer, Adamson, relates an interview between thorn, and the 
 Irish annals record the donation of the island of Hy or lona as 
 the result of the king's approval. Hy seems at the time to have 
 been under the joint jurisdiction of the Picts and Scots, and the 
 conversion of the former to Christianity was a gi-and project for 
 the saint's missionary exertions. Accordingly, as soon as he had 
 expelled the Dniids, and erected a monasterj' and church, he 
 ^-isited King Braidhe at his fortress near Loch Ness, won his 
 esteem, effected his conversion, and eventually succeeded in 
 planting Christianity throughout the district. Braidhe's consent 
 to the occupation of Hy established Columba's right to the isl.and. 
 and conduced to the stability of the monastic institution which 
 he founded there. From this he extended his labours through 
 the western isles of Scotland, erecting churches, forming chris- 
 tian communities, and supplying religious teachers. There is 
 even reason to believe that to Columba is due the honour of
 
 COL 
 
 1096 
 
 COL 
 
 having been the first to give the light of the gospel to the Anglo- 
 Saxons. Adamson mentions some of them to have been amongst 
 the converts of lona, who no doubt carried the new doctrines 
 back with them. From time to tune the saint visited his native 
 land, wliere he continued to exercise no small influence, and to 
 be held in high veneration. Dui-ing one of these visits to 
 L-eland, the saint made a tour through all the districts where 
 he had established churches and monasteries, and then retui-ned 
 to lona. He also visited his native land again in 585, stopping 
 at DuiTOW, and thence going to Clonmacnoise. At length, in 
 the midst of his active and beneficent ministrations in the island 
 of his adoption, the saint felt the approach of death. The 
 chapter of his distinguished biographer which describes the last 
 scenes of the saint's life is, as Dr. Reeves justly observes, " as 
 touchingly beautiful a narrative as is to be met with in the 
 whole range of ancient Inography." Retiring to an eminence that 
 overlooked the settlement, which was the work of his piety and 
 the last object of his earthly affections, he blessed his disciples 
 with uplifted hands ; thence descending to the monastery, he 
 resumed his accustomed^ task of transcribing the psalter. At 
 midnight prayer he was the first to enter the church, and his 
 brethren found him kneeling before the altar, his strength failing, 
 but his countenance full of joy and cheerfulness ; and faintly 
 raising liis hand with a parting benediction, his spirit passed 
 tranquilly away, without a struggle, on the morning of Sunday, 
 tlie 9th of .June, 597. The name of this illustrious man will be 
 long remembered in his own country, as well as in the British 
 islands, especially in that one with which it is so inseparably 
 connected by historic associations of his various qualities, both 
 mental and bodily. Adamson's Life of Saint Columba has been 
 frequently printed. The last edition, bj' Dr. Reeves, Dublin, 1857, 
 forms one of the volumes of the Irish Archasological and Celtic 
 Society, and is one of the most valuable contributions to Irish 
 history. We acknowledge ourselves to be largely indebted to its 
 notes and dissertations for this memoir. — J. F. W. 
 
 COLUMBANUS, an Irish saint and writer, was bom in 
 559 in tlie province of Leinster, and of a noble familj'. He 
 entered the monastery of Bangor in Ulster, where, under the 
 tuition ot St. Coemgall, he devoted himself to holy meditation 
 and study for many years. At length, at the age of fifty, he 
 resolved upon a more extended sphere of usefulness, and select- 
 ing twelve of his brother monks, he passed over to Gaul, where 
 was then ample field for missionary labour. The place he 
 selected was in the forests of Upper Burgundy, in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Alps, where he erected huts for his companions and 
 himself. The fame of his eloquence and learning, and the 
 sanctity of the brotherhood, soon drew the people in crowds 
 about him, and the samt was soon enabled to erect the monas- 
 tery of Luxeuil. The concourse of discijiles, especially amongst 
 the young nobles, was so great, that he was shortly after obliged 
 to establish a second monastery, to which he gave the name 
 Fontaines. Here the saint continued twenty years boldly and 
 zealously preaching, reproving the vices of the highest, not 
 sparing even ThieiTy, the young king of Burgundy. By this 
 conduct he was soon involved in strife with Thierry and his 
 mother Brunehaut, whose enmity and vengeance he incurred. 
 A body of soldiers proceeded to drive him from his monastery. 
 The whole of the brotherhood expressed their readiness to follow 
 their abbot ; but only his own countiymen and a few from 
 Britain were allowed to accompany him. Columbanus visited 
 successively the courts of Clotaire and Theodebert. He then 
 passed into Italy, and was received with distinction at Milan 
 by Agilulph the Lombard king. Columbanus selected a retired 
 spot amidst the Appenines, where he founded the monastery of 
 Bobio, and there passed the residue of his life, dying on the 21st 
 November, 615. He was undoubtedly one of the most eminent 
 men amongst the ecclesiastics of his time. Wise, learned, 
 pious, and full of christian zeal and courage, he has left a fame 
 that is perennial through France and Italy, as well as in his 
 native land. As a writer, judging from what is extant of 
 his, Columbanus must have been extensively acquainted with 
 classical as well as ecclesiastical literature, and it appears 
 he was versed both in Greek and Hebrew. Amongst his 
 works are some Latin poems which display energy of thought 
 and a vigorous style ; md though in his lettei-s to persons of 
 high rank he has justly been censured for a stiff and inflated 
 manner, the tone of his moral instructions, written chiefly for 
 monks, is easy and unaffected. — J. F. W. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Christopher, is the Latin-English name 
 by which the Anglo-Saxon race knows one of the greatest of 
 its benefactors, the heroic Italian navigator, Cristoforo Colombo, 
 the "Christoval Colon" of Spanish history. The time and place 
 of this memorable man's birth have both been themes of elabo- 
 rate controversy. Twice, however, in what has been formally 
 recognized as his will, he affirms that he was a native of Genoa. 
 As regards the date of his birth, the evidence is unfortunately 
 not so distinct. In one letter, Columbus has undoubtedly stated 
 that he began his voyaging career at the age of fourteen. In 
 another, written in 1501, he intimates that he has been a voy- 
 ager for forty years. These two statements taken m connection 
 would assign his birth to the year 1446, or thereabouts. But it 
 has been suggested that the forty years spoken of by Columbus 
 do not include those of his residence in Spain between 1484 and 
 1492. The suggestion has been made in order to reconcile the 
 statement of Columbus himself with that of his intimate friend, 
 Andi'es Bernaldes, the curate of Los Palacios, who avers that 
 Columbus "died in the year 1506 in a good old age, being 
 seventy years old, a little more or a little less." Columbus would 
 thus have been born some ten years eai-lier, about 1436. The 
 question is an interesting one, for, surely it would be well to 
 know whether Columbus was a man of forty-six or of fifty-sis, 
 when he set sail on his first voyage to America. The best of 
 his biogi'aphers Washington Irving, and Navarrete, as well as 
 Alexander von Humboldt, favour the earlier of the two dates. 
 
 The father of Columbus was a wool-weaver or a wool-carder 
 in Genoa. Christopher had two brothers, both associated subse- 
 quently with his fortunes, and both known to have been well 
 educated men. Columbus himself was, for a time at least, at 
 the university of Pavia, and in his later years he looked fondly 
 back to his early studies of "cosmography, history, philosophy, 
 and other sciences." At fomieen he took to the sea. The 
 Italian mariner of those days was by necessity a fightuig man. 
 The MediteiTanean swarmed with pirates, Mahometan and 
 Christian. The maritime states of Italy, like the others, were 
 perpetually at war, and privateering was a recognized profession, 
 a resource of the high as well as of the low. From this wild 
 sdiool of Jlediterranean voyaging and battling Columbus 
 emerged, to find for a time a more peacei'ul and tranquil 
 existence on teiTa firma. He is supposed by his biographers 
 to have repaired to Lisbon about 1470 — certainly he was a 
 resident of the Portuguese metropolis before 1474. When 
 Prince Henry IV. of Portugal died, in 1473, a great stimulus 
 had been given by his exertions to the already considerable 
 and fruitful maritime enthusiasm of his countrymen. Had 
 the pjince lived, the future of Columbus might have been 
 a happier, but perhaps at the same time a less useful one. 
 As it was, the sojourn of Columbus at Lisbon was most 
 important in its results. He soon gained a wife. To this 
 matrimonial epoch naturally belongs a description of his person 
 and demeanour, minutely detailed by Las Casas and his son 
 Fernando. The virtual discoverer of America was tall and well- 
 formed, his complexion fan- and inclined to ruddy ; his nose 
 aquiline, his eyes light-gray and apt to kindle. He was simple 
 in his dress and mode of living. His sharp temper was kept well 
 under control. He was eloquent when the discourse ran on high 
 topics, affable and fascinating in ordinary intercourse, and his 
 domestic amiability was as charming as his public demeanour 
 was elevated and dignified. His devoutness w^as of an enthusi- 
 astic kind, and he was noted for his strict attention to the 
 offices of religion. It was to the latter that he owed Ms intro- 
 duction to his wife. In Lisbon, he attended ser\-ice at the chapel 
 of the convent of All Saints. Here he met — elsewhere, no 
 doubt he wooed, and that successfully — Donna Filipa Monis de 
 Perestrello. The lady was not rich, but she brought him a 
 valuable dower of geographical knowledge and stimulus. Donna 
 Filipa's father had been one of Prince Henry's navigators, and 
 governor of Porto Santo, an island recently discovered in the 
 very neighbourhood of Madeira. Her sister was mamed to 
 another ex-governor of Porto Santo. The newly-wedded pair 
 resided with the mother of Donna Filipa. The charts, papers, 
 and memoranda of his wife's father were placed in the hands of 
 Columbus, and with the conversation of his brother-in-law, 
 excited him in the direction of new geographical discoveiy. 
 When in Lisbon he devoted himself to the construction of maps 
 and charts for a livelihood, and his mind began to compare the 
 known of the earth's sm-face with the unknown. For a time he
 
 COL 
 
 1097 
 
 COL 
 
 resided at Porto Santo, where his wife had a small property, and 
 voyagers from the Guinea coast were in the habit of touchinc. 
 Sometimes he took part in expeditions to the coast of Guinea. 
 His greatest adventure of those years, however (if at least we are 
 to credit one plausible view of it), was a voyage to the Northern 
 Ocean in the February of 1477. 
 
 The earliest trace of Columbus' great design belongs to the 
 year 1474, a year otherwise memorable for the introduction of 
 printing into England. In that year, we find him oon-esponding 
 with Paolo Toscanelli of Florence, on the feasibility of a western 
 passage, not to America, but to Asia. The learned Toscanelli 
 approved of the design, and sent Columbus a chart of his own 
 constniction, in which the eastern coast of Asia was represented 
 as moderately distant from the western coasts of Africa and 
 Europe, and in the intervening ocean stood Marco Polo's Cipango 
 (Japan), and the imaginary island of Antilla, still recognizable 
 in the Antilles. This map, or some redaction of it, Columbus 
 had with him on his first voyage to America. For his knowledge 
 of the general literature of the subject Columbus was chiefly 
 indebted to the Imago Mundi, a cosmographical compilation of 
 Cardinal PieiTe d'Ailly, bishop of Cambray, written in 1410, and 
 printed probably about 1480. Here he found, collected, the 
 dim guesses of ancients and modems at the time figure of the 
 earth, and the possibility of sailing from west to east. This 
 was the book that furnished him with weapons for his fre- 
 quent controversies subsequently with the learned sceptics of 
 Spain and Portugal. The copy of PieiTe d'Ailly's work which 
 belonged to Columbus, and which is studded with MS. notes 
 in his handwriting, still lies in the library of the cathedral 
 of Seville, a priceless item of the Bibliotheca Columbina, 
 bequeathed by the great navigator's son, Fernando, to the library 
 of the cathedral. But it nas not only from fanciful charts and 
 the theorizings of scholars, old and new, that Columbus derived 
 his faith in the existence of easily accessible regions to the west. 
 Eagerly he inquired from practical men respecting vestiges of 
 a world beyond the western wave. By two happy mistakes 
 he diminished the circumference of the earth, and gave a 
 vast unaginaiy extension to Asia. It grew to be for liis 
 mind no mere matter of speculation, but an indubitable fact, 
 that the eastern shore of Asia, and the magnificent civilization 
 described by ilai'co Polo could be attained by a moderate 
 voyage westward from Europe; and the belief that he had 
 reached Asia, not that he had discovered a new continent, 
 remained with him to his dying day. His highest religious 
 aspirations, and his intensest worldly desires gradually grouped 
 themselves round this central faith. He saw immense authority 
 and illimitable wealth, the reward of his achieved discovery ; 
 but all earthly gains were subordinated to the triumphs of the 
 Cross among new and vast populations. The certain wealth to 
 be acquired by himself should be devoted — such was one of his 
 dreams a few years further on — to another crusade, and to the 
 recovery of the holy sepulchre from the hands of the infidels, 
 with whom he had already battled in his early and obscure years 
 of Mediterranean voyaging. 
 
 In 1481 John II. ascended the throne of Portugal. It 
 was shortly after the accession of this monarch that Columbus 
 — after having, it is said, vainly applied to Genoa — propounded 
 to him the daring scheme of reaching India by the western 
 ocean. Preoccupied probably by the idea of the south-eastern 
 route, John at first discouraged the new enterprise, but even- 
 tually referred it to a junto composed of his two physicians 
 and his confessor, the bishop of Ceuta. By them the notion was 
 condemned as chimerical, a verdict which was ratified by a great 
 council of civil and ecclesiastical dignitaries and learned men, 
 whom the hesitating king constituted a court of appeal. The 
 Idng still hesitated, when an ignoble compromise was offered to 
 him and accepted. Under pretence of a wish thoroughly to 
 examine them, the detailed plans of Columbus were procured 
 from him. Unknown to him, a caravel was despatched westwards 
 on a voyage of discovery. After a few days, stormy weather 
 frightened the conductors of the expedition back to Lisbon, where 
 they ridiculed the aim of Columbus. Indignant at this treachery, 
 Columbus declined .iny further negotiations with John II., and 
 shook the dust of Portugal from oft' his feet. He left Portugal, 
 it is believed, not only poor, but in debt. His wife was dead, 
 and he took with him a little motherless Diego, who lived to be 
 second admiral of the Indies. It is supposed that he now 
 applied a second time to Genoa to aid him in his enterprise, and 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 that during his visit to his native city, he assisted, out of his 
 own scanty means, his aged father, whom he had already helped 
 while struggling for a subsistence as a chartographer in Portugal. 
 A deep aft'ectionateness of disposition is one of the most noted of 
 Columbus' characteristics. 
 
 It is in 1485, and in the south of Spain, that we next see 
 Columbus distinctly. Great dukes of Medina-^idonia and 
 Medma-Celi, with estates and ports upon the sea-bord, lent an 
 attentive ear to his glowing projects; but his only direct gain 
 from them was a recomendation to Queen Isabella of Spain. 
 The astute Ferdinand and the noble-minded Isabella were then 
 occupied with their campaigns against the Moors. At intervals 
 they entertained the schemes of Columbus so far as to have 
 him a frequent visitor of their camp, and to relegate his 
 enterprise to the discussion of eminent men. From Cordova 
 (where he became acquainted with the mother of his illegitimate 
 and second son, his future biogi-apher, Femando) Columbus 
 followed the court to Salamanca in 1486, by order of King 
 Ferdinand, and there he held a solemn conference with a junto, 
 chiefly composed of learned and scientific ecclesiastics. At the 
 epoch of this discussion, Copernicus was a boy of thirteen, and 
 Columbus was met with quotations from the bible and the 
 fathers against the rotundity of the earth. The conference 
 was adjourned without definitive result. From 1487 to 1490, 
 Colmubus hung about the Spanish court and camp, now stoutly 
 fighting against the Moors, and summoned to consultations with 
 the Spanish sovereigns, sometimes full of hope, sometimes so 
 discouraged as to think of renewing negotiations with John of 
 Portugal, or of repairing to London and Henry VII. At last, 
 in the summer of 1490, he presses with such earnestness for 
 a distinct reply to his application, that the old conference is 
 ordered to give him one. Its members report against him ; and 
 the curtain drops for a time on Columbus, the rejected and 
 disappointed, poor and isolated, beginning once more his weary 
 pilgrimage. 
 
 When the curtain rises again it is to discover Columbus 
 approaching the gate of the convent of Santa Jlaria de Eabida, 
 near the haven of Palos in Andalusia, for the pui-pose of pro- 
 curing a crust of bread and a draught of water for the little 
 boy by whom he is accompanied. The prior of the convent, 
 sauntering by, observed that he was a foreigner, and, entering 
 into conversation with him, learned who he was. This inter- 
 view with the prior of the convent of Rabida, Juan Perez de 
 Marchena, was the tm'ning-point in the career of Columbus. 
 The prior was a man of sense, and he had been the queen's 
 confessor. He talked with Columbus, grew interested in his 
 schemes, and introduced him and them to tlie notables of the 
 neighbourhood, among others, to Martin Alonzo Pinzon, the 
 head of a flourishing family of navigators in the then thriving 
 and adventurous port of Palos. Pinzon was convinced, and 
 oft'ered his co-operation, personal and pecuniary. The prior, 
 presuming on his old connection, wrote fervently to the queen 
 for decisive encouragement to Columbus, who spoke of repairing 
 with his projects to the court of F>ance, whither, it is said, 
 Charles VII. had invited him. Isabella, perhaps alarmed lest 
 another country should profit by Columbus' discoveries, sent for 
 both Columbus and the prior, and with womanly thoughtful- 
 ness transmitted a considerable sum of money wherewith the 
 impoverished adventurer might equip himself for appearance at 
 court. He anived in time to witness the surrender of Granada, 
 and in the glories of the triumph did not grudge a little delay. 
 At last he was heard once more; but, at the very threshold of 
 the negotiations, the lofty and unbending pride of Columbus 
 nearly proved suicidal. He insisted on high titles and privileges; 
 he was to be admiral and N-iceroy of all the countries discovered ; 
 and one-tenth of all gains derived from commerce or from con- 
 quest were to be his. The courtiers laughed; the official person 
 who more directly treated with him was the queen's confessor, 
 the new archbishop of Granada, and he professed himself shocked 
 at the claims of the humble projector. Even Queen Isabella 
 wavered. It shows the genuine confidence which Cohunbus had in 
 himself and in his mission, that, at this apparent crisis of his 
 fate, he refused to give way. At the commencement of February, 
 1492, he mounted his mule and set forth for Cordova on his 
 road to France. Once again Queen Isabella was strenuously 
 appealed to by an official believer in Columbus, and once again she 
 summoned him to her presence. When he reached the court 
 again, he found his demands conceded. On a former occasion, 
 
 6 Z
 
 with an eye to the offer of Pinzon, he had, when twitted with 
 his poverty, offered to bear one-eighth of the expense. This 
 condition was embodied in the so-called " capitulations," signed 
 by Ferdinand and Isabella on the 17th of April, 1492 ; and 
 with the aid of the Pinzons of Palos a third vessel was added 
 to the expedition, nominally at the expense of Columbus. The 
 port of Palos, the head-quarters of the Pinzons, was fixed on 
 by Columbus as that of equipment and embarkation. Towards 
 the beginning of August, 1492, the squadron was ready for 
 sea. it was, for the magnitude of the enterprise, on a won- 
 derfully small scale, and consisted of three little vessels. Two 
 of them were of the class called "caravels" — light vessels, 
 somewhat like those employed in our river and coasting trade, 
 built high at prow and stern, with forecastles and cabins 
 for the crew, but without decks. One of these was the Pinta, 
 commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon and his brother; the 
 other, the Nina, with lateen sails, was commanded by a third of 
 the brothers Pinzon. The largest, prepared expressly for the 
 voyage and decked, was the Santa Maria, and this was the 
 admiral's ship. The exact tonnage of the vessels cannot be 
 ascertained, but Columbus, in a subsequent voyage, is known to 
 have complained of the undue size of his ship, which was nearly a 
 hundred tons burthen ! In such craft did the brave voyager and 
 his friends face the mysterious terrors of the unknown Atlantic. 
 Amid the doubts and fears of those on shore, with prayers to 
 heaven for mercy and guidance, the expedition set sail from the 
 sand-bar of Suites (near the confluence of the Tinto and Odiel, 
 rivers of Palos and Huelva) on the morning of Friday, the 3rd of 
 August, 1492. One hundred and twenty persons constituted 
 the population of the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. 
 
 Slight mishaps and panics ushered in this memorable voyage. 
 The loss of the Pinta's nidder kept the expedition three weeks 
 at the Canaries, in unsuccessful search for another vessel, and 
 the volcanic flames of Teneriffe terrified the ignorant and super- 
 stitious crews. On the 9th of September, Ferro, the most 
 south-westerly of the Canaries, faded out of sight, and lamenta- 
 tions broke out among the crews, promptly met by the sonorous 
 eloquence of the confident and enthusiastic admiral. To con- 
 ceal from the timid crews the real distance which lay between 
 them and their homes, Columbus kept two reckonings. A correct 
 one was retained for his own secret inspection ; from this a 
 number of leagues was daily subtracted, and thus the diminished 
 log was shown to the crews. On the 13th of September, 
 Columbus noticed, for the first time, the variation of the mag- 
 netic needle. He endeavoured to conceal it from the crews, but 
 the pilots soon observed it and were teiTor-struck at the sight, 
 fearing that the compass itself was about to desert them in the 
 unknown waste of waters, and leave them guideless and hope- 
 less. Columbus, with his quick ingenuity, ascribed the variation 
 to a movement in the polo-star itself, and by one of his unfounded 
 but lucky theories succeeded in allaying the alarm of the pilots. 
 
 Hope and fear swayed alternately in the breasts of the crews. 
 The admiral alone knew no vicissitudes of feeling. Two days before 
 the first notice of the variation of the needle, the seamen were dis- 
 mayed by the sight of part of a mast, which had evidently been 
 long in the water, and regarded it as a warning to themselves. 
 Three days afterwards they were buoyed up by the appearance 
 of a heron and a tropical bird, neither of which, it was thought, 
 could have ventured far from land. Soon the vessels were within 
 the influence of the trade-wind, and were wafted on by it plea- 
 santly westward. Patches of herbs and weeds came drifting 
 from the west, and some of them were thought to grow only in 
 rivers. For a time the crews were in the highest spirits. Then 
 came a false report of land to the west, which turned out to be 
 cloudland, and after several similar disappointments the men 
 began to murmur. Even the trade-wind was a source of alarm 
 to them, for they feared that in those seas it blew always from 
 the east, and they could thus never return to Spain. The 
 crisis of their discontent amved when the vessels were becalmed, 
 or nearly so, amid vast masses of weeds ; and it was in vain 
 that Columbus argued with them that the calmness arose from 
 the nearness of land. The nearer they approached the goal the 
 more mutinous they became ; and at last they began to speak 
 of making away with the admiral and returning home. Colum- 
 bus preserved his serenity — now conciliating, now stern, as suited 
 the characters of those with whom he was dealing. 
 
 At last, after many disappointments, and when the crews 
 could scarcely be kept from open mutiny, on the lltli of Octo- 
 
 ber there were picked up not only river-weeds, and a branch of 
 thorn, with berries, but a reed, a small board, and a staff, arti- 
 ficially carved. Joy and hope were once more the order of the 
 day. In the evening, after the singing of the usual vesper 
 hymn, the admiral addressed his men in pious and confident 
 accents. At ten at night, Columbus, who had long been gazing 
 anxiously on the horizon firom the poop of his vessel, descried 
 what seemed to him a light. At two in the morning a gun from 
 the Pinta announced that land was seen. The vessels lay to, 
 until the dawn should reveal the truth. There, as day dawned, 
 it lay, a level island, covered with trees, from which the naked 
 natives were running astonished to the shore. It was Friday, 
 the 12th of October, 1492, a date for ever memorable in the 
 history of the world. The voyage had lasted seventy days. The 
 island, of which Columbus immediately took possession in the 
 name of Spain, he called San Salvador. It is the Cat-island of 
 the English mariner, one of the great Bahama cluster. The 
 claims of Turks Island have found able assertors. Columbus, 
 believing then and ever afterwards that he had reached the con- 
 fines of India, the new populations were spoken of as Indians ; 
 and those insular regions remain the West Indies to this day. 
 
 Onwards from the point reached in our narrative, the life of 
 Columbus is so connected vrith history, general and special, that 
 a rapid summary may suffice for a work avowedly biographical. 
 Henceforth, the biography of Columbus can present little else 
 than developments interesting indeed, but unimportant, when 
 compared with the grand and primal fact of the discovery itself. 
 Alas ! the " httle else " is of a saddening and tragical kind. 
 After discovering, among other islands, Cuba and Hispaniola, 
 Columbus erected on the latter the fortress of La Naoidad, 
 and established a colony. On the loth of March, 1493, 
 he amved from his first voyage at the port of Palos, from 
 which he had sailed on the preceding 3rd of August. His 
 reception in Spain was magnificent ; his triumphal entry into 
 Barcelona was almost worthy of the man and his achievements. 
 When with characteristic ardour he set sail on his second voyage 
 on the 25th of September, 1493, he was attended by the 
 blessings and prayers, the enthusiastic God-speed of a whole 
 nation. But the seeds of future calamity were already sown. 
 A "department of Indian affiiirs," as we would say, had been 
 created, and at the head of it was placed Juan Rodriguez de 
 Fonseca, archdeacon of Seville, afterwards patriarch of the Indies. 
 He retained the office during thirty years, and was ever the 
 jealous and malignant enemy of Columbus. The chief discoveries 
 of Columbus during his second voyage were Jamaica and the 
 Caribbee islands. He did not reach Spain again imtil the 28tTi 
 of April, 1496, and such were the difficulties of the homeward 
 voyage, that be and his crew disembarked, weather-worn and 
 emaciated, and received but a cold reception from the dis- 
 appointed and lukewarm Spanish public. The still-continued 
 favour of royalty made some amends for this mortification. But 
 Columbus soon felt that there was a power behind the throne. 
 The eight ships which he requested for a third voyage were 
 verbally conceded, yet official intrigue succeeded in delaying his 
 departure until the 30th of May, 1498. Little more than six 
 months had elapsed between his return from his first voyage 
 and his departure on his second one. Between his arrival from 
 his second voyage and his departure on his third one, an interval 
 of nearly a year was interposed. Dming his third voyage, 
 Columbus discovered Trinidad and for the first time the Terra 
 Fii-ma of the American continent, that in its immediate vicinity. 
 True to his belief that he had reached Asia, he fancied that 
 he had found at Paria the abode of our first parents ! On reach- 
 ing Hispaniola he was grieved by the spectacle of the colony 
 disorganized and disobedient to himself. He was engaged in 
 restoring order when a more terrible blow was struck at him 
 from beyond the ocean. Mal-contents, who had returned to 
 Spain, accused him of tyranny and extortion. Wearied by these 
 complaints, which were skilfully aggravated by Fonseca, Ferdi- 
 nand, in an evil hour, despatched on a mission of inquiry, and 
 with authority to supersede Columbus if desirable, Francisco 
 de Bobadilla [See Bob.vdilla], whose treatment of the great 
 navigator has given an infamous celebrity to his name. Aniving 
 at Hispaniola, Bobadilla at once and without investigation 
 superseded Columbus, seized his effects and papers, and 
 despatched hun in criminal fashion to Spain, a prisoner and in 
 chains ! The master of the caravel which bore to Spain the 
 illustrious captive, with respectful compassion offered to remove
 
 COL 
 
 1099 
 
 COL 
 
 the irons. With characteristic pride Columbus refused to allow, 
 without the king's command, the removal of chains which had 
 been hnposed by a delegated representative of the king. To 
 his dying day he kept the fetters as memorials in his chamber ! 
 His arrival under such circumstances and in such a condition, 
 produced a reaction in his favour. Ferdinand and Isabella 
 ordered his immediate liberation, and pro^-ided for his dignified 
 progress to court, where he was received with honour and gra- 
 ciousness Bobadilla was to be removed forthwith, and Columbus 
 to be reinstated in his governorship. But instead of this an 
 interim-governor for two yeai-s, to pave the way for the return of 
 Columbus, was appointed in the person of Nicholas de Ovando, 
 whose subsequent conduct to the gi*eat discoverer was of the 
 basest kind. 
 
 Columbus was advanced in years, broken in health, maltreated, 
 betrayed, impoverished — such was his exceeding gi-eat reward 
 for his magnificent discoveries. Some men would have lapsed 
 into sullen and discontented inaction, or died of a broken heart. 
 But he was possessed by a great idea. Still he would reach 
 India by the west — India which Vasco de Gama, five years before, 
 had reached by the passage round the Cape. A fourth and 
 last expedition was organized for Columbus, but it was petty 
 in the extreme, compared to that with which Ovando had set 
 forth to assume the government of Hispaniola. Such as it was, 
 it sailed on the 9th of May, 1502, under the command of Colum- 
 bus. The last of his voyages was also the most perilous. In 
 this voyage he discovered Cape Honduras; and, skirting the 
 Mosquito coast, he experienced a terrific tempest. The name 
 of Cape Gracias a Dios still survives to attest the " thanks to 
 God " there ofiered up by the devout Columbus for his preserva- 
 tion. The rumoured gold mines of Veragua irradiated him with 
 hopes of a proximity to the country of the grand khan, and a 
 river talked of by the natives he fimcied to be the Gangos ! 
 After the discovery of Puerto Bello, a series of perils and disas- 
 ters, greater than any to which Columbus had been yet exposed, 
 culminated when he reached a harbour of Jamaica with his ships 
 reduced to mere wrecks. He ran them aground near the shore, 
 and they filled with water to the decks. Cabins were erected 
 for the accommodation of the crews, and a faithful coadjutor was 
 despatched to Ovando at St. Domingo. Then there came, and 
 for long months continued, a frightful time of hardship and 
 danger for Columbus, even whose stout brain and heart nearly 
 gave way. To mutinies among his men was added the refusal 
 of provisions by the natives. Hard fighting could not quell the 
 mutineers, but they had at least to fly. The natives were 
 vanquished by Columbus' dexterity and astronomical knowledge. 
 Foreseeing an eclipse of the moon, he threatened them with a 
 darkening of the great orb of the night, as significant of the 
 anger of the divinity. The darkness came ; the terrified natives 
 implored the European's inten-ention, promising all that he 
 might ask for. When the eclipse was about to end, he came 
 forth fi-om his cabin, announcing that heaven relented ; and as 
 the moon recovered her brightness, the savages believed. At 
 last the long and purposely delayed ships anived from Ovando. 
 Columbus and the survivors of his crew reached St. Domingo to 
 find his own mild policy overturned, and the old native popula- 
 tion nearly extmguished by massacre. With heavy heart he set 
 saU for Spain, and on the 7th of November, 1504, he dropped 
 anchor in the harbour of San Lucar. 
 
 Eighteen months more and Columbus was at last to enjoy 
 repose — the repose of the grave. Sad and dreary months ! He 
 was steeped in poverty — his just dues were denied him. " I live 
 by borrowing," he writes once. Yet he was more solicitous for 
 the payment of his seamen than of himself. His health was 
 irretrievably gone, and ultimately rheumatism prevented him 
 from continuing to write the applications for justice to which 
 the coldest replies were vouchsafed. His best friend. Queen 
 Isabella, died, and with her Columbus' hopes. But to the last 
 he preserved the pride which, in earlier years, had made him 
 reject the oiFered co-operation of the crown, rather than abate 
 one jot of his just claims. From Seville he dragged himself to 
 Segovia, where Ferdinand received him frostily. The king offered 
 indeed to refer to arbitration all matters in dispute between 
 Columbus and the crown, but he insisted on including in them 
 the claim to reinstatement in his office of viceroy. Columbus 
 refused. All mere money-matters he would refer to arbitration, 
 but his inalienable honours and dignities, never. Months of 
 delay ensued, until the final voyage was to be made. Conscious 
 
 of his approaching end, Columbus made at least one will, of 
 which the authenticity is indisputable, and hanng received the 
 sacrament and performed the other offices of his faith, he gave 
 up his soul to his ]\Iaker on the 20th August, loOG. " In 
 manus tuas, Domine, commendo spuitum meum " (Into thy 
 hands, Lord, I commend my spirit), were his last words. His 
 ashes, after many transfers, now rest in the cathedral church 
 of the Havanna. He was buried first at Valladolid, whence his 
 remains were removed to the Carthusian monastery of Las 
 Cuevas, near Seville. It was there that over his grave was 
 placed the memorable inscription, which he had in his lifetime 
 been allowed to use by special favour of his sovereigns : — 
 
 A Castilla y a Leon 
 
 Nuevo ilundo did Colon — 
 
 What he received in return has been seen. — F. E. 
 
 COLUJIBUS, Diego, eldest son of the discoverer of America, 
 was, in spite of his illegitimacy, designated by the great Columbus 
 as his heir. A page, when young, of the prince royal of Spain, 
 and aftenvards attached to the Spanish court, Diego aided, or 
 tried to aid his father, in the frequent and fruitless negotiations 
 of the latter with Spanish royalty and its representatives. Much 
 of Diego's own life was spent in the unsuccessful assertion of his 
 rights as the heir of his father. Kecognized in 1509 as second 
 admii-al of the Indies, Diego proceeded to San Domingo, but 
 enjoyed his vice-regal dignity for only four years. Returning 
 to Spain in 1515, to answer in person the charges brought 
 against him in an official letter of the council of the Indies, he 
 had to experience the same treatment which embittered the last 
 years of his father. Following the court from place to place, 
 unable to obtain redress for his grievances or a decision for 
 his claims, he spent ten weaiy years of solicitation and hope 
 deferred, dying at Montalban in his forty-ninth year. His 
 original acquisition of the admiralship of the Indies, seems to 
 have been facilitated by his marriage to a lady of rank, the 
 daughter of one, and the niece of another, Spanish gi-andee. This 
 lady accompanied him to San Domingo, where her talents and 
 character exercised a great and salutary influence on the vice- 
 regal court and the general society of the island. But her 
 influence does not appear to have been of any service to her 
 husband in the closing years of Don Diego's life. — F. E. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Feknaxdo de, the son and biogi-apher of the 
 great admiral, was bom in Cordova either in 1487 or 1488. 
 His mother, Dona Beatrix Enriquez, was a lady of respectable 
 family, but was never manied to the admiral. At seven years 
 old, Fernando and his elder brother, Diego, were placed as pages 
 in the household of Don Juan, the son and heir of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella. The education he received at court enabled him 
 to turn to literary advantage the material collected in his sub- 
 sequent travels. At the age of fourteen (1492) he accom- 
 panied his father to America in his fourth and last voyage, and 
 endured all the hardships of that entei-jarise with a bravery which 
 seems to have endeared him to the heart of the great navigator. 
 We afterwards hear of him as engaged in pressing his father's 
 claims on the Sjianish court. After his father's death lie appears 
 to have made two more voyages to America, and accompanied 
 the Emperor Charles V. to Italy, Flanders, and Germany. 
 According to Lufiiga his travels were extended over all Europe, 
 and part of Africa and Asia. Throughout life he seems to 
 have preserved his literaiy tastes, and foiTned a library of more 
 than twenty thousand volumes, in print and manuscript. With 
 the sanction of the emperor, he commenced the building of a 
 splendid edifice at Seville, intended for an academy of mathe- 
 matics, but did not live to complete the undertaking. His own 
 most important contribution to literature is a historv' of liis 
 father, written in Spanish, but now extant only in a retrans- 
 lation from the Italian version of Alonzo de Ulloa, full of 
 inaccuracies, which so learned a man as Fomando do Columbus 
 could scarcely have fallen into. Fernando died at Seville, 12th 
 July, 1539, worn out with the fatigue of his unceasing labours. 
 He was never married, and left no issue. His valuable library 
 was bequeathed to the cathedral of Seville. — F. M. W. 
 
 COLUJIELLA, Lucius Junius Mouekati-s, a Latin writer 
 on agriculture, born probably at Gades (Cadiz) in Spain, about 
 the beginning of the christian era. He possessed an estate in 
 the country of Sa Cerdana, near the Pyrenees, where he carried 
 on the cultivation of the vine \nlh great success. He seems, 
 however, to have resided for a considerable part of his life at 
 Rome, and to have travelled through various parts «f the Roman
 
 COL 
 
 1100 
 
 COM 
 
 empire. His principal work, " De re Rustica," addressed to 
 Publius Sih-inus, is in twelve books, and treats not only of agri- 
 culture proper, but of the management of animals, poultry, and 
 bees. The last edition is Schneider's, Lips. 1794. The edltio 
 princeps was printed by Xicolas Janson at Venice in 1472. A 
 genus of plants, Columellia, has been named after him. — F.M.W. 
 
 COLUMNA. See Coloxxa. 
 
 COLVILLE, JoHX, who figured in the turbulent and factious 
 contests which distracted Scotland during the sixteenth century, 
 was a member of the family of Colville, of East Wemyss in Fife. 
 He was for some time minister of Kilbride and chantor of Glas- 
 gow ; but, abandoning the clerical profession, he got introduced 
 to court about the year 1578, and obtained the office of master 
 of requests. He joined the party of nobles who were engaged in 
 the raid of Ruthven, and was sent by them as their ambassador 
 to Queen Elizabeth. For his connection ^"ith this plot he was 
 imprisoned when King James recovered his liberty, but his 
 offences appear to have been speedily pardoned ; for, in 1587, he 
 was appointed by the king a lord of session in the room of his 
 uncle, Alexander Colville. We find him next associated with 
 the notorious earl of Bothwell in his attempts to seize the king 
 in Holyrood, and he was ultimately obliged, along with the earl, 
 to seek refuge in France. He endeavoured, by the publication 
 of a treatise called " The Palinode," and by various other arts, 
 to ingratiate himself with the king, and to obtain his permission 
 to return home ; but having entirely failed in his object, he 
 embraced the Roman catholic faith, and wrote several contro- 
 versial treatises against the protestant religion. Colville died in 
 1607, while on a pilgrimage to Rome. — J. T. 
 
 COJIBE, Dr. Andrew, a distinguished physician and writer 
 on physiology, younger brother of George Combe, was bom in 
 Edinburgh, October 27, 1797. He was educated in his early 
 years chiefly under the superintendence of his brother George, 
 who has written a life of him well worthy of perusal. Hav- 
 ing chosen the medical profession, he graduated at Edinburgh, 
 and visited Paris for the prosecution of his studies. In 1823 
 he began medical practice in Edinburgh. Great delicacy of 
 health, produced by a pulmonaiy disease, took him frequently 
 from his work to seek renewed health in warmer climates, 
 so that his career as a physician was much interrupted. 
 In 1836 he was appointed consulting physician to the king 
 of the Belgians. As early as 1818 he had, like his brother 
 George, given his attention to phrenology, and become a convert 
 to it, and for many years continued to advocate its doctrines 
 through the Phrenological Journal. He was also a distin- 
 guished writer on general scientific and medical subjects. His 
 best known works are his " Principles of Physiology applied to 
 Health and Education," his "Physiology of Digestion," and his 
 treatise on " Physiological and floral Management of Infancy." 
 His " Digestion " is, perhaps, the most original of the three. 
 These works were wi-itten in the intenals of comparative 
 freedom he enjoyed from the malady whicli he knew would one 
 day carry him off. Dr. Combe was a singularly amiable man, 
 remarkably free from the foibles and prejudices of invalids. His 
 writings have done in a great measiire fur the human body, what 
 those of Locke did for the mind. He explained the laws of 
 physiology, rather than the structure of organs, and was one of 
 the first to apjily the gi-eat principles of human physiology to the 
 prevention of disease and the prolonging of human life. His 
 death, which was long expected, took place in Edinburgh on the 
 9th of August, 1847.— E. L. 
 
 COMBE, Charles, a learned physician, born in London in 
 1743, and died in 1817. He was a contemporaiy of Dr. PaiT and 
 Sir William Jones at Han-ow. On leaving that school he returned 
 home, and, under his father's direction, applied himself both to 
 the study and practice of medicine. In 1768 the fiither died, 
 and young Combe succeeded to his practice. He became a 
 member of the Society of Antiquaries in 1771, and in 1776 was 
 nominated a fellow of the Royal Society. He graduated in 1783, 
 and soon after became physician-extraordinaiT to the British 
 Lying-in-hospital in Bourbon street. Combe formed a splendid 
 collection of Greek and Roman medals and coins, to the study of 
 which, in connection with the history of ancient customs, he 
 devoted much of his attention. He also published, in concert 
 with the Rev. Henr)' Homer, an edition of Horace, with notes — 
 a performance which was subjected to the adverse criticism of 
 Dr. Parr.— R. ]\r., A. 
 
 COMBE, George, brother of Dr. Andrew Combe, bom in 
 
 Edinburgh in 1788 ; died near London in 1858. Few thinkers 
 of the present age have exercised so wide an influence as Mr. 
 Combe. Of one of his works, no fewer than one hundred 
 thousand copies have been circulated in this country alone. 
 The number of " The Constitution of Man " sold in America, 
 must be prodigious ; and it has been translated into most of our 
 European languages. The exquisite clearness of its style renders 
 the meaning of its every sentence patent to any ordinary man ; 
 and its subject-matter has been universally recognized as of 
 immediate bearing on human happiness. — We shall briefly 
 sketch the nature of ]\Ir. Combe's character and philosophy. In 
 his portraiture of the early years of his brother, he has ^'irtuaUy 
 told the story of his own — a story that may be repeated, 
 although with different results, concerning many an old Scot- 
 tish family. His father — in tolerable circumstances — seems yet 
 to have been straitened by the unusual number of his children 
 (seventeen) ; and this, conjoined with the stem influences of 
 an ultra-Calvinism not uncommon in those days, availed to 
 banish ease and freedom from the household. While treasur- 
 ing the memories, and fondly remembering the vu-tues of their 
 parents, both brothers appear to have looked back on the sad 
 constraint at Livingstone Yards, as something against which 
 they could never warn pai'ents enough ; and it is not improba- 
 ble that the recollection gave a peculiar stimulus to then- long 
 efforts on behalf of a truer and more benign treatment of the 
 young. On finally quitting home, George entered the profes- 
 sion of the law, and became writer to the signet ; but, although 
 diligent and successful in his profession, his keen and active 
 intellect unceasingly busied itself with higher inquiries. Dis- 
 satisfied with formal or dogmatic Calvinism, and feehng as little 
 solidity in the metaphysics of the time— although expounded 
 in the most winning manner by Dugald Stewart — his mind 
 seems to have been ever turning to the question — Where can 
 a doctrine of practical life be found ? " Give me a philosophy 
 that shall not pass the ear as mere sounds, but directly and 
 immediately guide and explain actions, and so lead to effective 
 results." About this period Spurzheim lectured in Edinburgh. 
 Jlr. Combe followed him, examined with characteristic caution 
 and care the facts adduced by the lecturer, and was comnnced 
 by them. How earnestly and steadily he clung to phrenology, 
 is known by every one who has heard of his name. He was no 
 mere disciple of Spurzheim or Gall, or any other master : his 
 ultimate system was his own ; and the great work in which 
 he finally expounded that system, is replete with sketches of 
 character and of mental peculiarities and actions, from which any 
 inquirer, phrenologist or not, may obtain large instraction. As 
 to the subject itself, we do not of com-se discuss it here ; it may be 
 stated, nevertheless, that although not in Jlr. Combe's favourite 
 form, all recent physiologj- is unequivocally pointing to a closest 
 dependence of mental action on the agency of physical conforma- 
 tion and processes. Having adopted phrenology as his fundamen- 
 tal philosophy, Mr. Combe's attention was naturally poweifully 
 drawn to the influence of external laws — or rather the laws of 
 what we terai the material world — on human well-being ; and out 
 of his speculations in this direction a philosophy sprang much\^-ider 
 and more catholic than any phrenology or special physiological 
 theory. The proposition on which that philosophy rests is so mani- 
 fest and unquestionable that few at present deny it, whether they 
 adopt its applications or not. It is not very long ago since a fancied 
 opposition between matter, or the world, and spirit, formed the 
 virtual basis of the greater part of our highest teaching. Mr. 
 Combe said, there is no opposition; on the contrary there is 
 very harmony. By God's providence we are placed in the midst 
 of a material universe ever acting upon us, and governed by a 
 perfect order. We cannot change that universe, therefore we 
 must place ourselves in harmony vith it : we must ascertain and 
 recognize its laws, and submit ourselves in willing obedience to 
 their behests. This is the grand and sole thesis of the " Consti- 
 tution of Man ;" but it is not laid down as a mere abstraction 
 in that remarkable volume. Mr. Combe pursues it through 
 momentous consequences, and expounds principles which have 
 since been adopted as the ground of much valuable and impor- 
 tant legislation. It is certainly no marvel that the volume 
 refeiTed to has been a favourite \vith the intelligent masses of 
 this country. First of all accessible works, it opened before 
 them a practical way towards the amelioration of their condition; 
 showing how, independently of either social or poUtical change, 
 they could largely and efficiently help themselves. The essay
 
 COM 
 
 1101 
 
 COM 
 
 was certainly not a favourite with many excellent and able 
 persons, some of whom took perhaps an exaggerated view of its 
 supposed consequences, and attributed to the author designs 
 which he had not in contemplation ; but it has made headway, 
 and left public opinion in a state very diiferent from that in 
 which it found it. Mr. Combe developed his fundamental views 
 under various forms, never resting from applying them when 
 public duty demanded that he should speak. His works in 
 relation to this matter are numerous and various — works on 
 education, on sanitary reform, on " Eeligion and Science," &c. 
 Nor was his activity confined within this sphere. His pious 
 biography of his brother is replete with interest. His pamphlet 
 on the " Currency," although only a pamphlet, contains the 
 whole principles of the subject, and contrasts stiikingly with the 
 volumes of trash one is doomed to read on this plain but much 
 tortured subject. Whether on the currency, on moral philosophv, 
 on phrenology, as a biographer, or as the writer of notes of 
 travel, one never misses for a moment the clear and fearless 
 thinker, the upright and benevolent mau. Jlr. Combe will long 
 be mbsed in Edinburgh. His open and liberal hospitality made 
 his house really a salon. Alongside of Lord JIurray's, it was the 
 house where every literary stranger of merit was sure to find a 
 welcome. Nor was Ids kindness limited to strangers ; was there 
 a young man of apparent desert struggling and fighting his 
 way, he could find no surer or more judicious friend than George 
 Combe. As may be inferred from what has just been written, 
 Mr. Combe had not arrived at any definite doctrinal creed. 
 But he had learnt to bow humbly under the hand of his 
 Creator; and in humility, in resignation, and firmest faith, he 
 entered the valley of the shadow of death. — J. P. N. 
 
 COMBE, Taylor, son of the Dr. Charles Combe, was bom in 
 1774, and was educated at Harrow and Oriel college, Oxford. In 
 1803 he was appointed to a situation in the British museum, 
 and in 1807 was placed in charge of the department of antiqui- 
 ties. He was elected in 1806 a member of the Royal Society, 
 and became its secretary in 1812. His knowledge of ancient 
 coins, Greek, Roman, and British, was both profound and accu- 
 rate. He wrote a considerable number of papers for the Society 
 of Antiquaries. Mr. Combe died in 1826. — J. T. 
 
 COMBER, Thomas, D.D., was bom in 1645, at Wester- 
 ham, Kent. He graduated in arts at Cambridge, as a member 
 of Sidney Sussex college, and afterwards received the degree of 
 D.D. from the archbishop of Canterbury, a privilege used by the 
 archbishops only on rare occasions, and in the case of men of 
 distinguished learning. That it was fitly exercised on behalf of 
 Dr. Comber, may be proved by his " Companion to the Temple, 
 or, a Help to Devotion in the use of the Common Prayer," a 
 work of great research, written in a strain of earnest piety, 
 which can scarcely fail to recommend it to every unprejudiced 
 reader. Dr. Comber became, in succession, prebendary of York 
 and dean of Dm-ham, and died in 1699. — T. S. P. 
 
 CO^IELLA, LuciAXO Francisco de, a Spanish play- 
 writer, flourished in 1790. — F. M. W. 
 
 COMENIUS, Johaxx Amos, a celebrated German educator, 
 whose real name was Komexsky, was bom at Komna, near Briinn, 
 28th March, 1592. In 1614 he was chosen head master of the 
 school at Prerau, and in 1616 of that of Fulneck. In order to 
 escape the bloody persecution directed by the catholics against all 
 dissenting ministers, he fled into the Bohemian mountains, where 
 he became domestic tutor to the family of some nobleman, and 
 wrote several works in the Bohemian language. 'SMien he was 
 no longer safe even in this secluded spot, he resorted to Lissa, 
 where he published in 1631 his "Janua Linguamm Reserata?" 
 This work, in which he exhibited a new method of teaching 
 languages, was translated into several European and even some 
 eastern languages, and soon won so high a reputation for its 
 author that he was in\-ited to England in 1641 and Sweden 
 in 1642, for the purpose of instituting and organizing schools. 
 He then was commissioned at Elbing by Oxenstiema to write a 
 detailed scheme for the organization of schools in Sweden — a 
 task which it took him four years to perform. Towards the 
 close of his life he went to Holland, settled at Amsterdam, and 
 died at Naarden on 15th October, 1671. Among his numerous 
 works perhaps his " Orbis Sensualium Pictus," Nuremberg, 
 1658, has had the gi-eatest success. It has been many times 
 translated and many times imitated, for instance, by Basedow. 
 Opera Didactica Omnia, Amsterdam, 1657, fol. — K. E. 
 
 COMINES, Philippe de, Lord of Argenton, was descended 
 
 from an illustrious Flemish family, and was bom in 1445. He 
 was introduced in 14G4 to the count of Charolais, afterwards 
 Pliilip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, followed him in the war of 
 the " Public Good," and was present at the battle of Montlhtry. 
 He lived for a number of years at the court of that headstrong 
 prince, and by his pmdence and sagacity moderated many of his 
 rash and violent projects. The impetuous temper of the diJie 
 at length became intolerable. ComLnes was in some way offended 
 by the treatment he received, and was induced to transfer his 
 senices to Louis XL of France, by whom he was loaded with 
 honours and estates, and married to H>'lene de Jambes, the 
 heiress of a rich and noble family. In return, Comines rendered 
 various important services to Louis, and presen-ed to the last the 
 confidence of that jealous and suspicious monarch. After the 
 death of Louis, Comines was expelled from the comi on account 
 of some intrigues against the government of Anne of Beaujeau, 
 and attached himself to the constable de Bom-bon. But that 
 powerful noble having made his peace with the cornet, dis- 
 carded Comines, who joined the party of the duke of Orleans 
 (afterwards Louis XII.), and became involved in a plot formed 
 by him and Count Dunois. He was in consequence arrested in 
 1486, and sent prisoner to Loches, where he was shut up for 
 eight months in an iron cage. He was subsequently tried by 
 the parliament, found guilty, and sentenced to banishment, and 
 the confiscation of one-fourth of his estates. There is reason to 
 beUeve, however, that the sentence was not executed. It is 
 certain that he was employed by Charles VIII. in several import- 
 ant negotiations, and rendered to him most valuable services. 
 He died at Argenton in Poitou, 16th August, 1509, at the age of 
 sixty-four. Comines is indebted for his celebrity to his famous 
 " Memoirs," which contain the history of his own times, from 
 1464 to 1498, published in Paris in 1525 and 1528. A new 
 edition, published in 1552, has often been reprinted. The best 
 and most recent edition is that of Dupont, 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
 1850. The work was translated into English in 1596. It is 
 remarkable for its natural and easy style, cool and accurate 
 discrimination of character, and profound and sagacious reflec- 
 tions. Its moral principles, however, do not rise above the low 
 standard of the period. Comines has been compared to Tacitus, 
 and he is undoubtedly one of the most sagacious historians of 
 his own, or indeed of any other age. — (See De Barante's History 
 of the Dukes ofBurqunchj, and Scott's Quentin Dwicard.^ — J. T. 
 
 COMMANDIXE, Frederick, bom at Urbino in 1509; 
 died in 1575. He was a good mathematician, and most valu- 
 able writer. We owe, inle?- alia, to his industry our best Latin 
 translations, and the earliest editions of the works of Archimedes, 
 Apollonius, Euclid, Ptolemy, Pappus, &c. They were printed 
 by the celebrated Aldus. — J. P. N. 
 
 COMMIRE, Jean, born at Amboise m 1625; died at Paris 
 in 1702. His reputation for Latin verse was very great, and 
 some graceful lines of his are often quoted. — J. A., D. 
 
 COMMODIAXUS of Gaza, a christian poet of the third 
 centiu^-. His book, called " Institutiones," is written acrostically, 
 in a loose kind of hexameter.— R. M., A. 
 
 COMMODUS, L. AuRELirs, one of the most profligate and 
 cruel of the Roman emperors, was the reputed son of the virtuous 
 JI. Aurelius, and the undoubted son of his wife, the wicked 
 Faustina, and was born at Lanuvium a.d. 161. Aurelius 
 bestowed the utmost care upon bis education, and spared no 
 expense in providing for him the most eminent teachers he could 
 procure. His reign commenced under the most favourable aus- 
 pices, but the discovery of a plot organized against him by his 
 sister, Lucilla, a.d. 183, roused the dormant ferocity of his nature, 
 and he plunged into excesses in cruelty and bloodshed without 
 a parallel in the history even of the most wicked of his predecessors. 
 His licentiousness was equal to his ferocity. He was both a glutton 
 and a dnmkard. He commanded that he should be worshipped 
 under the name of Hercules, on the ground that his victories over 
 the ferocious animals in the circus gave him a strong resemblance 
 to that hero. He ofiered sacrifices to Isis in his palace, and 
 appeared dressed as one of her priests with his head shaved. His 
 atrocities at length became intolerable, and various plots were 
 fomied against his life, but without effect. At last his mistress, 
 Marcia, when he was asleep, found her name standing first on 
 his tablets in the list of persons to be put to death, and forthwith 
 admmistered poison to him. As its operation, however, was 
 slow, she called in the assistance of a celebrated athlete named 
 Narcissus, who strangled the emperor in the bath, a.d. 192.
 
 Commodus was not only the strongest man of his time, but he 
 was eminently handsome and beautiful. — J. T. 
 
 COMNENA. See Anna Cojinena. 
 
 COMNENUS. See the respective names of this family. 
 
 COMPTON, Henky, a distinguished prelate, was the youngest 
 son of the second earl of Northampton, and was born at Compton 
 in 1632. On the completion of his studies at Queen's college, 
 Oxford, he spent some time in foreign travel, and, returning to 
 England at the restoration of Charles II., became cornet in 
 a regiment of horse. The military profession, however, being 
 not to his taste, he soon quitted it, and, after studying at 
 Cambridge for a season, was created master of arts. He then 
 obtained a grant of the next vacant canonry in Christ Church, 
 O.Nford, with the rectory of Cottenh.am. In 1667 he became 
 master of St. Crosse's hospital, near Winchester. In 1674 he 
 was appointed to the bishopric of Oxford, and about a year after 
 he was translated to the see of London, made dean of the 
 chapel royal, and sworn one of the privy council. The education 
 of the princesses Mary and Anne was committed to him ; both 
 were confirmed by him in January, 1676, and both were also 
 married by him. Compton laboured hard at tbis time to recon- 
 cile dissenters to the established church, held several conferences 
 with this view, and corresponded on the subject with some 
 eminent foreign divines. — (Stillingfleet's Unreasonableness of 
 iSeparation, Appendix.) The bishop's love of protestantism was 
 unflinching ; and for his resistance to the popish measures of 
 the court during the conclusion of the reign of Charles II., and 
 especially under that of his bigoted successor, and for his 
 refusal to silence Dr. Sharp, he was removed from the council, 
 dismissed from the deaneiy, insulted and brow-beaten by the 
 insolent Jeffreys, and ultimately suspended by the high commis- 
 sion from his episcopal functions during his majesty's pleasure. 
 His former pupil, Mary, now princess of Orange, interceded in 
 his behalf, but to no purpose. When the court became alarmed as 
 to the intentions of the prince of Orange, Compton was restored. 
 He conveyed the Princess Anne from London to Nottingham, but 
 on the arrival of the prince he joined heartily in welcome to bim, 
 and publicly thanked him at the head of his clergy. His place 
 in the privy council and the deanery of the chapel royal were 
 given back to him, and, on the refusal of Archbishop Sancroft 
 to take the oath of allegiance, he crowned William and Mary, 
 April 11th, 1689. In the convocation of that year he made 
 some efforts again towards union with dissenters. He spoke 
 strongly in behalf of Nottingham's measure ; but his scheme of 
 comprehension seems to have satisfied neither those in the 
 church nor those out of it. Soon after he was named by the 
 king one of the commissioners of trade and plantations, and the 
 bishop of London, as such, has or had episcopal superintendence 
 of colonial churches without bishops of their own. In 1690-91 
 he attended William to the Hague, and about the same period 
 opposed the foolish prosecution of Sacheverell. Towards the end 
 of this reign he sided with the high church party, and his influ- 
 ence waned. At the accession of Queen Anne he was still 
 without his former power, but about the conclusion of her reign 
 his principles rose again into popularity. In 1712 he was 
 named on the first commission to negotiate the union with 
 Scotland, but was left out of the second in 1706. He died 
 at Fulham, July 7, 1713, at the ripe age of eighty-one. 
 Compton published six letters — " Episcopalia," a treatise on 
 the holy communion, and a translation from the Italian of the 
 life of Donna Olympia Maldachini. His character has been 
 variously estimated. Burnet speaks of him as " a weak man 
 and wilful," but others have eulogized him. He was evidently 
 not a man of enlarged mind, and he was not always ingenuous 
 in his dealings with King James ; but he was generous, kind to 
 the poor, hospitable to his clergy, and liberal in bounty to many 
 protestant refugees. Compton's remains were deposited in the 
 churchyard of Fulham, and not, as was usual for persons of his 
 dignity, in the church ; for he was in the habit of saying, " The 
 church is for the living, the churchyard for the dead." — J. E. 
 
 COMPTON, Spencer, second earl of Northampton, was 
 born in IGOl, and distinguished himself by his courage and 
 zeal in the royal cause during the great civil war. When the 
 king erected his standard at Nottingham in 1642, the earl of 
 Northampton was one of the first who joined the royal forces, 
 at the head of a troop of horse and a regiment of foot raised at 
 his own expense, and having four of his sons officers under 
 him. He rendered important services to the king's cause in 
 
 the counties of Warwick, Stafford, and Northampton. This 
 gallant nobleman fell at the battle of Hopton Heath, near 
 Stafford, 19th March, 1643.— James, the eldest son and suc- 
 cessor of the earl, and Charles, the second son, charged by 
 theur father's side at Hopton Heath. Sir Charles acquired great 
 celebrity by his surprisal of Beeston castle in Cheshire, which he 
 effected with only six followers. — Sir William Compton, the 
 third son of the earl, also a gallant and accomplished cavalier, 
 born in 1624, at the commencement of the civil war contributed 
 greatly to the capture of Banbury, of which he was appointed 
 governor. In 1648 Sir William was appointed major-general of 
 the royal forces in Colchester, and conducted the defence of that 
 place in a manner which drew down the eulogium of Cromwell. 
 After the restoration he was appointed a member of the privy 
 council, and master-general of the ordnance. — J. T. 
 
 COMTE, Aguste, a famous French philosopher, was bom at 
 Montpellier, June 1 2th 1798. He entered the polytechnic school 
 at Paris, and having pursued physical and mathematical studies 
 with especial devotion, was appointed pubMc examiner at that 
 institution. For a short time he was connected with the disci- 
 ples of St. Simon, but soon detached himself from an influence 
 which he subsequently pronounced disastrous, but which his old 
 comrades declared to have sowed the seed of many of his future 
 speculations. Gifted with great powers of generalization, and 
 discontented with the disorganized character of political and 
 social science, Comte sought to introduce the same rigid system 
 into sociology which he found existing in mathematics, and to 
 subjugate the phenomena of life to formal, definite, and deter- 
 minable laws. The first great law laid down by Comte as the 
 fundamental condition of human progress is, that every branch 
 of science passes tlu'ough three stages — the theological, the 
 metaphysical, and the positive. In the theological stage, man 
 explains phenomena by the action of beings endowed with facul- 
 ties kindred to his own, although working in a supernatural 
 sphere. In the metaphysical stage man explains phenomena 
 by the action of abstract forces inherent in all beings, and pos- 
 sessing a certain real existence. In the positive stage, man 
 abandons the search after any final cause and absolute essence, 
 and entirely confines hhnself to the study of the constant suc- 
 cessions, existences, and resemblances of outward phenomena. 
 For this law Comte claims an historical as well as a theoretical 
 truth. He next proceeds to arrange a hierarchy of the sciences. 
 He proposed to himself the discovery of the one natural order 
 among all possible systems, and reached the conclusion that the 
 fundamental sciences must be arranged according to the gene- 
 rality of their phenomena. We must begin with the most 
 general or simple, going on successively to the more particular 
 or complex. Inorganic bodies being less complex than organic, 
 must determine the sciences to be placed first ; and their sub- 
 divisions must be regulated by the fact that astronomy is more 
 general than physics, and physics than chemistry. An analo- 
 gous division arises in the science of organized bodies, phy- 
 siology being less complex than sociology. Comte's famous 
 hierarchy of the sciences therefore stands as follows: — I. 
 Inorganic — 1. Astronomy ; 2. Physics; 3. Chemistry. II. Organic 
 — 1. Physiology; 2. Sociology. And he maintains that this order 
 of decreasing generality has also been the order of historical 
 development. Facts, however, will hardly support this inge- 
 nious generalization. The objections are well summed up in an 
 essay on the genesis of science, by Herbert Spencer. 
 
 The whole of Comte's early and middle life was occupied in the 
 development of the views we have indicated. And although 
 his theories can in no respect be regarded as established dis- 
 coveries, yet in their elucidation, amid many strange vagaries, 
 he manifested unmistakeable genius. In spite of all its short 
 comings, in the " Cours de Philosophie Positive" the progress 
 of scientific discovery is described with a master-hand ; the 
 analogies and dependencies existing among facts apparently 
 diverse, are detected with consummate skill. The relations of 
 historical events to general principles of human progress are often 
 dwelt upon with a singular suggestiveness. Comte discovered 
 what he believed the great law of human progress in 1822, in 
 which year he published the "Systc'me de Politique Positive." 
 The publication of his great work, the " Cours de Philosophie 
 Positive," extended over twelve years, from 1830 to 1842. The 
 personal career of this writer was interrupted by a temporary 
 attack of mental disease in 1826 ; by a marriage which does not 
 appear to have been happy; and by his dismiss.al from the poly-
 
 COJI 
 
 1103 
 
 CON 
 
 technic school in 1843-44. About this time he met a Madame 
 Clotilde de Vaux, to whose influence he ascribes an entire 
 reorganization of his existence by the establishment of the affec- 
 tions as authoritative over the understanding. Strangely instruc- 
 tive is the termination of Comte's philosophical histoiy. The 
 severely mathematical teacher of a rigid materialism, becomes 
 the high priest of the religion of humanity, and announces 
 himself as the type of the " regeneration of the affections," and 
 the founder of a new worship. He substituted the adoration 
 of an idealized humanity for that of God — the " Grand Etre" 
 is declared to be the " aggregate of co-operative beings." Every 
 noble man after death, becomes part of the Supreme Being, 
 who is therefore not yet fully formed ! The hope of a conscious 
 immortality he denounces as selfish ; but still holds forward the 
 expectation of a subjective existence in the heart and intellect of 
 others — an absorption into, and identification with, the "immense 
 and eternal benig. Humanity." Many things very ludicrous, 
 many things very sad, may be quoted from the "Catecliism of the 
 Positive Religion ; " but this last stage of the philosopher's career 
 testifies wonderfully to the fact, that it is impossible for human 
 nature to remain at rest apart from the religious life. The 
 " Philosophie Positive," could not satisfy its own founder. Forced 
 by his system into scepticism, he plunges into wildest specula- 
 tive adorations that he might find, if it were possible, some object 
 of reverence. He cannot bow himself down within the christian 
 temple, but at the same time bow down he must. By himself 
 man cannot live, and he creates an idol, when he cannot find a 
 God. AugusteComte diedin September, 1857. The chief English 
 versions of his works are, " The Positive Philosophy of Auguste 
 Comte," freely translated and condensed by Harriet Martineau, 
 2 vols; Comte's " Philosophy of the Sciences," by G. H. Lewes; 
 " The Catechism of Positive Eeligion," translated by Richard 
 Congi-eve. — L. L. P. 
 
 COMYN, John, Archbishop of Dublin, was bom in the 
 twelfth century. The place of his birth is doubtful. Dempster 
 asserts that he was born at Banff in Scotland, and was 
 descended from the earls of Buclian, but he gives no authority 
 for this statement, and the probability is that he was an Eng- 
 lishman. Being a favourite of Henry II., he was cousecrpted 
 archbishop of Dublin in 1181 by Pope Lucius III., and took 
 possession of his see in 1184. He assisted at the coronation of 
 Kichai'd I. In consequence of the enmity of Hamo de Valonis, 
 lord-justice of Ireland, Comyn fled to France, and appealed to 
 Innocent III., who remonstrated with John, and Comyn was 
 finally restored to the favour of the king, and compensation was 
 made to him for his losses. He built and endowed St. Patrick 
 cathedi-al in Dublin in 1190, and repaired and enlarged that 
 of Christ church. He was a man of learning, gravity, and 
 eloquence, and a munificent benefactor to the church. He died 
 in Dublin, 28th October, 1212, and was buried in Christ church. 
 His constitutions and canons are still extant among the archives 
 of that cathedral.— J. F. W. 
 
 COMYNS, Sir John, the author of the excellent " Digest of 
 the English Law" named after him. Of this work, the first 
 edition appeared in 17G2-67 in five volumes folio, and to these a 
 supplemental sixth was added in 177G. It was a posthumous 
 publication, but the JISS., in law French, were left carefully 
 prepared for the press by the author; and the editors, under the 
 care of his nephew, also a lawyer, ably performed their task of 
 translating it into English. Several subsequent editions appeared 
 by Kyd, Rose, and Hammond, but they have disfigured the sj-m- 
 metry of the original work by inelegant patches. Two volumes 
 of " Reports by Sir .John Comyns" were published in 1744, also 
 by his nephew. To both the " Book of Reports" and the first 
 edition of the " Digest," the portrait of our author is prefixed. 
 But few particulars are known of his private life. He attained 
 the honours of judicature, and died, in the odour of learning and 
 integi'ity, lord chief baron of the exchequer, 1740. — S. H. G. 
 
 COXANT, .John, an English divine, born in Devonshire in 
 1608. In 1G49 he was elected rector of Exeter college, Oxford, 
 at which he had been educated. At the restoration he refused 
 to complv with the act of uniformity, and was consequently 
 deprived. He was afterwards ordained by Bishop Reynolds, 
 whose daughter he had married, and became minister of St. 
 JIary, Aldermanbury. In 1676 he was promoted to the arch- 
 deaconry of Norwich. Ten years after he lost his sight, and 
 died in 1693. Conant, six volumes of whose sermons have 
 been published, was a man of great piety and learning. Nil 
 
 difficile Conanti — such was the learned pun, if we remember 
 right, of a brother clergyman. — R. M., A. 
 
 CONCA, Sebastiano Cavaliere : this celebrated painter 
 was born at Gaeta in 1676. In the early part of his life he 
 devoted himself to portrait painting; but at the age of forty, with 
 his brother Giovanni, he established himself in Rome, and aban- 
 doning his brush for five years, worked hard again at the crayon, 
 copying the antique and the best masters of the Roman schools. 
 According to Lanzi, he possessed a fertile invention, great 
 facility of execution, and a colour which enchanted by its luci- 
 dity, its contrasts, and its delicacy. Some of his works executed 
 in Rome, won for him the notice of Clement XL, who gave him 
 several of the public commissions. His best work is the " Pool 
 of Siloam " at Siena. He etched a few plates himself, and 
 many of his works have been engi-aved by Frey and others. He 
 died at Naples in 1764.— W. T. 
 
 CONCANEN, Matthew, was born in Ireland in the end of 
 the seventeenth centui-y. At an early age he settled in London, 
 and adopted the profession of the law. His education, wit, and 
 agreeable manners recommended him to the favom* of ministers, 
 whom he actively supported by his pen, and took a prominent 
 part in The Speculattst." The duke of Newcastle procured for 
 him the lucrative post of attorney-general of Jamaica, which he 
 filled for seventeen years. Returning to London on his way to 
 Ireland, he fell into consumption, and died in 1749. Concanen 
 wrote several poems of merit, and a comedy called " Wexford 
 Wells." Having attacked Pope and Swift, the former elevated 
 him to a place in the Dunciad, which Concanen did not deserve. 
 " Be thine my stationer, this magic gift, 
 Cook shall be Prior, and Concanen, Swift." 
 
 —J. F. W. 
 
 CONCINO, CoNCiNi, Marechal d'Ancre, was born in Tus- 
 cany, and in the year 1600 followed the queen of Henry IV. into 
 France. He intrigued himself, with the aid of his wife's influ- 
 ence, into the highest fortune. His power, however, became so 
 intolerable that Louis XIII. gave an order for his arrest, with 
 permission to kill him on the spot in case of resistance. 
 Accordingly Vitri, on his refusal to deliver up his sword, shot 
 him dead with a pistol. — R. M., A. 
 
 CONDAMIXE. See La Condvmine. 
 
 CONDE, Jose Antonio, a distinguished Spanish scholar, 
 was bom in 1765 at Paralya, in the province of Cuen9a, and 
 educated at the university of Alcala. Here he appears to have 
 laid the foundation of those Arabic studies which seem to have 
 been most unaccountably neglected in Spain, but of which he was 
 destined to be the restorer. He relinquished the profession of the 
 law for which he was destined, on obtaining an appointment in 
 the royal library at Madrid, and henceforth devoted himself to 
 literat"m-e. In 1799 he published a translation of the Descrip- 
 tion of Spain, by the Nubian geographer Al-Edriso. He was 
 appointed, together with Cienfuegos and Navarrete, to the task 
 of continuing the famous collection of early Castilian poetiy made 
 by Sanchez. On the invasion of the French, Conde, unlike most 
 of the literary men of his time, took the part of the invader, 
 and was appointed by Joseph Bonaparte, chief librarian of the 
 Madrid librarj-. When the French were expelled, Conde spent 
 some years in forced seclusion in Paris, where he arranged the 
 materials for his great work the " History of the Dominion of 
 the Arabs in Spain," on which his reputation chiefly rests. 
 Some time previous to 1818 he was allowed to return to Spain, 
 but his unpatriotic conduct had deprived him of all claim to tlie 
 countenance he had fonnerly enjoyed from men in power. He 
 died in London in 1820. Only one volume of his work was 
 published during his lifetime, the remainder being completed 
 from his m.anuscripts by his friends. With some defects on 
 the score of accuracy and clearness, it still remains the best 
 work on the subject, and has been made available to the English 
 reader in a translation by Mrs. Jonathan Forster. — F. M. W. 
 
 CONDE, Louis de Boi'kuon. Prince de, commonly called 
 THE Great Cond6, born in Paris on the 7th September, 1621, 
 was the fourth son of Henry II. de Bourbon, and Charlotte Jlar- 
 guerite de Montmorency, prince and princess of Condo. During 
 his father's lifetime he was known by the title of Duke d'Enghieii. 
 Three elder brothers having died in their infancy, he became, on 
 his father's demise, prince of Conde. His only sister, some 
 years his senior, was Aime Genevieve de Bourbon, born in 1619, 
 celebrated as the beautiful duchess of Longueville, and queen of 
 the Fronde. His only surviving brother was Armand de Boiu-bon, 
 
 -
 
 prince of Conti, born in 1629, whose name also became famous in 
 the straggles of the Fronde. At an early age he was removed to 
 Bourges, where, under the care of La Boussiere, his tutor, he 
 went through the usual course of education given bj the Jesuits. 
 In his bodily exercises, as in his studies, he surpassed all his 
 companions ; at twelve years of age he had completed his 
 course of philosophy, and sustained several pubHc disputations. 
 For the completion of his education, his father sent the young 
 duke d"Enghien to take charge of his government in Burgundy. 
 He there made himself acquainted with all things relating to the 
 military and judicial administration of the province, and dili- 
 gently studied engineering, fortification, and the whole art of 
 war. In 1640 he assisted under marshal de la Meilleraye at the 
 siege and taking of Arras in Flanders, and distinguished himself 
 by most brilliant valour. The prince de Conde, whose ambition 
 was insatiable, now desired for his son the command of an army. 
 This object could only be obtained by paying court to Cardinal 
 Richelieu ; he, therefore, condescended to solicit for his son the 
 hand of Claire Clemence de Maille Breze, the cardinal's niece. 
 The young duke d'Enghien expressed the strongest repugnance 
 to the marriage thus arranged for him by his father; but he was 
 obliged to submit, and the betrothal took place on the 7th of 
 February, 16-11. In the following year, shortly after the death 
 of Richelieu, he was named general-in-chief of the army that was 
 sent to defend the frontiers of Champagne and Picardy against 
 the Spaniards. He was marching towards Landrecies, when 
 he learned that the enemy had turned theu" steps towards the 
 Jleuse and were besieging Rocroy, which was at the point 
 of being reduced. Gaining the heights above this place on 
 the 18th of May, 1643, he made his attack at day-break 
 on the 19th, and gained a brilliant and complete victory, after 
 a battle disputed with the utmost obstinacy for sis hours. He 
 then marched to Thionville on the Jloselle, which, after a siege 
 of two months, he compelled to capitulate. By this conquest, 
 and some others of minor importance, he became master 
 of the whole course of the Moselle as far as Treves, thus 
 terminating the most glorious campaign ever made by a general 
 of twenty-two years old. The following year, 1644, he was sent 
 to join the army in Germany, and to take the command as 
 generalissimo. Uniting his forces to the small army, only 
 ten thousand men, of Turenne, he defeated the count de Mercy 
 at the head of fifteen thousand Bavarians, besieged and retook 
 Fribourg, which had fallen into the hands of the enemy, and 
 effected the capture of Philipsbourg, which was followed by the 
 capitulation of Worms, Oppenheim, and Mayence. The cam- 
 paign of the following year commenced under Turenne, very 
 unfavourably for France. D'Enghien was despatched to retrieve 
 the fortune of the war, which he accomplished in a series of 
 brilUant triumphs, ending in the battle of Nordlingen. In 1646 
 he attacked and took Dunkirk, after an obstinate defence. On 
 ■25th December this year the prince of Conde died, and the duke 
 d'Enghien succeeded to the title of prince of Conde, but was 
 usually called Monsieur le Prince. The queen regent conferred on 
 him all the governments and appointments which had been held 
 by the late prince. But this did not satisfy Conde. He laid 
 claim to the post of high-admiral, wliich, at the instigation of 
 Mazarin, was refused. This rebuff" irritated him greatly against 
 the cardinal, who, on the other hand, entertained a growing 
 jealousy and apprehension of the power, ambition, and influence 
 of the young prince. Early in the spring of 1647, Conde 
 accepted the command of the army in Catalonia, which was 
 engaged in assisting the inhabitants in their revolt against the 
 king of Spain. On the 12th May he appeared before Lerida, 
 and vigorously commenced the siege of that stronghold, but 
 was compelled on the 17th June to abandon the attempt. 
 This check, the first he had ever sustained, caused a profound 
 impression, not only in France, but throughout Europe. Next 
 year he accepted the command of the army of Flanders, and on 
 the 20th of August was fought the ever memorable battle of 
 Sens, one of the most glorious that the reign of Louis XIV. 
 could boast. This great victoiy may be said to have terminated 
 the campaign of 1648, and with it the war with Germany. 
 
 The troubles of the Fronde had been for some time agitating 
 Paris, and immediately after the victory at Sens Conde received 
 an order from the queen to tenuinate the campaign as speedily 
 as possible, and hasten to support her with his counsels and his 
 sword. He obeyed with regret, foreseeing the inevitable disas- 
 ters of a career where moderation was almost impossible, and 
 
 success and faihu'e both alike noinous. The contest between 
 the queen's party, supported by Conde, and the citizens of 
 Paris, whose object was the dismissal of Cardinal Mazarin, con- 
 tinued till the spring of 1649. An accomodation was then 
 patched up, which fell to pieces before the end of the year. 
 Vacillating and undecided between his predilection for the 
 throne, his dislike of Mazarin, and his contempt for the bour- 
 geoisie, Conde listened occasionally to all, but treated none of 
 them fairly and frankly, and displeased all by turns. The 
 queen was at length wrought upon to consent to the aiTest and 
 imprisonment of the prince and his chief partisans. Lulled into 
 security by the consummate dissimulation of the queen and 
 Mazarin, the prince, with his brother and the duke of Longue- 
 \-ille, were all three seized one night, January 18, 1650, and 
 secretly hurried off" to Vincennes, whence they were some time 
 aftem-ards conducted to the Chateau de !Marcoupy, and finally, 
 for greater security, transferred to Havre. The princess of 
 Conde escaped with her son into Berri, and assisted by the 
 counsels of Pierre Lenet and by the count of Coligny, raised 
 her husband's standard at his own fortress of Mountrond, 
 displaying throughout the period of his captivity the most 
 admirable constancy, prudence, and bravery in withstanding his 
 enemies. At length, after thirteen months' detention in cap- 
 tivity, a reaction began to take place in favour of the illustrious 
 captive. Pity for the unfortunate fate of Conde, admiration for 
 his military exploits, sympathy for the devotion of his young 
 wife had taken possession of all hearts. A powei-ful combination, 
 headed by the coadjutor of Paris, Gondy, afterwards cardinal de 
 Retz, and the great chief of the Fronde, effected the fall of 
 Mazarin and the release of Conde. The prince was for a 
 moment master of a great position, and might perhaps have 
 employed it to the blessing of his country, had his talents been 
 of the same high order in civil as in military affairs ; but lost 
 amidst the petty and inextricable uitrigues of the second Fronde, 
 he allowed himself to be bewildered by fears and suspicions 
 of treachery, threatening his liberty, or even his life. But his 
 course decided on, Conde seemed to recover all the energy and 
 vigour of his character. He proceeded at once to take up arms 
 in his own government of Guienne ; despatched his faithful 
 Lenet to Madrid, to seek the assistance of the king of Spain in 
 his enterprise ; and established his own head-quarters at Bour- 
 deaux. For a moment the return of JIazarin in 1652 to his old 
 place and favour at coiu-t excited the popular rage, and gave an 
 impulse to the party of the Fronde ; but fortune no longer smiled 
 on Conde's career, and the king's party, as it was now called, 
 headed by Turenne were, on the whole, successful everywhere. 
 At length Conde, assuming the command of an expedition in per- 
 son, obtained an important victory at Bleneau. He then marched 
 on Paris, which closed its gates against his soldiers. On the 
 2nd July, 1652, he was encountered at the barrier of St. Antoine 
 by the royal forces. A terrible conflict ensued, in which his 
 troops were completely worsted. Turenne was advancing to a 
 last decisive attack, when suddenly the cannon of the Bastile — for 
 that fortress commanded the battle-field — opened upon the king's 
 troops, and checked their farther advance. The gates were 
 opened, and Conde retreated into the city, protected by the 
 artillery that should have defended its walls against him. Soon 
 after this engagement the Fronde began to fall to pieces of 
 itself; many of the principal leaders had been slain, or placed 
 hors de combat by their wounds ; others submitted unconditionally 
 to the royal authority. After much conflict of mind, Conde 
 determined to quit the kingdom, and withdrawing from Paris, 
 14th October, 1658, with such of his followers as still remained 
 to him, directed his march to the head-quarters of the Spanish 
 army in Flanders. The next seven years of his life were passed 
 in the service of the king of Spain, in fighting against his own 
 country. In these contests he was generally opposed by Tm^enne. 
 The battle of the Downs, as it was called, into which Conde 
 was forced by the Spanish generalissimo against his own better 
 judgment (June 14, 1658), was followed immediately by the 
 surrender of Dunkirk to Tuienne, and the complete humiliation 
 of Spain. In the treaty of peace which was signed between 
 France and Spain, Nov. 7, 1659, there were eight articles in 
 relation to Conde, stipulating that the prince should be restored 
 to his honours, estates, and the government of Burgundy, as well 
 as to the pardon and favom- of his sovereign, that he might 
 receive from Spain a milUon of dollars, and that pardon and 
 restoration to their estates should bo gi-anted to his partisans
 
 wlio had followed him out of France. He arrived at Aix in 
 Provence, where the court then was, on the 28th January, 16G0, 
 and had an interview with Mazarin and the king, who promised 
 never to remember the eiTor which had been hurtful only to the 
 prince himself. 
 
 Condc retired to Chantilly, to which residence he was much 
 attached, and amused himself by improving it. In Febraary, 
 1671 he caiised his unfortunate wife to be imprisoned in the 
 castle of Chateauroux on an accusation of infidelity, which the 
 historians of the time believed to have been entirely groundless, 
 and which was certainly at variance with her in-eproachable con- 
 duct dm-ing the thirty years of her married life, and with the piety, 
 devotion, prudence, and courage she had exhibited during Conde's 
 imprisonment. In the campaign against Holland in 1072, Cond<5 
 accompanied the king, and exhibited, as usual, the highest degree 
 of ability and courage, especially in that brilliant exploit the pas- 
 sage of the Rhine in face of the enemy, wherein he commanded, 
 and wherein he received a severe wound by the shattering of his 
 left wrist by a musket ball, which prevented his taking any further 
 part in the campaign. In 1G74 he once more commanded on 
 the Flemish frontier, and with an army of forty-five thousand 
 men fought, at Scneif, the prince of Orange with sixty thousand 
 men ; they fought till night, and both claimed the victory. In the 
 following year Conde was again sent to take the command in 
 Flanders, to replace Turenne, who had fallen at Stolhoffen in the 
 very moment when victory seemed within his grasp. Tliis cam- 
 paign closed the military career of the great commander. His 
 mental powers were undiminished, but his bodily strength was 
 failing. He therefore declined the command of the army which 
 Louis offered him the following year, and retired finally to Chan- 
 tilly, where he derived his greatest pleasure in embellishing his 
 charming retreat, and enjoying the society of men of letters, 
 among whom the names of Boileau, Racine, and Moliere were 
 specially distinguished. He expired in the evening of December 
 11th, 1686. One of Bossuet's finest funeral orations is that 
 which he pronounced over the great Conde. Almost all the 
 memoirs and letters of the time throw some light on his history. 
 The following are the most authentic and interesting— J)/e??!o/res 
 2>ar Pierre Lenet ; which alone furnish any account of the hero's 
 childhood ; Hlstolre de Louis IT. de Bourbon., by Desormeaux, 
 4 vols. Paris, 17G6 ; Historical Essay on the great Conde by 
 his great-grandson Louis Joseph de Bourbon, prince de Conde. 
 The Commentaries of the Emperor Napoleon on the campaigns 
 of Conde comprised in Pieces sur les (/uerres de marechal de 
 Turenne, published in the Melanges Historiques by Count IMon- 
 tholon, London, 1833, are highly interesting. — B. de B. 
 
 CONDE, Louis Josei'h de BouRnoN, Prince de, a French 
 general, son of the duke of Bourbon, was born at Chantilly in 
 1756. He served with distinction in the Seven i''ears' war; 
 ]>resided in one section of the assembly of notables in 1787 ; 
 and, having withdi'awn from France when the revolutionaiy 
 party triumphed, was chosen to command the army which the 
 emigi-ants organized on the Rhenish frontier. After the execu- 
 tion of Louis XVI., he proclaimed the dauphin, and joining with 
 his troops the army of ILarshal Wurmser, distinguished himself 
 in the campaigns of 1795 and 1796. The peace of Campo 
 Formio compelled him to take service with Paul I. of Russia, who 
 employed him in Poland, and afterwards on the Inn. In 1801 
 he took refuge in Britain, and lived to enter Paris at the 
 restoration in the same carnage with Louis XVIII., by whom 
 he was restored to his rank and honours ; but he enjoyed them 
 only a few years, his death taking place in 1818. He wrote 
 in his earlier years a memoir of the gi'eat Conde. — W. B. 
 
 CONDER, JosiAH, an English nonconformist writer, was 
 bom in 1789. He was the son of a bookseller, and followed 
 the same business until 1819. He became the publisher and 
 proprietor of the Eclectic Beview, which he also edited until 
 1837, assisted by contributions from Robert Hall, and other 
 eminent nonconformist divines and writers. Besides numerous 
 articles in reviews and magazines, Mr. Conder published several 
 religious works characterized by great ability and earnestness. 
 In 1832 he became the editor of the Patriot newspaper, and 
 continued to hold tliat office till his death in 1855. — J. T. 
 
 CONDILLAC, Etienne Bonnot de, was born at Grenoble 
 in 1715. His brother, Gabriel Boimot, is well known as the 
 Abbe Mably. Condillac also was destined for the church, and 
 was styled Abbe. Having come to Paris while yet young, he 
 became acquainted with Diderot and J. J. Rousseau; but the 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 acquaintanceship was not intimate, and he did not contract any 
 indiscreet or compromising familiarity with contemporary phi- 
 losophers. His position as a churchman gave a caution and 
 resei-vc to his speculations and his conduct, and kept both within 
 a safe range. Having acquired celebrity by his writings, he was 
 appointed preceptor to the hereditary prince of Panna. For his 
 use he compiled " Com-s d'Etudes," 13 vols. 8vo, Parma, 1769- 
 1773. He was subsequently named a member of the French 
 Academy, in succession to the celebrated grammarian, the Abbe 
 Olivet. Condillac died in the abbey of Flux, near Beaugency, of 
 the revenues of which he was in possession. The first work of 
 Condillac was "Essai surl'origine des Connaissanes Humaines," 
 2 torn. 12mo, Amst. 1746. In it he takes Locke for his guide, 
 and traces all our ideas to experience — experience being made 
 up of sensation and reflection. While the mind is passive in 
 receiving sensations, he admitted that, in reflecting upon its own 
 operations, it manifested some degree of activity. But in his 
 " Traite des Sensations," 2 tom. 12mo, Paris and London, 1754, 
 he altered his philosophy by denying the activity of the mind, 
 and resolving all our ideas into sensations gradually transformed. 
 In doing so he was departing from the philosophy of Locke. 
 Of this he was quite aware; for he says, at the beginning of his 
 " Treatise of Sensations," " Locke distinguished two sources of 
 our ideas, sensation and reflection. It would be more exact to 
 recognize only one ; both because reflection, as to its principle, is 
 just sensation ; and because it is not so much a source of ideas 
 as the channel by which ideas come from the senses." Condillac, 
 however, although a sensationalist, was not a materialist. He did 
 not confound psychology with physiology, but insisted without 
 ceasing that sensation is not in the bodily organs. His " Traite des 
 Animaux," 2 tom. 12mo, Amst. 1755, was directed against the 
 opinion of Descartes, that the inferior animals are living automata, 
 or animated machines. Condillac argued that they move about 
 as they please ; they choose what is suitable, and reject what is 
 unsuitable. They have senses analogous to those of man, and they 
 use them in the same way. They feel some want and seek to 
 supply it. But they cannot reflect. They cannot rise above sen- 
 sation to any higher idea; and, being incapable of merit or demerit, 
 the pains and pleasures of this life are their all. These pains and 
 pleasures are necessary to the existence of such creatm-es; and, 
 therefore, they afford no proper objection against the goodness 
 of God — an objection which Descartes sought to obviate by 
 representing them as animated machines. The sensational 
 philosophy of Condillac was widely embraced in France during 
 the latter half of the last century. The simplicity and clearness 
 of the writings in which it was expounded, seemed to make 
 everything plain in the phenomena of mind ; and its tendency 
 was in favour of the reforming spirit of the times. But when 
 closely examined, it was found to be both defective and 
 en-oneous, explaining some of the facts of consciousness, but 
 omitting the higher functions of the intellect and the native 
 activity and energy of the mind. Mens. Destutt de Tracy did 
 much to give to it j)hilosophical fonn and consistency ; but its 
 radical defects could not long be concealed ; and it is now 
 regarded only as a partial and ingenious explanation of .some of 
 the conditions under which the faculties by which human know- 
 ledge is acquired are developed, and the energies by which human 
 activity is prompted are called into play. — W. F. 
 
 CONDORCET, Jean Antoine Nicoi-as de Caritat, 
 Marquis de, an illustrious French mathematician and philusoplier, 
 who occupies a notable place in the history of the revolutionary 
 epoch, was born at Ribemont in Picardy, September 17, 1743. 
 Educated at the Jesuit college in Rlieims, and at the college of 
 Navan-e in Paris, he especially distinguislied himself by his 
 mathematical attainments. His eager hitellcctual activity, 
 however, was not satisfied with eminence in any one branch of 
 knowledge, but spread itself through all the varied subjects of 
 human thought. Nothing could be more brilliant than Con- 
 dorcet's early career. Never, writes a friend, had any one 
 such intensity of life, or such a liapi)y abundance of resources. 
 He had a hundred intimate friends, and each friend believed 
 himself the .all in all of his afl'ectioiis— a fact very characteristic 
 of the sentimental vivacity which marked Condorcet's early 
 years. At the age of sixteen he sustained an analytical thesis 
 with such singular ability that D'Alembert predicted a future 
 colleague in the academy; and in 1772 Lagrange pronounced one 
 of his memoires profound and sublime. Condorcet assisted in the 
 development of the calculus of probabihties ; and Ar.ago testifies
 
 to his successful application of analytical methods to astronomical 
 reseai-ches. In 17G9 he was elected member of the Academy of 
 Sciences, and in 1773 became perpetual secretary. As secretary 
 of the academy he published a series of eulogies upon eminent 
 men, which still remain the chief monuments of his literary skill. 
 Among the most remarkable of these are his clorjes upon Pascal, 
 Jussieu, Flamsteed, D'Alembert, Buftun, and Franklin. That 
 upon Buftbn is noticeable through its generous impartiality. 
 No one could gather from it that Bufton had employed, both 
 at the court and the academy, eveiy influence he possessed 
 to disparage Condorcet. The fii-st of Condorcefs writings upon 
 religious subjects was an anonymous work entitled " Lettres d'un 
 Th^ologien," which was attributed to Voltaire. His fundamental 
 doctrine was the present perfectibility of mankind both indi- 
 vidually and socially. He held that all moral evils come from 
 bad laws and bad institutions ; and he looked forward to the 
 tune when disease and suffering should pass away ; and death 
 be only the etiect of an accident, or the light and gentle decay 
 of vital forces which had exhausted theu- capacities for joyful 
 action. During the later years of his life we find him intensely 
 involved in the political movements of that revolutionary epoch, 
 the advent of which his writings had powerfully assisted in 
 preparing. Until the flight of Louis XVI. he was faithful to the 
 principle of a constitutional monarchy ; but after that event he 
 examined the question whether royalty was essential to libert}-, 
 and pronounced in the negative. Condorcet was the chief 
 author of that famous answer of the assembly to the addi-ess 
 from the European powers, threatening France with war; in 
 which the idea of war for conquest was renounced, and a solemn 
 pledge taken not to employ the national forces against the liberties 
 of any people (1791). During the revolutionary stmggles, he 
 displayed a disposition in which timidity in action and boldness 
 in theoiy curiously contended against each other. Upon the 
 trial of Louis XIV., Condorcet voted for the gravest punish- 
 ment next to death. In the struggles between the Mountain 
 and Girondist parties, he took no decided part with either, 
 although he was employed by the Girondists to draw up a new 
 constitution, the plan of which was approved by the convention. 
 He escaped the first proscriptions, but having objected to 
 the proceedings of the dominant party, incuiTcd the enmity of 
 RobespieiTe; and, on the 3d October, 1793, the convention pro- 
 nounced a decree of condemnation against " Caritat ci-devant 
 marquis de Condorcet." The montagnards hesitated before 
 proscribing so great a name ; but the Jacobins declared the man 
 more dangerous because of his greatness, and m'gedon the deed. 
 Condorcet was concealed by his friends, and remained shut up in 
 an attic dming the autumn and winter of 1793-9-1 ; and while 
 the storm of revolution was raging round him, and his own life 
 was not secure for an hour, he employed himself in demon- 
 strating the perfectibility of the human race, and wrote his famous 
 work, " L'esquisse des progi-es de I'esprit humain." Assuredly 
 that man was great who could console himself in persecution by 
 cherishing yet more fondly than in prosperity his glorious hopes 
 for the very people whose victim he was ; and the history of 
 literatm-e furnishes few more touching pictures than Condorcet 
 writing upon the perfectibihty of mankind in a garret, from which 
 he dared not move, and in sight of the guillotine waiting for its 
 prey. At last he could endure confinement no longer. In 
 spite of the precautions of his friends he escaped from his 
 concealment ; was aiTested as a suspected person at a cabaret of 
 Clamart by some members of the revolutionary committee, and 
 thrown into the prison of Bourg la Reine. In the morning of 
 28th March, 179-4, the gixard found a corpse in place of their 
 prisoner ; the philosopher had taken poison, prefeiring to die in 
 quietness and peace rather than that his last agonies should be 
 a sight for a scoffing mob. The works of Condorcet have been 
 published in 21 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1804.— L. L. P. 
 
 CONFUCIUS, the Latinized form given originally by the 
 Jesuits to the name of the famous Chinese philosopher Koong- 
 Foo-TSE. He was bom about 550 B.C. in the kingdom of Loo, 
 now the province of Shang-tun, and was descended from the 
 imperial family of the dynasty of Shang. He was early distin- 
 guished for his great abilities, his estraordinarj- love of learning, 
 and his proficiency in pldlosophy. He married at the age of 
 nineteen, but divorced his wife after she had borne him a son, in 
 order, as the Jesuits allege, " that he might attend to his studies 
 with greater application." When he had reached his twentieth 
 year he obtained his first political employment as " superintendent 
 
 of cattle," and soon became conspicuous for his zeal in reforming 
 long-established abuses. His activity and fidelity obtained for 
 him promotion to a more important situation, and the highest 
 position in the kingdom seemed within his reach, when a sudden 
 revolution in the state deprived him of his office. 
 
 The next eight years of his life he spent in travelling through 
 the various states into which the Celestial emphe was theu 
 divided, instnicting all classes in the precepts of virtue and 
 social order, and gradually increasing the number of his disciples. 
 He returned to his native kingdom in his forty-third year, and 
 was soon after intrusted with various responsible political offices. 
 He was at length made prime minister, at the age of fifty-five, 
 and received full authority to caiTy his theories into practice. 
 He speedily effected a great change, both in the moral and 
 physical condition of the country. He provided an abundant 
 supply of food for the poor, and freed them from the oppression 
 of the nobles. " The revenues of the state," says his biographer, 
 " were directed to the advancement of commerce, the improve- 
 ment of the bridges and highways, the impartial administration 
 of justice, and the repression of the bands of robbers that infested 
 the mountains." But the great reformation Confucius was effect- 
 ing roused the jealousy of the neighboming princes, and they 
 succeeded by a base intrigue in inducing the king of Loo to 
 abandon his faithful minister, who was in consequence once more 
 expelled from the country, and compelled to take refuge in the 
 northern parts of China. For twelve years he wandered about 
 from pro\'ince to pronnce, making various unsuccessful efforts 
 to obtain office. He made many proselytes, and at length, full 
 of years and worn out with his wanderings and sorrows, he 
 retired with a small band of faithful disciples to a quiet valley 
 in his native province, and there spent the concluding five years 
 of his life in revising and improving those works which for 
 twenty-three centuries have been the sacred books of the Chinese. 
 He died at the age of seventy-three in this valley, which, 
 for all succeeding ages, has been a sacred spot to the inhabitants 
 of the Celestial emjiire. His sepulchre was erected on the banks 
 of the Loo river. The manner in which the memory of the great 
 philosopher has been revered by posterity, presents a striking 
 contrast to the unworthy treatment which he received from his 
 contemporaries. The highest honours and privileges have been 
 heaped upon his descendants, who now number many thousands, 
 and are the only hereditaiy nobility m the empire. Amid all 
 the revolutions that have taken place in China, their privileges 
 have been preserved entue. There is at least one temple dedi- 
 cated to Confucius in every city of the empire of the first, 
 second, and third rank; and the mandarins and the emperor 
 himself are bound to worship there, burning scented gums, 
 fi-ankincense, and tapers of sandal wood, offering wine, fruit, and 
 flowers, and chanting appropriate hvmns. 
 
 Confucius claimed to be a teacher of morals, rather than the 
 founder of a religion. He made no pretensions to inspiration ; 
 and his method of teaching was as simple and natural as his 
 manner of Hfe. The physical system which he inculcated 
 resembled that of the early Greek philosophers. The five 
 elements or kings, as he termed them — water, fire, wood, 
 metals, and earth — stood at its base. He held that the uni- 
 verse had been generated by the union of two material principles, 
 — a heavenly and an earthly — Yang and Yn — but there is no 
 mention of a Creator in his system ; and some writers have 
 broadly asserted that Confucius did not recognize the existence 
 of a God. He represents man as having fallen by his own act 
 from his original pure and happy state ; and affirms that, by his 
 own act, he can recover the purity and happiness he has lost. 
 The object of one of his treatises is declared to be, " to bring 
 back fallen man to the sovereign good — to what is perfect." 
 In his doctrines there is an evident leaning to fatahsm and to 
 fortune-telling. Many of his moral precepts, such as those 
 which regulate the duties of childi-en to parents, and of the 
 younger to the elder, are excellent. His pohtical system, which 
 is one of pure despotism, is founded on the parental relationship. 
 A family is the prototype of his nation, of which the emperor is 
 regarded as the father. Dr. Morrison is of opinion, that it is 
 this feature of his doctrines which has made Confucius such a 
 fiivourite with all the governments of China for so many 
 centuries. 
 
 The classical or sacred books written, or completed and 
 revised, by Confucius and his disciples, are nine in number, viz., 
 the " Four Books," and the " Five Canonical Books." The
 
 first of the " Four Books " is tlie " Ta-heo, or tlie School of 
 Adults;" the second, the " Choong-yoong, or Infallible 
 Medium;" the third, the " Lun-yu," consisting of the conver- 
 sations and sayings of Confucius recorded by his disciples ; and 
 the foui-th, tlie " Jleng-tse," which contains the additions and 
 commentaiy of Jleng-tse or Mencius, one of the disciples of 
 Confucius. The " Five Canonical Books " are — the " Y-king, 
 or Sacred Book of Changes," which has been termed the 
 Encyclopasdia of the Chinese, and embraces a great variety of 
 subjects — metaphysics, physics, and morals ; the " Chou- 
 king," which consists of a historical narrative of the events of 
 early Chinese history; the " Chi-king, or Book of Sacred Songs ;" 
 the " Li-king, or Book of Kites and Ceremonies ; " and the 
 " Tchnntsiou," which is a continuation of the " Chou-king," 
 and contains a history of the philosopher's own times. Confa- 
 cius was undoubtedly a very remarkable man, and the influence 
 which he has exercised over his countrymen has rarely been 
 paralleled in the histoiy of mankind. A full account of the 
 system of the Chinese philosophers will be found in " The Works 
 of Confucius," by i\Iarshman, Serampore, 1809, and in the 
 writings of Sir J. F. Davis and Dr. Gutzlafif.— J. T. 
 
 COXGLETOX. See Pakxell. 
 
 CONGREVE, William, bom 1669; died 1728; a gentleman 
 of old and good family. He was educated at Trinity college, 
 Dublin, and on leaving it, entered of the middle temple. At 
 twenty-one he published a novel, which neither enjoyed nor 
 deserved success. In 1693 his first play, " The Old Bachelor," 
 was acted under the patronage of Dryden with universal 
 applause. Although the weakest in style and plot of his four 
 comedies, it has some brilliant and facile writing to allay its 
 vulgarities of conception and commonplaces of execution. Next 
 year appeared " The Double Dealer," a better play which was 
 less successful. All the humour and spiiit of a matchless comic 
 style could neither redeem nor conceal the defects of a machiueiy 
 at once violent and intricate. Nevertheless, in this unfortunate 
 comedy, there are scenes of such wit and power as to eclipse 
 Sheridan at his strongest, and Moliere at his weakest ; no slight 
 praise for any di'amatist. " Love for Love" was brought out on 
 the opening of a theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields ; it was the most 
 successful of Congreve's comedies, and is all but the most perfect. 
 In 1697 came out "The Mourning Bride," a patched and padded 
 tragedy, rouged to the eyes, and as violent as Lady WOlfort, 
 the memorable heroine of his last and greatest work. " The 
 Way of the World" appeared in 1700, and failed: we have had 
 no such comedy since. Congreve, according to Swift, was 
 rescued from early and degrading poverty by the gift of two 
 sinecures from the pohtical party which enjoyed and appreciated 
 his adherence ; on these and his flirtations, he lived a refined and 
 inactive life, cut short by gout and the overturn of a carriage. 
 At his death he left a fortune of £10,000 to the duchess of 
 Marlborough — a legacy which might have been better employed 
 either as a gift to Mrs. Bracegirdle the actress, or as a prop to 
 the fortunes of his family: the former had enjoyed his friendship 
 for years ; the latter was reduced to all but destitution. The 
 duchess expressed her regret by lavishing upon a wax figure of 
 her deceased friend, all the attentions which he had required 
 when alive. The minor works of Congreve are dull and empty, 
 but for one or two songs which read like fragments of a comedy 
 patched with metre. All that is worthy of notice in the man 
 he has put into four plays ; and his main title to our admiration 
 is the union in these works of broad and refined humour. His 
 intellect is clear, cold, and naiTow ; it has the force and bright- 
 ness of steel ; the edges of it, so to speak, are cut out hard and 
 sharp. There is more weight and matter in Congreve than in 
 any English dramatist since the restoration ; and at worst he is 
 no coarser than his time. In Congreve all is plain and clear, if 
 hard and limited ; he makes no effort to escape into the region 
 of moral sentiment ; if his world is not healthy, neither is it 
 hollow ; and whatever he had of noble humour and feeling was 
 genuine and genial. His style is a model of grace and accurate 
 vigour, and his verbal wit the most brilliant and forcible in 
 English literature. We do not say that it was pure and ex- 
 alted; such properties belong to other times and other minds. 
 But, as a comic writer, he stands above the best who came after 
 him, and beside the best who went before. — A. C. S. 
 
 CONGREVE, Sir Williajm, Bart., a distinguished military 
 engineer, and inventor of the rocket called by his name, was 
 bom in 1772, and was the eldest son of Sir William Congreve 
 
 of Walton, Staffordshire. He entered the artillery ser\-ice at an 
 early age, and in 1816 attained the rank of lieutenant-general, 
 and retu-ed from the army in 1820. He was successively 
 member of parliament for Gatton and Plymouth. The cele- 
 brated Congreve rockets were first used against Boulogne in 
 1806, and were subsequently employed with great effect in the 
 Basque roads, at Walcheren, in the peninsular compaigns, at 
 Leipzig, and in the attack upon Algiers, and have long been in 
 permanent use in miUtary and naval tactics. Su: William was 
 rewarded for the invention by a hlieral grant of money from the 
 national funds. He published in 1812 an " Elementary Treatise 
 on the Mounting of Naval Ordnance," and in 1815 a " Descrip- 
 tion of the Hydro-Pneumatic Lock." Sir William died at 
 Toulouse in 1828.— J. T, 
 
 CONNOR, Berxaed, M.D., an eminent Irish physician, was 
 bom in the coimtj' of Kerry about the year 1666, and died in 
 1698. He became physician to John Sobieski, king of Poland, 
 but during the latter part of his life resided as a practitioner in 
 London. There is a curious work of his, entitled " Evangelium 
 Jledici," &c., in which, as Orme says, " the author endeavours 
 to show that the miraculous cures perfonned by our Lord and 
 his apostles may be accounted for on natural principles." 
 
 CONON, a renowned Athenian general and admiral, who held 
 several important commands in the latter part of the Pelopon- 
 ncsian war. He was one of the two generals who superseded 
 Alcibiades about 406 B.C., but was soon after completely 
 defeated at Jlitylene by Calhcratides, the Lacedemonian general. 
 In the following year Conon and his colleagues stationed the 
 Athenian fleet at a place called ^Egospotami, in the straits of the 
 Hellespont, and having impradently suffered their men to go on 
 shore, were surprised by Lysander, the Spartan commander, and 
 totally routed. Conon himself escaped with nine triremes, but 
 all the remaining vessels, one hundred and ninety in number, 
 were captured, and their crews taken prisoners. This terrible 
 disaster led to the annihilation of the Athenian empire, the cap- 
 ture of Athens, and the overthrow of its constitution. Conon 
 took refuge with Evagoras, prince of Salamis, in the island of 
 Cypras, where he remained for seven years. He was subse- 
 quently appointed commander of the Persian fleet along with 
 Pharnabazus, and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Laceda;- 
 monians, near Cnidus, 39-1 B.C. Their expulsion from the 
 jEgean, the revolt of their alHes, and the overthrow of their 
 empire speedily followed. Conon then returned to Athens, 
 restored its fortifications, and rebuilt its famous Long Walls — 
 an event of vast importance to its future security and mfluence. 
 He was afterwards, in 392 B.C., sent as envoy to the Persian 
 court, and is supposed to have died in Cypras, 388 B.C. — J. T. 
 
 CONRAD I., Emperor of Germany, was duke of Franconia 
 and a gi-andson of the Emperor Amulf. He succeeded to the 
 imperial throne by national election in 911, at the death of 
 Louis, surnamed the Child; Otto, duke of Saxony, having dechned 
 the vacant dignity. His reign was distin-bed by the intrigues 
 of Otto's son, Henry the Fowler, who defeated him, near Merse- 
 burg, in 915. Three years later, Conrad died without issue, 
 chargmg his brother Eberhard to promote the election of his 
 rival.— W. B. 
 
 CONRAD II., surnamed the Salic, also of the ducal house 
 of Franconia, was elected emperor in 1024, and one of his first 
 acts was to render the fiefs of the lesser nobles hcrcditarj'. He 
 was solemnly crowned at Rome in 1027, and held the imperial 
 sceptre for fifteen years, displaying much prudence and energy 
 in the disputes respecting the succession to the Burgundian 
 throne, in the suppression of repeated revolts in Italy, and in 
 compelling the turbulent Poles and Hungarians to acknowledge 
 the authority of the empire. He died in 1039, and was biuied 
 in the cathedral of Spires, which he had founded. — W. B. 
 
 CONRAD III., who was of the Hohonstauffcn or Swabian 
 family, succeeded to the throne at the death of Lothaire III., in 
 1138, in opposition to Hcnr)' the Proud, Lothaire's son-in-law. 
 The contests which ensued belong to the well-known struggle 
 between the Guelphs and Ghibellines (in German, Welf, and 
 Waiblinger), Henry being descended from the house of Guelph 
 or Welf, while the town of Wibelung in Franconia gave its name 
 to the other party. Conrad took part in the crusades with 
 Louis VII. of France, retm-ned home in 1149, and died three 
 years afterwards, being succeeded by his nephew, Frederick 
 Barbarossa. — W. B. 
 
 CONRAD W., son of the Emperor Frederick II., wasnominated 
 
 J
 
 CON 
 
 1108 
 
 CON 
 
 Lis successor, but his father's quarrel with the see of Rome had 
 raised a formidable opposition. He eventually took refuge with 
 his brother Manfred of Tarentum, by whose assistance he com- 
 pelled the pope to come to terms; but on the eve of his return 
 into Germany he died in 1254. — W. B. 
 
 CONRAD v., or CONRADIN, son of the preceding, was a 
 child of two years at the death of his father. His mother placed 
 him under the protection of his brother, Louis of Bavaria ; and 
 aftenvards attempted to estabhsli his rights in Italy against 
 Charles of Anjou. Her army, however, was defeated at Scurcola; 
 and Conradin, f;illing into the hands of his rival, perished on 
 the scaffold in 12C8.— W. B. 
 
 CONRAD, son of William III., Marquis of Montscrrat, gained 
 his first distinction in the sen'ico of the pope against Frederick 
 II. In 118G he sailed for Syria to take part in the third 
 crusade ; and on his way rendered such important aid in the 
 suppression of a revolt at Constantinople, that he was rewarded 
 with the h.and of the emperor's sister Theodora. Having nar- 
 rowly escaped falling into the power of the Saracens at Acre, he 
 landed at Tyre, undertook the defence of that city, and held it 
 successfully against the arms and arts of Saladin, till the anival 
 of the French and English forces, under Philip Augustus and 
 Richard CoBur de Lion, restored in some measure the ebbing for- 
 tunes of the crasaders. But the fame of this and other semces 
 was obscured by his intrigues to obtain the throne of Jerusalem, 
 in which he was countenanced by the French king, but opposed 
 by Richard. The wish of tlie army at length procured the 
 concurrence of the English monarch, and Conrad was on the 
 eve of succeeding the unfortunate Guy de Lusignan when he 
 was slain by assassins in 1190. — W. B. 
 
 CONRADIN. See Conrad V. 
 
 CONRART, Valentin, bom at Paris in 1603 ; died in 1G75. 
 His father's family was originally from Hainault, and of the 
 noblesse. The family were Cah-inists, and Conrart's father 
 destined his son for mercantile life. This prevented his having 
 the ordinaiy advantages of a classical education, but he learned 
 Spanish and Italian, and was a great reader of modem books. 
 Conrart, though he ^vrote but little, is one who cannot at any 
 time be forgotten in the history of French literature. He has 
 been called the father of the French Academy, of which he was 
 the first secretary. The origin of the academy was accidental. 
 In 1629 a number of friends fond of literature, living at consi- 
 derable distances firom each other in Paris and the vicinity, 
 arranged to meet occasionally at the house of Conrart, who lived 
 in the Rue St. Martin. Richelieu, who had liis eyes and ears 
 evei-j-where, leamed the fact of these meetings ; suggested the 
 idea of an academy ; and offered Conrart and his friends letters 
 patent from the king. Tliis project was disliked by the original 
 members of the little society, but could not be decorously 
 refused. This is Pellison's account of the origin of the academy. 
 At its institution it had three principal officers, a director, a 
 chancellor, and a secretary. The first two changed from time 
 to time ; the secretaiy was for life, and chosen by the suffrages 
 of the academy. Conrart was unanimously elected "perpetual 
 secretarj'." He became afterwards chancellor, the offices not 
 being inconsistent. In 163-4 his duties as secretary commenced, 
 and till his death, forty-one years aftei-wards, he kept the 
 official record of all the proceedings of the academy. The 
 closing years of Conrart's life were occupied with exercises in 
 devotional poctiy. He versified fifty-one of the psalms, or 
 rather retouched and modernized Clement Marot's version. He 
 also left memoirs on the history of his own times, which were 
 published for the first time in 1825, in Petitot's well-known 
 collection. — J. A., D. 
 
 CONRING, Hekm^vnn, one of the greatest scholars of his 
 time, was bom at Norden in Frisia on the 9th November, 1606; 
 and devoted himself at the same time to the study of theology 
 and medicine at Helmstedt, and aftenvards at Leyden. As 
 early as 1632 he obtained the chair of philosophy at Helmstedt, 
 and in 1634 took his degi-ee as JI.D. Queen Cristina of Sweden 
 proposed to make him her physician. He dechned the offer, but 
 in 1658 accepted the same appointment from Gusta\-us Adol- 
 phus. At the same time he was named privy councillor to the 
 duke of Branswick, and since 1664 had a pension granted him 
 by Louis XIV. His counsel in political and state affau-s was 
 sought for almost throughout Em-ope. By his works, although 
 the man was greater than his writings, he has rendered impor- 
 tant services both to the histoiy of the German empire, and 
 
 to medical science. He vigorously opposed the alchemists, and 
 zealously advocated and promoted Harvey's doctrine of the cir- 
 culation of the blood. He died at Helmstedt on the 12th 
 December, 1681. His collected writings were edited, with a life, 
 by Giibcl, Brunswick, 1730, 6 vols. — K. E. 
 
 CONROY, Florence, a learned Irish Franciscan, was born 
 in Galway in 1560. Being designed at an early age for the 
 priesthood, he was sent first to the Netherlands, and afterwards 
 to Spain, for the completion of his studies. He obtained a high 
 reputation for scholarship, and was held to be the most deeply 
 versed in the works of St. Augustine of any man in Europe. 
 Upon the death of O'Higgin, the Roman catholic archbishop of 
 Tuam, at Antwerp in 1609, Conroy was appointed to succeed 
 him. He did not, however, go to Ireland to take possession 
 of his see, but remained at the Spanish court. Through 
 his influence with Philip II., that monarch was induced to 
 foimd an Irish college at Louvain, dedicated to St. Anthony, in 
 1616 — an institution which afterwards became celebrated for 
 the distinguished Irishmen connected with it, and the Irish 
 works that issued from its press. At this place he afterwards 
 occupied himself in preparing for the press his "Commentaries 
 on St. Augustine" and "Compendium of the Doctrines of St. 
 Augustine." Shortly before his death he returned to Madrid, 
 and retired to a Franciscan convent there, where he died on 
 the 18th November, 1629.— J. F. W. 
 
 CONSAL\'T, Ercole, Cardinal, bom at Rome in 1757; died 
 there in 1824. Pope Pius VI. appointed him uditor di raota, 
 or member of the highest Roman civil coui-t. In 1800 Chiara- 
 monti, who had been raised to the pontificate, made him a 
 cardinal-deacon, and secretary of state. It was Consahi who 
 concluded the concordat with Napoleon in 1801 ; but when the 
 first consul began to quarrel with the pope he insisted on his 
 dismissal, which Pius had at last, however unwillingly, to 
 concede. During the period of the pope's abdication Consalvi 
 was pcnnitted to join his master at Fontainebleau, and, on the 
 pontiff's return to Rome in 1814, was reinstated in his office of 
 secretary of state. A monument, executed by the sculptor 
 Rinaldi, was raised to his memory in the church of S. MarceUo, 
 where he was buried. — R. M., A. 
 
 * CONSCIENCE, Henri, the most eminent novehst of the 
 Netherlands, was bom at Ajitwerp in 1812. Having lost his 
 mother, and his father being a poor dealer, he entered the 
 army in 1830 and rose to be a serjeant-major. His powers of 
 observation had been sharpened by a love of reading, which, 
 despite of no ordinary difficulties, he contrived to indulge. 
 His first attempt at composition was a romance descriptive of tlie 
 heroic rising of his countr}Tnen against their Spanish masters, 
 and which succeeded on its appe;u-ance in winning what would 
 have been universal approbation, only for one exception. There 
 was one person who saw with an angry eye the work, wHch 
 he was certainly incapable of judging; and he was the author's 
 own father. The successful author had committed the crime of 
 spoiling the promising dealer in old iron. Expelled from the 
 shop he was deemed not worthy to inherit, the author foimd a 
 protector in no less a personage than King Leopold, who gave 
 him assistance. In 1837 he published his " I'hantasia," in 
 imitation of Hoffman, followed by stories illustrative of Flemish 
 life, written with that truthful simplicity and directness of 
 pm-pose set off with graphic descriptions, which go home to the 
 heai-ts of readers. His independence has been secured by a 
 situation connected with the Academy of Fine Arts. In the 
 meantime his works are increasing in popularity and making 
 their way through translations into France, England, and other 
 countries. — J. F. C. 
 
 CONSTABLE, Archibald, a Scotch bookseller, who acquired 
 considerable celebrity as the publisher of the Edinburf/h Reviev: and 
 the Enajdopcedia Brifanuica, and of the works of Sir Walter Scott, 
 Dugald Stewart, and other eminent writers. To Mr. Constable 
 belongs the merit of baring led the way in the gi-eat revolution 
 which has taken place in the diffusion of cheap literature, by the 
 publication of the series of instructive works entitled Constable's 
 Miscellany. BIr. Constable, having embai-ked in various exten- 
 sive bookselHng speculations, was involved m the ruin which the 
 commercial crisis of 1825 brought upon vast numbers of the 
 trading section of the community. His spuit was completely 
 broken by his reverse of fortune, and he died in Edinburgh in 
 1827, in iiis fifty-fourth year. "He was," says Scott, "a prince 
 of booksellers ; his views shai-p, powerful, and UberaJ, too san-
 
 CON 
 
 1109 
 
 CON 
 
 guine, however, and, like many bold and successful schemers, 
 never knowing when to stand or stop. He knew, I think, more 
 of the business of a bookseller in planning and executing popular 
 works than any man of his time." — J. T. 
 
 CONSTABLE, Henry, an English poet of the sixteenth 
 century. He was the author of " Diana, or the Excellent 
 Conceitful Sonnets of H. C, augmented with diverse Quator- 
 zains of honourable and learned Personages, divided into eight 
 decads," 1594. The "Shepherd's Song of Venus and Adonis" 
 was reprinted by Malone in the notes to the tenth volume of his 
 edition of Shakspeare. Constable, who was a Roman catholic, 
 having come secretly to London, was apprehended and confined 
 in the Tower for some time on account of his religion. — E. M., A. 
 
 CONSTABLE, John : this distinguished landscape painter 
 ■was born in 177G at East Bergholt in Suffolk. He was the 
 second son of a miller, and to that fact was fond in after life of 
 attributing the many mills and streams, dams and wears, con- 
 stantly produced and reproduced in his pictures. He was 
 twenty-four years of age before he took up art as a profession. 
 He received lessons from Reinagle, E.A., and was gi-eatly 
 patronized by Sir George Beaumont. He had visited London in 
 1795 and again in 1799, and in 1800 he first entered the 
 academy as a student. Three years afterwards he was residing 
 in America Square, and the exhibitor of a picture in the academy 
 which attracted some attention. But his works in the first 
 instance startled rather than convinced the connoisseurs. Con- 
 stable simply thought to bo truthful — to paint what he saw — 
 and was denounced as an innovator for his pains. He worked 
 on, however, in his fresh, genial, original manner, indebted a 
 little only to his predecessors, Wilson and Gainsborough, and a 
 great deal to his earnest, indefatigable study of nature. PI is 
 representations of atmospheric effects are singul;u-ly striking, 
 and in his day were even more so. For many years quite a 
 galleiy of his paintings remained on his hands, but the tide 
 turned at last. In 1829, in his fifty-third year, he was 
 elected an academician. Good fortune smiled on him ; he 
 could sell as fast as he could paint ; he was recognized and 
 fairly appreciated at last. He doted upon his native fields. 
 "I love," said he, "every style and stump and lane in the 
 village ; as long as I am able to hold a brush I shall never cease 
 to paint them.' " At his death another academician, his friend 
 the late C. R. Leslie, published his memoirs and letters. Some 
 students to do honour to his memory purchased one of his land- 
 scapes and presented it to the national gallery, in the English 
 art division of which it may still be seen. And a high place 
 must be awarded him in the list of great English painters. If 
 something limited, he was very conscientious — uniting a poetic 
 quality to his realistic views of landscape ; a thorough Briton — 
 fond and proud of the moist air of his island — of its rich wood 
 and abundant water, and its ever-varying sky. He resided for 
 many years on Hampstead Heath, painting there some of his 
 most successful works ; but he died suddenly and jiainlessly at a 
 house, 63 Upper Charlotte Street, London, on the 30th Marcli, 
 1837, no less esteemed as a man than as an artist. — W. T. 
 
 CONSTANS I., Flavius .Julius, was the third son of 
 Constantine the Great and Fausta. In the division of the 
 empire at his father's death in 337, Italy, Africa, and Western 
 Illyricum were allotted to him ; and three years afterwards he 
 acquu-ed the dominions of his eldest brother, Constantine, who 
 had perished in an unsuccessful invasion of his Italian provinces. 
 He was slain in 350 by the partisans of Magnentius. — W. B. 
 
 CONSTANS II., Flavius Hp:kaclius, eldest son of Con- 
 stantine III., succeeded to the Byzantine throne in G41. Through 
 his jealousy of his brother Theodosius, the latter was forced into 
 holy orders, and afterwards put to death. But the gviilty 
 monarch was speedily puiushed by the necessity of fleeing from 
 his indignant subjects ; and he is also said to have been haunted 
 in his restless exile by the phantom of his murdered brother. 
 He was assassinated at Syracuse in 6G8. — W. B. 
 
 CONSTANT DE Rebecque, Henri Benjamin, an emi- 
 nent French litterateur and statesman, was bom at Lausanne, 
 25th October, 17G7. His education was remarkably catholic 
 in its general character. He studied English literature at Oxford, 
 Scotch philosophy at Edinburgh, and German learning at Erlan- 
 gen; while among his personal acquaintances he numbered Mi\k- 
 intosh and Erskine, Kant and Gibbon, Goethe, Wieland, and 
 Schiller. Possessed of quick and lively capacities. Constant dis- 
 played that power of making mysteries of abstruse thought clear, 
 
 and of bestowing life upon otherwise dull technicalities, which 
 gives so great and special a charm to the literature of France. 
 Familiar with the philosophies of various nations, he endeavoured 
 to realize the conditions of their existence, and their actual rela- 
 tionships to human needs, by putting himself e?» rajyport with the 
 dispositions and sympathies from which they sprung, rather than 
 by measuring them by dogmatic rules of his own construction. 
 The breadth of his culture detennined the specialities of Con- 
 stant's political as well as his literary career. Delighting in 
 free intercourse with many minds, he perceived that liberty 
 results from the balancing of contending claims and principles, 
 rather than from the enthronement of any sectional authority ; 
 and hence he attached himself to that constitutional party which 
 endeavoured to preserve France from the despotism alike of 
 emperor and mob. Constant began his political career by uniting 
 himself to moderate republicans who wished to preserve the 
 principles of the Revolution, while repudiating its excesses. He 
 was intimately connected with the constitutional club, Le Cerclo 
 Constitutionnel, which was directed by Talleyrand, and adorned 
 by the brilliancy of madame de Staiil. When Napoleon became 
 first consul. Constant opposed his arbitrary authority and found 
 it necessary to quit France. He took refuge at Weimar and 
 Gcittingen, and associated with Goethe, Wieland, and Schiller. 
 With ready versatility he forsook politics for literatm'e, translated 
 Wallenstein, and collected materials for his great work on the 
 history of Religions. In 1814 he returned to France; and 
 although the republican of 1795 became the supporter of con- 
 stitutional monarchy, we recognize the same principles of 
 political conduct, seeking their realization in a different outward 
 form. He resolutely opposed, however, the reactionary policy 
 of the Bourbons. When Napoleon returned from Elba he was 
 for a short time minister of state, defending himself by the 
 assertion that he had a duty to his country above and beyond 
 external changes of government ; and on the final fall of the 
 emperor, he became the principal leader of the constitutional 
 party in the chamber of deputies. He took a foremost part 
 in every great question at issue between 1818 and 1830, on 
 the side of constitutional liberty; and his general policy was 
 in harmony with that of the greatest and best of our own 
 British statesmen. He established the Constitutionnel news- 
 paper, which through his knowledge, wit, and eloquence achieved 
 a maiTellous success. As litterateur, editor, and leader of the 
 constitutional party. Constant achieved important influence and 
 power in France. Louis Philippe sought to bestow favours 
 upon him ; these were accepted in the spirit of the following 
 words, " Sire, I accept your kindness, but liberty must ever be 
 before gratitude ; I wish to be independent ; and if yon.r 
 government commits faults, I shall be the first to sunnnon 
 the opposition." " I have no other expectation," replied the 
 king. — The last and greatest of Constant's works, and the one 
 on which his fame in foreign lands chiefly depends, is entitled 
 " De la Religion, considf;r^e dans sa source, ses formes et ses 
 developpements," and was completed shortly before his deatl). 
 The object of this work is threefold, and whatever may bi' 
 thought of the conclusions he reaches, no doubt can be started 
 regarding its pervading spirit of sincere devotion. (1) The 
 general action of the religious principle is illustrated as a fun- 
 damental law, authoritative and universal. (2) Religions are 
 divided into the sacerdotal and the independent, and decision 
 is given against a preponderant hierarchy as injurious to the 
 highest worship. (3) An attempt is made to prove a develop- 
 ment of faith, upwards from fetiscliism ; and the gradual stages 
 of spiritual growth are traced. — Benjamin Constant died at 
 Paris, 10th December, 1830, aged sixty-three, and was buried 
 in the Pantheon. — L. L. P. 
 
 CONSTANTIA, Flavia Julia Valeria, sister of Constan- 
 tine the Great, and wife of Licinius, assisted to maintain the 
 harmony which prevailed between them fcjr a time. \\'\\c\\ the 
 war broke out she left her husband for her brother, to whom s^Ik^ 
 was strongly attached, and with whom slic continued even after 
 the execution of her son. She died in 329. — W. B. 
 
 CONSTANTINO], surnamed the Great, the first christian 
 emperor of Rome, was the son of the Emperor Constantius Chlorus 
 and Helena, and was born in 272 at Naissus in Daeia. Ih- 
 was brought up at the court of Diocletian, and served witli dis- 
 tinction under Galcrius in the Persian war. Apprehensive of 
 danger from the jealousy of that prince, ho sought and with 
 diiBculty obtained permission to join his father who was then in
 
 CON 
 
 1110 
 
 CON 
 
 Gaul, and accompanied him on his expedition to Britain and his 
 campaign against the Caledonians. On the death of his father 
 at York in 306, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by the 
 ai-my, and Galerius reluctantly acknowledged him as the sove- 
 reign of the provinces beyond the Alps, but gave him only the 
 title of Cffisar. Constantine took up his residence at Treviri 
 (Treves), and employed himself for some time in improving and 
 securing his own dominions, avoiding any intermeddling with the 
 civil contentions which at this time raged in other parts of the 
 Koman empire. In 307 he married Fausta, the daughterof Maxi- 
 min, who confen-cd on him the title of Augustus ; but three years 
 later that prince pei-fidiously formed a plot against the life of 
 Constantine, which terminated in his own overthrow and capture, 
 and death by his own hand. A civil war ensued between Con- 
 stantine and Maxentius, the son of Maximin. After several san- 
 guinai-y conflicts the struggle was brought to a close by the total 
 defeat of Maxentius near Rome, and he was di'owned in the Tiber 
 in his attempt to escape, in 312. Constantine entered Eome 
 next day, and was acknowledged emperor by the senate. It was 
 at this time that he adopted a new standard called the Labanum, 
 at the top of which was the monogram of the name of Christ, in 
 commemoi'ation, it is said, of a vision of a luminous cross which 
 Constantine is alleged to have seen in the sky with the inscription 
 " By this conquer." The Roman empire was shortly after 
 divided between Constantine and his brother-in-law Licinius; the 
 former reigning over the west, including Italy and Africa; the 
 latter over the eastern provinces, with Egypt. Constantine now 
 openly favoured the christian religion, and discountenanced and 
 prohibited the nocturnal assemblies and obscene rites of pagan- 
 ism. He bestowed certain gifts and privileges on the christian 
 churches, and exempted the clergy from personal taxes and civil 
 duties. The motives of his conversion have been variously stated ; 
 and there can be little doubt that it was his interest to gain the 
 support of the numerous party of christians in the Koman empire, 
 and that his general conduct did no great credit to his profession. 
 War broke out in 314 between him and Licinius. Two battles 
 were fought — one near Sirmium in Pannonia, and the other at 
 Adrianople, in both of which Licinius was defeated. He was 
 thus compelled to sue for peace, which was granted, on condition 
 that he should suiTender to his victorious rival Illyricum, Jlace- 
 donia, and Achaia. Constantine then promulgated several excel- 
 lent laws ameliorating the condition of the lower classes of his 
 subjects, and lessening the severity of the punishment inflicted 
 upon criminals; and in 321 he ordered the observance of the 
 christian sabbath, and abstinence from work on that day. In 
 the following year he defeated the Goths and other barbarous 
 tribes on the Danube and the Rhine, and pursued them into the 
 territories of Licinius. This was made the pretext for a new 
 war between the two emperors, in which Licinius was defeated, 
 and compelled to surrender to Constantine, who at first promised 
 him his life, but ultimately put him to death. Constantine was 
 now sole master of the Roman world ; but a series of domestic 
 tragedies — the execution of his son, his nephew, and his wife, on 
 charges the truth of which is doubtful — disturbed the tranquillity 
 of his government, and marred his happiness. He published 
 various edicts in favour of Christianity, forbade the consulting 
 of oracles, and abolished the combats of gladiators. He resolved 
 to transfer the seat of empire to Byzantium, which he called 
 after his own name, Constantinople. The new city was solemnly 
 dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and the emperor spared no pains 
 or expense in embellishing it, and attracting inhabitants to the 
 new capital by bestowing valuable privileges and donations of 
 corn and wine upon its inhabitants. In 328 he supported the 
 orthodox bishops at the council of Nicaja, which condemned the 
 Ai'ian doctrine; but, towards the close of his life, he recalled 
 several Arian bishops who had been banished by this council, a 
 step which led to a prolonged controversy between him and 
 Athanasius. In 337, when preparing to march against the 
 Persians, he fell ill at Nicomedia, and died there in his sixty- 
 fom-th year. He was baptized on his deathbed by Eusebius. 
 His three sons, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans, suc- 
 ceeded him in the empire. — J. T. 
 
 CONSTANTINE II., the eldest son of Constantine the Great, 
 on the death of his father, a.d. 337, received Gaul, Britain, 
 Spain, and part of Africa as his share of the empire. But 
 dissatisfied with this division, he made war on his brother 
 Constans, and was defeated and slain A.d. 340. 
 
 CONSTANTINE III., son of the Emperor Heraclius by his 
 
 first wife, Eudoxia, succeeded his father in a.d. 641. He was 
 of a weakly constitution, however, and his reign lasted only one 
 hundred and three days. A belief was generally entertained that 
 his death had been hastened by poison, alleged to have been 
 administered by his stepmother Martina, who was punished by 
 cutting out her tongue. 
 
 CONSTANTINE IV., surnamed Pogonatus, emperor of 
 Constantinople, ascended the throne on the death of his father, 
 Constans II., in 6G8, and died in 685.— W. 51. 
 
 CONSTANTINE V., surnamed Copronymus, son ot Leo 
 the Isaurian, succeeded to his father's throne in 741. Though 
 dissolute and tyrannical, he appears to have been a prince of 
 great ability and energy. It was during his reign that the con- 
 troversy on image- worship reached its height ; and he is well 
 known for the zeal with which he endeavom-ed to abolish the 
 use of images throughout the church. Died in 775. — W. M. 
 
 CONSTANTINE VI., grandson of the preceding, was at the 
 early age of five years associated in the empire with his father 
 Leo IV. On the death of Leo in 780, the Empress Irene was 
 appointed regent of the empire. She fonned a conspiracy to 
 dethrone Constantine, and to establish herself in the emjiire. 
 He was seized by a number of her partisans, and cruelly 
 deprived of sight, by having their daggers thrust into his eyes. 
 Irene succeeded him on the throne in 792, and he lived for 
 many years afterwards a life of obscmity. — W. M. 
 
 CONSTANTINE VII., surnamed Porpiiykogenitus, was 
 born in 905, and succeeded to the throne in 911, but did not 
 become sole emperor till 945. He spent a great part of his time 
 with his books and music, his pen and pencil. He is even said to 
 have been kept in such poverty during his minority, as to have 
 been reduced to the necessity of selling the paintings he had 
 executed. Constantine composed a great number of works, many 
 of which have come down to us. His principal writings are a 
 " Treatise on the Ceremonies of the Church and Palace of Con- 
 stantinople ;" an account of the Provinces or Thanes, as they 
 were termed, in Europe and Asia ; " A System of Tactics;" " An 
 Account of the Policy of the Imperial Court with respect to 
 Foreign Nations ;" " Basilics, or the Code and Pandects of Greek 
 Law ;" " Geoponics, or the Art of Agriculture;" and " Historical 
 Collections." Constantine died in 959, it is alleged by poison 
 administered by his sons, but the stoiy is probably false. — J. T. 
 
 CONSTAJSITINE VIIL, was the son of Komanus Lecapenus, 
 and was associated in the empu'e with his father. He united 
 with his brother Stephen in dethroning then- father ; but ven- 
 geance soon overtook the unnatural sons — they were seized, 
 degraded from the purple, and put in prison. Constantine was 
 afterwards banished to Samothrace, and lost his life in an attempt 
 to escape. 
 
 CONSTANTINE IX., son of Romanus IL, was bora in 961, 
 and succeeded to the throne in 976, along with his brother 
 Basil II. Upon the death of his brother, Constantine reigned 
 as sole emperor for about three years, and died in 1028. He 
 was the last emperor of the ]\Iacedonian dynasty. 
 
 CONSTANTINE X., surnamed Monomachus, succeeded 
 to the Eastern empire on his marriage with Zoe, daughter of 
 Constantine IX., in 1042. He gave himself up to a life of 
 indolence and debauchery, which soon aftected his health, and 
 ultimately hastened his death in 1054. — W. M. 
 
 CONSTANTINE XL, surnamed Ducas, a member of the 
 Comnenian family, succeeded to the throne on the abdication of 
 Isaac Comncnus in 1059. Died in 1067.— W. M. 
 
 CONSTANTINE XII., named Ducas, was the son of the 
 preceding, and succeeded his father in 1067, along vnth his 
 brothers, Michael and Andronicus, under the regency of then- 
 mother. Constantine was confined in a monastery by tlie usurper 
 Nicephorus III. Botoniates. The time and manner of his death 
 are uncertain. 
 
 CONSTANTINE XIIL, named Pal^ologus, the last of 
 the Greek emperors, was the fourth son of the Emperor Manuel 
 Pala;ologus, and was born in 1394. He ascended the throne in 
 1448, on the death of his brother John VII. The once mighty 
 Eastern empire was now reduced to little more than the limits of 
 the capital, on which the Turkish sultan, Mahomet II. , cast long- 
 ing eyes. He soon contrived to make an occasion of quarrel with 
 Constantine, and after vast preparations, commenced the siege 
 of Constantinople in 1453. In this last extremity Constantine 
 fought with heroic courage, and was bravely supported by the 
 scanty garrison of the city. The reiterated assaults of the
 
 CON 
 
 nil 
 
 coo 
 
 besiegers, in spite of tlieir overwhelming numbers, were repulsed 
 with great slaughter. At length JMahomct conceived the daring 
 scheme of transporting his lighter vessels by land, from the 
 Bosphorus to the higher part of the harbom-, a distance of ten 
 miles, and thus was enabled to make a double attack upon the 
 city, from the harbour as well as from the land. The garrison 
 was at last completely worn out by the persevering assaults of 
 the hordes of besiegers, and in May, 1453, the city was taken. 
 Constantine, who fought to the last with desperate courage, fell 
 amidst the tumult by an unknown hand, and his body was buried 
 under a mouutain of the slain. With him perished the Greek 
 empire. — J. T. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, elected emperor by the Koman army in 
 Britain in 407, had been a private soldier, and owed his eleva- 
 tion solely to his name. He performed his part, however, with 
 considerable success ; Gaul and Spain submitted to him ; and 
 Honorius, hard pressed liy the Goths, acknowledged his sove- 
 reignty in the hope of his assistance. After the death of Alaric 
 he was defeated by the fimous general Constantius, taken 
 prisoner, and put to death in 411. — W. B. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, Pope, was elected to the pontificate in 
 708. Two years later he visited the Emperor Justinian, and 
 received from him a ratification of the privileges and rights of 
 the church. His dispute with the archbishop of Milan respect- 
 ing the consecration of a bishop, issued in securing that preroga- 
 tive to the pope. He died in 715. — W. B. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, Antipope, was chosen by a party at the 
 death of Paul I. in 767. He owed his consecration to the 
 forcible interference of his brother, Duke Soton ; but in fittle 
 more than a year he was dethroned, and after being subjected 
 to various indignities and tortures, was immured in a convent 
 till his death.— W. B. 
 
 CONSTANTINE PAULOVICH, Grand Duke of Russia, was 
 the second son of Paul I., and born in 1779. He displayed the 
 spirit of a brave and hardy soldier in the military operations 
 against Napoleon, and specially distinguished himself by his 
 resolute stand and orderly retreat with the reserve at Austerlitz. 
 He afterwards held the office of commander-in-chief in Poland, 
 and at the death of his brother Alexander would have succeeded 
 to the throne ; but he had solemnly renounced his right to it. 
 Persisting in the act, he attended the coronation of his younger 
 brother Nicholas, and returned to Warsaw, where the severity of 
 his rule was one cause of the outbreak of 1830, in which he 
 narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the insurgents. He 
 died of cholera at Witepsk in the following year. — W. B. 
 
 CONSTANTINE VSEVOLODOVICH, born 1186, was cre- 
 ated Prince of Novogorod by his father Vsevolod, who then held 
 the sovereignty of Russia under the title of grand duke of Vladimir. 
 Subsequently transferred to the government of Rostof, he refused 
 to resign it to his brother George, in terms of their father's 
 arrangements respecting the succession ; and after the death of 
 Vsevolod, the two princes fought in 1216, at Yourief, a battle 
 which gave the grand dukedom to Constantine. He held it till 
 1219, in which year he died. — W. B. 
 
 CONSTANTINUS, sm-named Afkicanus, a medical writer 
 of the eleventh centmy. After travelling thirty-nine years in the 
 east in search of knowledge, he returned to Carthage, his native 
 city; but being suspected of magic, he took refuge with Duke 
 Robert of Salerno. He spent his latter years in the monastery 
 of Monte Cassino, where he wrote his works. These were pub- 
 lished at Basle in 1539.— R. M., A. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS I., sumamed Ciilorus, Roman emperor, 
 A.D. 305-306, was the son of Eutropius, a noble Dardanian. 
 He obtained the title of Cxsar by his victories in Britain and 
 Germany, and afterwards received the government of Britain, 
 Gaul, and Spain. Upon the abdication of Diocletian and 
 Maximian in 305, Constantius and Galerius became the Augnsti, 
 a title that was given only to the emperors. He died fifteen 
 months afterwards at Eboracum (York) in Britain. His son, 
 Constantine the Great, succeeded him in his share of the 
 government. — R. M., A. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS II., Roman emperor, a.d. 337-3G1, was 
 the third son of Constantine the Great by his second wife, 
 Fausta. On the death of Constantine, he received the East as 
 his share of the empire. He was engaged in a war with the 
 Persians, wMle his brothers Constantine and Constans were 
 contending for empire in the West ; but after the death of Con- 
 stans the whole empire became subject to him. He put to death 
 
 his cousin Gallus in 354. In 355 he raised Julian to the dignity 
 of Cajsar, and gave him the command in Gaul ; but the latter 
 having been proclaimed emperor at Paris, Constantius set out for 
 Em-ope, but died on his march at Cilicia in 361. — R. M., A. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS III., Emperor of the West, a.d. 421. The 
 success of his ai-ms won him the hand of Placidia, the sister of 
 Honorius, by the latter of whom he was declared Augustus in 
 421. He died in the seventh month of his reign. — R. M., A. 
 
 CONVERSO, GmoLAMO, a musician, was born at Corrcggio 
 before the middle of the sixteenth century. He is only known 
 by two books of madrigals published at Venice — one in 1575, 
 and one in 1584 — several pieces from which, adapted .to Engfish 
 words, are greatly esteemed in this country. — G. A. M. 
 
 CONWAY, Henry SEyjiouR, an English general and states- 
 man, second son of the first Lord Conway, was born in 1720. 
 He served in the Seven Years' war, and commanded with high 
 reputation the British forces in Germany under Prince Fer- 
 dinand of Brunswick in 1761. On his return to England he 
 obtained a seat in parliament, and held the oflSce of secretary 
 of state from 1765 till 1768. He returned to the exercise of 
 his profession, and in 1782 was appointed commander of the 
 forces. He was the author of a comedy called " False Appear- 
 ances," and of a variety of poetical pieces and political tracts. 
 General Conway is better known as the intimate friend of Horace 
 Walpole. He died in 1795.— J. T. 
 
 CONYBEARE, John Josias, an English dirine and geolo- 
 gist, was born in 1779, and died in 1824. He was educated at 
 Westminster and Oxford. He was made Anglo-Saxon professor 
 in 1807, and professor of poetry m 1812. In 1824 he preached 
 the Bampton lecture. Conybeare was devoted to geology and 
 chemistry, in tlie former of which especially he attained to con- 
 siderable eminence. — R. M., A. 
 
 CONYBEARE, John, D.D., a learned prelate of the church 
 of England, born at Pinhoe, near Exeter, in 1692 ; died at Bath 
 in 1755. He was educated at Exeter college, Oxford, of which 
 he became a probationary fellow in 1710. Ordained priest in 
 1716, he held for some time a curacy in Surrey; became one of 
 his majesty's preachers at Whitehall ; was appointed rector of 
 St. Clement's in Oxford in 1724 ; and m 1730, after taking his 
 degree of D.D., was raised to the headship of Exeter college. 
 Two years afterwards he published his celebrated " Defence of 
 Revealed Religion," in answer to Tindal's Christianity as Old as 
 the Creation. In 1750 Dr. Conybeare succeeded Butler in the 
 see of Bristol, the latter being translated to Durham. 
 
 CONYBEARE, Veiy liev. William Danill, dean of 
 Llandaff", a distinguished geologist, was the son of a clergyman 
 in London, bom on the 27th of June, 1787. He entered Christ 
 Church college, Oxford, in January, 1805, and took his degree 
 of B.A. in 1808, and M.A. in 1811. IMr. Conybeare was one 
 of the earliest founders of the Geological Society, and his papers, 
 contributed to the Transactions of that society, pro\-e how 
 earnestly he laboured in this field of scientific inquiry. He was 
 the first to describe the plesiosauras in his paper read before 
 the Geological Society of London, a paper that procured for him 
 from Cuvier the highest encomiums which one philosopher 
 could bestow on another. His papers on coal-fields are most 
 valuable — scientifically and practically. He drew up the report 
 for the British Association in 1832 on the progress, actual state, 
 and ulterior prospects of geological science. His published 
 papers, according to Agassiz's Bibliography, amount to sixteen 
 in number— all of which are of great scientific interest. Mr. 
 Conybeare was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1819. 
 He was also a corresponding member of the Royal Institute of 
 France, and a fellow of the Geological Society. He became 
 dean of Llandaft' in 1845, having been previously public 
 preacher in his own university, and Bampton lecturer in 1839. 
 He died, 12th August, 1857, aged seventy-one years.— E. L. 
 
 CONZ. See KoNZ. 
 
 COOKE Bknjajiin,Mus. Doc, a cclebrnted English musician, 
 was the son of Benjamin Cooke, a nmsic-scller in New street, 
 Covent garden. He was born in 1732, and lost his father at 
 the early age of nine years; but previously to that event he had 
 been placed under the instructions of Dr. Pepusch, and made so 
 rapid a progress, that at twelve years old ho was com])etcnt to 
 the duty of deputy-organist of Westminster abbey. In 1757 
 he succeeded Bernard Gates as lay-clerk and master of the boys 
 at Westminster abbey; and in 1762 he was, without any solici- 
 tation on his part, appointed by Bishop Pearce, then dean of
 
 coo 
 
 1112 
 
 COO 
 
 A\'estmmster, organist of that foundation. In 1777 the university 
 of Cambridge bestowed on bim the degree of doctor of music, on 
 wliicb occasion bis exercise was an antbem — " Bebold bow good 
 and joyful " — originally written for tbe installation of tbe duke 
 of York as a knight of tbe bath in Henry VII.'s chapel, and 
 which, we believe, continued to be performed at all subsequent 
 iustallations of that order down to 1812. From an early age 
 Dr. Cooke had been subject to frequent attacks of the gout; 
 which, added to an aftection of the lungs, brought to a close a 
 life of unsullied integrity and virtue on the 14tli of September, 
 1793. Dr. Cooke's chief printed works are two books of canons, 
 glees, rounds, and duets; Galliard's Lloming Hymn, with 
 the addition of choruses and instnimcntal accompaniments ; 
 Collins' Ode on the P;issions ; and the well-known ser\'ice in 
 the key of G. Many of his glees and canons obtained prize 
 medals at tbe Glee club, and are printed in Warren's collection. 
 The " Amen" canon, engraven on his tablet in the cloisters of 
 Westminster abbey, is well known and deservedly admired by 
 the amateurs of that species of composition. Amongst his secular 
 productions, the most popular have been the duets, " Thyrsis 
 when he left me," and " Let Rubinelli charm the ear ; " his 
 Spartan chorus, " I have been young ;" and his glees, " Deb 
 Dove;" "As now the Shades of Eve ;" " How sleeps the Brave;" 
 "Hark! the Lark;" "In Paper Case;" and "In the merry 
 month of 5Iay " — the last of which is an admirable mixture of 
 the old English madrigal and the modern glee. A list of Dr. 
 Cooke's compositions for the church is given in Novello's Life 
 of Purcell. That enthusiastic musician adds, " It will scarcely 
 be believed that the whole of the above fine collection of church 
 nnisic has been allowed to remain unpublished and neglected ; 
 but it is earnestly to be hoped that those who are interested in 
 the presen-ation and improvement of English sacred music vnH, 
 without fui'ther delay, endeavour to rescue these musical trea- 
 sures from the oblivion to which they are now hastening." In 
 this appeal we most earnestly join. — E. F. R. 
 
 COOK, George, D.D., a historical and theological writer, 
 was the second son of John Cook, professor of moral philosophy 
 in the imiversity of St. Andrews, where he was bom in 1773. 
 He entered the university at an early age, and was licensed 
 to preach on the 30th of April, 1795. On the 3rd Septem- 
 ber of the same year he was ordained minister of Laurencekii'k 
 in Kiucardineshu'e. His first work, published in 1808, M'as 
 entitled " Illustration of the General Evidence establishing 
 Christ's Resurrection." His "History of the RefoiTnation," a 
 work of much authoiity and value, appeared in 1811 in three 
 volumes, 8vo. It was followed in 1815 by the "History of the 
 Church of Scotland," a work of simOar extent. In 1820 he 
 published his "Life of Principal Hill," and hi 1822 "A General 
 and Historical View of Christianity." In 1825 he was chosen 
 moderator of the general assembly, and on the 2Gth of July of 
 the following year, was nominated one of the royal commissioners 
 for visiting the universities of Scotland. In 1828 Dr. Cook was 
 appointed to the chair of moral philosophy in the university of 
 St. Andrews. The duties of this office he di.scharged with pains- 
 taking assiduity and remarkable efficiency. He began early to 
 t;die a prominent part in the business of church coiu'ts, and was 
 for nearly twenty years the acknowledged leader of the moderate 
 jiarty in the general assembly. His death took place suddenly at 
 St. Andrews on the 13th May, 1845. As leader of the moderate 
 party in the Scottish chmx-h during tlie contest which terminated 
 in the Disniption, Dr. Cook conducted the debates with singular 
 amenity and admirable candour. 
 
 COOKE, Geoege Frederick, a popular English actor, was 
 born at Westminster in 1755. Upon the death of his father, 
 who had been an officer in the amiy, young Cooke went with 
 his mother to Berwick-upon-Tweed. He was apprenticed at 
 the usual age to a pruiter, but ultimately abandoned his trade 
 for the stage, and made his first appearance at Brentford in 
 tbe character of Dumont, in the tragedy of Jane Shore. HLs 
 debut in London in 1778 attracted little notice. He then went 
 to Ireland, and after having been twenty-two years tbe hero of 
 the Dublhi stage, returned to London, and became the rival of 
 Kemble. In 1810 he went to New York, where his death, 
 which was hastened by his intemperate habits, occurred two 
 years afterwards. — R. M., A. 
 
 COOKE, Henry, a musician, was educated at the chapel 
 royal in the reign of Charles I. ; but, at the commencement of 
 the rebellion, he quitted it and entered the anny. About the 
 
 year 1G42 he had interest enough to obtain a captain's commis- 
 sion ; and from that time be was always distinguished by the 
 title of Captain Cook. The loyalty and skill of this musical 
 soldier recommended him to the notice and secured him the 
 patronage of Charles II., by whom in IGGO he was appointed 
 master of the children of the royal chapel. In IGGl a hymn in 
 four parts of the captain's composition, was performed instead of 
 the litany in St. George's chapel, Windsor, by order of the 
 sovereign and knights of the garter. None of bis church music 
 has hitherto been printed ; and if we may judge from his few 
 secular compositions that are to be found dispersed in the 
 collections of the time, he seems to have been by no means 
 qualified for tbe liigh office to which he was appointed. A large 
 collection of his church music is preserved in JIS. in the cele- 
 brated Aldrich collection at Christ chmxh, Oxford. Whatever 
 were his merits as a composer, he is at least entitled to some 
 distinction as the first instructor of the celebrated Heniy Purcell. 
 He was also the master of Blow, Wise, and Humphrey ; and 
 Wood tells us in the Ashmoleau MS., No. 85G8, that he was 
 " the best musician of his time tUl Mr. Pelham Humphi-ey, one 
 of the children of the chapel educated by himself, began to rival 
 him, after which he died with great discontent." — E. F. R. 
 
 COOKE, Henry, an English piunter, bom in 1642, studied 
 in Italy under Salvator Rosa. In the later part of liis life he 
 obtained considerable patronage, and was even employed by King 
 William to repair the cartoons and other pictmes in the royal 
 gallery. He comjjleted the equestrian portrait of Charles II., 
 at Chelsea college, and painted the choir of new college chapel, 
 Oxford. He died November, 18th 1700. " I have his own head 
 by him" writes AValpole, " touched vdih spirit, but too dark, 
 and the colouring not natural.." — W. T 
 
 COOK, Caitain James, the celebrated navigator, was bom 
 October 27th, 1728, at the \'illage of Marton, Yorkshire. His 
 father was an agricultural labourer there, and afterwards a farm- 
 baililF at Great Ayrton, where his famous son received the rudi- 
 ments of instmction in writuig and arithmetic. Before he was 
 thirteen yeai-s of age James Cook was apprenticed to a haber- 
 dasher at Stiuths, near Whitby, but he disliked the employment; 
 and some disagreement having taken place between him and his 
 master he obtained his discharge, and following the strong bent 
 of his mind, he went as an apprentice on board a collier belong- 
 ing to Whitby, and continued in the employment of its owners 
 until he rose to the situation of mate. In 1755 he entered 
 the royal navy as a volunteer, and soon acquu-ed the character of 
 a skilful and trustworthy seaman. His steadiness and activity 
 attracted the notice of Captain (afterwards Sir Hugh) PaUiser, 
 and backed by the influence of Mr. Osbaldiston, M.P. for Scar- 
 borough, obtained for him in 1759 the appointment of master to 
 the Meratry, in which he sailed to tbe St. Lawi-ence, and was 
 present at the captiu-e of Quebec by General Wolfe. Cook ren- 
 dered important service to the expedition by taking somidings 
 of the river opposite to the French camp, and on one occasion 
 narrowly escaped being captiu-ed by the Indians. He afterwards 
 surveyed and made a chart of the St. Lawrence from Quebec to the 
 sea, which was published in London along with saUing dkections for 
 that river. In September, 1759, Cook was appointed master of 
 the Nortkmnherland man-of-war, and spent the following winter 
 at Hahfax, Nova Scotia, where he employed his leisure in the dili- 
 gent study of mathematics and astronomy, and thus qualified 
 liimself for the higher situations in liis profession. In 1762 he 
 assisted in the recapture of Newfoundland. Towards the close 
 of this year he retm-ned to England, but was not allowed to 
 remain long at home. Early in 1763 be was" sent out to survey 
 the whole coast of Newfoundland, and next year he was appointed 
 marine suneyor of Newfoundland and Labrador. The valuable 
 charts which he constructed of these comitries, together with bis 
 accurate obsenation of an eclipse of tbe sun, which he had made 
 at one of the Benger islands, g;iined for him a high reputation for 
 scientific skill, and pointed bim out as a fit person to conduct an 
 expedition that was undertaken in 1767 for the purpose of 
 making obsen-ations on tbe impending transit of Venus over the 
 face of the sun, and prosecuting geographical obsciTations in the 
 South Pacific ocean. With this view be received the conunission 
 of a Ueutenant, and was appointed to the command of tbe ship 
 Endeavour, of 370 tons. Accompanied by Sir Joseph Banks 
 and other scientific gentlemen, he set sad on the 2Cth August, 
 1768, and on the 13th of April, 1769, reached Otaheite (now 
 Tahiti), which had been selected as the most eligible spot for
 
 making the observations. The object was accomplished on the 
 3rd of June, with complete success. On the IStli of July Cook 
 quitted Otaheite, and after visiting the other Society Islands 
 sailed southward in quest of the gi-eat continent, which was then 
 supposed to exist in the Pacific ocean. On the 6tli of October, 
 he reached New Zealand, but was prevented from exploring 
 it by the hostility of the natives. He then proceeded to New 
 Holland (now Australia), of which he took possession in the 
 name of Great Britain, denominating the eastern coast, which 
 he had explored. New South Wales. He next made for New 
 Guinea, sailing through the strait which now bears his name, 
 and thus proved that Australia and New Guinea were distinct 
 islands. He thence proceeded to Batavia where he was obliged 
 to remain two months and a half to repair his shattered ship. 
 On the 27th of December he quitted this place, the pestilential 
 climate of which proved fatal to many of his crew ; and on the 
 12th of June, 1771, the Endeavour, after encountering many 
 imminent dangers and narrowly escaping shipwreck, anchored 
 safely in the Downs. The results of this voyage, which made 
 vast additions to our scientific and geographical knowledge, 
 excited general and deep interest, and whetted the public appe- 
 tite for still further discoveries. Shortly after his return Cook 
 was promoted to the rank of commander, and it was resolved 
 to fit out another expedition under his charge, to circumnavigate 
 the whole globe in high southern latitudes, with the view of 
 solving the much-agitated question of the existence of a southern 
 continent. Two vessels, the Resolution of 460 tons, and the 
 Adcenture of 336, wth a complement in all of 193 men, were 
 accordingly commissioned for this purpose, and sailed on the 
 13th of July, 1772. Captain Cook reached the Cape of Good 
 Hope on the 30th of October, and quitting it on the 22nd of 
 November made his traverses, as instructed, in the high latitudes 
 in the Southern ocean, but without discovering any traces of the 
 terra incognita. He therefore shaped his course for New Zea- 
 land, which he reached, March 26th, 1773, after having been 
 117 days at sea, and traversed 3160 leagues. After spending 
 the winter months (our summer) among the Society Islands, 
 Captain Cook resumed in November his search for the southern 
 continent, to the eastward between the 60th and 70th parallels 
 of latitude; and on the 30th of January reached the latitude of 
 71° 10' south, where he was finally stopped by the ice. He then 
 returned southward, and navigating the southern tropic from 
 Easter Island to the New Hebrides, discovered the large island 
 which he called New Caledonia. After refreshing his crew at 
 New Zealand, he traversed the Pacific in still higher latitudes in 
 quest of the desired continent, but without effect ; and giving up 
 all hope of findhig any considerable land in these latitudes, he 
 turned homewards, and anchored at Spithead on the 30th of July, 
 1774, after an absence of three years and eighteen days. He 
 was received with marked honours, was immediately raised to 
 the rank of post-captain and appointed captain of Greenwich 
 hospital ; and soon after he was elected a member of the Royal 
 Society, and received the Copley gold medal for the best experi- 
 mental paper of the year. The remarkable success of the 
 methods he had employed for preserving the health of his men 
 during this voyage, attracted universal attention, and contri- 
 buted greatly to his high reputation as a navigator. His own 
 journal of this voyage is written in a plain and manly style, which 
 does equal credit to his ability and his good sense. During 
 the absence of Captain Cook in the southern ocean, the attention 
 of the government had been turned towards the discovery of a 
 north-west passage, from the north Atlantic to the north Pacific 
 oceans, and it was resolved that an expedition should be fitted 
 out for this pui-pose. Although Captain Cook had well earned 
 a right to repose after so many years of labour and anxiety, 
 he promptly volunteered his services to conduct the expedition. 
 His offer was at once gladly accepted. Two vessels were accord- 
 ingly fitted out for the exploratory voyage and placed under his 
 care, namely, his old ship, the Resolution, and the Discovery, 
 under the command of Captain Clarke. His instructions were, to 
 reverse the usual course of arctic voyagers, and to proceed first 
 to the Pacific, revisiting the chain of newly-discovered islands 
 and disseminating among them a variety of useful animals, which 
 he carried with him for that purpose. He was next to turn 
 northwards along the western coast of America as far as latitude 
 65°, and then to endeavour to find a passage to the Atlantic by the 
 high northern latitudes between Asia and America. The requi- 
 site preparations having been made, the Resolution quitted Ply- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 mouth on the 12th July, 1776, and the Z)/score?'t/ followed soon 
 after. They reached the Friendly Islands in the spring of 1777 ; 
 and after remaining there for several months. Captain Cook set 
 sail for the north in January, 1778. On his way he discovered 
 a group to which he gave the name of the Sandwich Islands, after 
 the nobleman who was then at the head of the Admiralty. He 
 reached the coast of America on March 7th; and following the 
 coast line to the extreme northern point of the Pacific, he 
 explored the deep bay afterwards known as Cook's Inlet, but 
 without discovering the expected passage. He then made sail 
 for Behring's Strait, but on reaching latitude 70° 41' (August 
 18) he was stopped by an impenetrable wall of ice. 
 
 Keturning to winter at the Sandwich Islands, he discovered 
 Mowee and Owhyhee, at the latter of which his adventurous 
 career was suddenly cut short by a tragical death. During the 
 night of February 13, 1779, the cutter of the Discovery was 
 stolen, and Cook went ashore next day to try to recover it. He 
 put in practice his usual expedient of seizing the king of the 
 island, with the intention of detaining him on board his ship 
 till the stolen article was restored. On his return to the boats 
 a scuffle ensued with the natives, and the marines were com- 
 pelled to fire in self-defence. Cook, who was the last person to 
 retire, was separated from his men, surrounded by a crowd of 
 savages, and, in spite of a \-igorous resistance, was at length 
 overpowered and killed. His body was left in the possession of 
 the natives, and the bones only were subsequently recovered and 
 committed to the deep with the usual honours. The intelligence 
 of this melancholy event was received, not in Britain only but 
 throughout all Em'ope, with general lamentation ; high honours 
 were paid to his memory, and a pension was settled upon his 
 widow and children. An account of his third voyage from his 
 own journal, continued by Lieutenant King, was published at the 
 expense of government. — J. T. 
 
 COOKE, JoHX, IM.D., an intelligent and highly-educated 
 physician who practised in London in the beginning of the present 
 century. He was elected physician to the general dispensar}', 
 Aldersgate Street, the first institution of the kind established in 
 London, and afterwards became physician to the London hospital. 
 Here he delivered regular courses of lectures on the practice of 
 medicine, which duty, in connection with the physiciancy to the 
 hospital, he held for fifteen years. His health declining, his 
 labours became restricted to private practice, in which he was 
 vei-y successful. Dr. Cooke received the fellowship of the college 
 of physicians m 1809. In 1819 he was appointed to dehver the 
 Croonian lectures at the college, and he chose for his subject, 
 "The Nervous System." In 1830 he delivered the Harveian 
 oration in a powerful and admirable address. He was a fellow 
 of the Royal Society, of the Society of Antiquaries, and during 
 the years 1822-23, president of the Medico-chirurgical Society. 
 He died on the 1st January, 1838, having anived, it is supposed, 
 at the advanced age of eighty-sis or eighty-seven years. — E. L. 
 
 COOKE, Robert, organist and master of the choristers of 
 Westminster abbey, the son of Dr. Benjamin Cooke, was a 
 composer of considerable abihty. In addition to some clever 
 glees and other secular music, especially a song in imitation of 
 Purcell, which he wrote expressly for Bartleman, he produced 
 an evening service in C, which has been printed ; and an 
 anthem beginning, "I looked, and lo! a Lamb stood on Mount 
 Sion." He was unfortunately drowned in the Thames in the 
 year 1814.— E. F. R. 
 
 COOKE, Thomas, a musician, was bom in Dublin in 1782, 
 and died in London, 31st March, 1848. His precocious talent 
 for his art was first cultivated by his father, a musician by pro- 
 fession, and he was afterwards taught composition by Giordani. 
 When very young for the office, he was cngiged as music director 
 and leader of the band at the Dublin theatre, where, .ilso, he 
 first .appeared as a vocalist in the pasticcio opera of The Siege 
 of Belgrade. He came to London as principal tenor at the 
 English Opera house, and was engaged in the same capacity at 
 Drury Lane theatre for several years. Retiring afterwards from 
 the stage, except for the performance of certain special charac- 
 ters, he officiated as music director, composer, and leader, at 
 this' latter establishment for a long period, .and, alternately, at 
 Drury Lane and Covcnt Garden, luitil Mr. Macrcady retired 
 from management in 1843. He was more distinguished for his 
 prompt facility, both in composition and performance, than for 
 particular excellence in cither; though the gi-eat popularity of 
 many of his productions, and the important offices he filled 
 •' 7 B
 
 with honour, prove him to have possessed no ordinary talent. 
 So great was his aptitude as an executant, that on one occa- 
 sion, at his benefit at Drury Lane theatre in 1820, after singing 
 the cliief part in an opera, he phiyed solos on nine different 
 instruments. He was repeatedly elected director of the Phil- 
 harmonic Society, and was the only person who ever alternated 
 the duties of conductor and leader at the concerts of that insti- 
 tution. He was one of the leaders also at the Westminster 
 Abbey festival of 1834, and was a member of every musical 
 society of importance in London. His prize glee, " The 
 Seasons," written in 1828, was the first of many that won the 
 same laurels, and proved his capability for that species of com- 
 position to be as felicitous, as did his many theatrical works 
 that for dramatic music. His elementary treatise ou singing 
 was held in much esteem, and his success as a teacher was shown 
 in his celebrated pupils, JNIiss ]\L Tree, Sirs. Austin, and Sliss 
 Rainforth. He was scarcely less noted as a wit than as a 
 musician, and thus all the musical jokes of his time were 
 characteristically fathered upon him. He was a brilliant com- 
 panion, and his kindly encouragement of young artists influenced 
 not a little the progi'ess of music in England among the present 
 generation. — His son, Henry Axgelo Michael (familiarly 
 known as Grattax) Cooke, was one of the first students of the 
 Royal Academy of Music, where lie gained great distinction. 
 He held, for many years, all the chief engagements as oboist in 
 England, and was bandmaster of the Life Guards. — G. A. M. 
 
 COOKE, Thomas, a poet, born about 1707, and died in 
 1750. When only nineteen years of age, he edited the vi'orks 
 of Andrew Marvell. In 1728 was published his translation of 
 Hesiod. He also translated Terence, Cicero's De Natura Deoram, 
 and the Amphitryon of Plautus. His ridicule of Pope's Odyssey 
 in the farce entitled '"Penelope," secured for his name the 
 unenviable immortality of the Dunciad. — R. ^L, A. 
 
 COOKE, William, a miscellaneous writer, born at Cork, and 
 died in 1824. He came to London, and having purchased a 
 share in two public journals, devoted himself to literary labours. 
 He wi'ote a poem on '• The Art of Living in London," and 
 another entitled " Conversation," besides " Lives of the Actors 
 Macklin and Foote." — R. j\L, A. 
 
 COOMBE, William, a miscellaneous writer, bom at Bristol 
 in 1741, and died in 1823. He was educated at Eton and 
 Oxford, squandered a large fortune, and found himself dependent 
 on literary pursuits. His best known work is " The Tour of 
 Doctor Syntax in search of the Picturesque." He wrote also 
 " The Devil upon Two Sticks in England ; " " The Diaboliad ; " 
 "The English Dance of Death;" " Tlie Dance of Life;" "The 
 Royal Register," in 9 vols., &c. — R. M., A. 
 
 COOPER. See Shaftesbury. 
 
 COOPER, Sir Astley Paston, a distinguished sargeon, 
 was born at Brooke in the county of Norfolk, on the 23rd of 
 August, 1768. His father. Dr. Cooper, was the curate of the 
 place. His mother was a popular authoress in her day, and 
 published several novels and other works, the object of which 
 was to elevate the position of women. Astley was the fourth 
 son of these parents. He was distinguished as a boy for his 
 liveliness of disposition, his love of enterprise and fun, rather 
 than for any tendency to study. A simple incident, however — 
 in which, by binding a tight bandage over the upper part of a 
 limb, he stopped bleeding from a wounded artery, and thus 
 saved a boy's life — determined him to make surgery his pro- 
 fession. When in his thirteenth year his father was presented 
 with the living of Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, to which ])lace 
 he removed. In August, 1784, young Cooper left home for 
 London, and was bound apprentice to his uncle, Mr. William 
 Cooper, one of the surgeons of Guy's hospital ; but with him he 
 only remained three months, being then transfeiTcd by his own 
 desire to Mr. Cline, the eminent surgeon of St. Thomas's Hospi- 
 tal. He also attended the lectures of John Hunter, and was one 
 of the few who comprehended the real value of this great man's 
 theories and experiments. In 1787 Sir Astley visited Edinburgh 
 for a short time, and distinguished himself at the Royal Medical 
 Society, though he had not reached twenty years of age. On 
 his return to London he was made demonstrator of anatomy at 
 St. Thomas' hospital; and in 1791 he was pennitted to take 
 part, in connection with Jlr. Cline, in the lectures on anatomy 
 and surgery which were then delivered. His first class con- 
 sisted of fifty students, which rapidly increased to four hundred, 
 the largest ever known in London. He was married in the 
 
 same year to Miss Cock, a distant relation of Mr. Cline. In 
 1792 he visited Paris, and attended the lectures of Desault and 
 Chopart. Here he was on the breaking out of the Revolution 
 on the 10th of August. In the next course of lectures he 
 delivered in London he confined himself wholly to surgery, and 
 this was the first course given on that subject independent of 
 anatomy. It was perfectly successful. In 1792 he commenced 
 practice as a surgeon. His popularity soon became enormous, 
 and he is said to have received larger fees for special operations 
 than were ever known in the profession. As a lecturer, too, 
 he was remarkably successful. The earliest of his literary pro- 
 ductions was published in 1798 in the Medical Records and 
 Researches. On the death of his uncle in 1800 he was appointed 
 surgeon to Guy's hospital ; and in this and the following year 
 read two papers before the Royal Society, for which he obtained 
 the Copleian medal of the Royal Society for 1802. In 1805 he 
 was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In the same year he 
 took an active part in the fonnation of the Medico-Chirargical 
 Society, which arose out of some disagreement in the London 
 Medical Society. Mr. Cooper is recorded to have been the first 
 to try the possibility of tying the carotid artery in aneurism. 
 Although his case was unsuccessful, it led the way to future suc- 
 cess in the operation. In 1804 he published the first part of his 
 great work on Hernia, and in 1807 the second part appeared. The 
 great expense of the work prevented its extensive sale, and as a 
 commercial speculation he was greatly the loser by it ; but it added 
 to his increasing reputation, and in 1813 his annual income 
 amounted to twenty-one thousand pounds, probably the largest 
 ever made by a medical practitioner. In 1813 he was appointed 
 professor of comparative anatomy to the College of Surgeons. In 
 1817 he performed one of his remarkable operations — that of 
 tying the aorta. It was not successful, but was one of the 
 boldest attempts in the annals of surgery. In 1818, in con- 
 junction with his former pupil and colleague, Mr. Travers, he 
 commenced publishing a series of surgical essays, but the plan 
 was shortly after abandoned. In 1820 Cooper was called in 
 to attend on King George IV., although he held no oflScial posi- 
 tion at court. Shortly after he removed a steatomatous tumour 
 from the head of the king, and was then ofi'ered a baronetcy, 
 which he accepted on the condition that, having no son, the title 
 shoidd descend to his nephew, Astley Cooper. In 1822 he 
 was elected one of the court of examiners of the College of 
 Surgeons; and the same year he brought out his great work 
 on "Dislocations and Fractures." In 1817 he became president 
 of the College of Surgeons. The grief which the death of his 
 wife in this year occasioned, induced him to retire from practice 
 to his estate at Gadesbridge. Here he lived but a short time, 
 returning to London and to his active life in 1828. The same 
 year he man-ied again, and was appointed serjeant-surgeon 
 to the king. In 1830 he became vice-president of the Royal 
 Society. In 1829 the first part appeared of a work on "The 
 Anatomy and Diseases of the Breast," which was completed in 
 1840. This was a worthy companion to his previous labours. 
 In 1832 a treatise on the " Thymus Gland" from his pen threw 
 light on the obscure nature of this organ of the body. He was 
 a member of the Royal Institute of France, and an intimate 
 friend of the celebrated surgeon, Dupuytren. In 1834, on the 
 occasion of the installation of the duke of Wellington at Oxford, 
 he received from that university the honorary degi-ee of doctor of 
 civil law. In 1837 he visited Edinburgh, where new honours 
 awaited him. He was made an LL.D. of that university, the 
 freedom of the city was presented to him, and a pubhc dinner 
 was given him by the College of Surgeons. In the year 1840 
 attacks of giddiness, to which he had been subject, increased, 
 and he had much difficulty of breathing. He died on the 26th 
 of February, 1841, in the seventy-third year of his age. He 
 was buried beneath the chapel of Guy's hospital. A statue to 
 his memory by Bailey has been erected in St. Paul's cathedral. 
 In his will he left £100 a year, to be given every third year to 
 the best essay on some surgical subject. — E. L. 
 
 COOPER, Daniel, an English naturahst, died at Leeds on 
 23rd November, 1842, at the age of twenty-five. He was 
 educated for the medical profession, and devoted himself to the 
 study of natural histoiy, more especially of botany and con- 
 chology. He took an active part in the establishment of the 
 Botanical Society of liOndon, and afterwards became one of the 
 assistants in the zoological department of the British museum. 
 He published in 1836 a " Flora Metropohtana, or Guide to the
 
 stations of the Rarer Plants in the vicinity of London." A 
 supplement to the work was published in 1837. He also super- 
 intended a new edition of Bingley's Useful Knowledge.— J. H. B. 
 COOPER, James Fenimore, an eminent American novelist, 
 •was born at Burlington, New Jersey, September 15th, 1789. 
 His father. Judge William Cooper, sat in congi-ess in 1795 and 
 1801. His son passed his boyhood on an ancestral estate near 
 Otsego Lake, New York, where he had ample opportunity of 
 becoming acquainted with the pioneer settlers, the trappers and 
 the Indians, the characters and the scenes, which he afterwards 
 introduced with so much effect in his novels. After receiNnng a 
 careful home education, he entered Yale college in 1802. The 
 love of adventure and a longing for a sailor's life tempted him to 
 leave college in 1805 ; and a midshipman's warrant being obtained 
 for him, he entered the United States navy in that year, and 
 continued in the service till 1811. This was the second school 
 for the formation of the future novehst ; here he acquired that 
 familiarity with nautical manoeuvres, with naval incidents and 
 personages, which is so conspicuous in one class of his romances. 
 Having obtained the rank of lieutenant, he resigned his commis- 
 sion in 1811, married, and established his home at Mamaroneck 
 in West Chester county, near the city of New York. Hence- 
 forward his life was that of a private gentleman and a man of 
 letters. He had no need to write for money, and fame always 
 seemed of little account to him, as he never husbanded his repu- 
 tation, but wrote freely and carelessly, with a full indulgence of 
 his tastes, his whims, and, it must be confessed, of an irritable 
 and wayward temper. After a residence of a few years, he left 
 West Chester county, " the Neutral Ground " which was the 
 scene of " The Spy," and made his home at Cooperstown, where 
 his literaiy labours began. "Precaution" was his first work; it 
 was published anonymously in two volumes, and passed quietly 
 into oblivion, as it had little merit. " The Spy, a tale of the 
 Neutral Ground," appeared in 1821, and had immediate and 
 marked success. The writer's strength consisted chiefly in his 
 descriptive power, and his skill as a narrator; and the plot, 
 though it has some ill-fitted episodes, is better constracted than 
 in any of his subsequent stories. In 1823 Cooper published 
 "The Pioneers, or the sources of the Susquehanna," a novel 
 evidently founded on his recollections of his early life. No one 
 who had not lived in the backwoods could have sketched so 
 happily the humours, occupations, and sports of an infant settle- 
 ment. " The Pilot " came next, the first and best of Cooper's 
 inimitable sea-stories, a department of his art in which he is con- 
 fessedly without a rival. " Lionel Lincoln " and " The Last of 
 the Mohicans " followed, and the last is probably the most 
 generally popular of all the author's works. In 1827 "The 
 Prairie" was published, and with this book closes the first and 
 best series of Mr. Cooper's novels. He would have left a greater 
 reputation if he had stopped here, and not written another Hne, 
 though we should then have missed his most characteristic pi-o- 
 ductions. In 1826 he visited Europe, and remained abroad till 
 1833, being very favourably received, as his works had already 
 been translated into many languages, and acquired gi-eat popu- 
 larity. "The Bravo;" "The Heidenmauer ;" " The Headsman 
 of Berne ; " " Notions of the Americans, by a TravelHng 
 Bachelor" (1828, 2 vols. 12mo); "Sketches of Switzerland;" 
 "Gleanings in Europe, France, and Italy;" "The Red Rover;" 
 " The Water Witch," and " The Wept of the Wish Ton Wish," 
 flowed from his fertile pen in this period of six years. Several 
 of these works betray the acrimonious temper which, on his 
 return home, involved Jlr. Cooper in endless warfare with editors 
 and pamphleteers. About 18-15 he pubhshed a series of three 
 novels, "Satanstoe," "The Chain Bearer," and "The Redskins." 
 His " Naval History of the United States," 2 vols. 8vo, an 
 able and elaborate work, appeared in 1839, and was followed 
 by a plentiful crop of personal controversies. Two other tales, 
 " The Path-finder" and " The Deer-slayer," were published 
 in 1840-41. We need not give the titles of Mr. Cooper's 
 remaining works, having already enumerated enough to give 
 some idea of his amazing industry and perseverance. The 
 whole list comprises thirty-three different novels, and twelve 
 miscellaneous publications, making an aggregate of over eighty 
 volumes; an amount of literary activity paralleled in our own 
 day and language only by Southey and Scott. It is not difficult 
 to anticipate the verdict of posterity upon their merits. Two- 
 thu-ds of them will probably never reach the honour of a second 
 edition, and will be remembered only among the curiosities of 
 
 literature. But enough will yet remain to give their author a 
 high rank among those who have done much to alleviate the 
 sorrows, dissipate the ennui, and increase the stock of harmless 
 delights of their fellow-men. Mr. Cooper was engaged upon 
 two other works, one of history and the other of romance, when 
 he was interrupted by fatal disease, which caused his death at 
 Cooperstown, September 14, 1851. — ]\Iiss Susan Cooper, the 
 daughter of the novelist, is the author of two volumes of merit, 
 " Rural Hours" and " The Rhyme and Reason of Country 
 Life."— F. B. 
 
 COOPER, John Gilbert, an English poet, bom in 1723, 
 and died in 1769. He wrote "The Power of Harmony," a 
 poem; "The Life of Socrates;" and "Letters on Taste." 
 Cooper takes but an inconsiderable rank among English poets, 
 and is now chiefly remembered by his beautiful song of " Wini- 
 freda."— R. M., A. 
 
 COOPER, John Thomas, born at Greenwich in 1790, was 
 for several years a popular lecturer on chemistrj- in London, and 
 teacher of the same science at the Aldersgate Street school of 
 medicine. The following are the most important of his scientific 
 investigations — " On some Combinations of Platina ;" " Analj-sis 
 of Zinc Ores ;" " On Catechuic Acid ;" " On the Baroscope ;" 
 and " On the Ancient Ruby Glass." He died in 1854. — F. P. 
 
 COOPER, Samuel, an eminent English miniature painter, 
 was born in London in 1609. He was the first English painter 
 that attained remarkable excellence in miniature painting. " If 
 a glass could expand Cooper's pictures to the size of Vandyck's," 
 wrote Walpole, " they would appear to have been painted for 
 that proportion." He resided for many years in France and 
 Holland, but died in London on the 25th May, 1672.— W. T. 
 
 COOPER, Samuel, a distinguished surgeon, who for nearly 
 fifty years occupied positions of honour and respousibility in his 
 profession. He was born in the year 1780, and died on the 2d 
 December, 1 848, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. He joined the 
 College of Surgeons in 1803, and was appointed a member of the 
 council in 1827. In 1845 he was elected president of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons. He was a fellow of the Royal Society, and 
 a member of the council. In early life Jlr Cooper entered the 
 ai-my, and was raised to the rank of staff-surgeon. For many 
 years he was surgeon to the Queen's Bench prison, and con- 
 sulting surgeon to the Bloomsbuiy dispensaiy. For the long 
 period of seventeen years Mr. Cooper held the office of professor 
 of surgery in University college, London. As a teacher Mr. 
 Cooper was greatly esteemed, as a friend and counsellor he was 
 beloved. His " Surgical Dictionary," a librai-y in itself, will 
 long be considered a gi-eat and valuable work of reference. The 
 "First Lines of Surgeiy," an epitome of the " Dictionaiy," was 
 for many years the text-book in all medical schools. — E. L. 
 
 COOPER or COUPER, Thomas, an English prelate, born 
 about the year 1517, and died in 1594. He was educated at 
 Oxford, and, after practising medicine for some years, entered the 
 church. He became bishop of Lincoln in 157(1. Cooper wrote, 
 besides several other things, " An Admonition to the People of 
 England," in which he defended the bishops against the fiimous 
 pamphlet published under the name of Martin Mar-Prelate. 
 
 COOTE, Sir Charles, was born in the latter part of the 
 sixteenth century, and came at an early age to Ireland from 
 Devonshire, where his family had long been settled. He served 
 under Mountjoy in the war against Tyrone, and was soon 
 advanced in his profession, receiving in 1616 knighthood, in 
 1620 being created a privy councillor, and in the following year 
 a baronet of Ireland. On the breaking out of the Irish rebellion 
 in 1641, Coote was despatched to relieve the castle of Wicklow, 
 but was shortly recalled to defend Dublin. His administration 
 was characterized with vigour, but at the same time with horrible 
 severity. In April Coote was sent with six troops of horse to the 
 relief of Birr, where he exhibited extraordinary valour, coolness, 
 and skill, accomplishing what Cox describes as " the prodigious 
 passage through Montrath woods," for which th.e earidoni of 
 Montrath was conferred on his son. After assisting Ormonde 
 at the bpttle of Kilrush, Coote proceeded with Lord Lisle to the 
 aid of Lady Oflaley, who, though sixty-four years old, bravely 
 shut her ^utea against the rebels, and defended her castle of 
 Geashill till relieved by the royalist forces. Coote had now to 
 go through a difficult" and dangerous district to the relief of 
 Philipstown ; the defile, however, was passed in safety, Philips- 
 town taken, and the royalists marched on Trim on the 7th of 
 Mav, 1642. At right the rebels, to the number of three
 
 thousand, fell on the weary troopers nnexpectedly. Coote was, 
 however, too watchful, and soon succeeded in routing the enemy ; 
 but he was himself slain by a shot either from the Hying crowd 
 or the town, or, as some think, from his own party. — J. F. W. 
 
 COOTE, Sir Charles, son of the preceding, and first earl 
 of Montrath, succeeded his father as provost-marslial and ^-ice- 
 president of Connaught, and inherited his courage and valour; 
 distinguishing himself as a soldier at an early age, and taking an 
 active part duruig the Irish rebellion of 1641. In 16i'J he 
 maintained Dcrry for the parliament, and ultimately secured 
 nearly the whole of the northern provinces for the republic ; and 
 passing south, he obtained possession of Galway. After the 
 Restoration, Coote, who had at first secretly, and, after the death 
 of Cromwell, openly espoused the royal cause, was appointed 
 one of the commissioners of Ireland, governor of Galway, earl of 
 Montrath, and lord-justice of Ireland. He died of smallpox in 
 Dublin in 1G61.— J. F. W. 
 
 COOTE, Sir Eyre, a distinguished sokiier, was the youngest 
 son of Dr. Cliidley Coote of Ash Hill, in the county of Limerick, 
 and was born in the year 1726. He early embraced the mihtary 
 profession, and after some active service in Ireland, embarked 
 for India. He took possession of the forts of Calcutta ; and at 
 the battle of Plassy held a prominent and responsible position, 
 and eminently contributed to the success of that day. Being 
 now in 1760 a colonel, he invested and took Wandemash, and 
 in November laid siege to Pondicherry, which he reduced in two 
 months, thereby demolishing the power of the French in India. 
 For these services he received from the court of directoi'S a 
 diamond-hilted sword as a mark of their gi-atitude and respect. 
 In 1770 Coote went to Madras as commander-in-chief of the 
 company's forces, whence he soon proceeded to Bussorah, and 
 returning to England was invested with the order of the bath, 
 and appointed governor of the fort of St. George. On the death 
 of General Clavering he went to Bengal as a member of the 
 supreme council and commander of the British forces in India. 
 His most glorious exploit was in reserve. Hyder Ali was in 
 possession of Arcot, and was aiming at the universal conquest of 
 India. Coote aixived at the critical moment, wlien the British 
 troops were reduced and dispirited. He revived their courage, 
 and by success in minor enterprises renewed their confidence, 
 and incited them to be the assailants of their formidable enemy. 
 Hyder met his advances with an enormous army that rushed 
 forward to overwhelm the foe. But the British troops kept 
 their ground : for eight hows the conflict was maintained with 
 desperate valour on both sides, till victoiy declared for the British 
 troops, and the Indian army was routed with fearful slaughter and 
 the loss of Meer Saib, Hyder's favourite general. Three years 
 after Coote went to JIadras to assume the command of the army ; 
 but his health, long enfeebled, gave way, and he died in April, 
 1783, two days after his arrival there. His body was conveyed 
 to Rookwood in Hampshire. In valour, skiU, and energy Coote 
 stands liigh amongst the great soldiers of his day. — J F. W. 
 
 COOTE, Richard. See Bellamont, Earl of. 
 
 COPELAND, Thomas, a distinguished surgeon, bom in 
 May, 1781; died November 19, 1855. In July, 1804, he was 
 admitted a member of the College of Surgeons, and afterwai-ds 
 joined the foot guards, with whom he embarked for Spain under 
 the command of Su- John Moore, and was present at the battle of 
 Corunna. On his return to England, he was appointed surgeon 
 to the Westminster general dispensary. In 1810 he published 
 his " Observations on some of the Principal Diseases of the Rec- 
 tum," the first work of a traly scientific and worthy kind on that 
 subject which had ever appeared. Mr. Copeland also published 
 a work entitled " Observations on the Symptoms and Treatment 
 of Diseased Spine." He was a member of the council of the Col- 
 lege of Surgeons and surgeon-extraordinary to the queen. — E. L. 
 
 COPERARIO, G'OVAXNi, was the Italianized name of Johx 
 Cooper, a distinguished musician in the first part of the seven- 
 teenth century. He was a celebrated perfonuer on the ^^ol-da- 
 gamba and lute, and was one of the musical preceptors to the 
 children of James I. Under his tuition Prince Charles (after- 
 wards Charles I.) attained considerable excellence on the viol, 
 and Playford tells us, speaking of Charles I., that no music 
 pleased his majesty so well " as those incomparable ' Fantasies,' 
 for viol and bass-viol to the organ, composed by Coperario." In 
 conjunction with Laniere and Dr. Giles, he composed the songs 
 in a masque written by Dr. Campion on the marriage of the 
 earl of Somerset with Lady Frances Howard (the divorced 
 
 countess of Essex), which was represented in the banqueting- 
 house at Whitehall on St. Stephen's night, 1614. One of the 
 songs in this masque, beginning with the words, '' Come ashore," 
 is inserted in Smitli's Musica Antiqua, and is a fair specimen of 
 the flowing melody of this composer. He was also the author 
 of " Funeral Teares for the Death of the Right Honourable 
 the Earle of Devonshire, figured in Seven Songes," 1606 ; and 
 " Songs of Jlourning, Bewailing the untimely Death of Prince 
 Henry," 1613. Many of his compositions exist in ^IS. in the 
 music school, Oxford. He is supposed to have died about 
 1640. Henry Lawes is said to have been his pupil. — E. F. R. 
 
 COPERNICUS. See Koperxicus. 
 
 COPLESTON, Rev. Edward, D.D., bishop of LlandaflT, was 
 the son of the rector of Oifwell, Devonshire, and was born there, 
 2nd February, 1776. In 1791 he was elected to a scholarship 
 at Corpus Christi college, Oxford. Two years latter he gained 
 the chancellor's prize for a Latin poem, and in 1795 he was 
 elected a fellow of Oriel college. Next year he obtained the 
 chancellor's prize for an English essay on '" Agriculture," and in 
 1797 was appointed college tutor. In 1802 he was elected 
 professor of poetry to the university in the room of Dr. Hurd. 
 Copleston's character for ability and learning had hitherto been 
 confined to a comparatively small circle ; but his vindication of 
 the university of Oxford from the attacks of the Edinburgh 
 Review in 1810-11, widely extended his reputation, and was 
 generally regarded as a triumphant defence. In 1814 Copleston 
 was elected provost of Oriel college; in 1826 he was appointed 
 to the deanery of Chester ; and in the following year succeeded 
 Dr. Charles Sumner in the bishopric of Llandafi' and deanery of 
 St. Paul's. He also held the honoraiy office of professor of 
 ancient history to the Royal Academy of Arts, and was a fellow 
 of the Society of Antiquaries. Dr. Copleston died in 1849, in 
 the seventy-second year of his age. His most elaborate work is 
 his " Inquiry into the Doctrines of Necessity and Predestma- 
 tion," &c., 8vo, London, 1821. His " Prelectiones Academicae" 
 are distinguished by the purity and elegance of their composi- 
 tion, and the extensive learning which they display. The bishop 
 contributed many valuable articles to the Quarterly Hevieio 
 between 1811 and 1822, and was the author of a large number 
 of pam])hlets, speeches, and chai-ges. A life of Dr. Copleston, 
 with selections from his diary and correspondence, has been 
 published by his nephew: London, 1851. — J. T. 
 
 * COPLAND, James, a celebrated physician of London, 
 who enjoys a weU-earned reputation both as a practitioner 
 and as one of the most extensive writers of his day. He was 
 bom in the Orkney islands m November, 1791. He is the 
 eldest of nine children. At the age of sixteen he commenced 
 his medical studies in the university of Edinburgh, where he 
 continued for four years. Having taken his doctor's degree, 
 he came to London in August, 1815, and here devoted much 
 of his time to the study of surgery. He subsequently visited 
 France and Germany, and closely obser\-ed the diseases which 
 prevailed there soon after the peace of 1815. He was soon 
 after oifered an appointment to the settlements on the Gold 
 Coast belonging to the late African company. A great desire 
 to become acquainted with the diseases of this unhealthy tropical 
 region, and confidence in his own robust constitution, induced 
 him to accept the position, and he left Europe in 1817. 
 After his return to England he set out on a journey through 
 the countries of Europe with a view to the study of disease, 
 and in 1820 settled in London, and became a licentiate of the 
 Royal College of Physicians. He now first began his Uterary 
 career, and wrote many valuable papers as the result of his 
 carefully-acquired knowledge. He became physician to the 
 South London dispensary and to the Royal Infirmary for the 
 diseases of children. In 1822 he removed from Walworth to 
 Jermyn Street, and was elected consulting physician to Queen 
 Charlotte's Lying-in Hospital. In this and following years he 
 was engaged in editing the Medical Repository, and in writing 
 reviews of various medical and scientific works. In 1825 Dr. 
 Copland projected an "Encyclopedia Dictionary of the Medical 
 Sciences," which, however, owing to the commercial panic of the 
 period, was relinquished. In 1830 he commenced the great 
 work of his life, the " Dictionary of Practical Medicine," under 
 arrangements with ^lessrs. Longman & Co., publishers. To 
 compile a dictionary of medical science is a herculean task to 
 any association of men ; but to be the production of one indi- 
 vidual is an extraordinary undertaking. Dr. Copland, in the
 
 year 1858, had the satisfaction of seeing the completion of his 
 great and important task. As a practitioner Dr. Copland is firm 
 and decided, withont haste and rashness. He has been a 
 member of the Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society since 1822, 
 and was sometime president; in 1833 he was elected a fellow 
 of the Royal Society, and in 1837 a fellow of the Royal College 
 of Physicians. — E. L, 
 
 COPLEY. See Lyndhuust. 
 
 COPLEY, John Sixgleton, an eminent historical painter 
 of the school of Benjamin West, was born at Boston in the 
 United States on the 3rd Jnl}', 1737. His father, who was 
 of English extraction, had lived chiefly in Ireland, and the 
 honour of the painter's nativity has therefore been not unfre- 
 quently claimed for Ireland. He was almost a self-tanght 
 artist, for Boston possessed no academy, and few instructors. 
 He became first known in England as the exhibitor of a " Boy 
 and Squirrel" at the Royal Academy in the year 1760. This 
 work excited no inconsiderable attention. For some years he 
 continued to follow portrait painting with great success; receiving 
 a large income, and acquiring a fair repute on both sides of the 
 Atlantic. In 1774 he came to London and passed on to Italy; 
 he stayed at Rome some months, and returning to England, 
 settled in the metropolis. In 1777, in great part owing to the 
 influence of West, he was elected an associate of the Royal Aca- 
 demy, and in 1783 received his diploma as an academician. 
 For many years he continued industriously to follow his profes- 
 sion. He died on the 9th September, 1815. Probably the best 
 specimen of his art is his " Death of Chatham," now in the 
 English school department of the national gallery. It was 
 engraved by Bartolozzi on a plate of an unusual size, and was 
 extensively subscribed for and sold. Another successful work 
 was his " Defence of St. Hehers, Jersey, against the French, and 
 Death of Major Pierson at the moment of victory." Copley was 
 the father of Lord Chancellor Lyndhurst. — W. T. 
 
 COQUES, Gonzales, a celebrated artist, was born at 
 Antwerp in 1018 ; he was a pupil of David Ryckaert. His first 
 subjects were conversation-pieces after tlie manner of Teniers 
 and Ostade. He afterwards devoted himself to portraits on a 
 small scale; and in this branch of art emulated many of the 
 characteristic excellences of Vandyck. He died in 1684. His 
 works are few in number, and of great value. — W. T. 
 
 COQUILLE (in Latin Conchylius), Gui, a French lawyer, 
 born in 1533, and died in 1603. He was procureur-general of 
 Nivemais at the time of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and 
 by his enlightened vigour saved his province from the horrors of 
 that bloody day. Coquille was a sworn enemy to the leaguers. 
 His principal works are a dialogue, "Sur les Causes des miseres 
 de la France," written in the style of Montaigne ; and a treatise 
 entitled " Des Libertes de I'Eghse Gallicane." — R. M., A. 
 
 CORAM, Thomas, an eminent philanthropist whose memory 
 has been pei-petuated by his establishment of the Foundling 
 Hospital in London. He was born about 1680, and bred to the 
 sea. He became early in life captain of a merchant ship, and 
 his business, while in London, having often led him into the 
 heart of the city, his compassion was so strongly excited by the 
 sight of " young children exposed sometimes alive, sometimes 
 dead, sometimes dying," that he resolved to make a strenuous 
 effort to rescue them from destruction. The first hospital estab- 
 lished by him for deserted children was in Hatton Garden, and 
 was opened in 1740. It was afterwards removed to its present 
 site, and a charter obtained for it. Captain Coram also origi- 
 nated a scheme for the education of Indian girls in America. 
 Having spent the greater part of his slender fortune in M'orks of 
 benevolence, a subscription was entered into in 1749 for the 
 purpose of purchasing for him an annuity, but the good old man 
 did not live long to enjoy it. He died 29th March 1751. — J. T. 
 * CORBAUX, Fanny, a writer and artist, was born in 1812. 
 Her father being reduced from affluence to poverty, she began 
 as early as her fifteenth year to turn her talents for pahiting 
 to account. She gained two silver medals in 1827, and a gold 
 one in 1830. The circumstances of her family obliged her to 
 restrict herself, in a great measure, to portrait painting, as being 
 more remunerative. In later life she has devoted much of her 
 attention to biblical history and criticism — as her " Letters on 
 the Physical Geography of the Exodus," and on the remark- 
 able nation called "The Rephaim" in the bible, testify. These 
 were published in the Athenceum. She wrote also for the 
 Journal of Sacred Literature. — R. M., A, 
 
 CORBET, Richard, an English divine and poet, was born 
 at Ewell in Surrey in 1582, and died in 1635. He studied at 
 Christ Church, Oxford, of which college he was made dean in 
 1620. In 1629 he was raised to the bishopric of Oxford. 
 His poems were published after his death under the title of 
 " Poetica Stromata." — R. M., A. 
 
 CORDAY D'ARMANS, Makie Anne Charlotte, one of 
 the most extraordinary women of modern times, was born in 
 1768 at St. Saturnin, near Seez in Normandy. While yet a 
 girl she displayed singular strength of character. Her favourite 
 author was Plutarch. On the breaking out of the French 
 revolution, she was attracted by the boldness and novelty of its 
 pretensions ; but her whole soul was outraged by the terrible 
 crimes which were soon deemed necessary to its success. It is 
 said that she loved one of the proscribed Girondists ; but of this 
 there is no satisfactory evidence. She did not deem assassi- 
 nation a crime when directed against assassins ; and secretly 
 determined to go alone to Paris, and there to stab the foremost 
 democrat she could find. For a time she doubted whether 
 Robespierre or Marat was the greater monster ; but eventually 
 her patriotic rage was concentrated on the latter. At the 
 moment of her arrival ^larat was sick. She wrote him a letter 
 and asked for an interview. She received no answer to this 
 application. Having bought a large knife at the Palais Royal, 
 she presented herself at the house of the monster on the follow- 
 ing day at one o'clock. The woman who lived with him w.as 
 alarmed at her appearance, and perhaps touched by the instinct 
 of danger, refused her admission. She immediately wrote a note, 
 in which she stated that she had an important state secret to 
 reveal. Marat, who was reclining in a w.arm bath, detennined 
 to see at once the visitor, in spite of the entreaties of his 
 mistress. While conversing on the movements of the Giron- 
 dists, Marat announced his intention of guillotining them all. 
 At tins moment Charlotte Corday, with masculine force, drew 
 her knife and stabbed him deep in the throat. He uttered 
 one short cry, summoning the women who lived with him, and 
 expired. They rushed into the apartment, and saw the execu- 
 tioner standing unmoved by her victim. The guard soon arrived 
 and took her to the prison of the abbaye. " Sirs," said she, 
 " you long for my death ; you ought rather to build an altar in 
 honour of me, for having delivered you from a monster." On 
 being searched in the prison, an appeal for liberty was found in 
 her bosom, addressed to the French peojde. Our limits do not 
 permit us to detail the circumstances of her trial, or the memor- 
 able calmness with which she met her death. She was 
 guiflotined, July, 1793, at the age of twenty-five years. — T. J. 
 
 CORDOVA. See Gonzai.vo de Cordova. 
 
 CORDUS, Heinrich, a German poet and physician, was bom 
 at Sinitshausen in He.ssia in I486, and died on 24th December, 
 1535. He was the son of a farmer, and devoted himself to 
 literaiy pursuits at Leipzig and at Erfurt. He espoused the 
 cause of the Reformation, and was a supporter of Luther. He 
 entered upon the study of medicine afterwards, and graduated 
 at Fen-ara in 1522. lie was the author of many literary pro- 
 ductions, and published various poetical works. In 1534 he 
 published a work entitled " Botanologicon, or a Conversation 
 regarding Herbs." — J. II. B. 
 
 CORDUS, Valerius, son of the preceding, a celebrated 
 botanist, was born at Sinitshausen in Hessia, on 18th February, 
 1515, and died at Rome on 25th September, 1544. He received 
 the elements of his education at Erfurt, and he subsequently 
 studied at the university of Marburg, where he took the degree 
 of bachelor of medicine. In 1531 he went to Wittemberg, and 
 studied under Melancthcm. He visited Leipzig, and afterwards 
 travelled over Prussia and Saxony, exploring the niiiies of Frey- 
 berg, and the flora of Switzerland. In 1540 he lectured at 
 Wittemberg on the Materia Medica of Dioscorides. He after- 
 wards paid a second visit to Switzeriand, and travelled in Italy. 
 At Venice he studied the ichthyology of the Adriatic. He was 
 seized with fever while journeying to Rome, where he died at 
 the age of twenty-nine. His death was looked upon as a great 
 lo.ss to science. Among his numerous works may be noted the 
 following — "A Pharmaceutical Dispensatoiy ;" "Annotations 
 on Dioscorides;" and a " History of Plants."— J. H. B. 
 
 CORELLI, Arcangelo, the famous violinist and composer, 
 was born at Fusignano, near Imola, in the territory of Bologna, 
 in February, 1653, and died at Rome on the 8tli (not 18th) of 
 January, 1713. Simonelli, a member of the papal chapel, and
 
 COR 
 
 1118 
 
 COR 
 
 Bassani of Bologna, were his instructors; from the latter of 
 whom, besides the melodious grace that characterizes his writ- 
 ing, he inherited the pre-eminence on his instrument by which 
 he soon surpassed even his honoured master. There is a state- 
 ment that at the age of nineteen he visited Paris, where the 
 jealousy of Lulli excited such cabals against him, that he was 
 obliged to leave •n-ithout obtaining a fair hearing for his talent ; 
 the authority for this account, however, is questionable. In 1680 
 Corelli made a tour in GeiTnany, and was engaged by the duke 
 of Bavaria, at whose court he remained for two years. He left 
 this appointment to return to Italy, when he took up his per- 
 manent residence at Rome. There he published in 1683 his first 
 work, consisting of twelve trios for two violins and bass. C;ir- 
 dinal Ottolroni, a distinguished supporter of art, now became 
 his special patron ; he appointed him his violinist, and made him 
 director of his private chapel, and retained him in his service 
 till the close of his career. It was at the weekly concerts of 
 this munificent nobleman, that Corelli gained his world-wide 
 reputation, both as a player and as an orchestral director, in 
 the exercise of which latter capacity he was so strict a discip- 
 linarian, that he compelled all his band to play with the same 
 bowing, and thus procured an effect of precision which was as 
 powerful upon the ear as striking to the eye. In 1685 he was 
 engaged in a theoretical dispute, occasioned by a passage in one 
 of his works, with G. P. Colonna, which was of great service 
 to the reputation of the latter. Corelli's music evinces less 
 depth of contrapuntal knowledge than superficial grace and 
 sweetness; and he showed small judgment in entering into a 
 discussion which technical training did not qualify him to 
 maintain. From the year 1690 he was associated with Pa.s- 
 quim, a harpsichord player, and Gartani, a lutanist, in the 
 conduct of the opera at Rome, the performances of which rose 
 to a degree of excellence under their direction that had never 
 before been approached. Corelli's fourth set of sonatas was 
 first printed in 169-1 with a dedication to his cardinal. In 1700 
 he published his well-known twelve solos, op. 5, which were 
 dedicated to Sophia Charlotte, electress of Brandenburg. His 
 pupil, Gemiani, transmits several anecdotes of Corelli's visit to 
 Naples, the date of which, however, has not reached us. This 
 was not undertaken until he had been repeatedly invited by the 
 king ; it gave him an opportunity to meet and to receive the 
 most considerate attentions from Alessandro Scarlatti. He was 
 greatly sm-prised to observe the superior condition of musical 
 execution common at Xaples than then prevailed at Rome. 
 Accident — arising from a want of presence of mind, which was 
 very extraordinary in a man so long habituated, as was Corelli, 
 to control others — led to his making a less fortunate appearance 
 on this occasion than was expected from an artist of his eminent 
 talents ; the consequence of which was that, with an exaggerated 
 idea of his non-success, he secretly quitted Xaples and returned 
 to Rome. As powerfully as this circumstance illustrated the 
 difiidence of his character, does another, in which he was con- 
 cerned with Handel, exemplify his quiet manner and his gentle 
 temper. It was at a rehearsal of the young German's cantata, 
 II Trionfo del Tempo, when the composer grew impatient 
 at the spiritless style in which the overture was played, and 
 snatched the violin from Corelli to show him the more animated 
 way in which he wished it to be executed ; and the great leader 
 calmly obsen'ed, " But, my dear Saxon, this music is in the 
 French style, which I do not understand." Corelli had the 
 nortification in his latter days to find himself slighted in fiivour 
 of men of far inferior merit, whose novelty was almost their 
 only recommendation to the suffrages of the fickle Roman public; 
 and this acted sensibly, if not fatally, upon his spirits. His 
 prompt appreciation of the talent of others, especially in his own 
 peculiar province of the art, was a distinguishing trait in his 
 character ; and the many incidents which prove this, as strongly 
 show the injustice of such a man's falling into any kind of dis- 
 esteem. He was an intelligent admirer of pictures, and the 
 intimate friend of the two celebrated painters. Carlo Cignani 
 and Cai-lo JIaratti. Let us suppose that the pleasure this kindly 
 genial man derived from the contemplation of the productions 
 of a sister art, may have compensated him for whatever neglect 
 he experienced in the exercise of his own. His seventh and 
 last publication, the twelve " Concerti Grossi," appeared but a 
 month before his death. Johann Wilhelm, prince palatine of 
 the Rhine, to whom this work was inscribed, repaid the compli- 
 ment by erecting a monument to the memory of the composer 
 
 over his mortal remains. That memory has been better preserved 
 in the nobler monument with which his own name is associated, 
 the still esteemed concertos. Corelli's obsequies were celebrated 
 with great solemnity, under the aiTangement of his patron the 
 cardinal ; and so long as one of his pupils was alive to direct 
 the performance, the anniversary of his fTineral was always kept 
 by the execution of some of his music over his grave. Corelli 
 bequeathed his valuable collection of pictures, and a large sum 
 he had amassed, to Cardinal Ottoboni, who, however, accepted 
 only the fonner, and distributed the money among the musician's 
 poor relations. 
 
 This distinguished man must be regarded as the founder of 
 the great Roman school of violin playing. His writing is as 
 remarkable for its more clearly defined melody than that of any 
 instrumental music which preceded it, as his playing was famous 
 for its gi-ace and languishing tenderness. Although the average 
 executive skill of the present time immeasurably exceeds that of 
 Corelli, the gi'eatest master of his age, yet his works now form 
 the basis of the study of every violinist, as the trae principles of 
 the art can better be acquired from them than from any existing 
 compositions for the instruments. Of his many admirable pupils, 
 Gemiani became the most celebrated, and may be said to have 
 imported his style into this countiy. Tartini, though not Corelli's 
 immediate disciple, was a follower of his school, and developed 
 his principles ; he was, in fact, the medium of the influence 
 of the great original on the players of our day. — G. A. M. 
 
 CORIOLAXUS, Caius Marcius, a noble Roman, so sur- 
 named for his heroic conduct at the capture of Corioli, a town 
 of the Volsci. He first rose into notice in the wars which fol- 
 lowed the expulsion of Tarquin, where he obtained as a reward 
 for his valour the coveted distinction of the civic crown. His 
 bravery in the attack on Corioli, and his generosity in refusing 
 to accept more than his own share of the plunder of that town, 
 raised him at one time to great popularity among the Romans, 
 and he was induced to become a candidate for the consulship ; 
 but the people, afraid of his haughtiness and ambition, and 
 incensed at his determined opposition to the tribimitian power, 
 refused to confer that dignity upon him. Attached from his 
 youth to the interests of the patrician order, and accustomed to 
 pay little regard to the masses of the people, Coriolanus now 
 openly advocated measures which had for their object the 
 diminution of the popular influence in the state. A dispute 
 about the distribution of certain supplies of com furnished an 
 opportunity of calling him to account ; and after undergoing a 
 formal trial, he was sentenced to perpetual banishment. Exas- 
 perated at what he deemed to be the basest ingratitude, he retired 
 to Antium, encouraged the Volsci to declare war against Rome, 
 and received from them the command of the aitny destined to 
 invade his native country. Slarcliing up to the very walls of the 
 city, which was quite unprepared for so sudden an attack, he 
 threatened to destroy it, unless the Romans would submit to his 
 humiliating demands; but relented at last on the appeal of a 
 band of Roman matrons, who, headed by his own mother and 
 wife, came out to entreat him to spare his country. He returned 
 to Antium, where, according to one account, he was murdered 
 by the Volsci for his defection. Other accoimts state that he 
 hved among them to an advanced age. — W. M. 
 
 CORK. See Boyle. 
 
 CORKIXE, William, a distinguished musician of the early 
 part of the seventeenth centuiy, patronized by Sir Edward 
 Herbert, Sir William Hardy, Sir Robert Rich, and Sir Edward 
 Dymmocke " the king's champion." He published two books 
 of " Ayres to sing and play to the Lute and Basse-Violl," the 
 first in 1610, the second in 1612. They contain many " ayres" 
 of great beauty. — E. F. R. 
 
 * CORilEXIX, Lons Marie de la Haie, VLscount de, born 
 on the 6th January, 1783. Although this celebrated man has 
 figured as a writer on law and on morals, and has taken a prac- 
 tical part in the fouudation of several charitable institutions, yet 
 his fame has been altogether acquired by those pamphlets, 
 bearing the signature of "Timon," with which he assailed Louis 
 Philippe and his government. As the throne of the monarch of 
 the barricades eventually succumbed to the attacks of the oppo- 
 sition, any one who obtained the credit of having directly aided 
 in bringing about the fall of the dynasty of July became during 
 the days of Februaiy, 1848, an object of conspicuous attention. 
 Xo public writer did more to damage the reputation of Louis 
 Philippe than Timon ; and although M. de Cormenin never
 
 opened liis lips in the chamber of deputies, of which he was a 
 member from the year 1832, yet such was the popularity of his 
 political pamphlets, that four different departments returned him 
 to the constituent assembly. Louis Philippe had, unhappily 
 for himself, become open to the suspicion of thinking more of 
 family interests than of those of the nation. Timon accordingly 
 directed his attacks against the civil list, to the great delight of 
 the people, who rejoiced in seeing a king castigated for daring 
 to imitate the virtuous economy of theii- own private lives. A 
 king had no business with domestic pradence, and so they 
 hallooed on Timon against the royal Harpagon. When, in 18-10, 
 the king obliged his ministry to present a bill for allowing a 
 dotation to his second son, the due de Nemours, it was a pam- 
 phlet from Timon which upset the cabinet and the scheme 
 together. Yet Timon was neither a Junius nor a Sydney 
 Smith. He had not the scalding declamation of the one, nor the 
 playful pleasantry and wit which corruscated over the strong 
 common sense of the other. Like most French political writers, 
 Timon was professedly logical, and aimed at convicting the 
 accused of guilt by closely-drawn deductions from well estab- 
 lished premises. This apparently scientific profundity was 
 clothed with sharp, pungent, terse assertions, like the body of a 
 porcupine. As he had always voted with the extreme left of 
 the chamber of deputies, Connenin was thought to be so thorough 
 a republican, that he was actually named president of the com- 
 mittee charged with the drawing up of the constitution. Yet, so 
 little resentment did he seem to bear towards the destroyer of a 
 work for which he might be considered sponsor, that he was one 
 of the first to accept Louis Napoleon's offer of a place in the 
 council of state. It is not for us to settle the doubts which so 
 extraordinary an instance of versatility in the person of so 
 remarkable a censor of the care of self-interests gave rise to. We 
 have only to add that the day M. de Cormenin abandoned his 
 party, the works of Timon sank into contempt — J. F. C. 
 
 COENEILLE, JIichael, a painter of merit, apparently no 
 relation to the illustrious poet. He was born at Paris in 1612. 
 His father, also a painter, was his first instructor in the art. 
 The young Michael, having gained a prize at the Academy of 
 Painting, was sent to study at Rome as one of the government 
 pupils. On his return in 1GG3, he was admitted into the 
 Academy of Painting, where in course of time he became a 
 professor. JLany of Corneille's pictures have been engraved. 
 He himself etched the plates of several. He died at Paris in 
 1708. — He had a brother, Jean Corneille, who was also a 
 painter of considerable celebrity, and a member of the Academie 
 des Beaux Arts. — B. de B. 
 
 CORNEILLE, Pierre, a subhme genius, the founder of the 
 French drama, was bom at Rouen in Normandy, Cth June, 
 160G. He was the eldest son of Pierre Corneille, advocate- 
 general of Rouen. Having adopted the legal profession, he 
 practised for some time in his native city, without exhibiting 
 any indication of the talent which was in a few years to blaze 
 forth, and astonish the world. His first dramatic production, 
 a comedy called " ilelite," appeared in 1029, when he was 
 only twenty-three years of age. The extraordinary success of 
 this piece encouraged the author to follow the natural bent of 
 his genius. Sis comedies followed each other in quick succes- 
 sion, and laid the basis of his future reputation. In the year 
 1634 Louis XIII. , and his minister Richelieu, visited Rouen ; 
 and the archbishop of that diocese, M. de Harlay, engaged 
 CorneUle to compose some complimentary Latin verses in honour 
 of the occasion. These brought their author more closely within 
 the favourable notice of the gi-eat cardinal, whose discernment 
 had already remarked this rising genius. Richelieu, it is well 
 known, retained certain authors m his pay, and employed 
 them in composing plays under his own superintendence. He 
 accorded to each a pension ; and those who were most happy in 
 pleasing him received still more substantial marks of his satis- 
 faction. Into this corps, sometimes called the cardinal's five 
 authors, Corneille was admitted — a great honour! for he was 
 looked upon as the least important of the set. Quarrelling, how- 
 ever, with his overbearing patron, he withdrew to his private life 
 and occupations at Rouen, where he soon produced his first 
 attempt at tragedy — " Medea." About this time Corneille 
 turned his attention to Spanish literature, and out of Guillen 
 da Castro's obscure drama, grew the glories of " The Cid,'" 
 represented in 1636. Voltaire remarks that the appearance 
 of this tragedy fomis an era in the dramatic poetry of 
 
 France. Its triumph was immediate and complete. " Beau 
 comme le Cid " (As fine as the Cid), became a phrase in common 
 usage to denote literary excellence. The cardinal, however, stood 
 aloof, and refused to join m the general approbation ; but after 
 a time again took the poet into favour. A year or two later, we 
 find Richelieu intervening to remove the obstacles in the way of 
 Conieille's man-iage with Marie Lamperiere, whose father, the 
 lieutenant-general of Andely, averse to the match, opposed it 
 with all his power. The "Cid" was followed by "Horace" 
 (which the actors, after Corneille's death, corrupted into " Les 
 Horaces"), by " Cinna," by "Polyeucte" — all masterpieces, and 
 crowned, immediately on their appearance, with public applause. 
 The French Academy, after twice closing their doors against the 
 poet, now elected him in 1647 a member of their body, of which 
 he lived long enough to become the senior. Some years earlier, 
 Comeille, resuming for a moment the pen of the comic muse, 
 and once more borrowing a subject from the Spanish dramatists, 
 produced the "Menteur," " The Liar" — the first real comedy, as 
 "The Cid" was the first perfect tragedy, the French theatre had 
 possessed. Moliere declared himself indebted to the "Menteur" 
 for some of his best inspirations. At length, after seventeen years 
 of triumph, the success of Comeille encountered a check. The 
 tragedy of " Pertharise," represented in 1653, was a complete 
 failure. During the next six years he occupied himself in 
 translating into French verse The Imitation of Jesus Christ 
 (begun some years before), and other devotional pieces. At the 
 end of this period his friends, and chiefly Fouquet — Louis XIV.'s 
 famous prime minister — persuaded him to resume the drama. 
 He did so, with the tragedy of " (Edipe," the subject proposed 
 to him by Fouquet himself, and which was attended with his 
 fomier success. Between 1659 and 1667, Corneille's prolific 
 genius produced a tragedy every year, but symptoms of his 
 declining power began to appear. These later works are greatly 
 below his former masterpieces, and were received with increasing 
 coldness by the public. 
 
 Solidity, good sense, and nobleness of sentiment, were the 
 foundation of Corneille's character as of his poetry. A good 
 husband and father, a sincere and tender friend, his enjoyments 
 were centred in his domestic circle, and in a few friends whom 
 his upright and loyal nature firmly attached to him. The several 
 pensions which had been conferred on him by the three ministers, 
 Richelieu, Fouquet, and Colbert, expired with the donors. For 
 some time before his death, Corneille suffered the evils of poverty. 
 The generous interference of Boileau, who offered to resign his 
 own pension, provided Corneille's might be restored, obtained a 
 grant of two hundred louis for the sick poet ; but it reached him 
 only two days before his death, too late to do him much good. 
 
 The house at Rouen in which he was born still exists, and 
 the antique furniture and arrangements of the chamber where 
 he first drew breath are scnipulously preserved. An inscrip- 
 tion on a marble slab over the house announces, that "Here 
 in 1606 Pierre Corneille was horn." This inscription, and 
 that in the Rue d' Argenteuil in Paris, at the house where he 
 died, were until recently the only memorials extant of the great 
 poet, except, indeed, the imperishable monument of his works. 
 After the death of his mother in 1662, Corneille fixed his residence 
 in Paris, where he passed the remainder of his days. He died 
 on the 1st October, 1684, in the seventy-ninth year of his age. 
 
 Pierre Comeille was undoubtedly one of the greatest geniuses 
 the world has seen. Emancipating himself by the vigour of his 
 own understanding and judgment from the licentious dulness 
 and wretched affectations of the dramatists who preceded him, 
 he sought his inspirations from truth and nature, and thus 
 created a style for himself, both of thought and diction. His 
 language was noble, because his conceptions were elevated. His 
 characteristics are, unaffected dignity and force of sentiment — 
 profound thought, uttered with energetic conciseness — and a 
 striking power of delineating the great passions which agitate 
 the human mind. No WTiter ever better understood the art of 
 investing his personages witli suitable language. He excels 
 in the portraiture of his Romans, the artificial gi-andeur of 
 whose sentiments he had well studied in their historians. His 
 versification is admirable in his best passages, but the French 
 classicists complain that it is unequal and without system. The 
 historians of the time ascribe to the decency and dignity with 
 which Corneille endowed the stage, the tolerance shown to players 
 by the ascetic Louis XIIL, and his edict in favour of theatrical 
 amusements. "Tragedy," said Napi 'Icon at St. Helena, "elevates
 
 the human soul, fires the heart with a noble ambition, and 
 forms men into heroes. To the influence of the great Comeille, 
 Fi'ance owes some of her children's grandest actions. Had Cor- 
 neille lived in my day, I would have made him a prince." 
 Some of the poet's direct descendants, the posterity of his eldest 
 son Pierre, are yet living. Napoleon I. caused two of them to be 
 educated at the government expense ; the eldest of these is now 
 professor of history at the college of Rouen, and his researches 
 of late years have done much towards elucidating the life of his 
 illustrious ancestor. The best editions of Corneille's works are 
 those of Joly, in 6 vols. 12nio, and of the Abbe Granet, both 
 published at Paris in 1738, the former republished in 1747 ; 
 Voltaire's edition in 12 vols. 8vo, at Geneva in 1764 ; " Chef 
 d'CEuvres de Comeille," 5 vols. 8vo, at P;u-is in 1817; " Au 
 Profit de j\Ille. J, M. Comeille;" " ffiuvres choises de Comeille 
 L'heureus," Paris, 1822, 4 vols. 8vo ; " (Euvres de P. Comeille, 
 Lefevre," Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.— B. de B. 
 
 CORNEILLE, Thojias, a dramatic poet, brother of the 
 gi'eat Comeille. His talents were likewise of a high order, and 
 his reputation would have been brilliant had it not been lost in 
 the splendour of his brother's. He was born at Rouen in 1625, 
 and consequently twenty years younger than his brother Pierre. 
 Thomas Corncille excelled in various walks of literature, but 
 was chiefly celebrated for his theatrical compositions. Some of 
 his tragedies obtained great success, and long kept their place 
 on the stage, owing to the skill of his plot and his happy versi- 
 fication. His memory was so remarkable that he could recite 
 any of his own plays from beginning to end. Like his illustrious 
 brother, he was a man of great private worth — modest and 
 candid, ready to acknowledge the merits even of his rivals, 
 giving and receiving advice \vith cheerful goodwill, and preserv- 
 ing to the end of his long life the courteous and polite demeanour 
 which had distinguished his youth. It was said of him that he 
 never made an enemy. On the death of the great Comeille, 
 Thomas succeeded him as member of tlie academy. Towards 
 the close of his life, he became blind, but still continued his 
 literary laboiu's, which, it is to be feared, the narrowness of his 
 circumstances rendered necessary. He died at Paris in 1709, 
 aged eighty-four. Besides his dramatic works, of which a good 
 edition was published by Joly, Paris, 1738, in 5 vols. 12mo, 
 he translated the Jletamorplioses and some other of Ovid's 
 vmtings into French verse. He was one of the editors of the 
 Mercure Gcilonte, and he also published a "Universal Dictionary 
 of Geography and Histoi-y," in 3 vols, folio, and " Observations 
 on Vaugelas." — B. de B. 
 
 CORNELIA, daughter of Metellus Scipio, was man-ied first 
 to P. Crassus, and afterwards to Pompey, whom she accompa- 
 nied to Egypt after the battle of Pharsalia. After her return 
 to Rome, she received the ashes of her husband from Csesar. 
 
 CORNELIA THE Younger, daughter of P. Scipio Afri- 
 canus the Elder, and the famous " mother of the Gracchi," was 
 born about 189 B.C. She married in 169 Titus Sempronius 
 Gracchus, and bore to him the tribunes Tiberius and Caius. 
 She was distinguished by her virtue as much as by her accom- 
 plishments, and united the strict morals of the old Roman 
 matron with the intellectual cultivation and elegant and refined 
 manners which then began to characterize the Roman ladies. 
 She possessed a thorough knowledge of Greek literature, and 
 her letters, which were in existence at the time of Cicero, were 
 quoted as models of epistolary writing. Cornelia was idolized 
 by the citizens of Rome, who erected a statue to her, with the 
 inscription, " Cornelia the Mother of the Gracchi." 
 
 * CORNELIUS, Peter Von, an eminent German artist, 
 was born at Dusscldorf on the 16th September, 1787. His 
 father was inspector of the pictui-e gallery of the city ; he died in 
 1803, leaving a very humble provision for his family. Already 
 a painter, Peter was encouraged by an afl'ectionate mother to 
 despise poverty for a time, and prosecute his studies. At the 
 age of nineteen he was intrasted with the painting of the cupola 
 of the old church of Neuss, near Dusseldorf. The figures were 
 of colossal size, executed in chiaro-scuro, and the whole concep- 
 tion of the subject and its execution were very remarkable. In 
 1810, at Frankfort, he produced a series of illustrations of 
 Goethe's Faust, which created no inconsiderable sensation. He 
 now journeyed to Rome, meeting there his eminent fellow-labourer 
 Frederic Overbeck, and, in conjunction with Schadow, Schrow, 
 and Philip Veit, attracting the attention of artists to the gradual 
 rise of a new school of German art. The revival of fresco 
 
 painting is attributable very much to the influence of this 
 remarkable band of artists. Two frescos executed by Cornelius 
 for the villa of M. Bartoldy, the Prussian consul-general, created 
 a passion for the new-old style of decoration. The Marquis 
 Massini gave a commission for the adornment of his villa with 
 a series of frescos from the Divina Commedia of Dante. The 
 crown prince of Bavaria invited Cornelius to decorate the new 
 glyptothek at Munich with frescos, and he was appointed 
 director of the Academy at Dusseldorf. He left Rome in 1819. 
 He reformed the academy, and illustrated the glyptothek with 
 several colossal works. These, since their completion in 1830, 
 have commanded the highest admiration from all quarters. 
 Subsequently Cornelius was created director of the Munich 
 Academy. In 1841, on the invitation of Frederic William IV., 
 he proceeded to Berlin to paint certain frescos in the Campo 
 Santo. He afterwards superintended the decoration of the Berlin 
 museum, and made the design for the superb shield presented by 
 the king of Prussia to his godson the prince of Wales at his 
 baptism. The genius of Cornelius is of a high order. A 
 nobUity of sentiment, a subtlety of meaning, and a grandeur of 
 conception peiwade his whole works, and amply redeem certain 
 negligences of detail which occasionally draw upon him the 
 animadversions of those critics who prefer finish to intellect — 
 mechanical to mental qualifications. — W. T. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, Charles Mann, second earl and first mar- 
 quis of, was born 31st December, 1738, and educated at Eton 
 and St. John's, Cambridge. He entered the army as an ensign 
 in 1756, and served on the continent during the Seven Years' 
 war as aid-de-camp to the marquis of Granby. On the death 
 of his father in 1762, he succeeded to the earldom ; he was made 
 aid-de-camp to the king in 1765, colonel of the 33rd regiment 
 in 1766, constable of the Tower in 1770, and major-general in 
 1778. On questions of American taxation he steadily opposed 
 the court ; but when war broke out between the mother countiy 
 and the colonies, and his regiment was ordered abroad in 1776, he 
 accompanied it without hesitation, conceiving that as a militaiy 
 man he had nothing to do with the policy of the service which 
 he was commanded to perform. He served ^^•^th great activity 
 under generals Howe and Clinton, in the campaigns of 1776-79, 
 in New York and the southern states, and in 1780 he gained a 
 complete victory over General Gates. But in the following year 
 he was besieged in York town by the French and American 
 forces and the French fleet, and after an obstinate defence, 
 was compelled to surrender, October 7, 1781. This untoward 
 event proved a death-blow to the British interests in America ; 
 but Lord Comwalhs sustained no loss of military reputation 
 by it, and on his return to England, was courted by both of 
 the leading parties in parliament. In 1786 his lordship was 
 appointed governor-general and commander-in-chief of Bengal. 
 He introduced great reforms in the judicial system and the police, 
 and in the collection of revenue. The principal event which 
 occurred during his administration was the war with Tippoo 
 Saib. The campaign of 1790 against Tippoo having proved 
 indecisive, the governor-general resolved to take the field in 
 person in 1791. The campaign was attended with entire suc- 
 cess, the sultan was completely defeated in the famous night 
 attack upon the lines of Seringapatam, and compelled to assent 
 to a treaty which stripped him of one half of his dominions, 
 besides a large sum of money (4th March, 1791.) As a reward 
 of his " brilliant successes," Lord Comwallis was raised to the 
 rank of a marquis, and on his return to England in 1793, was 
 appointed master-general of the ordnance. In 1798 — the era 
 of the rebellion — he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
 and commander-in-chief, and not only succeeded in suppressing 
 the rebellion and capturing a French invading army, but checked 
 the disgracefiU outrages of the dominant faction in that unhappy 
 country; and in spite of the violent clamour against his clemency, 
 he steadfastly adhered to his moderate and merciful policy. He 
 lent his powerful aid in passing the bill for the union of the two 
 countries in 1800, and resigned the vice-royalty on Mr. Pitt's 
 retiring from office in 1801. In the same year he was appointed 
 plenipotentiaiy to France, and negotiated the peace of Amiens. 
 In 1805 he was reappointed governor-general of India; and on 
 arriving in Calcutta, though in bad health, he proceeded at once 
 to the upper provinces, where his presence was necessary. But 
 he was obliged to stop at Ghazapore in the province of Benares, 
 where he died on the 5th of October. Lord Cornwallis was a 
 statesman and a soldier of solid rather than showy qualities. He
 
 was noted for his moderation and prudence, his love of truth, 
 and boldness in enouncing it. He had large %-iews, a ciUtivated 
 and con-ect understanding, a keen insight into character, much 
 energy, much enterprise, much fertility of resource, a chivalrous 
 attachment to king and country, and unshaken resolution in 
 doing and enforcing what he thought right. — J. T. 
 
 CORXl'SHE, WiLLiAjtr, master of the children of the royal 
 chapel in 1490, was a distinguished musician in his day. He 
 was also a poet ; at least he wrote some rhymes entitled, " A 
 Treatise between Trowth and Enformation." These hues were 
 penned in 1504, when the author was in the Fleet prison, in 
 consequence, as he asserts, of false information given by an 
 enemy. The treatise was written in order to restore him to 
 favour with " King Harry," as he familiarly calls his sovereign. 
 It was no doubt attended by the desired result ; for, not very long 
 afterwards, his name occurs again among the gentlemen of the 
 chapel who played before the king. In 1530 was published a 
 collection of songs, with music, by Comyshe and others. — E. F. R. 
 
 CORXYSHE, William, jun., a son of the preceding, was also 
 an eminent musician at the end of the fifteenth, and beginning 
 of the following century. JIany of his compositions are pre- 
 served in a volume of ancient EngUsh songs for two, three, and 
 four voices, known as the Fairfax SIS. — (^Add. MS. British Mus.. 
 No. 5465.)— E. F. R. 
 
 CORREA. See Carasiaru. 
 
 CORREA DE LA Serra, Jose Francisco de, bom at 
 Serpa in Portugal in 1750. After taking orders, he devoted 
 himself with untiring energy to classical and anriquarian studies. 
 While holding the office of secretary to a Portuguese academy of 
 science, Correa wrote an important work on physiological botany. 
 In 1786 he was obliged to leave Portugal, in order to avoid the 
 religious persecution then raging. He retm-ned after the death 
 of Peter III., but in 1796 was a second time obliged to flee, and 
 came to London, where he was made a fellow of the Royal 
 Society. After the peace of Amiens he went to France, where 
 he made good use of the scientific advantages he enjoyed. In 
 1813 we find him at Philadelphia, where he undertook the 
 duties of a chair of botany, but refused the title of professor. 
 In 1816 he was appointed ambassador of Portugal to the United 
 States, but was recalled to Portugal in 1821, and nomina^^ed a 
 member of the board of finance. In 1823 he was elected a 
 member of the cortes, but died 11th September in the same 
 year. His great work is the " Collecao de livros ineditos de 
 liistoria Portngueza." — F. M. W. 
 
 CORREA, Don Pelayo Perez, a Portuguese general, 
 who commanded a successful expedition against the floors, 
 nndertaken by his own sovereign, Sancho, in the middle of the 
 thirteenth century. He aftei-wards served with Ferdinand of 
 Castile in the campaigns by which that monarch humbled the 
 Moslem power in Spain, and died in 1275. — W. B. 
 
 CORREA DE SA Bexavides, Salvador, a celebrated 
 admiral, was bom at Rio de Janeiro in 1594, and died in 1688. 
 The first part of his Iffe was spent at sea. In 1641 he was 
 made governor-general of Brazil, to which colony he rendered 
 valuable services. In 1648 he drove the Dutch out of Angola, 
 and governed that region during the three following years. 
 The last office he held was that of governor of the countries 
 south of Brazil. He closed a long life of important pubUc ser- 
 vices in unmerited neglect. — R. il., A. 
 
 CORREGGIO, AxTONio Allegri or Lieti, is commonly 
 called Correggio, and Antonio da Correggio, from the small 
 town of that name in which he was born, about twenty miles 
 east of Parma, and now forming part of the duchy of Jlodena. 
 The exact date of his birth is not known, but he is assumed to 
 have been bom in the ^"inter of 1493-94 ; his father Pellegiino 
 AUegri, was a merchant in good circumstances, but as is the 
 case with many other great painters, exceedingly few facts of 
 the life of Correggio are positively known, notwithstanding the 
 elaborate memoirs of him by the Padre Pungileoni, ]^Iemoire 
 Istoriche di Antonio Allegri detto II Correggio, published at 
 Parma in 1817-21, of which an abstract was published by 
 Archdeacon Coxe. in the Sketches of the Lives of Correggio and 
 Piirmegiano, London, 1823. The account of Vasari represents 
 Correggio as having been very poor and obscure, but some 
 documents published by Pungileoni should entirely dissipate 
 this impression, which appears to be altogether erroneous. He 
 evidently enjoyed a great reputation in his lifetime, even as 
 early as 1519, and he received high prices for his works. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Antonio commenced the practice of his art in his native place, 
 and a painter of Con-eggio of the name of Antonio Bartolotti 
 has the credit of being bis first master. By the time he was five 
 and twenty years of age, his fame had already reached the 
 capital of Parma, and in 1520 we find him engaged on the 
 extensive frescos of the cupola of San Giovanni, representing 
 the ascension of Cluist from the midst of the apostles, well- 
 known by the prints of Vanni and the Cav. Toschi. As an 
 additional indication of prosperity, in this same year, 1520, he 
 was married to a young lady of llantua, named Girolama 
 Jlerlini, and with whom he received a considerable dowry ; she 
 is supposed by Pungileoni to have been the original of the 
 JIadonna in the holy family, known as La Zingarella. He had 
 already executed several remarkable oil pictures before settling 
 in Parma ; the St. George, and the St. Sebastian — two large 
 altarpieces, now in the gallery of Dresden — are both of this 
 period. In 1522 he received his last extensive commission, to 
 paint, also in fresco, the dome and choir of the cathedral of 
 Parma, but this great work was interrupted by his early death. 
 Con-eggio contracted to paint the whole for one thousand ducats 
 (equivalent perhaps, now, to about £5000 of our money). He, 
 however, did not Uve to complete even the dome, which was 
 finished by his pupil Giorgio Gandini. The subject is the 
 " Assumption of the Vkgin," the apostles being witnesses of 
 the event, below ; these frescos were also engraved by Vanni, 
 and in part by the Cav. Toschi. This great painter died of a 
 fever at Correggio, 5th March, 1534, at the early age of forty, 
 being sur\-ived by his father, and his wife was left with his only 
 son, Pomponio, and one daughter ; two of his daughters died 
 before him. CoiTeggio was particularly remarkable for his 
 objective chiaroscm'o, and for his violent and complicated fore- 
 shortenings ; he was also a fine colomnst, and pre-eminent above 
 all his contemporaries for what is termed grace. His fore- 
 shortenings are, however, skilful as well as violent ; his lights 
 and shadows are graduated with exquisite roundness and the 
 utmost taste ; and in what has been termed grace — the attitude, 
 imdulating forms, and soft expression of his figures — he is still 
 unrivalled. It was this quality, this general softness, which so 
 fascinated Annibale Carracci and the Bolognese eclectics. Anni- 
 bale, in a letter published by Malvasia, (Felsina Pittrice,) writes 
 fi-om Parma to his cousin Lodo\-ico in 1580, with reference to 
 Raphael's St. Cecilia, now in the gallery of Bologna, and some ol 
 Correggio's pictures at Parma, as follows : — ^'' The ' St. Jerome ; ' 
 the ' St. Catherine ; ' the ' Madonna della ScodeUa ' — I would 
 rather have any of them than the St. CeciUa ; how much 
 grander, and at the same time more delicate, is the figure of St. 
 Jerome, than that of St. Paul [in the St. Ceciha], which at 
 first appeared to me to be a miracle ; but now it appears to me 
 wooden, it is so hard." Correggio's pictures are exceedingly valu- 
 able, but most of the great P^uropean galleries possess one or two 
 fine examples of his oil paintings. Many are still presen-ed at 
 Parma, and the Dresden gallerj- is rich in CoiTCggios ; besides 
 the two already mentioned, it possesses the famous " Nottc," or 
 nati\-ity of Christ, and the small " Reading JIagdalene." The 
 Xotte, somewhat damaged now, is conspicuous for its grace and 
 foreshortenings, and for the much spoken of device of lighting 
 up the picture from the infant Saviour ; Raphael had preceded 
 Correggio many years in this mode of lighting — in the fresco of 
 Peter delivered from Prison, in the Vatican, all the light of the 
 picture proceeds from the angel. CoiTeggio is also well repre- 
 sented in our National galleiy — in the " Cupid being taught to 
 Read;" in the "Ecce Homo;" and in the small "Holy Family." 
 The " Christ praj-ing in the Garden," is now assumed to be a 
 copy of the original in the possession of the duke of Welling- 
 ton, and which was captiu-ed from king Joseph after the battle 
 of Vittoria, and afterwards presented to the late duke by 
 Ferdinand VII. The " Cupid reading," one of the painter's 
 masterpieces, is a noble specimen of all Correggio's qualities of 
 style, though the picture has somewhat suffered from time. It 
 was formerly in the possession of Charles I., who purchased it 
 of the duke of Mantua ; and at the sale of King diaries' cff'octs 
 it was bought by the duke of Alva for £800, then an immense 
 sum ; it belonged aftcnvards to the prince of Peace, and was 
 eventually restored to this countiy through the marquis of Lon- 
 dondeny-, of whom it was purchased for the nation in 1834, 
 together with the " Ecce Homo " by the same painter. — R. N. W. 
 CORRI, DoMiNico, a musician, was bora in Naples in 1744, 
 and died in London when above the age of eighty-two. He was 
 
 7C
 
 COR 
 
 1122 
 
 COR 
 
 the pupil of Poi-pora for the four years preceding the death of 
 that esteemed master in 1767. Corri came to London in 1774, 
 where he produced an opera, "Alcssandro nell Indie," at the 
 king's theatre, which had Uttle success. He obtained great 
 repute as a teacher of singing, and printed a treatise on the art. 
 Several of his English songs, of which he published a great 
 number, became veiy popular. He produced also two collections 
 of pianoforte sonatas, and the English opera of " The Travel- 
 lers," which was his most successful work. His daughter, who 
 appeared in public as a singer and a harpist, and obtained much 
 distinction in the latter capacity, married the famous Dussek. 
 In 1797 Corri opened a music warehouse in the Haymarket, in 
 partnership with his son-in-law, who was at the time at the 
 height of his career as a pianist and composer, and Conn, too, 
 was well known to the public ; but theu* publishing speculation 
 did not prosper. Corri had three sons, who all followed his 
 profession — Aktoxio, who settled in America; Montague, 
 bom in Edinbm-gh in 1785, who obtained some considerable 
 note in London as a composer of small pieces for the theatres ; 
 and Hatdn, who resided as a teacher in Dublin, and whose 
 son, Hexrt, has come befoie the public as a singer. Natale 
 Corri was the brother of Dominico ; he was a teacher of 
 singing and a composer, and lived at Edinburgh, where his 
 daughter, Frances, afterwards known as JIadame Com-Paltoni, 
 was bom in 1801, wliose reputation was high among the Italian 
 voeahsts of her time. — G. A. 51. 
 
 CORT, Cornelius, a celebrated engraver, bom at Horn in 
 Holland in 1536. After engraving a number of plates from the 
 Dutch and Flemish masters, he set out for Italy. In Venice he 
 was cordially received by Titian, who gave him a residence in 
 his house. He afterwards visited Rome, and instituted there a 
 school of engranng. It is said, but apparently without much 
 foundation, to have been under this distinguished artist that 
 Agostino Caracci first studied the art of engraving. The plates 
 of Cort are entu-ely^ executed with the graver, in a vigorous and 
 masterly manner. He died at Rome. — W. T. 
 
 CORTESI, Jacopo, or rather Jacques Curtois, called 
 II Borgognone. This celebrated painter was bom in 1621, 
 at St. Hippolite Ln. Burgundy. His father was a painter of 
 sacred subjects, who attained but little success in his pro- 
 fession. On the persuasion of a French officer, Jacopo deserted 
 the studio of his father and entered the anny, in which he 
 remained three years. This period was not entirely lost to 
 the future painter, for he made di'a wings of every skii-mish, 
 attack, and miUtaiy manoeuvre in which he was engaged. 
 After relinquishing the trade of a soldier, he went to Bologna, 
 and there fonned the acquaintance of Albano and Guido, which 
 was of much ser^nce to him. Borgognone resided some years 
 at Florence under the patronage of Prince JIatliias, wliose 
 mihtary achievements in Germany and Italy he recorded in a 
 historical gallery of paintings. At Rome he produced some 
 sacred works, the " JIagdalen at the feet of Christ," in the church 
 of S. Jlarta, &c. But his real excellence consisted in his battle 
 landscapes. " He uiiparted a wondert'al au- of beauty to his com- 
 positions," says Lanzi ; " his combatants appear before us cour- 
 ageously contending for honour or for life, and we seem to hear 
 the cries of the wounded, the blast of the tnimpet, and the 
 neighing of the horses." The original brilliance of colour has 
 departed from the greater number of his works. His four finest 
 works probably are in the Palazzo Pitti at Florence. In the 
 height of his fame he was suddenly diiven from the world by a 
 malevolent rumour that he had poisoned his wife. He retired to 
 a monastery of the Jesuits, and became one of theu- body. He 
 was held in high esteem by his feUow-monks, so much so that 
 they dispensed with the second year of his noviciate. He died 
 of apoplexy at Rome, on the 14th November, 167G. He etched 
 a few plates of battle-pieces, very masterly in execution and 
 powerful in their effects of light and shade. — W. T. 
 
 CORTEZ, Hernando, the Spanish conqueror of Mexico, was 
 born at MedeUin in Estremadura in 1485, and was thus a boy 
 of seven when Columbus discovered America. His early youth 
 was a stormy one, and at the age of nineteen he quitted Spain 
 for a career of adventure in what was then "the far west." 
 His destination was Hispaniola, of which the unworthy successor 
 of Columbus, Ovando, was governor, and from him Cortez received 
 a concession of land, and some slight official dignity. Seven 
 years later, he was associated with Velasquez in the conquest of 
 Cuba, an enterprise which brought out his soldierly qualities. 
 
 Another seven years elapsed, and Cortez was summoned from 
 his lucrative occupancy of a Cuban estate, to follow up the dis- 
 coveries of Juan de Grijalva on the Mexican coast. Velasquez 
 designated Cortez chief of the expedition ; and though he subse- 
 quently revoked the appointment, fearing the ambition of his 
 turbulent subordinate, Cortez succeeded in making good his new 
 position. Towards the close of 1518, Cortez set sail with a 
 little squadron which had been partly fitted out at his o-mi 
 expense. The army with which he went forth to the conquest 
 of Jlexico, scarcely numbered five himdred Europeans. His 
 first encounter with the natives was at Tabasco, which he took, 
 after severe fighting, and he proceeded thence to San Juan de 
 Ulloa, where he heard, from the friendly natives, of the Mexican 
 empire, and their dependency on it. Landing in the early spring 
 of 1519 at the site of the present Vera Cruz, Cortez met with 
 a friendly reception from the native cacique, who transmitted to 
 the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, the expression of the Spanish 
 \"isitor's wish to be allowed to repair to Jlexico, the capital. 
 Jlontezmna refused his permission. Cortez then prepared to 
 march on Mexico ; and bemg harassed by plots among his 
 followers, he destroyed his ships, leaving them no alternative 
 but to accompany him, since their return to Cuba was thus 
 impossible. In the August of 1519 he began his march, his 
 army being somewhat augmented by Indian auxiliaries. Part 
 of his policy, indeed, was to represent himself to the natives as 
 their deliverer from the Aztec yoke. The army of Tlascala, an 
 independent republic, opposed his progress. With his little force 
 he defeated, in a pitched battle, 30,000 Tlascalans, and formed 
 an alliance with the vanquished foe. Montezuma was frightened 
 when he heard the tidings, and received the Spaniards in his 
 capital, not as enemies, but as friends. But the people were 
 hostile though the monarch was friendly, and Cortez, nothing 
 loath, took advantage of the feeling to accuse the peaceful and 
 timid Jlontezuma of treachery, and to make him first a prisoner, 
 and then a puppet in his hands. The ^Mexicans, naturally 
 irritated, especially at the profanation of their temples, were 
 cultivating a mood of mind very dangerous to the Spaniards, 
 when Cortez was recalled from the capital to front another 
 adversary. An army had landed, sent by Velasquez, to bring 
 back his rebellious subordinate. With promptitude, vigour, and 
 success, Cortez marched against the Spanish force, surprised it, 
 took its leader prisoner, and, as formerly with the Tlascalans, 
 so now with his own countiymen, he converted the foe into a 
 friend, and returned to Jlexico the commander of the veiy amiy 
 which had been despatched to depose him. The cruelties of his 
 lieutenant at this capital had caused the insurrection to explode, 
 and when Cortez reached Jlexico he found, after much hard 
 fighting, that he was outnumbered, and he resolved to evacuate 
 the city. During the retreat the Spaniards were nearly cut to 
 pieces, and it was almost by a miracle that Cortez, with his 
 diminished forces, gained, on the 8tli of July, 1520, the battle 
 of Otumba, which decided the fate of Mexico. The lapse of 
 six months found him on his way to invest Mexico with a 
 reinforced and reorganized army, of which the Indian portion 
 was very numerous. The siege of Mexico lasted three months, 
 and it was only after a veiy narrow escape from destruction 
 that the Spaniards found themselves in possession of its ruins, 
 intermingled with the innumerable corpses of its defenders. 
 This was on the 13th of August, 1521. Confinned by the 
 Emperor Charles V. in liis self-conferred dignity of captain- 
 general, Cortez govemed the countiT well — pursuing towards 
 the natives a policy on the whole conciliatory and just. Never- 
 theless, in 1526, the conqueror of ilexico found himself smn- 
 moned to Spain, to answer charges brought against him by 
 accusers and enemies at home. It was not, however, untU 1528 
 that he arrived in his native country. In spite of the cause of 
 his recall, he was received with the utmost enthusiasm by the 
 population, and the emperor bestowed on him every possible 
 honour but one — that of reinstatement Ln the civil governorship 
 of Mexico. Retuming in 1530 to America, he made, among other 
 important discoveries, that of California; but when he heai-d of 
 the arrival of a new viceroy of Mexico, he resolved to return to 
 Spain and assert his claims. His reception was not the same 
 as on the occasion of his first return. The conquest of Pern 
 seemed to have effaced, both with people and prince, the memory 
 of the conquest of Jlexico. Cortez was treated with coldness 
 by Charles V. He took part in the disastrous expedition of the 
 emperor against Algiers in 1541, and might perhaps have given
 
 COR 
 
 1123 
 
 COS 
 
 it another issue had his advice been asked, or his plans been 
 executed. Six years he languished about tlie court, vainly- 
 seeking a settlement of his claims. Wearied of the insolence of 
 oflSce and the law's delay, he was about to return to Mexico, 
 when the design was arrested by death, which overtook him near 
 Seville on the 2d of December, 1547. — F. E. 
 
 CORTONA. See Pietro da Cortona. 
 
 CORVINUS. See Matthias and Huniades. 
 
 CORVLSART-DESMARETS, Jean-Nicoi.as, Baron, one of 
 the most illustrious French physicians of the last century, was 
 born in 1755, and died in 1821. He was loaded with honours 
 by Napoleon, to whom he was introduced by Josephine, who 
 had become acquainted with him at the house of Barras. As a 
 professor Corvisart was eminently successful. — R. M., A. 
 
 CORVUS, M. Valerius, an illustrious Roman wanior. He 
 obtained the surname of Corvus because, in a single combat with 
 a Gallic giant, he was assisted by a raven (corvus), which 
 alighted on his helmet, and flew in the barbarian's face. He 
 was six times consul and twice dictator, and rendered the most 
 valuable services to the republic. Corvus, who lived to the age 
 of one hundred, is frequently mentioned by the later Roman 
 writers as one of the most fortunate of men. — R. M., A. 
 
 CORYATE, George, a man who in his time had a consider- 
 able reputation as an elegant writer, particularly in Latin 
 verse, was born at Salisbury in the early part of the sixteenth 
 century ; and having been educated at Winchester school, he 
 obtained a fellowship of New college, Oxford, in 1562. He was 
 appointed to the rectory of Odcombe in 1594, where he died on 
 4tli March, 1G06. A list of his works is given by Wood in the 
 Athenro Oxonienses. — J. F. W. 
 
 CORYATE, Thomas, son of the preceding, was bom at 
 Odcombe in 1577, and received his education at Westminster 
 school, and subsequently at Gloucester hall, Oxford. In 1G08 
 he set out on an extensive tour, and travelled principally on foot 
 through Germany, France, and Italy. All this he tells us he 
 accomplished with one pair of shoes, which on his return he had 
 the vanity to hang up in the parish church at Odcombe. The 
 result of this wandering he gave to the world in a volume with 
 the strange title of " Coryate's Crudities hastily gobbled up in 
 five months' travel." He also travelled through Constantinople, 
 Greece, Egypt, Palestine, visiting Alexandria, Jerusalem, Cairo, 
 the pyramids, Babylon ; thence he proceeded to Lahore and Agra, 
 where lie was received at the court of the Great Mogul, and 
 finally died of a short illness at Surat in 1G17. — J. F. W. 
 
 COSA, Juan de la, is said to have been the pilot of 
 Columbus on his first voyage — certainly he was with the great 
 na%'igator on his second one — and he is known to have been 
 among the most eminent chartographers of his time and country. 
 Cosa accompanied Ojcda in the latter's final expedition of 1509 
 to the Darien coast, and vainly endeavoured to dissuade him 
 from landing at Tabasco, and engaging with the fierce natives 
 of that locality. Tlie cautious veteran supported his chief, 
 however, with the utmost bravery when the conflict was com- 
 menced. Separated from Ojeda in the strife, he took refuge in 
 an Indian hut, and fought till there was only one other survivor 
 left, while he himself felt that the poisoned arrows of the enemy 
 were completing their deadly work. Some of his maps have 
 escaped the destroying hand of time, and are much valued by 
 the geographical antiquary. — F. E. 
 
 COSIERS or COSSIERS, John, a painter, born at Antwerp 
 in 1603. His repute as a historical painter attracted the notice 
 of the king of Spain and other princes, who liberally patronized 
 him. He was nominated director of the Academy at Antwerp 
 in 1639. He died in 1652.— W. T. 
 
 COSIN, John, D.D., Lord-bishop of Durham and Count 
 Palatine from December, 1660, to January, 1672, was the eldest 
 son of Giles Cosin, a citizen of Norwich, where he was born, 
 30th November, 1594. He was educated at the free school of 
 Normch, and at Gonville and Caius college, Cambridge, of which 
 society he was scholar and fellow. In 1640 Charles I., whose 
 chaplain he then was, made him dean of Peterborough. His 
 faithfulness to his royal master cost him much trouble, for in 
 1642 he was deprived of all his preferments, for being con- 
 cerned in sending the plate of the university to the king. He 
 then went to Paris as chaplain to the protestant members of 
 Queen Henrietta's household, and there composed several works 
 against the Roman catholics, and kept up a friendly intercourse 
 with the French protestants. At the restoration of Charles II., 
 
 Cosin returned home, after seventeen years' exile, and took 
 possession of his former oifices. On the 2nd of December, 
 1660, he was consecrated bishop of Durham, and there was 
 distinguished for his princely munificence. He is said to have 
 expended, in charitable works connected with his see, the sum 
 of £26,000. He died in Pall Mall, 15th January, 1672. His 
 works were numerous and valuable, and were collected in 1843 
 in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology — a memoir being 
 prefixed, which was reprinted from the Biographia Britannica. 
 Some of his writings have lately been translated into French and 
 Italian, arid published by the " Society for making known on the 
 Continent the Principles of the Church of England." — T. S. P. 
 
 COSMAS, usually called Indicopleustes (Indian navi- 
 gator), was an Egyptian monk of the reign of Justinian. 
 Cosmas, who was originally a merchant, and had in that capacity 
 visited many countries, wrote a work entitled " ToToj'fa^/a 
 X^ia-Tixvixii" Topographia Christiana, in twelve books, the greater 
 part of which is extant. — R. M.,A. 
 
 COSTA, Claudio-Manoel ue, was born at JLarianno, a 
 town of the province of Minas Geraes in Brazil, upon the Gtli 
 of June, 1729. He published in 1751 his first volume of poetiy, 
 which was followed in 1 768 by a second, and both were favourably 
 received and gave him a high reputation. His close intimacy 
 with Ribeiro led to implicate him in a political movement, in con- 
 sequence of which he was arrested by the goverament in 1789, 
 and thrown into prison at Villa Rica, where he died, as it is 
 suspected, by poison. Costa wrote with purity and elegance, 
 and was remarkable for the classicality and harmony of his 
 prose. — J. F. W. 
 
 COSTA Y SYLVA, Jos£ Maria da, was bom on the 15th 
 of August, 1788, in Coimbra in Portugal, in which city his 
 father held an official situation. He employed himself chiefly in 
 the translation of works of English, French, and Italian writers, 
 though he also wrote a few original historical plays. Such was 
 his diligence in this branch of literature, that he is said to 
 have ultimately reproduced near two hundred dramas. Happily 
 for the cause of literature, Costa found tune towards the decline 
 of life to confer upon his country a more solid benefit. In 1850 
 he published the first volume of his " Essay, Critical and Bio- 
 graphical, on the best Portuguese poets, from the commencement 
 of the monarchy to the present time." Each succeeding year ho 
 continued this work tUl the 7tli volume appeared in 1854, when 
 death terminated his labom's, leaving still three volumes unfin- 
 ished. If Costa did not fully achieve the object he had in view, 
 he has, at all events, supplied a great want, and for the first 
 time given his countrymen what may be called a reliable history 
 of its poetiy. — J. F. W. 
 
 COSTELEY, William, a Scotch musician of considerable 
 eminence in the sixteenth century, was born about 1530. Ho 
 visited Paris in early life, and was appointed valet-de-chambre 
 and organist to Charles IX. He published " JIusiquc," Paris, 
 Adrien le Roi, 1579, 4to; and " Chansons i\ quatre ct i\ cinq 
 Parties," Paris, Adrien le Roi, 1586, 4to. The date of his 
 decease is unknown. — E. F. R. 
 
 * COSTELLO, Louisa Stuart, a popular English authoress. 
 Her first publication attracted the attention of Thomas Moore 
 the poet, to whom she dedicated in 1835 her " Specimens of the 
 early Poetry of France." She has written a considerable number 
 of books of travel, memoirs, and romances; "A Pilgi-imago to 
 Ai^vergne ;" " Beam and the Pyrenees ;" " The Queen Mother ;" 
 " Clara Fane ;" " Anne of Brittany," &c. &c.— R, M., A. 
 
 COSTER, the celebrated printer, was born about 1370, and 
 died about 1440. He is one of the four or five persons for 
 whom severally has been claimed the honour of the invention of 
 printing. The Dutch have zealously advocated the pretensions 
 of Coster, but it is now all but certain that the honour rightly 
 belongs to the German Guttenbcrg. — R. M., A. 
 
 COSTER, Joseph Francois, the son of a banker at Nancy, 
 where he was born in 1729. When of sufticicnt ago he became 
 a partner in the estabhshment ; but in the midst of financial 
 business he found time to apply a clear and vigorous intellect to 
 the cognate study of political economy. He was appointed 
 secretary to the pariiament of Lorraine, and employed in many 
 hnportant affairs by that body. One of his publications in this 
 capacity was " Letters of a Citizen," in opposition to certain 
 commercial restrictions proposed to be placed u})on the trade of 
 the province of Lorraine. These letters were extremely popular, 
 and procured for their author the title of " the Citizen." His
 
 COS 
 
 1124 
 
 COT 
 
 reputation soon spread beyond the bounds of his own duchy. 
 He was appointed secretary to the states of Languedoc, and 
 soon after he was placed at the head of the financial affau'S 
 of Corsica, and thence he was elevated to the post of first 
 commissioner of finance, which he continued to hold till 1790, 
 acquu'ing and preserving a high reputation for ability. Slean- 
 time he was nominated syndic general of the provincial assembly 
 of Lorraine, and subsequently was elected mayor of Nancy. 
 Dm-ing the Revolution he was thrown into prison in 1793, but 
 liberated soon after. Upon the establishment of the ecoles 
 centrales. Coster was appointed to fill the chau- of history in 
 that establishment for the department of la Bleurthe. He was 
 perpetual secretary for the academy of Nancy, of which he pub- 
 Ushed the memou-s. He died in 1813. — J. F. W. 
 
 COSWAY, Richard, R.A. : this English ai-tist was bom in 
 17-10, at Tiverton, Devonshire, his father being the master of 
 the grammar school there. His uncle, the mayor of Tiverton, 
 placed him as a pupil with Hudson, and afterwards at Shipley's 
 school in the Strand. Cipriani and Bartolozzi were loud in 
 their approval of his drawings from the antique. Cosway was 
 a most diligent student, and between his fourteenth and twenty- 
 fourth years he obtained five premiums from the Society of Arts. 
 He was chiefly distinguished as a miniature pamter, and he 
 attained to very gi'cat success. The prince of Wales, afterwards 
 George IV., expressed great admiration for his portrait by Cos- 
 way, and in consequence all the rank and beauty of the country 
 seemed to flock to his easel. In 1771 he was elected a member 
 of the academy. He contributed many fanciful portraits to its 
 exhibitions — among others his "Psyche," " Cupid," " St. John," 
 " Madonna and Child," and " Rinaldo and Armida." He mar- 
 ried Miss Hadficld, who was born at Leghorn, but of English 
 parents. She possessed great abihty as an artist, and also as a 
 musician. Her paintings attracted general admiration, and her 
 musical soirees, at which she was prima donna, were amongst 
 the most aristocratic haunts of the day. Cosway died on the 
 4th of July, 1821.— W. T. 
 
 COSYN, Benjamin, a celebrated composer of lessons for the 
 virginals, and probably an excellent performer on that instru- 
 ment, flomished in the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 There are many of his pieces extant, somewhat in the same style 
 with those of Dr. Bull, and very little inferior to them. He was 
 probably a son of John Cosyn, who published in 1585 sixty 
 psalms, in six parts, in plain counterpoint. — E. F. R. 
 
 COTES, Francis, R.A., an English portrait painter, was 
 bom in London in 1725. He was remarkable for his portraits 
 in oil and crayons. At one time Hogarth maintained that he 
 was superior to Reynolds. Like Sir Joshua, Cotes called in the 
 aid of Toms to paint his draperies. Walpole mentions several 
 of his pictures, and says of them that if they yield to Rosalba's 
 in softness, they excel hers in vivacity and invention. Cotes 
 died of the stone in July, 1770. He was one of the original 
 members of the Royal Academy. — His brother, Sajitjel, was 
 also a noted crayon painter. He died in 1818. — W. T. 
 
 COTES, Roger, an English astronomer, born in Leicester- 
 shire in 1G82. He was educated at St. Paul's, London, and 
 Cambridge, where he was made Plumian professor of astronomy in 
 1706. In 1713 he took orders, and in the same year published, 
 at the recommendation of Bentley, the Mathematica Principia of 
 Newton. He also gave to the world a description of the great 
 fiery meteor of 1716. His " Harmonia Mensurarum" appeared 
 after his death, which occun-ed in the thirty-fourth year of his 
 age. — R. M., A. 
 
 COTJIAN, John Sell, an English artist, born at Norwich 
 about 1780. His water-colour drawings were remarkable for 
 their vigour and depth of effect ; but it is as an engraver of 
 architectural and archajological drawings that he will be 
 more especially remembered. His first undertaking of the kind 
 was his "Miscellaneous Etchings of Architectural Antiquities 
 in Yorkshire," in 28 plates, folio, published in 1812; " Arclii- 
 tectural Antiquities of Norfolk " and " Sepulchral Brasses in 
 Norfolk" followed. In 1817 he went to France, and subse- 
 quently produced the most important and valuable of his works, 
 the " Architectural Antiquities of Normandy," published in 1820, 
 with letterpress descriptive of the plates by Mr. Dawson 
 Turner of Yarmouth. He afterwards resided in London, and 
 held the appointment of teacher of di-awing in King's college, 
 London. He died in 1843.— W. T. 
 
 ^ COTTA, Berniiard, an eminent German geologist, was born 
 
 in 1808. He was appointed professor at Freiberg in 1842. He 
 has prepared geognostic charts of the kingdom of Saxony and 
 of Thuringia, and written extensively on his favourite science. 
 Cotta advocates the theory of a progi-essive development of 
 terrestrial bodies. One of his latest pubHcations is entitled 
 " Letters on Humboldt's Cosmos." — R. M., A. 
 
 COTTA, Caius Aurelius, one of the most distinguished 
 orators of his time, was born 124 B.C. In the earlier part of 
 his life he was obliged to retire from Rome in consequence of 
 the law of Varius, which required the banishment of all who 
 had supported the pretensions of the Itahan allies to the rights 
 of citizenship. At this time he spent nearly ten years in exile. 
 He was elected consul 75 B.C. ; and in consequence of a pro- 
 posal to restore the powers of which the tribunes had been 
 deprived by Sylla, he became an object of dislike to the patrician 
 order. As an orator he is frequently applauded by Cicero. 
 
 COTTA, JoHANN Feiedrich Freiherr von, one of the 
 most eminent German publishers, was born at Stuttgart, 27th 
 April, 1764. He was descended from an ancient Milanese family 
 long settled in Gennany. Joliann Friediich Cotta devoted 
 himself to the study of jurisprudence at Tubingen, and then 
 made a longer stay at Paris. In 1787 he began the manage- 
 ment of the bookselling house, which, by his business-like 
 habits, his energy and intelligence, he slowly but steadily raised 
 to an almost unparalleled standing. He originated by degrees 
 various highly successful newspapers and periodicals. He also 
 formed acquaintances with almost all the literai-y and scientific 
 celebrities of Germany, and pubhshed the works of Goethe, 
 Schiller, Matthisson, Platen, Humboldt, and other classic authors. 
 By these enterprises his fortune was greatly increased; he acquu-ed 
 considerable landed property, and thus was enabled to take part 
 in the political affairs of his country. He was chosen a member, 
 and afterwards vice-president of the Wurtembcrg chamber of 
 deputies, and in 1815 was sent to the Vienna congress by the 
 booksellers' corporation, there to take care of their interests. 
 In 1825 he started the first steam boat on the Bodensee, 
 Three years later, Wurtemberg and Bavaria were joined by his 
 negotiations to the ZoUverein. He died at Stuttgart, 29th 
 December, 1832.— K. E. 
 
 COTTEREAU, Jean, usually called Jean Ciiouan, was 
 born in 1757, and died in 1794. Cottereau became a soldier, 
 and at the Revolution obtained a command in the national 
 guard. A devoted royalist, he had soon, however, to quit his 
 regiment ; upon which he betook huuself with a few companions 
 to the forest of Blisdon, where he carried on for some time a 
 system of petty ambuscades and surprises. When the Vendeans 
 passed the Loire, Cottereau joined them with five himdred young 
 men. Their enterprise having failed, he returned to his ambus- 
 cades, and fell in an attempt to rescue the wife of his brother 
 Rene.— R. M., A. 
 
 COTTIN, Sophie Ristaud, Madame, a French authoress, 
 bom at Tonneins in 1773, was married in 1790 to M. Cottin, 
 a rich banker of Paris. She published successively " Claire 
 d'Albe ; " " Malvina ; " " Am^lie Mansfield ; " " Mathilde ; " 
 " Elizabeth, ou les Exiles de Sib^rie ; " and " La Prise de 
 Jdricho." These romances are full of sensibility, spirit, and 
 eloquence, and the moral principles which they inculcate ai-e 
 pure and elevated. Her "Elizabeth" is well known m Great 
 Britain and the United States. Madame Cottin was a protest- 
 ant, but all her heroines are Roman catholics. She died at the 
 age of thirty-seven years, on the 25th of August, 1807. — T. J. 
 
 COTTON, Charles, a well-known Enghsh writer, was bom 
 at Ovingden in Sussex on the 28th April, 1630. He was the 
 son of that Charles Cotton whom Hyde, afterwards lord 
 chancellor, mentions along with Ben Jonson, Selden, May, and 
 others, as one of the friends of his youth. Young Cotton was 
 sent to Cambridge, from which he returned to his father's house, 
 where he remained till his marriage in 1656. His father dying 
 two years after, Charles came into possession of the family 
 estate ; but he found it so heavily bm'dened, that it was probably 
 as much from necessity as from natm-al inclination, that he from 
 this time devoted lumself so assiduously to literary pm-suits. In 
 1660 he published a " Panegyric to the king's most excellent 
 majesty," and in 1664 " ScaiTonides, or VirgU Travestie," the 
 coarseness and obscenity of which render it one of the worst 
 productions of the absm-d class to which it belongs. His next 
 undertaking was a translation of the Life of the Duke of 
 Espemon, which was followed by his "Voyage to Ireland, in
 
 COT 
 
 1125 
 
 cou 
 
 Burlesque ; " an excellent poem, of which the good-humoured 
 absurdity and temporary forgetfulness of every thing sober and 
 solemn are not a little amusing. Some translations from the 
 French, " The Planter's Manual," and " Burlesque upon Bur- 
 lesque," — the last a disagreeable production — preceded the 
 " Second Part of the Complete Angler," which as the author 
 tells us, was written off in the short space of ten days. Cotton 
 was a gi-eat angler and a most intimate friend of Isaak Walton. 
 But the most valuable of all Cotton's works is his admirable trans- 
 lation of Montaigne's Essays, which appeared in 1685 in three 
 vols. 8vo. He was a perfect master of the French language ; 
 and his strong sympathy with the freedom and eccentricity of 
 the old Gascon gentleman's opinions, must have rendered the ver- 
 sion of his essays truly a labour of love. He died in 1687. A 
 collection of his fugitive poems, many of which are translations 
 from the Latin lyric and elegiac poets, was published after his 
 death. Cotton was constantly harassed with pecuniary difficul- 
 ties, and there is reason to believe that his life lacked much of 
 that saintliness which characterized his adoptive father, dear 
 old Isaak Walton. — R. M., A. 
 
 COTTON, Nathaniel, an English physician and poet, died 
 in 1788. He studied at Leyden under the famous Boerhaave, 
 and after his return to England practised medicine, first at Dun- 
 stable, and afterwards at St. Albans. For some time he devoted 
 himself to the care of insane persons, whom he received into his 
 house. Cowper the poet, who placed himself under his tender 
 and skilful management, had a particular regard for him. Cotton 
 wrote " Visions in Verse, for the instruction of Younger Minds." 
 
 COTTON, Sir Robert Bruce, an eminent English anti- 
 quarian, was born at Denton in Huntingdonshire in 1570, and 
 educated at Trinity college, Cambridge. He seems to have 
 early acquired a high reputation for learning and integrity, and 
 was consulted on public affairs both by the king and the leading 
 men of the times. He was first knighted, and afterwards created 
 a baronet by James I. ; but notwithstanding these proofs of the 
 favour in which he was held by the court. Sir Robert joined the 
 popular party, and urged the redress of grievances, though with 
 great moderation. He was in consequence subjected to the 
 persecution of the government ; and a surreptitious copy of a 
 MS. treatise on a political topic, which belonged to his library 
 having been laid before the privy council, he was committed to 
 the Tower, and his valuable library seized. This harsh and 
 unjust treatment injured his constitution, and ultimately led to 
 his death, Gth^Iay, 1631. His library, which contains a great 
 mass of records and precious manuscripts, as well as books, was 
 improved by his son and grandson, and is now deposited in the 
 British museum. — J. T. 
 
 * COUCH, Jonathan, F.L.S., &c., was born on 15th March, 
 1788, at Polperro, a fishing village on the south coast of Corn- 
 wall, where he has spent the gi-eater part of his life in the 
 practice of medicine, devoting his hours of leisure to the study 
 of natural history. His attention has been chiefly directed to 
 the investigation of marine zoology. As long ago as Vi'hen 
 Bewick was contemplating a history of British fishes, to be 
 illustrated in the same manner as his other celebrated works — a 
 labour which was interrupted by his death — Mr. Couch largely 
 furnished him with materials; and how greatly British icthyology 
 is indebted to the Cornish naturalist may be seen on a perusal of 
 Mr. Gurrett's almost national work on that subject. Mr. Couch 
 has also been a contributor to the Transactions of the philoso- 
 phical societies of his native country, and has published numerous 
 papers on almost all branches of his favourite study, in the jour- 
 nals having natural histoiy for their subject. He is also the 
 author of " Illustrations of Instinct ;" " The Cornish Fauna," 
 Parts I. and II. ; Part III., On the Zoophytes of Cornwall, 
 being furnished by his son, Richard Q. Couch, also a natu- 
 ralist of repute. — M. 
 
 COUCY, Raoul or Renaud de, a distinguished poet of the 
 twelfth century. He went to the crusades with Richard Coeur de 
 Lion, and died in battle. The date of 1192 is stated as that of 
 the year of his death. His biography, as far as it is connected 
 with literature would seem, if we may speak " a I'lrlandaise," 
 to begin after his death. When dying, the sire do Coucy ordered 
 his ecuyer to take his heart to the dame de Fayel, and tell her 
 how it had lived upon smiles and wine, and how the best of both 
 were what had cheered him in her castle. Her husband met the 
 luckless missionary, robbed him of the cherished treasure, had it 
 delicately dressed, and made his wife eat it actually, not meta- 
 
 phorically. She refused all other food when she was told of what 
 delicates her last dinner consisted. The story seems to have 
 pleased the taste of the period and of later days, for we have 
 the same story repeated in almost every language of Europe. 
 Twenty-four chansons are ascribed to De Coucy. Jlichel pub- 
 lished them in 1830, with an introduction and notes. — J. A., D. 
 
 COULOMB, Charles Auguste de, a French mechanician, 
 born at Angoulilme in 1736, and died m 1806. Coulomb entered 
 the army at an early age, and distinguished himself as a military 
 engineer. He was sent to JIartinique, to the isle of Ais, to 
 Rochefort, and to Cherbourg; but his public labours did not 
 wholly interrupt his private studies. In 1779 he obtained a 
 prize from the Royal Academy of Sciences for the best con- 
 struction of the mariner's compass, and two years afterwards 
 another for his "Theory of Simple Machines." But his reputa- 
 tion rests chiefly on his invention of the torsion balance (balance 
 de torsion'). This ingenious instrument, which was suggested 
 by a series of experiments on the elasticity of metallic threads, 
 is employed for increasing minute forces. — R. M., A. 
 
 COUKCY or COURCEY, Sir John de, an English warrior 
 who died about 1199. He went to Ireland with a band of 
 English, to assist the tyrant Dermot Macmorrogh to regain the 
 crown of Leinster, which he had lost by his violent oppressions. 
 In 1186 Courcy succeeded John, son of Ilemy II., as viceroy of 
 Ireland. Being afterwards deprived of this post he took arms, 
 and for some time resisted the royal forces. He was at length 
 apprehended, and thrown into prison, whence he was released by 
 King John. He then set sail for Ireland, but was driven on the 
 coast of France, where he died. — R. M., A. 
 
 COURT, Antoine, a celebrated French protcstant minister, 
 was born in 1G96, and died in 1760. In 1715 he set himself to 
 reorganize the French protestant church, which had been broken 
 and scattered by the revocation of the edict of Nantes — a work 
 in which he was successful beyond his most fer\-ent hopes. He 
 founded, about 1730, the French theological school at Lausanne, 
 which he directed till his death. — R. M., A. 
 
 COURT de Gebelin, Antoine, son of the preceding, 
 was born at Nismes in 1725. He, like his fatlier, was called 
 to the ministry, but soon abandoned active religious ministra- 
 tions to devote himself to his favom-ite study of mythologj-. 
 In 1763 he settled in Paris, and in two years afterwards he 
 commenced the publication of his great work, " Le Monde 
 Primitif, Analyse et Compare avec le Monde MoJerne." 
 Gebelin vnrote a work entitled " Les Toulousaines," in favour of 
 the reformed religion, and established in Paris an office, in 
 which all protestants could record theii- complaints, grievances, 
 and views in general, and thus he became the centre of that 
 party throughout the kingdom, and the advocate of liberty, 
 religious and civil. He died in 1784. — J. F. W. 
 
 COURTENAY. See Devon, Earl of. 
 
 COURTENAY, John, was born in Ireland in 1711. He 
 obtained an introduction to Lord Townsliend, which his talent 
 and conviviality improved to intimacy, so that the viceroy took 
 his friend with him on his departure, and ajipointed him his 
 secretary when he was made master-general of the ordnance. 
 Courtenay commenced his political career in 1780, as member 
 for the borough of Tamworth, which he continued to represent 
 till 1796; after which he sat for Ajipleby, having in the mean- 
 time been made surveyor of the ordnance. On the resignation 
 of Lord North, Lord Townshend retired from the ordnance, and 
 Courtenay accompanied him. They were again in office for a 
 short thne under the coalition ministry. Courtenay w:is held in 
 sufficient consideration to be jilaced on the connnittee for tlie 
 impeachment of Warren Hastings. In 1806 lie was appointed 
 a commissioner of the treasury, and shortly after retired from 
 public life, and died March 4, 1816. As a man of letters. 
 Com-tenay wrote with point and spirit, and some of his poetical 
 pieces have merit. Most of them alhule to the passing inci- 
 dents of the day. Tlie " Poetical Review of Dr. Johnson" is 
 the best of these compositions. He wrote two or tlu-ce pamphlets 
 on the French revolution. — J. F. W. 
 
 COURTNEY, Willi AS!, Archbishop of Canterburj-, was born 
 in 1341, and died in 1396. When bishop of London, he .sum- 
 moned before him Wickliff the reformer, upon which occasion a 
 tumult was excited amongst the citi/.ens of the metropolis. 
 Courtney was afterwards raised to the see of Canterbury, and is 
 remembered as a persecutor of the Wickliflites. — R. M., A. 
 
 COURTEVILLE, Ralph, a musician, supposed to be the son
 
 of Ralph Courteville, a gentleman of the royal chapel, who died 
 in 1675. In 1691 he was appointed organist of St. James' 
 church, Piccadilly, and was the author of the standard psalm 
 tune known as St. James'. While he was of good repute as 
 an accomphshed musician, he was also a literary reviewer and 
 critic of some celebrity. He was supposed to be in the pay of 
 the state, for the purpose of wiiting up the government of Sir 
 Robert Walpole, and was consequently stigmatized, by the opposite 
 party, by the appellation of Conrt-evil. The dates of his birth and 
 decease are unrecorded. — E. F. R. 
 
 * COUSIN, Victor, a celebrated French philosopher and 
 litterateur, was born at Paris, 28th November, 1792. After 
 giving high early promise. Cousin was appointed in 1815 by M. 
 Royer Collard to dehver lectures on the history of philosophy at 
 the Sorbonne. His prelections, which were characterized by great 
 \'igour and brilliancy, attracted an unusual amount of attention. 
 They were, however, suddenly interrupted by the reactionary 
 measures of government, which in 1820 caused M. Royer 
 Collard to withdraw from the council of the university. M. 
 Guizot, who was then also a lecturer at the Sorbonne, shared 
 the same fate. The leisure which Cousin had thus unwilhngly 
 forced upon him he employed in perfecting his philosophical 
 studies. He travelled also for some time in Germany, where 
 the too free expression of his liberal sentiments brought him 
 acquainted with the prisons of Berlin. To this period, it may 
 be added, belongs his edition of Proclus — Procli philosophi 
 Platonici Opera, 6 vols. The reign of Jesuit ascendancy having 
 ended. Cousin was restored to his chair of philosophy in 1828, 
 and commenced those series of lectures which immediately 
 attained a popularity altogether unprecedented since the age of 
 scholasticism. Two thousand auditors listened in admiration to 
 his expositions of abstrase and difficult doctrines. " The daily 
 journals found it necessary," says Su- WilHam Hamilton "to 
 gratify, by their earUer analyses, the impatient curiosity of the 
 pubhc; and the lectures themselves, taken in short-hand and 
 corrected by the professor, propagated weekly the influence of 
 his instruction to the remotest provinces of the kingdom." 
 After the revolution of 1830 Cousin resigned his chau- and 
 became inspector-general of education. In 1832 he was made 
 a peer of France, and in the same year published his celebrated 
 report on the state of education in Pinissia and Holland. He 
 was meanwhile a regular contributor to the Journal des Savcmts, 
 and, having been chosen member of the French Academy, as well 
 as of the Academy of Jloral and Political Sciences, took an active 
 part in their various labours. Cousin again held office as minister 
 of public instruction during the short administration of M. 
 Thiers in 18-10. Since the revolution of 1818 he has kept 
 wholly aloof from political affairs. 
 
 M. Cousm, whose studies have embraced the entire range of 
 moral and metaphysical philosophy, fluctuated for some time 
 amongst its various systems. Plato, of whose works he has 
 given a translation, Reid and the Scotch philosophy, Kant, 
 Proclus, and Hegel, have each engaged him in turn. He at 
 length professed to adopt a system of impartial and universal 
 eclecticism — a method which is to turn philosophy into a new- 
 path, and heal her manifold divisions. More of a Cicero than a 
 Plato, he takes high rank as an expounder of philosophy rather 
 than as a philosopher. His lectm-es, entitled " Com-s de I'hls- 
 tohe de la phUosopliie," are extremely brilliant, and present 
 a lively, if not always a just view, of the various systems 
 of philosophy that have appeared in the world. Philosophy, 
 according to Cousin, is nothing else than reflection elevated to 
 the rank and authority of a method. Indeed philosophy is nothing 
 but a method. His system, such as we understand it, may 
 be indicated in a few words. There ai-e three ideas necessarily 
 inherent in human reason : the idea of the finite, revealed to the 
 consciousness by the interaction of the er/o and the non ego; 
 the idea of the infinite or of necessary substance, the common 
 principle of the ego and the non ego, which also is an mfinite 
 cause ; and the idea of the relation that exists between these 
 two. Ideas, it should be remarked before proceeding fai-ther, 
 are not mere words, neither are they beings, but they are the 
 mode of existence of eternal reason, and only in some manner 
 lent to other reason. These three tenns of the fact of conscious- 
 ness belong to every indi\-idual, are common to the race; and as 
 the reason of the human race manifests itself in history, the 
 three ideas must also necessarily reveal themselves in the 
 sequence of human affairs, so that psychology becomes the true 
 
 interpreter of histor\\ Accordingly M. Cousin carries his theory 
 into history, and boldly asserts that there must be three great 
 historical epochs corresjionding to the three ideas included in 
 human reason, and that there can possibly be no more. It is 
 curious to compare the diff"erent results at which a Cousin, the 
 champion of ideas, and a Carlyle who would banish all such 
 phantoms from the mind, severally arrive in regard to the same 
 subject. Cousin, around whom come trooping at the slightest wave 
 of his philosophic wand, the "ideas" of all the sciences of the 
 eighteenth centmy, pronounces that century "one of the greatest 
 that have appeared in the world." Carlyle, whose keen eye, wan- 
 dering over its hundred years, can discern nothing greatly noble 
 or heroic, brands it with the stigma of unexampled poverty and 
 meanness. In such opposite directions do hero-worship and idea- 
 worship wander from the simple truth ! " It (i.e. the eighteenth 
 century) brought," says Cousin, " the middle age to a close ; it 
 fulfilled that tragic mission — it fulfilled only that ; a century, a 
 single century, is seldom charged with two missions at once." (!) 
 And so the centm-ies, like so many well-drilled regiments, march 
 in order through the philosophical imagination, each with its 
 mission-inscribed banner flaunting in the air. And this is the 
 philosophy of history ! — M. Cousin has latterly applied himself 
 to a minute and conscientious examination of the histoi-y of 
 France during the first half of the seventeenth century. Dis- 
 gusted with the meanness and distraction of his own age, he 
 has sought relief in the greatness of the past. The period which 
 he has chosen is that, to use his own words, " inspired by the 
 genius that prompted Henry IV"., Richelieu, and ilazarin ; dic- 
 tated the edict of Nantes, and the treaty of JIunster and the 
 Pyrenees ; and whence sprung ComeUle's Cid, Des-Carte's Dis- 
 com's de la Methode, Pascal's Provincials, Jloliere's Slisanthrope, 
 and all the finest sermons of Bossuet — the genius to be eveiy- 
 where recalled and glorified ; because it is the genius of France 
 herself at the hour of the completest development of her national 
 grandeur." The fruit of his studies in this direction is already, 
 at least in part, possessed by the world in his admirable histori- 
 cal biographies of Madame de Longueville, Madame de Sable, 
 Jacqueline Pascal, and Madame de Hautefort. Cousin has 
 laboured incessantly to wean his countrymen from the utterly 
 worthless literature which has for so many years corrupted the 
 popular mind. And it is but right to add, that the purpose of 
 his writings has been admirably seconded by the perfect honour 
 and consistency of his Hfe. His principal works, besides those 
 already mentioned, are " Fragments Philosophiq«ies," 2 vols. ; 
 " De la Metaphysique d'Aiistote ; " " Philosophic Scolastique ;" 
 " Le9ons sur la Philosophic de Kant;" "Fragments Litter- 
 aires;" together with editions of the works of Maine de Biran, 
 AbaUard, P. Andre, &c.— R. M., A. 
 
 COUSTOU, GuiLLAUJiE, an eminent French sculptor, brother 
 of Nicolas, bom in 1678; died in 1746. He was a successful 
 student at the academy, and was sent to Rome to perfect his 
 resources. Retuniing to Paris, he was intrusted with large 
 works, occasionally in conjunction -with Nicolas. — W. T, 
 
 COUSTOU, GfiLLAUME, son of the preceding, was born at 
 Paris in 1716. Like his father and uncle, he obtained the gi'eat 
 prize of the academy, devoted five years to study at Rome, and 
 subsequently returned to Paiis to be received with acclamation 
 into the academy. He was the treasurer of that institution at 
 his death in 1771. — W. T. 
 
 COUSTOU, Nicolas, an eminent French sculptor, bom at 
 Lyons in 1658. At the age of twenty-three, obtaining the 
 highest academy prize m his art, he was sent to Italy, pro\-ided 
 with means by the government. On his return some most 
 important works were intrusted by the government to his 
 execution, and he was at once admitted into the academy. He 
 died in 1733, having been for forty years a member of the 
 academy. For his services to art, Louis XIV. gave him two 
 pensions, amounting in all to six thousand francs. — W. T. 
 
 COUTHON, George, born at Orsay in Auvergne in 1756, was 
 an advocate at Clcnnont when the French revolution broke out. 
 He embraced its principles with enthusiasm, and was sent to the 
 representative assembly by the department of Puy-de-Domc, 
 and soon became conspicuous as a leader of the jacobins. He 
 voted for the death of the king, and subsequently, as too 
 moderate in their republicanism, for the anest of the Girondist 
 deputies. The "Mountain" rewarded his zeal by appohiting him 
 a member of the committee of pubhc safety. He was one of 
 the two deputies sent to conduct the siege of Lyons. The
 
 atrocities that followed the reduction of the city, comprised a 
 wanton destruction of property, as well as an indiscriminate 
 massacre of the inhabitants. Couthon fell with his cliief, Robe- 
 spierre. He tried to kill himself in prison, but had not sufficient 
 nerve to inflict more than a scratch. He was guillotined, July, 
 1794. He was weak in constitution ; bland and almost feminine 
 in countenance ; eloquent in speech ; but so cruel and faithless 
 that he was called the Panther of the Triumvirate. — T. J. 
 
 COVENTRY, TiiojLVs, Lord-keeper of the great seal, was 
 bom in Worcestershire in 1578, and died in IG-IO. He was 
 educated at Oxford, whence he removed to the inner temple. In 
 1616 he received the honour of knighthood, after being appointed 
 to the office of solicitor-general. He was made attorney-general 
 in 1621, and four years aftei-wards lord-keeper by Charles I. 
 He was, finally, made a baron of the realm, on the 10th April, 
 1628, with the title of Lord Coventry of Ay lesborough. — R. M., A. 
 
 COV^ERDALE, Miles, the celebrated translator of the bible, 
 was born in the district of Coverdale in Yorkshue in the year 
 1488. He was sent to the Augustine monastei-y in Cambridge, 
 of which Barnes, the martyr, was then prior. Ordained in 1514, 
 he soon after renounced popery, and devoted himself wholly to 
 the advancement of the Reformation. Dming this time Cover- 
 dale found a valuable patron in Cromwell, by whom he must 
 certainly have been often shielded from danger. In 1532 he 
 went abroad, assisted T}Tidale in his biblical labours, and in 
 1535, encouraged probably by the course of events in England, 
 hastened through the press the first translation of the whole 
 bible in English. Three years after he was employed in editing 
 the bible, which Grafton had received pei-mission to print in 
 Paris. The French capital was chosen because the best paper 
 and presswork could be commanded there. The fate of this 
 magnificent edition is well known. Pounced upon by the har- 
 pies of the inquisition, only a small part of it escaped destruction. 
 Some copies were fortunately brought to London, by the aid of 
 which, with Coverdale still as editor, Grafton was enabled at last 
 to publish what is called Cranmer's, or the Great Bible. In 
 1551 Coverdale was raised to the see of Exeter, but was ejected 
 on the accession of ^laiy, and thrown into prison. Released in 
 two years, he repaired to Geneva, where he assisted the English 
 exiles with their translation of the scriptures — usually called the 
 Geneva Translation. He returned into England on the acces- 
 sion of Elizabeth, but found that the principles of the Geneva 
 reformers, which he had imbibed, would not permit him to 
 resume his bishopric. Bishop Grindal collated him to the rectory 
 of St. Magnus, London Bridge, which he resigned in 1566, two 
 years before his death. — R. M., A. 
 
 COWARD, WiLLiAJi, an English physician, bom at Win- 
 chester, and died in 1725. He devoted much of his time to 
 literary pursuits. His book, entitled " Second Thoughts con- 
 cerning the Human Soul," was followed by " The Grand Essay." 
 The latter, which is a defence of the " Second Thoughts," was, 
 on account of its doctrines, condemned by an order of the house 
 of commons to be burnt by the hands of the common hangman. 
 
 COWLEY, Abeahaji, bom in London in 1618, at Fleet 
 Street, near the end of Chancery Lane. His parents are described 
 by Dr. Sprat, his first biographer, as " citizens of a virtuous life 
 and sufficient estate." Before he was twelve years the reading 
 of Spenser made him irrecoverably a poet. His early education 
 was at Westminster school, from which he passed to Trinity 
 college, Cambridge. He was elected scholar of the house in 1636. 
 In the same year that he entered Westminster, he published his 
 "Poetical Blossoms." In 1638 he published "Love's Riddle," a 
 pastoral comedy, •m.-itteu while he was at Westminster, and 
 "Naufragium Joculare," which was acted by his fellow-students 
 at Cambridge. While at Cambridge he wrote the greater part 
 of his poem the "Davideis." These quiet studies he was not 
 allowed to pursue. The great civil war of England was raging 
 — Cowley's lot was cast with the royalists. He was ejected from 
 Cambridge by the parliamentarians, and found a temporary refuge 
 at St. John's, Oxford. While there he published his satire of the 
 "Pm-itan and Papist." On the surrender of Oxford, Cowley 
 followed the queen to Paris, and as secretary to Lord Jermyn 
 (afterwards earl of St. Albans), conducted the correspondence, 
 carried on chiefly in cypher, of the king and queen. He was for 
 ten years away from England, engaged in the service of the 
 royalist cause, for which he had made several journeys to Jersey, 
 Scotland, Holland, &c. In 1656 he was sent to London, to give 
 such assistance there as circumstances might admit. He then 
 
 published, 1st, "Miscellanies;" 2nd, "The Mistress;" a series of 
 love-poems, first printed a few years before; 3rd, "Pindaric odes;" 
 and 4th, "The Davideis." In the year 1657 Cowley took the 
 degree of doctor of physic at Oxford. On Cromwell's death he 
 returned to France, and remained in the character of secretary 
 to the royal family till the Restoration. His studies as a phy- 
 sician led to the composition of his Latm work on plants. The 
 Restoration came, and with it much expectation and much 
 disappointment. If Cowley was not rewarded in proportion to 
 the real service he rendered, he yet was not neglected. Through 
 the interest of the duke of Buckingham he was given a beneficial 
 lease of some of the queen's lands, and he now reti:-ed from all 
 pubhc business to live m the country. Pope's account of Cowley's 
 death represents hhn and Dean Sprat as walking home from 
 the house of a friend with whom they had dined. " They did not 
 set out for their walk till it was late, and had drunk so deep 
 that they lay out m the fields all night. This gave Cowley the 
 fever that carried him off" (1667). Sprat does not record this', but 
 the statement is not inconsistent with his nan-ative. Cowley was 
 in his domestic relations a kindly man. His mother lived to 
 old age, supported and venerated by her son. Cowley was one 
 of three brothers, of whom one suiTived him and inherited his 
 property. The poet's courtesy of manners is commemorated by 
 his affectionate panegyrist, who records with gratitude that Cow- 
 ley did not, hke other poets, inffict his verses on such friends as 
 fell into his power. He was interred in Westminster abbey near 
 Chaucer and Spenser. Eiglit years after his death a monument 
 was erected to him by the duke of BucMngham. King Charles, 
 who knew him well, said that he had not left behind him a 
 better man in England. — J. A. D. 
 
 * COWLEY, Henry Richard Charles Wellesley, 
 second lord, is a son of the eminent diplomatist, the first lord, 
 who was the youngest brother of the great duke of Wellington. 
 Lord Cowley adopted his father's career, and has been a dip- 
 lomatist from his youth upwards. Born in 1804, he was attached 
 to the embassy at Vienna at the age of twenty. In 1829 he 
 was appointed paid attache at the Hague, whence he was trans- 
 ferred to Stuttgart as secretary of legation in 1832 ; and in 
 1838 he was removed to fill the same position at Constan- 
 tinople. In 1848 he was elevated to higher diplomatic rank, 
 being sent in February as minister pleuipotentiary to Switzerland, 
 and in the July of the same year on a special mission to Frank- 
 fort. In the June of 1851, he was appointed minister pleni- 
 potentiary to the Germanic confederation. After the coup d'etat 
 Lord Normanby was removed from the embassy at Paris, and 
 Lord Cowley was appointed to the very responsible post. On 
 him devolved the negotiations which formed the Anglo-French 
 alliance against Russia in 1853 ; and his mission to Vienna in 
 1859, to mediate between France and Austria, he is understood 
 to have discharged with singular tact. His lordship succeeded 
 his father in 1847.~F. E. 
 
 COWPER, WiLLiAJi, an eminent English poet, was bom at 
 the parsonage house of Great Berkhampstead in Hertfordshire, on 
 the 26th November, 1731, being the eldest son of John Cowper, 
 who held the living of that place. The family was an ancient 
 and distinguished one, dating from the time of Edward IV., and 
 nmnbering amongst them a lord chancellor and a judge of tiie 
 common pleas — the grandunde and grandfather of tlie poet. 
 From his birth he was a frail child, both in physical and mental 
 organization, and the death of a tender mother, ere he had 
 attained his sixth year, deprived him of that care which might 
 have counteracted the tendencies which so sadly overshadowed 
 his whole life. Shortly after this event he was sent to a public 
 school, whence he was sent, in his tenth year, to Westminster 
 school. The change seems to have operated unfavourably upon 
 his mind, increasing his constitutional despondency, which took 
 the form of brooding over his spiritual condition, and alternately 
 fluctuating between the extremes of hope and despair. Ho 
 applied himself, notwithstanding, to his studies with diligence, 
 and acquired a high character for scholarship. In his eigli- 
 teenth year he was transferred, by his father, from the sixth form 
 at Westminster to a stool in a solicitor's office ; a change than 
 which nothing could have been more uncongenial to him, intellec- 
 tually or morally. Here it was his fortune to have as a fellow 
 a])prentice one who, as a boy, had been clever, d.aring, and 
 refractory, and, as a young man, had a singular aptitude for 
 acquiring knowledge, even without the appearance of study. 
 This was Edward Thuidow, al'terw;u-ds lord chancellor of Eng-
 
 land. The future poet and the future peer became friends, and 
 the former introduced the latter to his uncle's family at South- 
 ampton Row, where then- time was spent more pleasantly than 
 in chambers. An additional attraction, which drew Cowper 
 thither, was his handsome and accomplished cousin Theodora. 
 Their intimacy soon assumed the tender form of mutual love, 
 a love forbidden by the lady's father, and at length sacrificed to 
 his commands. The separation is said to have affected Cowper 
 less deeply and less permanently than his cousin. The lady, 
 during a long and unwedded life, gave abundant and generous 
 proofs of her interest in her lover's welfare. Meantime he passed 
 li-om the solicitor's to chambers in the middle temple. Solitaiy 
 and uninterested in the profession for which he was designed; 
 the shadow of that dark phantom which was to pursue him 
 through life and embitter his existence, now first cast its gloom 
 over his mind. "I was strack," he says, "with such a dejection 
 of spirits as none but they who have felt the same can have the 
 least conception of. Day and night I was upon the rack; Ijang 
 down in hoiTor and rising up in despair." A twelvemonth 
 spent hi this state is succeeded by a state of constant humi- 
 liation and prayer; then a change of scene dispels the misery 
 of the poor self-tormentor, and makes his heart buoyant 
 once more, but the dark phantom is again near him, tmniing 
 this very blessing into poison. Cowper so far obeyed the wishes 
 of his father as to become a member of the bar in 1754, but 
 the membership was little more than nominal ; the study was 
 imcongenial to the poetic mind of Cowper, as it has been and 
 will be to such men in all times. The death of his father, two 
 years after, released him from even the semblance of legal 
 study, and though he continued to live, first, in the middle, 
 and afterwards in the inner temple, his time was spent in 
 the society of wits, poets, and men of general literature, with 
 which these ancient seats of jurisprudence were abundantly 
 stocked. Thus time was running by for Cowper unprofitably 
 enough ; the indulgence of literary tastes brought no gain, 
 but the reverse ; and, at two and thirty years of age, he found 
 himself with his little patrimony well-nigh spent, and no ap- 
 jiearance that he should ever repair the damage by a fortune 
 of his own getting. In fact he was all but in want, and in his 
 distress he expressed to a friend his hope that the clerk of the 
 house of lords should die, the gift being in the appointment of 
 his kinsman. Major Cowper. The vrish spoken, as Cowper 
 afterwards penitently said, " in the spirit of a murderer," was 
 shortly accomplished. Major Cowper offered that and two other 
 more lucrative appointments to his cousin, "William, who ulti- 
 mately accepted the former. The fitness of the nominee was, 
 however, to be tested by an examination before the house. To 
 one so shy and sensitive this prospect was full of terror ; the 
 preparation for the ordeal but increased his discomposure, and 
 brought on a nervous fever ; and in its train came the terrible 
 malady, now fully developed, which thenceforth was to trouble 
 his life. The details of this period we pass over as lightly as 
 our duty permits. One shudders over the dark record which 
 the poet himself left us, over-charged no doubt though it be by 
 his too sensitive feelings. To evade the examination by self- 
 destraction became the absorbing desire of his mind. Poison, 
 drowning, and hanging, each were detcnnined on — the former 
 was partially attempted but interrupted ; the second prevented 
 by the state of the river ; the third he essayed three times with 
 terrible pertinacity, but each and all were over-ruled, even when 
 life was almost extinct, so mar^-ellously, that we cannot but 
 concm- in his own observation — "My life, which I had called my 
 own, and claimed a right to dispose of, was kept for me by Him 
 whose property indeed it was, and who alone had a right to dis- 
 pose of it." Then followed the horrors of a half-awakening to 
 a sense of his crime, days of agony, nights of despair; vain were 
 the ministration of friends, vainer the relief sought in books. 
 At length the pressure on the mind and the brain was too great 
 for reason. The intellect wavered, reeled, broke down, .and he 
 was placed in a private asylum at St. Alljans, under the care of 
 Dr. Cotton (see Cotton, Nath.) in December, 1763. Seven 
 months passed ere his recoveiy. To profit by the kindand judicious 
 care of liis physician he prolonged his stay at St. Albans a year 
 longer, and he then left it with a signal change wrought in him ; 
 reason restored, spiritual delusions dissolved, and hopeful and 
 healthy views of religion to cheer and sustain him. Some poems 
 which he composed during his residence at Dr. Cotton's exhibit 
 this change, and contrast agi-eeably with the fearful sapphics 
 
 which he wrote just before his restraint. He became and 
 continued to the end of his life a thoughtful, earnest, practical 
 christian. But the world, especially the world of London, 
 was no longer a congenial place for Cowper. " I remembered 
 the pollution which is in the world, and the sad share I had 
 in it myself, and my heart ached at the thought of entering 
 it again." His l)rothcr John procured him a quiet lodging 
 in the town of Huntingdon, whither he repaired in June, 
 1765. Here he improved in health and spirits, passing his 
 time in reading, walking, and the society of a few friends, 
 amongst whom were the Unwins, who thenceforth occupy a 
 prominent place in his life. This happy mode of hfe was inter- 
 rupted by the death of the elder ^Ir. tjnwin, in July, 1767, the 
 result of a fall from his horse. This led to the removal of Mrs. 
 Unwin and her son with Cowper, to whose happiness the former 
 were essential, to the neighbouring village of Olney, attracted 
 thither by the desire to be near the Rev. John Newton, then its 
 ciu^ate. Newton was no ordinaiy character ; vigorous in mind 
 and body, earnest in the discharge of his duties, he was exacting 
 upon those who laboured with him or were under his ministra- 
 tions. The change was not a beneficial one to Cowper, from 
 the calm domestic worship to the public prayer meetings, 
 the active, embarrassing, and exciting ministrations in visiting 
 the sick and the dying, and caring for the wants of a poor and 
 populous district. Newton did not understand, or pause to 
 consider the delicate organization of his new friend ; he pressed 
 him as he would a man of strength of mind and body in the 
 service of the cause which he had himself so much at heart. 
 The death of John Cowper in 1770 was a blow that almost 
 cnished him. Then it was that Newton, injudiciously, hut with 
 the kind intention of stimulating and diverting his mind, per- 
 suaded Cowper to join him in the composition of those hymns, 
 aften\'ards so well-known as the Olney hymns, one of the most 
 valuable contributions which an uninspired muse has bestowed 
 upon the christian church. How far this occupation conduced 
 to the state of mental derangement that soon followed, it is not 
 easy to say. That the effect was prejudicial there can be no 
 doubt. Other causes combined ; he had, in a gi'eat degree, 
 abandoned the pleasant habit of reading, which was so soothing 
 at Huntingdon ; he ceased almost entirely to communicate with 
 his friends; the younger Unwin had gone to his cm'acy; and thus 
 his only society was Mrs. Unwin and Newton. We may incident- 
 ally refer here to the surmise that Cowper at this time made 
 proposals of marriage with Mrs. Unwin. The intimate inter- 
 course and tender attachment subsisting between them were, no 
 doubt, sufficient to justify such a conjuncture under ordinary 
 circumstances, but their case was exceptional ; the disparity of 
 years and the infirmity of the man made the interest of the lady 
 rather that of the tenderest of mothers. At all events there is 
 no evidence of the fact of any offer ever having been made, and 
 Southey disbelieves it. In January, 1773, the old malady 
 showed itself, but it was not till July that Dr. Cotton visited 
 him, and then followed the second act in the temble drama — 
 longer, darker, than the first — ending in imbecility of the mind ; 
 and dmnng all this time with incessant and unwearied love Mrs. 
 Unwin watched over and soothed him. The hours of his tedious 
 recovery were occupied in gardening, carpentiy, and the taming 
 of hares and familiarizing himself with their character. His old 
 love of poetry, too, revived, and he composed some verses and 
 made some translations. Newton had now removed to Newport 
 Pagnell, and Mrs. Unwin, to divert his mind from this new 
 deprivation, urged Cowper to undertake a poem of greater scope 
 and magnitude than the occasional pieces with which he had 
 heretofore occupied himself. The theme suggested by her was 
 " The Progress of En-or." Happily for the fame of Cowper the 
 suggestion was at once acted on. Cowper set to work diligently 
 in December, 1780, and by the following ]\Iarch that poem and 
 three others, " Tnith," " Table Talk," and " Expostulation," 
 were completed. A publisher was found to undertake the pvibli- 
 cation at his own risk, and in 1782 a volume containing these 
 four poems and some other pieces appeared with the name of Cow- 
 per as their author. Tlie reception of the volume was not over- 
 flattering. It was coldly noticed except by the Monthly Bcvieir, 
 which had the sagacity to discover in it the true poetic genius. 
 It was while preparing for publication that Cowper formed an 
 acquaintance which exercised no small influence upon him. In 
 a neighbouring village lived a Jlrs. Jones, the wife of a clergy- 
 man, and with her was a sister, the -n-idow of Sir Robert Austen.
 
 One day Cowper observed these ladies from Jlrs. Unwin's, and 
 he was so struck with the appearance of Lady Austen that, at 
 his request, Mrs. Unwin invited them to tea; the invitation was 
 accepted, and the attraction of the charming and accomphshed 
 widow captivated Cowper. She was equally pleased with the 
 poet, the acquaintance soon ripened into a sincere regard, and 
 finally ended in Lady Austen's taking up her residence in the 
 next house at Olney, in order to enable her to enjoy uninter- 
 ruptedly the society of Cowper and Jlrs. Unwiu. The sprightli- 
 ness of "sister Anne," so he called her, was an efficacious remedy 
 for Cowper when seized with a fit of his constitutional depression. 
 She would induce liim to write songs to which she would set 
 music ; and to her naiTation of the history of John Gilpin is due 
 the composition of that celebrated poem which, aided by the 
 recitation of Henderson, conduced as much as anything he ever 
 wrote to the fame of Cowper. A higher honour was reserved 
 for Lady Austen. Mrs. Unwin was the mind that counselled 
 the first large poem of Cowper, so Lady Austen was the muse 
 who inspired the " Sofa." " I want a subject for a poem," said 
 he to her one day. " Write on any — write on this sofa," was 
 the reply. " The Task," of which the " Sofa " was the first 
 book, was accordingly begun in the summer of 1783, concluded 
 in the autumn of 178i, and published the year following. The 
 time was favourable for the production of a poem whose inspira- 
 tion was nature, that appealed to univereal experience, that 
 possessed the channs of thoughtful observation, sentiment con- 
 veyed in pure, easy, and poetic diction. " The best didactic 
 poems," says Southey, " when compared with the ' Task ' are 
 like fonnal gardens in comparison with woodland sceneiy." Its 
 success was therefore complete and instantaneous, and the critics 
 confessed that he whom they had scarce noticed a few years 
 before, stood now revealed as a great and original poet, and so 
 this latter volume created a demand for its neglected predecessor, 
 and a second edition, comprising all heretofore published, soon 
 made the writings of Co^vper a permanent part of our literature. 
 Before the publication, however, of the " Task," the happy 
 relations that had caused it to be written were terminated for 
 ever, and Lady Austen left Olney never again to meet Cowper. 
 The blank thus left in their circle was ere long filled up by the 
 intimacy established with the Throckmortons, a wealthy Roman 
 catholic family residing at Weston, whither in 1786 he removed. 
 Meantime Cowper was busy with his translation of Homer, and 
 was in the enjoyment of better means ; an anonymous friend, 
 probably his cousin Theodora, having settled on him an annuity 
 of fifty pounds a year. But trial was again in store for him. His 
 friend William Unwin died of fever, and the shock so affected him 
 that he was seized with an access of his old malady, which con- 
 tinued more fiercely than before for six months. His mental 
 recovery was sudden, his health improved daily, and he resumed 
 his occupation and regained his cheerfulness. At this time he 
 was presented by the professors of the university of Edinburgh 
 with a copy of the poems of Burns. He estimated them highly, 
 though, as he said, " his light was hid in a dark lantern." The 
 admiration was reciprocated by the Scotch bard — "'NMiat a 
 glorious poem," said he, "is Cowper's 'Task.'" 
 
 For the next four years the record of Cowper's life may be 
 summed in a few words. He laboured diligently at his trans- 
 lation, corresponded a good deal with Lady Hesketh, Newton, 
 and other friends, contributed occasional articles to the Analy- 
 tical Review, and wrote poems and songs; but his calm was 
 constantly disturbed by the failing health of his dear friend, 
 over whom in turn he now anxiously watched with sinking 
 heart and gloomy forebodings. In 1791 his translation of 
 Homer was published, which added still further to his reputa- 
 tion, and amidst other congratulations procured him those 
 of his long-severed friend, Lord Thurlow. The depression 
 which succeeded made it imperative that Cowper should be 
 again engaged in literary occupation. His bookseller solicited 
 him to undertake an edition of ]\Iilton with annotations. He 
 accepted the engagement, but it was not to his taste; he laboured 
 at it for a while, and at length abandoned it, the only result 
 bemg that it led to an acquaintance with Hayley, then engaged 
 in a similar work; an acquaintance which eventuated in a 
 sincere and uninterrupted friendship. Meantime he solaced 
 himself with composing small pieces, and amongst them one, 
 " Yardley Oak," found by Hayley after his death, incomplete, 
 but containing passages of gi-eat beauty. The health of Mrs. 
 Unwin now began to break up. Two attacks of pai-alysis were 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 followed by mental failure, and all the wretchedness of a queru- 
 lous and impatient sufferer. Cowper nursed lier with unre- 
 mitting tenderness and a devotion imder wliich his own mind 
 became enfeebled. Let us huiry over the sad nairation — the 
 debasing superstition which led to consultations with a -nTetched 
 half-witted village schoolmaster as one divinely -inspired, oracular 
 voices, dreams and penances. A pension from the crown of 
 £300 a year opportunely enabled them to go from place to place 
 in the vain hope of restoring her health. At length she died in 
 December, 1796. Cowper was led into the presence of the dead, 
 he flmig himself to the other side of the room with a passionate 
 expression of feeling, then he became calm and never mentioned 
 her name or spoke of her again. Jlr. Johnson, in whose house 
 Coivper was, attended to him with the kindest solicitude during 
 his long darkness and depression. He was at last induced to 
 occupy himself with the revision of his Homer, an occupation 
 that served somewhat to withdraw his mind from the contem- 
 plation of his own delusions. This task was concluded in March, 
 1799. He then attempted to resume his poem on the Four Ages, 
 but the work was too great for hun ; but he composed " The 
 Castaway," notable as his last poem, as well as for its terrible 
 and despairing gloom. Feeble, gloomy, and filled with spiritual 
 misgivings, his end approached. The last reading to which he 
 listened was his own poems, save that he could not endm-e the 
 memories connected with John Gilpin. The last expression of 
 his state was — " I feel unutterable despair." His last words 
 when refusing a draught — " What can it signify?" He died on 
 the 25th April, 1800, in his sixty-ninth year. He lies buried 
 in St. Edmund's chapel, Durham, where, on a monument raised 
 by his attached cousin. Lady Hesketh, is inscribed an epitaph 
 by his friend Hayley. 
 
 As a poet Cowper deservedly holds the highest place amongst 
 his contemporaries. He was the restorer of its vigour to blank 
 verse, that was languishing since the days of Dryden ; and his 
 translation of Homer, though not free from faults and inequali- 
 ties, is incomparably the best that has ever appeai-ed. Of his 
 original poems we have already spoken. Cowper had the fortune 
 in his o^^•n day to achieve his full popularity, a popularity that 
 has not since decreased — though, perhaps, we do not to-day 
 form as high an estimate of his poetic powers — and will ever 
 continue. There is that in his writings which secures their 
 immortality — earnest sincerity, uncompromising truth, a piety 
 that is always healthy, a tenderness that tempers the severity of 
 satire, a playfulness that robs sarcasm of its sting. 
 
 There is another character in which we have not yet spoken 
 of Cowper. Southey calls him the best of English letter-writers. 
 His voluminous correspondence with Lady Hesketh and others 
 fully justify that praise. For vividness, ease, grace, and elegance, 
 his letters cannot be surpassed, and in their gloomier moods are 
 painfully picturesque and affecting. — J. F. W. 
 
 COWPER, William, a surgeon and anatomist, bom at 
 Bishop's Sutton, Hampshire, in 166C, where he now lies buried. 
 His first work was entitled " ^lyotoinia Refonnata," 1694, being 
 a work on the muscles of the human body. He was the dis- 
 coverer of two glands in the hmnan body, now known by his 
 name as Cowper's glands, which had hitherto been overlooked, 
 and which he described in a paper in the PhilosophittU Transac- 
 tions of the Royal Society, vol. xxi., p. 364. In 1698 he 
 published his great work entitled " Anatomy of Human Bodies, 
 with figures drawn after the life, and engraven in one hundred 
 and fourteen copperplates, illustrated with explications contain- 
 ing chirargical obsei-vations." He wrote several papers in the 
 Philosophical Transactions. He was also the author of some 
 remarks in Drake's Anthropologia. Mr. Cowper was an inde- 
 fatigable worker. He is said to have hastened his death by his 
 laborious life. He died in 1710, aged forty-four years.— E. L. 
 
 COWPER, WiLLL\Ji, Eari, lord chancellor of England, was 
 bom somewhere about the year 1664. His family belonged to 
 the higher position of the middle r.ank.s, his father, grandfather, 
 and great-grandfather, having all played prominent parts in the 
 troubles of their times. Cowjier's first education w.is received 
 at St. Albans, and thence it is probable that he was removed to 
 Westminster. There is no trace of his having studied at any 
 university. At the age of eighteen he entered the middle 
 temple, and began the study of the law. This he prosecuted 
 irregularlv, having occasional fits of mtense application, and 
 leading in the intervals a life of dissipation. He never became 
 leanied either in law or general scholaiship. In 1C8G, being
 
 still a student, he married his first wife, a young lady of no 
 fortune. This made exertion on his part necessary, and in 
 1688 he was called to the bar. He was fortunate beyond 
 his expectations, and in a few years rose to be leader of the 
 home circuit In 1 695 he entered parliament as member for 
 Hertford. His natural inclinations led him to espouse the 
 whig side, and he was rewarded for his exertions in favour 
 of the court by an appointment as king's counsel. Success 
 followed in parliament as rapidly and strikingly as at the 
 bar. Cowper remained in the house till the prorogation by 
 William in 1700. In 1702 he was again returned as member 
 for Bercalston. Queen Anne finding it advisable in 1705 to 
 secure additional strength in her ministiy by an infusion of 
 whigs, Cowper was made keeper of the great seal. Besides 
 actively discharging the duties as judge, between this time and 
 1707, he rendered important services by the duties which he 
 performed as one of the commissioners for carrying out a union 
 between England and Scotland. In 1707 he received the reward 
 of his great exertions, by being created the first lord chancellor 
 of Great Britain. The conduct of the war having rendered the 
 ministry unpopular, they resigned in 1710. Cowper continued 
 without office till the accession of George I., when he again 
 became lord chancellor. During his second term of office he 
 was concerned with various important measures. He supported 
 the impeachment of Oxford, Bolingbroke, and Ormond ; was 
 one of the principal men to incite active steps against the rebels 
 in 1715 ; and presided as lord high steward at the trials of the 
 rebel lords in the same year. The causes of his resignation 
 in 1718 are not well known; but it is believed to have origi- 
 nated in his having taken the part of the prince of Wales in 
 some of his quarrels with George I. It was not in disgrace 
 that he resigned, because, as Lord Campbell expresses it, he 
 " submitted to an elevation in the peerage, being made an earl." 
 Among the statesmen of his time Cowper stands high. He 
 held the usual liberal creed of the day, that political privileges 
 were to be extended to all protestants, but not to catholics ; 
 that all white men should be free, but that black men came 
 under a different category. When the voice of public opinion 
 was loud in its favour, he denounced the infamous South Sea 
 bill. Among his last acts, were a strenuous opposition to a 
 measure for imposing a special tax upon Roman catholics ; and 
 an endeavour, in a manner highly creditable to him, to mitigate 
 the absurd and severe regulations of the British quarantine laws. 
 In private life he had the fortune to gain the affections of all 
 who came in contact with him. A little harmless vanity was — 
 after he had overcome the en'ors of his youth — perhaps his worst 
 defect. Without being exactly a scholar, he was liberal in his 
 encouragement of learning and the fine arts. A fine gallery of 
 paintings, still existing in his country house near Hertford, attests 
 the munificence of his taste. He has left few writings. One 
 or two of his charges as judge have been printed, and there are 
 extant some letters written to the newspapers of the day. " An 
 Impartial History of Parties," by Cowper, is to be found in the 
 appendix to the first edition of the Life in Lord Campbell's Lives 
 of the Chancellors, vol. iv., p. 421. — (^Historical Register, 
 1723 ; Welsby's Lives of eminent English Judges.") — J. D. W. 
 
 COX, David : this admirable painter was born at Birming- 
 ham in 1793. He was one of the early members of the Society 
 of Painters in Water Colours, and few have done more to uphold 
 the importance of that branch of art. It is a sure indication of 
 his merits that his productions of forty years ago are still rising 
 in value. A collection of his paintings, exhibited in the year 
 1859, has done much to enhance his reputation. David Cox 
 resided the greater part of his life at a small cottage on Harbome 
 heath, Warwickshire, though Wales and Yorkshire have furnished 
 the principal subjects for his paintings. He died on the 7th 
 June, 1859.— W.'T. 
 
 COX, Sir RiciiARn, was bom in Bandon, in the county of 
 Cork, in the year 1650. After being called to the bar he was 
 made recorder of Kinsale by Sir Richard Southwell in 1685. 
 The troubles which followed in Ireland upon the accession of 
 James II. alarmed Cox, and he removed with his family to 
 Bristol. Here he wrote " Hibemia Anglicana." Upon the 
 arrival of the prince of Orange in England, Cox, who had 
 published a pamphlet in favour of the Revolution, was made 
 under-secretary of state, and shortly after went to Ireland as 
 secretary. He was afterwards made recorder of Waterford, and 
 then a justice of the common pleas, in September, 1690 ; and 
 
 in a few months after he was appointed military governor of 
 Cork. In 1692 he was knighted by Lord Sidney, and in the 
 following year he was elected a member of the philosophical 
 society, and also one of the commissioners of forfeited estates 
 in Ireland. On the dissolution of the commission Cox employed 
 himself in study and research, and wrote an " Essay for the 
 Conversion of the Irish." In 1700 he was promoted to the 
 chief-justiceship of the common pleas, and to a seat in the 
 priv-y council. On the death of William he was summoned 
 to England, to give his advice on Irish affairs, and his clear 
 and sagacious views and enlightened judgment were of great 
 value to the government ; and to him are due the statute " for 
 quieting possessions," and that " for the recovery of small 
 debts." So thoroughly were the abilities and character of Cox 
 appreciated, that when Mr. !Methuen, the lord chancellor of 
 Ireland, was sent as ambassador to Portugal, Cox was pro- 
 moted to that office. In 1705 Sir Richard, with Lord Cutts, 
 was appointed lord justice during the absence of the duke 
 of Ormonde in England. The duke was recalled in 1707, 
 and the earl of Pembroke was appointed his successor. Cox 
 soon found himself obliged to resign the seals, and meet the 
 active enmity of those to whom his politics had made him 
 obnoxious. Tliis he did with the firmness natural to his charac- 
 ter. He answered fully and ably eveiy accusation that was 
 brought against him, and exposed and confounded his accusers. 
 On the death of Anne, Cox retired from public life ; and in April, 
 1733, he was seized with apoplexy, of which he died in the follow- 
 ing month, at the age of eiglity-three. — J. F. W. 
 
 COX, Richard, an English prelate, born in 1499, and died 
 in 1581. In the early part of his life he was imprisoned for 
 heresy, but being released, was chosen master of Eton; and on 
 the accession of Edward, one of whose tutors he had been, became 
 a privy councillor, and chancellor to the university of Oxford. 
 After another imprisonment — this time under Mary — he took 
 refuge on the continent. Recalled when Elizabeth came to the 
 throne, he was raised to the see of Ely. Cox was one of the 
 translators of the Bishops' Bible. He contributed the four Gos- 
 pels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistle to the Romans. 
 
 COXCIE or COIXI, JIichel, a famous old Flemish painter, 
 bom at Mechlin in 1497. He was for a short time a pupil of 
 Bernard Von Orley, but aftenvards residing at Rome he zeal- 
 ously studied the works of his great contemporary, Raphael. 
 He decorated with paintings many of the churches of Antwerp 
 and BiTissels. He was so close a follower of the style of Raphael 
 as by some of his countrymen to be denounced as a plagiarist of 
 his designs. He died at Antwerp in 1592. — W. T. 
 
 COXE, William, archdeacon of Wilts, the eldest son of Dr. 
 W. Coxe, physician to the king's household, was bom in London, 
 7th March, 1747, and received his preparatory education at the 
 Mary-le-Bonne grammar school and Eton. In his eighteenth 
 year he entered King's college, and, among other honours, 
 obtained the bachelor's prize two years in succession, for the 
 best Latin dissertations. Having devoted himself to the church, 
 and not to medicine as his father intended, he was admitted to 
 deacon's orders in 1771, and in the same year received the 
 curacy of Denham, near Uxbridge. At different periods of his 
 life he visited the principal countries and capitals of Europe, 
 examined with signal diligence and zeal the great repositories of 
 historical evidence both at home and abroad, and gave to the 
 world in ponderous tomes the results of his extensive research. 
 On receiving a proposal from the duke of Marlborough to 
 become tutor to the young marquis of Blandford, he threw 
 up his curacy, and accompanied the young nobleman on his 
 continental travels. At the end of two years fixiling health 
 obliged him to give up this appointment; but in 1775 we find 
 him in company with Lord Herbert, travelling through France, 
 Germany, Italy and Switzerland. His first published work, 
 entitled " Sketches of the Natural, Civil, and Political State of 
 Switzerland," was received so favourably that a second edition 
 was called for. He next gave to the world " Russian 
 Discoveries " — a book which one can no more read continuously 
 than a logbook or a gazeteer. In 1784 appeared "Travels 
 into Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark," the result of 
 his observations during a tour in the northern parts of Europe. 
 Ecclesiastical prefemients now began to flow in. Two years 
 after the time of his last work, the society of King's college, 
 Cambridge, presented him to the living of Kingston-on-Thames, 
 which he resigned in 1788, on being presented to the rectory of
 
 Bemerton bv the earl of Pembroke. It was the good fortune of 
 Mr. Coxe to have access to rare manuscripts at home, as weU as 
 in foreign countries. The Hardwicke, Grantham,Waldegrave, and 
 Pojnts collection were laid open to his inspection, as well as the 
 Stanhope, Melcombe, and Egremont papers; from which he 
 collected an uninterrupted naiTative of the " Life and Administra- 
 tion of Sir Robert Walpole." In 1802 the " Memoirs of Horatio 
 Walpole" appeared, wliich may be regarded as a continuation 
 to those of his brother. In the following year Mr. Coxe was 
 elected one of the canons residentiary of the cathedral of Salisburj- ; 
 and in 1805 appointed archdeacon of ^Yilts by Bishop Douglas. 
 In the same year he espoused Eleonora, daughter of W. Shairp, 
 Esq., consul-general of Russia. Four years after his marriage 
 the "History of the House of Austria" was published. The 
 only works of importance which remain to be noticed are — 
 " The Historical ilemoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House 
 of Bom-bon" and " The Memous of the Duke of Marlborough." 
 For these, and several other works of humbler ambition. Arch- 
 deacon Cose was admitted to several learned societies in England, 
 the Learned Society of St. Petersburg, and the Royal Society of 
 Sciences at Copenhagen. He expired at Bemerton rectory, at 
 the ripe age of eighty-one. Among the minor works of Mr. 
 Coxe we may notice " The Literary Life and Select Works of 
 Benjamin Stillingfleet," 3 vols. ; " The Lives of Handel and 
 Smith;" "A Vindication of the Celts;" an edition of Gay's 
 Fables, with notes ; " Sketches of the Lives of Correglo and 
 Parmegiano," &c. — G. H. P. 
 
 COYPEL, NoiiL, a French painter, bom in 1628. He 
 studied first under Poucet at Orleans, then under Quillerier. 
 He was employed by Cliarles Errard on the works of the Louvre. 
 He was received into the academy in 1659. In 1672 he was 
 appointed by the king director of the French Academy at Rome. 
 He returned to Paris after three years' absence, and painted 
 several frescos in the Tuileries. He seems to have aimed at a 
 combination of Poussin and Le Sueur. He died in 1707. — 
 AxToiXE, his son, was bom in 1661. He was a wilfully bad 
 painter. Sent to study at Rome, he preferred Bernini to 
 Raphael ! He was much employed, however, in decorating royal 
 palaces, and was made principal painter to the king in 1715. 
 He died in 1722. He executed several etchings in a very unished 
 style. — XoEL Nicholas, was another son of Xoel Coypel, but 
 by another marriage. In his time he was highly esteemed as a 
 painter, but posterity has not seen fit to endorse that estimation. 
 He was received into the academy, however, at the early age 
 of twenty-eight. He died in 1735.— W. T. 
 
 COYSEVOX, AxTOiXE, a French sculptor of Spanish family, 
 bom at Lyons in 1640. He was elected a member of the 
 French Academy in 1676. He executed some of the finest 
 sepulchral monuments in Paris, and several admired statues for 
 the gardens of Marly and Versailles. He died in 1720, chan- 
 cellor of the academy. — W. T. 
 
 CRABBE, George, was bom on the 24th December, 1754, 
 at Aldborough in Suffolk, where his father was collector of the 
 salt duties. He was in a great measure self-educated, and at 
 a very early age displayed a taste for reading, and a fondness 
 for poetry. His father observing this " bookish turn," resolved 
 that he should be trained for the medical profession, and he was 
 accordingly, in his fourteenth year, apprenticed to a surgeon, 
 near Bury St. Edmund's. He remained three years in this 
 place, and in 1771 was transfeired to another practitioner at 
 AYoodbridge in Suffolk, with whom he completed his appren- 
 ticeship. Meanwhile he devoted many of his leisure hoiu-s to 
 writing poetry, and published anonymously at Ipswich a short 
 piece entitled " Inebriety, a Poem." About 1776 he was sent 
 to London to complete his medical education. He returned in 
 less than a year, and was encouraged by his friends to set up 
 for himself as a surgeon and apothecary in his native place, but 
 meeting with very httle success, he resolved, about the close of 
 1779, to repau- to London and apply himself to Uterature. 
 The first poetical pieces which he offered for publication were 
 rejected, and his first poem that was printed, entitled "The 
 Candidate," yielded him no profit, in consequence of the bank- 
 mptcy of the publisher. During the whole of his first year's 
 residence m the metropolis, he experienced nothing but db- 
 appointments and repulses. He appUed for assistance to Lord 
 Korth, Lord Shelbume, and Lord Thurlow, but without success. 
 Absolute want stared hkn in the face, and his landlady threatened 
 him with a gaol. In these critical circumstances the despairing 
 
 poet wrote a touching and maiJy appeal to Edmund Burke. 
 The great statesman, though he was at that period (1781) 
 engaged in the hottest turmoils of parliamentary warfare, imme- 
 diately relieved Crabbe's necessities, and ha\ing examined the 
 compositions he had on hand, and selecting the " Library," took 
 the poem hunself to Dodsley, and induced that bookseller to 
 publish it on favourable terms. But Burke's kindness did not 
 stop here, he in\-ited Crabbe to Beaconsfield, where he resided 
 for some time, was treated in every way as one of the family, 
 and was mtroduced to Fox, Reynolds, Thurlow, and other dis- 
 tinguished friends, who took a deep interest in his welfare. By 
 the advice of his patron, the poet resolved to enter the church. 
 He was ordained a deacon in December, 1781, and took priest's 
 orders in the following year. After sendng a short time as curate 
 in his native town, through the influence of Burke he obt.iined the 
 situation of domestic chaplain to the duke of Rutland, and took 
 up his residence at Belvoir castle. Through the unwearied 
 exertions of the same generous friend. Lord Thm-low was induced 
 in 1783 to present Crabbe with two small hvings in Dorset- 
 shire, telling him as he did so, that "he was as hke Parson 
 Adams as twelve to the dozen." Meanwhile the poem entitled 
 " The Village," the greater part of which was written at 
 Beaconsfield, and revised by Dr. Johnson, was pubhshed in 
 1783, and met with great success; and two years later the 
 " Newspaper " appeared. The poet had for several years 
 cherished a strong and somewhat romantic attachment to a 
 Miss Sarah Elmy, the niece and heiress of a wealthy yeoman 
 at Parham in Suffolk. He manded this lady in 1783, and 
 settled quietly down to the regular and faithful discharge of his 
 clerical duties. In 1789 Lord Thurlow was induced by the 
 duchess of Rutland, to exchange Crabbe's Dorsetshire livings for 
 those of Muston and Allington in the vale of Belvoir. For 
 upwards of twenty years he resided successively at Parham, to 
 which his wife had succeeded, at Great Glenham Hall, and at 
 JIuston. In 1813 the duke of Rutland gave him the rectory 
 of Trowbridge, WUts, together with the smaller hving of Crox- 
 ton, near Belvoir, both of which he held to the time of his death. 
 
 After an interval of twenty-two years Crabbe again came 
 forward as an author in 1807, when he pubUshed the "Parish 
 Register," which was read in manuscript, and highly relished by 
 Fox, who was then on his death-bed. " The Borough " appeared 
 three years after. His last publication, "' The Tales of the 
 Hall," was published m 1819, and for these, and the remaining 
 copyright of his previous poems, Mr. Murray gave him £3000. 
 In 1822 he paid a visit to Sir AY alter Scott at Edinburgh, ot 
 which an interesting account is given in Loekhart's Life of Scott. 
 The latter years of Crabbe's protracted life were spent in quiet 
 and comfort at Trowbridge, where his amiable disposition and 
 faithful discharge of his duties gained him the esteem and affec- 
 tion of his parisliioners. He died there after a short illness, 8th 
 Feb., 1832, in his seventy-eighth year, and was buried in the 
 chancel of the church. 
 
 Crabbe is entitled to a place in the foremost rank of descrip- 
 tive poets. The distinguishing characteristics of his poetry are 
 originality, vigour, and truth in description, and especially in the 
 delineation of character. His writings abound in profound and 
 sagacious remarks, which have all the weight and terseness of 
 proverbs, and he exhibits great skill in inculcating the most 
 impressive moral lessons. His graphic powers, however, were 
 frequently wasted on unworthy objects, and his taste was by no 
 means equal to his other qualities. His style is neither piue nor 
 graceful, and is often not only homely and pros-iic, but vulgar 
 and clumsy. In spite of these' defects, however, it may be safely 
 predicted that Crabbe will permanently retain a high place in 
 the roll of English poets.— (/-//e o/ Crabbe, by his son ; Lord 
 Jeffrey's Essat/s, vol. iii.) — J. T. 
 
 CKAIG, Ad.\m, a Scotch musician of some eminence at the 
 end of the seventeenth centur\'. He w.ts one of the leading 
 perfomiers at the concert on St. Cecilia's d.iy, in 1605, at 
 Edinbm-gh. Sir. Tvtler, in the Transactions of the Antiqu:u-iau 
 Society (vol. i., 17*92), says, "Adam Craig w:is reckoned a 
 good orchestra player on the vioUn, and teacher of music I 
 remember bun as the second violin to M'Gibbon in the gentle- 
 man's concert." He pubUshed "A collection of the choicest 
 Scots Tunes, adapted for the harpsichord or spinnet," Edinburgh, 
 1730. According to Professor Mackie's MS. Obituary, he died 
 in October, 1741.— E. F. R. 
 
 CRAIG, Sir J.oies Gibson, Bart., was one of the most
 
 CRA 
 
 1132 
 
 CRA 
 
 remarkable men of his age. He was the second son of William 
 Gibson, Esq. His mother was IMary-Cecilia, daughter of James 
 Balfom-, Esq., of Pilrig ; and his father's mother, Helen Car- 
 michael, was the sister of John, fourth earl of Hyndford. At a 
 a very early age he was admitted a member of the Society of 
 Writers to the Signet, and commenced business on his own 
 account ; and in that department of law he speedily rose to 
 distinction, and attained an eminence which certainly was not 
 surpassed by any of his professional bretlu'en, and which he 
 maintained to the veiy end of his lengthened life. His pro- 
 fessional career was indeed one of remarkable success — the 
 well-earned result of great talents, applied with indefatigable 
 industry, and guided by undeviating integrity. 
 
 But it is as a politician that the character of Sir James Gibson 
 Craig belongs to the histoiy of his country. He was one of the 
 very few persons in Scotland who, prior to the French revolu- 
 tion, had the courage to avow, on the subject of political rights, 
 opinions at variance with those of the ruling powers. While 
 yet a young man he stood forward as the fearless champion of 
 those whig principles from which he never swerved one inch, and 
 which, after an arduous struggle of forty-five years, he lived to 
 see triumphant in the passing of the reform bill in 1832. When 
 the reform agitation arose in 1830, he had attained his sixty- 
 fifth year; but his amazing energy, which was still unimpaired, 
 enabled him, during the stormy period that followed, to discharge 
 with equal boldness and skill the duties of that leadership to 
 which his character and his services entitled him, and which 
 was accorded to him by the universal consent of his party. 
 It cannot be doubted that to his tact, and sagacity, and 
 firmness, it was mainly owing that Scotland was saved fi'om 
 a serious con\'ulsion during the two years that the reform 
 agitation lasted. On all matters connected with the political 
 affairs of Scotland he was consulted and tnisted by the whig 
 government from their first accession to power; and in 1831 
 he was created a baronet of the United Kingdom. This was the 
 only acknowledgment of his services that he could ever be pre- 
 vailed on to accept either for himself or his family, though it is 
 well known that veiy high honours and veiy substantial rewards 
 were pressed on his acceptance. His patriotism was untainted 
 by auglit that could be called selfish or sordid. Although the 
 great object to which his political life had been devoted was 
 achieved in 1832, he still continued to take an active interest 
 in every important movement, whether public or local. Scarcely 
 had the political storm subsided in Scotland, when an eccle- 
 siastical controversy sprang up which agitated that country 
 for ten years, and resulted in 1843 in the great secession from 
 the established church, which is generally called " the Disrup- 
 tion." To tliis movement, which was counten.anced by many of 
 his political friends and associates, Sir James was from the first 
 opposed ; not because he was hostile to the principle of non- 
 intrusion in the abstract, and so far as it professed to place a 
 check on the abuse of patronage, but because he believed that 
 the legislation of the church comis on the subject was ultra 
 vires and illegal. 
 
 The more obvious characteristics of Sir James' mind — those 
 which manifested themselves most prominently in all his acts — 
 were energy, and firmness, and power. But the moral sentiment 
 which e.\erciscd a controlUng influence over all these, was truth- 
 fulness. It was the operation of this ever-present principle 
 which mainly produced that remarkable consistency, which will 
 always be admired as an honourable distinction of his length- 
 ened career. It was his perfect truthfulness, no less than his 
 great practical wisdom, that inspired the confidence of those (and 
 they were not a few, even from among those most opposed to 
 him in politics) who had recourse to him for ad\-ice in matters 
 of delicacy or difficulty ; they knew that the counsel which 
 wisdom dictated would be truthfully tendered. Sir James was 
 by nature essentially and eminently benevolent ; his enjoyment 
 of society was proved by his liberal and extensive hospitality ; 
 and his domestic life was one of uninteniipted purity, and 
 harmony, and happiness. The name of Craig was assumed 
 by him on his succession as heir of entail to the estate of 
 Riccarton. He was bom in Edinburgh on the 11th October, 
 17G5, and died at Riccarton on the 6th IMarch, 1850. He was 
 survived by two sons and seven daughters, and was succeeded in 
 the baronetcy and in the estate of Riccarton by his eldest son, 
 Sir William Gibson Craig.— T. B. 
 
 CRAIG, John, one of the most eminent of the Scottish 
 
 preachers at the period of the Reformation, was born in 1511, 
 and educated at St. Andrews. His great abilities recommended 
 him to the favour of Cardinal Pole, and by his advice Craig 
 joined the dominicans at Bologna, where he was made rector of 
 one of their schools, and intrusted with various ecclesiastical 
 commissions. The perusal of Calvin's Institutes, however, having 
 converted him to protestantism, Craig was arrested and sent 
 to Rome, where he was tried by the inquisition, and condemned 
 to be burnt. His life was saved, however, by the death of Pope 
 Paul IV., on the day before his intended execution. He returned 
 to his native countiy about 1560. The Reformation had shortly 
 before been established in Scotland, and Craig was at once 
 nominated one of the preachers. He was appointed the colleague 
 of John Knox in the parish church of Edinburgh, and in 1579 
 one of the ministers of the royal household. In the following 
 year he drew up the famous National Covenant. He also com- 
 piled part of the Second Book of Discipline, and wrote " Craig's 
 Catechism," and an answer to an attack on the Confession of 
 Faith. He died 12th December, 1600, at the age of eighty- 
 eight.— (M'Crie's Life of Melville.')— 3. T. 
 
 CRAIG, John, a Scottish mathematician, who lived in the 
 latter half of the seventeenth century. He is principally known 
 by his " Theologipe Christianpe Principia ^lathematica," a veiy 
 short treatise, published in 1699, in which he attempts to prove 
 by mathematical calculations, that the christian religion will 
 cease to exist in one thousand four hundred and fifty-four years 
 from the date of his book. This absurd theory was refuted by 
 Diton and Houtteville. It is said that Hume and other scep- 
 tical writers have been indebted to Craig's pamphlet. — R. M., A. 
 
 CRAIG, Sir Thomas, of Riccarton, an eminent Scottish 
 lawyer, was one of that number of learned and accomplished 
 men who distinguished Scotland at the time of the Refonnation. 
 Tytler, in his valuable life of him, renders it probable that he 
 belonged to the family of Craigs of Craigfintry in Buchan, and 
 that 1538 was the year of his birth. We know that in 1552 he 
 entered St. Leonard's college at St. Andrews, where he remained 
 tliree years. He probably left in 1555, after taking the degree 
 of B.A. From St. Andrews he proceeded to study law at the 
 university of Paris. Craig returned to Scotland in 1561, stored 
 with all the legal and general learning that the schools could 
 afford. He was admitted advocate in 1563, and in the follow- 
 ing year he was appointed to the first office he held, that of 
 justice-depute, under the earl of Argyle, then justice-general 
 and supreme criminal judge in Scotland. Craig held this office 
 till 1573, when he was promoted to that of sheriff-depute of 
 Edinburgh. These offices did not preclude his practising at the 
 bar of tlie couil of session. In this court Craig attained a 
 practice which was equalled only by that of the other leader at 
 the bar, Mr. John Sharp. His son. Sir Lewis Craig, was raised 
 to the bench, and the old man was frequently wont to plead 
 before him. The last office which we hear of Sir Thomas occu- 
 pying was that of advocate for the church in 1606. 
 
 Craig took little or almost no part in the political events of 
 his time. In the intervals allowed by his profession he devoted 
 himself to the production of many valuable works in law, and to 
 what used to be called the cultivation of the muses. His poems 
 are all in Latin, and the best of them will be found in the 
 Delicia? Poetarum Scotonim. The first of his legal works, and 
 the only one now of any consequence, was his great treatise " De 
 Jure Feudali." Although the immediate object of its produc- 
 tion was to prove that there was no fundamental difference 
 between the laws of his own country and those of England, it 
 foiTiis independently a veiy valuable systematic exposition of 
 the law of Scotland. The work, although produced before 1605, 
 was not printed till long after Craig's death. The first edition 
 was produced at Edinburgh by Lord Crimond (Buniet) in 
 1655; the second by Menckenius at Leipzig in 1716; and 
 the third and best edition, to which a sketch of the author's 
 life is prefixed, by James Baillie, an advocate at Edinburgh, 
 in 1732. This edition was from the press of the Ruddimans. 
 The second of Craig's works was -nTitten about the same time 
 as the "De Jure Feudali." It treats "De Jure Successionis 
 Regni Anglije," and was composed for the purpose of defend- 
 ing James' right against the attacks of Parsons (Doleman). A 
 manuscript of the original is preserved in the advocates' hbrary 
 at Edinburgh, but it has never been published. A translation by 
 a clergyman of the name of Gatherer appeared in 1703. When 
 Craig composed the treatise " De Unione Regnonim Britannia?,"
 
 seems uncertain. The author accompanied James to London in 
 1G03, and in 1G04 was appointed one of the Scotch commis- 
 sioners for the purpose of effecting a union between the two 
 kingdoms. His last production was a treatise " De Hominio," 
 written after his return from London, to confute tlie doctrine 
 that the crown of Scotland owed homage to that of England. 
 A translation was printed in 1695. Craig's death took place in 
 1608.— (Tytler's Life of Sir Thomas Craig.)— J. D. W. 
 
 * CRAIK, George Lillie, LL.D., professor of English 
 literature in Queens college, Belfast; bom 18th April, 1798, 
 at Kennowav, Fifeshire. Dr. Craik was the eldest son of the 
 Rev. William Craik, schoolmaster of the parish now named 
 —a man of ripe scholarship and the piu-est life, to whose care 
 and christian example may unquestionably be traced much of 
 the honourable success that has attended the career of his sons. 
 Dr. Craik possesses indeed every quality that can contribute 
 to the success and sustain the position of the true literary 
 man — an industry that rarely flags, great good sense, extensive 
 acquirements joined with singular ability, and an uprightness 
 and feeling of the dignity of his calling that have preserved him 
 during a life which has now passed its meridian, free from the 
 shadow of a stain. After passing through the complete curri- 
 culum, both philosophical and theological, at the university of 
 St. Andrews, he engaged hi various litenuy occupations in his 
 own country; but he fortunately removed to London in 1827, 
 and resided there until 1850, in which year he was appointed 
 by the British government to the chair he so worthily fills. 
 Putting altogether out of view his multitude of contribu- 
 tions to the best periodicals of our time — our monthlies and 
 quarterly reviews — Dr. Craik's distinct and positive works, 
 produced chiefly during his residence in the metropolis, do 
 indeed testify to his indefatigable industry. Tlie titles of 
 some of them are these — "Pursuit of Knowledge under 
 Difficulties ; " " The New Zealanders ; " " Paris and its Historical 
 Scenes ; " " English Causes Celebres ;" " Sketches of the History 
 of Literature and Learning in England ; " " Spencer and his 
 Poetry ; " " Bacon, his Writings and his Philosophy ; " " History 
 of British Commerce ;" " Romance of the Peerage ; " " Outlines 
 of the History of the English Language;" "The English of 
 Shakspeare," &c., &c. He had much to do also with Mr. 
 Knight's Pictorial History of England. We trust he will yet 
 be able to undertake and complete what few men are so capable 
 of treating, viz., a Philosophical History of our Tongue. Dr. 
 Craik joins a powerful intellect to a susceptible imagination ; 
 hence one especial charm of his writings, and also the fact that 
 they are characterized by exact method. It is no parados, that 
 without imagination, or the tnie fusing potcer, there can be no 
 real method. — It must not be omitted, that to a pamphlet 
 privately printed by Dr. Craik in 18-16, we owe the first dis- 
 tinct recommendation of the method of stimulating national 
 education now adopted by the privy council — a mode which 
 every year's experience proves to be the only one in which the 
 state can at present act, so that it avoid the checkmate of 
 religious sects and differences. Dr. Craik will certainly be 
 esteemed hereafter as one of the most estimable and useful lite- 
 rary labourers of this our time. 
 
 CRAMER, Andreas Wilhelm, was bom in Copenhagen 
 on the '2-lth of December, 1760. A man of great erudition and 
 unwearied industry, and one of the greatest contributors to the 
 literature of Denmark in his times. He was brought up to the 
 profession of law, and filled the chair of that science in the 
 university of Kiel, of which he was also principal librarian. He 
 died on 20th of January, 1833.— J. F. W. 
 
 CRAJIER, Gabriei,, a Swiss mathematician, was horn at 
 Geneva in 1704, and died in 1752. The circumstance of his 
 competing for the chair of philosophy at the age of twenty 
 brought him into notice, and introduced him to the favour of 
 Jean and Nicolas Bemouilli. He became professor in 1750. 
 In the same year appeared his " Introduction a I'analyse des 
 lignes courbes algebriques. — R. ^I., A. 
 
 CRA]\IER, JoHANX Andreas, a distinguished German poet, 
 was born at Johstadt, Saxony, 29th January, 1723, and devoted 
 himself to the study of theology at Leipzig, where at the same 
 time he entered upon a literary career by contributing to the 
 Bremiscke Beitrage. In 1750 he was chosen oberhof-prediger 
 at Auedlinburg, and foiir years after, on the recommendation of 
 Klopstock, was called to Copenhagen in the same capacity. 
 The fall of Straense, however, induced him to accept a high 
 
 ecclesiastical office at Liibeck in 1771. Here he remained but 
 a few j-ears; for in 177-1 he was translated to the first chair 
 of theology at Kiel, where he died on the 12th of June, 1788. 
 Among his poetical works his Odes and his Paraphrases of the 
 Psalms, Leipzig, 1755, 4 vols., rank highest. Besides these he 
 published the Nordische A tfseher, a montlily magazine, Copen- 
 hagen, 1758-59; translated Bossuet's History of the Worid, 
 Leipzig, 1757-86, 7 vols. ; and wrote a valuable biography of 
 Gellert in 1774.— K. E. 
 
 CRAMPTON, Sir Philip, Bart, F.R.S., bom in Dublin on 
 the 7th of June, 1777. Mr. Crampton entered the army as 
 assistant-surgeon, and saw active sendee in the field during 
 the Irish rebellion of 1798. In the autumn of the same year 
 he was elected one of the surgeons to the Meath hospital, an office 
 which he held for neariy sixty j-ears. In 1800 Jlr. Cramp- 
 ton took the degree of doctor of medicine in the university of 
 Glasgow. In 1804 he published his ess.ay, "On the Entropeon 
 or Invei-sion of the Eyelids," and soon after, in conjunction 
 with the late Peter Harkan, established the first private school 
 of anatomy and surgery m the city of Dublin. In 1813 he 
 pubhshed in the Annals of Philosophy, the description of an 
 organ by which the eyes of birds are accommodated to the differ- 
 ent distances of objects ; which paper he illustrated with a plate 
 representing the eye of the ostrich, so prepared as to exJiibit the 
 muscle of the cornea in its whole extent. This muscle has been 
 called Musculus cramptonianus, " der Cramptonsche muskel," 
 of the Germans, and for its discovery Mr. Crampton was honoured 
 with the fellowship of the Royal Society. About the same time 
 he received the appointment of surgeon-general to the forces, 
 an office which was abolished in 1833. Early in the reign of 
 George IV., Mr. Crampton was appointed surgeon-in-ordinary 
 to the king in Ireland, and in 1839 he was raised bv Queen 
 Victoria to the dignity of a baronet of the United Kingdom. 
 Sir Philip Crampton was always an ardent cultirator of zoologi- 
 cal science, and took an active part in the foraiation of the 
 Royal Zoological Society of Ireland, of which he was repeatedle 
 president. He also on three or four occasions filled the office of 
 president of the Royal College of Surgeons. He was a member 
 of the senates of the University of London, and Queen's Univer- 
 sity in Ireland ; of the Royal Irish Academy ; of the Socie'te' do 
 Chirurgie of Paris ; of Guy's Hospital Surgical Society, &c. In 
 addition to the essays already mentioned. Sir Philip contributed 
 numerous papers to the medical periodicals of the day. Sir Pliilip 
 originally endowed with great talent, and possessed of extreme 
 activity both of mind and body, loved his profession ardently, and 
 devoted his spare moments to its advancement. In private life 
 he was remarkable for the amenity of his manners, and for the 
 brilliancy of his conversational powers. He died at his house in 
 Merrion Square, Dublin, on the 10th of June, 1858, aged eighty- 
 one years and three days, and was succeeded in the baronetcy by 
 liis elder son, his excellency Sir John Fiennes Crampton, K.C.B., 
 envoy-extraordinary and minister plenij)otentiary from her Bri- 
 tannic majesty to the court at St. Petersburg. — W. D. M. 
 
 CRANACH, Lucas. See Kraxach. 
 
 CRANMER, Thomas, the first protestant archbishop of 
 Canterbury, was descended of an ancient and respectable family^ 
 and was born July 2, 1489, at Aslacton in Nottinghamshire. 
 In 1503 he was sent to Jesus college, Cambridge, where he was 
 elected to a fellowship in 1510, anil applied liimself with great 
 industry to the acquisition of Greek, Hebrew, and tlieology. 
 Before he had reached his twenty-third year he married, and 
 ha\'ing, in consequence, forfeited his fellowship, he was cmploved 
 as a lecturer in Buckingham (now Magdalen) college. His wife, 
 however, died in about a year after his marriage, and he was 
 immediately restored to the fellowship wliich he. had vacated. 
 He took his degree of D.D. in 1523, and was appointed lecturer 
 on theology by Jesus college. In 1 528, while the sweating sick- 
 ness was raging in Cambridge, Cranmer retired to Walthani 
 Abbey, where he was occupied with tlie instruction of two pupils, 
 the sons of a gentleman named Crcs.sy. Tiiis was the turning- 
 point of his fortunes. Henry VIIL, who was tlien eanie.<;tly 
 pressing his divorce from Queen Catherine, had .at this time 
 made an excursion to the neighbourhood of Waltliam, an<l Gar- 
 diner and Fox, afterwards bishops of Winchester and Hereford, 
 were in attendance upon the king, and accidentally meeting 
 Cranmer at Jlr. Cressy's table, began to discuss with him the 
 absorbing question of the divorce. Cranmer suggested tlie pro- 
 priety of " trying the question out of the word of God," a course
 
 •which dearly implied that it should be decided without the 
 authority of the pope. Fox, who was then the royal almoner, 
 mentioned this recommendation to the king, and Henry, eagerly 
 catching at the hint, " swore by the ^lother of God, that man 
 hath the right sow by the etir." Cranmer's attendance was 
 immediately requu-ed at the palace, and he was commanded to 
 reduce his opinion to writing, and to devote his whole attention 
 to the furtherance of this important matter. He was shortly 
 after appointed archdeacon of Taunton, and one of the royal 
 chaplains. 
 
 Henry was not yet prepared to hazard an open rupture with 
 the pope, and sent Cranmer, along with several others, on an 
 embassy to Rome about the close of 1529. The mission was 
 unsuccessful, however, and shortly after his return, Cranmer wms 
 sent in 1531 as embassador to the emperor on the same busi- 
 ness. During his residence in Germany he married, about the 
 beginning of 1532, Aiine, niece of Osiander, the pastor of Nurem- 
 burg. Shortly after, Archbishop Warham died, and Cranmer was 
 recalled to fill the vacant see. He was consecrated March 30, 
 1533. A few weeks later, 23rd Jlay, 1533, Cranmer declared 
 Henry's marriage with Catherine null and void ; and on the 28th 
 he publicly married the Idng to Anne Boleyn, whom Henry had 
 privately espoused in the month of January. In 1536, in virtue 
 of his office as primate, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry 
 to this unhappy princess void ; and again, in 1540, he presided at 
 the convocation which pronounced the unjustiiiable sentence of 
 the invalidity of the union between the king and Anne of Cleves. 
 In these transactions, it must be admitted, that Cranmer appears 
 to little advantage. JleanwhUe the archbishop took a con- 
 spicuous part in promoting the progress of the Reformation. He 
 assisted in passing several statutes which materially diminished 
 the power of the pope in England. He set on foot a translation 
 of the Bible, assisted in the correction of a second edition of the 
 " King's Primer," and urged the king to take steps for the sup- 
 pression of the monasteries, and the application of their revenues 
 to the advancement of religion and learning. When Henry 
 lavished these funds upon unworthy favourites, Cranmer had the 
 boldness to remonstrate against this misappropriation of the 
 national property. In 1538 he strenuously resisted in the house 
 of lords, at the risk of the king's displeasure, the enactment of 
 the obnoxious " Six Articles" proposed by the duke of Norfolk. 
 The Reformation continued to gain ground, and Cranmer 
 exerted himself, in the face of great opposition, to extend its 
 benefits throughout the kingdom. Books of rehgious instruc- 
 tion were circulated among the people, and mainly through his 
 influence every man was allowed to enjoy the inestimable boon 
 of reading the Bible in his mother tongue. On the other 
 hand, it must be acknowledged that Cranmer had deeply imbibed 
 the persecuting spirit of the old religion, and the share which he 
 took in the condemnation of John Frith, Andrew Hewat, Joan 
 of Kent, and others who suffered for their religious belief, has 
 left a deep stain upon the primate's chitracter. On the death 
 of Henry in 151:7, Cranmer was appointed by his will one of 
 the regents of the kingdom ; and by his talents, learning, and 
 high station, contributed largely to the advancement of the 
 protestant cause. He was the author of four of the Homilies, 
 and one of the compilers of the Service Book, and the Articles 
 of Religion, originally forty-two in number, were mainly, if not 
 exclusively, drawn up by him. 
 
 Edward VI. died in 1553, and the reluctant accession of the 
 archbishop to the injudicious scheme of elevating Lady Jane 
 Grey to the throne, combined with his religinus opinions, ren- 
 dered him peculiarly obnoxious to the bigotted Queen Mar)\ 
 In September, 1553, he was committed to the Tower along with 
 Latimer and Ridley; and in March, 1554, he and his fellow- 
 prisoners were removed to Oxford, and confined in the common 
 prison called the Bocardo. They were ultimately condemned as 
 obstinate heretics. Ridley and brave old Latimer underwent 
 their cruel sentence with indomitable resolution ; but the forti- 
 tude of Cranmer gave way under the pressure of misery, and 
 the prospect of tortures and death, and he was induced by the 
 hope of saving his life to sign no fewer than six recantations. 
 His enemies, however, had deteiTnined that his abjuration of the 
 protestant faith should avail him nothing, and this vener- 
 able and learned prelate was, accordingly, condemned to the 
 flames. When brought out to execution, 21st March, 1556, he 
 was exhorted to repeat his recantation; but, to the surprise and 
 dismay of his adversaries, he openly declared his adherence to 
 
 the reformed religion, and expressed his deep penitence for his 
 unworthy denial of the faith. He was fastened to the stake 
 opposite Baliol college, and suffered the cniel torture of the 
 flames with a heroic fortitude, which his timidity and recent 
 wavering conduct had not led his friends to expect. — J. T. 
 
 CRANSTOUN, George, Lord Corehouse, an eminent Scot- 
 tish judge, the son of a landed proprietor, and gi'andson of 
 William, fifth Lord Cranstoun, was admitted a member of the 
 Faculty of Advocates in 1793. The hberality of his politics 
 operated as a drawback to his success. Notwithstanding this 
 he ultimately attained large practice ; and for many years, 
 along with John Clerk, enjoyed a monopoly of the leadership at 
 the bar. He was thoroughly acquainted with law, and had the 
 reputation at the same time, of being an accomplished scholar. 
 In 1823 he was elected Dean of Faculty, and was elevated to the 
 bench of the supreme court of Scotland in 1826. Some time 
 before his death, which took place in 1850, he had resigned his 
 seat on the bench and retired into private life. — J. D. W. 
 
 CRASHAW, Richard, was born in London. The precise 
 dates of his birth and death are not recorded, but he was dead 
 before 1652. His father was a divine of some note, and a 
 preacher at the Temple church. Richard Crashaw's early educa- 
 tion was at the Charterhouse ; from that he passed to Pembroke 
 hall in 1632, and took his bachelor's degree in 1634. He 
 then removed to Peterhouse, of which he became a fellow in 
 1637, and took his master's degree in 1638. In 1634 he pub- 
 lished some Latin epigrams on scriptural subjects, " Epigram- 
 mata Sacra." In 1644 he was ejected from his fellowship by 
 the parliamentarians, and went to France, where he adopted the 
 religion of the country. In 1646, through the interest of the 
 poet Cowley, he was recommended to Cardinal Palotta, who 
 found emplovment for him in one of the pubhc offices at Rome. 
 The cardinal liked Crashaw better than his brother clerks did, 
 and they soon got rid of him by finding for him a canonry in the 
 church of Loretto. There, soon alter his appointment, he died 
 of fever. It was reported — without, however, any grounds being 
 stated for the belief — that he was poisoned. The poems of Cra- 
 shaw are cast in the manner of George Herbert, and the pieces 
 printed at the end of Herbert's Temple were at one time ascribed 
 to him. Before Crashaw left England, he had adopted views 
 of mystic devotion, and practised exercises of ascetic piety, 
 to which the chm-ch of England gives little encotu-agement, 
 and for which she makes no provision. Of his poems, those 
 on religious themes are the best; perhaps the very best of all is 
 his hymn to St. Teresa. It is impossible to read them without 
 feeling that, whatever were his errors of doctrine, his was a 
 sentiment of genuine piety. Pope praises as superior to his 
 other poems, that on " Lessius," that on " Ashton," and his 
 translation of " Dies Ira?," and " the Wishes to his supposed 
 Mistress." — J. A., D. 
 
 CRASSUS, Lucius Licinius, was the most celebrated Roman 
 orator of his time; died m 91 B.C. He first attracted notice 
 when he was only twenty-one, by his prosecution of C. Carbo 
 in the year 119. The law which he proposed during his con- 
 sulship in 95, compelling all who were not citizens to leave 
 Rome, contributed to the bringing about of the Social War. 
 Crassus, who had already been proconsul of Gaul, was made 
 censor in 92, when he suppressed the schools of the Latin rheto- 
 ricians. He was, like many of the Romans of his age, a man of 
 luxurious habits. Cicero introduces him as one of the speakers 
 in the De Oratore. — R. M., A. 
 
 CRASSUS, Marcus Licixius, snmamed the Rich, a Roman 
 statesman and general, was descended of a family of some note. 
 He soon became known as the wealthiest citizen of Rome. Dur- 
 ing the dictatorship of Marius and Cinna he was forced to take 
 refuge in Spain. On his return he joined Sylla, who received 
 him with open arms, and appointed him to a command in his 
 army. He was prastor when the revolt of the gladiators under 
 Spartacus took place, and he was intrusted with the command of 
 the army which was sent against them. He defeated them in 
 a great battle, killing, according to report, more than 12,000. 
 Elected consul on his return, in conjunction with Pompey, he 
 used every means to gain the favour of the people. He enter- 
 tained the whole populace at a feast where ten thousand tables 
 were spread, and distributed, at his own expense, tlu'ee months' 
 provision of com to each guest. He was more than sus- 
 pected of complicity in the conspiracy of Catiline, but escaped 
 connction. Of the first triumvirate, which consisted of Pompey,
 
 CRA 
 
 1135 
 
 CRE 
 
 Cfpsar, and Crassus, the latter was for awhile not the least 
 powerful member. He was afterwards re-elected along with 
 Pompcy to the consulship. He obtained the command of the 
 army in Syria, and set out on an expedition against the Parthians. 
 After various changes of fortune he was defeated and put to 
 death by Surena, a Parthian general, at Charrse, B.C. 53. — W. JI. 
 
 CRATES : flourished b.c. 448, and died b.c. 424. He was 
 for some time an actor in the plays of Cratinus at Athens, and 
 afterwards became his successor in the progress of the old comedy. 
 He was the earliest among the writers in that field to abandon 
 all political allusions in his drama. Aristotle mentions him as 
 tlie first who gave up personal satire, and began to make narra- 
 tives or poems on more general subjects. He showed great skill 
 in the elaboration of his plots and humorous exhibitions of 
 character. His comedies had a tendency towards broad farce. 
 Fragments remain of eight of his plays, together with detached 
 sentences of unknown reference. His language is characterized 
 by simplicity and grace. — J. N. 
 
 CRATES of Thebes: a pupil of the cynic Diogenes. He 
 flourished b.c. 328 as one of the leaders of his sect. He was 
 famous for his philosophical letters and some tragedies, none of 
 which have come down to us ; but he was more celebrated for 
 the consistency with which he carried into practice the asceticism 
 he professed. He smTendered to his native city the whole of 
 his considerable fortune, and lived with a characteristic contempt 
 of all the luxuries of life. — J. N. 
 
 CRATINUS, a Greek comic poet. He is said, upon the 
 authorities on which Suidas relied, but which however are dis- 
 putable, to have been the son of CaUimedes, and bom in Athens 
 in the year 519 b.c. Cratinus, as a comic poet, obtained several 
 victories, some over Aristophanes. He lived to an extreme old 
 age. His love of wine was the subject of frequent satire by his 
 rival poets, and he good-humouredly replied to their banter in 
 his comedy " ITut/v-,]," or the Bottle. Our chief acquaintance 
 with Cratinus is through Aristophanes. Some humorous pas- 
 sages in the Knights are well translated by Mitchell. Improve- 
 ments in the arrangement of the chorus, and of the Greek 
 comedy generally are referred to Cratinus. — J. A., D. 
 
 CRATIPPUS OF MiTYLENE : one of the Greek teachers, 
 whose talents were mainly employed in feeding the taste for philo- 
 sophy which sprung up in the latter days of the Roman/epubhc. 
 He is known to us chiefly through allusions in the speculative 
 works of Cicero his contemporary, and at one time his pupil. 
 In the De Officiis he ranks him among the most distinguished of 
 the peripatetics. Plutarch mentions his accompanying Pompey 
 after Pharsalia, and attempting to comfort the fallen general by 
 the maxims of his philosophy. On the establishment of Csesar's 
 power, Cratippus was, through the influence of Cicero, presented 
 with the Roman franchise ; but he continued to give public 
 instructions at Athens, where M. Brutus afterwards attended 
 some of his lectures.— J. N. 
 
 CRAWFORD, Earis of. See Lindsay. 
 
 CRAWFORD, QuEXTiN, author of numerous historical 
 works, was born at Kilwinning in Scotland in 1743. He 
 passed his youth in India, and was engaged first in militaiy 
 service, and afterwards in commercial transactions, in which he 
 accumulated a considerable fortune. On his return to Europe 
 in 1780 he travelled for some time on the continent, and finally 
 took up his residence in Paris, where he formed a valuable col- 
 lection of books and pictures, and enjoyed the society of the 
 most distinguished authors and artists. He died in Paris iia 
 1819.— J. T. 
 
 CRAYER, Caspar de : this distinguished Flemish artist was 
 bora at Antwerp in 1582. He was a pupil of Raphael Coxcie, 
 a painter of poor repute. His merits soon gained him atten- 
 tion and honour. He was engaged by the court of Brussels to 
 paint a portrait of the Cardinal Ferdinand, governor-general of 
 the Low Countries. The success of this earned him a pension, 
 and the title of painter to the court. Rubens is reported to 
 have given the most unqualified praise of Crayer, and many 
 Flemish connoisseurs have not hesitated to rank this fine artist 
 with Vandyck and Rubens. He died in 16G9. — W. T. 
 
 * CREASY, Edward Shepherd, harrister-at-law, was bom 
 at Bexley in Kent in 1812. He was educated at Eton and 
 Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1837. In 1850 he was 
 appointed to the chair of history in the London university. Pro- 
 fessor Creasy is author of the " Fifteen Decisive Battles of the 
 Worid ;" " The Rise and Progress of the British Constitution ;" 
 
 and a " Histoiy of the Ottoman Turks."' Of the last work only 
 two volumes have appeared. — R. M., A. 
 
 CREBILLON, Claude Prosper, son of Prosper .Jolyot, was 
 born at Paris, 14th February, 1707, and was educated at the 
 college of Louis le Grand. The Jesuits sought to attach him to 
 the church, but he had no vocation that way. The theatre was 
 his first attraction, where he assisted in writing some of the 
 parodies on the operas. His lively and convivial talents brought 
 him into the society of the gay young men of the day, and he 
 was one of the originators of the celebrated Caveau. From writ- 
 ing poetry he turned his attention to writing romances, in which 
 he was very successful, and is said to have won the love and the 
 hand of an English lady of rank by the charm of his writings. 
 One of his productions gave such offence from some political 
 allusions that he was imprisoned in Yincenncs, and, strangely 
 enough, the patroness of his father, madame de Pompadour, pro- 
 cured his banishment from Paris in consequence of the indecency 
 of his works ; on which occasion he went to England, where he 
 became acquainted, amongst other celebrities, with Richardson, 
 Fielding, and Steme. The latter was his particular admirer, and 
 seems to have imitated his licentious style. Some time before 
 his death he withdrew himself altogether from the public, and 
 died about the year 1777. His productions are numerous, and 
 with few exceptions are gross and immoral in their tendencies — 
 a fact which contrasts strangely with his life, which was, though 
 gay and convivial, yet moral and respectable. — J. F. W. 
 
 CRfiBILLON, Prosper Jolyot de, a celebrated French 
 tragic poet, was born at Dijon on the 13th of January, 1674. 
 The family was respectable, but not one of distinction, as is 
 often erroneously stated. Tlie poet's father, !Melchior Jolyot, 
 was a notary, who purchased an estate of Crebillon, which name 
 the son assumed. The lad gave no early indications of genius, 
 and at school was more remarkable for breaches of discipline 
 tlian progress in study. In due time he was sent to Paris to 
 study law under a man of the name of Prieur. This man of 
 law was also a man of letters, and actually encouraged Crd- 
 billon to leave his law-books and accompany him to the theatre. 
 The taste of the young poet now developed itself, and at last 
 Prieur induced him to attempt a tragedy. " La Mort des 
 Enfans de Brutus " was the first offspring of his muse ; but it 
 was still-born — the manager read and rejected it, and the author 
 flung it in the fire. In 1705 "Idomenee" was put upon the 
 stage. It had some success, and though faulty in many respects, 
 gave indications of that faculty of exciting tenor which after- 
 wards was the giieat power of Crebillon. Two years after he 
 brought out his "Atree," which had a decided success. Cre'billon 
 was now an established celebrity. After the death of his father, 
 who left nothing that did not belong to his creditors, necessity 
 compelled him to adopt for his daily bread, that which he had 
 at first commenced from the love of the drama. Accordingly, in 
 1709 he produced the "Electre," and in 1711 the "Rliadamiste," 
 which is justly considered his chef (Tauvre. " Xerxes" appeared 
 in 1714. It was perfonned only once, and then received so 
 unfavourably that it was withdrawn by Crebillon. Three years 
 now elapsed, and then followed "Semiramis," receiving and 
 deseri'ing no better fate. "PpThus," though cold and languid, 
 was yet written with more care in point of style than its two 
 predecessors. Crebillon now retired for a long interval from 
 literary life. His wife, to whom he had been tenderly attached, 
 was dead, and he gave himself up to a misanthropic sorrow, which 
 the affection of his son, and the attention of friends, could not 
 for a season dispel In 1731 he was elected a member of the 
 Academic Franfaise, and obtained four years afterwards the 
 situation of royal censor. Fortune had further favours in store 
 for the recluse. Voltaire, wlio was now growing into his great 
 fame, had assailed the beautiful Pompadour in some witty and 
 bitter epigrams. The lady was determined to have her revenge, 
 and so she -honoured and exalted tlie man who was esteemed tho 
 rival of Voltaire, and against whom the latter had a private 
 pique, as well as a literary jealousy. Crebillon was appointed 
 librarian to Louis XV., and received a pension of a thousand 
 francs a year. In 17-18 he brought upon the .stage his "Cati- 
 line," supported by the favour of the court, with cxtraordinai-y 
 magnificence. Once again the poet sought the public fju-our, 
 in a tragedy called "Le Triumvirat," but it was a failure, and 
 was withdrawn after the first representation. This was liis 
 last work, though another was partly written. Though now an 
 old man he was still vigorous, when he was attacked with crj-si-
 
 pelas in the legs, which he neglected till it proved fatal. He 
 died on the 17th June, 1762, and was interred with gi-eat pomp, 
 all the actors attending. His eloge was pronounced b_v Piron, 
 and a mausoleum was erected to his memory. Crebillon was 
 a man of amiable manners, candid, modest, and simple ; and 
 though constitutionally subject to tits of gloom, he was often 
 sprightly, fond of witty saUies, but never known to say anything 
 that could offend others. In appearance he was tall, and had a 
 fine head, with bright eyes full of expression. — J. F. W. 
 
 CREECH, Thomas, the translator of Lucretius, Horace, and 
 Theocritus, was born at Blandford in Dorsetshire in 1659, and 
 was educated at Wadham college, Oxford, of which he became 
 a fellow. He was elected probationer fellow of All Soul's in 
 1683. His translation of Lucretius, published in 1G82, is his 
 best work, and has been highly praised by Dryden. In 1699 
 he was appointed to the college living of Woburn, Bedfordshii'e, 
 and two years after, in June 1701, committed suicide in his 
 chamber at Oxford. He was of a morose temper, and this act 
 has been ascribed to some constitutional infirmity. — J. T. 
 
 CREECH, William, a well-known Edinburgh bookseller of 
 facetious memory, whose name is associated with many of the 
 literary men of the day. He was the son of the minister of 
 Nevvbattle, and was born in 1795. For many years he carried 
 on by far the most extensive bookselling business in Scotland. 
 His shop stood at the east end of the Luckenbooths, now demo- 
 lished, facing down the High Street, and was the regular haunt 
 of the literati of Edinburgh at this period. From this place 
 issued the works of Lord Kames, Adam Smith, David Hume, 
 Henry Mackenzie, and Robert Burns. Creech himself was the 
 author of some fugitive pieces of no great merit ; but he was 
 a pleasant companion, and possessed an inexhaustible fund of 
 amusing anecdote. He was remarkably penurious in his habits, 
 and his stinginess and keen tenacity of his ONvn interests dis- 
 gusted most of the authors who had dealings with him. Bums 
 revenged himself for his niggardly treatment of him by a biting 
 poetical sketch of the acute and witty, but selfish bibliopole. 
 Creech died in 1815. — J. T. 
 
 CRESCIMBENI, Giovanni Maria Ignazto Geronimo 
 Saverio Giuseppe Antonio, an Italian poet and litterateur, 
 was born at Macerata in 1663, and died in 1728. He was 
 educated in his native town, and gave promise of literarj' excel- 
 lence before he went in 1680 to join his uncle at Rome, where 
 he spent the rest of his life. His earlier productions were written 
 in the vicious style of that age ; but the perusal of the writings 
 of Filicai and Leonio con-ected this fault. From that time he 
 laboured incessantly to difRise a more coiTcct taste amongst his 
 countrymen. It was for this end that he founded the academy 
 of the Arcadians, which vras opened in 1690, and at the head 
 of which he remained for thirty-eight years. Crescimbeni was 
 a voluminous writer both in prose and verse. The most valuable 
 of his works is " LTstoria della volgar Poesia." It should, per- 
 haps, be mentioned that he retained only the first two of his 
 christian names. — R. M., A. 
 
 CRESPI, Giuseppe Maria, Cavaliere : this artist was born 
 at Bologna in 1665. He was a pupil of Canuti and Cignani. 
 From his gay apparel, he was called lo Spagnuolo. He was 
 a mad reclvless painter, but -nith a ready quick cleverness that 
 came near to genius. Mengs condemns him as the destroyer of 
 the Bolognese school. He had a strange talent for grotesque 
 caricature. He died in 1747.- — His two sons, Luigi and 
 Antonio, were .also successful painters. Luigi was a creditable 
 writer on art. He died in 1779. — W. T. 
 
 * CRESWICK, Thomas: this painter was bom at Sheffield 
 in 1811. In 1828 he first came to London, and the same yeai- 
 exhibited two of his landscapes at the Royal Academy. From 
 that time he became a steady contributor to the works of the 
 academy, seldom losing a year, and at the same time sending 
 many works to the minor exhibition of the British institution. 
 The excellence of his pictures soon attracted attention ; but it 
 was not until 18-12 that he was elected associate. In 1851 
 he was made royal academician. His productions are still highly 
 valued, though they probably reached their highest point of worth 
 some few years ago. His pictures are chiefly from scenes in 
 England, and he has occasionally painted in conjunction with 
 Mr. Ausdell, who has supphcd the figm-es to the landscapes. 
 His colour is rich, but inclines to heaviness— a tharacteristic 
 which, of late years, has rather increased than otherwise — and 
 he is partial to a monotone of hue. But his rocky streams often 
 
 possess great vigour and reality, and his shady glens have many 
 charms of depth and power of colour. Moreover, the popularity 
 he has acquired, as a loving transcriber of English scenes, may 
 enable him to disregard criticism almost entirely. His success is 
 very nearly an answer to all cavil at his works. — W. T. 
 
 CRETIN, or as it is sometimes written, Crestin, the real name 
 being Dubois, a French poet, the date or place of whose birth 
 is not ascertained. Probably he was a Parisian, and we know 
 from his writings that he lived in the fifteenth and commence- 
 ment of the sixteenth century. Francis I. having appointed him 
 his chronicler. Cretin undertook to write the histoi-y of France, 
 which he accomplished in twelve books in a metrical form, but, 
 as was the fashion with other metrical chroniclers, in a dry and 
 prosaic style. He was a man of considerable learning and praised 
 by his contemporaries, who called him " Souverain poete 
 fran9ois ; " a supremacy which the witty Rabelais ignored in his 
 Pantagruel, where, in the character of Ramiiiagrobis, he exhibits 
 the vices and affectation of Cretin's st3-le. He died somewhere 
 about the year 1525. A modem critic has happUy obsen-ed of 
 him that he never could make rhyme and reason agree. — J. F. W. 
 
 CREUZER, Georg Friedrich, an eminent German philo- 
 logist, was born on the 10th of March, 1771, at Marburg, where 
 he studied, and some years after was appointed professor of 
 philology. In 1804: he was called to the chair of ancient fitera- 
 ture and eloquence at Heidelberg ; and from that time, till his 
 death on the 16th of Februar}', 1858, was one of the greatest 
 ornaments of this university. Creuzer's fame chiefly rests upon 
 his opus magnum, " Symbolik und Mythologie der alten VoUcer, 
 besonders der Griechen," which involved him in a vehement 
 and protracted controversy with several prominent philologists. 
 L'nlike the Symbolik, Creuzer's second gi-eat work, the " Opera 
 Omnia of Plotinus," Oxford, 1835, 3 vols., enjoyed the general 
 approbation. His numerous editions, as well as his antiquarian 
 treatises, are not less distinguished by learning than by deep and 
 original thinking. To the collected edition of his German 
 writings, Leipzig, 1837-47, 9 vols., the author added his auto- 
 biography, "Ans dem Lcben eines alten Professors," as an 
 interesting supplement. — K. E. 
 
 CREWE, Nathaniel, as English prelate, was the fifth son 
 of John, Lord Crewe; born in 1633; died in 1721. He was 
 promoted to the see of Oxford in 1671, and three years after 
 translated to Durham. Being a member of the privy council of 
 James II. he favoured the measm-es of the court, and after the 
 Revolution his name was excepted from the act of indemnity of 
 1690. His pardon was afterwards procm-ed by his friends. 
 
 CRICHTON, James, " the Admirable." So much romance 
 has been thrown around this extraordinary individual, that it is 
 difficult to ascertain the real facts of his biography. He was 
 bom, not in the castle of Cluny, but more probably at Elliock in 
 Dumfriesshire in August, loGO, his mother bemg a grand- 
 daughter of Lord Lindsay of the Byres, and daughter of Sir 
 James Stewart of Beath, a descendant of Murdac, duke of 
 Albany, third son of King Robert II. ; his father being lord- 
 advocate, and connected with the Crichtons of Sanquhar, the 
 ancestors of the carl of Dumfries ; and his granduncle. Lord 
 Methven being third husband of Margaret Tudor, widow of 
 James IV. In 1570, and when ten years of age, he was sent 
 to St. Salvator's college, St. Andrews, then adorned by many 
 illustrious men, and he had for some time the young king as a 
 fellow-pupil. He took his degree of A.M. in 1575 with no little 
 honour, his name being thu-d in the first or highest circle of 
 graduates. The elder Crichton espoused the doctrines of the 
 Reformation, but the son, adhering to the old faith, went over 
 to France. There, in the university of Paris and in the college 
 of NavaiTe, he issued a univers.al challenge, that is, to all men 
 upon all thhigs, and to be held in any of twelve languages 
 named. The rhapsodist. Sir Thomas Urquhart, repeats the pro- 
 gramme in a style of characteristic magniloquence ; addmg that 
 he spent the interval in all kinds of gymnastic exercises, in 
 music, dancing, and pastime, but that on the appointed day he 
 for nine hours vanquished all his opponents in all the faculties. 
 According to another authority, not greater than the last, he 
 went to Rome, and re- enacted the same feat there. He appears 
 also to have been some time in Genoa, and there is no doubt 
 that he anived in Venice about the year 1580, and made the 
 acquaintance of the famous printer Aldus Manutius, who dedi- 
 cated exuberant eulogies to his living genius, and strewed 
 pathetic elegies over his tomb. His appearance at Venice, both
 
 CRI 
 
 1137 
 
 CRO 
 
 as orator and debater, commanded universal admiration, as he 
 seems to have had incomparable command of the " knowledo-es " 
 as then tauglit — mathematics no less than scholastic lore — and to 
 have been strikinp;ly fluent in various tongues. Retiring in bad 
 health to Padua, he there again produced unbounded astonishment, 
 and during six hours improvised a Latin poem in praise of the city, 
 discussed the sciences — each with some one supposed to be a 
 master in it — and exposed also some of the erroi-s which belonged 
 to the reigning Aristotelian philosophy. Returring to Venice, 
 he gave hmiself to the same astounding displays, and Manutius 
 has preserved the progranmie in the dedication of his Paradosa 
 Nobilissimo Juveni Jacobo Critono, Scoto. The challenge is 
 broad and formal. He pledged himself to review the schoolmen, 
 allowed his opponents the pi-ivilege of selecting their topics 
 either from branches publicly or privately taught, and promised 
 to return answers in logical figure, or in numbers estimated 
 according to their occult power, or in any one of a hundred 
 sorts of verse. For the space of three days, in the church of St. 
 John and St. Paul, he sustained the trial, and justified before 
 many competent witnesses his magnificent pretensions. After 
 such a triumph he betook himself to Mantua, and there is said 
 to have challenged and killed in combat one of the most 
 renowned of gladiators, who had just slain three opponents who 
 had raslily ventured to encounter him. The duke appointed him 
 tutor to his son, and he not long after got up a dramatic per- 
 formance, in which, during five hours, he represented effectively 
 no less than fifteen different cliaracters, such as a divine, a 
 lawyer, a mathematician, a physician, and a soldier. But his 
 career came to a sudden and tragical end. Meeting some persons 
 in the street who quarrelled with him and set upon him, he 
 defeated them, but one of them, his own pupil, threw off his 
 mask and begged his life. Crichton at once fell on his knees 
 and presented his sword to the prince, who received it, but 
 immediately stabbed him with it to the heart. At his assassi- 
 nation Crichton had scarcely completed his twenty-third year. 
 What the prince's motives were is not known — whether jealousy, 
 envy, or the momentary rage of an " irefull heart;" or pei-haps 
 the admirable Crichton simply fell a victim in a drunken frolic. 
 The lamentation over his untimely end was great and unusual. 
 It is difficult to form a just estimate of Crichton's mind and 
 attainments. He was no charlatan, though erudition of any 
 depth, or the fruits of patient study, could not be expected of 
 one of his years. Others had the same means of education as 
 he had enjoyed, but he stood out among all his compeers for 
 the number and variety of his precocious accomplishments. 
 His verses are deficient both in poetry and Latinity, nor does 
 his genius seem to have been equal to his undoubted acquire- 
 ments. But after all allowance for exaggeration, he must have 
 possessed a thorough f;imiliarity with all branches of knowledge 
 current and popular in those days, a quick apprehension, a ready 
 and retentive memory, a marvellous promptitude and presence of 
 mind, a boldness arising from his conscious stores and powers, 
 an unlimited command of language in declamation and reply, a 
 fluent mastery of several tongues, along with elegant manners 
 and a graceful figure, improved by an eager cidtivation of physi- 
 cal games and exercises. That he was a prodigy is admitted by 
 Scaliger, Johnson, and Bayle. — {Life by Sir Thomas Urquhart, 
 " Discovery of a most exquisite jewel,^'' 1652. Biography by 
 Mackenzie, by Tytler, by Innng, and by Imperialis.) — J. E. 
 
 CRIGHTON or CREIGHTON, Robert, a learned prelate, 
 was born of an ancient family at Dunkeld in 1593, and died in 
 1672. At the beginning of the civil war he joined the king at 
 Oxford. He afterwards follovfed Charles II. abroad, and after 
 the Restoration was promoted to the bishopric of Bath and Wells. 
 Crighton boldly denounced the vices of the court. — R. M., A. 
 
 CRITIAS, son of Callffischrus, was a pupil of Socrates, and 
 is noteworthy both as a statesman and man of letters. In 
 406 B.C. he was in Thessaly endeavoiuing to set up a democracy. 
 On his return to Athens he became leader of the oligarchical 
 party. He was conspicuous among the thirty tyrants named 
 by Lysander in 40-1 B.C., and in the same year was killed in 
 battle. Cicero speaks of some of the speeches of Critias as 
 extant in his time. He wrote a work on politics, and is said to 
 have produced some tragedies, which are now lost. Some frag- 
 ments of his elegies are still preserved. — J. B. 
 
 CRCESUS, the last king of Lydia, succeeded to the throne 
 560 B.C. By a rapid series of conquests, he subdued all the 
 Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor, and extended his 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 dominions over almost all the country, from the JEgean Sea to 
 the river Ilalys. He was deemed the richest monarch of his 
 age ; and the fame of his wealth, power, and magnificence, 
 attracted to his court many of the most illustrious sages and 
 poets of Greece. When the prosperity of the Lydian monarchy 
 was at its zenith, a new power suddenly arose in the East, which 
 was destined to overthrow many of the existing dynasties, and to 
 absorb their territories. By his accession to the throne of Jledia, 
 Cyrus had obtained the sovereignty of Upjier Asia, and was 
 meditating schemes of vast ambition. Jealous of his gi'owing 
 power, Crasus resolved to attack him ; assembled an anny of 
 four hundred and twenty thousand men ; crossed the Ilalys, 
 gave him battle in Cappadocia, and was defeated, on which "lie 
 retreated to Sardis, his capital. C}tus followed him, laid siege 
 to the city, and took it B.C. 546; annexed Lydia to Persia, and 
 condemned its vanquished king to the flames, but afterwards 
 pardoned him and took him into favour. Crcesus survived his 
 conqueror, and enjoyed the friendship of his son Cambyses ; 
 but the date and manner of his death are unknown. — W. M. 
 
 CROFT, Sir Herbert, an Eughsh writer, was bom in 1751, 
 and died in 1816. After having studied law for some time, he 
 entered the church, but devoted himself principally to literature. 
 He wrote "A Brother's Advice to his Sisters;" "Love and 
 Madness ;" and issued proposals for an improved edition of 
 Johnson's Dictionary — an undertaking that was never completed. 
 The life of Young in Johnson's Lives of the Poets was written 
 by Croft.— R. M., A. 
 
 CROFT, Herbert, an English prelate, was bom in 1603, and 
 died in 1691. Sent first to O.xford, he was next, on his fiUher's 
 conversion to popeiy, placed at Douay. He returned, however, 
 to Oxford, and rose to be bishop of Hereford. His treatise 
 entitled " Naked Truth," excited much attention at the time. 
 A reply to it by Dr. Turner of Cambridge, was answered by the 
 celebrated Andrew JIar\-ell, who v,-as an admirer of the bishop. 
 
 CROKE, Richard (in Latin Crocus), one of the revivers 
 of classical learning in England, was bom in London, and edu- 
 cated at Cambridge. He afterwards studied on the continent, 
 and on his return was appointed teacher of Greek at Oxford. 
 Henry VIII. sent him to bring over the university of Padua to 
 his side in the matter of the divorce — a commission in which 
 he was completely successful. He died in 1558. — R. M., A. 
 
 CROKE or CROOK, Sir George, an English lawyer, bom 
 in Buckinghamshire in 1559, and died in 1641. He was knighted 
 in 1623, and in 1628 succeeded Sir John Doderidge on the 
 king's bench. In 1636 Croke defended Hampden in the cele- 
 brated case of the ship-money, and this, strange to say, without 
 offending the king. — R. M., A. 
 
 CROivER, John Wilson, the Right Hon., LL.D., F.R.S., 
 distinguished as a politician and man of letters, was bom 
 in the year 1780 in the county of Galway in Ireland ; his 
 father, who was of an English family, holding the office of sur- 
 veyor-general in that county. Croker received his education in 
 the university of Dublin. He was called to the Irish bar in 
 1802, and a few years afterwards was returned to parliament 
 for the borough of Downpatrick. In the year 1827 he was 
 elected a representative for the university of Dublin, which 
 constituency he continued to represent until the passing of the 
 reform bill in 1832, when he finally retired from public life. 
 He attached himself from the first to the tory party, and at an 
 early age obtained office under Lord Liverpool's government, 
 having been appointed secretary to the admiralty in the year 
 1809. This influential post he held until 1830. During this 
 period Mr. Croker had become familiarly known to the public 
 in the capacity of a wit and man of letters. Croker established 
 in 1809 the Quarterly Review, to which periodical he contributed 
 largely for many years. Amongst the papers attributed to his 
 pen, some reviews have been censured as exceeding tlie legitimate 
 bounds of criticism, thus exposing their author to perhaps 
 exaggerated obloquy. But tlie nxpst remarkal)le writings with 
 which he enriched the Quarterly Heriew had reference to Louis 
 Pliilippe and the revolution of 1830, many of the materials for 
 which were known to have been furnished by the ex-king 
 himself, a resident at the time at Clermont, close to Mr. Crokcr's 
 villa at West Molesey in Surrey, and holding constant intercourse 
 witli him. The eariiest of Mr. Croker's works were poetical, 
 none of them displaying a high order of talent. His " Life 
 of the Duke of We'llington," at once adulatory m its tone 
 and prejudiced in its views, is quite unworthy of the hero it 
 ^ • 7 E
 
 CEO 
 
 1138 
 
 CRO 
 
 professes to celebrate. But his " Stories from the History of 
 England," which suggested Scott's Tales of a Grandfather, will 
 ever be a favourite manual in the hands of the young; and 
 Croker's edition of Boswell's Life of Johnson, although subjected 
 to severe criticism, has met with a success which few purely 
 literary works have enjoyed in modern times. The popularity 
 of this work induced Mv. Murray to propose to him the editing 
 of I'opo's works, which was accordingly undertaken several years 
 ago ; l)ut not having been completed at the time of his death, 
 the editorial task has passed into the hands of Mr. Peter Cun- 
 ningham — a gentleman previously associated with him in the 
 work — after a vast amount of illustration had been accumulated 
 by the original editor for the purposes of the projected publication. 
 Mr. Croker was married to a lady named Pennell, who survives 
 him, and by whom he had one son, who died before he had arrived 
 at maturity. Mr. Croker died in the year 1857, and was buried 
 in the parish church of West Molesey, which had been restored 
 and beautified by his exertions and liberality. A plain slab in 
 the churchyard marks the spot where his body lies, and a bust 
 is placed in the chancel. 
 
 CROKER, Thomas Crofton, was born on the 15th January, 
 1798, in the city of Cork. At the age of fifteen he was placed 
 in an eminent mercantile firm in his native city, but he appears 
 from his boyhood to have exhibited a strong taste for antiquarian 
 and literaiy pm-suits, rather than for the toils of business. The 
 beautiful scenery of the county of Cork led him to make many 
 excursions during his apprenticeship, and his mind was thus 
 stored with the songs and legends which abound in the south of 
 Ireland. Of these Croker made a collection, and his skill as a 
 draughtsman enabled him to add to their value by pen and ink 
 sketching. He fiu'nished IMoore with a large number of airs, as 
 well as fragments of poetry and traditions for the Irish Melodies 
 - — a favour which the great lyrist did not fail to acknowledge. 
 Upon the death of his father. Major Croker, in 1818, Thomas 
 left Ireland; and after visiting Moore in Wiltshire, he proceeded 
 to London, where, shortly afterwards, he procm^ed through the 
 aid of J. W. Croker, the secretary to the admiralty, an appoint- 
 ment in that department, in which he continued till 1850. In 
 1824 he published his "Researches in the South of Ireland, illus- 
 trative of the Scenery, Ai'chitectural Remains, and the Manners 
 and Superstitions of the Peasantry ; " and the following year 
 " The Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland." 
 In 1827 a second series of the "Fairy Legends" was published 
 in 2 volumes. Croker was now elected a member of the Royal 
 Irish Academy, and a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. In 
 1829 he edited two volumes entitled " Legends of the Lakes." 
 Two novellettes bearing his name were published in 1832, " The 
 Adventures of Barney JIahony," and " ]\Iy Village versus Your 
 Village." Croker took an active p;irt in the formation of the 
 Camden and Percy societies, serving on the council of both, and 
 contributing many papers. The latter society published in 1843 
 his " Keen of the South of Ireland." He continued to edit many 
 other works, antiquarian and national, which will be found in the 
 proceedings of the societies to which he belonged. His collection 
 of historical and literary manuscripts and Irish antiquities was 
 one of the finest extant, and was sold after his death, which took 
 place at his house at Old Brompton on the 8th of August, 1854. 
 Croker was a man of undoubted genius and of great industrj', 
 and he has added largely to our stores of antiquarian knowledge 
 and general literature. — J. F. W. 
 
 * CROLY, Rev. George, LL.D. Poet, dramatic author, 
 novelist, and divine. This eminent writer was born in Dublin 
 in 1785, and after receiving his education at Trinity college in 
 that city, came to London and quickly became distinguished as 
 a man of letters and pulpit orator. The earliest of his numer- 
 ous writings, " The Times, a satire," was published about 1818. 
 Poems, histories, dramas, followed in quick succession ; besides 
 which and a large number of published sermons and lectures. Dr. 
 Croly has contributed to literature some works of fiction, remark- 
 iible for power and originality — " Tales of the Great St. Bernard ;" 
 "Salathiel, the Immortal;" and"Marston, or the Soldier and 
 Statesman." Throughout life he has been a staunch tory, and 
 as a contributor to BlachivoocTs Magazine, an editor of the 
 Universal Review, and a virriter of political articles for the Bri- 
 tannia newspaper, he rendered important services to his party. 
 But he has been so fortuna-te as to have his labom's rewarded 
 by preferment. The living of St. Stephen and St. Benet, Wal- 
 brook, was conferred upon him by the whigs. 
 
 CROMPTON, Samuel, the inventor of the spinning machine 
 called the "mule," was bom in 1753 at Firwood, a small estate 
 which had belonged to his ancestors for many generations, near 
 Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire. Tjie district around Bolton had 
 long been famous as a seat of the textile manufactures; almost 
 every house was supplied with a loom, and by far the greater 
 number of the yeomen made more account of their weaving 
 shops than of their lands. Crompton lost his father when he 
 was at the age of five, and from that period till the date of his 
 marriage he resided with his mother on the estate of Firwood. 
 His great invention, which was completed at this place in 1779, 
 was one of several attempts made in the same district to supple- 
 ment by machinery the labour of the spinners, who, since the 
 invention of Kay's fly shuttle, were overwhelmed with demands 
 for yarn for the new looms, which their utmost exertions could 
 not meet. The mule exactly met the want of the time, and was 
 universally adopted. The result to the inventor, however, was 
 little more than the satisfaction he derived from having given a 
 new and signal impetus to the industry and enterprise of his 
 country. He was persuaded to make his invention generally 
 known without securing a patent, and to trust for his reward to 
 the generosity of the public and the munificence of the govern- 
 ment. From the foi-mer he received £5tl, and from the latter 
 .£5000. This latter sum the house of commons voted, after hearing 
 evidence to the effect that the result of the introduction of the 
 mule had been to add £350,000 to the yearly revenue — it was 
 hardly adequate to defray the expenses of the application. Mr. 
 Crompton, having exjjended the whole of his small fortune in 
 pursuits connected with his invention, was during the last years 
 of his life dependent upon a small anmuty. He died 1827. — C. 
 
 CROJIWELL, Henry, the fourth and youngest son of the 
 Protector, was born in 1627. He was educated at Felsted in 
 Essex ; at the age of sixteen entered the parliamentary ai'my ; 
 became a colonel in 1649, and accompanied his father to Ireland, 
 where he displayed gi-eat braveiy. He was a member of Bare- 
 bone's parliament, and in 1653 married the daughter of Sir 
 Francis Russell of Chippenham. In 1654 he was appointed 
 lord-deputy of Ireland, and discharged the duty of that impor- 
 tant office with great ability, although his influence was greatly 
 crippled by the ■^^■ant of money and the restrictions put upon him 
 by the council in London. On the accession of his brother, 
 Henry Cromwell was compelled by the factious and turbulent 
 council to exchange the title of lord-deputy for that of lord- 
 lieutenant; and shortly after the resignation of Richard he too 
 was obliged to relinquish his office. He retired first to Chippen- 
 ham and then to Soham in Cambridgeshire, where he spent the 
 remainder of his life in the cultivation of his estate. Henry 
 Cromwell died in 1673, lea\'ing six children.— J. T. 
 
 CROMWELL, Oliver, Lord- Protector of the Commonwealth 
 of England. Scotland, and Ireland, was bom at Huntingdon on 
 the 25th April, 1599. He was the son of Robert Cromwell, 
 M.P. for Huntingdon in the parliament of 1593, and of Eliza- 
 beth Stuart, daughter of Sir Richard Stuart. He was named 
 after his vmcle and godfather. Sir Oliver Cromwell. His father, 
 Robert Cromwell, second son of Sir Heniy Cromwell of Hinchin- 
 brooke, was a gentleman of good family and moderate estate, who 
 lived a rural life, and cultivated his own lands. Among his 
 possessions may possibly have been a brewery, a circumstance 
 that may account for the cavalier stigma that Oliver was the 
 son of a brewer. Robert's sister, Elizabeth Cromwell, was the 
 mother of John Hampden, who was the head of a Buckingham- 
 shire family of great wealth and consideration, that could trace 
 back to a period before the Nomian conquest. John Hampden 
 and Oliver Cromwell were therefore first cousins. Of Oliver's 
 early Mfe httle is known with any degi-ee of certainty. He appears 
 to have lived at home, and to have received his education at a 
 presbyterian school in the district, after which he went to Sidney 
 college, Cambridge, and pm-sued his studies there from the 23rd 
 April, 1616, to 23rd June, 1617. His father then died, and he 
 returned to Huntingdon. At the age of twenty-one, August 
 22, 1620, he married Elizabeth Boiu-chier, daughter of Sir 
 James Bourchier, who brought him a certain amount of dower. 
 Whether from the influence of the rather ascetic religion that 
 prevailed among the puritans — asceticism being a common 
 feature where persecution has previously prevailed — or from the 
 influence of the low-lying marsh lands which generated unwhole- 
 some vapours, certain it is that Oliver fell into In'pochondriasis 
 and low spirits, and indulged in the inconvenient practice of
 
 sending for Dr. Simcott in the middle of the night, in tlie 
 apprehension that he was about to die. Jlen of large brain and 
 robust passion have commonly much difficulty in gaining the 
 master)' of their own spirit, and Oliver appears to have known 
 somewhat of the mental strife that forms so prominent a char- 
 acteristic in the career of such men as JIartin Luther and John 
 Bunyan, with whom Oliver may be appropriately classed ; 
 although his energies ultimately found issue in the strife of war 
 and politics rather than in that of religious refonuation. He was 
 elected to serve in parliament for the borough of Huntingdon in 
 1628, and there in January, 1629, when the house of commons 
 had resolved itself into a committee on religion, Jlr. Oliver 
 Cromwell informed the house of Neile, bishop of Winchester, 
 countenancing anninianism. Steps would probably have been 
 taken against the bishop, notwithstanding the prohibition of the 
 king; but on the 2nd March the house adjourned. On the 5th 
 warrants were issued for the apprehension of some of the riotous 
 members, and on the 10th parliament was dissolved. No par- 
 liament was held for twelve years afterwards ; the king governed 
 by prerogative, and Mr. Oliver Cromwell returned to the country 
 to ruminate. In 1631 he sold his property at Huntingdon, and 
 took a grazing farm at St. Ives; and in 1636, by the death of 
 his maternal uncle, Sir Thomas Stuart, he became possessed of 
 an estate in the Isle of Ely valued at nearly £500 a year; 
 engaged vigorously in local polities, and earned for himself the 
 title of " Lord of the Fens." To the short parliament which met 
 in Apiil, 1640, he was returned for the town of Cambridge, in 
 opposition to the court candidate; but the commons, mstead of 
 voting supplies, began to talk of grievances, monopolies, ship- 
 money, star chambers, high commission, breach of their privi- 
 leges, innovations in religion, and other matters too stimulating 
 for the taste of the king, who on the 5th May dissolved parlia- 
 ment, and committed several members to the Fleet. The aiFairs 
 of the kingdom, however, were rapidly getting into confusion, 
 and a new parliament was indispensable. It met on the 3rd 
 November, 1640, and is known as the famous Long Parliament. 
 To this also Mr. Cromwell was retuiued for the town of 
 Cambridge. 
 
 To trace 5Ir. Cromwell's after proceedings, a word must be 
 said on Charles' dispute with the parliament. The parhament 
 which met in JIarch, 1628, had presented a petition of right to 
 the king, praying — 1. That no loan or tax might be levied but 
 by consent of parliament. 2. That no man might be imprisoned 
 but by legal process. 3. That soldiers might not be quartered 
 on people against their wills. 4. That no commissions might be 
 granted for executing martial law. To these the king answered, 
 " I will that right be done according to the laws and customs of 
 the realm." This reply, however, was not satisfactory, and 
 both houses addressed the king for a more definite settlement of 
 the laws of the kingdom. In June, 1628, Charles gave answer 
 in due form, " Soit di-oit fait comme il est desire ; " thereby 
 converting the petition into a law of the realm, and definitely 
 agreeing that no loans or taxes should be le^-ied but by consent 
 of parliament. The principle had been mfringed, and Mr. 
 Hampden, who at liis o^ti risk and cost tried the case against 
 the crown in 1638, was cast and adjudged to pay ship-money. 
 The pariiament that met in November, 1640, where Mr. Crom- 
 well appeared very ordmarily apparelled and without a hatband, 
 proceeded to take up the question, and at once resolved that the 
 levpng of ship-money and the opinions of the judges upon it 
 were illegal. Pym, Hampden, Holies, and men of kindred 
 stamp, were the leaders of this new parhament, and with them 
 Mr. Cromwell cast in lus lot, using his shai-p and untuneable 
 voice to great service, and being, as Sir Philip Warwick justly 
 obsen-es, " veiy much hearkened unto." The commons in fact 
 urged on reforms with tenific haste. They impeached Archbishop 
 Laud, and took him into custody ; threatened the judges, and 
 compelled them to give bail ; impeached Sir Robert Berkeley, one 
 of the judges, and actually took him off the bench in Westminster 
 hall ; passed a I)ill for triennial parliaments, and another to abohsh 
 the star chamber ; voted the bishops out of parliament ; brought 
 .Strafford to trial, and aftenvards to Tower-hill; resolved that 
 there should be no dissolution without consent of both houses, 
 and when the king attempted to apprehend the five members — 
 Pym, Hampden, Holies, Ha^elrig, and Strode— resolved " that 
 whoever should attempt to seize any of their members or their 
 papers, the members should stand on their defence." London 
 was in a tumult. An armed multitude carried the five members 
 
 in triumph to Westminster, and four thousand mounted gentlemen 
 and yeomen from Buckinghamshire made their appearance, to see 
 that no wrong was done to their member, Jlr. Hampden. A 
 civil war was about to commence, and the king quitted White- 
 hall, not again to visit it except as a captive. 
 
 These proceedings had earned the parliament over rather 
 more than a year. The king and court quitted Whitehall on the 
 10th January, 1642. On the 7th February Mr. Cromwell 
 oflered to lend £300 for the service of the commonwealth, after- 
 wards increased, it would seem, to £500. In August of the same 
 year, 1642, he was already on foot, doing active service — "Mr. 
 Cromwell in Cambridgeshire has seized the magazine of the castle 
 at Cambridge, and hath hindered the carrying off the plate from 
 the university, which, as some report, is to the value of £20,000 
 or thereabouts." In September (Sept. 14, 1642) Mr. Cromwell 
 commenced his mihtaiy career, being then forty-three years of 
 age. Robert, earl of Essex, was "lord-general for king and 
 parliament," which meant for pai-hament against the king, and 
 William, earl of Bedford, was general of the horse, having, or 
 about to have seventy-five troops of sixty men each ; in every 
 troop a captain, a lieutenant, a comet, and a quartermaster. In 
 troop 67 Oliver Cromwell, member for Cambridge, was captain, 
 and in troop 8 another Oliver Cromwell — probably the eldest 
 son, killed early in battle, and lost sight of in after historj- — was 
 comet. Cromwell's rise in the scale of military rank was as 
 follows. In September, 1642, he was captain; in March, 1643, 
 he was colonel. On the 2nd July, 1644, was fought the battle 
 of Marston Moor, at which, according to the newspapers of the 
 time, " upon the left wing of horse was the earl of Manchester's 
 whole cavalry, under the command of Lieutenant-general Crom- 
 well." 
 
 At this time General Cromwell was the first cavalr}' officer 
 in England on the side of the parliament. This he was, not 
 only in the estimation of the soldiers, but in the opinion of Sir 
 Thomas Fairfax and the house of commons. Fairfax before the 
 battle of Naseby wrote to the commons requesting that Cromwell 
 might be spared from his parhamentary duties, to command the 
 whole of the horse. When men were in a strait thej- needed 
 Oliver, could depend upon him, and were not disappointed. 
 Fairfax who had been rather worsted at Marston Moor, and 
 perhaps supposed that Cromwell's success there depended on his 
 command of cavaliy, has " resolved to decline the usual waj- of 
 a general, and to assume the command of the horse, and leave 
 the infantry to his major in case Lieutenant-general Cromwell 
 come not up in time enough." 
 
 On the 14th of June, 1645, was fought the battle of Naseby, 
 General Cromwell ha\-ing arrived two days before, "amid shouts 
 from the whole army." Oliver, as usual, routed everything, seized 
 the train and cannon of the royalists, took many prisoners, theii 
 standard, ensigns, seventy carriages, and the king's own waggons, 
 in one of them a cabinet of letters supposed to be of gi-eat con- 
 sequence. In fact Oliver, and Oliver chiefly, shivered the 
 royalist army to atoms, and the king's cause was ruined beyond 
 recoveiy. General Cromwell now settled the club-men ; stormed 
 Bristol, Winchester, and Basing-house ; finished the first civil 
 war; and handed England over to the parhament very much 
 in the style of a conquered country — for which he received the 
 thanks of parhament and a grant of £2,500 a year. 
 
 In 1048 his military talents were again in requisition. He 
 was in the north at Carlisle, Berwick, and in Edinburgh. He 
 was commander-in-chief of the army of operation, but still 
 remained only lieutenant-general. In December, 1G48, he 
 returned to London, and on the 29th of Januar)-, 1649, he 
 signed the death wairant of Charies I. His position at this 
 period is worth remarking. Practically he was the foremost 
 man in the conntiy ; but perhaps the only party on which lie 
 could thoroughly depend was the amiy, and even a portion of 
 the army was tinctured with doctrines subversive of military dis- 
 cipline. The parliament contained all the elements of disunion, 
 and without the anny was impotent. A legislative assembly 
 that assumes also the executive power of the state, has com- 
 monly proved itself a failure, and General Cromwell now began 
 to occupy the chief position in the executive government. He 
 was, however, suiTounded by difficulties. After the death of 
 the king, probably not more than one-half of England was on 
 the side" of the parliament. Also, there was in England a party 
 of anarchy, the red republicans of that day, called Levellers, 
 who, had it not been for Cromwell's consummate ability and
 
 CRO 
 
 1140 
 
 CRO 
 
 resolution, would certainly liave attained a much more prominent 
 place in the history of England. Ireland, again, was completely 
 in favour of the Stuarts, and Scotland had proclaimed Charles 
 II. immediately after the death of his father. General Crom- 
 well wisely began at home. He soon settled the Levellers, and 
 put out the smouldering fire of social anarchy like a man who 
 neither trifled nor jested, trifling being almost the only thing 
 that Oliver could not do. Having settled England he went to 
 Ireland. On the 22nd of June, 1649, his commission was 
 made out. This, however, arranged only the military part of 
 the business. The parliament then " considered of settling the 
 civil power of the nation of Ireland, whether by commissioners 
 or otherwise. The house, after a short debate, voted that 
 Lieutenant-general Cromwell be chief governor of Ireland, and 
 likewise that the civil and military power of that nation be 
 settled on him during the time of liis commission " — three 
 years. General Cromwell thus became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 
 with plenary power to do what he pleased. AVliat he did please 
 to do was perhaps severe enough — tenible knocking of every 
 body on the head when they resisted, under the belief that 
 "this bitterness will save much effusion of blood" — a belief 
 verified in fact, and even in the opinion of those who have 
 written against Cromwell. Drogheda (Tredah) and Wexford 
 were taken by storm and the garrisons slaughtered. The 
 example was successful : the other towns sm'rendered upon 
 easier terms. In less than a year the country was subdued, 
 and Cromwell leaving his son-in-law, Ireton, in command, 
 returned to England, was met in triumph at Hounslow heath, 
 and had the palace of St. James' allotted for his residence. 
 
 Soon after the death of the king, Prince Charles, who had 
 taken refuge at the Hague, assumed the title of Charles II. In 
 the spring of 1G.50 the commissioners from the Scots negotiated 
 with him at Breda. In June he repaired to Scotland, but 
 before landing was obliged to undergo the process of taking the 
 covenant. The parliamentarians at once resolved to attack 
 him, and General Fauiax ought from his rank to have taken 
 the command ; but his wife, a presbyterian, persuaded him 
 to withdraw from public life, whereupon " Oliver Cromwell, 
 esquire, was constituted captain-general and commander-in- 
 chief of all the forces raised, or to be raised, by authority of 
 parUament within the commonwealth of England" (26th June, 
 1650). The Lord-general Cromwell instantly fell to work 
 with his new commission. On the 29th June, three days after 
 his appointment to the supreme command, he set out for Scot- 
 land. On the 22nd .July the army passed through Berwick, 
 thence to Cockburnspath, Dunbar, Haddmgton, and Mussel- 
 burgh, the Scottish army under General David Lesley lying 
 between Edinburgh and Leith. Cromwell could not attack 
 Lesley in liis fastnesses, and in a fortnight he found that sick- 
 ness and want of provisions compelled him to retreat. He fell 
 back on Dunbar, Lesley following him at once. Cromwell was 
 blocked up and smromided, as he himself expresses it, " at the 
 pass of Copperspath, through which we cannot get without 
 almost a miracle." His faith, however, did not fail him. "All 
 shall work for good," he said — " Our spirits are comfortable, 
 praised be the Lord." On the 2nd of September Oliver 
 observed that Lesley was altering his position, coming down the 
 hill, and moving his left wing of horse over to his right wing — 
 dangerous experiments, it would seem, m the face of the lord- 
 general. A council of war was held. It was resolved not to 
 wait for Lesley's attack, but before break of day to begin the 
 battle of Dunbar. "The enemy's whole numbers," says Oliver, 
 " were very great, almost sis thousand horse, as we heard, and 
 ten thousand foot at least, ours di-awn down as to sound men to 
 about seven thousand five hundred foot, and three thousand five 
 hundred horse." " The enemy's word was the covknajjt, which 
 it had been for divers days; ours was the lord of hosts." 
 In an hour the lord-general utterly demolished the presbyterian 
 army, with a loss to himself, as he says, of " about twenty or 
 thirty men" (3rd September, 1650). 
 
 From Dunbar Cromwell returned to Edinburgh to besiege the 
 Castle, which was surrendered to him by Colonel Walter Dundas, 
 the governor, on the 24th of Decembei-. He remained in Scot- 
 land till August, 1651. He had taken possession of Pertli, and 
 being thus to the north of the Scottish royal forces, which were 
 stationed with Charles at Stirling, Charles ventm-ed a desperate 
 game— a sort of double or quits for the whole stake that Oliver 
 had gained and Charles had lost. Charles broke up his quarters. 
 
 and marched southward into England. On the 22nd of August 
 the royal standard was raised at Worcester, and there on the 
 28th the lord-general was in presence of the king. Cromwell 
 went to work without delay, threw a bridge of boats over the 
 Severn, and another across the Teme. These boat-bridges 
 were ready on the afternoon of the 3rd September — the same 
 day on which had been fought the battle of Dunbar a year before ; 
 "whereupon," say the papers of the time, "the general pre- 
 sently commanded Colonel Inglesbie's and Colonel Faufax's 
 regiments, with part of his own regiment and the life-guards, 
 and Colonel Hacker's regiment of horse, over the river — his 
 excellency himself leading them in person, and being the first 
 man that set foot on the enemy's groiuid." The battle of Wor- 
 cester ended in a total route ; and about seven in the evening 
 the king, with various dukes, earls, and lords, fled from the city 
 by St. Martin's gate to find a refuge with the Penderels, and to 
 take shelter in the royal oak and across the sea. Cromwell 
 behaved magnificently. " My lord-general did exceedingly 
 hazard himself — riding up and down in the midst of the shot, 
 and riding himself in person to the enemy's foot offering them 
 quarter, v.'hereto they returned no answer but shot." This was 
 Oliver's last battle, and the last occasion on which Scotland 
 ever appeared in a national capacity. Scotland had gone to 
 wreck with factions and dissensions, and her individuality as 
 an independent kingdom had no longer a place in history. At 
 Aylesbury, on his return to London, Cromwell was met by a 
 deputation from the commons and council of state. Hampton 
 Coml was prepared for his residence, and an estate of four thou- 
 sand pounds a year, in addition to his former grant, was voted 
 to him. 
 
 We now briefly review this military career of Oliver. Nine 
 years before we found him an English squire, engaged in the 
 cultivation of his lands: now we find him the incomparable 
 soldier who has achieved in fair and open war the conquest of 
 England, the conquest of Ireland, and the successful invasion 
 and annexation of Scotland ; and this without anything that 
 could be called a reverse. His progress was ever onward, for- 
 ward, upward. However the fortunes of others might fluctuate, 
 Oliver was always making way, always diiving definitely toward 
 a single point, and that point the supreme po\ver. He was not 
 only the man of supreme ability, but acknowledged to be so — 
 the man to whom the nation was obliged to apply ; for he alone 
 had the master-hand that could guide the vessel of the state 
 through the storms, the troubles, the quicksands, and the dan- 
 gers which on eveiy side beset the commonwealth. No sooner 
 had the military operations terminated than it became necessary 
 to settle the form of government, and it was here in all pro- 
 bability that Cromwell first allowed the ambition of personal 
 aggrandizement to mix with what he conceived to be his duty 
 to his countiy. The power was vhtually in his o^vn hand, and 
 there can scarcely be a doubt that he desired its legal recogni- 
 tion. If the nation had placed the crown on his head at this 
 period, he would probably have allowed it to remain there ^rith- 
 out farther question. But the parhament was jealous of his 
 iafluence, and war with Holland once more withdrew the atten- 
 tion of the nation from the settlement of the constitution. It 
 was absolutely necessary, however, that there should be an 
 executive government, and Cromwell resolved to take the power 
 into his own hands by the forcible dismissal of the members. 
 He took a file of musketeers, went down to the house, ordered 
 the speaker out of the chau-, told the members they had sat 
 there long enough for all the good they had done, and, waxing 
 vehement, cried out — " You are no longer a parliament ; I say 
 you are no longer a parhament ; the Lord has done with you — 
 he has chosen other instraments for carrjdng on his work." He 
 told Vane he was a juggler, Chaloner that he was a dninkard, 
 Allan that he cheated the public, Martin and Wentworth that 
 they were exceeding improper persons ; told one of the soldiers 
 to "take away that fool's bauble" — the mace; and finished by 
 tummg out the members and locking the door. This was on the 
 20th April, 1653, and in July he summoned by his own authority 
 the Httle or Barebone's parliament, so called from one Praise- 
 God Barebone, a leather-seller of Fleet Street, who was one of 
 the honourable members. — (See Barebone.) On the 12th 
 December of the same year the Barebone pai'hament resolved to 
 resign its power into the hands of Cromwell, having possibly 
 been chosen for that purpose; and on the 16th December the 
 Lord-general became Lord-protector of the Commonwealth of
 
 CRO 
 
 1141 
 
 CEO 
 
 England, Ireland, and Scotland. The Instrament or document 
 wMch establislied the protectorate was read in Westminster 
 hall ^dth formal ceremonies, in presence of the council of otRcers, 
 the lord-major and aldemien, the commissioners, and other 
 officials. 
 
 By the Instmment of govemment Cromwell was to call par- 
 liaments every three years. He had also power to make war or 
 peace ; and he and his coimcd could make laws which should 
 be binding during the intervals of parliament. By these provi- 
 sions the government resembled a monarchy. But no parlia- 
 ment could be dissolved imtil it had sat five months ; and bills 
 passed in parliament were to become law after a lapse of twenty 
 days, even if not confirmed. By these provisions the government 
 resembled a republic with a president. But inasmuch as Crom- 
 well was commander-m-chief of the army, as well as fii-st magis- 
 trate of the state, and the protectorship was elective — the real 
 natm-e of the govemment was that of an elective autocracy 
 with nominal limitations, which must infallibly be broken down 
 and fiill to the ground. Disputes could not fail to arise regard- 
 ing the authority and jurisdiction of the various powers Lu the 
 state, and hence another step was still necessary to place the 
 Protector on the highest summit. This issue came in 1657. 
 In April of that year a committee of parliament mooted the 
 question of kingship and royal title. The republican officers, 
 however, declared against the assumption, probably more from 
 antipathy to the name than to the fact, which was already suffi- 
 ciently established for all practical purposes. Cromwell declined 
 the title on the pretext that "he could not with a good conscience 
 accept the government under the title of king." Nevertheless 
 his powei-s were enlarged by a new instrument called the Petition 
 and Advice; an annual sum of £1,300,000 was allotted for the 
 sup{)ort of liis govemment ; he was empowered to create a 
 second chamber or ostensible house of lords — which had only 
 a brief existence, being dissolved by the Protector fourteen days 
 after it met ; and he was empowered to nominate his successor, 
 the protectorship thereby ceasing to be elective, and his Highness 
 becoming to all intents the autocrat of the realm, with powers 
 which a good man might use well, but which in other hands 
 would be notliing short of an atrocious tyranny, more dangerous 
 to the state than the despotism of the Stuarts, and absolutely 
 intolerable to the people of England. His government was not 
 a monarchy in which the king reigns by law, with recognized 
 rights and recognized limitations of prerogative, but a tyranny — 
 a militaiy tyranny converted into a constitutional autocracy by 
 the powers that had been formally confen-ed or were immediately 
 usm-ped, and which were used without reseiTe against the par- 
 liament and the courts of law. 
 
 The Protector, as a statesman, is one of the most remarkable 
 studies ever submitted to the scratiny of the politician or the 
 student of history. He appeared to combine the elements of 
 almost unlimited power with the elements of unlimited weakness. 
 England under his own rule was unquestionably the strongest 
 state in Europe, yet no sooner had he departed than it fell, as if 
 by magic, into the utmost extremity of impotence. Its next 
 monarch was a pensioner on the bounty of the magnificent 
 Frenchman. In the field he was eveiwwhere trimnphant, yet 
 no sooner was he gone, than the mihtary operations of England 
 became puerile and ludicrous. Oliver's fiag, the red cross of 
 St. George, swept from the ocean eveiy hostile banner. France, 
 Holland," and Spain, were humbled into maritime submission, 
 and the Barbary corsairs were scourged into good behaviour — 
 piracy was annLlulated, and the naval supremacy of England was 
 estabUshed as an imquestioned and indisputable fact. Yet Oliver 
 gone — and the Dutch with impunity sail up the Thames and the 
 iledway. He had the most moral court that had ever been 
 known m the history of Europe, yet a few short years saw \'ice 
 unblushingly enthroned, and the silli^en shoe of the com-tezan 
 treading the halls tiiat had echoed to the jackboots of Oliver 
 Cromwell and his pious Ironsides. In Oliver's time the judge 
 sat in the magnificence of rectitude, and for the first time ui the 
 history of modern nations justice was administered in the fear of 
 God. Yet Oliver gone, and Judge Jeffreys springs from the 
 pandemonium of the corrupted English law. Everythmg seemed 
 to decay and to femient into con-uption. As if the force of 
 gi-avity had been removed fi-om the terrestrial economy, no 
 sooner was the iron-will of Oliver removed from the state of 
 England, than chaos, confusion, and fiiilure seemed to invade 
 every department of the realm, and every operation of the body 
 
 politic. Defeat, disgrace, and shame, took the places of victory, 
 honour, and estunation, until the fury of England was once more 
 roused, and the last Stuart, in ignominious flight, took refuge 
 with the neighbour nation, whom Oliver would have beai-ded 
 with the sword. The contrast between England in the time of 
 the Protector, and England in the days of Charles and James, 
 is one of the most remarkable that has been recorded on the page 
 of history. Tragedy or comedy, it is the strangest drama that 
 has been played in England since the Saxon dynasty died out at 
 Hastings, and England became the heritage of the feudal and 
 pmictilious Xormmi. 
 
 Although the Protector failed to transmit a constitution to 
 England, he taught the great lesson of his day — the gi-eatest 
 lesson that England or the world has ever learnt — that of 
 reUgious toleration. This, in fact, was his grand achievement 
 — th ^ great and noble work, which will ever weave aroimd the 
 brow of Oliver a chaplet of unfading glor)-. Ofiver Cromwell 
 was the apostle of religious toleration. 
 
 The latter portion of the protectorate was a dreaiy experience 
 of the pain and trouble which attend on those who govern fac- 
 tious men. It was another evidence that power is not happiness, 
 and that the highest dignities of the world confer no lastmg hap- 
 piness, and can never satisfy the longings of an ardent spirit. 
 Ohver did his duty after his own fashion, and according to liis 
 own understanding, forgetful that laws made by the common 
 judgment of the nation are quite as essential as the individu;d 
 mspirations of even the wisest rulers. If he did not die the 
 death of a mai-tjT, he in some sense lived the life of a mai-tyr, 
 and faced his difficulties with a heroic soul that would not 
 acknowledge defeat. 
 
 The time came that Oliver must die, and this, perhaps, was 
 the noblest scene of his eventful life. He had lived with Eng- 
 land in liis heart, and he died with England in his heart, praying, 
 in the sublimity of death, that God would give his people consis- 
 tency of judgment — one heart and mutual love — mterceding, as 
 it were, with him who had been his own protector for those who 
 had not seen so clearly into the invisible world, and praying, as 
 all good men should pray, that God would pardon those who 
 desired to trample on his dust. So died the gi-eat Protector on 
 the 3rd of September, 1658, the boldest and most successful 
 man that England has ever seen — a man who stands alone in 
 tlie history of his country — yet an enigma, a dark riddle, which 
 all men guess at, yet none are agi'eed about the answer. 
 
 Cromwell was taken ill at Hampton court, on the 12th August, 
 of a fever, partly brought on, perhaps, by his deep feeling of 
 regi-et at the death of his favom-ite daughter, Sirs. Claypole. 
 He removed to Whitehall, and there he died on the 3rd Septem- 
 ber, in the sixtieth year of his age, having held the title of 
 Protector four years, eight months, and eighteen days. It was 
 the anniversary of his two great victories at Dunbar and Wor- 
 cester, and the same day happened the greatest stonn of wind 
 ever known in England. On the 23rd November the state 
 funeral took place, with great pomp, in Henry VI I. 's chapel, at 
 Westminster abbey. The coffin containing the body had been 
 privately deposited some time before in the abbey, and it was 
 only the effigy that lay in state at Somerset-house, and to which 
 the official and costly honours were paid. 
 
 In 1660 the Restoration took place, for which the English 
 chm'ch to a recent period still gave thanks, as an " unspeakable 
 mercy;" and on the 30th January, 1661, the bodies of Oliver 
 Cromwell, Heury Ireton, and John Bradsliaw, were drawn upon 
 sledges to Tybum. The account is thus given in the newspapers 
 of the time — '' When these three carcasses were at Tyburn, tiny 
 were pulled out of their coffins, and hanged at the several angles 
 of that triple tree, where they hung till the sun was set, after 
 which they were taken down, their heads cut off, and their 
 loathsome trunks thrown into a deep hole under the galIo\YS. 
 The heads of those three notorious regicides, Oliver Cromwell, 
 Johai Bradsliaw, and Hemy Iroton, ;u-e set upon poles on the top 
 of Westminister hall by the common hangman. Bradsliaw is 
 placed in the middle, Cromwell and his son-in-law, Ireton, on 
 both sides of Bradsliaw." 
 
 Cromwell left two sons and fuur daughters— Richard, who 
 succeeded him; Henry, lord-lieutenant of Ireland; Bridget, 
 married first to Ireton, afterwards to Fleetwood; EUzabeth, 
 man-ied to John Claypole, Esq., of Northamptonshire ; Mary, 
 man-ied to Lord Fauconbridge ; and Frances, married first to a 
 grandson of Lord Hawick, and afterwards to Sii' John RusselL
 
 CRO 
 
 1142 
 
 CRO 
 
 The last representative of the Protector was Oliver Cromwell, 
 great-grandson of Henry Cromwell. He practised as a solicitor 
 in London, and died at Cheshunt-park in 1821. — P. E. D. 
 
 CROMWELL, Richard, third son of Oliver the Protector, 
 and the eldest who survived him, was born at Huntingdon on 
 the 4th October, 1626. With his brothers Oliver and Henry, 
 he was educated at Felsted in Essex, and afterwards removed to 
 Lincoln's Inn, where he was admitted in 1647. He took no 
 part in the military enterprises of his father, but seems to have 
 been of an indolent and thoughtless disposition, that led him to 
 prefer his own ease to the more onerous affairs of state. At the 
 age of twenty-three he married Dorothy, daughter of Richard 
 JIajor of Hursley in Hampshire, retired to Hm-sley, and lived in 
 comparative obscurity. On the establishment of the protector- 
 ate, he became member for Monmouth and Southampton, and 
 was appointed first lord of trade and navigation. In 1656 he 
 was returned for Hampshire and the university of Cambridge, 
 and in 1657 succeeded his father as chancellor of the university 
 of Oxford. About this period he nearly lost his life by an 
 accident, while attending the levee of the Protector. The steps 
 upon which he was standing gave way, and Richard was pre- 
 cipitated to the ground with such violence as to cause him 
 serious injury. He recovered, however, and was made a privy 
 councillor, a colonel in the army, and president of Oliver's short- 
 lived house of lords. In August, 1658, he was summoned to 
 the sickbed of the Protector, and on the 3rd September the 
 Protector was no more. The next day Richard Cromwell was 
 proclaimed Lord Protector. He received compliments of condo- 
 lence and congratulation from the ministers of foreign states, 
 from the army and navy, from one hundi'ed congregations and 
 chm'ches, and from counties, cities, and boroughs, n-ith promises 
 of adhering to his highness with their lives and fortunes against 
 all opposers. For a few months the affairs of state went on 
 with tolerable regularity. In January, 1659, Richard met his 
 parHament, and made a speech to both houses. A financial 
 investigation followed, and it was found that the treasury would 
 not support the expendituj-e. The parliament was divided ; 
 some were protectorists, some republicans, and some probably 
 may have had thouglits of Cliarles II. The country was again 
 falling into confusion, and Richard had no governing faculty to 
 control the approaching anarchy. The republican officers, headed 
 by Fleetwood and Uesborough, formed themselves into an 
 opposition party known as the Wallingford-house cabal, and 
 demanded the dissolution of parliament. With this demand 
 Richard complied, and on the 22nd April, 1659, parhament 
 was dissolved by proclamation, and Richard's authority virtually 
 ceased. The members of the Long Parliament were called 
 together by invitation of the officers, and to this parliament 
 Richard, on the 25th May, made his submission; provision being 
 made nominally for the payment of his debts and his removal 
 from Whitehall. A large portion of the debt incun-ed for the 
 funeral ceremonies of Ohver had descended to Richard, and, 
 either to escape arrest or in the hope of procuring a settlement, 
 he withdrew to France, and remained some time in Paris. In 
 prospect of a rupture between France and England, he retired 
 to Geneva. About the year 1780 he returned to England, and, 
 under the assumed name of Clark, took up his residence at 
 Cheshunt in Hertfordshire, where he lived ." peaceful and for- 
 gotten to the advanced age of eighty-six, amusing himself and 
 his friends with the memorials of the past, and exhibiting from 
 time to time two large chests filled with the addresses and felici- 
 tations that had been presented to Oliver, portions of which he 
 would laughingly read to his auditors." Richard died in 1712, 
 leaving two daughters, who survived him. — P. E. D. 
 
 CROMWELL, Thomas, Earl of Essex, an eminent statesman 
 under Henry VIIL, was the son of a blacksmith at Putney, and 
 was bora there about 1490. He spent some time at Antwerj) 
 as clerk in an English factoiy, and afterwards went to Rome, 
 where he increased his knowledge of the Latin language. On 
 his return to England he entered the semce of Cardinal Wolsey, 
 whose confidence he completely secured, and on the downfall of 
 his patron courageously defended him in the house of commons 
 from the charge of treason. His fidelity to the fallen minister 
 gained for Cromwell the respect of the king, who conferred on 
 him the honour of knightliood in 1531, made him a privy coun- 
 cillor, and his confidential favourite and prime minister. He 
 held in succession the offices of chancellor of the exchequer, 
 principal secretaiy of state, master of the rolls, and keeper 
 
 of the privy seal. He was also appointed chancellor of the 
 university of Cambridge, visitor-general of English monasteries, 
 and lord-chamberlain of England. Ultimately he was elevated 
 to the peerage, and appointed vicar-general and vice-regent in 
 religious matters next to the king. He employed his great 
 influence to promote the cause of the Reformation, and zealously 
 forwarded the overthrow of the papal authority, the reading of 
 the holy scriptures, the dissolution of the monasteries, the demo- 
 lition of images, and the religious instruction of the people. He 
 also instituted parish registers, and various other social improve- 
 ments. The king rewarded his zeal by the gift of some thirty 
 monastic manors and valuable estates, and in 1539 created him 
 Earl of Essex. The honours and wealth heaped upon him, as 
 well as his energetic support of the principles of the Reforma- 
 tion, raised him up many powerful enemies. The haughty nobles 
 despised him as a plebeian, while he rendered himself obnoxious 
 to the common people by the subsidies which he exacted. Con- 
 scious of his danger, he sought to consolidate his power, and to 
 strengthen his position at court by promoting the marriage of 
 the king to Anne of Cleves ; but this step ultimately proved his 
 ruin. The disgust of Henry at his bride, soon led to his strong 
 dissatisfaction with the promoter of the marriage. The enemies 
 of the falling minister promptly availed themselves of the 
 favourable opportunity afforded by the king's caprice to pour a 
 flood of complaints into the royal ear. Cromwell was suddenly 
 arrested and accused of treason, heresy, oppression, bribery, and 
 extortion, without the liberty of reply. He was of course found 
 guilty, and executed on Tower Hill, 28th July, 1540. Like his 
 friend and fellow-reformer Cranmer, Cromwell has been both 
 unduly eulogized and vituperated. He was not a high-minded 
 patriot or a sincere and consistent protestant ; but an ambi- 
 tious statesman, often unscrupulous and rapacious in his policy. 
 It must be admitted, however, that he had a vigorous under- 
 standing and a very retentive memory, combined with great 
 shrewdness and knowledge of character; and though his motives 
 may have been often of a mixed natm-e, he was the author of 
 many ^'aluable ecclesiastical and social reforms. — J. T. 
 
 CRONE, DoMiNico PiETRO, a musician, was born at Ber- 
 gamo in 1566, and died, probably at Naples, in the fii-st quarter 
 of the seventeenth century. His first engagement was as cantor 
 at the cathedral of Oristano in Sardinia. Thence he proceeded 
 to Spain in 1592, where he remained for some time without an 
 appointment, but was at length admitted a member of the chapel 
 of Philip II., on whose death he retained the same office under 
 his successor, Philip III. He was next engaged as master of 
 the royal chapel at Naples, this territory being at the time a 
 state of Spain. Here he published, in 1609, his " Regole per il 
 Canto Fermo," a treatise of much practical utility; and in 1613 
 his gi-eat work, " El Melopeo y Maestro," in twenty-two books, 
 extending to nearly twelve hundred folio pages. This volumi- 
 nous essay, written in Spanish, is a summary of all the theoretical 
 books upon music that had preceded it, comprising, in particular, 
 considerable avowed quotations from Zarlino ; it contains a com- 
 plete course of instruction in ecclesiastical composition, with 
 elaborate examples of the most complicated forms of canonical 
 writing ; it gives a complete description of all the instruments 
 then known in Spain ; and it devotes a large space to the dis- 
 cussion of the moral relationship between master and pupil, and 
 of the important social and artistic influence the fomier has the 
 power to exercise, together with the general view of the state of 
 music at the time. In appropriating so much space to the 
 examination of such extraneous branches of the subject as these 
 last, the author anticipates the love of disquisition that distin- 
 guishes the writings of Dr. Marx in om' own day. " El Jlelopeo" 
 was commenced before Crone left Bergamo, but laid aside for 
 some years, and resumed in consequence of the writer's observa- 
 tion of the great requirement in Spain for a work on musical 
 theoiy. This makes it strangely remarkable, that throughout its 
 voluminous extent it cont;iins no reference to the foiTns of song 
 and dance music peculiar to that country. This book, though 
 reprinted at Antwerp in 1619, is of extreme rarity. — G. A. M. 
 CROPPER, James, a philanthropist and most efficient pro- 
 moter of negro emancipation, was born at Winstanley in Lanca- 
 shire in 1773, of pious parents, members of the society of Friends, 
 to which persuasion he belonged through life. He entered a 
 mercantile house in Liverpool, at the age of seventeen years, and 
 soon won the confidence and respect of his employers. His 
 mercantile career was successful and marked by high integrity.
 
 He was one of the earliest advocates of tlie principles of free 
 trade, and in 1808 took an active part in the eSorts to procui-e 
 the repeal of the "orders in council" which had proved so 
 injurious to commerce. In 1816 he met with Mr. Clarkson, 
 and soon joined the abolition party, entering warmly into their 
 plans for the civilization of Africa, as a means of putting an end 
 to slavery — an object which the abolition of the slave-trade in 
 1807 had failed to effect. In 1821 he puWished a series of 
 " Letters to William Wilberforce" on the superior advantages of 
 free labour. Two years afterwards he published two pamphlets 
 on the economical advantages of free labour, and the importance 
 of bringing the cotton and other productions of India into 
 competition ^vith the slave-grown commodities of the West 
 Indies and America. When the last great effort to obtain the 
 freedom of the slaves was commenced in 1831, he was the first, 
 with counsel and means, to sustain the "agency committee," 
 whose labours in organizing a systematic scheme of lectures 
 all over the kingdom formed an important element in the final 
 success of the abolitionists. He died at Feamhead in 1840, 
 aged sixty-seven years. — R. 51. 
 
 CROSSE, Andrew, an electrician, whose researches in science 
 led him to a discovery of the laws of crystallization, and to many 
 useful applications of electricity. The descendant of an ancient 
 Somersetshire family, he was born in that county in 1784, at 
 Fyne Court, Broomfield. At an early age he displayed a great 
 love of natural science, more especially electricity. At the 
 meeting of the British Association in 1836, which took place 
 at Bristol, he was induced, not without difficulty, to come for- 
 ward, and astonished both the chemical and geological sections 
 with the account of his experiments. Science owes to this 
 patient and ingenious obsen-er the suggestion of much of which 
 he has never reaped the honour. He appears to have been an 
 humble and reverent man, ever anxious to share with his fellow- 
 creatures the moral and philosophical truths which his life was 
 spent in seeking. He died in July, 1855. Jlemorials of Andrew 
 Crosse, published by Longman, 1857, supply particulars of his 
 life and researches. — C. A. H. C. 
 
 * CROWE, Jlrs. Catherixe — the maiden name of this lady 
 was Stevens — was bom at Borough Green in the county of Kent, 
 and married in 1822 Lieutenant-colonel Crowe of the British 
 army. Her first Uterary production was a tragedy, "Aristode- 
 mus," published in 1838; and this dramatic effort was succeeded 
 by a great number of novels which have attained no inconsider- 
 able popularity. 
 
 CRUDEX, Alexander, author of the " Complete Concor- 
 dance of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament," 
 was bom at Aberdeen in 1701, and studied at Marischal college, 
 with the view of entering the christian ministry. Before his 
 studies were completed, however, his mind fell into derange- 
 ment, and he was confined for some time in a private asylum. 
 On recovering he left Aberdeen for London, where, after being 
 for some time occupied as a private tutor, he opened in 1732 
 a bookseller's shop under the Royal Exchange, and employed 
 himself at the same time as a corrector of the press. In 1733 
 he began to draw up the Concordance, which was published m 
 1737, and an improved edition of it in 1761. The first edition 
 was dedicated to Queen Caroline, who had given the author 
 some reason to expect her patronage of the work ; but her death 
 ha%'ing occurred shortly before its publication, the author's hopes 
 from that distinguished quarter were doomed to disappointment, 
 and, his affairs becoming embarrassed, he withdrew from trade 
 and fell into a state of melancholy, which was accompanied with 
 a return of some of his former mental delusions. Imagining 
 that he had received a divine commission to rebuke and refonn 
 an ungodly and degenerate age, he assumed the style and title of 
 Alexander the Corrector. He continued to earn his support 
 partly by pubHcations of his own, and partly by superintending 
 the works of other authors in their progress through the press. 
 He was the author of "A Scripture Dictionary, or Guide to the 
 Holy Scriptures," 2 vols, 8vo, which appeared at Aberdeen 
 shortly before his death, which took place November 1, 1770. 
 He was found dead upon his knees. The Concordance is a 
 work of immense labour, great accm-acy, and of enduring useful- 
 ness to the chm-ch of Christ. He was also the compiler of the 
 elaborate index attached to Newton's edition of Milton. It is 
 singular that a mind so prone to run into enthusiastic heats and 
 fancies, should have been capable of a kind of labour at once so 
 toUsome and so mechanical and diy. — P. L. 
 
 * CRUIKSH.\NK, George, a remarkable artist, bora in 
 London about 1795, the son of a caricaturist of some note in 
 his day. His first efforts were designs for infant primers, and 
 song-books, comic and sentimental. In the Scounje, and other 
 like publications, he exhibited his masterly satunc talent. In 
 1817 he was allied with Mr. William Hone in the production of 
 illustrated political pamphlets. lu 1820 the trial of Queen 
 Caroline furnished the satiiist's pencil with ample occupation. 
 "Non Mi Ricordo," and the "Queen's JIatrimonial Ladder," 
 reached an extraordinary number of editions. Soon after this, 
 however, Mr. Hone discontinued his publications, and our satirist 
 began to abandon what we may distuiguisli as his first or political 
 manner. In his second manner, the genial generous humour of 
 the artist found full room in the illustration of comic narrative. 
 His aquatint plates for Mr. Pierce Egan's Tom and Jerry; bis 
 drawings on wood for the Three Courses and a Dessert; his 
 etchmgs for Mr. Aiiisworth's Jack Sheppard ; for Mr. Charies 
 Dickens' Sketches by Boz, and Oliver Twist ; for Mr. Thacke- 
 ray's Fatal Boots and Cox's Diary ; his illustrated editions of 
 Fielding and Smollett, and of Grimm's Gemian Tales, are all 
 widely known, and as excellent as they are famous. In 1843 
 was produced, with great success, " George Cruikshank's Omni- 
 bus," succeeded in 1845 by " George Cmikshank's Table Book," 
 of which Jlr. Gilbert a Beckett was the editor. In many of 
 these plates, the delicate manipulation of the etching needle is 
 carried to a height hardly to be matched in the whole range 
 of the art. From about 1847 may be traced Mr. Cruikshank's 
 third manner; in which he sought to be less the critic and the 
 satirist than the moral teacher. Mr. Craikshank had joined the 
 temperance movement. He pubhshed a series of plates called 
 the " Bottle," advocating his peculiar views with Hogarthian 
 energy and power. These met with an extraordinarj' success, 
 and the "Bottle" was dramatized at everj- minor theatre. The 
 " Drunkard's Children" followed with less success. Among 
 the oil paintings he has produced, are his " Tam o' Shanter ;" 
 " Runaway Knock ;" " Cinderella ;" and " Disturbing the Con- 
 gi-egation," the last purchased by the prince consort, and engraved. 
 Finally, it may be stated, that Mr. Craikshank is no less excellent 
 as a man, than he is admirable as an artist. — W. T. 
 
 CRUIKSHAXK, W. Cumberland, a celebrated surgeon of 
 the last centmy, better known, perhaps, for his reputation as an 
 anatomist and physiologist. He was bom in Edinburgh in the 
 year 1745. He was originally intended for the church, but 
 this did not accord with his own views, and he was allowed to 
 study medicine under the direction of Dr. Jloore for three 
 years. About this time Dr. Wilham Hunter was in want of 
 an anatomical assistant, and, through Dr. Jloore's representa- 
 tions, Mr. Craikshank was chosen. He therefore arrived in 
 London in 1771, and was immediately appointed by Dr. 
 Hunter to the care and arrangement of his library and museum. 
 In a little time he was associated with Dr. Hunter in his 
 lectures, which he gave with great success; and, at his death, 
 he became connected with the highly esteemed Dr. BaiUie. In 
 addition to his anatomical engagements he had an extensive 
 private practice. He attended Dr. Samuel Johnson, the great 
 lexicographer and moralist, in his last illness. Mr. Cruiksliank 
 enjoyed the intimacy of most of the literary men of his day, and 
 merited their esteem. His conversation was peculiarly brilliant 
 and delightful. He died on the 27th June, 1800. ' In 17<J7 
 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. He also received 
 an honorary degree from the university of Glasgow, and was a 
 member of the Imperial Academy of Vienna. His publications, 
 though few in number, are of intrinsic value. In 1786 Jlr. 
 Cruikshank pubhshed the work upon which his profe.'^sional 
 merit rests, and one wliich foirly takes its position among the 
 standard volumes of medical science. This was entitled " The 
 Anatomy of the Absorbing Vessels of the Human Body." A 
 second edition, with many additions, was ])ublished in 1790. 
 It has been translated into French, Italian, and German. In 
 1798 appeared an octavo volume "Experiments on the Insen- 
 sible Perspiration of the Human Body, showing its affinity to 
 Respiration." — E. L. 
 
 * CRUM, Walter, an eminent British chemist, was bom in 
 Glasgow in 1796. Though actively engaged as a partner in 
 one of the most extensive bleaching and calico-printing estab- 
 lishments in Scotland, he has made several valuable contribu- 
 tions to the science of chemistry. His Memoir on Indigo, pub- 
 lislied in 1823, placed hun at an early age in a distinguished
 
 position as an onginal investigator ; and liis analysis of the blue 
 colouring principles of that dyestuff, though made at a time 
 when the appliances for organic research were inferior to those 
 at present in use, is still regarded and quoted as the most satis- 
 factory yet obtained. Several of his inquiries have been directed 
 to the application of chemistiy to the industrial arts ; and among 
 them his method of examining weak solutions of bleaching 
 powder is deserving of notice as an ingenious instance of chro- 
 matic testing. In his last and most elaborate investigation, 
 he has described one insoluble hydrate, two insoluble binacetates 
 of alumina, and has made known a remarkable allotropic of 
 that base, which is soluble in water, gelatinized by acids, and 
 devoid of power as a mordant. He was for many years vice- 
 president of the Glasgow Philosophical Society; was elected 
 president in 1852, and has since been named president of the 
 Andersonian University. He is a fidlow of the Royal Society 
 of London, and a member of several other scientific bodies. — F.P. 
 
 CTESIAS, a celebrated physician, a native of Cnidus in Caria, 
 a famed seat of medical knowledge. He was a contemporary of 
 Xenoplion. He was for about seventeen years resident at the 
 court of Artaxerxes Mnemon, in Persia, as private physician. 
 How he came tliere is not certain. Diodorus says he was a 
 priFoner of war, retained and honoured because of his medical 
 ski:!. The manner of his leaving, too, is disputed. He states 
 himself that, desiring to return to his native city, he asked and 
 obtained leave of the king. Ctesias wi-ote a great history of 
 Persia, long since lost — there are fragments of it in Diodorus, 
 Athenajus, Plutarch, &c, ; and a treatise on India. Of this, as 
 of the other, there is an abridgment in Photius. — J. B. 
 
 CUBlfeRES, Simon Louis Pierre, Marquis de, a French 
 naturalist, was born at lioquemaure on 12th October, 1747, and 
 died at Paris on 10th August, 1821. He was first a page of 
 Louis XV., then a captain of cavalry. He was a man of the 
 world and a courtier, and at the same time devoted attention to 
 science. He had a good mineralogical collection, a chemical 
 laboratory, and a small botanic garden. He made an excursion 
 to Rome and Naples, and descended into the crater of Vesuvius. 
 He also visited Sweden, and examined the scientific collections 
 there. He accompanied Louis XVI. to Paris on 6th October, 
 1789, and on that occasion his hat was struck by a bullet 
 intended for the king. He was afterwards imprisoned at Ver- 
 sailles. On his release, he went to Rome as one of the com- 
 missioners appointed to preside over the conveyance of the 
 works of art in painting and sculpture ; and he subsequently 
 was appointed consen-ator of the statues in the Versailles 
 garden. — J. H. B. 
 
 CUDWORTH, the famous philosopher, was born at Aller in 
 Somersetshu'e in 1G17. His father, rector of the parish, having 
 died, his mother was married to Dr. Stoughton, under whose 
 care his young step-son •svas so well prepared for the university, 
 that in his thirteenth year he was admitted into Emanuel college, 
 Cambridge. In 1G32 he matriculated, was created M.A. in 
 1639, and soon after chosen a fellow. Such was his rising 
 fame, that in a short time the number of his pupils exceeded all 
 precedent, the famous Sir William Temple being one of them ; 
 and in 1641 he was presented to the rectory of North Cadbury 
 in Somersetshire. In 1642 he published a discourse concerning 
 "The tnie nature of the Lord's Supper," and another called "The 
 Union of Christ and the Church Shadowed." In 1684 Cudworth 
 took the degree of B.D., and was chosen master of Clare-hall, his 
 predecessor having been dispossessed by the parliamentary visitors. 
 In the foUowng year he became regius professor of Hebrew, and 
 now devoted himself to academical laboiirs, and especially to 
 the study of Hebrew antiquities. In March, 1647, he preached 
 before the house of commons, and his sermon, on 1 John ii. 3, 4, 
 received the thanks of the house, and was afterwards published. 
 In 1651 he took the degree of D.D. Shortly afterwards he left 
 the university for a season, pecuniary difficulties being usually 
 alleged as the cause ; but he returned after three years' absence, 
 having in 1654 been chosen master of Christ's college. In 
 1657 he was appointed one of a committee for the revision of 
 the English translation of the bible, but, as Whitelocke records 
 in his Memorials, " it became fruitless by the parliament's dis- 
 solution." Through his intimacy with Thurloe, Cromwell's 
 private secretaiy, he was often consulted by the Protector on 
 university matters. But his loyalty was only in suspension, 
 and on the ref^toration of Charles II. he wrote a Latin ode of 
 welcome. In 1662 the bishop of London presented him to the 
 
 rectory of Ashwell in Hertfordshire, and in 1678 he was installed 
 a prebendai-y of Gloucester. It was in this year, 1678, that 
 Cudworth published at London in folio his " Tiiie Intellectual 
 System of the Universe, wherein all the reason and philosophy 
 of Atheism is confuted, and its impossibility demonstrated." 
 The imprimatur is dated in 1671, for the publication had been 
 virulently opposed by some parties at court. This huge and 
 enulite work is only a fragment. There are three false theories 
 of the universe, or three prevalent modes of atheism, or as he 
 says, " Fatalists that hold the necessity of human actions may 
 be reduced to three heads : 1st, Such as, asserting the Deity, 
 suppose it irrespectively to decree and determine all things, and 
 thereby make all actions necessary to us. 2nd, Such as suppose 
 a Deity that, acting wisely but necessarily, did contrive the 
 general frame of things in the world, from whence by a series 
 of causes doth unavoidably result whatever is done in it. And 
 lastly, Such as hold the material necessity of all things with- 
 out a Deity." These propositions are discussed in the inverse 
 order in which the author has stated them ; and it is the last of 
 them — atheistic fatalism — which occupies that portion of the 
 "Intellectual System" which was published by its author. The 
 "Treatise on Eternal and Immutable Jlorality," published after 
 his death, seems to be the sketch of the second division ; and 
 the " Discourse on Liberty and Necessity'' was apparently the 
 rough outline of the third part. The most important of his 
 works — that on which its author laid the gi-eatest stress, and 
 over which he had longest pondered — was thus never completed. 
 In the first chapter of the " Intellectual System " Cudworth 
 describes the old philosophy, affirming it to be theistic prior to 
 the time of Democritus and his atomic physiology, and there 
 is a long and learned history of the theory. In the second 
 are rehearsed the arguments made in defence of it. In the 
 third he passes to what he calls the hylozoic atheism, that 
 especially of Strato, who held that a species of life without 
 intelligence pervaded matter—" whatever is being made by 
 certain inward natural forces and activities." The fourth chap- 
 ter " swells," as he says himself, " into a disproportionate 
 bigness," and enters into a long and veiy laboured argument 
 filled with diversified proofs and criticisms, that the unity or 
 "oneHness" of the divine essence was a common belief in anti- 
 quity. JIany of the exegetical remarks are acute and ])Owerfully 
 supported, though not a few are recondite and fanciful, resting 
 on expressions which are sometimes casual and not to be insisted 
 on, and sometimes poetical and not to be taken as sober and 
 formal avowals of belief or opinion. There may be seen in 
 these discussions the unconscious effort which a theorist often puts 
 forth in tenaciously gi-asping at what is apparently for him, and 
 in cunningly explaining away what is hostile to his purpose. 
 Some of his most ingenious paragraphs are rather specimens 
 of imposition than exposition, of imposing a sense rather than 
 educing it. The last chapter, which is somewhat miscellaneous, 
 readduces previous objections, and answers them ; restating in 
 other forms arguments already employed, but yet giv'ing utter- 
 ance to more original thought than is found in the previous 
 portions of the work. In the second treatise — " On Eternal and 
 Immutable Morality," Cudworth manifests his hostility to every 
 form of materialism, holding that the mind possesses pure con- 
 ceptions which are not " phantastical " or derived from the senses, 
 but are themselves eternal truths. Among these are the concep- 
 tions of right and wrong, and they are not " unreal," as Hobbes 
 maintained, because they were not perceptible by the senses ; 
 hut they must have existed for ever in the divine mind, and are, 
 therefore, as little liable to change or destruction as is the 
 Supreme Intelligence. Cudworth, therefore, infers that those 
 are little better than atheists who preach that God may com- 
 mand what is contraiy to moral rules ; and says truly, " That 
 nothing which is natm-ally just or unjust can be made so by 
 mere authority." Sound theism must maintain that God is 
 unchangeably good, and holy ; and that all his commands must 
 resemble their source, the " law being holy, and just, and 
 good." In all moral as distinct from positive duties, the statute 
 pronounced by the divine will has its deep and immovable 
 foundation in the divine natm-e. To men the expressed will 
 of God is the rule of duty, but the ultimate basis of obligation 
 lies in his pure and unchanging essence. 
 
 The learning in which Cudworth's idealism is set, is vast and 
 multifarious. He was at home in every region of the classics, 
 and he quotes them wiih a prolix exuberance which often retards
 
 CUD 
 
 1145 
 
 CUL 
 
 his progress and obscures his reasonings. Yet he does not 
 simply retail their opinions, for their views become mingled with 
 his own ; and his apology in the spirit of the times is, that he 
 thought that " the mixture of philology throughout the whole 
 would sweeten and allay the severity'of the philosophy." In 
 fact, he wi-ites in the style of the old philosophy ; so thoroughly 
 was he imbued -n-ith it, that he writes like a Neo-Platonist in 
 disguise. It is not a series of quotations arrayed and com- 
 mented on, as in Warbm-ton ; but the soul is Platonic as well 
 as the dress and ornament. It is not borro^ving Plato's clauses, 
 but throwing off thoughts and imagery in Plato's spirit. It 
 is not a few garlands culled from Greek philosophy, and taste- 
 fully arranged ; the atmosphere is laden with the peifume of 
 living flowers. His fault is, that he sees far too much aflinity 
 between Platonic ideas and revealed truths, though he does not 
 go the length of Theophilus Gale, his compeer, in tracing all 
 Greek wisdom to Hebrew communication. Had Cudworth 
 been less learned, he would have been reckoned more acute 
 and original. Not so subtle as Hobbes, but vastly moi-e eru- 
 dite ; equal to him in power, but below him in style — he not 
 only demolishes the author of the Lenathan with honest and 
 open assault, but piles up a monument of Greek lumber over 
 his remains. The idealism of Cudworth, though not tenable on 
 many points, was an exalted and noble protest for the dignity 
 of human nature, which the materialism of Hobbes would have 
 debased and fettered, robbing it of all that was ethereal and 
 divine, and making it but a succession of sensational phenomena. 
 
 In the course of his illustration of Strato's species of atheism, 
 which gives a kind of animated being to the universe, Cudworth 
 propounds a theory of his own, as to an inherent energy which 
 lie calls " a plastic nature — a substance intermediate between 
 matter and spuit " — the instrument by which laws are able to 
 ;ict without the immediate agency of God. But it is a needless 
 and unsatisfactory hypothesis to ascribe causation to a reason- 
 less thing or being, as if there dwelt in nature such a vitality 
 as belongs to a plant. Cudworth regarded nature as something 
 different from God ; for omnipotence " would despatch its work 
 in a moment, whereas nature makes en'ors and bungles when 
 the matter is inept and contumacious;" and didne providence 
 would appear " operose, solicitous, and distractions," did we 
 imagine that everything was done immediately by Di\'inity him- 
 self. But it is a vain speculation truly to insert a power which 
 is not God, but does his work; which is beneath him, and yet is 
 so liable to be identified with him ; and which prosecutes certain 
 ends, and yet "cannot act electively nor with discretion." 
 
 Cudworth belonged as a divine to the " latitude-men " at 
 Cambridge — a party, as Slackintosh says, " who came forth at 
 the Restoration with a love of liberty imbibed from their Cal- 
 vinistic masters, as well as from the -vvritings of antiquity, yet 
 tempered by the experience of their own agitated age." Cudworth 
 was no polemic ; he placed religion in the emotional, not in the 
 intellectual part of man's nature. Suspicions were entertained 
 of him that he held such \'iews of the trinity as were ascribed 
 to Milton and Clarke.— (Nelson's Life of Bishop Bull, p. 339.) 
 His enemies, the hcentious and sceptical admirers and followers 
 of Hobbes, raised many charges against him, accusing him of 
 the very error he had laboured so strenuously to overthrow. He 
 was suspected, as Shaftesbury tells us, " of gi\'ing the upper 
 hand to the atheists;" or as Warbiuion says, "he was held up 
 as being an atheist in his heart, and an Arian in his book." 
 Dryden, in his preface to his translation of the /Eneid, insinuates 
 that he has raised " such strong objections against the being 
 of a God, that many think he has not answered them." Such 
 malicious misrepresentation prevented him, according to Warbur- 
 ton, from finishing Ids great work. The "Intellectual System" 
 was translated into Latin and annotated by Mosheim, 1733, and 
 an edition was published with his notes in English, London, 
 1845. Dr. Cudworth died at Cambridge, June 26, 1G88, and 
 was buried in the chapel of Christ's college. Some of his MSS. 
 are still preserved in the British museum, such as a " Commen- 
 tary on the Seventy Weeks of Daniel," a " Treatise on the Crea- 
 tion," one on the " Learning of the Hebrews," and another 
 called " An Explanation of the notion of Hobbes concerning God 
 and of the extension of Spirits." It raises a smile to hear no 
 less a man than Henry More saying of the discourse on the 
 "Seventy Weeks," that "it is of as much price and_ worth in 
 theology, as either the circulation of blood in physic, or the 
 motion of the earth in natural philosophy;" while Isaac D'Isracli 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 replies with a sneer, "Judaism still remains." Cudworth's 
 diiughter, Damaris, Lady SLasham, was the intimate friend of 
 Locke, and cheered the philosopher. Her father's manuscripts 
 were left to her care, and after being for some time mistaken, nay 
 purchased, as those of Locke, and used by Dodds in his Bible, 
 they were, after other mischances, safely lodged in the British 
 museum. ^Zi/e of Birch, prtfxed to the edition of his work, 
 1845.)— J. E. 
 
 CUJAS, Jacques, bom at Toulouse in 1520 ; died at 
 Bourges in 1590. His father was a weaver or wool-comber, 
 and the name was originally written Cujaus. Towards the close 
 of his fife, the subject of our notice, then known all over Europe 
 by the Latin form of Cnjaccius, chose to sign himself De Cujas. 
 He is said to have learned Latin and Greek without the assist- 
 ance of masters. In the year 1547, Cujas commenced teach- 
 ing law at Toulouse. The Institutes of Justinian formed his 
 test, and crowds of students — some from distant countries — 
 came to his lectures. For seven years he was thus occupied ; 
 each year his reputation increased. Till his day Roman law 
 was everywhere taught with reference to the immediate require- 
 ments of practice in the courts of law. Alciat and Cujas intro- 
 duced another mode of teaching, and may be described as the 
 founders of the historic school of law. A professorship of law 
 became vacant at Toulouse. Cujas' claims to the office were 
 absurdly opposed, and at length rejected. He then passed from 
 Toulouse to Cahors — from Cahors to the university of Bourges. 
 Cujas and the professors whom he met at Bourges quarrelled, 
 and he did not remain long there. In August, 1557, he went 
 to Paris, and from it was invited to occupy a professorial 
 chair at Valence. At this period he published his " Notes 
 on the Institutes;" on the Receptee Sententiaj of Panlus ; 
 and on some of the titles in the Digest. In 1558 he married 
 the daughter of a Jew, who practised medicine at Avignon. 
 In 1559 we find him again at Bourges. Margaret de Valois, 
 duchess of Berri, was anxious for the reputation of the uni- 
 versity, and she invited Cujas to occupy the chair of law. 
 She was married to the due de Savoie, and in 15GG we find 
 Cujas at Turin, consciller to him. In the following year he 
 returned to France, and was given the superintendence of the 
 university at Valence, with the important privilege of appointing 
 to such professorships as might become vacant. Religious wai 
 drove hun from Valence. He went to Lyons for refuge, but 
 there found things worse. We afterwards find him at Besan9on 
 and Avignon, still teaching, or solicited to teach law. He 
 thought to have settled at Avignon, but the inducements to that 
 coiu-se were altered by the death of his wife, and he returned to 
 Valence. Among his pupils were De Thou and Joseph Scaliger. 
 In 1573 he was appointed conseiller honoraire du p.arlement 
 de Grenoble. The religious war had created considerable con- 
 fusion with respect to property in the south of France, and 
 when something like peace w.as restored, Cujas was appointed 
 one of the conmiissaires, to remedy, as far as possible, the mis- 
 chiefs. In 158-1 Gregor)' XIII. made some fruitless eflbrts to 
 induce Cujas to settle at Bologna. In 158C he married Gab- 
 rielle Hervc. Cujas refused to support the claims of the cardinal 
 de Bourbon agamst those of Henri of Navarre to the throne 
 of France. " I cannot," said the old jurist, " consent to falsify 
 the laws of my country." He wished to avoid mingling in the 
 strange distractions of the period in which his lot was cist. 
 Cujas' death took place in 1G90. He du-ected that his funeral 
 should be private. This was impossible, as his pupils deter- 
 mined to bear the body in state. The catalogue of Cujas' books 
 at the period of his death still exists in the imperial library at 
 Paris. There were among them more than five hundred manu- 
 scripts. To transcribe the praises of Cujas from the works of 
 succeeding jurists would be an endless t.-isk. D'Aguessoan 
 says that he has wiitten the language of law bettor than anj 
 niodeni, and perhaps as well as any of the ancient jurists. Gr.i- 
 vina's praise is yet more high, and so in our own day is that 
 of Lerminier. — J. A., D. 
 
 CULLEN, William, a distinguished physician, bom at 
 Hamilton in Scotland, on the 18tli April, 1712. His father 
 was an attorney, and factor to the duke of Hamilton. Dr. 
 Cullen was one of nine children, and gave early indications 
 of unusual intelligence and a retentive memor}-. He was 
 ajiprenticed first to a surgeon-apothecary in Glasgow, and in 
 1729 went to London to obtain further knowledge of his 
 Tirofession, and shortly after was appointed surgeon to a 
 
 7 F
 
 CUL 
 
 1146 
 
 CUN 
 
 merchant vessel trading to tlie West Indies, of wliicli liis uncle 
 was captain. He soon, however, returned to his own country, 
 and practised in the parish of Shotts, a region proverbial 
 even in Scotland for bleakness and poverty. In the year 
 1734, and three follomng years, he attended the medical 
 classes of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself. In 
 1736 he commenced practice as a surgeon in Hamilton, and 
 was very successful in his treatment of the duke of Hamilton, 
 whose friendship and good offices he thus secured for the rest of 
 his life. It was at this time that Cullen became acquainted 
 with William Hunter. In 1740 Cullen took the degree of M.D. 
 at Glasgow, and in 1744 commenced giving lectures there on the 
 practice of medicine. In 1746 he began his first course of 
 lectures on chemisti^y in conjunction with Mr. Carrick, and in 
 1756 he was called to Edinburgh to fill the chair of chemistry 
 vacated by the death of Dr. Plumer. At the same time that he 
 lectured on chemistry he also gave lectures on clinical medicine 
 at the Royal Infirmary. In 1763 the professor of materia 
 medica in the university. Dr. Alston, died, and Cullen was 
 suddenly called upon to deliver his course, which he did with 
 great success. These lectures having been published by some 
 of his pupils, induced him subsequently to give to the 
 world his gi-eat work entitled " A Treatise of the Materia 
 Jledica," which was published in 2 vols. 4to, in 1789. On 
 the death of Dr. Whyte in 1766, Cullen was appointed to 
 tlie chair of institutes, or theory of medicine. It was in this 
 chair that he began to attract attention by the novelty of 
 his views with regard to the functions of the ncr\'ous system. 
 Although at the present day little that Cullen held could be 
 regarded as conclusive, yet he gi'asped many of the fundamental 
 facts of nervous physiology. He distinguished between the 
 functions of the ner\-es of sensation and motion, and dwelt upon 
 the ner\'ous system as the seat of all psychological manifesta- 
 tions. Upon his physiological views he built up his great patho- 
 logical doctrine of excitement and collapse, which formed 
 the basis of his subsequent teachings in the chair of practical 
 medicine. To this chair Cullen was appointed on the death 
 of Dr. Rutherford in 1768. He did not, however, occupy it at 
 first alone. He and Dr. Gregory were both candidates for the 
 vacant chair, which resulted in a friendly compromise, by which 
 each was to fill the chair of practical and theoretical medicine 
 alternately. On the sudden death of Dr. Gregoiy in 1773, 
 Cullen became the sole professor of the practice of medicine. 
 From the time that Cullen began to lecture on the institutes of 
 medicine his reputation gradually increased, and he drew to the 
 university of Edinburgh students from all parts of the world. 
 In 1777 he published his gi-eat work in 4 vols. 4to, entitled 
 " First Lines of the Practice of Physic." In this work the 
 mental training he had undergone was made e\-ident in the 
 introduction of \'iews on the nature and treatment of disease, 
 much simpler, and truer to nature than any that had 
 hitherto been published. He had previously, in 1769, pubHshed 
 a work on the classification of diseases, with the title, " Synopsis 
 Nosologic ^lethodica?," and his first lines may be regarded as a 
 more complete exposition of the views of the nature of disease 
 he had laid down in this remarkable work. Dr. Cullen resigned 
 his professorship of medicine in 1789. He died on the oth of 
 February, 1790, leaving behind hun only a small fortune, but 
 an imperishable name. — E. L. 
 
 CULPEPPER, Nicholas, an English asti'ologer and herbal- 
 ist, was bom in London in 1616, and died there in 1654. He 
 wrote a curious herbal, in which he describes the qualities of 
 plants, more especially in an astrological point of s-iew. — .J. H. B. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, Richard, dramatic author, novelist, and 
 poet, was bom on the 19th of February, 1732, in the master's 
 lodge of Trinity college, Cambridge, at that time the official resi- 
 dence of his maternal grandfather. Dr. Bentley. In bis sixth year 
 he was placed at the Buiy St. Edmund's grammar school ; at 
 the age of twelve was removed to Westminster school, where 
 Vincent Bourne was then usher of the fifth form, and where he 
 had for schoolfellows Warren Hastings, Colman, and Lloyd ; and 
 two years afterwards became an under-graduate of Trinity college, 
 Cambridge. Soon after taking his B.A. degree, he was elected 
 to a fellowship of his college. This was brilliant success for a 
 boy only eighteen years of age. Young as he was, Richard Cum- 
 berland almost immediately after obtaining his fellowship became 
 the private secretary of the earl of Halifax, through whose interest 
 he subsequently obtained the post of crown agent for the pro- 
 
 vince of Nova Scotia. As Ulster-secretary he aftenvards accom- 
 panied Lord Hahfax to Dublin, and in Dublin was offered a 
 baronetcy by his patron. This dignity he declined, and from 
 that date his influence with Halifax waned and speedily came to 
 an end. On leaving Ireland he was appointed clerk of the 
 reports in the office of trade and plantations, and some time 
 afterwards was advanced to be secretary of the board of trade. 
 In 1780 he was sent on a secret mission to endeavour to draw 
 Spain away from the French interest ; but the result of his 
 diplomacy was the reverse of success, and in 1781 he was 
 recalled under circumstances peculiarly calculated to wound his 
 sensitiveness. The expenses of his mission, amounting to no 
 less than £5000, Lord North's ministiy decHned to refund ; and 
 the unfortunate man, in order to satisfy the demands of his 
 creditors, was compelled to part with his paternal estate. Soon 
 after this Burke's economy bill broke up the board of trade, and 
 Cumberland was compensated for the abolition of his post by a 
 small pension. On tins disastrous conclusion to his official career 
 he retired to Tunbridge Wells, and for the remaining thirty years 
 of his life devoted himself to literature. He had been an author 
 from his earliest manhood, and from first to last his pen was 
 alike versatile and productive. He gave the world at least thirty 
 dramatic perfomiances, including operatic pieces, tragedies, and 
 comedies, several of which kept the stage for a time. Besides 
 his dramatic writings, Cumberland was author of other but dull 
 and now forgotten works. He wrote farther the " Memoirs of 
 Richard Cumberland," for which the author obtained £500, and 
 in which he gossips, with a garrulity and magnificence truly 
 amusing, of himself, his family, his genius, and his writings. 
 He died in London on the 7th of JLay, 1811. As a man Cum- 
 berland was much more admirable than as a writer ; he was 
 generous to an extreme, punctiliously honom-able. Vanity, how- 
 ever, was his weakness, and irritabihty his failing. He was the 
 original of Sheridan's Sir Fretful Plagiary in the Critic. — J. S. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, William Augustus, duke of Cnmber- 
 berland, one of the princes of the English blood-royal, was the 
 third son of George II., and was born in 1721. He selected 
 the military profession, and became conspicuous for his extra- 
 ordinary courage, rather than for his professional skill. He was 
 wounded fighting by his father's side at the battle of Dettingen 
 in 1743, and was defeated at Fontenoy by Marshal Saxe. He 
 had a better fate, however, in his campaign against Piince 
 Charles Stuart in Scotland, whom he defeated at Culloden in 
 1746. But he tarnished the glory of his victory by his shocking 
 cruelty to the vanquished Highlanders, which procured him the 
 well-earned name of the Butcher. The duke was again defeated 
 in 1747 by ^Marshal Saxe at the battle of Lawfield. In 1757 
 he was equally unfortunate at Hastenbeck against Slarshal 
 d'Estrees, and was compelled to conclude the convention of 
 Closterseven, surrendering his amiy to the enemy. The duke 
 died in 1765, and though during the greater part of his career 
 he had been exceedingly disliked by the people, the state of 
 public affairs caused his death to be greatly lamented. He was 
 a prince of ngorous understanding, courageous, truthful, and 
 honourable ; but his nature was hard, and what seemed to him 
 justice was rarely tempered with mercy. — J. T. 
 
 * CUNARD, Sii^ Sajiuel, Bart., was bom at Halifiix, 
 Nova Scotia, in 1788. His father was descended from a Quaker 
 family, who emigrated from Wales to Philadelphia early in the 
 seventeenth century. At an early age, Samuel Cunard entered 
 on a mercantile life, prospered remarkably, and, becoming a large 
 shipowner, engaged in the West India trade and the South Sea 
 whale fishery. In 1815 he contracted with the admiralty to 
 convey the mails to Boston, St. John's (Newfoundland), and 
 Bermuda, in connection with the old Falmouth packets, and this 
 service he has ever since continued, screw steamers being sub- 
 stituted in 1848 for sailing packets. In 1839, in conjunction 
 with Messrs. Bums of Glasgow, and Messrs. Marson of Liver- 
 pool, he contracted with govemment to convey the American 
 mails by steam-ships, superseding the old ten-gun brig packets, 
 and the regularity with which this serwe has been performed her 
 majesty's ministers acknowledged in 1859, by raising Cunard to 
 the dignity of a baronet of the United Kingdom. — W. W. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, Allan, was bom at Blackwood, near Dal- 
 swinton in Dumfriesshire, on the 7th December, 1784. His 
 father was factor or land-steward to ^Ir. Miller of Dalswinton. 
 Allan was apprenticed to his uncle, a builder, but the scheme 
 did not hold, probably on account of his devotion to the muses,
 
 and the young poet proceeded to London in the year 1810. Here 
 he connected himself with the newspaper press. In the same 
 year appeared Cromek's Remains of Nithsdale and Galloway 
 Song, nearly all the pieces in which, though published as originals, 
 were composed by Cunningham. In 181-4 he became foreman 
 or clerk of the works to Sir Francis Chantrey, in whose estab- 
 lishment he continued until the death of that eminent sculptor 
 in 18-42. Perhaps no foreman ever rendered more important 
 ser^-ices to his principal than did Cunningham to Chantrey. His 
 vi\-id and intelligent criticism delighted and informed all \-isitors 
 to the studio, while his powers of conversation and his unflagging 
 activity were the means of bringing to Chantrey many an impor- 
 tant and lucrative commission. It was through Cunningham 
 that Sir Walter Scott and Southey were induced to sit. Chan- 
 trey is said to have been indebted to him for many poetic 
 suggestions ; in particular, for the happy thought of placing a 
 bunch of snow-drops, newly gathered, Ln the hand of one of 
 the Sleeping Childi-eu — the celebrated monument in Litchfield 
 cathedral. Shortly before his death, Cunningham was pros- 
 trated by a stroke of paralysis, the enfeebling effects of which 
 can be traced in portions of his last work, " The Memoirs of Su- 
 David Wilkie." He died ou the 29th October, 1812. Cun- 
 ningham was an indefatigable writer. Besides several novels, he 
 was the author of a dramatic poem called " Sir JIarmaduke 
 Maxwell," and of an epic entitled " The Maid of Elvar." He 
 wrote "The Lives of Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and 
 Architects," for the Family Library, and published an admir- 
 ably edited re-issue of Bums' works, in eight volimies, to which 
 he prefixed a life of the poet, containing many facts and anec- 
 dotes till then unknown. His poems are for the most part in 
 the manner of Bums, but greatly inferior. — T. A. 
 
 CL^XXIXGHAM, Allax, an eminent botanist and traveller, 
 was bom on loth July, 1791, at Wimbledon in SuiTey, where his 
 father, a native of Renfrewshire, was a gardener. Hanng become 
 connected with the garden at Kew, he was introduced to Robert 
 Brown, and was by him made known to Sir Joseph Banks. 
 By this means his botanical merits were noticed, and he was 
 appointed on 4th September, 1814, botanical collector in the 
 southern hemisphere for the royal gardens at Kew. Along with 
 Mr. James Bowie, he sailed from Plymouth on 29th OcLober, 
 1814, and proceeded to Rio Janeiro. He then visited various 
 places in the neighbourhood of Rio and in Brazil, and made 
 extensive collections. Subsequently he visited New South Wales, 
 and settled for a time at Paramatta. Thence he proceeded with 
 an expedition to trace the courses of the Lachlan and JIacquarie 
 rivers, under the command of Jlr. John Oxley, the surveyor- 
 general. His next expedition was to the north and north-west 
 coast of New Holland, under the dii-ection of Captain Philip 
 Parker King. Van Diemen's Land was also in part explored 
 by him, and he likewise examined the botany of New Zealand 
 and of Norfolk Island. In all these escm-sions Mr. Cunning- 
 ham made extensive and valuable collections, and contributed 
 largely to the botany of Australia. After an absence of seven- 
 teen years, he returned to England in July, 1831, in a very 
 indifferent state of health. He was offered the situation of 
 colonial botanist in New South Wales, on the death of Mr. 
 Thomas Fraser, but he declined in favour of his brother Richard, 
 also a distinguished botanist, who was killed in April, 1835, by 
 one of the native tribes, two years after getting the appointment. 
 Allan now accepted the office, and proceeded to Sydney. The 
 duties of this new office appear to have been too laborious for 
 him. His strength failed, and he died on 27th June, 1839, at 
 the acre of forty-eight. The greenhouses and conservatories of 
 Britain owe many of their finest ornaments to the exertions of 
 Allan Cunningham. The following are his publications — " A 
 Specimen of the Indigenous Botany of the Moimtain Country 
 between the Colony round Port Jackson and the Settlement of 
 Bathurst;" "Remarks on the Vegetation of certain Coasts of 
 Terra AustraUs." — J. H. B. 
 
 CURRAN, John Philpot, bora at Newmarket in the 
 county of Cork, L-eland, in 1750 ; died in London in 1817 
 — the son of James Curran, who held the office of seneschal of 
 Newm:irket, and Slartha Philpot. The future orator was 
 educated at a classical school in Newmarket, then conducted 
 by the Rev. Nathaniel Boyse. From Newmarket he was sent to 
 the endowed school of Jliddleton, in the county of Cork, from 
 which he entered Trinity college, Dublin. Here, in 1770, he 
 became a scholar of the house. In 1773 he went to London to 
 
 keep law terms at the inns of court. Curran entered the middle 
 temple, and seems from the first to have studied with great 
 diligence, but without any guidance. He speaks in a letter 
 written soon after he was fixed in London, of reading for ten 
 hours a day, " seven at law, three at history and poUtics." He 
 attended debating societies, and spoke at several of them. The 
 claims of the Roman catholics were a frequent subject of discus- 
 sion : from the earnestness with which he advocated their cause, 
 and from some pecufiarity in his dress, he was taken for a 
 Romish ecclesiastic, and was called the Little Jesuit from St. 
 Omer. His only acquaintances at this time in London were a 
 few law students. He saw Goldsmith once in a coffee-house, 
 Garrick two or three times on the stage, and Lord Mansfield on 
 the bench ; with Mackhn he formed some acqu;untance, which 
 was aften\-ards renewed in DubUn. 
 
 Cun-an had physical defects which would have unfitted a less 
 determined man for oratory — a stutter, a shrill voice, a provin- 
 cial accent. To remove these defects he read each day aloud, 
 imitating the tones of the most skilful speakers. His person 
 was short and stunted, and he constantly recited before a glass, 
 "to acquire such gesticulation as was best adapted to his imper- 
 fect stature." Cmran married in the second year of his residence 
 in London. In 1775 he was called to the Irish bar, and went 
 the Munster ckcuit. It is said that his success was slow. This 
 seems a mistake. His fee-book shows that in his first year, he 
 received eighty-two guineas, in the second, between one and 
 two hundred, and so on in proportion. " The monks of the 
 screw or the order of St. Patrick," of which Ciuran was the 
 prior, was a political and convivial club, instituted in 1779. 
 It consisted of professed and lay members — the lay members 
 had no rights, except the unportant one of dining in the refec- 
 tory. The professed members were chiefly barristers and 
 members of parfiament. Their meetings were conducted with 
 fantastic solemnity. They met, as they called it, " in con- 
 vent," each of the members wearing the habit of the order, a 
 black tabinet domino. Latin graces were pronounced by the 
 precentor or chaplain before and after commons. In 1783 
 Curran was returned to parUament, and about the same time 
 obtained a silk gown. He sat in parfiament during this and the 
 next session, till the summer of 1797. AMiat Burke has called 
 the Irish revolution, occurred in the year before Curran first sat 
 in parfiament. The right of self-government had been asserted 
 for Ireland, as if to show of how fittle value are abstract rights. 
 Tlie representative body was entirely and utterly corrapt, the 
 constituencies were woi-se. In a sentence we may state what 
 he did in parfiament. His fii-st speech was on the right of the 
 commons to originate money bills, December 16, 1783 ; attach- 
 ments, Febraary 24, 1785 ; commercial regulations, July 23, 
 1785, and August 15, 1785; pensions, March 13, 1786; 
 catholic emancipation, October 17, 1796. Tlie perpetual mutiny 
 bill was repealed, a habeas corpus act was passed, an act for the 
 independence of the judges, and an act in favour of dissenting 
 protestants, but cathofic emancipation was resisted. Curran, 
 on one occasion, was in one of his loudest ditliyrambics ; his 
 swarthy cheek bnmed, his black bright eyes flashed fire, his 
 very person seemed enlarged as he fistened with delight to the 
 \-ioient applause of his tumultuous admirers ; he looked over 
 to the treasury benches to see the effect on Fitzgibbon, then 
 attorney-general, whom he expected to behold wTithing under 
 the lash. Fitzgibbon was fast asleep. "I envy," said Curran, 
 who was not at the moment himself to be envied, " I envy his 
 tranquilfity. I do not feel myself so happily tempered as to be 
 lulled to repose by the storms that shake the land. If they 
 in\-ite any to rest, that rest ought not to be lavished on the 
 guilty spirit." Fitzgibbon awoke, and replied scornfully to what 
 he was told Curran had said. A duel followed. The parties 
 exchanged shots, and left the ground unreconciled. 
 
 Cun-an passed his vacations as often as he could in the neigh- 
 boiu-hood of his birthplace. He is said to have been fond at all 
 times of attending rustic wakes and weddings, and he describes 
 himself as forming his first notions of eloquence from the lan- 
 guage and the songs of the mourners over the dead — customs 
 now falling into disuse, or existing only in retired districts of 
 Ireland. In 1787 Cm-ran visited France. Some compliment 
 beinc paid him by the superior of a convent in a town through 
 which he passed, he told them he was prior of a monastic insti- 
 tution in his own land, and in this character claimed to bo 
 intrusted with the key of the vnne cellar during his stay. The
 
 CUR 
 
 1U8 
 
 CUR 
 
 monks were amused with his playful sally, and a few days were 
 pleasantly passed among them. In the next yeai- he visited 
 Holland. His views of both France and Holland were unfavour- 
 able. The next year, 1789, was a remarkable one in the history 
 of the empire. The king's illness led to different arrangements 
 as to a regency in England and Ireland, and more than mcon- 
 venicnce might have arisen had the illness continued. 
 
 Cm-ran ceased to practise in the comt of chancer}% Fitzgib- 
 bon was now chancellor. The solicitors thought it unsafe to send 
 business to a man who lost no opportunity of saying offensive 
 things to the presiding judge ; and it is probable that the judge 
 had no wish to hear more frequently than was unavoidable so 
 rash an advocate. The first recorded speech of Curran's in any 
 com-t of judicature was at the privy council, where Fitzgibbon 
 (now Lord Clare) presided, and Curran took the opportunity 
 of describing Lord Clare, under the pretence of giving the 
 imagmaiy portrait of the former chancellor. The circumstances 
 of Ireland now called Curran to practise in the criminal courts. 
 In 1791 be defended Mr. Hamilton Rowan, accused of circu- 
 lating a seditious libel. His client was convicted and sentenced 
 to a lengthened imprisonment. While in prison a charge of 
 high treason was brought against him. He was fortunate 
 enough to make his escape, and some years after obtained a 
 free pardon. This was the first of a series of state trials, some 
 for libel, some for high treason, in which Curran was engaged 
 for the defence. In most of these trials there were connctions. 
 In all, or almost all, the few topics of defence were necessarily 
 the same. The guilt was undeniable, and all the advocate 
 could do was to see that the forms of law were not violated. 
 A good many of Curran's speeches are preserved. We are 
 more struck by the occasional law arguments in which he 
 addressed the court, which are generally put forward with great 
 simplicity and propriety of language, and which, in some cases, 
 seem to us to have deserved more success than they met. 
 The strong language which Curran was fond of using, and 
 which, in an English court of justice, could scarcely have been 
 uttered, often disguised the real strength of his arguments. 
 
 Curran's zeal for his clients in these disastrous times made 
 him an object of suspicion with government. Persons less 
 obnoxious were at the time often thrown into prison, detained 
 there for a long time, and then discharged without trial. From 
 such dangers it is probable that Curran was only saved through 
 the friendship of Wolfe (afterwards Lord lulwarden), dming 
 part of the period attorney-general, and then chief-justice. 
 Wolfe, who saw the madness of the people, whose official posi- 
 tion perhaps gave him information of dangers unsuspected by 
 Curran, entreated him in the year 1791 or 1795 to separate 
 himself from a hopeless cause and a desperate party — " Jly 
 office," he added " will be soon vacant for you, and then the way 
 will be clear." CuiTan told him he knew the men with whom 
 he acted ; that they were not a desperate party, and that his 
 fortunes were linked with thehs. This is his son's naiTative, 
 v,'ho, however, could not have heard what he states from either 
 of the parties, and does not give any authority. 
 
 Curran did not sit in parliament after 1797. When the union 
 was carried, he seemed to feel it as a private grief. He spoke 
 of leaving the country — of going to America — of practising at 
 the English bar. It was impossible for a man of CuiTan's age 
 to break the ties that continued to bind him to what he now 
 called " the dead soil." In 1802 he vasited France, and disliked 
 everything he saw. In 1803 Emmett's mad insiui-ection took 
 place. Emmett had been attached, if not engaged, to a daughter 
 of Curran. Letters of his led to suspicion and to the search 
 of Curran's house, and to his being summoned before the pri\-y 
 council. He regarded tliis as an insult, and ascribed it, no doubt 
 unjustly, to the enmity of Lord Clare. In 1806, Fox being 
 prime minister, he was made master of the rolls. The office of 
 the master of the rolls did not then incapacitate the person 
 holding it from sitting in parliament, and CmTan in 1812 was 
 an unsuccessful candidate for the representation of Newry. In 
 1811 he retired from the bench in broken health and spirits. 
 In 1814 he visited Paris; in 1815 he resided iu the neighbour- 
 hood of London, between Brompton and Chelsea. Moore at the 
 time lived not far from him. CuiTan's health now gradually 
 declined. There was more than one paralytic attack. He lived 
 in great seclusion. He had pai-ted with his carriage ; a single 
 man-servant attended him. His apartments were small and 
 unexpensive. A few friends now and then dined with him. In 
 
 the spring of 1817 he felt his death approaching, and with 
 gloomy resignation would frequently say, " I wish all was over." 
 He died in London in the following October. A pubUc funeral 
 was suggested ; but the thought was soon relinquished, and the 
 body was interred in one of the vaults of Paddington church, 
 a few friends attending. Twenty-three years afterwards his 
 remains were removed to Glasnevin cemetery in the neighbour- 
 hood of Dublin. Curran, towards the close of his life, often 
 spoke of writing the history of his times, and he also meditated 
 a novel. He used to repeat a few sentences as if from each, but 
 we beUeve nothing was actually committed to paper. 
 
 Curran amused himself with writing verses and with music. 
 He is said to have played well on the violin and violoncello, and 
 while so engaged to have meditated the brilhant passages of his 
 speeches. He denied the possibility of anytldng worth hearing ever 
 being produced without study. All his own stiilcing passages — 
 his " white horses," as he called them — were prepared. He was 
 fond of the society of young men, with whom he conversed with 
 entire unresen-e. When master of the rolls he would stroU into 
 the hall of the four courts, try to meet a few acquaintances, and 
 aiTange a small dinner-party for the day. These pai-ties are 
 stUl remembered with delight by the few sm-vivors. 
 
 It is probable that the highest praise to be found of Curran is 
 in a letter from BjTon to INIoore — " I never met his equal. . . 
 His imagination is beyond human. ... He has fifty faces 
 and fifty voices when he mimics." Curran sat for Charles 
 Matthews. As Matthews entered the room, CuiTan said you 
 are a first-rate artist, and, since you are to do my pictm-e, allow 
 me to give you a sitting; and in his latter and feeble days, 
 addressed him with — " Dont speak to ine, yon are the only Cun-an 
 now." Curran's speeches are described as inaccurately reported. 
 No doubt many of them are ; but the principal passages — those 
 wliich are most often referred to for praise or blame — are faith- 
 fully given. Mr. Philhps, in his fife of Curran, tells us that 
 " it is a mistake to suppose that he either trusted to the impulse 
 of the moment, or was careless as to the gi-aces of composition. 
 A word cannot be displaced iu any of his principal passages 
 — such as the description of an informer, or that on universal 
 emancipation — without destroying the euphony of the whole." 
 He also says, that " the speeches on Rowan's and Finnarty's 
 trials, and in the case of Massey and Headfort, and the argument 
 in the cases of Judge Johnson and the corporation of Dublin 
 were corrected by himself." We should have inferred this from 
 an examination of the speeches. The lives of Curran by his 
 son, by Mr. Phillips, and that by Mr. Dads prefixed to the best 
 edition of his speeches, are each in their way works of great 
 interest. Each contains a good deal not found in the others ; 
 but everything we have heard of him confirms the estimate of 
 Byron, who met him in 1813 : — " Curran — Cim-an's the man 
 who struck me the most. Such imagination ! there never was 
 anything like it I ever saw or heard of. I have heard that man 
 speak more poetiy than I have ever seen written, though I saw 
 him but seldom ; and occasionally I saw him presented to madame 
 de Stael at Mackintosh's. It was the grand confluence of the 
 
 Rhone and the Saone ; and they were both so d d ugly, that I 
 
 could not help wondering how the best intellects of France and 
 Ireland could have taken up respectively such residences." 
 
 Before concluding we must refer to Dr. Croly's character of 
 Curran, written with very great power and consummate beauty of 
 style. Croly had heard Curran in some of his greatest displays. 
 The essay to which we refer was originally printed in one of the 
 London journals a few days after Cmran's death. It is fortunately 
 preserved in the appendix to Curran's life by his son. — J. A., D. 
 
 CURRIE, James, JI.D., was bom on the 31st of May, 1750, 
 at Kirkpatrick-Flemmg in Dumfriesshire, of which parish his 
 father was the clergyman. Being originally intended for a mer- 
 cantile life, as soon as he had received the rudiments of a general 
 education he went to Virginia, but upon the breaking out of the 
 American war in 1776, lae returned home, and soon after com- 
 menced the study of medicine in the university of Edinburgh. 
 He took his degree of doctor of medicine at Glasgow in 1780, 
 and immediately proceeded to London. His intention was to go 
 out to Jamaica, but a sudden attack of illness preventing this, he 
 commenced practice in Liverpool iu 1781. Here he soon met 
 with great success in his profession. In 1785 he WTOte a bio- 
 graphical memoir of a deceased friend, which appe;u'ed in the 
 Transactions of the Manchester Philosophical Society. This was 
 his first hterar)' attempt. He contributed a paper on tetanus
 
 CUR 
 
 1149 
 
 CUV 
 
 and convulsive disorders to the Memoirs of the London Jledical 
 Society in 1790. In 1792 he was elected a fellow of the Royal 
 Society. In 1797 he published the work on which his profes- 
 sional reputation chiefly rests, entitled " Medical Reports on the 
 Effects of Water, Cold and Warm, as a remedy in Febrile Dis- 
 eases." The name of Dr. Currie is best known to general 
 readers by his edition of the works of Robert Burns, including 
 bis poems and letters, with a criticism, by himself, on the writ- 
 ings of Bums. This was edited by Dr. Currie for the benefit of 
 the poet's famOy. In 1801 Dr. Cmrie felt his health giving 
 way, and abandoning practice, he spent some time at Bath and 
 Clifton. The foUon-ing year, considering himself better, he took 
 a house at Bath and recommenced practice ; however, he soon 
 failed again in health, and died on the 31st August, 1805, at 
 Sidmouth. — E. L. 
 
 CURTIUS, Mettus, a Sabine of the time of Romulus, from 
 whom, according to one tradition, the name of the Lacus Curtius 
 in Rome was derived. After the rape of the Sabine women, 
 when the two ai-mies were opposed, two champions stood forth 
 between them — Mettus Curtius for the Sabines, and Hostus 
 Hostilius for the Romans — the former was victorious, but was 
 immediately after attacked by the Romans. He fled, and in 
 despair leaped into the marsh, the site of which ever after 
 received his name. The other tradition traces the name to 
 Marcus Curtius, who, it is said, in 362 B.C., leaped into a 
 chasm which opened in the forum, and which the oracle declared 
 could only be closed by throwing mto it that on which Rome's 
 greatness was based. — J. B. 
 
 CUSA, CUSS, orCUSEL Nicolas, de, a celebrated German 
 cardinal, was born in 1401, and died in 1464. His real name 
 was Chryff"tz or Krebs. Cusa, who was bom of poor parents, 
 studied law, and aftenvards entered the church. His mfluence 
 in the gi-eat ecclesiastical assemblies which were common in 
 those days, dates from the council of Basle, duilng the sitting of 
 which, he wrote his " Catholic Concordance." He advocated 
 reform in the church, but after the rupture between Eugene IV. 
 and the councU of Basle, his love of peace moderated the expres- 
 sion of his sentiments. Cusa was an hmnble holy man, versed 
 in the learning and philosophy of his time, and eminent also as a 
 writer. He was attached to the mystics, although he did not 
 admit their doctrine of immediate intuition. — il. R. A. 
 
 * CUSACK, Jajles Willlvji, M.D., a lineal descendant of 
 Sir Thomas Cusack, the celebrated lord-chancellor and speaker 
 of the Irish commons in the reign of Edward VI., was educated 
 in Trinity college, Dublin, where he obtained a scholai'ship, and 
 subsequently a classical gold medal. On receiving his testimonial- 
 letters from the Royal College of Surgeons in 1812, he became 
 resident-surgeon to Steeven's hospital, and was appointed smgeon 
 to Swift's asylum for lunatics. With the former of these institu- 
 tions he was connected, as resident or as visiting sm-geon, during 
 the lengthened period of forty-five years. From the time of his 
 appointment his fame as an operating surgeon rapidly rose; and 
 his practice soon became extensive. Sir. Cusack was one of the 
 original projectors of the Park Street school of medicine, where 
 he lectm-ed for many years. On the death of the late Sii- Phihp 
 Crampton, Bai-t., he was appointed sm-geou-in-ordinary to the 
 queen in Ireland ; he is also miiversity professor of surgeiy in 
 Trinity college, Dublin, and was, in 1858, for the third time 
 appointed president of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. 
 Mr. Cusack's contributions to medical literature are very numer- 
 ous, consistmg of valuable essays on practical subjects to be foimd 
 in the medical periodicals of the day. — W. D. M. 
 
 CUSACK, SiK TuoJiAS, knight, lord-chancellor of Ireland, 
 was one of the most eminent men in that country, from a period 
 extending from 1530 to his death. Having adopted the study 
 of the law, he rapidly rose to eminence, and filled in succession 
 the highest ofiices therein and in the state. He became justice 
 of the common pleas, chancellor of the exchequer for life, by 
 patent dated 13th March, 1535, master of the rolls in 1542, 
 keeper of the gi-eat seal in 1546, lord-chancellor ui 1550, and 
 was three tunes lord-justice of Ireland, and president of the 
 council of English; he was ui great favour with the English 
 government, and was rewarded by several gi-ants of priories and 
 monasteries by Henry VIII. ; he was styled by the English as 
 " Honest Su- Thomas Cusack." Many letters are still preserved 
 of his in the state paper office and British museum. He died 
 1st April, 1571, and was bmied with his second wife before the 
 hio-h altar of Trevet chm-ch, where his tomb still exists. — J. F. W. 
 
 CUTTS, Lord John, an English ofiicer, died in 1707. 
 He served under Monmouth and the duke of Lorraine, and dis- 
 tinguished himself greatly in the w;u:8 of William III. It was 
 he to whom Steele, who was indebted to him for his captain'.i 
 commission, dedicated his first work, entitled "The Christian 
 Hero." He was created a baron of the kingdom of Ireland, 
 with the title of Baron Cutts of Gowran. — R. >I., A. 
 
 CUVIER, Georges- Chketiex- Leopold -Dagobert, 
 Baron, the most distinguished naturahst of his age, and eminent 
 as a writer and statesman. He was bom at Jlontbehard, now 
 in the department of Doubs, in France, but at the time of his 
 bu-th the chief town of a piincipaUty dependent on the duke 
 of Wurtemberg. His family appear to have originally come 
 from a ^•illage in the Jura of the name of Cuvier. His father, 
 who married late in life, was a half-pay ofiicer of a Swiss regi- 
 ment in the service of France. His mother was young and 
 accomplished, and paid great attention to the early education of 
 her son. He was bom on the 23rd of August, 1769. His 
 parents were prutestants, and throughout life Cuvier was distin- 
 guished for his attachment to the protestant religion. When at 
 school he was distinguished for his great memory, and the 
 avidity with which he studied Greek, Latin, and French. He 
 also acquu-ed great skill in drawing. In 1784 he obtained a 
 presentation to the Carolinian academy at Stuttgard, which had 
 been founded by the duke of Wiurtemburg for the training of 
 young men for pubhc and diplomatic ofiices. The studies in 
 this institution were divided into five classes, and Cuvier distin- 
 guished himself most in the department devoted to the study of 
 the principles and science of government. In his subsequent 
 career he expressed himself strongly in favoiu- of such a branch 
 of study for young men. He also cultivated with great zeal the 
 various branches of natm'al histoiy, and became the favourite 
 pupil of JI. Abel, the professor in that department, ^^'hilst in 
 the academy he obtained prizes in every department of study, 
 and at the end of his course was one out of five or sis who were 
 presented with a medal for their general proficiency. In this 
 academy he was the fellow-student of Schiller, the gieat GeiTQaii 
 dramatist, and of Soemmering, the anatomist. Although thus 
 distinguished, he did not remain at Stuttgait long enough to 
 obtain any public employment, and perhaps to this cuximistance 
 we may trace his distinguished career as a natmalist. At the 
 age of nineteen he accepted the post of tutor to the only son of 
 Count d"Henricli in Normandy. The i-esidence of the count 
 was neai- the sea, a situation well adapted to foster the love of 
 the study of natm-al objects that he had acquired under the 
 guidance of Professor Abel. The tunnoil of the great Revolu- 
 tion, which was so soon to place him beside its hero, did not 
 reach him in his quiet residence, and he was enabled to lay the 
 foundations of his great natural history knowledge in seclusion 
 and peace. But even here an event occurred which quickly 
 brought him to the sphere of his future activity. The Abbe 
 Tesster, known for his articles on agriculture in the Encyclopedic 
 Jlethodique, was obliged to fly Paris, and, under the garb of a 
 sm-geon, sought refuge in Valmont, a small town near tlie 
 residence of the count. Here a society was formed for the 
 promotion of agriculture, and at one of its caily meetmgs young 
 Cuvier detected, in the surgeon of Valmont, the writer of the 
 articles in the Encyclopedie. This incident k'd to a friendsliip 
 between the two, which eventually resulted m the invitation 
 of Cuvier to Paris. Whilst in Normandy, Cuvier worked with 
 so much diligence at the anatomy and forms of the lower aiii- 
 mak, that .alter Tcssier's introduction he became a constant 
 correspondent of Lacepede, OUvier, Geoflioy, and other emment 
 men in Paris. It was here that he pmsucd those researches 
 which enabled him to reorganize the whole of the invertebrate 
 division of animals, which had been included by Linna;us in his 
 class Vermes. Here he also diligently dissected the mollusca, 
 which subsequently enabled him to follow with so much success 
 the classification of the mollusca, pointed out by Adanson, and 
 founded rather upon the stmcture of the animal than of its shell. 
 
 In 1795, through the exertions of Tcssier, he was invited to 
 Paris as a member of the new commission of arts. He was 
 also appointed assistant to Mertmd in the superintendence 
 of the Jardin des I'lantes, and professor of natural history 
 to the central school of the niuscmn. In these positions he 
 commenced that career by which he acquu-ed the reputation of 
 being the gieatest teacher of his day, and the museum of the 
 Jiu-diu des Plantes became the most famous collection of com-
 
 parative anatomy in Eui'ope. He now began to publish various 
 papers, more especially on the structure of the lower animals, 
 and in 1798 produced his work entitled " Tableau Elementau-e 
 de THistoire Naturelle des Animaux." In the same year he 
 commenced the publication of his researches on fossil bones, by 
 the publication of a paper on the " Bones Found in the Gypsum 
 Quarries of Montmartre." In his earlier papers he had devoted 
 considerable attention to the comparison of fossil and recent 
 species of animals, and in the bones of Montmartre he found a 
 rich depository for the exercise of his skill, in comparing recent 
 with extinct sjiecies. He eai'ly seized the idea that each group 
 of animals was formed on a plan, and that the whole structure 
 of each species was adapted to its livmg requhements. He was 
 thus enabled by small fragments of bone, to reconstruct the 
 whole fabric of an animal, and thus to give a living picture of 
 the creatures that inhabited the earth in past times. It was by 
 these researches that he was enabled subsequently to give to the 
 world his great work on the " Fossil Bones of Quadrupeds," in 
 which numerous forms of animal life were presented which had 
 long since been destroyed by the revolutions of the globe. 
 
 In 1796 the National Institute of France was formed, and 
 Cuvier was made a member, and in 1798 he was made secretary. 
 On the death of Daubenton in 1800, he was named his successor 
 as professor of the philosophy of natm-al histoiy in the college 
 of France. He still, however, held his position of professor in 
 the Jardin des Plantes. His lectures had been so successful 
 here, that they were published by his pupils M.M. Dumeril and 
 Duvernoj', in five volumes. The tirst appeared in 1800, and the 
 fifth in 1805. They have since been republished, and in 1839 
 in ten volumes. They contain a vast mass of interesting matter 
 on the subject of zoology and comparative anatomy, and are 
 written as they were delivered, in an eloquent and attractive 
 style. Cuvier lectured from copious notes, and was remarkable 
 for his accurate and fluent style, and the interest which he threw 
 into the subject of his discom-ses. But a new sphere of activity 
 awaited him. The first consul was not long in detecting the 
 administrative ability of the eloquent teacher of natural history. 
 In 1802 Cu\'ier was appointed one of six inspectors, to establish 
 lyceunis or public schools in the principal towns of France. He 
 estabhshed those of Marseilles, Nice, and Bordeaux. During 
 his absence on this duty, the National Institute was remodelled, 
 and Cuvier was appointed secretary to the section of natural 
 sciences, with a salary of six thousand francs a year. 
 
 In 1803 he married the widow of M. Duvancel, a former 
 fermier-general. By this marriage he had four children, none 
 of whom survived their father. He was an attached husband 
 and father, and few men of his eminence have been more remark- 
 able for the regularity and simplicity of their social life. One 
 of his children, a daughter, lived to be old enough to be betrothed, 
 but died within a few days of her appointed marriage. She was 
 eminent for the beauty and piety of her character ; and the affec- 
 tions of the great philosopher were so bound up with this 
 amiable child, that it is said her death hastened his own end. 
 
 Nothing gave a greater brilliancy to the conquests of Napoleon 
 and the position he had thereby attained, than his appreciation 
 of the importance of scientific pursuits. With a much soimder 
 estimate of the value of natural science as a branch of educa- 
 tion, than was exhibited by the other governments of Europe, 
 he everywhere mtroduced into his new colleges the study of the 
 natural history sciences, and in Cuvier he found a man pro- 
 foundly convinced of the importance of these studies to the 
 advancement of mankind. Discoverer as he was, he did not 
 pursue science for his own self-elevation, but was supported in 
 his labours by the thought that he was contributing to the 
 working out of the great designs of Providence, and the welfare 
 of the human family. One of the most briUiant productions of 
 his pen was a report called for by Napoleon on the history of 
 the progress of science since the year 1789. This luminous 
 composition was presented to Napoleon in the council of state. 
 In this remarkable treatise, which was published Ln Paris in five 
 volumes in 1829, he endeavoiu-ed to show the connection between 
 the advancement of knowledge and human happiness. He 
 maintained that the object of science was " to lead the mind of 
 man towards its noble destination — a knowledge of truth; to 
 spread sound and healthy ideas amongst the working classes of 
 the community ; to draw human beings from the empire of pre- 
 judice and passion ; to make reason the arbitrator and supreme 
 guide of public opinion." From this passage it will be seen 
 
 that Cuvier's pm-suit of science was founded on no mere self- 
 glorification, but that his heart was as large as his mind was 
 great, and that he considered the highest destination of the 
 achievements of his genius to be the advancement of his race. 
 
 In 1809, 1810, and 1811 we find Cuvier still employed by 
 the imperial government in reorganizing the educational institu- 
 tions of the continent of Europe. The sword of the conqueror 
 everywhere made way for the minister of education. In 1810 
 he organized the universities of Piedmont, Genoa, and Tuscany. 
 In 1811 he was in Holland and the Hanseatic towns. His 
 labours extended not alone to the higher classes in the univer- 
 sities, but to schools for the mass of the people. He held that 
 Instruction led to civilization, :md civilization to morality ; that 
 unless the education of the working classes was sound and exten- 
 sive, they could not appreciate the value of knowledge in them 
 who governed them and exercised professions, and who had 
 received their special education in the universities. Those only 
 who are intimately acquainted with the continent of Europe, 
 can fully appreciate the benefits confeiTed by the intelligent 
 labours of this great man. 
 
 Successful as he had been in the other parts of Europe, he 
 had a more delicate mission to perform when sent by the emperor 
 to Rome to organize the university there. But such was his 
 good sense and benignity of manner, that protestant as he was, 
 he found no difficulty Ln acquitting himself of his arduous task, 
 in a manner that gained for him the esteem and approbation of 
 all with whom he came in contact in the capital of the Roman 
 catholic world. On his retm-n Napoleon appomted hun master 
 of requests in the council of state, and in 1814, just before his 
 abdication, he named him councillor of state, an appointment 
 which was confirmed by Louis XVIII. He was shortly after 
 appointed chancellor of the university by the same monarch, a 
 post which he held till his death. In 1818 he was elected a 
 member of the French Academy, and in 1819 he was appointed 
 president of the committee of the interior in the council of state. 
 In the same year Louis XVIH. created him a bai'on. In 1822 
 he Ijecame grand-master of the Faculties of Protestant Theology 
 in the university of Paris. Under his mastership fifty new 
 protestant cm-es were established in France. Numerous profes- 
 sorships of natural history in the minor schools of France were 
 established under his direction. He became also at this period 
 a vice-president of the French Bible Society. In 1826 Charles 
 X. bestowed upon him the decoration of grand officer of the 
 legion of honour, and his former sovereign, the king of Wurtem- 
 berg, made him a commander of the order of the crown. In 
 1827 he lost his daughter and only remaining child. In 1830 
 he commenced a new com*se of lectures in the college of France 
 on the progress of science in all ages. In 1832 Louis PhUippe 
 made him a peer of France. On the 8th of Jlay of that year 
 he opened the thhd part of his course with an introductory lec- 
 ture. After an unusually eloquent lecture, describing the objects 
 of the course, he concluded : — " These will be the objects of our 
 future investigations, if time, health, and strength shall be given 
 me to continue and finish them wth you." But the health 
 failed, the strength went, and the time was shortened ; for the 
 next day he was seized with a fit of paralysis, and he expired 
 on the 13th of May, in the sixty-third year of his age. He was 
 taken in the midst of his days to his everlasting rest. But his 
 works remain the imperishable monument of his genius. These 
 will be the possession of humanity, when the Revolution in which 
 he lived shall have sunk to the insignificance of a passing event 
 in the history of a nation, and the names of its heroes shall 
 be forgotten. 
 
 During his lifetime Cuvier twice visited England — once in 
 1819 ; and during his absence he was elected a member of the 
 French Academy. He was here again in 1830, and this time 
 an important event took place; for the revolution of July 
 occuiTed, and the baron came the servant of one monarch, and 
 returned the servant of another. 
 
 In this short sketch of his life, it is impossible to speak in 
 detail of the writings of Cuvier. We have spoken of some of 
 his papers, of his lectures, his reports, and his great work on 
 fossil bones ; but these give but a very imperfect idea of his 
 labours. The list of his papers and works, as given in Agassiz's 
 Bibliographia Geologite et Zoologioe, pubfished by the Ray Society, 
 amount to two hundred and seven, and this is probably far 
 below the mark. It is not necessary to refer to his papers 
 here, remarkable as many of them are ; but this notice would
 
 CUT 
 
 1151 
 
 CTR 
 
 be incomplete did we not refer to three other of hLs works. We 
 have before spoken of his " Ossemens Fossiles;" in 1825 he repub- 
 lished the introductory essay to this work, under the title " Dis- 
 cours sur les Revolutions de la surface du Globe." This work 
 has been translated into most of the languages of Europe, and 
 into our own bv the late Professor Jamieson of Edinburgh, under 
 the title of " Theory of the Earth." In this work we have the 
 grand outline given of a history of the earth, and with few 
 modifications, it is that which is held by the most distuiguished 
 geologists of the present day. To Cu\-ier is due the credit of 
 having brought together the scattered facts of mineralogy, che- 
 mistry, botany, and zoology, in such a manner as to make them 
 tell the history of the world. 
 
 Another great work was his "Regne Animal." Wherever the 
 gross ignorance of a false education has not excluded the study 
 of natural science this work is known. It was originally pub- 
 lished in Paris in 1817 in four volumes. Several editions have 
 since appeared. It has been translated twice into the English 
 language, and into almost every other European language. It 
 contained a resumfe of all that was known on the structui-e and 
 habits of the animal kingdom, and has in no way been super- 
 seded, in a zoological point of view, by any other work. In this 
 work Cuvier was assisted, in the department of insects, by 
 LattreUle. In the department of ichthyology he obtained the 
 services of Valenciennes. This part of zoology being in an 
 imsatisfactory state led Cuvier, in conjunction with Valenciennes, 
 to make further researches, the results of which have been pub- 
 lished in the "Natural History of Fishes," a work that was 
 commenced in 1828, and has been completed since the death of 
 Cu\-ier. 
 
 In concluding this notice of his literary introductions we 
 ought not to forget his " Eloges." It is the practice of the 
 academy in France to devolve on some one of its members the 
 duty of pronouncing an eloge on the death of any distinguished 
 man. This duty often fell to the lot of Cuvier, and the eloges 
 thus pronounced have been some of the most remarkable pro- 
 duced before this learned assemblage. The dead thus honoured 
 were very numerous, but amongst them we may mention — 
 Brugui^re, Daubenton, Le Slourrier, Priestley, Adanson, 
 Lampriere, Bonnet, Fourcroy, Pallas, Rimiford, Werner, Sir 
 Joseph Banks, Delambre, Berthollet, Lacepede, Fabbrioni, 
 Ramond, Sir Humphry Davy. These eloges have been pub- 
 lished separately in three volumes. A correct view of the lives 
 of these great men can hardly be said to be obtained without the 
 eloges of Cmder. — E. L. 
 
 CUYP. See Kutp. 
 
 CYPRIANUS, Thascius C.ecilius, a distinguished bishop 
 of north Africa, bom at the commencement of the third century, 
 probably at Carthage. Belonging to a distinguished family, he 
 ol)tained an education fitted to foster a nobility of spirit and 
 understanding. His father was a heathen ; and he himself 
 became a teacher of rhetoric in his native city. By the exhor- 
 tations of a christian presbyter, Cfficilius, he was led to embrace 
 the christian faith, and received the rite of baptism, after he had 
 been thoroughly instinicted in the new religion, in 246. He 
 now devoted himself wholly to the study of the scriptures and 
 church doctrines, denied himself every kind of luxury or super- 
 fluity, sold his two estates, and distributed their proceeds among 
 the poor. Soon after his baptism he was chosen presbyter in 
 2-17 ; though this was contrary to the letter of the church laws. 
 Next year, 248, the voice of the people and the majority of the 
 clergy called him to the bishopric of Carthage. His elevation, 
 although heartily concurred in by the people, offended some of 
 the older presbyters, who commenced a systematic opposition to 
 his efforts for the good of the church. His severe and rigor- 
 ous character as a disciplinarian brought him into coUision also 
 with the corrupt clergy of his diocese. When the persecution of 
 Decius broke out in 250, Cyprian was immediately selected as a 
 victim ; the cry of the multitude was, " Cyprianum ad leonem." 
 By a timely flight from the city he escaped the rage of his 
 adversaries. During the period of his exile he did not neglect 
 the church, but kept up an active correspondence with many of 
 its members. After Easter he returned to Carthage in 251. 
 The reputation and authority of Cyprian rose very high after a 
 pestilence which visited with fearful ravages the kingdom in 
 general and Carthage in particular ; during which he showed 
 great kindness to the sick, and freely administered both assist- 
 ance and consolation. During this dreadful time he also wrote his 
 
 celebrated epistle to Demetrianus. C\-prian soon after became 
 involved in a controversy with Stephen, bishop of Rome, respect- 
 ing the baptism of heretics, in 253. When Stephen refused to 
 receive the African legates sent to Rome, Cyprian appealed to 
 the Asiatic bishops, in whose name Firmilian, bishop of Csesarea 
 in Cappadocia, wrote a very strong letter to Stephen, condemn- 
 ing his uncharitable and arrogant pretensions. The African 
 bishops, also, m a synod held at Carthage, unanimously protested 
 against Rome. While these things were taking place. Valerian 
 began to persecute the christians. Cyprian was pledged to die 
 a martyr's death, because he had previously written a treatise 
 " De Exhortatione Martyrii," exhorting the christians to stead- 
 fastness under the persecution of Callus. On the 30th August, 
 257, he was summoned before the proconsul Aspasius Patemus, 
 and commanded to sacrifice to the gods. Refusing to do so, he 
 was banished to Cumbis, a day's journey from Carthage. From 
 this quiet residence he was recalled by Valerius Maximus, the 
 successor of Patemus, before whom he had his final hearing on 
 the 14th of September, 258, aud calmly received the sentence 
 of death, with the words — " God be thanked." Led forth to an 
 open square without the city, his head was severed from his body 
 by the sword. His life was written by Pontius, the African pres- 
 byter, who continued his steady friend under all circumstances. 
 His works consist of eighty-one letters and thirteen treatises, 
 which most reckon genuine. The best editions are those of Fell, 
 bishop of Oxford, 1682, folio, containing Pearson's Annales 
 Cvprianici, reprinted at Amsterdam, 1700, with the addition of 
 Dodwell's Dissertationes Cyprianica; ; and of Baluze, completed 
 by Maran, 1726, folio, Paris. — S. D. 
 
 CYRIL, CoNSTAXTiXE, and Methodics, the apostles of 
 the Slavonians, were natives of Thessalonica, bora in the 
 first half of the ninth century. At an early age the former, 
 whose name was Constantine, exhibited superior talents, and 
 was taken to Constantinople, where he acquired distinction, 
 procured the friendship of Photius, and taught philosophy ; on 
 which account perhaps he was suraamed the PHiT-osornER. 
 But his piety turned him in another direction ; be entered into 
 the clerical ofiice, took up his abode in a monastery, and lived 
 in seclusion along with his brother Methodius. In the ye.-ir 
 860, an embassy was sent to the Greek Emperor Michael 
 III., requesting him to send learned missionaries of the Greek 
 church, able to dispute with Jews and Moslems, to the Cha- 
 zars, a Tartar race, inhabiting the country from the north-east 
 of the Black Sea to the lower Volga. Michael sent them Con- 
 stantine. A great number embraced the new religion ; though 
 there never seems to have been an organization of the Greek 
 church among them. Constantine afterwards laboured among 
 the S!a\-ic Bulgarians and southem Slavi. He translated 
 the holy scriptures and the most important liturgical books 
 into the Slavic. Both Constantine and Methodius, in 863, 
 repaired to the court of Radisj.tv, the founder of a Moravian 
 kingdom, where they were received with every mark of respect, 
 and liberally encouraged in their missionary work. The brothers 
 set out for Italy in 868, and were honourably treated by Pope 
 Hadrian II. Hadrian undertook to organize the new ecclesi- 
 astical pronnce, and proposed to consecrate the two apostles 
 bishops of the Slaves. The elder brother, however, worn 
 out by his arduous labours, died shortly after in Febraan-, 
 869. Methodius having been consecrated archbishop of tlie 
 Pannonian diocese, returned to his labours. His subsequent 
 history is only a dreary record of opposition and disappointment, 
 incurred through the aversion of the Gcrm.inic bishops to the 
 establishment of an independent Moravian hierarchy. ^Metho- 
 dius, according to the Pannonian legend, died in 885. It is 
 now impossible to separate the legendary and fictitious from the 
 tme, in the lives of these Slavic missionaries. — S. D. 
 
 CYRILL, LucARis. See Lucaris. 
 
 CYRILL OF Alex^vxdria was bom at Alexandria at the 
 end of the fourth centun,-. After living for some time as a monk 
 in the Nitrian desert, he succeeded his uncle Thcophilus in the 
 episcopal chair of Alexandria in 412. Immediately upon 
 his elevation, he shut up the chm-ches of the Xovatians, took 
 away all the sacred vessels belonging to them, and deprived 
 their bishop of his goods. He also banished all the Jews from 
 Alexandria, pulled do^vn their synagogue, and plundered it. He 
 quarrelled with Orestes, govcmor of Egypt, and occasioned vari- 
 ous insurrections in Alexandria. If he did not instigate the mur- 
 der of Hypatia, the celebrated female philosopher, he had some
 
 CYR 
 
 1152 
 
 CZU 
 
 pai-ticipation in that shameful crime. He attacked Nestorius, 
 patriarch of Constantinople, as a heretic, and continued to per- 
 secute tliat eminent prelate with great rancour till his death, 
 lie drew up two works to prove his accusations against Nes- 
 torius, and sent an account of them to Celestine, bishop of Home. 
 Cyrill and Nestorius attended a general council at Ephesus 
 in 431, at which their disputes were to be settled. Cyrill 
 opened the synod with about two hundred bishops ; though the 
 imperial commissioners and Nestorius requested that the pro- 
 ceedings might be delayed till the arrival of John, bishop of 
 Antioch, and the other Syrian bishops. Nestorius, who would 
 !!0t be present till all the bishops had arrived, was condemned 
 as a heretic. A few days after, John of Antioch, accompanied 
 by about thirty bishops, .amved at Ephesus ; and justly think- 
 ing the council to have been an illegal one, proceeded to hold 
 another. John presided, and sentence of deposition was passed 
 upon Cyrill. The court of Constantinople, however, were at 
 length gained over to the Cyrillian party ; Nestorius was obliged 
 to leave the city and go into a cloister at Antioch, while the 
 sentence of deposition was taken off Cyrill. He enjoyed repose 
 for four years, till his enemies, miceasing in their persecution, 
 had him sent into exile in 435. The deposition of Nestorius 
 caused a breach between the Eastern and Western churches, 
 whidi was not completely repaired when Cyrill died in 444. 
 His life has been written by Renaudot, Cave, Oudin, Schrocckh, 
 Rcissler, and others. The best edition of his works is that of 
 Aubert, Paris, 1G38, in seven vols. foho. — S. D. 
 
 CYRILLUS, Cyrit.l. of Jerusalem, is supposed to have 
 been born at Jerusalem about the year 315. He was ordained 
 deacon by JIacarius, about 335, and presbyter by Maximus, on 
 whose death he was elevated to the episcojial chair in 351, 
 in the reign of Constantius. The Arian controversy was then 
 agitating the church ; and Cyrillus having been repeatedly cited 
 as a heretic before the ecclesiastical courts, without answering 
 the citations, was deposed. On an appeal to a larger synodical 
 assembly, however, held at Seleucia, he was restored to his 
 bishopiic. The vicissitudes of the bishop's existence did not 
 terminate with this event. He was twice afterwards deposed, 
 and twice restored. Cyrill was present at the council of Con- 
 stantinople held in the year 381 ; and he may have attended 
 that of 383. At the former council he finally separated from 
 the Eusebian party, to which he had all along adhered, and 
 adopted fidly the Nieene doctrine. His death took place in 
 JIarch, 386. His extant works consist of twenty-three cate- 
 chetical pieces (^xar^tix-^iini;') — discourses preached in the church 
 of the resurrection at Jcnisalem. — S. D. 
 
 CYRNCEUS, PiETRO, a Corsican historian, boi-n at Algeria 
 in Corsica, in 1474. According to Muratori ,who has preserved 
 his principal work, " De Rebus Corsicis libri IV.," in the De 
 Antiquitatibus Italia?, Cyrnoeus was poor, and obliged to support 
 himself by such humble labours as those of a teacher and cor- 
 rector of the press. His annals of Corsica bring down the history 
 of the island to the year 1506. — A. C. M. 
 
 CYRUS, surnamed the Great, was the son of Cambyses, 
 prince of Persia, and JIandane, daughter of Astyages, king of 
 ]\Iedia. The accounts of his early life, as given by the Greek 
 historians, are of the most various and contradictory character. 
 According to Herodotus, Astyages determined, in consequence of 
 a dream which foreshadowed the future greatness of Cyras, and 
 his establishment on the throne of Media by the expulsion of his 
 grandfather, to have him destroyed in infancy; but the child 
 was saved by the wife of a sheplierd, in whose family he lited 
 till accident discovered him to Astyages, and brought about his 
 restoration to his parents. The Persians were at this time a 
 rude and warlike people, inhabiting a rugged and mountainous 
 country. In this respect they presented a striking contrast to 
 their neighbours the Medes, who, long accustomed to habits of 
 
 luxury, had grovro feeble and effeminate in the extreme. Cyrus, 
 to revenge himself on Astyages for the wrongs he had suffered 
 in cliildhood, encouraged his countrymen to take arms against 
 the Medes ; and, assuming the command of the anny, oven-an 
 all Media, possessed himself of his gi-andfather's throne, and 
 established the empire of the Persians over the whole of Upper 
 Asia, about 559 B.C. His increasing power rendered him an 
 object of jealousy to all the neighbouring sovereigns. The first 
 of these who decl.ai'ed open war against him was Croesus, king 
 of Lydia, who took the field with a large anny, but was defeated 
 in battle, and ultimately compelled to become subject to the 
 Persians by the capture of Sardis, 54 G B.C. The two great 
 kingdoms of Media and Lydia were now in the hands of the 
 victor; and after sending part of his anny, under a lieutenant, 
 to subdue the Greek colonies on the coast, and the other parts 
 of Asia Jlinor, he resolved to command in person an expedition 
 against Babylon. He obtained possession of that city in 538 
 B.C., by the stratagem of diverting the course of the river 
 Euphrates, and causing his troops to march into it along the 
 channel of the river. He continued to reside at Babylon, 
 extending his conquests in every direction, till his empire 
 reached from the Mediten-anean sea on the west to the Indus on 
 the east, and from the Caspian sea to the Indian ocean. He 
 was killed, according to the most credible accounts, in an 
 engagement with a Scythian tribe in 529 B.C. — W. M. 
 
 CYRUS, called the Youxcieu, to distinguish him from 
 Cyrus the Great, was the son of Darius Nothus and Parysatis. 
 He was .sent by his father, at the early age of sixteen, to the 
 Peloponnesian war, invested with several satrapies, and with 
 the militaiy command of all the forces assembled at Castolus. 
 On his father's death in 404 B.C., he was ch.arged with designs 
 against the life of his brother Artaxerxes, who had succeeded 
 to the throne, and would have been put to death, but for the 
 intercession of their mother. Infl.amed with revenge, he con- 
 spired to dethrone his brother, and took the field against him 
 with an army of thirteen thousand Greeks, and one hundred 
 thousand barbarians. The destination and object of the expe- 
 dition were knoivn only to himself and his general, Clearchus, 
 and were disguised under m.anifold pretexts, till at length it 
 reached Babylonia. Artaxerxes met hun %vith nine hundred 
 thousand men near Cunaxa ; a protracted and bloody battle 
 ensued ; tlie troops of Cyras were victorious, but he himself fell 
 the victim of his own rashness ; and the Greeks retraced their 
 steps homeward, a journey of upwards of six hundred leagues, 
 surrounded on every side by a powerful enemy. This was the 
 famous retreat of the ten thousand, recorded by Xenophon in his 
 Anabasis. — W. M. 
 
 * CZUCZOR, Gregory, a Hungarian poet and philologist, 
 born in 1800 at Andod in the county Nj-itra in Hungary, be- 
 came in 1824 a benedictine monk, and soon after a professor in 
 the college of Raab. His epic verses made him a great name in 
 Hungaiy, and his beautiful lyrics and love songs became still 
 more popular. After having published a masterly translation of 
 Cornelius Nepos and a " Life of Washington," the Hungarian 
 Academy intrastcd him with the redaction of the gi-eat Hung.arian 
 dictionrrj-, which from that time remained the chief object of his 
 life. His studies were, however, sadly interrupted in 1 849, since, 
 on account of a patriotic song written Ln 1848, he was arrested 
 by the Austrians, and sentenced by Prince Windishgractz to eight 
 years of prison in fetters. By the intervention of Count Joseph 
 Teleki he was relieved of the manacles, and allowed to con- 
 tiime his lexicographical researches in jail. Liberated by the 
 Hungarian victories in ^lay, 1849, he gave himself up to the 
 Austrians in August, .and was sent by them to the prisons of the 
 fortress Kufstein in Tyrol, where he translated Tacitus. In 
 1850 Czuczor obtained his release, and is again fully occupied 
 with the Hungarian dictionary. 
 
 END OF VOLU.ME I. 
 
 u 
 
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